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     Python 3.16.0a0, Μαΐου 10, 2026

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     Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation

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Python
******

     Python 3.16.0a0, Μαΐου 10, 2026

     Author name not set

     Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation

* Menu:

* Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python::
* Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python::
* Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python::
* Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python::
* The Python Standard Library::
* Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python::
* Python/C API reference manual::
* Installing Python modules::
* Python HOWTOs::
* Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python::
* Deprecations::
* Γλωσσάρι::
* Σχετικά με την τεκμηρίωση::
* Αντιμετώπιση Σφαλμάτων::
* Copyright::
* Ιστορία και Άδεια::
* Ευρετήριο Μονάδων της Python::
* Ευρετήριο::

 -- The Detailed Node Listing --

Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

* What’s new in Python 3.16: What’s new in Python 3 16.
* What’s new in Python 3.15: What’s new in Python 3 15.
* What’s new in Python 3.14: What’s new in Python 3 14.
* What’s New In Python 3.13: What’s New In Python 3 13.
* What’s New In Python 3.12: What’s New In Python 3 12.
* What’s New In Python 3.11: What’s New In Python 3 11.
* What’s New In Python 3.10: What’s New In Python 3 10.
* What’s New In Python 3.9: What’s New In Python 3 9.
* What’s New In Python 3.8: What’s New In Python 3 8.
* What’s New In Python 3.7: What’s New In Python 3 7.
* What’s New In Python 3.6: What’s New In Python 3 6.
* What’s New In Python 3.5: What’s New In Python 3 5.
* What’s New In Python 3.4: What’s New In Python 3 4.
* What’s New In Python 3.3: What’s New In Python 3 3.
* What’s New In Python 3.2: What’s New In Python 3 2.
* What’s New In Python 3.1: What’s New In Python 3 1.
* What’s New In Python 3.0: What’s New In Python 3 0.
* What’s New in Python 2.7: What’s New in Python 2 7.
* What’s New in Python 2.6: What’s New in Python 2 6.
* What’s New in Python 2.5: What’s New in Python 2 5.
* What’s New in Python 2.4: What’s New in Python 2 4.
* What’s New in Python 2.3: What’s New in Python 2 3.
* What’s New in Python 2.2: What’s New in Python 2 2.
* What’s New in Python 2.1: What’s New in Python 2 1.
* What’s New in Python 2.0: What’s New in Python 2 0.
* Changelog::

What’s new in Python 3.16

* Summary — release highlights::
* New features::
* Other language changes::
* New modules::
* Improved modules::
* Optimizations::
* Removed::
* Deprecated::
* Porting to Python 3.16: Porting to Python 3 16.
* Build changes::
* C API changes::

Improved modules

* module_name::

Optimizations

* module_name: module_name<2>.

Removed

* annotationlib::
* functools::
* symtable::
* sysconfig::

C API changes

* New features: New features<2>.
* Porting to Python 3.16: Porting to Python 3 16<2>.
* Deprecated C APIs::
* Removed C APIs::

What’s new in Python 3.15

* Summary – Release highlights::
* New features: New features<3>.
* Other language changes: Other language changes<2>.
* Default interactive shell::
* New modules: New modules<2>.
* Improved modules: Improved modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<2>.
* Removed: Removed<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<2>.
* C API changes: C API changes<2>.
* Build changes: Build changes<2>.
* Porting to Python 3.15: Porting to Python 3 15.

New features

* PEP 810; Explicit lazy imports: PEP 810 Explicit lazy imports.
* PEP 814; Add frozendict built-in type: PEP 814 Add frozendict built-in type.
* PEP 661; Add sentinel built-in type: PEP 661 Add sentinel built-in type.
* PEP 799; A dedicated profiling package: PEP 799 A dedicated profiling package.
* Tachyon; High frequency statistical sampling profiler: Tachyon High frequency statistical sampling profiler.
* PEP 831; Frame pointers enabled by default: PEP 831 Frame pointers enabled by default.
* PEP 798; Unpacking in comprehensions: PEP 798 Unpacking in comprehensions.
* PEP 829; Package startup configuration files: PEP 829 Package startup configuration files.
* PEP 803 – Stable ABI for free-threaded builds::
* PEP 788; Protecting the C API from interpreter finalization: PEP 788 Protecting the C API from interpreter finalization.
* Improved error messages::

New modules

* math.integer: math integer.

Improved modules

* argparse::
* array::
* ast::
* asyncio::
* base64::
* binascii::
* calendar::
* collections::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures.
* contextlib::
* dataclasses::
* dbm::
* difflib::
* email::
* faulthandler::
* functools: functools<2>.
* gc::
* hashlib::
* http.client: http client.
* http.server: http server.
* inspect::
* json::
* locale::
* math::
* mimetypes::
* mmap::
* os::
* os.path: os path.
* pdb::
* pickle::
* pickletools::
* pprint::
* re::
* resource::
* shelve::
* socket::
* sqlite3::
* ssl::
* subprocess::
* symtable: symtable<2>.
* sys::
* sys.monitoring: sys monitoring.
* tarfile::
* threading::
* timeit::
* tkinter::
* tokenize::
* tomllib::
* types::
* typing::
* unicodedata::
* unittest::
* urllib.parse: urllib parse.
* venv::
* warnings::
* wave::
* webbrowser::
* xml::
* xml.parsers.expat: xml parsers expat.
* zlib::

Optimizations

* base64 & binascii::
* csv::
* Upgraded JIT compiler::

Removed

* ast: ast<2>.
* collections.abc: collections abc.
* ctypes::
* datetime::
* glob::
* http.server: http server<2>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources.
* pathlib::
* platform::
* sre_*::
* sysconfig: sysconfig<2>.
* threading: threading<2>.
* types: types<2>.
* typing: typing<2>.
* wave: wave<2>.
* zipimport::

Deprecated

* New deprecations::
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16.
* Pending removal in Python 3.17: Pending removal in Python 3 17.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18.
* Pending removal in Python 3.19: Pending removal in Python 3 19.
* Pending removal in Python 3.20: Pending removal in Python 3 20.
* Pending removal in future versions::
* Soft deprecations::

C API changes

* New features: New features<4>.
* Changed C APIs::
* Removed C APIs: Removed C APIs<2>.
* Deprecated C APIs: Deprecated C APIs<2>.

What’s new in Python 3.14

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
* New features: New features<5>.
* Other language changes: Other language changes<3>.
* New modules: New modules<3>.
* Improved modules: Improved modules<3>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<3>.
* Removed: Removed<3>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<3>.
* CPython bytecode changes::
* C API changes: C API changes<3>.
* Build changes: Build changes<3>.
* Porting to Python 3.14: Porting to Python 3 14.
* Notable changes in 3.14.5: Notable changes in 3 14 5.

New features

* PEP 649 & PEP 749; Deferred evaluation of annotations: PEP 649 & PEP 749 Deferred evaluation of annotations.
* PEP 734; Multiple interpreters in the standard library: PEP 734 Multiple interpreters in the standard library.
* PEP 750; Template string literals: PEP 750 Template string literals.
* PEP 768; Safe external debugger interface: PEP 768 Safe external debugger interface.
* A new type of interpreter::
* Free-threaded mode improvements::
* Improved error messages: Improved error messages<2>.
* PEP 784; Zstandard support in the standard library: PEP 784 Zstandard support in the standard library.
* Asyncio introspection capabilities::
* Concurrent safe warnings control::

Other language changes

* Built-ins::
* Command line and environment::
* PEP 758; Allow except and except* expressions without brackets: PEP 758 Allow except and except* expressions without brackets.
* PEP 765; Control flow in finally blocks: PEP 765 Control flow in finally blocks.
* Garbage collection::
* Default interactive shell: Default interactive shell<2>.

Improved modules

* argparse: argparse<2>.
* ast: ast<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<2>.
* calendar: calendar<2>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<2>.
* configparser::
* contextvars::
* ctypes: ctypes<2>.
* curses::
* datetime: datetime<2>.
* decimal::
* difflib: difflib<2>.
* dis::
* errno::
* faulthandler: faulthandler<2>.
* fnmatch::
* fractions::
* functools: functools<3>.
* getopt::
* getpass::
* graphlib::
* heapq::
* hmac::
* http::
* imaplib::
* inspect: inspect<2>.
* io::
* json: json<2>.
* linecache::
* logging.handlers: logging handlers.
* math: math<2>.
* mimetypes: mimetypes<2>.
* multiprocessing::
* operator::
* os: os<2>.
* os.path: os path<2>.
* pathlib: pathlib<2>.
* pdb: pdb<2>.
* pickle: pickle<2>.
* platform: platform<2>.
* pydoc::
* re: re<2>.
* socket: socket<2>.
* ssl: ssl<2>.
* struct::
* symtable: symtable<3>.
* sys: sys<2>.
* sys.monitoring: sys monitoring<2>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<3>.
* tarfile: tarfile<2>.
* threading: threading<3>.
* tkinter: tkinter<2>.
* turtle::
* types: types<3>.
* typing: typing<3>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<2>.
* unittest: unittest<2>.
* urllib::
* uuid::
* webbrowser: webbrowser<2>.
* zipfile::

Optimizations

* asyncio: asyncio<3>.
* base64: base64<2>.
* bdb::
* difflib: difflib<3>.
* gc: gc<2>.
* io: io<2>.
* pathlib: pathlib<3>.
* pdb: pdb<3>.
* textwrap::
* uuid: uuid<2>.
* zlib: zlib<2>.

Removed

* argparse: argparse<3>.
* ast: ast<4>.
* asyncio: asyncio<4>.
* email: email<2>.
* importlib.abc: importlib abc.
* itertools::
* pathlib: pathlib<4>.
* pkgutil::
* pty::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<2>.
* urllib: urllib<2>.

Deprecated

* New deprecations: New deprecations<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.17: Pending removal in Python 3 17<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.19: Pending removal in Python 3 19<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.20: Pending removal in Python 3 20<2>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<2>.

CPython bytecode changes

* Pseudo-instructions::

C API changes

* Python configuration C API::
* New features in the C API::
* Limited C API changes::
* Removed C APIs: Removed C APIs<3>.
* Deprecated C APIs: Deprecated C APIs<3>.

Deprecated C APIs

* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18<3>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<3>.

Build changes

* build-details.json: build-details json.
* Discontinuation of PGP signatures::
* Free-threaded Python is officially supported::
* Binary releases for the experimental just-in-time compiler::

Porting to Python 3.14

* Changes in the Python API::
* Changes in annotations (PEP 649 and PEP 749): Changes in annotations PEP 649 and PEP 749.
* Changes in the C API::

Changes in annotations (PEP 649 and PEP 749)

* Implications for annotated code::
* Implications for readers of __annotations__::
* Related changes::
* from __future__ import annotations::

Notable changes in 3.14.5

* gc: gc<3>.

What’s New In Python 3.13

* Summary – Release Highlights::
* New Features::
* Other Language Changes::
* New Modules::
* Improved Modules::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<4>.
* Removed Modules And APIs::
* New Deprecations::
* CPython Bytecode Changes::
* C API Changes::
* Build Changes::
* Porting to Python 3.13: Porting to Python 3 13.
* Regression Test Changes::

New Features

* A better interactive interpreter::
* Improved error messages: Improved error messages<3>.
* Free-threaded CPython::
* An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
* Defined mutation semantics for locals(): Defined mutation semantics for locals.
* Support for mobile platforms::

Improved Modules

* argparse: argparse<4>.
* array: array<2>.
* ast: ast<5>.
* asyncio: asyncio<5>.
* base64: base64<3>.
* compileall::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<3>.
* configparser: configparser<2>.
* copy::
* ctypes: ctypes<3>.
* dbm: dbm<2>.
* dis: dis<2>.
* doctest::
* email: email<3>.
* enum::
* fractions: fractions<2>.
* glob: glob<2>.
* importlib::
* io: io<3>.
* ipaddress::
* itertools: itertools<2>.
* marshal::
* math: math<3>.
* mimetypes: mimetypes<3>.
* mmap: mmap<2>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<2>.
* os: os<3>.
* os.path: os path<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<5>.
* pdb: pdb<4>.
* queue::
* random::
* re: re<3>.
* shutil::
* site::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<3>.
* ssl: ssl<3>.
* statistics::
* subprocess: subprocess<2>.
* sys: sys<3>.
* tempfile::
* time::
* tkinter: tkinter<3>.
* traceback::
* types: types<4>.
* typing: typing<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<3>.
* venv: venv<2>.
* warnings: warnings<2>.
* xml: xml<2>.
* zipimport: zipimport<2>.

Removed Modules And APIs

* PEP 594; Remove «dead batteries» from the standard library: PEP 594 Remove «dead batteries» from the standard library.
* 2to3::
* builtins::
* configparser: configparser<3>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata.
* locale: locale<2>.
* opcode::
* optparse::
* pathlib: pathlib<6>.
* re: re<4>.
* tkinter.tix: tkinter tix.
* turtle: turtle<2>.
* typing: typing<5>.
* unittest: unittest<3>.
* urllib: urllib<3>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<3>.

New Deprecations

* Pending removal in Python 3.14: Pending removal in Python 3 14.
* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.17: Pending removal in Python 3 17<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.19: Pending removal in Python 3 19<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.20: Pending removal in Python 3 20<3>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<4>.

C API Changes

* New Features: New Features<2>.
* Changed C APIs: Changed C APIs<2>.
* Limited C API Changes::
* Removed C APIs: Removed C APIs<4>.
* Deprecated C APIs: Deprecated C APIs<4>.

Deprecated C APIs

* Pending removal in Python 3.14: Pending removal in Python 3 14<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18<5>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<5>.

Porting to Python 3.13

* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<2>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<2>.

What’s New In Python 3.12

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
* New Features: New Features<3>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<2>.
* New Modules: New Modules<2>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<5>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<2>.
* Demos and Tools::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<4>.
* Removed: Removed<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<2>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<2>.

New Features

* PEP 695; Type Parameter Syntax: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
* PEP 701; Syntactic formalization of f-strings: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
* PEP 684; A Per-Interpreter GIL: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
* PEP 669; Low impact monitoring for CPython: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
* PEP 688; Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
* PEP 709; Comprehension inlining: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
* Improved Error Messages::

New Features Related to Type Hints

* PEP 692; Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
* PEP 698; Override Decorator for Static Typing: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.

Improved Modules

* array: array<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<6>.
* calendar: calendar<3>.
* csv: csv<2>.
* dis: dis<3>.
* fractions: fractions<3>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources<2>.
* inspect: inspect<3>.
* itertools: itertools<3>.
* math: math<4>.
* os: os<4>.
* os.path: os path<4>.
* pathlib: pathlib<7>.
* platform: platform<3>.
* pdb: pdb<5>.
* random: random<2>.
* shutil: shutil<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<4>.
* statistics: statistics<2>.
* sys: sys<4>.
* tempfile: tempfile<2>.
* threading: threading<4>.
* tkinter: tkinter<4>.
* tokenize: tokenize<2>.
* types: types<5>.
* typing: typing<6>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<4>.
* unittest: unittest<4>.
* uuid: uuid<3>.

Deprecated

* Pending removal in Python 3.13: Pending removal in Python 3 13.
* Pending removal in Python 3.14: Pending removal in Python 3 14<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<5>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<6>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.17: Pending removal in Python 3 17<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.19: Pending removal in Python 3 19<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.20: Pending removal in Python 3 20<4>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<6>.

Removed

* asynchat and asyncore::
* configparser: configparser<4>.
* distutils::
* ensurepip::
* enum: enum<2>.
* ftplib::
* gzip::
* hashlib: hashlib<2>.
* importlib: importlib<2>.
* imp::
* io: io<4>.
* locale: locale<3>.
* smtpd::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<5>.
* ssl: ssl<4>.
* unittest: unittest<5>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<4>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree.
* zipimport: zipimport<3>.
* Others::

Porting to Python 3.12

* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<3>.

C API Changes

* New Features: New Features<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<5>.
* Removed: Removed<5>.

Deprecated

* Pending removal in Python 3.14: Pending removal in Python 3 14<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<6>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<7>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<7>.

What’s New In Python 3.11

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<4>.
* New Features: New Features<5>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<3>.
* Other CPython Implementation Changes::
* New Modules: New Modules<3>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<3>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<6>.
* Faster CPython::
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<3>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<6>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12.
* Removed: Removed<6>.
* Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<3>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<3>.
* Notable changes in 3.11.4: Notable changes in 3 11 4.
* Notable changes in 3.11.5: Notable changes in 3 11 5.

New Features

* PEP 657; Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
* PEP 654; Exception Groups and except*: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*.
* PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes.
* Windows py.exe launcher improvements: Windows py exe launcher improvements.

New Features Related to Type Hints

* PEP 646; Variadic generics: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
* PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required.
* PEP 673; Self type: PEP 673 Self type.
* PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type.
* PEP 681; Data class transforms: PEP 681 Data class transforms.
* PEP 563 may not be the future::

Improved Modules

* asyncio: asyncio<7>.
* contextlib: contextlib<2>.
* dataclasses: dataclasses<2>.
* datetime: datetime<3>.
* enum: enum<3>.
* fcntl::
* fractions: fractions<4>.
* functools: functools<4>.
* gzip: gzip<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<3>.
* IDLE and idlelib::
* inspect: inspect<4>.
* locale: locale<4>.
* logging::
* math: math<5>.
* operator: operator<2>.
* os: os<5>.
* pathlib: pathlib<8>.
* re: re<5>.
* shutil: shutil<3>.
* socket: socket<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<6>.
* string::
* sys: sys<5>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<4>.
* tempfile: tempfile<3>.
* threading: threading<5>.
* time: time<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<5>.
* traceback: traceback<2>.
* typing: typing<7>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<5>.
* unittest: unittest<6>.
* venv: venv<3>.
* warnings: warnings<3>.
* zipfile: zipfile<2>.

Faster CPython

* Faster Startup::
* Faster Runtime::
* Misc::
* FAQ::
* About::

Faster Startup

* Frozen imports / Static code objects::

Faster Runtime

* Cheaper, lazy Python frames: Cheaper lazy Python frames.
* Inlined Python function calls::
* PEP 659; Specializing Adaptive Interpreter: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.

FAQ

* How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?::
* Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?.
* I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why?: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?.
* Is there a JIT compiler?::

CPython bytecode changes

* New opcodes::
* Replaced opcodes::
* Changed/removed opcodes::

Deprecated

* Language/Builtins::
* Modules::
* Standard Library::

C API Changes

* New Features: New Features<6>.
* Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<7>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>.
* Removed: Removed<7>.

Notable changes in 3.11.4

* tarfile: tarfile<3>.

Notable changes in 3.11.5

* OpenSSL::

What’s New In Python 3.10

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
* New Features: New Features<7>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<4>.
* New Modules: New Modules<4>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<4>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<7>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<8>.
* Removed: Removed<8>.
* Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<4>.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<4>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<4>.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.7: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.8: Notable security feature in 3 10 8.
* Notable changes in 3.10.12: Notable changes in 3 10 12.

New Features

* Parenthesized context managers::
* Better error messages::
* PEP 626; Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.
* PEP 634; Structural Pattern Matching: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching.
* Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option::

Better error messages

* SyntaxErrors::
* IndentationErrors::
* AttributeErrors::
* NameErrors::

PEP 634: Structural Pattern Matching

* Syntax and operations::
* Declarative approach::
* Simple pattern; match to a literal: Simple pattern match to a literal.
* Patterns with a literal and variable::
* Patterns and classes::
* Nested patterns::
* Complex patterns and the wildcard::
* Guard::
* Other Key Features::

Simple pattern: match to a literal

* Behavior without the wildcard::

Patterns and classes

* Patterns with positional parameters::

New Features Related to Type Hints

* PEP 604; New Type Union Operator: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator.
* PEP 612; Parameter Specification Variables: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables.
* PEP 613; TypeAlias: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
* PEP 647; User-Defined Type Guards: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards.

Improved Modules

* asyncio: asyncio<8>.
* argparse: argparse<5>.
* array: array<4>.
* asynchat, asyncore, smtpd: asynchat asyncore smtpd.
* base64: base64<4>.
* bdb: bdb<2>.
* bisect::
* codecs::
* collections.abc: collections abc<2>.
* contextlib: contextlib<3>.
* curses: curses<2>.
* dataclasses: dataclasses<3>.
* distutils: distutils<2>.
* doctest: doctest<2>.
* encodings::
* enum: enum<4>.
* fileinput::
* faulthandler: faulthandler<3>.
* gc: gc<4>.
* glob: glob<3>.
* hashlib: hashlib<4>.
* hmac: hmac<2>.
* IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<2>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata<2>.
* inspect: inspect<5>.
* itertools: itertools<4>.
* linecache: linecache<2>.
* os: os<6>.
* os.path: os path<5>.
* pathlib: pathlib<9>.
* platform: platform<4>.
* pprint: pprint<2>.
* py_compile::
* pyclbr::
* shelve: shelve<2>.
* statistics: statistics<3>.
* site: site<2>.
* socket: socket<4>.
* ssl: ssl<5>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<7>.
* sys: sys<6>.
* _thread::
* threading: threading<6>.
* traceback: traceback<3>.
* types: types<6>.
* typing: typing<8>.
* unittest: unittest<7>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<2>.
* xml: xml<3>.
* zipimport: zipimport<4>.

dataclasses

* __slots__::
* Keyword-only fields::

Porting to Python 3.10

* Changes in the Python syntax::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<4>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<3>.

C API Changes

* PEP 652; Maintaining the Stable ABI: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI.
* New Features: New Features<8>.
* Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<9>.
* Removed: Removed<9>.

Notable changes in 3.10.12

* tarfile: tarfile<4>.

What’s New In Python 3.9

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
* You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code::
* New Features: New Features<9>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<5>.
* New Modules: New Modules<5>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<5>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<8>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<10>.
* Removed: Removed<10>.
* Porting to Python 3.9: Porting to Python 3 9.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<5>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<5>.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.1: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.2: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.3: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.5: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5.
* Notable security feature in 3.9.14: Notable security feature in 3 9 14.
* Notable changes in 3.9.17: Notable changes in 3 9 17.

New Features

* Dictionary Merge & Update Operators::
* New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes::
* Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections::
* New Parser::

New Modules

* zoneinfo::
* graphlib: graphlib<2>.

Improved Modules

* ast: ast<6>.
* asyncio: asyncio<9>.
* compileall: compileall<2>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<4>.
* curses: curses<3>.
* datetime: datetime<4>.
* distutils: distutils<3>.
* fcntl: fcntl<2>.
* ftplib: ftplib<2>.
* gc: gc<5>.
* hashlib: hashlib<5>.
* http: http<2>.
* IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<3>.
* imaplib: imaplib<2>.
* importlib: importlib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<6>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<2>.
* math: math<6>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<3>.
* nntplib::
* os: os<7>.
* pathlib: pathlib<10>.
* pdb: pdb<6>.
* poplib::
* pprint: pprint<3>.
* pydoc: pydoc<2>.
* random: random<3>.
* signal::
* smtplib::
* socket: socket<5>.
* time: time<3>.
* sys: sys<7>.
* tracemalloc::
* typing: typing<9>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<6>.
* venv: venv<4>.
* xml: xml<4>.

Porting to Python 3.9

* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<5>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<4>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<5>.

C API Changes

* New Features: New Features<10>.
* Porting to Python 3.9: Porting to Python 3 9<2>.
* Removed: Removed<11>.

Notable changes in Python 3.9.1

* typing: typing<10>.
* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support.

Notable changes in Python 3.9.2

* collections.abc: collections abc<3>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<3>.

Notable changes in Python 3.9.5

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<4>.

Notable changes in 3.9.17

* tarfile: tarfile<5>.

What’s New In Python 3.8

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<7>.
* New Features: New Features<11>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<6>.
* New Modules: New Modules<6>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<6>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<9>.
* Build and C API Changes::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<11>.
* API and Feature Removals::
* Porting to Python 3.8: Porting to Python 3 8.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.1: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.2: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.3: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.8: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.9: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.12: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12.
* Notable security feature in 3.8.14: Notable security feature in 3 8 14.
* Notable changes in 3.8.17: Notable changes in 3 8 17.

New Features

* Assignment expressions::
* Positional-only parameters::
* Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files::
* Debug build uses the same ABI as release build::
* f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging::
* PEP 578; Python Runtime Audit Hooks: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks.
* PEP 587; Python Initialization Configuration: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration.
* PEP 590; Vectorcall; a fast calling protocol for CPython: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython.
* Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers::

Improved Modules

* ast: ast<7>.
* asyncio: asyncio<10>.
* builtins: builtins<2>.
* collections: collections<2>.
* cProfile::
* csv: csv<3>.
* curses: curses<4>.
* ctypes: ctypes<4>.
* datetime: datetime<5>.
* functools: functools<5>.
* gc: gc<6>.
* gettext::
* gzip: gzip<3>.
* IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<4>.
* inspect: inspect<7>.
* io: io<5>.
* itertools: itertools<5>.
* json.tool: json tool.
* logging: logging<2>.
* math: math<7>.
* mmap: mmap<3>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<4>.
* os: os<8>.
* os.path: os path<6>.
* pathlib: pathlib<11>.
* pickle: pickle<3>.
* plistlib::
* pprint: pprint<4>.
* py_compile: py_compile<2>.
* shlex::
* shutil: shutil<4>.
* socket: socket<6>.
* ssl: ssl<6>.
* statistics: statistics<4>.
* sys: sys<8>.
* tarfile: tarfile<6>.
* threading: threading<7>.
* tokenize: tokenize<3>.
* tkinter: tkinter<6>.
* time: time<4>.
* typing: typing<11>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<7>.
* unittest: unittest<8>.
* venv: venv<5>.
* weakref::
* xml: xml<5>.
* xmlrpc::

Porting to Python 3.8

* Changes in Python behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<6>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<5>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<6>.
* Demos and Tools: Demos and Tools<2>.

Notable changes in Python 3.8.10

* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support<2>.

Notable changes in Python 3.8.10

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<5>.

Notable changes in Python 3.8.12

* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<7>.

Notable changes in 3.8.17

* tarfile: tarfile<7>.

What’s New In Python 3.7

* Summary – Release Highlights: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
* New Features: New Features<12>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<7>.
* New Modules: New Modules<7>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<7>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<6>.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<6>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<10>.
* Other CPython Implementation Changes: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>.
* Deprecated Python Behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API::
* Platform Support Removals::
* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<2>.
* Module Removals::
* Windows-only Changes::
* Porting to Python 3.7: Porting to Python 3 7.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.1: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.2: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.6: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.10: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.11: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11.
* Notable security feature in 3.7.14: Notable security feature in 3 7 14.

New Features

* PEP 563; Postponed Evaluation of Annotations: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
* PEP 538; Legacy C Locale Coercion: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
* PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
* PEP 553; Built-in breakpoint(): PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
* PEP 539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
* PEP 562; Customization of Access to Module Attributes: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes.
* PEP 564; New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
* PEP 565; Show DeprecationWarning in __main__: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__.
* PEP 560; Core Support for typing module and Generic Types: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
* PEP 552; Hash-based .pyc Files: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
* PEP 545; Python Documentation Translations: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations.
* Python Development Mode (-X dev): Python Development Mode -X dev.

New Modules

* contextvars: contextvars<2>.
* dataclasses: dataclasses<4>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources<3>.

Improved Modules

* argparse: argparse<6>.
* asyncio: asyncio<11>.
* binascii: binascii<2>.
* calendar: calendar<4>.
* collections: collections<3>.
* compileall: compileall<3>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<5>.
* contextlib: contextlib<4>.
* cProfile: cProfile<2>.
* crypt::
* datetime: datetime<6>.
* dbm: dbm<3>.
* decimal: decimal<2>.
* dis: dis<4>.
* distutils: distutils<4>.
* enum: enum<5>.
* functools: functools<6>.
* gc: gc<7>.
* hmac: hmac<3>.
* http.client: http client<2>.
* http.server: http server<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<4>.
* io: io<6>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<3>.
* itertools: itertools<6>.
* locale: locale<5>.
* logging: logging<3>.
* math: math<8>.
* mimetypes: mimetypes<4>.
* msilib::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<5>.
* os: os<9>.
* pathlib: pathlib<12>.
* pdb: pdb<7>.
* py_compile: py_compile<3>.
* pydoc: pydoc<3>.
* queue: queue<2>.
* re: re<6>.
* signal: signal<2>.
* socket: socket<7>.
* socketserver::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<8>.
* ssl: ssl<7>.
* string: string<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<3>.
* sys: sys<9>.
* time: time<5>.
* tkinter: tkinter<7>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<2>.
* types: types<7>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<8>.
* unittest: unittest<9>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<6>.
* uu::
* uuid: uuid<4>.
* warnings: warnings<4>.
* xml: xml<6>.
* xml.etree: xml etree.
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server.
* zipapp::
* zipfile: zipfile<3>.

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

* aifc::
* asyncio: asyncio<12>.
* collections: collections<4>.
* dbm: dbm<4>.
* enum: enum<6>.
* gettext: gettext<2>.
* importlib: importlib<5>.
* locale: locale<6>.
* macpath::
* threading: threading<8>.
* socket: socket<8>.
* ssl: ssl<8>.
* sunau::
* sys: sys<10>.
* wave: wave<3>.

Porting to Python 3.7

* Changes in Python Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<8>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<6>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<7>.
* Windows-only Changes: Windows-only Changes<2>.
* Other CPython implementation changes::

What’s New In Python 3.6

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<8>.
* New Features: New Features<13>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<8>.
* New Modules: New Modules<8>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<8>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<11>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<2>.
* Other Improvements::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<12>.
* Removed: Removed<12>.
* Porting to Python 3.6: Porting to Python 3 6.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.2: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.4: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.5: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.7: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.10: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.13: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.14: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14.

New Features

* PEP 498; Formatted string literals: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
* PEP 526; Syntax for variable annotations: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
* PEP 515; Underscores in Numeric Literals: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
* PEP 525; Asynchronous Generators: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
* PEP 530; Asynchronous Comprehensions: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
* PEP 487; Simpler customization of class creation: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation.
* PEP 487; Descriptor Protocol Enhancements: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
* PEP 519; Adding a file system path protocol: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol.
* PEP 495; Local Time Disambiguation: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
* PEP 529; Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 528; Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 520; Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order.
* PEP 468; Preserving Keyword Argument Order: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order.
* New dict implementation::
* PEP 523; Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
* PYTHONMALLOC environment variable::
* DTrace and SystemTap probing support::

New Modules

* secrets::

Improved Modules

* array: array<5>.
* ast: ast<8>.
* asyncio: asyncio<13>.
* binascii: binascii<3>.
* cmath::
* collections: collections<5>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<6>.
* contextlib: contextlib<5>.
* datetime: datetime<7>.
* decimal: decimal<3>.
* distutils: distutils<5>.
* email: email<4>.
* encodings: encodings<2>.
* enum: enum<7>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<4>.
* fileinput: fileinput<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<6>.
* http.client: http client<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<2>.
* importlib: importlib<6>.
* inspect: inspect<8>.
* json: json<3>.
* logging: logging<4>.
* math: math<9>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<6>.
* os: os<10>.
* pathlib: pathlib<13>.
* pdb: pdb<8>.
* pickle: pickle<4>.
* pickletools: pickletools<2>.
* pydoc: pydoc<4>.
* random: random<4>.
* re: re<7>.
* readline::
* rlcompleter::
* shlex: shlex<2>.
* site: site<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<9>.
* socket: socket<9>.
* socketserver: socketserver<2>.
* ssl: ssl<9>.
* statistics: statistics<5>.
* struct: struct<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<4>.
* sys: sys<11>.
* telnetlib::
* time: time<6>.
* timeit: timeit<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<8>.
* traceback: traceback<4>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<3>.
* typing: typing<12>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<9>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<2>.
* urllib.request: urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser.
* venv: venv<6>.
* warnings: warnings<5>.
* winreg::
* winsound::
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client.
* zipfile: zipfile<4>.
* zlib: zlib<3>.

Deprecated

* New Keywords::
* Deprecated Python behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>.
* xml: xml<7>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>.
* Deprecated Build Options::

Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods

* asynchat::
* asyncore::
* dbm: dbm<5>.
* distutils: distutils<6>.
* grp::
* importlib: importlib<7>.
* os: os<11>.
* re: re<8>.
* ssl: ssl<10>.
* tkinter: tkinter<9>.
* venv: venv<7>.

Removed

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<3>.

Porting to Python 3.6

* Changes in “python” Command Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<9>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<7>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<8>.

Notable changes in Python 3.6.2

* New make regen-all build target::
* Removal of make touch build target::

What’s New In Python 3.5

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<9>.
* New Features: New Features<14>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<9>.
* New Modules: New Modules<9>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<9>.
* Other module-level changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<12>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<3>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<13>.
* Removed: Removed<13>.
* Porting to Python 3.5: Porting to Python 3 5.
* Notable changes in Python 3.5.4: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4.

New Features

* PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax::
* PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication::
* PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations::
* PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray::
* PEP 484 - Type Hints::
* PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator.
* PEP 475; Retry system calls failing with EINTR: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
* PEP 479; Change StopIteration handling inside generators: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
* PEP 485; A function for testing approximate equality: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
* PEP 486; Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
* PEP 488; Elimination of PYO files: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files.
* PEP 489; Multi-phase extension module initialization: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.

New Modules

* typing: typing<13>.
* zipapp: zipapp<2>.

Improved Modules

* argparse: argparse<7>.
* asyncio: asyncio<14>.
* bz2::
* cgi::
* cmath: cmath<2>.
* code::
* collections: collections<6>.
* collections.abc: collections abc<4>.
* compileall: compileall<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<7>.
* configparser: configparser<5>.
* contextlib: contextlib<6>.
* csv: csv<4>.
* curses: curses<5>.
* dbm: dbm<6>.
* difflib: difflib<4>.
* distutils: distutils<7>.
* doctest: doctest<3>.
* email: email<5>.
* enum: enum<8>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<5>.
* functools: functools<7>.
* glob: glob<4>.
* gzip: gzip<4>.
* heapq: heapq<2>.
* http: http<3>.
* http.client: http client<4>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<3>.
* imaplib: imaplib<3>.
* imghdr::
* importlib: importlib<8>.
* inspect: inspect<9>.
* io: io<7>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<4>.
* json: json<4>.
* linecache: linecache<3>.
* locale: locale<7>.
* logging: logging<5>.
* lzma::
* math: math<10>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<7>.
* operator: operator<3>.
* os: os<12>.
* pathlib: pathlib<14>.
* pickle: pickle<5>.
* poplib: poplib<2>.
* re: re<9>.
* readline: readline<2>.
* selectors::
* shutil: shutil<5>.
* signal: signal<3>.
* smtpd: smtpd<2>.
* smtplib: smtplib<2>.
* sndhdr::
* socket: socket<10>.
* ssl: ssl<11>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<10>.
* subprocess: subprocess<5>.
* sys: sys<12>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<5>.
* tarfile: tarfile<8>.
* threading: threading<9>.
* time: time<7>.
* timeit: timeit<3>.
* tkinter: tkinter<10>.
* traceback: traceback<5>.
* types: types<8>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<10>.
* unittest: unittest<10>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<3>.
* urllib: urllib<4>.
* wsgiref::
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc<2>.
* xml.sax: xml sax.
* zipfile: zipfile<5>.

ssl

* Memory BIO Support::
* Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support::
* Other Changes::

Deprecated

* New Keywords: New Keywords<2>.
* Deprecated Python Behavior: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>.
* Unsupported Operating Systems::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>.

Removed

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<4>.

Porting to Python 3.5

* Changes in Python behavior: Changes in Python behavior<2>.
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<10>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<8>.

Notable changes in Python 3.5.4

* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<2>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<2>.

What’s New In Python 3.4

* Summary – Release Highlights: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
* New Features: New Features<15>.
* New Modules: New Modules<10>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<10>.
* CPython Implementation Changes::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<14>.
* Removed: Removed<14>.
* Porting to Python 3.4: Porting to Python 3 4.
* Changed in 3.4.3: Changed in 3 4 3.

New Features

* PEP 453; Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations.
* PEP 446; Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
* Improvements to Codec Handling::
* PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<10>.

PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

* Bootstrapping pip By Default::
* Documentation Changes::

New Modules

* asyncio: asyncio<15>.
* ensurepip: ensurepip<2>.
* enum: enum<9>.
* pathlib: pathlib<15>.
* selectors: selectors<2>.
* statistics: statistics<6>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<4>.

Improved Modules

* abc::
* aifc: aifc<2>.
* argparse: argparse<8>.
* audioop::
* base64: base64<5>.
* collections: collections<7>.
* colorsys::
* contextlib: contextlib<7>.
* dbm: dbm<7>.
* dis: dis<5>.
* doctest: doctest<4>.
* email: email<6>.
* filecmp::
* functools: functools<8>.
* gc: gc<8>.
* glob: glob<5>.
* hashlib: hashlib<7>.
* hmac: hmac<4>.
* html::
* http: http<4>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<4>.
* importlib: importlib<9>.
* inspect: inspect<10>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<5>.
* logging: logging<6>.
* marshal: marshal<2>.
* mmap: mmap<4>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<8>.
* operator: operator<4>.
* os: os<13>.
* pdb: pdb<9>.
* pickle: pickle<6>.
* plistlib: plistlib<2>.
* poplib: poplib<3>.
* pprint: pprint<5>.
* pty: pty<2>.
* pydoc: pydoc<5>.
* re: re<10>.
* resource: resource<2>.
* select::
* shelve: shelve<3>.
* shutil: shutil<6>.
* smtpd: smtpd<3>.
* smtplib: smtplib<3>.
* socket: socket<11>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<11>.
* ssl: ssl<12>.
* stat::
* struct: struct<3>.
* subprocess: subprocess<6>.
* sunau: sunau<2>.
* sys: sys<13>.
* tarfile: tarfile<9>.
* textwrap: textwrap<2>.
* threading: threading<10>.
* traceback: traceback<6>.
* types: types<9>.
* urllib: urllib<5>.
* unittest: unittest<11>.
* venv: venv<8>.
* wave: wave<4>.
* weakref: weakref<2>.
* xml.etree: xml etree<2>.
* zipfile: zipfile<6>.

CPython Implementation Changes

* PEP 445; Customization of CPython Memory Allocators: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
* PEP 442; Safe Object Finalization: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
* PEP 456; Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
* PEP 436; Argument Clinic: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
* Other Build and C API Changes::
* Other Improvements: Other Improvements<2>.
* Significant Optimizations::

Deprecated

* Deprecations in the Python API::
* Deprecated Features::

Removed

* Operating Systems No Longer Supported::
* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<5>.
* Code Cleanups::

Porting to Python 3.4

* Changes in “python” Command Behavior: Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>.
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<11>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<9>.

Changed in 3.4.3

* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients.

What’s New In Python 3.3

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<10>.
* PEP 405; Virtual Environments: PEP 405 Virtual Environments.
* PEP 420; Implicit Namespace Packages: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
* PEP 3118; New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
* PEP 393; Flexible String Representation: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
* PEP 397; Python Launcher for Windows: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows.
* PEP 3151; Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
* PEP 380; Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
* PEP 409; Suppressing exception context: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
* PEP 414; Explicit Unicode literals: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
* PEP 3155; Qualified name for classes and functions: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
* PEP 412; Key-Sharing Dictionary: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
* PEP 362; Function Signature Object: PEP 362 Function Signature Object.
* PEP 421; Adding sys.implementation: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation.
* Using importlib as the Implementation of Import::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<11>.
* A Finer-Grained Import Lock::
* Builtin functions and types::
* New Modules: New Modules<11>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<11>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<13>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<4>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<15>.
* Porting to Python 3.3: Porting to Python 3 3.

PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

* Features::
* API changes::

PEP 393: Flexible String Representation

* Functionality::
* Performance and resource usage::

PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation

* SimpleNamespace::

Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

* New APIs::
* Visible Changes::

New Modules

* faulthandler: faulthandler<6>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<6>.
* lzma: lzma<2>.

Improved Modules

* abc: abc<2>.
* array: array<6>.
* base64: base64<6>.
* binascii: binascii<4>.
* bz2: bz2<2>.
* codecs: codecs<2>.
* collections: collections<8>.
* contextlib: contextlib<8>.
* crypt: crypt<2>.
* curses: curses<6>.
* datetime: datetime<8>.
* decimal: decimal<4>.
* email: email<7>.
* ftplib: ftplib<3>.
* functools: functools<9>.
* gc: gc<9>.
* hmac: hmac<5>.
* http: http<5>.
* html: html<2>.
* imaplib: imaplib<4>.
* inspect: inspect<11>.
* io: io<8>.
* itertools: itertools<7>.
* logging: logging<7>.
* math: math<11>.
* mmap: mmap<5>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<9>.
* nntplib: nntplib<2>.
* os: os<14>.
* pdb: pdb<10>.
* pickle: pickle<7>.
* pydoc: pydoc<6>.
* re: re<11>.
* sched::
* select: select<2>.
* shlex: shlex<3>.
* shutil: shutil<7>.
* signal: signal<4>.
* smtpd: smtpd<4>.
* smtplib: smtplib<4>.
* socket: socket<12>.
* socketserver: socketserver<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<12>.
* ssl: ssl<13>.
* stat: stat<2>.
* struct: struct<4>.
* subprocess: subprocess<7>.
* sys: sys<14>.
* tarfile: tarfile<10>.
* tempfile: tempfile<4>.
* textwrap: textwrap<3>.
* threading: threading<11>.
* time: time<8>.
* types: types<10>.
* unittest: unittest<12>.
* urllib: urllib<6>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<5>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree<2>.
* zlib: zlib<4>.

decimal

* Features: Features<2>.
* API changes: API changes<2>.

email

* Policy Framework::
* Provisional Policy with New Header API::
* Other API Changes::

Deprecated

* Unsupported Operating Systems: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>.
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>.
* Deprecated features::

Porting to Python 3.3

* Porting Python code::
* Porting C code::
* Building C extensions::
* Command Line Switch Changes::

What’s New In Python 3.2

* PEP 384; Defining a Stable ABI: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
* PEP 389; Argparse Command Line Parsing Module: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module.
* PEP 391; Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
* PEP 3148; The concurrent.futures module: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module.
* PEP 3147; PYC Repository Directories: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
* PEP 3149; ABI Version Tagged .so Files: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
* PEP 3333; Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<12>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules.
* Multi-threading::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<14>.
* Unicode::
* Codecs::
* Documentation::
* IDLE::
* Code Repository::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<5>.
* Porting to Python 3.2: Porting to Python 3 2.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* email: email<8>.
* elementtree::
* functools: functools<10>.
* itertools: itertools<8>.
* collections: collections<9>.
* threading: threading<12>.
* datetime and time::
* math: math<12>.
* abc: abc<3>.
* io: io<9>.
* reprlib::
* logging: logging<8>.
* csv: csv<5>.
* contextlib: contextlib<9>.
* decimal and fractions::
* ftp::
* popen::
* select: select<3>.
* gzip and zipfile::
* tarfile: tarfile<11>.
* hashlib: hashlib<8>.
* ast: ast<9>.
* os: os<15>.
* shutil: shutil<8>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<13>.
* html: html<3>.
* socket: socket<13>.
* ssl: ssl<14>.
* nntp::
* certificates::
* imaplib: imaplib<5>.
* http.client: http client<5>.
* unittest: unittest<13>.
* random: random<5>.
* poplib: poplib<4>.
* asyncore: asyncore<2>.
* tempfile: tempfile<5>.
* inspect: inspect<12>.
* pydoc: pydoc<7>.
* dis: dis<6>.
* dbm: dbm<8>.
* ctypes: ctypes<5>.
* site: site<4>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<6>.
* pdb: pdb<11>.
* configparser: configparser<6>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<7>.
* mailbox::
* turtledemo::

What’s New In Python 3.1

* PEP 372; Ordered Dictionaries: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<13>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<15>.
* IDLE: IDLE<2>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<6>.
* Porting to Python 3.1: Porting to Python 3 1.

What’s New In Python 3.0

* Common Stumbling Blocks::
* Overview Of Syntax Changes::
* Changes Already Present In Python 2.6: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6.
* Library Changes::
* PEP 3101; A New Approach To String Formatting: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
* Changes To Exceptions::
* Miscellaneous Other Changes::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<7>.
* Performance::
* Porting To Python 3.0: Porting To Python 3 0.

Common Stumbling Blocks

* Print Is A Function::
* Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists::
* Ordering Comparisons::
* Integers::
* Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.

Overview Of Syntax Changes

* New Syntax::
* Changed Syntax::
* Removed Syntax::

Miscellaneous Other Changes

* Operators And Special Methods::
* Builtins::

What’s New in Python 2.7

* The Future for Python 2.x: The Future for Python 2 x.
* Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings::
* Python 3.1 Features: Python 3 1 Features.
* PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
* PEP 389; The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
* PEP 391; Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
* PEP 3106; Dictionary Views: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
* PEP 3137; The memoryview Object: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<14>.
* New and Improved Modules::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<8>.
* Other Changes and Fixes::
* Porting to Python 2.7: Porting to Python 2 7.
* New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases.
* Acknowledgements::

Other Language Changes

* Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<16>.

New and Improved Modules

* New module; importlib: New module importlib.
* New module; sysconfig: New module sysconfig.
* ttk; Themed Widgets for Tk: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk.
* Updated module; unittest: Updated module unittest.
* Updated module; ElementTree 1.3: Updated module ElementTree 1 3.

Build and C API Changes

* Capsules::
* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X.
* Port-Specific Changes; FreeBSD: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD.

New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases

* Two new environment variables for debug mode::
* PEP 434; IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
* PEP 466; Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
* PEP 477; Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
* PEP 493; HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<3>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<3>.

PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7

* Bootstrapping pip By Default: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
* Documentation Changes: Documentation Changes<2>.

What’s New in Python 2.6

* Python 3.0: Python 3 0.
* Changes to the Development Process::
* PEP 343; The “with” statement: PEP 343 The “with” statement.
* PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module.
* PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
* PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
* PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
* PEP 3105; print As a Function: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
* PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
* PEP 3112; Byte Literals: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
* PEP 3116; New I/O Library: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
* PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol.
* PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
* PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
* PEP 3129; Class Decorators: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
* PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<15>.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<2>.
* Deprecations and Removals::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<9>.
* Porting to Python 2.6: Porting to Python 2 6.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<2>.

Changes to the Development Process

* New Issue Tracker; Roundup: New Issue Tracker Roundup.
* New Documentation Format; reStructuredText Using Sphinx: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx.

PEP 343: The “with” statement

* Writing Context Managers::
* The contextlib module::

PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

* The fractions Module::

Other Language Changes

* Optimizations: Optimizations<17>.
* Interpreter Changes: Interpreter Changes<2>.

New and Improved Modules

* The ast module::
* The future_builtins module::
* The json module; JavaScript Object Notation: The json module JavaScript Object Notation.
* The plistlib module; A Property-List Parser: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser.
* ctypes Enhancements::
* Improved SSL Support::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; IRIX: Port-Specific Changes IRIX.

What’s New in Python 2.5

* PEP 308; Conditional Expressions: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
* PEP 309; Partial Function Application: PEP 309 Partial Function Application.
* PEP 314; Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
* PEP 328; Absolute and Relative Imports: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
* PEP 338; Executing Modules as Scripts: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
* PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
* PEP 342; New Generator Features: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
* PEP 343; The “with” statement: PEP 343 The “with” statement<2>.
* PEP 352; Exceptions as New-Style Classes: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
* PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
* PEP 357; The “__index__” method: PEP 357 The “__index__” method.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<16>.
* New, Improved, and Removed Modules: New Improved and Removed Modules.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<10>.
* Porting to Python 2.5: Porting to Python 2 5.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<3>.

PEP 343: The “with” statement

* Writing Context Managers: Writing Context Managers<2>.
* The contextlib module: The contextlib module<2>.

Other Language Changes

* Interactive Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<18>.

New, Improved, and Removed Modules

* The ctypes package::
* The ElementTree package::
* The hashlib package::
* The sqlite3 package::
* The wsgiref package::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes::

What’s New in Python 2.4

* PEP 218; Built-In Set Objects: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
* PEP 289; Generator Expressions: PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
* PEP 292; Simpler String Substitutions: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
* PEP 318; Decorators for Functions and Methods: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
* PEP 322; Reverse Iteration: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
* PEP 324; New subprocess Module: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
* PEP 327; Decimal Data Type: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type.
* PEP 328; Multi-line Imports: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
* PEP 331; Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<17>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<11>.
* Porting to Python 2.4: Porting to Python 2 4.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<4>.

PEP 327: Decimal Data Type

* Why is Decimal needed?::
* The Decimal type::
* The Context type::

Other Language Changes

* Optimizations: Optimizations<19>.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* cookielib::
* doctest: doctest<5>.

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<2>.

What’s New in Python 2.3

* PEP 218; A Standard Set Datatype: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators.
* PEP 263; Source Code Encodings: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
* PEP 273; Importing Modules from ZIP Archives: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
* PEP 277; Unicode file name support for Windows NT: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
* PEP 278; Universal Newline Support: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
* PEP 279; enumerate(): PEP 279 enumerate.
* PEP 282; The logging Package: PEP 282 The logging Package.
* PEP 285; A Boolean Type: PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
* PEP 293; Codec Error Handling Callbacks: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
* PEP 301; Package Index and Metadata for Distutils: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
* PEP 302; New Import Hooks: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
* PEP 305; Comma-separated Files: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
* PEP 307; Pickle Enhancements: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
* Extended Slices::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<18>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
* Pymalloc; A Specialized Object Allocator: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<12>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
* Porting to Python 2.3: Porting to Python 2 3.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<5>.

Other Language Changes

* String Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<20>.

New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules

* Date/Time Type::
* The optparse Module::

Build and C API Changes

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<3>.

What’s New in Python 2.2

* Introduction::
* PEPs 252 and 253; Type and Class Changes: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes.
* PEP 234; Iterators: PEP 234 Iterators.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
* PEP 238; Changing the Division Operator: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
* Unicode Changes::
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<3>.
* Interpreter Changes and Fixes::
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<3>.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<6>.

PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes

* Old and New Classes::
* Descriptors::
* Multiple Inheritance; The Diamond Rule: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule.
* Attribute Access::
* Related Links::

What’s New in Python 2.1

* Introduction: Introduction<2>.
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
* PEP 236; __future__ Directives: PEP 236 __future__ Directives.
* PEP 207; Rich Comparisons: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
* PEP 230; Warning Framework: PEP 230 Warning Framework.
* PEP 229; New Build System: PEP 229 New Build System.
* PEP 205; Weak References: PEP 205 Weak References.
* PEP 232; Function Attributes: PEP 232 Function Attributes.
* PEP 235; Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
* PEP 217; Interactive Display Hook: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
* PEP 208; New Coercion Model: PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
* PEP 241; Metadata in Python Packages: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<4>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<4>.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<7>.

What’s New in Python 2.0

* Introduction: Introduction<3>.
* What About Python 1.6?: What About Python 1 6?.
* New Development Process::
* Unicode: Unicode<2>.
* List Comprehensions::
* Augmented Assignment::
* String Methods::
* Garbage Collection of Cycles::
* Other Core Changes::
* Porting to 2.0: Porting to 2 0.
* Extending/Embedding Changes::
* Distutils; Making Modules Easy to Install: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install.
* XML Modules::
* Module changes::
* New modules: New modules<4>.
* IDLE Improvements::
* Deleted and Deprecated Modules::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<8>.

Other Core Changes

* Minor Language Changes::
* Changes to Built-in Functions::

XML Modules

* SAX2 Support::
* DOM Support::
* Relationship to PyXML::

Changelog

* Python next::
* Python 3.15.0 beta 1: Python 3 15 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 8: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 7: Python 3 15 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 6: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 5: Python 3 15 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 4: Python 3 15 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 3: Python 3 15 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 2: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 1: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.14.0 beta 1: Python 3 14 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 7: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 6: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 5: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 4: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 3: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 2: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 1: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 1: Python 3 13 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 6: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 5: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 4: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 3: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 2: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 1: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 1: Python 3 12 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 7: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 6: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 5: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 4: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 3: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 2: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 1: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.11.0 beta 1: Python 3 11 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 7: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 6: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 5: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 4: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 3: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 2: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 1: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.10.0 beta 1: Python 3 10 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 7: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 6: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 5: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 4: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 3: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 2: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 1: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.9.0 beta 1: Python 3 9 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 6: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 5: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 4: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 3: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 2: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 1: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.8.0 beta 1: Python 3 8 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 4: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 3: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 2: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 1: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.7.0 final: Python 3 7 0 final.
* Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 5: Python 3 7 0 beta 5.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 4: Python 3 7 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 3: Python 3 7 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 2: Python 3 7 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 1: Python 3 7 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 4: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 3: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 2: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 1: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.6.6 final: Python 3 6 6 final.
* Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.5 final: Python 3 6 5 final.
* Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.4 final: Python 3 6 4 final.
* Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.3 final: Python 3 6 3 final.
* Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.2 final: Python 3 6 2 final.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.1 final: Python 3 6 1 final.
* Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 final: Python 3 6 0 final.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 4: Python 3 6 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 3: Python 3 6 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 2: Python 3 6 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 1: Python 3 6 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 4: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 3: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 2: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 1: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.5.5 final: Python 3 5 5 final.
* Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.4 final: Python 3 5 4 final.
* Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.3 final: Python 3 5 3 final.
* Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.2 final: Python 3 5 2 final.
* Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.1 final: Python 3 5 1 final.
* Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 final: Python 3 5 0 final.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 4: Python 3 5 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 3: Python 3 5 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 2: Python 3 5 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 1: Python 3 5 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 4: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 3: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 2: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 1: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1.

Python next

* Security::
* Library::
* Core and Builtins::

Python 3.15.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<2>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<2>.
* Library: Library<2>.
* Documentation: Documentation<2>.
* Tests::
* Build::
* Windows::
* macOS::
* IDLE: IDLE<3>.
* C API::

Python 3.15.0 alpha 8

* Security: Security<3>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<3>.
* Library: Library<3>.
* Documentation: Documentation<3>.
* Tests: Tests<2>.
* Build: Build<2>.
* Windows: Windows<2>.
* macOS: macOS<2>.
* Tools/Demos::
* C API: C API<2>.

Python 3.15.0 alpha 7

* Windows: Windows<3>.
* Tests: Tests<3>.
* Security: Security<4>.
* Library: Library<4>.
* Documentation: Documentation<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<4>.
* C API: C API<3>.
* Build: Build<3>.

Python 3.15.0 alpha 6

* macOS: macOS<3>.
* Windows: Windows<4>.
* Tests: Tests<4>.
* Security: Security<5>.
* Library: Library<5>.
* IDLE: IDLE<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<5>.
* C API: C API<4>.
* Build: Build<4>.

Python 3.15.0 alpha 5

* Windows: Windows<5>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<2>.
* Tests: Tests<5>.
* Library: Library<6>.
* Documentation: Documentation<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<6>.
* C API: C API<5>.

Python 3.15.0 alpha 4

* Tests: Tests<6>.
* Library: Library<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<7>.

Python 3.15.0 alpha 3

* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<3>.
* Tests: Tests<7>.
* Security: Security<6>.
* Library: Library<8>.
* Documentation: Documentation<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<8>.
* C API: C API<6>.
* Build: Build<5>.

Python 3.15.0 alpha 2

* Windows: Windows<6>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<4>.
* Tests: Tests<8>.
* Security: Security<7>.
* Library: Library<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<9>.
* Library: Library<10>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<10>.
* Library: Library<11>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<11>.
* Library: Library<12>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<12>.
* Library: Library<13>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<13>.
* Library: Library<14>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<14>.
* C API: C API<7>.
* Build: Build<6>.

Python 3.15.0 alpha 1

* macOS: macOS<4>.
* Windows: Windows<7>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<5>.
* Tests: Tests<9>.
* Security: Security<8>.
* Library: Library<15>.
* IDLE: IDLE<5>.
* Documentation: Documentation<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<15>.
* Library: Library<16>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<16>.
* Library: Library<17>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<17>.
* Library: Library<18>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<18>.
* Library: Library<19>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<19>.
* Library: Library<20>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<20>.
* Library: Library<21>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<21>.
* Library: Library<22>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<22>.
* Library: Library<23>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<23>.
* Library: Library<24>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<24>.
* Library: Library<25>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<25>.
* Library: Library<26>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<26>.
* Library: Library<27>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<27>.
* Library: Library<28>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<28>.
* C API: C API<8>.
* Build: Build<7>.

Python 3.14.0 beta 1

* Windows: Windows<8>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<6>.
* Tests: Tests<10>.
* Security: Security<9>.
* Library: Library<29>.
* IDLE: IDLE<6>.
* Documentation: Documentation<8>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<29>.
* Library: Library<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<30>.
* Library: Library<31>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<31>.
* Library: Library<32>.
* C API: C API<9>.
* Build: Build<8>.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 7

* macOS: macOS<5>.
* Windows: Windows<9>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<7>.
* Tests: Tests<11>.
* Security: Security<10>.
* Library: Library<33>.
* Documentation: Documentation<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<32>.
* Library: Library<34>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<33>.
* C API: C API<10>.
* Build: Build<9>.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 6

* macOS: macOS<6>.
* Windows: Windows<10>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<8>.
* Tests: Tests<12>.
* Security: Security<11>.
* Library: Library<35>.
* Documentation: Documentation<10>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<34>.
* Library: Library<36>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<35>.
* Library: Library<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<36>.
* C API: C API<11>.
* Build: Build<10>.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 5

* macOS: macOS<7>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<9>.
* Tests: Tests<13>.
* Security: Security<12>.
* Library: Library<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<7>.
* Documentation: Documentation<11>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<37>.
* Library: Library<39>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<38>.
* Library: Library<40>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<39>.
* Library: Library<41>.
* C API: C API<12>.
* Build: Build<11>.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 4

* macOS: macOS<8>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<10>.
* Tests: Tests<14>.
* Library: Library<42>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<40>.
* Library: Library<43>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<41>.
* Library: Library<44>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<42>.
* C API: C API<13>.
* Build: Build<12>.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 3

* Windows: Windows<11>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<11>.
* Tests: Tests<15>.
* Security: Security<13>.
* Library: Library<45>.
* Documentation: Documentation<12>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<43>.
* Library: Library<46>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<44>.
* C API: C API<14>.
* Build: Build<13>.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 2

* Windows: Windows<12>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<12>.
* Tests: Tests<16>.
* Security: Security<14>.
* Library: Library<47>.
* Documentation: Documentation<13>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<45>.
* Library: Library<48>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<46>.
* Library: Library<49>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<47>.
* Library: Library<50>.
* C API: C API<15>.
* Build: Build<14>.

Python 3.14.0 alpha 1

* macOS: macOS<9>.
* Windows: Windows<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<13>.
* Tests: Tests<17>.
* Security: Security<15>.
* Library: Library<51>.
* IDLE: IDLE<8>.
* Documentation: Documentation<14>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<48>.
* Library: Library<52>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<49>.
* Library: Library<53>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<50>.
* Library: Library<54>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<51>.
* Library: Library<55>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<52>.
* Library: Library<56>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<53>.
* Library: Library<57>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<54>.
* Library: Library<58>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<55>.
* C API: C API<16>.
* Build: Build<15>.

Python 3.13.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<16>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<56>.
* Library: Library<59>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<57>.
* Library: Library<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<15>.
* Build: Build<16>.
* Windows: Windows<14>.
* macOS: macOS<10>.
* IDLE: IDLE<9>.
* C API: C API<17>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 6

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<58>.
* Library: Library<61>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<59>.
* Library: Library<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<16>.
* Tests: Tests<18>.
* Build: Build<17>.
* Windows: Windows<15>.
* C API: C API<18>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<17>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<60>.
* Library: Library<63>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<61>.
* Library: Library<64>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<62>.
* Library: Library<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<17>.
* Tests: Tests<19>.
* Build: Build<18>.
* Windows: Windows<16>.
* macOS: macOS<11>.
* IDLE: IDLE<10>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<14>.
* C API: C API<19>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 4

* Security: Security<18>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<63>.
* Library: Library<66>.
* Documentation: Documentation<18>.
* Tests: Tests<20>.
* Build: Build<19>.
* Windows: Windows<17>.
* macOS: macOS<12>.
* IDLE: IDLE<11>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<15>.
* C API: C API<20>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<19>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<64>.
* Library: Library<67>.
* Documentation: Documentation<19>.
* Tests: Tests<21>.
* Build: Build<20>.
* Windows: Windows<18>.
* macOS: macOS<13>.
* IDLE: IDLE<12>.
* C API: C API<21>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<65>.
* Library: Library<68>.
* Tests: Tests<22>.
* Build: Build<21>.
* Windows: Windows<19>.
* macOS: macOS<14>.
* IDLE: IDLE<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<16>.
* C API: C API<22>.

Python 3.13.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<20>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<66>.
* Library: Library<69>.
* Documentation: Documentation<20>.
* Tests: Tests<23>.
* Build: Build<22>.
* Windows: Windows<20>.
* macOS: macOS<15>.
* IDLE: IDLE<14>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<17>.
* C API: C API<23>.

Python 3.12.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<21>.
* Library: Library<70>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<67>.
* Library: Library<71>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<68>.
* Library: Library<72>.
* Documentation: Documentation<21>.
* Tests: Tests<24>.
* Build: Build<23>.
* Windows: Windows<21>.
* macOS: macOS<16>.
* IDLE: IDLE<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<18>.
* C API: C API<24>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 7

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<69>.
* Library: Library<73>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<70>.
* Build: Build<24>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<71>.
* Library: Library<74>.
* Documentation: Documentation<22>.
* Tests: Tests<25>.
* Build: Build<25>.
* Windows: Windows<22>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<19>.
* C API: C API<25>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<22>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<72>.
* Library: Library<75>.
* Documentation: Documentation<23>.
* Tests: Tests<26>.
* Build: Build<26>.
* Windows: Windows<23>.
* macOS: macOS<17>.
* C API: C API<26>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<23>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<73>.
* Library: Library<76>.
* Documentation: Documentation<24>.
* Tests: Tests<27>.
* Build: Build<27>.
* Windows: Windows<24>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<74>.
* Library: Library<77>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<75>.
* Library: Library<78>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<76>.
* Library: Library<79>.
* Documentation: Documentation<25>.
* Tests: Tests<28>.
* Build: Build<28>.
* Windows: Windows<25>.
* macOS: macOS<18>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<20>.
* C API: C API<27>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<24>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<77>.
* Library: Library<80>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<78>.
* Library: Library<81>.
* Documentation: Documentation<26>.
* Tests: Tests<29>.
* Build: Build<29>.
* Windows: Windows<26>.
* macOS: macOS<19>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<21>.
* C API: C API<28>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<25>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<79>.
* Build: Build<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<80>.
* Library: Library<82>.
* Documentation: Documentation<27>.
* Tests: Tests<30>.
* Build: Build<31>.
* Windows: Windows<27>.
* macOS: macOS<20>.
* C API: C API<29>.

Python 3.12.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<26>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<81>.
* Library: Library<83>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<82>.
* Library: Library<84>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<83>.
* Library: Library<85>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<84>.
* Library: Library<86>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<85>.
* Library: Library<87>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<86>.
* Library: Library<88>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<87>.
* Library: Library<89>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<88>.
* Library: Library<90>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<89>.
* Library: Library<91>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<90>.
* Library: Library<92>.
* Documentation: Documentation<28>.
* Tests: Tests<31>.
* Build: Build<32>.
* Windows: Windows<28>.
* macOS: macOS<21>.
* IDLE: IDLE<16>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<22>.
* C API: C API<30>.

Python 3.11.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<27>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<91>.
* Library: Library<93>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<92>.
* Build: Build<33>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<93>.
* Library: Library<94>.
* Documentation: Documentation<29>.
* Tests: Tests<32>.
* Build: Build<34>.
* Windows: Windows<29>.
* macOS: macOS<22>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<23>.
* C API: C API<31>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 7

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<94>.
* Library: Library<95>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<95>.
* Library: Library<96>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<96>.
* Library: Library<97>.
* Documentation: Documentation<30>.
* Tests: Tests<33>.
* Build: Build<35>.
* Windows: Windows<30>.
* macOS: macOS<23>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<24>.
* C API: C API<32>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 6

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<97>.
* Library: Library<98>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<98>.
* Library: Library<99>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<99>.
* Library: Library<100>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<100>.
* Library: Library<101>.
* Documentation: Documentation<31>.
* Tests: Tests<34>.
* Build: Build<36>.
* Windows: Windows<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<17>.
* C API: C API<33>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 5

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<101>.
* Library: Library<102>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<102>.
* Library: Library<103>.
* Build: Build<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<103>.
* Library: Library<104>.
* Documentation: Documentation<32>.
* Tests: Tests<35>.
* Build: Build<38>.
* Windows: Windows<32>.
* macOS: macOS<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<18>.
* C API: C API<34>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<104>.
* Library: Library<105>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<105>.
* Library: Library<106>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<106>.
* Library: Library<107>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<107>.
* Library: Library<108>.
* Documentation: Documentation<33>.
* Tests: Tests<36>.
* Build: Build<39>.
* Windows: Windows<33>.
* macOS: macOS<25>.
* C API: C API<35>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<108>.
* Library: Library<109>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<109>.
* Library: Library<110>.
* Documentation: Documentation<34>.
* Tests: Tests<37>.
* Build: Build<40>.
* Windows: Windows<34>.
* macOS: macOS<26>.
* C API: C API<36>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<110>.
* Library: Library<111>.
* Documentation: Documentation<35>.
* Tests: Tests<38>.
* Build: Build<41>.
* Windows: Windows<35>.
* macOS: macOS<27>.
* IDLE: IDLE<19>.
* C API: C API<37>.

Python 3.11.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<28>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<111>.
* Library: Library<112>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<112>.
* Library: Library<113>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<113>.
* Library: Library<114>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<114>.
* Library: Library<115>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<115>.
* Library: Library<116>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<116>.
* Library: Library<117>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<117>.
* Library: Library<118>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<118>.
* Library: Library<119>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<119>.
* Library: Library<120>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<120>.
* Library: Library<121>.
* Documentation: Documentation<36>.
* Tests: Tests<39>.
* Build: Build<42>.
* Windows: Windows<36>.
* macOS: macOS<28>.
* IDLE: IDLE<20>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<25>.
* C API: C API<38>.

Python 3.10.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<29>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<121>.
* Library: Library<122>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<122>.
* Library: Library<123>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<123>.
* Library: Library<124>.
* Documentation: Documentation<37>.
* Tests: Tests<40>.
* Build: Build<43>.
* Windows: Windows<37>.
* macOS: macOS<29>.
* IDLE: IDLE<21>.
* C API: C API<39>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 7

* Security: Security<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<124>.
* Library: Library<125>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<125>.
* Library: Library<126>.
* Documentation: Documentation<38>.
* Tests: Tests<41>.
* Build: Build<44>.
* Windows: Windows<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<22>.
* C API: C API<40>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<31>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<126>.
* Library: Library<127>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<127>.
* Library: Library<128>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<128>.
* Library: Library<129>.
* Documentation: Documentation<39>.
* Tests: Tests<42>.
* Build: Build<45>.
* Windows: Windows<39>.
* macOS: macOS<30>.
* IDLE: IDLE<23>.
* C API: C API<41>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<32>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<129>.
* Library: Library<130>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<130>.
* Library: Library<131>.
* Documentation: Documentation<40>.
* Tests: Tests<43>.
* Build: Build<46>.
* Windows: Windows<40>.
* macOS: macOS<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<24>.
* C API: C API<42>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<131>.
* Library: Library<132>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<132>.
* Library: Library<133>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<133>.
* Library: Library<134>.
* Documentation: Documentation<41>.
* Tests: Tests<44>.
* Build: Build<47>.
* macOS: macOS<32>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<26>.
* C API: C API<43>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<33>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<134>.
* Library: Library<135>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<135>.
* Library: Library<136>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<136>.
* Library: Library<137>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<137>.
* Library: Library<138>.
* Documentation: Documentation<42>.
* Tests: Tests<45>.
* Build: Build<48>.
* Windows: Windows<41>.
* macOS: macOS<33>.
* IDLE: IDLE<25>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<27>.
* C API: C API<44>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<34>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<138>.
* Library: Library<139>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<139>.
* Library: Library<140>.
* Documentation: Documentation<43>.
* Tests: Tests<46>.
* Build: Build<49>.
* Windows: Windows<42>.
* macOS: macOS<34>.
* IDLE: IDLE<26>.
* C API: C API<45>.

Python 3.10.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<35>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<140>.
* Library: Library<141>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<141>.
* Library: Library<142>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<142>.
* Library: Library<143>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<143>.
* Library: Library<144>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<144>.
* Library: Library<145>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<145>.
* Library: Library<146>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<146>.
* Library: Library<147>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<147>.
* Library: Library<148>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<148>.
* Library: Library<149>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<149>.
* Library: Library<150>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<150>.
* Library: Library<151>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<151>.
* Library: Library<152>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<152>.
* Library: Library<153>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<153>.
* Library: Library<154>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<154>.
* Library: Library<155>.
* Documentation: Documentation<44>.
* Tests: Tests<47>.
* Build: Build<50>.
* Windows: Windows<43>.
* macOS: macOS<35>.
* IDLE: IDLE<27>.
* C API: C API<46>.

Python 3.9.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<36>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<155>.
* Library: Library<156>.
* Documentation: Documentation<45>.
* Tests: Tests<48>.
* Build: Build<51>.
* Windows: Windows<44>.
* macOS: macOS<36>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<28>.
* C API: C API<47>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 6

* Security: Security<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<156>.
* Library: Library<157>.
* Documentation: Documentation<46>.
* Tests: Tests<49>.
* Build: Build<52>.
* Windows: Windows<45>.
* macOS: macOS<37>.
* IDLE: IDLE<28>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<29>.
* C API: C API<48>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 5

* Security: Security<38>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<157>.
* Library: Library<158>.
* Documentation: Documentation<47>.
* Tests: Tests<50>.
* Build: Build<53>.
* Windows: Windows<46>.
* macOS: macOS<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<29>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<30>.
* C API: C API<49>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 4

* Security: Security<39>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<158>.
* Library: Library<159>.
* Documentation: Documentation<48>.
* Tests: Tests<51>.
* Build: Build<54>.
* Windows: Windows<47>.
* IDLE: IDLE<30>.
* C API: C API<50>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<159>.
* Library: Library<160>.
* Documentation: Documentation<49>.
* Build: Build<55>.
* IDLE: IDLE<31>.
* C API: C API<51>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<40>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<160>.
* Library: Library<161>.
* Documentation: Documentation<50>.
* Tests: Tests<52>.
* Build: Build<56>.
* Windows: Windows<48>.
* macOS: macOS<39>.
* IDLE: IDLE<32>.
* C API: C API<52>.

Python 3.9.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<41>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<161>.
* Library: Library<162>.
* Documentation: Documentation<51>.
* Tests: Tests<53>.
* Build: Build<57>.
* Windows: Windows<49>.
* macOS: macOS<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<33>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<31>.
* C API: C API<53>.

Python 3.8.0 beta 1

* Security: Security<42>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<162>.
* Library: Library<163>.
* Documentation: Documentation<52>.
* Tests: Tests<54>.
* Build: Build<58>.
* Windows: Windows<50>.
* macOS: macOS<41>.
* IDLE: IDLE<34>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<32>.
* C API: C API<54>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 4

* Security: Security<43>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<163>.
* Library: Library<164>.
* Documentation: Documentation<53>.
* Tests: Tests<55>.
* Build: Build<59>.
* Windows: Windows<51>.
* macOS: macOS<42>.
* IDLE: IDLE<35>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<33>.
* C API: C API<55>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<44>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<164>.
* Library: Library<165>.
* Documentation: Documentation<54>.
* Tests: Tests<56>.
* Build: Build<60>.
* Windows: Windows<52>.
* IDLE: IDLE<36>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<34>.
* C API: C API<56>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<165>.
* Library: Library<166>.
* Documentation: Documentation<55>.
* Tests: Tests<57>.
* Windows: Windows<53>.
* IDLE: IDLE<37>.

Python 3.8.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<45>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<166>.
* Library: Library<167>.
* Documentation: Documentation<56>.
* Tests: Tests<58>.
* Build: Build<61>.
* Windows: Windows<54>.
* macOS: macOS<43>.
* IDLE: IDLE<38>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<35>.
* C API: C API<57>.

Python 3.7.0 final

* Library: Library<168>.
* C API: C API<58>.

Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<167>.
* Library: Library<169>.
* Documentation: Documentation<57>.
* Build: Build<62>.
* Windows: Windows<55>.
* IDLE: IDLE<39>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 5

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<168>.
* Library: Library<170>.
* Documentation: Documentation<58>.
* Tests: Tests<59>.
* Build: Build<63>.
* macOS: macOS<44>.
* IDLE: IDLE<40>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<169>.
* Library: Library<171>.
* Documentation: Documentation<59>.
* Tests: Tests<60>.
* Build: Build<64>.
* Windows: Windows<56>.
* macOS: macOS<45>.
* IDLE: IDLE<41>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<36>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 3

* Security: Security<46>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<170>.
* Library: Library<172>.
* Documentation: Documentation<60>.
* Tests: Tests<61>.
* Build: Build<65>.
* Windows: Windows<57>.
* macOS: macOS<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<42>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<37>.
* C API: C API<59>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 2

* Security: Security<47>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<171>.
* Library: Library<173>.
* Documentation: Documentation<61>.
* Tests: Tests<62>.
* Build: Build<66>.
* Windows: Windows<58>.
* macOS: macOS<47>.
* IDLE: IDLE<43>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<38>.

Python 3.7.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<172>.
* Library: Library<174>.
* Documentation: Documentation<62>.
* Tests: Tests<63>.
* Build: Build<67>.
* Windows: Windows<59>.
* macOS: macOS<48>.
* C API: C API<60>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<173>.
* Library: Library<175>.
* Documentation: Documentation<63>.
* Tests: Tests<64>.
* Windows: Windows<60>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<39>.
* C API: C API<61>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<174>.
* Library: Library<176>.
* Documentation: Documentation<64>.
* Tests: Tests<65>.
* Build: Build<68>.
* Windows: Windows<61>.
* macOS: macOS<49>.
* IDLE: IDLE<44>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<40>.
* C API: C API<62>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<175>.
* Library: Library<177>.
* Documentation: Documentation<65>.
* Build: Build<69>.
* IDLE: IDLE<45>.
* C API: C API<63>.

Python 3.7.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<48>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<176>.
* Library: Library<178>.
* Documentation: Documentation<66>.
* Tests: Tests<66>.
* Build: Build<70>.
* Windows: Windows<62>.
* IDLE: IDLE<46>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<41>.
* C API: C API<64>.

Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<177>.
* Library: Library<179>.
* Documentation: Documentation<67>.
* Tests: Tests<67>.
* Build: Build<71>.
* Windows: Windows<63>.
* macOS: macOS<50>.
* IDLE: IDLE<47>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<42>.
* C API: C API<65>.

Python 3.6.5 final

* Tests: Tests<68>.
* Build: Build<72>.

Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<49>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<178>.
* Library: Library<180>.
* Documentation: Documentation<68>.
* Tests: Tests<69>.
* Build: Build<73>.
* Windows: Windows<64>.
* macOS: macOS<51>.
* IDLE: IDLE<48>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<43>.
* C API: C API<66>.

Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<179>.
* Library: Library<181>.
* Documentation: Documentation<69>.
* Tests: Tests<70>.
* Build: Build<74>.
* Windows: Windows<65>.
* macOS: macOS<52>.
* IDLE: IDLE<49>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<44>.
* C API: C API<67>.

Python 3.6.3 final

* Library: Library<182>.
* Build: Build<75>.

Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<50>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<180>.
* Library: Library<183>.
* Documentation: Documentation<70>.
* Tests: Tests<71>.
* Build: Build<76>.
* Windows: Windows<66>.
* IDLE: IDLE<50>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<45>.

Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2

* Security: Security<51>.

Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<52>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<181>.
* Library: Library<184>.
* IDLE: IDLE<51>.
* C API: C API<68>.
* Build: Build<77>.
* Documentation: Documentation<71>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<46>.
* Tests: Tests<72>.
* Windows: Windows<67>.

Python 3.6.1 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<182>.
* Build: Build<78>.

Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<183>.
* Library: Library<185>.
* IDLE: IDLE<52>.
* Windows: Windows<68>.
* C API: C API<69>.
* Documentation: Documentation<72>.
* Tests: Tests<73>.
* Build: Build<79>.

Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<184>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<47>.
* Windows: Windows<69>.
* Build: Build<80>.

Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<185>.
* Library: Library<186>.
* C API: C API<70>.
* Documentation: Documentation<73>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<48>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<186>.
* Library: Library<187>.
* Documentation: Documentation<74>.
* Tests: Tests<74>.
* Build: Build<81>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<187>.
* Library: Library<188>.
* Windows: Windows<70>.
* Build: Build<82>.
* Tests: Tests<75>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<188>.
* Library: Library<189>.
* Windows: Windows<71>.
* C API: C API<71>.
* Build: Build<83>.
* Tests: Tests<76>.

Python 3.6.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<189>.
* Library: Library<190>.
* IDLE: IDLE<53>.
* C API: C API<72>.
* Tests: Tests<77>.
* Build: Build<84>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<49>.
* Windows: Windows<72>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<190>.
* Library: Library<191>.
* IDLE: IDLE<54>.
* Tests: Tests<78>.
* Windows: Windows<73>.
* Build: Build<85>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 3

* Security: Security<53>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<191>.
* Library: Library<192>.
* IDLE: IDLE<55>.
* C API: C API<73>.
* Build: Build<86>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<50>.
* Documentation: Documentation<75>.
* Tests: Tests<79>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 2

* Security: Security<54>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<192>.
* Library: Library<193>.
* IDLE: IDLE<56>.
* Documentation: Documentation<76>.
* Tests: Tests<80>.
* Windows: Windows<74>.
* Build: Build<87>.
* C API: C API<74>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<51>.

Python 3.6.0 alpha 1

* Security: Security<55>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<193>.
* Library: Library<194>.
* IDLE: IDLE<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<77>.
* Tests: Tests<81>.
* Build: Build<88>.
* Windows: Windows<75>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<52>.
* C API: C API<75>.

Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<56>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<194>.
* Library: Library<195>.

Python 3.5.4 final

* Library: Library<196>.

Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<57>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<195>.
* Library: Library<197>.
* Documentation: Documentation<78>.
* Tests: Tests<82>.
* Build: Build<89>.
* Windows: Windows<76>.
* C API: C API<76>.

Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<58>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<196>.
* Library: Library<198>.
* IDLE: IDLE<58>.
* C API: C API<77>.
* Documentation: Documentation<79>.
* Tests: Tests<83>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<53>.
* Windows: Windows<77>.
* Build: Build<90>.

Python 3.5.2 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<197>.
* Tests: Tests<84>.
* IDLE: IDLE<59>.

Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1

* Security: Security<59>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<198>.
* Library: Library<199>.
* IDLE: IDLE<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<80>.
* Tests: Tests<85>.
* Build: Build<91>.
* Windows: Windows<78>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<54>.

Python 3.5.1 final

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<199>.
* Windows: Windows<79>.

Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<200>.
* Library: Library<200>.
* IDLE: IDLE<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<81>.
* Tests: Tests<86>.
* Build: Build<92>.
* Windows: Windows<80>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<55>.

Python 3.5.0 final

* Build: Build<93>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4

* Library: Library<201>.
* Build: Build<94>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<201>.
* Library: Library<202>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<202>.
* Library: Library<203>.

Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<203>.
* Library: Library<204>.
* IDLE: IDLE<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<82>.
* Tests: Tests<87>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<204>.
* Library: Library<205>.
* Build: Build<95>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<205>.
* Library: Library<206>.
* Tests: Tests<88>.
* Documentation: Documentation<83>.
* Build: Build<96>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<206>.
* Library: Library<207>.

Python 3.5.0 beta 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<207>.
* Library: Library<208>.
* IDLE: IDLE<63>.
* Tests: Tests<89>.
* Documentation: Documentation<84>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<56>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 4

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<208>.
* Library: Library<209>.
* Build: Build<97>.
* Tests: Tests<90>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<57>.
* C API: C API<78>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 3

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<209>.
* Library: Library<210>.
* Build: Build<98>.
* Tests: Tests<91>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<58>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 2

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<210>.
* Library: Library<211>.
* Build: Build<99>.
* C API: C API<79>.
* Windows: Windows<81>.

Python 3.5.0 alpha 1

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<211>.
* Library: Library<212>.
* IDLE: IDLE<64>.
* Build: Build<100>.
* C API: C API<80>.
* Documentation: Documentation<85>.
* Tests: Tests<92>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<59>.
* Windows: Windows<82>.

Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python

* Ανοίγοντας την όρεξή σας::
* Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Interpreter της Python::
* Μία Άτυπη Εισαγωγή στην Python::
* Περισσότερα εργαλεία Ελέγχου Ροής::
* Δομές Δεδομένων::
* Modules: Modules<2>.
* Είσοδος και Έξοδος::
* Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις::
* Κλάσεις::
* Brief tour of the standard library::
* Brief tour of the standard library — part II::
* Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα και πακέτα::
* Και τώρα τι;::
* Διαδραστική Επεξεργασία Input και Αντικατάσταση Ιστορικού::
* Αριθμητική Κινητής Υποδιαστολής; Ζητήματα και Περιορισμοί: Αριθμητική Κινητής Υποδιαστολής Ζητήματα και Περιορισμοί.
* Παράρτημα::

Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Interpreter της Python

* Κάνοντας invoke τον Interpreter::
* Ο Interpreter και το Περιβάλλον του::

Κάνοντας invoke τον Interpreter

* Εισαγωγή Ορίσματος::
* Interactive Λειτουργία::

Ο Interpreter και το Περιβάλλον του

* Κωδικοποίηση Πηγαίου Κώδικα::

Μία Άτυπη Εισαγωγή στην Python

* Χρησιμοποιώντας την Python ως Αριθμομηχανή::
* Πρώτα Βήματα Προς Τον Προγραμματισμό::

Χρησιμοποιώντας την Python ως Αριθμομηχανή

* Αριθμοί::
* Κείμενο::
* Λίστες::

Περισσότερα εργαλεία Ελέγχου Ροής

* Προτάσεις if::
* Προτάσεις for::
* Η συνάρτηση range(): Η συνάρτηση range.
* break και continue Προτάσεις::
* else Ρήτρες στους βρόχους::
* Προτάσεις pass::
* Προτάσεις match::
* Καθορισμός Συναρτήσεων::
* Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων::
* Intermezzo; Στυλ Κώδικα: Intermezzo Στυλ Κώδικα.

Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων

* Προεπιλεγμένες Τιμές Ορίσματος::
* Ορίσματα Keyword::
* Ειδικές παράμετροι::
* Λίστες Αυθαίρετων Ορισμάτων::
* Unpacking Λίστες Ορισμάτων::
* Εκφράσεις Lambda::
* Συμβολοσειρές Τεκμηρίωσης::
* Annotations Συναρτήσεων::

Ειδικές παράμετροι

* Παράμετροι Θέσης ή Keyword::
* Παράμετροι Μόνο-Θέσης::
* Ορίσματα μόνο Keyword::
* Παραδείγματα Συναρτήσεων::
* Ανακεφαλαίωση::

Δομές Δεδομένων

* Περισσότερα για τις Λίστες::
* Η δήλωση del::
* Πλειάδες (Tuples) και Ακολουθίες: Πλειάδες Tuples και Ακολουθίες.
* Σύνολα (Sets): Σύνολα Sets.
* Λεξικά (Dictionaries): Λεξικά Dictionaries.
* Τεχνικές Looping::
* Περισσότερα για τις συνθήκες::
* Σύγκριση ακολουθιών και άλλων τύπων::

Περισσότερα για τις Λίστες

* Χρήστη Λιστών ως Στοίβες (Stacks): Χρήστη Λιστών ως Στοίβες Stacks.
* Χρήση λιστών ως Ουρές (Queues): Χρήση λιστών ως Ουρές Queues.
* Comprehensions Λίστας::
* Comprehensions Ένθετων Λιστών::
* Unpacking in Lists and List Comprehensions::

Modules

* Περισσότερα για τα Modules::
* Standard Modules::
* Η συνάρτηση dir(): Η συνάρτηση dir.
* Πακέτα::

Περισσότερα για τα Modules

* Εκτέλεση modules ως scripts::
* Το Search Path του Module::
* «Compiled» Python αρχεία::

Πακέτα

* Εισάγοντας * από ένα Πακέτο::
* Intra-package αναφορές::
* Πακέτα σε Πολλαπλούς Καταλόγους::

Είσοδος και Έξοδος

* Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου::
* Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων::

Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου

* Μορφοποιημένα String Literals::
* Η μέθοδος String format(): Η μέθοδος String format.
* Χειροκίνητη Μορφοποίηση Συμβολοσειρών::
* Παλιά μορφοποίηση συμβολοσειράς::

Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων

* Μέθοδοι Αντικειμένων Αρχείων::
* Αποθήκευση δομημένων δεδομένων με json::

Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις

* Syntax Errors (Συντακτικά Σφάλματα): Syntax Errors Συντακτικά Σφάλματα.
* Exceptions (Εξαιρέσεις): Exceptions Εξαιρέσεις.
* Διαχείριση Εξαιρέσεων::
* Raising Εξαιρέσεων::
* Αλυσιδωτές Εξαιρέσεις::
* Εξαιρέσεις που καθορίζονται από το χρήστη::
* Καθορισμός ενεργειών καθαρισμού::
* Προκαθορισμένες ενέργειες καθαρισμού::
* Raising και Χειρισμός Πολλαπλών Άσχετων Εξαιρέσεων::
* Εμπλουτίζοντας τις Εξαιρέσεις με Σημειώσεις::

Κλάσεις

* Λίγα λόγια για Ονόματα και Αντικείμενα::
* Εμβέλεια και Πεδία Ονομάτων στην Python::
* Μια πρώτη ματιά στις Κλάσεις::
* Τυχαίες Παρατηρήσεις::
* Κληρονομικότητα::
* Ιδιωτικές Μεταβλητές::
* Μικροπράγματα::
* Επαναλήπτες::
* Γεννήτορες (Generators): Γεννήτορες Generators.
* Εκφράσεις Γεννήτορων::

Εμβέλεια και Πεδία Ονομάτων στην Python

* Παράδειγμα Εμβέλειας και Χώρων Ονομάτων::

Μια πρώτη ματιά στις Κλάσεις

* Σύνταξη Ορισμού Κλάσης::
* Αντικείμενα Κλάσης::
* Αντικείμενα Στιγμιοτύπων::
* Αντικείμενα Μεθόδου::
* Μεταβλητές Κλάσης και Στιγμιότυπου::

Κληρονομικότητα

* Πολλαπλή Κληρονομικότητα::

Brief tour of the standard library

* Operating system interface::
* File wildcards::
* Command-line arguments::
* Error output redirection and program termination::
* String pattern matching::
* Μαθηματικά::
* Internet access::
* Dates and times::
* Data compression::
* Performance measurement::
* Quality control::
* Batteries included::

Brief tour of the standard library — part II

* Output formatting::
* Templating::
* Working with binary data record layouts::
* Multi-threading: Multi-threading<2>.
* Logging::
* Weak references::
* Tools for working with lists::
* Decimal floating-point arithmetic::

Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα και πακέτα

* Εισαγωγή::
* Δημιουργία εικονικών περιβάλλοντων::
* Διαχείριση Πακέτων με το pip::

Διαδραστική Επεξεργασία Input και Αντικατάσταση Ιστορικού

* Συμπλήρωση Tab και Επεξεργασία Ιστορικού::
* Εναλλακτικές λύσεις για τον Διαδραστικό Interpreter::

Αριθμητική Κινητής Υποδιαστολής:  Ζητήματα και Περιορισμοί

* Σφάλμα Αναπαράστασης::

Παράρτημα

* Διαδραστική Λειτουργία::

Διαδραστική Λειτουργία

* Διαχείριση Σφαλμάτων::
* Εκτελέσιμα Python Scripts::
* Το διαδραστικό αρχείο εκκίνησης::
* Τα Modules Προσαρμογής::

Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python

* Command line and environment: Command line and environment<2>.
* Χρήση της Python σε πλατφόρμες Unix::
* Configure Python::
* Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows::
* Χρησιμοποιώντας Python σε macOS::
* Χρήση της Python σε Android::
* Χρήση Python σε iOS::
* Επεξεργαστές Κειμένου και IDEs::

Command line and environment

* Command line::
* Environment variables::

Command line

* Interface options::
* Generic options::
* Miscellaneous options::
* Controlling color::

Environment variables

* Debug-mode variables::

Χρήση της Python σε πλατφόρμες Unix

* Λήψη και εγκατάσταση της πιο πρόσφατης έκδοσης Python::
* Μεταγλώττιση της Python::
* Διαδρομές και αρχεία που σχετίζονται με την Python::
* Διάφορα::
* Custom OpenSSL::

Λήψη και εγκατάσταση της πιο πρόσφατης έκδοσης Python

* Σε Linux::
* Σε FreeBSD και OpenBSD::

Σε Linux

* Εγκατάσταση του IDLE::

Configure Python

* Build Requirements::
* Generated files::
* Configure Options::
* Python Build System::
* Compiler and linker flags::

Build Requirements

* Requirements for optional modules::

Generated files

* configure script::

Configure Options

* General Options::
* C compiler options::
* Linker options::
* Options for third-party dependencies::
* WebAssembly Options::
* Install Options::
* Performance options::
* Python Debug Build::
* Debug options::
* Linker options: Linker options<2>.
* Libraries options::
* Security Options::
* macOS Options::
* iOS Options::
* Cross Compiling Options::

Python Build System

* Main files of the build system::
* Main build steps::
* Main Makefile targets::
* C extensions::

Main Makefile targets

* make::
* make platform::
* make profile-opt::
* make clean::
* make distclean::
* make install::
* make test::
* make ci::
* make buildbottest::
* make regen-all::

Compiler and linker flags

* Preprocessor flags::
* Compiler flags::
* Linker flags::

Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows

* Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python::
* Το ενσωματωμένο πακέτο::
* Τα πακέτα nuget.org: Τα πακέτα nuget org.
* Εναλλακτικά πακέτα::
* Υποστηριζόμενες εκδόσεις των Windows::
* Αφαίρεση του περιορισμού MAX_PATH::
* Λειτουργία UTF-8::
* Εύρεση modules::
* Πρόσθετα modules::
* Μεταγλώττιση Python στα Windows::
* Το πλήρες πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης::
* Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows (Απαρχαιωμένο): Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο.

Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

* Εγκατάσταση::
* Βασική χρήση::
* Εντολή βοήθειας::
* Καταχώριση χρόνων εκτέλεσης::
* Εγκαθιστώντας χρόνους εκτέλεσης::
* Εγκαταστάσεις εκτός σύνδεσης::
* Απεγκατάσταση χρόνων εκτέλεσης::
* Διαμόρφωση::
* Γραμμές Shebang::
* Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση::
* Διαχειριστική διαμόρφωση::
* Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα::
* Index signatures::
* Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων::

Το ενσωματωμένο πακέτο

* Εφαρμογή Python::
* Ενσωμάτωση Python::

Τα πακέτα nuget.org

* Πακέτα με ελεύθερα νήματα::

Πρόσθετα modules

* PyWin32::
* cx_Freeze::

Το πλήρες πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης

* Βήματα Εγκατάστασης::
* Αφαίρεση του περιορισμού MAX_PATH: Αφαίρεση του περιορισμού MAX_PATH<2>.
* Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη::
* Εγκατάσταση χωρίς λήψη::
* Τροποποίηση εγκατάστασης::
* Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα: Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα<2>.

Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows (Απαρχαιωμένο)

* Ξεκινώντας::
* Γραμμές Shebang: Γραμμές Shebang<2>.
* Ορίσματα στις γραμμές shebang::
* Προσαρμογή::
* Διαγνωστικά::
* Dry run::
* Εγκατάσταση κατ” απαίτηση::
* Επιστρεφόμενοι κωδικοί::

Ξεκινώντας

* Από τη γραμμή εντολών::
* Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα::
* Από ένα script::
* Από συσχετίσεις αρχείων::

Προσαρμογή

* Προσαρμογή μέσω αρχείων INI::
* Προσαρμογή προεπιλεγμένων εκδόσεων Python::

Χρησιμοποιώντας Python σε macOS

* Χρησιμοποιώντας Python για macOS από το python.org: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python για macOS από το python org.
* Εναλλακτικές Διανομές::
* Εγκατάσταση πρόσθετων πακέτων Python::
* Προγραμματισμός GUI::
* Προχωρημένα θέματα::
* Άλλοι πόροι::

Χρησιμοποιώντας Python για macOS από το python.org

* Βήματα εγκατάστασης::
* Πώς να εκτελέσετε ένα σενάριο Python::

Προχωρημένα θέματα

* Εγκατάσταση εκδόσεων Free-threaded::
* Εγκατάσταση χρησιμοποιώντας τη γραμμή εντολών::
* Διανομή εφαρμογών Python::
* Συμμόρφωση App Store::

Χρήση της Python σε Android

* Προσθήκη της Python σε μια εφαρμογή Android::
* Δημιουργία ενός πακέτου Python για Android::

Χρήση Python σε iOS

* Python κατά τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης σε iOS::
* Εγκατάσταση της Python σε iOS::
* Συμμόρφωση με το App Store::

Python κατά τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης σε iOS

* Συμβατότητα έκδοσης iOS::
* Αναγνώριση πλατφόρμας::
* Διαθεσιμότητα τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης::
* Δυαδικά modules επέκτασης::
* Δυαδικά αρχεία προσομοίωσης μεταγλωττιστή::

Εγκατάσταση της Python σε iOS

* Εργαλεία για την κατασκευή εφαρμογών iOS::
* Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS::
* Δοκιμή ενός πακέτου Python::

Συμμόρφωση με το App Store

* Κώδικας ασύμβατος με την τυπική βιβλιοθήκη::
* Δηλώσεις απορρήτου::

Επεξεργαστές Κειμένου και IDEs

* IDLE — Επεξεργαστής και shell της Python::
* Άλλοι Επεξεργαστές Κειμένου και IDEs::

Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python

* Εισαγωγή: Εισαγωγή<2>.
* Λεξική ανάλυση::
* Μοντέλο Δεδομένων::
* Μοντέλο εκτέλεσης::
* Το σύστημα εισαγωγής::
* Expressions::
* Απλές εντολές::
* Compound statements::
* Συστατικά ανωτάτου επιπέδου::
* Πλήρης προδιαγραφή γραμματικής::

Εισαγωγή

* Εναλλακτικές Υλοποιήσεις::
* Σημειογραφία::

Σημειογραφία

* Λεξικοί και Συντακτικοί ορισμοί::

Λεξική ανάλυση

* Δομή γραμμών::
* Άλλα tokens::
* Ονόματα (αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά): Ονόματα αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά.
* Λεκτικά::
* Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes::
* Αριθμητικά λεκτικά::
* Τελεστές και οριοθέτες::

Δομή γραμμών

* Λογικές γραμμές::
* Φυσικές γραμμές::
* Σχόλια::
* Δηλώσεις κωδικοποίησης::
* Ρητή συνένωση γραμμών::
* Έμμεση συνένωση γραμμών::
* Κενές γραμμές::
* Εσοχή::
* Κενοί χαρακτήρες μεταξύ των tokens::
* Δείκτης τέλους::

Ονόματα (αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά)

* Λέξεις-κλειδιά::
* Ήπιες λέξεις-κλειδιά::
* Δεσμευμένες κλάσεις αναγνωριστικών::
* Μη-ASCII χαρακτήρες στα ονόματα::

Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes

* Συμβολοσειρές τριπλού εισαγωγικού::
* Προθέματα συμβολοσειράς::
* Τυπική γραμματική::
* Ακολουθίες διαφυγής::
* Λεκτικά bytes::
* Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς::
* f-strings::
* t-strings::
* Formal grammar for f-strings::

Ακολουθίες διαφυγής

* Αγνοημένο τέλος γραμμής::
* Χαρακτήρες με διαφυγή::
* Οκταδικός χαρακτήρας::
* Δεκαεξαδικός χαρακτήρας::
* Ονοματισμένος χαρακτήρας Unicode::
* Δεκαεξαδικοί χαρακτήρες Unicode::
* Μη αναγνωρισμένες ακολουθίες διαφυγής::

Αριθμητικά λεκτικά

* Λεκτικά ακεραίων::
* Λεκτικά κινητής υποδιαστολής::
* Λεκτικά φανταστικών::

Μοντέλο Δεδομένων

* Αντικείμενα, τιμές και τύποι: Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
* Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου::
* Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων::
* Coroutines::

Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου

* None::
* NotImplemented::
* Ellipsis::
* numbers.Number: numbers Number.
* Ακολουθίες::
* Σύνολο τύπων::
* Αντιστοιχίσεις::
* Τύποι με δυνατότητα κλήσης::
* Modules: Modules<3>.
* Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις::
* Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης::
* Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου (γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου): Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
* Εσωτερικοί τύποι::

numbers.Number

* numbers.Integral: numbers Integral.
* numbers.Real (float): numbers Real float.
* numbers.Complex (complex): numbers Complex complex.

Ακολουθίες

* Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες::
* Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες::

Αντιστοιχίσεις

* Λεξικά::

Τύποι με δυνατότητα κλήσης

* Συναρτήσεις που ορίζονται από τον χρήστη::
* Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου::
* Generator Συναρτήσεις::
* Coroutine συναρτήσεις::
* Asynchronous generator συναρτήσεις::
* Ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις::
* Ενσωματωμένες μεθόδους::
* Κλάσεις: Κλάσεις<2>.
* Στιγμιότυπα Κλάσης::

Συναρτήσεις που ορίζονται από τον χρήστη

* Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση::
* Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά::

Modules

* Χαρακτηριστικά που σχετίζονται με εισαγωγή σε αντικείμενα modules::
* Άλλα εγγράφως χαρακτηριστικά σε αντικείμενα μονάδων::
* Λεξικά Modules::

Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις

* Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά::
* Ειδικές μέθοδοι::

Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης

* Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά<2>.

Εσωτερικοί τύποι

* Αντικείμενα κώδικα::
* Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων::
* Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης::
* Αντικείμενα τμηματοποίησης::
* Αντικείμενα στατικών μεθόδων::
* Αντικείμενα μεθόδων κλάσεων::

Αντικείμενα κώδικα

* Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
* Μέθοδοι σε αντικείμενα κώδικα::

Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων

* Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>.
* Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά: Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά<2>.
* Μέθοδοι αντικειμένων πλαισίου::

Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

* Βασική προσαρμογή::
* Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών::
* Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης::
* Προσαρμογή ελέγχων παρουσίας και υποκλάσης::
* Εξομοίωση γενικών τύπων::
* Εξομοίωση αντικειμένων με δυνατότητα κλήσης::
* Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ::
* Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων::
* Με τους Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης::
* Προσαρμογή ορισμάτων θέσης στην αντιστοίχιση προτύπων κλάσης::
* Εξομοίωση τύπων buffer::
* Annotations::
* Αναζήτηση ειδικής μεθόδου::

Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών

* Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών module::
* Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων::
* Κλήση Descriptors::
* __slots__: __slots__<2>.

Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης

* Μετα-κλάσεις::
* Επίλυση εγγραφών MRO::
* Προσδιορισμός της κατάλληλης μετακλάσης::
* Προετοιμασία του χώρου ονομάτων της κλάσης::
* Εκτέλεση του σώματος της κλάσης::
* Δημιουργία αντικειμένου κλάσης::
* Χρήσεις για μετακλάσεις::

Εξομοίωση γενικών τύπων

* Ο σκοπός του __class_getitem__::
* __class_getitem__ έναντι __getitem__::

Coroutines

* Awaitable Αντικείμενα::
* Coroutine Αντικείμενα::
* Ασύγχρονοι Iterators::
* Ασύγχρονοι Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος::

Μοντέλο εκτέλεσης

* Δομή ενός προγράμματος::
* Ονομασία και σύνδεση::
* Εξαιρέσεις::
* Συστατικά χρόνου εκτέλεσης::

Ονομασία και σύνδεση

* Σύνδεση ονομάτων::
* Επίλυση ονομάτων::
* Σημειογραφία πεδία::
* Καθυστερημένη εκτίμηση::
* Ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις και περιορισμένη εκτέλεση::
* Αλληλεπίδραση με δυναμικές λειτουργίες::

Συστατικά χρόνου εκτέλεσης

* Γενικό μοντέλο υπολογισμού::
* Μοντέλο χρόνου εκτέλεσης της Python::

Το σύστημα εισαγωγής

* importlib: importlib<10>.
* Πακέτα: Πακέτα<2>.
* Αναζήτηση::
* Φόρτωση::
* Finder βασισμένος στη διαδρομή::
* Αντικατάσταση του τυπικού συστήματος εισαγωγής::
* Σχετικές εισαγωγές σε πακέτα::
* Ειδικές περιπτώσεις για το __main__::
* Αναφορές::

Πακέτα

* Κανονικά πακέτα::
* Namespace πακέτα::

Αναζήτηση

* Η προσωρινή μνήμη του module::
* Finders και loaders::
* Εισαγωγή hooks::
* Το meta path::

Φόρτωση

* Loaders::
* Submodules::
* Module specs::
* Χαρακτηριστικά __path__ στα modules::
* Reprs των modules::
* Ακύρωση cached bytecode::

Finder βασισμένος στη διαδρομή

* Finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής (Path entry finders): Finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής Path entry finders.
* Πρωτόκολλο path entry finder::

Ειδικές περιπτώσεις για το __main__

* __main__.__spec__: __main__ __spec__.

Expressions

* Arithmetic conversions::
* Atoms::
* Primaries::
* Await expression::
* The power operator::
* Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations::
* Binary arithmetic operations::
* Shifting operations::
* Binary bitwise operations::
* Comparisons::
* Boolean operations::
* Assignment expressions: Assignment expressions<2>.
* Conditional expressions::
* Lambdas::
* Expression lists::
* Evaluation order::
* Operator precedence::

Atoms

* Built-in constants::
* Identifiers (Names): Identifiers Names.
* Literals::
* Parenthesized forms::
* Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
* List displays::
* Set displays::
* Dictionary displays::
* Generator expressions::
* Yield expressions::

Identifiers (Names)

* Private name mangling::

Literals

* Literals and object identity::
* String literal concatenation::

Yield expressions

* Generator-iterator methods::
* Examples::
* Asynchronous generator functions::
* Asynchronous generator-iterator methods::

Primaries

* Attribute references::
* Subscriptions and slicings::
* Calls::

Subscriptions and slicings

* Slicings::
* Comma-separated subscripts::
* «Starred» subscriptions::
* Formal subscription grammar::

Comparisons

* Value comparisons::
* Membership test operations::
* Identity comparisons::

Απλές εντολές

* Εντολές έκφρασης::
* Εντολές ανάθεσης::
* Η εντολή assert::
* Η έκφραση pass::
* Η εντολή del::
* Η εντολή return::
* Η εντολή yield::
* Η εντολή raise::
* Η εντολή break::
* Η εντολή continue::
* Η εντολή import::
* Η εντολή global::
* Η εντολή nonlocal::
* Η εντολή type::

Εντολές ανάθεσης

* Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης::
* Εντολές ανάθεσης με σχολιασμό::

Η εντολή import

* Lazy imports::
* Μελλοντικές δηλώσεις::

Lazy imports

* Compatibility via __lazy_modules__::

Compound statements

* The if statement::
* The while statement::
* The for statement::
* The try statement::
* The with statement::
* The match statement::
* Function definitions::
* Class definitions::
* Coroutines: Coroutines<2>.
* Type parameter lists::
* Annotations: Annotations<2>.

The try statement

* except clause::
* except* clause::
* else clause::
* finally clause::

The match statement

* Overview::
* Guards::
* Irrefutable Case Blocks::
* Patterns::

Patterns

* OR Patterns::
* AS Patterns::
* Literal Patterns::
* Capture Patterns::
* Wildcard Patterns::
* Value Patterns::
* Group Patterns::
* Sequence Patterns::
* Mapping Patterns::
* Class Patterns::

Class definitions

* Multiple inheritance::

Coroutines

* Coroutine function definition::
* The async for statement::
* The async with statement::

Type parameter lists

* Generic functions::
* Generic classes::
* Generic type aliases::

Συστατικά ανωτάτου επιπέδου

* Πλήρη προγράμματα Python::
* Είσοδος από αρχείο::
* Διαδραστική είσοδος::
* Είσοδος έκφρασης::

The Python Standard Library

* Introduction: Introduction<4>.
* Ενσωματωμένες (Built-in) Συναρτήσεις: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
* Built-in Constants::
* Τύποι Built-in::
* Built-in Exceptions::
* Thread Safety Guarantees::
* Text Processing Services::
* Υπηρεσίες Δυαδικών Δεδομένων::
* Data Types::
* Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules::
* Functional Programming Modules::
* File and Directory Access::
* Data Persistence::
* Data Compression and Archiving::
* File Formats::
* Cryptographic Services::
* Generic Operating System Services::
* Command-line interface libraries::
* Concurrent Execution::
* Networking and Interprocess Communication::
* Internet Data Handling::
* Structured Markup Processing Tools::
* Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη::
* Multimedia Services::
* Internationalization::
* Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk::
* Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης::
* Debugging and profiling::
* Software Packaging and Distribution::
* Python Runtime Services::
* Custom Python Interpreters::
* Importing Modules::
* Python Language Services::
* MS Windows Specific Services::
* Unix-specific services::
* Command-line interface (Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών) (CLI) για modules: Command-line interface Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών CLI για modules.
* Superseded modules::
* Removed Modules::
* Security Considerations: Security Considerations<3>.

Introduction

* Notes on availability::

Notes on availability

* WebAssembly platforms::
* Mobile platforms::

Built-in Constants

* Constants added by the site module::

Τύποι Built-in

* Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής::
* Λογικές (Boolean) Πράξεις — and, or, not: Λογικές Boolean Πράξεις — and or not.
* Συγκρίσεις::
* Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int, float, complex: Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
* Τύπος Boolean - bool::
* Τύποι Iterator::
* Τύποι Ακολουθίας (Sequence) — list, tuple, range: Τύποι Ακολουθίας Sequence — list tuple range.
* Σύνοψη μεθόδων τύπου κειμένου και δυαδική ακολουθίας::
* Τύπος Ακολουθίας (Sequence) Κειμένου — str: Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str.
* Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview.
* Τύποι Συνόλου (Set) — set, frozenset: Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
* Mapping types — dict, frozendict: Mapping types — dict frozendict.
* Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου::
* Τύποι Annotation τύπου — Generic Alias, Union: Τύποι Annotation τύπου — Generic Alias Union.
* Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι (built-in) Τύποι: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι.
* Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά::
* Περιορισμός μήκους μετατροπής συμβολοσειράς ακέραιου αριθμού::

Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int, float, complex

* Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους::
* Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι των Ακέραιων Τύπων::
* Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Float::
* Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Μιγαδικούς::
* Κατακερματισμός των αριθμητικών τύπων::

Τύποι Iterator

* Τύποι Generator::

Τύποι Ακολουθίας (Sequence) — list, tuple, range

* Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών (Sequences): Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
* Τύποι Αμετάβλητων Ακολουθιών (Sequences): Τύποι Αμετάβλητων Ακολουθιών Sequences.
* Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών (Sequences): Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
* Λίστες: Λίστες<2>.
* Πλειάδες (Tuples): Πλειάδες Tuples.
* Εύρη (Ranges): Εύρη Ranges.

Τύπος Ακολουθίας (Sequence) Κειμένου — str

* Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς (String): Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
* Διαμορφωμένες Κυριολεκτικές Συμβολοσειρές (f-strings): Διαμορφωμένες Κυριολεκτικές Συμβολοσειρές f-strings.
* Template String Literals (t-strings): Template String Literals t-strings.
* printf-style String Formatting::

Διαμορφωμένες Κυριολεκτικές Συμβολοσειρές (f-strings)

* Debug specifier::
* Conversion specifier::
* Format specifier::

Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes, bytearray, memoryview

* Αντικείμενα Bytes::
* Αντικείμενα Bytearray::
* Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray::
* Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf::
* Όψεις Μνήμης::

Mapping types — dict, frozendict

* Αντικείμενα όψης λεξικού::
* Frozen dictionaries::

Τύποι Annotation τύπου — Generic Alias, Union

* Τύπος Generic Alias::
* Τύπος Ένωσης::

Τύπος Generic Alias

* Τυπικές Γενικές Κλάσεις::
* Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά αντικειμένων GenericAlias::

Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι (built-in) Τύποι

* Modules: Modules<4>.
* Κλάσεις και Στιγμιότυπα Κλάσης::
* Συναρτήσεις::
* Μέθοδοι::
* Αντικείμενα Κώδικα::
* Τύποι Αντικειμένων::
* Το Αντικείμενο Null::
* Το αντικείμενο Ellipsis::
* Το NotImplemented Αντικείμενο::
* Εσωτερικά Αντικείμενα::

Περιορισμός μήκους μετατροπής συμβολοσειράς ακέραιου αριθμού

* Επηρεασμένα APIs::
* Διαμόρφωση ορίου::
* Προτεινόμενη διαμόρφωση::

Built-in Exceptions

* Exception context::
* Inheriting from built-in exceptions::
* Base classes::
* Concrete exceptions::
* Warnings::
* Exception groups::
* Exception hierarchy::

Concrete exceptions

* OS exceptions::

Thread Safety Guarantees

* Thread safety levels::
* Thread safety for list objects::
* Thread safety for dict objects::
* Thread safety for set objects::
* Thread safety for bytearray objects::
* Thread safety for memoryview objects::

Thread safety levels

* Incompatible::
* Compatible::
* Safe on distinct objects::
* Safe on shared objects::
* Atomic::

Text Processing Services

* string — Common string operations::
* string.templatelib — Support for template string literals: string templatelib — Support for template string literals.
* re — Regular expression operations::
* difflib — Helpers for computing deltas::
* textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου::
* unicodedata — Unicode Database::
* stringprep — Internet String Preparation::
* readline — GNU readline interface::
* rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline::

string — Common string operations

* String constants::
* Custom string formatting::
* Format string syntax::
* Template strings ($-strings): Template strings $-strings.
* Helper functions::

Format string syntax

* Format specification mini-language::
* Format examples::

string.templatelib — Support for template string literals

* Template strings::
* Types::
* Helper functions: Helper functions<2>.

re — Regular expression operations

* Regular expression syntax::
* Module contents::
* Regular expression objects::
* Match objects::
* Regular expression examples::

Module contents

* Flags::
* Functions::
* Exceptions::

Regular expression examples

* Checking for a pair::
* Simulating scanf(): Simulating scanf.
* search() vs. prefixmatch(): search vs prefixmatch.
* prefixmatch() vs. match(): prefixmatch vs match.
* Making a phonebook::
* Text munging::
* Finding all adverbs::
* Finding all adverbs and their positions::
* Raw string notation::
* Writing a tokenizer::

difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

* SequenceMatcher objects::
* SequenceMatcher examples::
* Differ objects::
* Differ example::
* A command-line interface to difflib::
* ndiff example::

readline — GNU readline interface

* Init file::
* Line buffer::
* History file::
* History list::
* Startup hooks::
* Completion::
* Example::

Υπηρεσίες Δυαδικών Δεδομένων

* struct — Ερμηνεία bytes ως πακετοποιημένα δυαδικά δεδομένα::
* codecs — Codec registry and base classes::

struct — Ερμηνεία bytes ως πακετοποιημένα δυαδικά δεδομένα

* Συναρτήσεις και εξαιρέσεις::
* Συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης::
* Εφαρμογές::
* Κλάσεις: Κλάσεις<3>.

Συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης

* Διάταξη Byte, Μέγεθος και Στοίχιση: Διάταξη Byte Μέγεθος και Στοίχιση.
* Χαρακτήρες μορφής::
* Παραδείγματα::

Εφαρμογές

* Native Μορφές::
* Τυπικές μορφές::

codecs — Codec registry and base classes

* Codec Base Classes::
* Encodings and Unicode::
* Standard Encodings::
* Python Specific Encodings::
* encodings — Encodings package::
* encodings.idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
* encodings.mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage.
* encodings.utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature: encodings utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature.

Codec Base Classes

* Error Handlers::
* Stateless Encoding and Decoding::
* Incremental Encoding and Decoding::
* Stream Encoding and Decoding::

Incremental Encoding and Decoding

* IncrementalEncoder Objects::
* IncrementalDecoder Objects::

Stream Encoding and Decoding

* StreamWriter Objects::
* StreamReader Objects::
* StreamReaderWriter Objects::
* StreamRecoder Objects::

Python Specific Encodings

* Text Encodings::
* Binary Transforms::
* Standalone Codec Functions::
* Text Transforms::

Data Types

* datetime — Basic date and time types::
* zoneinfo — IANA time zone support::
* calendar — General calendar-related functions::
* collections — Container datatypes::
* collections.abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers: collections abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers.
* heapq — Heap queue algorithm::
* bisect — Array bisection algorithm::
* array — Efficient arrays of numeric values::
* weakref — Weak references::
* types — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους::
* copy — Shallow and deep copy operations::
* pprint — Data pretty printer::
* reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
* enum — Support for enumerations::
* graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures::

datetime — Basic date and time types

* Aware and naive objects::
* Constants::
* Available types::
* timedelta objects::
* date objects::
* datetime objects::
* time objects::
* tzinfo objects::
* timezone objects::
* strftime() and strptime() behavior: strftime and strptime behavior.

Available types

* Common properties::
* Determining if an object is aware or naive::

timedelta objects

* Examples of usage; timedelta: Examples of usage timedelta.

date objects

* Examples of usage; date: Examples of usage date.

datetime objects

* Examples of usage; datetime: Examples of usage datetime.

time objects

* Examples of usage; time: Examples of usage time.

strftime() and strptime() behavior

* strftime() and strptime() format codes: strftime and strptime format codes.
* Technical detail::

zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

* Using ZoneInfo::
* Data sources::
* The ZoneInfo class::
* Functions: Functions<2>.
* Globals::
* Exceptions and warnings::

Data sources

* Configuring the data sources::

Configuring the data sources

* Compile-time configuration::
* Environment configuration::
* Runtime configuration::

The ZoneInfo class

* String representations::
* Pickle serialization::

calendar — General calendar-related functions

* Command-line usage::

collections — Container datatypes

* ChainMap objects::
* Counter objects::
* deque objects::
* defaultdict objects::
* namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
* OrderedDict objects::
* UserDict objects::
* UserList objects::
* UserString objects::

ChainMap objects

* ChainMap Examples and Recipes::

deque objects

* deque Recipes::

defaultdict objects

* defaultdict Examples::

OrderedDict objects

* OrderedDict Examples and Recipes::

collections.abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers

* Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών::
* Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές::
* Παραδείγματα και Συνταγές::

heapq — Heap queue algorithm

* Basic Examples::
* Other Applications::
* Priority Queue Implementation Notes::
* Theory::

bisect — Array bisection algorithm

* Performance Notes::
* Searching Sorted Lists::
* Examples: Examples<2>.

weakref — Weak references

* Weak Reference Objects::
* Example: Example<2>.
* Finalizer Objects::
* Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods.

types — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους

* Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων::
* Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα::
* Πρόσθετες βοηθητικές κλάσεις και συναρτήσεις::
* Βοηθητικές Συναρτήσεις Coroutine::

pprint — Data pretty printer

* Functions: Functions<3>.
* PrettyPrinter objects::
* Example: Example<3>.

reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation

* Repr Objects::
* Subclassing Repr Objects::

enum — Support for enumerations

* Module contents: Module contents<2>.
* Data types::
* Utilities and decorators::
* Notes::

Data types

* Supported __dunder__ names::
* Supported _sunder_ names::

graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures

* Exceptions: Exceptions<2>.

Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules

* numbers — Numeric abstract base classes::
* math — Mathematical functions::
* math.integer — integer-specific mathematics functions: math integer — integer-specific mathematics functions.
* cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers::
* decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic::
* fractions — Rational numbers::
* random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών::
* statistics — Mathematical statistics functions::

numbers — Numeric abstract base classes

* The numeric tower::
* Notes for type implementers::

Notes for type implementers

* Adding More Numeric ABCs::
* Implementing the arithmetic operations::

math — Mathematical functions

* Floating point arithmetic::
* Floating point manipulation functions::
* Power, exponential and logarithmic functions: Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
* Summation and product functions::
* Angular conversion::
* Trigonometric functions::
* Hyperbolic functions::
* Special functions::
* Number-theoretic functions::
* Constants: Constants<2>.

cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

* Conversions to and from polar coordinates::
* Power and logarithmic functions::
* Trigonometric functions: Trigonometric functions<2>.
* Hyperbolic functions: Hyperbolic functions<2>.
* Classification functions::
* Constants: Constants<3>.

decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

* Quick-start tutorial::
* Decimal objects::
* Context objects::
* Constants: Constants<4>.
* Rounding modes::
* Signals::
* Floating-point notes::
* Working with threads::
* Recipes::
* Decimal FAQ::

Decimal objects

* Logical operands::

Floating-point notes

* Mitigating round-off error with increased precision::
* Special values::

random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών

* Συναρτήσεις καταγραφής::
* Συναρτήσεις για bytes::
* Συναρτήσεις για ακέραιους::
* Συναρτήσεις για ακολουθίες::
* Διακριτές κατανομές::
* Πραγματικές κατανομές::
* Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια::
* Σημειώσεις για την Αναπαραγωγιμότητα::
* Παραδείγματα: Παραδείγματα<2>.
* Συνταγές::
* Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών::
* Παράδειγμα από τη γραμμή εντολών::

statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

* Averages and measures of central location::
* Measures of spread::
* Statistics for relations between two inputs::
* Function details::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<3>.
* NormalDist objects::
* Examples and Recipes::

Examples and Recipes

* Classic probability problems::
* Monte Carlo inputs for simulations::
* Approximating binomial distributions::
* Naive bayesian classifier::

Functional Programming Modules

* itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping::
* functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects::
* operator — Standard operators as functions::

itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

* Itertool Functions::
* Itertools Recipes::

functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects

* partial Objects::

operator — Standard operators as functions

* Mapping Operators to Functions::
* In-place Operators::

File and Directory Access

* pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths::
* os.path — Common pathname manipulations: os path — Common pathname manipulations.
* stat — Interpreting stat() results: stat — Interpreting stat results.
* filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons::
* tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories::
* glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion::
* fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching::
* linecache — Random access to text lines::
* shutil — High-level file operations::

pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

* Basic use::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<4>.
* Pure paths::
* Concrete paths::
* Pattern language::
* Comparison to the glob module::
* Comparison to the os and os.path modules: Comparison to the os and os path modules.
* Protocols::

Pure paths

* General properties::
* Operators::
* Accessing individual parts::
* Methods and properties::

Concrete paths

* Parsing and generating URIs::
* Expanding and resolving paths::
* Querying file type and status::
* Reading and writing files::
* Reading directories::
* Creating files and directories::
* Copying, moving and deleting: Copying moving and deleting.
* Permissions and ownership::

Comparison to the os and os.path modules

* Corresponding tools::

filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons

* The dircmp class::

tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories

* Examples: Examples<3>.
* Deprecated functions and variables::

glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion

* Examples: Examples<4>.

shutil — High-level file operations

* Directory and files operations::
* Archiving operations::
* Querying the size of the output terminal::

Directory and files operations

* Platform-dependent efficient copy operations::
* copytree example::
* rmtree example::

Archiving operations

* Archiving example::
* Archiving example with base_dir::

Data Persistence

* pickle — Python object serialization::
* copyreg — Register pickle support functions::
* shelve — Python object persistence::
* marshal — Internal Python object serialization::
* dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases»::
* sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.

pickle — Python object serialization

* Relationship to other Python modules::
* Data stream format::
* Module Interface::
* What can be pickled and unpickled?::
* Pickling Class Instances::
* Custom Reduction for Types, Functions, and Other Objects: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects.
* Out-of-band Buffers::
* Restricting Globals::
* Performance: Performance<2>.
* Examples: Examples<5>.
* Command-line interface::

Relationship to other Python modules

* Comparison with marshal::
* Comparison with json::

Pickling Class Instances

* Persistence of External Objects::
* Dispatch Tables::
* Handling Stateful Objects::

Out-of-band Buffers

* Provider API::
* Consumer API::
* Example: Example<4>.

copyreg — Register pickle support functions

* Example: Example<5>.

shelve — Python object persistence

* Restrictions::
* Example: Example<6>.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<5>.

dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases»

* dbm.sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm: dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm.
* dbm.gnu — GNU database manager: dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
* dbm.ndbm — New Database Manager: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
* dbm.dumb — Portable DBM implementation: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.

sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases

* Tutorial::
* Reference::
* How-to guides::
* Explanation::

Reference

* Module functions::
* Module constants::
* Connection objects::
* Cursor objects::
* Row objects::
* Blob objects::
* PrepareProtocol objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<6>.
* SQLite and Python types::
* Default adapters and converters (deprecated): Default adapters and converters deprecated.
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<2>.

How-to guides

* How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries::
* How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values::
* How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types::
* Adapter and converter recipes::
* How to use connection shortcut methods::
* How to use the connection context manager::
* How to work with SQLite URIs::
* How to create and use row factories::
* How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings::

How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

* How to write adaptable objects::
* How to register adapter callables::

Explanation

* Transaction control::

Transaction control

* Transaction control via the autocommit attribute::
* Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute::

Data Compression and Archiving

* The compression package::
* compression.zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format.
* zlib — Compression compatible with gzip::
* gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip::
* bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression::
* lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm::
* zipfile — Work with ZIP archives::
* tarfile — Read and write tar archive files::

compression.zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format

* Exceptions: Exceptions<7>.
* Reading and writing compressed files::
* Compressing and decompressing data in memory::
* Zstandard dictionaries::
* Advanced parameter control::
* Miscellaneous::
* Examples: Examples<6>.

gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip

* Παραδείγματα χρήσης::
* Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών::

Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών

* Επιλογές γραμμής εντολών::

bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression

* (De)compression of files: De compression of files.
* Incremental (de)compression: Incremental de compression.
* One-shot (de)compression: One-shot de compression.
* Examples of usage::

lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

* Reading and writing compressed files: Reading and writing compressed files<2>.
* Compressing and decompressing data in memory: Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>.
* Miscellaneous: Miscellaneous<2>.
* Specifying custom filter chains::
* Examples: Examples<7>.

zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

* ZipFile objects::
* Path objects::
* PyZipFile objects::
* ZipInfo objects::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<3>.
* Decompression pitfalls::

Command-line interface

* Command-line options::

Decompression pitfalls

* From file itself::
* File system limitations::
* Resources limitations::
* Interruption::
* Default behaviors of extraction::

tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

* TarFile Objects::
* TarInfo Objects::
* Extraction filters::
* Command-Line Interface::
* Examples: Examples<8>.
* Supported tar formats::
* Unicode issues::

Extraction filters

* Default named filters::
* Filter errors::
* Hints for further verification::
* Supporting older Python versions::
* Stateful extraction filter example::

Command-Line Interface

* Command-line options: Command-line options<2>.

Examples

* Reading examples::
* Writing examples::

File Formats

* csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV::
* configparser — Configuration file parser::
* tomllib — Parse TOML files::
* netrc — netrc file processing::
* plistlib — Generate and parse Apple .plist files: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.

csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV

* Περιεχόμενα του Module::
* Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης::
* Αντικείμενα Αναγνώστη::
* Αντικείμενα Εγγραφέα::
* Παραδείγματα: Παραδείγματα<3>.

configparser — Configuration file parser

* Quick Start::
* Supported Datatypes::
* Fallback Values::
* Supported INI File Structure::
* Unnamed Sections::
* Interpolation of values::
* Mapping Protocol Access::
* Customizing Parser Behaviour::
* Legacy API Examples::
* ConfigParser Objects::
* RawConfigParser Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<8>.

tomllib — Parse TOML files

* Examples: Examples<9>.
* Conversion Table::

netrc — netrc file processing

* netrc Objects::

plistlib — Generate and parse Apple .plist files

* Examples: Examples<10>.

Cryptographic Services

* hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests::
* hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication::
* secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets::

hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

* Hash algorithms::
* Usage::
* Constructors::
* Attributes::
* Hash Objects::
* SHAKE variable length digests::
* File hashing::
* Key derivation::
* BLAKE2::

BLAKE2

* Creating hash objects::
* Constants: Constants<5>.
* Examples: Examples<11>.
* Credits::

Examples

* Simple hashing::
* Using different digest sizes::
* Keyed hashing::
* Randomized hashing::
* Personalization::
* Tree mode::

secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

* Random numbers::
* Generating tokens::
* Other functions::
* Recipes and best practices::

Generating tokens

* How many bytes should tokens use?::

Generic Operating System Services

* os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces::
* io — Core tools for working with streams::
* time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου::
* logging — Logging facility for Python::
* logging.config — Logging configuration: logging config — Logging configuration.
* logging.handlers — Logging handlers: logging handlers — Logging handlers.
* platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας::
* errno — Standard errno system symbols::
* ctypes — A foreign function library for Python::

os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

* File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables.
* Python UTF-8 Mode::
* Process Parameters::
* File Object Creation::
* File Descriptor Operations::
* Files and Directories::
* Process Management::
* Interface to the scheduler::
* Miscellaneous System Information::
* Random numbers: Random numbers<2>.

File Descriptor Operations

* Querying the size of a terminal::
* Inheritance of File Descriptors::

Files and Directories

* Timer File Descriptors::
* Linux extended attributes::

io — Core tools for working with streams

* Overview: Overview<2>.
* Text Encoding::
* High-level Module Interface::
* Class hierarchy::
* Static Typing::
* Performance: Performance<3>.

Overview

* Text I/O::
* Binary I/O::
* Raw I/O::

Text Encoding

* Opt-in EncodingWarning::

Class hierarchy

* I/O Base Classes::
* Raw File I/O::
* Buffered Streams::
* Text I/O: Text I/O<2>.

Performance

* Binary I/O: Binary I/O<2>.
* Text I/O: Text I/O<3>.
* Multi-threading: Multi-threading<3>.
* Reentrancy::

time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου

* Συναρτήσεις: Συναρτήσεις<2>.
* Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού::
* Σταθερές ζώνης ώρας::

logging — Logging facility for Python

* Logger Objects::
* Logging Levels::
* Handler Objects::
* Formatter Objects::
* Filter Objects::
* LogRecord Objects::
* LogRecord attributes::
* LoggerAdapter Objects::
* Thread Safety::
* Module-Level Functions::
* Module-Level Attributes::
* Integration with the warnings module::

logging.config — Logging configuration

* Configuration functions::
* Security considerations::
* Configuration dictionary schema::
* Configuration file format::

Configuration dictionary schema

* Dictionary Schema Details::
* Incremental Configuration::
* Object connections::
* User-defined objects::
* Handler configuration order::
* Access to external objects::
* Access to internal objects::
* Import resolution and custom importers::
* Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener::

logging.handlers — Logging handlers

* StreamHandler::
* FileHandler::
* NullHandler::
* WatchedFileHandler::
* BaseRotatingHandler::
* RotatingFileHandler::
* TimedRotatingFileHandler::
* SocketHandler::
* DatagramHandler::
* SysLogHandler::
* NTEventLogHandler::
* SMTPHandler::
* MemoryHandler::
* HTTPHandler::
* QueueHandler::
* QueueListener::

platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας

* Cross Platform::
* Πλατφόρμα Windows::
* Πλατφόρμα macOS::
* Πλατφόρμα iOS::
* Πλατφόρμες Unix::
* Πλατφόρμες Linux::
* Πλατφόρμα Android::
* Χρήση από γραμμή εντολών::

ctypes — A foreign function library for Python

* ctypes tutorial::
* ctypes reference::

ctypes tutorial

* Loading dynamic link libraries::
* Accessing functions from loaded dlls::
* Calling functions::
* Fundamental data types::
* Calling functions, continued: Calling functions continued.
* Calling variadic functions::
* Calling functions with your own custom data types::
* Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes): Specifying the required argument types function prototypes.
* Return types::
* Passing pointers (or; passing parameters by reference): Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference.
* Structures and unions::
* Structure/union layout, alignment and byte order: Structure/union layout alignment and byte order.
* Bit fields in structures and unions::
* Arrays::
* Pointers::
* Thread safety without the GIL::
* Type conversions::
* Incomplete Types::
* Callback functions::
* Accessing values exported from dlls::
* Surprises::
* Variable-sized data types::

ctypes reference

* Loading shared libraries::
* Finding shared libraries::
* Listing loaded shared libraries::
* Foreign functions::
* Function prototypes::
* Utility functions::
* Data types: Data types<2>.
* Fundamental data types: Fundamental data types<2>.
* Structured data types::
* Arrays and pointers::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<9>.

Command-line interface libraries

* argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands.
* optparse — Parser for command line options::
* getpass — Portable password input::
* fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams::
* curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays::
* curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs.
* curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
* curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses.
* cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters::

argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands

* ArgumentParser objects::
* The add_argument() method: The add_argument method.
* The parse_args() method: The parse_args method.
* Other utilities::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<10>.

ArgumentParser objects

* prog::
* usage::
* description::
* epilog::
* parents::
* formatter_class::
* prefix_chars::
* fromfile_prefix_chars::
* argument_default::
* allow_abbrev::
* conflict_handler::
* add_help::
* exit_on_error::
* suggest_on_error::
* color::

The add_argument() method

* name or flags::
* action::
* nargs::
* const::
* default::
* type::
* choices::
* required::
* help::
* metavar::
* dest::
* deprecated::
* Action classes::

The parse_args() method

* Option value syntax::
* Invalid arguments::
* Arguments containing -::
* Argument abbreviations (prefix matching): Argument abbreviations prefix matching.
* Beyond sys.argv: Beyond sys argv.
* The Namespace object::

Other utilities

* Subcommands::
* FileType objects::
* Argument groups::
* Mutual exclusion::
* Parser defaults::
* Printing help::
* Partial parsing::
* Customizing file parsing::
* Exiting methods::
* Intermixed parsing::
* Registering custom types or actions::

Exceptions

* Argparse Tutorial::
* Migrating optparse code to argparse::

Argparse Tutorial

* Concepts::
* The basics::
* Introducing Positional arguments::
* Introducing Optional arguments::
* Combining Positional and Optional arguments::
* Getting a little more advanced::
* How to translate the argparse output::
* Custom type converters::
* Conclusion::

Introducing Optional arguments

* Short options::

Getting a little more advanced

* Specifying ambiguous arguments::
* Conflicting options::

optparse — Parser for command line options

* Choosing an argument parsing library::
* Introduction: Introduction<5>.
* Background::
* Tutorial: Tutorial<2>.
* Reference Guide::
* Option Callbacks::
* Extending optparse::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<11>.

Background

* Terminology::
* What are options for?::
* What are positional arguments for?::

Tutorial

* Understanding option actions::
* The store action::
* Handling boolean (flag) options: Handling boolean flag options.
* Other actions::
* Default values::
* Generating help::
* Printing a version string::
* How optparse handles errors::
* Putting it all together::

Generating help

* Grouping Options::

Reference Guide

* Creating the parser::
* Populating the parser::
* Defining options::
* Option attributes::
* Standard option actions::
* Standard option types::
* Parsing arguments::
* Querying and manipulating your option parser::
* Conflicts between options::
* Cleanup::
* Other methods::

Option Callbacks

* Defining a callback option::
* How callbacks are called::
* Raising errors in a callback::
* Callback example 1; trivial callback: Callback example 1 trivial callback.
* Callback example 2; check option order: Callback example 2 check option order.
* Callback example 3; check option order (generalized): Callback example 3 check option order generalized.
* Callback example 4; check arbitrary condition: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition.
* Callback example 5; fixed arguments: Callback example 5 fixed arguments.
* Callback example 6; variable arguments: Callback example 6 variable arguments.

Extending optparse

* Adding new types::
* Adding new actions::

curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays

* Functions: Functions<4>.
* Window Objects::
* Constants: Constants<6>.

curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs

* Textbox objects::

curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses

* Functions: Functions<5>.
* Panel Objects::

cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters

* Cmd Objects::
* Cmd Example::

Concurrent Execution

* threading — Thread-based parallelism::
* multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism::
* multiprocessing.shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
* The concurrent package::
* concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks.
* concurrent.interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process.
* subprocess — Subprocess management::
* sched — Event scheduler::
* queue — A synchronized queue class::
* contextvars — Context Variables::
* _thread — Low-level threading API::

threading — Thread-based parallelism

* Introduction: Introduction<6>.
* GIL and performance considerations::
* Reference: Reference<2>.
* Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement.
* Iterator synchronization::

Reference

* Thread-local data::
* Thread objects::
* Lock objects::
* RLock objects::
* Condition objects::
* Semaphore objects::
* Semaphore example::
* Event objects::
* Timer objects::
* Barrier objects::

multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

* Introduction: Introduction<7>.
* Reference: Reference<3>.
* Programming guidelines::
* Examples: Examples<12>.

Introduction

* The Process class::
* Contexts and start methods::
* Exchanging objects between processes::
* Synchronization between processes::
* Sharing state between processes::
* Using a pool of workers::

Reference

* Global start method::
* Process and exceptions::
* Pipes and Queues::
* Miscellaneous: Miscellaneous<3>.
* Connection Objects::
* Synchronization primitives::
* Shared ctypes Objects::
* Managers::
* Proxy Objects::
* Process Pools::
* Listeners and Clients::
* Authentication keys::
* Logging: Logging<2>.
* The multiprocessing.dummy module: The multiprocessing dummy module.

Shared ctypes Objects

* The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module: The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.

Managers

* Customized managers::
* Using a remote manager::

Proxy Objects

* Cleanup: Cleanup<2>.

Listeners and Clients

* Address Formats::

Programming guidelines

* All start methods::
* The spawn and forkserver start methods::

concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks

* Executor Objects::
* ThreadPoolExecutor::
* InterpreterPoolExecutor::
* ProcessPoolExecutor::
* Future Objects::
* Module Functions::
* Exception classes::

ThreadPoolExecutor

* ThreadPoolExecutor Example::

ProcessPoolExecutor

* ProcessPoolExecutor Example::

concurrent.interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process

* Key details::
* Introduction: Introduction<8>.
* Reference: Reference<4>.
* Basic usage::

Introduction

* Multiple Interpreters and Isolation::
* Running in an Interpreter::
* Concurrency and Parallelism::
* Communication Between Interpreters::
* «Sharing» Objects::

Reference

* Interpreter objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<12>.
* Communicating Between Interpreters::

subprocess — Subprocess management

* Using the subprocess Module::
* Security Considerations::
* Popen Objects::
* Windows Popen Helpers::
* Older high-level API::
* Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module::
* Legacy Shell Invocation Functions::
* Notes: Notes<2>.

Using the subprocess Module

* Frequently Used Arguments::
* Popen Constructor::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<13>.

Windows Popen Helpers

* Windows Constants::

Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

* Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution::
* Replacing shell pipeline::
* Replacing os.system(): Replacing os system.
* Replacing the os.spawn family: Replacing the os spawn family.
* Replacing os.popen(): Replacing os popen.

Notes

* Timeout Behavior::
* Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows::
* Disable use of posix_spawn(): Disable use of posix_spawn.

sched — Event scheduler

* Scheduler Objects::

queue — A synchronized queue class

* Queue Objects::
* SimpleQueue Objects::

Queue Objects

* Waiting for task completion::
* Terminating queues::

contextvars — Context Variables

* Context Variables::
* Manual Context Management::
* asyncio support::

Networking and Interprocess Communication

* asyncio — Asynchronous I/O::
* socket — Low-level networking interface::
* ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects::
* select — Waiting for I/O completion::
* selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing::
* signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events::
* mmap — Memory-mapped file support::

asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

* Runners::
* Coroutines and tasks::
* Streams::
* Synchronization Primitives::
* Subprocesses::
* Ουρές::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<14>.
* Call Graph Introspection::
* Event loop::
* Futures::
* Transports and Protocols::
* Policies::
* Platform Support::
* Extending::
* High-level API Index::
* Low-level API Index::
* Developing with asyncio::

Runners

* Running an asyncio Program::
* Runner context manager::
* Handling Keyboard Interruption::

Coroutines and tasks

* Coroutines: Coroutines<3>.
* Awaitables::
* Creating tasks::
* Task cancellation::
* Task groups::
* Sleeping::
* Running tasks concurrently::
* Eager task factory::
* Shielding from cancellation::
* Timeouts::
* Waiting primitives::
* Running in threads::
* Scheduling from other threads::
* Introspection::
* Task object::

Streams

* StreamReader::
* StreamWriter::
* Examples: Examples<13>.

Examples

* TCP echo client using streams::
* TCP echo server using streams::
* Get HTTP headers::
* Register an open socket to wait for data using streams::

Synchronization Primitives

* Lock::
* Event::
* Condition::
* Semaphore::
* BoundedSemaphore::
* Barrier::

Subprocesses

* Creating Subprocesses::
* Constants: Constants<7>.
* Interacting with Subprocesses::

Interacting with Subprocesses

* Subprocess and Threads::
* Examples: Examples<14>.

Ουρές

* Ουρά::
* Σειρά Προτεραιότητας::
* Ουρά LIFO::
* Εξαιρέσεις: Εξαιρέσεις<2>.
* Παραδείγματα: Παραδείγματα<4>.

Call Graph Introspection

* Low level utility functions::

Event loop

* Event loop methods::
* Callback handles::
* Server objects::
* Event loop implementations::
* Examples: Examples<15>.

Event loop methods

* Running and stopping the loop::
* Scheduling callbacks::
* Scheduling delayed callbacks::
* Creating futures and tasks::
* Opening network connections::
* Creating network servers::
* Transferring files::
* TLS upgrade::
* Watching file descriptors::
* Working with socket objects directly::
* DNS::
* Working with pipes::
* Unix signals::
* Executing code in thread or process pools::
* Error handling API::
* Enabling debug mode::
* Running subprocesses::

Examples

* Hello World with call_soon(): Hello World with call_soon.
* Display the current date with call_later(): Display the current date with call_later.
* Watch a file descriptor for read events::
* Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM::

Futures

* Future Functions::
* Future Object::

Transports and Protocols

* Transports::
* Protocols: Protocols<2>.
* Examples: Examples<16>.

Transports

* Transports Hierarchy::
* Base Transport::
* Read-only Transports::
* Write-only Transports::
* Datagram Transports::
* Subprocess Transports::

Protocols

* Base Protocols::
* Base Protocol::
* Streaming Protocols::
* Buffered Streaming Protocols::
* Datagram Protocols::
* Subprocess Protocols::

Examples

* TCP Echo Server::
* TCP Echo Client::
* UDP Echo Server::
* UDP Echo Client::
* Connecting Existing Sockets::
* loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol.

Policies

* Getting and Setting the Policy::
* Policy Objects::
* Custom Policies::

Platform Support

* All Platforms::
* Windows: Windows<83>.
* macOS: macOS<53>.

Windows

* Subprocess Support on Windows::

Extending

* Writing a Custom Event Loop::
* Future and Task private constructors::
* Task lifetime support::

High-level API Index

* Tasks::
* Queues::
* Subprocesses: Subprocesses<2>.
* Streams: Streams<2>.
* Synchronization::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<15>.

Low-level API Index

* Obtaining the Event Loop::
* Event Loop Methods::
* Transports: Transports<2>.
* Protocols: Protocols<3>.
* Event Loop Policies::

Developing with asyncio

* Debug Mode::
* Concurrency and Multithreading::
* Running Blocking Code::
* Logging: Logging<3>.
* Detect never-awaited coroutines::
* Detect never-retrieved exceptions::
* Asynchronous generators best practices::

Asynchronous generators best practices

* Close asynchronous generators explicitly::
* Create asynchronous generators only when the event loop is running::
* Avoid concurrent iteration and closure of the same generator::

socket — Low-level networking interface

* Socket families::
* Module contents: Module contents<3>.
* Socket Objects::
* Notes on socket timeouts::
* Example: Example<7>.

Module contents

* Exceptions: Exceptions<16>.
* Constants: Constants<8>.
* Functions: Functions<6>.

Functions

* Creating sockets::
* Other functions: Other functions<2>.

Notes on socket timeouts

* Timeouts and the connect method::
* Timeouts and the accept method::

ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

* Functions, constants, and exceptions: Functions constants and exceptions.
* SSL sockets::
* SSL contexts::
* Certificates::
* Examples: Examples<17>.
* Notes on non-blocking sockets::
* Memory BIO support::
* SSL session::
* Security considerations: Security considerations<2>.
* TLS 1.3: TLS 1 3.

Functions, constants, and exceptions

* Socket creation::
* Context creation::
* Signature algorithms::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<17>.
* Random generation::
* Certificate handling::
* Constants: Constants<9>.

Certificates

* Certificate chains::
* CA certificates::
* Combined key and certificate::
* Self-signed certificates::

Examples

* Testing for SSL support::
* Client-side operation::
* Server-side operation::

Security considerations

* Best defaults::
* Manual settings::
* Multi-processing::

Manual settings

* Verifying certificates::
* Protocol versions::
* Cipher selection::

select — Waiting for I/O completion

* /dev/poll Polling Objects::
* Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
* Polling Objects::
* Kqueue Objects::
* Kevent Objects::

selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing

* Introduction: Introduction<9>.
* Classes::
* Examples: Examples<18>.

signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events

* General rules::
* Module contents: Module contents<4>.
* Examples: Examples<19>.
* Note on SIGPIPE::
* Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions::

General rules

* Execution of Python signal handlers::
* Signals and threads::

mmap — Memory-mapped file support

* MADV_* Constants::
* MAP_* Constants::
* MS_* Constants::

Internet Data Handling

* email — An email and MIME handling package::
* json — JSON encoder and decoder::
* mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats::
* mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types::
* base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
* binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII::
* quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data::

email — An email and MIME handling package

* email.message; Representing an email message: email message Representing an email message.
* email.parser; Parsing email messages: email parser Parsing email messages.
* email.generator; Generating MIME documents: email generator Generating MIME documents.
* email.policy; Policy Objects: email policy Policy Objects.
* email.errors; Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων: email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
* email.headerregistry; Custom Header Objects: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
* email.contentmanager; Managing MIME Content: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
* email; Examples: email Examples.
* email.message.Message; Representing an email message using the compat32 API: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
* email.mime; Creating email and MIME objects from scratch: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
* email.header; Internationalized headers: email header Internationalized headers.
* email.charset; Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων: email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
* email.encoders; Encoders: email encoders Encoders.
* email.utils; Miscellaneous utilities: email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
* email.iterators; Iterators: email iterators Iterators.

email.parser: Parsing email messages

* FeedParser API::
* Parser API::
* Additional notes::

email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content

* Content Manager Instances::

json — JSON encoder and decoder

* Basic Usage::
* Encoders and Decoders::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<18>.
* Standard Compliance and Interoperability::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<4>.

Standard Compliance and Interoperability

* Character Encodings::
* Infinite and NaN Number Values::
* Repeated Names Within an Object::
* Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values.
* Implementation Limitations::

Command-line interface

* Command-line options: Command-line options<3>.

mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

* Mailbox objects::
* Message objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<19>.
* Examples: Examples<20>.

Mailbox objects

* Maildir objects::
* mbox objects::
* MH objects::
* Babyl objects::
* MMDF objects::

Message objects

* MaildirMessage objects::
* mboxMessage objects::
* MHMessage objects::
* BabylMessage objects::
* MMDFMessage objects::

mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types

* MimeTypes objects::
* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<2>.
* Command-line example::

base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings

* RFC 4648 Encodings::
* Base85 Encodings::
* Legacy Interface::
* Security Considerations: Security Considerations<2>.

Structured Markup Processing Tools

* html — HyperText Markup Language support::
* html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
* html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
* XML Processing Modules::
* xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API.
* xml.dom — The Document Object Model API: xml dom — The Document Object Model API.
* xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation.
* xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
* xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
* xml.sax.handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
* xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
* xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
* xml.parsers.expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat: xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat.

html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser

* Example HTML Parser Application::
* HTMLParser Methods::
* Examples: Examples<21>.

XML Processing Modules

* XML security::

xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API

* Tutorial: Tutorial<3>.
* XPath support::
* Reference: Reference<5>.
* XInclude support::
* Reference: Reference<6>.

Tutorial

* XML tree and elements::
* Parsing XML::
* Pull API for non-blocking parsing::
* Finding interesting elements::
* Modifying an XML File::
* Building XML documents::
* Parsing XML with Namespaces::

XPath support

* Example: Example<8>.
* Supported XPath syntax::

Reference

* Functions: Functions<7>.

XInclude support

* Example: Example<9>.

Reference

* Functions: Functions<8>.
* Element Objects::
* ElementTree Objects::
* QName Objects::
* TreeBuilder Objects::
* XMLParser Objects::
* XMLPullParser Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<20>.

xml.dom — The Document Object Model API

* Module Contents::
* Objects in the DOM::
* Conformance::

Objects in the DOM

* DOMImplementation Objects::
* Node Objects::
* NodeList Objects::
* DocumentType Objects::
* Document Objects::
* Element Objects: Element Objects<2>.
* Attr Objects::
* NamedNodeMap Objects::
* Comment Objects::
* Text and CDATASection Objects::
* ProcessingInstruction Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<21>.

Conformance

* Type Mapping::
* Accessor Methods::

xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation

* DOM Objects::
* DOM Example::
* minidom and the DOM standard::

xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees

* DOMEventStream Objects::

xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers

* SAXException Objects::

xml.sax.handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX

* ContentHandler Αντικείμενα::
* DTDHandler Αντικείμενα::
* EntityResolver Αντικείμενα::
* ErrorHandler Αντικείμενα::
* LexicalHandler Αντικείμενα::

xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

* XMLReader Objects::
* IncrementalParser Objects::
* Locator Objects::
* InputSource Objects::
* The Attributes Interface::
* The AttributesNS Interface::

xml.parsers.expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat

* Αντικείμενα XMLParser::
* Εξαιρέσεις ExpatError::
* Παράδειγμα::
* Περιγραφές Μοντέλου Περιεχομένου::
* Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat::

Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

* webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller::
* wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation::
* urllib — URL handling modules::
* urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
* urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
* urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
* urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
* http — HTTP modules::
* http.client — HTTP protocol client: http client — HTTP protocol client.
* ftplib — FTP protocol client::
* poplib — POP3 protocol client::
* imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client::
* smtplib — SMTP protocol client::
* uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562::
* socketserver — A framework for network servers::
* http.server — HTTP servers: http server — HTTP servers.
* http.cookies — HTTP state management: http cookies — HTTP state management.
* http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
* xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules::
* xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access.
* xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers.
* ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library::

webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<5>.
* Browser controller objects::

wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

* wsgiref.util – WSGI environment utilities: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
* wsgiref.headers – WSGI response header tools: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
* wsgiref.simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
* wsgiref.validate — WSGI conformance checker: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
* wsgiref.handlers – server/gateway base classes: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
* wsgiref.types – WSGI types for static type checking: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
* Examples: Examples<22>.

urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs

* Request Objects::
* OpenerDirector Objects::
* BaseHandler Objects::
* HTTPRedirectHandler Objects::
* HTTPCookieProcessor Objects::
* ProxyHandler Objects::
* HTTPPasswordMgr Objects::
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects::
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPHandler Objects::
* HTTPSHandler Objects::
* FileHandler Objects::
* DataHandler Objects::
* FTPHandler Objects::
* CacheFTPHandler Objects::
* UnknownHandler Objects::
* HTTPErrorProcessor Objects::
* Examples: Examples<23>.
* Legacy interface::
* urllib.request Restrictions: urllib request Restrictions.

urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components

* URL Parsing::
* URL parsing security::
* Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes::
* Structured Parse Results::
* URL Quoting::

http — HTTP modules

* HTTP status codes::
* HTTP status category::
* HTTP methods::

http.client — HTTP protocol client

* HTTPConnection Objects::
* HTTPResponse Objects::
* Examples: Examples<24>.
* HTTPMessage Objects::

ftplib — FTP protocol client

* Reference: Reference<7>.

Reference

* FTP objects::
* FTP_TLS objects::
* Module variables::

poplib — POP3 protocol client

* POP3 Objects::
* POP3 Example::

imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client

* IMAP4 Objects::
* IMAP4 Example::

smtplib — SMTP protocol client

* SMTP Objects::
* SMTP Example::

uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562

* Command-Line Usage::
* Example: Example<10>.
* Command-Line Example::

socketserver — A framework for network servers

* Server Creation Notes::
* Server Objects::
* Request Handler Objects::
* Examples: Examples<25>.

Examples

* socketserver.TCPServer Example: socketserver TCPServer Example.
* socketserver.UDPServer Example: socketserver UDPServer Example.
* Asynchronous Mixins::

http.server — HTTP servers

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<6>.
* Security considerations: Security considerations<3>.

http.cookies — HTTP state management

* Cookie Objects::
* Morsel Objects::
* Example: Example<11>.

http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

* CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects::
* FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers::
* CookiePolicy Objects::
* DefaultCookiePolicy Objects::
* Cookie Objects: Cookie Objects<2>.
* Examples: Examples<26>.

xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access

* ServerProxy Objects::
* DateTime Objects::
* Binary Objects::
* Fault Objects::
* ProtocolError Objects::
* MultiCall Objects::
* Convenience Functions::
* Example of Client Usage::
* Example of Client and Server Usage::

xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers

* SimpleXMLRPCServer objects::
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::
* Documenting XMLRPC server::
* DocXMLRPCServer objects::
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::

SimpleXMLRPCServer objects

* SimpleXMLRPCServer example::

ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

* Convenience factory functions::
* IP Addresses::
* IP Network definitions::
* Interface objects::
* Other Module Level Functions::
* Custom Exceptions::

IP Addresses

* Address objects::
* Conversion to Strings and Integers::
* Operators: Operators<2>.

Operators

* Comparison operators::
* Arithmetic operators::

IP Network definitions

* Prefix, net mask and host mask: Prefix net mask and host mask.
* Network objects::
* Operators: Operators<3>.

Operators

* Logical operators::
* Iteration::
* Networks as containers of addresses::

Interface objects

* Operators: Operators<4>.

Operators

* Logical operators: Logical operators<2>.

Multimedia Services

* wave — Read and write WAV files::
* colorsys — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων::

wave — Read and write WAV files

* Wave_read Objects::
* Wave_write Objects::

Internationalization

* gettext — Multilingual internationalization services::
* locale — Internationalization services::

gettext — Multilingual internationalization services

* GNU gettext API::
* Class-based API::
* Internationalizing your programs and modules::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<9>.

Class-based API

* The NullTranslations class::
* The GNUTranslations class::
* Solaris message catalog support::
* The Catalog constructor::

Internationalizing your programs and modules

* Localizing your module::
* Localizing your application::
* Changing languages on the fly::
* Deferred translations::

locale — Internationalization services

* Background, details, hints, tips and caveats: Background details hints tips and caveats.
* Locale names::
* For extension writers and programs that embed Python::
* Access to message catalogs::

Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk

* tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk::
* tkinter.colorchooser — Color choosing dialog: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog.
* tkinter.font — Tkinter font wrapper: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
* Tkinter Dialogs::
* tkinter.messagebox — Tkinter message prompts: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
* tkinter.scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget.
* tkinter.dnd — Drag and drop support: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
* tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets.
* IDLE — Python editor and shell::
* turtle — Turtle graphics::

tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

* Architecture::
* Tkinter Modules::
* Tkinter Life Preserver::
* Threading model::
* Handy Reference::
* File Handlers::

Tkinter Life Preserver

* A Hello World Program::
* Important Tk Concepts::
* Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk::
* How do I…? What option does…?::
* Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual::

Handy Reference

* Setting Options::
* The Packer::
* Packer Options::
* Coupling Widget Variables::
* The Window Manager::
* Tk Option Data Types::
* Bindings and Events::
* The index Parameter::
* Images::

Tkinter Dialogs

* tkinter.simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
* tkinter.filedialog — File selection dialogs: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs.
* tkinter.commondialog — Dialog window templates: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates.

tkinter.filedialog — File selection dialogs

* Native Load/Save Dialogs::

tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets

* Using Ttk::
* Ttk Widgets::
* Widget::
* Combobox::
* Spinbox::
* Notebook::
* Progressbar::
* Separator::
* Sizegrip::
* Treeview::
* Ttk Styling::

Widget

* Standard Options::
* Scrollable Widget Options::
* Label Options::
* Compatibility Options::
* Widget States::
* ttk.Widget: ttk Widget.

Combobox

* Options::
* Virtual events::
* ttk.Combobox: ttk Combobox.

Spinbox

* Options: Options<2>.
* Virtual events: Virtual events<2>.
* ttk.Spinbox: ttk Spinbox.

Notebook

* Options: Options<3>.
* Tab Options::
* Tab Identifiers::
* Virtual Events::
* ttk.Notebook: ttk Notebook.

Progressbar

* Options: Options<4>.
* ttk.Progressbar: ttk Progressbar.

Separator

* Options: Options<5>.

Sizegrip

* Platform-specific notes::
* Bugs::

Treeview

* Options: Options<6>.
* Item Options::
* Tag Options::
* Column Identifiers::
* Virtual Events: Virtual Events<2>.
* ttk.Treeview: ttk Treeview.

Ttk Styling

* Layouts::

IDLE — Python editor and shell

* Menus::
* Editing and Navigation::
* Startup and Code Execution::
* Help and Preferences::
* idlelib — implementation of IDLE application::

Menus

* File menu (Shell and Editor): File menu Shell and Editor.
* Edit menu (Shell and Editor): Edit menu Shell and Editor.
* Format menu (Editor window only): Format menu Editor window only.
* Run menu (Editor window only): Run menu Editor window only.
* Shell menu (Shell window only): Shell menu Shell window only.
* Debug menu (Shell window only): Debug menu Shell window only.
* Options menu (Shell and Editor): Options menu Shell and Editor.
* Window menu (Shell and Editor): Window menu Shell and Editor.
* Help menu (Shell and Editor): Help menu Shell and Editor.
* Context menus::

Editing and Navigation

* Editor windows::
* Key bindings::
* Automatic indentation::
* Search and Replace::
* Completions::
* Calltips::
* Format block::
* Code Context::
* Shell window::
* Text colors::

Startup and Code Execution

* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<3>.
* Startup failure::
* Running user code::
* User output in Shell::
* Developing tkinter applications::
* Running without a subprocess::

Help and Preferences

* Help sources::
* Setting preferences::
* IDLE on macOS::
* Extensions::

turtle — Turtle graphics

* Introduction: Introduction<10>.
* Get started::
* Tutorial: Tutorial<4>.
* How to…::
* Turtle graphics reference::
* Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions::
* Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions::
* Public classes::
* Explanation: Explanation<2>.
* Help and configuration::
* turtledemo — Demo scripts::
* Changes since Python 2.6: Changes since Python 2 6.
* Changes since Python 3.0: Changes since Python 3 0.

Tutorial

* Starting a turtle environment::
* Basic drawing::
* Making algorithmic patterns::

Basic drawing

* Pen control::
* The turtle’s position::

How to…

* Get started as quickly as possible::
* Automatically begin and end filling::
* Use the turtle module namespace::
* Use turtle graphics in a script::
* Use object-oriented turtle graphics::

Turtle graphics reference

* Turtle methods::
* Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen::

Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

* Turtle motion::
* Tell Turtle’s state::
* Settings for measurement::
* Pen control: Pen control<2>.
* Turtle state::
* Using events::
* Special Turtle methods::
* Compound shapes::

Pen control

* Drawing state::
* Color control::
* Filling::
* More drawing control::

Turtle state

* Visibility::
* Appearance::

Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

* Window control::
* Animation control::
* Using screen events::
* Input methods::
* Settings and special methods::
* Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.

Help and configuration

* How to use help::
* Translation of docstrings into different languages::
* How to configure Screen and Turtles::

Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

* typing — Support for type hints::
* pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system::
* Python Development Mode::
* doctest — Test interactive Python examples::
* unittest — Unit testing framework::
* unittest.mock — mock object library: unittest mock — mock object library.
* unittest.mock — ξεκινώντας: unittest mock — ξεκινώντας.
* test — Regression tests package for Python::
* test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
* test.support.socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
* test.support.script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
* test.support.bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
* test.support.threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
* test.support.os_helper — Utilities for os tests: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
* test.support.import_helper — Utilities for import tests: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
* test.support.warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.

typing — Support for type hints

* Specification for the Python Type System::
* Type aliases::
* NewType::
* Annotating callable objects::
* Generics::
* Annotating tuples::
* The type of class objects::
* Annotating generators and coroutines::
* User-defined generic types::
* The Any type::
* Nominal vs structural subtyping::
* Module contents: Module contents<5>.
* Deprecation Timeline of Major Features::

Module contents

* Special typing primitives::
* Protocols: Protocols<4>.
* ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O::
* Functions and decorators::
* Introspection helpers::
* Constant::
* Deprecated aliases::

Special typing primitives

* Special types::
* Special forms::
* Building generic types and type aliases::
* Other special directives::

Deprecated aliases

* Aliases to built-in types::
* Aliases to types in collections::
* Aliases to other concrete types::
* Aliases to container ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to contextlib ABCs::

Python Development Mode

* Effects of the Python Development Mode::
* ResourceWarning Example::
* Bad file descriptor error example::

doctest — Test interactive Python examples

* Simple Usage; Checking Examples in Docstrings: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings.
* Simple Usage; Checking Examples in a Text File: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File.
* Command-line Usage::
* How It Works::
* Basic API::
* Unittest API::
* Advanced API::
* Debugging::
* Soapbox::

How It Works

* Which Docstrings Are Examined?::
* How are Docstring Examples Recognized?::
* What’s the Execution Context?::
* What About Exceptions?::
* Option Flags::
* Directives::
* Warnings: Warnings<2>.

Advanced API

* DocTest Objects::
* Example Objects::
* DocTestFinder objects::
* DocTestParser objects::
* TestResults objects::
* DocTestRunner objects::
* OutputChecker objects::

unittest — Unit testing framework

* Basic example::
* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<2>.
* Test Discovery::
* Organizing test code::
* Re-using old test code::
* Skipping tests and expected failures::
* Distinguishing test iterations using subtests::
* Classes and functions::
* Class and Module Fixtures::
* Signal Handling::

Command-Line Interface

* Command-line options: Command-line options<4>.

Classes and functions

* Test cases::
* Grouping tests::
* Loading and running tests::

Loading and running tests

* load_tests Protocol::

Class and Module Fixtures

* setUpClass and tearDownClass::
* setUpModule and tearDownModule::

unittest.mock — mock object library

* Quick Guide::
* The Mock Class::
* The patchers::
* MagicMock and magic method support::
* Helpers::
* Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps.

The Mock Class

* Calling::
* Deleting Attributes::
* Mock names and the name attribute::
* Attaching Mocks as Attributes::

The patchers

* patch::
* patch.object: patch object.
* patch.dict: patch dict.
* patch.multiple: patch multiple.
* patch methods; start and stop: patch methods start and stop.
* patch builtins::
* TEST_PREFIX::
* Nesting Patch Decorators::
* Where to patch::
* Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects::

MagicMock and magic method support

* Mocking Magic Methods::
* Magic Mock::

Helpers

* sentinel::
* DEFAULT::
* call::
* create_autospec::
* ANY::
* FILTER_DIR::
* mock_open::
* Autospeccing::
* Sealing mocks::

unittest.mock — ξεκινώντας

* Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης (Mock): Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock.
* Patch decorators::
* Further examples::

Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης (Mock)

* Mock patching methods::
* Mock for method calls on an object::
* Mocking classes::
* Ονομασία των προσομοιώσεών σας::
* Tracking all calls::
* Setting return values and attributes::
* Πρόκληση εξαιρέσεων με προσομοιώσεις::
* Συναρτήσεις παρενέργειας και iterables::
* Προσομοίωση ασύγχρονων επαναληπτών::
* Προσομοίωση ασύγχρονου διαχειριστή περιεχομένου::
* Creating a mock from an existing object::
* Χρήση του side_effect για επιστροφή περιεχομένου ανά αρχείο::

Further examples

* Προσομοίωση αλυσιδωτών κλήσεων::
* Μερική προσομοίωση::
* Mocking a generator method::
* Εφαρμογή της ίδιας επιδιόρθωσης σε κάθε μέθοδο δοκιμής::
* Mocking unbound methods::
* Έλεγχος πολλαπλών κλήσεων με προσομοίωση::
* Αντιμετώπιση μεταβλητών ορισμάτων::
* Nesting patches::
* Προσομοίωση ενός λεξικού με το MagicMock::
* Υποκλάσεις Mock και τα χαρακτηριστικά τους::
* Προσομοίωση εισαγωγών με το patch.dict: Προσομοίωση εισαγωγών με το patch dict.
* Παρακολούθηση της σειράς κλήσεων και λιγότερο λεκτικές δηλώσεις κλήσεων::
* Πιο σύνθετη αντιστοίχιση ορισμάτων::

test — Regression tests package for Python

* Writing Unit Tests for the test package::
* Running tests using the command-line interface::

Debugging and profiling

* Audit events table::
* bdb — Debugger framework::
* faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback::
* pdb — The Python Debugger::
* profiling — Python profilers::
* pstats — Statistics for profilers::
* timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα::
* trace — Ιχνηλάτηση ή παρακολούθηση εκτέλεσης εντολών Python::
* tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations::

faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

* Dumping the traceback::
* Dumping the C stack::
* Fault handler state::
* Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout::
* Dumping the traceback on a user signal::
* Issue with file descriptors::
* Example: Example<12>.

Dumping the C stack

* C Stack Compatibility::

pdb — The Python Debugger

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<7>.
* Debugger commands::

profiling — Python profilers

* Introduction to profiling::
* Choosing a profiler::
* Quick start::
* Understanding profile output::
* Legacy compatibility::

Choosing a profiler

* When to use statistical sampling::
* When to use deterministic tracing::

Quick start

* Statistical profiling::
* Deterministic profiling::

Legacy compatibility

* profiling.tracing — Deterministic profiler: profiling tracing — Deterministic profiler.
* profiling.sampling — Statistical profiler: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler.

profiling.tracing — Deterministic profiler

* What is deterministic profiling?::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<8>.
* Programmatic usage examples::
* Module reference::
* Using a custom timer::
* Limitations::

Programmatic usage examples

* Basic profiling::
* Using the Profile class::

profiling.sampling — Statistical profiler

* What is statistical profiling?::
* Quick examples::
* Commands::
* Sampling configuration::
* Profiling modes::
* Output formats::
* Record and replay workflow::
* Live mode::
* Async-aware profiling::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<9>.

What is statistical profiling?

* How time is estimated::
* When to use a different approach::

Commands

* The run command::
* The attach command::
* The dump command::
* The replay command::
* Profiling in production::
* Platform requirements::
* Version compatibility::

Sampling configuration

* Sampling rate and duration::
* Thread selection::
* Blocking mode::
* Special frames::
* Opcode-aware profiling::
* Real-time statistics::
* Subprocess profiling::
* Sampling efficiency::

Profiling modes

* Wall-clock mode::
* CPU mode::
* Comparing wall-clock and CPU profiles::
* GIL mode::
* Exception mode::

Output formats

* pstats format::
* Collapsed stacks format::
* Flame graph format::
* Gecko format::
* Heatmap format::
* Binary format::

Flame graph format

* Differential flame graphs::

Live mode

* Keyboard commands::

Async-aware profiling

* Async modes::
* Task markers and stack reconstruction::
* Option restrictions::

Command-line interface

* Global options::
* Dump options::
* Sampling options::
* Mode options::
* Output options::
* pstats display options::
* Run command options::

pstats — Statistics for profilers

* Reading and displaying profile data::
* The Stats class::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<10>.

Reading and displaying profile data

* Working with statistics::
* Filtering output::
* Analyzing call relationships::
* Combining multiple profiles::

timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα

* Basic examples::
* Python interface::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<11>.
* Παραδείγματα: Παραδείγματα<5>.

trace — Ιχνηλάτηση ή παρακολούθηση εκτέλεσης εντολών Python

* Οδηγίες χρήσης γραμμής εντολών::
* Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή::

Οδηγίες χρήσης γραμμής εντολών

* Κύριες επιλογές::
* Τροποποιητές::
* Φίλτρα::

tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations

* Examples: Examples<27>.
* API::

Examples

* Display the top 10::
* Compute differences::
* Get the traceback of a memory block::
* Pretty top::

Pretty top

* Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks::

API

* Functions: Functions<9>.
* DomainFilter::
* Filter::
* Frame::
* Snapshot::
* Statistic::
* StatisticDiff::
* Trace::
* Traceback::

Software Packaging and Distribution

* ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer::
* venv — Creation of virtual environments::
* zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python::

ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<12>.
* Module API::

venv — Creation of virtual environments

* Creating virtual environments::
* How venvs work::
* API: API<2>.
* An example of extending EnvBuilder::

zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python

* Βασικό Παράδειγμα::
* Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών: Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>.
* Διεπαφή Python::
* Παραδείγματα: Παραδείγματα<6>.
* Καθορισμός του Διερμηνέα::
* Δημιουργία Αυτόνομων Εφαρμογών με το zipapp::
* Η Μορφή Αρχείου Εφαρμογής Zip της Python::

Δημιουργία Αυτόνομων Εφαρμογών με το zipapp

* Προειδοποιήσεις::

Python Runtime Services

* sys — System-specific parameters and functions::
* sys.monitoring — Execution event monitoring: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring.
* sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information::
* builtins — Built-in objects::
* __main__ — Top-level code environment::
* warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων::
* dataclasses — Data Classes::
* contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts::
* abc — Abstract Base Classes::
* atexit — Exit handlers::
* traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback::
* __future__ — Future statement definitions::
* gc — Garbage Collector interface::
* inspect — Inspect live objects::
* annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations::
* site — Site-specific configuration hook::

sys.monitoring — Execution event monitoring

* Tool identifiers::
* Events::
* Turning events on and off::
* Registering callback functions::

Tool identifiers

* Registering and using tools::

Events

* Local events::
* Deprecated event::
* Ancillary events::
* Other events::
* The STOP_ITERATION event::

Turning events on and off

* Setting events globally::
* Per code object events::
* Disabling events::

Registering callback functions

* Callback function arguments::

sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

* Configuration variables::
* Installation paths::
* User scheme::
* Home scheme::
* Prefix scheme::
* Installation path functions::
* Other functions: Other functions<3>.
* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<4>.

User scheme

* posix_user::
* nt_user::
* osx_framework_user::

Home scheme

* posix_home::

Prefix scheme

* posix_prefix::
* nt::

__main__ — Top-level code environment

* __name__ == '__main__'::
* __main__.py in Python Packages: __main__ py in Python Packages.
* import __main__::

__name__ == '__main__'

* What is the «top-level code environment»?::
* Idiomatic Usage::
* Packaging Considerations::

__main__.py in Python Packages

* Idiomatic Usage: Idiomatic Usage<2>.

warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων

* Κατηγορίες Προειδοποίησης::
* Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων::
* Προσωρινή Καταστολή Προειδοποιήσεων::
* Δοκιμή Προειδοποιήσεων::
* Ενημέρωση κώδικα για νέες εκδόσεις εξαρτήσεων::
* Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες::
* Διαθέσιμοι Context Managers::
* Συγχρονισμένη ασφάλεια των Context Managers::

Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων

* Κριτήρια Καταστολής Επαναλαμβανόμενων Προειδοποιήσεων::
* Περιγραφή Φίλτρων Προειδοποιήσεων::
* Προεπιλεγμένο φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων::
* Αντικατάσταση του προεπιλεγμένου φίλτρου::

dataclasses — Data Classes

* Module contents: Module contents<6>.
* Post-init processing::
* Class variables::
* Init-only variables::
* Frozen instances::
* Inheritance::
* Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__(): Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__.
* Default factory functions::
* Mutable default values::
* Descriptor-typed fields::

contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts

* Utilities::
* Examples and Recipes: Examples and Recipes<2>.
* Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers.

Examples and Recipes

* Supporting a variable number of context managers::
* Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods::
* Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation::
* Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables::
* Using a context manager as a function decorator::

Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers

* Reentrant context managers::
* Reusable context managers::

atexit — Exit handlers

* atexit Example::

traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

* Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<2>.
* TracebackException Objects::
* StackSummary Objects::
* FrameSummary Objects::
* Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions::
* Examples of Using TracebackException::

__future__ — Future statement definitions

* Module Contents: Module Contents<2>.

inspect — Inspect live objects

* Types and members::
* Retrieving source code::
* Introspecting callables with the Signature object::
* Classes and functions: Classes and functions<2>.
* The interpreter stack::
* Fetching attributes statically::
* Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
* Code Objects Bit Flags::
* Buffer flags::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<13>.

annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations

* Annotation semantics::
* Classes: Classes<2>.
* Functions: Functions<10>.
* Recipes: Recipes<2>.
* Limitations of the STRING format::
* Limitations of the FORWARDREF format::
* Security implications of introspecting annotations::

Recipes

* Using annotations in a metaclass::
* Creating a custom callable annotate function::

site — Site-specific configuration hook

* Path extensions (.pth files): Path extensions pth files.
* Startup entry points (.start files): Startup entry points start files.
* Startup file examples::
* Migrating from import lines in .pth files to .start files: Migrating from import lines in pth files to start files.
* sitecustomize::
* usercustomize::
* Readline configuration::
* Module contents: Module contents<7>.
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<14>.

Custom Python Interpreters

* code — Interpreter base classes::
* codeop — Compile Python code::

code — Interpreter base classes

* Interactive Interpreter Objects::
* Interactive Console Objects::

Importing Modules

* zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives::
* pkgutil — Package extension utility::
* modulefinder — Find modules used by a script::
* runpy — Locating and executing Python modules::
* importlib — The implementation of import::
* importlib.resources – Ανάγνωση, άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων: importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων.
* importlib.resources.abc – Abstract base classes for resources: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
* importlib.metadata – Accessing package metadata: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata.
* The initialization of the sys.path module search path: The initialization of the sys path module search path.

zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives

* zipimporter Objects::
* Examples: Examples<28>.

modulefinder — Find modules used by a script

* Example usage of ModuleFinder::

importlib — The implementation of import

* Introduction: Introduction<11>.
* Functions: Functions<11>.
* importlib.abc – Abstract base classes related to import: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
* importlib.machinery – Importers and path hooks: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
* importlib.util – Utility code for importers: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
* Examples: Examples<29>.

Examples

* Importing programmatically::
* Checking if a module can be imported::
* Importing a source file directly::
* Implementing lazy imports::
* Setting up an importer::
* Approximating importlib.import_module(): Approximating importlib import_module.

importlib.resources – Ανάγνωση, άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων

* Λειτουργικό API::

importlib.metadata – Accessing package metadata

* Overview: Overview<3>.
* Functional API::
* Distributions::
* Distribution Discovery::
* Implementing Custom Providers::

Functional API

* Entry points::
* Distribution metadata::
* Distribution versions::
* Distribution files::
* Distribution requirements::
* Mapping import to distribution packages::

Implementing Custom Providers

* Example: Example<13>.

The initialization of the sys.path module search path

* Virtual Environments::
* _pth files::
* Embedded Python::

Python Language Services

* ast — Abstract syntax trees::
* symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables::
* token — Constants used with Python parse trees::
* keyword — Testing for Python keywords::
* tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source::
* tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation::
* pyclbr — Python module browser support::
* py_compile — Compile Python source files::
* compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries::
* dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode::
* pickletools — Tools for pickle developers::

ast — Abstract syntax trees

* Abstract grammar::
* Node classes::
* ast helpers::
* Compiler flags: Compiler flags<2>.
* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<5>.

Node classes

* Root nodes::
* Literals: Literals<2>.
* Variables::
* Expressions: Expressions<2>.
* Statements::
* Control flow::
* Pattern matching::
* Type annotations::
* Type parameters::
* Function and class definitions::
* Async and await::

Expressions

* Subscripting::
* Comprehensions::

Statements

* Imports::

symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables

* Generating Symbol Tables::
* Examining Symbol Tables::
* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<2>.

tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source

* Tokenizing input::
* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<6>.
* Examples: Examples<30>.

pyclbr — Python module browser support

* Function Objects::
* Class Objects::

py_compile — Compile Python source files

* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<3>.

compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries

* Command-line use::
* Public functions::

dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<15>.
* Bytecode analysis::
* Analysis functions::
* Python Bytecode Instructions::
* Opcode collections::

pickletools — Tools for pickle developers

* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<7>.
* Programmatic interface::

Command-line usage

* Command-line options: Command-line options<5>.

MS Windows Specific Services

* msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime::
* winreg — Windows registry access::
* winsound — Διεπαφή αναπαραγωγής ήχου για Windows::

msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

* File Operations::
* Console I/O::
* Other Functions::

winreg — Windows registry access

* Functions: Functions<12>.
* Constants: Constants<10>.
* Registry Handle Objects::

Constants

* HKEY_* Constants::
* Access Rights::
* Value Types::

Access Rights

* 64-bit Specific::

winsound — Διεπαφή αναπαραγωγής ήχου για Windows

* Functions: Functions<13>.
* Constants: Constants<11>.

Unix-specific services

* shlex — Simple lexical analysis::
* posix — The most common POSIX system calls::
* pwd — Η βάση δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης::
* grp — The group database::
* termios — POSIX style tty control::
* tty — Terminal control functions::
* pty — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού::
* fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls::
* resource — Resource usage information::
* syslog — Unix syslog library routines::

shlex — Simple lexical analysis

* shlex Objects::
* Parsing Rules::
* Improved Compatibility with Shells::

posix — The most common POSIX system calls

* Large File Support::
* Notable Module Contents::

termios — POSIX style tty control

* Example: Example<14>.

pty — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού

* Παράδειγμα: Παράδειγμα<2>.

resource — Resource usage information

* Resource Limits::
* Resource Usage::

syslog — Unix syslog library routines

* Examples: Examples<31>.

Examples

* Simple example::

Superseded modules

* getopt — C-style parser for command line options::
* profile — Pure Python profiler::

profile — Pure Python profiler

* Migration::
* profile and profiling.tracing module reference: profile and profiling tracing module reference.
* Differences from profiling.tracing: Differences from profiling tracing.
* What is deterministic profiling?: What is deterministic profiling?<2>.
* Limitations: Limitations<2>.
* Calibration::
* Using a custom timer: Using a custom timer<2>.

Removed Modules

* aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files::
* asynchat — Διαχειριστής εντολών/απαντήσεων ασύγχρονων υποδοχών::
* asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler::
* audioop — Manipulate raw audio data::
* cgi — Common Gateway Interface support::
* cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts::
* chunk — Read IFF chunked data::
* crypt — Function to check Unix passwords::
* distutils — Building and installing Python modules::
* imghdr — Determine the type of an image::
* imp — Access the import internals::
* mailcap — Mailcap file handling::
* msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files::
* nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages): nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
* nntplib — NNTP protocol client::
* ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices::
* pipes — Interface to shell pipelines::
* smtpd — SMTP Server::
* sndhdr — Determine type of sound file::
* spwd — The shadow password database::
* sunau — Read and write Sun AU files::
* telnetlib — Telnet client::
* uu — Encode and decode uuencode files::
* xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data::

Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python

* Your first C API extension module::
* Using the C API; Assorted topics: Using the C API Assorted topics.
* Defining Extension Types; Tutorial: Defining Extension Types Tutorial.
* Defining Extension Types; Assorted Topics: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics.
* Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C και C++::
* Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows::
* Embedding Python in Another Application::
* Προτεινόμενα εργαλεία τρίτων::
* C API Tutorial::
* Guides for intermediate topics::
* Ενσωμάτωση του χρόνου εκτέλεσης της CPython σε μεγαλύτερη εφαρμογή::

Your first C API extension module

* What we’ll do::
* Start with the headers::
* Running your build tool::
* Module export hook::
* The slot table::
* Exposing a function::
* Returning an integer::
* Accepting a string::
* The result::
* Appendix; Other build tools: Appendix Other build tools.

Exposing a function

* Method definitions::

Appendix: Other build tools

* Workaround for missing PyInit function::
* Compiling directly::

Compiling directly

* Linux::

Using the C API: Assorted topics

* Errors and Exceptions::
* Embedding an extension::
* Calling Python Functions from C::
* Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions::
* Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions::
* Building Arbitrary Values::
* Reference Counts::
* Writing Extensions in C++::
* Providing a C API for an Extension Module::

Reference Counts

* Reference Counting in Python::
* Ownership Rules::
* Thin Ice::
* NULL Pointers::

Defining Extension Types: Tutorial

* The Basics::
* Adding data and methods to the Basic example::
* Providing finer control over data attributes::
* Supporting cyclic garbage collection::
* Subclassing other types::

Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics

* Finalization and De-allocation::
* Object Presentation::
* Attribute Management::
* Object Comparison::
* Abstract Protocol Support::
* Weak Reference Support::
* More Suggestions::

Attribute Management

* Generic Attribute Management::
* Type-specific Attribute Management::

Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C και C++

* Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C και C++ με το setuptools::

Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows

* A Cookbook Approach::
* Differences Between Unix and Windows::
* Using DLLs in Practice::

Embedding Python in Another Application

* Very High Level Embedding::
* Beyond Very High Level Embedding; An overview: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview.
* Pure Embedding::
* Extending Embedded Python::
* Embedding Python in C++::
* Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems::

Python/C API reference manual

* Introduction: Introduction<12>.
* C API and ABI Stability::
* The Very High Level Layer::
* Reference Counting::
* Exception Handling::
* Defining extension modules::
* Definition slots::
* Utilities: Utilities<2>.
* Abstract Objects Layer::
* Concrete Objects Layer::
* Interpreter initialization and finalization::
* Thread states and the global interpreter lock::
* Asynchronous notifications::
* Operating system thread APIs::
* Synchronization primitives: Synchronization primitives<2>.
* Thread-local storage support::
* Multiple interpreters in a Python process::
* Profiling and tracing::
* Reference tracing::
* Python Initialization Configuration::
* Memory Management::
* Object Implementation Support::
* API and ABI Versioning::
* Monitoring C API::
* Generating Execution Events::

Introduction

* Language version compatibility::
* Coding standards::
* Include Files::
* Useful macros::
* Objects, Types and Reference Counts: Objects Types and Reference Counts.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<22>.
* Embedding Python::
* Debugging Builds::
* Recommended third party tools::

Include Files

* System includes::

Useful macros

* Docstring macros::
* General utility macros::
* Declaration utilities::
* Outdated macros::

General utility macros

* Numeric utilities::
* Assertion utilities::
* Type size utilities::
* Macro definition utilities::

Objects, Types and Reference Counts

* Reference Counts: Reference Counts<2>.
* Types: Types<2>.

Reference Counts

* Reference Count Details::

C API and ABI Stability

* Unstable C API::
* Stable Application Binary Interfaces::
* Platform Considerations::
* ABI Checking::
* Contents of Limited API::

Stable Application Binary Interfaces

* Compiling for Stable ABI::
* Stable ABI Scope and Performance::
* Stable ABI Caveats::

The Very High Level Layer

* Available start symbols::
* Stack Effects::

Exception Handling

* Printing and clearing::
* Raising exceptions::
* Issuing warnings::
* Querying the error indicator::
* Signal Handling: Signal Handling<2>.
* Exception Classes::
* Exception Objects::
* Unicode Exception Objects::
* Recursion Control::
* Exception and warning types::
* Tracebacks::

Exception and warning types

* Exception types::
* OSError aliases::
* Warning types::

Defining extension modules

* Extension export hook::
* Multi-phase initialization::
* Multiple module instances::
* PyInit function::

PyInit function

* Legacy single-phase initialization::

Definition slots

* Convenience macros::
* Common slot IDs::

Utilities

* Operating System Utilities::
* System Functions::
* Process Control::
* Importing Modules: Importing Modules<2>.
* Data marshalling support::
* Parsing arguments and building values::
* String conversion and formatting::
* Character classification and conversion::
* PyHash API::
* Reflection::
* Codec registry and support functions::
* PyTime C API::
* Support for Perf Maps::

Parsing arguments and building values

* Parsing arguments: Parsing arguments<2>.
* Building values::

Parsing arguments

* Strings and buffers::
* Numbers::
* Other objects::
* API Functions::

Codec registry and support functions

* Codec lookup API::
* Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers::
* Codec utility variables::

PyTime C API

* Types: Types<3>.
* Clock Functions::
* Raw Clock Functions::
* Conversion functions::

Abstract Objects Layer

* Object Protocol::
* Call Protocol::
* Number Protocol::
* Sequence Protocol::
* Mapping Protocol::
* Iterator Protocol::
* Buffer Protocol::

Call Protocol

* The tp_call Protocol::
* The Vectorcall Protocol::
* Object Calling API::
* Call Support API::

The Vectorcall Protocol

* Recursion Control: Recursion Control<2>.
* Vectorcall Support API::

Buffer Protocol

* Buffer structure::
* Buffer request types::
* Complex arrays::
* Buffer-related functions::

Buffer request types

* request-independent fields::
* readonly, format: readonly format.
* shape, strides, suboffsets: shape strides suboffsets.
* contiguity requests::
* compound requests::

Complex arrays

* NumPy-style; shape and strides: NumPy-style shape and strides.
* PIL-style; shape, strides and suboffsets: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets.

Concrete Objects Layer

* Fundamental Objects::
* Numeric Objects::
* Sequence Objects::
* Container Objects::
* Function Objects: Function Objects<2>.
* Other Objects::
* C API for extension modules::

Fundamental Objects

* Type Objects::
* The None Object::

Type Objects

* Creating Heap-Allocated Types::
* Soft-deprecated API::

Creating Heap-Allocated Types

* Type slot IDs::

Numeric Objects

* Integer Objects::
* Boolean Objects::
* Floating-Point Objects::
* Complex Number Objects::

Integer Objects

* Export API::
* PyLongWriter API::
* Deprecated API::

Floating-Point Objects

* Pack and Unpack functions::

Pack and Unpack functions

* Pack functions::
* Unpack functions::

Complex Number Objects

* Complex Numbers as C Structures::

Sequence Objects

* Bytes Objects::
* PyBytesWriter::
* Byte Array Objects::
* Unicode Objects and Codecs::
* Tuple Objects::
* Struct Sequence Objects::
* List Objects::

PyBytesWriter

* Create, Finish, Discard: Create Finish Discard.
* High-level API::
* Getters::
* Low-level API::

Byte Array Objects

* Type check macros::
* Direct API functions::
* Macros::

Unicode Objects and Codecs

* Unicode Objects::
* Built-in Codecs::
* Methods and Slot Functions::
* PyUnicodeWriter::
* Deprecated API: Deprecated API<2>.

Unicode Objects

* Unicode Type::
* Unicode Character Properties::
* Creating and accessing Unicode strings::
* Locale Encoding::
* File System Encoding::
* wchar_t Support::

Built-in Codecs

* Generic Codecs::
* UTF-8 Codecs::
* UTF-32 Codecs::
* UTF-16 Codecs::
* UTF-7 Codecs::
* Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Latin-1 Codecs::
* ASCII Codecs::
* Character Map Codecs::
* MBCS codecs for Windows::

Container Objects

* Dictionary objects::
* Set Objects::

Dictionary objects

* Dictionary view objects::
* Frozen dictionary objects::
* Ordered dictionaries::

Set Objects

* Deprecated API: Deprecated API<3>.

Function Objects

* Function Objects: Function Objects<3>.
* Instance Method Objects::
* Method Objects::
* Cell Objects::
* Code Objects::
* Code Object Flags::
* Extra information::

Other Objects

* File objects::
* Module Objects::
* Iterator Objects::
* Descriptor Objects::
* Slice Objects::
* MemoryView objects::
* Pickle buffer objects::
* Weak Reference Objects: Weak Reference Objects<2>.
* Capsules: Capsules<2>.
* Sentinel objects::
* Frame objects::
* Generator Objects::
* Coroutine Objects::
* Context Variables Objects::
* Objects for Type Hinting::

File objects

* Soft-deprecated API: Soft-deprecated API<2>.

Module Objects

* Module definition::
* Module state::
* Creating extension modules dynamically::
* Module definition struct::
* Support functions::

Module definition

* Metadata slots::
* Feature slots::
* Creation and initialization slots::

Module state

* Slots for defining module state::
* Module token::

Support functions

* Module lookup (single-phase initialization): Module lookup single-phase initialization.

Iterator Objects

* Range Objects::
* Builtin Iterator Types::
* Other Iterator Objects::

Descriptor Objects

* Built-in descriptors::

Slice Objects

* Ellipsis Object::

Frame objects

* Frame locals proxies::
* Legacy local variable APIs::
* Internal frames::

Generator Objects

* Asynchronous Generator Objects::
* Deprecated API: Deprecated API<4>.

C API for extension modules

* Curses C API::
* Internal data::
* DateTime Objects: DateTime Objects<2>.
* Internal data: Internal data<2>.

Interpreter initialization and finalization

* Before Python initialization::
* Global configuration variables::
* Initializing and finalizing the interpreter::
* Cautions regarding interpreter finalization::
* Interpreter views::
* Process-wide parameters::

Thread states and the global interpreter lock

* Detaching the thread state from extension code::
* Using the C API from foreign threads::
* GIL-state APIs::
* Cautions about fork(): Cautions about fork.
* High-level APIs::
* Low-level APIs::

Detaching the thread state from extension code

* APIs::

Using the C API from foreign threads

* Attaching/detaching thread states::

Synchronization primitives

* Python critical section API::
* Legacy locking APIs::

Python critical section API

* Low-level critical section API::

Thread-local storage support

* Thread-specific storage API::
* Dynamic allocation::
* Methods::
* Legacy APIs::

Multiple interpreters in a Python process

* A per-interpreter GIL::
* Bugs and caveats::
* High-level APIs: High-level APIs<2>.
* Low-level APIs: Low-level APIs<2>.
* Advanced debugger support::

Python Initialization Configuration

* PyInitConfig C API::
* Configuration Options::
* Runtime Python configuration API::
* PyConfig C API::
* Py_GetArgcArgv(): Py_GetArgcArgv.
* Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API::

PyInitConfig C API

* Example: Example<15>.
* Create Config::
* Error Handling::
* Get Options::
* Set Options::
* Module::
* Initialize Python::

PyConfig C API

* Example: Example<16>.
* PyWideStringList::
* PyStatus::
* PyPreConfig::
* Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig::
* PyConfig::
* Initialization with PyConfig::
* Isolated Configuration::
* Python Configuration::
* Python Path Configuration::

Memory Management

* Overview: Overview<4>.
* Allocator Domains::
* Raw Memory Interface::
* Memory Interface::
* Object allocators::
* Default Memory Allocators::
* Customize Memory Allocators::
* Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators::
* The pymalloc allocator::
* The mimalloc allocator::
* tracemalloc C API::
* Examples: Examples<32>.

Memory Interface

* Deprecated aliases: Deprecated aliases<2>.

The pymalloc allocator

* Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator::

Object Implementation Support

* Allocating objects on the heap::
* Object Life Cycle::
* Common Object Structures::
* Type Object Structures::
* Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection::

Allocating objects on the heap

* Soft-deprecated aliases::

Object Life Cycle

* Life Events::
* Cyclic Isolate Destruction::
* Functions: Functions<14>.

Common Object Structures

* Base object types and macros::
* Implementing functions and methods::
* Accessing attributes of extension types::

Accessing attributes of extension types

* Member flags::
* Member types::
* Defining Getters and Setters::

Type Object Structures

* Quick Reference::
* PyTypeObject Definition::
* PyObject Slots::
* PyVarObject Slots::
* PyTypeObject Slots::
* Static Types::
* Heap Types::
* Number Object Structures::
* Mapping Object Structures::
* Sequence Object Structures::
* Buffer Object Structures::
* Async Object Structures::
* Slot Type typedefs::
* Examples: Examples<33>.

Quick Reference

* «tp slots»::
* sub-slots::
* slot typedefs::

Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

* Traversal::
* Controlling the Garbage Collector State::
* Querying Garbage Collector State::

Traversal

* Traversal-safe functions::
* «DuringGC» functions::

API and ABI Versioning

* Build-time version constants::
* Run-time version::
* Bit-packing macros::

Generating Execution Events

* Managing the Monitoring State::

Installing Python modules

* Key terms::
* Basic usage: Basic usage<2>.
* How do I …?::
* Common installation issues::

How do I …?

* … install packages just for the current user?::
* … install scientific Python packages?::
* … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?::

Common installation issues

* Installing into the system Python on Linux::
* Pip not installed::
* Installing binary extensions::

Python HOWTOs

* A conceptual overview of asyncio::
* Porting Extension Modules to Python 3::
* Curses Programming with Python::
* Descriptor Guide::
* Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB::
* Enum HOWTO::
* Functional Programming HOWTO::
* Logging HOWTO::
* Logging Cookbook::
* Regular expression HOWTO::
* Socket Programming HOWTO::
* Sorting Techniques::
* Unicode HOWTO::
* HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package::
* An introduction to the ipaddress module::
* Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap::
* Python support for the perf map compatible profilers::
* Annotations Best Practices::
* Isolating Extension Modules::
* timer file descriptor HOWTO::
* The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order.
* Python support for free threading::
* C API Extension Support for Free Threading::
* Remote debugging attachment protocol::
* Permission requirements::
* Locating the PyRuntime structure::
* Reading _Py_DebugOffsets::
* Locating the interpreter and thread state::
* Writing control information::
* Summary::
* Security and threat model::

A conceptual overview of asyncio

* A conceptual overview part 1; the high-level: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level.
* A conceptual overview part 2; the nuts and bolts: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts.

A conceptual overview part 1: the high-level

* Event loop: Event loop<2>.
* Asynchronous functions and coroutines::
* Tasks: Tasks<2>.
* await::

await

* Awaiting tasks::
* Awaiting coroutines::

A conceptual overview part 2: the nuts and bolts

* The inner workings of coroutines::
* Futures: Futures<2>.
* A homemade asyncio.sleep: A homemade asyncio sleep.

Curses Programming with Python

* What is curses?::
* Starting and ending a curses application::
* Windows and Pads::
* Displaying Text::
* User Input::
* For More Information::

What is curses?

* The Python curses module::

Displaying Text

* Attributes and Color::

Descriptor Guide

* Primer::
* Complete Practical Example::
* Technical Tutorial::
* Pure Python Equivalents::

Primer

* Simple example; A descriptor that returns a constant: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant.
* Dynamic lookups::
* Managed attributes::
* Customized names::
* Closing thoughts::

Complete Practical Example

* Validator class::
* Custom validators::
* Practical application::

Technical Tutorial

* Abstract::
* Definition and introduction::
* Descriptor protocol::
* Overview of descriptor invocation::
* Invocation from an instance::
* Invocation from a class::
* Invocation from super::
* Summary of invocation logic::
* Automatic name notification::
* ORM example::

Pure Python Equivalents

* Properties::
* Functions and methods::
* Kinds of methods::
* Static methods::
* Class methods::
* Member objects and __slots__::

Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

* Prerequisites::
* Using the Debug build and Development mode::
* Using the python-gdb extension::
* Use with GDB commands::

Prerequisites

* Setup with Python built from source::
* Setup for Python from a Linux distro::

Using the python-gdb extension

* Pretty-printers::
* py-list::
* py-up and py-down::
* py-bt::
* py-print::
* py-locals::

Enum HOWTO

* Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes::
* Duplicating enum members and values::
* Ensuring unique enumeration values::
* Using automatic values::
* Iteration: Iteration<2>.
* Comparisons: Comparisons<2>.
* Allowed members and attributes of enumerations::
* Restricted Enum subclassing::
* Dataclass support::
* Pickling::
* Functional API: Functional API<2>.
* Derived Enumerations::
* When to use __new__() vs. __init__(): When to use __new__ vs __init__.
* Finer Points::
* How are Enums and Flags different?::
* Enum Cookbook::
* Subclassing EnumType::

Derived Enumerations

* IntEnum::
* StrEnum::
* IntFlag::
* Flag::
* Others: Others<2>.

Finer Points

* Supported __dunder__ and _sunder_ names::
* _Private__names::
* Enum member type::
* Creating members that are mixed with other data types::
* Boolean value of Enum classes and members::
* Enum classes with methods::
* Combining members of Flag::
* Flag and IntFlag minutia::

How are Enums and Flags different?

* Enum Classes::
* Flag Classes::
* Enum Members (aka instances): Enum Members aka instances.
* Flag Members::

Enum Cookbook

* Omitting values::
* OrderedEnum::
* DuplicateFreeEnum::
* MultiValueEnum::
* Planet::
* TimePeriod::

Omitting values

* Using auto::
* Using object::
* Using a descriptive string::
* Using a custom __new__(): Using a custom __new__.

Functional Programming HOWTO

* Introduction: Introduction<13>.
* Iterators::
* Generator expressions and list comprehensions::
* Generators::
* Built-in functions::
* The itertools module::
* The functools module::
* Small functions and the lambda expression::
* Revision History and Acknowledgements::
* References::

Introduction

* Formal provability::
* Modularity::
* Ease of debugging and testing::
* Composability::

Iterators

* Data Types That Support Iterators::

Generators

* Passing values into a generator::

The itertools module

* Creating new iterators::
* Calling functions on elements::
* Selecting elements::
* Combinatoric functions::
* Grouping elements::

The functools module

* The operator module::

References

* General::
* Python-specific::
* Python documentation::

Logging HOWTO

* Basic Logging Tutorial::
* Advanced Logging Tutorial::
* Logging Levels: Logging Levels<2>.
* Useful Handlers::
* Exceptions raised during logging::
* Using arbitrary objects as messages::
* Optimization::
* Other resources::

Basic Logging Tutorial

* When to use logging::
* A simple example::
* Logging to a file::
* Logging variable data::
* Changing the format of displayed messages::
* Displaying the date/time in messages::
* Next Steps::

Advanced Logging Tutorial

* Logging Flow::
* Loggers::
* Handlers::
* Formatters::
* Configuring Logging::
* What happens if no configuration is provided::
* Configuring Logging for a Library::

Logging Levels

* Custom Levels::

Logging Cookbook

* Using logging in multiple modules::
* Logging from multiple threads::
* Multiple handlers and formatters::
* Logging to multiple destinations::
* Custom handling of levels::
* Configuration server example::
* Dealing with handlers that block::
* Sending and receiving logging events across a network::
* Adding contextual information to your logging output::
* Use of contextvars::
* Imparting contextual information in handlers::
* Logging to a single file from multiple processes::
* Using file rotation::
* Use of alternative formatting styles::
* Customizing LogRecord::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example::
* An example dictionary-based configuration::
* Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing::
* A more elaborate multiprocessing example::
* Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler::
* Implementing structured logging::
* Customizing handlers with dictConfig(): Customizing handlers with dictConfig.
* Using particular formatting styles throughout your application::
* Configuring filters with dictConfig(): Configuring filters with dictConfig.
* Customized exception formatting::
* Speaking logging messages::
* Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally::
* Sending logging messages to email, with buffering: Sending logging messages to email with buffering.
* Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration.
* Using a context manager for selective logging::
* A CLI application starter template::
* A Qt GUI for logging::
* Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support::
* How to treat a logger like an output stream::
* How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output::
* Patterns to avoid::
* Other resources: Other resources<2>.

Sending and receiving logging events across a network

* Running a logging socket listener in production::

Adding contextual information to your logging output

* Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information::
* Using Filters to impart contextual information::

Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information

* Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information::

Logging to a single file from multiple processes

* Using concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor.
* Deploying web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI::

Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

* Subclass QueueHandler::
* Subclass QueueListener::

Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

* Subclass QueueListener: Subclass QueueListener<2>.
* Subclass QueueHandler: Subclass QueueHandler<2>.

Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

* Using LogRecord factories::
* Using custom message objects::

Patterns to avoid

* Opening the same log file multiple times::
* Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters::
* Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library::
* Creating a lot of loggers::

Regular expression HOWTO

* Introduction: Introduction<14>.
* Simple patterns::
* Using regular expressions::
* More pattern power::
* Modifying strings::
* Common problems::
* Feedback::

Simple patterns

* Matching characters::
* Repeating things::

Using regular expressions

* Compiling regular expressions::
* The backslash plague::
* Performing matches::
* Module-level functions::
* Compilation flags::

More pattern power

* More metacharacters::
* Grouping::
* Non-capturing and named groups::
* Lookahead assertions::

Modifying strings

* Splitting strings::
* Search and replace::

Common problems

* Use string methods::
* prefixmatch() (aka match) versus search(): prefixmatch aka match versus search.
* Greedy versus non-greedy::
* Using re.VERBOSE: Using re VERBOSE.

Socket Programming HOWTO

* Sockets::
* Creating a Socket::
* Using a Socket::
* Disconnecting::
* Non-blocking Sockets::

Sockets

* History::

Creating a Socket

* IPC::

Using a Socket

* Binary Data::

Disconnecting

* When Sockets Die::

Sorting Techniques

* Sorting Basics::
* Key Functions::
* Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation::
* Ascending and Descending::
* Sort Stability and Complex Sorts::
* Decorate-Sort-Undecorate::
* Comparison Functions::
* Strategies For Unorderable Types and Values::
* Odds and Ends::
* Partial Sorts::

Unicode HOWTO

* Introduction to Unicode::
* Python’s Unicode Support::
* Reading and Writing Unicode Data::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<10>.

Introduction to Unicode

* Definitions::
* Encodings::
* References: References<2>.

Python’s Unicode Support

* The String Type::
* Converting to Bytes::
* Unicode Literals in Python Source Code::
* Unicode Properties::
* Comparing Strings::
* Unicode Regular Expressions::
* References: References<3>.

Reading and Writing Unicode Data

* Unicode filenames::
* Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs::
* References: References<4>.

Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs

* Converting Between File Encodings::
* Files in an Unknown Encoding::

HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

* Introduction: Introduction<15>.
* Fetching URLs::
* Handling Exceptions::
* info and geturl::
* Openers and Handlers::
* Basic Authentication::
* Proxies::
* Sockets and Layers::
* Footnotes::

Fetching URLs

* Data::
* Headers::

Handling Exceptions

* URLError::
* HTTPError::
* Wrapping it Up::

HTTPError

* Error Codes::

Wrapping it Up

* Number 1::
* Number 2::

An introduction to the ipaddress module

* Creating Address/Network/Interface objects::
* Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects::
* Networks as lists of Addresses::
* Comparisons: Comparisons<3>.
* Using IP Addresses with other modules::
* Getting more detail when instance creation fails::

Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

* A Note on IP Versions::
* IP Host Addresses::
* Defining Networks::
* Host Interfaces::

Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

* Enabling the static markers::
* Static DTrace probes::
* Static SystemTap markers::
* Available static markers::
* SystemTap Tapsets::
* Examples: Examples<34>.

Available static markers

* C Entry Points::
* C Probing Checks::

Python support for the perf map compatible profilers

* Using the samply profiler::
* How to enable perf profiling support::
* How to obtain the best results::
* How to work without frame pointers::

Annotations Best Practices

* Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.10 And Newer: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer.
* Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.9 And Older: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older.
* Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations::
* Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version::
* __annotations__ Quirks::

Isolating Extension Modules

* Who should read this::
* Background: Background<2>.
* Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters::
* Heap Types: Heap Types<2>.
* Open Issues::

Background

* Enter Per-Module State::
* Isolated Module Objects::
* Surprising Edge Cases::

Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

* Managing Global State::
* Managing Per-Module State::
* Opt-Out; Limiting to One Module Object per Process: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process.
* Module State Access from Functions::

Heap Types

* Changing Static Types to Heap Types::
* Defining Heap Types::
* Garbage-Collection Protocol::
* Module State Access from Classes::
* Module State Access from Regular Methods::
* Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters.
* Lifetime of the Module State::

Garbage-Collection Protocol

* tp_traverse in Python 3.8 and lower: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower.
* Delegating tp_traverse::
* Defining tp_dealloc::
* Not overriding tp_free::
* Avoiding PyObject_New::

Open Issues

* Per-Class Scope::
* Lossless Conversion to Heap Types::

timer file descriptor HOWTO

* Examples: Examples<35>.

The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order

* The beginning::
* The C3 Method Resolution Order::
* Examples: Examples<36>.
* Bad Method Resolution Orders::
* The end::
* Resources::

Python support for free threading

* Installation::
* Identifying free-threaded Python::
* The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python::
* Thread safety::
* Known limitations::
* Behavioral changes::

Known limitations

* Immortalization::
* Frame objects: Frame objects<2>.
* Iterators: Iterators<2>.
* Single-threaded performance::

Behavioral changes

* Context variables::
* Warning filters::

C API Extension Support for Free Threading

* Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C::
* Module Initialization::
* General API Guidelines::
* Borrowed References::
* Memory Allocation APIs::
* Thread State and GIL APIs::
* Protecting Internal Extension State::
* Critical Sections::
* Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build::

Module Initialization

* Multi-Phase Initialization::
* Single-Phase Initialization::

General API Guidelines

* Container Thread Safety::

Container Thread Safety

* PyDict_Next::

Critical Sections

* What Are Critical Sections?::
* Using Critical Sections::
* How Critical Sections Work::
* Deadlock Avoidance::
* Important Considerations::
* Per-Object Locks (ob_mutex): Per-Object Locks ob_mutex.

Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build

* Limited C API and Stable ABI::
* Windows: Windows<84>.

Remote debugging attachment protocol

* Disabling remote debugging::

Security and threat model

* When to use PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG::

Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python

* General Python FAQ::
* FAQ Προγραμματισμού::
* Design and History FAQ::
* Συχνές ερωτήσεις βιβλιοθήκης και επέκτασης::
* Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης::
* Python στα Windows FAQ::
* Graphic User Interface FAQ::
* «Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;» FAQ::

General Python FAQ

* General Information::
* Python in the real world::

General Information

* What is Python?::
* What is the Python Software Foundation?::
* Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?::
* Why was Python created in the first place?::
* What is Python good for?::
* How does the Python version numbering scheme work?::
* How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?::
* How do I get documentation on Python?::
* I’ve never programmed before. Is there a Python tutorial?: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?.
* Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?::
* How do I get a beta test version of Python?::
* How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?::
* Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?::
* Are there any books on Python?::
* Where in the world is www.python.org located?: Where in the world is www python org located?.
* Why is it called Python?::
* Do I have to like «Monty Python’s Flying Circus»?::

Python in the real world

* How stable is Python?::
* How many people are using Python?::
* Have any significant projects been done in Python?::
* What new developments are expected for Python in the future?::
* Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?::
* Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?::

FAQ Προγραμματισμού

* General questions::
* Core language::
* Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές::
* Απόδοση::
* Sequences (tuples/lists): Sequences tuples/lists.
* Αντικείμενα::
* Modules: Modules<5>.

General questions

* Is there a source code-level debugger with breakpoints and single-stepping?::
* Υπάρχουν εργαλεία που βοηθούν στην εύρεση σφαλμάτων ή στην εκτέλεση στατικής ανάλυσης;::
* Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα stand-alone binary από ένα Python script;::
* Υπάρχουν πρότυπα κωδικοποίησης ή οδηγός στυλ για προγράμματα Python;::

Core language

* Γιατί λαμβάνω ένα UnboundLocalError όταν η μεταβλητή έχει μια τιμή;::
* Ποιοι είναι οι κανόνες για τις τοπικές και τις καθολικές μεταβλητές στην Python;::
* Γιατί τα lambdas που ορίζονται σε έναν βρόχο με διαφορετικές τιμές επιστρέφουν όλα το ίδιο αποτέλεσμα;::
* Πως μοιράζομαι καθολικές μεταβλητές σε modules;::
* Ποιες είναι οι «βέλτιστες πρακτικές» για τη χρήση import σε ένα module;::
* Γιατί μοιράζονται οι προεπιλεγμένες τιμές μεταξύ των αντικειμένων;::
* Πώς μπορώ να μεταβιβάσω προαιρετικές παραμέτρους ή παραμέτρους λέξεων-κλειδιών από τη μια συνάρτηση στην άλλη;::
* Ποια είναι η διαφορά μεταξύ ορισμάτων και παραμέτρων;::
* Γιατί η αλλαγή της λίστας “y” αλλάζει επίσης και τη λίστα “x”;::
* Πως μπορώ να γράψω μια συνάρτηση με παραμέτρους εξόδου (κλήση με αναφορά);: Πως μπορώ να γράψω μια συνάρτηση με παραμέτρους εξόδου κλήση με αναφορά ;.
* Πως δημιουργείτε μια συνάρτηση υψηλότερης τάξης στην Python;::
* Πως μπορώ να αντιγράψω ένα αντικείμενο στην Python;::
* Πως μπορώ να βρω τις μεθόδους ή τα χαρακτηριστικά ενός αντικειμένου;::
* Πως μπορεί ο κώδικας μου να ανακαλύψει το όνομα ενός αντικειμένου;::
* Τι συμβαίνει με την προτεραιότητα του τελεστή κόμματος;::
* Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο του τριαδικού τελεστή «?;» της C;: Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο του τριαδικού τελεστή «? » της C;.
* Είναι δυνατόν να γράψουμε ασαφή one-liners στην Python;::
* Τι σημαίνει η κάθετος(/) στη λίστα παραμέτρων μιας συνάρτησης;: Τι σημαίνει η κάθετος / στη λίστα παραμέτρων μιας συνάρτησης;.

Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές

* Πώς προσδιορίζω δεκαεξαδικούς ή οκταδικούς ακέραιους αριθμούς;::
* Γιατί το -22 // 10 επιστρέφει -3;::
* Πώς μπορώ να πάρω το literal χαρακτηριστικό int αντί για το SyntaxError;::
* Πως μετατρέπω μια συμβολοσειρά σε έναν αριθμό;::
* Πως μετατρέπω έναν αριθμό σε συμβολοσειρά;::
* Πώς μπορώ να τροποποιήσω μια συμβολοσειρά στη θέση της;::
* Πως μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω συμβολοσειρές για να καλέσω συναρτήσεις/μεθόδους;::
* Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο με το Perl’s chomp() για την αφαίρεση των νέων γραμμών από τις συμβολοσειρές;: Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο με το Perl’s chomp για την αφαίρεση των νέων γραμμών από τις συμβολοσειρές;.
* Υπάρχει αντίστοιχο scanf() ή sscanf();: Υπάρχει αντίστοιχο scanf ή sscanf ;.
* Τι σημαίνει το σφάλμα UnicodeDecodeError ή UnicodeEncodeError;::
* Μπορώ να τερματίσω μια ακατέργαστη συμβολοσειρά με περιττό αριθμό backslashes;::

Απόδοση

* Το πρόγραμμα μου είναι πολύ αργό. Πως μπορώ να το επιταχύνω;: Το πρόγραμμα μου είναι πολύ αργό Πως μπορώ να το επιταχύνω;.
* Ποιος είναι ο πιο αποτελεσματικός τρόπος για να συνδέσετε πολλές συμβολοσειρές μεταξύ τους;::

Sequences (tuples/lists)

* Πως μπορώ να κάνω μετατροπή μεταξύ πλειάδων και λιστών;::
* Τι είναι αρνητικός δείκτης;::
* Πώς μπορώ να επαναλάβω μια ακολουθία με αντίστροφη σειρά;::
* Πως αφαιρείτε διπλότυπα από μια λίστα;::
* How do you remove multiple items from a list?::
* Πως μπορείτε να φτιάξετε έναν πίνακα στην Python;::
* Πως φτιάχνω μια πολυδιάστατη λίστα;::
* Πώς μπορώ να εφαρμόσω μια μέθοδο ή μια συνάρτηση σε μια ακολουθία αντικειμένων;::
* Γιατί το a_tuple[i] += [“item”] δημιουργεί μια εξαίρεση όταν λειτουργεί η προσθήκη;::
* Θέλω να κάνω μια περίπλοκη ταξινόμηση; μπορείτε να κάνετε ένα Schwartzian Transform στην Python;: Θέλω να κάνω μια περίπλοκη ταξινόμηση μπορείτε να κάνετε ένα Schwartzian Transform στην Python;.
* Πως μπορώ να ταξινομήσω μια λίστα με βάση τις τιμές από μια άλλη λίστα;::

Αντικείμενα

* Τι είναι μια κλάση;::
* Τι είναι μια μέθοδος;::
* Τι είναι το self;::
* Πώς μπορώ να ελέγξω εάν ένα αντικείμενο είναι μια οντότητα μιας δεδομένης κλάσης ή μιας υποκλάσης της;::
* Τι είναι το delegation;::
* Πώς μπορώ να καλέσω μια μέθοδο που ορίζεται σε μια βασική κλάση από μια παράγωγη κλάση που την επεκτείνει;::
* Πως μπορώ να οργανώσω τον κώδικα μου προκειμένου να διευκολύνω την αλλαγή της βασικής κλάσης;::
* Πως δημιουργώ δεδομένα στατικής κλάσης και μεθόδους στατικής κλάσης;::
* Πως μπορώ να υπερφορτώσω κατασκευαστές (ή μεθόδους) στην Python;: Πως μπορώ να υπερφορτώσω κατασκευαστές ή μεθόδους στην Python;.
* Προσπαθώ να χρησιμοποιήσω __spam και λαμβάνω ένα σφάλμα σχετικά με το _SomeClassName__spam.: Προσπαθώ να χρησιμοποιήσω __spam και λαμβάνω ένα σφάλμα σχετικά με το _SomeClassName__spam.
* Η κλάση μου ορίζει __del__ αλλά δεν καλείται όταν διαγράφω το αντικείμενο.: Η κλάση μου ορίζει __del__ αλλά δεν καλείται όταν διαγράφω το αντικείμενο.
* Πως μπορώ να λάβω μια λίστα με όλες τις οντότητες μιας δεδομένης κλάσης;::
* Γιατί το αποτέλεσμα του id() φαίνεται να μην είναι μοναδικό;: Γιατί το αποτέλεσμα του id φαίνεται να μην είναι μοναδικό;.
* Πότε μπορώ να βασιστώ σε δοκιμές ταυτότητας με τον τελεστή is;::
* Πώς μπορεί μια υποκλάση να ελέγξει ποια δεδομένα αποθηκεύονται σε μια αμετάβλητη παρουσία;::
* Πώς μπορώ να αποθηκεύσω τις κλήσεις μεθόδου στην κρυφή μνήμη;::

Modules

* Πως δημιουργώ ένα .pyc αρχείο;: Πως δημιουργώ ένα pyc αρχείο;.
* Πως μπορώ να βρω το όνομα του τρέχοντος module;::
* Πως μπορώ να έχω modules που εισάγουν αμοιβαία το ένα το άλλο;::
* __import__(“x.y.z”) επιστρέφει <module “x”>∙ πως μπορώ να πάρω το z?: __import__ “x y z” επιστρέφει <module “x”>∙ πως μπορώ να πάρω το z?.
* Όταν επεξεργάζομαι ένα module που έχει εισαχθεί και την επανεισάγω, οι αλλαγές δεν εμφανίζονται. Γιατί συμβαίνει αυτό;: Όταν επεξεργάζομαι ένα module που έχει εισαχθεί και την επανεισάγω οι αλλαγές δεν εμφανίζονται Γιατί συμβαίνει αυτό;.

Design and History FAQ

* Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?::
* Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?::
* Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?::
* Why are Python strings immutable?::
* Why must “self” be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?::
* Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?::
* Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?.
* Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?.
* How fast are exceptions?::
* Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?::
* Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?::
* Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?::
* Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?.
* How does Python manage memory?::
* Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?::
* Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?::
* Why are there separate tuple and list data types?::
* How are lists implemented in CPython?::
* How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?::
* Why must dictionary keys be immutable?::
* Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?.
* How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?::
* Why is there no goto?::
* Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?.
* Why doesn’t Python have a «with» statement for attribute assignments?::
* Why don’t generators support the with statement?::
* Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?::
* Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?::

Συχνές ερωτήσεις βιβλιοθήκης και επέκτασης

* Γενικές Ερωτήσεις Βιβλιοθήκης::
* Κοινές εργασίες::
* Νήματα (Threads): Νήματα Threads.
* Είσοδος και Έξοδος: Είσοδος και Έξοδος<2>.
* Προγραμματισμός Δικτύου/Διαδικτύου::
* Βάσεις Δεδομένων::
* Μαθηματικά και Αριθμητικά::

Γενικές Ερωτήσεις Βιβλιοθήκης

* Πως μπορώ να βρω ένα module ή μια εφαρμογή για να εκτελέσω την εργασία Χ;::
* Που βρίσκεται το πηγαίο αρχείο math.py (socket.py, regex.py, κ.λπ.);: Που βρίσκεται το πηγαίο αρχείο math py socket py regex py κ λπ ;.
* Πως δημιουργώ ένα εκτελέσιμο Python script στο Unix;::
* Υπάρχει ένα curses/termcap πακέτο για την Python;::
* Υπάρχει κάτι ισοδύναμο με την onexit() της C στην Python;: Υπάρχει κάτι ισοδύναμο με την onexit της C στην Python;.
* Γιατί δεν λειτουργούν οι χειριστές σήματος μου;::

Κοινές εργασίες

* Πως μπορώ να τεστάρω ένα Python πρόγραμμα ή ένα Python component;::
* Πως δημιουργώ τεκμηρίωση από doc strings;::
* Πως μπορώ να λάβω μόνο ένα πάτημα κουμπιού κάθε φορά;::

Νήματα (Threads)

* Πώς μπορώ να προγραμματίσω χρησιμοποιώντας νήματα(threads);: Πώς μπορώ να προγραμματίσω χρησιμοποιώντας νήματα threads ;.
* Κανένα από τα νήματα (threads) μου δεν φαίνεται να εκτελείται; γιατί;: Κανένα από τα νήματα threads μου δεν φαίνεται να εκτελείται γιατί;.
* Πως μπορώ να μοιράσω την εργασία σε ένα σωρό από νήματα για αυτήν την εργασία;::
* Ποια είδη global μετάλλαξης τιμής είναι ασφαλή για νήμα(thread);: Ποια είδη global μετάλλαξης τιμής είναι ασφαλή για νήμα thread ;.
* Μπορούμε να απαλλαγούμε από ένα Global Interpreter Lock;::

Είσοδος και Έξοδος

* Πώς μπορώ να διαγράψω ένα αρχείο; (Και άλλες ερωτήσεις για το αρχείο…): Πώς μπορώ να διαγράψω ένα αρχείο; Και άλλες ερωτήσεις για το αρχείο….
* Πως αντιγράφω ένα αρχείο;::
* Πώς διαβάζω (ή γράφω) δυαδικά δεδομένα;: Πώς διαβάζω ή γράφω δυαδικά δεδομένα;.
* Δεν μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω το os.read() σε ένα pipe που δημιουργήθηκε με το os.popen()∙ γιατί;: Δεν μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω το os read σε ένα pipe που δημιουργήθηκε με το os popen ∙ γιατί;.
* Πώς μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση στη σειριακή θύρα (RS232);: Πώς μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση στη σειριακή θύρα RS232 ;.
* Γιατί το κλείσιμο του sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) δεν το κλείνει πραγματικά;: Γιατί το κλείσιμο του sys stdout stdin stderr δεν το κλείνει πραγματικά;.

Προγραμματισμός Δικτύου/Διαδικτύου

* Ποια εργαλεία WWW υπάρχουν για την Python;::
* Τι module πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσω για να βοηθήσω στην δημιουργία HTML;::
* Πώς μπορώ να στείλω αλληλογραφία από ένα Python script;::
* Πώς μπορώ να αποφύγω τον αποκλεισμό στη μέθοδο connect() ενός socket;: Πώς μπορώ να αποφύγω τον αποκλεισμό στη μέθοδο connect ενός socket;.

Βάσεις Δεδομένων

* Υπάρχουν διεπαφές σε πακέτα βάσεων δεδομένων στην Python;::
* Πως υλοποιείτε persistent αντικείμενα στην Python;::

Μαθηματικά και Αριθμητικά

* Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τυχαίους αριθμούς στην Python;::

Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

* Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τις δικές μου συναρτήσεις στη C;::
* Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τις δικές μου συναρτήσεις στη C++;::
* Το να γράψει C κάποιος είναι δύσκολο· υπάρχουν άλλες εναλλακτικές;::
* Πως μπορώ να εκτελέσω αυθαίρετες δηλώσεις Python από το C;::
* Πώς μπορώ να αξιολογήσω μια αυθαίρετη έκφραση Python από τη C;::
* Πως μπορώ να εξάγω τιμές C από ένα αντικείμενο Python;::
* Πώς μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω την Py_BuildValue() για να δημιουργήσω μια πλειάδα (tuple) αυθαίρετου μήκους;: Πώς μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω την Py_BuildValue για να δημιουργήσω μια πλειάδα tuple αυθαίρετου μήκους;.
* Πώς καλώ τη μέθοδο ενός αντικειμένου από τη C;::
* Πώς μπορώ να κάνω catch την έξοδο από την PyErr_Print() (ή οτιδήποτε εκτυπώνεται σε stdout/stderr);: Πώς μπορώ να κάνω catch την έξοδο από την PyErr_Print ή οτιδήποτε εκτυπώνεται σε stdout/stderr ;.
* Πως μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση σε ένα module γραμμένο σε Python από τη C;::
* Πως διασυνδέομαι με αντικείμενα C++ από την Python;::
* Πρόσθεσα ένα module χρησιμοποιώντας το αρχείο Setup και το make αποτυγχάνει· γιατί;::
* Πως κάνω debug μια επέκταση;::
* Θέλω να κάνω compile ένα Python module στο σύστημα Linux μου, αλλά λείπουν ορισμένα αρχεία. Γιατί;: Θέλω να κάνω compile ένα Python module στο σύστημα Linux μου αλλά λείπουν ορισμένα αρχεία Γιατί;.
* Πώς μπορώ να ξεχωρίσω την «ελλιπή εισαγωγή» από την «έγκυρη εισαγωγή»;::
* Πώς μπορώ να βρω απροσδιόριστα σύμβολα g++ __builtin_new ή __pure_virtual;::
* Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω μια κλάση αντικειμένου με ορισμένες μεθόδους που υλοποιούνται στη C και άλλες στη Python (π.χ. μέσω κληρονομικότητας);: Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω μια κλάση αντικειμένου με ορισμένες μεθόδους που υλοποιούνται στη C και άλλες στη Python π χ μέσω κληρονομικότητας ;.

Python στα Windows FAQ

* Πως μπορώ να εκτελέσω ένα πρόγραμμα Python στα Windows;::
* Πως κάνω τα Python scripts εκτελέσιμα;::
* Γιατί μερικές φορές η Python αργεί τόσο πολύ να ξεκινήσει;::
* Πώς μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα εκτελέσιμο από ένα σενάριο Python;::
* Είναι ένα αρχείο *.pyd ίδιο με ένα αρχείο DLL;: Είναι ένα αρχείο * pyd ίδιο με ένα αρχείο DLL;.
* Πώς μπορώ να ενσωματώσω την Python σε μια εφαρμογή Windows;::
* Πως μπορώ να εμποδίσω τους editors να εισάγουν tabs στον πηγαίο της Python μου;::
* Πώς μπορώ να ελέγξω για ένα πάτημα πλήκτρων χωρίς αποκλεισμό;::
* Πως μπορώ να διορθώσω το σφάλμα που λείπει το api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll;: Πως μπορώ να διορθώσω το σφάλμα που λείπει το api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll;.

Graphic User Interface FAQ

* General GUI Questions::
* What GUI toolkits exist for Python?::
* Tkinter questions::

Tkinter questions

* How do I freeze Tkinter applications?::
* Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?::
* I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter; why?: I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter why?.

«Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;» FAQ

* Τι είναι η Python;::
* Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;::
* Μπορώ να διαγράψω την Python;::

Deprecations

* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<7>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<8>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.17: Pending removal in Python 3 17<5>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18<6>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.19: Pending removal in Python 3 19<5>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.20: Pending removal in Python 3 20<5>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<8>.
* Soft deprecations: Soft deprecations<2>.
* C API deprecations::

C API deprecations

* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<8>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<9>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18<7>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.19: Pending removal in Python 3 19<6>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.20: Pending removal in Python 3 20<6>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<9>.

Σχετικά με την τεκμηρίωση

* Συντελεστές στη τεκμηρίωση της Python::

Αντιμετώπιση Σφαλμάτων

* Σφάλματα Τεκμηρίωσης::
* Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Python issue tracker::
* Ξεκινήστε να συνεισφέρετε και εσείς στην Python::

Ιστορία και Άδεια

* Η ιστορία του λογισμικού::
* Όροι και προϋποθέσεις για την πρόσβαση ή την χρήση της Python με άλλους τρόπους::
* Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό::

Όροι και προϋποθέσεις για την πρόσβαση ή την χρήση της Python με άλλους τρόπους

* PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2::
* ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ BEOPEN.COM ΓΙΑ PYTHON 2.0: ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ BEOPEN COM ΓΙΑ PYTHON 2 0.
* ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ CNRI ΓΙΑ PYTHON 1.6.1: ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ CNRI ΓΙΑ PYTHON 1 6 1.
* ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ CWI ΓΙΑ PYTHON 0.9.0 ΕΩΣ 1.2: ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ CWI ΓΙΑ PYTHON 0 9 0 ΕΩΣ 1 2.
* ZERO-CLAUSE BSD ΑΔΕΙΑ ΓΙΑ ΤΟΝ ΚΩΔΙΚΑ ΣΤΗΝ ΤΕΚΜΗΡΙΩΣΗ ΤΗΣ PYTHON::

Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

* Mersenne Twister::
* Sockets: Sockets<2>.
* Ασύγχρονες socket υπηρεσίες::
* Διαχείριση Cookie::
* Ανίχνευση εκτέλεσης::
* Συναρτήσεις UUencode και UUdecode::
* Κλήσεις Απομακρυσμένης Διαδικασίας XML::
* test_epoll::
* Επιλογή kqueue::
* SipHash24::
* strtod και dtoa::
* OpenSSL: OpenSSL<2>.
* expat::
* libffi::
* zlib: zlib<5>.
* cfuhash::
* libmpdec::
* W3C C14N σουίτα δοκιμής::
* mimalloc::
* asyncio: asyncio<16>.
* Καθολικές Απεριόριστες Ακολουθίες (ΚΑΑ): Καθολικές Απεριόριστες Ακολουθίες ΚΑΑ.
* Δεσμεύσεις Zstandard::
* Profiling module::
* Pixi packages::



File: python.info,  Node: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python,  Next: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python,  Prev: Top,  Up: Top

1 Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python
****************************

Η σειρά άρθρων «Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python» περιγράφει τις πιο
σημαντικές αλλαγές μεταξύ μεγάλων εκδόσεων της Python.  Αποτελεί «must
read» για όσους επιθυμούν να παραμείνουν ενημερωμένοι μετά από κάθε νέα
έκδοση.

* Menu:

* What’s new in Python 3.16: What’s new in Python 3 16.
* What’s new in Python 3.15: What’s new in Python 3 15.
* What’s new in Python 3.14: What’s new in Python 3 14.
* What’s New In Python 3.13: What’s New In Python 3 13.
* What’s New In Python 3.12: What’s New In Python 3 12.
* What’s New In Python 3.11: What’s New In Python 3 11.
* What’s New In Python 3.10: What’s New In Python 3 10.
* What’s New In Python 3.9: What’s New In Python 3 9.
* What’s New In Python 3.8: What’s New In Python 3 8.
* What’s New In Python 3.7: What’s New In Python 3 7.
* What’s New In Python 3.6: What’s New In Python 3 6.
* What’s New In Python 3.5: What’s New In Python 3 5.
* What’s New In Python 3.4: What’s New In Python 3 4.
* What’s New In Python 3.3: What’s New In Python 3 3.
* What’s New In Python 3.2: What’s New In Python 3 2.
* What’s New In Python 3.1: What’s New In Python 3 1.
* What’s New In Python 3.0: What’s New In Python 3 0.
* What’s New in Python 2.7: What’s New in Python 2 7.
* What’s New in Python 2.6: What’s New in Python 2 6.
* What’s New in Python 2.5: What’s New in Python 2 5.
* What’s New in Python 2.4: What’s New in Python 2 4.
* What’s New in Python 2.3: What’s New in Python 2 3.
* What’s New in Python 2.2: What’s New in Python 2 2.
* What’s New in Python 2.1: What’s New in Python 2 1.
* What’s New in Python 2.0: What’s New in Python 2 0.
* Changelog::


File: python.info,  Node: What’s new in Python 3 16,  Next: What’s new in Python 3 15,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.1 What’s new in Python 3.16
=============================


Editor: TBD

This article explains the new features in Python 3.16, compared to 3.15.

For full details, see the *note changelog: 145.

     Σημείωση: Prerelease users should be aware that this document is
     currently in draft form.  It will be updated substantially as
     Python 3.16 moves towards release, so it’s worth checking back even
     after reading earlier versions.

* Menu:

* Summary — release highlights::
* New features::
* Other language changes::
* New modules::
* Improved modules::
* Optimizations::
* Removed::
* Deprecated::
* Porting to Python 3.16: Porting to Python 3 16.
* Build changes::
* C API changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Summary — release highlights,  Next: New features,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 16

1.1.1 Summary — release highlights
----------------------------------


File: python.info,  Node: New features,  Next: Other language changes,  Prev: Summary — release highlights,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 16

1.1.2 New features
------------------


File: python.info,  Node: Other language changes,  Next: New modules,  Prev: New features,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 16

1.1.3 Other language changes
----------------------------


File: python.info,  Node: New modules,  Next: Improved modules,  Prev: Other language changes,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 16

1.1.4 New modules
-----------------

   * None yet.


File: python.info,  Node: Improved modules,  Next: Optimizations,  Prev: New modules,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 16

1.1.5 Improved modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* module_name::


File: python.info,  Node: module_name,  Up: Improved modules

1.1.5.1 module_name
...................

   * TODO


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations,  Next: Removed,  Prev: Improved modules,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 16

1.1.6 Optimizations
-------------------

* Menu:

* module_name: module_name<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: module_name<2>,  Up: Optimizations

1.1.6.1 module_name
...................

   * TODO


File: python.info,  Node: Removed,  Next: Deprecated,  Prev: Optimizations,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 16

1.1.7 Removed
-------------

* Menu:

* annotationlib::
* functools::
* symtable::
* sysconfig::


File: python.info,  Node: annotationlib,  Next: functools,  Up: Removed

1.1.7.1 annotationlib
.....................

   * The ‘annotationlib.ForwardRef._evaluate()’ method which has been
     deprecated since Python 3.14.  Use *note
     annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate(): 150. or *note
     typing.evaluate_forward_ref(): 151. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: functools,  Next: symtable,  Prev: annotationlib,  Up: Removed

1.1.7.2 functools
.................

   * Calling the Python implementation of *note functools.reduce(): 153.
     with 'function' or 'sequence' as keyword arguments has been
     deprecated since Python 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: symtable,  Next: sysconfig,  Prev: functools,  Up: Removed

1.1.7.3 symtable
................

   * The ‘symtable.Class.get_methods()’ method which has been deprecated
     since Python 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig,  Prev: symtable,  Up: Removed

1.1.7.4 sysconfig
.................

   * The ‘sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars()’ function which has been
     deprecated since Python 3.14.  Use the ‘vars’ argument of *note
     sysconfig.get_paths(): 156. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated,  Next: Porting to Python 3 16,  Prev: Removed,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 16

1.1.8 Deprecated
----------------

   * module_name: TODO


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 16,  Next: Build changes,  Prev: Deprecated,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 16

1.1.9 Porting to Python 3.16
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.


File: python.info,  Node: Build changes,  Next: C API changes,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 16,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 16

1.1.10 Build changes
--------------------


File: python.info,  Node: C API changes,  Prev: Build changes,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 16

1.1.11 C API changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* New features: New features<2>.
* Porting to Python 3.16: Porting to Python 3 16<2>.
* Deprecated C APIs::
* Removed C APIs::


File: python.info,  Node: New features<2>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 16<2>,  Up: C API changes

1.1.11.1 New features
.....................

   * TODO


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 16<2>,  Next: Deprecated C APIs,  Prev: New features<2>,  Up: C API changes

1.1.11.2 Porting to Python 3.16
...............................

   * TODO


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated C APIs,  Next: Removed C APIs,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 16<2>,  Up: C API changes

1.1.11.3 Deprecated C APIs
..........................

   * TODO


File: python.info,  Node: Removed C APIs,  Prev: Deprecated C APIs,  Up: C API changes

1.1.11.4 Removed C APIs
.......................


File: python.info,  Node: What’s new in Python 3 15,  Next: What’s new in Python 3 14,  Prev: What’s new in Python 3 16,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.2 What’s new in Python 3.15
=============================


Editor: Hugo van Kemenade

This article explains the new features in Python 3.15, compared to 3.14.

For full details, see the *note changelog: 145.

     Σημείωση: Prerelease users should be aware that this document is
     currently in draft form.  It will be updated substantially as
     Python 3.15 moves towards release, so it’s worth checking back even
     after reading earlier versions.

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights::
* New features: New features<3>.
* Other language changes: Other language changes<2>.
* Default interactive shell::
* New modules: New modules<2>.
* Improved modules: Improved modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<2>.
* Removed: Removed<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<2>.
* C API changes: C API changes<2>.
* Build changes: Build changes<2>.
* Porting to Python 3.15: Porting to Python 3 15.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights,  Next: New features<3>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 15

1.2.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

   * PEP 810(1): *note Explicit lazy imports for faster startup times:
     163.

   * PEP 814(2): *note Add frozendict built-in type: 164.

   * PEP 661(3): *note Add sentinel built-in type: 165.

   * PEP 799(4): *note A dedicated profiling package for organizing
     Python profiling tools: 166.

   * PEP 799(5): *note Tachyon; High frequency statistical sampling
     profiler: 167.

   * PEP 831(6): *note Frame pointers are enabled by default for
     improved system-level observability: 168.

   * PEP 798(7): *note Unpacking in comprehensions: 169.

   * PEP 686(8): *note Python now uses UTF-8 as the default encoding:
     16a.

   * PEP 829(9): *note Package startup configuration files: 16b.

   * PEP 728(10): *note TypedDict with typed extra items: 16c.

   * PEP 747(11): *note Annotating type forms with TypeForm: 16d.

   * PEP 800(12): Disjoint bases in the type system

   * PEP 782(13): *note A new PyBytesWriter C API to create a Python
     bytes object: 16e.

   * PEP 803(14), 820(15), 793(16): *note Stable ABI for free-threaded
     builds: 16f. and related C API

   * PEP 788(17): *note Protection against finalization in the C API:
     170.

   * *note The JIT compiler has been significantly upgraded: 171.

   * *note The official Windows 64-bit binaries now use the tail-calling
     interpreter: 172.

   * *note Improved error messages: 173.

   * *note More color: 174.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0810/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0814/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0661/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0799/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0799/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0831/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0798/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0728/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0747/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0800/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0782/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0803/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0820/

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0793/

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0788/


File: python.info,  Node: New features<3>,  Next: Other language changes<2>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 15

1.2.2 New features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 810; Explicit lazy imports: PEP 810 Explicit lazy imports.
* PEP 814; Add frozendict built-in type: PEP 814 Add frozendict built-in type.
* PEP 661; Add sentinel built-in type: PEP 661 Add sentinel built-in type.
* PEP 799; A dedicated profiling package: PEP 799 A dedicated profiling package.
* Tachyon; High frequency statistical sampling profiler: Tachyon High frequency statistical sampling profiler.
* PEP 831; Frame pointers enabled by default: PEP 831 Frame pointers enabled by default.
* PEP 798; Unpacking in comprehensions: PEP 798 Unpacking in comprehensions.
* PEP 829; Package startup configuration files: PEP 829 Package startup configuration files.
* PEP 803 – Stable ABI for free-threaded builds::
* PEP 788; Protecting the C API from interpreter finalization: PEP 788 Protecting the C API from interpreter finalization.
* Improved error messages::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 810 Explicit lazy imports,  Next: PEP 814 Add frozendict built-in type,  Up: New features<3>

'PEP 810': Explicit lazy imports

Large Python applications often suffer from slow startup times.  A
significant contributor to this problem is the import system: when a
module is imported, Python must locate the file, read it from disk,
compile it to bytecode, and execute all top-level code.  For
applications with deep dependency trees, this process can take seconds,
even when most of the imported code is never actually used during a
particular run.

Developers have worked around this by moving imports inside functions,
using *note importlib: 7a. to load modules on demand, or restructuring
code to avoid unnecessary dependencies.  These approaches work but make
code harder to read and maintain, scatter import statements throughout
the codebase, and require discipline to apply consistently.

Python now provides a cleaner solution through explicit *note lazy: 177.
imports using the new ‘lazy’ soft keyword.  When you mark an import as
lazy, Python defers the actual module loading until the imported name is
first used.  This gives you the organizational benefits of declaring all
imports at the top of the file while only paying the loading cost for
modules you actually use.

The ‘lazy’ keyword works with both ‘import’ and ‘from ... import’
statements.  When you write ‘lazy import heavy_module’, Python does not
immediately load the module.  Instead, it creates a lightweight proxy
object.  The actual module loading happens transparently when you first
access the name:

     lazy import json
     lazy from pathlib import Path

     print("Starting up...")  # json and pathlib not loaded yet

     data = json.loads('{"key": "value"}')  # json loads here
     p = Path(".")  # pathlib loads here

This mechanism is particularly useful for applications that import many
modules at the top level but may only use a subset of them in any given
run.  The deferred loading reduces startup latency without requiring
code restructuring or conditional imports scattered throughout the
codebase.

In the case where loading a lazily imported module fails (for example,
if the module does not exist), Python raises the exception at the point
of first use rather than at import time.  The associated traceback
includes both the location where the name was accessed and the original
import statement, making it straightforward to diagnose and debug the
failure.

For cases where you want to enable lazy loading globally without
modifying source code, Python provides the *note -X lazy_imports: 178.
command-line option and the *note PYTHON_LAZY_IMPORTS: 179. environment
variable.  Both accept three values: ‘all’ makes all imports lazy by
default, ‘none’ disables lazy imports entirely (even explicit ‘lazy’
statements become eager), and ‘normal’ (the default) respects the ‘lazy’
keyword in source code.  The *note sys.set_lazy_imports(): 17a. and
*note sys.get_lazy_imports(): 17b. functions allow changing and querying
this mode at runtime.

For more selective control, *note sys.set_lazy_imports_filter(): 17c.
accepts a callable that determines whether a specific module should be
loaded lazily.  The filter receives three arguments: the importing
module’s name (or ‘None’), the imported module’s name, and the fromlist
(or ‘None’ for regular imports).  It should return ‘True’ to allow the
import to be lazy, or ‘False’ to force eager loading.  This allows
patterns like making only your own application’s modules lazy while
keeping third-party dependencies eager:

     import sys

     def myapp_filter(importing, imported, fromlist):
         return imported.startswith("myapp.")
     sys.set_lazy_imports_filter(myapp_filter)
     sys.set_lazy_imports("all")

     import myapp.slow_module  # lazy (matches filter)
     import json               # eager (does not match filter)

The proxy type itself is available as *note types.LazyImportType: 17d.
for code that needs to detect lazy imports programmatically.

There are some restrictions on where the ‘lazy’ keyword can be used.
Lazy imports are only permitted at module scope; using ‘lazy’ inside a
function, class body, or ‘try’/‘except’/‘finally’ block raises a *note
SyntaxError: 17e.  Neither star imports nor future imports can be lazy
(‘lazy from module import *’ and ‘lazy from __future__ import ...’ both
raise ‘SyntaxError’).

For code that cannot use the ‘lazy’ keyword directly (for example, when
supporting Python versions older than 3.15 while still using lazy
imports on 3.15+), a module can define *note __lazy_modules__: 17f. as a
container of fully qualified module name strings.  Regular ‘import’
statements for those modules are then treated as lazy, with the same
semantics as the ‘lazy’ keyword:

     __lazy_modules__ = ["json", "pathlib"]

     import json     # lazy
     import os       # still eager

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 810(1) for the full specification and rationale.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado and Dino Viehland in
gh-142349(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0810/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142349


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 814 Add frozendict built-in type,  Next: PEP 661 Add sentinel built-in type,  Prev: PEP 810 Explicit lazy imports,  Up: New features<3>

'PEP 814': Add frozendict built-in type

A new *note immutable: 181. type, *note frozendict: 182, is added to the
*note builtins: 13. module.  It does not allow modification after
creation.  A ‘frozendict’ is not a subclass of ‘dict’; it inherits
directly from ‘object’.  A ‘frozendict’ is *note hashable: 183. as long
as all of its keys and values are hashable.  A ‘frozendict’ preserves
insertion order, but comparison does not take order into account.

For example:

     >>> a = frozendict(x=1, y=2)
     >>> a
     frozendict({'x': 1, 'y': 2})
     >>> a['z'] = 3
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-2>", line 1, in <module>
         a['z'] = 3
         ~^^^^^
     TypeError: 'frozendict' object does not support item assignment
     >>> b = frozendict(y=2, x=1)
     >>> hash(a) == hash(b)
     True
     >>> a == b
     True

The following standard library modules have been updated to accept
‘frozendict’: *note copy: 29, *note decimal: 39, *note json: 85, *note
marshal: 90, *note plistlib: b0. (only for serialization), *note pickle:
ab, *note pprint: b3. and *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.

*note eval(): 184. and *note exec(): 185. accept ‘frozendict’ for
'globals', and *note type(): 186. and *note str.maketrans(): 187. accept
‘frozendict’ for 'dict'.

Code checking for *note dict: 188. type using ‘isinstance(arg, dict)’
can be updated to ‘isinstance(arg, (dict, frozendict))’ to accept also
the ‘frozendict’ type, or to ‘isinstance(arg, collections.abc.Mapping)’
to accept also other mapping types such as *note MappingProxyType: 189.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 814(1) for the full specification and rationale.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner and Donghee Na in gh-141510(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0814/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141510


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 661 Add sentinel built-in type,  Next: PEP 799 A dedicated profiling package,  Prev: PEP 814 Add frozendict built-in type,  Up: New features<3>

'PEP 661': Add sentinel built-in type

A new *note sentinel: 18b. type is added to the *note builtins: 13.
module for creating unique sentinel values with a concise
representation.  Sentinel objects preserve identity when copied, support
use in type expressions with the ‘|’ operator, and can be pickled when
they are importable by module and name.

(PEP by Tal Einat; contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-148829(1).)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 661(2) for further details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148829

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0661/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 799 A dedicated profiling package,  Next: Tachyon High frequency statistical sampling profiler,  Prev: PEP 661 Add sentinel built-in type,  Up: New features<3>

'PEP 799': A dedicated profiling package

A new *note profiling: b5. module has been added to organize Python’s
built-in profiling tools under a single, coherent namespace.  This
module contains:

   * *note profiling.tracing: b7.: deterministic function-call tracing
     (relocated from ‘cProfile’).

   * *note profiling.sampling: b6.: a new statistical sampling profiler
     (named Tachyon).

The ‘cProfile’ module remains as an alias for backwards compatibility.
The *note profile: b4. module is deprecated and will be removed in
Python 3.17.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 799(1) for further details.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo and László Kiss Kollár in gh-138122(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0799/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122


File: python.info,  Node: Tachyon High frequency statistical sampling profiler,  Next: PEP 831 Frame pointers enabled by default,  Prev: PEP 799 A dedicated profiling package,  Up: New features<3>

1.2.2.5 Tachyon: High frequency statistical sampling profiler
.............................................................

[image src="python-figures/tachyon-logo.png" alt="Tachyon profiler logo"]


A new statistical sampling profiler (Tachyon) has been added as *note
profiling.sampling: b6.  This profiler enables low-overhead performance
analysis of running Python processes without requiring code modification
or process restart.

Unlike deterministic profilers (such as *note profiling.tracing: b7.)
that instrument every function call, the sampling profiler periodically
captures stack traces from running processes.  This approach provides
virtually zero overhead while achieving sampling rates of 'up to
1,000,000 Hz', making it the fastest sampling profiler available for
Python (at the time of its contribution) and ideal for debugging
performance issues in production environments.  This capability is
particularly valuable for debugging performance issues in production
systems where traditional profiling approaches would be too intrusive.

Key features include:

   * 'Zero-overhead profiling': Attach to any running Python process
     without affecting its performance.  Ideal for production debugging
     where you can’t afford to restart or slow down your application.

   * 'No code modification required': Profile existing applications
     without restart.  Simply point the profiler at a running process by
     PID and start collecting data.

   * 'Flexible target modes':

        * Profile running processes by PID (‘attach’) - attach to
          already-running applications

        * Run and profile scripts directly (‘run’) - profile from the
          very start of execution

        * Execute and profile modules (‘run -m’) - profile packages run
          as ‘python -m module’

        * Capture a one-shot snapshot of a running process (‘dump’) -
          print a traceback-style stack of every thread (or all asyncio
          tasks with ‘--async-aware’).  Useful for investigating hung
          processes.

   * 'Multiple profiling modes': Choose what to measure based on your
     performance investigation:

        * 'Wall-clock time' (‘--mode wall’, default): Measures real
          elapsed time including I/O, network waits, and blocking
          operations.  Use this to understand where your program spends
          calendar time, including when waiting for external resources.

        * 'CPU time' (‘--mode cpu’): Measures only active CPU execution
          time, excluding I/O waits and blocking.  Use this to identify
          CPU-bound bottlenecks and optimize computational work.

        * 'GIL-holding time' (‘--mode gil’): Measures time spent holding
          Python’s Global Interpreter Lock.  Use this to identify which
          threads dominate GIL usage in multi-threaded applications.

        * 'Exception handling time' (‘--mode exception’): Captures
          samples only from threads with an active exception.  Use this
          to analyze exception handling overhead.

   * 'Thread-aware profiling': Option to profile all threads (‘-a’) or
     just the main thread, essential for understanding multi-threaded
     application behavior.

   * 'Multiple output formats': Choose the visualization that best fits
     your workflow:

        * ‘--pstats’: Detailed tabular statistics compatible with *note
          pstats: b8.  Shows function-level timing with direct and
          cumulative samples.  Best for detailed analysis and
          integration with existing Python profiling tools.

        * ‘--collapsed’: Generates collapsed stack traces (one line per
          stack).  This format is specifically designed for creating
          flame graphs with external tools like Brendan Gregg’s
          FlameGraph scripts or speedscope.

        * ‘--flamegraph’: Generates a self-contained interactive HTML
          flame graph using D3.js.  Opens directly in your browser for
          immediate visual analysis.  Flame graphs show the call
          hierarchy where width represents time spent, making it easy to
          spot bottlenecks at a glance.

        * ‘--gecko’: Generates Gecko Profiler format compatible with
          Firefox Profiler(1).  Upload the output to Firefox Profiler
          for advanced timeline-based analysis with features like stack
          charts, markers, and network activity.

        * ‘--heatmap’: Generates an interactive HTML heatmap
          visualization with line-level sample counts.  Creates a
          directory with per-file heatmaps showing exactly where time is
          spent at the source code level.

   * 'Live interactive mode': Real-time TUI profiler with a top-like
     interface (‘--live’).  Monitor performance as your application runs
     with interactive sorting and filtering.

   * 'Async-aware profiling': Profile async/await code with task-based
     stack reconstruction (‘--async-aware’).  See which coroutines are
     consuming time, with options to show only running tasks or all
     tasks including those waiting.

   * 'Opcode-level profiling': Gather bytecode opcode information for
     instruction-level profiling (‘--opcodes’).  Shows which bytecode
     instructions are executing, including specializations from the
     adaptive interpreter.

See *note profiling.sampling: b6. for the complete documentation,
including all available output formats, profiling modes, and
configuration options.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo and László Kiss Kollár in gh-135953(2) and
gh-138122(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://profiler.firefox.com

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 831 Frame pointers enabled by default,  Next: PEP 798 Unpacking in comprehensions,  Prev: Tachyon High frequency statistical sampling profiler,  Up: New features<3>

'PEP 831': Frame pointers enabled by default

CPython is now built with frame pointers by default on platforms that
support them.  This uses the compiler flags ‘-fno-omit-frame-pointer’
and ‘-mno-omit-leaf-frame-pointer’, making native stack unwinding faster
and more reliable for system profilers, debuggers, crash analysis tools,
and eBPF-based observability tools.

The flags are exposed through *note sysconfig: e4, so extension modules
built by tools that consume Python’s build configuration inherit frame
pointers by default.  This propagation is intentional: mixed
Python/native profiling needs an unbroken frame-pointer chain through
the interpreter, extension modules, embedding applications, and native
libraries.

     Σημαντικό: Third-party build backends and native build systems
     should preserve these flags when they consume Python’s *note
     sysconfig: e4. values.  Build systems that compile C, C++, Rust, or
     other native code without inheriting Python’s compiler flags should
     enable equivalent frame-pointer flags themselves.  A single native
     component built without frame pointers can break stack unwinding
     for the whole Python process.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado and Savannah Ostrowski in
gh-149201(1); PEP 831 written by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Ken Jin,
Savannah Ostrowski, and Diego Russo.)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 831(2) for further details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149201

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0831/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 798 Unpacking in comprehensions,  Next: PEP 829 Package startup configuration files,  Prev: PEP 831 Frame pointers enabled by default,  Up: New features<3>

'PEP 798': Unpacking in comprehensions

List, set, and dictionary comprehensions, as well as generator
expressions, now support unpacking with ‘*’ and ‘**’.  This extends the
unpacking syntax from PEP 448(1) to comprehensions, providing a new
syntax for combining an arbitrary number of iterables or dictionaries
into a single flat structure.  This new syntax is a direct alternative
to nested comprehensions, *note itertools.chain(): 190, and *note
itertools.chain.from_iterable(): 191.  For example:

     >>> lists = [[1, 2], [3, 4], [5]]
     >>> [*L for L in lists]  # equivalent to [x for L in lists for x in L]
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

     >>> sets = [{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 4}]
     >>> {*s for s in sets}  # equivalent to {x for s in sets for x in s}
     {1, 2, 3, 4}

     >>> dicts = [{'a': 1}, {'b': 2}, {'a': 3}]
     >>> {**d for d in dicts}  # equivalent to {k: v for d in dicts for k,v in d.items()}
     {'a': 3, 'b': 2}

Generator expressions can similarly use unpacking to yield values from
multiple iterables:

     >>> gen = (*L for L in lists)  # equivalent to (x for L in lists for x in L)
     >>> list(gen)
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

This change also extends to asynchronous generator expressions, such
that, for example, ‘(*a async for a in agen())’ is equivalent to ‘(x
async for a in agen() for x in a)’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 798(2) for further details.

(Contributed by Adam Hartz in gh-143055(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0798/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143055


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 829 Package startup configuration files,  Next: PEP 803 – Stable ABI for free-threaded builds,  Prev: PEP 798 Unpacking in comprehensions,  Up: New features<3>

'PEP 829': Package startup configuration files

Loaded by the *note site: cf. module when ‘-S’ is not given, *note .pth
files: 193. can contain lines that both extend *note sys.path: 194. and
execute arbitrary code when the line starts with ‘import’ (followed by a
space or tab).  The latter functionality can be problematic, since it is
difficult to know exactly what gets executed when Python starts up.

As a step towards improving the ability to audit pre-start executable
code, Python 3.15 introduces *note .start files: 195. which contain
entry point specifications of the form ‘pkg.mod:callable’ where
‘pkg.mod’ is the import path to the given callable.  When Python starts
up, the callable is located and called with no arguments.

‘import’ lines in ‘.pth’ files are silently deprecated.  When a matching
‘.start’ file is found, ‘import’ lines in ‘.pth’ files are ignored.
There is no change to *note sys.path: 194. extension lines in ‘.pth’
files.

(Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-148641(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148641


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 803 – Stable ABI for free-threaded builds,  Next: PEP 788 Protecting the C API from interpreter finalization,  Prev: PEP 829 Package startup configuration files,  Up: New features<3>

'PEP 803' – Stable ABI for free-threaded builds

C extensions that target the *note Stable ABI: 197. can now be compiled
for the new 'Stable ABI for Free-Threaded Builds' (also known as
‘abi3t’), which makes them compatible with *note free-threaded builds:
198. of CPython.  This usually requires some non-trivial changes to the
source code; specifically:

   - Switching to API introduced in PEP 697(1) (Python 3.12), such as
     negative *note basicsize: 199. and *note PyObject_GetTypeData():
     19a, rather than making *note PyObject: 19b. part of the instance
     struct; and

   - Switching from a ‘PyInit_’ function to a new export hook, *note
     PyModExport_*: 19c, introduced for this purpose in PEP 793(2), with
     a new *note PySlot: 19d. structure introduced in PEP 820(3).

The reference documentation for these features is complete, but
currently aimed at early adopters.  A migration guide is planned for an
upcoming beta release.

Note that Stable ABI does not offer all the functionality that CPython
has to offer.  Extensions that cannot switch to ‘abi3t’ should continue
to build for the existing Stable ABI (‘abi3’) and the version-specific
ABI for free-threading (‘cp315t’) separately.

Stable ABI for Free-Threaded Builds should typically be selected in a
build tool (such as, for example, Setuptools, meson-python,
scikit-build-core, or Maturin).  At the time of writing, these tools did
'not' support ‘abi3t’.  If this is the case for your tool, compile for
‘cp315t’ separately.  If not using a build tool – or when writing such a
tool – you can select ‘abi3t’ by setting the macro ‘Py_TARGET_ABI3T’ as
discussed in *note Compiling for Stable ABI: 19e.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 803(4) for further details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0793/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0820/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0803/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 788 Protecting the C API from interpreter finalization,  Next: Improved error messages,  Prev: PEP 803 – Stable ABI for free-threaded builds,  Up: New features<3>

'PEP 788': Protecting the C API from interpreter finalization

In the C API, *note interpreter finalization: 1a0. can be problematic
for many extensions, because *note attaching: 1a1. a thread state will
permanently hang the thread, resulting in deadlocks and other spurious
issues.  Additionally, it has historically been impossible to safely
check whether an interpreter is alive before using it, leading to
crashes when a thread concurrently deletes an interpreter while another
thread is trying to attach to it.

There are now several new suites of APIs to circumvent these problems:

   * *note Interpreter guards: 1a2, which prevent an interpreter from
     finalizing.

   * *note Interpreter views: 1a3, which allow thread-safe access to an
     interpreter that may be concurrently finalizing or deleted.

   * *note New APIs: 1a4. to automatically attach and detach thread
     states that come with built-in protection against finalization.

In addition, APIs in the ‘PyGILState’ family (most notably *note
PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 1a6.) have
been *note soft deprecated: 1a7.  There is 'no' plan to remove them, and
existing code will continue to work, but there will be no new
‘PyGILState’ APIs in future versions of Python.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 788(1) for further details.

(Contributed by Peter Bierma in gh-149101(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0788/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149101


File: python.info,  Node: Improved error messages,  Prev: PEP 788 Protecting the C API from interpreter finalization,  Up: New features<3>

1.2.2.11 Improved error messages
................................

   * The interpreter now provides more helpful suggestions in *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. exceptions when accessing an attribute on an
     object that does not exist, but a similar attribute is available
     through one of its members.

     For example, if the object has an attribute that itself exposes the
     requested name, the error message will suggest accessing it via
     that inner attribute:

          @dataclass
          class Circle:
             radius: float

             @property
             def area(self) -> float:
                return pi * self.radius**2

          class Container:
             def __init__(self, inner: Circle) -> None:
                self.inner = inner

          circle = Circle(radius=4.0)
          container = Container(circle)
          print(container.area)

     Running this code now produces a clearer suggestion:

          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "/home/pablogsal/github/python/main/lel.py", line 42, in <module>
              print(container.area)
                    ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
          AttributeError: 'Container' object has no attribute 'area'. Did you mean '.inner.area' instead of '.area'?

   * When an *note AttributeError: 1a9. on a builtin type has no close
     match via Levenshtein distance, the error message now checks a
     static table of common method names from other languages
     (JavaScript, Java, Ruby, C#) and suggests the Python equivalent:

          >>> [1, 2, 3].push(4)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          AttributeError: 'list' object has no attribute 'push'. Did you mean '.append'?

          >>> 'hello'.toUpperCase()
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          AttributeError: 'str' object has no attribute 'toUpperCase'. Did you mean '.upper'?

     When the Python equivalent is a language construct rather than a
     method, the hint describes the construct directly:

          >>> {}.put("a", 1)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          AttributeError: 'dict' object has no attribute 'put'. Use d[k] = v.

     When a mutable method is called on an immutable type, the hint
     suggests the mutable counterpart:

          >>> (1, 2, 3).append(4)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          AttributeError: 'tuple' object has no attribute 'append'. Did you mean to use a 'list' object?

     These hints also work for subclasses of builtin types.

     (Contributed by Matt Van Horn in gh-146406(1).)

   * The interpreter now tries to provide a suggestion when *note
     delattr(): 1aa. fails due to a missing attribute.  When an
     attribute name that closely resembles an existing attribute is
     used, the interpreter will suggest the correct attribute name in
     the error message.  For example:

          >>> class A:
          ...     pass
          >>> a = A()
          >>> a.abcde = 1
          >>> del a.abcdf
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          AttributeError: 'A' object has no attribute 'abcdf'. Did you mean: 'abcde'?

     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev and Pranjal Prajapati in
     gh-136588(2).)

   * Several error messages incorrectly using the term «argument» have
     been corrected.  (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in gh-133382(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146406

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136588

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133382


File: python.info,  Node: Other language changes<2>,  Next: Default interactive shell,  Prev: New features<3>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 15

1.2.3 Other language changes
----------------------------

   * Python now uses UTF-8(1) as the default encoding, independent of
     the system’s environment.  This means that I/O operations without
     an explicit encoding, for example, ‘open('flying-circus.txt')’,
     will use UTF-8.  UTF-8 is a widely-supported Unicode(2) character
     encoding that has become a 'de facto' standard for representing
     text, including nearly every webpage on the internet, many common
     file formats, programming languages, and more.

     This only applies when no ‘encoding’ argument is given.  For best
     compatibility between versions of Python, ensure that an explicit
     ‘encoding’ argument is always provided.  The *note opt-in encoding
     warning: 1ac. can be used to identify code that may be affected by
     this change.  The special ‘encoding='locale'’ argument uses the
     current locale encoding, and has been supported since Python 3.10.

     To retain the previous behaviour, Python’s UTF-8 mode may be
     disabled with the *note PYTHONUTF8=0: 1ad. environment variable or
     the *note -X utf8=0: 178. command-line option.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 686(3) for further details.

     (Contributed by Adam Turner in gh-133711(4); PEP 686 written by
     Inada Naoki.)
   * The interpreter help (such as ‘python --help’) is now in color.
     This can be controlled by *note environment variables: 1af.
     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-148766(5).)
   * Unraisable exceptions are now highlighted with color by default.
     This can be controlled by *note environment variables: 1af.
     (Contributed by Peter Bierma in gh-134170(6).)
   * More color in *note argparse: 1b1, *note ast: 1b2, *note calendar:
     1b3, *note difflib: 1b4, *note http.server: 1b5, *note pickletools:
     1b6, *note PyREPL tab completion: 1b7, *note python –help: 1ae,
     *note sqlite3: 1b8, *note timeit: 1b9, *note tokenize: 1ba, *note
     unraisable exceptions: 1b0. and *note stdlib: 1bb. (ast,
     compileall, doctest, gzip, inspect, json.tool, pdb,
     profiling.sampling, random, regrtest, sqlite3, timeit, tokenize,
     trace, unittest, uuid, zipapp, zipfile) CLI help.

   * The *note __repr__(): 1bc. of *note ImportError: 1bd. and *note
     ModuleNotFoundError: 1be. now shows «name» and «path» as
     ‘name=<name>’ and ‘path=<path>’ if they were given as keyword
     arguments at construction time.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka,
     Oleg Iarygin, and Yoav Nir in gh-74185(7).)

   * The *note __dict__: 1bf. and ‘__weakref__’ descriptors now use a
     single descriptor instance per interpreter, shared across all types
     that need them.  This speeds up class creation, and helps avoid
     reference cycles.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-135228(8).)

   * The *note -W: 1c0. option and the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: 1c1.
     environment variable can now specify regular expressions instead of
     literal strings to match the warning message and the module name,
     if the corresponding field starts and ends with a forward slash
     (‘/’).  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-134716(9).)

   * Functions that take timestamp or timeout arguments now accept any
     real numbers (such as *note Decimal: 1c2. and *note Fraction:
     1c3.), not only integers or floats, although this does not improve
     precision.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-67795(10).)

   * Added *note bytearray.take_bytes(n=None, /): 1c5. to take bytes out
     of a *note bytearray: 1c6. without copying.  This enables
     optimizing code which must return *note bytes: 1c7. after working
     with a mutable buffer of bytes such as data buffering, network
     protocol parsing, encoding, decoding, and compression.  Common code
     patterns which can be optimized with *note take_bytes(): 1c5. are
     listed below.  Suggested optimizing refactors

     Description                           Old                                   New
                                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                 
     Return *note bytes: 1c7. after             def read() -> bytes:                  def read() -> bytes:
     working with *note bytearray: 1c6.             buffer = bytearray(1024)              buffer = bytearray(1024)
                                                    ...                                   ...
                                                    return bytes(buffer)                  return buffer.take_bytes()
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     Empty a buffer getting the bytes           buffer = bytearray(1024)              buffer = bytearray(1024)
                                                ...                                   ...
                                                data = bytes(buffer)                  data = buffer.take_bytes()
                                                buffer.clear()                   
                                           
                                                                                 
     Split a buffer at a specific               buffer = bytearray(b'abc\ndef')       buffer = bytearray(b'abc\ndef')
     separator                                  n = buffer.find(b'\n')                n = buffer.find(b'\n')
                                                data = bytes(buffer[:n + 1])          data = buffer.take_bytes(n + 1)
                                                del buffer[:n + 1]               
                                                assert data == b'abc\n'
                                                assert buffer == bytearray(b'def')
                                           
                                                                                 
     Split a buffer at a specific               buffer = bytearray(b'abc\ndef')       buffer = bytearray(b'abc\ndef')
     separator; discard after the               n = buffer.find(b'\n')                n = buffer.find(b'\n')
     separator                                  data = bytes(buffer[:n])              buffer.resize(n)
                                                buffer.clear()                        data = buffer.take_bytes()
                                                assert data == b'abc'            
                                                assert len(buffer) == 0
                                           

     (Contributed by Cody Maloney in gh-139871(11).)

   * Many functions related to compiling or parsing Python code, such as
     *note compile(): 1c8, *note ast.parse(): 1c9, *note
     symtable.symtable(): 1ca, and *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code(): 1cb, now allow the
     module name to be passed.  It is needed to unambiguously *note
     filter: 1cc. syntax warnings by module name.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-135801(12).)

   * Allowed defining the '__dict__' and '__weakref__' *note __slots__:
     1cd. for any class.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-41779(13).)

   * Allowed defining any *note __slots__: 1cd. for a class derived from
     *note tuple: 1ce. (including classes created by *note
     collections.namedtuple(): 1cf.).  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in gh-41779(14).)

   * The *note slice: 1d0. type now supports subscription, making it a
     *note generic type: 1d1.  (Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe in
     gh-128335(15).)

   * The class *note memoryview: 1d2. now supports the float complex and
     double complex C types: formatting characters ‘'Zf'’ and ‘'Zd'’
     respectively.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-146151(16) and
     gh-148675(17).)

   * Allow the 'count' argument of *note bytes.replace(): 1d3. to be a
     keyword.  (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in gh-147856(18).)

   * Unary plus is now accepted in *note match: 1d4. literal patterns,
     mirroring the existing support for unary minus.  (Contributed by
     Bartosz Sławecki in gh-145239(19).)

   * The import system now acquires per-module locks in hierarchical
     order (parent packages before their submodules).  This fixes a
     long-standing deadlock where one thread importing ‘pkg.sub’ and
     another importing ‘pkg.sub.mod’ could each block the other when
     ‘pkg/sub/__init__.py’ imports ‘pkg.sub.mod’.  (Contributed by
     Gregory P. Smith in gh-83065(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8

   (2) https://home.unicode.org/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133711

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148766

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134170

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74185

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135228

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134716

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67795

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139871

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135801

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/41779

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/41779

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128335

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146151

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148675

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/147856

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145239

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83065


File: python.info,  Node: Default interactive shell,  Next: New modules<2>,  Prev: Other language changes<2>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 15

1.2.4 Default interactive shell
-------------------------------

   * Tab completions are now colored by object kind, based on
     fancycompleter(1).  Set *note PYTHON_BASIC_COMPLETER: 1d6. to fall
     back to *note rlcompleter: c5.  Color can also be controlled by
     *note environment variables: 1af.  (Contributed by Antonio Cuni and
     Pablo Galindo in gh-130472(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/fancycompleter/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130472


File: python.info,  Node: New modules<2>,  Next: Improved modules<2>,  Prev: Default interactive shell,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 15

1.2.5 New modules
-----------------

* Menu:

* math.integer: math integer.


File: python.info,  Node: math integer,  Up: New modules<2>

1.2.5.1 math.integer
....................

This module provides access to the mathematical functions for integer
arguments ( PEP 791(1)).  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
gh-81313(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0791/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81313


File: python.info,  Node: Improved modules<2>,  Next: Optimizations<2>,  Prev: New modules<2>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 15

1.2.6 Improved modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* argparse::
* array::
* ast::
* asyncio::
* base64::
* binascii::
* calendar::
* collections::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures.
* contextlib::
* dataclasses::
* dbm::
* difflib::
* email::
* faulthandler::
* functools: functools<2>.
* gc::
* hashlib::
* http.client: http client.
* http.server: http server.
* inspect::
* json::
* locale::
* math::
* mimetypes::
* mmap::
* os::
* os.path: os path.
* pdb::
* pickle::
* pickletools::
* pprint::
* re::
* resource::
* shelve::
* socket::
* sqlite3::
* ssl::
* subprocess::
* symtable: symtable<2>.
* sys::
* sys.monitoring: sys monitoring.
* tarfile::
* threading::
* timeit::
* tkinter::
* tokenize::
* tomllib::
* types::
* typing::
* unicodedata::
* unittest::
* urllib.parse: urllib parse.
* venv::
* warnings::
* wave::
* webbrowser::
* xml::
* xml.parsers.expat: xml parsers expat.
* zlib::


File: python.info,  Node: argparse,  Next: array,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.1 argparse
................

   * The *note BooleanOptionalAction: 1db. action now supports
     single-dash long options and alternate prefix characters.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-138525(1).)

   * Changed the 'suggest_on_error' parameter of *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc. to default to ‘True’.  This enables
     suggestions for mistyped arguments by default.  (Contributed by
     Jakob Schluse in gh-140450(2).)
   * Added backtick markup support in *note ArgumentParser: 1dc.
     description and epilog text to highlight inline code when color
     output is enabled.  (Contributed by Savannah Ostrowski in
     gh-142390(3).)

   * Extended backtick markup to argument ‘help’ text and added support
     for double backticks (RST inline-literal style).  (Contributed by
     Hugo van Kemenade in gh-149375(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138525

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140450

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142390

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149375


File: python.info,  Node: array,  Next: ast,  Prev: argparse,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.2 array
.............

   * Support the float complex and double complex C types: formatting
     characters ‘'Zf'’ and ‘'Zd'’ respectively.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-146151(1) and gh-148675(2).)

   * Support half-floats (16-bit IEEE 754 binary interchange format):
     formatting character ‘'e'’.  (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in
     gh-146238(3).)

   * The *note array.typecodes: 1de. type changed from *note str: 1df.
     to *note tuple: 1ce. to support type codes longer than 1 character
     (‘Zf’ and ‘Zd’).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-148675(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146151

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148675

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146238

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148675


File: python.info,  Node: ast,  Next: asyncio,  Prev: array,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.3 ast
...........

   * Add 'color' parameter to *note dump(): 1e1.  If ‘True’, the
     returned string is syntax highlighted using ANSI escape sequences.
     If ‘False’ (the default), colored output is always disabled.
     (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in gh-148981(1).)

   * The *note command-line: 1e2. output is now syntax highlighted by
     default.  This can be *note controlled using environment variables:
     1af.  (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in gh-148981(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148981

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148981


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio,  Next: base64,  Prev: ast,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.4 asyncio
...............

   * Added *note TaskGroup.cancel: 1e4. to allow early termination of a
     task group, for instance, when the goal of the tasks has been
     achieved or their services are no longer needed.  Previously this
     would involve unintuitive boilerplate such as an extra task raising
     a custom exception which is then suppressed as it exits the task
     group.  (Contributed by John Belmonte in gh-127214(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127214


File: python.info,  Node: base64,  Next: binascii,  Prev: asyncio,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.5 base64
..............

   * Added the 'pad' parameter in *note z85encode(): 1e6.  (Contributed
     by Hauke Dämpfling in gh-143103(1).)

   * Added the 'padded' parameter in *note b32encode(): 1e7, *note
     b32decode(): 1e8, *note b32hexencode(): 1e9, *note b32hexdecode():
     1ea, *note b64encode(): 1eb, *note b64decode(): 1ec, *note
     urlsafe_b64encode(): 1ed, and *note urlsafe_b64decode(): 1ee.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-73613(2).)

   * Added the 'wrapcol' parameter in *note b16encode(): 1ef, *note
     b32encode(): 1e7, *note b32hexencode(): 1e9, *note b64encode():
     1eb, *note b85encode(): 1f0, and *note z85encode(): 1e6.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-143214(3) and gh-146431(4).)

   * Added the 'ignorechars' parameter in *note b16decode(): 1f1, *note
     b32decode(): 1e8, *note b32hexdecode(): 1ea, *note b64decode():
     1ec, *note b85decode(): 1f2, and *note z85decode(): 1f3.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-144001(5) and gh-146431(6).)

   * Added the 'canonical' parameter in *note b32decode(): 1e8, *note
     b32hexdecode(): 1ea, *note b64decode(): 1ec, *note
     urlsafe_b64decode(): 1ee, *note a85decode(): 1f4, *note
     b85decode(): 1f2, and *note z85decode(): 1f3, to reject encodings
     with non-zero padding bits or other non-canonical forms.
     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-146311(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143103

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73613

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143214

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146431

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144001

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146431

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146311


File: python.info,  Node: binascii,  Next: calendar,  Prev: base64,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.6 binascii
................

   * Added functions for Base32 encoding:

        - *note b2a_base32(): 1f6. and *note a2b_base32(): 1f7.

     (Contributed by James Seo in gh-146192(1).)

   * Added functions for Ascii85, Base85, and Z85 encoding:

        - *note b2a_ascii85(): 1f8. and *note a2b_ascii85(): 1f9.

        - *note b2a_base85(): 1fa. and *note a2b_base85(): 1fb.

     (Contributed by James Seo and Serhiy Storchaka in gh-101178(2).)

   * Added the 'padded' parameter in *note b2a_base32(): 1f6, *note
     a2b_base32(): 1f7, *note b2a_base64(): 1fc, and *note a2b_base64():
     1fd.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-73613(3).)

   * Added the 'wrapcol' parameter in *note b2a_base64(): 1fc.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-143214(4).)

   * Added the 'alphabet' parameter in *note b2a_base64(): 1fc. and
     *note a2b_base64(): 1fd.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-145980(5).)

   * Added the 'ignorechars' parameter in *note a2b_hex(): 1fe, *note
     unhexlify(): 1ff, and *note a2b_base64(): 1fd.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-144001(6) and gh-146431(7).)

   * Added the 'canonical' parameter in *note a2b_base64(): 1fd, to
     reject encodings with non-zero padding bits.  (Contributed by
     Gregory P. Smith in gh-146311(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146192

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101178

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73613

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143214

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145980

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144001

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146431

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146311


File: python.info,  Node: calendar,  Next: collections,  Prev: binascii,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.7 calendar
................

   * *note calendar: 15.’s *note command-line: 201. text output has more
     color.  This can be controlled with *note environment variables:
     1af.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-148352(1).)

   * The *note calendar: 15.’s *note command-line: 201. HTML output now
     accepts the year-month option: ‘python -m calendar -t html 2009
     06’.  (Contributed by Pål Grønås Drange in gh-140212(2).)

   * Calendar pages generated by the *note calendar.HTMLCalendar: 202.
     class now support dark mode and have been migrated to the HTML5
     standard for improved accessibility.  (Contributed by Jiahao Li and
     Hugo van Kemenade in gh-137634(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148352

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140212

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137634


File: python.info,  Node: collections,  Next: concurrent futures,  Prev: calendar,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.8 collections
...................

   * Added ‘collections.Counter.__xor__()’ and
     ‘collections.Counter.__ixor__()’ to compute the symmetric
     difference between *note Counter: 204. objects.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in gh-138682(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138682


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures,  Next: contextlib,  Prev: collections,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.9 concurrent.futures
..........................

   * Improved error reporting when a child process in a *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. terminates abruptly.
     The resulting traceback will now tell you the PID and exit code of
     the terminated process.  (Contributed by Jonathan Berg in
     gh-139486(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139486


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib,  Next: dataclasses,  Prev: concurrent futures,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.10 contextlib
...................

   * Added support for arbitrary descriptors ‘__enter__()’,
     ‘__exit__()’, ‘__aenter__()’, and ‘__aexit__()’ in *note ExitStack:
     208. and *note contextlib.AsyncExitStack: 209, for consistency with
     the *note with: 20a. and *note async with: 20b. statements.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-144386(1).)

   * *note ContextDecorator: 20c. and *note AsyncContextDecorator: 20d.
     (and therefore *note contextmanager(): 20e. and *note
     asynccontextmanager(): 20f. used as decorators) now detect
     generator functions, coroutine functions, and asynchronous
     generator functions and keep the context manager open across
     iteration or await.  Previously the context manager exited as soon
     as the generator or coroutine object was created.  (Contributed by
     Alex Grönholm & Gregory P. Smith in gh-125862(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144386

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125862


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses,  Next: dbm,  Prev: contextlib,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.11 dataclasses
....................

   * Annotations for generated ‘__init__’ methods no longer include
     internal type names.


File: python.info,  Node: dbm,  Next: difflib,  Prev: dataclasses,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.12 dbm
............

   * Added new ‘reorganize()’ methods to *note dbm.dumb: 35. and *note
     dbm.sqlite3: 38. to recover unused free space previously occupied
     by deleted entries.  (Contributed by Andrea Oliveri in
     gh-134004(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134004


File: python.info,  Node: difflib,  Next: email,  Prev: dbm,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.13 difflib
................

   * Introduced the optional 'color' parameter to *note
     difflib.unified_diff(): 213, enabling color output similar to ‘git
     diff’.  This can be controlled by *note environment variables: 1af.
     (Contributed by Douglas Thor in gh-133725(1).)

   * Improved the styling of HTML diff pages generated by the *note
     difflib.HtmlDiff: 214. class, and migrated the output to the HTML5
     standard.  (Contributed by Jiahao Li in gh-134580(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133725

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134580


File: python.info,  Node: email,  Next: faulthandler,  Prev: difflib,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.14 email
..............

   * Email generators now raise an error when an *note EmailMessage:
     216. cannot be accurately flattened due to a non-ASCII email
     address (mailbox) in an address header.  Options for supporting
     Email Address Internationalization (EAI) are discussed in *note
     EmailPolicy.utf8: 217.  (Contributed by R David Murray and Mike
     Edmunds in gh-122540(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122540


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler,  Next: functools<2>,  Prev: email,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.15 faulthandler
.....................

   * Added the 'max_threads' parameter in *note faulthandler.enable():
     219, *note faulthandler.dump_traceback(): 21a, *note
     faulthandler.dump_traceback_later(): 21b, and *note
     faulthandler.register(): 21c.  (Contributed by Eric Froemling in
     gh-149085(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149085


File: python.info,  Node: functools<2>,  Next: gc,  Prev: faulthandler,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.16 functools
..................

   * *note singledispatchmethod(): 21e. now supports non-*note
     descriptor: 21f. callables.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-140873(1).)

   * *note singledispatchmethod(): 21e. now dispatches on the second
     argument if it wraps a regular method and is called as a class
     attribute.  (Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki in gh-143535(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140873

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143535


File: python.info,  Node: gc,  Next: hashlib,  Prev: functools<2>,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.17 gc
...........

   * Python 3.14.0-3.14.4 shipped with a new incremental garbage
     collector.  However, due to a number of reports(1) of significant
     memory pressure in production environments, it has been reverted
     back to the generational GC from 3.13.  This is the GC now used in
     Python 3.14.5 and later and Python 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142516


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib,  Next: http client,  Prev: gc,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.18 hashlib
................

   * Ensure that hash functions guaranteed to be always 'available'
     exist as attributes of *note hashlib: 6b. even if they will not
     work at runtime due to missing backend implementations.  For
     instance, ‘hashlib.md5’ will no longer raise *note AttributeError:
     1a9. if OpenSSL is not available and Python has been built without
     MD5 support.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-136929(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136929


File: python.info,  Node: http client,  Next: http server,  Prev: hashlib,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.19 http.client
....................

   * A new 'max_response_headers' keyword-only parameter has been added
     to *note HTTPConnection: 223. and *note HTTPSConnection: 224.
     constructors.  This parameter overrides the default maximum number
     of allowed response headers.  (Contributed by Alexander Enrique
     Urieles Nieto in gh-131724(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131724


File: python.info,  Node: http server,  Next: inspect,  Prev: http client,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.20 http.server
....................

   * The logging of *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 226, as used by the
     *note command-line interface: 227, is colored by default.  This can
     be controlled with *note environment variables: 1af.  (Contributed
     by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-146292(1).)

   * Added *note default_content_type: 228. and the *note -content-type:
     229. command-line option to allow customizing the default
     ‘Content-Type’ header for files with unknown extensions.
     (Contributed by John Comeau and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-113471(2).)

   * Add a new ‘extra_response_headers’ keyword argument to *note
     SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 22a. to support custom headers in HTTP
     responses.  (Contributed by Anton I. Sipos in gh-135057(3).)

   * Add a ‘-H/--header’ option to the ‘python -m http.server’
     command-line interface to support custom headers in HTTP responses.
     (Contributed by Anton I. Sipos in gh-135057(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146292

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113471

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135057

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135057


File: python.info,  Node: inspect,  Next: json,  Prev: http server,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.21 inspect
................

   * Add parameters 'inherit_class_doc' and 'fallback_to_class_doc' for
     *note getdoc(): 22c.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-132686(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132686


File: python.info,  Node: json,  Next: locale,  Prev: inspect,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.22 json
.............

   * Add the 'array_hook' parameter to *note load(): 22e. and *note
     loads(): 22f. functions: allow a callback for JSON literal array
     types to customize Python lists in the resulting decoded object.
     Passing combined *note frozendict: 182. to 'object_pairs_hook'
     param and *note tuple: 1ce. to ‘array_hook’ will yield a deeply
     nested immutable Python structure representing the JSON data.
     (Contributed by Joao S. O. Bueno in gh-146440(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146440


File: python.info,  Node: locale,  Next: math,  Prev: json,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.23 locale
...............

   * *note setlocale(): 231. now supports language codes with
     ‘@’-modifiers.  ‘@’-modifiers are no longer silently removed in
     *note getlocale(): 232, but included in the language code.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-137729(1).)

   * Undeprecate the *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 233. function.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-130796(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137729

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130796


File: python.info,  Node: math,  Next: mimetypes,  Prev: locale,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.24 math
.............

   * Add *note math.isnormal(): 235. and *note math.issubnormal(): 236.
     functions.  (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-132908(1).)

   * Add *note math.fmax(): 237, *note math.fmin(): 238. and *note
     math.signbit(): 239. functions.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-135853(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132908

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135853


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes,  Next: mmap,  Prev: math,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.25 mimetypes
..................

   * Add more MIME types.  (Contributed by Benedikt Johannes, Charlie
     Lin, Foolbar, Gil Forcada and John Franey in gh-144217(1),
     gh-145720(2), gh-140937(3), gh-139959(4), gh-145698(5),
     gh-145718(6), gh-145918(7), and gh-144213(8).)

   * Rename ‘application/x-texinfo’ to ‘application/texinfo’.
     (Contributed by Charlie Lin in gh-140165(9).)

   * Changed the MIME type for ‘.ai’ files to ‘application/pdf’.
     (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in gh-141239(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144217

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145720

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140937

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139959

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145698

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145718

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145918

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144213

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140165

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141239


File: python.info,  Node: mmap,  Next: os,  Prev: mimetypes,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.26 mmap
.............

   * *note mmap.mmap: 23c. now has a 'trackfd' parameter on Windows; if
     it is ‘False’, the file handle corresponding to 'fileno' will not
     be duplicated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-78502(1).)

   * Added the *note mmap.mmap.set_name(): 23d. method to annotate an
     anonymous memory mapping if Linux kernel supports
     ‘PR_SET_VMA_ANON_NAME(2)’ (Linux 5.17 or newer).  (Contributed by
     Donghee Na in gh-142419(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78502

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/PR_SET_VMA(2const)

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142419


File: python.info,  Node: os,  Next: os path,  Prev: mmap,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.27 os
...........

   * Add *note os.statx(): 23f. on Linux kernel versions 4.11 and later
     with glibc versions 2.28 and later.  (Contributed by Jeffrey
     Bosboom and Victor Stinner in gh-83714(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83714


File: python.info,  Node: os path,  Next: pdb,  Prev: os,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.28 os.path
................

   * Add support of the all-but-last mode in *note realpath(): 241.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-71189(1).)

   * The 'strict' parameter to *note os.path.realpath(): 241. accepts a
     new value, *note os.path.ALLOW_MISSING: 242.  If used, errors other
     than *note FileNotFoundError: 243. will be re-raised; the resulting
     path can be missing but it will be free of symlinks.  (Contributed
     by Petr Viktorin for CVE 2025-4517(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71189

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4517


File: python.info,  Node: pdb,  Next: pickle,  Prev: os path,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.29 pdb
............

   * Use the new interactive shell as the default input shell for *note
     pdb: aa.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-145379(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145379


File: python.info,  Node: pickle,  Next: pickletools,  Prev: pdb,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.30 pickle
...............

   * Add support for pickling private methods and nested classes.
     (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Serhiy Storchaka in gh-77188(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77188


File: python.info,  Node: pickletools,  Next: pprint,  Prev: pickle,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.31 pickletools
....................

   * The output of the *note pickletools: ac. command-line interface is
     colored by default.  This can be controlled with *note environment
     variables: 1af.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-149026(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149026


File: python.info,  Node: pprint,  Next: re,  Prev: pickletools,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.32 pprint
...............

   * *note pprint: b3. now uses modern defaults: ‘indent=4, width=88’,
     and the default ‘compact=False’ output is now formatted similar to
     pretty-printed *note json.dumps(): 248.  (Contributed by Stefan
     Todoran, Semyon Moroz and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-112632(1) and
     gh-149189(2).)

   * Add t-string support to *note pprint: b3.  (Contributed by Loïc
     Simon and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-134551(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112632

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149189

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134551


File: python.info,  Node: re,  Next: resource,  Prev: pprint,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.33 re
...........

   * *note re.prefixmatch(): 24a. and a corresponding *note
     re.Pattern.prefixmatch(): 24b. have been added as alternate, more
     explicit names for the existing and now *note soft deprecated: 1a7.
     *note re.match(): 24c. and *note re.Pattern.match(): 24d. APIs.
     These are intended to be used to alleviate confusion around what
     'match' means by following the Zen of Python’s '«Explicit is better
     than implicit»' mantra.  Most other language regular expression
     libraries use an API named 'match' to mean what Python has always
     called 'search'.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-86519(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86519


File: python.info,  Node: resource,  Next: shelve,  Prev: re,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.34 resource
.................

   * Add new constants: *note RLIMIT_NTHR: 24f, *note RLIMIT_UMTXP: 250,
     *note RLIMIT_THREADS: 251, *note RLIM_SAVED_CUR: 252, and *note
     RLIM_SAVED_MAX: 253.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-137512(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137512


File: python.info,  Node: shelve,  Next: socket,  Prev: resource,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.35 shelve
...............

   * Added new ‘reorganize()’ method to *note shelve: cb. used to
     recover unused free space previously occupied by deleted entries.
     (Contributed by Andrea Oliveri in gh-134004(1).)

   * Add support for custom serialization and deserialization functions
     in the *note shelve: cb. module.  (Contributed by Furkan Onder in
     gh-99631(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134004

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99631


File: python.info,  Node: socket,  Next: sqlite3,  Prev: shelve,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.36 socket
...............

   * Add constants for the ISO-TP CAN protocol.  (Contributed by Patrick
     Menschel and Stefan Tatschner in gh-86819(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86819


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3,  Next: ssl,  Prev: socket,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.37 sqlite3
................

   * The *note command-line interface: 257. has several new features:

        * SQL keyword completion on <tab>.  (Contributed by Long Tan in
          gh-133393(1).)

        * Prompts, error messages, and help text are now colored.  This
          is enabled by default, see *note Controlling color: 1af. for
          details.  (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych and Łukasz Langa in
          gh-133461(2).)

        * Table, index, trigger, view, column, function, and schema
          completion on <tab>.  (Contributed by Long Tan in
          gh-136101(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133393

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136101


File: python.info,  Node: ssl,  Next: subprocess,  Prev: sqlite3,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.38 ssl
............

   * Indicate through *note ssl.HAS_PSK_TLS13: 259. whether the *note
     ssl: d8. module supports «External PSKs» in TLSv1.3, as described
     in RFC 9258(1).  (Contributed by Will Childs-Klein in
     gh-133624(2).)

   * Added new methods for managing groups used for SSL key agreement

        * *note ssl.SSLContext.set_groups(): 25a. sets the groups
          allowed for doing key agreement, extending the previous *note
          ssl.SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve(): 25b. method.  This new API
          provides the ability to list multiple groups and supports
          fixed-field and post-quantum groups in addition to ECDH
          curves.  This method can also be used to control what key
          shares are sent in the TLS handshake.

        * *note ssl.SSLSocket.group(): 25c. returns the group selected
          for doing key agreement on the current connection after the
          TLS handshake completes.  This call requires OpenSSL 3.2 or
          later.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext.get_groups(): 25d. returns a list of all
          available key agreement groups compatible with the minimum and
          maximum TLS versions currently set in the context.  This call
          requires OpenSSL 3.5 or later.

     (Contributed by Ron Frederick in gh-136306(3).)

   * Added a new method *note ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphersuites(): 25e.
     for setting TLS 1.3 ciphers.  For TLS 1.2 or earlier, *note
     ssl.SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 25f. should continue to be used.
     Both calls can be made on the same context and the selected cipher
     suite will depend on the TLS version negotiated when a connection
     is made.  (Contributed by Ron Frederick in gh-137197(4).)

   * Added new methods for managing signature algorithms:

        * *note ssl.get_sigalgs(): 260. returns a list of all available
          TLS signature algorithms.  This call requires OpenSSL 3.4 or
          later.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext.set_client_sigalgs(): 261. sets the
          signature algorithms allowed for certificate-based client
          authentication.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext.set_server_sigalgs(): 262. sets the
          signature algorithms allowed for the server to complete the
          TLS handshake.

        * *note ssl.SSLSocket.client_sigalg(): 263. returns the
          signature algorithm selected for client authentication on the
          current connection.  This call requires OpenSSL 3.5 or later.

        * *note ssl.SSLSocket.server_sigalg(): 264. returns the
          signature algorithm selected for the server to complete the
          TLS handshake on the current connection.  This call requires
          OpenSSL 3.5 or later.

     (Contributed by Ron Frederick in gh-138252(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9258.html

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133624

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136306

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137197

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138252


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess,  Next: symtable<2>,  Prev: ssl,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.39 subprocess
...................

   * *note subprocess.Popen.wait(): 266.: when ‘timeout’ is not ‘None’
     and the platform supports it, an efficient event-driven mechanism
     is used to wait for process termination:

        - Linux >= 5.3 uses *note os.pidfd_open(): 267. + *note
          select.poll(): 268.

        - macOS and other BSD variants use *note select.kqueue(): 269. +
          ‘KQ_FILTER_PROC’ + ‘KQ_NOTE_EXIT’.

        - Windows keeps using ‘WaitForSingleObject’ (unchanged).

     If none of these mechanisms are available, the function falls back
     to the traditional busy loop (non-blocking call and short sleeps).
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in gh-83069(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83069


File: python.info,  Node: symtable<2>,  Next: sys,  Prev: subprocess,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.40 symtable
.................

   * Add *note symtable.Function.get_cells(): 26b. and *note
     symtable.Symbol.is_cell(): 26c. methods.  (Contributed by Yashp002
     in gh-143504(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143504


File: python.info,  Node: sys,  Next: sys monitoring,  Prev: symtable<2>,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.41 sys
............

   * Add *note sys.abi_info: 26e. namespace to improve access to ABI
     information.  (Contributed by Klaus Zimmermann in gh-137476(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137476


File: python.info,  Node: sys monitoring,  Next: tarfile,  Prev: sys,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.42 sys.monitoring
.......................

   * The *note other events: 270. (*note PY_THROW: 271, *note PY_UNWIND:
     272, *note RAISE: 273, *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED: 274, and *note
     RERAISE: 275.) can now be turned on and disabled on a per code
     object basis.  Returning *note DISABLE: 276. from a callback for
     one of these events disables the event for the entire code object
     (for the current tool), rather than raising *note ValueError: 277.
     as in prior versions.  (Contributed by Gabriele N. Tornetta in
     gh-146182(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146182


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile,  Next: threading,  Prev: sys monitoring,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.43 tarfile
................

   * *note data_filter(): 279. now normalizes symbolic link targets in
     order to avoid path traversal attacks.  (Contributed by Petr
     Viktorin in gh-127987(1) and CVE 2025-4138(2).)

   * *note extractall(): 27a. now skips fixing up directory attributes
     when a directory was removed or replaced by another kind of file.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-127987(3) and CVE
     2024-12718(4).)

   * *note extract(): 27b. and *note extractall(): 27a. now (re-)apply
     the extraction filter when substituting a link (hard or symbolic)
     with a copy of another archive member, and when fixing up directory
     attributes.  The former raises a new exception, *note
     LinkFallbackError: 27c.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin for CVE
     2025-4330(5) and CVE 2024-12718(6).)

   * *note extract(): 27b. and *note extractall(): 27a. no longer
     extract rejected members when *note errorlevel(): 27d. is zero.
     (Contributed by Matt Prodani and Petr Viktorin in gh-112887(7) and
     CVE 2025-4435(8).)

   * *note extract(): 27b. and *note extractall(): 27a. now replace
     slashes with backslashes in symlink targets on Windows to prevent
     creation of corrupted links.  (Contributed by Christoph Walcher in
     gh-57911(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127987

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4138

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127987

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4330

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112887

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4435

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57911


File: python.info,  Node: threading,  Next: timeit,  Prev: tarfile,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.44 threading
..................

   * Added *note serialize_iterator: 27f, *note synchronized_iterator():
     280, and *note concurrent_tee(): 281. to support concurrent access
     to generators and iterators.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
     gh-124397(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124397


File: python.info,  Node: timeit,  Next: tkinter,  Prev: threading,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.45 timeit
...............

   * The output of the *note timeit: f8. command-line interface is
     colored by default.  This can be controlled with *note environment
     variables: 1af.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-146609(1).)

   * The command-line interface now colorizes error tracebacks by
     default.  This can be controlled with *note environment variables:
     1af.  (Contributed by Yi Hong in gh-139374(2).)

   * Make the target time of *note timeit.Timer.autorange(): 283.
     configurable and add ‘--target-time’ option to the command-line
     interface.  (Contributed by Alessandro Cucci and Miikka Koskinen in
     gh-80642(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146609

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139374

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80642


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter,  Next: tokenize,  Prev: timeit,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.46 tkinter
................

   * The ‘tkinter.Text.search()’ method now supports two additional
     arguments: 'nolinestop' which allows the search to continue across
     line boundaries; and 'strictlimits' which restricts the search to
     within the specified range.  (Contributed by Rihaan Meher in
     gh-130848(1).)

   * A new method ‘tkinter.Text.search_all()’ has been introduced.  This
     method allows for searching for all matches of a pattern using
     Tcl’s ‘-all’ and ‘-overlap’ options.  (Contributed by Rihaan Meher
     in gh-130848(2).)

   * Added new methods ‘pack_content()’, ‘place_content()’ and
     ‘grid_content()’ which use Tk commands with new names (introduced
     in Tk 8.6) instead of ‘*_slaves()’ methods which use Tk commands
     with outdated names.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-143754(3).)

   * Added ‘Event’ attributes ‘user_data’ for Tk virtual events and
     ‘detail’ for ‘Enter’, ‘Leave’, ‘FocusIn’, ‘FocusOut’, and
     ‘ConfigureRequest’ events.  (Contributed by Matthias Kievernagel
     and Serhiy Storchaka in gh-47655(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130848

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130848

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143754

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47655


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize,  Next: tomllib,  Prev: tkinter,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.47 tokenize
.................

   * The output of the *note tokenize: 104. *note command-line
     interface: 286. is colored by default.  This can be controlled with
     *note environment variables: 1af.  (Contributed by Hugo van
     Kemenade in gh-148991(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148991


File: python.info,  Node: tomllib,  Next: types,  Prev: tokenize,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.48 tomllib
................

   * The *note tomllib: 105. module now supports TOML 1.1.0.  This is a
     backwards compatible update, meaning that all valid TOML 1.0.0
     documents are parsed the same way.

     The changes, according to the official TOML changelog(1), are:

        - Allow newlines and trailing commas in inline tables.

          Previously an inline table had to be on a single line and
          couldn’t end with a trailing comma.  This is now relaxed so
          that the following is valid:

               tbl = {
                  key      = "a string",
                  moar-tbl =  {
                     key = 1,
                  },
               }

        - Add ‘\xHH’ notation to basic strings for codepoints under 255,
          and the ‘\e’ escape for the escape character:

               null = "null byte: \x00; letter a: \x61"
               csi = "\e["

        - Seconds in datetime and time values are now optional.  The
          following are now valid:

               dt = 2010-02-03 14:15
               t  = 14:15

     (Contributed by Taneli Hukkinen in gh-142956(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/toml-lang/toml/blob/main/CHANGELOG.md

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142956


File: python.info,  Node: types,  Next: typing,  Prev: tomllib,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.49 types
..............

   * Expose the write-through *note locals(): 28b. proxy type as *note
     types.FrameLocalsProxyType: 28c.  This represents the type of the
     *note frame.f_locals: 28d. attribute, as described in PEP 667(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/


File: python.info,  Node: typing,  Next: unicodedata,  Prev: types,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.50 typing
...............

   * PEP 747(1): Add *note TypeForm: 28f, a new special form for
     annotating values that are themselves type expressions.
     ‘TypeForm[T]’ means «a type form object describing ‘T’ (or a type
     assignable to ‘T’)».  At runtime, ‘TypeForm(x)’ simply returns ‘x’,
     which allows explicit annotation of type-form values without
     changing behavior.

     This helps libraries that accept user-provided type expressions
     (for example ‘int’, ‘str | None’, *note TypedDict: 290. classes, or
     ‘list[int]’) expose precise signatures:

          from typing import Any, TypeForm

          def cast[T](typ: TypeForm[T], value: Any) -> T: ...

     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-145033(2).)

   * PEP 728(3): Add support in *note TypedDict: 290. for the 'closed'
     and 'extra_items' class arguments.  A closed ‘TypedDict’ does not
     allow extra keys beyond those specified in the class body, while a
     ‘TypedDict’ with ‘extra_items’ allows arbitrary extra items where
     the values are of the specified type.  (Contributed by Angela Liss
     in gh-137840(4).)

   * Code like ‘class ExtraTypeVars(P1[S], Protocol[T, T2]): ...’ now
     raises a *note TypeError: 291, because ‘S’ is not listed in
     ‘Protocol’ parameters.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-137191(5).)

   * Code like ‘class B2(A[T2], Protocol[T1, T2]): ...’ now correctly
     handles type parameters order: it is ‘(T1, T2)’, not ‘(T2, T1)’ as
     it was incorrectly inferred at runtime before.  (Contributed by
     Nikita Sobolev in gh-137191(6).)

   * PEP 800(7): Add *note @typing.disjoint_base: 292, a new decorator
     marking a class as a disjoint base.  This is an advanced feature
     primarily intended to allow type checkers to faithfully reflect the
     runtime semantics of types defined as builtins or in compiled
     extensions.  If a class ‘C’ is a disjoint base, then child classes
     of that class cannot inherit from other disjoint bases that are not
     parent or child classes of ‘C’.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-148639(8).)

   * *note TypeVarTuple: 293. now accepts ‘bound’, ‘covariant’,
     ‘contravariant’, and ‘infer_variance’ keyword arguments, matching
     the interface of *note TypeVar: 294. and *note ParamSpec: 295.
     ‘bound’ semantics remain undefined in the specification.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0747/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145033

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0728/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137840

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137191

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137191

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0800/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148639


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata,  Next: unittest,  Prev: typing,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.51 unicodedata
....................

   * The Unicode database has been updated to Unicode 17.0.0.

   * Add *note unicodedata.isxidstart(): 297. and *note
     unicodedata.isxidcontinue(): 298. functions to check whether a
     character can start or continue a Unicode Standard Annex #31(1)
     identifier.  (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in gh-129117(2).)

   * Add the *note iter_graphemes(): 299. function to iterate over
     grapheme clusters according to rules defined in Unicode Standard
     Annex #29, "Unicode Text Segmentation"(3).  Add *note
     grapheme_cluster_break(): 29a, *note indic_conjunct_break(): 29b.
     and *note extended_pictographic(): 29c. functions to get the
     properties of the character which are related to the above
     algorithm.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guillaume Sanchez
     in gh-74902(4).)

   * Add *note block(): 29d. function to return the Unicode block(5)
     assigned to a character.  (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in
     gh-66802(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr31/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129117

   (3) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr29/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74902

   (5) 
https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode17.0.0/core-spec/chapter-3/#G64189

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66802


File: python.info,  Node: unittest,  Next: urllib parse,  Prev: unicodedata,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.52 unittest
.................

   * *note unittest.TestCase.assertLogs(): 29f. will now accept a
     formatter to control how messages are formatted.  (Contributed by
     Garry Cairns in gh-134567(1).)

   * *note unittest.TestCase.assertWarns(): 2a0. and *note
     unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex(): 2a1. no longer swallow
     warnings that do not match the specified category or regex.  Nested
     context managers are now supported.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-143231(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134567

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143231


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse,  Next: venv,  Prev: unittest,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.53 urllib.parse
.....................

   * Add the 'missing_as_none' parameter to *note urlsplit(): 2a3, *note
     urlparse(): 2a4. and *note urldefrag(): 2a5. functions.  Add the
     'keep_empty' parameter to *note urlunsplit(): 2a6. and *note
     urlunparse(): 2a7. functions.  This allows distinguishing between
     empty and undefined URI components and preserving empty components.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-67041(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67041


File: python.info,  Node: venv,  Next: warnings,  Prev: urllib parse,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.54 venv
.............

   * On POSIX platforms, platlib directories will be created if needed
     when creating virtual environments, instead of using a ‘lib64 ->
     lib’ symlink.  This means purelib and platlib of virtual
     environments no longer share the same ‘lib’ directory on platforms
     where *note sys.platlibdir: 2a9. is not equal to ‘lib’.
     (Contributed by Rui Xi in gh-133951(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133951


File: python.info,  Node: warnings,  Next: wave,  Prev: venv,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.55 warnings
.................

   * Improve filtering by module in *note warnings.warn_explicit(): 2ab.
     if no 'module' argument is passed.  It now tests the module regular
     expression in the warnings filter not only against the filename
     with ‘.py’ stripped, but also against module names constructed
     starting from different parent directories of the filename (with
     ‘/__init__.py’, ‘.py’ and, on Windows, ‘.pyw’ stripped).
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-135801(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135801


File: python.info,  Node: wave,  Next: webbrowser,  Prev: warnings,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.56 wave
.............

   * Added support for IEEE floating-point WAVE audio
     (‘WAVE_FORMAT_IEEE_FLOAT’) in *note wave: 11c.

   * Added *note wave.Wave_read.getformat(): 2ad, *note
     wave.Wave_write.getformat(): 2ae, and *note
     wave.Wave_write.setformat(): 2af. for explicit frame format
     handling.

   * *note wave.Wave_write.setparams(): 2b0. accepts both 7-item tuples
     including ‘format’ and 6-item tuples for backwards compatibility
     (defaulting to ‘WAVE_FORMAT_PCM’).

   * ‘WAVE_FORMAT_IEEE_FLOAT’ output now includes a ‘fact’ chunk, as
     required for non-PCM WAVE formats.

(Contributed by Lionel Koenig and Michiel W. Beijen in gh-60729(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60729


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser,  Next: xml,  Prev: wave,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.57 webbrowser
...................

   * On macOS, the new ‘webbrowser.MacOS’ class opens URLs via
     ‘/usr/bin/open’ instead of constructing and executing AppleScript
     via ‘osascript’.  The default browser is detected from the
     LaunchServices preferences file using *note plistlib: b0, with
     ‘com.apple.Safari’ as the fallback on fresh installations.  For
     non-HTTP(S) URLs, ‘open -b <bundle-id>’ is used to route the URL
     through a browser rather than the OS file handler, preventing file
     injection attacks.  (Contributed by Jeff Lyon in gh-137586(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137586


File: python.info,  Node: xml,  Next: xml parsers expat,  Prev: webbrowser,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.58 xml
............

   * Add the *note xml.is_valid_name(): 2b3. function to check whether a
     string can be used as an element or attribute name in XML.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-139489(1).)

   * Add the *note xml.is_valid_text(): 2b4. function, which allows to
     check whether a string can be used in the XML document.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-139489(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139489

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139489


File: python.info,  Node: xml parsers expat,  Next: zlib,  Prev: xml,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.59 xml.parsers.expat
..........................

   * Add *note SetAllocTrackerActivationThreshold(): 2b6. and *note
     SetAllocTrackerMaximumAmplification(): 2b7. to *note xmlparser:
     2b8. objects to tune protections against disproportional amounts of
     dynamic memory usage from within an Expat parser.  (Contributed by
     Bénédikt Tran in gh-90949(1).)

   * Add *note SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionActivationThreshold():
     2b9. and *note
     SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionMaximumAmplification(): 2ba. to
     *note xmlparser: 2b8. objects to tune protections against billion
     laughs(2) attacks.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-90949(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90949

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs_attack

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90949


File: python.info,  Node: zlib,  Prev: xml parsers expat,  Up: Improved modules<2>

1.2.6.60 zlib
.............

   * Allow combining two Adler-32 checksums via *note adler32_combine():
     2bc.  (Contributed by Callum Attryde and Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-134635(1).)

   * Allow combining two CRC-32 checksums via *note crc32_combine():
     2bd.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-134635(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134635

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134635


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<2>,  Next: Removed<2>,  Prev: Improved modules<2>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 15

1.2.7 Optimizations
-------------------

   * ‘mimalloc’ is now used as the default allocator for raw memory
     allocations such as via *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf. for better
     performance on *note free-threaded builds: 198.  (Contributed by
     Kumar Aditya in gh-144914(1).)

* Menu:

* base64 & binascii::
* csv::
* Upgraded JIT compiler::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144914


File: python.info,  Node: base64 & binascii,  Next: csv,  Up: Optimizations<2>

1.2.7.1 base64 & binascii
.........................

   * CPython’s underlying base64 implementation now encodes 2x faster
     and decodes 3x faster thanks to simple CPU pipelining
     optimizations.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith and Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-143262(1).)

   * Implementation for Ascii85, Base85, and Z85 encoding has been
     rewritten in C. Encoding and decoding is now two orders of
     magnitude faster and consumes two orders of magnitude less memory.
     (Contributed by James Seo and Serhiy Storchaka in gh-101178(2).)

   * Implementation for Base32 has been rewritten in C. Encoding and
     decoding is now two orders of magnitude faster.  (Contributed by
     James Seo in gh-146192(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143262

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101178

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146192


File: python.info,  Node: csv,  Next: Upgraded JIT compiler,  Prev: base64 & binascii,  Up: Optimizations<2>

1.2.7.2 csv
...........

   * *note csv.Sniffer.sniff(): 2c2. delimiter detection is now up to
     1.6x faster.  (Contributed by Maurycy Pawłowski-Wieroński in
     gh-137628(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137628


File: python.info,  Node: Upgraded JIT compiler,  Prev: csv,  Up: Optimizations<2>

1.2.7.3 Upgraded JIT compiler
.............................

Results from the pyperformance(1) benchmark suite report 8-9%(2)
geometric mean performance improvement for the JIT over the standard
CPython interpreter built with all optimizations enabled on x86-64
Linux.  On AArch64 macOS, the JIT has a 12-13%(3) speedup over the *note
tail calling interpreter: 2c4. with all optimizations enabled.  The
speedups for JIT builds versus no JIT builds range from roughly 15%
slowdown to over 100% speedup (ignoring the ‘unpack_sequence’
microbenchmark) on x86-64 Linux and AArch64 macOS systems.

     Προσοχή: These results are not yet final.

The major upgrades to the JIT are:

   * LLVM 21 build-time dependency

   * New tracing frontend

   * Basic register allocation in the JIT

   * More JIT optimizations

   * GDB and GNU ‘backtrace()’ unwinding support

   * Better machine code generation

LLVM 21 build-time dependency
.............................

The JIT compiler now uses LLVM 21 for build-time stencil generation.  As
always, LLVM is only needed when building CPython with the JIT enabled;
end users running Python do not need LLVM installed.  Instructions for
installing LLVM can be found in the JIT compiler documentation(4) for
all supported platforms.  (Contributed by Savannah Ostrowski in
gh-140973(5).)

A new tracing frontend
......................

The JIT compiler now supports significantly more bytecode operations and
control flow than in Python 3.14, enabling speedups on a wider variety
of code.  For example, simple Python object creation is now understood
by the 3.15 JIT compiler.  Overloaded operations and generators are also
partially supported.  This was made possible by an overhauled JIT
tracing frontend that records actual execution paths through code,
rather than estimating them as the previous implementation did.
(Contributed by Ken Jin in gh-139109(6).  Support for Windows added by
Mark Shannon in gh-141703(7).)

Basic register allocation in the JIT
....................................

A basic form of register allocation has been added to the JIT compiler’s
optimizer.  This allows the JIT compiler to avoid certain stack
operations altogether and instead operate on registers.  This allows the
JIT to produce more efficient traces by avoiding reads and writes to
memory.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-135379(8).)

More JIT optimizations
......................

More constant-propagation(9) is now performed.  This means when the JIT
compiler detects that certain user code results in constants, the code
can be simplified by the JIT. (Contributed by Ken Jin and Savannah
Ostrowski in gh-132732(10).)

*note Reference count: 2c5.s are avoided whenever it is safe to do so.
This generally reduces the cost of most operations in Python.
(Contributed by Ken Jin, Donghee Na, Zheao Li, Hai Zhu, Savannah
Ostrowski, Reiden Ong, Noam Cohen, Tomas Roun, PuQing, Cajetan
Rodrigues, and Sacul in gh-134584(11).)

By tracking unique references to objects, the JIT optimizer can now
eliminate reference count updates and perform in-place operations on
ints and floats.  (Contributed by Reiden Ong, and Pieter Eendebak in
gh-143414(12) and gh-146306(13).)

The JIT optimizer now supports significantly more operations than in
3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya, Ken Jin, Jiahao Li, and Sacul in
gh-131798(14).)

GDB and GNU ‘backtrace()’ unwinding support
...........................................

The JIT compiler now publishes unwind information for generated machine
code to the GDB interface on supported Linux ELF platforms.  When libgcc
frame registration is available, the same unwind information is also
registered for GNU ‘backtrace()’ stack walkers.  This allows native
debuggers, crash handlers, and diagnostic tools using these mechanisms
to unwind through JIT frames instead of stopping at generated code.
(Contributed by Diego Russo and Pablo Galindo Salgado in gh-146071(15)
and gh-149104(16).)

Better machine code generation
..............................

The JIT compiler’s machine code generator now produces better machine
code for x86-64 and AArch64 macOS and Linux targets.  In general, users
should experience lower memory usage for generated machine code and more
efficient machine code versus 3.14.  (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in
gh-136528(17) and gh-135905(18).  Implementation for AArch64 contributed
by Mark Shannon in gh-139855(19).  Additional optimizations for AArch64
contributed by Mark Shannon and Diego Russo in gh-140683(20) and
gh-142305(21).)

Maintainability
...............

The JIT optimizer’s operations have been simplified.  This was made
possible by a refactoring of JIT data structures.  (Contributed by
Zhongtian Zheng in gh-148211(22) and Hai Zhu in gh-143421(23).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/pyperformance

   (2) https://www.doesjitgobrrr.com/run/2026-04-29

   (3) https://www.doesjitgobrrr.com/run/2026-04-29

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Tools/jit/README.md

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140973

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139109

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141703

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135379

   (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_folding

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132732

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143414

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146306

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146071

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149104

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136528

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135905

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139855

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140683

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142305

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148211

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143421


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<2>,  Next: Deprecated<2>,  Prev: Optimizations<2>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 15

1.2.8 Removed
-------------

* Menu:

* ast: ast<2>.
* collections.abc: collections abc.
* ctypes::
* datetime::
* glob::
* http.server: http server<2>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources.
* pathlib::
* platform::
* sre_*::
* sysconfig: sysconfig<2>.
* threading: threading<2>.
* types: types<2>.
* typing: typing<2>.
* wave: wave<2>.
* zipimport::


File: python.info,  Node: ast<2>,  Next: collections abc,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.1 ast
...........

   * The constructors of *note AST nodes: 2c8. now raise a *note
     TypeError: 291. when a required argument is omitted or when a
     keyword argument that does not map to a field on the AST node is
     passed.  These cases had previously raised a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. since Python 3.13.  (Contributed by Brian
     Schubert and Jelle Zijlstra in gh-137600(1) and gh-105858(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137600

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105858


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc,  Next: ctypes,  Prev: ast<2>,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.2 collections.abc
.......................

   * *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2cb. has been removed from
     ‘collections.abc.__all__’.  ‘collections.abc.ByteString’ has been
     deprecated since Python 3.12, and is scheduled for removal in
     Python 3.17.


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes,  Next: datetime,  Prev: collections abc,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.3 ctypes
..............

   * Removed the undocumented function ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’, which
     has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  (Contributed by Bénédikt
     Tran in gh-133866(1).)

   * Change the *note _type_: 2cd. of *note c_float_complex: 2ce, *note
     c_double_complex: 2cf. and *note c_longdouble_complex: 2d0. from
     ‘F’, ‘D’ and ‘G’ to ‘Zf’, ‘Zd’ and ‘Zg’ for compatibility with
     numpy.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-148675(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133866

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148675


File: python.info,  Node: datetime,  Next: glob,  Prev: ctypes,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.4 datetime
................

   * *note strptime(): 2d2. now raises *note ValueError: 277. when the
     format string contains ‘%d’ (day of month) without a year
     directive.  This has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
     (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych and Gregory P. Smith in gh-70647(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647


File: python.info,  Node: glob,  Next: http server<2>,  Prev: datetime,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.5 glob
............

   * Removed the undocumented ‘glob.glob0()’ and ‘glob.glob1()’
     functions, which have been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use *note
     glob.glob(): 2d4. and pass a directory to its 'root_dir' argument
     instead.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-137466(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137466


File: python.info,  Node: http server<2>,  Next: importlib resources,  Prev: glob,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.6 http.server
...................

   * Removed the ‘CGIHTTPRequestHandler’ class and the ‘--cgi’ flag from
     the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line interface.  They were
     deprecated in Python 3.13.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-133810(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133810


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources,  Next: pathlib,  Prev: http server<2>,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.7 importlib.resources
...........................

   * Removed deprecated ‘package’ parameter from *note
     importlib.resources.files(): 2d7. function.  (Contributed by Semyon
     Moroz in gh-138044(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138044


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib,  Next: platform,  Prev: importlib resources,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.8 pathlib
...............

   * Removed deprecated ‘pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved()’.  Use *note
     os.path.isreserved(): 2d9. to detect reserved paths on Windows.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-133875(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133875


File: python.info,  Node: platform,  Next: sre_*,  Prev: pathlib,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.9 platform
................

   * Removed the ‘platform.java_ver()’ function, which was deprecated
     since Python 3.13.  (Contributed by Alexey Makridenko in
     gh-133604(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133604


File: python.info,  Node: sre_*,  Next: sysconfig<2>,  Prev: platform,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.10 sre_*
..............

   * Removed ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules.
     (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in gh-135994(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135994


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig<2>,  Next: threading<2>,  Prev: sre_*,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.11 sysconfig
..................

   * Removed the 'check_home' parameter of *note
     sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2dd.  (Contributed by Filipe Laíns in
     gh-92897(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92897


File: python.info,  Node: threading<2>,  Next: types<2>,  Prev: sysconfig<2>,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.12 threading
..................

   * Remove support for arbitrary positional or keyword arguments in the
     C implementation of *note RLock: 2df. objects.  This was deprecated
     in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-134087(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134087


File: python.info,  Node: types<2>,  Next: typing<2>,  Prev: threading<2>,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.13 types
..............

   * Removed deprecated in PEP 626(1) since Python 3.12
     ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’ from *note types.CodeType: 2e1.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-134690(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134690


File: python.info,  Node: typing<2>,  Next: wave<2>,  Prev: types<2>,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.14 typing
...............

   * *note typing.ByteString: 2e3. has been removed from
     ‘typing.__all__’.  ‘typing.ByteString’ has been deprecated since
     Python 3.9, and is scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

   * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note
     NamedTuple: 2e4. classes (for example, ‘Point = NamedTuple("Point",
     x=int, y=int)’) is no longer supported.  Use the class-based syntax
     or the functional syntax instead.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-133817(1).)

   * Using ‘TD = TypedDict("TD")’ or ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’ to
     construct a *note TypedDict: 290. type with zero fields is no
     longer supported.  Use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD =
     TypedDict("TD", {})’ instead.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-133823(2).)

   * Deprecated ‘typing.no_type_check_decorator()’ has been removed.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-133601(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133817

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133823

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133601


File: python.info,  Node: wave<2>,  Next: zipimport,  Prev: typing<2>,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.15 wave
.............

   * Removed the ‘getmark()’, ‘setmark()’ and ‘getmarkers()’ methods of
     the *note Wave_read: 2e6. and *note Wave_write: 2e7. classes, which
     were deprecated since Python 3.13.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran
     in gh-133873(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133873


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport,  Prev: wave<2>,  Up: Removed<2>

1.2.8.16 zipimport
..................

   * Remove deprecated ‘zipimport.zipimporter.load_module()’.  Use *note
     zipimport.zipimporter.exec_module(): 2e9. instead.  (Contributed by
     Jiahao Li in gh-133656(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133656


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<2>,  Next: C API changes<2>,  Prev: Removed<2>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 15

1.2.9 Deprecated
----------------

* Menu:

* New deprecations::
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16.
* Pending removal in Python 3.17: Pending removal in Python 3 17.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18.
* Pending removal in Python 3.19: Pending removal in Python 3 19.
* Pending removal in Python 3.20: Pending removal in Python 3 20.
* Pending removal in future versions::
* Soft deprecations::


File: python.info,  Node: New deprecations,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.2.9.1 New deprecations
........................

   * *note ast: 9.

        * Creating instances of abstract AST nodes (such as *note
          ast.AST: 2ec. or ‘ast.expr’) is deprecated and will raise an
          error in Python 3.20.

          (Contributed by Brian Schubert in gh-116021(1).)

   * *note base64: f.:

        * Accepting the ‘+’ and ‘/’ characters with an alternative
          alphabet in *note b64decode(): 1ec. and *note
          urlsafe_b64decode(): 1ee. is now deprecated.  In future Python
          versions they will be errors in the strict mode and discarded
          in the non-strict mode.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
          gh-125346(2).)

   * CLI:

        * Deprecate *note -b: 2ed. and ‘-bb’ command-line options and
          schedule them to become no-ops in Python 3.17.  These were
          primarily helpers for the Python 2 -> 3 transition.  Starting
          with Python 3.17, no *note BytesWarning: 2ee. will be raised
          for these cases; use a type checker instead.

          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-136355(3).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1f.

        * The following statements now cause ‘DeprecationWarning’s to be
          emitted at runtime:

             * ‘from collections.abc import ByteString’

             * ‘import collections.abc; collections.abc.ByteString’.

          ‘DeprecationWarning’s were already emitted if *note
          collections.abc.ByteString: 2cb. was subclassed or used as the
          second argument to *note isinstance(): 2ef. or *note
          issubclass(): 2f0, but warnings were not previously emitted if
          it was merely imported or accessed from the ‘collections.abc’
          module.

   * *note hashlib: 6b.:

        * In hash function constructors such as *note new(): 2f1. or the
          direct hash-named constructors such as *note md5(): 2f2. and
          *note sha256(): 2f3, the optional initial data parameter could
          also be passed as a keyword argument named ‘data=’ or
          ‘string=’ in various *note hashlib: 6b. implementations.

          Support for the ‘string’ keyword argument name is now
          deprecated and is slated for removal in Python 3.19.  Prefer
          passing the initial data as a positional argument for maximum
          backwards compatibility.

          (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-134978(4).)

   * *note http.cookies: 74.:

        * *note Morsel.js_output: 2f4. and *note BaseCookie.js_output:
          2f5. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.19.  Use
          *note Morsel.output: 2f6. or *note BaseCookie.output: 2f7.
          instead.  (Contributed by kishorhange111 in gh-148849(5).)

   * *note imaplib: 77.:

        * Altering *note IMAP4.file: 2f8. is now deprecated and slated
          for removal in Python 3.19.  This property is now unused and
          changing its value does 'not' explicitly close the current
          file.

   * *note re: c1.:

        * *note re.match(): 24c. and *note re.Pattern.match(): 24d. are
          now *note soft deprecated: 1a7. in favor of the new *note
          re.prefixmatch(): 24a. and *note re.Pattern.prefixmatch():
          24b. APIs, which have been added as alternate, more explicit
          names.  These are intended to be used to alleviate confusion
          around what 'match' means by following the Zen of Python’s
          '«Explicit is better than implicit»' mantra.  Most other
          language regular expression libraries use an API named 'match'
          to mean what Python has always called 'search'.

          We 'do not' plan to remove the older ‘match()’ name, as it has
          been used in code for over 30 years.  Code supporting older
          versions of Python should continue to use ‘match()’, while new
          code should prefer ‘prefixmatch()’.  See *note prefixmatch()
          vs.  match(): 2f9.

          (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-86519(6) and Hugo van
          Kemenade in gh-148100(7).)

   * *note struct: de.:

        * Calling ‘Struct.__new__()’ without a required argument is now
          deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.20.  Calling the
          *note __init__(): 2fa. method on an initialized *note Struct:
          2fb. object is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.20.

          (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev and Serhiy Storchaka in
          gh-143715(8).)

   * *note typing: 10d.:

        * The following statements now cause ‘DeprecationWarning’s to be
          emitted at runtime:

             * ‘from typing import ByteString’

             * ‘import typing; typing.ByteString’.

          ‘DeprecationWarning’s were already emitted if *note
          typing.ByteString: 2e3. was subclassed or used as the second
          argument to *note isinstance(): 2ef. or *note issubclass():
          2f0, but warnings were not previously emitted if it was merely
          imported or accessed from the ‘typing’ module.

   * *note webbrowser: 11e.:

        * ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript’ is deprecated in favour of
          ‘webbrowser.MacOS’ and scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.
          (Contributed by Jeff Lyon in gh-137586(9).)

   * ‘__version__’

        * The ‘__version__’, ‘version’ and ‘VERSION’ attributes have
          been deprecated in these standard library modules and will be
          removed in Python 3.20.  Use *note sys.version_info: 2fc.
          instead.

             - *note argparse: 7.

             - *note csv: 2c.

             - *note ctypes: 2d.

             - ‘ctypes.macholib’

             - *note decimal: 39. (use *note decimal.SPEC_VERSION: 2fd.
               instead)

             - *note http.server: 75.

             - *note imaplib: 77.

             - *note ipaddress: 83.

             - *note json: 85.

             - *note logging: 8a. (‘__date__’ also deprecated)

             - *note optparse: a4.

             - *note pickle: ab.

             - *note platform: af.

             - *note re: c1.

             - *note socketserver: d5.

             - *note tabnanny: e6.

             - *note tarfile: e7.

             - *note tkinter.font: fe.

             - *note tkinter.ttk: 102.

             - *note wsgiref.simple_server: 124.

             - *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.

             - ‘xml.sax.expatreader’

             - *note xml.sax.handler: 133.

             - *note zlib: 13c.

          (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade and Stan Ulbrych in
          gh-76007(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116021

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125346

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136355

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134978

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148849

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86519

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148100

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143715

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137586

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 17,  Prev: New deprecations,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.2.9.2 Pending removal in Python 3.16
......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 2ff. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 300. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note array: 8.:

        * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in
          documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python
          3.13.  Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 301.) for
          Unicode characters instead.

   * *note asyncio: b.:

        * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16; use *note
          inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 302. instead.  (Contributed by
          Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).)

        * *note asyncio: b. policy system is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16.  In particular, the following classes
          and functions are deprecated:

             * *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 303.

             * *note asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy: 304.

             * *note asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy: 305.

             * *note asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy: 306.

             * *note asyncio.get_event_loop_policy(): 307.

             * *note asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(): 308.

          Users should use *note asyncio.run(): 309. or *note
          asyncio.Runner: 30a. with 'loop_factory' to use the desired
          event loop implementation.

          For example, to use *note asyncio.SelectorEventLoop: 30b. on
          Windows:

               import asyncio

               async def main():
                   ...

               asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=asyncio.SelectorEventLoop)

          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-127949(2).)

   * *note builtins: 13.:

        * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has
          been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising
          and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’).  Use ‘not x’ instead
          for the logical negation of a Boolean.  In the rare case that
          you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer,
          convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’).

   * *note functools: 62.:

        * Calling the Python implementation of *note functools.reduce():
          153. with 'function' or 'sequence' as keyword arguments has
          been deprecated since Python 3.14.

   * *note logging: 8a.:

        * Support for custom logging handlers with the 'strm' argument
          is deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.16.
          Define handlers with the 'stream' argument instead.
          (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-115032(3).)

   * *note mimetypes: 93.:

        * Valid extensions start with a “.” or are empty for *note
          mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(): 30c.  Undotted extensions are
          deprecated and will raise a *note ValueError: 277. in Python
          3.16.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-75223(4).)

   * *note shutil: cd.:

        * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python
          3.14.  It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since
          Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 30d.

   * *note symtable: e1.:

        * The ‘symtable.Class.get_methods()’ method has been deprecated
          since Python 3.14.

   * *note sys: e2.:

        * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 30e. function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 30f. environment variable
          instead.

   * *note sysconfig: e4.:

        * The ‘sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.14.  Use the ‘vars’ argument of
          *note sysconfig.get_paths(): 156. instead.

   * *note tarfile: e7.:

        * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127949

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 17,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 18,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.2.9.3 Pending removal in Python 3.17
......................................

   * *note datetime: 33.:

        * *note strptime(): 2d2. calls using a format string containing
          ‘%e’ (day of month) without a year.  This has been deprecated
          since Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in
          gh-70647(1).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1f.:

        - *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2cb. is scheduled for
          removal in Python 3.17.

          Use ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)’ to test if ‘obj’
          implements the *note buffer protocol: 311. at runtime.  For
          use in type annotations, either use *note Buffer: 312. or a
          union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports
          (e.g., ‘bytes | bytearray | memoryview’).

          ‘ByteString’ was originally intended to be an abstract class
          that would serve as a supertype of both *note bytes: 1c7. and
          *note bytearray: 1c6.  However, since the ABC never had any
          methods, knowing that an object was an instance of
          ‘ByteString’ never actually told you anything useful about the
          object.  Other common buffer types such as *note memoryview:
          1d2. were also never understood as subtypes of ‘ByteString’
          (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

          See PEP 688(2) for more details.  (Contributed by Shantanu
          Jain in gh-91896(3).)

   * *note encodings: 54.:

        - Passing non-ascii 'encoding' names to *note
          encodings.normalize_encoding(): 313. is deprecated and
          scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.  (Contributed by Stan
          Ulbrych in gh-136702(4).)

   * *note webbrowser: 11e.:

        - ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript’ is deprecated in favour of
          ‘webbrowser.MacOS’.  (gh-137586(5))

   * *note typing: 10d.:

        - Before Python 3.14, old-style unions were implemented using
          the private class ‘typing._UnionGenericAlias’.  This class is
          no longer needed for the implementation, but it has been
          retained for backward compatibility, with removal scheduled
          for Python 3.17.  Users should use documented introspection
          helpers like *note typing.get_origin(): 314. and *note
          typing.get_args(): 315. instead of relying on private
          implementation details.

        - *note typing.ByteString: 2e3, deprecated since Python 3.9, is
          scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

          Use ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)’ to test if ‘obj’
          implements the *note buffer protocol: 311. at runtime.  For
          use in type annotations, either use *note Buffer: 312. or a
          union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports
          (e.g., ‘bytes | bytearray | memoryview’).

          ‘ByteString’ was originally intended to be an abstract class
          that would serve as a supertype of both *note bytes: 1c7. and
          *note bytearray: 1c6.  However, since the ABC never had any
          methods, knowing that an object was an instance of
          ‘ByteString’ never actually told you anything useful about the
          object.  Other common buffer types such as *note memoryview:
          1d2. were also never understood as subtypes of ‘ByteString’
          (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

          See PEP 688(6) for more details.  (Contributed by Shantanu
          Jain in gh-91896(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136702

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137586

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 18,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 19,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 17,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.2.9.4 Pending removal in Python 3.18
......................................

   * No longer accept a boolean value when a file descriptor is
     expected.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-82626(1).)

   * *note decimal: 39.:

        * The non-standard and undocumented *note Decimal: 1c2. format
          specifier ‘'N'’, which is only supported in the ‘decimal’
          module’s C implementation, has been deprecated since Python
          3.13.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89902(2).)

   * Deprecations defined by PEP 829(3):

        * ‘import’ lines in ‘`name'.pth’ files are silently ignored.

     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-148641(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82626

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148641


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 19,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 20,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 18,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.2.9.5 Pending removal in Python 3.19
......................................

   * *note ctypes: 2d.:

        * Implicitly switching to the MSVC-compatible struct layout by
          setting *note _pack_: 318. but not *note _layout_: 319. on
          non-Windows platforms.

   * *note hashlib: 6b.:

        - In hash function constructors such as *note new(): 2f1. or the
          direct hash-named constructors such as *note md5(): 2f2. and
          *note sha256(): 2f3, their optional initial data parameter
          could also be passed a keyword argument named ‘data=’ or
          ‘string=’ in various ‘hashlib’ implementations.

          Support for the ‘string’ keyword argument name is now
          deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.19.

          Before Python 3.13, the ‘string’ keyword parameter was not
          correctly supported depending on the backend implementation of
          hash functions.  Prefer passing the initial data as a
          positional argument for maximum backwards compatibility.

   * *note http.cookies: 74.:

        * *note http.cookies.Morsel.js_output(): 2f4. is deprecated and
          will be removed in Python 3.19.

        * *note http.cookies.BaseCookie.js_output(): 2f5. is deprecated
          and will be removed in Python 3.19.

   * *note imaplib: 77.:

        * Altering *note IMAP4.file: 2f8. is now deprecated and slated
          for removal in Python 3.19.  This property is now unused and
          changing its value does not automatically close the current
          file.

          Before Python 3.14, this property was used to implement the
          corresponding ‘read()’ and ‘readline()’ methods for *note
          IMAP4: 31a. but this is no longer the case since then.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 20,  Next: Pending removal in future versions,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 19,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.2.9.6 Pending removal in Python 3.20
......................................

   * Calling the ‘__new__()’ method of *note struct.Struct: 2fb. without
     the 'format' argument is deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.20.  Calling *note __init__(): 2fa. method on initialized
     ‘Struct’ objects is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.20.

     (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev and Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-143715(1).)

   * The ‘__version__’, ‘version’ and ‘VERSION’ attributes have been
     deprecated in these standard library modules and will be removed in
     Python 3.20.  Use *note sys.version_info: 2fc. instead.

        - *note argparse: 7.

        - *note csv: 2c.

        - *note ctypes: 2d.

        - ‘ctypes.macholib’

        - *note decimal: 39. (use *note decimal.SPEC_VERSION: 2fd.
          instead)

        - *note http.server: 75.

        - *note imaplib: 77.

        - *note ipaddress: 83.

        - *note json: 85.

        - *note logging: 8a. (‘__date__’ also deprecated)

        - *note optparse: a4.

        - *note pickle: ab.

        - *note platform: af.

        - *note re: c1.

        - *note socketserver: d5.

        - *note tabnanny: e6.

        - *note tarfile: e7.

        - *note tkinter.font: fe.

        - *note tkinter.ttk: 102.

        - *note wsgiref.simple_server: 124.

        - *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.

        - ‘xml.sax.expatreader’

        - *note xml.sax.handler: 133.

        - *note zlib: 13c.

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade and Stan Ulbrych in gh-76007(2).)

   * Deprecations defined by PEP 829(3):

        * Warnings are produced for ‘import’ lines found in ‘`name'.pth’
          files.

        * ‘`name'.pth’ files are no longer decoded in the locale
          encoding by default.  They 'MUST' be encoded in ‘utf-8-sig’.

     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-148641(4).)

   * *note ast: 9.:

        * Creating instances of abstract AST nodes (such as *note
          ast.AST: 2ec. or ‘ast.expr’) is deprecated and will raise an
          error in Python 3.20.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143715

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148641


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in future versions,  Next: Soft deprecations,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 20,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.2.9.7 Pending removal in future versions
..........................................

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note argparse: 7.:

        * Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive groups
          are deprecated.

        * Passing the undocumented keyword argument 'prefix_chars' to
          *note add_argument_group(): 31d. is now deprecated.

        * The *note argparse.FileType: 31e. type converter is
          deprecated.

   * *note builtins: 13.:

        * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’
          signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’
          instead, the single argument signature.

        * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed
          by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It
          allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f
          or x in y]’).  A syntax warning is raised if the numeric
          literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and:
          31f, *note else: 320, *note for: 321, *note if: 322, *note in:
          323, *note is: 324. and *note or: 325.  In a future release it
          will be changed to a syntax error.  (gh-87999(1))

        * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning
          non-int type: these methods will be required to return an
          instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 326.

        * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note float: 327.: these methods will be required to return
          an instance of ‘float’.

        * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note complex: 328.: these methods will be required to
          return an instance of ‘complex’.

        * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in
          the *note complex(): 328. constructor is now deprecated; it
          should only be passed as a single positional argument.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(2).)

   * *note calendar: 15.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     329. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 32a.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(3).)

   * *note codecs: 1c.: use *note open(): 32b. instead of *note
     codecs.open(): 32c.  (gh-133038(4))

   * ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’: use the *note codeobject.co_lines(): 32d.
     method instead.

   * *note datetime: 33.:

        * *note utcnow(): 32e.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’.

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 32f.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’.

   * *note gettext: 66.: Plural value must be an integer.

   * *note importlib: 7a.:

        * *note cache_from_source(): 330. 'debug_override' parameter is
          deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead.

   * *note importlib.metadata: 7d.:

        * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface.

        * Implicit ‘None’ on return values.

   * *note logging: 8a.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since
     Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 331. instead.

   * *note mailbox: 8e.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is
     deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

   * *note os: a5.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 332. in a
     multi-threaded process.

   * *note os.path: a6.: *note os.path.commonprefix(): 333. is
     deprecated, use *note os.path.commonpath(): 334. for path prefixes.
     The ‘os.path.commonprefix()’ function is being deprecated due to
     having a misleading name and module.  The function is not safe to
     use for path prefixes despite being included in a module about path
     manipulation, meaning it is easy to accidentally introduce path
     traversal vulnerabilities into Python programs by using this
     function.

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter
     is deprecated, use an exception instance.

   * *note re: c1.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical
     group references and group names in regular expressions.  Only
     sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.
     The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now
     only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * *note shutil: cd.: *note rmtree(): 335.”s 'onerror' parameter is
     deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead.

   * *note ssl: d8. options and protocols:

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. without protocol argument is
          deprecated.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 336.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 337.
          and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN
          instead.

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note threading: f6. methods:

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all():
          338.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 339.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 33a.: use *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 33b. attribute.

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 33c.: use *note
          threading.Thread.name: 33d. attribute.

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note
          threading.current_thread(): 33e.

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count():
          33f.

   * *note typing.Text: 340. (gh-92332(6)).

   * The internal class ‘typing._UnionGenericAlias’ is no longer used to
     implement *note typing.Union: 341.  To preserve compatibility with
     users using this private class, a compatibility shim will be
     provided until at least Python 3.17.  (Contributed by Jelle
     Zijlstra in gh-105499(7).)

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342.: it is deprecated to
     return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case.

   * *note urllib.parse: 113. deprecated functions: *note urlparse():
     2a4. instead

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note wsgiref: 121.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do
     partial writes.

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: Testing the truth value of an
     *note Element: 343. is deprecated.  In a future release it will
     always return ‘True’.  Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not
     None’ tests instead.

   * *note sys._clear_type_cache(): 344. is deprecated: use *note
     sys._clear_internal_caches(): 345. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133038

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499


File: python.info,  Node: Soft deprecations,  Prev: Pending removal in future versions,  Up: Deprecated<2>

1.2.9.8 Soft deprecations
.........................

There are no plans to remove *note soft deprecated: 1a7. APIs.

   * *note re.match(): 24c. and *note re.Pattern.match(): 24d. are now
     *note soft deprecated: 1a7. in favor of the new *note
     re.prefixmatch(): 24a. and *note re.Pattern.prefixmatch(): 24b.
     APIs, which have been added as alternate, more explicit names.
     These are intended to be used to alleviate confusion around what
     'match' means by following the Zen of Python’s '«Explicit is better
     than implicit»' mantra.  Most other language regular expression
     libraries use an API named 'match' to mean what Python has always
     called 'search'.

     We 'do not' plan to remove the older ‘match()’ name, as it has been
     used in code for over 30 years.  Code supporting older versions of
     Python should continue to use ‘match()’, while new code should
     prefer ‘prefixmatch()’.  See *note prefixmatch() vs.  match(): 2f9.

     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-86519(1) and Hugo van
     Kemenade in gh-148100(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86519

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148100


File: python.info,  Node: C API changes<2>,  Next: Build changes<2>,  Prev: Deprecated<2>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 15

1.2.10 C API changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* New features: New features<4>.
* Changed C APIs::
* Removed C APIs: Removed C APIs<2>.
* Deprecated C APIs: Deprecated C APIs<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: New features<4>,  Next: Changed C APIs,  Up: C API changes<2>

1.2.10.1 New features
.....................

   * Add *note PyArg_ParseArray(): 349. and *note
     PyArg_ParseArrayAndKeywords(): 34a. functions to parse arguments of
     functions using the *note METH_FASTCALL: 34b. calling convention.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-144175(1).)

   * Add the following functions for the new *note frozendict: 182.
     type:

        * *note PyAnyDict_Check(): 34c.

        * *note PyAnyDict_CheckExact(): 34d.

        * *note PyFrozenDict_Check(): 34e.

        * *note PyFrozenDict_CheckExact(): 34f.

        * *note PyFrozenDict_New(): 350.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-141510(2).)

   * Add *note PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(): 351. function to the
     limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-146063(3).)

   * Add *note PySys_GetAttr(): 352, *note PySys_GetAttrString(): 353,
     *note PySys_GetOptionalAttr(): 354, and *note
     PySys_GetOptionalAttrString(): 355. functions as replacements for
     *note PySys_GetObject(): 356.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-108512(4).)

   * Add *note PyUnstable_Unicode_GET_CACHED_HASH: 357. to get the
     cached hash of a string.  See the documentation for caveats.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-131510(5).)

   * Add API for checking an extension module’s ABI compatibility: *note
     Py_mod_abi: 358, *note PyABIInfo_Check(): 359, and *note
     PyABIInfo_VAR: 35a.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in
     gh-137210(6).)

   * Implement PEP 782(7), the *note PyBytesWriter API: 35b.  Add
     functions:

        * *note PyBytesWriter_Create(): 35c.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_Discard(): 35d.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_FinishWithPointer(): 35e.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_FinishWithSize(): 35f.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_Finish(): 360.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_Format(): 361.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_GetData(): 362.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_GetSize(): 363.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_GrowAndUpdatePointer(): 364.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_Grow(): 365.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_Resize(): 366.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_WriteBytes(): 367.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-129813(8).)

   * *note PyCriticalSection: 368. and related functions are added to
     the Stable ABI.

     (Contributed in gh-149227(9).)

   * Add a new *note PyImport_CreateModuleFromInitfunc(): 369. C-API for
     creating a module from a 'spec' and 'initfunc'.  (Contributed by
     Itamar Oren in gh-116146(10).)

   * Add *note PyTuple_FromArray(): 36a. to create a *note tuple: 1ce.
     from an array.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111489(11).)

   * Add a new module export hook, *note PyModExport_*: 19c.

     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 793(12) and gh-140550(13).)

   * Add functions that are guaranteed to be safe for use in *note
     tp_traverse: 36b. handlers: *note PyObject_GetTypeData_DuringGC():
     36c, *note PyObject_GetItemData_DuringGC(): 36d, *note
     PyType_GetModuleState_DuringGC(): 36e, *note
     PyModule_GetState_DuringGC(): 36f, *note
     PyModule_GetToken_DuringGC(): 370, *note
     PyType_GetBaseByToken_DuringGC(): 371, *note
     PyType_GetModule_DuringGC(): 372, *note
     PyType_GetModuleByToken_DuringGC(): 373.  (Contributed by Petr
     Viktorin in gh-145925(14).)

   * Add *note PyObject_Dump(): 374. to dump an object to ‘stderr’.  It
     should only be used for debugging.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in gh-141070(15).)

   * Implement PEP 820(16): ‘PySlot’ – Unified slot system for the C
     API.  See *note Definition slots: 375. for documentation.

     This adds:

        * The *note PySlot: 19d. struct;

        * the *note PyType_FromSlots(): 376. function;

        * new slot IDs: *note Py_slot_end: 377, *note Py_slot_invalid:
          378.; *note Py_slot_subslots: 379, *note Py_tp_slots: 37a,
          *note Py_mod_slots: 37b.; *note Py_tp_name: 37c, *note
          Py_tp_basicsize: 37d, *note Py_tp_extra_basicsize: 37e, *note
          Py_tp_itemsize: 37f, *note Py_tp_flags: 380, *note
          Py_tp_metaclass: 381, *note Py_tp_module: 382.;

        * convenience macros: *note PySlot_DATA: 383, *note PySlot_FUNC:
          384, *note PySlot_SIZE: 385, *note PySlot_INT64: 386, *note
          PySlot_UINT64: 387, *note PySlot_STATIC_DATA: 388, *note
          PySlot_END: 389, *note PySlot_PTR: 38a, *note
          PySlot_PTR_STATIC: 38b.

     The *note PyModule_FromSlotsAndSpec(): 38c. function and
     ‘PyModExport’ *note module export hook: 38d. also use the new
     ‘PySlot’ struct.

     These following functions are *note soft deprecated: 1a7.:

        * *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e.

        * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 38f.

        * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390.

        * *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391.

        * *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): 392.

        * *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): 393.

        * *note PyModule_ExecDef(): 394.

     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-149044(17).)

   * Add *note PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection(): 395. and
     *note PyUnstable_ThreadState_ResetStackProtection(): 396. functions
     to set the stack protection base address and stack protection size
     of a Python thread state.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-139653(18).)

   * Add *note PyUnstable_SetImmortal(): 397. C-API function to mark
     objects as *note immortal: 398.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-143300(19).)

   * Restore private provisional ‘_Py_InitializeMain()’ function removed
     in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-142417(20).)

   * Add *note PyUnstable_DumpTraceback(): 399. and *note
     PyUnstable_DumpTracebackThreads(): 39a. functions to output Python
     stacktraces.  (Contributed by Alex Malyshev in gh-145559(21).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144175

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141510

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146063

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108512

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131510

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137210

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0782/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129813

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149227

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116146

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111489

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0793/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140550

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145925

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141070

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0820/

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149044

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139653

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143300

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142417

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145559


File: python.info,  Node: Changed C APIs,  Next: Removed C APIs<2>,  Prev: New features<4>,  Up: C API changes<2>

1.2.10.2 Changed C APIs
.......................

   * If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. or *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 39d. flag is set then *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. must be set too.  (Contributed by Sergey
     Miryanov in gh-134786(1).)

   * *note PyDateTime_IMPORT: 39f. is now thread safe.  Code that
     directly checks ‘PyDateTimeAPI’ for ‘NULL’ should be updated to
     call ‘PyDateTime_IMPORT’ instead.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-141563(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134786

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141563


File: python.info,  Node: Removed C APIs<2>,  Next: Deprecated C APIs<2>,  Prev: Changed C APIs,  Up: C API changes<2>

1.2.10.3 Removed C APIs
.......................

   * Remove deprecated ‘PyUnicode’ functions:

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode():
          3a1. instead.

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode():
          3a1. instead; note that some codecs (for example, «base64»)
          may return a type other than *note str: 1df, such as *note
          bytes: 1c7.

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode():
          3a2. instead.

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode():
          3a2. instead; note that some codecs (for example, «base64»)
          may return a type other than *note bytes: 1c7, such as *note
          str: 1df.

     (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in gh-133612(1).)

   * ‘PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()’: deprecated alias of *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-133644(2).)

   * ‘PyWeakref_GetObject()’ and ‘PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT’: use *note
     PyWeakref_GetRef(): 3a4. instead.  The pythoncapi-compat project(3)
     can be used to get ‘PyWeakref_GetRef()’ on Python 3.12 and older.
     (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-133644(4).)

   * Remove deprecated ‘PySys_ResetWarnOptions()’.  Clear *note
     sys.warnoptions: 3a5. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-138886(5).)

The following functions are removed in favor of *note PyConfig_Get():
3a6.  The pythoncapi-compat project(6) can be used to get
‘PyConfig_Get()’ on Python 3.13 and older.

   * Python initialization functions:

        * ‘Py_GetExecPrefix()’: use *note
          PyConfig_Get("base_exec_prefix"): 3a6. (*note
          sys.base_exec_prefix: 3a7.) instead.  Use
          ‘PyConfig_Get("exec_prefix")’ (*note sys.exec_prefix: 3a8.) if
          *note virtual environments: 3a9. need to be handled.

        * ‘Py_GetPath()’: use *note PyConfig_Get("module_search_paths"):
          3a6. (*note sys.path: 194.) instead.

        * ‘Py_GetPrefix()’: use *note PyConfig_Get("base_prefix"): 3a6.
          (*note sys.base_prefix: 3aa.) instead.  Use
          ‘PyConfig_Get("prefix")’ (*note sys.prefix: 3ab.) if *note
          virtual environments: 3a9. need to be handled.

        * ‘Py_GetProgramFullPath()’: use *note
          PyConfig_Get("executable"): 3a6. (*note sys.executable: 3ac.)
          instead.

        * ‘Py_GetProgramName()’: use *note PyConfig_Get("executable"):
          3a6. (*note sys.executable: 3ac.) instead.

        * ‘Py_GetPythonHome()’: use *note PyConfig_Get("home"): 3a6. or
          the *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. environment variable instead.

     (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-133644(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133612

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133644

   (3) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133644

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138886

   (6) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133644


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated C APIs<2>,  Prev: Removed C APIs<2>,  Up: C API changes<2>

1.2.10.4 Deprecated C APIs
..........................

   * Deprecate PEP 456(1) support for providing an external definition
     of the string hashing scheme.  Removal is scheduled for Python
     3.19.

     Previously, embedders could define *note Py_HASH_ALGORITHM: 3b0. to
     be ‘Py_HASH_EXTERNAL’ to indicate that the hashing scheme was
     provided externally but this feature was undocumented, untested and
     most likely unused.

     (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-141226(2).)

   * For unsigned integer formats in *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1,
     accepting Python integers with value that is larger than the
     maximal value for the C type or less than the minimal value for the
     corresponding signed integer type of the same size is now
     deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-132629(3).)

   * *note PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, len): 3b2. and *note
     _PyBytes_Resize(): 3b3. are *note soft deprecated: 1a7, use the
     *note PyBytesWriter: 3b4. API instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-129813(4).)

   * ‘_PyObject_CallMethodId()’, ‘_PyObject_GetAttrId()’ and
     ‘_PyUnicode_FromId()’ are deprecated since 3.15 and will be removed
     in 3.20.  Instead, use *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 3b5. and
     cache the result in the module state, then call *note
     PyObject_CallMethod(): 3b6. or *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 3b7.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-141049(5).)

   * Deprecate *note cval: 3b8. field of the *note PyComplexObject: 3b9.
     type.  Use *note PyComplex_AsCComplex(): 3ba. and *note
     PyComplex_FromCComplex(): 3bb. to convert a Python complex number
     to/from the C *note Py_complex: 3bc. representation.  (Contributed
     by Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-128813(6).)

   * Functions *note _Py_c_sum(): 3bd, *note _Py_c_diff(): 3be, *note
     _Py_c_neg(): 3bf, *note _Py_c_prod(): 3c0, *note _Py_c_quot(): 3c1,
     *note _Py_c_pow(): 3c2. and *note _Py_c_abs(): 3c3. are *note soft
     deprecated: 1a7.  (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in
     gh-128813(7).)

   * *note bytes_warning: 3c4. is deprecated since 3.15 and will be
     removed in 3.17.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-136355(8).)

   * ‘Py_INFINITY’ macro is *note soft deprecated: 1a7, use the C11
     standard ‘<math.h>’ ‘INFINITY’ instead.  (Contributed by Sergey B
     Kirpichev in gh-141004(9).)

   * The following macros are *note soft deprecated: 1a7.:

        - *note Py_ALIGNED: 3c5.: Prefer ‘alignas’ instead.

        - *note PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T: 3c6.: Use ‘"z"’ directly.

        - *note Py_LL: 3c7. and *note Py_ULL: 3c8.: Use standard
          suffixes, ‘LL’ and ‘ULL’.

        - *note PY_LONG_LONG: 3c9, *note PY_LLONG_MIN: 3ca, *note
          PY_LLONG_MAX: 3cb, *note PY_ULLONG_MAX: 3cc, *note PY_INT32_T:
          3cd, *note PY_UINT32_T: 3ce, *note PY_INT64_T: 3cf, *note
          PY_UINT64_T: 3d0, *note PY_SIZE_MAX: 3d1.: Use C99
          types/limits.

        - *note Py_UNICODE_SIZE: 3d2.: Use ‘sizeof(wchar_t)’ directly.

        - *note Py_VA_COPY: 3d3.: Use ‘va_copy’ directly.

     The macro *note Py_UNICODE_WIDE: 3d4, which was scheduled for
     removal, is *note soft deprecated: 1a7. instead.

     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-146175(10).)

   * ‘Py_MATH_El’ and ‘Py_MATH_PIl’ are deprecated since 3.15 and will
     be removed in 3.20.  (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in
     gh-141004(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141226

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132629

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129813

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141049

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128813

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128813

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136355

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141004

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146175

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141004


File: python.info,  Node: Build changes<2>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 15,  Prev: C API changes<2>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 15

1.2.11 Build changes
--------------------

   * Removed implicit fallback to the bundled copy of the ‘libmpdec’
     library.  Now this should be explicitly enabled with *note
     -with-system-libmpdec: 3d6. set to ‘no’ or with
     ‘--without-system-libmpdec’.  (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in
     gh-115119(1).)

   * The new configure option *note -with-missing-stdlib-config=FILE:
     3d7. allows distributors to pass a JSON(2) configuration file
     containing custom error messages for *note standard library: 3d8.
     modules that are missing or packaged separately.  (Contributed by
     Stan Ulbrych and Petr Viktorin in gh-139707(3).)

   * The new configure option *note -with-pymalloc-hugepages: 3d9.
     enables huge page support for *note pymalloc: 3da. arenas.  When
     enabled, arena size increases to 2 MiB and allocation uses
     ‘MAP_HUGETLB’ (Linux) or ‘MEM_LARGE_PAGES’ (Windows) with automatic
     fallback to regular pages.  On Windows, use ‘build.bat
     --pymalloc-hugepages’.  At runtime, huge pages must be explicitly
     enabled by setting the *note PYTHON_PYMALLOC_HUGEPAGES: 3db.
     environment variable to ‘1’.

   * Annotating anonymous mmap usage is now supported if Linux kernel
     supports ‘PR_SET_VMA_ANON_NAME(4)’ (Linux 5.17 or newer).
     Annotations are visible in ‘/proc/<pid>/maps’ if the kernel
     supports the feature and *note -X dev: 178. is passed to the Python
     or Python is built in *note debug mode: 3dc.  (Contributed by
     Donghee Na in gh-141770(5).)

   * CPython is now built with frame pointers enabled by default ( PEP
     831(6)).  Pass *note -without-frame-pointers: 3dd. to opt out.

     Authors of C extensions and native libraries built with custom
     build systems should ensure the unwind chain is intact.  This is
     usually done by adding ‘-fno-omit-frame-pointer’ and similar flags
     to ‘CFLAGS’.  See *note -without-frame-pointers: 3dd. documentation
     for the specific flags Python uses.

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado and Savannah Ostrowski in
     gh-149201(7).)

   * 64-bit builds using Visual Studio 2026 (MSVC 18) may now use the
     new *note tail-calling interpreter: 2c4.  Results on Visual Studio
     18.1.1 report between 15-20%(8) speedup on the geometric mean of
     pyperformance on Windows x86-64 over the switch-case interpreter on
     an AMD Ryzen 7 5800X. We have observed speedups ranging from 14%
     for large pure-Python libraries to 40% for long-running small
     pure-Python scripts on Windows.  This was made possible by a new
     feature introduced in MSVC 18, which the official Windows 64-bit
     binaries on python.org(9) now use.  (Contributed by Chris Eibl, Ken
     Jin, and Brandt Bucher in gh-143068(10).  Special thanks to Steve
     Dower, and the MSVC team including Hulon Jenkins.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (2) https://www.json.org/json-en.html

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139707

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/PR_SET_VMA(2const)

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141770

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0831/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149201

   (8) 
https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas/blob/main/results/5800X-msvc.pgo2-vs-msvc.pgo.tc.svg

   (9) https://www.python.org/downloads/windows/

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143068


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 15,  Prev: Build changes<2>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 15

1.2.12 Porting to Python 3.15
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

   * *note sqlite3.Connection: 3df. APIs have been cleaned up.

        * All parameters of *note sqlite3.connect(): 3e0. except
          'database' are now keyword-only.

        * The first three parameters of methods *note create_function():
          3e1. and *note create_aggregate(): 3e2. are now
          positional-only.

        * The first parameter of methods *note set_authorizer(): 3e3,
          *note set_progress_handler(): 3e4. and *note
          set_trace_callback(): 3e5. is now positional-only.

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-133595(1).)

   * *note resource.RLIM_INFINITY: 3e6. is now always positive.  Passing
     a negative integer value that corresponded to its old value (such
     as ‘-1’ or ‘-3’, depending on platform) to *note
     resource.setrlimit(): 3e7. and *note resource.prlimit(): 3e8. is
     now deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-137044(2).)

   * *note mmap.mmap.resize(): 3e9. has been removed on platforms that
     don’t support the underlying syscall, instead of raising a *note
     SystemError: 3ea.

   * A resource warning is now emitted for an unclosed *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(): 3eb. iterator if it opened a
     file.  Use its ‘close()’ method or the *note contextlib.closing():
     3ec. context manager to close it.  (Contributed by Osama Abdelkader
     and Serhiy Storchaka in gh-140601(3).)

   * If a short option and a single-dash long option are passed to *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 3ed, 'dest' is now inferred
     from the single-dash long option.  For example, in
     ‘add_argument('-f', '-foo')’, 'dest' is now ‘'foo'’ instead of
     ‘'f'’.  Pass an explicit 'dest' argument to preserve the old
     behavior.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-138697(4).)

   * Padding of input no longer required in *note
     base64.urlsafe_b64decode(): 1ee.  Pass a new argument ‘padded=True’
     or use *note base64.b64decode(): 1ec. with argument
     ‘altchars=b'-_'’ (this works with older Python versions) to make
     padding required.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-73613(5).)

   * Since *note unittest.TestCase.assertWarns(): 2a0. and *note
     unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex(): 2a1. no longer swallow
     warnings that do not match the specified category or regex, your
     tests may start leaking some warnings that were previously masked.
     Use warning filters to silence them or additional ‘assertWarns*()’
     to catch and check them.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-143231(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133595

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137044

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140601

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138697

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73613

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143231


File: python.info,  Node: What’s new in Python 3 14,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 13,  Prev: What’s new in Python 3 15,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.3 What’s new in Python 3.14
=============================


Editors: Adam Turner and Hugo van Kemenade

This article explains the new features in Python 3.14, compared to 3.13.
Python 3.14 was released on 7 October 2025.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 145.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 745(1) – Python 3.14 release schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
* New features: New features<5>.
* Other language changes: Other language changes<3>.
* New modules: New modules<3>.
* Improved modules: Improved modules<3>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<3>.
* Removed: Removed<3>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<3>.
* CPython bytecode changes::
* C API changes: C API changes<3>.
* Build changes: Build changes<3>.
* Porting to Python 3.14: Porting to Python 3 14.
* Notable changes in 3.14.5: Notable changes in 3 14 5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0745/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<2>,  Next: New features<5>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 14

1.3.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

Python 3.14 is the latest stable release of the Python programming
language, with a mix of changes to the language, the implementation, and
the standard library.  The biggest changes include *note template string
literals: 3f2, *note deferred evaluation of annotations: 3f3, and
support for *note subinterpreters: 3f4. in the standard library.

The library changes include significantly improved capabilities for
*note introspection in asyncio: 3f5, *note support for Zstandard: 3f6.
via a new *note compression.zstd: 23. module, syntax highlighting in the
REPL, as well as the usual deprecations and removals, and improvements
in user-friendliness and correctness.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead gives a convenient overview.  For full details
refer to the documentation, such as the *note Library Reference: 3f7.
and *note Language Reference: 3f8.  To understand the complete
implementation and design rationale for a change, refer to the PEP for a
particular new feature; but note that PEPs usually are not kept
up-to-date once a feature has been fully implemented.  See *note Porting
to Python 3.14: 3f9. for guidance on upgrading from earlier versions of
Python.

__________________________________________________________________

Interpreter improvements:

   * PEP 649(1) and PEP 749(2): *note Deferred evaluation of
     annotations: 3f3.

   * PEP 734(3): *note Multiple interpreters in the standard library:
     3f4.

   * PEP 750(4): *note Template strings: 3f2.

   * PEP 758(5): *note Allow except and except* expressions without
     brackets: 3fa.

   * PEP 765(6): *note Control flow in finally blocks: 3fb.

   * PEP 768(7): *note Safe external debugger interface for CPython:
     3fc.

   * *note A new type of interpreter: 2c4.

   * *note Free-threaded mode improvements: 3fd.

   * *note Improved error messages: 3fe.

   * *note Incremental garbage collection: 3ff.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * PEP 784(8): *note Zstandard support in the standard library: 3f6.

   * *note Asyncio introspection capabilities: 3f5.

   * *note Concurrent safe warnings control: 400.

   * *note Syntax highlighting in the default interactive shell: 401,
     and color output in several standard library CLIs

C API improvements:

   * PEP 741(9): *note Python configuration C API: 402.

Platform support:

   * PEP 776(10): Emscripten is now an *note officially supported
     platform: 403, at tier 3(11).

Release changes:

   * PEP 779(12): *note Free-threaded Python is officially supported:
     404.

   * PEP 761(13): *note PGP signatures have been discontinued for
     official releases: 405.

   * *note Windows and macOS binary releases now support the
     experimental just-in-time compiler: 406.

   * *note Binary releases for Android are now provided: 403.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0750/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0758/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0765/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0784/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0741/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0776/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0779/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0761/


File: python.info,  Node: New features<5>,  Next: Other language changes<3>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<2>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 14

1.3.2 New features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 649 & PEP 749; Deferred evaluation of annotations: PEP 649 & PEP 749 Deferred evaluation of annotations.
* PEP 734; Multiple interpreters in the standard library: PEP 734 Multiple interpreters in the standard library.
* PEP 750; Template string literals: PEP 750 Template string literals.
* PEP 768; Safe external debugger interface: PEP 768 Safe external debugger interface.
* A new type of interpreter::
* Free-threaded mode improvements::
* Improved error messages: Improved error messages<2>.
* PEP 784; Zstandard support in the standard library: PEP 784 Zstandard support in the standard library.
* Asyncio introspection capabilities::
* Concurrent safe warnings control::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 649 & PEP 749 Deferred evaluation of annotations,  Next: PEP 734 Multiple interpreters in the standard library,  Up: New features<5>

'PEP 649' & 'PEP 749': Deferred evaluation of annotations

The *note annotations: 409. on functions, classes, and modules are no
longer evaluated eagerly.  Instead, annotations are stored in
special-purpose *note annotate functions: 40a. and evaluated only when
necessary (except if ‘from __future__ import annotations’ is used).

This change is designed to improve performance and usability of
annotations in Python in most circumstances.  The runtime cost for
defining annotations is minimized, but it remains possible to introspect
annotations at runtime.  It is no longer necessary to enclose
annotations in strings if they contain forward references.

The new *note annotationlib: 6. module provides tools for inspecting
deferred annotations.  Annotations may be evaluated in the *note VALUE:
40b. format (which evaluates annotations to runtime values, similar to
the behavior in earlier Python versions), the *note FORWARDREF: 40c.
format (which replaces undefined names with special markers), and the
*note STRING: 40d. format (which returns annotations as strings).

This example shows how these formats behave:

     >>> from annotationlib import get_annotations, Format
     >>> def func(arg: Undefined):
     ...     pass
     >>> get_annotations(func, format=Format.VALUE)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     NameError: name 'Undefined' is not defined
     >>> get_annotations(func, format=Format.FORWARDREF)
     {'arg': ForwardRef('Undefined', owner=<function func at 0x...>)}
     >>> get_annotations(func, format=Format.STRING)
     {'arg': 'Undefined'}

The *note porting: 40e. section contains guidance on changes that may be
needed due to these changes, though in the majority of cases, code will
continue working as-is.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in PEP 749(1) and gh-119180(2); PEP
649(3) was written by Larry Hastings.)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 649(4)

     Deferred Evaluation Of Annotations Using Descriptors

PEP 749(5)

     Implementing PEP 649

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 734 Multiple interpreters in the standard library,  Next: PEP 750 Template string literals,  Prev: PEP 649 & PEP 749 Deferred evaluation of annotations,  Up: New features<5>

'PEP 734': Multiple interpreters in the standard library

The CPython runtime supports running multiple copies of Python in the
same process simultaneously and has done so for over 20 years.  Each of
these separate copies is called an “interpreter”.  However, the feature
had been available only through the *note C-API: 410.

That limitation is removed in Python 3.14, with the new *note
concurrent.interpreters: 25. module.

There are at least two notable reasons why using multiple interpreters
has significant benefits:

   * they support a new (to Python), human-friendly concurrency model

   * true multi-core parallelism

For some use cases, concurrency in software improves efficiency and can
simplify design, at a high level.  At the same time, implementing and
maintaining all but the simplest concurrency is often a struggle for the
human brain.  That especially applies to plain threads (for example,
*note threading: f6.), where all memory is shared between all threads.

With multiple isolated interpreters, you can take advantage of a class
of concurrency models, like Communicating Sequential Processes (CSP) or
the actor model, that have found success in other programming languages,
like Smalltalk, Erlang, Haskell, and Go.  Think of multiple interpreters
as threads but with opt-in sharing.

Regarding multi-core parallelism: as of Python 3.12, interpreters are
now sufficiently isolated from one another to be used in parallel (see
PEP 684(1)).  This unlocks a variety of CPU-intensive use cases for
Python that were limited by the *note GIL: 411.

Using multiple interpreters is similar in many ways to *note
multiprocessing: 98, in that they both provide isolated logical
«processes» that can run in parallel, with no sharing by default.
However, when using multiple interpreters, an application will use fewer
system resources and will operate more efficiently (since it stays
within the same process).  Think of multiple interpreters as having the
isolation of processes with the efficiency of threads.

While the feature has been around for decades, multiple interpreters
have not been used widely, due to low awareness and the lack of a
standard library module.  Consequently, they currently have several
notable limitations, which are expected to improve significantly now
that the feature is going mainstream.

Current limitations:

   * starting each interpreter has not been optimized yet

   * each interpreter uses more memory than necessary (work continues on
     extensive internal sharing between interpreters)

   * there aren’t many options 'yet' for truly sharing objects or other
     data between interpreters (other than *note memoryview: 1d2.)

   * many third-party extension modules on PyPI are not yet compatible
     with multiple interpreters (all standard library extension modules
     'are' compatible)

   * the approach to writing applications that use multiple isolated
     interpreters is mostly unfamiliar to Python users, for now

The impact of these limitations will depend on future CPython
improvements, how interpreters are used, and what the community solves
through PyPI packages.  Depending on the use case, the limitations may
not have much impact, so try it out!

Furthermore, future CPython releases will reduce or eliminate overhead
and provide utilities that are less appropriate on PyPI. In the
meantime, most of the limitations can also be addressed through
extension modules, meaning PyPI packages can fill any gap for 3.14, and
even back to 3.12 where interpreters were finally properly isolated and
stopped sharing the *note GIL: 411.  Likewise, libraries on PyPI are
expected to emerge for high-level abstractions on top of interpreters.

Regarding extension modules, work is in progress to update some PyPI
projects, as well as tools like Cython, pybind11, nanobind, and PyO3.
The steps for isolating an extension module are found at *note Isolating
Extension Modules: 412.  Isolating a module has a lot of overlap with
what is required to support *note free-threading: 3fd, so the ongoing
work in the community in that area will help accelerate support for
multiple interpreters.

Also added in 3.14: *note concurrent.futures.InterpreterPoolExecutor:
413.

(Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-134939(2).)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 734(3)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134939

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 750 Template string literals,  Next: PEP 768 Safe external debugger interface,  Prev: PEP 734 Multiple interpreters in the standard library,  Up: New features<5>

'PEP 750': Template string literals

Template strings are a new mechanism for custom string processing.  They
share the familiar syntax of f-strings but, unlike f-strings, return an
object representing the static and interpolated parts of the string,
instead of a simple *note str: 1df.

To write a t-string, use a ‘'t'’ prefix instead of an ‘'f'’:

     >>> variety = 'Stilton'
     >>> template = t'Try some {variety} cheese!'
     >>> type(template)
     <class 'string.templatelib.Template'>

*note Template: 415. objects provide access to the static and
interpolated (in curly braces) parts of a string 'before' they are
combined.  Iterate over ‘Template’ instances to access their parts in
order:

     >>> list(template)
     ['Try some ', Interpolation('Stilton', 'variety', None, ''), ' cheese!']

It’s easy to write (or call) code to process ‘Template’ instances.  For
example, here’s a function that renders static parts lowercase and *note
Interpolation: 416. instances uppercase:

     from string.templatelib import Interpolation

     def lower_upper(template):
         """Render static parts lowercase and interpolations uppercase."""
         parts = []
         for part in template:
             if isinstance(part, Interpolation):
                 parts.append(str(part.value).upper())
             else:
                 parts.append(part.lower())
         return ''.join(parts)

     name = 'Wenslydale'
     template = t'Mister {name}'
     assert lower_upper(template) == 'mister WENSLYDALE'

Because ‘Template’ instances distinguish between static strings and
interpolations at runtime, they can be useful for sanitising user input.
Writing a ‘html()’ function that escapes user input in HTML is an
exercise left to the reader!  Template processing code can provide
improved flexibility.  For instance, a more advanced ‘html()’ function
could accept a ‘dict’ of HTML attributes directly in the template:

     attributes = {'src': 'limburger.jpg', 'alt': 'lovely cheese'}
     template = t'<img {attributes}>'
     assert html(template) == '<img src="limburger.jpg" alt="lovely cheese" />'

Of course, template processing code does not need to return a
string-like result.  An even 'more' advanced ‘html()’ could return a
custom type representing a DOM-like structure.

With t-strings in place, developers can write systems that sanitise SQL,
make safe shell operations, improve logging, tackle modern ideas in web
development (HTML, CSS, and so on), and implement lightweight custom
business DSLs.

(Contributed by Jim Baker, Guido van Rossum, Paul Everitt, Koudai Aono,
Lysandros Nikolaou, Dave Peck, Adam Turner, Jelle Zijlstra, Bénédikt
Tran, and Pablo Galindo Salgado in gh-132661(1).)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 750(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132661

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0750/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 768 Safe external debugger interface,  Next: A new type of interpreter,  Prev: PEP 750 Template string literals,  Up: New features<5>

'PEP 768': Safe external debugger interface

Python 3.14 introduces a zero-overhead debugging interface that allows
debuggers and profilers to safely attach to running Python processes
without stopping or restarting them.  This is a significant enhancement
to Python’s debugging capabilities, meaning that unsafe alternatives are
no longer required.

The new interface provides safe execution points for attaching debugger
code without modifying the interpreter’s normal execution path or adding
any overhead at runtime.  Due to this, tools can now inspect and
interact with Python applications in real-time, which is a crucial
capability for high-availability systems and production environments.

For convenience, this interface is implemented in the *note
sys.remote_exec(): 418. function.  For example:

     import sys
     from tempfile import NamedTemporaryFile

     with NamedTemporaryFile(mode='w', suffix='.py', delete=False) as f:
         script_path = f.name
         f.write(f'import my_debugger; my_debugger.connect({os.getpid()})')

     # Execute in process with PID 1234
     print('Behold! An offering:')
     sys.remote_exec(1234, script_path)

This function allows sending Python code to be executed in a target
process at the next safe execution point.  However, tool authors can
also implement the protocol directly as described in the PEP, which
details the underlying mechanisms used to safely attach to running
processes.

The debugging interface has been carefully designed with security in
mind and includes several mechanisms to control access:

   * A *note PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG: 419. environment variable.

   * A *note -X disable-remote-debug: 178. command-line option.

   * A *note -without-remote-debug: 41a. configure flag to completely
     disable the feature at build time.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Matt Wozniski, and Ivona
Stojanovic in gh-131591(1).)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 768(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131591

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/


File: python.info,  Node: A new type of interpreter,  Next: Free-threaded mode improvements,  Prev: PEP 768 Safe external debugger interface,  Up: New features<5>

1.3.2.5 A new type of interpreter
.................................

A new type of interpreter has been added to CPython.  It uses tail calls
between small C functions that implement individual Python opcodes,
rather than one large C ‘case’ statement.  For certain newer compilers,
this interpreter provides significantly better performance.  Preliminary
benchmarks suggest a geometric mean of 3-5% faster on the standard
‘pyperformance’ benchmark suite, depending on platform and architecture.
The baseline is Python 3.14 built with Clang 19, without this new
interpreter.

This interpreter currently only works with Clang 19 and newer on x86-64
and AArch64 architectures.  However, a future release of GCC is expected
to support this as well.

This feature is opt-in for now.  Enabling profile-guided optimization is
highly recommended when using the new interpreter as it is the only
configuration that has been tested and validated for improved
performance.  For further information, see *note -with-tail-call-interp:
41c.

     Σημείωση: This is not to be confused with tail call optimization(1)
     of Python functions, which is currently not implemented in CPython.

     This new interpreter type is an internal implementation detail of
     the CPython interpreter.  It doesn’t change the visible behavior of
     Python programs at all.  It can improve their performance, but
     doesn’t change anything else.

(Contributed by Ken Jin in gh-128563(2), with ideas on how to implement
this in CPython by Mark Shannon, Garrett Gu, Haoran Xu, and Josh
Haberman.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tail_call

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128563


File: python.info,  Node: Free-threaded mode improvements,  Next: Improved error messages<2>,  Prev: A new type of interpreter,  Up: New features<5>

1.3.2.6 Free-threaded mode improvements
.......................................

CPython’s free-threaded mode ( PEP 703(1)), initially added in 3.13, has
been significantly improved in Python 3.14.  The implementation
described in PEP 703 has been finished, including C API changes, and
temporary workarounds in the interpreter were replaced with more
permanent solutions.  The specializing adaptive interpreter ( PEP
659(2)) is now enabled in free-threaded mode, which along with many
other optimizations greatly improves its performance.  The performance
penalty on single-threaded code in free-threaded mode is now roughly
5-10%, depending on the platform and C compiler used.

From Python 3.14, when compiling extension modules for the free-threaded
build of CPython on Windows, the preprocessor variable ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’
now needs to be specified by the build backend, as it will no longer be
determined automatically by the C compiler.  For a running interpreter,
the setting that was used at compile time can be found using *note
sysconfig.get_config_var(): 41e.

The new *note -X context_aware_warnings: 178. flag controls if *note
concurrent safe warnings control: 400. is enabled.  The flag defaults to
true for the free-threaded build and false for the GIL-enabled build.

A new *note thread_inherit_context: 41f. flag has been added, which if
enabled means that threads created with *note threading.Thread: 420.
start with a copy of the *note Context(): 421. of the caller of *note
start(): 422.  Most significantly, this makes the warning filtering
context established by *note catch_warnings: 423. be «inherited» by
threads (or asyncio tasks) started within that context.  It also affects
other modules that use context variables, such as the *note decimal: 39.
context manager.  This flag defaults to true for the free-threaded build
and false for the GIL-enabled build.

(Contributed by Sam Gross, Matt Page, Neil Schemenauer, Thomas Wouters,
Donghee Na, Kirill Podoprigora, Ken Jin, Itamar Oren, Brett Simmers,
Dino Viehland, Nathan Goldbaum, Ralf Gommers, Lysandros Nikolaou, Kumar
Aditya, Edgar Margffoy, and many others.  Some of these contributors are
employed by Meta, which has continued to provide significant engineering
resources to support this project.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved error messages<2>,  Next: PEP 784 Zstandard support in the standard library,  Prev: Free-threaded mode improvements,  Up: New features<5>

1.3.2.7 Improved error messages
...............................

   * The interpreter now provides helpful suggestions when it detects
     typos in Python keywords.  When a word that closely resembles a
     Python keyword is encountered, the interpreter will suggest the
     correct keyword in the error message.  This feature helps
     programmers quickly identify and fix common typing mistakes.  For
     example:

          >>> whille True:
          ...     pass
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              whille True:
              ^^^^^^
          SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Did you mean 'while'?

     While the feature focuses on the most common cases, some variations
     of misspellings may still result in regular syntax errors.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-132449(1).)

   * *note elif: 425. statements that follow an *note else: 320. block
     now have a specific error message.  (Contributed by Steele
     Farnsworth in gh-129902(2).)

          >>> if who == "me":
          ...     print("It's me!")
          ... else:
          ...     print("It's not me!")
          ... elif who is None:
          ...     print("Who is it?")
          File "<stdin>", line 5
            elif who is None:
            ^^^^
          SyntaxError: 'elif' block follows an 'else' block

   * If a statement is passed to the *note Conditional expressions: 426.
     after *note else: 320, or one of *note pass: 427, *note break: 428,
     or *note continue: 429. is passed before *note if: 322, then the
     error message highlights where the *note expression: 42a. is
     required.  (Contributed by Sergey Miryanov in gh-129515(3).)

          >>> x = 1 if True else pass
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<string>", line 1
              x = 1 if True else pass
                                 ^^^^
          SyntaxError: expected expression after 'else', but statement is given

          >>> x = continue if True else break
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<string>", line 1
              x = continue if True else break
                  ^^^^^^^^
          SyntaxError: expected expression before 'if', but statement is given

   * When incorrectly closed strings are detected, the error message
     suggests that the string may be intended to be part of the string.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-88535(4).)

          >>> "The interesting object "The important object" is very important"
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Is this intended to be part of the string?

   * When strings have incompatible prefixes, the error now shows which
     prefixes are incompatible.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-133197(5).)

          >>> ub'abc'
            File "<python-input-0>", line 1
              ub'abc'
              ^^
          SyntaxError: 'u' and 'b' prefixes are incompatible

   * Improved error messages when using ‘as’ with incompatible targets
     in:

        - Imports: ‘import ... as ...’

        - From imports: ‘from ... import ... as ...’

        - Except handlers: ‘except ... as ...’

        - Pattern-match cases: ‘case ... as ...’

     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-123539(6), gh-123562(7), and
     gh-123440(8).)

   * Improved error message when trying to add an instance of an
     unhashable type to a *note dict: 188. or *note set: 42b.
     (Contributed by CF Bolz-Tereick and Victor Stinner in
     gh-132828(9).)

          >>> s = set()
          >>> s.add({'pages': 12, 'grade': 'A'})
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<python-input-1>", line 1, in <module>
              s.add({'pages': 12, 'grade': 'A'})
              ~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
          TypeError: cannot use 'dict' as a set element (unhashable type: 'dict')
          >>> d = {}
          >>> l = [1, 2, 3]
          >>> d[l] = 12
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<python-input-4>", line 1, in <module>
              d[l] = 12
              ~^^^
          TypeError: cannot use 'list' as a dict key (unhashable type: 'list')

   * Improved error message when an object supporting the synchronous
     context manager protocol is entered using *note async with: 20b.
     instead of *note with: 20a, and vice versa for the asynchronous
     context manager protocol.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-128398(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132449

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129902

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129515

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88535

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133197

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123539

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123562

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123440

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132828

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128398


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 784 Zstandard support in the standard library,  Next: Asyncio introspection capabilities,  Prev: Improved error messages<2>,  Up: New features<5>

'PEP 784': Zstandard support in the standard library

The new ‘compression’ package contains modules ‘compression.lzma’,
‘compression.bz2’, ‘compression.gzip’ and ‘compression.zlib’ which
re-export the *note lzma: 8d, *note bz2: 14, *note gzip: 6a. and *note
zlib: 13c. modules respectively.  The new import names under
‘compression’ are the preferred names for importing these compression
modules from Python 3.14.  However, the existing modules names have not
been deprecated.  Any deprecation or removal of the existing compression
modules will occur no sooner than five years after the release of 3.14.

The new ‘compression.zstd’ module provides compression and decompression
APIs for the Zstandard format via bindings to Meta's zstd library(1).
Zstandard is a widely adopted, highly efficient, and fast compression
format.  In addition to the APIs introduced in ‘compression.zstd’,
support for reading and writing Zstandard compressed archives has been
added to the *note tarfile: e7, *note zipfile: 13a, and *note shutil:
cd. modules.

Here’s an example of using the new module to compress some data:

     from compression import zstd
     import math

     data = str(math.pi).encode() * 20
     compressed = zstd.compress(data)
     ratio = len(compressed) / len(data)
     print(f"Achieved compression ratio of {ratio}")

As can be seen, the API is similar to the APIs of the ‘lzma’ and ‘bz2’
modules.

(Contributed by Emma Harper Smith, Adam Turner, Gregory P. Smith, Tomas
Roun, Victor Stinner, and Rogdham in gh-132983(2).)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 784(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://facebook.github.io/zstd/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132983

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0784/


File: python.info,  Node: Asyncio introspection capabilities,  Next: Concurrent safe warnings control,  Prev: PEP 784 Zstandard support in the standard library,  Up: New features<5>

1.3.2.9 Asyncio introspection capabilities
..........................................

Added a new command-line interface to inspect running Python processes
using asynchronous tasks, available via ‘python -m asyncio ps PID’ or
‘python -m asyncio pstree PID’.

The ‘ps’ subcommand inspects the given process ID (PID) and displays
information about currently running asyncio tasks.  It outputs a task
table: a flat listing of all tasks, their names, their coroutine stacks,
and which tasks are awaiting them.

The ‘pstree’ subcommand fetches the same information, but instead
renders a visual async call tree, showing coroutine relationships in a
hierarchical format.  This command is particularly useful for debugging
long-running or stuck asynchronous programs.  It can help developers
quickly identify where a program is blocked, what tasks are pending, and
how coroutines are chained together.

For example given this code:

     import asyncio

     async def play_track(track):
         await asyncio.sleep(5)
         print(f'🎵 Finished: {track}')

     async def play_album(name, tracks):
         async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
             for track in tracks:
                 tg.create_task(play_track(track), name=track)

     async def main():
         async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
             tg.create_task(
               play_album('Sundowning', ['TNDNBTG', 'Levitate']),
               name='Sundowning')
             tg.create_task(
               play_album('TMBTE', ['DYWTYLM', 'Aqua Regia']),
               name='TMBTE')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         asyncio.run(main())

Executing the new tool on the running process will yield a table like
this:

     python -m asyncio ps 12345

     tid        task id              task name            coroutine stack                                    awaiter chain                                      awaiter name    awaiter id
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
     1935500    0x7fc930c18050       Task-1               TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> main                                                                       0x0
     1935500    0x7fc930c18230       Sundowning           TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> album   TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> main    Task-1          0x7fc930c18050
     1935500    0x7fc93173fa50       TMBTE                TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> album   TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> main    Task-1          0x7fc930c18050
     1935500    0x7fc93173fdf0       TNDNBTG              sleep -> play                                      TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> album   Sundowning      0x7fc930c18230
     1935500    0x7fc930d32510       Levitate             sleep -> play                                      TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> album   Sundowning      0x7fc930c18230
     1935500    0x7fc930d32890       DYWTYLM              sleep -> play                                      TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> album   TMBTE           0x7fc93173fa50
     1935500    0x7fc93161ec30       Aqua Regia           sleep -> play                                      TaskGroup._aexit -> TaskGroup.__aexit__ -> album   TMBTE           0x7fc93173fa50

or a tree like this:

     python -m asyncio pstree 12345

     └── (T) Task-1
         └──  main example.py:13
             └──  TaskGroup.__aexit__ Lib/asyncio/taskgroups.py:72
                 └──  TaskGroup._aexit Lib/asyncio/taskgroups.py:121
                     ├── (T) Sundowning
                     │   └──  album example.py:8
                     │       └──  TaskGroup.__aexit__ Lib/asyncio/taskgroups.py:72
                     │           └──  TaskGroup._aexit Lib/asyncio/taskgroups.py:121
                     │               ├── (T) TNDNBTG
                     │               │   └──  play example.py:4
                     │               │       └──  sleep Lib/asyncio/tasks.py:702
                     │               └── (T) Levitate
                     │                   └──  play example.py:4
                     │                       └──  sleep Lib/asyncio/tasks.py:702
                     └── (T) TMBTE
                         └──  album example.py:8
                             └──  TaskGroup.__aexit__ Lib/asyncio/taskgroups.py:72
                                 └──  TaskGroup._aexit Lib/asyncio/taskgroups.py:121
                                     ├── (T) DYWTYLM
                                     │   └──  play example.py:4
                                     │       └──  sleep Lib/asyncio/tasks.py:702
                                     └── (T) Aqua Regia
                                         └──  play example.py:4
                                             └──  sleep Lib/asyncio/tasks.py:702

If a cycle is detected in the async await graph (which could indicate a
programming issue), the tool raises an error and lists the cycle paths
that prevent tree construction:

     python -m asyncio pstree 12345

     ERROR: await-graph contains cycles - cannot print a tree!

     cycle: Task-2 → Task-3 → Task-2

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Łukasz Langa, Yury Selivanov, and Marta
Gomez Macias in gh-91048(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91048


File: python.info,  Node: Concurrent safe warnings control,  Prev: Asyncio introspection capabilities,  Up: New features<5>

1.3.2.10 Concurrent safe warnings control
.........................................

The *note warnings.catch_warnings: 423. context manager will now
optionally use a context variable for warning filters.  This is enabled
by setting the *note context_aware_warnings: 42f. flag, either with the
‘-X’ command-line option or an environment variable.  This gives
predictable warnings control when using ‘catch_warnings’ combined with
multiple threads or asynchronous tasks.  The flag defaults to true for
the free-threaded build and false for the GIL-enabled build.

(Contributed by Neil Schemenauer and Kumar Aditya in gh-130010(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130010


File: python.info,  Node: Other language changes<3>,  Next: New modules<3>,  Prev: New features<5>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 14

1.3.3 Other language changes
----------------------------

   * All Windows code pages are now supported as “cpXXX” codecs on
     Windows.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-123803(1).)

   * Implement mixed-mode arithmetic rules combining real and complex
     numbers as specified by the C standard since C99.  (Contributed by
     Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-69639(2).)

   * More syntax errors are now detected regardless of optimisation and
     the *note -O: 431. command-line option.  This includes writes to
     ‘__debug__’, incorrect use of *note await: 432, and asynchronous
     comprehensions outside asynchronous functions.  For example,
     ‘python -O -c 'assert (__debug__ := 1)'’ or ‘python -O -c 'assert
     await 1'’ now produce *note SyntaxError: 17e.s.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel and Jelle Zijlstra in gh-122245(3) & gh-121637(4).)

   * When subclassing a pure C type, the C slots for the new type are no
     longer replaced with a wrapped version on class creation if they
     are not explicitly overridden in the subclass.  (Contributed by
     Tomasz Pytel in gh-132284(5).)

* Menu:

* Built-ins::
* Command line and environment::
* PEP 758; Allow except and except* expressions without brackets: PEP 758 Allow except and except* expressions without brackets.
* PEP 765; Control flow in finally blocks: PEP 765 Control flow in finally blocks.
* Garbage collection::
* Default interactive shell: Default interactive shell<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123803

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69639

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122245

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121637

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132284


File: python.info,  Node: Built-ins,  Next: Command line and environment,  Up: Other language changes<3>

1.3.3.1 Built-ins
.................

   * The *note bytes.fromhex(): 434. and *note bytearray.fromhex(): 435.
     methods now accept ASCII *note bytes: 1c7. and *note bytes-like
     objects: 436.  (Contributed by Daniel Pope in gh-129349(1).)

   * Add class methods *note float.from_number(): 437. and *note
     complex.from_number(): 438. to convert a number to *note float:
     327. or *note complex: 328. type correspondingly.  They raise a
     *note TypeError: 291. if the argument is not a real number.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-84978(2).)

   * Support underscore and comma as thousands separators in the
     fractional part for floating-point presentation types of the
     new-style string formatting (with *note format(): 439. or *note
     f-strings: 43a.).  (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in
     gh-87790(3).)

   * The *note int(): 326. function no longer delegates to *note
     __trunc__(): 43b.  Classes that want to support conversion to
     ‘int()’ must implement either *note __int__(): 43c. or *note
     __index__(): 43d.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in gh-119743(4).)

   * The *note map(): 43e. function now has an optional keyword-only
     'strict' flag like *note zip(): 43f. to check that all the
     iterables are of equal length.  (Contributed by Wannes Boeykens in
     gh-119793(5).)

   * The *note memoryview: 1d2. type now supports subscription, making
     it a *note generic type: 1d1.  (Contributed by Brian Schubert in
     gh-126012(6).)

   * Using *note NotImplemented: 440. in a boolean context will now
     raise a *note TypeError: 291.  This has raised a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. since Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Jelle
     Zijlstra in gh-118767(7).)

   * Three-argument *note pow(): 441. now tries calling *note
     __rpow__(): 442. if necessary.  Previously it was only called in
     two-argument ‘pow()’ and the binary power operator.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-130104(8).)

   * *note super: 443. objects are now *note copyable: 29. and *note
     pickleable: ab.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-125767(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129349

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84978

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87790

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119743

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119793

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126012

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118767

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130104

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125767


File: python.info,  Node: Command line and environment,  Next: PEP 758 Allow except and except* expressions without brackets,  Prev: Built-ins,  Up: Other language changes<3>

1.3.3.2 Command line and environment
....................................

   * The import time flag can now track modules that are already loaded
     (“cached”), via the new *note -X importtime=2: 178.  When such a
     module is imported, the ‘self’ and ‘cumulative’ times are replaced
     by the string ‘cached’.

     Values above ‘2’ for ‘-X importtime’ are now reserved for future
     use.

     (Contributed by Noah Kim and Adam Turner in gh-118655(1).)

   * The command-line option *note -c: 445. now automatically dedents
     its code argument before execution.  (Contributed by Jon Crall and
     Steven Sun in gh-103998(2).)

   * ‘-J’ is no longer a reserved flag for Jython(3), and now has no
     special meaning.  (Contributed by Adam Turner in gh-133336(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118655

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103998

   (3) https://www.jython.org/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133336


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 758 Allow except and except* expressions without brackets,  Next: PEP 765 Control flow in finally blocks,  Prev: Command line and environment,  Up: Other language changes<3>

1.3.3.3 PEP 758: Allow ‘except’ and ‘except*’ expressions without brackets
..........................................................................

The *note except: 447. and *note except*: 448. expressions now allow
brackets to be omitted when there are multiple exception types and the
‘as’ clause is not used.  For example:

     try:
         connect_to_server()
     except TimeoutError, ConnectionRefusedError:
         print('The network has ceased to be!')

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Brett Cannon in PEP 758(1) and
gh-131831(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0758/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131831


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 765 Control flow in finally blocks,  Next: Garbage collection,  Prev: PEP 758 Allow except and except* expressions without brackets,  Up: Other language changes<3>

1.3.3.4 PEP 765: Control flow in ‘finally’ blocks
.................................................

The compiler now emits a *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. when a *note return:
44b, *note break: 428, or *note continue: 429. statement have the effect
of leaving a *note finally: 44c. block.  This change is specified in PEP
765(1).

In situations where this change is inconvenient (such as those where the
warnings are redundant due to code linting), the *note warning filter:
1cc. can be used to turn off all syntax warnings by adding
‘ignore::SyntaxWarning’ as a filter.  This can be specified in
combination with a filter that converts other warnings to errors (for
example, passing ‘-Werror -Wignore::SyntaxWarning’ as CLI options, or
setting ‘PYTHONWARNINGS=error,ignore::SyntaxWarning’).

Note that applying such a filter at runtime using the *note warnings:
11b. module will only suppress the warning in code that is compiled
'after' the filter is adjusted.  Code that is compiled prior to the
filter adjustment (for example, when a module is imported) will still
emit the syntax warning.

(Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-130080(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0765/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130080


File: python.info,  Node: Garbage collection,  Next: Default interactive shell<2>,  Prev: PEP 765 Control flow in finally blocks,  Up: Other language changes<3>

1.3.3.5 Garbage collection
..........................

'From Python 3.14.5 onwards:'

The garbage collector (GC) has changed in Python 3.14.5.

Python 3.14.0-3.14.4 shipped with a new incremental GC. However, due to
a number of reports(1) of significant memory pressure in production
environments, it has been reverted back to the generational GC from
3.13.  This is the GC now used in Python 3.14.5 and later.

'Previously in Python 3.14.0-3.14.4:'

The cycle garbage collector is now incremental.  This means that maximum
pause times are reduced by an order of magnitude or more for larger
heaps.

There are now only two generations: young and old.  When *note
gc.collect(): 44f. is not called directly, the GC is invoked a little
less frequently.  When invoked, it collects the young generation and an
increment of the old generation, instead of collecting one or more
generations.

The behavior of ‘gc.collect()’ changes slightly:

   * ‘gc.collect(1)’: Performs an increment of garbage collection,
     rather than collecting generation 1.

   * Other calls to ‘gc.collect()’ are unchanged.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-108362(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142516

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108362


File: python.info,  Node: Default interactive shell<2>,  Prev: Garbage collection,  Up: Other language changes<3>

1.3.3.6 Default interactive shell
.................................

   * The default *note interactive: 451. shell now highlights Python
     syntax.  The feature is enabled by default, save if *note
     PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 452. or any other environment variable that
     disables colour is set.  See *note Controlling color: 1af. for
     details.

     The default color theme for syntax highlighting strives for good
     contrast and exclusively uses the 4-bit VGA standard ANSI color
     codes for maximum compatibility.  The theme can be customized using
     an experimental API ‘_colorize.set_theme()’.  This can be called
     interactively or in the *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453. script.  Note
     that this function has no stability guarantees, and may change or
     be removed.

     (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in gh-131507(1).)

   * The default *note interactive: 451. shell now supports import
     auto-completion.  This means that typing ‘import co’ and pressing
     ‘<Tab>’ will suggest modules starting with ‘co’.  Similarly, typing
     ‘from concurrent import i’ will suggest submodules of ‘concurrent’
     starting with ‘i’.  Note that autocompletion of module attributes
     is not currently supported.  (Contributed by Tomas Roun in
     gh-69605(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131507

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69605


File: python.info,  Node: New modules<3>,  Next: Improved modules<3>,  Prev: Other language changes<3>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 14

1.3.4 New modules
-----------------

   * *note annotationlib: 6.: For introspecting *note annotations: 409.
     See *note PEP 749: 3f3. for more details.  (Contributed by Jelle
     Zijlstra in gh-119180(1).)

   * *note compression: 22. (including *note compression.zstd: 23.): A
     package for compression-related modules, including a new module to
     support the Zstandard compression format.  See *note PEP 784: 3f6.
     for more details.  (Contributed by Emma Harper Smith, Adam Turner,
     Gregory P. Smith, Tomas Roun, Victor Stinner, and Rogdham in
     gh-132983(2).)

   * *note concurrent.interpreters: 25.: Support for multiple
     interpreters in the standard library.  See *note PEP 734: 3f4. for
     more details.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-134939(3).)

   * *note string.templatelib: dc.: Support for template string literals
     (t-strings).  See *note PEP 750: 3f2. for more details.
     (Contributed by Jim Baker, Guido van Rossum, Paul Everitt, Koudai
     Aono, Lysandros Nikolaou, Dave Peck, Adam Turner, Jelle Zijlstra,
     Bénédikt Tran, and Pablo Galindo Salgado in gh-132661(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132983

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134939

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132661


File: python.info,  Node: Improved modules<3>,  Next: Optimizations<3>,  Prev: New modules<3>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 14

1.3.5 Improved modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse<2>.
* ast: ast<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<2>.
* calendar: calendar<2>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<2>.
* configparser::
* contextvars::
* ctypes: ctypes<2>.
* curses::
* datetime: datetime<2>.
* decimal::
* difflib: difflib<2>.
* dis::
* errno::
* faulthandler: faulthandler<2>.
* fnmatch::
* fractions::
* functools: functools<3>.
* getopt::
* getpass::
* graphlib::
* heapq::
* hmac::
* http::
* imaplib::
* inspect: inspect<2>.
* io::
* json: json<2>.
* linecache::
* logging.handlers: logging handlers.
* math: math<2>.
* mimetypes: mimetypes<2>.
* multiprocessing::
* operator::
* os: os<2>.
* os.path: os path<2>.
* pathlib: pathlib<2>.
* pdb: pdb<2>.
* pickle: pickle<2>.
* platform: platform<2>.
* pydoc::
* re: re<2>.
* socket: socket<2>.
* ssl: ssl<2>.
* struct::
* symtable: symtable<3>.
* sys: sys<2>.
* sys.monitoring: sys monitoring<2>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<3>.
* tarfile: tarfile<2>.
* threading: threading<3>.
* tkinter: tkinter<2>.
* turtle::
* types: types<3>.
* typing: typing<3>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<2>.
* unittest: unittest<2>.
* urllib::
* uuid::
* webbrowser: webbrowser<2>.
* zipfile::


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<2>,  Next: ast<3>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.1 argparse
................

   * The default value of the *note program name: 457. for *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc. now reflects the way the Python
     interpreter was instructed to find the ‘__main__’ module code.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Alyssa Coghlan in
     gh-66436(1).)

   * Introduced the optional 'suggest_on_error' parameter to *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc, enabling suggestions for argument
     choices and subparser names if mistyped by the user.  (Contributed
     by Savannah Ostrowski in gh-124456(2).)

   * Enable color for help text, which can be disabled with the optional
     'color' parameter to *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc.  This can
     also be controlled by *note environment variables: 1af.
     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-130645(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66436

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124456

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130645


File: python.info,  Node: ast<3>,  Next: asyncio<2>,  Prev: argparse<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.2 ast
...........

   * Add *note compare(): 459, a function for comparing two ASTs.
     (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya and Jeremy Hylton in gh-60191(1).)

   * Add support for *note copy.replace(): 45a. for AST nodes.
     (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-121141(2).)

   * Docstrings are now removed from an optimized AST in optimization
     level 2.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-123958(3).)

   * The *note repr(): 45b. output for AST nodes now includes more
     information.  (Contributed by Tomas Roun in gh-116022(4).)

   * When called with an AST as input, the *note parse(): 1c9. function
     now always verifies that the root node type is appropriate.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-130139(5).)

   * Add new options to the command-line interface: *note
     -feature-version: 45c, *note -optimize: 45d, and *note -show-empty:
     45e.  (Contributed by Semyon Moroz in gh-133367(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60191

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121141

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123958

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116022

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130139

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133367


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<2>,  Next: calendar<2>,  Prev: ast<3>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.3 asyncio
...............

   * The function and methods named ‘create_task()’ now take an
     arbitrary list of keyword arguments.  All keyword arguments are
     passed to the *note Task: 460. constructor or the custom task
     factory.  (See *note set_task_factory(): 461. for details.)  The
     ‘name’ and ‘context’ keyword arguments are no longer special; the
     name should now be set using the ‘name’ keyword argument of the
     factory, and ‘context’ may be ‘None’.

     This affects the following function and methods: *note
     asyncio.create_task(): 462, *note asyncio.loop.create_task(): 463,
     *note asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 464.

     (Contributed by Thomas Grainger in gh-128307(1).)

   * There are two new utility functions for introspecting and printing
     a program’s call graph: *note capture_call_graph(): 465. and *note
     print_call_graph(): 466.  See *note Asyncio introspection
     capabilities: 3f5. for more details.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov, Pablo Galindo Salgado, and Łukasz Langa in gh-91048(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128307

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91048


File: python.info,  Node: calendar<2>,  Next: concurrent futures<2>,  Prev: asyncio<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.4 calendar
................

   * By default, today’s date is highlighted in color in *note calendar:
     15.’s *note command-line: 201. text output.  This can be controlled
     by *note environment variables: 1af.  (Contributed by Hugo van
     Kemenade in gh-128317(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128317


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<2>,  Next: configparser,  Prev: calendar<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.5 concurrent.futures
..........................

   * Add a new executor class, *note InterpreterPoolExecutor: 46a, which
     exposes multiple Python interpreters in the same process
     (“subinterpreters”) to Python code.  This uses a pool of
     independent Python interpreters to execute calls asynchronously.

     This is separate from the new *note interpreters: 25. module
     introduced by *note PEP 734: 3f4.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in
     gh-124548(1).)

   * On Unix platforms other than macOS, *note “forkserver”: 46c. is now
     the default *note start method: 46d. for *note ProcessPoolExecutor:
     206. (replacing *note “fork”: 46e.).  This change does not affect
     Windows or macOS, where *note “spawn”: 46f. remains the default
     start method.

     If the threading incompatible 'fork' method is required, you must
     explicitly request it by supplying a multiprocessing context
     'mp_context' to *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206.

     See *note forkserver restrictions: 470. for information and
     differences with the 'fork' method and how this change may affect
     existing code with mutable global shared variables and/or shared
     objects that can not be automatically *note pickled: ab.

     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-84559(2).)

   * Add two new methods to *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206, *note
     terminate_workers(): 471. and *note kill_workers(): 472, as ways to
     terminate or kill all living worker processes in the given pool.
     (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-130849(3).)

   * Add the optional 'buffersize' parameter to *note Executor.map: 473.
     to limit the number of submitted tasks whose results have not yet
     been yielded.  If the buffer is full, iteration over the
     'iterables' pauses until a result is yielded from the buffer.
     (Contributed by Enzo Bonnal and Josh Rosenberg in gh-74028(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124548

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130849

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74028


File: python.info,  Node: configparser,  Next: contextvars,  Prev: concurrent futures<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.6 configparser
....................

   * ‘configparser’ will no longer write config files it cannot read, to
     improve security.  Attempting to *note write(): 475. keys
     containing delimiters or beginning with the section header pattern
     will raise an *note InvalidWriteError: 476.  (Contributed by Jacob
     Lincoln in gh-129270(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129270


File: python.info,  Node: contextvars,  Next: ctypes<2>,  Prev: configparser,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.7 contextvars
...................

   * Support the *note context manager: 478. protocol for *note Token:
     479. objects.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in gh-129889(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129889


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes<2>,  Next: curses,  Prev: contextvars,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.8 ctypes
..............

   * The layout of *note bit fields: 47b. in *note Structure: 47c. and
     *note Union: 47d. objects is now a closer match to platform
     defaults (GCC/Clang or MSVC). In particular, fields no longer
     overlap.  (Contributed by Matthias Görgens in gh-97702(1).)

   * The *note Structure._layout_: 319. class attribute can now be set
     to help match a non-default ABI. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in
     gh-97702(2).)

   * The class of *note Structure: 47c./*note Union: 47d. field
     descriptors is now available as *note CField: 47e, and has new
     attributes to aid debugging and introspection.  (Contributed by
     Petr Viktorin in gh-128715(3).)

   * On Windows, the *note COMError: 47f. exception is now public.
     (Contributed by Jun Komoda in gh-126686(4).)

   * On Windows, the *note CopyComPointer(): 480. function is now
     public.  (Contributed by Jun Komoda in gh-127275(5).)

   * Add *note memoryview_at(): 481, a function to create a *note
     memoryview: 1d2. object that refers to the supplied pointer and
     length.  This works like *note ctypes.string_at(): 482. except it
     avoids a buffer copy, and is typically useful when implementing
     pure Python callback functions that are passed dynamically-sized
     buffers.  (Contributed by Rian Hunter in gh-112018(6).)

   * Complex types, *note c_float_complex: 2ce, *note c_double_complex:
     2cf, and *note c_longdouble_complex: 2d0, are now available if both
     the compiler and the ‘libffi’ library support complex C types.
     (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-61103(7).)

   * Add *note ctypes.util.dllist(): 483. for listing the shared
     libraries loaded by the current process.  (Contributed by Brian
     Ward in gh-119349(8).)

   * Move *note ctypes.POINTER(): 484. types cache from a global
     internal cache (‘_pointer_type_cache’) to the *note
     _CData.__pointer_type__: 485. attribute of the corresponding
     ‘ctypes’ types.  This will stop the cache from growing without
     limits in some situations.  (Contributed by Sergey Miryanov in
     gh-100926(9).)

   * The *note py_object: 486. type now supports subscription, making it
     a *note generic type: 1d1.  (Contributed by Brian Schubert in
     gh-132168(10).)

   * ‘ctypes’ now supports *note free-threading builds: 487.
     (Contributed by Kumar Aditya and Peter Bierma in gh-127945(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97702

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97702

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128715

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126686

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127275

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112018

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61103

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119349

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100926

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132168

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127945


File: python.info,  Node: curses,  Next: datetime<2>,  Prev: ctypes<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.9 curses
..............

   * Add the *note assume_default_colors(): 489. function, a refinement
     of the *note use_default_colors(): 48a. function which allows
     changing the color pair ‘0’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-133139(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133139


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<2>,  Next: decimal,  Prev: curses,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.10 datetime
.................

   * Add the *note strptime(): 48c. method to the *note datetime.date:
     48d. and *note datetime.time: 48e. classes.  (Contributed by Wannes
     Boeykens in gh-41431(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/41431


File: python.info,  Node: decimal,  Next: difflib<2>,  Prev: datetime<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.11 decimal
................

   * Add *note Decimal.from_number(): 490. as an alternative constructor
     for *note Decimal: 1c2.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-121798(1).)

   * Expose *note IEEEContext(): 491. to support creation of contexts
     corresponding to the IEEE 754 (2008) decimal interchange formats.
     (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-53032(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121798

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53032


File: python.info,  Node: difflib<2>,  Next: dis,  Prev: decimal,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.12 difflib
................

   * Comparison pages with highlighted changes generated by the *note
     HtmlDiff: 214. class now support “dark mode”.  (Contributed by
     Jiahao Li in gh-129939(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129939


File: python.info,  Node: dis,  Next: errno,  Prev: difflib<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.13 dis
............

   * Add support for rendering full source location information of *note
     instructions: 494, rather than only the line number.  This feature
     is added to the following interfaces via the 'show_positions'
     keyword argument:

        - *note dis.Bytecode: 495.

        - *note dis.dis(): 496.

        - *note dis.distb(): 497.

        - *note dis.disassemble(): 498.

     This feature is also exposed via *note dis -show-positions: 499.
     (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-123165(1).)

   * Add the *note dis -specialized: 49a. command-line option to show
     specialized bytecode.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-127413(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123165

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127413


File: python.info,  Node: errno,  Next: faulthandler<2>,  Prev: dis,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.14 errno
..............

   * Add the *note EHWPOISON: 49c. error code constant.  (Contributed by
     James Roy in gh-126585(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126585


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<2>,  Next: fnmatch,  Prev: errno,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.15 faulthandler
.....................

   * Add support for printing the C stack trace on systems that *note
     support it: 49e. via the new *note dump_c_stack(): 49f. function or
     via the 'c_stack' argument in *note faulthandler.enable(): 219.
     (Contributed by Peter Bierma in gh-127604(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127604


File: python.info,  Node: fnmatch,  Next: fractions,  Prev: faulthandler<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.16 fnmatch
................

   * Add *note filterfalse(): 4a1, a function to reject names matching a
     given pattern.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-74598(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74598


File: python.info,  Node: fractions,  Next: functools<3>,  Prev: fnmatch,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.17 fractions
..................

   * A *note Fraction: 1c3. object may now be constructed from any
     object with the ‘as_integer_ratio()’ method.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-82017(1).)

   * Add *note Fraction.from_number(): 4a3. as an alternative
     constructor for *note Fraction: 1c3.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-121797(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82017

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121797


File: python.info,  Node: functools<3>,  Next: getopt,  Prev: fractions,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.18 functools
..................

   * Add the *note Placeholder: 4a5. sentinel.  This may be used with
     the *note partial(): 4a6. or *note partialmethod(): 4a7. functions
     to reserve a place for positional arguments in the returned *note
     partial object: 4a8.  (Contributed by Dominykas Grigonis in
     gh-119127(1).)

   * Allow the 'initial' parameter of *note reduce(): 153. to be passed
     as a keyword argument.  (Contributed by Sayandip Dutta in
     gh-125916(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119127

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125916


File: python.info,  Node: getopt,  Next: getpass,  Prev: functools<3>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.19 getopt
...............

   * Add support for options with optional arguments.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-126374(1).)

   * Add support for returning intermixed options and non-option
     arguments in order.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-126390(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126374

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126390


File: python.info,  Node: getpass,  Next: graphlib,  Prev: getopt,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.20 getpass
................

   * Support keyboard feedback in the *note getpass(): 4ab. function via
     the keyword-only optional argument 'echo_char'.  Placeholder
     characters are rendered whenever a character is entered, and
     removed when a character is deleted.  (Contributed by Semyon Moroz
     in gh-77065(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77065


File: python.info,  Node: graphlib,  Next: heapq,  Prev: getpass,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.21 graphlib
.................

   * Allow *note TopologicalSorter.prepare(): 4ad. to be called more
     than once as long as sorting has not started.  (Contributed by
     Daniel Pope in gh-130914(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130914


File: python.info,  Node: heapq,  Next: hmac,  Prev: graphlib,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.22 heapq
..............

   * The ‘heapq’ module has improved support for working with max-heaps,
     via the following new functions:

        * *note heapify_max(): 4af.

        * *note heappush_max(): 4b0.

        * *note heappop_max(): 4b1.

        * *note heapreplace_max(): 4b2.

        * *note heappushpop_max(): 4b3.


File: python.info,  Node: hmac,  Next: http,  Prev: heapq,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.23 hmac
.............

   * Add a built-in implementation for HMAC ( RFC 2104(1)) using
     formally verified code from the HACL*(2) project.  This
     implementation is used as a fallback when the OpenSSL
     implementation of HMAC is not available.  (Contributed by Bénédikt
     Tran in gh-99108(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html

   (2) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108


File: python.info,  Node: http,  Next: imaplib,  Prev: hmac,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.24 http
.............

   * Directory lists and error pages generated by the *note http.server:
     75. module allow the browser to apply its default dark mode.
     (Contributed by Yorik Hansen in gh-123430(1).)

   * The *note http.server: 75. module now supports serving over HTTPS
     using the *note http.server.HTTPSServer: 4b6. class.  This
     functionality is exposed by the command-line interface (‘python -m
     http.server’) through the following options:

        * *note -tls-cert <path>: 4b7.: Path to the TLS certificate
          file.

        * *note -tls-key <path>: 4b8.: Optional path to the private key
          file.

        * *note -tls-password-file <path>: 4b9.: Optional path to the
          password file for the private key.

     (Contributed by Semyon Moroz in gh-85162(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123430

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85162


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib,  Next: inspect<2>,  Prev: http,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.25 imaplib
................

   * Add *note IMAP4.idle(): 4bb, implementing the IMAP4 ‘IDLE’ command
     as defined in RFC 2177(1).  (Contributed by Forest in gh-55454(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2177.html

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/55454


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<2>,  Next: io,  Prev: imaplib,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.26 inspect
................

   * *note signature(): 4bd. takes a new argument 'annotation_format' to
     control the *note annotationlib.Format: 4be. used for representing
     annotations.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-101552(1).)

   * *note Signature.format(): 4bf. takes a new argument
     'unquote_annotations'.  If true, string *note annotations: 409. are
     displayed without surrounding quotes.  (Contributed by Jelle
     Zijlstra in gh-101552(2).)

   * Add function *note ispackage(): 4c0. to determine whether an object
     is a *note package: 4c1. or not.  (Contributed by Zhikang Yan in
     gh-125634(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101552

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101552

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125634


File: python.info,  Node: io,  Next: json<2>,  Prev: inspect<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.27 io
...........

   * Reading text from a non-blocking stream with ‘read’ may now raise a
     *note BlockingIOError: 4c3. if the operation cannot immediately
     return bytes.  (Contributed by Giovanni Siragusa in gh-109523(1).)

   * Add the *note Reader: 4c4. and *note Writer: 4c5. protocols as
     simpler alternatives to the pseudo-protocols *note typing.IO: 4c6,
     *note typing.TextIO: 4c7, and *note typing.BinaryIO: 4c8.
     (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in gh-127648(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109523

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127648


File: python.info,  Node: json<2>,  Next: linecache,  Prev: io,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.28 json
.............

   * Add exception notes for JSON serialization errors that allow
     identifying the source of the error.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-122163(1).)

   * Allow using the *note json: 85. module as a script using the *note
     -m: 4ca. switch: ‘python -m json’.  This is now preferred to
     ‘python -m json.tool’, which is *note soft deprecated: 1a7.  See
     the *note JSON command-line interface: 4cb. documentation.
     (Contributed by Trey Hunner in gh-122873(2).)

   * By default, the output of the *note JSON command-line interface:
     4cb. is highlighted in color.  This can be controlled by *note
     environment variables: 1af.  (Contributed by Tomas Roun in
     gh-131952(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122163

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122873

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131952


File: python.info,  Node: linecache,  Next: logging handlers,  Prev: json<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.29 linecache
..................

   * *note getline(): 4cd. can now retrieve source code for frozen
     modules.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-131638(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131638


File: python.info,  Node: logging handlers,  Next: math<2>,  Prev: linecache,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.30 logging.handlers
.........................

   * *note QueueListener: 4cf. objects now support the *note context
     manager: 478. protocol.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-132106(1).)

   * *note QueueListener.start: 4d0. now raises a *note RuntimeError:
     30d. if the listener is already started.  (Contributed by Charles
     Machalow in gh-132106(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132106

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132106


File: python.info,  Node: math<2>,  Next: mimetypes<2>,  Prev: logging handlers,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.31 math
.............

   * Added more detailed error messages for domain errors in the module.
     (Contributed by Charlie Zhao and Sergey B Kirpichev in
     gh-101410(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101410


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes<2>,  Next: multiprocessing,  Prev: math<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.32 mimetypes
..................

   * Add a public *note command-line: 4d3. for the module, invoked via
     ‘python -m mimetypes’.  (Contributed by Oleg Iarygin and Hugo van
     Kemenade in gh-93096(1).)

   * Add several new MIME types based on RFCs and common usage:

     Microsoft and
     .............

     RFC 8081(2) MIME types for fonts

        * Embedded OpenType: ‘application/vnd.ms-fontobject’

        * OpenType Layout (OTF) ‘font/otf’

        * TrueType: ‘font/ttf’

        * WOFF 1.0 ‘font/woff’

        * WOFF 2.0 ‘font/woff2’

     RFC 9559(3) MIME types for Matroska audiovisual data container
     structures

        * audio with no video: ‘audio/matroska’ (‘.mka’)

        * video: ‘video/matroska’ (‘.mkv’)

        * stereoscopic video: ‘video/matroska-3d’ (‘.mk3d’)

     Images with RFCs
     ................

        * RFC 1494(4): CCITT Group 3 (‘.g3’)

        * RFC 3362(5): Real-time Facsimile, T.38 (‘.t38’)

        * RFC 3745(6): JPEG 2000 (‘.jp2’), extension (‘.jpx’) and
          compound (‘.jpm’)

        * RFC 3950(7): Tag Image File Format Fax eXtended, TIFF-FX
          (‘.tfx’)

        * RFC 4047(8): Flexible Image Transport System (‘.fits’)

        * RFC 7903(9): Enhanced Metafile (‘.emf’) and Windows Metafile
          (‘.wmf’)

     Other MIME type additions and changes
     .....................................

        * RFC 2361(10): Change type for ‘.avi’ to ‘video/vnd.avi’ and
          for ‘.wav’ to ‘audio/vnd.wave’

        * RFC 4337(11): Add MPEG-4 ‘audio/mp4’ (‘.m4a’)

        * RFC 5334(12): Add Ogg media (‘.oga’, ‘.ogg’ and ‘.ogx’)

        * RFC 6713(13): Add gzip ‘application/gzip’ (‘.gz’)

        * RFC 9639(14): Add FLAC ‘audio/flac’ (‘.flac’)

        * RFC 9512(15) ‘application/yaml’ MIME type for YAML files
          (‘.yaml’ and ‘.yml’)

        * Add 7z ‘application/x-7z-compressed’ (‘.7z’)

        * Add Android Package ‘application/vnd.android.package-archive’
          (‘.apk’) when not strict

        * Add deb ‘application/x-debian-package’ (‘.deb’)

        * Add glTF binary ‘model/gltf-binary’ (‘.glb’)

        * Add glTF JSON/ASCII ‘model/gltf+json’ (‘.gltf’)

        * Add M4V ‘video/x-m4v’ (‘.m4v’)

        * Add PHP ‘application/x-httpd-php’ (‘.php’)

        * Add RAR ‘application/vnd.rar’ (‘.rar’)

        * Add RPM ‘application/x-rpm’ (‘.rpm’)

        * Add STL ‘model/stl’ (‘.stl’)

        * Add Windows Media Video ‘video/x-ms-wmv’ (‘.wmv’)

        * De facto: Add WebM ‘audio/webm’ (‘.weba’)

        * ECMA-376(16): Add ‘.docx’, ‘.pptx’ and ‘.xlsx’ types

        * OASIS(17): Add OpenDocument ‘.odg’, ‘.odp’, ‘.ods’ and ‘.odt’
          types

        * W3C(18): Add EPUB ‘application/epub+zip’ (‘.epub’)

     (Contributed by Sahil Prajapati and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-84852(19), by Sasha «Nelie» Chernykh and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-132056(20), and by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-89416(21),
     gh-85957(22), and gh-129965(23).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8081.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9559.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1494.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3362.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3745.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3950.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4047.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7903.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2361.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4337.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5334.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6713.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9639.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9512.html

   (16) 
https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-376/

   (17) 
https://docs.oasis-open.org/office/v1.2/cs01/OpenDocument-v1.2-cs01-part1.html#Appendix_C

   (18) https://www.w3.org/TR/epub-33/#app-media-type

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84852

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132056

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89416

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85957

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129965


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing,  Next: operator,  Prev: mimetypes<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.33 multiprocessing
........................

   * On Unix platforms other than macOS, *note “forkserver”: 46c. is now
     the default *note start method: 46d. (replacing *note “fork”:
     46e.).  This change does not affect Windows or macOS, where *note
     “spawn”: 46f. remains the default start method.

     If the threading incompatible 'fork' method is required, you must
     explicitly request it via a context from *note get_context(): 4d6.
     (preferred) or change the default via *note set_start_method():
     4d7.

     See *note forkserver restrictions: 470. for information and
     differences with the 'fork' method and how this change may affect
     existing code with mutable global shared variables and/or shared
     objects that can not be automatically *note pickled: ab.

     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-84559(1).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 98.’s ‘'forkserver'’ start method now
     authenticates its control socket to avoid solely relying on
     filesystem permissions to restrict what other processes could cause
     the forkserver to spawn workers and run code.  (Contributed by
     Gregory P. Smith for gh-97514(2).)

   * The *note multiprocessing proxy objects: 4d8. for 'list' and 'dict'
     types gain previously overlooked missing methods:

             * ‘clear()’ and ‘copy()’ for proxies of *note list: 4d9.

             * *note fromkeys(): 4da, ‘reversed(d)’, ‘d | {}’, ‘{} | d’,
               ‘d |= {'b': 2}’ for proxies of *note dict: 188.

     (Contributed by Roy Hyunjin Han for gh-103134(3).)

   * Add support for shared *note set: 42b. objects via *note
     SyncManager.set(): 4db.  The *note set(): 42b. in *note Manager():
     4dc. method is now available.  (Contributed by Mingyu Park in
     gh-129949(4).)

   * Add the *note interrupt(): 4dd. to *note multiprocessing.Process:
     4de. objects, which terminates the child process by sending *note
     SIGINT: 4df.  This enables *note finally: 44c. clauses to print a
     stack trace for the terminated process.  (Contributed by Artem
     Pulkin in gh-131913(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97514

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103134

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129949

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131913


File: python.info,  Node: operator,  Next: os<2>,  Prev: multiprocessing,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.34 operator
.................

   * Add *note is_none(): 4e1. and *note is_not_none(): 4e2. as a pair
     of functions, such that ‘operator.is_none(obj)’ is equivalent to
     ‘obj is None’ and ‘operator.is_not_none(obj)’ is equivalent to ‘obj
     is not None’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Nico Mexis in
     gh-115808(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115808


File: python.info,  Node: os<2>,  Next: os path<2>,  Prev: operator,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.35 os
...........

   * Add the *note reload_environ(): 4e4. function to update *note
     os.environ: 4e5. and *note os.environb: 4e6. with changes to the
     environment made by *note os.putenv(): 4e7, by *note os.unsetenv():
     4e8, or made outside Python in the same process.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-120057(1).)

   * Add the *note SCHED_DEADLINE: 4e9. and *note SCHED_NORMAL: 4ea.
     constants to the ‘os’ module.  (Contributed by James Roy in
     gh-127688(2).)

   * Add the *note readinto(): 4eb. function to read into a *note buffer
     object: 311. from a file descriptor.  (Contributed by Cody Maloney
     in gh-129205(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120057

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127688

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129205


File: python.info,  Node: os path<2>,  Next: pathlib<2>,  Prev: os<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.36 os.path
................

   * The 'strict' parameter to *note realpath(): 241. accepts a new
     value, *note ALLOW_MISSING: 242.  If used, errors other than *note
     FileNotFoundError: 243. will be re-raised; the resulting path can
     be missing but it will be free of symlinks.  (Contributed by Petr
     Viktorin for CVE 2025-4517(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4517


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<2>,  Next: pdb<2>,  Prev: os path<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.37 pathlib
................

   * Add methods to *note pathlib.Path: 4ee. to recursively copy or move
     files and directories:

        * *note copy(): 4ef. copies a file or directory tree to a
          destination.

        * *note copy_into(): 4f0. copies 'into' a destination directory.

        * *note move(): 4f1. moves a file or directory tree to a
          destination.

        * *note move_into(): 4f2. moves 'into' a destination directory.

     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-73991(1).)

   * Add the *note info: 4f3. attribute, which stores an object
     implementing the new *note pathlib.types.PathInfo: 4f4. protocol.
     The object supports querying the file type and internally caching
     *note stat(): 4f5. results.  Path objects generated by *note
     iterdir(): 4f6. are initialized with file type information gleaned
     from scanning the parent directory.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
     gh-125413(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73991

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125413


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<2>,  Next: pickle<2>,  Prev: pathlib<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.38 pdb
............

   * The *note pdb: aa. module now supports remote attaching to a
     running Python process using a new *note -p PID: 4f8. command-line
     option:

          python -m pdb -p 1234

     This will connect to the Python process with the given PID and
     allow you to debug it interactively.  Notice that due to how the
     Python interpreter works attaching to a remote process that is
     blocked in a system call or waiting for I/O will only work once the
     next bytecode instruction is executed or when the process receives
     a signal.

     This feature uses *note PEP 768: 3fc. and the new *note
     sys.remote_exec(): 418. function to attach to the remote process
     and send the PDB commands to it.

     (Contributed by Matt Wozniski and Pablo Galindo in gh-131591(1).)

   * Hardcoded breakpoints (*note breakpoint(): 4f9. and *note
     set_trace(): 4fa.) now reuse the most recent *note Pdb: 4fb.
     instance that calls *note set_trace(): 4fc, instead of creating a
     new one each time.  As a result, all the instance specific data
     like *note display: 4fd. and *note commands: 4fe. are preserved
     across hardcoded breakpoints.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in
     gh-121450(2).)

   * Add a new argument 'mode' to *note pdb.Pdb: 4fb.  Disable the
     ‘restart’ command when *note pdb: aa. is in ‘inline’ mode.
     (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-123757(3).)

   * A confirmation prompt will be shown when the user tries to quit
     *note pdb: aa. in ‘inline’ mode.  ‘y’, ‘Y’, ‘<Enter>’ or ‘EOF’ will
     confirm the quit and call *note sys.exit(): 4ff, instead of raising
     *note bdb.BdbQuit: 500.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-124704(4).)

   * Inline breakpoints like *note breakpoint(): 4f9. or *note
     pdb.set_trace(): 4fa. will always stop the program at calling
     frame, ignoring the ‘skip’ pattern (if any).  (Contributed by Tian
     Gao in gh-130493(5).)

   * ‘<tab>’ at the beginning of the line in *note pdb: aa. multi-line
     input will fill in a 4-space indentation now, instead of inserting
     a ‘\t’ character.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-130471(6).)

   * Auto-indent is introduced in *note pdb: aa. multi-line input.  It
     will either keep the indentation of the last line or insert a
     4-space indentation when it detects a new code block.  (Contributed
     by Tian Gao in gh-133350(7).)

   * ‘$_asynctask’ is added to access the current asyncio task if
     applicable.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-124367(8).)

   * *note pdb.set_trace_async(): 501. is added to support debugging
     asyncio coroutines.  *note await: 432. statements are supported
     with this function.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-132576(9).)

   * Source code displayed in *note pdb: aa. will be syntax-highlighted.
     This feature can be controlled using the same methods as the
     default *note interactive: 451. shell, in addition to the newly
     added ‘colorize’ argument of *note pdb.Pdb: 4fb.  (Contributed by
     Tian Gao and Łukasz Langa in gh-133355(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131591

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121450

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123757

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124704

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130493

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130471

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133350

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124367

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132576

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133355


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<2>,  Next: platform<2>,  Prev: pdb<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.39 pickle
...............

   * Set the default protocol version on the *note pickle: ab. module to
     5.  For more details, see *note pickle protocols: 503.

   * Add exception notes for pickle serialization errors that allow
     identifying the source of the error.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-122213(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122213


File: python.info,  Node: platform<2>,  Next: pydoc,  Prev: pickle<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.40 platform
.................

   * Add *note invalidate_caches(): 505, a function to invalidate cached
     results in the ‘platform’ module.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-122549(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122549


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc,  Next: re<2>,  Prev: platform<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.41 pydoc
..............

   * *note Annotations: 409. in help output are now usually displayed in
     a format closer to that in the original source.  (Contributed by
     Jelle Zijlstra in gh-101552(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101552


File: python.info,  Node: re<2>,  Next: socket<2>,  Prev: pydoc,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.42 re
...........

   * Support ‘\z’ as a synonym for ‘\Z’ in *note regular expressions:
     c1.  It is interpreted unambiguously in many other regular
     expression engines, unlike ‘\Z’, which has subtly different
     behavior.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-133306(1).)

   * ‘\B’ in *note regular expression: c1. now matches the empty input
     string, meaning that it is now always the opposite of ‘\b’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-124130(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133306

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124130


File: python.info,  Node: socket<2>,  Next: ssl<2>,  Prev: re<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.43 socket
...............

   * Improve and fix support for Bluetooth sockets.

        * Fix support of Bluetooth sockets on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-132429(1).)

        * Fix support for *note BTPROTO_HCI: 509. on FreeBSD.
          (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111178(2).)

        * Add support for *note BTPROTO_SCO: 50a. on FreeBSD.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-85302(3).)

        * Add support for 'cid' and 'bdaddr_type' in the address for
          *note BTPROTO_L2CAP: 50b. on FreeBSD. (Contributed by Serhiy
          Storchaka in gh-132429(4).)

        * Add support for 'channel' in the address for *note
          BTPROTO_HCI: 509. on Linux.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
          in gh-70145(5).)

        * Accept an integer as the address for *note BTPROTO_HCI: 509.
          on Linux.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-132099(6).)

        * Return 'cid' in *note getsockname(): 50c. for *note
          BTPROTO_L2CAP: 50b.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
          gh-132429(7).)

        * Add many new constants.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
          gh-132734(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132429

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111178

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85302

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132429

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70145

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132099

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132429

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132734


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<2>,  Next: struct,  Prev: socket<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.44 ssl
............

   * Indicate through the *note HAS_PHA: 50e. Boolean whether the ‘ssl’
     module supports TLSv1.3 post-handshake client authentication (PHA).
     (Contributed by Will Childs-Klein in gh-128036(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128036


File: python.info,  Node: struct,  Next: symtable<3>,  Prev: ssl<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.45 struct
...............

   * Support the float complex and double complex C types in the *note
     struct: de. module (formatting characters ‘'F'’ and ‘'D'’
     respectively).  (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in
     gh-121249(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121249


File: python.info,  Node: symtable<3>,  Next: sys<2>,  Prev: struct,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.46 symtable
.................

   * Expose the following *note Symbol: 511. methods:

        * *note is_comp_cell(): 512.

        * *note is_comp_iter(): 513.

        * *note is_free_class(): 514.

     (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-120029(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120029


File: python.info,  Node: sys<2>,  Next: sys monitoring<2>,  Prev: symtable<3>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.47 sys
............

   * The previously undocumented special function *note
     sys.getobjects(): 516, which only exists in specialized builds of
     Python, may now return objects from other interpreters than the one
     it’s called in.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-125286(1).)

   * Add *note sys._is_immortal(): 517. for determining if an object is
     *note immortal: 398.  (Contributed by Peter Bierma in
     gh-128509(2).)

   * On FreeBSD, *note sys.platform: 518. no longer contains the major
     version number.  It is always ‘'freebsd'’, instead of ‘'freebsd13'’
     or ‘'freebsd14'’.  (Contributed by Michael Osipov in gh-129393(3).)

   * Raise *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. for *note
     sys._clear_type_cache(): 344.  This function was deprecated in
     Python 3.13 but it didn’t raise a runtime warning.

   * Add *note sys.remote_exec(): 418. to implement the new external
     debugger interface.  See *note PEP 768: 3fc. for details.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Matt Wozniski, and Ivona
     Stojanovic in gh-131591(4).)

   * Add the *note sys._jit: 519. namespace, containing utilities for
     introspecting just-in-time compilation.  (Contributed by Brandt
     Bucher in gh-133231(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125286

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128509

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129393

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131591

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133231


File: python.info,  Node: sys monitoring<2>,  Next: sysconfig<3>,  Prev: sys<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.48 sys.monitoring
.......................

   * Add two new monitoring events, *note BRANCH_LEFT: 51b. and *note
     BRANCH_RIGHT: 51c.  These replace and deprecate the ‘BRANCH’ event.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-122548(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122548


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig<3>,  Next: tarfile<2>,  Prev: sys monitoring<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.49 sysconfig
..................

   * Add ‘ABIFLAGS’ key to *note get_config_vars(): 51e. on Windows.
     (Contributed by Xuehai Pan in gh-131799(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131799


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<2>,  Next: threading<3>,  Prev: sysconfig<3>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.50 tarfile
................

   * *note data_filter(): 279. now normalizes symbolic link targets in
     order to avoid path traversal attacks.  (Contributed by Petr
     Viktorin in gh-127987(1) and CVE 2025-4138(2).)

   * *note extractall(): 27a. now skips fixing up directory attributes
     when a directory was removed or replaced by another kind of file.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-127987(3) and CVE
     2024-12718(4).)

   * *note extract(): 27b. and *note extractall(): 27a. now (re-)apply
     the extraction filter when substituting a link (hard or symbolic)
     with a copy of another archive member, and when fixing up directory
     attributes.  The former raises a new exception, *note
     LinkFallbackError: 27c.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin for CVE
     2025-4330(5) and CVE 2024-12718(6).)

   * *note extract(): 27b. and *note extractall(): 27a. no longer
     extract rejected members when *note errorlevel(): 27d. is zero.
     (Contributed by Matt Prodani and Petr Viktorin in gh-112887(7) and
     CVE 2025-4435(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127987

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4138

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127987

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4330

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112887

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4435


File: python.info,  Node: threading<3>,  Next: tkinter<2>,  Prev: tarfile<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.51 threading
..................

   * *note threading.Thread.start(): 422. now sets the operating system
     thread name to *note threading.Thread.name: 33d.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-59705(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59705


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<2>,  Next: turtle,  Prev: threading<3>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.52 tkinter
................

   * Make *note tkinter: f9. widget methods ‘after()’ and ‘after_idle()’
     accept keyword arguments.  (Contributed by Zhikang Yan in
     gh-126899(1).)

   * Add ability to specify a name for ‘tkinter.OptionMenu’ and
     ‘tkinter.ttk.OptionMenu’.  (Contributed by Zhikang Yan in
     gh-130482(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126899

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130482


File: python.info,  Node: turtle,  Next: types<3>,  Prev: tkinter<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.53 turtle
...............

   * Add context managers for *note turtle.fill(): 523, *note
     turtle.poly(): 524, and *note turtle.no_animation(): 525.
     (Contributed by Marie Roald and Yngve Mardal Moe in gh-126350(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126350


File: python.info,  Node: types<3>,  Next: typing<3>,  Prev: turtle,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.54 types
..............

   * *note types.UnionType: 527. is now an alias for *note typing.Union:
     341.  See *note below: 528. for more details.  (Contributed by
     Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105499(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499


File: python.info,  Node: typing<3>,  Next: unicodedata<2>,  Prev: types<3>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.55 typing
...............

   * The *note types.UnionType: 527. and *note typing.Union: 341. types
     are now aliases for each other, meaning that both old-style unions
     (created with ‘Union[int, str]’) and new-style unions (‘int | str’)
     now create instances of the same runtime type.  This unifies the
     behavior between the two syntaxes, but leads to some differences in
     behavior that may affect users who introspect types at runtime:

        - Both syntaxes for creating a union now produce the same string
          representation in *note repr(): 45b.  For example,
          ‘repr(Union[int, str])’ is now ‘"int | str"’ instead of
          ‘"typing.Union[int, str]"’.

        - Unions created using the old syntax are no longer cached.
          Previously, running ‘Union[int, str]’ multiple times would
          return the same object (‘Union[int, str] is Union[int, str]’
          would be ‘True’), but now it will return two different
          objects.  Use ‘==’ to compare unions for equality, not ‘is’.
          New-style unions have never been cached this way.  This change
          could increase memory usage for some programs that use a large
          number of unions created by subscripting ‘typing.Union’.
          However, several factors offset this cost: unions used in
          annotations are no longer evaluated by default in Python 3.14
          because of PEP 649(1); an instance of *note types.UnionType:
          527. is itself much smaller than the object returned by
          ‘Union[]’ was on prior Python versions; and removing the cache
          also saves some space.  It is therefore unlikely that this
          change will cause a significant increase in memory usage for
          most users.

        - Previously, old-style unions were implemented using the
          private class ‘typing._UnionGenericAlias’.  This class is no
          longer needed for the implementation, but it has been retained
          for backward compatibility, with removal scheduled for Python
          3.17.  Users should use documented introspection helpers like
          *note get_origin(): 314. and *note typing.get_args(): 315.
          instead of relying on private implementation details.

        - It is now possible to use *note typing.Union: 341. itself in
          *note isinstance(): 2ef. checks.  For example, ‘isinstance(int
          | str, typing.Union)’ will return ‘True’; previously this
          raised *note TypeError: 291.

        - The ‘__args__’ attribute of *note typing.Union: 341. objects
          is no longer writable.

        - It is no longer possible to set any attributes on *note Union:
          341. objects.  This only ever worked for dunder attributes on
          previous versions, was never documented to work, and was
          subtly broken in many cases.

     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105499(2).)

   * *note TypeAliasType: 52a. now supports star unpacking.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<2>,  Next: unittest<2>,  Prev: typing<3>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.56 unicodedata
....................

   * The Unicode database has been updated to Unicode 16.0.0.


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<2>,  Next: urllib,  Prev: unicodedata<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.57 unittest
.................

   * *note unittest: 10f. output is now colored by default.  This can be
     controlled by *note environment variables: 1af.  (Contributed by
     Hugo van Kemenade in gh-127221(1).)

   * unittest discovery supports *note namespace package: 52e. as start
     directory again.  It was removed in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by
     Jacob Walls in gh-80958(2).)

   * A number of new methods were added in the *note TestCase: 52f.
     class that provide more specialized tests.

        - *note assertHasAttr(): 530. and *note assertNotHasAttr(): 531.
          check whether the object has a particular attribute.

        - *note assertIsSubclass(): 532. and *note
          assertNotIsSubclass(): 533. check whether the object is a
          subclass of a particular class, or of one of a tuple of
          classes.

        - *note assertStartsWith(): 534, *note assertNotStartsWith():
          535, *note assertEndsWith(): 536. and *note
          assertNotEndsWith(): 537. check whether the Unicode or byte
          string starts or ends with particular strings.

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-71339(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127221

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80958

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71339


File: python.info,  Node: urllib,  Next: uuid,  Prev: unittest<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.58 urllib
...............

   * Upgrade HTTP digest authentication algorithm for *note
     urllib.request: 114. by supporting SHA-256 digest authentication as
     specified in RFC 7616(1).  (Contributed by Calvin Bui in
     gh-128193(2).)

   * Improve ergonomics and standards compliance when parsing and
     emitting ‘file:’ URLs.

     In *note url2pathname(): 539.:

        - Accept a complete URL when the new 'require_scheme' argument
          is set to true.

        - Discard URL authority if it matches the local hostname.

        - Discard URL authority if it resolves to a local IP address
          when the new 'resolve_host' argument is set to true.

        - Discard URL query and fragment components.

        - Raise *note URLError: 53a. if a URL authority isn’t local,
          except on Windows where we return a UNC path as before.

     In *note pathname2url(): 53b.:

        - Return a complete URL when the new 'add_scheme' argument is
          set to true.

        - Include an empty URL authority when a path begins with a
          slash.  For example, the path ‘/etc/hosts’ is converted to the
          URL ‘///etc/hosts’.

     On Windows, drive letters are no longer converted to uppercase, and
     ‘:’ characters not following a drive letter no longer cause an
     *note OSError: 53c. exception to be raised.

     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-125866(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7616.html

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125866


File: python.info,  Node: uuid,  Next: webbrowser<2>,  Prev: urllib,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.59 uuid
.............

   * Add support for UUID versions 6, 7, and 8 via *note uuid6(): 53e,
     *note uuid7(): 53f, and *note uuid8(): 540. respectively, as
     specified in RFC 9562(1).  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-89083(2).)

   * *note NIL: 541. and *note MAX: 542. are now available to represent
     the Nil and Max UUID formats as defined by RFC 9562(3).
     (Contributed by Nick Pope in gh-128427(4).)

   * Allow generating multiple UUIDs simultaneously on the command-line
     via *note python -m uuid -count: 543.  (Contributed by Simon Legner
     in gh-131236(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89083

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128427

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131236


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser<2>,  Next: zipfile,  Prev: uuid,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.60 webbrowser
...................

   * Names in the ‘BROWSER’ environment variable can now refer to
     already registered browsers for the *note webbrowser: 11e. module,
     instead of always generating a new browser command.

     This makes it possible to set ‘BROWSER’ to the value of one of the
     supported browsers on macOS.


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile,  Prev: webbrowser<2>,  Up: Improved modules<3>

1.3.5.61 zipfile
................

   * Added *note ZipInfo._for_archive: 546, a method to resolve suitable
     defaults for a *note ZipInfo: 547. object as used by *note
     ZipFile.writestr: 548.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-123424(1).)

   * *note ZipFile.writestr(): 548. now respects the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’
     environment variable in order to better support reproducible
     builds.  (Contributed by Jiahao Li in gh-91279(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123424

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91279


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<3>,  Next: Removed<3>,  Prev: Improved modules<3>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 14

1.3.6 Optimizations
-------------------

   * The import time for several standard library modules has been
     improved, including *note annotationlib: 6, *note ast: 9, *note
     asyncio: b, *note base64: f, *note cmd: 1a, *note csv: 2c, *note
     gettext: 66, *note importlib.util: 80, *note locale: 89, *note
     mimetypes: 93, *note optparse: a4, *note pickle: ab, *note pprint:
     b3, *note pstats: b8, *note shlex: cc, *note socket: d4, *note
     string: db, *note subprocess: df, *note threading: f6, *note
     tomllib: 105, *note types: 10c, and *note zipfile: 13a.

     (Contributed by Adam Turner, Bénédikt Tran, Chris Markiewicz, Eli
     Schwartz, Hugo van Kemenade, Jelle Zijlstra, and others in
     gh-118761(1).)

   * The interpreter now avoids some reference count modifications
     internally when it’s safe to do so.  This can lead to different
     values being returned from *note sys.getrefcount(): 54a. and *note
     Py_REFCNT(): 54b. compared to previous versions of Python.  See
     *note below: 54c. for details.

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<3>.
* base64: base64<2>.
* bdb::
* difflib: difflib<3>.
* gc: gc<2>.
* io: io<2>.
* pathlib: pathlib<3>.
* pdb: pdb<3>.
* textwrap::
* uuid: uuid<2>.
* zlib: zlib<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<3>,  Next: base64<2>,  Up: Optimizations<3>

1.3.6.1 asyncio
...............

   * Standard benchmark results have improved by 10-20% following the
     implementation of a new per-thread doubly linked list for *note
     native tasks: 460, also reducing memory usage.  This enables
     external introspection tools such as *note python -m asyncio
     pstree: 3f5. to introspect the call graph of asyncio tasks running
     in all threads.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-107803(1).)

   * The module now has first class support for *note free-threading
     builds: 487.  This enables parallel execution of multiple event
     loops across different threads, scaling linearly with the number of
     threads.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-128002(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107803

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128002


File: python.info,  Node: base64<2>,  Next: bdb,  Prev: asyncio<3>,  Up: Optimizations<3>

1.3.6.2 base64
..............

   * *note b16decode(): 1f1. is now up to six times faster.
     (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran, Chris Markiewicz, and Adam Turner in
     gh-118761(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761


File: python.info,  Node: bdb,  Next: difflib<3>,  Prev: base64<2>,  Up: Optimizations<3>

1.3.6.3 bdb
...........

   * The basic debugger now has a *note sys.monitoring: e3.-based
     backend, which can be selected via the passing ‘'monitoring'’ to
     the *note Bdb: 550. class’s new 'backend' parameter.  (Contributed
     by Tian Gao in gh-124533(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124533


File: python.info,  Node: difflib<3>,  Next: gc<2>,  Prev: bdb,  Up: Optimizations<3>

1.3.6.4 difflib
...............

   * The *note IS_LINE_JUNK(): 552. function is now up to twice as fast.
     (Contributed by Adam Turner and Semyon Moroz in gh-130167(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130167


File: python.info,  Node: gc<2>,  Next: io<2>,  Prev: difflib<3>,  Up: Optimizations<3>

1.3.6.5 gc
..........

   * 'From Python 3.14.5 onwards:'

     Python 3.14.0-3.14.4 shipped with a new incremental garbage
     collector.  However, due to a number of reports(1) of significant
     memory pressure in production environments, it has been reverted
     back to the generational GC from 3.13.  This is the GC now used in
     Python 3.14.5 and later.

   * 'Previously in Python 3.14.0-3.14.4:'

     The new *note incremental garbage collector: 3ff. means that
     maximum pause times are reduced by an order of magnitude or more
     for larger heaps.

     Because of this optimization, the meaning of the results of *note
     get_threshold(): 554. and *note set_threshold(): 555. have changed,
     along with *note get_count(): 556. and *note get_stats(): 557.

        - For backwards compatibility, *note get_threshold(): 554.
          continues to return a three-item tuple.  The first value is
          the threshold for young collections, as before; the second
          value determines the rate at which the old collection is
          scanned (the default is 10, and higher values mean that the
          old collection is scanned more slowly).  The third value is
          now meaningless and is always zero.

        - *note set_threshold(): 555. now ignores any items after the
          second.

        - *note get_count(): 556. and *note get_stats(): 557. continue
          to return the same format of results.  The only difference is
          that instead of the results referring to the young, aging and
          old generations, the results refer to the young generation and
          the aging and collecting spaces of the old generation.

     In summary, code that attempted to manipulate the behavior of the
     cycle GC may not work exactly as intended, but it is very unlikely
     to be harmful.  All other code will work just fine.

     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-108362(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142516

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108362


File: python.info,  Node: io<2>,  Next: pathlib<3>,  Prev: gc<2>,  Up: Optimizations<3>

1.3.6.6 io
..........

   * Opening and reading files now executes fewer system calls.  Reading
     a small operating system cached file in full is up to 15% faster.
     (Contributed by Cody Maloney and Victor Stinner in gh-120754(1) and
     gh-90102(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120754

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90102


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<3>,  Next: pdb<3>,  Prev: io<2>,  Up: Optimizations<3>

1.3.6.7 pathlib
...............

   * *note Path.read_bytes: 55a. now uses unbuffered mode to open files,
     which is between 9% and 17% faster to read in full.  (Contributed
     by Cody Maloney in gh-120754(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120754


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<3>,  Next: textwrap,  Prev: pathlib<3>,  Up: Optimizations<3>

1.3.6.8 pdb
...........

   * *note pdb: aa. now supports two backends, based on either *note
     sys.settrace(): 55c. or *note sys.monitoring: e3.  Using the *note
     pdb CLI: 55d. or *note breakpoint(): 4f9. will always use the
     ‘sys.monitoring’ backend.  Explicitly instantiating *note pdb.Pdb:
     4fb. and its derived classes will use the ‘sys.settrace()’ backend
     by default, which is configurable.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in
     gh-124533(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124533


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap,  Next: uuid<2>,  Prev: pdb<3>,  Up: Optimizations<3>

1.3.6.9 textwrap
................

   * Optimize the *note dedent(): 55f. function, improving performance
     by an average of 2.4x, with larger improvements for bigger inputs,
     and fix a bug with incomplete normalization of blank lines with
     whitespace characters other than space and tab.


File: python.info,  Node: uuid<2>,  Next: zlib<2>,  Prev: textwrap,  Up: Optimizations<3>

1.3.6.10 uuid
.............

   * *note uuid3(): 561. and *note uuid5(): 562. are now both roughly
     40% faster for 16-byte names and 20% faster for 1024-byte names.
     Performance for longer names remains unchanged.  (Contributed by
     Bénédikt Tran in gh-128150(1).)

   * *note uuid4(): 563. is now c.  30% faster.  (Contributed by
     Bénédikt Tran in gh-128150(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128150

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128150


File: python.info,  Node: zlib<2>,  Prev: uuid<2>,  Up: Optimizations<3>

1.3.6.11 zlib
.............

   * On Windows, zlib-ng(1) is now used as the implementation of the
     *note zlib: 13c. module in the default binaries.  There are no
     known incompatibilities between ‘zlib-ng’ and the previously-used
     ‘zlib’ implementation.  This should result in better performance at
     all compression levels.

     It is worth noting that ‘zlib.Z_BEST_SPEED’ (‘1’) may result in
     significantly less compression than the previous implementation,
     whilst also significantly reducing the time taken to compress.

     (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-91349(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/zlib-ng/zlib-ng

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91349


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<3>,  Next: Deprecated<3>,  Prev: Optimizations<3>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 14

1.3.7 Removed
-------------

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse<3>.
* ast: ast<4>.
* asyncio: asyncio<4>.
* email: email<2>.
* importlib.abc: importlib abc.
* itertools::
* pathlib: pathlib<4>.
* pkgutil::
* pty::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<2>.
* urllib: urllib<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<3>,  Next: ast<4>,  Up: Removed<3>

1.3.7.1 argparse
................

   * Remove the 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters of
     ‘BooleanOptionalAction’.  These have been deprecated since Python
     3.12.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-118805(1).)

   * Calling *note add_argument_group(): 31d. on an argument group now
     raises a *note ValueError: 277.  Similarly, ‘add_argument_group()’
     or *note add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 567. on a mutually
     exclusive group now both raise ‘ValueError’s.  This “nesting” was
     never supported, often failed to work correctly, and was
     unintentionally exposed through inheritance.  This functionality
     has been deprecated since Python 3.11.  (Contributed by Savannah
     Ostrowski in gh-127186(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118805

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127186


File: python.info,  Node: ast<4>,  Next: asyncio<4>,  Prev: argparse<3>,  Up: Removed<3>

1.3.7.2 ast
...........

   * Remove the following classes, which have been deprecated aliases of
     *note Constant: 569. since Python 3.8 and have emitted deprecation
     warnings since Python 3.12:

        * ‘Bytes’

        * ‘Ellipsis’

        * ‘NameConstant’

        * ‘Num’

        * ‘Str’

     As a consequence of these removals, user-defined ‘visit_Num’,
     ‘visit_Str’, ‘visit_Bytes’, ‘visit_NameConstant’ and
     ‘visit_Ellipsis’ methods on custom *note NodeVisitor: 56a.
     subclasses will no longer be called when the ‘NodeVisitor’ subclass
     is visiting an AST. Define a ‘visit_Constant’ method instead.

     (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-119562(1).)

   * Remove the following deprecated properties on *note ast.Constant:
     569, which were present for compatibility with the now-removed AST
     classes:

        * ‘Constant.n’

        * ‘Constant.s’

     Use ‘Constant.value’ instead.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood in
     gh-119562(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119562

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119562


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<4>,  Next: email<2>,  Prev: ast<4>,  Up: Removed<3>

1.3.7.3 asyncio
...............

   * Remove the following classes, methods, and functions, which have
     been deprecated since Python 3.12:

        * ‘AbstractChildWatcher’

        * ‘FastChildWatcher’

        * ‘MultiLoopChildWatcher’

        * ‘PidfdChildWatcher’

        * ‘SafeChildWatcher’

        * ‘ThreadedChildWatcher’

        * ‘AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher()’

        * ‘AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher()’

        * ‘get_child_watcher()’

        * ‘set_child_watcher()’

     (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-120804(1).)

   * *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 56c. now raises a *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. if there is no current event loop, and no longer
     implicitly creates an event loop.

     (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-126353(2).)

     There’s a few patterns that use *note asyncio.get_event_loop():
     56c, most of them can be replaced with *note asyncio.run(): 309.

     If you’re running an async function, simply use *note
     asyncio.run(): 309.

     Before:

          async def main():
              ...


          loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
          try:
              loop.run_until_complete(main())
          finally:
              loop.close()

     After:

          async def main():
              ...

          asyncio.run(main())

     If you need to start something, for example, a server listening on
     a socket and then run forever, use *note asyncio.run(): 309. and an
     *note asyncio.Event: 56d.

     Before:

          def start_server(loop): ...

          loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
          try:
              start_server(loop)
              loop.run_forever()
          finally:
              loop.close()

     After:

          def start_server(loop): ...

          async def main():
              start_server(asyncio.get_running_loop())
              await asyncio.Event().wait()

          asyncio.run(main())

     If you need to run something in an event loop, then run some
     blocking code around it, use *note asyncio.Runner: 30a.

     Before:

          async def operation_one(): ...
          def blocking_code(): ...
          async def operation_two(): ...

          loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
          try:
              loop.run_until_complete(operation_one())
              blocking_code()
              loop.run_until_complete(operation_two())
          finally:
              loop.close()

     After:

          async def operation_one(): ...
          def blocking_code(): ...
          async def operation_two(): ...

          with asyncio.Runner() as runner:
              runner.run(operation_one())
              blocking_code()
              runner.run(operation_two())

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120804

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126353


File: python.info,  Node: email<2>,  Next: importlib abc,  Prev: asyncio<4>,  Up: Removed<3>

1.3.7.4 email
.............

   * Remove *note email.utils.localtime(): 56f.”s 'isdst' parameter,
     which was deprecated in and has been ignored since Python 3.12.
     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-118798(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118798


File: python.info,  Node: importlib abc,  Next: itertools,  Prev: email<2>,  Up: Removed<3>

1.3.7.5 importlib.abc
.....................

   * Remove deprecated *note importlib.abc: 7b. classes:

        * ‘ResourceReader’ (use *note TraversableResources: 571.)

        * ‘Traversable’ (use *note Traversable: 572.)

        * ‘TraversableResources’ (use *note TraversableResources: 571.)

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963


File: python.info,  Node: itertools,  Next: pathlib<4>,  Prev: importlib abc,  Up: Removed<3>

1.3.7.6 itertools
.................

   * Remove support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle operations from *note
     itertools: 84. iterators.  These have emitted a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. since Python 3.12.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<4>,  Next: pkgutil,  Prev: itertools,  Up: Removed<3>

1.3.7.7 pathlib
...............

   * Remove support for passing additional keyword arguments to *note
     Path: 4ee.  In previous versions, any such arguments are ignored.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-74033(1).)

   * Remove support for passing additional positional arguments to *note
     PurePath.relative_to(): 575. and *note is_relative_to(): 576.  In
     previous versions, any such arguments are joined onto 'other'.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-78707(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74033

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78707


File: python.info,  Node: pkgutil,  Next: pty,  Prev: pathlib<4>,  Up: Removed<3>

1.3.7.8 pkgutil
...............

   * Remove the ‘get_loader()’ and ‘find_loader()’ functions, which have
     been deprecated since Python 3.12.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran
     in gh-97850(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850


File: python.info,  Node: pty,  Next: sqlite3<2>,  Prev: pkgutil,  Up: Removed<3>

1.3.7.9 pty
...........

   * Remove the ‘master_open()’ and ‘slave_open()’ functions, which have
     been deprecated since Python 3.12.  Use *note pty.openpty(): 579.
     instead.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-118824(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118824


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<2>,  Next: urllib<2>,  Prev: pty,  Up: Removed<3>

1.3.7.10 sqlite3
................

   * Remove ‘version’ and ‘version_info’ from the *note sqlite3: d7.
     module; use *note sqlite_version: 57b. and *note
     sqlite_version_info: 57c. for the actual version number of the
     runtime SQLite library.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-118924(1).)

   * Using a sequence of parameters with named placeholders now raises a
     *note ProgrammingError: 57d, having been deprecated since Python
     3.12.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-118928(2) and
     gh-101693(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118924

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118928

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101693


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<2>,  Up: Removed<3>

1.3.7.11 urllib
...............

   * Remove the ‘Quoter’ class from *note urllib.parse: 113, which has
     been deprecated since Python 3.11.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev
     in gh-118827(1).)

   * Remove the ‘URLopener’ and ‘FancyURLopener’ classes from *note
     urllib.request: 114, which have been deprecated since Python 3.3.

     ‘myopener.open()’ can be replaced with *note urlopen(): 57f.
     ‘myopener.retrieve()’ can be replaced with *note urlretrieve():
     580.  Customisations to the opener classes can be replaced by
     passing customized handlers to *note build_opener(): 581.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-84850(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118827

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84850


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<3>,  Next: CPython bytecode changes,  Prev: Removed<3>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 14

1.3.8 Deprecated
----------------

* Menu:

* New deprecations: New deprecations<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.17: Pending removal in Python 3 17<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.19: Pending removal in Python 3 19<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.20: Pending removal in Python 3 20<2>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: New deprecations<2>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 15,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.3.8.1 New deprecations
........................

   * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in the
     *note complex(): 328. constructor is now deprecated; complex
     numbers should only be passed as a single positional argument.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(1).)

   * *note argparse: 7.:

        * Passing the undocumented keyword argument 'prefix_chars' to
          the *note add_argument_group(): 31d. method is now deprecated.
          (Contributed by Savannah Ostrowski in gh-125563(2).)

        * Deprecated the *note argparse.FileType: 31e. type converter.
          Anything relating to resource management should be handled
          downstream, after the arguments have been parsed.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-58032(3).)

   * *note asyncio: b.:

        * The ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is now deprecated and will
          be removed in Python 3.16; use *note
          inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 302. instead.  (Contributed by
          Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(4).)

        * The *note asyncio: b. policy system is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16.  In particular, the following classes
          and functions are deprecated:

             * *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 303.

             * *note asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy: 304.

             * *note asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy: 305.

             * *note asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy: 306.

             * *note asyncio.get_event_loop_policy(): 307.

             * *note asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(): 308.

          Users should use *note asyncio.run(): 309. or *note
          asyncio.Runner: 30a. with the 'loop_factory' argument to use
          the desired event loop implementation.

          For example, to use *note asyncio.SelectorEventLoop: 30b. on
          Windows:

               import asyncio

               async def main():
                   ...

               asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=asyncio.SelectorEventLoop)

          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-127949(5).)

   * *note codecs: 1c.: The *note codecs.open(): 32c. function is now
     deprecated, and will be removed in a future version of Python.  Use
     *note open(): 32b. instead.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
     gh-133036(6).)

   * *note ctypes: 2d.:

        * On non-Windows platforms, setting *note Structure._pack_: 318.
          to use a MSVC-compatible default memory layout is now
          deprecated in favor of setting *note Structure._layout_: 319.
          to ‘'ms'’, and will be removed in Python 3.19.  (Contributed
          by Petr Viktorin in gh-131747(7).)

        * Calling *note ctypes.POINTER(): 484. on a string is now
          deprecated.  Use *note incomplete types: 584. for
          self-referential structures.  Also, the internal
          ‘ctypes._pointer_type_cache’ is deprecated.  See
          ‘ctypes.POINTER()’ for updated implementation details.
          (Contributed by Sergey Myrianov in gh-100926(8).)

   * *note functools: 62.: Calling the Python implementation of *note
     functools.reduce(): 153. with 'function' or 'sequence' as keyword
     arguments is now deprecated; the parameters will be made
     positional-only in Python 3.16.  (Contributed by Kirill Podoprigora
     in gh-121676(9).)

   * *note logging: 8a.: Support for custom logging handlers with the
     'strm' argument is now deprecated and scheduled for removal in
     Python 3.16.  Define handlers with the 'stream' argument instead.
     (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-115032(10).)

   * *note mimetypes: 93.: Valid extensions are either empty or must
     start with “.” for *note mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(): 30c.
     Undotted extensions are deprecated and will raise a *note
     ValueError: 277. in Python 3.16.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade
     in gh-75223(11).)

   * ‘nturl2path’: This module is now deprecated.  Call *note
     urllib.request.url2pathname(): 539. and *note pathname2url(): 53b.
     instead.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-125866(12).)

   * *note os: a5.: The *note os.popen(): 585. and *note os.spawn*: 586.
     functions are now *note soft deprecated: 1a7.  They should no
     longer be used to write new code.  The *note subprocess: df. module
     is recommended instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-120743(13).)

   * *note pathlib: a8.: ‘pathlib.PurePath.as_uri()’ is now deprecated
     and scheduled for removal in Python 3.19.  Use *note
     pathlib.Path.as_uri(): 587. instead.  (Contributed by Barney Gale
     in gh-123599(14).)

   * *note pdb: aa.: The undocumented ‘pdb.Pdb.curframe_locals’
     attribute is now a deprecated read-only property, which will be
     removed in a future version of Python.  The low overhead dynamic
     frame locals access added in Python 3.13 by PEP 667(15) means the
     frame locals cache reference previously stored in this attribute is
     no longer needed.  Derived debuggers should access
     ‘pdb.Pdb.curframe.f_locals’ directly in Python 3.13 and later
     versions.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-124369(16) and
     gh-125951(17).)

   * *note symtable: e1.: Deprecate ‘symtable.Class.get_methods()’ due
     to the lack of interest, scheduled for removal in Python 3.16.
     (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in gh-119698(18).)

   * *note tkinter: f9.: The ‘tkinter.Variable’ methods
     ‘trace_variable()’, ‘trace_vdelete()’ and ‘trace_vinfo()’ are now
     deprecated.  Use ‘trace_add()’, ‘trace_remove()’ and ‘trace_info()’
     instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-120220(19).)

   * *note urllib.parse: 113.: Accepting objects with false values (like
     ‘0’ and ‘[]’) except empty strings, bytes-like objects and ‘None’
     in *note parse_qsl(): 588. and *note parse_qs(): 589. is now
     deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-116897(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125563

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58032

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127949

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133036

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131747

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100926

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121676

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125866

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120743

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123599

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124369

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125951

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119698

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120220

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116897


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 15,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>,  Prev: New deprecations<2>,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.3.8.2 Pending removal in Python 3.15
......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting ‘__cached__’ on a module while failing to set *note
          __spec__.cached: 58b. is deprecated.  In Python 3.15,
          ‘__cached__’ will cease to be set or take into consideration
          by the import system or standard library.  (gh-97879(1))

        * Setting *note __package__: 58c. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.parent: 58d. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(2))

   * *note ctypes: 2d.:

        * The undocumented ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note http.server: 75.:

        * The obsolete and rarely used ‘CGIHTTPRequestHandler’ has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.  No direct replacement exists.
          'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web server with a
          request handler.

        * The ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line
          interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note importlib: 7a.:

        * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead.

   * *note pathlib: a8.:

        * ‘.PurePath.is_reserved()’ has been deprecated since Python
          3.13.  Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 2d9. to detect reserved
          paths on Windows.

   * *note platform: af.:

        * ‘platform.java_ver()’ has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
          This function is only useful for Jython support, has a
          confusing API, and is largely untested.

   * *note sysconfig: e4.:

        * The 'check_home' argument of *note
          sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2dd. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.12.

   * *note threading: f6.:

        * *note RLock(): 2df. will take no arguments in Python 3.15.
          Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14,
          as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C
          version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments,
          ignoring every argument.

   * *note types: 10c.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 2e1.: Accessing ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’
          was deprecated in PEP 626(3) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 2c9. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(4).)

   * *note typing: 10d.:

        * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note
          NamedTuple: 2e4. classes (for example, ‘Point =
          NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)’) has been deprecated since
          Python 3.13.  Use the class-based syntax or the functional
          syntax instead.

        * When using the functional syntax of *note TypedDict: 290.s,
          failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘TD =
          TypedDict("TD")’) or passing ‘None’ (‘TD = TypedDict("TD",
          None)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use ‘class
          TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’ to create a
          TypedDict with zero field.

        * The ‘typing.no_type_check_decorator()’ decorator function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  After eight years in the
          *note typing: 10d. module, it has yet to be supported by any
          major type checker.

   * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules.

   * *note wave: 11c.:

        * The ‘getmark()’, ‘setmark()’ and ‘getmarkers()’ methods of the
          *note Wave_read: 2e6. and *note Wave_write: 2e7. classes have
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note zipimport: 13b.:

        * ‘zipimport.zipimporter.load_module()’ has been deprecated
          since Python 3.10.  Use *note exec_module(): 2e9. instead.
          (gh-125746(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125746


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 17<2>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 15,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.3.8.3 Pending removal in Python 3.16
......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 2ff. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 300. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note array: 8.:

        * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in
          documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python
          3.13.  Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 301.) for
          Unicode characters instead.

   * *note asyncio: b.:

        * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16; use *note
          inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 302. instead.  (Contributed by
          Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).)

        * *note asyncio: b. policy system is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16.  In particular, the following classes
          and functions are deprecated:

             * *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 303.

             * *note asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy: 304.

             * *note asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy: 305.

             * *note asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy: 306.

             * *note asyncio.get_event_loop_policy(): 307.

             * *note asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(): 308.

          Users should use *note asyncio.run(): 309. or *note
          asyncio.Runner: 30a. with 'loop_factory' to use the desired
          event loop implementation.

          For example, to use *note asyncio.SelectorEventLoop: 30b. on
          Windows:

               import asyncio

               async def main():
                   ...

               asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=asyncio.SelectorEventLoop)

          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-127949(2).)

   * *note builtins: 13.:

        * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has
          been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising
          and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’).  Use ‘not x’ instead
          for the logical negation of a Boolean.  In the rare case that
          you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer,
          convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’).

   * *note functools: 62.:

        * Calling the Python implementation of *note functools.reduce():
          153. with 'function' or 'sequence' as keyword arguments has
          been deprecated since Python 3.14.

   * *note logging: 8a.:

        * Support for custom logging handlers with the 'strm' argument
          is deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.16.
          Define handlers with the 'stream' argument instead.
          (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-115032(3).)

   * *note mimetypes: 93.:

        * Valid extensions start with a “.” or are empty for *note
          mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(): 30c.  Undotted extensions are
          deprecated and will raise a *note ValueError: 277. in Python
          3.16.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-75223(4).)

   * *note shutil: cd.:

        * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python
          3.14.  It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since
          Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 30d.

   * *note symtable: e1.:

        * The ‘symtable.Class.get_methods()’ method has been deprecated
          since Python 3.14.

   * *note sys: e2.:

        * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 30e. function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 30f. environment variable
          instead.

   * *note sysconfig: e4.:

        * The ‘sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.14.  Use the ‘vars’ argument of
          *note sysconfig.get_paths(): 156. instead.

   * *note tarfile: e7.:

        * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127949

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 17<2>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 18<2>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.3.8.4 Pending removal in Python 3.17
......................................

   * *note datetime: 33.:

        * *note strptime(): 2d2. calls using a format string containing
          ‘%e’ (day of month) without a year.  This has been deprecated
          since Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in
          gh-70647(1).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1f.:

        - *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2cb. is scheduled for
          removal in Python 3.17.

          Use ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)’ to test if ‘obj’
          implements the *note buffer protocol: 311. at runtime.  For
          use in type annotations, either use *note Buffer: 312. or a
          union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports
          (e.g., ‘bytes | bytearray | memoryview’).

          ‘ByteString’ was originally intended to be an abstract class
          that would serve as a supertype of both *note bytes: 1c7. and
          *note bytearray: 1c6.  However, since the ABC never had any
          methods, knowing that an object was an instance of
          ‘ByteString’ never actually told you anything useful about the
          object.  Other common buffer types such as *note memoryview:
          1d2. were also never understood as subtypes of ‘ByteString’
          (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

          See PEP 688(2) for more details.  (Contributed by Shantanu
          Jain in gh-91896(3).)

   * *note encodings: 54.:

        - Passing non-ascii 'encoding' names to *note
          encodings.normalize_encoding(): 313. is deprecated and
          scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.  (Contributed by Stan
          Ulbrych in gh-136702(4).)

   * *note webbrowser: 11e.:

        - ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript’ is deprecated in favour of
          ‘webbrowser.MacOS’.  (gh-137586(5))

   * *note typing: 10d.:

        - Before Python 3.14, old-style unions were implemented using
          the private class ‘typing._UnionGenericAlias’.  This class is
          no longer needed for the implementation, but it has been
          retained for backward compatibility, with removal scheduled
          for Python 3.17.  Users should use documented introspection
          helpers like *note typing.get_origin(): 314. and *note
          typing.get_args(): 315. instead of relying on private
          implementation details.

        - *note typing.ByteString: 2e3, deprecated since Python 3.9, is
          scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

          Use ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)’ to test if ‘obj’
          implements the *note buffer protocol: 311. at runtime.  For
          use in type annotations, either use *note Buffer: 312. or a
          union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports
          (e.g., ‘bytes | bytearray | memoryview’).

          ‘ByteString’ was originally intended to be an abstract class
          that would serve as a supertype of both *note bytes: 1c7. and
          *note bytearray: 1c6.  However, since the ABC never had any
          methods, knowing that an object was an instance of
          ‘ByteString’ never actually told you anything useful about the
          object.  Other common buffer types such as *note memoryview:
          1d2. were also never understood as subtypes of ‘ByteString’
          (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

          See PEP 688(6) for more details.  (Contributed by Shantanu
          Jain in gh-91896(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136702

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137586

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 18<2>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 19<2>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 17<2>,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.3.8.5 Pending removal in Python 3.18
......................................

   * No longer accept a boolean value when a file descriptor is
     expected.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-82626(1).)

   * *note decimal: 39.:

        * The non-standard and undocumented *note Decimal: 1c2. format
          specifier ‘'N'’, which is only supported in the ‘decimal’
          module’s C implementation, has been deprecated since Python
          3.13.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89902(2).)

   * Deprecations defined by PEP 829(3):

        * ‘import’ lines in ‘`name'.pth’ files are silently ignored.

     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-148641(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82626

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148641


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 19<2>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 20<2>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 18<2>,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.3.8.6 Pending removal in Python 3.19
......................................

   * *note ctypes: 2d.:

        * Implicitly switching to the MSVC-compatible struct layout by
          setting *note _pack_: 318. but not *note _layout_: 319. on
          non-Windows platforms.

   * *note hashlib: 6b.:

        - In hash function constructors such as *note new(): 2f1. or the
          direct hash-named constructors such as *note md5(): 2f2. and
          *note sha256(): 2f3, their optional initial data parameter
          could also be passed a keyword argument named ‘data=’ or
          ‘string=’ in various ‘hashlib’ implementations.

          Support for the ‘string’ keyword argument name is now
          deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.19.

          Before Python 3.13, the ‘string’ keyword parameter was not
          correctly supported depending on the backend implementation of
          hash functions.  Prefer passing the initial data as a
          positional argument for maximum backwards compatibility.

   * *note http.cookies: 74.:

        * *note http.cookies.Morsel.js_output(): 2f4. is deprecated and
          will be removed in Python 3.19.

        * *note http.cookies.BaseCookie.js_output(): 2f5. is deprecated
          and will be removed in Python 3.19.

   * *note imaplib: 77.:

        * Altering *note IMAP4.file: 2f8. is now deprecated and slated
          for removal in Python 3.19.  This property is now unused and
          changing its value does not automatically close the current
          file.

          Before Python 3.14, this property was used to implement the
          corresponding ‘read()’ and ‘readline()’ methods for *note
          IMAP4: 31a. but this is no longer the case since then.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 20<2>,  Next: Pending removal in future versions<2>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 19<2>,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.3.8.7 Pending removal in Python 3.20
......................................

   * Calling the ‘__new__()’ method of *note struct.Struct: 2fb. without
     the 'format' argument is deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.20.  Calling *note __init__(): 2fa. method on initialized
     ‘Struct’ objects is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.20.

     (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev and Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-143715(1).)

   * The ‘__version__’, ‘version’ and ‘VERSION’ attributes have been
     deprecated in these standard library modules and will be removed in
     Python 3.20.  Use *note sys.version_info: 2fc. instead.

        - *note argparse: 7.

        - *note csv: 2c.

        - *note ctypes: 2d.

        - ‘ctypes.macholib’

        - *note decimal: 39. (use *note decimal.SPEC_VERSION: 2fd.
          instead)

        - *note http.server: 75.

        - *note imaplib: 77.

        - *note ipaddress: 83.

        - *note json: 85.

        - *note logging: 8a. (‘__date__’ also deprecated)

        - *note optparse: a4.

        - *note pickle: ab.

        - *note platform: af.

        - *note re: c1.

        - *note socketserver: d5.

        - *note tabnanny: e6.

        - *note tarfile: e7.

        - *note tkinter.font: fe.

        - *note tkinter.ttk: 102.

        - *note wsgiref.simple_server: 124.

        - *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.

        - ‘xml.sax.expatreader’

        - *note xml.sax.handler: 133.

        - *note zlib: 13c.

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade and Stan Ulbrych in gh-76007(2).)

   * Deprecations defined by PEP 829(3):

        * Warnings are produced for ‘import’ lines found in ‘`name'.pth’
          files.

        * ‘`name'.pth’ files are no longer decoded in the locale
          encoding by default.  They 'MUST' be encoded in ‘utf-8-sig’.

     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-148641(4).)

   * *note ast: 9.:

        * Creating instances of abstract AST nodes (such as *note
          ast.AST: 2ec. or ‘ast.expr’) is deprecated and will raise an
          error in Python 3.20.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143715

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148641


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in future versions<2>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 20<2>,  Up: Deprecated<3>

1.3.8.8 Pending removal in future versions
..........................................

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note argparse: 7.:

        * Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive groups
          are deprecated.

        * Passing the undocumented keyword argument 'prefix_chars' to
          *note add_argument_group(): 31d. is now deprecated.

        * The *note argparse.FileType: 31e. type converter is
          deprecated.

   * *note builtins: 13.:

        * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’
          signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’
          instead, the single argument signature.

        * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed
          by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It
          allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f
          or x in y]’).  A syntax warning is raised if the numeric
          literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and:
          31f, *note else: 320, *note for: 321, *note if: 322, *note in:
          323, *note is: 324. and *note or: 325.  In a future release it
          will be changed to a syntax error.  (gh-87999(1))

        * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning
          non-int type: these methods will be required to return an
          instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 326.

        * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note float: 327.: these methods will be required to return
          an instance of ‘float’.

        * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note complex: 328.: these methods will be required to
          return an instance of ‘complex’.

        * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in
          the *note complex(): 328. constructor is now deprecated; it
          should only be passed as a single positional argument.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(2).)

   * *note calendar: 15.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     329. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 32a.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(3).)

   * *note codecs: 1c.: use *note open(): 32b. instead of *note
     codecs.open(): 32c.  (gh-133038(4))

   * ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’: use the *note codeobject.co_lines(): 32d.
     method instead.

   * *note datetime: 33.:

        * *note utcnow(): 32e.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’.

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 32f.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’.

   * *note gettext: 66.: Plural value must be an integer.

   * *note importlib: 7a.:

        * *note cache_from_source(): 330. 'debug_override' parameter is
          deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead.

   * *note importlib.metadata: 7d.:

        * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface.

        * Implicit ‘None’ on return values.

   * *note logging: 8a.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since
     Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 331. instead.

   * *note mailbox: 8e.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is
     deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

   * *note os: a5.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 332. in a
     multi-threaded process.

   * *note os.path: a6.: *note os.path.commonprefix(): 333. is
     deprecated, use *note os.path.commonpath(): 334. for path prefixes.
     The ‘os.path.commonprefix()’ function is being deprecated due to
     having a misleading name and module.  The function is not safe to
     use for path prefixes despite being included in a module about path
     manipulation, meaning it is easy to accidentally introduce path
     traversal vulnerabilities into Python programs by using this
     function.

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter
     is deprecated, use an exception instance.

   * *note re: c1.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical
     group references and group names in regular expressions.  Only
     sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.
     The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now
     only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * *note shutil: cd.: *note rmtree(): 335.”s 'onerror' parameter is
     deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead.

   * *note ssl: d8. options and protocols:

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. without protocol argument is
          deprecated.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 336.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 337.
          and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN
          instead.

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note threading: f6. methods:

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all():
          338.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 339.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 33a.: use *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 33b. attribute.

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 33c.: use *note
          threading.Thread.name: 33d. attribute.

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note
          threading.current_thread(): 33e.

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count():
          33f.

   * *note typing.Text: 340. (gh-92332(6)).

   * The internal class ‘typing._UnionGenericAlias’ is no longer used to
     implement *note typing.Union: 341.  To preserve compatibility with
     users using this private class, a compatibility shim will be
     provided until at least Python 3.17.  (Contributed by Jelle
     Zijlstra in gh-105499(7).)

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342.: it is deprecated to
     return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case.

   * *note urllib.parse: 113. deprecated functions: *note urlparse():
     2a4. instead

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note wsgiref: 121.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do
     partial writes.

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: Testing the truth value of an
     *note Element: 343. is deprecated.  In a future release it will
     always return ‘True’.  Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not
     None’ tests instead.

   * *note sys._clear_type_cache(): 344. is deprecated: use *note
     sys._clear_internal_caches(): 345. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133038

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes,  Next: C API changes<3>,  Prev: Deprecated<3>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 14

1.3.9 CPython bytecode changes
------------------------------

   * Replaced the opcode ‘BINARY_SUBSCR’ by the *note BINARY_OP: 595.
     opcode with the ‘NB_SUBSCR’ oparg.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-100239(1).)

   * Add the *note BUILD_INTERPOLATION: 596. and *note BUILD_TEMPLATE:
     597. opcodes to construct new *note Interpolation: 416. and *note
     Template: 415. instances, respectively.  (Contributed by Lysandros
     Nikolaou and others in gh-132661(2); see also *note PEP 750;
     Template strings: 3f2.).

   * Remove the ‘BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP’ opcode.  Use *note BUILD_MAP: 598.
     instead.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-122160(3).)

   * Replace the ‘LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR’ opcode with *note
     LOAD_COMMON_CONSTANT: 599. and add support for loading *note
     NotImplementedError: 59a.

   * Add the *note LOAD_FAST_BORROW: 59b. and *note
     LOAD_FAST_BORROW_LOAD_FAST_BORROW: 59c. opcodes to reduce reference
     counting overhead when the interpreter can prove that the reference
     in the frame outlives the reference loaded onto the stack.
     (Contributed by Matt Page in gh-130704(4).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_SMALL_INT: 59d. opcode, which pushes a small
     integer equal to the ‘oparg’ to the stack.  The ‘RETURN_CONST’
     opcode is removed as it is no longer used.  (Contributed by Mark
     Shannon in gh-125837(5).)

   * Add the new *note LOAD_SPECIAL: 59e. instruction.  Generate code
     for *note with: 20a. and *note async with: 20b. statements using
     the new instruction.  Removed the ‘BEFORE_WITH’ and
     ‘BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH’ instructions.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-120507(6).)

   * Add the *note POP_ITER: 59f. opcode to support “virtual” iterators.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-132554(7).)

* Menu:

* Pseudo-instructions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132661

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122160

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130704

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125837

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120507

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132554


File: python.info,  Node: Pseudo-instructions,  Up: CPython bytecode changes

1.3.9.1 Pseudo-instructions
...........................

   * Add the ‘ANNOTATIONS_PLACEHOLDER’ pseudo instruction to support
     partially executed module-level annotations with *note deferred
     evaluation of annotations: 3f3.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-130907(1).)

   * Add the ‘BINARY_OP_EXTEND’ pseudo instruction, which executes a
     pair of functions (guard and specialization functions) accessed
     from the inline cache.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-100239(2).)

   * Add three specializations for *note CALL_KW: 5a1.; ‘CALL_KW_PY’ for
     calls to Python functions, ‘CALL_KW_BOUND_METHOD’ for calls to
     bound methods, and ‘CALL_KW_NON_PY’ for all other calls.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-118093(3).)

   * Add the *note JUMP_IF_TRUE: 5a2. and *note JUMP_IF_FALSE: 5a3.
     pseudo instructions, conditional jumps which do not impact the
     stack.  Replaced by the sequence ‘COPY 1’, ‘TO_BOOL’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE/FALSE’.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-124285(4).)

   * Add the ‘LOAD_CONST_MORTAL’ pseudo instruction.  (Contributed by
     Mark Shannon in gh-128685(5).)

   * Add the ‘LOAD_CONST_IMMORTAL’ pseudo instruction, which does the
     same as ‘LOAD_CONST’, but is more efficient for immortal objects.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-125837(6).)

   * Add the *note NOT_TAKEN: 5a4. pseudo instruction, used by *note
     sys.monitoring: e3. to record branch events (such as *note
     BRANCH_LEFT: 51b.).  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-122548(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130907

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118093

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124285

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128685

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125837

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122548


File: python.info,  Node: C API changes<3>,  Next: Build changes<3>,  Prev: CPython bytecode changes,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 14

1.3.10 C API changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* Python configuration C API::
* New features in the C API::
* Limited C API changes::
* Removed C APIs: Removed C APIs<3>.
* Deprecated C APIs: Deprecated C APIs<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Python configuration C API,  Next: New features in the C API,  Up: C API changes<3>

1.3.10.1 Python configuration C API
...................................

Add a *note PyInitConfig C API: 5a7. to configure the Python
initialization without relying on C structures and the ability to make
ABI-compatible changes in the future.

Complete the PEP 587(1) *note PyConfig C API: 5a8. by adding *note
PyInitConfig_AddModule(): 5a9. which can be used to add a built-in
extension module; a feature previously referred to as the «inittab».

Add *note PyConfig_Get(): 3a6. and *note PyConfig_Set(): 5aa. functions
to get and set the current runtime configuration.

PEP 587(2) “Python Initialization Configuration” unified all the ways to
configure Python’s initialization.  This PEP also unifies the
configuration of Python’s preinitialization and initialization in a
single API. Moreover, this PEP only provides a single choice to embed
Python, instead of having two “Python” and “Isolated” choices (PEP 587),
to further simplify the API.

The lower level PEP 587 PyConfig API remains available for use cases
with an intentionally higher level of coupling to CPython implementation
details (such as emulating the full functionality of CPython’s CLI,
including its configuration mechanisms).

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-107954(3).)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 741(4) and PEP 587(5)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107954

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0741/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/


File: python.info,  Node: New features in the C API,  Next: Limited C API changes,  Prev: Python configuration C API,  Up: C API changes<3>

1.3.10.2 New features in the C API
..................................

   * Add *note Py_PACK_VERSION(): 5ac. and *note Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION():
     5ad, two new macros for bit-packing Python version numbers.  This
     is useful for comparisons with *note Py_Version: 5ae. or *note
     PY_VERSION_HEX: 5af.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in
     gh-128629(1).)

   * Add *note PyBytes_Join(sep, iterable): 5b0. function, similar to
     ‘sep.join(iterable)’ in Python.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-121645(2).)

   * Add functions to manipulate the configuration of the current
     runtime Python interpreter (*note PEP 741; Python configuration C
     API: 402.):

        * *note PyConfig_Get(): 3a6.

        * *note PyConfig_GetInt(): 5b1.

        * *note PyConfig_Set(): 5aa.

        * *note PyConfig_Names(): 5b2.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-107954(3).)

   * Add functions to configure Python initialization (*note PEP 741;
     Python configuration C API: 402.):

        * *note Py_InitializeFromInitConfig(): 5b3.

        * *note PyInitConfig_AddModule(): 5a9.

        * *note PyInitConfig_Create(): 5b4.

        * *note PyInitConfig_Free(): 5b5.

        * *note PyInitConfig_FreeStrList(): 5b6.

        * *note PyInitConfig_GetError(): 5b7.

        * *note PyInitConfig_GetExitCode(): 5b8.

        * *note PyInitConfig_GetInt(): 5b9.

        * *note PyInitConfig_GetStr(): 5ba.

        * *note PyInitConfig_GetStrList(): 5bb.

        * *note PyInitConfig_HasOption(): 5bc.

        * *note PyInitConfig_SetInt(): 5bd.

        * *note PyInitConfig_SetStr(): 5be.

        * *note PyInitConfig_SetStrList(): 5bf.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-107954(4).)

   * Add *note Py_fopen(): 5c0. function to open a file.  This works
     similarly to the standard C ‘fopen()’ function, instead accepting a
     Python object for the 'path' parameter and setting an exception on
     error.  The corresponding new *note Py_fclose(): 5c1. function
     should be used to close a file.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-127350(5).)

   * Add *note Py_HashBuffer(): 5c2. to compute and return the hash
     value of a buffer.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Victor
     Stinner in gh-122854(6).)

   * Add *note PyImport_ImportModuleAttr(): 5c3. and *note
     PyImport_ImportModuleAttrString(): 5c4. helper functions to import
     a module and get an attribute of the module.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-128911(7).)

   * Add *note PyIter_NextItem(): 5c5. to replace *note PyIter_Next():
     5c6, which has an ambiguous return value.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel and Erlend Aasland in gh-105201(8).)

   * Add *note PyLong_GetSign(): 5c7. function to get the sign of *note
     int: 326. objects.  (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in
     gh-116560(9).)

   * Add *note PyLong_IsPositive(): 5c8, *note PyLong_IsNegative(): 5c9.
     and *note PyLong_IsZero(): 5ca. for checking if *note PyLongObject:
     5cb. is positive, negative, or zero, respectively.  (Contributed by
     James Roy and Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-126061(10).)

   * Add new functions to convert C ‘<stdint.h>’ numbers to/from Python
     *note int: 326. objects:

        * *note PyLong_AsInt32(): 5cc.

        * *note PyLong_AsInt64(): 5cd.

        * *note PyLong_AsUInt32(): 5ce.

        * *note PyLong_AsUInt64(): 5cf.

        * *note PyLong_FromInt32(): 5d0.

        * *note PyLong_FromInt64(): 5d1.

        * *note PyLong_FromUInt32(): 5d2.

        * *note PyLong_FromUInt64(): 5d3.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-120389(11).)

   * Add a new import and export API for Python *note int: 326. objects
     ( PEP 757(12)):

        * *note PyLong_GetNativeLayout(): 5d4.

        * *note PyLong_Export(): 5d5.

        * *note PyLong_FreeExport(): 5d6.

        * *note PyLongWriter_Create(): 5d7.

        * *note PyLongWriter_Finish(): 5d8.

        * *note PyLongWriter_Discard(): 5d9.

     (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev and Victor Stinner in
     gh-102471(13).)

   * Add *note PyMonitoring_FireBranchLeftEvent(): 5da. and *note
     PyMonitoring_FireBranchRightEvent(): 5db. for generating *note
     BRANCH_LEFT: 51b. and *note BRANCH_RIGHT: 51c. events,
     respectively.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-122548(14).)

   * Add *note PyType_Freeze(): 5dc. function to make a type immutable.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-121654(15).)

   * Add *note PyType_GetBaseByToken(): 5dd. and *note Py_tp_token: 5de.
     slot for easier superclass identification, which attempts to
     resolve the type checking issue mentioned in PEP 630(16).
     (Contributed in gh-124153(17).)

   * Add a new *note PyUnicode_Equal(): 5df. function to test if two
     strings are equal.  The function is also added to the Limited C
     API.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-124502(18).)

   * Add a new *note PyUnicodeWriter: 5e0. API to create a Python *note
     str: 1df. object, with the following functions:

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_Create(): 5e1.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 5e2.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_Discard(): 5e3.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(): 5e4.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_Format(): 5e5.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII(): 5e6.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(): 5e7.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteRepr(): 5e8.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(): 5e9.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(): 5ea.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUCS4(): 5eb.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(): 5ec.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteWideChar(): 5ed.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-119182(19).)

   * The ‘k’ and ‘K’ formats in *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. and
     similar functions now use *note __index__(): 43d. if available,
     like all other integer formats.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in gh-112068(20).)

   * Add support for a new ‘p’ format unit in *note Py_BuildValue():
     5ee. that produces a Python *note bool: 5ef. object from a C
     integer.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-45325(21).)

   * Add *note PyUnstable_IsImmortal(): 5f0. for determining if an
     object is *note immortal: 398, for debugging purposes.
     (Contributed by Peter Bierma in gh-128509(22).)

   * Add *note PyUnstable_Object_EnableDeferredRefcount(): 5f1. for
     enabling deferred reference counting, as outlined in PEP 703(23).

   * Add *note PyUnstable_Object_IsUniquelyReferenced(): 5f2. as a
     replacement for ‘Py_REFCNT(op) == 1’ on *note free threaded: 487.
     builds.  (Contributed by Peter Bierma in gh-133140(24).)

   * Add *note PyUnstable_Object_IsUniqueReferencedTemporary(): 5f3. to
     determine if an object is a unique temporary object on the
     interpreter’s operand stack.  This can be used in some cases as a
     replacement for checking if *note Py_REFCNT(): 54b. is ‘1’ for
     Python objects passed as arguments to C API functions.
     (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-133164(25).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128629

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121645

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107954

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107954

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127350

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122854

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128911

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105201

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116560

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126061

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120389

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0757/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102471

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122548

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121654

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0630/#type-checking

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124153

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124502

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119182

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112068

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45325

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128509

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133140

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133164


File: python.info,  Node: Limited C API changes,  Next: Removed C APIs<3>,  Prev: New features in the C API,  Up: C API changes<3>

1.3.10.3 Limited C API changes
..............................

   * In the limited C API version 3.14 and newer, *note Py_TYPE(): 5f5.
     and *note Py_REFCNT(): 54b. are now implemented as an opaque
     function call to hide implementation details.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-120600(1) and gh-124127(2).)

   * Remove the *note PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE: 5f6, *note
     PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM: 5f7, and *note PySequence_Fast_ITEMS:
     5f8. macros from the limited C API, since they have always been
     broken in the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-91417(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120600

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124127

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91417


File: python.info,  Node: Removed C APIs<3>,  Next: Deprecated C APIs<3>,  Prev: Limited C API changes,  Up: C API changes<3>

1.3.10.4 Removed C APIs
.......................

   * Creating *note immutable types: 5fb. with mutable bases was
     deprecated in Python 3.12, and now raises a *note TypeError: 291.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-119775(1).)

   * Remove ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ member, which was deprecated
     in Python 3.12.  Use the *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 5fc. API
     instead.  (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-124296(2).)

   * Remove the private ‘_Py_InitializeMain()’ function.  It was a *note
     provisional API: 5fd. added to Python 3.8 by PEP 587(3).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-129033(4).)

   * Remove the undocumented APIs ‘Py_C_RECURSION_LIMIT’ and
     ‘PyThreadState.c_recursion_remaining’.  These were added in 3.13
     and have been removed without deprecation.  Use *note
     Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 5fe. to guard against runaway recursion in
     C code.  (Removed by Petr Viktorin in gh-133079(5), see also
     gh-130396(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119775

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124296

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129033

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133079

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130396


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated C APIs<3>,  Prev: Removed C APIs<3>,  Up: C API changes<3>

1.3.10.5 Deprecated C APIs
..........................

   * The ‘Py_HUGE_VAL’ macro is now *note soft deprecated: 1a7.  Use
     ‘INFINITY’ instead.  (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in
     gh-120026(1).)

   * The ‘Py_IS_NAN’, ‘Py_IS_INFINITY’, and ‘Py_IS_FINITE’ macros are
     now *note soft deprecated: 1a7.  Use ‘isnan’, ‘isinf’ and
     ‘isfinite’ instead, available from ‘math.h’ since C99.
     (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in gh-119613(2).)

   * Non-tuple sequences are now deprecated as argument for the
     ‘(items)’ format unit in *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. and other
     *note argument parsing: 601. functions if 'items' contains format
     units which store a *note borrowed buffer: 602. or a *note borrowed
     reference: 603.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-50333(3).)

   * The ‘_PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent’ function is now deprecated and
     should be replaced with calls to *note
     PyMonitoring_FireBranchLeftEvent(): 5da. and *note
     PyMonitoring_FireBranchRightEvent(): 5db.

   * The previously undocumented function *note PySequence_In(): 604. is
     now *note soft deprecated: 1a7.  Use *note PySequence_Contains():
     605. instead.  (Contributed by Yuki Kobayashi in gh-127896(4).)

* Menu:

* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18<3>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120026

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119613

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50333

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127896


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 15<2>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs<3>

1.3.10.6 Pending removal in Python 3.15
.......................................

   * The ‘PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()’: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3. instead.

   * ‘PyWeakref_GetObject()’ and ‘PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT()’: Use *note
     PyWeakref_GetRef(): 3a4. instead.  The pythoncapi-compat project(1)
     can be used to get ‘PyWeakref_GetRef()’ on Python 3.12 and older.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3a1.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3a1.
     instead; Note that some codecs (for example, «base64») may return a
     type other than *note str: 1df, such as *note bytes: 1c7.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3a2.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3a2.
     instead; Note that some codecs (for example, «base64») may return a
     type other than *note bytes: 1c7, such as *note str: 1df.

   * Python initialization functions, deprecated in Python 3.13:

        * ‘Py_GetPath()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("module_search_paths"):
          3a6. (*note sys.path: 194.) instead.

        * ‘Py_GetPrefix()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("base_prefix"): 3a6.
          (*note sys.base_prefix: 3aa.) instead.  Use
          ‘PyConfig_Get("prefix")’ (*note sys.prefix: 3ab.) if *note
          virtual environments: 3a9. need to be handled.

        * ‘Py_GetExecPrefix()’: Use *note
          PyConfig_Get("base_exec_prefix"): 3a6. (*note
          sys.base_exec_prefix: 3a7.) instead.  Use
          ‘PyConfig_Get("exec_prefix")’ (*note sys.exec_prefix: 3a8.) if
          *note virtual environments: 3a9. need to be handled.

        * ‘Py_GetProgramFullPath()’: Use *note
          PyConfig_Get("executable"): 3a6. (*note sys.executable: 3ac.)
          instead.

        * ‘Py_GetProgramName()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("executable"):
          3a6. (*note sys.executable: 3ac.) instead.

        * ‘Py_GetPythonHome()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("home"): 3a6. or
          the *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. environment variable instead.

     The pythoncapi-compat project(2) can be used to get *note
     PyConfig_Get(): 3a6. on Python 3.13 and older.

   * Functions to configure Python’s initialization, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 607. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 607. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 608.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 609. instead.

        * ‘PySys_ResetWarnOptions()’: Clear *note sys.warnoptions: 3a5.
          and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 60b. instead.

   * Global configuration variables:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 60c.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          60d. or *note PyConfig_Get("parser_debug"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 60e.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 60f.
          or *note PyConfig_Get("verbose"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 610.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 611. or
          *note PyConfig_Get("quiet"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 612.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 613. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("interactive"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 614.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 615.
          or *note PyConfig_Get("inspect"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 616.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 617. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("optimization_level"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 618.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          619. or *note PyConfig_Get("site_import"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 61a.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3c4. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("bytes_warning"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 61b.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 61c. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("pathconfig_warnings"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 61d.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 61e. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("use_environment"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 61f.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 620. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("write_bytecode"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 621.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 622. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("user_site_directory"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 623.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 624. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("buffered_stdio"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 625.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 626. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          627. or *note PyConfig_Get("hash_seed"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 628.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 629.
          or *note PyConfig_Get("isolated"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 62a.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 62b. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_fs_encoding"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 62c.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 62d. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_stdio"): 3a6. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’,
          ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 62e. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("filesystem_encoding"): 3a6. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 62f. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("filesystem_errors"): 3a6. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 630. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("utf8_mode"): 3a6. instead.  (see *note
          Py_PreInitialize(): 631.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 60b. to set these options.  Or *note
     PyConfig_Get(): 3a6. can be used to get these options at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (2) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 18<3>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 15<2>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs<3>

1.3.10.7 Pending removal in Python 3.16
.......................................

   * The bundled copy of ‘libmpdec’.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 18<3>,  Next: Pending removal in future versions<3>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs<3>

1.3.10.8 Pending removal in Python 3.18
.......................................

   * The following private functions are deprecated and planned for
     removal in Python 3.18:

        * ‘_PyBytes_Join()’: use *note PyBytes_Join(): 5b0.

        * ‘_PyDict_GetItemStringWithError()’: use *note
          PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 634.

        * ‘_PyDict_Pop()’: use *note PyDict_Pop(): 635.

        * ‘_PyLong_Sign()’: use *note PyLong_GetSign(): 5c7.

        * ‘_PyLong_FromDigits()’ and ‘_PyLong_New()’: use *note
          PyLongWriter_Create(): 5d7.

        * ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’: use *note
          PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 636.

        * ‘_PyUnicode_AsString()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): 637.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Init()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer)’ with *note writer =
          PyUnicodeWriter_Create(0): 5e1.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(writer): 5e4.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_Discard(writer): 5e3.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(&writer, ch)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(writer, ch): 5e7.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(&writer, str)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, str): 5e9.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(&writer, str, start, end)’
          with *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(writer, str, start,
          end): 5ea.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(&writer, str)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII(writer, str): 5e6.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(&writer, str)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(writer, str): 5ec.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare()’: (no replacement).

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind()’: (no replacement).

        * ‘_Py_HashPointer()’: use *note Py_HashPointer(): 638.

        * ‘_Py_fopen_obj()’: use *note Py_fopen(): 5c0.

     The pythoncapi-compat project(1) can be used to get these new
     public functions on Python 3.13 and older.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-128863(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128863


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in future versions<3>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 18<3>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs<3>

1.3.10.9 Pending removal in future versions
...........................................

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 63a.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 63b.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     63c. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 63d.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 63e.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     63f. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 640.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 641. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 642.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     643. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 644.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     645. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 646. instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 647.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 648.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 649.
     instead.

   * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 64a.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 64b. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 64c.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 64d. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 64e.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 64f. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 650.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 651. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 652.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 653. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 654.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Build changes<3>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 14,  Prev: C API changes<3>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 14

1.3.11 Build changes
--------------------

   * PEP 776(1): Emscripten is now an officially supported platform at
     tier 3(2).  As a part of this effort, more than 25 bugs in
     Emscripten libc(3) were fixed.  Emscripten now includes support for
     *note ctypes: 2d, *note termios: ea, and *note fcntl: 5c, as well
     as experimental support for the new *note default interactive
     shell: 656.  (Contributed by R. Hood Chatham in gh-127146(4),
     gh-127683(5), and gh-136931(6).)

   * Official Android binary releases are now provided on python.org(7).

   * GNU Autoconf 2.72 is now required to generate ‘configure’.
     (Contributed by Erlend Aasland in gh-115765(8).)

   * ‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’ is now a PEP 11(9) tier 3 platform.
     (Contributed by R. Hood Chatham in gh-127146(10), gh-127683(11),
     and gh-136931(12).)

   * ‘#pragma’-based linking with ‘python3*.lib’ can now be switched off
     with *note Py_NO_LINK_LIB: 657.  (Contributed by Jean-Christophe
     Fillion-Robin in gh-82909(13).)

   * CPython now enables a set of recommended compiler options by
     default for improved security.  Use the *note -disable-safety: 658.
     ‘configure’ option to disable them, or the *note
     -enable-slower-safety: 659. option for a larger set of compiler
     options, albeit with a performance cost.

   * The ‘WITH_FREELISTS’ macro and ‘--without-freelists’ ‘configure’
     option have been removed.

   * The new ‘configure’ option *note -with-tail-call-interp: 41c. may
     be used to enable the experimental tail call interpreter.  See
     *note A new type of interpreter: 2c4. for further details.

   * To disable the new remote debugging support, use the *note
     -without-remote-debug: 41a. ‘configure’ option.  This may be useful
     for security reasons.

   * iOS and macOS apps can now be configured to redirect ‘stdout’ and
     ‘stderr’ content to the system log.  (Contributed by Russell
     Keith-Magee in gh-127592(14).)

   * The iOS testbed is now able to stream test output while the test is
     running.  The testbed can also be used to run the test suite of
     projects other than CPython itself.  (Contributed by Russell
     Keith-Magee in gh-127592(15).)

* Menu:

* build-details.json: build-details json.
* Discontinuation of PGP signatures::
* Free-threaded Python is officially supported::
* Binary releases for the experimental just-in-time compiler::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0776/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3

   (3) 
https://emscripten.org/docs/porting/emscripten-runtime-environment.html

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127146

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127683

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136931

   (7) https://www.python.org/downloads/android/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115765

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127146

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127683

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136931

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82909

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127592

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127592


File: python.info,  Node: build-details json,  Next: Discontinuation of PGP signatures,  Up: Build changes<3>

1.3.11.1 ‘build-details.json’
.............................

Installations of Python now contain a new file, ‘build-details.json’.
This is a static JSON document containing build details for CPython, to
allow for introspection without needing to run code.  This is helpful
for use-cases such as Python launchers, cross-compilation, and so on.

‘build-details.json’ must be installed in the platform-independent
standard library directory.  This corresponds to the *note “stdlib”:
65c. *note sysconfig: e4. installation path, which can be found by
running ‘sysconfig.get_path('stdlib')’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 739(1) – ‘build-details.json’ 1.0 – a static description file for
Python build details

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0739/


File: python.info,  Node: Discontinuation of PGP signatures,  Next: Free-threaded Python is officially supported,  Prev: build-details json,  Up: Build changes<3>

1.3.11.2 Discontinuation of PGP signatures
..........................................

PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) signatures will not be provided for releases
of Python 3.14 or future versions.  To verify CPython artifacts, users
must use Sigstore verification materials(1).  Releases have been signed
using Sigstore(2) since Python 3.11.

This change in release process was specified in PEP 761(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/metadata/sigstore/

   (2) https://www.sigstore.dev/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0761/


File: python.info,  Node: Free-threaded Python is officially supported,  Next: Binary releases for the experimental just-in-time compiler,  Prev: Discontinuation of PGP signatures,  Up: Build changes<3>

1.3.11.3 Free-threaded Python is officially supported
.....................................................

The free-threaded build of Python is now supported and no longer
experimental.  This is the start of phase II(1) where free-threaded
Python is officially supported but still optional.

The free-threading team are confident that the project is on the right
path, and appreciate the continued dedication from everyone working to
make free-threading ready for broader adoption across the Python
community.

With these recommendations and the acceptance of this PEP, the Python
developer community should broadly advertise that free-threading is a
supported Python build option now and into the future, and that it will
not be removed without a proper deprecation schedule.

Any decision to transition to phase III(2), with free-threading as the
default or sole build of Python is still undecided, and dependent on
many factors both within CPython itself and the community.  This
decision is for the future.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 779(3)

PEP 779's acceptance(4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://discuss.python.org/t/37075

   (2) https://discuss.python.org/t/37075

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0779/

   (4) https://discuss.python.org/t/84319/123


File: python.info,  Node: Binary releases for the experimental just-in-time compiler,  Prev: Free-threaded Python is officially supported,  Up: Build changes<3>

1.3.11.4 Binary releases for the experimental just-in-time compiler
...................................................................

The official macOS and Windows release binaries now include an
'experimental' just-in-time (JIT) compiler.  Although it is 'not'
recommended for production use, it can be tested by setting *note
PYTHON_JIT=1: 660. as an environment variable.  Downstream source builds
and redistributors can use the *note -enable-experimental-jit=yes-off:
661. configuration option for similar behavior.

The JIT is at an early stage and still in active development.  As such,
the typical performance impact of enabling it can range from 10% slower
to 20% faster, depending on workload.  To aid in testing and evaluation,
a set of introspection functions has been provided in the *note
sys._jit: 519. namespace.  *note sys._jit.is_available(): 662. can be
used to determine if the current executable supports JIT compilation,
while *note sys._jit.is_enabled(): 663. can be used to tell if JIT
compilation has been enabled for the current process.

Currently, the most significant missing functionality is that native
debuggers and profilers like ‘gdb’ and ‘perf’ are unable to unwind
through JIT frames (Python debuggers and profilers, like *note pdb: aa.
or *note profile: b4, continue to work without modification).
Free-threaded builds do not support JIT compilation.

Please report any bugs or major performance regressions that you
encounter!

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 744(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 14,  Next: Notable changes in 3 14 5,  Prev: Build changes<3>,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 14

1.3.12 Porting to Python 3.14
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in the Python API::
* Changes in annotations (PEP 649 and PEP 749): Changes in annotations PEP 649 and PEP 749.
* Changes in the C API::


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API,  Next: Changes in annotations PEP 649 and PEP 749,  Up: Porting to Python 3 14

1.3.12.1 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * On Unix platforms other than macOS, 'forkserver' is now the default
     *note start method: 46d. for *note multiprocessing: 98. and *note
     ProcessPoolExecutor: 206, instead of 'fork'.

     See *note (1): 46b. and *note (2): 4d5. for details.

     If you encounter *note NameError: 665.s or pickling errors coming
     out of *note multiprocessing: 98. or *note concurrent.futures: 24,
     see the *note forkserver restrictions: 470.

     This change does not affect Windows or macOS, where *note “spawn”:
     46f. remains the default start method.

   * *note functools.partial: 4a6. is now a method descriptor.  Wrap it
     in *note staticmethod(): 666. if you want to preserve the old
     behavior.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Dominykas Grigonis
     in gh-121027(1).)

   * The *note garbage collector is now incremental: 3ff, which means
     that the behavior of *note gc.collect(): 44f. changes slightly:

        * ‘gc.collect(1)’: Performs an increment of garbage collection,
          rather than collecting generation 1.

        * Other calls to ‘gc.collect()’ are unchanged.

   * The *note locale.nl_langinfo(): 667. function now temporarily sets
     the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale in some cases.  This temporary change affects
     other threads.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-69998(2).)

   * *note types.UnionType: 527. is now an alias for *note typing.Union:
     341, causing changes in some behaviors.  See *note above: 528. for
     more details.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105499(3).)

   * The runtime behavior of annotations has changed in various ways;
     see *note above: 3f3. for details.  While most code that interacts
     with annotations should continue to work, some undocumented details
     may behave differently.

   * As part of making the *note mimetypes: 93. CLI public, it now exits
     with ‘1’ on failure instead of ‘0’ and ‘2’ on incorrect
     command-line parameters instead of ‘1’.  Error messages are now
     printed to stderr.

   * The ‘\B’ pattern in regular expression now matches the empty string
     when given as the entire pattern, which may cause behavioural
     changes.

   * On FreeBSD, *note sys.platform: 518. no longer contains the major
     version number.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121027

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69998

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in annotations PEP 649 and PEP 749,  Next: Changes in the C API,  Prev: Changes in the Python API,  Up: Porting to Python 3 14

1.3.12.2 Changes in annotations (
.................................

'PEP 649' and 'PEP 749')

This section contains guidance on changes that may be needed to
annotations or Python code that interacts with or introspects
annotations, due to the changes related to *note deferred evaluation of
annotations: 3f3.

In the majority of cases, working code from older versions of Python
will not require any changes.

* Menu:

* Implications for annotated code::
* Implications for readers of __annotations__::
* Related changes::
* from __future__ import annotations::


File: python.info,  Node: Implications for annotated code,  Next: Implications for readers of __annotations__,  Up: Changes in annotations PEP 649 and PEP 749

1.3.12.3 Implications for annotated code
........................................

If you define annotations in your code (for example, for use with a
static type checker), then this change probably does not affect you: you
can keep writing annotations the same way you did with previous versions
of Python.

You will likely be able to remove quoted strings in annotations, which
are frequently used for forward references.  Similarly, if you use ‘from
__future__ import annotations’ to avoid having to write strings in
annotations, you may well be able to remove that import once you support
only Python 3.14 and newer.  However, if you rely on third-party
libraries that read annotations, those libraries may need changes to
support unquoted annotations before they work as expected.


File: python.info,  Node: Implications for readers of __annotations__,  Next: Related changes,  Prev: Implications for annotated code,  Up: Changes in annotations PEP 649 and PEP 749

1.3.12.4 Implications for readers of ‘__annotations__’
......................................................

If your code reads the *note __annotations__: 66b. attribute on objects,
you may want to make changes in order to support code that relies on
deferred evaluation of annotations.  For example, you may want to use
*note annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. with the *note FORWARDREF:
40c. format, as the *note dataclasses: 32. module now does.

The external typing_extensions(1) package provides partial backports of
some of the functionality of the *note annotationlib: 6. module, such as
the *note Format: 4be. enum and the *note get_annotations(): 66c.
function.  These can be used to write cross-version code that takes
advantage of the new behavior in Python 3.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/typing_extensions/


File: python.info,  Node: Related changes,  Next: from __future__ import annotations,  Prev: Implications for readers of __annotations__,  Up: Changes in annotations PEP 649 and PEP 749

1.3.12.5 Related changes
........................

The changes in Python 3.14 are designed to rework how ‘__annotations__’
works at runtime while minimizing breakage to code that contains
annotations in source code and to code that reads ‘__annotations__’.
However, if you rely on undocumented details of the annotation behavior
or on private functions in the standard library, there are many ways in
which your code may not work in Python 3.14.  To safeguard your code
against future changes, only use the documented functionality of the
*note annotationlib: 6. module.

In particular, do not read annotations directly from the namespace
dictionary attribute of type objects.  Use *note
annotationlib.get_annotate_from_class_namespace(): 66e. during class
construction and *note annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. afterwards.

In previous releases, it was sometimes possible to access class
annotations from an instance of an annotated class.  This behavior was
undocumented and accidental, and will no longer work in Python 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: from __future__ import annotations,  Prev: Related changes,  Up: Changes in annotations PEP 649 and PEP 749

1.3.12.6 ‘from __future__ import annotations’
.............................................

In Python 3.7, PEP 563(1) introduced the ‘from __future__ import
annotations’ *note future statement: 670, which turns all annotations
into strings.

However, this statement is now deprecated and it is expected to be
removed in a future version of Python.  This removal will not happen
until after Python 3.13 reaches its end of life in 2029, being the last
version of Python without support for deferred evaluation of
annotations.

In Python 3.14, the behavior of code using ‘from __future__ import
annotations’ is unchanged.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API,  Prev: Changes in annotations PEP 649 and PEP 749,  Up: Porting to Python 3 14

1.3.12.7 Changes in the C API
.............................

   * *note Py_Finalize(): 672. now deletes all interned strings.  This
     is backwards incompatible to any C extension that holds onto an
     interned string after a call to ‘Py_Finalize()’ and is then reused
     after a call to *note Py_Initialize(): 673.  Any issues arising
     from this behavior will normally result in crashes during the
     execution of the subsequent call to ‘Py_Initialize()’ from
     accessing uninitialized memory.  To fix, use an address sanitizer
     to identify any use-after-free coming from an interned string and
     deallocate it during module shutdown.  (Contributed by Eddie
     Elizondo in gh-113601(1).)

   * The *note Unicode Exception Objects: 674. C API now raises a *note
     TypeError: 291. if its exception argument is not a *note
     UnicodeError: 675. object.  (Contributed by Bénédikt Tran in
     gh-127691(2).)

   * The interpreter internally avoids some reference count
     modifications when loading objects onto the operands stack by *note
     borrowing: 603. references when possible.  This can lead to smaller
     reference count values compared to previous Python versions.  C API
     extensions that checked *note Py_REFCNT(): 54b. of ‘1’ to determine
     if an function argument is not referenced by any other code should
     instead use *note PyUnstable_Object_IsUniqueReferencedTemporary():
     5f3. as a safer replacement.

   * Private functions promoted to public C APIs:

        * ‘_PyBytes_Join()’: *note PyBytes_Join(): 5b0.

        * ‘_PyLong_IsNegative()’: *note PyLong_IsNegative(): 5c9.

        * ‘_PyLong_IsPositive()’: *note PyLong_IsPositive(): 5c8.

        * ‘_PyLong_IsZero()’: *note PyLong_IsZero(): 5ca.

        * ‘_PyLong_Sign()’: *note PyLong_GetSign(): 5c7.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc()’: *note PyUnicodeWriter_Discard():
          5e3.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish()’: *note PyUnicodeWriter_Finish():
          5e4.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Init()’: use *note PyUnicodeWriter_Create():
          5e1.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare()’: (no replacement)

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind()’: (no replacement)

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar()’: *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(): 5e7.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr()’: *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(): 5e9.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring()’: *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(): 5ea.

        * ‘_PyUnicode_EQ()’: *note PyUnicode_Equal(): 5df.

        * ‘_PyUnicode_Equal()’: *note PyUnicode_Equal(): 5df.

        * ‘_Py_GetConfig()’: *note PyConfig_Get(): 3a6. and *note
          PyConfig_GetInt(): 5b1.

        * ‘_Py_HashBytes()’: *note Py_HashBuffer(): 5c2.

        * ‘_Py_fopen_obj()’: *note Py_fopen(): 5c0.

        * ‘PyMutex_IsLocked()’ : *note PyMutex_IsLocked(): 676.

     The pythoncapi-compat project(3) can be used to get most of these
     new functions on Python 3.13 and older.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113601

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127691

   (3) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 14 5,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 14,  Up: What’s new in Python 3 14

1.3.13 Notable changes in 3.14.5
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* gc: gc<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: gc<3>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 14 5

1.3.13.1 gc
...........

   * The incremental garbage collector shipped in Python 3.14.0-3.14.4
     has been reverted back to the generational garbage collector from
     3.13, due to a number of reports(1) of significant memory pressure
     in production environments.  See *note Garbage collection: 3ff. for
     details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142516


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 13,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 12,  Prev: What’s new in Python 3 14,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.4 What’s New In Python 3.13
=============================


Editors: Adam Turner and Thomas Wouters

This article explains the new features in Python 3.13, compared to 3.12.
Python 3.13 was released on October 7, 2024.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 145.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 719(1) – Python 3.13 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release Highlights::
* New Features::
* Other Language Changes::
* New Modules::
* Improved Modules::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<4>.
* Removed Modules And APIs::
* New Deprecations::
* CPython Bytecode Changes::
* C API Changes::
* Build Changes::
* Porting to Python 3.13: Porting to Python 3 13.
* Regression Test Changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0719/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release Highlights,  Next: New Features,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.4.1 Summary – Release Highlights
----------------------------------

Python 3.13 is a stable release of the Python programming language, with
a mix of changes to the language, the implementation and the standard
library.  The biggest changes include a new *note interactive
interpreter: 67e., experimental support for running in a *note
free-threaded mode: 67f.( PEP 703(1)), and a *note Just-In-Time
compiler: 680.( PEP 744(2)).

Error messages continue to improve, with tracebacks now highlighted in
color by default.  The *note locals(): 28b. builtin now has *note
defined semantics: 681. for changing the returned mapping, and type
parameters now support default values.

The library changes contain removal of deprecated APIs and modules, as
well as the usual improvements in user-friendliness and correctness.
Several legacy standard library modules have now *note been removed:
682.following their deprecation in Python 3.11 ( PEP 594(3)).

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead gives a convenient overview.  For full details
refer to the documentation, such as the *note Library Reference: 3f7.
and *note Language Reference: 3f8.  To understand the complete
implementation and design rationale for a change, refer to the PEP for a
particular new feature; but note that PEPs usually are not kept
up-to-date once a feature has been fully implemented.  See *note Porting
to Python 3.13: 683. for guidance on upgrading from earlier versions of
Python.

__________________________________________________________________

Interpreter improvements:

   * A greatly improved *note interactive interpreter: 67e. and *note
     improved error messages: 684.

   * PEP 667(4): The *note locals(): 28b. builtin now has *note defined
     semantics: 681. when mutating the returned mapping.  Python
     debuggers and similar tools may now more reliably update local
     variables in optimized scopes even during concurrent code
     execution.

   * PEP 703(5): CPython 3.13 has experimental support for running with
     the *note global interpreter lock: 685. disabled.  See *note
     Free-threaded CPython: 67f. for more details.

   * PEP 744(6): A basic *note JIT compiler: 680. was added.  It is
     currently disabled by default (though we may turn it on later).
     Performance improvements are modest – we expect to improve this
     over the next few releases.

   * Color support in the new *note interactive interpreter: 67e, as
     well as in *note tracebacks: 684. and *note doctest: 686. output.
     This can be disabled through the *note PYTHON_COLORS: 687. and
     NO_COLOR(7) environment variables.

Python data model improvements:

   * *note __static_attributes__: 688. stores the names of attributes
     accessed through ‘self.X’ in any function in a class body.

   * *note __firstlineno__: 689. records the first line number of a
     class definition.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * Add a new *note PythonFinalizationError: 68a. exception, raised
     when an operation is blocked during *note finalization: 1a0.

   * The *note argparse: 7. module now supports deprecating command-line
     options, positional arguments, and subcommands.

   * The new functions *note base64.z85encode(): 1e6. and *note
     base64.z85decode(): 1f3. support encoding and decoding Z85 data(8).

   * The *note copy: 29. module now has a *note copy.replace(): 45a.
     function, with support for many builtin types and any class
     defining the *note __replace__(): 68b. method.

   * The new *note dbm.sqlite3: 38. module is now the default *note dbm:
     34. backend.

   * The *note os: a5. module has a *note suite of new functions: 68c.
     for working with Linux’s timer notification file descriptors.

   * The *note random: c0. module now has a *note command-line
     interface: 68d.

Security improvements:

   * *note ssl.create_default_context(): 68e. sets *note
     ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 68f. and *note
     ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 690. as default flags.

C API improvements:

   * The *note Py_mod_gil: 691. slot is now used to indicate that an
     extension module supports running with the *note GIL: 411.
     disabled.

   * The *note PyTime C API: 692. has been added, providing access to
     system clocks.

   * *note PyMutex: 693. is a new lightweight mutex that occupies a
     single byte.

   * There is a new *note suite of functions: 694. for generating PEP
     669(9) monitoring events in the C API.

New typing features:

   * PEP 696(10): Type parameters (*note typing.TypeVar: 294, *note
     typing.ParamSpec: 295, and *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 293.) now
     support defaults.

   * PEP 702(11): The new *note warnings.deprecated(): 695. decorator
     adds support for marking deprecations in the type system and at
     runtime.

   * PEP 705(12): *note typing.ReadOnly: 696. can be used to mark an
     item of a *note typing.TypedDict: 290. as read-only for type
     checkers.

   * PEP 742(13): *note typing.TypeIs: 697. provides more intuitive type
     narrowing behavior, as an alternative to *note typing.TypeGuard:
     698.

Platform support:

   * PEP 730(14): Apple’s iOS is now an *note officially supported
     platform: 699, at tier 3(15).

   * PEP 738(16): Android is now an *note officially supported platform:
     699, at tier 3(17).

   * ‘wasm32-wasi’ is now supported as a tier 2(18) platform.

   * ‘wasm32-emscripten’ is no longer an officially supported platform.

Important removals:

   * *note PEP 594: 682.: The remaining 19 «dead batteries» (legacy
     stdlib modules) have been removed from the standard library:
     ‘aifc’, ‘audioop’, ‘cgi’, ‘cgitb’, ‘chunk’, ‘crypt’, ‘imghdr’,
     ‘mailcap’, ‘msilib’, ‘nis’, ‘nntplib’, ‘ossaudiodev’, ‘pipes’,
     ‘sndhdr’, ‘spwd’, ‘sunau’, ‘telnetlib’, ‘uu’ and ‘xdrlib’.

   * Remove the ‘2to3’ tool and ‘lib2to3’ module (deprecated in Python
     3.11).

   * Remove the ‘tkinter.tix’ module (deprecated in Python 3.6).

   * Remove the ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function.

   * Remove the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ namespaces.

   * Remove chained *note classmethod: 69a. descriptors.

Release schedule changes:

PEP 602(19) («Annual Release Cycle for Python») has been updated to
extend the full support (“bugfix”) period for new releases to two years.
This updated policy means that:

   * Python 3.9–3.12 have one and a half years of full support, followed
     by three and a half years of security fixes.

   * Python 3.13 and later have two years of full support, followed by
     three years of security fixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/

   (7) https://no-color.org/

   (8) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-2

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features,  Next: Other Language Changes,  Prev: Summary – Release Highlights,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.4.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* A better interactive interpreter::
* Improved error messages: Improved error messages<3>.
* Free-threaded CPython::
* An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
* Defined mutation semantics for locals(): Defined mutation semantics for locals.
* Support for mobile platforms::


File: python.info,  Node: A better interactive interpreter,  Next: Improved error messages<3>,  Up: New Features

1.4.2.1 A better interactive interpreter
........................................

Python now uses a new *note interactive: 451. shell by default, based on
code from the PyPy project(1).  When the user starts the *note REPL:
69d. from an interactive terminal, the following new features are now
supported:

   * Multiline editing with history preservation.

   * Direct support for REPL-specific commands like ‘help’, ‘exit’, and
     ‘quit’, without the need to call them as functions.

   * Prompts and tracebacks with *note color enabled by default: 1af.

   * Interactive help browsing using ‘F1’ with a separate command
     history.

   * History browsing using ‘F2’ that skips output as well as the *note
     >>>: 69e. and *note …: 69f. prompts.

   * «Paste mode» with ‘F3’ that makes pasting larger blocks of code
     easier (press ‘F3’ again to return to the regular prompt).

To disable the new interactive shell, set the *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL:
452. environment variable.  For more on interactive mode, see *note
Διαδραστική Λειτουργία: 6a0.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Łukasz Langa, and Lysandros
Nikolaou in gh-111201(2) based on code from the PyPy project.  Windows
support contributed by Dino Viehland and Anthony Shaw.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypy.org/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201


File: python.info,  Node: Improved error messages<3>,  Next: Free-threaded CPython,  Prev: A better interactive interpreter,  Up: New Features

1.4.2.2 Improved error messages
...............................

   * The interpreter now uses color by default when displaying
     tracebacks in the terminal.  This feature *note can be controlled:
     1af. via the new *note PYTHON_COLORS: 687. environment variable as
     well as the canonical NO_COLOR(1) and FORCE_COLOR(2) environment
     variables.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado in gh-112730(3).)

   * A common mistake is to write a script with the same name as a
     standard library module.  When this results in errors, we now
     display a more helpful error message:

          $ python random.py
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "/home/me/random.py", line 1, in <module>
              import random
            File "/home/me/random.py", line 3, in <module>
              print(random.randint(5))
                    ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
          AttributeError: module 'random' has no attribute 'randint' (consider renaming '/home/me/random.py' since it has the same name as the standard library module named 'random' and prevents importing that standard library module)

     Similarly, if a script has the same name as a third-party module
     that it attempts to import and this results in errors, we also
     display a more helpful error message:

          $ python numpy.py
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "/home/me/numpy.py", line 1, in <module>
              import numpy as np
            File "/home/me/numpy.py", line 3, in <module>
              np.array([1, 2, 3])
              ^^^^^^^^
          AttributeError: module 'numpy' has no attribute 'array' (consider renaming '/home/me/numpy.py' if it has the same name as a library you intended to import)

     (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-95754(4).)

   * The error message now tries to suggest the correct keyword argument
     when an incorrect keyword argument is passed to a function.

          >>> "Better error messages!".split(max_split=1)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<python-input-0>", line 1, in <module>
              "Better error messages!".split(max_split=1)
              ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^
          TypeError: split() got an unexpected keyword argument 'max_split'. Did you mean 'maxsplit'?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado and Shantanu Jain in
     gh-107944(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://no-color.org/

   (2) https://force-color.org/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112730

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95754

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107944


File: python.info,  Node: Free-threaded CPython,  Next: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler,  Prev: Improved error messages<3>,  Up: New Features

1.4.2.3 Free-threaded CPython
.............................

CPython now has experimental support for running in a free-threaded
mode, with the *note global interpreter lock: 685. (GIL) disabled.  This
is an experimental feature and therefore is not enabled by default.  The
free-threaded mode requires a different executable, usually called
‘python3.13t’ or ‘python3.13t.exe’.  Pre-built binaries marked as
'free-threaded' can be installed as part of the official *note Windows:
6a3. and *note macOS: 6a4. installers, or CPython can be built from
source with the *note -disable-gil: 6a5. option.

Free-threaded execution allows for full utilization of the available
processing power by running threads in parallel on available CPU cores.
While not all software will benefit from this automatically, programs
designed with threading in mind will run faster on multi-core hardware.
'The free-threaded mode is experimental' and work is ongoing to improve
it: expect some bugs and a substantial single-threaded performance hit.
Free-threaded builds of CPython support optionally running with the GIL
enabled at runtime using the environment variable *note PYTHON_GIL: 6a6.
or the command-line option *note -X gil=1: 178.

To check if the current interpreter supports free-threading, *note
python -VV: 6a7. and *note sys.version: 6a8. contain «experimental
free-threading build».  The new ‘sys._is_gil_enabled()’ function can be
used to check whether the GIL is actually disabled in the running
process.

C-API extension modules need to be built specifically for the
free-threaded build.  Extensions that support running with the *note
GIL: 411. disabled should use the *note Py_mod_gil: 691. slot.
Extensions using single-phase init should use *note
PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(): 6a9. to indicate whether they support
running with the GIL disabled.  Importing C extensions that don’t use
these mechanisms will cause the GIL to be enabled, unless the GIL was
explicitly disabled with the *note PYTHON_GIL: 6a6. environment variable
or the *note -X gil=0: 178. option.  pip 24.1 or newer is required to
install packages with C extensions in the free-threaded build.

This work was made possible thanks to many individuals and
organizations, including the large community of contributors to Python
and third-party projects to test and enable free-threading support.
Notable contributors include: Sam Gross, Ken Jin, Donghee Na, Itamar
Oren, Matt Page, Brett Simmers, Dino Viehland, Carl Meyer, Nathan
Goldbaum, Ralf Gommers, Lysandros Nikolaou, and many others.  Many of
these contributors are employed by Meta, which has provided significant
engineering resources to support this project.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 703(1) «Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython»
contains rationale and information surrounding this work.

Porting Extension Modules to Support Free-Threading(2): A
community-maintained porting guide for extension authors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (2) https://py-free-threading.github.io/porting/


File: python.info,  Node: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler,  Next: Defined mutation semantics for locals,  Prev: Free-threaded CPython,  Up: New Features

1.4.2.4 An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler
...................................................

When CPython is configured and built using the
‘--enable-experimental-jit’ option, a just-in-time (JIT) compiler is
added which may speed up some Python programs.  On Windows, use
‘PCbuild/build.bat --experimental-jit’ to enable the JIT or
‘--experimental-jit-interpreter’ to enable the Tier 2 interpreter.
Build requirements and further supporting information are contained
at(1) ‘Tools/jit/README.md’.

The ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ option takes these (optional) values,
defaulting to ‘yes’ if ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ is present without
the optional value.

   * ‘no’: Disable the entire Tier 2 and JIT pipeline.

   * ‘yes’: Enable the JIT. To disable the JIT at runtime, pass the
     environment variable ‘PYTHON_JIT=0’.

   * ‘yes-off’: Build the JIT but disable it by default.  To enable the
     JIT at runtime, pass the environment variable ‘PYTHON_JIT=1’.

   * ‘interpreter’: Enable the Tier 2 interpreter but disable the JIT.
     The interpreter can be disabled by running with ‘PYTHON_JIT=0’.

The internal architecture is roughly as follows:

   * We start with specialized 'Tier 1 bytecode'.  See *note What’s new
     in 3.11: 6ab. for details.

   * When the Tier 1 bytecode gets hot enough, it gets translated to a
     new purely internal intermediate representation (IR), called the
     'Tier 2 IR', and sometimes referred to as micro-ops («uops»).

   * The Tier 2 IR uses the same stack-based virtual machine as Tier 1,
     but the instruction format is better suited to translation to
     machine code.

   * We have several optimization passes for Tier 2 IR, which are
     applied before it is interpreted or translated to machine code.

   * There is a Tier 2 interpreter, but it is mostly intended for
     debugging the earlier stages of the optimization pipeline.  The
     Tier 2 interpreter can be enabled by configuring Python with
     ‘--enable-experimental-jit=interpreter’.

   * When the JIT is enabled, the optimized Tier 2 IR is translated to
     machine code, which is then executed.

   * The machine code translation process uses a technique called
     'copy-and-patch'.  It has no runtime dependencies, but there is a
     new build-time dependency on LLVM.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 744(2)

(JIT by Brandt Bucher, inspired by a paper by Haoran Xu and Fredrik
Kjolstad.  Tier 2 IR by Mark Shannon and Guido van Rossum.  Tier 2
optimizer by Ken Jin.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Tools/jit/README.md

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/


File: python.info,  Node: Defined mutation semantics for locals,  Next: Support for mobile platforms,  Prev: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler,  Up: New Features

1.4.2.5 Defined mutation semantics for ‘locals()’
.................................................

Historically, the expected result of mutating the return value of *note
locals(): 28b. has been left to individual Python implementations to
define.  Starting from Python 3.13, PEP 667(1) standardises the
historical behavior of CPython for most code execution scopes, but
changes *note optimized scopes: 6ad. (functions, generators, coroutines,
comprehensions, and generator expressions) to explicitly return
independent snapshots of the currently assigned local variables,
including locally referenced nonlocal variables captured in closures.

This change to the semantics of *note locals(): 28b. in optimized scopes
also affects the default behavior of code execution functions that
implicitly target ‘locals()’ if no explicit namespace is provided (such
as *note exec(): 185. and *note eval(): 184.).  In previous versions,
whether or not changes could be accessed by calling ‘locals()’ after
calling the code execution function was implementation-dependent.  In
CPython specifically, such code would typically appear to work as
desired, but could sometimes fail in optimized scopes based on other
code (including debuggers and code execution tracing tools) potentially
resetting the shared snapshot in that scope.  Now, the code will always
run against an independent snapshot of the local variables in optimized
scopes, and hence the changes will never be visible in subsequent calls
to ‘locals()’.  To access the changes made in these cases, an explicit
namespace reference must now be passed to the relevant function.
Alternatively, it may make sense to update affected code to use a higher
level code execution API that returns the resulting code execution
namespace (e.g.  *note runpy.run_path(): 6ae. when executing Python
files from disk).

To ensure debuggers and similar tools can reliably update local
variables in scopes affected by this change, *note FrameType.f_locals:
28d. now returns a write-through proxy to the frame’s local and locally
referenced nonlocal variables in these scopes, rather than returning an
inconsistently updated shared ‘dict’ instance with undefined runtime
semantics.

See PEP 667(2) for more details, including related C API changes and
deprecations.  Porting notes are also provided below for the affected
*note Python APIs: 6af. and *note C APIs: 6b0.

(PEP and implementation contributed by Mark Shannon and Tian Gao in
gh-74929(3).  Documentation updates provided by Guido van Rossum and
Alyssa Coghlan.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929


File: python.info,  Node: Support for mobile platforms,  Prev: Defined mutation semantics for locals,  Up: New Features

1.4.2.6 Support for mobile platforms
....................................

PEP 730(1): iOS is now a PEP 11(2) supported platform, with the
‘arm64-apple-ios’ and ‘arm64-apple-ios-simulator’ targets at tier 3
(iPhone and iPad devices released after 2013 and the Xcode iOS simulator
running on Apple silicon hardware, respectively).
‘x86_64-apple-ios-simulator’ (the Xcode iOS simulator running on older
‘x86_64’ hardware) is not a tier 3 supported platform, but will have
best-effort support.  (PEP written and implementation contributed by
Russell Keith-Magee in gh-114099(3).)

PEP 738(4): Android is now a PEP 11(5) supported platform, with the
‘aarch64-linux-android’ and ‘x86_64-linux-android’ targets at tier 3.
The 32-bit targets ‘arm-linux-androideabi’ and ‘i686-linux-android’ are
not tier 3 supported platforms, but will have best-effort support.  (PEP
written and implementation contributed by Malcolm Smith in
gh-116622(6).)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 730(7), PEP 738(8)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes,  Next: New Modules,  Prev: New Features,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.4.3 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * The compiler now strips common leading whitespace from every line
     in a docstring.  This reduces the size of the *note bytecode cache:
     6b3. (such as ‘.pyc’ files), with reductions in file size of around
     5%, for example in ‘sqlalchemy.orm.session’ from SQLAlchemy 2.0.
     This change affects tools that use docstrings, such as *note
     doctest: 3d.

          >>> def spam():
          ...     """
          ...         This is a docstring with
          ...           leading whitespace.
          ...
          ...         It even has multiple paragraphs!
          ...     """
          ...
          >>> spam.__doc__
          '\nThis is a docstring with\n  leading whitespace.\n\nIt even has multiple paragraphs!\n'

     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-81283(1).)

   * *note Annotation scopes: 6b4. within class scopes can now contain
     lambdas and comprehensions.  Comprehensions that are located within
     class scopes are not inlined into their parent scope.

          class C[T]:
              type Alias = lambda: T

     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-109118(2) and gh-118160(3).)

   * *note Future statements: 670. are no longer triggered by relative
     imports of the *note __future__: 0. module, meaning that statements
     of the form ‘from .__future__ import ...’ are now simply standard
     relative imports, with no special features activated.  (Contributed
     by Jeremiah Gabriel Pascual in gh-118216(4).)

   * *note global: 6b5. declarations are now permitted in *note except:
     447. blocks when that global is used in the *note else: 320. block.
     Previously this raised an erroneous *note SyntaxError: 17e.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111123(5).)

   * Add *note PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: 6b6, a new environment variable
     that determines whether frozen modules are ignored by the import
     machinery, equivalent to the *note -X frozen_modules: 178.
     command-line option.  (Contributed by Yilei Yang in gh-111374(6).)

   * Add *note support for the perf profiler: 6b7. working without frame
     pointers(7) through the new environment variable *note
     PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 6b8. and command-line option *note -X
     perf_jit: 178.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-118518(8).)

   * The location of a ‘.python_history’ file can be changed via the new
     *note PYTHON_HISTORY: 6b9. environment variable.  (Contributed by
     Levi Sabah, Zackery Spytz and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-73965(9).)

   * Classes have a new *note __static_attributes__: 688. attribute.
     This is populated by the compiler with a tuple of the class’s
     attribute names which are assigned through ‘self.<name>’ from any
     function in its body.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-115775(10).)

   * The compiler now creates a ‘__firstlineno__’ attribute on classes
     with the line number of the first line of the class definition.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118465(11).)

   * The *note exec(): 185. and *note eval(): 184. builtins now accept
     the 'globals' and 'locals' arguments as keywords.  (Contributed by
     Raphael Gaschignard in gh-105879(12))

   * The *note compile(): 1c8. builtin now accepts a new flag,
     ‘ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST’, which is similar to ‘ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’
     except that the returned AST is optimized according to the value of
     the 'optimize' argument.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-108113(13)).

   * Add a *note __name__: 6ba. attribute on *note property: 6bb.
     objects.  (Contributed by Eugene Toder in gh-101860(14).)

   * Add *note PythonFinalizationError: 68a, a new exception derived
     from *note RuntimeError: 30d. and used to signal when operations
     are blocked during *note finalization: 1a0.  The following
     callables now raise ‘PythonFinalizationError’, instead of
     ‘RuntimeError’:

        * *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 6bc.

        * *note os.fork(): 6bd.

        * *note os.forkpty(): 6be.

        * *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-114570(15).)

   * Allow the 'count' argument of *note str.replace(): 6c0. to be a
     keyword.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-106487(16).)

   * Many functions now emit a warning if a boolean value is passed as a
     file descriptor argument.  This can help catch some errors earlier.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-82626(17).)

   * Added ‘name’ and ‘mode’ attributes for compressed and archived
     file-like objects in the *note bz2: 14, *note lzma: 8d, *note
     tarfile: e7, and *note zipfile: 13a. modules.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-115961(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81283

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118160

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118216

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111123

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111374

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_stack

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118518

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73965

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115775

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118465

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105879

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101860

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114570

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106487

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82626

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules,  Next: Improved Modules,  Prev: Other Language Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.4.4 New Modules
-----------------

   * *note dbm.sqlite3: 38.: An SQLite backend for *note dbm: 34.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-100414(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules,  Next: Optimizations<4>,  Prev: New Modules,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.4.5 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse<4>.
* array: array<2>.
* ast: ast<5>.
* asyncio: asyncio<5>.
* base64: base64<3>.
* compileall::
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<3>.
* configparser: configparser<2>.
* copy::
* ctypes: ctypes<3>.
* dbm: dbm<2>.
* dis: dis<2>.
* doctest::
* email: email<3>.
* enum::
* fractions: fractions<2>.
* glob: glob<2>.
* importlib::
* io: io<3>.
* ipaddress::
* itertools: itertools<2>.
* marshal::
* math: math<3>.
* mimetypes: mimetypes<3>.
* mmap: mmap<2>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<2>.
* os: os<3>.
* os.path: os path<3>.
* pathlib: pathlib<5>.
* pdb: pdb<4>.
* queue::
* random::
* re: re<3>.
* shutil::
* site::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<3>.
* ssl: ssl<3>.
* statistics::
* subprocess: subprocess<2>.
* sys: sys<3>.
* tempfile::
* time::
* tkinter: tkinter<3>.
* traceback::
* types: types<4>.
* typing: typing<4>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<3>.
* venv: venv<2>.
* warnings: warnings<2>.
* xml: xml<2>.
* zipimport: zipimport<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<4>,  Next: array<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.1 argparse
................

   * Add the 'deprecated' parameter to the *note add_argument(): 3ed.
     and ‘add_parser()’ methods, to enable deprecating command-line
     options, positional arguments, and subcommands.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-83648(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83648


File: python.info,  Node: array<2>,  Next: ast<5>,  Prev: argparse<4>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.2 array
.............

   * Add the ‘'w'’ type code (‘Py_UCS4’) for Unicode characters.  It
     should be used instead of the deprecated ‘'u'’ type code.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-80480(1).)

   * Register *note array.array: 6c5. as a *note MutableSequence: 6c6.
     by implementing the *note clear(): 6c7. method.  (Contributed by
     Mike Zimin in gh-114894(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114894


File: python.info,  Node: ast<5>,  Next: asyncio<5>,  Prev: array<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.3 ast
...........

   * The constructors of node types in the *note ast: 9. module are now
     stricter in the arguments they accept, with more intuitive behavior
     when arguments are omitted.

     If an optional field on an AST node is not included as an argument
     when constructing an instance, the field will now be set to ‘None’.
     Similarly, if a list field is omitted, that field will now be set
     to an empty list, and if an ‘expr_context’ field is omitted, it
     defaults to *note Load(): 6c9.  (Previously, in all cases, the
     attribute would be missing on the newly constructed AST node
     instance.)

     In all other cases, where a required argument is omitted, the node
     constructor will emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  This will
     raise an exception in Python 3.15.  Similarly, passing a keyword
     argument to the constructor that does not map to a field on the AST
     node is now deprecated, and will raise an exception in Python 3.15.

     These changes do not apply to user-defined subclasses of *note
     ast.AST: 2ec. unless the class opts in to the new behavior by
     defining the *note AST._field_types: 6ca. mapping.

     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105858(1), gh-117486(2), and
     gh-118851(3).)

   * *note ast.parse(): 1c9. now accepts an optional argument 'optimize'
     which is passed on to *note compile(): 1c8.  This makes it possible
     to obtain an optimized AST. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-108113(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105858

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117486

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118851

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<5>,  Next: base64<3>,  Prev: ast<5>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.4 asyncio
...............

   * *note asyncio.as_completed(): 6cc. now returns an object that is
     both an *note asynchronous iterator: 6cd. and a plain *note
     iterator: 6ce. of *note awaitables: 6cf.  The awaitables yielded by
     asynchronous iteration include original task or future objects that
     were passed in, making it easier to associate results with the
     tasks being completed.  (Contributed by Justin Arthur in
     gh-77714(1).)

   * *note asyncio.loop.create_unix_server(): 6d0. will now
     automatically remove the Unix socket when the server is closed.
     (Contributed by Pierre Ossman in gh-111246(2).)

   * *note DatagramTransport.sendto(): 6d1. will now send zero-length
     datagrams if called with an empty bytes object.  The transport flow
     control also now accounts for the datagram header when calculating
     the buffer size.  (Contributed by Jamie Phan in gh-115199(3).)

   * Add *note Queue.shutdown: 6d2. and *note QueueShutDown: 6d3. to
     manage queue termination.  (Contributed by Laurie Opperman and Yves
     Duprat in gh-104228(4).)

   * Add the *note Server.close_clients(): 6d4. and *note
     Server.abort_clients(): 6d5. methods, which more forcefully close
     an asyncio server.  (Contributed by Pierre Ossman in gh-113538(5).)

   * Accept a tuple of separators in *note StreamReader.readuntil():
     6d6, stopping when any one of them is encountered.  (Contributed by
     Bruce Merry in gh-81322(6).)

   * Improve the behavior of *note TaskGroup: 6d7. when an external
     cancellation collides with an internal cancellation.  For example,
     when two task groups are nested and both experience an exception in
     a child task simultaneously, it was possible that the outer task
     group would hang, because its internal cancellation was swallowed
     by the inner task group.

     In the case where a task group is cancelled externally and also
     must raise an *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8, it will now call the
     parent task’s *note cancel(): 6d9. method.  This ensures that a
     *note CancelledError: 6da. will be raised at the next *note await:
     432, so the cancellation is not lost.

     An added benefit of these changes is that task groups now preserve
     the cancellation count (*note cancelling(): 6db.).

     In order to handle some corner cases, *note uncancel(): 6dc. may
     now reset the undocumented ‘_must_cancel’ flag when the
     cancellation count reaches zero.

     (Inspired by an issue reported by Arthur Tacca in gh-116720(7).)

   * When *note TaskGroup.create_task(): 464. is called on an inactive
     *note TaskGroup: 6d7, the given coroutine will be closed (which
     prevents a *note RuntimeWarning: 6dd. about the given coroutine
     being never awaited).  (Contributed by Arthur Tacca and Jason Zhang
     in gh-115957(8).)

   * The function and methods named ‘create_task’ have received a new
     ‘**kwargs’ argument that is passed through to the task constructor.
     This change was accidentally added in 3.13.3, and broke the API
     contract for custom task factories.  Several third-party task
     factories implemented workarounds for this.  In 3.13.4 and later
     releases the old factory contract is honored once again (until
     3.14).  To keep the workarounds working, the extra ‘**kwargs’
     argument still allows passing additional keyword arguments to *note
     Task: 460. and to custom task factories.

     This affects the following function and methods: *note
     asyncio.create_task(): 462, *note asyncio.loop.create_task(): 463,
     *note asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 464.  (Contributed by Thomas
     Grainger in gh-128307(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77714

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111246

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115199

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104228

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81322

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116720

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115957

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128307


File: python.info,  Node: base64<3>,  Next: compileall,  Prev: asyncio<5>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.5 base64
..............

   * Add *note z85encode(): 1e6. and *note z85decode(): 1f3. functions
     for encoding *note bytes: 1c7. as Z85 data(1) and decoding
     Z85-encoded data to ‘bytes’.  (Contributed by Matan Perelman in
     gh-75299(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75299


File: python.info,  Node: compileall,  Next: concurrent futures<3>,  Prev: base64<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.6 compileall
..................

   * The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected
     using *note os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0. instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 6e1.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-109649(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<3>,  Next: configparser<2>,  Prev: compileall,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.7 concurrent.futures
..........................

   * The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected
     using *note os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0. instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 6e1.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-109649(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<2>,  Next: copy,  Prev: concurrent futures<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.8 configparser
....................

   * *note ConfigParser: 6e4. now has support for unnamed sections,
     which allows for top-level key-value pairs.  This can be enabled
     with the new 'allow_unnamed_section' parameter.  (Contributed by
     Pedro Sousa Lacerda in gh-66449(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66449


File: python.info,  Node: copy,  Next: ctypes<3>,  Prev: configparser<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.9 copy
............

   * The new *note replace(): 45a. function and the *note replace
     protocol: 68b. make creating modified copies of objects much
     simpler.  This is especially useful when working with immutable
     objects.  The following types support the ‘replace()’ function and
     implement the replace protocol:

        * *note collections.namedtuple(): 1cf.

        * *note dataclasses.dataclass: 6e6.

        * *note datetime.datetime: 6e7, *note datetime.date: 48d, *note
          datetime.time: 48e.

        * *note inspect.Signature: 6e8, *note inspect.Parameter: 6e9.

        * *note types.SimpleNamespace: 6ea.

        * *note code objects: 6eb.

     Any user-defined class can also support *note copy.replace(): 45a.
     by defining the *note __replace__(): 68b. method.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108751(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108751


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes<3>,  Next: dbm<2>,  Prev: copy,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.10 ctypes
...............

   * As a consequence of necessary internal refactoring, initialization
     of internal metaclasses now happens in ‘__init__’ rather than in
     ‘__new__’.  This affects projects that subclass these internal
     metaclasses to provide custom initialization.  Generally:

        - Custom logic that was done in ‘__new__’ after calling
          ‘super().__new__’ should be moved to ‘__init__’.

        - To create a class, call the metaclass, not only the
          metaclass’s ‘__new__’ method.

     See gh-124520(1) for discussion and links to changes in some
     affected projects.

   * *note ctypes.Structure: 47c. objects have a new *note _align_: 6ed.
     attribute which allows the alignment of the structure being packed
     to/from memory to be specified explicitly.  (Contributed by Matt
     Sanderson in gh-112433(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124520

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112433


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<2>,  Next: dis<2>,  Prev: ctypes<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.11 dbm
............

   * Add *note dbm.sqlite3: 38, a new module which implements an SQLite
     backend, and make it the default ‘dbm’ backend.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland in gh-100414(1).)

   * Allow removing all items from the database through the new
     ‘clear()’ methods of the GDBM and NDBM database objects.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-107122(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107122


File: python.info,  Node: dis<2>,  Next: doctest,  Prev: dbm<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.12 dis
............

   * Change the output of *note dis: 3b. module functions to show
     logical labels for jump targets and exception handlers, rather than
     offsets.  The offsets can be added with the new *note -O: 6f0.
     command-line option or the 'show_offsets' argument.  (Contributed
     by Irit Katriel in gh-112137(1).)

   * *note get_instructions(): 6f1. no longer represents cache entries
     as separate instructions.  Instead, it returns them as part of the
     *note Instruction: 494, in the new 'cache_info' field.  The
     'show_caches' argument to ‘get_instructions()’ is deprecated and no
     longer has any effect.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-112962(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112137

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112962


File: python.info,  Node: doctest,  Next: email<3>,  Prev: dis<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.13 doctest
................

   * *note doctest: 3d. output is now colored by default.  This can be
     controlled via the new *note PYTHON_COLORS: 687. environment
     variable as well as the canonical NO_COLOR(1) and FORCE_COLOR(2)
     environment variables.  See also *note Controlling color: 1af.
     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-117225(3).)

   * The *note DocTestRunner.run(): 6f3. method now counts the number of
     skipped tests.  Add the *note DocTestRunner.skips: 6f4. and *note
     TestResults.skipped: 6f5. attributes.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-108794(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://no-color.org/

   (2) https://force-color.org/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117225

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108794


File: python.info,  Node: email<3>,  Next: enum,  Prev: doctest,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.14 email
..............

   * Headers with embedded newlines are now quoted on output.  The *note
     generator: 43. will now refuse to serialize (write) headers that
     are improperly folded or delimited, such that they would be parsed
     as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data.  If you need to
     turn this safety feature off, set *note verify_generated_headers:
     6f7.  (Contributed by Bas Bloemsaat and Petr Viktorin in
     gh-121650(1).)

   * *note getaddresses(): 6f8. and *note parseaddr(): 6f9. now return
     ‘('', '')’ pairs in more situations where invalid email addresses
     are encountered instead of potentially inaccurate values.  The two
     functions have a new optional 'strict' parameter (default ‘True’).
     To get the old behavior (accepting malformed input), use
     ‘strict=False’.  ‘getattr(email.utils, 'supports_strict_parsing',
     False)’ can be used to check if the 'strict' parameter is
     available.  (Contributed by Thomas Dwyer and Victor Stinner for
     gh-102988(2) to improve the CVE 2023-27043(3) fix.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-27043


File: python.info,  Node: enum,  Next: fractions<2>,  Prev: email<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.15 enum
.............

   * *note EnumDict: 6fb. has been made public to better support
     subclassing *note EnumType: 6fc.


File: python.info,  Node: fractions<2>,  Next: glob<2>,  Prev: enum,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.16 fractions
..................

   * *note Fraction: 1c3. objects now support the standard *note format
     specification mini-language: 6fe. rules for fill, alignment, sign
     handling, minimum width, and grouping.  (Contributed by Mark
     Dickinson in gh-111320(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111320


File: python.info,  Node: glob<2>,  Next: importlib,  Prev: fractions<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.17 glob
.............

   * Add *note translate(): 700, a function to convert a path
     specification with shell-style wildcards to a regular expression.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-72904(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72904


File: python.info,  Node: importlib,  Next: io<3>,  Prev: glob<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.18 importlib
..................

   * The following functions in *note importlib.resources: 7e. now allow
     accessing a directory (or tree) of resources, using multiple
     positional arguments (the 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments in the
     text-reading functions are now keyword-only):

        * *note is_resource(): 702.

        * *note open_binary(): 703.

        * *note open_text(): 704.

        * *note path(): 705.

        * *note read_binary(): 706.

        * *note read_text(): 707.

     These functions are no longer deprecated and are not scheduled for
     removal.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-116608(1).)

   * *note contents(): 708. remains deprecated in favor of the
     fully-featured *note Traversable: 572. API. However, there is now
     no plan to remove it.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in
     gh-116608(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608


File: python.info,  Node: io<3>,  Next: ipaddress,  Prev: importlib,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.19 io
...........

   * The *note IOBase: 70a. finalizer now logs any errors raised by the
     *note close(): 70b. method with *note sys.unraisablehook: 70c.
     Previously, errors were ignored silently by default, and only
     logged in *note Python Development Mode: 70d. or when using a *note
     Python debug build: 3dc.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-62948(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62948


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress,  Next: itertools<2>,  Prev: io<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.20 ipaddress
..................

   * Add the *note IPv4Address.ipv6_mapped: 70f. property, which returns
     the IPv4-mapped IPv6 address.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-109466(1).)

   * Fix ‘is_global’ and ‘is_private’ behavior in *note IPv4Address:
     710, *note IPv6Address: 711, *note IPv4Network: 712, and *note
     IPv6Network: 713.  (Contributed by Jakub Stasiak in gh-113171(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109466

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113171


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<2>,  Next: marshal,  Prev: ipaddress,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.21 itertools
..................

   * *note batched(): 715. has a new 'strict' parameter, which raises a
     *note ValueError: 277. if the final batch is shorter than the
     specified batch size.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
     gh-113202(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113202


File: python.info,  Node: marshal,  Next: math<3>,  Prev: itertools<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.22 marshal
................

   * Add the 'allow_code' parameter in module functions.  Passing
     ‘allow_code=False’ prevents serialization and de-serialization of
     code objects which are incompatible between Python versions.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113626(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113626


File: python.info,  Node: math<3>,  Next: mimetypes<3>,  Prev: marshal,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.23 math
.............

   * The new function *note fma(): 718. performs fused multiply-add
     operations.  This computes ‘x * y + z’ with only a single round,
     and so avoids any intermediate loss of precision.  It wraps the
     ‘fma()’ function provided by C99, and follows the specification of
     the IEEE 754 «fusedMultiplyAdd» operation for special cases.
     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Victor Stinner in gh-73468(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73468


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes<3>,  Next: mmap<2>,  Prev: math<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.24 mimetypes
..................

   * Add the *note guess_file_type(): 71a. function to guess a MIME type
     from a filesystem path.  Using paths with *note guess_type(): 71b.
     is now *note soft deprecated: 1a7.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-66543(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<2>,  Next: multiprocessing<2>,  Prev: mimetypes<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.25 mmap
.............

   * *note mmap: 23c. is now protected from crashing on Windows when the
     mapped memory is inaccessible due to file system errors or access
     violations.  (Contributed by Jannis Weigend in gh-118209(1).)

   * *note mmap: 23c. has a new *note seekable(): 71d. method that can
     be used when a seekable file-like object is required.  The *note
     seek(): 71e. method now returns the new absolute position.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na and Sylvie Liberman in gh-111835(2).)

   * The new UNIX-only 'trackfd' parameter for *note mmap: 23c. controls
     file descriptor duplication; if false, the file descriptor
     specified by 'fileno' will not be duplicated.  (Contributed by
     Zackery Spytz and Petr Viktorin in gh-78502(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118209

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111835

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78502


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<2>,  Next: os<3>,  Prev: mmap<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.26 multiprocessing
........................

   * The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected
     using *note os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0. instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 6e1.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-109649(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649


File: python.info,  Node: os<3>,  Next: os path<3>,  Prev: multiprocessing<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.27 os
...........

   * Add *note process_cpu_count(): 6e0. function to get the number of
     logical CPU cores usable by the calling thread of the current
     process.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-109649(1).)

   * *note cpu_count(): 6e1. and *note process_cpu_count(): 6e0. can be
     overridden through the new environment variable *note
     PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 721. or the new command-line option *note -X
     cpu_count: 178.  This option is useful for users who need to limit
     CPU resources of a container system without having to modify
     application code or the container itself.  (Contributed by Donghee
     Na in gh-109595(2).)

   * Add a *note low level interface: 68c. to Linux’s ‘timer file
     descriptors(3)’ via *note timerfd_create(): 722, *note
     timerfd_settime(): 723, *note timerfd_settime_ns(): 724, *note
     timerfd_gettime(): 725, *note timerfd_gettime_ns(): 726, *note
     TFD_NONBLOCK: 727, *note TFD_CLOEXEC: 728, *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME:
     729, and *note TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET: 72a. (Contributed by Masaru
     Tsuchiyama in gh-108277(4).)

   * *note lchmod(): 72b. and the 'follow_symlinks' argument of *note
     chmod(): 72c. are both now available on Windows.  Note that the
     default value of 'follow_symlinks' in ‘lchmod()’ is ‘False’ on
     Windows.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-59616(5).)

   * *note fchmod(): 72d. and support for file descriptors in *note
     chmod(): 72c. are both now available on Windows.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113191(6).)

   * On Windows, *note mkdir(): 72e. and *note makedirs(): 72f. now
     support passing a 'mode' value of ‘0o700’ to apply access control
     to the new directory.  This implicitly affects *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 730. and is a mitigation for CVE 2024-4030(7).
     Other values for 'mode' continue to be ignored.  (Contributed by
     Steve Dower in gh-118486(8).)

   * *note posix_spawn(): 731. now accepts ‘None’ for the 'env'
     argument, which makes the newly spawned process use the current
     process environment.  (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113119(9).)

   * *note posix_spawn(): 731. can now use the *note
     POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM: 732. attribute in the 'file_actions'
     parameter on platforms that support
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’.  (Contributed by
     Jakub Kulik in gh-113117(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109595

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_create(2)

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108277

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59616

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113191

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113119

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117


File: python.info,  Node: os path<3>,  Next: pathlib<5>,  Prev: os<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.28 os.path
................

   * Add *note isreserved(): 2d9. to check if a path is reserved on the
     current system.  This function is only available on Windows.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-88569(1).)

   * On Windows, *note isabs(): 734. no longer considers paths starting
     with exactly one slash (‘\’ or ‘/’) to be absolute.  (Contributed
     by Barney Gale and Jon Foster in gh-44626(2).)

   * *note realpath(): 241. now resolves MS-DOS style file names even if
     the file is not accessible.  (Contributed by Moonsik Park in
     gh-82367(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44626

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82367


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<5>,  Next: pdb<4>,  Prev: os path<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.29 pathlib
................

   * Add *note UnsupportedOperation: 736, which is raised instead of
     *note NotImplementedError: 59a. when a path operation isn’t
     supported.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-89812(1).)

   * Add a new constructor for creating *note Path: 4ee. objects from
     “file” URIs (‘file:///’), *note Path.from_uri(): 737.  (Contributed
     by Barney Gale in gh-107465(2).)

   * Add *note PurePath.full_match(): 738. for matching paths with
     shell-style wildcards, including the recursive wildcard «‘**’».
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-73435(3).)

   * Add the *note PurePath.parser: 739. class attribute to store the
     implementation of *note os.path: a6. used for low-level path
     parsing and joining.  This will be either ‘posixpath’ or ‘ntpath’.

   * Add 'recurse_symlinks' keyword-only argument to *note Path.glob():
     73a. and *note rglob(): 73b.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
     gh-77609(4).)

   * *note Path.glob(): 73a. and *note rglob(): 73b. now return files
     and directories when given a pattern that ends with «‘**’».
     Previously, only directories were returned.  (Contributed by Barney
     Gale in gh-70303(5).)

   * Add the 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument to *note
     Path.is_file: 73c, *note Path.is_dir: 73d, *note Path.owner(): 73e,
     and *note Path.group(): 73f.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
     gh-105793(6) and Kamil Turek in gh-107962(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89812

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107465

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73435

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77609

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70303

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105793

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107962


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<4>,  Next: queue,  Prev: pathlib<5>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.30 pdb
............

   * *note breakpoint(): 4f9. and *note set_trace(): 4fa. now enter the
     debugger immediately rather than on the next line of code to be
     executed.  This change prevents the debugger from breaking outside
     of the context when ‘breakpoint()’ is positioned at the end of the
     context.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-118579(1).)

   * ‘sys.path[0]’ is no longer replaced by the directory of the script
     being debugged when *note sys.flags.safe_path: 741. is set.
     (Contributed by Tian Gao and Christian Walther in gh-111762(2).)

   * *note zipapp: 139. is now supported as a debugging target.
     (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-118501(3).)

   * Add ability to move between chained exceptions during post-mortem
     debugging in *note pm(): 742. using the new *note exceptions
     [exc_number]: 743. command for Pdb.  (Contributed by Matthias
     Bussonnier in gh-106676(4).)

   * Expressions and statements whose prefix is a pdb command are now
     correctly identified and executed.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in
     gh-108464(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118579

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111762

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118501

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106676

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108464


File: python.info,  Node: queue,  Next: random,  Prev: pdb<4>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.31 queue
..............

   * Add *note Queue.shutdown: 745. and *note ShutDown: 746. to manage
     queue termination.  (Contributed by Laurie Opperman and Yves Duprat
     in gh-104750(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104750


File: python.info,  Node: random,  Next: re<3>,  Prev: queue,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.32 random
...............

   * Add a *note command-line interface: 68d.  (Contributed by Hugo van
     Kemenade in gh-118131(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118131


File: python.info,  Node: re<3>,  Next: shutil,  Prev: random,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.33 re
...........

   * Rename ‘re.error’ to *note PatternError: 749. for improved clarity.
     ‘re.error’ is kept for backward compatibility.


File: python.info,  Node: shutil,  Next: site,  Prev: re<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.34 shutil
...............

   * Support the 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks' keyword arguments in
     *note chown(): 74b.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag and Tahia K in
     gh-62308(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62308


File: python.info,  Node: site,  Next: sqlite3<3>,  Prev: shutil,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.35 site
.............

   * ‘.pth’ files are now decoded using UTF-8 first, and then with the
     *note locale encoding: 74d. if UTF-8 decoding fails.  (Contributed
     by Inada Naoki in gh-117802(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117802


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<3>,  Next: ssl<3>,  Prev: site,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.36 sqlite3
................

   * A *note ResourceWarning: 74f. is now emitted if a *note Connection:
     3df. object is not *note closed: 750. explicitly.  (Contributed by
     Erlend E. Aasland in gh-105539(1).)

   * Add the 'filter' keyword-only parameter to *note
     Connection.iterdump(): 751. for filtering database objects to dump.
     (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-91602(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105539

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91602


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<3>,  Next: statistics,  Prev: sqlite3<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.37 ssl
............

   * The *note create_default_context(): 68e. API now includes *note
     VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 68f. and *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 690.
     in its default flags.

          Σημείωση: *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 690. may reject pre- RFC
          5280(1) or malformed certificates that the underlying OpenSSL
          implementation might otherwise accept.  Whilst disabling this
          is not recommended, you can do so using:

               import ssl

               ctx = ssl.create_default_context()
               ctx.verify_flags &= ~ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

     (Contributed by William Woodruff in gh-112389(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112389


File: python.info,  Node: statistics,  Next: subprocess<2>,  Prev: ssl<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.38 statistics
...................

   * Add *note kde(): 754. for kernel density estimation.  This makes it
     possible to estimate a continuous probability density function from
     a fixed number of discrete samples.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in gh-115863(1).)

   * Add *note kde_random(): 755. for sampling from an estimated
     probability density function created by *note kde(): 754.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-115863(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115863

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115863


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<2>,  Next: sys<3>,  Prev: statistics,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.39 subprocess
...................

   * The *note subprocess: df. module now uses the *note posix_spawn():
     731. function in more situations.

     Notably, when 'close_fds' is ‘True’ (the default), *note
     posix_spawn(): 731. will be used when the C library provides
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’, which includes recent
     versions of Linux, FreeBSD, and Solaris.  On Linux, this should
     perform similarly to the existing Linux ‘vfork()’ based code.

     A private control knob ‘subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN’ can be set to
     ‘False’ if you need to force *note subprocess: df. to never use
     *note posix_spawn(): 731.  Please report your reason and platform
     details in the *note issue tracker: 758. if you set this so that we
     can improve our API selection logic for everyone.  (Contributed by
     Jakub Kulik in gh-113117(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117


File: python.info,  Node: sys<3>,  Next: tempfile,  Prev: subprocess<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.40 sys
............

   * Add the *note _is_interned(): 75a. function to test if a string was
     interned.  This function is not guaranteed to exist in all
     implementations of Python.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-78573(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78573


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile,  Next: time,  Prev: sys<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.41 tempfile
.................

   * On Windows, the default mode ‘0o700’ used by *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 730. now limits access to the new directory due
     to changes to *note os.mkdir(): 72e.  This is a mitigation for CVE
     2024-4030(1).  (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-118486(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486


File: python.info,  Node: time,  Next: tkinter<3>,  Prev: tempfile,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.42 time
.............

   * On Windows, *note monotonic(): 75d. now uses the
     ‘QueryPerformanceCounter()’ clock for a resolution of 1
     microsecond, instead of the ‘GetTickCount64()’ clock which has a
     resolution of 15.6 milliseconds.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-88494(1).)

   * On Windows, *note time(): 75e. now uses the
     ‘GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime()’ clock for a resolution of 1
     microsecond, instead of the ‘GetSystemTimeAsFileTime()’ clock which
     has a resolution of 15.6 milliseconds.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-63207(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88494

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63207


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<3>,  Next: traceback,  Prev: time,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.43 tkinter
................

   * Add *note tkinter: f9. widget methods: ‘tk_busy_hold()’,
     ‘tk_busy_configure()’, ‘tk_busy_cget()’, ‘tk_busy_forget()’,
     ‘tk_busy_current()’, and ‘tk_busy_status()’.  (Contributed by
     Miguel, klappnase and Serhiy Storchaka in gh-72684(1).)

   * The *note tkinter: f9. widget method ‘wm_attributes()’ now accepts
     the attribute name without the minus prefix to get window
     attributes, for example ‘w.wm_attributes('alpha')’ and allows
     specifying attributes and values to set as keyword arguments, for
     example ‘w.wm_attributes(alpha=0.5)’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-43457(2).)

   * ‘wm_attributes()’ can now return attributes as a *note dict: 188,
     by using the new optional keyword-only parameter
     'return_python_dict'.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-43457(3).)

   * ‘Text.count()’ can now return a simple *note int: 326. when the new
     optional keyword-only parameter 'return_ints' is used.  Otherwise,
     the single count is returned as a 1-tuple or ‘None’.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-97928(4).)

   * Support the «vsapi» element type in the *note element_create():
     760. method of *note tkinter.ttk.Style: 761.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-68166(5).)

   * Add the ‘after_info()’ method for Tkinter widgets.  (Contributed by
     Cheryl Sabella in gh-77020(6).)

   * Add a new ‘copy_replace()’ method to ‘PhotoImage’ to copy a region
     from one image to another, possibly with pixel zooming,
     subsampling, or both.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-118225(7).)

   * Add 'from_coords' parameter to the ‘PhotoImage’ methods ‘copy()’,
     ‘zoom()’ and ‘subsample()’.  Add 'zoom' and 'subsample' parameters
     to the ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy()’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-118225(8).)

   * Add the ‘PhotoImage’ methods ‘read()’ to read an image from a file
     and ‘data()’ to get the image data.  Add 'background' and
     'grayscale' parameters to the ‘write()’ method.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118271(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72684

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77020

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118271


File: python.info,  Node: traceback,  Next: types<4>,  Prev: tkinter<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.44 traceback
..................

   * Add the *note exc_type_str: 763. attribute to *note
     TracebackException: 764, which holds a string display of the
     'exc_type'.  Deprecate the *note exc_type: 765. attribute, which
     holds the type object itself.  Add parameter 'save_exc_type'
     (default ‘True’) to indicate whether ‘exc_type’ should be saved.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112332(1).)

   * Add a new 'show_group' keyword-only parameter to *note
     TracebackException.format_exception_only(): 766. to (recursively)
     format the nested exceptions of a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 767.
     instance.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105292(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105292


File: python.info,  Node: types<4>,  Next: typing<4>,  Prev: traceback,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.45 types
..............

   * *note SimpleNamespace: 6ea. can now take a single positional
     argument to initialise the namespace’s arguments.  This argument
     must either be a mapping or an iterable of key-value pairs.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108191(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108191


File: python.info,  Node: typing<4>,  Next: unicodedata<3>,  Prev: types<4>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.46 typing
...............

   * PEP 705(1): Add *note ReadOnly: 696, a special typing construct to
     mark a *note TypedDict: 290. item as read-only for type checkers.

   * PEP 742(2): Add *note TypeIs: 697, a typing construct that can be
     used to instruct a type checker how to narrow a type.

   * Add *note NoDefault: 76a, a sentinel object used to represent the
     defaults of some parameters in the *note typing: 10d. module.
     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-116126(3).)

   * Add *note get_protocol_members(): 76b. to return the set of members
     defining a *note typing.Protocol: 76c.  (Contributed by Jelle
     Zijlstra in gh-104873(4).)

   * Add *note is_protocol(): 76d. to check whether a class is a *note
     Protocol: 76c.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-104873(5).)

   * *note ClassVar: 76e. can now be nested in *note Final: 76f, and
     vice versa.  (Contributed by Mehdi Drissi in gh-89547(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116126

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89547


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<3>,  Next: venv<2>,  Prev: typing<4>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.47 unicodedata
....................

   * Update the Unicode database to version 15.1.0(1).  (Contributed by
     James Gerity in gh-109559(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109559


File: python.info,  Node: venv<2>,  Next: warnings<2>,  Prev: unicodedata<3>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.48 venv
.............

   * Add support for creating source control management (SCM) ignore
     files in a virtual environment’s directory.  By default, Git is
     supported.  This is implemented as opt-in via the API, which can be
     extended to support other SCMs (*note EnvBuilder: 772. and *note
     create(): 773.), and opt-out via the CLI, using
     ‘--without-scm-ignore-files’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     gh-108125(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108125


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<2>,  Next: xml<2>,  Prev: venv<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.49 warnings
.................

   * PEP 702(1): The new *note warnings.deprecated(): 695. decorator
     provides a way to communicate deprecations to a *note static type
     checker: 775. and to warn on usage of deprecated classes and
     functions.  A *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. may also be emitted
     when a decorated function or class is used at runtime.
     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-104003(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104003


File: python.info,  Node: xml<2>,  Next: zipimport<2>,  Prev: warnings<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.50 xml
............

   * Allow controlling Expat >=2.6.0 reparse deferral ( CVE
     2023-52425(1)) by adding five new methods:

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.flush(): 777.

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.flush(): 778.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          779.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          77a.

        * ‘xml.sax.expatreader.ExpatParser.flush()’

     (Contributed by Sebastian Pipping in gh-115623(2).)

   * Add the ‘close()’ method for the iterator returned by *note
     iterparse(): 3eb. for explicit cleanup.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-69893(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115623

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69893


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport<2>,  Prev: xml<2>,  Up: Improved Modules

1.4.5.51 zipimport
..................

   * Add support for ZIP64(1) format files.  Everybody loves huge data,
     right?  (Contributed by Tim Hatch in gh-94146(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_(file_format)#ZIP64

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94146


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<4>,  Next: Removed Modules And APIs,  Prev: Improved Modules,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.4.6 Optimizations
-------------------

   * Several standard library modules have had their import times
     significantly improved.  For example, the import time of the *note
     typing: 10d. module has been reduced by around a third by removing
     dependencies on *note re: c1. and *note contextlib: 27.  Other
     modules to enjoy import-time speedups include *note email.utils:
     53, *note enum: 59, *note functools: 62, *note importlib.metadata:
     7d, and *note threading: f6.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood,
     Shantanu Jain, Adam Turner, Daniel Hollas, and others in
     gh-109653(1).)

   * *note textwrap.indent(): 77d. is now around 30% faster than before
     for large input.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-107369(2).)

   * The *note subprocess: df. module now uses the *note posix_spawn():
     731. function in more situations, including when 'close_fds' is
     ‘True’ (the default) on many modern platforms.  This should provide
     a notable performance increase when launching processes on FreeBSD
     and Solaris.  See the *note subprocess: 757. section above for
     details.  (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113117(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107369

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117


File: python.info,  Node: Removed Modules And APIs,  Next: New Deprecations,  Prev: Optimizations<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.4.7 Removed Modules And APIs
------------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 594; Remove «dead batteries» from the standard library: PEP 594 Remove «dead batteries» from the standard library.
* 2to3::
* builtins::
* configparser: configparser<3>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata.
* locale: locale<2>.
* opcode::
* optparse::
* pathlib: pathlib<6>.
* re: re<4>.
* tkinter.tix: tkinter tix.
* turtle: turtle<2>.
* typing: typing<5>.
* unittest: unittest<3>.
* urllib: urllib<3>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 594 Remove «dead batteries» from the standard library,  Next: 2to3,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.1 PEP 594: Remove «dead batteries» from the standard library
..................................................................

PEP 594(1) proposed removing 19 modules from the standard library,
colloquially referred to as “dead batteries” due to their historic,
obsolete, or insecure status.  All of the following modules were
deprecated in Python 3.11, and are now removed:

   * ‘aifc’

        * standard-aifc(2): Use the redistribution of ‘aifc’ library
          from PyPI.

   * ‘audioop’

        * audioop-lts(3): Use ‘audioop-lts’ library from PyPI.

   * ‘chunk’

        * standard-chunk(4): Use the redistribution of ‘chunk’ library
          from PyPI.

   * ‘cgi’ and ‘cgitb’

        * ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ can typically be replaced with *note
          urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 588. for ‘GET’ and ‘HEAD’ requests,
          and the *note email.message: 47. module or the multipart(5)
          library for ‘POST’ and ‘PUT’ requests.

        * ‘cgi.parse()’ can be replaced by calling *note
          urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 589. directly on the desired query
          string, unless the input is ‘multipart/form-data’, which
          should be replaced as described below for
          ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’.

        * ‘cgi.parse_header()’ can be replaced with the functionality in
          the *note email: 3e. package, which implements the same MIME
          RFCs.  For example, with *note email.message.EmailMessage:
          216.:

               from email.message import EmailMessage

               msg = EmailMessage()
               msg['content-type'] = 'application/json; charset="utf8"'
               main, params = msg.get_content_type(), msg['content-type'].params

        * ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ can be replaced with the functionality
          in the *note email: 3e. package, which implements the same
          MIME RFCs, or with the multipart(6) library.  For example, the
          *note email.message.EmailMessage: 216. and *note
          email.message.Message: 780. classes.

        * standard-cgi(7): and standard-cgitb(8): Use the redistribution
          of ‘cgi’ and ‘cgitb’ library from PyPI.

   * ‘crypt’ and the private ‘_crypt’ extension.  The *note hashlib: 6b.
     module may be an appropriate replacement when simply hashing a
     value is required.  Otherwise, various third-party libraries on
     PyPI are available:

        * bcrypt(9): Modern password hashing for your software and your
          servers.

        * argon2-cffi(10): The secure Argon2 password hashing algorithm.

        * legacycrypt(11): *note ctypes: 2d. wrapper to the POSIX crypt
          library call and associated functionality.

        * crypt_r(12): Fork of the ‘crypt’ module, wrapper to the
          ‘crypt_r(3)(13)’ library call and associated functionality.

        * standard-crypt(14) and deprecated-crypt-alternative(15): Use
          the redistribution of ‘crypt’ and reimplementation of ‘_crypt’
          libraries from PyPI.

   * ‘imghdr’: The filetype(16), puremagic(17), or python-magic(18)
     libraries should be used as replacements.  For example, the
     ‘puremagic.what()’ function can be used to replace the
     ‘imghdr.what()’ function for all file formats that were supported
     by ‘imghdr’.

        * standard-imghdr(19): Use the redistribution of ‘imghdr’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘mailcap’: Use the *note mimetypes: 93. module instead.

        * standard-mailcap(20): Use the redistribution of ‘mailcap’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘msilib’

   * ‘nis’

   * ‘nntplib’: Use the pynntp(21) library from PyPI instead.

        * standard-nntplib(22): Use the redistribution of ‘nntplib’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘ossaudiodev’: For audio playback, use the pygame(23) library from
     PyPI instead.

   * ‘pipes’: Use the *note subprocess: df. module instead.  Use *note
     shlex.quote(): 781. to replace the undocumented ‘pipes.quote’
     function.

        * standard-pipes(24): Use the redistribution of ‘pipes’ library
          from PyPI.

   * ‘sndhdr’: The filetype(25), puremagic(26), or python-magic(27)
     libraries should be used as replacements.

        * standard-sndhdr(28): Use the redistribution of ‘sndhdr’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘spwd’: Use the python-pam(29) library from PyPI instead.

   * ‘sunau’

        * standard-sunau(30): Use the redistribution of ‘sunau’ library
          from PyPI.

   * ‘telnetlib’, Use the telnetlib3(31) or Exscript(32) libraries from
     PyPI instead.

        * standard-telnetlib(33): Use the redistribution of ‘telnetlib’
          library from PyPI.

   * ‘uu’: Use the *note base64: f. module instead, as a modern
     alternative.

        * standard-uu(34): Use the redistribution of ‘uu’ library from
          PyPI.

   * ‘xdrlib’

        * standard-xdrlib(35): Use the redistribution of ‘xdrlib’
          library from PyPI.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner and Zachary Ware in gh-104773(36) and
gh-104780(37).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/standard-aifc/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/audioop-lts/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/standard-chunk/

   (5) https://pypi.org/project/multipart/

   (6) https://pypi.org/project/multipart/

   (7) https://pypi.org/project/standard-cgi/

   (8) https://pypi.org/project/standard-cgitb/

   (9) https://pypi.org/project/bcrypt/

   (10) https://pypi.org/project/argon2-cffi/

   (11) https://pypi.org/project/legacycrypt/

   (12) https://pypi.org/project/crypt_r/

   (13) https://manpages.debian.org/crypt_r(3)

   (14) https://pypi.org/project/standard-crypt/

   (15) https://pypi.org/project/deprecated-crypt-alternative/

   (16) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/

   (17) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/

   (18) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/

   (19) https://pypi.org/project/standard-imghdr/

   (20) https://pypi.org/project/standard-mailcap/

   (21) https://pypi.org/project/pynntp/

   (22) https://pypi.org/project/standard-nntplib/

   (23) https://pypi.org/project/pygame/

   (24) https://pypi.org/project/standard-pipes/

   (25) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/

   (26) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/

   (27) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/

   (28) https://pypi.org/project/standard-sndhdr/

   (29) https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/

   (30) https://pypi.org/project/standard-sunau/

   (31) https://pypi.org/project/telnetlib3/

   (32) https://pypi.org/project/Exscript/

   (33) https://pypi.org/project/standard-telnetlib/

   (34) https://pypi.org/project/standard-uu/

   (35) https://pypi.org/project/standard-xdrlib/

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780


File: python.info,  Node: 2to3,  Next: builtins,  Prev: PEP 594 Remove «dead batteries» from the standard library,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.2 2to3
............

   * Remove the ‘2to3’ program and the ‘lib2to3’ module, previously
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-104780(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780


File: python.info,  Node: builtins,  Next: configparser<3>,  Prev: 2to3,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.3 builtins
................

   * Remove support for chained *note classmethod: 69a. descriptors
     (introduced in gh-63272(1)).  These can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors, such as *note property: 6bb.  The core design of
     this feature was flawed and led to several problems.  To
     «pass-through» a ‘classmethod’, consider using the ‘__wrapped__’
     attribute that was added in Python 3.10.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in gh-89519(2).)

   * Raise a *note RuntimeError: 30d. when calling *note frame.clear():
     784. on a suspended frame (as has always been the case for an
     executing frame).  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-79932(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63272

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79932


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<3>,  Next: importlib metadata,  Prev: builtins,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.4 configparser
....................

   * Remove the undocumented ‘LegacyInterpolation’ class, deprecated in
     the docstring since Python 3.2, and at runtime since Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104886(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104886


File: python.info,  Node: importlib metadata,  Next: locale<2>,  Prev: configparser<3>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.5 importlib.metadata
..........................

   * Remove deprecated subscript (*note __getitem__(): 787.) access for
     *note EntryPoint: 788. objects.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in
     gh-113175(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113175


File: python.info,  Node: locale<2>,  Next: opcode,  Prev: importlib metadata,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.6 locale
..............

   * Remove the ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function, deprecated in Python
     3.11.  Use ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’ instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-104783(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104783


File: python.info,  Node: opcode,  Next: optparse,  Prev: locale<2>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.7 opcode
..............

   * Move ‘opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’ to
     ‘_opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’.  This field was added in 3.12, it
     was never documented, and is not intended for external use.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105481(1).)

   * Remove ‘opcode.is_pseudo()’, ‘opcode.MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE’, and
     ‘opcode.MAX_PSEUDO_OPCODE’, which were added in Python 3.12, but
     were neither documented nor exposed through *note dis: 3b, and were
     not intended to be used externally.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel
     in gh-105481(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481


File: python.info,  Node: optparse,  Next: pathlib<6>,  Prev: opcode,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.8 optparse
................

   * This module is no longer considered *note soft deprecated: 1a7.
     While *note argparse: 7. remains preferred for new projects that
     aren’t using a third party command line argument processing
     library, there are aspects of the way ‘argparse’ works that mean
     the lower level ‘optparse’ module may provide a better foundation
     for 'writing' argument processing libraries, and for implementing
     command line applications which adhere more strictly than
     ‘argparse’ does to various Unix command line processing conventions
     that originate in the behaviour of the C ‘getopt()’ function .
     (Contributed by Alyssa Coghlan and Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-126180(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126180


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<6>,  Next: re<4>,  Prev: optparse,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.9 pathlib
...............

   * Remove the ability to use *note Path: 4ee. objects as context
     managers.  This functionality was deprecated and has had no effect
     since Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-83863(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83863


File: python.info,  Node: re<4>,  Next: tkinter tix,  Prev: pathlib<6>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.10 re
...........

   * Remove the undocumented, deprecated, and broken ‘re.template()’
     function and ‘re.TEMPLATE’ / ‘re.T’ flag.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka and Nikita Sobolev in gh-105687(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105687


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter tix,  Next: turtle<2>,  Prev: re<4>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.11 tkinter.tix
....................

   * Remove the ‘tkinter.tix’ module, deprecated in Python 3.6.  The
     third-party Tix library which the module wrapped is unmaintained.
     (Contributed by Zachary Ware in gh-75552(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75552


File: python.info,  Node: turtle<2>,  Next: typing<5>,  Prev: tkinter tix,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.12 turtle
...............

   * Remove the ‘RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ method, deprecated in the
     documentation since Python 3.1 and at runtime since Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104876(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104876


File: python.info,  Node: typing<5>,  Next: unittest<3>,  Prev: turtle<2>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.13 typing
...............

   * Remove the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ namespaces, deprecated since
     Python 3.8.  The items in those namespaces can be imported directly
     from the *note typing: 10d. module.  (Contributed by Sebastian
     Rittau in gh-92871(1).)

   * Remove the keyword-argument method of creating *note TypedDict:
     290. types, deprecated in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by Tomas Roun
     in gh-104786(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92871

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104786


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<3>,  Next: urllib<3>,  Prev: typing<5>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.14 unittest
.................

   * Remove the following *note unittest: 10f. functions, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’

        * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’

        * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 792. methods instead:

        * *note loadTestsFromModule(): 793.

        * *note loadTestsFromTestCase(): 794.

        * *note getTestCaseNames(): 795.

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104835(1).)

   * Remove the untested and undocumented ‘TestProgram.usageExit()’
     method, deprecated in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by Hugo van
     Kemenade in gh-104992(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104835

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104992


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<3>,  Next: webbrowser<3>,  Prev: unittest<3>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.15 urllib
...............

   * Remove the 'cafile', 'capath', and 'cadefault' parameters of the
     *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 57f. function, deprecated in Python
     3.6.  Use the 'context' parameter instead with an *note SSLContext:
     336. instance.  The *note ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): 797.
     function can be used to load specific certificates, or let *note
     ssl.create_default_context(): 68e. select the operating system’s
     trusted certificate authority (CA) certificates.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-105382(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105382


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser<3>,  Prev: urllib<3>,  Up: Removed Modules And APIs

1.4.7.16 webbrowser
...................

   * Remove the untested and undocumented ‘MacOSX’ class, deprecated in
     Python 3.11.  Use the ‘MacOSXOSAScript’ class (introduced in Python
     3.2) instead.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104804(1).)

   * Remove the deprecated ‘MacOSXOSAScript._name’ attribute.  Use the
     *note MacOSXOSAScript.name: 799. attribute instead.  (Contributed
     by Nikita Sobolev in gh-105546(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104804

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105546


File: python.info,  Node: New Deprecations,  Next: CPython Bytecode Changes,  Prev: Removed Modules And APIs,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.4.8 New Deprecations
----------------------

   * *note User-defined functions: 79b.:

        * Deprecate assignment to a function’s *note __code__: 79c.
          attribute, where the new code object’s type does not match the
          function’s type.  The different types are: plain function,
          generator, async generator, and coroutine.  (Contributed by
          Irit Katriel in gh-81137(1).)

   * *note array: 8.:

        * Deprecate the ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) at runtime.  This
          format code has been deprecated in documentation since Python
          3.3, and will be removed in Python 3.16.  Use the ‘'w'’ format
          code (*note Py_UCS4: 301.) for Unicode characters instead.
          (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-80480(2).)

   * *note ctypes: 2d.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented ‘SetPointerType()’ function, to be
          removed in Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
          gh-105733(3).)

        * *note Soft-deprecate: 1a7. the *note ARRAY(): 79d. function in
          favour of ‘type * length’ multiplication.  (Contributed by
          Victor Stinner in gh-105733(4).)

   * *note decimal: 39.:

        * Deprecate the non-standard and undocumented *note Decimal:
          1c2. format specifier ‘'N'’, which is only supported in the
          ‘decimal’ module’s C implementation.  Scheduled to be removed
          in Python 3.18.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
          gh-89902(5).)

   * *note dis: 3b.:

        * Deprecate the ‘HAVE_ARGUMENT’ separator.  Check membership in
          *note hasarg: 79e. instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
          gh-109319(6).)

   * *note gettext: 66.:

        * Deprecate non-integer numbers as arguments to functions and
          methods that consider plural forms in the ‘gettext’ module,
          even if no translation was found.  (Contributed by Serhiy
          Storchaka in gh-88434(7).)

   * *note glob: 67.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented ‘glob0()’ and ‘glob1()’ functions.
          Use *note glob(): 2d4. and pass a *note path-like object: 79f.
          specifying the root directory to the 'root_dir' parameter
          instead.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-117337(8).)

   * *note http.server: 75.:

        * Deprecate ‘CGIHTTPRequestHandler’, to be removed in Python
          3.15.  Process-based CGI HTTP servers have been out of favor
          for a very long time.  This code was outdated, unmaintained,
          and rarely used.  It has a high potential for both security
          and functionality bugs.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in
          gh-109096(9).)

        * Deprecate the ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’
          command-line interface, to be removed in Python 3.15.
          (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-109096(10).)

   * *note mimetypes: 93.:

        * *note Soft-deprecate: 1a7. file path arguments to *note
          guess_type(): 71b, use *note guess_file_type(): 71a. instead.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-66543(11).)

   * *note re: c1.:

        * Deprecate passing the optional 'maxsplit', 'count', or 'flags'
          arguments as positional arguments to the module-level *note
          split(): 7a0, *note sub(): 7a1, and *note subn(): 7a2.
          functions.  These parameters will become *note keyword-only:
          7a3. in a future version of Python.  (Contributed by Serhiy
          Storchaka in gh-56166(12).)

   * *note pathlib: a8.:

        * Deprecate ‘.PurePath.is_reserved()’, to be removed in Python
          3.15.  Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 2d9. to detect reserved
          paths on Windows.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
          gh-88569(13).)

   * *note platform: af.:

        * Deprecate ‘platform.java_ver()’, to be removed in Python 3.15.
          This function is only useful for Jython support, has a
          confusing API, and is largely untested.  (Contributed by
          Nikita Sobolev in gh-116349(14).)

   * *note pydoc: bd.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented ‘ispackage()’ function.
          (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in gh-64020(15).)

   * *note sqlite3: d7.:

        * Deprecate passing more than one positional argument to the
          *note connect(): 3e0. function and the *note Connection: 3df.
          constructor.  The remaining parameters will become
          keyword-only in Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
          Aasland in gh-107948(16).)

        * Deprecate passing name, number of arguments, and the callable
          as keyword arguments for *note Connection.create_function():
          3e1. and *note Connection.create_aggregate(): 3e2. These
          parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.
          (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-108278(17).)

        * Deprecate passing the callback callable by keyword for the
          *note set_authorizer(): 3e3, *note set_progress_handler():
          3e4, and *note set_trace_callback(): 3e5. *note Connection:
          3df. methods.  The callback callables will become
          positional-only in Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
          Aasland in gh-108278(18).)

   * *note sys: e2.:

        * Deprecate the *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 30e.
          function, to be removed in Python 3.16.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 30f. environment variable
          instead.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-73427(19).)

   * *note tarfile: e7.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’
          attribute, to be removed in Python 3.16.  (Contributed in
          gh-115256(20).)

   * *note traceback: 107.:

        * Deprecate the *note TracebackException.exc_type: 765.
          attribute.  Use *note TracebackException.exc_type_str: 763.
          instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112332(21).)

   * *note typing: 10d.:

        * Deprecate the undocumented keyword argument syntax for
          creating *note NamedTuple: 2e4. classes (e.g.  ‘Point =
          NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)’), to be removed in Python
          3.15.  Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax
          instead.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-105566(22).)

        * Deprecate omitting the 'fields' parameter when creating a
          *note NamedTuple: 2e4. or *note typing.TypedDict: 290. class,
          and deprecate passing ‘None’ to the 'fields' parameter of both
          types.  Python 3.15 will require a valid sequence for the
          'fields' parameter.  To create a NamedTuple class with zero
          fields, use ‘class NT(NamedTuple): pass’ or ‘NT =
          NamedTuple("NT", ())’.  To create a TypedDict class with zero
          fields, use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD =
          TypedDict("TD", {})’.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood in
          gh-105566(23) and gh-105570(24).)

        * Deprecate the ‘typing.no_type_check_decorator()’ decorator
          function, to be removed in Python 3.15.  After eight years in
          the *note typing: 10d. module, it has yet to be supported by
          any major type checker.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood in
          gh-106309(25).)

        * Deprecate *note typing.AnyStr: 7a4.  In Python 3.16, it will
          be removed from ‘typing.__all__’, and a *note
          DeprecationWarning: 2c9. will be emitted at runtime when it is
          imported or accessed.  It will be removed entirely in Python
          3.18.  Use the new *note type parameter syntax: 7a5. instead.
          (Contributed by Michael The in gh-107116(26).)

   * *note wave: 11c.:

        * Deprecate the ‘getmark()’, ‘setmark()’ and ‘getmarkers()’
          methods of the *note Wave_read: 2e6. and *note Wave_write:
          2e7. classes, to be removed in Python 3.15.  (Contributed by
          Victor Stinner in gh-105096(27).)

* Menu:

* Pending removal in Python 3.14: Pending removal in Python 3 14.
* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.17: Pending removal in Python 3 17<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.19: Pending removal in Python 3 19<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.20: Pending removal in Python 3 20<3>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81137

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109319

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88434

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117337

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/56166

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116349

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64020

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107948

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73427

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115256

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105570

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106309

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107116

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105096


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 14,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 15<3>,  Up: New Deprecations

1.4.8.1 Pending removal in Python 3.14
......................................

   * *note argparse: 7.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 9.: The following features have been deprecated in
     documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 569. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: b.:

        * The child watcher classes ‘asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher’,
          ‘asyncio.FastChildWatcher’, ‘asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher’ and
          ‘asyncio.SafeChildWatcher’ are deprecated and will be removed
          in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(3).)

        * ‘asyncio.set_child_watcher()’, ‘asyncio.get_child_watcher()’,
          ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher()’ and
          ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher()’ are
          deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed
          by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 56c. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note email: 3e.: Deprecated the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 56f.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(6).)

   * *note importlib.abc: 7b. deprecated classes:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7f. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 572.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 571.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(7).)

   * *note itertools: 84. had undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle
     operations.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant
     reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(8).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 98.: The default start method will change to
     a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms
     where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(9)).  Adding a
     runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the
     majority of code is not expected to care.  Use the *note
     get_context(): 4d6. or *note set_start_method(): 4d7. APIs to
     explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note
     Contexts and start methods: 46d.

   * *note pathlib: a8.: *note is_relative_to(): 576. and *note
     relative_to(): 575.: passing additional arguments is deprecated.

   * *note pkgutil: ae.: ‘pkgutil.find_loader()’ and
     ‘pkgutil.get_loader()’ now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.;
     use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 7a7. instead.  (Contributed
     by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(10).)

   * *note pty: b9.:

        * ‘master_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 579.

        * ‘slave_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 579.

   * *note sqlite3: d7.:

        * ‘version’ and ‘version_info’.

        * *note execute(): 7a8. and *note executemany(): 7a9. if *note
          named placeholders: 7aa. are used and 'parameters' is a
          sequence instead of a *note dict: 188.

   * *note urllib: 111.: ‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ is deprecated: it was not
     intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in
     gh-88168(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168


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1.4.8.2 Pending removal in Python 3.15
......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting ‘__cached__’ on a module while failing to set *note
          __spec__.cached: 58b. is deprecated.  In Python 3.15,
          ‘__cached__’ will cease to be set or take into consideration
          by the import system or standard library.  (gh-97879(1))

        * Setting *note __package__: 58c. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.parent: 58d. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(2))

   * *note ctypes: 2d.:

        * The undocumented ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note http.server: 75.:

        * The obsolete and rarely used ‘CGIHTTPRequestHandler’ has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.  No direct replacement exists.
          'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web server with a
          request handler.

        * The ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line
          interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note importlib: 7a.:

        * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead.

   * *note pathlib: a8.:

        * ‘.PurePath.is_reserved()’ has been deprecated since Python
          3.13.  Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 2d9. to detect reserved
          paths on Windows.

   * *note platform: af.:

        * ‘platform.java_ver()’ has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
          This function is only useful for Jython support, has a
          confusing API, and is largely untested.

   * *note sysconfig: e4.:

        * The 'check_home' argument of *note
          sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2dd. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.12.

   * *note threading: f6.:

        * *note RLock(): 2df. will take no arguments in Python 3.15.
          Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14,
          as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C
          version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments,
          ignoring every argument.

   * *note types: 10c.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 2e1.: Accessing ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’
          was deprecated in PEP 626(3) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 2c9. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(4).)

   * *note typing: 10d.:

        * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note
          NamedTuple: 2e4. classes (for example, ‘Point =
          NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)’) has been deprecated since
          Python 3.13.  Use the class-based syntax or the functional
          syntax instead.

        * When using the functional syntax of *note TypedDict: 290.s,
          failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘TD =
          TypedDict("TD")’) or passing ‘None’ (‘TD = TypedDict("TD",
          None)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use ‘class
          TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’ to create a
          TypedDict with zero field.

        * The ‘typing.no_type_check_decorator()’ decorator function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  After eight years in the
          *note typing: 10d. module, it has yet to be supported by any
          major type checker.

   * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules.

   * *note wave: 11c.:

        * The ‘getmark()’, ‘setmark()’ and ‘getmarkers()’ methods of the
          *note Wave_read: 2e6. and *note Wave_write: 2e7. classes have
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note zipimport: 13b.:

        * ‘zipimport.zipimporter.load_module()’ has been deprecated
          since Python 3.10.  Use *note exec_module(): 2e9. instead.
          (gh-125746(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125746


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1.4.8.3 Pending removal in Python 3.16
......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 2ff. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 300. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note array: 8.:

        * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in
          documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python
          3.13.  Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 301.) for
          Unicode characters instead.

   * *note asyncio: b.:

        * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16; use *note
          inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 302. instead.  (Contributed by
          Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).)

        * *note asyncio: b. policy system is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16.  In particular, the following classes
          and functions are deprecated:

             * *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 303.

             * *note asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy: 304.

             * *note asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy: 305.

             * *note asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy: 306.

             * *note asyncio.get_event_loop_policy(): 307.

             * *note asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(): 308.

          Users should use *note asyncio.run(): 309. or *note
          asyncio.Runner: 30a. with 'loop_factory' to use the desired
          event loop implementation.

          For example, to use *note asyncio.SelectorEventLoop: 30b. on
          Windows:

               import asyncio

               async def main():
                   ...

               asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=asyncio.SelectorEventLoop)

          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-127949(2).)

   * *note builtins: 13.:

        * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has
          been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising
          and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’).  Use ‘not x’ instead
          for the logical negation of a Boolean.  In the rare case that
          you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer,
          convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’).

   * *note functools: 62.:

        * Calling the Python implementation of *note functools.reduce():
          153. with 'function' or 'sequence' as keyword arguments has
          been deprecated since Python 3.14.

   * *note logging: 8a.:

        * Support for custom logging handlers with the 'strm' argument
          is deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.16.
          Define handlers with the 'stream' argument instead.
          (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-115032(3).)

   * *note mimetypes: 93.:

        * Valid extensions start with a “.” or are empty for *note
          mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(): 30c.  Undotted extensions are
          deprecated and will raise a *note ValueError: 277. in Python
          3.16.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-75223(4).)

   * *note shutil: cd.:

        * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python
          3.14.  It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since
          Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 30d.

   * *note symtable: e1.:

        * The ‘symtable.Class.get_methods()’ method has been deprecated
          since Python 3.14.

   * *note sys: e2.:

        * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 30e. function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 30f. environment variable
          instead.

   * *note sysconfig: e4.:

        * The ‘sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.14.  Use the ‘vars’ argument of
          *note sysconfig.get_paths(): 156. instead.

   * *note tarfile: e7.:

        * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127949

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223


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1.4.8.4 Pending removal in Python 3.17
......................................

   * *note datetime: 33.:

        * *note strptime(): 2d2. calls using a format string containing
          ‘%e’ (day of month) without a year.  This has been deprecated
          since Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in
          gh-70647(1).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1f.:

        - *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2cb. is scheduled for
          removal in Python 3.17.

          Use ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)’ to test if ‘obj’
          implements the *note buffer protocol: 311. at runtime.  For
          use in type annotations, either use *note Buffer: 312. or a
          union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports
          (e.g., ‘bytes | bytearray | memoryview’).

          ‘ByteString’ was originally intended to be an abstract class
          that would serve as a supertype of both *note bytes: 1c7. and
          *note bytearray: 1c6.  However, since the ABC never had any
          methods, knowing that an object was an instance of
          ‘ByteString’ never actually told you anything useful about the
          object.  Other common buffer types such as *note memoryview:
          1d2. were also never understood as subtypes of ‘ByteString’
          (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

          See PEP 688(2) for more details.  (Contributed by Shantanu
          Jain in gh-91896(3).)

   * *note encodings: 54.:

        - Passing non-ascii 'encoding' names to *note
          encodings.normalize_encoding(): 313. is deprecated and
          scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.  (Contributed by Stan
          Ulbrych in gh-136702(4).)

   * *note webbrowser: 11e.:

        - ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript’ is deprecated in favour of
          ‘webbrowser.MacOS’.  (gh-137586(5))

   * *note typing: 10d.:

        - Before Python 3.14, old-style unions were implemented using
          the private class ‘typing._UnionGenericAlias’.  This class is
          no longer needed for the implementation, but it has been
          retained for backward compatibility, with removal scheduled
          for Python 3.17.  Users should use documented introspection
          helpers like *note typing.get_origin(): 314. and *note
          typing.get_args(): 315. instead of relying on private
          implementation details.

        - *note typing.ByteString: 2e3, deprecated since Python 3.9, is
          scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

          Use ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)’ to test if ‘obj’
          implements the *note buffer protocol: 311. at runtime.  For
          use in type annotations, either use *note Buffer: 312. or a
          union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports
          (e.g., ‘bytes | bytearray | memoryview’).

          ‘ByteString’ was originally intended to be an abstract class
          that would serve as a supertype of both *note bytes: 1c7. and
          *note bytearray: 1c6.  However, since the ABC never had any
          methods, knowing that an object was an instance of
          ‘ByteString’ never actually told you anything useful about the
          object.  Other common buffer types such as *note memoryview:
          1d2. were also never understood as subtypes of ‘ByteString’
          (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

          See PEP 688(6) for more details.  (Contributed by Shantanu
          Jain in gh-91896(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136702

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137586

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 18<4>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 19<3>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 17<3>,  Up: New Deprecations

1.4.8.5 Pending removal in Python 3.18
......................................

   * No longer accept a boolean value when a file descriptor is
     expected.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-82626(1).)

   * *note decimal: 39.:

        * The non-standard and undocumented *note Decimal: 1c2. format
          specifier ‘'N'’, which is only supported in the ‘decimal’
          module’s C implementation, has been deprecated since Python
          3.13.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89902(2).)

   * Deprecations defined by PEP 829(3):

        * ‘import’ lines in ‘`name'.pth’ files are silently ignored.

     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-148641(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82626

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148641


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 19<3>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 20<3>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 18<4>,  Up: New Deprecations

1.4.8.6 Pending removal in Python 3.19
......................................

   * *note ctypes: 2d.:

        * Implicitly switching to the MSVC-compatible struct layout by
          setting *note _pack_: 318. but not *note _layout_: 319. on
          non-Windows platforms.

   * *note hashlib: 6b.:

        - In hash function constructors such as *note new(): 2f1. or the
          direct hash-named constructors such as *note md5(): 2f2. and
          *note sha256(): 2f3, their optional initial data parameter
          could also be passed a keyword argument named ‘data=’ or
          ‘string=’ in various ‘hashlib’ implementations.

          Support for the ‘string’ keyword argument name is now
          deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.19.

          Before Python 3.13, the ‘string’ keyword parameter was not
          correctly supported depending on the backend implementation of
          hash functions.  Prefer passing the initial data as a
          positional argument for maximum backwards compatibility.

   * *note http.cookies: 74.:

        * *note http.cookies.Morsel.js_output(): 2f4. is deprecated and
          will be removed in Python 3.19.

        * *note http.cookies.BaseCookie.js_output(): 2f5. is deprecated
          and will be removed in Python 3.19.

   * *note imaplib: 77.:

        * Altering *note IMAP4.file: 2f8. is now deprecated and slated
          for removal in Python 3.19.  This property is now unused and
          changing its value does not automatically close the current
          file.

          Before Python 3.14, this property was used to implement the
          corresponding ‘read()’ and ‘readline()’ methods for *note
          IMAP4: 31a. but this is no longer the case since then.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 20<3>,  Next: Pending removal in future versions<4>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 19<3>,  Up: New Deprecations

1.4.8.7 Pending removal in Python 3.20
......................................

   * Calling the ‘__new__()’ method of *note struct.Struct: 2fb. without
     the 'format' argument is deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.20.  Calling *note __init__(): 2fa. method on initialized
     ‘Struct’ objects is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.20.

     (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev and Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-143715(1).)

   * The ‘__version__’, ‘version’ and ‘VERSION’ attributes have been
     deprecated in these standard library modules and will be removed in
     Python 3.20.  Use *note sys.version_info: 2fc. instead.

        - *note argparse: 7.

        - *note csv: 2c.

        - *note ctypes: 2d.

        - ‘ctypes.macholib’

        - *note decimal: 39. (use *note decimal.SPEC_VERSION: 2fd.
          instead)

        - *note http.server: 75.

        - *note imaplib: 77.

        - *note ipaddress: 83.

        - *note json: 85.

        - *note logging: 8a. (‘__date__’ also deprecated)

        - *note optparse: a4.

        - *note pickle: ab.

        - *note platform: af.

        - *note re: c1.

        - *note socketserver: d5.

        - *note tabnanny: e6.

        - *note tarfile: e7.

        - *note tkinter.font: fe.

        - *note tkinter.ttk: 102.

        - *note wsgiref.simple_server: 124.

        - *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.

        - ‘xml.sax.expatreader’

        - *note xml.sax.handler: 133.

        - *note zlib: 13c.

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade and Stan Ulbrych in gh-76007(2).)

   * Deprecations defined by PEP 829(3):

        * Warnings are produced for ‘import’ lines found in ‘`name'.pth’
          files.

        * ‘`name'.pth’ files are no longer decoded in the locale
          encoding by default.  They 'MUST' be encoded in ‘utf-8-sig’.

     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-148641(4).)

   * *note ast: 9.:

        * Creating instances of abstract AST nodes (such as *note
          ast.AST: 2ec. or ‘ast.expr’) is deprecated and will raise an
          error in Python 3.20.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143715

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148641


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in future versions<4>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 20<3>,  Up: New Deprecations

1.4.8.8 Pending removal in future versions
..........................................

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note argparse: 7.:

        * Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive groups
          are deprecated.

        * Passing the undocumented keyword argument 'prefix_chars' to
          *note add_argument_group(): 31d. is now deprecated.

        * The *note argparse.FileType: 31e. type converter is
          deprecated.

   * *note builtins: 13.:

        * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’
          signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’
          instead, the single argument signature.

        * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed
          by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It
          allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f
          or x in y]’).  A syntax warning is raised if the numeric
          literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and:
          31f, *note else: 320, *note for: 321, *note if: 322, *note in:
          323, *note is: 324. and *note or: 325.  In a future release it
          will be changed to a syntax error.  (gh-87999(1))

        * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning
          non-int type: these methods will be required to return an
          instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 326.

        * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note float: 327.: these methods will be required to return
          an instance of ‘float’.

        * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note complex: 328.: these methods will be required to
          return an instance of ‘complex’.

        * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in
          the *note complex(): 328. constructor is now deprecated; it
          should only be passed as a single positional argument.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(2).)

   * *note calendar: 15.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     329. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 32a.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(3).)

   * *note codecs: 1c.: use *note open(): 32b. instead of *note
     codecs.open(): 32c.  (gh-133038(4))

   * ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’: use the *note codeobject.co_lines(): 32d.
     method instead.

   * *note datetime: 33.:

        * *note utcnow(): 32e.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’.

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 32f.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’.

   * *note gettext: 66.: Plural value must be an integer.

   * *note importlib: 7a.:

        * *note cache_from_source(): 330. 'debug_override' parameter is
          deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead.

   * *note importlib.metadata: 7d.:

        * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface.

        * Implicit ‘None’ on return values.

   * *note logging: 8a.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since
     Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 331. instead.

   * *note mailbox: 8e.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is
     deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

   * *note os: a5.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 332. in a
     multi-threaded process.

   * *note os.path: a6.: *note os.path.commonprefix(): 333. is
     deprecated, use *note os.path.commonpath(): 334. for path prefixes.
     The ‘os.path.commonprefix()’ function is being deprecated due to
     having a misleading name and module.  The function is not safe to
     use for path prefixes despite being included in a module about path
     manipulation, meaning it is easy to accidentally introduce path
     traversal vulnerabilities into Python programs by using this
     function.

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter
     is deprecated, use an exception instance.

   * *note re: c1.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical
     group references and group names in regular expressions.  Only
     sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.
     The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now
     only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * *note shutil: cd.: *note rmtree(): 335.”s 'onerror' parameter is
     deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead.

   * *note ssl: d8. options and protocols:

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. without protocol argument is
          deprecated.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 336.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 337.
          and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN
          instead.

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note threading: f6. methods:

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all():
          338.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 339.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 33a.: use *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 33b. attribute.

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 33c.: use *note
          threading.Thread.name: 33d. attribute.

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note
          threading.current_thread(): 33e.

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count():
          33f.

   * *note typing.Text: 340. (gh-92332(6)).

   * The internal class ‘typing._UnionGenericAlias’ is no longer used to
     implement *note typing.Union: 341.  To preserve compatibility with
     users using this private class, a compatibility shim will be
     provided until at least Python 3.17.  (Contributed by Jelle
     Zijlstra in gh-105499(7).)

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342.: it is deprecated to
     return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case.

   * *note urllib.parse: 113. deprecated functions: *note urlparse():
     2a4. instead

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note wsgiref: 121.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do
     partial writes.

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: Testing the truth value of an
     *note Element: 343. is deprecated.  In a future release it will
     always return ‘True’.  Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not
     None’ tests instead.

   * *note sys._clear_type_cache(): 344. is deprecated: use *note
     sys._clear_internal_caches(): 345. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133038

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499


File: python.info,  Node: CPython Bytecode Changes,  Next: C API Changes,  Prev: New Deprecations,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.4.9 CPython Bytecode Changes
------------------------------

   * The oparg of *note YIELD_VALUE: 7b3. is now ‘1’ if the yield is
     part of a yield-from or await, and ‘0’ otherwise.  The oparg of
     *note RESUME: 7b4. was changed to add a bit indicating if the
     except-depth is 1, which is needed to optimize closing of
     generators.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111354(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111354


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes,  Next: Build Changes,  Prev: CPython Bytecode Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.4.10 C API Changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* New Features: New Features<2>.
* Changed C APIs: Changed C APIs<2>.
* Limited C API Changes::
* Removed C APIs: Removed C APIs<4>.
* Deprecated C APIs: Deprecated C APIs<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<2>,  Next: Changed C APIs<2>,  Up: C API Changes

1.4.10.1 New Features
.....................

   * Add the *note PyMonitoring C API: 694. for generating PEP 669(1)
     monitoring events:

        * *note PyMonitoringState: 7b7.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent(): 7b8.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent(): 7b9.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent(): 7ba.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent(): 7bb.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent(): 7bc.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent(): 7bd.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent(): 7be.

        * ‘PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent’

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent(): 7bf.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent(): 7c0.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent(): 7c1.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent(): 7c2.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent(): 7c3.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent(): 7c4.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent(): 7c5.

        * *note PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent(): 7c6.

        * *note PyMonitoring_EnterScope(): 7c7.

        * *note PyMonitoring_ExitScope(): 7c8.

     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111997(2)).

   * Add *note PyMutex: 693, a lightweight mutex that occupies a single
     byte, and the new *note PyMutex_Lock(): 7c9. and *note
     PyMutex_Unlock(): 7ca. functions.  ‘PyMutex_Lock()’ will release
     the *note GIL: 411. (if currently held) if the operation needs to
     block.  (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-108724(3).)

   * Add the *note PyTime C API: 7cb. to provide access to system
     clocks:

        * *note PyTime_t: 7cc.

        * *note PyTime_MIN: 7cd. and *note PyTime_MAX: 7ce.

        * *note PyTime_AsSecondsDouble(): 7cf.

        * *note PyTime_Monotonic(): 7d0.

        * *note PyTime_MonotonicRaw(): 7d1.

        * *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 7d2.

        * *note PyTime_PerfCounterRaw(): 7d3.

        * *note PyTime_Time(): 7d4.

        * *note PyTime_TimeRaw(): 7d5.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Petr Viktorin in gh-110850(4).)

   * Add the *note PyDict_ContainsString(): 7d6. function with the same
     behavior as *note PyDict_Contains(): 7d7, but 'key' is specified as
     a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note
     PyObject: 19b.*.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108314(5).)

   * Add the *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 7d8. and *note
     PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 634. functions, which behave similarly
     to *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 7d9, but return a *note strong
     reference: 7da. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 603.
     Moreover, these functions return ‘-1’ on error, removing the need
     to check ‘PyErr_Occurred()’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-106004(6).)

   * Add the *note PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 7db. function, which behaves
     similarly to *note PyDict_SetDefault(): 7dc, but returns a *note
     strong reference: 7da. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 603.
     This function returns ‘-1’ on error, ‘0’ on insertion, and ‘1’ if
     the key was already present in the dictionary.  (Contributed by Sam
     Gross in gh-112066(7).)

   * Add the *note PyDict_Pop(): 635. and *note PyDict_PopString(): 7dd.
     functions to remove a key from a dictionary and optionally return
     the removed value.  This is similar to *note dict.pop(): 7de,
     though there is no default value, and *note KeyError: 7df. is not
     raised for missing keys.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel and Victor
     Stinner in gh-111262(8).)

   * Add the *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 7e0. and *note
     PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString(): 7e1. functions as alternatives
     to *note PyObject_GetItem(): 7e2. and *note
     PyMapping_GetItemString(): 7e3. respectively.  The new functions do
     not raise *note KeyError: 7df. if the requested key is missing from
     the mapping.  These variants are more convenient and faster if a
     missing key should not be treated as a failure.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106307(9).)

   * Add the *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 7e4. and *note
     PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 7e5. functions as alternatives to
     *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 3b7. and *note PyObject_GetAttrString():
     7e6. respectively.  The new functions do not raise *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. if the requested attribute is not found on the
     object.  These variants are more convenient and faster if the
     missing attribute should not be treated as a failure.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106521(10).)

   * Add the *note PyErr_FormatUnraisable(): 7e7. function as an
     extension to *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 7e8. that allows
     customizing the warning message.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in gh-108082(11).)

   * Add new functions that return a *note strong reference: 7da.
     instead of a *note borrowed reference: 603. for frame locals,
     globals, and builtins, as part of *note PEP 667: 681.:

        * *note PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins(): 7e9. replaces *note
          PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 7ea.

        * *note PyEval_GetFrameGlobals(): 7eb. replaces *note
          PyEval_GetGlobals(): 7ec.

        * *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 7ed. replaces *note
          PyEval_GetLocals(): 7ee.

     (Contributed by Mark Shannon and Tian Gao in gh-74929(12).)

   * Add the *note Py_GetConstant(): 7ef. and *note
     Py_GetConstantBorrowed(): 7f0. functions to get *note strong: 7da.
     or *note borrowed: 603. references to constants.  For example,
     ‘Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_ZERO)’ returns a strong reference to
     the constant zero.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-115754(13).)

   * Add the *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 7f1. function as a
     replacement for *note PyImport_AddModule(): 7f2. that returns a
     *note strong reference: 7da. instead of a *note borrowed reference:
     603.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105922(14).)

   * Add the *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 7f3. function to check whether the
     main Python interpreter is *note shutting down: 1a0.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in gh-108014(15).)

   * Add the *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 7f4. function as a replacement
     for *note PyList_GetItem(): 7f5. that returns a *note strong
     reference: 7da. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 603.
     (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-114329(16).)

   * Add the *note PyList_Extend(): 7f6. and *note PyList_Clear(): 7f7.
     functions, mirroring the Python *note list.extend(): 7f8. and *note
     list.clear(): 7f9. methods.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-111138(17).)

   * Add the *note PyLong_AsInt(): 7fa. function.  It behaves similarly
     to *note PyLong_AsLong(): 7fb, but stores the result in a C int
     instead of a C long.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-108014(18).)

   * Add the *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 7fc, *note
     PyLong_FromNativeBytes(): 7fd, and *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(): 7fe. functions to simplify
     converting between native integer types and Python *note int: 326.
     objects.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-111140(19).)

   * Add *note PyModule_Add(): 7ff. function, which is similar to *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 800. and *note PyModule_AddObject(): 801,
     but always steals a reference to the value.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-86493(20).)

   * Add the *note PyObject_GenericHash(): 802. function that implements
     the default hashing function of a Python object.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113024(21).)

   * Add the *note Py_HashPointer(): 638. function to hash a raw
     pointer.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111545(22).)

   * Add the *note PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 803. and *note
     PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 804. functions.  which must be called
     by the traverse and clear functions of a type using the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. flag.  The pythoncapi-compat
     project(23) can be used to use these functions with Python 3.11 and
     3.12.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-107073(24).)

   * Add the *note PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 805. and *note
     PyRefTracer_GetTracer(): 806. functions, which enable tracking
     object creation and destruction in the same way that the *note
     tracemalloc: 108. module does.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     gh-93502(25).)

   * Add the *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 807. function as an alternative
     to *note PySys_Audit(): 808. that takes event arguments as a Python
     *note tuple: 1ce. object.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-85283(26).)

   * Add the *note PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 636. function as an
     alternative to *note PyThreadState_Get(): 809. that doesn’t kill
     the process with a fatal error if it is ‘NULL’.  The caller is
     responsible for checking if the result is ‘NULL’.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-108867(27).)

   * Add the *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 80a. function to get
     the type’s fully qualified name.  The module name is prepended if
     *note type.__module__: 80b. is a string and is not equal to either
     ‘'builtins'’ or ‘'__main__'’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-111696(28).)

   * Add the *note PyType_GetModuleName(): 80c. function to get the
     type’s module name.  This is equivalent to getting the *note
     type.__module__: 80b. attribute.  (Contributed by Eric Snow and
     Victor Stinner in gh-111696(29).)

   * Add the *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 80d. and *note
     PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8(): 80e. functions to compare a Unicode object
     with a const char* UTF-8 encoded string and ‘1’ if they are equal
     or ‘0’ otherwise.  These functions do not raise exceptions.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-110289(30).)

   * Add the *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 3a4. function as an alternative
     to ‘PyWeakref_GetObject()’ that returns a *note strong reference:
     7da. or ‘NULL’ if the referent is no longer live.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-105927(31).)

   * Add fixed variants of functions which silently ignore errors:

        * *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 80f. replaces *note
          PyObject_HasAttr(): 810.

        * *note PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 811. replaces *note
          PyObject_HasAttrString(): 812.

        * *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 813. replaces *note
          PyMapping_HasKey(): 814.

        * *note PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 815. replaces *note
          PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 816.

     The new functions return ‘-1’ for errors and the standard ‘1’ for
     true and ‘0’ for false.

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108511(32).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111997

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108724

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110850

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108314

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106004

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112066

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111262

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106307

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106521

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108082

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115754

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105922

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114329

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111138

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111140

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86493

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113024

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111545

   (23) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107073

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93502

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108867

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110289

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108511


File: python.info,  Node: Changed C APIs<2>,  Next: Limited C API Changes,  Prev: New Features<2>,  Up: C API Changes

1.4.10.2 Changed C APIs
.......................

   * The 'keywords' parameter of *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords():
     818. and *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 819. now has type
     char *const* in C and const char *const* in C++, instead of char**.
     In C++, this makes these functions compatible with arguments of
     type const char *const*, const char**, or char *const* without an
     explicit type cast.  In C, the functions only support arguments of
     type char *const*.  This can be overridden with the *note
     PY_CXX_CONST: 81a. macro.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-65210(1).)

   * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818. now supports non-ASCII
     keyword parameter names.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-110815(2).)

   * The ‘PyCode_GetFirstFree()’ function is now unstable API and is now
     named *note PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree(): 81b.  (Contributed by
     Bogdan Romanyuk in gh-115781(3).)

   * The *note PyDict_GetItem(): 81c, *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 81d,
     *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 814, *note PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 816,
     *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 810, *note PyObject_HasAttrString(): 812,
     and *note PySys_GetObject(): 356. functions, each of which clears
     all errors which occurred when calling them now reports these
     errors using *note sys.unraisablehook(): 70c.  You may replace them
     with other functions as recommended in the documentation.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106672(4).)

   * Add support for the ‘%T’, ‘%#T’, ‘%N’ and ‘%#N’ formats to *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e.:

        * ‘%T’: Get the fully qualified name of an object type

        * ‘%#T’: As above, but use a colon as the separator

        * ‘%N’: Get the fully qualified name of a type

        * ‘%#N’: As above, but use a colon as the separator

     See PEP 737(5) for more information.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-111696(6).)

   * You no longer have to define the ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro before
     including ‘Python.h’ when using ‘#’ formats in *note format codes:
     81f.  APIs accepting the format codes always use ‘Py_ssize_t’ for
     ‘#’ formats.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-104922(7).)

   * If Python is built in *note debug mode: 3dc. or *note with
     assertions: 820, *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 821. and *note
     PyList_SET_ITEM(): 822. now check the index argument with an
     assertion.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106168(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65210

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110815

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115781

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106672

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0737/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104922

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106168


File: python.info,  Node: Limited C API Changes,  Next: Removed C APIs<4>,  Prev: Changed C APIs<2>,  Up: C API Changes

1.4.10.3 Limited C API Changes
..............................

   * The following functions are now included in the Limited C API:

        * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf.

        * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 824.

        * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 825.

        * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 826.

        * *note PySys_Audit(): 808.

        * *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 807.

        * *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 827.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85283(1) and gh-116936(2).)

   * Python built with *note -with-trace-refs: 828. (tracing references)
     now supports the *note Limited API: 829.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-108634(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116936

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634


File: python.info,  Node: Removed C APIs<4>,  Next: Deprecated C APIs<4>,  Prev: Limited C API Changes,  Up: C API Changes

1.4.10.4 Removed C APIs
.......................

   * Remove several functions, macros, variables, etc with names
     prefixed by ‘_Py’ or ‘_PY’ (which are considered private).  If your
     project is affected by one of these removals and you believe that
     the removed API should remain available, please *note open a new
     issue: 758. to request a public C API and add ‘cc: @vstinner’ to
     the issue to notify Victor Stinner.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in gh-106320(1).)

   * Remove old buffer protocols deprecated in Python 3.0.  Use *note
     Buffer Protocol: 311. instead.

        * ‘PyObject_CheckReadBuffer()’: Use *note
          PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 82b. to test whether the object
          supports the buffer protocol.  Note that
          ‘PyObject_CheckBuffer()’ doesn’t guarantee that *note
          PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c. will succeed.  To test if the
          object is actually readable, see the next example of
          ‘PyObject_GetBuffer()’.

        * ‘PyObject_AsCharBuffer()’, ‘PyObject_AsReadBuffer()’: Use
          *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c. and *note PyBuffer_Release():
          82d. instead:

               Py_buffer view;
               if (PyObject_GetBuffer(obj, &view, PyBUF_SIMPLE) < 0) {
                   return NULL;
               }
               // Use `view.buf` and `view.len` to read from the buffer.
               // You may need to cast buf as `(const char*)view.buf`.
               PyBuffer_Release(&view);

        * ‘PyObject_AsWriteBuffer()’: Use *note PyObject_GetBuffer():
          82c. and *note PyBuffer_Release(): 82d. instead:

               Py_buffer view;
               if (PyObject_GetBuffer(obj, &view, PyBUF_WRITABLE) < 0) {
                   return NULL;
               }
               // Use `view.buf` and `view.len` to write to the buffer.
               PyBuffer_Release(&view);

     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-85275(2).)

   * Remove various functions deprecated in Python 3.9:

        * ‘PyEval_CallObject()’, ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords()’: Use
          *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 82e. or *note PyObject_Call():
          82f. instead.

               Προειδοποίηση: In *note PyObject_Call(): 82f, positional
               arguments must be a *note tuple: 1ce. and must not be
               ‘NULL’, and keyword arguments must be a *note dict: 188.
               or ‘NULL’, whereas the removed functions checked argument
               types and accepted ‘NULL’ positional and keyword
               arguments.  To replace
               ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords(func, NULL, kwargs)’ with
               ‘PyObject_Call()’, pass an empty tuple as positional
               arguments using *note PyTuple_New(0): 830.

        * ‘PyEval_CallFunction()’: Use *note PyObject_CallFunction():
          831. instead.

        * ‘PyEval_CallMethod()’: Use *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 3b6.
          instead.

        * ‘PyCFunction_Call()’: Use *note PyObject_Call(): 82f. instead.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105107(3).)

   * Remove the following old functions to configure the Python
     initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’: Use *note
          PyConfig.warnoptions: 832. instead.

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’: Use *note PyConfig.warnoptions: 832.
          instead.

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’: Use *note PyConfig.xoptions: 833.
          instead.

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’: Use *note PyConfig.xoptions: 833.
          instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetPath()’: Set *note PyConfig.module_search_paths:
          834. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’: Set *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 834.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’: Set *note
          PyConfig.stdio_encoding: 835. instead, and set also maybe
          *note PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 62d. (on Windows).

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’: Set *note PyConfig.executable:
          836. instead.

     Use the new *note PyConfig: 60b. API of the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 837. instead ( PEP 587(4)), added to
     Python 3.8.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105145(5).)

   * Remove ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_ReleaseLock()’ functions,
     deprecated in Python 3.2.  They didn’t update the current thread
     state.  They can be replaced with:

        * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 838. and *note
          PyEval_RestoreThread(): 839.;

        * low-level *note PyEval_AcquireThread(): 83a. and *note
          PyEval_RestoreThread(): 839.;

        * or *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5. and *note
          PyGILState_Release(): 1a6.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105182(6).)

   * Remove the ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ function, deprecated in
     Python 3.9.  Since Python 3.7, ‘Py_Initialize()’ always creates the
     GIL: calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ does nothing and
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ always returns non-zero.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105182(7).)

   * Remove the ‘_PyInterpreterState_Get()’ alias to *note
     PyInterpreterState_Get(): 83b. which was kept for backward
     compatibility with Python 3.8.  The pythoncapi-compat project(8)
     can be used to get ‘PyInterpreterState_Get()’ on Python 3.8 and
     older.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106320(9).)

   * Remove the private ‘_PyObject_FastCall()’ function: use
     ‘PyObject_Vectorcall()’ which is available since Python 3.8 ( PEP
     590(10)).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106023(11).)

   * Remove the ‘cpython/pytime.h’ header file, which only contained
     private functions.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-106316(12).)

   * Remove the undocumented ‘PY_TIMEOUT_MAX’ constant from the limited
     C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-110014(13).)

   * Remove the old trashcan macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’.  Replace both with the new macros
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in gh-105111(14).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85275

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105107

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182

   (8) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106023

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106316

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110014

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105111


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated C APIs<4>,  Prev: Removed C APIs<4>,  Up: C API Changes

1.4.10.5 Deprecated C APIs
..........................

   * Deprecate old Python initialization functions:

        * ‘PySys_ResetWarnOptions()’: Clear *note sys.warnoptions: 3a5.
          and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

        * ‘Py_GetExecPrefix()’: Get *note sys.exec_prefix: 3a8. instead.

        * ‘Py_GetPath()’: Get *note sys.path: 194. instead.

        * ‘Py_GetPrefix()’: Get *note sys.prefix: 3ab. instead.

        * ‘Py_GetProgramFullPath()’: Get *note sys.executable: 3ac.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_GetProgramName()’: Get *note sys.executable: 3ac. instead.

        * ‘Py_GetPythonHome()’: Get *note PyConfig.home: 609. or the
          *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. environment variable instead.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105145(1).)

   * *note Soft deprecate: 1a7. the *note PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 7ea,
     *note PyEval_GetGlobals(): 7ec, and *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 7ee.
     functions, which return a *note borrowed reference: 603.  (Soft
     deprecated as part of PEP 667(2).)

   * Deprecate the ‘PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()’ function, which is
     just an alias to *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3. since Python
     3.3.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105396(3).)

   * *note Soft deprecate: 1a7. the *note PyModule_AddObject(): 801.
     function.  It should be replaced with *note PyModule_Add(): 7ff. or
     *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 800.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-86493(4).)

   * Deprecate the old ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’ types and the
     ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ define.  Use the ‘wchar_t’ type directly instead.
     Since Python 3.3, ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’ are just
     aliases to ‘wchar_t’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-105156(5).)

   * Deprecate the ‘PyWeakref_GetObject()’ and ‘PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT()’
     functions, which return a *note borrowed reference: 603.  Replace
     them with the new *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 3a4. function, which
     returns a *note strong reference: 7da.  The pythoncapi-compat
     project(6) can be used to get ‘PyWeakref_GetRef()’ on Python 3.12
     and older.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105927(7).)

* Menu:

* Pending removal in Python 3.14: Pending removal in Python 3 14<2>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18<5>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105396

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86493

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105156

   (6) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 14<2>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 15<4>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs<4>

1.4.10.6 Pending removal in Python 3.14
.......................................

   * The ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 83e. for
     extension modules ( PEP 699(1); gh-101193(2)).

   * Creating *note immutable types: 5fb. with mutable bases
     (gh-95388(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 15<4>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 14<2>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs<4>

1.4.10.7 Pending removal in Python 3.15
.......................................

   * The ‘PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()’: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3. instead.

   * ‘PyWeakref_GetObject()’ and ‘PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT()’: Use *note
     PyWeakref_GetRef(): 3a4. instead.  The pythoncapi-compat project(1)
     can be used to get ‘PyWeakref_GetRef()’ on Python 3.12 and older.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3a1.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3a1.
     instead; Note that some codecs (for example, «base64») may return a
     type other than *note str: 1df, such as *note bytes: 1c7.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3a2.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3a2.
     instead; Note that some codecs (for example, «base64») may return a
     type other than *note bytes: 1c7, such as *note str: 1df.

   * Python initialization functions, deprecated in Python 3.13:

        * ‘Py_GetPath()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("module_search_paths"):
          3a6. (*note sys.path: 194.) instead.

        * ‘Py_GetPrefix()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("base_prefix"): 3a6.
          (*note sys.base_prefix: 3aa.) instead.  Use
          ‘PyConfig_Get("prefix")’ (*note sys.prefix: 3ab.) if *note
          virtual environments: 3a9. need to be handled.

        * ‘Py_GetExecPrefix()’: Use *note
          PyConfig_Get("base_exec_prefix"): 3a6. (*note
          sys.base_exec_prefix: 3a7.) instead.  Use
          ‘PyConfig_Get("exec_prefix")’ (*note sys.exec_prefix: 3a8.) if
          *note virtual environments: 3a9. need to be handled.

        * ‘Py_GetProgramFullPath()’: Use *note
          PyConfig_Get("executable"): 3a6. (*note sys.executable: 3ac.)
          instead.

        * ‘Py_GetProgramName()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("executable"):
          3a6. (*note sys.executable: 3ac.) instead.

        * ‘Py_GetPythonHome()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("home"): 3a6. or
          the *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. environment variable instead.

     The pythoncapi-compat project(2) can be used to get *note
     PyConfig_Get(): 3a6. on Python 3.13 and older.

   * Functions to configure Python’s initialization, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 607. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 607. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 608.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 609. instead.

        * ‘PySys_ResetWarnOptions()’: Clear *note sys.warnoptions: 3a5.
          and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 60b. instead.

   * Global configuration variables:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 60c.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          60d. or *note PyConfig_Get("parser_debug"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 60e.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 60f.
          or *note PyConfig_Get("verbose"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 610.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 611. or
          *note PyConfig_Get("quiet"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 612.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 613. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("interactive"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 614.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 615.
          or *note PyConfig_Get("inspect"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 616.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 617. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("optimization_level"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 618.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          619. or *note PyConfig_Get("site_import"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 61a.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3c4. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("bytes_warning"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 61b.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 61c. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("pathconfig_warnings"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 61d.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 61e. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("use_environment"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 61f.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 620. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("write_bytecode"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 621.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 622. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("user_site_directory"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 623.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 624. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("buffered_stdio"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 625.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 626. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          627. or *note PyConfig_Get("hash_seed"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 628.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 629.
          or *note PyConfig_Get("isolated"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 62a.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 62b. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_fs_encoding"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 62c.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 62d. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_stdio"): 3a6. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’,
          ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 62e. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("filesystem_encoding"): 3a6. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 62f. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("filesystem_errors"): 3a6. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 630. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("utf8_mode"): 3a6. instead.  (see *note
          Py_PreInitialize(): 631.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 60b. to set these options.  Or *note
     PyConfig_Get(): 3a6. can be used to get these options at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (2) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 18<5>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 15<4>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs<4>

1.4.10.8 Pending removal in Python 3.16
.......................................

   * The bundled copy of ‘libmpdec’.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 18<5>,  Next: Pending removal in future versions<5>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs<4>

1.4.10.9 Pending removal in Python 3.18
.......................................

   * The following private functions are deprecated and planned for
     removal in Python 3.18:

        * ‘_PyBytes_Join()’: use *note PyBytes_Join(): 5b0.

        * ‘_PyDict_GetItemStringWithError()’: use *note
          PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 634.

        * ‘_PyDict_Pop()’: use *note PyDict_Pop(): 635.

        * ‘_PyLong_Sign()’: use *note PyLong_GetSign(): 5c7.

        * ‘_PyLong_FromDigits()’ and ‘_PyLong_New()’: use *note
          PyLongWriter_Create(): 5d7.

        * ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’: use *note
          PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 636.

        * ‘_PyUnicode_AsString()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): 637.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Init()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer)’ with *note writer =
          PyUnicodeWriter_Create(0): 5e1.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(writer): 5e4.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_Discard(writer): 5e3.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(&writer, ch)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(writer, ch): 5e7.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(&writer, str)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, str): 5e9.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(&writer, str, start, end)’
          with *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(writer, str, start,
          end): 5ea.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(&writer, str)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII(writer, str): 5e6.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(&writer, str)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(writer, str): 5ec.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare()’: (no replacement).

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind()’: (no replacement).

        * ‘_Py_HashPointer()’: use *note Py_HashPointer(): 638.

        * ‘_Py_fopen_obj()’: use *note Py_fopen(): 5c0.

     The pythoncapi-compat project(1) can be used to get these new
     public functions on Python 3.13 and older.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-128863(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128863


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in future versions<5>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 18<5>,  Up: Deprecated C APIs<4>

1.4.10.10 Pending removal in future versions
............................................

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 63a.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 63b.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     63c. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 63d.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 63e.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     63f. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 640.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 641. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 642.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     643. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 644.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     645. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 646. instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 647.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 648.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 649.
     instead.

   * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 64a.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 64b. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 64c.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 64d. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 64e.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 64f. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 650.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 651. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 652.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 653. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 654.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes,  Next: Porting to Python 3 13,  Prev: C API Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.4.11 Build Changes
--------------------

   * ‘arm64-apple-ios’ and ‘arm64-apple-ios-simulator’ are both now PEP
     11(1) tier 3 platforms.  (*note PEP 730: 699. written and
     implementation contributed by Russell Keith-Magee in gh-114099(2).)

   * ‘aarch64-linux-android’ and ‘x86_64-linux-android’ are both now PEP
     11(3) tier 3 platforms.  (*note PEP 738: 699. written and
     implementation contributed by Malcolm Smith in gh-116622(4).)

   * ‘wasm32-wasi’ is now a PEP 11(5) tier 2 platform.  (Contributed by
     Brett Cannon in gh-115192(6).)

   * ‘wasm32-emscripten’ is no longer a PEP 11(7) supported platform.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in gh-115192(8).)

   * Building CPython now requires a compiler with support for the C11
     atomic library, GCC built-in atomic functions, or MSVC interlocked
     intrinsics.

   * Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.5 are now required to regenerate the
     ‘configure’ script.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     gh-89886(9) and by Victor Stinner in gh-112090(10).)

   * SQLite 3.15.2 or newer is required to build the *note sqlite3: d7.
     extension module.  (Contributed by Erlend Aasland in
     gh-105875(11).)

   * CPython now bundles the mimalloc library(12) by default.  It is
     licensed under the MIT license; see *note mimalloc license: 845.
     The bundled mimalloc has custom changes, see gh-113141(13) for
     details.  (Contributed by Dino Viehland in gh-109914(14).)

   * The ‘configure’ option *note -with-system-libmpdec: 3d6. now
     defaults to ‘yes’.  The bundled copy of ‘libmpdec’ will be removed
     in Python 3.16.

   * Python built with ‘configure’ *note -with-trace-refs: 828. (tracing
     references) is now ABI compatible with the Python release build and
     *note debug build: 3dc.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-108634(15).)

   * On POSIX systems, the pkg-config (‘.pc’) filenames now include the
     ABI flags.  For example, the free-threaded build generates
     ‘python-3.13t.pc’ and the debug build generates ‘python-3.13d.pc’.

   * The ‘errno’, ‘fcntl’, ‘grp’, ‘md5’, ‘pwd’, ‘resource’, ‘termios’,
     ‘winsound’, ‘_ctypes_test’, ‘_multiprocessing.posixshmem’,
     ‘_scproxy’, ‘_stat’, ‘_statistics’, ‘_testconsole’,
     ‘_testimportmultiple’ and ‘_uuid’ C extensions are now built with
     the *note limited C API: 829.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-85283(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115192

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115192

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112090

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105875

   (12) https://github.com/microsoft/mimalloc/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113141

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109914

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 13,  Next: Regression Test Changes,  Prev: Build Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.4.12 Porting to Python 3.13
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<2>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<2>,  Next: Changes in the C API<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 13

1.4.12.1 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * *note PEP 667: 681. introduces several changes to the semantics of
     *note locals(): 28b. and *note f_locals: 28d.:

        * Calling *note locals(): 28b. in an *note optimized scope: 6ad.
          now produces an independent snapshot on each call, and hence
          no longer implicitly updates previously returned references.
          Obtaining the legacy CPython behavior now requires explicit
          calls to update the initially returned dictionary with the
          results of subsequent calls to ‘locals()’.  Code execution
          functions that implicitly target ‘locals()’ (such as ‘exec’
          and ‘eval’) must be passed an explicit namespace to access
          their results in an optimized scope.  (Changed as part of PEP
          667(1).)

        * Calling *note locals(): 28b. from a comprehension at module or
          class scope (including via ‘exec’ or ‘eval’) once more behaves
          as if the comprehension were running as an independent nested
          function (i.e.  the local variables from the containing scope
          are not included).  In Python 3.12, this had changed to
          include the local variables from the containing scope when
          implementing PEP 709(2).  (Changed as part of PEP 667(3).)

        * Accessing *note FrameType.f_locals: 28d. in an *note optimized
          scope: 6ad. now returns a write-through proxy rather than a
          snapshot that gets updated at ill-specified times.  If a
          snapshot is desired, it must be created explicitly with ‘dict’
          or the proxy’s ‘.copy()’ method.  (Changed as part of PEP
          667(4).)

   * *note functools.partial: 4a6. now emits a *note FutureWarning: 847.
     when used as a method.  The behavior will change in future Python
     versions.  Wrap it in *note staticmethod(): 666. if you want to
     preserve the old behavior.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-121027(5).)

   * An *note OSError: 53c. is now raised by *note getpass.getuser():
     848. for any failure to retrieve a username, instead of *note
     ImportError: 1bd. on non-Unix platforms or *note KeyError: 7df. on
     Unix platforms where the password database is empty.

   * The value of the ‘mode’ attribute of *note gzip.GzipFile: 849. is
     now a string (‘'rb'’ or ‘'wb'’) instead of an integer (‘1’ or ‘2’).
     The value of the ‘mode’ attribute of the readable file-like object
     returned by *note zipfile.ZipFile.open(): 84a. is now ‘'rb'’
     instead of ‘'r'’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-115961(6).)

   * *note mailbox.Maildir: 84b. now ignores files with a leading dot
     (‘.’).  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in gh-65559(7).)

   * *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. and *note rglob(): 73b. now return
     both files and directories if a pattern that ends with «‘**’» is
     given, rather than directories only.  Add a trailing slash to keep
     the previous behavior and only match directories.

   * The *note threading: f6. module now expects the ‘_thread’ module to
     have an ‘_is_main_interpreter()’ function.  This function takes no
     arguments and returns ‘True’ if the current interpreter is the main
     interpreter.

     Any library or application that provides a custom ‘_thread’ module
     must provide ‘_is_main_interpreter()’, just like the module’s other
     «private» attributes.  (gh-112826(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121027

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65559

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112826


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<2>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 13

1.4.12.2 Changes in the C API
.............................

   * ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<ieeefp.h>’ standard header.  It
     was included for the ‘finite()’ function which is now provided by
     the ‘<math.h>’ header.  It should now be included explicitly if
     needed.  Remove also the ‘HAVE_IEEEFP_H’ macro.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-108765(1).)

   * ‘Python.h’ no longer includes these standard header files:
     ‘<time.h>’, ‘<sys/select.h>’ and ‘<sys/time.h>’.  If needed, they
     should now be included explicitly.  For example, ‘<time.h>’
     provides the ‘clock()’ and ‘gmtime()’ functions, ‘<sys/select.h>’
     provides the ‘select()’ function, and ‘<sys/time.h>’ provides the
     ‘futimes()’, ‘gettimeofday()’ and ‘setitimer()’ functions.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108765(2).)

   * On Windows, ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<stddef.h>’ standard
     header file.  If needed, it should now be included explicitly.  For
     example, it provides ‘offsetof()’ function, and ‘size_t’ and
     ‘ptrdiff_t’ types.  Including ‘<stddef.h>’ explicitly was already
     needed by all other platforms, the ‘HAVE_STDDEF_H’ macro is only
     defined on Windows.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-108765(3).)

   * If the *note Py_LIMITED_API: 84d. macro is defined,
     ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’, ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ and ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’
     macros are now undefined by ‘<Python.h>’.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-85283(4).)

   * The old trashcan macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’ were removed.  They should be replaced by
     the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

     A ‘tp_dealloc’ function that has the old macros, such as:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(p);
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END
          }

     should migrate to the new macros as follows:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(p, mytype_dealloc)
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_END
          }

     Note that ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ has a second argument which should be
     the deallocation function it is in.  The new macros were added in
     Python 3.8 and the old macros were deprecated in Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105111(5).)

   * *note PEP 667: 681. introduces several changes to frame-related
     functions:

        * The effects of mutating the dictionary returned from *note
          PyEval_GetLocals(): 7ee. in an *note optimized scope: 6ad.
          have changed.  New dict entries added this way will now 'only'
          be visible to subsequent ‘PyEval_GetLocals()’ calls in that
          frame, as *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 84e, *note locals(): 28b,
          and *note FrameType.f_locals: 28d. no longer access the same
          underlying cached dictionary.  Changes made to entries for
          actual variable names and names added via the write-through
          proxy interfaces will be overwritten on subsequent calls to
          ‘PyEval_GetLocals()’ in that frame.  The recommended code
          update depends on how the function was being used, so refer to
          the deprecation notice on the function for details.

        * Calling *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 84e. in an *note optimized
          scope: 6ad. now returns a write-through proxy rather than a
          snapshot that gets updated at ill-specified times.  If a
          snapshot is desired, it must be created explicitly (e.g.  with
          *note PyDict_Copy(): 84f.), or by calling the new *note
          PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 7ed. API.

        * ‘PyFrame_FastToLocals()’ and ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’
          no longer have any effect.  Calling these functions has been
          redundant since Python 3.11, when *note PyFrame_GetLocals():
          84e. was first introduced.

        * ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’ no longer has any effect.  Calling
          this function is redundant now that *note PyFrame_GetLocals():
          84e. returns a write-through proxy for *note optimized scopes:
          6ad.

   * Python 3.13 removed many private functions.  Some of them can be
     replaced using these alternatives:

        * ‘_PyDict_Pop()’: *note PyDict_Pop(): 635. or *note
          PyDict_PopString(): 7dd.;

        * ‘_PyDict_GetItemWithError()’: *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 7d8.;

        * ‘_PyErr_WriteUnraisableMsg()’: *note PyErr_FormatUnraisable():
          7e7.;

        * ‘_PyEval_SetTrace()’: *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 850. or *note
          PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 851.;

        * ‘_PyList_Extend()’: *note PyList_Extend(): 7f6.;

        * ‘_PyLong_AsInt()’: *note PyLong_AsInt(): 7fa.;

        * ‘_PyMem_RawStrdup()’: ‘strdup()’;

        * ‘_PyMem_Strdup()’: ‘strdup()’;

        * ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict()’: *note
          PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 804.;

        * ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict()’: *note
          PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 803.;

        * ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’: *note
          PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 636.;

        * ‘_PyTime_AsSecondsDouble()’: *note PyTime_AsSecondsDouble():
          7cf.;

        * ‘_PyTime_GetMonotonicClock()’: *note PyTime_Monotonic(): 7d0.
          or *note PyTime_MonotonicRaw(): 7d1.;

        * ‘_PyTime_GetPerfCounter()’: *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 7d2.
          or *note PyTime_PerfCounterRaw(): 7d3.;

        * ‘_PyTime_GetSystemClock()’: *note PyTime_Time(): 7d4. or *note
          PyTime_TimeRaw(): 7d5.;

        * ‘_PyTime_MAX’: *note PyTime_MAX: 7ce.;

        * ‘_PyTime_MIN’: *note PyTime_MIN: 7cd.;

        * ‘_PyTime_t’: *note PyTime_t: 7cc.;

        * ‘_Py_HashPointer()’: *note Py_HashPointer(): 638.;

        * ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’: *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 7f3.

     The pythoncapi-compat project(6) can be used to get most of these
     new functions on Python 3.12 and older.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105111

   (6) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/


File: python.info,  Node: Regression Test Changes,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 13,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 13

1.4.13 Regression Test Changes
------------------------------

   * Python built with ‘configure’ *note -with-pydebug: 853. now
     supports a *note -X presite=package.module: 178. command-line
     option.  If used, it specifies a module that should be imported
     early in the lifecycle of the interpreter, before ‘site.py’ is
     executed.  (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in gh-110769(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110769


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 12,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 11,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 13,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.5 What’s New In Python 3.12
=============================


Editor: Adam Turner

This article explains the new features in Python 3.12, compared to 3.11.
Python 3.12 was released on October 2, 2023.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 145.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 693(1) – Python 3.12 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
* New Features: New Features<3>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<2>.
* New Modules: New Modules<2>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<5>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<2>.
* Demos and Tools::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<4>.
* Removed: Removed<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<2>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0693/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<3>,  Next: New Features<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

Python 3.12 is a stable release of the Python programming language, with
a mix of changes to the language and the standard library.  The library
changes focus on cleaning up deprecated APIs, usability, and
correctness.  Of note, the ‘distutils’ package has been removed from the
standard library.  Filesystem support in *note os: a5. and *note
pathlib: a8. has seen a number of improvements, and several modules have
better performance.

The language changes focus on usability, as *note f-strings: 858. have
had many limitations removed and “Did you mean …” suggestions continue
to improve.  The new *note type parameter syntax: 859. and *note type:
85a. statement improve ergonomics for using *note generic types: 1d1.
and *note type aliases: 85b. with static type checkers.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead gives a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation, such as the *note
Library Reference: 3f7. and *note Language Reference: 3f8.  If you want
to understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a
change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature; but note that
PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully
implemented.

__________________________________________________________________

New syntax features:

   * *note PEP 695: 859, type parameter syntax and the *note type: 85a.
     statement

New grammar features:

   * *note PEP 701: 85c, *note f-strings: 858. in the grammar

Interpreter improvements:

   * *note PEP 684: 85d, a unique per-interpreter *note GIL: 685.

   * *note PEP 669: 85e, low impact monitoring

   * *note Improved 'Did you mean ...'  suggestions: 85f.for *note
     NameError: 665, *note ImportError: 1bd, and *note SyntaxError: 17e.
     exceptions

Python data model improvements:

   * *note PEP 688: 860, using the *note buffer protocol: 311. from
     Python

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * The *note pathlib.Path: 4ee. class now supports subclassing

   * The *note os: a5. module received several improvements for Windows
     support

   * A *note command-line interface: 257. has been added to the *note
     sqlite3: d7. module

   * *note isinstance(): 2ef. checks against *note runtime-checkable
     protocols: 861. enjoy a speed up of between two and 20 times

   * The *note asyncio: b. package has had a number of performance
     improvements, with some benchmarks showing a 75% speed up.

   * A *note command-line interface: 862. has been added to the *note
     uuid: 119. module

   * Due to the changes in *note PEP 701: 85c, producing tokens via the
     *note tokenize: 104. module is up to 64% faster.

Security improvements:

   * Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 6b. implementations of SHA1,
     SHA3, SHA2-384, SHA2-512, and MD5 with formally verified code from
     the HACL*(1) project.  These builtin implementations remain as
     fallbacks that are only used when OpenSSL does not provide them.

C API improvements:

   * *note PEP 697: 863, unstable C API tier

   * *note PEP 683: 864, immortal objects

CPython implementation improvements:

   * *note PEP 709: 865, comprehension inlining

   * *note CPython support: 6b7. for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler

   * Implement stack overflow protection on supported platforms

New typing features:

   * *note PEP 692: 866, using *note TypedDict: 290. to annotate *note
     **kwargs: 867.

   * *note PEP 698: 868, *note typing.override(): 869. decorator

Important deprecations, removals or restrictions:

   * PEP 623(2): Remove ‘wstr’ from Unicode objects in Python’s C API,
     reducing the size of every *note str: 1df. object by at least 8
     bytes.

   * PEP 632(3): Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  See the migration
     guide(4) for advice replacing the APIs it provided.  The
     third-party Setuptools(5) package continues to provide ‘distutils’,
     if you still require it in Python 3.12 and beyond.

   * gh-95299(6): Do not pre-install ‘setuptools’ in virtual
     environments created with *note venv: 11a.  This means that
     ‘distutils’, ‘setuptools’, ‘pkg_resources’, and ‘easy_install’ will
     no longer available by default; to access these run ‘pip install
     setuptools’ in the *note activated: 86a. virtual environment.

   * The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’, and ‘imp’ modules have been removed,
     along with several *note unittest.TestCase: 52f. *note method
     aliases: 86b..

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice

   (5) 
https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/deprecated/distutils-legacy.html

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<3>,  Next: New Features Related to Type Hints,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 695; Type Parameter Syntax: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
* PEP 701; Syntactic formalization of f-strings: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
* PEP 684; A Per-Interpreter GIL: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
* PEP 669; Low impact monitoring for CPython: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
* PEP 688; Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
* PEP 709; Comprehension inlining: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
* Improved Error Messages::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax,  Next: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.1 PEP 695: Type Parameter Syntax
......................................

Generic classes and functions under PEP 484(1) were declared using a
verbose syntax that left the scope of type parameters unclear and
required explicit declarations of variance.

PEP 695(2) introduces a new, more compact and explicit way to create
*note generic classes: 86e. and *note functions: 86f.:

     def max[T](args: Iterable[T]) -> T:
         ...

     class list[T]:
         def __getitem__(self, index: int, /) -> T:
             ...

         def append(self, element: T) -> None:
             ...

In addition, the PEP introduces a new way to declare *note type aliases:
870. using the *note type: 85a. statement, which creates an instance of
*note TypeAliasType: 52a.:

     type Point = tuple[float, float]

Type aliases can also be *note generic: 871.:

     type Point[T] = tuple[T, T]

The new syntax allows declaring *note TypeVarTuple: 293. and *note
ParamSpec: 295. parameters, as well as *note TypeVar: 294. parameters
with bounds or constraints:

     type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int]  # ParamSpec
     type LabeledTuple[*Ts] = tuple[str, *Ts]  # TypeVarTuple
     type HashableSequence[T: Hashable] = Sequence[T]  # TypeVar with bound
     type IntOrStrSequence[T: (int, str)] = Sequence[T]  # TypeVar with constraints

The value of type aliases and the bound and constraints of type
variables created through this syntax are evaluated only on demand (see
*note lazy evaluation: 872.).  This means type aliases are able to refer
to other types defined later in the file.

Type parameters declared through a type parameter list are visible
within the scope of the declaration and any nested scopes, but not in
the outer scope.  For example, they can be used in the type annotations
for the methods of a generic class or in the class body.  However, they
cannot be used in the module scope after the class is defined.  See
*note Type parameter lists: 7a5. for a detailed description of the
runtime semantics of type parameters.

In order to support these scoping semantics, a new kind of scope is
introduced, the *note annotation scope: 6b4.  Annotation scopes behave
for the most part like function scopes, but interact differently with
enclosing class scopes.  In Python 3.13, *note annotations: 409. will
also be evaluated in annotation scopes.

See PEP 695(3) for more details.

(PEP written by Eric Traut.  Implementation by Jelle Zijlstra, Eric
Traut, and others in gh-103764(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Next: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Prev: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.2 PEP 701: Syntactic formalization of f-strings
.....................................................

PEP 701(1) lifts some restrictions on the usage of *note f-strings: 858.
Expression components inside f-strings can now be any valid Python
expression, including strings reusing the same quote as the containing
f-string, multi-line expressions, comments, backslashes, and unicode
escape sequences.  Let’s cover these in detail:

   * Quote reuse: in Python 3.11, reusing the same quotes as the
     enclosing f-string raises a *note SyntaxError: 17e, forcing the
     user to either use other available quotes (like using double quotes
     or triple quotes if the f-string uses single quotes).  In Python
     3.12, you can now do things like this:

          >>> songs = ['Take me back to Eden', 'Alkaline', 'Ascensionism']
          >>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join(songs)}"
          'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism'

     Note that before this change there was no explicit limit in how
     f-strings can be nested, but the fact that string quotes cannot be
     reused inside the expression component of f-strings made it
     impossible to nest f-strings arbitrarily.  In fact, this is the
     most nested f-string that could be written:

          >>> f"""{f'''{f'{f"{1+1}"}'}'''}"""
          '2'

     As now f-strings can contain any valid Python expression inside
     expression components, it is now possible to nest f-strings
     arbitrarily:

          >>> f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{1+1}"}"}"}"}"}"
          '2'

   * Multi-line expressions and comments: In Python 3.11, f-string
     expressions must be defined in a single line, even if the
     expression within the f-string could normally span multiple lines
     (like literal lists being defined over multiple lines), making them
     harder to read.  In Python 3.12 you can now define f-strings
     spanning multiple lines, and add inline comments:

          >>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join([
          ...     'Take me back to Eden',  # My, my, those eyes like fire
          ...     'Alkaline',              # Not acid nor alkaline
          ...     'Ascensionism'           # Take to the broken skies at last
          ... ])}"
          'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism'

   * Backslashes and unicode characters: before Python 3.12 f-string
     expressions couldn’t contain any ‘\’ character.  This also affected
     unicode *note escape sequences: 874. (such as ‘\N{snowman}’) as
     these contain the ‘\N’ part that previously could not be part of
     expression components of f-strings.  Now, you can define
     expressions like this:

          >>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\n".join(songs)}")
          This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden
          Alkaline
          Ascensionism
          >>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\N{BLACK HEART SUIT}".join(songs)}")
          This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden♥Alkaline♥Ascensionism

See PEP 701(2) for more details.

As a positive side-effect of how this feature has been implemented (by
parsing f-strings with the PEG parser(3)), now error messages for
f-strings are more precise and include the exact location of the error.
For example, in Python 3.11, the following f-string raises a *note
SyntaxError: 17e.:

     >>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         (x z y)
          ^^^
     SyntaxError: f-string: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

but the error message doesn’t include the exact location of the error
within the line and also has the expression artificially surrounded by
parentheses.  In Python 3.12, as f-strings are parsed with the PEG
parser, error messages can be more precise and show the entire line:

     >>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}"
                        ^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou,
Cristián Maureira-Fredes and Marta Gómez in gh-102856(4).  PEP written
by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou and Marta Gómez).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Next: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Prev: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.3 PEP 684: A Per-Interpreter GIL
......................................

PEP 684(1) introduces a per-interpreter *note GIL: 685, so that
sub-interpreters may now be created with a unique GIL per interpreter.
This allows Python programs to take full advantage of multiple CPU
cores.  This is currently only available through the C-API, though a
Python API is anticipated for 3.13(2).

Use the new *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 876. function to create
an interpreter with its own GIL:

     PyInterpreterConfig config = {
         .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1,
         .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL,
     };
     PyThreadState *tstate = NULL;
     PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config);
     if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
         return -1;
     }
     /* The new interpreter is now active in the current thread. */

For further examples how to use the C-API for sub-interpreters with a
per-interpreter GIL, see ‘Modules/_xxsubinterpretersmodule.c’.

(Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-104210(3), etc.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104210


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Next: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Prev: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.4 PEP 669: Low impact monitoring for CPython
..................................................

PEP 669(1) defines a new *note API: e3. for profilers, debuggers, and
other tools to monitor events in CPython.  It covers a wide range of
events, including calls, returns, lines, exceptions, jumps, and more.
This means that you only pay for what you use, providing support for
near-zero overhead debuggers and coverage tools.  See ‘sys.monitoring’
for details.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-103082(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Next: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Prev: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.5 PEP 688: Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python
................................................................

PEP 688(1) introduces a way to use the *note buffer protocol: 311. from
Python code.  Classes that implement the *note __buffer__(): 879. method
are now usable as buffer types.

The new *note collections.abc.Buffer: 312. ABC provides a standard way
to represent buffer objects, for example in type annotations.  The new
*note inspect.BufferFlags: 87a. enum represents the flags that can be
used to customize buffer creation.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
gh-102500(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102500


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Next: Improved Error Messages,  Prev: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.6 PEP 709: Comprehension inlining
.......................................

Dictionary, list, and set comprehensions are now inlined, rather than
creating a new single-use function object for each execution of the
comprehension.  This speeds up execution of a comprehension by up to two
times.  See PEP 709(1) for further details.

Comprehension iteration variables remain isolated and don’t overwrite a
variable of the same name in the outer scope, nor are they visible after
the comprehension.  Inlining does result in a few visible behavior
changes:

   * There is no longer a separate frame for the comprehension in
     tracebacks, and tracing/profiling no longer shows the comprehension
     as a function call.

   * The *note symtable: e1. module will no longer produce child symbol
     tables for each comprehension; instead, the comprehension’s locals
     will be included in the parent function’s symbol table.

   * Calling *note locals(): 28b. inside a comprehension now includes
     variables from outside the comprehension, and no longer includes
     the synthetic ‘.0’ variable for the comprehension «argument».

   * A comprehension iterating directly over ‘locals()’ (e.g.  ‘[k for k
     in locals()]’) may see «RuntimeError: dictionary changed size
     during iteration» when run under tracing (e.g.  code coverage
     measurement).  This is the same behavior already seen in e.g.  ‘for
     k in locals():’.  To avoid the error, first create a list of keys
     to iterate over: ‘keys = list(locals()); [k for k in keys]’.

(Contributed by Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in PEP 709(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Error Messages,  Prev: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining,  Up: New Features<3>

1.5.2.7 Improved Error Messages
...............................

   * Modules from the standard library are now potentially suggested as
     part of the error messages displayed by the interpreter when a
     *note NameError: 665. is raised to the top level.  (Contributed by
     Pablo Galindo in gh-98254(1).)

          >>> sys.version_info
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          NameError: name 'sys' is not defined. Did you forget to import 'sys'?

   * Improve the error suggestion for *note NameError: 665. exceptions
     for instances.  Now if a ‘NameError’ is raised in a method and the
     instance has an attribute that’s exactly equal to the name in the
     exception, the suggestion will include ‘self.<NAME>’ instead of the
     closest match in the method scope.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo
     in gh-99139(2).)

          >>> class A:
          ...    def __init__(self):
          ...        self.blech = 1
          ...
          ...    def foo(self):
          ...        somethin = blech
          ...
          >>> A().foo()
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              somethin = blech
                         ^^^^^
          NameError: name 'blech' is not defined. Did you mean: 'self.blech'?

   * Improve the *note SyntaxError: 17e. error message when the user
     types ‘import x from y’ instead of ‘from y import x’.  (Contributed
     by Pablo Galindo in gh-98931(3).)

          >>> import a.y.z from b.y.z
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              import a.y.z from b.y.z
              ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
          SyntaxError: Did you mean to use 'from ... import ...' instead?

   * *note ImportError: 1bd. exceptions raised from failed ‘from
     <module> import <name>’ statements now include suggestions for the
     value of ‘<name>’ based on the available names in ‘<module>’.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-91058(4).)

          >>> from collections import chainmap
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          ImportError: cannot import name 'chainmap' from 'collections'. Did you mean: 'ChainMap'?

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98254

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99139

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91058


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Related to Type Hints,  Next: Other Language Changes<2>,  Prev: New Features<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.3 New Features Related to Type Hints
----------------------------------------

This section covers major changes affecting type hints(1) and the *note
typing: 10d. module.

* Menu:

* PEP 692; Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
* PEP 698; Override Decorator for Static Typing: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing,  Next: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints

1.5.3.1 PEP 692: Using ‘TypedDict’ for more precise ‘**kwargs’ typing
.....................................................................

Typing ‘**kwargs’ in a function signature as introduced by PEP 484(1)
allowed for valid annotations only in cases where all of the ‘**kwargs’
were of the same type.

PEP 692(2) specifies a more precise way of typing ‘**kwargs’ by relying
on typed dictionaries:

     from typing import TypedDict, Unpack

     class Movie(TypedDict):
       name: str
       year: int

     def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ...

See PEP 692(3) for more details.

(Contributed by Franek Magiera in gh-103629(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing,  Prev: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints

1.5.3.2 PEP 698: Override Decorator for Static Typing
.....................................................

A new decorator *note typing.override(): 869. has been added to the
*note typing: 10d. module.  It indicates to type checkers that the
method is intended to override a method in a superclass.  This allows
type checkers to catch mistakes where a method that is intended to
override something in a base class does not in fact do so.

Example:

     from typing import override

     class Base:
       def get_color(self) -> str:
         return "blue"

     class GoodChild(Base):
       @override  # ok: overrides Base.get_color
       def get_color(self) -> str:
         return "yellow"

     class BadChild(Base):
       @override  # type checker error: does not override Base.get_color
       def get_colour(self) -> str:
         return "red"

See PEP 698(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Steven Troxler in gh-101561(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101561


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<2>,  Next: New Modules<2>,  Prev: New Features Related to Type Hints,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.4 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * The parser now raises *note SyntaxError: 17e. when parsing source
     code containing null bytes.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     gh-96670(1).)

   * A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now
     generates a *note SyntaxWarning: 44a, instead of *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  For example, ‘re.compile("\d+\.\d+")’ now
     emits a ‘SyntaxWarning’ (‘"\d"’ is an invalid escape sequence, use
     raw strings for regular expression: ‘re.compile(r"\d+\.\d+")’).  In
     a future Python version, *note SyntaxError: 17e. will eventually be
     raised, instead of ‘SyntaxWarning’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in gh-98401(2).)

   * Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ (ex: ‘"\477"’),
     deprecated in Python 3.11, now produce a *note SyntaxWarning: 44a,
     instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  In a future Python
     version they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError: 17e.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98401(3).)

   * Variables used in the target part of comprehensions that are not
     stored to can now be used in assignment expressions (‘:=’).  For
     example, in ‘[(b := 1) for a, b.prop in some_iter]’, the assignment
     to ‘b’ is now allowed.  Note that assigning to variables stored to
     in the target part of comprehensions (like ‘a’) is still
     disallowed, as per PEP 572(4).  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-100581(5).)

   * Exceptions raised in a class or type’s ‘__set_name__’ method are no
     longer wrapped by a *note RuntimeError: 30d.  Context information
     is added to the exception as a PEP 678(6) note.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-77757(7).)

   * When a ‘try-except*’ construct handles the entire *note
     ExceptionGroup: 6d8. and raises one other exception, that exception
     is no longer wrapped in an ‘ExceptionGroup’.  Also changed in
     version 3.11.4.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103590(8).)

   * The Garbage Collector now runs only on the eval breaker mechanism
     of the Python bytecode evaluation loop instead of object
     allocations.  The GC can also run when *note PyErr_CheckSignals():
     880. is called so C extensions that need to run for a long time
     without executing any Python code also have a chance to execute the
     GC periodically.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-97922(9).)

   * All builtin and extension callables expecting boolean parameters
     now accept arguments of any type instead of just *note bool: 5ef.
     and *note int: 326.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-60203(10).)

   * *note memoryview: 1d2. now supports the half-float type (the «e»
     format code).  (Contributed by Donghee Na and Antoine Pitrou in
     gh-90751(11).)

   * *note slice: 1d0. objects are now hashable, allowing them to be
     used as dict keys and set items.  (Contributed by Will Bradshaw,
     Furkan Onder, and Raymond Hettinger in gh-101264(12).)

   * *note sum(): 881. now uses Neumaier summation to improve accuracy
     and commutativity when summing floats or mixed ints and floats.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100425(13).)

   * *note ast.parse(): 1c9. now raises *note SyntaxError: 17e. instead
     of *note ValueError: 277. when parsing source code containing null
     bytes.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-96670(14).)

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: e7, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 882, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note tarfile extraction filters: 883. for details.  In Python
     3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.  (Contributed by Petr
     Viktorin in PEP 706(15).)

   * *note types.MappingProxyType: 189. instances are now hashable if
     the underlying mapping is hashable.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-87995(16).)

   * Add *note support for the perf profiler: 6b7. through the new
     environment variable *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 884. and command-line
     option *note -X perf: 178, as well as the new *note
     sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 885, *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 886, and *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 887. functions.  (Design by Pablo
     Galindo.  Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with
     contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon in
     gh-96123(17).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100581

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77757

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103590

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97922

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60203

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90751

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101264

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100425

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87995

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<2>,  Next: Improved Modules<2>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.5 New Modules
-----------------

   * None.


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<2>,  Next: Optimizations<5>,  Prev: New Modules<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.6 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* array: array<3>.
* asyncio: asyncio<6>.
* calendar: calendar<3>.
* csv: csv<2>.
* dis: dis<3>.
* fractions: fractions<3>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources<2>.
* inspect: inspect<3>.
* itertools: itertools<3>.
* math: math<4>.
* os: os<4>.
* os.path: os path<4>.
* pathlib: pathlib<7>.
* platform: platform<3>.
* pdb: pdb<5>.
* random: random<2>.
* shutil: shutil<2>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<4>.
* statistics: statistics<2>.
* sys: sys<4>.
* tempfile: tempfile<2>.
* threading: threading<4>.
* tkinter: tkinter<4>.
* tokenize: tokenize<2>.
* types: types<5>.
* typing: typing<6>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<4>.
* unittest: unittest<4>.
* uuid: uuid<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: array<3>,  Next: asyncio<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.1 array
.............

   * The *note array.array: 6c5. class now supports subscripting, making
     it a *note generic type: 1d1.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-98658(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98658


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<6>,  Next: calendar<3>,  Prev: array<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.2 asyncio
...............

   * The performance of writing to sockets in *note asyncio: b. has been
     significantly improved.  ‘asyncio’ now avoids unnecessary copying
     when writing to sockets and uses *note sendmsg(): 88c. if the
     platform supports it.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-91166(1).)

   * Add *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 88d. and *note
     asyncio.create_eager_task_factory(): 88e. functions to allow opting
     an event loop in to eager task execution, making some use-cases 2x
     to 5x faster.  (Contributed by Jacob Bower & Itamar Oren in
     gh-102853(2), gh-104140(3), and gh-104138(4))

   * On Linux, *note asyncio: b. uses ‘asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher’ by
     default if *note os.pidfd_open(): 267. is available and functional
     instead of ‘asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher’.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in gh-98024(5).)

   * The event loop now uses the best available child watcher for each
     platform (‘asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher’ if supported and
     ‘asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher’ otherwise), so manually configuring
     a child watcher is not recommended.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya
     in gh-94597(6).)

   * Add 'loop_factory' parameter to *note asyncio.run(): 309. to allow
     specifying a custom event loop factory.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in gh-99388(7).)

   * Add C implementation of *note asyncio.current_task(): 88f. for
     4x-6x speedup.  (Contributed by Itamar Oren and Pranav Thulasiram
     Bhat in gh-100344(8).)

   * *note asyncio.iscoroutine(): 890. now returns ‘False’ for
     generators as *note asyncio: b. does not support legacy
     generator-based coroutines.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-102748(9).)

   * *note asyncio.wait(): 891. and *note asyncio.as_completed(): 6cc.
     now accepts generators yielding tasks.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in gh-78530(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91166

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102853

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104140

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104138

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98024

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99388

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100344

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102748

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78530


File: python.info,  Node: calendar<3>,  Next: csv<2>,  Prev: asyncio<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.3 calendar
................

   * Add enums *note calendar.Month: 893. and *note calendar.Day: 894.
     defining months of the year and days of the week.  (Contributed by
     Prince Roshan in gh-103636(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636


File: python.info,  Node: csv<2>,  Next: dis<3>,  Prev: calendar<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.4 csv
...........

   * Add *note csv.QUOTE_NOTNULL: 896. and *note csv.QUOTE_STRINGS: 897.
     flags to provide finer grained control of ‘None’ and empty strings
     by *note reader: 898. and *note writer: 899. objects.


File: python.info,  Node: dis<3>,  Next: fractions<3>,  Prev: csv<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.5 dis
...........

   * Pseudo instruction opcodes (which are used by the compiler but do
     not appear in executable bytecode) are now exposed in the *note
     dis: 3b. module.  *note HAVE_ARGUMENT: 89b. is still relevant to
     real opcodes, but it is not useful for pseudo instructions.  Use
     the new *note dis.hasarg: 79e. collection instead.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-94216(1).)

   * Add the *note dis.hasexc: 89c. collection to signify instructions
     that set an exception handler.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-94216(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216


File: python.info,  Node: fractions<3>,  Next: importlib resources<2>,  Prev: dis<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.6 fractions
.................

   * Objects of type *note fractions.Fraction: 1c3. now support
     float-style formatting.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
     gh-100161(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100161


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources<2>,  Next: inspect<3>,  Prev: fractions<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.7 importlib.resources
...........................

   * *note importlib.resources.as_file(): 89f. now supports resource
     directories.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-97930(1).)

   * Rename first parameter of *note importlib.resources.files(): 2d7.
     to 'anchor'.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-100598(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100598


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<3>,  Next: itertools<3>,  Prev: importlib resources<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.8 inspect
...............

   * Add *note inspect.markcoroutinefunction(): 8a1. to mark sync
     functions that return a *note coroutine: 8a2. for use with *note
     inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 302.  (Contributed by Carlton Gibson
     in gh-99247(1).)

   * Add *note inspect.getasyncgenstate(): 8a3. and *note
     inspect.getasyncgenlocals(): 8a4. for determining the current state
     of asynchronous generators.  (Contributed by Thomas Krennwallner in
     gh-79940(2).)

   * The performance of *note inspect.getattr_static(): 8a5. has been
     considerably improved.  Most calls to the function should be at
     least 2x faster than they were in Python 3.11.  (Contributed by
     Alex Waygood in gh-103193(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99247

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79940

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<3>,  Next: math<4>,  Prev: inspect<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.9 itertools
.................

   * Add *note itertools.batched(): 715. for collecting into even-sized
     tuples where the last batch may be shorter than the rest.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-98363(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98363


File: python.info,  Node: math<4>,  Next: os<4>,  Prev: itertools<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.10 math
.............

   * Add *note math.sumprod(): 8a8. for computing a sum of products.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100485(1).)

   * Extend *note math.nextafter(): 8a9. to include a 'steps' argument
     for moving up or down multiple steps at a time.  (Contributed by
     Matthias Goergens, Mark Dickinson, and Raymond Hettinger in
     gh-94906(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100485

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94906


File: python.info,  Node: os<4>,  Next: os path<4>,  Prev: math<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.11 os
...........

   * Add *note os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK: 8ab. to open a file descriptor for a
     process with *note os.pidfd_open(): 267. in non-blocking mode.
     (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-93312(1).)

   * *note os.DirEntry: 8ac. now includes an *note
     os.DirEntry.is_junction(): 8ad. method to check if the entry is a
     junction.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547(2).)

   * Add *note os.listdrives(): 8ae, *note os.listvolumes(): 8af. and
     *note os.listmounts(): 8b0. functions on Windows for enumerating
     drives, volumes and mount points.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
     gh-102519(3).)

   * *note os.stat(): 4f5. and *note os.lstat(): 8b1. are now more
     accurate on Windows.  The ‘st_birthtime’ field will now be filled
     with the creation time of the file, and ‘st_ctime’ is deprecated
     but still contains the creation time (but in the future will return
     the last metadata change, for consistency with other platforms).
     ‘st_dev’ may be up to 64 bits and ‘st_ino’ up to 128 bits depending
     on your file system, and ‘st_rdev’ is always set to zero rather
     than incorrect values.  Both functions may be significantly faster
     on newer releases of Windows.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
     gh-99726(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102519

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726


File: python.info,  Node: os path<4>,  Next: pathlib<7>,  Prev: os<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.12 os.path
................

   * Add *note os.path.isjunction(): 8b3. to check if a given path is a
     junction.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547(1).)

   * Add *note os.path.splitroot(): 8b4. to split a path into a triad
     ‘(drive, root, tail)’.  (Contributed by Barney Gale in
     gh-101000(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101000


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<7>,  Next: platform<3>,  Prev: os path<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.13 pathlib
................

   * Add support for subclassing *note pathlib.PurePath: 8b6. and *note
     pathlib.Path: 4ee, plus their Posix- and Windows-specific variants.
     Subclasses may override the *note pathlib.PurePath.with_segments():
     8b7. method to pass information between path instances.

   * Add *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 8b8. for walking the directory trees
     and generating all file or directory names within them, similar to
     *note os.walk(): 8b9.  (Contributed by Stanislav Zmiev in
     gh-90385(1).)

   * Add 'walk_up' optional parameter to *note
     pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 575. to allow the insertion of ‘..’
     entries in the result; this behavior is more consistent with *note
     os.path.relpath(): 8ba.  (Contributed by Domenico Ragusa in
     gh-84538(2).)

   * Add *note pathlib.Path.is_junction(): 8bb. as a proxy to *note
     os.path.isjunction(): 8b3.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-99547(3).)

   * Add 'case_sensitive' optional parameter to *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a, *note pathlib.Path.rglob(): 73b. and
     *note pathlib.PurePath.match(): 8bc. for matching the path’s case
     sensitivity, allowing for more precise control over the matching
     process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90385

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84538

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547


File: python.info,  Node: platform<3>,  Next: pdb<5>,  Prev: pathlib<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.14 platform
.................

   * Add support for detecting Windows 11 and Windows Server releases
     past 2012.  Previously, lookups on Windows Server platforms newer
     than Windows Server 2012 and on Windows 11 would return
     ‘Windows-10’.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-89545(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89545


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<5>,  Next: random<2>,  Prev: platform<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.15 pdb
............

   * Add convenience variables to hold values temporarily for debug
     session and provide quick access to values like the current frame
     or the return value.  (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-103693(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103693


File: python.info,  Node: random<2>,  Next: shutil<2>,  Prev: pdb<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.16 random
...............

   * Add *note random.binomialvariate(): 8c0.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in gh-81620(1).)

   * Add a default of ‘lambd=1.0’ to *note random.expovariate(): 8c1.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100234(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100234


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<2>,  Next: sqlite3<4>,  Prev: random<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.17 shutil
...............

   * *note shutil.make_archive(): 8c3. now passes the 'root_dir'
     argument to custom archivers which support it.  In this case it no
     longer temporarily changes the current working directory of the
     process to 'root_dir' to perform archiving.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-74696(1).)

   * *note shutil.rmtree(): 335. now accepts a new argument 'onexc'
     which is an error handler like 'onerror' but which expects an
     exception instance rather than a '(typ, val, tb)' triplet.
     'onerror' is deprecated.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102828(2).)

   * *note shutil.which(): 8c4. now consults the 'PATHEXT' environment
     variable to find matches within 'PATH' on Windows even when the
     given 'cmd' includes a directory component.  (Contributed by
     Charles Machalow in gh-103179(3).)

     *note shutil.which(): 8c4. will call
     ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW’ when querying for executables on
     Windows to determine if the current working directory should be
     prepended to the search path.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-103179(4).)

     *note shutil.which(): 8c4. will return a path matching the 'cmd'
     with a component from ‘PATHEXT’ prior to a direct match elsewhere
     in the search path on Windows.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-103179(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<4>,  Next: statistics<2>,  Prev: shutil<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.18 sqlite3
................

   * Add a *note command-line interface: 257.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
     Aasland in gh-77617(1).)

   * Add the *note sqlite3.Connection.autocommit: 8c6. attribute to
     *note sqlite3.Connection: 3df. and the 'autocommit' parameter to
     *note sqlite3.connect(): 3e0. to control PEP 249(2)-compliant *note
     transaction handling: 8c7.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-83638(3).)

   * Add 'entrypoint' keyword-only parameter to *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 8c8, for overriding the SQLite
     extension entry point.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-103015(4).)

   * Add *note sqlite3.Connection.getconfig(): 8c9. and *note
     sqlite3.Connection.setconfig(): 8ca. to *note sqlite3.Connection:
     3df. to make configuration changes to a database connection.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-103489(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77617

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83638

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103015

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103489


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<2>,  Next: sys<4>,  Prev: sqlite3<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.19 statistics
...................

   * Extend *note statistics.correlation(): 8cc. to include as a
     ‘ranked’ method for computing the Spearman correlation of ranked
     data.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-95861(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95861


File: python.info,  Node: sys<4>,  Next: tempfile<2>,  Prev: statistics<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.20 sys
............

   * Add the *note sys.monitoring: e3. namespace to expose the new *note
     PEP 669: 85e. monitoring API. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-103082(1).)

   * Add *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 885. and *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 886. for activating and
     deactivating stack profiler trampolines, and *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 887. for querying if stack
     profiler trampolines are active.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and
     Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google]
     and Mark Shannon in gh-96123(2).)

   * Add *note sys.last_exc: 8ce. which holds the last unhandled
     exception that was raised (for post-mortem debugging use cases).
     Deprecate the three fields that have the same information in its
     legacy form: *note sys.last_type: 8cf, *note sys.last_value: 8d0.
     and *note sys.last_traceback: 8d1.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102778(3).)

   * *note sys._current_exceptions(): 8d2. now returns a mapping from
     thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a ‘(typ, exc,
     tb)’ tuple.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176(4).)

   * *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 8d3. and *note
     sys.getrecursionlimit(): 8d4.  The recursion limit now applies only
     to Python code.  Builtin functions do not use the recursion limit,
     but are protected by a different mechanism that prevents recursion
     from causing a virtual machine crash.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<2>,  Next: threading<4>,  Prev: sys<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.21 tempfile
.................

   * The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 8d6. function has a new
     optional parameter 'delete_on_close' (Contributed by Evgeny Zorin
     in gh-58451(1).)

   * *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 730. now always returns an absolute path,
     even if the argument provided to the 'dir' parameter is a relative
     path.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58451


File: python.info,  Node: threading<4>,  Next: tkinter<4>,  Prev: tempfile<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.22 threading
..................

   * Add *note threading.settrace_all_threads(): 8d8. and *note
     threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 8d9. that allow to set tracing
     and profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the
     calling one.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<4>,  Next: tokenize<2>,  Prev: threading<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.23 tkinter
................

   * ‘tkinter.Canvas.coords()’ now flattens its arguments.  It now
     accepts not only coordinates as separate arguments (‘x1, y1, x2,
     y2, ...’) and a sequence of coordinates (‘[x1, y1, x2, y2, ...]’),
     but also coordinates grouped in pairs (‘(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...’
     and ‘[(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...]’), like ‘create_*()’ methods.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-94473(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94473


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize<2>,  Next: types<5>,  Prev: tkinter<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.24 tokenize
.................

   * The *note tokenize: 104. module includes the changes introduced in
     PEP 701(1).  (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo
     in gh-102856(2).)  See *note Porting to Python 3.12: 8dc. for more
     information on the changes to the ‘tokenize’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856


File: python.info,  Node: types<5>,  Next: typing<6>,  Prev: tokenize<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.25 types
..............

   * Add *note types.get_original_bases(): 8de. to allow for further
     introspection of *note User-defined generic types: 8df. when
     subclassed.  (Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe and Alex Waygood in
     gh-101827(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101827


File: python.info,  Node: typing<6>,  Next: unicodedata<4>,  Prev: types<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.26 typing
...............

   * *note isinstance(): 2ef. checks against *note runtime-checkable
     protocols: 861. now use *note inspect.getattr_static(): 8a5. rather
     than *note hasattr(): 8e2. to lookup whether attributes exist.
     This means that descriptors and *note __getattr__(): 8e3. methods
     are no longer unexpectedly evaluated during ‘isinstance()’ checks
     against runtime-checkable protocols.  However, it may also mean
     that some objects which used to be considered instances of a
     runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of
     that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa.  Most users are
     unlikely to be affected by this change.  (Contributed by Alex
     Waygood in gh-102433(1).)

   * The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now considered
     «frozen» at runtime as soon as the class has been created.
     Monkey-patching attributes onto a runtime-checkable protocol will
     still work, but will have no impact on *note isinstance(): 2ef.
     checks comparing objects to the protocol.  For example:

          >>> from typing import Protocol, runtime_checkable
          >>> @runtime_checkable
          ... class HasX(Protocol):
          ...     x = 1
          ...
          >>> class Foo: ...
          ...
          >>> f = Foo()
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)
          False
          >>> f.x = 1
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)
          True
          >>> HasX.y = 2
          >>> isinstance(f, HasX)  # unchanged, even though HasX now also has a "y" attribute
          True

     This change was made in order to speed up ‘isinstance()’ checks
     against runtime-checkable protocols.

   * The performance profile of *note isinstance(): 2ef. checks against
     *note runtime-checkable protocols: 861. has changed significantly.
     Most ‘isinstance()’ checks against protocols with only a few
     members should be at least 2x faster than in 3.11, and some may be
     20x faster or more.  However, ‘isinstance()’ checks against
     protocols with many members may be slower than in Python 3.11.
     (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-74690(2) and gh-103193(3).)

   * All *note typing.TypedDict: 290. and *note typing.NamedTuple: 2e4.
     classes now have the ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute.  (Contributed by
     Adrian Garcia Badaracco in gh-103699(4).)

   * Add ‘frozen_default’ parameter to *note
     typing.dataclass_transform(): 8e4.  (Contributed by Erik De Bonte
     in gh-99957(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102433

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103699

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99957


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<4>,  Next: unittest<4>,  Prev: typing<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.27 unicodedata
....................

   * The Unicode database has been updated to version 15.0.0.
     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in gh-96734(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96734


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<4>,  Next: uuid<3>,  Prev: unicodedata<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.28 unittest
.................

Add a ‘--durations’ command line option, showing the N slowest test
cases:

     python3 -m unittest --durations=3 lib.tests.test_threading
     .....
     Slowest test durations
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     1.210s     test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests)
     1.003s     test_default_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests)
     0.518s     test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.EventTests)

     (0.000 durations hidden.  Use -v to show these durations.)
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 158 tests in 9.869s

     OK (skipped=3)

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in gh-48330(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48330


File: python.info,  Node: uuid<3>,  Prev: unittest<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<2>

1.5.6.29 uuid
.............

   * Add a *note command-line interface: 862.  (Contributed by Adam
     Chhina in gh-88597(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88597


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<5>,  Next: CPython bytecode changes<2>,  Prev: Improved Modules<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.7 Optimizations
-------------------

   * Remove ‘wstr’ and ‘wstr_length’ members from Unicode objects.  It
     reduces object size by 8 or 16 bytes on 64bit platform.  ( PEP
     623(1)) (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-92536(2).)

   * Add experimental support for using the BOLT binary optimizer in the
     build process, which improves performance by 1-5%.  (Contributed by
     Kevin Modzelewski in gh-90536(3) and tuned by Donghee Na in
     gh-101525(4))

   * Speed up the regular expression substitution (functions *note
     re.sub(): 7a1. and *note re.subn(): 7a2. and corresponding
     ‘re.Pattern’ methods) for replacement strings containing group
     references by 2–3 times.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-91524(5).)

   * Speed up *note asyncio.Task: 460. creation by deferring expensive
     string formatting.  (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-103793(6).)

   * The *note tokenize.tokenize(): 8e9. and *note
     tokenize.generate_tokens(): 8ea. functions are up to 64% faster as
     a side effect of the changes required to cover PEP 701(7) in the
     *note tokenize: 104. module.  (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías
     and Pablo Galindo in gh-102856(8).)

   * Speed up *note super(): 443. method calls and attribute loads via
     the new *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 8eb. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92536

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90536

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101525

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91524

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103793

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes<2>,  Next: Demos and Tools,  Prev: Optimizations<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.8 CPython bytecode changes
------------------------------

   * Remove the ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction.  It has been merged into
     *note LOAD_ATTR: 8ed.  ‘LOAD_ATTR’ will now behave like the old
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction if the low bit of its oparg is set.
     (Contributed by Ken Jin in gh-93429(1).)

   * Remove the ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ and ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’
     instructions.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102859(2).)

   * Remove the ‘PRECALL’ instruction.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-92925(3).)

   * Add the *note BINARY_SLICE: 8ee. and *note STORE_SLICE: 8ef.
     instructions.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-94163(4).)

   * Add the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 8f0. instructions.  (Contributed by
     Mark Shannon in gh-99005(5).)

   * Add the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_2: 8f1. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in gh-101799(6).)

   * Add the *note CLEANUP_THROW: 8f2. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Brandt Bucher in gh-90997(7).)

   * Add the ‘END_SEND’ instruction.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in
     gh-103082(8).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR: 8f3. instruction as part of the
     implementation of PEP 709(9).  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in
     gh-101441(10).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FAST_CHECK: 8f4. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Dennis Sweeney in gh-93143(11).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 8f5, *note
     LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS: 8f6, and *note LOAD_LOCALS: 8f7. opcodes
     as part of the implementation of PEP 695(12).  Remove the
     ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’ opcode, which can be replaced with ‘LOAD_LOCALS’
     plus ‘LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF’.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-103764(13).)

   * Add the *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 8eb. instruction.  (Contributed by
     Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497(14).)

   * Add the ‘RETURN_CONST’ instruction.  (Contributed by Wenyang Wang
     in gh-101632(15).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93429

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102859

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92925

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94163

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101799

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101441

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101632


File: python.info,  Node: Demos and Tools,  Next: Deprecated<4>,  Prev: CPython bytecode changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.9 Demos and Tools
---------------------

   * Remove the ‘Tools/demo/’ directory which contained old demo
     scripts.  A copy can be found in the old-demos project(1).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-97681(2).)

   * Remove outdated example scripts of the ‘Tools/scripts/’ directory.
     A copy can be found in the old-demos project(3).  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-97669(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97681

   (3) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97669


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<4>,  Next: Removed<4>,  Prev: Demos and Tools,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.10 Deprecated
-----------------

   * *note argparse: 7.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 9.: The following ‘ast’ features have been deprecated in
     documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 569. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: b.:

        * The child watcher classes ‘asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher’,
          ‘asyncio.FastChildWatcher’, ‘asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher’ and
          ‘asyncio.SafeChildWatcher’ are deprecated and will be removed
          in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(3).)

        * ‘asyncio.set_child_watcher()’, ‘asyncio.get_child_watcher()’,
          ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher()’ and
          ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher()’ are
          deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed
          by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 56c. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note calendar: 15.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     329. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 32a.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(6).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1f.: Deprecated *note
     collections.abc.ByteString: 2cb.

     Use ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)’ to test if ‘obj’
     implements the *note buffer protocol: 311. at runtime.  For use in
     type annotations, either use *note Buffer: 312. or a union that
     explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., ‘bytes |
     bytearray | memoryview’).

     ‘ByteString’ was originally intended to be an abstract class that
     would serve as a supertype of both *note bytes: 1c7. and *note
     bytearray: 1c6.  However, since the ABC never had any methods,
     knowing that an object was an instance of ‘ByteString’ never
     actually told you anything useful about the object.  Other common
     buffer types such as *note memoryview: 1d2. were also never
     understood as subtypes of ‘ByteString’ (either at runtime or by
     static type checkers).

     See PEP 688(7) for more details.  (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in
     gh-91896(8).)

   * *note datetime: 33.: *note datetime.datetime: 6e7.’s *note
     utcnow(): 32e. and *note utcfromtimestamp(): 32f. are deprecated
     and will be removed in a future version.  Instead, use
     timezone-aware objects to represent datetimes in UTC: respectively,
     call *note now(): 8fa. and *note fromtimestamp(): 8fb. with the
     'tz' parameter set to *note datetime.UTC: 8fc.  (Contributed by
     Paul Ganssle in gh-103857(9).)

   * *note email: 3e.: Deprecate the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 56f.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(10).)

   * *note importlib.abc: 7b.: Deprecated the following classes,
     scheduled for removal in Python 3.14:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7f. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 572.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 571.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(11).)

   * *note itertools: 84.: Deprecate the support for copy, deepcopy, and
     pickle operations, which is undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a
     significant reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(12).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 98.: In Python 3.14, the default
     ‘multiprocessing’ start method will change to a safer one on Linux,
     BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where ‘'fork'’ is
     currently the default (gh-84559(13)).  Adding a runtime warning
     about this was deemed too disruptive as the majority of code is not
     expected to care.  Use the *note get_context(): 4d6. or *note
     set_start_method(): 4d7. APIs to explicitly specify when your code
     'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note contexts and start methods: 46d.

   * *note pkgutil: ae.: ‘pkgutil.find_loader()’ and
     ‘pkgutil.get_loader()’ are deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.14; use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 7a7. instead.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(14).)

   * *note pty: b9.: The module has two undocumented ‘master_open()’ and
     ‘slave_open()’ functions that have been deprecated since Python 2
     but only gained a proper *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. in 3.12.
     Remove them in 3.14.  (Contributed by Soumendra Ganguly and Gregory
     P. Smith in gh-85984(15).)

   * *note os: a5.:

        * The ‘st_ctime’ fields return by *note os.stat(): 4f5. and
          *note os.lstat(): 8b1. on Windows are deprecated.  In a future
          release, they will contain the last metadata change time,
          consistent with other platforms.  For now, they still contain
          the creation time, which is also available in the new
          ‘st_birthtime’ field.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
          gh-99726(16).)

        * On POSIX platforms, *note os.fork(): 6bd. can now raise a
          *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. when it can detect being called
          from a multithreaded process.  There has always been a
          fundamental incompatibility with the POSIX platform when doing
          so.  Even if such code 'appeared' to work.  We added the
          warning to raise awareness as issues encountered by code doing
          this are becoming more frequent.  See the ‘os.fork()’
          documentation for more details along with this discussion on
          fork being incompatible with threads(17) for 'why' we’re now
          surfacing this longstanding platform compatibility problem to
          developers.

     When this warning appears due to usage of *note multiprocessing:
     98. or *note concurrent.futures: 24. the fix is to use a different
     ‘multiprocessing’ start method such as ‘"spawn"’ or ‘"forkserver"’.

   * *note shutil: cd.: The 'onerror' argument of *note shutil.rmtree():
     335. is deprecated; use 'onexc' instead.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in gh-102828(18).)

   * *note sqlite3: d7.:

        * *note default adapters and converters: 8fd. are now
          deprecated.  Instead, use the *note Adapter and converter
          recipes: 8fe. and tailor them to your needs.  (Contributed by
          Erlend E. Aasland in gh-90016(19).)

        * In *note execute(): 7a8, *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. is now
          emitted when *note named placeholders: 7aa. are used together
          with parameters supplied as a *note sequence: 8ff. instead of
          as a *note dict: 188.  Starting from Python 3.14, using named
          placeholders with parameters supplied as a sequence will raise
          a *note ProgrammingError: 57d.  (Contributed by Erlend E.
          Aasland in gh-101698(20).)

   * *note sys: e2.: The *note sys.last_type: 8cf, *note sys.last_value:
     8d0. and *note sys.last_traceback: 8d1. fields are deprecated.  Use
     *note sys.last_exc: 8ce. instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102778(21).)

   * *note tarfile: e7.: Extracting tar archives without specifying
     'filter' is deprecated until Python 3.14, when ‘'data'’ filter will
     become the default.  See *note Extraction filters: 883. for
     details.

   * *note typing: 10d.:

        * *note typing.Hashable: 900. and *note typing.Sized: 901,
          aliases for *note collections.abc.Hashable: 902. and *note
          collections.abc.Sized: 903. respectively, are deprecated.
          (gh-94309(22).)

        * *note typing.ByteString: 2e3, deprecated since Python 3.9, now
          causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. to be emitted when it
          is used.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-91896(23).)

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: The module now emits *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. when testing the truth value of an *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 343.  Before, the Python
     implementation emitted *note FutureWarning: 847, and the C
     implementation emitted nothing.  (Contributed by Jacob Walls in
     gh-83122(24).)

   * The 3-arg signatures (type, value, traceback) of *note coroutine
     throw(): 904, *note generator throw(): 905. and *note async
     generator throw(): 906. are deprecated and may be removed in a
     future version of Python.  Use the single-arg versions of these
     functions instead.  (Contributed by Ofey Chan in gh-89874(25).)

   * *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. is now raised when *note
     __package__: 58c. on a module differs from *note __spec__.parent:
     58d. (previously it was *note ImportWarning: 907.).  (Contributed
     by Brett Cannon in gh-65961(26).)

   * Setting *note __package__: 58c. or ‘__cached__’ on a module is
     deprecated, and will cease to be set or taken into consideration by
     the import system in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     gh-65961(27).)

   * The bitwise inversion operator (‘~’) on bool is deprecated.  It
     will throw an error in Python 3.16.  Use ‘not’ for logical negation
     of bools instead.  In the rare case that you really need the
     bitwise inversion of the underlying ‘int’, convert to int
     explicitly: ‘~int(x)’.  (Contributed by Tim Hoffmann in
     gh-103487(28).)

   * Accessing ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’ on code objects was deprecated in
     Python 3.10 via PEP 626(29), but it only got a proper *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
     (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(30).)

* Menu:

* Pending removal in Python 3.13: Pending removal in Python 3 13.
* Pending removal in Python 3.14: Pending removal in Python 3 14<3>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<5>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<6>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.17: Pending removal in Python 3 17<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.19: Pending removal in Python 3 19<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.20: Pending removal in Python 3 20<4>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726

   (17) 
https://discuss.python.org/t/concerns-regarding-deprecation-of-fork-with-alive-threads/33555

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90016

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101698

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83122

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103487

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 13,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 14<3>,  Up: Deprecated<4>

1.5.10.1 Pending removal in Python 3.13
.......................................

Modules (see PEP 594(1)):

   * ‘aifc’

   * ‘audioop’

   * ‘cgi’

   * ‘cgitb’

   * ‘chunk’

   * ‘crypt’

   * ‘imghdr’

   * ‘mailcap’

   * ‘msilib’

   * ‘nis’

   * ‘nntplib’

   * ‘ossaudiodev’

   * ‘pipes’

   * ‘sndhdr’

   * ‘spwd’

   * ‘sunau’

   * ‘telnetlib’

   * ‘uu’

   * ‘xdrlib’

Other modules:

   * ‘lib2to3’, and the ‘2to3’ program (gh-84540(2))

APIs:

   * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ (gh-90765(3))

   * ‘locale.resetlocale()’ (gh-90817(4))

   * ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ (gh-50096(5))

   * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’ (gh-50096(6))

   * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’ (gh-50096(7))

   * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ (gh-50096(8))

   * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ (gh-67048(9))

   * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ (gh-86421(10))

   * *note classmethod: 69a. descriptor chaining (gh-89519(11))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84540

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90765

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86421

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 14<3>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 15<5>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 13,  Up: Deprecated<4>

1.5.10.2 Pending removal in Python 3.14
.......................................

   * *note argparse: 7.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.14.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).)

   * *note ast: 9.: The following features have been deprecated in
     documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. to be emitted at runtime when they are
     accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14:

        * ‘ast.Num’

        * ‘ast.Str’

        * ‘ast.Bytes’

        * ‘ast.NameConstant’

        * ‘ast.Ellipsis’

     Use *note ast.Constant: 569. instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-90953(2).)

   * *note asyncio: b.:

        * The child watcher classes ‘asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher’,
          ‘asyncio.FastChildWatcher’, ‘asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher’ and
          ‘asyncio.SafeChildWatcher’ are deprecated and will be removed
          in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(3).)

        * ‘asyncio.set_child_watcher()’, ‘asyncio.get_child_watcher()’,
          ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher()’ and
          ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher()’ are
          deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed
          by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).)

        * The *note get_event_loop(): 56c. method of the default event
          loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. if
          there is no current event loop set and it decides to create
          one.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in
          gh-100160(5).)

   * *note email: 3e.: Deprecated the 'isdst' parameter in *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 56f.  (Contributed by Alan Williams in
     gh-72346(6).)

   * *note importlib.abc: 7b. deprecated classes:

        * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’

        * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’

        * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’

     Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7f. classes instead:

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 572.

        * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 571.

     (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in
     gh-93963(7).)

   * *note itertools: 84. had undocumented, inefficient, historically
     buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle
     operations.  This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant
     reduction in code volume and maintenance burden.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(8).)

   * *note multiprocessing: 98.: The default start method will change to
     a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms
     where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(9)).  Adding a
     runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the
     majority of code is not expected to care.  Use the *note
     get_context(): 4d6. or *note set_start_method(): 4d7. APIs to
     explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’.  See *note
     Contexts and start methods: 46d.

   * *note pathlib: a8.: *note is_relative_to(): 576. and *note
     relative_to(): 575.: passing additional arguments is deprecated.

   * *note pkgutil: ae.: ‘pkgutil.find_loader()’ and
     ‘pkgutil.get_loader()’ now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.;
     use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 7a7. instead.  (Contributed
     by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(10).)

   * *note pty: b9.:

        * ‘master_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 579.

        * ‘slave_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 579.

   * *note sqlite3: d7.:

        * ‘version’ and ‘version_info’.

        * *note execute(): 7a8. and *note executemany(): 7a9. if *note
          named placeholders: 7aa. are used and 'parameters' is a
          sequence instead of a *note dict: 188.

   * *note urllib: 111.: ‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ is deprecated: it was not
     intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in
     gh-88168(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168


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1.5.10.3 Pending removal in Python 3.15
.......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting ‘__cached__’ on a module while failing to set *note
          __spec__.cached: 58b. is deprecated.  In Python 3.15,
          ‘__cached__’ will cease to be set or take into consideration
          by the import system or standard library.  (gh-97879(1))

        * Setting *note __package__: 58c. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.parent: 58d. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(2))

   * *note ctypes: 2d.:

        * The undocumented ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note http.server: 75.:

        * The obsolete and rarely used ‘CGIHTTPRequestHandler’ has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.  No direct replacement exists.
          'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web server with a
          request handler.

        * The ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line
          interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note importlib: 7a.:

        * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead.

   * *note pathlib: a8.:

        * ‘.PurePath.is_reserved()’ has been deprecated since Python
          3.13.  Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 2d9. to detect reserved
          paths on Windows.

   * *note platform: af.:

        * ‘platform.java_ver()’ has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
          This function is only useful for Jython support, has a
          confusing API, and is largely untested.

   * *note sysconfig: e4.:

        * The 'check_home' argument of *note
          sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2dd. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.12.

   * *note threading: f6.:

        * *note RLock(): 2df. will take no arguments in Python 3.15.
          Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14,
          as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C
          version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments,
          ignoring every argument.

   * *note types: 10c.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 2e1.: Accessing ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’
          was deprecated in PEP 626(3) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 2c9. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(4).)

   * *note typing: 10d.:

        * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note
          NamedTuple: 2e4. classes (for example, ‘Point =
          NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)’) has been deprecated since
          Python 3.13.  Use the class-based syntax or the functional
          syntax instead.

        * When using the functional syntax of *note TypedDict: 290.s,
          failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘TD =
          TypedDict("TD")’) or passing ‘None’ (‘TD = TypedDict("TD",
          None)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use ‘class
          TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’ to create a
          TypedDict with zero field.

        * The ‘typing.no_type_check_decorator()’ decorator function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  After eight years in the
          *note typing: 10d. module, it has yet to be supported by any
          major type checker.

   * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules.

   * *note wave: 11c.:

        * The ‘getmark()’, ‘setmark()’ and ‘getmarkers()’ methods of the
          *note Wave_read: 2e6. and *note Wave_write: 2e7. classes have
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note zipimport: 13b.:

        * ‘zipimport.zipimporter.load_module()’ has been deprecated
          since Python 3.10.  Use *note exec_module(): 2e9. instead.
          (gh-125746(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125746


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1.5.10.4 Pending removal in Python 3.16
.......................................

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 2ff. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 300. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note array: 8.:

        * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in
          documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python
          3.13.  Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 301.) for
          Unicode characters instead.

   * *note asyncio: b.:

        * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16; use *note
          inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 302. instead.  (Contributed by
          Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).)

        * *note asyncio: b. policy system is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16.  In particular, the following classes
          and functions are deprecated:

             * *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 303.

             * *note asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy: 304.

             * *note asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy: 305.

             * *note asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy: 306.

             * *note asyncio.get_event_loop_policy(): 307.

             * *note asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(): 308.

          Users should use *note asyncio.run(): 309. or *note
          asyncio.Runner: 30a. with 'loop_factory' to use the desired
          event loop implementation.

          For example, to use *note asyncio.SelectorEventLoop: 30b. on
          Windows:

               import asyncio

               async def main():
                   ...

               asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=asyncio.SelectorEventLoop)

          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-127949(2).)

   * *note builtins: 13.:

        * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has
          been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising
          and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’).  Use ‘not x’ instead
          for the logical negation of a Boolean.  In the rare case that
          you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer,
          convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’).

   * *note functools: 62.:

        * Calling the Python implementation of *note functools.reduce():
          153. with 'function' or 'sequence' as keyword arguments has
          been deprecated since Python 3.14.

   * *note logging: 8a.:

        * Support for custom logging handlers with the 'strm' argument
          is deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.16.
          Define handlers with the 'stream' argument instead.
          (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-115032(3).)

   * *note mimetypes: 93.:

        * Valid extensions start with a “.” or are empty for *note
          mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(): 30c.  Undotted extensions are
          deprecated and will raise a *note ValueError: 277. in Python
          3.16.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-75223(4).)

   * *note shutil: cd.:

        * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python
          3.14.  It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since
          Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 30d.

   * *note symtable: e1.:

        * The ‘symtable.Class.get_methods()’ method has been deprecated
          since Python 3.14.

   * *note sys: e2.:

        * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 30e. function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 30f. environment variable
          instead.

   * *note sysconfig: e4.:

        * The ‘sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.14.  Use the ‘vars’ argument of
          *note sysconfig.get_paths(): 156. instead.

   * *note tarfile: e7.:

        * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127949

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 17<4>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 19<4>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<6>,  Up: Deprecated<4>

1.5.10.5 Pending removal in Python 3.17
.......................................

   * *note datetime: 33.:

        * *note strptime(): 2d2. calls using a format string containing
          ‘%e’ (day of month) without a year.  This has been deprecated
          since Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in
          gh-70647(1).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1f.:

        - *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2cb. is scheduled for
          removal in Python 3.17.

          Use ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)’ to test if ‘obj’
          implements the *note buffer protocol: 311. at runtime.  For
          use in type annotations, either use *note Buffer: 312. or a
          union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports
          (e.g., ‘bytes | bytearray | memoryview’).

          ‘ByteString’ was originally intended to be an abstract class
          that would serve as a supertype of both *note bytes: 1c7. and
          *note bytearray: 1c6.  However, since the ABC never had any
          methods, knowing that an object was an instance of
          ‘ByteString’ never actually told you anything useful about the
          object.  Other common buffer types such as *note memoryview:
          1d2. were also never understood as subtypes of ‘ByteString’
          (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

          See PEP 688(2) for more details.  (Contributed by Shantanu
          Jain in gh-91896(3).)

   * *note encodings: 54.:

        - Passing non-ascii 'encoding' names to *note
          encodings.normalize_encoding(): 313. is deprecated and
          scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.  (Contributed by Stan
          Ulbrych in gh-136702(4).)

   * *note webbrowser: 11e.:

        - ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript’ is deprecated in favour of
          ‘webbrowser.MacOS’.  (gh-137586(5))

   * *note typing: 10d.:

        - Before Python 3.14, old-style unions were implemented using
          the private class ‘typing._UnionGenericAlias’.  This class is
          no longer needed for the implementation, but it has been
          retained for backward compatibility, with removal scheduled
          for Python 3.17.  Users should use documented introspection
          helpers like *note typing.get_origin(): 314. and *note
          typing.get_args(): 315. instead of relying on private
          implementation details.

        - *note typing.ByteString: 2e3, deprecated since Python 3.9, is
          scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

          Use ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)’ to test if ‘obj’
          implements the *note buffer protocol: 311. at runtime.  For
          use in type annotations, either use *note Buffer: 312. or a
          union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports
          (e.g., ‘bytes | bytearray | memoryview’).

          ‘ByteString’ was originally intended to be an abstract class
          that would serve as a supertype of both *note bytes: 1c7. and
          *note bytearray: 1c6.  However, since the ABC never had any
          methods, knowing that an object was an instance of
          ‘ByteString’ never actually told you anything useful about the
          object.  Other common buffer types such as *note memoryview:
          1d2. were also never understood as subtypes of ‘ByteString’
          (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

          See PEP 688(6) for more details.  (Contributed by Shantanu
          Jain in gh-91896(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136702

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137586

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 19<4>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 20<4>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 17<4>,  Up: Deprecated<4>

1.5.10.6 Pending removal in Python 3.19
.......................................

   * *note ctypes: 2d.:

        * Implicitly switching to the MSVC-compatible struct layout by
          setting *note _pack_: 318. but not *note _layout_: 319. on
          non-Windows platforms.

   * *note hashlib: 6b.:

        - In hash function constructors such as *note new(): 2f1. or the
          direct hash-named constructors such as *note md5(): 2f2. and
          *note sha256(): 2f3, their optional initial data parameter
          could also be passed a keyword argument named ‘data=’ or
          ‘string=’ in various ‘hashlib’ implementations.

          Support for the ‘string’ keyword argument name is now
          deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.19.

          Before Python 3.13, the ‘string’ keyword parameter was not
          correctly supported depending on the backend implementation of
          hash functions.  Prefer passing the initial data as a
          positional argument for maximum backwards compatibility.

   * *note http.cookies: 74.:

        * *note http.cookies.Morsel.js_output(): 2f4. is deprecated and
          will be removed in Python 3.19.

        * *note http.cookies.BaseCookie.js_output(): 2f5. is deprecated
          and will be removed in Python 3.19.

   * *note imaplib: 77.:

        * Altering *note IMAP4.file: 2f8. is now deprecated and slated
          for removal in Python 3.19.  This property is now unused and
          changing its value does not automatically close the current
          file.

          Before Python 3.14, this property was used to implement the
          corresponding ‘read()’ and ‘readline()’ methods for *note
          IMAP4: 31a. but this is no longer the case since then.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 20<4>,  Next: Pending removal in future versions<6>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 19<4>,  Up: Deprecated<4>

1.5.10.7 Pending removal in Python 3.20
.......................................

   * Calling the ‘__new__()’ method of *note struct.Struct: 2fb. without
     the 'format' argument is deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.20.  Calling *note __init__(): 2fa. method on initialized
     ‘Struct’ objects is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.20.

     (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev and Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-143715(1).)

   * The ‘__version__’, ‘version’ and ‘VERSION’ attributes have been
     deprecated in these standard library modules and will be removed in
     Python 3.20.  Use *note sys.version_info: 2fc. instead.

        - *note argparse: 7.

        - *note csv: 2c.

        - *note ctypes: 2d.

        - ‘ctypes.macholib’

        - *note decimal: 39. (use *note decimal.SPEC_VERSION: 2fd.
          instead)

        - *note http.server: 75.

        - *note imaplib: 77.

        - *note ipaddress: 83.

        - *note json: 85.

        - *note logging: 8a. (‘__date__’ also deprecated)

        - *note optparse: a4.

        - *note pickle: ab.

        - *note platform: af.

        - *note re: c1.

        - *note socketserver: d5.

        - *note tabnanny: e6.

        - *note tarfile: e7.

        - *note tkinter.font: fe.

        - *note tkinter.ttk: 102.

        - *note wsgiref.simple_server: 124.

        - *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.

        - ‘xml.sax.expatreader’

        - *note xml.sax.handler: 133.

        - *note zlib: 13c.

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade and Stan Ulbrych in gh-76007(2).)

   * Deprecations defined by PEP 829(3):

        * Warnings are produced for ‘import’ lines found in ‘`name'.pth’
          files.

        * ‘`name'.pth’ files are no longer decoded in the locale
          encoding by default.  They 'MUST' be encoded in ‘utf-8-sig’.

     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-148641(4).)

   * *note ast: 9.:

        * Creating instances of abstract AST nodes (such as *note
          ast.AST: 2ec. or ‘ast.expr’) is deprecated and will raise an
          error in Python 3.20.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143715

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148641


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in future versions<6>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 20<4>,  Up: Deprecated<4>

1.5.10.8 Pending removal in future versions
...........................................

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note argparse: 7.:

        * Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive groups
          are deprecated.

        * Passing the undocumented keyword argument 'prefix_chars' to
          *note add_argument_group(): 31d. is now deprecated.

        * The *note argparse.FileType: 31e. type converter is
          deprecated.

   * *note builtins: 13.:

        * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’
          signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’
          instead, the single argument signature.

        * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed
          by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It
          allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f
          or x in y]’).  A syntax warning is raised if the numeric
          literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and:
          31f, *note else: 320, *note for: 321, *note if: 322, *note in:
          323, *note is: 324. and *note or: 325.  In a future release it
          will be changed to a syntax error.  (gh-87999(1))

        * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning
          non-int type: these methods will be required to return an
          instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 326.

        * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note float: 327.: these methods will be required to return
          an instance of ‘float’.

        * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note complex: 328.: these methods will be required to
          return an instance of ‘complex’.

        * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in
          the *note complex(): 328. constructor is now deprecated; it
          should only be passed as a single positional argument.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(2).)

   * *note calendar: 15.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     329. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 32a.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(3).)

   * *note codecs: 1c.: use *note open(): 32b. instead of *note
     codecs.open(): 32c.  (gh-133038(4))

   * ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’: use the *note codeobject.co_lines(): 32d.
     method instead.

   * *note datetime: 33.:

        * *note utcnow(): 32e.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’.

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 32f.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’.

   * *note gettext: 66.: Plural value must be an integer.

   * *note importlib: 7a.:

        * *note cache_from_source(): 330. 'debug_override' parameter is
          deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead.

   * *note importlib.metadata: 7d.:

        * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface.

        * Implicit ‘None’ on return values.

   * *note logging: 8a.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since
     Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 331. instead.

   * *note mailbox: 8e.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is
     deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

   * *note os: a5.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 332. in a
     multi-threaded process.

   * *note os.path: a6.: *note os.path.commonprefix(): 333. is
     deprecated, use *note os.path.commonpath(): 334. for path prefixes.
     The ‘os.path.commonprefix()’ function is being deprecated due to
     having a misleading name and module.  The function is not safe to
     use for path prefixes despite being included in a module about path
     manipulation, meaning it is easy to accidentally introduce path
     traversal vulnerabilities into Python programs by using this
     function.

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter
     is deprecated, use an exception instance.

   * *note re: c1.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical
     group references and group names in regular expressions.  Only
     sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.
     The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now
     only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * *note shutil: cd.: *note rmtree(): 335.”s 'onerror' parameter is
     deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead.

   * *note ssl: d8. options and protocols:

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. without protocol argument is
          deprecated.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 336.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 337.
          and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN
          instead.

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note threading: f6. methods:

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all():
          338.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 339.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 33a.: use *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 33b. attribute.

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 33c.: use *note
          threading.Thread.name: 33d. attribute.

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note
          threading.current_thread(): 33e.

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count():
          33f.

   * *note typing.Text: 340. (gh-92332(6)).

   * The internal class ‘typing._UnionGenericAlias’ is no longer used to
     implement *note typing.Union: 341.  To preserve compatibility with
     users using this private class, a compatibility shim will be
     provided until at least Python 3.17.  (Contributed by Jelle
     Zijlstra in gh-105499(7).)

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342.: it is deprecated to
     return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case.

   * *note urllib.parse: 113. deprecated functions: *note urlparse():
     2a4. instead

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note wsgiref: 121.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do
     partial writes.

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: Testing the truth value of an
     *note Element: 343. is deprecated.  In a future release it will
     always return ‘True’.  Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not
     None’ tests instead.

   * *note sys._clear_type_cache(): 344. is deprecated: use *note
     sys._clear_internal_caches(): 345. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133038

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<4>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 12,  Prev: Deprecated<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.11 Removed
--------------

* Menu:

* asynchat and asyncore::
* configparser: configparser<4>.
* distutils::
* ensurepip::
* enum: enum<2>.
* ftplib::
* gzip::
* hashlib: hashlib<2>.
* importlib: importlib<2>.
* imp::
* io: io<4>.
* locale: locale<3>.
* smtpd::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<5>.
* ssl: ssl<4>.
* unittest: unittest<5>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<4>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree.
* zipimport: zipimport<3>.
* Others::


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat and asyncore,  Next: configparser<4>,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.1 asynchat and asyncore
..............................

   * These two modules have been removed according to the schedule in
     PEP 594(1), having been deprecated in Python 3.6.  Use *note
     asyncio: b. instead.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-96580(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96580


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<4>,  Next: distutils,  Prev: asynchat and asyncore,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.2 configparser
.....................

   * Several names deprecated in the *note configparser: 26. way back in
     3.2 have been removed per gh-89336(1):

        * *note configparser.ParsingError: 914. no longer has a
          ‘filename’ attribute or argument.  Use the ‘source’ attribute
          and argument instead.

        * *note configparser: 26. no longer has a ‘SafeConfigParser’
          class.  Use the shorter *note ConfigParser: 6e4. name instead.

        * *note configparser.ConfigParser: 6e4. no longer has a ‘readfp’
          method.  Use *note read_file(): 915. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89336


File: python.info,  Node: distutils,  Next: ensurepip,  Prev: configparser<4>,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.3 distutils
..................

   * Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  It was deprecated in Python 3.10
     by PEP 632(1) «Deprecate distutils module».  For projects still
     using ‘distutils’ and cannot be updated to something else, the
     ‘setuptools’ project can be installed: it still provides
     ‘distutils’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-92584(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92584


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip,  Next: enum<2>,  Prev: distutils,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.4 ensurepip
..................

   * Remove the bundled setuptools wheel from *note ensurepip: 58, and
     stop installing setuptools in environments created by *note venv:
     11a.

     ‘pip (>= 22.1)’ does not require setuptools to be installed in the
     environment.  ‘setuptools’-based (and ‘distutils’-based) packages
     can still be used with ‘pip install’, since pip will provide
     ‘setuptools’ in the build environment it uses for building a
     package.

     ‘easy_install’, ‘pkg_resources’, ‘setuptools’ and ‘distutils’ are
     no longer provided by default in environments created with ‘venv’
     or bootstrapped with ‘ensurepip’, since they are part of the
     ‘setuptools’ package.  For projects relying on these at runtime,
     the ‘setuptools’ project should be declared as a dependency and
     installed separately (typically, using pip).

     (Contributed by Pradyun Gedam in gh-95299(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299


File: python.info,  Node: enum<2>,  Next: ftplib,  Prev: ensurepip,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.5 enum
.............

   * Remove *note enum: 59.’s ‘EnumMeta.__getattr__’, which is no longer
     needed for enum attribute access.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in
     gh-95083(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95083


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib,  Next: gzip,  Prev: enum<2>,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.6 ftplib
...............

   * Remove *note ftplib: 61.’s ‘FTP_TLS.ssl_version’ class attribute:
     use the 'context' parameter instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94172(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172


File: python.info,  Node: gzip,  Next: hashlib<2>,  Prev: ftplib,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.7 gzip
.............

   * Remove the ‘filename’ attribute of *note gzip: 6a.’s *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 849, deprecated since Python 2.6, use the *note
     name: 91c. attribute instead.  In write mode, the ‘filename’
     attribute added ‘'.gz'’ file extension if it was not present.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94196(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94196


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<2>,  Next: importlib<2>,  Prev: gzip,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.8 hashlib
................

   * Remove the pure Python implementation of *note hashlib: 6b.’s *note
     hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 91e, deprecated in Python 3.10.  Python 3.10
     and newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 ( PEP 644(1)): this OpenSSL
     version provides a C implementation of ‘pbkdf2_hmac()’ which is
     faster.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<2>,  Next: imp,  Prev: hashlib<2>,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.9 importlib
..................

   * Many previously deprecated cleanups in *note importlib: 7a. have
     now been completed:

        * References to, and support for ‘module_repr()’ has been
          removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-97850(1).)

        * ‘importlib.util.set_package’, ‘importlib.util.set_loader’ and
          ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader’ have all been removed.
          (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Nikita Sobolev in gh-65961(2)
          and gh-97850(3).)

        * Support for ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’ APIs have been
          removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-98040(4).)

        * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’, ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, and
          ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’ have been removed.  (Contributed by Barry
          Warsaw in gh-98040(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040


File: python.info,  Node: imp,  Next: io<4>,  Prev: importlib<2>,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.10 imp
.............

   * The ‘imp’ module has been removed.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
     gh-98040(1).)

     To migrate, consult the following correspondence table:

          imp                                   importlib
                                                
          --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                
          ‘imp.NullImporter’                    Insert ‘None’ into ‘sys.path_importer_cache’
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.cache_from_source()’             *note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 330.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.find_module()’                   *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 7a7.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_magic()’                     *note importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER: 922.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_suffixes()’                  *note importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES: 923, *note importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES: 924, and
                                                *note importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 925.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.get_tag()’                       *note sys.implementation.cache_tag: 926.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.load_module()’                   *note importlib.import_module(): 927.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.new_module(name)’                ‘types.ModuleType(name)’
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.reload()’                        *note importlib.reload(): 928.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.source_from_cache()’             *note importlib.util.source_from_cache(): 929.
                                                
                                                
          ‘imp.load_source()’                   'See below'
                                                

     Replace ‘imp.load_source()’ with:

          import importlib.util
          import importlib.machinery

          def load_source(modname, filename):
              loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader(modname, filename)
              spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(modname, filename, loader=loader)
              module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
              # The module is always executed and not cached in sys.modules.
              # Uncomment the following line to cache the module.
              # sys.modules[module.__name__] = module
              loader.exec_module(module)
              return module

   * Remove ‘imp’ functions and attributes with no replacements:

        * Undocumented functions:

             * ‘imp.init_builtin()’

             * ‘imp.load_compiled()’

             * ‘imp.load_dynamic()’

             * ‘imp.load_package()’

        * ‘imp.lock_held()’, ‘imp.acquire_lock()’, ‘imp.release_lock()’:
          the locking scheme has changed in Python 3.3 to per-module
          locks.

        * ‘imp.find_module()’ constants: ‘SEARCH_ERROR’, ‘PY_SOURCE’,
          ‘PY_COMPILED’, ‘C_EXTENSION’, ‘PY_RESOURCE’, ‘PKG_DIRECTORY’,
          ‘C_BUILTIN’, ‘PY_FROZEN’, ‘PY_CODERESOURCE’, ‘IMP_HOOK’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040


File: python.info,  Node: io<4>,  Next: locale<3>,  Prev: imp,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.11 io
............

   * Remove *note io: 82.’s ‘io.OpenWrapper’ and ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper’,
     deprecated in Python 3.10: just use *note open(): 32b. instead.
     The ‘open()’ (*note io.open(): 92b.) function is a built-in
     function.  Since Python 3.10, ‘_pyio.open()’ is also a static
     method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94169(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94169


File: python.info,  Node: locale<3>,  Next: smtpd,  Prev: io<4>,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.12 locale
................

   * Remove *note locale: 89.’s ‘locale.format()’ function, deprecated
     in Python 3.7: use *note locale.format_string(): 92d. instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94226(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94226


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd,  Next: sqlite3<5>,  Prev: locale<3>,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.13 smtpd
...............

   * The ‘smtpd’ module has been removed according to the schedule in
     PEP 594(1), having been deprecated in Python 3.4.7 and 3.5.4.  Use
     the aiosmtpd(2) PyPI module or any other *note asyncio: b.-based
     server instead.  (Contributed by Oleg Iarygin in gh-93243(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93243


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<5>,  Next: ssl<4>,  Prev: smtpd,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.14 sqlite3
.................

   * The following undocumented *note sqlite3: d7. features, deprecated
     in Python 3.10, are now removed:

        * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

        * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’

     If a shared cache must be used, open the database in URI mode using
     the ‘cache=shared’ query parameter.

     The ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ text factory has been an alias for
     *note str: 1df. since Python 3.3.  Code that previously set the
     text factory to ‘OptimizedUnicode’ can either use ‘str’ explicitly,
     or rely on the default value which is also ‘str’.

     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-92548(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92548


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<4>,  Next: unittest<5>,  Prev: sqlite3<5>,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.15 ssl
.............

   * Remove *note ssl: d8.’s ‘ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes()’ function,
     deprecated in Python 3.6: use *note os.urandom(): 931. or *note
     ssl.RAND_bytes(): 932. instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94199(1).)

   * Remove the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  It was deprecated in
     Python 3.7.  OpenSSL performs hostname matching since Python 3.7,
     Python no longer uses the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(2).)

   * Remove the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function, deprecated in Python 3.7:
     instead, create a *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. object and call its
     *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket: 933. method.  Any package that
     still uses ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is broken and insecure.  The
     function neither sends a SNI TLS extension nor validates the server
     hostname.  Code is subject to CWE 295(3) (Improper Certificate
     Validation).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (3) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/295.html

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<5>,  Next: webbrowser<4>,  Prev: ssl<4>,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.16 unittest
..................

   * Remove many long-deprecated *note unittest: 10f. features:

        * A number of *note TestCase: 52f. method aliases:

          Deprecated alias                 Method Name                         Deprecated in
                                                                               
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                               
          ‘failUnless’                     *note assertTrue(): 935.            3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIf’                         *note assertFalse(): 936.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessEqual’                *note assertEqual(): 937.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfEqual’                    *note assertNotEqual(): 938.        3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual’          *note assertAlmostEqual(): 939.     3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfAlmostEqual’              *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 93a.  3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessRaises’               *note assertRaises(): 93b.          3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assert_’                        *note assertTrue(): 935.            3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertEquals’                   *note assertEqual(): 937.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotEquals’                *note assertNotEqual(): 938.        3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertAlmostEquals’             *note assertAlmostEqual(): 939.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals’          *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 93a.  3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRegexpMatches’            *note assertRegex(): 93c.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRaisesRegexp’             *note assertRaisesRegex(): 93d.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotRegexpMatches’         *note assertNotRegex(): 93e.        3.5
                                                                               

          You can use ‘https://github.com/isidentical/teyit’ to
          automatically modernise your unit tests.

        * Undocumented and broken *note TestCase: 52f. method
          ‘assertDictContainsSubset’ (deprecated in Python 3.2).

        * Undocumented *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule: 793.
          parameter 'use_load_tests' (deprecated and ignored since
          Python 3.5).

        * An alias of the *note TextTestResult: 93f. class:
          ‘_TextTestResult’ (deprecated in Python 3.2).

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89325(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89325


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser<4>,  Next: xml etree ElementTree,  Prev: unittest<5>,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.17 webbrowser
....................

   * Remove support for obsolete browsers from *note webbrowser: 11e.
     The removed browsers include: Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon,
     Skipstone, Iceape, Firebird, and Firefox versions 35 and below
     (gh-102871(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102871


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree,  Next: zipimport<3>,  Prev: webbrowser<4>,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.18 xml.etree.ElementTree
...............................

   * Remove the ‘ElementTree.Element.copy()’ method of the pure Python
     implementation, deprecated in Python 3.10, use the *note
     copy.copy(): 942. function instead.  The C implementation of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. has no ‘copy()’ method, only a
     ‘__copy__()’ method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94383(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94383


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport<3>,  Next: Others,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.19 zipimport
...................

   * Remove *note zipimport: 13b.’s ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’
     methods, deprecated in Python 3.10: use the ‘find_spec()’ method
     instead.  See PEP 451(1) for the rationale.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94379(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94379


File: python.info,  Node: Others,  Prev: zipimport<3>,  Up: Removed<4>

1.5.11.20 Others
................

   * Remove the ‘suspicious’ rule from the documentation ‘Makefile’ and
     ‘Doc/tools/rstlint.py’, both in favor of sphinx-lint(1).
     (Contributed by Julien Palard in gh-98179(2).)

   * Remove the 'keyfile' and 'certfile' parameters from the *note
     ftplib: 61, *note imaplib: 77, *note poplib: b1. and *note smtplib:
     d2. modules, and the 'key_file', 'cert_file' and 'check_hostname'
     parameters from the *note http.client: 72. module, all deprecated
     since Python 3.6.  Use the 'context' parameter ('ssl_context' in
     ‘imaplib’) instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-94172(3).)

   * Remove ‘Jython’ compatibility hacks from several stdlib modules and
     tests.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-99482(4).)

   * Remove ‘_use_broken_old_ctypes_structure_semantics_’ flag from
     *note ctypes: 2d. module.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-99285(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/sphinx-contrib/sphinx-lint

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98179

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99482

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99285


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 12,  Next: Build Changes<2>,  Prev: Removed<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.12 Porting to Python 3.12
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<3>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 12

1.5.12.1 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references
     and group names in regular expressions.  Only sequence of ASCII
     digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.  The group name in
     bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII
     letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in gh-91760(1).)

   * Remove ‘randrange()’ functionality deprecated since Python 3.10.
     Formerly, ‘randrange(10.0)’ losslessly converted to
     ‘randrange(10)’.  Now, it raises a *note TypeError: 291.  Also, the
     exception raised for non-integer values such as ‘randrange(10.5)’
     or ‘randrange('10')’ has been changed from *note ValueError: 277.
     to ‘TypeError’.  This also prevents bugs where ‘randrange(1e25)’
     would silently select from a larger range than ‘randrange(10**25)’.
     (Originally suggested by Serhiy Storchaka gh-86388(2).)

   * *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc. changed encoding and error
     handler for reading arguments from file (e.g.
     ‘fromfile_prefix_chars’ option) from default text encoding (e.g.
     *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 947.) to *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 948.  Argument files should be encoded
     in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows.

   * Remove the ‘asyncore’-based ‘smtpd’ module deprecated in Python
     3.4.7 and 3.5.4.  A recommended replacement is the *note asyncio:
     b.-based aiosmtpd(3) PyPI module.

   * *note shlex.split(): 949.: Passing ‘None’ for 's' argument now
     raises an exception, rather than reading *note sys.stdin: 94a.  The
     feature was deprecated in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-94352(4).)

   * The *note os: a5. module no longer accepts bytes-like paths, like
     *note bytearray: 1c6. and *note memoryview: 1d2. types: only the
     exact *note bytes: 1c7. type is accepted for bytes strings.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393(5).)

   * *note syslog.openlog(): 94b. and *note syslog.closelog(): 94c. now
     fail if used in subinterpreters.  *note syslog.syslog(): 94d. may
     still be used in subinterpreters, but now only if
     ‘syslog.openlog()’ has already been called in the main interpreter.
     These new restrictions do not apply to the main interpreter, so
     only a very small set of users might be affected.  This change
     helps with interpreter isolation.  Furthermore, *note syslog: e5.
     is a wrapper around process-global resources, which are best
     managed from the main interpreter.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     gh-99127(6).)

   * The undocumented locking behavior of *note cached_property(): 94e.
     is removed, because it locked across all instances of the class,
     leading to high lock contention.  This means that a cached property
     getter function could now run more than once for a single instance,
     if two threads race.  For most simple cached properties (e.g.
     those that are idempotent and simply calculate a value based on
     other attributes of the instance) this will be fine.  If
     synchronization is needed, implement locking within the cached
     property getter function or around multi-threaded access points.

   * *note sys._current_exceptions(): 8d2. now returns a mapping from
     thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a ‘(typ, exc,
     tb)’ tuple.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176(7).)

   * When extracting tar files using *note tarfile: e7. or *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 882, pass the 'filter' argument to limit
     features that may be surprising or dangerous.  See *note Extraction
     filters: 883. for details.

   * The output of the *note tokenize.tokenize(): 8e9. and *note
     tokenize.generate_tokens(): 8ea. functions is now changed due to
     the changes introduced in PEP 701(8).  This means that ‘STRING’
     tokens are not emitted any more for f-strings and the tokens
     described in PEP 701(9) are now produced instead: ‘FSTRING_START’,
     ‘FSTRING_MIDDLE’ and ‘FSTRING_END’ are now emitted for f-string
     «string» parts in addition to the appropriate tokens for the
     tokenization in the expression components.  For example for the
     f-string ‘f"start {1+1} end"’ the old version of the tokenizer
     emitted:

          1,0-1,18:           STRING         'f"start {1+1} end"'

     while the new version emits:

          1,0-1,2:            FSTRING_START  'f"'
          1,2-1,8:            FSTRING_MIDDLE 'start '
          1,8-1,9:            OP             '{'
          1,9-1,10:           NUMBER         '1'
          1,10-1,11:          OP             '+'
          1,11-1,12:          NUMBER         '1'
          1,12-1,13:          OP             '}'
          1,13-1,17:          FSTRING_MIDDLE ' end'
          1,17-1,18:          FSTRING_END    '"'

     Additionally, there may be some minor behavioral changes as a
     consequence of the changes required to support PEP 701(10).  Some
     of these changes include:

        * The ‘type’ attribute of the tokens emitted when tokenizing
          some invalid Python characters such as ‘!’ has changed from
          ‘ERRORTOKEN’ to ‘OP’.

        * Incomplete single-line strings now also raise *note
          tokenize.TokenError: 94f. as incomplete multiline strings do.

        * Some incomplete or invalid Python code now raises *note
          tokenize.TokenError: 94f. instead of returning arbitrary
          ‘ERRORTOKEN’ tokens when tokenizing it.

        * Mixing tabs and spaces as indentation in the same file is not
          supported anymore and will raise a *note TabError: 950.

   * The *note threading: f6. module now expects the ‘_thread’ module to
     have an ‘_is_main_interpreter’ attribute.  It is a function with no
     arguments that returns ‘True’ if the current interpreter is the
     main interpreter.

     Any library or application that provides a custom ‘_thread’ module
     should provide ‘_is_main_interpreter()’.  (See gh-112826(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86388

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94352

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99127

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112826


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes<2>,  Next: C API Changes<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 12,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.13 Build Changes
--------------------

   * Python no longer uses ‘setup.py’ to build shared C extension
     modules.  Build parameters like headers and libraries are detected
     in ‘configure’ script.  Extensions are built by ‘Makefile’.  Most
     extensions use ‘pkg-config’ and fall back to manual detection.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-93939(1).)

   * ‘va_start()’ with two parameters, like ‘va_start(args, format),’ is
     now required to build Python.  ‘va_start()’ is no longer called
     with a single parameter.  (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in
     gh-93207(2).)

   * CPython now uses the ThinLTO option as the default link time
     optimization policy if the Clang compiler accepts the flag.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-89536(3).)

   * Add ‘COMPILEALL_OPTS’ variable in ‘Makefile’ to override *note
     compileall: 21. options (default: ‘-j0’) in ‘make install’.  Also
     merged the 3 ‘compileall’ commands into a single command to build
     .pyc files for all optimization levels (0, 1, 2) at once.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-99289(4).)

   * Add platform triplets for 64-bit LoongArch:

        * loongarch64-linux-gnusf

        * loongarch64-linux-gnuf32

        * loongarch64-linux-gnu

     (Contributed by Zhang Na in gh-90656(5).)

   * ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN’ now require Python 3.10 or newer.

   * Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 is now required to regenerate
     ‘configure’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-89886(6).)

   * Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL
     3.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93207

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89536

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99289

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90656

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes<2>,  Prev: Build Changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 12

1.5.14 C API Changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* New Features: New Features<4>.
* Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<5>.
* Removed: Removed<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<4>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Up: C API Changes<2>

1.5.14.1 New Features
.....................

   * PEP 697(1): Introduce the *note Unstable C API tier: 954, intended
     for low-level tools like debuggers and JIT compilers.  This API may
     change in each minor release of CPython without deprecation
     warnings.  Its contents are marked by the ‘PyUnstable_’ prefix in
     names.

     Code object constructors:

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_New()’ (renamed from ‘PyCode_New’)

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ (renamed from
          ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’)

     Extra storage for code objects ( PEP 523(2)):

        - ‘PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex()’ (renamed from
          ‘_PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’)

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra()’ (renamed from ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’)

        - ‘PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra()’ (renamed from ‘_PyCode_SetExtra’)

     The original names will continue to be available until the
     respective API changes.

     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-101101(3).)

   * PEP 697(4): Add an API for extending types whose instance memory
     layout is opaque:

        - *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 199. can be zero or negative to
          specify inheriting or extending the base class size.

        - *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 19a. and *note
          PyType_GetTypeDataSize(): 955. added to allow access to
          subclass-specific instance data.

        - *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 956. and *note
          PyObject_GetItemData(): 957. added to allow safely extending
          certain variable-sized types, including *note PyType_Type:
          958.

        - *note Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET: 959. added to allow defining *note
          members: 95a. in terms of a subclass-specific struct.

     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-103509(5).)

   * Add the new *note limited C API: 829. function *note
     PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391, which generalizes the existing *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390. using an additional metaclass
     argument.  (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-93012(6).)

   * API for creating objects that can be called using *note the
     vectorcall protocol: 95b. was added to the *note Limited API: 95c.:

        * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 95d.

        * *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 95e.

        * *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 95f.

        * *note vectorcallfunc: 960.

     The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 95d. flag is now removed from
     a class when the class’s *note __call__(): 961. method is
     reassigned.  This makes vectorcall safe to use with mutable types
     (i.e.  heap types without the immutable flag, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 5fb.).  Mutable types that do not
     override *note tp_call: 962. now inherit the
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’ flag.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin
     in gh-93274(7).)

     The *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. and *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 39d. flags have been added.  This
     allows extensions classes to support object *note __dict__: 1bf.
     and weakrefs with less bookkeeping, using less memory and with
     faster access.

   * API for performing calls using *note the vectorcall protocol: 95b.
     was added to the *note Limited API: 95c.:

        * *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 963.

        * *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 964.

        * *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 965.

     This means that both the incoming and outgoing ends of the vector
     call protocol are now available in the *note Limited API: 95c.
     (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-98586(8).)

   * Add two new public functions, *note PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads():
     966. and *note PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 851, that allow to set
     tracing and profiling functions in all running threads in addition
     to the calling one.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503(9).)

   * Add new function *note PyFunction_SetVectorcall(): 967. to the C
     API which sets the vectorcall field of a given *note
     PyFunctionObject: 968.  (Contributed by Andrew Frost in
     gh-92257(10).)

   * The C API now permits registering callbacks via *note
     PyDict_AddWatcher(): 5fc, *note PyDict_Watch(): 969. and related
     APIs to be called whenever a dictionary is modified.  This is
     intended for use by optimizing interpreters, JIT compilers, or
     debuggers.  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91052(11).)

   * Add *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 96a. and *note PyType_Watch(): 96b.
     API to register callbacks to receive notification on changes to a
     type.  (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91051(12).)

   * Add *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 96c. and *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 96d. APIs to register callbacks to receive
     notification on creation and destruction of code objects.
     (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-91054(13).)

   * Add *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 96e. and *note PyFrame_GetVarString():
     96f. functions to get a frame variable by its name.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in gh-91248(14).)

   * Add *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 63f. for saving and restoring the
     current exception.  These functions return and accept a single
     exception object, rather than the triple arguments of the
     now-deprecated *note PyErr_Fetch(): 63b. and *note PyErr_Restore():
     63e.  This is less error prone and a bit more efficient.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(15).)

   * Add ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’, which takes an exception instance,
     to replace the legacy-API ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’, which is now
     deprecated.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(16).)

   * Add *note PyException_GetArgs(): 970. and *note
     PyException_SetArgs(): 971. as convenience functions for retrieving
     and modifying the *note args: 972. passed to the exception’s
     constructor.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(17).)

   * Add *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 648, which takes an exception
     instance, to replace the legacy-api ‘PyErr_Display()’.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102755(18)).

   * PEP 683(19): Introduce 'Immortal Objects', which allows objects to
     bypass reference counts, and related changes to the C-API:

        - 
          ‘_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT’: The reference count that defines an object

               as immortal.

        - ‘_Py_IsImmortal’ Checks if an object has the immortal
          reference count.

        - 
          ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ This will now initialize reference count to

               ‘_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT’ when used with ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’.

        - 
          ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL’ An identifier for interned unicode objects

               that are immortal.

        - 
          ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL_STATIC’ An identifier for interned unicode

               objects that are immortal and static

        - 
          ‘sys.getunicodeinternedsize’ This returns the total number of unicode

               objects that have been interned.  This is now needed for
               ‘refleak.py’ to correctly track reference counts and
               allocated blocks

     (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in gh-84436(20).)

   * PEP 684(21): Add the new *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 876.
     function and *note PyInterpreterConfig: 973, which may be used to
     create sub-interpreters with their own GILs.  (See *note PEP 684; A
     Per-Interpreter GIL: 85d. for more info.)  (Contributed by Eric
     Snow in gh-104110(22).)

   * In the limited C API version 3.12, *note Py_INCREF(): 974. and
     *note Py_DECREF(): 975. functions are now implemented as opaque
     function calls to hide implementation details.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-105387(23).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101101

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103509

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93274

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98586

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92257

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91052

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91054

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91248

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104110

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105387


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Next: Deprecated<5>,  Prev: New Features<4>,  Up: C API Changes<2>

1.5.14.2 Porting to Python 3.12
...............................

   * Legacy Unicode APIs based on ‘Py_UNICODE*’ representation has been
     removed.  Please migrate to APIs based on UTF-8 or ‘wchar_t*’.

   * Argument parsing functions like *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1.
     doesn’t support ‘Py_UNICODE*’ based format (e.g.  ‘u’, ‘Z’)
     anymore.  Please migrate to other formats for Unicode like ‘s’,
     ‘z’, ‘es’, and ‘U’.

   * ‘tp_weaklist’ for all static builtin types is always ‘NULL’.  This
     is an internal-only field on ‘PyTypeObject’ but we’re pointing out
     the change in case someone happens to be accessing the field
     directly anyway.  To avoid breakage, consider using the existing
     public C-API instead, or, if necessary, the (internal-only)
     ‘_PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro.

   * This internal-only *note PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses: 977. may now
     not be a valid object pointer.  Its type was changed to void* to
     reflect this.  We mention this in case someone happens to be
     accessing the internal-only field directly.

     To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method *note
     __subclasses__(): 978. (using *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 3b6, for
     example).

   * Add support of more formatting options (left aligning, octals,
     uppercase hexadecimals, ‘intmax_t’, ‘ptrdiff_t’, ‘wchar_t’ C
     strings, variable width and precision) in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     979.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-98836(1).)

   * An unrecognized format character in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat():
     81e. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 979. now sets a *note
     SystemError: 3ea.  In previous versions it caused all the rest of
     the format string to be copied as-is to the result string, and any
     extra arguments discarded.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-95781(2).)

   * Fix wrong sign placement in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e. and
     *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 979.  (Contributed by Philip Georgi
     in gh-95504(3).)

   * Extension classes wanting to add a *note __dict__: 1bf. or weak
     reference slot should use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 39d. instead of ‘tp_dictoffset’
     and ‘tp_weaklistoffset’, respectively.  The use of ‘tp_dictoffset’
     and ‘tp_weaklistoffset’ is still supported, but does not fully
     support multiple inheritance (gh-95589(4)), and performance may be
     worse.  Classes declaring ‘Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT’ must call
     ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict()’ and ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict()’
     to traverse and clear their instance’s dictionaries.  To clear
     weakrefs, call *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 97a, as before.

   * The *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 97b. function no longer accepts
     bytes-like paths, like *note bytearray: 1c6. and *note memoryview:
     1d2. types: only the exact *note bytes: 1c7. type is accepted for
     bytes strings.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393(5).)

   * The *note Py_CLEAR: 97c, *note Py_SETREF: 97d. and *note
     Py_XSETREF: 97e. macros now only evaluate their arguments once.  If
     an argument has side effects, these side effects are no longer
     duplicated.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98724(6).)

   * The interpreter’s error indicator is now always normalized.  This
     means that *note PyErr_SetObject(): 97f, *note PyErr_SetString():
     980. and the other functions that set the error indicator now
     normalize the exception before storing it.  (Contributed by Mark
     Shannon in gh-101578(7).)

   * ‘_Py_RefTotal’ is no longer authoritative and only kept around for
     ABI compatibility.  Note that it is an internal global and only
     available on debug builds.  If you happen to be using it then
     you’ll need to start using ‘_Py_GetGlobalRefTotal()’.

   * The following functions now select an appropriate metaclass for the
     newly created type:

        * *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e.

        * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 38f.

        * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390.

     Creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 981. is
     deprecated, and in Python 3.14+ it will be disallowed.  Note that
     these functions ignore ‘tp_new’ of the metaclass, possibly allowing
     incomplete initialization.

     Note that *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391. (added in Python 3.12)
     already disallows creating classes whose metaclass overrides
     ‘tp_new’ (*note __new__(): 982. in Python).

     Since ‘tp_new’ overrides almost everything ‘PyType_From*’ functions
     do, the two are incompatible with each other.  The existing
     behavior – ignoring the metaclass for several steps of type
     creation – is unsafe in general, since (meta)classes assume that
     ‘tp_new’ was called.  There is no simple general workaround.  One
     of the following may work for you:

        - If you control the metaclass, avoid using ‘tp_new’ in it:

             - If initialization can be skipped, it can be done in *note
               tp_init: 983. instead.

             - If the metaclass doesn’t need to be instantiated from
               Python, set its ‘tp_new’ to ‘NULL’ using the *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 984. flag.  This makes
               it acceptable for ‘PyType_From*’ functions.

        - Avoid ‘PyType_From*’ functions: if you don’t need C-specific
          features (slots or setting the instance size), create types by
          *note calling: 985. the metaclass.

        - If you 'know' the ‘tp_new’ can be skipped safely, filter the
          deprecation warning out using *note warnings.catch_warnings():
          423. from Python.

   * *note PyOS_InputHook: 986. and *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer:
     987. are no longer called in *note subinterpreters: 410.  This is
     because clients generally rely on process-wide global state (since
     these callbacks have no way of recovering extension module state).

     This also avoids situations where extensions may find themselves
     running in a subinterpreter that they don’t support (or haven’t yet
     been loaded in).  See gh-104668(8) for more info.

   * *note PyLongObject: 5cb. has had its internals changed for better
     performance.  Although the internals of ‘PyLongObject’ are private,
     they are used by some extension modules.  The internal fields
     should no longer be accessed directly, instead the API functions
     beginning ‘PyLong_...’ should be used instead.  Two new 'unstable'
     API functions are provided for efficient access to the value of
     ‘PyLongObject’s which fit into a single machine word:

        * *note PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 988.

        * *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 989.

   * Custom allocators, set via *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 98a, are now
     required to be thread-safe, regardless of memory domain.
     Allocators that don’t have their own state, including «hooks», are
     not affected.  If your custom allocator is not already thread-safe
     and you need guidance then please create a new GitHub issue and CC
     ‘@ericsnowcurrently’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98836

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95781

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95504

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95589

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104668


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<5>,  Next: Removed<5>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 12<2>,  Up: C API Changes<2>

1.5.14.3 Deprecated
...................

   * In accordance with PEP 699(1), the ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note
     PyDictObject: 83e. is deprecated for extension modules.  Accessing
     this field will generate a compiler warning at compile time.  This
     field will be removed in Python 3.14.  (Contributed by Ramvikrams
     and Kumar Aditya in gh-101193(2).  PEP by Ken Jin.)

   * Deprecate global configuration variable:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 60c.: use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          60d.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 60e.: use *note PyConfig.verbose: 60f.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 610.: use *note PyConfig.quiet: 611.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 612.: use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 613.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 614.: use *note PyConfig.inspect: 615.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 616.: use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 617.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 618.: use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          619.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 61a.: use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3c4.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 61b.: use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 61c.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 61d.: use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 61e.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 61f.: use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 620.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 621.: use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 622.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 623.: use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 624.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 625.: use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 626. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          627.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 628.: use *note PyConfig.isolated: 629.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 62a.: use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 62b.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 62c.: use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 62d.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 62e.

        * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 62e.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 62f.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 630. (see
          *note Py_PreInitialize(): 631.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 60b. instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-77782(3).)

   * Creating *note immutable types: 5fb. with mutable bases is
     deprecated and will be disabled in Python 3.14.  (gh-95388(4))

   * The ‘structmember.h’ header is deprecated, though it continues to
     be available and there are no plans to remove it.

     Its contents are now available just by including ‘Python.h’, with a
     ‘Py’ prefix added if it was missing:

        - *note PyMemberDef: 95a, *note PyMember_GetOne(): 98c. and
          *note PyMember_SetOne(): 98d.

        - Type macros like *note Py_T_INT: 98e, *note Py_T_DOUBLE: 98f,
          etc.  (previously ‘T_INT’, ‘T_DOUBLE’, etc.)

        - The flags *note Py_READONLY: 990. (previously ‘READONLY’) and
          *note Py_AUDIT_READ: 991. (previously all uppercase)

     Several items are not exposed from ‘Python.h’:

        - *note T_OBJECT: 992. (use *note Py_T_OBJECT_EX: 993.)

        - *note T_NONE: 994. (previously undocumented, and pretty
          quirky)

        - The macro ‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ which does nothing.

        - The macros ‘RESTRICTED’ and ‘READ_RESTRICTED’, equivalents of
          *note Py_AUDIT_READ: 991.

        - In some configurations, ‘<stddef.h>’ is not included from
          ‘Python.h’.  It should be included manually when using
          ‘offsetof()’.

     The deprecated header continues to provide its original contents
     under the original names.  Your old code can stay unchanged, unless
     the extra include and non-namespaced macros bother you greatly.

     (Contributed in gh-47146(5) by Petr Viktorin, based on earlier work
     by Alexander Belopolsky and Matthias Braun.)

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 63b. and *note PyErr_Restore(): 63e. are
     deprecated.  Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 63f. instead.  (Contributed by Mark
     Shannon in gh-101578(6).)

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’ is deprecated.  Use *note
     PyErr_DisplayException(): 648. instead.  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in gh-102755(7)).

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’ is deprecated.  Use
     ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’ instead.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     gh-102192(8).)

   * Using *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e, *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 38f. or *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390. to create a class whose metaclass
     overrides *note tp_new: 981. is deprecated.  Call the metaclass
     instead.

* Menu:

* Pending removal in Python 3.14: Pending removal in Python 3 14<4>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<6>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<7>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<7>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77782

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47146

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102192


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 14<4>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 15<6>,  Up: Deprecated<5>

1.5.14.4 Pending removal in Python 3.14
.......................................

   * The ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 83e. for
     extension modules ( PEP 699(1); gh-101193(2)).

   * Creating *note immutable types: 5fb. with mutable bases
     (gh-95388(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 15<6>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<7>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 14<4>,  Up: Deprecated<5>

1.5.14.5 Pending removal in Python 3.15
.......................................

   * The ‘PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()’: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3. instead.

   * ‘PyWeakref_GetObject()’ and ‘PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT()’: Use *note
     PyWeakref_GetRef(): 3a4. instead.  The pythoncapi-compat project(1)
     can be used to get ‘PyWeakref_GetRef()’ on Python 3.12 and older.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3a1.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3a1.
     instead; Note that some codecs (for example, «base64») may return a
     type other than *note str: 1df, such as *note bytes: 1c7.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3a2.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3a2.
     instead; Note that some codecs (for example, «base64») may return a
     type other than *note bytes: 1c7, such as *note str: 1df.

   * Python initialization functions, deprecated in Python 3.13:

        * ‘Py_GetPath()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("module_search_paths"):
          3a6. (*note sys.path: 194.) instead.

        * ‘Py_GetPrefix()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("base_prefix"): 3a6.
          (*note sys.base_prefix: 3aa.) instead.  Use
          ‘PyConfig_Get("prefix")’ (*note sys.prefix: 3ab.) if *note
          virtual environments: 3a9. need to be handled.

        * ‘Py_GetExecPrefix()’: Use *note
          PyConfig_Get("base_exec_prefix"): 3a6. (*note
          sys.base_exec_prefix: 3a7.) instead.  Use
          ‘PyConfig_Get("exec_prefix")’ (*note sys.exec_prefix: 3a8.) if
          *note virtual environments: 3a9. need to be handled.

        * ‘Py_GetProgramFullPath()’: Use *note
          PyConfig_Get("executable"): 3a6. (*note sys.executable: 3ac.)
          instead.

        * ‘Py_GetProgramName()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("executable"):
          3a6. (*note sys.executable: 3ac.) instead.

        * ‘Py_GetPythonHome()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("home"): 3a6. or
          the *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. environment variable instead.

     The pythoncapi-compat project(2) can be used to get *note
     PyConfig_Get(): 3a6. on Python 3.13 and older.

   * Functions to configure Python’s initialization, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 607. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 607. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 608.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 609. instead.

        * ‘PySys_ResetWarnOptions()’: Clear *note sys.warnoptions: 3a5.
          and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 60b. instead.

   * Global configuration variables:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 60c.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          60d. or *note PyConfig_Get("parser_debug"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 60e.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 60f.
          or *note PyConfig_Get("verbose"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 610.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 611. or
          *note PyConfig_Get("quiet"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 612.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 613. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("interactive"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 614.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 615.
          or *note PyConfig_Get("inspect"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 616.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 617. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("optimization_level"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 618.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          619. or *note PyConfig_Get("site_import"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 61a.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3c4. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("bytes_warning"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 61b.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 61c. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("pathconfig_warnings"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 61d.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 61e. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("use_environment"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 61f.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 620. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("write_bytecode"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 621.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 622. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("user_site_directory"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 623.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 624. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("buffered_stdio"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 625.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 626. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          627. or *note PyConfig_Get("hash_seed"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 628.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 629.
          or *note PyConfig_Get("isolated"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 62a.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 62b. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_fs_encoding"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 62c.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 62d. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_stdio"): 3a6. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’,
          ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 62e. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("filesystem_encoding"): 3a6. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 62f. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("filesystem_errors"): 3a6. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 630. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("utf8_mode"): 3a6. instead.  (see *note
          Py_PreInitialize(): 631.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 60b. to set these options.  Or *note
     PyConfig_Get(): 3a6. can be used to get these options at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (2) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<7>,  Next: Pending removal in future versions<7>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 15<6>,  Up: Deprecated<5>

1.5.14.6 Pending removal in Python 3.16
.......................................

   * The bundled copy of ‘libmpdec’.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in future versions<7>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<7>,  Up: Deprecated<5>

1.5.14.7 Pending removal in future versions
...........................................

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 63a.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 63b.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     63c. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 63d.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 63e.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     63f. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 640.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 641. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 642.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     643. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 644.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     645. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 646. instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 647.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 648.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 649.
     instead.

   * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 64a.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 64b. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 64c.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 64d. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 64e.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 64f. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 650.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 651. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 652.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 653. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 654.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<5>,  Prev: Deprecated<5>,  Up: C API Changes<2>

1.5.14.8 Removed
................

   * Remove the ‘token.h’ header file.  There was never any public
     tokenizer C API. The ‘token.h’ header file was only designed to be
     used by Python internals.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     gh-92651(1).)

   * Legacy Unicode APIs have been removed.  See PEP 623(2) for detail.

        * ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’

   * Remove the ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function macro.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85858(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92651

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85858


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 11,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 10,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 12,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.6 What’s New In Python 3.11
=============================


Editor: Pablo Galindo Salgado

This article explains the new features in Python 3.11, compared to 3.10.
Python 3.11 was released on October 24, 2022.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 145.

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<4>.
* New Features: New Features<5>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<3>.
* Other CPython Implementation Changes::
* New Modules: New Modules<3>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<3>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<6>.
* Faster CPython::
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<3>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<6>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12.
* Removed: Removed<6>.
* Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<3>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<3>.
* Notable changes in 3.11.4: Notable changes in 3 11 4.
* Notable changes in 3.11.5: Notable changes in 3 11 5.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<4>,  Next: New Features<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

   * Python 3.11 is between 10-60% faster than Python 3.10.  On average,
     we measured a 1.25x speedup on the standard benchmark suite.  See
     *note Faster CPython: 99f. for details.

New syntax features:

   * *note PEP 654; Exception Groups and except*: 9a0.

New built-in features:

   * *note PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: 9a1.

New standard library modules:

   * PEP 680(1): *note tomllib: 105. — Support for parsing TOML(2) in
     the Standard Library

Interpreter improvements:

   * *note PEP 657; Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks: 9a2.

   * New *note -P: 9a3. command line option and *note PYTHONSAFEPATH:
     9a4. environment variable to *note disable automatically prepending
     potentially unsafe paths: 9a5. to *note sys.path: 194.

New typing features:

   * *note PEP 646; Variadic generics: 9a6.

   * *note PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or
     not-required: 9a7.

   * *note PEP 673; Self type: 9a8.

   * *note PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: 9a9.

   * *note PEP 681; Data class transforms: 9aa.

Important deprecations, removals and restrictions:

   * PEP 594(3): *note Many legacy standard library modules have been
     deprecated: 9ab. and will be removed in Python 3.13

   * PEP 624(4): *note Py_UNICODE encoder APIs have been removed: 9ac.

   * PEP 670(5): *note Macros converted to static inline functions: 9ad.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (2) https://toml.io/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<5>,  Next: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 657; Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
* PEP 654; Exception Groups and except*: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*.
* PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes.
* Windows py.exe launcher improvements: Windows py exe launcher improvements.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks,  Next: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*,  Up: New Features<5>

1.6.2.1 PEP 657: Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks
...........................................................

When printing tracebacks, the interpreter will now point to the exact
expression that caused the error, instead of just the line.  For
example:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "distance.py", line 11, in <module>
         print(manhattan_distance(p1, p2))
               ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "distance.py", line 6, in manhattan_distance
         return abs(point_1.x - point_2.x) + abs(point_1.y - point_2.y)
                                ^^^^^^^^^
     AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'x'

Previous versions of the interpreter would point to just the line,
making it ambiguous which object was ‘None’.  These enhanced errors can
also be helpful when dealing with deeply nested *note dict: 188. objects
and multiple function calls:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "query.py", line 37, in <module>
         magic_arithmetic('foo')
       File "query.py", line 18, in magic_arithmetic
         return add_counts(x) / 25
                ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "query.py", line 24, in add_counts
         return 25 + query_user(user1) + query_user(user2)
                     ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
       File "query.py", line 32, in query_user
         return 1 + query_count(db, response['a']['b']['c']['user'], retry=True)
                                    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^
     TypeError: 'NoneType' object is not subscriptable

As well as complex arithmetic expressions:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "calculation.py", line 54, in <module>
         result = (x / y / z) * (a / b / c)
                   ~~~~~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Additionally, the information used by the enhanced traceback feature is
made available via a general API, that can be used to correlate *note
bytecode: 6b3. *note instructions: 9b1. with source code location.  This
information can be retrieved using:

   - The *note codeobject.co_positions(): 9b2. method in Python.

   - The *note PyCode_Addr2Location(): 9b3. function in the C API.

See PEP 657(1) for more details.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan
Taskaya and Ammar Askar in bpo-43950(2).)

     Σημείωση: This feature requires storing column positions in *note
     Code Objects: 9b4, which may result in a small increase in
     interpreter memory usage and disk usage for compiled Python files.
     To avoid storing the extra information and deactivate printing the
     extra traceback information, use the *note -X no_debug_ranges: 178.
     command line option or the *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 9b5.
     environment variable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*,  Next: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes,  Prev: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks,  Up: New Features<5>

1.6.2.2 PEP 654: Exception Groups and ‘except*’
...............................................

PEP 654(1) introduces language features that enable a program to raise
and handle multiple unrelated exceptions simultaneously.  The builtin
types *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8. and *note BaseExceptionGroup: 767. make
it possible to group exceptions and raise them together, and the new
*note except*: 448. syntax generalizes *note except: 447. to match
subgroups of exception groups.

See PEP 654(2) for more details.

(Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45292(3).  PEP written by Irit
Katriel, Yury Selivanov and Guido van Rossum.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes,  Next: Windows py exe launcher improvements,  Prev: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*,  Up: New Features<5>

1.6.2.3 PEP 678: Exceptions can be enriched with notes
......................................................

The *note add_note(): 9b8. method is added to *note BaseException: 9b9.
It can be used to enrich exceptions with context information that is not
available at the time when the exception is raised.  The added notes
appear in the default traceback.

See PEP 678(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45607(2).  PEP written by Zac
Hatfield-Dodds.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45607


File: python.info,  Node: Windows py exe launcher improvements,  Prev: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes,  Up: New Features<5>

1.6.2.4 Windows ‘py.exe’ launcher improvements
..............................................

The copy of the *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc. included
with Python 3.11 has been significantly updated.  It now supports
company/tag syntax as defined in PEP 514(1) using the
‘-V:<COMPANY>/<TAG>’ argument instead of the limited ‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>’.
This allows launching distributions other than ‘PythonCore’, the one
hosted on python.org(2).

When using ‘-V:’ selectors, either company or tag can be omitted, but
all installs will be searched.  For example, ‘-V:OtherPython/’ will
select the «best» tag registered for ‘OtherPython’, while ‘-V:3.11’ or
‘-V:/3.11’ will select the «best» distribution with tag ‘3.11’.

When using the legacy ‘-<MAJOR>’, ‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>’,
‘-<MAJOR>-<BITNESS>’ or ‘-<MAJOR>.<MINOR>-<BITNESS>’ arguments, all
existing behaviour should be preserved from past versions, and only
releases from ‘PythonCore’ will be selected.  However, the ‘-64’ suffix
now implies «not 32-bit» (not necessarily x86-64), as there are multiple
supported 64-bit platforms.  32-bit runtimes are detected by checking
the runtime’s tag for a ‘-32’ suffix.  All releases of Python since 3.5
have included this in their 32-bit builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (2) https://www.python.org


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>,  Next: Other Language Changes<3>,  Prev: New Features<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.3 New Features Related to Type Hints
----------------------------------------

This section covers major changes affecting PEP 484(1) type hints and
the *note typing: 10d. module.

* Menu:

* PEP 646; Variadic generics: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
* PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required.
* PEP 673; Self type: PEP 673 Self type.
* PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type.
* PEP 681; Data class transforms: PEP 681 Data class transforms.
* PEP 563 may not be the future::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 646 Variadic generics,  Next: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.6.3.1 PEP 646: Variadic generics
..................................

PEP 484(1) previously introduced *note TypeVar: 294, enabling creation
of generics parameterised with a single type.  PEP 646(2) adds *note
TypeVarTuple: 293, enabling parameterisation with an 'arbitrary' number
of types.  In other words, a ‘TypeVarTuple’ is a 'variadic' type
variable, enabling 'variadic' generics.

This enables a wide variety of use cases.  In particular, it allows the
type of array-like structures in numerical computing libraries such as
NumPy and TensorFlow to be parameterised with the array 'shape'.  Static
type checkers will now be able to catch shape-related bugs in code that
uses these libraries.

See PEP 646(3) for more details.

(Contributed by Matthew Rahtz in bpo-43224(4), with contributions by
Serhiy Storchaka and Jelle Zijlstra.  PEP written by Mark Mendoza,
Matthew Rahtz, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, and Vincent Siles.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required,  Next: PEP 673 Self type,  Prev: PEP 646 Variadic generics,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.6.3.2 PEP 655: Marking individual ‘TypedDict’ items as required or not-required
.................................................................................

*note Required: 9c2. and *note NotRequired: 9c3. provide a
straightforward way to mark whether individual items in a *note
TypedDict: 290. must be present.  Previously, this was only possible
using inheritance.

All fields are still required by default, unless the 'total' parameter
is set to ‘False’, in which case all fields are still not-required by
default.  For example, the following specifies a ‘TypedDict’ with one
required and one not-required key:

     class Movie(TypedDict):
        title: str
        year: NotRequired[int]

     m1: Movie = {"title": "Black Panther", "year": 2018}  # OK
     m2: Movie = {"title": "Star Wars"}  # OK (year is not required)
     m3: Movie = {"year": 2022}  # ERROR (missing required field title)

The following definition is equivalent:

     class Movie(TypedDict, total=False):
        title: Required[str]
        year: int

See PEP 655(1) for more details.

(Contributed by David Foster and Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-47087(2).  PEP
written by David Foster.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47087


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 673 Self type,  Next: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type,  Prev: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.6.3.3 PEP 673: ‘Self’ type
............................

The new *note Self: 9c5. annotation provides a simple and intuitive way
to annotate methods that return an instance of their class.  This
behaves the same as the *note TypeVar: 294.-based approach specified in
PEP 484(1), but is more concise and easier to follow.

Common use cases include alternative constructors provided as *note
classmethod: 69a.s, and *note __enter__(): 9c6. methods that return
‘self’:

     class MyLock:
         def __enter__(self) -> Self:
             self.lock()
             return self

         ...

     class MyInt:
         @classmethod
         def fromhex(cls, s: str) -> Self:
             return cls(int(s, 16))

         ...

*note Self: 9c5. can also be used to annotate method parameters or
attributes of the same type as their enclosing class.

See PEP 673(2) for more details.

(Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe in bpo-46534(3).  PEP written by
Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan and James Hilton-Balfe.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/#annotating-instance-and-class-methods

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46534


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type,  Next: PEP 681 Data class transforms,  Prev: PEP 673 Self type,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.6.3.4 PEP 675: Arbitrary literal string type
..............................................

The new *note LiteralString: 9c8. annotation may be used to indicate
that a function parameter can be of any literal string type.  This
allows a function to accept arbitrary literal string types, as well as
strings created from other literal strings.  Type checkers can then
enforce that sensitive functions, such as those that execute SQL
statements or shell commands, are called only with static arguments,
providing protection against injection attacks.

For example, a SQL query function could be annotated as follows:

     def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> ...
         ...

     def caller(
         arbitrary_string: str,
         query_string: LiteralString,
         table_name: LiteralString,
     ) -> None:
         run_query("SELECT * FROM students")       # ok
         run_query(query_string)                   # ok
         run_query("SELECT * FROM " + table_name)  # ok
         run_query(arbitrary_string)               # type checker error
         run_query(                                # type checker error
             f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}"
         )

See PEP 675(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-47088(2).  PEP written by Pradeep
Kumar Srinivasan and Graham Bleaney.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47088


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 681 Data class transforms,  Next: PEP 563 may not be the future,  Prev: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.6.3.5 PEP 681: Data class transforms
......................................

*note dataclass_transform: 8e4. may be used to decorate a class,
metaclass, or a function that is itself a decorator.  The presence of
‘@dataclass_transform()’ tells a static type checker that the decorated
object performs runtime «magic» that transforms a class, giving it *note
dataclass: 6e6.-like behaviors.

For example:

     # The create_model decorator is defined by a library.
     @typing.dataclass_transform()
     def create_model(cls: Type[T]) -> Type[T]:
         cls.__init__ = ...
         cls.__eq__ = ...
         cls.__ne__ = ...
         return cls

     # The create_model decorator can now be used to create new model classes:
     @create_model
     class CustomerModel:
         id: int
         name: str

     c = CustomerModel(id=327, name="Eric Idle")

See PEP 681(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-91860(2).  PEP written by Erik De
Bonte and Eric Traut.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91860


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 563 may not be the future,  Prev: PEP 681 Data class transforms,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>

1.6.3.6 PEP 563 may not be the future
.....................................

PEP 563(1) Postponed Evaluation of Annotations (the ‘from __future__
import annotations’ *note future statement: 670.) that was originally
planned for release in Python 3.10 has been put on hold indefinitely.
See this message from the Steering Council(2) for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/VIZEBX5EYMSYIJNDBF6DMUMZOCWHARSO/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<3>,  Next: Other CPython Implementation Changes,  Prev: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.4 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * Starred unpacking expressions can now be used in *note for: 321.
     statements.  (See bpo-46725(1) for more details.)

   * Asynchronous *note comprehensions: 9ce. are now allowed inside
     comprehensions in *note asynchronous functions: 9cf.  Outer
     comprehensions implicitly become asynchronous in this case.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33346(2).)

   * A *note TypeError: 291. is now raised instead of an *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. in *note with: 20a. statements and *note
     contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context(): 9d0. for objects that do not
     support the *note context manager: 478. protocol, and in *note
     async with: 20b. statements and *note
     contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context(): 9d1. for objects
     not supporting the *note asynchronous context manager: 9d2.
     protocol.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12022(3) and
     bpo-44471(4).)

   * Added *note object.__getstate__(): 9d3, which provides the default
     implementation of the ‘__getstate__()’ method.  *note copy: 29.ing
     and *note pickle: ab.ing instances of subclasses of builtin types
     *note bytearray: 1c6, *note set: 42b, *note frozenset: 9d4, *note
     collections.OrderedDict: 9d5, *note collections.deque: 9d6, *note
     weakref.WeakSet: 9d7, and *note datetime.tzinfo: 9d8. now copies
     and pickles instance attributes implemented as *note slots: 9d9.
     This change has an unintended side effect: It trips up a small
     minority of existing Python projects not expecting
     ‘object.__getstate__()’ to exist.  See the later comments on
     gh-70766(5) for discussions of what workarounds such code may need.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26579(6).)

   * Added a *note -P: 9a3. command line option and a *note
     PYTHONSAFEPATH: 9a4. environment variable, which disable the
     automatic prepending to *note sys.path: 194. of the script’s
     directory when running a script, or the current directory when
     using *note -c: 445. and *note -m: 4ca.  This ensures only stdlib
     and installed modules are picked up by *note import: 9da, and
     avoids unintentionally or maliciously shadowing modules with those
     in a local (and typically user-writable) directory.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in gh-57684(7).)

   * A ‘"z"’ option was added to the *note Format specification
     mini-language: 6fe. that coerces negative to positive zero after
     rounding to the format precision.  See PEP 682(8) for more details.
     (Contributed by John Belmonte in gh-90153(9).)

   * Bytes are no longer accepted on *note sys.path: 194.  Support broke
     sometime between Python 3.2 and 3.6, with no one noticing until
     after Python 3.10.0 was released.  In addition, bringing back
     support would be problematic due to interactions between *note -b:
     2ed. and *note sys.path_importer_cache: 9db. when there is a
     mixture of *note str: 1df. and *note bytes: 1c7. keys.
     (Contributed by Thomas Grainger in gh-91181(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46725

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33346

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12022

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44471

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70766

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26579

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0682/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90153

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91181


File: python.info,  Node: Other CPython Implementation Changes,  Next: New Modules<3>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.5 Other CPython Implementation Changes
------------------------------------------

   * The special methods *note __complex__(): 9de. for *note complex:
     328. and *note __bytes__(): 9df. for *note bytes: 1c7. are
     implemented to support the *note typing.SupportsComplex: 9e0. and
     *note typing.SupportsBytes: 9e1. protocols.  (Contributed by Mark
     Dickinson and Donghee Na in bpo-24234(1).)

   * ‘siphash13’ is added as a new internal hashing algorithm.  It has
     similar security properties as ‘siphash24’, but it is slightly
     faster for long inputs.  *note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7, and some
     other types now use it as the default algorithm for *note hash():
     9e2.  PEP 552(2) *note hash-based .pyc files: 9e3. now use
     ‘siphash13’ too.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-29410(3).)

   * When an active exception is re-raised by a *note raise: 9e4.
     statement with no parameters, the traceback attached to this
     exception is now always ‘sys.exc_info()[1].__traceback__’.  This
     means that changes made to the traceback in the current *note
     except: 447. clause are reflected in the re-raised exception.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).)

   * The interpreter state’s representation of handled exceptions (aka
     ‘exc_info’ or ‘_PyErr_StackItem’) now only has the ‘exc_value’
     field; ‘exc_type’ and ‘exc_traceback’ have been removed, as they
     can be derived from ‘exc_value’.  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in
     bpo-45711(5).)

   * A new *note command line option: 9e5, ‘AppendPath’, has been added
     for the Windows installer.  It behaves similarly to ‘PrependPath’,
     but appends the install and scripts directories instead of
     prepending them.  (Contributed by Bastian Neuburger in
     bpo-44934(6).)

   * The *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 9e6. field must now be
     set to ‘1’ for initialization to use *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 834. to initialize *note sys.path:
     194.  Otherwise, initialization will recalculate the path and
     replace any values added to ‘module_search_paths’.

   * The output of the *note -help: 9e7. option now fits in 50 lines/80
     columns.  Information about *note Python environment variables:
     9e8. and *note -X: 178. options is now available using the
     respective *note -help-env: 9e9. and *note -help-xoptions: 9ea.
     flags, and with the new *note -help-all: 9eb.  (Contributed by Éric
     Araujo in bpo-46142(7).)

   * Converting between *note int: 326. and *note str: 1df. in bases
     other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such
     as base 10 (decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 277. if the
     number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential
     denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This
     is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735(8).  This limit can be
     configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag,
     or *note sys: e2. APIs.  See the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 9ec. documentation.  The default limit is 4300
     digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29410

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44934

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46142

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<3>,  Next: Improved Modules<3>,  Prev: Other CPython Implementation Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.6 New Modules
-----------------

   * *note tomllib: 105.: For parsing TOML(1). See PEP 680(2) for more
     details.  (Contributed by Taneli Hukkinen in bpo-40059(3).)

   * *note wsgiref.types: 125.: WSGI(4)-specific types for static type
     checking.  (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-42012(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://toml.io/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40059

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42012


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<3>,  Next: Optimizations<6>,  Prev: New Modules<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.7 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<7>.
* contextlib: contextlib<2>.
* dataclasses: dataclasses<2>.
* datetime: datetime<3>.
* enum: enum<3>.
* fcntl::
* fractions: fractions<4>.
* functools: functools<4>.
* gzip: gzip<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<3>.
* IDLE and idlelib::
* inspect: inspect<4>.
* locale: locale<4>.
* logging::
* math: math<5>.
* operator: operator<2>.
* os: os<5>.
* pathlib: pathlib<8>.
* re: re<5>.
* shutil: shutil<3>.
* socket: socket<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<6>.
* string::
* sys: sys<5>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<4>.
* tempfile: tempfile<3>.
* threading: threading<5>.
* time: time<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<5>.
* traceback: traceback<2>.
* typing: typing<7>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<5>.
* unittest: unittest<6>.
* venv: venv<3>.
* warnings: warnings<3>.
* zipfile: zipfile<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<7>,  Next: contextlib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.1 asyncio
...............

   * Added the *note TaskGroup: 6d7. class, an *note asynchronous
     context manager: 9f3. holding a group of tasks that will wait for
     all of them upon exit.  For new code this is recommended over using
     *note create_task(): 462. and *note gather(): 9f4. directly.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and others in gh-90908(1).)

   * Added *note timeout(): 9f5, an asynchronous context manager for
     setting a timeout on asynchronous operations.  For new code this is
     recommended over using *note wait_for(): 9f6. directly.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in gh-90927(2).)

   * Added the *note Runner: 30a. class, which exposes the machinery
     used by *note run(): 309.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     gh-91218(3).)

   * Added the *note Barrier: 9f7. class to the synchronization
     primitives in the asyncio library, and the related *note
     BrokenBarrierError: 9f8. exception.  (Contributed by Yves Duprat
     and Andrew Svetlov in gh-87518(4).)

   * Added keyword argument 'all_errors' to *note
     asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 9f9. so that multiple connection
     errors can be raised as an *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8.

   * Added the *note asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls(): 9fa. method for
     upgrading existing stream-based connections to TLS. (Contributed by
     Ian Good in bpo-34975(5).)

   * Added raw datagram socket functions to the event loop: *note
     sock_sendto(): 9fb, *note sock_recvfrom(): 9fc. and *note
     sock_recvfrom_into(): 9fd.  These have implementations in *note
     SelectorEventLoop: 30b. and *note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe.
     (Contributed by Alex Grönholm in bpo-46805(6).)

   * Added *note cancelling(): 6db. and *note uncancel(): 6dc. methods
     to *note Task: 460.  These are primarily intended for internal use,
     notably by *note TaskGroup: 6d7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90908

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90927

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87518

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34975

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46805


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<2>,  Next: dataclasses<2>,  Prev: asyncio<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.2 contextlib
..................

   * Added non parallel-safe *note chdir(): a01. context manager to
     change the current working directory and then restore it on exit.
     Simple wrapper around *note chdir(): a02.  (Contributed by Filipe
     Laíns in bpo-25625(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25625


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses<2>,  Next: datetime<3>,  Prev: contextlib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.3 dataclasses
...................

   * Change field default mutability check, allowing only defaults which
     are *note hashable: 183. instead of any object which is not an
     instance of *note dict: 188, *note list: 4d9. or *note set: 42b.
     (Contributed by Eric V. Smith in bpo-44674(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44674


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<3>,  Next: enum<3>,  Prev: dataclasses<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.4 datetime
................

   * Add *note datetime.UTC: 8fc, a convenience alias for *note
     datetime.timezone.utc: a07.  (Contributed by Kabir Kwatra in
     gh-91973(1).)

   * *note datetime.date.fromisoformat(): a08, *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): a09. and *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): a0a. can now be used to parse
     most ISO 8601 formats (barring only those that support fractional
     hours and minutes).  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in gh-80010(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91973

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80010


File: python.info,  Node: enum<3>,  Next: fcntl,  Prev: datetime<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.5 enum
............

   * Renamed ‘EnumMeta’ to *note EnumType: 6fc. (‘EnumMeta’ kept as an
     alias).

   * Added *note StrEnum: a0d, with members that can be used as (and
     must be) strings.

   * Added *note ReprEnum: a0e, which only modifies the *note
     __repr__(): 1bc. of members while returning their literal values
     (rather than names) for *note __str__(): a0f. and *note
     __format__(): a10. (used by *note str(): 1df, *note format(): 439.
     and *note f-string: 858.s).

   * Changed *note Enum.__format__(): a11. (the default for *note
     format(): 439, *note str.format(): a12. and *note f-string: 858.s)
     to always produce the same result as *note Enum.__str__(): a13.:
     for enums inheriting from *note ReprEnum: a0e. it will be the
     member’s value; for all other enums it will be the enum and member
     name (e.g.  ‘Color.RED’).

   * Added a new 'boundary' class parameter to *note Flag: a14. enums
     and the *note FlagBoundary: a15. enum with its options, to control
     how to handle out-of-range flag values.

   * Added the *note verify(): a16. enum decorator and the *note
     EnumCheck: a17. enum with its options, to check enum classes
     against several specific constraints.

   * Added the *note member(): a18. and *note nonmember(): a19.
     decorators, to ensure the decorated object is/is not converted to
     an enum member.

   * Added the *note property(): a1a. decorator, which works like *note
     property(): 6bb. except for enums.  Use this instead of *note
     types.DynamicClassAttribute(): a1b.

   * Added the *note global_enum(): a1c. enum decorator, which adjusts
     *note __repr__(): 1bc. and *note __str__(): a0f. to show values as
     members of their module rather than the enum class.  For example,
     ‘'re.ASCII'’ for the *note ASCII: a1d. member of *note
     re.RegexFlag: a1e. rather than ‘'RegexFlag.ASCII'’.

   * Enhanced *note Flag: a14. to support *note len(): a1f, iteration
     and *note in: 323./*note not in: a20. on its members.  For example,
     the following now works: ‘len(AFlag(3)) == 2 and list(AFlag(3)) ==
     (AFlag.ONE, AFlag.TWO)’

   * Changed *note Enum: a21. and *note Flag: a14. so that members are
     now defined before *note __init_subclass__(): a22. is called; *note
     dir(): a23. now includes methods, etc., from mixed-in data types.

   * Changed *note Flag: a14. to only consider primary values (power of
     two) canonical while composite values (‘3’, ‘6’, ‘10’, etc.)  are
     considered aliases; inverted flags are coerced to their positive
     equivalent.


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl,  Next: fractions<4>,  Prev: enum<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.6 fcntl
.............

   * On FreeBSD, the ‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ flags
     respectively are supported, the former equals to ‘dup2’ usage while
     the latter set the ‘FD_CLOEXEC’ flag in addition.


File: python.info,  Node: fractions<4>,  Next: functools<4>,  Prev: fcntl,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.7 fractions
.................

   * Support PEP 515(1)-style initialization of *note Fraction: 1c3.
     from string.  (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in bpo-44258(2).)

   * *note Fraction: 1c3. now implements an ‘__int__’ method, so that an
     ‘isinstance(some_fraction, typing.SupportsInt)’ check passes.
     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-44547(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44258

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44547


File: python.info,  Node: functools<4>,  Next: gzip<2>,  Prev: fractions<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.8 functools
.................

   * *note functools.singledispatch(): a2a. now supports *note
     types.UnionType: 527. and *note typing.Union: 341. as annotations
     to the dispatch argument.:

          >>> from functools import singledispatch
          >>> @singledispatch
          ... def fun(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int | float, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> from typing import Union
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Union[list, set], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)
          ...

     (Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-46014(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46014


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<2>,  Next: hashlib<3>,  Prev: functools<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.9 gzip
............

   * The *note gzip.compress(): a2d. function is now faster when used
     with the 'mtime=0' argument as it delegates the compression
     entirely to a single *note zlib.compress(): a2e. operation.  There
     is one side effect of this change: The gzip file header contains an
     «OS» byte in its header.  That was traditionally always set to a
     value of 255 representing «unknown» by the *note gzip: 6a. module.
     Now, when using ‘compress()’ with 'mtime=0', it may be set to a
     different value by the underlying zlib C library Python was linked
     against.  (See gh-112346(1) for details on the side effect.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112346


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<3>,  Next: IDLE and idlelib,  Prev: gzip<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.10 hashlib
................

   * *note hashlib.blake2b(): a31. and *note hashlib.blake2s(): a32. now
     prefer libb2(1) over Python’s vendored copy.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes in bpo-47095(2).)

   * The internal ‘_sha3’ module with SHA3 and SHAKE algorithms now uses
     'tiny_sha3' instead of the 'Keccak Code Package' to reduce code and
     binary size.  The *note hashlib: 6b. module prefers optimized SHA3
     and SHAKE implementations from OpenSSL. The change affects only
     installations without OpenSSL support.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes in bpo-47098(3).)

   * Add *note hashlib.file_digest(): a33, a helper function for
     efficient hashing of files or file-like objects.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes in gh-89313(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47095

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47098

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89313


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE and idlelib,  Next: inspect<4>,  Prev: hashlib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.11 IDLE and idlelib
.........................

   * Apply syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.  (Contributed by Alex
     Waygood and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-45447(1).)

   * Include prompts when saving Shell with inputs and outputs.
     (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in gh-95191(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<4>,  Next: locale<4>,  Prev: IDLE and idlelib,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.12 inspect
................

   * Add *note getmembers_static(): a38. to return all members without
     triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol.
     (Contributed by Weipeng Hong in bpo-30533(1).)

   * Add *note ismethodwrapper(): a39. for checking if the type of an
     object is a *note MethodWrapperType: a3a.  (Contributed by Hakan
     Çelik in bpo-29418(2).)

   * Change the frame-related functions in the *note inspect: 81. module
     to return new *note FrameInfo: a3b. and *note Traceback: a3c. class
     instances (backwards compatible with the previous *note named
     tuple: a3d.-like interfaces) that includes the extended PEP 657(3)
     position information (end line number, column and end column).  The
     affected functions are:

        * *note inspect.getframeinfo(): a3e.

        * *note inspect.getouterframes(): a3f.

        * *note inspect.getinnerframes(): a40,

        * *note inspect.stack(): a41.

        * *note inspect.trace(): a42.

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-88116(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30533

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29418

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116


File: python.info,  Node: locale<4>,  Next: logging,  Prev: inspect<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.13 locale
...............

   * Add *note locale.getencoding(): a45. to get the current locale
     encoding.  It is similar to ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’
     but ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46.


File: python.info,  Node: logging,  Next: math<5>,  Prev: locale<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.14 logging
................

   * Added *note getLevelNamesMapping(): a49. to return a mapping from
     logging level names (e.g.  ‘'CRITICAL'’) to the values of their
     corresponding *note Logging Levels: a4a. (e.g.  ‘50’, by default).
     (Contributed by Andrei Kulakovin in gh-88024(1).)

   * Added a *note createSocket(): a4b. method to *note SysLogHandler:
     a4c, to match *note SocketHandler.createSocket(): a4d.  It is
     called automatically during handler initialization and when
     emitting an event, if there is no active socket.  (Contributed by
     Kirill Pinchuk in gh-88457(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88024

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88457


File: python.info,  Node: math<5>,  Next: operator<2>,  Prev: logging,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.15 math
.............

   * Add *note math.exp2(): a50.: return 2 raised to the power of x.
     (Contributed by Gideon Mitchell in bpo-45917(1).)

   * Add *note math.cbrt(): a51.: return the cube root of x.
     (Contributed by Ajith Ramachandran in bpo-44357(2).)

   * The behaviour of two *note math.pow(): a52. corner cases was
     changed, for consistency with the IEEE 754 specification.  The
     operations ‘math.pow(0.0, -math.inf)’ and ‘math.pow(-0.0,
     -math.inf)’ now return ‘inf’.  Previously they raised *note
     ValueError: 277.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-44339(3).)

   * The *note math.nan: a53. value is now always available.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46917(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45917

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44357

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44339

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917


File: python.info,  Node: operator<2>,  Next: os<5>,  Prev: math<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.16 operator
.................

   * A new function ‘operator.call’ has been added, such that
     ‘operator.call(obj, *args, **kwargs) == obj(*args, **kwargs)’.
     (Contributed by Antony Lee in bpo-44019(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019


File: python.info,  Node: os<5>,  Next: pathlib<8>,  Prev: operator<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.17 os
...........

   * On Windows, *note os.urandom(): 931. now uses ‘BCryptGenRandom()’,
     instead of ‘CryptGenRandom()’ which is deprecated.  (Contributed by
     Donghee Na in bpo-44611(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44611


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<8>,  Next: re<5>,  Prev: os<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.18 pathlib
................

   * *note glob(): 73a. and *note rglob(): 73b. return only directories
     if 'pattern' ends with a pathname components separator: *note sep:
     a5a. or *note altsep: a5b.  (Contributed by Eisuke Kawasima in
     bpo-22276(1) and bpo-33392(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22276

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33392


File: python.info,  Node: re<5>,  Next: shutil<3>,  Prev: pathlib<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.19 re
...........

   * Atomic grouping (‘(?>...)’) and possessive quantifiers (‘*+’, ‘++’,
     ‘?+’, ‘{m,n}+’) are now supported in regular expressions.
     (Contributed by Jeffrey C. Jacobs and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-433030(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433030


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<3>,  Next: socket<3>,  Prev: re<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.20 shutil
...............

   * Add optional parameter 'dir_fd' in *note shutil.rmtree(): 335.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-46245(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46245


File: python.info,  Node: socket<3>,  Next: sqlite3<6>,  Prev: shutil<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.21 socket
...............

   * Add CAN Socket support for NetBSD. (Contributed by Thomas Klausner
     in bpo-30512(1).)

   * *note create_connection(): a62. has an option to raise, in case of
     failure to connect, an *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8. containing all
     errors instead of only raising the last error.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in bpo-29980(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30512

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29980


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<6>,  Next: string,  Prev: socket<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.22 sqlite3
................

   * You can now disable the authorizer by passing *note None: a65. to
     *note set_authorizer(): 3e3.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-44491(1).)

   * Collation name *note create_collation(): a66. can now contain any
     Unicode character.  Collation names with invalid characters now
     raise *note UnicodeEncodeError: a67. instead of *note
     sqlite3.ProgrammingError: 57d.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland
     in bpo-44688(2).)

   * *note sqlite3: d7. exceptions now include the SQLite extended error
     code as *note sqlite_errorcode: a68. and the SQLite error name as
     *note sqlite_errorname: a69.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda, Daniel
     Shahaf, and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-16379(3) and bpo-24139(4).)

   * Add *note setlimit(): a6a. and *note getlimit(): a6b. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 3df. for setting and getting SQLite limits by
     connection basis.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-45243(5).)

   * *note sqlite3: d7. now sets *note sqlite3.threadsafety: a6c. based
     on the default threading mode the underlying SQLite library has
     been compiled with.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-45613(6).)

   * *note sqlite3: d7. C callbacks now use unraisable exceptions if
     callback tracebacks are enabled.  Users can now register an *note
     unraisable hook handler: 70c. to improve their debug experience.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-45828(7).)

   * Fetch across rollback no longer raises *note InterfaceError: a6d.
     Instead we leave it to the SQLite library to handle these cases.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-44092(8).)

   * Add *note serialize(): a6e. and *note deserialize(): a6f. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 3df. for serializing and deserializing
     databases.  (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-41930(9).)

   * Add *note create_window_function(): a70. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 3df. for creating aggregate window functions.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-34916(10).)

   * Add *note blobopen(): a71. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 3df.  *note
     sqlite3.Blob: a72. allows incremental I/O operations on blobs.
     (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-24905(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44491

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24139

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45613

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44092

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41930

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34916

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24905


File: python.info,  Node: string,  Next: sys<5>,  Prev: sqlite3<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.23 string
...............

   * Add *note get_identifiers(): a75. and *note is_valid(): a76. to
     *note string.Template: a77, which respectively return all valid
     placeholders, and whether any invalid placeholders are present.
     (Contributed by Ben Kehoe in gh-90465(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90465


File: python.info,  Node: sys<5>,  Next: sysconfig<4>,  Prev: string,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.24 sys
............

   * *note sys.exc_info(): a7a. now derives the ‘type’ and ‘traceback’
     fields from the ‘value’ (the exception instance), so when an
     exception is modified while it is being handled, the changes are
     reflected in the results of subsequent calls to ‘exc_info()’.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(1).)

   * Add *note sys.exception(): a7b. which returns the active exception
     instance (equivalent to ‘sys.exc_info()[1]’).  (Contributed by Irit
     Katriel in bpo-46328(2).)

   * Add the *note sys.flags.safe_path: a7c. flag.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-57684(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46328

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig<4>,  Next: tempfile<3>,  Prev: sys<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.25 sysconfig
..................

   * Three new *note installation schemes: 65c. ('posix_venv', 'nt_venv'
     and 'venv') were added and are used when Python creates new virtual
     environments or when it is running from a virtual environment.  The
     first two schemes ('posix_venv' and 'nt_venv') are OS-specific for
     non-Windows and Windows, the 'venv' is essentially an alias to one
     of them according to the OS Python runs on.  This is useful for
     downstream distributors who modify *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): a7f.  Third party code that
     creates new virtual environments should use the new 'venv'
     installation scheme to determine the paths, as does *note venv:
     11a.  (Contributed by Miro Hrončok in bpo-45413(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<3>,  Next: threading<5>,  Prev: sysconfig<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.26 tempfile
.................

   * *note SpooledTemporaryFile: a82. objects now fully implement the
     methods of *note io.BufferedIOBase: a83. or *note io.TextIOBase:
     a84. (depending on file mode).  This lets them work correctly with
     APIs that expect file-like objects, such as compression modules.
     (Contributed by Carey Metcalfe in gh-70363(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70363


File: python.info,  Node: threading<5>,  Next: time<2>,  Prev: tempfile<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.27 threading
..................

   * On Unix, if the ‘sem_clockwait()’ function is available in the C
     library (glibc 2.30 and newer), the *note threading.Lock.acquire():
     a87. method now uses the monotonic clock (*note
     time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: a88.) for the timeout, rather than using the
     system clock (*note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: a89.), to not be affected
     by system clock changes.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-41710(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710


File: python.info,  Node: time<2>,  Next: tkinter<5>,  Prev: threading<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.28 time
.............

   * On Unix, *note time.sleep(): a8c. now uses the ‘clock_nanosleep()’
     or ‘nanosleep()’ function, if available, which has a resolution of
     1 nanosecond (10^-9 seconds), rather than using ‘select()’ which
     has a resolution of 1 microsecond (10^-6 seconds).  (Contributed by
     Benjamin Szőke and Victor Stinner in bpo-21302(1).)

   * On Windows 8.1 and newer, *note time.sleep(): a8c. now uses a
     waitable timer based on high-resolution timers(2) which has a
     resolution of 100 nanoseconds (10^-7 seconds).  Previously, it had
     a resolution of 1 millisecond (10^-3 seconds).  (Contributed by
     Benjamin Szőke, Donghee Na, Eryk Sun and Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21302(3) and bpo-45429(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (2) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/drivers/kernel/high-resolution-timers

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45429


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<5>,  Next: traceback<2>,  Prev: time<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.29 tkinter
................

   * Added method ‘info_patchlevel()’ which returns the exact version of
     the Tcl library as a named tuple similar to *note sys.version_info:
     2fc.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91827(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91827


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<2>,  Next: typing<7>,  Prev: tkinter<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.30 traceback
..................

   * Add *note traceback.StackSummary.format_frame_summary(): a91. to
     allow users to override which frames appear in the traceback, and
     how they are formatted.  (Contributed by Ammar Askar in
     bpo-44569(1).)

   * Add *note traceback.TracebackException.print(): a92, which prints
     the formatted *note TracebackException: 764. instance to a file.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-33809(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44569

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33809


File: python.info,  Node: typing<7>,  Next: unicodedata<5>,  Prev: traceback<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.31 typing
...............

For major changes, see *note New Features Related to Type Hints: 9bd.

   * Add *note typing.assert_never(): a95. and *note typing.Never: a96.
     ‘typing.assert_never()’ is useful for asking a type checker to
     confirm that a line of code is not reachable.  At runtime, it
     raises an *note AssertionError: a97.  (Contributed by Jelle
     Zijlstra in gh-90633(1).)

   * Add *note typing.reveal_type(): a98.  This is useful for asking a
     type checker what type it has inferred for a given expression.  At
     runtime it prints the type of the received value.  (Contributed by
     Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90572(2).)

   * Add *note typing.assert_type(): a99.  This is useful for asking a
     type checker to confirm that the type it has inferred for a given
     expression matches the given type.  At runtime it simply returns
     the received value.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-90638(3).)

   * *note typing.TypedDict: 290. types can now be generic.
     (Contributed by Samodya Abeysiriwardane in gh-89026(4).)

   * *note NamedTuple: 2e4. types can now be generic.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43923(5).)

   * Allow subclassing of *note typing.Any: a9a.  This is useful for
     avoiding type checker errors related to highly dynamic class, such
     as mocks.  (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91154(6).)

   * The *note typing.final(): a9b. decorator now sets the ‘__final__’
     attributed on the decorated object.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra
     in gh-90500(7).)

   * The *note typing.get_overloads(): a9c. function can be used for
     introspecting the overloads of a function.  *note
     typing.clear_overloads(): a9d. can be used to clear all registered
     overloads of a function.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     gh-89263(8).)

   * The *note __init__(): 2fa. method of *note Protocol: 76c.
     subclasses is now preserved.  (Contributed by Adrian Garcia
     Badarasco in gh-88970(9).)

   * The representation of empty tuple types (‘Tuple[()]’) is
     simplified.  This affects introspection, e.g.
     ‘get_args(Tuple[()])’ now evaluates to ‘()’ instead of ‘((),)’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91137(10).)

   * Loosen runtime requirements for type annotations by removing the
     callable check in the private ‘typing._type_check’ function.
     (Contributed by Gregory Beauregard in gh-90802(11).)

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. now supports evaluating strings
     as forward references in *note PEP 585 generic aliases: a9f.
     (Contributed by Niklas Rosenstein in gh-85542(12).)

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. no longer adds *note Optional:
     aa0. to parameters with ‘None’ as a default.  (Contributed by
     Nikita Sobolev in gh-90353(13).)

   * *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. now supports evaluating bare
     stringified *note ClassVar: 76e. annotations.  (Contributed by
     Gregory Beauregard in gh-90711(14).)

   * *note typing.no_type_check(): aa1. no longer modifies external
     classes and functions.  It also now correctly marks classmethods as
     not to be type checked.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     gh-90729(15).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90633

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90572

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90638

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89026

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43923

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91154

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90500

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89263

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88970

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91137

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90802

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85542

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90353

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90711

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90729


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<5>,  Next: unittest<6>,  Prev: typing<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.32 unicodedata
....................

   * The Unicode database has been updated to version 14.0.0.
     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-45190(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45190


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<6>,  Next: venv<3>,  Prev: unicodedata<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.33 unittest
.................

   * Added methods *note enterContext(): aa6. and *note
     enterClassContext(): aa7. of class *note TestCase: 52f, method
     *note enterAsyncContext(): aa8. of class *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342. and function *note
     unittest.enterModuleContext(): aa9.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-45046(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45046


File: python.info,  Node: venv<3>,  Next: warnings<3>,  Prev: unittest<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.34 venv
.............

   * When new Python virtual environments are created, the 'venv' *note
     sysconfig installation scheme: 65c. is used to determine the paths
     inside the environment.  When Python runs in a virtual environment,
     the same installation scheme is the default.  That means that
     downstream distributors can change the default sysconfig install
     scheme without changing behavior of virtual environments.  Third
     party code that also creates new virtual environments should do the
     same.  (Contributed by Miro Hrončok in bpo-45413(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<3>,  Next: zipfile<2>,  Prev: venv<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.35 warnings
.................

   * *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 423. now accepts arguments for
     *note warnings.simplefilter(): aae, providing a more concise way to
     locally ignore warnings or convert them to errors.  (Contributed by
     Zac Hatfield-Dodds in bpo-47074(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47074


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<2>,  Prev: warnings<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<3>

1.6.7.36 zipfile
................

   * Added support for specifying member name encoding for reading
     metadata in a *note ZipFile: ab1.’s directory and file headers.
     (Contributed by Stephen J. Turnbull and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28080(1).)

   * Added *note ZipFile.mkdir(): ab2. for creating new directories
     inside ZIP archives.  (Contributed by Sam Ezeh in gh-49083(2).)

   * Added *note stem: ab3, *note suffix: ab4. and *note suffixes: ab5.
     to *note zipfile.Path: ab6.  (Contributed by Miguel Brito in
     gh-88261(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/49083

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88261


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<6>,  Next: Faster CPython,  Prev: Improved Modules<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.8 Optimizations
-------------------

This section covers specific optimizations independent of the *note
Faster CPython: 99f. project, which is covered in its own section.

   * The compiler now optimizes simple *note printf-style % formatting:
     ab9. on string literals containing only the format codes ‘%s’, ‘%r’
     and ‘%a’ and makes it as fast as a corresponding *note f-string:
     858. expression.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28307(1).)

   * Integer division (‘//’) is better tuned for optimization by
     compilers.  It is now around 20% faster on x86-64 when dividing an
     *note int: 326. by a value smaller than ‘2**30’.  (Contributed by
     Gregory P. Smith and Tim Peters in gh-90564(2).)

   * *note sum(): 881. is now nearly 30% faster for integers smaller
     than ‘2**30’.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in gh-68264(3).)

   * Resizing lists is streamlined for the common case, speeding up
     *note list.append(): aba. by ≈15% and simple *note list
     comprehension: abb.s by up to 20-30% (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney
     in gh-91165(4).)

   * Dictionaries don’t store hash values when all keys are Unicode
     objects, decreasing *note dict: 188. size.  For example,
     ‘sys.getsizeof(dict.fromkeys("abcdefg"))’ is reduced from 352 bytes
     to 272 bytes (23% smaller) on 64-bit platforms.  (Contributed by
     Inada Naoki in bpo-46845(5).)

   * Using *note asyncio.DatagramProtocol: abc. is now orders of
     magnitude faster when transferring large files over UDP, with
     speeds over 100 times higher for a ≈60 MiB file.  (Contributed by
     msoxzw in gh-91487(6).)

   * *note math: 91. functions *note comb(): abd. and *note perm(): abe.
     are now ≈10 times faster for large arguments (with a larger speedup
     for larger 'k').  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-37295(7).)

   * The *note statistics: da. functions *note mean(): abf, *note
     variance(): ac0. and *note stdev(): ac1. now consume iterators in
     one pass rather than converting them to a *note list: 4d9. first.
     This is twice as fast and can save substantial memory.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-90415(8).)

   * *note unicodedata.normalize(): ac2. now normalizes pure-ASCII
     strings in constant time.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-44987(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28307

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90564

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68264

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91165

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46845

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91487

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90415

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44987


File: python.info,  Node: Faster CPython,  Next: CPython bytecode changes<3>,  Prev: Optimizations<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.9 Faster CPython
--------------------

CPython 3.11 is an average of 25% faster(1) than CPython 3.10 as
measured with the pyperformance(2) benchmark suite, when compiled with
GCC on Ubuntu Linux.  Depending on your workload, the overall speedup
could be 10-60%.

This project focuses on two major areas in Python: *note Faster Startup:
ac4. and *note Faster Runtime: ac5.  Optimizations not covered by this
project are listed separately under *note Optimizations: ab8.

* Menu:

* Faster Startup::
* Faster Runtime::
* Misc::
* FAQ::
* About::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas#published-results

   (2) https://github.com/python/pyperformance


File: python.info,  Node: Faster Startup,  Next: Faster Runtime,  Up: Faster CPython

1.6.9.1 Faster Startup
......................

* Menu:

* Frozen imports / Static code objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Frozen imports / Static code objects,  Up: Faster Startup

1.6.9.2 Frozen imports / Static code objects
............................................

Python caches *note bytecode: 6b3. in the *note __pycache__: ac9.
directory to speed up module loading.

Previously in 3.10, Python module execution looked like this:

     Read __pycache__ -> Unmarshal -> Heap allocated code object -> Evaluate

In Python 3.11, the core modules essential for Python startup are
«frozen».  This means that their *note Code Objects: 9b4. (and bytecode)
are statically allocated by the interpreter.  This reduces the steps in
module execution process to:

     Statically allocated code object -> Evaluate

Interpreter startup is now 10-15% faster in Python 3.11.  This has a big
impact for short-running programs using Python.

(Contributed by Eric Snow, Guido van Rossum and Kumar Aditya in many
issues.)


File: python.info,  Node: Faster Runtime,  Next: Misc,  Prev: Faster Startup,  Up: Faster CPython

1.6.9.3 Faster Runtime
......................

* Menu:

* Cheaper, lazy Python frames: Cheaper lazy Python frames.
* Inlined Python function calls::
* PEP 659; Specializing Adaptive Interpreter: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: Cheaper lazy Python frames,  Next: Inlined Python function calls,  Up: Faster Runtime

1.6.9.4 Cheaper, lazy Python frames
...................................

Python frames, holding execution information, are created whenever
Python calls a Python function.  The following are new frame
optimizations:

   - Streamlined the frame creation process.

   - Avoided memory allocation by generously re-using frame space on the
     C stack.

   - Streamlined the internal frame struct to contain only essential
     information.  Frames previously held extra debugging and memory
     management information.

Old-style *note frame objects: acd. are now created only when requested
by debuggers or by Python introspection functions such as *note
sys._getframe(): ace. and *note inspect.currentframe(): acf.  For most
user code, no frame objects are created at all.  As a result, nearly all
Python functions calls have sped up significantly.  We measured a 3-7%
speedup in pyperformance.

(Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-44590(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44590


File: python.info,  Node: Inlined Python function calls,  Next: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter,  Prev: Cheaper lazy Python frames,  Up: Faster Runtime

1.6.9.5 Inlined Python function calls
.....................................

During a Python function call, Python will call an evaluating C function
to interpret that function’s code.  This effectively limits pure Python
recursion to what’s safe for the C stack.

In 3.11, when CPython detects Python code calling another Python
function, it sets up a new frame, and «jumps» to the new code inside the
new frame.  This avoids calling the C interpreting function altogether.

Most Python function calls now consume no C stack space, speeding them
up.  In simple recursive functions like fibonacci or factorial, we
observed a 1.7x speedup.  This also means recursive functions can
recurse significantly deeper (if the user increases the recursion limit
with *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 8d3.).  We measured a 1-3%
improvement in pyperformance.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Mark Shannon in bpo-45256(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45256


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter,  Prev: Inlined Python function calls,  Up: Faster Runtime

1.6.9.6 PEP 659: Specializing Adaptive Interpreter
..................................................

PEP 659(1) is one of the key parts of the Faster CPython project.  The
general idea is that while Python is a dynamic language, most code has
regions where objects and types rarely change.  This concept is known as
'type stability'.

At runtime, Python will try to look for common patterns and type
stability in the executing code.  Python will then replace the current
operation with a more specialized one.  This specialized operation uses
fast paths available only to those use cases/types, which generally
outperform their generic counterparts.  This also brings in another
concept called 'inline caching', where Python caches the results of
expensive operations directly in the *note bytecode: 6b3.

The specializer will also combine certain common instruction pairs into
one superinstruction, reducing the overhead during execution.

Python will only specialize when it sees code that is «hot» (executed
multiple times).  This prevents Python from wasting time on run-once
code.  Python can also de-specialize when code is too dynamic or when
the use changes.  Specialization is attempted periodically, and
specialization attempts are not too expensive, allowing specialization
to adapt to new circumstances.

(PEP written by Mark Shannon, with ideas inspired by Stefan Brunthaler.
See PEP 659(2) for more information.  Implementation by Mark Shannon and
Brandt Bucher, with additional help from Irit Katriel and Dennis
Sweeney.)

Operation           Form                     Specialization                                              Operation speedup (up   Contributor(s)
                                                                                                         to)                     
                                                                                                         
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                                 
Binary operations   ‘x + x’                  Binary add, multiply and subtract for common types such     10%                     Mark Shannon, Donghee
                                             as *note int: 326, *note float: 327. and *note str: 1df.                            Na, Brandt Bucher,
                    ‘x - x’                  take custom fast paths for their underlying types.                                  Dennis Sweeney
                                                                                                                                 
                    ‘x * x’
                    
                                                                                                                                 
Subscript           ‘a[i]’                   Subscripting container types such as *note list: 4d9,       10-25%                  Irit Katriel, Mark
                                             *note tuple: 1ce. and *note dict: 188. directly index the                           Shannon
                                             underlying data structures.                                                         
                                             
                                             Subscripting custom *note __getitem__(): 787. is also
                                             inlined similar to
                                             *note Inlined Python function calls: ad0.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Store subscript     ‘a[i] = z’               Similar to subscripting specialization above.               10-25%                  Dennis Sweeney
                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                 
Calls               ‘f(arg)’                 Calls to common builtin (C) functions and types such as     20%                     Mark Shannon, Ken Jin
                                             *note len(): a1f. and *note str: 1df. directly call their                           
                    ‘C(arg)’                 underlying C version.  This avoids going through the
                                             internal calling convention.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Load global         ‘print’                  The object’s index in the globals/builtins namespace is     (3)                     Mark Shannon
variable                                     cached.  Loading globals and builtins require zero                                  
                    ‘len’                    namespace lookups.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Load attribute      ‘o.attr’                 Similar to loading global variables.  The attribute’s       (4)                     Mark Shannon
                                             index inside the class/object’s namespace is cached.  In                            
                                             most cases, attribute loading will require zero namespace
                                             lookups.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Load methods for    ‘o.meth()’               The actual address of the method is cached.  Method         10-20%                  Ken Jin, Mark Shannon
call                                         loading now has no namespace lookups – even for classes                             
                                             with long inheritance chains.
                                             
                                                                                                                                 
Store attribute     ‘o.attr = z’             Similar to load attribute optimization.                     2% in pyperformance     Mark Shannon
                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                 
Unpack Sequence     ‘*seq’                   Specialized for common containers such as                   8%                      Brandt Bucher
                                             *note list: 4d9. and *note tuple: 1ce.  Avoids internal                             
                                             calling convention.
                                             

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/

   (3) A similar optimization already existed since Python 3.8.  3.11
specializes for more forms and reduces some overhead.

   (4) A similar optimization already existed since Python 3.10.  3.11
specializes for more forms.  Furthermore, all attribute loads should be
sped up by bpo-45947
(https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45947).


File: python.info,  Node: Misc,  Next: FAQ,  Prev: Faster Runtime,  Up: Faster CPython

1.6.9.7 Misc
............

   * Objects now require less memory due to lazily created object
     namespaces.  Their namespace dictionaries now also share keys more
     freely.  (Contributed Mark Shannon in bpo-45340(1) and
     bpo-40116(2).)

   * «Zero-cost» exceptions are implemented, eliminating the cost of
     *note try: ad6. statements when no exception is raised.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-40222(3).)

   * A more concise representation of exceptions in the interpreter
     reduced the time required for catching an exception by about 10%.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).)

   * *note re: c1.’s regular expression matching engine has been
     partially refactored, and now uses computed gotos (or «threaded
     code») on supported platforms.  As a result, Python 3.11 executes
     the pyperformance regular expression benchmarks(5) up to 10% faster
     than Python 3.10.  (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in gh-91404(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45340

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://pyperformance.readthedocs.io/benchmarks.html#regex-dna

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ,  Next: About,  Prev: Misc,  Up: Faster CPython

1.6.9.8 FAQ
...........

* Menu:

* How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?::
* Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?.
* I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why?: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?.
* Is there a JIT compiler?::


File: python.info,  Node: How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?,  Next: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?,  Up: FAQ

1.6.9.9 How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?
.............................................................

Write Pythonic code that follows common best practices; you don’t have
to change your code.  The Faster CPython project optimizes for common
code patterns we observe.


File: python.info,  Node: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?,  Next: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?,  Prev: How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?,  Up: FAQ

1.6.9.10 Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?
...........................................

Maybe not; we don’t expect memory use to exceed 20% higher than 3.10.
This is offset by memory optimizations for frame objects and object
dictionaries as mentioned above.


File: python.info,  Node: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?,  Next: Is there a JIT compiler?,  Prev: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?,  Up: FAQ

1.6.9.11 I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why?
......................................................

Certain code won’t have noticeable benefits.  If your code spends most
of its time on I/O operations, or already does most of its computation
in a C extension library like NumPy, there won’t be significant
speedups.  This project currently benefits pure-Python workloads the
most.

Furthermore, the pyperformance figures are a geometric mean.  Even
within the pyperformance benchmarks, certain benchmarks have slowed down
slightly, while others have sped up by nearly 2x!


File: python.info,  Node: Is there a JIT compiler?,  Prev: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?,  Up: FAQ

1.6.9.12 Is there a JIT compiler?
.................................

No.  We’re still exploring other optimizations.


File: python.info,  Node: About,  Prev: FAQ,  Up: Faster CPython

1.6.9.13 About
..............

Faster CPython explores optimizations for *note CPython: ae3.  The main
team is funded by Microsoft to work on this full-time.  Pablo Galindo
Salgado is also funded by Bloomberg LP to work on the project part-time.
Finally, many contributors are volunteers from the community.


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes<3>,  Next: Deprecated<6>,  Prev: Faster CPython,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.10 CPython bytecode changes
-------------------------------

The bytecode now contains inline cache entries, which take the form of
the newly-added *note CACHE: ae6. instructions.  Many opcodes expect to
be followed by an exact number of caches, and instruct the interpreter
to skip over them at runtime.  Populated caches can look like arbitrary
instructions, so great care should be taken when reading or modifying
raw, adaptive bytecode containing quickened data.

* Menu:

* New opcodes::
* Replaced opcodes::
* Changed/removed opcodes::


File: python.info,  Node: New opcodes,  Next: Replaced opcodes,  Up: CPython bytecode changes<3>

1.6.10.1 New opcodes
....................

   * ‘ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’, *note RETURN_GENERATOR: ae9. and *note SEND: aea,
     used in generators and co-routines.

   * *note COPY_FREE_VARS: aeb, which avoids needing special caller-side
     code for closures.

   * *note JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT: aec, for use in certain loops
     where handling interrupts is undesirable.

   * *note MAKE_CELL: aed, to create *note Cell Objects: aee.

   * *note CHECK_EG_MATCH: aef. and ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’, to handle the
     *note new exception groups and except*: 9a0. added in PEP 654(1).

   * *note PUSH_EXC_INFO: af0, for use in exception handlers.

   * *note RESUME: 7b4, a no-op, for internal tracing, debugging and
     optimization checks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/


File: python.info,  Node: Replaced opcodes,  Next: Changed/removed opcodes,  Prev: New opcodes,  Up: CPython bytecode changes<3>

1.6.10.2 Replaced opcodes
.........................

Replaced Opcode(s)                       New Opcode(s)                            Notes
                                                                                  
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
     ‘BINARY_*’                          *note BINARY_OP: 595.                    Replaced all numeric binary/in-place
     ‘INPLACE_*’                                                                  opcodes with a single opcode
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION’                          *note CALL: af3.                    Decouples argument shifting for methods
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’                       ‘KW_NAMES’                          from handling of keyword arguments; allows
     ‘CALL_METHOD’                            ‘PRECALL’                           better specialization of calls
                                              *note PUSH_NULL: af4.               
                                         
                                                                                  
     ‘DUP_TOP’                                *note COPY: af5.                    Stack manipulation instructions
     ‘DUP_TOP_TWO’                            *note SWAP: af6.                    
     ‘ROT_TWO’                           
     ‘ROT_THREE’
     ‘ROT_FOUR’
     ‘ROT_N’

     ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’                  *note CHECK_EXC_MATCH: af7.         Now performs check but doesn’t jump
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’                          *note JUMP_BACKWARD: af8.           See (1); ‘TRUE’, ‘FALSE’, ‘NONE’ and
     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE’                      ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_*’            ‘NOT_NONE’ variants for each direction
     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE’                       ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_*’             
                                         
                                                                                  
     ‘SETUP_WITH’                        ‘BEFORE_WITH’                            *note with: 20a. block setup
     ‘SETUP_ASYNC_WITH’                                                           

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) All jump opcodes are now relative, including the existing
‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ and ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’.  The argument is now
an offset from the current instruction rather than an absolute location.


File: python.info,  Node: Changed/removed opcodes,  Prev: Replaced opcodes,  Up: CPython bytecode changes<3>

1.6.10.3 Changed/removed opcodes
................................

   * Changed *note MATCH_CLASS: afd. and *note MATCH_KEYS: afe. to no
     longer push an additional boolean value to indicate
     success/failure.  Instead, ‘None’ is pushed on failure in place of
     the tuple of extracted values.

   * Changed opcodes that work with exceptions to reflect them now being
     represented as one item on the stack instead of three (see
     gh-89874(1)).

   * Removed ‘COPY_DICT_WITHOUT_KEYS’, ‘GEN_START’, ‘POP_BLOCK’,
     ‘SETUP_FINALLY’ and ‘YIELD_FROM’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<6>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 12,  Prev: CPython bytecode changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.11 Deprecated
-----------------

This section lists Python APIs that have been deprecated in Python 3.11.

Deprecated C APIs are *note listed separately: b02.
* Menu:

* Language/Builtins::
* Modules::
* Standard Library::


File: python.info,  Node: Language/Builtins,  Next: Modules,  Up: Deprecated<6>

1.6.11.1 Language/Builtins
..........................

   * Chaining *note classmethod: 69a. descriptors (introduced in
     bpo-19072(1)) is now deprecated.  It can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors such as *note property: 6bb.  The core design of
     this feature was flawed and caused a number of downstream problems.
     To «pass-through» a ‘classmethod’, consider using the ‘__wrapped__’
     attribute that was added in Python 3.10.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in gh-89519(2).)

   * Octal escapes in string and bytes literals with values larger than
     ‘0o377’ (255 in decimal) now produce a *note DeprecationWarning:
     2c9.  In a future Python version, they will raise a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 44a. and eventually a *note SyntaxError: 17e.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-81548(3).)

   * The delegation of *note int(): 326. to *note __trunc__(): 43b. is
     now deprecated.  Calling ‘int(a)’ when ‘type(a)’ implements
     ‘__trunc__()’ but not *note __int__(): 43c. or *note __index__():
     43d. now raises a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  (Contributed by
     Zackery Spytz in bpo-44977(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81548

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44977


File: python.info,  Node: Modules,  Next: Standard Library,  Prev: Language/Builtins,  Up: Deprecated<6>

1.6.11.2 Modules
................

   * PEP 594(1) led to the deprecations of the following modules slated
     for removal in Python 3.13:

     ‘aifc’                    ‘chunk’                   ‘msilib’                  ‘pipes’                   ‘telnetlib’
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     ‘audioop’                 ‘crypt’                   ‘nis’                     ‘sndhdr’                  ‘uu’
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     ‘cgi’                     ‘imghdr’                  ‘nntplib’                 ‘spwd’                    ‘xdrlib’
                                                                                                             
                                                                                                             
     ‘cgitb’                   ‘mailcap’                 ‘ossaudiodev’             ‘sunau’
                                                                                   

     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-47061(2) and Victor Stinner in
     gh-68966(3).)

   * The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’ and ‘smtpd’ modules have been deprecated
     since at least Python 3.6.  Their documentation and deprecation
     warnings have now been updated to note they will be removed in
     Python 3.12.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-47022(4).)

   * The ‘lib2to3’ package and ‘2to3’ tool are now deprecated and may
     not be able to parse Python 3.10 or newer.  See PEP 617(5),
     introducing the new PEG parser, for details.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-40360(6).)

   * Undocumented modules ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’
     are now deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-47152(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47022

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Library,  Prev: Modules,  Up: Deprecated<6>

1.6.11.3 Standard Library
.........................

   * The following have been deprecated in *note configparser: 26. since
     Python 3.2.  Their deprecation warnings have now been updated to
     note they will be removed in Python 3.12:

        * the ‘configparser.SafeConfigParser’ class

        * the ‘configparser.ParsingError.filename’ property

        * the ‘configparser.RawConfigParser.readfp()’ method

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45173(1).)

   * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ has been deprecated in the
     docstring since Python 3.2, and is not listed in the *note
     configparser: 26. documentation.  It now emits a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use
     *note configparser.BasicInterpolation: b0a. or *note
     configparser.ExtendedInterpolation: b0b. instead.  (Contributed by
     Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-46607(2).)

   * The older set of *note importlib.resources: 7e. functions were
     deprecated in favor of the replacements added in Python 3.9 and
     will be removed in a future Python version, due to not supporting
     resources located within package subdirectories:

        * ‘importlib.resources.contents()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.is_resource()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.open_binary()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.open_text()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.read_binary()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.read_text()’

        * ‘importlib.resources.path()’

   * The *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 233. function is deprecated
     and will be removed in Python 3.15.  Use *note locale.setlocale():
     231, *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 947. and *note
     locale.getlocale(): 232. functions instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-90817(3).)

   * The ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function is deprecated and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  Use ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’
     instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-90817(4).)

   * Stricter rules will now be applied for numerical group references
     and group names in *note regular expressions: b0c.  Only sequences
     of ASCII digits will now be accepted as a numerical reference, and
     the group name in *note bytes: 1c7. patterns and replacement
     strings can only contain ASCII letters, digits and underscores.
     For now, a deprecation warning is raised for syntax violating these
     rules.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * In the *note re: c1. module, the ‘re.template()’ function and the
     corresponding ‘re.TEMPLATE’ and ‘re.T’ flags are deprecated, as
     they were undocumented and lacked an obvious purpose.  They will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Miro
     Hrončok in gh-92728(6).)

   * ‘turtle.settiltangle()’ has been deprecated since Python 3.1; it
     now emits a deprecation warning and will be removed in Python 3.13.
     Use *note turtle.tiltangle(): b0d. instead (it was earlier
     incorrectly marked as deprecated, and its docstring is now
     corrected).  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45837(7).)

   * *note typing.Text: 340, which exists solely to provide
     compatibility support between Python 2 and Python 3 code, is now
     deprecated.  Its removal is currently unplanned, but users are
     encouraged to use *note str: 1df. instead wherever possible.
     (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-92332(8).)

   * The keyword argument syntax for constructing *note
     typing.TypedDict: 290. types is now deprecated.  Support will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  (Contributed by Jingchen Ye in
     gh-90224(9).)

   * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ is deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.13.  It is untested, undocumented, and not used by *note
     webbrowser: 11e. itself.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-42255(10).)

   * The behavior of returning a value from a *note TestCase: 52f. and
     *note IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342. test methods (other than the
     default ‘None’ value) is now deprecated.

   * Deprecated the following not-formally-documented *note unittest:
     10f. functions, scheduled for removal in Python 3.13:

        * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’

        * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’

        * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 792. methods instead:

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 793.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 794.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 795.

     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-5846(11).)

   * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ is marked deprecated, to be
     removed in 3.13.  (Contributed by Carlos Damázio in gh-67048(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46607

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92728

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45837

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90224

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42255

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5846

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 12,  Next: Removed<6>,  Prev: Deprecated<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.12 Pending Removal in Python 3.12
-------------------------------------

The following Python APIs have been deprecated in earlier Python
releases, and will be removed in Python 3.12.

C APIs pending removal are *note listed separately: b11.

   * The ‘asynchat’ module

   * The ‘asyncore’ module

   * The *note entire distutils package: b12.

   * The ‘imp’ module

   * The *note typing.io: 4c6. namespace

   * The *note typing.re: b13. namespace

   * ‘cgi.log()’

   * ‘importlib.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module()’

   * ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’

   * ‘importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper()’

   * ‘importlib.util.set_package_wrapper()’

   * ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’

   * ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’

   * ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’

   * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

   * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode()’

   * ‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment variable

   * The following deprecated aliases in *note unittest: 10f.:

          Deprecated alias                 Method Name                         Deprecated in
                                                                               
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                               
          ‘failUnless’                     *note assertTrue(): 935.            3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIf’                         *note assertFalse(): 936.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessEqual’                *note assertEqual(): 937.           3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfEqual’                    *note assertNotEqual(): 938.        3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual’          *note assertAlmostEqual(): 939.     3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failIfAlmostEqual’              *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 93a.  3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘failUnlessRaises’               *note assertRaises(): 93b.          3.1
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assert_’                        *note assertTrue(): 935.            3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertEquals’                   *note assertEqual(): 937.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotEquals’                *note assertNotEqual(): 938.        3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertAlmostEquals’             *note assertAlmostEqual(): 939.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals’          *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 93a.  3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRegexpMatches’            *note assertRegex(): 93c.           3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertRaisesRegexp’             *note assertRaisesRegex(): 93d.     3.2
                                                                               
                                                                               
          ‘assertNotRegexpMatches’         *note assertNotRegex(): 93e.        3.5
                                                                               


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<6>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 11,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 12,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.13 Removed
--------------

This section lists Python APIs that have been removed in Python 3.11.

Removed C APIs are *note listed separately: b17.

   * Removed the ‘@asyncio.coroutine()’ *note decorator: b18. enabling
     legacy generator-based coroutines to be compatible with *note
     async: b19. / *note await: 432. code.  The function has been
     deprecated since Python 3.8 and the removal was initially scheduled
     for Python 3.10.  Use *note async def: 9cf. instead.  (Contributed
     by Illia Volochii in bpo-43216(1).)

   * Removed ‘asyncio.coroutines.CoroWrapper’ used for wrapping legacy
     generator-based coroutine objects in the debug mode.  (Contributed
     by Illia Volochii in bpo-43216(2).)

   * Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter
     of *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a, disabled in
     Python 3.9, is now entirely removed.  This is because of the
     behavior of the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. (Contributed
     by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45129(3).)

   * Removed the ‘binhex’ module, deprecated in Python 3.9.  Also
     removed the related, similarly-deprecated *note binascii: 11.
     functions:

        * ‘binascii.a2b_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.b2a_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.rlecode_hqx()’

        * ‘binascii.rldecode_hqx()’

     The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): b1b. function remains available.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45085(4).)

   * Removed the ‘distutils’ ‘bdist_msi’ command deprecated in Python
     3.9.  Use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.  (Contributed by
     Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45124(5).)

   * Removed the *note __getitem__(): 787. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: b1c, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: b1d. and *note fileinput.FileInput: b1e,
     deprecated since Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in
     bpo-45132(6).)

   * Removed the deprecated *note gettext: 66. functions ‘lgettext()’,
     ‘ldgettext()’, ‘lngettext()’ and ‘ldngettext()’.  Also removed the
     ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’ function, the
     ‘NullTranslations.output_charset()’ and
     ‘NullTranslations.set_output_charset()’ methods, and the 'codeset'
     parameter of ‘translation()’ and ‘install()’, since they are only
     used for the ‘l*gettext()’ functions.  (Contributed by Donghee Na
     and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-44235(7).)

   * Removed from the *note inspect: 81. module:

        * The ‘getargspec()’ function, deprecated since Python 3.0; use
          *note inspect.signature(): 4bd. or *note
          inspect.getfullargspec(): b1f. instead.

        * The ‘formatargspec()’ function, deprecated since Python 3.5;
          use the *note inspect.signature(): 4bd. function or the *note
          inspect.Signature: 6e8. object directly.

        * The undocumented ‘Signature.from_builtin()’ and
          ‘Signature.from_function()’ methods, deprecated since Python
          3.5; use the *note Signature.from_callable(): b20. method
          instead.

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45320(8).)

   * Removed the *note __class_getitem__(): b21. method from *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 8b6, because it was not used and added by mistake
     in previous versions.  (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in
     bpo-46483(9).)

   * Removed the ‘MailmanProxy’ class in the ‘smtpd’ module, as it is
     unusable without the external ‘mailman’ package.  (Contributed by
     Donghee Na in bpo-35800(10).)

   * Removed the deprecated ‘split()’ method of ‘_tkinter.TkappType’.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-38371(11).)

   * Removed namespace package support from *note unittest: 10f.
     discovery.  It was introduced in Python 3.4 but has been broken
     since Python 3.7.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-23882(12).)

   * Removed the undocumented private ‘float.__set_format__()’ method,
     previously known as ‘float.__setformat__()’ in Python 3.7.  Its
     docstring said: «You probably don’t want to use this function.  It
     exists mainly to be used in Python’s test suite.» (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-46852(13).)

   * The ‘--experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’ configure flag (and
     corresponding ‘EXPERIMENTAL_ISOLATED_SUBINTERPRETERS’ macro) have
     been removed.

   * Pynche(14) — The Pythonically Natural Color and Hue Editor — has
     been moved out of ‘Tools/scripts’ and is being developed
     independently(15) from the Python source tree.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45129

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45085

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45124

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45132

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44235

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45320

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46483

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23882

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (14) https://pypi.org/project/Pynche/

   (15) https://gitlab.com/warsaw/pynche/-/tree/main


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 11,  Next: Build Changes<3>,  Prev: Removed<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.14 Porting to Python 3.11
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes in
the Python API that may require changes to your Python code.

Porting notes for the C API are *note listed separately: b25.

   * *note open(): 32b, *note io.open(): 92b, *note codecs.open(): 32c.
     and *note fileinput.FileInput: b1e. no longer accept ‘'U'’
     («universal newline») in the file mode.  In Python 3, «universal
     newline» mode is used by default whenever a file is opened in text
     mode, and the ‘'U'’ flag has been deprecated since Python 3.3.  The
     *note newline parameter: b26. to these functions controls how
     universal newlines work.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-37330(1).)

   * *note ast.AST: 2ec. node positions are now validated when provided
     to *note compile(): 1c8. and other related functions.  If invalid
     positions are detected, a *note ValueError: 277. will be raised.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93351(2))

   * Prohibited passing non-*note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor:
     b27. executors to *note asyncio.loop.set_default_executor(): b28.
     following a deprecation in Python 3.8.  (Contributed by Illia
     Volochii in bpo-43234(3).)

   * *note calendar: 15.: The *note calendar.LocaleTextCalendar: b29.
     and *note calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar: b2a. classes now use *note
     locale.getlocale(): 232, instead of using *note
     locale.getdefaultlocale(): 233, if no locale is specified.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46659(4).)

   * The *note pdb: aa. module now reads the ‘.pdbrc’ configuration file
     with the ‘'UTF-8'’ encoding.  (Contributed by Srinivas Reddy
     Thatiparthy (శ్రీనివాస్ రెడ్డి తాటిపర్తి) in bpo-41137(5).)

   * The 'population' parameter of *note random.sample(): b2b. must be a
     sequence, and automatic conversion of *note set: 42b.s to *note
     list: 4d9.s is no longer supported.  Also, if the sample size is
     larger than the population size, a *note ValueError: 277. is
     raised.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-40465(6).)

   * The 'random' optional parameter of *note random.shuffle(): b2c. was
     removed.  It was previously an arbitrary random function to use for
     the shuffle; now, *note random.random(): b2d. (its previous
     default) will always be used.

   * In *note re: c1. *note Regular expression syntax: b0c, global
     inline flags (e.g.  ‘(?i)’) can now only be used at the start of
     regular expressions.  Using them elsewhere has been deprecated
     since Python 3.6.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-47066(7).)

   * In the *note re: c1. module, several long-standing bugs where fixed
     that, in rare cases, could cause capture groups to get the wrong
     result.  Therefore, this could change the captured output in these
     cases.  (Contributed by Ma Lin in bpo-35859(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93351

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43234

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41137

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47066

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35859


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes<3>,  Next: C API Changes<3>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 11,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.15 Build Changes
--------------------

   * CPython now has PEP 11(1) Tier 3 support(2) for cross compiling to
     the WebAssembly(3) platforms Emscripten(4)
     (‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’, i.e.  Python in the browser) and
     WebAssembly System Interface (WASI)(5) (‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’).
     The effort is inspired by previous work like Pyodide(6).  These
     platforms provide a limited subset of POSIX APIs; Python standard
     libraries features and modules related to networking, processes,
     threading, signals, mmap, and users/groups are not available or
     don’t work.  (Emscripten contributed by Christian Heimes and Ethan
     Smith in gh-84461(7) and WASI contributed by Christian Heimes in
     gh-90473(8); platforms promoted in gh-95085(9))

   * Building CPython now requires:

        * A C11(10) compiler and standard library.  Optional C11
          features(11) are not required.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
          in bpo-46656(12), bpo-45440(13) and bpo-46640(14).)

        * Support for IEEE 754(15) floating-point numbers.  (Contributed
          by Victor Stinner in bpo-46917(16).)

   * The ‘Py_NO_NAN’ macro has been removed.  Since CPython now requires
     IEEE 754 floats, NaN values are always available.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-46656(17).)

   * The *note tkinter: f9. package now requires Tcl/Tk(18) version
     8.5.12 or newer.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-46996(19).)

   * Build dependencies, compiler flags, and linker flags for most
     stdlib extension modules are now detected by ‘configure’.  libffi,
     libnsl, libsqlite3, zlib, bzip2, liblzma, libcrypt, Tcl/Tk, and
     uuid flags are detected by pkg-config(20) (when available).  *note
     tkinter: f9. now requires a pkg-config command to detect
     development settings for Tcl/Tk(21) headers and libraries.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes and Erlend Egeberg Aasland in
     bpo-45847(22), bpo-45747(23), and bpo-45763(24).)

   * libpython is no longer linked against libcrypt.  (Contributed by
     Mike Gilbert in bpo-45433(25).)

   * CPython can now be built with the ThinLTO(26) option via passing
     ‘thin’ to *note -with-lto: b30, i.e.  ‘--with-lto=thin’.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na and Brett Holman in bpo-44340(27).)

   * Freelists for object structs can now be disabled.  A new
     ‘configure’ option ‘--without-freelists’ can be used to disable all
     freelists except empty tuple singleton.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes in bpo-45522(28).)

   * ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘Modules/makesetup’ have been improved and tied
     up.  Extension modules can now be built through ‘makesetup’.  All
     except some test modules can be linked statically into a main
     binary or library.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Christian
     Heimes in bpo-45548(29), bpo-45570(30), bpo-45571(31), and
     bpo-43974(32).)

          Σημείωση: Use the environment variables ‘TCLTK_CFLAGS’ and
          ‘TCLTK_LIBS’ to manually specify the location of Tcl/Tk
          headers and libraries.  The ‘configure’ options
          ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’ have been
          removed.

          On RHEL 7 and CentOS 7 the development packages do not provide
          ‘tcl.pc’ and ‘tk.pc’; use ‘TCLTK_LIBS="-ltk8.5 -ltkstub8.5
          -ltcl8.5"’.  The directory ‘Misc/rhel7’ contains ‘.pc’ files
          and instructions on how to build Python with RHEL 7’s and
          CentOS 7’s Tcl/Tk and OpenSSL.

   * CPython will now use 30-bit digits by default for the Python *note
     int: 326. implementation.  Previously, the default was to use
     30-bit digits on platforms with ‘SIZEOF_VOID_P >= 8’, and 15-bit
     digits otherwise.  It’s still possible to explicitly request use of
     15-bit digits via either the *note -enable-big-digits: b31. option
     to the configure script or (for Windows) the ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’
     variable in ‘PC/pyconfig.h’, but this option may be removed at some
     point in the future.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
     bpo-45569(33).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3

   (3) https://webassembly.org/

   (4) https://emscripten.org/

   (5) https://wasi.dev/

   (6) https://pyodide.org/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95085

   (10) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/11

   (11) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)#Optional_features

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46640

   (15) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (18) https://www.tcl.tk

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46996

   (20) https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/pkg-config/

   (21) https://www.tcl.tk

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45847

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45747

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45763

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45433

   (26) https://clang.llvm.org/docs/ThinLTO.html

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44340

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45522

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45570

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45571

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43974

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45569


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes<3>,  Next: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Prev: Build Changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.16 C API Changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* New Features: New Features<6>.
* Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<7>.
* Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>.
* Removed: Removed<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<6>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 11<2>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.6.16.1 New Features
.....................

   * Add a new *note PyType_GetName(): b36. function to get type’s short
     name.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42035(1).)

   * Add a new *note PyType_GetQualName(): b37. function to get type’s
     qualified name.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42035(2).)

   * Add new *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): b38. and *note
     PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): b39. functions to the limited C API
     to suspend and resume tracing and profiling.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-43760(3).)

   * Added the *note Py_Version: 5ae. constant which bears the same
     value as *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 5af.  (Contributed by Gabriele N.
     Tornetta in bpo-43931(4).)

   * *note Py_buffer: b3a. and APIs are now part of the limited API and
     the stable ABI:

        * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 82b.

        * *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c.

        * *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): b3b.

        * *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): b3c.

        * *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): b3d.

        * *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): b3e.

        * *note PyObject_CopyData(): b3f.

        * *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): b40.

        * *note PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(): b41.

        * *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): b42.

        * *note PyBuffer_Release(): 82d.

        * *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): b43.

        * *note bf_getbuffer: b44. and *note bf_releasebuffer: b45. type
          slots

     (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-45459(5).)

   * Added the *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 827. function, used to get
     the module in which a method was defined, in cases where this
     information is not available directly (via *note PyCMethod: b46.).
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-46613(6).)

   * Add new functions to pack and unpack C double (serialize and
     deserialize): *note PyFloat_Pack2(): b47, *note PyFloat_Pack4():
     b48, *note PyFloat_Pack8(): b49, *note PyFloat_Unpack2(): b4a,
     *note PyFloat_Unpack4(): b4b. and *note PyFloat_Unpack8(): b4c.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46906(7).)

   * Add new functions to get frame object attributes: *note
     PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): b4d, *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): b4e,
     *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): b4f, *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): b50.

   * Added two new functions to get and set the active exception
     instance: *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): b51. and *note
     PyErr_SetHandledException(): b52.  These are alternatives to *note
     PyErr_SetExcInfo(): b53. and *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): b54. which
     work with the legacy 3-tuple representation of exceptions.
     (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-46343(8).)

   * Added the *note PyConfig.safe_path: b55. member.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in gh-57684(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43931

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46613

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46906

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46343

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 11<2>,  Next: Deprecated<7>,  Prev: New Features<6>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.6.16.2 Porting to Python 3.11
...............................

   * Some macros have been converted to static inline functions to avoid
     macro pitfalls(1).  The change should be mostly transparent to
     users, as the replacement functions will cast their arguments to
     the expected types to avoid compiler warnings due to static type
     checks.  However, when the limited C API is set to >=3.11, these
     casts are not done, and callers will need to cast arguments to
     their expected types.  See PEP 670(2) for more details.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in
     gh-89653(3).)

   * *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): b53. no longer uses the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ arguments, the interpreter now derives those values
     from the exception instance (the ‘value’ argument).  The function
     still steals references of all three arguments.  (Contributed by
     Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).)

   * *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): b54. now derives the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ fields of the result from the exception instance (the
     ‘value’ field).  (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(5).)

   * *note _frozen: b57. has a new ‘is_package’ field to indicate
     whether or not the frozen module is a package.  Previously, a
     negative value in the ‘size’ field was the indicator.  Now only
     non-negative values be used for ‘size’.  (Contributed by Kumar
     Aditya in bpo-46608(6).)

   * *note _PyFrameEvalFunction(): b58. now takes ‘_PyInterpreterFrame*’
     as its second parameter, instead of ‘PyFrameObject*’.  See PEP
     523(7) for more details of how to use this function pointer type.

   * ‘PyCode_New()’ and ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ now take an
     additional ‘exception_table’ argument.  Using these functions
     should be avoided, if at all possible.  To get a custom code
     object: create a code object using the compiler, then get a
     modified version with the ‘replace’ method.

   * *note PyCodeObject: b59. no longer has the ‘co_code’,
     ‘co_varnames’, ‘co_cellvars’ and ‘co_freevars’ fields.  Instead,
     use *note PyCode_GetCode(): b5a, *note PyCode_GetVarnames(): b5b,
     *note PyCode_GetCellvars(): b5c. and *note PyCode_GetFreevars():
     b5d. respectively to access them via the C API. (Contributed by
     Brandt Bucher in bpo-46841(8) and Ken Jin in gh-92154(9) and
     gh-94936(10).)

   * The old trashcan macros
     (‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’/‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’) are now
     deprecated.  They should be replaced by the new macros
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

     A tp_dealloc function that has the old macros, such as:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(p);
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END
          }

     should migrate to the new macros as follows:

          static void
          mytype_dealloc(mytype *p)
          {
              PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p);
              Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(p, mytype_dealloc)
              ...
              Py_TRASHCAN_END
          }

     Note that ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ has a second argument which should be
     the deallocation function it is in.

     To support older Python versions in the same codebase, you can
     define the following macros and use them throughout the code
     (credit: these were copied from the ‘mypy’ codebase):

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc)
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_END
          #else
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(op)
          #  define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END(op)
          #endif

   * The *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. function now raises an error if a
     type is defined with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag set
     but has no traverse function (*note PyTypeObject.tp_traverse:
     36b.).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-44263(11).)

   * Heap types with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 5fb. flag can
     now inherit the PEP 590(12) vectorcall protocol.  Previously, this
     was only possible for *note static types: b5f.  (Contributed by
     Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908(13))

   * Since *note Py_TYPE(): 5f5. is changed to a inline static function,
     ‘Py_TYPE(obj) = new_type’ must be replaced with ‘Py_SET_TYPE(obj,
     new_type)’: see the *note Py_SET_TYPE(): b60. function (available
     since Python 3.9).  For backward compatibility, this macro can be
     used:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_TYPE)
          static inline void _Py_SET_TYPE(PyObject *ob, PyTypeObject *type)
          { ob->ob_type = type; }
          #define Py_SET_TYPE(ob, type) _Py_SET_TYPE((PyObject*)(ob), type)
          #endif

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39573(14).)

   * Since *note Py_SIZE(): b61. is changed to a inline static function,
     ‘Py_SIZE(obj) = new_size’ must be replaced with ‘Py_SET_SIZE(obj,
     new_size)’: see the *note Py_SET_SIZE(): b62. function (available
     since Python 3.9).  For backward compatibility, this macro can be
     used:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_SIZE)
          static inline void _Py_SET_SIZE(PyVarObject *ob, Py_ssize_t size)
          { ob->ob_size = size; }
          #define Py_SET_SIZE(ob, size) _Py_SET_SIZE((PyVarObject*)(ob), size)
          #endif

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39573(15).)

   * ‘<Python.h>’ no longer includes the header files ‘<stdlib.h>’,
     ‘<stdio.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’ and ‘<string.h>’ when the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
     macro is set to ‘0x030b0000’ (Python 3.11) or higher.  C extensions
     should explicitly include the header files after ‘#include
     <Python.h>’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45434(16).)

   * The non-limited API files ‘cellobject.h’, ‘classobject.h’,
     ‘code.h’, ‘context.h’, ‘funcobject.h’, ‘genobject.h’ and
     ‘longintrepr.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’ directory.
     Moreover, the ‘eval.h’ header file was removed.  These files must
     not be included directly, as they are already included in
     ‘Python.h’: *note Include Files: b63.  If they have been included
     directly, consider including ‘Python.h’ instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(17).)

   * The ‘PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED()’ macro has been excluded from the
     limited C API. It was never usable there, because it used internal
     structures which are not available in the limited C API.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46007(18).)

   * The following frame functions and type are now directly available
     with ‘#include <Python.h>’, it’s no longer needed to add ‘#include
     <frameobject.h>’:

        * *note PyFrame_Check(): b64.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBack(): b65.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): b4d.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): b4e.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): b4f.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): b50.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 84e.

        * *note PyFrame_Type: b66.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-93937(19).)

   * The *note PyFrameObject: b68. structure members have been removed
     from the public C API.

     While the documentation notes that the *note PyFrameObject: b68.
     fields are subject to change at any time, they have been stable for
     a long time and were used in several popular extensions.

     In Python 3.11, the frame struct was reorganized to allow
     performance optimizations.  Some fields were removed entirely, as
     they were details of the old implementation.

     *note PyFrameObject: b68. fields:

        * ‘f_back’: use *note PyFrame_GetBack(): b65.

        * ‘f_blockstack’: removed.

        * ‘f_builtins’: use *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): b4d.

        * ‘f_code’: use *note PyFrame_GetCode(): b69.

        * ‘f_gen’: use *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): b4e.

        * ‘f_globals’: use *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): b4f.

        * ‘f_iblock’: removed.

        * ‘f_lasti’: use *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): b50.  Code using
          ‘f_lasti’ with ‘PyCode_Addr2Line()’ should use *note
          PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): b6a. instead; it may be faster.

        * ‘f_lineno’: use *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): b6a.

        * ‘f_locals’: use *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 84e.

        * ‘f_stackdepth’: removed.

        * ‘f_state’: no public API (renamed to ‘f_frame.f_state’).

        * ‘f_trace’: no public API.

        * ‘f_trace_lines’: use ‘PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame,
          "f_trace_lines")’.

        * ‘f_trace_opcodes’: use
          ‘PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame, "f_trace_opcodes")’.

        * ‘f_localsplus’: no public API (renamed to
          ‘f_frame.localsplus’).

        * ‘f_valuestack’: removed.

     The Python frame object is now created lazily.  A side effect is
     that the *note f_back: b6b. member must not be accessed directly,
     since its value is now also computed lazily.  The *note
     PyFrame_GetBack(): b65. function must be called instead.

     Debuggers that accessed the *note f_locals: 28d. directly 'must'
     call *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 84e. instead.  They no longer need
     to call ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’ or
     ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’, in fact they should not call those
     functions.  The necessary updating of the frame is now managed by
     the virtual machine.

     Code defining ‘PyFrame_GetCode()’ on Python 3.8 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyCodeObject* PyFrame_GetCode(PyFrameObject *frame)
          {
              Py_INCREF(frame->f_code);
              return frame->f_code;
          }
          #endif

     Code defining ‘PyFrame_GetBack()’ on Python 3.8 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyFrameObject* PyFrame_GetBack(PyFrameObject *frame)
          {
              Py_XINCREF(frame->f_back);
              return frame->f_back;
          }
          #endif

     Or use the pythoncapi_compat project(20) to get these two functions
     on older Python versions.

   * Changes of the *note PyThreadState: b6c. structure members:

        * ‘frame’: removed, use *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): b6d.
          (function added to Python 3.9 by bpo-40429(21)).  Warning: the
          function returns a *note strong reference: 7da, need to call
          *note Py_XDECREF(): b6e.

        * ‘tracing’: changed, use *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing():
          b38. and *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): b39. (functions
          added to Python 3.11 by bpo-43760(22)).

        * ‘recursion_depth’: removed, use ‘(tstate->recursion_limit -
          tstate->recursion_remaining)’ instead.

        * ‘stackcheck_counter’: removed.

     Code defining ‘PyThreadState_GetFrame()’ on Python 3.8 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1
          static inline PyFrameObject* PyThreadState_GetFrame(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              Py_XINCREF(tstate->frame);
              return tstate->frame;
          }
          #endif

     Code defining ‘PyThreadState_EnterTracing()’ and
     ‘PyThreadState_LeaveTracing()’ on Python 3.10 and older:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030B00A2
          static inline void PyThreadState_EnterTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              tstate->tracing++;
          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1
              tstate->cframe->use_tracing = 0;
          #else
              tstate->use_tracing = 0;
          #endif
          }

          static inline void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)
          {
              int use_tracing = (tstate->c_tracefunc != NULL || tstate->c_profilefunc != NULL);
              tstate->tracing--;
          #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1
              tstate->cframe->use_tracing = use_tracing;
          #else
              tstate->use_tracing = use_tracing;
          #endif
          }
          #endif

     Or use the pythoncapi-compat project(23) to get these functions on
     old Python functions.

   * Distributors are encouraged to build Python with the optimized
     Blake2 library libb2(24).

   * The *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 9e6. field must now be
     set to 1 for initialization to use *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 834. to initialize *note sys.path:
     194.  Otherwise, initialization will recalculate the path and
     replace any values added to ‘module_search_paths’.

   * *note PyConfig_Read(): b6f. no longer calculates the initial search
     path, and will not fill any values into *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 834.  To calculate default paths and
     then modify them, finish initialization and use *note
     PySys_GetObject(): 356. to retrieve *note sys.path: 194. as a
     Python list object and modify it directly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/cpp/Macro-Pitfalls.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89653

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46608

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92154

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94936

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44263

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46007

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93937

   (20) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40429

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (23) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat

   (24) https://www.blake2.net/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<7>,  Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 11<2>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.6.16.3 Deprecated
...................

   * Deprecate the following functions to configure the Python
     initialization:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’

        * ‘PySys_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’

     Use the new *note PyConfig: 60b. API of the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 837. instead ( PEP 587(1)).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-88279(2).)

   * Deprecate the ‘ob_shash’ member of the *note PyBytesObject: b71.
     Use *note PyObject_Hash(): 649. instead.  (Contributed by Inada
     Naoki in bpo-46864(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88279

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46864


File: python.info,  Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>,  Next: Removed<7>,  Prev: Deprecated<7>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.6.16.4 Pending Removal in Python 3.12
.......................................

The following C APIs have been deprecated in earlier Python releases,
and will be removed in Python 3.12.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_IS_READY()’

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 647.

   * ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH()’

   * ‘_PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’

   * *note PyUnicodeObject: b73.

   * ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<7>,  Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>,  Up: C API Changes<3>

1.6.16.5 Removed
................

   * ‘PyFrame_BlockSetup()’ and ‘PyFrame_BlockPop()’ have been removed.
     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-40222(1).)

   * Remove the following math macros using the ‘errno’ variable:

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE1()’

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE2()’

        * ‘Py_OVERFLOWED()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERANGE_IF_OVERFLOW()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERRNO_ON_MATH_ERROR()’

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45412(2).)

   * Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’ and ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’ macros,
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Use ‘PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()’ or
     ‘memcpy()’ (‘wchar_t*’ string), and ‘PyUnicode_Fill()’ functions
     instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41123(3).)

   * Remove the ‘pystrhex.h’ header file.  It only contains private
     functions.  C extensions should only include the main ‘<Python.h>’
     header file.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45434(4).)

   * Remove the ‘Py_FORCE_DOUBLE()’ macro.  It was used by the
     ‘Py_IS_INFINITY()’ macro.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-45440(5).)

   * The following items are no longer available when *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 84d. is defined:

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile(): b75.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile(): b76.

        * *note PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString(): b77.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString(): b78.

        * the ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ macro

     These are not part of the *note limited API: b79.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45474(6).)

   * Exclude ‘PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT()’ from the limited C API. It never
     worked since the ‘PyWeakReference’ structure is opaque in the
     limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(7).)

   * Remove the ‘PyHeapType_GET_MEMBERS()’ macro.  It was exposed in the
     public C API by mistake, it must only be used by Python internally.
     Use the ‘PyTypeObject.tp_members’ member instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-40170(8).)

   * Remove the ‘HAVE_PY_SET_53BIT_PRECISION’ macro (moved to the
     internal C API). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45412(9).)

   * Remove the *note Py_UNICODE: b7a. encoder APIs, as they have been
     deprecated since Python 3.3, are little used and are inefficient
     relative to the recommended alternatives.

     The removed functions are:

        * ‘PyUnicode_Encode()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()’

     See PEP 624(10) for details and migration guidance(11).
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-44029(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45474

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/#alternative-apis

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44029


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Next: Notable changes in 3 11 5,  Prev: C API Changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.17 Notable changes in 3.11.4
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<3>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 11 4

1.6.17.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: e7, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 882, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 883. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     2c9.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 11 5,  Prev: Notable changes in 3 11 4,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 11

1.6.18 Notable changes in 3.11.5
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* OpenSSL::


File: python.info,  Node: OpenSSL,  Up: Notable changes in 3 11 5

1.6.18.1 OpenSSL
................

   * Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL
     3.0.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 10,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 9,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 11,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.7 What’s New In Python 3.10
=============================


Editor: Pablo Galindo Salgado

This article explains the new features in Python 3.10, compared to 3.9.
Python 3.10 was released on October 4, 2021.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 145.

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
* New Features: New Features<7>.
* New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<4>.
* New Modules: New Modules<4>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<4>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<7>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<8>.
* Removed: Removed<8>.
* Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<4>.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<4>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<4>.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.7: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
* Notable security feature in 3.10.8: Notable security feature in 3 10 8.
* Notable changes in 3.10.12: Notable changes in 3 10 12.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<5>,  Next: New Features<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * PEP 634(1), Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

   * PEP 635(2), Structural Pattern Matching: Motivation and Rationale

   * PEP 636(3), Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial

   * bpo-12782(4), Parenthesized context managers are now officially
     allowed.

New features in the standard library:

   * PEP 618(5), Add Optional Length-Checking To zip.

Interpreter improvements:

   * PEP 626(6), Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.

New typing features:

   * PEP 604(7), Allow writing union types as X | Y

   * PEP 612(8), Parameter Specification Variables

   * PEP 613(9), Explicit Type Aliases

   * PEP 647(10), User-Defined Type Guards

Important deprecations, removals or restrictions:

   * PEP 644(11), Require OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer

   * PEP 632(12), Deprecate distutils module.

   * PEP 623(13), Deprecate and prepare for the removal of the wstr
     member in PyUnicodeObject.

   * PEP 624(14), Remove Py_UNICODE encoder APIs

   * PEP 597(15), Add optional EncodingWarning

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<7>,  Next: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* Parenthesized context managers::
* Better error messages::
* PEP 626; Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools.
* PEP 634; Structural Pattern Matching: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching.
* Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option::


File: python.info,  Node: Parenthesized context managers,  Next: Better error messages,  Up: New Features<7>

1.7.2.1 Parenthesized context managers
......................................

Using enclosing parentheses for continuation across multiple lines in
context managers is now supported.  This allows formatting a long
collection of context managers in multiple lines in a similar way as it
was previously possible with import statements.  For instance, all these
examples are now valid:

     with (CtxManager() as example):
         ...

     with (
         CtxManager1(),
         CtxManager2()
     ):
         ...

     with (CtxManager1() as example,
           CtxManager2()):
         ...

     with (CtxManager1(),
           CtxManager2() as example):
         ...

     with (
         CtxManager1() as example1,
         CtxManager2() as example2
     ):
         ...

it is also possible to use a trailing comma at the end of the enclosed
group:

     with (
         CtxManager1() as example1,
         CtxManager2() as example2,
         CtxManager3() as example3,
     ):
         ...

This new syntax uses the non LL(1) capacities of the new parser.  Check
PEP 617(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Guido van Rossum, Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou
in bpo-12782(2) and bpo-40334(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334


File: python.info,  Node: Better error messages,  Next: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools,  Prev: Parenthesized context managers,  Up: New Features<7>

1.7.2.2 Better error messages
.............................

* Menu:

* SyntaxErrors::
* IndentationErrors::
* AttributeErrors::
* NameErrors::


File: python.info,  Node: SyntaxErrors,  Next: IndentationErrors,  Up: Better error messages

1.7.2.3 SyntaxErrors
....................

When parsing code that contains unclosed parentheses or brackets the
interpreter now includes the location of the unclosed bracket of
parentheses instead of displaying 'SyntaxError: unexpected EOF while
parsing' or pointing to some incorrect location.  For instance, consider
the following code (notice the unclosed “{“):

     expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4,
                 38: 4, 39: 4, 45: 5, 46: 5, 47: 5, 48: 5, 49: 5, 54: 6,
     some_other_code = foo()

Previous versions of the interpreter reported confusing places as the
location of the syntax error:

     File "example.py", line 3
         some_other_code = foo()
                         ^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

but in Python 3.10 a more informative error is emitted:

     File "example.py", line 1
         expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4,
                    ^
     SyntaxError: '{' was never closed

In a similar way, errors involving unclosed string literals (single and
triple quoted) now point to the start of the string instead of reporting
EOF/EOL.

These improvements are inspired by previous work in the PyPy
interpreter.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-42864(1) and Batuhan Taskaya in
bpo-40176(2).)

*note SyntaxError: 17e. exceptions raised by the interpreter will now
highlight the full error range of the expression that constitutes the
syntax error itself, instead of just where the problem is detected.  In
this way, instead of displaying (before Python 3.10):

     >>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
                ^
     SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized

now Python 3.10 will display the exception as:

     >>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w)
                ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized

This improvement was contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43914(3).

A considerable amount of new specialized messages for *note SyntaxError:
17e. exceptions have been incorporated.  Some of the most notable ones
are as follows:

   * Missing ‘:’ before blocks:

          >>> if rocket.position > event_horizon
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              if rocket.position > event_horizon
                                                ^
          SyntaxError: expected ':'

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-42997(4).)

   * Unparenthesised tuples in comprehensions targets:

          >>> {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')}
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')}
               ^
          SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43017(5).)

   * Missing commas in collection literals and between expressions:

          >>> items = {
          ... x: 1,
          ... y: 2
          ... z: 3,
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              y: 2
                 ^
          SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43822(6).)

   * Multiple Exception types without parentheses:

          >>> try:
          ...     build_dyson_sphere()
          ... except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError:
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError:
                     ^
          SyntaxError: multiple exception types must be parenthesized

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43149(7).)

   * Missing ‘:’ and values in dictionary literals:

          >>> values = {
          ... x: 1,
          ... y: 2,
          ... z:
          ... }
            File "<stdin>", line 4
              z:
               ^
          SyntaxError: expression expected after dictionary key and ':'

          >>> values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3}
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3}
                                  ^
          SyntaxError: ':' expected after dictionary key

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43823(8).)

   * ‘try’ blocks without ‘except’ or ‘finally’ blocks:

          >>> try:
          ...     x = 2
          ... something = 3
            File "<stdin>", line 3
              something  = 3
              ^^^^^^^^^
          SyntaxError: expected 'except' or 'finally' block

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-44305(9).)

   * Usage of ‘=’ instead of ‘==’ in comparisons:

          >>> if rocket.position = event_horizon:
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              if rocket.position = event_horizon:
                                 ^
          SyntaxError: cannot assign to attribute here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='?

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43797(10).)

   * Usage of ‘*’ in f-strings:

          >>> f"Black holes {*all_black_holes} and revelations"
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              (*all_black_holes)
               ^
          SyntaxError: f-string: cannot use starred expression here

     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-41064(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42864

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40176

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42997

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43017

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43823

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44305

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43797

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41064


File: python.info,  Node: IndentationErrors,  Next: AttributeErrors,  Prev: SyntaxErrors,  Up: Better error messages

1.7.2.4 IndentationErrors
.........................

Many *note IndentationError: b89. exceptions now have more context
regarding what kind of block was expecting an indentation, including the
location of the statement:

     >>> def foo():
     ...    if lel:
     ...    x = 2
       File "<stdin>", line 3
         x = 2
         ^
     IndentationError: expected an indented block after 'if' statement in line 2


File: python.info,  Node: AttributeErrors,  Next: NameErrors,  Prev: IndentationErrors,  Up: Better error messages

1.7.2.5 AttributeErrors
.......................

When printing *note AttributeError: 1a9, ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer
suggestions of similar attribute names in the object that the exception
was raised from:

     >>> collections.namedtoplo
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: module 'collections' has no attribute 'namedtoplo'. Did you mean: namedtuple?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-38530(1).)

     Προειδοποίηση: Notice this won’t work if ‘PyErr_Display()’ is not
     called to display the error which can happen if some other custom
     error display function is used.  This is a common scenario in some
     REPLs like IPython.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: NameErrors,  Prev: AttributeErrors,  Up: Better error messages

1.7.2.6 NameErrors
..................

When printing *note NameError: 665. raised by the interpreter,
‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar variable names in
the function that the exception was raised from:

     >>> schwarzschild_black_hole = None
     >>> schwarschild_black_hole
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: name 'schwarschild_black_hole' is not defined. Did you mean: schwarzschild_black_hole?

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-38530(1).)

     Προειδοποίηση: Notice this won’t work if ‘PyErr_Display()’ is not
     called to display the error, which can happen if some other custom
     error display function is used.  This is a common scenario in some
     REPLs like IPython.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools,  Next: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching,  Prev: Better error messages,  Up: New Features<7>

1.7.2.7 PEP 626: Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools
...................................................................

PEP 626 brings more precise and reliable line numbers for debugging,
profiling and coverage tools.  Tracing events, with the correct line
number, are generated for all lines of code executed and only for lines
of code that are executed.

The *note f_lineno: b8d. attribute of frame objects will always contain
the expected line number.

The ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’ attribute of *note code objects: 6eb. is
deprecated and will be removed in 3.12.  Code that needs to convert from
offset to line number should use the new *note co_lines(): 32d. method
instead.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching,  Next: Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option,  Prev: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools,  Up: New Features<7>

1.7.2.8 PEP 634: Structural Pattern Matching
............................................

Structural pattern matching has been added in the form of a 'match
statement' and 'case statements' of patterns with associated actions.
Patterns consist of sequences, mappings, primitive data types as well as
class instances.  Pattern matching enables programs to extract
information from complex data types, branch on the structure of data,
and apply specific actions based on different forms of data.

* Menu:

* Syntax and operations::
* Declarative approach::
* Simple pattern; match to a literal: Simple pattern match to a literal.
* Patterns with a literal and variable::
* Patterns and classes::
* Nested patterns::
* Complex patterns and the wildcard::
* Guard::
* Other Key Features::


File: python.info,  Node: Syntax and operations,  Next: Declarative approach,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.7.2.9 Syntax and operations
.............................

The generic syntax of pattern matching is:

     match subject:
         case <pattern_1>:
             <action_1>
         case <pattern_2>:
             <action_2>
         case <pattern_3>:
             <action_3>
         case _:
             <action_wildcard>

A match statement takes an expression and compares its value to
successive patterns given as one or more case blocks.  Specifically,
pattern matching operates by:

  1. using data with type and shape (the ‘subject’)

  2. evaluating the ‘subject’ in the ‘match’ statement

  3. comparing the subject with each pattern in a ‘case’ statement from
     top to bottom until a match is confirmed.

  4. executing the action associated with the pattern of the confirmed
     match

  5. If an exact match is not confirmed, the last case, a wildcard ‘_’,
     if provided, will be used as the matching case.  If an exact match
     is not confirmed and a wildcard case does not exist, the entire
     match block is a no-op.


File: python.info,  Node: Declarative approach,  Next: Simple pattern match to a literal,  Prev: Syntax and operations,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.7.2.10 Declarative approach
.............................

Readers may be aware of pattern matching through the simple example of
matching a subject (data object) to a literal (pattern) with the switch
statement found in C, Java or JavaScript (and many other languages).
Often the switch statement is used for comparison of an
object/expression with case statements containing literals.

More powerful examples of pattern matching can be found in languages
such as Scala and Elixir.  With structural pattern matching, the
approach is «declarative» and explicitly states the conditions (the
patterns) for data to match.

While an «imperative» series of instructions using nested «if»
statements could be used to accomplish something similar to structural
pattern matching, it is less clear than the «declarative» approach.
Instead the «declarative» approach states the conditions to meet for a
match and is more readable through its explicit patterns.  While
structural pattern matching can be used in its simplest form comparing a
variable to a literal in a case statement, its true value for Python
lies in its handling of the subject’s type and shape.


File: python.info,  Node: Simple pattern match to a literal,  Next: Patterns with a literal and variable,  Prev: Declarative approach,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.7.2.11 Simple pattern: match to a literal
...........................................

Let’s look at this example as pattern matching in its simplest form: a
value, the subject, being matched to several literals, the patterns.  In
the example below, ‘status’ is the subject of the match statement.  The
patterns are each of the case statements, where literals represent
request status codes.  The associated action to the case is executed
after a match:

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"
             case _:
                 return "Something's wrong with the internet"

If the above function is passed a ‘status’ of 418, «I’m a teapot» is
returned.  If the above function is passed a ‘status’ of 500, the case
statement with ‘_’ will match as a wildcard, and «Something’s wrong with
the internet» is returned.  Note the last block: the variable name, ‘_’,
acts as a 'wildcard' and insures the subject will always match.  The use
of ‘_’ is optional.

You can combine several literals in a single pattern using ‘|’ («or»):

     case 401 | 403 | 404:
         return "Not allowed"

* Menu:

* Behavior without the wildcard::


File: python.info,  Node: Behavior without the wildcard,  Up: Simple pattern match to a literal

1.7.2.12 Behavior without the wildcard
......................................

If we modify the above example by removing the last case block, the
example becomes:

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"

Without the use of ‘_’ in a case statement, a match may not exist.  If
no match exists, the behavior is a no-op.  For example, if ‘status’ of
500 is passed, a no-op occurs.


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns with a literal and variable,  Next: Patterns and classes,  Prev: Simple pattern match to a literal,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.7.2.13 Patterns with a literal and variable
.............................................

Patterns can look like unpacking assignments, and a pattern may be used
to bind variables.  In this example, a data point can be unpacked to its
x-coordinate and y-coordinate:

     # point is an (x, y) tuple
     match point:
         case (0, 0):
             print("Origin")
         case (0, y):
             print(f"Y={y}")
         case (x, 0):
             print(f"X={x}")
         case (x, y):
             print(f"X={x}, Y={y}")
         case _:
             raise ValueError("Not a point")

The first pattern has two literals, ‘(0, 0)’, and may be thought of as
an extension of the literal pattern shown above.  The next two patterns
combine a literal and a variable, and the variable 'binds' a value from
the subject (‘point’).  The fourth pattern captures two values, which
makes it conceptually similar to the unpacking assignment ‘(x, y) =
point’.


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns and classes,  Next: Nested patterns,  Prev: Patterns with a literal and variable,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.7.2.14 Patterns and classes
.............................

If you are using classes to structure your data, you can use as a
pattern the class name followed by an argument list resembling a
constructor.  This pattern has the ability to capture instance
attributes into variables:

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

     def location(point):
         match point:
             case Point(x=0, y=0):
                 print("Origin is the point's location.")
             case Point(x=0, y=y):
                 print(f"Y={y} and the point is on the y-axis.")
             case Point(x=x, y=0):
                 print(f"X={x} and the point is on the x-axis.")
             case Point():
                 print("The point is located somewhere else on the plane.")
             case _:
                 print("Not a point")

* Menu:

* Patterns with positional parameters::


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns with positional parameters,  Up: Patterns and classes

1.7.2.15 Patterns with positional parameters
............................................

You can use positional parameters with some builtin classes that provide
an ordering for their attributes (e.g.  dataclasses).  You can also
define a specific position for attributes in patterns by setting the
‘__match_args__’ special attribute in your classes.  If it’s set to
(«x», «y»), the following patterns are all equivalent (and all bind the
‘y’ attribute to the ‘var’ variable):

     Point(1, var)
     Point(1, y=var)
     Point(x=1, y=var)
     Point(y=var, x=1)


File: python.info,  Node: Nested patterns,  Next: Complex patterns and the wildcard,  Prev: Patterns and classes,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.7.2.16 Nested patterns
........................

Patterns can be arbitrarily nested.  For example, if our data is a short
list of points, it could be matched like this:

     match points:
         case []:
             print("No points in the list.")
         case [Point(0, 0)]:
             print("The origin is the only point in the list.")
         case [Point(x, y)]:
             print(f"A single point {x}, {y} is in the list.")
         case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]:
             print(f"Two points on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2} are in the list.")
         case _:
             print("Something else is found in the list.")


File: python.info,  Node: Complex patterns and the wildcard,  Next: Guard,  Prev: Nested patterns,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.7.2.17 Complex patterns and the wildcard
..........................................

To this point, the examples have used ‘_’ alone in the last case
statement.  A wildcard can be used in more complex patterns, such as
‘('error', code, _)’.  For example:

     match test_variable:
         case ('warning', code, 40):
             print("A warning has been received.")
         case ('error', code, _):
             print(f"An error {code} occurred.")

In the above case, ‘test_variable’ will match for (“error”, code, 100)
and (“error”, code, 800).


File: python.info,  Node: Guard,  Next: Other Key Features,  Prev: Complex patterns and the wildcard,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.7.2.18 Guard
..............

We can add an ‘if’ clause to a pattern, known as a «guard».  If the
guard is false, ‘match’ goes on to try the next case block.  Note that
value capture happens before the guard is evaluated:

     match point:
         case Point(x, y) if x == y:
             print(f"The point is located on the diagonal Y=X at {x}.")
         case Point(x, y):
             print(f"Point is not on the diagonal.")


File: python.info,  Node: Other Key Features,  Prev: Guard,  Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching

1.7.2.19 Other Key Features
...........................

Several other key features:

   - Like unpacking assignments, tuple and list patterns have exactly
     the same meaning and actually match arbitrary sequences.
     Technically, the subject must be a sequence.  Therefore, an
     important exception is that patterns don’t match iterators.  Also,
     to prevent a common mistake, sequence patterns don’t match strings.

   - Sequence patterns support wildcards: ‘[x, y, *rest]’ and ‘(x, y,
     *rest)’ work similar to wildcards in unpacking assignments.  The
     name after ‘*’ may also be ‘_’, so ‘(x, y, *_)’ matches a sequence
     of at least two items without binding the remaining items.

   - Mapping patterns: ‘{"bandwidth": b, "latency": l}’ captures the
     ‘"bandwidth"’ and ‘"latency"’ values from a dict.  Unlike sequence
     patterns, extra keys are ignored.  A wildcard ‘**rest’ is also
     supported.  (But ‘**_’ would be redundant, so is not allowed.)

   - Subpatterns may be captured using the ‘as’ keyword:

          case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ...

     This binds x1, y1, x2, y2 like you would expect without the ‘as’
     clause, and p2 to the entire second item of the subject.

   - Most literals are compared by equality.  However, the singletons
     ‘True’, ‘False’ and ‘None’ are compared by identity.

   - Named constants may be used in patterns.  These named constants
     must be dotted names to prevent the constant from being interpreted
     as a capture variable:

          from enum import Enum
          class Color(Enum):
              RED = 0
              GREEN = 1
              BLUE = 2

          color = Color.GREEN
          match color:
              case Color.RED:
                  print("I see red!")
              case Color.GREEN:
                  print("Grass is green")
              case Color.BLUE:
                  print("I'm feeling the blues :(")

For the full specification see PEP 634(1).  Motivation and rationale are
in PEP 635(2), and a longer tutorial is in PEP 636(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option,  Prev: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching,  Up: New Features<7>

1.7.2.20 Optional ‘EncodingWarning’ and ‘encoding="locale"’ option
..................................................................

The default encoding of *note TextIOWrapper: b9c. and *note open(): 32b.
is platform and locale dependent.  Since UTF-8 is used on most Unix
platforms, omitting ‘encoding’ option when opening UTF-8 files (e.g.
JSON, YAML, TOML, Markdown) is a very common bug.  For example:

     # BUG: "rb" mode or encoding="utf-8" should be used.
     with open("data.json") as f:
         data = json.load(f)

To find this type of bug, an optional ‘EncodingWarning’ is added.  It is
emitted when *note sys.flags.warn_default_encoding: a7c. is true and
locale-specific default encoding is used.

‘-X warn_default_encoding’ option and *note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING:
b9d. are added to enable the warning.

See *note Text Encoding: b9e. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>,  Next: Other Language Changes<4>,  Prev: New Features<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.3 New Features Related to Type Hints
----------------------------------------

This section covers major changes affecting PEP 484(1) type hints and
the *note typing: 10d. module.

* Menu:

* PEP 604; New Type Union Operator: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator.
* PEP 612; Parameter Specification Variables: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables.
* PEP 613; TypeAlias: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
* PEP 647; User-Defined Type Guards: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator,  Next: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>

1.7.3.1 PEP 604: New Type Union Operator
........................................

A new type union operator was introduced which enables the syntax ‘X |
Y’.  This provides a cleaner way of expressing “either type X or type Y”
instead of using *note typing.Union: 341, especially in type hints.

In previous versions of Python, to apply a type hint for functions
accepting arguments of multiple types, *note typing.Union: 341. was
used:

     def square(number: Union[int, float]) -> Union[int, float]:
         return number ** 2

Type hints can now be written in a more succinct manner:

     def square(number: int | float) -> int | float:
         return number ** 2

This new syntax is also accepted as the second argument to *note
isinstance(): 2ef. and *note issubclass(): 2f0.:

     >>> isinstance(1, int | str)
     True

See *note Τύπος Ένωσης: ba2. and PEP 604(1) for more details.

(Contributed by Maggie Moss and Philippe Prados in bpo-41428(2), with
additions by Yurii Karabas and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-44490(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables,  Next: PEP 613 TypeAlias,  Prev: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>

1.7.3.2 PEP 612: Parameter Specification Variables
..................................................

Two new options to improve the information provided to static type
checkers for PEP 484(1)“s ‘Callable’ have been added to the *note
typing: 10d. module.

The first is the parameter specification variable.  They are used to
forward the parameter types of one callable to another callable – a
pattern commonly found in higher order functions and decorators.
Examples of usage can be found in *note typing.ParamSpec: 295.
Previously, there was no easy way to type annotate dependency of
parameter types in such a precise manner.

The second option is the new ‘Concatenate’ operator.  It’s used in
conjunction with parameter specification variables to type annotate a
higher order callable which adds or removes parameters of another
callable.  Examples of usage can be found in *note typing.Concatenate:
ba4.

See *note typing.Callable: ba5, *note typing.ParamSpec: 295, *note
typing.Concatenate: ba4, *note typing.ParamSpecArgs: ba6, *note
typing.ParamSpecKwargs: ba7, and PEP 612(2) for more details.

(Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-41559(3), with minor enhancements by
Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-43783(4).  PEP written by Mark Mendoza.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43783


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 613 TypeAlias,  Next: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards,  Prev: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>

1.7.3.3 PEP 613: TypeAlias
..........................

PEP 484(1) introduced the concept of type aliases, only requiring them
to be top-level unannotated assignments.  This simplicity sometimes made
it difficult for type checkers to distinguish between type aliases and
ordinary assignments, especially when forward references or invalid
types were involved.  Compare:

     StrCache = 'Cache[str]'  # a type alias
     LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]'  # a module constant

Now the *note typing: 10d. module has a special value *note TypeAlias:
ba9. which lets you declare type aliases more explicitly:

     StrCache: TypeAlias = 'Cache[str]'  # a type alias
     LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]'  # a module constant

See PEP 613(2) for more details.

(Contributed by Mikhail Golubev in bpo-41923(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41923


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards,  Prev: PEP 613 TypeAlias,  Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>

1.7.3.4 PEP 647: User-Defined Type Guards
.........................................

*note TypeGuard: 698. has been added to the *note typing: 10d. module to
annotate type guard functions and improve information provided to static
type checkers during type narrowing.  For more information, please see
‘TypeGuard’“s documentation, and PEP 647(1).

(Contributed by Ken Jin and Guido van Rossum in bpo-43766(2).  PEP
written by Eric Traut.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43766


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<4>,  Next: New Modules<4>,  Prev: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.4 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * The *note int: 326. type has a new method *note int.bit_count():
     bac, returning the number of ones in the binary expansion of a
     given integer, also known as the population count.  (Contributed by
     Niklas Fiekas in bpo-29882(1).)

   * The views returned by *note dict.keys(): bad, *note dict.values():
     bae. and *note dict.items(): baf. now all have a ‘mapping’
     attribute that gives a *note types.MappingProxyType: 189. object
     wrapping the original dictionary.  (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney
     in bpo-40890(2).)

   * PEP 618(3): The *note zip(): 43f. function now has an optional
     ‘strict’ flag, used to require that all the iterables have an equal
     length.

   * Builtin and extension functions that take integer arguments no
     longer accept *note Decimal: 1c2.s, *note Fraction: 1c3.s and other
     objects that can be converted to integers only with a loss (e.g.
     that have the *note __int__(): 43c. method but do not have the
     *note __index__(): 43d. method).  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-37999(4).)

   * If *note object.__ipow__(): bb0. returns *note NotImplemented: 440,
     the operator will correctly fall back to *note object.__pow__():
     bb1. and *note object.__rpow__(): 442. as expected.  (Contributed
     by Alex Shkop in bpo-38302(5).)

   * Assignment expressions can now be used unparenthesized within set
     literals and set comprehensions, as well as in sequence indexes
     (but not slices).

   * Functions have a new ‘__builtins__’ attribute which is used to look
     for builtin symbols when a function is executed, instead of looking
     into ‘__globals__['__builtins__']’.  The attribute is initialized
     from ‘__globals__["__builtins__"]’ if it exists, else from the
     current builtins.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-42990(6).)

   * Two new builtin functions – *note aiter(): bb2. and *note anext():
     bb3. have been added to provide asynchronous counterparts to *note
     iter(): bb4. and *note next(): bb5, respectively.  (Contributed by
     Joshua Bronson, Daniel Pope, and Justin Wang in bpo-31861(7).)

   * Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 666.) and class methods (*note
     @classmethod: 69a.) now inherit the method attributes
     (‘__module__’, ‘__name__’, ‘__qualname__’, ‘__doc__’,
     ‘__annotations__’) and have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.
     Moreover, static methods are now callable as regular functions.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43682(8).)

   * Annotations for complex targets (everything beside ‘simple name’
     targets defined by PEP 526(9)) no longer cause any runtime effects
     with ‘from __future__ import annotations’.  (Contributed by Batuhan
     Taskaya in bpo-42737(10).)

   * Class and module objects now lazy-create empty annotations dicts on
     demand.  The annotations dicts are stored in the object’s
     ‘__dict__’ for backwards compatibility.  This improves the best
     practices for working with ‘__annotations__’; for more information,
     please see *note Annotations Best Practices: bb6.  (Contributed by
     Larry Hastings in bpo-43901(11).)

   * Annotations consist of ‘yield’, ‘yield from’, ‘await’ or named
     expressions are now forbidden under ‘from __future__ import
     annotations’ due to their side effects.  (Contributed by Batuhan
     Taskaya in bpo-42725(12).)

   * Usage of unbound variables, ‘super()’ and other expressions that
     might alter the processing of symbol table as annotations are now
     rendered effectless under ‘from __future__ import annotations’.
     (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-42725(13).)

   * Hashes of NaN values of both *note float: 327. type and *note
     decimal.Decimal: 1c2. type now depend on object identity.
     Formerly, they always hashed to ‘0’ even though NaN values are not
     equal to one another.  This caused potentially quadratic runtime
     behavior due to excessive hash collisions when creating
     dictionaries and sets containing multiple NaNs.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in bpo-43475(14).)

   * A *note SyntaxError: 17e. (instead of a *note NameError: 665.) will
     be raised when deleting the *note __debug__: bb7. constant.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-45000(15).)

   * *note SyntaxError: 17e. exceptions now have ‘end_lineno’ and
     ‘end_offset’ attributes.  They will be ‘None’ if not determined.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43914(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29882

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40890

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37999

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38302

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31861

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42737

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43901

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43475

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45000

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<4>,  Next: Improved Modules<4>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.5 New Modules
-----------------

   * None.


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<4>,  Next: Optimizations<7>,  Prev: New Modules<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.6 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<8>.
* argparse: argparse<5>.
* array: array<4>.
* asynchat, asyncore, smtpd: asynchat asyncore smtpd.
* base64: base64<4>.
* bdb: bdb<2>.
* bisect::
* codecs::
* collections.abc: collections abc<2>.
* contextlib: contextlib<3>.
* curses: curses<2>.
* dataclasses: dataclasses<3>.
* distutils: distutils<2>.
* doctest: doctest<2>.
* encodings::
* enum: enum<4>.
* fileinput::
* faulthandler: faulthandler<3>.
* gc: gc<4>.
* glob: glob<3>.
* hashlib: hashlib<4>.
* hmac: hmac<2>.
* IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<2>.
* importlib.metadata: importlib metadata<2>.
* inspect: inspect<5>.
* itertools: itertools<4>.
* linecache: linecache<2>.
* os: os<6>.
* os.path: os path<5>.
* pathlib: pathlib<9>.
* platform: platform<4>.
* pprint: pprint<2>.
* py_compile::
* pyclbr::
* shelve: shelve<2>.
* statistics: statistics<3>.
* site: site<2>.
* socket: socket<4>.
* ssl: ssl<5>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<7>.
* sys: sys<6>.
* _thread::
* threading: threading<6>.
* traceback: traceback<3>.
* types: types<6>.
* typing: typing<8>.
* unittest: unittest<7>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<2>.
* xml: xml<3>.
* zipimport: zipimport<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<8>,  Next: argparse<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.1 asyncio
...............

Add missing *note connect_accepted_socket(): bbb. method.  (Contributed
by Alex Grönholm in bpo-41332(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41332


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<5>,  Next: array<4>,  Prev: asyncio<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.2 argparse
................

Misleading phrase «optional arguments» was replaced with «options» in
argparse help.  Some tests might require adaptation if they rely on
exact output match.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-9694(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9694


File: python.info,  Node: array<4>,  Next: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Prev: argparse<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.3 array
.............

The *note index(): bbe. method of *note array.array: 6c5. now has
optional 'start' and 'stop' parameters.  (Contributed by Anders
Lorentsen and Zackery Spytz in bpo-31956(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31956


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Next: base64<4>,  Prev: array<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.4 asynchat, asyncore, smtpd
.................................

These modules have been marked as deprecated in their module
documentation since Python 3.6.  An import-time *note
DeprecationWarning: 2c9. has now been added to all three of these
modules.


File: python.info,  Node: base64<4>,  Next: bdb<2>,  Prev: asynchat asyncore smtpd,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.5 base64
..............

Add *note base64.b32hexencode(): 1e9. and *note base64.b32hexdecode():
1ea. to support the Base32 Encoding with Extended Hex Alphabet.


File: python.info,  Node: bdb<2>,  Next: bisect,  Prev: base64<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.6 bdb
...........

Add ‘clearBreakpoints()’ to reset all set breakpoints.  (Contributed by
Irit Katriel in bpo-24160(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24160


File: python.info,  Node: bisect,  Next: codecs,  Prev: bdb<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.7 bisect
..............

Added the possibility of providing a 'key' function to the APIs in the
*note bisect: 12. module.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
bpo-4356(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4356


File: python.info,  Node: codecs,  Next: collections abc<2>,  Prev: bisect,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.8 codecs
..............

Add a *note codecs.unregister(): bc4. function to unregister a codec
search function.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-41842(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc<2>,  Next: contextlib<3>,  Prev: codecs,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.9 collections.abc
.......................

The ‘__args__’ of the *note parameterized generic: a9f. for *note
collections.abc.Callable: bc6. are now consistent with *note
typing.Callable: ba5.  ‘collections.abc.Callable’ generic now flattens
type parameters, similar to what ‘typing.Callable’ currently does.  This
means that ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’ will have
‘__args__’ of ‘(int, str, str)’; previously this was ‘([int, str],
str)’.  To allow this change, *note types.GenericAlias: bc7. can now be
subclassed, and a subclass will be returned when subscripting the
‘collections.abc.Callable’ type.  Note that a *note TypeError: 291. may
be raised for invalid forms of parameterizing ‘collections.abc.Callable’
which may have passed silently in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Ken Jin
in bpo-42195(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<3>,  Next: curses<2>,  Prev: collections abc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.10 contextlib
...................

Add a *note contextlib.aclosing(): bc9. context manager to safely close
async generators and objects representing asynchronously released
resources.  (Contributed by Joongi Kim and John Belmonte in
bpo-41229(1).)

Add asynchronous context manager support to *note
contextlib.nullcontext(): bca.  (Contributed by Tom Gringauz in
bpo-41543(2).)

Add *note AsyncContextDecorator: 20d, for supporting usage of async
context managers as decorators.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41229

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41543


File: python.info,  Node: curses<2>,  Next: dataclasses<3>,  Prev: contextlib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.11 curses
...............

The extended color functions added in ncurses 6.1 will be used
transparently by *note curses.color_content(): bcc, *note
curses.init_color(): bcd, *note curses.init_pair(): bce, and *note
curses.pair_content(): bcf.  A new function, *note
curses.has_extended_color_support(): bd0, indicates whether extended
color support is provided by the underlying ncurses library.
(Contributed by Jeffrey Kintscher and Hans Petter Jansson in
bpo-36982(1).)

The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed in the *note curses: 2e.
module if they are provided by the underlying curses library.
(Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-39273(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36982

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39273


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses<3>,  Next: distutils<2>,  Prev: curses<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.12 dataclasses
....................

* Menu:

* __slots__::
* Keyword-only fields::


File: python.info,  Node: __slots__,  Next: Keyword-only fields,  Up: dataclasses<3>

1.7.6.13 __slots__
..................

Added ‘slots’ parameter in *note dataclasses.dataclass(): 6e6.
decorator.  (Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-42269(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42269


File: python.info,  Node: Keyword-only fields,  Prev: __slots__,  Up: dataclasses<3>

1.7.6.14 Keyword-only fields
............................

dataclasses now supports fields that are keyword-only in the generated
__init__ method.  There are a number of ways of specifying keyword-only
fields.

You can say that every field is keyword-only:

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass(kw_only=True)
     class Birthday:
         name: str
         birthday: datetime.date

Both ‘name’ and ‘birthday’ are keyword-only parameters to the generated
__init__ method.

You can specify keyword-only on a per-field basis:

     from dataclasses import dataclass, field

     @dataclass
     class Birthday:
         name: str
         birthday: datetime.date = field(kw_only=True)

Here only ‘birthday’ is keyword-only.  If you set ‘kw_only’ on
individual fields, be aware that there are rules about re-ordering
fields due to keyword-only fields needing to follow non-keyword-only
fields.  See the full dataclasses documentation for details.

You can also specify that all fields following a KW_ONLY marker are
keyword-only.  This will probably be the most common usage:

     from dataclasses import dataclass, KW_ONLY

     @dataclass
     class Point:
         x: float
         y: float
         _: KW_ONLY
         z: float = 0.0
         t: float = 0.0

Here, ‘z’ and ‘t’ are keyword-only parameters, while ‘x’ and ‘y’ are
not.  (Contributed by Eric V. Smith in bpo-43532(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43532


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<2>,  Next: doctest<2>,  Prev: dataclasses<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.15 distutils
..................

The entire ‘distutils’ package is deprecated, to be removed in Python
3.12.  Its functionality for specifying package builds has already been
completely replaced by third-party packages ‘setuptools’ and
‘packaging’, and most other commonly used APIs are available elsewhere
in the standard library (such as *note platform: af, *note shutil: cd,
*note subprocess: df. or *note sysconfig: e4.).  There are no plans to
migrate any other functionality from ‘distutils’, and applications that
are using other functions should plan to make private copies of the
code.  Refer to PEP 632(1) for discussion.

The ‘bdist_wininst’ command deprecated in Python 3.8 has been removed.
The ‘bdist_wheel’ command is now recommended to distribute binary
packages on Windows.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42802(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42802


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<2>,  Next: encodings,  Prev: distutils<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.16 doctest
................

When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to
‘__spec__.loader’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: encodings,  Next: enum<4>,  Prev: doctest<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.17 encodings
..................

*note encodings.normalize_encoding(): 313. now ignores non-ASCII
characters.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-39337(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39337


File: python.info,  Node: enum<4>,  Next: fileinput,  Prev: encodings,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.18 enum
.............

*note Enum: a21. *note __repr__(): 1bc. now returns
‘enum_name.member_name’ and *note __str__(): a0f. now returns
‘member_name’.  Stdlib enums available as module constants have a *note
repr(): 45b. of ‘module_name.member_name’.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman
in bpo-40066(1).)

Add *note enum.StrEnum: a0d. for enums where all members are strings.
(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-41816(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41816


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput,  Next: faulthandler<3>,  Prev: enum<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.19 fileinput
..................

Add 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters in *note fileinput.input(): bd9.
and *note fileinput.FileInput: b1e.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
bpo-43712(1).)

*note fileinput.hook_compressed(): bda. now returns *note TextIOWrapper:
b9c. object when 'mode' is «r» and file is compressed, like uncompressed
files.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-5758(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43712

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5758


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<3>,  Next: gc<4>,  Prev: fileinput,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.20 faulthandler
.....................

The *note faulthandler: 5b. module now detects if a fatal error occurs
during a garbage collector collection.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
in bpo-44466(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44466


File: python.info,  Node: gc<4>,  Next: glob<3>,  Prev: faulthandler<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.21 gc
...........

Add audit hooks for *note gc.get_objects(): bdd, *note
gc.get_referrers(): bde. and *note gc.get_referents(): bdf.
(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43439(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43439


File: python.info,  Node: glob<3>,  Next: hashlib<4>,  Prev: gc<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.22 glob
.............

Add the 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' parameters in *note glob(): 2d4. and
*note iglob(): be1. which allow to specify the root directory for
searching.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-38144(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38144


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<4>,  Next: hmac<2>,  Prev: glob<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.23 hashlib
................

The hashlib module requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in PEP 644(1) and bpo-43669(2).)

The hashlib module has preliminary support for OpenSSL 3.0.0.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-38820(3) and other issues.)

The pure-Python fallback of *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 91e. is deprecated.  In
the future PBKDF2-HMAC will only be available when Python has been built
with OpenSSL support.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-43880(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<2>,  Next: IDLE and idlelib<2>,  Prev: hashlib<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.24 hmac
.............

The hmac module now uses OpenSSL’s HMAC implementation internally.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-40645(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE and idlelib<2>,  Next: importlib metadata<2>,  Prev: hmac<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.25 IDLE and idlelib
.........................

Make IDLE invoke *note sys.excepthook(): be5. (when started without
“-n”).  User hooks were previously ignored.  (Contributed by Ken Hilton
in bpo-43008(1).)

Rearrange the settings dialog.  Split the General tab into Windows and
Shell/Ed tabs.  Move help sources, which extend the Help menu, to the
Extensions tab.  Make space for new options and shorten the dialog.  The
latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.  (Contributed by Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-40468(2).)  Move the indent space setting from the Font
tab to the new Windows tab.  (Contributed by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan
Reedy in bpo-33962(3).)

The changes above were backported to a 3.9 maintenance release.

Add a Shell sidebar.  Move the primary prompt (“>>>”) to the sidebar.
Add secondary prompts (”…”) to the sidebar.  Left click and optional
drag selects one or more lines of text, as with the editor line number
sidebar.  Right click after selecting text lines displays a context menu
with “copy with prompts”.  This zips together prompts from the sidebar
with lines from the selected text.  This option also appears on the
context menu for the text.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-37903(4).)

Use spaces instead of tabs to indent interactive code.  This makes
interactive code entries “look right”.  Making this feasible was a major
motivation for adding the shell sidebar.  (Contributed by Terry Jan
Reedy in bpo-37892(5).)

Highlight the new *note soft keywords: be6. *note match: 1d4, ‘case’,
and *note _: be7. in pattern-matching statements.  However, this
highlighting is not perfect and will be incorrect in some rare cases,
including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’ patterns.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in
bpo-44010(6).)

New in 3.10 maintenance releases.

Apply syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood
and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-45447(7).)

Include prompts when saving Shell with inputs and outputs.  (Contributed
by Terry Jan Reedy in gh-95191(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37892

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44010

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191


File: python.info,  Node: importlib metadata<2>,  Next: inspect<5>,  Prev: IDLE and idlelib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.26 importlib.metadata
...........................

Feature parity with ‘importlib_metadata’ 4.6 (history(1)).

*note importlib.metadata entry points: 788. now provide a nicer
experience for selecting entry points by group and name through a new
*note importlib.metadata.EntryPoints: 788. class.  See the Compatibility
Note in the docs for more info on the deprecation and usage.

Added *note importlib.metadata.packages_distributions(): be9. for
resolving top-level Python modules and packages to their *note
importlib.metadata.Distribution: bea.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<5>,  Next: itertools<4>,  Prev: importlib metadata<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.27 inspect
................

When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to
‘__spec__.loader’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).)

Add *note inspect.get_annotations(): bec, which safely computes the
annotations defined on an object.  It works around the quirks of
accessing the annotations on various types of objects, and makes very
few assumptions about the object it examines.
‘inspect.get_annotations()’ can also correctly un-stringize stringized
annotations.  ‘inspect.get_annotations()’ is now considered best
practice for accessing the annotations dict defined on any Python
object; for more information on best practices for working with
annotations, please see *note Annotations Best Practices: bb6.
Relatedly, *note inspect.signature(): 4bd, *note
inspect.Signature.from_callable(): b20, and
‘inspect.Signature.from_function()’ now call ‘inspect.get_annotations()’
to retrieve annotations.  This means ‘inspect.signature()’ and
‘inspect.Signature.from_callable()’ can also now un-stringize stringized
annotations.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-43817(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43817


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<4>,  Next: linecache<2>,  Prev: inspect<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.28 itertools
..................

Add *note itertools.pairwise(): bee.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger
in bpo-38200(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38200


File: python.info,  Node: linecache<2>,  Next: os<6>,  Prev: itertools<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.29 linecache
..................

When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to
‘__spec__.loader’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: os<6>,  Next: os path<5>,  Prev: linecache<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.30 os
...........

Add *note os.cpu_count(): 6e1. support for VxWorks RTOS. (Contributed by
Peixing Xin in bpo-41440(1).)

Add a new function *note os.eventfd(): bf1. and related helpers to wrap
the ‘eventfd2’ syscall on Linux.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-41001(2).)

Add *note os.splice(): bf2. that allows to move data between two file
descriptors without copying between kernel address space and user
address space, where one of the file descriptors must refer to a pipe.
(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-41625(3).)

Add *note O_EVTONLY: bf3, *note O_FSYNC: bf4, *note O_SYMLINK: bf5. and
*note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: bf6. for macOS. (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-43106(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41440

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41001

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41625

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43106


File: python.info,  Node: os path<5>,  Next: pathlib<9>,  Prev: os<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.31 os.path
................

*note os.path.realpath(): 241. now accepts a 'strict' keyword-only
argument.  When set to ‘True’, *note OSError: 53c. is raised if a path
doesn’t exist or a symlink loop is encountered.  (Contributed by Barney
Gale in bpo-43757(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43757


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<9>,  Next: platform<4>,  Prev: os path<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.32 pathlib
................

Add slice support to *note PurePath.parents: bf9.  (Contributed by
Joshua Cannon in bpo-35498(1).)

Add negative indexing support to *note PurePath.parents: bf9.
(Contributed by Yaroslav Pankovych in bpo-21041(2).)

Add *note Path.hardlink_to: bfa. method that supersedes ‘link_to()’.
The new method has the same argument order as *note symlink_to(): bfb.
(Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-39950(3).)

*note pathlib.Path.stat(): bfc. and *note chmod(): bfd. now accept a
'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument for consistency with
corresponding functions in the *note os: a5. module.  (Contributed by
Barney Gale in bpo-39906(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35498

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21041

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39906


File: python.info,  Node: platform<4>,  Next: pprint<2>,  Prev: pathlib<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.33 platform
.................

Add *note platform.freedesktop_os_release(): bff. to retrieve operation
system identification from freedesktop.org os-release(1) standard file.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28468(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28468


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<2>,  Next: py_compile,  Prev: platform<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.34 pprint
...............

*note pprint.pprint(): c01. now accepts a new ‘underscore_numbers’
keyword argument.  (Contributed by sblondon in bpo-42914(1).)

*note pprint: b3. can now pretty-print *note dataclasses.dataclass: 6e6.
instances.  (Contributed by Lewis Gaul in bpo-43080(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42914

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43080


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile,  Next: pyclbr,  Prev: pprint<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.35 py_compile
...................

Add ‘--quiet’ option to command-line interface of *note py_compile: bb.
(Contributed by Gregory Schevchenko in bpo-38731(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38731


File: python.info,  Node: pyclbr,  Next: shelve<2>,  Prev: py_compile,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.36 pyclbr
...............

Add an ‘end_lineno’ attribute to the ‘Function’ and ‘Class’ objects in
the tree returned by *note pyclbr.readmodule(): c04. and *note
pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): c05.  It matches the existing (start) ‘lineno’.
(Contributed by Aviral Srivastava in bpo-38307(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38307


File: python.info,  Node: shelve<2>,  Next: statistics<3>,  Prev: pyclbr,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.37 shelve
...............

The *note shelve: cb. module now uses *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
c07. by default instead of *note pickle: ab. protocol ‘3’ when creating
shelves.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-34204(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34204


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<3>,  Next: site<2>,  Prev: shelve<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.38 statistics
...................

Add *note covariance(): c09, Pearson’s *note correlation(): 8cc, and
simple *note linear_regression(): c0a. functions.  (Contributed by
Tymoteusz Wołodźko in bpo-38490(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38490


File: python.info,  Node: site<2>,  Next: socket<4>,  Prev: statistics<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.39 site
.............

When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to
‘__spec__.loader’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133


File: python.info,  Node: socket<4>,  Next: ssl<5>,  Prev: site<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.40 socket
...............

The exception *note socket.timeout: c0d. is now an alias of *note
TimeoutError: c0e.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-42413(1).)

Add option to create MPTCP sockets with ‘IPPROTO_MPTCP’ (Contributed by
Rui Cunha in bpo-43571(2).)

Add ‘IP_RECVTOS’ option to receive the type of service (ToS) or DSCP/ECN
fields (Contributed by Georg Sauthoff in bpo-44077(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44077


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<5>,  Next: sqlite3<7>,  Prev: socket<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.41 ssl
............

The ssl module requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in PEP 644(1) and bpo-43669(2).)

The ssl module has preliminary support for OpenSSL 3.0.0 and new option
*note OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: c10.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
in bpo-38820(3), bpo-43794(4), bpo-43788(5), bpo-43791(6), bpo-43799(7),
bpo-43920(8), bpo-43789(9), and bpo-43811(10).)

Deprecated function and use of deprecated constants now result in a
*note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  *note ssl.SSLContext.options: c11. has
*note OP_NO_SSLv2: c12. and *note OP_NO_SSLv3: c13. set by default and
therefore cannot warn about setting the flag again.  The *note
deprecation section: c14. has a list of deprecated features.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-43880(11).)

The ssl module now has more secure default settings.  Ciphers without
forward secrecy or SHA-1 MAC are disabled by default.  Security level 2
prohibits weak RSA, DH, and ECC keys with less than 112 bits of
security.  *note SSLContext: 336. defaults to minimum protocol version
TLS 1.2.  Settings are based on Hynek Schlawack’s research.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-43998(12).)

The deprecated protocols SSL 3.0, TLS 1.0, and TLS 1.1 are no longer
officially supported.  Python does not block them actively.  However
OpenSSL build options, distro configurations, vendor patches, and cipher
suites may prevent a successful handshake.

Add a 'timeout' parameter to the *note ssl.get_server_certificate():
c15. function.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-31870(13).)

The ssl module uses heap-types and multi-phase initialization.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-42333(14).)

A new verify flag *note VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 68f. has been added.
(Contributed by l0x in bpo-40849(15).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43788

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43799

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43920

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43789

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43811

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43998

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31870

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40849


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<7>,  Next: sys<6>,  Prev: ssl<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.42 sqlite3
................

Add audit events for *note connect(): 3e0, *note
enable_load_extension(): c17, and *note load_extension(): 8c8.
(Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43762(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43762


File: python.info,  Node: sys<6>,  Next: _thread,  Prev: sqlite3<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.43 sys
............

Add *note sys.orig_argv: c19. attribute: the list of the original
command line arguments passed to the Python executable.  (Contributed by
Victor Stinner in bpo-23427(1).)

Add *note sys.stdlib_module_names: c1a, containing the list of the
standard library module names.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-42955(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42955


File: python.info,  Node: _thread,  Next: threading<6>,  Prev: sys<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.44 _thread
................

*note _thread.interrupt_main(): c1c. now takes an optional signal number
to simulate (the default is still *note signal.SIGINT: 4df.).
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-43356(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356


File: python.info,  Node: threading<6>,  Next: traceback<3>,  Prev: _thread,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.45 threading
..................

Add *note threading.gettrace(): c1e. and *note threading.getprofile():
c1f. to retrieve the functions set by *note threading.settrace(): c20.
and *note threading.setprofile(): c21. respectively.  (Contributed by
Mario Corchero in bpo-42251(1).)

Add *note threading.__excepthook__: c22. to allow retrieving the
original value of *note threading.excepthook(): c23. in case it is set
to a broken or a different value.  (Contributed by Mario Corchero in
bpo-42308(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42251

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42308


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<3>,  Next: types<6>,  Prev: threading<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.46 traceback
..................

The *note format_exception(): c25, *note format_exception_only(): c26,
and *note print_exception(): c27. functions can now take an exception
object as a positional-only argument.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and
Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-26389(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389


File: python.info,  Node: types<6>,  Next: typing<8>,  Prev: traceback<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.47 types
..............

Reintroduce the *note types.EllipsisType: c29, *note types.NoneType:
c2a. and *note types.NotImplementedType: c2b. classes, providing a new
set of types readily interpretable by type checkers.  (Contributed by
Bas van Beek in bpo-41810(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41810


File: python.info,  Node: typing<8>,  Next: unittest<7>,  Prev: types<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.48 typing
...............

For major changes, see *note New Features Related to Type Hints: b9f.

The behavior of *note typing.Literal: c2d. was changed to conform with
PEP 586(1) and to match the behavior of static type checkers specified
in the PEP.

  1. ‘Literal’ now de-duplicates parameters.

  2. Equality comparisons between ‘Literal’ objects are now order
     independent.

  3. ‘Literal’ comparisons now respect types.  For example, ‘Literal[0]
     == Literal[False]’ previously evaluated to ‘True’.  It is now
     ‘False’.  To support this change, the internally used type cache
     now supports differentiating types.

  4. ‘Literal’ objects will now raise a *note TypeError: 291. exception
     during equality comparisons if any of their parameters are not
     *note hashable: 183.  Note that declaring ‘Literal’ with unhashable
     parameters will not throw an error:

          >>> from typing import Literal
          >>> Literal[{0}]
          >>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'

(Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-42345(2).)

Add new function *note typing.is_typeddict(): c2e. to introspect if an
annotation is a *note typing.TypedDict: 290.  (Contributed by Patrick
Reader in bpo-41792(3).)

Subclasses of ‘typing.Protocol’ which only have data variables declared
will now raise a ‘TypeError’ when checked with ‘isinstance’ unless they
are decorated with *note runtime_checkable(): 861.  Previously, these
checks passed silently.  Users should decorate their subclasses with the
‘runtime_checkable()’ decorator if they want runtime protocols.
(Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-38908(4).)

Importing from the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ submodules will now emit
*note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  These submodules have been deprecated
since Python 3.8 and will be removed in a future version of Python.
Anything belonging to those submodules should be imported directly from
*note typing: 10d. instead.  (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in
bpo-38291(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41792

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38908

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<7>,  Next: urllib parse<2>,  Prev: typing<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.49 unittest
.................

Add new method *note assertNoLogs(): c30. to complement the existing
*note assertLogs(): 29f.  (Contributed by Kit Yan Choi in bpo-39385(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39385


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<2>,  Next: xml<3>,  Prev: unittest<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.50 urllib.parse
.....................

Python versions earlier than Python 3.10 allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’
as query parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 589. and
*note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 588.  Due to security concerns, and to
conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow
only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also
affects ‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the
affected functions internally.  For more details, please see their
respective documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil
Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(2), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 113.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
gh-88048(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: xml<3>,  Next: zipimport<4>,  Prev: urllib parse<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.51 xml
............

Add a *note LexicalHandler: c33. class to the *note xml.sax.handler:
133. module.  (Contributed by Jonathan Gossage and Zackery Spytz in
bpo-35018(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35018


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport<4>,  Prev: xml<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<4>

1.7.6.52 zipimport
..................

Add methods related to PEP 451(1): *note find_spec(): c35, *note
zipimport.zipimporter.create_module(): c36, and *note
zipimport.zipimporter.exec_module(): 2e9.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon
in bpo-42131(2).)

Add *note invalidate_caches(): c37. method.  (Contributed by Desmond
Cheong in bpo-14678(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42131

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14678


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<7>,  Next: Deprecated<8>,  Prev: Improved Modules<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.7 Optimizations
-------------------

   * Constructors *note str(): 1df, *note bytes(): 1c7. and *note
     bytearray(): 1c6. are now faster (around 30–40% for small objects).
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-41334(1).)

   * The *note runpy: c6. module now imports fewer modules.  The
     ‘python3 -m module-name’ command startup time is 1.4x faster in
     average.  On Linux, ‘python3 -I -m module-name’ imports 69 modules
     on Python 3.9, whereas it only imports 51 modules (-18) on Python
     3.10.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41006(2) and
     bpo-41718(3).)

   * The ‘LOAD_ATTR’ instruction now uses new «per opcode cache»
     mechanism.  It is about 36% faster now for regular attributes and
     44% faster for slots.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-42093(4) and Guido van Rossum in bpo-42927(5),
     based on ideas implemented originally in PyPy and MicroPython.)

   * When building Python with *note -enable-optimizations: c39. now
     ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ is added to both the compile and link
     line.  This speeds builds of the Python interpreter created with
     *note -enable-shared: c3a. with ‘gcc’ by up to 30%.  See this
     article(6) for more details.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner and
     Pablo Galindo in bpo-38980(7).)

   * Use a new output buffer management code for *note bz2: 14. / *note
     lzma: 8d. / *note zlib: 13c. modules, and add ‘.readall()’ function
     to ‘_compression.DecompressReader’ class.  bz2 decompression is now
     1.09x ~ 1.17x faster, lzma decompression 1.20x ~ 1.32x faster,
     ‘GzipFile.read(-1)’ 1.11x ~ 1.18x faster.  (Contributed by Ma Lin,
     reviewed by Gregory P. Smith, in bpo-41486(8))

   * When using stringized annotations, annotations dicts for functions
     are no longer created when the function is created.  Instead, they
     are stored as a tuple of strings, and the function object lazily
     converts this into the annotations dict on demand.  This
     optimization cuts the CPU time needed to define an annotated
     function by half.  (Contributed by Yurii Karabas and Inada Naoki in
     bpo-42202(9).)

   * Substring search functions such as ‘str1 in str2’ and
     ‘str2.find(str1)’ now sometimes use Crochemore & Perrin’s «Two-Way»
     string searching algorithm to avoid quadratic behavior on long
     strings.  (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in bpo-41972(10))

   * Add micro-optimizations to ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ to improve type
     attribute cache lookup performance in the common case of cache
     hits.  This makes the interpreter 1.04 times faster on average.
     (Contributed by Dino Viehland in bpo-43452(11).)

   * The following built-in functions now support the faster PEP 590(12)
     vectorcall calling convention: *note map(): 43e, *note filter():
     c3b, *note reversed(): c3c, *note bool(): 5ef. and *note float():
     327.  (Contributed by Donghee Na and Jeroen Demeyer in
     bpo-43575(13), bpo-43287(14), bpo-41922(15), bpo-41873(16) and
     bpo-41870(17).)

   * *note BZ2File: c3d. performance is improved by removing internal
     ‘RLock’.  This makes ‘BZ2File’ thread unsafe in the face of
     multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its equivalent
     classes in *note gzip: 6a. and *note lzma: 8d. have always been.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-43785(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41334

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41006

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41718

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42093

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42927

   (6) 
https://developers.redhat.com/blog/2020/06/25/red-hat-enterprise-linux-8-2-brings-faster-python-3-8-run-speeds/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38980

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43452

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43575

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43287

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41922

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41873

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41870

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43785


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<8>,  Next: Removed<8>,  Prev: Optimizations<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.8 Deprecated
----------------

   * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by
     keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It allows
     confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in y]’ (which
     can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f or x in y]’).
     Starting in this release, a deprecation warning is raised if the
     numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note
     and: 31f, *note else: 320, *note for: 321, *note if: 322, *note in:
     323, *note is: 324. and *note or: 325.  In future releases it will
     be changed to syntax warning, and finally to syntax error.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43833(1).)

   * Starting in this release, there will be a concerted effort to begin
     cleaning up old import semantics that were kept for Python 2.7
     compatibility.  Specifically, ‘find_loader()’/‘find_module()’
     (superseded by *note find_spec(): c3f.),
     ‘importlib.abc.Loader.load_module’ (superseded by *note
     exec_module(): c40.), ‘module_repr()’ (which the import system
     takes care of for you), the ‘__package__’ attribute (superseded by
     ‘__spec__.parent’), the ‘__loader__’ attribute (superseded by
     ‘__spec__.loader’), and the ‘__cached__’ attribute (superseded by
     ‘__spec__.cached’) will slowly be removed (as well as other classes
     and methods in *note importlib: 7a.).  *note ImportWarning: 907.
     and/or *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. will be raised as appropriate
     to help identify code which needs updating during this transition.

   * The entire ‘distutils’ namespace is deprecated, to be removed in
     Python 3.12.  Refer to the *note module changes: b12. section for
     more information.

   * Non-integer arguments to *note random.randrange(): c41. are
     deprecated.  The *note ValueError: 277. is deprecated in favor of a
     *note TypeError: 291.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Raymond
     Hettinger in bpo-37319(2).)

   * The various ‘load_module()’ methods of *note importlib: 7a. have
     been documented as deprecated since Python 3.6, but will now also
     trigger a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  Use *note exec_module():
     c40. instead.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-26131(3).)

   * ‘zimport.zipimporter.load_module()’ has been deprecated in
     preference for *note exec_module(): 2e9.  (Contributed by Brett
     Cannon in bpo-26131(4).)

   * The use of ‘importlib.abc.Loader.load_module’ by the import system
     now triggers an *note ImportWarning: 907. as *note exec_module():
     c40. is preferred.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-26131(5).)

   * The use of ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ and
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’ by the import system
     now trigger an *note ImportWarning: 907. as *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): c3f. and *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): c42. are preferred,
     respectively.  You can use *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader():
     c43. to help in porting.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-42134(6).)

   * The use of ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ by the
     import system now triggers an *note ImportWarning: 907. as *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): c42. is preferred.  You
     can use *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): c43. to help in
     porting.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-43672(7).)

   * The various implementations of
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ (
     ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’,
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ ),
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’ (
     ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module()’ ), and
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ (
     ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader()’ ) now raise *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. and are slated for removal in Python 3.12
     (previously they were documented as deprecated in Python 3.4).
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42135(8).)

   * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’ is deprecated (including its sole method,
     ‘find_module()’).  Both *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: c44.
     and *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: c45. no longer inherit
     from the class.  Users should inherit from one of these two classes
     as appropriate instead.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-42135(9).)

   * The deprecations of ‘imp’, ‘importlib.find_loader()’,
     ‘importlib.util.set_package_wrapper()’,
     ‘importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper()’,
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’, ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, and
     ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’ have all been updated to list Python 3.12 as
     the slated version of removal (they began raising *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. in previous versions of Python).
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-43720(10).)

   * The import system now uses the ‘__spec__’ attribute on modules
     before falling back on ‘module_repr()’ for a module’s ‘__repr__()’
     method.  Removal of the use of ‘module_repr()’ is scheduled for
     Python 3.12.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42137(11).)

   * ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’,
     ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr()’, and
     ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr()’ are deprecated
     and slated for removal in Python 3.12.  (Contributed by Brett
     Cannon in bpo-42136(12).)

   * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ has been undocumented and obsolete since
     Python 3.3, when it was made an alias to *note str: 1df.  It is now
     deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12.  (Contributed by
     Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-42264(13).)

   * The undocumented built-in function ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache’ is
     now deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12.  Its use is
     strongly discouraged by the SQLite3 documentation.  See the SQLite3
     docs(14) for more details.  If a shared cache must be used, open
     the database in URI mode using the ‘cache=shared’ query parameter.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-24464(15).)

   * The following ‘threading’ methods are now deprecated:

        * ‘threading.currentThread’ => *note threading.current_thread():
          33e.

        * ‘threading.activeCount’ => *note threading.active_count():
          33f.

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll’ => *note
          threading.Condition.notify_all(): 338.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet’ => *note threading.Event.is_set():
          339.

        * ‘threading.Thread.setName’ => *note threading.Thread.name:
          33d.

        * ‘threading.thread.getName’ => *note threading.Thread.name:
          33d.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon:
          33b.

        * ‘threading.Thread.setDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon:
          33b.

     (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-87889(16).)

   * ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’ is deprecated and slated for removal in
     Python 3.12.  Use *note pathlib.Path.hardlink_to(): bfa. instead.
     (Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-39950(17).)

   * ‘cgi.log()’ is deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.12.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41139(18).)

   * The following *note ssl: d8. features have been deprecated since
     Python 3.6, Python 3.7, or OpenSSL 1.1.0 and will be removed in
     3.11:

        * ‘OP_NO_SSLv2’, ‘OP_NO_SSLv3’, ‘OP_NO_TLSv1’, ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_1’,
          ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_2’, and ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_3’ are replaced by *note
          minimum_version: c46. and *note maximum_version: c47.

        * ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv2’, ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv3’, ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv23’,
          ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1’, ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’, ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’, and
          ‘PROTOCOL_TLS’ are deprecated in favor of *note
          PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48. and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: c49.

        * ‘wrap_socket()’ is replaced by *note
          ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 933.

        * ‘match_hostname()’

        * ‘RAND_pseudo_bytes()’, ‘RAND_egd()’

        * NPN features like *note ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol():
          c4a. and *note ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 337. are
          replaced by ALPN.

   * The threading debug (‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment variable) is
     deprecated in Python 3.10 and will be removed in Python 3.12.  This
     feature requires a *note debug build of Python: 3dc.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in bpo-44584(19).)

   * Importing from the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ submodules will now
     emit *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  These submodules will be
     removed in a future version of Python.  Anything belonging to these
     submodules should be imported directly from *note typing: 10d.
     instead.  (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-38291(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37319

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42134

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43672

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43720

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42137

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42136

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42264

   (14) https://sqlite.org/c3ref/enable_shared_cache.html

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24464

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87889

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41139

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44584

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<8>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 10,  Prev: Deprecated<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.9 Removed
-------------

   * Removed special methods ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’, ‘__floordiv__’,
     ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__rfloordiv__’, ‘__rmod__’ and
     ‘__rdivmod__’ of the *note complex: 328. class.  They always raised
     a *note TypeError: 291.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-41974(1).)

   * The ‘ParserBase.error()’ method from the private and undocumented
     ‘_markupbase’ module has been removed.  *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: c4d. is the only subclass of ‘ParserBase’
     and its ‘error()’ implementation was already removed in Python 3.5.
     (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-31844(2).)

   * Removed the ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ attribute which was an
     internal PyCapsule object.  The related private
     ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure was moved to the internal C API.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42157(3).)

   * Removed the ‘parser’ module, which was deprecated in 3.9 due to the
     switch to the new PEG parser, as well as all the C source and
     header files that were only being used by the old parser, including
     ‘node.h’, ‘parser.h’, ‘graminit.h’ and ‘grammar.h’.

   * Removed the Public C API functions
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’ and ‘PyNode_Compile’ that were
     deprecated in 3.9 due to the switch to the new PEG parser.

   * Removed the ‘formatter’ module, which was deprecated in Python 3.4.
     It is somewhat obsolete, little used, and not tested.  It was
     originally scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6, but such removals
     were delayed until after Python 2.7 EOL. Existing users should copy
     whatever classes they use into their code.  (Contributed by Donghee
     Na and Terry J. Reedy in bpo-42299(4).)

   * Removed the ‘PyModule_GetWarningsModule()’ function that was
     useless now due to the ‘_warnings’ module was converted to a
     builtin module in 2.6.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42599(5).)

   * Remove deprecated aliases to *note Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις
     Συλλογών: c4e. from the *note collections: 1e. module.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37324(6).)

   * The ‘loop’ parameter has been removed from most of *note asyncio:
     b.“s *note high-level API: c4f. following deprecation in Python
     3.8.  The motivation behind this change is multifold:

       1. This simplifies the high-level API.

       2. The functions in the high-level API have been implicitly
          getting the current thread’s running event loop since Python
          3.7.  There isn’t a need to pass the event loop to the API in
          most normal use cases.

       3. Event loop passing is error-prone especially when dealing with
          loops running in different threads.

     Note that the low-level API will still accept ‘loop’.  See *note
     Changes in the Python API: c50. for examples of how to replace
     existing code.

     (Contributed by Yurii Karabas, Andrew Svetlov, Yury Selivanov and
     Kyle Stanley in bpo-42392(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41974

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31844

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42299

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42599

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37324

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 10,  Next: CPython bytecode changes<4>,  Prev: Removed<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.10 Porting to Python 3.10
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in the Python syntax::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<4>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python syntax,  Next: Changes in the Python API<4>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 10

1.7.10.1 Changes in the Python syntax
.....................................

   * Deprecation warning is now emitted when compiling previously valid
     syntax if the numeric literal is immediately followed by a keyword
     (like in ‘0in x’).  In future releases it will be changed to syntax
     warning, and finally to a syntax error.  To get rid of the warning
     and make the code compatible with future releases just add a space
     between the numeric literal and the following keyword.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43833(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<4>,  Next: Changes in the C API<3>,  Prev: Changes in the Python syntax,  Up: Porting to Python 3 10

1.7.10.2 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * The 'etype' parameters of the *note format_exception(): c25, *note
     format_exception_only(): c26, and *note print_exception(): c27.
     functions in the *note traceback: 107. module have been renamed to
     'exc'.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Matthias Bussonnier in
     bpo-26389(1).)

   * *note atexit: d.: At Python exit, if a callback registered with
     *note atexit.register(): c54. fails, its exception is now logged.
     Previously, only some exceptions were logged, and the last
     exception was always silently ignored.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-42639(2).)

   * *note collections.abc.Callable: bc6. generic now flattens type
     parameters, similar to what *note typing.Callable: ba5. currently
     does.  This means that ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’
     will have ‘__args__’ of ‘(int, str, str)’; previously this was
     ‘([int, str], str)’.  Code which accesses the arguments via *note
     typing.get_args(): 315. or ‘__args__’ need to account for this
     change.  Furthermore, *note TypeError: 291. may be raised for
     invalid forms of parameterizing ‘collections.abc.Callable’ which
     may have passed silently in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in
     bpo-42195(3).)

   * *note socket.htons(): c55. and *note socket.ntohs(): c56. now raise
     *note OverflowError: c57. instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.
     if the given parameter will not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.
     (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-42393(4).)

   * The ‘loop’ parameter has been removed from most of *note asyncio:
     b.“s *note high-level API: c4f. following deprecation in Python
     3.8.

     A coroutine that currently looks like this:

          async def foo(loop):
              await asyncio.sleep(1, loop=loop)

     Should be replaced with this:

          async def foo():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)

     If ‘foo()’ was specifically designed 'not' to run in the current
     thread’s running event loop (e.g.  running in another thread’s
     event loop), consider using *note
     asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(): c58. instead.

     (Contributed by Yurii Karabas, Andrew Svetlov, Yury Selivanov and
     Kyle Stanley in bpo-42392(5).)

   * The *note types.FunctionType: c59. constructor now inherits the
     current builtins if the 'globals' dictionary has no
     ‘"__builtins__"’ key, rather than using ‘{"None": None}’ as
     builtins: same behavior as *note eval(): 184. and *note exec():
     185. functions.  Defining a function with ‘def function(...): ...’
     in Python is not affected, globals cannot be overridden with this
     syntax: it also inherits the current builtins.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-42990(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42393

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<3>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<4>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 10

1.7.10.3 Changes in the C API
.............................

   * The C API functions ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’, ‘PyNode_Compile’ and the type used
     by these functions, ‘struct _node’, were removed due to the switch
     to the new PEG parser.

     Source should be now be compiled directly to a code object using,
     for example, *note Py_CompileString(): c5b.  The resulting code
     object can then be evaluated using, for example, *note
     PyEval_EvalCode(): c5c.

     Specifically:

        * A call to ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’ followed by
          ‘PyNode_Compile’ can be replaced by calling *note
          Py_CompileString(): c5b.

        * There is no direct replacement for
          ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’.  To compile code from a ‘FILE
          *’ argument, you will need to read the file in C and pass the
          resulting buffer to *note Py_CompileString(): c5b.

        * To compile a file given a ‘char *’ filename, explicitly open
          the file, read it and compile the result.  One way to do this
          is using the *note io: 82. module with *note
          PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3, *note PyObject_CallMethod():
          3b6, *note PyBytes_AsString(): c5d. and *note
          Py_CompileString(): c5b, as sketched below.  (Declarations and
          error handling are omitted.)

               io_module = Import_ImportModule("io");
               fileobject = PyObject_CallMethod(io_module, "open", "ss", filename, "rb");
               source_bytes_object = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "read", "");
               result = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "close", "");
               source_buf = PyBytes_AsString(source_bytes_object);
               code = Py_CompileString(source_buf, filename, Py_file_input);

        * For ‘FrameObject’ objects, the *note f_lasti: c5e. member now
          represents a wordcode offset instead of a simple offset into
          the bytecode string.  This means that this number needs to be
          multiplied by 2 to be used with APIs that expect a byte offset
          instead (like *note PyCode_Addr2Line(): c5f. for example).
          Notice as well that the ‘f_lasti’ member of ‘FrameObject’
          objects is not considered stable: please use *note
          PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): b6a. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes<4>,  Next: Build Changes<4>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 10,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.11 CPython bytecode changes
-------------------------------

   * The ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ instruction now accepts either a dict or a
     tuple of strings as the function’s annotations.  (Contributed by
     Yurii Karabas and Inada Naoki in bpo-42202(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes<4>,  Next: C API Changes<4>,  Prev: CPython bytecode changes<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.12 Build Changes
--------------------

   * PEP 644(1): Python now requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.  OpenSSL
     1.0.2 is no longer supported.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-43669(2).)

   * The C99 functions ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’ are now required
     to build Python.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36020(3).)

   * *note sqlite3: d7. requires SQLite 3.7.15 or higher.  (Contributed
     by Sergey Fedoseev and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-40744(4) and
     bpo-40810(5).)

   * The *note atexit: d. module must now always be built as a built-in
     module.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42639(6).)

   * Add *note -disable-test-modules: c62. option to the ‘configure’
     script: don’t build nor install test modules.  (Contributed by
     Xavier de Gaye, Thomas Petazzoni and Peixing Xin in bpo-27640(7).)

   * Add *note -with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH option: c63. to the
     ‘./configure’ script.  If specified, the *note ensurepip: 58.
     module looks for ‘setuptools’ and ‘pip’ wheel packages in this
     directory: if both are present, these wheel packages are used
     instead of ensurepip bundled wheel packages.

     Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against
     bundling dependencies.  For example, Fedora installs wheel packages
     in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don’t install the
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42856(8).)

   * Add a new *note configure -without-static-libpython option: c64. to
     not build the ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ static library and not
     install the ‘python.o’ object file.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43103(9).)

   * The ‘configure’ script now uses the ‘pkg-config’ utility, if
     available, to detect the location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries.
     As before, those locations can be explicitly specified with the
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’ configuration
     options.  (Contributed by Manolis Stamatogiannakis in
     bpo-42603(10).)

   * Add *note -with-openssl-rpath: c65. option to ‘configure’ script.
     The option simplifies building Python with a custom OpenSSL
     installation, e.g.  ‘./configure --with-openssl=/path/to/openssl
     --with-openssl-rpath=auto’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-43466(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40744

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27640

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42856

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43103

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42603

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43466


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes<4>,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Prev: Build Changes<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.13 C API Changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 652; Maintaining the Stable ABI: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI.
* New Features: New Features<8>.
* Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10<2>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<9>.
* Removed: Removed<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI,  Next: New Features<8>,  Up: C API Changes<4>

1.7.13.1 PEP 652: Maintaining the Stable ABI
............................................

The Stable ABI (Application Binary Interface) for extension modules or
embedding Python is now explicitly defined.  *note C API and ABI
Stability: 95c. describes C API and ABI stability guarantees along with
best practices for using the Stable ABI.

(Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 652(1) and bpo-43795(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0652/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<8>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 10<2>,  Prev: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI,  Up: C API Changes<4>

1.7.13.2 New Features
.....................

   * The result of *note PyNumber_Index(): c69. now always has exact
     type *note int: 326.  Previously, the result could have been an
     instance of a subclass of ‘int’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-40792(1).)

   * Add a new *note orig_argv: c6a. member to the *note PyConfig: 60b.
     structure: the list of the original command line arguments passed
     to the Python executable.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-23427(2).)

   * The *note PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO(): c6b. and *note
     PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO(): c6c. macros have been added for
     accessing the ‘tzinfo’ attributes of *note datetime.datetime: 6e7.
     and *note datetime.time: 48e. objects.  (Contributed by Zackery
     Spytz in bpo-30155(3).)

   * Add a *note PyCodec_Unregister(): c6d. function to unregister a
     codec search function.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-41842(4).)

   * The *note PyIter_Send(): c6e. function was added to allow sending
     value into iterator without raising ‘StopIteration’ exception.
     (Contributed by Vladimir Matveev in bpo-41756(5).)

   * Add *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): c6f. to the limited C API.
     (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-41784(6).)

   * Add *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 800. function: similar to *note
     PyModule_AddObject(): 801. but don’t steal a reference to the value
     on success.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-1635741(7).)

   * Add *note Py_NewRef(): c70. and *note Py_XNewRef(): c71. functions
     to increment the reference count of an object and return the
     object.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42262(8).)

   * The *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 38f. and *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390. functions now accept a single
     class as the 'bases' argument.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-42423(9).)

   * The *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390. function now accepts
     NULL ‘tp_doc’ slot.  (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-41832(10).)

   * The *note PyType_GetSlot(): c72. function can accept *note static
     types: b5f.  (Contributed by Hai Shi and Petr Viktorin in
     bpo-41073(11).)

   * Add a new *note PySet_CheckExact(): c73. function to the C-API to
     check if an object is an instance of *note set: 42b. but not an
     instance of a subtype.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     bpo-43277(12).)

   * Add *note PyErr_SetInterruptEx(): c74. which allows passing a
     signal number to simulate.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-43356(13).)

   * The limited C API is now supported if *note Python is built in
     debug mode: 3dc. (if the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined).  In the
     limited C API, the *note Py_INCREF(): 974. and *note Py_DECREF():
     975. functions are now implemented as opaque function calls, rather
     than accessing directly the *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: c75. member,
     if Python is built in debug mode and the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro
     targets Python 3.10 or newer.  It became possible to support the
     limited C API in debug mode because the *note PyObject: 19b.
     structure is the same in release and debug mode since Python 3.8
     (see bpo-36465(14)).

     The limited C API is still not supported in the *note
     -with-trace-refs: 828. special build (‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43688(15).)

   * Add the *note Py_Is(x, y): c76. function to test if the 'x' object
     is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in Python.  Add also the
     *note Py_IsNone(): c77, *note Py_IsTrue(): c78, *note Py_IsFalse():
     c79. functions to test if an object is, respectively, the ‘None’
     singleton, the ‘True’ singleton or the ‘False’ singleton.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43753(16).)

   * Add new functions to control the garbage collector from C code:
     *note PyGC_Enable(): c7a, *note PyGC_Disable(): c7b, *note
     PyGC_IsEnabled(): c7c.  These functions allow to activate,
     deactivate and query the state of the garbage collector from C code
     without having to import the *note gc: 63. module.

   * Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 984. type flag
     to disallow creating type instances.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-43916(17).)

   * Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 5fb. type flag for
     creating immutable type objects: type attributes cannot be set nor
     deleted.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in
     bpo-43908(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30155

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41756

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41784

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42262

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42423

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41832

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41073

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43277

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43688

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43753

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43916

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 10<2>,  Next: Deprecated<9>,  Prev: New Features<8>,  Up: C API Changes<4>

1.7.13.3 Porting to Python 3.10
...............................

   * The ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro must now be defined to use *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee. formats
     which use ‘#’: ‘es#’, ‘et#’, ‘s#’, ‘u#’, ‘y#’, ‘z#’, ‘U#’ and ‘Z#’.
     See *note Parsing arguments and building values: 601. and PEP
     353(1).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40943(2).)

   * Since *note Py_REFCNT(): 54b. is changed to the inline static
     function, ‘Py_REFCNT(obj) = new_refcnt’ must be replaced with
     ‘Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, new_refcnt)’: see *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): c7e.
     (available since Python 3.9).  For backward compatibility, this
     macro can be used:

          #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4
          #  define Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, refcnt) ((Py_REFCNT(obj) = (refcnt)), (void)0)
          #endif

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39573(3).)

   * Calling *note PyDict_GetItem(): 81c. without *note GIL: 411. held
     had been allowed for historical reason.  It is no longer allowed.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40839(4).)

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, size)’ and
     ‘PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’ raise
     ‘DeprecationWarning’ now.  Use *note PyUnicode_New(): c7f. to
     allocate Unicode object without initial data.  (Contributed by
     Inada Naoki in bpo-36346(5).)

   * The private ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure of the PyCapsule API
     ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ has been moved to the internal C API.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42157(6).)

   * ‘Py_GetPath()’, ‘Py_GetPrefix()’, ‘Py_GetExecPrefix()’,
     ‘Py_GetProgramFullPath()’, ‘Py_GetPythonHome()’ and
     ‘Py_GetProgramName()’ functions now return ‘NULL’ if called before
     *note Py_Initialize(): 673. (before Python is initialized).  Use
     the new *note Python Initialization Configuration: 837. API to get
     the *note Python Path Configuration: c80.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-42260(7).)

   * *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 822, *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 821. and
     *note PyCell_SET(): c81. macros can no longer be used as l-value or
     r-value.  For example, ‘x = PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c)’ and
     ‘PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) = x’ now fail with a compiler error.  It
     prevents bugs like ‘if (PyList_SET_ITEM (a, b, c) < 0) ...’ test.
     (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Victor Stinner in bpo-30459(8).)

   * The non-limited API files ‘odictobject.h’, ‘parser_interface.h’,
     ‘picklebufobject.h’, ‘pyarena.h’, ‘pyctype.h’, ‘pydebug.h’,
     ‘pyfpe.h’, and ‘pytime.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’
     directory.  These files must not be included directly, as they are
     already included in ‘Python.h’; see *note Include Files: b63.  If
     they have been included directly, consider including ‘Python.h’
     instead.  (Contributed by Nicholas Sim in bpo-35134(9).)

   * Use the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 5fb. type flag to create
     immutable type objects.  Do not rely on *note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE:
     c82. to decide if a type object is mutable or not; check if
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE’ is set instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908(10).)

   * The undocumented function ‘Py_FrozenMain’ has been removed from the
     limited API. The function is mainly useful for custom builds of
     Python.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-26241(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40839

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30459

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26241


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<9>,  Next: Removed<9>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 10<2>,  Up: C API Changes<4>

1.7.13.4 Deprecated
...................

   * The ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function is now deprecated and
     will be removed in Python 3.12: use *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): c84. instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-41692(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41692


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<9>,  Prev: Deprecated<9>,  Up: C API Changes<4>

1.7.13.5 Removed
................

   * Removed ‘Py_UNICODE_str*’ functions manipulating ‘Py_UNICODE*’
     strings.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41123(1).)

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strlen’: use *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): c86. or
          *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: c87.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcat’: use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters():
          c88. or *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcpy’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strncpy’: use *note
          PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): c88. or *note
          PyUnicode_Substring(): c89.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcmp’: use *note PyUnicode_Compare(): c8a.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strncmp’: use *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): c8b.

        * ‘Py_UNICODE_strchr’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strrchr’: use *note
          PyUnicode_FindChar(): c8c.

   * Removed ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’.  Please migrate to new ( PEP 393(2))
     APIs.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41103(3).)

   * Removed ‘PyLong_FromUnicode()’.  Please migrate to *note
     PyLong_FromUnicodeObject(): c8d.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
     bpo-41103(4).)

   * Removed ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy()’.  Please use *note
     PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): c8e. or *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString():
     c8f. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41103(5).)

   * Removed ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ variable: it has been replaced by
     ‘ceval.recursion_limit’ of the *note PyInterpreterState: c90.
     structure.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41834(6).)

   * Removed undocumented macros ‘Py_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and
     ‘Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and the ‘recursion_critical’ field of the
     *note PyInterpreterState: c90. structure.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-41936(7).)

   * Removed the undocumented ‘PyOS_InitInterrupts()’ function.
     Initializing Python already implicitly installs signal handlers:
     see *note PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: c91.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-41713(8).)

   * Remove the ‘PyAST_Validate()’ function.  It is no longer possible
     to build a AST object (‘mod_ty’ type) with the public C API. The
     function was already excluded from the limited C API ( PEP 384(9)).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(10).)

   * Remove the ‘symtable.h’ header file and the undocumented functions:

        * ‘PyST_GetScope()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Build()’

        * ‘PySymtable_BuildObject()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Free()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableString()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableStringObject()’

     The ‘Py_SymtableString()’ function was part the stable ABI by
     mistake but it could not be used, because the ‘symtable.h’ header
     file was excluded from the limited C API.

     Use Python *note symtable: e1. module instead.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(11).)

   * Remove *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 987. from the limited
     C API headers and from ‘python3.dll’, the library that provides the
     stable ABI on Windows.  Since the function takes a ‘FILE*’
     argument, its ABI stability cannot be guaranteed.  (Contributed by
     Petr Viktorin in bpo-43868(12).)

   * Remove ‘ast.h’, ‘asdl.h’, and ‘Python-ast.h’ header files.  These
     functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C API.
     Most names defined by these header files were not prefixed by ‘Py’
     and so could create names conflicts.  For example, ‘Python-ast.h’
     defined a ‘Yield’ macro which was conflict with the ‘Yield’ name
     used by the Windows ‘<winbase.h>’ header.  Use the Python *note
     ast: 9. module instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-43244(13).)

   * Remove the compiler and parser functions using ‘struct _mod’ type,
     because the public AST C API was removed:

        * ‘PyAST_Compile()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileEx()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileObject()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromAST()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromASTObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFileObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFilename()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromStringObject()’

     These functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C
     API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(14).)

   * Remove the ‘pyarena.h’ header file with functions:

        * ‘PyArena_New()’

        * ‘PyArena_Free()’

        * ‘PyArena_Malloc()’

        * ‘PyArena_AddPyObject()’

     These functions were undocumented, excluded from the limited C API,
     and were only used internally by the compiler.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(15).)

   * The ‘PyThreadState.use_tracing’ member has been removed to optimize
     Python.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-43760(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41834

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41936

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43868

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Prev: C API Changes<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.14 Notable security feature in 3.10.7
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 326. and *note str: 1df. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 277. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: e2. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 9ec. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Next: Notable changes in 3 10 12,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 10 7,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.15 Notable security feature in 3.10.8
-----------------------------------------

The deprecated ‘mailcap’ module now refuses to inject unsafe text
(filenames, MIME types, parameters) into shell commands.  Instead of
using such text, it will warn and act as if a match was not found (or
for test commands, as if the test failed).  (Contributed by Petr
Viktorin in gh-98966(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98966


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 10 12,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 10 8,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 10

1.7.16 Notable changes in 3.10.12
---------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<4>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 10 12

1.7.16.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: e7, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 882, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 883. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     2c9.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 9,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 8,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 10,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.8 What’s New In Python 3.9
============================


Editor: Łukasz Langa

This article explains the new features in Python 3.9, compared to 3.8.
Python 3.9 was released on October 5, 2020.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 145.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 596(1) - Python 3.9 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
* You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code::
* New Features: New Features<9>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<5>.
* New Modules: New Modules<5>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<5>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<8>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<10>.
* Removed: Removed<10>.
* Porting to Python 3.9: Porting to Python 3 9.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<5>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<5>.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.1: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.2: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.3: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3.
* Notable changes in Python 3.9.5: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5.
* Notable security feature in 3.9.14: Notable security feature in 3 9 14.
* Notable changes in 3.9.17: Notable changes in 3 9 17.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0596/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<6>,  Next: You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * PEP 584(1), union operators added to ‘dict’;

   * PEP 585(2), type hinting generics in standard collections;

   * PEP 614(3), relaxed grammar restrictions on decorators.

New built-in features:

   * PEP 616(4), string methods to remove prefixes and suffixes.

New features in the standard library:

   * PEP 593(5), flexible function and variable annotations;

   * *note os.pidfd_open(): 267. added that allows process management
     without races and signals.

Interpreter improvements:

   * PEP 573(6), fast access to module state from methods of C extension
     types;

   * PEP 617(7), CPython now uses a new parser based on PEG;

   * a number of Python builtins (range, tuple, set, frozenset, list,
     dict) are now sped up using PEP 590(8) vectorcall;

   * garbage collection does not block on resurrected objects;

   * a number of Python modules (‘_abc’, ‘audioop’, ‘_bz2’, ‘_codecs’,
     ‘_contextvars’, ‘_crypt’, ‘_functools’, ‘_json’, ‘_locale’, *note
     math: 91, *note operator: a3, *note resource: c4, *note time: f7,
     ‘_weakref’) now use multiphase initialization as defined by PEP
     489;

   * a number of standard library modules (‘audioop’, *note ast: 9,
     *note grp: 69, ‘_hashlib’, *note pwd: ba, ‘_posixsubprocess’, *note
     random: c0, *note select: c9, *note struct: de, *note termios: ea,
     *note zlib: 13c.) are now using the stable ABI defined by PEP 384.

New library modules:

   * PEP 615(9), the IANA Time Zone Database is now present in the
     standard library in the *note zoneinfo: 13d. module;

   * an implementation of a topological sort of a graph is now provided
     in the new *note graphlib: 68. module.

Release process changes:

   * PEP 602(10), CPython adopts an annual release cycle.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/


File: python.info,  Node: You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code,  Next: New Features<9>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.2 You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code
----------------------------------------------------------

When Python 2.7 was still supported, a lot of functionality in Python 3
was kept for backward compatibility with Python 2.7.  With the end of
Python 2 support, these backward compatibility layers have been removed,
or will be removed soon.  Most of them emitted a *note
DeprecationWarning: 2c9. warning for several years.  For example, using
‘collections.Mapping’ instead of ‘collections.abc.Mapping’ emits a
‘DeprecationWarning’ since Python 3.3, released in 2012.

Test your application with the *note -W: 1c0. ‘default’ command-line
option to see *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. and *note
PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b, or even with ‘-W’ ‘error’ to treat them
as errors.  *note Warnings Filter: 1cc. can be used to ignore warnings
from third-party code.

Python 3.9 is the last version providing those Python 2 backward
compatibility layers, to give more time to Python projects maintainers
to organize the removal of the Python 2 support and add support for
Python 3.9.

Aliases to *note Abstract Base Classes: c4e. in the *note collections:
1e. module, like ‘collections.Mapping’ alias to *note
collections.abc.Mapping: c9c, are kept for one last release for backward
compatibility.  They will be removed from Python 3.10.

More generally, try to run your tests in the *note Python Development
Mode: 70d. which helps to prepare your code to make it compatible with
the next Python version.

Note: a number of pre-existing deprecations were removed in this version
of Python as well.  Consult the *note Removed: c9d. section.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<9>,  Next: Other Language Changes<5>,  Prev: You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.3 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* Dictionary Merge & Update Operators::
* New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes::
* Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections::
* New Parser::


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionary Merge & Update Operators,  Next: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.3.1 Dictionary Merge & Update Operators
...........................................

Merge (‘|’) and update (‘|=’) operators have been added to the built-in
*note dict: 188. class.  Those complement the existing ‘dict.update’ and
‘{**d1, **d2}’ methods of merging dictionaries.

Example:

     >>> x = {"key1": "value1 from x", "key2": "value2 from x"}
     >>> y = {"key2": "value2 from y", "key3": "value3 from y"}
     >>> x | y
     {'key1': 'value1 from x', 'key2': 'value2 from y', 'key3': 'value3 from y'}
     >>> y | x
     {'key2': 'value2 from x', 'key3': 'value3 from y', 'key1': 'value1 from x'}

See PEP 584(1) for a full description.  (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in
bpo-36144(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144


File: python.info,  Node: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes,  Next: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections,  Prev: Dictionary Merge & Update Operators,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.3.2 New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes
..........................................................

*note str.removeprefix(prefix): ca1. and *note str.removesuffix(suffix):
ca2. have been added to easily remove an unneeded prefix or a suffix
from a string.  Corresponding ‘bytes’, ‘bytearray’, and
‘collections.UserString’ methods have also been added.  See PEP 616(1)
for a full description.  (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in
bpo-39939(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39939


File: python.info,  Node: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections,  Next: New Parser,  Prev: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.3.3 Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections
.....................................................

In type annotations you can now use built-in collection types such as
‘list’ and ‘dict’ as generic types instead of importing the
corresponding capitalized types (e.g.  ‘List’ or ‘Dict’) from ‘typing’.
Some other types in the standard library are also now generic, for
example ‘queue.Queue’.

Example:

     def greet_all(names: list[str]) -> None:
         for name in names:
             print("Hello", name)

See PEP 585(1) for more details.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum,
Ethan Smith, and Batuhan Taşkaya in bpo-39481(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39481


File: python.info,  Node: New Parser,  Prev: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections,  Up: New Features<9>

1.8.3.4 New Parser
..................

Python 3.9 uses a new parser, based on PEG(1) instead of LL(1)(2).  The
new parser’s performance is roughly comparable to that of the old
parser, but the PEG formalism is more flexible than LL(1) when it comes
to designing new language features.  We’ll start using this flexibility
in Python 3.10 and later.

The *note ast: 9. module uses the new parser and produces the same AST
as the old parser.

In Python 3.10, the old parser will be deleted and so will all
functionality that depends on it (primarily the ‘parser’ module, which
has long been deprecated).  In Python 3.9 'only', you can switch back to
the LL(1) parser using a command line switch (‘-X oldparser’) or an
environment variable (‘PYTHONOLDPARSER=1’).

See PEP 617(3) for more details.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum,
Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou in bpo-40334(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LL_parser

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<5>,  Next: New Modules<5>,  Prev: New Features<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.4 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * *note __import__(): ca6. now raises *note ImportError: 1bd. instead
     of *note ValueError: 277, which used to occur when a relative
     import went past its top-level package.  (Contributed by Ngalim
     Siregar in bpo-37444(1).)

   * Python now gets the absolute path of the script filename specified
     on the command line (ex: ‘python3 script.py’): the ‘__file__’
     attribute of the *note __main__: 1. module became an absolute path,
     rather than a relative path.  These paths now remain valid after
     the current directory is changed by *note os.chdir(): a02.  As a
     side effect, the traceback also displays the absolute path for
     ‘__main__’ module frames in this case.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-20443(2).)

   * In the *note Python Development Mode: 70d. and in *note debug
     build: 3dc, the 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments are now checked
     for string encoding and decoding operations.  Examples: *note
     open(): 32b, *note str.encode(): ca7. and *note bytes.decode():
     ca8.

     By default, for best performance, the 'errors' argument is only
     checked at the first encoding/decoding error and the 'encoding'
     argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-37388(3).)

   * ‘"".replace("", s, n)’ now returns ‘s’ instead of an empty string
     for all non-zero ‘n’.  It is now consistent with ‘"".replace("",
     s)’.  There are similar changes for *note bytes: 1c7. and *note
     bytearray: 1c6. objects.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28029(4).)

   * Any valid expression can now be used as a *note decorator: b18.
     Previously, the grammar was much more restrictive.  See PEP 614(5)
     for details.  (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in bpo-39702(6).)

   * Improved help for the *note typing: 10d. module.  Docstrings are
     now shown for all special forms and special generic aliases (like
     ‘Union’ and ‘List’).  Using *note help(): ca9. with generic alias
     like ‘List[int]’ will show the help for the correspondent concrete
     type (‘list’ in this case).  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-40257(7).)

   * Parallel running of *note aclose(): caa. / *note asend(): cab. /
     *note athrow(): 906. is now prohibited, and ‘ag_running’ now
     reflects the actual running status of the async generator.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-30773(8).)

   * Unexpected errors in calling the ‘__iter__’ method are no longer
     masked by ‘TypeError’ in the *note in: 323. operator and functions
     *note contains(): cac, *note indexOf(): cad. and *note countOf():
     cae. of the *note operator: a3. module.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-40824(9).)

   * Unparenthesized lambda expressions can no longer be the expression
     part in an ‘if’ clause in comprehensions and generator expressions.
     See bpo-41848(10) and bpo-43755(11) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28029

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39702

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30773

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40824

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41848

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43755


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<5>,  Next: Improved Modules<5>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.5 New Modules
-----------------

* Menu:

* zoneinfo::
* graphlib: graphlib<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: zoneinfo,  Next: graphlib<2>,  Up: New Modules<5>

1.8.5.1 zoneinfo
................

The *note zoneinfo: 13d. module brings support for the IANA time zone
database to the standard library.  It adds *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: cb1,
a concrete *note datetime.tzinfo: 9d8. implementation backed by the
system’s time zone data.

Example:

     >>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
     >>> import datetime as dt

     >>> # Daylight saving time
     >>> when = dt.datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(when)
     2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00
     >>> when.tzname()
     'PDT'

     >>> # Standard time
     >>> when += dt.timedelta(days=7)
     >>> print(when)
     2020-11-07 12:00:00-08:00
     >>> print(when.tzname())
     PST

As a fall-back source of data for platforms that don’t ship the IANA
database, the tzdata(1) module was released as a first-party package –
distributed via PyPI and maintained by the CPython core team.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 615(2) – Support for the IANA Time Zone Database in the Standard Library

     PEP written and implemented by Paul Ganssle

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/


File: python.info,  Node: graphlib<2>,  Prev: zoneinfo,  Up: New Modules<5>

1.8.5.2 graphlib
................

A new module, *note graphlib: 68, was added that contains the *note
graphlib.TopologicalSorter: cb3. class to offer functionality to perform
topological sorting of graphs.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Tim
Peters and Larry Hastings in bpo-17005(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<5>,  Next: Optimizations<8>,  Prev: New Modules<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.6 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* ast: ast<6>.
* asyncio: asyncio<9>.
* compileall: compileall<2>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<4>.
* curses: curses<3>.
* datetime: datetime<4>.
* distutils: distutils<3>.
* fcntl: fcntl<2>.
* ftplib: ftplib<2>.
* gc: gc<5>.
* hashlib: hashlib<5>.
* http: http<2>.
* IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<3>.
* imaplib: imaplib<2>.
* importlib: importlib<3>.
* inspect: inspect<6>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<2>.
* math: math<6>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<3>.
* nntplib::
* os: os<7>.
* pathlib: pathlib<10>.
* pdb: pdb<6>.
* poplib::
* pprint: pprint<3>.
* pydoc: pydoc<2>.
* random: random<3>.
* signal::
* smtplib::
* socket: socket<5>.
* time: time<3>.
* sys: sys<7>.
* tracemalloc::
* typing: typing<9>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<6>.
* venv: venv<4>.
* xml: xml<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: ast<6>,  Next: asyncio<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.1 ast
...........

Added the 'indent' option to *note dump(): 1e1. which allows it to
produce a multiline indented output.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-37995(1).)

Added *note ast.unparse(): cb6. as a function in the *note ast: 9.
module that can be used to unparse an *note ast.AST: 2ec. object and
produce a string with code that would produce an equivalent ‘ast.AST’
object when parsed.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Batuhan Taskaya
in bpo-38870(2).)

Added docstrings to AST nodes that contains the ASDL signature used to
construct that node.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-39638(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37995

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38870

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39638


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<9>,  Next: compileall<2>,  Prev: ast<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.2 asyncio
...............

Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of
*note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a. is no longer
supported.  This is because of the behavior of the socket option
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

Added a new *note coroutine: 8a2. *note shutdown_default_executor():
cb8. that schedules a shutdown for the default executor that waits on
the *note ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. to finish closing.  Also, *note
asyncio.run(): 309. has been updated to use the new coroutine.
(Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-34037(2).)

Added ‘asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher’, a Linux-specific child watcher
implementation that polls process file descriptors.  (bpo-38692(3))

Added a new *note coroutine: 8a2. *note asyncio.to_thread(): cb9.  It is
mainly used for running IO-bound functions in a separate thread to avoid
blocking the event loop, and essentially works as a high-level version
of *note run_in_executor(): cba. that can directly take keyword
arguments.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley and Yury Selivanov in
bpo-32309(4).)

When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note asyncio.wait_for():
9f6. will now wait until the cancellation is complete also in the case
when 'timeout' is <= 0, like it does with positive timeouts.
(Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in bpo-32751(5).)

*note asyncio: b. now raises *note TypeError: 291. when calling
incompatible methods with an *note ssl.SSLSocket: cbb. socket.
(Contributed by Ido Michael in bpo-37404(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32309

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37404


File: python.info,  Node: compileall<2>,  Next: concurrent futures<4>,  Prev: asyncio<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.3 compileall
..................

Added new possibility to use hardlinks for duplicated ‘.pyc’ files:
'hardlink_dupes' parameter and –hardlink-dupes command line option.
(Contributed by Lumír “Frenzy” Balhar in bpo-40495(1).)

Added new options for path manipulation in resulting ‘.pyc’ files:
'stripdir', 'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest' parameters and -s, -p, -e
command line options.  Added the possibility to specify the option for
an optimization level multiple times.  (Contributed by Lumír “Frenzy”
Balhar in bpo-38112(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40495

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38112


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<4>,  Next: curses<3>,  Prev: compileall<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.4 concurrent.futures
..........................

Added a new 'cancel_futures' parameter to *note
concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown(): cbe. that cancels all pending
futures which have not started running, instead of waiting for them to
complete before shutting down the executor.  (Contributed by Kyle
Stanley in bpo-39349(1).)

Removed daemon threads from *note ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. and *note
ProcessPoolExecutor: 206.  This improves compatibility with
subinterpreters and predictability in their shutdown processes.
(Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-39812(2).)

Workers in *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. are now spawned on demand,
only when there are no available idle workers to reuse.  This optimizes
startup overhead and reduces the amount of lost CPU time to idle
workers.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-39207(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39349

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39207


File: python.info,  Node: curses<3>,  Next: datetime<4>,  Prev: concurrent futures<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.5 curses
..............

Added *note curses.get_escdelay(): cc0, *note curses.set_escdelay():
cc1, *note curses.get_tabsize(): cc2, and *note curses.set_tabsize():
cc3. functions.  (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-38312(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38312


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<4>,  Next: distutils<3>,  Prev: curses<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.6 datetime
................

The *note isocalendar(): cc5. of *note datetime.date: 48d. and *note
isocalendar(): cc6. of *note datetime.datetime: 6e7. methods now returns
a *note namedtuple(): 1cf. instead of a *note tuple: 1ce.  (Contributed
by Donghee Na in bpo-24416(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24416


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<3>,  Next: fcntl<2>,  Prev: datetime<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.7 distutils
.................

The ‘upload’ command now creates SHA2-256 and Blake2b-256 hash digests.
It skips MD5 on platforms that block MD5 digest.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-40698(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40698


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl<2>,  Next: ftplib<2>,  Prev: distutils<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.8 fcntl
.............

Added constants ‘fcntl.F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘fcntl.F_OFD_SETLK’ and
‘fcntl.F_OFD_SETLKW’.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38602(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38602


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib<2>,  Next: gc<5>,  Prev: fcntl<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.9 ftplib
..............

*note FTP: cca. and *note FTP_TLS: ccb. now raise a *note ValueError:
277. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: gc<5>,  Next: hashlib<5>,  Prev: ftplib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.10 gc
...........

When the garbage collector makes a collection in which some objects
resurrect (they are reachable from outside the isolated cycles after the
finalizers have been executed), do not block the collection of all
objects that are still unreachable.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and
Tim Peters in bpo-38379(1).)

Added a new function *note gc.is_finalized(): ccd. to check if an object
has been finalized by the garbage collector.  (Contributed by Pablo
Galindo in bpo-39322(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39322


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<5>,  Next: http<2>,  Prev: gc<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.11 hashlib
................

The *note hashlib: 6b. module can now use SHA3 hashes and SHAKE XOF from
OpenSSL when available.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-37630(1).)

Builtin hash modules can now be disabled with ‘./configure
--without-builtin-hashlib-hashes’ or selectively enabled with e.g.
‘./configure --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=sha3,blake2’ to force use of
OpenSSL based implementation.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-40479(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479


File: python.info,  Node: http<2>,  Next: IDLE and idlelib<3>,  Prev: hashlib<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.12 http
.............

HTTP status codes ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’, ‘418 IM_A_TEAPOT’ and ‘425
TOO_EARLY’ are added to *note http.HTTPStatus: cd0.  (Contributed by
Donghee Na in bpo-39509(1) and Ross Rhodes in bpo-39507(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39509

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39507


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE and idlelib<3>,  Next: imaplib<2>,  Prev: http<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.13 IDLE and idlelib
.........................

Added option to toggle cursor blink off.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz
in bpo-4603(1).)

Escape key now closes IDLE completion windows.  (Contributed by Johnny
Najera in bpo-38944(2).)

Added keywords to module name completion list.  (Contributed by Terry J.
Reedy in bpo-37765(3).)

New in 3.9 maintenance releases

Make IDLE invoke *note sys.excepthook(): be5. (when started without
“-n”).  User hooks were previously ignored.  (Contributed by Ken Hilton
in bpo-43008(4).)

The changes above have been backported to 3.8 maintenance releases.

Rearrange the settings dialog.  Split the General tab into Windows and
Shell/Ed tabs.  Move help sources, which extend the Help menu, to the
Extensions tab.  Make space for new options and shorten the dialog.  The
latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.  (Contributed by Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-40468(5).)  Move the indent space setting from the Font
tab to the new Windows tab.  (Contributed by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan
Reedy in bpo-33962(6).)

Apply syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.  (Contributed by Alex Waygood
and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-45447(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<2>,  Next: importlib<3>,  Prev: IDLE and idlelib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.14 imaplib
................

*note IMAP4: 31a. and *note IMAP4_SSL: cd3. now have an optional
'timeout' parameter for their constructors.  Also, the *note open():
cd4. method now has an optional 'timeout' parameter with this change.
The overridden methods of ‘IMAP4_SSL’ and *note IMAP4_stream: cd5. were
applied to this change.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38615(1).)

*note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): cd6. is added.
‘imaplib.IMAP4.unselect()’ frees server’s resources associated with the
selected mailbox and returns the server to the authenticated state.
This command performs the same actions as *note imaplib.IMAP4.close():
cd7, except that no messages are permanently removed from the currently
selected mailbox.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-40375(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38615

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40375


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<3>,  Next: inspect<6>,  Prev: imaplib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.15 importlib
..................

To improve consistency with import statements, *note
importlib.util.resolve_name(): cd9. now raises *note ImportError: 1bd.
instead of *note ValueError: 277. for invalid relative import attempts.
(Contributed by Ngalim Siregar in bpo-37444(1).)

Import loaders which publish immutable module objects can now publish
immutable packages in addition to individual modules.  (Contributed by
Dino Viehland in bpo-39336(2).)

Added *note importlib.resources.files(): 2d7. function with support for
subdirectories in package data, matching backport in
‘importlib_resources’ version 1.5.  (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in
bpo-39791(3).)

Refreshed ‘importlib.metadata’ from ‘importlib_metadata’ version 1.6.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39336

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<6>,  Next: ipaddress<2>,  Prev: importlib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.16 inspect
................

*note inspect.BoundArguments.arguments: cdb. is changed from
‘OrderedDict’ to regular dict.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
bpo-36350(1) and bpo-39775(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36350

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39775


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<2>,  Next: math<6>,  Prev: inspect<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.17 ipaddress
..................

*note ipaddress: 83. now supports IPv6 Scoped Addresses (IPv6 address
with suffix ‘%<scope_id>’).

Scoped IPv6 addresses can be parsed using *note ipaddress.IPv6Address:
711.  If present, scope zone ID is available through the *note scope_id:
cdd. attribute.  (Contributed by Oleksandr Pavliuk in bpo-34788(1).)

Starting with Python 3.9.5 the *note ipaddress: 83. module no longer
accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-36384(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34788

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384


File: python.info,  Node: math<6>,  Next: multiprocessing<3>,  Prev: ipaddress<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.18 math
.............

Expanded the *note math.gcd(): cdf. function to handle multiple
arguments.  Formerly, it only supported two arguments.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-39648(1).)

Added *note math.lcm(): ce0.: return the least common multiple of
specified arguments.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson, Ananthakrishnan
and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-39479(2) and bpo-39648(3).)

Added *note math.nextafter(): 8a9.: return the next floating-point value
after 'x' towards 'y'.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39288(4).)

Added *note math.ulp(): ce1.: return the value of the least significant
bit of a float.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39310(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39479

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39288

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39310


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<3>,  Next: nntplib,  Prev: math<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.19 multiprocessing
........................

The *note multiprocessing.SimpleQueue: ce3. class has a new *note
close(): ce4. method to explicitly close the queue.  (Contributed by
Victor Stinner in bpo-30966(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib,  Next: os<7>,  Prev: multiprocessing<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.20 nntplib
................

‘NNTP’ and ‘NNTP_SSL’ now raise a *note ValueError: 277. if the given
timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a
non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: os<7>,  Next: pathlib<10>,  Prev: nntplib,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.21 os
...........

Added *note CLD_KILLED: ce7. and *note CLD_STOPPED: ce8. for ‘si_code’.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38493(1).)

Exposed the Linux-specific *note os.pidfd_open(): 267. (bpo-38692(2))
and *note os.P_PIDFD: ce9. (bpo-38713(3)) for process management with
file descriptors.

The *note os.unsetenv(): 4e8. function is now also available on Windows.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39413(4).)

The *note os.putenv(): 4e7. and *note os.unsetenv(): 4e8. functions are
now always available.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39395(5).)

Added *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): cea. function: convert a wait
status to an exit code.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-40094(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38713

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39413

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<10>,  Next: pdb<6>,  Prev: os<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.22 pathlib
................

Added *note pathlib.Path.readlink(): cec. which acts similarly to *note
os.readlink(): ced.  (Contributed by Girts Folkmanis in bpo-30618(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30618


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<6>,  Next: poplib,  Prev: pathlib<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.23 pdb
............

On Windows now *note Pdb: 4fb. supports ‘~/.pdbrc’.  (Contributed by Tim
Hopper and Dan Lidral-Porter in bpo-20523(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20523


File: python.info,  Node: poplib,  Next: pprint<3>,  Prev: pdb<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.24 poplib
...............

*note POP3: cf0. and *note POP3_SSL: cf1. now raise a *note ValueError:
277. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<3>,  Next: pydoc<2>,  Prev: poplib,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.25 pprint
...............

*note pprint: b3. can now pretty-print *note types.SimpleNamespace: 6ea.
(Contributed by Carl Bordum Hansen in bpo-37376(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37376


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<2>,  Next: random<3>,  Prev: pprint<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.26 pydoc
..............

The documentation string is now shown not only for class, function,
method etc, but for any object that has its own *note __doc__: cf4.
attribute.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-40257(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257


File: python.info,  Node: random<3>,  Next: signal,  Prev: pydoc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.27 random
...............

Added a new *note random.Random.randbytes(): cf6. method: generate
random bytes.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40286(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286


File: python.info,  Node: signal,  Next: smtplib,  Prev: random<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.28 signal
...............

Exposed the Linux-specific *note signal.pidfd_send_signal(): cf8. for
sending to signals to a process using a file descriptor instead of a
pid.  (bpo-38712(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38712


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib,  Next: socket<5>,  Prev: signal,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.29 smtplib
................

*note SMTP: cfa. and *note SMTP_SSL: cfb. now raise a *note ValueError:
277. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the
creation of a non-blocking socket.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
bpo-39259(1).)

*note LMTP: cfc. constructor now has an optional 'timeout' parameter.
(Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39329(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39329


File: python.info,  Node: socket<5>,  Next: time<3>,  Prev: smtplib,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.30 socket
...............

The *note socket: d4. module now exports the *note CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS:
cfe. constant on Linux 4.1 and greater.  (Contributed by Stefan
Tatschner and Zackery Spytz in bpo-25780(1).)

The socket module now supports the *note CAN_J1939: cff. protocol on
platforms that support it.  (Contributed by Karl Ding in bpo-40291(2).)

The socket module now has the *note socket.send_fds(): d00. and *note
socket.recv_fds(): d01. functions.  (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye,
Shinya Okano and Victor Stinner in bpo-28724(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25780

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40291

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28724


File: python.info,  Node: time<3>,  Next: sys<7>,  Prev: socket<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.31 time
.............

On AIX, *note thread_time(): d03. is now implemented with
‘thread_cputime()’ which has nanosecond resolution, rather than
‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ which has a resolution of 10
milliseconds.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-40192(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40192


File: python.info,  Node: sys<7>,  Next: tracemalloc,  Prev: time<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.32 sys
............

Added a new *note sys.platlibdir: 2a9. attribute: name of the
platform-specific library directory.  It is used to build the path of
standard library and the paths of installed extension modules.  It is
equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms.  On Fedora and SuSE, it is equal to
‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms.  (Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl,
Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959(1).)

Previously, *note sys.stderr: d05. was block-buffered when
non-interactive.  Now ‘stderr’ defaults to always being line-buffered.
(Contributed by Jendrik Seipp in bpo-13601(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc,  Next: typing<9>,  Prev: sys<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.33 tracemalloc
....................

Added *note tracemalloc.reset_peak(): d07. to set the peak size of
traced memory blocks to the current size, to measure the peak of
specific pieces of code.  (Contributed by Huon Wilson in bpo-40630(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40630


File: python.info,  Node: typing<9>,  Next: unicodedata<6>,  Prev: tracemalloc,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.34 typing
...............

PEP 593(1) introduced an *note typing.Annotated: d09. type to decorate
existing types with context-specific metadata and new ‘include_extras’
parameter to *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. to access the metadata
at runtime.  (Contributed by Till Varoquaux and Konstantin Kashin.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<6>,  Next: venv<4>,  Prev: typing<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.35 unicodedata
....................

The Unicode database has been updated to version 13.0.0.
(bpo-39926(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39926


File: python.info,  Node: venv<4>,  Next: xml<4>,  Prev: unicodedata<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.36 venv
.............

The activation scripts provided by *note venv: 11a. now all specify
their prompt customization consistently by always using the value
specified by ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’.  Previously some scripts unconditionally
used ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’, others only if it happened to be set (which was
the default case), and one used ‘__VENV_NAME__’ instead.  (Contributed
by Brett Cannon in bpo-37663(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37663


File: python.info,  Node: xml<4>,  Prev: venv<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<5>

1.8.6.37 xml
............

White space characters within attributes are now preserved when
serializing *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. to XML file.  EOLNs are no
longer normalized to «n».  This is the result of discussion about how to
interpret section 2.11 of XML spec.  (Contributed by Mefistotelis in
bpo-39011(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39011


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<8>,  Next: Deprecated<10>,  Prev: Improved Modules<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.7 Optimizations
-------------------

   * Optimized the idiom for assignment a temporary variable in
     comprehensions.  Now ‘for y in [expr]’ in comprehensions is as fast
     as a simple assignment ‘y = expr’.  For example:

          sums = [s for s in [0] for x in data for s in [s + x]]

     Unlike the ‘:=’ operator this idiom does not leak a variable to the
     outer scope.

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32856(1).)

   * Optimized signal handling in multithreaded applications.  If a
     thread different than the main thread gets a signal, the bytecode
     evaluation loop is no longer interrupted at each bytecode
     instruction to check for pending signals which cannot be handled.
     Only the main thread of the main interpreter can handle signals.

     Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each
     instruction until the main thread handles signals.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-40010(2).)

   * Optimized the *note subprocess: df. module on FreeBSD using
     ‘closefrom()’.  (Contributed by Ed Maste, Conrad Meyer, Kyle Evans,
     Kubilay Kocak and Victor Stinner in bpo-38061(3).)

   * *note PyLong_FromDouble(): d0e. is now up to 1.87x faster for
     values that fit into long.  (Contributed by Sergey Fedoseev in
     bpo-37986(4).)

   * A number of Python builtins (*note range: d0f, *note tuple: 1ce,
     *note set: 42b, *note frozenset: 9d4, *note list: 4d9, *note dict:
     188.) are now sped up by using PEP 590(5) vectorcall protocol.
     (Contributed by Donghee Na, Mark Shannon, Jeroen Demeyer and Petr
     Viktorin in bpo-37207(6).)

   * Optimized ‘set.difference_update()’ for the case when the other set
     is much larger than the base set.  (Suggested by Evgeny Kapun with
     code contributed by Michele Orrù in bpo-8425(7).)

   * Python’s small object allocator (‘obmalloc.c’) now allows (no more
     than) one empty arena to remain available for immediate reuse,
     without returning it to the OS. This prevents thrashing in simple
     loops where an arena could be created and destroyed anew on each
     iteration.  (Contributed by Tim Peters in bpo-37257(8).)

   * *note floor division: d10. of float operation now has a better
     performance.  Also the message of *note ZeroDivisionError: d11. for
     this operation is updated.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-39434(9).)

   * Decoding short ASCII strings with UTF-8 and ascii codecs is now
     about 15% faster.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-37348(10).)

Here’s a summary of performance improvements from Python 3.4 through
Python 3.9:

     Python version                       3.4     3.5     3.6     3.7     3.8    3.9
     --------------                       ---     ---     ---     ---     ---    ---

     Variable and attribute read access:
         read_local                       7.1     7.1     5.4     5.1     3.9    3.9
         read_nonlocal                    7.1     8.1     5.8     5.4     4.4    4.5
         read_global                     15.5    19.0    14.3    13.6     7.6    7.8
         read_builtin                    21.1    21.6    18.5    19.0     7.5    7.8
         read_classvar_from_class        25.6    26.5    20.7    19.5    18.4   17.9
         read_classvar_from_instance     22.8    23.5    18.8    17.1    16.4   16.9
         read_instancevar                32.4    33.1    28.0    26.3    25.4   25.3
         read_instancevar_slots          27.8    31.3    20.8    20.8    20.2   20.5
         read_namedtuple                 73.8    57.5    45.0    46.8    18.4   18.7
         read_boundmethod                37.6    37.9    29.6    26.9    27.7   41.1

     Variable and attribute write access:
         write_local                      8.7     9.3     5.5     5.3     4.3    4.3
         write_nonlocal                  10.5    11.1     5.6     5.5     4.7    4.8
         write_global                    19.7    21.2    18.0    18.0    15.8   16.7
         write_classvar                  92.9    96.0   104.6   102.1    39.2   39.8
         write_instancevar               44.6    45.8    40.0    38.9    35.5   37.4
         write_instancevar_slots         35.6    36.1    27.3    26.6    25.7   25.8

     Data structure read access:
         read_list                       24.2    24.5    20.8    20.8    19.0   19.5
         read_deque                      24.7    25.5    20.2    20.6    19.8   20.2
         read_dict                       24.3    25.7    22.3    23.0    21.0   22.4
         read_strdict                    22.6    24.3    19.5    21.2    18.9   21.5

     Data structure write access:
         write_list                      27.1    28.5    22.5    21.6    20.0   20.0
         write_deque                     28.7    30.1    22.7    21.8    23.5   21.7
         write_dict                      31.4    33.3    29.3    29.2    24.7   25.4
         write_strdict                   28.4    29.9    27.5    25.2    23.1   24.5

     Stack (or queue) operations:
         list_append_pop                 93.4   112.7    75.4    74.2    50.8   50.6
         deque_append_pop                43.5    57.0    49.4    49.2    42.5   44.2
         deque_append_popleft            43.7    57.3    49.7    49.7    42.8   46.4

     Timing loop:
         loop_overhead                    0.5     0.6     0.4     0.3     0.3    0.3

These results were generated from the variable access benchmark script
at: ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.  The benchmark script
displays timings in nanoseconds.  The benchmarks were measured on an
Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor(11) running the macOS 64-bit builds
found at python.org(12).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32856

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37986

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8425

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39434

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37348

   (11) 
https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html

   (12) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<10>,  Next: Removed<10>,  Prev: Optimizations<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.8 Deprecated
----------------

   * The distutils ‘bdist_msi’ command is now deprecated, use
     ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.  (Contributed by Hugo van
     Kemenade in bpo-39586(1).)

   * Currently *note math.factorial(): d13. accepts *note float: 327.
     instances with non-negative integer values (like ‘5.0’).  It raises
     a *note ValueError: 277. for non-integral and negative floats.  It
     is now deprecated.  In future Python versions it will raise a *note
     TypeError: 291. for all floats.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-37315(2).)

   * The ‘parser’ and ‘symbol’ modules are deprecated and will be
     removed in future versions of Python.  For the majority of use
     cases, users can leverage the Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) generation
     and compilation stage, using the *note ast: 9. module.

   * The Public C API functions ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags()’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename()’,
     ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags()’ and ‘PyNode_Compile()’ are
     deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.10 together with the old
     parser.

   * Using *note NotImplemented: 440. in a boolean context has been
     deprecated, as it is almost exclusively the result of incorrect
     rich comparator implementations.  It will be made a *note
     TypeError: 291. in a future version of Python.  (Contributed by
     Josh Rosenberg in bpo-35712(3).)

   * The *note random: c0. module currently accepts any hashable type as
     a possible seed value.  Unfortunately, some of those types are not
     guaranteed to have a deterministic hash value.  After Python 3.9,
     the module will restrict its seeds to *note None: a65, *note int:
     326, *note float: 327, *note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7, and *note
     bytearray: 1c6.

   * Opening the *note GzipFile: 849. file for writing without
     specifying the 'mode' argument is deprecated.  In future Python
     versions it will always be opened for reading by default.  Specify
     the 'mode' argument for opening it for writing and silencing a
     warning.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28286(4).)

   * Deprecated the ‘split()’ method of ‘_tkinter.TkappType’ in favour
     of the ‘splitlist()’ method which has more consistent and
     predictable behavior.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-38371(5).)

   * The explicit passing of coroutine objects to *note asyncio.wait():
     891. has been deprecated and will be removed in version 3.11.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and Kyle Stanley in bpo-34790(6).)

   * binhex4 and hexbin4 standards are now deprecated.  The ‘binhex’
     module and the following *note binascii: 11. functions are now
     deprecated:

        * ‘b2a_hqx()’, ‘a2b_hqx()’

        * ‘rlecode_hqx()’, ‘rledecode_hqx()’

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39353(7).)

   * *note ast: 9. classes ‘slice’, ‘Index’ and ‘ExtSlice’ are
     considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python
     versions.  ‘value’ itself should be used instead of ‘Index(value)’.
     ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’ should be used instead of
     ‘ExtSlice(slices)’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-34822(8).)

   * *note ast: 9. classes ‘Suite’, ‘Param’, ‘AugLoad’ and ‘AugStore’
     are considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python
     versions.  They were not generated by the parser and not accepted
     by the code generator in Python 3.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya
     in bpo-39639(9) and bpo-39969(10) and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-39988(11).)

   * The ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ and ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’
     functions are now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.11.
     Calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ now does nothing.  The *note GIL:
     411. is initialized by *note Py_Initialize(): 673. since Python
     3.7.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39877(12).)

   * Passing ‘None’ as the first argument to the *note shlex.split():
     949. function has been deprecated.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz
     in bpo-33262(13).)

   * ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy()’ is now deprecated as it is unusable without
     an external module, ‘mailman’.  (Contributed by Samuel Colvin in
     bpo-35800(14).)

   * The ‘lib2to3’ module now emits a *note PendingDeprecationWarning:
     c9b.  Python 3.9 switched to a PEG parser (see PEP 617(15)), and
     Python 3.10 may include new language syntax that is not parsable by
     lib2to3’s LL(1) parser.  The ‘lib2to3’ module may be removed from
     the standard library in a future Python version.  Consider
     third-party alternatives such as LibCST(16) or parso(17).
     (Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-40360(18).)

   * The 'random' parameter of *note random.shuffle(): b2c. has been
     deprecated.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-40465(19))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39586

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37315

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35712

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28286

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39639

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39969

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39988

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33262

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (16) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/

   (17) https://parso.readthedocs.io/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<10>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 9,  Prev: Deprecated<10>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.9 Removed
-------------

   * The erroneous version at ‘unittest.mock.__version__’ has been
     removed.

   * ‘nntplib.NNTP’: ‘xpath()’ and ‘xgtitle()’ methods have been
     removed.  These methods are deprecated since Python 3.3.
     Generally, these extensions are not supported or not enabled by
     NNTP server administrators.  For ‘xgtitle()’, please use
     ‘nntplib.NNTP.descriptions()’ or ‘nntplib.NNTP.description()’
     instead.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39366(1).)

   * *note array.array: 6c5.: ‘tostring()’ and ‘fromstring()’ methods
     have been removed.  They were aliases to ‘tobytes()’ and
     ‘frombytes()’, deprecated since Python 3.2.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-38916(2).)

   * The undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function has been removed.
     Since Python 3.7, it was deprecated and always returned *note None:
     a65.  It required a special build option ‘CALL_PROFILE’ which was
     already removed in Python 3.7.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-37414(3).)

   * The ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ and ‘sys.setcheckinterval()’ functions
     have been removed.  They were deprecated since Python 3.2.  Use
     *note sys.getswitchinterval(): d15. and *note
     sys.setswitchinterval(): d16. instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-37392(4).)

   * The C function ‘PyImport_Cleanup()’ has been removed.  It was
     documented as: «Empty the module table.  For internal use only.»
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36710(5).)

   * ‘_dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’ modules have been removed.
     These modules were deprecated since Python 3.7 which requires
     threading support.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-37312(6).)

   * ‘aifc.openfp()’ alias to ‘aifc.open()’, ‘sunau.openfp()’ alias to
     ‘sunau.open()’, and ‘wave.openfp()’ alias to *note wave.open():
     d17. have been removed.  They were deprecated since Python 3.7.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37320(7).)

   * The ‘isAlive()’ method of *note threading.Thread: 420. has been
     removed.  It was deprecated since Python 3.8.  Use *note
     is_alive(): d18. instead.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in
     bpo-37804(8).)

   * Methods ‘getchildren()’ and ‘getiterator()’ of classes *note
     ElementTree: d19. and *note Element: 343. in the *note ElementTree:
     12e. module have been removed.  They were deprecated in Python 3.2.
     Use ‘iter(x)’ or ‘list(x)’ instead of ‘x.getchildren()’ and
     ‘x.iter()’ or ‘list(x.iter())’ instead of ‘x.getiterator()’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36543(9).)

   * The old *note plistlib: b0. API has been removed, it was deprecated
     since Python 3.4.  Use the *note load(): d1a, *note loads(): d1b,
     *note dump(): d1c, and *note dumps(): d1d. functions.
     Additionally, the 'use_builtin_types' parameter was removed,
     standard *note bytes: 1c7. objects are always used instead.
     (Contributed by Jon Janzen in bpo-36409(10).)

   * The C function ‘PyGen_NeedsFinalizing’ has been removed.  It was
     not documented, tested, or used anywhere within CPython after the
     implementation of PEP 442(11).  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.
     (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-15088(12))

   * ‘base64.encodestring()’ and ‘base64.decodestring()’, aliases
     deprecated since Python 3.1, have been removed: use *note
     base64.encodebytes(): d1e. and *note base64.decodebytes(): d1f.
     instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39351(13).)

   * ‘fractions.gcd()’ function has been removed, it was deprecated
     since Python 3.5 (bpo-22486(14)): use *note math.gcd(): cdf.
     instead.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39350(15).)

   * The 'buffering' parameter of *note bz2.BZ2File: c3d. has been
     removed.  Since Python 3.0, it was ignored and using it emitted a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  Pass an open file object to control
     how the file is opened.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-39357(16).)

   * The 'encoding' parameter of *note json.loads(): 22f. has been
     removed.  As of Python 3.1, it was deprecated and ignored; using it
     has emitted a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. since Python 3.8.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-39377(17))

   * ‘with (await asyncio.lock):’ and ‘with (yield from asyncio.lock):’
     statements are not longer supported, use ‘async with lock’ instead.
     The same is correct for ‘asyncio.Condition’ and
     ‘asyncio.Semaphore’.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-34793(18).)

   * The ‘sys.getcounts()’ function, the ‘-X showalloccount’ command
     line option and the ‘show_alloc_count’ field of the C structure
     *note PyConfig: 60b. have been removed.  They required a special
     Python build by defining ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ macro.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-39489(19).)

   * The ‘_field_types’ attribute of the *note typing.NamedTuple: 2e4.
     class has been removed.  It was deprecated since Python 3.8.  Use
     the ‘__annotations__’ attribute instead.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-40182(20).)

   * The ‘symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec()’ method has been removed.  It
     was deprecated since 2006, and only returning ‘False’ when it’s
     called.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-40208(21))

   * The ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’
     have been removed.  They were deprecated since Python 3.7 and you
     can use *note asyncio.current_task(): 88f. and *note
     asyncio.all_tasks(): d20. instead.  (Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in
     bpo-40967(22))

   * The ‘unescape()’ method in the *note html.parser.HTMLParser: c4d.
     class has been removed (it was deprecated since Python 3.4).  *note
     html.unescape(): d21. should be used for converting character
     references to the corresponding unicode characters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39366

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38916

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37414

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37392

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36710

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37312

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37320

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37804

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36409

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15088

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39351

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39377

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34793

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40182

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40208

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40967


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 9,  Next: Build Changes<5>,  Prev: Removed<10>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.10 Porting to Python 3.9
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<5>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<4>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<5>,  Next: Changes in the C API<4>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 9

1.8.10.1 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * *note __import__(): ca6. and *note importlib.util.resolve_name():
     cd9. now raise *note ImportError: 1bd. where it previously raised
     *note ValueError: 277.  Callers catching the specific exception
     type and supporting both Python 3.9 and earlier versions will need
     to catch both using ‘except (ImportError, ValueError):’.

   * The *note venv: 11a. activation scripts no longer special-case when
     ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ is set to ‘""’.

   * The *note select.epoll.unregister(): d24. method no longer ignores
     the *note EBADF: d25. error.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-39239(1).)

   * The 'compresslevel' parameter of *note bz2.BZ2File: c3d. became
     keyword-only, since the 'buffering' parameter has been removed.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39357(2).)

   * Simplified AST for subscription.  Simple indices will be
     represented by their value, extended slices will be represented as
     tuples.  ‘Index(value)’ will return a ‘value’ itself,
     ‘ExtSlice(slices)’ will return ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-34822(3).)

   * The *note importlib: 7a. module now ignores the *note PYTHONCASEOK:
     d26. environment variable when the *note -E: d27. or *note -I: d28.
     command line options are being used.

   * The 'encoding' parameter has been added to the classes *note
     ftplib.FTP: cca. and *note ftplib.FTP_TLS: ccb. as a keyword-only
     parameter, and the default encoding is changed from Latin-1 to
     UTF-8 to follow RFC 2640(4).

   * *note asyncio.loop.shutdown_default_executor(): cb8. has been added
     to *note AbstractEventLoop: d29, meaning alternative event loops
     that inherit from it should have this method defined.  (Contributed
     by Kyle Stanley in bpo-34037(5).)

   * The constant values of future flags in the *note __future__: 0.
     module is updated in order to prevent collision with compiler
     flags.  Previously ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ was clashing with
     ‘CO_FUTURE_DIVISION’.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in
     bpo-39562(6))

   * ‘array('u')’ now uses ‘wchar_t’ as C type instead of ‘Py_UNICODE’.
     This change doesn’t affect to its behavior because ‘Py_UNICODE’ is
     alias of ‘wchar_t’ since Python 3.3.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki
     in bpo-34538(7).)

   * The *note logging.getLogger(): d2a. API now returns the root logger
     when passed the name ‘'root'’, whereas previously it returned a
     non-root logger named ‘'root'’.  This could affect cases where user
     code explicitly wants a non-root logger named ‘'root'’, or
     instantiates a logger using ‘logging.getLogger(__name__)’ in some
     top-level module called ‘'root.py'’.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip
     in bpo-37742(8).)

   * Division handling of *note PurePath: 8b6. now returns *note
     NotImplemented: 440. instead of raising a *note TypeError: 291.
     when passed something other than an instance of ‘str’ or
     ‘PurePath’.  This allows creating compatible classes that don’t
     inherit from those mentioned types.  (Contributed by Roger Aiudi in
     bpo-34775(9)).

   * Starting with Python 3.9.5 the *note ipaddress: 83. module no
     longer accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  Leading
     zeros are ambiguous and interpreted as octal notation by some
     libraries.  For example the legacy function *note
     socket.inet_aton(): d2b. treats leading zeros as octal notatation.
     glibc implementation of modern *note inet_pton(): d2c. does not
     accept any leading zeros.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-36384(10)).

   * *note codecs.lookup(): d2d. now normalizes the encoding name the
     same way as *note encodings.normalize_encoding(): 313, except that
     ‘codecs.lookup()’ also converts the name to lower case.  For
     example, ‘"latex+latin1"’ encoding name is now normalized to
     ‘"latex_latin1"’.  (Contributed by Jordon Xu in bpo-37751(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39239

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39562

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34538

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37742

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34775

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37751


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<4>,  Next: CPython bytecode changes<5>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<5>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 9

1.8.10.2 Changes in the C API
.............................

   * Instances of *note heap-allocated types: d2f. (such as those
     created with *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e. and similar APIs) hold a
     reference to their type object since Python 3.8.  As indicated in
     the «Changes in the C API» of Python 3.8, for the vast majority of
     cases, there should be no side effect but for types that have a
     custom *note tp_traverse: 36b. function, ensure that all custom
     ‘tp_traverse’ functions of heap-allocated types visit the object’s
     type.

          Example:

               int
               foo_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
               {
               // Rest of the traverse function
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
                   // This was not needed before Python 3.9 (Python issue 35810 and 40217)
                   Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
               #endif
               }

     If your traverse function delegates to ‘tp_traverse’ of its base
     class (or another type), ensure that ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ is visited
     only once.  Note that only *note heap type: d2f. are expected to
     visit the type in ‘tp_traverse’.

          For example, if your ‘tp_traverse’ function includes:

               base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg)

          then add:

               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000
                   // This was not needed before Python 3.9 (bpo-35810 and bpo-40217)
                   if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
                       // a heap type's tp_traverse already visited Py_TYPE(self)
                   } else {
                       Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
                   }
               #else

     (See bpo-35810(1) and bpo-40217(2) for more information.)

   * The functions ‘PyEval_CallObject’, ‘PyEval_CallFunction’,
     ‘PyEval_CallMethod’ and ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords’ are
     deprecated.  Use *note PyObject_Call(): 82f. and its variants
     instead.  (See more details in bpo-29548(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29548


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes<5>,  Prev: Changes in the C API<4>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 9

1.8.10.3 CPython bytecode changes
.................................

   * The ‘LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR’ opcode was added for handling the *note
     assert: d31. statement.  Previously, the assert statement would not
     work correctly if the *note AssertionError: a97. exception was
     being shadowed.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-34880(1).)

   * The *note COMPARE_OP: d32. opcode was split into four distinct
     instructions:

        * ‘COMPARE_OP’ for rich comparisons

        * ‘IS_OP’ for “is” and “is not” tests

        * ‘CONTAINS_OP’ for “in” and “not in” tests

        * ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’ for checking exceptions in
          “try-except” statements.

     (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-39156(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34880

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39156


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes<5>,  Next: C API Changes<5>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 9,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.11 Build Changes
--------------------

   * Added ‘--with-platlibdir’ option to the ‘configure’ script: name of
     the platform-specific library directory, stored in the new *note
     sys.platlibdir: 2a9. attribute.  See ‘sys.platlibdir’ attribute for
     more information.  (Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl,
     Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959(1).)

   * The ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ special build macro has been removed.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39489(2).)

   * On non-Windows platforms, the ‘setenv()’ and ‘unsetenv()’ functions
     are now required to build Python.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in bpo-39395(3).)

   * On non-Windows platforms, creating ‘bdist_wininst’ installers is
     now officially unsupported.  (See bpo-10945(4) for more details.)

   * When building Python on macOS from source, ‘_tkinter’ now links
     with non-system Tcl and Tk frameworks if they are installed in
     ‘/Library/Frameworks’, as had been the case on older releases of
     macOS. If a macOS SDK is explicitly configured, by using *note
     -enable-universalsdk: d34. or ‘-isysroot’, only the SDK itself is
     searched.  The default behavior can still be overridden with
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’.  (Contributed by
     Ned Deily in bpo-34956(5).)

   * Python can now be built for Windows 10 ARM64.  (Contributed by
     Steve Dower in bpo-33125(6).)

   * Some individual tests are now skipped when ‘--pgo’ is used.  The
     tests in question increased the PGO task time significantly and
     likely didn’t help improve optimization of the final executable.
     This speeds up the task by a factor of about 15x.  Running the full
     unit test suite is slow.  This change may result in a slightly less
     optimized build since not as many code branches will be executed.
     If you are willing to wait for the much slower build, the old
     behavior can be restored using ‘./configure [..] PROFILE_TASK="-m
     test --pgo-extended"’.  We make no guarantees as to which PGO task
     set produces a faster build.  Users who care should run their own
     relevant benchmarks as results can depend on the environment,
     workload, and compiler tool chain.  (See bpo-36044(7) and
     bpo-37707(8) for more details.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10945

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34956

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36044

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37707


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes<5>,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1,  Prev: Build Changes<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.12 C API Changes
--------------------

* Menu:

* New Features: New Features<10>.
* Porting to Python 3.9: Porting to Python 3 9<2>.
* Removed: Removed<11>.


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<10>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 9<2>,  Up: C API Changes<5>

1.8.12.1 New Features
.....................

   * PEP 573(1): Added *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390. to
     associate a module with a class; *note PyType_GetModule(): d37. and
     *note PyType_GetModuleState(): d38. to retrieve the module and its
     state; and *note PyCMethod: b46. and *note METH_METHOD: d39. to
     allow a method to access the class it was defined in.  (Contributed
     by Marcel Plch and Petr Viktorin in bpo-38787(2).)

   * Added *note PyFrame_GetCode(): b69. function: get a frame code.
     Added *note PyFrame_GetBack(): b65. function: get the frame next
     outer frame.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40421(3).)

   * Added *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): b6a. to the limited C API.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40421(4).)

   * Added *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): d3a. and *note
     PyInterpreterState_Get(): 83b. functions to get the interpreter.
     Added *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): b6d. function to get the
     current frame of a Python thread state.  Added *note
     PyThreadState_GetID(): d3b. function: get the unique identifier of
     a Python thread state.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-39947(5).)

   * Added a new public *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 82e. function to
     the C API, which calls a callable Python object without any
     arguments.  It is the most efficient way to call a callable Python
     object without any argument.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-37194(6).)

   * Changes in the limited C API (if ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is
     defined):

        * Provide *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 5fe. and *note
          Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): d3c. as regular functions for the
          limited API. Previously, there were defined as macros, but
          these macros didn’t compile with the limited C API which
          cannot access ‘PyThreadState.recursion_depth’ field (the
          structure is opaque in the limited C API).

        * ‘PyObject_INIT()’ and ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’ become regular
          «opaque» function to hide implementation details.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-38644(7) and bpo-39542(8).)

   * The *note PyModule_AddType(): d3d. function is added to help adding
     a type to a module.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-40024(9).)

   * Added the functions *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): d3e. and *note
     PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): d3f. to the public API to allow to query
     if Python objects are being currently tracked or have been already
     finalized by the garbage collector respectively.  (Contributed by
     Pablo Galindo Salgado in bpo-40241(10).)

   * Added ‘_PyObject_FunctionStr()’ to get a user-friendly string
     representation of a function-like object.  (Patch by Jeroen Demeyer
     in bpo-37645(11).)

   * Added *note PyObject_CallOneArg(): d40. for calling an object with
     one positional argument (Patch by Jeroen Demeyer in bpo-37483(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37194

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40024

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37645

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37483


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 9<2>,  Next: Removed<11>,  Prev: New Features<10>,  Up: C API Changes<5>

1.8.12.2 Porting to Python 3.9
..............................

   * ‘PyInterpreterState.eval_frame’ ( PEP 523(1)) now requires a new
     mandatory 'tstate' parameter (‘PyThreadState*’).  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-38500(2).)

   * Extension modules: *note m_traverse: d42, *note m_clear: d43. and
     *note m_free: d44. functions of *note PyModuleDef: d45. are no
     longer called if the module state was requested but is not
     allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after the module is
     created and before the module is executed (*note Py_mod_exec: d46.
     function).  More precisely, these functions are not called if *note
     m_size: d47. is greater than 0 and the module state (as returned by
     *note PyModule_GetState(): d48.) is ‘NULL’.

     Extension modules without module state (‘m_size <= 0’) are not
     affected.

   * If *note Py_AddPendingCall(): d49. is called in a subinterpreter,
     the function is now scheduled to be called from the subinterpreter,
     rather than being called from the main interpreter.  Each
     subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled calls.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39984(3).)

   * The Windows registry is no longer used to initialize *note
     sys.path: 194. when the ‘-E’ option is used (if *note
     PyConfig.use_environment: 61e. is set to ‘0’).  This is significant
     when embedding Python on Windows.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in
     bpo-8901(4).)

   * The global variable *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: d4a. is
     now a constant and refers to a constant string.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-38650(5).)

   * The ‘PyGC_Head’ structure is now opaque.  It is only defined in the
     internal C API (‘pycore_gc.h’).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-40241(6).)

   * The ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY’, ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL’, ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH’,
     ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’,
     ‘_PyUnicode_AsUnicode’, and ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’ are
     marked as deprecated in C. They have been deprecated by PEP 393(7)
     since Python 3.3.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36346(8).)

   * The *note Py_FatalError(): d4b. function is replaced with a macro
     which logs automatically the name of the current function, unless
     the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-39882(9).)

   * The vectorcall protocol now requires that the caller passes only
     strings as keyword names.  (See bpo-37540(10) for more
     information.)

   * Implementation details of a number of macros and functions are now
     hidden:

        * *note PyObject_IS_GC(): d4c. macro was converted to a
          function.

        * The ‘PyObject_NEW()’ macro becomes an alias to the *note
          PyObject_New: d4d. macro, and the ‘PyObject_NEW_VAR()’ macro
          becomes an alias to the *note PyObject_NewVar: d4e. macro.
          They no longer access directly the *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: d4f. member.

        * ‘PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro was converted to a
          function: the macro accessed directly the *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset: d50. member.

        * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 82b. macro was converted to a
          function: the macro accessed directly the *note
          PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer: d51. member.

        * *note PyIndex_Check(): d52. is now always declared as an
          opaque function to hide implementation details: removed the
          ‘PyIndex_Check()’ macro.  The macro accessed directly the
          *note PyTypeObject.tp_as_number: d53. member.

     (See bpo-40170(11) for more details.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38500

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8901

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38650

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39882

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37540

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<11>,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 9<2>,  Up: C API Changes<5>

1.8.12.3 Removed
................

   * Excluded ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ and ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ macros
     of ‘pyfpe.h’ from the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in bpo-38835(1).)

   * The ‘tp_print’ slot of *note PyTypeObject: d55. has been removed.
     It was used for printing objects to files in Python 2.7 and before.
     Since Python 3.0, it has been ignored and unused.  (Contributed by
     Jeroen Demeyer in bpo-36974(2).)

   * Changes in the limited C API (if ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is
     defined):

        * Excluded the following functions from the limited C API:

             * ‘PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent()’ (Contributed by Joannah
               Nanjekye in bpo-37878(3).)

             * ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’

             * ‘_Py_NewReference()’

             * ‘_Py_ForgetReference()’

             * ‘_PyTraceMalloc_NewReference()’

             * ‘_Py_GetRefTotal()’

             * The trashcan mechanism which never worked in the limited
               C API.

             * ‘PyTrash_UNWIND_LEVEL’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN_CONDITION’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’

             * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’

        * Moved following functions and definitions to the internal C
          API:

             * ‘_PyDebug_PrintTotalRefs()’

             * ‘_Py_PrintReferences()’

             * ‘_Py_PrintReferenceAddresses()’

             * ‘_Py_tracemalloc_config’

             * ‘_Py_AddToAllObjects()’ (specific to ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’
               build)

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-38644(4) and bpo-39542(5).)

   * Removed ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’ hook and removed
     ‘_PyThreadState_GetFrame’ macro which was an alias to
     ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’.  They were only exposed by the internal C
     API. Removed also ‘PyThreadFrameGetter’ type.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-39946(6).)

   * Removed the following functions from the C API. Call *note
     PyGC_Collect(): d56. explicitly to clear all free lists.
     (Contributed by Inada Naoki and Victor Stinner in bpo-37340(7),
     bpo-38896(8) and bpo-40428(9).)

        * ‘PyAsyncGen_ClearFreeLists()’

        * ‘PyContext_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyDict_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFloat_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFrame_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyList_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyMethod_ClearFreeList()’ and ‘PyCFunction_ClearFreeList()’:
          the free lists of bound method objects have been removed.

        * ‘PySet_ClearFreeList()’: the set free list has been removed in
          Python 3.4.

        * ‘PyTuple_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyUnicode_ClearFreeList()’: the Unicode free list has been
          removed in Python 3.3.

   * Removed ‘_PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings()’ function.  (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in bpo-39465(10).)

   * Removed ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’.  It has been deprecated by PEP 393(11),
     and broken since Python 3.3.  The *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): c8b.
     function can be used instead.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in
     bpo-36346(12).)

   * Cleaned header files of interfaces defined but with no
     implementation.  The public API symbols being removed are:
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGroupingLocale’,
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGrouping’, ‘_Py_InitializeFromArgs’,
     ‘_Py_InitializeFromWideArgs’, ‘_PyFloat_Repr’, ‘_PyFloat_Digits’,
     ‘_PyFloat_DigitsInit’, ‘PyFrame_ExtendStack’,
     ‘_PyAIterWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNullImporter_Type’, ‘PyCmpWrapper_Type’,
     ‘PySortWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNoArgsFunction’.  (Contributed by Pablo
     Galindo Salgado in bpo-39372(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37878

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39946

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38896

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40428

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39372


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2,  Prev: C API Changes<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.13 Notable changes in Python 3.9.1
--------------------------------------

* Menu:

* typing: typing<10>.
* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support.


File: python.info,  Node: typing<10>,  Next: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1

1.8.13.1 typing
...............

The behavior of *note typing.Literal: c2d. was changed to conform with
PEP 586(1) and to match the behavior of static type checkers specified
in the PEP.

  1. ‘Literal’ now de-duplicates parameters.

  2. Equality comparisons between ‘Literal’ objects are now order
     independent.

  3. ‘Literal’ comparisons now respect types.  For example, ‘Literal[0]
     == Literal[False]’ previously evaluated to ‘True’.  It is now
     ‘False’.  To support this change, the internally used type cache
     now supports differentiating types.

  4. ‘Literal’ objects will now raise a *note TypeError: 291. exception
     during equality comparisons if any of their parameters are not
     *note hashable: 183.  Note that declaring ‘Literal’ with mutable
     parameters will not throw an error:

          >>> from typing import Literal
          >>> Literal[{0}]
          >>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          TypeError: unhashable type: 'set'

(Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-42345(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345


File: python.info,  Node: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support,  Prev: typing<10>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1

1.8.13.2 macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support
...........................................................

As of 3.9.1, Python now fully supports building and running on macOS
11.0 (Big Sur) and on Apple Silicon Macs (based on the ‘ARM64’
architecture).  A new universal build variant, ‘universal2’, is now
available to natively support both ‘ARM64’ and ‘Intel 64’ in one set of
executables.  Binaries can also now be built on current versions of
macOS to be deployed on a range of older macOS versions (tested to 10.9)
while making some newer OS functions and options conditionally available
based on the operating system version in use at runtime («weaklinking»).

(Contributed by Ronald Oussoren and Lawrence D’Anna in bpo-41100(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.14 Notable changes in Python 3.9.2
--------------------------------------

* Menu:

* collections.abc: collections abc<3>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc<3>,  Next: urllib parse<3>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2

1.8.14.1 collections.abc
........................

*note collections.abc.Callable: bc6. generic now flattens type
parameters, similar to what *note typing.Callable: ba5. currently does.
This means that ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’ will have
‘__args__’ of ‘(int, str, str)’; previously this was ‘([int, str],
str)’.  To allow this change, *note types.GenericAlias: bc7. can now be
subclassed, and a subclass will be returned when subscripting the
‘collections.abc.Callable’ type.  Code which accesses the arguments via
*note typing.get_args(): 315. or ‘__args__’ need to account for this
change.  A *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. may be emitted for invalid
forms of parameterizing ‘collections.abc.Callable’ which may have passed
silently in Python 3.9.1.  This ‘DeprecationWarning’ will become a *note
TypeError: 291. in Python 3.10.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in
bpo-42195(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<3>,  Prev: collections abc<3>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2

1.8.14.2 urllib.parse
.....................

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 589. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 588.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the affected
functions internally.  For more details, please see their respective
documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and
Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.15 Notable changes in Python 3.9.3
--------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: cca. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 9 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.16 Notable changes in Python 3.9.5
--------------------------------------

* Menu:

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<4>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5

1.8.16.1 urllib.parse
.....................

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(1), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 113.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 9 14,  Next: Notable changes in 3 9 17,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.17 Notable security feature in 3.9.14
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 326. and *note str: 1df. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 277. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: e2. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 9ec. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 9 17,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 9 14,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 9

1.8.18 Notable changes in 3.9.17
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<5>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 9 17

1.8.18.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: e7, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 882, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 883. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     2c9.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 8,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 7,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 9,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.9 What’s New In Python 3.8
============================


Editor: Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.8, compared to 3.7.
Python 3.8 was released on October 14, 2019.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 145.

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<7>.
* New Features: New Features<11>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<6>.
* New Modules: New Modules<6>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<6>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<9>.
* Build and C API Changes::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<11>.
* API and Feature Removals::
* Porting to Python 3.8: Porting to Python 3 8.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.1: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.2: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.3: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.8: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.9: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>.
* Notable changes in Python 3.8.12: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12.
* Notable security feature in 3.8.14: Notable security feature in 3 8 14.
* Notable changes in 3.8.17: Notable changes in 3 8 17.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<7>,  Next: New Features<11>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.1 Summary – Release highlights
----------------------------------


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<11>,  Next: Other Language Changes<6>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.2 New Features
------------------

* Menu:

* Assignment expressions::
* Positional-only parameters::
* Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files::
* Debug build uses the same ABI as release build::
* f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging::
* PEP 578; Python Runtime Audit Hooks: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks.
* PEP 587; Python Initialization Configuration: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration.
* PEP 590; Vectorcall; a fast calling protocol for CPython: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython.
* Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers::


File: python.info,  Node: Assignment expressions,  Next: Positional-only parameters,  Up: New Features<11>

1.9.2.1 Assignment expressions
..............................

There is new syntax ‘:=’ that assigns values to variables as part of a
larger expression.  It is affectionately known as «the walrus operator»
due to its resemblance to the eyes and tusks of a walrus(1).

In this example, the assignment expression helps avoid calling *note
len(): a1f. twice:

     if (n := len(a)) > 10:
         print(f"List is too long ({n} elements, expected <= 10)")

A similar benefit arises during regular expression matching where match
objects are needed twice, once to test whether a match occurred and
another to extract a subgroup:

     discount = 0.0
     if (mo := re.search(r'(\d+)% discount', advertisement)):
         discount = float(mo.group(1)) / 100.0

The operator is also useful with while-loops that compute a value to
test loop termination and then need that same value again in the body of
the loop:

     # Loop over fixed length blocks
     while (block := f.read(256)) != '':
         process(block)

Another motivating use case arises in list comprehensions where a value
computed in a filtering condition is also needed in the expression body:

     [clean_name.title() for name in names
      if (clean_name := normalize('NFC', name)) in allowed_names]

Try to limit use of the walrus operator to clean cases that reduce
complexity and improve readability.

See PEP 572(2) for a full description.

(Contributed by Emily Morehouse in bpo-35224(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walrus#/media/File:Pacific_Walrus_-_Bull_(8247646168).jpg

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224


File: python.info,  Node: Positional-only parameters,  Next: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files,  Prev: Assignment expressions,  Up: New Features<11>

1.9.2.2 Positional-only parameters
..................................

There is a new function parameter syntax ‘/’ to indicate that some
function parameters must be specified positionally and cannot be used as
keyword arguments.  This is the same notation shown by ‘help()’ for C
functions annotated with Larry Hastings” Argument Clinic(1) tool.

In the following example, parameters 'a' and 'b' are positional-only,
while 'c' or 'd' can be positional or keyword, and 'e' or 'f' are
required to be keywords:

     def f(a, b, /, c, d, *, e, f):
         print(a, b, c, d, e, f)

The following is a valid call:

     f(10, 20, 30, d=40, e=50, f=60)

However, these are invalid calls:

     f(10, b=20, c=30, d=40, e=50, f=60)   # b cannot be a keyword argument
     f(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, f=60)           # e must be a keyword argument

One use case for this notation is that it allows pure Python functions
to fully emulate behaviors of existing C coded functions.  For example,
the built-in *note divmod(): d6a. function does not accept keyword
arguments:

     def divmod(a, b, /):
         "Emulate the built in divmod() function"
         return (a // b, a % b)

Another use case is to preclude keyword arguments when the parameter
name is not helpful.  For example, the builtin *note len(): a1f.
function has the signature ‘len(obj, /)’.  This precludes awkward calls
such as:

     len(obj='hello')  # The "obj" keyword argument impairs readability

A further benefit of marking a parameter as positional-only is that it
allows the parameter name to be changed in the future without risk of
breaking client code.  For example, in the *note statistics: da. module,
the parameter name 'dist' may be changed in the future.  This was made
possible with the following function specification:

     def quantiles(dist, /, *, n=4, method='exclusive')
         ...

Since the parameters to the left of ‘/’ are not exposed as possible
keywords, the parameters names remain available for use in ‘**kwargs’:

     >>> def f(a, b, /, **kwargs):
     ...     print(a, b, kwargs)
     ...
     >>> f(10, 20, a=1, b=2, c=3)         # a and b are used in two ways
     10 20 {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}

This greatly simplifies the implementation of functions and methods that
need to accept arbitrary keyword arguments.  For example, here is an
excerpt from code in the *note collections: 1e. module:

     class Counter(dict):

         def __init__(self, iterable=None, /, **kwds):
             # Note "iterable" is a possible keyword argument

See PEP 570(2) for a full description.

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-36540(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36540


File: python.info,  Node: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files,  Next: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build,  Prev: Positional-only parameters,  Up: New Features<11>

1.9.2.3 Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files
.............................................................

The new *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: d6c. setting (also available as *note
-X: 178. ‘pycache_prefix’) configures the implicit bytecode cache to use
a separate parallel filesystem tree, rather than the default
‘__pycache__’ subdirectories within each source directory.

The location of the cache is reported in *note sys.pycache_prefix: d6d.
(*note None: a65. indicates the default location in ‘__pycache__’
subdirectories).

(Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-33499(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33499


File: python.info,  Node: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build,  Next: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging,  Prev: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files,  Up: New Features<11>

1.9.2.4 Debug build uses the same ABI as release build
......................................................

The ABI of Python *note debug builds: 3dc. is now compatible with Python
release builds.  On Unix, when Python is built in debug mode, it is now
possible to load C extensions built in release mode and C extensions
built using the stable ABI. The inverse is not true, as debug builds
expose additional symbols not available in release builds.

Defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’
macro, which introduces the only ABI incompatibility.  The
‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which adds the *note sys.getobjects(): 516.
function and the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: d6f. environment variable, can be
set using the new *note ./configure -with-trace-refs: 828. build option.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36465(1).)

On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to libpython except on
Android and Cygwin.  It is now possible for a statically linked Python
to load a C extension built using a shared library Python.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-21536(2).)

On Unix, when Python is built in debug mode, import now also looks for C
extensions compiled in release mode and for C extensions compiled with
the stable ABI. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36722(3).)

To embed Python into an application, a new ‘--embed’ option must be
passed to ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ to get ‘-lpython3.8’ (link the
application to libpython).  To support both 3.8 and older, try
‘python3-config --libs --embed’ first and fallback to ‘python3-config
--libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the previous command fails.

Add a pkg-config ‘python-3.8-embed’ module to embed Python into an
application: ‘pkg-config python-3.8-embed --libs’ includes
‘-lpython3.8’.  To support both 3.8 and older, try ‘pkg-config
python-X.Y-embed --libs’ first and fallback to ‘pkg-config python-X.Y
--libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the previous command fails (replace ‘X.Y’
with the Python version).

On the other hand, ‘pkg-config python3.8 --libs’ no longer contains
‘-lpython3.8’.  C extensions must not be linked to libpython (except on
Android and Cygwin, whose cases are handled by the script); this change
is backward incompatible on purpose.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-36721(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36722

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36721


File: python.info,  Node: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging,  Next: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks,  Prev: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build,  Up: New Features<11>

1.9.2.5 f-strings support ‘=’ for self-documenting expressions and debugging
............................................................................

Added an ‘=’ specifier to *note f-string: 858.s.  An f-string such as
‘f'{expr=}'’ will expand to the text of the expression, an equal sign,
then the representation of the evaluated expression.  For example:

     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> user = 'eric_idle'
     >>> member_since = dt.date(1975, 7, 31)
     >>> f'{user=} {member_since=}'
     "user='eric_idle' member_since=datetime.date(1975, 7, 31)"

The usual *note f-string format specifiers: 43a. allow more control over
how the result of the expression is displayed:

     >>> delta = dt.date.today() - member_since
     >>> f'{user=!s}  {delta.days=:,d}'
     'user=eric_idle  delta.days=16,075'

The ‘=’ specifier will display the whole expression so that calculations
can be shown:

     >>> print(f'{theta=}  {cos(radians(theta))=:.3f}')
     theta=30  cos(radians(theta))=0.866

(Contributed by Eric V. Smith and Larry Hastings in bpo-36817(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36817


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks,  Next: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration,  Prev: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging,  Up: New Features<11>

1.9.2.6 PEP 578: Python Runtime Audit Hooks
...........................................

The PEP adds an Audit Hook and Verified Open Hook.  Both are available
from Python and native code, allowing applications and frameworks
written in pure Python code to take advantage of extra notifications,
while also allowing embedders or system administrators to deploy builds
of Python where auditing is always enabled.

See PEP 578(1) for full details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration,  Next: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython,  Prev: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks,  Up: New Features<11>

1.9.2.7 PEP 587: Python Initialization Configuration
....................................................

The PEP 587(1) adds a new C API to configure the Python Initialization
providing finer control on the whole configuration and better error
reporting.

New structures:

   * *note PyConfig: 60b.

   * *note PyPreConfig: d74.

   * *note PyStatus: d75.

   * *note PyWideStringList: d76.

New functions:

   * *note PyConfig_Clear(): d77.

   * *note PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): d78.

   * *note PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(): d79.

   * *note PyConfig_Read(): b6f.

   * *note PyConfig_SetArgv(): d7a.

   * *note PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(): d7b.

   * *note PyConfig_SetBytesString(): d7c.

   * *note PyConfig_SetString(): d7d.

   * *note PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): d7e.

   * *note PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): d7f.

   * *note PyStatus_Error(): d80.

   * *note PyStatus_Exception(): d81.

   * *note PyStatus_Exit(): d82.

   * *note PyStatus_IsError(): d83.

   * *note PyStatus_IsExit(): d84.

   * *note PyStatus_NoMemory(): d85.

   * *note PyStatus_Ok(): d86.

   * *note PyWideStringList_Append(): d87.

   * *note PyWideStringList_Insert(): d88.

   * *note Py_BytesMain(): d89.

   * *note Py_ExitStatusException(): d8a.

   * *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a.

   * *note Py_PreInitialize(): 631.

   * *note Py_PreInitializeFromArgs(): d8b.

   * *note Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs(): d8c.

   * *note Py_RunMain(): d8d.

This PEP also adds ‘_PyRuntimeState.preconfig’ (*note PyPreConfig: d74.
type) and ‘PyInterpreterState.config’ (*note PyConfig: 60b. type) fields
to these internal structures.  ‘PyInterpreterState.config’ becomes the
new reference configuration, replacing global configuration variables
and other private variables.

See *note Python Initialization Configuration: 837. for the
documentation.

See PEP 587(2) for a full description.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36763(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython,  Next: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers,  Prev: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration,  Up: New Features<11>

1.9.2.8 PEP 590: Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython
................................................................

*note The Vectorcall Protocol: 95b. is added to the Python/C API. It is
meant to formalize existing optimizations which were already done for
various classes.  Any *note static type: b5f. implementing a callable
can use this protocol.

This is currently provisional.  The aim is to make it fully public in
Python 3.9.

See PEP 590(1) for a full description.

(Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer, Mark Shannon and Petr Viktorin in
bpo-36974(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974


File: python.info,  Node: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers,  Prev: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython,  Up: New Features<11>

1.9.2.9 Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers
.......................................................

When *note pickle: ab. is used to transfer large data between Python
processes in order to take advantage of multi-core or multi-machine
processing, it is important to optimize the transfer by reducing memory
copies, and possibly by applying custom techniques such as
data-dependent compression.

The *note pickle: ab. protocol 5 introduces support for out-of-band
buffers where PEP 3118(1)-compatible data can be transmitted separately
from the main pickle stream, at the discretion of the communication
layer.

See PEP 574(2) for a full description.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-36785(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36785


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<6>,  Next: New Modules<6>,  Prev: New Features<11>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.3 Other Language Changes
----------------------------

   * A *note continue: 429. statement was illegal in the *note finally:
     44c. clause due to a problem with the implementation.  In Python
     3.8 this restriction was lifted.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-32489(1).)

   * The *note bool: 5ef, *note int: 326, and *note fractions.Fraction:
     1c3. types now have an *note as_integer_ratio(): d91. method like
     that found in *note float: 327. and *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2.
     This minor API extension makes it possible to write ‘numerator,
     denominator = x.as_integer_ratio()’ and have it work across
     multiple numeric types.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-33073(2)
     and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-37819(3).)

   * Constructors of *note int: 326, *note float: 327. and *note
     complex: 328. will now use the *note __index__(): 43d. special
     method, if available and the corresponding method *note __int__():
     43c, *note __float__(): d92. or *note __complex__(): 9de. is not
     available.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20092(4).)

   * Added support of ‘\N{NAME}’ escapes in *note regular expressions:
     c1.:

          >>> notice = 'Copyright © 2019'
          >>> copyright_year_pattern = re.compile(r'\N{copyright sign}\s*(\d{4})')
          >>> int(copyright_year_pattern.search(notice).group(1))
          2019

     (Contributed by Jonathan Eunice and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-30688(5).)

   * Dict and dictviews are now iterable in reversed insertion order
     using *note reversed(): c3c.  (Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in
     bpo-33462(6).)

   * The syntax allowed for keyword names in function calls was further
     restricted.  In particular, ‘f((keyword)=arg)’ is no longer
     allowed.  It was never intended to permit more than a bare name on
     the left-hand side of a keyword argument assignment term.
     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-34641(7).)

   * Generalized iterable unpacking in *note yield: d93. and *note
     return: 44b. statements no longer requires enclosing parentheses.
     This brings the 'yield' and 'return' syntax into better agreement
     with normal assignment syntax:

          >>> def parse(family):
          ...     lastname, *members = family.split()
          ...     return lastname.upper(), *members
          ...
          >>> parse('simpsons homer marge bart lisa maggie')
          ('SIMPSONS', 'homer', 'marge', 'bart', 'lisa', 'maggie')

     (Contributed by David Cuthbert and Jordan Chapman in bpo-32117(8).)

   * When a comma is missed in code such as ‘[(10, 20) (30, 40)]’, the
     compiler displays a *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. with a helpful
     suggestion.  This improves on just having a *note TypeError: 291.
     indicating that the first tuple was not callable.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15248(9).)

   * Arithmetic operations between subclasses of *note datetime.date:
     48d. or *note datetime.datetime: 6e7. and *note datetime.timedelta:
     d94. objects now return an instance of the subclass, rather than
     the base class.  This also affects the return type of operations
     whose implementation (directly or indirectly) uses
     ‘datetime.timedelta’ arithmetic, such as *note astimezone(): d95.
     (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32417(10).)

   * When the Python interpreter is interrupted by Ctrl-C (SIGINT) and
     the resulting *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96. exception is not
     caught, the Python process now exits via a SIGINT signal or with
     the correct exit code such that the calling process can detect that
     it died due to a Ctrl-C. Shells on POSIX and Windows use this to
     properly terminate scripts in interactive sessions.  (Contributed
     by Google via Gregory P. Smith in bpo-1054041(11).)

   * Some advanced styles of programming require updating the *note
     types.CodeType: 2e1. object for an existing function.  Since code
     objects are immutable, a new code object needs to be created, one
     that is modeled on the existing code object.  With 19 parameters,
     this was somewhat tedious.  Now, the new ‘replace()’ method makes
     it possible to create a clone with a few altered parameters.

     Here’s an example that alters the *note statistics.mean(): abf.
     function to prevent the 'data' parameter from being used as a
     keyword argument:

          >>> from statistics import mean
          >>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90])
          40
          >>> mean.__code__ = mean.__code__.replace(co_posonlyargcount=1)
          >>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90])
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          TypeError: mean() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'data'

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37032(12).)

   * For integers, the three-argument form of the *note pow(): 441.
     function now permits the exponent to be negative in the case where
     the base is relatively prime to the modulus.  It then computes a
     modular inverse to the base when the exponent is ‘-1’, and a
     suitable power of that inverse for other negative exponents.  For
     example, to compute the modular multiplicative inverse(13) of 38
     modulo 137, write:

          >>> pow(38, -1, 137)
          119
          >>> 119 * 38 % 137
          1

     Modular inverses arise in the solution of linear Diophantine
     equations(14).  For example, to find integer solutions for ‘4258𝑥 +
     147𝑦 = 369’, first rewrite as ‘4258𝑥 ≡ 369 (mod 147)’ then solve:

          >>> x = 369 * pow(4258, -1, 147) % 147
          >>> y = (4258 * x - 369) // -147
          >>> 4258 * x + 147 * y
          369

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-36027(15).)

   * Dict comprehensions have been synced-up with dict literals so that
     the key is computed first and the value second:

          >>> # Dict comprehension
          >>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ') for i in range(2)}
          role? King Arthur
          actor? Chapman
          role? Black Knight
          actor? Cleese

          >>> # Dict literal
          >>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ')}
          role? Sir Robin
          actor? Eric Idle

     The guaranteed execution order is helpful with assignment
     expressions because variables assigned in the key expression will
     be available in the value expression:

          >>> names = ['Martin von Löwis', 'Łukasz Langa', 'Walter Dörwald']
          >>> {(n := normalize('NFC', name)).casefold() : n for name in names}
          {'martin von löwis': 'Martin von Löwis',
           'łukasz langa': 'Łukasz Langa',
           'walter dörwald': 'Walter Dörwald'}

     (Contributed by Jörn Heissler in bpo-35224(16).)

   * The *note object.__reduce__(): d97. method can now return a tuple
     from two to six elements long.  Formerly, five was the limit.  The
     new, optional sixth element is a callable with a ‘(obj, state)’
     signature.  This allows the direct control over the state-updating
     behavior of a specific object.  If not 'None', this callable will
     have priority over the object’s *note __setstate__(): d98. method.
     (Contributed by Pierre Glaser and Olivier Grisel in bpo-35900(17).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33073

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37819

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30688

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33462

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34641

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32117

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15248

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32417

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1054041

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37032

   (13) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_multiplicative_inverse

   (14) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equation

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36027

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<6>,  Next: Improved Modules<6>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.4 New Modules
-----------------

   * The new *note importlib.metadata: 7d. module provides (provisional)
     support for reading metadata from third-party packages.  For
     example, it can extract an installed package’s version number, list
     of entry points, and more:

          >>> # Note following example requires that the popular "requests"
          >>> # package has been installed.
          >>>
          >>> from importlib.metadata import version, requires, files
          >>> version('requests')
          '2.22.0'
          >>> list(requires('requests'))
          ['chardet (<3.1.0,>=3.0.2)']
          >>> list(files('requests'))[:5]
          [PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/INSTALLER'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/LICENSE'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/METADATA'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/RECORD'),
           PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/WHEEL')]

     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Jason R. Coombs in bpo-34632(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34632


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<6>,  Next: Optimizations<9>,  Prev: New Modules<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.5 Improved Modules
----------------------

* Menu:

* ast: ast<7>.
* asyncio: asyncio<10>.
* builtins: builtins<2>.
* collections: collections<2>.
* cProfile::
* csv: csv<3>.
* curses: curses<4>.
* ctypes: ctypes<4>.
* datetime: datetime<5>.
* functools: functools<5>.
* gc: gc<6>.
* gettext::
* gzip: gzip<3>.
* IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<4>.
* inspect: inspect<7>.
* io: io<5>.
* itertools: itertools<5>.
* json.tool: json tool.
* logging: logging<2>.
* math: math<7>.
* mmap: mmap<3>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<4>.
* os: os<8>.
* os.path: os path<6>.
* pathlib: pathlib<11>.
* pickle: pickle<3>.
* plistlib::
* pprint: pprint<4>.
* py_compile: py_compile<2>.
* shlex::
* shutil: shutil<4>.
* socket: socket<6>.
* ssl: ssl<6>.
* statistics: statistics<4>.
* sys: sys<8>.
* tarfile: tarfile<6>.
* threading: threading<7>.
* tokenize: tokenize<3>.
* tkinter: tkinter<6>.
* time: time<4>.
* typing: typing<11>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<7>.
* unittest: unittest<8>.
* venv: venv<5>.
* weakref::
* xml: xml<5>.
* xmlrpc::


File: python.info,  Node: ast<7>,  Next: asyncio<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.1 ast
...........

AST nodes now have ‘end_lineno’ and ‘end_col_offset’ attributes, which
give the precise location of the end of the node.  (This only applies to
nodes that have ‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’ attributes.)

New function *note ast.get_source_segment(): d9c. returns the source
code for a specific AST node.

(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-33416(1).)

The *note ast.parse(): 1c9. function has some new flags:

   * ‘type_comments=True’ causes it to return the text of PEP 484(2) and
     PEP 526(3) type comments associated with certain AST nodes;

   * ‘mode='func_type'’ can be used to parse PEP 484(4) «signature type
     comments» (returned for function definition AST nodes);

   * ‘feature_version=(3, N)’ allows specifying an earlier Python 3
     version.  For example, ‘feature_version=(3, 4)’ will treat *note
     async: b19. and *note await: 432. as non-reserved words.

(Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-35766(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33416

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<10>,  Next: builtins<2>,  Prev: ast<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.2 asyncio
...............

*note asyncio.run(): 309. has graduated from the provisional to stable
API. This function can be used to execute a *note coroutine: 8a2. and
return the result while automatically managing the event loop.  For
example:

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         await asyncio.sleep(0)
         return 42

     asyncio.run(main())

This is 'roughly' equivalent to:

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         await asyncio.sleep(0)
         return 42

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()
     asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(main())
     finally:
         asyncio.set_event_loop(None)
         loop.close()

The actual implementation is significantly more complex.  Thus, *note
asyncio.run(): 309. should be the preferred way of running asyncio
programs.

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32314(1).)

Running ‘python -m asyncio’ launches a natively async REPL. This allows
rapid experimentation with code that has a top-level *note await: 432.
There is no longer a need to directly call ‘asyncio.run()’ which would
spawn a new event loop on every invocation:

     $ python -m asyncio
     asyncio REPL 3.8.0
     Use "await" directly instead of "asyncio.run()".
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>> import asyncio
     >>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello')
     hello

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-37028(2).)

The exception *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da. now inherits from *note
BaseException: 9b9. rather than *note Exception: d9e. and no longer
inherits from *note concurrent.futures.CancelledError: d9f.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32528(3).)

On Windows, the default event loop is now *note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-34687(4).)

*note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe. now also supports UDP. (Contributed by
Adam Meily and Andrew Svetlov in bpo-29883(5).)

*note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe. can now be interrupted by *note
KeyboardInterrupt: d96. («CTRL+C»).  (Contributed by Vladimir Matveev in
bpo-23057(6).)

Added *note asyncio.Task.get_coro(): da0. for getting the wrapped
coroutine within an *note asyncio.Task: 460.  (Contributed by Alex
Grönholm in bpo-36999(7).)

Asyncio tasks can now be named, either by passing the ‘name’ keyword
argument to *note asyncio.create_task(): 462. or the *note
create_task(): 463. event loop method, or by calling the *note
set_name(): da1. method on the task object.  The task name is visible in
the ‘repr()’ output of *note asyncio.Task: 460. and can also be
retrieved using the *note get_name(): da2. method.  (Contributed by Alex
Grönholm in bpo-34270(8).)

Added support for Happy Eyeballs(9) to *note
asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 9f9.  To specify the behavior, two new
parameters have been added: 'happy_eyeballs_delay' and 'interleave'.
The Happy Eyeballs algorithm improves responsiveness in applications
that support IPv4 and IPv6 by attempting to simultaneously connect using
both.  (Contributed by twisteroid ambassador in bpo-33530(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37028

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34687

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29883

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23057

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36999

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34270

   (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Eyeballs

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33530


File: python.info,  Node: builtins<2>,  Next: collections<2>,  Prev: asyncio<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.3 builtins
................

The *note compile(): 1c8. built-in has been improved to accept the
‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag.  With this new flag passed,
‘compile()’ will allow top-level ‘await’, ‘async for’ and ‘async with’
constructs that are usually considered invalid syntax.  Asynchronous
code object marked with the ‘CO_COROUTINE’ flag may then be returned.
(Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-34616(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34616


File: python.info,  Node: collections<2>,  Next: cProfile,  Prev: builtins<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.4 collections
...................

The *note _asdict(): da5. method for *note collections.namedtuple():
1cf. now returns a *note dict: 188. instead of a *note
collections.OrderedDict: 9d5.  This works because regular dicts have
guaranteed ordering since Python 3.7.  If the extra features of
‘OrderedDict’ are required, the suggested remediation is to cast the
result to the desired type: ‘OrderedDict(nt._asdict())’.  (Contributed
by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35864(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35864


File: python.info,  Node: cProfile,  Next: csv<3>,  Prev: collections<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.5 cProfile
................

The *note cProfile.Profile: da7. class can now be used as a context
manager.  Profile a block of code by running:

     import cProfile

     with cProfile.Profile() as profiler:
           # code to be profiled
           ...

(Contributed by Scott Sanderson in bpo-29235(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235


File: python.info,  Node: csv<3>,  Next: curses<4>,  Prev: cProfile,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.6 csv
...........

The *note csv.DictReader: da9. now returns instances of *note dict: 188.
instead of a *note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5.  The tool is now faster
and uses less memory while still preserving the field order.
(Contributed by Michael Selik in bpo-34003(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34003


File: python.info,  Node: curses<4>,  Next: ctypes<4>,  Prev: csv<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.7 curses
..............

Added a new variable holding structured version information for the
underlying ncurses library: *note ncurses_version: dab.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31680(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31680


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes<4>,  Next: datetime<5>,  Prev: curses<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.8 ctypes
..............

On Windows, *note CDLL: dad. and subclasses now accept a 'winmode'
parameter to specify flags for the underlying ‘LoadLibraryEx’ call.  The
default flags are set to only load DLL dependencies from trusted
locations, including the path where the DLL is stored (if a full or
partial path is used to load the initial DLL) and paths added by *note
add_dll_directory(): dae.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<5>,  Next: functools<5>,  Prev: ctypes<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.9 datetime
................

Added new alternate constructors *note datetime.date.fromisocalendar():
db0. and *note datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): db1, which construct
*note date: 48d. and *note datetime: 6e7. objects respectively from ISO
year, week number, and weekday; these are the inverse of each class’s
‘isocalendar’ method.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-36004(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36004


File: python.info,  Node: functools<5>,  Next: gc<6>,  Prev: datetime<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.10 functools
..................

*note functools.lru_cache(): db3. can now be used as a straight
decorator rather than as a function returning a decorator.  So both of
these are now supported:

     @lru_cache
     def f(x):
         ...

     @lru_cache(maxsize=256)
     def f(x):
         ...

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36772(1).)

Added a new *note functools.cached_property(): 94e. decorator, for
computed properties cached for the life of the instance.

     import functools
     import statistics

     class Dataset:
        def __init__(self, sequence_of_numbers):
           self.data = sequence_of_numbers

        @functools.cached_property
        def variance(self):
           return statistics.variance(self.data)

(Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-21145(2))

Added a new *note functools.singledispatchmethod(): 21e. decorator that
converts methods into *note generic functions: db4. using *note single
dispatch: db5.:

     from functools import singledispatchmethod
     from contextlib import suppress

     class TaskManager:

         def __init__(self, tasks):
             self.tasks = list(tasks)

         @singledispatchmethod
         def discard(self, value):
             with suppress(ValueError):
                 self.tasks.remove(value)

         @discard.register(list)
         def _(self, tasks):
             targets = set(tasks)
             self.tasks = [x for x in self.tasks if x not in targets]

(Contributed by Ethan Smith in bpo-32380(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36772

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21145

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32380


File: python.info,  Node: gc<6>,  Next: gettext,  Prev: functools<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.11 gc
...........

*note get_objects(): bdd. can now receive an optional 'generation'
parameter indicating a generation to get objects from.  (Contributed by
Pablo Galindo in bpo-36016(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36016


File: python.info,  Node: gettext,  Next: gzip<3>,  Prev: gc<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.12 gettext
................

Added *note pgettext(): db8. and its variants.  (Contributed by Franz
Glasner, Éric Araujo, and Cheryl Sabella in bpo-2504(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2504


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<3>,  Next: IDLE and idlelib<4>,  Prev: gettext,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.13 gzip
.............

Added the 'mtime' parameter to *note gzip.compress(): a2d. for
reproducible output.  (Contributed by Guo Ci Teo in bpo-34898(1).)

A *note BadGzipFile: dba. exception is now raised instead of *note
OSError: 53c. for certain types of invalid or corrupt gzip files.
(Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński, Michele Orrù, and Zackery Spytz in
bpo-6584(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34898

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6584


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE and idlelib<4>,  Next: inspect<7>,  Prev: gzip<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.14 IDLE and idlelib
.........................

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.  N can
be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings
dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right
clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place by
double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by
right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in
bpo-1529353(1).)

Add «Run Customized» to the Run menu to run a module with customized
settings.  Any command line arguments entered are added to sys.argv.
They also re-appear in the box for the next customized run.  One can
also suppress the normal Shell main module restart.  (Contributed by
Cheryl Sabella, Terry Jan Reedy, and others in bpo-5680(2) and
bpo-37627(3).)

Added optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows.  Windows open
without line numbers unless set otherwise in the General tab of the
configuration dialog.  Line numbers for an existing window are shown and
hidden in the Options menu.  (Contributed by Tal Einat and Saimadhav
Heblikar in bpo-17535(4).)

OS native encoding is now used for converting between Python strings and
Tcl objects.  This allows IDLE to work with emoji and other non-BMP
characters.  These characters can be displayed or copied and pasted to
or from the clipboard.  Converting strings from Tcl to Python and back
now never fails.  (Many people worked on this for eight years but the
problem was finally solved by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13153(5).)

New in 3.8.1:

Add option to toggle cursor blink off.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in
bpo-4603(6).)

Escape key now closes IDLE completion windows.  (Contributed by Johnny
Najera in bpo-38944(7).)

The changes above have been backported to 3.7 maintenance releases.

Add keywords to module name completion list.  (Contributed by Terry J.
Reedy in bpo-37765(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13153

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<7>,  Next: io<5>,  Prev: IDLE and idlelib<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.15 inspect
................

The *note inspect.getdoc(): 22c. function can now find docstrings for
‘__slots__’ if that attribute is a *note dict: 188. where the values are
docstrings.  This provides documentation options similar to what we
already have for *note property(): 6bb, *note classmethod(): 69a, and
*note staticmethod(): 666.:

     class AudioClip:
         __slots__ = {'bit_rate': 'expressed in kilohertz to one decimal place',
                      'duration': 'in seconds, rounded up to an integer'}
         def __init__(self, bit_rate, duration):
             self.bit_rate = round(bit_rate / 1000.0, 1)
             self.duration = ceil(duration)

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36326(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36326


File: python.info,  Node: io<5>,  Next: itertools<5>,  Prev: inspect<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.16 io
...........

In development mode (*note -X: 178. ‘env’) and in *note debug build:
3dc, the *note io.IOBase: 70a. finalizer now logs the exception if the
‘close()’ method fails.  The exception is ignored silently by default in
release build.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18748(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<5>,  Next: json tool,  Prev: io<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.17 itertools
..................

The *note itertools.accumulate(): dbf. function added an option
'initial' keyword argument to specify an initial value:

     >>> from itertools import accumulate
     >>> list(accumulate([10, 5, 30, 15], initial=1000))
     [1000, 1010, 1015, 1045, 1060]

(Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-34659(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34659


File: python.info,  Node: json tool,  Next: logging<2>,  Prev: itertools<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.18 json.tool
..................

Add option ‘--json-lines’ to parse every input line as a separate JSON
object.  (Contributed by Weipeng Hong in bpo-31553(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31553


File: python.info,  Node: logging<2>,  Next: math<7>,  Prev: json tool,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.19 logging
................

Added a 'force' keyword argument to *note logging.basicConfig(): dc2.
When set to true, any existing handlers attached to the root logger are
removed and closed before carrying out the configuration specified by
the other arguments.

This solves a long-standing problem.  Once a logger or 'basicConfig()'
had been called, subsequent calls to 'basicConfig()' were silently
ignored.  This made it difficult to update, experiment with, or teach
the various logging configuration options using the interactive prompt
or a Jupyter notebook.

(Suggested by Raymond Hettinger, implemented by Donghee Na, and reviewed
by Vinay Sajip in bpo-33897(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33897


File: python.info,  Node: math<7>,  Next: mmap<3>,  Prev: logging<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.20 math
.............

Added new function *note math.dist(): dc4. for computing Euclidean
distance between two points.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
bpo-33089(1).)

Expanded the *note math.hypot(): dc5. function to handle multiple
dimensions.  Formerly, it only supported the 2-D case.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-33089(2).)

Added new function, *note math.prod(): dc6, as analogous function to
*note sum(): 881. that returns the product of a “start” value (default:
1) times an iterable of numbers:

     >>> prior = 0.8
     >>> likelihoods = [0.625, 0.84, 0.30]
     >>> math.prod(likelihoods, start=prior)
     0.126

(Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-35606(3).)

Added two new combinatoric functions *note math.perm(): abe. and *note
math.comb(): abd.:

     >>> math.perm(10, 3)    # Permutations of 10 things taken 3 at a time
     720
     >>> math.comb(10, 3)    # Combinations of 10 things taken 3 at a time
     120

(Contributed by Yash Aggarwal, Keller Fuchs, Serhiy Storchaka, and
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-37128(4), bpo-37178(5), and bpo-35431(6).)

Added a new function *note math.isqrt(): dc7. for computing accurate
integer square roots without conversion to floating point.  The new
function supports arbitrarily large integers.  It is faster than
‘floor(sqrt(n))’ but slower than *note math.sqrt(): dc8.:

     >>> r = 650320427
     >>> s = r ** 2
     >>> isqrt(s - 1)         # correct
     650320426
     >>> floor(sqrt(s - 1))   # incorrect
     650320427

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-36887(7).)

The function *note math.factorial(): d13. no longer accepts arguments
that are not int-like.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-33083(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35606

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37128

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37178

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35431

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36887

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33083


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<3>,  Next: multiprocessing<4>,  Prev: math<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.21 mmap
.............

The *note mmap.mmap: 23c. class now has an *note madvise(): dca. method
to access the ‘madvise()’ system call.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in
bpo-32941(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32941


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<4>,  Next: os<8>,  Prev: mmap<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.22 multiprocessing
........................

Added new *note multiprocessing.shared_memory: 9d. module.  (Contributed
by Davin Potts in bpo-35813(1).)

On macOS, the 'spawn' start method is now used by default.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-33725(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35813

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: os<8>,  Next: os path<6>,  Prev: multiprocessing<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.23 os
...........

Added new function *note add_dll_directory(): dae. on Windows for
providing additional search paths for native dependencies when importing
extension modules or loading DLLs using *note ctypes: 2d.  (Contributed
by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(1).)

A new *note os.memfd_create(): dcd. function was added to wrap the
‘memfd_create()’ syscall.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Christian
Heimes in bpo-26836(2).)

On Windows, much of the manual logic for handling reparse points
(including symlinks and directory junctions) has been delegated to the
operating system.  Specifically, *note os.stat(): 4f5. will now traverse
anything supported by the operating system, while *note os.lstat(): 8b1.
will only open reparse points that identify as «name surrogates» while
others are opened as for ‘os.stat()’.  In all cases, *note
os.stat_result.st_mode: dce. will only have ‘S_IFLNK’ set for symbolic
links and not other kinds of reparse points.  To identify other kinds of
reparse point, check the new *note os.stat_result.st_reparse_tag: dcf.
attribute.

On Windows, *note os.readlink(): ced. is now able to read directory
junctions.  Note that *note islink(): dd0. will return ‘False’ for
directory junctions, and so code that checks ‘islink’ first will
continue to treat junctions as directories, while code that handles
errors from ‘os.readlink()’ may now treat junctions as links.

(Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37834(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26836

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: os path<6>,  Next: pathlib<11>,  Prev: os<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.24 os.path
................

*note os.path: a6. functions that return a boolean result like *note
exists(): dd2, *note lexists(): dd3, *note isdir(): dd4, *note isfile():
dd5, *note islink(): dd0, and *note ismount(): dd6. now return ‘False’
instead of raising *note ValueError: 277. or its subclasses *note
UnicodeEncodeError: a67. and *note UnicodeDecodeError: dd7. for paths
that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS level.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33721(1).)

*note expanduser(): dd8. on Windows now prefers the ‘USERPROFILE’
environment variable and does not use ‘HOME’, which is not normally set
for regular user accounts.  (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in
bpo-36264(2).)

*note isdir(): dd4. on Windows no longer returns ‘True’ for a link to a
non-existent directory.

*note realpath(): 241. on Windows now resolves reparse points, including
symlinks and directory junctions.

(Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37834(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<11>,  Next: pickle<3>,  Prev: os path<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.25 pathlib
................

*note pathlib.Path: 4ee. methods that return a boolean result like *note
exists(): dda, *note is_dir(): 73d, *note is_file(): 73c, *note
is_mount(): ddb, *note is_symlink(): ddc, *note is_block_device(): ddd,
*note is_char_device(): dde, *note is_fifo(): ddf, *note is_socket():
de0. now return ‘False’ instead of raising *note ValueError: 277. or its
subclass *note UnicodeEncodeError: a67. for paths that contain
characters unrepresentable at the OS level.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-33721(1).)

Added ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’ which creates a hard link pointing to a
path.  (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-26978(2)) Note that
‘link_to’ was deprecated in 3.10 and removed in 3.12 in favor of a
‘hardlink_to’ method added in 3.10 which matches the semantics of the
existing ‘symlink_to’ method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26978


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<3>,  Next: plistlib,  Prev: pathlib<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.26 pickle
...............

*note pickle: ab. extensions subclassing the C-optimized *note Pickler:
de2. can now override the pickling logic of functions and classes by
defining the special *note reducer_override(): de3. method.
(Contributed by Pierre Glaser and Olivier Grisel in bpo-35900(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib,  Next: pprint<4>,  Prev: pickle<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.27 plistlib
.................

Added new *note plistlib.UID: de5. and enabled support for reading and
writing NSKeyedArchiver-encoded binary plists.  (Contributed by Jon
Janzen in bpo-26707(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26707


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<4>,  Next: py_compile<2>,  Prev: plistlib,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.28 pprint
...............

The *note pprint: b3. module added a 'sort_dicts' parameter to several
functions.  By default, those functions continue to sort dictionaries
before rendering or printing.  However, if 'sort_dicts' is set to false,
the dictionaries retain the order that keys were inserted.  This can be
useful for comparison to JSON inputs during debugging.

In addition, there is a convenience new function, *note pprint.pp():
de7. that is like *note pprint.pprint(): c01. but with 'sort_dicts'
defaulting to ‘False’:

     >>> from pprint import pprint, pp
     >>> d = dict(source='input.txt', operation='filter', destination='output.txt')
     >>> pp(d, width=40)                  # Original order
     {'source': 'input.txt',
      'operation': 'filter',
      'destination': 'output.txt'}
     >>> pprint(d, width=40)              # Keys sorted alphabetically
     {'destination': 'output.txt',
      'operation': 'filter',
      'source': 'input.txt'}

(Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in bpo-30670(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30670


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile<2>,  Next: shlex,  Prev: pprint<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.29 py_compile
...................

*note py_compile.compile(): de9. now supports silent mode.  (Contributed
by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-22640(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22640


File: python.info,  Node: shlex,  Next: shutil<4>,  Prev: py_compile<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.30 shlex
..............

The new *note shlex.join(): deb. function acts as the inverse of *note
shlex.split(): 949.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-32102(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<4>,  Next: socket<6>,  Prev: shlex,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.31 shutil
...............

*note shutil.copytree(): ded. now accepts a new ‘dirs_exist_ok’ keyword
argument.  (Contributed by Josh Bronson in bpo-20849(1).)

*note shutil.make_archive(): 8c3. now defaults to the modern pax
(POSIX.1-2001) format for new archives to improve portability and
standards conformance, inherited from the corresponding change to the
*note tarfile: e7. module.  (Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach in
bpo-30661(2).)

*note shutil.rmtree(): 335. on Windows now removes directory junctions
without recursively removing their contents first.  (Contributed by
Steve Dower in bpo-37834(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20849

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834


File: python.info,  Node: socket<6>,  Next: ssl<6>,  Prev: shutil<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.32 socket
...............

Added *note create_server(): def. and *note has_dualstack_ipv6(): df0.
convenience functions to automate the necessary tasks usually involved
when creating a server socket, including accepting both IPv4 and IPv6
connections on the same socket.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
bpo-17561(1).)

The *note socket.if_nameindex(): df1, *note socket.if_nametoindex():
df2, and *note socket.if_indextoname(): df3. functions have been
implemented on Windows.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-37007(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37007


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<6>,  Next: statistics<4>,  Prev: socket<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.33 ssl
............

Added *note post_handshake_auth: df5. to enable and *note
verify_client_post_handshake(): df6. to initiate TLS 1.3 post-handshake
authentication.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-34670(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34670


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<4>,  Next: sys<8>,  Prev: ssl<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.34 statistics
...................

Added *note statistics.fmean(): df8. as a faster, floating-point variant
of *note statistics.mean(): abf.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and
Steven D’Aprano in bpo-35904(1).)

Added *note statistics.geometric_mean(): df9. (Contributed by Raymond
Hettinger in bpo-27181(2).)

Added *note statistics.multimode(): dfa. that returns a list of the most
common values.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35892(3).)

Added *note statistics.quantiles(): dfb. that divides data or a
distribution in to equiprobable intervals (e.g.  quartiles, deciles, or
percentiles).  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36546(4).)

Added *note statistics.NormalDist: dfc, a tool for creating and
manipulating normal distributions of a random variable.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36018(5).)

     >>> temperature_feb = NormalDist.from_samples([4, 12, -3, 2, 7, 14])
     >>> temperature_feb.mean
     6.0
     >>> temperature_feb.stdev
     6.356099432828281

     >>> temperature_feb.cdf(3)            # Chance of being under 3 degrees
     0.3184678262814532
     >>> # Relative chance of being 7 degrees versus 10 degrees
     >>> temperature_feb.pdf(7) / temperature_feb.pdf(10)
     1.2039930378537762

     >>> el_niño = NormalDist(4, 2.5)
     >>> temperature_feb += el_niño        # Add in a climate effect
     >>> temperature_feb
     NormalDist(mu=10.0, sigma=6.830080526611674)

     >>> temperature_feb * (9/5) + 32      # Convert to Fahrenheit
     NormalDist(mu=50.0, sigma=12.294144947901014)
     >>> temperature_feb.samples(3)        # Generate random samples
     [7.672102882379219, 12.000027119750287, 4.647488369766392]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36018


File: python.info,  Node: sys<8>,  Next: tarfile<6>,  Prev: statistics<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.35 sys
............

Add new *note sys.unraisablehook(): 70c. function which can be
overridden to control how «unraisable exceptions» are handled.  It is
called when an exception has occurred but there is no way for Python to
handle it.  For example, when a destructor raises an exception or during
garbage collection (*note gc.collect(): 44f.).  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner in bpo-36829(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<6>,  Next: threading<7>,  Prev: sys<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.36 tarfile
................

The *note tarfile: e7. module now defaults to the modern pax
(POSIX.1-2001) format for new archives, instead of the previous
GNU-specific one.  This improves cross-platform portability with a
consistent encoding (UTF-8) in a standardized and extensible format, and
offers several other benefits.  (Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach in
bpo-36268(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36268


File: python.info,  Node: threading<7>,  Next: tokenize<3>,  Prev: tarfile<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.37 threading
..................

Add a new *note threading.excepthook(): c23. function which handles
uncaught *note threading.Thread.run(): e00. exception.  It can be
overridden to control how uncaught ‘threading.Thread.run()’ exceptions
are handled.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-1230540(1).)

Add a new *note threading.get_native_id(): e01. function and a *note
native_id: e02. attribute to the *note threading.Thread: 420. class.
These return the native integral Thread ID of the current thread
assigned by the kernel.  This feature is only available on certain
platforms, see ‘get_native_id’ for more information.  (Contributed by
Jake Tesler in bpo-36084(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1230540

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36084


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize<3>,  Next: tkinter<6>,  Prev: threading<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.38 tokenize
.................

The *note tokenize: 104. module now implicitly emits a ‘NEWLINE’ token
when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.  This
behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.  (Contributed
by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<6>,  Next: time<4>,  Prev: tokenize<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.39 tkinter
................

Added methods ‘selection_from()’, ‘selection_present()’,
‘selection_range()’ and ‘selection_to()’ in the ‘tkinter.Spinbox’ class.
(Contributed by Juliette Monsel in bpo-34829(1).)

Added method ‘moveto()’ in the ‘tkinter.Canvas’ class.  (Contributed by
Juliette Monsel in bpo-23831(2).)

The ‘tkinter.PhotoImage’ class now has ‘transparency_get()’ and
‘transparency_set()’ methods.  (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in
bpo-25451(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34829

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23831

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25451


File: python.info,  Node: time<4>,  Next: typing<11>,  Prev: tkinter<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.40 time
.............

Added new clock *note CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: e06. for macOS 10.12.
(Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-35702(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35702


File: python.info,  Node: typing<11>,  Next: unicodedata<7>,  Prev: time<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.41 typing
...............

The *note typing: 10d. module incorporates several new features:

   * A dictionary type with per-key types.  See PEP 589(1) and *note
     typing.TypedDict: 290.  TypedDict uses only string keys.  By
     default, every key is required to be present.  Specify
     «total=False» to allow keys to be optional:

          class Location(TypedDict, total=False):
              lat_long: tuple
              grid_square: str
              xy_coordinate: tuple

   * Literal types.  See PEP 586(2) and *note typing.Literal: c2d.
     Literal types indicate that a parameter or return value is
     constrained to one or more specific literal values:

          def get_status(port: int) -> Literal['connected', 'disconnected']:
              ...

   * «Final» variables, functions, methods and classes.  See PEP 591(3),
     *note typing.Final: 76f. and *note typing.final(): a9b.  The final
     qualifier instructs a static type checker to restrict subclassing,
     overriding, or reassignment:

          pi: Final[float] = 3.1415926536

   * Protocol definitions.  See PEP 544(4), *note typing.Protocol: 76c.
     and *note typing.runtime_checkable(): 861.  Simple ABCs like *note
     typing.SupportsInt: e08. are now ‘Protocol’ subclasses.

   * New protocol class *note typing.SupportsIndex: e09.

   * New functions *note typing.get_origin(): 314. and *note
     typing.get_args(): 315.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0589/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<7>,  Next: unittest<8>,  Prev: typing<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.42 unicodedata
....................

The *note unicodedata: 10e. module has been upgraded to use the Unicode
12.1.0(1) release.

New function *note is_normalized(): e0b. can be used to verify a string
is in a specific normal form, often much faster than by actually
normalizing the string.  (Contributed by Max Belanger, David Euresti,
and Greg Price in bpo-32285(2) and bpo-37966(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://blog.unicode.org/2019/05/unicode-12-1-en.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32285

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37966


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<8>,  Next: venv<5>,  Prev: unicodedata<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.43 unittest
.................

Added *note AsyncMock: e0d. to support an asynchronous version of *note
Mock: e0e.  Appropriate new assert functions for testing have been added
as well.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-26467(1)).

Added *note addModuleCleanup(): e0f. and *note addClassCleanup(): e10.
to unittest to support cleanups for *note setUpModule(): e11. and *note
setUpClass(): e12.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-24412(2).)

Several mock assert functions now also print a list of actual calls upon
failure.  (Contributed by Petter Strandmark in bpo-35047(3).)

*note unittest: 10f. module gained support for coroutines to be used as
test cases with *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342.
(Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32972(4).)

Example:

     import unittest


     class TestRequest(unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase):

         async def asyncSetUp(self):
             self.connection = await AsyncConnection()

         async def test_get(self):
             response = await self.connection.get("https://example.com")
             self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)

         async def asyncTearDown(self):
             await self.connection.close()


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         unittest.main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26467

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35047

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32972


File: python.info,  Node: venv<5>,  Next: weakref,  Prev: unittest<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.44 venv
.............

*note venv: 11a. now includes an ‘Activate.ps1’ script on all platforms
for activating virtual environments under PowerShell Core 6.1.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-32718(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32718


File: python.info,  Node: weakref,  Next: xml<5>,  Prev: venv<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.45 weakref
................

The proxy objects returned by *note weakref.proxy(): e15. now support
the matrix multiplication operators ‘@’ and ‘@=’ in addition to the
other numeric operators.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
bpo-36669(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36669


File: python.info,  Node: xml<5>,  Next: xmlrpc,  Prev: weakref,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.46 xml
............

As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note
xml.dom.minidom: 12b. and *note xml.sax: 132. modules no longer process
external entities by default.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-17239(1).)

The ‘.find*()’ methods in the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. module
support wildcard searches like ‘{*}tag’ which ignores the namespace and
‘{namespace}*’ which returns all tags in the given namespace.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-28238(2).)

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. module provides a new function
*note canonicalize(): e17. that implements C14N 2.0.  (Contributed by
Stefan Behnel in bpo-13611(3).)

The target object of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser: e18. can
receive namespace declaration events through the new callback methods
‘start_ns()’ and ‘end_ns()’.  Additionally, the *note
xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder: e19. target can be configured to
process events about comments and processing instructions to include
them in the generated tree.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in
bpo-36676(4) and bpo-36673(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28238

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13611

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36676

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36673


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc,  Prev: xml<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<6>

1.9.5.47 xmlrpc
...............

*note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: e1b. now supports an optional 'headers'
keyword argument for a sequence of HTTP headers to be sent with each
request.  Among other things, this makes it possible to upgrade from
default basic authentication to faster session authentication.
(Contributed by Cédric Krier in bpo-35153(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35153


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<9>,  Next: Build and C API Changes,  Prev: Improved Modules<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.6 Optimizations
-------------------

   * The *note subprocess: df. module can now use the *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 731. function in some cases for better
     performance.  Currently, it is only used on macOS and Linux (using
     glibc 2.24 or newer) if all these conditions are met:

        * 'close_fds' is false;

        * 'preexec_fn', 'pass_fds', 'cwd' and 'start_new_session'
          parameters are not set;

        * the 'executable' path contains a directory.

     (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye and Victor Stinner in
     bpo-35537(1).)

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): e1d, *note shutil.copy(): e1e, *note
     shutil.copy2(): e1f, *note shutil.copytree(): ded. and *note
     shutil.move(): e20. use platform-specific «fast-copy» syscalls on
     Linux and macOS in order to copy the file more efficiently.
     «fast-copy» means that the copying operation occurs within the
     kernel, avoiding the use of userspace buffers in Python as in
     «‘outfd.write(infd.read())’».  On Windows ‘shutil.copyfile()’ uses
     a bigger default buffer size (1 MiB instead of 16 KiB) and a *note
     memoryview(): 1d2.-based variant of *note shutil.copyfileobj():
     e21. is used.  The speedup for copying a 512 MiB file within the
     same partition is about +26% on Linux, +50% on macOS and +40% on
     Windows.  Also, much less CPU cycles are consumed.  See *note
     Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: e22. section.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-33671(2).)

   * *note shutil.copytree(): ded. uses *note os.scandir(): e23.
     function and all copy functions depending from it use cached *note
     os.stat(): 4f5. values.  The speedup for copying a directory with
     8000 files is around +9% on Linux, +20% on Windows and +30% on a
     Windows SMB share.  Also the number of ‘os.stat()’ syscalls is
     reduced by 38% making ‘shutil.copytree()’ especially faster on
     network filesystems.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
     bpo-33695(3).)

   * The default protocol in the *note pickle: ab. module is now
     Protocol 4, first introduced in Python 3.4.  It offers better
     performance and smaller size compared to Protocol 3 available since
     Python 3.0.

   * Removed one *note Py_ssize_t: e24. member from ‘PyGC_Head’.  All GC
     tracked objects (e.g.  tuple, list, dict) size is reduced 4 or 8
     bytes.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-33597(4).)

   * *note uuid.UUID: e25. now uses ‘__slots__’ to reduce its memory
     footprint.  (Contributed by Wouter Bolsterlee and Tal Einat in
     bpo-30977(5))

   * Improved performance of *note operator.itemgetter(): e26. by 33%.
     Optimized argument handling and added a fast path for the common
     case of a single non-negative integer index into a tuple (which is
     the typical use case in the standard library).  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35664(6).)

   * Sped-up field lookups in *note collections.namedtuple(): 1cf.  They
     are now more than two times faster, making them the fastest form of
     instance variable lookup in Python.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger, Pablo Galindo, and Joe Jevnik, Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-32492(7).)

   * The *note list: 4d9. constructor does not overallocate the internal
     item buffer if the input iterable has a known length (the input
     implements ‘__len__’).  This makes the created list 12% smaller on
     average.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Pablo Galindo in
     bpo-33234(8).)

   * Doubled the speed of class variable writes.  When a non-dunder
     attribute was updated, there was an unnecessary call to update
     slots.  (Contributed by Stefan Behnel, Pablo Galindo Salgado,
     Raymond Hettinger, Neil Schemenauer, and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-36012(9).)

   * Reduced an overhead of converting arguments passed to many builtin
     functions and methods.  This sped up calling some simple builtin
     functions and methods up to 20–50%.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-23867(10), bpo-35582(11) and bpo-36127(12).)

   * ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ instruction now uses new «per opcode cache»
     mechanism.  It is about 40% faster now.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov and Inada Naoki in bpo-26219(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33695

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30977

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35664

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32492

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33234

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36012

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23867

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35582

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36127

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26219


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes,  Next: Deprecated<11>,  Prev: Optimizations<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.7 Build and C API Changes
-----------------------------

   * Default *note sys.abiflags: e28. became an empty string: the ‘m’
     flag for pymalloc became useless (builds with and without pymalloc
     are ABI compatible) and so has been removed.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-36707(1).)

     Example of changes:

        * Only ‘python3.8’ program is installed, ‘python3.8m’ program is
          gone.

        * Only ‘python3.8-config’ script is installed,
          ‘python3.8m-config’ script is gone.

        * The ‘m’ flag has been removed from the suffix of dynamic
          library filenames: extension modules in the standard library
          as well as those produced and installed by third-party
          packages, like those downloaded from PyPI. On Linux, for
          example, the Python 3.7 suffix
          ‘.cpython-37m-x86_64-linux-gnu.so’ became
          ‘.cpython-38-x86_64-linux-gnu.so’ in Python 3.8.

   * The header files have been reorganized to better separate the
     different kinds of APIs:

        * ‘Include/*.h’ should be the portable public stable C API.

        * ‘Include/cpython/*.h’ should be the unstable C API specific to
          CPython; public API, with some private API prefixed by ‘_Py’
          or ‘_PY’.

        * ‘Include/internal/*.h’ is the private internal C API very
          specific to CPython.  This API comes with no backward
          compatibility warranty and should not be used outside CPython.
          It is only exposed for very specific needs like debuggers and
          profiles which has to access to CPython internals without
          calling functions.  This API is now installed by ‘make
          install’.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(2) and bpo-35081(3),
     work initiated by Eric Snow in Python 3.7.)

   * Some macros have been converted to static inline functions:
     parameter types and return type are well defined, they don’t have
     issues specific to macros, variables have a local scopes.
     Examples:

        * *note Py_INCREF(): 974, *note Py_DECREF(): 975.

        * *note Py_XINCREF(): e29, *note Py_XDECREF(): b6e.

        * ‘PyObject_INIT’, ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR’

        * Private functions: ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’,
          ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’, ‘_Py_Dealloc()’

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35059(4).)

   * The ‘PyByteArray_Init()’ and ‘PyByteArray_Fini()’ functions have
     been removed.  They did nothing since Python 2.7.4 and Python
     3.2.0, were excluded from the limited API (stable ABI), and were
     not documented.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35713(5).)

   * The result of *note PyExceptionClass_Name(): e2a. is now of type
     ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-33818(6).)

   * The duality of ‘Modules/Setup.dist’ and ‘Modules/Setup’ has been
     removed.  Previously, when updating the CPython source tree, one
     had to manually copy ‘Modules/Setup.dist’ (inside the source tree)
     to ‘Modules/Setup’ (inside the build tree) in order to reflect any
     changes upstream.  This was of a small benefit to packagers at the
     expense of a frequent annoyance to developers following CPython
     development, as forgetting to copy the file could produce build
     failures.

     Now the build system always reads from ‘Modules/Setup’ inside the
     source tree.  People who want to customize that file are encouraged
     to maintain their changes in a git fork of CPython or as patch
     files, as they would do for any other change to the source tree.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32430(7).)

   * Functions that convert Python number to C integer like *note
     PyLong_AsLong(): 7fb. and argument parsing functions like *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. with integer converting format units like
     ‘'i'’ will now use the *note __index__(): 43d. special method
     instead of *note __int__(): 43c, if available.  The deprecation
     warning will be emitted for objects with the ‘__int__()’ method but
     without the ‘__index__()’ method (like *note Decimal: 1c2. and
     *note Fraction: 1c3.).  *note PyNumber_Check(): e2b. will now
     return ‘1’ for objects implementing ‘__index__()’.  *note
     PyNumber_Long(): e2c, *note PyNumber_Float(): e2d. and *note
     PyFloat_AsDouble(): e2e. also now use the ‘__index__()’ method if
     available.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36048(8) and
     bpo-20092(9).)

   * Heap-allocated type objects will now increase their reference count
     in *note PyObject_Init(): e2f. (and its parallel macro
     ‘PyObject_INIT’) instead of in *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30.
     Types that modify instance allocation or deallocation may need to
     be adjusted.  (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in bpo-35810(10).)

   * The new function ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ allows to create
     code objects like ‘PyCode_New()’, but with an extra
     'posonlyargcount' parameter for indicating the number of
     positional-only arguments.  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
     bpo-37221(11).)

   * ‘Py_SetPath()’ now sets *note sys.executable: 3ac. to the program
     full path (‘Py_GetProgramFullPath()’) rather than to the program
     name (‘Py_GetProgramName()’).  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-38234(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36707

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33818

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32430

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37221

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<11>,  Next: API and Feature Removals,  Prev: Build and C API Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.8 Deprecated
----------------

   * The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command is now deprecated, use
     ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-37481(1).)

   * Deprecated methods ‘getchildren()’ and ‘getiterator()’ in the *note
     ElementTree: 12e. module now emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.
     instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b.  They will be
     removed in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-29209(2).)

   * Passing an object that is not an instance of *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. to *note
     loop.set_default_executor(): b28. is deprecated and will be
     prohibited in Python 3.9.  (Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in
     bpo-34075(3).)

   * The *note __getitem__(): 787. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: b1c, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: b1d. and *note fileinput.FileInput: b1e.
     have been deprecated.

     Implementations of these methods have been ignoring their 'index'
     parameter, and returning the next item instead.  (Contributed by
     Berker Peksag in bpo-9372(4).)

   * The *note typing.NamedTuple: 2e4. class has deprecated the
     ‘_field_types’ attribute in favor of the ‘__annotations__’
     attribute which has the same information.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in bpo-36320(5).)

   * *note ast: 9. classes ‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ and
     ‘Ellipsis’ are considered deprecated and will be removed in future
     Python versions.  *note Constant: 569. should be used instead.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32892(6).)

   * *note ast.NodeVisitor: 56a. methods ‘visit_Num()’, ‘visit_Str()’,
     ‘visit_Bytes()’, ‘visit_NameConstant()’ and ‘visit_Ellipsis()’ are
     deprecated now and will not be called in future Python versions.
     Add the *note visit_Constant(): e32. method to handle all constant
     nodes.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36917(7).)

   * The ‘@asyncio.coroutine’ *note decorator: b18. is deprecated and
     will be removed in version 3.10.  Instead of ‘@asyncio.coroutine’,
     use *note async def: 9cf. instead.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov
     in bpo-36921(8).)

   * In *note asyncio: b, the explicit passing of a 'loop' argument has
     been deprecated and will be removed in version 3.10 for the
     following: *note asyncio.sleep(): e33, *note asyncio.gather(): 9f4,
     *note asyncio.shield(): e34, *note asyncio.wait_for(): 9f6, *note
     asyncio.wait(): 891, *note asyncio.as_completed(): 6cc, *note
     asyncio.Task: 460, *note asyncio.Lock: e35, *note asyncio.Event:
     56d, *note asyncio.Condition: e36, *note asyncio.Semaphore: e37,
     *note asyncio.BoundedSemaphore: e38, *note asyncio.Queue: e39,
     *note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): e3a, and *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): e3b.

   * The explicit passing of coroutine objects to *note asyncio.wait():
     891. has been deprecated and will be removed in version 3.11.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-34790(9).)

   * The following functions and methods are deprecated in the *note
     gettext: 66. module: ‘lgettext()’, ‘ldgettext()’, ‘lngettext()’ and
     ‘ldngettext()’.  They return encoded bytes, and it’s possible that
     you will get unexpected Unicode-related exceptions if there are
     encoding problems with the translated strings.  It’s much better to
     use alternatives which return Unicode strings in Python 3.  These
     functions have been broken for a long time.

     Function ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’, methods
     ‘NullTranslations.output_charset()’ and
     ‘NullTranslations.set_output_charset()’, and the 'codeset'
     parameter of functions *note translation(): e3c. and *note
     install(): e3d. are also deprecated, since they are only used for
     the ‘l*gettext()’ functions.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-33710(10).)

   * The ‘isAlive()’ method of *note threading.Thread: 420. has been
     deprecated.  (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-35283(11).)

   * Many builtin and extension functions that take integer arguments
     will now emit a deprecation warning for *note Decimal: 1c2.s, *note
     Fraction: 1c3.s and any other objects that can be converted to
     integers only with a loss (e.g.  that have the *note __int__():
     43c. method but do not have the *note __index__(): 43d. method).
     In future version they will be errors.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-36048(12).)

   * Deprecated passing the following arguments as keyword arguments:

        - 'func' in *note functools.partialmethod(): 4a7, *note
          weakref.finalize(): e3e, *note profile.Profile.runcall(): e3f,
          ‘cProfile.Profile.runcall()’, *note bdb.Bdb.runcall(): e40,
          *note trace.Trace.runfunc(): e41. and *note curses.wrapper():
          e42.

        - 'function' in *note unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): e43.

        - 'fn' in the *note submit(): e44. method of *note
          concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. and *note
          concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206.

        - 'callback' in *note contextlib.ExitStack.callback(): e45,
          ‘contextlib.AsyncExitStack.callback()’ and *note
          contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_callback(): e46.

        - 'c' and 'typeid' in the ‘create()’ method of
          ‘multiprocessing.managers.Server’ and
          ‘multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryServer’.

        - 'obj' in *note weakref.finalize(): e3e.

     In future releases of Python, they will be *note positional-only:
     e47.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36492(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37481

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34075

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9372

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36320

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36917

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36921

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33710

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35283

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36492


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals,  Next: Porting to Python 3 8,  Prev: Deprecated<11>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.9 API and Feature Removals
------------------------------

The following features and APIs have been removed from Python 3.8:

   * Starting with Python 3.3, importing ABCs from *note collections:
     1e. was deprecated, and importing should be done from *note
     collections.abc: 1f.  Being able to import from collections was
     marked for removal in 3.8, but has been delayed to 3.9.  (See
     gh-81134(1).)

   * The ‘macpath’ module, deprecated in Python 3.7, has been removed.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35471(2).)

   * The function ‘platform.popen()’ has been removed, after having been
     deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note os.popen(): 585. instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35345(3).)

   * The function ‘time.clock()’ has been removed, after having been
     deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note time.perf_counter(): e49. or
     *note time.process_time(): e4a. instead, depending on your
     requirements, to have well-defined behavior.  (Contributed by
     Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-36895(4).)

   * The ‘pyvenv’ script has been removed in favor of ‘python3.8 -m
     venv’ to help eliminate confusion as to what Python interpreter the
     ‘pyvenv’ script is tied to.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-25427(5).)

   * ‘parse_qs’, ‘parse_qsl’, and ‘escape’ are removed from the ‘cgi’
     module.  They are deprecated in Python 3.2 or older.  They should
     be imported from the ‘urllib.parse’ and ‘html’ modules instead.

   * ‘filemode’ function is removed from the *note tarfile: e7. module.
     It is not documented and deprecated since Python 3.3.

   * The *note XMLParser: e18. constructor no longer accepts the 'html'
     argument.  It never had an effect and was deprecated in Python 3.4.
     All other parameters are now *note keyword-only: 7a3.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(6).)

   * Removed the ‘doctype()’ method of *note XMLParser: e18.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(7).)

   * «unicode_internal» codec is removed.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki
     in bpo-36297(8).)

   * The ‘Cache’ and ‘Statement’ objects of the *note sqlite3: d7.
     module are not exposed to the user.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda
     in bpo-30262(9).)

   * The ‘bufsize’ keyword argument of *note fileinput.input(): bd9. and
     *note fileinput.FileInput(): b1e. which was ignored and deprecated
     since Python 3.6 has been removed.  bpo-36952(10) (Contributed by
     Matthias Bussonnier.)

   * The functions ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’ and
     ‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper()’ deprecated in Python 3.7 have been
     removed; bpo-36933(11) (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81134

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35471

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36895

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36297

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30262

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36933


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 8,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1,  Prev: API and Feature Removals,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.10 Porting to Python 3.8
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in Python behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<6>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<5>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<6>.
* Demos and Tools: Demos and Tools<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in Python behavior,  Next: Changes in the Python API<6>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.9.10.1 Changes in Python behavior
...................................

   * Yield expressions (both ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ clauses) are now
     disallowed in comprehensions and generator expressions (aside from
     the iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause).
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10544(1).)

   * The compiler now produces a *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. when identity
     checks (‘is’ and ‘is not’) are used with certain types of literals
     (e.g.  strings, numbers).  These can often work by accident in
     CPython, but are not guaranteed by the language spec.  The warning
     advises users to use equality tests (‘==’ and ‘!=’) instead.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-34850(2).)

   * The CPython interpreter can swallow exceptions in some
     circumstances.  In Python 3.8 this happens in fewer cases.  In
     particular, exceptions raised when getting the attribute from the
     type dictionary are no longer ignored.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-35459(3).)

   * Removed ‘__str__’ implementations from builtin types *note bool:
     5ef, *note int: 326, *note float: 327, *note complex: 328. and few
     classes from the standard library.  They now inherit ‘__str__()’
     from *note object: e4d.  As result, defining the ‘__repr__()’
     method in the subclass of these classes will affect their string
     representation.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36793(4).)

   * On AIX, *note sys.platform: 518. doesn’t contain the major version
     anymore.  It is always ‘'aix'’, instead of ‘'aix3'’ ..  ‘'aix7'’.
     Since older Python versions include the version number, so it is
     recommended to always use ‘sys.platform.startswith('aix')’.
     (Contributed by M. Felt in bpo-36588(5).)

   * ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_AcquireThread()’ now terminate
     the current thread if called while the interpreter is finalizing,
     making them consistent with *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 839,
     *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): e4e, and *note PyGILState_Ensure():
     1a5.  If this behavior is not desired, guard the call by checking
     ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’ or *note sys.is_finalizing(): e4f.
     (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-36475(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35459

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36793

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36588

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36475


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<6>,  Next: Changes in the C API<5>,  Prev: Changes in Python behavior,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.9.10.2 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * The *note os.getcwdb(): e51. function now uses the UTF-8 encoding
     on Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP 529(1) for the
     rationale.  The function is no longer deprecated on Windows.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37412(2).)

   * *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf. can now use *note os.posix_spawn():
     731. in some cases for better performance.  On Windows Subsystem
     for Linux and QEMU User Emulation, the ‘Popen’ constructor using
     ‘os.posix_spawn()’ no longer raises an exception on errors like
     «missing program».  Instead the child process fails with a non-zero
     *note returncode: e52.  (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye and Victor
     Stinner in bpo-35537(3).)

   * The 'preexec_fn' argument of * *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf. is no
     longer compatible with subinterpreters.  The use of the parameter
     in a subinterpreter now raises *note RuntimeError: 30d.
     (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-34651(4), modified by Christian
     Heimes in bpo-37951(5).)

   * The *note imaplib.IMAP4.logout(): e53. method no longer silently
     ignores arbitrary exceptions.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-36348(6).)

   * The function ‘platform.popen()’ has been removed, after having been
     deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note os.popen(): 585. instead.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35345(7).)

   * The *note statistics.mode(): e54. function no longer raises an
     exception when given multimodal data.  Instead, it returns the
     first mode encountered in the input data.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger in bpo-35892(8).)

   * The *note selection(): e55. method of the *note
     tkinter.ttk.Treeview: e56. class no longer takes arguments.  Using
     it with arguments for changing the selection was deprecated in
     Python 3.6.  Use specialized methods like *note selection_set():
     e57. for changing the selection.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-31508(9).)

   * The *note writexml(): e58, *note toxml(): e59. and *note
     toprettyxml(): e5a. methods of *note xml.dom.minidom: 12b. and the
     *note write(): e5b. method of *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. now
     preserve the attribute order specified by the user.  (Contributed
     by Diego Rojas and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-34160(10).)

   * A *note dbm.dumb: 35. database opened with flags ‘'r'’ is now
     read-only.  *note dbm.dumb.open(): e5c. with flags ‘'r'’ and ‘'w'’
     no longer creates a database if it does not exist.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32749(11).)

   * The ‘doctype()’ method defined in a subclass of *note XMLParser:
     e18. will no longer be called and will emit a *note RuntimeWarning:
     6dd. instead of a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  Define the *note
     doctype(): e5d. method on a target for handling an XML doctype
     declaration.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(12).)

   * A *note RuntimeError: 30d. is now raised when the custom metaclass
     doesn’t provide the ‘__classcell__’ entry in the namespace passed
     to ‘type.__new__’.  A *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. was emitted in
     Python 3.6–3.7.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-23722(13).)

   * The *note cProfile.Profile: da7. class can now be used as a context
     manager.  (Contributed by Scott Sanderson in bpo-29235(14).)

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): e1d, *note shutil.copy(): e1e, *note
     shutil.copy2(): e1f, *note shutil.copytree(): ded. and *note
     shutil.move(): e20. use platform-specific «fast-copy» syscalls (see
     *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: e22. section).

   * *note shutil.copyfile(): e1d. default buffer size on Windows was
     changed from 16 KiB to 1 MiB.

   * The ‘PyGC_Head’ struct has changed completely.  All code that
     touched the struct member should be rewritten.  (See
     bpo-33597(15).)

   * The *note PyInterpreterState: c90. struct has been moved into the
     «internal» header files (specifically
     Include/internal/pycore_pystate.h).  An opaque ‘PyInterpreterState’
     is still available as part of the public API (and stable ABI). The
     docs indicate that none of the struct’s fields are public, so we
     hope no one has been using them.  However, if you do rely on one or
     more of those private fields and have no alternative then please
     open a BPO issue.  We’ll work on helping you adjust (possibly
     including adding accessor functions to the public API). (See
     bpo-35886(16).)

   * The *note mmap.flush(): e5e. method now returns ‘None’ on success
     and raises an exception on error under all platforms.  Previously,
     its behavior was platform-dependent: a nonzero value was returned
     on success; zero was returned on error under Windows.  A zero value
     was returned on success; an exception was raised on error under
     Unix.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-2122(17).)

   * *note xml.dom.minidom: 12b. and *note xml.sax: 132. modules no
     longer process external entities by default.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes in bpo-17239(18).)

   * Deleting a key from a read-only *note dbm: 34. database (*note
     dbm.dumb: 35, *note dbm.gnu: 36. or *note dbm.ndbm: 37.) raises
     ‘error’ (*note dbm.dumb.error: e5f, *note dbm.gnu.error: e60. or
     *note dbm.ndbm.error: e61.) instead of *note KeyError: 7df.
     (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-33106(19).)

   * Simplified AST for literals.  All constants will be represented as
     *note ast.Constant: 569. instances.  Instantiating old classes
     ‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ and ‘Ellipsis’ will return an
     instance of ‘Constant’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-32892(20).)

   * *note expanduser(): dd8. on Windows now prefers the ‘USERPROFILE’
     environment variable and does not use ‘HOME’, which is not normally
     set for regular user accounts.  (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in
     bpo-36264(21).)

   * The exception *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da. now inherits from
     *note BaseException: 9b9. rather than *note Exception: d9e. and no
     longer inherits from *note concurrent.futures.CancelledError: d9f.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32528(22).)

   * The function *note asyncio.wait_for(): 9f6. now correctly waits for
     cancellation when using an instance of *note asyncio.Task: 460.
     Previously, upon reaching 'timeout', it was cancelled and
     immediately returned.  (Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in
     bpo-32751(23).)

   * The function *note asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info(): e62. now
     returns a safe to use socket object when “socket” is passed to the
     'name' parameter.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-37027(24).)

   * *note asyncio.BufferedProtocol: e63. has graduated to the stable
     API.

   * DLL dependencies for extension modules and DLLs loaded with *note
     ctypes: 2d. on Windows are now resolved more securely.  Only the
     system paths, the directory containing the DLL or PYD file, and
     directories added with *note add_dll_directory(): dae. are searched
     for load-time dependencies.  Specifically, ‘PATH’ and the current
     working directory are no longer used, and modifications to these
     will no longer have any effect on normal DLL resolution.  If your
     application relies on these mechanisms, you should check for
     ‘add_dll_directory()’ and if it exists, use it to add your DLLs
     directory while loading your library.  Note that Windows 7 users
     will need to ensure that Windows Update KB2533623 has been
     installed (this is also verified by the installer).  (Contributed
     by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(25).)

   * The header files and functions related to pgen have been removed
     after its replacement by a pure Python implementation.
     (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-36623(26).)

   * *note types.CodeType: 2e1. has a new parameter in the second
     position of the constructor ('posonlyargcount') to support
     positional-only arguments defined in PEP 570(27).  The first
     argument ('argcount') now represents the total number of positional
     arguments (including positional-only arguments).  The new
     ‘replace()’ method of ‘types.CodeType’ can be used to make the code
     future-proof.

   * The parameter ‘digestmod’ for *note hmac.new(): e65. no longer uses
     the MD5 digest by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34651

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37951

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36348

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31508

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34160

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32749

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35886

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2122

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33106

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37027

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36623

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<5>,  Next: CPython bytecode changes<6>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<6>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.9.10.3 Changes in the C API
.............................

   * The *note PyCompilerFlags: e67. structure got a new
     'cf_feature_version' field.  It should be initialized to
     ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’.  The field is ignored by default, and is used
     if and only if ‘PyCF_ONLY_AST’ flag is set in 'cf_flags'.
     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-35766(1).)

   * The ‘PyEval_ReInitThreads()’ function has been removed from the C
     API. It should not be called explicitly: use *note
     PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 643. instead.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-36728(2).)

   * On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to libpython except on
     Android and Cygwin.  When Python is embedded, ‘libpython’ must not
     be loaded with ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, but ‘RTLD_GLOBAL’ instead.
     Previously, using ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, it was already not possible to load
     C extensions which were not linked to ‘libpython’, like C
     extensions of the standard library built by the ‘*shared*’ section
     of ‘Modules/Setup’.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21536(3).)

   * Use of ‘#’ variants of formats in parsing or building value (e.g.
     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1, *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee, *note
     PyObject_CallFunction(): 831, etc.)  without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’
     defined raises ‘DeprecationWarning’ now.  It will be removed in
     3.10 or 4.0.  Read *note Parsing arguments and building values:
     601. for detail.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36381(4).)

   * Instances of heap-allocated types (such as those created with *note
     PyType_FromSpec(): 38e.) hold a reference to their type object.
     Increasing the reference count of these type objects has been moved
     from *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30. to the more low-level
     functions, *note PyObject_Init(): e2f. and ‘PyObject_INIT’.  This
     makes types created through ‘PyType_FromSpec()’ behave like other
     classes in managed code.

     *note Statically allocated types: b5f. are not affected.

     For the vast majority of cases, there should be no side effect.
     However, types that manually increase the reference count after
     allocating an instance (perhaps to work around the bug) may now
     become immortal.  To avoid this, these classes need to call
     Py_DECREF on the type object during instance deallocation.

     To correctly port these types into 3.8, please apply the following
     changes:

        * Remove *note Py_INCREF: 974. on the type object after
          allocating an instance - if any.  This may happen after
          calling *note PyObject_New: d4d, *note PyObject_NewVar: d4e,
          *note PyObject_GC_New(): e68, *note PyObject_GC_NewVar(): e69,
          or any other custom allocator that uses *note PyObject_Init():
          e2f. or ‘PyObject_INIT’.

          Example:

               static foo_struct *
               foo_new(PyObject *type) {
                   foo_struct *foo = PyObject_GC_New(foo_struct, (PyTypeObject *) type);
                   if (foo == NULL)
                       return NULL;
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x03080000
                   // Workaround for Python issue 35810; no longer necessary in Python 3.8
                   PY_INCREF(type)
               #endif
                   return foo;
               }

        * Ensure that all custom ‘tp_dealloc’ functions of
          heap-allocated types decrease the type’s reference count.

          Example:

               static void
               foo_dealloc(foo_struct *instance) {
                   PyObject *type = Py_TYPE(instance);
                   PyObject_GC_Del(instance);
               #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000
                   // This was not needed before Python 3.8 (Python issue 35810)
                   Py_DECREF(type);
               #endif
               }

     (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in bpo-35810(5).)

   * The *note Py_DEPRECATED(): e6a. macro has been implemented for
     MSVC.  The macro now must be placed before the symbol name.

     Example:

          Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void);

     (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-33407(6).)

   * The interpreter does not pretend to support binary compatibility of
     extension types across feature releases, anymore.  A *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. exported by a third-party extension module is
     supposed to have all the slots expected in the current Python
     version, including *note tp_finalize: e6c. (*note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 63a. is not checked anymore before
     reading ‘tp_finalize’).

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32388(7).)

   * The functions ‘PyNode_AddChild()’ and ‘PyParser_AddToken()’ now
     accept two additional ‘int’ arguments 'end_lineno' and
     'end_col_offset'.

   * The ‘libpython38.a’ file to allow MinGW tools to link directly
     against ‘python38.dll’ is no longer included in the regular Windows
     distribution.  If you require this file, it may be generated with
     the ‘gendef’ and ‘dlltool’ tools, which are part of the MinGW
     binutils package:

          gendef - python38.dll > tmp.def
          dlltool --dllname python38.dll --def tmp.def --output-lib libpython38.a

     The location of an installed ‘pythonXY.dll’ will depend on the
     installation options and the version and language of Windows.  See
     *note Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows: e6d. for more
     information.  The resulting library should be placed in the same
     directory as ‘pythonXY.lib’, which is generally the ‘libs’
     directory under your Python installation.

     (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37351(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36728

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36381

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33407

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37351


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes<6>,  Next: Demos and Tools<2>,  Prev: Changes in the C API<5>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.9.10.4 CPython bytecode changes
.................................

   * The interpreter loop has been simplified by moving the logic of
     unrolling the stack of blocks into the compiler.  The compiler
     emits now explicit instructions for adjusting the stack of values
     and calling the cleaning-up code for *note break: 428, *note
     continue: 429. and *note return: 44b.

     Removed opcodes ‘BREAK_LOOP’, ‘CONTINUE_LOOP’, ‘SETUP_LOOP’ and
     ‘SETUP_EXCEPT’.  Added new opcodes ‘ROT_FOUR’, ‘BEGIN_FINALLY’,
     ‘CALL_FINALLY’ and ‘POP_FINALLY’.  Changed the behavior of
     ‘END_FINALLY’ and ‘WITH_CLEANUP_START’.

     (Contributed by Mark Shannon, Antoine Pitrou and Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-17611(1).)

   * Added new opcode *note END_ASYNC_FOR: e6f. for handling exceptions
     raised when awaiting a next item in an *note async for: e70. loop.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33041(2).)

   * The *note MAP_ADD: e71. now expects the value as the first element
     in the stack and the key as the second element.  This change was
     made so the key is always evaluated before the value in dictionary
     comprehensions, as proposed by PEP 572(3).  (Contributed by Jörn
     Heissler in bpo-35224(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17611

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224


File: python.info,  Node: Demos and Tools<2>,  Prev: CPython bytecode changes<6>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 8

1.9.10.5 Demos and Tools
........................

Added a benchmark script for timing various ways to access variables:
‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.  (Contributed by Raymond
Hettinger in bpo-35884(1).)

Here’s a summary of performance improvements since Python 3.3:

     Python version                       3.3     3.4     3.5     3.6     3.7     3.8
     --------------                       ---     ---     ---     ---     ---     ---

     Variable and attribute read access:
         read_local                       4.0     7.1     7.1     5.4     5.1     3.9
         read_nonlocal                    5.3     7.1     8.1     5.8     5.4     4.4
         read_global                     13.3    15.5    19.0    14.3    13.6     7.6
         read_builtin                    20.0    21.1    21.6    18.5    19.0     7.5
         read_classvar_from_class        20.5    25.6    26.5    20.7    19.5    18.4
         read_classvar_from_instance     18.5    22.8    23.5    18.8    17.1    16.4
         read_instancevar                26.8    32.4    33.1    28.0    26.3    25.4
         read_instancevar_slots          23.7    27.8    31.3    20.8    20.8    20.2
         read_namedtuple                 68.5    73.8    57.5    45.0    46.8    18.4
         read_boundmethod                29.8    37.6    37.9    29.6    26.9    27.7

     Variable and attribute write access:
         write_local                      4.6     8.7     9.3     5.5     5.3     4.3
         write_nonlocal                   7.3    10.5    11.1     5.6     5.5     4.7
         write_global                    15.9    19.7    21.2    18.0    18.0    15.8
         write_classvar                  81.9    92.9    96.0   104.6   102.1    39.2
         write_instancevar               36.4    44.6    45.8    40.0    38.9    35.5
         write_instancevar_slots         28.7    35.6    36.1    27.3    26.6    25.7

     Data structure read access:
         read_list                       19.2    24.2    24.5    20.8    20.8    19.0
         read_deque                      19.9    24.7    25.5    20.2    20.6    19.8
         read_dict                       19.7    24.3    25.7    22.3    23.0    21.0
         read_strdict                    17.9    22.6    24.3    19.5    21.2    18.9

     Data structure write access:
         write_list                      21.2    27.1    28.5    22.5    21.6    20.0
         write_deque                     23.8    28.7    30.1    22.7    21.8    23.5
         write_dict                      25.9    31.4    33.3    29.3    29.2    24.7
         write_strdict                   22.9    28.4    29.9    27.5    25.2    23.1

     Stack (or queue) operations:
         list_append_pop                144.2    93.4   112.7    75.4    74.2    50.8
         deque_append_pop                30.4    43.5    57.0    49.4    49.2    42.5
         deque_append_popleft            30.8    43.7    57.3    49.7    49.7    42.8

     Timing loop:
         loop_overhead                    0.3     0.5     0.6     0.4     0.3     0.3

The benchmarks were measured on an Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor(2)
running the macOS 64-bit builds found at python.org(3).  The benchmark
script displays timings in nanoseconds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35884

   (2) 
https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html

   (3) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 8,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.11 Notable changes in Python 3.8.1
--------------------------------------

Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of
*note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a. is no longer
supported.  This is because of the behavior of the socket option
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.12 Notable changes in Python 3.8.2
--------------------------------------

Fixed a regression with the ‘ignore’ callback of *note
shutil.copytree(): ded.  The argument types are now str and List[str]
again.  (Contributed by Manuel Barkhau and Giampaolo Rodola in
gh-83571(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83571


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.13 Notable changes in Python 3.8.3
--------------------------------------

The constant values of future flags in the *note __future__: 0. module
are updated in order to prevent collision with compiler flags.
Previously ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ was clashing with
‘CO_FUTURE_DIVISION’.  (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in gh-83743(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83743


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.14 Notable changes in Python 3.8.8
--------------------------------------

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 589. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 588.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the affected
functions internally.  For more details, please see their respective
documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and
Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.15 Notable changes in Python 3.8.9
--------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: cca. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.16 Notable changes in Python 3.8.10
---------------------------------------

* Menu:

* macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support<2>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10

1.9.16.1 macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support
...........................................................

As of 3.8.10, Python now supports building and running on macOS 11 (Big
Sur) and on Apple Silicon Macs (based on the ‘ARM64’ architecture).  A
new universal build variant, ‘universal2’, is now available to natively
support both ‘ARM64’ and ‘Intel 64’ in one set of executables.  Note
that support for «weaklinking», building binaries targeted for newer
versions of macOS that will also run correctly on older versions by
testing at runtime for missing features, is not included in this
backport from Python 3.9; to support a range of macOS versions, continue
to target for and build on the oldest version in the range.

(Originally contributed by Ronald Oussoren and Lawrence D’Anna in
gh-85272(1), with fixes by FX Coudert and Eli Rykoff, and backported to
3.8 by Maxime Bélanger and Ned Deily)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85272


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.17 Notable changes in Python 3.8.10
---------------------------------------

* Menu:

* urllib.parse: urllib parse<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<5>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>

1.9.17.1 urllib.parse
.....................

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986(1), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are
stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 113.
preventing such attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new
module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See
bpo-43882(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43882


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 8 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.18 Notable changes in Python 3.8.12
---------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<7>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12

1.9.18.1 Changes in the Python API
..................................

Starting with Python 3.8.12 the *note ipaddress: 83. module no longer
accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  Leading zeros are
ambiguous and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries.  For
example the legacy function *note socket.inet_aton(): d2b. treats
leading zeros as octal notation.  glibc implementation of modern *note
inet_pton(): d2c. does not accept any leading zeros.

(Originally contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-36384(1), and
backported to 3.8 by Achraf Merzouki.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 8 14,  Next: Notable changes in 3 8 17,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.19 Notable security feature in 3.8.14
-----------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 326. and *note str: 1df. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 277. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: e2. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 9ec. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in 3 8 17,  Prev: Notable security feature in 3 8 14,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 8

1.9.20 Notable changes in 3.8.17
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* tarfile: tarfile<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<7>,  Up: Notable changes in 3 8 17

1.9.20.1 tarfile
................

   * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: e7, and *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 882, have a new a 'filter' argument that
     allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous,
     such as creating files outside the destination directory.  See
     *note Extraction filters: 883. for details.  In Python 3.12, use
     without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning:
     2c9.  In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’.
     (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 7,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 6,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 8,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.10 What’s New In Python 3.7
=============================


Editor: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.7, compared to 3.6.
Python 3.7 was released on June 27, 2018.  For full details, see the
*note changelog: 145.

* Menu:

* Summary – Release Highlights: Summary – Release Highlights<2>.
* New Features: New Features<12>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<7>.
* New Modules: New Modules<7>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<7>.
* C API Changes: C API Changes<6>.
* Build Changes: Build Changes<6>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<10>.
* Other CPython Implementation Changes: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>.
* Deprecated Python Behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API::
* Platform Support Removals::
* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<2>.
* Module Removals::
* Windows-only Changes::
* Porting to Python 3.7: Porting to Python 3 7.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.1: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.2: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.6: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.10: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.7.11: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11.
* Notable security feature in 3.7.14: Notable security feature in 3 7 14.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release Highlights<2>,  Next: New Features<12>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.1 Summary – Release Highlights
-----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * *note PEP 563: e85, postponed evaluation of type annotations.

Backwards incompatible syntax changes:

   * *note async: b19. and *note await: 432. are now reserved keywords.

New library modules:

   * *note contextvars: 28.: *note PEP 567 – Context Variables: e86.

   * *note dataclasses: 32.: *note PEP 557 – Data Classes: e87.

   * *note importlib.resources: e88.

New built-in features:

   * *note PEP 553: e89, the new *note breakpoint(): 4f9. function.

Python data model improvements:

   * *note PEP 562: e8a, customization of access to module attributes.

   * *note PEP 560: e8b, core support for typing module and generic
     types.

   * the insertion-order preservation nature of *note dict: e8c. objects
     has been declared(1) to be an official part of the Python language
     spec.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * The *note asyncio: b. module has received new features, significant
     *note usability and performance improvements: e8d.

   * The *note time: f7. module gained support for *note functions with
     nanosecond resolution: e8e.

CPython implementation improvements:

   * Avoiding the use of ASCII as a default text encoding:

        * *note PEP 538: e8f, legacy C locale coercion

        * *note PEP 540: e90, forced UTF-8 runtime mode

   * *note PEP 552: e91, deterministic .pycs

   * *note New Python Development Mode: e92.

   * *note PEP 565: e93, improved *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.
     handling

C API improvements:

   * *note PEP 539: e94, new C API for thread-local storage

Documentation improvements:

   * *note PEP 545: e95, Python documentation translations

   * New documentation translations: Japanese(2), French(3), and
     Korean(4).

This release features notable performance improvements in many areas.
The *note Optimizations: e96. section lists them in detail.

For a list of changes that may affect compatibility with previous Python
releases please refer to the *note Porting to Python 3.7: e97. section.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2017-December/151283.html

   (2) https://docs.python.org/ja/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/fr/

   (4) https://docs.python.org/ko/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<12>,  Next: Other Language Changes<7>,  Prev: Summary – Release Highlights<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.2 New Features
-------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 563; Postponed Evaluation of Annotations: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
* PEP 538; Legacy C Locale Coercion: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
* PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
* PEP 553; Built-in breakpoint(): PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
* PEP 539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
* PEP 562; Customization of Access to Module Attributes: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes.
* PEP 564; New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
* PEP 565; Show DeprecationWarning in __main__: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__.
* PEP 560; Core Support for typing module and Generic Types: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
* PEP 552; Hash-based .pyc Files: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
* PEP 545; Python Documentation Translations: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations.
* Python Development Mode (-X dev): Python Development Mode -X dev.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations,  Next: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion,  Up: New Features<12>

1.10.2.1 PEP 563: Postponed Evaluation of Annotations
.....................................................

The advent of type hints in Python uncovered two glaring usability
issues with the functionality of annotations added in PEP 3107(1) and
refined further in PEP 526(2):

   * annotations could only use names which were already available in
     the current scope, in other words they didn’t support forward
     references of any kind; and

   * annotating source code had adverse effects on startup time of
     Python programs.

Both of these issues are fixed by postponing the evaluation of
annotations.  Instead of compiling code which executes expressions in
annotations at their definition time, the compiler stores the annotation
in a string form equivalent to the AST of the expression in question.
If needed, annotations can be resolved at runtime using *note
typing.get_type_hints(): a9e.  In the common case where this is not
required, the annotations are cheaper to store (since short strings are
interned by the interpreter) and make startup time faster.

Usability-wise, annotations now support forward references, making the
following syntax valid:

     class C:
         @classmethod
         def from_string(cls, source: str) -> C:
             ...

         def validate_b(self, obj: B) -> bool:
             ...

     class B:
         ...

Since this change breaks compatibility, the new behavior needs to be
enabled on a per-module basis in Python 3.7 using a *note __future__: 0.
import:

     from __future__ import annotations

It will become the default in Python 3.10.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 563(3) – Postponed evaluation of annotations

     PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion,  Next: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode,  Prev: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations,  Up: New Features<12>

1.10.2.2 PEP 538: Legacy C Locale Coercion
..........................................

An ongoing challenge within the Python 3 series has been determining a
sensible default strategy for handling the «7-bit ASCII» text encoding
assumption currently implied by the use of the default C or POSIX locale
on non-Windows platforms.

PEP 538(1) updates the default interpreter command line interface to
automatically coerce that locale to an available UTF-8 based locale as
described in the documentation of the new *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE:
e9b. environment variable.  Automatically setting ‘LC_CTYPE’ this way
means that both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions (such
as *note readline: c2.) will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text
encoding, rather than ASCII.

The platform support definition in PEP 11(2) has also been updated to
limit full text handling support to suitably configured non-ASCII based
locales.

As part of this change, the default error handler for *note stdin: 94a.
and *note stdout: e9c. is now ‘surrogateescape’ (rather than ‘strict’)
when using any of the defined coercion target locales (currently
‘C.UTF-8’, ‘C.utf8’, and ‘UTF-8’).  The default error handler for *note
stderr: d05. continues to be ‘backslashreplace’, regardless of locale.

Locale coercion is silent by default, but to assist in debugging
potentially locale related integration problems, explicit warnings
(emitted directly on *note stderr: d05.) can be requested by setting
‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn’.  This setting will also cause the Python
runtime to emit a warning if the legacy C locale remains active when the
core interpreter is initialized.

While PEP 538(3)’s locale coercion has the benefit of also affecting
extension modules (such as GNU ‘readline’), as well as child processes
(including those running non-Python applications and older versions of
Python), it has the downside of requiring that a suitable target locale
be present on the running system.  To better handle the case where no
suitable target locale is available (as occurs on RHEL/CentOS 7, for
example), Python 3.7 also implements *note PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime
Mode: e90.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 538(4) – Coercing the legacy C locale to a UTF-8 based locale

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode,  Next: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint,  Prev: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion,  Up: New Features<12>

1.10.2.3 PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode
...........................................

The new *note -X: 178. ‘utf8’ command line option and *note PYTHONUTF8:
1ad. environment variable can be used to enable the *note Python UTF-8
Mode: a46.

When in UTF-8 mode, CPython ignores the locale settings, and uses the
UTF-8 encoding by default.  The error handlers for *note sys.stdin: 94a.
and *note sys.stdout: e9c. streams are set to ‘surrogateescape’.

The forced UTF-8 mode can be used to change the text handling behavior
in an embedded Python interpreter without changing the locale settings
of an embedding application.

While PEP 540(1)’s UTF-8 mode has the benefit of working regardless of
which locales are available on the running system, it has the downside
of having no effect on extension modules (such as GNU ‘readline’), child
processes running non-Python applications, and child processes running
older versions of Python.  To reduce the risk of corrupting text data
when communicating with such components, Python 3.7 also implements
*note PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: e90.).

The UTF-8 mode is enabled by default when the locale is ‘C’ or ‘POSIX’,
and the PEP 538(2) locale coercion feature fails to change it to a UTF-8
based alternative (whether that failure is due to
‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=0’ being set, ‘LC_ALL’ being set, or the lack of a
suitable target locale).

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 540(3) – Add a new UTF-8 mode

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint,  Next: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage,  Prev: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode,  Up: New Features<12>

1.10.2.4 PEP 553: Built-in ‘breakpoint()’
.........................................

Python 3.7 includes the new built-in *note breakpoint(): 4f9. function
as an easy and consistent way to enter the Python debugger.

Built-in ‘breakpoint()’ calls *note sys.breakpointhook(): e9f.  By
default, the latter imports *note pdb: aa. and then calls
‘pdb.set_trace()’, but by binding ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ to the function
of your choosing, ‘breakpoint()’ can enter any debugger.  Additionally,
the environment variable *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: ea0. can be set to the
callable of your debugger of choice.  Set ‘PYTHONBREAKPOINT=0’ to
completely disable built-in ‘breakpoint()’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 553(1) – Built-in breakpoint()

     PEP written and implemented by Barry Warsaw

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0553/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage,  Next: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes,  Prev: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint,  Up: New Features<12>

1.10.2.5 PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage
....................................................

While Python provides a C API for thread-local storage support; the
existing *note Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: ea2. has used int to
represent TLS keys across all platforms.  This has not generally been a
problem for officially support platforms, but that is neither
POSIX-compliant, nor portable in any practical sense.

PEP 539(1) changes this by providing a new *note Thread Specific Storage
(TSS) API: ea3. to CPython which supersedes use of the existing TLS API
within the CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing API. The
TSS API uses a new type *note Py_tss_t: ea4. instead of int to represent
TSS keys–an opaque type the definition of which may depend on the
underlying TLS implementation.  Therefore, this will allow to build
CPython on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that
cannot be safely cast to int.

Note that on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that
cannot be safely cast to int, all functions of the existing TLS API will
be no-op and immediately return failure.  This indicates clearly that
the old API is not supported on platforms where it cannot be used
reliably, and that no effort will be made to add such support.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 539(2) – A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython

     PEP written by Erik M. Bray; implementation by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes,  Next: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution,  Prev: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage,  Up: New Features<12>

1.10.2.6 PEP 562: Customization of Access to Module Attributes
..............................................................

Python 3.7 allows defining *note __getattr__(): ea6. on modules and will
call it whenever a module attribute is otherwise not found.  Defining
*note __dir__(): ea7. on modules is now also allowed.

A typical example of where this may be useful is module attribute
deprecation and lazy loading.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 562(1) – Module ‘__getattr__’ and ‘__dir__’

     PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution,  Next: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__,  Prev: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes,  Up: New Features<12>

1.10.2.7 PEP 564: New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution
...............................................................

The resolution of clocks in modern systems can exceed the limited
precision of a floating-point number returned by the *note time.time():
75e. function and its variants.  To avoid loss of precision, PEP 564(1)
adds six new «nanosecond» variants of the existing timer functions to
the *note time: f7. module:

   * *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): ea9.

   * *note time.clock_settime_ns(): eaa.

   * *note time.monotonic_ns(): eab.

   * *note time.perf_counter_ns(): eac.

   * *note time.process_time_ns(): ead.

   * *note time.time_ns(): eae.

The new functions return the number of nanoseconds as an integer value.

Measurements(2) show that on Linux and Windows the resolution of *note
time.time_ns(): eae. is approximately 3 times better than that of *note
time.time(): 75e.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 564(3) – Add new time functions with nanosecond resolution

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__,  Next: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types,  Prev: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution,  Up: New Features<12>

1.10.2.8 PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in ‘__main__’
.......................................................

The default handling of *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. has been changed
such that these warnings are once more shown by default, but only when
the code triggering them is running directly in the *note __main__: 1.
module.  As a result, developers of single file scripts and those using
Python interactively should once again start seeing deprecation warnings
for the APIs they use, but deprecation warnings triggered by imported
application, library and framework modules will continue to be hidden by
default.

As a result of this change, the standard library now allows developers
to choose between three different deprecation warning behaviours:

   * *note FutureWarning: 847.: always displayed by default, recommended
     for warnings intended to be seen by application end users (e.g.
     for deprecated application configuration settings).

   * *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.: displayed by default only in *note
     __main__: 1. and when running tests, recommended for warnings
     intended to be seen by other Python developers where a version
     upgrade may result in changed behaviour or an error.

   * *note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b.: displayed by default only
     when running tests, intended for cases where a future version
     upgrade will change the warning category to *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. or *note FutureWarning: 847.

Previously both *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. and *note
PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b. were only visible when running tests,
which meant that developers primarily writing single file scripts or
using Python interactively could be surprised by breaking changes in the
APIs they used.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 565(1) – Show DeprecationWarning in ‘__main__’

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0565/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types,  Next: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files,  Prev: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__,  Up: New Features<12>

1.10.2.9 PEP 560: Core Support for ‘typing’ module and Generic Types
....................................................................

Initially PEP 484(1) was designed in such way that it would not
introduce 'any' changes to the core CPython interpreter.  Now type hints
and the *note typing: 10d. module are extensively used by the community,
so this restriction is removed.  The PEP introduces two special methods
*note __class_getitem__(): b21. and *note __mro_entries__(): eb1, these
methods are now used by most classes and special constructs in ‘typing’.
As a result, the speed of various operations with types increased up to
7 times, the generic types can be used without metaclass conflicts, and
several long standing bugs in ‘typing’ module are fixed.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 560(2) – Core support for typing module and generic types

     PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files,  Next: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations,  Prev: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types,  Up: New Features<12>

1.10.2.10 PEP 552: Hash-based .pyc Files
........................................

Python has traditionally checked the up-to-dateness of bytecode cache
files (i.e., ‘.pyc’ files) by comparing the source metadata
(last-modified timestamp and size) with source metadata saved in the
cache file header when it was generated.  While effective, this
invalidation method has its drawbacks.  When filesystem timestamps are
too coarse, Python can miss source updates, leading to user confusion.
Additionally, having a timestamp in the cache file is problematic for
build reproducibility(1) and content-based build systems.

PEP 552(2) extends the pyc format to allow the hash of the source file
to be used for invalidation instead of the source timestamp.  Such
‘.pyc’ files are called «hash-based».  By default, Python still uses
timestamp-based invalidation and does not generate hash-based ‘.pyc’
files at runtime.  Hash-based ‘.pyc’ files may be generated with *note
py_compile: bb. or *note compileall: 21.

Hash-based ‘.pyc’ files come in two variants: checked and unchecked.
Python validates checked hash-based ‘.pyc’ files against the
corresponding source files at runtime but doesn’t do so for unchecked
hash-based pycs.  Unchecked hash-based ‘.pyc’ files are a useful
performance optimization for environments where a system external to
Python (e.g., the build system) is responsible for keeping ‘.pyc’ files
up-to-date.

See *note Ακύρωση cached bytecode: 9e3. for more information.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 552(3) – Deterministic pycs

     PEP written and implemented by Benjamin Peterson

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://reproducible-builds.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations,  Next: Python Development Mode -X dev,  Prev: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files,  Up: New Features<12>

1.10.2.11 PEP 545: Python Documentation Translations
....................................................

PEP 545(1) describes the process of creating and maintaining Python
documentation translations.

Three new translations have been added:

   - Japanese: ‘https://docs.python.org/ja/’

   - French: ‘https://docs.python.org/fr/’

   - Korean: ‘https://docs.python.org/ko/’

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 545(2) – Python Documentation Translations

     PEP written and implemented by Julien Palard, Inada Naoki, and
     Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Development Mode -X dev,  Prev: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations,  Up: New Features<12>

1.10.2.12 Python Development Mode (-X dev)
..........................................

The new *note -X: 178. ‘dev’ command line option or the new *note
PYTHONDEVMODE: eb5. environment variable can be used to enable *note
Python Development Mode: 70d.  When in development mode, Python performs
additional runtime checks that are too expensive to be enabled by
default.  See *note Python Development Mode: 70d. documentation for the
full description.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<7>,  Next: New Modules<7>,  Prev: New Features<12>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.3 Other Language Changes
-----------------------------

   * An *note await: 432. expression and comprehensions containing an
     *note async for: e70. clause were illegal in the expressions in
     *note formatted string literals: 43a. due to a problem with the
     implementation.  In Python 3.7 this restriction was lifted.

   * More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a function, and a
     function can now have more than 255 parameters.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12844(1) and bpo-18896(2).)

   * *note bytes.fromhex(): 434. and *note bytearray.fromhex(): 435. now
     ignore all ASCII whitespace, not only spaces.  (Contributed by
     Robert Xiao in bpo-28927(3).)

   * *note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7, and *note bytearray: 1c6. gained
     support for the new *note isascii(): eb7. method, which can be used
     to test if a string or bytes contain only the ASCII characters.
     (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32677(4).)

   * *note ImportError: 1bd. now displays module name and module
     ‘__file__’ path when ‘from ... import ...’ fails.  (Contributed by
     Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29546(5).)

   * Circular imports involving absolute imports with binding a
     submodule to a name are now supported.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-30024(6).)

   * ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ is now equivalent to ‘str(x)’ rather
     than ‘format(str(self), '')’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-28974(7).)

   * In order to better support dynamic creation of stack traces, *note
     types.TracebackType: eb8. can now be instantiated from Python code,
     and the *note tb_next: eb9. attribute on *note tracebacks: eba. is
     now writable.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-30579(8).)

   * When using the *note -m: 4ca. switch, ‘sys.path[0]’ is now eagerly
     expanded to the full starting directory path, rather than being
     left as the empty directory (which allows imports from the
     'current' working directory at the time when an import occurs)
     (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-33053(9).)

   * The new *note -X: 178. ‘importtime’ option or the *note
     PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: ebb. environment variable can be used to
     show the timing of each module import.  (Contributed by Inada Naoki
     in bpo-31415(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12844

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18896

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28927

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32677

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30024

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28974

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30579

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31415


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<7>,  Next: Improved Modules<7>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.4 New Modules
------------------

* Menu:

* contextvars: contextvars<2>.
* dataclasses: dataclasses<4>.
* importlib.resources: importlib resources<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: contextvars<2>,  Next: dataclasses<4>,  Up: New Modules<7>

1.10.4.1 contextvars
....................

The new *note contextvars: 28. module and a set of *note new C APIs:
ebe. introduce support for 'context variables'.  Context variables are
conceptually similar to thread-local variables.  Unlike TLS, context
variables support asynchronous code correctly.

The *note asyncio: b. and *note decimal: 39. modules have been updated
to use and support context variables out of the box.  Particularly the
active decimal context is now stored in a context variable, which allows
decimal operations to work with the correct context in asynchronous
code.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 567(1) – Context Variables

     PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses<4>,  Next: importlib resources<3>,  Prev: contextvars<2>,  Up: New Modules<7>

1.10.4.2 dataclasses
....................

The new *note dataclass(): 6e6. decorator provides a way to declare
'data classes'.  A data class describes its attributes using class
variable annotations.  Its constructor and other magic methods, such as
*note __repr__(): 1bc, *note __eq__(): ec0, and *note __hash__(): ec1.
are generated automatically.

Example:

     @dataclass
     class Point:
         x: float
         y: float
         z: float = 0.0

     p = Point(1.5, 2.5)
     print(p)   # produces "Point(x=1.5, y=2.5, z=0.0)"

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 557(1) – Data Classes

     PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources<3>,  Prev: dataclasses<4>,  Up: New Modules<7>

1.10.4.3 importlib.resources
............................

The new *note importlib.resources: 7e. module provides several new APIs
and one new ABC for access to, opening, and reading 'resources' inside
packages.  Resources are roughly similar to files inside packages, but
they needn’t be actual files on the physical file system.  Module
loaders can provide a ‘get_resource_reader()’ function which returns a
‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’ instance to support this new API.
Built-in file path loaders and zip file loaders both support this.

Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Brett Cannon in bpo-32248(1).

Δείτε επίσης
............

importlib_resources(2) – a PyPI backport for earlier Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (2) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<7>,  Next: C API Changes<6>,  Prev: New Modules<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.5 Improved Modules
-----------------------

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse<6>.
* asyncio: asyncio<11>.
* binascii: binascii<2>.
* calendar: calendar<4>.
* collections: collections<3>.
* compileall: compileall<3>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<5>.
* contextlib: contextlib<4>.
* cProfile: cProfile<2>.
* crypt::
* datetime: datetime<6>.
* dbm: dbm<3>.
* decimal: decimal<2>.
* dis: dis<4>.
* distutils: distutils<4>.
* enum: enum<5>.
* functools: functools<6>.
* gc: gc<7>.
* hmac: hmac<3>.
* http.client: http client<2>.
* http.server: http server<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE::
* importlib: importlib<4>.
* io: io<6>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<3>.
* itertools: itertools<6>.
* locale: locale<5>.
* logging: logging<3>.
* math: math<8>.
* mimetypes: mimetypes<4>.
* msilib::
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<5>.
* os: os<9>.
* pathlib: pathlib<12>.
* pdb: pdb<7>.
* py_compile: py_compile<3>.
* pydoc: pydoc<3>.
* queue: queue<2>.
* re: re<6>.
* signal: signal<2>.
* socket: socket<7>.
* socketserver::
* sqlite3: sqlite3<8>.
* ssl: ssl<7>.
* string: string<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<3>.
* sys: sys<9>.
* time: time<5>.
* tkinter: tkinter<7>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<2>.
* types: types<7>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<8>.
* unittest: unittest<9>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<6>.
* uu::
* uuid: uuid<4>.
* warnings: warnings<4>.
* xml: xml<6>.
* xml.etree: xml etree.
* xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server.
* zipapp::
* zipfile: zipfile<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<6>,  Next: asyncio<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.1 argparse
.................

The new *note ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(): ec5. method allows
intermixing options and positional arguments.  (Contributed by paul.j3
in bpo-14191(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14191


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<11>,  Next: binascii<2>,  Prev: argparse<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.2 asyncio
................

The *note asyncio: b. module has received many new features, usability
and *note performance improvements: ec7.  Notable changes include:

   * The new *note provisional: 5fd. *note asyncio.run(): 309. function
     can be used to run a coroutine from synchronous code by
     automatically creating and destroying the event loop.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32314(1).)

   * asyncio gained support for *note contextvars: 28.  *note
     loop.call_soon(): ec8, *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): ec9,
     *note loop.call_later(): eca, *note loop.call_at(): ecb, and *note
     Future.add_done_callback(): ecc. have a new optional keyword-only
     'context' parameter.  *note Tasks: 460. now track their context
     automatically.  See PEP 567(2) for more details.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov in bpo-32436(3).)

   * The new *note asyncio.create_task(): 462. function has been added
     as a shortcut to ‘asyncio.get_event_loop().create_task()’.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32311(4).)

   * The new *note loop.start_tls(): ecd. method can be used to upgrade
     an existing connection to TLS. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-23749(5).)

   * The new *note loop.sock_recv_into(): ece. method allows reading
     data from a socket directly into a provided buffer making it
     possible to reduce data copies.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-31819(6).)

   * The new *note asyncio.current_task(): 88f. function returns the
     currently running *note Task: 460. instance, and the new *note
     asyncio.all_tasks(): d20. function returns a set of all existing
     ‘Task’ instances in a given loop.  The ‘Task.current_task()’ and
     ‘Task.all_tasks()’ methods have been deprecated.  (Contributed by
     Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250(7).)

   * The new 'provisional' *note BufferedProtocol: e63. class allows
     implementing streaming protocols with manual control over the
     receive buffer.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32251(8).)

   * The new *note asyncio.get_running_loop(): ecf. function returns the
     currently running loop, and raises a *note RuntimeError: 30d. if no
     loop is running.  This is in contrast with *note
     asyncio.get_event_loop(): 56c, which will 'create' a new event loop
     if none is running.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32269(9).)

   * The new *note StreamWriter.wait_closed(): ed0. coroutine method
     allows waiting until the stream writer is closed.  The new *note
     StreamWriter.is_closing(): ed1. method can be used to determine if
     the writer is closing.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32391(10).)

   * The new *note loop.sock_sendfile(): ed2. coroutine method allows
     sending files using *note os.sendfile: ed3. when possible.
     (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32410(11).)

   * The new *note Future.get_loop(): ed4. and ‘Task.get_loop()’ methods
     return the instance of the loop on which a task or a future were
     created.  *note Server.get_loop(): ed5. allows doing the same for
     *note asyncio.Server: ed6. objects.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
     in bpo-32415(12) and Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy in bpo-32418(13).)

   * It is now possible to control how instances of *note
     asyncio.Server: ed6. begin serving.  Previously, the server would
     start serving immediately when created.  The new 'start_serving'
     keyword argument to *note loop.create_server(): ed7. and *note
     loop.create_unix_server(): 6d0, as well as *note
     Server.start_serving(): ed8, and *note Server.serve_forever(): ed9.
     can be used to decouple server instantiation and serving.  The new
     *note Server.is_serving(): eda. method returns ‘True’ if the server
     is serving.  ‘Server’ objects are now asynchronous context
     managers:

          srv = await loop.create_server(...)

          async with srv:
              # some code

          # At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.

     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32662(14).)

   * Callback objects returned by *note loop.call_later(): eca. gained
     the new *note when(): edb. method which returns an absolute
     scheduled callback timestamp.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32741(15).)

   * The *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a. method gained
     support for Unix sockets.  (Contributed by Quentin Dawans in
     bpo-31245(16).)

   * The *note asyncio.open_connection(): edc, *note
     asyncio.start_server(): edd. functions, *note
     loop.create_connection(): 9f9, *note loop.create_server(): ed7,
     *note loop.create_accepted_socket(): bbb. methods and their
     corresponding UNIX socket variants now accept the
     'ssl_handshake_timeout' keyword argument.  (Contributed by Neil
     Aspinall in bpo-29970(17).)

   * The new *note Handle.cancelled(): ede. method returns ‘True’ if the
     callback was cancelled.  (Contributed by Marat Sharafutdinov in
     bpo-31943(18).)

   * The asyncio source has been converted to use the *note async:
     b19./*note await: 432. syntax.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
     bpo-32193(19).)

   * The new *note ReadTransport.is_reading(): edf. method can be used
     to determine the reading state of the transport.  Additionally,
     calls to *note ReadTransport.resume_reading(): ee0. and *note
     ReadTransport.pause_reading(): ee1. are now idempotent.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32356(20).)

   * Loop methods which accept socket paths now support passing *note
     path-like objects: 79f.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32066(21).)

   * In *note asyncio: b. TCP sockets on Linux are now created with
     ‘TCP_NODELAY’ flag set by default.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
     and Victor Stinner in bpo-27456(22).)

   * Exceptions occurring in cancelled tasks are no longer logged.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-30508(23).)

   * New ‘WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy’ and
     ‘WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy’ classes.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-33792(24).)

Several ‘asyncio’ APIs have been *note deprecated: ee2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32311

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23749

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31819

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32251

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32269

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32391

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32415

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32418

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31245

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29970

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31943

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32193

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32356

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32066

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792


File: python.info,  Node: binascii<2>,  Next: calendar<4>,  Prev: asyncio<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.3 binascii
.................

The *note b2a_uu(): ee4. function now accepts an optional 'backtick'
keyword argument.  When it’s true, zeros are represented by ‘'`'’
instead of spaces.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-30103(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103


File: python.info,  Node: calendar<4>,  Next: collections<3>,  Prev: binascii<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.4 calendar
.................

The *note HTMLCalendar: 202. class has new class attributes which ease
the customization of CSS classes in the produced HTML calendar.
(Contributed by Oz Tiram in bpo-30095(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30095


File: python.info,  Node: collections<3>,  Next: compileall<3>,  Prev: calendar<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.5 collections
....................

‘collections.namedtuple()’ now supports default values.  (Contributed by
Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32320(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32320


File: python.info,  Node: compileall<3>,  Next: concurrent futures<5>,  Prev: collections<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.6 compileall
...................

*note compileall.compile_dir(): ee8. learned the new 'invalidation_mode'
parameter, which can be used to enable *note hash-based .pyc
invalidation: e91.  The invalidation mode can also be specified on the
command line using the new ‘--invalidation-mode’ argument.  (Contributed
by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-31650(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31650


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<5>,  Next: contextlib<4>,  Prev: compileall<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.7 concurrent.futures
...........................

*note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. and *note ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. now
support the new 'initializer' and 'initargs' constructor arguments.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-21423(1).)

The *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. can now take the multiprocessing
context via the new 'mp_context' argument.  (Contributed by Thomas
Moreau in bpo-31540(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31540


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<4>,  Next: cProfile<2>,  Prev: concurrent futures<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.8 contextlib
...................

The new *note nullcontext(): bca. is a simpler and faster no-op context
manager than *note ExitStack: 208.  (Contributed by Jesse-Bakker in
bpo-10049(1).)

The new *note asynccontextmanager(): 20f, *note
AbstractAsyncContextManager: eeb, and *note AsyncExitStack: 209. have
been added to complement their synchronous counterparts.  (Contributed
by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-29679(2) and bpo-30241(3), and by Alexander
Mohr and Ilya Kulakov in bpo-29302(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10049

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29679

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30241

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29302


File: python.info,  Node: cProfile<2>,  Next: crypt,  Prev: contextlib<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.9 cProfile
.................

The ‘cProfile’ command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’ as an
alternative to script path.  (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in
bpo-21862(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21862


File: python.info,  Node: crypt,  Next: datetime<6>,  Prev: cProfile<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.10 crypt
...............

The ‘crypt’ module now supports the Blowfish hashing method.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31664(1).)

The ‘mksalt()’ function now allows specifying the number of rounds for
hashing.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31702(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31664

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31702


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<6>,  Next: dbm<3>,  Prev: crypt,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.11 datetime
..................

The new *note datetime.fromisoformat(): a0a. method constructs a *note
datetime: 6e7. object from a string in one of the formats output by
*note datetime.isoformat(): eef.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in
bpo-15873(1).)

The *note tzinfo: 9d8. class now supports sub-minute offsets.
(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-5288(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15873

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5288


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<3>,  Next: decimal<2>,  Prev: datetime<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.12 dbm
.............

*note dbm.dumb: 35. now supports reading read-only files and no longer
writes the index file when it is not changed.


File: python.info,  Node: decimal<2>,  Next: dis<4>,  Prev: dbm<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.13 decimal
.................

The *note decimal: 39. module now uses *note context variables: e86. to
store the decimal context.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-32630(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32630


File: python.info,  Node: dis<4>,  Next: distutils<4>,  Prev: decimal<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.14 dis
.............

The *note dis(): 496. function is now able to disassemble nested code
objects (the code of comprehensions, generator expressions and nested
functions, and the code used for building nested classes).  The maximum
depth of disassembly recursion is controlled by the new 'depth'
parameter.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-11822(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11822


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<4>,  Next: enum<5>,  Prev: dis<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.15 distutils
...................

‘README.rst’ is now included in the list of distutils standard READMEs
and therefore included in source distributions.  (Contributed by Ryan
Gonzalez in bpo-11913(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11913


File: python.info,  Node: enum<5>,  Next: functools<6>,  Prev: distutils<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.16 enum
..............

The *note Enum: a21. learned the new ‘_ignore_’ class property, which
allows listing the names of properties which should not become enum
members.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-31801(1).)

In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in *note Enum:
a21. classes will raise a *note TypeError: 291. (e.g.  ‘1 in Color’);
similarly, attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a *note Flag:
a14. member will raise ‘TypeError’ (e.g.  ‘1 in Perm.RW’); currently,
both operations return *note False: ef5. instead and are deprecated.
(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-33217(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31801

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217


File: python.info,  Node: functools<6>,  Next: gc<7>,  Prev: enum<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.17 functools
...................

*note functools.singledispatch(): a2a. now supports registering
implementations using type annotations.  (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in
bpo-32227(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32227


File: python.info,  Node: gc<7>,  Next: hmac<3>,  Prev: functools<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.18 gc
............

The new *note gc.freeze(): ef8. function allows freezing all objects
tracked by the garbage collector and excluding them from future
collections.  This can be used before a POSIX ‘fork()’ call to make the
GC copy-on-write friendly or to speed up collection.  The new *note
gc.unfreeze(): ef9. functions reverses this operation.  Additionally,
*note gc.get_freeze_count(): efa. can be used to obtain the number of
frozen objects.  (Contributed by Li Zekun in bpo-31558(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31558


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<3>,  Next: http client<2>,  Prev: gc<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.19 hmac
..............

The *note hmac: 6d. module now has an optimized one-shot *note digest():
efc. function, which is up to three times faster than *note HMAC(): efd.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32433(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32433


File: python.info,  Node: http client<2>,  Next: http server<3>,  Prev: hmac<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.20 http.client
.....................

*note HTTPConnection: 223. and *note HTTPSConnection: 224. now support
the new 'blocksize' argument for improved upload throughput.
(Contributed by Nir Soffer in bpo-31945(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31945


File: python.info,  Node: http server<3>,  Next: idlelib and IDLE,  Prev: http client<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.21 http.server
.....................

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 22a. now supports the HTTP
‘If-Modified-Since’ header.  The server returns the 304 response status
if the target file was not modified after the time specified in the
header.  (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in bpo-29654(1).)

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 22a. accepts the new 'directory'
argument, in addition to the new ‘--directory’ command line argument.
With this parameter, the server serves the specified directory, by
default it uses the current working directory.  (Contributed by Stéphane
Wirtel and Julien Palard in bpo-28707(2).)

The new *note ThreadingHTTPServer: f00. class uses threads to handle
requests using *note ThreadingMixIn: f01.  It is used when ‘http.server’
is run with ‘-m’.  (Contributed by Julien Palard in bpo-31639(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29654

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28707

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE,  Next: importlib<4>,  Prev: http server<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.22 idlelib and IDLE
..........................

Multiple fixes for autocompletion.  (Contributed by Louie Lu in
bpo-15786(1).)

Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser), now
displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level functions
and classes.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-1612262(2).)

The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten
to improve both appearance and function.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella
and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)

The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that
users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-13802(3).)  The sample can be
edited to include other characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-31860(4).)

The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been
reimplemented as normal features.  Their settings have been moved from
the Extensions tab to other dialog tabs.  (Contributed by Charles
Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-27099(5).)

Editor code context option revised.  Box displays all context lines up
to maxlines.  Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line.
Context colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings
dialog.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in
bpo-33642(6), bpo-33768(7), and bpo-33679(8).)

On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On
Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python
binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this
should make text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33656(9).)

New in 3.7.1:

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.  N can
be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings
dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right
clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place by
double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by
right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in
bpo-1529353(10).)

The changes above have been backported to 3.6 maintenance releases.

NEW in 3.7.4:

Add «Run Customized» to the Run menu to run a module with customized
settings.  Any command line arguments entered are added to sys.argv.
They re-appear in the box for the next customized run.  One can also
suppress the normal Shell main module restart.  (Contributed by Cheryl
Sabella, Terry Jan Reedy, and others in bpo-5680(11) and bpo-37627(12).)

New in 3.7.5:

Add optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows.  Windows open without
line numbers unless set otherwise in the General tab of the
configuration dialog.  Line numbers for an existing window are shown and
hidden in the Options menu.  (Contributed by Tal Einat and Saimadhav
Heblikar in bpo-17535(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<4>,  Next: io<6>,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.23 importlib
...................

The ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’ ABC was introduced to support the
loading of resources from packages.  See also *note importlib.resources:
e88.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon in bpo-32248(1).)

*note importlib.reload(): 928. now raises *note ModuleNotFoundError:
1be. if the module lacks a spec.  (Contributed by Garvit Khatri in
bpo-29851(2).)

*note importlib.util.find_spec(): 7a7. now raises *note
ModuleNotFoundError: 1be. instead of *note AttributeError: 1a9. if the
specified parent module is not a package (i.e.  lacks a ‘__path__’
attribute).  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-30436(3).)

The new *note importlib.util.source_hash(): f04. can be used to compute
the hash of the passed source.  A *note hash-based .pyc file: e91.
embeds the value returned by this function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29851

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30436


File: python.info,  Node: io<6>,  Next: ipaddress<3>,  Prev: importlib<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.24 io
............

The new *note TextIOWrapper.reconfigure(): f06. method can be used to
reconfigure the text stream with the new settings.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-30526(1) and INADA Naoki in bpo-15216(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30526

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15216


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<3>,  Next: itertools<6>,  Prev: io<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.25 ipaddress
...................

The new ‘subnet_of()’ and ‘supernet_of()’ methods of *note
ipaddress.IPv6Network: 713. and *note ipaddress.IPv4Network: 712. can be
used for network containment tests.  (Contributed by Michel Albert and
Cheryl Sabella in bpo-20825(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20825


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<6>,  Next: locale<5>,  Prev: ipaddress<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.26 itertools
...................

*note itertools.islice(): f09. now accepts *note integer-like objects:
43d. as start, stop, and slice arguments.  (Contributed by Will Roberts
in bpo-30537(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30537


File: python.info,  Node: locale<5>,  Next: logging<3>,  Prev: itertools<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.27 locale
................

The new 'monetary' argument to *note locale.format_string(): 92d. can be
used to make the conversion use monetary thousands separators and
grouping strings.  (Contributed by Garvit in bpo-10379(1).)

The *note locale.getpreferredencoding(): 947. function now always
returns ‘'UTF-8'’ on Android or when in the *note forced UTF-8 mode:
e90.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379


File: python.info,  Node: logging<3>,  Next: math<8>,  Prev: locale<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.28 logging
.................

*note Logger: f0c. instances can now be pickled.  (Contributed by Vinay
Sajip in bpo-30520(1).)

The new *note StreamHandler.setStream(): f0d. method can be used to
replace the logger stream after handler creation.  (Contributed by Vinay
Sajip in bpo-30522(2).)

It is now possible to specify keyword arguments to handler constructors
in configuration passed to *note logging.config.fileConfig(): f0e.
(Contributed by Preston Landers in bpo-31080(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30520

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31080


File: python.info,  Node: math<8>,  Next: mimetypes<4>,  Prev: logging<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.29 math
..............

The new *note math.remainder(): f10. function implements the IEEE
754-style remainder operation.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
bpo-29962(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29962


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes<4>,  Next: msilib,  Prev: math<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.30 mimetypes
...................

The MIME type of .bmp has been changed from ‘'image/x-ms-bmp'’ to
‘'image/bmp'’.  (Contributed by Nitish Chandra in bpo-22589(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22589


File: python.info,  Node: msilib,  Next: multiprocessing<5>,  Prev: mimetypes<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.31 msilib
................

The new ‘Database.Close()’ method can be used to close the MSI database.
(Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20486(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20486


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<5>,  Next: os<9>,  Prev: msilib,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.32 multiprocessing
.........................

The new *note Process.close(): f14. method explicitly closes the process
object and releases all resources associated with it.  *note ValueError:
277. is raised if the underlying process is still running.  (Contributed
by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-30596(1).)

The new *note Process.kill(): f15. method can be used to terminate the
process using the *note SIGKILL: f16. signal on Unix.  (Contributed by
Vitor Pereira in bpo-30794(2).)

Non-daemonic threads created by *note Process: 4de. are now joined on
process exit.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18966(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30596

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30794

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18966


File: python.info,  Node: os<9>,  Next: pathlib<12>,  Prev: multiprocessing<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.33 os
............

*note os.fwalk(): f18. now accepts the 'path' argument as *note bytes:
1c7.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28682(1).)

*note os.scandir(): e23. gained support for *note file descriptors: f19.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25996(2).)

The new *note register_at_fork(): 332. function allows registering
Python callbacks to be executed at process fork.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16500(3).)

Added *note os.preadv(): f1a. (combine the functionality of *note
os.readv(): f1b. and *note os.pread(): f1c.) and *note os.pwritev():
f1d. functions (combine the functionality of *note os.writev(): f1e. and
*note os.pwrite(): f1f.).  (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in
bpo-31368(4).)

The mode argument of *note os.makedirs(): 72f. no longer affects the
file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level directories.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19930(5).)

*note os.dup2(): f20. now returns the new file descriptor.  Previously,
‘None’ was always returned.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in
bpo-32441(6).)

The structure returned by *note os.stat(): 4f5. now contains the *note
st_fstype: f21. attribute on Solaris and its derivatives.  (Contributed
by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-32659(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28682

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31368

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32659


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<12>,  Next: pdb<7>,  Prev: os<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.34 pathlib
.................

The new *note Path.is_mount(): ddb. method is now available on POSIX
systems and can be used to determine whether a path is a mount point.
(Contributed by Cooper Ry Lees in bpo-30897(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30897


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<7>,  Next: py_compile<3>,  Prev: pathlib<12>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.35 pdb
.............

*note pdb.set_trace(): 4fa. now takes an optional 'header' keyword-only
argument.  If given, it is printed to the console just before debugging
begins.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31389(1).)

*note pdb: aa. command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’ as an
alternative to script file.  (Contributed by Mario Corchero in
bpo-32206(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32206


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile<3>,  Next: pydoc<3>,  Prev: pdb<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.36 py_compile
....................

*note py_compile.compile(): de9. – and by extension, *note compileall:
21. – now respects the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable by
unconditionally creating ‘.pyc’ files for hash-based validation.  This
allows for guaranteeing reproducible builds(1) of ‘.pyc’ files when they
are created eagerly.  (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in
bpo-29708(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://reproducible-builds.org/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29708


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<3>,  Next: queue<2>,  Prev: py_compile<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.37 pydoc
...............

The pydoc server can now bind to an arbitrary hostname specified by the
new ‘-n’ command-line argument.  (Contributed by Feanil Patel in
bpo-31128(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31128


File: python.info,  Node: queue<2>,  Next: re<6>,  Prev: pydoc<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.38 queue
...............

The new *note SimpleQueue: f27. class is an unbounded FIFO queue.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14976(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14976


File: python.info,  Node: re<6>,  Next: signal<2>,  Prev: queue<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.39 re
............

The flags *note re.ASCII: a1d, *note re.LOCALE: f29. and *note
re.UNICODE: f2a. can be set within the scope of a group.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31690(1).)

*note re.split(): 7a0. now supports splitting on a pattern like ‘r'\b'’,
‘'^$'’ or ‘(?=-)’ that matches an empty string.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-25054(2).)

Regular expressions compiled with the *note re.LOCALE: f29. flag no
longer depend on the locale at compile time.  Locale settings are
applied only when the compiled regular expression is used.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30215(3).)

*note FutureWarning: 847. is now emitted if a regular expression
contains character set constructs that will change semantically in the
future, such as nested sets and set operations.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-30349(4).)

Compiled regular expression and match objects can now be copied using
*note copy.copy(): 942. and *note copy.deepcopy(): f2b.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10076(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31690

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30215

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10076


File: python.info,  Node: signal<2>,  Next: socket<7>,  Prev: re<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.40 signal
................

The new 'warn_on_full_buffer' argument to the *note
signal.set_wakeup_fd(): f2d. function makes it possible to specify
whether Python prints a warning on stderr when the wakeup buffer
overflows.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-30050(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30050


File: python.info,  Node: socket<7>,  Next: socketserver,  Prev: signal<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.41 socket
................

The new *note socket.getblocking(): f2f. method returns ‘True’ if the
socket is in blocking mode and ‘False’ otherwise.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-32373(1).)

The new *note socket.close(): f30. function closes the passed socket
file descriptor.  This function should be used instead of *note
os.close(): f31. for better compatibility across platforms.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32454(2).)

The *note socket: d4. module now exposes the *note
socket.TCP_CONGESTION: f32. (Linux 2.6.13), *note
socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT: f32. (Linux 2.6.37), and *note
socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT: f32. (Linux 3.12) constants.  (Contributed by
Omar Sandoval in bpo-26273(3) and Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-29728(4).)

Support for *note socket.AF_VSOCK: f33. sockets has been added to allow
communication between virtual machines and their hosts.  (Contributed by
Cathy Avery in bpo-27584(5).)

Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol from file descriptor
by default.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28134(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32454

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29728

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27584

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28134


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver,  Next: sqlite3<8>,  Prev: socket<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.42 socketserver
......................

*note socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close: f35. now waits until all
non-daemon threads complete.  ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close’
now waits until all child processes complete.

Add a new *note socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close: f36. class
attribute to *note socketserver.ForkingMixIn: f37. and *note
socketserver.ThreadingMixIn: f01. classes.  Set the class attribute to
‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<8>,  Next: ssl<7>,  Prev: socketserver,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.43 sqlite3
.................

*note sqlite3.Connection: 3df. now exposes the *note backup(): f39.
method when the underlying SQLite library is at version 3.6.11 or
higher.  (Contributed by Lele Gaifax in bpo-27645(1).)

The 'database' argument of *note sqlite3.connect(): 3e0. now accepts any
*note path-like object: 79f, instead of just a string.  (Contributed by
Anders Lorentsen in bpo-31843(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31843


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<7>,  Next: string<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.44 ssl
.............

The *note ssl: d8. module now uses OpenSSL’s builtin API instead of
‘match_hostname()’ to check a host name or an IP address.  Values are
validated during TLS handshake.  Any certificate validation error
including failing the host name check now raises *note
SSLCertVerificationError: f3b. and aborts the handshake with a proper
TLS Alert message.  The new exception contains additional information.
Host name validation can be customized with *note
SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name: f3c.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-31399(1).)

     Σημείωση: The improved host name check requires a 'libssl'
     implementation compatible with OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1.  Consequently,
     OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported (see *note Platform
     Support Removals: f3d. for more details).  The ssl module is mostly
     compatible with LibreSSL 2.7.2 and newer.

The ‘ssl’ module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI TLS extension.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32185(2).)

‘match_hostname()’ no longer supports partial wildcards like
‘www*.example.org’.  (Contributed by Mandeep Singh in bpo-23033(3) and
Christian Heimes in bpo-31399(4).)

The default cipher suite selection of the ‘ssl’ module now uses a
blacklist approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist.  Python no longer
re-enables ciphers that have been blocked by OpenSSL security updates.
Default cipher suite selection can be configured at compile time.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-31429(5).)

Validation of server certificates containing internationalized domain
names (IDNs) is now supported.  As part of this change, the *note
SSLSocket.server_hostname: f3e. attribute now stores the expected
hostname in A-label form (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’), rather than the
U-label form (‘"pythön.org"’).  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith and
Christian Heimes in bpo-28414(6).)

The ‘ssl’ module has preliminary and experimental support for TLS 1.3
and OpenSSL 1.1.1.  At the time of Python 3.7.0 release, OpenSSL 1.1.1
is still under development and TLS 1.3 hasn’t been finalized yet.  The
TLS 1.3 handshake and protocol behaves slightly differently than TLS 1.2
and earlier, see *note TLS 1.3: f3f.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
in bpo-32947(7), bpo-20995(8), bpo-29136(9), bpo-30622(10) and
bpo-33618(11))

*note SSLSocket: cbb. and *note SSLObject: f40. no longer have a public
constructor.  Direct instantiation was never a documented and supported
feature.  Instances must be created with *note SSLContext: 336. methods
*note wrap_socket(): 933. and *note wrap_bio(): f41.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-32951(12))

OpenSSL 1.1 APIs for setting the minimum and maximum TLS protocol
version are available as *note SSLContext.minimum_version: c46. and
*note SSLContext.maximum_version: c47.  Supported protocols are
indicated by several new flags, such as *note HAS_TLSv1_1: f42.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32609(13).)

Added *note ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: df5. to enable and *note
ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): df6. to initiate TLS 1.3
post-handshake authentication.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-78851(14).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32185

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23033

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31429

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20995

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32609

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851


File: python.info,  Node: string<2>,  Next: subprocess<3>,  Prev: ssl<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.45 string
................

*note string.Template: a77. now lets you to optionally modify the
regular expression pattern for braced placeholders and non-braced
placeholders separately.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-1198569(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1198569


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<3>,  Next: sys<9>,  Prev: string<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.46 subprocess
....................

The *note subprocess.run(): f45. function accepts the new
'capture_output' keyword argument.  When true, stdout and stderr will be
captured.  This is equivalent to passing *note subprocess.PIPE: f46. as
'stdout' and 'stderr' arguments.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in
bpo-32102(1).)

The ‘subprocess.run’ function and the *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf.
constructor now accept the 'text' keyword argument as an alias to
'universal_newlines'.  (Contributed by Andrew Clegg in bpo-31756(2).)

On Windows the default for 'close_fds' was changed from ‘False’ to
‘True’ when redirecting the standard handles.  It’s now possible to set
'close_fds' to true when redirecting the standard handles.  See *note
subprocess.Popen: 6bf.  This means that 'close_fds' now defaults to
‘True’ on all supported platforms.  (Contributed by Segev Finer in
bpo-19764(3).)

The subprocess module is now more graceful when handling *note
KeyboardInterrupt: d96. during *note subprocess.call(): f47, *note
subprocess.run(): f45, or in a *note Popen: 6bf. context manager.  It
now waits a short amount of time for the child to exit, before
continuing the handling of the ‘KeyboardInterrupt’ exception.
(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in bpo-25942(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31756

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19764

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25942


File: python.info,  Node: sys<9>,  Next: time<5>,  Prev: subprocess<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.47 sys
.............

The new *note sys.breakpointhook(): e9f. hook function is called by the
built-in *note breakpoint(): 4f9.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-31353(1).)

On Android, the new *note sys.getandroidapilevel(): f49. returns the
build-time Android API version.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-28740(2).)

The new *note sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): f4a. function
returns the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by the new
*note sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): f4b.  *note asyncio: b.
has been converted to use this new API instead of the deprecated
‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’.  (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in
bpo-32591(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28740

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32591


File: python.info,  Node: time<5>,  Next: tkinter<7>,  Prev: sys<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.48 time
..............

PEP 564(1) adds six new functions with nanosecond resolution to the
*note time: f7. module:

   * *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): ea9.

   * *note time.clock_settime_ns(): eaa.

   * *note time.monotonic_ns(): eab.

   * *note time.perf_counter_ns(): eac.

   * *note time.process_time_ns(): ead.

   * *note time.time_ns(): eae.

New clock identifiers have been added:

   * *note time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: f4d. (Linux): Identical to *note
     time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: a88, except it also includes any time that
     the system is suspended.

   * *note time.CLOCK_PROF: f4e. (FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD):
     High-resolution per-process CPU timer.

   * *note time.CLOCK_UPTIME: f4f. (FreeBSD, OpenBSD): Time whose
     absolute value is the time the system has been running and not
     suspended, providing accurate uptime measurement.

The new *note time.thread_time(): d03. and *note time.thread_time_ns():
f50. functions can be used to get per-thread CPU time measurements.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32025(2).)

The new *note time.pthread_getcpuclockid(): f51. function returns the
clock ID of the thread-specific CPU-time clock.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32025


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<7>,  Next: tracemalloc<2>,  Prev: time<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.49 tkinter
.................

The new *note tkinter.ttk.Spinbox: f53. class is now available.
(Contributed by Alan Moore in bpo-32585(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<2>,  Next: types<7>,  Prev: tkinter<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.50 tracemalloc
.....................

*note tracemalloc.Traceback: f55. behaves more like regular tracebacks,
sorting the frames from oldest to most recent.  *note
Traceback.format(): f56. now accepts negative 'limit', truncating the
result to the ‘abs(limit)’ oldest frames.  To get the old behaviour, use
the new 'most_recent_first' argument to ‘Traceback.format()’.
(Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121


File: python.info,  Node: types<7>,  Next: unicodedata<8>,  Prev: tracemalloc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.51 types
...............

The new *note WrapperDescriptorType: f58, *note MethodWrapperType: a3a,
*note MethodDescriptorType: f59, and *note ClassMethodDescriptorType:
f5a. classes are now available.  (Contributed by Manuel Krebber and
Guido van Rossum in bpo-29377(1), and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32265(2).)

The new *note types.resolve_bases(): f5b. function resolves MRO entries
dynamically as specified by PEP 560(3).  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi
in bpo-32717(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29377

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32265

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32717


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<8>,  Next: unittest<9>,  Prev: types<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.52 unicodedata
.....................

The internal *note unicodedata: 10e. database has been upgraded to use
Unicode 11(1).  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode11.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<9>,  Next: unittest mock,  Prev: unicodedata<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.53 unittest
..................

The new ‘-k’ command-line option allows filtering tests by a name
substring or a Unix shell-like pattern.  For example, ‘python -m
unittest -k foo’ runs ‘foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something’,
‘bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo’, but not
‘bar_tests.FooTest.test_something’.  (Contributed by Jonas Haag in
bpo-32071(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32071


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock,  Next: urllib parse<6>,  Prev: unittest<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.54 unittest.mock
.......................

The *note sentinel: f5f. attributes now preserve their identity when
they are *note copied: 29. or *note pickled: ab.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-20804(1).)

The new *note seal(): f60. function allows sealing *note Mock: e0e.
instances, which will disallow further creation of attribute mocks.  The
seal is applied recursively to all attributes that are themselves mocks.
(Contributed by Mario Corchero in bpo-30541(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20804

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30541


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<6>,  Next: uu,  Prev: unittest mock,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.55 urllib.parse
......................

*note urllib.parse.quote(): f62. has been updated from RFC 2396(1) to
RFC 3986(2), adding ‘~’ to the set of characters that are never quoted
by default.  (Contributed by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath in
bpo-16285(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16285


File: python.info,  Node: uu,  Next: uuid<4>,  Prev: urllib parse<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.56 uu
............

The ‘uu.encode()’ function now accepts an optional 'backtick' keyword
argument.  When it’s true, zeros are represented by ‘'`'’ instead of
spaces.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-30103(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103


File: python.info,  Node: uuid<4>,  Next: warnings<4>,  Prev: uu,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.57 uuid
..............

The new *note UUID.is_safe: f65. attribute relays information from the
platform about whether generated UUIDs are generated with a
multiprocessing-safe method.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in
bpo-22807(1).)

*note uuid.getnode(): f66. now prefers universally administered MAC
addresses over locally administered MAC addresses.  This makes a better
guarantee for global uniqueness of UUIDs returned from *note
uuid.uuid1(): f67.  If only locally administered MAC addresses are
available, the first such one found is returned.  (Contributed by Barry
Warsaw in bpo-32107(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22807

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32107


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<4>,  Next: xml<6>,  Prev: uuid<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.58 warnings
..................

The initialization of the default warnings filters has changed as
follows:

   * warnings enabled via command line options (including those for
     *note -b: 2ed. and the new CPython-specific *note -X: 178. ‘dev’
     option) are always passed to the warnings machinery via the *note
     sys.warnoptions: 3a5. attribute.

   * warnings filters enabled via the command line or the environment
     now have the following order of precedence:

        * the ‘BytesWarning’ filter for *note -b: 2ed. (or ‘-bb’)

        * any filters specified with the *note -W: 1c0. option

        * any filters specified with the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: 1c1.
          environment variable

        * any other CPython specific filters (e.g.  the ‘default’ filter
          added for the new ‘-X dev’ mode)

        * any implicit filters defined directly by the warnings
          machinery

   * in *note CPython debug builds: 3dc, all warnings are now displayed
     by default (the implicit filter list is empty)

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan and Victor Stinner in bpo-20361(1),
bpo-32043(2), and bpo-32230(3).)

Deprecation warnings are once again shown by default in single-file
scripts and at the interactive prompt.  See *note PEP 565; Show
DeprecationWarning in __main__: e93. for details.  (Contributed by Nick
Coghlan in bpo-31975(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20361

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32043

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32230

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31975


File: python.info,  Node: xml<6>,  Next: xml etree,  Prev: warnings<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.59 xml
.............

As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note
xml.dom.minidom: 12b. and *note xml.sax: 132. modules no longer process
external entities by default.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-61441(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree,  Next: xmlrpc server,  Prev: xml<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.60 xml.etree
...................

*note ElementPath: f6b. predicates in the ‘find()’ methods can now
compare text of the current node with ‘[. = "text"]’, not only text in
children.  Predicates also allow adding spaces for better readability.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-31648(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31648


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc server,  Next: zipapp,  Prev: xml etree,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.61 xmlrpc.server
.......................

‘SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher.register_function()’ can now be used as a
decorator.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-7769(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7769


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp,  Next: zipfile<3>,  Prev: xmlrpc server,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.62 zipapp
................

Function *note create_archive(): f6e. now accepts an optional 'filter'
argument to allow the user to select which files should be included in
the archive.  (Contributed by Irmen de Jong in bpo-31072(1).)

Function *note create_archive(): f6e. now accepts an optional
'compressed' argument to generate a compressed archive.  A command line
option ‘--compress’ has also been added to support compression.
(Contributed by Zhiming Wang in bpo-31638(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31072

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31638


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<3>,  Prev: zipapp,  Up: Improved Modules<7>

1.10.5.63 zipfile
.................

*note ZipFile: ab1. now accepts the new 'compresslevel' parameter to
control the compression level.  (Contributed by Bo Bayles in
bpo-21417(1).)

Subdirectories in archives created by ‘ZipFile’ are now stored in
alphabetical order.  (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in
bpo-30693(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21417

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693


File: python.info,  Node: C API Changes<6>,  Next: Build Changes<6>,  Prev: Improved Modules<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.6 C API Changes
--------------------

A new API for thread-local storage has been implemented.  See *note PEP
539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: e94. for an overview and *note
Thread-specific storage API: ea3. for a complete reference.
(Contributed by Masayuki Yamamoto in bpo-25658(1).)

The new *note context variables: e86. functionality exposes a number of
*note new C APIs: ebe.

The new *note PyImport_GetModule(): f71. function returns the previously
imported module with the given name.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in
bpo-28411(2).)

The new *note Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE: f72. macro eases writing rich
comparison functions.  (Contributed by Petr Victorin in bpo-23699(3).)

The new *note Py_UNREACHABLE: f73. macro can be used to mark unreachable
code paths.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31338(4).)

The *note tracemalloc: 108. now exposes a C API through the new *note
PyTraceMalloc_Track(): f74. and *note PyTraceMalloc_Untrack(): f75.
functions.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-30054(5).)

The new *note import__find__load__start: f76. and *note
import__find__load__done: f76. static markers can be used to trace
module imports.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-31574(6).)

The fields ‘name’ and ‘doc’ of structures *note PyMemberDef: 95a, *note
PyGetSetDef: f77, *note PyStructSequence_Field: f78, *note
PyStructSequence_Desc: f79, and ‘wrapperbase’ are now of type ‘const
char *’ rather of ‘char *’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-28761(7).)

The result of *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): c6f. and *note
PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): 637. is now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char
*’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28769(8).)

The result of *note PyMapping_Keys(): f7a, *note PyMapping_Values():
f7b. and *note PyMapping_Items(): f7c. is now always a list, rather than
a list or a tuple.  (Contributed by Oren Milman in bpo-28280(9).)

Added functions *note PySlice_Unpack(): 645. and *note
PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 646.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-27867(10).)

*note PyOS_AfterFork(): 642. is deprecated in favour of the new
functions *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): f7d, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent():
f7e. and *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 643.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-16500(11).)

The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton that was part of the public API
has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault
during finalization of the interpreter.  Contributed by Xavier de Gaye
in bpo-22898(12) and bpo-30697(13).

Added C API support for timezones with timezone constructors *note
PyTimeZone_FromOffset(): f7f. and *note PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName():
f80, and access to the UTC singleton with *note PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC:
f81.  Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-10381(14).

The type of results of ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’ and
‘PyThread_get_thread_ident()’, and the 'id' parameter of *note
PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): f82. changed from long to unsigned long.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-6532(15).)

*note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): c8f. now raises a *note ValueError:
277. if the second argument is ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains
null characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30708(16).)

Changes to the startup sequence and the management of dynamic memory
allocators mean that the long documented requirement to call *note
Py_Initialize(): 673. before calling most C API functions is now relied
on more heavily, and failing to abide by it may lead to segfaults in
embedding applications.  See the *note Porting to Python 3.7: e97.
section in this document and the *note Before Python initialization:
f83. section in the C API documentation for more details.

The new *note PyInterpreterState_GetID(): f84. returns the unique ID for
a given interpreter.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-29102(17).)

*note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85, *note Py_EncodeLocale(): f86. now use the
UTF-8 encoding when the *note UTF-8 mode: e90. is enabled.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-29240(18).)

*note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): f87. and *note
PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): f88. now use the current locale encoding for
‘surrogateescape’ error handler.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-29240(19).)

The 'start' and 'end' parameters of *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): c8c. are
now adjusted to behave like string slices.  (Contributed by Xiang Zhang
in bpo-28822(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25658

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23699

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31338

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30054

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31574

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28761

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28769

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28280

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10381

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6532

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30708

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29102

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28822


File: python.info,  Node: Build Changes<6>,  Next: Optimizations<10>,  Prev: C API Changes<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.7 Build Changes
--------------------

Support for building ‘--without-threads’ has been removed.  The *note
threading: f6. module is now always available.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-31370(1).).

A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use when building the
*note _ctypes: 2d. module on non-OSX UNIX platforms.  An installed copy
of libffi is now required when building ‘_ctypes’ on such platforms.
(Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-27979(2).)

The Windows build process no longer depends on Subversion to pull in
external sources, a Python script is used to download zipfiles from
GitHub instead.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py
-3.6’), NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python for this
purpose.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-30450(3).)

The *note ssl: d8. module requires OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1 compatible
libssl.  OpenSSL 1.0.1 has reached end of lifetime on 2016-12-31 and is
no longer supported.  LibreSSL is temporarily not supported as well.
LibreSSL releases up to version 2.6.4 are missing required OpenSSL 1.0.2
APIs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27979

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<10>,  Next: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>,  Prev: Build Changes<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.8 Optimizations
--------------------

The overhead of calling many methods of various standard library classes
implemented in C has been significantly reduced by porting more code to
use the ‘METH_FASTCALL’ convention.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-29300(1), bpo-29507(2), bpo-29452(3), and bpo-29286(4).)

Various optimizations have reduced Python startup time by 10% on Linux
and up to 30% on macOS. (Contributed by Victor Stinner, INADA Naoki in
bpo-29585(5), and Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-31333(6).)

Method calls are now up to 20% faster due to the bytecode changes which
avoid creating bound method instances.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov
and INADA Naoki in bpo-26110(7).)  The *note asyncio: b. module received
a number of notable optimizations for commonly used functions:

   * The *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 56c. function has been
     reimplemented in C to make it up to 15 times faster.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32296(8).)

   * *note asyncio.Future: f8b. callback management has been optimized.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32348(9).)

   * *note asyncio.gather(): 9f4. is now up to 15% faster.  (Contributed
     by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32355(10).)

   * *note asyncio.sleep(): e33. is now up to 2 times faster when the
     'delay' argument is zero or negative.  (Contributed by Andrew
     Svetlov in bpo-32351(11).)

   * The performance overhead of asyncio debug mode has been reduced.
     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31970(12).)

As a result of *note PEP 560 work: e8b, the import time of *note typing:
10d. has been reduced by a factor of 7, and many typing operations are
now faster.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-32226(13).)

*note sorted(): f8c. and *note list.sort(): f8d. have been optimized for
common cases to be up to 40-75% faster.  (Contributed by Elliot
Gorokhovsky in bpo-28685(14).)

*note dict.copy(): f8e. is now up to 5.5 times faster.  (Contributed by
Yury Selivanov in bpo-31179(15).)

*note hasattr(): 8e2. and *note getattr(): f8f. are now about 4 times
faster when 'name' is not found and 'obj' does not override *note
object.__getattr__(): 8e3. or *note object.__getattribute__(): f90.
(Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32544(16).)

Searching for certain Unicode characters (like Ukrainian capital «Є») in
a string was up to 25 times slower than searching for other characters.
It is now only 3 times slower in the worst case.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-24821(17).)

The *note collections.namedtuple(): 1cf. factory has been reimplemented
to make the creation of named tuples 4 to 6 times faster.  (Contributed
by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy
Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-28638(18).)

*note datetime.date.fromordinal(): f91. and *note
datetime.date.fromtimestamp(): f92. are now up to 30% faster in the
common case.  (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32403(19).)

The *note os.fwalk(): f18. function is now up to 2 times faster thanks
to the use of *note os.scandir(): e23.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-25996(20).)

The speed of the *note shutil.rmtree(): 335. function has been improved
by 20–40% thanks to the use of the *note os.scandir(): e23. function.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28564(21).)

Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching of *note regular
expressions: c1.  Searching some patterns can now be up to 20 times
faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30285(22).)

*note re.compile(): f93. now converts ‘flags’ parameter to int object if
it is ‘RegexFlag’.  It is now as fast as Python 3.5, and faster than
Python 3.6 by about 10% depending on the pattern.  (Contributed by INADA
Naoki in bpo-31671(23).)

The *note modify(): f94. methods of classes *note
selectors.EpollSelector: f95, *note selectors.PollSelector: f96. and
*note selectors.DevpollSelector: f97. may be around 10% faster under
heavy loads.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola” in bpo-30014(24))

Constant folding has been moved from the peephole optimizer to the new
AST optimizer, which is able perform optimizations more consistently.
(Contributed by Eugene Toder and INADA Naoki in bpo-29469(25) and
bpo-11549(26).)

Most functions and methods in *note abc: 4. have been rewritten in C.
This makes creation of abstract base classes, and calling *note
isinstance(): 2ef. and *note issubclass(): 2f0. on them 1.5x faster.
This also reduces Python start-up time by up to 10%.  (Contributed by
Ivan Levkivskyi and INADA Naoki in bpo-31333(27))

Significant speed improvements to alternate constructors for *note
datetime.date: 48d. and *note datetime.datetime: 6e7. by using fast-path
constructors when not constructing subclasses.  (Contributed by Paul
Ganssle in bpo-32403(28))

The speed of comparison of *note array.array: 6c5. instances has been
improved considerably in certain cases.  It is now from 10x to 70x
faster when comparing arrays holding values of the same integer type.
(Contributed by Adrian Wielgosik in bpo-24700(29).)

The *note math.erf(): f98. and *note math.erfc(): f99. functions now use
the (faster) C library implementation on most platforms.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26121(30).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29300

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29507

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29452

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29286

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29585

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32296

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32348

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32355

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32351

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28685

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31179

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32544

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24821

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28564

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30285

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31671

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30014

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29469

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11549

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24700

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26121


File: python.info,  Node: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>,  Next: Deprecated Python Behavior,  Prev: Optimizations<10>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.9 Other CPython Implementation Changes
-------------------------------------------

   * Trace hooks may now opt out of receiving the ‘line’ and opt into
     receiving the ‘opcode’ events from the interpreter by setting the
     corresponding new *note f_trace_lines: f9b. and *note
     f_trace_opcodes: f9c. attributes on the frame being traced.
     (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-31344(1).)

   * Fixed some consistency problems with namespace package module
     attributes.  Namespace module objects now have an ‘__file__’ that
     is set to ‘None’ (previously unset), and their ‘__spec__.origin’ is
     also set to ‘None’ (previously the string ‘"namespace"’).  See
     bpo-32305(2).  Also, the namespace module object’s
     ‘__spec__.loader’ is set to the same value as ‘__loader__’
     (previously, the former was set to ‘None’).  See bpo-32303(3).

   * The *note locals(): 28b. dictionary now displays in the lexical
     order that variables were defined.  Previously, the order was
     undefined.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32690(4).)

   * The ‘distutils’ ‘upload’ command no longer tries to change CR
     end-of-line characters to CRLF. This fixes a corruption issue with
     sdists that ended with a byte equivalent to CR. (Contributed by Bo
     Bayles in bpo-32304(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31344

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32690

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python Behavior,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Prev: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.10 Deprecated Python Behavior
----------------------------------

Yield expressions (both ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ clauses) are now
deprecated in comprehensions and generator expressions (aside from the
iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause).  This ensures that
comprehensions always immediately return a container of the appropriate
type (rather than potentially returning a *note generator iterator: f9e.
object), while generator expressions won’t attempt to interleave their
implicit output with the output from any explicit yield expressions.  In
Python 3.7, such expressions emit *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. when
compiled, in Python 3.8 this will be a *note SyntaxError: 17e.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10544(1).)

Returning a subclass of *note complex: 328. from *note
object.__complex__(): 9de. is deprecated and will be an error in future
Python versions.  This makes ‘__complex__()’ consistent with *note
object.__int__(): 43c. and *note object.__float__(): d92.  (Contributed
by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28894(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28894


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Prev: Deprecated Python Behavior,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.11 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
--------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* aifc::
* asyncio: asyncio<12>.
* collections: collections<4>.
* dbm: dbm<4>.
* enum: enum<6>.
* gettext: gettext<2>.
* importlib: importlib<5>.
* locale: locale<6>.
* macpath::
* threading: threading<8>.
* socket: socket<8>.
* ssl: ssl<8>.
* sunau::
* sys: sys<10>.
* wave: wave<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: aifc,  Next: asyncio<12>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.1 aifc
..............

‘aifc.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
Use ‘aifc.open()’ instead.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<12>,  Next: collections<4>,  Prev: aifc,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.2 asyncio
.................

Support for directly ‘await’-ing instances of *note asyncio.Lock: e35.
and other asyncio synchronization primitives has been deprecated.  An
asynchronous context manager must be used in order to acquire and
release the synchronization resource.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in
bpo-32253(1).)

The ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’ methods
have been deprecated.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32253

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250


File: python.info,  Node: collections<4>,  Next: dbm<4>,  Prev: asyncio<12>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.3 collections
.....................

In Python 3.8, the abstract base classes in *note collections.abc: 1f.
will no longer be exposed in the regular *note collections: 1e. module.
This will help create a clearer distinction between the concrete classes
and the abstract base classes.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-25988(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<4>,  Next: enum<6>,  Prev: collections<4>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.4 dbm
.............

*note dbm.dumb: 35. now supports reading read-only files and no longer
writes the index file when it is not changed.  A deprecation warning is
now emitted if the index file is missing and recreated in the ‘'r'’ and
‘'w'’ modes (this will be an error in future Python releases).
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28847(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847


File: python.info,  Node: enum<6>,  Next: gettext<2>,  Prev: dbm<4>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.5 enum
..............

In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in *note Enum:
a21. classes will raise a *note TypeError: 291. (e.g.  ‘1 in Color’);
similarly, attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a *note Flag:
a14. member will raise ‘TypeError’ (e.g.  ‘1 in Perm.RW’); currently,
both operations return *note False: ef5. instead.  (Contributed by Ethan
Furman in bpo-33217(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217


File: python.info,  Node: gettext<2>,  Next: importlib<5>,  Prev: enum<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.6 gettext
.................

Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form in *note gettext:
66. is now deprecated.  It never correctly worked.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28692(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28692


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<5>,  Next: locale<6>,  Prev: gettext<2>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.7 importlib
...................

Methods ‘MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ (replaced by *note
MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): c3f.) and ‘PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’
(replaced by *note PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): c42.) both deprecated in
Python 3.4 now emit *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  (Contributed by
Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29576(1).)

The *note importlib.abc.ResourceLoader: fa7. ABC has been deprecated in
favour of ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29576


File: python.info,  Node: locale<6>,  Next: macpath,  Prev: importlib<5>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.8 locale
................

‘locale.format()’ has been deprecated, use *note locale.format_string():
92d. instead.  (Contributed by Garvit in bpo-10379(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379


File: python.info,  Node: macpath,  Next: threading<8>,  Prev: locale<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.9 macpath
.................

The ‘macpath’ is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.8.
(Contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen in bpo-9850(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9850


File: python.info,  Node: threading<8>,  Next: socket<8>,  Prev: macpath,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.10 threading
....................

‘dummy_threading’ and ‘_dummy_thread’ have been deprecated.  It is no
longer possible to build Python with threading disabled.  Use *note
threading: f6. instead.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-31370(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370


File: python.info,  Node: socket<8>,  Next: ssl<8>,  Prev: threading<8>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.11 socket
.................

The silent argument value truncation in *note socket.htons(): c55. and
*note socket.ntohs(): c56. has been deprecated.  In future versions of
Python, if the passed argument is larger than 16 bits, an exception will
be raised.  (Contributed by Oren Milman in bpo-28332(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28332


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<8>,  Next: sunau,  Prev: socket<8>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.12 ssl
..............

‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is deprecated.  Use *note
ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 933. instead.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-28124(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124


File: python.info,  Node: sunau,  Next: sys<10>,  Prev: ssl<8>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.13 sunau
................

‘sunau.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
Use ‘sunau.open()’ instead.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: sys<10>,  Next: wave<3>,  Prev: sunau,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.14 sys
..............

Deprecated ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’ and
‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper()’.

The undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function has been deprecated and will
be removed in a future Python version.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner
in bpo-28799(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28799


File: python.info,  Node: wave<3>,  Prev: sys<10>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods

1.10.11.15 wave
...............

‘wave.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9.
Use *note wave.open(): d17. instead.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-31985(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Next: Platform Support Removals,  Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.12 Deprecated functions and types of the C API
---------------------------------------------------

Function *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 644. is deprecated and replaced
with a macro if ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is not set or set to a value in the
range between ‘0x03050400’ and ‘0x03060000’ (not inclusive), or is
‘0x03060100’ or higher.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-27867(1).)

*note PyOS_AfterFork(): 642. has been deprecated.  Use *note
PyOS_BeforeFork(): f7d, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): f7e. or *note
PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 643. instead.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-16500(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500


File: python.info,  Node: Platform Support Removals,  Next: API and Feature Removals<2>,  Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.13 Platform Support Removals
---------------------------------

   * FreeBSD 9 and older are no longer officially supported.

   * For full Unicode support, including within extension modules, *nix
     platforms are now expected to provide at least one of ‘C.UTF-8’
     (full locale), ‘C.utf8’ (full locale) or ‘UTF-8’ (‘LC_CTYPE’-only
     locale) as an alternative to the legacy ‘ASCII’-based ‘C’ locale.

   * OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported, which means
     building CPython 3.7 with SSL/TLS support on older platforms still
     using these versions requires custom build options that link to a
     more recent version of OpenSSL.

     Notably, this issue affects the Debian 8 (aka «jessie») and Ubuntu
     14.04 (aka «Trusty») LTS Linux distributions, as they still use
     OpenSSL 1.0.1 by default.

     Debian 9 («stretch») and Ubuntu 16.04 («xenial»), as well as recent
     releases of other LTS Linux releases (e.g.  RHEL/CentOS 7.5, SLES
     12-SP3), use OpenSSL 1.0.2 or later, and remain supported in the
     default build configuration.

     CPython’s own CI configuration file(1) provides an example of using
     the SSL compatibility testing infrastructure(2) in CPython’s test
     suite to build and link against OpenSSL 1.1.0 rather than an
     outdated system provided OpenSSL.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.7.13/.travis.yml

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Tools/ssl/multissltests.py


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<2>,  Next: Module Removals,  Prev: Platform Support Removals,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.14 API and Feature Removals
--------------------------------

The following features and APIs have been removed from Python 3.7:

   * The ‘os.stat_float_times()’ function has been removed.  It was
     introduced in Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python
     2.2, and was deprecated since Python 3.1.

   * Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter in
     replacement templates for *note re.sub(): 7a1. were deprecated in
     Python 3.5, and will now cause an error.

   * Removed support of the 'exclude' argument in *note
     tarfile.TarFile.add(): fb3.  It was deprecated in Python 2.7 and
     3.2.  Use the 'filter' argument instead.

   * The ‘ntpath.splitunc()’ function was deprecated in Python 3.1, and
     has now been removed.  Use *note splitdrive(): fb4. instead.

   * *note collections.namedtuple(): 1cf. no longer supports the
     'verbose' parameter or ‘_source’ attribute which showed the
     generated source code for the named tuple class.  This was part of
     an optimization designed to speed-up class creation.  (Contributed
     by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy
     Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-28638(1).)

   * Functions *note bool(): 5ef, *note float(): 327, *note list(): 4d9.
     and *note tuple(): 1ce. no longer take keyword arguments.  The
     first argument of *note int(): 326. can now be passed only as
     positional argument.

   * Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes ‘Plist’, ‘Dict’
     and ‘_InternalDict’ in the *note plistlib: b0. module.  Dict values
     in the result of functions ‘readPlist()’ and ‘readPlistFromBytes()’
     are now normal dicts.  You no longer can use attribute access to
     access items of these dictionaries.

   * The ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ function has been removed.
     Use the *note socket.socketpair(): fb5. function instead, it is
     available on all platforms since Python 3.5.
     ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair’ was just an alias to
     ‘socket.socketpair’ on Python 3.5 and newer.

   * *note asyncio: b. no longer exports the *note selectors: ca. and
     ‘_overlapped’ modules as ‘asyncio.selectors’ and
     ‘asyncio._overlapped’.  Replace ‘from asyncio import selectors’
     with ‘import selectors’.

   * Direct instantiation of *note ssl.SSLSocket: cbb. and *note
     ssl.SSLObject: f40. objects is now prohibited.  The constructors
     were never documented, tested, or designed as public constructors.
     Users were supposed to use ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ or *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 336.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
     bpo-32951(2).)

   * The unused ‘distutils’ ‘install_misc’ command has been removed.
     (Contributed by Eric N. Vander Weele in bpo-29218(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29218


File: python.info,  Node: Module Removals,  Next: Windows-only Changes,  Prev: API and Feature Removals<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.15 Module Removals
-----------------------

The ‘fpectl’ module has been removed.  It was never enabled by default,
never worked correctly on x86-64, and it changed the Python ABI in ways
that caused unexpected breakage of C extensions.  (Contributed by
Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-29137(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29137


File: python.info,  Node: Windows-only Changes,  Next: Porting to Python 3 7,  Prev: Module Removals,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.16 Windows-only Changes
----------------------------

The python launcher, (py.exe), can accept 32 & 64 bit specifiers
'without' having to specify a minor version as well.  So ‘py -3-32’ and
‘py -3-64’ become valid as well as ‘py -3.7-32’, also the -'m'-64 and
-'m.n'-64 forms are now accepted to force 64 bit python even if 32 bit
would have otherwise been used.  If the specified version is not
available py.exe will error exit.  (Contributed by Steve Barnes in
bpo-30291(1).)

The launcher can be run as ‘py -0’ to produce a list of the installed
pythons, 'with default marked with an asterisk'.  Running ‘py -0p’ will
include the paths.  If py is run with a version specifier that cannot be
matched it will also print the 'short form' list of available
specifiers.  (Contributed by Steve Barnes in bpo-30362(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30291

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30362


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 7,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1,  Prev: Windows-only Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.17 Porting to Python 3.7
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in Python Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<8>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<6>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<7>.
* Windows-only Changes: Windows-only Changes<2>.
* Other CPython implementation changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in Python Behavior,  Next: Changes in the Python API<8>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.10.17.1 Changes in Python Behavior
....................................

   * *note async: b19. and *note await: 432. names are now reserved
     keywords.  Code using these names as identifiers will now raise a
     *note SyntaxError: 17e.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in
     bpo-30406(1).)

   * PEP 479(2) is enabled for all code in Python 3.7, meaning that
     *note StopIteration: fba. exceptions raised directly or indirectly
     in coroutines and generators are transformed into *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. exceptions.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32670(3).)

   * *note object.__aiter__(): fbb. methods can no longer be declared as
     asynchronous.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-31709(4).)

   * Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted
     the following syntax:

          f(1 for x in [1],)

          class C(1 for x in [1]):
              pass

     Python 3.7 now correctly raises a *note SyntaxError: 17e, as a
     generator expression always needs to be directly inside a set of
     parentheses and cannot have a comma on either side, and the
     duplication of the parentheses can be omitted only on calls.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32012(5) and bpo-32023(6).)

   * When using the *note -m: 4ca. switch, the initial working directory
     is now added to *note sys.path: 194, rather than an empty string
     (which dynamically denoted the current working directory at the
     time of each import).  Any programs that are checking for the empty
     string, or otherwise relying on the previous behaviour, will need
     to be updated accordingly (e.g.  by also checking for ‘os.getcwd()’
     or ‘os.path.dirname(__main__.__file__)’, depending on why the code
     was checking for the empty string in the first place).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30406

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32670

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32012

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32023


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<8>,  Next: Changes in the C API<6>,  Prev: Changes in Python Behavior,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.10.17.2 Changes in the Python API
...................................

   * *note socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close: f35. now waits
     until all non-daemon threads complete.  Set the new *note
     socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.block_on_close: f36. class attribute to
     ‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-31233(1) and bpo-33540(2).)

   * *note socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close: f35. now waits until
     all child processes complete.  Set the new *note
     socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close: f36. class attribute to
     ‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-31151(3) and bpo-33540(4).)

   * The *note locale.localeconv(): fbd. function now temporarily sets
     the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the value of ‘LC_NUMERIC’ in some cases.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31900(5).)

   * *note pkgutil.walk_packages(): fbe. now raises a *note ValueError:
     277. if 'path' is a string.  Previously an empty list was returned.
     (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in bpo-24744(6).)

   * A format string argument for *note string.Formatter.format(): fbf.
     is now *note positional-only: e47.  Passing it as a keyword
     argument was deprecated in Python 3.5.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-29193(7).)

   * Attributes *note key: fc0, *note value: fc1. and *note coded_value:
     fc2. of class *note http.cookies.Morsel: fc3. are now read-only.
     Assigning to them was deprecated in Python 3.5.  Use the *note
     set(): fc4. method for setting them.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-29192(8).)

   * The 'mode' argument of *note os.makedirs(): 72f. no longer affects
     the file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level
     directories.  To set their file permission bits you can set the
     umask before invoking ‘makedirs()’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-19930(9).)

   * The *note struct.Struct.format: fc5. type is now *note str: 1df.
     instead of *note bytes: 1c7.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21071(10).)

   * ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ now accepts the 'encoding' and 'errors'
     arguments and returns the same results as ‘FieldStorage’: for
     non-file fields, the value associated to a key is a list of
     strings, not bytes.  (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in
     bpo-29979(11).)

   * Due to internal changes in *note socket: d4, calling *note
     socket.fromshare(): fc6. on a socket created by *note socket.share:
     fc7. in older Python versions is not supported.

   * ‘repr’ for *note BaseException: 9b9. has changed to not include the
     trailing comma.  Most exceptions are affected by this change.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30399(12).)

   * ‘repr’ for *note datetime.timedelta: d94. has changed to include
     the keyword arguments in the output.  (Contributed by Utkarsh
     Upadhyay in bpo-30302(13).)

   * Because *note shutil.rmtree(): 335. is now implemented using the
     *note os.scandir(): e23. function, the user specified handler
     'onerror' is now called with the first argument ‘os.scandir’
     instead of ‘os.listdir’ when listing the directory is failed.

   * Support for nested sets and set operations in regular expressions
     as in Unicode Technical Standard #18(14) might be added in the
     future.  This would change the syntax.  To facilitate this future
     change a *note FutureWarning: 847. will be raised in ambiguous
     cases for the time being.  That include sets starting with a
     literal ‘'['’ or containing literal character sequences ‘'--'’,
     ‘'&&'’, ‘'~~'’, and ‘'||'’.  To avoid a warning, escape them with a
     backslash.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30349(15).)

   * The result of splitting a string on a *note regular expression: c1.
     that could match an empty string has been changed.  For example
     splitting on ‘r'\s*'’ will now split not only on whitespaces as it
     did previously, but also on empty strings before all non-whitespace
     characters and just before the end of the string.  The previous
     behavior can be restored by changing the pattern to ‘r'\s+'’.  A
     *note FutureWarning: 847. was emitted for such patterns since
     Python 3.5.

     For patterns that match both empty and non-empty strings, the
     result of searching for all matches may also be changed in other
     cases.  For example in the string ‘'a\n\n'’, the pattern
     ‘r'(?m)^\s*?$'’ will not only match empty strings at positions 2
     and 3, but also the string ‘'\n'’ at positions 2–3.  To match only
     blank lines, the pattern should be rewritten as
     ‘r'(?m)^[^\S\n]*$'’.

     *note re.sub(): 7a1. now replaces empty matches adjacent to a
     previous non-empty match.  For example ‘re.sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')’
     returns now ‘'-a-b--d-'’ instead of ‘'-a-b-d-'’ (the first minus
     between “b” and “d” replaces “x”, and the second minus replaces an
     empty string between “x” and “d”).

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25054(16) and
     bpo-32308(17).)

   * Change *note re.escape(): fc8. to only escape regex special
     characters instead of escaping all characters other than ASCII
     letters, numbers, and ‘'_'’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-29995(18).)

   * *note tracemalloc.Traceback: f55. frames are now sorted from oldest
     to most recent to be more consistent with *note traceback: 107.
     (Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121(19).)

   * On OSes that support *note socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK: fc9. or *note
     socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC: fca. bit flags, the *note socket.type: fcb. no
     longer has them applied.  Therefore, checks like ‘if sock.type ==
     socket.SOCK_STREAM’ work as expected on all platforms.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32331(20).)

   * On Windows the default for the 'close_fds' argument of *note
     subprocess.Popen: 6bf. was changed from *note False: ef5. to *note
     True: fcc. when redirecting the standard handles.  If you
     previously depended on handles being inherited when using
     ‘subprocess.Popen’ with standard io redirection, you will have to
     pass ‘close_fds=False’ to preserve the previous behaviour, or use
     *note STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList: fcd.

   * *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches(): fce. –
     which implicitly affects *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): fcf.
     – now deletes entries in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 9db. which
     are set to ‘None’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-33169(21).)

   * In *note asyncio: b, *note loop.sock_recv(): fd0, *note
     loop.sock_sendall(): fd1, *note loop.sock_accept(): fd2, *note
     loop.getaddrinfo(): fd3, *note loop.getnameinfo(): fd4. have been
     changed to be proper coroutine methods to match their
     documentation.  Previously, these methods returned *note
     asyncio.Future: f8b. instances.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-32327(22).)

   * *note asyncio.Server.sockets: fd5. now returns a copy of the
     internal list of server sockets, instead of returning it directly.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32662(23).)

   * *note Struct.format: fc5. is now a *note str: 1df. instance instead
     of a *note bytes: 1c7. instance.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-21071(24).)

   * *note argparse: 7. subparsers can now be made mandatory by passing
     ‘required=True’ to *note ArgumentParser.add_subparsers(): fd6.
     (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-26510(25).)

   * *note ast.literal_eval(): fd7. is now stricter.  Addition and
     subtraction of arbitrary numbers are no longer allowed.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31778(26).)

   * *note Calendar.itermonthdates: fd8. will now consistently raise an
     exception when a date falls outside of the ‘0001-01-01’ through
     ‘9999-12-31’ range.  To support applications that cannot tolerate
     such exceptions, the new *note Calendar.itermonthdays3: fd9. and
     *note Calendar.itermonthdays4: fda. can be used.  The new methods
     return tuples and are not restricted by the range supported by
     *note datetime.date: 48d.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in
     bpo-28292(27).)

   * *note collections.ChainMap: fdb. now preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
     bpo-32792(28).)

   * The ‘submit()’ method of *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. and *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. now raises a *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. if called during interpreter shutdown.
     (Contributed by Mark Nemec in bpo-33097(29).)

   * The *note configparser.ConfigParser: 6e4. constructor now uses
     ‘read_dict()’ to process the default values, making its behavior
     consistent with the rest of the parser.  Non-string keys and values
     in the defaults dictionary are now being implicitly converted to
     strings.  (Contributed by James Tocknell in bpo-23835(30).)

   * Several undocumented internal imports were removed.  One example is
     that ‘os.errno’ is no longer available; use ‘import errno’ directly
     instead.  Note that such undocumented internal imports may be
     removed any time without notice, even in micro version releases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31233

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31151

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24744

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29193

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29192

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30399

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30302

   (14) https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32308

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29995

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32331

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32327

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31778

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23835


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<6>,  Next: CPython bytecode changes<7>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<8>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.10.17.3 Changes in the C API
..............................

The function *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 644. is considered unsafe for
resizable sequences.  If the slice indices are not instances of *note
int: 326, but objects that implement the ‘__index__()’ method, the
sequence can be resized after passing its length to
‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’.  This can lead to returning indices out of the
length of the sequence.  For avoiding possible problems use new
functions *note PySlice_Unpack(): 645. and *note
PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 646.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-27867(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes<7>,  Next: Windows-only Changes<2>,  Prev: Changes in the C API<6>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.10.17.4 CPython bytecode changes
..................................

There are two new opcodes: ‘LOAD_METHOD’ and ‘CALL_METHOD’.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in bpo-26110(1).)

The ‘STORE_ANNOTATION’ opcode has been removed.  (Contributed by Mark
Shannon in bpo-32550(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32550


File: python.info,  Node: Windows-only Changes<2>,  Next: Other CPython implementation changes,  Prev: CPython bytecode changes<7>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.10.17.5 Windows-only Changes
..............................

The file used to override *note sys.path: 194. is now called
‘<python-executable>._pth’ instead of ‘'sys.path'’.  See *note Εύρεση
modules: fdf. for more information.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
bpo-28137(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137


File: python.info,  Node: Other CPython implementation changes,  Prev: Windows-only Changes<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 7

1.10.17.6 Other CPython implementation changes
..............................................

In preparation for potential future changes to the public CPython
runtime initialization API (see PEP 432(1) for an initial, but somewhat
outdated, draft), CPython’s internal startup and configuration
management logic has been significantly refactored.  While these updates
are intended to be entirely transparent to both embedding applications
and users of the regular CPython CLI, they’re being mentioned here as
the refactoring changes the internal order of various operations during
interpreter startup, and hence may uncover previously latent defects,
either in embedding applications, or in CPython itself.  (Initially
contributed by Nick Coghlan and Eric Snow as part of bpo-22257(2), and
further updated by Nick, Eric, and Victor Stinner in a number of other
issues).  Some known details affected:

   * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’ is not currently usable by embedding
     applications due to the requirement to create a Unicode object
     prior to calling ‘Py_Initialize’.  Use ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’
     instead.

   * warnings filters added by an embedding application with
     ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’ should now more consistently take
     precedence over the default filters set by the interpreter

Due to changes in the way the default warnings filters are configured,
setting *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 61a. to a value greater than one is
no longer sufficient to both emit *note BytesWarning: 2ee. messages and
have them converted to exceptions.  Instead, the flag must be set (to
cause the warnings to be emitted in the first place), and an explicit
‘error::BytesWarning’ warnings filter added to convert them to
exceptions.

Due to a change in the way docstrings are handled by the compiler, the
implicit ‘return None’ in a function body consisting solely of a
docstring is now marked as occurring on the same line as the docstring,
not on the function’s header line.

The current exception state has been moved from the frame object to the
co-routine.  This simplified the interpreter and fixed a couple of
obscure bugs caused by having swap exception state when entering or
exiting a generator.  (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-25612(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22257

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25612


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 7,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.18 Notable changes in Python 3.7.1
---------------------------------------

Starting in 3.7.1, *note Py_Initialize(): 673. now consistently reads
and respects all of the same environment settings as *note Py_Main():
fe2. (in earlier Python versions, it respected an ill-defined subset of
those environment variables, while in Python 3.7.0 it didn’t read any of
them due to bpo-34247(1)).  If this behavior is unwanted, set *note
Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 61d. to 1 before calling ‘Py_Initialize()’.

In 3.7.1 the C API for Context Variables *note was updated: fe3. to use
*note PyObject: 19b. pointers.  See also bpo-34762(2).

In 3.7.1 the *note tokenize: 104. module now implicitly emits a
‘NEWLINE’ token when provided with input that does not have a trailing
new line.  This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does
internally.  (Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34247

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.19 Notable changes in Python 3.7.2
---------------------------------------

In 3.7.2, *note venv: 11a. on Windows no longer copies the original
binaries, but creates redirector scripts named ‘python.exe’ and
‘pythonw.exe’ instead.  This resolves a long standing issue where all
virtual environments would have to be upgraded or recreated with each
Python update.  However, note that this release will still require
recreation of virtual environments in order to get the new scripts.


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.20 Notable changes in Python 3.7.6
---------------------------------------

Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of
*note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a. is no longer
supported.  This is because of the behavior of the socket option
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.21 Notable changes in Python 3.7.10
----------------------------------------

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 589. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 588.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the affected
functions internally.  For more details, please see their respective
documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and
Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11,  Next: Notable security feature in 3 7 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.22 Notable changes in Python 3.7.11
----------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: cca. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986, ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped
from the URL by the parser *note urllib.parse(): 113. preventing such
attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new module level
variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: Notable security feature in 3 7 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 7

1.10.23 Notable security feature in 3.7.14
------------------------------------------

Converting between *note int: 326. and *note str: 1df. in bases other
than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10
(decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 277. if the number of digits in
string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service
attacks due to the algorithmic complexity.  This is a mitigation for CVE
2020-10735(1).  This limit can be configured or disabled by environment
variable, command line flag, or *note sys: e2. APIs.  See the *note
integer string conversion length limitation: 9ec. documentation.  The
default limit is 4300 digits in string form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 6,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 5,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 7,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.11 What’s New In Python 3.6
=============================


Editors: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>, Yury Selivanov
<<yury@magic.io>>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.6, compared to 3.5.
Python 3.6 was released on December 23, 2016.  See the changelog(1) for
a full list of changes.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 494(2) - Python 3.6 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<8>.
* New Features: New Features<13>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<8>.
* New Modules: New Modules<8>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<8>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<11>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<2>.
* Other Improvements::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<12>.
* Removed: Removed<12>.
* Porting to Python 3.6: Porting to Python 3 6.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.2: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.4: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.5: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.7: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.10: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.13: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13.
* Notable changes in Python 3.6.14: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0494/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<8>,  Next: New Features<13>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.1 Summary – Release highlights
-----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * *note PEP 498: fed, formatted string literals.

   * *note PEP 515: fee, underscores in numeric literals.

   * *note PEP 526: fef, syntax for variable annotations.

   * *note PEP 525: ff0, asynchronous generators.

   * *note PEP 530: ff1.: asynchronous comprehensions.

New library modules:

   * *note secrets: c8.: *note PEP 506 – Adding A Secrets Module To The
     Standard Library: ff2.

CPython implementation improvements:

   * The *note dict: e8c. type has been reimplemented to use a *note
     more compact representation: ff3. based on a proposal by Raymond
     Hettinger(1) and similar to the PyPy dict implementation(2).  This
     resulted in dictionaries using 20% to 25% less memory when compared
     to Python 3.5.

   * Customization of class creation has been simplified with the *note
     new protocol: ff4.

   * The class attribute definition order is *note now preserved: ff5.

   * The order of elements in ‘**kwargs’ now *note corresponds to the
     order: ff6. in which keyword arguments were passed to the function.

   * DTrace and SystemTap *note probing support: ff7. has been added.

   * The new *note PYTHONMALLOC: ff8. environment variable can now be
     used to debug the interpreter memory allocation and access errors.

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * The *note asyncio: b. module has received new features, significant
     usability and performance improvements, and a fair amount of bug
     fixes.  Starting with Python 3.6 the ‘asyncio’ module is no longer
     provisional and its API is considered stable.

   * A new *note file system path protocol: ff9. has been implemented to
     support *note path-like objects: 79f.  All standard library
     functions operating on paths have been updated to work with the new
     protocol.

   * The *note datetime: 33. module has gained support for *note Local
     Time Disambiguation: ffa.

   * The *note typing: 10d. module received a number of *note
     improvements: ffb.

   * The *note tracemalloc: 108. module has been significantly reworked
     and is now used to provide better output for *note ResourceWarning:
     74f. as well as provide better diagnostics for memory allocation
     errors.  See the *note PYTHONMALLOC section: ff8. for more
     information.

Security improvements:

   * The new *note secrets: c8. module has been added to simplify the
     generation of cryptographically strong pseudo-random numbers
     suitable for managing secrets such as account authentication,
     tokens, and similar.

   * On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 931. now blocks until the system
     urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security.  See
     the PEP 524(3) for the rationale.

   * The *note hashlib: 6b. and *note ssl: d8. modules now support
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   * The default settings and feature set of the *note ssl: d8. module
     have been improved.

   * The *note hashlib: 6b. module received support for the BLAKE2,
     SHA-3 and SHAKE hash algorithms and the *note scrypt(): ffc. key
     derivation function.

Windows improvements:

   * *note PEP 528: ffd. and *note PEP 529: ffe, Windows filesystem and
     console encoding changed to UTF-8.

   * The ‘py.exe’ launcher, when used interactively, no longer prefers
     Python 2 over Python 3 when the user doesn’t specify a version (via
     command line arguments or a config file).  Handling of shebang
     lines remains unchanged - «python» refers to Python 2 in that case.

   * ‘python.exe’ and ‘pythonw.exe’ have been marked as long-path aware,
     which means that the 260 character path limit may no longer apply.
     See *note removing the MAX_PATH limitation: fff. for details.

   * A ‘._pth’ file can be added to force isolated mode and fully
     specify all search paths to avoid registry and environment lookup.
     See *note the documentation: fdf. for more information.

   * A ‘python36.zip’ file now works as a landmark to infer *note
     PYTHONHOME: 3ad.  See *note the documentation: fdf. for more
     information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html

   (2) 
https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<13>,  Next: Other Language Changes<8>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.2 New Features
-------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 498; Formatted string literals: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
* PEP 526; Syntax for variable annotations: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
* PEP 515; Underscores in Numeric Literals: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
* PEP 525; Asynchronous Generators: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
* PEP 530; Asynchronous Comprehensions: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
* PEP 487; Simpler customization of class creation: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation.
* PEP 487; Descriptor Protocol Enhancements: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
* PEP 519; Adding a file system path protocol: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol.
* PEP 495; Local Time Disambiguation: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
* PEP 529; Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 528; Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
* PEP 520; Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order.
* PEP 468; Preserving Keyword Argument Order: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order.
* New dict implementation::
* PEP 523; Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
* PYTHONMALLOC environment variable::
* DTrace and SystemTap probing support::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 498 Formatted string literals,  Next: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.1 PEP 498: Formatted string literals
...........................................

PEP 498(1) introduces a new kind of string literals: 'f-strings', or
*note formatted string literals: 43a.

Formatted string literals are prefixed with ‘'f'’ and are similar to the
format strings accepted by *note str.format(): a12.  They contain
replacement fields surrounded by curly braces.  The replacement fields
are expressions, which are evaluated at run time, and then formatted
using the *note format(): 439. protocol:

     >>> name = "Fred"
     >>> f"He said his name is {name}."
     'He said his name is Fred.'
     >>> width = 10
     >>> precision = 4
     >>> value = decimal.Decimal("12.34567")
     >>> f"result: {value:{width}.{precision}}"  # nested fields
     'result:      12.35'

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 498(2) – Literal String Interpolation.

     PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith.

*note Feature documentation: 43a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations,  Next: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals,  Prev: PEP 498 Formatted string literals,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.2 PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations
.................................................

PEP 484(1) introduced the standard for type annotations of function
parameters, a.k.a.  type hints.  This PEP adds syntax to Python for
annotating the types of variables including class variables and instance
variables:

     primes: List[int] = []

     captain: str  # Note: no initial value!

     class Starship:
         stats: Dict[str, int] = {}

Just as for function annotations, the Python interpreter does not attach
any particular meaning to variable annotations and only stores them in
the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of a class or module.

In contrast to variable declarations in statically typed languages, the
goal of annotation syntax is to provide an easy way to specify
structured type metadata for third party tools and libraries via the
abstract syntax tree and the ‘__annotations__’ attribute.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 526(2) – Syntax for variable annotations.

     PEP written by Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa
     Roach, and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

Tools that use or will use the new syntax: mypy(3), pytype(4), PyCharm,
etc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://www.mypy-lang.org/

   (4) https://github.com/google/pytype


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals,  Next: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators,  Prev: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.3 PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals
.................................................

PEP 515(1) adds the ability to use underscores in numeric literals for
improved readability.  For example:

     >>> 1_000_000_000_000_000
     1000000000000000
     >>> 0x_FF_FF_FF_FF
     4294967295

Single underscores are allowed between digits and after any base
specifier.  Leading, trailing, or multiple underscores in a row are not
allowed.

The *note string formatting: 6fe. language also now has support for the
‘'_'’ option to signal the use of an underscore for a thousands
separator for floating-point presentation types and for integer
presentation type ‘'d'’.  For integer presentation types ‘'b'’, ‘'o'’,
‘'x'’, and ‘'X'’, underscores will be inserted every 4 digits:

     >>> '{:_}'.format(1000000)
     '1_000_000'
     >>> '{:_x}'.format(0xFFFFFFFF)
     'ffff_ffff'

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 515(2) – Underscores in Numeric Literals

     PEP written by Georg Brandl and Serhiy Storchaka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators,  Next: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions,  Prev: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.4 PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators
.........................................

PEP 492(1) introduced support for native coroutines and ‘async’ /
‘await’ syntax to Python 3.5.  A notable limitation of the Python 3.5
implementation is that it was not possible to use ‘await’ and ‘yield’ in
the same function body.  In Python 3.6 this restriction has been lifted,
making it possible to define 'asynchronous generators':

     async def ticker(delay, to):
         """Yield numbers from 0 to *to* every *delay* seconds."""
         for i in range(to):
             yield i
             await asyncio.sleep(delay)

The new syntax allows for faster and more concise code.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 525(2) – Asynchronous Generators

     PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions,  Next: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation,  Prev: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.5 PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions
.............................................

PEP 530(1) adds support for using ‘async for’ in list, set, dict
comprehensions and generator expressions:

     result = [i async for i in aiter() if i % 2]

Additionally, ‘await’ expressions are supported in all kinds of
comprehensions:

     result = [await fun() for fun in funcs if await condition()]

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 530(2) – Asynchronous Comprehensions

     PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation,  Next: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements,  Prev: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.6 PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation
.........................................................

It is now possible to customize subclass creation without using a
metaclass.  The new ‘__init_subclass__’ classmethod will be called on
the base class whenever a new subclass is created:

     class PluginBase:
         subclasses = []

         def __init_subclass__(cls, **kwargs):
             super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
             cls.subclasses.append(cls)

     class Plugin1(PluginBase):
         pass

     class Plugin2(PluginBase):
         pass

In order to allow zero-argument *note super(): 443. calls to work
correctly from *note __init_subclass__(): a22. implementations, custom
metaclasses must ensure that the new ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry is
propagated to ‘type.__new__’ (as described in *note Δημιουργία
αντικειμένου κλάσης: 1008.).

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 487(1) – Simpler customization of class creation

     PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann.

*note Feature documentation: 1009.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements,  Next: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol,  Prev: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.7 PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements
..................................................

PEP 487(1) extends the descriptor protocol to include the new optional
*note __set_name__(): 100c. method.  Whenever a new class is defined,
the new method will be called on all descriptors included in the
definition, providing them with a reference to the class being defined
and the name given to the descriptor within the class namespace.  In
other words, instances of descriptors can now know the attribute name of
the descriptor in the owner class:

     class IntField:
         def __get__(self, instance, owner):
             return instance.__dict__[self.name]

         def __set__(self, instance, value):
             if not isinstance(value, int):
                 raise ValueError(f'expecting integer in {self.name}')
             instance.__dict__[self.name] = value

         # this is the new initializer:
         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.name = name

     class Model:
         int_field = IntField()

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 487(2) – Simpler customization of class creation

     PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann.

*note Feature documentation: 100d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol,  Next: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation,  Prev: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.8 PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol
....................................................

File system paths have historically been represented as *note str: 1df.
or *note bytes: 1c7. objects.  This has led to people who write code
which operate on file system paths to assume that such objects are only
one of those two types (an *note int: 326. representing a file
descriptor does not count as that is not a file path).  Unfortunately
that assumption prevents alternative object representations of file
system paths like *note pathlib: a8. from working with pre-existing
code, including Python’s standard library.

To fix this situation, a new interface represented by *note os.PathLike:
100f. has been defined.  By implementing the *note __fspath__(): 1010.
method, an object signals that it represents a path.  An object can then
provide a low-level representation of a file system path as a *note str:
1df. or *note bytes: 1c7. object.  This means an object is considered
*note path-like: 79f. if it implements ‘os.PathLike’ or is a ‘str’ or
‘bytes’ object which represents a file system path.  Code can use *note
os.fspath(): 1011, *note os.fsdecode(): 1012, or *note os.fsencode():
1013. to explicitly get a ‘str’ and/or ‘bytes’ representation of a
path-like object.

The built-in *note open(): 32b. function has been updated to accept
*note os.PathLike: 100f. objects, as have all relevant functions in the
*note os: a5. and *note os.path: a6. modules, and most other functions
and classes in the standard library.  The *note os.DirEntry: 8ac. class
and relevant classes in *note pathlib: a8. have also been updated to
implement ‘os.PathLike’.

The hope is that updating the fundamental functions for operating on
file system paths will lead to third-party code to implicitly support
all *note path-like objects: 79f. without any code changes, or at least
very minimal ones (e.g.  calling *note os.fspath(): 1011. at the
beginning of code before operating on a path-like object).

Here are some examples of how the new interface allows for *note
pathlib.Path: 4ee. to be used more easily and transparently with
pre-existing code:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> with open(pathlib.Path("README")) as f:
     ...     contents = f.read()
     ...
     >>> import os.path
     >>> os.path.splitext(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
     ('some_file', '.txt')
     >>> os.path.join("/a/b", pathlib.Path("c"))
     '/a/b/c'
     >>> import os
     >>> os.fspath(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt"))
     'some_file.txt'

(Implemented by Brett Cannon, Ethan Furman, Dusty Phillips, and Jelle
Zijlstra.)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 519(1) – Adding a file system path protocol

     PEP written by Brett Cannon and Koos Zevenhoven.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation,  Next: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8,  Prev: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.9 PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation
...........................................

In most world locations, there have been and will be times when local
clocks are moved back.  In those times, intervals are introduced in
which local clocks show the same time twice in the same day.  In these
situations, the information displayed on a local clock (or stored in a
Python datetime instance) is insufficient to identify a particular
moment in time.

PEP 495(1) adds the new 'fold' attribute to instances of *note
datetime.datetime: 6e7. and *note datetime.time: 48e. classes to
differentiate between two moments in time for which local times are the
same:

     >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
     ...
     04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
     05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
     07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0

The values of the *note fold: 1015. attribute have the value ‘0’ for all
instances except those that represent the second (chronologically)
moment in time in an ambiguous case.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 495(2) – Local Time Disambiguation

     PEP written by Alexander Belopolsky and Tim Peters, implementation
     by Alexander Belopolsky.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8,  Next: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8,  Prev: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.10 PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8
..............................................................

Representing filesystem paths is best performed with str (Unicode)
rather than bytes.  However, there are some situations where using bytes
is sufficient and correct.

Prior to Python 3.6, data loss could result when using bytes paths on
Windows.  With this change, using bytes to represent paths is now
supported on Windows, provided those bytes are encoded with the encoding
returned by *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): 1017, which now defaults
to ‘'utf-8'’.

Applications that do not use str to represent paths should use *note
os.fsencode(): 1013. and *note os.fsdecode(): 1012. to ensure their
bytes are correctly encoded.  To revert to the previous behaviour, set
*note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 30f. or call *note
sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 30e.

See PEP 529(1) for more information and discussion of code modifications
that may be required.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8,  Next: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order,  Prev: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.11 PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8
...........................................................

The default console on Windows will now accept all Unicode characters
and provide correctly read str objects to Python code.  ‘sys.stdin’,
‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ now default to utf-8 encoding.

This change only applies when using an interactive console, and not when
redirecting files or pipes.  To revert to the previous behaviour for
interactive console use, set *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: 1019.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 528(1) – Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8

     PEP written and implemented by Steve Dower.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order,  Next: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order,  Prev: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.12 PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order
..............................................................

Attributes in a class definition body have a natural ordering: the same
order in which the names appear in the source.  This order is now
preserved in the new class’s *note __dict__: 101b. attribute.

Also, the effective default class 'execution' namespace (returned from
*note type.__prepare__(): 101c.) is now an insertion-order-preserving
mapping.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 520(1) – Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0520/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order,  Next: New dict implementation,  Prev: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.13 PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order
....................................................

‘**kwargs’ in a function signature is now guaranteed to be an
insertion-order-preserving mapping.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 468(1) – Preserving Keyword Argument Order

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/


File: python.info,  Node: New dict implementation,  Next: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython,  Prev: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.14 New dict implementation
.................................

The *note dict: e8c. type now uses a «compact» representation based on a
proposal by Raymond Hettinger(1) which was first implemented by PyPy(2).
The memory usage of the new *note dict(): 188. is between 20% and 25%
smaller compared to Python 3.5.

The order-preserving aspect of this new implementation is considered an
implementation detail and should not be relied upon (this may change in
the future, but it is desired to have this new dict implementation in
the language for a few releases before changing the language spec to
mandate order-preserving semantics for all current and future Python
implementations; this also helps preserve backwards-compatibility with
older versions of the language where random iteration order is still in
effect, e.g.  Python 3.5).

(Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-27350(3).  Idea originally suggested
by Raymond Hettinger(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html

   (2) 
https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27350

   (4) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython,  Next: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable,  Prev: New dict implementation,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.15 PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython
...........................................................

While Python provides extensive support to customize how code executes,
one place it has not done so is in the evaluation of frame objects.  If
you wanted some way to intercept frame evaluation in Python there really
wasn’t any way without directly manipulating function pointers for
defined functions.

PEP 523(1) changes this by providing an API to make frame evaluation
pluggable at the C level.  This will allow for tools such as debuggers
and JITs to intercept frame evaluation before the execution of Python
code begins.  This enables the use of alternative evaluation
implementations for Python code, tracking frame evaluation, etc.

This API is not part of the limited C API and is marked as private to
signal that usage of this API is expected to be limited and only
applicable to very select, low-level use-cases.  Semantics of the API
will change with Python as necessary.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 523(2) – Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython

     PEP written by Brett Cannon and Dino Viehland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable,  Next: DTrace and SystemTap probing support,  Prev: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.16 PYTHONMALLOC environment variable
...........................................

The new *note PYTHONMALLOC: 1022. environment variable allows setting
the Python memory allocators and installing debug hooks.

It is now possible to install debug hooks on Python memory allocators on
Python compiled in release mode using ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’.  Effects of
debug hooks:

   * Newly allocated memory is filled with the byte ‘0xCB’

   * Freed memory is filled with the byte ‘0xDB’

   * Detect violations of the Python memory allocator API. For example,
     *note PyObject_Free(): 1023. called on a memory block allocated by
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024.

   * Detect writes before the start of a buffer (buffer underflows)

   * Detect writes after the end of a buffer (buffer overflows)

   * Check that the *note GIL: 685. is held when allocator functions of
     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: 1025. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026.)
     and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: 1027. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024.)
     domains are called.

Checking if the GIL is held is also a new feature of Python 3.6.

See the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): 1028. function for debug hooks on
Python memory allocators.

It is now also possible to force the usage of the ‘malloc()’ allocator
of the C library for all Python memory allocations using
‘PYTHONMALLOC=malloc’.  This is helpful when using external memory
debuggers like Valgrind on a Python compiled in release mode.

On error, the debug hooks on Python memory allocators now use the *note
tracemalloc: 108. module to get the traceback where a memory block was
allocated.

Example of fatal error on buffer overflow using ‘python3.6 -X
tracemalloc=5’ (store 5 frames in traces):

     Debug memory block at address p=0x7fbcd41666f8: API 'o'
         4 bytes originally requested
         The 7 pad bytes at p-7 are FORBIDDENBYTE, as expected.
         The 8 pad bytes at tail=0x7fbcd41666fc are not all FORBIDDENBYTE (0xfb):
             at tail+0: 0x02 *** OUCH
             at tail+1: 0xfb
             at tail+2: 0xfb
             at tail+3: 0xfb
             at tail+4: 0xfb
             at tail+5: 0xfb
             at tail+6: 0xfb
             at tail+7: 0xfb
         The block was made by call #1233329 to debug malloc/realloc.
         Data at p: 1a 2b 30 00

     Memory block allocated at (most recent call first):
       File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323
       File "unittest/case.py", line 600
       File "unittest/case.py", line 648
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84

     Fatal Python error: bad trailing pad byte

     Current thread 0x00007fbcdbd32700 (most recent call first):
       File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323 in test_hex
       File "unittest/case.py", line 600 in run
       File "unittest/case.py", line 648 in __call__
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run
       File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__
       ...

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26516(1) and bpo-26564(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26564


File: python.info,  Node: DTrace and SystemTap probing support,  Prev: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable,  Up: New Features<13>

1.11.2.17 DTrace and SystemTap probing support
..............................................

Python can now be built ‘--with-dtrace’ which enables static markers for
the following events in the interpreter:

   * function call/return

   * garbage collection started/finished

   * line of code executed.

This can be used to instrument running interpreters in production,
without the need to recompile specific *note debug builds: 3dc. or
providing application-specific profiling/debugging code.

More details in *note Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap:
102a.

The current implementation is tested on Linux and macOS. Additional
markers may be added in the future.

(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-21590(1), based on patches by Jesús
Cea Avión, David Malcolm, and Nikhil Benesch.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21590


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<8>,  Next: New Modules<8>,  Prev: New Features<13>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.3 Other Language Changes
-----------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * A ‘global’ or ‘nonlocal’ statement must now textually appear before
     the first use of the affected name in the same scope.  Previously
     this was a *note SyntaxWarning: 44a.

   * It is now possible to set a *note special method: 102c. to ‘None’
     to indicate that the corresponding operation is not available.  For
     example, if a class sets *note __iter__(): 102d. to ‘None’, the
     class is not iterable.  (Contributed by Andrew Barnert and Ivan
     Levkivskyi in bpo-25958(1).)

   * Long sequences of repeated traceback lines are now abbreviated as
     ‘"[Previous line repeated {count} more times]"’ (see *note
     traceback: 102e. for an example).  (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in
     bpo-26823(2).)

   * Import now raises the new exception *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be.
     (subclass of *note ImportError: 1bd.) when it cannot find a module.
     Code that currently checks for ImportError (in try-except) will
     still work.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(3).)

   * Class methods relying on zero-argument ‘super()’ will now work
     correctly when called from metaclass methods during class creation.
     (Contributed by Martin Teichmann in bpo-23722(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<8>,  Next: Improved Modules<8>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.4 New Modules
------------------

* Menu:

* secrets::


File: python.info,  Node: secrets,  Up: New Modules<8>

1.11.4.1 secrets
................

The main purpose of the new *note secrets: c8. module is to provide an
obvious way to reliably generate cryptographically strong pseudo-random
values suitable for managing secrets, such as account authentication,
tokens, and similar.

     Προειδοποίηση: Note that the pseudo-random generators in the *note
     random: c0. module should 'NOT' be used for security purposes.  Use
     *note secrets: c8. on Python 3.6+ and *note os.urandom(): 931. on
     Python 3.5 and earlier.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 506(1) – Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library

     PEP written and implemented by Steven D’Aprano.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<8>,  Next: Optimizations<11>,  Prev: New Modules<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.5 Improved Modules
-----------------------

* Menu:

* array: array<5>.
* ast: ast<8>.
* asyncio: asyncio<13>.
* binascii: binascii<3>.
* cmath::
* collections: collections<5>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<6>.
* contextlib: contextlib<5>.
* datetime: datetime<7>.
* decimal: decimal<3>.
* distutils: distutils<5>.
* email: email<4>.
* encodings: encodings<2>.
* enum: enum<7>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<4>.
* fileinput: fileinput<2>.
* hashlib: hashlib<6>.
* http.client: http client<3>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<2>.
* importlib: importlib<6>.
* inspect: inspect<8>.
* json: json<3>.
* logging: logging<4>.
* math: math<9>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<6>.
* os: os<10>.
* pathlib: pathlib<13>.
* pdb: pdb<8>.
* pickle: pickle<4>.
* pickletools: pickletools<2>.
* pydoc: pydoc<4>.
* random: random<4>.
* re: re<7>.
* readline::
* rlcompleter::
* shlex: shlex<2>.
* site: site<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<9>.
* socket: socket<9>.
* socketserver: socketserver<2>.
* ssl: ssl<9>.
* statistics: statistics<5>.
* struct: struct<2>.
* subprocess: subprocess<4>.
* sys: sys<11>.
* telnetlib::
* time: time<6>.
* timeit: timeit<2>.
* tkinter: tkinter<8>.
* traceback: traceback<4>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<3>.
* typing: typing<12>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<9>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<2>.
* urllib.request: urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser.
* venv: venv<6>.
* warnings: warnings<5>.
* winreg::
* winsound::
* xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client.
* zipfile: zipfile<4>.
* zlib: zlib<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: array<5>,  Next: ast<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.1 array
..............

Exhausted iterators of *note array.array: 6c5. will now stay exhausted
even if the iterated array is extended.  This is consistent with the
behavior of other mutable sequences.

Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26492(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26492


File: python.info,  Node: ast<8>,  Next: asyncio<13>,  Prev: array<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.2 ast
............

The new *note ast.Constant: 569. AST node has been added.  It can be
used by external AST optimizers for the purposes of constant folding.

Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26146(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26146


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<13>,  Next: binascii<3>,  Prev: ast<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.3 asyncio
................

Starting with Python 3.6 the ‘asyncio’ module is no longer provisional
and its API is considered stable.

Notable changes in the *note asyncio: b. module since Python 3.5.0 (all
backported to 3.5.x due to the provisional status):

   * The *note get_event_loop(): 56c. function has been changed to
     always return the currently running loop when called from
     coroutines and callbacks.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-28613(1).)

   * The *note ensure_future(): 1035. function and all functions that
     use it, such as *note loop.run_until_complete(): 1036, now accept
     all kinds of *note awaitable objects: 6cf.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * New *note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): c58. function to submit
     coroutines to event loops from other threads.  (Contributed by
     Vincent Michel.)

   * New *note Transport.is_closing(): 1037. method to check if the
     transport is closing or closed.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * The *note loop.create_server(): ed7. method can now accept a list
     of hosts.  (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)

   * New *note loop.create_future(): 1038. method to create Future
     objects.  This allows alternative event loop implementations, such
     as uvloop(2), to provide a faster *note asyncio.Future: f8b.
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27041(3).)

   * New *note loop.get_exception_handler(): 1039. method to get the
     current exception handler.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
     bpo-27040(4).)

   * New *note StreamReader.readuntil(): 6d6. method to read data from
     the stream until a separator bytes sequence appears.  (Contributed
     by Mark Korenberg.)

   * The performance of *note StreamReader.readexactly(): 103a. has been
     improved.  (Contributed by Mark Korenberg in bpo-28370(5).)

   * The *note loop.getaddrinfo(): fd3. method is optimized to avoid
     calling the system ‘getaddrinfo’ function if the address is already
     resolved.  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

   * The *note loop.stop(): 103b. method has been changed to stop the
     loop immediately after the current iteration.  Any new callbacks
     scheduled as a result of the last iteration will be discarded.
     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-25593(6).)

   * *note Future.set_exception: 103c. will now raise *note TypeError:
     291. when passed an instance of the *note StopIteration: fba.
     exception.  (Contributed by Chris Angelico in bpo-26221(7).)

   * New *note loop.connect_accepted_socket(): bbb. method to be used by
     servers that accept connections outside of asyncio, but that use
     asyncio to handle them.  (Contributed by Jim Fulton in
     bpo-27392(8).)

   * ‘TCP_NODELAY’ flag is now set for all TCP transports by default.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27456(9).)

   * New *note loop.shutdown_asyncgens(): 103d. to properly close
     pending asynchronous generators before closing the loop.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28003(10).)

   * *note Future: f8b. and *note Task: 460. classes now have an
     optimized C implementation which makes asyncio code up to 30%
     faster.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in
     bpo-26081(11) and bpo-28544(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (2) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27041

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27040

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26221

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28003

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544


File: python.info,  Node: binascii<3>,  Next: cmath,  Prev: asyncio<13>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.4 binascii
.................

The *note b2a_base64(): 1fc. function now accepts an optional 'newline'
keyword argument to control whether the newline character is appended to
the return value.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25357(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25357


File: python.info,  Node: cmath,  Next: collections<5>,  Prev: binascii<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.5 cmath
..............

The new *note cmath.tau: 1040. ('τ') constant has been added.
(Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345(1), see PEP 628(2) for details.)

New constants: *note cmath.inf: 1041. and *note cmath.nan: 1042. to
match *note math.inf: 1043. and *note math.nan: a53, and also *note
cmath.infj: 1044. and *note cmath.nanj: 1045. to match the format used
by complex repr.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-23229(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23229


File: python.info,  Node: collections<5>,  Next: concurrent futures<6>,  Prev: cmath,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.6 collections
....................

The new *note Collection: 1047. abstract base class has been added to
represent sized iterable container classes.  (Contributed by Ivan
Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar in bpo-27598(1).)

The new *note Reversible: 1048. abstract base class represents iterable
classes that also provide the *note __reversed__(): 1049. method.
(Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-25987(2).)

The new *note AsyncGenerator: 104a. abstract base class represents
asynchronous generators.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-28720(3).)

The *note namedtuple(): 1cf. function now accepts an optional keyword
argument 'module', which, when specified, is used for the *note
__module__: 80b. attribute of the returned named tuple class.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-17941(4).)

The 'verbose' and 'rename' arguments for *note namedtuple(): 1cf. are
now keyword-only.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-25628(5).)

Recursive *note collections.deque: 9d6. instances can now be pickled.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26482(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25987

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28720

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17941

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26482


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<6>,  Next: contextlib<5>,  Prev: collections<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.7 concurrent.futures
...........................

The *note ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. class constructor now accepts an
optional 'thread_name_prefix' argument to make it possible to customize
the names of the threads created by the pool.  (Contributed by Gregory
P.  Smith in bpo-27664(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27664


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<5>,  Next: datetime<7>,  Prev: concurrent futures<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.8 contextlib
...................

The *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: 104d. class has been added
to provide an abstract base class for context managers.  It provides a
sensible default implementation for ‘__enter__()’ which returns ‘self’
and leaves ‘__exit__()’ an abstract method.  A matching class has been
added to the *note typing: 10d. module as *note typing.ContextManager:
104e.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25609(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<7>,  Next: decimal<3>,  Prev: contextlib<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.9 datetime
.................

The *note datetime: 6e7. and *note time: 48e. classes have the new *note
fold: 1050. attribute used to disambiguate local time when necessary.
Many functions in the *note datetime: 33. have been updated to support
local time disambiguation.  See *note Local Time Disambiguation: ffa.
section for more information.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in
bpo-24773(1).)

The *note datetime.strftime(): 1051. and *note date.strftime(): 1052.
methods now support ISO 8601 date directives ‘%G’, ‘%u’ and ‘%V’.
(Contributed by Ashley Anderson in bpo-12006(2).)

The *note datetime.isoformat(): eef. function now accepts an optional
'timespec' argument that specifies the number of additional components
of the time value to include.  (Contributed by Alessandro Cucci and
Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-19475(3).)

The *note datetime.combine(): 1053. now accepts an optional 'tzinfo'
argument.  (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-27661(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24773

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12006

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19475

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27661


File: python.info,  Node: decimal<3>,  Next: distutils<5>,  Prev: datetime<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.10 decimal
.................

New *note Decimal.as_integer_ratio(): 1055. method that returns a pair
‘(n, d)’ of integers that represent the given *note Decimal: 1c2.
instance as a fraction, in lowest terms and with a positive denominator:

     >>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
     (-157, 50)

(Contributed by Stefan Krah amd Mark Dickinson in bpo-25928(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25928


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<5>,  Next: email<4>,  Prev: decimal<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.11 distutils
...................

The ‘default_format’ attribute has been removed from
‘distutils.command.sdist.sdist’ and the ‘formats’ attribute defaults to
‘['gztar']’.  Although not anticipated, any code relying on the presence
of ‘default_format’ may need to be adapted.  See bpo-27819(1) for more
details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27819


File: python.info,  Node: email<4>,  Next: encodings<2>,  Prev: distutils<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.12 email
...............

The new email API, enabled via the 'policy' keyword to various
constructors, is no longer provisional.  The *note email: 3e.
documentation has been reorganized and rewritten to focus on the new
API, while retaining the old documentation for the legacy API.
(Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24277(1).)

The *note email.mime: 48. classes now all accept an optional 'policy'
keyword.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-27331(2).)

The *note DecodedGenerator: 1058. now supports the 'policy' keyword.

There is a new *note policy: 52. attribute, *note message_factory: 1059,
that controls what class is used by default when the parser creates new
message objects.  For the *note email.policy.compat32: 105a. policy this
is *note Message: 780, for the new policies it is *note EmailMessage:
216.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-20476(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24277

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27331

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20476


File: python.info,  Node: encodings<2>,  Next: enum<7>,  Prev: email<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.13 encodings
...................

On Windows, added the ‘'oem'’ encoding to use ‘CP_OEMCP’, and the
‘'ansi'’ alias for the existing ‘'mbcs'’ encoding, which uses the
‘CP_ACP’ code page.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27959(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27959


File: python.info,  Node: enum<7>,  Next: faulthandler<4>,  Prev: encodings<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.14 enum
..............

Two new enumeration base classes have been added to the *note enum: 59.
module: *note Flag: a14. and *note IntFlag: 105d.  Both are used to
define constants that can be combined using the bitwise operators.
(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-23591(1).)

Many standard library modules have been updated to use the *note
IntFlag: 105d. class for their constants.

The new *note enum.auto: 105e. value can be used to assign values to
enum members automatically:

     >>> from enum import Enum, auto
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     red = auto()
     ...     blue = auto()
     ...     green = auto()
     ...
     >>> list(Color)
     [<Color.red: 1>, <Color.blue: 2>, <Color.green: 3>]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23591


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<4>,  Next: fileinput<2>,  Prev: enum<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.15 faulthandler
......................

On Windows, the *note faulthandler: 5b. module now installs a handler
for Windows exceptions: see *note faulthandler.enable(): 219.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23848(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23848


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput<2>,  Next: hashlib<6>,  Prev: faulthandler<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.16 fileinput
...................

*note hook_encoded(): 1061. now supports the 'errors' argument.
(Contributed by Joseph Hackman in bpo-25788(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25788


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<6>,  Next: http client<3>,  Prev: fileinput<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.17 hashlib
.................

*note hashlib: 6b. supports OpenSSL 1.1.0.  The minimum recommend
version is 1.0.2.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470(1).)

BLAKE2 hash functions were added to the module.  *note blake2b(): a31.
and *note blake2s(): a32. are always available and support the full
feature set of BLAKE2.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26798(2)
based on code by Dmitry Chestnykh and Samuel Neves.  Documentation
written by Dmitry Chestnykh.)

The SHA-3 hash functions *note sha3_224(): 1063, *note sha3_256(): 1064,
*note sha3_384(): 1065, *note sha3_512(): 1066, and SHAKE hash functions
*note shake_128(): 1067. and *note shake_256(): 1068. were added.
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-16113(3).  Keccak Code Package
by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters, Gilles Van Assche, and
Ronny Van Keer.)

The password-based key derivation function *note scrypt(): ffc. is now
available with OpenSSL 1.1.0 and newer.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-27928(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26798

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16113

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27928


File: python.info,  Node: http client<3>,  Next: idlelib and IDLE<2>,  Prev: hashlib<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.18 http.client
.....................

*note HTTPConnection.request(): 106a. and *note endheaders(): 106b. both
now support chunked encoding request bodies.  (Contributed by Demian
Brecht and Rolf Krahl in bpo-12319(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE<2>,  Next: importlib<6>,  Prev: http client<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.19 idlelib and IDLE
..........................

The idlelib package is being modernized and refactored to make IDLE look
and work better and to make the code easier to understand, test, and
improve.  Part of making IDLE look better, especially on Linux and Mac,
is using ttk widgets, mostly in the dialogs.  As a result, IDLE no
longer runs with tcl/tk 8.4.  It now requires tcl/tk 8.5 or 8.6.  We
recommend running the latest release of either.

“Modernizing” includes renaming and consolidation of idlelib modules.
The renaming of files with partial uppercase names is similar to the
renaming of, for instance, Tkinter and TkFont to tkinter and
tkinter.font in 3.0.  As a result, imports of idlelib files that worked
in 3.5 will usually not work in 3.6.  At least a module name change will
be needed (see idlelib/README.txt), sometimes more.  (Name changes
contributed by Al Swiegart and Terry Reedy in bpo-24225(1).  Most
idlelib patches since have been and will be part of the process.)

In compensation, the eventual result with be that some idlelib classes
will be easier to use, with better APIs and docstrings explaining them.
Additional useful information will be added to idlelib when available.

New in 3.6.2:

Multiple fixes for autocompletion.  (Contributed by Louie Lu in
bpo-15786(2).)

New in 3.6.3:

Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser), now
displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level functions
and classes.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
Jan Reedy in bpo-1612262(3).)

The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been
reimplemented as normal features.  Their settings have been moved from
the Extensions tab to other dialog tabs.  (Contributed by Charles
Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-27099(4).)

The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten
to improve both appearance and function.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella
and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.)

New in 3.6.4:

The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that
users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-13802(5).)  The sample can be
edited to include other characters.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-31860(6).)

New in 3.6.6:

Editor code context option revised.  Box displays all context lines up
to maxlines.  Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line.
Context colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings
dialog.  (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in
bpo-33642(7), bpo-33768(8), and bpo-33679(9).)

On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On
Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python
binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this
should make text and lines sharper.  It should otherwise have no effect.
(Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33656(10).)

New in 3.6.7:

Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button.  N can
be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings
dialog.  Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right
clicking on the output.  Squeezed output can be expanded in place by
double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by
right-clicking the button.  (Contributed by Tal Einat in
bpo-1529353(11).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<6>,  Next: inspect<8>,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.20 importlib
...................

Import now raises the new exception *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be.
(subclass of *note ImportError: 1bd.) when it cannot find a module.
Code that current checks for ‘ImportError’ (in try-except) will still
work.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(1).)

*note importlib.util.LazyLoader: 106e. now calls *note create_module():
106f. on the wrapped loader, removing the restriction that *note
importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter: 1070. and *note
importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: 1071. couldn’t be used with
‘importlib.util.LazyLoader’.

*note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 330, *note
importlib.util.source_from_cache(): 929, and *note
importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(): 1072. now accept a *note
path-like object: 79f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<8>,  Next: json<3>,  Prev: importlib<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.21 inspect
.................

The *note inspect.signature(): 4bd. function now reports the implicit
‘.0’ parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and
generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only parameters
called ‘implicit0’.  (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-19611(1).)

To reduce code churn when upgrading from Python 2.7 and the legacy
‘inspect.getargspec()’ API, the previously documented deprecation of
*note inspect.getfullargspec(): b1f. has been reversed.  While this
function is convenient for single/source Python 2/3 code bases, the
richer *note inspect.signature(): 4bd. interface remains the recommended
approach for new code.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-27172(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19611

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172


File: python.info,  Node: json<3>,  Next: logging<4>,  Prev: inspect<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.22 json
..............

*note json.load(): 22e. and *note json.loads(): 22f. now support binary
input.  Encoded JSON should be represented using either UTF-8, UTF-16,
or UTF-32.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-17909(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17909


File: python.info,  Node: logging<4>,  Next: math<9>,  Prev: json<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.23 logging
.................

The new *note WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded(): 1076. method has been
added to add the ability to check if the log file needs to be reopened.
(Contributed by Marian Horban in bpo-24884(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24884


File: python.info,  Node: math<9>,  Next: multiprocessing<6>,  Prev: logging<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.24 math
..............

The tau ('τ') constant has been added to the *note math: 91. and *note
cmath: 19. modules.  (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345(1), see PEP
628(2) for details.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<6>,  Next: os<10>,  Prev: math<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.25 multiprocessing
.........................

*note Proxy Objects: 4d8. returned by *note multiprocessing.Manager():
4dc. can now be nested.  (Contributed by Davin Potts in bpo-6766(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6766


File: python.info,  Node: os<10>,  Next: pathlib<13>,  Prev: multiprocessing<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.26 os
............

See the summary of *note PEP 519: ff9. for details on how the *note os:
a5. and *note os.path: a6. modules now support *note path-like objects:
79f.

*note scandir(): e23. now supports *note bytes: 1c7. paths on Windows.

A new *note close(): 107a. method allows explicitly closing a *note
scandir(): e23. iterator.  The ‘scandir()’ iterator now supports the
*note context manager: 478. protocol.  If a ‘scandir()’ iterator is
neither exhausted nor explicitly closed a *note ResourceWarning: 74f.
will be emitted in its destructor.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-25994(1).)

On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 931. now blocks until the system urandom
entropy pool is initialized to increase the security.  See the PEP
524(2) for the rationale.

The Linux ‘getrandom()’ syscall (get random bytes) is now exposed as the
new *note os.getrandom(): 107b. function.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner, part of the PEP 524(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25994

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<13>,  Next: pdb<8>,  Prev: os<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.27 pathlib
.................

*note pathlib: a8. now supports *note path-like objects: 79f.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-27186(1).)

See the summary of *note PEP 519: ff9. for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<8>,  Next: pickle<4>,  Prev: pathlib<13>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.28 pdb
.............

The *note Pdb: 4fb. class constructor has a new optional 'readrc'
argument to control whether ‘.pdbrc’ files should be read.


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<4>,  Next: pickletools<2>,  Prev: pdb<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.29 pickle
................

Objects that need ‘__new__’ called with keyword arguments can now be
pickled using *note pickle protocols: 503. older than protocol version
4.  Protocol version 4 already supports this case.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-24164(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24164


File: python.info,  Node: pickletools<2>,  Next: pydoc<4>,  Prev: pickle<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.30 pickletools
.....................

*note pickletools.dis(): 1080. now outputs the implicit memo index for
the ‘MEMOIZE’ opcode.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-25382(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25382


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<4>,  Next: random<4>,  Prev: pickletools<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.31 pydoc
...............

The *note pydoc: bd. module has learned to respect the ‘MANPAGER’
environment variable.  (Contributed by Matthias Klose in bpo-8637(1).)

*note help(): ca9. and *note pydoc: bd. can now list named tuple fields
in the order they were defined rather than alphabetically.  (Contributed
by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-24879(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8637

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24879


File: python.info,  Node: random<4>,  Next: re<7>,  Prev: pydoc<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.32 random
................

The new *note choices(): 1083. function returns a list of elements of
specified size from the given population with optional weights.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18844(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844


File: python.info,  Node: re<7>,  Next: readline,  Prev: random<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.33 re
............

Added support of modifier spans in regular expressions.  Examples:
‘'(?i:p)ython'’ matches ‘'python'’ and ‘'Python'’, but not ‘'PYTHON'’;
‘'(?i)g(?-i:v)r'’ matches ‘'GvR'’ and ‘'gvr'’, but not ‘'GVR'’.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-433028(1).)

Match object groups can be accessed by ‘__getitem__’, which is
equivalent to ‘group()’.  So ‘mo['name']’ is now equivalent to
‘mo.group('name')’.  (Contributed by Eric Smith in bpo-24454(2).)

*note Match: 1085. objects now support *note index-like objects: 43d. as
group indices.  (Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer and Xiang Zhang in
bpo-27177(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433028

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24454

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27177


File: python.info,  Node: readline,  Next: rlcompleter,  Prev: re<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.34 readline
..................

Added *note set_auto_history(): 1087. to enable or disable automatic
addition of input to the history list.  (Contributed by Tyler Crompton
in bpo-26870(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26870


File: python.info,  Node: rlcompleter,  Next: shlex<2>,  Prev: readline,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.35 rlcompleter
.....................

Private and special attribute names now are omitted unless the prefix
starts with underscores.  A space or a colon is added after some
completed keywords.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25011(1)
and bpo-25209(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25011

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25209


File: python.info,  Node: shlex<2>,  Next: site<3>,  Prev: rlcompleter,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.36 shlex
...............

The *note shlex: 108a. has much *note improved shell compatibility:
108b. through the new 'punctuation_chars' argument to control which
characters are treated as punctuation.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
bpo-1521950(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1521950


File: python.info,  Node: site<3>,  Next: sqlite3<9>,  Prev: shlex<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.37 site
..............

When specifying paths to add to *note sys.path: 194. in a ‘.pth’ file,
you may now specify file paths on top of directories (e.g.  zip files).
(Contributed by Wolfgang Langner in bpo-26587(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26587


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<9>,  Next: socket<9>,  Prev: site<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.38 sqlite3
.................

*note sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid: 108e. now supports the ‘REPLACE’
statement.  (Contributed by Alex LordThorsen in bpo-16864(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16864


File: python.info,  Node: socket<9>,  Next: socketserver<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.39 socket
................

The *note ioctl(): 1090. function now supports the *note
SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH: 1091. control code.  (Contributed by Daniel
Stokes in bpo-26536(1).)

The *note getsockopt(): 1092. constants ‘SO_DOMAIN’, ‘SO_PROTOCOL’,
‘SO_PEERSEC’, and ‘SO_PASSSEC’ are now supported.  (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in bpo-26907(2).)

The *note setsockopt(): 1093. now supports the ‘setsockopt(level,
optname, None, optlen: int)’ form.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-27744(3).)

The socket module now supports the address family *note AF_ALG: 1094. to
interface with Linux Kernel crypto API. ‘ALG_*’, ‘SOL_ALG’ and *note
sendmsg_afalg(): 1095. were added.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-27744(4) with support from Victor Stinner.)

New Linux constants ‘TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ and ‘TCP_CONGESTION’ were added.
(Contributed by Omar Sandoval, bpo-26273(5)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26536

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26907

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver<2>,  Next: ssl<9>,  Prev: socket<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.40 socketserver
......................

Servers based on the *note socketserver: d5. module, including those
defined in *note http.server: 75, *note xmlrpc.server: 138. and *note
wsgiref.simple_server: 124, now support the *note context manager: 478.
protocol.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-26404(1).)

The *note wfile: 1097. attribute of *note StreamRequestHandler: 1098.
classes now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase: a83. writable
interface.  In particular, calling *note write(): 1099. is now
guaranteed to send the data in full.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in
bpo-26721(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26404

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26721


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<9>,  Next: statistics<5>,  Prev: socketserver<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.41 ssl
.............

*note ssl: d8. supports OpenSSL 1.1.0.  The minimum recommend version is
1.0.2.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470(1).)

3DES has been removed from the default cipher suites and ChaCha20
Poly1305 cipher suites have been added.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-27850(2) and bpo-27766(3).)

*note SSLContext: 336. has better default configuration for options and
ciphers.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28043(4).)

SSL session can be copied from one client-side connection to another
with the new *note SSLSession: 109b. class.  TLS session resumption can
speed up the initial handshake, reduce latency and improve performance
(Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-19500(5) based on a draft by
Alex Warhawk.)

The new *note get_ciphers(): 109c. method can be used to get a list of
enabled ciphers in order of cipher priority.

All constants and flags have been converted to *note IntEnum: 109d. and
*note IntFlag: 105d.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28025(6).)

Server and client-side specific TLS protocols for *note SSLContext: 336.
were added.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28085(7).)

Added *note ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: df5. to enable and *note
ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): df6. to initiate TLS 1.3
post-handshake authentication.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
gh-78851(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28043

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19500

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28025

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28085

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<5>,  Next: struct<2>,  Prev: ssl<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.42 statistics
....................

A new *note harmonic_mean(): 109f. function has been added.
(Contributed by Steven D’Aprano in bpo-27181(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181


File: python.info,  Node: struct<2>,  Next: subprocess<4>,  Prev: statistics<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.43 struct
................

*note struct: de. now supports IEEE 754 half-precision floats via the
‘'e'’ format specifier.  (Contributed by Eli Stevens, Mark Dickinson in
bpo-11734(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11734


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<4>,  Next: sys<11>,  Prev: struct<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.44 subprocess
....................

*note subprocess.Popen: 6bf. destructor now emits a *note
ResourceWarning: 74f. warning if the child process is still running.
Use the context manager protocol (‘with proc: ...’) or explicitly call
the *note wait(): 266. method to read the exit status of the child
process.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26741(1).)

The *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf. constructor and all functions that pass
arguments through to it now accept 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments.
Specifying either of these will enable text mode for the 'stdin',
'stdout' and 'stderr' streams.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in
bpo-6135(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26741

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6135


File: python.info,  Node: sys<11>,  Next: telnetlib,  Prev: subprocess<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.45 sys
.............

The new *note getfilesystemencodeerrors(): 10a3. function returns the
name of the error mode used to convert between Unicode filenames and
bytes filenames.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27781(1).)

On Windows the return value of the *note getwindowsversion(): 10a4.
function now includes the 'platform_version' field which contains the
accurate major version, minor version and build number of the current
operating system, rather than the version that is being emulated for the
process (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27932(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932


File: python.info,  Node: telnetlib,  Next: time<6>,  Prev: sys<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.46 telnetlib
...................

‘telnetlib.Telnet’ is now a context manager (contributed by Stéphane
Wirtel in bpo-25485(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25485


File: python.info,  Node: time<6>,  Next: timeit<2>,  Prev: telnetlib,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.47 time
..............

The *note struct_time: 10a7. attributes ‘tm_gmtoff’ and ‘tm_zone’ are
now available on all platforms.


File: python.info,  Node: timeit<2>,  Next: tkinter<8>,  Prev: time<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.48 timeit
................

The new *note Timer.autorange(): 283. convenience method has been added
to call *note Timer.timeit(): 10a9. repeatedly so that the total run
time is greater or equal to 200 milliseconds.  (Contributed by Steven
D’Aprano in bpo-6422(1).)

*note timeit: f8. now warns when there is substantial (4x) variance
between best and worst times.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-23552(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6422

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23552


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<8>,  Next: traceback<4>,  Prev: timeit<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.49 tkinter
.................

Added methods ‘Variable.trace_add()’, ‘Variable.trace_remove()’ and
‘trace_info()’ in the ‘tkinter.Variable’ class.  They replace old
methods ‘trace_variable()’, ‘trace()’, ‘trace_vdelete()’ and
‘trace_vinfo()’ that use obsolete Tcl commands and might not work in
future versions of Tcl.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-22115(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<4>,  Next: tracemalloc<3>,  Prev: tkinter<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.50 traceback
...................

Both the traceback module and the interpreter’s builtin exception
display now abbreviate long sequences of repeated lines in tracebacks as
shown in the following example:

     >>> def f(): f()
     ...
     >>> f()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in f
       [Previous line repeated 995 more times]
     RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exceeded

(Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<3>,  Next: typing<12>,  Prev: traceback<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.51 tracemalloc
.....................

The *note tracemalloc: 108. module now supports tracing memory
allocations in multiple different address spaces.

The new *note DomainFilter: 10ad. filter class has been added to filter
block traces by their address space (domain).

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26588(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26588


File: python.info,  Node: typing<12>,  Next: unicodedata<9>,  Prev: tracemalloc<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.52 typing
................

Since the *note typing: 10d. module is *note provisional: 5fd, all
changes introduced in Python 3.6 have also been backported to Python
3.5.x.

The *note typing: 10d. module has a much improved support for generic
type aliases.  For example ‘Dict[str, Tuple[S, T]]’ is now a valid type
annotation.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in Github #195(1).)

The *note typing.ContextManager: 104e. class has been added for
representing *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: 104d.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25609(2).)

The *note typing.Collection: 10af. class has been added for representing
*note collections.abc.Collection: 1047.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi
in bpo-27598(3).)

The *note typing.ClassVar: 76e. type construct has been added to mark
class variables.  As introduced in PEP 526(4), a variable annotation
wrapped in ClassVar indicates that a given attribute is intended to be
used as a class variable and should not be set on instances of that
class.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in Github #280(5).)

A new *note TYPE_CHECKING: 10b0. constant that is assumed to be ‘True’
by the static type checkers, but is ‘False’ at runtime.  (Contributed by
Guido van Rossum in Github #230(6).)

A new *note NewType(): 10b1. helper function has been added to create
lightweight distinct types for annotations:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
     some_id = UserId(524313)

The static type checker will treat the new type as if it were a subclass
of the original type.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in Github
#189(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/typing/pull/195

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (5) https://github.com/python/typing/pull/280

   (6) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/230

   (7) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/189


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<9>,  Next: unittest mock<2>,  Prev: typing<12>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.53 unicodedata
.....................

The *note unicodedata: 10e. module now uses data from Unicode 9.0.0(1).
(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode9.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock<2>,  Next: urllib request,  Prev: unicodedata<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.54 unittest.mock
.......................

The *note Mock: e0e. class has the following improvements:

   * Two new methods, *note Mock.assert_called(): 10b4. and *note
     Mock.assert_called_once(): 10b5. to check if the mock object was
     called.  (Contributed by Amit Saha in bpo-26323(1).)

   * The *note Mock.reset_mock(): 10b6. method now has two optional
     keyword only arguments: 'return_value' and 'side_effect'.
     (Contributed by Kushal Das in bpo-21271(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26323

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21271


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request,  Next: urllib robotparser,  Prev: unittest mock<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.55 urllib.request
........................

If a HTTP request has a file or iterable body (other than a bytes
object) but no ‘Content-Length’ header, rather than throwing an error,
*note AbstractHTTPHandler: 10b8. now falls back to use chunked transfer
encoding.  (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl in
bpo-12319(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319


File: python.info,  Node: urllib robotparser,  Next: venv<6>,  Prev: urllib request,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.56 urllib.robotparser
............................

*note RobotFileParser: 10ba. now supports the ‘Crawl-delay’ and
‘Request-rate’ extensions.  (Contributed by Nikolay Bogoychev in
bpo-16099(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16099


File: python.info,  Node: venv<6>,  Next: warnings<5>,  Prev: urllib robotparser,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.57 venv
..............

*note venv: 11a. accepts a new parameter ‘--prompt’.  This parameter
provides an alternative prefix for the virtual environment.  (Proposed
by Łukasz Balcerzak and ported to 3.6 by Stéphane Wirtel in
bpo-22829(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22829


File: python.info,  Node: warnings<5>,  Next: winreg,  Prev: venv<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.58 warnings
..................

A new optional 'source' parameter has been added to the *note
warnings.warn_explicit(): 2ab. function: the destroyed object which
emitted a *note ResourceWarning: 74f.  A 'source' attribute has also
been added to ‘warnings.WarningMessage’ (contributed by Victor Stinner
in bpo-26568(1) and bpo-26567(2)).

When a *note ResourceWarning: 74f. warning is logged, the *note
tracemalloc: 108. module is now used to try to retrieve the traceback
where the destroyed object was allocated.

Example with the script ‘example.py’:

     import warnings

     def func():
         return open(__file__)

     f = func()
     f = None

Output of the command ‘python3.6 -Wd -X tracemalloc=5 example.py’:

     example.py:7: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='example.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       f = None
     Object allocated at (most recent call first):
       File "example.py", lineno 4
         return open(__file__)
       File "example.py", lineno 6
         f = func()

The «Object allocated at» traceback is new and is only displayed if
*note tracemalloc: 108. is tracing Python memory allocations and if the
*note warnings: 11b. module was already imported.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26568

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567


File: python.info,  Node: winreg,  Next: winsound,  Prev: warnings<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.59 winreg
................

Added the 64-bit integer type *note REG_QWORD: 10be.  (Contributed by
Clement Rouault in bpo-23026(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23026


File: python.info,  Node: winsound,  Next: xmlrpc client,  Prev: winreg,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.60 winsound
..................

Allowed keyword arguments to be passed to *note Beep: 10c0, *note
MessageBeep: 10c1, and *note PlaySound: 10c2. (bpo-27982(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27982


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc client,  Next: zipfile<4>,  Prev: winsound,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.61 xmlrpc.client
.......................

The *note xmlrpc.client: 137. module now supports unmarshalling
additional data types used by the Apache XML-RPC implementation for
numerics and ‘None’.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26885(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26885


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<4>,  Next: zlib<3>,  Prev: xmlrpc client,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.62 zipfile
.................

A new *note ZipInfo.from_file(): 10c5. class method allows making a
*note ZipInfo: 547. instance from a filesystem file.  A new *note
ZipInfo.is_dir(): 10c6. method can be used to check if the ‘ZipInfo’
instance represents a directory.  (Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in
bpo-26039(1).)

The *note ZipFile.open(): 84a. method can now be used to write data into
a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data.  (Contributed by Thomas
Kluyver in bpo-26039(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039


File: python.info,  Node: zlib<3>,  Prev: zipfile<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<8>

1.11.5.63 zlib
..............

The *note compress(): a2e. and *note decompress(): 10c8. functions now
accept keyword arguments.  (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-26243(1)
and Xiang Zhang in bpo-16764(2) respectively.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16764


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<11>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Prev: Improved Modules<8>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.6 Optimizations
--------------------

   * The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of
     bytecode which made a number of opcode optimizations possible.
     (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from Serhiy
     Storchaka and Victor Stinner in bpo-26647(1) and bpo-28050(2).)

   * The *note asyncio.Future: f8b. class now has an optimized C
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in
     bpo-26081(3).)

   * The *note asyncio.Task: 460. class now has an optimized C
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28544(4).)

   * Various implementation improvements in the *note typing: 10d.
     module (such as caching of generic types) allow up to 30 times
     performance improvements and reduced memory footprint.

   * The ASCII decoder is now up to 60 times as fast for error handlers
     ‘surrogateescape’, ‘ignore’ and ‘replace’ (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-24870(5)).

   * The ASCII and the Latin1 encoders are now up to 3 times as fast for
     the error handler ‘surrogateescape’ (Contributed by Victor Stinner
     in bpo-25227(6)).

   * The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for error handlers
     ‘ignore’, ‘replace’, ‘surrogateescape’, ‘surrogatepass’
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25267(7)).

   * The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for error handlers
     ‘ignore’, ‘replace’ and ‘surrogateescape’ (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-25301(8)).

   * ‘bytes % args’ is now up to 2 times faster.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in bpo-25349(9)).

   * ‘bytearray % args’ is now between 2.5 and 5 times faster.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25399(10)).

   * Optimize *note bytes.fromhex(): 434. and *note bytearray.fromhex():
     435.: they are now between 2x and 3.5x faster.  (Contributed by
     Victor Stinner in bpo-25401(11)).

   * Optimize ‘bytes.replace(b'', b'.')’ and ‘bytearray.replace(b'',
     b'.')’: up to 80% faster.  (Contributed by Josh Snider in
     bpo-26574(12)).

   * Allocator functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024. domain
     (*note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: 1027.) now use the *note pymalloc memory
     allocator: 3da. instead of ‘malloc()’ function of the C library.
     The pymalloc allocator is optimized for objects smaller or equal to
     512 bytes with a short lifetime, and use ‘malloc()’ for larger
     memory blocks.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26249(13)).

   * *note pickle.load(): 10ca. and *note pickle.loads(): 10cb. are now
     up to 10% faster when deserializing many small objects (Contributed
     by Victor Stinner in bpo-27056(14)).

   * Passing *note keyword arguments: 10cc. to a function has an
     overhead in comparison with passing *note positional arguments:
     10cd.  Now in extension functions implemented with using Argument
     Clinic this overhead is significantly decreased.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27574(15)).

   * Optimized *note glob(): 2d4. and *note iglob(): be1. functions in
     the *note glob: 67. module; they are now about 3–6 times faster.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25596(16)).

   * Optimized globbing in *note pathlib: a8. by using *note
     os.scandir(): e23.; it is now about 1.5–4 times faster.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26032(17)).

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. parsing, iteration and deepcopy
     performance has been significantly improved.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25638(18), bpo-25873(19), and
     bpo-25869(20).)

   * Creation of *note fractions.Fraction: 1c3. instances from floats
     and decimals is now 2 to 3 times faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-25971(21).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24870

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25227

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25267

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25301

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25349

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25399

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25401

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26574

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27056

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27574

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25596

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26032

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25638

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25873

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25869

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25971


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Next: Other Improvements,  Prev: Optimizations<11>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.7 Build and C API Changes
------------------------------

   * Python now requires some C99 support in the toolchain to build.
     Most notably, Python now uses standard integer types and macros in
     place of custom macros like ‘PY_LONG_LONG’.  For more information,
     see PEP 7(1) and bpo-17884(2).

   * Cross-compiling CPython with the Android NDK and the Android API
     level set to 21 (Android 5.0 Lollipop) or greater runs
     successfully.  While Android is not yet a supported platform, the
     Python test suite runs on the Android emulator with only about 16
     tests failures.  See the Android meta-issue bpo-26865(3).

   * The ‘--enable-optimizations’ configure flag has been added.
     Turning it on will activate expensive optimizations like PGO.
     (Original patch by Alecsandru Patrascu of Intel in bpo-26359(4).)

   * The *note GIL: 685. must now be held when allocator functions of
     *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: 1025. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026.)
     and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: 1027. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024.)
     domains are called.

   * New *note Py_FinalizeEx(): 10cf. API which indicates if flushing
     buffered data failed.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in
     bpo-5319(5).)

   * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818. now supports *note
     positional-only parameters: e47.  Positional-only parameters are
     defined by empty names.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-26282(6)).

   * ‘PyTraceback_Print’ method now abbreviates long sequences of
     repeated lines as ‘"[Previous line repeated {count} more times]"’.
     (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823(7).)

   * The new *note PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(): 10d0. function allows
     for specifying a subclass of *note ImportError: 1bd. to raise.
     (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(8).)

   * The new *note PyErr_ResourceWarning(): 10d1. function can be used
     to generate a *note ResourceWarning: 74f. providing the source of
     the resource allocation.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-26567(9).)

   * The new *note PyOS_FSPath(): 10d2. function returns the file system
     representation of a *note path-like object: 79f.  (Contributed by
     Brett Cannon in bpo-27186(10).)

   * The *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): 10d3. and *note
     PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 97b. functions will now accept *note
     path-like objects: 79f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17884

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26865

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186


File: python.info,  Node: Other Improvements,  Next: Deprecated<12>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.8 Other Improvements
-------------------------

   * When *note -version: 10d5. (short form: *note -V: 6a7.) is supplied
     twice, Python prints *note sys.version: 6a8. for detailed
     information.

          $ ./python -VV
          Python 3.6.0b4+ (3.6:223967b49e49+, Nov 21 2016, 20:55:04)
          [GCC 4.2.1 Compatible Apple LLVM 8.0.0 (clang-800.0.42.1)]


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<12>,  Next: Removed<12>,  Prev: Other Improvements,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.9 Deprecated
-----------------

* Menu:

* New Keywords::
* Deprecated Python behavior::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>.
* xml: xml<7>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>.
* Deprecated Build Options::


File: python.info,  Node: New Keywords,  Next: Deprecated Python behavior,  Up: Deprecated<12>

1.11.9.1 New Keywords
.....................

‘async’ and ‘await’ are not recommended to be used as variable, class,
function or module names.  Introduced by PEP 492(1) in Python 3.5, they
will become proper keywords in Python 3.7.  Starting in Python 3.6, the
use of ‘async’ or ‘await’ as names will generate a *note
DeprecationWarning: 2c9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python behavior,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>,  Prev: New Keywords,  Up: Deprecated<12>

1.11.9.2 Deprecated Python behavior
...................................

Raising the *note StopIteration: fba. exception inside a generator will
now generate a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9, and will trigger a *note
RuntimeError: 30d. in Python 3.7.  See *note PEP 479; Change
StopIteration handling inside generators: 10d9. for details.

The *note __aiter__(): fbb. method is now expected to return an
asynchronous iterator directly instead of returning an awaitable as
previously.  Doing the former will trigger a *note DeprecationWarning:
2c9.  Backward compatibility will be removed in Python 3.7.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27243(1).)

A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now
generates a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  Although this will
eventually become a *note SyntaxError: 17e, that will not be for several
Python releases.  (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-27364(2).)

When performing a relative import, falling back on ‘__name__’ and
‘__path__’ from the calling module when ‘__spec__’ or ‘__package__’ are
not defined now raises an *note ImportWarning: 907.  (Contributed by
Rose Ames in bpo-25791(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27364

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>,  Next: xml<7>,  Prev: Deprecated Python behavior,  Up: Deprecated<12>

1.11.9.3 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
.........................................................

* Menu:

* asynchat::
* asyncore::
* dbm: dbm<5>.
* distutils: distutils<6>.
* grp::
* importlib: importlib<7>.
* os: os<11>.
* re: re<8>.
* ssl: ssl<10>.
* tkinter: tkinter<9>.
* venv: venv<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat,  Next: asyncore,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.11.9.4 asynchat
.................

The ‘asynchat’ has been deprecated in favor of *note asyncio: b.
(Contributed by Mariatta in bpo-25002(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore,  Next: dbm<5>,  Prev: asynchat,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.11.9.5 asyncore
.................

The ‘asyncore’ has been deprecated in favor of *note asyncio: b.
(Contributed by Mariatta in bpo-25002(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<5>,  Next: distutils<6>,  Prev: asyncore,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.11.9.6 dbm
............

Unlike other *note dbm: 34. implementations, the *note dbm.dumb: 35.
module creates databases with the ‘'rw'’ mode and allows modifying the
database opened with the ‘'r'’ mode.  This behavior is now deprecated
and will be removed in 3.8.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-21708(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21708


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<6>,  Next: grp,  Prev: dbm<5>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.11.9.7 distutils
..................

The undocumented ‘extra_path’ argument to the ‘distutils.Distribution’
constructor is now considered deprecated and will raise a warning if
set.  Support for this parameter will be removed in a future Python
release.  See bpo-27919(1) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27919


File: python.info,  Node: grp,  Next: importlib<7>,  Prev: distutils<6>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.11.9.8 grp
............

The support of non-integer arguments in *note getgrgid(): 10e0. has been
deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26129(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26129


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<7>,  Next: os<11>,  Prev: grp,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.11.9.9 importlib
..................

The ‘importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module’ and
‘importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module’ methods are now
deprecated.  They were the only remaining implementations of
‘importlib.abc.Loader.load_module’ in *note importlib: 7a. that had not
been deprecated in previous versions of Python in favour of *note
importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): c40.

The *note importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder: 10e2. class is now
deprecated.  As of 3.6.0, it is still added to *note sys.meta_path:
10e3. by default (on Windows), but this may change in future releases.


File: python.info,  Node: os<11>,  Next: re<8>,  Prev: importlib<7>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.11.9.10 os
............

Undocumented support of general *note bytes-like objects: 436. as paths
in *note os: a5. functions, *note compile(): 1c8. and similar functions
is now deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25791(1) and
bpo-26754(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: re<8>,  Next: ssl<10>,  Prev: os<11>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.11.9.11 re
............

Support for inline flags ‘(?letters)’ in the middle of the regular
expression has been deprecated and will be removed in a future Python
version.  Flags at the start of a regular expression are still allowed.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22493(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<10>,  Next: tkinter<9>,  Prev: re<8>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.11.9.12 ssl
.............

OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 are deprecated and no longer supported.
In the future the *note ssl: d8. module will require at least OpenSSL
1.0.2 or 1.1.0.

SSL-related arguments like ‘certfile’, ‘keyfile’ and ‘check_hostname’ in
*note ftplib: 61, *note http.client: 72, *note imaplib: 77, *note
poplib: b1, and *note smtplib: d2. have been deprecated in favor of
‘context’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28022(1).)

A couple of protocols and functions of the *note ssl: d8. module are now
deprecated.  Some features will no longer be available in future
versions of OpenSSL. Other features are deprecated in favor of a
different API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28022(2) and
bpo-26470(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<9>,  Next: venv<7>,  Prev: ssl<10>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.11.9.13 tkinter
.................

The ‘tkinter.tix’ module is now deprecated.  *note tkinter: f9. users
should use *note tkinter.ttk: 102. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: venv<7>,  Prev: tkinter<9>,  Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>

1.11.9.14 venv
..............

The ‘pyvenv’ script has been deprecated in favour of ‘python3 -m venv’.
This prevents confusion as to what Python interpreter ‘pyvenv’ is
connected to and thus what Python interpreter will be used by the
virtual environment.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25154(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25154


File: python.info,  Node: xml<7>,  Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>,  Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>,  Up: Deprecated<12>

1.11.9.15 xml
.............

   * As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 12b. and *note xml.sax: 132. modules no longer
     process external entities by default.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes in gh-61441(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>,  Next: Deprecated Build Options,  Prev: xml<7>,  Up: Deprecated<12>

1.11.9.16 Deprecated functions and types of the C API
.....................................................

Undocumented functions ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’,
‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’ and
‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’ are deprecated now.  Use the *note
generic codec based API: 10ec. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Build Options,  Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>,  Up: Deprecated<12>

1.11.9.17 Deprecated Build Options
..................................

The ‘--with-system-ffi’ configure flag is now on by default on non-macOS
UNIX platforms.  It may be disabled by using ‘--without-system-ffi’, but
using the flag is deprecated and will not be accepted in Python 3.7.
macOS is unaffected by this change.  Note that many OS distributors
already use the ‘--with-system-ffi’ flag when building their system
Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<12>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 6,  Prev: Deprecated<12>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.10 Removed
---------------

* Menu:

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<3>,  Up: Removed<12>

1.11.10.1 API and Feature Removals
..................................

   * Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter in regular
     expressions will now cause an error.  In replacement templates for
     *note re.sub(): 7a1. they are still allowed, but deprecated.  The
     *note re.LOCALE: f29. flag can now only be used with binary
     patterns.

   * ‘inspect.getmoduleinfo()’ was removed (was deprecated since CPython
     3.3).  *note inspect.getmodulename(): 10f0. should be used for
     obtaining the module name for a given path.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov in bpo-13248(1).)

   * ‘traceback.Ignore’ class and ‘traceback.usage’,
     ‘traceback.modname’, ‘traceback.fullmodname’,
     ‘traceback.find_lines_from_code’, ‘traceback.find_lines’,
     ‘traceback.find_strings’, ‘traceback.find_executable_lines’ methods
     were removed from the *note traceback: 107. module.  They were
     undocumented methods deprecated since Python 3.2 and equivalent
     functionality is available from private methods.

   * The ‘tk_menuBar()’ and ‘tk_bindForTraversal()’ dummy methods in
     *note tkinter: f9. widget classes were removed (corresponding Tk
     commands were obsolete since Tk 4.0).

   * The *note open(): 84a. method of the *note zipfile.ZipFile: ab1.
     class no longer supports the ‘'U'’ mode (was deprecated since
     Python 3.4).  Use *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. for reading
     compressed text files in *note universal newlines: 10f1. mode.

   * The undocumented ‘IN’, ‘CDROM’, ‘DLFCN’, ‘TYPES’, ‘CDIO’, and
     ‘STROPTS’ modules have been removed.  They had been available in
     the platform specific ‘Lib/plat-*/’ directories, but were
     chronically out of date, inconsistently available across platforms,
     and unmaintained.  The script that created these modules is still
     available in the source distribution at Tools/scripts/h2py.py(2).

   * The deprecated ‘asynchat.fifo’ class has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.6.15/Tools/scripts/h2py.py


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 6,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2,  Prev: Removed<12>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.11 Porting to Python 3.6
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in “python” Command Behavior::
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<9>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<7>.
* CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in “python” Command Behavior,  Next: Changes in the Python API<9>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.11.11.1 Changes in “python” Command Behavior
..............................................

   * The output of a special Python build with defined ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’,
     ‘SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT’ or ‘SHOW_TRACK_COUNT’ macros is now off by
     default.  It can be re-enabled using the ‘-X showalloccount’
     option.  It now outputs to ‘stderr’ instead of ‘stdout’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23034(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23034


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<9>,  Next: Changes in the C API<7>,  Prev: Changes in “python” Command Behavior,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.11.11.2 Changes in the Python API
...................................

   * *note open(): 32b. will no longer allow combining the ‘'U'’ mode
     flag with ‘'+'’.  (Contributed by Jeff Balogh and John O’Connor in
     bpo-2091(1).)

   * *note sqlite3: d7. no longer implicitly commits an open transaction
     before DDL statements.

   * On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 931. now blocks until the system
     urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security.

   * When *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): c40. is defined,
     *note importlib.abc.Loader.create_module(): 106f. must also be
     defined.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): 10f5. now sets *note TypeError: 291.
     when its 'msg' argument is not set.  Previously only ‘NULL’ was
     returned.

   * The format of the ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’ attribute of code objects
     changed to support a negative line number delta.  By default,
     Python does not emit bytecode with a negative line number delta.
     Functions using *note frame.f_lineno: b8d,
     ‘PyFrame_GetLineNumber()’ or ‘PyCode_Addr2Line()’ are not affected.
     Functions directly decoding ‘co_lnotab’ should be updated to use a
     signed 8-bit integer type for the line number delta, but this is
     only required to support applications using a negative line number
     delta.  See ‘Objects/lnotab_notes.txt’ for the ‘co_lnotab’ format
     and how to decode it, and see the PEP 511(2) for the rationale.

   * The functions in the *note compileall: 21. module now return
     booleans instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’ to represent success or failure,
     respectively.  Thanks to booleans being a subclass of integers,
     this should only be an issue if you were doing identity checks for
     ‘1’ or ‘0’.  See bpo-25768(3).

   * Reading the ‘port’ attribute of *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): 2a3.
     and *note urlparse(): 2a4. results now raises *note ValueError:
     277. for out-of-range values, rather than returning *note None:
     a65.  See bpo-20059(4).

   * The ‘imp’ module now raises a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.
     instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b.

   * The following modules have had missing APIs added to their *note
     __all__: 10f6. attributes to match the documented APIs: *note
     calendar: 15, ‘cgi’, *note csv: 2c, *note ElementTree: 12e, *note
     enum: 59, *note fileinput: 5e, *note ftplib: 61, *note logging: 8a,
     *note mailbox: 8e, *note mimetypes: 93, *note optparse: a4, *note
     plistlib: b0, ‘smtpd’, *note subprocess: df, *note tarfile: e7,
     *note threading: f6. and *note wave: 11c.  This means they will
     export new symbols when ‘import *’ is used.  (Contributed by Joel
     Taddei and Jacek Kołodziej in bpo-23883(5).)

   * When performing a relative import, if ‘__package__’ does not
     compare equal to ‘__spec__.parent’ then *note ImportWarning: 907.
     is raised.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25791(6).)

   * When a relative import is performed and no parent package is known,
     then *note ImportError: 1bd. will be raised.  Previously, *note
     SystemError: 3ea. could be raised.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
     bpo-18018(7).)

   * Servers based on the *note socketserver: d5. module, including
     those defined in *note http.server: 75, *note xmlrpc.server: 138.
     and *note wsgiref.simple_server: 124, now only catch exceptions
     derived from *note Exception: d9e.  Therefore if a request handler
     raises an exception like *note SystemExit: 10f7. or *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: d96, *note handle_error(): 10f8. is no longer
     called, and the exception will stop a single-threaded server.
     (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-23430(8).)

   * ‘spwd.getspnam()’ now raises a *note PermissionError: 10f9. instead
     of *note KeyError: 7df. if the user doesn’t have privileges.

   * The *note socket.socket.close(): 10fa. method now raises an
     exception if an error (e.g.  ‘EBADF’) was reported by the
     underlying system call.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in
     bpo-26685(9).)

   * The 'decode_data' argument for the ‘smtpd.SMTPChannel’ and
     ‘smtpd.SMTPServer’ constructors is now ‘False’ by default.  This
     means that the argument passed to ‘process_message()’ is now a
     bytes object by default, and ‘process_message()’ will be passed
     keyword arguments.  Code that has already been updated in
     accordance with the deprecation warning generated by 3.5 will not
     be affected.

   * All optional arguments of the *note dump(): 10fb, *note dumps():
     248, *note load(): 22e. and *note loads(): 22f. functions and *note
     JSONEncoder: 10fc. and *note JSONDecoder: 10fd. class constructors
     in the *note json: 85. module are now *note keyword-only: 7a3.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18726(10).)

   * Subclasses of *note type: 186. which don’t override ‘type.__new__’
     may no longer use the one-argument form to get the type of an
     object.

   * As part of PEP 487(11), the handling of keyword arguments passed to
     *note type: 186. (other than the metaclass hint, ‘metaclass’) is
     now consistently delegated to *note object.__init_subclass__():
     a22.  This means that *note type.__new__: 982. and *note
     type.__init__: 2fa. both now accept arbitrary keyword arguments,
     but ‘object.__init_subclass__()’ (which is called from
     ‘type.__new__’) will reject them by default.  Custom metaclasses
     accepting additional keyword arguments will need to adjust their
     calls to ‘type.__new__’ (whether direct or via *note super: 443.)
     accordingly.

   * In ‘distutils.command.sdist.sdist’, the ‘default_format’ attribute
     has been removed and is no longer honored.  Instead, the gzipped
     tarfile format is the default on all platforms and no
     platform-specific selection is made.  In environments where
     distributions are built on Windows and zip distributions are
     required, configure the project with a ‘setup.cfg’ file containing
     the following:

          [sdist]
          formats=zip

     This behavior has also been backported to earlier Python versions
     by Setuptools 26.0.0.

   * In the *note urllib.request: 114. module and the *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.request(): 106a. method, if no
     Content-Length header field has been specified and the request body
     is a file object, it is now sent with HTTP 1.1 chunked encoding.
     If a file object has to be sent to a HTTP 1.0 server, the
     Content-Length value now has to be specified by the caller.
     (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl with tweaks from
     Martin Panter in bpo-12319(12).)

   * The *note DictReader: da9. now returns rows of type *note
     OrderedDict: 9d5.  (Contributed by Steve Holden in bpo-27842(13).)

   * The ‘crypt.METHOD_CRYPT’ will no longer be added to ‘crypt.methods’
     if unsupported by the platform.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
     bpo-25287(14).)

   * The 'verbose' and 'rename' arguments for *note namedtuple(): 1cf.
     are now keyword-only.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in
     bpo-25628(15).)

   * On Linux, *note ctypes.util.find_library(): 10fe. now looks in
     ‘LD_LIBRARY_PATH’ for shared libraries.  (Contributed by Vinay
     Sajip in bpo-9998(16).)

   * The *note imaplib.IMAP4: 31a. class now handles flags containing
     the ‘']'’ character in messages sent from the server to improve
     real-world compatibility.  (Contributed by Lita Cho in
     bpo-21815(17).)

   * The *note mmap.mmap.write(): 10ff. function now returns the number
     of bytes written like other write methods.  (Contributed by Jakub
     Stasiak in bpo-26335(18).)

   * The *note pkgutil.iter_modules(): 1100. and *note
     pkgutil.walk_packages(): fbe. functions now return *note
     ModuleInfo: 1101. named tuples.  (Contributed by Ramchandra Apte in
     bpo-17211(19).)

   * *note re.sub(): 7a1. now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group references in replacement templates even if the pattern is
     not found in the string.  The error message for invalid group
     references now includes the group index and the position of the
     reference.  (Contributed by SilentGhost, Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-25953(20).)

   * *note zipfile.ZipFile: ab1. will now raise *note
     NotImplementedError: 59a. for unrecognized compression values.
     Previously a plain *note RuntimeError: 30d. was raised.
     Additionally, calling ‘ZipFile’ methods on a closed ZipFile or
     calling the *note write(): 1102. method on a ZipFile created with
     mode ‘'r'’ will raise a *note ValueError: 277.  Previously, a
     ‘RuntimeError’ was raised in those scenarios.

   * when custom metaclasses are combined with zero-argument *note
     super(): 443. or direct references from methods to the implicit
     ‘__class__’ closure variable, the implicit ‘__classcell__’
     namespace entry must now be passed up to ‘type.__new__’ for
     initialisation.  Failing to do so will result in a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. in Python 3.6 and a *note RuntimeError:
     30d. in Python 3.8.

   * With the introduction of *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be, import
     system consumers may start expecting import system replacements to
     raise that more specific exception when appropriate, rather than
     the less-specific *note ImportError: 1bd.  To provide future
     compatibility with such consumers, implementers of alternative
     import systems that completely replace *note __import__(): ca6.
     will need to update their implementations to raise the new subclass
     when a module can’t be found at all.  Implementers of compliant
     plugins to the default import system shouldn’t need to make any
     changes, as the default import system will raise the new subclass
     when appropriate.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2091

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0511/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25768

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18018

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23430

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26685

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18726

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27842

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25287

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9998

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21815

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26335

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17211

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<7>,  Next: CPython bytecode changes<8>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<9>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.11.11.3 Changes in the C API
..............................

   * The *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024. allocator family now uses the *note
     pymalloc allocator: 3da. rather than the system ‘malloc()’.
     Applications calling ‘PyMem_Malloc()’ without holding the GIL can
     now crash.  Set the *note PYTHONMALLOC: 1022. environment variable
     to ‘debug’ to validate the usage of memory allocators in your
     application.  See bpo-26249(1).

   * *note Py_Exit(): 1104. (and the main interpreter) now override the
     exit status with 120 if flushing buffered data failed.  See
     bpo-5319(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319


File: python.info,  Node: CPython bytecode changes<8>,  Prev: Changes in the C API<7>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 6

1.11.11.4 CPython bytecode changes
..................................

There have been several major changes to the *note bytecode: 6b3. in
Python 3.6.

   * The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of
     bytecode.  (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from
     Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner in bpo-26647(1) and
     bpo-28050(2).)

   * The new ‘FORMAT_VALUE’ and *note BUILD_STRING: 1106. opcodes as
     part of the *note formatted string literal: fed. implementation.
     (Contributed by Eric Smith in bpo-25483(3) and Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-27078(4).)

   * The new ‘BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP’ opcode to optimize the creation of
     dictionaries with constant keys.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
     in bpo-27140(5).)

   * The function call opcodes have been heavily reworked for better
     performance and simpler implementation.  The *note MAKE_FUNCTION:
     1107, ‘CALL_FUNCTION’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’ and
     ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ opcodes have been modified, the new
     *note CALL_FUNCTION_EX: 1108. and ‘BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’
     have been added, and ‘CALL_FUNCTION_VAR’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_VAR_KW’
     and ‘MAKE_CLOSURE’ opcodes have been removed.  (Contributed by
     Demur Rumed in bpo-27095(6), and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27213(7),
     bpo-28257(8).)

   * The new *note SETUP_ANNOTATIONS: 1109. and ‘STORE_ANNOTATION’
     opcodes have been added to support the new *note variable
     annotation: 110a. syntax.  (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in
     bpo-27985(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25483

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27078

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27140

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27095

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27213

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27985


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 6,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.12 Notable changes in Python 3.6.2
---------------------------------------

* Menu:

* New make regen-all build target::
* Removal of make touch build target::


File: python.info,  Node: New make regen-all build target,  Next: Removal of make touch build target,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2

1.11.12.1 New ‘make regen-all’ build target
...........................................

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably
be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already
be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to
implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force
regeneration of these files when desired (e.g.  after an initial version
of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
Makefile.pre.in(1) for details.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).)

Added in version 3.6.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Removal of make touch build target,  Prev: New make regen-all build target,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2

1.11.12.2 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target
..............................................

The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit
regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has
been removed.

It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).)

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.13 Notable changes in Python 3.6.4
---------------------------------------

The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton that was part of the public API
has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault
during finalization of the interpreter.  (Contributed by Xavier de Gaye
in bpo-22898(1) and bpo-30697(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.14 Notable changes in Python 3.6.5
---------------------------------------

The *note locale.localeconv(): fbd. function now sets temporarily the
‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale in some cases.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31900(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.15 Notable changes in Python 3.6.7
---------------------------------------

*note xml.dom.minidom: 12b. and *note xml.sax: 132. modules no longer
process external entities by default.  See also gh-61441(1).

In 3.6.7 the *note tokenize: 104. module now implicitly emits a
‘NEWLINE’ token when provided with input that does not have a trailing
new line.  This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does
internally.  (Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.16 Notable changes in Python 3.6.10
----------------------------------------

Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of
*note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a. is no longer
supported.  This is because of the behavior of the socket option
‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.17 Notable changes in Python 3.6.13
----------------------------------------

Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query
parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 589. and *note
urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 588.  Due to security concerns, and to conform
with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a
single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default.  This change also affects
‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the affected
functions internally.  For more details, please see their respective
documentation.  (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and
Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14,  Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 6

1.11.18 Notable changes in Python 3.6.14
----------------------------------------

A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: cca. behavior to not trust
the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive
data channel.  We reuse the ftp server IP address instead.  For unusual
code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’
attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’.  (See gh-87451(1))

The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for
some forms of attacks.  Following the WHATWG specification that updates
RFC 3986, ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped
from the URL by the parser *note urllib.parse(): 113. preventing such
attacks.  The removal characters are controlled by a new module level
variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’.  (See gh-88048(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 5,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 4,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 6,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.12 What’s New In Python 3.5
=============================


Editors: Elvis Pranskevichus <<elvis@magic.io>>, Yury Selivanov
<<yury@magic.io>>

This article explains the new features in Python 3.5, compared to 3.4.
Python 3.5 was released on September 13, 2015.  See the changelog(1) for
a full list of changes.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 478(2) - Python 3.5 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<9>.
* New Features: New Features<14>.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<9>.
* New Modules: New Modules<9>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<9>.
* Other module-level changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<12>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<3>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<13>.
* Removed: Removed<13>.
* Porting to Python 3.5: Porting to Python 3 5.
* Notable changes in Python 3.5.4: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.5/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0478/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<9>,  Next: New Features<14>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.12.1 Summary – Release highlights
-----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * *note PEP 492: 1118, coroutines with async and await syntax.

   * *note PEP 465: 1119, a new matrix multiplication operator: ‘a @ b’.

   * *note PEP 448: 111a, additional unpacking generalizations.

New library modules:

   * *note typing: 10d.: *note PEP 484 – Type Hints: 111b.

   * *note zipapp: 139.: *note PEP 441 Improving Python ZIP Application
     Support: 111c.

New built-in features:

   * ‘bytes % args’, ‘bytearray % args’: *note PEP 461: 111d. – Adding
     ‘%’ formatting to bytes and bytearray.

   * New *note bytes.hex(): 111e, *note bytearray.hex(): 111f. and *note
     memoryview.hex(): 1120. methods.  (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in
     bpo-9951(1).)

   * *note memoryview: 1d2. now supports tuple indexing (including
     multi-dimensional).  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-23632(2).)

   * Generators have a new ‘gi_yieldfrom’ attribute, which returns the
     object being iterated by ‘yield from’ expressions.  (Contributed by
     Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov in bpo-24450(3).)

   * A new *note RecursionError: 1121. exception is now raised when
     maximum recursion depth is reached.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl
     in bpo-19235(4).)

CPython implementation improvements:

   * When the ‘LC_TYPE’ locale is the POSIX locale (‘C’ locale), *note
     sys.stdin: 94a. and *note sys.stdout: e9c. now use the
     ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, instead of the ‘strict’ error
     handler.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-19977(5).)

   * ‘.pyo’ files are no longer used and have been replaced by a more
     flexible scheme that includes the optimization level explicitly in
     ‘.pyc’ name.  (See *note PEP 488 overview: 1122.)

   * Builtin and extension modules are now initialized in a multi-phase
     process, which is similar to how Python modules are loaded.  (See
     *note PEP 489 overview: 1123.)

Significant improvements in the standard library:

   * *note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5. is now *note implemented in C:
     1124, which makes it 4 to 100 times faster.

   * The *note ssl: d8. module gained *note support for Memory BIO:
     1125, which decouples SSL protocol handling from network IO.

   * The new *note os.scandir(): e23. function provides a *note better
     and significantly faster way: 1126. of directory traversal.

   * *note functools.lru_cache(): db3. has been mostly *note
     reimplemented in C: 1127, yielding much better performance.

   * The new *note subprocess.run(): f45. function provides a *note
     streamlined way to run subprocesses: 1128.

   * The *note traceback: 107. module has been significantly *note
     enhanced: 1129. for improved performance and developer convenience.

Security improvements:

   * SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard library.  It can
     still be enabled by instantiating a *note ssl.SSLContext: 336.
     manually.  (See bpo-22638(6) for more details; this change was
     backported to CPython 3.4 and 2.7.)

   * HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to protect against
     potential injection attacks.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-22796(7).)

Windows improvements:

   * A new installer for Windows has replaced the old MSI. See *note
     Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows: e6d. for more information.

   * Windows builds now use Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, and extension
     modules should use the same.

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes,
including many other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations,
deprecations, and potential porting issues.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9951

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23632

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24450

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19977

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22638

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22796


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<14>,  Next: Other Language Changes<9>,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.12.2 New Features
-------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax::
* PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication::
* PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations::
* PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray::
* PEP 484 - Type Hints::
* PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator.
* PEP 475; Retry system calls failing with EINTR: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
* PEP 479; Change StopIteration handling inside generators: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
* PEP 485; A function for testing approximate equality: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
* PEP 486; Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
* PEP 488; Elimination of PYO files: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files.
* PEP 489; Multi-phase extension module initialization: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax,  Next: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication,  Up: New Features<14>

1.12.2.1 PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax
.........................................................

PEP 492(1) greatly improves support for asynchronous programming in
Python by adding *note awaitable objects: 6cf, *note coroutine
functions: 112c, *note asynchronous iteration: 112d, and *note
asynchronous context managers: 9d2.

Coroutine functions are declared using the new *note async def: 9cf.
syntax:

     >>> async def coro():
     ...     return 'spam'

Inside a coroutine function, the new *note await: 432. expression can be
used to suspend coroutine execution until the result is available.  Any
object can be 'awaited', as long as it implements the *note awaitable:
6cf. protocol by defining the *note __await__(): 112e. method.

PEP 492 also adds *note async for: e70. statement for convenient
iteration over asynchronous iterables.

An example of a rudimentary HTTP client written using the new syntax:

     import asyncio

     async def http_get(domain):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(domain, 80)

         writer.write(b'\r\n'.join([
             b'GET / HTTP/1.1',
             b'Host: %b' % domain.encode('latin-1'),
             b'Connection: close',
             b'', b''
         ]))

         async for line in reader:
             print('>>>', line)

         writer.close()

     loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(http_get('example.com'))
     finally:
         loop.close()

Similarly to asynchronous iteration, there is a new syntax for
asynchronous context managers.  The following script:

     import asyncio

     async def coro(name, lock):
         print('coro {}: waiting for lock'.format(name))
         async with lock:
             print('coro {}: holding the lock'.format(name))
             await asyncio.sleep(1)
             print('coro {}: releasing the lock'.format(name))

     loop = asyncio.get_event_loop()
     lock = asyncio.Lock()
     coros = asyncio.gather(coro(1, lock), coro(2, lock))
     try:
         loop.run_until_complete(coros)
     finally:
         loop.close()

will output:

     coro 2: waiting for lock
     coro 2: holding the lock
     coro 1: waiting for lock
     coro 2: releasing the lock
     coro 1: holding the lock
     coro 1: releasing the lock

Note that both *note async for: e70. and *note async with: 20b. can only
be used inside a coroutine function declared with *note async def: 9cf.

Coroutine functions are intended to be run inside a compatible event
loop, such as the *note asyncio loop: 112f.

     Σημείωση: 
     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5.2: Starting with CPython 3.5.2, ‘__aiter__’
     can directly return *note asynchronous iterators: 6cd.  Returning
     an *note awaitable: 6cf. object will result in a *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b.

     See more details in the *note Ασύγχρονοι Iterators: 1130.
     documentation section.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 492(2) – Coroutines with async and await syntax

     PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication,  Next: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations,  Prev: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax,  Up: New Features<14>

1.12.2.2 PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication
.......................................................................

PEP 465(1) adds the ‘@’ infix operator for matrix multiplication.
Currently, no builtin Python types implement the new operator, however,
it can be implemented by defining *note __matmul__(): 1132, *note
__rmatmul__(): 1133, and *note __imatmul__(): 1134. for regular,
reflected, and in-place matrix multiplication.  The semantics of these
methods is similar to that of methods defining other infix arithmetic
operators.

Matrix multiplication is a notably common operation in many fields of
mathematics, science, engineering, and the addition of ‘@’ allows
writing cleaner code:

     S = (H @ beta - r).T @ inv(H @ V @ H.T) @ (H @ beta - r)

instead of:

     S = dot((dot(H, beta) - r).T,
             dot(inv(dot(dot(H, V), H.T)), dot(H, beta) - r))

NumPy 1.10 has support for the new operator:

     >>> import numpy

     >>> x = numpy.ones(3)
     >>> x
     array([ 1., 1., 1.])

     >>> m = numpy.eye(3)
     >>> m
     array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
            [ 0., 1., 0.],
            [ 0., 0., 1.]])

     >>> x @ m
     array([ 1., 1., 1.])

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 465(2) – A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication

     PEP written by Nathaniel J. Smith; implemented by Benjamin
     Peterson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations,  Next: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray,  Prev: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication,  Up: New Features<14>

1.12.2.3 PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations
.......................................................

PEP 448(1) extends the allowed uses of the ‘*’ iterable unpacking
operator and ‘**’ dictionary unpacking operator.  It is now possible to
use an arbitrary number of unpackings in *note function calls: 1136.:

     >>> print(*[1], *[2], 3, *[4, 5])
     1 2 3 4 5

     >>> def fn(a, b, c, d):
     ...     print(a, b, c, d)
     ...

     >>> fn(**{'a': 1, 'c': 3}, **{'b': 2, 'd': 4})
     1 2 3 4

Similarly, tuple, list, set, and dictionary displays allow multiple
unpackings (see *note Expression lists: 1137. and *note Dictionary
displays: 1138.):

     >>> *range(4), 4
     (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)

     >>> [*range(4), 4]
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

     >>> {*range(4), 4, *(5, 6, 7)}
     {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

     >>> {'x': 1, **{'y': 2}}
     {'x': 1, 'y': 2}

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 448(2) – Additional Unpacking Generalizations

     PEP written by Joshua Landau; implemented by Neil Girdhar, Thomas
     Wouters, and Joshua Landau.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray,  Next: PEP 484 - Type Hints,  Prev: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations,  Up: New Features<14>

1.12.2.4 PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray
.....................................................................

PEP 461(1) adds support for the ‘%’ *note interpolation operator: 113a.
to *note bytes: 1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6.

While interpolation is usually thought of as a string operation, there
are cases where interpolation on ‘bytes’ or ‘bytearrays’ makes sense,
and the work needed to make up for this missing functionality detracts
from the overall readability of the code.  This issue is particularly
important when dealing with wire format protocols, which are often a
mixture of binary and ASCII compatible text.

Examples:

     >>> b'Hello %b!' % b'World'
     b'Hello World!'

     >>> b'x=%i y=%f' % (1, 2.5)
     b'x=1 y=2.500000'

Unicode is not allowed for ‘%b’, but it is accepted by ‘%a’ (equivalent
of ‘repr(obj).encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')’):

     >>> b'Hello %b!' % 'World'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: %b requires bytes, or an object that implements __bytes__, not 'str'

     >>> b'price: %a' % '10€'
     b"price: '10\\u20ac'"

Note that ‘%s’ and ‘%r’ conversion types, although supported, should
only be used in codebases that need compatibility with Python 2.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 461(2) – Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray

     PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Neil Schemenauer and
     Ethan Furman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 484 - Type Hints,  Next: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator,  Prev: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray,  Up: New Features<14>

1.12.2.5 PEP 484 - Type Hints
.............................

Function annotation syntax has been a Python feature since version 3.0 (
PEP 3107(1)), however the semantics of annotations has been left
undefined.

Experience has shown that the majority of function annotation uses were
to provide type hints to function parameters and return values.  It
became evident that it would be beneficial for Python users, if the
standard library included the base definitions and tools for type
annotations.

PEP 484(2) introduces a *note provisional module: 5fd. to provide these
standard definitions and tools, along with some conventions for
situations where annotations are not available.

For example, here is a simple function whose argument and return type
are declared in the annotations:

     def greeting(name: str) -> str:
         return 'Hello ' + name

While these annotations are available at runtime through the usual *note
__annotations__: 66b. attribute, 'no automatic type checking happens at
runtime'.  Instead, it is assumed that a separate off-line type checker
(e.g.  mypy(3)) will be used for on-demand source code analysis.

The type system supports unions, generic types, and a special type named
*note Any: a9a. which is consistent with (i.e.  assignable to and from)
all types.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * *note typing: 10d. module documentation

   * 
     PEP 484(4) – Type Hints

          PEP written by Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo, and Łukasz
          Langa; implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   * 
     PEP 483(5) – The Theory of Type Hints

          PEP written by Guido van Rossum

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://mypy-lang.org

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator,  Next: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR,  Prev: PEP 484 - Type Hints,  Up: New Features<14>

1.12.2.6 PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator
.................................................................................

PEP 471(1) adds a new directory iteration function, *note os.scandir():
e23, to the standard library.  Additionally, *note os.walk(): 8b9. is
now implemented using ‘scandir’, which makes it 3 to 5 times faster on
POSIX systems and 7 to 20 times faster on Windows systems.  This is
largely achieved by greatly reducing the number of calls to *note
os.stat(): 4f5. required to walk a directory tree.

Additionally, ‘scandir’ returns an iterator, as opposed to returning a
list of file names, which improves memory efficiency when iterating over
very large directories.

The following example shows a simple use of *note os.scandir(): e23. to
display all the files (excluding directories) in the given 'path' that
don’t start with ‘'.'’.  The *note entry.is_file(): 113d. call will
generally not make an additional system call:

     for entry in os.scandir(path):
         if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
             print(entry.name)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 471(2) – os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator

     PEP written and implemented by Ben Hoyt with the help of Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR,  Next: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators,  Prev: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator,  Up: New Features<14>

1.12.2.7 PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR
.......................................................

An *note errno.EINTR: 1140. error code is returned whenever a system
call, that is waiting for I/O, is interrupted by a signal.  Previously,
Python would raise *note InterruptedError: 1141. in such cases.  This
meant that, when writing a Python application, the developer had two
choices:

  1. Ignore the ‘InterruptedError’.

  2. Handle the ‘InterruptedError’ and attempt to restart the
     interrupted system call at every call site.

The first option makes an application fail intermittently.  The second
option adds a large amount of boilerplate that makes the code nearly
unreadable.  Compare:

     print("Hello World")

and:

     while True:
         try:
             print("Hello World")
             break
         except InterruptedError:
             continue

PEP 475(1) implements automatic retry of system calls on ‘EINTR’.  This
removes the burden of dealing with ‘EINTR’ or *note InterruptedError:
1141. in user code in most situations and makes Python programs,
including the standard library, more robust.  Note that the system call
is only retried if the signal handler does not raise an exception.

Below is a list of functions which are now retried when interrupted by a
signal:

   * *note open(): 32b. and *note io.open(): 92b.;

   * functions of the *note faulthandler: 5b. module;

   * *note os: a5. functions: *note fchdir(): 1142, *note fchmod(): 72d,
     *note fchown(): 1143, *note fdatasync(): 1144, *note fstat(): 1145,
     *note fstatvfs(): 1146, *note fsync(): 1147, *note ftruncate():
     1148, *note mkfifo(): 1149, *note mknod(): 114a, *note open():
     114b, *note posix_fadvise(): 114c, *note posix_fallocate(): 114d,
     *note pread(): f1c, *note pwrite(): f1f, *note read(): 114e, *note
     readv(): f1b, *note sendfile(): ed3, *note wait3(): 114f, *note
     wait4(): 1150, *note wait(): 1151, *note waitid(): 1152, *note
     waitpid(): 1153, *note write(): 1154, *note writev(): f1e.;

   * special cases: *note os.close(): f31. and *note os.dup2(): f20. now
     ignore *note EINTR: 1140. errors; the syscall is not retried (see
     the PEP for the rationale);

   * *note select: c9. functions: *note devpoll.poll(): 1155, *note
     epoll.poll(): 1156, *note kqueue.control(): 1157, *note
     poll.poll(): 1158, *note select(): 1159.;

   * methods of the *note socket: 115a. class: *note accept(): 115b,
     *note connect(): 115c. (except for non-blocking sockets), *note
     recv(): 115d, *note recvfrom(): 115e, *note recvmsg(): 115f, *note
     send(): 1160, *note sendall(): 1161, *note sendmsg(): 88c, *note
     sendto(): 1162.;

   * *note signal.sigtimedwait(): 1163. and *note signal.sigwaitinfo():
     1164.;

   * *note time.sleep(): a8c.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 475(2) – Retry system calls failing with EINTR

     PEP and implementation written by Charles-François Natali and
     Victor Stinner, with the help of Antoine Pitrou (the French
     connection).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators,  Next: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality,  Prev: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR,  Up: New Features<14>

1.12.2.8 PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators
.................................................................

The interaction of generators and *note StopIteration: fba. in Python
3.4 and earlier was sometimes surprising, and could conceal obscure
bugs.  Previously, ‘StopIteration’ raised accidentally inside a
generator function was interpreted as the end of the iteration by the
loop construct driving the generator.

PEP 479(1) changes the behavior of generators: when a ‘StopIteration’
exception is raised inside a generator, it is replaced with a *note
RuntimeError: 30d. before it exits the generator frame.  The main goal
of this change is to ease debugging in the situation where an unguarded
*note next(): bb5. call raises ‘StopIteration’ and causes the iteration
controlled by the generator to terminate silently.  This is particularly
pernicious in combination with the ‘yield from’ construct.

This is a backwards incompatible change, so to enable the new behavior,
a *note __future__: 1166. import is necessary:

     >>> from __future__ import generator_stop

     >>> def gen():
     ...     next(iter([]))
     ...     yield
     ...
     >>> next(gen())
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in gen
     StopIteration

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     RuntimeError: generator raised StopIteration

Without a ‘__future__’ import, a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b.
will be raised whenever a *note StopIteration: fba. exception is raised
inside a generator.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 479(2) – Change StopIteration handling inside generators

     PEP written by Chris Angelico and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by
     Chris Angelico, Yury Selivanov and Nick Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality,  Next: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments,  Prev: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators,  Up: New Features<14>

1.12.2.9 PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality
.............................................................

PEP 485(1) adds the *note math.isclose(): 1169. and *note
cmath.isclose(): 116a. functions which tell whether two values are
approximately equal or «close» to each other.  Whether or not two values
are considered close is determined according to given absolute and
relative tolerances.  Relative tolerance is the maximum allowed
difference between ‘isclose’ arguments, relative to the larger absolute
value:

     >>> import math
     >>> a = 5.0
     >>> b = 4.99998
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-5)
     True
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-6)
     False

It is also possible to compare two values using absolute tolerance,
which must be a non-negative value:

     >>> import math
     >>> a = 5.0
     >>> b = 4.99998
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00003)
     True
     >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00001)
     False

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 485(2) – A function for testing approximate equality

     PEP written by Christopher Barker; implemented by Chris Barker and
     Tal Einat.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments,  Next: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files,  Prev: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality,  Up: New Features<14>

1.12.2.10 PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments
.........................................................................

PEP 486(1) makes the Windows launcher (see PEP 397(2)) aware of an
active virtual environment.  When the default interpreter would be used
and the ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ environment variable is set, the interpreter in
the virtual environment will be used.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 486(3) – Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments

     PEP written and implemented by Paul Moore.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files,  Next: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization,  Prev: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments,  Up: New Features<14>

1.12.2.11 PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files
...........................................

PEP 488(1) does away with the concept of ‘.pyo’ files.  This means that
‘.pyc’ files represent both unoptimized and optimized bytecode.  To
prevent the need to constantly regenerate bytecode files, ‘.pyc’ files
now have an optional ‘opt-’ tag in their name when the bytecode is
optimized.  This has the side-effect of no more bytecode file name
clashes when running under either *note -O: 431. or *note -OO: 116e.
Consequently, bytecode files generated from ‘-O’, and ‘-OO’ may now
exist simultaneously.  *note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 330.
has an updated API to help with this change.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 488(2) – Elimination of PYO files

     PEP written and implemented by Brett Cannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization,  Prev: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files,  Up: New Features<14>

1.12.2.12 PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization
..............................................................

PEP 489(1) updates extension module initialization to take advantage of
the two step module loading mechanism introduced by PEP 451(2) in Python
3.4.

This change brings the import semantics of extension modules that opt-in
to using the new mechanism much closer to those of Python source and
bytecode modules, including the ability to use any valid identifier as a
module name, rather than being restricted to ASCII.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 489(3) – Multi-phase extension module initialization

     PEP written by Petr Viktorin, Stefan Behnel, and Nick Coghlan;
     implemented by Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<9>,  Next: New Modules<9>,  Prev: New Features<14>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.12.3 Other Language Changes
-----------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Added the ‘"namereplace"’ error handlers.  The ‘"backslashreplace"’
     error handlers now work with decoding and translating.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19676(1) and bpo-22286(2).)

   * The *note -b: 2ed. option now affects comparisons of *note bytes:
     1c7. with *note int: 326.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-23681(3).)

   * New Kazakh ‘kz1048’ and Tajik ‘koi8_t’ *note codecs: 1171.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22682(4) and bpo-22681(5).)

   * Property docstrings are now writable.  This is especially useful
     for *note collections.namedtuple(): 1cf. docstrings.  (Contributed
     by Berker Peksag in bpo-24064(6).)

   * Circular imports involving relative imports are now supported.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17636(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22286

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23681

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22682

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22681

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17636


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<9>,  Next: Improved Modules<9>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.12.4 New Modules
------------------

* Menu:

* typing: typing<13>.
* zipapp: zipapp<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: typing<13>,  Next: zipapp<2>,  Up: New Modules<9>

1.12.4.1 typing
...............

The new *note typing: 10d. *note provisional: 5fd. module provides
standard definitions and tools for function type annotations.  See *note
Type Hints: 111b. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp<2>,  Prev: typing<13>,  Up: New Modules<9>

1.12.4.2 zipapp
...............

The new *note zipapp: 139. module (specified in PEP 441(1)) provides an
API and command line tool for creating executable Python Zip
Applications, which were introduced in Python 2.6 in bpo-1739468(2), but
which were not well publicized, either at the time or since.

With the new module, bundling your application is as simple as putting
all the files, including a ‘__main__.py’ file, into a directory ‘myapp’
and running:

     $ python -m zipapp myapp
     $ python myapp.pyz

The module implementation has been contributed by Paul Moore in
bpo-23491(3).

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 441(4) – Improving Python ZIP Application Support

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23491

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<9>,  Next: Other module-level changes,  Prev: New Modules<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.12.5 Improved Modules
-----------------------

* Menu:

* argparse: argparse<7>.
* asyncio: asyncio<14>.
* bz2::
* cgi::
* cmath: cmath<2>.
* code::
* collections: collections<6>.
* collections.abc: collections abc<4>.
* compileall: compileall<4>.
* concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<7>.
* configparser: configparser<5>.
* contextlib: contextlib<6>.
* csv: csv<4>.
* curses: curses<5>.
* dbm: dbm<6>.
* difflib: difflib<4>.
* distutils: distutils<7>.
* doctest: doctest<3>.
* email: email<5>.
* enum: enum<8>.
* faulthandler: faulthandler<5>.
* functools: functools<7>.
* glob: glob<4>.
* gzip: gzip<4>.
* heapq: heapq<2>.
* http: http<3>.
* http.client: http client<4>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<3>.
* imaplib: imaplib<3>.
* imghdr::
* importlib: importlib<8>.
* inspect: inspect<9>.
* io: io<7>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<4>.
* json: json<4>.
* linecache: linecache<3>.
* locale: locale<7>.
* logging: logging<5>.
* lzma::
* math: math<10>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<7>.
* operator: operator<3>.
* os: os<12>.
* pathlib: pathlib<14>.
* pickle: pickle<5>.
* poplib: poplib<2>.
* re: re<9>.
* readline: readline<2>.
* selectors::
* shutil: shutil<5>.
* signal: signal<3>.
* smtpd: smtpd<2>.
* smtplib: smtplib<2>.
* sndhdr::
* socket: socket<10>.
* ssl: ssl<11>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<10>.
* subprocess: subprocess<5>.
* sys: sys<12>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<5>.
* tarfile: tarfile<8>.
* threading: threading<9>.
* time: time<7>.
* timeit: timeit<3>.
* tkinter: tkinter<10>.
* traceback: traceback<5>.
* types: types<8>.
* unicodedata: unicodedata<10>.
* unittest: unittest<10>.
* unittest.mock: unittest mock<3>.
* urllib: urllib<4>.
* wsgiref::
* xmlrpc: xmlrpc<2>.
* xml.sax: xml sax.
* zipfile: zipfile<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<7>,  Next: asyncio<14>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.1 argparse
.................

The *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. class now allows disabling *note
abbreviated usage: 1177. of long options by setting *note allow_abbrev:
1178. to ‘False’.  (Contributed by Jonathan Paugh, Steven Bethard, paul
j3 and Daniel Eriksson in bpo-14910(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14910


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<14>,  Next: bz2,  Prev: argparse<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.2 asyncio
................

Since the *note asyncio: b. module is *note provisional: 5fd, all
changes introduced in Python 3.5 have also been backported to Python
3.4.x.

Notable changes in the *note asyncio: b. module since Python 3.4.0:

   * New debugging APIs: *note loop.set_debug(): 117a. and *note
     loop.get_debug(): 117b. methods.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * The proactor event loop now supports SSL. (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou and Victor Stinner in bpo-22560(1).)

   * A new *note loop.is_closed(): 117c. method to check if the event
     loop is closed.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21326(2).)

   * A new *note loop.create_task(): 463. to conveniently create and
     schedule a new *note Task: 460. for a coroutine.  The ‘create_task’
     method is also used by all asyncio functions that wrap coroutines
     into tasks, such as *note asyncio.wait(): 891, *note
     asyncio.gather(): 9f4, etc.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * A new *note transport.get_write_buffer_limits(): 117d. method to
     inquire for 'high-' and 'low-' water limits of the flow control.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * The ‘async()’ function is deprecated in favor of *note
     ensure_future(): 1035.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note loop.set_task_factory(): 461. and *note
     loop.get_task_factory(): 117e. methods to customize the task
     factory that *note loop.create_task(): 463. method uses.
     (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note Queue.join(): 117f. and *note Queue.task_done(): 1180.
     queue methods.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

   * The ‘JoinableQueue’ class was removed, in favor of the *note
     asyncio.Queue: e39. class.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)

Updates in 3.5.1:

   * The *note ensure_future(): 1035. function and all functions that
     use it, such as *note loop.run_until_complete(): 1036, now accept
     all kinds of *note awaitable objects: 6cf.  (Contributed by Yury
     Selivanov.)

   * New *note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): c58. function to submit
     coroutines to event loops from other threads.  (Contributed by
     Vincent Michel.)

   * New *note Transport.is_closing(): 1037. method to check if the
     transport is closing or closed.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * The *note loop.create_server(): ed7. method can now accept a list
     of hosts.  (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.)

Updates in 3.5.2:

   * New *note loop.create_future(): 1038. method to create Future
     objects.  This allows alternative event loop implementations, such
     as uvloop(3), to provide a faster *note asyncio.Future: f8b.
     implementation.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note loop.get_exception_handler(): 1039. method to get the
     current exception handler.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.)

   * New *note StreamReader.readuntil(): 6d6. method to read data from
     the stream until a separator bytes sequence appears.  (Contributed
     by Mark Korenberg.)

   * The *note loop.create_connection(): 9f9. and *note
     loop.create_server(): ed7. methods are optimized to avoid calling
     the system ‘getaddrinfo’ function if the address is already
     resolved.  (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

   * The *note loop.sock_connect(sock, address): 1181. no longer
     requires the 'address' to be resolved prior to the call.
     (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22560

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21326

   (3) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop


File: python.info,  Node: bz2,  Next: cgi,  Prev: asyncio<14>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.3 bz2
............

The *note BZ2Decompressor.decompress: 1183. method now accepts an
optional 'max_length' argument to limit the maximum size of decompressed
data.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-15955(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955


File: python.info,  Node: cgi,  Next: cmath<2>,  Prev: bz2,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.4 cgi
............

The ‘FieldStorage’ class now supports the *note context manager: 478.
protocol.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20289(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20289


File: python.info,  Node: cmath<2>,  Next: code,  Prev: cgi,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.5 cmath
..............

A new function *note isclose(): 116a. provides a way to test for
approximate equality.  (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in
bpo-24270(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270


File: python.info,  Node: code,  Next: collections<6>,  Prev: cmath<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.6 code
.............

The *note InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback(): 1187. method now
prints the full chained traceback, just like the interactive
interpreter.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17442(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17442


File: python.info,  Node: collections<6>,  Next: collections abc<4>,  Prev: code,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.7 collections
....................

The *note OrderedDict: 9d5. class is now implemented in C, which makes
it 4 to 100 times faster.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-16991(1).)

‘OrderedDict.items()’, ‘OrderedDict.keys()’, and ‘OrderedDict.values()’
views now support *note reversed(): c3c. iteration.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19505(2).)

The *note deque: 9d6. class now defines *note index(): 1189, *note
insert(): 118a, and *note copy(): 118b, and supports the ‘+’ and ‘*’
operators.  This allows deques to be recognized as a *note
MutableSequence: 6c6. and improves their substitutability for lists.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-23704(3).)

Docstrings produced by *note namedtuple(): 1cf. can now be updated:

     Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
     Point.__doc__ += ': Cartesian coordinate'
     Point.x.__doc__ = 'abscissa'
     Point.y.__doc__ = 'ordinate'

(Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-24064(4).)

The *note UserString: 118c. class now implements the *note
__getnewargs__(): 118d, *note __rmod__(): 118e, *note casefold(): 118f,
*note format_map(): 1190, *note isprintable(): 1191, and *note
maketrans(): 187. methods to match the corresponding methods of *note
str: 1df.  (Contributed by Joe Jevnik in bpo-22189(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16991

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19505

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22189


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc<4>,  Next: compileall<4>,  Prev: collections<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.8 collections.abc
........................

The ‘Sequence.index()’ method now accepts 'start' and 'stop' arguments
to match the corresponding methods of *note tuple: 1ce, *note list: 4d9,
etc.  (Contributed by Devin Jeanpierre in bpo-23086(1).)

A new *note Generator: 1193. abstract base class.  (Contributed by
Stefan Behnel in bpo-24018(2).)

New *note Awaitable: 1194, *note Coroutine: 1195, *note AsyncIterator:
1196, and *note AsyncIterable: 1197. abstract base classes.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24184(3).)

For earlier Python versions, a backport of the new ABCs is available in
an external PyPI package(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23086

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24184

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/backports_abc/


File: python.info,  Node: compileall<4>,  Next: concurrent futures<7>,  Prev: collections abc<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.9 compileall
...................

A new *note compileall: 21. option, ‘-j N’, allows running 'N' workers
simultaneously to perform parallel bytecode compilation.  The *note
compile_dir(): ee8. function has a corresponding ‘workers’ parameter.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-16104(1).)

Another new option, ‘-r’, allows controlling the maximum recursion level
for subdirectories.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19628(2).)

The ‘-q’ command line option can now be specified more than once, in
which case all output, including errors, will be suppressed.  The
corresponding ‘quiet’ parameter in *note compile_dir(): ee8, *note
compile_file(): 1199, and *note compile_path(): 119a. can now accept an
integer value indicating the level of output suppression.  (Contributed
by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-21338(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16104

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19628

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21338


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures<7>,  Next: configparser<5>,  Prev: compileall<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.10 concurrent.futures
............................

The *note Executor.map(): 473. method now accepts a 'chunksize' argument
to allow batching of tasks to improve performance when *note
ProcessPoolExecutor(): 206. is used.  (Contributed by Dan O’Reilly in
bpo-11271(1).)

The number of workers in the *note ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. constructor
is optional now.  The default value is 5 times the number of CPUs.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-21527(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11271

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21527


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<5>,  Next: contextlib<6>,  Prev: concurrent futures<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.11 configparser
......................

*note configparser: 26. now provides a way to customize the conversion
of values by specifying a dictionary of converters in the *note
ConfigParser: 6e4. constructor, or by defining them as methods in
‘ConfigParser’ subclasses.  Converters defined in a parser instance are
inherited by its section proxies.

Example:

     >>> import configparser
     >>> conv = {}
     >>> conv['list'] = lambda v: [e.strip() for e in v.split() if e.strip()]
     >>> cfg = configparser.ConfigParser(converters=conv)
     >>> cfg.read_string("""
     ... [s]
     ... list = a b c d e f g
     ... """)
     >>> cfg.get('s', 'list')
     'a b c d e f g'
     >>> cfg.getlist('s', 'list')
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> section = cfg['s']
     >>> section.getlist('list')
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']

(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-18159(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18159


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<6>,  Next: csv<4>,  Prev: configparser<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.12 contextlib
....................

The new *note redirect_stderr(): 119e. *note context manager: 478.
(similar to *note redirect_stdout(): 119f.) makes it easier for utility
scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their output to *note
sys.stderr: d05. and don’t provide any options to redirect it:

     >>> import contextlib, io, logging
     >>> f = io.StringIO()
     >>> with contextlib.redirect_stderr(f):
     ...     logging.warning('warning')
     ...
     >>> f.getvalue()
     'WARNING:root:warning\n'

(Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-22389(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22389


File: python.info,  Node: csv<4>,  Next: curses<5>,  Prev: contextlib<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.13 csv
.............

The *note writerow(): 11a1. method now supports arbitrary iterables, not
just sequences.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23171(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23171


File: python.info,  Node: curses<5>,  Next: dbm<6>,  Prev: csv<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.14 curses
................

The new *note update_lines_cols(): 11a3. function updates the *note
LINES: 11a4. and *note COLS: 11a5. module variables.  This is useful for
detecting manual screen resizing.  (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in
bpo-4254(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4254


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<6>,  Next: difflib<4>,  Prev: curses<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.15 dbm
.............

*note dumb.open: e5c. always creates a new database when the flag has
the value ‘"n"’.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18039(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18039


File: python.info,  Node: difflib<4>,  Next: distutils<7>,  Prev: dbm<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.16 difflib
.................

The charset of HTML documents generated by *note HtmlDiff.make_file():
11a8. can now be customized by using a new 'charset' keyword-only
argument.  The default charset of HTML document changed from
‘"ISO-8859-1"’ to ‘"utf-8"’.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in
bpo-2052(1).)

The *note diff_bytes(): 11a9. function can now compare lists of byte
strings.  This fixes a regression from Python 2.  (Contributed by Terry
J. Reedy and Greg Ward in bpo-17445(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2052

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17445


File: python.info,  Node: distutils<7>,  Next: doctest<3>,  Prev: difflib<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.17 distutils
...................

Both the ‘build’ and ‘build_ext’ commands now accept a ‘-j’ option to
enable parallel building of extension modules.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-5309(1).)

The ‘distutils’ module now supports ‘xz’ compression, and can be enabled
by passing ‘xztar’ as an argument to ‘bdist --format’.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16314(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5309

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16314


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<3>,  Next: email<5>,  Prev: distutils<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.18 doctest
.................

The *note DocTestSuite(): 11ac. function returns an empty *note
unittest.TestSuite: 11ad. if 'module' contains no docstrings, instead of
raising *note ValueError: 277.  (Contributed by Glenn Jones in
bpo-15916(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15916


File: python.info,  Node: email<5>,  Next: enum<8>,  Prev: doctest<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.19 email
...............

A new policy option *note Policy.mangle_from_: 11af. controls whether or
not lines that start with ‘"From "’ in email bodies are prefixed with a
‘">"’ character by generators.  The default is ‘True’ for *note
compat32: 105a. and ‘False’ for all other policies.  (Contributed by
Milan Oberkirch in bpo-20098(1).)

A new *note Message.get_content_disposition(): 11b0. method provides
easy access to a canonical value for the ‘Content-Disposition’ header.
(Contributed by Abhilash Raj in bpo-21083(2).)

A new policy option *note EmailPolicy.utf8: 217. can be set to ‘True’ to
encode email headers using the UTF-8 charset instead of using encoded
words.  This allows ‘Messages’ to be formatted according to RFC 6532(3)
and used with an SMTP server that supports the RFC 6531(4) ‘SMTPUTF8’
extension.  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24211(5).)

The *note mime.text.MIMEText: 11b1. constructor now accepts a *note
charset.Charset: 11b2. instance.  (Contributed by Claude Paroz and
Berker Peksag in bpo-16324(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20098

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21083

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24211

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16324


File: python.info,  Node: enum<8>,  Next: faulthandler<5>,  Prev: email<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.20 enum
..............

The *note Enum: a21. callable has a new parameter 'start' to specify the
initial number of enum values if only 'names' are provided:

     >>> Animal = enum.Enum('Animal', 'cat dog', start=10)
     >>> Animal.cat
     <Animal.cat: 10>
     >>> Animal.dog
     <Animal.dog: 11>

(Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-21706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21706


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<5>,  Next: functools<7>,  Prev: enum<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.21 faulthandler
......................

The *note enable(): 219, *note register(): 21c, *note dump_traceback():
21a. and *note dump_traceback_later(): 21b. functions now accept file
descriptors in addition to file-like objects.  (Contributed by Wei Wu in
bpo-23566(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23566


File: python.info,  Node: functools<7>,  Next: glob<4>,  Prev: faulthandler<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.22 functools
...................

Most of the *note lru_cache(): db3. machinery is now implemented in C,
making it significantly faster.  (Contributed by Matt Joiner, Alexey
Kachayev, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-14373(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373


File: python.info,  Node: glob<4>,  Next: gzip<4>,  Prev: functools<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.23 glob
..............

The *note iglob(): be1. and *note glob(): 2d4. functions now support
recursive search in subdirectories, using the ‘"**"’ pattern.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13968(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13968


File: python.info,  Node: gzip<4>,  Next: heapq<2>,  Prev: glob<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.24 gzip
..............

The 'mode' argument of the *note GzipFile: 849. constructor now accepts
‘"x"’ to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Tim Heaney in
bpo-19222(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222


File: python.info,  Node: heapq<2>,  Next: http<3>,  Prev: gzip<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.25 heapq
...............

Element comparison in *note merge(): 11b9. can now be customized by
passing a *note key function: 11ba. in a new optional 'key' keyword
argument, and a new optional 'reverse' keyword argument can be used to
reverse element comparison:

     >>> import heapq
     >>> a = ['9', '777', '55555']
     >>> b = ['88', '6666']
     >>> list(heapq.merge(a, b, key=len))
     ['9', '88', '777', '6666', '55555']
     >>> list(heapq.merge(reversed(a), reversed(b), key=len, reverse=True))
     ['55555', '6666', '777', '88', '9']

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13742(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13742


File: python.info,  Node: http<3>,  Next: http client<4>,  Prev: heapq<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.26 http
..............

A new *note HTTPStatus: cd0. enum that defines a set of HTTP status
codes, reason phrases and long descriptions written in English.
(Contributed by Demian Brecht in bpo-21793(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793


File: python.info,  Node: http client<4>,  Next: idlelib and IDLE<3>,  Prev: http<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.27 http.client
.....................

*note HTTPConnection.getresponse(): 11bd. now raises a *note
RemoteDisconnected: 11be. exception when a remote server connection is
closed unexpectedly.  Additionally, if a *note ConnectionError: 11bf.
(of which ‘RemoteDisconnected’ is a subclass) is raised, the client
socket is now closed automatically, and will reconnect on the next
request:

     import http.client
     conn = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
     for retries in range(3):
         try:
             conn.request('GET', '/')
             resp = conn.getresponse()
         except http.client.RemoteDisconnected:
             pass

(Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-3566(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3566


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE<3>,  Next: imaplib<3>,  Prev: http client<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.28 idlelib and IDLE
..........................

Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended
for import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release.
See ‘Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt’ for a cumulative list of changes since 3.4.0,
as well as changes made in future 3.5.x releases.  This file is also
available from the IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<3>,  Next: imghdr,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.29 imaplib
.................

The *note IMAP4: 31a. class now supports the *note context manager: 478.
protocol.  When used in a *note with: 20a. statement, the IMAP4 ‘LOGOUT’
command will be called automatically at the end of the block.
(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-4972(1).)

The *note imaplib: 77. module now supports RFC 5161(2) (ENABLE
Extension) and RFC 6855(3) (UTF-8 Support) via the *note IMAP4.enable():
11c2. method.  A new *note IMAP4.utf8_enabled: 11c3. attribute tracks
whether or not RFC 6855(4) support is enabled.  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch, R. David Murray, and Maciej Szulik in bpo-21800(5).)

The *note imaplib: 77. module now automatically encodes non-ASCII string
usernames and passwords using UTF-8, as recommended by the RFCs.
(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21800(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5161.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800


File: python.info,  Node: imghdr,  Next: importlib<8>,  Prev: imaplib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.30 imghdr
................

The ‘what()’ function now recognizes the OpenEXR(1) format (contributed
by Martin Vignali and Claudiu Popa in bpo-20295(2)), and the WebP(3)
format (contributed by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa in bpo-20197(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.openexr.com

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20295

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebP

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20197


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<8>,  Next: inspect<9>,  Prev: imghdr,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.31 importlib
...................

The *note util.LazyLoader: 106e. class allows for lazy loading of
modules in applications where startup time is important.  (Contributed
by Brett Cannon in bpo-17621(1).)

The *note abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code(): 1cb. method is now a
static method.  This makes it easier to initialize a module object with
code compiled from a string by running ‘exec(code, module.__dict__)’.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-21156(2).)

The new *note util.module_from_spec(): 11c6. function is now the
preferred way to create a new module.  As opposed to creating a *note
types.ModuleType: 11c7. instance directly, this new function will set
the various import-controlled attributes based on the passed-in spec
object.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-20383(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17621

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21156

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20383


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<9>,  Next: io<7>,  Prev: importlib<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.32 inspect
.................

Both the *note Signature: 6e8. and *note Parameter: 6e9. classes are now
picklable and hashable.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20726(1)
and bpo-20334(2).)

A new *note BoundArguments.apply_defaults(): 11c9. method provides a way
to set default values for missing arguments:

     >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
     >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
     >>> ba.apply_defaults()
     >>> ba.arguments
     OrderedDict([('a', 'spam'), ('b', 'ham'), ('args', ())])

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24190(3).)

A new class method *note Signature.from_callable(): b20. makes
subclassing of *note Signature: 6e8. easier.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov and Eric Snow in bpo-17373(4).)

The *note signature(): 4bd. function now accepts a 'follow_wrapped'
optional keyword argument, which, when set to ‘False’, disables
automatic following of ‘__wrapped__’ links.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-20691(5).)

A set of new functions to inspect *note coroutine functions: 112c. and
*note coroutine objects: 8a2. has been added: *note iscoroutine(): 11ca,
*note iscoroutinefunction(): 302, *note isawaitable(): 11cb, *note
getcoroutinelocals(): 11cc, and *note getcoroutinestate(): 11cd.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017(6) and bpo-24400(7).)

The *note stack(): a41, *note trace(): a42, *note getouterframes(): a3f,
and *note getinnerframes(): a40. functions now return a list of named
tuples.  (Contributed by Daniel Shahaf in bpo-16808(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20334

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24190

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17373

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20691

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16808


File: python.info,  Node: io<7>,  Next: ipaddress<4>,  Prev: inspect<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.33 io
............

A new *note BufferedIOBase.readinto1(): 11cf. method, that uses at most
one call to the underlying raw stream’s *note RawIOBase.read(): 11d0. or
*note RawIOBase.readinto(): 11d1. methods.  (Contributed by Nikolaus
Rath in bpo-20578(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20578


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<4>,  Next: json<4>,  Prev: io<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.34 ipaddress
...................

Both the *note IPv4Network: 712. and *note IPv6Network: 713. classes now
accept an ‘(address, netmask)’ tuple argument, so as to easily construct
network objects from existing addresses:

     >>> import ipaddress
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', 8))
     IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', '255.0.0.0'))
     IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8')

(Contributed by Peter Moody and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16531(1).)

A new *note reverse_pointer: 11d3. attribute for the *note IPv4Address:
710. and *note IPv6Address: 711. classes returns the name of the reverse
DNS PTR record:

     >>> import ipaddress
     >>> addr = ipaddress.IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     >>> addr.reverse_pointer
     '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
     >>> addr6 = ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1')
     >>> addr6.reverse_pointer
     '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa'

(Contributed by Leon Weber in bpo-20480(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16531

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20480


File: python.info,  Node: json<4>,  Next: linecache<3>,  Prev: ipaddress<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.35 json
..............

The *note json.tool: 86. command line interface now preserves the order
of keys in JSON objects passed in input.  The new ‘--sort-keys’ option
can be used to sort the keys alphabetically.  (Contributed by Berker
Peksag in bpo-21650(1).)

JSON decoder now raises *note JSONDecodeError: 11d5. instead of *note
ValueError: 277. to provide better context information about the error.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19361(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19361


File: python.info,  Node: linecache<3>,  Next: locale<7>,  Prev: json<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.36 linecache
...................

A new *note lazycache(): 11d7. function can be used to capture
information about a non-file-based module to permit getting its lines
later via *note getline(): 4cd.  This avoids doing I/O until a line is
actually needed, without having to carry the module globals around
indefinitely.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911


File: python.info,  Node: locale<7>,  Next: logging<5>,  Prev: linecache<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.37 locale
................

A new *note delocalize(): 11d9. function can be used to convert a string
into a normalized number string, taking the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ settings into
account:

     >>> import locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'de_DE.UTF-8')
     'de_DE.UTF-8'
     >>> locale.delocalize('1.234,56')
     '1234.56'
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'en_US.UTF-8')
     'en_US.UTF-8'
     >>> locale.delocalize('1,234.56')
     '1234.56'

(Contributed by Cédric Krier in bpo-13918(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13918


File: python.info,  Node: logging<5>,  Next: lzma,  Prev: locale<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.38 logging
.................

All logging methods (*note Logger: f0c. *note log(): 11db, *note
exception(): 11dc, *note critical(): 11dd, *note debug(): 11de, etc.),
now accept exception instances as an 'exc_info' argument, in addition to
boolean values and exception tuples:

     >>> import logging
     >>> try:
     ...     1/0
     ... except ZeroDivisionError as ex:
     ...     logging.error('exception', exc_info=ex)
     ERROR:root:exception

(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20537(1).)

The *note handlers.HTTPHandler: 11df. class now accepts an optional
*note ssl.SSLContext: 336. instance to configure SSL settings used in an
HTTP connection.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22788(2).)

The *note handlers.QueueListener: 4cf. class now takes a
'respect_handler_level' keyword argument which, if set to ‘True’, will
pass messages to handlers taking handler levels into account.
(Contributed by Vinay Sajip.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22788


File: python.info,  Node: lzma,  Next: math<10>,  Prev: logging<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.39 lzma
..............

The *note LZMADecompressor.decompress(): 11e1. method now accepts an
optional 'max_length' argument to limit the maximum size of decompressed
data.  (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-15955(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955


File: python.info,  Node: math<10>,  Next: multiprocessing<7>,  Prev: lzma,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.40 math
..............

Two new constants have been added to the *note math: 91. module: *note
inf: 1043. and *note nan: a53.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in
bpo-23185(1).)

A new function *note isclose(): 1169. provides a way to test for
approximate equality.  (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in
bpo-24270(2).)

A new *note gcd(): cdf. function has been added.  The ‘fractions.gcd()’
function is now deprecated.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-22486(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23185

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<7>,  Next: operator<3>,  Prev: math<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.41 multiprocessing
.........................

*note sharedctypes.synchronized(): 11e4. objects now support the *note
context manager: 478. protocol.  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali
in bpo-21565(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21565


File: python.info,  Node: operator<3>,  Next: os<12>,  Prev: multiprocessing<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.42 operator
..................

*note attrgetter(): 11e6, *note itemgetter(): e26, and *note
methodcaller(): 11e7. objects now support pickling.  (Contributed by
Josh Rosenberg and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22955(1).)

New *note matmul(): 11e8. and *note imatmul(): 11e9. functions to
perform matrix multiplication.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in
bpo-21176(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22955

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176


File: python.info,  Node: os<12>,  Next: pathlib<14>,  Prev: operator<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.43 os
............

The new *note scandir(): e23. function returning an iterator of *note
DirEntry: 8ac. objects has been added.  If possible, ‘scandir()’
extracts file attributes while scanning a directory, removing the need
to perform subsequent system calls to determine file type or attributes,
which may significantly improve performance.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt
with the help of Victor Stinner in bpo-22524(1).)

On Windows, a new *note stat_result.st_file_attributes: 11eb. attribute
is now available.  It corresponds to the ‘dwFileAttributes’ member of
the ‘BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION’ structure returned by
‘GetFileInformationByHandle()’.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt in
bpo-21719(2).)

The *note urandom(): 931. function now uses the ‘getrandom()’ syscall on
Linux 3.17 or newer, and ‘getentropy()’ on OpenBSD 5.6 and newer,
removing the need to use ‘/dev/urandom’ and avoiding failures due to
potential file descriptor exhaustion.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-22181(3).)

New *note get_blocking(): 11ec. and *note set_blocking(): 11ed.
functions allow getting and setting a file descriptor’s blocking mode
(*note O_NONBLOCK: 11ee.)  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-22054(4).)

The *note truncate(): 11ef. and *note ftruncate(): 1148. functions are
now supported on Windows.  (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-23668(5).)

There is a new *note os.path.commonpath(): 334. function returning the
longest common sub-path of each passed pathname.  Unlike the *note
os.path.commonprefix(): 333. function, it always returns a valid path:

     >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
     '/usr/l'

     >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
     '/usr'

(Contributed by Rafik Draoui and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10395(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22524

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21719

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22181

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22054

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10395


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<14>,  Next: pickle<5>,  Prev: os<12>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.44 pathlib
.................

The new *note Path.samefile(): 11f1. method can be used to check whether
the path points to the same file as another path, which can be either
another *note Path: 4ee. object, or a string:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> p1 = pathlib.Path('/etc/hosts')
     >>> p2 = pathlib.Path('/etc/../etc/hosts')
     >>> p1.samefile(p2)
     True

(Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-19775(1).)

The *note Path.mkdir(): 11f2. method now accepts a new optional
'exist_ok' argument to match ‘mkdir -p’ and *note os.makedirs(): 72f.
functionality.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21539(2).)

There is a new *note Path.expanduser(): 11f3. method to expand ‘~’ and
‘~user’ prefixes.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Claudiu Popa in
bpo-19776(3).)

A new *note Path.home(): 11f4. class method can be used to get a *note
Path: 4ee. instance representing the user’s home directory.
(Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi in bpo-19777(4).)

New *note Path.write_text(): 11f5, *note Path.read_text(): 11f6, *note
Path.write_bytes(): 11f7, *note Path.read_bytes(): 55a. methods to
simplify read/write operations on files.

The following code snippet will create or rewrite existing file
‘~/spam42’:

     >>> import pathlib
     >>> p = pathlib.Path('~/spam42')
     >>> p.expanduser().write_text('ham')
     3

(Contributed by Christopher Welborn in bpo-20218(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19775

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21539

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19776

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20218


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<5>,  Next: poplib<2>,  Prev: pathlib<14>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.45 pickle
................

Nested objects, such as unbound methods or nested classes, can now be
pickled using *note pickle protocols: 503. older than protocol version
4.  Protocol version 4 already supports these cases.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23611(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23611


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<2>,  Next: re<9>,  Prev: pickle<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.46 poplib
................

A new *note POP3.utf8(): 11fa. command enables RFC 6856(1)
(Internationalized Email) support, if a POP server supports it.
(Contributed by Milan OberKirch in bpo-21804(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6856.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21804


File: python.info,  Node: re<9>,  Next: readline<2>,  Prev: poplib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.47 re
............

References and conditional references to groups with fixed length are
now allowed in lookbehind assertions:

     >>> import re
     >>> pat = re.compile(r'(a|b).(?<=\1)c')
     >>> pat.match('aac')
     <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='aac'>
     >>> pat.match('bbc')
     <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='bbc'>

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-9179(1).)

The number of capturing groups in regular expressions is no longer
limited to 100.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22437(2).)

The *note sub(): 7a1. and *note subn(): 7a2. functions now replace
unmatched groups with empty strings instead of raising an exception.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-1519638(3).)

The *note re.error: 749. exceptions have new attributes, *note msg:
11fc, *note pattern: 11fd, *note pos: 11fe, *note lineno: 11ff, and
*note colno: 1200, that provide better context information about the
error:

     >>> re.compile("""
     ...     (?x)
     ...     .++
     ... """)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     sre_constants.error: multiple repeat at position 16 (line 3, column 7)

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22578(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9179

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22437

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1519638

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22578


File: python.info,  Node: readline<2>,  Next: selectors,  Prev: re<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.48 readline
..................

A new *note append_history_file(): 1202. function can be used to append
the specified number of trailing elements in history to the given file.
(Contributed by Bruno Cauet in bpo-22940(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22940


File: python.info,  Node: selectors,  Next: shutil<5>,  Prev: readline<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.49 selectors
...................

The new *note DevpollSelector: f97. supports efficient ‘/dev/poll’
polling on Solaris.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola” in bpo-18931(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18931


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<5>,  Next: signal<3>,  Prev: selectors,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.50 shutil
................

The *note move(): e20. function now accepts a 'copy_function' argument,
allowing, for example, the *note copy(): e1e. function to be used
instead of the default *note copy2(): e1f. if there is a need to ignore
file metadata when moving.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in
bpo-19840(1).)

The *note make_archive(): 8c3. function now supports the 'xztar' format.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-5411(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19840

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5411


File: python.info,  Node: signal<3>,  Next: smtpd<2>,  Prev: shutil<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.51 signal
................

On Windows, the *note set_wakeup_fd(): f2d. function now also supports
socket handles.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22018(1).)

Various ‘SIG*’ constants in the *note signal: ce. module have been
converted into *note Enums: 59.  This allows meaningful names to be
printed during debugging, instead of integer «magic numbers».
(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola” in bpo-21076(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22018

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21076


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<2>,  Next: smtplib<2>,  Prev: signal<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.52 smtpd
...............

Both the ‘SMTPServer’ and ‘SMTPChannel’ classes now accept a
'decode_data' keyword argument to determine if the ‘DATA’ portion of the
SMTP transaction is decoded using the ‘"utf-8"’ codec or is instead
provided to the ‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ method as a byte string.
The default is ‘True’ for backward compatibility reasons, but will
change to ‘False’ in Python 3.6.  If 'decode_data' is set to ‘False’,
the ‘process_message’ method must be prepared to accept keyword
arguments.  (Contributed by Maciej Szulik in bpo-19662(1).)

The ‘SMTPServer’ class now advertises the ‘8BITMIME’ extension ( RFC
6152(2)) if 'decode_data' has been set ‘True’.  If the client specifies
‘BODY=8BITMIME’ on the ‘MAIL’ command, it is passed to
‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ via the 'mail_options' keyword.
(Contributed by Milan Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-21795(3).)

The ‘SMTPServer’ class now also supports the ‘SMTPUTF8’ extension ( RFC
6531(4): Internationalized Email).  If the client specified ‘SMTPUTF8
BODY=8BITMIME’ on the ‘MAIL’ command, they are passed to
‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ via the 'mail_options' keyword.  It is
the responsibility of the ‘process_message’ method to correctly handle
the ‘SMTPUTF8’ data.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21725(5).)

It is now possible to provide, directly or via name resolution, IPv6
addresses in the ‘SMTPServer’ constructor, and have it successfully
connect.  (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-14758(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19662

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6152.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21795

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21725

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14758


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<2>,  Next: sndhdr,  Prev: smtpd<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.53 smtplib
.................

A new *note SMTP.auth(): 1208. method provides a convenient way to
implement custom authentication mechanisms.  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch in bpo-15014(1).)

The *note SMTP.set_debuglevel(): 1209. method now accepts an additional
debuglevel (2), which enables timestamps in debug messages.
(Contributed by Gavin Chappell and Maciej Szulik in bpo-16914(2).)

Both the *note SMTP.sendmail(): 120a. and *note SMTP.send_message():
120b. methods now support RFC 6531(3) (SMTPUTF8).  (Contributed by Milan
Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-22027(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16914

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22027


File: python.info,  Node: sndhdr,  Next: socket<10>,  Prev: smtplib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.54 sndhdr
................

The ‘what()’ and ‘whathdr()’ functions now return a *note namedtuple():
1cf.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18615(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18615


File: python.info,  Node: socket<10>,  Next: ssl<11>,  Prev: sndhdr,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.55 socket
................

Functions with timeouts now use a monotonic clock, instead of a system
clock.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

A new *note socket.sendfile(): 120e. method allows sending a file over a
socket by using the high-performance *note os.sendfile(): ed3. function
on UNIX, resulting in uploads being from 2 to 3 times faster than when
using plain *note socket.send(): 1160.  (Contributed by Giampaolo
Rodola” in bpo-17552(2).)

The *note socket.sendall(): 1161. method no longer resets the socket
timeout every time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is
now the maximum total duration to send all data.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner in bpo-23853(3).)

The 'backlog' argument of the *note socket.listen(): 120f. method is now
optional.  By default it is set to *note SOMAXCONN: 1210. or to ‘128’,
whichever is less.  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in
bpo-21455(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21455


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<11>,  Next: sqlite3<10>,  Prev: socket<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.56 ssl
.............

* Menu:

* Memory BIO Support::
* Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support::
* Other Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Memory BIO Support,  Next: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support,  Up: ssl<11>

1.12.5.57 Memory BIO Support
............................

(Contributed by Geert Jansen in bpo-21965(1).)

The new *note SSLObject: f40. class has been added to provide SSL
protocol support for cases when the network I/O capabilities of *note
SSLSocket: cbb. are not necessary or are suboptimal.  ‘SSLObject’
represents an SSL protocol instance, but does not implement any network
I/O methods, and instead provides a memory buffer interface.  The new
*note MemoryBIO: 1213. class can be used to pass data between Python and
an SSL protocol instance.

The memory BIO SSL support is primarily intended to be used in
frameworks implementing asynchronous I/O for which *note SSLSocket:
cbb.’s readiness model («select/poll») is inefficient.

A new *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): f41. method can be used to create a
new ‘SSLObject’ instance.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21965


File: python.info,  Node: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support,  Next: Other Changes,  Prev: Memory BIO Support,  Up: ssl<11>

1.12.5.58 Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support
........................................................

(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-20188(1).)

Where OpenSSL support is present, the *note ssl: d8. module now
implements the 'Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation' TLS extension as
described in RFC 7301(2).

The new *note SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(): 1215. can be used to
specify which protocols a socket should advertise during the TLS
handshake.

The new *note SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): 1216. returns the
protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake.  The *note
HAS_ALPN: 1217. flag indicates whether ALPN support is present.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20188

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes,  Prev: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support,  Up: ssl<11>

1.12.5.59 Other Changes
.......................

There is a new *note SSLSocket.version(): 1219. method to query the
actual protocol version in use.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-20421(1).)

The *note SSLSocket: cbb. class now implements a ‘SSLSocket.sendfile()’
method.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola” in bpo-17552(2).)

The ‘SSLSocket.send()’ method now raises either the *note
ssl.SSLWantReadError: 121a. or *note ssl.SSLWantWriteError: 121b.
exception on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block.
Previously, it would return ‘0’.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in
bpo-20951(3).)

The *note cert_time_to_seconds(): 121c. function now interprets the
input time as UTC and not as local time, per RFC 5280(4).  Additionally,
the return value is always an *note int: 326.  (Contributed by Akira Li
in bpo-19940(5).)

New ‘SSLObject.shared_ciphers()’ and *note SSLSocket.shared_ciphers():
121d. methods return the list of ciphers sent by the client during the
handshake.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-23186(6).)

The *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): 121e, *note SSLSocket.read(): 121f,
‘SSLSocket.shutdown()’, and *note SSLSocket.write(): 1220. methods of
the *note SSLSocket: cbb. class no longer reset the socket timeout every
time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now the maximum
total duration of the method.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-23853(7).)

The ‘match_hostname()’ function now supports matching of IP addresses.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-23239(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23186

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23239


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<10>,  Next: subprocess<5>,  Prev: ssl<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.60 sqlite3
.................

The *note Row: 1222. class now fully supports the sequence protocol, in
particular *note reversed(): c3c. iteration and slice indexing.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-10203(1); by Lucas Sinclair, Jessica
McKellar, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13583(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13583


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<5>,  Next: sys<12>,  Prev: sqlite3<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.61 subprocess
....................

The new *note run(): f45. function has been added.  It runs the
specified command and returns a *note CompletedProcess: 1224. object,
which describes a finished process.  The new API is more consistent and
is the recommended approach to invoking subprocesses in Python code that
does not need to maintain compatibility with earlier Python versions.
(Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-23342(1).)

Examples:

     >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # doesn't capture output
     CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)

     >>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1

     >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], stdout=subprocess.PIPE)
     CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
     stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23342


File: python.info,  Node: sys<12>,  Next: sysconfig<5>,  Prev: subprocess<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.62 sys
.............

A new ‘set_coroutine_wrapper()’ function allows setting a global hook
that will be called whenever a *note coroutine object: 8a2. is created
by an *note async def: 9cf. function.  A corresponding
‘get_coroutine_wrapper()’ can be used to obtain a currently set wrapper.
Both functions are *note provisional: 5fd, and are intended for
debugging purposes only.  (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-24017(1).)

A new *note is_finalizing(): e4f. function can be used to check if the
Python interpreter is *note shutting down: 1a0.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-22696(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22696


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig<5>,  Next: tarfile<8>,  Prev: sys<12>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.63 sysconfig
...................

The name of the user scripts directory on Windows now includes the first
two components of the Python version.  (Contributed by Paul Moore in
bpo-23437(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23437


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<8>,  Next: threading<9>,  Prev: sysconfig<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.64 tarfile
.................

The 'mode' argument of the *note open(): 1228. function now accepts
‘"x"’ to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in
bpo-21717(1).)

The *note TarFile.extractall(): 27a. and *note TarFile.extract(): 27b.
methods now take a keyword argument 'numeric_owner'.  If set to ‘True’,
the extracted files and directories will be owned by the numeric ‘uid’
and ‘gid’ from the tarfile.  If set to ‘False’ (the default, and the
behavior in versions prior to 3.5), they will be owned by the named user
and group in the tarfile.  (Contributed by Michael Vogt and Eric Smith
in bpo-23193(2).)

The *note TarFile.list(): 1229. now accepts an optional 'members'
keyword argument that can be set to a subset of the list returned by
*note TarFile.getmembers(): 122a.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-21549(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21549


File: python.info,  Node: threading<9>,  Next: time<7>,  Prev: tarfile<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.65 threading
...................

Both the *note Lock.acquire(): a87. and *note RLock.acquire(): 122c.
methods now use a monotonic clock for timeout management.  (Contributed
by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043


File: python.info,  Node: time<7>,  Next: timeit<3>,  Prev: threading<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.66 time
..............

The *note monotonic(): 75d. function is now always available.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043


File: python.info,  Node: timeit<3>,  Next: tkinter<10>,  Prev: time<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.67 timeit
................

A new command line option ‘-u’ or ‘--unit=U’ can be used to specify the
time unit for the timer output.  Supported options are ‘usec’, ‘msec’,
or ‘sec’.  (Contributed by Julian Gindi in bpo-18983(1).)

The *note timeit(): 122f. function has a new 'globals' parameter for
specifying the namespace in which the code will be running.
(Contributed by Ben Roberts in bpo-2527(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18983

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2527


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter<10>,  Next: traceback<5>,  Prev: timeit<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.68 tkinter
.................

The ‘tkinter._fix’ module used for setting up the Tcl/Tk environment on
Windows has been replaced by a private function in the ‘_tkinter’ module
which makes no permanent changes to environment variables.  (Contributed
by Zachary Ware in bpo-20035(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20035


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<5>,  Next: types<8>,  Prev: tkinter<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.69 traceback
...................

New *note walk_stack(): 1232. and *note walk_tb(): 1233. functions to
conveniently traverse frame and *note traceback objects: eba.
(Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911(1).)

New lightweight classes: *note TracebackException: 764, *note
StackSummary: 1234, and *note FrameSummary: 1235.  (Contributed by
Robert Collins in bpo-17911(2).)

Both the *note print_tb(): 1236. and *note print_stack(): 1237.
functions now support negative values for the 'limit' argument.
(Contributed by Dmitry Kazakov in bpo-22619(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22619


File: python.info,  Node: types<8>,  Next: unicodedata<10>,  Prev: traceback<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.70 types
...............

A new *note coroutine(): 1239. function to transform *note generator:
f9e. and *note generator-like: 1193. objects into *note awaitables: 6cf.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017(1).)

A new type called *note CoroutineType: 123a, which is used for *note
coroutine: 8a2. objects created by *note async def: 9cf. functions.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24400(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata<10>,  Next: unittest<10>,  Prev: types<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.71 unicodedata
.....................

The *note unicodedata: 10e. module now uses data from Unicode 8.0.0(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<10>,  Next: unittest mock<3>,  Prev: unicodedata<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.72 unittest
..................

The *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 793. method now accepts a
keyword-only argument 'pattern' which is passed to ‘load_tests’ as the
third argument.  Found packages are now checked for ‘load_tests’
regardless of whether their path matches 'pattern', because it is
impossible for a package name to match the default pattern.
(Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in bpo-16662(1).)

Unittest discovery errors now are exposed in the *note
TestLoader.errors: 123d. attribute of the *note TestLoader: 792.
instance.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-19746(2).)

A new command line option ‘--locals’ to show local variables in
tracebacks.  (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-22936(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19746

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22936


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock<3>,  Next: urllib<4>,  Prev: unittest<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.73 unittest.mock
.......................

The *note Mock: e0e. class has the following improvements:

   * The class constructor has a new 'unsafe' parameter, which causes
     mock objects to raise *note AttributeError: 1a9. on attribute names
     starting with ‘"assert"’.  (Contributed by Kushal Das in
     bpo-21238(1).)

   * A new *note Mock.assert_not_called(): 123f. method to check if the
     mock object was called.  (Contributed by Kushal Das in
     bpo-21262(2).)

The *note MagicMock: 1240. class now supports *note __truediv__(): 1241,
*note __divmod__(): 1242. and *note __matmul__(): 1132. operators.
(Contributed by Johannes Baiter in bpo-20968(3), and Håkan Lövdahl in
bpo-23581(4) and bpo-23568(5).)

It is no longer necessary to explicitly pass ‘create=True’ to the *note
patch(): 1243. function when patching builtin names.  (Contributed by
Kushal Das in bpo-17660(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21262

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20968

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23581

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23568

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17660


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<4>,  Next: wsgiref,  Prev: unittest mock<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.74 urllib
................

A new *note request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth: 1245. class allows
HTTP Basic Authentication credentials to be managed so as to eliminate
unnecessary ‘401’ response handling, or to unconditionally send
credentials on the first request in order to communicate with servers
that return a ‘404’ response instead of a ‘401’ if the ‘Authorization’
header is not sent.  (Contributed by Matej Cepl in bpo-19494(1) and
Akshit Khurana in bpo-7159(2).)

A new 'quote_via' argument for the *note parse.urlencode(): 1246.
function provides a way to control the encoding of query parts if
needed.  (Contributed by Samwyse and Arnon Yaari in bpo-13866(3).)

The *note request.urlopen(): 57f. function accepts an *note
ssl.SSLContext: 336. object as a 'context' argument, which will be used
for the HTTPS connection.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22366(4).)

The *note parse.urljoin(): 1247. was updated to use the RFC 3986(5)
semantics for the resolution of relative URLs, rather than RFC 1808(6)
and RFC 2396(7).  (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in
bpo-22118(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7159

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13866

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22366

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22118


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref,  Next: xmlrpc<2>,  Prev: urllib<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.75 wsgiref
.................

The 'headers' argument of the *note headers.Headers: 1249. class
constructor is now optional.  (Contributed by Pablo Torres Navarrete and
SilentGhost in bpo-5800(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5800


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc<2>,  Next: xml sax,  Prev: wsgiref,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.76 xmlrpc
................

The *note client.ServerProxy: e1b. class now supports the *note context
manager: 478. protocol.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-20627(1).)

The *note client.ServerProxy: e1b. constructor now accepts an optional
*note ssl.SSLContext: 336. instance.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in
bpo-22960(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20627

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22960


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax,  Next: zipfile<5>,  Prev: xmlrpc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.77 xml.sax
.................

SAX parsers now support a character stream of the *note
xmlreader.InputSource: 124c. object.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-2175(1).)

*note parseString(): 124d. now accepts a *note str: 1df. instance.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10590(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2175

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10590


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<5>,  Prev: xml sax,  Up: Improved Modules<9>

1.12.5.78 zipfile
.................

ZIP output can now be written to unseekable streams.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23252(1).)

The 'mode' argument of *note ZipFile.open(): 84a. method now accepts
‘"x"’ to request exclusive creation.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-21717(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23252

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717


File: python.info,  Node: Other module-level changes,  Next: Optimizations<12>,  Prev: Improved Modules<9>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.12.6 Other module-level changes
---------------------------------

Many functions in the *note mmap: 94, ‘ossaudiodev’, *note socket: d4,
*note ssl: d8, and *note codecs: 1c. modules now accept writable *note
bytes-like objects: 436.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-23001(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23001


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<12>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Prev: Other module-level changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.12.7 Optimizations
--------------------

The *note os.walk(): 8b9. function has been sped up by 3 to 5 times on
POSIX systems, and by 7 to 20 times on Windows.  This was done using the
new *note os.scandir(): e23. function, which exposes file information
from the underlying ‘readdir’ or ‘FindFirstFile’/‘FindNextFile’ system
calls.  (Contributed by Ben Hoyt with help from Victor Stinner in
bpo-23605(1).)

Construction of ‘bytes(int)’ (filled by zero bytes) is faster and uses
less memory for large objects.  ‘calloc()’ is used instead of ‘malloc()’
to allocate memory for these objects.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner in
bpo-21233(2).)

Some operations on *note ipaddress: 83. *note IPv4Network: 712. and
*note IPv6Network: 713. have been massively sped up, such as *note
subnets(): 1251, *note supernet(): 1252, *note
summarize_address_range(): 1253, *note collapse_addresses(): 1254.  The
speed up can range from 3 to 15 times.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou,
Michel Albert, and Markus in bpo-21486(3), bpo-21487(4), bpo-20826(5),
bpo-23266(6).)

Pickling of *note ipaddress: 83. objects was optimized to produce
significantly smaller output.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-23133(7).)

Many operations on *note io.BytesIO: 1255. are now 50% to 100% faster.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15381(8) and David Wilson in
bpo-22003(9).)

The *note marshal.dumps(): 1256. function is now faster: 65–85% with
versions 3 and 4, 20–25% with versions 0 to 2 on typical data, and up to
5 times in best cases.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-20416(10) and bpo-23344(11).)

The UTF-32 encoder is now 3 to 7 times faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-15027(12).)

Regular expressions are now parsed up to 10% faster.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19380(13).)

The *note json.dumps(): 248. function was optimized to run with
‘ensure_ascii=False’ as fast as with ‘ensure_ascii=True’.  (Contributed
by Naoki Inada in bpo-23206(14).)

The *note PyObject_IsInstance(): 1257. and *note PyObject_IsSubclass():
1258. functions have been sped up in the common case that the second
argument has *note type: 186. as its metaclass.  (Contributed Georg
Brandl by in bpo-22540(15).)

Method caching was slightly improved, yielding up to 5% performance
improvement in some benchmarks.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-22847(16).)

Objects from the *note random: c0. module now use 50% less memory on
64-bit builds.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23488(17).)

The *note property(): 6bb. getter calls are up to 25% faster.
(Contributed by Joe Jevnik in bpo-23910(18).)

Instantiation of *note fractions.Fraction: 1c3. is now up to 30% faster.
(Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-22464(19).)

String methods *note find(): 1259, *note rfind(): 125a, *note split():
125b, *note partition(): 125c. and the *note in: 323. string operator
are now significantly faster for searching 1-character substrings.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23573(20).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23605

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21486

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21487

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20826

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23266

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23133

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22003

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20416

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23344

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15027

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19380

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23206

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22540

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22847

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23488

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23910

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22464

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Next: Deprecated<13>,  Prev: Optimizations<12>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.12.8 Build and C API Changes
------------------------------

New ‘calloc’ functions were added:

   * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 824,

   * *note PyMem_Calloc(): 125e,

   * *note PyObject_Calloc(): 125f.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21233(1).)

New encoding/decoding helper functions:

   * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85. (replaced ‘_Py_char2wchar()’),

   * *note Py_EncodeLocale(): f86. (replaced ‘_Py_wchar2char()’).

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18395(2).)

A new *note PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(): 1260. function to replace the
unicode encode error with ‘\N{...}’ escapes.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-19676(3).)

A new *note PyErr_FormatV(): 1261. function similar to *note
PyErr_Format(): 1262, but accepts a ‘va_list’ argument.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18711(4).)

A new *note PyExc_RecursionError: 1263. exception.  (Contributed by
Georg Brandl in bpo-19235(5).)

New *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): 392, *note
PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): 393, and *note PyModule_ExecDef(): 394.
functions introduced by PEP 489(6) – multi-phase extension module
initialization.  (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-24268(7).)

New *note PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(): 1264. and *note
PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(): 1265. functions to perform matrix
multiplication.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-21176(8).  See
also PEP 465(9) for details.)

The *note PyTypeObject.tp_finalize: e6c. slot is now part of the stable
ABI.

Windows builds now require Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, which is available
as part of Visual Studio 2015(10).

Extension modules now include a platform information tag in their
filename on some platforms (the tag is optional, and CPython will import
extensions without it, although if the tag is present and mismatched,
the extension won’t be loaded):

   * On Linux, extension module filenames end with
     ‘.cpython-<major><minor>m-<architecture>-<os>.pyd’:

        * ‘<major>’ is the major number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘3’.

        * ‘<minor>’ is the minor number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘5’.

        * ‘<architecture>’ is the hardware architecture the extension
          module was built to run on.  It’s most commonly either ‘i386’
          for 32-bit Intel platforms or ‘x86_64’ for 64-bit Intel (and
          AMD) platforms.

        * ‘<os>’ is always ‘linux-gnu’, except for extensions built to
          talk to the 32-bit ABI on 64-bit platforms, in which case it
          is ‘linux-gnu32’ (and ‘<architecture>’ will be ‘x86_64’).

   * On Windows, extension module filenames end with
     ‘<debug>.cp<major><minor>-<platform>.pyd’:

        * ‘<major>’ is the major number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘3’.

        * ‘<minor>’ is the minor number of the Python version; for
          Python 3.5 this is ‘5’.

        * ‘<platform>’ is the platform the extension module was built
          for, either ‘win32’ for Win32, ‘win_amd64’ for Win64,
          ‘win_ia64’ for Windows Itanium 64, and ‘win_arm’ for Windows
          on ARM.

        * If built in debug mode, ‘<debug>’ will be ‘_d’, otherwise it
          will be blank.

   * On OS X platforms, extension module filenames now end with
     ‘-darwin.so’.

   * On all other platforms, extension module filenames are the same as
     they were with Python 3.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18395

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24268

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (10) 
https://visualstudio.microsoft.com/en/vs/older-downloads/#visual-studio-2015-and-other-products


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<13>,  Next: Removed<13>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.12.9 Deprecated
-----------------

* Menu:

* New Keywords: New Keywords<2>.
* Deprecated Python Behavior: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>.
* Unsupported Operating Systems::
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: New Keywords<2>,  Next: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>,  Up: Deprecated<13>

1.12.9.1 New Keywords
.....................

‘async’ and ‘await’ are not recommended to be used as variable, class,
function or module names.  Introduced by PEP 492(1) in Python 3.5, they
will become proper keywords in Python 3.7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>,  Next: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Prev: New Keywords<2>,  Up: Deprecated<13>

1.12.9.2 Deprecated Python Behavior
...................................

Raising the *note StopIteration: fba. exception inside a generator will
now generate a silent *note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b, which will
become a non-silent deprecation warning in Python 3.6 and will trigger a
*note RuntimeError: 30d. in Python 3.7.  See *note PEP 479; Change
StopIteration handling inside generators: 10d9. for details.


File: python.info,  Node: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>,  Prev: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>,  Up: Deprecated<13>

1.12.9.3 Unsupported Operating Systems
......................................

Windows XP is no longer supported by Microsoft, thus, per PEP 11(1),
CPython 3.5 is no longer officially supported on this OS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>,  Prev: Unsupported Operating Systems,  Up: Deprecated<13>

1.12.9.4 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
.........................................................

The ‘formatter’ module has now graduated to full deprecation and is
still slated for removal in Python 3.6.

The ‘asyncio.async()’ function is deprecated in favor of *note
ensure_future(): 1035.

The ‘smtpd’ module has in the past always decoded the DATA portion of
email messages using the ‘utf-8’ codec.  This can now be controlled by
the new 'decode_data' keyword to ‘SMTPServer’.  The default value is
‘True’, but this default is deprecated.  Specify the 'decode_data'
keyword with an appropriate value to avoid the deprecation warning.

Directly assigning values to the *note key: fc0, *note value: fc1. and
*note coded_value: fc2. of *note http.cookies.Morsel: fc3. objects is
deprecated.  Use the *note set(): fc4. method instead.  In addition, the
undocumented 'LegalChars' parameter of ‘set()’ is deprecated, and is now
ignored.

Passing a format string as keyword argument 'format_string' to the *note
format(): fbf. method of the *note string.Formatter: 126b. class has
been deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23671(1).)

The ‘platform.dist()’ and ‘platform.linux_distribution()’ functions are
now deprecated.  Linux distributions use too many different ways of
describing themselves, so the functionality is left to a package.
(Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Berker Peksag in bpo-1322(2).)

The previously undocumented ‘from_function’ and ‘from_builtin’ methods
of *note inspect.Signature: 6e8. are deprecated.  Use the new *note
Signature.from_callable(): b20. method instead.  (Contributed by Yury
Selivanov in bpo-24248(3).)

The ‘inspect.getargspec()’ function is deprecated and scheduled to be
removed in Python 3.6.  (See bpo-20438(4) for details.)

The *note inspect: 81. *note getfullargspec(): b1f, *note getcallargs():
126c, and ‘formatargspec()’ functions are deprecated in favor of the
*note inspect.signature(): 4bd. API. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in
bpo-20438(5).)

*note getargvalues(): 126d. and *note formatargvalues(): 126e. functions
were inadvertently marked as deprecated with the release of Python
3.5.0.

Use of *note re.LOCALE: f29. flag with str patterns or *note re.ASCII:
a1d. is now deprecated.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-22407(6).)

Use of unrecognized special sequences consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
letter in regular expression patterns and replacement patterns now
raises a deprecation warning and will be forbidden in Python 3.6.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23622(7).)

The undocumented and unofficial 'use_load_tests' default argument of the
*note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 793. method now is
deprecated and ignored.  (Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A.
Warsaw in bpo-16662(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23671

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1322

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24248

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22407

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23622

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<13>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 5,  Prev: Deprecated<13>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.12.10 Removed
---------------

* Menu:

* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<4>,  Up: Removed<13>

1.12.10.1 API and Feature Removals
..................................

The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have
been removed:

   * The ‘__version__’ attribute has been dropped from the email
     package.  The email code hasn’t been shipped separately from the
     stdlib for a long time, and the ‘__version__’ string was not
     updated in the last few releases.

   * The internal ‘Netrc’ class in the *note ftplib: 61. module was
     deprecated in 3.4, and has now been removed.  (Contributed by Matt
     Chaput in bpo-6623(1).)

   * The concept of ‘.pyo’ files has been removed.

   * The JoinableQueue class in the provisional *note asyncio: b. module
     was deprecated in 3.4.4 and is now removed.  (Contributed by A.
     Jesse Jiryu Davis in bpo-23464(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6623

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23464


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 5,  Next: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4,  Prev: Removed<13>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.12.11 Porting to Python 3.5
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in Python behavior: Changes in Python behavior<2>.
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<10>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in Python behavior<2>,  Next: Changes in the Python API<10>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 5

1.12.11.1 Changes in Python behavior
....................................

   * Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted
     the following syntax:

          f(1 for x in [1], *args)
          f(1 for x in [1], **kwargs)

     Python 3.5 now correctly raises a *note SyntaxError: 17e, as
     generator expressions must be put in parentheses if not a sole
     argument to a function.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<10>,  Next: Changes in the C API<8>,  Prev: Changes in Python behavior<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 5

1.12.11.2 Changes in the Python API
...................................

   * PEP 475(1): System calls are now retried when interrupted by a
     signal instead of raising *note InterruptedError: 1141. if the
     Python signal handler does not raise an exception.

   * Before Python 3.5, a *note datetime.time: 48e. object was
     considered to be false if it represented midnight in UTC. This
     behavior was considered obscure and error-prone and has been
     removed in Python 3.5.  See bpo-13936(2) for full details.

   * The ‘ssl.SSLSocket.send()’ method now raises either *note
     ssl.SSLWantReadError: 121a. or *note ssl.SSLWantWriteError: 121b.
     on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block.  Previously,
     it would return ‘0’.  (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in
     bpo-20951(3).)

   * The ‘__name__’ attribute of generators is now set from the function
     name, instead of being set from the code name.  Use
     ‘gen.gi_code.co_name’ to retrieve the code name.  Generators also
     have a new ‘__qualname__’ attribute, the qualified name, which is
     now used for the representation of a generator (‘repr(gen)’).
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21205(4).)

   * The deprecated «strict» mode and argument of *note HTMLParser: c4d,
     ‘HTMLParser.error()’, and the ‘HTMLParserError’ exception have been
     removed.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(5).)  The
     'convert_charrefs' argument of ‘HTMLParser’ is now ‘True’ by
     default.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21047(6).)

   * Although it is not formally part of the API, it is worth noting for
     porting purposes (ie: fixing tests) that error messages that were
     previously of the form «“sometype” does not support the buffer
     protocol» are now of the form «a *note bytes-like object: 436. is
     required, not “sometype”».  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in
     bpo-16518(7).)

   * If the current directory is set to a directory that no longer
     exists then *note FileNotFoundError: 243. will no longer be raised
     and instead *note find_spec(): 1274. will return ‘None’ 'without'
     caching ‘None’ in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 9db, which is
     different than the typical case (bpo-22834(8)).

   * HTTP status code and messages from *note http.client: 72. and *note
     http.server: 75. were refactored into a common *note HTTPStatus:
     cd0. enum.  The values in ‘http.client’ and ‘http.server’ remain
     available for backwards compatibility.  (Contributed by Demian
     Brecht in bpo-21793(9).)

   * When an import loader defines *note exec_module(): c40. it is now
     expected to also define *note create_module(): 106f. (raises a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. now, will be an error in Python
     3.6).  If the loader inherits from *note importlib.abc.Loader:
     1275. then there is nothing to do, else simply define
     ‘create_module()’ to return ‘None’.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon
     in bpo-23014(10).)

   * The *note re.split(): 7a0. function always ignored empty pattern
     matches, so the ‘"x*"’ pattern worked the same as ‘"x+"’, and the
     ‘"\b"’ pattern never worked.  Now ‘re.split()’ raises a warning if
     the pattern could match an empty string.  For compatibility, use
     patterns that never match an empty string (e.g.  ‘"x+"’ instead of
     ‘"x*"’).  Patterns that could only match an empty string (such as
     ‘"\b"’) now raise an error.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-22818(11).)

   * The *note http.cookies.Morsel: fc3. dict-like interface has been
     made self consistent: morsel comparison now takes the *note key:
     fc0. and *note value: fc1. into account, *note copy(): 1276. now
     results in a ‘Morsel’ instance rather than a *note dict: 188, and
     *note update(): 1277. will now raise an exception if any of the
     keys in the update dictionary are invalid.  In addition, the
     undocumented 'LegalChars' parameter of *note set(): fc4. is
     deprecated and is now ignored.  (Contributed by Demian Brecht in
     bpo-2211(12).)

   * PEP 488(13) has removed ‘.pyo’ files from Python and introduced the
     optional ‘opt-’ tag in ‘.pyc’ file names.  The *note
     importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 330. has gained an
     'optimization' parameter to help control the ‘opt-’ tag.  Because
     of this, the 'debug_override' parameter of the function is now
     deprecated.  ‘.pyo’ files are also no longer supported as a file
     argument to the Python interpreter and thus serve no purpose when
     distributed on their own (i.e.  sourceless code distribution).  Due
     to the fact that the magic number for bytecode has changed in
     Python 3.5, all old ‘.pyo’ files from previous versions of Python
     are invalid regardless of this PEP.

   * The *note socket: d4. module now exports the *note
     CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES: 1278. constant on linux 3.6 and greater.

   * The *note ssl.cert_time_to_seconds(): 121c. function now interprets
     the input time as UTC and not as local time, per RFC 5280(14).
     Additionally, the return value is always an *note int: 326.
     (Contributed by Akira Li in bpo-19940(15).)

   * The ‘pygettext.py’ Tool now uses the standard +NNNN format for
     timezones in the POT-Creation-Date header.

   * The *note smtplib: d2. module now uses *note sys.stderr: d05.
     instead of the previous module-level ‘stderr’ variable for debug
     output.  If your (test) program depends on patching the
     module-level variable to capture the debug output, you will need to
     update it to capture sys.stderr instead.

   * The *note str.startswith(): 1279. and *note str.endswith(): 127a.
     methods no longer return ‘True’ when finding the empty string and
     the indexes are completely out of range.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-24284(16).)

   * The *note inspect.getdoc(): 22c. function now returns documentation
     strings inherited from base classes.  Documentation strings no
     longer need to be duplicated if the inherited documentation is
     appropriate.  To suppress an inherited string, an empty string must
     be specified (or the documentation may be filled in).  This change
     affects the output of the *note pydoc: bd. module and the *note
     help(): ca9. function.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-15582(17).)

   * Nested *note functools.partial(): 4a6. calls are now flattened.  If
     you were relying on the previous behavior, you can now either add
     an attribute to a ‘functools.partial()’ object or you can create a
     subclass of ‘functools.partial()’.  (Contributed by Alexander
     Belopolsky in bpo-7830(18).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21047

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16518

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22834

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23014

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22818

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2211

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24284

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15582

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7830


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<8>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<10>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 5

1.12.11.3 Changes in the C API
..............................

   * The undocumented ‘format’ member of the (non-public)
     ‘PyMemoryViewObject’ structure has been removed.  All extensions
     relying on the relevant parts in ‘memoryobject.h’ must be rebuilt.

   * The ‘PyMemAllocator’ structure was renamed to *note
     PyMemAllocatorEx: 127c. and a new ‘calloc’ field was added.

   * Removed non-documented macro ‘PyObject_REPR()’ which leaked
     references.  Use format character ‘%R’ in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e.-like functions to format the *note
     repr(): 45b. of the object.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-22453(1).)

   * Because the lack of the *note __module__: 80b. attribute breaks
     pickling and introspection, a deprecation warning is now raised for
     builtin types without the ‘__module__’ attribute.  This will be an
     *note AttributeError: 1a9. in the future.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-20204(2).)

   * As part of the PEP 492(3) implementation, the ‘tp_reserved’ slot of
     *note PyTypeObject: e6b. was replaced with a *note tp_as_async:
     127d. slot.  Refer to *note Coroutine Objects: 127e. for new types,
     structures and functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22453

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 5,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 5

1.12.12 Notable changes in Python 3.5.4
---------------------------------------

* Menu:

* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<2>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: New make regen-all build target<2>,  Next: Removal of make touch build target<2>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4

1.12.12.1 New ‘make regen-all’ build target
...........................................

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably
be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already
be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to
implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force
regeneration of these files when desired (e.g.  after an initial version
of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
Makefile.pre.in(1) for details.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).)

Added in version 3.5.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Removal of make touch build target<2>,  Prev: New make regen-all build target<2>,  Up: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4

1.12.12.2 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target
..............................................

The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit
regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has
been removed.

It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).)

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 4,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 3,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 5,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.13 What’s New In Python 3.4
=============================


Author: R. David Murray <<rdmurray@bitdance.com>> (Editor)

This article explains the new features in Python 3.4, compared to 3.3.
Python 3.4 was released on March 16, 2014.  For full details, see the
changelog(1).

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 429(2) – Python 3.4 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release Highlights: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
* New Features: New Features<15>.
* New Modules: New Modules<10>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<10>.
* CPython Implementation Changes::
* Deprecated: Deprecated<14>.
* Removed: Removed<14>.
* Porting to Python 3.4: Porting to Python 3 4.
* Changed in 3.4.3: Changed in 3 4 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.4/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0429/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release Highlights<3>,  Next: New Features<15>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.13.1 Summary – Release Highlights
-----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * No new syntax features were added in Python 3.4.

Other new features:

   * *note pip should always be available: 1286. ( PEP 453(1)).

   * *note Newly created file descriptors are non-inheritable: 1287. (
     PEP 446(2)).

   * command line option for *note isolated mode: 1288. (bpo-16499(3)).

   * *note improvements in the handling of codecs: 1289. that are not
     text encodings (multiple issues).

   * *note A ModuleSpec Type: 128a. for the Import System ( PEP 451(4)).
     (Affects importer authors.)

   * The *note marshal: 90. format has been made *note more compact and
     efficient: 128b. (bpo-16475(5)).

New library modules:

   * *note asyncio: b.: *note New provisional API for asynchronous IO:
     128c. ( PEP 3156(6)).

   * *note ensurepip: 58.: *note Bootstrapping the pip installer: 128d.
     ( PEP 453(7)).

   * *note enum: 59.: *note Support for enumeration types: 128e. ( PEP
     435(8)).

   * *note pathlib: a8.: *note Object-oriented filesystem paths: 128f. (
     PEP 428(9)).

   * *note selectors: ca.: *note High-level and efficient I/O
     multiplexing: 1290, built upon the *note select: c9. module
     primitives (part of PEP 3156(10)).

   * *note statistics: da.: A basic *note numerically stable statistics
     library: 1291. ( PEP 450(11)).

   * *note tracemalloc: 108.: *note Trace Python memory allocations:
     1292. ( PEP 454(12)).

Significantly improved library modules:

   * *note Single-dispatch generic functions: 1293. in *note functools:
     62. ( PEP 443(13)).

   * New *note pickle: ab. *note protocol 4: 1294. ( PEP 3154(14)).

   * *note multiprocessing: 98. now has *note an option to avoid using
     os.fork on Unix: 1295. (bpo-8713(15)).

   * *note email: 3e. has a new submodule, *note contentmanager: 40, and
     a new *note Message: 780. subclass (*note EmailMessage: 216.) that
     *note simplify MIME handling: 1296. (bpo-18891(16)).

   * The *note inspect: 81. and *note pydoc: bd. modules are now capable
     of correct introspection of a much wider variety of callable
     objects, which improves the output of the Python *note help(): ca9.
     system.

   * The *note ipaddress: 83. module API has been declared stable

Security improvements:

   * *note Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm: 1297. ( PEP
     456(17)).

   * *note Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable: 1287. (
     PEP 446(18)) to avoid leaking file descriptors to child processes.

   * New command line option for *note isolated mode: 1288,
     (bpo-16499(19)).

   * *note multiprocessing: 98. now has *note an option to avoid using
     os.fork on Unix: 1295.  'spawn' and 'forkserver' are more secure
     because they avoid sharing data with child processes.

   * *note multiprocessing: 98. child processes on Windows no longer
     inherit all of the parent’s inheritable handles, only the necessary
     ones.

   * A new *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 91e. function provides the
     PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2(20).

   * *note TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 support: 1298. for *note ssl: d8.

   * *note Retrieving certificates from the Windows system cert store
     support: 1299. for *note ssl: d8.

   * *note Server-side SNI (Server Name Indication) support: 129a. for
     *note ssl: d8.

   * The *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. class has a *note lot of
     improvements: 129b.

   * All modules in the standard library that support SSL now support
     server certificate verification, including hostname matching
     (‘ssl.match_hostname()’) and CRLs (Certificate Revocation lists,
     see *note ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): 129c.).

CPython implementation improvements:

   * *note Safe object finalization: 129d. ( PEP 442(21)).

   * Leveraging PEP 442(22), in most cases *note module globals are no
     longer set to None during finalization: 129d. (bpo-18214(23)).

   * *note Configurable memory allocators: 129e. ( PEP 445(24)).

   * *note Argument Clinic: 129f. ( PEP 436(25)).

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes,
including many other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations,
deprecations, and potential porting issues.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (20) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18214

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/


File: python.info,  Node: New Features<15>,  Next: New Modules<10>,  Prev: Summary – Release Highlights<3>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.13.2 New Features
-------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 453; Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations.
* PEP 446; Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
* Improvements to Codec Handling::
* PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<10>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations,  Next: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Up: New Features<15>

1.13.2.1 PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations
.......................................................................

* Menu:

* Bootstrapping pip By Default::
* Documentation Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default,  Next: Documentation Changes,  Up: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

1.13.2.2 Bootstrapping pip By Default
.....................................

The new *note ensurepip: 58. module (defined in PEP 453(1)) provides a
standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into
Python installations and virtual environments.  The version of ‘pip’
included with Python 3.4.0 is ‘pip’ 1.5.4, and future 3.4.x maintenance
releases will update the bundled version to the latest version of ‘pip’
that is available at the time of creating the release candidate.

By default, the commands ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed on all
platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python installation),
along with the ‘pip’ Python package and its dependencies.  On Windows
and in virtual environments on all platforms, the unversioned ‘pip’
command will also be installed.  On other platforms, the system wide
unversioned ‘pip’ command typically refers to the separately installed
Python 2 version.

The ‘pyvenv’ command line utility and the *note venv: 11a. module make
use of the *note ensurepip: 58. module to make ‘pip’ readily available
in virtual environments.  When using the command line utility, ‘pip’ is
installed by default, while when using the ‘venv’ module *note API:
12a3. installation of ‘pip’ must be requested explicitly.

For CPython *note source builds on POSIX systems: 12a4, the ‘make
install’ and ‘make altinstall’ commands bootstrap ‘pip’ by default.
This behaviour can be controlled through configure options, and
overridden through Makefile options.

On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to
installing ‘pip’ along with CPython itself (users may opt out of
installing it during the installation process).  Window users will need
to opt in to the automatic ‘PATH’ modifications to have ‘pip’ available
from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed
through the Python launcher for Windows as ‘py -m pip’.

As discussed in the PEP(2) platform packagers may choose not to install
these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear
and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually
using the system package manager).

     Σημείωση: To avoid conflicts between parallel Python 2 and Python 3
     installations, only the versioned ‘pip3’ and ‘pip3.4’ commands are
     bootstrapped by default when ‘ensurepip’ is invoked directly - the
     ‘--default-pip’ option is needed to also request the unversioned
     ‘pip’ command.  ‘pyvenv’ and the Windows installer ensure that the
     unqualified ‘pip’ command is made available in those environments,
     and ‘pip’ can always be invoked via the ‘-m’ switch rather than
     directly to avoid ambiguity on systems with multiple Python
     installations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation Changes,  Prev: Bootstrapping pip By Default,  Up: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations

1.13.2.3 Documentation Changes
..............................

As part of this change, the *note Installing Python modules: 12a6. and
distributing-index sections of the documentation have been completely
redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents.  Most packaging
documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging Authority
maintained Python Packaging User Guide(1) and the documentation of the
individual projects.

However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
versions of those guides remaining available as *note Κατασκευή
Επεκτάσεων C και C++ με το setuptools: 12a7. and *note Κατασκευή
Επεκτάσεων C και C++ με το setuptools: 12a8.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 453(2) – Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

     PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
     Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Next: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Prev: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations,  Up: New Features<15>

1.13.2.4 PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable
....................................................................

PEP 446(1) makes newly created file descriptors *note non-inheritable:
12aa.  In general, this is the behavior an application will want: when
launching a new process, having currently open files also open in the
new process can lead to all sorts of hard to find bugs, and potentially
to security issues.

However, there are occasions when inheritance is desired.  To support
these cases, the following new functions and methods are available:

   * *note os.get_inheritable(): 12ab, *note os.set_inheritable(): 12ac.

   * *note os.get_handle_inheritable(): 12ad, *note
     os.set_handle_inheritable(): 12ae.

   * *note socket.socket.get_inheritable(): 12af, *note
     socket.socket.set_inheritable(): 12b0.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 446(2) – Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/


File: python.info,  Node: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Next: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Prev: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable,  Up: New Features<15>

1.13.2.5 Improvements to Codec Handling
.......................................

Since it was first introduced, the *note codecs: 1c. module has always
been intended to operate as a type-neutral dynamic encoding and decoding
system.  However, its close coupling with the Python text model,
especially the type restricted convenience methods on the builtin *note
str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6. types, has
historically obscured that fact.

As a key step in clarifying the situation, the *note codecs.encode():
12b2. and *note codecs.decode(): 12b3. convenience functions are now
properly documented in Python 2.7, 3.3 and 3.4.  These functions have
existed in the *note codecs: 1c. module (and have been covered by the
regression test suite) since Python 2.4, but were previously only
discoverable through runtime introspection.

Unlike the convenience methods on *note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7. and
*note bytearray: 1c6, the *note codecs: 1c. convenience functions
support arbitrary codecs in both Python 2 and Python 3, rather than
being limited to Unicode text encodings (in Python 3) or ‘basestring’
<-> ‘basestring’ conversions (in Python 2).

In Python 3.4, the interpreter is able to identify the known non-text
encodings provided in the standard library and direct users towards
these general purpose convenience functions when appropriate:

     >>> b"abcdef".decode("hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.decode() to handle arbitrary codecs

     >>> "hello".encode("rot13")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'rot13' is not a text encoding; use codecs.encode() to handle arbitrary codecs

     >>> open("foo.txt", encoding="hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.open() to handle arbitrary codecs

In a related change, whenever it is feasible without breaking backwards
compatibility, exceptions raised during encoding and decoding operations
are wrapped in a chained exception of the same type that mentions the
name of the codec responsible for producing the error:

     >>> import codecs

     >>> codecs.decode(b"abcdefgh", "hex")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/hex_codec.py", line 20, in hex_decode
         return (binascii.a2b_hex(input), len(input))
     binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     binascii.Error: decoding with 'hex' codec failed (Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found)

     >>> codecs.encode("hello", "bz2")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/bz2_codec.py", line 17, in bz2_encode
         return (bz2.compress(input), len(input))
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/bz2.py", line 498, in compress
         return comp.compress(data) + comp.flush()
     TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: encoding with 'bz2' codec failed (TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface)

Finally, as the examples above show, these improvements have permitted
the restoration of the convenience aliases for the non-Unicode codecs
that were themselves restored in Python 3.2.  This means that encoding
binary data to and from its hexadecimal representation (for example) can
now be written as:

     >>> from codecs import encode, decode
     >>> encode(b"hello", "hex")
     b'68656c6c6f'
     >>> decode(b"68656c6c6f", "hex")
     b'hello'

The binary and text transforms provided in the standard library are
detailed in *note Binary Transforms: 12b4. and *note Text Transforms:
12b5.

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-7475(1), bpo-17827(2), bpo-17828(3)
and bpo-19619(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7475

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17827

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17828

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19619


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Next: Other Language Changes<10>,  Prev: Improvements to Codec Handling,  Up: New Features<15>

1.13.2.6 PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System
.........................................................

PEP 451(1) provides an encapsulation of the information about a module
that the import machinery will use to load it (that is, a module
specification).  This helps simplify both the import implementation and
several import-related APIs.  The change is also a stepping stone for
several future import-related improvements(2).

The public-facing changes from the PEP are entirely backward-compatible.
Furthermore, they should be transparent to everyone but importer
authors.  Key finder and loader methods have been deprecated, but they
will continue working.  New importers should use the new methods
described in the PEP. Existing importers should be updated to implement
the new methods.  See the *note Deprecated: 12b7. section for a list of
methods that should be replaced and their replacements.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2013-November/130111.html


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<10>,  Prev: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System,  Up: New Features<15>

1.13.2.7 Other Language Changes
...............................

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.3.

   * *note min(): 12b9. and *note max(): 12ba. now accept a 'default'
     keyword-only argument that can be used to specify the value they
     return if the iterable they are evaluating has no elements.
     (Contributed by Julian Berman in bpo-18111(1).)

   * Module objects are now *note weakly referenceable: 12bb.

   * Module ‘__file__’ attributes (and related values) should now always
     contain absolute paths by default, with the sole exception of
     ‘__main__.__file__’ when a script has been executed directly using
     a relative path.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18416(2).)

   * All the UTF-* codecs (except UTF-7) now reject surrogates during
     both encoding and decoding unless the ‘surrogatepass’ error handler
     is used, with the exception of the UTF-16 decoder (which accepts
     valid surrogate pairs) and the UTF-16 encoder (which produces them
     while encoding non-BMP characters).  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner, Kang-Hao (Kenny) Lu and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12892(3).)

   * New German EBCDIC *note codec: 1171. ‘cp273’.  (Contributed by
     Michael Bierenfeld and Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1097797(4).)

   * New Ukrainian *note codec: 1171. ‘cp1125’.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-19668(5).)

   * *note bytes: 1c7.join() and *note bytearray: 1c6.join() now accept
     arbitrary buffer objects as arguments.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou in bpo-15958(6).)

   * The *note int: 326. constructor now accepts any object that has an
     ‘__index__’ method for its 'base' argument.  (Contributed by Mark
     Dickinson in bpo-16772(7).)

   * Frame objects now have a *note clear(): 784. method that clears all
     references to local variables from the frame.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17934(8).)

   * *note memoryview: 1d2. is now registered as a *note Sequence: 1f,
     and supports the *note reversed(): c3c. builtin.  (Contributed by
     Nick Coghlan and Claudiu Popa in bpo-18690(9) and bpo-19078(10).)

   * Signatures reported by *note help(): ca9. have been modified and
     improved in several cases as a result of the introduction of
     Argument Clinic and other changes to the *note inspect: 81. and
     *note pydoc: bd. modules.

   * *note __length_hint__(): 12bc. is now part of the formal language
     specification (see PEP 424(11)).  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in
     bpo-16148(12).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18111

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1097797

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15958

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17934

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18690

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19078

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<10>,  Next: Improved Modules<10>,  Prev: New Features<15>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.13.3 New Modules
------------------

* Menu:

* asyncio: asyncio<15>.
* ensurepip: ensurepip<2>.
* enum: enum<9>.
* pathlib: pathlib<15>.
* selectors: selectors<2>.
* statistics: statistics<6>.
* tracemalloc: tracemalloc<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<15>,  Next: ensurepip<2>,  Up: New Modules<10>

1.13.3.1 asyncio
................

The new *note asyncio: b. module (defined in PEP 3156(1)) provides a
standard pluggable event loop model for Python, providing solid
asynchronous IO support in the standard library, and making it easier
for other event loop implementations to interoperate with the standard
library and each other.

For Python 3.4, this module is considered a *note provisional API: 5fd.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3156(2) – Asynchronous IO Support Rebooted: the «asyncio» Module

     PEP written and implementation led by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip<2>,  Next: enum<9>,  Prev: asyncio<15>,  Up: New Modules<10>

1.13.3.2 ensurepip
..................

The new *note ensurepip: 58. module is the primary infrastructure for
the PEP 453(1) implementation.  In the normal course of events end users
will not need to interact with this module, but it can be used to
manually bootstrap ‘pip’ if the automated bootstrapping into an
installation or virtual environment was declined.

*note ensurepip: 58. includes a bundled copy of ‘pip’, up-to-date as of
the first release candidate of the release of CPython with which it
ships (this applies to both maintenance releases and feature releases).
‘ensurepip’ does not access the internet.  If the installation has
internet access, after ‘ensurepip’ is run the bundled ‘pip’ can be used
to upgrade ‘pip’ to a more recent release than the bundled one.  (Note
that such an upgraded version of ‘pip’ is considered to be a separately
installed package and will not be removed if Python is uninstalled.)

The module is named 'ensure'pip because if called when ‘pip’ is already
installed, it does nothing.  It also has an ‘--upgrade’ option that will
cause it to install the bundled copy of ‘pip’ if the existing installed
version of ‘pip’ is older than the bundled copy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: enum<9>,  Next: pathlib<15>,  Prev: ensurepip<2>,  Up: New Modules<10>

1.13.3.3 enum
.............

The new *note enum: 59. module (defined in PEP 435(1)) provides a
standard implementation of enumeration types, allowing other modules
(such as *note socket: d4.) to provide more informative error messages
and better debugging support by replacing opaque integer constants with
backwards compatible enumeration values.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 435(2) – Adding an Enum type to the Python standard library

     PEP written by Barry Warsaw, Eli Bendersky and Ethan Furman,
     implemented by Ethan Furman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib<15>,  Next: selectors<2>,  Prev: enum<9>,  Up: New Modules<10>

1.13.3.4 pathlib
................

The new *note pathlib: a8. module offers classes representing filesystem
paths with semantics appropriate for different operating systems.  Path
classes are divided between 'pure paths', which provide purely
computational operations without I/O, and 'concrete paths', which
inherit from pure paths but also provide I/O operations.

For Python 3.4, this module is considered a *note provisional API: 5fd.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 428(1) – The pathlib module – object-oriented filesystem paths

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/


File: python.info,  Node: selectors<2>,  Next: statistics<6>,  Prev: pathlib<15>,  Up: New Modules<10>

1.13.3.5 selectors
..................

The new *note selectors: ca. module (created as part of implementing PEP
3156(1)) allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon
the *note select: c9. module primitives.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/


File: python.info,  Node: statistics<6>,  Next: tracemalloc<4>,  Prev: selectors<2>,  Up: New Modules<10>

1.13.3.6 statistics
...................

The new *note statistics: da. module (defined in PEP 450(1)) offers some
core statistics functionality directly in the standard library.  This
module supports calculation of the mean, median, mode, variance and
standard deviation of a data series.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 450(2) – Adding A Statistics Module To The Standard Library

     PEP written and implemented by Steven D’Aprano

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc<4>,  Prev: statistics<6>,  Up: New Modules<10>

1.13.3.7 tracemalloc
....................

The new *note tracemalloc: 108. module (defined in PEP 454(1)) is a
debug tool to trace memory blocks allocated by Python.  It provides the
following information:

   * Trace where an object was allocated

   * Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line
     number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory
     blocks

   * Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory
     leaks

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 454(2) – Add a new tracemalloc module to trace Python memory allocations

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<10>,  Next: CPython Implementation Changes,  Prev: New Modules<10>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.13.4 Improved Modules
-----------------------

* Menu:

* abc::
* aifc: aifc<2>.
* argparse: argparse<8>.
* audioop::
* base64: base64<5>.
* collections: collections<7>.
* colorsys::
* contextlib: contextlib<7>.
* dbm: dbm<7>.
* dis: dis<5>.
* doctest: doctest<4>.
* email: email<6>.
* filecmp::
* functools: functools<8>.
* gc: gc<8>.
* glob: glob<5>.
* hashlib: hashlib<7>.
* hmac: hmac<4>.
* html::
* http: http<4>.
* idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<4>.
* importlib: importlib<9>.
* inspect: inspect<10>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<5>.
* logging: logging<6>.
* marshal: marshal<2>.
* mmap: mmap<4>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<8>.
* operator: operator<4>.
* os: os<13>.
* pdb: pdb<9>.
* pickle: pickle<6>.
* plistlib: plistlib<2>.
* poplib: poplib<3>.
* pprint: pprint<5>.
* pty: pty<2>.
* pydoc: pydoc<5>.
* re: re<10>.
* resource: resource<2>.
* select::
* shelve: shelve<3>.
* shutil: shutil<6>.
* smtpd: smtpd<3>.
* smtplib: smtplib<3>.
* socket: socket<11>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<11>.
* ssl: ssl<12>.
* stat::
* struct: struct<3>.
* subprocess: subprocess<6>.
* sunau: sunau<2>.
* sys: sys<13>.
* tarfile: tarfile<9>.
* textwrap: textwrap<2>.
* threading: threading<10>.
* traceback: traceback<6>.
* types: types<9>.
* urllib: urllib<5>.
* unittest: unittest<11>.
* venv: venv<8>.
* wave: wave<4>.
* weakref: weakref<2>.
* xml.etree: xml etree<2>.
* zipfile: zipfile<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: abc,  Next: aifc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.1 abc
............

New function *note abc.get_cache_token(): 12c7. can be used to know when
to invalidate caches that are affected by changes in the object graph.
(Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-16832(1).)

New class *note ABC: 12c8. has *note ABCMeta: 12c9. as its meta class.
Using ‘ABC’ as a base class has essentially the same effect as
specifying ‘metaclass=abc.ABCMeta’, but is simpler to type and easier to
read.  (Contributed by Bruno Dupuis in bpo-16049(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16832

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16049


File: python.info,  Node: aifc<2>,  Next: argparse<8>,  Prev: abc,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.2 aifc
.............

The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain
tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17818(1).)

‘aifc.open()’ now supports the context management protocol: when used in
a *note with: 20a. block, the ‘close()’ method of the returned object
will be called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchacha in bpo-16486(2).)

The ‘writeframesraw()’ and ‘writeframes()’ methods now accept any *note
bytes-like object: 436.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-8311(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17818

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16486

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: argparse<8>,  Next: audioop,  Prev: aifc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.3 argparse
.................

The *note FileType: 31e. class now accepts 'encoding' and 'errors'
arguments, which are passed through to *note open(): 32b.  (Contributed
by Lucas Maystre in bpo-11175(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11175


File: python.info,  Node: audioop,  Next: base64<5>,  Prev: argparse<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.4 audioop
................

‘audioop’ now supports 24-bit samples.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-12866(1).)

New ‘byteswap()’ function converts big-endian samples to little-endian
and vice versa.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19641(2).)

All ‘audioop’ functions now accept any *note bytes-like object: 436.
Strings are not accepted: they didn’t work before, now they raise an
error right away.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16685(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12866

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19641

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685


File: python.info,  Node: base64<5>,  Next: collections<7>,  Prev: audioop,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.5 base64
...............

The encoding and decoding functions in *note base64: f. now accept any
*note bytes-like object: 436. in cases where it previously required a
*note bytes: 1c7. or *note bytearray: 1c6. instance.  (Contributed by
Nick Coghlan in bpo-17839(1).)

New functions *note a85encode(): 12ce, *note a85decode(): 1f4, *note
b85encode(): 1f0, and *note b85decode(): 1f2. provide the ability to
encode and decode binary data from and to ‘Ascii85’ and the
git/mercurial ‘Base85’ formats, respectively.  The ‘a85’ functions have
options that can be used to make them compatible with the variants of
the ‘Ascii85’ encoding, including the Adobe variant.  (Contributed by
Martin Morrison, the Mercurial project, Serhiy Storchaka, and Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-17618(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17839

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17618


File: python.info,  Node: collections<7>,  Next: colorsys,  Prev: base64<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.6 collections
....................

The *note ChainMap.new_child(): 12d0. method now accepts an 'm' argument
specifying the child map to add to the chain.  This allows an existing
mapping and/or a custom mapping type to be used for the child.
(Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16613(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16613


File: python.info,  Node: colorsys,  Next: contextlib<7>,  Prev: collections<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.7 colorsys
.................

The number of digits in the coefficients for the RGB — YIQ conversions
have been expanded so that they match the FCC NTSC versions.  The change
in results should be less than 1% and may better match results found
elsewhere.  (Contributed by Brian Landers and Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-14323(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14323


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<7>,  Next: dbm<7>,  Prev: colorsys,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.8 contextlib
...................

The new *note contextlib.suppress: 12d3. context manager helps to
clarify the intent of code that deliberately suppresses exceptions from
a single statement.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15806(1)
and Zero Piraeus in bpo-19266(2).)

The new *note contextlib.redirect_stdout(): 119f. context manager makes
it easier for utility scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their
output to *note sys.stdout: e9c. and don’t provide any options to
redirect it.  Using the context manager, the ‘sys.stdout’ output can be
redirected to any other stream or, in conjunction with *note
io.StringIO: 12d4, to a string.  The latter can be especially useful,
for example, to capture output from a function that was written to
implement a command line interface.  It is recommended only for utility
scripts because it affects the global state of ‘sys.stdout’.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15805(3).)

The *note contextlib: 27. documentation has also been updated to include
a *note discussion: 12d5. of the differences between single use,
reusable and reentrant context managers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15806

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19266

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15805


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<7>,  Next: dis<5>,  Prev: contextlib<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.9 dbm
............

*note dbm.open(): 12d7. objects now support the context management
protocol.  When used in a *note with: 20a. statement, the ‘close’ method
of the database object will be called automatically at the end of the
block.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and Nick Coghlan in bpo-19282(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19282


File: python.info,  Node: dis<5>,  Next: doctest<4>,  Prev: dbm<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.10 dis
.............

Functions *note show_code(): 12d9, *note dis(): 496, *note distb(): 497,
and *note disassemble(): 498. now accept a keyword-only 'file' argument
that controls where they write their output.

The *note dis: 3b. module is now built around an *note Instruction: 494.
class that provides object oriented access to the details of each
individual bytecode operation.

A new method, *note get_instructions(): 6f1, provides an iterator that
emits the Instruction stream for a given piece of Python code.  Thus it
is now possible to write a program that inspects and manipulates a
bytecode object in ways different from those provided by the *note dis:
3b. module itself.  For example:

     >>> import dis
     >>> for instr in dis.get_instructions(lambda x: x + 1):
     ...     print(instr.opname)
     LOAD_FAST
     LOAD_CONST
     BINARY_ADD
     RETURN_VALUE

The various display tools in the *note dis: 3b. module have been
rewritten to use these new components.

In addition, a new application-friendly class *note Bytecode: 495.
provides an object-oriented API for inspecting bytecode in both in
human-readable form and for iterating over instructions.  The ‘Bytecode’
constructor takes the same arguments that *note get_instructions(): 6f1.
does (plus an optional 'current_offset'), and the resulting object can
be iterated to produce *note Instruction: 494. objects.  But it also has
a *note dis: 12da. method, equivalent to calling *note dis: 496. on the
constructor argument, but returned as a multi-line string:

     >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(lambda x: x + 1, current_offset=3)
     >>> for instr in bytecode:
     ...     print('{} ({})'.format(instr.opname, instr.opcode))
     LOAD_FAST (124)
     LOAD_CONST (100)
     BINARY_ADD (23)
     RETURN_VALUE (83)
     >>> bytecode.dis().splitlines()
     ['  1           0 LOAD_FAST                0 (x)',
      '      -->     3 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)',
      '              6 BINARY_ADD',
      '              7 RETURN_VALUE']

*note Bytecode: 495. also has a class method, *note from_traceback():
12db, that provides the ability to manipulate a traceback (that is,
‘print(Bytecode.from_traceback(tb).dis())’ is equivalent to
‘distb(tb)’).

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan, Ryan Kelly and Thomas Kluyver in
bpo-11816(1) and Claudiu Popa in bpo-17916(2).)

New function *note stack_effect(): 12dc. computes the effect on the
Python stack of a given opcode and argument, information that is not
otherwise available.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-19722(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11816

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17916

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19722


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<4>,  Next: email<6>,  Prev: dis<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.11 doctest
.................

A new *note option flag: 12de, *note FAIL_FAST: 12df, halts test running
as soon as the first failure is detected.  (Contributed by R. David
Murray and Daniel Urban in bpo-16522(1).)

The *note doctest: 3d. command line interface now uses *note argparse:
7, and has two new options, ‘-o’ and ‘-f’.  ‘-o’ allows *note doctest
options: 12de. to be specified on the command line, and ‘-f’ is a
shorthand for ‘-o FAIL_FAST’ (to parallel the similar option supported
by the *note unittest: 10f. CLI). (Contributed by R. David Murray in
bpo-11390(2).)

*note doctest: 3d. will now find doctests in extension module ‘__doc__’
strings.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-3158(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16522

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11390

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158


File: python.info,  Node: email<6>,  Next: filecmp,  Prev: doctest<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.12 email
...............

*note as_string(): 12e1. now accepts a 'policy' argument to override the
default policy of the message when generating a string representation of
it.  This means that ‘as_string’ can now be used in more circumstances,
instead of having to create and use a *note generator: 43. in order to
pass formatting parameters to its ‘flatten’ method.  (Contributed by R.
David Murray in bpo-18600(1).)

New method *note as_bytes(): 12e2. added to produce a bytes
representation of the message in a fashion similar to how ‘as_string’
produces a string representation.  It does not accept the 'maxheaderlen'
argument, but does accept the 'unixfrom' and 'policy' arguments.  The
*note Message: 780. *note __bytes__(): 12e3. method calls it, meaning
that ‘bytes(mymsg)’ will now produce the intuitive result: a bytes
object containing the fully formatted message.  (Contributed by R. David
Murray in bpo-18600(2).)

The *note Message.set_param(): 12e4. message now accepts a 'replace'
keyword argument.  When specified, the associated header will be updated
without changing its location in the list of headers.  For backward
compatibility, the default is ‘False’.  (Contributed by R. David Murray
in bpo-18891(3).)  A pair of new subclasses of *note Message: 780. have
been added (*note EmailMessage: 216. and *note MIMEPart: 12e5.), along
with a new sub-module, *note contentmanager: 40. and a new *note policy:
52. attribute *note content_manager: 12e6.  All documentation is
currently in the new module, which is being added as part of email’s new
*note provisional API: 5fd.  These classes provide a number of new
methods that make extracting content from and inserting content into
email messages much easier.  For details, see the ‘contentmanager’
documentation and the *note email; Examples: 12e7.  These API additions
complete the bulk of the work that was planned as part of the email6
project.  The currently provisional API is scheduled to become final in
Python 3.5 (possibly with a few minor additions in the area of error
handling).  (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-18891(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891


File: python.info,  Node: filecmp,  Next: functools<8>,  Prev: email<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.13 filecmp
.................

A new *note clear_cache(): 12e9. function provides the ability to clear
the *note filecmp: 5d. comparison cache, which uses *note os.stat():
4f5. information to determine if the file has changed since the last
compare.  This can be used, for example, if the file might have been
changed and re-checked in less time than the resolution of a particular
filesystem’s file modification time field.  (Contributed by Mark Levitt
in bpo-18149(1).)

New module attribute *note DEFAULT_IGNORES: 12ea. provides the list of
directories that are used as the default value for the 'ignore'
parameter of the *note dircmp(): 12eb. function.  (Contributed by Eli
Bendersky in bpo-15442(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18149

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15442


File: python.info,  Node: functools<8>,  Next: gc<8>,  Prev: filecmp,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.14 functools
...................

The new *note partialmethod(): 4a7. descriptor brings partial argument
application to descriptors, just as *note partial(): 4a6. provides for
normal callables.  The new descriptor also makes it easier to get
arbitrary callables (including ‘partial()’ instances) to behave like
normal instance methods when included in a class definition.
(Contributed by Alon Horev and Nick Coghlan in bpo-4331(1).)  The new
*note singledispatch(): a2a. decorator brings support for
single-dispatch generic functions to the Python standard library.  Where
object oriented programming focuses on grouping multiple operations on a
common set of data into a class, a generic function focuses on grouping
multiple implementations of an operation that allows it to work with
'different' kinds of data.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 443(2) – Single-dispatch generic functions

     PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa.

*note total_ordering(): 12ed. now supports a return value of *note
NotImplemented: 440. from the underlying comparison function.
(Contributed by Katie Miller in bpo-10042(3).)

A pure-python version of the *note partial(): 4a6. function is now in
the stdlib; in CPython it is overridden by the C accelerated version,
but it is available for other implementations to use.  (Contributed by
Brian Thorne in bpo-12428(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4331

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10042

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12428


File: python.info,  Node: gc<8>,  Next: glob<5>,  Prev: functools<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.15 gc
............

New function *note get_stats(): 557. returns a list of three
per-generation dictionaries containing the collections statistics since
interpreter startup.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16351(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16351


File: python.info,  Node: glob<5>,  Next: hashlib<7>,  Prev: gc<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.16 glob
..............

A new function *note escape(): 12f0. provides a way to escape special
characters in a filename so that they do not become part of the globbing
expansion but are instead matched literally.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8402(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8402


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<7>,  Next: hmac<4>,  Prev: glob<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.17 hashlib
.................

A new *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 91e. function provides the PKCS#5
password-based key derivation function 2(1).  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-18582(2).)

The *note name: 12f2. attribute of *note hashlib: 6b. hash objects is
now a formally supported interface.  It has always existed in CPython’s
‘hashlib’ (although it did not return lower case names for all supported
hashes), but it was not a public interface and so some other Python
implementations have not previously supported it.  (Contributed by Jason
R. Coombs in bpo-18532(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18582

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<4>,  Next: html,  Prev: hashlib<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.18 hmac
..............

*note hmac: 6d. now accepts ‘bytearray’ as well as ‘bytes’ for the 'key'
argument to the *note new(): e65. function, and the 'msg' parameter to
both the ‘new()’ function and the *note update(): 12f4. method now
accepts any type supported by the *note hashlib: 6b. module.
(Contributed by Jonas Borgström in bpo-18240(1).)

The 'digestmod' argument to the *note hmac.new(): e65. function may now
be any hash digest name recognized by *note hashlib: 6b.  In addition,
the current behavior in which the value of 'digestmod' defaults to ‘MD5’
is deprecated: in a future version of Python there will be no default
value.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17276(2).)

With the addition of *note block_size: 12f5. and *note name: 12f6.
attributes (and the formal documentation of the *note digest_size: 12f7.
attribute), the *note hmac: 6d. module now conforms fully to the PEP
247(3) API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18775(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18240

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0247/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18775


File: python.info,  Node: html,  Next: http<4>,  Prev: hmac<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.19 html
..............

New function *note unescape(): d21. function converts HTML5 character
references to the corresponding Unicode characters.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti in bpo-2927(1).)

*note HTMLParser: c4d. accepts a new keyword argument 'convert_charrefs'
that, when ‘True’, automatically converts all character references.  For
backward-compatibility, its value defaults to ‘False’, but it will
change to ‘True’ in a future version of Python, so you are invited to
set it explicitly and update your code to use this new feature.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13633(2).)

The 'strict' argument of *note HTMLParser: c4d. is now deprecated.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2927

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114


File: python.info,  Node: http<4>,  Next: idlelib and IDLE<4>,  Prev: html,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.20 http
..............

*note send_error(): 12fa. now accepts an optional additional 'explain'
parameter which can be used to provide an extended error description,
overriding the hardcoded default if there is one.  This extended error
description will be formatted using the *note error_message_format:
12fb. attribute and sent as the body of the error response.
(Contributed by Karl Cow in bpo-12921(1).)

The *note http.server: 75. *note command line interface: 227. now has a
‘-b/--bind’ option that causes the server to listen on a specific
address.  (Contributed by Malte Swart in bpo-17764(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12921

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17764


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib and IDLE<4>,  Next: importlib<9>,  Prev: http<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.21 idlelib and IDLE
..........................

Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended
for import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release.
See ‘Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt’ for a cumulative list of changes since 3.3.0,
as well as changes made in future 3.4.x releases.  This file is also
available from the IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<9>,  Next: inspect<10>,  Prev: idlelib and IDLE<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.22 importlib
...................

The *note InspectLoader: 12fe. ABC defines a new method, *note
source_to_code(): 1cb. that accepts source data and a path and returns a
code object.  The default implementation is equivalent to ‘compile(data,
path, 'exec', dont_inherit=True)’.  (Contributed by Eric Snow and Brett
Cannon in bpo-15627(1).)

*note InspectLoader: 12fe. also now has a default implementation for the
*note get_code(): 12ff. method.  However, it will normally be desirable
to override the default implementation for performance reasons.
(Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18072(2).)

The *note reload(): 928. function has been moved from ‘imp’ to *note
importlib: 7a. as part of the ‘imp’ module deprecation.  (Contributed by
Berker Peksag in bpo-18193(3).)

*note importlib.util: 80. now has a *note MAGIC_NUMBER: 922. attribute
providing access to the bytecode version number.  This replaces the
‘get_magic()’ function in the deprecated ‘imp’ module.  (Contributed by
Brett Cannon in bpo-18192(4).)

New *note importlib.util: 80. functions *note cache_from_source(): 330.
and *note source_from_cache(): 929. replace the same-named functions in
the deprecated ‘imp’ module.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon in
bpo-18194(5).)

The *note importlib: 7a. bootstrap *note NamespaceLoader: 1300. now
conforms to the *note InspectLoader: 12fe. ABC, which means that ‘runpy’
and ‘python -m’ can now be used with namespace packages.  (Contributed
by Brett Cannon in bpo-18058(6).)

*note importlib.util: 80. has a new function *note decode_source():
1301. that decodes source from bytes using universal newline processing.
This is useful for implementing *note InspectLoader.get_source(): 1302.
methods.

*note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: 1071. now has a *note
get_filename(): 1303. method.  This was inadvertently omitted in the
original implementation.  (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-19152(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15627

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18072

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18193

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18192

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18194

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18058

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19152


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<10>,  Next: ipaddress<5>,  Prev: importlib<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.23 inspect
.................

The *note inspect: 81. module now offers a basic *note command line
interface: 1305. to quickly display source code and other information
for modules, classes and functions.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and
Nick Coghlan in bpo-18626(1).)

*note unwrap(): 1306. makes it easy to unravel wrapper function chains
created by *note functools.wraps(): 1307. (and any other API that sets
the ‘__wrapped__’ attribute on a wrapper function).  (Contributed by
Daniel Urban, Aaron Iles and Nick Coghlan in bpo-13266(2).)

As part of the implementation of the new *note enum: 59. module, the
*note inspect: 81. module now has substantially better support for
custom ‘__dir__’ methods and dynamic class attributes provided through
metaclasses.  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-18929(3) and
bpo-19030(4).)

*note getfullargspec(): b1f. and ‘getargspec()’ now use the *note
signature(): 4bd. API. This allows them to support a much broader range
of callables, including those with ‘__signature__’ attributes, those
with metadata provided by argument clinic, *note functools.partial():
4a6. objects and more.  Note that, unlike ‘signature()’, these functions
still ignore ‘__wrapped__’ attributes, and report the already bound
first argument for bound methods, so it is still necessary to update
your code to use ‘signature()’ directly if those features are desired.
(Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-17481(5).)

*note signature(): 4bd. now supports duck types of CPython functions,
which adds support for functions compiled with Cython.  (Contributed by
Stefan Behnel and Yury Selivanov in bpo-17159(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18626

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13266

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18929

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17481

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17159


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<5>,  Next: logging<6>,  Prev: inspect<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.24 ipaddress
...................

*note ipaddress: 83. was added to the standard library in Python 3.3 as
a *note provisional API: 5fd.  With the release of Python 3.4, this
qualification has been removed: ‘ipaddress’ is now considered a stable
API, covered by the normal standard library requirements to maintain
backwards compatibility.

A new *note is_global: 1309. property is ‘True’ if an address is
globally routeable.  (Contributed by Peter Moody in bpo-17400(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17400


File: python.info,  Node: logging<6>,  Next: marshal<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.25 logging
.................

The *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: 130b. has a new 'atTime' parameter
that can be used to specify the time of day when rollover should happen.
(Contributed by Ronald Oussoren in bpo-9556(1).)

*note SocketHandler: 130c. and *note DatagramHandler: 130d. now support
Unix domain sockets (by setting 'port' to ‘None’).  (Contributed by
Vinay Sajip in commit ce46195b56a9.)

*note fileConfig(): f0e. now accepts a *note
configparser.RawConfigParser: 130e. subclass instance for the 'fname'
parameter.  This facilitates using a configuration file when logging
configuration is just a part of the overall application configuration,
or where the application modifies the configuration before passing it to
‘fileConfig()’.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16110(2).)

Logging configuration data received from a socket via the *note
logging.config.listen(): 130f. function can now be validated before
being processed by supplying a verification function as the argument to
the new 'verify' keyword argument.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in
bpo-15452(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16110

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15452


File: python.info,  Node: marshal<2>,  Next: mmap<4>,  Prev: logging<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.26 marshal
.................

The default *note marshal: 90. version has been bumped to 3.  The code
implementing the new version restores the Python2 behavior of recording
only one copy of interned strings and preserving the interning on
deserialization, and extends this «one copy» ability to any object type
(including handling recursive references).  This reduces both the size
of ‘.pyc’ files and the amount of memory a module occupies in memory
when it is loaded from a ‘.pyc’ (or ‘.pyo’) file.  (Contributed by
Kristján Valur Jónsson in bpo-16475(1), with additional speedups by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-19219(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<4>,  Next: multiprocessing<8>,  Prev: marshal<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.27 mmap
..............

mmap objects are now *note weakly referenceable: 12bb.  (Contributed by
Valerie Lambert in bpo-4885(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4885


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<8>,  Next: operator<4>,  Prev: mmap<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.28 multiprocessing
.........................

On Unix two new *note start methods: 46d, ‘spawn’ and ‘forkserver’, have
been added for starting processes using *note multiprocessing: 98.
These make the mixing of processes with threads more robust, and the
‘spawn’ method matches the semantics that multiprocessing has always
used on Windows.  New function *note get_all_start_methods(): 1313.
reports all start methods available on the platform, *note
get_start_method(): 1314. reports the current start method, and *note
set_start_method(): 4d7. sets the start method.  (Contributed by Richard
Oudkerk in bpo-8713(1).)

*note multiprocessing: 98. also now has the concept of a ‘context’,
which determines how child processes are created.  New function *note
get_context(): 4d6. returns a context that uses a specified start
method.  It has the same API as the ‘multiprocessing’ module itself, so
you can use it to create *note Pool: 1315.s and other objects that will
operate within that context.  This allows a framework and an application
or different parts of the same application to use multiprocessing
without interfering with each other.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in
bpo-18999(2).)

Except when using the old 'fork' start method, child processes no longer
inherit unneeded handles/file descriptors from their parents (part of
bpo-8713(3)).

*note multiprocessing: 98. now relies on *note runpy: c6. (which
implements the ‘-m’ switch) to initialise ‘__main__’ appropriately in
child processes when using the ‘spawn’ or ‘forkserver’ start methods.
This resolves some edge cases where combining multiprocessing, the ‘-m’
command line switch, and explicit relative imports could cause obscure
failures in child processes.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in
bpo-19946(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18999

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19946


File: python.info,  Node: operator<4>,  Next: os<13>,  Prev: multiprocessing<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.29 operator
..................

New function *note length_hint(): 1317. provides an implementation of
the specification for how the *note __length_hint__(): 12bc. special
method should be used, as part of the PEP 424(1) formal specification of
this language feature.  (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148(2).)

There is now a pure-python version of the *note operator: a3. module
available for reference and for use by alternate implementations of
Python.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-16694(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16694


File: python.info,  Node: os<13>,  Next: pdb<9>,  Prev: operator<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.30 os
............

There are new functions to get and set the *note inheritable flag: 12aa.
of a file descriptor (*note os.get_inheritable(): 12ab, *note
os.set_inheritable(): 12ac.) or a Windows handle (*note
os.get_handle_inheritable(): 12ad, *note os.set_handle_inheritable():
12ae.).

New function *note cpu_count(): 6e1. reports the number of CPUs
available on the platform on which Python is running (or ‘None’ if the
count can’t be determined).  The *note multiprocessing.cpu_count():
1319. function is now implemented in terms of this function).
(Contributed by Trent Nelson, Yogesh Chaudhari, Victor Stinner, and
Charles-François Natali in bpo-17914(1).)

*note os.path.samestat(): 131a. is now available on the Windows platform
(and the *note os.path.samefile(): 131b. implementation is now shared
between Unix and Windows).  (Contributed by Brian Curtin in
bpo-11939(2).)

*note os.path.ismount(): dd6. now recognizes volumes mounted below a
drive root on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim Golden in bpo-9035(3).)

*note os.open(): 114b. supports two new flags on platforms that provide
them, *note O_PATH: 131c. (un-opened file descriptor), and *note
O_TMPFILE: 131d. (unnamed temporary file; as of 3.4.0 release available
only on Linux systems with a kernel version of 3.11 or newer that have
uapi headers).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18673(4) and
Benjamin Peterson, respectively.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17914

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11939

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9035

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18673


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<9>,  Next: pickle<6>,  Prev: os<13>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.31 pdb
.............

*note pdb: aa. has been enhanced to handle generators, *note yield: d93,
and ‘yield from’ in a more useful fashion.  This is especially helpful
when debugging *note asyncio: b. based programs.  (Contributed by Andrew
Svetlov and Xavier de Gaye in bpo-16596(1).)

The ‘print’ command has been removed from *note pdb: aa, restoring
access to the Python *note print(): 131f. function from the pdb command
line.  Python2’s ‘pdb’ did not have a ‘print’ command; instead, entering
‘print’ executed the ‘print’ statement.  In Python3 ‘print’ was
mistakenly made an alias for the pdb *note p: 1320. command.  ‘p’,
however, prints the ‘repr’ of its argument, not the ‘str’ like the
Python2 ‘print’ command did.  Worse, the Python3 ‘pdb print’ command
shadowed the Python3 ‘print’ function, making it inaccessible at the
‘pdb’ prompt.  (Contributed by Connor Osborn in bpo-18764(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16596

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18764


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<6>,  Next: plistlib<2>,  Prev: pdb<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.32 pickle
................

*note pickle: ab. now supports (but does not use by default) a new
pickle protocol, protocol 4.  This new protocol addresses a number of
issues that were present in previous protocols, such as the
serialization of nested classes, very large strings and containers, and
classes whose *note __new__(): 982. method takes keyword-only arguments.
It also provides some efficiency improvements.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3154(1) – Pickle protocol 4

     PEP written by Antoine Pitrou and implemented by Alexandre
     Vassalotti.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib<2>,  Next: poplib<3>,  Prev: pickle<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.33 plistlib
..................

*note plistlib: b0. now has an API that is similar to the standard
pattern for stdlib serialization protocols, with new *note load(): d1a,
*note dump(): d1c, *note loads(): d1b, and *note dumps(): d1d.
functions.  (The older API is now deprecated.)  In addition to the
already supported XML plist format (*note FMT_XML: 1323.), it also now
supports the binary plist format (*note FMT_BINARY: 1324.).
(Contributed by Ronald Oussoren and others in bpo-14455(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14455


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<3>,  Next: pprint<5>,  Prev: plistlib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.34 poplib
................

Two new methods have been added to *note poplib: b1.: *note capa():
1326, which returns the list of capabilities advertised by the POP
server, and *note stls(): 1327, which switches a clear-text POP3 session
into an encrypted POP3 session if the POP server supports it.
(Contributed by Lorenzo Catucci in bpo-4473(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4473


File: python.info,  Node: pprint<5>,  Next: pty<2>,  Prev: poplib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.35 pprint
................

The *note pprint: b3. module’s *note PrettyPrinter: 1329. class and its
*note pformat(): 132a, and *note pprint(): c01. functions have a new
option, 'compact', that controls how the output is formatted.  Currently
setting 'compact' to ‘True’ means that sequences will be printed with as
many sequence elements as will fit within 'width' on each (indented)
line.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19132(1).)

Long strings are now wrapped using Python’s normal line continuation
syntax.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17150(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19132

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17150


File: python.info,  Node: pty<2>,  Next: pydoc<5>,  Prev: pprint<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.36 pty
.............

*note pty.spawn(): 132c. now returns the status value from *note
os.waitpid(): 1153. on the child process, instead of ‘None’.
(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<5>,  Next: re<10>,  Prev: pty<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.37 pydoc
...............

The *note pydoc: bd. module is now based directly on the *note
inspect.signature(): 4bd. introspection API, allowing it to provide
signature information for a wider variety of callable objects.  This
change also means that ‘__wrapped__’ attributes are now taken into
account when displaying help information.  (Contributed by Larry
Hastings in bpo-19674(1).)

The *note pydoc: bd. module no longer displays the ‘self’ parameter for
already bound methods.  Instead, it aims to always display the exact
current signature of the supplied callable.  (Contributed by Larry
Hastings in bpo-20710(2).)

In addition to the changes that have been made to *note pydoc: bd.
directly, its handling of custom ‘__dir__’ methods and various
descriptor behaviours has also been improved substantially by the
underlying changes in the *note inspect: 81. module.

As the *note help(): ca9. builtin is based on *note pydoc: bd, the above
changes also affect the behaviour of ‘help()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19674

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20710


File: python.info,  Node: re<10>,  Next: resource<2>,  Prev: pydoc<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.38 re
............

New *note fullmatch(): 132f. function and *note Pattern.fullmatch():
1330. method anchor the pattern at both ends of the string to match.
This provides a way to be explicit about the goal of the match, which
avoids a class of subtle bugs where ‘$’ characters get lost during code
changes or the addition of alternatives to an existing regular
expression.  (Contributed by Matthew Barnett in bpo-16203(1).)

The repr of *note regex objects: 1331. now includes the pattern and the
flags; the repr of *note match objects: 1332. now includes the start,
end, and the part of the string that matched.  (Contributed by Hugo
Lopes Tavares and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13592(2) and bpo-17087(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13592

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17087


File: python.info,  Node: resource<2>,  Next: select,  Prev: re<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.39 resource
..................

New *note prlimit(): 3e8. function, available on Linux platforms with a
kernel version of 2.6.36 or later and glibc of 2.13 or later, provides
the ability to query or set the resource limits for processes other than
the one making the call.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-16595(1).)

On Linux kernel version 2.6.36 or later, there are also some new Linux
specific constants: *note RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE: 1334, *note RLIMIT_NICE:
1335, *note RLIMIT_RTPRIO: 1336, *note RLIMIT_RTTIME: 1337, and *note
RLIMIT_SIGPENDING: 1338.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-19324(2).)

On FreeBSD version 9 and later, there some new FreeBSD specific
constants: *note RLIMIT_SBSIZE: 1339, *note RLIMIT_SWAP: 133a, and *note
RLIMIT_NPTS: 133b.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19343(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16595

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19324

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19343


File: python.info,  Node: select,  Next: shelve<3>,  Prev: resource<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.40 select
................

*note epoll: 133d. objects now support the context management protocol.
When used in a *note with: 20a. statement, the *note close(): 133e.
method will be called automatically at the end of the block.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16488(1).)

*note devpoll: 133f. objects now have *note fileno(): 1340. and *note
close(): 1341. methods, as well as a new attribute *note closed: 1342.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18794(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16488

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18794


File: python.info,  Node: shelve<3>,  Next: shutil<6>,  Prev: select,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.41 shelve
................

*note Shelf: 1344. instances may now be used in *note with: 20a.
statements, and will be automatically closed at the end of the ‘with’
block.  (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in bpo-13896(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13896


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<6>,  Next: smtpd<3>,  Prev: shelve<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.42 shutil
................

*note copyfile(): e1d. now raises a specific *note Error: 1346.
subclass, *note SameFileError: 1347, when the source and destination are
the same file, which allows an application to take appropriate action on
this specific error.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto and Hynek Schlawack
in bpo-1492704(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1492704


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<3>,  Next: smtplib<3>,  Prev: shutil<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.43 smtpd
...............

The ‘SMTPServer’ and ‘SMTPChannel’ classes now accept a 'map' keyword
argument which, if specified, is passed in to ‘asynchat.async_chat’ as
its 'map' argument.  This allows an application to avoid affecting the
global socket map.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-11959(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11959


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<3>,  Next: socket<11>,  Prev: smtpd<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.44 smtplib
.................

*note SMTPException: 134a. is now a subclass of *note OSError: 53c,
which allows both socket level errors and SMTP protocol level errors to
be caught in one try/except statement by code that only cares whether or
not an error occurred.  (Contributed by Ned Jackson Lovely in
bpo-2118(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2118


File: python.info,  Node: socket<11>,  Next: sqlite3<11>,  Prev: smtplib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.45 socket
................

The socket module now supports the *note CAN_BCM: 134c. protocol on
platforms that support it.  (Contributed by Brian Thorne in
bpo-15359(1).)

Socket objects have new methods to get or set their *note inheritable
flag: 12aa, *note get_inheritable(): 12af. and *note set_inheritable():
12b0.

The ‘socket.AF_*’ and ‘socket.SOCK_*’ constants are now enumeration
values using the new *note enum: 59. module.  This allows meaningful
names to be printed during debugging, instead of integer «magic
numbers».

The *note AF_LINK: 134d. constant is now available on BSD and OSX.

*note inet_pton(): d2c. and *note inet_ntop(): 134e. are now supported
on Windows.  (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto in bpo-7171(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15359

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7171


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<11>,  Next: ssl<12>,  Prev: socket<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.46 sqlite3
.................

A new boolean parameter to the *note connect(): 3e0. function, 'uri',
can be used to indicate that the 'database' parameter is a ‘uri’ (see
the SQLite URI documentation(1)).  (Contributed by poq in bpo-13773(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13773


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<12>,  Next: stat,  Prev: sqlite3<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.47 ssl
.............

*note PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1: 1351. and *note PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2: 1352. (TLSv1.1
and TLSv1.2 support) have been added; support for these protocols is
only available if Python is linked with OpenSSL 1.0.1 or later.
(Contributed by Michele Orrù and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16692(1).)  New
function *note create_default_context(): 68e. provides a standard way to
obtain an *note SSLContext: 336. whose settings are intended to be a
reasonable balance between compatibility and security.  These settings
are more stringent than the defaults provided by the ‘SSLContext’
constructor, and may be adjusted in the future, without prior
deprecation, if best-practice security requirements change.  The new
recommended best practice for using stdlib libraries that support SSL is
to use ‘create_default_context()’ to obtain an ‘SSLContext’ object,
modify it if needed, and then pass it as the 'context' argument of the
appropriate stdlib API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-19689(2).)

*note SSLContext: 336. method *note load_verify_locations(): 129c.
accepts a new optional argument 'cadata', which can be used to provide
PEM or DER encoded certificates directly via strings or bytes,
respectively.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18138(3).)

New function *note get_default_verify_paths(): 1353. returns a named
tuple of the paths and environment variables that the *note
set_default_verify_paths(): 1354. method uses to set OpenSSL’s default
‘cafile’ and ‘capath’.  This can be an aid in debugging default
verification issues.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18143(4).)

*note SSLContext: 336. has a new method, *note cert_store_stats(): 1355,
that reports the number of loaded ‘X.509’ certs, ‘X.509 CA’ certs, and
certificate revocation lists (‘crl’s), as well as a *note
get_ca_certs(): 1356. method that returns a list of the loaded ‘CA’
certificates.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18147(5).)

If OpenSSL 0.9.8 or later is available, *note SSLContext: 336. has a new
attribute *note verify_flags: 1357. that can be used to control the
certificate verification process by setting it to some combination of
the new constants *note VERIFY_DEFAULT: 1358, *note
VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF: 1359, *note VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN: 135a, or
*note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 690.  OpenSSL does not do any CRL verification
by default.  (Contributed by Christien Heimes in bpo-8813(6).)

New *note SSLContext: 336. method *note load_default_certs(): 135b.
loads a set of default «certificate authority» (CA) certificates from
default locations, which vary according to the platform.  It can be used
to load both TLS web server authentication certificates (‘purpose=’*note
SERVER_AUTH: 135c.) for a client to use to verify a server, and
certificates for a server to use in verifying client certificates
(‘purpose=’*note CLIENT_AUTH: 135d.).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
in bpo-19292(7).)  Two new windows-only functions, *note
enum_certificates(): 135e. and *note enum_crls(): 135f. provide the
ability to retrieve certificates, certificate information, and CRLs from
the Windows cert store.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-17134(8).)  Support for server-side SNI (Server Name Indication)
using the new *note ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): 1360.
method.  (Contributed by Daniel Black in bpo-8109(9).)

The dictionary returned by *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): 1361. contains
additional ‘X509v3’ extension items: ‘crlDistributionPoints’,
‘calIssuers’, and ‘OCSP’ URIs.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes in
bpo-18379(10).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16692

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19689

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18138

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18143

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18147

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8813

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19292

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17134

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8109

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18379


File: python.info,  Node: stat,  Next: struct<3>,  Prev: ssl<12>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.48 stat
..............

The *note stat: d9. module is now backed by a C implementation in
‘_stat’.  A C implementation is required as most of the values aren’t
standardized and are platform-dependent.  (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in bpo-11016(1).)

The module supports new *note ST_MODE: 1363. flags, *note S_IFDOOR:
1364, *note S_IFPORT: 1365, and *note S_IFWHT: 1366.  (Contributed by
Christian Hiemes in bpo-11016(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016


File: python.info,  Node: struct<3>,  Next: subprocess<6>,  Prev: stat,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.49 struct
................

New function *note iter_unpack: 1368. and a new *note
struct.Struct.iter_unpack(): 1369. method on compiled formats provide
streamed unpacking of a buffer containing repeated instances of a given
format of data.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17804(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17804


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<6>,  Next: sunau<2>,  Prev: struct<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.50 subprocess
....................

*note check_output(): 136b. now accepts an 'input' argument that can be
used to provide the contents of ‘stdin’ for the command that is run.
(Contributed by Zack Weinberg in bpo-16624(1).)

*note getoutput(): 136c. and *note getstatusoutput(): 136d. now work on
Windows.  This change was actually inadvertently made in 3.3.4.
(Contributed by Tim Golden in bpo-10197(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16624

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10197


File: python.info,  Node: sunau<2>,  Next: sys<13>,  Prev: subprocess<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.51 sunau
...............

The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain
tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18901(1).)

‘sunau.open()’ now supports the context management protocol: when used
in a *note with: 20a. block, the ‘close’ method of the returned object
will be called automatically at the end of the block.  (Contributed by
Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18878(2).)

‘AU_write.setsampwidth()’ now supports 24 bit samples, thus adding
support for writing 24 sample using the module.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-19261(3).)

The ‘writeframesraw()’ and ‘writeframes()’ methods now accept any *note
bytes-like object: 436.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-8311(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18901

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18878

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19261

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: sys<13>,  Next: tarfile<9>,  Prev: sunau<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.52 sys
.............

New function *note sys.getallocatedblocks(): 1370. returns the current
number of blocks allocated by the interpreter.  (In CPython with the
default ‘--with-pymalloc’ setting, this is allocations made through the
*note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026. API.) This can be useful for tracking
memory leaks, especially if automated via a test suite.  (Contributed by
Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13390(1).)

When the Python interpreter starts in *note interactive mode: 656, it
checks for an *note __interactivehook__: 1371. attribute on the *note
sys: e2. module.  If the attribute exists, its value is called with no
arguments just before interactive mode is started.  The check is made
after the *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453. file is read, so it can be set
there.  The *note site: cf. module *note sets it: 1372. to a function
that enables tab completion and history saving (in ‘~/.python-history’)
if the platform supports *note readline: c2.  If you do not want this
(new) behavior, you can override it in ‘PYTHONSTARTUP’, *note
sitecustomize: d0, or *note usercustomize: 117. by deleting this
attribute from ‘sys’ (or setting it to some other callable).
(Contributed by Éric Araujo and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5845(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<9>,  Next: textwrap<2>,  Prev: sys<13>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.53 tarfile
.................

The *note tarfile: e7. module now supports a simple *note Command-Line
Interface: 1374. when called as a script directly or via ‘-m’.  This can
be used to create and extract tarfile archives.  (Contributed by Berker
Peksag in bpo-13477(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13477


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap<2>,  Next: threading<10>,  Prev: tarfile<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.54 textwrap
..................

The *note TextWrapper: 1376. class has two new attributes/constructor
arguments: *note max_lines: 1377, which limits the number of lines in
the output, and *note placeholder: 1378, which is a string that will
appear at the end of the output if it has been truncated because of
'max_lines'.  Building on these capabilities, a new convenience function
*note shorten(): 1379. collapses all of the whitespace in the input to
single spaces and produces a single line of a given 'width' that ends
with the 'placeholder' (by default, ‘[...]’).  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18585(1) and bpo-18725(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18585

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18725


File: python.info,  Node: threading<10>,  Next: traceback<6>,  Prev: textwrap<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.55 threading
...................

The *note Thread: 420. object representing the main thread can be
obtained from the new *note main_thread(): 137b. function.  In normal
conditions this will be the thread from which the Python interpreter was
started.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-18882(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18882


File: python.info,  Node: traceback<6>,  Next: types<9>,  Prev: threading<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.56 traceback
...................

A new *note traceback.clear_frames(): 137d. function takes a traceback
object and clears the local variables in all of the frames it
references, reducing the amount of memory consumed.  (Contributed by
Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1565525(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1565525


File: python.info,  Node: types<9>,  Next: urllib<5>,  Prev: traceback<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.57 types
...............

A new *note DynamicClassAttribute(): a1b. descriptor provides a way to
define an attribute that acts normally when looked up through an
instance object, but which is routed to the 'class' ‘__getattr__’ when
looked up through the class.  This allows one to have properties active
on a class, and have virtual attributes on the class with the same name
(see *note enum: 59. for an example).  (Contributed by Ethan Furman in
bpo-19030(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<5>,  Next: unittest<11>,  Prev: types<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.58 urllib
................

*note urllib.request: 114. now supports ‘data:’ URLs via the *note
DataHandler: 1380. class.  (Contributed by Mathias Panzenböck in
bpo-16423(1).)

The http method that will be used by a *note Request: 1381. class can
now be specified by setting a *note method: 1382. class attribute on the
subclass.  (Contributed by Jason R Coombs in bpo-18978(2).)

*note Request: 1381. objects are now reusable: if the *note full_url:
1383. or *note data: 1384. attributes are modified, all relevant
internal properties are updated.  This means, for example, that it is
now possible to use the same ‘Request’ object in more than one *note
OpenerDirector.open(): 1385. call with different 'data' arguments, or to
modify a ‘Request’“s ‘url’ rather than recomputing it from scratch.
There is also a new *note remove_header(): 1386. method that can be used
to remove headers from a ‘Request’.  (Contributed by Alexey Kachayev in
bpo-16464(3), Daniel Wozniak in bpo-17485(4), and Damien Brecht and
Senthil Kumaran in bpo-17272(5).)

*note HTTPError: 1387. objects now have a *note headers: 1388. attribute
that provides access to the HTTP response headers associated with the
error.  (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-15701(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18978

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16464

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17485

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17272

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15701


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<11>,  Next: venv<8>,  Prev: urllib<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.59 unittest
..................

The *note TestCase: 52f. class has a new method, *note subTest(): 138a,
that produces a context manager whose *note with: 20a. block becomes a
«sub-test».  This context manager allows a test method to dynamically
generate subtests by, say, calling the ‘subTest’ context manager inside
a loop.  A single test method can thereby produce an indefinite number
of separately identified and separately counted tests, all of which will
run even if one or more of them fail.  For example:

     class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_even(self):
             for i in range(6):
                 with self.subTest(i=i):
                     self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)

will result in six subtests, each identified in the unittest verbose
output with a label consisting of the variable name ‘i’ and a particular
value for that variable (‘i=0’, ‘i=1’, etc).  See *note Distinguishing
test iterations using subtests: 138b. for the full version of this
example.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16997(1).)

*note unittest.main(): 138c. now accepts an iterable of test names for
'defaultTest', where previously it only accepted a single test name as a
string.  (Contributed by Jyrki Pulliainen in bpo-15132(2).)

If *note SkipTest: 138d. is raised during test discovery (that is, at
the module level in the test file), it is now reported as a skip instead
of an error.  (Contributed by Zach Ware in bpo-16935(3).)

*note discover(): 138e. now sorts the discovered files to provide
consistent test ordering.  (Contributed by Martin Melin and Jeff Ramnani
in bpo-16709(4).)

*note TestSuite: 11ad. now drops references to tests as soon as the test
has been run, if the test is successful.  On Python interpreters that do
garbage collection, this allows the tests to be garbage collected if
nothing else is holding a reference to the test.  It is possible to
override this behavior by creating a ‘TestSuite’ subclass that defines a
custom ‘_removeTestAtIndex’ method.  (Contributed by Tom Wardill, Matt
McClure, and Andrew Svetlov in bpo-11798(5).)

A new test assertion context-manager, *note assertLogs(): 29f, will
ensure that a given block of code emits a log message using the *note
logging: 8a. module.  By default the message can come from any logger
and have a priority of ‘INFO’ or higher, but both the logger name and an
alternative minimum logging level may be specified.  The object returned
by the context manager can be queried for the *note LogRecord: 138f.s
and/or formatted messages that were logged.  (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-18937(6).)

Test discovery now works with namespace packages (Contributed by Claudiu
Popa in bpo-17457(7).)

*note unittest.mock: 110. objects now inspect their specification
signatures when matching calls, which means an argument can now be
matched by either position or name, instead of only by position.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17015(8).)

*note mock_open(): 1390. objects now have ‘readline’ and ‘readlines’
methods.  (Contributed by Toshio Kuratomi in bpo-17467(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16997

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15132

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16935

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18937

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17457

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17015

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17467


File: python.info,  Node: venv<8>,  Next: wave<4>,  Prev: unittest<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.60 venv
..............

*note venv: 11a. now includes activation scripts for the ‘csh’ and
‘fish’ shells.  (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-15417(1).)

*note EnvBuilder: 772. and the *note create(): 773. convenience function
take a new keyword argument 'with_pip', which defaults to ‘False’, that
controls whether or not ‘EnvBuilder’ ensures that ‘pip’ is installed in
the virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-19552(2)
as part of the PEP 453(3) implementation.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15417

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: wave<4>,  Next: weakref<2>,  Prev: venv<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.61 wave
..............

The *note getparams(): 1393. method now returns a namedtuple rather than
a plain tuple.  (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17487(1).)

*note wave.open(): d17. now supports the context management protocol.
(Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17616(2).)

*note wave: 11c. can now *note write output to unseekable files: 1394.
(Contributed by David Jones, Guilherme Polo, and Serhiy Storchaka in
bpo-5202(3).)

The *note writeframesraw(): 1395. and *note writeframes(): 1396. methods
now accept any *note bytes-like object: 436.  (Contributed by Serhiy
Storchaka in bpo-8311(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17487

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17616

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5202

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311


File: python.info,  Node: weakref<2>,  Next: xml etree<2>,  Prev: wave<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.62 weakref
.................

New *note WeakMethod: 1398. class simulates weak references to bound
methods.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14631(1).)

New *note finalize: e3e. class makes it possible to register a callback
to be invoked when an object is garbage collected, without needing to
carefully manage the lifecycle of the weak reference itself.
(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15528(2).)

The callback, if any, associated with a *note ref: 1399. is now exposed
via the *note __callback__: 139a. attribute.  (Contributed by Mark
Dickinson in bpo-17643(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14631

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15528

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17643


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree<2>,  Next: zipfile<6>,  Prev: weakref<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.63 xml.etree
...................

A new parser, *note XMLPullParser: 139c, allows a non-blocking
applications to parse XML documents.  An example can be seen at *note
Pull API for non-blocking parsing: 139d.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
in bpo-17741(1).)

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. *note tostring(): 139e. and *note
tostringlist(): 139f. functions, and the *note ElementTree: d19. *note
write(): e5b. method, now have a 'short_empty_elements' *note
keyword-only parameter: 7a3. providing control over whether elements
with no content are written in abbreviated (‘<tag />’) or expanded
(‘<tag></tag>’) form.  (Contributed by Ariel Poliak and Serhiy Storchaka
in bpo-14377(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17741

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14377


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile<6>,  Prev: xml etree<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<10>

1.13.4.64 zipfile
.................

The *note writepy(): 13a1. method of the *note PyZipFile: 13a2. class
has a new 'filterfunc' option that can be used to control which
directories and files are added to the archive.  For example, this could
be used to exclude test files from the archive.  (Contributed by
Christian Tismer in bpo-19274(1).)

The 'allowZip64' parameter to *note ZipFile: ab1. and *note PyZipFile:
13a2. is now ‘True’ by default.  (Contributed by William Mallard in
bpo-17201(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19274

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17201


File: python.info,  Node: CPython Implementation Changes,  Next: Deprecated<14>,  Prev: Improved Modules<10>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.13.5 CPython Implementation Changes
-------------------------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 445; Customization of CPython Memory Allocators: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
* PEP 442; Safe Object Finalization: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
* PEP 456; Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
* PEP 436; Argument Clinic: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
* Other Build and C API Changes::
* Other Improvements: Other Improvements<2>.
* Significant Optimizations::


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators,  Next: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.13.5.1 PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators
............................................................

PEP 445(1) adds new C level interfaces to customize memory allocation in
the CPython interpreter.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 445(2) – Add new APIs to customize Python memory allocators

     PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Next: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Prev: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.13.5.2 PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization
..........................................

PEP 442(1) removes the current limitations and quirks of object
finalization in CPython.  With it, objects with *note __del__(): 13a6.
methods, as well as generators with *note finally: 44c. clauses, can be
finalized when they are part of a reference cycle.

As part of this change, module globals are no longer forcibly set to
*note None: a65. during interpreter shutdown in most cases, instead
relying on the normal operation of the cyclic garbage collector.  This
avoids a whole class of interpreter-shutdown-time errors, usually
involving ‘__del__’ methods, that have plagued Python since the cyclic
GC was first introduced.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 442(2) – Safe object finalization

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Next: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Prev: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.13.5.3 PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm
...........................................................

PEP 456(1) follows up on earlier security fix work done on Python’s hash
algorithm to address certain DOS attacks to which public facing APIs
backed by dictionary lookups may be subject.  (See bpo-14621(2) for the
start of the current round of improvements.)  The PEP unifies CPython’s
hash code to make it easier for a packager to substitute a different
hash algorithm, and switches Python’s default implementation to a
SipHash implementation on platforms that have a 64 bit data type.  Any
performance differences in comparison with the older FNV algorithm are
trivial.

The PEP adds additional fields to the *note sys.hash_info: 13a8. named
tuple to describe the hash algorithm in use by the currently executing
binary.  Otherwise, the PEP does not alter any existing CPython APIs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14621


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Next: Other Build and C API Changes,  Prev: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.13.5.4 PEP 436: Argument Clinic
.................................

«Argument Clinic» ( PEP 436(1)) is now part of the CPython build process
and can be used to simplify the process of defining and maintaining
accurate signatures for builtins and standard library extension modules
implemented in C.

Some standard library extension modules have been converted to use
Argument Clinic in Python 3.4, and *note pydoc: bd. and *note inspect:
81. have been updated accordingly.

It is expected that signature metadata for programmatic introspection
will be added to additional callables implemented in C as part of Python
3.4 maintenance releases.

     Σημείωση: The Argument Clinic PEP is not fully up to date with the
     state of the implementation.  This has been deemed acceptable by
     the release manager and core development team in this case, as
     Argument Clinic will not be made available as a public API for
     third party use in Python 3.4.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 436(2) – The Argument Clinic DSL

     PEP written and implemented by Larry Hastings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Build and C API Changes,  Next: Other Improvements<2>,  Prev: PEP 436 Argument Clinic,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.13.5.5 Other Build and C API Changes
......................................

   * The new *note PyType_GetSlot(): c72. function has been added to the
     stable ABI, allowing retrieval of function pointers from named type
     slots when using the limited API. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis
     in bpo-17162(1).)

   * The new ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’ pre-initialization API
     allows applications embedding the CPython interpreter to reliably
     force a particular encoding and error handler for the standard
     streams.  (Contributed by Bastien Montagne and Nick Coghlan in
     bpo-16129(2).)

   * Most Python C APIs that don’t mutate string arguments are now
     correctly marked as accepting ‘const char *’ rather than ‘char *’.
     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-1772673(3).)

   * A new shell version of ‘python-config’ can be used even when a
     python interpreter is not available (for example, in cross
     compilation scenarios).

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e. now supports width and precision
     specifications for ‘%s’, ‘%A’, ‘%U’, ‘%V’, ‘%S’, and ‘%R’.
     (Contributed by Ysj Ray and Victor Stinner in bpo-7330(4).)

   * New function *note PyStructSequence_InitType2(): 13ab. supplements
     the existing *note PyStructSequence_InitType(): 13ac. function.
     The difference is that it returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on
     failure.

   * The CPython source can now be compiled using the address sanity
     checking features of recent versions of GCC and clang: the false
     alarms in the small object allocator have been silenced.
     (Contributed by Dhiru Kholia in bpo-18596(5).)

   * The Windows build now uses Address Space Layout Randomization(6)
     and Data Execution Prevention(7).  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
     in bpo-16632(8).)

   * New function *note PyObject_LengthHint(): 13ad. is the C API
     equivalent of *note operator.length_hint(): 1317.  (Contributed by
     Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17162

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16129

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7330

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18596

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Execution_Prevention

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16632

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148


File: python.info,  Node: Other Improvements<2>,  Next: Significant Optimizations,  Prev: Other Build and C API Changes,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.13.5.6 Other Improvements
...........................

   * The *note python: 13b0. command has a new *note option: 13b1, ‘-I’,
     which causes it to run in «isolated mode», which means that *note
     sys.path: 194. contains neither the script’s directory nor the
     user’s ‘site-packages’ directory, and all ‘PYTHON*’ environment
     variables are ignored (it implies both ‘-s’ and ‘-E’).  Other
     restrictions may also be applied in the future, with the goal being
     to isolate the execution of a script from the user’s environment.
     This is appropriate, for example, when Python is used to run a
     system script.  On most POSIX systems it can and should be used in
     the ‘#!’ line of system scripts.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes
     in bpo-16499(1).)

   * Tab-completion is now enabled by default in the interactive
     interpreter on systems that support *note readline: c2.  History is
     also enabled by default, and is written to (and read from) the file
     ‘~/.python-history’.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Éric
     Araujo in bpo-5845(2).)

   * Invoking the Python interpreter with ‘--version’ now outputs the
     version to standard output instead of standard error
     (bpo-18338(3)).  Similar changes were made to *note argparse: 7.
     (bpo-18920(4)) and other modules that have script-like invocation
     capabilities (bpo-18922(5)).

   * The CPython Windows installer now adds ‘.py’ to the ‘PATHEXT’
     variable when extensions are registered, allowing users to run a
     python script at the windows command prompt by just typing its name
     without the ‘.py’ extension.  (Contributed by Paul Moore in
     bpo-18569(6).)

   * A new ‘make’ target coverage-report(7) will build python, run the
     test suite, and generate an HTML coverage report for the C codebase
     using ‘gcov’ and lcov(8).

   * The ‘-R’ option to the *note python regression test suite: 13b2.
     now also checks for memory allocation leaks, using *note
     sys.getallocatedblocks(): 1370.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-13390(9).)

   * ‘python -m’ now works with namespace packages.

   * The *note stat: d9. module is now implemented in C, which means it
     gets the values for its constants from the C header files, instead
     of having the values hard-coded in the python module as was
     previously the case.

   * Loading multiple python modules from a single OS module (‘.so’,
     ‘.dll’) now works correctly (previously it silently returned the
     first python module in the file).  (Contributed by Václav Šmilauer
     in bpo-16421(10).)

   * A new opcode, ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’, has been added to fix a bug in the
     loading of free variables in class bodies that could be triggered
     by certain uses of *note __prepare__: 101c.  (Contributed by
     Benjamin Peterson in bpo-17853(11).)

   * A number of MemoryError-related crashes were identified and fixed
     by Victor Stinner using his PEP 445(12)-based ‘pyfailmalloc’ tool
     (bpo-18408(13), bpo-18520(14)).

   * The ‘pyvenv’ command now accepts a ‘--copies’ option to use copies
     rather than symlinks even on systems where symlinks are the
     default.  (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-18807(15).)

   * The ‘pyvenv’ command also accepts a ‘--without-pip’ option to
     suppress the otherwise-automatic bootstrapping of pip into the
     virtual environment.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-19552(16)
     as part of the PEP 453(17) implementation.)

   * The encoding name is now optional in the value set for the *note
     PYTHONIOENCODING: 13b3. environment variable.  This makes it
     possible to set just the error handler, without changing the
     default encoding.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in
     bpo-18818(18).)

   * The *note bz2: 14, *note lzma: 8d, and *note gzip: 6a. module
     ‘open’ functions now support ‘x’ (exclusive creation) mode.
     (Contributed by Tim Heaney and Vajrasky Kok in bpo-19201(19),
     bpo-19222(20), and bpo-19223(21).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18338

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18920

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18922

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18569

   (7) 
https://devguide.python.org/coverage/#measuring-coverage-of-c-code-with-gcov-and-lcov

   (8) https://github.com/linux-test-project/lcov

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16421

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17853

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18408

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18520

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18807

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18818

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19201

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19223


File: python.info,  Node: Significant Optimizations,  Prev: Other Improvements<2>,  Up: CPython Implementation Changes

1.13.5.7 Significant Optimizations
..................................

   * The UTF-32 decoder is now 3x to 4x faster.  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-14625(1).)

   * The cost of hash collisions for sets is now reduced.  Each hash
     table probe now checks a series of consecutive, adjacent key/hash
     pairs before continuing to make random probes through the hash
     table.  This exploits cache locality to make collision resolution
     less expensive.  The collision resolution scheme can be described
     as a hybrid of linear probing and open addressing.  The number of
     additional linear probes defaults to nine.  This can be changed at
     compile-time by defining LINEAR_PROBES to be any value.  Set
     LINEAR_PROBES=0 to turn-off linear probing entirely.  (Contributed
     by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18771(2).)

   * The interpreter starts about 30% faster.  A couple of measures lead
     to the speedup.  The interpreter loads fewer modules on startup,
     e.g.  the *note re: c1, *note collections: 1e. and *note locale:
     89. modules and their dependencies are no longer imported by
     default.  The marshal module has been improved to load compiled
     Python code faster.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Christian
     Heimes and Victor Stinner in bpo-19219(3), bpo-19218(4),
     bpo-19209(5), bpo-19205(6) and bpo-9548(7).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: c3d. is now as fast or faster than the Python2
     version for most cases.  *note lzma.LZMAFile: 13b5. has also been
     optimized.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Nadeem Vawda in
     bpo-16034(8).)

   * *note random.getrandbits(): 13b6. is 20%-40% faster for small
     integers (the most common use case).  (Contributed by Serhiy
     Storchaka in bpo-16674(9).)

   * By taking advantage of the new storage format for strings, pickling
     of strings is now significantly faster.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-15596(10).)

   * A performance issue in ‘io.FileIO.readall()’ has been solved.  This
     particularly affects Windows, and significantly speeds up the case
     of piping significant amounts of data through *note subprocess: df.
     (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15758(11).)

   * *note html.escape(): 13b7. is now 10x faster.  (Contributed by Matt
     Bryant in bpo-18020(12).)

   * On Windows, the native ‘VirtualAlloc’ is now used instead of the
     CRT ‘malloc’ in ‘obmalloc’.  Artificial benchmarks show about a 3%
     memory savings.

   * *note os.urandom(): 931. now uses a lazily opened persistent file
     descriptor so as to avoid using many file descriptors when run in
     parallel from multiple threads.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
     bpo-18756(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14625

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18771

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19218

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19209

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19205

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9548

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16034

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16674

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15596

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15758

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18020

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18756


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<14>,  Next: Removed<14>,  Prev: CPython Implementation Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.13.6 Deprecated
-----------------

This section covers various APIs and other features that have been
deprecated in Python 3.4, and will be removed in Python 3.5 or later.
In most (but not all) cases, using the deprecated APIs will produce a
*note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. when the interpreter is run with
deprecation warnings enabled (for example, by using ‘-Wd’).

* Menu:

* Deprecations in the Python API::
* Deprecated Features::


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations in the Python API,  Next: Deprecated Features,  Up: Deprecated<14>

1.13.6.1 Deprecations in the Python API
.......................................

   * As mentioned in *note PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import
     System: 128a, a number of *note importlib: 7a. methods and
     functions are deprecated: ‘importlib.find_loader()’ is replaced by
     *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 7a7.;
     ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec(): 13ba.;
     ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ is replaced by *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): c3f.;
     ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’
     are replaced by *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec():
     c42.; all of the ‘XXXLoader’ ABC ‘load_module’ methods
     (‘importlib.abc.Loader.load_module’,
     ‘importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module’,
     ‘importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module’,
     ‘importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module’) should no longer be
     implemented, instead loaders should implement an ‘exec_module’
     method (*note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): c40, *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module(): 13bb. *note
     importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module(): 13bc.) and let the import
     system take care of the rest; and
     ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’,
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’,
     ‘importlib.util.set_loader()’, and ‘importlib.util.set_package()’
     are no longer needed because their functions are now handled
     automatically by the import system.

   * The ‘imp’ module is pending deprecation.  To keep compatibility
     with Python 2/3 code bases, the module’s removal is currently not
     scheduled.

   * The ‘formatter’ module is pending deprecation and is slated for
     removal in Python 3.6.

   * ‘MD5’ as the default 'digestmod' for the *note hmac.new(): e65.
     function is deprecated.  Python 3.6 will require an explicit digest
     name or constructor as 'digestmod' argument.

   * The internal ‘Netrc’ class in the *note ftplib: 61. module has been
     documented as deprecated in its docstring for quite some time.  It
     now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. and will be removed
     completely in Python 3.5.

   * The undocumented 'endtime' argument to *note
     subprocess.Popen.wait(): 266. should not have been exposed and is
     hopefully not in use; it is deprecated and will mostly likely be
     removed in Python 3.5.

   * The 'strict' argument of *note HTMLParser: c4d. is deprecated.

   * The *note plistlib: b0. ‘readPlist()’, ‘writePlist()’,
     ‘readPlistFromBytes()’, and ‘writePlistToBytes()’ functions are
     deprecated in favor of the corresponding new functions *note
     load(): d1a, *note dump(): d1c, *note loads(): d1b, and *note
     dumps(): d1d.  ‘Data()’ is deprecated in favor of just using the
     *note bytes: 1c7. constructor.

   * The *note sysconfig: e4. key ‘SO’ is deprecated, it has been
     replaced by ‘EXT_SUFFIX’.

   * The ‘U’ mode accepted by various ‘open’ functions is deprecated.
     In Python3 it does not do anything useful, and should be replaced
     by appropriate uses of *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. (if needed) and
     its 'newline' argument.

   * The 'parser' argument of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse():
     3eb. has been deprecated, as has the 'html' argument of *note
     XMLParser(): e18.  To prepare for the removal of the latter, all
     arguments to ‘XMLParser’ should be passed by keyword.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Features,  Prev: Deprecations in the Python API,  Up: Deprecated<14>

1.13.6.2 Deprecated Features
............................

   * Running *note IDLE — Python editor and shell: 13be. with the ‘-n’
     flag (no subprocess) is deprecated.  However, the feature will not
     be removed until bpo-18823(1) is resolved.

   * The site module adding a «site-python» directory to sys.path, if it
     exists, is deprecated (bpo-19375(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18823

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19375


File: python.info,  Node: Removed<14>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 4,  Prev: Deprecated<14>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.13.7 Removed
--------------

* Menu:

* Operating Systems No Longer Supported::
* API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<5>.
* Code Cleanups::


File: python.info,  Node: Operating Systems No Longer Supported,  Next: API and Feature Removals<5>,  Up: Removed<14>

1.13.7.1 Operating Systems No Longer Supported
..............................................

Support for the following operating systems has been removed from the
source and build tools:

   * OS/2 (bpo-16135(1)).

   * Windows 2000 (changeset e52df05b496a).

   * Windows systems where ‘COMSPEC’ points to ‘command.com’
     (bpo-14470(2)).

   * VMS (bpo-16136(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16135

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14470

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16136


File: python.info,  Node: API and Feature Removals<5>,  Next: Code Cleanups,  Prev: Operating Systems No Longer Supported,  Up: Removed<14>

1.13.7.2 API and Feature Removals
.................................

The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have
been removed:

   * The unmaintained ‘Misc/TextMate’ and ‘Misc/vim’ directories have
     been removed (see the devguide(1) for suggestions on what to use
     instead).

   * The ‘SO’ makefile macro is removed (it was replaced by the
     ‘SHLIB_SUFFIX’ and ‘EXT_SUFFIX’ macros) (bpo-16754(2)).

   * The ‘PyThreadState.tick_counter’ field has been removed; its value
     has been meaningless since Python 3.2, when the «new GIL» was
     introduced (bpo-19199(3)).

   * ‘PyLoader’ and ‘PyPycLoader’ have been removed from *note
     importlib: 7a.  (Contributed by Taras Lyapun in bpo-15641(4).)

   * The 'strict' argument to *note HTTPConnection: 223. and *note
     HTTPSConnection: 224. has been removed.  HTTP 0.9-style «Simple
     Responses» are no longer supported.

   * The deprecated *note urllib.request.Request: 1381. getter and
     setter methods ‘add_data’, ‘has_data’, ‘get_data’, ‘get_type’,
     ‘get_host’, ‘get_selector’, ‘set_proxy’, ‘get_origin_req_host’, and
     ‘is_unverifiable’ have been removed (use direct attribute access
     instead).

   * Support for loading the deprecated ‘TYPE_INT64’ has been removed
     from *note marshal: 90.  (Contributed by Dan Riti in bpo-15480(5).)

   * *note inspect.Signature: 6e8.: positional-only parameters are now
     required to have a valid name.

   * *note object.__format__(): a10. no longer accepts non-empty format
     strings, it now raises a *note TypeError: 291. instead.  Using a
     non-empty string has been deprecated since Python 3.2.  This change
     has been made to prevent a situation where previously working (but
     incorrect) code would start failing if an object gained a
     __format__ method, which means that your code may now raise a
     ‘TypeError’ if you are using an ‘'s'’ format code with objects that
     do not have a __format__ method that handles it.  See bpo-7994(6)
     for background.

   * ‘difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbjunk()’ and
     ‘difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbpopular()’ were deprecated in 3.2, and
     have now been removed: use ‘x in sm.bjunk’ and ‘x in sm.bpopular’,
     where 'sm' is a *note SequenceMatcher: 13c2. object (bpo-13248(7)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16754

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19199

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15480

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248


File: python.info,  Node: Code Cleanups,  Prev: API and Feature Removals<5>,  Up: Removed<14>

1.13.7.3 Code Cleanups
......................

   * The unused and undocumented internal ‘Scanner’ class has been
     removed from the *note pydoc: bd. module.

   * The private and effectively unused ‘_gestalt’ module has been
     removed, along with the private *note platform: af. functions
     ‘_mac_ver_lookup’, ‘_mac_ver_gstalt’, and ‘_bcd2str’, which would
     only have ever been called on badly broken OSX systems (see
     bpo-18393(1)).

   * The hardcoded copies of certain *note stat: d9. constants that were
     included in the *note tarfile: e7. module namespace have been
     removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18393


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 4,  Next: Changed in 3 4 3,  Prev: Removed<14>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.13.8 Porting to Python 3.4
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Changes in “python” Command Behavior: Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>.
* Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<11>.
* Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>,  Next: Changes in the Python API<11>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 4

1.13.8.1 Changes in “python” Command Behavior
.............................................

   * In a posix shell, setting the ‘PATH’ environment variable to an
     empty value is equivalent to not setting it at all.  However,
     setting *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6. to an empty value was 'not'
     equivalent to not setting it at all: setting ‘PYTHONPATH’ to an
     empty value was equivalent to setting it to ‘.’, which leads to
     confusion when reasoning by analogy to how ‘PATH’ works.  The
     behavior now conforms to the posix convention for ‘PATH’.

   * The [X refs, Y blocks] output of a debug (‘--with-pydebug’) build
     of the CPython interpreter is now off by default.  It can be
     re-enabled using the ‘-X showrefcount’ option.  (Contributed by
     Ezio Melotti in bpo-17323(1).)

   * The python command and most stdlib scripts (as well as *note
     argparse: 7.) now output ‘--version’ information to ‘stdout’
     instead of ‘stderr’ (for issue list see *note Other Improvements:
     13af. above).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17323


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the Python API<11>,  Next: Changes in the C API<9>,  Prev: Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 4

1.13.8.2 Changes in the Python API
..................................

   * The ABCs defined in *note importlib.abc: 7b. now either raise the
     appropriate exception or return a default value instead of raising
     *note NotImplementedError: 59a. blindly.  This will only affect
     code calling *note super(): 443. and falling through all the way to
     the ABCs.  For compatibility, catch both ‘NotImplementedError’ or
     the appropriate exception as needed.

   * The module type now initializes the *note __package__: 58c. and
     *note __loader__: 2ff. attributes to ‘None’ by default.  To
     determine if these attributes were set in a backwards-compatible
     fashion, use e.g.  ‘getattr(module, '__loader__', None) is not
     None’.  (bpo-17115(1).)

   * ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’ now sets ‘__loader__’ and
     ‘__package__’ unconditionally to properly support reloading.  If
     this is not desired then you will need to set these attributes
     manually.  You can use ‘importlib.util.module_to_load()’ for module
     management.

   * Import now resets relevant attributes (e.g.  ‘__name__’,
     ‘__loader__’, ‘__package__’, ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’)
     unconditionally when reloading.  Note that this restores a pre-3.3
     behavior in that it means a module is re-found when re-loaded
     (bpo-19413(2)).

   * Frozen packages no longer set ‘__path__’ to a list containing the
     package name, they now set it to an empty list.  The previous
     behavior could cause the import system to do the wrong thing on
     submodule imports if there was also a directory with the same name
     as the frozen package.  The correct way to determine if a module is
     a package or not is to use ‘hasattr(module, '__path__')’
     (bpo-18065(3)).

   * Frozen modules no longer define a ‘__file__’ attribute.  It’s
     semantically incorrect for frozen modules to set the attribute as
     they are not loaded from any explicit location.  If you must know
     that a module comes from frozen code then you can see if the
     module’s ‘__spec__.location’ is set to ‘'frozen'’, check if the
     loader is a subclass of *note importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter:
     13c8, or if Python 2 compatibility is necessary you can use
     ‘imp.is_frozen()’.

   * *note py_compile.compile(): de9. now raises *note FileExistsError:
     13c9. if the file path it would write to is a symlink or a
     non-regular file.  This is to act as a warning that import will
     overwrite those files with a regular file regardless of what type
     of file path they were originally.

   * *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source(): 13ca. no longer
     raises *note ImportError: 1bd. when the source code being loaded
     triggers a *note SyntaxError: 17e. or *note UnicodeDecodeError:
     dd7.  As ‘ImportError’ is meant to be raised only when source code
     cannot be found but it should, it was felt to be
     over-reaching/overloading of that meaning when the source code is
     found but improperly structured.  If you were catching ImportError
     before and wish to continue to ignore syntax or decoding issues,
     catch all three exceptions now.

   * *note functools.update_wrapper(): 13cb. and *note
     functools.wraps(): 1307. now correctly set the ‘__wrapped__’
     attribute to the function being wrapped, even if that function also
     had its ‘__wrapped__’ attribute set.  This means ‘__wrapped__’
     attributes now correctly link a stack of decorated functions rather
     than every ‘__wrapped__’ attribute in the chain referring to the
     innermost function.  Introspection libraries that assumed the
     previous behaviour was intentional can use *note inspect.unwrap():
     1306. to access the first function in the chain that has no
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.

   * *note inspect.getfullargspec(): b1f. has been reimplemented on top
     of *note inspect.signature(): 4bd. and hence handles a much wider
     variety of callable objects than it did in the past.  It is
     expected that additional builtin and extension module callables
     will gain signature metadata over the course of the Python 3.4
     series.  Code that assumes that ‘inspect.getfullargspec()’ will
     fail on non-Python callables may need to be adjusted accordingly.

   * *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder: 13cc. now passes on the
     current working directory to objects in *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd.
     for the empty string.  This results in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 9db. never containing ‘''’, thus iterating
     through ‘sys.path_importer_cache’ based on *note sys.path: 194.
     will not find all keys.  A module’s ‘__file__’ when imported in the
     current working directory will also now have an absolute path,
     including when using ‘-m’ with the interpreter (except for
     ‘__main__.__file__’ when a script has been executed directly using
     a relative path) (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18416(4)).  is
     specified on the command-line) (bpo-18416(5)).

   * The removal of the 'strict' argument to *note HTTPConnection: 223.
     and *note HTTPSConnection: 224. changes the meaning of the
     remaining arguments if you are specifying them positionally rather
     than by keyword.  If you’ve been paying attention to deprecation
     warnings your code should already be specifying any additional
     arguments via keywords.

   * Strings between ‘from __future__ import ...’ statements now
     'always' raise a *note SyntaxError: 17e.  Previously if there was
     no leading docstring, an interstitial string would sometimes be
     ignored.  This brings CPython into compliance with the language
     spec; Jython and PyPy already were.  (bpo-17434(6)).

   * *note ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): 1361. and *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake(): 121e. now raise an *note OSError:
     53c. with ‘ENOTCONN’ when the ‘SSLSocket’ is not connected, instead
     of the previous behavior of raising an *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     In addition, ‘getpeercert()’ will raise a *note ValueError: 277. if
     the handshake has not yet been done.

   * *note base64.b32decode(): 1e8. now raises a *note binascii.Error:
     13ce. when the input string contains non-b32-alphabet characters,
     instead of a *note TypeError: 291.  This particular ‘TypeError’ was
     missed when the other ‘TypeError’s were converted.  (Contributed by
     Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18011(7).)  Note: this change was also
     inadvertently applied in Python 3.3.3.

   * The ‘file’ attribute is now automatically closed when the creating
     ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance is garbage collected.  If you were
     pulling the file object out separately from the ‘cgi.FieldStorage’
     instance and not keeping the instance alive, then you should either
     store the entire ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance or read the contents
     of the file before the ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance is garbage
     collected.

   * Calling ‘read’ or ‘write’ on a closed SSL socket now raises an
     informative *note ValueError: 277. rather than the previous more
     mysterious *note AttributeError: 1a9. (bpo-9177(8)).

   * *note slice.indices(): 13cf. no longer produces an *note
     OverflowError: c57. for huge values.  As a consequence of this fix,
     ‘slice.indices()’ now raises a *note ValueError: 277. if given a
     negative length; previously it returned nonsense values
     (bpo-14794(9)).

   * The *note complex: 328. constructor, unlike the *note cmath: 19.
     functions, was incorrectly accepting *note float: 327. values if an
     object’s ‘__complex__’ special method returned one.  This now
     raises a *note TypeError: 291.  (bpo-16290(10).)

   * The *note int: 326. constructor in 3.2 and 3.3 erroneously accepts
     *note float: 327. values for the 'base' parameter.  It is unlikely
     anyone was doing this, but if so, it will now raise a *note
     TypeError: 291. (bpo-16772(11)).

   * Defaults for keyword-only arguments are now evaluated 'after'
     defaults for regular keyword arguments, instead of before.
     Hopefully no one wrote any code that depends on the previous buggy
     behavior (bpo-16967(12)).

   * Stale thread states are now cleared after *note fork(): 6bd.  This
     may cause some system resources to be released that previously were
     incorrectly kept perpetually alive (for example, database
     connections kept in thread-local storage).  (bpo-17094(13).)

   * Parameter names in ‘__annotations__’ dicts are now mangled
     properly, similarly to *note __kwdefaults__: 13d0.  (Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov in bpo-20625(14).)

   * *note hashlib.hash.name: 12f2. now always returns the identifier in
     lower case.  Previously some builtin hashes had uppercase names,
     but now that it is a formal public interface the naming has been
     made consistent (bpo-18532(15)).

   * Because *note unittest.TestSuite: 11ad. now drops references to
     tests after they are run, test harnesses that reuse a *note
     TestSuite: 11ad. to re-run a set of tests may fail.  Test suites
     should not be re-used in this fashion since it means state is
     retained between test runs, breaking the test isolation that *note
     unittest: 10f. is designed to provide.  However, if the lack of
     isolation is considered acceptable, the old behavior can be
     restored by creating a ‘TestSuite’ subclass that defines a
     ‘_removeTestAtIndex’ method that does nothing (see *note
     TestSuite.__iter__(): 13d1.) (bpo-11798(16)).

   * *note unittest: 10f. now uses *note argparse: 7. for command line
     parsing.  There are certain invalid command forms that used to work
     that are no longer allowed; in theory this should not cause
     backward compatibility issues since the disallowed command forms
     didn’t make any sense and are unlikely to be in use.

   * The *note re.split(): 7a0, *note re.findall(): 13d2, and *note
     re.sub(): 7a1. functions, and the *note group(): 13d3. and *note
     groups(): 13d4. methods of ‘match’ objects now always return a
     'bytes' object when the string to be matched is a *note bytes-like
     object: 436.  Previously the return type matched the input type, so
     if your code was depending on the return value being, say, a
     ‘bytearray’, you will need to change your code.

   * ‘audioop’ functions now raise an error immediately if passed string
     input, instead of failing randomly later on (bpo-16685(17)).

   * The new 'convert_charrefs' argument to *note HTMLParser: c4d.
     currently defaults to ‘False’ for backward compatibility, but will
     eventually be changed to default to ‘True’.  It is recommended that
     you add this keyword, with the appropriate value, to any
     ‘HTMLParser’ calls in your code (bpo-13633(18)).

   * Since the 'digestmod' argument to the *note hmac.new(): e65.
     function will in the future have no default, all calls to
     ‘hmac.new()’ should be changed to explicitly specify a 'digestmod'
     (bpo-17276(19)).

   * Calling *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): 41e. with the ‘SO’ key,
     or looking ‘SO’ up in the results of a call to *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 51e. is deprecated.  This key should
     be replaced by ‘EXT_SUFFIX’ or ‘SHLIB_SUFFIX’, depending on the
     context (bpo-19555(20)).

   * Any calls to ‘open’ functions that specify ‘U’ should be modified.
     ‘U’ is ineffective in Python3 and will eventually raise an error if
     used.  Depending on the function, the equivalent of its old Python2
     behavior can be achieved using either a 'newline' argument, or if
     necessary by wrapping the stream in *note TextIOWrapper: b9c. to
     use its 'newline' argument (bpo-15204(21)).

   * If you use ‘pyvenv’ in a script and desire that pip 'not' be
     installed, you must add ‘--without-pip’ to your command invocation.

   * The default behavior of *note json.dump(): 10fb. and *note
     json.dumps(): 248. when an indent is specified has changed: it no
     longer produces trailing spaces after the item separating commas at
     the ends of lines.  This will matter only if you have tests that
     are doing white-space-sensitive comparisons of such output
     (bpo-16333(22)).

   * *note doctest: 3d. now looks for doctests in extension module
     ‘__doc__’ strings, so if your doctest test discovery includes
     extension modules that have things that look like doctests in them
     you may see test failures you’ve never seen before when running
     your tests (bpo-3158(23)).

   * The *note collections.abc: 1f. module has been slightly refactored
     as part of the Python startup improvements.  As a consequence of
     this, it is no longer the case that importing *note collections:
     1e. automatically imports ‘collections.abc’.  If your program
     depended on the (undocumented) implicit import, you will need to
     add an explicit ‘import collections.abc’ (bpo-20784(24)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17115

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19413

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18065

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17434

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18011

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9177

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14794

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16290

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16967

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17094

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20625

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19555

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15204

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16333

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20784


File: python.info,  Node: Changes in the C API<9>,  Prev: Changes in the Python API<11>,  Up: Porting to Python 3 4

1.13.8.3 Changes in the C API
.............................

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 13d6, *note PyObject_Repr(): 13d7, and
     *note PyObject_Str(): 13d8, along with some other internal C APIs,
     now include a debugging assertion that ensures they are not used in
     situations where they may silently discard a currently active
     exception.  In cases where discarding the active exception is
     expected and desired (for example, because it has already been
     saved locally with *note PyErr_Fetch(): 63b. or is being
     deliberately replaced with a different exception), an explicit
     *note PyErr_Clear(): 13d9. call will be needed to avoid triggering
     the assertion when invoking these operations (directly or
     indirectly) and running against a version of Python that is
     compiled with assertions enabled.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): 10f5. now sets *note TypeError: 291.
     when its 'msg' argument is not set.  Previously only ‘NULL’ was
     returned with no exception set.

   * The result of the *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer: 987. callback
     must now be a string allocated by *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf. or
     *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 825, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred,
     instead of a string allocated by *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024. or
     *note PyMem_Realloc(): 13da. (bpo-16742(1))

   * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 64e. now always set the value.  In
     Python 3.3, the function did nothing if the key already exists (if
     the current value is a non-‘NULL’ pointer).

   * The ‘f_tstate’ (thread state) field of the *note PyFrameObject:
     b68. structure has been removed to fix a bug: see bpo-14432(2) for
     the rationale.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16742

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14432


File: python.info,  Node: Changed in 3 4 3,  Prev: Porting to Python 3 4,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 4

1.13.9 Changed in 3.4.3
-----------------------

* Menu:

* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients,  Up: Changed in 3 4 3

1.13.9.1 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
......................................................................................

*note http.client: 72. and modules which use it, such as *note
urllib.request: 114. and *note xmlrpc.client: 137, will now verify that
the server presents a certificate which is signed by a CA in the
platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname being
requested by default, significantly improving security for many
applications.

For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass
an alternate context:

     import urllib.request
     import ssl

     # This disables all verification
     context = ssl._create_unverified_context()

     # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
     # to be in the trust store
     context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")

     urllib.request.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 3,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 2,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 4,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.14 What’s New In Python 3.3
=============================

This article explains the new features in Python 3.3, compared to 3.2.
Python 3.3 was released on September 29, 2012.  For full details, see
the changelog(1).

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 398(2) - Python 3.3 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<10>.
* PEP 405; Virtual Environments: PEP 405 Virtual Environments.
* PEP 420; Implicit Namespace Packages: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
* PEP 3118; New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
* PEP 393; Flexible String Representation: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
* PEP 397; Python Launcher for Windows: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows.
* PEP 3151; Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
* PEP 380; Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
* PEP 409; Suppressing exception context: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
* PEP 414; Explicit Unicode literals: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
* PEP 3155; Qualified name for classes and functions: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
* PEP 412; Key-Sharing Dictionary: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
* PEP 362; Function Signature Object: PEP 362 Function Signature Object.
* PEP 421; Adding sys.implementation: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation.
* Using importlib as the Implementation of Import::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<11>.
* A Finer-Grained Import Lock::
* Builtin functions and types::
* New Modules: New Modules<11>.
* Improved Modules: Improved Modules<11>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<13>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<4>.
* Deprecated: Deprecated<15>.
* Porting to Python 3.3: Porting to Python 3 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.3/whatsnew/changelog.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0398/


File: python.info,  Node: Summary – Release highlights<10>,  Next: PEP 405 Virtual Environments,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.1 Summary – Release highlights
-----------------------------------

New syntax features:

   * New ‘yield from’ expression for *note generator delegation: 13e2.

   * The ‘u'unicode'’ syntax is accepted again for *note str: 1df.
     objects.

New library modules:

   * *note faulthandler: 5b. (helps debugging low-level crashes)

   * *note ipaddress: 83. (high-level objects representing IP addresses
     and masks)

   * *note lzma: 8d. (compress data using the XZ / LZMA algorithm)

   * *note unittest.mock: 110. (replace parts of your system under test
     with mock objects)

   * *note venv: 11a. (Python *note virtual environments: 13e3, as in
     the popular ‘virtualenv’ package)

New built-in features:

   * Reworked *note I/O exception hierarchy: 13e4.

Implementation improvements:

   * Rewritten *note import machinery: 13e5. based on *note importlib:
     7a.

   * More compact *note unicode strings: 13e6.

   * More compact *note attribute dictionaries: 13e7.

Significantly Improved Library Modules:

   * C Accelerator for the *note decimal: 13e8. module.

   * Better unicode handling in the *note email: 13e9. module (*note
     provisional: 13ea.).

Security improvements:

   * Hash randomization is switched on by default.

Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 405 Virtual Environments,  Next: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Prev: Summary – Release highlights<10>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.2 PEP 405: Virtual Environments
------------------------------------

Virtual environments help create separate Python setups while sharing a
system-wide base install, for ease of maintenance.  Virtual environments
have their own set of private site packages (i.e.  locally installed
libraries), and are optionally segregated from the system-wide site
packages.  Their concept and implementation are inspired by the popular
‘virtualenv’ third-party package, but benefit from tighter integration
with the interpreter core.

This PEP adds the *note venv: 11a. module for programmatic access, and
the ‘pyvenv’ script for command-line access and administration.  The
Python interpreter checks for a ‘pyvenv.cfg’, file whose existence
signals the base of a virtual environment’s directory tree.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 405(1) - Python Virtual Environments

     PEP written by Carl Meyer; implementation by Carl Meyer and Vinay
     Sajip

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Next: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Prev: PEP 405 Virtual Environments,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.3 PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages
-------------------------------------------

Native support for package directories that don’t require ‘__init__.py’
marker files and can automatically span multiple path segments (inspired
by various third party approaches to namespace packages, as described in
PEP 420(1))

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 420(2) - Implicit Namespace Packages

     PEP written by Eric V. Smith; implementation by Eric V. Smith and
     Barry Warsaw

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Next: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Prev: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.4 PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The implementation of PEP 3118(1) has been significantly improved.

The new memoryview implementation comprehensively fixes all ownership
and lifetime issues of dynamically allocated fields in the Py_buffer
struct that led to multiple crash reports.  Additionally, several
functions that crashed or returned incorrect results for non-contiguous
or multi-dimensional input have been fixed.

The memoryview object now has a PEP-3118 compliant getbufferproc() that
checks the consumer’s request type.  Many new features have been added,
most of them work in full generality for non-contiguous arrays and
arrays with suboffsets.

The documentation has been updated, clearly spelling out
responsibilities for both exporters and consumers.  Buffer request flags
are grouped into basic and compound flags.  The memory layout of
non-contiguous and multi-dimensional NumPy-style arrays is explained.

* Menu:

* Features::
* API changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: Features,  Next: API changes,  Up: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

1.14.4.1 Features
.................

   * All native single character format specifiers in struct module
     syntax (optionally prefixed with “@”) are now supported.

   * With some restrictions, the cast() method allows changing of format
     and shape of C-contiguous arrays.

   * Multi-dimensional list representations are supported for any array
     type.

   * Multi-dimensional comparisons are supported for any array type.

   * One-dimensional memoryviews of hashable (read-only) types with
     formats B, b or c are now hashable.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
     in bpo-13411(1).)

   * Arbitrary slicing of any 1-D arrays type is supported.  For
     example, it is now possible to reverse a memoryview in 'O'(1) by
     using a negative step.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13411


File: python.info,  Node: API changes,  Prev: Features,  Up: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation

1.14.4.2 API changes
....................

   * The maximum number of dimensions is officially limited to 64.

   * The representation of empty shape, strides and suboffsets is now an
     empty tuple instead of ‘None’.

   * Accessing a memoryview element with format “B” (unsigned bytes) now
     returns an integer (in accordance with the struct module syntax).
     For returning a bytes object the view must be cast to “c” first.

   * memoryview comparisons now use the logical structure of the
     operands and compare all array elements by value.  All format
     strings in struct module syntax are supported.  Views with
     unrecognised format strings are still permitted, but will always
     compare as unequal, regardless of view contents.

   * For further changes see *note Build and C API Changes: 13f1. and
     *note Porting C code: 13f2.

(Contributed by Stefan Krah in bpo-10181(1).)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3118(2) - Revising the Buffer Protocol

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10181

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Next: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows,  Prev: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.5 PEP 393: Flexible String Representation
----------------------------------------------

The Unicode string type is changed to support multiple internal
representations, depending on the character with the largest Unicode
ordinal (1, 2, or 4 bytes) in the represented string.  This allows a
space-efficient representation in common cases, but gives access to full
UCS-4 on all systems.  For compatibility with existing APIs, several
representations may exist in parallel; over time, this compatibility
should be phased out.

On the Python side, there should be no downside to this change.

On the C API side, PEP 393(1) is fully backward compatible.  The legacy
API should remain available at least five years.  Applications using the
legacy API will not fully benefit of the memory reduction, or - worse -
may use a bit more memory, because Python may have to maintain two
versions of each string (in the legacy format and in the new efficient
storage).

* Menu:

* Functionality::
* Performance and resource usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Functionality,  Next: Performance and resource usage,  Up: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation

1.14.5.1 Functionality
......................

Changes introduced by PEP 393(1) are the following:

   * Python now always supports the full range of Unicode code points,
     including non-BMP ones (i.e.  from ‘U+0000’ to ‘U+10FFFF’).  The
     distinction between narrow and wide builds no longer exists and
     Python now behaves like a wide build, even under Windows.

   * With the death of narrow builds, the problems specific to narrow
     builds have also been fixed, for example:

        * *note len(): a1f. now always returns 1 for non-BMP characters,
          so ‘len('\U0010FFFF') == 1’;

        * surrogate pairs are not recombined in string literals, so
          ‘'\uDBFF\uDFFF' != '\U0010FFFF'’;

        * indexing or slicing non-BMP characters returns the expected
          value, so ‘'\U0010FFFF'[0]’ now returns ‘'\U0010FFFF'’ and not
          ‘'\uDBFF'’;

        * all other functions in the standard library now correctly
          handle non-BMP code points.

   * The value of *note sys.maxunicode: 13f5. is now always ‘1114111’
     (‘0x10FFFF’ in hexadecimal).  The ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’ function
     still returns either ‘0xFFFF’ or ‘0x10FFFF’ for backward
     compatibility, and it should not be used with the new Unicode API
     (see bpo-13054(2)).

   * The ‘./configure’ flag ‘--with-wide-unicode’ has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13054


File: python.info,  Node: Performance and resource usage,  Prev: Functionality,  Up: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation

1.14.5.2 Performance and resource usage
.......................................

The storage of Unicode strings now depends on the highest code point in
the string:

   * pure ASCII and Latin1 strings (‘U+0000-U+00FF’) use 1 byte per code
     point;

   * BMP strings (‘U+0000-U+FFFF’) use 2 bytes per code point;

   * non-BMP strings (‘U+10000-U+10FFFF’) use 4 bytes per code point.

The net effect is that for most applications, memory usage of string
storage should decrease significantly - especially compared to former
wide unicode builds - as, in many cases, strings will be pure ASCII even
in international contexts (because many strings store non-human language
data, such as XML fragments, HTTP headers, JSON-encoded data, etc.).  We
also hope that it will, for the same reasons, increase CPU cache
efficiency on non-trivial applications.  The memory usage of Python 3.3
is two to three times smaller than Python 3.2, and a little bit better
than Python 2.7, on a Django benchmark (see the PEP for details).

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 393(1) - Flexible String Representation

     PEP written by Martin von Löwis; implementation by Torsten Becker
     and Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows,  Next: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Prev: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.6 PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows
-------------------------------------------

The Python 3.3 Windows installer now includes a ‘py’ launcher
application that can be used to launch Python applications in a version
independent fashion.

This launcher is invoked implicitly when double-clicking ‘*.py’ files.
If only a single Python version is installed on the system, that version
will be used to run the file.  If multiple versions are installed, the
most recent version is used by default, but this can be overridden by
including a Unix-style «shebang line» in the Python script.

The launcher can also be used explicitly from the command line as the
‘py’ application.  Running ‘py’ follows the same version selection rules
as implicitly launching scripts, but a more specific version can be
selected by passing appropriate arguments (such as ‘-3’ to request
Python 3 when Python 2 is also installed, or ‘-2.6’ to specifically
request an earlier Python version when a more recent version is
installed).

In addition to the launcher, the Windows installer now includes an
option to add the newly installed Python to the system PATH.
(Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-3561(1).)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 397(2) - Python Launcher for Windows

     PEP written by Mark Hammond and Martin v.  Löwis; implementation by
     Vinay Sajip.

Launcher documentation: *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc.

Installer PATH modification: *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python:
13f9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3561

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Next: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Prev: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.7 PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy
------------------------------------------------------------

The hierarchy of exceptions raised by operating system errors is now
both simplified and finer-grained.

You don’t have to worry anymore about choosing the appropriate exception
type between *note OSError: 53c, *note IOError: 13fb, *note
EnvironmentError: 13fc, *note WindowsError: 13fd, ‘mmap.error’, *note
socket.error: 13fe. or *note select.error: 13ff.  All these exception
types are now only one: ‘OSError’.  The other names are kept as aliases
for compatibility reasons.

Also, it is now easier to catch a specific error condition.  Instead of
inspecting the ‘errno’ attribute (or ‘args[0]’) for a particular
constant from the *note errno: 5a. module, you can catch the adequate
*note OSError: 53c. subclass.  The available subclasses are the
following:

   * *note BlockingIOError: 4c3.

   * *note ChildProcessError: 1400.

   * *note ConnectionError: 11bf.

   * *note FileExistsError: 13c9.

   * *note FileNotFoundError: 243.

   * *note InterruptedError: 1141.

   * *note IsADirectoryError: 1401.

   * *note NotADirectoryError: 1402.

   * *note PermissionError: 10f9.

   * *note ProcessLookupError: 1403.

   * *note TimeoutError: c0e.

And the *note ConnectionError: 11bf. itself has finer-grained
subclasses:

   * *note BrokenPipeError: 1404.

   * *note ConnectionAbortedError: 1405.

   * *note ConnectionRefusedError: 1406.

   * *note ConnectionResetError: 1407.

Thanks to the new exceptions, common usages of the *note errno: 5a. can
now be avoided.  For example, the following code written for Python 3.2:

     from errno import ENOENT, EACCES, EPERM

     try:
         with open("document.txt") as f:
             content = f.read()
     except IOError as err:
         if err.errno == ENOENT:
             print("document.txt file is missing")
         elif err.errno in (EACCES, EPERM):
             print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")
         else:
             raise

can now be written without the *note errno: 5a. import and without
manual inspection of exception attributes:

     try:
         with open("document.txt") as f:
             content = f.read()
     except FileNotFoundError:
         print("document.txt file is missing")
     except PermissionError:
         print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3151(1) - Reworking the OS and IO Exception Hierarchy

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Next: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Prev: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.8 PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator
-------------------------------------------------------

PEP 380 adds the ‘yield from’ expression, allowing a *note generator:
1409. to delegate part of its operations to another generator.  This
allows a section of code containing *note yield: d93. to be factored out
and placed in another generator.  Additionally, the subgenerator is
allowed to return with a value, and the value is made available to the
delegating generator.

While designed primarily for use in delegating to a subgenerator, the
‘yield from’ expression actually allows delegation to arbitrary
subiterators.

For simple iterators, ‘yield from iterable’ is essentially just a
shortened form of ‘for item in iterable: yield item’:

     >>> def g(x):
     ...     yield from range(x, 0, -1)
     ...     yield from range(x)
     ...
     >>> list(g(5))
     [5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

However, unlike an ordinary loop, ‘yield from’ allows subgenerators to
receive sent and thrown values directly from the calling scope, and
return a final value to the outer generator:

     >>> def accumulate():
     ...     tally = 0
     ...     while 1:
     ...         next = yield
     ...         if next is None:
     ...             return tally
     ...         tally += next
     ...
     >>> def gather_tallies(tallies):
     ...     while 1:
     ...         tally = yield from accumulate()
     ...         tallies.append(tally)
     ...
     >>> tallies = []
     >>> acc = gather_tallies(tallies)
     >>> next(acc)  # Ensure the accumulator is ready to accept values
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     acc.send(i)
     ...
     >>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the first tally
     >>> for i in range(5):
     ...     acc.send(i)
     ...
     >>> acc.send(None)  # Finish the second tally
     >>> tallies
     [6, 10]

The main principle driving this change is to allow even generators that
are designed to be used with the ‘send’ and ‘throw’ methods to be split
into multiple subgenerators as easily as a single large function can be
split into multiple subfunctions.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 380(1) - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator

     PEP written by Greg Ewing; implementation by Greg Ewing, integrated
     into 3.3 by Renaud Blanch, Ryan Kelly and Nick Coghlan;
     documentation by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek and Nick Coghlan

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Next: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Prev: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.9 PEP 409: Suppressing exception context
---------------------------------------------

PEP 409 introduces new syntax that allows the display of the chained
exception context to be disabled.  This allows cleaner error messages in
applications that convert between exception types:

     >>> class D:
     ...     def __init__(self, extra):
     ...         self._extra_attributes = extra
     ...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
     ...         try:
     ...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
     ...         except KeyError:
     ...             raise AttributeError(attr) from None
     ...
     >>> D({}).x
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
     AttributeError: x

Without the ‘from None’ suffix to suppress the cause, the original
exception would be displayed by default:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def __init__(self, extra):
     ...         self._extra_attributes = extra
     ...     def __getattr__(self, attr):
     ...         try:
     ...             return self._extra_attributes[attr]
     ...         except KeyError:
     ...             raise AttributeError(attr)
     ...
     >>> C({}).x
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 6, in __getattr__
     KeyError: 'x'

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
     AttributeError: x

No debugging capability is lost, as the original exception context
remains available if needed (for example, if an intervening library has
incorrectly suppressed valuable underlying details):

     >>> try:
     ...     D({}).x
     ... except AttributeError as exc:
     ...     print(repr(exc.__context__))
     ...
     KeyError('x',)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 409(1) - Suppressing exception context

     PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Ethan Furman and Nick
     Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0409/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Next: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Prev: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.10 PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals
------------------------------------------

To ease the transition from Python 2 for Unicode aware Python
applications that make heavy use of Unicode literals, Python 3.3 once
again supports the «‘u’» prefix for string literals.  This prefix has no
semantic significance in Python 3, it is provided solely to reduce the
number of purely mechanical changes in migrating to Python 3, making it
easier for developers to focus on the more significant semantic changes
(such as the stricter default separation of binary and text data).

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 414(1) - Explicit Unicode literals

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0414/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Next: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Prev: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.11 PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions
----------------------------------------------------------

Functions and class objects have a new *note __qualname__: 140d.
attribute representing the «path» from the module top-level to their
definition.  For global functions and classes, this is the same as *note
__name__: 140e.  For other functions and classes, it provides better
information about where they were actually defined, and how they might
be accessible from the global scope.

Example with (non-bound) methods:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def meth(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> C.meth.__name__
     'meth'
     >>> C.meth.__qualname__
     'C.meth'

Example with nested classes:

     >>> class C:
     ...     class D:
     ...         def meth(self):
     ...             pass
     ...
     >>> C.D.__name__
     'D'
     >>> C.D.__qualname__
     'C.D'
     >>> C.D.meth.__name__
     'meth'
     >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
     'C.D.meth'

Example with nested functions:

     >>> def outer():
     ...     def inner():
     ...         pass
     ...     return inner
     ...
     >>> outer().__name__
     'inner'
     >>> outer().__qualname__
     'outer.<locals>.inner'

The string representation of those objects is also changed to include
the new, more precise information:

     >>> str(C.D)
     "<class '__main__.C.D'>"
     >>> str(C.D.meth)
     '<function C.D.meth at 0x7f46b9fe31e0>'

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3155(1) - Qualified name for classes and functions

     PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Next: PEP 362 Function Signature Object,  Prev: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.12 PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary
---------------------------------------

Dictionaries used for the storage of objects” attributes are now able to
share part of their internal storage between each other (namely, the
part which stores the keys and their respective hashes).  This reduces
the memory consumption of programs creating many instances of
non-builtin types.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 412(1) - Key-Sharing Dictionary

     PEP written and implemented by Mark Shannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0412/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 362 Function Signature Object,  Next: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation,  Prev: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.13 PEP 362: Function Signature Object
------------------------------------------

A new function *note inspect.signature(): 4bd. makes introspection of
python callables easy and straightforward.  A broad range of callables
is supported: python functions, decorated or not, classes, and *note
functools.partial(): 4a6. objects.  New classes *note inspect.Signature:
6e8, *note inspect.Parameter: 6e9. and *note inspect.BoundArguments:
1411. hold information about the call signatures, such as, annotations,
default values, parameters kinds, and bound arguments, which
considerably simplifies writing decorators and any code that validates
or amends calling signatures or arguments.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 362(1): - Function Signature Object

     PEP written by Brett Cannon, Yury Selivanov, Larry Hastings, Jiwon
     Seo; implemented by Yury Selivanov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation,  Next: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import,  Prev: PEP 362 Function Signature Object,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.14 PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation
------------------------------------------

A new attribute on the *note sys: e2. module exposes details specific to
the implementation of the currently running interpreter.  The initial
set of attributes on *note sys.implementation: 926. are ‘name’,
‘version’, ‘hexversion’, and ‘cache_tag’.

The intention of ‘sys.implementation’ is to consolidate into one
namespace the implementation-specific data used by the standard library.
This allows different Python implementations to share a single standard
library code base much more easily.  In its initial state,
‘sys.implementation’ holds only a small portion of the
implementation-specific data.  Over time that ratio will shift in order
to make the standard library more portable.

One example of improved standard library portability is ‘cache_tag’.  As
of Python 3.3, ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is used by *note
importlib: 7a. to support PEP 3147(1) compliance.  Any Python
implementation that uses ‘importlib’ for its built-in import system may
use ‘cache_tag’ to control the caching behavior for modules.

* Menu:

* SimpleNamespace::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleNamespace,  Up: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation

1.14.14.1 SimpleNamespace
.........................

The implementation of ‘sys.implementation’ also introduces a new type to
Python: *note types.SimpleNamespace: 6ea.  In contrast to a
mapping-based namespace, like *note dict: 188, ‘SimpleNamespace’ is
attribute-based, like *note object: e4d.  However, unlike ‘object’,
‘SimpleNamespace’ instances are writable.  This means that you can add,
remove, and modify the namespace through normal attribute access.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 421(1) - Adding sys.implementation

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/


File: python.info,  Node: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import,  Next: Other Language Changes<11>,  Prev: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.15 Using importlib as the Implementation of Import
-------------------------------------------------------

bpo-2377(1) - Replace __import__ w/ importlib.__import__ bpo-13959(2) -
Re-implement parts of ‘imp’ in pure Python bpo-14605(3) - Make import
machinery explicit bpo-14646(4) - Require loaders set __loader__ and
__package__

The *note __import__(): ca6. function is now powered by *note
importlib.__import__(): 1415.  This work leads to the completion of
«phase 2» of PEP 302(5).  There are multiple benefits to this change.
First, it has allowed for more of the machinery powering import to be
exposed instead of being implicit and hidden within the C code.  It also
provides a single implementation for all Python VMs supporting Python
3.3 to use, helping to end any VM-specific deviations in import
semantics.  And finally it eases the maintenance of import, allowing for
future growth to occur.

For the common user, there should be no visible change in semantics.
For those whose code currently manipulates import or calls import
programmatically, the code changes that might possibly be required are
covered in the *note Porting Python code: 1416. section of this
document.

* Menu:

* New APIs::
* Visible Changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2377

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13959

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14605

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14646

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: New APIs,  Next: Visible Changes,  Up: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

1.14.15.1 New APIs
..................

One of the large benefits of this work is the exposure of what goes into
making the import statement work.  That means the various importers that
were once implicit are now fully exposed as part of the *note importlib:
7a. package.

The abstract base classes defined in *note importlib.abc: 7b. have been
expanded to properly delineate between *note meta path finders: 1418.
and *note path entry finders: 1419. by introducing *note
importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: c44. and *note
importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: c45, respectively.  The old ABC of
‘importlib.abc.Finder’ is now only provided for backwards-compatibility
and does not enforce any method requirements.

In terms of finders, *note importlib.machinery.FileFinder: 141a. exposes
the mechanism used to search for source and bytecode files of a module.
Previously this class was an implicit member of *note sys.path_hooks:
13cd.

For loaders, the new abstract base class *note importlib.abc.FileLoader:
141b. helps write a loader that uses the file system as the storage
mechanism for a module’s code.  The loader for source files (*note
importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader: 141c.), sourceless bytecode files
(*note importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader: 141d.), and extension
modules (*note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: 1071.) are now
available for direct use.

*note ImportError: 1bd. now has ‘name’ and ‘path’ attributes which are
set when there is relevant data to provide.  The message for failed
imports will also provide the full name of the module now instead of
just the tail end of the module’s name.

The *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): fcf. function will now call the
method with the same name on all finders cached in *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 9db. to help clean up any stored state as
necessary.


File: python.info,  Node: Visible Changes,  Prev: New APIs,  Up: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import

1.14.15.2 Visible Changes
.........................

For potential required changes to code, see the *note Porting Python
code: 1416. section.

Beyond the expanse of what *note importlib: 7a. now exposes, there are
other visible changes to import.  The biggest is that *note
sys.meta_path: 10e3. and *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd. now store all of
the meta path finders and path entry hooks used by import.  Previously
the finders were implicit and hidden within the C code of import instead
of being directly exposed.  This means that one can now easily remove or
change the order of the various finders to fit one’s needs.

Another change is that all modules have a ‘__loader__’ attribute,
storing the loader used to create the module.  PEP 302(1) has been
updated to make this attribute mandatory for loaders to implement, so in
the future once 3rd-party loaders have been updated people will be able
to rely on the existence of the attribute.  Until such time, though,
import is setting the module post-load.

Loaders are also now expected to set the ‘__package__’ attribute from
PEP 366(2).  Once again, import itself is already setting this on all
loaders from *note importlib: 7a. and import itself is setting the
attribute post-load.

‘None’ is now inserted into *note sys.path_importer_cache: 9db. when no
finder can be found on *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd.  Since
‘imp.NullImporter’ is not directly exposed on ‘sys.path_hooks’ it could
no longer be relied upon to always be available to use as a value
representing no finder found.

All other changes relate to semantic changes which should be taken into
consideration when updating code for Python 3.3, and thus should be read
about in the *note Porting Python code: 1416. section of this document.

(Implementation by Brett Cannon)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<11>,  Next: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Prev: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.16 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Added support for Unicode name aliases and named sequences.  Both
     *note unicodedata.lookup(): 1420. and ‘'\N{...}'’ now resolve name
     aliases, and ‘unicodedata.lookup()’ resolves named sequences too.

     (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-12753(1).)

   * Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.1.0

   * Equality comparisons on *note range(): d0f. objects now return a
     result reflecting the equality of the underlying sequences
     generated by those range objects.  (bpo-13201(2))

   * The ‘count()’, ‘find()’, ‘rfind()’, ‘index()’ and ‘rindex()’
     methods of *note bytes: 1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6. objects now
     accept an integer between 0 and 255 as their first argument.

     (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12170(3).)

   * The ‘rjust()’, ‘ljust()’, and ‘center()’ methods of *note bytes:
     1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6. now accept a ‘bytearray’ for the
     ‘fill’ argument.  (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12380(4).)

   * New methods have been added to *note list: 4d9. and *note
     bytearray: 1c6.: ‘copy()’ and ‘clear()’ (bpo-10516(5)).
     Consequently, *note MutableSequence: 6c6. now also defines a
     ‘clear()’ method (bpo-11388(6)).

   * Raw bytes literals can now be written ‘rb"..."’ as well as
     ‘br"..."’.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13748(7).)

   * *note dict.setdefault(): 1421. now does only one lookup for the
     given key, making it atomic when used with built-in types.

     (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in bpo-13521(8).)

   * The error messages produced when a function call does not match the
     function signature have been significantly improved.

     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12753

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13201

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12170

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10516

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11388

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13748

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13521


File: python.info,  Node: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Next: Builtin functions and types,  Prev: Other Language Changes<11>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.17 A Finer-Grained Import Lock
-----------------------------------

Previous versions of CPython have always relied on a global import lock.
This led to unexpected annoyances, such as deadlocks when importing a
module would trigger code execution in a different thread as a
side-effect.  Clumsy workarounds were sometimes employed, such as the
‘PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()’ C API function.

In Python 3.3, importing a module takes a per-module lock.  This
correctly serializes importation of a given module from multiple threads
(preventing the exposure of incompletely initialized modules), while
eliminating the aforementioned annoyances.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-9260(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9260


File: python.info,  Node: Builtin functions and types,  Next: New Modules<11>,  Prev: A Finer-Grained Import Lock,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.18 Builtin functions and types
-----------------------------------

   * *note open(): 32b. gets a new 'opener' parameter: the underlying
     file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling
     'opener' with ('file', 'flags').  It can be used to use custom
     flags like *note os.O_CLOEXEC: 1424. for example.  The ‘'x'’ mode
     was added: open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already
     exists.

   * *note print(): 131f.: added the 'flush' keyword argument.  If the
     'flush' keyword argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.

   * *note hash(): 9e2.: hash randomization is enabled by default, see
     *note object.__hash__(): ec1. and *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1425.

   * The *note str: 1df. type gets a new *note casefold(): 118f. method:
     return a casefolded copy of the string, casefolded strings may be
     used for caseless matching.  For example, ‘'ß'.casefold()’ returns
     ‘'ss'’.

   * The sequence documentation has been substantially rewritten to
     better explain the binary/text sequence distinction and to provide
     specific documentation sections for the individual builtin sequence
     types (bpo-4966(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4966


File: python.info,  Node: New Modules<11>,  Next: Improved Modules<11>,  Prev: Builtin functions and types,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.19 New Modules
-------------------

* Menu:

* faulthandler: faulthandler<6>.
* ipaddress: ipaddress<6>.
* lzma: lzma<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler<6>,  Next: ipaddress<6>,  Up: New Modules<11>

1.14.19.1 faulthandler
......................

This new debug module *note faulthandler: 5b. contains functions to dump
Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault (a crash like a segmentation
fault), after a timeout, or on a user signal.  Call *note
faulthandler.enable(): 219. to install fault handlers for the *note
SIGSEGV: 1428, *note SIGFPE: 1429, *note SIGABRT: 142a, *note SIGBUS:
142b, and *note SIGILL: 142c. signals.  You can also enable them at
startup by setting the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 142d. environment
variable or by using *note -X: 178. ‘faulthandler’ command line option.

Example of a segmentation fault on Linux:

     $ python -q -X faulthandler
     >>> import ctypes
     >>> ctypes.string_at(0)
     Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault

     Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700:
       File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
       File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>
     Segmentation fault


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress<6>,  Next: lzma<2>,  Prev: faulthandler<6>,  Up: New Modules<11>

1.14.19.2 ipaddress
...................

The new *note ipaddress: 83. module provides tools for creating and
manipulating objects representing IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, networks and
interfaces (i.e.  an IP address associated with a specific IP subnet).

(Contributed by Google and Peter Moody in PEP 3144(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3144/


File: python.info,  Node: lzma<2>,  Prev: ipaddress<6>,  Up: New Modules<11>

1.14.19.3 lzma
..............

The newly added *note lzma: 8d. module provides data compression and
decompression using the LZMA algorithm, including support for the ‘.xz’
and ‘.lzma’ file formats.

(Contributed by Nadeem Vawda and Per Øyvind Karlsen in bpo-6715(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6715


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Modules<11>,  Next: Optimizations<13>,  Prev: New Modules<11>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.20 Improved Modules
------------------------

* Menu:

* abc: abc<2>.
* array: array<6>.
* base64: base64<6>.
* binascii: binascii<4>.
* bz2: bz2<2>.
* codecs: codecs<2>.
* collections: collections<8>.
* contextlib: contextlib<8>.
* crypt: crypt<2>.
* curses: curses<6>.
* datetime: datetime<8>.
* decimal: decimal<4>.
* email: email<7>.
* ftplib: ftplib<3>.
* functools: functools<9>.
* gc: gc<9>.
* hmac: hmac<5>.
* http: http<5>.
* html: html<2>.
* imaplib: imaplib<4>.
* inspect: inspect<11>.
* io: io<8>.
* itertools: itertools<7>.
* logging: logging<7>.
* math: math<11>.
* mmap: mmap<5>.
* multiprocessing: multiprocessing<9>.
* nntplib: nntplib<2>.
* os: os<14>.
* pdb: pdb<10>.
* pickle: pickle<7>.
* pydoc: pydoc<6>.
* re: re<11>.
* sched::
* select: select<2>.
* shlex: shlex<3>.
* shutil: shutil<7>.
* signal: signal<4>.
* smtpd: smtpd<4>.
* smtplib: smtplib<4>.
* socket: socket<12>.
* socketserver: socketserver<3>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<12>.
* ssl: ssl<13>.
* stat: stat<2>.
* struct: struct<4>.
* subprocess: subprocess<7>.
* sys: sys<14>.
* tarfile: tarfile<10>.
* tempfile: tempfile<4>.
* textwrap: textwrap<3>.
* threading: threading<11>.
* time: time<8>.
* types: types<10>.
* unittest: unittest<12>.
* urllib: urllib<6>.
* webbrowser: webbrowser<5>.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree<2>.
* zlib: zlib<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: abc<2>,  Next: array<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.1 abc
.............

Improved support for abstract base classes containing descriptors
composed with abstract methods.  The recommended approach to declaring
abstract descriptors is now to provide ‘__isabstractmethod__’ as a
dynamically updated property.  The built-in descriptors have been
updated accordingly.

   * *note abc.abstractproperty: 1432. has been deprecated, use *note
     property: 6bb. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 1433. instead.

   * *note abc.abstractclassmethod: 1434. has been deprecated, use *note
     classmethod: 69a. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 1433. instead.

   * *note abc.abstractstaticmethod: 1435. has been deprecated, use
     *note staticmethod: 666. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 1433.
     instead.

(Contributed by Darren Dale in bpo-11610(1).)

*note abc.ABCMeta.register(): 1436. now returns the registered subclass,
which means it can now be used as a class decorator (bpo-10868(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11610

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10868


File: python.info,  Node: array<6>,  Next: base64<6>,  Prev: abc<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.2 array
...............

The *note array: 8. module supports the long long type using ‘q’ and ‘Q’
type codes.

(Contributed by Oren Tirosh and Hirokazu Yamamoto in bpo-1172711(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1172711


File: python.info,  Node: base64<6>,  Next: binascii<4>,  Prev: array<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.3 base64
................

ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of
the *note base64: f. modern interface.  For example,
‘base64.b64decode('YWJj')’ returns ‘b'abc'’.  (Contributed by Catalin
Iacob in bpo-13641(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13641


File: python.info,  Node: binascii<4>,  Next: bz2<2>,  Prev: base64<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.4 binascii
..................

In addition to the binary objects they normally accept, the ‘a2b_’
functions now all also accept ASCII-only strings as input.  (Contributed
by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13637(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13637


File: python.info,  Node: bz2<2>,  Next: codecs<2>,  Prev: binascii<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.5 bz2
.............

The *note bz2: 14. module has been rewritten from scratch.  In the
process, several new features have been added:

   * New *note bz2.open(): 143b. function: open a bzip2-compressed file
     in binary or text mode.

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: c3d. can now read from and write to arbitrary
     file-like objects, by means of its constructor’s 'fileobj'
     argument.

     (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in bpo-5863(1).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: c3d. and *note bz2.decompress(): 143c. can now
     decompress multi-stream inputs (such as those produced by the
     ‘pbzip2’ tool).  ‘bz2.BZ2File’ can now also be used to create this
     type of file, using the ‘'a'’ (append) mode.

     (Contributed by Nir Aides in bpo-1625(2).)

   * *note bz2.BZ2File: c3d. now implements all of the *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: a83. API, except for the ‘detach()’ and
     ‘truncate()’ methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5863

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1625


File: python.info,  Node: codecs<2>,  Next: collections<8>,  Prev: bz2<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.6 codecs
................

The *note mbcs: 56. codec has been rewritten to handle correctly
‘replace’ and ‘ignore’ error handlers on all Windows versions.  The
‘mbcs’ codec now supports all error handlers, instead of only ‘replace’
to encode and ‘ignore’ to decode.

A new Windows-only codec has been added: ‘cp65001’ (bpo-13216(1)).  It
is the Windows code page 65001 (Windows UTF-8, ‘CP_UTF8’).  For example,
it is used by ‘sys.stdout’ if the console output code page is set to
cp65001 (e.g., using ‘chcp 65001’ command).

Multibyte CJK decoders now resynchronize faster.  They only ignore the
first byte of an invalid byte sequence.  For example,
‘b'\xff\n'.decode('gb2312', 'replace')’ now returns a ‘\n’ after the
replacement character.

(bpo-12016(2))

Incremental CJK codec encoders are no longer reset at each call to their
encode() methods.  For example:

     >>> import codecs
     >>> encoder = codecs.getincrementalencoder('hz')('strict')
     >>> b''.join(encoder.encode(x) for x in '\u52ff\u65bd\u65bc\u4eba\u3002 Bye.')
     b'~{NpJ)l6HK!#~} Bye.'

This example gives ‘b'~{Np~}~{J)~}~{l6~}~{HK~}~{!#~} Bye.'’ with older
Python versions.

(bpo-12100(3))

The ‘unicode_internal’ codec has been deprecated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12016

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12100


File: python.info,  Node: collections<8>,  Next: contextlib<8>,  Prev: codecs<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.7 collections
.....................

Addition of a new *note ChainMap: fdb. class to allow treating a number
of mappings as a single unit.  (Written by Raymond Hettinger for
bpo-11089(1), made public in bpo-11297(2).)

The abstract base classes have been moved in a new *note
collections.abc: 1f. module, to better differentiate between the
abstract and the concrete collections classes.  Aliases for ABCs are
still present in the *note collections: 1e. module to preserve existing
imports.  (bpo-11085(3))

The *note Counter: 204. class now supports the unary ‘+’ and ‘-’
operators, as well as the in-place operators ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘|=’, and ‘&=’.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13121(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11089

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11297

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11085

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13121


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<8>,  Next: crypt<2>,  Prev: collections<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.8 contextlib
....................

*note ExitStack: 208. now provides a solid foundation for programmatic
manipulation of context managers and similar cleanup functionality.
Unlike the previous ‘contextlib.nested’ API (which was deprecated and
removed), the new API is designed to work correctly regardless of
whether context managers acquire their resources in their ‘__init__’
method (for example, file objects) or in their ‘__enter__’ method (for
example, synchronisation objects from the *note threading: f6. module).

(bpo-13585(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13585


File: python.info,  Node: crypt<2>,  Next: curses<6>,  Prev: contextlib<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.9 crypt
...............

Addition of salt and modular crypt format (hashing method) and the
‘mksalt()’ function to the ‘crypt’ module.

(bpo-10924(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10924


File: python.info,  Node: curses<6>,  Next: datetime<8>,  Prev: crypt<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.10 curses
.................

   * If the *note curses: 2e. module is linked to the ncursesw library,
     use Unicode functions when Unicode strings or characters are passed
     (e.g.  ‘waddwstr()’), and bytes functions otherwise (e.g.
     ‘waddstr()’).

   * Use the locale encoding instead of ‘utf-8’ to encode Unicode
     strings.

   * *note curses.window: 1442. has a new *note curses.window.encoding:
     1443. attribute.

   * The *note curses.window: 1442. class has a new *note get_wch():
     1444. method to get a wide character

   * The *note curses: 2e. module has a new *note unget_wch(): 1445.
     function to push a wide character so the next *note get_wch():
     1444. will return it

(Contributed by Iñigo Serna in bpo-6755(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6755


File: python.info,  Node: datetime<8>,  Next: decimal<4>,  Prev: curses<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.11 datetime
...................

   * Equality comparisons between naive and aware *note datetime: 6e7.
     instances now return *note False: ef5. instead of raising *note
     TypeError: 291. (bpo-15006(1)).

   * New *note datetime.datetime.timestamp(): 1447. method: Return POSIX
     timestamp corresponding to the *note datetime: 6e7. instance.

   * The *note datetime.datetime.strftime(): 1051. method supports
     formatting years older than 1000.

   * The *note datetime.datetime.astimezone(): d95. method can now be
     called without arguments to convert datetime instance to the system
     timezone.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15006


File: python.info,  Node: decimal<4>,  Next: email<7>,  Prev: datetime<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.12 decimal
..................

bpo-7652(1) - integrate fast native decimal arithmetic.

     C-module and libmpdec written by Stefan Krah.

The new C version of the decimal module integrates the high speed
libmpdec library for arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal
floating-point arithmetic.  libmpdec conforms to IBM’s General Decimal
Arithmetic Specification.

Performance gains range from 10x for database applications to 100x for
numerically intensive applications.  These numbers are expected gains
for standard precisions used in decimal floating-point arithmetic.
Since the precision is user configurable, the exact figures may vary.
For example, in integer bignum arithmetic the differences can be
significantly higher.

The following table is meant as an illustration.  Benchmarks are
available at ‘https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/quickstart.html’.

                   decimal.py        _decimal           speedup
                                                        
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
     pi            42.02s            0.345s             120x
                                                        
                                                        
     telco         172.19s           5.68s              30x
                                                        
                                                        
     psycopg       3.57s             0.29s              12x
                                                        

* Menu:

* Features: Features<2>.
* API changes: API changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7652


File: python.info,  Node: Features<2>,  Next: API changes<2>,  Up: decimal<4>

1.14.20.13 Features
...................

   * The *note FloatOperation: 144a. signal optionally enables stricter
     semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.

   * If Python is compiled without threads, the C version automatically
     disables the expensive thread local context machinery.  In this
     case, the variable *note HAVE_THREADS: 144b. is set to ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: API changes<2>,  Prev: Features<2>,  Up: decimal<4>

1.14.20.14 API changes
......................

   * The C module has the following context limits, depending on the
     machine architecture:

                                           32-bit               64-bit
                                                                
          ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                
          *note MAX_PREC: 144d.            ‘425000000’          ‘999999999999999999’
                                                                
                                                                
          *note MAX_EMAX: 144e.            ‘425000000’          ‘999999999999999999’
                                                                
                                                                
          *note MIN_EMIN: 144f.            ‘-425000000’         ‘-999999999999999999’
                                                                

   * In the context templates (*note DefaultContext: 1450, *note
     BasicContext: 1451. and *note ExtendedContext: 1452.) the magnitude
     of *note Emax: 1453. and *note Emin: 1454. has changed to ‘999999’.

   * The *note Decimal: 1c2. constructor in decimal.py does not observe
     the context limits and converts values with arbitrary exponents or
     precision exactly.  Since the C version has internal limits, the
     following scheme is used: If possible, values are converted
     exactly, otherwise *note InvalidOperation: 1455. is raised and the
     result is NaN. In the latter case it is always possible to use
     *note create_decimal(): 1456. in order to obtain a rounded or
     inexact value.

   * The power function in decimal.py is always correctly rounded.  In
     the C version, it is defined in terms of the correctly rounded
     *note exp(): 1457. and *note ln(): 1458. functions, but the final
     result is only «almost always correctly rounded».

   * In the C version, the context dictionary containing the signals is
     a *note MutableMapping: 1459.  For speed reasons, *note flags:
     145a. and *note traps: 145b. always refer to the same
     ‘MutableMapping’ that the context was initialized with.  If a new
     signal dictionary is assigned, ‘flags’ and ‘traps’ are updated with
     the new values, but they do not reference the RHS dictionary.

   * Pickling a *note Context: 145c. produces a different output in
     order to have a common interchange format for the Python and C
     versions.

   * The order of arguments in the *note Context: 145c. constructor has
     been changed to match the order displayed by *note repr(): 45b.

   * The ‘watchexp’ parameter in the *note quantize(): 145d. method is
     deprecated.


File: python.info,  Node: email<7>,  Next: ftplib<3>,  Prev: decimal<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.15 email
................

* Menu:

* Policy Framework::
* Provisional Policy with New Header API::
* Other API Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Policy Framework,  Next: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Up: email<7>

1.14.20.16 Policy Framework
...........................

The email package now has a *note policy: 52. framework.  A *note
Policy: 1460. is an object with several methods and properties that
control how the email package behaves.  The primary policy for Python
3.3 is the *note Compat32: 1461. policy, which provides backward
compatibility with the email package in Python 3.2.  A ‘policy’ can be
specified when an email message is parsed by a *note parser: 51, or when
a *note Message: 780. object is created, or when an email is serialized
using a *note generator: 43.  Unless overridden, a policy passed to a
‘parser’ is inherited by all the ‘Message’ object and sub-objects
created by the ‘parser’.  By default a ‘generator’ will use the policy
of the ‘Message’ object it is serializing.  The default policy is *note
compat32: 105a.

The minimum set of controls implemented by all ‘policy’ objects are:

max_line_length     The maximum length, excluding the linesep character(s),
                    individual lines may have when a ‘Message’ is serialized.
                    Defaults to 78.
                    
                    
linesep             The character used to separate individual lines when a
                    ‘Message’ is serialized.  Defaults to ‘\n’.
                    
                    
cte_type            ‘7bit’ or ‘8bit’.  ‘8bit’ applies only to a ‘Bytes’
                    ‘generator’, and means that non-ASCII may be used where
                    allowed by the protocol (or where it exists in the
                    original input).
                    
                    
raise_on_defect     Causes a ‘parser’ to raise error when defects are
                    encountered instead of adding them to the ‘Message’
                    object’s ‘defects’ list.
                    

A new policy instance, with new settings, is created using the *note
clone(): 1462. method of policy objects.  ‘clone’ takes any of the above
controls as keyword arguments.  Any control not specified in the call
retains its default value.  Thus you can create a policy that uses
‘\r\n’ linesep characters like this:

     mypolicy = compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')

Policies can be used to make the generation of messages in the format
needed by your application simpler.  Instead of having to remember to
specify ‘linesep='\r\n'’ in all the places you call a ‘generator’, you
can specify it once, when you set the policy used by the ‘parser’ or the
‘Message’, whichever your program uses to create ‘Message’ objects.  On
the other hand, if you need to generate messages in multiple forms, you
can still specify the parameters in the appropriate ‘generator’ call.
Or you can have custom policy instances for your different cases, and
pass those in when you create the ‘generator’.


File: python.info,  Node: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Next: Other API Changes,  Prev: Policy Framework,  Up: email<7>

1.14.20.17 Provisional Policy with New Header API
.................................................

While the policy framework is worthwhile all by itself, the main
motivation for introducing it is to allow the creation of new policies
that implement new features for the email package in a way that
maintains backward compatibility for those who do not use the new
policies.  Because the new policies introduce a new API, we are
releasing them in Python 3.3 as a *note provisional policy: 13ea.
Backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the code)
may occur if deemed necessary by the core developers.

The new policies are instances of *note EmailPolicy: 1464, and add the
following additional controls:

refold_source       Controls whether or not headers parsed by a
                    *note parser: 51. are refolded by the
                    *note generator: 43.  It can be ‘none’, ‘long’, or ‘all’.
                    The default is ‘long’, which means that source headers
                    with a line longer than ‘max_line_length’ get refolded.
                    ‘none’ means no line get refolded, and ‘all’ means that
                    all lines get refolded.
                    
                    
header_factory      A callable that take a ‘name’ and ‘value’ and produces a
                    custom header object.
                    

The ‘header_factory’ is the key to the new features provided by the new
policies.  When one of the new policies is used, any header retrieved
from a ‘Message’ object is an object produced by the ‘header_factory’,
and any time you set a header on a ‘Message’ it becomes an object
produced by ‘header_factory’.  All such header objects have a ‘name’
attribute equal to the header name.  Address and Date headers have
additional attributes that give you access to the parsed data of the
header.  This means you can now do things like this:

     >>> m = Message(policy=SMTP)
     >>> m['To'] = 'Éric <foo@example.com>'
     >>> m['to']
     'Éric <foo@example.com>'
     >>> m['to'].addresses
     (Address(display_name='Éric', username='foo', domain='example.com'),)
     >>> m['to'].addresses[0].username
     'foo'
     >>> m['to'].addresses[0].display_name
     'Éric'
     >>> m['Date'] = email.utils.localtime()
     >>> m['Date'].datetime
     datetime.datetime(2012, 5, 25, 21, 39, 24, 465484, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(-1, 72000), 'EDT'))
     >>> m['Date']
     'Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400'
     >>> print(m)
     To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
     Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400

You will note that the unicode display name is automatically encoded as
‘utf-8’ when the message is serialized, but that when the header is
accessed directly, you get the unicode version.  This eliminates any
need to deal with the *note email.header: 44. *note decode_header():
1465. or *note make_header(): 1466. functions.

You can also create addresses from parts:

     >>> m['cc'] = [Group('pals', [Address('Bob', 'bob', 'example.com'),
     ...                           Address('Sally', 'sally', 'example.com')]),
     ...            Address('Bonzo', addr_spec='bonz@laugh.com')]
     >>> print(m)
     To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
     Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400
     cc: pals: Bob <bob@example.com>, Sally <sally@example.com>;, Bonzo <bonz@laugh.com>

Decoding to unicode is done automatically:

     >>> m2 = message_from_string(str(m))
     >>> m2['to']
     'Éric <foo@example.com>'

When you parse a message, you can use the ‘addresses’ and ‘groups’
attributes of the header objects to access the groups and individual
addresses:

     >>> m2['cc'].addresses
     (Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'))
     >>> m2['cc'].groups
     (Group(display_name='pals', addresses=(Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com')), Group(display_name=None, addresses=(Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'),))

In summary, if you use one of the new policies, header manipulation
works the way it ought to: your application works with unicode strings,
and the email package transparently encodes and decodes the unicode to
and from the RFC standard Content Transfer Encodings.


File: python.info,  Node: Other API Changes,  Prev: Provisional Policy with New Header API,  Up: email<7>

1.14.20.18 Other API Changes
............................

New *note BytesHeaderParser: 1468, added to the *note parser: 51. module
to complement *note HeaderParser: 1469. and complete the Bytes API.

New utility functions:

   * *note format_datetime(): 146a.: given a *note datetime: 6e7,
     produce a string formatted for use in an email header.

   * *note parsedate_to_datetime(): 146b.: given a date string from an
     email header, convert it into an aware *note datetime: 6e7, or a
     naive ‘datetime’ if the offset is ‘-0000’.

   * *note localtime(): 56f.: With no argument, returns the current
     local time as an aware *note datetime: 6e7. using the local *note
     timezone: 146c.  Given an aware ‘datetime’, converts it into an
     aware ‘datetime’ using the local ‘timezone’.


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib<3>,  Next: functools<9>,  Prev: email<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.19 ftplib
.................

   * *note ftplib.FTP: cca. now accepts a ‘source_address’ keyword
     argument to specify the ‘(host, port)’ to use as the source address
     in the bind call when creating the outgoing socket.  (Contributed
     by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8594(1).)

   * The *note FTP_TLS: ccb. class now provides a new *note ccc(): 146e.
     function to revert control channel back to plaintext.  This can be
     useful to take advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT
     with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports.  (Contributed by
     Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-12139(2).)

   * Added *note ftplib.FTP.mlsd(): 146f. method which provides a
     parsable directory listing format and deprecates *note
     ftplib.FTP.nlst(): 1470. and *note ftplib.FTP.dir(): 1471.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11072(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8594

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12139

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11072


File: python.info,  Node: functools<9>,  Next: gc<9>,  Prev: ftplib<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.20 functools
....................

The *note functools.lru_cache(): db3. decorator now accepts a ‘typed’
keyword argument (that defaults to ‘False’ to ensure that it caches
values of different types that compare equal in separate cache slots.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13227(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13227


File: python.info,  Node: gc<9>,  Next: hmac<5>,  Prev: functools<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.21 gc
.............

It is now possible to register callbacks invoked by the garbage
collector before and after collection using the new *note callbacks:
1474. list.


File: python.info,  Node: hmac<5>,  Next: http<5>,  Prev: gc<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.22 hmac
...............

A new *note compare_digest(): 1476. function has been added to prevent
side channel attacks on digests through timing analysis.  (Contributed
by Nick Coghlan and Christian Heimes in bpo-15061(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15061


File: python.info,  Node: http<5>,  Next: html<2>,  Prev: hmac<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.23 http
...............

*note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 226. now buffers the headers
and writes them all at once when *note end_headers(): 1478. is called.
A new method *note flush_headers(): 1479. can be used to directly manage
when the accumulated headers are sent.  (Contributed by Andrew Schaaf in
bpo-3709(1).)

*note http.server: 75. now produces valid ‘HTML 4.01 strict’ output.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13295(2).)

*note http.client.HTTPResponse: 147a. now has a *note readinto(): 147b.
method, which means it can be used as an *note io.RawIOBase: 147c.
class.  (Contributed by John Kuhn in bpo-13464(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13295

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13464


File: python.info,  Node: html<2>,  Next: imaplib<4>,  Prev: http<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.24 html
...............

*note html.parser.HTMLParser: c4d. is now able to parse broken markup
without raising errors, therefore the 'strict' argument of the
constructor and the ‘HTMLParseError’ exception are now deprecated.  The
ability to parse broken markup is the result of a number of bug fixes
that are also available on the latest bug fix releases of Python
2.7/3.2.  (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(1), and
bpo-14538(2), bpo-13993(3), bpo-13960(4), bpo-13358(5), bpo-1745761(6),
bpo-755670(7), bpo-13357(8), bpo-12629(9), bpo-1200313(10),
bpo-670664(11), bpo-13273(12), bpo-12888(13), bpo-7311(14).)

A new *note html5: 147e. dictionary that maps HTML5 named character
references to the equivalent Unicode character(s) (e.g.  ‘html5['gt;']
== '>'’) has been added to the *note html.entities: 6f. module.  The
dictionary is now also used by *note HTMLParser: c4d.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti in bpo-11113(15) and bpo-15156(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14538

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13993

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13960

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13358

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1745761

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=755670

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13357

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12629

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1200313

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=670664

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13273

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12888

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7311

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11113

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15156


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<4>,  Next: inspect<11>,  Prev: html<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.25 imaplib
..................

The *note IMAP4_SSL: cd3. constructor now accepts an SSLContext
parameter to control parameters of the secure channel.

(Contributed by Sijin Joseph in bpo-8808(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8808


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<11>,  Next: io<8>,  Prev: imaplib<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.26 inspect
..................

A new *note getclosurevars(): 1481. function has been added.  This
function reports the current binding of all names referenced from the
function body and where those names were resolved, making it easier to
verify correct internal state when testing code that relies on stateful
closures.

(Contributed by Meador Inge and Nick Coghlan in bpo-13062(1).)

A new *note getgeneratorlocals(): 1482. function has been added.  This
function reports the current binding of local variables in the
generator’s stack frame, making it easier to verify correct internal
state when testing generators.

(Contributed by Meador Inge in bpo-15153(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13062

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15153


File: python.info,  Node: io<8>,  Next: itertools<7>,  Prev: inspect<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.27 io
.............

The *note open(): 92b. function has a new ‘'x'’ mode that can be used to
exclusively create a new file, and raise a *note FileExistsError: 13c9.
if the file already exists.  It is based on the C11 “x” mode to fopen().

(Contributed by David Townshend in bpo-12760(1).)

The constructor of the *note TextIOWrapper: b9c. class has a new
'write_through' optional argument.  If 'write_through' is ‘True’, calls
to ‘write()’ are guaranteed not to be buffered: any data written on the
‘TextIOWrapper’ object is immediately handled to its underlying binary
buffer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12760


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<7>,  Next: logging<7>,  Prev: io<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.28 itertools
....................

*note accumulate(): dbf. now takes an optional ‘func’ argument for
providing a user-supplied binary function.


File: python.info,  Node: logging<7>,  Next: math<11>,  Prev: itertools<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.29 logging
..................

The *note basicConfig(): dc2. function now supports an optional
‘handlers’ argument taking an iterable of handlers to be added to the
root logger.

A class level attribute ‘append_nul’ has been added to *note
SysLogHandler: a4c. to allow control of the appending of the ‘NUL’
(‘\000’) byte to syslog records, since for some daemons it is required
while for others it is passed through to the log.


File: python.info,  Node: math<11>,  Next: mmap<5>,  Prev: logging<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.30 math
...............

The *note math: 91. module has a new function, *note log2(): 1487, which
returns the base-2 logarithm of 'x'.

(Written by Mark Dickinson in bpo-11888(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11888


File: python.info,  Node: mmap<5>,  Next: multiprocessing<9>,  Prev: math<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.31 mmap
...............

The *note read(): 1489. method is now more compatible with other
file-like objects: if the argument is omitted or specified as ‘None’, it
returns the bytes from the current file position to the end of the
mapping.  (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12021(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12021


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing<9>,  Next: nntplib<2>,  Prev: mmap<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.32 multiprocessing
..........................

The new *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): 148b. function allows
polling multiple objects (such as connections, sockets and pipes) with a
timeout.  (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-12328(1).)

*note multiprocessing.connection.Connection: 148c. objects can now be
transferred over multiprocessing connections.  (Contributed by Richard
Oudkerk in bpo-4892(2).)

*note multiprocessing.Process: 4de. now accepts a ‘daemon’ keyword
argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the ‘daemon’
flag from the parent process (bpo-6064(3)).

New attribute *note multiprocessing.Process.sentinel: 148d. allows a
program to wait on multiple *note Process: 4de. objects at one time
using the appropriate OS primitives (for example, *note select: c9. on
posix systems).

New methods *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap(): 148e. and *note
starmap_async(): 148f. provide *note itertools.starmap(): 1490.
equivalents to the existing *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map(): 1491.
and *note map_async(): 1492. functions.  (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack
in bpo-12708(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12328

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4892

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12708


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib<2>,  Next: os<14>,  Prev: multiprocessing<9>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.33 nntplib
..................

The ‘nntplib.NNTP’ class now supports the context management protocol to
unconditionally consume *note socket.error: 13fe. exceptions and to
close the NNTP connection when done:

     >>> from nntplib import NNTP
     >>> with NNTP('news.gmane.org') as n:
     ...     n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
     ...
     ('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers')
     >>>

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-9795(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9795


File: python.info,  Node: os<14>,  Next: pdb<10>,  Prev: nntplib<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.34 os
.............

   * The *note os: a5. module has a new *note pipe2(): 1495. function
     that makes it possible to create a pipe with *note O_CLOEXEC: 1424.
     or *note O_NONBLOCK: 11ee. flags set atomically.  This is
     especially useful to avoid race conditions in multi-threaded
     programs.

   * The *note os: a5. module has a new *note sendfile(): ed3. function
     which provides an efficient «zero-copy» way for copying data from
     one file (or socket) descriptor to another.  The phrase «zero-copy»
     refers to the fact that all of the copying of data between the two
     descriptors is done entirely by the kernel, with no copying of data
     into userspace buffers.  ‘sendfile()’ can be used to efficiently
     copy data from a file on disk to a network socket, e.g.  for
     downloading a file.

     (Patch submitted by Ross Lagerwall and Giampaolo Rodolà in
     bpo-10882(1).)

   * To avoid race conditions like symlink attacks and issues with
     temporary files and directories, it is more reliable (and also
     faster) to manipulate file descriptors instead of file names.
     Python 3.3 enhances existing functions and introduces new functions
     to work on file descriptors (bpo-4761(2), bpo-10755(3) and
     bpo-14626(4)).

        - The *note os: a5. module has a new *note fwalk(): f18.
          function similar to *note walk(): 8b9. except that it also
          yields file descriptors referring to the directories visited.
          This is especially useful to avoid symlink races.

        - The following functions get new optional 'dir_fd' (*note paths
          relative to directory descriptors: 1496.) and/or
          'follow_symlinks' (*note not following symlinks: 1497.): *note
          access(): 1498, *note chflags(): 1499, *note chmod(): 72c,
          *note chown(): 149a, *note link(): 149b, *note lstat(): 8b1,
          *note mkdir(): 72e, *note mkfifo(): 1149, *note mknod(): 114a,
          *note open(): 114b, *note readlink(): ced, *note remove():
          149c, *note rename(): 149d, *note replace(): 149e, *note
          rmdir(): 149f, *note stat(): 4f5, *note symlink(): 14a0, *note
          unlink(): 14a1, *note utime(): 14a2.  Platform support for
          using these parameters can be checked via the sets *note
          os.supports_dir_fd: 14a3. and *note
          os.supports_follow_symlinks: 14a4.

        - The following functions now support a file descriptor for
          their path argument: *note chdir(): a02, *note chmod(): 72c,
          *note chown(): 149a, *note execve(): 14a5, *note listdir():
          14a6, *note pathconf(): 14a7, *note exists(): dd2, *note
          stat(): 4f5, *note statvfs(): 14a8, *note utime(): 14a2.
          Platform support for this can be checked via the *note
          os.supports_fd: 14a9. set.

   * *note access(): 1498. accepts an ‘effective_ids’ keyword argument
     to turn on using the effective uid/gid rather than the real uid/gid
     in the access check.  Platform support for this can be checked via
     the *note supports_effective_ids: 14aa. set.

   * The *note os: a5. module has two new functions: *note
     getpriority(): 14ab. and *note setpriority(): 14ac.  They can be
     used to get or set process niceness/priority in a fashion similar
     to *note os.nice(): 14ad. but extended to all processes instead of
     just the current one.

     (Patch submitted by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-10784(5).)

   * The new *note os.replace(): 149e. function allows cross-platform
     renaming of a file with overwriting the destination.  With *note
     os.rename(): 149d, an existing destination file is overwritten
     under POSIX, but raises an error under Windows.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou in bpo-8828(6).)

   * The stat family of functions (*note stat(): 4f5, *note fstat():
     1145, and *note lstat(): 8b1.) now support reading a file’s
     timestamps with nanosecond precision.  Symmetrically, *note
     utime(): 14a2. can now write file timestamps with nanosecond
     precision.  (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127(7).)

   * The new *note os.get_terminal_size(): 14ae. function queries the
     size of the terminal attached to a file descriptor.  See also *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): 14af.  (Contributed by Zbigniew
     Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609(8).)

   * New functions to support Linux extended attributes (bpo-12720(9)):
     *note getxattr(): 14b0, *note listxattr(): 14b1, *note
     removexattr(): 14b2, *note setxattr(): 14b3.

   * New interface to the scheduler.  These functions control how a
     process is allocated CPU time by the operating system.  New
     functions: *note sched_get_priority_max(): 14b4, *note
     sched_get_priority_min(): 14b5, *note sched_getaffinity(): 14b6,
     *note sched_getparam(): 14b7, *note sched_getscheduler(): 14b8,
     *note sched_rr_get_interval(): 14b9, *note sched_setaffinity():
     14ba, *note sched_setparam(): 14bb, *note sched_setscheduler():
     14bc, *note sched_yield(): 14bd,

   * New functions to control the file system:

        * *note posix_fadvise(): 114c.: Announces an intention to access
          data in a specific pattern thus allowing the kernel to make
          optimizations.

        * *note posix_fallocate(): 114d.: Ensures that enough disk space
          is allocated for a file.

        * *note sync(): 14be.: Force write of everything to disk.

   * Additional new posix functions:

        * *note lockf(): 14bf.: Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an
          open file descriptor.

        * *note pread(): f1c.: Read from a file descriptor at an offset,
          the file offset remains unchanged.

        * *note pwrite(): f1f.: Write to a file descriptor from an
          offset, leaving the file offset unchanged.

        * *note readv(): f1b.: Read from a file descriptor into a number
          of writable buffers.

        * *note truncate(): 11ef.: Truncate the file corresponding to
          'path', so that it is at most 'length' bytes in size.

        * *note waitid(): 1152.: Wait for the completion of one or more
          child processes.

        * *note writev(): f1e.: Write the contents of 'buffers' to a
          file descriptor, where 'buffers' is an arbitrary sequence of
          buffers.

        * *note getgrouplist(): 14c0. (bpo-9344(10)): Return list of
          group ids that specified user belongs to.

   * *note times(): 14c1. and *note uname(): 14c2.: Return type changed
     from a tuple to a tuple-like object with named attributes.

   * Some platforms now support additional constants for the *note
     lseek(): 14c3. function, such as ‘os.SEEK_HOLE’ and ‘os.SEEK_DATA’.

   * New constants *note RTLD_LAZY: 14c4, *note RTLD_NOW: 14c5, *note
     RTLD_GLOBAL: 14c6, *note RTLD_LOCAL: 14c7, *note RTLD_NODELETE:
     14c8, *note RTLD_NOLOAD: 14c9, and *note RTLD_DEEPBIND: 14ca. are
     available on platforms that support them.  These are for use with
     the *note sys.setdlopenflags(): 14cb. function, and supersede the
     similar constants defined in *note ctypes: 2d. and ‘DLFCN’.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-13226(11).)

   * *note os.symlink(): 14a0. now accepts (and ignores) the
     ‘target_is_directory’ keyword argument on non-Windows platforms, to
     ease cross-platform support.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10882

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4761

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10755

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14626

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10784

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8828

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12720

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9344

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13226


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<10>,  Next: pickle<7>,  Prev: os<14>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.35 pdb
..............

Tab-completion is now available not only for command names, but also
their arguments.  For example, for the ‘break’ command, function and
file names are completed.

(Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-14210(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14210


File: python.info,  Node: pickle<7>,  Next: pydoc<6>,  Prev: pdb<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.36 pickle
.................

*note pickle.Pickler: de2. objects now have an optional *note
dispatch_table: 14ce. attribute allowing per-pickler reduction functions
to be set.

(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-14166(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14166


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<6>,  Next: re<11>,  Prev: pickle<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.37 pydoc
................

The Tk GUI and the ‘serve()’ function have been removed from the *note
pydoc: bd. module: ‘pydoc -g’ and ‘serve()’ have been deprecated in
Python 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: re<11>,  Next: sched,  Prev: pydoc<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.38 re
.............

*note str: 1df. regular expressions now support ‘\u’ and ‘\U’ escapes.

(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-3665(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3665


File: python.info,  Node: sched,  Next: select<2>,  Prev: re<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.39 sched
................

   * *note run(): 14d2. now accepts a 'blocking' parameter which when
     set to false makes the method execute the scheduled events due to
     expire soonest (if any) and then return immediately.  This is
     useful in case you want to use the *note scheduler: 14d3. in
     non-blocking applications.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
     bpo-13449(1).)

   * *note scheduler: 14d3. class can now be safely used in
     multi-threaded environments.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson and
     Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8684(2).)

   * 'timefunc' and 'delayfunct' parameters of *note scheduler: 14d3.
     class constructor are now optional and defaults to *note
     time.time(): 75e. and *note time.sleep(): a8c. respectively.
     (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245(3).)

   * *note enter(): 14d4. and *note enterabs(): 14d5. 'argument'
     parameter is now optional.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in
     bpo-13245(4).)

   * *note enter(): 14d4. and *note enterabs(): 14d5. now accept a
     'kwargs' parameter.  (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13449

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245


File: python.info,  Node: select<2>,  Next: shlex<3>,  Prev: sched,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.40 select
.................

Solaris and derivative platforms have a new class *note select.devpoll:
133f. for high performance asynchronous sockets via ‘/dev/poll’.
(Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-6397(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6397


File: python.info,  Node: shlex<3>,  Next: shutil<7>,  Prev: select<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.41 shlex
................

The previously undocumented helper function ‘quote’ from the ‘pipes’
modules has been moved to the *note shlex: cc. module and documented.
*note quote(): 781. properly escapes all characters in a string that
might be otherwise given special meaning by the shell.


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<7>,  Next: signal<4>,  Prev: shlex<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.42 shutil
.................

   * New functions:

        * *note disk_usage(): 14d9.: provides total, used and free disk
          space statistics.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in
          bpo-12442(1).)

        * *note chown(): 74b.: allows one to change user and/or group of
          the given path also specifying the user/group names and not
          only their numeric ids.  (Contributed by Sandro Tosi in
          bpo-12191(2).)

        * *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 14af.: returns the size of
          the terminal window to which the interpreter is attached.
          (Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609(3).)

   * *note copy2(): e1f. and *note copystat(): 14da. now preserve file
     timestamps with nanosecond precision on platforms that support it.
     They also preserve file «extended attributes» on Linux.
     (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127(4) and bpo-15238(5).)

   * Several functions now take an optional ‘symlinks’ argument: when
     that parameter is true, symlinks aren’t dereferenced and the
     operation instead acts on the symlink itself (or creates one, if
     relevant).  (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack in bpo-12715(6).)

   * When copying files to a different file system, *note move(): e20.
     now handles symlinks the way the posix ‘mv’ command does,
     recreating the symlink rather than copying the target file
     contents.  (Contributed by Jonathan Niehof in bpo-9993(7).)
     ‘move()’ now also returns the ‘dst’ argument as its result.

   * *note rmtree(): 335. is now resistant to symlink attacks on
     platforms which support the new ‘dir_fd’ parameter in *note
     os.open(): 114b. and *note os.unlink(): 14a1.  (Contributed by
     Martin von Löwis and Hynek Schlawack in bpo-4489(8).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12442

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12191

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15238

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12715

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9993

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4489


File: python.info,  Node: signal<4>,  Next: smtpd<4>,  Prev: shutil<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.43 signal
.................

   * The *note signal: ce. module has new functions:

        * *note pthread_sigmask(): 14dc.: fetch and/or change the signal
          mask of the calling thread (Contributed by Jean-Paul Calderone
          in bpo-8407(1));

        * *note pthread_kill(): 14dd.: send a signal to a thread;

        * *note sigpending(): 14de.: examine pending functions;

        * *note sigwait(): 14df.: wait a signal;

        * *note sigwaitinfo(): 1164.: wait for a signal, returning
          detailed information about it;

        * *note sigtimedwait(): 1163.: like *note sigwaitinfo(): 1164.
          but with a timeout.

   * The signal handler writes the signal number as a single byte
     instead of a nul byte into the wakeup file descriptor.  So it is
     possible to wait more than one signal and know which signals were
     raised.

   * *note signal.signal(): 14e0. and *note signal.siginterrupt(): 14e1.
     raise an OSError, instead of a RuntimeError: OSError has an errno
     attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8407


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd<4>,  Next: smtplib<4>,  Prev: signal<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.44 smtpd
................

The ‘smtpd’ module now supports RFC 5321(1) (extended SMTP) and RFC
1870(2) (size extension).  Per the standard, these extensions are
enabled if and only if the client initiates the session with an ‘EHLO’
command.

(Initial ‘ELHO’ support by Alberto Trevino.  Size extension by Juhana
Jauhiainen.  Substantial additional work on the patch contributed by
Michele Orrù and Dan Boswell.  bpo-8739(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1870.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8739


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib<4>,  Next: socket<12>,  Prev: smtpd<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.45 smtplib
..................

The *note SMTP: cfa, *note SMTP_SSL: cfb, and *note LMTP: cfc. classes
now accept a ‘source_address’ keyword argument to specify the ‘(host,
port)’ to use as the source address in the bind call when creating the
outgoing socket.  (Contributed by Paulo Scardine in bpo-11281(1).)

*note SMTP: cfa. now supports the context management protocol, allowing
an ‘SMTP’ instance to be used in a ‘with’ statement.  (Contributed by
Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11289(2).)

The *note SMTP_SSL: cfb. constructor and the *note starttls(): 14e4.
method now accept an SSLContext parameter to control parameters of the
secure channel.  (Contributed by Kasun Herath in bpo-8809(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11281

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11289

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8809


File: python.info,  Node: socket<12>,  Next: socketserver<3>,  Prev: smtplib<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.46 socket
.................

   * The *note socket: 115a. class now exposes additional methods to
     process ancillary data when supported by the underlying platform:

        * *note sendmsg(): 88c.

        * *note recvmsg(): 115f.

        * *note recvmsg_into(): 14e6.

     (Contributed by David Watson in bpo-6560(1), based on an earlier
     patch by Heiko Wundram)

   * The *note socket: 115a. class now supports the PF_CAN protocol
     family (‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan’), on Linux
     (‘https://lwn.net/Articles/253425’).

     (Contributed by Matthias Fuchs, updated by Tiago Gonçalves in
     bpo-10141(2).)

   * The *note socket: 115a. class now supports the PF_RDS protocol
     family (‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets’
     and https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds(3)).

   * The *note socket: 115a. class now supports the ‘PF_SYSTEM’ protocol
     family on OS X. (Contributed by Michael Goderbauer in
     bpo-13777(4).)

   * New function *note sethostname(): 14e7. allows the hostname to be
     set on Unix systems if the calling process has sufficient
     privileges.  (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in bpo-10866(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6560

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10141

   (3) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20130115155505/https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10866


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver<3>,  Next: sqlite3<12>,  Prev: socket<12>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.47 socketserver
.......................

*note BaseServer: 14e9. now has an overridable method *note
service_actions(): 14ea. that is called by the *note serve_forever():
14eb. method in the service loop.  *note ForkingMixIn: f37. now uses
this to clean up zombie child processes.  (Contributed by Justin
Warkentin in bpo-11109(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11109


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<12>,  Next: ssl<13>,  Prev: socketserver<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.48 sqlite3
..................

New *note sqlite3.Connection: 3df. method *note set_trace_callback():
3e5. can be used to capture a trace of all sql commands processed by
sqlite.  (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-11688(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11688


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<13>,  Next: stat<2>,  Prev: sqlite3<12>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.49 ssl
..............

   * The *note ssl: d8. module has two new random generation functions:

        * *note RAND_bytes(): 932.: generate cryptographically strong
          pseudo-random bytes.

        * ‘RAND_pseudo_bytes()’: generate pseudo-random bytes.

     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-12049(1).)

   * The *note ssl: d8. module now exposes a finer-grained exception
     hierarchy in order to make it easier to inspect the various kinds
     of errors.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-11183(2).)

   * *note load_cert_chain(): 797. now accepts a 'password' argument to
     be used if the private key is encrypted.  (Contributed by Adam
     Simpkins in bpo-12803(3).)

   * Diffie-Hellman key exchange, both regular and Elliptic Curve-based,
     is now supported through the *note load_dh_params(): 14ee. and
     *note set_ecdh_curve(): 25b. methods.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou in bpo-13626(4) and bpo-13627(5).)

   * SSL sockets have a new *note get_channel_binding(): 14ef. method
     allowing the implementation of certain authentication mechanisms
     such as SCRAM-SHA-1-PLUS. (Contributed by Jacek Konieczny in
     bpo-12551(6).)

   * You can query the SSL compression algorithm used by an SSL socket,
     thanks to its new *note compression(): 14f0. method.  The new
     attribute *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 14f1. can be used to disable
     compression.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13634(7).)

   * Support has been added for the Next Protocol Negotiation extension
     using the *note ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 337. method.
     (Contributed by Colin Marc in bpo-14204(8).)

   * SSL errors can now be introspected more easily thanks to *note
     library: 14f2. and *note reason: 14f3. attributes.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14837(9).)

   * The *note get_server_certificate(): c15. function now supports
     IPv6.  (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in bpo-11811(10).)

   * New attribute *note OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE: 14f4. allows
     setting SSLv3 server sockets to use the server’s cipher ordering
     preference rather than the client’s (bpo-13635(11)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12049

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11183

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12803

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13626

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13627

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12551

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13634

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14204

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14837

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11811

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13635


File: python.info,  Node: stat<2>,  Next: struct<4>,  Prev: ssl<13>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.50 stat
...............

The undocumented tarfile.filemode function has been moved to *note
stat.filemode(): 14f6.  It can be used to convert a file’s mode to a
string of the form “-rwxrwxrwx”.

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-14807(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14807


File: python.info,  Node: struct<4>,  Next: subprocess<7>,  Prev: stat<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.51 struct
.................

The *note struct: de. module now supports ‘ssize_t’ and ‘size_t’ via the
new codes ‘n’ and ‘N’, respectively.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in
bpo-3163(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3163


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess<7>,  Next: sys<14>,  Prev: struct<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.52 subprocess
.....................

Command strings can now be bytes objects on posix platforms.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-8513(1).)

A new constant *note DEVNULL: 14f9. allows suppressing output in a
platform-independent fashion.  (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in
bpo-5870(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8513

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5870


File: python.info,  Node: sys<14>,  Next: tarfile<10>,  Prev: subprocess<7>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.53 sys
..............

The *note sys: e2. module has a new *note thread_info: 14fb. *note named
tuple: a3d. holding information about the thread implementation
(bpo-11223(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11223


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<10>,  Next: tempfile<4>,  Prev: sys<14>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.54 tarfile
..................

*note tarfile: e7. now supports ‘lzma’ encoding via the *note lzma: 8d.
module.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel in bpo-5689(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5689


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<4>,  Next: textwrap<3>,  Prev: tarfile<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.55 tempfile
...................

*note tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: a82.'s ‘truncate()’ method now
accepts a ‘size’ parameter.  (Contributed by Ryan Kelly in bpo-9957(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9957


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap<3>,  Next: threading<11>,  Prev: tempfile<4>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.56 textwrap
...................

The *note textwrap: f5. module has a new *note indent(): 77d. that makes
it straightforward to add a common prefix to selected lines in a block
of text (bpo-13857(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13857


File: python.info,  Node: threading<11>,  Next: time<8>,  Prev: textwrap<3>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.57 threading
....................

*note threading.Condition: 1500, *note threading.Semaphore: 1501, *note
threading.BoundedSemaphore: 1502, *note threading.Event: 1503, and *note
threading.Timer: 1504, all of which used to be factory functions
returning a class instance, are now classes and may be subclassed.
(Contributed by Éric Araujo in bpo-10968(1).)

The *note threading.Thread: 420. constructor now accepts a ‘daemon’
keyword argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the
‘daemon’ flag value from the parent thread (bpo-6064(2)).

The formerly private function ‘_thread.get_ident’ is now available as
the public function *note threading.get_ident(): 1505.  This eliminates
several cases of direct access to the ‘_thread’ module in the stdlib.
Third party code that used ‘_thread.get_ident’ should likewise be
changed to use the new public interface.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10968

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064


File: python.info,  Node: time<8>,  Next: types<10>,  Prev: threading<11>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.58 time
...............

The PEP 418(1) added new functions to the *note time: f7. module:

   * *note get_clock_info(): 1507.: Get information on a clock.

   * *note monotonic(): 75d.: Monotonic clock (cannot go backward), not
     affected by system clock updates.

   * *note perf_counter(): e49.: Performance counter with the highest
     available resolution to measure a short duration.

   * *note process_time(): e4a.: Sum of the system and user CPU time of
     the current process.

Other new functions:

   * *note clock_getres(): 1508, *note clock_gettime(): 1509. and *note
     clock_settime(): 150a. functions with ‘CLOCK_XXX’ constants.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-10278(2).)

To improve cross platform consistency, *note sleep(): a8c. now raises a
*note ValueError: 277. when passed a negative sleep value.  Previously
this was an error on posix, but produced an infinite sleep on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0418/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10278


File: python.info,  Node: types<10>,  Next: unittest<12>,  Prev: time<8>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.59 types
................

Add a new *note types.MappingProxyType: 189. class: Read-only proxy of a
mapping.  (bpo-14386(1))

The new functions *note types.new_class(): 150c. and *note
types.prepare_class(): 150d. provide support for PEP 3115(2) compliant
dynamic type creation.  (bpo-14588(3))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14386

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14588


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<12>,  Next: urllib<6>,  Prev: types<10>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.60 unittest
...................

*note assertRaises(): 93b, *note assertRaisesRegex(): 93d, *note
assertWarns(): 2a0, and *note assertWarnsRegex(): 2a1. now accept a
keyword argument 'msg' when used as context managers.  (Contributed by
Ezio Melotti and Winston Ewert in bpo-10775(1).)

*note unittest.TestCase.run(): 150f. now returns the *note TestResult:
1510. object.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10775


File: python.info,  Node: urllib<6>,  Next: webbrowser<5>,  Prev: unittest<12>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.61 urllib
.................

The *note Request: 1381. class, now accepts a 'method' argument used by
*note get_method(): 1512. to determine what HTTP method should be used.
For example, this will send a ‘'HEAD'’ request:

     >>> urlopen(Request('https://www.python.org', method='HEAD'))

(bpo-1673007(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1673007


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser<5>,  Next: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Prev: urllib<6>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.62 webbrowser
.....................

The *note webbrowser: 11e. module supports more «browsers»: Google
Chrome (named ‘chrome’, ‘chromium’, ‘chrome-browser’ or
‘chromium-browser’ depending on the version and operating system), and
the generic launchers ‘xdg-open’, from the FreeDesktop.org project, and
‘gvfs-open’, which is the default URI handler for GNOME 3.  (The former
contributed by Arnaud Calmettes in bpo-13620(1), the latter by Matthias
Klose in bpo-14493(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13620

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14493


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Next: zlib<4>,  Prev: webbrowser<5>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.63 xml.etree.ElementTree
................................

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. module now imports its C
accelerator by default; there is no longer a need to explicitly import
‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ (this module stays for backwards compatibility,
but is now deprecated).  In addition, the ‘iter’ family of methods of
*note Element: 343. has been optimized (rewritten in C). The module’s
documentation has also been greatly improved with added examples and a
more detailed reference.


File: python.info,  Node: zlib<4>,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree<2>,  Up: Improved Modules<11>

1.14.20.64 zlib
...............

New attribute *note zlib.Decompress.eof: 1516. makes it possible to
distinguish between a properly formed compressed stream and an
incomplete or truncated one.  (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in
bpo-12646(1).)

New attribute *note zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 1517. reports the version
string of the underlying ‘zlib’ library that is loaded at runtime.
(Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-12306(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12646

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12306


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<13>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Prev: Improved Modules<11>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.21 Optimizations
---------------------

Major performance enhancements have been added:

   * Thanks to PEP 393(1), some operations on Unicode strings have been
     optimized:

        * the memory footprint is divided by 2 to 4 depending on the
          text

        * encode an ASCII string to UTF-8 doesn’t need to encode
          characters anymore, the UTF-8 representation is shared with
          the ASCII representation

        * the UTF-8 encoder has been optimized

        * repeating a single ASCII letter and getting a substring of an
          ASCII string is 4 times faster

   * UTF-8 is now 2x to 4x faster.  UTF-16 encoding is now up to 10x
     faster.

     (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka, bpo-14624(2), bpo-14738(3) and
     bpo-15026(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14624

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14738

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15026


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Next: Deprecated<15>,  Prev: Optimizations<13>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.22 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * New PEP 3118(1) related function:

        * *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1519.

   * PEP 393(2) added new Unicode types, macros and functions:

        * High-level API:

             * *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): c88.

             * *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): c8c.

             * *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): c86, *note
               PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: c87.

             * *note PyUnicode_New(): c7f.

             * *note PyUnicode_Substring(): c89.

             * *note PyUnicode_ReadChar(): 151a, *note
               PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 151b.

        * Low-level API:

             * *note Py_UCS1: 151c, *note Py_UCS2: 151d, *note Py_UCS4:
               301. types

             * *note PyASCIIObject: 151e. and *note
               PyCompactUnicodeObject: 151f. structures

             * *note PyUnicode_READY: 647.

             * *note PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(): 1520.

             * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4(): 1521, *note
               PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): c8e.

             * *note PyUnicode_DATA: 1522, *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA:
               1523, *note PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA: 1524, *note
               PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA: 1525.

             * *note PyUnicode_KIND: 1526. with ‘PyUnicode_Kind’ enum:
               ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’, *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1527,
               *note PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND: 1528, *note
               PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: 1529.

             * *note PyUnicode_READ: 152a, *note PyUnicode_READ_CHAR:
               152b, *note PyUnicode_WRITE: 152c.

             * *note PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE: 152d.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple: 3b1. now accepts a *note bytearray: 1c6.
     for the ‘c’ format (bpo-12380(3)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated<15>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 3,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<4>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.23 Deprecated
------------------

* Menu:

* Unsupported Operating Systems: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>.
* Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>.
* Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>.
* Deprecated features::


File: python.info,  Node: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>,  Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>,  Up: Deprecated<15>

1.14.23.1 Unsupported Operating Systems
.......................................

OS/2 and VMS are no longer supported due to the lack of a maintainer.

Windows 2000 and Windows platforms which set ‘COMSPEC’ to ‘command.com’
are no longer supported due to maintenance burden.

OSF support, which was deprecated in 3.2, has been completely removed.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>,  Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>,  Prev: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>,  Up: Deprecated<15>

1.14.23.2 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods
..........................................................

   * Passing a non-empty string to ‘object.__format__()’ is deprecated,
     and will produce a *note TypeError: 291. in Python 3.4
     (bpo-9856(1)).

   * The ‘unicode_internal’ codec has been deprecated because of the PEP
     393(2), use UTF-8, UTF-16 (‘utf-16-le’ or ‘utf-16-be’), or UTF-32
     (‘utf-32-le’ or ‘utf-32-be’)

   * *note ftplib.FTP.nlst(): 1470. and *note ftplib.FTP.dir(): 1471.:
     use *note ftplib.FTP.mlsd(): 146f.

   * ‘platform.popen()’: use the *note subprocess: df. module.  Check
     especially the *note Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess
     Module: 1531. section (bpo-11377(3)).

   * bpo-13374(4): The Windows bytes API has been deprecated in the
     *note os: a5. module.  Use Unicode filenames, instead of bytes
     filenames, to not depend on the ANSI code page anymore and to
     support any filename.

   * bpo-13988(5): The ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ module is deprecated.
     The accelerator is used automatically whenever available.

   * The behaviour of ‘time.clock()’ depends on the platform: use the
     new *note time.perf_counter(): e49. or *note time.process_time():
     e4a. function instead, depending on your requirements, to have a
     well defined behaviour.

   * The ‘os.stat_float_times()’ function is deprecated.

   * *note abc: 4. module:

        * *note abc.abstractproperty: 1432. has been deprecated, use
          *note property: 6bb. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 1433.
          instead.

        * *note abc.abstractclassmethod: 1434. has been deprecated, use
          *note classmethod: 69a. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 1433.
          instead.

        * *note abc.abstractstaticmethod: 1435. has been deprecated, use
          *note staticmethod: 666. with *note abc.abstractmethod():
          1433. instead.

   * *note importlib: 7a. package:

        * *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime(): 1532. is now
          deprecated in favour of *note
          importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats(): 1533. as bytecode
          files now store both the modification time and size of the
          source file the bytecode file was compiled from.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9856

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11377

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13374

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13988


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>,  Next: Deprecated features,  Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>,  Up: Deprecated<15>

1.14.23.3 Deprecated functions and types of the C API
.....................................................

The *note Py_UNICODE: b7a. has been deprecated by PEP 393(1) and will be
removed in Python 4.  All functions using this type are deprecated:

Unicode functions and methods using *note Py_UNICODE: b7a. and *note
Py_UNICODE: b7a.* types:

   * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode’: use *note PyUnicode_FromWideChar(): 1535.
     or *note PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(): 1520.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE’, ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’,
     ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’: use *note
     PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): c8f.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA’: use *note PyUnicode_DATA: 1522. with *note
     PyUnicode_READ: 152a. and *note PyUnicode_WRITE: 152c.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE’, ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’: use *note
     PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: c87. or *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): c86.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE’: use ‘PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) *
     PyUnicode_KIND(str)’ (only work on ready strings)

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): c8e.
     or *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): c8f.

   * ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’

Functions and macros manipulating Py_UNICODE* strings:

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strlen()’: use *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): c86. or
     *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: c87.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcat()’: use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): c88.
     or *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcpy()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strncpy()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’:
     use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): c88. or *note
     PyUnicode_Substring(): c89.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcmp()’: use *note PyUnicode_Compare(): c8a.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strncmp()’: use *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): c8b.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_strchr()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strrchr()’: use *note
     PyUnicode_FindChar(): c8c.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’: use *note PyUnicode_Fill(): 1536.

   * ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’

Encoders:

   * ‘PyUnicode_Encode()’: use ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): 637. or
     *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 1537.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape()’ use *note
     PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(): 1538.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape()’ use *note
     PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(): 1539.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsLatin1String():
     153a.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsASCIIString():
     153b.

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()’

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(): 153c.
     or *note PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(): 153d. (with ‘CP_ACP’
     code_page)

   * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()’, ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated features,  Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>,  Up: Deprecated<15>

1.14.23.4 Deprecated features
.............................

The *note array: 8. module’s ‘'u'’ format code is now deprecated and
will be removed in Python 4 together with the rest of the (*note
Py_UNICODE: b7a.) API.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 3,  Prev: Deprecated<15>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 3

1.14.24 Porting to Python 3.3
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code.

* Menu:

* Porting Python code::
* Porting C code::
* Building C extensions::
* Command Line Switch Changes::


File: python.info,  Node: Porting Python code,  Next: Porting C code,  Up: Porting to Python 3 3

1.14.24.1 Porting Python code
.............................

   * Hash randomization is enabled by default.  Set the *note
     PYTHONHASHSEED: 1425. environment variable to ‘0’ to disable hash
     randomization.  See also the *note object.__hash__(): ec1. method.

   * bpo-12326(1): On Linux, sys.platform doesn’t contain the major
     version anymore.  It is now always “linux”, instead of “linux2” or
     “linux3” depending on the Linux version used to build Python.
     Replace sys.platform == “linux2” with
     sys.platform.startswith(“linux”), or directly sys.platform ==
     “linux” if you don’t need to support older Python versions.

   * bpo-13847(2), bpo-14180(3): *note time: f7. and *note datetime:
     33.: *note OverflowError: c57. is now raised instead of *note
     ValueError: 277. if a timestamp is out of range.  *note OSError:
     53c. is now raised if C functions ‘gmtime()’ or ‘localtime()’
     failed.

   * The default finders used by import now utilize a cache of what is
     contained within a specific directory.  If you create a Python
     source file or sourceless bytecode file, make sure to call *note
     importlib.invalidate_caches(): fcf. to clear out the cache for the
     finders to notice the new file.

   * *note ImportError: 1bd. now uses the full name of the module that
     was attempted to be imported.  Doctests that check ImportErrors”
     message will need to be updated to use the full name of the module
     instead of just the tail of the name.

   * The 'index' argument to *note __import__(): ca6. now defaults to 0
     instead of -1 and no longer support negative values.  It was an
     oversight when PEP 328(4) was implemented that the default value
     remained -1.  If you need to continue to perform a relative import
     followed by an absolute import, then perform the relative import
     using an index of 1, followed by another import using an index of
     0.  It is preferred, though, that you use *note
     importlib.import_module(): 927. rather than call ‘__import__()’
     directly.

   * *note __import__(): ca6. no longer allows one to use an index value
     other than 0 for top-level modules.  E.g.  ‘__import__('sys',
     level=1)’ is now an error.

   * Because *note sys.meta_path: 10e3. and *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd.
     now have finders on them by default, you will most likely want to
     use *note list.insert(): 1541. instead of *note list.append(): aba.
     to add to those lists.

   * Because ‘None’ is now inserted into *note sys.path_importer_cache:
     9db, if you are clearing out entries in the dictionary of paths
     that do not have a finder, you will need to remove keys paired with
     values of ‘None’ 'and' ‘imp.NullImporter’ to be
     backwards-compatible.  This will lead to extra overhead on older
     versions of Python that re-insert ‘None’ into
     ‘sys.path_importer_cache’ where it represents the use of implicit
     finders, but semantically it should not change anything.

   * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’ no longer specifies a ‘find_module()’
     abstract method that must be implemented.  If you were relying on
     subclasses to implement that method, make sure to check for the
     method’s existence first.  You will probably want to check for
     ‘find_loader()’ first, though, in the case of working with *note
     path entry finders: 1419.

   * *note pkgutil: ae. has been converted to use *note importlib: 7a.
     internally.  This eliminates many edge cases where the old
     behaviour of the PEP 302(5) import emulation failed to match the
     behaviour of the real import system.  The import emulation itself
     is still present, but is now deprecated.  The *note
     pkgutil.iter_importers(): 1542. and *note pkgutil.walk_packages():
     fbe. functions special case the standard import hooks so they are
     still supported even though they do not provide the non-standard
     ‘iter_modules()’ method.

   * A longstanding RFC-compliance bug (bpo-1079(6)) in the parsing done
     by *note email.header.decode_header(): 1465. has been fixed.  Code
     that uses the standard idiom to convert encoded headers into
     unicode (‘str(make_header(decode_header(h))’) will see no change,
     but code that looks at the individual tuples returned by
     decode_header will see that whitespace that precedes or follows
     ‘ASCII’ sections is now included in the ‘ASCII’ section.  Code that
     builds headers using ‘make_header’ should also continue to work
     without change, since ‘make_header’ continues to add whitespace
     between ‘ASCII’ and non-‘ASCII’ sections if it is not already
     present in the input strings.

   * *note email.utils.formataddr(): 1543. now does the correct content
     transfer encoding when passed non-‘ASCII’ display names.  Any code
     that depended on the previous buggy behavior that preserved the
     non-‘ASCII’ unicode in the formatted output string will need to be
     changed (bpo-1690608(7)).

   * *note poplib.POP3.quit(): 1544. may now raise protocol errors like
     all other ‘poplib’ methods.  Code that assumes ‘quit’ does not
     raise *note poplib.error_proto: 1545. errors may need to be changed
     if errors on ‘quit’ are encountered by a particular application
     (bpo-11291(8)).

   * The ‘strict’ argument to *note email.parser.Parser: 1546,
     deprecated since Python 2.4, has finally been removed.

   * The deprecated method ‘unittest.TestCase.assertSameElements’ has
     been removed.

   * The deprecated variable ‘time.accept2dyear’ has been removed.

   * The deprecated ‘Context._clamp’ attribute has been removed from the
     *note decimal: 39. module.  It was previously replaced by the
     public attribute *note clamp: 1547.  (See bpo-8540(9).)

   * The undocumented internal helper class ‘SSLFakeFile’ has been
     removed from *note smtplib: d2, since its functionality has long
     been provided directly by *note socket.socket.makefile(): 1548.

   * Passing a negative value to *note time.sleep(): a8c. on Windows now
     raises an error instead of sleeping forever.  It has always raised
     an error on posix.

   * The ‘ast.__version__’ constant has been removed.  If you need to
     make decisions affected by the AST version, use *note
     sys.version_info: 2fc. to make the decision.

   * Code that used to work around the fact that the *note threading:
     f6. module used factory functions by subclassing the private
     classes will need to change to subclass the now-public classes.

   * The undocumented debugging machinery in the threading module has
     been removed, simplifying the code.  This should have no effect on
     production code, but is mentioned here in case any application
     debug frameworks were interacting with it (bpo-13550(10)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12326

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13847

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14180

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1079

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1690608

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13550


File: python.info,  Node: Porting C code,  Next: Building C extensions,  Prev: Porting Python code,  Up: Porting to Python 3 3

1.14.24.2 Porting C code
........................

   * In the course of changes to the buffer API the undocumented
     ‘smalltable’ member of the *note Py_buffer: b3a. structure has been
     removed and the layout of the ‘PyMemoryViewObject’ has changed.

     All extensions relying on the relevant parts in ‘memoryobject.h’ or
     ‘object.h’ must be rebuilt.

   * Due to *note PEP 393: 13e6, the *note Py_UNICODE: b7a. type and all
     functions using this type are deprecated (but will stay available
     for at least five years).  If you were using low-level Unicode APIs
     to construct and access unicode objects and you want to benefit of
     the memory footprint reduction provided by PEP 393(1), you have to
     convert your code to the new *note Unicode API: 1549.

     However, if you only have been using high-level functions such as
     *note PyUnicode_Concat(): 154a, *note PyUnicode_Join(): 154b. or
     *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e, your code will automatically
     take advantage of the new unicode representations.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicNumber(): 154c. now returns ‘-1’ upon
     failure.

   * As a negative value for the 'level' argument to *note __import__():
     ca6. is no longer valid, the same now holds for *note
     PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(): 154d.  This also means that the value
     of 'level' used by *note PyImport_ImportModuleEx(): 154e. is now
     ‘0’ instead of ‘-1’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Building C extensions,  Next: Command Line Switch Changes,  Prev: Porting C code,  Up: Porting to Python 3 3

1.14.24.3 Building C extensions
...............................

   * The range of possible file names for C extensions has been
     narrowed.  Very rarely used spellings have been suppressed: under
     POSIX, files named ‘xxxmodule.so’, ‘xxxmodule.abi3.so’ and
     ‘xxxmodule.cpython-*.so’ are no longer recognized as implementing
     the ‘xxx’ module.  If you had been generating such files, you have
     to switch to the other spellings (i.e., remove the ‘module’ string
     from the file names).

     (implemented in bpo-14040(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14040


File: python.info,  Node: Command Line Switch Changes,  Prev: Building C extensions,  Up: Porting to Python 3 3

1.14.24.4 Command Line Switch Changes
.....................................

   * The -Q command-line flag and related artifacts have been removed.
     Code checking sys.flags.division_warning will need updating.

     (bpo-10998(1), contributed by Éric Araujo.)

   * When ‘python’ is started with *note -S: 1551, ‘import site’ will no
     longer add site-specific paths to the module search paths.  In
     previous versions, it did.

     (bpo-11591(2), contributed by Carl Meyer with editions by Éric
     Araujo.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10998

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11591


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 2,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 1,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 3,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.15 What’s New In Python 3.2
=============================


Author: Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.2 as compared to 3.1.
Python 3.2 was released on February 20, 2011.  It focuses on a few
highlights and gives a few examples.  For full details, see the
Misc/NEWS(1) file.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 392(2) - Python 3.2 Release Schedule

* Menu:

* PEP 384; Defining a Stable ABI: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
* PEP 389; Argparse Command Line Parsing Module: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module.
* PEP 391; Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
* PEP 3148; The concurrent.futures module: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module.
* PEP 3147; PYC Repository Directories: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
* PEP 3149; ABI Version Tagged .so Files: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
* PEP 3333; Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<12>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules.
* Multi-threading::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<14>.
* Unicode::
* Codecs::
* Documentation::
* IDLE::
* Code Repository::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<5>.
* Porting to Python 3.2: Porting to Python 3 2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/076ca6c3c8df3030307e548d9be792ce3c1c6eea/Misc/NEWS

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0392/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI,  Next: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.1 PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI
-------------------------------------

In the past, extension modules built for one Python version were often
not usable with other Python versions.  Particularly on Windows, every
feature release of Python required rebuilding all extension modules that
one wanted to use.  This requirement was the result of the free access
to Python interpreter internals that extension modules could use.

With Python 3.2, an alternative approach becomes available: extension
modules which restrict themselves to a limited API (by defining
Py_LIMITED_API) cannot use many of the internals, but are constrained to
a set of API functions that are promised to be stable for several
releases.  As a consequence, extension modules built for 3.2 in that
mode will also work with 3.3, 3.4, and so on.  Extension modules that
make use of details of memory structures can still be built, but will
need to be recompiled for every feature release.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 384(1) - Defining a Stable ABI

     PEP written by Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module,  Next: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Prev: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.2 PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module
----------------------------------------------------

A new module for command line parsing, *note argparse: 7, was introduced
to overcome the limitations of *note optparse: a4. which did not provide
support for positional arguments (not just options), subcommands,
required options and other common patterns of specifying and validating
options.

This module has already had widespread success in the community as a
third-party module.  Being more fully featured than its predecessor, the
*note argparse: 7. module is now the preferred module for command-line
processing.  The older module is still being kept available because of
the substantial amount of legacy code that depends on it.

Here’s an annotated example parser showing features like limiting
results to a set of choices, specifying a 'metavar' in the help screen,
validating that one or more positional arguments is present, and making
a required option:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
                 description = 'Manage servers',         # main description for help
                 epilog = 'Tested on Solaris and Linux') # displayed after help
     parser.add_argument('action',                       # argument name
                 choices = ['deploy', 'start', 'stop'],  # three allowed values
                 help = 'action on each target')         # help msg
     parser.add_argument('targets',
                 metavar = 'HOSTNAME',                   # var name used in help msg
                 nargs = '+',                            # require one or more targets
                 help = 'url for target machines')       # help msg explanation
     parser.add_argument('-u', '--user',                 # -u or --user option
                 required = True,                        # make it a required argument
                 help = 'login as user')

Example of calling the parser on a command string:

     >>> cmd = 'deploy sneezy.example.com sleepy.example.com -u skycaptain'
     >>> result = parser.parse_args(cmd.split())
     >>> result.action
     'deploy'
     >>> result.targets
     ['sneezy.example.com', 'sleepy.example.com']
     >>> result.user
     'skycaptain'

Example of the parser’s automatically generated help:

     >>> parser.parse_args('-h'.split())

     usage: manage_cloud.py [-h] -u USER
                            {deploy,start,stop} HOSTNAME [HOSTNAME ...]

     Manage servers

     positional arguments:
       {deploy,start,stop}   action on each target
       HOSTNAME              url for target machines

     optional arguments:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -u USER, --user USER  login as user

     Tested on Solaris and Linux

An especially nice *note argparse: 7. feature is the ability to define
subparsers, each with their own argument patterns and help displays:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='HELM')
     subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()

     parser_l = subparsers.add_parser('launch', help='Launch Control')   # first subgroup
     parser_l.add_argument('-m', '--missiles', action='store_true')
     parser_l.add_argument('-t', '--torpedos', action='store_true')

     parser_m = subparsers.add_parser('move', help='Move Vessel',        # second subgroup
                                      aliases=('steer', 'turn'))         # equivalent names
     parser_m.add_argument('-c', '--course', type=int, required=True)
     parser_m.add_argument('-s', '--speed', type=int, default=0)

     $ ./helm.py --help                         # top level help (launch and move)
     $ ./helm.py launch --help                  # help for launch options
     $ ./helm.py launch --missiles              # set missiles=True and torpedos=False
     $ ./helm.py steer --course 180 --speed 5   # set movement parameters

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 389(1) - New Command Line Parsing Module

     PEP written by Steven Bethard.

*note Migrating optparse code to argparse: 1557. for details on the
differences from *note optparse: a4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Next: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module,  Prev: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.3 PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging
----------------------------------------------------------

The *note logging: 8a. module provided two kinds of configuration, one
style with function calls for each option or another style driven by an
external file saved in a *note configparser: 26. format.  Those options
did not provide the flexibility to create configurations from JSON or
YAML files, nor did they support incremental configuration, which is
needed for specifying logger options from a command line.

To support a more flexible style, the module now offers *note
logging.config.dictConfig(): 1559. for specifying logging configuration
with plain Python dictionaries.  The configuration options include
formatters, handlers, filters, and loggers.  Here’s a working example of
a configuration dictionary:

     {"version": 1,
      "formatters": {"brief": {"format": "%(levelname)-8s: %(name)-15s: %(message)s"},
                     "full": {"format": "%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s"}
                     },
      "handlers": {"console": {
                        "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                        "formatter": "brief",
                        "level": "INFO",
                        "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"},
                   "console_priority": {
                        "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                        "formatter": "full",
                        "level": "ERROR",
                        "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"}
                   },
      "root": {"level": "DEBUG", "handlers": ["console", "console_priority"]}}

If that dictionary is stored in a file called ‘conf.json’, it can be
loaded and called with code like this:

     >>> import json, logging.config
     >>> with open('conf.json') as f:
     ...     conf = json.load(f)
     ...
     >>> logging.config.dictConfig(conf)
     >>> logging.info("Transaction completed normally")
     INFO    : root           : Transaction completed normally
     >>> logging.critical("Abnormal termination")
     2011-02-17 11:14:36,694 root            CRITICAL Abnormal termination

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 391(1) - Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging

     PEP written by Vinay Sajip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module,  Next: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Prev: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.4 PEP 3148: The ‘concurrent.futures’ module
------------------------------------------------

Code for creating and managing concurrency is being collected in a new
top-level namespace, 'concurrent'.  Its first member is a 'futures'
package which provides a uniform high-level interface for managing
threads and processes.

The design for *note concurrent.futures: 24. was inspired by the
'java.util.concurrent' package.  In that model, a running call and its
result are represented by a *note Future: 155b. object that abstracts
features common to threads, processes, and remote procedure calls.  That
object supports status checks (running or done), timeouts,
cancellations, adding callbacks, and access to results or exceptions.

The primary offering of the new module is a pair of executor classes for
launching and managing calls.  The goal of the executors is to make it
easier to use existing tools for making parallel calls.  They save the
effort needed to setup a pool of resources, launch the calls, create a
results queue, add time-out handling, and limit the total number of
threads, processes, or remote procedure calls.

Ideally, each application should share a single executor across multiple
components so that process and thread limits can be centrally managed.
This solves the design challenge that arises when each component has its
own competing strategy for resource management.

Both classes share a common interface with three methods: *note
submit(): e44. for scheduling a callable and returning a *note Future:
155b. object; *note map(): 473. for scheduling many asynchronous calls
at a time, and *note shutdown(): cbe. for freeing resources.  The class
is a *note context manager: 478. and can be used in a *note with: 20a.
statement to assure that resources are automatically released when
currently pending futures are done executing.

A simple of example of *note ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. is a launch of
four parallel threads for copying files:

     import concurrent.futures, shutil
     with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
         e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest4.txt')

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3148(1) - Futures – Execute Computations Asynchronously

     PEP written by Brian Quinlan.

*note Code for Threaded Parallel URL reads: 155c, an example using
threads to fetch multiple web pages in parallel.

*note Code for computing prime numbers in parallel: 155d, an example
demonstrating *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3148/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Next: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Prev: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.5 PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories
-------------------------------------------

Python’s scheme for caching bytecode in '.pyc' files did not work well
in environments with multiple Python interpreters.  If one interpreter
encountered a cached file created by another interpreter, it would
recompile the source and overwrite the cached file, thus losing the
benefits of caching.

The issue of «pyc fights» has become more pronounced as it has become
commonplace for Linux distributions to ship with multiple versions of
Python.  These conflicts also arise with CPython alternatives such as
Unladen Swallow.

To solve this problem, Python’s import machinery has been extended to
use distinct filenames for each interpreter.  Instead of Python 3.2 and
Python 3.3 and Unladen Swallow each competing for a file called
«mymodule.pyc», they will now look for «mymodule.cpython-32.pyc»,
«mymodule.cpython-33.pyc», and «mymodule.unladen10.pyc».  And to prevent
all of these new files from cluttering source directories, the 'pyc'
files are now collected in a «__pycache__» directory stored under the
package directory.

Aside from the filenames and target directories, the new scheme has a
few aspects that are visible to the programmer:

   * Imported modules now have a ‘__cached__’ attribute which stores the
     name of the actual file that was imported:

          >>> import collections
          >>> collections.__cached__
          'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'

   * The tag that is unique to each interpreter is accessible from the
     ‘imp’ module:

          >>> import imp
          >>> imp.get_tag()
          'cpython-32'

   * Scripts that try to deduce source filename from the imported file
     now need to be smarter.  It is no longer sufficient to simply strip
     the «c» from a «.pyc» filename.  Instead, use the new functions in
     the ‘imp’ module:

          >>> imp.source_from_cache('c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc')
          'c:/py32/lib/collections.py'
          >>> imp.cache_from_source('c:/py32/lib/collections.py')
          'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc'

   * The *note py_compile: bb. and *note compileall: 21. modules have
     been updated to reflect the new naming convention and target
     directory.  The command-line invocation of 'compileall' has new
     options: ‘-i’ for specifying a list of files and directories to
     compile and ‘-b’ which causes bytecode files to be written to their
     legacy location rather than '__pycache__'.

   * The *note importlib.abc: 7b. module has been updated with new *note
     abstract base classes: 155f. for loading bytecode files.  The
     obsolete ABCs, ‘PyLoader’ and ‘PyPycLoader’, have been deprecated
     (instructions on how to stay Python 3.1 compatible are included
     with the documentation).

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3147(1) - PYC Repository Directories

     PEP written by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Next: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Prev: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.6 PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files
---------------------------------------------

The PYC repository directory allows multiple bytecode cache files to be
co-located.  This PEP implements a similar mechanism for shared object
files by giving them a common directory and distinct names for each
version.

The common directory is «pyshared» and the file names are made distinct
by identifying the Python implementation (such as CPython, PyPy, Jython,
etc.), the major and minor version numbers, and optional build flags
(such as «d» for debug, «m» for pymalloc, «u» for wide-unicode).  For an
arbitrary package «foo», you may see these files when the distribution
package is installed:

     /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-32m.so
     /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-33md.so

In Python itself, the tags are accessible from functions in the *note
sysconfig: e4. module:

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('SOABI')       # find the version tag
     'cpython-32mu'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX')  # find the full filename extension
     '.cpython-32mu.so'

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3149(1) - ABI Version Tagged .so Files

     PEP written by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Next: Other Language Changes<12>,  Prev: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.7 PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1
-----------------------------------------------------------

This informational PEP clarifies how bytes/text issues are to be handled
by the WSGI protocol.  The challenge is that string handling in Python 3
is most conveniently handled with the *note str: 1df. type even though
the HTTP protocol is itself bytes oriented.

The PEP differentiates so-called 'native strings' that are used for
request/response headers and metadata versus 'byte strings' which are
used for the bodies of requests and responses.

The 'native strings' are always of type *note str: 1df. but are
restricted to code points between 'U+0000' through 'U+00FF' which are
translatable to bytes using 'Latin-1' encoding.  These strings are used
for the keys and values in the environment dictionary and for response
headers and statuses in the ‘start_response()’ function.  They must
follow RFC 2616(1) with respect to encoding.  That is, they must either
be 'ISO-8859-1' characters or use RFC 2047(2) MIME encoding.

For developers porting WSGI applications from Python 2, here are the
salient points:

   * If the app already used strings for headers in Python 2, no change
     is needed.

   * If instead, the app encoded output headers or decoded input
     headers, then the headers will need to be re-encoded to Latin-1.
     For example, an output header encoded in utf-8 was using
     ‘h.encode('utf-8')’ now needs to convert from bytes to native
     strings using ‘h.encode('utf-8').decode('latin-1')’.

   * Values yielded by an application or sent using the ‘write()’ method
     must be byte strings.  The ‘start_response()’ function and environ
     must use native strings.  The two cannot be mixed.

For server implementers writing CGI-to-WSGI pathways or other CGI-style
protocols, the users must to be able access the environment using native
strings even though the underlying platform may have a different
convention.  To bridge this gap, the *note wsgiref: 121. module has a
new function, *note wsgiref.handlers.read_environ(): 1562. for
transcoding CGI variables from *note os.environ: 4e5. into native
strings and returning a new dictionary.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3333(3) - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1

     PEP written by Phillip Eby.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<12>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Prev: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.8 Other Language Changes
-----------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * String formatting for *note format(): 439. and *note str.format():
     a12. gained new capabilities for the format character '#'.
     Previously, for integers in binary, octal, or hexadecimal, it
     caused the output to be prefixed with “0b”, “0o”, or “0x”
     respectively.  Now it can also handle floats, complex, and Decimal,
     causing the output to always have a decimal point even when no
     digits follow it.

          >>> format(20, '#o')
          '0o24'
          >>> format(12.34, '#5.0f')
          '  12.'

     (Suggested by Mark Dickinson and implemented by Eric Smith in
     bpo-7094(1).)

   * There is also a new *note str.format_map(): 1190. method that
     extends the capabilities of the existing *note str.format(): a12.
     method by accepting arbitrary *note mapping: 1564. objects.  This
     new method makes it possible to use string formatting with any of
     Python’s many dictionary-like objects such as *note defaultdict:
     1565, *note Shelf: 1344, *note ConfigParser: 6e4, or *note dbm: 34.
     It is also useful with custom *note dict: 188. subclasses that
     normalize keys before look-up or that supply a *note __missing__():
     1566. method for unknown keys:

          >>> import shelve
          >>> d = shelve.open('tmp.shl')
          >>> 'The {project_name} status is {status} as of {date}'.format_map(d)
          'The testing project status is green as of February 15, 2011'

          >>> class LowerCasedDict(dict):
          ...     def __getitem__(self, key):
          ...         return dict.__getitem__(self, key.lower())
          ...
          >>> lcd = LowerCasedDict(part='widgets', quantity=10)
          >>> 'There are {QUANTITY} {Part} in stock'.format_map(lcd)
          'There are 10 widgets in stock'

          >>> class PlaceholderDict(dict):
          ...     def __missing__(self, key):
          ...         return '<{}>'.format(key)
          ...
          >>> 'Hello {name}, welcome to {location}'.format_map(PlaceholderDict())
          'Hello <name>, welcome to <location>'

     (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith in
     bpo-6081(2).)

   * The interpreter can now be started with a quiet option, ‘-q’, to
     prevent the copyright and version information from being displayed
     in the interactive mode.  The option can be introspected using the
     *note sys.flags: a7c. attribute:

          $ python -q
          >>> sys.flags
          sys.flags(debug=0, division_warning=0, inspect=0, interactive=0,
          optimize=0, dont_write_bytecode=0, no_user_site=0, no_site=0,
          ignore_environment=0, verbose=0, bytes_warning=0, quiet=1)

     (Contributed by Marcin Wojdyr in bpo-1772833(3)).

   * The *note hasattr(): 8e2. function works by calling *note
     getattr(): f8f. and detecting whether an exception is raised.  This
     technique allows it to detect methods created dynamically by *note
     __getattr__(): 8e3. or *note __getattribute__(): f90. which would
     otherwise be absent from the class dictionary.  Formerly, 'hasattr'
     would catch any exception, possibly masking genuine errors.  Now,
     'hasattr' has been tightened to only catch *note AttributeError:
     1a9. and let other exceptions pass through:

          >>> class A:
          ...     @property
          ...     def f(self):
          ...         return 1 // 0
          ...
          >>> a = A()
          >>> hasattr(a, 'f')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

     (Discovered by Yury Selivanov and fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-9666(4).)

   * The *note str(): 1df. of a float or complex number is now the same
     as its *note repr(): 45b.  Previously, the ‘str()’ form was shorter
     but that just caused confusion and is no longer needed now that the
     shortest possible ‘repr()’ is displayed by default:

          >>> import math
          >>> repr(math.pi)
          '3.141592653589793'
          >>> str(math.pi)
          '3.141592653589793'

     (Proposed and implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-9337(5).)

   * *note memoryview: 1d2. objects now have a *note release(): 1567.
     method and they also now support the context management protocol.
     This allows timely release of any resources that were acquired when
     requesting a buffer from the original object.

          >>> with memoryview(b'abcdefgh') as v:
          ...     print(v.tolist())
          [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104]

     (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9757(6).)

   * Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace
     if it occurs as a free variable in a nested block:

          def outer(x):
              def inner():
                  return x
              inner()
              del x

     This is now allowed.  Remember that the target of an *note except:
     447. clause is cleared, so this code which used to work with Python
     2.6, raised a *note SyntaxError: 17e. with Python 3.1 and now works
     again:

          def f():
              def print_error():
                  print(e)
              try:
                  something
              except Exception as e:
                  print_error()
                  # implicit "del e" here

     (See bpo-4617(7).)

   * *note Struct sequence types: 1568. are now subclasses of tuple.
     This means that C structures like those returned by *note
     os.stat(): 4f5, *note time.gmtime(): 1569, and *note
     sys.version_info: 2fc. now work like a *note named tuple: a3d. and
     now work with functions and methods that expect a tuple as an
     argument.  This is a big step forward in making the C structures as
     flexible as their pure Python counterparts:

          >>> import sys
          >>> isinstance(sys.version_info, tuple)
          True
          >>> 'Version %d.%d.%d %s(%d)' % sys.version_info
          'Version 3.2.0 final(0)'

     (Suggested by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis and implemented
     by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-8413(8).)

   * Warnings are now easier to control using the *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
     1c1. environment variable as an alternative to using ‘-W’ at the
     command line:

          $ export PYTHONWARNINGS='ignore::RuntimeWarning::,once::UnicodeWarning::'

     (Suggested by Barry Warsaw and implemented by Philip Jenvey in
     bpo-7301(9).)

   * A new warning category, *note ResourceWarning: 74f, has been added.
     It is emitted when potential issues with resource consumption or
     cleanup are detected.  It is silenced by default in normal release
     builds but can be enabled through the means provided by the *note
     warnings: 11b. module, or on the command line.

     A *note ResourceWarning: 74f. is issued at interpreter shutdown if
     the *note gc.garbage: 156a. list isn’t empty, and if *note
     gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE: 156b. is set, all uncollectable objects are
     printed.  This is meant to make the programmer aware that their
     code contains object finalization issues.

     A *note ResourceWarning: 74f. is also issued when a *note file
     object: 156c. is destroyed without having been explicitly closed.
     While the deallocator for such object ensures it closes the
     underlying operating system resource (usually, a file descriptor),
     the delay in deallocating the object could produce various issues,
     especially under Windows.  Here is an example of enabling the
     warning from the command line:

          $ python -q -Wdefault
          >>> f = open("foo", "wb")
          >>> del f
          __main__:1: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.BufferedWriter name='foo'>

     (Added by Antoine Pitrou and Georg Brandl in bpo-10093(10) and
     bpo-477863(11).)

   * *note range: d0f. objects now support 'index' and 'count' methods.
     This is part of an effort to make more objects fully implement the
     *note collections.Sequence: 156d. *note abstract base class: 155f.
     As a result, the language will have a more uniform API. In
     addition, ‘range’ objects now support slicing and negative indices,
     even with values larger than *note sys.maxsize: 156e.  This makes
     'range' more interoperable with lists:

          >>> range(0, 100, 2).count(10)
          1
          >>> range(0, 100, 2).index(10)
          5
          >>> range(0, 100, 2)[5]
          10
          >>> range(0, 100, 2)[0:5]
          range(0, 10, 2)

     (Contributed by Daniel Stutzbach in bpo-9213(12), by Alexander
     Belopolsky in bpo-2690(13), and by Nick Coghlan in bpo-10889(14).)

   * The *note callable(): 156f. builtin function from Py2.x was
     resurrected.  It provides a concise, readable alternative to using
     an *note abstract base class: 155f. in an expression like
     ‘isinstance(x, collections.Callable)’:

          >>> callable(max)
          True
          >>> callable(20)
          False

     (See bpo-10518(15).)

   * Python’s import mechanism can now load modules installed in
     directories with non-ASCII characters in the path name.  This
     solved an aggravating problem with home directories for users with
     non-ASCII characters in their usernames.

     (Required extensive work by Victor Stinner in bpo-9425(16).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7094

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772833

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9666

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9337

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9757

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4617

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8413

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10093

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=477863

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9213

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2690

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10889

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10518

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9425


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Next: Multi-threading,  Prev: Other Language Changes<12>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.9 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------------

Python’s standard library has undergone significant maintenance efforts
and quality improvements.

The biggest news for Python 3.2 is that the *note email: 3e. package,
*note mailbox: 8e. module, and ‘nntplib’ modules now work correctly with
the bytes/text model in Python 3.  For the first time, there is correct
handling of messages with mixed encodings.

Throughout the standard library, there has been more careful attention
to encodings and text versus bytes issues.  In particular, interactions
with the operating system are now better able to exchange non-ASCII data
using the Windows MBCS encoding, locale-aware encodings, or UTF-8.

Another significant win is the addition of substantially better support
for 'SSL' connections and security certificates.

In addition, more classes now implement a *note context manager: 478. to
support convenient and reliable resource clean-up using a *note with:
20a. statement.

* Menu:

* email: email<8>.
* elementtree::
* functools: functools<10>.
* itertools: itertools<8>.
* collections: collections<9>.
* threading: threading<12>.
* datetime and time::
* math: math<12>.
* abc: abc<3>.
* io: io<9>.
* reprlib::
* logging: logging<8>.
* csv: csv<5>.
* contextlib: contextlib<9>.
* decimal and fractions::
* ftp::
* popen::
* select: select<3>.
* gzip and zipfile::
* tarfile: tarfile<11>.
* hashlib: hashlib<8>.
* ast: ast<9>.
* os: os<15>.
* shutil: shutil<8>.
* sqlite3: sqlite3<13>.
* html: html<3>.
* socket: socket<13>.
* ssl: ssl<14>.
* nntp::
* certificates::
* imaplib: imaplib<5>.
* http.client: http client<5>.
* unittest: unittest<13>.
* random: random<5>.
* poplib: poplib<4>.
* asyncore: asyncore<2>.
* tempfile: tempfile<5>.
* inspect: inspect<12>.
* pydoc: pydoc<7>.
* dis: dis<6>.
* dbm: dbm<8>.
* ctypes: ctypes<5>.
* site: site<4>.
* sysconfig: sysconfig<6>.
* pdb: pdb<11>.
* configparser: configparser<6>.
* urllib.parse: urllib parse<7>.
* mailbox::
* turtledemo::


File: python.info,  Node: email<8>,  Next: elementtree,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.1 email
..............

The usability of the *note email: 3e. package in Python 3 has been
mostly fixed by the extensive efforts of R. David Murray.  The problem
was that emails are typically read and stored in the form of *note
bytes: 1c7. rather than *note str: 1df. text, and they may contain
multiple encodings within a single email.  So, the email package had to
be extended to parse and generate email messages in bytes format.

   * New functions *note message_from_bytes(): 1572. and *note
     message_from_binary_file(): 1573, and new classes *note
     BytesFeedParser: 1574. and *note BytesParser: 1575. allow binary
     message data to be parsed into model objects.

   * Given bytes input to the model, *note get_payload(): 1576. will by
     default decode a message body that has a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit' using the charset specified
     in the MIME headers and return the resulting string.

   * Given bytes input to the model, *note Generator: 1577. will convert
     message bodies that have a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit' to
     instead have a '7bit' ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.

     Headers with unencoded non-ASCII bytes are deemed to be RFC
     2047(1)-encoded using the 'unknown-8bit' character set.

   * A new class *note BytesGenerator: 1578. produces bytes as output,
     preserving any unchanged non-ASCII data that was present in the
     input used to build the model, including message bodies with a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit'.

   * The *note smtplib: d2. *note SMTP: cfa. class now accepts a byte
     string for the 'msg' argument to the *note sendmail(): 120a.
     method, and a new method, *note send_message(): 120b. accepts a
     *note Message: 780. object and can optionally obtain the
     'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' addresses directly from the object.

(Proposed and implemented by R. David Murray, bpo-4661(2) and
bpo-10321(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10321


File: python.info,  Node: elementtree,  Next: functools<10>,  Prev: email<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.2 elementtree
....................

The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. package and its
‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ counterpart have been updated to version 1.3.

Several new and useful functions and methods have been added:

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist(): 157a. which builds an
     XML document from a sequence of fragments

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace(): 157b. for
     registering a global namespace prefix

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist(): 139f. for string
     representation including all sublists

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend(): 157c. for appending a
     sequence of zero or more elements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind(): 157d. searches an
     element and subelements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext(): 157e. creates a
     text iterator over an element and its subelements

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end(): 157f. closes the
     current element

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype(): e5d. handles a
     doctype declaration

Two methods have been deprecated:

   * ‘xml.etree.ElementTree.getchildren()’ use ‘list(elem)’ instead.

   * ‘xml.etree.ElementTree.getiterator()’ use ‘Element.iter’ instead.

For details of the update, see Introducing ElementTree(1) on Fredrik
Lundh’s website.

(Contributed by Florent Xicluna and Fredrik Lundh, bpo-6472(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472


File: python.info,  Node: functools<10>,  Next: itertools<8>,  Prev: elementtree,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.3 functools
..................

   * The *note functools: 62. module includes a new decorator for
     caching function calls.  *note functools.lru_cache(): db3. can save
     repeated queries to an external resource whenever the results are
     expected to be the same.

     For example, adding a caching decorator to a database query
     function can save database accesses for popular searches:

          >>> import functools
          >>> @functools.lru_cache(maxsize=300)
          ... def get_phone_number(name):
          ...     c = conn.cursor()
          ...     c.execute('SELECT phonenumber FROM phonelist WHERE name=?', (name,))
          ...     return c.fetchone()[0]

          >>> for name in user_requests:
          ...     get_phone_number(name)        # cached lookup

     To help with choosing an effective cache size, the wrapped function
     is instrumented for tracking cache statistics:

          >>> get_phone_number.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=4805, misses=980, maxsize=300, currsize=300)

     If the phonelist table gets updated, the outdated contents of the
     cache can be cleared with:

          >>> get_phone_number.cache_clear()

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design ideas
     from Jim Baker, Miki Tebeka, and Nick Coghlan; see recipe
     498245(1), recipe 577479(2), bpo-10586(3), and bpo-10593(4).)

   * The *note functools.wraps(): 1307. decorator now adds a
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute pointing to the original callable function.
     This allows wrapped functions to be introspected.  It also copies
     *note __annotations__: 1581. if defined.  And now it also
     gracefully skips over missing attributes such as *note __doc__:
     1582. which might not be defined for the wrapped callable.

     In the above example, the cache can be removed by recovering the
     original function:

          >>> get_phone_number = get_phone_number.__wrapped__    # uncached function

     (By Nick Coghlan and Terrence Cole; bpo-9567(5), bpo-3445(6), and
     bpo-8814(7).)

   * To help write classes with rich comparison methods, a new decorator
     *note functools.total_ordering(): 12ed. will use existing equality
     and inequality methods to fill in the remaining methods.

     For example, supplying '__eq__' and '__lt__' will enable *note
     total_ordering(): 12ed. to fill-in '__le__', '__gt__' and '__ge__':

          @total_ordering
          class Student:
              def __eq__(self, other):
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

              def __lt__(self, other):
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

     With the 'total_ordering' decorator, the remaining comparison
     methods are filled in automatically.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * To aid in porting programs from Python 2, the *note
     functools.cmp_to_key(): 1583. function converts an old-style
     comparison function to modern *note key function: 11ba.:

          >>> # locale-aware sort order
          >>> sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll))

     For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see the Sorting
     HowTo(8) tutorial.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/498245-lru-and-lfu-cache-decorators/

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577479-simple-caching-decorator/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10586

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10593

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9567

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3445

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8814

   (8) https://wiki.python.org/moin/HowTo/Sorting/


File: python.info,  Node: itertools<8>,  Next: collections<9>,  Prev: functools<10>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.4 itertools
..................

   * The *note itertools: 84. module has a new *note accumulate(): dbf.
     function modeled on APL’s 'scan' operator and Numpy’s 'accumulate'
     function:

          >>> from itertools import accumulate
          >>> list(accumulate([8, 2, 50]))
          [8, 10, 60]

          >>> prob_dist = [0.1, 0.4, 0.2, 0.3]
          >>> list(accumulate(prob_dist))      # cumulative probability distribution
          [0.1, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0]

     For an example using *note accumulate(): dbf, see the *note
     examples for the random module: 1585.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design
     suggestions from Mark Dickinson.)


File: python.info,  Node: collections<9>,  Next: threading<12>,  Prev: itertools<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.5 collections
....................

   * The *note collections.Counter: 204. class now has two forms of
     in-place subtraction, the existing '-=' operator for saturating
     subtraction(1) and the new *note subtract(): 1587. method for
     regular subtraction.  The former is suitable for multisets(2) which
     only have positive counts, and the latter is more suitable for use
     cases that allow negative counts:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
          >>> tally -= Counter(dogs=2, cats=8)    # saturating subtraction
          >>> tally
          Counter({'dogs': 3})

          >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
          >>> tally.subtract(dogs=2, cats=8)      # regular subtraction
          >>> tally
          Counter({'dogs': 3, 'cats': -5})

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5. class has a new method
     *note move_to_end(): 1588. which takes an existing key and moves it
     to either the first or last position in the ordered sequence.

     The default is to move an item to the last position.  This is
     equivalent of renewing an entry with ‘od[k] = od.pop(k)’.

     A fast move-to-end operation is useful for resequencing entries.
     For example, an ordered dictionary can be used to track order of
     access by aging entries from the oldest to the most recently
     accessed.

          >>> from collections import OrderedDict
          >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys(['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e'])
          >>> list(d)
          ['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e']
          >>> d.move_to_end('X')
          >>> list(d)
          ['a', 'b', 'd', 'e', 'X']

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note collections.deque: 9d6. class grew two new methods *note
     count(): 1589. and *note reverse(): 158a. that make them more
     substitutable for *note list: 4d9. objects:

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> d = deque('simsalabim')
          >>> d.count('s')
          2
          >>> d.reverse()
          >>> d
          deque(['m', 'i', 'b', 'a', 'l', 'a', 's', 'm', 'i', 's'])

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_arithmetic

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset


File: python.info,  Node: threading<12>,  Next: datetime and time,  Prev: collections<9>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.6 threading
..................

The *note threading: f6. module has a new *note Barrier: 158c.
synchronization class for making multiple threads wait until all of them
have reached a common barrier point.  Barriers are useful for making
sure that a task with multiple preconditions does not run until all of
the predecessor tasks are complete.

Barriers can work with an arbitrary number of threads.  This is a
generalization of a Rendezvous(1) which is defined for only two threads.

Implemented as a two-phase cyclic barrier, *note Barrier: 158c. objects
are suitable for use in loops.  The separate 'filling' and 'draining'
phases assure that all threads get released (drained) before any one of
them can loop back and re-enter the barrier.  The barrier fully resets
after each cycle.

Example of using barriers:

     from threading import Barrier, Thread

     def get_votes(site):
         ballots = conduct_election(site)
         all_polls_closed.wait()        # do not count until all polls are closed
         totals = summarize(ballots)
         publish(site, totals)

     all_polls_closed = Barrier(len(sites))
     for site in sites:
         Thread(target=get_votes, args=(site,)).start()

In this example, the barrier enforces a rule that votes cannot be
counted at any polling site until all polls are closed.  Notice how a
solution with a barrier is similar to one with *note
threading.Thread.join(): 158d, but the threads stay alive and continue
to do work (summarizing ballots) after the barrier point is crossed.

If any of the predecessor tasks can hang or be delayed, a barrier can be
created with an optional 'timeout' parameter.  Then if the timeout
period elapses before all the predecessor tasks reach the barrier point,
all waiting threads are released and a *note BrokenBarrierError: 158e.
exception is raised:

     def get_votes(site):
         ballots = conduct_election(site)
         try:
             all_polls_closed.wait(timeout=midnight - time.now())
         except BrokenBarrierError:
             lockbox = seal_ballots(ballots)
             queue.put(lockbox)
         else:
             totals = summarize(ballots)
             publish(site, totals)

In this example, the barrier enforces a more robust rule.  If some
election sites do not finish before midnight, the barrier times-out and
the ballots are sealed and deposited in a queue for later handling.

See Barrier Synchronization Patterns(2) for more examples of how
barriers can be used in parallel computing.  Also, there is a simple but
thorough explanation of barriers in The Little Book of Semaphores(3),
'section 3.6'.

(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson with an API review by Jeffrey
Yasskin in bpo-8777(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_rendezvous

   (2) 
https://osl.cs.illinois.edu/media/papers/karmani-2009-barrier_synchronization_pattern.pdf

   (3) https://greenteapress.com/semaphores/LittleBookOfSemaphores.pdf

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8777


File: python.info,  Node: datetime and time,  Next: math<12>,  Prev: threading<12>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.7 datetime and time
..........................

   * The *note datetime: 33. module has a new type *note timezone: 146c.
     that implements the *note tzinfo: 9d8. interface by returning a
     fixed UTC offset and timezone name.  This makes it easier to create
     timezone-aware datetime objects:

          >>> import datetime as dt

          >>> dt.datetime.now(dt.timezone.utc)
          datetime.datetime(2010, 12, 8, 21, 4, 2, 923754, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

          >>> dt.datetime.strptime("01/01/2000 12:00 +0000", "%m/%d/%Y %H:%M %z")
          datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1, 12, 0, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

   * Also, *note timedelta: d94. objects can now be multiplied by *note
     float: 327. and divided by ‘float’ and *note int: 326. objects.
     And ‘timedelta’ objects can now divide one another.

   * The *note datetime.date.strftime(): 1052. method is no longer
     restricted to years after 1900.  The new supported year range is
     from 1000 to 9999 inclusive.

   * Whenever a two-digit year is used in a time tuple, the
     interpretation has been governed by ‘time.accept2dyear’.  The
     default is ‘True’ which means that for a two-digit year, the
     century is guessed according to the POSIX rules governing the ‘%y’
     strptime format.

     Starting with Py3.2, use of the century guessing heuristic will
     emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  Instead, it is recommended
     that ‘time.accept2dyear’ be set to ‘False’ so that large date
     ranges can be used without guesswork:

          >>> import time, warnings
          >>> warnings.resetwarnings()      # remove the default warning filters

          >>> time.accept2dyear = True      # guess whether 11 means 11 or 2011
          >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
          Warning (from warnings module):
            ...
          DeprecationWarning: Century info guessed for a 2-digit year.
          'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 2011'

          >>> time.accept2dyear = False     # use the full range of allowable dates
          >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
          'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 11'

     Several functions now have significantly expanded date ranges.
     When ‘time.accept2dyear’ is false, the *note time.asctime(): 1590.
     function will accept any year that fits in a C int, while the *note
     time.mktime(): 1591. and *note time.strftime(): 1592. functions
     will accept the full range supported by the corresponding operating
     system functions.

(Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky and Victor Stinner in
bpo-1289118(1), bpo-5094(2), bpo-6641(3), bpo-2706(4), bpo-1777412(5),
bpo-8013(6), and bpo-10827(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1289118

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5094

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6641

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2706

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1777412

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8013

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10827


File: python.info,  Node: math<12>,  Next: abc<3>,  Prev: datetime and time,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.8 math
.............

The *note math: 91. module has been updated with six new functions
inspired by the C99 standard.

The *note isfinite(): 1594. function provides a reliable and fast way to
detect special values.  It returns ‘True’ for regular numbers and
‘False’ for 'Nan' or 'Infinity':

     >>> from math import isfinite
     >>> [isfinite(x) for x in (123, 4.56, float('Nan'), float('Inf'))]
     [True, True, False, False]

The *note expm1(): 1595. function computes ‘e**x-1’ for small values of
'x' without incurring the loss of precision that usually accompanies the
subtraction of nearly equal quantities:

     >>> from math import expm1
     >>> expm1(0.013671875)   # more accurate way to compute e**x-1 for a small x
     0.013765762467652909

The *note erf(): f98. function computes a probability integral or
Gaussian error function(1).  The complementary error function, *note
erfc(): f99, is ‘1 - erf(x)’:

     >>> from math import erf, erfc, sqrt
     >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0))   # portion of normal distribution within 1 standard deviation
     0.682689492137086
     >>> erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))  # portion of normal distribution outside 1 standard deviation
     0.31731050786291404
     >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0)) + erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))
     1.0

The *note gamma(): 1596. function is a continuous extension of the
factorial function.  See ‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function’
for details.  Because the function is related to factorials, it grows
large even for small values of 'x', so there is also a *note lgamma():
1597. function for computing the natural logarithm of the gamma
function:

     >>> from math import gamma, lgamma
     >>> gamma(7.0)           # six factorial
     720.0
     >>> lgamma(801.0)        # log(800 factorial)
     4551.950730698041

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function


File: python.info,  Node: abc<3>,  Next: io<9>,  Prev: math<12>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.9 abc
............

The *note abc: 4. module now supports *note abstractclassmethod(): 1434.
and *note abstractstaticmethod(): 1435.

These tools make it possible to define an *note abstract base class:
155f. that requires a particular *note classmethod(): 69a. or *note
staticmethod(): 666. to be implemented:

     class Temperature(metaclass=abc.ABCMeta):
         @abc.abstractclassmethod
         def from_fahrenheit(cls, t):
             ...
         @abc.abstractclassmethod
         def from_celsius(cls, t):
             ...

(Patch submitted by Daniel Urban; bpo-5867(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5867


File: python.info,  Node: io<9>,  Next: reprlib,  Prev: abc<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.10 io
............

The *note io.BytesIO: 1255. has a new method, *note getbuffer(): 159a,
which provides functionality similar to *note memoryview(): 1d2.  It
creates an editable view of the data without making a copy.  The
buffer’s random access and support for slice notation are well-suited to
in-place editing:

     >>> REC_LEN, LOC_START, LOC_LEN = 34, 7, 11

     >>> def change_location(buffer, record_number, location):
     ...     start = record_number * REC_LEN + LOC_START
     ...     buffer[start: start+LOC_LEN] = location

     >>> import io

     >>> byte_stream = io.BytesIO(
     ...     b'G3805  storeroom  Main chassis    '
     ...     b'X7899  shipping   Reserve cog     '
     ...     b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'
     ... )
     >>> buffer = byte_stream.getbuffer()
     >>> change_location(buffer, 1, b'warehouse  ')
     >>> change_location(buffer, 0, b'showroom   ')
     >>> print(byte_stream.getvalue())
     b'G3805  showroom   Main chassis    '
     b'X7899  warehouse  Reserve cog     '
     b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5506(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5506


File: python.info,  Node: reprlib,  Next: logging<8>,  Prev: io<9>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.11 reprlib
.................

When writing a *note __repr__(): 1bc. method for a custom container, it
is easy to forget to handle the case where a member refers back to the
container itself.  Python’s builtin objects such as *note list: 4d9. and
*note set: 42b. handle self-reference by displaying «…» in the recursive
part of the representation string.

To help write such *note __repr__(): 1bc. methods, the *note reprlib:
c3. module has a new decorator, *note recursive_repr(): 159c, for
detecting recursive calls to ‘__repr__()’ and substituting a placeholder
string instead:

     >>> class MyList(list):
     ...     @recursive_repr()
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
     ...
     >>> m = MyList('abc')
     >>> m.append(m)
     >>> m.append('x')
     >>> print(m)
     <'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-9826(1) and bpo-9840(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9826

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9840


File: python.info,  Node: logging<8>,  Next: csv<5>,  Prev: reprlib,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.12 logging
.................

In addition to dictionary-based configuration described above, the *note
logging: 8a. package has many other improvements.

The logging documentation has been augmented by a *note basic tutorial:
159e, an *note advanced tutorial: 159f, and a *note cookbook: 15a0. of
logging recipes.  These documents are the fastest way to learn about
logging.

The *note logging.basicConfig(): dc2. set-up function gained a 'style'
argument to support three different types of string formatting.  It
defaults to «%» for traditional %-formatting, can be set to «{» for the
new *note str.format(): a12. style, or can be set to «$» for the
shell-style formatting provided by *note string.Template: a77.  The
following three configurations are equivalent:

     >>> from logging import basicConfig
     >>> basicConfig(style='%', format="%(name)s -> %(levelname)s: %(message)s")
     >>> basicConfig(style='{', format="{name} -> {levelname} {message}")
     >>> basicConfig(style='$', format="$name -> $levelname: $message")

If no configuration is set-up before a logging event occurs, there is
now a default configuration using a *note StreamHandler: 15a1. directed
to *note sys.stderr: d05. for events of ‘WARNING’ level or higher.
Formerly, an event occurring before a configuration was set-up would
either raise an exception or silently drop the event depending on the
value of *note logging.raiseExceptions: 15a2.  The new default handler
is stored in *note logging.lastResort: 15a3.

The use of filters has been simplified.  Instead of creating a *note
Filter: 15a4. object, the predicate can be any Python callable that
returns ‘True’ or ‘False’.

There were a number of other improvements that add flexibility and
simplify configuration.  See the module documentation for a full listing
of changes in Python 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: csv<5>,  Next: contextlib<9>,  Prev: logging<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.13 csv
.............

The *note csv: 2c. module now supports a new dialect, *note
unix_dialect: 15a6, which applies quoting for all fields and a
traditional Unix style with ‘'\n'’ as the line terminator.  The
registered dialect name is ‘unix’.

The *note csv.DictWriter: 15a7. has a new method, *note writeheader():
15a8. for writing-out an initial row to document the field names:

     >>> import csv, sys
     >>> w = csv.DictWriter(sys.stdout, ['name', 'dept'], dialect='unix')
     >>> w.writeheader()
     "name","dept"
     >>> w.writerows([
     ...     {'name': 'tom', 'dept': 'accounting'},
     ...     {'name': 'susan', 'dept': 'Salesl'}])
     "tom","accounting"
     "susan","sales"

(New dialect suggested by Jay Talbot in bpo-5975(1), and the new method
suggested by Ed Abraham in bpo-1537721(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5975

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537721


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib<9>,  Next: decimal and fractions,  Prev: csv<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.14 contextlib
....................

There is a new and slightly mind-blowing tool *note ContextDecorator:
20c. that is helpful for creating a *note context manager: 478. that
does double duty as a function decorator.

As a convenience, this new functionality is used by *note
contextmanager(): 20e. so that no extra effort is needed to support both
roles.

The basic idea is that both context managers and function decorators can
be used for pre-action and post-action wrappers.  Context managers wrap
a group of statements using a *note with: 20a. statement, and function
decorators wrap a group of statements enclosed in a function.  So,
occasionally there is a need to write a pre-action or post-action
wrapper that can be used in either role.

For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of
statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of
exit.  Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context
manager for the task, the *note contextmanager(): 20e. provides both
capabilities in a single definition:

     from contextlib import contextmanager
     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     @contextmanager
     def track_entry_and_exit(name):
         logging.info('Entering: %s', name)
         yield
         logging.info('Exiting: %s', name)

Formerly, this would have only been usable as a context manager:

     with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Now, it can be used as a decorator as well:

     @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
     def activity():
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Trying to fulfill two roles at once places some limitations on the
technique.  Context managers normally have the flexibility to return an
argument usable by a *note with: 20a. statement, but there is no
parallel for function decorators.

In the above example, there is not a clean way for the
'track_entry_and_exit' context manager to return a logging instance for
use in the body of enclosed statements.

(Contributed by Michael Foord in bpo-9110(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9110


File: python.info,  Node: decimal and fractions,  Next: ftp,  Prev: contextlib<9>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.15 decimal and fractions
...............................

Mark Dickinson crafted an elegant and efficient scheme for assuring that
different numeric datatypes will have the same hash value whenever their
actual values are equal (bpo-8188(1)):

     assert hash(Fraction(3, 2)) == hash(1.5) == \
            hash(Decimal("1.5")) == hash(complex(1.5, 0))

Some of the hashing details are exposed through a new attribute, *note
sys.hash_info: 13a8, which describes the bit width of the hash value,
the prime modulus, the hash values for 'infinity' and 'nan', and the
multiplier used for the imaginary part of a number:

     >>> sys.hash_info
     sys.hash_info(width=64, modulus=2305843009213693951, inf=314159, nan=0, imag=1000003)

An early decision to limit the interoperability of various numeric types
has been relaxed.  It is still unsupported (and ill-advised) to have
implicit mixing in arithmetic expressions such as ‘Decimal('1.1') +
float('1.1')’ because the latter loses information in the process of
constructing the binary float.  However, since existing floating-point
value can be converted losslessly to either a decimal or rational
representation, it makes sense to add them to the constructor and to
support mixed-type comparisons.

   * The *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2. constructor now accepts *note
     float: 327. objects directly so there in no longer a need to use
     the *note from_float(): 15ab. method (bpo-8257(2)).

   * Mixed type comparisons are now fully supported so that *note
     Decimal: 1c2. objects can be directly compared with *note float:
     327. and *note fractions.Fraction: 1c3. (bpo-2531(3) and
     bpo-8188(4)).

Similar changes were made to *note fractions.Fraction: 1c3. so that the
*note from_float(): 15ac. and *note from_decimal(): 15ad. methods are no
longer needed (bpo-8294(5)):

     >>> from decimal import Decimal
     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> Decimal(1.1)
     Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')
     >>> Fraction(1.1)
     Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)

Another useful change for the *note decimal: 39. module is that the
*note Context.clamp: 1547. attribute is now public.  This is useful in
creating contexts that correspond to the decimal interchange formats
specified in IEEE 754 (see bpo-8540(6)).

(Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8257

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8294

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540


File: python.info,  Node: ftp,  Next: popen,  Prev: decimal and fractions,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.16 ftp
.............

The *note ftplib.FTP: cca. class now supports the context management
protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error: 13fe. exceptions
and to close the FTP connection when done:

     >>> from ftplib import FTP
     >>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
             ftp.login()
             ftp.dir()

     '230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
     dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
     dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
     dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
     dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora

Other file-like objects such as *note mmap.mmap: 23c. and *note
fileinput.input(): bd9. also grew auto-closing context managers:

     with fileinput.input(files=('log1.txt', 'log2.txt')) as f:
         for line in f:
             process(line)

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-4972(1), and by
Georg Brandl in bpo-8046(2) and bpo-1286(3).)

The *note FTP_TLS: ccb. class now accepts a 'context' parameter, which
is a *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. object allowing bundling SSL
configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single
(potentially long-lived) structure.

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-8806(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8046

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1286

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8806


File: python.info,  Node: popen,  Next: select<3>,  Prev: ftp,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.17 popen
...............

The *note os.popen(): 585. and *note subprocess.Popen(): 6bf. functions
now support *note with: 20a. statements for auto-closing of the file
descriptors.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Brian Curtin in bpo-7461(1) and
bpo-10554(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7461

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10554


File: python.info,  Node: select<3>,  Next: gzip and zipfile,  Prev: popen,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.18 select
................

The *note select: c9. module now exposes a new, constant attribute,
*note PIPE_BUF: 15b1, which gives the minimum number of bytes which are
guaranteed not to block when *note select.select(): 1159. says a pipe is
ready for writing.

     >>> import select
     >>> select.PIPE_BUF
     512

(Available on Unix systems.  Patch by Sébastien Sablé in bpo-9862(1))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9862


File: python.info,  Node: gzip and zipfile,  Next: tarfile<11>,  Prev: select<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.19 gzip and zipfile
..........................

*note gzip.GzipFile: 849. now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase:
a83. *note abstract base class: 155f. (except for ‘truncate()’).  It
also has a *note peek(): 15b3. method and supports unseekable as well as
zero-padded file objects.

The *note gzip: 6a. module also gains the *note compress(): a2d. and
*note decompress(): 15b4. functions for easier in-memory compression and
decompression.  Keep in mind that text needs to be encoded as *note
bytes: 1c7. before compressing and decompressing:

     >>> import gzip
     >>> s = 'Three shall be the number thou shalt count, '
     >>> s += 'and the number of the counting shall be three'
     >>> b = s.encode()                        # convert to utf-8
     >>> len(b)
     89
     >>> c = gzip.compress(b)
     >>> len(c)
     77
     >>> gzip.decompress(c).decode()[:42]      # decompress and convert to text
     'Three shall be the number thou shalt count'

(Contributed by Anand B. Pillai in bpo-3488(1); and by Antoine Pitrou,
Nir Aides and Brian Curtin in bpo-9962(2), bpo-1675951(3), bpo-7471(4)
and bpo-2846(5).)

Also, the *note zipfile.ZipExtFile: 84a. class was reworked internally
to represent files stored inside an archive.  The new implementation is
significantly faster and can be wrapped in an *note io.BufferedReader:
15b5. object for more speedups.  It also solves an issue where
interleaved calls to 'read' and 'readline' gave the wrong results.

(Patch submitted by Nir Aides in bpo-7610(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3488

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9962

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7471

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2846

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7610


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile<11>,  Next: hashlib<8>,  Prev: gzip and zipfile,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.20 tarfile
.................

The *note TarFile: 15b7. class can now be used as a context manager.  In
addition, its *note add(): fb3. method has a new option, 'filter', that
controls which files are added to the archive and allows the file
metadata to be edited.

The new 'filter' option replaces the older, less flexible 'exclude'
parameter which is now deprecated.  If specified, the optional 'filter'
parameter needs to be a *note keyword argument: 10cc.  The user-supplied
filter function accepts a *note TarInfo: 15b8. object and returns an
updated ‘TarInfo’ object, or if it wants the file to be excluded, the
function can return ‘None’:

     >>> import tarfile, glob

     >>> def myfilter(tarinfo):
     ...     if tarinfo.isfile():             # only save real files
     ...         tarinfo.uname = 'monty'      # redact the user name
     ...         return tarinfo

     >>> with tarfile.open(name='myarchive.tar.gz', mode='w:gz') as tf:
     ...     for filename in glob.glob('*.txt'):
     ...         tf.add(filename, filter=myfilter)
     ...     tf.list()
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        902 2011-01-26 17:59:11 annotations.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        123 2011-01-26 17:59:11 general_questions.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501       3514 2011-01-26 17:59:11 prion.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501        124 2011-01-26 17:59:11 py_todo.txt
     -rw-r--r-- monty/501       1399 2011-01-26 17:59:11 semaphore_notes.txt

(Proposed by Tarek Ziadé and implemented by Lars Gustäbel in
bpo-6856(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6856


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib<8>,  Next: ast<9>,  Prev: tarfile<11>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.21 hashlib
.................

The *note hashlib: 6b. module has two new constant attributes listing
the hashing algorithms guaranteed to be present in all implementations
and those available on the current implementation:

     >>> import hashlib

     >>> hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed
     {'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha384', 'sha256', 'sha512', 'md5'}

     >>> hashlib.algorithms_available
     {'md2', 'SHA256', 'SHA512', 'dsaWithSHA', 'mdc2', 'SHA224', 'MD4', 'sha256',
     'sha512', 'ripemd160', 'SHA1', 'MDC2', 'SHA', 'SHA384', 'MD2',
     'ecdsa-with-SHA1','md4', 'md5', 'sha1', 'DSA-SHA', 'sha224',
     'dsaEncryption', 'DSA', 'RIPEMD160', 'sha', 'MD5', 'sha384'}

(Suggested by Carl Chenet in bpo-7418(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7418


File: python.info,  Node: ast<9>,  Next: os<15>,  Prev: hashlib<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.22 ast
.............

The *note ast: 9. module has a wonderful a general-purpose tool for
safely evaluating expression strings using the Python literal syntax.
The *note ast.literal_eval(): fd7. function serves as a secure
alternative to the builtin *note eval(): 184. function which is easily
abused.  Python 3.2 adds *note bytes: 1c7. and *note set: 42b. literals
to the list of supported types: strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists,
dicts, sets, booleans, and ‘None’.

     >>> from ast import literal_eval

     >>> request = "{'req': 3, 'func': 'pow', 'args': (2, 0.5)}"
     >>> literal_eval(request)
     {'args': (2, 0.5), 'req': 3, 'func': 'pow'}

     >>> request = "os.system('do something harmful')"
     >>> literal_eval(request)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: malformed node or string: <_ast.Call object at 0x101739a10>

(Implemented by Benjamin Peterson and Georg Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: os<15>,  Next: shutil<8>,  Prev: ast<9>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.23 os
............

Different operating systems use various encodings for filenames and
environment variables.  The *note os: a5. module provides two new
functions, *note fsencode(): 1013. and *note fsdecode(): 1012, for
encoding and decoding filenames:

     >>> import os
     >>> filename = 'Sehenswürdigkeiten'
     >>> os.fsencode(filename)
     b'Sehensw\xc3\xbcrdigkeiten'

Some operating systems allow direct access to encoded bytes in the
environment.  If so, the *note os.supports_bytes_environ: 15bc. constant
will be true.

For direct access to encoded environment variables (if available), use
the new *note os.getenvb(): 15bd. function or use *note os.environb:
4e6. which is a bytes version of *note os.environ: 4e5.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner.)


File: python.info,  Node: shutil<8>,  Next: sqlite3<13>,  Prev: os<15>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.24 shutil
................

The *note shutil.copytree(): ded. function has two new options:

   * 'ignore_dangling_symlinks': when ‘symlinks=False’ so that the
     function copies a file pointed to by a symlink, not the symlink
     itself.  This option will silence the error raised if the file
     doesn’t exist.

   * 'copy_function': is a callable that will be used to copy files.
     *note shutil.copy2(): e1f. is used by default.

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)

In addition, the *note shutil: cd. module now supports *note archiving
operations: 15bf. for zipfiles, uncompressed tarfiles, gzipped tarfiles,
and bzipped tarfiles.  And there are functions for registering
additional archiving file formats (such as xz compressed tarfiles or
custom formats).

The principal functions are *note make_archive(): 8c3. and *note
unpack_archive(): 882.  By default, both operate on the current
directory (which can be set by *note os.chdir(): a02.) and on any
sub-directories.  The archive filename needs to be specified with a full
pathname.  The archiving step is non-destructive (the original files are
left unchanged).

     >>> import shutil, pprint

     >>> os.chdir('mydata')  # change to the source directory
     >>> f = shutil.make_archive('/var/backup/mydata',
     ...                         'zip')      # archive the current directory
     >>> f                                   # show the name of archive
     '/var/backup/mydata.zip'
     >>> os.chdir('tmp')                     # change to an unpacking
     >>> shutil.unpack_archive('/var/backup/mydata.zip')  # recover the data

     >>> pprint.pprint(shutil.get_archive_formats())  # display known formats
     [('bztar', "bzip2'ed tar-file"),
      ('gztar', "gzip'ed tar-file"),
      ('tar', 'uncompressed tar file'),
      ('zip', 'ZIP file')]

     >>> shutil.register_archive_format(     # register a new archive format
     ...     name='xz',
     ...     function=xz.compress,           # callable archiving function
     ...     extra_args=[('level', 8)],      # arguments to the function
     ...     description='xz compression'
     ... )

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3<13>,  Next: html<3>,  Prev: shutil<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.25 sqlite3
.................

The *note sqlite3: d7. module was updated to pysqlite version 2.6.0.  It
has two new capabilities.

   * The ‘sqlite3.Connection.in_transit’ attribute is true if there is
     an active transaction for uncommitted changes.

   * The *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): c17. and
     *note sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 8c8. methods allows you
     to load SQLite extensions from «.so» files.  One well-known
     extension is the fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.

(Contributed by R. David Murray and Shashwat Anand; bpo-8845(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8845


File: python.info,  Node: html<3>,  Next: socket<13>,  Prev: sqlite3<13>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.26 html
..............

A new *note html: 6e. module was introduced with only a single function,
*note escape(): 13b7, which is used for escaping reserved characters
from HTML markup:

     >>> import html
     >>> html.escape('x > 2 && x < 7')
     'x &gt; 2 &amp;&amp; x &lt; 7'


File: python.info,  Node: socket<13>,  Next: ssl<14>,  Prev: html<3>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.27 socket
................

The *note socket: d4. module has two new improvements.

   * Socket objects now have a *note detach(): 15c3. method which puts
     the socket into closed state without actually closing the
     underlying file descriptor.  The latter can then be reused for
     other purposes.  (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8524(1).)

   * *note socket.create_connection(): a62. now supports the context
     management protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error:
     13fe. exceptions and to close the socket when done.  (Contributed
     by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-9794(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8524

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9794


File: python.info,  Node: ssl<14>,  Next: nntp,  Prev: socket<13>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.28 ssl
.............

The *note ssl: d8. module added a number of features to satisfy common
requirements for secure (encrypted, authenticated) internet connections:

   * A new class, *note SSLContext: 336, serves as a container for
     persistent SSL data, such as protocol settings, certificates,
     private keys, and various other options.  It includes a *note
     wrap_socket(): 933. for creating an SSL socket from an SSL context.

   * A new function, ‘ssl.match_hostname()’, supports server identity
     verification for higher-level protocols by implementing the rules
     of HTTPS (from RFC 2818(1)) which are also suitable for other
     protocols.

   * The *note ssl.wrap_socket(): 933. constructor function now takes a
     'ciphers' argument.  The 'ciphers' string lists the allowed
     encryption algorithms using the format described in the OpenSSL
     documentation(2).

   * When linked against recent versions of OpenSSL, the *note ssl: d8.
     module now supports the Server Name Indication extension to the TLS
     protocol, allowing multiple «virtual hosts» using different
     certificates on a single IP port.  This extension is only supported
     in client mode, and is activated by passing the 'server_hostname'
     argument to *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 933.

   * Various options have been added to the *note ssl: d8. module, such
     as *note OP_NO_SSLv2: c12. which disables the insecure and obsolete
     SSLv2 protocol.

   * The extension now loads all the OpenSSL ciphers and digest
     algorithms.  If some SSL certificates cannot be verified, they are
     reported as an «unknown algorithm» error.

   * The version of OpenSSL being used is now accessible using the
     module attributes *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION: 15c5. (a string),
     *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO: 15c6. (a 5-tuple), and *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER: 15c7. (an integer).

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-8850(3), bpo-1589(4), bpo-8322(5),
bpo-5639(6), bpo-4870(7), bpo-8484(8), and bpo-8321(9).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2818.html

   (2) https://docs.openssl.org/1.0.2/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8850

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1589

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8322

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4870

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8484

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8321


File: python.info,  Node: nntp,  Next: certificates,  Prev: ssl<14>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.29 nntp
..............

The ‘nntplib’ module has a revamped implementation with better bytes and
text semantics as well as more practical APIs.  These improvements break
compatibility with the nntplib version in Python 3.1, which was partly
dysfunctional in itself.

Support for secure connections through both implicit (using
‘nntplib.NNTP_SSL’) and explicit (using ‘nntplib.NNTP.starttls()’) TLS
has also been added.

(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-9360(1) and Andrew Vant in
bpo-1926(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9360

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1926


File: python.info,  Node: certificates,  Next: imaplib<5>,  Prev: nntp,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.30 certificates
......................

*note http.client.HTTPSConnection: 224, *note
urllib.request.HTTPSHandler: 15ca. and *note urllib.request.urlopen():
57f. now take optional arguments to allow for server certificate
checking against a set of Certificate Authorities, as recommended in
public uses of HTTPS.

(Added by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-9003(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9003


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib<5>,  Next: http client<5>,  Prev: certificates,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.31 imaplib
.................

Support for explicit TLS on standard IMAP4 connections has been added
through the new *note imaplib.IMAP4.starttls: 15cc. method.

(Contributed by Lorenzo M. Catucci and Antoine Pitrou, bpo-4471(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4471


File: python.info,  Node: http client<5>,  Next: unittest<13>,  Prev: imaplib<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.32 http.client
.....................

There were a number of small API improvements in the *note http.client:
72. module.  The old-style HTTP 0.9 simple responses are no longer
supported and the 'strict' parameter is deprecated in all classes.

The *note HTTPConnection: 223. and *note HTTPSConnection: 224. classes
now have a 'source_address' parameter for a (host, port) tuple
indicating where the HTTP connection is made from.

Support for certificate checking and HTTPS virtual hosts were added to
*note HTTPSConnection: 224.

The *note request(): 106a. method on connection objects allowed an
optional 'body' argument so that a *note file object: 156c. could be
used to supply the content of the request.  Conveniently, the 'body'
argument now also accepts an *note iterable: 15ce. object so long as it
includes an explicit ‘Content-Length’ header.  This extended interface
is much more flexible than before.

To establish an HTTPS connection through a proxy server, there is a new
*note set_tunnel(): 15cf. method that sets the host and port for HTTP
Connect tunneling.

To match the behavior of *note http.server: 75, the HTTP client library
now also encodes headers with ISO-8859-1 (Latin-1) encoding.  It was
already doing that for incoming headers, so now the behavior is
consistent for both incoming and outgoing traffic.  (See work by Armin
Ronacher in bpo-10980(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10980


File: python.info,  Node: unittest<13>,  Next: random<5>,  Prev: http client<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.33 unittest
..................

The unittest module has a number of improvements supporting test
discovery for packages, easier experimentation at the interactive
prompt, new testcase methods, improved diagnostic messages for test
failures, and better method names.

   * The command-line call ‘python -m unittest’ can now accept file
     paths instead of module names for running specific tests
     (bpo-10620(1)).  The new test discovery can find tests within
     packages, locating any test importable from the top-level
     directory.  The top-level directory can be specified with the ‘-t’
     option, a pattern for matching files with ‘-p’, and a directory to
     start discovery with ‘-s’:

          $ python -m unittest discover -s my_proj_dir -p _test.py

     (Contributed by Michael Foord.)

   * Experimentation at the interactive prompt is now easier because the
     *note unittest.TestCase: 52f. class can now be instantiated without
     arguments:

          >>> from unittest import TestCase
          >>> TestCase().assertEqual(pow(2, 3), 8)

     (Contributed by Michael Foord.)

   * The *note unittest: 10f. module has two new methods, *note
     assertWarns(): 2a0. and *note assertWarnsRegex(): 2a1. to verify
     that a given warning type is triggered by the code under test:

          with self.assertWarns(DeprecationWarning):
              legacy_function('XYZ')

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-9754(2).)

     Another new method, *note assertCountEqual(): 15d1. is used to
     compare two iterables to determine if their element counts are
     equal (whether the same elements are present with the same number
     of occurrences regardless of order):

          def test_anagram(self):
              self.assertCountEqual('algorithm', 'logarithm')

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A principal feature of the unittest module is an effort to produce
     meaningful diagnostics when a test fails.  When possible, the
     failure is recorded along with a diff of the output.  This is
     especially helpful for analyzing log files of failed test runs.
     However, since diffs can sometime be voluminous, there is a new
     *note maxDiff: 15d2. attribute that sets maximum length of diffs
     displayed.

   * In addition, the method names in the module have undergone a number
     of clean-ups.

     For example, *note assertRegex(): 93c. is the new name for
     ‘assertRegexpMatches()’ which was misnamed because the test uses
     *note re.search(): 15d3, not *note re.match(): 24c.  Other methods
     using regular expressions are now named using short form «Regex» in
     preference to «Regexp» – this matches the names used in other
     unittest implementations, matches Python’s old name for the *note
     re: c1. module, and it has unambiguous camel-casing.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Ezio Melotti.)

   * To improve consistency, some long-standing method aliases are being
     deprecated in favor of the preferred names:

          Old Name                            Preferred Name
                                              
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              
          ‘assert_()’                         *note assertTrue(): 935.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertEquals()’                    *note assertEqual(): 937.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertNotEquals()’                 *note assertNotEqual(): 938.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertAlmostEquals()’              *note assertAlmostEqual(): 939.
                                              
                                              
          ‘assertNotAlmostEquals()’           *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 93a.
                                              

     Likewise, the ‘TestCase.fail*’ methods deprecated in Python 3.1 are
     expected to be removed in Python 3.3.

     (Contributed by Ezio Melotti; bpo-9424(3).)

   * The ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’ method was deprecated because it
     was misimplemented with the arguments in the wrong order.  This
     created hard-to-debug optical illusions where tests like
     ‘TestCase().assertDictContainsSubset({'a':1, 'b':2}, {'a':1})’
     would fail.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10620

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9754

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9424


File: python.info,  Node: random<5>,  Next: poplib<4>,  Prev: unittest<13>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.34 random
................

The integer methods in the *note random: c0. module now do a better job
of producing uniform distributions.  Previously, they computed
selections with ‘int(n*random())’ which had a slight bias whenever 'n'
was not a power of two.  Now, multiple selections are made from a range
up to the next power of two and a selection is kept only when it falls
within the range ‘0 <= x < n’.  The functions and methods affected are
*note randrange(): c41, *note randint(): 15d5, *note choice(): 15d6,
*note shuffle(): b2c. and *note sample(): b2b.

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-9025(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9025


File: python.info,  Node: poplib<4>,  Next: asyncore<2>,  Prev: random<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.35 poplib
................

*note POP3_SSL: cf1. class now accepts a 'context' parameter, which is a
*note ssl.SSLContext: 336. object allowing bundling SSL configuration
options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially
long-lived) structure.

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-8807(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8807


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore<2>,  Next: tempfile<5>,  Prev: poplib<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.36 asyncore
..................

‘asyncore.dispatcher’ now provides a ‘handle_accepted()’ method
returning a ‘(sock, addr)’ pair which is called when a connection has
actually been established with a new remote endpoint.  This is supposed
to be used as a replacement for old ‘handle_accept()’ and avoids the
user to call ‘accept()’ directly.

(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-6706(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile<5>,  Next: inspect<12>,  Prev: asyncore<2>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.37 tempfile
..................

The *note tempfile: e9. module has a new context manager, *note
TemporaryDirectory: 15da. which provides easy deterministic cleanup of
temporary directories:

     with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
         print('created temporary dir:', tmpdirname)

(Contributed by Neil Schemenauer and Nick Coghlan; bpo-5178(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5178


File: python.info,  Node: inspect<12>,  Next: pydoc<7>,  Prev: tempfile<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.38 inspect
.................

   * The *note inspect: 81. module has a new function *note
     getgeneratorstate(): 15dc. to easily identify the current state of
     a generator-iterator:

          >>> from inspect import getgeneratorstate
          >>> def gen():
          ...     yield 'demo'
          ...
          >>> g = gen()
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_CREATED'
          >>> next(g)
          'demo'
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_SUSPENDED'
          >>> next(g, None)
          >>> getgeneratorstate(g)
          'GEN_CLOSED'

     (Contributed by Rodolpho Eckhardt and Nick Coghlan, bpo-10220(1).)

   * To support lookups without the possibility of activating a dynamic
     attribute, the *note inspect: 81. module has a new function, *note
     getattr_static(): 8a5.  Unlike *note hasattr(): 8e2, this is a true
     read-only search, guaranteed not to change state while it is
     searching:

          >>> class A:
          ...     @property
          ...     def f(self):
          ...         print('Running')
          ...         return 10
          ...
          >>> a = A()
          >>> getattr(a, 'f')
          Running
          10
          >>> inspect.getattr_static(a, 'f')
          <property object at 0x1022bd788>

     (Contributed by Michael Foord.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10220


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc<7>,  Next: dis<6>,  Prev: inspect<12>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.39 pydoc
...............

The *note pydoc: bd. module now provides a much-improved web server
interface, as well as a new command-line option ‘-b’ to automatically
open a browser window to display that server:

     $ pydoc3.2 -b

(Contributed by Ron Adam; bpo-2001(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2001


File: python.info,  Node: dis<6>,  Next: dbm<8>,  Prev: pydoc<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.40 dis
.............

The *note dis: 3b. module gained two new functions for inspecting code,
*note code_info(): 15df. and *note show_code(): 12d9.  Both provide
detailed code object information for the supplied function, method,
source code string or code object.  The former returns a string and the
latter prints it:

     >>> import dis, random
     >>> dis.show_code(random.choice)
     Name:              choice
     Filename:          /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/random.py
     Argument count:    2
     Kw-only arguments: 0
     Number of locals:  3
     Stack size:        11
     Flags:             OPTIMIZED, NEWLOCALS, NOFREE
     Constants:
        0: 'Choose a random element from a non-empty sequence.'
        1: 'Cannot choose from an empty sequence'
     Names:
        0: _randbelow
        1: len
        2: ValueError
        3: IndexError
     Variable names:
        0: self
        1: seq
        2: i

In addition, the *note dis(): 496. function now accepts string arguments
so that the common idiom ‘dis(compile(s, '', 'eval'))’ can be shortened
to ‘dis(s)’:

     >>> dis('3*x+1 if x%2==1 else x//2')
       1           0 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                   3 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
                   6 BINARY_MODULO
                   7 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
                  10 COMPARE_OP               2 (==)
                  13 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE       28
                  16 LOAD_CONST               2 (3)
                  19 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                  22 BINARY_MULTIPLY
                  23 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
                  26 BINARY_ADD
                  27 RETURN_VALUE
             >>   28 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
                  31 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
                  34 BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE
                  35 RETURN_VALUE

Taken together, these improvements make it easier to explore how CPython
is implemented and to see for yourself what the language syntax does
under-the-hood.

(Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-9147(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9147


File: python.info,  Node: dbm<8>,  Next: ctypes<5>,  Prev: dis<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.41 dbm
.............

All database modules now support the ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’ methods.

(Suggested by Ray Allen in bpo-9523(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9523


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes<5>,  Next: site<4>,  Prev: dbm<8>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.42 ctypes
................

A new type, *note ctypes.c_ssize_t: 15e2. represents the C ‘ssize_t’
datatype.


File: python.info,  Node: site<4>,  Next: sysconfig<6>,  Prev: ctypes<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.43 site
..............

The *note site: cf. module has three new functions useful for reporting
on the details of a given Python installation.

   * *note getsitepackages(): 15e4. lists all global site-packages
     directories.

   * *note getuserbase(): 15e5. reports on the user’s base directory
     where data can be stored.

   * *note getusersitepackages(): 15e6. reveals the user-specific
     site-packages directory path.

     >>> import site
     >>> site.getsitepackages()
     ['/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/site-packages',
      '/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/site-python',
      '/Library/Python/3.2/site-packages']
     >>> site.getuserbase()
     '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2'
     >>> site.getusersitepackages()
     '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2/lib/python/site-packages'

Conveniently, some of site’s functionality is accessible directly from
the command-line:

     $ python -m site --user-base
     /Users/raymondhettinger/.local
     $ python -m site --user-site
     /Users/raymondhettinger/.local/lib/python3.2/site-packages

(Contributed by Tarek Ziadé in bpo-6693(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6693


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig<6>,  Next: pdb<11>,  Prev: site<4>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.44 sysconfig
...................

The new *note sysconfig: e4. module makes it straightforward to discover
installation paths and configuration variables that vary across
platforms and installations.

The module offers access simple access functions for platform and
version information:

   * *note get_platform(): 15e8. returning values like 'linux-i586' or
     'macosx-10.6-ppc'.

   * *note get_python_version(): 15e9. returns a Python version string
     such as «3.2».

It also provides access to the paths and variables corresponding to one
of seven named schemes used by ‘distutils’.  Those include
'posix_prefix', 'posix_home', 'posix_user', 'nt', 'nt_user', 'os2',
'os2_home':

   * *note get_paths(): 156. makes a dictionary containing installation
     paths for the current installation scheme.

   * *note get_config_vars(): 51e. returns a dictionary of platform
     specific variables.

There is also a convenient command-line interface:

     C:\Python32>python -m sysconfig
     Platform: "win32"
     Python version: "3.2"
     Current installation scheme: "nt"

     Paths:
             data = "C:\Python32"
             include = "C:\Python32\Include"
             platinclude = "C:\Python32\Include"
             platlib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
             platstdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             purelib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages"
             scripts = "C:\Python32\Scripts"
             stdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib"

     Variables:
             BINDIR = "C:\Python32"
             BINLIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             EXE = ".exe"
             INCLUDEPY = "C:\Python32\Include"
             LIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib"
             SO = ".pyd"
             VERSION = "32"
             abiflags = ""
             base = "C:\Python32"
             exec_prefix = "C:\Python32"
             platbase = "C:\Python32"
             prefix = "C:\Python32"
             projectbase = "C:\Python32"
             py_version = "3.2"
             py_version_nodot = "32"
             py_version_short = "3.2"
             srcdir = "C:\Python32"
             userbase = "C:\Documents and Settings\Raymond\Application Data\Python"

(Moved out of Distutils by Tarek Ziadé.)


File: python.info,  Node: pdb<11>,  Next: configparser<6>,  Prev: sysconfig<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.45 pdb
.............

The *note pdb: aa. debugger module gained a number of usability
improvements:

   * ‘pdb.py’ now has a ‘-c’ option that executes commands as given in a
     ‘.pdbrc’ script file.

   * A ‘.pdbrc’ script file can contain ‘continue’ and ‘next’ commands
     that continue debugging.

   * The *note Pdb: 4fb. class constructor now accepts a 'nosigint'
     argument.

   * New commands: ‘l(list)’, ‘ll(long list)’ and ‘source’ for listing
     source code.

   * New commands: ‘display’ and ‘undisplay’ for showing or hiding the
     value of an expression if it has changed.

   * New command: ‘interact’ for starting an interactive interpreter
     containing the global and local names found in the current scope.

   * Breakpoints can be cleared by breakpoint number.

(Contributed by Georg Brandl, Antonio Cuni and Ilya Sandler.)


File: python.info,  Node: configparser<6>,  Next: urllib parse<7>,  Prev: pdb<11>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.46 configparser
......................

The *note configparser: 26. module was modified to improve usability and
predictability of the default parser and its supported INI syntax.  The
old ‘ConfigParser’ class was removed in favor of ‘SafeConfigParser’
which has in turn been renamed to *note ConfigParser: 6e4.  Support for
inline comments is now turned off by default and section or option
duplicates are not allowed in a single configuration source.

Config parsers gained a new API based on the mapping protocol:

     >>> parser = ConfigParser()
     >>> parser.read_string("""
     ... [DEFAULT]
     ... location = upper left
     ... visible = yes
     ... editable = no
     ... color = blue
     ...
     ... [main]
     ... title = Main Menu
     ... color = green
     ...
     ... [options]
     ... title = Options
     ... """)
     >>> parser['main']['color']
     'green'
     >>> parser['main']['editable']
     'no'
     >>> section = parser['options']
     >>> section['title']
     'Options'
     >>> section['title'] = 'Options (editable: %(editable)s)'
     >>> section['title']
     'Options (editable: no)'

The new API is implemented on top of the classical API, so custom parser
subclasses should be able to use it without modifications.

The INI file structure accepted by config parsers can now be customized.
Users can specify alternative option/value delimiters and comment
prefixes, change the name of the 'DEFAULT' section or switch the
interpolation syntax.

There is support for pluggable interpolation including an additional
interpolation handler *note ExtendedInterpolation: b0b.:

     >>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
     >>> parser.read_dict({'buildout': {'directory': '/home/ambv/zope9'},
     ...                   'custom': {'prefix': '/usr/local'}})
     >>> parser.read_string("""
     ... [buildout]
     ... parts =
     ...   zope9
     ...   instance
     ... find-links =
     ...   ${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist
     ...
     ... [zope9]
     ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9install
     ... location = /opt/zope
     ...
     ... [instance]
     ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9instance
     ... zope9-location = ${zope9:location}
     ... zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf
     ... """)
     >>> parser['buildout']['find-links']
     '\n/home/ambv/zope9/downloads/dist'
     >>> parser['instance']['zope-conf']
     '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
     >>> instance = parser['instance']
     >>> instance['zope-conf']
     '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf'
     >>> instance['zope9-location']
     '/opt/zope'

A number of smaller features were also introduced, like support for
specifying encoding in read operations, specifying fallback values for
get-functions, or reading directly from dictionaries and strings.

(All changes contributed by Łukasz Langa.)


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse<7>,  Next: mailbox,  Prev: configparser<6>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.47 urllib.parse
......................

A number of usability improvements were made for the *note urllib.parse:
113. module.

The *note urlparse(): 2a4. function now supports IPv6(1) addresses as
described in RFC 2732(2):

     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/')
     ParseResult(scheme='http',
                 netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]',
                 path='/foo/',
                 params='',
                 query='',
                 fragment='')

The *note urldefrag(): 2a5. function now returns a *note named tuple:
a3d.:

     >>> r = urllib.parse.urldefrag('http://python.org/about/#target')
     >>> r
     DefragResult(url='http://python.org/about/', fragment='target')
     >>> r[0]
     'http://python.org/about/'
     >>> r.fragment
     'target'

And, the *note urlencode(): 1246. function is now much more flexible,
accepting either a string or bytes type for the 'query' argument.  If it
is a string, then the 'safe', 'encoding', and 'error' parameters are
sent to *note quote_plus(): 15ed. for encoding:

     >>> urllib.parse.urlencode([
     ...      ('type', 'telenovela'),
     ...      ('name', '¿Dónde Está Elisa?')],
     ...      encoding='latin-1')
     'type=telenovela&name=%BFD%F3nde+Est%E1+Elisa%3F'

As detailed in *note Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes: 15ee, all the *note
urllib.parse: 113. functions now accept ASCII-encoded byte strings as
input, so long as they are not mixed with regular strings.  If
ASCII-encoded byte strings are given as parameters, the return types
will also be an ASCII-encoded byte strings:

     >>> urllib.parse.urlparse(b'http://www.python.org:80/about/')
     ParseResultBytes(scheme=b'http', netloc=b'www.python.org:80',
                      path=b'/about/', params=b'', query=b'', fragment=b'')

(Work by Nick Coghlan, Dan Mahn, and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-2987(3),
bpo-5468(4), and bpo-9873(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2987

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5468

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9873


File: python.info,  Node: mailbox,  Next: turtledemo,  Prev: urllib parse<7>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.48 mailbox
.................

Thanks to a concerted effort by R. David Murray, the *note mailbox: 8e.
module has been fixed for Python 3.2.  The challenge was that mailbox
had been originally designed with a text interface, but email messages
are best represented with *note bytes: 1c7. because various parts of a
message may have different encodings.

The solution harnessed the *note email: 3e. package’s binary support for
parsing arbitrary email messages.  In addition, the solution required a
number of API changes.

As expected, the *note add(): 15f0. method for *note mailbox.Mailbox:
15f1. objects now accepts binary input.

*note StringIO: 12d4. and text file input are deprecated.  Also, string
input will fail early if non-ASCII characters are used.  Previously it
would fail when the email was processed in a later step.

There is also support for binary output.  The *note get_file(): 15f2.
method now returns a file in the binary mode (where it used to
incorrectly set the file to text-mode).  There is also a new *note
get_bytes(): 15f3. method that returns a *note bytes: 1c7.
representation of a message corresponding to a given 'key'.

It is still possible to get non-binary output using the old API’s *note
get_string(): 15f4. method, but that approach is not very useful.
Instead, it is best to extract messages from a *note Message: 15f5.
object or to load them from binary input.

(Contributed by R. David Murray, with efforts from Steffen Daode
Nurpmeso and an initial patch by Victor Stinner in bpo-9124(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9124


File: python.info,  Node: turtledemo,  Prev: mailbox,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules

1.15.9.49 turtledemo
....................

The demonstration code for the *note turtle: 10a. module was moved from
the 'Demo' directory to main library.  It includes over a dozen sample
scripts with lively displays.  Being on *note sys.path: 194, it can now
be run directly from the command-line:

     $ python -m turtledemo

(Moved from the Demo directory by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-10199(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10199


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-threading,  Next: Optimizations<14>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.10 Multi-threading
-----------------------

   * The mechanism for serializing execution of concurrently running
     Python threads (generally known as the *note GIL: 411. or Global
     Interpreter Lock) has been rewritten.  Among the objectives were
     more predictable switching intervals and reduced overhead due to
     lock contention and the number of ensuing system calls.  The notion
     of a «check interval» to allow thread switches has been abandoned
     and replaced by an absolute duration expressed in seconds.  This
     parameter is tunable through *note sys.setswitchinterval(): d16.
     It currently defaults to 5 milliseconds.

     Additional details about the implementation can be read from a
     python-dev mailing-list message(1) (however, «priority requests» as
     exposed in this message have not been kept for inclusion).

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)

   * Regular and recursive locks now accept an optional 'timeout'
     argument to their *note acquire(): a87. method.  (Contributed by
     Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7316(2).)

   * Similarly, *note threading.Semaphore.acquire(): 15f8. also gained a
     'timeout' argument.  (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff;
     bpo-850728(3).)

   * Regular and recursive lock acquisitions can now be interrupted by
     signals on platforms using Pthreads.  This means that Python
     programs that deadlock while acquiring locks can be successfully
     killed by repeatedly sending SIGINT to the process (by pressing
     ‘Ctrl’+‘C’ in most shells).  (Contributed by Reid Kleckner;
     bpo-8844(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2009-October/093321.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7316

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=850728

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8844


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<14>,  Next: Unicode,  Prev: Multi-threading,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.11 Optimizations
---------------------

A number of small performance enhancements have been added:

   * Python’s peephole optimizer now recognizes patterns such ‘x in {1,
     2, 3}’ as being a test for membership in a set of constants.  The
     optimizer recasts the *note set: 42b. as a *note frozenset: 9d4.
     and stores the pre-built constant.

     Now that the speed penalty is gone, it is practical to start
     writing membership tests using set-notation.  This style is both
     semantically clear and operationally fast:

          extension = name.rpartition('.')[2]
          if extension in {'xml', 'html', 'xhtml', 'css'}:
              handle(name)

     (Patch and additional tests contributed by Dave Malcolm;
     bpo-6690(1)).

   * Serializing and unserializing data using the *note pickle: ab.
     module is now several times faster.

     (Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti, Antoine Pitrou and the
     Unladen Swallow team in bpo-9410(2) and bpo-3873(3).)

   * The Timsort algorithm(4) used in *note list.sort(): f8d. and *note
     sorted(): f8c. now runs faster and uses less memory when called
     with a *note key function: 11ba.  Previously, every element of a
     list was wrapped with a temporary object that remembered the key
     value associated with each element.  Now, two arrays of keys and
     values are sorted in parallel.  This saves the memory consumed by
     the sort wrappers, and it saves time lost to delegating
     comparisons.

     (Patch by Daniel Stutzbach in bpo-9915(5).)

   * JSON decoding performance is improved and memory consumption is
     reduced whenever the same string is repeated for multiple keys.
     Also, JSON encoding now uses the C speedups when the ‘sort_keys’
     argument is true.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-7451(6) and by Raymond
     Hettinger and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-10314(7).)

   * Recursive locks (created with the *note threading.RLock(): 2df.
     API) now benefit from a C implementation which makes them as fast
     as regular locks, and between 10x and 15x faster than their
     previous pure Python implementation.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-3001(8).)

   * The fast-search algorithm in stringlib is now used by the *note
     split(): 125b, *note rsplit(): 15fa, *note splitlines(): 15fb. and
     *note replace(): 6c0. methods on *note bytes: 1c7, *note bytearray:
     1c6. and *note str: 1df. objects.  Likewise, the algorithm is also
     used by *note rfind(): 125a, *note rindex(): 15fc, ‘rsplit()’ and
     *note rpartition(): 15fd.

     (Patch by Florent Xicluna in bpo-7622(9) and bpo-7462(10).)

   * Integer to string conversions now work two «digits» at a time,
     reducing the number of division and modulo operations.

     (bpo-6713(11) by Gawain Bolton, Mark Dickinson, and Victor
     Stinner.)

There were several other minor optimizations.  Set differencing now runs
faster when one operand is much larger than the other (patch by Andress
Bennetts in bpo-8685(12)).  The ‘array.repeat()’ method has a faster
implementation (bpo-1569291(13) by Alexander Belopolsky).  The *note
BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 226. has more efficient buffering (bpo-3709(14)
by Andrew Schaaf).  The *note operator.attrgetter(): 11e6. function has
been sped-up (bpo-10160(15) by Christos Georgiou).  And *note
ConfigParser: 6e4. loads multi-line arguments a bit faster (bpo-7113(16)
by Łukasz Langa).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6690

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9410

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3873

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9915

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7451

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10314

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3001

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8685

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1569291

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10160

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7113


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode,  Next: Codecs,  Prev: Optimizations<14>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.12 Unicode
---------------

Python has been updated to Unicode 6.0.0(1).  The update to the standard
adds over 2,000 new characters including emoji(2) symbols which are
important for mobile phones.

In addition, the updated standard has altered the character properties
for two Kannada characters (U+0CF1, U+0CF2) and one New Tai Lue numeric
character (U+19DA), making the former eligible for use in identifiers
while disqualifying the latter.  For more information, see Unicode
Character Database Changes(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji

   (3) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/#Database_Changes


File: python.info,  Node: Codecs,  Next: Documentation,  Prev: Unicode,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.13 Codecs
--------------

Support was added for 'cp720' Arabic DOS encoding (bpo-1616979(1)).

MBCS encoding no longer ignores the error handler argument.  In the
default strict mode, it raises an *note UnicodeDecodeError: dd7. when it
encounters an undecodable byte sequence and an *note UnicodeEncodeError:
a67. for an unencodable character.

The MBCS codec supports ‘'strict'’ and ‘'ignore'’ error handlers for
decoding, and ‘'strict'’ and ‘'replace'’ for encoding.

To emulate Python3.1 MBCS encoding, select the ‘'ignore'’ handler for
decoding and the ‘'replace'’ handler for encoding.

On Mac OS X, Python decodes command line arguments with ‘'utf-8'’ rather
than the locale encoding.

By default, *note tarfile: e7. uses ‘'utf-8'’ encoding on Windows
(instead of ‘'mbcs'’) and the ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler on all
operating systems.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation,  Next: IDLE,  Prev: Codecs,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.14 Documentation
---------------------

The documentation continues to be improved.

   * A table of quick links has been added to the top of lengthy
     sections such as *note Ενσωματωμένες (Built-in) Συναρτήσεις: 1601.
     In the case of *note itertools: 84, the links are accompanied by
     tables of cheatsheet-style summaries to provide an overview and
     memory jog without having to read all of the docs.

   * In some cases, the pure Python source code can be a helpful adjunct
     to the documentation, so now many modules now feature quick links
     to the latest version of the source code.  For example, the *note
     functools: 62. module documentation has a quick link at the top
     labeled:

          'Source code' Lib/functools.py(1).

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; see rationale(2).)

   * The docs now contain more examples and recipes.  In particular,
     *note re: c1. module has an extensive section, *note Regular
     expression examples: 1602.  Likewise, the *note itertools: 84.
     module continues to be updated with new *note Itertools Recipes:
     1603.

   * The *note datetime: 33. module now has an auxiliary implementation
     in pure Python.  No functionality was changed.  This just provides
     an easier-to-read alternate implementation.

     (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-9528(3).)

   * The unmaintained ‘Demo’ directory has been removed.  Some demos
     were integrated into the documentation, some were moved to the
     ‘Tools/demo’ directory, and others were removed altogether.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-7962(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/functools.py

   (2) 
https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/open-your-source-more/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9528

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7962


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE,  Next: Code Repository,  Prev: Documentation,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.15 IDLE
------------

   * The format menu now has an option to clean source files by
     stripping trailing whitespace.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5150(1).)

   * IDLE on Mac OS X now works with both Carbon AquaTk and Cocoa
     AquaTk.

     (Contributed by Kevin Walzer, Ned Deily, and Ronald Oussoren;
     bpo-6075(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6075


File: python.info,  Node: Code Repository,  Next: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Prev: IDLE,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.16 Code Repository
-----------------------

In addition to the existing Subversion code repository at
‘https://svn.python.org’ there is now a Mercurial(1) repository at
‘https://hg.python.org/’.

After the 3.2 release, there are plans to switch to Mercurial as the
primary repository.  This distributed version control system should make
it easier for members of the community to create and share external
changesets.  See PEP 385(2) for details.

To learn to use the new version control system, see the Quick Start(3)
or the Guide to Mercurial Workflows(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0385/

   (3) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/wiki/QuickStart

   (4) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/guide


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 2,  Prev: Code Repository,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.17 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * The 'idle', 'pydoc' and '2to3' scripts are now installed with a
     version-specific suffix on ‘make altinstall’ (bpo-10679(1)).

   * The C functions that access the Unicode Database now accept and
     return characters from the full Unicode range, even on narrow
     unicode builds (Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER, Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL, and
     others).  A visible difference in Python is that *note
     unicodedata.numeric(): 1607. now returns the correct value for
     large code points, and *note repr(): 45b. may consider more
     characters as printable.

     (Reported by Bupjoe Lee and fixed by Amaury Forgeot D’Arc;
     bpo-5127(2).)

   * Computed gotos are now enabled by default on supported compilers
     (which are detected by the configure script).  They can still be
     disabled selectively by specifying ‘--without-computed-gotos’.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9203(3).)

   * The option ‘--with-wctype-functions’ was removed.  The built-in
     unicode database is now used for all functions.

     (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot D’Arc; bpo-9210(4).)

   * Hash values are now values of a new type, *note Py_hash_t: 1608,
     which is defined to be the same size as a pointer.  Previously they
     were of type long, which on some 64-bit operating systems is still
     only 32 bits long.  As a result of this fix, *note set: 42b. and
     *note dict: 188. can now hold more than ‘2**32’ entries on builds
     with 64-bit pointers (previously, they could grow to that size but
     their performance degraded catastrophically).

     (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Benjamin
     Peterson; bpo-9778(5).)

   * A new macro ‘Py_VA_COPY’ copies the state of the variable argument
     list.  It is equivalent to C99 'va_copy' but available on all
     Python platforms (bpo-2443(6)).

   * A new C API function ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ allows an embedded
     interpreter to set *note sys.argv: 1609. without also modifying
     *note sys.path: 194. (bpo-5753(7)).

   * ‘PyEval_CallObject()’ is now only available in macro form.  The
     function declaration, which was kept for backwards compatibility
     reasons, is now removed – the macro was introduced in 1997
     (bpo-8276(8)).

   * There is a new function *note PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 160a.
     which is analogous to *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 160b.  They
     both serve to convert Python *note int: 326. into a native
     fixed-width type while providing detection of cases where the
     conversion won’t fit (bpo-7767(9)).

   * The *note PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(): 160c. function now
     returns 'not equal' if the Python string is 'NUL' terminated.

   * There is a new function *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 160d.
     that is like *note PyErr_NewException(): 160e. but allows a
     docstring to be specified.  This lets C exceptions have the same
     self-documenting capabilities as their pure Python counterparts
     (bpo-7033(10)).

   * When compiled with the ‘--with-valgrind’ option, the pymalloc
     allocator will be automatically disabled when running under
     Valgrind.  This gives improved memory leak detection when running
     under Valgrind, while taking advantage of pymalloc at other times
     (bpo-2422(11)).

   * Removed the ‘O?’ format from the 'PyArg_Parse' functions.  The
     format is no longer used and it had never been documented
     (bpo-8837(12)).

There were a number of other small changes to the C-API. See the
Misc/NEWS(13) file for a complete list.

Also, there were a number of updates to the Mac OS X build, see
Mac/BuildScript/README.txt(14) for details.  For users running a
32/64-bit build, there is a known problem with the default Tcl/Tk on Mac
OS X 10.6.  Accordingly, we recommend installing an updated alternative
such as ActiveState Tcl/Tk 8.5.9(15).  See
‘https://www.python.org/download/mac/tcltk/’ for additional details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10679

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5127

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9203

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9210

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9778

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8837

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Misc/NEWS

   (14) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Mac/BuildScript/README.txt

   (15) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20101208191259/https://www.activestate.com/activetcl/downloads


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 2,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<5>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 2

1.15.18 Porting to Python 3.2
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The *note configparser: 26. module has a number of clean-ups.  The
     major change is to replace the old ‘ConfigParser’ class with
     long-standing preferred alternative ‘SafeConfigParser’.  In
     addition there are a number of smaller incompatibilities:

        * The interpolation syntax is now validated on *note get():
          1610. and *note set(): 1611. operations.  In the default
          interpolation scheme, only two tokens with percent signs are
          valid: ‘%(name)s’ and ‘%%’, the latter being an escaped
          percent sign.

        * The *note set(): 1611. and *note add_section(): 1612. methods
          now verify that values are actual strings.  Formerly,
          unsupported types could be introduced unintentionally.

        * Duplicate sections or options from a single source now raise
          either *note DuplicateSectionError: 1613. or *note
          DuplicateOptionError: 1614.  Formerly, duplicates would
          silently overwrite a previous entry.

        * Inline comments are now disabled by default so now the ';'
          character can be safely used in values.

        * Comments now can be indented.  Consequently, for ';' or '#' to
          appear at the start of a line in multiline values, it has to
          be interpolated.  This keeps comment prefix characters in
          values from being mistaken as comments.

        * ‘""’ is now a valid value and is no longer automatically
          converted to an empty string.  For empty strings, use ‘"option
          ="’ in a line.

   * The ‘nntplib’ module was reworked extensively, meaning that its
     APIs are often incompatible with the 3.1 APIs.

   * *note bytearray: 1c6. objects can no longer be used as filenames;
     instead, they should be converted to *note bytes: 1c7.

   * The ‘array.tostring()’ and ‘array.fromstring()’ have been renamed
     to *note array.tobytes(): 1615. and *note array.frombytes(): 1616.
     for clarity.  The old names have been deprecated.  (See
     bpo-8990(1).)

   * ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ functions:

        * «t#» format has been removed: use «s#» or «s*» instead

        * «w» and «w#» formats has been removed: use «w*» instead

   * The ‘PyCObject’ type, deprecated in 3.1, has been removed.  To wrap
     opaque C pointers in Python objects, the *note PyCapsule: 1617. API
     should be used instead; the new type has a well-defined interface
     for passing typing safety information and a less complicated
     signature for calling a destructor.

   * The ‘sys.setfilesystemencoding()’ function was removed because it
     had a flawed design.

   * The *note random.seed(): 1618. function and method now salt string
     seeds with an sha512 hash function.  To access the previous version
     of 'seed' in order to reproduce Python 3.1 sequences, set the
     'version' argument to '1', ‘random.seed(s, version=1)’.

   * The previously deprecated ‘string.maketrans()’ function has been
     removed in favor of the static methods *note bytes.maketrans():
     1619. and *note bytearray.maketrans(): 161a.  This change solves
     the confusion around which types were supported by the *note
     string: db. module.  Now, *note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7, and
     *note bytearray: 1c6. each have their own 'maketrans' and
     'translate' methods with intermediate translation tables of the
     appropriate type.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-5675(2).)

   * The previously deprecated ‘contextlib.nested()’ function has been
     removed in favor of a plain *note with: 20a. statement which can
     accept multiple context managers.  The latter technique is faster
     (because it is built-in), and it does a better job finalizing
     multiple context managers when one of them raises an exception:

          with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
              for line in infile:
                  if '<critical>' in line:
                      outfile.write(line)

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström; appspot issue
     53094(3).)

   * *note struct.pack(): 161b. now only allows bytes for the ‘s’ string
     pack code.  Formerly, it would accept text arguments and implicitly
     encode them to bytes using UTF-8.  This was problematic because it
     made assumptions about the correct encoding and because a
     variable-length encoding can fail when writing to fixed length
     segment of a structure.

     Code such as ‘struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', 'GIF87a', x, y)’ should be
     rewritten with to use bytes instead of text,
     ‘struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', b'GIF87a', x, y)’.

     (Discovered by David Beazley and fixed by Victor Stinner;
     bpo-10783(4).)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. class now raises an *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError: 161c. when a parse fails.
     Previously it raised an *note xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError: 161d.

   * The new, longer *note str(): 1df. value on floats may break
     doctests which rely on the old output format.

   * In *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf, the default value for 'close_fds'
     is now ‘True’ under Unix; under Windows, it is ‘True’ if the three
     standard streams are set to ‘None’, ‘False’ otherwise.  Previously,
     'close_fds' was always ‘False’ by default, which produced difficult
     to solve bugs or race conditions when open file descriptors would
     leak into the child process.

   * Support for legacy HTTP 0.9 has been removed from *note
     urllib.request: 114. and *note http.client: 72.  Such support is
     still present on the server side (in *note http.server: 75.).

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-10711(5).)

   * SSL sockets in timeout mode now raise *note socket.timeout: c0d.
     when a timeout occurs, rather than a generic *note SSLError: 161e.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-10272(6).)

   * The misleading functions ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ReleaseLock()’ have been officially deprecated.  The
     thread-state aware APIs (such as *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 838.
     and *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 839.) should be used instead.

   * Due to security risks, ‘asyncore.handle_accept()’ has been
     deprecated, and a new function, ‘asyncore.handle_accepted()’, was
     added to replace it.

     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in bpo-6706(7).)

   * Due to the new *note GIL: 411. implementation,
     ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ cannot be called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 673. anymore.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8990

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675

   (3) https://codereview.appspot.com/53094

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10783

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10711

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10272

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 1,  Next: What’s New In Python 3 0,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 2,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.16 What’s New In Python 3.1
=============================


Author: Raymond Hettinger

This article explains the new features in Python 3.1, compared to 3.0.
Python 3.1 was released on June 27, 2009.

* Menu:

* PEP 372; Ordered Dictionaries: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<13>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
* Optimizations: Optimizations<15>.
* IDLE: IDLE<2>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<6>.
* Porting to Python 3.1: Porting to Python 3 1.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries,  Next: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.16.1 PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries
------------------------------------

Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary
order.  Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative
implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally
inserted.  Based on the experiences from those implementations, a new
*note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5. class has been introduced.

The OrderedDict API is substantially the same as regular dictionaries
but will iterate over keys and values in a guaranteed order depending on
when a key was first inserted.  If a new entry overwrites an existing
entry, the original insertion position is left unchanged.  Deleting an
entry and reinserting it will move it to the end.

The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
modules.  The *note configparser: 26. module uses them by default.  This
lets configuration files be read, modified, and then written back in
their original order.  The '_asdict()' method for *note
collections.namedtuple(): 1cf. now returns an ordered dictionary with
the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple indices.
The *note json: 85. module is being built-out with an
'object_pairs_hook' to allow OrderedDicts to be built by the decoder.
Support was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML(1).

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 372(2) - Ordered Dictionaries

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger.
     Implementation written by Raymond Hettinger.

Since an ordered dictionary remembers its insertion order, it can be
used in conjunction with sorting to make a sorted dictionary:

     >>> # regular unsorted dictionary
     >>> d = {'banana': 3, 'apple':4, 'pear': 1, 'orange': 2}

     >>> # dictionary sorted by key
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[0]))
     OrderedDict([('apple', 4), ('banana', 3), ('orange', 2), ('pear', 1)])

     >>> # dictionary sorted by value
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[1]))
     OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3), ('apple', 4)])

     >>> # dictionary sorted by length of the key string
     >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: len(t[0])))
     OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('apple', 4), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3)])

The new sorted dictionaries maintain their sort order when entries are
deleted.  But when new keys are added, the keys are appended to the end
and the sort is not maintained.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyyaml.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Next: Other Language Changes<13>,  Prev: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.16.2 PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
--------------------------------------------------------

The built-in *note format(): 439. function and the *note str.format():
a12. method use a mini-language that now includes a simple, non-locale
aware way to format a number with a thousands separator.  That provides
a way to humanize a program’s output, improving its professional
appearance and readability:

     >>> format(1234567, ',d')
     '1,234,567'
     >>> format(1234567.89, ',.2f')
     '1,234,567.89'
     >>> format(12345.6 + 8901234.12j, ',f')
     '12,345.600000+8,901,234.120000j'
     >>> format(Decimal('1234567.89'), ',f')
     '1,234,567.89'

The supported types are *note int: 326, *note float: 327, *note complex:
328. and *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2.

Discussions are underway about how to specify alternative separators
like dots, spaces, apostrophes, or underscores.  Locale-aware
applications should use the existing 'n' format specifier which already
has some support for thousands separators.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 378(1) - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

     PEP written by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith and
     Mark Dickinson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<13>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Prev: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.16.3 Other Language Changes
-----------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Directories and zip archives containing a ‘__main__.py’ file can
     now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter.
     The directory/zipfile is automatically inserted as the first entry
     in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu; revised
     patch by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan; bpo-1739468(1).)

   * The *note int(): 326. type gained a ‘bit_length’ method that
     returns the number of bits necessary to represent its argument in
     binary:

          >>> n = 37
          >>> bin(37)
          '0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6
          >>> n = 2**123-1
          >>> n.bit_length()
          123
          >>> (n+1).bit_length()
          124

     (Contributed by Fredrik Johansson, Victor Stinner, Raymond
     Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson; bpo-3439(2).)

   * The fields in *note format(): 439. strings can now be automatically
     numbered:

          >>> 'Sir {} of {}'.format('Gallahad', 'Camelot')
          'Sir Gallahad of Camelot'

     Formerly, the string would have required numbered fields such as:
     ‘'Sir {0} of {1}'’.

     (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-5237(3).)

   * The ‘string.maketrans()’ function is deprecated and is replaced by
     new static methods, *note bytes.maketrans(): 1619. and *note
     bytearray.maketrans(): 161a.  This change solves the confusion
     around which types were supported by the *note string: db. module.
     Now, *note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7, and *note bytearray: 1c6.
     each have their own 'maketrans' and 'translate' methods with
     intermediate translation tables of the appropriate type.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-5675(4).)

   * The syntax of the *note with: 20a. statement now allows multiple
     context managers in a single statement:

          >>> with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile:
          ...     for line in infile:
          ...         if '<critical>' in line:
          ...             outfile.write(line)

     With the new syntax, the ‘contextlib.nested()’ function is no
     longer needed and is now deprecated.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström; appspot issue
     53094(5).)

   * ‘round(x, n)’ now returns an integer if 'x' is an integer.
     Previously it returned a float:

          >>> round(1123, -2)
          1100

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4707(6).)

   * Python now uses David Gay’s algorithm for finding the shortest
     floating-point representation that doesn’t change its value.  This
     should help mitigate some of the confusion surrounding binary
     floating-point numbers.

     The significance is easily seen with a number like ‘1.1’ which does
     not have an exact equivalent in binary floating point.  Since there
     is no exact equivalent, an expression like ‘float('1.1')’ evaluates
     to the nearest representable value which is ‘0x1.199999999999ap+0’
     in hex or ‘1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625’
     in decimal.  That nearest value was and still is used in subsequent
     floating-point calculations.

     What is new is how the number gets displayed.  Formerly, Python
     used a simple approach.  The value of ‘repr(1.1)’ was computed as
     ‘format(1.1, '.17g')’ which evaluated to ‘'1.1000000000000001'’.
     The advantage of using 17 digits was that it relied on IEEE-754
     guarantees to assure that ‘eval(repr(1.1))’ would round-trip
     exactly to its original value.  The disadvantage is that many
     people found the output to be confusing (mistaking intrinsic
     limitations of binary floating-point representation as being a
     problem with Python itself).

     The new algorithm for ‘repr(1.1)’ is smarter and returns ‘'1.1'’.
     Effectively, it searches all equivalent string representations
     (ones that get stored with the same underlying float value) and
     returns the shortest representation.

     The new algorithm tends to emit cleaner representations when
     possible, but it does not change the underlying values.  So, it is
     still the case that ‘1.1 + 2.2 != 3.3’ even though the
     representations may suggest otherwise.

     The new algorithm depends on certain features in the underlying
     floating-point implementation.  If the required features are not
     found, the old algorithm will continue to be used.  Also, the text
     pickle protocols assure cross-platform portability by using the old
     algorithm.

     (Contributed by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson; bpo-1580(7))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675

   (5) https://codereview.appspot.com/53094

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4707

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1580


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Next: Optimizations<15>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<13>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.16.4 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------------

   * Added a *note collections.Counter: 204. class to support convenient
     counting of unique items in a sequence or iterable:

          >>> Counter(['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue'])
          Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1696199(1).)

   * Added a new module, *note tkinter.ttk: 102. for access to the Tk
     themed widget set.  The basic idea of ttk is to separate, to the
     extent possible, the code implementing a widget’s behavior from the
     code implementing its appearance.

     (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; bpo-2983(2).)

   * The *note gzip.GzipFile: 849. and *note bz2.BZ2File: c3d. classes
     now support the context management protocol:

          >>> # Automatically close file after writing
          >>> with gzip.GzipFile(filename, "wb") as f:
          ...     f.write(b"xxx")

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)

   * The *note decimal: 39. module now supports methods for creating a
     decimal object from a binary *note float: 327.  The conversion is
     exact but can sometimes be surprising:

          >>> Decimal.from_float(1.1)
          Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')

     The long decimal result shows the actual binary fraction being
     stored for '1.1'.  The fraction has many digits because '1.1'
     cannot be exactly represented in binary.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Mark Dickinson.)

   * The *note itertools: 84. module grew two new functions.  The *note
     itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 1626. function is one of
     four for generating combinatorics including permutations and
     Cartesian products.  The *note itertools.compress(): 1627. function
     mimics its namesake from APL. Also, the existing *note
     itertools.count(): 1628. function now has an optional 'step'
     argument and can accept any type of counting sequence including
     *note fractions.Fraction: 1c3. and *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2.:

          >>> [p+q for p,q in combinations_with_replacement('LOVE', 2)]
          ['LL', 'LO', 'LV', 'LE', 'OO', 'OV', 'OE', 'VV', 'VE', 'EE']

          >>> list(compress(data=range(10), selectors=[0,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,0,0]))
          [2, 3, 5, 7]

          >>> c = count(start=Fraction(1,2), step=Fraction(1,6))
          >>> [next(c), next(c), next(c), next(c)]
          [Fraction(1, 2), Fraction(2, 3), Fraction(5, 6), Fraction(1, 1)]

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * *note collections.namedtuple(): 1cf. now supports a keyword
     argument 'rename' which lets invalid fieldnames be automatically
     converted to positional names in the form _0, _1, etc.  This is
     useful when the field names are being created by an external source
     such as a CSV header, SQL field list, or user input:

          >>> query = input()
          SELECT region, dept, count(*) FROM main GROUPBY region, dept

          >>> cursor.execute(query)
          >>> query_fields = [desc[0] for desc in cursor.description]
          >>> UserQuery = namedtuple('UserQuery', query_fields, rename=True)
          >>> pprint.pprint([UserQuery(*row) for row in cursor])
          [UserQuery(region='South', dept='Shipping', _2=185),
           UserQuery(region='North', dept='Accounting', _2=37),
           UserQuery(region='West', dept='Sales', _2=419)]

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1818(3).)

   * The *note re.sub(): 7a1, *note re.subn(): 7a2. and *note
     re.split(): 7a0. functions now accept a flags parameter.

     (Contributed by Gregory Smith.)

   * The *note logging: 8a. module now implements a simple *note
     logging.NullHandler: 1629. class for applications that are not
     using logging but are calling library code that does.  Setting-up a
     null handler will suppress spurious warnings such as «No handlers
     could be found for logger foo»:

          >>> h = logging.NullHandler()
          >>> logging.getLogger("foo").addHandler(h)

     (Contributed by Vinay Sajip; bpo-4384(4)).

   * The *note runpy: c6. module which supports the ‘-m’ command line
     switch now supports the execution of packages by looking for and
     executing a ‘__main__’ submodule when a package name is supplied.

     (Contributed by Andi Vajda; bpo-4195(5).)

   * The *note pdb: aa. module can now access and display source code
     loaded via *note zipimport: 13b. (or any other conformant PEP
     302(6) loader).

     (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-4201(7).)

   * *note functools.partial: 4a6. objects can now be pickled.

     (Suggested by Antoine Pitrou and Jesse Noller.  Implemented by Jack
     Diederich; bpo-5228(8).)

   * Add *note pydoc: bd. help topics for symbols so that ‘help('@')’
     works as expected in the interactive environment.

     (Contributed by David Laban; bpo-4739(9).)

   * The *note unittest: 10f. module now supports skipping individual
     tests or classes of tests.  And it supports marking a test as an
     expected failure, a test that is known to be broken, but shouldn’t
     be counted as a failure on a TestResult:

          class TestGizmo(unittest.TestCase):

              @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
              def test_gizmo_on_windows(self):
                  ...

              @unittest.expectedFailure
              def test_gimzo_without_required_library(self):
                  ...

     Also, tests for exceptions have been builtout to work with context
     managers using the *note with: 20a. statement:

          def test_division_by_zero(self):
              with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
                  x / 0

     In addition, several new assertion methods were added including
     *note assertSetEqual(): 162a, *note assertDictEqual(): 162b,
     ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’, *note assertListEqual(): 162c, *note
     assertTupleEqual(): 162d, *note assertSequenceEqual(): 162e, *note
     assertRaisesRegexp(): 93d, *note assertIsNone(): 162f, and *note
     assertIsNotNone(): 1630.

     (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson and Antoine Pitrou.)

   * The *note io: 82. module has three new constants for the *note
     seek(): 1631. method: *note SEEK_SET: 1632, *note SEEK_CUR: 1633,
     and *note SEEK_END: 1634.

   * The *note sys.version_info: 2fc. tuple is now a named tuple:

          >>> sys.version_info
          sys.version_info(major=3, minor=1, micro=0, releaselevel='alpha', serial=2)

     (Contributed by Ross Light; bpo-4285(10).)

   * The ‘nntplib’ and *note imaplib: 77. modules now support IPv6.

     (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1655(11) and bpo-1664(12).)

   * The *note pickle: ab. module has been adapted for better
     interoperability with Python 2.x when used with protocol 2 or
     lower.  The reorganization of the standard library changed the
     formal reference for many objects.  For example, ‘__builtin__.set’
     in Python 2 is called ‘builtins.set’ in Python 3.  This change
     confounded efforts to share data between different versions of
     Python.  But now when protocol 2 or lower is selected, the pickler
     will automatically use the old Python 2 names for both loading and
     dumping.  This remapping is turned-on by default but can be
     disabled with the 'fix_imports' option:

          >>> s = {1, 2, 3}
          >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0)
          b'c__builtin__\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'
          >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0, fix_imports=False)
          b'cbuiltins\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.'

     An unfortunate but unavoidable side-effect of this change is that
     protocol 2 pickles produced by Python 3.1 won’t be readable with
     Python 3.0.  The latest pickle protocol, protocol 3, should be used
     when migrating data between Python 3.x implementations, as it
     doesn’t attempt to remain compatible with Python 2.x.

     (Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti and Antoine Pitrou,
     bpo-6137(13).)

   * A new module, *note importlib: 7a. was added.  It provides a
     complete, portable, pure Python reference implementation of the
     *note import: 9da. statement and its counterpart, the *note
     __import__(): ca6. function.  It represents a substantial step
     forward in documenting and defining the actions that take place
     during imports.

     (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4384

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4195

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4201

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5228

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4739

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4285

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1655

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1664

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6137


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<15>,  Next: IDLE<2>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.16.5 Optimizations
--------------------

Major performance enhancements have been added:

   * The new I/O library (as defined in PEP 3116(1)) was mostly written
     in Python and quickly proved to be a problematic bottleneck in
     Python 3.0.  In Python 3.1, the I/O library has been entirely
     rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on the task at
     hand.  The pure Python version is still available for
     experimentation purposes through the ‘_pyio’ module.

     (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d’Arc and Antoine Pitrou.)

   * Added a heuristic so that tuples and dicts containing only
     untrackable objects are not tracked by the garbage collector.  This
     can reduce the size of collections and therefore the garbage
     collection overhead on long-running programs, depending on their
     particular use of datatypes.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-4688(2).)

   * Enabling a configure option named ‘--with-computed-gotos’ on
     compilers that support it (notably: gcc, SunPro, icc), the bytecode
     evaluation loop is compiled with a new dispatch mechanism which
     gives speedups of up to 20%, depending on the system, the compiler,
     and the benchmark.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou along with a number of other
     participants, bpo-4753(3)).

   * The decoding of UTF-8, UTF-16 and LATIN-1 is now two to four times
     faster.

     (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc,
     bpo-4868(4).)

   * The *note json: 85. module now has a C extension to substantially
     improve its performance.  In addition, the API was modified so that
     json works only with *note str: 1df, not with *note bytes: 1c7.
     That change makes the module closely match the JSON
     specification(5) which is defined in terms of Unicode.

     (Contributed by Bob Ippolito and converted to Py3.1 by Antoine
     Pitrou and Benjamin Peterson; bpo-4136(6).)

   * Unpickling now interns the attribute names of pickled objects.
     This saves memory and allows pickles to be smaller.

     (Contributed by Jake McGuire and Antoine Pitrou; bpo-5084(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4753

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4868

   (5) https://json.org/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4136

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<2>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Prev: Optimizations<15>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.16.6 IDLE
-----------

   * IDLE’s format menu now provides an option to strip trailing
     whitespace from a source file.

     (Contributed by Roger D. Serwy; bpo-5150(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Next: Porting to Python 3 1,  Prev: IDLE<2>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.16.7 Build and C API Changes
------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * Integers are now stored internally either in base ‘2**15’ or in
     base ‘2**30’, the base being determined at build time.  Previously,
     they were always stored in base ‘2**15’.  Using base ‘2**30’ gives
     significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but
     benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.  Therefore,
     the default is to use base ‘2**30’ on 64-bit machines and base
     ‘2**15’ on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there’s a new configure option
     ‘--enable-big-digits’ that can be used to override this default.

     Apart from the performance improvements this change should be
     invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and
     debugging purposes there’s a new *note sys.int_info: 1638. that
     provides information about the internal format, giving the number
     of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store
     each digit:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.int_info
          sys.int_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4258(1).)

   * The *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(): 1639. function now handles a
     negative 'pylong' by raising *note OverflowError: c57. instead of
     *note TypeError: 291.

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Lisandro Dalcrin; bpo-5175(2).)

   * Deprecated ‘PyNumber_Int()’.  Use *note PyNumber_Long(): e2c.
     instead.

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4910(3).)

   * Added a new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 163a. function to
     replace the deprecated functions ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and
     ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’.

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5914(4).)

   * Added *note PyCapsule: 1617. as a replacement for the ‘PyCObject’
     API. The principal difference is that the new type has a well
     defined interface for passing typing safety information and a less
     complicated signature for calling a destructor.  The old type had a
     problematic API and is now deprecated.

     (Contributed by Larry Hastings; bpo-5630(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5175

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4910

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5914

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 3 1,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<6>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 1

1.16.8 Porting to Python 3.1
----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The new floating-point string representations can break existing
     doctests.  For example:

          def e():
              '''Compute the base of natural logarithms.

              >>> e()
              2.7182818284590451

              '''
              return sum(1/math.factorial(x) for x in reversed(range(30)))

          doctest.testmod()

          **********************************************************************
          Failed example:
              e()
          Expected:
              2.7182818284590451
          Got:
              2.718281828459045
          **********************************************************************

   * The automatic name remapping in the pickle module for protocol 2 or
     lower can make Python 3.1 pickles unreadable in Python 3.0.  One
     solution is to use protocol 3.  Another solution is to set the
     'fix_imports' option to ‘False’.  See the discussion above for more
     details.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New In Python 3 0,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 7,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 1,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.17 What’s New In Python 3.0
=============================


Author: Guido van Rossum

This article explains the new features in Python 3.0, compared to 2.6.
Python 3.0, also known as «Python 3000» or «Py3K», is the first ever
'intentionally backwards incompatible' Python release.  Python 3.0 was
released on December 3, 2008.  There are more changes than in a typical
release, and more that are important for all Python users.
Nevertheless, after digesting the changes, you’ll find that Python
really hasn’t changed all that much – by and large, we’re mostly fixing
well-known annoyances and warts, and removing a lot of old cruft.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of all
new features, but instead tries to give a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 3.0, and/or
the many PEPs referenced in the text.  If you want to understand the
complete implementation and design rationale for a particular feature,
PEPs usually have more details than the regular documentation; but note
that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully
implemented.

Due to time constraints this document is not as complete as it should
have been.  As always for a new release, the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the
source distribution contains a wealth of detailed information about
every small thing that was changed.

* Menu:

* Common Stumbling Blocks::
* Overview Of Syntax Changes::
* Changes Already Present In Python 2.6: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6.
* Library Changes::
* PEP 3101; A New Approach To String Formatting: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
* Changes To Exceptions::
* Miscellaneous Other Changes::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<7>.
* Performance::
* Porting To Python 3.0: Porting To Python 3 0.


File: python.info,  Node: Common Stumbling Blocks,  Next: Overview Of Syntax Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.17.1 Common Stumbling Blocks
------------------------------

This section lists those few changes that are most likely to trip you up
if you’re used to Python 2.5.

* Menu:

* Print Is A Function::
* Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists::
* Ordering Comparisons::
* Integers::
* Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.


File: python.info,  Node: Print Is A Function,  Next: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.17.1.1 Print Is A Function
............................

The ‘print’ statement has been replaced with a *note print(): 131f.
function, with keyword arguments to replace most of the special syntax
of the old ‘print’ statement ( PEP 3105(1)).  Examples:

     Old: print "The answer is", 2*2
     New: print("The answer is", 2*2)

     Old: print x,           # Trailing comma suppresses newline
     New: print(x, end=" ")  # Appends a space instead of a newline

     Old: print              # Prints a newline
     New: print()            # You must call the function!

     Old: print >>sys.stderr, "fatal error"
     New: print("fatal error", file=sys.stderr)

     Old: print (x, y)       # prints repr((x, y))
     New: print((x, y))      # Not the same as print(x, y)!

You can also customize the separator between items, e.g.:

     print("There are <", 2**32, "> possibilities!", sep="")

which produces:

     There are <4294967296> possibilities!

Note:

   * The *note print(): 131f. function doesn’t support the «softspace»
     feature of the old ‘print’ statement.  For example, in Python 2.x,
     ‘print "A\n", "B"’ would write ‘"A\nB\n"’; but in Python 3.0,
     ‘print("A\n", "B")’ writes ‘"A\n B\n"’.

   * Initially, you’ll be finding yourself typing the old ‘print x’ a
     lot in interactive mode.  Time to retrain your fingers to type
     ‘print(x)’ instead!

   * When using the ‘2to3’ source-to-source conversion tool, all ‘print’
     statements are automatically converted to *note print(): 131f.
     function calls, so this is mostly a non-issue for larger projects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/


File: python.info,  Node: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Next: Ordering Comparisons,  Prev: Print Is A Function,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.17.1.2 Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists
.............................................

Some well-known APIs no longer return lists:

   * *note dict: 188. methods *note dict.keys(): bad, *note
     dict.items(): baf. and *note dict.values(): bae. return «views»
     instead of lists.  For example, this no longer works: ‘k =
     d.keys(); k.sort()’.  Use ‘k = sorted(d)’ instead (this works in
     Python 2.5 too and is just as efficient).

   * Also, the ‘dict.iterkeys()’, ‘dict.iteritems()’ and
     ‘dict.itervalues()’ methods are no longer supported.

   * *note map(): 43e. and *note filter(): c3b. return iterators.  If
     you really need a list and the input sequences are all of equal
     length, a quick fix is to wrap ‘map()’ in *note list(): 4d9, e.g.
     ‘list(map(...))’, but a better fix is often to use a list
     comprehension (especially when the original code uses *note lambda:
     1642.), or rewriting the code so it doesn’t need a list at all.
     Particularly tricky is ‘map()’ invoked for the side effects of the
     function; the correct transformation is to use a regular *note for:
     321. loop (since creating a list would just be wasteful).

     If the input sequences are not of equal length, *note map(): 43e.
     will stop at the termination of the shortest of the sequences.  For
     full compatibility with ‘map()’ from Python 2.x, also wrap the
     sequences in *note itertools.zip_longest(): 1643, e.g.  ‘map(func,
     *sequences)’ becomes ‘list(map(func,
     itertools.zip_longest(*sequences)))’.

   * *note range(): d0f. now behaves like ‘xrange()’ used to behave,
     except it works with values of arbitrary size.  The latter no
     longer exists.

   * *note zip(): 43f. now returns an iterator.


File: python.info,  Node: Ordering Comparisons,  Next: Integers,  Prev: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.17.1.3 Ordering Comparisons
.............................

Python 3.0 has simplified the rules for ordering comparisons:

   * The ordering comparison operators (‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>=’, ‘>’) raise a
     TypeError exception when the operands don’t have a meaningful
     natural ordering.  Thus, expressions like ‘1 < ''’, ‘0 > None’ or
     ‘len <= len’ are no longer valid, and e.g.  ‘None < None’ raises
     *note TypeError: 291. instead of returning ‘False’.  A corollary is
     that sorting a heterogeneous list no longer makes sense – all the
     elements must be comparable to each other.  Note that this does not
     apply to the ‘==’ and ‘!=’ operators: objects of different
     incomparable types always compare unequal to each other.

   * *note sorted(): f8c. and *note list.sort(): f8d. no longer accept
     the 'cmp' argument providing a comparison function.  Use the 'key'
     argument instead.  N.B. the 'key' and 'reverse' arguments are now
     «keyword-only».

   * The ‘cmp()’ function should be treated as gone, and the ‘__cmp__()’
     special method is no longer supported.  Use *note __lt__(): 1645.
     for sorting, *note __eq__(): ec0. with *note __hash__(): ec1, and
     other rich comparisons as needed.  (If you really need the ‘cmp()’
     functionality, you could use the expression ‘(a > b) - (a < b)’ as
     the equivalent for ‘cmp(a, b)’.)


File: python.info,  Node: Integers,  Next: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit,  Prev: Ordering Comparisons,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.17.1.4 Integers
.................

   * PEP 237(1): Essentially, ‘long’ renamed to *note int: 326.  That
     is, there is only one built-in integral type, named ‘int’; but it
     behaves mostly like the old ‘long’ type.

   * PEP 238(2): An expression like ‘1/2’ returns a float.  Use ‘1//2’
     to get the truncating behavior.  (The latter syntax has existed for
     years, at least since Python 2.2.)

   * The ‘sys.maxint’ constant was removed, since there is no longer a
     limit to the value of integers.  However, *note sys.maxsize: 156e.
     can be used as an integer larger than any practical list or string
     index.  It conforms to the implementation’s «natural» integer size
     and is typically the same as ‘sys.maxint’ in previous releases on
     the same platform (assuming the same build options).

   * The *note repr(): 45b. of a long integer doesn’t include the
     trailing ‘L’ anymore, so code that unconditionally strips that
     character will chop off the last digit instead.  (Use *note str():
     1df. instead.)

   * Octal literals are no longer of the form ‘0720’; use ‘0o720’
     instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/


File: python.info,  Node: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit,  Prev: Integers,  Up: Common Stumbling Blocks

1.17.1.5 Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit
...................................................

Everything you thought you knew about binary data and Unicode has
changed.

   * Python 3.0 uses the concepts of 'text' and (binary) 'data' instead
     of Unicode strings and 8-bit strings.  All text is Unicode; however
     'encoded' Unicode is represented as binary data.  The type used to
     hold text is *note str: 1df, the type used to hold data is *note
     bytes: 1c7.  The biggest difference with the 2.x situation is that
     any attempt to mix text and data in Python 3.0 raises *note
     TypeError: 291, whereas if you were to mix Unicode and 8-bit
     strings in Python 2.x, it would work if the 8-bit string happened
     to contain only 7-bit (ASCII) bytes, but you would get *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: dd7. if it contained non-ASCII values.  This
     value-specific behavior has caused numerous sad faces over the
     years.

   * As a consequence of this change in philosophy, pretty much all code
     that uses Unicode, encodings or binary data most likely has to
     change.  The change is for the better, as in the 2.x world there
     were numerous bugs having to do with mixing encoded and unencoded
     text.  To be prepared in Python 2.x, start using ‘unicode’ for all
     unencoded text, and *note str: 1df. for binary or encoded data
     only.  Then the ‘2to3’ tool will do most of the work for you.

   * You can no longer use ‘u"..."’ literals for Unicode text.  However,
     you must use ‘b"..."’ literals for binary data.

   * As the *note str: 1df. and *note bytes: 1c7. types cannot be mixed,
     you must always explicitly convert between them.  Use *note
     str.encode(): ca7. to go from ‘str’ to ‘bytes’, and *note
     bytes.decode(): ca8. to go from ‘bytes’ to ‘str’.  You can also use
     ‘bytes(s, encoding=...)’ and ‘str(b, encoding=...)’, respectively.

   * Like *note str: 1df, the *note bytes: 1c7. type is immutable.
     There is a separate 'mutable' type to hold buffered binary data,
     *note bytearray: 1c6.  Nearly all APIs that accept ‘bytes’ also
     accept ‘bytearray’.  The mutable API is based on *note
     collections.MutableSequence: 6c6.

   * All backslashes in raw string literals are interpreted literally.
     This means that ‘'\U'’ and ‘'\u'’ escapes in raw strings are not
     treated specially.  For example, ‘r'\u20ac'’ is a string of 6
     characters in Python 3.0, whereas in 2.6, ‘ur'\u20ac'’ was the
     single «euro» character.  (Of course, this change only affects raw
     string literals; the euro character is ‘'\u20ac'’ in Python 3.0.)

   * The built-in ‘basestring’ abstract type was removed.  Use *note
     str: 1df. instead.  The ‘str’ and *note bytes: 1c7. types don’t
     have functionality enough in common to warrant a shared base class.
     The ‘2to3’ tool (see below) replaces every occurrence of
     ‘basestring’ with ‘str’.

   * Files opened as text files (still the default mode for *note
     open(): 32b.) always use an encoding to map between strings (in
     memory) and bytes (on disk).  Binary files (opened with a ‘b’ in
     the mode argument) always use bytes in memory.  This means that if
     a file is opened using an incorrect mode or encoding, I/O will
     likely fail loudly, instead of silently producing incorrect data.
     It also means that even Unix users will have to specify the correct
     mode (text or binary) when opening a file.  There is a
     platform-dependent default encoding, which on Unixy platforms can
     be set with the ‘LANG’ environment variable (and sometimes also
     with some other platform-specific locale-related environment
     variables).  In many cases, but not all, the system default is
     UTF-8; you should never count on this default.  Any application
     reading or writing more than pure ASCII text should probably have a
     way to override the encoding.  There is no longer any need for
     using the encoding-aware streams in the *note codecs: 1c. module.

   * The initial values of *note sys.stdin: 94a, *note sys.stdout: e9c.
     and *note sys.stderr: d05. are now unicode-only text files (i.e.,
     they are instances of *note io.TextIOBase: a84.).  To read and
     write bytes data with these streams, you need to use their *note
     io.TextIOBase.buffer: 1648. attribute.

   * Filenames are passed to and returned from APIs as (Unicode)
     strings.  This can present platform-specific problems because on
     some platforms filenames are arbitrary byte strings.  (On the other
     hand, on Windows filenames are natively stored as Unicode.)  As a
     work-around, most APIs (e.g.  *note open(): 32b. and many functions
     in the *note os: a5. module) that take filenames accept *note
     bytes: 1c7. objects as well as strings, and a few APIs have a way
     to ask for a ‘bytes’ return value.  Thus, *note os.listdir(): 14a6.
     returns a list of ‘bytes’ instances if the argument is a ‘bytes’
     instance, and *note os.getcwdb(): e51. returns the current working
     directory as a ‘bytes’ instance.  Note that when ‘os.listdir()’
     returns a list of strings, filenames that cannot be decoded
     properly are omitted rather than raising *note UnicodeError: 675.

   * Some system APIs like *note os.environ: 4e5. and *note sys.argv:
     1609. can also present problems when the bytes made available by
     the system is not interpretable using the default encoding.
     Setting the ‘LANG’ variable and rerunning the program is probably
     the best approach.

   * PEP 3138(1): The *note repr(): 45b. of a string no longer escapes
     non-ASCII characters.  It still escapes control characters and code
     points with non-printable status in the Unicode standard, however.

   * PEP 3120(2): The default source encoding is now UTF-8.

   * PEP 3131(3): Non-ASCII letters are now allowed in identifiers.
     (However, the standard library remains ASCII-only with the
     exception of contributor names in comments.)

   * The ‘StringIO’ and ‘cStringIO’ modules are gone.  Instead, import
     the *note io: 82. module and use *note io.StringIO: 12d4. or *note
     io.BytesIO: 1255. for text and data respectively.

   * See also the *note Unicode HOWTO: 1649, which was updated for
     Python 3.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3138/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/


File: python.info,  Node: Overview Of Syntax Changes,  Next: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Prev: Common Stumbling Blocks,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.17.2 Overview Of Syntax Changes
---------------------------------

This section gives a brief overview of every 'syntactic' change in
Python 3.0.

* Menu:

* New Syntax::
* Changed Syntax::
* Removed Syntax::


File: python.info,  Node: New Syntax,  Next: Changed Syntax,  Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes

1.17.2.1 New Syntax
...................

   * PEP 3107(1): Function argument and return value annotations.  This
     provides a standardized way of annotating a function’s parameters
     and return value.  There are no semantics attached to such
     annotations except that they can be introspected at runtime using
     the *note __annotations__: 66b. attribute.  The intent is to
     encourage experimentation through metaclasses, decorators or
     frameworks.

   * PEP 3102(2): Keyword-only arguments.  Named parameters occurring
     after ‘*args’ in the parameter list 'must' be specified using
     keyword syntax in the call.  You can also use a bare ‘*’ in the
     parameter list to indicate that you don’t accept a variable-length
     argument list, but you do have keyword-only arguments.

   * Keyword arguments are allowed after the list of base classes in a
     class definition.  This is used by the new convention for
     specifying a metaclass (see next section), but can be used for
     other purposes as well, as long as the metaclass supports it.

   * PEP 3104(3): *note nonlocal: 164c. statement.  Using ‘nonlocal x’
     you can now assign directly to a variable in an outer (but
     non-global) scope.  ‘nonlocal’ is a new reserved word.

   * PEP 3132(4): Extended Iterable Unpacking.  You can now write things
     like ‘a, b, *rest = some_sequence’.  And even ‘*rest, a = stuff’.
     The ‘rest’ object is always a (possibly empty) list; the right-hand
     side may be any iterable.  Example:

          (a, *rest, b) = range(5)

     This sets 'a' to ‘0’, 'b' to ‘4’, and 'rest' to ‘[1, 2, 3]’.

   * Dictionary comprehensions: ‘{k: v for k, v in stuff}’ means the
     same thing as ‘dict(stuff)’ but is more flexible.  (This is PEP
     274(5) vindicated.  :-)

   * Set literals, e.g.  ‘{1, 2}’.  Note that ‘{}’ is an empty
     dictionary; use ‘set()’ for an empty set.  Set comprehensions are
     also supported; e.g., ‘{x for x in stuff}’ means the same thing as
     ‘set(stuff)’ but is more flexible.

   * New octal literals, e.g.  ‘0o720’ (already in 2.6).  The old octal
     literals (‘0720’) are gone.

   * New binary literals, e.g.  ‘0b1010’ (already in 2.6), and there is
     a new corresponding built-in function, *note bin(): 164d.

   * Bytes literals are introduced with a leading ‘b’ or ‘B’, and there
     is a new corresponding built-in function, *note bytes(): 1c7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3102/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3104/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3132/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0274/


File: python.info,  Node: Changed Syntax,  Next: Removed Syntax,  Prev: New Syntax,  Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes

1.17.2.2 Changed Syntax
.......................

   * PEP 3109(1) and PEP 3134(2): new *note raise: 9e4. statement
     syntax: ‘raise [EXPR [from EXPR]]’.  See below.

   * ‘as’ and *note with: 20a. are now reserved words.  (Since 2.6,
     actually.)

   * ‘True’, ‘False’, and ‘None’ are reserved words.  (2.6 partially
     enforced the restrictions on ‘None’ already.)

   * Change from *note except: 447. 'exc', 'var' to ‘except’ 'exc' ‘as’
     'var'.  See PEP 3110(3).

   * PEP 3115(4): New Metaclass Syntax.  Instead of:

          class C:
              __metaclass__ = M
              ...

     you must now use:

          class C(metaclass=M):
              ...

     The module-global ‘__metaclass__’ variable is no longer supported.
     (It was a crutch to make it easier to default to new-style classes
     without deriving every class from *note object: e4d.)

   * List comprehensions no longer support the syntactic form ‘[... for
     VAR in ITEM1, ITEM2, ...]’.  Use ‘[... for VAR in (ITEM1, ITEM2,
     ...)]’ instead.  Also note that list comprehensions have different
     semantics: they are closer to syntactic sugar for a generator
     expression inside a *note list(): 4d9. constructor, and in
     particular the loop control variables are no longer leaked into the
     surrounding scope.

   * The 'ellipsis' (‘...’) can be used as an atomic expression
     anywhere.  (Previously it was only allowed in slices.)  Also, it
     'must' now be spelled as ‘...’.  (Previously it could also be
     spelled as ‘. . .’, by a mere accident of the grammar.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: Removed Syntax,  Prev: Changed Syntax,  Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes

1.17.2.3 Removed Syntax
.......................

   * PEP 3113(1): Tuple parameter unpacking removed.  You can no longer
     write ‘def foo(a, (b, c)): ...’.  Use ‘def foo(a, b_c): b, c = b_c’
     instead.

   * Removed backticks (use *note repr(): 45b. instead).

   * Removed ‘<>’ (use ‘!=’ instead).

   * Removed keyword: *note exec(): 185. is no longer a keyword; it
     remains as a function.  (Fortunately the function syntax was also
     accepted in 2.x.)  Also note that ‘exec()’ no longer takes a stream
     argument; instead of ‘exec(f)’ you can use ‘exec(f.read())’.

   * Integer literals no longer support a trailing ‘l’ or ‘L’.

   * String literals no longer support a leading ‘u’ or ‘U’.

   * The *note from: 1650. 'module' *note import: 9da. ‘*’ syntax is
     only allowed at the module level, no longer inside functions.

   * The only acceptable syntax for relative imports is ‘from .[MODULE]
     import NAME’.  All *note import: 9da. forms not starting with ‘.’
     are interpreted as absolute imports.  ( PEP 328(2))

   * Classic classes are gone.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3113/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Next: Library Changes,  Prev: Overview Of Syntax Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.17.3 Changes Already Present In Python 2.6
--------------------------------------------

Since many users presumably make the jump straight from Python 2.5 to
Python 3.0, this section reminds the reader of new features that were
originally designed for Python 3.0 but that were back-ported to Python
2.6.  The corresponding sections in *note What’s New in Python 2.6:
1652. should be consulted for longer descriptions.

   * *note PEP 343; The “with” statement: 1653.  The *note with: 20a.
     statement is now a standard feature and no longer needs to be
     imported from the *note __future__: 0.  Also check out *note
     Writing Context Managers: 1654. and *note The contextlib module:
     1655.

   * *note PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: 1656.
     This enhances the usefulness of the *note -m: 4ca. option when the
     referenced module lives in a package.

   * *note PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: 1657.

   * *note PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: 1658.

   * *note PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: 1659.  Note: the 2.6
     description mentions the *note format(): 439. method for both 8-bit
     and Unicode strings.  In 3.0, only the *note str: 1df. type (text
     strings with Unicode support) supports this method; the *note
     bytes: 1c7. type does not.  The plan is to eventually make this the
     only API for string formatting, and to start deprecating the ‘%’
     operator in Python 3.1.

   * *note PEP 3105; print As a Function: 165a.  This is now a standard
     feature and no longer needs to be imported from *note __future__:
     0.  More details were given above.

   * *note PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: 165b.  The *note
     except: 447. 'exc' ‘as’ 'var' syntax is now standard and ‘except’
     'exc', 'var' is no longer supported.  (Of course, the ‘as’ 'var'
     part is still optional.)

   * *note PEP 3112; Byte Literals: 165c.  The ‘b"..."’ string literal
     notation (and its variants like ‘b'...'’, ‘b"""..."""’, and
     ‘br"..."’) now produces a literal of type *note bytes: 1c7.

   * *note PEP 3116; New I/O Library: 165d.  The *note io: 82. module is
     now the standard way of doing file I/O. The built-in *note open():
     32b. function is now an alias for *note io.open(): 92b. and has
     additional keyword arguments 'encoding', 'errors', 'newline' and
     'closefd'.  Also note that an invalid 'mode' argument now raises
     *note ValueError: 277, not *note IOError: 13fb.  The binary file
     object underlying a text file object can be accessed as ‘f.buffer’
     (but beware that the text object maintains a buffer of itself in
     order to speed up the encoding and decoding operations).

   * *note PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: 165e.  The old builtin
     ‘buffer()’ is now really gone; the new builtin *note memoryview():
     1d2. provides (mostly) similar functionality.

   * *note PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: 165f.  The *note abc: 4.
     module and the ABCs defined in the *note collections: 1e. module
     plays a somewhat more prominent role in the language now, and
     built-in collection types like *note dict: 188. and *note list:
     4d9. conform to the *note collections.MutableMapping: 1459. and
     *note collections.MutableSequence: 6c6. ABCs, respectively.

   * *note PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: 1660.  As
     mentioned above, the new octal literal notation is the only one
     supported, and binary literals have been added.

   * *note PEP 3129; Class Decorators: 1661.

   * *note PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: 1662.  The *note
     numbers: a2. module is another new use of ABCs, defining Python’s
     «numeric tower».  Also note the new *note fractions: 60. module
     which implements *note numbers.Rational: 1663.


File: python.info,  Node: Library Changes,  Next: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Prev: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.17.4 Library Changes
----------------------

Due to time constraints, this document does not exhaustively cover the
very extensive changes to the standard library.  PEP 3108(1) is the
reference for the major changes to the library.  Here’s a capsule
review:

   * Many old modules were removed.  Some, like ‘gopherlib’ (no longer
     used) and ‘md5’ (replaced by *note hashlib: 6b.), were already
     deprecated by PEP 4(2).  Others were removed as a result of the
     removal of support for various platforms such as Irix, BeOS and Mac
     OS 9 (see PEP 11(3)).  Some modules were also selected for removal
     in Python 3.0 due to lack of use or because a better replacement
     exists.  See PEP 3108(4) for an exhaustive list.

   * The ‘bsddb3’ package was removed because its presence in the core
     standard library has proved over time to be a particular burden for
     the core developers due to testing instability and Berkeley DB’s
     release schedule.  However, the package is alive and well,
     externally maintained at
     ‘https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm’.

   * Some modules were renamed because their old name disobeyed PEP
     8(5), or for various other reasons.  Here’s the list:

     Old Name                    New Name
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------
                                 
     _winreg                     winreg
                                 
                                 
     ConfigParser                configparser
                                 
                                 
     copy_reg                    copyreg
                                 
                                 
     Queue                       queue
                                 
                                 
     SocketServer                socketserver
                                 
                                 
     markupbase                  _markupbase
                                 
                                 
     repr                        reprlib
                                 
                                 
     test.test_support           test.support
                                 

   * A common pattern in Python 2.x is to have one version of a module
     implemented in pure Python, with an optional accelerated version
     implemented as a C extension; for example, *note pickle: ab. and
     ‘cPickle’.  This places the burden of importing the accelerated
     version and falling back on the pure Python version on each user of
     these modules.  In Python 3.0, the accelerated versions are
     considered implementation details of the pure Python versions.
     Users should always import the standard version, which attempts to
     import the accelerated version and falls back to the pure Python
     version.  The ‘pickle’ / ‘cPickle’ pair received this treatment.
     The *note profile: b4. module is on the list for 3.1.  The
     ‘StringIO’ module has been turned into a class in the *note io: 82.
     module.

   * Some related modules have been grouped into packages, and usually
     the submodule names have been simplified.  The resulting new
     packages are:

        * *note dbm: 34. (‘anydbm’, ‘dbhash’, ‘dbm’, ‘dumbdbm’, ‘gdbm’,
          ‘whichdb’).

        * *note html: 6e. (‘HTMLParser’, ‘htmlentitydefs’).

        * *note http: 71. (‘httplib’, ‘BaseHTTPServer’, ‘CGIHTTPServer’,
          ‘SimpleHTTPServer’, ‘Cookie’, ‘cookielib’).

        * *note tkinter: f9. (all ‘Tkinter’-related modules except *note
          turtle: 10a.).  The target audience of ‘turtle’ doesn’t really
          care about ‘tkinter’.  Also note that as of Python 2.6, the
          functionality of ‘turtle’ has been greatly enhanced.

        * *note urllib: 111. (‘urllib’, ‘urllib2’, ‘urlparse’,
          ‘robotparse’).

        * *note xmlrpc: 136. (‘xmlrpclib’, ‘DocXMLRPCServer’,
          ‘SimpleXMLRPCServer’).

Some other changes to standard library modules, not covered by PEP
3108(6):

   * Killed ‘sets’.  Use the built-in *note set(): 42b. class.

   * Cleanup of the *note sys: e2. module: removed ‘sys.exitfunc()’,
     ‘sys.exc_clear()’, ‘sys.exc_type’, ‘sys.exc_value’,
     ‘sys.exc_traceback’.  (Note that *note sys.last_type: 8cf. etc.
     remain.)

   * Cleanup of the *note array.array: 6c5. type: the ‘read()’ and
     ‘write()’ methods are gone; use *note fromfile(): 1665. and *note
     tofile(): 1666. instead.  Also, the ‘'c'’ typecode for array is
     gone – use either ‘'b'’ for bytes or ‘'u'’ for Unicode characters.

   * Cleanup of the *note operator: a3. module: removed
     ‘sequenceIncludes()’ and ‘isCallable()’.

   * Cleanup of the ‘thread’ module: ‘acquire_lock()’ and
     ‘release_lock()’ are gone; use *note acquire(): a87. and *note
     release(): 1667. instead.

   * Cleanup of the *note random: c0. module: removed the ‘jumpahead()’
     API.

   * The ‘new’ module is gone.

   * The functions ‘os.tmpnam()’, ‘os.tempnam()’ and ‘os.tmpfile()’ have
     been removed in favor of the *note tempfile: e9. module.

   * The *note tokenize: 104. module has been changed to work with
     bytes.  The main entry point is now *note tokenize.tokenize(): 8e9,
     instead of generate_tokens.

   * ‘string.letters’ and its friends (‘string.lowercase’ and
     ‘string.uppercase’) are gone.  Use *note string.ascii_letters:
     1668. etc.  instead.  (The reason for the removal is that
     ‘string.letters’ and friends had locale-specific behavior, which is
     a bad idea for such attractively named global «constants».)

   * Renamed module ‘__builtin__’ to *note builtins: 13. (removing the
     underscores, adding an “s”).  The ‘__builtins__’ variable found in
     most global namespaces is unchanged.  To modify a builtin, you
     should use ‘builtins’, not ‘__builtins__’!

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0004/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Next: Changes To Exceptions,  Prev: Library Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

'PEP 3101': A New Approach To String Formatting

   * A new system for built-in string formatting operations replaces the
     ‘%’ string formatting operator.  (However, the ‘%’ operator is
     still supported; it will be deprecated in Python 3.1 and removed
     from the language at some later time.)  Read PEP 3101(1) for the
     full scoop.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes To Exceptions,  Next: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Prev: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.17.6 Changes To Exceptions
----------------------------

The APIs for raising and catching exception have been cleaned up and new
powerful features added:

   * PEP 352(1): All exceptions must be derived (directly or indirectly)
     from *note BaseException: 9b9.  This is the root of the exception
     hierarchy.  This is not new as a recommendation, but the
     'requirement' to inherit from ‘BaseException’ is new.  (Python 2.6
     still allowed classic classes to be raised, and placed no
     restriction on what you can catch.)  As a consequence, string
     exceptions are finally truly and utterly dead.

   * Almost all exceptions should actually derive from *note Exception:
     d9e.; *note BaseException: 9b9. should only be used as a base class
     for exceptions that should only be handled at the top level, such
     as *note SystemExit: 10f7. or *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96.  The
     recommended idiom for handling all exceptions except for this
     latter category is to use *note except: 447. ‘Exception’.

   * ‘StandardError’ was removed.

   * Exceptions no longer behave as sequences.  Use the *note args: 972.
     attribute instead.

   * PEP 3109(2): Raising exceptions.  You must now use ‘raise
     EXCEPTION(ARGS)’ instead of ‘raise EXCEPTION, ARGS’.  Additionally,
     you can no longer explicitly specify a traceback; instead, if you
     'have' to do this, you can assign directly to the *note
     __traceback__: 166b. attribute (see below).

   * PEP 3110(3): Catching exceptions.  You must now use ‘except
     SOMEEXCEPTION as VARIABLE’ instead of ‘except SOMEEXCEPTION,
     VARIABLE’.  Moreover, the 'variable' is explicitly deleted when the
     *note except: 447. block is left.

   * PEP 3134(4): Exception chaining.  There are two cases: implicit
     chaining and explicit chaining.  Implicit chaining happens when an
     exception is raised in an *note except: 447. or *note finally: 44c.
     handler block.  This usually happens due to a bug in the handler
     block; we call this a 'secondary' exception.  In this case, the
     original exception (that was being handled) is saved as the *note
     __context__: 166c. attribute of the secondary exception.  Explicit
     chaining is invoked with this syntax:

          raise SecondaryException() from primary_exception

     (where 'primary_exception' is any expression that produces an
     exception object, probably an exception that was previously
     caught).  In this case, the primary exception is stored on the
     *note __cause__: 166d. attribute of the secondary exception.  The
     traceback printed when an unhandled exception occurs walks the
     chain of ‘__cause__’ and *note __context__: 166c. attributes and
     prints a separate traceback for each component of the chain, with
     the primary exception at the top.  (Java users may recognize this
     behavior.)

   * PEP 3134(5): Exception objects now store their traceback as the
     *note __traceback__: 166b. attribute.  This means that an exception
     object now contains all the information pertaining to an exception,
     and there are fewer reasons to use *note sys.exc_info(): a7a.
     (though the latter is not removed).

   * A few exception messages are improved when Windows fails to load an
     extension module.  For example, ‘error code 193’ is now ‘%1 is not
     a valid Win32 application’.  Strings now deal with non-English
     locales.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Next: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Prev: Changes To Exceptions,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.17.7 Miscellaneous Other Changes
----------------------------------

* Menu:

* Operators And Special Methods::
* Builtins::


File: python.info,  Node: Operators And Special Methods,  Next: Builtins,  Up: Miscellaneous Other Changes

1.17.7.1 Operators And Special Methods
......................................

   * ‘!=’ now returns the opposite of ‘==’, unless ‘==’ returns *note
     NotImplemented: 440.

   * The concept of «unbound methods» has been removed from the
     language.  When referencing a method as a class attribute, you now
     get a plain function object.

   * ‘__getslice__()’, ‘__setslice__()’ and ‘__delslice__()’ were
     killed.  The syntax ‘a[i:j]’ now translates to
     ‘a.__getitem__(slice(i, j))’ (or *note __setitem__(): 1670. or
     *note __delitem__(): 1671, when used as an assignment or deletion
     target, respectively).

   * PEP 3114(1): the standard *note next(): bb5. method has been
     renamed to *note __next__(): 1672.

   * The ‘__oct__()’ and ‘__hex__()’ special methods are removed – *note
     oct(): 1673. and *note hex(): 1674. use *note __index__(): 43d. now
     to convert the argument to an integer.

   * Removed support for ‘__members__’ and ‘__methods__’.

   * The function attributes named ‘func_X’ have been renamed to use the
     ‘__X__’ form, freeing up these names in the function attribute
     namespace for user-defined attributes.  To wit, ‘func_closure’,
     ‘func_code’, ‘func_defaults’, ‘func_dict’, ‘func_doc’,
     ‘func_globals’, ‘func_name’ were renamed to *note __closure__:
     1675, *note __code__: 79c, *note __defaults__: 1676, *note
     __dict__: 1677, *note __doc__: 1582, *note __globals__: 1678, *note
     __name__: 1679, respectively.

   * ‘__nonzero__()’ is now *note __bool__(): 167a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3114/


File: python.info,  Node: Builtins,  Prev: Operators And Special Methods,  Up: Miscellaneous Other Changes

1.17.7.2 Builtins
.................

   * PEP 3135(1): New *note super(): 443.  You can now invoke ‘super()’
     without arguments and (assuming this is in a regular instance
     method defined inside a *note class: 167c. statement) the right
     class and instance will automatically be chosen.  With arguments,
     the behavior of ‘super()’ is unchanged.

   * PEP 3111(2): ‘raw_input()’ was renamed to *note input(): 167d.
     That is, the new ‘input()’ function reads a line from *note
     sys.stdin: 94a. and returns it with the trailing newline stripped.
     It raises *note EOFError: 167e. if the input is terminated
     prematurely.  To get the old behavior of ‘input()’, use
     ‘eval(input())’.

   * A new built-in function *note next(): bb5. was added to call the
     *note __next__(): 1672. method on an object.

   * The *note round(): 167f. function rounding strategy and return type
     have changed.  Exact halfway cases are now rounded to the nearest
     even result instead of away from zero.  (For example, ‘round(2.5)’
     now returns ‘2’ rather than ‘3’.)  ‘round(x[, n])’ now delegates to
     ‘x.__round__([n])’ instead of always returning a float.  It
     generally returns an integer when called with a single argument and
     a value of the same type as ‘x’ when called with two arguments.

   * Moved ‘intern()’ to *note sys.intern(): 1680.

   * Removed: ‘apply()’.  Instead of ‘apply(f, args)’ use ‘f(*args)’.

   * Removed *note callable(): 156f.  Instead of ‘callable(f)’ you can
     use ‘isinstance(f, collections.Callable)’.  The
     ‘operator.isCallable()’ function is also gone.

   * Removed ‘coerce()’.  This function no longer serves a purpose now
     that classic classes are gone.

   * Removed ‘execfile()’.  Instead of ‘execfile(fn)’ use
     ‘exec(open(fn).read())’.

   * Removed the ‘file’ type.  Use *note open(): 32b.  There are now
     several different kinds of streams that open can return in the
     *note io: 82. module.

   * Removed ‘reduce()’.  Use *note functools.reduce(): 153. if you
     really need it; however, 99 percent of the time an explicit *note
     for: 321. loop is more readable.

   * Removed ‘reload()’.  Use ‘imp.reload()’.

   * Removed.  ‘dict.has_key()’ – use the *note in: 323. operator
     instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3135/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3111/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Next: Performance,  Prev: Miscellaneous Other Changes,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.17.8 Build and C API Changes
------------------------------

Due to time constraints, here is a 'very' incomplete list of changes to
the C API.

   * Support for several platforms was dropped, including but not
     limited to Mac OS 9, BeOS, RISCOS, Irix, and Tru64.

   * PEP 3118(1): New Buffer API.

   * PEP 3121(2): Extension Module Initialization & Finalization.

   * PEP 3123(3): Making *note PyObject_HEAD: 1682. conform to standard
     C.

   * No more C API support for restricted execution.

   * ‘PyNumber_Coerce()’, ‘PyNumber_CoerceEx()’, ‘PyMember_Get()’, and
     ‘PyMember_Set()’ C APIs are removed.

   * New C API ‘PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()’, works like *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3. but won’t block on the import lock
     (returning an error instead).

   * Renamed the boolean conversion C-level slot and method:
     ‘nb_nonzero’ is now ‘nb_bool’.

   * Removed ‘METH_OLDARGS’ and ‘WITH_CYCLE_GC’ from the C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3123/


File: python.info,  Node: Performance,  Next: Porting To Python 3 0,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<7>,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.17.9 Performance
------------------

The net result of the 3.0 generalizations is that Python 3.0 runs the
pystone benchmark around 10% slower than Python 2.5.  Most likely the
biggest cause is the removal of special-casing for small integers.
There’s room for improvement, but it will happen after 3.0 is released!


File: python.info,  Node: Porting To Python 3 0,  Prev: Performance,  Up: What’s New In Python 3 0

1.17.10 Porting To Python 3.0
-----------------------------

For porting existing Python 2.5 or 2.6 source code to Python 3.0, the
best strategy is the following:

  0. (Prerequisite:) Start with excellent test coverage.

  1. Port to Python 2.6.  This should be no more work than the average
     port from Python 2.x to Python 2.(x+1).  Make sure all your tests
     pass.

  2. (Still using 2.6:) Turn on the ‘-3’ command line switch.  This
     enables warnings about features that will be removed (or change) in
     3.0.  Run your test suite again, and fix code that you get warnings
     about until there are no warnings left, and all your tests still
     pass.

  3. Run the ‘2to3’ source-to-source translator over your source code
     tree.  Run the result of the translation under Python 3.0.
     Manually fix up any remaining issues, fixing problems until all
     tests pass again.

It is not recommended to try to write source code that runs unchanged
under both Python 2.6 and 3.0; you’d have to use a very contorted coding
style, e.g.  avoiding ‘print’ statements, metaclasses, and much more.
If you are maintaining a library that needs to support both Python 2.6
and Python 3.0, the best approach is to modify step 3 above by editing
the 2.6 version of the source code and running the ‘2to3’ translator
again, rather than editing the 3.0 version of the source code.

For porting C extensions to Python 3.0, please see *note Porting
Extension Modules to Python 3: 1685.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 7,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 6,  Prev: What’s New In Python 3 0,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.18 What’s New in Python 2.7
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)

This article explains the new features in Python 2.7.  Python 2.7 was
released on July 3, 2010.

Numeric handling has been improved in many ways, for both floating-point
numbers and for the *note Decimal: 1c2. class.  There are some useful
additions to the standard library, such as a greatly enhanced *note
unittest: 10f. module, the *note argparse: 7. module for parsing
command-line options, convenient *note OrderedDict: 9d5. and *note
Counter: 204. classes in the *note collections: 1e. module, and many
other improvements.

Python 2.7 is planned to be the last of the 2.x releases, so we worked
on making it a good release for the long term.  To help with porting to
Python 3, several new features from the Python 3.x series have been
included in 2.7.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.7 at
‘https://docs.python.org’.  If you want to understand the rationale for
the design and implementation, refer to the PEP for a particular new
feature or the issue on ‘https://bugs.python.org’ in which a change was
discussed.  Whenever possible, «What’s New in Python» links to the
bug/patch item for each change.

* Menu:

* The Future for Python 2.x: The Future for Python 2 x.
* Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings::
* Python 3.1 Features: Python 3 1 Features.
* PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
* PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
* PEP 389; The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
* PEP 391; Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
* PEP 3106; Dictionary Views: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
* PEP 3137; The memoryview Object: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<14>.
* New and Improved Modules::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<8>.
* Other Changes and Fixes::
* Porting to Python 2.7: Porting to Python 2 7.
* New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases.
* Acknowledgements::


File: python.info,  Node: The Future for Python 2 x,  Next: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.1 The Future for Python 2.x
--------------------------------

Python 2.7 is the last major release in the 2.x series, as the Python
maintainers have shifted the focus of their new feature development
efforts to the Python 3.x series.  This means that while Python 2
continues to receive bug fixes, and to be updated to build correctly on
new hardware and versions of supported operated systems, there will be
no new full feature releases for the language or standard library.

However, while there is a large common subset between Python 2.7 and
Python 3, and many of the changes involved in migrating to that common
subset, or directly to Python 3, can be safely automated, some other
changes (notably those associated with Unicode handling) may require
careful consideration, and preferably robust automated regression test
suites, to migrate effectively.

This means that Python 2.7 will remain in place for a long time,
providing a stable and supported base platform for production systems
that have not yet been ported to Python 3.  The full expected lifecycle
of the Python 2.7 series is detailed in PEP 373(1).

Some key consequences of the long-term significance of 2.7 are:

   * As noted above, the 2.7 release has a much longer period of
     maintenance when compared to earlier 2.x versions.  Python 2.7 is
     currently expected to remain supported by the core development team
     (receiving security updates and other bug fixes) until at least
     2020 (10 years after its initial release, compared to the more
     typical support period of 18–24 months).

   * As the Python 2.7 standard library ages, making effective use of
     the Python Package Index (either directly or via a redistributor)
     becomes more important for Python 2 users.  In addition to a wide
     variety of third party packages for various tasks, the available
     packages include backports of new modules and features from the
     Python 3 standard library that are compatible with Python 2, as
     well as various tools and libraries that can make it easier to
     migrate to Python 3.  The Python Packaging User Guide(2) provides
     guidance on downloading and installing software from the Python
     Package Index.

   * While the preferred approach to enhancing Python 2 is now the
     publication of new packages on the Python Package Index, this
     approach doesn’t necessarily work in all cases, especially those
     related to network security.  In exceptional cases that cannot be
     handled adequately by publishing new or updated packages on PyPI,
     the Python Enhancement Proposal process may be used to make the
     case for adding new features directly to the Python 2 standard
     library.  Any such additions, and the maintenance releases where
     they were added, will be noted in the *note New Features Added to
     Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: 168b. section below.

For projects wishing to migrate from Python 2 to Python 3, or for
library and framework developers wishing to support users on both Python
2 and Python 3, there are a variety of tools and guides available to
help decide on a suitable approach and manage some of the technical
details involved.  The recommended starting point is the pyporting-howto
HOWTO guide.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Next: Python 3 1 Features,  Prev: The Future for Python 2 x,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.2 Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
------------------------------------------------------

For Python 2.7, a policy decision was made to silence warnings only of
interest to developers by default.  *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. and
its descendants are now ignored unless otherwise requested, preventing
users from seeing warnings triggered by an application.  This change was
also made in the branch that became Python 3.2.  (Discussed on
stdlib-sig and carried out in bpo-7319(1).)

In previous releases, *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. messages were
enabled by default, providing Python developers with a clear indication
of where their code may break in a future major version of Python.

However, there are increasingly many users of Python-based applications
who are not directly involved in the development of those applications.
*note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. messages are irrelevant to such users,
making them worry about an application that’s actually working correctly
and burdening application developers with responding to these concerns.

You can re-enable display of *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. messages by
running Python with the *note -Wdefault: 1c0. (short form: ‘-Wd’)
switch, or by setting the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: 1c1. environment
variable to ‘"default"’ (or ‘"d"’) before running Python.  Python code
can also re-enable them by calling ‘warnings.simplefilter('default')’.

The ‘unittest’ module also automatically reenables deprecation warnings
when running tests.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7319


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 1 Features,  Next: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Prev: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.3 Python 3.1 Features
--------------------------

Much as Python 2.6 incorporated features from Python 3.0, version 2.7
incorporates some of the new features in Python 3.1.  The 2.x series
continues to provide tools for migrating to the 3.x series.

A partial list of 3.1 features that were backported to 2.7:

   * The syntax for set literals (‘{1,2,3}’ is a mutable set).

   * Dictionary and set comprehensions (‘{i: i*2 for i in range(3)}’).

   * Multiple context managers in a single *note with: 20a. statement.

   * A new version of the *note io: 82. library, rewritten in C for
     performance.

   * The ordered-dictionary type described in *note PEP 372; Adding an
     Ordered Dictionary to collections: 168e.

   * The new ‘","’ format specifier described in *note PEP 378; Format
     Specifier for Thousands Separator: 168f.

   * The *note memoryview: 1d2. object.

   * A small subset of the *note importlib: 7a. module, *note described
     below: 1690.

   * The *note repr(): 45b. of a float ‘x’ is shorter in many cases:
     it’s now based on the shortest decimal string that’s guaranteed to
     round back to ‘x’.  As in previous versions of Python, it’s
     guaranteed that ‘float(repr(x))’ recovers ‘x’.

   * Float-to-string and string-to-float conversions are correctly
     rounded.  The *note round(): 167f. function is also now correctly
     rounded.

   * The *note PyCapsule: 1617. type, used to provide a C API for
     extension modules.

   * The *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 160b. C API function.

Other new Python3-mode warnings include:

   * ‘operator.isCallable()’ and ‘operator.sequenceIncludes()’, which
     are not supported in 3.x, now trigger warnings.

   * The ‘-3’ switch now automatically enables the ‘-Qwarn’ switch that
     causes warnings about using classic division with integers and long
     integers.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Next: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Prev: Python 3 1 Features,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.4 PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
-----------------------------------------------------------

Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary
order.  Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative
implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally
inserted.  Based on the experiences from those implementations, 2.7
introduces a new *note OrderedDict: 9d5. class in the *note collections:
1e. module.

The *note OrderedDict: 9d5. API provides the same interface as regular
dictionaries but iterates over keys and values in a guaranteed order
depending on when a key was first inserted:

     >>> from collections import OrderedDict
     >>> d = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
     ...                  ('second', 2),
     ...                  ('third', 3)])
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('second', 2), ('third', 3)]

If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion
position is left unchanged:

     >>> d['second'] = 4
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('second', 4), ('third', 3)]

Deleting an entry and reinserting it will move it to the end:

     >>> del d['second']
     >>> d['second'] = 5
     >>> d.items()
     [('first', 1), ('third', 3), ('second', 5)]

The *note popitem(): 1692. method has an optional 'last' argument that
defaults to ‘True’.  If 'last' is true, the most recently added key is
returned and removed; if it’s false, the oldest key is selected:

     >>> od = OrderedDict([(x,0) for x in range(20)])
     >>> od.popitem()
     (19, 0)
     >>> od.popitem()
     (18, 0)
     >>> od.popitem(last=False)
     (0, 0)
     >>> od.popitem(last=False)
     (1, 0)

Comparing two ordered dictionaries checks both the keys and values, and
requires that the insertion order was the same:

     >>> od1 = OrderedDict([('first', 1),
     ...                    ('second', 2),
     ...                    ('third', 3)])
     >>> od2 = OrderedDict([('third', 3),
     ...                    ('first', 1),
     ...                    ('second', 2)])
     >>> od1 == od2
     False
     >>> # Move 'third' key to the end
     >>> del od2['third']; od2['third'] = 3
     >>> od1 == od2
     True

Comparing an *note OrderedDict: 9d5. with a regular dictionary ignores
the insertion order and just compares the keys and values.

How does the *note OrderedDict: 9d5. work?  It maintains a doubly linked
list of keys, appending new keys to the list as they’re inserted.  A
secondary dictionary maps keys to their corresponding list node, so
deletion doesn’t have to traverse the entire linked list and therefore
remains 'O'(1).

The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several
modules.

   * The *note ConfigParser: 26. module uses them by default, meaning
     that configuration files can now be read, modified, and then
     written back in their original order.

   * The *note _asdict(): da5. method for *note
     collections.namedtuple(): 1cf. now returns an ordered dictionary
     with the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple
     indices.

   * The *note json: 85. module’s *note JSONDecoder: 10fd. class
     constructor was extended with an 'object_pairs_hook' parameter to
     allow ‘OrderedDict’ instances to be built by the decoder.  Support
     was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML(1).

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 372(2) - Adding an ordered dictionary to collections

     PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger; implemented by
     Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyyaml.org/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Next: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Prev: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.5 PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
--------------------------------------------------------

To make program output more readable, it can be useful to add separators
to large numbers, rendering them as 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 instead
of 18446744073709551616.

The fully general solution for doing this is the *note locale: 89.
module, which can use different separators («,» in North America, «.» in
Europe) and different grouping sizes, but ‘locale’ is complicated to use
and unsuitable for multi-threaded applications where different threads
are producing output for different locales.

Therefore, a simple comma-grouping mechanism has been added to the
mini-language used by the *note str.format(): a12. method.  When
formatting a floating-point number, simply include a comma between the
width and the precision:

     >>> '{:20,.2f}'.format(18446744073709551616.0)
     '18,446,744,073,709,551,616.00'

When formatting an integer, include the comma after the width:

     >>> '{:20,d}'.format(18446744073709551616)
     '18,446,744,073,709,551,616'

This mechanism is not adaptable at all; commas are always used as the
separator and the grouping is always into three-digit groups.  The
comma-formatting mechanism isn’t as general as the *note locale: 89.
module, but it’s easier to use.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 378(1) - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator

     PEP written by Raymond Hettinger; implemented by Eric Smith.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Next: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Prev: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.6 PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
-------------------------------------------------------------

The *note argparse: 7. module for parsing command-line arguments was
added as a more powerful replacement for the *note optparse: a4. module.

This means Python now supports three different modules for parsing
command-line arguments: *note getopt: 64, *note optparse: a4, and *note
argparse: 7.  The ‘getopt’ module closely resembles the C library’s
‘getopt()’ function, so it remains useful if you’re writing a Python
prototype that will eventually be rewritten in C. ‘optparse’ becomes
redundant, but there are no plans to remove it because there are many
scripts still using it, and there’s no automated way to update these
scripts.  (Making the ‘argparse’ API consistent with ‘optparse’’s
interface was discussed but rejected as too messy and difficult.)

In short, if you’re writing a new script and don’t need to worry about
compatibility with earlier versions of Python, use *note argparse: 7.
instead of *note optparse: a4.

Here’s an example:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Command-line example.')

     # Add optional switches
     parser.add_argument('-v', action='store_true', dest='is_verbose',
                         help='produce verbose output')
     parser.add_argument('-o', action='store', dest='output',
                         metavar='FILE',
                         help='direct output to FILE instead of stdout')
     parser.add_argument('-C', action='store', type=int, dest='context',
                         metavar='NUM', default=0,
                         help='display NUM lines of added context')

     # Allow any number of additional arguments.
     parser.add_argument(nargs='*', action='store', dest='inputs',
                         help='input filenames (default is stdin)')

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print args.__dict__

Unless you override it, ‘-h’ and ‘--help’ switches are automatically
added, and produce neatly formatted output:

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py --help
     usage: argparse-example.py [-h] [-v] [-o FILE] [-C NUM] [inputs [inputs ...]]

     Command-line example.

     positional arguments:
       inputs      input filenames (default is stdin)

     optional arguments:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       -v          produce verbose output
       -o FILE     direct output to FILE instead of stdout
       -C NUM      display NUM lines of added context

As with *note optparse: a4, the command-line switches and arguments are
returned as an object with attributes named by the 'dest' parameters:

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v
     {'output': None,
      'is_verbose': True,
      'context': 0,
      'inputs': []}

     -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v -o /tmp/output -C 4 file1 file2
     {'output': '/tmp/output',
      'is_verbose': True,
      'context': 4,
      'inputs': ['file1', 'file2']}

*note argparse: 7. has much fancier validation than *note optparse: a4.;
you can specify an exact number of arguments as an integer, 0 or more
arguments by passing ‘'*'’, 1 or more by passing ‘'+'’, or an optional
argument with ‘'?'’.  A top-level parser can contain sub-parsers to
define subcommands that have different sets of switches, as in ‘svn
commit’, ‘svn checkout’, etc.  You can specify an argument’s type as
*note FileType: 31e, which will automatically open files for you and
understands that ‘'-'’ means standard input or output.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note argparse: 7. documentation

     The documentation page of the argparse module.

*note Migrating optparse code to argparse: 1557.

     Part of the Python documentation, describing how to convert code
     that uses *note optparse: a4.

PEP 389(1) - argparse - New Command Line Parsing Module

     PEP written and implemented by Steven Bethard.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Next: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Prev: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.7 PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
----------------------------------------------------------

The *note logging: 8a. module is very flexible; applications can define
a tree of logging subsystems, and each logger in this tree can filter
out certain messages, format them differently, and direct messages to a
varying number of handlers.

All this flexibility can require a lot of configuration.  You can write
Python statements to create objects and set their properties, but a
complex set-up requires verbose but boring code.  *note logging: 8a.
also supports a *note fileConfig(): f0e. function that parses a file,
but the file format doesn’t support configuring filters, and it’s
messier to generate programmatically.

Python 2.7 adds a *note dictConfig(): 1559. function that uses a
dictionary to configure logging.  There are many ways to produce a
dictionary from different sources: construct one with code; parse a file
containing JSON; or use a YAML parsing library if one is installed.  For
more information see *note Configuration functions: 1696.

The following example configures two loggers, the root logger and a
logger named «network».  Messages sent to the root logger will be sent
to the system log using the syslog protocol, and messages to the
«network» logger will be written to a ‘network.log’ file that will be
rotated once the log reaches 1MB.

     import logging
     import logging.config

     configdict = {
      'version': 1,    # Configuration schema in use; must be 1 for now
      'formatters': {
          'standard': {
              'format': ('%(asctime)s %(name)-15s '
                         '%(levelname)-8s %(message)s')}},

      'handlers': {'netlog': {'backupCount': 10,
                          'class': 'logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler',
                          'filename': '/logs/network.log',
                          'formatter': 'standard',
                          'level': 'INFO',
                          'maxBytes': 1000000},
                   'syslog': {'class': 'logging.handlers.SysLogHandler',
                              'formatter': 'standard',
                              'level': 'ERROR'}},

      # Specify all the subordinate loggers
      'loggers': {
                  'network': {
                              'handlers': ['netlog']
                  }
      },
      # Specify properties of the root logger
      'root': {
               'handlers': ['syslog']
      },
     }

     # Set up configuration
     logging.config.dictConfig(configdict)

     # As an example, log two error messages
     logger = logging.getLogger('/')
     logger.error('Database not found')

     netlogger = logging.getLogger('network')
     netlogger.error('Connection failed')

Three smaller enhancements to the *note logging: 8a. module, all
implemented by Vinay Sajip, are:

   * The *note SysLogHandler: a4c. class now supports syslogging over
     TCP. The constructor has a 'socktype' parameter giving the type of
     socket to use, either *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 1697. for UDP or
     *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 1698. for TCP. The default protocol
     remains UDP.

   * *note Logger: f0c. instances gained a *note getChild(): 1699.
     method that retrieves a descendant logger using a relative path.
     For example, once you retrieve a logger by doing ‘log =
     getLogger('app')’, calling ‘log.getChild('network.listen')’ is
     equivalent to ‘getLogger('app.network.listen')’.

   * The *note LoggerAdapter: 169a. class gained an *note
     isEnabledFor(): 169b. method that takes a 'level' and returns
     whether the underlying logger would process a message of that level
     of importance.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 391(1) - Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging

     PEP written and implemented by Vinay Sajip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Next: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Prev: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.8 PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
---------------------------------

The dictionary methods *note keys(): bad, *note values(): bae, and *note
items(): baf. are different in Python 3.x.  They return an object called
a 'view' instead of a fully materialized list.

It’s not possible to change the return values of *note keys(): bad,
*note values(): bae, and *note items(): baf. in Python 2.7 because too
much code would break.  Instead the 3.x versions were added under the
new names ‘viewkeys()’, ‘viewvalues()’, and ‘viewitems()’.

     >>> d = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
     >>> d
     {0: 'A', 130: 'N', 10: 'B', 140: 'O', 20: ..., 250: 'Z'}
     >>> d.viewkeys()
     dict_keys([0, 130, 10, 140, 20, 150, 30, ..., 250])

Views can be iterated over, but the key and item views also behave like
sets.  The ‘&’ operator performs intersection, and ‘|’ performs a union:

     >>> d1 = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26))
     >>> d2 = dict((i**.5, i) for i in range(1000))
     >>> d1.viewkeys() & d2.viewkeys()
     set([0.0, 10.0, 20.0, 30.0])
     >>> d1.viewkeys() | range(0, 30)
     set([0, 1, 130, 3, 4, 5, 6, ..., 120, 250])

The view keeps track of the dictionary and its contents change as the
dictionary is modified:

     >>> vk = d.viewkeys()
     >>> vk
     dict_keys([0, 130, 10, ..., 250])
     >>> d[260] = '&'
     >>> vk
     dict_keys([0, 130, 260, 10, ..., 250])

However, note that you can’t add or remove keys while you’re iterating
over the view:

     >>> for k in vk:
     ...     d[k*2] = k
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration

You can use the view methods in Python 2.x code, and the 2to3 converter
will change them to the standard *note keys(): bad, *note values(): bae,
and *note items(): baf. methods.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3106(1) - Revamping dict.keys(), .values() and .items()

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum.  Backported to 2.7 by Alexandre
     Vassalotti; bpo-1967(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3106/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1967


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Next: Other Language Changes<14>,  Prev: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.9 PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
--------------------------------------

The *note memoryview: 1d2. object provides a view of another object’s
memory content that matches the *note bytes: 1c7. type’s interface.

     >>> import string
     >>> m = memoryview(string.letters)
     >>> m
     <memory at 0x37f850>
     >>> len(m)           # Returns length of underlying object
     52
     >>> m[0], m[25], m[26]   # Indexing returns one byte
     ('a', 'z', 'A')
     >>> m2 = m[0:26]         # Slicing returns another memoryview
     >>> m2
     <memory at 0x37f080>

The content of the view can be converted to a string of bytes or a list
of integers:

     >>> m2.tobytes()
     'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'
     >>> m2.tolist()
     [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, ... 121, 122]
     >>>

*note memoryview: 1d2. objects allow modifying the underlying object if
it’s a mutable object.

     >>> m2[0] = 75
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
     >>> b = bytearray(string.letters)  # Creating a mutable object
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ')
     >>> mb = memoryview(b)
     >>> mb[0] = '*'         # Assign to view, changing the bytearray.
     >>> b[0:5]              # The bytearray has been changed.
     bytearray(b'*bcde')
     >>>

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3137(1) - Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Travis Oliphant,
     Antoine Pitrou and others.  Backported to 2.7 by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-2396(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3137/

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2396


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<14>,  Next: New and Improved Modules,  Prev: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.10 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * The syntax for set literals has been backported from Python 3.x.
     Curly brackets are used to surround the contents of the resulting
     mutable set; set literals are distinguished from dictionaries by
     not containing colons and values.  ‘{}’ continues to represent an
     empty dictionary; use ‘set()’ for an empty set.

          >>> {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
          set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
          >>> set() # empty set
          set([])
          >>> {}    # empty dict
          {}

     Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2335(1).

   * Dictionary and set comprehensions are another feature backported
     from 3.x, generalizing list/generator comprehensions to use the
     literal syntax for sets and dictionaries.

          >>> {x: x*x for x in range(6)}
          {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}
          >>> {('a'*x) for x in range(6)}
          set(['', 'a', 'aa', 'aaa', 'aaaa', 'aaaaa'])

     Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2333(2).

   * The *note with: 20a. statement can now use multiple context
     managers in one statement.  Context managers are processed from
     left to right and each one is treated as beginning a new ‘with’
     statement.  This means that:

          with A() as a, B() as b:
              ... suite of statements ...

     is equivalent to:

          with A() as a:
              with B() as b:
                  ... suite of statements ...

     The ‘contextlib.nested()’ function provides a very similar
     function, so it’s no longer necessary and has been deprecated.

     (Proposed in ‘https://codereview.appspot.com/53094’; implemented by
     Georg Brandl.)

   * Conversions between floating-point numbers and strings are now
     correctly rounded on most platforms.  These conversions occur in
     many different places: *note str(): 1df. on floats and complex
     numbers; the *note float: 327. and *note complex: 328.
     constructors; numeric formatting; serializing and deserializing
     floats and complex numbers using the *note marshal: 90, *note
     pickle: ab. and *note json: 85. modules; parsing of float and
     imaginary literals in Python code; and *note Decimal: 1c2.-to-float
     conversion.

     Related to this, the *note repr(): 45b. of a floating-point number
     'x' now returns a result based on the shortest decimal string
     that’s guaranteed to round back to 'x' under correct rounding (with
     round-half-to-even rounding mode).  Previously it gave a string
     based on rounding x to 17 decimal digits.

     The rounding library responsible for this improvement works on
     Windows and on Unix platforms using the gcc, icc, or suncc
     compilers.  There may be a small number of platforms where correct
     operation of this code cannot be guaranteed, so the code is not
     used on such systems.  You can find out which code is being used by
     checking *note sys.float_repr_style: 169f, which will be ‘short’ if
     the new code is in use and ‘legacy’ if it isn’t.

     Implemented by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson, using David Gay’s
     ‘dtoa.c’ library; bpo-7117(3).

   * Conversions from long integers and regular integers to floating
     point now round differently, returning the floating-point number
     closest to the number.  This doesn’t matter for small integers that
     can be converted exactly, but for large numbers that will
     unavoidably lose precision, Python 2.7 now approximates more
     closely.  For example, Python 2.6 computed the following:

          >>> n = 295147905179352891391
          >>> float(n)
          2.9514790517935283e+20
          >>> n - long(float(n))
          65535L

     Python 2.7’s floating-point result is larger, but much closer to
     the true value:

          >>> n = 295147905179352891391
          >>> float(n)
          2.9514790517935289e+20
          >>> n - long(float(n))
          -1L

     (Implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-3166(4).)

     Integer division is also more accurate in its rounding behaviours.
     (Also implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-1811(5).)

   * Implicit coercion for complex numbers has been removed; the
     interpreter will no longer ever attempt to call a ‘__coerce__()’
     method on complex objects.  (Removed by Meador Inge and Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-5211(6).)

   * The *note str.format(): a12. method now supports automatic
     numbering of the replacement fields.  This makes using
     ‘str.format()’ more closely resemble using ‘%s’ formatting:

          >>> '{}:{}:{}'.format(2009, 04, 'Sunday')
          '2009:4:Sunday'
          >>> '{}:{}:{day}'.format(2009, 4, day='Sunday')
          '2009:4:Sunday'

     The auto-numbering takes the fields from left to right, so the
     first ‘{...}’ specifier will use the first argument to *note
     str.format(): a12, the next specifier will use the next argument,
     and so on.  You can’t mix auto-numbering and explicit numbering –
     either number all of your specifier fields or none of them – but
     you can mix auto-numbering and named fields, as in the second
     example above.  (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-5237(7).)

     Complex numbers now correctly support usage with *note format():
     439, and default to being right-aligned.  Specifying a precision or
     comma-separation applies to both the real and imaginary parts of
     the number, but a specified field width and alignment is applied to
     the whole of the resulting ‘1.5+3j’ output.  (Contributed by Eric
     Smith; bpo-1588(8) and bpo-7988(9).)

     The “F” format code now always formats its output using uppercase
     characters, so it will now produce “INF” and “NAN”.  (Contributed
     by Eric Smith; bpo-3382(10).)

     A low-level change: the *note object.__format__(): a10. method now
     triggers a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b. if it’s passed a
     format string, because the ‘__format__()’ method for *note object:
     e4d. converts the object to a string representation and formats
     that.  Previously the method silently applied the format string to
     the string representation, but that could hide mistakes in Python
     code.  If you’re supplying formatting information such as an
     alignment or precision, presumably you’re expecting the formatting
     to be applied in some object-specific way.  (Fixed by Eric Smith;
     bpo-7994(11).)

   * The *note int(): 326. and ‘long()’ types gained a ‘bit_length’
     method that returns the number of bits necessary to represent its
     argument in binary:

          >>> n = 37
          >>> bin(n)
          '0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6
          >>> n = 2**123-1
          >>> n.bit_length()
          123
          >>> (n+1).bit_length()
          124

     (Contributed by Fredrik Johansson and Victor Stinner;
     bpo-3439(12).)

   * The *note import: 9da. statement will no longer try an absolute
     import if a relative import (e.g.  ‘from .os import sep’) fails.
     This fixes a bug, but could possibly break certain ‘import’
     statements that were only working by accident.  (Fixed by Meador
     Inge; bpo-7902(13).)

   * It’s now possible for a subclass of the built-in ‘unicode’ type to
     override the ‘__unicode__()’ method.  (Implemented by Victor
     Stinner; bpo-1583863(14).)

   * The *note bytearray: 1c6. type’s *note translate(): 16a0. method
     now accepts ‘None’ as its first argument.  (Fixed by Georg Brandl;
     bpo-4759(15).)

   * When using *note @classmethod: 69a. and *note @staticmethod: 666.
     to wrap methods as class or static methods, the wrapper object now
     exposes the wrapped function as their *note __func__: 16a1.
     attribute.  (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d’Arc, after a
     suggestion by George Sakkis; bpo-5982(16).)

   * When a restricted set of attributes were set using ‘__slots__’,
     deleting an unset attribute would not raise *note AttributeError:
     1a9. as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-7604(17).)

   * Two new encodings are now supported: «cp720», used primarily for
     Arabic text; and «cp858», a variant of CP 850 that adds the euro
     symbol.  (CP720 contributed by Alexander Belchenko and Amaury
     Forgeot d’Arc in bpo-1616979(18); CP858 contributed by Tim Hatch in
     bpo-8016(19).)

   * The ‘file’ object will now set the ‘filename’ attribute on the
     *note IOError: 13fb. exception when trying to open a directory on
     POSIX platforms (noted by Jan Kaliszewski; bpo-4764(20)), and now
     explicitly checks for and forbids writing to read-only file objects
     instead of trusting the C library to catch and report the error
     (fixed by Stefan Krah; bpo-5677(21)).

   * The Python tokenizer now translates line endings itself, so the
     *note compile(): 1c8. built-in function now accepts code using any
     line-ending convention.  Additionally, it no longer requires that
     the code end in a newline.

   * Extra parentheses in function definitions are illegal in Python
     3.x, meaning that you get a syntax error from ‘def f((x)): pass’.
     In Python3-warning mode, Python 2.7 will now warn about this odd
     usage.  (Noted by James Lingard; bpo-7362(22).)

   * It’s now possible to create weak references to old-style class
     objects.  New-style classes were always weak-referenceable.  (Fixed
     by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8268(23).)

   * When a module object is garbage-collected, the module’s dictionary
     is now only cleared if no one else is holding a reference to the
     dictionary (bpo-7140(24)).

* Menu:

* Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<16>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2335

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2333

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7117

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3166

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1811

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5211

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1588

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7988

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3382

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7902

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583863

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4759

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5982

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8016

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4764

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5677

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7362

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8268

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7140


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes,  Next: Optimizations<16>,  Up: Other Language Changes<14>

1.18.10.1 Interpreter Changes
.............................

A new environment variable, *note PYTHONWARNINGS: 1c1, allows
controlling warnings.  It should be set to a string containing warning
settings, equivalent to those used with the *note -W: 1c0. switch,
separated by commas.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin; bpo-7301(1).)

For example, the following setting will print warnings every time they
occur, but turn warnings from the *note Cookie: 74. module into an
error.  (The exact syntax for setting an environment variable varies
across operating systems and shells.)

     export PYTHONWARNINGS=all,error:::Cookie:0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<16>,  Prev: Interpreter Changes,  Up: Other Language Changes<14>

1.18.10.2 Optimizations
.......................

Several performance enhancements have been added:

   * A new opcode was added to perform the initial setup for *note with:
     20a. statements, looking up the *note __enter__(): 9c6. and *note
     __exit__(): 16a5. methods.  (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)

   * The garbage collector now performs better for one common usage
     pattern: when many objects are being allocated without deallocating
     any of them.  This would previously take quadratic time for garbage
     collection, but now the number of full garbage collections is
     reduced as the number of objects on the heap grows.  The new logic
     only performs a full garbage collection pass when the middle
     generation has been collected 10 times and when the number of
     survivor objects from the middle generation exceeds 10% of the
     number of objects in the oldest generation.  (Suggested by Martin
     von Löwis and implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4074(1).)

   * The garbage collector tries to avoid tracking simple containers
     which can’t be part of a cycle.  In Python 2.7, this is now true
     for tuples and dicts containing atomic types (such as ints,
     strings, etc.).  Transitively, a dict containing tuples of atomic
     types won’t be tracked either.  This helps reduce the cost of each
     garbage collection by decreasing the number of objects to be
     considered and traversed by the collector.  (Contributed by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-4688(2).)

   * Long integers are now stored internally either in base ‘2**15’ or
     in base ‘2**30’, the base being determined at build time.
     Previously, they were always stored in base ‘2**15’.  Using base
     ‘2**30’ gives significant performance improvements on 64-bit
     machines, but benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed.
     Therefore, the default is to use base ‘2**30’ on 64-bit machines
     and base ‘2**15’ on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there’s a new
     configure option ‘--enable-big-digits’ that can be used to override
     this default.

     Apart from the performance improvements this change should be
     invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and
     debugging purposes there’s a new structseq ‘sys.long_info’ that
     provides information about the internal format, giving the number
     of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store
     each digit:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.long_info
          sys.long_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)

     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4258(3).)

     Another set of changes made long objects a few bytes smaller: 2
     bytes smaller on 32-bit systems and 6 bytes on 64-bit.
     (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5260(4).)

   * The division algorithm for long integers has been made faster by
     tightening the inner loop, doing shifts instead of multiplications,
     and fixing an unnecessary extra iteration.  Various benchmarks show
     speedups of between 50% and 150% for long integer divisions and
     modulo operations.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5512(5).)
     Bitwise operations are also significantly faster (initial patch by
     Gregory Smith; bpo-1087418(6)).

   * The implementation of ‘%’ checks for the left-side operand being a
     Python string and special-cases it; this results in a 1–3%
     performance increase for applications that frequently use ‘%’ with
     strings, such as templating libraries.  (Implemented by Collin
     Winter; bpo-5176(7).)

   * List comprehensions with an ‘if’ condition are compiled into faster
     bytecode.  (Patch by Antoine Pitrou, back-ported to 2.7 by Jeffrey
     Yasskin; bpo-4715(8).)

   * Converting an integer or long integer to a decimal string was made
     faster by special-casing base 10 instead of using a generalized
     conversion function that supports arbitrary bases.  (Patch by
     Gawain Bolton; bpo-6713(9).)

   * The ‘split()’, ‘replace()’, ‘rindex()’, ‘rpartition()’, and
     ‘rsplit()’ methods of string-like types (strings, Unicode strings,
     and *note bytearray: 1c6. objects) now use a fast reverse-search
     algorithm instead of a character-by-character scan.  This is
     sometimes faster by a factor of 10.  (Added by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-7462(10) and bpo-7622(11).)

   * The *note pickle: ab. and ‘cPickle’ modules now automatically
     intern the strings used for attribute names, reducing memory usage
     of the objects resulting from unpickling.  (Contributed by Jake
     McGuire; bpo-5084(12).)

   * The ‘cPickle’ module now special-cases dictionaries, nearly halving
     the time required to pickle them.  (Contributed by Collin Winter;
     bpo-5670(13).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4074

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5260

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5512

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1087418

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5176

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4715

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5670


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules,  Next: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<14>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.11 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

As in every release, Python’s standard library received a number of
enhancements and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable
changes, sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’
file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look
through the Subversion logs for all the details.

   * The *note bdb: 10. module’s base debugging class *note Bdb: 550.
     gained a feature for skipping modules.  The constructor now takes
     an iterable containing glob-style patterns such as ‘django.*’; the
     debugger will not step into stack frames from a module that matches
     one of these patterns.  (Contributed by Maru Newby after a
     suggestion by Senthil Kumaran; bpo-5142(1).)

   * The *note binascii: 11. module now supports the buffer API, so it
     can be used with *note memoryview: 1d2. instances and other similar
     buffer objects.  (Backported from 3.x by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-7703(2).)

   * Updated module: the ‘bsddb’ module has been updated from
     4.7.2devel9 to version 4.8.4 of the pybsddb package(3).  The new
     version features better Python 3.x compatibility, various bug
     fixes, and adds several new BerkeleyDB flags and methods.  (Updated
     by Jesús Cea Avión; bpo-8156(4).  The pybsddb changelog can be read
     at ‘https://hg.jcea.es/pybsddb/file/tip/ChangeLog’.)

   * The *note bz2: 14. module’s *note BZ2File: c3d. now supports the
     context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     bz2.BZ2File(...) as f:’.  (Contributed by Hagen Fürstenau;
     bpo-3860(5).)

   * New class: the *note Counter: 204. class in the *note collections:
     1e. module is useful for tallying data.  ‘Counter’ instances behave
     mostly like dictionaries but return zero for missing keys instead
     of raising a *note KeyError: 7df.:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> c = Counter()
          >>> for letter in 'here is a sample of english text':
          ...   c[letter] += 1
          ...
          >>> c
          Counter({' ': 6, 'e': 5, 's': 3, 'a': 2, 'i': 2, 'h': 2,
          'l': 2, 't': 2, 'g': 1, 'f': 1, 'm': 1, 'o': 1, 'n': 1,
          'p': 1, 'r': 1, 'x': 1})
          >>> c['e']
          5
          >>> c['z']
          0

     There are three additional *note Counter: 204. methods.  *note
     most_common(): 16a7. returns the N most common elements and their
     counts.  *note elements(): 16a8. returns an iterator over the
     contained elements, repeating each element as many times as its
     count.  *note subtract(): 1587. takes an iterable and subtracts one
     for each element instead of adding; if the argument is a dictionary
     or another ‘Counter’, the counts are subtracted.

          >>> c.most_common(5)
          [(' ', 6), ('e', 5), ('s', 3), ('a', 2), ('i', 2)]
          >>> c.elements() ->
             'a', 'a', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ',
             'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'g', 'f', 'i', 'i',
             'h', 'h', 'm', 'l', 'l', 'o', 'n', 'p', 's',
             's', 's', 'r', 't', 't', 'x'
          >>> c['e']
          5
          >>> c.subtract('very heavy on the letter e')
          >>> c['e']    # Count is now lower
          -1

     Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1696199(6).

     New class: *note OrderedDict: 9d5. is described in the earlier
     section *note PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections:
     168e.

     New method: The *note deque: 9d6. data type now has a *note
     count(): 1589. method that returns the number of contained elements
     equal to the supplied argument 'x', and a *note reverse(): 158a.
     method that reverses the elements of the deque in-place.  ‘deque’
     also exposes its maximum length as the read-only *note maxlen:
     16a9. attribute.  (Both features added by Raymond Hettinger.)

     The *note namedtuple: 1cf. class now has an optional 'rename'
     parameter.  If 'rename' is true, field names that are invalid
     because they’ve been repeated or aren’t legal Python identifiers
     will be renamed to legal names that are derived from the field’s
     position within the list of fields:

          >>> from collections import namedtuple
          >>> T = namedtuple('T', ['field1', '$illegal', 'for', 'field2'], rename=True)
          >>> T._fields
          ('field1', '_1', '_2', 'field2')

     (Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1818(7).)

     Finally, the *note Mapping: c9c. abstract base class now returns
     *note NotImplemented: 440. if a mapping is compared to another type
     that isn’t a ‘Mapping’.  (Fixed by Daniel Stutzbach; bpo-8729(8).)

   * Constructors for the parsing classes in the *note ConfigParser: 26.
     module now take an 'allow_no_value' parameter, defaulting to false;
     if true, options without values will be allowed.  For example:

          >>> import ConfigParser, StringIO
          >>> sample_config = """
          ... [mysqld]
          ... user = mysql
          ... pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
          ... skip-bdb
          ... """
          >>> config = ConfigParser.RawConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
          >>> config.readfp(StringIO.StringIO(sample_config))
          >>> config.get('mysqld', 'user')
          'mysql'
          >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'skip-bdb')
          None
          >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'unknown')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          NoOptionError: No option 'unknown' in section: 'mysqld'

     (Contributed by Mats Kindahl; bpo-7005(9).)

   * Deprecated function: ‘contextlib.nested()’, which allows handling
     more than one context manager with a single *note with: 20a.
     statement, has been deprecated, because the ‘with’ statement now
     supports multiple context managers.

   * The *note cookielib: 73. module now ignores cookies that have an
     invalid version field, one that doesn’t contain an integer value.
     (Fixed by John J. Lee; bpo-3924(10).)

   * The *note copy: 29. module’s *note deepcopy(): f2b. function will
     now correctly copy bound instance methods.  (Implemented by Robert
     Collins; bpo-1515(11).)

   * The *note ctypes: 2d. module now always converts ‘None’ to a C
     ‘NULL’ pointer for arguments declared as pointers.  (Changed by
     Thomas Heller; bpo-4606(12).)  The underlying libffi library(13)
     has been updated to version 3.0.9, containing various fixes for
     different platforms.  (Updated by Matthias Klose; bpo-8142(14).)

   * New method: the *note datetime: 33. module’s *note timedelta: d94.
     class gained a *note total_seconds(): 16aa. method that returns the
     number of seconds in the duration.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan;
     bpo-5788(15).)

   * New method: the *note Decimal: 1c2. class gained a *note
     from_float(): 15ab. class method that performs an exact conversion
     of a floating-point number to a ‘Decimal’.  This exact conversion
     strives for the closest decimal approximation to the floating-point
     representation’s value; the resulting decimal value will therefore
     still include the inaccuracy, if any.  For example,
     ‘Decimal.from_float(0.1)’ returns
     ‘Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')’.
     (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4796(16).)

     Comparing instances of *note Decimal: 1c2. with floating-point
     numbers now produces sensible results based on the numeric values
     of the operands.  Previously such comparisons would fall back to
     Python’s default rules for comparing objects, which produced
     arbitrary results based on their type.  Note that you still cannot
     combine ‘Decimal’ and floating point in other operations such as
     addition, since you should be explicitly choosing how to convert
     between float and ‘Decimal’.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-2531(17).)

     The constructor for *note Decimal: 1c2. now accepts floating-point
     numbers (added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-8257(18)) and non-European
     Unicode characters such as Arabic-Indic digits (contributed by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-6595(19)).

     Most of the methods of the *note Context: 145c. class now accept
     integers as well as *note Decimal: 1c2. instances; the only
     exceptions are the *note canonical(): 16ab. and *note
     is_canonical(): 16ac. methods.  (Patch by Juan José Conti;
     bpo-7633(20).)

     When using *note Decimal: 1c2. instances with a string’s *note
     format(): a12. method, the default alignment was previously
     left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which is
     more sensible for numeric types.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-6857(21).)

     Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ‘sNAN’) now signal
     *note InvalidOperation: 1455. instead of silently returning a true
     or false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN
     values (or ‘NaN’) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-7279(22).)

   * The *note difflib: 3a. module now produces output that is more
     compatible with modern ‘diff’/‘patch’ tools through one small
     change, using a tab character instead of spaces as a separator in
     the header giving the filename.  (Fixed by Anatoly Techtonik;
     bpo-7585(23).)

   * The Distutils ‘sdist’ command now always regenerates the ‘MANIFEST’
     file, since even if the ‘MANIFEST.in’ or ‘setup.py’ files haven’t
     been modified, the user might have created some new files that
     should be included.  (Fixed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-8688(24).)

   * The *note doctest: 3d. module’s *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL:
     16ad. flag will now ignore the name of the module containing the
     exception being tested.  (Patch by Lennart Regebro; bpo-7490(25).)

   * The *note email: 3e. module’s *note Message: 780. class will now
     accept a Unicode-valued payload, automatically converting the
     payload to the encoding specified by ‘output_charset’.  (Added by
     R.  David Murray; bpo-1368247(26).)

   * The *note Fraction: 1c3. class now accepts a single float or *note
     Decimal: 1c2. instance, or two rational numbers, as arguments to
     its constructor.  (Implemented by Mark Dickinson; rationals added
     in bpo-5812(27), and float/decimal in bpo-8294(28).)

     Ordering comparisons (‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’) between fractions and
     complex numbers now raise a *note TypeError: 291.  This fixes an
     oversight, making the *note Fraction: 1c3. match the other numeric
     types.

   * New class: *note FTP_TLS: ccb. in the *note ftplib: 61. module
     provides secure FTP connections using TLS encapsulation of
     authentication as well as subsequent control and data transfers.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola; bpo-2054(29).)

     The *note storbinary(): 16ae. method for binary uploads can now
     restart uploads thanks to an added 'rest' parameter (patch by Pablo
     Mouzo; bpo-6845(30).)

   * New class decorator: *note total_ordering(): 12ed. in the *note
     functools: 62. module takes a class that defines an *note __eq__():
     ec0. method and one of *note __lt__(): 1645, *note __le__(): 16af,
     *note __gt__(): 16b0, or *note __ge__(): 16b1, and generates the
     missing comparison methods.  Since the ‘__cmp__()’ method is being
     deprecated in Python 3.x, this decorator makes it easier to define
     ordered classes.  (Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5479(31).)

     New function: *note cmp_to_key(): 1583. will take an old-style
     comparison function that expects two arguments and return a new
     callable that can be used as the 'key' parameter to functions such
     as *note sorted(): f8c, *note min(): 12b9. and *note max(): 12ba,
     etc.  The primary intended use is to help with making code
     compatible with Python 3.x.  (Added by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * New function: the *note gc: 63. module’s *note is_tracked(): 16b2.
     returns true if a given instance is tracked by the garbage
     collector, false otherwise.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-4688(32).)

   * The *note gzip: 6a. module’s *note GzipFile: 849. now supports the
     context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     gzip.GzipFile(...) as f:’ (contributed by Hagen Fürstenau;
     bpo-3860(33)), and it now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase:
     a83. ABC, so you can wrap it with *note io.BufferedReader: 15b5.
     for faster processing (contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7471(34)).
     It’s also now possible to override the modification time recorded
     in a gzipped file by providing an optional timestamp to the
     constructor.  (Contributed by Jacques Frechet; bpo-4272(35).)

     Files in gzip format can be padded with trailing zero bytes; the
     *note gzip: 6a. module will now consume these trailing bytes.
     (Fixed by Tadek Pietraszek and Brian Curtin; bpo-2846(36).)

   * New attribute: the *note hashlib: 6b. module now has an
     ‘algorithms’ attribute containing a tuple naming the supported
     algorithms.  In Python 2.7, ‘hashlib.algorithms’ contains ‘('md5',
     'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha256', 'sha384', 'sha512')’.  (Contributed by
     Carl Chenet; bpo-7418(37).)

   * The default *note HTTPResponse: 147a. class used by the *note
     httplib: 71. module now supports buffering, resulting in much
     faster reading of HTTP responses.  (Contributed by Kristján Valur
     Jónsson; bpo-4879(38).)

     The *note HTTPConnection: 223. and *note HTTPSConnection: 224.
     classes now support a 'source_address' parameter, a ‘(host, port)’
     2-tuple giving the source address that will be used for the
     connection.  (Contributed by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972(39).)

   * The ‘ihooks’ module now supports relative imports.  Note that
     ‘ihooks’ is an older module for customizing imports, superseded by
     the ‘imputil’ module added in Python 2.0.  (Relative import support
     added by Neil Schemenauer.)

   * The *note imaplib: 77. module now supports IPv6 addresses.
     (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1655(40).)

   * New function: the *note inspect: 81. module’s *note getcallargs():
     126c. takes a callable and its positional and keyword arguments,
     and figures out which of the callable’s parameters will receive
     each argument, returning a dictionary mapping argument names to
     their values.  For example:

          >>> from inspect import getcallargs
          >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3)
          {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,), 'named': {}}
          >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4)
          {'a': 2, 'b': 1, 'pos': (), 'named': {'x': 4}}
          >>> getcallargs(f)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          TypeError: f() takes at least 1 argument (0 given)

     Contributed by George Sakkis; bpo-3135(41).

   * Updated module: The *note io: 82. library has been upgraded to the
     version shipped with Python 3.1.  For 3.1, the I/O library was
     entirely rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on
     the task being performed.  The original Python version was renamed
     to the ‘_pyio’ module.

     One minor resulting change: the *note io.TextIOBase: a84. class now
     has an *note errors: 16b3. attribute giving the error setting used
     for encoding and decoding errors (one of ‘'strict'’, ‘'replace'’,
     ‘'ignore'’).

     The *note io.FileIO: 16b4. class now raises an *note OSError: 53c.
     when passed an invalid file descriptor.  (Implemented by Benjamin
     Peterson; bpo-4991(42).)  The *note truncate(): 16b5. method now
     preserves the file position; previously it would change the file
     position to the end of the new file.  (Fixed by Pascal Chambon;
     bpo-6939(43).)

   * New function: ‘itertools.compress(data, selectors)’ takes two
     iterators.  Elements of 'data' are returned if the corresponding
     value in 'selectors' is true:

          itertools.compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) =>
            A, C, E, F

     New function: ‘itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iter, r)’
     returns all the possible 'r'-length combinations of elements from
     the iterable 'iter'.  Unlike *note combinations(): 16b6, individual
     elements can be repeated in the generated combinations:

          itertools.combinations_with_replacement('abc', 2) =>
            ('a', 'a'), ('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),
            ('b', 'b'), ('b', 'c'), ('c', 'c')

     Note that elements are treated as unique depending on their
     position in the input, not their actual values.

     The *note itertools.count(): 1628. function now has a 'step'
     argument that allows incrementing by values other than 1.
     ‘count()’ also now allows keyword arguments, and using non-integer
     values such as floats or *note Decimal: 1c2. instances.
     (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5032(44).)

     *note itertools.combinations(): 16b6. and *note
     itertools.product(): 16b7. previously raised *note ValueError: 277.
     for values of 'r' larger than the input iterable.  This was deemed
     a specification error, so they now return an empty iterator.
     (Fixed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4816(45).)

   * Updated module: The *note json: 85. module was upgraded to version
     2.0.9 of the simplejson package, which includes a C extension that
     makes encoding and decoding faster.  (Contributed by Bob Ippolito;
     bpo-4136(46).)

     To support the new *note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5. type, *note
     json.load(): 22e. now has an optional 'object_pairs_hook' parameter
     that will be called with any object literal that decodes to a list
     of pairs.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5381(47).)

   * The *note mailbox: 8e. module’s *note Maildir: 84b. class now
     records the timestamp on the directories it reads, and only
     re-reads them if the modification time has subsequently changed.
     This improves performance by avoiding unneeded directory scans.
     (Fixed by A.M. Kuchling and Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1607951(48),
     bpo-6896(49).)

   * New functions: the *note math: 91. module gained *note erf(): f98.
     and *note erfc(): f99. for the error function and the complementary
     error function, *note expm1(): 1595. which computes ‘e**x - 1’ with
     more precision than using *note exp(): 16b8. and subtracting 1,
     *note gamma(): 1596. for the Gamma function, and *note lgamma():
     1597. for the natural log of the Gamma function.  (Contributed by
     Mark Dickinson and nirinA raseliarison; bpo-3366(50).)

   * The *note multiprocessing: 98. module’s ‘Manager*’ classes can now
     be passed a callable that will be called whenever a subprocess is
     started, along with a set of arguments that will be passed to the
     callable.  (Contributed by lekma; bpo-5585(51).)

     The *note Pool: 1315. class, which controls a pool of worker
     processes, now has an optional 'maxtasksperchild' parameter.
     Worker processes will perform the specified number of tasks and
     then exit, causing the ‘Pool’ to start a new worker.  This is
     useful if tasks may leak memory or other resources, or if some
     tasks will cause the worker to become very large.  (Contributed by
     Charles Cazabon; bpo-6963(52).)

   * The ‘nntplib’ module now supports IPv6 addresses.  (Contributed by
     Derek Morr; bpo-1664(53).)

   * New functions: the *note os: a5. module wraps the following POSIX
     system calls: *note getresgid(): 16b9. and *note getresuid(): 16ba,
     which return the real, effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs; *note
     setresgid(): 16bb. and *note setresuid(): 16bc, which set real,
     effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs to new values; *note
     initgroups(): 16bd, which initialize the group access list for the
     current process.  (GID/UID functions contributed by Travis H.;
     bpo-6508(54).  Support for initgroups added by Jean-Paul Calderone;
     bpo-7333(55).)

     The *note os.fork(): 6bd. function now re-initializes the import
     lock in the child process; this fixes problems on Solaris when
     ‘fork()’ is called from a thread.  (Fixed by Zsolt Cserna;
     bpo-7242(56).)

   * In the *note os.path: a6. module, the *note normpath(): 16be. and
     *note abspath(): 16bf. functions now preserve Unicode; if their
     input path is a Unicode string, the return value is also a Unicode
     string.  (*note normpath(): 16be. fixed by Matt Giuca in
     bpo-5827(57); *note abspath(): 16bf. fixed by Ezio Melotti in
     bpo-3426(58).)

   * The *note pydoc: bd. module now has help for the various symbols
     that Python uses.  You can now do ‘help('<<')’ or ‘help('@')’, for
     example.  (Contributed by David Laban; bpo-4739(59).)

   * The *note re: c1. module’s *note split(): 7a0, *note sub(): 7a1,
     and *note subn(): 7a2. now accept an optional 'flags' argument, for
     consistency with the other functions in the module.  (Added by
     Gregory P. Smith.)

   * New function: *note run_path(): 6ae. in the *note runpy: c6. module
     will execute the code at a provided 'path' argument.  'path' can be
     the path of a Python source file (‘example.py’), a compiled
     bytecode file (‘example.pyc’), a directory (‘./package/’), or a zip
     archive (‘example.zip’).  If a directory or zip path is provided,
     it will be added to the front of ‘sys.path’ and the module *note
     __main__: 1. will be imported.  It’s expected that the directory or
     zip contains a ‘__main__.py’; if it doesn’t, some other
     ‘__main__.py’ might be imported from a location later in
     ‘sys.path’.  This makes more of the machinery of ‘runpy’ available
     to scripts that want to mimic the way Python’s command line
     processes an explicit path name.  (Added by Nick Coghlan;
     bpo-6816(60).)

   * New function: in the *note shutil: cd. module, *note
     make_archive(): 8c3. takes a filename, archive type (zip or
     tar-format), and a directory path, and creates an archive
     containing the directory’s contents.  (Added by Tarek Ziadé.)

     *note shutil: cd.’s *note copyfile(): e1d. and *note copytree():
     ded. functions now raise a *note SpecialFileError: 16c0. exception
     when asked to copy a named pipe.  Previously the code would treat
     named pipes like a regular file by opening them for reading, and
     this would block indefinitely.  (Fixed by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-3002(61).)

   * The *note signal: ce. module no longer re-installs the signal
     handler unless this is truly necessary, which fixes a bug that
     could make it impossible to catch the EINTR signal robustly.
     (Fixed by Charles-Francois Natali; bpo-8354(62).)

   * New functions: in the *note site: cf. module, three new functions
     return various site- and user-specific paths.  *note
     getsitepackages(): 15e4. returns a list containing all global
     site-packages directories, *note getusersitepackages(): 15e6.
     returns the path of the user’s site-packages directory, and *note
     getuserbase(): 15e5. returns the value of the *note USER_BASE:
     16c1. environment variable, giving the path to a directory that can
     be used to store data.  (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-6693(63).)

     The *note site: cf. module now reports exceptions occurring when
     the *note sitecustomize: d0. module is imported, and will no longer
     catch and swallow the *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96. exception.
     (Fixed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3137(64).)

   * The *note create_connection(): a62. function gained a
     'source_address' parameter, a ‘(host, port)’ 2-tuple giving the
     source address that will be used for the connection.  (Contributed
     by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972(65).)

     The *note recv_into(): 16c2. and *note recvfrom_into(): 16c3.
     methods will now write into objects that support the buffer API,
     most usefully the *note bytearray: 1c6. and *note memoryview: 1d2.
     objects.  (Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8104(66).)

   * The *note SocketServer: d5. module’s *note TCPServer: 16c4. class
     now supports socket timeouts and disabling the Nagle algorithm.
     The ‘disable_nagle_algorithm’ class attribute defaults to ‘False’;
     if overridden to be true, new request connections will have the
     TCP_NODELAY option set to prevent buffering many small sends into a
     single TCP packet.  The *note timeout: 16c5. class attribute can
     hold a timeout in seconds that will be applied to the request
     socket; if no request is received within that time, *note
     handle_timeout(): 16c6. will be called and *note handle_request():
     16c7. will return.  (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson;
     bpo-6192(67) and bpo-6267(68).)

   * Updated module: the *note sqlite3: d7. module has been updated to
     version 2.6.0 of the pysqlite package(69).  Version 2.6.0 includes
     a number of bugfixes, and adds the ability to load SQLite
     extensions from shared libraries.  Call the
     ‘enable_load_extension(True)’ method to enable extensions, and then
     call *note load_extension(): 8c8. to load a particular shared
     library.  (Updated by Gerhard Häring.)

   * The *note ssl: d8. module’s *note SSLSocket: cbb. objects now
     support the buffer API, which fixed a test suite failure (fix by
     Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7133(70)) and automatically set OpenSSL’s
     ‘SSL_MODE_AUTO_RETRY’, which will prevent an error code being
     returned from ‘recv()’ operations that trigger an SSL renegotiation
     (fix by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8222(71)).

     The *note wrap_socket(): 933. constructor function now takes a
     'ciphers' argument that’s a string listing the encryption
     algorithms to be allowed; the format of the string is described in
     the OpenSSL documentation(72).  (Added by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-8322(73).)

     Another change makes the extension load all of OpenSSL’s ciphers
     and digest algorithms so that they’re all available.  Some SSL
     certificates couldn’t be verified, reporting an «unknown algorithm»
     error.  (Reported by Beda Kosata, and fixed by Antoine Pitrou;
     bpo-8484(74).)

     The version of OpenSSL being used is now available as the module
     attributes *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION: 15c5. (a string), *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO: 15c6. (a 5-tuple), and *note
     ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER: 15c7. (an integer).  (Added by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-8321(75).)

   * The *note struct: de. module will no longer silently ignore
     overflow errors when a value is too large for a particular integer
     format code (one of ‘bBhHiIlLqQ’); it now always raises a *note
     struct.error: 16c8. exception.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-1523(76).)  The *note pack(): 161b. function will also attempt
     to use *note __index__(): 43d. to convert and pack non-integers
     before trying the *note __int__(): 43c. method or reporting an
     error.  (Changed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-8300(77).)

   * New function: the *note subprocess: df. module’s *note
     check_output(): 136b. runs a command with a specified set of
     arguments and returns the command’s output as a string when the
     command runs without error, or raises a *note CalledProcessError:
     16c9. exception otherwise.

          >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '.'])
          'Filesystem     Size   Used  Avail Capacity  Mounted on\n
          /dev/disk0s2    52G    49G   3.0G    94%    /\n'

          >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '/bogus'])
            ...
          subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command '['df', '-h', '/bogus']' returned non-zero exit status 1

     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

     The *note subprocess: df. module will now retry its internal system
     calls on receiving an *note EINTR: 1140. signal.  (Reported by
     several people; final patch by Gregory P. Smith in
     bpo-1068268(78).)

   * New function: *note is_declared_global(): 16ca. in the *note
     symtable: e1. module returns true for variables that are explicitly
     declared to be global, false for ones that are implicitly global.
     (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * The *note syslog: e5. module will now use the value of
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ as the identifier instead of the previous default
     value of ‘'python'’.  (Changed by Sean Reifschneider;
     bpo-8451(79).)

   * The *note sys.version_info: 2fc. value is now a named tuple, with
     attributes named ‘major’, ‘minor’, ‘micro’, ‘releaselevel’, and
     ‘serial’.  (Contributed by Ross Light; bpo-4285(80).)

     *note sys.getwindowsversion(): 10a4. also returns a named tuple,
     with attributes named ‘major’, ‘minor’, ‘build’, ‘platform’,
     ‘service_pack’, ‘service_pack_major’, ‘service_pack_minor’,
     ‘suite_mask’, and ‘product_type’.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin;
     bpo-7766(81).)

   * The *note tarfile: e7. module’s default error handling has changed,
     to no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was
     previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a
     message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log
     is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed.  The
     default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there’s
     an error.  (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357(82).)

     *note tarfile: e7. now supports filtering the *note TarInfo: 15b8.
     objects being added to a tar file.  When you call *note add(): fb3,
     you may supply an optional 'filter' argument that’s a callable.
     The 'filter' callable will be passed the ‘TarInfo’ for every file
     being added, and can modify and return it.  If the callable returns
     ‘None’, the file will be excluded from the resulting archive.  This
     is more powerful than the existing 'exclude' argument, which has
     therefore been deprecated.  (Added by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-6856(83).)
     The *note TarFile: 15b7. class also now supports the context
     management protocol.  (Added by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7232(84).)

   * The *note wait(): 16cb. method of the *note threading.Event: 1503.
     class now returns the internal flag on exit.  This means the method
     will usually return true because ‘wait()’ is supposed to block
     until the internal flag becomes true.  The return value will only
     be false if a timeout was provided and the operation timed out.
     (Contributed by Tim Lesher; bpo-1674032(85).)

   * The Unicode database provided by the *note unicodedata: 10e. module
     is now used internally to determine which characters are numeric,
     whitespace, or represent line breaks.  The database also includes
     information from the ‘Unihan.txt’ data file (patch by Anders
     Chrigström and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; bpo-1571184(86)) and has been
     updated to version 5.2.0 (updated by Florent Xicluna;
     bpo-8024(87)).

   * The *note urlparse: 113. module’s *note urlsplit(): 2a3. now
     handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC
     3986(88): if the URL is of the form ‘"<something>://..."’, the text
     before the ‘://’ is treated as the scheme, even if it’s a made-up
     scheme that the module doesn’t know about.  This change may break
     code that worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python
     2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')

     Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')

     (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
     returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)

     The *note urlparse: 113. module also supports IPv6 literal
     addresses as defined by RFC 2732(89) (contributed by Senthil
     Kumaran; bpo-2987(90)).

          >>> urlparse.urlparse('http://[1080::8:800:200C:417A]/foo')
          ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='[1080::8:800:200C:417A]',
                      path='/foo', params='', query='', fragment='')

   * New class: the *note WeakSet: 9d7. class in the *note weakref: 11d.
     module is a set that only holds weak references to its elements;
     elements will be removed once there are no references pointing to
     them.  (Originally implemented in Python 3.x by Raymond Hettinger,
     and backported to 2.7 by Michael Foord.)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. library, no longer escapes
     ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
     instruction (which looks like ‘<?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>’)
     or comment (which looks like ‘<!-- comment -->’).  (Patch by Neil
     Muller; bpo-2746(91).)

   * The XML-RPC client and server, provided by the *note xmlrpclib:
     137. and *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 138. modules, have improved
     performance by supporting HTTP/1.1 keep-alive and by optionally
     using gzip encoding to compress the XML being exchanged.  The gzip
     compression is controlled by the ‘encode_threshold’ attribute of
     *note SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler: 16cc, which contains a size in
     bytes; responses larger than this will be compressed.  (Contributed
     by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-6267(92).)

   * The *note zipfile: 13a. module’s *note ZipFile: ab1. now supports
     the context management protocol, so you can write ‘with
     zipfile.ZipFile(...) as f:’.  (Contributed by Brian Curtin;
     bpo-5511(93).)

     *note zipfile: 13a. now also supports archiving empty directories
     and extracts them correctly.  (Fixed by Kuba Wieczorek;
     bpo-4710(94).)  Reading files out of an archive is faster, and
     interleaving *note read(): 16cd. and *note readline(): 16ce. now
     works correctly.  (Contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7610(95).)

     The *note is_zipfile(): 16cf. function now accepts a file object,
     in addition to the path names accepted in earlier versions.
     (Contributed by Gabriel Genellina; bpo-4756(96).)

     The *note writestr(): 548. method now has an optional
     'compress_type' parameter that lets you override the default
     compression method specified in the *note ZipFile: ab1.
     constructor.  (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-6003(97).)

* Menu:

* New module; importlib: New module importlib.
* New module; sysconfig: New module sysconfig.
* ttk; Themed Widgets for Tk: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk.
* Updated module; unittest: Updated module unittest.
* Updated module; ElementTree 1.3: Updated module ElementTree 1 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5142

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7703

   (3) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8156

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8729

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7005

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3924

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1515

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4606

   (13) https://sourceware.org/libffi/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8142

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5788

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4796

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8257

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6595

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7633

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6857

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7279

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7585

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8688

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7490

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1368247

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5812

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8294

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2054

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6845

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5479

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3860

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7471

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4272

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2846

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7418

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4879

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3972

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1655

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3135

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4991

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6939

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5032

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4816

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4136

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5381

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1607951

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6896

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3366

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5585

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6963

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   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6192

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6267

   (69) https://github.com/ghaering/pysqlite

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7133

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8222

   (72) https://docs.openssl.org/1.0.2/man1/ciphers/

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8322

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   (88) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (89) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2987

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File: python.info,  Node: New module importlib,  Next: New module sysconfig,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.18.11.1 New module: importlib
...............................

Python 3.1 includes the *note importlib: 7a. package, a
re-implementation of the logic underlying Python’s *note import: 9da.
statement.  ‘importlib’ is useful for implementers of Python
interpreters and to users who wish to write new importers that can
participate in the import process.  Python 2.7 doesn’t contain the
complete ‘importlib’ package, but instead has a tiny subset that
contains a single function, *note import_module(): 927.

‘import_module(name, package=None)’ imports a module.  'name' is a
string containing the module or package’s name.  It’s possible to do
relative imports by providing a string that begins with a ‘.’ character,
such as ‘..utils.errors’.  For relative imports, the 'package' argument
must be provided and is the name of the package that will be used as the
anchor for the relative import.  *note import_module(): 927. both
inserts the imported module into ‘sys.modules’ and returns the module
object.

Here are some examples:

     >>> from importlib import import_module
     >>> anydbm = import_module('anydbm')  # Standard absolute import
     >>> anydbm
     <module 'anydbm' from '/p/python/Lib/anydbm.py'>
     >>> # Relative import
     >>> file_util = import_module('..file_util', 'distutils.command')
     >>> file_util
     <module 'distutils.file_util' from '/python/Lib/distutils/file_util.pyc'>

*note importlib: 7a. was implemented by Brett Cannon and introduced in
Python 3.1.


File: python.info,  Node: New module sysconfig,  Next: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Prev: New module importlib,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.18.11.2 New module: sysconfig
...............................

The *note sysconfig: e4. module has been pulled out of the Distutils
package, becoming a new top-level module in its own right.  ‘sysconfig’
provides functions for getting information about Python’s build process:
compiler switches, installation paths, the platform name, and whether
Python is running from its source directory.

Some of the functions in the module are:

   * *note get_config_var(): 41e. returns variables from Python’s
     Makefile and the ‘pyconfig.h’ file.

   * *note get_config_vars(): 51e. returns a dictionary containing all
     of the configuration variables.

   * *note get_path(): 16d2. returns the configured path for a
     particular type of module: the standard library, site-specific
     modules, platform-specific modules, etc.

   * *note is_python_build(): 2dd. returns true if you’re running a
     binary from a Python source tree, and false otherwise.

Consult the *note sysconfig: e4. documentation for more details and for
a complete list of functions.

The Distutils package and *note sysconfig: e4. are now maintained by
Tarek Ziadé, who has also started a Distutils2 package (source
repository at ‘https://hg.python.org/distutils2/’) for developing a
next-generation version of Distutils.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Next: Updated module unittest,  Prev: New module sysconfig,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.18.11.3 ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk
....................................

Tcl/Tk 8.5 includes a set of themed widgets that re-implement basic Tk
widgets but have a more customizable appearance and can therefore more
closely resemble the native platform’s widgets.  This widget set was
originally called Tile, but was renamed to Ttk (for «themed Tk») on
being added to Tcl/Tck release 8.5.

To learn more, read the *note ttk: 102. module documentation.  You may
also wish to read the Tcl/Tk manual page describing the Ttk theme
engine, available at
‘https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.5/TkCmd/ttk_intro.html’.  Some screenshots
of the Python/Ttk code in use are at
‘https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-ttk/wikis/Screenshots.wiki’.

The *note tkinter.ttk: 102. module was written by Guilherme Polo and
added in bpo-2983(1).  An alternate version called ‘Tile.py’, written by
Martin Franklin and maintained by Kevin Walzer, was proposed for
inclusion in bpo-2618(2), but the authors argued that Guilherme Polo’s
work was more comprehensive.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2618


File: python.info,  Node: Updated module unittest,  Next: Updated module ElementTree 1 3,  Prev: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.18.11.4 Updated module: unittest
..................................

The *note unittest: 10f. module was greatly enhanced; many new features
were added.  Most of these features were implemented by Michael Foord,
unless otherwise noted.  The enhanced version of the module is
downloadable separately for use with Python versions 2.4 to 2.6,
packaged as the ‘unittest2’ package, from unittest2(1).

When used from the command line, the module can automatically discover
tests.  It’s not as fancy as py.test(2) or nose(3), but provides a
simple way to run tests kept within a set of package directories.  For
example, the following command will search the ‘test/’ subdirectory for
any importable test files named ‘test*.py’:

     python -m unittest discover -s test

Consult the *note unittest: 10f. module documentation for more details.
(Developed in bpo-6001(4).)

The *note main(): 138c. function supports some other new options:

   * *note -b: 16d6. or ‘--buffer’ will buffer the standard output and
     standard error streams during each test.  If the test passes, any
     resulting output will be discarded; on failure, the buffered output
     will be displayed.

   * *note -c: 16d7. or ‘--catch’ will cause the control-C interrupt to
     be handled more gracefully.  Instead of interrupting the test
     process immediately, the currently running test will be completed
     and then the partial results up to the interruption will be
     reported.  If you’re impatient, a second press of control-C will
     cause an immediate interruption.

     This control-C handler tries to avoid causing problems when the
     code being tested or the tests being run have defined a signal
     handler of their own, by noticing that a signal handler was already
     set and calling it.  If this doesn’t work for you, there’s a *note
     removeHandler(): 16d8. decorator that can be used to mark tests
     that should have the control-C handling disabled.

   * *note -f: 16d9. or ‘--failfast’ makes test execution stop
     immediately when a test fails instead of continuing to execute
     further tests.  (Suggested by Cliff Dyer and implemented by Michael
     Foord; bpo-8074(5).)

The progress messages now show “x” for expected failures and “u” for
unexpected successes when run in verbose mode.  (Contributed by Benjamin
Peterson.)

Test cases can raise the *note SkipTest: 138d. exception to skip a test
(bpo-1034053(6)).

The error messages for *note assertEqual(): 937, *note assertTrue():
935, and *note assertFalse(): 936. failures now provide more
information.  If you set the *note longMessage: 16da. attribute of your
*note TestCase: 52f. classes to true, both the standard error message
and any additional message you provide will be printed for failures.
(Added by Michael Foord; bpo-5663(7).)

The *note assertRaises(): 93b. method now returns a context handler when
called without providing a callable object to run.  For example, you can
write this:

     with self.assertRaises(KeyError):
         {}['foo']

(Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4444(8).)

Module- and class-level setup and teardown fixtures are now supported.
Modules can contain *note setUpModule(): e11. and *note
tearDownModule(): 16db. functions.  Classes can have *note setUpClass():
e12. and *note tearDownClass(): 16dc. methods that must be defined as
class methods (using ‘@classmethod’ or equivalent).  These functions and
methods are invoked when the test runner switches to a test case in a
different module or class.

The methods *note addCleanup(): e43. and *note doCleanups(): 16dd. were
added.  ‘addCleanup()’ lets you add cleanup functions that will be
called unconditionally (after *note setUp(): 16de. if ‘setUp()’ fails,
otherwise after *note tearDown(): 16df.).  This allows for much simpler
resource allocation and deallocation during tests (bpo-5679(9)).

A number of new methods were added that provide more specialized tests.
Many of these methods were written by Google engineers for use in their
test suites; Gregory P. Smith, Michael Foord, and GvR worked on merging
them into Python’s version of *note unittest: 10f.

   * *note assertIsNone(): 162f. and *note assertIsNotNone(): 1630. take
     one expression and verify that the result is or is not ‘None’.

   * *note assertIs(): 16e0. and *note assertIsNot(): 16e1. take two
     values and check whether the two values evaluate to the same object
     or not.  (Added by Michael Foord; bpo-2578(10).)

   * *note assertIsInstance(): 16e2. and *note assertNotIsInstance():
     16e3. check whether the resulting object is an instance of a
     particular class, or of one of a tuple of classes.  (Added by Georg
     Brandl; bpo-7031(11).)

   * *note assertGreater(): 16e4, *note assertGreaterEqual(): 16e5,
     *note assertLess(): 16e6, and *note assertLessEqual(): 16e7.
     compare two quantities.

   * *note assertMultiLineEqual(): 16e8. compares two strings, and if
     they’re not equal, displays a helpful comparison that highlights
     the differences in the two strings.  This comparison is now used by
     default when Unicode strings are compared with *note assertEqual():
     937.

   * *note assertRegexpMatches(): 93c. and *note
     assertNotRegexpMatches(): 93e. checks whether the first argument is
     a string matching or not matching the regular expression provided
     as the second argument (bpo-8038(12)).

   * *note assertRaisesRegexp(): 93d. checks whether a particular
     exception is raised, and then also checks that the string
     representation of the exception matches the provided regular
     expression.

   * *note assertIn(): 16e9. and *note assertNotIn(): 16ea. tests
     whether 'first' is or is not in 'second'.

   * *note assertItemsEqual(): 15d1. tests whether two provided
     sequences contain the same elements.

   * *note assertSetEqual(): 162a. compares whether two sets are equal,
     and only reports the differences between the sets in case of error.

   * Similarly, *note assertListEqual(): 162c. and *note
     assertTupleEqual(): 162d. compare the specified types and explain
     any differences without necessarily printing their full values;
     these methods are now used by default when comparing lists and
     tuples using *note assertEqual(): 937.  More generally, *note
     assertSequenceEqual(): 162e. compares two sequences and can
     optionally check whether both sequences are of a particular type.

   * *note assertDictEqual(): 162b. compares two dictionaries and
     reports the differences; it’s now used by default when you compare
     two dictionaries using *note assertEqual(): 937.
     ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’ checks whether all of the key/value
     pairs in 'first' are found in 'second'.

   * *note assertAlmostEqual(): 939. and *note assertNotAlmostEqual():
     93a. test whether 'first' and 'second' are approximately equal.
     This method can either round their difference to an optionally
     specified number of 'places' (the default is 7) and compare it to
     zero, or require the difference to be smaller than a supplied
     'delta' value.

   * *note loadTestsFromName(): 16eb. properly honors the *note
     suiteClass: 16ec. attribute of the *note TestLoader: 792.  (Fixed
     by Mark Roddy; bpo-6866(13).)

   * A new hook lets you extend the *note assertEqual(): 937. method to
     handle new data types.  The *note addTypeEqualityFunc(): 16ed.
     method takes a type object and a function.  The function will be
     used when both of the objects being compared are of the specified
     type.  This function should compare the two objects and raise an
     exception if they don’t match; it’s a good idea for the function to
     provide additional information about why the two objects aren’t
     matching, much as the new sequence comparison methods do.

*note unittest.main(): 138c. now takes an optional ‘exit’ argument.  If
false, ‘main()’ doesn’t call *note sys.exit(): 4ff, allowing ‘main()’ to
be used from the interactive interpreter.  (Contributed by J. Pablo
Fernández; bpo-3379(14).)

*note TestResult: 1510. has new *note startTestRun(): 16ee. and *note
stopTestRun(): 16ef. methods that are called immediately before and
after a test run.  (Contributed by Robert Collins; bpo-5728(15).)

With all these changes, the ‘unittest.py’ was becoming awkwardly large,
so the module was turned into a package and the code split into several
files (by Benjamin Peterson).  This doesn’t affect how the module is
imported or used.

Δείτε επίσης
............

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20210619163128/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/unittest2.shtml’

     Describes the new features, how to use them, and the rationale for
     various design decisions.  (By Michael Foord.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/unittest2/

   (2) https://pytest.org

   (3) https://nose.readthedocs.io/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6001

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8074

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1034053

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5663

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4444

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5679

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2578

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7031

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8038

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6866

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3379

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5728


File: python.info,  Node: Updated module ElementTree 1 3,  Prev: Updated module unittest,  Up: New and Improved Modules

1.18.11.5 Updated module: ElementTree 1.3
.........................................

The version of the ElementTree library included with Python was updated
to version 1.3.  Some of the new features are:

   * The various parsing functions now take a 'parser' keyword argument
     giving an *note XMLParser: e18. instance that will be used.  This
     makes it possible to override the file’s internal encoding:

          p = ET.XMLParser(encoding='utf-8')
          t = ET.XML("""<root/>""", parser=p)

     Errors in parsing XML now raise a *note ParseError: 161c.
     exception, whose instances have a ‘position’ attribute containing a
     ('line', 'column') tuple giving the location of the problem.

   * ElementTree’s code for converting trees to a string has been
     significantly reworked, making it roughly twice as fast in many
     cases.  The *note ElementTree.write(): e5b. and ‘Element.write()’
     methods now have a 'method' parameter that can be «xml» (the
     default), «html», or «text».  HTML mode will output empty elements
     as ‘<empty></empty>’ instead of ‘<empty/>’, and text mode will skip
     over elements and only output the text chunks.  If you set the
     *note tag: 16f2. attribute of an element to ‘None’ but leave its
     children in place, the element will be omitted when the tree is
     written out, so you don’t need to do more extensive rearrangement
     to remove a single element.

     Namespace handling has also been improved.  All ‘xmlns:<whatever>’
     declarations are now output on the root element, not scattered
     throughout the resulting XML. You can set the default namespace for
     a tree by setting the ‘default_namespace’ attribute and can
     register new prefixes with *note register_namespace(): 157b.  In
     XML mode, you can use the true/false 'xml_declaration' parameter to
     suppress the XML declaration.

   * New *note Element: 343. method: *note extend(): 157c. appends the
     items from a sequence to the element’s children.  Elements
     themselves behave like sequences, so it’s easy to move children
     from one element to another:

          from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET

          t = ET.XML("""<list>
            <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
          </list>""")
          new = ET.XML('<root/>')
          new.extend(t)

          # Outputs <root><item>1</item>...</root>
          print ET.tostring(new)

   * New *note Element: 343. method: *note iter(): 16f3. yields the
     children of the element as a generator.  It’s also possible to
     write ‘for child in elem:’ to loop over an element’s children.  The
     existing method ‘getiterator()’ is now deprecated, as is
     ‘getchildren()’ which constructs and returns a list of children.

   * New *note Element: 343. method: *note itertext(): 157e. yields all
     chunks of text that are descendants of the element.  For example:

          t = ET.XML("""<list>
            <item>1</item> <item>2</item>  <item>3</item>
          </list>""")

          # Outputs ['\n  ', '1', ' ', '2', '  ', '3', '\n']
          print list(t.itertext())

   * Deprecated: using an element as a Boolean (i.e., ‘if elem:’) would
     return true if the element had any children, or false if there were
     no children.  This behaviour is confusing – ‘None’ is false, but so
     is a childless element?  – so it will now trigger a *note
     FutureWarning: 847.  In your code, you should be explicit: write
     ‘len(elem) != 0’ if you’re interested in the number of children, or
     ‘elem is not None’.

Fredrik Lundh develops ElementTree and produced the 1.3 version; you can
read his article describing 1.3 at
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm’.
Florent Xicluna updated the version included with Python, after
discussions on python-dev and in bpo-6472(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes,  Prev: New and Improved Modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.12 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * The latest release of the GNU Debugger, GDB 7, can be scripted
     using Python(1).  When you begin debugging an executable program P,
     GDB will look for a file named ‘P-gdb.py’ and automatically read
     it.  Dave Malcolm contributed a ‘python-gdb.py’ that adds a number
     of commands useful when debugging Python itself.  For example,
     ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’ go up or down one Python stack frame, which
     usually corresponds to several C stack frames.  ‘py-print’ prints
     the value of a Python variable, and ‘py-bt’ prints the Python stack
     trace.  (Added as a result of bpo-8032(2).)

   * If you use the ‘.gdbinit’ file provided with Python, the «pyo»
     macro in the 2.7 version now works correctly when the thread being
     debugged doesn’t hold the GIL; the macro now acquires it before
     printing.  (Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3632(3).)

   * *note Py_AddPendingCall(): d49. is now thread-safe, letting any
     worker thread submit notifications to the main Python thread.  This
     is particularly useful for asynchronous IO operations.
     (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-4293(4).)

   * New function: *note PyCode_NewEmpty(): 16f5. creates an empty code
     object; only the filename, function name, and first line number are
     required.  This is useful for extension modules that are attempting
     to construct a more useful traceback stack.  Previously such
     extensions needed to call ‘PyCode_New()’, which had many more
     arguments.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)

   * New function: *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 160d. creates a
     new exception class, just as the existing *note
     PyErr_NewException(): 160e. does, but takes an extra ‘char *’
     argument containing the docstring for the new exception class.
     (Added by “lekma” on the Python bug tracker; bpo-7033(5).)

   * New function: *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): b6a. takes a frame
     object and returns the line number that the frame is currently
     executing.  Previously code would need to get the index of the
     bytecode instruction currently executing, and then look up the line
     number corresponding to that address.  (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.)

   * New functions: *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 160b. and *note
     PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 160a. approximates a Python long
     integer as a C long or long long.  If the number is too large to
     fit into the output type, an 'overflow' flag is set and returned to
     the caller.  (Contributed by Case Van Horsen; bpo-7528(6) and
     bpo-7767(7).)

   * New function: stemming from the rewrite of string-to-float
     conversion, a new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 163a. function was
     added.  The old ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’
     functions are now deprecated.

   * New function: ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ sets the value of ‘sys.argv’ and
     can optionally update ‘sys.path’ to include the directory
     containing the script named by ‘sys.argv[0]’ depending on the value
     of an 'updatepath' parameter.

     This function was added to close a security hole for applications
     that embed Python.  The old function, ‘PySys_SetArgv()’, would
     always update ‘sys.path’, and sometimes it would add the current
     directory.  This meant that, if you ran an application embedding
     Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could
     put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named
     ‘os.py’) that your application would then import and run.

     If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check
     whether you’re calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider
     whether the application should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with
     'updatepath' set to false.

     Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983(8); discussed in
     bpo-5753(9), and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.

   * New macros: the Python header files now define the following
     macros: *note Py_ISALNUM: 16f6, *note Py_ISALPHA: 16f7, *note
     Py_ISDIGIT: 16f8, *note Py_ISLOWER: 16f9, *note Py_ISSPACE: 16fa,
     *note Py_ISUPPER: 16fb, *note Py_ISXDIGIT: 16fc, *note Py_TOLOWER:
     16fd, and *note Py_TOUPPER: 16fe.  All of these functions are
     analogous to the C standard macros for classifying characters, but
     ignore the current locale setting, because in several places Python
     needs to analyze characters in a locale-independent way.  (Added by
     Eric Smith; bpo-5793(10).)

   * Removed function: ‘PyEval_CallObject()’ is now only available as a
     macro.  A function version was being kept around to preserve ABI
     linking compatibility, but that was in 1997; it can certainly be
     deleted by now.  (Removed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8276(11).)

   * New format codes: the ‘PyString_FromFormat()’,
     ‘PyString_FromFormatV()’, and *note PyErr_Format(): 1262. functions
     now accept ‘%lld’ and ‘%llu’ format codes for displaying C’s long
     long types.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-7228(12).)

   * The complicated interaction between threads and process forking has
     been changed.  Previously, the child process created by *note
     os.fork(): 6bd. might fail because the child is created with only a
     single thread running, the thread performing the ‘os.fork()’.  If
     other threads were holding a lock, such as Python’s import lock,
     when the fork was performed, the lock would still be marked as
     «held» in the new process.  But in the child process nothing would
     ever release the lock, since the other threads weren’t replicated,
     and the child process would no longer be able to perform imports.

     Python 2.7 acquires the import lock before performing an *note
     os.fork(): 6bd, and will also clean up any locks created using the
     *note threading: f6. module.  C extension modules that have
     internal locks, or that call ‘fork()’ themselves, will not benefit
     from this clean-up.

     (Fixed by Thomas Wouters; bpo-1590864(13).)

   * The *note Py_Finalize(): 672. function now calls the internal
     ‘threading._shutdown()’ function; this prevents some exceptions
     from being raised when an interpreter shuts down.  (Patch by Adam
     Olsen; bpo-1722344(14).)

   * When using the *note PyMemberDef: 95a. structure to define
     attributes of a type, Python will no longer let you try to delete
     or set a ‘T_STRING_INPLACE’ attribute.

   * Global symbols defined by the *note ctypes: 2d. module are now
     prefixed with ‘Py’, or with ‘_ctypes’.  (Implemented by Thomas
     Heller; bpo-3102(15).)

   * New configure option: the ‘--with-system-expat’ switch allows
     building the *note pyexpat: 12f. module to use the system Expat
     library.  (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis;
     bpo-7609(16).)

   * New configure option: the ‘--with-valgrind’ option will now disable
     the pymalloc allocator, which is difficult for the Valgrind
     memory-error detector to analyze correctly.  Valgrind will
     therefore be better at detecting memory leaks and overruns.
     (Contributed by James Henstridge; bpo-2422(17).)

   * New configure option: you can now supply an empty string to
     ‘--with-dbmliborder=’ in order to disable all of the various DBM
     modules.  (Added by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis;
     bpo-6491(18).)

   * The ‘configure’ script now checks for floating-point rounding bugs
     on certain 32-bit Intel chips and defines a ‘X87_DOUBLE_ROUNDING’
     preprocessor definition.  No code currently uses this definition,
     but it’s available if anyone wishes to use it.  (Added by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-2937(19).)

     ‘configure’ also now sets a ‘LDCXXSHARED’ Makefile variable for
     supporting C++ linking.  (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar
     Arahesis; bpo-1222585(20).)

   * The build process now creates the necessary files for pkg-config
     support.  (Contributed by Clinton Roy; bpo-3585(21).)

   * The build process now supports Subversion 1.7.  (Contributed by
     Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; bpo-6094(22).)

* Menu:

* Capsules::
* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X.
* Port-Specific Changes; FreeBSD: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20110715084810/http://sourceware.org/gdb/current/onlinedocs/gdb/Python.html

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8032

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3632

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4293

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7528

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5793

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7228

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1590864

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1722344

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3102

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7609

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6491

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2937

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1222585

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3585

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6094


File: python.info,  Node: Capsules,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.18.12.1 Capsules
..................

Python 3.1 adds a new C datatype, *note PyCapsule: 1617, for providing a
C API to an extension module.  A capsule is essentially the holder of a
C ‘void *’ pointer, and is made available as a module attribute; for
example, the *note socket: d4. module’s API is exposed as ‘socket.CAPI’,
and *note unicodedata: 10e. exposes ‘ucnhash_CAPI’.  Other extensions
can import the module, access its dictionary to get the capsule object,
and then get the ‘void *’ pointer, which will usually point to an array
of pointers to the module’s various API functions.

There is an existing data type already used for this, ‘PyCObject’, but
it doesn’t provide type safety.  Evil code written in pure Python could
cause a segmentation fault by taking a ‘PyCObject’ from module A and
somehow substituting it for the ‘PyCObject’ in module B. Capsules know
their own name, and getting the pointer requires providing the name:

     void *vtable;

     if (!PyCapsule_IsValid(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI") {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "argument type invalid");
             return NULL;
     }

     vtable = PyCapsule_GetPointer(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI");

You are assured that ‘vtable’ points to whatever you’re expecting.  If a
different capsule was passed in, *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1701. would
detect the mismatched name and return false.  Refer to *note Providing a
C API for an Extension Module: 1702. for more information on using these
objects.

Python 2.7 now uses capsules internally to provide various
extension-module APIs, but the ‘PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()’ was modified to
handle capsules, preserving compile-time compatibility with the
‘PyCObject’ interface.  Use of ‘PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()’ will signal a
*note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b, which is silent by default.

Implemented in Python 3.1 and backported to 2.7 by Larry Hastings;
discussed in bpo-5630(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Prev: Capsules,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.18.12.2 Port-Specific Changes: Windows
........................................

   * The *note msvcrt: 97. module now contains some constants from the
     ‘crtassem.h’ header file: *note CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION: 1704, *note
     VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN: 1705, and *note
     LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX: 1706.  (Contributed by David
     Cournapeau; bpo-4365(1).)

   * The *note _winreg: 11f. module for accessing the registry now
     implements the *note CreateKeyEx(): 1707. and *note DeleteKeyEx():
     1708. functions, extended versions of previously supported
     functions that take several extra arguments.  The *note
     DisableReflectionKey(): 1709, *note EnableReflectionKey(): 170a,
     and *note QueryReflectionKey(): 170b. were also tested and
     documented.  (Implemented by Brian Curtin: bpo-7347(2).)

   * The new ‘_beginthreadex()’ API is used to start threads, and the
     native thread-local storage functions are now used.  (Contributed
     by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-3582(3).)

   * The *note os.kill(): 170c. function now works on Windows.  The
     signal value can be the constants *note CTRL_C_EVENT: 170d, *note
     CTRL_BREAK_EVENT: 170e, or any integer.  The first two constants
     will send ‘Control’-‘C’ and ‘Control’-‘Break’ keystroke events to
     subprocesses; any other value will use the ‘TerminateProcess()’
     API.  (Contributed by Miki Tebeka; bpo-1220212(4).)

   * The *note os.listdir(): 14a6. function now correctly fails for an
     empty path.  (Fixed by Hirokazu Yamamoto; bpo-5913(5).)

   * The *note mimetypes: 93. module will now read the MIME database
     from the Windows registry when initializing.  (Patch by Gabriel
     Genellina; bpo-4969(6).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4365

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3582

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1220212

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5913

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4969


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Next: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Windows,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.18.12.3 Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
.........................................

   * The path ‘/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages’ is now appended to
     ‘sys.path’, in order to share added packages between the system
     installation and a user-installed copy of the same version.
     (Changed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-4865(1).)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 2.7.13: As of 2.7.13, this change was removed.
     ‘/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages’, the site-packages directory
     used by the Apple-supplied system Python 2.7 is no longer appended
     to ‘sys.path’ for user-installed Pythons such as from the
     python.org installers.  As of macOS 10.12, Apple changed how the
     system site-packages directory is configured, which could cause
     installation of pip components, like setuptools, to fail.  Packages
     installed for the system Python will no longer be shared with
     user-installed Pythons.  (bpo-28440(2))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4865

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28440


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X,  Up: Build and C API Changes<8>

1.18.12.4 Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD
........................................

   * FreeBSD 7.1’s ‘SO_SETFIB’ constant, used with the *note socket():
     115a. methods *note getsockopt(): 1092./*note setsockopt(): 1093.
     to select an alternate routing table, is now available in the *note
     socket: d4. module.  (Added by Kyle VanderBeek; bpo-8235(1).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8235


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes,  Next: Porting to Python 2 7,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<8>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.13 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

   * Two benchmark scripts, ‘iobench’ and ‘ccbench’, were added to the
     ‘Tools’ directory.  ‘iobench’ measures the speed of the built-in
     file I/O objects returned by *note open(): 32b. while performing
     various operations, and ‘ccbench’ is a concurrency benchmark that
     tries to measure computing throughput, thread switching latency,
     and IO processing bandwidth when performing several tasks using a
     varying number of threads.

   * The ‘Tools/i18n/msgfmt.py’ script now understands plural forms in
     ‘.po’ files.  (Fixed by Martin von Löwis; bpo-5464(1).)

   * When importing a module from a ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ file with an
     existing ‘.py’ counterpart, the *note co_filename: 1712. attributes
     of the resulting code objects are overwritten when the original
     filename is obsolete.  This can happen if the file has been
     renamed, moved, or is accessed through different paths.  (Patch by
     Ziga Seilnacht and Jean-Paul Calderone; bpo-1180193(2).)

   * The ‘regrtest.py’ script now takes a ‘--randseed=’ switch that
     takes an integer that will be used as the random seed for the ‘-r’
     option that executes tests in random order.  The ‘-r’ option also
     reports the seed that was used (Added by Collin Winter.)

   * Another ‘regrtest.py’ switch is ‘-j’, which takes an integer
     specifying how many tests run in parallel.  This allows reducing
     the total runtime on multi-core machines.  This option is
     compatible with several other options, including the ‘-R’ switch
     which is known to produce long runtimes.  (Added by Antoine Pitrou,
     bpo-6152(3).)  This can also be used with a new ‘-F’ switch that
     runs selected tests in a loop until they fail.  (Added by Antoine
     Pitrou; bpo-7312(4).)

   * When executed as a script, the ‘py_compile.py’ module now accepts
     ‘'-'’ as an argument, which will read standard input for the list
     of filenames to be compiled.  (Contributed by Piotr Ożarowski;
     bpo-8233(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5464

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1180193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6152

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7312

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8233


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 7,  Next: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.14 Porting to Python 2.7
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * The *note range(): d0f. function processes its arguments more
     consistently; it will now call *note __int__(): 43c. on non-float,
     non-integer arguments that are supplied to it.  (Fixed by Alexander
     Belopolsky; bpo-1533(1).)

   * The string *note format(): 439. method changed the default
     precision used for floating-point and complex numbers from 6
     decimal places to 12, which matches the precision used by *note
     str(): 1df.  (Changed by Eric Smith; bpo-5920(2).)

   * Because of an optimization for the *note with: 20a. statement, the
     special methods *note __enter__(): 9c6. and *note __exit__(): 16a5.
     must belong to the object’s type, and cannot be directly attached
     to the object’s instance.  This affects new-style classes (derived
     from *note object: e4d.) and C extension types.  (bpo-6101(3).)

   * Due to a bug in Python 2.6, the 'exc_value' parameter to *note
     __exit__(): 16a5. methods was often the string representation of
     the exception, not an instance.  This was fixed in 2.7, so
     'exc_value' will be an instance as expected.  (Fixed by Florent
     Xicluna; bpo-7853(4).)

   * When a restricted set of attributes were set using ‘__slots__’,
     deleting an unset attribute would not raise *note AttributeError:
     1a9. as you would expect.  Fixed by Benjamin Peterson;
     bpo-7604(5).)

In the standard library:

   * Operations with *note datetime: 6e7. instances that resulted in a
     year falling outside the supported range didn’t always raise *note
     OverflowError: c57.  Such errors are now checked more carefully and
     will now raise the exception.  (Reported by Mark Leander, patch by
     Anand B. Pillai and Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-7150(6).)

   * When using *note Decimal: 1c2. instances with a string’s *note
     format(): 439. method, the default alignment was previously
     left-alignment.  This has been changed to right-alignment, which
     might change the output of your programs.  (Changed by Mark
     Dickinson; bpo-6857(7).)

     Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ‘sNAN’) now signal
     *note InvalidOperation: 1455. instead of silently returning a true
     or false value depending on the comparison operator.  Quiet NaN
     values (or ‘NaN’) are now hashable.  (Fixed by Mark Dickinson;
     bpo-7279(8).)

   * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. library no longer escapes
     ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing
     instruction (which looks like ‘<?xml-stylesheet href="#style1"?>’)
     or comment (which looks like ‘<!-- comment -->’).  (Patch by Neil
     Muller; bpo-2746(9).)

   * The ‘readline()’ method of *note StringIO: 12d4. objects now does
     nothing when a negative length is requested, as other file-like
     objects do.  (bpo-7348(10)).

   * The *note syslog: e5. module will now use the value of
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ as the identifier instead of the previous default
     value of ‘'python'’.  (Changed by Sean Reifschneider;
     bpo-8451(11).)

   * The *note tarfile: e7. module’s default error handling has changed,
     to no longer suppress fatal errors.  The default error level was
     previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a
     message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log
     is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed.  The
     default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there’s
     an error.  (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357(12).)

   * The *note urlparse: 113. module’s *note urlsplit(): 2a3. now
     handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC
     3986(13): if the URL is of the form ‘"<something>://..."’, the text
     before the ‘://’ is treated as the scheme, even if it’s a made-up
     scheme that the module doesn’t know about.  This change may break
     code that worked around the old behaviour.  For example, Python
     2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '')

     Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return:

          >>> import urlparse
          >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query')
          ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '')

     (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it
     returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.)

For C extensions:

   * C extensions that use integer format codes with the ‘PyArg_Parse*’
     family of functions will now raise a *note TypeError: 291.
     exception instead of triggering a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.
     (bpo-5080(14)).

   * Use the new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 163a. function instead
     of the old ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’ functions,
     which are now deprecated.

For applications that embed Python:

   * The ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ function was added, letting applications
     close a security hole when the existing ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ function
     was used.  Check whether you’re calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and
     carefully consider whether the application should be using
     ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with 'updatepath' set to false.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6101

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7853

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7150

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6857

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7279

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2746

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7348

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8451

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7357

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5080


File: python.info,  Node: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Next: Acknowledgements,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 7,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.15 New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases
-------------------------------------------------------------

New features may be added to Python 2.7 maintenance releases when the
situation genuinely calls for it.  Any such additions must go through
the Python Enhancement Proposal process, and make a compelling case for
why they can’t be adequately addressed by either adding the new feature
solely to Python 3, or else by publishing it on the Python Package
Index.

In addition to the specific proposals listed below, there is a general
exemption allowing new ‘-3’ warnings to be added in any Python 2.7
maintenance release.

* Menu:

* Two new environment variables for debug mode::
* PEP 434; IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
* PEP 466; Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
* PEP 477; Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
* PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
* PEP 493; HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
* New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<3>.
* Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Two new environment variables for debug mode,  Next: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.18.15.1 Two new environment variables for debug mode
......................................................

In debug mode, the ‘[xxx refs]’ statistic is not written by default, the
‘PYTHONSHOWREFCOUNT’ environment variable now must also be set.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-31733(1).)

When Python is compiled with ‘COUNT_ALLOC’ defined, allocation counts
are no longer dumped by default anymore: the ‘PYTHONSHOWALLOCCOUNT’
environment variable must now also be set.  Moreover, allocation counts
are now dumped into stderr, rather than stdout.  (Contributed by Victor
Stinner; bpo-31692(2).)

Added in version 2.7.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31733

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31692


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Next: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Prev: Two new environment variables for debug mode,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.18.15.2 PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches
..............................................................

PEP 434(1) describes a general exemption for changes made to the IDLE
development environment shipped along with Python.  This exemption makes
it possible for the IDLE developers to provide a more consistent user
experience across all supported versions of Python 2 and 3.

For details of any IDLE changes, refer to the NEWS file for the specific
release.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Next: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Prev: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.18.15.3 PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7
...............................................................

PEP 466(1) describes a number of network security enhancement proposals
that have been approved for inclusion in Python 2.7 maintenance
releases, with the first of those changes appearing in the Python 2.7.7
release.

PEP 466(2) related features added in Python 2.7.7:

   * *note hmac.compare_digest(): 1476. was backported from Python 3 to
     make a timing attack resistant comparison operation available to
     Python 2 applications.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21306(3).)

   * OpenSSL 1.0.1g was upgraded in the official Windows installers
     published on python.org.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware;
     bpo-21462(4).)

PEP 466(5) related features added in Python 2.7.8:

   * *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 91e. was backported from Python 3 to
     make a hashing algorithm suitable for secure password storage
     broadly available to Python 2 applications.  (Contributed by Alex
     Gaynor; bpo-21304(6).)

   * OpenSSL 1.0.1h was upgraded for the official Windows installers
     published on python.org.  (Contributed by Zachary Ware in
     bpo-21671(7) for CVE 2014-0224(8).)

PEP 466(9) related features added in Python 2.7.9:

   * Most of Python 3.4’s *note ssl: d8. module was backported.  This
     means ‘ssl’ now supports Server Name Indication, TLS1.x settings,
     access to the platform certificate store, the *note SSLContext:
     336. class, and other features.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor and
     David Reid; bpo-21308(10).)

     Refer to the «Version added: 2.7.9» notes in the module
     documentation for specific details.

   * *note os.urandom(): 931. was changed to cache a file descriptor to
     ‘/dev/urandom’ instead of reopening ‘/dev/urandom’ on every call.
     (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21305(11).)

   * *note hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed: 1718. and *note
     hashlib.algorithms_available: 1719. were backported from Python 3
     to make it easier for Python 2 applications to select the strongest
     available hash algorithm.  (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in
     bpo-21307(12))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21306

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21462

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21304

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21671

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2014-0224

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21308

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21305

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21307


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Next: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Prev: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.18.15.4 PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7
.............................................................

PEP 477(1) approves the inclusion of the PEP 453(2) ensurepip module and
the improved documentation that was enabled by it in the Python 2.7
maintenance releases, appearing first in the Python 2.7.9 release.

* Menu:

* Bootstrapping pip By Default: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
* Documentation Changes: Documentation Changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>,  Next: Documentation Changes<2>,  Up: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7

1.18.15.5 Bootstrapping pip By Default
......................................

The new *note ensurepip: 58. module (defined in PEP 453(1)) provides a
standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into
Python installations.  The version of ‘pip’ included with Python 2.7.9
is ‘pip’ 1.5.6, and future 2.7.x maintenance releases will update the
bundled version to the latest version of ‘pip’ that is available at the
time of creating the release candidate.

By default, the commands ‘pip’, ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed on
all platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python
installation), along with the ‘pip’ Python package and its dependencies.

For CPython *note source builds on POSIX systems: 12a4, the ‘make
install’ and ‘make altinstall’ commands do not bootstrap ‘pip’ by
default.  This behaviour can be controlled through configure options,
and overridden through Makefile options.

On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to
installing ‘pip’ along with CPython itself (users may opt out of
installing it during the installation process).  Window users will need
to opt in to the automatic ‘PATH’ modifications to have ‘pip’ available
from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed
through the Python launcher for Windows as ‘py -m pip’.

As discussed in the PEP(2), platform packagers may choose not to install
these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear
and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually
using the system package manager).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/

   (2) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation Changes<2>,  Prev: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>,  Up: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7

1.18.15.6 Documentation Changes
...............................

As part of this change, the *note Installing Python modules: 12a6. and
distributing-index sections of the documentation have been completely
redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents.  Most packaging
documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging Authority
maintained Python Packaging User Guide(1) and the documentation of the
individual projects.

However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy
versions of those guides remaining available as *note Κατασκευή
Επεκτάσεων C και C++ με το setuptools: 12a7. and *note Κατασκευή
Επεκτάσεων C και C++ με το setuptools: 12a8.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 453(2) – Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

     PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by
     Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Next: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Prev: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.18.15.7 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
.......................................................................................

PEP 476(1) updated *note httplib: 71. and modules which use it, such as
*note urllib2: 114. and *note xmlrpclib: 137, to now verify that the
server presents a certificate which is signed by a Certificate Authority
in the platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname
being requested by default, significantly improving security for many
applications.  This change was made in the Python 2.7.9 release.

For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass
an alternate context:

     import urllib2
     import ssl

     # This disables all verification
     context = ssl._create_unverified_context()

     # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need
     # to be in the trust store
     context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt")

     urllib2.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0476/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Next: New make regen-all build target<3>,  Prev: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.18.15.8 PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7
....................................................................

PEP 493(1) provides additional migration tools to support a more
incremental infrastructure upgrade process for environments containing
applications and services relying on the historically permissive
processing of server certificates when establishing client HTTPS
connections.  These additions were made in the Python 2.7.12 release.

These tools are intended for use in cases where affected applications
and services can’t be modified to explicitly pass a more permissive SSL
context when establishing the connection.

For applications and services which can’t be modified at all, the new
‘PYTHONHTTPSVERIFY’ environment variable may be set to ‘0’ to revert an
entire Python process back to the default permissive behaviour of Python
2.7.8 and earlier.

For cases where the connection establishment code can’t be modified, but
the overall application can be, the new
‘ssl._https_verify_certificates()’ function can be used to adjust the
default behaviour at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0493/


File: python.info,  Node: New make regen-all build target<3>,  Next: Removal of make touch build target<3>,  Prev: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.18.15.9 New ‘make regen-all’ build target
...........................................

To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably
be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already
be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to
implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times.

Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force
regeneration of these files when desired (e.g.  after an initial version
of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions).

More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see
Makefile.pre.in(1) for details.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).)

Added in version 2.7.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Makefile.pre.in

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Removal of make touch build target<3>,  Prev: New make regen-all build target<3>,  Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases

1.18.15.10 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target
...............................................

The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit
regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has
been removed.

It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target.

(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).)

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 2.7.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements,  Prev: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 7

1.18.16 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Nick Coghlan, Philip Jenvey, Ryan Lovett, R. David Murray, Hugh
Secker-Walker.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 6,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 5,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 7,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.19 What’s New in Python 2.6
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca)

This article explains the new features in Python 2.6, released on
October 1, 2008.  The release schedule is described in PEP 361(1).

The major theme of Python 2.6 is preparing the migration path to Python
3.0, a major redesign of the language.  Whenever possible, Python 2.6
incorporates new features and syntax from 3.0 while remaining compatible
with existing code by not removing older features or syntax.  When it’s
not possible to do that, Python 2.6 tries to do what it can, adding
compatibility functions in a ‘future_builtins’ module and a ‘-3’ switch
to warn about usages that will become unsupported in 3.0.

Some significant new packages have been added to the standard library,
such as the *note multiprocessing: 98. and *note json: 85. modules, but
there aren’t many new features that aren’t related to Python 3.0 in some
way.

Python 2.6 also sees a number of improvements and bugfixes throughout
the source.  A search through the change logs finds there were 259
patches applied and 612 bugs fixed between Python 2.5 and 2.6.  Both
figures are likely to be underestimates.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.6.  If you
want to understand the rationale for the design and implementation,
refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.  Whenever possible,
«What’s New in Python» links to the bug/patch item for each change.

* Menu:

* Python 3.0: Python 3 0.
* Changes to the Development Process::
* PEP 343; The “with” statement: PEP 343 The “with” statement.
* PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module.
* PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
* PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
* PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
* PEP 3105; print As a Function: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
* PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
* PEP 3112; Byte Literals: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
* PEP 3116; New I/O Library: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
* PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol.
* PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
* PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
* PEP 3129; Class Decorators: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
* PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<15>.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<2>.
* Deprecations and Removals::
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<9>.
* Porting to Python 2.6: Porting to Python 2 6.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0361/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 0,  Next: Changes to the Development Process,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.1 Python 3.0
-----------------

The development cycle for Python versions 2.6 and 3.0 was synchronized,
with the alpha and beta releases for both versions being made on the
same days.  The development of 3.0 has influenced many features in 2.6.

Python 3.0 is a far-ranging redesign of Python that breaks compatibility
with the 2.x series.  This means that existing Python code will need
some conversion in order to run on Python 3.0.  However, not all the
changes in 3.0 necessarily break compatibility.  In cases where new
features won’t cause existing code to break, they’ve been backported to
2.6 and are described in this document in the appropriate place.  Some
of the 3.0-derived features are:

   * A ‘__complex__()’ method for converting objects to a complex
     number.

   * Alternate syntax for catching exceptions: ‘except TypeError as
     exc’.

   * The addition of *note functools.reduce(): 153. as a synonym for the
     built-in ‘reduce()’ function.

Python 3.0 adds several new built-in functions and changes the semantics
of some existing builtins.  Functions that are new in 3.0 such as *note
bin(): 164d. have simply been added to Python 2.6, but existing builtins
haven’t been changed; instead, the ‘future_builtins’ module has versions
with the new 3.0 semantics.  Code written to be compatible with 3.0 can
do ‘from future_builtins import hex, map’ as necessary.

A new command-line switch, ‘-3’, enables warnings about features that
will be removed in Python 3.0.  You can run code with this switch to see
how much work will be necessary to port code to 3.0.  The value of this
switch is available to Python code as the boolean variable
‘sys.py3kwarning’, and to C extension code as ‘Py_Py3kWarningFlag’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The 3'xxx' series of PEPs, which contains proposals for Python 3.0.  PEP
3000(1) describes the development process for Python 3.0.  Start with
PEP 3100(2) that describes the general goals for Python 3.0, and then
explore the higher-numbered PEPs that propose specific features.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3000/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3100/


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to the Development Process,  Next: PEP 343 The “with” statement,  Prev: Python 3 0,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.2 Changes to the Development Process
-----------------------------------------

While 2.6 was being developed, the Python development process underwent
two significant changes: we switched from SourceForge’s issue tracker to
a customized Roundup installation, and the documentation was converted
from LaTeX to reStructuredText.

* Menu:

* New Issue Tracker; Roundup: New Issue Tracker Roundup.
* New Documentation Format; reStructuredText Using Sphinx: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx.


File: python.info,  Node: New Issue Tracker Roundup,  Next: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx,  Up: Changes to the Development Process

1.19.2.1 New Issue Tracker: Roundup
...................................

For a long time, the Python developers had been growing increasingly
annoyed by SourceForge’s bug tracker.  SourceForge’s hosted solution
doesn’t permit much customization; for example, it wasn’t possible to
customize the life cycle of issues.

The infrastructure committee of the Python Software Foundation therefore
posted a call for issue trackers, asking volunteers to set up different
products and import some of the bugs and patches from SourceForge.  Four
different trackers were examined: Jira(1), Launchpad(2), Roundup(3), and
Trac(4).  The committee eventually settled on Jira and Roundup as the
two candidates.  Jira is a commercial product that offers no-cost hosted
instances to free-software projects; Roundup is an open-source project
that requires volunteers to administer it and a server to host it.

After posting a call for volunteers, a new Roundup installation was set
up at ‘https://bugs.python.org’.  One installation of Roundup can host
multiple trackers, and this server now also hosts issue trackers for
Jython and for the Python web site.  It will surely find other uses in
the future.  Where possible, this edition of «What’s New in Python»
links to the bug/patch item for each change.

Hosting of the Python bug tracker is kindly provided by Upfront
Systems(5) of Stellenbosch, South Africa.  Martin von Löwis put a lot of
effort into importing existing bugs and patches from SourceForge; his
scripts for this import operation are at
‘https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/’ and may be useful to
other projects wishing to move from SourceForge to Roundup.

Δείτε επίσης
............

‘https://bugs.python.org’

     The Python bug tracker.

‘https://bugs.jython.org’:

     The Jython bug tracker.

‘https://roundup.sourceforge.io/’

     Roundup downloads and documentation.

‘https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/’

     Martin von Löwis’s conversion scripts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.atlassian.com/software/jira/

   (2) https://launchpad.net/

   (3) https://roundup.sourceforge.io/

   (4) https://trac.edgewall.org/

   (5) https://upfrontsoftware.co.za


File: python.info,  Node: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx,  Prev: New Issue Tracker Roundup,  Up: Changes to the Development Process

1.19.2.2 New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx
................................................................

The Python documentation was written using LaTeX since the project
started around 1989.  In the 1980s and early 1990s, most documentation
was printed out for later study, not viewed online.  LaTeX was widely
used because it provided attractive printed output while remaining
straightforward to write once the basic rules of the markup were
learned.

Today LaTeX is still used for writing publications destined for
printing, but the landscape for programming tools has shifted.  We no
longer print out reams of documentation; instead, we browse through it
online and HTML has become the most important format to support.
Unfortunately, converting LaTeX to HTML is fairly complicated and Fred
L.  Drake Jr., the long-time Python documentation editor, spent a lot of
time maintaining the conversion process.  Occasionally people would
suggest converting the documentation into SGML and later XML, but
performing a good conversion is a major task and no one ever committed
the time required to finish the job.

During the 2.6 development cycle, Georg Brandl put a lot of effort into
building a new toolchain for processing the documentation.  The
resulting package is called Sphinx, and is available from
‘https://www.sphinx-doc.org/’.

Sphinx concentrates on HTML output, producing attractively styled and
modern HTML; printed output is still supported through conversion to
LaTeX. The input format is reStructuredText, a markup syntax supporting
custom extensions and directives that is commonly used in the Python
community.

Sphinx is a standalone package that can be used for writing, and almost
two dozen other projects (listed on the Sphinx web site(1)) have adopted
Sphinx as their documentation tool.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Documenting Python(2)

     Describes how to write for Python’s documentation.

Sphinx(3)

     Documentation and code for the Sphinx toolchain.

Docutils(4)

     The underlying reStructuredText parser and toolset.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/en/master/examples.html

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/documenting/

   (3) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/

   (4) https://docutils.sourceforge.io


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 343 The “with” statement,  Next: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Prev: Changes to the Development Process,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.3 PEP 343: The “with” statement
------------------------------------

The previous version, Python 2.5, added the “*note with: 20a.” statement
as an optional feature, to be enabled by a ‘from __future__ import
with_statement’ directive.  In 2.6 the statement no longer needs to be
specially enabled; this means that ‘with’ is now always a keyword.  The
rest of this section is a copy of the corresponding section from the
«What’s New in Python 2.5» document; if you’re familiar with the
“‘with’” statement from Python 2.5, you can skip this section.

The “*note with: 20a.” statement clarifies code that previously would
use ‘try...finally’ blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In
this section, I’ll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.
In the next section, I’ll examine the implementation details and show
how to write objects for use with this statement.

The “*note with: 20a.” statement is a control-flow structure whose basic
structure is:

     with expression [as variable]:
         with-block

The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that
supports the context management protocol (that is, has *note
__enter__(): 9c6. and *note __exit__(): 16a5. methods).

The object’s *note __enter__(): 9c6. is called before 'with-block' is
executed and therefore can run set-up code.  It also may return a value
that is bound to the name 'variable', if given.  (Note carefully that
'variable' is 'not' assigned the result of 'expression'.)

After execution of the 'with-block' is finished, the object’s *note
__exit__(): 16a5. method is called, even if the block raised an
exception, and can therefore run clean-up code.

Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol
and can be used with the “*note with: 20a.” statement.  File objects are
one example:

     with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
         for line in f:
             print line
             ... more processing code ...

After this statement has executed, the file object in 'f' will have been
automatically closed, even if the *note for: 321. loop raised an
exception part-way through the block.

     Σημείωση: In this case, 'f' is the same object created by *note
     open(): 32b, because *note __enter__(): 9c6. returns 'self'.

The *note threading: f6. module’s locks and condition variables also
support the “*note with: 20a.” statement:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with lock:
         # Critical section of code
         ...

The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released
once the block is complete.

The *note localcontext(): 172b. function in the *note decimal: 39.
module makes it easy to save and restore the current decimal context,
which encapsulates the desired precision and rounding characteristics
for computations:

     from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext

     # Displays with default precision of 28 digits
     v = Decimal('578')
     print v.sqrt()

     with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
         # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
         # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
         print v.sqrt()

* Menu:

* Writing Context Managers::
* The contextlib module::


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Context Managers,  Next: The contextlib module,  Up: PEP 343 The “with” statement

1.19.3.1 Writing Context Managers
.................................

Under the hood, the “*note with: 20a.” statement is fairly complicated.
Most people will only use “‘with’” in company with existing objects and
don’t need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this
section if you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the
details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading.

A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:

   * The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a
     «context manager».  The context manager must have *note
     __enter__(): 9c6. and *note __exit__(): 16a5. methods.

   * The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 9c6. method is called.
     The value returned is assigned to 'VAR'. If no ‘as VAR’ clause is
     present, the value is simply discarded.

   * The code in 'BLOCK' is executed.

   * If 'BLOCK' raises an exception, the context manager’s *note
     __exit__(): 16a5. method is called with three arguments, the
     exception details (‘type, value, traceback’, the same values
     returned by *note sys.exc_info(): a7a, which can also be ‘None’ if
     no exception occurred).  The method’s return value controls whether
     an exception is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception,
     and ‘True’ will result in suppressing it.  You’ll only rarely want
     to suppress the exception, because if you do the author of the code
     containing the “*note with: 20a.” statement will never realize
     anything went wrong.

   * If 'BLOCK' didn’t raise an exception, the *note __exit__(): 16a5.
     method is still called, but 'type', 'value', and 'traceback' are
     all ‘None’.

Let’s think through an example.  I won’t present detailed code but will
only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports
transactions.

(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to
the database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either
committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database,
or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the
database is unchanged.  See any database textbook for more information.)

Let’s assume there’s an object representing a database connection.  Our
goal will be to let the user write code like this:

     db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_connection as cursor:
         cursor.execute('insert into ...')
         cursor.execute('delete from ...')
         # ... more operations ...

The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs
flawlessly or rolled back if there’s an exception.  Here’s the basic
interface for ‘DatabaseConnection’ that I’ll assume:

     class DatabaseConnection:
         # Database interface
         def cursor(self):
             "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
         def commit(self):
             "Commits current transaction"
         def rollback(self):
             "Rolls back current transaction"

The *note __enter__(): 9c6. method is pretty easy, having only to start
a new transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object
would be a useful result, so the method will return it.  The user can
then add ‘as cursor’ to their “*note with: 20a.” statement to bind the
cursor to a variable name.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __enter__(self):
             # Code to start a new transaction
             cursor = self.cursor()
             return cursor

The *note __exit__(): 16a5. method is the most complicated because it’s
where most of the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an
exception occurred.  If there was no exception, the transaction is
committed.  The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception.

In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
returning the default value of ‘None’.  ‘None’ is false, so the
exception will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be
more explicit and add a *note return: 44b. statement at the marked
location.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __exit__(self, type, value, tb):
             if tb is None:
                 # No exception, so commit
                 self.commit()
             else:
                 # Exception occurred, so rollback.
                 self.rollback()
                 # return False


File: python.info,  Node: The contextlib module,  Prev: Writing Context Managers,  Up: PEP 343 The “with” statement

1.19.3.2 The contextlib module
..............................

The *note contextlib: 27. module provides some functions and a decorator
that are useful when writing objects for use with the “*note with: 20a.”
statement.

The decorator is called *note contextmanager(): 20e, and lets you write
a single generator function instead of defining a new class.  The
generator should yield exactly one value.  The code up to the *note
yield: d93. will be executed as the *note __enter__(): 9c6. method, and
the value yielded will be the method’s return value that will get bound
to the variable in the “*note with: 20a.” statement’s ‘as’ clause, if
any.  The code after the ‘yield’ will be executed in the *note
__exit__(): 16a5. method.  Any exception raised in the block will be
raised by the ‘yield’ statement.

Using this decorator, our database example from the previous section
could be written as:

     from contextlib import contextmanager

     @contextmanager
     def db_transaction(connection):
         cursor = connection.cursor()
         try:
             yield cursor
         except:
             connection.rollback()
             raise
         else:
             connection.commit()

     db = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
         ...

The *note contextlib: 27. module also has a ‘nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)’
function that combines a number of context managers so you don’t need to
write nested “*note with: 20a.” statements.  In this example, the single
“‘with’” statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a
thread lock:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
         ...

Finally, the *note closing(): 3ec. function returns its argument so that
it can be bound to a variable, and calls the argument’s ‘.close()’
method at the end of the block.

     import urllib, sys
     from contextlib import closing

     with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
         for line in f:
             sys.stdout.write(line)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 343(1) - The «with» statement

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by
     Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the
     code generated for a “*note with: 20a.” statement, which can be
     helpful in learning how the statement works.

The documentation for the *note contextlib: 27. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Next: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Prev: PEP 343 The “with” statement,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.4 PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
------------------------------------------------------------

Python’s *note -m: 4ca. switch allows running a module as a script.
When you ran a module that was located inside a package, relative
imports didn’t work correctly.

The fix for Python 2.6 adds a *note module.__package__: 58c. attribute.
When this attribute is present, relative imports will be relative to the
value of this attribute instead of the *note __name__: 172f. attribute.

PEP 302-style importers can then set *note __package__: 58c. as
necessary.  The *note runpy: c6. module that implements the *note -m:
4ca. switch now does this, so relative imports will now work correctly
in scripts running from inside a package.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Next: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Prev: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.5 PEP 370: Per-user ‘site-packages’ Directory
--------------------------------------------------

When you run Python, the module search path ‘sys.path’ usually includes
a directory whose path ends in ‘"site-packages"’.  This directory is
intended to hold locally installed packages available to all users using
a machine or a particular site installation.

Python 2.6 introduces a convention for user-specific site directories.
The directory varies depending on the platform:

   * Unix and Mac OS X: ‘~/.local/’

   * Windows: ‘%APPDATA%/Python’

Within this directory, there will be version-specific subdirectories,
such as ‘lib/python2.6/site-packages’ on Unix/Mac OS and
‘Python26/site-packages’ on Windows.

If you don’t like the default directory, it can be overridden by an
environment variable.  *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1731. sets the root
directory used for all Python versions supporting this feature.  On
Windows, the directory for application-specific data can be changed by
setting the ‘APPDATA’ environment variable.  You can also modify the
‘site.py’ file for your Python installation.

The feature can be disabled entirely by running Python with the *note
-s: 1732. option or setting the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1733.
environment variable.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 370(1) - Per-user ‘site-packages’ Directory

     PEP written and implemented by Christian Heimes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Next: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Prev: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.6 PEP 371: The ‘multiprocessing’ Package
---------------------------------------------

The new *note multiprocessing: 98. package lets Python programs create
new processes that will perform a computation and return a result to the
parent.  The parent and child processes can communicate using queues and
pipes, synchronize their operations using locks and semaphores, and can
share simple arrays of data.

The *note multiprocessing: 98. module started out as an exact emulation
of the *note threading: f6. module using processes instead of threads.
That goal was discarded along the path to Python 2.6, but the general
approach of the module is still similar.  The fundamental class is the
*note Process: 4de, which is passed a callable object and a collection
of arguments.  The *note start(): 1735. method sets the callable running
in a subprocess, after which you can call the *note is_alive(): 1736.
method to check whether the subprocess is still running and the *note
join(): 1737. method to wait for the process to exit.

Here’s a simple example where the subprocess will calculate a factorial.
The function doing the calculation is written strangely so that it takes
significantly longer when the input argument is a multiple of 4.

     import time
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue


     def factorial(queue, N):
         "Compute a factorial."
         # If N is a multiple of 4, this function will take much longer.
         if (N % 4) == 0:
             time.sleep(.05 * N/4)

         # Calculate the result
         fact = 1L
         for i in range(1, N+1):
             fact = fact * i

         # Put the result on the queue
         queue.put(fact)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         queue = Queue()

         N = 5

         p = Process(target=factorial, args=(queue, N))
         p.start()
         p.join()

         result = queue.get()
         print 'Factorial', N, '=', result

A *note Queue: 1738. is used to communicate the result of the factorial.
The ‘Queue’ object is stored in a global variable.  The child process
will use the value of the variable when the child was created; because
it’s a ‘Queue’, parent and child can use the object to communicate.  (If
the parent were to change the value of the global variable, the child’s
value would be unaffected, and vice versa.)

Two other classes, *note Pool: 1315. and *note Manager: 4dc, provide
higher-level interfaces.  ‘Pool’ will create a fixed number of worker
processes, and requests can then be distributed to the workers by
calling *note apply(): 1739. or *note apply_async(): 173a. to add a
single request, and *note map(): 1491. or *note map_async(): 1492. to
add a number of requests.  The following code uses a ‘Pool’ to spread
requests across 5 worker processes and retrieve a list of results:

     from multiprocessing import Pool

     def factorial(N, dictionary):
         "Compute a factorial."
         ...
     p = Pool(5)
     result = p.map(factorial, range(1, 1000, 10))
     for v in result:
         print v

This produces the following output:

     1
     39916800
     51090942171709440000
     8222838654177922817725562880000000
     33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
     ...

The other high-level interface, the *note Manager: 4dc. class, creates a
separate server process that can hold master copies of Python data
structures.  Other processes can then access and modify these data
structures using proxy objects.  The following example creates a shared
dictionary by calling the *note dict(): 188. method; the worker
processes then insert values into the dictionary.  (Locking is not done
for you automatically, which doesn’t matter in this example.
‘Manager’’s methods also include *note Lock(): 173b, *note RLock():
173c, and *note Semaphore(): 173d. to create shared locks.)

     import time
     from multiprocessing import Pool, Manager

     def factorial(N, dictionary):
         "Compute a factorial."
         # Calculate the result
         fact = 1L
         for i in range(1, N+1):
             fact = fact * i

         # Store result in dictionary
         dictionary[N] = fact

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         p = Pool(5)
         mgr = Manager()
         d = mgr.dict()         # Create shared dictionary

         # Run tasks using the pool
         for N in range(1, 1000, 10):
             p.apply_async(factorial, (N, d))

         # Mark pool as closed -- no more tasks can be added.
         p.close()

         # Wait for tasks to exit
         p.join()

         # Output results
         for k, v in sorted(d.items()):
             print k, v

This will produce the output:

     1 1
     11 39916800
     21 51090942171709440000
     31 8222838654177922817725562880000000
     41 33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000
     51 15511187532873822802242430164693032110632597200169861120000...

Δείτε επίσης
............

The documentation for the *note multiprocessing: 98. module.

PEP 371(1) - Addition of the multiprocessing package

     PEP written by Jesse Noller and Richard Oudkerk; implemented by
     Richard Oudkerk and Jesse Noller.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0371/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Next: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Prev: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.7 PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
-------------------------------------------

In Python 3.0, the ‘%’ operator is supplemented by a more powerful
string formatting method, *note format(): 439.  Support for the *note
str.format(): a12. method has been backported to Python 2.6.

In 2.6, both 8-bit and Unicode strings have a ‘.format()’ method that
treats the string as a template and takes the arguments to be formatted.
The formatting template uses curly brackets (‘{’, ‘}’) as special
characters:

     >>> # Substitute positional argument 0 into the string.
     >>> "User ID: {0}".format("root")
     'User ID: root'
     >>> # Use the named keyword arguments
     >>> "User ID: {uid}   Last seen: {last_login}".format(
     ...    uid="root",
     ...    last_login = "5 Mar 2008 07:20")
     'User ID: root   Last seen: 5 Mar 2008 07:20'

Curly brackets can be escaped by doubling them:

     >>> "Empty dict: {{}}".format()
     "Empty dict: {}"

Field names can be integers indicating positional arguments, such as
‘{0}’, ‘{1}’, etc.  or names of keyword arguments.  You can also supply
compound field names that read attributes or access dictionary keys:

     >>> import sys
     >>> print 'Platform: {0.platform}\nPython version: {0.version}'.format(sys)
     Platform: darwin
     Python version: 2.6a1+ (trunk:61261M, Mar  5 2008, 20:29:41)
     [GCC 4.0.1 (Apple Computer, Inc. build 5367)]'

     >>> import mimetypes
     >>> 'Content-type: {0[.mp4]}'.format(mimetypes.types_map)
     'Content-type: video/mp4'

Note that when using dictionary-style notation such as ‘[.mp4]’, you
don’t need to put any quotation marks around the string; it will look up
the value using ‘.mp4’ as the key.  Strings beginning with a number will
be converted to an integer.  You can’t write more complicated
expressions inside a format string.

So far we’ve shown how to specify which field to substitute into the
resulting string.  The precise formatting used is also controllable by
adding a colon followed by a format specifier.  For example:

     >>> # Field 0: left justify, pad to 15 characters
     >>> # Field 1: right justify, pad to 6 characters
     >>> fmt = '{0:15} ${1:>6}'
     >>> fmt.format('Registration', 35)
     'Registration    $    35'
     >>> fmt.format('Tutorial', 50)
     'Tutorial        $    50'
     >>> fmt.format('Banquet', 125)
     'Banquet         $   125'

Format specifiers can reference other fields through nesting:

     >>> fmt = '{0:{1}}'
     >>> width = 15
     >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
     'Invoice #1234  '
     >>> width = 35
     >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width)
     'Invoice #1234                      '

The alignment of a field within the desired width can be specified:

Character            Effect
                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
< (default)          Left-align
                     
                     
>                    Right-align
                     
                     
^                    Center
                     
                     
=                    (For numeric types only) Pad after the sign.
                     

Format specifiers can also include a presentation type, which controls
how the value is formatted.  For example, floating-point numbers can be
formatted as a general number or in exponential notation:

     >>> '{0:g}'.format(3.75)
     '3.75'
     >>> '{0:e}'.format(3.75)
     '3.750000e+00'

A variety of presentation types are available.  Consult the 2.6
documentation for a *note complete list: 173f.; here’s a sample:

‘b’       Binary.  Outputs the number in base 2.
          
          
‘c’       Character.  Converts the integer to the corresponding Unicode character
          before printing.
          
          
‘d’       Decimal Integer.  Outputs the number in base 10.
          
          
‘o’       Octal format.  Outputs the number in base 8.
          
          
‘x’       Hex format.  Outputs the number in base 16, using lower-case letters for
          the digits above 9.
          
          
‘e’       Exponent notation.  Prints the number in scientific notation using the
          letter “e” to indicate the exponent.
          
          
‘g’       General format.  This prints the number as a fixed-point number, unless
          the number is too large, in which case it switches to “e” exponent
          notation.
          
          
‘n’       Number.  This is the same as “g” (for floats) or “d” (for integers),
          except that it uses the current locale setting to insert the appropriate
          number separator characters.
          
          
‘%’       Percentage.  Multiplies the number by 100 and displays in fixed (“f”)
          format, followed by a percent sign.
          

Classes and types can define a *note __format__(): a10. method to
control how they’re formatted.  It receives a single argument, the
format specifier:

     def __format__(self, format_spec):
         if isinstance(format_spec, unicode):
             return unicode(str(self))
         else:
             return str(self)

There’s also a *note format(): 439. builtin that will format a single
value.  It calls the type’s *note __format__(): a10. method with the
provided specifier:

     >>> format(75.6564, '.2f')
     '75.66'

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Format string syntax: 173f.

     The reference documentation for format fields.

PEP 3101(1) - Advanced String Formatting

     PEP written by Talin.  Implemented by Eric Smith.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Next: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Prev: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.8 PEP 3105: ‘print’ As a Function
--------------------------------------

The ‘print’ statement becomes the *note print(): 131f. function in
Python 3.0.  Making ‘print()’ a function makes it possible to replace
the function by doing ‘def print(...)’ or importing a new function from
somewhere else.

Python 2.6 has a ‘__future__’ import that removes ‘print’ as language
syntax, letting you use the functional form instead.  For example:

     >>> from __future__ import print_function
     >>> print('# of entries', len(dictionary), file=sys.stderr)

The signature of the new function is:

     def print(*args, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None)

The parameters are:

   * 'args': positional arguments whose values will be printed out.

   * 'sep': the separator, which will be printed between arguments.

   * 'end': the ending text, which will be printed after all of the
     arguments have been output.

   * 'file': the file object to which the output will be sent.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3105(1) - Make print a function

     PEP written by Georg Brandl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Next: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Prev: PEP 3105 print As a Function,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.9 PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
-------------------------------------------

One error that Python programmers occasionally make is writing the
following code:

     try:
         ...
     except TypeError, ValueError:  # Wrong!
         ...

The author is probably trying to catch both *note TypeError: 291. and
*note ValueError: 277. exceptions, but this code actually does something
different: it will catch ‘TypeError’ and bind the resulting exception
object to the local name ‘"ValueError"’.  The ‘ValueError’ exception
will not be caught at all.  The correct code specifies a tuple of
exceptions:

     try:
         ...
     except (TypeError, ValueError):
         ...

This error happens because the use of the comma here is ambiguous: does
it indicate two different nodes in the parse tree, or a single node
that’s a tuple?

Python 3.0 makes this unambiguous by replacing the comma with the word
«as».  To catch an exception and store the exception object in the
variable ‘exc’, you must write:

     try:
         ...
     except TypeError as exc:
         ...

Python 3.0 will only support the use of «as», and therefore interprets
the first example as catching two different exceptions.  Python 2.6
supports both the comma and «as», so existing code will continue to
work.  We therefore suggest using «as» when writing new Python code that
will only be executed with 2.6.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3110(1) - Catching Exceptions in Python 3000

     PEP written and implemented by Collin Winter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Next: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Prev: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.10 PEP 3112: Byte Literals
-------------------------------

Python 3.0 adopts Unicode as the language’s fundamental string type and
denotes 8-bit literals differently, either as ‘b'string'’ or using a
*note bytes: 1c7. constructor.  For future compatibility, Python 2.6
adds ‘bytes’ as a synonym for the *note str: 1df. type, and it also
supports the ‘b''’ notation.

The 2.6 *note str: 1df. differs from 3.0’s *note bytes: 1c7. type in
various ways; most notably, the constructor is completely different.  In
3.0, ‘bytes([65, 66, 67])’ is 3 elements long, containing the bytes
representing ‘ABC’; in 2.6, ‘bytes([65, 66, 67])’ returns the 12-byte
string representing the *note str(): 1df. of the list.

The primary use of *note bytes: 1c7. in 2.6 will be to write tests of
object type such as ‘isinstance(x, bytes)’.  This will help the 2to3
converter, which can’t tell whether 2.x code intends strings to contain
either characters or 8-bit bytes; you can now use either ‘bytes’ or
*note str: 1df. to represent your intention exactly, and the resulting
code will also be correct in Python 3.0.

There’s also a ‘__future__’ import that causes all string literals to
become Unicode strings.  This means that ‘\u’ escape sequences can be
used to include Unicode characters:

     from __future__ import unicode_literals

     s = ('\u751f\u3080\u304e\u3000\u751f\u3054'
          '\u3081\u3000\u751f\u305f\u307e\u3054')

     print len(s)               # 12 Unicode characters

At the C level, Python 3.0 will rename the existing 8-bit string type,
called ‘PyStringObject’ in Python 2.x, to *note PyBytesObject: b71.
Python 2.6 uses ‘#define’ to support using the names *note
PyBytesObject(): b71, *note PyBytes_Check(): 1743, *note
PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(): 3b2, and all the other functions and macros
used with strings.

Instances of the *note bytes: 1c7. type are immutable just as strings
are.  A new *note bytearray: 1c6. type stores a mutable sequence of
bytes:

     >>> bytearray([65, 66, 67])
     bytearray(b'ABC')
     >>> b = bytearray(u'\u21ef\u3244', 'utf-8')
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'\xe2\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
     >>> b[0] = '\xe3'
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'\xe3\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84')
     >>> unicode(str(b), 'utf-8')
     u'\u31ef \u3244'

Byte arrays support most of the methods of string types, such as *note
startswith(): 1744./*note endswith(): 1745, *note find(): 1746./*note
rfind(): 1747, and some of the methods of lists, such as *note append():
1748, *note pop(): 1749, and *note reverse(): 174a.

     >>> b = bytearray('ABC')
     >>> b.append('d')
     >>> b.append(ord('e'))
     >>> b
     bytearray(b'ABCde')

There’s also a corresponding C API, with *note PyByteArray_FromObject():
174b, *note PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(): 174c, and various other
functions.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3112(1) - Bytes literals in Python 3000

     PEP written by Jason Orendorff; backported to 2.6 by Christian
     Heimes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Next: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol,  Prev: PEP 3112 Byte Literals,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.11 PEP 3116: New I/O Library
---------------------------------

Python’s built-in file objects support a number of methods, but
file-like objects don’t necessarily support all of them.  Objects that
imitate files usually support ‘read()’ and ‘write()’, but they may not
support ‘readline()’, for example.  Python 3.0 introduces a layered I/O
library in the *note io: 82. module that separates buffering and
text-handling features from the fundamental read and write operations.

There are three levels of abstract base classes provided by the *note
io: 82. module:

   * *note RawIOBase: 147c. defines raw I/O operations: *note read():
     11d0, *note readinto(): 11d1, *note write(): 174e, *note seek():
     1631, *note tell(): 174f, *note truncate(): 16b5, and *note
     close(): 70b.  Most of the methods of this class will often map to
     a single system call.  There are also *note readable(): 1750, *note
     writable(): 1751, and *note seekable(): 1752. methods for
     determining what operations a given object will allow.

     Python 3.0 has concrete implementations of this class for files and
     sockets, but Python 2.6 hasn’t restructured its file and socket
     objects in this way.

   * *note BufferedIOBase: a83. is an abstract base class that buffers
     data in memory to reduce the number of system calls used, making
     I/O processing more efficient.  It supports all of the methods of
     *note RawIOBase: 147c, and adds a *note raw: 1753. attribute
     holding the underlying raw object.

     There are five concrete classes implementing this ABC. *note
     BufferedWriter: 1754. and *note BufferedReader: 15b5. are for
     objects that support write-only or read-only usage that have a
     *note seek(): 1631. method for random access.  *note
     BufferedRandom: 1755. objects support read and write access upon
     the same underlying stream, and *note BufferedRWPair: 1756. is for
     objects such as TTYs that have both read and write operations
     acting upon unconnected streams of data.  The *note BytesIO: 1255.
     class supports reading, writing, and seeking over an in-memory
     buffer.

   * *note TextIOBase: a84.: Provides functions for reading and writing
     strings (remember, strings will be Unicode in Python 3.0), and
     supporting *note universal newlines: 10f1.  ‘TextIOBase’ defines
     the *note readline(): c2. method and supports iteration upon
     objects.

     There are two concrete implementations.  *note TextIOWrapper: b9c.
     wraps a buffered I/O object, supporting all of the methods for text
     I/O and adding a *note buffer: 1648. attribute for access to the
     underlying object.  *note StringIO: 12d4. simply buffers everything
     in memory without ever writing anything to disk.

     (In Python 2.6, *note io.StringIO: 12d4. is implemented in pure
     Python, so it’s pretty slow.  You should therefore stick with the
     existing ‘StringIO’ module or ‘cStringIO’ for now.  At some point
     Python 3.0’s *note io: 82. module will be rewritten into C for
     speed, and perhaps the C implementation will be backported to the
     2.x releases.)

In Python 2.6, the underlying implementations haven’t been restructured
to build on top of the *note io: 82. module’s classes.  The module is
being provided to make it easier to write code that’s forward-compatible
with 3.0, and to save developers the effort of writing their own
implementations of buffering and text I/O.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3116(1) - New I/O

     PEP written by Daniel Stutzbach, Mike Verdone, and Guido van
     Rossum.  Code by Guido van Rossum, Georg Brandl, Walter Doerwald,
     Jeremy Hylton, Martin von Löwis, Tony Lownds, and others.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol,  Next: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Prev: PEP 3116 New I/O Library,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.12 PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
-----------------------------------------

The buffer protocol is a C-level API that lets Python types exchange
pointers into their internal representations.  A memory-mapped file can
be viewed as a buffer of characters, for example, and this lets another
module such as *note re: c1. treat memory-mapped files as a string of
characters to be searched.

The primary users of the buffer protocol are numeric-processing packages
such as NumPy, which expose the internal representation of arrays so
that callers can write data directly into an array instead of going
through a slower API. This PEP updates the buffer protocol in light of
experience from NumPy development, adding a number of new features such
as indicating the shape of an array or locking a memory region.

The most important new C API function is ‘PyObject_GetBuffer(PyObject
*obj, Py_buffer *view, int flags)’, which takes an object and a set of
flags, and fills in the ‘Py_buffer’ structure with information about the
object’s memory representation.  Objects can use this operation to lock
memory in place while an external caller could be modifying the
contents, so there’s a corresponding ‘PyBuffer_Release(Py_buffer *view)’
to indicate that the external caller is done.

The 'flags' argument to *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c. specifies
constraints upon the memory returned.  Some examples are:

   * *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1758. indicates that the memory must be
     writable.

   * ‘PyBUF_LOCK’ requests a read-only or exclusive lock on the memory.

   * *note PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS: 1759. and *note PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS: 175a.
     requests a C-contiguous (last dimension varies the fastest) or
     Fortran-contiguous (first dimension varies the fastest) array
     layout.

Two new argument codes for *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1, ‘s*’ and ‘z*’,
return locked buffer objects for a parameter.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3118(1) - Revising the buffer protocol

     PEP written by Travis Oliphant and Carl Banks; implemented by
     Travis Oliphant.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Next: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Prev: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.13 PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
---------------------------------------

Some object-oriented languages such as Java support interfaces,
declaring that a class has a given set of methods or supports a given
access protocol.  Abstract Base Classes (or ABCs) are an equivalent
feature for Python.  The ABC support consists of an *note abc: 4. module
containing a metaclass called *note ABCMeta: 12c9, special handling of
this metaclass by the *note isinstance(): 2ef. and *note issubclass():
2f0. builtins, and a collection of basic ABCs that the Python developers
think will be widely useful.  Future versions of Python will probably
add more ABCs.

Let’s say you have a particular class and wish to know whether it
supports dictionary-style access.  The phrase «dictionary-style» is
vague, however.  It probably means that accessing items with ‘obj[1]’
works.  Does it imply that setting items with ‘obj[2] = value’ works?
Or that the object will have ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’
methods?  What about the iterative variants such as ‘iterkeys()’?
‘copy`and :meth:()’!update'?  Iterating over the object with ‘iter()’?

The Python 2.6 *note collections: 1e. module includes a number of
different ABCs that represent these distinctions.  ‘Iterable’ indicates
that a class defines *note __iter__(): 102d, and ‘Container’ means the
class defines a *note __contains__(): 175c. method and therefore
supports ‘x in y’ expressions.  The basic dictionary interface of
getting items, setting items, and ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’,
is defined by the ‘MutableMapping’ ABC.

You can derive your own classes from a particular ABC to indicate they
support that ABC’s interface:

     import collections

     class Storage(collections.MutableMapping):
         ...

Alternatively, you could write the class without deriving from the
desired ABC and instead register the class by calling the ABC’s *note
register(): 1436. method:

     import collections

     class Storage:
         ...

     collections.MutableMapping.register(Storage)

For classes that you write, deriving from the ABC is probably clearer.
The *note register(): 1436. method is useful when you’ve written a new
ABC that can describe an existing type or class, or if you want to
declare that some third-party class implements an ABC. For example, if
you defined a ‘PrintableType’ ABC, it’s legal to do:

     # Register Python's types
     PrintableType.register(int)
     PrintableType.register(float)
     PrintableType.register(str)

Classes should obey the semantics specified by an ABC, but Python can’t
check this; it’s up to the class author to understand the ABC’s
requirements and to implement the code accordingly.

To check whether an object supports a particular interface, you can now
write:

     def func(d):
         if not isinstance(d, collections.MutableMapping):
             raise ValueError("Mapping object expected, not %r" % d)

Don’t feel that you must now begin writing lots of checks as in the
above example.  Python has a strong tradition of duck-typing, where
explicit type-checking is never done and code simply calls methods on an
object, trusting that those methods will be there and raising an
exception if they aren’t.  Be judicious in checking for ABCs and only do
it where it’s absolutely necessary.

You can write your own ABCs by using ‘abc.ABCMeta’ as the metaclass in a
class definition:

     from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod

     class Drawable():
         __metaclass__ = ABCMeta

         @abstractmethod
         def draw(self, x, y, scale=1.0):
             pass

         def draw_doubled(self, x, y):
             self.draw(x, y, scale=2.0)


     class Square(Drawable):
         def draw(self, x, y, scale):
             ...

In the ‘Drawable’ ABC above, the ‘draw_doubled()’ method renders the
object at twice its size and can be implemented in terms of other
methods described in ‘Drawable’.  Classes implementing this ABC
therefore don’t need to provide their own implementation of
‘draw_doubled()’, though they can do so.  An implementation of ‘draw()’
is necessary, though; the ABC can’t provide a useful generic
implementation.

You can apply the *note @~abc.abstractmethod: 1433. decorator to methods
such as ‘draw()’ that must be implemented; Python will then raise an
exception for classes that don’t define the method.  Note that the
exception is only raised when you actually try to create an instance of
a subclass lacking the method:

     >>> class Circle(Drawable):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> c = Circle()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class Circle with abstract methods draw
     >>>

Abstract data attributes can be declared using the ‘@abstractproperty’
decorator:

     from abc import abstractproperty
     ...

     @abstractproperty
     def readonly(self):
        return self._x

Subclasses must then define a ‘readonly’ property.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3119(1) - Introducing Abstract Base Classes

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Talin.  Implemented by Guido
     van Rossum.  Backported to 2.6 by Benjamin Aranguren, with Alex
     Martelli.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Next: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Prev: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.14 PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
----------------------------------------------------

Python 3.0 changes the syntax for octal (base-8) integer literals,
prefixing them with «0o» or «0O» instead of a leading zero, and adds
support for binary (base-2) integer literals, signalled by a «0b» or
«0B» prefix.

Python 2.6 doesn’t drop support for a leading 0 signalling an octal
number, but it does add support for «0o» and «0b»:

     >>> 0o21, 2*8 + 1
     (17, 17)
     >>> 0b101111
     47

The *note oct(): 1673. builtin still returns numbers prefixed with a
leading zero, and a new *note bin(): 164d. builtin returns the binary
representation for a number:

     >>> oct(42)
     '052'
     >>> future_builtins.oct(42)
     '0o52'
     >>> bin(173)
     '0b10101101'

The *note int(): 326. and ‘long()’ builtins will now accept the «0o» and
«0b» prefixes when base-8 or base-2 are requested, or when the 'base'
argument is zero (signalling that the base used should be determined
from the string):

     >>> int ('0o52', 0)
     42
     >>> int('1101', 2)
     13
     >>> int('0b1101', 2)
     13
     >>> int('0b1101', 0)
     13

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3127(1) - Integer Literal Support and Syntax

     PEP written by Patrick Maupin; backported to 2.6 by Eric Smith.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3127/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Next: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Prev: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.15 PEP 3129: Class Decorators
----------------------------------

Decorators have been extended from functions to classes.  It’s now legal
to write:

     @foo
     @bar
     class A:
       pass

This is equivalent to:

     class A:
       pass

     A = foo(bar(A))

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3129(1) - Class Decorators

     PEP written by Collin Winter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Next: Other Language Changes<15>,  Prev: PEP 3129 Class Decorators,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.16 PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
----------------------------------------------

Python 3.0 adds several abstract base classes for numeric types inspired
by Scheme’s numeric tower.  These classes were backported to 2.6 as the
*note numbers: a2. module.

The most general ABC is ‘Number’.  It defines no operations at all, and
only exists to allow checking if an object is a number by doing
‘isinstance(obj, Number)’.

‘Complex’ is a subclass of ‘Number’.  Complex numbers can undergo the
basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
exponentiation, and you can retrieve the real and imaginary parts and
obtain a number’s conjugate.  Python’s built-in complex type is an
implementation of ‘Complex’.

‘Real’ further derives from ‘Complex’, and adds operations that only
work on real numbers: ‘floor()’, ‘trunc()’, rounding, taking the
remainder mod N, floor division, and comparisons.

‘Rational’ numbers derive from ‘Real’, have ‘numerator’ and
‘denominator’ properties, and can be converted to floats.  Python 2.6
adds a simple rational-number class, ‘Fraction’, in the *note fractions:
60. module.  (It’s called ‘Fraction’ instead of ‘Rational’ to avoid a
name clash with *note numbers.Rational: 1663.)

‘Integral’ numbers derive from ‘Rational’, and can be shifted left and
right with ‘<<’ and ‘>>’, combined using bitwise operations such as ‘&’
and ‘|’, and can be used as array indexes and slice boundaries.

In Python 3.0, the PEP slightly redefines the existing builtins *note
round(): 167f, *note math.floor(): 1760, *note math.ceil(): 1761, and
adds a new one, *note math.trunc(): 1762, that’s been backported to
Python 2.6.  ‘math.trunc()’ rounds toward zero, returning the closest
‘Integral’ that’s between the function’s argument and zero.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3141(1) - A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

     PEP written by Jeffrey Yasskin.

Scheme's numerical tower(2), from the Guile manual.

Scheme's number datatypes(3) from the R5RS Scheme specification.

* Menu:

* The fractions Module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/

   (2) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/guile/manual/html_node/Numerical-Tower.html#Numerical-Tower

   (3) 
https://conservatory.scheme.org/schemers/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-9.html#%_sec_6.2


File: python.info,  Node: The fractions Module,  Up: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers

1.19.16.1 The ‘fractions’ Module
................................

To fill out the hierarchy of numeric types, the *note fractions: 60.
module provides a rational-number class.  Rational numbers store their
values as a numerator and denominator forming a fraction, and can
exactly represent numbers such as ‘2/3’ that floating-point numbers can
only approximate.

The ‘Fraction’ constructor takes two ‘Integral’ values that will be the
numerator and denominator of the resulting fraction.

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> a = Fraction(2, 3)
     >>> b = Fraction(2, 5)
     >>> float(a), float(b)
     (0.66666666666666663, 0.40000000000000002)
     >>> a+b
     Fraction(16, 15)
     >>> a/b
     Fraction(5, 3)

For converting floating-point numbers to rationals, the float type now
has an ‘as_integer_ratio()’ method that returns the numerator and
denominator for a fraction that evaluates to the same floating-point
value:

     >>> (2.5) .as_integer_ratio()
     (5, 2)
     >>> (3.1415) .as_integer_ratio()
     (7074029114692207L, 2251799813685248L)
     >>> (1./3) .as_integer_ratio()
     (6004799503160661L, 18014398509481984L)

Note that values that can only be approximated by floating-point
numbers, such as 1./3, are not simplified to the number being
approximated; the fraction attempts to match the floating-point value
'exactly'.

The *note fractions: 60. module is based upon an implementation by
Sjoerd Mullender that was in Python’s ‘Demo/classes/’ directory for a
long time.  This implementation was significantly updated by Jeffrey
Yasskin.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<15>,  Next: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Prev: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.17 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:

   * Directories and zip archives containing a ‘__main__.py’ file can
     now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter.
     The directory or zip archive is automatically inserted as the first
     entry in sys.path.  (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu,
     subsequently revised by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan;
     bpo-1739468(1).)

   * The *note hasattr(): 8e2. function was catching and ignoring all
     errors, under the assumption that they meant a ‘__getattr__()’
     method was failing somehow and the return value of ‘hasattr()’
     would therefore be ‘False’.  This logic shouldn’t be applied to
     *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96. and *note SystemExit: 10f7, however;
     Python 2.6 will no longer discard such exceptions when ‘hasattr()’
     encounters them.  (Fixed by Benjamin Peterson; bpo-2196(2).)

   * When calling a function using the ‘**’ syntax to provide keyword
     arguments, you are no longer required to use a Python dictionary;
     any mapping will now work:

          >>> def f(**kw):
          ...    print sorted(kw)
          ...
          >>> ud=UserDict.UserDict()
          >>> ud['a'] = 1
          >>> ud['b'] = 'string'
          >>> f(**ud)
          ['a', 'b']

     (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-1686487(3).)

     It’s also become legal to provide keyword arguments after a ‘*args’
     argument to a function call.

          >>> def f(*args, **kw):
          ...     print args, kw
          ...
          >>> f(1,2,3, *(4,5,6), keyword=13)
          (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) {'keyword': 13}

     Previously this would have been a syntax error.  (Contributed by
     Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; bpo-3473(4).)

   * A new builtin, ‘next(iterator, [default])’ returns the next item
     from the specified iterator.  If the 'default' argument is
     supplied, it will be returned if 'iterator' has been exhausted;
     otherwise, the *note StopIteration: fba. exception will be raised.
     (Backported in bpo-2719(5).)

   * Tuples now have *note index(): 1765. and *note count(): 1766.
     methods matching the list type’s *note index(): 1767. and *note
     count(): 1768. methods:

          >>> t = (0,1,2,3,4,0,1,2)
          >>> t.index(3)
          3
          >>> t.count(0)
          2

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger)

   * The built-in types now have improved support for extended slicing
     syntax, accepting various combinations of ‘(start, stop, step)’.
     Previously, the support was partial and certain corner cases
     wouldn’t work.  (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

   * Properties now have three attributes, ‘getter’, ‘setter’ and
     ‘deleter’, that are decorators providing useful shortcuts for
     adding a getter, setter or deleter function to an existing
     property.  You would use them like this:

          class C(object):
              @property
              def x(self):
                  return self._x

              @x.setter
              def x(self, value):
                  self._x = value

              @x.deleter
              def x(self):
                  del self._x

          class D(C):
              @C.x.getter
              def x(self):
                  return self._x * 2

              @x.setter
              def x(self, value):
                  self._x = value / 2

   * Several methods of the built-in set types now accept multiple
     iterables: ‘intersection()’, ‘intersection_update()’, ‘union()’,
     ‘update()’, ‘difference()’ and ‘difference_update()’.

          >>> s=set('1234567890')
          >>> s.intersection('abc123', 'cdf246')  # Intersection between all inputs
          set(['2'])
          >>> s.difference('246', '789')
          set(['1', '0', '3', '5'])

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Many floating-point features were added.  The *note float(): 327.
     function will now turn the string ‘nan’ into an IEEE 754 Not A
     Number value, and ‘+inf’ and ‘-inf’ into positive or negative
     infinity.  This works on any platform with IEEE 754 semantics.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1635(6).)

     Other functions in the *note math: 91. module, ‘isinf()’ and
     ‘isnan()’, return true if their floating-point argument is infinite
     or Not A Number.  (bpo-1640(7))

     Conversion functions were added to convert floating-point numbers
     into hexadecimal strings (bpo-3008(8)).  These functions convert
     floats to and from a string representation without introducing
     rounding errors from the conversion between decimal and binary.
     Floats have a *note hex(): 1674. method that returns a string
     representation, and the ‘float.fromhex()’ method converts a string
     back into a number:

          >>> a = 3.75
          >>> a.hex()
          '0x1.e000000000000p+1'
          >>> float.fromhex('0x1.e000000000000p+1')
          3.75
          >>> b=1./3
          >>> b.hex()
          '0x1.5555555555555p-2'

   * A numerical nicety: when creating a complex number from two floats
     on systems that support signed zeros (-0 and +0), the *note
     complex(): 328. constructor will now preserve the sign of the zero.
     (Fixed by Mark T. Dickinson; bpo-1507(9).)

   * Classes that inherit a ‘__hash__()’ method from a parent class can
     set ‘__hash__ = None’ to indicate that the class isn’t hashable.
     This will make ‘hash(obj)’ raise a *note TypeError: 291. and the
     class will not be indicated as implementing the ‘Hashable’ ABC.

     You should do this when you’ve defined a ‘__cmp__()’ or ‘__eq__()’
     method that compares objects by their value rather than by
     identity.  All objects have a default hash method that uses
     ‘id(obj)’ as the hash value.  There’s no tidy way to remove the
     ‘__hash__()’ method inherited from a parent class, so assigning
     ‘None’ was implemented as an override.  At the C level, extensions
     can set ‘tp_hash’ to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1769.
     (Fixed by Nick Coghlan and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; bpo-2235(10).)

   * The *note GeneratorExit: 176a. exception now subclasses *note
     BaseException: 9b9. instead of *note Exception: d9e.  This means
     that an exception handler that does ‘except Exception:’ will not
     inadvertently catch ‘GeneratorExit’.  (Contributed by Chad Austin;
     bpo-1537(11).)

   * Generator objects now have a ‘gi_code’ attribute that refers to the
     original code object backing the generator.  (Contributed by Collin
     Winter; bpo-1473257(12).)

   * The *note compile(): 1c8. built-in function now accepts keyword
     arguments as well as positional parameters.  (Contributed by Thomas
     Wouters; bpo-1444529(13).)

   * The *note complex(): 328. constructor now accepts strings
     containing parenthesized complex numbers, meaning that
     ‘complex(repr(cplx))’ will now round-trip values.  For example,
     ‘complex('(3+4j)')’ now returns the value (3+4j).
     (bpo-1491866(14))

   * The string ‘translate()’ method now accepts ‘None’ as the
     translation table parameter, which is treated as the identity
     transformation.  This makes it easier to carry out operations that
     only delete characters.  (Contributed by Bengt Richter and
     implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1193128(15).)

   * The built-in *note dir(): a23. function now checks for a
     ‘__dir__()’ method on the objects it receives.  This method must
     return a list of strings containing the names of valid attributes
     for the object, and lets the object control the value that ‘dir()’
     produces.  Objects that have ‘__getattr__()’ or
     ‘__getattribute__()’ methods can use this to advertise
     pseudo-attributes they will honor.  (bpo-1591665(16))

   * Instance method objects have new attributes for the object and
     function comprising the method; the new synonym for ‘im_self’ is
     *note __self__: 176b, and ‘im_func’ is also available as *note
     __func__: 16a1.  The old names are still supported in Python 2.6,
     but are gone in 3.0.

   * An obscure change: when you use the *note locals(): 28b. function
     inside a *note class: 167c. statement, the resulting dictionary no
     longer returns free variables.  (Free variables, in this case, are
     variables referenced in the ‘class’ statement that aren’t
     attributes of the class.)

* Menu:

* Optimizations: Optimizations<17>.
* Interpreter Changes: Interpreter Changes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2196

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1686487

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3473

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2719

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3008

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1507

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2235

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1473257

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1444529

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1491866

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193128

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1591665


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<17>,  Next: Interpreter Changes<2>,  Up: Other Language Changes<15>

1.19.17.1 Optimizations
.......................

   * The *note warnings: 11b. module has been rewritten in C. This makes
     it possible to invoke warnings from the parser, and may also make
     the interpreter’s startup faster.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and
     Brett Cannon; bpo-1631171(1).)

   * Type objects now have a cache of methods that can reduce the work
     required to find the correct method implementation for a particular
     class; once cached, the interpreter doesn’t need to traverse base
     classes to figure out the right method to call.  The cache is
     cleared if a base class or the class itself is modified, so the
     cache should remain correct even in the face of Python’s dynamic
     nature.  (Original optimization implemented by Armin Rigo, updated
     for Python 2.6 by Kevin Jacobs; bpo-1700288(2).)

     By default, this change is only applied to types that are included
     with the Python core.  Extension modules may not necessarily be
     compatible with this cache, so they must explicitly add *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG: 176d. to the module’s ‘tp_flags’ field
     to enable the method cache.  (To be compatible with the method
     cache, the extension module’s code must not directly access and
     modify the ‘tp_dict’ member of any of the types it implements.
     Most modules don’t do this, but it’s impossible for the Python
     interpreter to determine that.  See bpo-1878(3) for some
     discussion.)

   * Function calls that use keyword arguments are significantly faster
     by doing a quick pointer comparison, usually saving the time of a
     full string comparison.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger, after
     an initial implementation by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1819(4).)

   * All of the functions in the *note struct: de. module have been
     rewritten in C, thanks to work at the Need For Speed sprint.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Some of the standard built-in types now set a bit in their type
     objects.  This speeds up checking whether an object is a subclass
     of one of these types.  (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.)

   * Unicode strings now use faster code for detecting whitespace and
     line breaks; this speeds up the ‘split()’ method by about 25% and
     ‘splitlines()’ by 35%.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.)  Memory
     usage is reduced by using pymalloc for the Unicode string’s data.

   * The ‘with’ statement now stores the *note __exit__(): 16a5. method
     on the stack, producing a small speedup.  (Implemented by Jeffrey
     Yasskin.)

   * To reduce memory usage, the garbage collector will now clear
     internal free lists when garbage-collecting the highest generation
     of objects.  This may return memory to the operating system sooner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1700288

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1878

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1819


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes<2>,  Prev: Optimizations<17>,  Up: Other Language Changes<15>

1.19.17.2 Interpreter Changes
.............................

Two command-line options have been reserved for use by other Python
implementations.  The ‘-J’ switch has been reserved for use by Jython
for Jython-specific options, such as switches that are passed to the
underlying JVM. *note -X: 178. has been reserved for options specific to
a particular implementation of Python such as CPython, Jython, or
IronPython.  If either option is used with Python 2.6, the interpreter
will report that the option isn’t currently used.

Python can now be prevented from writing ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ files by
supplying the *note -B: 1770. switch to the Python interpreter, or by
setting the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1771. environment variable
before running the interpreter.  This setting is available to Python
programs as the ‘sys.dont_write_bytecode’ variable, and Python code can
change the value to modify the interpreter’s behaviour.  (Contributed by
Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)

The encoding used for standard input, output, and standard error can be
specified by setting the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: 13b3. environment
variable before running the interpreter.  The value should be a string
in the form ‘<encoding>’ or ‘<encoding>:<errorhandler>’.  The 'encoding'
part specifies the encoding’s name, e.g.  ‘utf-8’ or ‘latin-1’; the
optional 'errorhandler' part specifies what to do with characters that
can’t be handled by the encoding, and should be one of «error»,
«ignore», or «replace».  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Next: Deprecations and Removals,  Prev: Other Language Changes<15>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.18 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

As in every release, Python’s standard library received a number of
enhancements and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable
changes, sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’
file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look
through the Subversion logs for all the details.

   * The ‘asyncore’ and ‘asynchat’ modules are being actively maintained
     again, and a number of patches and bugfixes were applied.
     (Maintained by Josiah Carlson; see bpo-1736190(1) for one patch.)

   * The ‘bsddb’ module also has a new maintainer, Jesús Cea Avión, and
     the package is now available as a standalone package.  The web page
     for the package is www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm(2).  The
     plan is to remove the package from the standard library in Python
     3.0, because its pace of releases is much more frequent than
     Python’s.

     The ‘bsddb.dbshelve’ module now uses the highest pickling protocol
     available, instead of restricting itself to protocol 1.
     (Contributed by W. Barnes.)

   * The ‘cgi’ module will now read variables from the query string of
     an HTTP POST request.  This makes it possible to use form actions
     with URLs that include query strings such as
     «/cgi-bin/add.py?category=1».  (Contributed by Alexandre Fiori and
     Nubis; bpo-1817(3).)

     The ‘parse_qs()’ and ‘parse_qsl()’ functions have been relocated
     from the ‘cgi’ module to the *note urlparse: 113. module.  The
     versions still available in the ‘cgi’ module will trigger *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b. messages in 2.6 (bpo-600362(4)).

   * The *note cmath: 19. module underwent extensive revision,
     contributed by Mark Dickinson and Christian Heimes.  Five new
     functions were added:

        * ‘polar()’ converts a complex number to polar form, returning
          the modulus and argument of the complex number.

        * ‘rect()’ does the opposite, turning a modulus, argument pair
          back into the corresponding complex number.

        * ‘phase()’ returns the argument (also called the angle) of a
          complex number.

        * ‘isnan()’ returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
          its argument is a NaN.

        * ‘isinf()’ returns True if either the real or imaginary part of
          its argument is infinite.

     The revisions also improved the numerical soundness of the *note
     cmath: 19. module.  For all functions, the real and imaginary parts
     of the results are accurate to within a few units of least
     precision (ulps) whenever possible.  See bpo-1381(5) for the
     details.  The branch cuts for ‘asinh()’, ‘atanh()’: and ‘atan()’
     have also been corrected.

     The tests for the module have been greatly expanded; nearly 2000
     new test cases exercise the algebraic functions.

     On IEEE 754 platforms, the *note cmath: 19. module now handles IEEE
     754 special values and floating-point exceptions in a manner
     consistent with Annex “G” of the C99 standard.

   * A new data type in the *note collections: 1e. module:
     ‘namedtuple(typename, fieldnames)’ is a factory function that
     creates subclasses of the standard tuple whose fields are
     accessible by name as well as index.  For example:

          >>> var_type = collections.namedtuple('variable',
          ...             'id name type size')
          >>> # Names are separated by spaces or commas.
          >>> # 'id, name, type, size' would also work.
          >>> var_type._fields
          ('id', 'name', 'type', 'size')

          >>> var = var_type(1, 'frequency', 'int', 4)
          >>> print var[0], var.id    # Equivalent
          1 1
          >>> print var[2], var.type  # Equivalent
          int int
          >>> var._asdict()
          {'size': 4, 'type': 'int', 'id': 1, 'name': 'frequency'}
          >>> v2 = var._replace(name='amplitude')
          >>> v2
          variable(id=1, name='amplitude', type='int', size=4)

     Several places in the standard library that returned tuples have
     been modified to return ‘namedtuple()’ instances.  For example, the
     ‘Decimal.as_tuple()’ method now returns a named tuple with ‘sign’,
     ‘digits’, and ‘exponent’ fields.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Another change to the *note collections: 1e. module is that the
     ‘deque’ type now supports an optional 'maxlen' parameter; if
     supplied, the deque’s size will be restricted to no more than
     'maxlen' items.  Adding more items to a full deque causes old items
     to be discarded.

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> dq=deque(maxlen=3)
          >>> dq
          deque([], maxlen=3)
          >>> dq.append(1); dq.append(2); dq.append(3)
          >>> dq
          deque([1, 2, 3], maxlen=3)
          >>> dq.append(4)
          >>> dq
          deque([2, 3, 4], maxlen=3)

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note Cookie: 74. module’s *note Morsel: fc3. objects now
     support an *note httponly: 1773. attribute.  In some browsers.
     cookies with this attribute set cannot be accessed or manipulated
     by JavaScript code.  (Contributed by Arvin Schnell;
     bpo-1638033(6).)

   * A new window method in the *note curses: 2e. module, ‘chgat()’,
     changes the display attributes for a certain number of characters
     on a single line.  (Contributed by Fabian Kreutz.)

          # Boldface text starting at y=0,x=21
          # and affecting the rest of the line.
          stdscr.chgat(0, 21, curses.A_BOLD)

     The ‘Textbox’ class in the *note curses.textpad: 31. module now
     supports editing in insert mode as well as overwrite mode.  Insert
     mode is enabled by supplying a true value for the 'insert_mode'
     parameter when creating the ‘Textbox’ instance.

   * The *note datetime: 33. module’s ‘strftime()’ methods now support a
     ‘%f’ format code that expands to the number of microseconds in the
     object, zero-padded on the left to six places.  (Contributed by
     Skip Montanaro; bpo-1158(7).)

   * The *note decimal: 39. module was updated to version 1.66 of the
     General Decimal Specification(8).  New features include some
     methods for some basic mathematical functions such as ‘exp()’ and
     ‘log10()’:

          >>> Decimal(1).exp()
          Decimal("2.718281828459045235360287471")
          >>> Decimal("2.7182818").ln()
          Decimal("0.9999999895305022877376682436")
          >>> Decimal(1000).log10()
          Decimal("3")

     The ‘as_tuple()’ method of ‘Decimal’ objects now returns a named
     tuple with ‘sign’, ‘digits’, and ‘exponent’ fields.

     (Implemented by Facundo Batista and Mark Dickinson.  Named tuple
     support added by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note difflib: 3a. module’s ‘SequenceMatcher’ class now returns
     named tuples representing matches, with ‘a’, ‘b’, and ‘size’
     attributes.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
     seconds, was added to the *note ftplib.FTP: cca. class constructor
     as well as the ‘connect()’ method.  (Added by Facundo Batista.)
     Also, the ‘FTP’ class’s ‘storbinary()’ and ‘storlines()’ now take
     an optional 'callback' parameter that will be called with each
     block of data after the data has been sent.  (Contributed by Phil
     Schwartz; bpo-1221598(9).)

   * The ‘reduce()’ built-in function is also available in the *note
     functools: 62. module.  In Python 3.0, the builtin has been dropped
     and ‘reduce()’ is only available from ‘functools’; currently there
     are no plans to drop the builtin in the 2.x series.  (Patched by
     Christian Heimes; bpo-1739906(10).)

   * When possible, the *note getpass: 65. module will now use
     ‘/dev/tty’ to print a prompt message and read the password, falling
     back to standard error and standard input.  If the password may be
     echoed to the terminal, a warning is printed before the prompt is
     displayed.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

   * The *note glob.glob(): 2d4. function can now return Unicode
     filenames if a Unicode path was used and Unicode filenames are
     matched within the directory.  (bpo-1001604(11))

   * A new function in the *note heapq: 6c. module, ‘merge(iter1, iter2,
     ...)’, takes any number of iterables returning data in sorted
     order, and returns a new generator that returns the contents of all
     the iterators, also in sorted order.  For example:

          >>> list(heapq.merge([1, 3, 5, 9], [2, 8, 16]))
          [1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 16]

     Another new function, ‘heappushpop(heap, item)’, pushes 'item' onto
     'heap', then pops off and returns the smallest item.  This is more
     efficient than making a call to ‘heappush()’ and then ‘heappop()’.

     *note heapq: 6c. is now implemented to only use less-than
     comparison, instead of the less-than-or-equal comparison it
     previously used.  This makes ‘heapq’’s usage of a type match the
     *note list.sort(): f8d. method.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter, specifying a timeout measured in
     seconds, was added to the *note httplib.HTTPConnection: 223. and
     *note HTTPSConnection: 224. class constructors.  (Added by Facundo
     Batista.)

   * Most of the *note inspect: 81. module’s functions, such as
     ‘getmoduleinfo()’ and ‘getargs()’, now return named tuples.  In
     addition to behaving like tuples, the elements of the return value
     can also be accessed as attributes.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

     Some new functions in the module include ‘isgenerator()’,
     ‘isgeneratorfunction()’, and ‘isabstract()’.

   * The *note itertools: 84. module gained several new functions.

     ‘izip_longest(iter1, iter2, ...[, fillvalue])’ makes tuples from
     each of the elements; if some of the iterables are shorter than
     others, the missing values are set to 'fillvalue'.  For example:

          >>> tuple(itertools.izip_longest([1,2,3], [1,2,3,4,5]))
          ((1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (None, 4), (None, 5))

     ‘product(iter1, iter2, ..., [repeat=N])’ returns the Cartesian
     product of the supplied iterables, a set of tuples containing every
     possible combination of the elements returned from each iterable.

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2,3], [4,5,6]))
          [(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6),
           (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6),
           (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)]

     The optional 'repeat' keyword argument is used for taking the
     product of an iterable or a set of iterables with themselves,
     repeated 'N' times.  With a single iterable argument, 'N'-tuples
     are returned:

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], repeat=3))
          [(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2),
           (2, 1, 1), (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 1), (2, 2, 2)]

     With two iterables, '2N'-tuples are returned.

          >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], [3,4], repeat=2))
          [(1, 3, 1, 3), (1, 3, 1, 4), (1, 3, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2, 4),
           (1, 4, 1, 3), (1, 4, 1, 4), (1, 4, 2, 3), (1, 4, 2, 4),
           (2, 3, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1, 4), (2, 3, 2, 3), (2, 3, 2, 4),
           (2, 4, 1, 3), (2, 4, 1, 4), (2, 4, 2, 3), (2, 4, 2, 4)]

     ‘combinations(iterable, r)’ returns sub-sequences of length 'r'
     from the elements of 'iterable'.

          >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 2))
          [('1', '2'), ('1', '3'), ('2', '3')]
          >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 3))
          [('1', '2', '3')]
          >>> list(itertools.combinations('1234', 3))
          [('1', '2', '3'), ('1', '2', '4'),
           ('1', '3', '4'), ('2', '3', '4')]

     ‘permutations(iter[, r])’ returns all the permutations of length
     'r' of the iterable’s elements.  If 'r' is not specified, it will
     default to the number of elements produced by the iterable.

          >>> list(itertools.permutations([1,2,3,4], 2))
          [(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4),
           (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4),
           (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4),
           (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)]

     ‘itertools.chain(*iterables)’ is an existing function in *note
     itertools: 84. that gained a new constructor in Python 2.6.
     ‘itertools.chain.from_iterable(iterable)’ takes a single iterable
     that should return other iterables.  ‘chain()’ will then return all
     the elements of the first iterable, then all the elements of the
     second, and so on.

          >>> list(itertools.chain.from_iterable([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]]))
          [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

     (All contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note logging: 8a. module’s ‘FileHandler’ class and its
     subclasses ‘WatchedFileHandler’, ‘RotatingFileHandler’, and
     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ now have an optional 'delay' parameter
     to their constructors.  If 'delay' is true, opening of the log file
     is deferred until the first ‘emit()’ call is made.  (Contributed by
     Vinay Sajip.)

     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ also has a 'utc' constructor parameter.
     If the argument is true, UTC time will be used in determining when
     midnight occurs and in generating filenames; otherwise local time
     will be used.

   * Several new functions were added to the *note math: 91. module:

        * *note isinf(): 1774. and *note isnan(): 1775. determine
          whether a given float is a (positive or negative) infinity or
          a NaN (Not a Number), respectively.

        * *note copysign(): 1776. copies the sign bit of an IEEE 754
          number, returning the absolute value of 'x' combined with the
          sign bit of 'y'.  For example, ‘math.copysign(1, -0.0)’
          returns -1.0.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

        * *note factorial(): d13. computes the factorial of a number.
          (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-2138(12).)

        * *note fsum(): 1777. adds up the stream of numbers from an
          iterable, and is careful to avoid loss of precision through
          using partial sums.  (Contributed by Jean Brouwers, Raymond
          Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson; bpo-2819(13).)

        * *note acosh(): 1778, *note asinh(): 1779. and *note atanh():
          177a. compute the inverse hyperbolic functions.

        * *note log1p(): 177b. returns the natural logarithm of '1+x'
          (base 'e').

        * ‘trunc()’ rounds a number toward zero, returning the closest
          ‘Integral’ that’s between the function’s argument and zero.
          Added as part of the backport of *note PEP 3141's type
          hierarchy for numbers: 1662.

   * The *note math: 91. module has been improved to give more
     consistent behaviour across platforms, especially with respect to
     handling of floating-point exceptions and IEEE 754 special values.

     Whenever possible, the module follows the recommendations of the
     C99 standard about 754’s special values.  For example, ‘sqrt(-1.)’
     should now give a *note ValueError: 277. across almost all
     platforms, while ‘sqrt(float('NaN'))’ should return a NaN on all
     IEEE 754 platforms.  Where Annex “F” of the C99 standard recommends
     signaling “divide-by-zero” or “invalid”, Python will raise
     ‘ValueError’.  Where Annex “F” of the C99 standard recommends
     signaling “overflow”, Python will raise *note OverflowError: c57.
     (See bpo-711019(14) and bpo-1640(15).)

     (Contributed by Christian Heimes and Mark Dickinson.)

   * *note mmap: 23c. objects now have a ‘rfind()’ method that searches
     for a substring beginning at the end of the string and searching
     backwards.  The ‘find()’ method also gained an 'end' parameter
     giving an index at which to stop searching.  (Contributed by John
     Lenton.)

   * The *note operator: a3. module gained a ‘methodcaller()’ function
     that takes a name and an optional set of arguments, returning a
     callable that will call the named function on any arguments passed
     to it.  For example:

          >>> # Equivalent to lambda s: s.replace('old', 'new')
          >>> replacer = operator.methodcaller('replace', 'old', 'new')
          >>> replacer('old wine in old bottles')
          'new wine in new bottles'

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Gregory
     Petrosyan.)

     The ‘attrgetter()’ function now accepts dotted names and performs
     the corresponding attribute lookups:

          >>> inst_name = operator.attrgetter(
          ...        '__class__.__name__')
          >>> inst_name('')
          'str'
          >>> inst_name(help)
          '_Helper'

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note os: a5. module now wraps several new system calls.
     ‘fchmod(fd, mode)’ and ‘fchown(fd, uid, gid)’ change the mode and
     ownership of an opened file, and ‘lchmod(path, mode)’ changes the
     mode of a symlink.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Christian
     Heimes.)

     ‘chflags()’ and ‘lchflags()’ are wrappers for the corresponding
     system calls (where they’re available), changing the flags set on a
     file.  Constants for the flag values are defined in the *note stat:
     d9. module; some possible values include ‘UF_IMMUTABLE’ to signal
     the file may not be changed and ‘UF_APPEND’ to indicate that data
     can only be appended to the file.  (Contributed by M. Levinson.)

     ‘os.closerange(low, high)’ efficiently closes all file descriptors
     from 'low' to 'high', ignoring any errors and not including 'high'
     itself.  This function is now used by the *note subprocess: df.
     module to make starting processes faster.  (Contributed by Georg
     Brandl; bpo-1663329(16).)

   * The ‘os.environ’ object’s ‘clear()’ method will now unset the
     environment variables using *note os.unsetenv(): 4e8. in addition
     to clearing the object’s keys.  (Contributed by Martin Horcicka;
     bpo-1181(17).)

   * The *note os.walk(): 8b9. function now has a ‘followlinks’
     parameter.  If set to True, it will follow symlinks pointing to
     directories and visit the directory’s contents.  For backward
     compatibility, the parameter’s default value is false.  Note that
     the function can fall into an infinite recursion if there’s a
     symlink that points to a parent directory.  (bpo-1273829(18))

   * In the *note os.path: a6. module, the ‘splitext()’ function has
     been changed to not split on leading period characters.  This
     produces better results when operating on Unix’s dot-files.  For
     example, ‘os.path.splitext('.ipython')’ now returns ‘('.ipython',
     '')’ instead of ‘('', '.ipython')’.  (bpo-1115886(19))

     A new function, ‘os.path.relpath(path, start='.')’, returns a
     relative path from the ‘start’ path, if it’s supplied, or from the
     current working directory to the destination ‘path’.  (Contributed
     by Richard Barran; bpo-1339796(20).)

     On Windows, *note os.path.expandvars(): 177c. will now expand
     environment variables given in the form «%var%», and «~user» will
     be expanded into the user’s home directory path.  (Contributed by
     Josiah Carlson; bpo-957650(21).)

   * The Python debugger provided by the *note pdb: aa. module gained a
     new command: «run» restarts the Python program being debugged and
     can optionally take new command-line arguments for the program.
     (Contributed by Rocky Bernstein; bpo-1393667(22).)

   * The *note pdb.post_mortem(): 177d. function, used to begin
     debugging a traceback, will now use the traceback returned by *note
     sys.exc_info(): a7a. if no traceback is supplied.  (Contributed by
     Facundo Batista; bpo-1106316(23).)

   * The *note pickletools: ac. module now has an ‘optimize()’ function
     that takes a string containing a pickle and removes some unused
     opcodes, returning a shorter pickle that contains the same data
     structure.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A ‘get_data()’ function was added to the *note pkgutil: ae. module
     that returns the contents of resource files included with an
     installed Python package.  For example:

          >>> import pkgutil
          >>> print pkgutil.get_data('test', 'exception_hierarchy.txt')
          BaseException
           +-- SystemExit
           +-- KeyboardInterrupt
           +-- GeneratorExit
           +-- Exception
                +-- StopIteration
                +-- StandardError
           ...

     (Contributed by Paul Moore; bpo-2439(24).)

   * The ‘pyexpat’ module’s ‘Parser’ objects now allow setting their
     ‘buffer_size’ attribute to change the size of the buffer used to
     hold character data.  (Contributed by Achim Gaedke; bpo-1137(25).)

   * The ‘Queue’ module now provides queue variants that retrieve
     entries in different orders.  The ‘PriorityQueue’ class stores
     queued items in a heap and retrieves them in priority order, and
     ‘LifoQueue’ retrieves the most recently added entries first,
     meaning that it behaves like a stack.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The *note random: c0. module’s ‘Random’ objects can now be pickled
     on a 32-bit system and unpickled on a 64-bit system, and vice
     versa.  Unfortunately, this change also means that Python 2.6’s
     ‘Random’ objects can’t be unpickled correctly on earlier versions
     of Python.  (Contributed by Shawn Ligocki; bpo-1727780(26).)

     The new ‘triangular(low, high, mode)’ function returns random
     numbers following a triangular distribution.  The returned values
     are between 'low' and 'high', not including 'high' itself, and with
     'mode' as the most frequently occurring value in the distribution.
     (Contributed by Wladmir van der Laan and Raymond Hettinger;
     bpo-1681432(27).)

   * Long regular expression searches carried out by the *note re: c1.
     module will check for signals being delivered, so time-consuming
     searches can now be interrupted.  (Contributed by Josh Hoyt and
     Ralf Schmitt; bpo-846388(28).)

     The regular expression module is implemented by compiling bytecodes
     for a tiny regex-specific virtual machine.  Untrusted code could
     create malicious strings of bytecode directly and cause crashes, so
     Python 2.6 includes a verifier for the regex bytecode.
     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum from work for Google App Engine;
     bpo-3487(29).)

   * The *note rlcompleter: c5. module’s ‘Completer.complete()’ method
     will now ignore exceptions triggered while evaluating a name.
     (Fixed by Lorenz Quack; bpo-2250(30).)

   * The *note sched: c7. module’s ‘scheduler’ instances now have a
     read-only *note queue: be. attribute that returns the contents of
     the scheduler’s queue, represented as a list of named tuples with
     the fields ‘(time, priority, action, argument)’.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1861(31).)

   * The *note select: c9. module now has wrapper functions for the
     Linux ‘epoll()’ and BSD ‘kqueue()’ system calls.  ‘modify()’ method
     was added to the existing ‘poll’ objects; ‘pollobj.modify(fd,
     eventmask)’ takes a file descriptor or file object and an event
     mask, modifying the recorded event mask for that file.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1657(32).)

   * The *note shutil.copytree(): ded. function now has an optional
     'ignore' argument that takes a callable object.  This callable will
     receive each directory path and a list of the directory’s contents,
     and returns a list of names that will be ignored, not copied.

     The *note shutil: cd. module also provides an ‘ignore_patterns()’
     function for use with this new parameter.  ‘ignore_patterns()’
     takes an arbitrary number of glob-style patterns and returns a
     callable that will ignore any files and directories that match any
     of these patterns.  The following example copies a directory tree,
     but skips both ‘.svn’ directories and Emacs backup files, which
     have names ending with “~”:

          shutil.copytree('Doc/library', '/tmp/library',
                          ignore=shutil.ignore_patterns('*~', '.svn'))

     (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-2663(33).)

   * Integrating signal handling with GUI handling event loops like
     those used by Tkinter or GTk+ has long been a problem; most
     software ends up polling, waking up every fraction of a second to
     check if any GUI events have occurred.  The *note signal: ce.
     module can now make this more efficient.  Calling
     ‘signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd)’ sets a file descriptor to be used; when
     a signal is received, a byte is written to that file descriptor.
     There’s also a C-level function, *note PySignal_SetWakeupFd():
     177e, for setting the descriptor.

     Event loops will use this by opening a pipe to create two
     descriptors, one for reading and one for writing.  The writable
     descriptor will be passed to ‘set_wakeup_fd()’, and the readable
     descriptor will be added to the list of descriptors monitored by
     the event loop via ‘select()’ or ‘poll()’.  On receiving a signal,
     a byte will be written and the main event loop will be woken up,
     avoiding the need to poll.

     (Contributed by Adam Olsen; bpo-1583(34).)

     The ‘siginterrupt()’ function is now available from Python code,
     and allows changing whether signals can interrupt system calls or
     not.  (Contributed by Ralf Schmitt.)

     The ‘setitimer()’ and ‘getitimer()’ functions have also been added
     (where they’re available).  ‘setitimer()’ allows setting interval
     timers that will cause a signal to be delivered to the process
     after a specified time, measured in wall-clock time, consumed
     process time, or combined process+system time.  (Contributed by
     Guilherme Polo; bpo-2240(35).)

   * The *note smtplib: d2. module now supports SMTP over SSL thanks to
     the addition of the ‘SMTP_SSL’ class.  This class supports an
     interface identical to the existing ‘SMTP’ class.  (Contributed by
     Monty Taylor.)  Both class constructors also have an optional
     ‘timeout’ parameter that specifies a timeout for the initial
     connection attempt, measured in seconds.  (Contributed by Facundo
     Batista.)

     An implementation of the LMTP protocol ( RFC 2033(36)) was also
     added to the module.  LMTP is used in place of SMTP when
     transferring e-mail between agents that don’t manage a mail queue.
     (LMTP implemented by Leif Hedstrom; bpo-957003(37).)

     ‘SMTP.starttls()’ now complies with RFC 3207(38) and forgets any
     knowledge obtained from the server not obtained from the TLS
     negotiation itself.  (Patch contributed by Bill Fenner;
     bpo-829951(39).)

   * The *note socket: d4. module now supports TIPC
     (‘https://tipc.sourceforge.net/’), a high-performance non-IP-based
     protocol designed for use in clustered environments.  TIPC
     addresses are 4- or 5-tuples.  (Contributed by Alberto Bertogli;
     bpo-1646(40).)

     A new function, ‘create_connection()’, takes an address and
     connects to it using an optional timeout value, returning the
     connected socket object.  This function also looks up the address’s
     type and connects to it using IPv4 or IPv6 as appropriate.
     Changing your code to use ‘create_connection()’ instead of
     ‘socket(socket.AF_INET, ...)’ may be all that’s required to make
     your code work with IPv6.

   * The base classes in the *note SocketServer: d5. module now support
     calling a *note handle_timeout(): 16c6. method after a span of
     inactivity specified by the server’s *note timeout: 16c5.
     attribute.  (Contributed by Michael Pomraning.)  The *note
     serve_forever(): 14eb. method now takes an optional poll interval
     measured in seconds, controlling how often the server will check
     for a shutdown request.  (Contributed by Pedro Werneck and Jeffrey
     Yasskin; bpo-742598(41), bpo-1193577(42).)

   * The *note sqlite3: d7. module, maintained by Gerhard Häring, has
     been updated from version 2.3.2 in Python 2.5 to version 2.4.1.

   * The *note struct: de. module now supports the C99 _Bool type, using
     the format character ‘'?'’.  (Contributed by David Remahl.)

   * The *note Popen: 6bf. objects provided by the *note subprocess: df.
     module now have *note terminate(): 177f, *note kill(): 1780, and
     *note send_signal(): 1781. methods.  On Windows, ‘send_signal()’
     only supports the *note SIGTERM: 1782. signal, and all these
     methods are aliases for the Win32 API function
     ‘TerminateProcess()’.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * A new variable in the *note sys: e2. module, ‘float_info’, is an
     object containing information derived from the ‘float.h’ file about
     the platform’s floating-point support.  Attributes of this object
     include ‘mant_dig’ (number of digits in the mantissa), ‘epsilon’
     (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next largest value
     representable), and several others.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes; bpo-1534(43).)

     Another new variable, ‘dont_write_bytecode’, controls whether
     Python writes any ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ files on importing a module.  If
     this variable is true, the compiled files are not written.  The
     variable is initially set on start-up by supplying the *note -B:
     1770. switch to the Python interpreter, or by setting the *note
     PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1771. environment variable before running
     the interpreter.  Python code can subsequently change the value of
     this variable to control whether bytecode files are written or not.
     (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.)

     Information about the command-line arguments supplied to the Python
     interpreter is available by reading attributes of a named tuple
     available as ‘sys.flags’.  For example, the ‘verbose’ attribute is
     true if Python was executed in verbose mode, ‘debug’ is true in
     debugging mode, etc.  These attributes are all read-only.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

     A new function, ‘getsizeof()’, takes a Python object and returns
     the amount of memory used by the object, measured in bytes.
     Built-in objects return correct results; third-party extensions may
     not, but can define a ‘__sizeof__()’ method to return the object’s
     size.  (Contributed by Robert Schuppenies; bpo-2898(44).)

     It’s now possible to determine the current profiler and tracer
     functions by calling *note sys.getprofile(): 1783. and *note
     sys.gettrace(): 1784.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-1648(45).)

   * The *note tarfile: e7. module now supports POSIX.1-2001 (pax)
     tarfiles in addition to the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) and GNU tar
     formats that were already supported.  The default format is GNU
     tar; specify the ‘format’ parameter to open a file using a
     different format:

          tar = tarfile.open("output.tar", "w",
                             format=tarfile.PAX_FORMAT)

     The new ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ parameters specify an encoding and
     an error handling scheme for character conversions.  ‘'strict'’,
     ‘'ignore'’, and ‘'replace'’ are the three standard ways Python can
     handle errors,; ‘'utf-8'’ is a special value that replaces bad
     characters with their UTF-8 representation.  (Character conversions
     occur because the PAX format supports Unicode filenames, defaulting
     to UTF-8 encoding.)

     The ‘TarFile.add()’ method now accepts an ‘exclude’ argument that’s
     a function that can be used to exclude certain filenames from an
     archive.  The function must take a filename and return true if the
     file should be excluded or false if it should be archived.  The
     function is applied to both the name initially passed to ‘add()’
     and to the names of files in recursively added directories.

     (All changes contributed by Lars Gustäbel).

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter was added to the ‘telnetlib.Telnet’
     class constructor, specifying a timeout measured in seconds.
     (Added by Facundo Batista.)

   * The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 8d6. class usually deletes
     the temporary file it created when the file is closed.  This
     behaviour can now be changed by passing ‘delete=False’ to the
     constructor.  (Contributed by Damien Miller; bpo-1537850(46).)

     A new class, ‘SpooledTemporaryFile’, behaves like a temporary file
     but stores its data in memory until a maximum size is exceeded.  On
     reaching that limit, the contents will be written to an on-disk
     temporary file.  (Contributed by Dustin J. Mitchell.)

     The ‘NamedTemporaryFile’ and ‘SpooledTemporaryFile’ classes both
     work as context managers, so you can write ‘with
     tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile() as tmp: ...’.  (Contributed by
     Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-2021(47).)

   * The *note test.test_support: ed. module gained a number of context
     managers useful for writing tests.  *note EnvironmentVarGuard():
     1785. is a context manager that temporarily changes environment
     variables and automatically restores them to their old values.

     Another context manager, ‘TransientResource’, can surround calls to
     resources that may or may not be available; it will catch and
     ignore a specified list of exceptions.  For example, a network test
     may ignore certain failures when connecting to an external web
     site:

          with test_support.TransientResource(IOError,
                                          errno=errno.ETIMEDOUT):
              f = urllib.urlopen('https://sf.net')
              ...

     Finally, ‘check_warnings()’ resets the ‘warning’ module’s warning
     filters and returns an object that will record all warning messages
     triggered (bpo-3781(48)):

          with test_support.check_warnings() as wrec:
              warnings.simplefilter("always")
              # ... code that triggers a warning ...
              assert str(wrec.message) == "function is outdated"
              assert len(wrec.warnings) == 1, "Multiple warnings raised"

     (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

   * The *note textwrap: f5. module can now preserve existing whitespace
     at the beginnings and ends of the newly created lines by specifying
     ‘drop_whitespace=False’ as an argument:

          >>> S = """This  sentence  has a bunch   of
          ...   extra   whitespace."""
          >>> print textwrap.fill(S, width=15)
          This  sentence
          has a bunch
          of    extra
          whitespace.
          >>> print textwrap.fill(S, drop_whitespace=False, width=15)
          This  sentence
            has a bunch
             of    extra
             whitespace.
          >>>

     (Contributed by Dwayne Bailey; bpo-1581073(49).)

   * The *note threading: f6. module API is being changed to use
     properties such as ‘daemon’ instead of ‘setDaemon()’ and
     ‘isDaemon()’ methods, and some methods have been renamed to use
     underscores instead of camel-case; for example, the ‘activeCount()’
     method is renamed to ‘active_count()’.  Both the 2.6 and 3.0
     versions of the module support the same properties and renamed
     methods, but don’t remove the old methods.  No date has been set
     for the deprecation of the old APIs in Python 3.x; the old APIs
     won’t be removed in any 2.x version.  (Carried out by several
     people, most notably Benjamin Peterson.)

     The *note threading: f6. module’s ‘Thread’ objects gained an
     ‘ident’ property that returns the thread’s identifier, a nonzero
     integer.  (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-2871(50).)

   * The *note timeit: f8. module now accepts callables as well as
     strings for the statement being timed and for the setup code.  Two
     convenience functions were added for creating ‘Timer’ instances:
     ‘repeat(stmt, setup, time, repeat, number)’ and ‘timeit(stmt,
     setup, time, number)’ create an instance and call the corresponding
     method.  (Contributed by Erik Demaine; bpo-1533909(51).)

   * The ‘Tkinter’ module now accepts lists and tuples for options,
     separating the elements by spaces before passing the resulting
     value to Tcl/Tk.  (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; bpo-2906(52).)

   * The *note turtle: 10a. module for turtle graphics was greatly
     enhanced by Gregor Lingl.  New features in the module include:

        * Better animation of turtle movement and rotation.

        * Control over turtle movement using the new ‘delay()’,
          ‘tracer()’, and ‘speed()’ methods.

        * The ability to set new shapes for the turtle, and to define a
          new coordinate system.

        * Turtles now have an ‘undo()’ method that can roll back
          actions.

        * Simple support for reacting to input events such as mouse and
          keyboard activity, making it possible to write simple games.

        * A ‘turtle.cfg’ file can be used to customize the starting
          appearance of the turtle’s screen.

        * The module’s docstrings can be replaced by new docstrings that
          have been translated into another language.

     (bpo-1513695(53))

   * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter was added to the *note
     urllib.urlopen: 57f. function and the ‘urllib.ftpwrapper’ class
     constructor, as well as the ‘urllib2.urlopen’ function.  The
     parameter specifies a timeout measured in seconds.  For example:

          >>> u = urllib2.urlopen("http://slow.example.com",
                                  timeout=3)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          urllib2.URLError: <urlopen error timed out>
          >>>

     (Added by Facundo Batista.)

   * The Unicode database provided by the *note unicodedata: 10e. module
     has been updated to version 5.1.0.  (Updated by Martin von Löwis;
     bpo-3811(54).)

   * The *note warnings: 11b. module’s ‘formatwarning()’ and
     ‘showwarning()’ gained an optional 'line' argument that can be used
     to supply the line of source code.  (Added as part of
     bpo-1631171(55), which re-implemented part of the ‘warnings’ module
     in C code.)

     A new function, ‘catch_warnings()’, is a context manager intended
     for testing purposes that lets you temporarily modify the warning
     filters and then restore their original values (bpo-3781(56)).

   * The XML-RPC *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 138. and ‘DocXMLRPCServer’
     classes can now be prevented from immediately opening and binding
     to their socket by passing ‘False’ as the 'bind_and_activate'
     constructor parameter.  This can be used to modify the instance’s
     ‘allow_reuse_address’ attribute before calling the ‘server_bind()’
     and ‘server_activate()’ methods to open the socket and begin
     listening for connections.  (Contributed by Peter Parente;
     bpo-1599845(57).)

     ‘SimpleXMLRPCServer’ also has a ‘_send_traceback_header’ attribute;
     if true, the exception and formatted traceback are returned as HTTP
     headers «X-Exception» and «X-Traceback».  This feature is for
     debugging purposes only and should not be used on production
     servers because the tracebacks might reveal passwords or other
     sensitive information.  (Contributed by Alan McIntyre as part of
     his project for Google’s Summer of Code 2007.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 137. module no longer automatically converts
     *note datetime.date: 48d. and *note datetime.time: 48e. to the
     *note xmlrpclib.DateTime: 1786. type; the conversion semantics were
     not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
     ‘xmlrpclib’ should convert ‘date’ and ‘time’ instances.
     (bpo-1330538(58)) The code can also handle dates before 1900
     (contributed by Ralf Schmitt; bpo-2014(59)) and 64-bit integers
     represented by using ‘<i8>’ in XML-RPC responses (contributed by
     Riku Lindblad; bpo-2985(60)).

   * The *note zipfile: 13a. module’s ‘ZipFile’ class now has
     ‘extract()’ and ‘extractall()’ methods that will unpack a single
     file or all the files in the archive to the current directory, or
     to a specified directory:

          z = zipfile.ZipFile('python-251.zip')

          # Unpack a single file, writing it relative
          # to the /tmp directory.
          z.extract('Python/sysmodule.c', '/tmp')

          # Unpack all the files in the archive.
          z.extractall()

     (Contributed by Alan McIntyre; bpo-467924(61).)

     The *note open(): 32b, ‘read()’ and ‘extract()’ methods can now
     take either a filename or a ‘ZipInfo’ object.  This is useful when
     an archive accidentally contains a duplicated filename.
     (Contributed by Graham Horler; bpo-1775025(62).)

     Finally, *note zipfile: 13a. now supports using Unicode filenames
     for archived files.  (Contributed by Alexey Borzenkov;
     bpo-1734346(63).)

* Menu:

* The ast module::
* The future_builtins module::
* The json module; JavaScript Object Notation: The json module JavaScript Object Notation.
* The plistlib module; A Property-List Parser: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser.
* ctypes Enhancements::
* Improved SSL Support::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1736190

   (2) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1817

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=600362

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1381

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1638033

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1158

   (8) https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1221598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739906

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1001604

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2138

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2819

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=711019

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1663329

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1181

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1273829

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1115886

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1339796

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1393667

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1106316

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2439

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1137

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1727780

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1681432

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=846388

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3487

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2250

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1861

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1657

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2663

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2240

   (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2033.html

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957003

   (38) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3207.html

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=829951

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1646

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=742598

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193577

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2898

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1648

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537850

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2021

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1581073

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2871

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533909

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2906

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1513695

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3811

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1599845

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2014

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2985

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=467924

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1775025

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1734346


File: python.info,  Node: The ast module,  Next: The future_builtins module,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.19.18.1 The ‘ast’ module
..........................

The *note ast: 9. module provides an Abstract Syntax Tree representation
of Python code, and Armin Ronacher contributed a set of helper functions
that perform a variety of common tasks.  These will be useful for HTML
templating packages, code analyzers, and similar tools that process
Python code.

The ‘parse()’ function takes an expression and returns an AST. The
‘dump()’ function outputs a representation of a tree, suitable for
debugging:

     import ast

     t = ast.parse("""
     d = {}
     for i in 'abcdefghijklm':
         d[i + i] = ord(i) - ord('a') + 1
     print d
     """)
     print ast.dump(t)

This outputs a deeply nested tree:

     Module(body=[
       Assign(targets=[
         Name(id='d', ctx=Store())
        ], value=Dict(keys=[], values=[]))
       For(target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()),
           iter=Str(s='abcdefghijklm'), body=[
         Assign(targets=[
           Subscript(value=
             Name(id='d', ctx=Load()),
               slice=
               Index(value=
                 BinOp(left=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()), op=Add(),
                  right=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()))), ctx=Store())
          ], value=
          BinOp(left=
           BinOp(left=
            Call(func=
             Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
               Name(id='i', ctx=Load())
              ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None),
            op=Sub(), right=Call(func=
             Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[
               Str(s='a')
              ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None)),
            op=Add(), right=Num(n=1)))
         ], orelse=[])
        Print(dest=None, values=[
          Name(id='d', ctx=Load())
        ], nl=True)
      ])

The ‘literal_eval()’ method takes a string or an AST representing a
literal expression, parses and evaluates it, and returns the resulting
value.  A literal expression is a Python expression containing only
strings, numbers, dictionaries, etc.  but no statements or function
calls.  If you need to evaluate an expression but cannot accept the
security risk of using an *note eval(): 184. call, ‘literal_eval()’ will
handle it safely:

     >>> literal = '("a", "b", {2:4, 3:8, 1:2})'
     >>> print ast.literal_eval(literal)
     ('a', 'b', {1: 2, 2: 4, 3: 8})
     >>> print ast.literal_eval('"a" + "b"')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: malformed string

The module also includes ‘NodeVisitor’ and ‘NodeTransformer’ classes for
traversing and modifying an AST, and functions for common
transformations such as changing line numbers.


File: python.info,  Node: The future_builtins module,  Next: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Prev: The ast module,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.19.18.2 The ‘future_builtins’ module
......................................

Python 3.0 makes many changes to the repertoire of built-in functions,
and most of the changes can’t be introduced in the Python 2.x series
because they would break compatibility.  The ‘future_builtins’ module
provides versions of these built-in functions that can be imported when
writing 3.0-compatible code.

The functions in this module currently include:

   * ‘ascii(obj)’: equivalent to *note repr(): 45b.  In Python 3.0,
     ‘repr()’ will return a Unicode string, while *note ascii(): 1789.
     will return a pure ASCII bytestring.

   * ‘filter(predicate, iterable)’, ‘map(func, iterable1, ...)’: the 3.0
     versions return iterators, unlike the 2.x builtins which return
     lists.

   * ‘hex(value)’, ‘oct(value)’: instead of calling the ‘__hex__()’ or
     ‘__oct__()’ methods, these versions will call the ‘__index__()’
     method and convert the result to hexadecimal or octal.  *note
     oct(): 1673. will use the new ‘0o’ notation for its result.


File: python.info,  Node: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Next: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Prev: The future_builtins module,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.19.18.3 The ‘json’ module: JavaScript Object Notation
.......................................................

The new *note json: 85. module supports the encoding and decoding of
Python types in JSON (Javascript Object Notation).  JSON is a
lightweight interchange format often used in web applications.  For more
information about JSON, see ‘http://www.json.org’.

*note json: 85. comes with support for decoding and encoding most
built-in Python types.  The following example encodes and decodes a
dictionary:

     >>> import json
     >>> data = {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}
     >>> in_json = json.dumps(data) # Encode the data
     >>> in_json
     '{"parrot": 42, "spam": "foo"}'
     >>> json.loads(in_json) # Decode into a Python object
     {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42}

It’s also possible to write your own decoders and encoders to support
more types.  Pretty-printing of the JSON strings is also supported.

*note json: 85. (originally called simplejson) was written by Bob
Ippolito.


File: python.info,  Node: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Next: ctypes Enhancements,  Prev: The json module JavaScript Object Notation,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.19.18.4 The ‘plistlib’ module: A Property-List Parser
.......................................................

The ‘.plist’ format is commonly used on Mac OS X to store basic data
types (numbers, strings, lists, and dictionaries) by serializing them
into an XML-based format.  It resembles the XML-RPC serialization of
data types.

Despite being primarily used on Mac OS X, the format has nothing
Mac-specific about it and the Python implementation works on any
platform that Python supports, so the *note plistlib: b0. module has
been promoted to the standard library.

Using the module is simple:

     import sys
     import plistlib
     import datetime as dt

     # Create data structure
     data_struct = dict(lastAccessed=dt.datetime.now(),
                        version=1,
                        categories=('Personal','Shared','Private'))

     # Create string containing XML.
     plist_str = plistlib.writePlistToString(data_struct)
     new_struct = plistlib.readPlistFromString(plist_str)
     print data_struct
     print new_struct

     # Write data structure to a file and read it back.
     plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, '/tmp/customizations.plist')
     new_struct = plistlib.readPlist('/tmp/customizations.plist')

     # read/writePlist accepts file-like objects as well as paths.
     plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, sys.stdout)


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes Enhancements,  Next: Improved SSL Support,  Prev: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.19.18.5 ctypes Enhancements
.............................

Thomas Heller continued to maintain and enhance the *note ctypes: 2d.
module.

*note ctypes: 2d. now supports a ‘c_bool’ datatype that represents the
C99 ‘bool’ type.  (Contributed by David Remahl; bpo-1649190(1).)

The *note ctypes: 2d. string, buffer and array types have improved
support for extended slicing syntax, where various combinations of
‘(start, stop, step)’ are supplied.  (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.)

All *note ctypes: 2d. data types now support ‘from_buffer()’ and
‘from_buffer_copy()’ methods that create a ctypes instance based on a
provided buffer object.  ‘from_buffer_copy()’ copies the contents of the
object, while ‘from_buffer()’ will share the same memory area.

A new calling convention tells *note ctypes: 2d. to clear the ‘errno’ or
Win32 LastError variables at the outset of each wrapped call.
(Implemented by Thomas Heller; bpo-1798(2).)

You can now retrieve the Unix ‘errno’ variable after a function call.
When creating a wrapped function, you can supply ‘use_errno=True’ as a
keyword parameter to the ‘DLL()’ function and then call the module-level
methods ‘set_errno()’ and ‘get_errno()’ to set and retrieve the error
value.

The Win32 LastError variable is similarly supported by the ‘DLL()’,
‘OleDLL()’, and ‘WinDLL()’ functions.  You supply ‘use_last_error=True’
as a keyword parameter and then call the module-level methods
‘set_last_error()’ and ‘get_last_error()’.

The ‘byref()’ function, used to retrieve a pointer to a ctypes instance,
now has an optional 'offset' parameter that is a byte count that will be
added to the returned pointer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1649190

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1798


File: python.info,  Node: Improved SSL Support,  Prev: ctypes Enhancements,  Up: New and Improved Modules<2>

1.19.18.6 Improved SSL Support
..............................

Bill Janssen made extensive improvements to Python 2.6’s support for the
Secure Sockets Layer by adding a new module, *note ssl: d8, that’s built
atop the OpenSSL(1) library.  This new module provides more control over
the protocol negotiated, the X.509 certificates used, and has better
support for writing SSL servers (as opposed to clients) in Python.  The
existing SSL support in the *note socket: d4. module hasn’t been removed
and continues to work, though it will be removed in Python 3.0.

To use the new module, you must first create a TCP connection in the
usual way and then pass it to the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function.  It’s
possible to specify whether a certificate is required, and to obtain
certificate info by calling the ‘getpeercert()’ method.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The documentation for the *note ssl: d8. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.openssl.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations and Removals,  Next: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.19 Deprecations and Removals
---------------------------------

   * String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises
     a *note TypeError: 291.

   * Changes to the *note Exception: d9e. interface as dictated by PEP
     352(1) continue to be made.  For 2.6, the ‘message’ attribute is
     being deprecated in favor of the *note args: 972. attribute.

   * (3.0-warning mode) Python 3.0 will feature a reorganized standard
     library that will drop many outdated modules and rename others.
     Python 2.6 running in 3.0-warning mode will warn about these
     modules when they are imported.

     The list of deprecated modules is: ‘audiodev’, ‘bgenlocations’,
     ‘buildtools’, ‘bundlebuilder’, ‘Canvas’, ‘compiler’, ‘dircache’,
     ‘dl’, ‘fpformat’, ‘gensuitemodule’, ‘ihooks’, ‘imageop’, ‘imgfile’,
     ‘linuxaudiodev’, ‘mhlib’, ‘mimetools’, ‘multifile’, ‘new’, ‘pure’,
     ‘statvfs’, ‘sunaudiodev’, ‘test.testall’, and ‘toaiff’.

   * The ‘gopherlib’ module has been removed.

   * The ‘MimeWriter’ module and ‘mimify’ module have been deprecated;
     use the *note email: 3e. package instead.

   * The ‘md5’ module has been deprecated; use the *note hashlib: 6b.
     module instead.

   * The ‘posixfile’ module has been deprecated; *note fcntl.lockf():
     178f. provides better locking.

   * The ‘popen2’ module has been deprecated; use the *note subprocess:
     df. module.

   * The ‘rgbimg’ module has been removed.

   * The ‘sets’ module has been deprecated; it’s better to use the
     built-in *note set: 42b. and *note frozenset: 9d4. types.

   * The ‘sha’ module has been deprecated; use the *note hashlib: 6b.
     module instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 6,  Prev: Deprecations and Removals,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.20 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * Python now must be compiled with C89 compilers (after 19 years!).
     This means that the Python source tree has dropped its own
     implementations of ‘memmove()’ and ‘strerror()’, which are in the
     C89 standard library.

   * Python 2.6 can be built with Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 (version
     9.0), and this is the new default compiler.  See the ‘PCbuild’
     directory for the build files.  (Implemented by Christian Heimes.)

   * On Mac OS X, Python 2.6 can be compiled as a 4-way universal build.
     The ‘configure’ script can take a
     ‘--with-universal-archs=[32-bit|64-bit|all]’ switch, controlling
     whether the binaries are built for 32-bit architectures (x86,
     PowerPC), 64-bit (x86-64 and PPC-64), or both.  (Contributed by
     Ronald Oussoren.)

   * A new function added in Python 2.6.6, ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’, sets the
     value of ‘sys.argv’ and can optionally update ‘sys.path’ to include
     the directory containing the script named by ‘sys.argv[0]’
     depending on the value of an 'updatepath' parameter.

     This function was added to close a security hole for applications
     that embed Python.  The old function, ‘PySys_SetArgv()’, would
     always update ‘sys.path’, and sometimes it would add the current
     directory.  This meant that, if you ran an application embedding
     Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could
     put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named
     ‘os.py’) that your application would then import and run.

     If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check
     whether you’re calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider
     whether the application should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with
     'updatepath' set to false.  Note that using this function will
     break compatibility with Python versions 2.6.5 and earlier; if you
     have to continue working with earlier versions, you can leave the
     call to ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ alone and call
     ‘PyRun_SimpleString("sys.path.pop(0)\n")’ afterwards to discard the
     first ‘sys.path’ component.

     Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983(1); discussed in
     gh-50003(2), and fixed by Antoine Pitrou.

   * The BerkeleyDB module now has a C API object, available as
     ‘bsddb.db.api’.  This object can be used by other C extensions that
     wish to use the ‘bsddb’ module for their own purposes.
     (Contributed by Duncan Grisby.)

   * The new buffer interface, previously described in *note the PEP
     3118 section: 1757, adds *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c. and *note
     PyBuffer_Release(): 82d, as well as a few other functions.

   * Python’s use of the C stdio library is now thread-safe, or at least
     as thread-safe as the underlying library is.  A long-standing
     potential bug occurred if one thread closed a file object while
     another thread was reading from or writing to the object.  In 2.6
     file objects have a reference count, manipulated by the
     ‘PyFile_IncUseCount()’ and ‘PyFile_DecUseCount()’ functions.  File
     objects can’t be closed unless the reference count is zero.
     ‘PyFile_IncUseCount()’ should be called while the GIL is still
     held, before carrying out an I/O operation using the ‘FILE *’
     pointer, and ‘PyFile_DecUseCount()’ should be called immediately
     after the GIL is re-acquired.  (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and
     Gregory P. Smith.)

   * Importing modules simultaneously in two different threads no longer
     deadlocks; it will now raise an *note ImportError: 1bd.  A new API
     function, ‘PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()’, will look for a module
     in ‘sys.modules’ first, then try to import it after acquiring an
     import lock.  If the import lock is held by another thread, an
     ‘ImportError’ is raised.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * Several functions return information about the platform’s
     floating-point support.  *note PyFloat_GetMax(): 1791. returns the
     maximum representable floating-point value, and *note
     PyFloat_GetMin(): 1792. returns the minimum positive value.  *note
     PyFloat_GetInfo(): 1793. returns an object containing more
     information from the ‘float.h’ file, such as ‘"mant_dig"’ (number
     of digits in the mantissa), ‘"epsilon"’ (smallest difference
     between 1.0 and the next largest value representable), and several
     others.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1534(3).)

   * C functions and methods that use *note PyComplex_AsCComplex(): 3ba.
     will now accept arguments that have a ‘__complex__()’ method.  In
     particular, the functions in the *note cmath: 19. module will now
     accept objects with this method.  This is a backport of a Python
     3.0 change.  (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-1675423(4).)

   * Python’s C API now includes two functions for case-insensitive
     string comparisons, ‘PyOS_stricmp(char*, char*)’ and
     ‘PyOS_strnicmp(char*, char*, Py_ssize_t)’.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes; bpo-1635(5).)

   * Many C extensions define their own little macro for adding integers
     and strings to the module’s dictionary in the ‘init*’ function.
     Python 2.6 finally defines standard macros for adding values to a
     module, *note PyModule_AddStringMacro: 1794. and *note
     PyModule_AddIntMacro(): 1795.  (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * Some macros were renamed in both 3.0 and 2.6 to make it clearer
     that they are macros, not functions.  ‘Py_Size()’ became *note
     Py_SIZE(): b61, ‘Py_Type()’ became *note Py_TYPE(): 5f5, and
     ‘Py_Refcnt()’ became *note Py_REFCNT(): 54b.  The mixed-case macros
     are still available in Python 2.6 for backward compatibility.
     (bpo-1629(6))

   * Distutils now places C extensions it builds in a different
     directory when running on a debug version of Python.  (Contributed
     by Collin Winter; bpo-1530959(7).)

   * Several basic data types, such as integers and strings, maintain
     internal free lists of objects that can be re-used.  The data
     structures for these free lists now follow a naming convention: the
     variable is always named ‘free_list’, the counter is always named
     ‘numfree’, and a macro ‘Py<typename>_MAXFREELIST’ is always
     defined.

   * A new Makefile target, «make patchcheck», prepares the Python
     source tree for making a patch: it fixes trailing whitespace in all
     modified ‘.py’ files, checks whether the documentation has been
     changed, and reports whether the ‘Misc/ACKS’ and ‘Misc/NEWS’ files
     have been updated.  (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

     Another new target, «make profile-opt», compiles a Python binary
     using GCC’s profile-guided optimization.  It compiles Python with
     profiling enabled, runs the test suite to obtain a set of profiling
     results, and then compiles using these results for optimization.
     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>.
* Port-Specific Changes; IRIX: Port-Specific Changes IRIX.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50003

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675423

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1629

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1530959


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>,  Next: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<9>

1.19.20.1 Port-Specific Changes: Windows
........................................

   * The support for Windows 95, 98, ME and NT4 has been dropped.
     Python 2.6 requires at least Windows 2000 SP4.

   * The new default compiler on Windows is Visual Studio 2008 (version
     9.0).  The build directories for Visual Studio 2003 (version 7.1)
     and 2005 (version 8.0) were moved into the PC/ directory.  The new
     ‘PCbuild’ directory supports cross compilation for X64, debug
     builds and Profile Guided Optimization (PGO). PGO builds are
     roughly 10% faster than normal builds.  (Contributed by Christian
     Heimes with help from Amaury Forgeot d’Arc and Martin von Löwis.)

   * The *note msvcrt: 97. module now supports both the normal and wide
     char variants of the console I/O API. The *note getwch(): 1797.
     function reads a keypress and returns a Unicode value, as does the
     *note getwche(): 1798. function.  The *note putwch(): 1799.
     function takes a Unicode character and writes it to the console.
     (Contributed by Christian Heimes.)

   * *note os.path.expandvars(): 177c. will now expand environment
     variables in the form «%var%», and «~user» will be expanded into
     the user’s home directory path.  (Contributed by Josiah Carlson;
     bpo-957650(1).)

   * The *note socket: d4. module’s socket objects now have an *note
     ioctl(): 1090. method that provides a limited interface to the
     ‘WSAIoctl()’ system interface.

   * The *note _winreg: 11f. module now has a function, *note
     ExpandEnvironmentStrings(): 179a, that expands environment variable
     references such as ‘%NAME%’ in an input string.  The handle objects
     provided by this module now support the context protocol, so they
     can be used in *note with: 20a. statements.  (Contributed by
     Christian Heimes.)

     *note _winreg: 11f. also has better support for x64 systems,
     exposing the *note DisableReflectionKey(): 1709, *note
     EnableReflectionKey(): 170a, and *note QueryReflectionKey(): 170b.
     functions, which enable and disable registry reflection for 32-bit
     processes running on 64-bit systems.  (bpo-1753245(2))

   * The ‘msilib’ module’s ‘Record’ object gained ‘GetInteger()’ and
     ‘GetString()’ methods that return field values as an integer or a
     string.  (Contributed by Floris Bruynooghe; bpo-2125(3).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1753245

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2125


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Next: Port-Specific Changes IRIX,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<9>

1.19.20.2 Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
.........................................

   * When compiling a framework build of Python, you can now specify the
     framework name to be used by providing the ‘--with-framework-name=’
     option to the ‘configure’ script.

   * The ‘macfs’ module has been removed.  This in turn required the
     ‘macostools.touched()’ function to be removed because it depended
     on the ‘macfs’ module.  (bpo-1490190(1))

   * Many other Mac OS modules have been deprecated and will be removed
     in Python 3.0: ‘_builtinSuites’, ‘aepack’, ‘aetools’, ‘aetypes’,
     ‘applesingle’, ‘appletrawmain’, ‘appletrunner’, ‘argvemulator’,
     ‘Audio_mac’, ‘autoGIL’, ‘Carbon’, ‘cfmfile’, ‘CodeWarrior’,
     ‘ColorPicker’, ‘EasyDialogs’, ‘Explorer’, ‘Finder’, ‘FrameWork’,
     ‘findertools’, ‘ic’, ‘icglue’, ‘icopen’, ‘macerrors’, ‘MacOS’,
     ‘macfs’, ‘macostools’, ‘macresource’, ‘MiniAEFrame’, ‘Nav’,
     ‘Netscape’, ‘OSATerminology’, ‘pimp’, ‘PixMapWrapper’, ‘StdSuites’,
     ‘SystemEvents’, ‘Terminal’, and ‘terminalcommand’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1490190


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes IRIX,  Prev: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<9>

1.19.20.3 Port-Specific Changes: IRIX
.....................................

A number of old IRIX-specific modules were deprecated and will be
removed in Python 3.0: ‘al’ and ‘AL’, ‘cd’, ‘cddb’, ‘cdplayer’, ‘CL’ and
‘cl’, ‘DEVICE’, ‘ERRNO’, ‘FILE’, ‘FL’ and ‘fl’, ‘flp’, ‘fm’, ‘GET’,
‘GLWS’, ‘GL’ and ‘gl’, ‘IN’, ‘IOCTL’, ‘jpeg’, ‘panelparser’, ‘readcd’,
‘SV’ and ‘sv’, ‘torgb’, ‘videoreader’, and ‘WAIT’.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 6,  Next: Acknowledgements<2>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<9>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.21 Porting to Python 2.6
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that
may require changes to your code:

   * Classes that aren’t supposed to be hashable should set ‘__hash__ =
     None’ in their definitions to indicate the fact.

   * String exceptions have been removed.  Attempting to use them raises
     a *note TypeError: 291.

   * The ‘__init__()’ method of *note collections.deque: 9d6. now clears
     any existing contents of the deque before adding elements from the
     iterable.  This change makes the behavior match ‘list.__init__()’.

   * *note object.__init__(): 2fa. previously accepted arbitrary
     arguments and keyword arguments, ignoring them.  In Python 2.6,
     this is no longer allowed and will result in a *note TypeError:
     291.  This will affect ‘__init__()’ methods that end up calling the
     corresponding method on *note object: e4d. (perhaps through using
     *note super(): 443.).  See bpo-1683368(1) for discussion.

   * The ‘Decimal’ constructor now accepts leading and trailing
     whitespace when passed a string.  Previously it would raise an
     ‘InvalidOperation’ exception.  On the other hand, the
     ‘create_decimal()’ method of ‘Context’ objects now explicitly
     disallows extra whitespace, raising a ‘ConversionSyntax’ exception.

   * Due to an implementation accident, if you passed a file path to the
     built-in *note __import__(): ca6. function, it would actually
     import the specified file.  This was never intended to work,
     however, and the implementation now explicitly checks for this case
     and raises an *note ImportError: 1bd.

   * C API: the *note PyImport_Import(): 179e. and *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3. functions now default to absolute
     imports, not relative imports.  This will affect C extensions that
     import other modules.

   * C API: extension data types that shouldn’t be hashable should
     define their ‘tp_hash’ slot to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented():
     1769.

   * The *note socket: d4. module exception *note socket.error: 13fe.
     now inherits from *note IOError: 13fb.  Previously it wasn’t a
     subclass of ‘StandardError’ but now it is, through ‘IOError’.
     (Implemented by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-1706815(2).)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 137. module no longer automatically converts
     *note datetime.date: 48d. and *note datetime.time: 48e. to the
     *note xmlrpclib.DateTime: 1786. type; the conversion semantics were
     not necessarily correct for all applications.  Code using
     ‘xmlrpclib’ should convert ‘date’ and ‘time’ instances.
     (bpo-1330538(3))

   * (3.0-warning mode) The *note Exception: d9e. class now warns when
     accessed using slicing or index access; having ‘Exception’ behave
     like a tuple is being phased out.

   * (3.0-warning mode) inequality comparisons between two dictionaries
     or two objects that don’t implement comparison methods are reported
     as warnings.  ‘dict1 == dict2’ still works, but ‘dict1 < dict2’ is
     being phased out.

     Comparisons between cells, which are an implementation detail of
     Python’s scoping rules, also cause warnings because such
     comparisons are forbidden entirely in 3.0.

For applications that embed Python:

   * The ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ function was added in Python 2.6.6, letting
     applications close a security hole when the existing
     ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ function was used.  Check whether you’re calling
     ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider whether the application
     should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with 'updatepath' set to false.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1683368

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1706815

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<2>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 6,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 6

1.19.22 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Georg Brandl, Steve Brown, Nick Coghlan, Ralph Corderoy, Jim
Jewett, Kent Johnson, Chris Lambacher, Martin Michlmayr, Antoine Pitrou,
Brian Warner.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 5,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 4,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 6,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.20 What’s New in Python 2.5
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.5.  The final release
of Python 2.5 is scheduled for August 2006; PEP 356(1) describes the
planned release schedule.  Python 2.5 was released on September 19,
2006.

The changes in Python 2.5 are an interesting mix of language and library
improvements.  The library enhancements will be more important to
Python’s user community, I think, because several widely useful packages
were added.  New modules include ElementTree for XML processing
(‘xml.etree’), the SQLite database module (‘sqlite’), and the *note
ctypes: 2d. module for calling C functions.

The language changes are of middling significance.  Some pleasant new
features were added, but most of them aren’t features that you’ll use
every day.  Conditional expressions were finally added to the language
using a novel syntax; see section *note PEP 308; Conditional
Expressions: 17a4.  The new “*note with: 20a.” statement will make
writing cleanup code easier (section *note PEP 343; The “with”
statement: 17a5.).  Values can now be passed into generators (section
*note PEP 342; New Generator Features: 17a6.).  Imports are now visible
as either absolute or relative (section *note PEP 328; Absolute and
Relative Imports: 17a7.).  Some corner cases of exception handling are
handled better (section *note PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally:
17a8.).  All these improvements are worthwhile, but they’re improvements
to one specific language feature or another; none of them are broad
modifications to Python’s semantics.

As well as the language and library additions, other improvements and
bugfixes were made throughout the source tree.  A search through the SVN
change logs finds there were 353 patches applied and 458 bugs fixed
between Python 2.4 and 2.5.  (Both figures are likely to be
underestimates.)

This article doesn’t try to be a complete specification of the new
features; instead changes are briefly introduced using helpful examples.
For full details, you should always refer to the documentation for
Python 2.5 at ‘https://docs.python.org’.  If you want to understand the
complete implementation and design rationale, refer to the PEP for a
particular new feature.

Comments, suggestions, and error reports for this document are welcome;
please e-mail them to the author or open a bug in the Python bug
tracker.

* Menu:

* PEP 308; Conditional Expressions: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
* PEP 309; Partial Function Application: PEP 309 Partial Function Application.
* PEP 314; Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
* PEP 328; Absolute and Relative Imports: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
* PEP 338; Executing Modules as Scripts: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
* PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
* PEP 342; New Generator Features: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
* PEP 343; The “with” statement: PEP 343 The “with” statement<2>.
* PEP 352; Exceptions as New-Style Classes: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
* PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
* PEP 357; The “__index__” method: PEP 357 The “__index__” method.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<16>.
* New, Improved, and Removed Modules: New Improved and Removed Modules.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<10>.
* Porting to Python 2.5: Porting to Python 2 5.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0356/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions,  Next: PEP 309 Partial Function Application,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.1 PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
---------------------------------------

For a long time, people have been requesting a way to write conditional
expressions, which are expressions that return value A or value B
depending on whether a Boolean value is true or false.  A conditional
expression lets you write a single assignment statement that has the
same effect as the following:

     if condition:
         x = true_value
     else:
         x = false_value

There have been endless tedious discussions of syntax on both python-dev
and comp.lang.python.  A vote was even held that found the majority of
voters wanted conditional expressions in some form, but there was no
syntax that was preferred by a clear majority.  Candidates included C’s
‘cond ? true_v : false_v’, ‘if cond then true_v else false_v’, and 16
other variations.

Guido van Rossum eventually chose a surprising syntax:

     x = true_value if condition else false_value

Evaluation is still lazy as in existing Boolean expressions, so the
order of evaluation jumps around a bit.  The 'condition' expression in
the middle is evaluated first, and the 'true_value' expression is
evaluated only if the condition was true.  Similarly, the 'false_value'
expression is only evaluated when the condition is false.

This syntax may seem strange and backwards; why does the condition go in
the 'middle' of the expression, and not in the front as in C’s ‘c ? x :
y’?  The decision was checked by applying the new syntax to the modules
in the standard library and seeing how the resulting code read.  In many
cases where a conditional expression is used, one value seems to be the
“common case” and one value is an “exceptional case”, used only on rarer
occasions when the condition isn’t met.  The conditional syntax makes
this pattern a bit more obvious:

     contents = ((doc + '\n') if doc else '')

I read the above statement as meaning «here 'contents' is usually
assigned a value of ‘doc+'\n'’; sometimes 'doc' is empty, in which
special case an empty string is returned.» I doubt I will use
conditional expressions very often where there isn’t a clear common and
uncommon case.

There was some discussion of whether the language should require
surrounding conditional expressions with parentheses.  The decision was
made to 'not' require parentheses in the Python language’s grammar, but
as a matter of style I think you should always use them.  Consider these
two statements:

     # First version -- no parens
     level = 1 if logging else 0

     # Second version -- with parens
     level = (1 if logging else 0)

In the first version, I think a reader’s eye might group the statement
into “level = 1”, “if logging”, “else 0”, and think that the condition
decides whether the assignment to 'level' is performed.  The second
version reads better, in my opinion, because it makes it clear that the
assignment is always performed and the choice is being made between two
values.

Another reason for including the brackets: a few odd combinations of
list comprehensions and lambdas could look like incorrect conditional
expressions.  See PEP 308(1) for some examples.  If you put parentheses
around your conditional expressions, you won’t run into this case.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 308(2) - Conditional Expressions

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Raymond D. Hettinger;
     implemented by Thomas Wouters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 309 Partial Function Application,  Next: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Prev: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.2 PEP 309: Partial Function Application
--------------------------------------------

The *note functools: 62. module is intended to contain tools for
functional-style programming.

One useful tool in this module is the ‘partial()’ function.  For
programs written in a functional style, you’ll sometimes want to
construct variants of existing functions that have some of the
parameters filled in.  Consider a Python function ‘f(a, b, c)’; you
could create a new function ‘g(b, c)’ that was equivalent to ‘f(1, b,
c)’.  This is called «partial function application».

‘partial()’ takes the arguments ‘(function, arg1, arg2, ...
kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2)’.  The resulting object is callable, so
you can just call it to invoke 'function' with the filled-in arguments.

Here’s a small but realistic example:

     import functools

     def log (message, subsystem):
         "Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem."
         print '%s: %s' % (subsystem, message)
         ...

     server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
     server_log('Unable to open socket')

Here’s another example, from a program that uses PyGTK. Here a
context-sensitive pop-up menu is being constructed dynamically.  The
callback provided for the menu option is a partially applied version of
the ‘open_item()’ method, where the first argument has been provided.

     ...
     class Application:
         def open_item(self, path):
            ...
         def init (self):
             open_func = functools.partial(self.open_item, item_path)
             popup_menu.append( ("Open", open_func, 1) )

Another function in the *note functools: 62. module is the
‘update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped)’ function that helps you write
well-behaved decorators.  ‘update_wrapper()’ copies the name, module,
and docstring attribute to a wrapper function so that tracebacks inside
the wrapped function are easier to understand.  For example, you might
write:

     def my_decorator(f):
         def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
             print 'Calling decorated function'
             return f(*args, **kwds)
         functools.update_wrapper(wrapper, f)
         return wrapper

‘wraps()’ is a decorator that can be used inside your own decorators to
copy the wrapped function’s information.  An alternate version of the
previous example would be:

     def my_decorator(f):
         @functools.wraps(f)
         def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
             print 'Calling decorated function'
             return f(*args, **kwds)
         return wrapper

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 309(1) - Partial Function Application

     PEP proposed and written by Peter Harris; implemented by Hye-Shik
     Chang and Nick Coghlan, with adaptations by Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0309/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Next: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Prev: PEP 309 Partial Function Application,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.3 PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
----------------------------------------------------------

Some simple dependency support was added to Distutils.  The ‘setup()’
function now has ‘requires’, ‘provides’, and ‘obsoletes’ keyword
parameters.  When you build a source distribution using the ‘sdist’
command, the dependency information will be recorded in the ‘PKG-INFO’
file.

Another new keyword parameter is ‘download_url’, which should be set to
a URL for the package’s source code.  This means it’s now possible to
look up an entry in the package index, determine the dependencies for a
package, and download the required packages.

     VERSION = '1.0'
     setup(name='PyPackage',
           version=VERSION,
           requires=['numarray', 'zlib (>=1.1.4)'],
           obsoletes=['OldPackage']
           download_url=('http://www.example.com/pypackage/dist/pkg-%s.tar.gz'
                         % VERSION),
          )

Another new enhancement to the Python package index at
‘https://pypi.org’ is storing source and binary archives for a package.
The new ‘upload’ Distutils command will upload a package to the
repository.

Before a package can be uploaded, you must be able to build a
distribution using the ‘sdist’ Distutils command.  Once that works, you
can run ‘python setup.py upload’ to add your package to the PyPI
archive.  Optionally you can GPG-sign the package by supplying the
‘--sign’ and ‘--identity’ options.

Package uploading was implemented by Martin von Löwis and Richard Jones.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 314(1) - Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1

     PEP proposed and written by A.M. Kuchling, Richard Jones, and Fred
     Drake; implemented by Richard Jones and Fred Drake.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0314/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Next: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Prev: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.4 PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
---------------------------------------------

The simpler part of PEP 328(1) was implemented in Python 2.4:
parentheses could now be used to enclose the names imported from a
module using the ‘from ... import ...’ statement, making it easier to
import many different names.

The more complicated part has been implemented in Python 2.5: importing
a module can be specified to use absolute or package-relative imports.
The plan is to move toward making absolute imports the default in future
versions of Python.

Let’s say you have a package directory like this:

     pkg/
     pkg/__init__.py
     pkg/main.py
     pkg/string.py

This defines a package named ‘pkg’ containing the ‘pkg.main’ and
‘pkg.string’ submodules.

Consider the code in the ‘main.py’ module.  What happens if it executes
the statement ‘import string’?  In Python 2.4 and earlier, it will first
look in the package’s directory to perform a relative import, finds
‘pkg/string.py’, imports the contents of that file as the ‘pkg.string’
module, and that module is bound to the name ‘string’ in the ‘pkg.main’
module’s namespace.

That’s fine if ‘pkg.string’ was what you wanted.  But what if you wanted
Python’s standard *note string: db. module?  There’s no clean way to
ignore ‘pkg.string’ and look for the standard module; generally you had
to look at the contents of ‘sys.modules’, which is slightly unclean.
Holger Krekel’s ‘py.std’ package provides a tidier way to perform
imports from the standard library, ‘import py; py.std.string.join()’,
but that package isn’t available on all Python installations.

Reading code which relies on relative imports is also less clear,
because a reader may be confused about which module, *note string: db.
or ‘pkg.string’, is intended to be used.  Python users soon learned not
to duplicate the names of standard library modules in the names of their
packages” submodules, but you can’t protect against having your
submodule’s name being used for a new module added in a future version
of Python.

In Python 2.5, you can switch *note import: 9da.’s behaviour to absolute
imports using a ‘from __future__ import absolute_import’ directive.
This absolute-import behaviour will become the default in a future
version (probably Python 2.7).  Once absolute imports are the default,
‘import string’ will always find the standard library’s version.  It’s
suggested that users should begin using absolute imports as much as
possible, so it’s preferable to begin writing ‘from pkg import string’
in your code.

Relative imports are still possible by adding a leading period to the
module name when using the ‘from ... import’ form:

     # Import names from pkg.string
     from .string import name1, name2
     # Import pkg.string
     from . import string

This imports the *note string: db. module relative to the current
package, so in ‘pkg.main’ this will import 'name1' and 'name2' from
‘pkg.string’.  Additional leading periods perform the relative import
starting from the parent of the current package.  For example, code in
the ‘A.B.C’ module can do:

     from . import D                 # Imports A.B.D
     from .. import E                # Imports A.E
     from ..F import G               # Imports A.F.G

Leading periods cannot be used with the ‘import modname’ form of the
import statement, only the ‘from ... import’ form.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 328(2) - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

     PEP written by Aahz; implemented by Thomas Wouters.

‘https://pylib.readthedocs.io/’

     The py library by Holger Krekel, which contains the ‘py.std’
     package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Next: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Prev: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.5 PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
--------------------------------------------

The *note -m: 4ca. switch added in Python 2.4 to execute a module as a
script gained a few more abilities.  Instead of being implemented in C
code inside the Python interpreter, the switch now uses an
implementation in a new module, *note runpy: c6.

The *note runpy: c6. module implements a more sophisticated import
mechanism so that it’s now possible to run modules in a package such as
‘pychecker.checker’.  The module also supports alternative import
mechanisms such as the *note zipimport: 13b. module.  This means you can
add a .zip archive’s path to ‘sys.path’ and then use the *note -m: 4ca.
switch to execute code from the archive.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 338(1) - Executing modules as scripts

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Next: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Prev: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.6 PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
------------------------------------------

Until Python 2.5, the *note try: ad6. statement came in two flavours.
You could use a *note finally: 44c. block to ensure that code is always
executed, or one or more *note except: 447. blocks to catch specific
exceptions.  You couldn’t combine both ‘except’ blocks and a ‘finally’
block, because generating the right bytecode for the combined version
was complicated and it wasn’t clear what the semantics of the combined
statement should be.

Guido van Rossum spent some time working with Java, which does support
the equivalent of combining *note except: 447. blocks and a *note
finally: 44c. block, and this clarified what the statement should mean.
In Python 2.5, you can now write:

     try:
         block-1 ...
     except Exception1:
         handler-1 ...
     except Exception2:
         handler-2 ...
     else:
         else-block
     finally:
         final-block

The code in 'block-1' is executed.  If the code raises an exception, the
various *note except: 447. blocks are tested: if the exception is of
class ‘Exception1’, 'handler-1' is executed; otherwise if it’s of class
‘Exception2’, 'handler-2' is executed, and so forth.  If no exception is
raised, the 'else-block' is executed.

No matter what happened previously, the 'final-block' is executed once
the code block is complete and any raised exceptions handled.  Even if
there’s an error in an exception handler or the 'else-block' and a new
exception is raised, the code in the 'final-block' is still run.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 341(1) - Unifying try-except and try-finally

     PEP written by Georg Brandl; implementation by Thomas Lee.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0341/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Next: PEP 343 The “with” statement<2>,  Prev: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.7 PEP 342: New Generator Features
--------------------------------------

Python 2.5 adds a simple way to pass values 'into' a generator.  As
introduced in Python 2.3, generators only produce output; once a
generator’s code was invoked to create an iterator, there was no way to
pass any new information into the function when its execution is
resumed.  Sometimes the ability to pass in some information would be
useful.  Hackish solutions to this include making the generator’s code
look at a global variable and then changing the global variable’s value,
or passing in some mutable object that callers then modify.

To refresh your memory of basic generators, here’s a simple example:

     def counter (maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             yield i
             i += 1

When you call ‘counter(10)’, the result is an iterator that returns the
values from 0 up to 9.  On encountering the *note yield: d93. statement,
the iterator returns the provided value and suspends the function’s
execution, preserving the local variables.  Execution resumes on the
following call to the iterator’s *note next(): bb5. method, picking up
after the ‘yield’ statement.

In Python 2.3, *note yield: d93. was a statement; it didn’t return any
value.  In 2.5, ‘yield’ is now an expression, returning a value that can
be assigned to a variable or otherwise operated on:

     val = (yield i)

I recommend that you always put parentheses around a *note yield: d93.
expression when you’re doing something with the returned value, as in
the above example.  The parentheses aren’t always necessary, but it’s
easier to always add them instead of having to remember when they’re
needed.

( PEP 342(1) explains the exact rules, which are that a *note yield:
d93.-expression must always be parenthesized except when it occurs at
the top-level expression on the right-hand side of an assignment.  This
means you can write ‘val = yield i’ but have to use parentheses when
there’s an operation, as in ‘val = (yield i) + 12’.)

Values are sent into a generator by calling its ‘send(value)’ method.
The generator’s code is then resumed and the *note yield: d93.
expression returns the specified 'value'.  If the regular *note next():
bb5. method is called, the ‘yield’ returns *note None: a65.

Here’s the previous example, modified to allow changing the value of the
internal counter.

     def counter (maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             val = (yield i)
             # If value provided, change counter
             if val is not None:
                 i = val
             else:
                 i += 1

And here’s an example of changing the counter:

     >>> it = counter(10)
     >>> print it.next()
     0
     >>> print it.next()
     1
     >>> print it.send(8)
     8
     >>> print it.next()
     9
     >>> print it.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 15, in ?
         print it.next()
     StopIteration

*note yield: d93. will usually return *note None: a65, so you should
always check for this case.  Don’t just use its value in expressions
unless you’re sure that the ‘send()’ method will be the only method used
to resume your generator function.

In addition to ‘send()’, there are two other new methods on generators:

   * ‘throw(type, value=None, traceback=None)’ is used to raise an
     exception inside the generator; the exception is raised by the
     *note yield: d93. expression where the generator’s execution is
     paused.

   * ‘close()’ raises a new *note GeneratorExit: 176a. exception inside
     the generator to terminate the iteration.  On receiving this
     exception, the generator’s code must either raise ‘GeneratorExit’
     or *note StopIteration: fba.  Catching the ‘GeneratorExit’
     exception and returning a value is illegal and will trigger a *note
     RuntimeError: 30d.; if the function raises some other exception,
     that exception is propagated to the caller.  ‘close()’ will also be
     called by Python’s garbage collector when the generator is
     garbage-collected.

     If you need to run cleanup code when a *note GeneratorExit: 176a.
     occurs, I suggest using a ‘try: ... finally:’ suite instead of
     catching ‘GeneratorExit’.

The cumulative effect of these changes is to turn generators from
one-way producers of information into both producers and consumers.

Generators also become 'coroutines', a more generalized form of
subroutines.  Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another
point (the top of the function, and a *note return: 44b. statement), but
coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points
(the *note yield: d93. statements).  We’ll have to figure out patterns
for using coroutines effectively in Python.

The addition of the ‘close()’ method has one side effect that isn’t
obvious.  ‘close()’ is called when a generator is garbage-collected, so
this means the generator’s code gets one last chance to run before the
generator is destroyed.  This last chance means that ‘try...finally’
statements in generators can now be guaranteed to work; the *note
finally: 44c. clause will now always get a chance to run.  The syntactic
restriction that you couldn’t mix *note yield: d93. statements with a
‘try...finally’ suite has therefore been removed.  This seems like a
minor bit of language trivia, but using generators and ‘try...finally’
is actually necessary in order to implement the *note with: 20a.
statement described by PEP 343(2).  I’ll look at this new statement in
the following section.

Another even more esoteric effect of this change: previously, the
‘gi_frame’ attribute of a generator was always a frame object.  It’s now
possible for ‘gi_frame’ to be ‘None’ once the generator has been
exhausted.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 342(3) - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Phillip J. Eby; implemented by
     Phillip J. Eby.  Includes examples of some fancier uses of
     generators as coroutines.

     Earlier versions of these features were proposed in PEP 288(4) by
     Raymond Hettinger and PEP 325(5) by Samuele Pedroni.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine’

     The Wikipedia entry for coroutines.

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20160321211320/http://www.sidhe.org/~dan/blog/archives/000178.html’

     An explanation of coroutines from a Perl point of view, written by
     Dan Sugalski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0288/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0325/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 343 The “with” statement<2>,  Next: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Prev: PEP 342 New Generator Features,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.8 PEP 343: The “with” statement
------------------------------------

The “*note with: 20a.” statement clarifies code that previously would
use ‘try...finally’ blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed.  In
this section, I’ll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used.
In the next section, I’ll examine the implementation details and show
how to write objects for use with this statement.

The “*note with: 20a.” statement is a new control-flow structure whose
basic structure is:

     with expression [as variable]:
         with-block

The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that
supports the context management protocol (that is, has *note
__enter__(): 9c6. and *note __exit__(): 16a5. methods.

The object’s *note __enter__(): 9c6. is called before 'with-block' is
executed and therefore can run set-up code.  It also may return a value
that is bound to the name 'variable', if given.  (Note carefully that
'variable' is 'not' assigned the result of 'expression'.)

After execution of the 'with-block' is finished, the object’s *note
__exit__(): 16a5. method is called, even if the block raised an
exception, and can therefore run clean-up code.

To enable the statement in Python 2.5, you need to add the following
directive to your module:

     from __future__ import with_statement

The statement will always be enabled in Python 2.6.

Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol
and can be used with the “*note with: 20a.” statement.  File objects are
one example:

     with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f:
         for line in f:
             print line
             ... more processing code ...

After this statement has executed, the file object in 'f' will have been
automatically closed, even if the *note for: 321. loop raised an
exception part-way through the block.

     Σημείωση: In this case, 'f' is the same object created by *note
     open(): 32b, because *note __enter__(): 9c6. returns 'self'.

The *note threading: f6. module’s locks and condition variables also
support the “*note with: 20a.” statement:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with lock:
         # Critical section of code
         ...

The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released
once the block is complete.

The new ‘localcontext()’ function in the *note decimal: 39. module makes
it easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which
encapsulates the desired precision and rounding characteristics for
computations:

     from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext

     # Displays with default precision of 28 digits
     v = Decimal('578')
     print v.sqrt()

     with localcontext(Context(prec=16)):
         # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits.
         # The original context is restored on exiting the block.
         print v.sqrt()

* Menu:

* Writing Context Managers: Writing Context Managers<2>.
* The contextlib module: The contextlib module<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Context Managers<2>,  Next: The contextlib module<2>,  Up: PEP 343 The “with” statement<2>

1.20.8.1 Writing Context Managers
.................................

Under the hood, the “*note with: 20a.” statement is fairly complicated.
Most people will only use “‘with’” in company with existing objects and
don’t need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this
section if you like.  Authors of new objects will need to understand the
details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading.

A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is:

   * The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a
     «context manager».  The context manager must have *note
     __enter__(): 9c6. and *note __exit__(): 16a5. methods.

   * The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 9c6. method is called.
     The value returned is assigned to 'VAR'. If no ‘'as VAR'’ clause is
     present, the value is simply discarded.

   * The code in 'BLOCK' is executed.

   * If 'BLOCK' raises an exception, the ‘__exit__(type, value,
     traceback)’ is called with the exception details, the same values
     returned by *note sys.exc_info(): a7a.  The method’s return value
     controls whether the exception is re-raised: any false value
     re-raises the exception, and ‘True’ will result in suppressing it.
     You’ll only rarely want to suppress the exception, because if you
     do the author of the code containing the “*note with: 20a.”
     statement will never realize anything went wrong.

   * If 'BLOCK' didn’t raise an exception, the *note __exit__(): 16a5.
     method is still called, but 'type', 'value', and 'traceback' are
     all ‘None’.

Let’s think through an example.  I won’t present detailed code but will
only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports
transactions.

(For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to
the database are grouped into a transaction.  Transactions can be either
committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database,
or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the
database is unchanged.  See any database textbook for more information.)

Let’s assume there’s an object representing a database connection.  Our
goal will be to let the user write code like this:

     db_connection = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_connection as cursor:
         cursor.execute('insert into ...')
         cursor.execute('delete from ...')
         # ... more operations ...

The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs
flawlessly or rolled back if there’s an exception.  Here’s the basic
interface for ‘DatabaseConnection’ that I’ll assume:

     class DatabaseConnection:
         # Database interface
         def cursor (self):
             "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction"
         def commit (self):
             "Commits current transaction"
         def rollback (self):
             "Rolls back current transaction"

The *note __enter__(): 9c6. method is pretty easy, having only to start
a new transaction.  For this application the resulting cursor object
would be a useful result, so the method will return it.  The user can
then add ‘as cursor’ to their “*note with: 20a.” statement to bind the
cursor to a variable name.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __enter__ (self):
             # Code to start a new transaction
             cursor = self.cursor()
             return cursor

The *note __exit__(): 16a5. method is the most complicated because it’s
where most of the work has to be done.  The method has to check if an
exception occurred.  If there was no exception, the transaction is
committed.  The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception.

In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function,
returning the default value of ‘None’.  ‘None’ is false, so the
exception will be re-raised automatically.  If you wished, you could be
more explicit and add a *note return: 44b. statement at the marked
location.

     class DatabaseConnection:
         ...
         def __exit__ (self, type, value, tb):
             if tb is None:
                 # No exception, so commit
                 self.commit()
             else:
                 # Exception occurred, so rollback.
                 self.rollback()
                 # return False


File: python.info,  Node: The contextlib module<2>,  Prev: Writing Context Managers<2>,  Up: PEP 343 The “with” statement<2>

1.20.8.2 The contextlib module
..............................

The new *note contextlib: 27. module provides some functions and a
decorator that are useful for writing objects for use with the “*note
with: 20a.” statement.

The decorator is called ‘contextmanager()’, and lets you write a single
generator function instead of defining a new class.  The generator
should yield exactly one value.  The code up to the *note yield: d93.
will be executed as the *note __enter__(): 9c6. method, and the value
yielded will be the method’s return value that will get bound to the
variable in the “*note with: 20a.” statement’s ‘as’ clause, if any.  The
code after the ‘yield’ will be executed in the *note __exit__(): 16a5.
method.  Any exception raised in the block will be raised by the ‘yield’
statement.

Our database example from the previous section could be written using
this decorator as:

     from contextlib import contextmanager

     @contextmanager
     def db_transaction (connection):
         cursor = connection.cursor()
         try:
             yield cursor
         except:
             connection.rollback()
             raise
         else:
             connection.commit()

     db = DatabaseConnection()
     with db_transaction(db) as cursor:
         ...

The *note contextlib: 27. module also has a ‘nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)’
function that combines a number of context managers so you don’t need to
write nested “*note with: 20a.” statements.  In this example, the single
“‘with’” statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a
thread lock:

     lock = threading.Lock()
     with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked):
         ...

Finally, the ‘closing(object)’ function returns 'object' so that it can
be bound to a variable, and calls ‘object.close’ at the end of the
block.

     import urllib, sys
     from contextlib import closing

     with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f:
         for line in f:
             sys.stdout.write(line)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 343(1) - The «with» statement

     PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by
     Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz.  The PEP shows the
     code generated for a “*note with: 20a.” statement, which can be
     helpful in learning how the statement works.

The documentation for the *note contextlib: 27. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Next: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Prev: PEP 343 The “with” statement<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.9 PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
-----------------------------------------------

Exception classes can now be new-style classes, not just classic
classes, and the built-in *note Exception: d9e. class and all the
standard built-in exceptions (*note NameError: 665, *note ValueError:
277, etc.)  are now new-style classes.

The inheritance hierarchy for exceptions has been rearranged a bit.  In
2.5, the inheritance relationships are:

     BaseException       # New in Python 2.5
     |- KeyboardInterrupt
     |- SystemExit
     |- Exception
        |- (all other current built-in exceptions)

This rearrangement was done because people often want to catch all
exceptions that indicate program errors.  *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96.
and *note SystemExit: 10f7. aren’t errors, though, and usually represent
an explicit action such as the user hitting ‘Control’-‘C’ or code
calling *note sys.exit(): 4ff.  A bare ‘except:’ will catch all
exceptions, so you commonly need to list ‘KeyboardInterrupt’ and
‘SystemExit’ in order to re-raise them.  The usual pattern is:

     try:
         ...
     except (KeyboardInterrupt, SystemExit):
         raise
     except:
         # Log error...
         # Continue running program...

In Python 2.5, you can now write ‘except Exception’ to achieve the same
result, catching all the exceptions that usually indicate errors but
leaving *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96. and *note SystemExit: 10f7. alone.
As in previous versions, a bare ‘except:’ still catches all exceptions.

The goal for Python 3.0 is to require any class raised as an exception
to derive from *note BaseException: 9b9. or some descendant of
‘BaseException’, and future releases in the Python 2.x series may begin
to enforce this constraint.  Therefore, I suggest you begin making all
your exception classes derive from *note Exception: d9e. now.  It’s been
suggested that the bare ‘except:’ form should be removed in Python 3.0,
but Guido van Rossum hasn’t decided whether to do this or not.

Raising of strings as exceptions, as in the statement ‘raise "Error
occurred"’, is deprecated in Python 2.5 and will trigger a warning.  The
aim is to be able to remove the string-exception feature in a few
releases.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 352(1) - Required Superclass for Exceptions

     PEP written by Brett Cannon and Guido van Rossum; implemented by
     Brett Cannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Next: PEP 357 The “__index__” method,  Prev: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.10 PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
------------------------------------------------

A wide-ranging change to Python’s C API, using a new *note Py_ssize_t:
e24. type definition instead of int, will permit the interpreter to
handle more data on 64-bit platforms.  This change doesn’t affect
Python’s capacity on 32-bit platforms.

Various pieces of the Python interpreter used C’s int type to store
sizes or counts; for example, the number of items in a list or tuple
were stored in an int.  The C compilers for most 64-bit platforms still
define int as a 32-bit type, so that meant that lists could only hold up
to ‘2**31 - 1’ = 2147483647 items.  (There are actually a few different
programming models that 64-bit C compilers can use – see
‘https://unix.org/version2/whatsnew/lp64_wp.html’ for a discussion – but
the most commonly available model leaves int as 32 bits.)

A limit of 2147483647 items doesn’t really matter on a 32-bit platform
because you’ll run out of memory before hitting the length limit.  Each
list item requires space for a pointer, which is 4 bytes, plus space for
a *note PyObject: 19b. representing the item.  2147483647*4 is already
more bytes than a 32-bit address space can contain.

It’s possible to address that much memory on a 64-bit platform, however.
The pointers for a list that size would only require 16 GiB of space, so
it’s not unreasonable that Python programmers might construct lists that
large.  Therefore, the Python interpreter had to be changed to use some
type other than int, and this will be a 64-bit type on 64-bit platforms.
The change will cause incompatibilities on 64-bit machines, so it was
deemed worth making the transition now, while the number of 64-bit users
is still relatively small.  (In 5 or 10 years, we may 'all' be on 64-bit
machines, and the transition would be more painful then.)

This change most strongly affects authors of C extension modules.
Python strings and container types such as lists and tuples now use
*note Py_ssize_t: e24. to store their size.  Functions such as *note
PyList_Size(): 17bc. now return ‘Py_ssize_t’.  Code in extension modules
may therefore need to have some variables changed to ‘Py_ssize_t’.

The *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee.
functions have a new conversion code, ‘n’, for *note Py_ssize_t: e24.
‘PyArg_ParseTuple()’”s ‘s#’ and ‘t#’ still output int by default, but
you can define the macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ before including ‘Python.h’
to make them return ‘Py_ssize_t’.

PEP 353(1) has a section on conversion guidelines that extension authors
should read to learn about supporting 64-bit platforms.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 353(2) - Using ssize_t as the index type

     PEP written and implemented by Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 357 The “__index__” method,  Next: Other Language Changes<16>,  Prev: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.11 PEP 357: The “__index__” method
---------------------------------------

The NumPy developers had a problem that could only be solved by adding a
new special method, ‘__index__()’.  When using slice notation, as in
‘[start:stop:step]’, the values of the 'start', 'stop', and 'step'
indexes must all be either integers or long integers.  NumPy defines a
variety of specialized integer types corresponding to unsigned and
signed integers of 8, 16, 32, and 64 bits, but there was no way to
signal that these types could be used as slice indexes.

Slicing can’t just use the existing ‘__int__()’ method because that
method is also used to implement coercion to integers.  If slicing used
‘__int__()’, floating-point numbers would also become legal slice
indexes and that’s clearly an undesirable behaviour.

Instead, a new special method called ‘__index__()’ was added.  It takes
no arguments and returns an integer giving the slice index to use.  For
example:

     class C:
         def __index__ (self):
             return self.value

The return value must be either a Python integer or long integer.  The
interpreter will check that the type returned is correct, and raises a
*note TypeError: 291. if this requirement isn’t met.

A corresponding *note nb_index: 17bf. slot was added to the C-level
*note PyNumberMethods: 17c0. structure to let C extensions implement
this protocol.  ‘PyNumber_Index(obj)’ can be used in extension code to
call the ‘__index__()’ function and retrieve its result.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 357(1) - Allowing Any Object to be Used for Slicing

     PEP written and implemented by Travis Oliphant.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0357/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<16>,  Next: New Improved and Removed Modules,  Prev: PEP 357 The “__index__” method,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.12 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python
language.

   * The *note dict: 188. type has a new hook for letting subclasses
     provide a default value when a key isn’t contained in the
     dictionary.  When a key isn’t found, the dictionary’s
     ‘__missing__(key)’ method will be called.  This hook is used to
     implement the new ‘defaultdict’ class in the *note collections: 1e.
     module.  The following example defines a dictionary that returns
     zero for any missing key:

          class zerodict (dict):
              def __missing__ (self, key):
                  return 0

          d = zerodict({1:1, 2:2})
          print d[1], d[2]   # Prints 1, 2
          print d[3], d[4]   # Prints 0, 0

   * Both 8-bit and Unicode strings have new ‘partition(sep)’ and
     ‘rpartition(sep)’ methods that simplify a common use case.

     The ‘find(S)’ method is often used to get an index which is then
     used to slice the string and obtain the pieces that are before and
     after the separator.  ‘partition(sep)’ condenses this pattern into
     a single method call that returns a 3-tuple containing the
     substring before the separator, the separator itself, and the
     substring after the separator.  If the separator isn’t found, the
     first element of the tuple is the entire string and the other two
     elements are empty.  ‘rpartition(sep)’ also returns a 3-tuple but
     starts searching from the end of the string; the ‘r’ stands for
     “reverse”.

     Some examples:

          >>> ('http://www.python.org').partition('://')
          ('http', '://', 'www.python.org')
          >>> ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html').partition('://')
          ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html', '', '')
          >>> (u'Subject: a quick question').partition(':')
          (u'Subject', u':', u' a quick question')
          >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition('.')
          ('www.python', '.', 'org')
          >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition(':')
          ('', '', 'www.python.org')

     (Implemented by Fredrik Lundh following a suggestion by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The ‘startswith()’ and ‘endswith()’ methods of string types now
     accept tuples of strings to check for.

          def is_image_file (filename):
              return filename.endswith(('.gif', '.jpg', '.tiff'))

     (Implemented by Georg Brandl following a suggestion by Tom Lynn.)

   * The *note min(): 12b9. and *note max(): 12ba. built-in functions
     gained a ‘key’ keyword parameter analogous to the ‘key’ argument
     for ‘sort()’.  This parameter supplies a function that takes a
     single argument and is called for every value in the list;
     ‘min()’/‘max()’ will return the element with the smallest/largest
     return value from this function.  For example, to find the longest
     string in a list, you can do:

          L = ['medium', 'longest', 'short']
          # Prints 'longest'
          print max(L, key=len)
          # Prints 'short', because lexicographically 'short' has the largest value
          print max(L)

     (Contributed by Steven Bethard and Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Two new built-in functions, *note any(): 17c3. and *note all():
     17c4, evaluate whether an iterator contains any true or false
     values.  ‘any()’ returns *note True: fcc. if any value returned by
     the iterator is true; otherwise it will return *note False: ef5.
     ‘all()’ returns ‘True’ only if all of the values returned by the
     iterator evaluate as true.  (Suggested by Guido van Rossum, and
     implemented by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The result of a class’s ‘__hash__()’ method can now be either a
     long integer or a regular integer.  If a long integer is returned,
     the hash of that value is taken.  In earlier versions the hash
     value was required to be a regular integer, but in 2.5 the *note
     id(): 17c5. built-in was changed to always return non-negative
     numbers, and users often seem to use ‘id(self)’ in ‘__hash__()’
     methods (though this is discouraged).

   * ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It’s now a syntax
     error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters
     but doesn’t have an encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this
     triggered a warning, not a syntax error.  See PEP 263(1) for how to
     declare a module’s encoding; for example, you might add a line like
     this near the top of the source file:

          # -*- coding: latin1 -*-

   * A new warning, *note UnicodeWarning: 17c6, is triggered when you
     attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can’t
     be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding.  The
     result of the comparison is false:

          >>> chr(128) == unichr(128)   # Can't convert chr(128) to Unicode
          __main__:1: UnicodeWarning: Unicode equal comparison failed
            to convert both arguments to Unicode - interpreting them
            as being unequal
          False
          >>> chr(127) == unichr(127)   # chr(127) can be converted
          True

     Previously this would raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError: dd7.
     exception, but in 2.5 this could result in puzzling problems when
     accessing a dictionary.  If you looked up ‘unichr(128)’ and
     ‘chr(128)’ was being used as a key, you’d get a
     ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ exception.  Other changes in 2.5 resulted in
     this exception being raised instead of suppressed by the code in
     ‘dictobject.c’ that implements dictionaries.

     Raising an exception for such a comparison is strictly correct, but
     the change might have broken code, so instead *note UnicodeWarning:
     17c6. was introduced.

     (Implemented by Marc-André Lemburg.)

   * One error that Python programmers sometimes make is forgetting to
     include an ‘__init__.py’ module in a package directory.  Debugging
     this mistake can be confusing, and usually requires running Python
     with the *note -v: 17c7. switch to log all the paths searched.  In
     Python 2.5, a new *note ImportWarning: 907. warning is triggered
     when an import would have picked up a directory as a package but no
     ‘__init__.py’ was found.  This warning is silently ignored by
     default; provide the *note -Wd: 1c0. option when running the Python
     executable to display the warning message.  (Implemented by Thomas
     Wouters.)

   * The list of base classes in a class definition can now be empty.
     As an example, this is now legal:

          class C():
              pass

     (Implemented by Brett Cannon.)

* Menu:

* Interactive Interpreter Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<18>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive Interpreter Changes,  Next: Optimizations<18>,  Up: Other Language Changes<16>

1.20.12.1 Interactive Interpreter Changes
.........................................

In the interactive interpreter, ‘quit’ and ‘exit’ have long been strings
so that new users get a somewhat helpful message when they try to quit:

     >>> quit
     'Use Ctrl-D (i.e. EOF) to exit.'

In Python 2.5, ‘quit’ and ‘exit’ are now objects that still produce
string representations of themselves, but are also callable.  Newbies
who try ‘quit()’ or ‘exit()’ will now exit the interpreter as they
expect.  (Implemented by Georg Brandl.)

The Python executable now accepts the standard long options *note -help:
9e7. and *note -version: 10d5.; on Windows, it also accepts the *note
/?: 17ca. option for displaying a help message.  (Implemented by Georg
Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<18>,  Prev: Interactive Interpreter Changes,  Up: Other Language Changes<16>

1.20.12.2 Optimizations
.......................

Several of the optimizations were developed at the NeedForSpeed sprint,
an event held in Reykjavik, Iceland, from May 21–28 2006.  The sprint
focused on speed enhancements to the CPython implementation and was
funded by EWT LLC with local support from CCP Games.  Those
optimizations added at this sprint are specially marked in the following
list.

   * When they were introduced in Python 2.4, the built-in *note set:
     42b. and *note frozenset: 9d4. types were built on top of Python’s
     dictionary type.  In 2.5 the internal data structure has been
     customized for implementing sets, and as a result sets will use a
     third less memory and are somewhat faster.  (Implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The speed of some Unicode operations, such as finding substrings,
     string splitting, and character map encoding and decoding, has been
     improved.  (Substring search and splitting improvements were added
     by Fredrik Lundh and Andrew Dalke at the NeedForSpeed sprint.
     Character maps were improved by Walter Dörwald and Martin von
     Löwis.)

   * The ‘long(str, base)’ function is now faster on long digit strings
     because fewer intermediate results are calculated.  The peak is for
     strings of around 800–1000 digits where the function is 6 times
     faster.  (Contributed by Alan McIntyre and committed at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * It’s now illegal to mix iterating over a file with ‘for line in
     file’ and calling the file object’s ‘read()’/*note readline():
     c2./‘readlines()’ methods.  Iteration uses an internal buffer and
     the ‘read*()’ methods don’t use that buffer.  Instead they would
     return the data following the buffer, causing the data to appear
     out of order.  Mixing iteration and these methods will now trigger
     a *note ValueError: 277. from the ‘read*()’ method.  (Implemented
     by Thomas Wouters.)

   * The *note struct: de. module now compiles structure format strings
     into an internal representation and caches this representation,
     yielding a 20% speedup.  (Contributed by Bob Ippolito at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * The *note re: c1. module got a 1 or 2% speedup by switching to
     Python’s allocator functions instead of the system’s ‘malloc()’ and
     ‘free()’.  (Contributed by Jack Diederich at the NeedForSpeed
     sprint.)

   * The code generator’s peephole optimizer now performs simple
     constant folding in expressions.  If you write something like ‘a =
     2+3’, the code generator will do the arithmetic and produce code
     corresponding to ‘a = 5’.  (Proposed and implemented by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * Function calls are now faster because code objects now keep the
     most recently finished frame (a «zombie frame») in an internal
     field of the code object, reusing it the next time the code object
     is invoked.  (Original patch by Michael Hudson, modified by Armin
     Rigo and Richard Jones; committed at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)
     Frame objects are also slightly smaller, which may improve cache
     locality and reduce memory usage a bit.  (Contributed by Neal
     Norwitz.)

   * Python’s built-in exceptions are now new-style classes, a change
     that speeds up instantiation considerably.  Exception handling in
     Python 2.5 is therefore about 30% faster than in 2.4.  (Contributed
     by Richard Jones, Georg Brandl and Sean Reifschneider at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * Importing now caches the paths tried, recording whether they exist
     or not so that the interpreter makes fewer ‘open()’ and ‘stat()’
     calls on startup.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Georg
     Brandl.)


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Removed Modules,  Next: Build and C API Changes<10>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<16>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.13 New, Improved, and Removed Modules
------------------------------------------

The standard library received many enhancements and bug fixes in Python
2.5.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted
alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the
source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the SVN
logs for all the details.

   * The ‘audioop’ module now supports the a-LAW encoding, and the code
     for u-LAW encoding has been improved.  (Contributed by Lars
     Immisch.)

   * The *note codecs: 1c. module gained support for incremental codecs.
     The ‘codec.lookup()’ function now returns a ‘CodecInfo’ instance
     instead of a tuple.  ‘CodecInfo’ instances behave like a 4-tuple to
     preserve backward compatibility but also have the attributes
     ‘encode’, ‘decode’, ‘incrementalencoder’, ‘incrementaldecoder’,
     ‘streamwriter’, and ‘streamreader’.  Incremental codecs can receive
     input and produce output in multiple chunks; the output is the same
     as if the entire input was fed to the non-incremental codec.  See
     the ‘codecs’ module documentation for details.  (Designed and
     implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * The *note collections: 1e. module gained a new type, ‘defaultdict’,
     that subclasses the standard *note dict: 188. type.  The new type
     mostly behaves like a dictionary but constructs a default value
     when a key isn’t present, automatically adding it to the dictionary
     for the requested key value.

     The first argument to ‘defaultdict’’s constructor is a factory
     function that gets called whenever a key is requested but not
     found.  This factory function receives no arguments, so you can use
     built-in type constructors such as *note list(): 4d9. or *note
     int(): 326.  For example, you can make an index of words based on
     their initial letter like this:

          words = """Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita
          mi ritrovai per una selva oscura
          che la diritta via era smarrita""".lower().split()

          index = defaultdict(list)

          for w in words:
              init_letter = w[0]
              index[init_letter].append(w)

     Printing ‘index’ results in the following output:

          defaultdict(<type 'list'>, {'c': ['cammin', 'che'], 'e': ['era'],
                  'd': ['del', 'di', 'diritta'], 'm': ['mezzo', 'mi'],
                  'l': ['la'], 'o': ['oscura'], 'n': ['nel', 'nostra'],
                  'p': ['per'], 's': ['selva', 'smarrita'],
                  'r': ['ritrovai'], 'u': ['una'], 'v': ['vita', 'via']}

     (Contributed by Guido van Rossum.)

   * The ‘deque’ double-ended queue type supplied by the *note
     collections: 1e. module now has a ‘remove(value)’ method that
     removes the first occurrence of 'value' in the queue, raising *note
     ValueError: 277. if the value isn’t found.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * New module: The *note contextlib: 27. module contains helper
     functions for use with the new “*note with: 20a.” statement.  See
     section *note The contextlib module: 17b6. for more about this
     module.

   * New module: The ‘cProfile’ module is a C implementation of the
     existing ‘profile’ module that has much lower overhead.  The
     module’s interface is the same as ‘profile’: you run
     ‘cProfile.run('main()')’ to profile a function, can save profile
     data to a file, etc.  It’s not yet known if the Hotshot profiler,
     which is also written in C but doesn’t match the ‘profile’ module’s
     interface, will continue to be maintained in future versions of
     Python.  (Contributed by Armin Rigo.)

     Also, the *note pstats: b8. module for analyzing the data measured
     by the profiler now supports directing the output to any file
     object by supplying a 'stream' argument to the ‘Stats’ constructor.
     (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * The *note csv: 2c. module, which parses files in comma-separated
     value format, received several enhancements and a number of
     bugfixes.  You can now set the maximum size in bytes of a field by
     calling the ‘csv.field_size_limit(new_limit)’ function; omitting
     the 'new_limit' argument will return the currently set limit.  The
     ‘reader’ class now has a ‘line_num’ attribute that counts the
     number of physical lines read from the source; records can span
     multiple physical lines, so ‘line_num’ is not the same as the
     number of records read.

     The CSV parser is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields.
     Previously, if a line ended within a quoted field without a
     terminating newline character, a newline would be inserted into the
     returned field.  This behavior caused problems when reading files
     that contained carriage return characters within fields, so the
     code was changed to return the field without inserting newlines.
     As a consequence, if newlines embedded within fields are important,
     the input should be split into lines in a manner that preserves the
     newline characters.

     (Contributed by Skip Montanaro and Andrew McNamara.)

   * The *note datetime: 6e7. class in the *note datetime: 33. module
     now has a ‘strptime(string, format)’ method for parsing date
     strings, contributed by Josh Spoerri.  It uses the same format
     characters as *note time.strptime(): 17cf. and *note
     time.strftime(): 1592.:

          import datetime as dt

          ts = dt.datetime.strptime('10:13:15 2006-03-07',
                                    '%H:%M:%S %Y-%m-%d')

   * The ‘SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks()’ method in the *note
     difflib: 3a. module now guarantees to return a minimal list of
     blocks describing matching subsequences.  Previously, the algorithm
     would occasionally break a block of matching elements into two list
     entries.  (Enhancement by Tim Peters.)

   * The *note doctest: 3d. module gained a ‘SKIP’ option that keeps an
     example from being executed at all.  This is intended for code
     snippets that are usage examples intended for the reader and aren’t
     actually test cases.

     An 'encoding' parameter was added to the ‘testfile()’ function and
     the ‘DocFileSuite’ class to specify the file’s encoding.  This
     makes it easier to use non-ASCII characters in tests contained
     within a docstring.  (Contributed by Bjorn Tillenius.)

   * The *note email: 3e. package has been updated to version 4.0.
     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note fileinput: 5e. module was made more flexible.  Unicode
     filenames are now supported, and a 'mode' parameter that defaults
     to ‘"r"’ was added to the *note input(): 167d. function to allow
     opening files in binary or *note universal newlines: 10f1. mode.
     Another new parameter, 'openhook', lets you use a function other
     than *note open(): 32b. to open the input files.  Once you’re
     iterating over the set of files, the ‘FileInput’ object’s new *note
     fileno(): 17d0. returns the file descriptor for the currently
     opened file.  (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)

   * In the *note gc: 63. module, the new ‘get_count()’ function returns
     a 3-tuple containing the current collection counts for the three GC
     generations.  This is accounting information for the garbage
     collector; when these counts reach a specified threshold, a garbage
     collection sweep will be made.  The existing *note gc.collect():
     44f. function now takes an optional 'generation' argument of 0, 1,
     or 2 to specify which generation to collect.  (Contributed by Barry
     Warsaw.)

   * The ‘nsmallest()’ and ‘nlargest()’ functions in the *note heapq:
     6c. module now support a ‘key’ keyword parameter similar to the one
     provided by the *note min(): 12b9./*note max(): 12ba. functions and
     the ‘sort()’ methods.  For example:

          >>> import heapq
          >>> L = ["short", 'medium', 'longest', 'longer still']
          >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L)  # Return two lowest elements, lexicographically
          ['longer still', 'longest']
          >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L, key=len)   # Return two shortest elements
          ['short', 'medium']

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note itertools.islice(): f09. function now accepts ‘None’ for
     the start and step arguments.  This makes it more compatible with
     the attributes of slice objects, so that you can now write the
     following:

          s = slice(5)     # Create slice object
          itertools.islice(iterable, s.start, s.stop, s.step)

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note format(): 439. function in the *note locale: 89. module
     has been modified and two new functions were added,
     ‘format_string()’ and ‘currency()’.

     The *note format(): 439. function’s 'val' parameter could
     previously be a string as long as no more than one %char specifier
     appeared; now the parameter must be exactly one %char specifier
     with no surrounding text.  An optional 'monetary' parameter was
     also added which, if ‘True’, will use the locale’s rules for
     formatting currency in placing a separator between groups of three
     digits.

     To format strings with multiple %char specifiers, use the new
     ‘format_string()’ function that works like *note format(): 439. but
     also supports mixing %char specifiers with arbitrary text.

     A new ‘currency()’ function was also added that formats a number
     according to the current locale’s settings.

     (Contributed by Georg Brandl.)

   * The *note mailbox: 8e. module underwent a massive rewrite to add
     the capability to modify mailboxes in addition to reading them.  A
     new set of classes that include ‘mbox’, ‘MH’, and ‘Maildir’ are
     used to read mailboxes, and have an ‘add(message)’ method to add
     messages, ‘remove(key)’ to remove messages, and ‘lock()’/‘unlock()’
     to lock/unlock the mailbox.  The following example converts a
     maildir-format mailbox into an mbox-format one:

          import mailbox

          # 'factory=None' uses email.Message.Message as the class representing
          # individual messages.
          src = mailbox.Maildir('maildir', factory=None)
          dest = mailbox.mbox('/tmp/mbox')

          for msg in src:
              dest.add(msg)

     (Contributed by Gregory K. Johnson.  Funding was provided by
     Google’s 2005 Summer of Code.)

   * New module: the ‘msilib’ module allows creating Microsoft Installer
     ‘.msi’ files and CAB files.  Some support for reading the ‘.msi’
     database is also included.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

   * The ‘nis’ module now supports accessing domains other than the
     system default domain by supplying a 'domain' argument to the
     ‘nis.match()’ and ‘nis.maps()’ functions.  (Contributed by Ben
     Bell.)

   * The *note operator: a3. module’s ‘itemgetter()’ and ‘attrgetter()’
     functions now support multiple fields.  A call such as
     ‘operator.attrgetter('a', 'b')’ will return a function that
     retrieves the ‘a’ and ‘b’ attributes.  Combining this new feature
     with the ‘sort()’ method’s ‘key’ parameter lets you easily sort
     lists using multiple fields.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note optparse: a4. module was updated to version 1.5.1 of the
     Optik library.  The ‘OptionParser’ class gained an ‘epilog’
     attribute, a string that will be printed after the help message,
     and a ‘destroy()’ method to break reference cycles created by the
     object.  (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The *note os: a5. module underwent several changes.  The
     ‘stat_float_times’ variable now defaults to true, meaning that
     *note os.stat(): 4f5. will now return time values as floats.  (This
     doesn’t necessarily mean that ‘os.stat()’ will return times that
     are precise to fractions of a second; not all systems support such
     precision.)

     Constants named *note os.SEEK_SET: 1632, *note os.SEEK_CUR: 1633,
     and *note os.SEEK_END: 1634. have been added; these are the
     parameters to the *note os.lseek(): 14c3. function.  Two new
     constants for locking are *note os.O_SHLOCK: 17d1. and *note
     os.O_EXLOCK: 17d2.

     Two new functions, ‘wait3()’ and ‘wait4()’, were added.  They’re
     similar the ‘waitpid()’ function which waits for a child process to
     exit and returns a tuple of the process ID and its exit status, but
     ‘wait3()’ and ‘wait4()’ return additional information.  ‘wait3()’
     doesn’t take a process ID as input, so it waits for any child
     process to exit and returns a 3-tuple of 'process-id',
     'exit-status', 'resource-usage' as returned from the *note
     resource.getrusage(): 17d3. function.  ‘wait4(pid)’ does take a
     process ID. (Contributed by Chad J. Schroeder.)

     On FreeBSD, the *note os.stat(): 4f5. function now returns times
     with nanosecond resolution, and the returned object now has
     ‘st_gen’ and ‘st_birthtime’.  The ‘st_flags’ attribute is also
     available, if the platform supports it.  (Contributed by Antti
     Louko and Diego Pettenò.)

   * The Python debugger provided by the *note pdb: aa. module can now
     store lists of commands to execute when a breakpoint is reached and
     execution stops.  Once breakpoint #1 has been created, enter
     ‘commands 1’ and enter a series of commands to be executed,
     finishing the list with ‘end’.  The command list can include
     commands that resume execution, such as ‘continue’ or ‘next’.
     (Contributed by Grégoire Dooms.)

   * The *note pickle: ab. and ‘cPickle’ modules no longer accept a
     return value of ‘None’ from the *note __reduce__(): d97. method;
     the method must return a tuple of arguments instead.  The ability
     to return ‘None’ was deprecated in Python 2.4, so this completes
     the removal of the feature.

   * The *note pkgutil: ae. module, containing various utility functions
     for finding packages, was enhanced to support PEP 302(1)’s import
     hooks and now also works for packages stored in ZIP-format
     archives.  (Contributed by Phillip J. Eby.)

   * The pybench benchmark suite by Marc-André Lemburg is now included
     in the ‘Tools/pybench’ directory.  The pybench suite is an
     improvement on the commonly used ‘pystone.py’ program because
     pybench provides a more detailed measurement of the interpreter’s
     speed.  It times particular operations such as function calls,
     tuple slicing, method lookups, and numeric operations, instead of
     performing many different operations and reducing the result to a
     single number as ‘pystone.py’ does.

   * The ‘pyexpat’ module now uses version 2.0 of the Expat parser.
     (Contributed by Trent Mick.)

   * The *note Queue: 1738. class provided by the ‘Queue’ module gained
     two new methods.  ‘join()’ blocks until all items in the queue have
     been retrieved and all processing work on the items have been
     completed.  Worker threads call the other new method,
     ‘task_done()’, to signal that processing for an item has been
     completed.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The old ‘regex’ and ‘regsub’ modules, which have been deprecated
     ever since Python 2.0, have finally been deleted.  Other deleted
     modules: ‘statcache’, ‘tzparse’, ‘whrandom’.

   * Also deleted: the ‘lib-old’ directory, which includes ancient
     modules such as ‘dircmp’ and ‘ni’, was removed.  ‘lib-old’ wasn’t
     on the default ‘sys.path’, so unless your programs explicitly added
     the directory to ‘sys.path’, this removal shouldn’t affect your
     code.

   * The *note rlcompleter: c5. module is no longer dependent on
     importing the *note readline: c2. module and therefore now works on
     non-Unix platforms.  (Patch from Robert Kiendl.)

   * The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 138. and ‘DocXMLRPCServer’ classes
     now have a ‘rpc_paths’ attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations
     to a limited set of URL paths; the default is to allow only ‘'/'’
     and ‘'/RPC2'’.  Setting ‘rpc_paths’ to ‘None’ or an empty tuple
     disables this path checking.

   * The *note socket: d4. module now supports ‘AF_NETLINK’ sockets on
     Linux, thanks to a patch from Philippe Biondi.  Netlink sockets are
     a Linux-specific mechanism for communications between a user-space
     process and kernel code; an introductory article about them is at
     ‘https://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7356’.  In Python code,
     netlink addresses are represented as a tuple of 2 integers, ‘(pid,
     group_mask)’.

     Two new methods on socket objects, ‘recv_into(buffer)’ and
     ‘recvfrom_into(buffer)’, store the received data in an object that
     supports the buffer protocol instead of returning the data as a
     string.  This means you can put the data directly into an array or
     a memory-mapped file.

     Socket objects also gained ‘getfamily()’, ‘gettype()’, and
     ‘getproto()’ accessor methods to retrieve the family, type, and
     protocol values for the socket.

   * New module: the ‘spwd’ module provides functions for accessing the
     shadow password database on systems that support shadow passwords.

   * The *note struct: de. is now faster because it compiles format
     strings into ‘Struct’ objects with ‘pack()’ and ‘unpack()’ methods.
     This is similar to how the *note re: c1. module lets you create
     compiled regular expression objects.  You can still use the
     module-level ‘pack()’ and ‘unpack()’ functions; they’ll create
     ‘Struct’ objects and cache them.  Or you can use ‘Struct’ instances
     directly:

          s = struct.Struct('ih3s')

          data = s.pack(1972, 187, 'abc')
          year, number, name = s.unpack(data)

     You can also pack and unpack data to and from buffer objects
     directly using the ‘pack_into(buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)’ and
     ‘unpack_from(buffer, offset)’ methods.  This lets you store data
     directly into an array or a memory-mapped file.

     (‘Struct’ objects were implemented by Bob Ippolito at the
     NeedForSpeed sprint.  Support for buffer objects was added by
     Martin Blais, also at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * The Python developers switched from CVS to Subversion during the
     2.5 development process.  Information about the exact build version
     is available as the ‘sys.subversion’ variable, a 3-tuple of
     ‘(interpreter-name, branch-name, revision-range)’.  For example, at
     the time of writing my copy of 2.5 was reporting ‘('CPython',
     'trunk', '45313:45315')’.

     This information is also available to C extensions via the *note
     Py_GetBuildInfo(): 17d4. function that returns a string of build
     information like this: ‘"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006,
     07:42:19"’.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * Another new function, *note sys._current_frames(): 17d5, returns
     the current stack frames for all running threads as a dictionary
     mapping thread identifiers to the topmost stack frame currently
     active in that thread at the time the function is called.
     (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * The ‘TarFile’ class in the *note tarfile: e7. module now has an
     ‘extractall()’ method that extracts all members from the archive
     into the current working directory.  It’s also possible to set a
     different directory as the extraction target, and to unpack only a
     subset of the archive’s members.

     The compression used for a tarfile opened in stream mode can now be
     autodetected using the mode ‘'r|*'’.  (Contributed by Lars
     Gustäbel.)

   * The *note threading: f6. module now lets you set the stack size
     used when new threads are created.  The ‘stack_size([*size*])’
     function returns the currently configured stack size, and supplying
     the optional 'size' parameter sets a new value.  Not all platforms
     support changing the stack size, but Windows, POSIX threading, and
     OS/2 all do.  (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)

   * The *note unicodedata: 10e. module has been updated to use version
     4.1.0 of the Unicode character database.  Version 3.2.0 is required
     by some specifications, so it’s still available as *note
     unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0: 17d6.

   * New module: the *note uuid: 119. module generates universally
     unique identifiers (UUIDs) according to RFC 4122(2).  The RFC
     defines several different UUID versions that are generated from a
     starting string, from system properties, or purely randomly.  This
     module contains a ‘UUID’ class and functions named ‘uuid1()’,
     ‘uuid3()’, ‘uuid4()’, and ‘uuid5()’ to generate different versions
     of UUID. (Version 2 UUIDs are not specified in RFC 4122(3) and are
     not supported by this module.)

          >>> import uuid
          >>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time
          >>> uuid.uuid1()
          UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')

          >>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
          >>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
          UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')

          >>> # make a random UUID
          >>> uuid.uuid4()
          UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')

          >>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
          >>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
          UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')

     (Contributed by Ka-Ping Yee.)

   * The *note weakref: 11d. module’s ‘WeakKeyDictionary’ and
     ‘WeakValueDictionary’ types gained new methods for iterating over
     the weak references contained in the dictionary.  ‘iterkeyrefs()’
     and ‘keyrefs()’ methods were added to ‘WeakKeyDictionary’, and
     ‘itervaluerefs()’ and ‘valuerefs()’ were added to
     ‘WeakValueDictionary’.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * The *note webbrowser: 11e. module received a number of
     enhancements.  It’s now usable as a script with ‘python -m
     webbrowser’, taking a URL as the argument; there are a number of
     switches to control the behaviour (‘-n’ for a new browser window,
     ‘-t’ for a new tab).  New module-level functions, ‘open_new()’ and
     ‘open_new_tab()’, were added to support this.  The module’s *note
     open(): 32b. function supports an additional feature, an
     'autoraise' parameter that signals whether to raise the open window
     when possible.  A number of additional browsers were added to the
     supported list such as Firefox, Opera, Konqueror, and elinks.
     (Contributed by Oleg Broytmann and Georg Brandl.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 137. module now supports returning *note
     datetime: 6e7. objects for the XML-RPC date type.  Supply
     ‘use_datetime=True’ to the *note loads(): 17d7. function or the
     ‘Unmarshaller’ class to enable this feature.  (Contributed by Skip
     Montanaro.)

   * The *note zipfile: 13a. module now supports the ZIP64 version of
     the format, meaning that a .zip archive can now be larger than 4
     GiB and can contain individual files larger than 4 GiB.
     (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.)

   * The *note zlib: 13c. module’s ‘Compress’ and ‘Decompress’ objects
     now support a *note copy(): 29. method that makes a copy of the
     object’s internal state and returns a new ‘Compress’ or
     ‘Decompress’ object.  (Contributed by Chris AtLee.)

* Menu:

* The ctypes package::
* The ElementTree package::
* The hashlib package::
* The sqlite3 package::
* The wsgiref package::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html


File: python.info,  Node: The ctypes package,  Next: The ElementTree package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.20.13.1 The ctypes package
............................

The *note ctypes: 2d. package, written by Thomas Heller, has been added
to the standard library.  ‘ctypes’ lets you call arbitrary functions in
shared libraries or DLLs.  Long-time users may remember the ‘dl’ module,
which provides functions for loading shared libraries and calling
functions in them.  The ‘ctypes’ package is much fancier.

To load a shared library or DLL, you must create an instance of the
‘CDLL’ class and provide the name or path of the shared library or DLL.
Once that’s done, you can call arbitrary functions by accessing them as
attributes of the ‘CDLL’ object.

     import ctypes

     libc = ctypes.CDLL('libc.so.6')
     result = libc.printf("Line of output\n")

Type constructors for the various C types are provided: ‘c_int()’,
‘c_float()’, ‘c_double()’, ‘c_char_p()’ (equivalent to char*), and so
forth.  Unlike Python’s types, the C versions are all mutable; you can
assign to their ‘value’ attribute to change the wrapped value.  Python
integers and strings will be automatically converted to the
corresponding C types, but for other types you must call the correct
type constructor.  (And I mean 'must'; getting it wrong will often
result in the interpreter crashing with a segmentation fault.)

You shouldn’t use ‘c_char_p()’ with a Python string when the C function
will be modifying the memory area, because Python strings are supposed
to be immutable; breaking this rule will cause puzzling bugs.  When you
need a modifiable memory area, use ‘create_string_buffer()’:

     s = "this is a string"
     buf = ctypes.create_string_buffer(s)
     libc.strfry(buf)

C functions are assumed to return integers, but you can set the
‘restype’ attribute of the function object to change this:

     >>> libc.atof('2.71828')
     -1783957616
     >>> libc.atof.restype = ctypes.c_double
     >>> libc.atof('2.71828')
     2.71828

*note ctypes: 2d. also provides a wrapper for Python’s C API as the
‘ctypes.pythonapi’ object.  This object does 'not' release the global
interpreter lock before calling a function, because the lock must be
held when calling into the interpreter’s code.  There’s a *note
py_object: 486. type constructor that will create a *note PyObject:
19b.* pointer.  A simple usage:

     import ctypes

     d = {}
     ctypes.pythonapi.PyObject_SetItem(ctypes.py_object(d),
               ctypes.py_object("abc"),  ctypes.py_object(1))
     # d is now {'abc', 1}.

Don’t forget to use *note py_object(): 486.; if it’s omitted you end up
with a segmentation fault.

*note ctypes: 2d. has been around for a while, but people still write
and distribution hand-coded extension modules because you can’t rely on
‘ctypes’ being present.  Perhaps developers will begin to write Python
wrappers atop a library accessed through ‘ctypes’ instead of extension
modules, now that ‘ctypes’ is included with core Python.

Δείτε επίσης
............

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180410025338/http://starship.python.net/crew/theller/ctypes/’

     The pre-stdlib ctypes web page, with a tutorial, reference, and
     FAQ.

The documentation for the *note ctypes: 2d. module.


File: python.info,  Node: The ElementTree package,  Next: The hashlib package,  Prev: The ctypes package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.20.13.2 The ElementTree package
.................................

A subset of Fredrik Lundh’s ElementTree library for processing XML has
been added to the standard library as ‘xml.etree’.  The available
modules are ‘ElementTree’, ‘ElementPath’, and ‘ElementInclude’ from
ElementTree 1.2.6.  The ‘cElementTree’ accelerator module is also
included.

The rest of this section will provide a brief overview of using
ElementTree.  Full documentation for ElementTree is available at
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm’.

ElementTree represents an XML document as a tree of element nodes.  The
text content of the document is stored as the ‘text’ and ‘tail’
attributes of (This is one of the major differences between ElementTree
and the Document Object Model; in the DOM there are many different types
of node, including ‘TextNode’.)

The most commonly used parsing function is ‘parse()’, that takes either
a string (assumed to contain a filename) or a file-like object and
returns an ‘ElementTree’ instance:

     from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET

     tree = ET.parse('ex-1.xml')

     feed = urllib.urlopen(
               'http://planet.python.org/rss10.xml')
     tree = ET.parse(feed)

Once you have an ‘ElementTree’ instance, you can call its ‘getroot()’
method to get the root ‘Element’ node.

There’s also an ‘XML()’ function that takes a string literal and returns
an ‘Element’ node (not an ‘ElementTree’).  This function provides a tidy
way to incorporate XML fragments, approaching the convenience of an XML
literal:

     svg = ET.XML("""<svg width="10px" version="1.0">
                  </svg>""")
     svg.set('height', '320px')
     svg.append(elem1)

Each XML element supports some dictionary-like and some list-like access
methods.  Dictionary-like operations are used to access attribute
values, and list-like operations are used to access child nodes.

Operation                           Result
                                    
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘elem[n]’                           Returns n’th child element.
                                    
                                    
‘elem[m:n]’                         Returns list of m’th through n’th child
                                    elements.
                                    
                                    
‘len(elem)’                         Returns number of child elements.
                                    
                                    
‘list(elem)’                        Returns list of child elements.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.append(elem2)’                Adds 'elem2' as a child.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.insert(index, elem2)’         Inserts 'elem2' at the specified location.
                                    
                                    
‘del elem[n]’                       Deletes n’th child element.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.keys()’                       Returns list of attribute names.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.get(name)’                    Returns value of attribute 'name'.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.set(name, value)’             Sets new value for attribute 'name'.
                                    
                                    
‘elem.attrib’                       Retrieves the dictionary containing
                                    attributes.
                                    
                                    
‘del elem.attrib[name]’             Deletes attribute 'name'.
                                    

Comments and processing instructions are also represented as ‘Element’
nodes.  To check if a node is a comment or processing instructions:

     if elem.tag is ET.Comment:
         ...
     elif elem.tag is ET.ProcessingInstruction:
         ...

To generate XML output, you should call the ‘ElementTree.write()’
method.  Like ‘parse()’, it can take either a string or a file-like
object:

     # Encoding is US-ASCII
     tree.write('output.xml')

     # Encoding is UTF-8
     f = open('output.xml', 'w')
     tree.write(f, encoding='utf-8')

(Caution: the default encoding used for output is ASCII. For general XML
work, where an element’s name may contain arbitrary Unicode characters,
ASCII isn’t a very useful encoding because it will raise an exception if
an element’s name contains any characters with values greater than 127.
Therefore, it’s best to specify a different encoding such as UTF-8 that
can handle any Unicode character.)

This section is only a partial description of the ElementTree
interfaces.  Please read the package’s official documentation for more
details.

Δείτε επίσης
............

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm’

     Official documentation for ElementTree.


File: python.info,  Node: The hashlib package,  Next: The sqlite3 package,  Prev: The ElementTree package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.20.13.3 The hashlib package
.............................

A new *note hashlib: 6b. module, written by Gregory P. Smith, has been
added to replace the ‘md5’ and ‘sha’ modules.  ‘hashlib’ adds support
for additional secure hashes (SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512).
When available, the module uses OpenSSL for fast platform optimized
implementations of algorithms.

The old ‘md5’ and ‘sha’ modules still exist as wrappers around hashlib
to preserve backwards compatibility.  The new module’s interface is very
close to that of the old modules, but not identical.  The most
significant difference is that the constructor functions for creating
new hashing objects are named differently.

     # Old versions
     h = md5.md5()
     h = md5.new()

     # New version
     h = hashlib.md5()

     # Old versions
     h = sha.sha()
     h = sha.new()

     # New version
     h = hashlib.sha1()

     # Hash that weren't previously available
     h = hashlib.sha224()
     h = hashlib.sha256()
     h = hashlib.sha384()
     h = hashlib.sha512()

     # Alternative form
     h = hashlib.new('md5')          # Provide algorithm as a string

Once a hash object has been created, its methods are the same as before:
‘update(string)’ hashes the specified string into the current digest
state, ‘digest()’ and ‘hexdigest()’ return the digest value as a binary
string or a string of hex digits, and *note copy(): 29. returns a new
hashing object with the same digest state.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The documentation for the *note hashlib: 6b. module.


File: python.info,  Node: The sqlite3 package,  Next: The wsgiref package,  Prev: The hashlib package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.20.13.4 The sqlite3 package
.............................

The pysqlite module (‘https://www.pysqlite.org’), a wrapper for the
SQLite embedded database, has been added to the standard library under
the package name *note sqlite3: d7.

SQLite is a C library that provides a lightweight disk-based database
that doesn’t require a separate server process and allows accessing the
database using a nonstandard variant of the SQL query language.  Some
applications can use SQLite for internal data storage.  It’s also
possible to prototype an application using SQLite and then port the code
to a larger database such as PostgreSQL or Oracle.

pysqlite was written by Gerhard Häring and provides a SQL interface
compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by PEP 249(1).

If you’re compiling the Python source yourself, note that the source
tree doesn’t include the SQLite code, only the wrapper module.  You’ll
need to have the SQLite libraries and headers installed before compiling
Python, and the build process will compile the module when the necessary
headers are available.

To use the module, you must first create a ‘Connection’ object that
represents the database.  Here the data will be stored in the
‘/tmp/example’ file:

     conn = sqlite3.connect('/tmp/example')

You can also supply the special name ‘:memory:’ to create a database in
RAM.

Once you have a ‘Connection’, you can create a ‘Cursor’ object and call
its ‘execute()’ method to perform SQL commands:

     c = conn.cursor()

     # Create table
     c.execute('''create table stocks
     (date text, trans text, symbol text,
      qty real, price real)''')

     # Insert a row of data
     c.execute("""insert into stocks
               values ('2006-01-05','BUY','RHAT',100,35.14)""")

Usually your SQL operations will need to use values from Python
variables.  You shouldn’t assemble your query using Python’s string
operations because doing so is insecure; it makes your program
vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.

Instead, use the DB-API’s parameter substitution.  Put ‘?’ as a
placeholder wherever you want to use a value, and then provide a tuple
of values as the second argument to the cursor’s ‘execute()’ method.
(Other database modules may use a different placeholder, such as ‘%s’ or
‘:1’.)  For example:

     # Never do this -- insecure!
     symbol = 'IBM'
     c.execute("... where symbol = '%s'" % symbol)

     # Do this instead
     t = (symbol,)
     c.execute('select * from stocks where symbol=?', t)

     # Larger example
     for t in (('2006-03-28', 'BUY', 'IBM', 1000, 45.00),
               ('2006-04-05', 'BUY', 'MSOFT', 1000, 72.00),
               ('2006-04-06', 'SELL', 'IBM', 500, 53.00),
              ):
         c.execute('insert into stocks values (?,?,?,?,?)', t)

To retrieve data after executing a SELECT statement, you can either
treat the cursor as an iterator, call the cursor’s ‘fetchone()’ method
to retrieve a single matching row, or call ‘fetchall()’ to get a list of
the matching rows.

This example uses the iterator form:

     >>> c = conn.cursor()
     >>> c.execute('select * from stocks order by price')
     >>> for row in c:
     ...    print row
     ...
     (u'2006-01-05', u'BUY', u'RHAT', 100, 35.140000000000001)
     (u'2006-03-28', u'BUY', u'IBM', 1000, 45.0)
     (u'2006-04-06', u'SELL', u'IBM', 500, 53.0)
     (u'2006-04-05', u'BUY', u'MSOFT', 1000, 72.0)
     >>>

For more information about the SQL dialect supported by SQLite, see
‘https://www.sqlite.org’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

‘https://www.pysqlite.org’

     The pysqlite web page.

‘https://www.sqlite.org’

     The SQLite web page; the documentation describes the syntax and the
     available data types for the supported SQL dialect.

The documentation for the *note sqlite3: d7. module.

PEP 249(2) - Database API Specification 2.0

     PEP written by Marc-André Lemburg.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: The wsgiref package,  Prev: The sqlite3 package,  Up: New Improved and Removed Modules

1.20.13.5 The wsgiref package
.............................

The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) v1.0 defines a standard
interface between web servers and Python web applications and is
described in PEP 333(1).  The *note wsgiref: 121. package is a reference
implementation of the WSGI specification.

The package includes a basic HTTP server that will run a WSGI
application; this server is useful for debugging but isn’t intended for
production use.  Setting up a server takes only a few lines of code:

     from wsgiref import simple_server

     wsgi_app = ...

     host = ''
     port = 8000
     httpd = simple_server.make_server(host, port, wsgi_app)
     httpd.serve_forever()

Δείτε επίσης
............

‘https://web.archive.org/web/20160331090247/http://wsgi.readthedocs.org/en/latest/’

     A central web site for WSGI-related resources.

PEP 333(2) - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0

     PEP written by Phillip J. Eby.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<10>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 5,  Prev: New Improved and Removed Modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.14 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * The Python source tree was converted from CVS to Subversion, in a
     complex migration procedure that was supervised and flawlessly
     carried out by Martin von Löwis.  The procedure was developed as
     PEP 347(1).

   * Coverity, a company that markets a source code analysis tool called
     Prevent, provided the results of their examination of the Python
     source code.  The analysis found about 60 bugs that were quickly
     fixed.  Many of the bugs were refcounting problems, often occurring
     in error-handling code.  See ‘https://scan.coverity.com’ for the
     statistics.

   * The largest change to the C API came from PEP 353(2), which
     modifies the interpreter to use a *note Py_ssize_t: e24. type
     definition instead of int.  See the earlier section *note PEP 353;
     Using ssize_t as the index type: 17ba. for a discussion of this
     change.

   * The design of the bytecode compiler has changed a great deal, no
     longer generating bytecode by traversing the parse tree.  Instead
     the parse tree is converted to an abstract syntax tree (or AST),
     and it is the abstract syntax tree that’s traversed to produce the
     bytecode.

     It’s possible for Python code to obtain AST objects by using the
     *note compile(): 1c8. built-in and specifying ‘_ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’
     as the value of the 'flags' parameter:

          from _ast import PyCF_ONLY_AST
          ast = compile("""a=0
          for i in range(10):
              a += i
          """, "<string>", 'exec', PyCF_ONLY_AST)

          assignment = ast.body[0]
          for_loop = ast.body[1]

     No official documentation has been written for the AST code yet,
     but PEP 339(3) discusses the design.  To start learning about the
     code, read the definition of the various AST nodes in
     ‘Parser/Python.asdl’.  A Python script reads this file and
     generates a set of C structure definitions in
     ‘Include/Python-ast.h’.  The ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’ and
     ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’, defined in ‘Include/pythonrun.h’, take
     Python source as input and return the root of an AST representing
     the contents.  This AST can then be turned into a code object by
     ‘PyAST_Compile()’.  For more information, read the source code, and
     then ask questions on python-dev.

     The AST code was developed under Jeremy Hylton’s management, and
     implemented by (in alphabetical order) Brett Cannon, Nick Coghlan,
     Grant Edwards, John Ehresman, Kurt Kaiser, Neal Norwitz, Tim
     Peters, Armin Rigo, and Neil Schemenauer, plus the participants in
     a number of AST sprints at conferences such as PyCon.

   * Evan Jones’s patch to obmalloc, first described in a talk at PyCon
     DC 2005, was applied.  Python 2.4 allocated small objects in
     256K-sized arenas, but never freed arenas.  With this patch, Python
     will free arenas when they’re empty.  The net effect is that on
     some platforms, when you allocate many objects, Python’s memory
     usage may actually drop when you delete them and the memory may be
     returned to the operating system.  (Implemented by Evan Jones, and
     reworked by Tim Peters.)

     Note that this change means extension modules must be more careful
     when allocating memory.  Python’s API has many different functions
     for allocating memory that are grouped into families.  For example,
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 13da, and *note
     PyMem_Free(): 17e4. are one family that allocates raw memory, while
     *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 17e5, and
     *note PyObject_Free(): 1023. are another family that’s supposed to
     be used for creating Python objects.

     Previously these different families all reduced to the platform’s
     ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ functions.  This meant it didn’t matter if
     you got things wrong and allocated memory with the ‘PyMem’ function
     but freed it with the ‘PyObject’ function.  With 2.5’s changes to
     obmalloc, these families now do different things and mismatches
     will probably result in a segfault.  You should carefully test your
     C extension modules with Python 2.5.

   * The built-in set types now have an official C API. Call *note
     PySet_New(): 17e6. and *note PyFrozenSet_New(): 17e7. to create a
     new set, *note PySet_Add(): 17e8. and *note PySet_Discard(): 17e9.
     to add and remove elements, and *note PySet_Contains(): 17ea. and
     *note PySet_Size(): 17eb. to examine the set’s state.  (Contributed
     by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * C code can now obtain information about the exact revision of the
     Python interpreter by calling the *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 17d4.
     function that returns a string of build information like this:
     ‘"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006, 07:42:19"’.  (Contributed by
     Barry Warsaw.)

   * Two new macros can be used to indicate C functions that are local
     to the current file so that a faster calling convention can be
     used.  *note Py_LOCAL: 17ec. declares the function as returning a
     value of the specified 'type' and uses a fast-calling qualifier.
     *note Py_LOCAL_INLINE: 17ed. does the same thing and also requests
     the function be inlined.  If macro ‘PY_LOCAL_AGGRESSIVE’ is defined
     before ‘python.h’ is included, a set of more aggressive
     optimizations are enabled for the module; you should benchmark the
     results to find out if these optimizations actually make the code
     faster.  (Contributed by Fredrik Lundh at the NeedForSpeed sprint.)

   * ‘PyErr_NewException(name, base, dict)’ can now accept a tuple of
     base classes as its 'base' argument.  (Contributed by Georg
     Brandl.)

   * The ‘PyErr_Warn()’ function for issuing warnings is now deprecated
     in favour of ‘PyErr_WarnEx(category, message, stacklevel)’ which
     lets you specify the number of stack frames separating this
     function and the caller.  A 'stacklevel' of 1 is the function
     calling *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 17ee, 2 is the function above that,
     and so forth.  (Added by Neal Norwitz.)

   * The CPython interpreter is still written in C, but the code can now
     be compiled with a C++ compiler without errors.  (Implemented by
     Anthony Baxter, Martin von Löwis, Skip Montanaro.)

   * The ‘PyRange_New()’ function was removed.  It was never documented,
     never used in the core code, and had dangerously lax error
     checking.  In the unlikely case that your extensions were using it,
     you can replace it by something like the following:

          range = PyObject_CallFunction((PyObject*) &PyRange_Type, "lll",
                                        start, stop, step);

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0347/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0339/


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes,  Up: Build and C API Changes<10>

1.20.14.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

   * MacOS X (10.3 and higher): dynamic loading of modules now uses the
     ‘dlopen()’ function instead of MacOS-specific functions.

   * MacOS X: an ‘--enable-universalsdk’ switch was added to the
     ‘configure’ script that compiles the interpreter as a universal
     binary able to run on both PowerPC and Intel processors.
     (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-2573(1).)

   * Windows: ‘.dll’ is no longer supported as a filename extension for
     extension modules.  ‘.pyd’ is now the only filename extension that
     will be searched for.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2573


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 5,  Next: Acknowledgements<3>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<10>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.15 Porting to Python 2.5
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * ASCII is now the default encoding for modules.  It’s now a syntax
     error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters
     but doesn’t have an encoding declaration.  In Python 2.4 this
     triggered a warning, not a syntax error.

   * Previously, the ‘gi_frame’ attribute of a generator was always a
     frame object.  Because of the PEP 342(1) changes described in
     section *note PEP 342; New Generator Features: 17a6, it’s now
     possible for ‘gi_frame’ to be ‘None’.

   * A new warning, *note UnicodeWarning: 17c6, is triggered when you
     attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can’t
     be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding.
     Previously such comparisons would raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError:
     dd7. exception.

   * Library: the *note csv: 2c. module is now stricter about multi-line
     quoted fields.  If your files contain newlines embedded within
     fields, the input should be split into lines in a manner which
     preserves the newline characters.

   * Library: the *note locale: 89. module’s *note format(): 439.
     function’s would previously accept any string as long as no more
     than one %char specifier appeared.  In Python 2.5, the argument
     must be exactly one %char specifier with no surrounding text.

   * Library: The *note pickle: ab. and ‘cPickle’ modules no longer
     accept a return value of ‘None’ from the *note __reduce__(): d97.
     method; the method must return a tuple of arguments instead.  The
     modules also no longer accept the deprecated 'bin' keyword
     parameter.

   * Library: The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 138. and ‘DocXMLRPCServer’
     classes now have a ‘rpc_paths’ attribute that constrains XML-RPC
     operations to a limited set of URL paths; the default is to allow
     only ‘'/'’ and ‘'/RPC2'’.  Setting ‘rpc_paths’ to ‘None’ or an
     empty tuple disables this path checking.

   * C API: Many functions now use *note Py_ssize_t: e24. instead of int
     to allow processing more data on 64-bit machines.  Extension code
     may need to make the same change to avoid warnings and to support
     64-bit machines.  See the earlier section *note PEP 353; Using
     ssize_t as the index type: 17ba. for a discussion of this change.

   * C API: The obmalloc changes mean that you must be careful to not
     mix usage of the ‘PyMem_*’ and ‘PyObject_*’ families of functions.
     Memory allocated with one family’s ‘*_Malloc’ must be freed with
     the corresponding family’s ‘*_Free’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<3>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 5,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 5

1.20.16 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Georg Brandl, Nick Coghlan, Phillip J. Eby, Lars Gustäbel,
Raymond Hettinger, Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve, Kent Johnson, Iain Lowe,
Martin von Löwis, Fredrik Lundh, Andrew McNamara, Skip Montanaro,
Gustavo Niemeyer, Paul Prescod, James Pryor, Mike Rovner, Scott Weikart,
Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 4,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 3,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 5,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.21 What’s New in Python 2.4
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.4.1, released on
March 30, 2005.

Python 2.4 is a medium-sized release.  It doesn’t introduce as many
changes as the radical Python 2.2, but introduces more features than the
conservative 2.3 release.  The most significant new language features
are function decorators and generator expressions; most other changes
are to the standard library.

According to the CVS change logs, there were 481 patches applied and 502
bugs fixed between Python 2.3 and 2.4.  Both figures are likely to be
underestimates.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of
every single new feature, but instead provides a brief introduction to
each feature.  For full details, you should refer to the documentation
for Python 2.4, such as the Python Library Reference and the Python
Reference Manual.  Often you will be referred to the PEP for a
particular new feature for explanations of the implementation and design
rationale.

* Menu:

* PEP 218; Built-In Set Objects: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
* PEP 289; Generator Expressions: PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
* PEP 292; Simpler String Substitutions: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
* PEP 318; Decorators for Functions and Methods: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
* PEP 322; Reverse Iteration: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
* PEP 324; New subprocess Module: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
* PEP 327; Decimal Data Type: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type.
* PEP 328; Multi-line Imports: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
* PEP 331; Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<17>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<11>.
* Porting to Python 2.4: Porting to Python 2 4.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects,  Next: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.1 PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
------------------------------------

Python 2.3 introduced the ‘sets’ module.  C implementations of set data
types have now been added to the Python core as two new built-in types,
‘set(iterable)’ and ‘frozenset(iterable)’.  They provide high speed
operations for membership testing, for eliminating duplicates from
sequences, and for mathematical operations like unions, intersections,
differences, and symmetric differences.

     >>> a = set('abracadabra')              # form a set from a string
     >>> 'z' in a                            # fast membership testing
     False
     >>> a                                   # unique letters in a
     set(['a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'])
     >>> ''.join(a)                          # convert back into a string
     'arbcd'

     >>> b = set('alacazam')                 # form a second set
     >>> a - b                               # letters in a but not in b
     set(['r', 'd', 'b'])
     >>> a | b                               # letters in either a or b
     set(['a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])
     >>> a & b                               # letters in both a and b
     set(['a', 'c'])
     >>> a ^ b                               # letters in a or b but not both
     set(['r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'])

     >>> a.add('z')                          # add a new element
     >>> a.update('wxy')                     # add multiple new elements
     >>> a
     set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'x', 'z'])
     >>> a.remove('x')                       # take one element out
     >>> a
     set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'z'])

The *note frozenset(): 9d4. type is an immutable version of *note set():
42b.  Since it is immutable and hashable, it may be used as a dictionary
key or as a member of another set.

The ‘sets’ module remains in the standard library, and may be useful if
you wish to subclass the ‘Set’ or ‘ImmutableSet’ classes.  There are
currently no plans to deprecate the module.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 218(1) - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type

     Originally proposed by Greg Wilson and ultimately implemented by
     Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Next: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Prev: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.2 PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
---------------------------------------------------

The lengthy transition process for this PEP, begun in Python 2.2, takes
another step forward in Python 2.4.  In 2.3, certain integer operations
that would behave differently after int/long unification triggered *note
FutureWarning: 847. warnings and returned values limited to 32 or 64
bits (depending on your platform).  In 2.4, these expressions no longer
produce a warning and instead produce a different result that’s usually
a long integer.

The problematic expressions are primarily left shifts and lengthy
hexadecimal and octal constants.  For example, ‘2 << 32’ results in a
warning in 2.3, evaluating to 0 on 32-bit platforms.  In Python 2.4,
this expression now returns the correct answer, 8589934592.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 237(1) - Unifying Long Integers and Integers

     Original PEP written by Moshe Zadka and GvR. The changes for 2.4
     were implemented by Kalle Svensson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Next: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Prev: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.3 PEP 289: Generator Expressions
-------------------------------------

The iterator feature introduced in Python 2.2 and the *note itertools:
84. module make it easier to write programs that loop through large data
sets without having the entire data set in memory at one time.  List
comprehensions don’t fit into this picture very well because they
produce a Python list object containing all of the items.  This
unavoidably pulls all of the objects into memory, which can be a problem
if your data set is very large.  When trying to write a functionally
styled program, it would be natural to write something like:

     links = [link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed]
     for link in links:
         ...

instead of

     for link in get_all_links():
         if link.followed:
             continue
         ...

The first form is more concise and perhaps more readable, but if you’re
dealing with a large number of link objects you’d have to write the
second form to avoid having all link objects in memory at the same time.

Generator expressions work similarly to list comprehensions but don’t
materialize the entire list; instead they create a generator that will
return elements one by one.  The above example could be written as:

     links = (link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed)
     for link in links:
         ...

Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, as
in the above example.  The parentheses signalling a function call also
count, so if you want to create an iterator that will be immediately
passed to a function you could write:

     print sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())

Generator expressions differ from list comprehensions in various small
ways.  Most notably, the loop variable ('obj' in the above example) is
not accessible outside of the generator expression.  List comprehensions
leave the variable assigned to its last value; future versions of Python
will change this, making list comprehensions match generator expressions
in this respect.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 289(1) - Generator Expressions

     Proposed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Jiwon Seo with
     early efforts steered by Hye-Shik Chang.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Next: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Prev: PEP 289 Generator Expressions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.4 PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
--------------------------------------------

Some new classes in the standard library provide an alternative
mechanism for substituting variables into strings; this style of
substitution may be better for applications where untrained users need
to edit templates.

The usual way of substituting variables by name is the ‘%’ operator:

     >>> '%(page)i: %(title)s' % {'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'}
     '2: The Best of Times'

When writing the template string, it can be easy to forget the ‘i’ or
‘s’ after the closing parenthesis.  This isn’t a big problem if the
template is in a Python module, because you run the code, get an
«Unsupported format character» *note ValueError: 277, and fix the
problem.  However, consider an application such as Mailman where
template strings or translations are being edited by users who aren’t
aware of the Python language.  The format string’s syntax is complicated
to explain to such users, and if they make a mistake, it’s difficult to
provide helpful feedback to them.

PEP 292 adds a ‘Template’ class to the *note string: db. module that
uses ‘$’ to indicate a substitution:

     >>> import string
     >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
     >>> t.substitute({'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'})
     '2: The Best of Times'

If a key is missing from the dictionary, the ‘substitute()’ method will
raise a *note KeyError: 7df.  There’s also a ‘safe_substitute()’ method
that ignores missing keys:

     >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title')
     >>> t.safe_substitute({'page':3})
     '3: $title'

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 292(1) - Simpler String Substitutions

     Written and implemented by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0292/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Next: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Prev: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.5 PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
----------------------------------------------------

Python 2.2 extended Python’s object model by adding static methods and
class methods, but it didn’t extend Python’s syntax to provide any new
way of defining static or class methods.  Instead, you had to write a
*note def: 17fc. statement in the usual way, and pass the resulting
method to a *note staticmethod(): 666. or *note classmethod(): 69a.
function that would wrap up the function as a method of the new type.
Your code would look like this:

     class C:
        def meth (cls):
            ...

        meth = classmethod(meth)   # Rebind name to wrapped-up class method

If the method was very long, it would be easy to miss or forget the
*note classmethod(): 69a. invocation after the function body.

The intention was always to add some syntax to make such definitions
more readable, but at the time of 2.2’s release a good syntax was not
obvious.  Today a good syntax 'still' isn’t obvious but users are asking
for easier access to the feature; a new syntactic feature has been added
to meet this need.

The new feature is called «function decorators».  The name comes from
the idea that *note classmethod(): 69a, *note staticmethod(): 666, and
friends are storing additional information on a function object; they’re
'decorating' functions with more details.

The notation borrows from Java and uses the ‘'@'’ character as an
indicator.  Using the new syntax, the example above would be written:

     class C:

        @classmethod
        def meth (cls):
            ...

The ‘@classmethod’ is shorthand for the ‘meth=classmethod(meth)’
assignment.  More generally, if you have the following:

     @A
     @B
     @C
     def f ():
         ...

It’s equivalent to the following pre-decorator code:

     def f(): ...
     f = A(B(C(f)))

Decorators must come on the line before a function definition, one
decorator per line, and can’t be on the same line as the def statement,
meaning that ‘@A def f(): ...’ is illegal.  You can only decorate
function definitions, either at the module level or inside a class; you
can’t decorate class definitions.

A decorator is just a function that takes the function to be decorated
as an argument and returns either the same function or some new object.
The return value of the decorator need not be callable (though it
typically is), unless further decorators will be applied to the result.
It’s easy to write your own decorators.  The following simple example
just sets an attribute on the function object:

     >>> def deco(func):
     ...    func.attr = 'decorated'
     ...    return func
     ...
     >>> @deco
     ... def f(): pass
     ...
     >>> f
     <function f at 0x402ef0d4>
     >>> f.attr
     'decorated'
     >>>

As a slightly more realistic example, the following decorator checks
that the supplied argument is an integer:

     def require_int (func):
         def wrapper (arg):
             assert isinstance(arg, int)
             return func(arg)

         return wrapper

     @require_int
     def p1 (arg):
         print arg

     @require_int
     def p2(arg):
         print arg*2

An example in PEP 318(1) contains a fancier version of this idea that
lets you both specify the required type and check the returned type.

Decorator functions can take arguments.  If arguments are supplied, your
decorator function is called with only those arguments and must return a
new decorator function; this function must take a single function and
return a function, as previously described.  In other words, ‘@A @B
@C(args)’ becomes:

     def f(): ...
     _deco = C(args)
     f = A(B(_deco(f)))

Getting this right can be slightly brain-bending, but it’s not too
difficult.

A small related change makes the *note func_name: 1679. attribute of
functions writable.  This attribute is used to display function names in
tracebacks, so decorators should change the name of any new function
that’s constructed and returned.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 318(2) - Decorators for Functions, Methods and Classes

     Written by Kevin D. Smith, Jim Jewett, and Skip Montanaro.  Several
     people wrote patches implementing function decorators, but the one
     that was actually checked in was patch #979728, written by Mark
     Russell.

‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary’

     This Wiki page contains several examples of decorators.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Next: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Prev: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.6 PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
---------------------------------

A new built-in function, ‘reversed(seq)’, takes a sequence and returns
an iterator that loops over the elements of the sequence in reverse
order.

     >>> for i in reversed(xrange(1,4)):
     ...    print i
     ...
     3
     2
     1

Compared to extended slicing, such as ‘range(1,4)[::-1]’, *note
reversed(): c3c. is easier to read, runs faster, and uses substantially
less memory.

Note that *note reversed(): c3c. only accepts sequences, not arbitrary
iterators.  If you want to reverse an iterator, first convert it to a
list with *note list(): 4d9.

     >>> input = open('/etc/passwd', 'r')
     >>> for line in reversed(list(input)):
     ...   print line
     ...
     root:*:0:0:System Administrator:/var/root:/bin/tcsh
       ...

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 322(1) - Reverse Iteration

     Written and implemented by Raymond Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Next: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Prev: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.7 PEP 324: New subprocess Module
-------------------------------------

The standard library provides a number of ways to execute a subprocess,
offering different features and different levels of complexity.
‘os.system(command)’ is easy to use, but slow (it runs a shell process
which executes the command) and dangerous (you have to be careful about
escaping the shell’s metacharacters).  The ‘popen2’ module offers
classes that can capture standard output and standard error from the
subprocess, but the naming is confusing.  The *note subprocess: df.
module cleans this up, providing a unified interface that offers all the
features you might need.

Instead of ‘popen2’’s collection of classes, *note subprocess: df.
contains a single class called *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf. whose
constructor supports a number of different keyword arguments.

     class Popen(args, bufsize=0, executable=None,
                 stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None,
                 preexec_fn=None, close_fds=False, shell=False,
                 cwd=None, env=None, universal_newlines=False,
                 startupinfo=None, creationflags=0):

'args' is commonly a sequence of strings that will be the arguments to
the program executed as the subprocess.  (If the 'shell' argument is
true, 'args' can be a string which will then be passed on to the shell
for interpretation, just as *note os.system(): 17ff. does.)

'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' specify what the subprocess’s input,
output, and error streams will be.  You can provide a file object or a
file descriptor, or you can use the constant ‘subprocess.PIPE’ to create
a pipe between the subprocess and the parent.

The constructor has a number of handy options:

   * 'close_fds' requests that all file descriptors be closed before
     running the subprocess.

   * 'cwd' specifies the working directory in which the subprocess will
     be executed (defaulting to whatever the parent’s working directory
     is).

   * 'env' is a dictionary specifying environment variables.

   * 'preexec_fn' is a function that gets called before the child is
     started.

   * 'universal_newlines' opens the child’s input and output using
     Python’s *note universal newlines: 10f1. feature.

Once you’ve created the ‘Popen’ instance, you can call its ‘wait()’
method to pause until the subprocess has exited, ‘poll()’ to check if
it’s exited without pausing, or ‘communicate(data)’ to send the string
'data' to the subprocess’s standard input.  ‘communicate(data)’ then
reads any data that the subprocess has sent to its standard output or
standard error, returning a tuple ‘(stdout_data, stderr_data)’.

‘call()’ is a shortcut that passes its arguments along to the ‘Popen’
constructor, waits for the command to complete, and returns the status
code of the subprocess.  It can serve as a safer analog to *note
os.system(): 17ff.:

     sts = subprocess.call(['dpkg', '-i', '/tmp/new-package.deb'])
     if sts == 0:
         # Success
         ...
     else:
         # dpkg returned an error
         ...

The command is invoked without use of the shell.  If you really do want
to use the shell, you can add ‘shell=True’ as a keyword argument and
provide a string instead of a sequence:

     sts = subprocess.call('dpkg -i /tmp/new-package.deb', shell=True)

The PEP takes various examples of shell and Python code and shows how
they’d be translated into Python code that uses *note subprocess: df.
Reading this section of the PEP is highly recommended.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 324(1) - subprocess - New process module

     Written and implemented by Peter Åstrand, with assistance from
     Fredrik Lundh and others.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0324/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Next: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Prev: PEP 324 New subprocess Module,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.8 PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
---------------------------------

Python has always supported floating-point (FP) numbers, based on the
underlying C double type, as a data type.  However, while most
programming languages provide a floating-point type, many people (even
programmers) are unaware that floating-point numbers don’t represent
certain decimal fractions accurately.  The new ‘Decimal’ type can
represent these fractions accurately, up to a user-specified precision
limit.

* Menu:

* Why is Decimal needed?::
* The Decimal type::
* The Context type::


File: python.info,  Node: Why is Decimal needed?,  Next: The Decimal type,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.21.8.1 Why is Decimal needed?
...............................

The limitations arise from the representation used for floating-point
numbers.  FP numbers are made up of three components:

   * The sign, which is positive or negative.

   * The mantissa, which is a single-digit binary number followed by a
     fractional part.  For example, ‘1.01’ in base-2 notation is ‘1 +
     0/2 + 1/4’, or 1.25 in decimal notation.

   * The exponent, which tells where the decimal point is located in the
     number represented.

For example, the number 1.25 has positive sign, a mantissa value of 1.01
(in binary), and an exponent of 0 (the decimal point doesn’t need to be
shifted).  The number 5 has the same sign and mantissa, but the exponent
is 2 because the mantissa is multiplied by 4 (2 to the power of the
exponent 2); 1.25 * 4 equals 5.

Modern systems usually provide floating-point support that conforms to a
standard called IEEE 754.  C’s double type is usually implemented as a
64-bit IEEE 754 number, which uses 52 bits of space for the mantissa.
This means that numbers can only be specified to 52 bits of precision.
If you’re trying to represent numbers whose expansion repeats endlessly,
the expansion is cut off after 52 bits.  Unfortunately, most software
needs to produce output in base 10, and common fractions in base 10 are
often repeating decimals in binary.  For example, 1.1 decimal is binary
‘1.0001100110011 ...’; .1 = 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/256 plus an infinite number
of additional terms.  IEEE 754 has to chop off that infinitely repeated
decimal after 52 digits, so the representation is slightly inaccurate.

Sometimes you can see this inaccuracy when the number is printed:

     >>> 1.1
     1.1000000000000001

The inaccuracy isn’t always visible when you print the number because
the FP-to-decimal-string conversion is provided by the C library, and
most C libraries try to produce sensible output.  Even if it’s not
displayed, however, the inaccuracy is still there and subsequent
operations can magnify the error.

For many applications this doesn’t matter.  If I’m plotting points and
displaying them on my monitor, the difference between 1.1 and
1.1000000000000001 is too small to be visible.  Reports often limit
output to a certain number of decimal places, and if you round the
number to two or three or even eight decimal places, the error is never
apparent.  However, for applications where it does matter, it’s a lot of
work to implement your own custom arithmetic routines.

Hence, the ‘Decimal’ type was created.


File: python.info,  Node: The Decimal type,  Next: The Context type,  Prev: Why is Decimal needed?,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.21.8.2 The ‘Decimal’ type
...........................

A new module, *note decimal: 39, was added to Python’s standard library.
It contains two classes, ‘Decimal’ and ‘Context’.  ‘Decimal’ instances
represent numbers, and ‘Context’ instances are used to wrap up various
settings such as the precision and default rounding mode.

‘Decimal’ instances are immutable, like regular Python integers and FP
numbers; once it’s been created, you can’t change the value an instance
represents.  ‘Decimal’ instances can be created from integers or
strings:

     >>> import decimal
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1972)
     Decimal("1972")
     >>> decimal.Decimal("1.1")
     Decimal("1.1")

You can also provide tuples containing the sign, the mantissa
represented as a tuple of decimal digits, and the exponent:

     >>> decimal.Decimal((1, (1, 4, 7, 5), -2))
     Decimal("-14.75")

Cautionary note: the sign bit is a Boolean value, so 0 is positive and 1
is negative.

Converting from floating-point numbers poses a bit of a problem: should
the FP number representing 1.1 turn into the decimal number for exactly
1.1, or for 1.1 plus whatever inaccuracies are introduced?  The decision
was to dodge the issue and leave such a conversion out of the API.
Instead, you should convert the floating-point number into a string
using the desired precision and pass the string to the ‘Decimal’
constructor:

     >>> f = 1.1
     >>> decimal.Decimal(str(f))
     Decimal("1.1")
     >>> decimal.Decimal('%.12f' % f)
     Decimal("1.100000000000")

Once you have ‘Decimal’ instances, you can perform the usual
mathematical operations on them.  One limitation: exponentiation
requires an integer exponent:

     >>> a = decimal.Decimal('35.72')
     >>> b = decimal.Decimal('1.73')
     >>> a+b
     Decimal("37.45")
     >>> a-b
     Decimal("33.99")
     >>> a*b
     Decimal("61.7956")
     >>> a/b
     Decimal("20.64739884393063583815028902")
     >>> a ** 2
     Decimal("1275.9184")
     >>> a**b
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     decimal.InvalidOperation: x ** (non-integer)

You can combine ‘Decimal’ instances with integers, but not with
floating-point numbers:

     >>> a + 4
     Decimal("39.72")
     >>> a + 4.5
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: You can interact Decimal only with int, long or Decimal data types.
     >>>

‘Decimal’ numbers can be used with the *note math: 91. and *note cmath:
19. modules, but note that they’ll be immediately converted to
floating-point numbers before the operation is performed, resulting in a
possible loss of precision and accuracy.  You’ll also get back a regular
floating-point number and not a ‘Decimal’.

     >>> import math, cmath
     >>> d = decimal.Decimal('123456789012.345')
     >>> math.sqrt(d)
     351364.18288201344
     >>> cmath.sqrt(-d)
     351364.18288201344j

‘Decimal’ instances have a ‘sqrt()’ method that returns a ‘Decimal’, but
if you need other things such as trigonometric functions you’ll have to
implement them.

     >>> d.sqrt()
     Decimal("351364.1828820134592177245001")


File: python.info,  Node: The Context type,  Prev: The Decimal type,  Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type

1.21.8.3 The ‘Context’ type
...........................

Instances of the ‘Context’ class encapsulate several settings for
decimal operations:

   * ‘prec’ is the precision, the number of decimal places.

   * ‘rounding’ specifies the rounding mode.  The *note decimal: 39.
     module has constants for the various possibilities: ‘ROUND_DOWN’,
     ‘ROUND_CEILING’, ‘ROUND_HALF_EVEN’, and various others.

   * ‘traps’ is a dictionary specifying what happens on encountering
     certain error conditions: either an exception is raised or a value
     is returned.  Some examples of error conditions are division by
     zero, loss of precision, and overflow.

There’s a thread-local default context available by calling
‘getcontext()’; you can change the properties of this context to alter
the default precision, rounding, or trap handling.  The following
example shows the effect of changing the precision of the default
context:

     >>> decimal.getcontext().prec
     28
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
     Decimal("0.1428571428571428571428571429")
     >>> decimal.getcontext().prec = 9
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7)
     Decimal("0.142857143")

The default action for error conditions is selectable; the module can
either return a special value such as infinity or not-a-number, or
exceptions can be raised:

     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     decimal.DivisionByZero: x / 0
     >>> decimal.getcontext().traps[decimal.DivisionByZero] = False
     >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0)
     Decimal("Infinity")
     >>>

The ‘Context’ instance also has various methods for formatting numbers
such as ‘to_eng_string()’ and ‘to_sci_string()’.

For more information, see the documentation for the *note decimal: 39.
module, which includes a quick-start tutorial and a reference.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 327(1) - Decimal Data Type

     Written by Facundo Batista and implemented by Facundo Batista, Eric
     Price, Raymond Hettinger, Aahz, and Tim Peters.

http://www.lahey.com/float.htm(2)

     The article uses Fortran code to illustrate many of the problems
     that floating-point inaccuracy can cause.

‘https://speleotrove.com/decimal/’

     A description of a decimal-based representation.  This
     representation is being proposed as a standard, and underlies the
     new Python decimal type.  Much of this material was written by Mike
     Cowlishaw, designer of the Rexx language.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0327/

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20230604072523/http://www.lahey.com/float.htm


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Next: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Prev: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.9 PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
----------------------------------

One language change is a small syntactic tweak aimed at making it easier
to import many names from a module.  In a ‘from module import names’
statement, 'names' is a sequence of names separated by commas.  If the
sequence is very long, you can either write multiple imports from the
same module, or you can use backslashes to escape the line endings like
this:

     from SimpleXMLRPCServer import SimpleXMLRPCServer,\
                 SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
                 CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,\
                 resolve_dotted_attribute

The syntactic change in Python 2.4 simply allows putting the names
within parentheses.  Python ignores newlines within a parenthesized
expression, so the backslashes are no longer needed:

     from SimpleXMLRPCServer import (SimpleXMLRPCServer,
                                     SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,
                                     CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,
                                     resolve_dotted_attribute)

The PEP also proposes that all *note import: 9da. statements be absolute
imports, with a leading ‘.’ character to indicate a relative import.
This part of the PEP was not implemented for Python 2.4, but was
completed for Python 2.5.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 328(1) - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

     Written by Aahz.  Multi-line imports were implemented by Dima
     Dorfman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Next: Other Language Changes<17>,  Prev: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.10 PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
------------------------------------------------------------

The *note locale: 89. modules lets Python software select various
conversions and display conventions that are localized to a particular
country or language.  However, the module was careful to not change the
numeric locale because various functions in Python’s implementation
required that the numeric locale remain set to the ‘'C'’ locale.  Often
this was because the code was using the C library’s ‘atof()’ function.

Not setting the numeric locale caused trouble for extensions that used
third-party C libraries, however, because they wouldn’t have the correct
locale set.  The motivating example was GTK+, whose user interface
widgets weren’t displaying numbers in the current locale.

The solution described in the PEP is to add three new functions to the
Python API that perform ASCII-only conversions, ignoring the locale
setting:

   * ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod(str, ptr)’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof(str, ptr)’ both
     convert a string to a C double.

   * ‘PyOS_ascii_formatd(buffer, buf_len, format, d)’ converts a double
     to an ASCII string.

The code for these functions came from the GLib library
(https://developer-old.gnome.org/glib/2.26/(1)), whose developers kindly
relicensed the relevant functions and donated them to the Python
Software Foundation.  The *note locale: 89. module can now change the
numeric locale, letting extensions such as GTK+ produce the correct
results.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 331(2) - Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions

     Written by Christian R. Reis, and implemented by Gustavo Carneiro.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
http://web.archive.org/web/20210306104320/https://developer.gnome.org/glib/2.26/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0331/


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<17>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Prev: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.11 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.4 makes to the core Python
language.

   * Decorators for functions and methods were added ( PEP 318(1)).

   * Built-in *note set(): 42b. and *note frozenset(): 9d4. types were
     added ( PEP 218(2)).  Other new built-ins include the
     ‘reversed(seq)’ function ( PEP 322(3)).

   * Generator expressions were added ( PEP 289(4)).

   * Certain numeric expressions no longer return values restricted to
     32 or 64 bits ( PEP 237(5)).

   * You can now put parentheses around the list of names in a ‘from
     module import names’ statement ( PEP 328(6)).

   * The *note dict.update(): 1807. method now accepts the same argument
     forms as the *note dict: 188. constructor.  This includes any
     mapping, any iterable of key/value pairs, and keyword arguments.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The string methods ‘ljust()’, ‘rjust()’, and ‘center()’ now take an
     optional argument for specifying a fill character other than a
     space.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Strings also gained an ‘rsplit()’ method that works like the
     ‘split()’ method but splits from the end of the string.
     (Contributed by Sean Reifschneider.)

          >>> 'www.python.org'.split('.', 1)
          ['www', 'python.org']
          'www.python.org'.rsplit('.', 1)
          ['www.python', 'org']

   * Three keyword parameters, 'cmp', 'key', and 'reverse', were added
     to the ‘sort()’ method of lists.  These parameters make some common
     usages of ‘sort()’ simpler.  All of these parameters are optional.

     For the 'cmp' parameter, the value should be a comparison function
     that takes two parameters and returns -1, 0, or +1 depending on how
     the parameters compare.  This function will then be used to sort
     the list.  Previously this was the only parameter that could be
     provided to ‘sort()’.

     'key' should be a single-parameter function that takes a list
     element and returns a comparison key for the element.  The list is
     then sorted using the comparison keys.  The following example sorts
     a list case-insensitively:

          >>> L = ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
          >>> L.sort()                 # Case-sensitive sort
          >>> L
          ['A', 'D', 'b', 'c']
          >>> # Using 'key' parameter to sort list
          >>> L.sort(key=lambda x: x.lower())
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']
          >>> # Old-fashioned way
          >>> L.sort(cmp=lambda x,y: cmp(x.lower(), y.lower()))
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']

     The last example, which uses the 'cmp' parameter, is the old way to
     perform a case-insensitive sort.  It works but is slower than using
     a 'key' parameter.  Using 'key' calls ‘lower()’ method once for
     each element in the list while using 'cmp' will call it twice for
     each comparison, so using 'key' saves on invocations of the
     ‘lower()’ method.

     For simple key functions and comparison functions, it is often
     possible to avoid a *note lambda: 1642. expression by using an
     unbound method instead.  For example, the above case-insensitive
     sort is best written as:

          >>> L.sort(key=str.lower)
          >>> L
          ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D']

     Finally, the 'reverse' parameter takes a Boolean value.  If the
     value is true, the list will be sorted into reverse order.  Instead
     of ‘L.sort(); L.reverse()’, you can now write
     ‘L.sort(reverse=True)’.

     The results of sorting are now guaranteed to be stable.  This means
     that two entries with equal keys will be returned in the same order
     as they were input.  For example, you can sort a list of people by
     name, and then sort the list by age, resulting in a list sorted by
     age where people with the same age are in name-sorted order.

     (All changes to ‘sort()’ contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * There is a new built-in function ‘sorted(iterable)’ that works like
     the in-place *note list.sort(): f8d. method but can be used in
     expressions.  The differences are:

   * the input may be any iterable;

   * a newly formed copy is sorted, leaving the original intact; and

   * the expression returns the new sorted copy

          >>> L = [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
          >>> [10+i for i in sorted(L)]       # usable in a list comprehension
          [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]
          >>> L                               # original is left unchanged
          [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5]
          >>> sorted('Monty Python')          # any iterable may be an input
          [' ', 'M', 'P', 'h', 'n', 'n', 'o', 'o', 't', 't', 'y', 'y']

          >>> # List the contents of a dict sorted by key values
          >>> colormap = dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4, yellow=5)
          >>> for k, v in sorted(colormap.iteritems()):
          ...     print k, v
          ...
          black 4
          blue 2
          green 3
          red 1
          yellow 5

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Integer operations will no longer trigger an ‘OverflowWarning’.
     The ‘OverflowWarning’ warning will disappear in Python 2.5.

   * The interpreter gained a new switch, *note -m: 4ca, that takes a
     name, searches for the corresponding module on ‘sys.path’, and runs
     the module as a script.  For example, you can now run the Python
     profiler with ‘python -m profile’.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)

   * The ‘eval(expr, globals, locals)’ and ‘execfile(filename, globals,
     locals)’ functions and the ‘exec’ statement now accept any mapping
     type for the 'locals' parameter.  Previously this had to be a
     regular Python dictionary.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note zip(): 43f. built-in function and ‘itertools.izip()’ now
     return an empty list if called with no arguments.  Previously they
     raised a *note TypeError: 291. exception.  This makes them more
     suitable for use with variable length argument lists:

          >>> def transpose(array):
          ...    return zip(*array)
          ...
          >>> transpose([(1,2,3), (4,5,6)])
          [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
          >>> transpose([])
          []

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a
     partially initialized module object in ‘sys.modules’.  The
     incomplete module object left behind would fool further imports of
     the same module into succeeding, leading to confusing errors.
     (Fixed by Tim Peters.)

   * *note None: a65. is now a constant; code that binds a new value to
     the name ‘None’ is now a syntax error.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

* Menu:

* Optimizations: Optimizations<19>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<19>,  Up: Other Language Changes<17>

1.21.11.1 Optimizations
.......................

   * The inner loops for list and tuple slicing were optimized and now
     run about one-third faster.  The inner loops for dictionaries were
     also optimized, resulting in performance boosts for ‘keys()’,
     ‘values()’, ‘items()’, ‘iterkeys()’, ‘itervalues()’, and
     ‘iteritems()’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The machinery for growing and shrinking lists was optimized for
     speed and for space efficiency.  Appending and popping from lists
     now runs faster due to more efficient code paths and less frequent
     use of the underlying system ‘realloc()’.  List comprehensions also
     benefit.  *note list.extend(): 7f8. was also optimized and no
     longer converts its argument into a temporary list before extending
     the base list.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * *note list(): 4d9, *note tuple(): 1ce, *note map(): 43e, *note
     filter(): c3b, and *note zip(): 43f. now run several times faster
     with non-sequence arguments that supply a ‘__len__()’ method.
     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The methods ‘list.__getitem__()’, ‘dict.__getitem__()’, and
     ‘dict.__contains__()’ are now implemented as ‘method_descriptor’
     objects rather than ‘wrapper_descriptor’ objects.  This form of
     access doubles their performance and makes them more suitable for
     use as arguments to functionals: ‘map(mydict.__getitem__,
     keylist)’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Added a new opcode, ‘LIST_APPEND’, that simplifies the generated
     bytecode for list comprehensions and speeds them up by about a
     third.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The peephole bytecode optimizer has been improved to produce
     shorter, faster bytecode; remarkably, the resulting bytecode is
     more readable.  (Enhanced by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * String concatenations in statements of the form ‘s = s + "abc"’ and
     ‘s += "abc"’ are now performed more efficiently in certain
     circumstances.  This optimization won’t be present in other Python
     implementations such as Jython, so you shouldn’t rely on it; using
     the ‘join()’ method of strings is still recommended when you want
     to efficiently glue a large number of strings together.
     (Contributed by Armin Rigo.)

The net result of the 2.4 optimizations is that Python 2.4 runs the
pystone benchmark around 5% faster than Python 2.3 and 35% faster than
Python 2.2.  (pystone is not a particularly good benchmark, but it’s the
most commonly used measurement of Python’s performance.  Your own
applications may show greater or smaller benefits from Python 2.4.)


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Next: Build and C API Changes<11>,  Prev: Other Language Changes<17>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.12 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
---------------------------------------------

As usual, Python’s standard library received a number of enhancements
and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes,
sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in
the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the
CVS logs for all the details.

   * The ‘asyncore’ module’s ‘loop()’ function now has a 'count'
     parameter that lets you perform a limited number of passes through
     the polling loop.  The default is still to loop forever.

   * The *note base64: f. module now has more complete RFC 3548(1)
     support for Base64, Base32, and Base16 encoding and decoding,
     including optional case folding and optional alternative alphabets.
     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.)

   * The *note bisect: 12. module now has an underlying C implementation
     for improved performance.  (Contributed by Dmitry Vasiliev.)

   * The CJKCodecs collections of East Asian codecs, maintained by
     Hye-Shik Chang, was integrated into 2.4.  The new encodings are:

   * Chinese (PRC): gb2312, gbk, gb18030, big5hkscs, hz

   * Chinese (ROC): big5, cp950

   * 
     Japanese: cp932, euc-jis-2004, euc-jp, euc-jisx0213, iso-2022-jp,

          iso-2022-jp-1, iso-2022-jp-2, iso-2022-jp-3, iso-2022-jp-ext,
          iso-2022-jp-2004, shift-jis, shift-jisx0213, shift-jis-2004

   * Korean: cp949, euc-kr, johab, iso-2022-kr

   * Some other new encodings were added: HP Roman8, ISO_8859-11,
     ISO_8859-16, PCTP-154, and TIS-620.

   * The UTF-8 and UTF-16 codecs now cope better with receiving partial
     input.  Previously the ‘StreamReader’ class would try to read more
     data, making it impossible to resume decoding from the stream.  The
     ‘read()’ method will now return as much data as it can and future
     calls will resume decoding where previous ones left off.
     (Implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * There is a new *note collections: 1e. module for various
     specialized collection datatypes.  Currently it contains just one
     type, ‘deque’, a double-ended queue that supports efficiently
     adding and removing elements from either end:

          >>> from collections import deque
          >>> d = deque('ghi')        # make a new deque with three items
          >>> d.append('j')           # add a new entry to the right side
          >>> d.appendleft('f')       # add a new entry to the left side
          >>> d                       # show the representation of the deque
          deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])
          >>> d.pop()                 # return and remove the rightmost item
          'j'
          >>> d.popleft()             # return and remove the leftmost item
          'f'
          >>> list(d)                 # list the contents of the deque
          ['g', 'h', 'i']
          >>> 'h' in d                # search the deque
          True

     Several modules, such as the ‘Queue’ and *note threading: f6.
     modules, now take advantage of *note collections.deque: 9d6. for
     improved performance.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note ConfigParser: 26. classes have been enhanced slightly.
     The *note read(): 180a. method now returns a list of the files that
     were successfully parsed, and the *note set(): 1611. method raises
     *note TypeError: 291. if passed a 'value' argument that isn’t a
     string.  (Contributed by John Belmonte and David Goodger.)

   * The *note curses: 2e. module now supports the ncurses extension
     ‘use_default_colors()’.  On platforms where the terminal supports
     transparency, this makes it possible to use a transparent
     background.  (Contributed by Jörg Lehmann.)

   * The *note difflib: 3a. module now includes an ‘HtmlDiff’ class that
     creates an HTML table showing a side by side comparison of two
     versions of a text.  (Contributed by Dan Gass.)

   * The *note email: 3e. package was updated to version 3.0, which
     dropped various deprecated APIs and removes support for Python
     versions earlier than 2.3.  The 3.0 version of the package uses a
     new incremental parser for MIME messages, available in the
     ‘email.FeedParser’ module.  The new parser doesn’t require reading
     the entire message into memory, and doesn’t raise exceptions if a
     message is malformed; instead it records any problems in the
     ‘defect’ attribute of the message.  (Developed by Anthony Baxter,
     Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters, and others.)

   * The *note heapq: 6c. module has been converted to C. The resulting
     tenfold improvement in speed makes the module suitable for handling
     high volumes of data.  In addition, the module has two new
     functions ‘nlargest()’ and ‘nsmallest()’ that use heaps to find the
     N largest or smallest values in a dataset without the expense of a
     full sort.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note httplib: 71. module now contains constants for HTTP
     status codes defined in various HTTP-related RFC documents.
     Constants have names such as ‘OK’, ‘CREATED’, ‘CONTINUE’, and
     ‘MOVED_PERMANENTLY’; use pydoc to get a full list.  (Contributed by
     Andrew Eland.)

   * The *note imaplib: 77. module now supports IMAP’s THREAD command
     (contributed by Yves Dionne) and new ‘deleteacl()’ and ‘myrights()’
     methods (contributed by Arnaud Mazin).

   * The *note itertools: 84. module gained a ‘groupby(iterable[,
     *func*])’ function.  'iterable' is something that can be iterated
     over to return a stream of elements, and the optional 'func'
     parameter is a function that takes an element and returns a key
     value; if omitted, the key is simply the element itself.
     ‘groupby()’ then groups the elements into subsequences which have
     matching values of the key, and returns a series of 2-tuples
     containing the key value and an iterator over the subsequence.

     Here’s an example to make this clearer.  The 'key' function simply
     returns whether a number is even or odd, so the result of
     ‘groupby()’ is to return consecutive runs of odd or even numbers.

          >>> import itertools
          >>> L = [2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14]
          >>> for key_val, it in itertools.groupby(L, lambda x: x % 2):
          ...    print key_val, list(it)
          ...
          0 [2, 4, 6]
          1 [7]
          0 [8]
          1 [9, 11]
          0 [12, 14]
          >>>

     ‘groupby()’ is typically used with sorted input.  The logic for
     ‘groupby()’ is similar to the Unix ‘uniq’ filter which makes it
     handy for eliminating, counting, or identifying duplicate elements:

          >>> word = 'abracadabra'
          >>> letters = sorted(word)   # Turn string into a sorted list of letters
          >>> letters
          ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r', 'r']
          >>> for k, g in itertools.groupby(letters):
          ...    print k, list(g)
          ...
          a ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a']
          b ['b', 'b']
          c ['c']
          d ['d']
          r ['r', 'r']
          >>> # List unique letters
          >>> [k for k, g in groupby(letters)]
          ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r']
          >>> # Count letter occurrences
          >>> [(k, len(list(g))) for k, g in groupby(letters)]
          [('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('c', 1), ('d', 1), ('r', 2)]

     (Contributed by Hye-Shik Chang.)

   * *note itertools: 84. also gained a function named ‘tee(iterator,
     N)’ that returns 'N' independent iterators that replicate
     'iterator'.  If 'N' is omitted, the default is 2.

          >>> L = [1,2,3]
          >>> i1, i2 = itertools.tee(L)
          >>> i1,i2
          (<itertools.tee object at 0x402c2080>, <itertools.tee object at 0x402c2090>)
          >>> list(i1)               # Run the first iterator to exhaustion
          [1, 2, 3]
          >>> list(i2)               # Run the second iterator to exhaustion
          [1, 2, 3]

     Note that ‘tee()’ has to keep copies of the values returned by the
     iterator; in the worst case, it may need to keep all of them.  This
     should therefore be used carefully if the leading iterator can run
     far ahead of the trailing iterator in a long stream of inputs.  If
     the separation is large, then you might as well use *note list():
     4d9. instead.  When the iterators track closely with one another,
     ‘tee()’ is ideal.  Possible applications include bookmarking,
     windowing, or lookahead iterators.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * A number of functions were added to the *note locale: 89. module,
     such as ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’ to specify a particular
     encoding and a family of ‘l*gettext()’ functions that return
     messages in the chosen encoding.  (Contributed by Gustavo
     Niemeyer.)

   * Some keyword arguments were added to the *note logging: 8a.
     package’s ‘basicConfig()’ function to simplify log configuration.
     The default behavior is to log messages to standard error, but
     various keyword arguments can be specified to log to a particular
     file, change the logging format, or set the logging level.  For
     example:

          import logging
          logging.basicConfig(filename='/var/log/application.log',
              level=0,  # Log all messages
              format='%(levelname):%(process):%(thread):%(message)')

     Other additions to the *note logging: 8a. package include a
     ‘log(level, msg)’ convenience method, as well as a
     ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ class that rotates its log files at a
     timed interval.  The module already had ‘RotatingFileHandler’,
     which rotated logs once the file exceeded a certain size.  Both
     classes derive from a new ‘BaseRotatingHandler’ class that can be
     used to implement other rotating handlers.

     (Changes implemented by Vinay Sajip.)

   * The *note marshal: 90. module now shares interned strings on
     unpacking a data structure.  This may shrink the size of certain
     pickle strings, but the primary effect is to make ‘.pyc’ files
     significantly smaller.  (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

   * The ‘nntplib’ module’s ‘NNTP’ class gained ‘description()’ and
     ‘descriptions()’ methods to retrieve newsgroup descriptions for a
     single group or for a range of groups.  (Contributed by Jürgen A.
     Erhard.)

   * Two new functions were added to the *note operator: a3. module,
     ‘attrgetter(attr)’ and ‘itemgetter(index)’.  Both functions return
     callables that take a single argument and return the corresponding
     attribute or item; these callables make excellent data extractors
     when used with *note map(): 43e. or *note sorted(): f8c.  For
     example:

          >>> L = [('c', 2), ('d', 1), ('a', 4), ('b', 3)]
          >>> map(operator.itemgetter(0), L)
          ['c', 'd', 'a', 'b']
          >>> map(operator.itemgetter(1), L)
          [2, 1, 4, 3]
          >>> sorted(L, key=operator.itemgetter(1)) # Sort list by second tuple item
          [('d', 1), ('c', 2), ('b', 3), ('a', 4)]

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note optparse: a4. module was updated in various ways.  The
     module now passes its messages through *note gettext.gettext():
     180b, making it possible to internationalize Optik’s help and error
     messages.  Help messages for options can now include the string
     ‘'%default'’, which will be replaced by the option’s default value.
     (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The long-term plan is to deprecate the ‘rfc822’ module in some
     future Python release in favor of the *note email: 3e. package.  To
     this end, the *note email.Utils.formatdate: 180c. function has been
     changed to make it usable as a replacement for
     ‘rfc822.formatdate()’.  You may want to write new e-mail processing
     code with this in mind.  (Change implemented by Anthony Baxter.)

   * A new ‘urandom(n)’ function was added to the *note os: a5. module,
     returning a string containing 'n' bytes of random data.  This
     function provides access to platform-specific sources of randomness
     such as ‘/dev/urandom’ on Linux or the Windows CryptoAPI.
     (Contributed by Trevor Perrin.)

   * Another new function: ‘os.path.lexists(path)’ returns true if the
     file specified by 'path' exists, whether or not it’s a symbolic
     link.  This differs from the existing ‘os.path.exists(path)’
     function, which returns false if 'path' is a symlink that points to
     a destination that doesn’t exist.  (Contributed by Beni
     Cherniavsky.)

   * A new ‘getsid()’ function was added to the *note posix: b2. module
     that underlies the *note os: a5. module.  (Contributed by J.
     Raynor.)

   * The *note poplib: b1. module now supports POP over SSL.
     (Contributed by Hector Urtubia.)

   * The *note profile: b4. module can now profile C extension
     functions.  (Contributed by Nick Bastin.)

   * The *note random: c0. module has a new method called
     ‘getrandbits(N)’ that returns a long integer 'N' bits in length.
     The existing ‘randrange()’ method now uses ‘getrandbits()’ where
     appropriate, making generation of arbitrarily large random numbers
     more efficient.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The regular expression language accepted by the *note re: c1.
     module was extended with simple conditional expressions, written as
     ‘(?(group)A|B)’.  'group' is either a numeric group ID or a group
     name defined with ‘(?P<group>...)’ earlier in the expression.  If
     the specified group matched, the regular expression pattern 'A'
     will be tested against the string; if the group didn’t match, the
     pattern 'B' will be used instead.  (Contributed by Gustavo
     Niemeyer.)

   * The *note re: c1. module is also no longer recursive, thanks to a
     massive amount of work by Gustavo Niemeyer.  In a recursive regular
     expression engine, certain patterns result in a large amount of C
     stack space being consumed, and it was possible to overflow the
     stack.  For example, if you matched a 30000-byte string of ‘a’
     characters against the expression ‘(a|b)+’, one stack frame was
     consumed per character.  Python 2.3 tried to check for stack
     overflow and raise a *note RuntimeError: 30d. exception, but
     certain patterns could sidestep the checking and if you were
     unlucky Python could segfault.  Python 2.4’s regular expression
     engine can match this pattern without problems.

   * The *note signal: ce. module now performs tighter error-checking on
     the parameters to the *note signal.signal(): 14e0. function.  For
     example, you can’t set a handler on the ‘SIGKILL’ signal; previous
     versions of Python would quietly accept this, but 2.4 will raise a
     *note RuntimeError: 30d. exception.

   * Two new functions were added to the *note socket: d4. module.
     ‘socketpair()’ returns a pair of connected sockets and
     ‘getservbyport(port)’ looks up the service name for a given port
     number.  (Contributed by Dave Cole and Barry Warsaw.)

   * The ‘sys.exitfunc()’ function has been deprecated.  Code should be
     using the existing *note atexit: d. module, which correctly handles
     calling multiple exit functions.  Eventually ‘sys.exitfunc()’ will
     become a purely internal interface, accessed only by ‘atexit’.

   * The *note tarfile: e7. module now generates GNU-format tar files by
     default.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

   * The *note threading: f6. module now has an elegantly simple way to
     support thread-local data.  The module contains a ‘local’ class
     whose attribute values are local to different threads.

          import threading

          data = threading.local()
          data.number = 42
          data.url = ('www.python.org', 80)

     Other threads can assign and retrieve their own values for the
     ‘number’ and ‘url’ attributes.  You can subclass ‘local’ to
     initialize attributes or to add methods.  (Contributed by Jim
     Fulton.)

   * The *note timeit: f8. module now automatically disables periodic
     garbage collection during the timing loop.  This change makes
     consecutive timings more comparable.  (Contributed by Raymond
     Hettinger.)

   * The *note weakref: 11d. module now supports a wider variety of
     objects including Python functions, class instances, sets,
     frozensets, deques, arrays, files, sockets, and regular expression
     pattern objects.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 137. module now supports a multi-call
     extension for transmitting multiple XML-RPC calls in a single HTTP
     operation.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.)

   * The ‘mpz’, ‘rotor’, and ‘xreadlines’ modules have been removed.

* Menu:

* cookielib::
* doctest: doctest<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html


File: python.info,  Node: cookielib,  Next: doctest<5>,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>

1.21.12.1 cookielib
...................

The *note cookielib: 73. library supports client-side handling for HTTP
cookies, mirroring the *note Cookie: 74. module’s server-side cookie
support.  Cookies are stored in cookie jars; the library transparently
stores cookies offered by the web server in the cookie jar, and fetches
the cookie from the jar when connecting to the server.  As in web
browsers, policy objects control whether cookies are accepted or not.

In order to store cookies across sessions, two implementations of cookie
jars are provided: one that stores cookies in the Netscape format so
applications can use the Mozilla or Lynx cookie files, and one that
stores cookies in the same format as the Perl libwww library.

*note urllib2: 114. has been changed to interact with *note cookielib:
73.: ‘HTTPCookieProcessor’ manages a cookie jar that is used when
accessing URLs.

This module was contributed by John J. Lee.


File: python.info,  Node: doctest<5>,  Prev: cookielib,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>

1.21.12.2 doctest
.................

The *note doctest: 3d. module underwent considerable refactoring thanks
to Edward Loper and Tim Peters.  Testing can still be as simple as
running *note doctest.testmod(): 180f, but the refactorings allow
customizing the module’s operation in various ways

The new ‘DocTestFinder’ class extracts the tests from a given object’s
docstrings:

     def f (x, y):
         """>>> f(2,2)
     4
     >>> f(3,2)
     6
         """
         return x*y

     finder = doctest.DocTestFinder()

     # Get list of DocTest instances
     tests = finder.find(f)

The new ‘DocTestRunner’ class then runs individual tests and can produce
a summary of the results:

     runner = doctest.DocTestRunner()
     for t in tests:
         tried, failed = runner.run(t)

     runner.summarize(verbose=1)

The above example produces the following output:

     1 items passed all tests:
        2 tests in f
     2 tests in 1 items.
     2 passed and 0 failed.
     Test passed.

‘DocTestRunner’ uses an instance of the ‘OutputChecker’ class to compare
the expected output with the actual output.  This class takes a number
of different flags that customize its behaviour; ambitious users can
also write a completely new subclass of ‘OutputChecker’.

The default output checker provides a number of handy features.  For
example, with the *note doctest.ELLIPSIS: 1810. option flag, an ellipsis
(‘...’) in the expected output matches any substring, making it easier
to accommodate outputs that vary in minor ways:

     def o (n):
         """>>> o(1)
     <__main__.C instance at 0x...>
     >>>
     """

Another special string, ‘<BLANKLINE>’, matches a blank line:

     def p (n):
         """>>> p(1)
     <BLANKLINE>
     >>>
     """

Another new capability is producing a diff-style display of the output
by specifying the *note doctest.REPORT_UDIFF: 1811. (unified diffs),
*note doctest.REPORT_CDIFF: 1812. (context diffs), or *note
doctest.REPORT_NDIFF: 1813. (delta-style) option flags.  For example:

     def g (n):
         """>>> g(4)
     here
     is
     a
     lengthy
     >>>"""
         L = 'here is a rather lengthy list of words'.split()
         for word in L[:n]:
             print word

Running the above function’s tests with *note doctest.REPORT_UDIFF:
1811. specified, you get the following output:

     **********************************************************************
     File "t.py", line 15, in g
     Failed example:
         g(4)
     Differences (unified diff with -expected +actual):
         @@ -2,3 +2,3 @@
          is
          a
         -lengthy
         +rather
     **********************************************************************


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<11>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 4,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.13 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Some of the changes to Python’s build process and to the C API are:

   * Three new convenience macros were added for common return values
     from extension functions: *note Py_RETURN_NONE: 1815, *note
     Py_RETURN_TRUE: 1816, and *note Py_RETURN_FALSE: 1817.
     (Contributed by Brett Cannon.)

   * Another new macro, *note Py_CLEAR: 97c, decreases the reference
     count of 'obj' and sets 'obj' to the null pointer.  (Contributed by
     Jim Fulton.)

   * A new function, ‘PyTuple_Pack(N, obj1, obj2, ..., objN)’,
     constructs tuples from a variable length argument list of Python
     objects.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A new function, ‘PyDict_Contains(d, k)’, implements fast dictionary
     lookups without masking exceptions raised during the look-up
     process.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note Py_IS_NAN: 1818.(X) macro returns 1 if its float or
     double argument 'X' is a NaN. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * C code can avoid unnecessary locking by using the new
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ function to tell if any thread
     operations have been performed.  If this function returns false, no
     lock operations are needed.  (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.)

   * A new function, *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 819, is the
     same as *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818. but takes a
     ‘va_list’ instead of a number of arguments.  (Contributed by Greg
     Chapman.)

   * A new method flag, *note METH_COEXIST: 1819, allows a function
     defined in slots to co-exist with a *note PyCFunction: 181a. having
     the same name.  This can halve the access time for a method such as
     ‘set.__contains__()’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Python can now be built with additional profiling for the
     interpreter itself, intended as an aid to people developing the
     Python core.  Providing ‘--enable-profiling’ to the ‘configure’
     script will let you profile the interpreter with ‘gprof’, and
     providing the ‘--with-tsc’ switch enables profiling using the
     Pentium’s Time-Stamp-Counter register.  Note that the ‘--with-tsc’
     switch is slightly misnamed, because the profiling feature also
     works on the PowerPC platform, though that processor architecture
     doesn’t call that register «the TSC register».  (Contributed by
     Jeremy Hylton.)

   * The ‘tracebackobject’ type has been renamed to ‘PyTracebackObject’.

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes<2>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<11>

1.21.13.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

   * The Windows port now builds under MSVC++ 7.1 as well as version 6.
     (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 4,  Next: Acknowledgements<4>,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<11>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.14 Porting to Python 2.4
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * Left shifts and hexadecimal/octal constants that are too large no
     longer trigger a *note FutureWarning: 847. and return a value
     limited to 32 or 64 bits; instead they return a long integer.

   * Integer operations will no longer trigger an ‘OverflowWarning’.
     The ‘OverflowWarning’ warning will disappear in Python 2.5.

   * The *note zip(): 43f. built-in function and ‘itertools.izip()’ now
     return an empty list instead of raising a *note TypeError: 291.
     exception if called with no arguments.

   * You can no longer compare the ‘date’ and *note datetime: 6e7.
     instances provided by the *note datetime: 33. module.  Two
     instances of different classes will now always be unequal, and
     relative comparisons (‘<’, ‘>’) will raise a *note TypeError: 291.

   * ‘dircache.listdir()’ now passes exceptions to the caller instead of
     returning empty lists.

   * ‘LexicalHandler.startDTD()’ used to receive the public and system
     IDs in the wrong order.  This has been corrected; applications
     relying on the wrong order need to be fixed.

   * *note fcntl.ioctl(): 181d. now warns if the 'mutate' argument is
     omitted and relevant.

   * The *note tarfile: e7. module now generates GNU-format tar files by
     default.

   * Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a
     partially initialized module object in ‘sys.modules’.

   * *note None: a65. is now a constant; code that binds a new value to
     the name ‘None’ is now a syntax error.

   * The ‘signals.signal()’ function now raises a *note RuntimeError:
     30d. exception for certain illegal values; previously these errors
     would pass silently.  For example, you can no longer set a handler
     on the ‘SIGKILL’ signal.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<4>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 4,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 4

1.21.15 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Koray Can, Hye-Shik Chang, Michael Dyck, Raymond Hettinger,
Brian Hurt, Hamish Lawson, Fredrik Lundh, Sean Reifschneider, Sadruddin
Rejeb.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 3,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 2,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 4,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.22 What’s New in Python 2.3
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

This article explains the new features in Python 2.3.  Python 2.3 was
released on July 29, 2003.

The main themes for Python 2.3 are polishing some of the features added
in 2.2, adding various small but useful enhancements to the core
language, and expanding the standard library.  The new object model
introduced in the previous version has benefited from 18 months of
bugfixes and from optimization efforts that have improved the
performance of new-style classes.  A few new built-in functions have
been added such as *note sum(): 881. and *note enumerate(): 1823.  The
*note in: 323. operator can now be used for substring searches (e.g.
‘"ab" in "abc"’ returns *note True: fcc.).

Some of the many new library features include Boolean, set, heap, and
date/time data types, the ability to import modules from ZIP-format
archives, metadata support for the long-awaited Python catalog, an
updated version of IDLE, and modules for logging messages, wrapping
text, parsing CSV files, processing command-line options, using
BerkeleyDB databases… the list of new and enhanced modules is lengthy.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.3, such as
the Python Library Reference and the Python Reference Manual.  If you
want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale,
refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.

* Menu:

* PEP 218; A Standard Set Datatype: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators.
* PEP 263; Source Code Encodings: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
* PEP 273; Importing Modules from ZIP Archives: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
* PEP 277; Unicode file name support for Windows NT: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
* PEP 278; Universal Newline Support: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
* PEP 279; enumerate(): PEP 279 enumerate.
* PEP 282; The logging Package: PEP 282 The logging Package.
* PEP 285; A Boolean Type: PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
* PEP 293; Codec Error Handling Callbacks: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
* PEP 301; Package Index and Metadata for Distutils: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
* PEP 302; New Import Hooks: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
* PEP 305; Comma-separated Files: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
* PEP 307; Pickle Enhancements: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
* Extended Slices::
* Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<18>.
* New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
* Pymalloc; A Specialized Object Allocator: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator.
* Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<12>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
* Porting to Python 2.3: Porting to Python 2 3.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype,  Next: PEP 255 Simple Generators,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.1 PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
---------------------------------------

The new ‘sets’ module contains an implementation of a set datatype.  The
‘Set’ class is for mutable sets, sets that can have members added and
removed.  The ‘ImmutableSet’ class is for sets that can’t be modified,
and instances of ‘ImmutableSet’ can therefore be used as dictionary
keys.  Sets are built on top of dictionaries, so the elements within a
set must be hashable.

Here’s a simple example:

     >>> import sets
     >>> S = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S
     Set([1, 2, 3])
     >>> 1 in S
     True
     >>> 0 in S
     False
     >>> S.add(5)
     >>> S.remove(3)
     >>> S
     Set([1, 2, 5])
     >>>

The union and intersection of sets can be computed with the *note
union(): 1825. and *note intersection(): 1826. methods; an alternative
notation uses the bitwise operators ‘&’ and ‘|’.  Mutable sets also have
in-place versions of these methods, ‘union_update()’ and *note
intersection_update(): 1827.

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([4,5,6])
     >>> S1.union(S2)
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>> S1 | S2                  # Alternative notation
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>> S1.intersection(S2)
     Set([])
     >>> S1 & S2                  # Alternative notation
     Set([])
     >>> S1.union_update(S2)
     >>> S1
     Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
     >>>

It’s also possible to take the symmetric difference of two sets.  This
is the set of all elements in the union that aren’t in the intersection.
Another way of putting it is that the symmetric difference contains all
elements that are in exactly one set.  Again, there’s an alternative
notation (‘^’), and an in-place version with the ungainly name *note
symmetric_difference_update(): 1828.

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3,4])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([3,4,5,6])
     >>> S1.symmetric_difference(S2)
     Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
     >>> S1 ^ S2
     Set([1, 2, 5, 6])
     >>>

There are also ‘issubset()’ and ‘issuperset()’ methods for checking
whether one set is a subset or superset of another:

     >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3])
     >>> S2 = sets.Set([2,3])
     >>> S2.issubset(S1)
     True
     >>> S1.issubset(S2)
     False
     >>> S1.issuperset(S2)
     True
     >>>

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 218(1) - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type

     PEP written by Greg V. Wilson.  Implemented by Greg V. Wilson, Alex
     Martelli, and GvR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 255 Simple Generators,  Next: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Prev: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.2 PEP 255: Simple Generators
---------------------------------

In Python 2.2, generators were added as an optional feature, to be
enabled by a ‘from __future__ import generators’ directive.  In 2.3
generators no longer need to be specially enabled, and are now always
present; this means that *note yield: d93. is now always a keyword.  The
rest of this section is a copy of the description of generators from the
«What’s New in Python 2.2» document; if you read it back when Python 2.2
came out, you can skip the rest of this section.

You’re doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C.
When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local
variables are created.  When the function reaches a *note return: 44b.
statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is
returned to the caller.  A later call to the same function will get a
fresh new set of local variables.  But, what if the local variables
weren’t thrown away on exiting a function?  What if you could later
resume the function where it left off?  This is what generators provide;
they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here’s the simplest example of a generator function:

     def generate_ints(N):
         for i in range(N):
             yield i

A new keyword, *note yield: d93, was introduced for generators.  Any
function containing a ‘yield’ statement is a generator function; this is
detected by Python’s bytecode compiler which compiles the function
specially as a result.

When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value;
instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator
protocol.  On executing the *note yield: d93. statement, the generator
outputs the value of ‘i’, similar to a *note return: 44b. statement.
The big difference between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on
reaching a ‘yield’ the generator’s state of execution is suspended and
local variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator’s
‘.next()’ method, the function will resume executing immediately after
the ‘yield’ statement.  (For complicated reasons, the ‘yield’ statement
isn’t allowed inside the *note try: ad6. block of a ‘try’…‘finally’
statement; read PEP 255(1) for a full explanation of the interaction
between ‘yield’ and exceptions.)

Here’s a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object at 0x8117f90>
     >>> gen.next()
     0
     >>> gen.next()
     1
     >>> gen.next()
     2
     >>> gen.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "stdin", line 1, in ?
       File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a,b,c =
generate_ints(3)’.

Inside a generator function, the *note return: 44b. statement can only
be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of
values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values.
‘return’ with a value, such as ‘return 5’, is a syntax error inside a
generator function.  The end of the generator’s results can also be
indicated by raising *note StopIteration: fba. manually, or by just
letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own
class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance
variables.  For example, returning a list of integers could be done by
setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note next(): bb5. method
increment ‘self.count’ and return it.  However, for a moderately
complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much
messier.  ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ contains a number of more
interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal
of a tree using generators recursively.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x
             yield t.label
             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Two other examples in ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ produce solutions
for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so
that no queen threatens another) and the Knight’s Tour (a route that
takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting
any square twice).

The idea of generators comes from other programming languages,
especially Icon (‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/’), where the idea of
generators is central.  In Icon, every expression and function call
behaves like a generator.  One example from «An Overview of the Icon
Programming Language» at
‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm’ gives an idea of what
this looks like:

     sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
     if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)

In Icon the ‘find()’ function returns the indexes at which the substring
«or» is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the *note if: 322. statement, ‘i’ is first
assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails,
and Icon retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5,
so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the
screen.

Python doesn’t go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a
central concept.  Generators are considered part of the core Python
language, but learning or using them isn’t compulsory; if they don’t
solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them.  One novel
feature of Python’s interface as compared to Icon’s is that a
generator’s state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator)
that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data
structure.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 255(2) - Simple Generators

     Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.
     Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other
     fixes from the Python Labs crew.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Next: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Prev: PEP 255 Simple Generators,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.3 PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
-------------------------------------

Python source files can now be declared as being in different character
set encodings.  Encodings are declared by including a specially
formatted comment in the first or second line of the source file.  For
example, a UTF-8 file can be declared with:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     # -*- coding: UTF-8 -*-

Without such an encoding declaration, the default encoding used is 7-bit
ASCII. Executing or importing modules that contain string literals with
8-bit characters and have no encoding declaration will result in a *note
DeprecationWarning: 2c9. being signalled by Python 2.3; in 2.4 this will
be a syntax error.

The encoding declaration only affects Unicode string literals, which
will be converted to Unicode using the specified encoding.  Note that
Python identifiers are still restricted to ASCII characters, so you
can’t have variable names that use characters outside of the usual
alphanumerics.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 263(1) - Defining Python Source Code Encodings

     Written by Marc-André Lemburg and Martin von Löwis; implemented by
     Suzuki Hisao and Martin von Löwis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Next: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Prev: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.4 PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
---------------------------------------------------

The new *note zipimport: 13b. module adds support for importing modules
from a ZIP-format archive.  You don’t need to import the module
explicitly; it will be automatically imported if a ZIP archive’s
filename is added to ‘sys.path’.  For example:

     amk@nyman:~/src/python$ unzip -l /tmp/example.zip
     Archive:  /tmp/example.zip
       Length     Date   Time    Name
      --------    ----   ----    ----
          8467  11-26-02 22:30   jwzthreading.py
      --------                   -------
          8467                   1 file
     amk@nyman:~/src/python$ ./python
     Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32)
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path.insert(0, '/tmp/example.zip')  # Add .zip file to front of path
     >>> import jwzthreading
     >>> jwzthreading.__file__
     '/tmp/example.zip/jwzthreading.py'
     >>>

An entry in ‘sys.path’ can now be the filename of a ZIP archive.  The
ZIP archive can contain any kind of files, but only files named ‘*.py’,
‘*.pyc’, or ‘*.pyo’ can be imported.  If an archive only contains ‘*.py’
files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the
corresponding ‘*.pyc’ file, meaning that if a ZIP archive doesn’t
contain ‘*.pyc’ files, importing may be rather slow.

A path within the archive can also be specified to only import from a
subdirectory; for example, the path ‘/tmp/example.zip/lib/’ would only
import from the ‘lib/’ subdirectory within the archive.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 273(1) - Import Modules from Zip Archives

     Written by James C. Ahlstrom, who also provided an implementation.
     Python 2.3 follows the specification in PEP 273(2), but uses an
     implementation written by Just van Rossum that uses the import
     hooks described in PEP 302(3).  See section *note PEP 302; New
     Import Hooks: 182e. for a description of the new import hooks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Next: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Prev: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.5 PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
--------------------------------------------------------

On Windows NT, 2000, and XP, the system stores file names as Unicode
strings.  Traditionally, Python has represented file names as byte
strings, which is inadequate because it renders some file names
inaccessible.

Python now allows using arbitrary Unicode strings (within the
limitations of the file system) for all functions that expect file
names, most notably the *note open(): 32b. built-in function.  If a
Unicode string is passed to *note os.listdir(): 14a6, Python now returns
a list of Unicode strings.  A new function, ‘os.getcwdu()’, returns the
current directory as a Unicode string.

Byte strings still work as file names, and on Windows Python will
transparently convert them to Unicode using the ‘mbcs’ encoding.

Other systems also allow Unicode strings as file names but convert them
to byte strings before passing them to the system, which can cause a
*note UnicodeError: 675. to be raised.  Applications can test whether
arbitrary Unicode strings are supported as file names by checking *note
os.path.supports_unicode_filenames: 1830, a Boolean value.

Under MacOS, *note os.listdir(): 14a6. may now return Unicode filenames.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 277(1) - Unicode file name support for Windows NT

     Written by Neil Hodgson; implemented by Neil Hodgson, Martin von
     Löwis, and Mark Hammond.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0277/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Next: PEP 279 enumerate,  Prev: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.6 PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
-----------------------------------------

The three major operating systems used today are Microsoft Windows,
Apple’s Macintosh OS, and the various Unix derivatives.  A minor
irritation of cross-platform work is that these three platforms all use
different characters to mark the ends of lines in text files.  Unix uses
the linefeed (ASCII character 10), MacOS uses the carriage return (ASCII
character 13), and Windows uses a two-character sequence of a carriage
return plus a newline.

Python’s file objects can now support end of line conventions other than
the one followed by the platform on which Python is running.  Opening a
file with the mode ‘'U'’ or ‘'rU'’ will open a file for reading in *note
universal newlines: 10f1. mode.  All three line ending conventions will
be translated to a ‘'\n'’ in the strings returned by the various file
methods such as ‘read()’ and ‘readline()’.

Universal newline support is also used when importing modules and when
executing a file with the ‘execfile()’ function.  This means that Python
modules can be shared between all three operating systems without
needing to convert the line-endings.

This feature can be disabled when compiling Python by specifying the
‘--without-universal-newlines’ switch when running Python’s ‘configure’
script.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 278(1) - Universal Newline Support

     Written and implemented by Jack Jansen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 279 enumerate,  Next: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Prev: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.7 PEP 279: enumerate()
---------------------------

A new built-in function, *note enumerate(): 1823, will make certain
loops a bit clearer.  ‘enumerate(thing)’, where 'thing' is either an
iterator or a sequence, returns an iterator that will return ‘(0,
thing[0])’, ‘(1, thing[1])’, ‘(2, thing[2])’, and so forth.

A common idiom to change every element of a list looks like this:

     for i in range(len(L)):
         item = L[i]
         # ... compute some result based on item ...
         L[i] = result

This can be rewritten using *note enumerate(): 1823. as:

     for i, item in enumerate(L):
         # ... compute some result based on item ...
         L[i] = result

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 279(1) - The enumerate() built-in function

     Written and implemented by Raymond D. Hettinger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0279/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Next: PEP 285 A Boolean Type,  Prev: PEP 279 enumerate,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.8 PEP 282: The logging Package
-----------------------------------

A standard package for writing logs, *note logging: 8a, has been added
to Python 2.3.  It provides a powerful and flexible mechanism for
generating logging output which can then be filtered and processed in
various ways.  A configuration file written in a standard format can be
used to control the logging behavior of a program.  Python includes
handlers that will write log records to standard error or to a file or
socket, send them to the system log, or even e-mail them to a particular
address; of course, it’s also possible to write your own handler
classes.

The *note Logger: f0c. class is the primary class.  Most application
code will deal with one or more ‘Logger’ objects, each one used by a
particular subsystem of the application.  Each ‘Logger’ is identified by
a name, and names are organized into a hierarchy using ‘.’ as the
component separator.  For example, you might have ‘Logger’ instances
named ‘server’, ‘server.auth’ and ‘server.network’.  The latter two
instances are below ‘server’ in the hierarchy.  This means that if you
turn up the verbosity for ‘server’ or direct ‘server’ messages to a
different handler, the changes will also apply to records logged to
‘server.auth’ and ‘server.network’.  There’s also a root ‘Logger’ that’s
the parent of all other loggers.

For simple uses, the *note logging: 8a. package contains some
convenience functions that always use the root log:

     import logging

     logging.debug('Debugging information')
     logging.info('Informational message')
     logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
     logging.error('Error occurred')
     logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')

This produces the following output:

     WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
     ERROR:root:Error occurred
     CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down

In the default configuration, informational and debugging messages are
suppressed and the output is sent to standard error.  You can enable the
display of informational and debugging messages by calling the *note
setLevel(): 1835. method on the root logger.

Notice the *note warning(): 331. call’s use of string formatting
operators; all of the functions for logging messages take the arguments
‘(msg, arg1, arg2, ...)’ and log the string resulting from ‘msg % (arg1,
arg2, ...)’.

There’s also an *note exception(): 1836. function that records the most
recent traceback.  Any of the other functions will also record the
traceback if you specify a true value for the keyword argument
'exc_info'.

     def f():
         try:    1/0
         except: logging.exception('Problem recorded')

     f()

This produces the following output:

     ERROR:root:Problem recorded
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 6, in f
         1/0
     ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero

Slightly more advanced programs will use a logger other than the root
logger.  The ‘getLogger(name)’ function is used to get a particular log,
creating it if it doesn’t exist yet.  ‘getLogger(None)’ returns the root
logger.

     log = logging.getLogger('server')
      ...
     log.info('Listening on port %i', port)
      ...
     log.critical('Disk full')
      ...

Log records are usually propagated up the hierarchy, so a message logged
to ‘server.auth’ is also seen by ‘server’ and ‘root’, but a *note
Logger: f0c. can prevent this by setting its *note propagate: 1837.
attribute to *note False: ef5.

There are more classes provided by the *note logging: 8a. package that
can be customized.  When a *note Logger: f0c. instance is told to log a
message, it creates a *note LogRecord: 138f. instance that is sent to
any number of different *note Handler: 1838. instances.  Loggers and
handlers can also have an attached list of filters, and each filter can
cause the ‘LogRecord’ to be ignored or can modify the record before
passing it along.  When they’re finally output, ‘LogRecord’ instances
are converted to text by a *note Formatter: 1839. class.  All of these
classes can be replaced by your own specially written classes.

With all of these features the *note logging: 8a. package should provide
enough flexibility for even the most complicated applications.  This is
only an incomplete overview of its features, so please see the package’s
reference documentation for all of the details.  Reading PEP 282(1) will
also be helpful.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 282(2) - A Logging System

     Written by Vinay Sajip and Trent Mick; implemented by Vinay Sajip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 285 A Boolean Type,  Next: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Prev: PEP 282 The logging Package,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.9 PEP 285: A Boolean Type
------------------------------

A Boolean type was added to Python 2.3.  Two new constants were added to
the ‘__builtin__’ module, *note True: fcc. and *note False: ef5.
(‘True’ and ‘False’ constants were added to the built-ins in Python
2.2.1, but the 2.2.1 versions are simply set to integer values of 1 and
0 and aren’t a different type.)

The type object for this new type is named *note bool: 5ef.; the
constructor for it takes any Python value and converts it to *note True:
fcc. or *note False: ef5.

     >>> bool(1)
     True
     >>> bool(0)
     False
     >>> bool([])
     False
     >>> bool( (1,) )
     True

Most of the standard library modules and built-in functions have been
changed to return Booleans.

     >>> obj = []
     >>> hasattr(obj, 'append')
     True
     >>> isinstance(obj, list)
     True
     >>> isinstance(obj, tuple)
     False

Python’s Booleans were added with the primary goal of making code
clearer.  For example, if you’re reading a function and encounter the
statement ‘return 1’, you might wonder whether the ‘1’ represents a
Boolean truth value, an index, or a coefficient that multiplies some
other quantity.  If the statement is ‘return True’, however, the meaning
of the return value is quite clear.

Python’s Booleans were 'not' added for the sake of strict type-checking.
A very strict language such as Pascal would also prevent you performing
arithmetic with Booleans, and would require that the expression in an
*note if: 322. statement always evaluate to a Boolean result.  Python is
not this strict and never will be, as PEP 285(1) explicitly says.  This
means you can still use any expression in an ‘if’ statement, even ones
that evaluate to a list or tuple or some random object.  The Boolean
type is a subclass of the *note int: 326. class so that arithmetic using
a Boolean still works.

     >>> True + 1
     2
     >>> False + 1
     1
     >>> False * 75
     0
     >>> True * 75
     75

To sum up *note True: fcc. and *note False: ef5. in a sentence: they’re
alternative ways to spell the integer values 1 and 0, with the single
difference that *note str(): 1df. and *note repr(): 45b. return the
strings ‘'True'’ and ‘'False'’ instead of ‘'1'’ and ‘'0'’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 285(2) - Adding a bool type

     Written and implemented by GvR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Next: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Prev: PEP 285 A Boolean Type,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.10 PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
-----------------------------------------------

When encoding a Unicode string into a byte string, unencodable
characters may be encountered.  So far, Python has allowed specifying
the error processing as either «strict» (raising *note UnicodeError:
675.), «ignore» (skipping the character), or «replace» (using a question
mark in the output string), with «strict» being the default behavior.
It may be desirable to specify alternative processing of such errors,
such as inserting an XML character reference or HTML entity reference
into the converted string.

Python now has a flexible framework to add different processing
strategies.  New error handlers can be added with *note
codecs.register_error(): 183d, and codecs then can access the error
handler with *note codecs.lookup_error(): 183e.  An equivalent C API has
been added for codecs written in C. The error handler gets the necessary
state information such as the string being converted, the position in
the string where the error was detected, and the target encoding.  The
handler can then either raise an exception or return a replacement
string.

Two additional error handlers have been implemented using this
framework: «backslashreplace» uses Python backslash quoting to represent
unencodable characters and «xmlcharrefreplace» emits XML character
references.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 293(1) - Codec Error Handling Callbacks

     Written and implemented by Walter Dörwald.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0293/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Next: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Prev: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.11 PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
---------------------------------------------------------

Support for the long-requested Python catalog makes its first appearance
in 2.3.

The heart of the catalog is the new Distutils ‘register’ command.
Running ‘python setup.py register’ will collect the metadata describing
a package, such as its name, version, maintainer, description, &c., and
send it to a central catalog server.  The resulting catalog is available
from ‘https://pypi.org’.

To make the catalog a bit more useful, a new optional 'classifiers'
keyword argument has been added to the Distutils ‘setup()’ function.  A
list of Trove(1)-style strings can be supplied to help classify the
software.

Here’s an example ‘setup.py’ with classifiers, written to be compatible
with older versions of the Distutils:

     from distutils import core
     kw = {'name': "Quixote",
           'version': "0.5.1",
           'description': "A highly Pythonic Web application framework",
           # ...
           }

     if (hasattr(core, 'setup_keywords') and
         'classifiers' in core.setup_keywords):
         kw['classifiers'] = \
             ['Topic :: Internet :: WWW/HTTP :: Dynamic Content',
              'Environment :: No Input/Output (Daemon)',
              'Intended Audience :: Developers'],

     core.setup(**kw)

The full list of classifiers can be obtained by running ‘python setup.py
register --list-classifiers’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 301(2) - Package Index and Metadata for Distutils

     Written and implemented by Richard Jones.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://catb.org/~esr/trove/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0301/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Next: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Prev: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.12 PEP 302: New Import Hooks
---------------------------------

While it’s been possible to write custom import hooks ever since the
‘ihooks’ module was introduced in Python 1.3, no one has ever been
really happy with it because writing new import hooks is difficult and
messy.  There have been various proposed alternatives such as the
‘imputil’ and ‘iu’ modules, but none of them has ever gained much
acceptance, and none of them were easily usable from C code.

PEP 302(1) borrows ideas from its predecessors, especially from Gordon
McMillan’s ‘iu’ module.  Three new items are added to the *note sys: e2.
module:

   * ‘sys.path_hooks’ is a list of callable objects; most often they’ll
     be classes.  Each callable takes a string containing a path and
     either returns an importer object that will handle imports from
     this path or raises an *note ImportError: 1bd. exception if it
     can’t handle this path.

   * ‘sys.path_importer_cache’ caches importer objects for each path, so
     ‘sys.path_hooks’ will only need to be traversed once for each path.

   * ‘sys.meta_path’ is a list of importer objects that will be
     traversed before ‘sys.path’ is checked.  This list is initially
     empty, but user code can add objects to it.  Additional built-in
     and frozen modules can be imported by an object added to this list.

Importer objects must have a single method, ‘find_module(fullname,
path=None)’.  'fullname' will be a module or package name, e.g.
‘string’ or ‘distutils.core’.  ‘find_module()’ must return a loader
object that has a single method, ‘load_module(fullname)’, that creates
and returns the corresponding module object.

Pseudo-code for Python’s new import logic, therefore, looks something
like this (simplified a bit; see PEP 302(2) for the full details):

     for mp in sys.meta_path:
         loader = mp(fullname)
         if loader is not None:
             <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)

     for path in sys.path:
         for hook in sys.path_hooks:
             try:
                 importer = hook(path)
             except ImportError:
                 # ImportError, so try the other path hooks
                 pass
             else:
                 loader = importer.find_module(fullname)
                 <module> = loader.load_module(fullname)

     # Not found!
     raise ImportError

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 302(3) - New Import Hooks

     Written by Just van Rossum and Paul Moore.  Implemented by Just van
     Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Next: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Prev: PEP 302 New Import Hooks,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.13 PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
--------------------------------------

Comma-separated files are a format frequently used for exporting data
from databases and spreadsheets.  Python 2.3 adds a parser for
comma-separated files.

Comma-separated format is deceptively simple at first glance:

     Costs,150,200,3.95

Read a line and call ‘line.split(',')’: what could be simpler?  But toss
in string data that can contain commas, and things get more complicated:

     "Costs",150,200,3.95,"Includes taxes, shipping, and sundry items"

A big ugly regular expression can parse this, but using the new *note
csv: 2c. package is much simpler:

     import csv

     input = open('datafile', 'rb')
     reader = csv.reader(input)
     for line in reader:
         print line

The *note reader(): 898. function takes a number of different options.
The field separator isn’t limited to the comma and can be changed to any
character, and so can the quoting and line-ending characters.

Different dialects of comma-separated files can be defined and
registered; currently there are two dialects, both used by Microsoft
Excel.  A separate *note csv.writer: 899. class will generate
comma-separated files from a succession of tuples or lists, quoting
strings that contain the delimiter.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 305(1) - CSV File API

     Written and implemented by Kevin Altis, Dave Cole, Andrew McNamara,
     Skip Montanaro, Cliff Wells.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0305/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Next: Extended Slices,  Prev: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.14 PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
------------------------------------

The *note pickle: ab. and ‘cPickle’ modules received some attention
during the 2.3 development cycle.  In 2.2, new-style classes could be
pickled without difficulty, but they weren’t pickled very compactly; PEP
307(1) quotes a trivial example where a new-style class results in a
pickled string three times longer than that for a classic class.

The solution was to invent a new pickle protocol.  The *note
pickle.dumps(): 1846. function has supported a text-or-binary flag for a
long time.  In 2.3, this flag is redefined from a Boolean to an integer:
0 is the old text-mode pickle format, 1 is the old binary format, and
now 2 is a new 2.3-specific format.  A new constant, *note
pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 1847, can be used to select the fanciest
protocol available.

Unpickling is no longer considered a safe operation.  2.2’s *note
pickle: ab. provided hooks for trying to prevent unsafe classes from
being unpickled (specifically, a ‘__safe_for_unpickling__’ attribute),
but none of this code was ever audited and therefore it’s all been
ripped out in 2.3.  You should not unpickle untrusted data in any
version of Python.

To reduce the pickling overhead for new-style classes, a new interface
for customizing pickling was added using three special methods: *note
__getstate__(): 9d3, *note __setstate__(): d98, and *note
__getnewargs__(): 118d.  Consult PEP 307(2) for the full semantics of
these methods.

As a way to compress pickles yet further, it’s now possible to use
integer codes instead of long strings to identify pickled classes.  The
Python Software Foundation will maintain a list of standardized codes;
there’s also a range of codes for private use.  Currently no codes have
been specified.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 307(3) - Extensions to the pickle protocol

     Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum and Tim Peters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/


File: python.info,  Node: Extended Slices,  Next: Other Language Changes<18>,  Prev: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.15 Extended Slices
-----------------------

Ever since Python 1.4, the slicing syntax has supported an optional
third «step» or «stride» argument.  For example, these are all legal
Python syntax: ‘L[1:10:2]’, ‘L[:-1:1]’, ‘L[::-1]’.  This was added to
Python at the request of the developers of Numerical Python, which uses
the third argument extensively.  However, Python’s built-in list, tuple,
and string sequence types have never supported this feature, raising a
*note TypeError: 291. if you tried it.  Michael Hudson contributed a
patch to fix this shortcoming.

For example, you can now easily extract the elements of a list that have
even indexes:

     >>> L = range(10)
     >>> L[::2]
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

Negative values also work to make a copy of the same list in reverse
order:

     >>> L[::-1]
     [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

This also works for tuples, arrays, and strings:

     >>> s='abcd'
     >>> s[::2]
     'ac'
     >>> s[::-1]
     'dcba'

If you have a mutable sequence such as a list or an array you can assign
to or delete an extended slice, but there are some differences between
assignment to extended and regular slices.  Assignment to a regular
slice can be used to change the length of the sequence:

     >>> a = range(3)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2]
     >>> a[1:3] = [4, 5, 6]
     >>> a
     [0, 4, 5, 6]

Extended slices aren’t this flexible.  When assigning to an extended
slice, the list on the right hand side of the statement must contain the
same number of items as the slice it is replacing:

     >>> a = range(4)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2, 3]
     >>> a[::2]
     [0, 2]
     >>> a[::2] = [0, -1]
     >>> a
     [0, 1, -1, 3]
     >>> a[::2] = [0,1,2]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     ValueError: attempt to assign sequence of size 3 to extended slice of size 2

Deletion is more straightforward:

     >>> a = range(4)
     >>> a
     [0, 1, 2, 3]
     >>> a[::2]
     [0, 2]
     >>> del a[::2]
     >>> a
     [1, 3]

One can also now pass slice objects to the *note __getitem__(): 787.
methods of the built-in sequences:

     >>> range(10).__getitem__(slice(0, 5, 2))
     [0, 2, 4]

Or use slice objects directly in subscripts:

     >>> range(10)[slice(0, 5, 2)]
     [0, 2, 4]

To simplify implementing sequences that support extended slicing, slice
objects now have a method ‘indices(length)’ which, given the length of a
sequence, returns a ‘(start, stop, step)’ tuple that can be passed
directly to *note range(): d0f.  ‘indices()’ handles omitted and
out-of-bounds indices in a manner consistent with regular slices (and
this innocuous phrase hides a welter of confusing details!).  The method
is intended to be used like this:

     class FakeSeq:
         ...
         def calc_item(self, i):
             ...
         def __getitem__(self, item):
             if isinstance(item, slice):
                 indices = item.indices(len(self))
                 return FakeSeq([self.calc_item(i) for i in range(*indices)])
             else:
                 return self.calc_item(i)

From this example you can also see that the built-in *note slice: 1d0.
object is now the type object for the slice type, and is no longer a
function.  This is consistent with Python 2.2, where *note int: 326,
*note str: 1df, etc., underwent the same change.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Language Changes<18>,  Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Prev: Extended Slices,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.16 Other Language Changes
------------------------------

Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python
language.

   * The *note yield: d93. statement is now always a keyword, as
     described in section *note PEP 255; Simple Generators: 182a. of
     this document.

   * A new built-in function *note enumerate(): 1823. was added, as
     described in section *note PEP 279; enumerate(): 1833. of this
     document.

   * Two new constants, *note True: fcc. and *note False: ef5. were
     added along with the built-in *note bool: 5ef. type, as described
     in section *note PEP 285; A Boolean Type: 183b. of this document.

   * The *note int(): 326. type constructor will now return a long
     integer instead of raising an *note OverflowError: c57. when a
     string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an
     integer.  This can lead to the paradoxical result that
     ‘isinstance(int(expression), int)’ is false, but that seems
     unlikely to cause problems in practice.

   * Built-in types now support the extended slicing syntax, as
     described in section *note Extended Slices: 1849. of this document.

   * A new built-in function, ‘sum(iterable, start=0)’, adds up the
     numeric items in the iterable object and returns their sum.  *note
     sum(): 881. only accepts numbers, meaning that you can’t use it to
     concatenate a bunch of strings.  (Contributed by Alex Martelli.)

   * ‘list.insert(pos, value)’ used to insert 'value' at the front of
     the list when 'pos' was negative.  The behaviour has now been
     changed to be consistent with slice indexing, so when 'pos' is -1
     the value will be inserted before the last element, and so forth.

   * ‘list.index(value)’, which searches for 'value' within the list and
     returns its index, now takes optional 'start' and 'stop' arguments
     to limit the search to only part of the list.

   * Dictionaries have a new method, ‘pop(key[, *default*])’, that
     returns the value corresponding to 'key' and removes that key/value
     pair from the dictionary.  If the requested key isn’t present in
     the dictionary, 'default' is returned if it’s specified and *note
     KeyError: 7df. raised if it isn’t.

          >>> d = {1:2}
          >>> d
          {1: 2}
          >>> d.pop(4)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "stdin", line 1, in ?
          KeyError: 4
          >>> d.pop(1)
          2
          >>> d.pop(1)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "stdin", line 1, in ?
          KeyError: 'pop(): dictionary is empty'
          >>> d
          {}
          >>>

     There’s also a new class method, ‘dict.fromkeys(iterable, value)’,
     that creates a dictionary with keys taken from the supplied
     iterator 'iterable' and all values set to 'value', defaulting to
     ‘None’.

     (Patches contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

     Also, the *note dict(): 188. constructor now accepts keyword
     arguments to simplify creating small dictionaries:

          >>> dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4)
          {'blue': 2, 'black': 4, 'green': 3, 'red': 1}

     (Contributed by Just van Rossum.)

   * The *note assert: d31. statement no longer checks the ‘__debug__’
     flag, so you can no longer disable assertions by assigning to
     ‘__debug__’.  Running Python with the *note -O: 431. switch will
     still generate code that doesn’t execute any assertions.

   * Most type objects are now callable, so you can use them to create
     new objects such as functions, classes, and modules.  (This means
     that the ‘new’ module can be deprecated in a future Python version,
     because you can now use the type objects available in the *note
     types: 10c. module.)  For example, you can create a new module
     object with the following code:

          >>> import types
          >>> m = types.ModuleType('abc','docstring')
          >>> m
          <module 'abc' (built-in)>
          >>> m.__doc__
          'docstring'

   * A new warning, *note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b. was added to
     indicate features which are in the process of being deprecated.
     The warning will 'not' be printed by default.  To check for use of
     features that will be deprecated in the future, supply *note
     -Walways;;PendingDeprecationWarning;;: 1c0. on the command line or
     use *note warnings.filterwarnings(): 184b.

   * The process of deprecating string-based exceptions, as in ‘raise
     "Error occurred"’, has begun.  Raising a string will now trigger
     *note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b.

   * Using ‘None’ as a variable name will now result in a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 44a. warning.  In a future version of Python, ‘None’
     may finally become a keyword.

   * The ‘xreadlines()’ method of file objects, introduced in Python
     2.1, is no longer necessary because files now behave as their own
     iterator.  ‘xreadlines()’ was originally introduced as a faster way
     to loop over all the lines in a file, but now you can simply write
     ‘for line in file_obj’.  File objects also have a new read-only
     ‘encoding’ attribute that gives the encoding used by the file;
     Unicode strings written to the file will be automatically converted
     to bytes using the given encoding.

   * The method resolution order used by new-style classes has changed,
     though you’ll only notice the difference if you have a really
     complicated inheritance hierarchy.  Classic classes are unaffected
     by this change.  Python 2.2 originally used a topological sort of a
     class’s ancestors, but 2.3 now uses the C3 algorithm as described
     in the paper "A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan"(1).
     To understand the motivation for this change, read Michele
     Simionato’s article *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order:
     184c, or read the thread on python-dev starting with the message at
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html’.
     Samuele Pedroni first pointed out the problem and also implemented
     the fix by coding the C3 algorithm.

   * Python runs multithreaded programs by switching between threads
     after executing N bytecodes.  The default value for N has been
     increased from 10 to 100 bytecodes, speeding up single-threaded
     applications by reducing the switching overhead.  Some
     multithreaded applications may suffer slower response time, but
     that’s easily fixed by setting the limit back to a lower number
     using ‘sys.setcheckinterval(N)’.  The limit can be retrieved with
     the new ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ function.

   * One minor but far-reaching change is that the names of extension
     types defined by the modules included with Python now contain the
     module and a ‘'.'’ in front of the type name.  For example, in
     Python 2.2, if you created a socket and printed its ‘__class__’,
     you’d get this output:

          >>> s = socket.socket()
          >>> s.__class__
          <type 'socket'>

     In 2.3, you get this:

          >>> s.__class__
          <type '_socket.socket'>

   * One of the noted incompatibilities between old- and new-style
     classes has been removed: you can now assign to the *note __name__:
     184d. and *note __bases__: 184e. attributes of new-style classes.
     There are some restrictions on what can be assigned to ‘__bases__’
     along the lines of those relating to assigning to an instance’s
     *note __class__: 184f. attribute.

* Menu:

* String Changes::
* Optimizations: Optimizations<20>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.19.3910


File: python.info,  Node: String Changes,  Next: Optimizations<20>,  Up: Other Language Changes<18>

1.22.16.1 String Changes
........................

   * The *note in: 323. operator now works differently for strings.
     Previously, when evaluating ‘X in Y’ where 'X' and 'Y' are strings,
     'X' could only be a single character.  That’s now changed; 'X' can
     be a string of any length, and ‘X in Y’ will return *note True:
     fcc. if 'X' is a substring of 'Y'. If 'X' is the empty string, the
     result is always ‘True’.

          >>> 'ab' in 'abcd'
          True
          >>> 'ad' in 'abcd'
          False
          >>> '' in 'abcd'
          True

     Note that this doesn’t tell you where the substring starts; if you
     need that information, use the *note find(): 1259. string method.

   * The *note strip(): 1851, *note lstrip(): 1852, and *note rstrip():
     1853. string methods now have an optional argument for specifying
     the characters to strip.  The default is still to remove all
     whitespace characters:

          >>> '   abc '.strip()
          'abc'
          >>> '><><abc<><><>'.strip('<>')
          'abc'
          >>> '><><abc<><><>\n'.strip('<>')
          'abc<><><>\n'
          >>> u'\u4000\u4001abc\u4000'.strip(u'\u4000')
          u'\u4001abc'
          >>>

     (Suggested by Simon Brunning and implemented by Walter Dörwald.)

   * The *note startswith(): 1279. and *note endswith(): 127a. string
     methods now accept negative numbers for the 'start' and 'end'
     parameters.

   * Another new string method is *note zfill(): 1854, originally a
     function in the *note string: db. module.  ‘zfill()’ pads a numeric
     string with zeros on the left until it’s the specified width.  Note
     that the ‘%’ operator is still more flexible and powerful than
     ‘zfill()’.

          >>> '45'.zfill(4)
          '0045'
          >>> '12345'.zfill(4)
          '12345'
          >>> 'goofy'.zfill(6)
          '0goofy'

     (Contributed by Walter Dörwald.)

   * A new type object, ‘basestring’, has been added.  Both 8-bit
     strings and Unicode strings inherit from this type, so
     ‘isinstance(obj, basestring)’ will return *note True: fcc. for
     either kind of string.  It’s a completely abstract type, so you
     can’t create ‘basestring’ instances.

   * Interned strings are no longer immortal and will now be
     garbage-collected in the usual way when the only reference to them
     is from the internal dictionary of interned strings.  (Implemented
     by Oren Tirosh.)


File: python.info,  Node: Optimizations<20>,  Prev: String Changes,  Up: Other Language Changes<18>

1.22.16.2 Optimizations
.......................

   * The creation of new-style class instances has been made much
     faster; they’re now faster than classic classes!

   * The *note sort(): f8d. method of list objects has been extensively
     rewritten by Tim Peters, and the implementation is significantly
     faster.

   * Multiplication of large long integers is now much faster thanks to
     an implementation of Karatsuba multiplication, an algorithm that
     scales better than the 'O'('n'^2) required for the grade-school
     multiplication algorithm.  (Original patch by Christopher A. Craig,
     and significantly reworked by Tim Peters.)

   * The ‘SET_LINENO’ opcode is now gone.  This may provide a small
     speed increase, depending on your compiler’s idiosyncrasies.  See
     section *note Other Changes and Fixes: 1856. for a longer
     explanation.  (Removed by Michael Hudson.)

   * ‘xrange()’ objects now have their own iterator, making ‘for i in
     xrange(n)’ slightly faster than ‘for i in range(n)’.  (Patch by
     Raymond Hettinger.)

   * A number of small rearrangements have been made in various hotspots
     to improve performance, such as inlining a function or removing
     some code.  (Implemented mostly by GvR, but lots of people have
     contributed single changes.)

The net result of the 2.3 optimizations is that Python 2.3 runs the
pystone benchmark around 25% faster than Python 2.2.


File: python.info,  Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Next: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Prev: Other Language Changes<18>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.17 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
---------------------------------------------

As usual, Python’s standard library received a number of enhancements
and bug fixes.  Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes,
sorted alphabetically by module name.  Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in
the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the
CVS logs for all the details.

   * The *note array: 8. module now supports arrays of Unicode
     characters using the ‘'u'’ format character.  Arrays also now
     support using the ‘+=’ assignment operator to add another array’s
     contents, and the ‘*=’ assignment operator to repeat an array.
     (Contributed by Jason Orendorff.)

   * The ‘bsddb’ module has been replaced by version 4.1.6 of the
     PyBSDDB(1) package, providing a more complete interface to the
     transactional features of the BerkeleyDB library.

     The old version of the module has been renamed to ‘bsddb185’ and is
     no longer built automatically; you’ll have to edit ‘Modules/Setup’
     to enable it.  Note that the new ‘bsddb’ package is intended to be
     compatible with the old module, so be sure to file bugs if you
     discover any incompatibilities.  When upgrading to Python 2.3, if
     the new interpreter is compiled with a new version of the
     underlying BerkeleyDB library, you will almost certainly have to
     convert your database files to the new version.  You can do this
     fairly easily with the new scripts ‘db2pickle.py’ and
     ‘pickle2db.py’ which you will find in the distribution’s
     ‘Tools/scripts’ directory.  If you’ve already been using the
     PyBSDDB package and importing it as ‘bsddb3’, you will have to
     change your ‘import’ statements to import it as ‘bsddb’.

   * The new *note bz2: 14. module is an interface to the bz2 data
     compression library.  bz2-compressed data is usually smaller than
     corresponding *note zlib: 13c.-compressed data.  (Contributed by
     Gustavo Niemeyer.)

   * A set of standard date/time types has been added in the new *note
     datetime: 33. module.  See the following section for more details.

   * The Distutils ‘Extension’ class now supports an extra constructor
     argument named 'depends' for listing additional source files that
     an extension depends on.  This lets Distutils recompile the module
     if any of the dependency files are modified.  For example, if
     ‘sampmodule.c’ includes the header file ‘sample.h’, you would
     create the ‘Extension’ object like this:

          ext = Extension("samp",
                          sources=["sampmodule.c"],
                          depends=["sample.h"])

     Modifying ‘sample.h’ would then cause the module to be recompiled.
     (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * Other minor changes to Distutils: it now checks for the *note CC:
     1858, *note CFLAGS: 1859, ‘CPP’, *note LDFLAGS: 185a, and *note
     CPPFLAGS: 185b. environment variables, using them to override the
     settings in Python’s configuration (contributed by Robert Weber).

   * Previously the *note doctest: 3d. module would only search the
     docstrings of public methods and functions for test cases, but it
     now also examines private ones as well.  The *note DocTestSuite():
     11ac. function creates a *note unittest.TestSuite: 11ad. object
     from a set of ‘doctest’ tests.

   * The new ‘gc.get_referents(object)’ function returns a list of all
     the objects referenced by 'object'.

   * The *note getopt: 64. module gained a new function, *note
     gnu_getopt(): 185c, that supports the same arguments as the
     existing *note getopt(): 185d. function but uses GNU-style scanning
     mode.  The existing ‘getopt()’ stops processing options as soon as
     a non-option argument is encountered, but in GNU-style mode
     processing continues, meaning that options and arguments can be
     mixed.  For example:

          >>> getopt.getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
          ([('-f', 'filename')], ['output', '-v'])
          >>> getopt.gnu_getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v')
          ([('-f', 'filename'), ('-v', '')], ['output'])

     (Contributed by Peter Åstrand.)

   * The *note grp: 69, *note pwd: ba, and *note resource: c4. modules
     now return enhanced tuples:

          >>> import grp
          >>> g = grp.getgrnam('amk')
          >>> g.gr_name, g.gr_gid
          ('amk', 500)

   * The *note gzip: 6a. module can now handle files exceeding 2 GiB.

   * The new *note heapq: 6c. module contains an implementation of a
     heap queue algorithm.  A heap is an array-like data structure that
     keeps items in a partially sorted order such that, for every index
     'k', ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+1]’ and ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]’.  This
     makes it quick to remove the smallest item, and inserting a new
     item while maintaining the heap property is 'O'(log 'n').  (See
     ‘https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads//HTML/priorityque.html’ for more
     information about the priority queue data structure.)

     The *note heapq: 6c. module provides *note heappush(): 185e. and
     *note heappop(): 185f. functions for adding and removing items
     while maintaining the heap property on top of some other mutable
     Python sequence type.  Here’s an example that uses a Python list:

          >>> import heapq
          >>> heap = []
          >>> for item in [3, 7, 5, 11, 1]:
          ...    heapq.heappush(heap, item)
          ...
          >>> heap
          [1, 3, 5, 11, 7]
          >>> heapq.heappop(heap)
          1
          >>> heapq.heappop(heap)
          3
          >>> heap
          [5, 7, 11]

     (Contributed by Kevin O’Connor.)

   * The IDLE integrated development environment has been updated using
     the code from the IDLEfork project
     (‘https://idlefork.sourceforge.net’).  The most notable feature is
     that the code being developed is now executed in a subprocess,
     meaning that there’s no longer any need for manual ‘reload()’
     operations.  IDLE’s core code has been incorporated into the
     standard library as the *note idlelib: 76. package.

   * The *note imaplib: 77. module now supports IMAP over SSL.
     (Contributed by Piers Lauder and Tino Lange.)

   * The *note itertools: 84. contains a number of useful functions for
     use with iterators, inspired by various functions provided by the
     ML and Haskell languages.  For example,
     ‘itertools.ifilter(predicate, iterator)’ returns all elements in
     the iterator for which the function ‘predicate()’ returns *note
     True: fcc, and ‘itertools.repeat(obj, N)’ returns ‘obj’ 'N' times.
     There are a number of other functions in the module; see the
     package’s reference documentation for details.  (Contributed by
     Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Two new functions in the *note math: 91. module, ‘degrees(rads)’
     and ‘radians(degs)’, convert between radians and degrees.  Other
     functions in the ‘math’ module such as *note math.sin(): 1860. and
     *note math.cos(): 1861. have always required input values measured
     in radians.  Also, an optional 'base' argument was added to *note
     math.log(): 1862. to make it easier to compute logarithms for bases
     other than ‘e’ and ‘10’.  (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * Several new POSIX functions (‘getpgid()’, ‘killpg()’, ‘lchown()’,
     ‘loadavg()’, ‘major()’, ‘makedev()’, ‘minor()’, and ‘mknod()’) were
     added to the *note posix: b2. module that underlies the *note os:
     a5. module.  (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer, Geert Jansen, and
     Denis S. Otkidach.)

   * In the *note os: a5. module, the ‘*stat()’ family of functions can
     now report fractions of a second in a timestamp.  Such time stamps
     are represented as floats, similar to the value returned by *note
     time.time(): 75e.

     During testing, it was found that some applications will break if
     time stamps are floats.  For compatibility, when using the tuple
     interface of the *note stat_result: 1863. time stamps will be
     represented as integers.  When using named fields (a feature first
     introduced in Python 2.2), time stamps are still represented as
     integers, unless ‘os.stat_float_times()’ is invoked to enable float
     return values:

          >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
          1034791200
          >>> os.stat_float_times(True)
          >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime
          1034791200.6335014

     In Python 2.4, the default will change to always returning floats.

     Application developers should enable this feature only if all their
     libraries work properly when confronted with floating-point time
     stamps, or if they use the tuple API. If used, the feature should
     be activated on an application level instead of trying to enable it
     on a per-use basis.

   * The *note optparse: a4. module contains a new parser for
     command-line arguments that can convert option values to a
     particular Python type and will automatically generate a usage
     message.  See the following section for more details.

   * The old and never-documented ‘linuxaudiodev’ module has been
     deprecated, and a new version named ‘ossaudiodev’ has been added.
     The module was renamed because the OSS sound drivers can be used on
     platforms other than Linux, and the interface has also been tidied
     and brought up to date in various ways.  (Contributed by Greg Ward
     and Nicholas FitzRoy-Dale.)

   * The new *note platform: af. module contains a number of functions
     that try to determine various properties of the platform you’re
     running on.  There are functions for getting the architecture, CPU
     type, the Windows OS version, and even the Linux distribution
     version.  (Contributed by Marc-André Lemburg.)

   * The parser objects provided by the *note pyexpat: 12f. module can
     now optionally buffer character data, resulting in fewer calls to
     your character data handler and therefore faster performance.
     Setting the parser object’s *note buffer_text: 1864. attribute to
     *note True: fcc. will enable buffering.

   * The ‘sample(population, k)’ function was added to the *note random:
     c0. module.  'population' is a sequence or ‘xrange’ object
     containing the elements of a population, and *note sample(): b2b.
     chooses 'k' elements from the population without replacing chosen
     elements.  'k' can be any value up to ‘len(population)’.  For
     example:

          >>> days = ['Mo', 'Tu', 'We', 'Th', 'Fr', 'St', 'Sn']
          >>> random.sample(days, 3)      # Choose 3 elements
          ['St', 'Sn', 'Th']
          >>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 elements
          ['Tu', 'Th', 'Mo', 'We', 'St', 'Fr', 'Sn']
          >>> random.sample(days, 7)      # Choose 7 again
          ['We', 'Mo', 'Sn', 'Fr', 'Tu', 'St', 'Th']
          >>> random.sample(days, 8)      # Can't choose eight
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
            File "random.py", line 414, in sample
                raise ValueError, "sample larger than population"
          ValueError: sample larger than population
          >>> random.sample(xrange(1,10000,2), 10)   # Choose ten odd nos. under 10000
          [3407, 3805, 1505, 7023, 2401, 2267, 9733, 3151, 8083, 9195]

     The *note random: c0. module now uses a new algorithm, the Mersenne
     Twister, implemented in C. It’s faster and more extensively studied
     than the previous algorithm.

     (All changes contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The *note readline: c2. module also gained a number of new
     functions: *note get_history_item(): 1865, *note
     get_current_history_length(): 1866, and *note redisplay(): 1867.

   * The ‘rexec’ and ‘Bastion’ modules have been declared dead, and
     attempts to import them will fail with a *note RuntimeError: 30d.
     New-style classes provide new ways to break out of the restricted
     execution environment provided by ‘rexec’, and no one has interest
     in fixing them or time to do so.  If you have applications using
     ‘rexec’, rewrite them to use something else.

     (Sticking with Python 2.2 or 2.1 will not make your applications
     any safer because there are known bugs in the ‘rexec’ module in
     those versions.  To repeat: if you’re using ‘rexec’, stop using it
     immediately.)

   * The ‘rotor’ module has been deprecated because the algorithm it
     uses for encryption is not believed to be secure.  If you need
     encryption, use one of the several AES Python modules that are
     available separately.

   * The *note shutil: cd. module gained a ‘move(src, dest)’ function
     that recursively moves a file or directory to a new location.

   * Support for more advanced POSIX signal handling was added to the
     *note signal: ce. but then removed again as it proved impossible to
     make it work reliably across platforms.

   * The *note socket: d4. module now supports timeouts.  You can call
     the ‘settimeout(t)’ method on a socket object to set a timeout of
     't' seconds.  Subsequent socket operations that take longer than
     't' seconds to complete will abort and raise a *note
     socket.timeout: c0d. exception.

     The original timeout implementation was by Tim O’Malley.  Michael
     Gilfix integrated it into the Python *note socket: d4. module and
     shepherded it through a lengthy review.  After the code was checked
     in, Guido van Rossum rewrote parts of it.  (This is a good example
     of a collaborative development process in action.)

   * On Windows, the *note socket: d4. module now ships with Secure
     Sockets Layer (SSL) support.

   * The value of the C ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’ macro is now exposed at the
     Python level as ‘sys.api_version’.  The current exception can be
     cleared by calling the new ‘sys.exc_clear()’ function.

   * The new *note tarfile: e7. module allows reading from and writing
     to ‘tar’-format archive files.  (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.)

   * The new *note textwrap: f5. module contains functions for wrapping
     strings containing paragraphs of text.  The ‘wrap(text, width)’
     function takes a string and returns a list containing the text
     split into lines of no more than the chosen width.  The ‘fill(text,
     width)’ function returns a single string, reformatted to fit into
     lines no longer than the chosen width.  (As you can guess, *note
     fill(): 1868. is built on top of *note wrap(): 1869.  For example:

          >>> import textwrap
          >>> paragraph = "Not a whit, we defy augury: ... more text ..."
          >>> textwrap.wrap(paragraph, 60)
          ["Not a whit, we defy augury: there's a special providence in",
           "the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not to come; if it",
           ...]
          >>> print textwrap.fill(paragraph, 35)
          Not a whit, we defy augury: there's
          a special providence in the fall of
          a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not
          to come; if it be not to come, it
          will be now; if it be not now, yet
          it will come: the readiness is all.
          >>>

     The module also contains a *note TextWrapper: 1376. class that
     actually implements the text wrapping strategy.  Both the
     ‘TextWrapper’ class and the *note wrap(): 1869. and *note fill():
     1868. functions support a number of additional keyword arguments
     for fine-tuning the formatting; consult the module’s documentation
     for details.  (Contributed by Greg Ward.)

   * The ‘thread’ and *note threading: f6. modules now have companion
     modules, ‘dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’, that provide a
     do-nothing implementation of the ‘thread’ module’s interface for
     platforms where threads are not supported.  The intention is to
     simplify thread-aware modules (ones that 'don’t' rely on threads to
     run) by putting the following code at the top:

          try:
              import threading as _threading
          except ImportError:
              import dummy_threading as _threading

     In this example, ‘_threading’ is used as the module name to make it
     clear that the module being used is not necessarily the actual
     *note threading: f6. module.  Code can call functions and use
     classes in ‘_threading’ whether or not threads are supported,
     avoiding an *note if: 322. statement and making the code slightly
     clearer.  This module will not magically make multithreaded code
     run without threads; code that waits for another thread to return
     or to do something will simply hang forever.

   * The *note time: f7. module’s *note strptime(): 17cf. function has
     long been an annoyance because it uses the platform C library’s
     ‘strptime()’ implementation, and different platforms sometimes have
     odd bugs.  Brett Cannon contributed a portable implementation
     that’s written in pure Python and should behave identically on all
     platforms.

   * The new *note timeit: f8. module helps measure how long snippets of
     Python code take to execute.  The ‘timeit.py’ file can be run
     directly from the command line, or the module’s *note Timer: 186a.
     class can be imported and used directly.  Here’s a short example
     that figures out whether it’s faster to convert an 8-bit string to
     Unicode by appending an empty Unicode string to it or by using the
     ‘unicode()’ function:

          import timeit

          timer1 = timeit.Timer('unicode("abc")')
          timer2 = timeit.Timer('"abc" + u""')

          # Run three trials
          print timer1.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)
          print timer2.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000)

          # On my laptop this outputs:
          # [0.36831796169281006, 0.37441694736480713, 0.35304892063140869]
          # [0.17574405670166016, 0.18193507194519043, 0.17565798759460449]

   * The ‘Tix’ module has received various bug fixes and updates for the
     current version of the Tix package.

   * The ‘Tkinter’ module now works with a thread-enabled version of
     Tcl.  Tcl’s threading model requires that widgets only be accessed
     from the thread in which they’re created; accesses from another
     thread can cause Tcl to panic.  For certain Tcl interfaces,
     ‘Tkinter’ will now automatically avoid this when a widget is
     accessed from a different thread by marshalling a command, passing
     it to the correct thread, and waiting for the results.  Other
     interfaces can’t be handled automatically but ‘Tkinter’ will now
     raise an exception on such an access so that you can at least find
     out about the problem.  See
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-December/031107.html’
     for a more detailed explanation of this change.  (Implemented by
     Martin von Löwis.)

   * Calling Tcl methods through ‘_tkinter’ no longer returns only
     strings.  Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are
     converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped
     with a ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ object if no Python equivalent exists.
     This behavior can be controlled through the ‘wantobjects()’ method
     of ‘tkapp’ objects.

     When using ‘_tkinter’ through the ‘Tkinter’ module (as most Tkinter
     applications will), this feature is always activated.  It should
     not cause compatibility problems, since Tkinter would always
     convert string results to Python types where possible.

     If any incompatibilities are found, the old behavior can be
     restored by setting the ‘wantobjects’ variable in the ‘Tkinter’
     module to false before creating the first ‘tkapp’ object.

          import Tkinter
          Tkinter.wantobjects = 0

     Any breakage caused by this change should be reported as a bug.

   * The ‘UserDict’ module has a new ‘DictMixin’ class which defines all
     dictionary methods for classes that already have a minimum mapping
     interface.  This greatly simplifies writing classes that need to be
     substitutable for dictionaries, such as the classes in the *note
     shelve: cb. module.

     Adding the mix-in as a superclass provides the full dictionary
     interface whenever the class defines *note __getitem__(): 787,
     *note __setitem__(): 1670, *note __delitem__(): 1671, and ‘keys()’.
     For example:

          >>> import UserDict
          >>> class SeqDict(UserDict.DictMixin):
          ...     """Dictionary lookalike implemented with lists."""
          ...     def __init__(self):
          ...         self.keylist = []
          ...         self.valuelist = []
          ...     def __getitem__(self, key):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             raise KeyError
          ...         return self.valuelist[i]
          ...     def __setitem__(self, key, value):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...             self.valuelist[i] = value
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             self.keylist.append(key)
          ...             self.valuelist.append(value)
          ...     def __delitem__(self, key):
          ...         try:
          ...             i = self.keylist.index(key)
          ...         except ValueError:
          ...             raise KeyError
          ...         self.keylist.pop(i)
          ...         self.valuelist.pop(i)
          ...     def keys(self):
          ...         return list(self.keylist)
          ...
          >>> s = SeqDict()
          >>> dir(s)      # See that other dictionary methods are implemented
          ['__cmp__', '__contains__', '__delitem__', '__doc__', '__getitem__',
           '__init__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__module__', '__repr__',
           '__setitem__', 'clear', 'get', 'has_key', 'items', 'iteritems',
           'iterkeys', 'itervalues', 'keylist', 'keys', 'pop', 'popitem',
           'setdefault', 'update', 'valuelist', 'values']

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.)

   * The DOM implementation in *note xml.dom.minidom: 12b. can now
     generate XML output in a particular encoding by providing an
     optional encoding argument to the *note toxml(): e59. and *note
     toprettyxml(): e5a. methods of DOM nodes.

   * The ‘xmlrpclib’ module now supports an XML-RPC extension for
     handling nil data values such as Python’s ‘None’.  Nil values are
     always supported on unmarshalling an XML-RPC response.  To generate
     requests containing ‘None’, you must supply a true value for the
     'allow_none' parameter when creating a ‘Marshaller’ instance.

   * The new ‘DocXMLRPCServer’ module allows writing self-documenting
     XML-RPC servers.  Run it in demo mode (as a program) to see it in
     action.  Pointing the web browser to the RPC server produces
     pydoc-style documentation; pointing xmlrpclib to the server allows
     invoking the actual methods.  (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.)

   * Support for internationalized domain names (RFCs 3454, 3490, 3491,
     and 3492) has been added.  The «idna» encoding can be used to
     convert between a Unicode domain name and the ASCII-compatible
     encoding (ACE) of that name.

          >{}>{}> u"www.Alliancefrançaise.nu".encode("idna")
          'www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu'

     The *note socket: d4. module has also been extended to
     transparently convert Unicode hostnames to the ACE version before
     passing them to the C library.  Modules that deal with hostnames
     such as ‘httplib’ and *note ftplib: 61.) also support Unicode host
     names; ‘httplib’ also sends HTTP ‘Host’ headers using the ACE
     version of the domain name.  *note urllib: 111. supports Unicode
     URLs with non-ASCII host names as long as the ‘path’ part of the
     URL is ASCII only.

     To implement this change, the *note stringprep: dd. module, the
     ‘mkstringprep’ tool and the ‘punycode’ encoding have been added.

* Menu:

* Date/Time Type::
* The optparse Module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pybsddb.sourceforge.net


File: python.info,  Node: Date/Time Type,  Next: The optparse Module,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>

1.22.17.1 Date/Time Type
........................

Date and time types suitable for expressing timestamps were added as the
*note datetime: 33. module.  The types don’t support different calendars
or many fancy features, and just stick to the basics of representing
time.

The three primary types are: *note date: 48d, representing a day, month,
and year; *note time: 48e, consisting of hour, minute, and second; and
*note datetime: 6e7, which contains all the attributes of both ‘date’
and ‘time’.  There’s also a *note timedelta: d94. class representing
differences between two points in time, and time zone logic is
implemented by classes inheriting from the abstract *note tzinfo: 9d8.
class.

You can create instances of *note date: 48d. and *note time: 48e. by
either supplying keyword arguments to the appropriate constructor, e.g.
‘datetime.date(year=1972, month=10, day=15)’, or by using one of a
number of class methods.  For example, the *note today(): 186c. class
method returns the current local date.

Once created, instances of the date/time classes are all immutable.
There are a number of methods for producing formatted strings from
objects:

     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> now = dt.datetime.now()
     >>> now.isoformat()
     '2002-12-30T21:27:03.994956'
     >>> now.ctime()  # Only available on date, datetime
     'Mon Dec 30 21:27:03 2002'
     >>> now.strftime('%Y %d %b')
     '2002 30 Dec'

The *note replace(): 186d. method allows modifying one or more fields of
a *note date: 48d. or *note datetime: 6e7. instance, returning a new
instance:

     >>> d = dt.datetime.now()
     >>> d
     datetime.datetime(2002, 12, 30, 22, 15, 38, 827738)
     >>> d.replace(year=2001, hour=12)
     datetime.datetime(2001, 12, 30, 12, 15, 38, 827738)
     >>>

Instances can be compared, hashed, and converted to strings (the result
is the same as that of *note isoformat(): eef.).  *note date: 48d. and
*note datetime: 6e7. instances can be subtracted from each other, and
added to *note timedelta: d94. instances.  The largest missing feature
is that there’s no standard library support for parsing strings and
getting back a ‘date’ or ‘datetime’.

For more information, refer to the module’s reference documentation.
(Contributed by Tim Peters.)


File: python.info,  Node: The optparse Module,  Prev: Date/Time Type,  Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>

1.22.17.2 The optparse Module
.............................

The *note getopt: 64. module provides simple parsing of command-line
arguments.  The new *note optparse: a4. module (originally named Optik)
provides more elaborate command-line parsing that follows the Unix
conventions, automatically creates the output for ‘--help’, and can
perform different actions for different options.

You start by creating an instance of *note OptionParser: 186f. and
telling it what your program’s options are.

     import sys
     from optparse import OptionParser

     op = OptionParser()
     op.add_option('-i', '--input',
                   action='store', type='string', dest='input',
                   help='set input filename')
     op.add_option('-l', '--length',
                   action='store', type='int', dest='length',
                   help='set maximum length of output')

Parsing a command line is then done by calling the *note parse_args():
1870. method.

     options, args = op.parse_args(sys.argv[1:])
     print options
     print args

This returns an object containing all of the option values, and a list
of strings containing the remaining arguments.

Invoking the script with the various arguments now works as you’d expect
it to.  Note that the length argument is automatically converted to an
integer.

     $ ./python opt.py -i data arg1
     <Values at 0x400cad4c: {'input': 'data', 'length': None}>
     ['arg1']
     $ ./python opt.py --input=data --length=4
     <Values at 0x400cad2c: {'input': 'data', 'length': 4}>
     []
     $

The help message is automatically generated for you:

     $ ./python opt.py --help
     usage: opt.py [options]

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -iINPUT, --input=INPUT
                             set input filename
       -lLENGTH, --length=LENGTH
                             set maximum length of output
     $

See the module’s documentation for more details.

Optik was written by Greg Ward, with suggestions from the readers of the
Getopt SIG.


File: python.info,  Node: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Next: Build and C API Changes<12>,  Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.18 Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
------------------------------------------------

Pymalloc, a specialized object allocator written by Vladimir Marangozov,
was a feature added to Python 2.1.  Pymalloc is intended to be faster
than the system ‘malloc()’ and to have less memory overhead for
allocation patterns typical of Python programs.  The allocator uses C’s
‘malloc()’ function to get large pools of memory and then fulfills
smaller memory requests from these pools.

In 2.1 and 2.2, pymalloc was an experimental feature and wasn’t enabled
by default; you had to explicitly enable it when compiling Python by
providing the ‘--with-pymalloc’ option to the ‘configure’ script.  In
2.3, pymalloc has had further enhancements and is now enabled by
default; you’ll have to supply ‘--without-pymalloc’ to disable it.

This change is transparent to code written in Python; however, pymalloc
may expose bugs in C extensions.  Authors of C extension modules should
test their code with pymalloc enabled, because some incorrect code may
cause core dumps at runtime.

There’s one particularly common error that causes problems.  There are a
number of memory allocation functions in Python’s C API that have
previously just been aliases for the C library’s ‘malloc()’ and
‘free()’, meaning that if you accidentally called mismatched functions
the error wouldn’t be noticeable.  When the object allocator is enabled,
these functions aren’t aliases of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ any more, and
calling the wrong function to free memory may get you a core dump.  For
example, if memory was allocated using *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026, it
has to be freed using *note PyObject_Free(): 1023, not ‘free()’.  A few
modules included with Python fell afoul of this and had to be fixed;
doubtless there are more third-party modules that will have the same
problem.

As part of this change, the confusing multiple interfaces for allocating
memory have been consolidated down into two API families.  Memory
allocated with one family must not be manipulated with functions from
the other family.  There is one family for allocating chunks of memory
and another family of functions specifically for allocating Python
objects.

   * To allocate and free an undistinguished chunk of memory use the
     «raw memory» family: *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024, *note
     PyMem_Realloc(): 13da, and *note PyMem_Free(): 17e4.

   * The «object memory» family is the interface to the pymalloc
     facility described above and is biased towards a large number of
     «small» allocations: *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026, *note
     PyObject_Realloc(): 17e5, and *note PyObject_Free(): 1023.

   * To allocate and free Python objects, use the «object» family *note
     PyObject_New: d4d, *note PyObject_NewVar: d4e, and *note
     PyObject_Del(): 1873.

Thanks to lots of work by Tim Peters, pymalloc in 2.3 also provides
debugging features to catch memory overwrites and doubled frees in both
extension modules and in the interpreter itself.  To enable this
support, compile a debugging version of the Python interpreter by
running ‘configure’ with ‘--with-pydebug’.

To aid extension writers, a header file ‘Misc/pymemcompat.h’ is
distributed with the source to Python 2.3 that allows Python extensions
to use the 2.3 interfaces to memory allocation while compiling against
any version of Python since 1.5.2.  You would copy the file from
Python’s source distribution and bundle it with the source of your
extension.

Δείτε επίσης
............

‘https://hg.python.org/cpython/file/default/Objects/obmalloc.c’

     For the full details of the pymalloc implementation, see the
     comments at the top of the file ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ in the Python
     source code.  The above link points to the file within the
     python.org SVN browser.


File: python.info,  Node: Build and C API Changes<12>,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes<2>,  Prev: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.19 Build and C API Changes
-------------------------------

Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:

   * The cycle detection implementation used by the garbage collection
     has proven to be stable, so it’s now been made mandatory.  You can
     no longer compile Python without it, and the ‘--with-cycle-gc’
     switch to ‘configure’ has been removed.

   * Python can now optionally be built as a shared library
     (‘libpython2.3.so’) by supplying ‘--enable-shared’ when running
     Python’s ‘configure’ script.  (Contributed by Ondrej Palkovsky.)

   * The ‘DL_EXPORT’ and ‘DL_IMPORT’ macros are now deprecated.
     Initialization functions for Python extension modules should now be
     declared using the new macro *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 1875, while the
     Python core will generally use the ‘PyAPI_FUNC’ and ‘PyAPI_DATA’
     macros.

   * The interpreter can be compiled without any docstrings for the
     built-in functions and modules by supplying ‘--without-doc-strings’
     to the ‘configure’ script.  This makes the Python executable about
     10% smaller, but will also mean that you can’t get help for
     Python’s built-ins.  (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.)

   * The ‘PyArg_NoArgs()’ macro is now deprecated, and code that uses it
     should be changed.  For Python 2.2 and later, the method definition
     table can specify the *note METH_NOARGS: 1876. flag, signalling
     that there are no arguments, and the argument checking can then be
     removed.  If compatibility with pre-2.2 versions of Python is
     important, the code could use ‘PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "")’ instead,
     but this will be slower than using ‘METH_NOARGS’.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. accepts new format characters for
     various sizes of unsigned integers: ‘B’ for unsigned char, ‘H’ for
     unsigned short int, ‘I’ for unsigned int, and ‘K’ for unsigned long
     long.

   * A new function, ‘PyObject_DelItemString(mapping, char *key)’ was
     added as shorthand for ‘PyObject_DelItem(mapping,
     PyString_New(key))’.

   * File objects now manage their internal string buffer differently,
     increasing it exponentially when needed.  This results in the
     benchmark tests in ‘Lib/test/test_bufio.py’ speeding up
     considerably (from 57 seconds to 1.7 seconds, according to one
     measurement).

   * It’s now possible to define class and static methods for a C
     extension type by setting either the *note METH_CLASS: 1877. or
     *note METH_STATIC: 1878. flags in a method’s *note PyMethodDef:
     1879. structure.

   * Python now includes a copy of the Expat XML parser’s source code,
     removing any dependence on a system version or local installation
     of Expat.

   * If you dynamically allocate type objects in your extension, you
     should be aware of a change in the rules relating to the *note
     __module__: 80b. and *note __name__: 184d. attributes.  In summary,
     you will want to ensure the type’s dictionary contains a
     ‘'__module__'’ key; making the module name the part of the type
     name leading up to the final period will no longer have the desired
     effect.  For more detail, read the API reference documentation or
     the source.

* Menu:

* Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Port-Specific Changes<3>,  Up: Build and C API Changes<12>

1.22.19.1 Port-Specific Changes
...............................

Support for a port to IBM’s OS/2 using the EMX runtime environment was
merged into the main Python source tree.  EMX is a POSIX emulation layer
over the OS/2 system APIs.  The Python port for EMX tries to support all
the POSIX-like capability exposed by the EMX runtime, and mostly
succeeds; ‘fork()’ and *note fcntl(): 5c. are restricted by the
limitations of the underlying emulation layer.  The standard OS/2 port,
which uses IBM’s Visual Age compiler, also gained support for
case-sensitive import semantics as part of the integration of the EMX
port into CVS. (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.)

On MacOS, most toolbox modules have been weaklinked to improve backward
compatibility.  This means that modules will no longer fail to load if a
single routine is missing on the current OS version.  Instead calling
the missing routine will raise an exception.  (Contributed by Jack
Jansen.)

The RPM spec files, found in the ‘Misc/RPM/’ directory in the Python
source distribution, were updated for 2.3.  (Contributed by Sean
Reifschneider.)

Other new platforms now supported by Python include AtheOS
(‘http://www.atheos.cx/’), GNU/Hurd, and OpenVMS.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes<2>,  Next: Porting to Python 2 3,  Prev: Build and C API Changes<12>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.20 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

As usual, there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes
scattered throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change
logs finds there were 523 patches applied and 514 bugs fixed between
Python 2.2 and 2.3.  Both figures are likely to be underestimates.

Some of the more notable changes are:

   * If the *note PYTHONINSPECT: 187c. environment variable is set, the
     Python interpreter will enter the interactive prompt after running
     a Python program, as if Python had been invoked with the *note -i:
     187d. option.  The environment variable can be set before running
     the Python interpreter, or it can be set by the Python program as
     part of its execution.

   * The ‘regrtest.py’ script now provides a way to allow «all resources
     except 'foo'.» A resource name passed to the ‘-u’ option can now be
     prefixed with a hyphen (‘'-'’) to mean «remove this resource.» For
     example, the option “‘-uall,-bsddb’” could be used to enable the
     use of all resources except ‘bsddb’.

   * The tools used to build the documentation now work under Cygwin as
     well as Unix.

   * The ‘SET_LINENO’ opcode has been removed.  Back in the mists of
     time, this opcode was needed to produce line numbers in tracebacks
     and support trace functions (for, e.g., *note pdb: aa.).  Since
     Python 1.5, the line numbers in tracebacks have been computed using
     a different mechanism that works with «python -O».  For Python 2.3
     Michael Hudson implemented a similar scheme to determine when to
     call the trace function, removing the need for ‘SET_LINENO’
     entirely.

     It would be difficult to detect any resulting difference from
     Python code, apart from a slight speed up when Python is run
     without *note -O: 431.

     C extensions that access the *note f_lineno: b8d. field of frame
     objects should instead call ‘PyCode_Addr2Line(f->f_code,
     f->f_lasti)’.  This will have the added effect of making the code
     work as desired under «python -O» in earlier versions of Python.

     A nifty new feature is that trace functions can now assign to the
     *note f_lineno: b8d. attribute of frame objects, changing the line
     that will be executed next.  A ‘jump’ command has been added to the
     *note pdb: aa. debugger taking advantage of this new feature.
     (Implemented by Richie Hindle.)


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to Python 2 3,  Next: Acknowledgements<5>,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.21 Porting to Python 2.3
-----------------------------

This section lists previously described changes that may require changes
to your code:

   * *note yield: d93. is now always a keyword; if it’s used as a
     variable name in your code, a different name must be chosen.

   * For strings 'X' and 'Y', ‘X in Y’ now works if 'X' is more than one
     character long.

   * The *note int(): 326. type constructor will now return a long
     integer instead of raising an *note OverflowError: c57. when a
     string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an
     integer.

   * If you have Unicode strings that contain 8-bit characters, you must
     declare the file’s encoding (UTF-8, Latin-1, or whatever) by adding
     a comment to the top of the file.  See section *note PEP 263;
     Source Code Encodings: 182c. for more information.

   * Calling Tcl methods through ‘_tkinter’ no longer returns only
     strings.  Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are
     converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped
     with a ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ object if no Python equivalent exists.

   * Large octal and hex literals such as ‘0xffffffff’ now trigger a
     *note FutureWarning: 847.  Currently they’re stored as 32-bit
     numbers and result in a negative value, but in Python 2.4 they’ll
     become positive long integers.

     There are a few ways to fix this warning.  If you really need a
     positive number, just add an ‘L’ to the end of the literal.  If
     you’re trying to get a 32-bit integer with low bits set and have
     previously used an expression such as ‘~(1 << 31)’, it’s probably
     clearest to start with all bits set and clear the desired upper
     bits.  For example, to clear just the top bit (bit 31), you could
     write ‘0xffffffffL &~(1L<<31)’.

   * You can no longer disable assertions by assigning to ‘__debug__’.

   * The Distutils ‘setup()’ function has gained various new keyword
     arguments such as 'depends'.  Old versions of the Distutils will
     abort if passed unknown keywords.  A solution is to check for the
     presence of the new ‘get_distutil_options()’ function in your
     ‘setup.py’ and only uses the new keywords with a version of the
     Distutils that supports them:

          from distutils import core

          kw = {'sources': 'foo.c', ...}
          if hasattr(core, 'get_distutil_options'):
              kw['depends'] = ['foo.h']
          ext = Extension(**kw)

   * Using ‘None’ as a variable name will now result in a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 44a. warning.

   * Names of extension types defined by the modules included with
     Python now contain the module and a ‘'.'’ in front of the type
     name.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<5>,  Prev: Porting to Python 2 3,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 3

1.22.22 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Jeff Bauer, Simon Brunning, Brett Cannon, Michael Chermside,
Andrew Dalke, Scott David Daniels, Fred L. Drake, Jr., David Fraser,
Kelly Gerber, Raymond Hettinger, Michael Hudson, Chris Lambert, Detlef
Lannert, Martin von Löwis, Andrew MacIntyre, Lalo Martins, Chad Netzer,
Gustavo Niemeyer, Neal Norwitz, Hans Nowak, Chris Reedy, Francesco
Ricciardi, Vinay Sajip, Neil Schemenauer, Roman Suzi, Jason Tishler,
Just van Rossum.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 2,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 1,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 3,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.23 What’s New in Python 2.2
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

* Menu:

* Introduction::
* PEPs 252 and 253; Type and Class Changes: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes.
* PEP 234; Iterators: PEP 234 Iterators.
* PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
* PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
* PEP 238; Changing the Division Operator: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
* Unicode Changes::
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<3>.
* Interpreter Changes and Fixes::
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<3>.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction,  Next: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.23.1 Introduction
-------------------

This article explains the new features in Python 2.2.2, released on
October 14, 2002.  Python 2.2.2 is a bugfix release of Python 2.2,
originally released on December 21, 2001.

Python 2.2 can be thought of as the «cleanup release».  There are some
features such as generators and iterators that are completely new, but
most of the changes, significant and far-reaching though they may be,
are aimed at cleaning up irregularities and dark corners of the language
design.

This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the
new features, but instead provides a convenient overview.  For full
details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.2, such as
the Python Library Reference(1) and the Python Reference Manual(2).  If
you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale
for a change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/2.2/lib/lib.html

   (2) https://docs.python.org/2.2/ref/ref.html


File: python.info,  Node: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes,  Next: PEP 234 Iterators,  Prev: Introduction,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.23.2 PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
-----------------------------------------------

The largest and most far-reaching changes in Python 2.2 are to Python’s
model of objects and classes.  The changes should be backward
compatible, so it’s likely that your code will continue to run
unchanged, but the changes provide some amazing new capabilities.
Before beginning this, the longest and most complicated section of this
article, I’ll provide an overview of the changes and offer some
comments.

A long time ago I wrote a web page listing flaws in Python’s design.
One of the most significant flaws was that it’s impossible to subclass
Python types implemented in C. In particular, it’s not possible to
subclass built-in types, so you can’t just subclass, say, lists in order
to add a single useful method to them.  The ‘UserList’ module provides a
class that supports all of the methods of lists and that can be
subclassed further, but there’s lots of C code that expects a regular
Python list and won’t accept a *note UserList: 1886. instance.

Python 2.2 fixes this, and in the process adds some exciting new
capabilities.  A brief summary:

   * You can subclass built-in types such as lists and even integers,
     and your subclasses should work in every place that requires the
     original type.

   * It’s now possible to define static and class methods, in addition
     to the instance methods available in previous versions of Python.

   * It’s also possible to automatically call methods on accessing or
     setting an instance attribute by using a new mechanism called
     'properties'.  Many uses of *note __getattr__(): 8e3. can be
     rewritten to use properties instead, making the resulting code
     simpler and faster.  As a small side benefit, attributes can now
     have docstrings, too.

   * The list of legal attributes for an instance can be limited to a
     particular set using 'slots', making it possible to safeguard
     against typos and perhaps make more optimizations possible in
     future versions of Python.

Some users have voiced concern about all these changes.  Sure, they say,
the new features are neat and lend themselves to all sorts of tricks
that weren’t possible in previous versions of Python, but they also make
the language more complicated.  Some people have said that they’ve
always recommended Python for its simplicity, and feel that its
simplicity is being lost.

Personally, I think there’s no need to worry.  Many of the new features
are quite esoteric, and you can write a lot of Python code without ever
needed to be aware of them.  Writing a simple class is no more difficult
than it ever was, so you don’t need to bother learning or teaching them
unless they’re actually needed.  Some very complicated tasks that were
previously only possible from C will now be possible in pure Python, and
to my mind that’s all for the better.

I’m not going to attempt to cover every single corner case and small
change that were required to make the new features work.  Instead this
section will paint only the broad strokes.  See section *note Related
Links: 1887, «Related Links», for further sources of information about
Python 2.2’s new object model.

* Menu:

* Old and New Classes::
* Descriptors::
* Multiple Inheritance; The Diamond Rule: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule.
* Attribute Access::
* Related Links::


File: python.info,  Node: Old and New Classes,  Next: Descriptors,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.23.2.1 Old and New Classes
............................

First, you should know that Python 2.2 really has two kinds of classes:
classic or old-style classes, and new-style classes.  The old-style
class model is exactly the same as the class model in earlier versions
of Python.  All the new features described in this section apply only to
new-style classes.  This divergence isn’t intended to last forever;
eventually old-style classes will be dropped, possibly in Python 3.0.

So how do you define a new-style class?  You do it by subclassing an
existing new-style class.  Most of Python’s built-in types, such as
integers, lists, dictionaries, and even files, are new-style classes
now.  A new-style class named *note object: e4d, the base class for all
built-in types, has also been added so if no built-in type is suitable,
you can just subclass ‘object’:

     class C(object):
         def __init__ (self):
             ...
         ...

This means that *note class: 167c. statements that don’t have any base
classes are always classic classes in Python 2.2.  (Actually you can
also change this by setting a module-level variable named
‘__metaclass__’ — see PEP 253(1) for the details — but it’s easier to
just subclass *note object: e4d.)

The type objects for the built-in types are available as built-ins,
named using a clever trick.  Python has always had built-in functions
named *note int(): 326, *note float(): 327, and *note str(): 1df.  In
2.2, they aren’t functions any more, but type objects that behave as
factories when called.

     >>> int
     <type 'int'>
     >>> int('123')
     123

To make the set of types complete, new type objects such as *note
dict(): 188. and ‘file()’ have been added.  Here’s a more interesting
example, adding a ‘lock()’ method to file objects:

     class LockableFile(file):
         def lock (self, operation, length=0, start=0, whence=0):
             import fcntl
             return fcntl.lockf(self.fileno(), operation,
                                length, start, whence)

The now-obsolete ‘posixfile’ module contained a class that emulated all
of a file object’s methods and also added a ‘lock()’ method, but this
class couldn’t be passed to internal functions that expected a built-in
file, something which is possible with our new ‘LockableFile’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptors,  Next: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule,  Prev: Old and New Classes,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.23.2.2 Descriptors
....................

In previous versions of Python, there was no consistent way to discover
what attributes and methods were supported by an object.  There were
some informal conventions, such as defining ‘__members__’ and
‘__methods__’ attributes that were lists of names, but often the author
of an extension type or a class wouldn’t bother to define them.  You
could fall back on inspecting the *note __dict__: 1bf. of an object, but
when class inheritance or an arbitrary ‘__getattr__()’ hook were in use
this could still be inaccurate.

The one big idea underlying the new class model is that an API for
describing the attributes of an object using 'descriptors' has been
formalized.  Descriptors specify the value of an attribute, stating
whether it’s a method or a field.  With the descriptor API, static
methods and class methods become possible, as well as more exotic
constructs.

Attribute descriptors are objects that live inside class objects, and
have a few attributes of their own:

   * *note __name__: 140e. is the attribute’s name.

   * *note __doc__: cf4. is the attribute’s docstring.

   * ‘__get__(object)’ is a method that retrieves the attribute value
     from 'object'.

   * ‘__set__(object, value)’ sets the attribute on 'object' to 'value'.

   * ‘__delete__(object, value)’ deletes the 'value' attribute of
     'object'.

For example, when you write ‘obj.x’, the steps that Python actually
performs are:

     descriptor = obj.__class__.x
     descriptor.__get__(obj)

For methods, *note descriptor.__get__: 188a. returns a temporary object
that’s callable, and wraps up the instance and the method to be called
on it.  This is also why static methods and class methods are now
possible; they have descriptors that wrap up just the method, or the
method and the class.  As a brief explanation of these new kinds of
methods, static methods aren’t passed the instance, and therefore
resemble regular functions.  Class methods are passed the class of the
object, but not the object itself.  Static and class methods are defined
like this:

     class C(object):
         def f(arg1, arg2):
             ...
         f = staticmethod(f)

         def g(cls, arg1, arg2):
             ...
         g = classmethod(g)

The *note staticmethod(): 666. function takes the function ‘f()’, and
returns it wrapped up in a descriptor so it can be stored in the class
object.  You might expect there to be special syntax for creating such
methods (‘def static f’, ‘defstatic f()’, or something like that) but no
such syntax has been defined yet; that’s been left for future versions
of Python.

More new features, such as slots and properties, are also implemented as
new kinds of descriptors, and it’s not difficult to write a descriptor
class that does something novel.  For example, it would be possible to
write a descriptor class that made it possible to write Eiffel-style
preconditions and postconditions for a method.  A class that used this
feature might be defined like this:

     from eiffel import eiffelmethod

     class C(object):
         def f(self, arg1, arg2):
             # The actual function
             ...
         def pre_f(self):
             # Check preconditions
             ...
         def post_f(self):
             # Check postconditions
             ...

         f = eiffelmethod(f, pre_f, post_f)

Note that a person using the new ‘eiffelmethod()’ doesn’t have to
understand anything about descriptors.  This is why I think the new
features don’t increase the basic complexity of the language.  There
will be a few wizards who need to know about it in order to write
‘eiffelmethod()’ or the ZODB or whatever, but most users will just write
code on top of the resulting libraries and ignore the implementation
details.


File: python.info,  Node: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule,  Next: Attribute Access,  Prev: Descriptors,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.23.2.3 Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule
...............................................

Multiple inheritance has also been made more useful through changing the
rules under which names are resolved.  Consider this set of classes
(diagram taken from PEP 253(1) by Guido van Rossum):

           class A:
             ^ ^  def save(self): ...
            /   \
           /     \
          /       \
         /         \
     class B     class C:
         ^         ^  def save(self): ...
          \       /
           \     /
            \   /
             \ /
           class D

The lookup rule for classic classes is simple but not very smart; the
base classes are searched depth-first, going from left to right.  A
reference to ‘D.save()’ will search the classes ‘D’, ‘B’, and then ‘A’,
where ‘save()’ would be found and returned.  ‘C.save()’ would never be
found at all.  This is bad, because if ‘C’’s ‘save()’ method is saving
some internal state specific to ‘C’, not calling it will result in that
state never getting saved.

New-style classes follow a different algorithm that’s a bit more
complicated to explain, but does the right thing in this situation.
(Note that Python 2.3 changes this algorithm to one that produces the
same results in most cases, but produces more useful results for really
complicated inheritance graphs.)

  1. List all the base classes, following the classic lookup rule and
     include a class multiple times if it’s visited repeatedly.  In the
     above example, the list of visited classes is [‘D’, ‘B’, ‘A’, ‘C’,
     ‘A’].

  2. Scan the list for duplicated classes.  If any are found, remove all
     but one occurrence, leaving the 'last' one in the list.  In the
     above example, the list becomes [‘D’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘A’] after dropping
     duplicates.

Following this rule, referring to ‘D.save()’ will return ‘C.save()’,
which is the behaviour we’re after.  This lookup rule is the same as the
one followed by Common Lisp.  A new built-in function, *note super():
443, provides a way to get at a class’s superclasses without having to
reimplement Python’s algorithm.  The most commonly used form will be
‘super(class, obj)’, which returns a bound superclass object (not the
actual class object).  This form will be used in methods to call a
method in the superclass; for example, ‘D’’s ‘save()’ method would look
like this:

     class D (B,C):
         def save (self):
             # Call superclass .save()
             super(D, self).save()
             # Save D's private information here
             ...

*note super(): 443. can also return unbound superclass objects when
called as ‘super(class)’ or ‘super(class1, class2)’, but this probably
won’t often be useful.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: Attribute Access,  Next: Related Links,  Prev: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.23.2.4 Attribute Access
.........................

A fair number of sophisticated Python classes define hooks for attribute
access using *note __getattr__(): 8e3.; most commonly this is done for
convenience, to make code more readable by automatically mapping an
attribute access such as ‘obj.parent’ into a method call such as
‘obj.get_parent’.  Python 2.2 adds some new ways of controlling
attribute access.

First, ‘__getattr__(attr_name)’ is still supported by new-style classes,
and nothing about it has changed.  As before, it will be called when an
attempt is made to access ‘obj.foo’ and no attribute named ‘foo’ is
found in the instance’s dictionary.

New-style classes also support a new method,
‘__getattribute__(attr_name)’.  The difference between the two methods
is that *note __getattribute__(): f90. is 'always' called whenever any
attribute is accessed, while the old *note __getattr__(): 8e3. is only
called if ‘foo’ isn’t found in the instance’s dictionary.

However, Python 2.2’s support for 'properties' will often be a simpler
way to trap attribute references.  Writing a ‘__getattr__()’ method is
complicated because to avoid recursion you can’t use regular attribute
accesses inside them, and instead have to mess around with the contents
of *note __dict__: 1bf.  *note __getattr__(): 8e3. methods also end up
being called by Python when it checks for other methods such as *note
__repr__(): 1bc. or ‘__coerce__()’, and so have to be written with this
in mind.  Finally, calling a function on every attribute access results
in a sizable performance loss.

*note property: 6bb. is a new built-in type that packages up three
functions that get, set, or delete an attribute, and a docstring.  For
example, if you want to define a ‘size’ attribute that’s computed, but
also settable, you could write:

     class C(object):
         def get_size (self):
             result = ... computation ...
             return result
         def set_size (self, size):
             ... compute something based on the size
             and set internal state appropriately ...

         # Define a property.  The 'delete this attribute'
         # method is defined as None, so the attribute
         # can't be deleted.
         size = property(get_size, set_size,
                         None,
                         "Storage size of this instance")

That is certainly clearer and easier to write than a pair of
‘__getattr__()’/‘__setattr__()’ methods that check for the ‘size’
attribute and handle it specially while retrieving all other attributes
from the instance’s *note __dict__: 1bf.  Accesses to ‘size’ are also
the only ones which have to perform the work of calling a function, so
references to other attributes run at their usual speed.

Finally, it’s possible to constrain the list of attributes that can be
referenced on an object using the new *note __slots__: 188d. class
attribute.  Python objects are usually very dynamic; at any time it’s
possible to define a new attribute on an instance by just doing
‘obj.new_attr=1’.  A new-style class can define a class attribute named
‘__slots__’ to limit the legal attributes to a particular set of names.
An example will make this clear:

     >>> class C(object):
     ...     __slots__ = ('template', 'name')
     ...
     >>> obj = C()
     >>> print obj.template
     None
     >>> obj.template = 'Test'
     >>> print obj.template
     Test
     >>> obj.newattr = None
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     AttributeError: 'C' object has no attribute 'newattr'

Note how you get an *note AttributeError: 1a9. on the attempt to assign
to an attribute not listed in *note __slots__: 188d.


File: python.info,  Node: Related Links,  Prev: Attribute Access,  Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes

1.23.2.5 Related Links
......................

This section has just been a quick overview of the new features, giving
enough of an explanation to start you programming, but many details have
been simplified or ignored.  Where should you go to get a more complete
picture?

The *note Descriptor Guide: 188f. is a lengthy tutorial introduction to
the descriptor features, written by Guido van Rossum.  If my description
has whetted your appetite, go read this tutorial next, because it goes
into much more detail about the new features while still remaining quite
easy to read.

Next, there are two relevant PEPs, PEP 252(1) and PEP 253(2).  PEP
252(3) is titled «Making Types Look More Like Classes», and covers the
descriptor API. PEP 253(4) is titled «Subtyping Built-in Types», and
describes the changes to type objects that make it possible to subtype
built-in objects.  PEP 253(5) is the more complicated PEP of the two,
and at a few points the necessary explanations of types and meta-types
may cause your head to explode.  Both PEPs were written and implemented
by Guido van Rossum, with substantial assistance from the rest of the
Zope Corp.  team.

Finally, there’s the ultimate authority: the source code.  Most of the
machinery for the type handling is in ‘Objects/typeobject.c’, but you
should only resort to it after all other avenues have been exhausted,
including posting a question to python-list or python-dev.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 234 Iterators,  Next: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>,  Prev: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.23.3 PEP 234: Iterators
-------------------------

Another significant addition to 2.2 is an iteration interface at both
the C and Python levels.  Objects can define how they can be looped over
by callers.

In Python versions up to 2.1, the usual way to make ‘for item in obj’
work is to define a *note __getitem__(): 787. method that looks
something like this:

     def __getitem__(self, index):
         return <next item>

*note __getitem__(): 787. is more properly used to define an indexing
operation on an object so that you can write ‘obj[5]’ to retrieve the
sixth element.  It’s a bit misleading when you’re using this only to
support *note for: 321. loops.  Consider some file-like object that
wants to be looped over; the 'index' parameter is essentially
meaningless, as the class probably assumes that a series of
‘__getitem__()’ calls will be made with 'index' incrementing by one each
time.  In other words, the presence of the ‘__getitem__()’ method
doesn’t mean that using ‘file[5]’ to randomly access the sixth element
will work, though it really should.

In Python 2.2, iteration can be implemented separately, and *note
__getitem__(): 787. methods can be limited to classes that really do
support random access.  The basic idea of iterators is simple.  A new
built-in function, ‘iter(obj)’ or ‘iter(C, sentinel)’, is used to get an
iterator.  ‘iter(obj)’ returns an iterator for the object 'obj', while
‘iter(C, sentinel)’ returns an iterator that will invoke the callable
object 'C' until it returns 'sentinel' to signal that the iterator is
done.

Python classes can define an ‘__iter__()’ method, which should create
and return a new iterator for the object; if the object is its own
iterator, this method can just return ‘self’.  In particular, iterators
will usually be their own iterators.  Extension types implemented in C
can implement a *note tp_iter: 1891. function in order to return an
iterator, and extension types that want to behave as iterators can
define a *note tp_iternext: 1892. function.

So, after all this, what do iterators actually do?  They have one
required method, *note next(): bb5, which takes no arguments and returns
the next value.  When there are no more values to be returned, calling
‘next()’ should raise the *note StopIteration: fba. exception.

     >>> L = [1,2,3]
     >>> i = iter(L)
     >>> print i
     <iterator object at 0x8116870>
     >>> i.next()
     1
     >>> i.next()
     2
     >>> i.next()
     3
     >>> i.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     StopIteration
     >>>

In 2.2, Python’s *note for: 321. statement no longer expects a sequence;
it expects something for which *note iter(): bb4. will return an
iterator.  For backward compatibility and convenience, an iterator is
automatically constructed for sequences that don’t implement
‘__iter__()’ or a *note tp_iter: 1891. slot, so ‘for i in [1,2,3]’ will
still work.  Wherever the Python interpreter loops over a sequence, it’s
been changed to use the iterator protocol.  This means you can do things
like this:

     >>> L = [1,2,3]
     >>> i = iter(L)
     >>> a,b,c = i
     >>> a,b,c
     (1, 2, 3)

Iterator support has been added to some of Python’s basic types.
Calling *note iter(): bb4. on a dictionary will return an iterator which
loops over its keys:

     >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
     ...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
     >>> for key in m: print key, m[key]
     ...
     Mar 3
     Feb 2
     Aug 8
     Sep 9
     May 5
     Jun 6
     Jul 7
     Jan 1
     Apr 4
     Nov 11
     Dec 12
     Oct 10

That’s just the default behaviour.  If you want to iterate over keys,
values, or key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the ‘iterkeys()’,
‘itervalues()’, or ‘iteritems()’ methods to get an appropriate iterator.
In a minor related change, the *note in: 323. operator now works on
dictionaries, so ‘key in dict’ is now equivalent to ‘dict.has_key(key)’.

Files also provide an iterator, which calls the *note readline(): c2.
method until there are no more lines in the file.  This means you can
now read each line of a file using code like this:

     for line in file:
         # do something for each line
         ...

Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there’s no way to get
the previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it.  An
iterator object could provide such additional capabilities, but the
iterator protocol only requires a *note next(): bb5. method.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 234(1) - Iterators

     Written by Ka-Ping Yee and GvR; implemented by the Python Labs
     crew, mostly by GvR and Tim Peters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0234/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>,  Next: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Prev: PEP 234 Iterators,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.23.4 PEP 255: Simple Generators
---------------------------------

Generators are another new feature, one that interacts with the
introduction of iterators.

You’re doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C.
When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local
variables are created.  When the function reaches a *note return: 44b.
statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is
returned to the caller.  A later call to the same function will get a
fresh new set of local variables.  But, what if the local variables
weren’t thrown away on exiting a function?  What if you could later
resume the function where it left off?  This is what generators provide;
they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here’s the simplest example of a generator function:

     def generate_ints(N):
         for i in range(N):
             yield i

A new keyword, *note yield: d93, was introduced for generators.  Any
function containing a ‘yield’ statement is a generator function; this is
detected by Python’s bytecode compiler which compiles the function
specially as a result.  Because a new keyword was introduced, generators
must be explicitly enabled in a module by including a ‘from __future__
import generators’ statement near the top of the module’s source code.
In Python 2.3 this statement will become unnecessary.

When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value;
instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator
protocol.  On executing the *note yield: d93. statement, the generator
outputs the value of ‘i’, similar to a *note return: 44b. statement.
The big difference between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on
reaching a ‘yield’ the generator’s state of execution is suspended and
local variables are preserved.  On the next call to the generator’s
‘next()’ method, the function will resume executing immediately after
the ‘yield’ statement.  (For complicated reasons, the ‘yield’ statement
isn’t allowed inside the ‘try’ block of a *note try: ad6.…*note finally:
44c. statement; read PEP 255(1) for a full explanation of the
interaction between ‘yield’ and exceptions.)

Here’s a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object at 0x8117f90>
     >>> gen.next()
     0
     >>> gen.next()
     1
     >>> gen.next()
     2
     >>> gen.next()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a,b,c =
generate_ints(3)’.

Inside a generator function, the *note return: 44b. statement can only
be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of
values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values.
‘return’ with a value, such as ‘return 5’, is a syntax error inside a
generator function.  The end of the generator’s results can also be
indicated by raising *note StopIteration: fba. manually, or by just
letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own
class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance
variables.  For example, returning a list of integers could be done by
setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note next(): bb5. method
increment ‘self.count’ and return it.  However, for a moderately
complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much
messier.  ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ contains a number of more
interesting examples.  The simplest one implements an in-order traversal
of a tree using generators recursively.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x
             yield t.label
             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Two other examples in ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ produce solutions
for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so
that no queen threatens another) and the Knight’s Tour (a route that
takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting
any square twice).

The idea of generators comes from other programming languages,
especially Icon (‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/’), where the idea of
generators is central.  In Icon, every expression and function call
behaves like a generator.  One example from «An Overview of the Icon
Programming Language» at
‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm’ gives an idea of what
this looks like:

     sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor"
     if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i)

In Icon the ‘find()’ function returns the indexes at which the substring
«or» is found: 3, 23, 33.  In the *note if: 322. statement, ‘i’ is first
assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails,
and Icon retries it with the second value of 23.  23 is greater than 5,
so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the
screen.

Python doesn’t go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a
central concept.  Generators are considered a new part of the core
Python language, but learning or using them isn’t compulsory; if they
don’t solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them.  One
novel feature of Python’s interface as compared to Icon’s is that a
generator’s state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator)
that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data
structure.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 255(2) - Simple Generators

     Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland.
     Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other
     fixes from the Python Labs crew.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Next: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Prev: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.23.5 PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
---------------------------------------------------

In recent versions, the distinction between regular integers, which are
32-bit values on most machines, and long integers, which can be of
arbitrary size, was becoming an annoyance.  For example, on platforms
that support files larger than ‘2**32’ bytes, the ‘tell()’ method of
file objects has to return a long integer.  However, there were various
bits of Python that expected plain integers and would raise an error if
a long integer was provided instead.  For example, in Python 1.5, only
regular integers could be used as a slice index, and ‘'abc'[1L:]’ would
raise a *note TypeError: 291. exception with the message “slice index
must be int”.

Python 2.2 will shift values from short to long integers as required.
The “L” suffix is no longer needed to indicate a long integer literal,
as now the compiler will choose the appropriate type.  (Using the “L”
suffix will be discouraged in future 2.x versions of Python, triggering
a warning in Python 2.4, and probably dropped in Python 3.0.)  Many
operations that used to raise an *note OverflowError: c57. will now
return a long integer as their result.  For example:

     >>> 1234567890123
     1234567890123L
     >>> 2 ** 64
     18446744073709551616L

In most cases, integers and long integers will now be treated
identically.  You can still distinguish them with the *note type(): 186.
built-in function, but that’s rarely needed.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 237(1) - Unifying Long Integers and Integers

     Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented mostly by
     Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Next: Unicode Changes,  Prev: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.23.6 PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
----------------------------------------------

The most controversial change in Python 2.2 heralds the start of an
effort to fix an old design flaw that’s been in Python from the
beginning.  Currently Python’s division operator, ‘/’, behaves like C’s
division operator when presented with two integer arguments: it returns
an integer result that’s truncated down when there would be a fractional
part.  For example, ‘3/2’ is 1, not 1.5, and ‘(-1)/2’ is -1, not -0.5.
This means that the results of division can vary unexpectedly depending
on the type of the two operands and because Python is dynamically typed,
it can be difficult to determine the possible types of the operands.

(The controversy is over whether this is 'really' a design flaw, and
whether it’s worth breaking existing code to fix this.  It’s caused
endless discussions on python-dev, and in July 2001 erupted into a storm
of acidly sarcastic postings on ‘comp.lang.python’.  I won’t argue for
either side here and will stick to describing what’s implemented in 2.2.
Read PEP 238(1) for a summary of arguments and counter-arguments.)

Because this change might break code, it’s being introduced very
gradually.  Python 2.2 begins the transition, but the switch won’t be
complete until Python 3.0.

First, I’ll borrow some terminology from PEP 238(2).  «True division» is
the division that most non-programmers are familiar with: 3/2 is 1.5,
1/4 is 0.25, and so forth.  «Floor division» is what Python’s ‘/’
operator currently does when given integer operands; the result is the
floor of the value returned by true division.  «Classic division» is the
current mixed behaviour of ‘/’; it returns the result of floor division
when the operands are integers, and returns the result of true division
when one of the operands is a floating-point number.

Here are the changes 2.2 introduces:

   * A new operator, ‘//’, is the floor division operator.  (Yes, we
     know it looks like C++”s comment symbol.)  ‘//’ 'always' performs
     floor division no matter what the types of its operands are, so ‘1
     // 2’ is 0 and ‘1.0 // 2.0’ is also 0.0.

     ‘//’ is always available in Python 2.2; you don’t need to enable it
     using a ‘__future__’ statement.

   * By including a ‘from __future__ import division’ in a module, the
     ‘/’ operator will be changed to return the result of true division,
     so ‘1/2’ is 0.5.  Without the ‘__future__’ statement, ‘/’ still
     means classic division.  The default meaning of ‘/’ will not change
     until Python 3.0.

   * Classes can define methods called *note __truediv__(): 1241. and
     *note __floordiv__(): 1896. to overload the two division operators.
     At the C level, there are also slots in the *note PyNumberMethods:
     17c0. structure so extension types can define the two operators.

   * Python 2.2 supports some command-line arguments for testing whether
     code will work with the changed division semantics.  Running python
     with ‘-Q warn’ will cause a warning to be issued whenever division
     is applied to two integers.  You can use this to find code that’s
     affected by the change and fix it.  By default, Python 2.2 will
     simply perform classic division without a warning; the warning will
     be turned on by default in Python 2.3.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 238(3) - Changing the Division Operator

     Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum.  Implemented by Guido
     van Rossum..

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Changes,  Next: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Prev: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.23.7 Unicode Changes
----------------------

Python’s Unicode support has been enhanced a bit in 2.2.  Unicode
strings are usually stored as UCS-2, as 16-bit unsigned integers.
Python 2.2 can also be compiled to use UCS-4, 32-bit unsigned integers,
as its internal encoding by supplying ‘--enable-unicode=ucs4’ to the
configure script.  (It’s also possible to specify ‘--disable-unicode’ to
completely disable Unicode support.)

When built to use UCS-4 (a «wide Python»), the interpreter can natively
handle Unicode characters from U+000000 to U+110000, so the range of
legal values for the ‘unichr()’ function is expanded accordingly.  Using
an interpreter compiled to use UCS-2 (a «narrow Python»), values greater
than 65535 will still cause ‘unichr()’ to raise a *note ValueError: 277.
exception.  This is all described in PEP 261(1), «Support for “wide”
Unicode characters»; consult it for further details.

Another change is simpler to explain.  Since their introduction, Unicode
strings have supported an ‘encode()’ method to convert the string to a
selected encoding such as UTF-8 or Latin-1.  A symmetric
‘decode([*encoding*])’ method has been added to 8-bit strings (though
not to Unicode strings) in 2.2.  ‘decode()’ assumes that the string is
in the specified encoding and decodes it, returning whatever is returned
by the codec.

Using this new feature, codecs have been added for tasks not directly
related to Unicode.  For example, codecs have been added for
uu-encoding, MIME’s base64 encoding, and compression with the *note
zlib: 13c. module:

     >>> s = """Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,
     ... and repetitive text.
     ... """
     >>> data = s.encode('zlib')
     >>> data
     'x\x9c\r\xc9\xc1\r\x80 \x10\x04\xc0?Ul...'
     >>> data.decode('zlib')
     'Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,\nand repetitive text.\n'
     >>> print s.encode('uu')
     begin 666 <data>
     M2&5R92!I<R!A(&QE;F=T:'D@<&EE8V4@;V8@<F5D=6YD86YT+"!O=F5R;'D@
     >=F5R8F]S92P*86YD(')E<&5T:71I=F4@=&5X="X*

     end
     >>> "sheesh".encode('rot-13')
     'furrfu'

To convert a class instance to Unicode, a ‘__unicode__()’ method can be
defined by a class, analogous to ‘__str__()’.

‘encode()’, ‘decode()’, and ‘__unicode__()’ were implemented by
Marc-André Lemburg.  The changes to support using UCS-4 internally were
implemented by Fredrik Lundh and Martin von Löwis.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 261(2) - Support for “wide” Unicode characters

     Written by Paul Prescod.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Next: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Prev: Unicode Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.23.8 PEP 227: Nested Scopes
-----------------------------

In Python 2.1, statically nested scopes were added as an optional
feature, to be enabled by a ‘from __future__ import nested_scopes’
directive.  In 2.2 nested scopes no longer need to be specially enabled,
and are now always present.  The rest of this section is a copy of the
description of nested scopes from my «What’s New in Python 2.1»
document; if you read it when 2.1 came out, you can skip the rest of
this section.

The largest change introduced in Python 2.1, and made complete in 2.2,
is to Python’s scoping rules.  In Python 2.0, at any given time there
are at most three namespaces used to look up variable names: local,
module-level, and the built-in namespace.  This often surprised people
because it didn’t match their intuitive expectations.  For example, a
nested recursive function definition doesn’t work:

     def f():
         ...
         def g(value):
             ...
             return g(value-1) + 1
         ...

The function ‘g()’ will always raise a *note NameError: 665. exception,
because the binding of the name ‘g’ isn’t in either its local namespace
or in the module-level namespace.  This isn’t much of a problem in
practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like
this?), but this also made using the *note lambda: 1642. expression
clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.  In code which uses
‘lambda’ you can often find local variables being copied by passing them
as the default values of arguments.

     def find(self, name):
         "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
         L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
                    self.list_attribute)
         return L

The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style
suffers greatly as a result.

The most significant change to Python 2.2 is that static scoping has
been added to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the
‘name=name’ default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.
Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a
function (by an assignment, or the *note def: 17fc, *note class: 167c,
or *note import: 9da. statements), references to the variable will be
looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope.  A more
detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the
implementation, can be found in the PEP.

This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the
same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local
variable within a function that contains further function definitions.
This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been
pretty confusing to read in the first place.

One side effect of the change is that the ‘from module import *’ and
‘exec’ statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that
‘from module import *’ is only legal at the top level of a module, but
the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the
implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source
into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a
containing scope.  ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ make it impossible
for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local
namespace that are unknowable at compile time.  Therefore, if a function
contains function definitions or *note lambda: 1642. expressions with
free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a *note
SyntaxError: 17e. exception.

To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here’s an example:

     x = 1
     def f():
         # The next line is a syntax error
         exec 'x=2'
         def g():
             return x

Line 4 containing the ‘exec’ statement is a syntax error, since ‘exec’
would define a new local variable named ‘x’ whose value should be
accessed by ‘g()’.

This shouldn’t be much of a limitation, since ‘exec’ is rarely used in
most Python code (and when it is used, it’s often a sign of a poor
design anyway).

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 227(1) - Statically Nested Scopes

     Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Next: Interpreter Changes and Fixes,  Prev: PEP 227 Nested Scopes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.23.9 New and Improved Modules
-------------------------------

   * The *note xmlrpclib: 137. module was contributed to the standard
     library by Fredrik Lundh, providing support for writing XML-RPC
     clients.  XML-RPC is a simple remote procedure call protocol built
     on top of HTTP and XML. For example, the following snippet
     retrieves a list of RSS channels from the O’Reilly Network, and
     then lists the recent headlines for one channel:

          import xmlrpclib
          s = xmlrpclib.Server(
                'http://www.oreillynet.com/meerkat/xml-rpc/server.php')
          channels = s.meerkat.getChannels()
          # channels is a list of dictionaries, like this:
          # [{'id': 4, 'title': 'Freshmeat Daily News'}
          #  {'id': 190, 'title': '32Bits Online'},
          #  {'id': 4549, 'title': '3DGamers'}, ... ]

          # Get the items for one channel
          items = s.meerkat.getItems( {'channel': 4} )

          # 'items' is another list of dictionaries, like this:
          # [{'link': 'http://freshmeat.net/releases/52719/',
          #   'description': 'A utility which converts HTML to XSL FO.',
          #   'title': 'html2fo 0.3 (Default)'}, ... ]

     The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 138. module makes it easy to create
     straightforward XML-RPC servers.  See
     ‘http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/’ for more information about XML-RPC.

   * The new *note hmac: 6d. module implements the HMAC algorithm
     described by RFC 2104(1).  (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)

   * Several functions that originally returned lengthy tuples now
     return pseudo-sequences that still behave like tuples but also have
     mnemonic attributes such as ‘memberst_mtime’ or *note tm_year:
     189a.  The enhanced functions include *note stat(): 4f5, *note
     fstat(): 1145, *note statvfs(): 14a8, and *note fstatvfs(): 1146.
     in the *note os: a5. module, and *note localtime(): 189b, *note
     gmtime(): 1569, and *note strptime(): 17cf. in the *note time: f7.
     module.

     For example, to obtain a file’s size using the old tuples, you’d
     end up writing something like ‘file_size =
     os.stat(filename)[stat.ST_SIZE]’, but now this can be written more
     clearly as ‘file_size = os.stat(filename).st_size’.

     The original patch for this feature was contributed by Nick
     Mathewson.

   * The Python profiler has been extensively reworked and various
     errors in its output have been corrected.  (Contributed by Fred L.
     Drake, Jr.  and Tim Peters.)

   * The *note socket: d4. module can be compiled to support IPv6;
     specify the ‘--enable-ipv6’ option to Python’s configure script.
     (Contributed by Jun-ichiro «itojun» Hagino.)

   * Two new format characters were added to the *note struct: de.
     module for 64-bit integers on platforms that support the C long
     long type.  ‘q’ is for a signed 64-bit integer, and ‘Q’ is for an
     unsigned one.  The value is returned in Python’s long integer type.
     (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * In the interpreter’s interactive mode, there’s a new built-in
     function *note help(): ca9. that uses the *note pydoc: bd. module
     introduced in Python 2.1 to provide interactive help.
     ‘help(object)’ displays any available help text about 'object'.
     ‘help()’ with no argument puts you in an online help utility, where
     you can enter the names of functions, classes, or modules to read
     their help text.  (Contributed by Guido van Rossum, using Ka-Ping
     Yee’s ‘pydoc’ module.)

   * Various bugfixes and performance improvements have been made to the
     SRE engine underlying the *note re: c1. module.  For example, the
     *note re.sub(): 7a1. and *note re.split(): 7a0. functions have been
     rewritten in C. Another contributed patch speeds up certain Unicode
     character ranges by a factor of two, and a new *note finditer():
     189c. method that returns an iterator over all the non-overlapping
     matches in a given string.  (SRE is maintained by Fredrik Lundh.
     The BIGCHARSET patch was contributed by Martin von Löwis.)

   * The *note smtplib: d2. module now supports RFC 2487(2), «Secure
     SMTP over TLS», so it’s now possible to encrypt the SMTP traffic
     between a Python program and the mail transport agent being handed
     a message.  ‘smtplib’ also supports SMTP authentication.
     (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.)

   * The *note imaplib: 77. module, maintained by Piers Lauder, has
     support for several new extensions: the NAMESPACE extension defined
     in RFC 2342(3), SORT, GETACL and SETACL. (Contributed by Anthony
     Baxter and Michel Pelletier.)

   * The ‘rfc822’ module’s parsing of email addresses is now compliant
     with RFC 2822(4), an update to RFC 822(5).  (The module’s name is
     'not' going to be changed to ‘rfc2822’.)  A new package, *note
     email: 3e, has also been added for parsing and generating e-mail
     messages.  (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, and arising out of his
     work on Mailman.)

   * The *note difflib: 3a. module now contains a new ‘Differ’ class for
     producing human-readable lists of changes (a «delta») between two
     sequences of lines of text.  There are also two generator
     functions, ‘ndiff()’ and ‘restore()’, which respectively return a
     delta from two sequences, or one of the original sequences from a
     delta.  (Grunt work contributed by David Goodger, from ndiff.py
     code by Tim Peters who then did the generatorization.)

   * New constants ‘ascii_letters’, ‘ascii_lowercase’, and
     ‘ascii_uppercase’ were added to the *note string: db. module.
     There were several modules in the standard library that used
     ‘string.letters’ to mean the ranges A-Za-z, but that assumption is
     incorrect when locales are in use, because ‘string.letters’ varies
     depending on the set of legal characters defined by the current
     locale.  The buggy modules have all been fixed to use
     ‘ascii_letters’ instead.  (Reported by an unknown person; fixed by
     Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * The *note mimetypes: 93. module now makes it easier to use
     alternative MIME-type databases by the addition of a *note
     MimeTypes: 189d. class, which takes a list of filenames to be
     parsed.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * A *note Timer: 1504. class was added to the *note threading: f6.
     module that allows scheduling an activity to happen at some future
     time.  (Contributed by Itamar Shtull-Trauring.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2487.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2342.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter Changes and Fixes,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes<3>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<3>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.23.10 Interpreter Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------------

Some of the changes only affect people who deal with the Python
interpreter at the C level because they’re writing Python extension
modules, embedding the interpreter, or just hacking on the interpreter
itself.  If you only write Python code, none of the changes described
here will affect you very much.

   * Profiling and tracing functions can now be implemented in C, which
     can operate at much higher speeds than Python-based functions and
     should reduce the overhead of profiling and tracing.  This will be
     of interest to authors of development environments for Python.  Two
     new C functions were added to Python’s API, *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 189f. and *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 850.  The
     existing *note sys.setprofile(): 18a0. and *note sys.settrace():
     55c. functions still exist, and have simply been changed to use the
     new C-level interface.  (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.)

   * Another low-level API, primarily of interest to implementers of
     Python debuggers and development tools, was added.  *note
     PyInterpreterState_Head(): 18a1. and *note
     PyInterpreterState_Next(): 18a2. let a caller walk through all the
     existing interpreter objects; *note
     PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead(): 18a3. and *note
     PyThreadState_Next(): 18a4. allow looping over all the thread
     states for a given interpreter.  (Contributed by David Beazley.)

   * The C-level interface to the garbage collector has been changed to
     make it easier to write extension types that support garbage
     collection and to debug misuses of the functions.  Various
     functions have slightly different semantics, so a bunch of
     functions had to be renamed.  Extensions that use the old API will
     still compile but will 'not' participate in garbage collection, so
     updating them for 2.2 should be considered fairly high priority.

     To upgrade an extension module to the new API, perform the
     following steps:

   * Rename ‘Py_TPFLAGS_GC’ to *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e.

   * 
     Use *note PyObject_GC_New(): e68. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar(): e69. to allocate

          objects, and *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5. to deallocate
          them.

   * Rename ‘PyObject_GC_Init()’ to *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 18a6. and
     ‘PyObject_GC_Fini()’ to *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 18a7.

   * Remove ‘PyGC_HEAD_SIZE’ from object size calculations.

   * Remove calls to ‘PyObject_AS_GC()’ and ‘PyObject_FROM_GC()’.

   * A new ‘et’ format sequence was added to *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
     3b1.; ‘et’ takes both a parameter and an encoding name, and
     converts the parameter to the given encoding if the parameter turns
     out to be a Unicode string, or leaves it alone if it’s an 8-bit
     string, assuming it to already be in the desired encoding.  This
     differs from the ‘es’ format character, which assumes that 8-bit
     strings are in Python’s default ASCII encoding and converts them to
     the specified new encoding.  (Contributed by M.-A. Lemburg, and
     used for the MBCS support on Windows described in the following
     section.)

   * A different argument parsing function, *note PyArg_UnpackTuple():
     18a8, has been added that’s simpler and presumably faster.  Instead
     of specifying a format string, the caller simply gives the minimum
     and maximum number of arguments expected, and a set of pointers to
     *note PyObject: 19b.* variables that will be filled in with
     argument values.

   * Two new flags *note METH_NOARGS: 1876. and *note METH_O: 18a9. are
     available in method definition tables to simplify implementation of
     methods with no arguments or a single untyped argument.  Calling
     such methods is more efficient than calling a corresponding method
     that uses *note METH_VARARGS: 18aa.  Also, the old ‘METH_OLDARGS’
     style of writing C methods is now officially deprecated.

   * Two new wrapper functions, *note PyOS_snprintf(): 18ab. and *note
     PyOS_vsnprintf(): 18ac. were added to provide cross-platform
     implementations for the relatively new ‘snprintf()’ and
     ‘vsnprintf()’ C lib APIs.  In contrast to the standard ‘sprintf()’
     and ‘vsprintf()’ functions, the Python versions check the bounds of
     the buffer used to protect against buffer overruns.  (Contributed
     by M.-A. Lemburg.)

   * The *note _PyTuple_Resize(): 18ad. function has lost an unused
     parameter, so now it takes 2 parameters instead of 3.  The third
     argument was never used, and can simply be discarded when porting
     code from earlier versions to Python 2.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes<3>,  Next: Acknowledgements<6>,  Prev: Interpreter Changes and Fixes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.23.11 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

As usual there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes scattered
throughout the source tree.  A search through the CVS change logs finds
there were 527 patches applied and 683 bugs fixed between Python 2.1 and
2.2; 2.2.1 applied 139 patches and fixed 143 bugs; 2.2.2 applied 106
patches and fixed 82 bugs.  These figures are likely to be
underestimates.

Some of the more notable changes are:

   * The code for the MacOS port for Python, maintained by Jack Jansen,
     is now kept in the main Python CVS tree, and many changes have been
     made to support MacOS X.

     The most significant change is the ability to build Python as a
     framework, enabled by supplying the ‘--enable-framework’ option to
     the configure script when compiling Python.  According to Jack
     Jansen, «This installs a self-contained Python installation plus
     the OS X framework «glue» into
     ‘/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework’ (or another location of
     choice).  For now there is little immediate added benefit to this
     (actually, there is the disadvantage that you have to change your
     PATH to be able to find Python), but it is the basis for creating a
     full-blown Python application, porting the MacPython IDE, possibly
     using Python as a standard OSA scripting language and much more.»

     Most of the MacPython toolbox modules, which interface to MacOS
     APIs such as windowing, QuickTime, scripting, etc.  have been
     ported to OS X, but they’ve been left commented out in ‘setup.py’.
     People who want to experiment with these modules can uncomment them
     manually.

   * Keyword arguments passed to built-in functions that don’t take them
     now cause a *note TypeError: 291. exception to be raised, with the
     message «'function' takes no keyword arguments».

   * Weak references, added in Python 2.1 as an extension module, are
     now part of the core because they’re used in the implementation of
     new-style classes.  The *note ReferenceError: 18af. exception has
     therefore moved from the *note weakref: 11d. module to become a
     built-in exception.

   * A new script, ‘Tools/scripts/cleanfuture.py’ by Tim Peters,
     automatically removes obsolete ‘__future__’ statements from Python
     source code.

   * An additional 'flags' argument has been added to the built-in
     function *note compile(): 1c8, so the behaviour of ‘__future__’
     statements can now be correctly observed in simulated shells, such
     as those presented by IDLE and other development environments.
     This is described in PEP 264(1).  (Contributed by Michael Hudson.)

   * The new license introduced with Python 1.6 wasn’t GPL-compatible.
     This is fixed by some minor textual changes to the 2.2 license, so
     it’s now legal to embed Python inside a GPLed program again.  Note
     that Python itself is not GPLed, but instead is under a license
     that’s essentially equivalent to the BSD license, same as it always
     was.  The license changes were also applied to the Python 2.0.1 and
     2.1.1 releases.

   * When presented with a Unicode filename on Windows, Python will now
     convert it to an MBCS encoded string, as used by the Microsoft file
     APIs.  As MBCS is explicitly used by the file APIs, Python’s choice
     of ASCII as the default encoding turns out to be an annoyance.  On
     Unix, the locale’s character set is used if
     ‘locale.nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ is available.  (Windows support was
     contributed by Mark Hammond with assistance from Marc-André
     Lemburg.  Unix support was added by Martin von Löwis.)

   * Large file support is now enabled on Windows.  (Contributed by Tim
     Peters.)

   * The ‘Tools/scripts/ftpmirror.py’ script now parses a ‘.netrc’ file,
     if you have one.  (Contributed by Mike Romberg.)

   * Some features of the object returned by the ‘xrange()’ function are
     now deprecated, and trigger warnings when they’re accessed; they’ll
     disappear in Python 2.3.  ‘xrange’ objects tried to pretend they
     were full sequence types by supporting slicing, sequence
     multiplication, and the *note in: 323. operator, but these features
     were rarely used and therefore buggy.  The ‘tolist()’ method and
     the ‘start’, ‘stop’, and ‘step’ attributes are also being
     deprecated.  At the C level, the fourth argument to the
     ‘PyRange_New()’ function, ‘repeat’, has also been deprecated.

   * There were a bunch of patches to the dictionary implementation,
     mostly to fix potential core dumps if a dictionary contains objects
     that sneakily changed their hash value, or mutated the dictionary
     they were contained in.  For a while python-dev fell into a gentle
     rhythm of Michael Hudson finding a case that dumped core, Tim
     Peters fixing the bug, Michael finding another case, and round and
     round it went.

   * On Windows, Python can now be compiled with Borland C thanks to a
     number of patches contributed by Stephen Hansen, though the result
     isn’t fully functional yet.  (But this 'is' progress…)

   * Another Windows enhancement: Wise Solutions generously offered
     PythonLabs use of their InstallerMaster 8.1 system.  Earlier
     PythonLabs Windows installers used Wise 5.0a, which was beginning
     to show its age.  (Packaged up by Tim Peters.)

   * Files ending in ‘.pyw’ can now be imported on Windows.  ‘.pyw’ is a
     Windows-only thing, used to indicate that a script needs to be run
     using PYTHONW.EXE instead of PYTHON.EXE in order to prevent a DOS
     console from popping up to display the output.  This patch makes it
     possible to import such scripts, in case they’re also usable as
     modules.  (Implemented by David Bolen.)

   * On platforms where Python uses the C ‘dlopen()’ function to load
     extension modules, it’s now possible to set the flags used by
     ‘dlopen()’ using the *note sys.getdlopenflags(): 18b0. and *note
     sys.setdlopenflags(): 14cb. functions.  (Contributed by Bram
     Stolk.)

   * The *note pow(): 441. built-in function no longer supports 3
     arguments when floating-point numbers are supplied.  ‘pow(x, y, z)’
     returns ‘(x**y) % z’, but this is never useful for floating-point
     numbers, and the final result varies unpredictably depending on the
     platform.  A call such as ‘pow(2.0, 8.0, 7.0)’ will now raise a
     *note TypeError: 291. exception.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0264/


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<6>,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<3>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 2

1.23.12 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Fred Bremmer, Keith Briggs, Andrew Dalke, Fred L. Drake, Jr.,
Carel Fellinger, David Goodger, Mark Hammond, Stephen Hansen, Michael
Hudson, Jack Jansen, Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis, Fredrik
Lundh, Michael McLay, Nick Mathewson, Paul Moore, Gustavo Niemeyer, Don
O’Donnell, Joonas Paalasma, Tim Peters, Jens Quade, Tom Reinhardt, Neil
Schemenauer, Guido van Rossum, Greg Ward, Edward Welbourne.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 1,  Next: What’s New in Python 2 0,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 2,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.24 What’s New in Python 2.1
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<2>.
* PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
* PEP 236; __future__ Directives: PEP 236 __future__ Directives.
* PEP 207; Rich Comparisons: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
* PEP 230; Warning Framework: PEP 230 Warning Framework.
* PEP 229; New Build System: PEP 229 New Build System.
* PEP 205; Weak References: PEP 205 Weak References.
* PEP 232; Function Attributes: PEP 232 Function Attributes.
* PEP 235; Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
* PEP 217; Interactive Display Hook: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
* PEP 208; New Coercion Model: PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
* PEP 241; Metadata in Python Packages: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
* New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<4>.
* Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<4>.
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<2>,  Next: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.1 Introduction
-------------------

This article explains the new features in Python 2.1.  While there
aren’t as many changes in 2.1 as there were in Python 2.0, there are
still some pleasant surprises in store.  2.1 is the first release to be
steered through the use of Python Enhancement Proposals, or PEPs, so
most of the sizable changes have accompanying PEPs that provide more
complete documentation and a design rationale for the change.  This
article doesn’t attempt to document the new features completely, but
simply provides an overview of the new features for Python programmers.
Refer to the Python 2.1 documentation, or to the specific PEP, for more
details about any new feature that particularly interests you.

One recent goal of the Python development team has been to accelerate
the pace of new releases, with a new release coming every 6 to 9 months.
2.1 is the first release to come out at this faster pace, with the first
alpha appearing in January, 3 months after the final version of 2.0 was
released.

The final release of Python 2.1 was made on April 17, 2001.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Next: PEP 236 __future__ Directives,  Prev: Introduction<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.2 PEP 227: Nested Scopes
-----------------------------

The largest change in Python 2.1 is to Python’s scoping rules.  In
Python 2.0, at any given time there are at most three namespaces used to
look up variable names: local, module-level, and the built-in namespace.
This often surprised people because it didn’t match their intuitive
expectations.  For example, a nested recursive function definition
doesn’t work:

     def f():
         ...
         def g(value):
             ...
             return g(value-1) + 1
         ...

The function ‘g()’ will always raise a *note NameError: 665. exception,
because the binding of the name ‘g’ isn’t in either its local namespace
or in the module-level namespace.  This isn’t much of a problem in
practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like
this?), but this also made using the *note lambda: 1642. expression
clumsier, and this was a problem in practice.  In code which uses
‘lambda’ you can often find local variables being copied by passing them
as the default values of arguments.

     def find(self, name):
         "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'"
         L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name,
                    self.list_attribute)
         return L

The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style
suffers greatly as a result.

The most significant change to Python 2.1 is that static scoping has
been added to the language to fix this problem.  As a first effect, the
‘name=name’ default argument is now unnecessary in the above example.
Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a
function (by an assignment, or the *note def: 17fc, *note class: 167c,
or *note import: 9da. statements), references to the variable will be
looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope.  A more
detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the
implementation, can be found in the PEP.

This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the
same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local
variable within a function that contains further function definitions.
This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been
pretty confusing to read in the first place.

One side effect of the change is that the ‘from module import *’ and
‘exec’ statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under
certain conditions.  The Python reference manual has said all along that
‘from module import *’ is only legal at the top level of a module, but
the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before.  As part of the
implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source
into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a
containing scope.  ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ make it impossible
for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local
namespace that are unknowable at compile time.  Therefore, if a function
contains function definitions or *note lambda: 1642. expressions with
free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a *note
SyntaxError: 17e. exception.

To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here’s an example:

     x = 1
     def f():
         # The next line is a syntax error
         exec 'x=2'
         def g():
             return x

Line 4 containing the ‘exec’ statement is a syntax error, since ‘exec’
would define a new local variable named ‘x’ whose value should be
accessed by ‘g()’.

This shouldn’t be much of a limitation, since ‘exec’ is rarely used in
most Python code (and when it is used, it’s often a sign of a poor
design anyway).

Compatibility concerns have led to nested scopes being introduced
gradually; in Python 2.1, they aren’t enabled by default, but can be
turned on within a module by using a future statement as described in
PEP 236(1).  (See the following section for further discussion of PEP
236(2).)  In Python 2.2, nested scopes will become the default and there
will be no way to turn them off, but users will have had all of 2.1’s
lifetime to fix any breakage resulting from their introduction.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 227(3) - Statically Nested Scopes

     Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 236 __future__ Directives,  Next: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Prev: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.3 PEP 236: __future__ Directives
-------------------------------------

The reaction to nested scopes was widespread concern about the dangers
of breaking code with the 2.1 release, and it was strong enough to make
the Pythoneers take a more conservative approach.  This approach
consists of introducing a convention for enabling optional functionality
in release N that will become compulsory in release N+1.

The syntax uses a ‘from...import’ statement using the reserved module
name *note __future__: 0.  Nested scopes can be enabled by the following
statement:

     from __future__ import nested_scopes

While it looks like a normal *note import: 9da. statement, it’s not;
there are strict rules on where such a future statement can be put.
They can only be at the top of a module, and must precede any Python
code or regular ‘import’ statements.  This is because such statements
can affect how the Python bytecode compiler parses code and generates
bytecode, so they must precede any statement that will result in
bytecodes being produced.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 236(1) - Back to the *note __future__: 0.

     Written by Tim Peters, and primarily implemented by Jeremy Hylton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Next: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Prev: PEP 236 __future__ Directives,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.4 PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
--------------------------------

In earlier versions, Python’s support for implementing comparisons on
user-defined classes and extension types was quite simple.  Classes
could implement a ‘__cmp__()’ method that was given two instances of a
class, and could only return 0 if they were equal or +1 or -1 if they
weren’t; the method couldn’t raise an exception or return anything other
than a Boolean value.  Users of Numeric Python often found this model
too weak and restrictive, because in the number-crunching programs that
numeric Python is used for, it would be more useful to be able to
perform elementwise comparisons of two matrices, returning a matrix
containing the results of a given comparison for each element.  If the
two matrices are of different sizes, then the compare has to be able to
raise an exception to signal the error.

In Python 2.1, rich comparisons were added in order to support this
need.  Python classes can now individually overload each of the ‘<’,
‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’, ‘==’, and ‘!=’ operations.  The new magic method names
are:

Operation       Method name
                
---------------------------------------------
                
‘<’             *note __lt__(): 1645.
                
                
‘<=’            *note __le__(): 16af.
                
                
‘>’             *note __gt__(): 16b0.
                
                
‘>=’            *note __ge__(): 16b1.
                
                
‘==’            *note __eq__(): ec0.
                
                
‘!=’            *note __ne__(): 18b9.
                

(The magic methods are named after the corresponding Fortran operators
‘.LT.’.  ‘.LE.’, &c.  Numeric programmers are almost certainly quite
familiar with these names and will find them easy to remember.)

Each of these magic methods is of the form ‘method(self, other)’, where
‘self’ will be the object on the left-hand side of the operator, while
‘other’ will be the object on the right-hand side.  For example, the
expression ‘A < B’ will cause ‘A.__lt__(B)’ to be called.

Each of these magic methods can return anything at all: a Boolean, a
matrix, a list, or any other Python object.  Alternatively they can
raise an exception if the comparison is impossible, inconsistent, or
otherwise meaningless.

The built-in ‘cmp(A,B)’ function can use the rich comparison machinery,
and now accepts an optional argument specifying which comparison
operation to use; this is given as one of the strings ‘"<"’, ‘"<="’,
‘">"’, ‘">="’, ‘"=="’, or ‘"!="’.  If called without the optional third
argument, ‘cmp()’ will only return -1, 0, or +1 as in previous versions
of Python; otherwise it will call the appropriate method and can return
any Python object.

There are also corresponding changes of interest to C programmers;
there’s a new slot ‘tp_richcmp’ in type objects and an API for
performing a given rich comparison.  I won’t cover the C API here, but
will refer you to PEP 207(1), or to 2.1’s C API documentation, for the
full list of related functions.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 207(2) - Rich Comparisons

     Written by Guido van Rossum, heavily based on earlier work by David
     Ascher, and implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Next: PEP 229 New Build System,  Prev: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.5 PEP 230: Warning Framework
---------------------------------

Over its 10 years of existence, Python has accumulated a certain number
of obsolete modules and features along the way.  It’s difficult to know
when a feature is safe to remove, since there’s no way of knowing how
much code uses it — perhaps no programs depend on the feature, or
perhaps many do.  To enable removing old features in a more structured
way, a warning framework was added.  When the Python developers want to
get rid of a feature, it will first trigger a warning in the next
version of Python.  The following Python version can then drop the
feature, and users will have had a full release cycle to remove uses of
the old feature.

Python 2.1 adds the warning framework to be used in this scheme.  It
adds a *note warnings: 11b. module that provide functions to issue
warnings, and to filter out warnings that you don’t want to be
displayed.  Third-party modules can also use this framework to deprecate
old features that they no longer wish to support.

For example, in Python 2.1 the ‘regex’ module is deprecated, so
importing it causes a warning to be printed:

     >>> import regex
     __main__:1: DeprecationWarning: the regex module
              is deprecated; please use the re module
     >>>

Warnings can be issued by calling the *note warnings.warn(): 18bb.
function:

     warnings.warn("feature X no longer supported")

The first parameter is the warning message; an additional optional
parameters can be used to specify a particular warning category.

Filters can be added to disable certain warnings; a regular expression
pattern can be applied to the message or to the module name in order to
suppress a warning.  For example, you may have a program that uses the
‘regex’ module and not want to spare the time to convert it to use the
*note re: c1. module right now.  The warning can be suppressed by
calling

     import warnings
     warnings.filterwarnings(action = 'ignore',
                             message='.*regex module is deprecated',
                             category=DeprecationWarning,
                             module = '__main__')

This adds a filter that will apply only to warnings of the class *note
DeprecationWarning: 2c9. triggered in the *note __main__: 1. module, and
applies a regular expression to only match the message about the ‘regex’
module being deprecated, and will cause such warnings to be ignored.
Warnings can also be printed only once, printed every time the offending
code is executed, or turned into exceptions that will cause the program
to stop (unless the exceptions are caught in the usual way, of course).

Functions were also added to Python’s C API for issuing warnings; refer
to PEP 230 or to Python’s API documentation for the details.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 5(1) - Guidelines for Language Evolution

     Written by Paul Prescod, to specify procedures to be followed when
     removing old features from Python.  The policy described in this
     PEP hasn’t been officially adopted, but the eventual policy
     probably won’t be too different from Prescod’s proposal.

PEP 230(2) - Warning Framework

     Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0005/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0230/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 229 New Build System,  Next: PEP 205 Weak References,  Prev: PEP 230 Warning Framework,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.6 PEP 229: New Build System
--------------------------------

When compiling Python, the user had to go in and edit the
‘Modules/Setup’ file in order to enable various additional modules; the
default set is relatively small and limited to modules that compile on
most Unix platforms.  This means that on Unix platforms with many more
features, most notably Linux, Python installations often don’t contain
all useful modules they could.

Python 2.0 added the Distutils, a set of modules for distributing and
installing extensions.  In Python 2.1, the Distutils are used to compile
much of the standard library of extension modules, autodetecting which
ones are supported on the current machine.  It’s hoped that this will
make Python installations easier and more featureful.

Instead of having to edit the ‘Modules/Setup’ file in order to enable
modules, a ‘setup.py’ script in the top directory of the Python source
distribution is run at build time, and attempts to discover which
modules can be enabled by examining the modules and header files on the
system.  If a module is configured in ‘Modules/Setup’, the ‘setup.py’
script won’t attempt to compile that module and will defer to the
‘Modules/Setup’ file’s contents.  This provides a way to specific any
strange command-line flags or libraries that are required for a specific
platform.

In another far-reaching change to the build mechanism, Neil Schemenauer
restructured things so Python now uses a single makefile that isn’t
recursive, instead of makefiles in the top directory and in each of the
‘Python/’, ‘Parser/’, ‘Objects/’, and ‘Modules/’ subdirectories.  This
makes building Python faster and also makes hacking the Makefiles
clearer and simpler.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 229(1) - Using Distutils to Build Python

     Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0229/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 205 Weak References,  Next: PEP 232 Function Attributes,  Prev: PEP 229 New Build System,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.7 PEP 205: Weak References
-------------------------------

Weak references, available through the *note weakref: 11d. module, are a
minor but useful new data type in the Python programmer’s toolbox.

Storing a reference to an object (say, in a dictionary or a list) has
the side effect of keeping that object alive forever.  There are a few
specific cases where this behaviour is undesirable, object caches being
the most common one, and another being circular references in data
structures such as trees.

For example, consider a memoizing function that caches the results of
another function ‘f(x)’ by storing the function’s argument and its
result in a dictionary:

     _cache = {}
     def memoize(x):
         if _cache.has_key(x):
             return _cache[x]

         retval = f(x)

         # Cache the returned object
         _cache[x] = retval

         return retval

This version works for simple things such as integers, but it has a side
effect; the ‘_cache’ dictionary holds a reference to the return values,
so they’ll never be deallocated until the Python process exits and
cleans up.  This isn’t very noticeable for integers, but if ‘f()’
returns an object, or a data structure that takes up a lot of memory,
this can be a problem.

Weak references provide a way to implement a cache that won’t keep
objects alive beyond their time.  If an object is only accessible
through weak references, the object will be deallocated and the weak
references will now indicate that the object it referred to no longer
exists.  A weak reference to an object 'obj' is created by calling ‘wr =
weakref.ref(obj)’.  The object being referred to is returned by calling
the weak reference as if it were a function: ‘wr()’.  It will return the
referenced object, or ‘None’ if the object no longer exists.

This makes it possible to write a ‘memoize()’ function whose cache
doesn’t keep objects alive, by storing weak references in the cache.

     _cache = {}
     def memoize(x):
         if _cache.has_key(x):
             obj = _cache[x]()
             # If weak reference object still exists,
             # return it
             if obj is not None: return obj

         retval = f(x)

         # Cache a weak reference
         _cache[x] = weakref.ref(retval)

         return retval

The *note weakref: 11d. module also allows creating proxy objects which
behave like weak references — an object referenced only by proxy objects
is deallocated – but instead of requiring an explicit call to retrieve
the object, the proxy transparently forwards all operations to the
object as long as the object still exists.  If the object is
deallocated, attempting to use a proxy will cause a
‘weakref.ReferenceError’ exception to be raised.

     proxy = weakref.proxy(obj)
     proxy.attr   # Equivalent to obj.attr
     proxy.meth() # Equivalent to obj.meth()
     del obj
     proxy.attr   # raises weakref.ReferenceError

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 205(1) - Weak References

     Written and implemented by Fred L. Drake, Jr.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0205/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 232 Function Attributes,  Next: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Prev: PEP 205 Weak References,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.8 PEP 232: Function Attributes
-----------------------------------

In Python 2.1, functions can now have arbitrary information attached to
them.  People were often using docstrings to hold information about
functions and methods, because the *note __doc__: 1582. attribute was
the only way of attaching any information to a function.  For example,
in the Zope web application server, functions are marked as safe for
public access by having a docstring, and in John Aycock’s SPARK parsing
framework, docstrings hold parts of the BNF grammar to be parsed.  This
overloading is unfortunate, since docstrings are really intended to hold
a function’s documentation; for example, it means you can’t properly
document functions intended for private use in Zope.

Arbitrary attributes can now be set and retrieved on functions using the
regular Python syntax:

     def f(): pass

     f.publish = 1
     f.secure = 1
     f.grammar = "A ::= B (C D)*"

The dictionary containing attributes can be accessed as the function’s
*note __dict__: 1677.  Unlike the *note __dict__: 101b. attribute of
class instances, in functions you can actually assign a new dictionary
to ‘__dict__’, though the new value is restricted to a regular Python
dictionary; you 'can’t' be tricky and set it to a ‘UserDict’ instance,
or any other random object that behaves like a mapping.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 232(1) - Function Attributes

     Written and implemented by Barry Warsaw.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0232/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Next: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Prev: PEP 232 Function Attributes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.9 PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
---------------------------------------------------------------

Some operating systems have filesystems that are case-insensitive, MacOS
and Windows being the primary examples; on these systems, it’s
impossible to distinguish the filenames ‘FILE.PY’ and ‘file.py’, even
though they do store the file’s name in its original case (they’re
case-preserving, too).

In Python 2.1, the *note import: 9da. statement will work to simulate
case-sensitivity on case-insensitive platforms.  Python will now search
for the first case-sensitive match by default, raising an *note
ImportError: 1bd. if no such file is found, so ‘import file’ will not
import a module named ‘FILE.PY’.  Case-insensitive matching can be
requested by setting the *note PYTHONCASEOK: d26. environment variable
before starting the Python interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Next: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Prev: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.10 PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
-----------------------------------------

When using the Python interpreter interactively, the output of commands
is displayed using the built-in *note repr(): 45b. function.  In Python
2.1, the variable *note sys.displayhook(): 18c1. can be set to a
callable object which will be called instead of ‘repr()’.  For example,
you can set it to a special pretty-printing function:

     >>> # Create a recursive data structure
     ... L = [1,2,3]
     >>> L.append(L)
     >>> L # Show Python's default output
     [1, 2, 3, [...]]
     >>> # Use pprint.pprint() as the display function
     ... import sys, pprint
     >>> sys.displayhook = pprint.pprint
     >>> L
     [1, 2, 3,  <Recursion on list with id=135143996>]
     >>>

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 217(1) - Display Hook for Interactive Use

     Written and implemented by Moshe Zadka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0217/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Next: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Prev: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.11 PEP 208: New Coercion Model
-----------------------------------

How numeric coercion is done at the C level was significantly modified.
This will only affect the authors of C extensions to Python, allowing
them more flexibility in writing extension types that support numeric
operations.

Extension types can now set the type flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_CHECKTYPES’ in
their ‘PyTypeObject’ structure to indicate that they support the new
coercion model.  In such extension types, the numeric slot functions can
no longer assume that they’ll be passed two arguments of the same type;
instead they may be passed two arguments of differing types, and can
then perform their own internal coercion.  If the slot function is
passed a type it can’t handle, it can indicate the failure by returning
a reference to the ‘Py_NotImplemented’ singleton value.  The numeric
functions of the other type will then be tried, and perhaps they can
handle the operation; if the other type also returns
‘Py_NotImplemented’, then a *note TypeError: 291. will be raised.
Numeric methods written in Python can also return ‘Py_NotImplemented’,
causing the interpreter to act as if the method did not exist (perhaps
raising a ‘TypeError’, perhaps trying another object’s numeric methods).

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 208(1) - Reworking the Coercion Model

     Written and implemented by Neil Schemenauer, heavily based upon
     earlier work by Marc-André Lemburg.  Read this to understand the
     fine points of how numeric operations will now be processed at the
     C level.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0208/


File: python.info,  Node: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Next: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Prev: PEP 208 New Coercion Model,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.12 PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
--------------------------------------------

A common complaint from Python users is that there’s no single catalog
of all the Python modules in existence.  T. Middleton’s Vaults of
Parnassus at ‘www.vex.net/parnassus/’ (retired in February 2009,
available in the Internet Archive Wayback Machine(1)) was the largest
catalog of Python modules, but registering software at the Vaults is
optional, and many people did not bother.

As a first small step toward fixing the problem, Python software
packaged using the Distutils ‘sdist’ command will include a file named
‘PKG-INFO’ containing information about the package such as its name,
version, and author (metadata, in cataloguing terminology).  PEP 241(2)
contains the full list of fields that can be present in the ‘PKG-INFO’
file.  As people began to package their software using Python 2.1, more
and more packages will include metadata, making it possible to build
automated cataloguing systems and experiment with them.  With the result
experience, perhaps it’ll be possible to design a really good catalog
and then build support for it into Python 2.2.  For example, the
Distutils ‘sdist’ and ‘bdist_*’ commands could support an ‘upload’
option that would automatically upload your package to a catalog server.

You can start creating packages containing ‘PKG-INFO’ even if you’re not
using Python 2.1, since a new release of the Distutils will be made for
users of earlier Python versions.  Version 1.0.2 of the Distutils
includes the changes described in PEP 241(3), as well as various
bugfixes and enhancements.  It will be available from the Distutils SIG
at ‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/distutils-sig/’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 241(4) - Metadata for Python Software Packages

     Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling.

PEP 243(5) - Module Repository Upload Mechanism

     Written by Sean Reifschneider, this draft PEP describes a proposed
     mechanism for uploading Python packages to a central server.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20090130140102/http://www.vex.net/parnassus/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0243/


File: python.info,  Node: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Next: Other Changes and Fixes<4>,  Prev: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.13 New and Improved Modules
--------------------------------

   * Ka-Ping Yee contributed two new modules: ‘inspect.py’, a module for
     getting information about live Python code, and ‘pydoc.py’, a
     module for interactively converting docstrings to HTML or text.  As
     a bonus, ‘Tools/scripts/pydoc’, which is now automatically
     installed, uses ‘pydoc.py’ to display documentation given a Python
     module, package, or class name.  For example, ‘pydoc xml.dom’
     displays the following:

          Python Library Documentation: package xml.dom in xml

          NAME
              xml.dom - W3C Document Object Model implementation for Python.

          FILE
              /usr/local/lib/python2.1/xml/dom/__init__.pyc

          DESCRIPTION
              The Python mapping of the Document Object Model is documented in the
              Python Library Reference in the section on the xml.dom package.

              This package contains the following modules:
                ...

     ‘pydoc’ also includes a Tk-based interactive help browser.  ‘pydoc’
     quickly becomes addictive; try it out!

   * Two different modules for unit testing were added to the standard
     library.  The *note doctest: 3d. module, contributed by Tim Peters,
     provides a testing framework based on running embedded examples in
     docstrings and comparing the results against the expected output.
     PyUnit, contributed by Steve Purcell, is a unit testing framework
     inspired by JUnit, which was in turn an adaptation of Kent Beck’s
     Smalltalk testing framework.  See ‘https://pyunit.sourceforge.net/’
     for more information about PyUnit.

   * The *note difflib: 3a. module contains a class, *note
     SequenceMatcher: 13c2, which compares two sequences and computes
     the changes required to transform one sequence into the other.  For
     example, this module can be used to write a tool similar to the
     Unix ‘diff’ program, and in fact the sample program
     ‘Tools/scripts/ndiff.py’ demonstrates how to write such a script.

   * *note curses.panel: 30, a wrapper for the panel library, part of
     ncurses and of SYSV curses, was contributed by Thomas Gellekum.
     The panel library provides windows with the additional feature of
     depth.  Windows can be moved higher or lower in the depth ordering,
     and the panel library figures out where panels overlap and which
     sections are visible.

   * The PyXML package has gone through a few releases since Python 2.0,
     and Python 2.1 includes an updated version of the *note xml: 129.
     package.  Some of the noteworthy changes include support for Expat
     1.2 and later versions, the ability for Expat parsers to handle
     files in any encoding supported by Python, and various bugfixes for
     SAX, DOM, and the ‘minidom’ module.

   * Ping also contributed another hook for handling uncaught
     exceptions.  *note sys.excepthook(): be5. can be set to a callable
     object.  When an exception isn’t caught by any *note try:
     ad6.…*note except: 447. blocks, the exception will be passed to
     ‘sys.excepthook()’, which can then do whatever it likes.  At the
     Ninth Python Conference, Ping demonstrated an application for this
     hook: printing an extended traceback that not only lists the stack
     frames, but also lists the function arguments and the local
     variables for each frame.

   * Various functions in the *note time: f7. module, such as *note
     asctime(): 1590. and *note localtime(): 189b, require a
     floating-point argument containing the time in seconds since the
     epoch.  The most common use of these functions is to work with the
     current time, so the floating-point argument has been made
     optional; when a value isn’t provided, the current time will be
     used.  For example, log file entries usually need a string
     containing the current time; in Python 2.1, ‘time.asctime()’ can be
     used, instead of the lengthier
     ‘time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time()))’ that was previously
     required.

     This change was proposed and implemented by Thomas Wouters.

   * The *note ftplib: 61. module now defaults to retrieving files in
     passive mode, because passive mode is more likely to work from
     behind a firewall.  This request came from the Debian bug tracking
     system, since other Debian packages use ‘ftplib’ to retrieve files
     and then don’t work from behind a firewall.  It’s deemed unlikely
     that this will cause problems for anyone, because Netscape defaults
     to passive mode and few people complain, but if passive mode is
     unsuitable for your application or network setup, call
     ‘set_pasv(0)’ on FTP objects to disable passive mode.

   * Support for raw socket access has been added to the *note socket:
     d4. module, contributed by Grant Edwards.

   * The *note pstats: b8. module now contains a simple interactive
     statistics browser for displaying timing profiles for Python
     programs, invoked when the module is run as a script.  Contributed
     by Eric S. Raymond.

   * A new implementation-dependent function, ‘sys._getframe([depth])’,
     has been added to return a given frame object from the current call
     stack.  *note sys._getframe(): ace. returns the frame at the top of
     the call stack; if the optional integer argument 'depth' is
     supplied, the function returns the frame that is 'depth' calls
     below the top of the stack.  For example, ‘sys._getframe(1)’
     returns the caller’s frame object.

     This function is only present in CPython, not in Jython or the .NET
     implementation.  Use it for debugging, and resist the temptation to
     put it into production code.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Changes and Fixes<4>,  Next: Acknowledgements<7>,  Prev: New and Improved Modules<4>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.14 Other Changes and Fixes
-------------------------------

There were relatively few smaller changes made in Python 2.1 due to the
shorter release cycle.  A search through the CVS change logs turns up
117 patches applied, and 136 bugs fixed; both figures are likely to be
underestimates.  Some of the more notable changes are:

   * A specialized object allocator is now optionally available, that
     should be faster than the system ‘malloc()’ and have less memory
     overhead.  The allocator uses C’s ‘malloc()’ function to get large
     pools of memory, and then fulfills smaller memory requests from
     these pools.  It can be enabled by providing the ‘--with-pymalloc’
     option to the ‘configure’ script; see ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ for the
     implementation details.

     Authors of C extension modules should test their code with the
     object allocator enabled, because some incorrect code may break,
     causing core dumps at runtime.  There are a bunch of memory
     allocation functions in Python’s C API that have previously been
     just aliases for the C library’s ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, meaning
     that if you accidentally called mismatched functions, the error
     wouldn’t be noticeable.  When the object allocator is enabled,
     these functions aren’t aliases of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ any more,
     and calling the wrong function to free memory will get you a core
     dump.  For example, if memory was allocated using *note PyMem_New:
     18c6, it has to be freed using *note PyMem_Del(): 18c7, not
     ‘free()’.  A few modules included with Python fell afoul of this
     and had to be fixed; doubtless there are more third-party modules
     that will have the same problem.

     The object allocator was contributed by Vladimir Marangozov.

   * The speed of line-oriented file I/O has been improved because
     people often complain about its lack of speed, and because it’s
     often been used as a naïve benchmark.  The *note readline(): c2.
     method of file objects has therefore been rewritten to be much
     faster.  The exact amount of the speedup will vary from platform to
     platform depending on how slow the C library’s ‘getc()’ was, but is
     around 66%, and potentially much faster on some particular
     operating systems.  Tim Peters did much of the benchmarking and
     coding for this change, motivated by a discussion in
     comp.lang.python.

     A new module and method for file objects was also added,
     contributed by Jeff Epler.  The new method, ‘xreadlines()’, is
     similar to the existing ‘xrange()’ built-in.  ‘xreadlines()’
     returns an opaque sequence object that only supports being iterated
     over, reading a line on every iteration but not reading the entire
     file into memory as the existing ‘readlines()’ method does.  You’d
     use it like this:

          for line in sys.stdin.xreadlines():
              # ... do something for each line ...
              ...

     For a fuller discussion of the line I/O changes, see the python-dev
     summary for January 1–15, 2001 at
     ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2001-January/’.

   * A new method, *note popitem(): 18c8, was added to dictionaries to
     enable destructively iterating through the contents of a
     dictionary; this can be faster for large dictionaries because
     there’s no need to construct a list containing all the keys or
     values.  ‘D.popitem()’ removes a random ‘(key, value)’ pair from
     the dictionary ‘D’ and returns it as a 2-tuple.  This was
     implemented mostly by Tim Peters and Guido van Rossum, after a
     suggestion and preliminary patch by Moshe Zadka.

   * Modules can now control which names are imported when ‘from module
     import *’ is used, by defining an ‘__all__’ attribute containing a
     list of names that will be imported.  One common complaint is that
     if the module imports other modules such as *note sys: e2. or *note
     string: db, ‘from module import *’ will add them to the importing
     module’s namespace.  To fix this, simply list the public names in
     ‘__all__’:

          # List public names
          __all__ = ['Database', 'open']

     A stricter version of this patch was first suggested and
     implemented by Ben Wolfson, but after some python-dev discussion, a
     weaker final version was checked in.

   * Applying *note repr(): 45b. to strings previously used octal
     escapes for non-printable characters; for example, a newline was
     ‘'\012'’.  This was a vestigial trace of Python’s C ancestry, but
     today octal is of very little practical use.  Ka-Ping Yee suggested
     using hex escapes instead of octal ones, and using the ‘\n’, ‘\t’,
     ‘\r’ escapes for the appropriate characters, and implemented this
     new formatting.

   * Syntax errors detected at compile-time can now raise exceptions
     containing the filename and line number of the error, a pleasant
     side effect of the compiler reorganization done by Jeremy Hylton.

   * C extensions which import other modules have been changed to use
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3, which means that they will use
     any import hooks that have been installed.  This is also encouraged
     for third-party extensions that need to import some other module
     from C code.

   * The size of the Unicode character database was shrunk by another
     340K thanks to Fredrik Lundh.

   * Some new ports were contributed: MacOS X (by Steven Majewski),
     Cygwin (by Jason Tishler); RISCOS (by Dietmar Schwertberger);
     Unixware 7 (by Billy G. Allie).

And there’s the usual list of minor bugfixes, minor memory leaks,
docstring edits, and other tweaks, too lengthy to be worth itemizing;
see the CVS logs for the full details if you want them.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<7>,  Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<4>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 1

1.24.15 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions on various drafts of this article: Graeme Cross, David
Goodger, Jay Graves, Michael Hudson, Marc-André Lemburg, Fredrik Lundh,
Neil Schemenauer, Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s New in Python 2 0,  Next: Changelog,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 1,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.25 What’s New in Python 2.0
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling and Moshe Zadka

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<3>.
* What About Python 1.6?: What About Python 1 6?.
* New Development Process::
* Unicode: Unicode<2>.
* List Comprehensions::
* Augmented Assignment::
* String Methods::
* Garbage Collection of Cycles::
* Other Core Changes::
* Porting to 2.0: Porting to 2 0.
* Extending/Embedding Changes::
* Distutils; Making Modules Easy to Install: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install.
* XML Modules::
* Module changes::
* New modules: New modules<4>.
* IDLE Improvements::
* Deleted and Deprecated Modules::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<3>,  Next: What About Python 1 6?,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.1 Introduction
-------------------

A new release of Python, version 2.0, was released on October 16, 2000.
This article covers the exciting new features in 2.0, highlights some
other useful changes, and points out a few incompatible changes that may
require rewriting code.

Python’s development never completely stops between releases, and a
steady flow of bug fixes and improvements are always being submitted.  A
host of minor fixes, a few optimizations, additional docstrings, and
better error messages went into 2.0; to list them all would be
impossible, but they’re certainly significant.  Consult the publicly
available CVS logs if you want to see the full list.  This progress is
due to the five developers working for PythonLabs are now getting paid
to spend their days fixing bugs, and also due to the improved
communication resulting from moving to SourceForge.


File: python.info,  Node: What About Python 1 6?,  Next: New Development Process,  Prev: Introduction<3>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.2 What About Python 1.6?
-----------------------------

Python 1.6 can be thought of as the Contractual Obligations Python
release.  After the core development team left CNRI in May 2000, CNRI
requested that a 1.6 release be created, containing all the work on
Python that had been performed at CNRI. Python 1.6 therefore represents
the state of the CVS tree as of May 2000, with the most significant new
feature being Unicode support.  Development continued after May, of
course, so the 1.6 tree received a few fixes to ensure that it’s
forward-compatible with Python 2.0.  1.6 is therefore part of Python’s
evolution, and not a side branch.

So, should you take much interest in Python 1.6?  Probably not.  The
1.6final and 2.0beta1 releases were made on the same day (September 5,
2000), the plan being to finalize Python 2.0 within a month or so.  If
you have applications to maintain, there seems little point in breaking
things by moving to 1.6, fixing them, and then having another round of
breakage within a month by moving to 2.0; you’re better off just going
straight to 2.0.  Most of the really interesting features described in
this document are only in 2.0, because a lot of work was done between
May and September.


File: python.info,  Node: New Development Process,  Next: Unicode<2>,  Prev: What About Python 1 6?,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.3 New Development Process
------------------------------

The most important change in Python 2.0 may not be to the code at all,
but to how Python is developed: in May 2000 the Python developers began
using the tools made available by SourceForge for storing source code,
tracking bug reports, and managing the queue of patch submissions.  To
report bugs or submit patches for Python 2.0, use the bug tracking and
patch manager tools available from Python’s project page, located at
‘https://sourceforge.net/projects/python/’.

The most important of the services now hosted at SourceForge is the
Python CVS tree, the version-controlled repository containing the source
code for Python.  Previously, there were roughly 7 or so people who had
write access to the CVS tree, and all patches had to be inspected and
checked in by one of the people on this short list.  Obviously, this
wasn’t very scalable.  By moving the CVS tree to SourceForge, it became
possible to grant write access to more people; as of September 2000
there were 27 people able to check in changes, a fourfold increase.
This makes possible large-scale changes that wouldn’t be attempted if
they’d have to be filtered through the small group of core developers.
For example, one day Peter Schneider-Kamp took it into his head to drop
K&R C compatibility and convert the C source for Python to ANSI C. After
getting approval on the python-dev mailing list, he launched into a
flurry of checkins that lasted about a week, other developers joined in
to help, and the job was done.  If there were only 5 people with write
access, probably that task would have been viewed as «nice, but not
worth the time and effort needed» and it would never have gotten done.

The shift to using SourceForge’s services has resulted in a remarkable
increase in the speed of development.  Patches now get submitted,
commented on, revised by people other than the original submitter, and
bounced back and forth between people until the patch is deemed worth
checking in.  Bugs are tracked in one central location and can be
assigned to a specific person for fixing, and we can count the number of
open bugs to measure progress.  This didn’t come without a cost:
developers now have more e-mail to deal with, more mailing lists to
follow, and special tools had to be written for the new environment.
For example, SourceForge sends default patch and bug notification e-mail
messages that are completely unhelpful, so Ka-Ping Yee wrote an HTML
screen-scraper that sends more useful messages.

The ease of adding code caused a few initial growing pains, such as code
was checked in before it was ready or without getting clear agreement
from the developer group.  The approval process that has emerged is
somewhat similar to that used by the Apache group.  Developers can vote
+1, +0, -0, or -1 on a patch; +1 and -1 denote acceptance or rejection,
while +0 and -0 mean the developer is mostly indifferent to the change,
though with a slight positive or negative slant.  The most significant
change from the Apache model is that the voting is essentially advisory,
letting Guido van Rossum, who has Benevolent Dictator For Life status,
know what the general opinion is.  He can still ignore the result of a
vote, and approve or reject a change even if the community disagrees
with him.

Producing an actual patch is the last step in adding a new feature, and
is usually easy compared to the earlier task of coming up with a good
design.  Discussions of new features can often explode into lengthy
mailing list threads, making the discussion hard to follow, and no one
can read every posting to python-dev.  Therefore, a relatively formal
process has been set up to write Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs),
modelled on the internet RFC process.  PEPs are draft documents that
describe a proposed new feature, and are continually revised until the
community reaches a consensus, either accepting or rejecting the
proposal.  Quoting from the introduction to PEP 1(1), «PEP Purpose and
Guidelines»:

     PEP stands for Python Enhancement Proposal.  A PEP is a design
     document providing information to the Python community, or
     describing a new feature for Python.  The PEP should provide a
     concise technical specification of the feature and a rationale for
     the feature.

     We intend PEPs to be the primary mechanisms for proposing new
     features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for
     documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python.  The
     PEP author is responsible for building consensus within the
     community and documenting dissenting opinions.

Read the rest of PEP 1(2) for the details of the PEP editorial process,
style, and format.  PEPs are kept in the Python CVS tree on SourceForge,
though they’re not part of the Python 2.0 distribution, and are also
available in HTML form from ‘https://peps.python.org/’.  As of September
2000, there are 25 PEPs, ranging from PEP 201(3), «Lockstep Iteration»,
to PEP 225, «Elementwise/Objectwise Operators».

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0201/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode<2>,  Next: List Comprehensions,  Prev: New Development Process,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.4 Unicode
--------------

The largest new feature in Python 2.0 is a new fundamental data type:
Unicode strings.  Unicode uses 16-bit numbers to represent characters
instead of the 8-bit number used by ASCII, meaning that 65,536 distinct
characters can be supported.

The final interface for Unicode support was arrived at through countless
often-stormy discussions on the python-dev mailing list, and mostly
implemented by Marc-André Lemburg, based on a Unicode string type
implementation by Fredrik Lundh.  A detailed explanation of the
interface was written up as PEP 100(1), «Python Unicode Integration».
This article will simply cover the most significant points about the
Unicode interfaces.

In Python source code, Unicode strings are written as ‘u"string"’.
Arbitrary Unicode characters can be written using a new escape sequence,
‘\uHHHH’, where 'HHHH' is a 4-digit hexadecimal number from 0000 to
FFFF.  The existing ‘\xHH’ escape sequence can also be used, and octal
escapes can be used for characters up to U+01FF, which is represented by
‘\777’.

Unicode strings, just like regular strings, are an immutable sequence
type.  They can be indexed and sliced, but not modified in place.
Unicode strings have an ‘encode( [encoding] )’ method that returns an
8-bit string in the desired encoding.  Encodings are named by strings,
such as ‘'ascii'’, ‘'utf-8'’, ‘'iso-8859-1'’, or whatever.  A codec API
is defined for implementing and registering new encodings that are then
available throughout a Python program.  If an encoding isn’t specified,
the default encoding is usually 7-bit ASCII, though it can be changed
for your Python installation by calling the
‘sys.setdefaultencoding(encoding)’ function in a customized version of
‘site.py’.

Combining 8-bit and Unicode strings always coerces to Unicode, using the
default ASCII encoding; the result of ‘'a' + u'bc'’ is ‘u'abc'’.

New built-in functions have been added, and existing built-ins modified
to support Unicode:

   * ‘unichr(ch)’ returns a Unicode string 1 character long, containing
     the character 'ch'.

   * ‘ord(u)’, where 'u' is a 1-character regular or Unicode string,
     returns the number of the character as an integer.

   * ‘unicode(string [, encoding] [, errors] )’ creates a Unicode string
     from an 8-bit string.  ‘encoding’ is a string naming the encoding
     to use.  The ‘errors’ parameter specifies the treatment of
     characters that are invalid for the current encoding; passing
     ‘'strict'’ as the value causes an exception to be raised on any
     encoding error, while ‘'ignore'’ causes errors to be silently
     ignored and ‘'replace'’ uses U+FFFD, the official replacement
     character, in case of any problems.

   * The ‘exec’ statement, and various built-ins such as ‘eval()’,
     ‘getattr()’, and ‘setattr()’ will also accept Unicode strings as
     well as regular strings.  (It’s possible that the process of fixing
     this missed some built-ins; if you find a built-in function that
     accepts strings but doesn’t accept Unicode strings at all, please
     report it as a bug.)

A new module, *note unicodedata: 10e, provides an interface to Unicode
character properties.  For example, ‘unicodedata.category(u'A')’ returns
the 2-character string “Lu”, the “L” denoting it’s a letter, and “u”
meaning that it’s uppercase.  ‘unicodedata.bidirectional(u'\u0660')’
returns “AN”, meaning that U+0660 is an Arabic number.

The *note codecs: 1c. module contains functions to look up existing
encodings and register new ones.  Unless you want to implement a new
encoding, you’ll most often use the ‘codecs.lookup(encoding)’ function,
which returns a 4-element tuple: ‘(encode_func, decode_func,
stream_reader, stream_writer)’.

   * 'encode_func' is a function that takes a Unicode string, and
     returns a 2-tuple ‘(string, length)’.  'string' is an 8-bit string
     containing a portion (perhaps all) of the Unicode string converted
     into the given encoding, and 'length' tells you how much of the
     Unicode string was converted.

   * 'decode_func' is the opposite of 'encode_func', taking an 8-bit
     string and returning a 2-tuple ‘(ustring, length)’, consisting of
     the resulting Unicode string 'ustring' and the integer 'length'
     telling how much of the 8-bit string was consumed.

   * 'stream_reader' is a class that supports decoding input from a
     stream.  'stream_reader(file_obj)' returns an object that supports
     the ‘read()’, ‘readline()’, and ‘readlines()’ methods.  These
     methods will all translate from the given encoding and return
     Unicode strings.

   * 'stream_writer', similarly, is a class that supports encoding
     output to a stream.  'stream_writer(file_obj)' returns an object
     that supports the ‘write()’ and ‘writelines()’ methods.  These
     methods expect Unicode strings, translating them to the given
     encoding on output.

For example, the following code writes a Unicode string into a file,
encoding it as UTF-8:

     import codecs

     unistr = u'\u0660\u2000ab ...'

     (UTF8_encode, UTF8_decode,
      UTF8_streamreader, UTF8_streamwriter) = codecs.lookup('UTF-8')

     output = UTF8_streamwriter( open( '/tmp/output', 'wb') )
     output.write( unistr )
     output.close()

The following code would then read UTF-8 input from the file:

     input = UTF8_streamreader( open( '/tmp/output', 'rb') )
     print repr(input.read())
     input.close()

Unicode-aware regular expressions are available through the *note re:
c1. module, which has a new underlying implementation called SRE written
by Fredrik Lundh of Secret Labs AB.

A ‘-U’ command line option was added which causes the Python compiler to
interpret all string literals as Unicode string literals.  This is
intended to be used in testing and future-proofing your Python code,
since some future version of Python may drop support for 8-bit strings
and provide only Unicode strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0100/


File: python.info,  Node: List Comprehensions,  Next: Augmented Assignment,  Prev: Unicode<2>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.5 List Comprehensions
--------------------------

Lists are a workhorse data type in Python, and many programs manipulate
a list at some point.  Two common operations on lists are to loop over
them, and either pick out the elements that meet a certain criterion, or
apply some function to each element.  For example, given a list of
strings, you might want to pull out all the strings containing a given
substring, or strip off trailing whitespace from each line.

The existing *note map(): 43e. and *note filter(): c3b. functions can be
used for this purpose, but they require a function as one of their
arguments.  This is fine if there’s an existing built-in function that
can be passed directly, but if there isn’t, you have to create a little
function to do the required work, and Python’s scoping rules make the
result ugly if the little function needs additional information.  Take
the first example in the previous paragraph, finding all the strings in
the list containing a given substring.  You could write the following to
do it:

     # Given the list L, make a list of all strings
     # containing the substring S.
     sublist = filter( lambda s, substring=S:
                          string.find(s, substring) != -1,
                       L)

Because of Python’s scoping rules, a default argument is used so that
the anonymous function created by the *note lambda: 1642. expression
knows what substring is being searched for.  List comprehensions make
this cleaner:

     sublist = [ s for s in L if string.find(s, S) != -1 ]

List comprehensions have the form:

     [ expression for expr in sequence1
                  for expr2 in sequence2 ...
                  for exprN in sequenceN
                  if condition ]

The ‘for’…‘in’ clauses contain the sequences to be iterated over.  The
sequences do not have to be the same length, because they are 'not'
iterated over in parallel, but from left to right; this is explained
more clearly in the following paragraphs.  The elements of the generated
list will be the successive values of 'expression'.  The final ‘if’
clause is optional; if present, 'expression' is only evaluated and added
to the result if 'condition' is true.

To make the semantics very clear, a list comprehension is equivalent to
the following Python code:

     for expr1 in sequence1:
         for expr2 in sequence2:
         ...
             for exprN in sequenceN:
                  if (condition):
                       # Append the value of
                       # the expression to the
                       # resulting list.

This means that when there are multiple ‘for’…‘in’ clauses, the
resulting list will be equal to the product of the lengths of all the
sequences.  If you have two lists of length 3, the output list is 9
elements long:

     seq1 = 'abc'
     seq2 = (1,2,3)
     >>> [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3), ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3), ('c', 1),
     ('c', 2), ('c', 3)]

To avoid introducing an ambiguity into Python’s grammar, if 'expression'
is creating a tuple, it must be surrounded with parentheses.  The first
list comprehension below is a syntax error, while the second one is
correct:

     # Syntax error
     [ x,y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     # Correct
     [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]

The idea of list comprehensions originally comes from the functional
programming language Haskell (‘https://www.haskell.org’).  Greg Ewing
argued most effectively for adding them to Python and wrote the initial
list comprehension patch, which was then discussed for a seemingly
endless time on the python-dev mailing list and kept up-to-date by Skip
Montanaro.


File: python.info,  Node: Augmented Assignment,  Next: String Methods,  Prev: List Comprehensions,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.6 Augmented Assignment
---------------------------

Augmented assignment operators, another long-requested feature, have
been added to Python 2.0.  Augmented assignment operators include ‘+=’,
‘-=’, ‘*=’, and so forth.  For example, the statement ‘a += 2’
increments the value of the variable ‘a’ by 2, equivalent to the
slightly lengthier ‘a = a + 2’.

The full list of supported assignment operators is ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘*=’,
‘/=’, ‘%=’, ‘**=’, ‘&=’, ‘|=’, ‘^=’, ‘>>=’, and ‘<<=’.  Python classes
can override the augmented assignment operators by defining methods
named ‘__iadd__()’, ‘__isub__()’, etc.  For example, the following
‘Number’ class stores a number and supports using += to create a new
instance with an incremented value.

     class Number:
         def __init__(self, value):
             self.value = value
         def __iadd__(self, increment):
             return Number( self.value + increment)

     n = Number(5)
     n += 3
     print n.value

The ‘__iadd__()’ special method is called with the value of the
increment, and should return a new instance with an appropriately
modified value; this return value is bound as the new value of the
variable on the left-hand side.

Augmented assignment operators were first introduced in the C
programming language, and most C-derived languages, such as ‘awk’, C++,
Java, Perl, and PHP also support them.  The augmented assignment patch
was implemented by Thomas Wouters.


File: python.info,  Node: String Methods,  Next: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Prev: Augmented Assignment,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.7 String Methods
---------------------

Until now string-manipulation functionality was in the *note string: db.
module, which was usually a front-end for the ‘strop’ module written in
C. The addition of Unicode posed a difficulty for the ‘strop’ module,
because the functions would all need to be rewritten in order to accept
either 8-bit or Unicode strings.  For functions such as
‘string.replace()’, which takes 3 string arguments, that means eight
possible permutations, and correspondingly complicated code.

Instead, Python 2.0 pushes the problem onto the string type, making
string manipulation functionality available through methods on both
8-bit strings and Unicode strings.

     >>> 'andrew'.capitalize()
     'Andrew'
     >>> 'hostname'.replace('os', 'linux')
     'hlinuxtname'
     >>> 'moshe'.find('sh')
     2

One thing that hasn’t changed, a noteworthy April Fools” joke
notwithstanding, is that Python strings are immutable.  Thus, the string
methods return new strings, and do not modify the string on which they
operate.

The old *note string: db. module is still around for backwards
compatibility, but it mostly acts as a front-end to the new string
methods.

Two methods which have no parallel in pre-2.0 versions, although they
did exist in JPython for quite some time, are ‘startswith()’ and
‘endswith()’.  ‘s.startswith(t)’ is equivalent to ‘s[:len(t)] == t’,
while ‘s.endswith(t)’ is equivalent to ‘s[-len(t):] == t’.

One other method which deserves special mention is ‘join()’.  The
‘join()’ method of a string receives one parameter, a sequence of
strings, and is equivalent to the ‘string.join()’ function from the old
*note string: db. module, with the arguments reversed.  In other words,
‘s.join(seq)’ is equivalent to the old ‘string.join(seq, s)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Next: Other Core Changes,  Prev: String Methods,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.8 Garbage Collection of Cycles
-----------------------------------

The C implementation of Python uses reference counting to implement
garbage collection.  Every Python object maintains a count of the number
of references pointing to itself, and adjusts the count as references
are created or destroyed.  Once the reference count reaches zero, the
object is no longer accessible, since you need to have a reference to an
object to access it, and if the count is zero, no references exist any
longer.

Reference counting has some pleasant properties: it’s easy to understand
and implement, and the resulting implementation is portable, fairly
fast, and reacts well with other libraries that implement their own
memory handling schemes.  The major problem with reference counting is
that it sometimes doesn’t realise that objects are no longer accessible,
resulting in a memory leak.  This happens when there are cycles of
references.

Consider the simplest possible cycle, a class instance which has a
reference to itself:

     instance = SomeClass()
     instance.myself = instance

After the above two lines of code have been executed, the reference
count of ‘instance’ is 2; one reference is from the variable named
‘'instance'’, and the other is from the ‘myself’ attribute of the
instance.

If the next line of code is ‘del instance’, what happens?  The reference
count of ‘instance’ is decreased by 1, so it has a reference count of 1;
the reference in the ‘myself’ attribute still exists.  Yet the instance
is no longer accessible through Python code, and it could be deleted.
Several objects can participate in a cycle if they have references to
each other, causing all of the objects to be leaked.

Python 2.0 fixes this problem by periodically executing a cycle
detection algorithm which looks for inaccessible cycles and deletes the
objects involved.  A new *note gc: 63. module provides functions to
perform a garbage collection, obtain debugging statistics, and tuning
the collector’s parameters.

Running the cycle detection algorithm takes some time, and therefore
will result in some additional overhead.  It is hoped that after we’ve
gotten experience with the cycle collection from using 2.0, Python 2.1
will be able to minimize the overhead with careful tuning.  It’s not yet
obvious how much performance is lost, because benchmarking this is
tricky and depends crucially on how often the program creates and
destroys objects.  The detection of cycles can be disabled when Python
is compiled, if you can’t afford even a tiny speed penalty or suspect
that the cycle collection is buggy, by specifying the
‘--without-cycle-gc’ switch when running the ‘configure’ script.

Several people tackled this problem and contributed to a solution.  An
early implementation of the cycle detection approach was written by Toby
Kelsey.  The current algorithm was suggested by Eric Tiedemann during a
visit to CNRI, and Guido van Rossum and Neil Schemenauer wrote two
different implementations, which were later integrated by Neil.  Lots of
other people offered suggestions along the way; the March 2000 archives
of the python-dev mailing list contain most of the relevant discussion,
especially in the threads titled «Reference cycle collection for Python»
and «Finalization again».


File: python.info,  Node: Other Core Changes,  Next: Porting to 2 0,  Prev: Garbage Collection of Cycles,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.9 Other Core Changes
-------------------------

Various minor changes have been made to Python’s syntax and built-in
functions.  None of the changes are very far-reaching, but they’re handy
conveniences.

* Menu:

* Minor Language Changes::
* Changes to Built-in Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Minor Language Changes,  Next: Changes to Built-in Functions,  Up: Other Core Changes

1.25.9.1 Minor Language Changes
...............................

A new syntax makes it more convenient to call a given function with a
tuple of arguments and/or a dictionary of keyword arguments.  In Python
1.5 and earlier, you’d use the ‘apply()’ built-in function: ‘apply(f,
args, kw)’ calls the function ‘f()’ with the argument tuple 'args' and
the keyword arguments in the dictionary 'kw'.  ‘apply()’ is the same in
2.0, but thanks to a patch from Greg Ewing, ‘f(*args, **kw)’ is a
shorter and clearer way to achieve the same effect.  This syntax is
symmetrical with the syntax for defining functions:

     def f(*args, **kw):
         # args is a tuple of positional args,
         # kw is a dictionary of keyword args
         ...

The ‘print’ statement can now have its output directed to a file-like
object by following the ‘print’ with ‘>> file’, similar to the
redirection operator in Unix shells.  Previously you’d either have to
use the ‘write()’ method of the file-like object, which lacks the
convenience and simplicity of ‘print’, or you could assign a new value
to ‘sys.stdout’ and then restore the old value.  For sending output to
standard error, it’s much easier to write this:

     print >> sys.stderr, "Warning: action field not supplied"

Modules can now be renamed on importing them, using the syntax ‘import
module as name’ or ‘from module import name as othername’.  The patch
was submitted by Thomas Wouters.

A new format style is available when using the ‘%’ operator; “%r” will
insert the *note repr(): 45b. of its argument.  This was also added from
symmetry considerations, this time for symmetry with the existing “%s”
format style, which inserts the *note str(): 1df. of its argument.  For
example, ‘'%r %s' % ('abc', 'abc')’ returns a string containing ‘'abc'
abc’.

Previously there was no way to implement a class that overrode Python’s
built-in *note in: 323. operator and implemented a custom version.  ‘obj
in seq’ returns true if 'obj' is present in the sequence 'seq'; Python
computes this by simply trying every index of the sequence until either
'obj' is found or an *note IndexError: 18d7. is encountered.  Moshe
Zadka contributed a patch which adds a ‘__contains__()’ magic method for
providing a custom implementation for ‘in’.  Additionally, new built-in
objects written in C can define what ‘in’ means for them via a new slot
in the sequence protocol.

Earlier versions of Python used a recursive algorithm for deleting
objects.  Deeply nested data structures could cause the interpreter to
fill up the C stack and crash; Christian Tismer rewrote the deletion
logic to fix this problem.  On a related note, comparing recursive
objects recursed infinitely and crashed; Jeremy Hylton rewrote the code
to no longer crash, producing a useful result instead.  For example,
after this code:

     a = []
     b = []
     a.append(a)
     b.append(b)

The comparison ‘a==b’ returns true, because the two recursive data
structures are isomorphic.  See the thread «trashcan and PR#7» in the
April 2000 archives of the python-dev mailing list for the discussion
leading up to this implementation, and some useful relevant links.  Note
that comparisons can now also raise exceptions.  In earlier versions of
Python, a comparison operation such as ‘cmp(a,b)’ would always produce
an answer, even if a user-defined ‘__cmp__()’ method encountered an
error, since the resulting exception would simply be silently swallowed.

Work has been done on porting Python to 64-bit Windows on the Itanium
processor, mostly by Trent Mick of ActiveState.  (Confusingly,
‘sys.platform’ is still ‘'win32'’ on Win64 because it seems that for
ease of porting, MS Visual C++ treats code as 32 bit on Itanium.)
PythonWin also supports Windows CE; see the Python CE page at
‘https://pythonce.sourceforge.net/’ for more information.

Another new platform is Darwin/MacOS X; initial support for it is in
Python 2.0.  Dynamic loading works, if you specify «configure –with-dyld
–with-suffix=.x».  Consult the README in the Python source distribution
for more instructions.

An attempt has been made to alleviate one of Python’s warts, the
often-confusing *note NameError: 665. exception when code refers to a
local variable before the variable has been assigned a value.  For
example, the following code raises an exception on the ‘print’ statement
in both 1.5.2 and 2.0; in 1.5.2 a ‘NameError’ exception is raised, while
2.0 raises a new *note UnboundLocalError: 18d8. exception.
‘UnboundLocalError’ is a subclass of ‘NameError’, so any existing code
that expects ‘NameError’ to be raised should still work.

     def f():
         print "i=",i
         i = i + 1
     f()

Two new exceptions, *note TabError: 950. and *note IndentationError:
b89, have been introduced.  They’re both subclasses of *note
SyntaxError: 17e, and are raised when Python code is found to be
improperly indented.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes to Built-in Functions,  Prev: Minor Language Changes,  Up: Other Core Changes

1.25.9.2 Changes to Built-in Functions
......................................

A new built-in, ‘zip(seq1, seq2, ...)’, has been added.  *note zip():
43f. returns a list of tuples where each tuple contains the i-th element
from each of the argument sequences.  The difference between ‘zip()’ and
‘map(None, seq1, seq2)’ is that *note map(): 43e. pads the sequences
with ‘None’ if the sequences aren’t all of the same length, while
‘zip()’ truncates the returned list to the length of the shortest
argument sequence.

The *note int(): 326. and ‘long()’ functions now accept an optional
«base» parameter when the first argument is a string.  ‘int('123', 10)’
returns 123, while ‘int('123', 16)’ returns 291.  ‘int(123, 16)’ raises
a *note TypeError: 291. exception with the message «can’t convert
non-string with explicit base».

A new variable holding more detailed version information has been added
to the *note sys: e2. module.  ‘sys.version_info’ is a tuple ‘(major,
minor, micro, level, serial)’ For example, in a hypothetical 2.0.1beta1,
‘sys.version_info’ would be ‘(2, 0, 1, 'beta', 1)’.  'level' is a string
such as ‘"alpha"’, ‘"beta"’, or ‘"final"’ for a final release.

Dictionaries have an odd new method, ‘setdefault(key, default)’, which
behaves similarly to the existing ‘get()’ method.  However, if the key
is missing, ‘setdefault()’ both returns the value of 'default' as
‘get()’ would do, and also inserts it into the dictionary as the value
for 'key'.  Thus, the following lines of code:

     if dict.has_key( key ): return dict[key]
     else:
         dict[key] = []
         return dict[key]

can be reduced to a single ‘return dict.setdefault(key, [])’ statement.

The interpreter sets a maximum recursion depth in order to catch runaway
recursion before filling the C stack and causing a core dump or GPF..
Previously this limit was fixed when you compiled Python, but in 2.0 the
maximum recursion depth can be read and modified using *note
sys.getrecursionlimit(): 8d4. and *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 8d3.
The default value is 1000, and a rough maximum value for a given
platform can be found by running a new script,
‘Misc/find_recursionlimit.py’.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting to 2 0,  Next: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Prev: Other Core Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.10 Porting to 2.0
----------------------

New Python releases try hard to be compatible with previous releases,
and the record has been pretty good.  However, some changes are
considered useful enough, usually because they fix initial design
decisions that turned out to be actively mistaken, that breaking
backward compatibility can’t always be avoided.  This section lists the
changes in Python 2.0 that may cause old Python code to break.

The change which will probably break the most code is tightening up the
arguments accepted by some methods.  Some methods would take multiple
arguments and treat them as a tuple, particularly various list methods
such as *note append(): aba. and *note insert(): 1541.  In earlier
versions of Python, if ‘L’ is a list, ‘L.append( 1,2 )’ appends the
tuple ‘(1,2)’ to the list.  In Python 2.0 this causes a *note TypeError:
291. exception to be raised, with the message: “append requires exactly
1 argument; 2 given”.  The fix is to simply add an extra set of
parentheses to pass both values as a tuple: ‘L.append( (1,2) )’.

The earlier versions of these methods were more forgiving because they
used an old function in Python’s C interface to parse their arguments;
2.0 modernizes them to use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1, the current
argument parsing function, which provides more helpful error messages
and treats multi-argument calls as errors.  If you absolutely must use
2.0 but can’t fix your code, you can edit ‘Objects/listobject.c’ and
define the preprocessor symbol ‘NO_STRICT_LIST_APPEND’ to preserve the
old behaviour; this isn’t recommended.

Some of the functions in the *note socket: d4. module are still
forgiving in this way.  For example, ‘socket.connect( ('hostname', 25)
)’ is the correct form, passing a tuple representing an IP address, but
‘socket.connect('hostname', 25)’ also works.  *note socket.connect_ex:
18db. and *note socket.bind: 18dc. are similarly easy-going.  2.0alpha1
tightened these functions up, but because the documentation actually
used the erroneous multiple argument form, many people wrote code which
would break with the stricter checking.  GvR backed out the changes in
the face of public reaction, so for the ‘socket’ module, the
documentation was fixed and the multiple argument form is simply marked
as deprecated; it 'will' be tightened up again in a future Python
version.

The ‘\x’ escape in string literals now takes exactly 2 hex digits.
Previously it would consume all the hex digits following the “x” and
take the lowest 8 bits of the result, so ‘\x123456’ was equivalent to
‘\x56’.

The *note AttributeError: 1a9. and *note NameError: 665. exceptions have
a more friendly error message, whose text will be something like ‘'Spam'
instance has no attribute 'eggs'’ or ‘name 'eggs' is not defined’.
Previously the error message was just the missing attribute name ‘eggs’,
and code written to take advantage of this fact will break in 2.0.

Some work has been done to make integers and long integers a bit more
interchangeable.  In 1.5.2, large-file support was added for Solaris, to
allow reading files larger than 2 GiB; this made the ‘tell()’ method of
file objects return a long integer instead of a regular integer.  Some
code would subtract two file offsets and attempt to use the result to
multiply a sequence or slice a string, but this raised a *note
TypeError: 291.  In 2.0, long integers can be used to multiply or slice
a sequence, and it’ll behave as you’d intuitively expect it to; ‘3L *
'abc'’ produces “abcabcabc”, and ‘(0,1,2,3)[2L:4L]’ produces (2,3).
Long integers can also be used in various contexts where previously only
integers were accepted, such as in the ‘seek()’ method of file objects,
and in the formats supported by the ‘%’ operator (‘%d’, ‘%i’, ‘%x’,
etc.).  For example, ‘"%d" % 2L**64’ will produce the string
‘18446744073709551616’.

The subtlest long integer change of all is that the *note str(): 1df. of
a long integer no longer has a trailing “L” character, though *note
repr(): 45b. still includes it.  The “L” annoyed many people who wanted
to print long integers that looked just like regular integers, since
they had to go out of their way to chop off the character.  This is no
longer a problem in 2.0, but code which does ‘str(longval)[:-1]’ and
assumes the “L” is there, will now lose the final digit.

Taking the *note repr(): 45b. of a float now uses a different formatting
precision than *note str(): 1df.  ‘repr()’ uses ‘%.17g’ format string
for C’s ‘sprintf()’, while ‘str()’ uses ‘%.12g’ as before.  The effect
is that ‘repr()’ may occasionally show more decimal places than ‘str()’,
for certain numbers.  For example, the number 8.1 can’t be represented
exactly in binary, so ‘repr(8.1)’ is ‘'8.0999999999999996'’, while
str(8.1) is ‘'8.1'’.

The ‘-X’ command-line option, which turned all standard exceptions into
strings instead of classes, has been removed; the standard exceptions
will now always be classes.  The ‘exceptions’ module containing the
standard exceptions was translated from Python to a built-in C module,
written by Barry Warsaw and Fredrik Lundh.


File: python.info,  Node: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Next: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Prev: Porting to 2 0,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.11 Extending/Embedding Changes
-----------------------------------

Some of the changes are under the covers, and will only be apparent to
people writing C extension modules or embedding a Python interpreter in
a larger application.  If you aren’t dealing with Python’s C API, you
can safely skip this section.

The version number of the Python C API was incremented, so C extensions
compiled for 1.5.2 must be recompiled in order to work with 2.0.  On
Windows, it’s not possible for Python 2.0 to import a third party
extension built for Python 1.5.x due to how Windows DLLs work, so Python
will raise an exception and the import will fail.

Users of Jim Fulton’s ExtensionClass module will be pleased to find out
that hooks have been added so that ExtensionClasses are now supported by
*note isinstance(): 2ef. and *note issubclass(): 2f0.  This means you no
longer have to remember to write code such as ‘if type(obj) ==
myExtensionClass’, but can use the more natural ‘if isinstance(obj,
myExtensionClass)’.

The ‘Python/importdl.c’ file, which was a mass of #ifdefs to support
dynamic loading on many different platforms, was cleaned up and
reorganised by Greg Stein.  ‘importdl.c’ is now quite small, and
platform-specific code has been moved into a bunch of
‘Python/dynload_*.c’ files.  Another cleanup: there were also a number
of ‘my*.h’ files in the Include/ directory that held various portability
hacks; they’ve been merged into a single file, ‘Include/pyport.h’.

Vladimir Marangozov’s long-awaited malloc restructuring was completed,
to make it easy to have the Python interpreter use a custom allocator
instead of C’s standard ‘malloc()’.  For documentation, read the
comments in ‘Include/pymem.h’ and ‘Include/objimpl.h’.  For the lengthy
discussions during which the interface was hammered out, see the web
archives of the “patches” and “python-dev” lists at python.org.

Recent versions of the GUSI development environment for MacOS support
POSIX threads.  Therefore, Python’s POSIX threading support now works on
the Macintosh.  Threading support using the user-space GNU ‘pth’ library
was also contributed.

Threading support on Windows was enhanced, too.  Windows supports thread
locks that use kernel objects only in case of contention; in the common
case when there’s no contention, they use simpler functions which are an
order of magnitude faster.  A threaded version of Python 1.5.2 on NT is
twice as slow as an unthreaded version; with the 2.0 changes, the
difference is only 10%.  These improvements were contributed by Yakov
Markovitch.

Python 2.0’s source now uses only ANSI C prototypes, so compiling Python
now requires an ANSI C compiler, and can no longer be done using a
compiler that only supports K&R C.

Previously the Python virtual machine used 16-bit numbers in its
bytecode, limiting the size of source files.  In particular, this
affected the maximum size of literal lists and dictionaries in Python
source; occasionally people who are generating Python code would run
into this limit.  A patch by Charles G. Waldman raises the limit from
‘2**16’ to ‘2**32’.

Three new convenience functions intended for adding constants to a
module’s dictionary at module initialization time were added: *note
PyModule_AddObject(): 801, *note PyModule_AddIntConstant(): 18de, and
*note PyModule_AddStringConstant(): 18df.  Each of these functions takes
a module object, a null-terminated C string containing the name to be
added, and a third argument for the value to be assigned to the name.
This third argument is, respectively, a Python object, a C long, or a C
string.

A wrapper API was added for Unix-style signal handlers.  *note
PyOS_getsig(): 18e0. gets a signal handler and *note PyOS_setsig():
18e1. will set a new handler.


File: python.info,  Node: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Next: XML Modules,  Prev: Extending/Embedding Changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.12 Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
-------------------------------------------------

Before Python 2.0, installing modules was a tedious affair – there was
no way to figure out automatically where Python is installed, or what
compiler options to use for extension modules.  Software authors had to
go through an arduous ritual of editing Makefiles and configuration
files, which only really work on Unix and leave Windows and MacOS
unsupported.  Python users faced wildly differing installation
instructions which varied between different extension packages, which
made administering a Python installation something of a chore.

The SIG for distribution utilities, shepherded by Greg Ward, has created
the Distutils, a system to make package installation much easier.  They
form the ‘distutils’ package, a new part of Python’s standard library.
In the best case, installing a Python module from source will require
the same steps: first you simply mean unpack the tarball or zip archive,
and the run «‘python setup.py install’».  The platform will be
automatically detected, the compiler will be recognized, C extension
modules will be compiled, and the distribution installed into the proper
directory.  Optional command-line arguments provide more control over
the installation process, the distutils package offers many places to
override defaults – separating the build from the install, building or
installing in non-default directories, and more.

In order to use the Distutils, you need to write a ‘setup.py’ script.
For the simple case, when the software contains only .py files, a
minimal ‘setup.py’ can be just a few lines long:

     from distutils.core import setup
     setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
            py_modules = ["module1", "module2"])

The ‘setup.py’ file isn’t much more complicated if the software consists
of a few packages:

     from distutils.core import setup
     setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0",
            packages = ["package", "package.subpackage"])

A C extension can be the most complicated case; here’s an example taken
from the PyXML package:

     from distutils.core import setup, Extension

     expat_extension = Extension('xml.parsers.pyexpat',
          define_macros = [('XML_NS', None)],
          include_dirs = [ 'extensions/expat/xmltok',
                           'extensions/expat/xmlparse' ],
          sources = [ 'extensions/pyexpat.c',
                      'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmltok.c',
                      'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmlrole.c', ]
            )
     setup (name = "PyXML", version = "0.5.4",
            ext_modules =[ expat_extension ] )

The Distutils can also take care of creating source and binary
distributions.  The «sdist» command, run by «‘python setup.py sdist’”,
builds a source distribution such as ‘foo-1.0.tar.gz’.  Adding new
commands isn’t difficult, «bdist_rpm» and «bdist_wininst» commands have
already been contributed to create an RPM distribution and a Windows
installer for the software, respectively.  Commands to create other
distribution formats such as Debian packages and Solaris ‘.pkg’ files
are in various stages of development.

All this is documented in a new manual, 'Distributing Python Modules',
that joins the basic set of Python documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: XML Modules,  Next: Module changes,  Prev: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.13 XML Modules
-------------------

Python 1.5.2 included a simple XML parser in the form of the ‘xmllib’
module, contributed by Sjoerd Mullender.  Since 1.5.2’s release, two
different interfaces for processing XML have become common: SAX2
(version 2 of the Simple API for XML) provides an event-driven interface
with some similarities to ‘xmllib’, and the DOM (Document Object Model)
provides a tree-based interface, transforming an XML document into a
tree of nodes that can be traversed and modified.  Python 2.0 includes a
SAX2 interface and a stripped-down DOM interface as part of the *note
xml: 129. package.  Here we will give a brief overview of these new
interfaces; consult the Python documentation or the source code for
complete details.  The Python XML SIG is also working on improved
documentation.

* Menu:

* SAX2 Support::
* DOM Support::
* Relationship to PyXML::


File: python.info,  Node: SAX2 Support,  Next: DOM Support,  Up: XML Modules

1.25.13.1 SAX2 Support
......................

SAX defines an event-driven interface for parsing XML. To use SAX, you
must write a SAX handler class.  Handler classes inherit from various
classes provided by SAX, and override various methods that will then be
called by the XML parser.  For example, the *note startElement(): 18e5.
and *note endElement(): 18e6. methods are called for every starting and
end tag encountered by the parser, the *note characters(): 18e7. method
is called for every chunk of character data, and so forth.

The advantage of the event-driven approach is that the whole document
doesn’t have to be resident in memory at any one time, which matters if
you are processing really huge documents.  However, writing the SAX
handler class can get very complicated if you’re trying to modify the
document structure in some elaborate way.

For example, this little example program defines a handler that prints a
message for every starting and ending tag, and then parses the file
‘hamlet.xml’ using it:

     from xml import sax

     class SimpleHandler(sax.ContentHandler):
         def startElement(self, name, attrs):
             print 'Start of element:', name, attrs.keys()

         def endElement(self, name):
             print 'End of element:', name

     # Create a parser object
     parser = sax.make_parser()

     # Tell it what handler to use
     handler = SimpleHandler()
     parser.setContentHandler( handler )

     # Parse a file!
     parser.parse( 'hamlet.xml' )

For more information, consult the Python documentation, or the XML HOWTO
at ‘https://pyxml.sourceforge.net/topics/howto/xml-howto.html’.


File: python.info,  Node: DOM Support,  Next: Relationship to PyXML,  Prev: SAX2 Support,  Up: XML Modules

1.25.13.2 DOM Support
.....................

The Document Object Model is a tree-based representation for an XML
document.  A top-level ‘Document’ instance is the root of the tree, and
has a single child which is the top-level ‘Element’ instance.  This
‘Element’ has children nodes representing character data and any
sub-elements, which may have further children of their own, and so
forth.  Using the DOM you can traverse the resulting tree any way you
like, access element and attribute values, insert and delete nodes, and
convert the tree back into XML.

The DOM is useful for modifying XML documents, because you can create a
DOM tree, modify it by adding new nodes or rearranging subtrees, and
then produce a new XML document as output.  You can also construct a DOM
tree manually and convert it to XML, which can be a more flexible way of
producing XML output than simply writing ‘<tag1>’…‘</tag1>’ to a file.

The DOM implementation included with Python lives in the *note
xml.dom.minidom: 12b. module.  It’s a lightweight implementation of the
Level 1 DOM with support for XML namespaces.  The ‘parse()’ and
‘parseString()’ convenience functions are provided for generating a DOM
tree:

     from xml.dom import minidom
     doc = minidom.parse('hamlet.xml')

‘doc’ is a ‘Document’ instance.  ‘Document’, like all the other DOM
classes such as ‘Element’ and ‘Text’, is a subclass of the ‘Node’ base
class.  All the nodes in a DOM tree therefore support certain common
methods, such as ‘toxml()’ which returns a string containing the XML
representation of the node and its children.  Each class also has
special methods of its own; for example, ‘Element’ and ‘Document’
instances have a method to find all child elements with a given tag
name.  Continuing from the previous 2-line example:

     perslist = doc.getElementsByTagName( 'PERSONA' )
     print perslist[0].toxml()
     print perslist[1].toxml()

For the 'Hamlet' XML file, the above few lines output:

     <PERSONA>CLAUDIUS, king of Denmark. </PERSONA>
     <PERSONA>HAMLET, son to the late, and nephew to the present king.</PERSONA>

The root element of the document is available as ‘doc.documentElement’,
and its children can be easily modified by deleting, adding, or removing
nodes:

     root = doc.documentElement

     # Remove the first child
     root.removeChild( root.childNodes[0] )

     # Move the new first child to the end
     root.appendChild( root.childNodes[0] )

     # Insert the new first child (originally,
     # the third child) before the 20th child.
     root.insertBefore( root.childNodes[0], root.childNodes[20] )

Again, I will refer you to the Python documentation for a complete
listing of the different ‘Node’ classes and their various methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Relationship to PyXML,  Prev: DOM Support,  Up: XML Modules

1.25.13.3 Relationship to PyXML
...............................

The XML Special Interest Group has been working on XML-related Python
code for a while.  Its code distribution, called PyXML, is available
from the SIG’s web pages at
‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/xml-sig’.  The PyXML
distribution also used the package name ‘xml’.  If you’ve written
programs that used PyXML, you’re probably wondering about its
compatibility with the 2.0 *note xml: 129. package.

The answer is that Python 2.0’s *note xml: 129. package isn’t compatible
with PyXML, but can be made compatible by installing a recent version
PyXML. Many applications can get by with the XML support that is
included with Python 2.0, but more complicated applications will require
that the full PyXML package will be installed.  When installed, PyXML
versions 0.6.0 or greater will replace the ‘xml’ package shipped with
Python, and will be a strict superset of the standard package, adding a
bunch of additional features.  Some of the additional features in PyXML
include:

   * 4DOM, a full DOM implementation from FourThought, Inc.

   * The xmlproc validating parser, written by Lars Marius Garshol.

   * The ‘sgmlop’ parser accelerator module, written by Fredrik Lundh.


File: python.info,  Node: Module changes,  Next: New modules<4>,  Prev: XML Modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.14 Module changes
----------------------

Lots of improvements and bugfixes were made to Python’s extensive
standard library; some of the affected modules include *note readline:
c2, *note ConfigParser: 26, ‘cgi’, *note calendar: 15, *note posix: b2,
‘readline’, ‘xmllib’, ‘aifc’, ‘chunk’, *note wave: 11c, *note random:
c0, *note shelve: cb, and ‘nntplib’.  Consult the CVS logs for the exact
patch-by-patch details.

Brian Gallew contributed OpenSSL support for the *note socket: d4.
module.  OpenSSL is an implementation of the Secure Socket Layer, which
encrypts the data being sent over a socket.  When compiling Python, you
can edit ‘Modules/Setup’ to include SSL support, which adds an
additional function to the ‘socket’ module: ‘socket.ssl(socket, keyfile,
certfile)’, which takes a socket object and returns an SSL socket.  The
*note httplib: 71. and *note urllib: 111. modules were also changed to
support ‘https://’ URLs, though no one has implemented FTP or SMTP over
SSL.

The *note httplib: 71. module has been rewritten by Greg Stein to
support HTTP/1.1.

Backward compatibility with the 1.5 version of ‘httplib’ is provided,
though using HTTP/1.1 features such as pipelining will require rewriting
code to use a different set of interfaces.

The ‘Tkinter’ module now supports Tcl/Tk version 8.1, 8.2, or 8.3, and
support for the older 7.x versions has been dropped.  The Tkinter module
now supports displaying Unicode strings in Tk widgets.  Also, Fredrik
Lundh contributed an optimization which makes operations like
‘create_line’ and ‘create_polygon’ much faster, especially when using
lots of coordinates.

The *note curses: 2e. module has been greatly extended, starting from
Oliver Andrich’s enhanced version, to provide many additional functions
from ncurses and SYSV curses, such as colour, alternative character set
support, pads, and mouse support.  This means the module is no longer
compatible with operating systems that only have BSD curses, but there
don’t seem to be any currently maintained OSes that fall into this
category.

As mentioned in the earlier discussion of 2.0’s Unicode support, the
underlying implementation of the regular expressions provided by the
*note re: c1. module has been changed.  SRE, a new regular expression
engine written by Fredrik Lundh and partially funded by Hewlett Packard,
supports matching against both 8-bit strings and Unicode strings.


File: python.info,  Node: New modules<4>,  Next: IDLE Improvements,  Prev: Module changes,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.15 New modules
-------------------

A number of new modules were added.  We’ll simply list them with brief
descriptions; consult the 2.0 documentation for the details of a
particular module.

   * *note atexit: d.: For registering functions to be called before the
     Python interpreter exits.  Code that currently sets ‘sys.exitfunc’
     directly should be changed to use the ‘atexit’ module instead,
     importing ‘atexit’ and calling *note atexit.register(): c54. with
     the function to be called on exit.  (Contributed by Skip
     Montanaro.)

   * *note codecs: 1c, ‘encodings’, *note unicodedata: 10e.: Added as
     part of the new Unicode support.

   * *note filecmp: 5d.: Supersedes the old ‘cmp’, ‘cmpcache’ and
     ‘dircmp’ modules, which have now become deprecated.  (Contributed
     by Gordon MacMillan and Moshe Zadka.)

   * *note gettext: 66.: This module provides internationalization
     (I18N) and localization (L10N) support for Python programs by
     providing an interface to the GNU gettext message catalog library.
     (Integrated by Barry Warsaw, from separate contributions by Martin
     von Löwis, Peter Funk, and James Henstridge.)

   * ‘linuxaudiodev’: Support for the ‘/dev/audio’ device on Linux, a
     twin to the existing ‘sunaudiodev’ module.  (Contributed by Peter
     Bosch, with fixes by Jeremy Hylton.)

   * *note mmap: 94.: An interface to memory-mapped files on both
     Windows and Unix.  A file’s contents can be mapped directly into
     memory, at which point it behaves like a mutable string, so its
     contents can be read and modified.  They can even be passed to
     functions that expect ordinary strings, such as the *note re: c1.
     module.  (Contributed by Sam Rushing, with some extensions by A.M.
     Kuchling.)

   * ‘pyexpat’: An interface to the Expat XML parser.  (Contributed by
     Paul Prescod.)

   * *note robotparser: 116.: Parse a ‘robots.txt’ file, which is used
     for writing web spiders that politely avoid certain areas of a web
     site.  The parser accepts the contents of a ‘robots.txt’ file,
     builds a set of rules from it, and can then answer questions about
     the fetchability of a given URL. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.)

   * *note tabnanny: e6.: A module/script to check Python source code
     for ambiguous indentation.  (Contributed by Tim Peters.)

   * ‘UserString’: A base class useful for deriving objects that behave
     like strings.

   * *note webbrowser: 11e.: A module that provides a platform
     independent way to launch a web browser on a specific URL. For each
     platform, various browsers are tried in a specific order.  The user
     can alter which browser is launched by setting the 'BROWSER'
     environment variable.  (Originally inspired by Eric S. Raymond’s
     patch to *note urllib: 111. which added similar functionality, but
     the final module comes from code originally implemented by Fred
     Drake as ‘Tools/idle/BrowserControl.py’, and adapted for the
     standard library by Fred.)

   * *note _winreg: 11f.: An interface to the Windows registry.
     ‘_winreg’ is an adaptation of functions that have been part of
     PythonWin since 1995, but has now been added to the core
     distribution, and enhanced to support Unicode.  ‘_winreg’ was
     written by Bill Tutt and Mark Hammond.

   * *note zipfile: 13a.: A module for reading and writing ZIP-format
     archives.  These are archives produced by ‘PKZIP’ on DOS/Windows or
     ‘zip’ on Unix, not to be confused with ‘gzip’-format files (which
     are supported by the *note gzip: 6a. module) (Contributed by James
     C. Ahlstrom.)

   * ‘imputil’: A module that provides a simpler way for writing
     customized import hooks, in comparison to the existing ‘ihooks’
     module.  (Implemented by Greg Stein, with much discussion on
     python-dev along the way.)


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE Improvements,  Next: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Prev: New modules<4>,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.16 IDLE Improvements
-------------------------

IDLE is the official Python cross-platform IDE, written using Tkinter.
Python 2.0 includes IDLE 0.6, which adds a number of new features and
improvements.  A partial list:

   * UI improvements and optimizations, especially in the area of syntax
     highlighting and auto-indentation.

   * The class browser now shows more information, such as the top level
     functions in a module.

   * Tab width is now a user settable option.  When opening an existing
     Python file, IDLE automatically detects the indentation
     conventions, and adapts.

   * There is now support for calling browsers on various platforms,
     used to open the Python documentation in a browser.

   * IDLE now has a command line, which is largely similar to the
     vanilla Python interpreter.

   * Call tips were added in many places.

   * IDLE can now be installed as a package.

   * In the editor window, there is now a line/column bar at the bottom.

   * Three new keystroke commands: Check module (‘Alt’-‘F5’), Import
     module (‘F5’) and Run script (‘Ctrl’-‘F5’).


File: python.info,  Node: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Next: Acknowledgements<8>,  Prev: IDLE Improvements,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.17 Deleted and Deprecated Modules
--------------------------------------

A few modules have been dropped because they’re obsolete, or because
there are now better ways to do the same thing.  The ‘stdwin’ module is
gone; it was for a platform-independent windowing toolkit that’s no
longer developed.

A number of modules have been moved to the ‘lib-old’ subdirectory:
‘cmp’, ‘cmpcache’, ‘dircmp’, ‘dump’, ‘find’, ‘grep’, ‘packmail’, ‘poly’,
‘util’, ‘whatsound’, ‘zmod’.  If you have code which relies on a module
that’s been moved to ‘lib-old’, you can simply add that directory to
‘sys.path’ to get them back, but you’re encouraged to update any code
that uses these modules.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<8>,  Prev: Deleted and Deprecated Modules,  Up: What’s New in Python 2 0

1.25.18 Acknowledgements
------------------------

The authors would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions on various drafts of this article: David Bolen, Mark
Hammond, Gregg Hauser, Jeremy Hylton, Fredrik Lundh, Detlef Lannert,
Aahz Maruch, Skip Montanaro, Vladimir Marangozov, Tobias Polzin, Guido
van Rossum, Neil Schemenauer, and Russ Schmidt.

Το «Changelog» είναι μια έκδοση σε HTML του file built(1) από τα
περιεχόμενα του Misc/NEWS.d(2) δέντρου καταλόγων, το οποίο περιέχει
'όλες' τις μη ασήμαντες αλλαγές στην Python για την τρέχουσα έκδοση.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/blurb/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Misc/NEWS.d


File: python.info,  Node: Changelog,  Prev: What’s New in Python 2 0,  Up: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python

1.26 Changelog
==============

* Menu:

* Python next::
* Python 3.15.0 beta 1: Python 3 15 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 8: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 7: Python 3 15 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 6: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 5: Python 3 15 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 4: Python 3 15 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 3: Python 3 15 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 2: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.15.0 alpha 1: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.14.0 beta 1: Python 3 14 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 7: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 6: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 5: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 4: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 3: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 2: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.14.0 alpha 1: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.13.0 beta 1: Python 3 13 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 6: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 5: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 4: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 3: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 2: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.13.0 alpha 1: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.12.0 beta 1: Python 3 12 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 7: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 6: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 5: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 4: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 3: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 2: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.12.0 alpha 1: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.11.0 beta 1: Python 3 11 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 7: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 6: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 5: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 4: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 3: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 2: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.11.0 alpha 1: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.10.0 beta 1: Python 3 10 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 7: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 6: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 5: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 4: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 3: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 2: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.10.0 alpha 1: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.9.0 beta 1: Python 3 9 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 6: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 5: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 4: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 3: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 2: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.9.0 alpha 1: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.8.0 beta 1: Python 3 8 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 4: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 3: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 2: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.8.0 alpha 1: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.7.0 final: Python 3 7 0 final.
* Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 5: Python 3 7 0 beta 5.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 4: Python 3 7 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 3: Python 3 7 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 2: Python 3 7 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.7.0 beta 1: Python 3 7 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 4: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 3: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 2: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.7.0 alpha 1: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.6.6 final: Python 3 6 6 final.
* Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.5 final: Python 3 6 5 final.
* Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.4 final: Python 3 6 4 final.
* Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.3 final: Python 3 6 3 final.
* Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.2 final: Python 3 6 2 final.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.1 final: Python 3 6 1 final.
* Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 final: Python 3 6 0 final.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 4: Python 3 6 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 3: Python 3 6 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 2: Python 3 6 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.6.0 beta 1: Python 3 6 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 4: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 3: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 2: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.6.0 alpha 1: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1.
* Python 3.5.5 final: Python 3 5 5 final.
* Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.4 final: Python 3 5 4 final.
* Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.3 final: Python 3 5 3 final.
* Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.2 final: Python 3 5 2 final.
* Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.1 final: Python 3 5 1 final.
* Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 final: Python 3 5 0 final.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2.
* Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 4: Python 3 5 0 beta 4.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 3: Python 3 5 0 beta 3.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 2: Python 3 5 0 beta 2.
* Python 3.5.0 beta 1: Python 3 5 0 beta 1.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 4: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 3: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 2: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2.
* Python 3.5.0 alpha 1: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1.


File: python.info,  Node: Python next,  Next: Python 3 15 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.1 Python next
------------------

'Release date: XXXX-XX-XX'

* Menu:

* Security::
* Library::
* Core and Builtins::


File: python.info,  Node: Security,  Next: Library,  Up: Python next

1.26.1.1 Security
.................

   - gh-149474(1): Fix the binary writer in *note profiling.sampling:
     b6. not firing the audit ( PEP 578(2)) when creating the output
     file.  The writer and the reader now accept any path-like object.
     Patch by Maurycy Pawłowski-Wieroński.

   - gh-149486(3): *note tarfile.data_filter(): 279. now validates link
     targets using the same normalised value that is written to disk,
     strips trailing separators from the member name when resolving a
     symlink’s directory, and rejects link members that would replace
     the destination directory itself.  This closes several
     path-traversal bypasses of the ‘data’ extraction filter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149474

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149486


File: python.info,  Node: Library,  Next: Core and Builtins,  Prev: Security,  Up: Python next

1.26.1.2 Library
................

   - gh-149436(1): Improve performance of *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 8a5.

   - gh-149537(2): Remove kw parameters from python version of *note
     functools.reduce(): 153. function.

   - gh-149530(3): Removed ‘symtable.Class.get_methods()’ which has been
     deprecated since 3.14.

   - gh-149528(4): Remove ‘annotationlib.ForwardRef._evaludate’
     deprecated method.

   - gh-149388(5): Make ‘asyncio.windows_utils.PipeHandle’ closing
     idempotent.

   - gh-149499(6): Removed the ‘sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars()’
     function which has been deprecated since Python 3.14.  Use the
     ‘vars’ argument of *note sysconfig.get_paths(): 156. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149436

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149537

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149530

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149528

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149388

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149499


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins,  Prev: Library,  Up: Python next

1.26.1.3 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-149459(1): Fix a crash in the JIT optimizer when a specialized
     ‘LOAD_SPECIAL’ guard deoptimized after inserting the synthetic
     ‘NULL’ stack entry.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149459


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 15 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8,  Prev: Python next,  Up: Changelog

1.26.2 Python 3.15.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2026-05-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<2>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<2>.
* Library: Library<2>.
* Documentation: Documentation<2>.
* Tests::
* Build::
* Windows::
* macOS::
* IDLE: IDLE<3>.
* C API::


File: python.info,  Node: Security<2>,  Next: Core and Builtins<2>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 beta 1

1.26.2.1 Security
.................

   - gh-149254(1): Update Android and iOS installer to use OpenSSL
     3.5.6.

   - gh-149017(2): Update bundled libexpat(3) to version 2.8.0.

   - gh-148252(4): Fixed string table and sample record bounds checks in
     ‘_remote_debugging’ when decoding certain ‘.pyb’ inputs on 32-bit
     builds.  Patch by Maurycy Pawłowski-Wieroński.

   - gh-90309(5): Base64-encode values when embedding cookies to
     JavaScript using the *note http.cookies.BaseCookie.js_output():
     2f5. method to avoid injection and escaping.

   - gh-148808(6): Added buffer boundary check when using ‘nbytes’
     parameter with ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.sock_recvfrom_into()’.
     Only relevant for Windows and the *note asyncio.ProactorEventLoop:
     9fe.

   - gh-148395(7): Fix a dangling input pointer in *note
     lzma.LZMADecompressor: 18f8, *note bz2.BZ2Decompressor: 18f9, and
     internal ‘zlib._ZlibDecompressor’ when memory allocation fails with
     *note MemoryError: 18fa, which could let a subsequent
     ‘decompress()’ call read or write through a stale pointer to the
     already-released caller buffer.

   - gh-148252(8): Fixed stack depth calculation in ‘_remote_debugging’
     when decoding certain ‘.pyb’ inputs on 32-bit builds.  Issue
     originally identified and diagnosed by Tristan Madani
     (@TristanInSec on GitHub).

   - gh-148178(9): Hardened ‘_remote_debugging’ by validating remote
     debug offset tables before using them to size memory reads or
     interpret remote layouts.

   - gh-148169(10): A bypass in *note webbrowser: 11e. allowed URLs
     prefixed with ‘%action’ to pass the dash-prefix safety check.

   - gh-146581(11): Fix vulnerability in *note shutil.unpack_archive():
     882. for ZIP files on Windows which allowed to write files outside
     of the destination tree if the patch in the archive contains a
     Windows drive prefix.  Now such invalid paths will be skipped.
     Files containing «..» in the name (like «foo..bar») are no longer
     skipped.

   - gh-137586(12): Fix a PATH-injection vulnerability in *note
     webbrowser: 11e. on macOS where ‘osascript’ was invoked without an
     absolute path.  The new ‘MacOS’ class uses ‘/usr/bin/open’
     directly, eliminating the dependency on ‘osascript’ entirely.

   - gh-146333(13): Fix quadratic backtracking in *note
     configparser.RawConfigParser: 130e. option parsing regexes
     (‘OPTCRE’ and ‘OPTCRE_NV’).  A crafted configuration line with many
     whitespace characters could cause excessive CPU usage.

   - gh-146211(14): Reject CR/LF characters in tunnel request headers
     for the HTTPConnection.set_tunnel() method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149254

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149017

   (3) https://libexpat.github.io/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148252

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90309

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148808

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148395

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148252

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148178

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148169

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146581

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137586

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146333

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146211


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<2>,  Next: Library<2>,  Prev: Security<2>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 beta 1

1.26.2.2 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-148940(1): Revert the process size based deferral of garbage
     collection (gh-133464(2)).  The performance issue this change
     resolves is also fixed by gh-142562(3).  This approach has the
     problem that process size as seen by the OS (e.g.  the resident
     size or RSS) does not immediately decrease after cyclic garbage is
     freed since mimalloc defers returning memory of the OS. This change
     applies to the free-threaded GC only.

   - gh-149243(4): Check for recursion limits in
     ‘CALL_ALLOC_AND_ENTER_INIT’ opcode.

   - gh-126910(5): Add support for unwinding JIT frames using GNU
     backtrace.  Patch by Diego Russo and Pablo Galindo

   - gh-149171(6): Allow assignment to the ‘__module__’ attribute of
     *note typing.TypeAliasType: 52a. instances.

   - gh-149122(7): Fix a crash in optimized calls to *note all(): 17c4,
     *note any(): 17c3, *note tuple(): 1ce, *note list(): 4d9, and *note
     set(): 42b. with an async generator expression argument (for
     example, ‘tuple(await x for x in y)’).  These calls now correctly
     raise ‘TypeError’ instead of crashing.

   - gh-149049(8): Fix stack underflow for ‘BINARY_OP’ in tier 2.

   - gh-83065(9): Fix a deadlock that could occur when one thread is
     importing a submodule (for example ‘import pkg.sub.mod’) while
     another thread is importing one of its parent packages (for example
     ‘import pkg.sub’) and that parent’s ‘__init__.py’ itself imports
     the submodule.  The import system now acquires module locks in
     hierarchical (parent-before-child) order so the two threads
     serialise instead of raising ‘_DeadlockError’.

   - gh-113956(10): Fix a data race in *note sys.intern(): 1680. in the
     free-threaded build when interning a string owned by another
     thread.  An interned copy owned by the current thread is used
     instead when it is not safe to immortalize the original.

   - gh-148850(11): Fix the memory sanitizer false positive in *note
     os.getrandom(): 107b.

   - gh-148820(12): Fix a race in ‘_PyRawMutex’ on the free-threaded
     build where a ‘Py_PARK_INTR’ return from ‘_PySemaphore_Wait’ could
     let the waiter destroy its semaphore before the unlocking thread’s
     ‘_PySemaphore_Wakeup’ completed, causing a fatal ‘ReleaseSemaphore’
     error.

   - gh-148829(13): Add *note sentinel: 18b, implementing PEP 661(14).
     PEP by Tal Einat; patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-146270(15): Fix a sequential consistency bug in
     ‘structmember.c’.

   - gh-148766(16): The interpreter help (such as ‘python --help’) is
     now in color.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-148571(17): Fix a crash in the JIT optimizer when specialized
     opcode families inherited incompatible recorded operand layouts.

   - gh-148653(18): Forbid *note marshalling: 90. recursive code
     objects, *note slice: 1d0. and *note frozendict: 182. objects which
     cannot be correctly unmarshalled.

   - gh-142516(19): Forward-port the generational cycle garbage
     collector to the default 3.15 build, replacing the incremental
     collector while leaving the free-threaded collector unchanged.

   - gh-146462(20): Added ‘PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize’,
     ‘PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset’, and ‘PyHeapTypeObject.ht_cached_keys’
     offsets to ‘_Py_DebugOffsets’ to support version-independent
     read-only dict introspection tools.

   - gh-145239(21): Unary plus is now accepted in *note match: 1d4.
     literal patterns, mirroring the existing support for unary minus.
     Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-148515(22): Fix a bug in the JIT optimizer reading operands for
     uops with multiple caches.

   - gh-148390(23): Fix an undefined behavior in *note memoryview: 1d2.
     when using the native boolean format (‘?’) in *note cast(): 18fc.
     Previously, on some common platforms, calling
     ‘memoryview(b).cast("?").tolist()’ incorrectly returned ‘[False]’
     instead of ‘[True]’ for any even byte 'b'.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-148418(24): Fix a possible reference leak in a corrupted
     ‘TYPE_CODE’ marshal stream.

   - gh-148393(25): Fix data races between *note PyDict_Watch(): 969. /
     *note PyDict_Unwatch(): 18fd. and concurrent dict mutation in the
     *note free-threaded build: 198.

   - gh-148398(26): Fix a bug in the JIT optimizer where class attribute
     loads were not invalidated after type mutation.

   - gh-146527(27): Add a ‘GCMonitor’ class with a ‘get_gc_stats’ method
     to the ‘_remote_debugging’ module to allow reading GC statistics
     from an external Python process without requiring the full
     ‘RemoteUnwinder’ functionality.  Patch by Sergey Miryanov and Pablo
     Galindo.

   - gh-148284(28): Fix high stack consumption in Python’s interpreter
     loop on Clang 22 by setting function limits for inlining when
     building with computed gotos.

   - gh-148037(29): Remove critical section from ‘PyCode_Addr2Line()’ in
     free-threading.

   - gh-115802(30): Improve JIT code generation on Linux AArch64 by
     reducing the indirect call to external symbols.  Patch by Diego
     Russo.

   - gh-148189(31): Repaired undercount of bytes in type-specific free
     lists reported by sys._debugmallocstats().  For types that
     participate in cyclic garbage collection, it was missing two
     pointers used by GC.

   - gh-148222(32): Fix vectorcall support in *note types.GenericAlias:
     bc7. when the underlying type does not support the vectorcall
     protocol.  Fix possible leaks in ‘types.GenericAlias’ and *note
     types.UnionType: 527. in case of memory error.

   - gh-148208(33): Fix recursion depth leak in *note PyObject_Print():
     18fe.

   - gh-95004(34): The specializing interpreter now specializes for
     *note enum.Enum: a21. improving performance and scaling in
     free-threading.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-149202(35): Enable frame pointers by default for GCC-compatible
     CPython builds, including ‘-mno-omit-leaf-frame-pointer’, ‘-marm’
     on 32-bit ARM, and/or ‘-mbackchain’ on s390x platforms when the
     compiler supports them, so profilers and debuggers can unwind
     native interpreter frames more reliably.  Users can pass *note
     -without-frame-pointers: 3dd. to ‘./configure’ to opt out.

   - gh-148014(36): Accept a function name in *note -X presite: 178.
     command line option and *note PYTHON_PRESITE: 18ff. environment
     variable.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-147998(37): Fixed a memory leak in interpreter helper calls so
     cleanup works when an operation falls across interpreter
     boundaries.  Patch by Maurycy Pawłowski-Wieroński.

   - gh-146455(38): Fix O(N²) compile-time regression in constant
     folding after it was moved from AST to CFG optimizer.

   - gh-146306(39): Specialize float true division in the tier 2
     optimizer with inplace mutation for uniquely-referenced operands.

   - gh-142186(40): Global *note sys.monitoring: e3. events can now be
     turned on and disabled on a per code object basis.  Returning
     ‘DISABLE’ from a callback disables the event for the entire code
     object (for the current tool).

   - gh-126910(41): Add support for unwinding JIT frames using GDB.
     Patch by Diego Russo and Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-146031(42): The unstable API
     _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc has a companion function
     _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameAllowSpecialization to specify if
     specialization should be allowed.  When this option is set to 1 the
     specializer will turn Python -> Python calls into specialized
     opcodes which the replacement interpreter loop can choose to
     respect and perform inlined dispatch.

   - gh-145278(43): The *note encodings: 54. is now partially frozen,
     including the ‘aliases’ and ‘utf_8’ submodules.

     The *note linecache: 88. is now frozen.

   - gh-134584(44): Optimize and eliminate redundant ref-counting for
     ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ in the JIT.

   - gh-143886(45): Reorder function annotations so positional-only
     arguments are returned before other arguments.  This fixes how
     *note functools.singledispatch(): a2a. registers functions with
     positional-only arguments.

   - gh-98894(46): Restore ‘function__entry’ and ‘function__return’
     DTrace/SystemTap probes that were broken since Python 3.11.

   - gh-116021(47): Support for creating instances of abstract AST nodes
     from the *note ast: 9. module is deprecated and scheduled for
     removal in Python 3.20.  Patch by Brian Schubert.

   - gh-137814(48): Fix the ‘__qualname__’ attribute of ‘__annotate__’
     functions on functions.

   - gh-137600(49): *note ast: 9.: The constructors of AST nodes now
     raise a *note TypeError: 291. when a required argument is omitted
     or when a keyword argument that does not map to a field on the AST
     node is passed.  These cases had previously raised a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. since Python 3.13.  Patch by Brian
     Schubert.

   - gh-137293(50): Fix *note SystemError: 3ea. when searching ELF Files
     in *note sys.remote_exec(): 418.

   - gh-135357(51): Add support for ‘socket.SO_PASSRIGHTS’ on Linux.

   - gh-134690(52): Removed deprecated in PEP 626(53) since Python 3.12
     ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’ from *note types.CodeType: 2e1.

   - gh-100239(54): Specialize ‘BINARY_OP’ for concatenation of lists
     and tuples, and propagate the result type through
     ‘_BINARY_OP_EXTEND’ in the tier 2 optimizer so that follow-up type
     guards can be eliminated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148940

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133464

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142562

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149243

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126910

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149171

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149122

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149049

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83065

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113956

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148850

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148820

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148829

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0661/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146270

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148766

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148571

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148653

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142516

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146462

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145239

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148515

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148390

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148418

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148393

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148398

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146527

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148284

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148037

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115802

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148189

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148222

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148208

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95004

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149202

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148014

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/147998

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146455

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146306

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142186

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126910

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146031

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145278

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143886

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98894

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116021

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137814

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137600

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137293

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135357

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134690

   (53) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239


File: python.info,  Node: Library<2>,  Next: Documentation<2>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<2>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 beta 1

1.26.2.3 Library
................

   - gh-148823(1): Defer the import of ‘_colorize’ in ‘argparse’ until
     needed for coloring output.

   - gh-141560(2): Add an 'annotation_format' parameter to *note
     inspect.getfullargspec(): b1f.

   - gh-139489(3): Add the *note xml.is_valid_text(): 2b4. function,
     which allows to check whether a string can be used in the XML
     document.

   - gh-142389(4): Add backticks to stdlib argparse help to display in
     colour.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-149377(5): Update bundled pip to 26.1.1

   - gh-142389(6): Add backtick markup support in *note argparse: 7.
     option help text to highlight inline code when color output is
     enabled.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-148675(7): Remove ‘F’ and ‘D’ formats from *note array: 8. and
     *note memoryview: 1d2.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-149342(8): Fix ‘_remote_debugging’ binary writing so that
     sampling a thread whose Python frame stack is empty (for example
     while it is in a C call or mid-syscall) no longer raises
     ‘RuntimeError("Invalid stack encoding type")’, and so that
     ‘BinaryWriter.total_samples’ after ‘finalize()’ or context-manager
     exit includes samples flushed from the RLE buffer.  Patch by
     Maurycy Pawłowski-Wieroński.

   - gh-149010(9): The ‘inspect’ module CLI now reports as much
     information as it has available for non-source modules when
     ‘--details’ is specified, and provides an error message rather than
     a traceback when ‘--details’ is omitted.  It also reports improved
     information when the given target location is not the target’s
     defining location and when the given target is a data value rather
     than a class or function definition.

   - gh-146609(10): Use *note argparse: 7. for colour help *note timeit:
     f8. CLI. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-142389(11): Add backticks for colour to regrtest and pdb’s help
     description.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-144384(12): Lazily import ‘_colorize’.  Patch by Hugo van
     Kemenade.

   - gh-149321(13): Fix import cycles exposed by running standard
     library modules with ‘-X lazy_imports=none’.

   - gh-145378(14): Generate consistent colors for *note pdb: aa.
     commands in ‘pdb’ REPL.

   - gh-149296(15): Add a ‘dump’ subcommand to *note profiling.sampling:
     b6. that prints a single traceback-style snapshot of a running
     process’s Python stack, including per-thread status, source line
     highlighting, optional bytecode opcode names, and async-aware task
     reconstruction.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-143231(16): A 'module' attribute has been added to
     ‘warnings.WarningMessage’.

   - gh-148675(17): *note ctypes: 2d.: Change the *note _type_: 2cd. of
     *note c_float_complex: 2ce, *note c_double_complex: 2cf. and *note
     c_longdouble_complex: 2d0. from ‘F’, ‘D’ and ‘G’ to ‘Zf’, ‘Zd’ and
     ‘Zg’ for compatibility with numpy.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-148675(18): The *note array.typecodes: 1de. type changed from
     *note str: 1df. to *note tuple: 1ce. to support type codes longer
     than 1 character (‘Zf’ and ‘Zd’).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-149221(19): Catch rare math domain error for *note
     random.binomialvariate(): 8c0.

   - gh-149231(20): In *note tomllib: 105, the number of parts in TOML
     keys is now limited.

   - gh-143231(21): *note unittest.TestCase.assertWarns(): 2a0. and
     *note unittest.TestCase.assertWarnsRegex(): 2a1. no longer swallow
     warnings that do not match the specified category or regex.  Nested
     context managers are now supported.

   - gh-149214(22): Fix ‘_remote_debugging’ misreading non-ASCII Unicode
     strings (Latin-1, BMP and non-BMP) from a remote process.
     Filenames and function names that contain non-ASCII characters are
     now reported correctly in stack traces, the sampling profiler, and
     *note asyncio: b. task introspection.

   - gh-149189(23): *note pprint: b3. now uses modern defaults:
     ‘indent=4’ and ‘width=88’, and the default ‘compact=False’ output
     is now formatted similar to pretty-printed *note json.dumps(): 248,
     with opening parentheses and brackets followed by a newline and the
     contents indented by one level.  The 'expand' parameter, added in
     3.15.0a8, has been removed; ‘compact=False’ (the default) now
     produces the former ‘expand=True’ layout.  Patch by Hugo van
     Kemenade.

   - gh-149173(24): Fix inverted *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 452.
     environment check in ‘pdb._pyrepl_available’.

   - gh-149117(25): Fix *note runpy.run_module(): 1901. and *note
     runpy.run_path(): 6ae. to set the *note name: 1902. attribute on
     the *note ImportError: 1bd. they raise.

   - gh-149148(26): *note ensurepip: 58.: Upgrade bundled pip to 26.1.
     This version fixes the CVE 2026-3219(27) vulnerability.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-149009(28): Validate that *note profiling.sampling: b6. binary
     profiles do not contain more unique (thread, interpreter) pairs
     than declared in the header.  Patch by Maurycy Pawłowski-Wieroński.

   - gh-148292(29): *note ssl: d8.: Update *note ssl.SSLSocket: cbb. and
     *note ssl.SSLObject: f40. for OpenSSL 4.  The classes now remember
     if they get a *note ssl.SSLEOFError: 1903.  In this case, following
     *note read(): 121f, ‘sendfile()’, *note write(): 1220, and *note
     do_handshake(): 121e. calls raise ‘ssl.SSLEOFError’ without calling
     the underlying OpenSSL function.  Thanks to that, ‘ssl.SSLSocket’
     behaves the same on all OpenSSL versions on EOF. Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-149085(30): Add a 'max_threads' keyword argument to *note
     faulthandler.dump_traceback(): 21a, *note
     faulthandler.dump_traceback_later(): 21b, *note
     faulthandler.enable(): 219, and *note faulthandler.register(): 21c.

   - gh-148641(31): *note pkgutil.resolve_name(): 1904. gets a new
     optional, keyword-only argument called ‘strict’.  The default is
     ‘False’ for backward compatibility.

   - gh-148093(32): Fix an out-of-bounds read of one byte in *note
     binascii.a2b_uu(): 1905.  Raise *note binascii.Error: 13ce, instead
     of reading past the buffer end.

   - gh-149083(33): *note dataclasses.MISSING: 1906. and *note
     dataclasses.KW_ONLY: 1907. are now instances of *note sentinel:
     18b.

   - gh-148914(34): Fix memoization of in-band *note PickleBuffer: 1908.
     in the Python implementation of *note pickle: ab.  Previously,
     identical ‘PickleBuffer’s did not preserve identity, and empty
     writable ‘PickleBuffer’ memoized an empty bytearray object in place
     of ‘b''’, so the following references to ‘b''’ were unpickled as an
     empty bytearray object.

   - gh-149026(35): Add colour to *note pickletools: ac. CLI output.
     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-148991(36): Add colour to *note tokenize: 104. CLI output.
     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-138907(37): Support RFC 9309(38) in *note urllib.robotparser:
     116.

   - gh-148981(39): Add 'color' parameter to *note ast.dump(): 1e1.

   - gh-148849(40): Deprecate *note http.cookies.Morsel.js_output():
     2f4. and *note http.cookies.BaseCookie.js_output(): 2f5, which will
     be removed in Python 3.19.  Use *note http.cookies.Morsel.output():
     2f6. or *note http.cookies.BaseCookie.output(): 2f7. instead.

   - gh-146311(41): Add a 'canonical' keyword-only parameter to the
     base16, base32, base64, base85, ascii85, and Z85 decoders in *note
     base64: f. and *note binascii: 11.  When true, encodings with
     non-zero padding bits (base16/32/64) or non-canonical encodings
     (base85/ascii85) are rejected.  Single-character final groups in
     *note binascii.a2b_ascii85(): 1f9. and *note binascii.a2b_base85():
     1fb. are now always rejected as encoding violations, regardless of
     'canonical'; previously they were silently ignored and produced no
     output bytes.

   - gh-148947(42): Fix crash in *note @dataclasses.dataclass: 6e6. with
     ‘slots=True’ that occurred when a function found within the class
     had an empty ‘__class__’ cell.

   - gh-148680(43): ‘ForwardRef’ objects that contain internal names to
     represent known objects now show the ‘type_repr’ of the known
     object rather than the internal ‘__annotationlib_name_x__’ name
     when evaluated as strings.

   - gh-124397(44): The threading module added tooling to support
     concurrent iterator access: *note threading.serialize_iterator:
     27f, *note threading.synchronized_iterator(): 280, and *note
     threading.concurrent_tee(): 281.

   - gh-148801(45): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: Fix a crash in
     *note Element.__deepcopy__: 1909. on deeply nested trees.

   - gh-148735(46): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: Fix a
     use-after-free in *note Element.findtext: 190a. when the element
     tree is mutated concurrently during the search.

   - gh-148740(47): Fix usage for *note uuid: 119. command-line
     interface to support a custom namespace be provided for uuid3 and
     uuid5.

   - gh-148688(48): *note bz2: 14, *note compression.zstd: 23, *note
     lzma: 8d, *note zlib: 13c.: Fix a double free on memory allocation
     failure.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-148675(49): *note array: 8, *note struct: de.: Add support for
     ‘Zd’ and ‘Zf’ formats for double complex and float complex.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-148651(50): Fix reference leak in *note
     compression.zstd.ZstdDecompressor: 190b. when an invalid option key
     is passed.

   - gh-148641(51): PEP 829(52) (package startup configuration files)
     implements a new format ‘<name>.start’ parallel to ‘<name>.pth’
     files, to replace ‘import’ lines in the latter.

   - gh-148639(53): Implement PEP 800(54), adding the *note
     @typing.disjoint_base: 292. decorator.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-148615(55): Fix *note pdb: aa. to accept standard – end of
     options separator.  Reported by haampie.  Patched by Shrey
     Naithani.

   - gh-146553(56): Fix infinite loop in *note typing.get_type_hints():
     a9e. when ‘__wrapped__’ forms a cycle.  Patch by Shamil Abdulaev.

   - gh-148599(57): Update the *note socket: d4. module’s WSA error
     messages to match official documentation.

   - gh-148508(58): An intermittent timing error when running SSL tests
     on iOS has been resolved.

   - gh-144881(59): *note asyncio: b. debugging tools (‘python -m
     asyncio ps’ and ‘pstree’) now retry automatically on transient
     errors that can occur when attaching to a process under active
     thread delegation.  The number of retries can be controlled with
     the ‘--retries’ flag.  Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-148518(60): If an email containing an address header that ended
     in an open double quote was parsed with a non-‘compat32’ policy,
     accessing the ‘username’ attribute of the mailbox accessed through
     that header object would result in an ‘IndexError’.  It now
     correctly returns an empty string as the result.

   - gh-148464(61): Add missing ‘__ctype_le/be__’ attributes for *note
     c_float_complex: 2ce. and *note c_double_complex: 2cf.  Patch by
     Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-148370(62): *note configparser: 26.: prevent quadratic behavior
     when a *note ParsingError: 914. is raised after a parser fails to
     parse multiple lines.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-121190(63): ‘importlib.resources.files()’ now emits a more
     meaningful error message when module spec is None (as found in some
     ‘__main__’ modules).

   - gh-127012(64): ‘importlib.abc.Traversable.read_text’ now
     allows/solicits an ‘errors’ parameter.

   - gh-137855(65): Improve import time of *note dataclasses: 32. module
     by lazy importing *note re: c1. and *note copy: 29. modules.

   - gh-148352(66): Add more color to *note calendar: 15.’s CLI output.
     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-148254(67): Use singular «sec» instead of «secs» in *note
     timeit: f8. verbose output for consistency with other time units.

   - gh-130472(68): Integrate fancycompleter with import completions.

   - gh-148241(69): *note json: 85.: Fix serialization: no longer call
     ‘str(obj)’ on *note str: 1df. subclasses.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-148225(70): The *note profiling.sampling: b6. ‘replay’ command
     now rejects non-binary profile files with a clear error explaining
     that replay only accepts files created with ‘--binary’.

   - gh-148192(71): ‘email.generator.Generator._make_boundary’ could
     fail to detect a duplicate boundary string if linesep was not n.
     It now correctly detects boundary strings when linesep is rn as
     well.

   - gh-148207(72): *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 293. now accepts ‘bound’,
     ‘covariant’, ‘contravariant’, and ‘infer_variance’ parameters,
     matching the interface of *note typing.TypeVar: 294. and *note
     typing.ParamSpec: 295.

   - gh-148100(73): *note Soft deprecate: 1a7. *note re.match(): 24c.
     and *note re.Pattern.match(): 24d. in favour of *note
     re.prefixmatch(): 24a. and *note re.Pattern.prefixmatch(): 24b.
     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-147991(74): Improve *note tomllib: 105. import time (up to 10x
     faster).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-147957(75): Guarantees that *note
     collections.UserDict.popitem(): 190c. will pop in the same order as
     the wrapped dictionary rather than an arbitrary order.

   - gh-146256(76): The ‘profiling.sampling’ module now supports JSONL
     output format via ‘--jsonl’.  Each run emits a newline-delimited
     JSON file that is sequentially parseable by external tools,
     scripts, and programmatic consumers.  Patch by Maurycy
     Pawłowski-Wieroński.

   - gh-146609(77): Add colour to *note timeit: f8. CLI output.  Patch
     by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-146563(78): *note xml.parsers.expat: 12f.: add an exception note
     when a custom Expat handler return value cannot be properly
     interpreted.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-137586(79): Add ‘MacOS’ to *note webbrowser: 11e. for macOS,
     which opens URLs via ‘/usr/bin/open’ instead of piping AppleScript
     to ‘osascript’.  Deprecate ‘MacOSXOSAScript’ in favour of ‘MacOS’.

   - gh-146406(80): Cross-language method suggestions are now shown for
     *note AttributeError: 1a9. on builtin types and their subclasses.
     For example, ‘[].push()’ suggests ‘append’, ‘(1,2).append(3)’
     suggests using a ‘list’, ‘None.keys()’ suggests expecting a ‘dict’,
     and ‘1.0.__or__’ suggests using an ‘int’.

   - gh-146313(81): Fix a deadlock in *note multiprocessing: 98.’s
     resource tracker where the parent process could hang indefinitely
     in *note os.waitpid(): 1153. during interpreter shutdown if a child
     created via *note os.fork(): 6bd. still held the resource tracker’s
     pipe open.

   - gh-146292(82): Add colour to *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 226.
     logs, as used by the *note http.server: 75. CLI. Patch by Hugo van
     Kemenade.

   - gh-145917(83): Add MIME types for TTC and Haptics formats to *note
     mimetypes: 93.  (Contributed by Charlie Lin in gh-145918(84).)

   - gh-145846(85): Fix memory leak in ‘_lsprof’ when ‘clear()’ is
     called during active profiling with nested calls.  ‘clearEntries()’
     now walks the entire ‘currentProfilerContext’ linked list instead
     of only freeing the top context.

   - gh-145831(86): Fix ‘email.quoprimime.decode()’ leaving a stray ‘\r’
     when ‘eol='\r\n'’ by stripping the full 'eol' string instead of one
     character.

   - gh-145378(87): Use ‘PyREPL’ as the default input console for *note
     pdb: aa.

   - gh-145244(88): Fixed a use-after-free in *note json: 85. encoder
     when a ‘default’ callback mutates the dictionary being serialized.

   - gh-117716(89): Fix *note wave: 11c. writing of odd-sized ‘data’
     chunks by appending the required RIFF pad byte and correcting the
     RIFF chunk size field accordingly.

   - gh-145200(90): *note hashlib: 6b.: fix a memory leak when
     allocating or initializing an OpenSSL HMAC context fails.

   - gh-145056(91): Add support for *note frozendict: 182. in *note
     dataclasses.asdict(): 190d. and *note dataclasses.astuple(): 190e.

   - gh-145105(92): Fix crash in *note csv: 2c. reader when iterating
     with a re-entrant iterator that calls *note next(): bb5. on the
     same reader from within ‘__next__’.

   - gh-130750(93): Restore quoting of choices in *note argparse: 7.
     error messages for improved clarity and consistency with
     documentation.

   - gh-137855(94): Reduce the import time of *note dataclasses: 32.
     module by ~20%.

   - gh-70647(95): *note strptime(): 2d2. now raises *note ValueError:
     277. when the format string contains ‘%d’ without a year directive.
     Using ‘%e’ without a year now emits a *note DeprecationWarning:
     2c9.

   - gh-105936(96): Attempting to mutate non-field attributes of *note
     dataclasses: 32. with both 'frozen' and 'slots' being ‘True’ now
     raises *note FrozenInstanceError: 190f. instead of *note TypeError:
     291.  Their non-dataclass subclasses can now freely mutate
     non-field attributes, and the original non-slotted class can be
     garbage collected.

   - gh-142831(97): Fix a crash in the *note json: 85. module where a
     use-after-free could occur if the object being encoded is modified
     during serialization.

   - gh-108411(98): ‘typing.IO’ and ‘typing.BinaryIO’ method arguments
     are now positional-only.

   - gh-130273(99): Fix traceback color output with Unicode characters.

   - gh-142307(100): *note imaplib: 77.: deprecate support for *note
     IMAP4.file: 2f8.  This attribute was never meant to be part of the
     public interface and altering its value may result in unclosed
     files or other synchronization issues with the underlying socket.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-141449(101): Improve tests and documentation for non-function
     callables as *note annotate functions: 40a.

   - gh-140287(102): The *note asyncio: b. REPL now handles exceptions
     when executing *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453. scripts.  Patch by Bartosz
     Sławecki.

   - gh-139489(103): Add the *note xml.is_valid_name(): 2b3. function,
     which allows to check whether a string can be used as an element or
     attribute name in XML.

   - gh-75707(104): Add optional ‘mtime’ argument to *note
     tarfile.open(): 1228, for setting the ‘mtime’ header field in
     ‘.tar.gz’ archives.

   - gh-125862(105): The *note contextlib.contextmanager(): 20e. and
     *note contextlib.asynccontextmanager(): 20f. decorators now work
     correctly with generators, coroutine functions, and async
     generators when the wrapped callables are used as decorators.

   - gh-135528(106): *note http.cookiejar: 73.: add «tv», «or», «nom»,
     «sch», and «web» to the default list of supported country code
     second-level domains.

   - gh-135056(107): Add a ‘-H’ or ‘--header’ CLI option to ‘python -m
     http.server’.  Contributed by Anton I. Sipos.

   - gh-134551(108): Add t-strings support to pprint functions

   - gh-133956(109): Fix bug where *note @dataclass: 6e6. wouldn’t
     detect ‘ClassVar’ fields if ‘ClassVar’ was re-exported from a
     module other than *note typing: 10d.

   - gh-132631(110): Fix «I/O operation on closed file» when parsing
     JSON Lines file with *note JSON CLI: 86.

   - gh-108951(111): *note asyncio: b.: Add *note TaskGroup.cancel: 1e4.
     which cancels unfinished tasks and exits the group without raising
     *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da.

   - gh-123853(112): Update the table of Windows language code
     identifiers (LCIDs) used by *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 233.
     on Windows to protocol version 16.0 (2024-04-23).

   - gh-122476(113): The *note email: 3e. module no longer incorrectly
     uses RFC 2047(114) encoding for a mailbox with non-ASCII characters
     in its local-part.  Under a policy with *note utf8: 217. set
     ‘False’, attempting to serialize such a message will now raise an
     *note HeaderWriteError: 1910.  There is no valid 7-bit encoding for
     an internationalized local-part.  Use *note email.policy.SMTPUTF8:
     1911. (or another policy with ‘utf8=True’) to correctly pass
     through the local-part as Unicode characters.

   - gh-83938(115): The *note email: 3e. module no longer incorrectly
     uses RFC 2047(116) encoding for a mailbox with non-ASCII characters
     in its domain.  Under a policy with *note utf8: 217. set ‘False’,
     attempting to serialize such a message will now raise an *note
     HeaderWriteError: 1910.  Either apply an appropriate IDNA encoding
     to convert the domain to ASCII before serialization, or use *note
     email.policy.SMTPUTF8: 1911. (or another policy with ‘utf8=True’)
     to correctly pass through the internationalized domain name as
     Unicode characters.

   - gh-81074(117): The *note email: 3e. module no longer treats email
     addresses with non-ASCII characters as defects when parsing a
     Unicode string or in the ‘addr_spec’ parameter to *note
     email.headerregistry.Address: 1912.  RFC 5322(118) permits such
     addresses, and they were already supported when parsing bytes and
     in the Address ‘username’ parameter.

     The (undocumented) ‘email.errors.NonASCIILocalPartDefect’ is no
     longer used and should be considered deprecated.

   - gh-70039(119): Fixed bug where *note smtplib.SMTP.starttls(): 14e4.
     could fail if *note smtplib.SMTP.connect(): 1913. is called
     explicitly rather than implicitly.

   - gh-113471(120): Allow *note http.server: 75. to set a default
     content-type when serving files with an unknown or missing
     extension.

   - gh-83281(121): *note email: 3e.: improve handling trailing garbage
     in address lists to avoid throwing AttributeError in certain edge
     cases

   - gh-96894(122): Do not turn echo off for subsequent commands in
     batch activators (‘activate.bat’ and ‘deactivate.bat’) of *note
     venv: 11a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148823

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141560

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139489

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142389

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149377

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142389

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148675

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149342

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149010

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146609

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142389

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144384

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149321

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145378

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149296

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143231

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148675

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148675

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149221

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149231

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143231

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149214

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149189

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149173

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149117

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149148

   (27) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2026-3219

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149009

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148292

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149085

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148641

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148093

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149083

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148914

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149026

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148991

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138907

   (38) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9309.html

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148981

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148849

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146311

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148947

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148680

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124397

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148801

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148735

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148740

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148688

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148675

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148651

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148641

   (52) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148639

   (54) https://peps.python.org/pep-0800/

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148615

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146553

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148599

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148508

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144881

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148518

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148464

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148370

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121190

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127012

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137855

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148352

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148254

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130472

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148241

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148225

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148192

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148207

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148100

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/147991

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/147957

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146256

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146609

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146563

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137586

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146406

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146313

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146292

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145917

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145918

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145846

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145831

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145378

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145244

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117716

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145200

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145056

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145105

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130750

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137855

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105936

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142831

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108411

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130273

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142307

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141449

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140287

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139489

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75707

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125862

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135528

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135056

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134551

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133956

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132631

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108951

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123853

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122476

   (114) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83938

   (116) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81074

   (118) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70039

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113471

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83281

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96894


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<2>,  Next: Tests,  Prev: Library<2>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 beta 1

1.26.2.4 Documentation
......................

   - gh-148663(1): Document that *note calendar.IllegalMonthError: 1915.
     is a subclass of both *note ValueError: 277. and *note IndexError:
     18d7. since Python 3.12.

   - gh-146646(2): Document that *note glob.glob(): 2d4, *note
     glob.iglob(): be1, *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a, and *note
     pathlib.Path.rglob(): 73b. silently suppress *note OSError: 53c.
     exceptions raised from scanning the filesystem.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148663

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146646


File: python.info,  Node: Tests,  Next: Build,  Prev: Documentation<2>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 beta 1

1.26.2.5 Tests
..............

   - gh-149425(1): Increase time delta in
     ‘test.test_zipfile.test_core.OtherTests.test_write_without_source_date_epoch’

   - gh-148600(2): Add OpenSSL 4.0.0 support to test configurations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149425

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148600


File: python.info,  Node: Build,  Next: Windows,  Prev: Tests,  Up: Python 3 15 0 beta 1

1.26.2.6 Build
..............

   - gh-149353(1): Avoid unnecessary JIT-related rebuilds during ‘make
     install’ after ‘--enable-optimizations’ builds.

   - gh-149351(2): Avoid possible broken macOS framework install names
     when DESTDIR is specified during builds.

   - gh-149252(3): Update to WASI SDK 33.

   - gh-148690(4): Windows free-threaded builds now output to a
     different default path with default filenames, for example,
     ‘PCbuild/amd64t/python.exe’ rather than
     ‘PCbuild/amd64/python3.15t.exe’.  The ‘PC/layout’ script has been
     updated to ensure compatibility of generated layouts.

   - gh-146475(5): Block Apple Clang from being used to build the JIT as
     it ships without required LLVM tools.

   - gh-148644(6): Errors during the PGO training job on Windows are no
     longer ignored, and a non-zero return code will cause the build to
     fail.

   - gh-148535(7): No longer use the ‘gcc -fprofile-update=atomic’ flag
     on i686.  The flag has been added to fix a random GCC internal
     error on PGO build (gh-145801(8)) caused by corruption of profile
     data (.gcda files).  The problem is that it makes the PGO build way
     slower (up to 47x slower) on i686.  Since the GCC internal error
     was not seen on i686 so far, don’t use ‘-fprofile-update=atomic’ on
     i686 anymore.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-148483(9): Use ‘Py_GCC_ATTRIBUTE(unused)’ for stop_tracing
     label.

   - gh-148474(10): Fixed compilation of ‘Python/pystrhex.c’ with older
     clang versions.

   - gh-146445(11): The Android build tools have been moved to the
     Platforms folder.

   - gh-146264(12): Fix static module builds on non-WASI targets by
     linking HACL dependencies as static libraries when
     ‘MODULE_BUILDTYPE=static’, preventing duplicate ‘_Py_LibHacl_*’
     symbol errors at link time.

   - gh-138451(13): Allow for custom LLVM path using
     ‘LLVM_TOOLS_INSTALL_DIR’ during JIT build.

   - gh-133312(14): Add a new ‘./configure’ option *note
     -enable-static-libpython-for-interpreter: 1918. which, when used
     with *note -enable-shared: c3a, continues to build the shared
     library but does not use it for the interpreter.  Instead,
     libpython is statically linked into the interpreter, as if
     ‘--enable-shared’ had not been used.  This allows you to do a
     single build and get a Python interpreter binary that does not use
     a shared library but also get a shared library for use by other
     programs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149353

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149351

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149252

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148690

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146475

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148644

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148535

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145801

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148483

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148474

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146445

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146264

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138451

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133312


File: python.info,  Node: Windows,  Next: macOS,  Prev: Build,  Up: Python 3 15 0 beta 1

1.26.2.7 Windows
................

   - gh-149254(1): Updated bundled version of OpenSSL to 3.5.6.

   - gh-148690(2): Non-freethreaded builds on Windows now support
     extensions linked to ‘python3t.dll’, and will include a copy of
     that library in normal installs that references the
     non-freethreaded runtime.

   - gh-146458(3): Fix incorrect REPL height and width tracking on
     console window resize on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149254

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148690

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146458


File: python.info,  Node: macOS,  Next: IDLE<3>,  Prev: Windows,  Up: Python 3 15 0 beta 1

1.26.2.8 macOS
..............

   - gh-142295(1): For Python macOS framework builds, update Info.plist
     files to be more compliant with current Apple guidelines.  Original
     patch contributed by Martinus Verburg.

   - gh-149254(2): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.5.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142295

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149254


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<3>,  Next: C API,  Prev: macOS,  Up: Python 3 15 0 beta 1

1.26.2.9 IDLE
.............

   - gh-94523(1): Detect file if modified at local disk and prompt to
     ask refresh.  Patch by Shixian Li.

   - gh-139551(2): Support rendering *note BaseExceptionGroup: 767. in
     IDLE.

   - gh-89520(3): Make IDLE extension configuration look at user config
     files, allowing user-installed extensions to have settings and key
     bindings defined in ~/.idlerc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94523

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139551

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89520


File: python.info,  Node: C API,  Prev: IDLE<3>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 beta 1

1.26.2.10 C API
...............

   - gh-149225(1): *note PyCriticalSection: 368. and related functions
     are added to the Stable ABI.

   - gh-149216(2): *note PyType_WatchCallback: 191d. callbacks
     registered via *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 96a. are now also invoked
     when a watched heap type is deallocated.  Previously, type watchers
     were only notified of modifications, which could cause stale
     references when a type was freed and its address was reused.

   - gh-149101(3): Implement PEP 788(4).

   - gh-149044(5): Implement PEP 820(6): Unified slot system for the C
     API.

   - gh-148267(7): Using *note Py_LIMITED_API: 84d. on a non-Windows
     free-threaded build no longer needs an extra *note Py_GIL_DISABLED:
     191e.

   - gh-145559(8): Rename ‘_Py_DumpTraceback’ and
     ‘_Py_DumpTracebackThreads’ to *note PyUnstable_DumpTraceback():
     399. and *note PyUnstable_DumpTracebackThreads(): 39a.

   - gh-146636(9): Implement PEP 803(10) – ‘abi3t’: Stable ABI for
     Free-Threaded Builds.

   - gh-146302(11): *note Py_IsInitialized(): 191f. no longer returns
     true until initialization has fully completed, including import of
     the *note site: cf. module.  The underlying runtime flags now use
     atomic operations.

   - gh-146063(12): Add *note PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(): 351.
     function to the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-145921(13): Add functions that are guaranteed to be safe for use
     in *note tp_traverse: 36b. handlers: *note
     PyObject_GetTypeData_DuringGC(): 36c, *note
     PyObject_GetItemData_DuringGC(): 36d, *note
     PyType_GetModuleState_DuringGC(): 36e, *note
     PyModule_GetState_DuringGC(): 36f, *note
     PyModule_GetToken_DuringGC(): 370, *note
     PyType_GetBaseByToken_DuringGC(): 371, *note
     PyType_GetModule_DuringGC(): 372, *note
     PyType_GetModuleByToken_DuringGC(): 373.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149225

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149216

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149101

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0788/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/149044

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0820/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148267

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145559

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146636

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0803/

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146302

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146063

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145921


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8,  Next: Python 3 15 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 15 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.3 Python 3.15.0 alpha 8
----------------------------

'Release date: 2026-04-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<3>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<3>.
* Library: Library<3>.
* Documentation: Documentation<3>.
* Tests: Tests<2>.
* Build: Build<2>.
* Windows: Windows<2>.
* macOS: macOS<2>.
* Tools/Demos::
* C API: C API<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<3>,  Next: Core and Builtins<3>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8

1.26.3.1 Security
.................

   - gh-145986(1): *note xml.parsers.expat: 12f.: Fixed a crash caused
     by unbounded C recursion when converting deeply nested XML content
     models with *note ElementDeclHandler(): 1922.  This addresses CVE
     2026-4224(2).

   - gh-145599(3): Reject control characters in *note
     http.cookies.Morsel: fc3. *note update(): 1277. and *note
     js_output(): 2f5.  This addresses CVE 2026-3644(4).

   - gh-143930(5): Reject leading dashes in URLs passed to *note
     webbrowser.open(): 1923.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145986

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2026-4224

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145599

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2026-3644

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143930


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<3>,  Next: Library<3>,  Prev: Security<3>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8

1.26.3.2 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-148157(1): Fix an unlikely crash when parsing an invalid type
     comments for function parameters.  Found by OSS Fuzz in
     #492782951(2).

   - gh-100239(3): Propagate result type and uniqueness information
     through ‘_BINARY_OP_EXTEND’ in the tier 2 optimizer, enabling
     elimination of downstream type guards and selection of inplace
     float operations.

   - gh-148144(4): Initialize ‘_PyInterpreterFrame.visited’ when copying
     interpreter frames so incremental GC does not read an uninitialized
     byte from generator and frame-object copies.

   - gh-148072(5): Cache ‘pickle.dumps’ and ‘pickle.loads’ per
     interpreter in the XIData framework, avoiding repeated module
     lookups on every cross-interpreter data transfer.  This speeds up
     *note InterpreterPoolExecutor: 46a. for mutable types (‘list’,
     ‘dict’) by 1.7x–3.3x.

   - gh-148110(6): Fix *note sys.set_lazy_imports_filter(): 17c. so
     relative lazy imports pass the resolved imported module name to the
     filter callback.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-148083(7): Constant-fold ‘_CONTAINS_OP_SET’ for *note frozenset:
     9d4.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-144319(8): Fix a bug that could cause applications with specific
     allocation patterns to leak memory via Huge Pages if compiled with
     Huge Page support.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-147985(9): Make *note PySet_Contains(): 17ea. attempt a
     lock-free lookup, similar to ‘set.__contains__()’.  This avoids
     acquiring the set object mutex in the normal case.

   - gh-147856(10): Allow the 'count' argument of *note bytes.replace():
     1d3. to be a keyword.

   - gh-146615(11): Fix a crash in *note __get__(): 188a. for *note
     METH_METHOD: d39. descriptors when an invalid (non-type) object is
     passed as the second argument.  Patch by Steven Sun.

   - gh-146306(12): Optimize compact integer arithmetic in the JIT by
     mutating uniquely-referenced operands in place, avoiding allocation
     of a new int object.  Speeds up the pyperformance ‘spectral_norm’
     benchmark by ~10%.

   - gh-146587(13): Fix type slot assignment incase of multiple slots
     for same name in type object implementation.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-126910(14): Set frame pointers in ‘aarch64-unknown-linux-gnu’
     JIT code, allowing most native profilers and debuggers to unwind
     through them.  Patch by Diego Russo

   - gh-146388(15): Adds a null check to handle when the JIT optimizer
     runs out of space when dealing with contradictions in
     ‘make_bottom’.

   - gh-146369(16): Ensure ‘-X lazy_imports=none’ and
     ‘PYTHON_LAZY_IMPORTS=none’ override *note __lazy_modules__: 17f.
     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-146308(17): Fixed multiple error handling issues in the
     ‘_remote_debugging’ module including a double-free in code object
     caching, memory leaks on allocation failure, missing exception
     checks in binary format varint decoding, reference leaks on error
     paths in frame chain processing, and inconsistent thread status
     error reporting across platforms.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-146306(18): Optimize float arithmetic in the JIT by mutating
     uniquely-referenced operands in place, avoiding allocation of a new
     float object.  Speeds up the pyperformance ‘nbody’ benchmark by
     ~19%.

   - gh-146128(19): Fix a bug which could cause constant values to be
     partially corrupted in AArch64 JIT code.  This issue is
     theoretical, and hasn’t actually been observed in unmodified Python
     interpreters.

   - gh-146250(20): Fixed a memory leak in *note SyntaxError: 17e. when
     re-initializing it.

   - gh-146245(21): Fixed reference leaks in *note socket: d4. when
     audit hooks raise exceptions in *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 1925.
     and ‘socket.sendto()’.

   - gh-146151(22): *note memoryview: 1d2. now supports the float
     complex and double complex C types: formatting characters ‘'F'’ and
     ‘'D'’ respectively.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-146196(23): Fix potential Undefined Behavior in *note
     PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII(): 5e6. by adding a zero-length check.
     Patch by Shamil Abdulaev.

   - gh-146227(24): Fix wrong type in ‘_Py_atomic_load_uint16’ in the
     C11 atomics backend (‘pyatomic_std.h’), which used a 32-bit atomic
     load instead of 16-bit.  Found by Mohammed Zuhaib.

   - gh-146205(25): Fixed a bug where *note select.epoll.close(): 133e,
     *note select.kqueue.close(): 1926, and *note
     select.devpoll.close(): 1341. silently ignored errors.

   - gh-146199(26): Comparison of code objects now handles errors
     correctly.

   - gh-145667(27): Remove the ‘GET_ITER_YIELD_FROM’ instruction,
     modifying ‘SEND’ to pair with ‘GET_ITER’ when compiling ‘yield
     from’ expressions.

   - gh-146192(28): Add Base32 support to *note binascii: 11. and
     improve the performance of the Base32 converters in *note base64:
     f.  Patch by James Seo.

   - gh-135871(29): Improve multithreaded scaling of PyMutex in
     low-contention scenarios by reloading the lock’s internal state,
     without slowing down high-contention scenarios.

   - gh-146096(30): Fixed segmentation fault when called repr for
     BaseExceptionGroup with empty or 1-size tuple args.

   - gh-146056(31): Fix *note repr(): 45b. for lists and tuples
     containing ‘NULL’s.

   - gh-145059(32): Fixed ‘sys.lazy_modules’ to include lazy modules
     without submodules.  Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-146041(33): Fix free-threading scaling bottleneck in *note
     sys.intern(): 1680. and *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 1927. by avoiding
     the interpreter-wide lock when the string is already interned and
     immortalized.

   - gh-145990(34): ‘python --help-env’ sections are now sorted by
     environment variable name.

   - gh-145990(35): ‘python --help-xoptions’ is now sorted by ‘-X’
     option name.

   - gh-145876(36): *note AttributeError: 1a9.s and *note KeyError:
     7df.s raised in ‘keys()’ or ‘__getitem__()’ during dictionary
     unpacking (‘{**mymapping}’ or ‘func(**mymapping)’) are no longer
     masked by *note TypeError: 291.

   - gh-127958(37): Support tracing from function entrypoints in the
     JIT.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - gh-145376(38): Fix GC tracking in ‘structseq.__replace__()’.

   - gh-145792(39): Fix out-of-bounds access when invoking faulthandler
     on a CPython build compiled without support for VLAs.

   - gh-142183(40): Avoid a pathological case where repeated calls at a
     specific stack depth could be significantly slower.

   - gh-145779(41): Improve scaling of *note classmethod(): 69a. and
     *note staticmethod(): 666. calls in the free-threaded build by
     avoiding the descriptor ‘__get__’ call.

   - gh-145783(42): Fix an unlikely crash in the parser when certain
     errors were erroneously not propagated.  Found by OSS Fuzz in
     #491369109(43).

   - gh-145685(44): Improve scaling of type attribute lookups in the
     *note free-threaded build: 198. by avoiding contention on the
     internal type lock.

   - gh-145713(45): Make *note bytearray.resize(): 1928. thread-safe in
     the free-threaded build by using a critical section and calling the
     lock-held variant of the resize function.

   - gh-145036(46): In free-threaded build, fix race condition when
     calling ‘__sizeof__()’ on a *note list: 4d9.

   - gh-134584(47): Eliminate redundant refcounting for ‘MATCH_CLASS’ in
     the JIT.

   - gh-69605(48): Add *note math.integer: 92. to *note REPL: 69d.
     auto-completion of imports.

   - gh-131798(49): Optimize ‘_ITER_CHECK_RANGE’ and ‘_ITER_CHECK_LIST’
     in the JIT

   - gh-143414(50): Add tracking to the JIT optimizer to determine
     whether a reference is uniquely owned or shared

   - gh-143636(51): Fix a crash when calling *note
     SimpleNamespace.__replace__(): 6ea. on non-namespace instances.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-126910(52): Set frame pointers in ‘x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu’ JIT
     code, allowing most native profilers and debuggers to unwind
     through them.

   - gh-140594(53): Fix an out of bounds read when a single NUL
     character is read from the standard input.  Patch by Shamil
     Abdulaev.

   - gh-140870(54): Add support for module attributes in the *note REPL:
     69d. auto-completion of imports.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148157

   (2) https://issues.oss-fuzz.com/issues/492782951

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148144

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148072

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148110

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148083

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144319

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/147985

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/147856

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146615

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146306

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146587

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126910

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146388

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146369

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146308

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146306

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146128

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146250

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146245

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146151

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146196

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146227

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146205

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146199

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145667

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146192

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135871

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146096

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146056

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145059

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146041

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145990

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145990

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145876

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127958

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145376

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145792

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142183

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145779

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145783

   (43) https://issues.oss-fuzz.com/issues/491369109

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145685

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145713

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145036

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69605

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143414

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143636

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126910

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140594

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140870


File: python.info,  Node: Library<3>,  Next: Documentation<3>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<3>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8

1.26.3.3 Library
................

   - gh-144503(1): Fix a regression introduced in 3.14.3 and 3.13.12
     where the *note multiprocessing: 98. ‘forkserver’ start method
     would fail with *note BrokenPipeError: 1404. when the parent
     process had a very large *note sys.argv: 1609.  The argv is now
     passed to the forkserver as separate command-line arguments rather
     than being embedded in the ‘-c’ command string, avoiding the
     operating system’s per-argument length limit.

   - gh-148153(2): *note base64.b32encode(): 1e7. now always raises
     *note ValueError: 277. instead of *note AssertionError: a97. for
     the value of 'map01' with invalid length.

   - gh-73613(3): Add the 'padded' parameter in functions related to
     Base32 and Base64 codecs in the *note binascii: 11. and *note
     base64: f. modules.  In the encoding functions it controls whether
     the pad character can be added in the output, in the decoding
     functions it controls whether padding is required in input.
     Padding of input no longer required in *note
     base64.urlsafe_b64decode(): 1ee. by default.

   - gh-146613(4): *note itertools: 84.: Fix a crash in *note
     itertools.groupby(): 192a. when the grouper iterator is
     concurrently mutated.

   - gh-147944(5): Accepted range for the 'bytes_per_sep' argument of
     *note bytes.hex(): 111e, *note bytearray.hex(): 111f, *note
     memoryview.hex(): 1120, and *note binascii.b2a_hex(): 192b. is now
     increased, so passing ‘sys.maxsize’ and ‘-sys.maxsize’ is now
     valid.

   - gh-146080(6): *note ssl: d8.: fix a crash when an SNI callback
     tries to use an SSL object that has already been garbage-collected.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-146556(7): Fix *note annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c.
     hanging indefinitely when called with ‘eval_str=True’ on a callable
     that has a circular ‘__wrapped__’ chain (e.g.  ‘f.__wrapped__ =
     f’).  Cycle detection using an id-based visited set now stops the
     traversal and falls back to the globals found so far, mirroring the
     approach of *note inspect.unwrap(): 1306.

   - gh-146090(8): *note sqlite3: d7.: fix a crash when *note
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation(): a66. fails with
     SQLITE_BUSY(9).  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-146090(10): *note sqlite3: d7.: properly raise *note
     MemoryError: 18fa. instead of *note SystemError: 3ea. when a
     context callback fails to be allocated.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-146507(11): Make *note asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(): 30b. stream
     transport’s *note get_write_buffer_size(): 192c. O(1) by
     maintaining a running byte counter instead of iterating the buffer
     on every call.

   - gh-145056(12): Fix merging of *note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5.
     and *note frozendict: 182.

   - gh-145056(13): Add support for merging *note collections.UserDict:
     192d. and *note frozendict: 182.

   - gh-145633(14): Fix ‘struct.pack('f', float)’: use *note
     PyFloat_Pack4(): b48. to raise *note OverflowError: c57.  Patch by
     Sergey B Kirpichev and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-146440(15): *note json: 85.: Add the 'array_hook' parameter to
     *note load(): 22e. and *note loads(): 22f. functions: allow a
     callback for JSON literal array types to customize Python lists in
     the resulting decoded object.  Passing combined *note frozendict:
     182. to 'object_pairs_hook' param and *note tuple: 1ce. to
     ‘array_hook’ will yield a deeply nested immutable Python structure
     representing the JSON data.

   - gh-146431(16): Add the 'wrapcol' parameter to *note base64: f.
     functions *note b16encode(): 1ef, *note b32encode(): 1e7, *note
     b32hexencode(): 1e9, *note b85encode(): 1f0. and *note z85encode():
     1e6, and *note binascii: 11. functions *note b2a_base32(): 1f6. and
     *note b2a_base85(): 1fa.  Add the 'ignorechars' parameter to
     ‘base64’ functions *note b16decode(): 1f1, *note b32decode(): 1e8,
     *note b32hexdecode(): 1ea, *note b85decode(): 1f2. and *note
     z85decode(): 1f3, and ‘binascii’ functions *note a2b_hex(): 1fe,
     *note unhexlify(): 1ff, *note a2b_base32(): 1f7. and *note
     a2b_base85(): 1fb.

   - gh-146310(17): The *note ensurepip: 58. module no longer looks for
     ‘pip-*.whl’ wheel packages in the current directory.

   - gh-141510(18): Support *note frozendict: 182. in *note plistlib:
     b0, for serialization only.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-146238(19): Support half-floats (type code ‘'e'’ of the *note
     struct: de. module) in the *note array: 8. module.  Patch by Sergey
     B Kirpichev.

   - gh-140947(20): Fix incorrect contextvars handling in server tasks
     created by *note asyncio: b.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-146151(21): Support the float complex and double complex C types
     in the *note array: 8. module: formatting characters ‘'F'’ and
     ‘'D'’ respectively.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-143387(22): In importlib.metadata, when a distribution file is
     corrupt and there is no metadata file, calls to
     ‘Distribution.metadata()’ (including implicit calls from other
     properties like ‘.name’ and ‘.requires’) will now raise a
     ‘MetadataNotFound’ Exception.  This allows callers to distinguish
     between missing metadata and a degenerate (empty) metadata.
     Previously, if the file was missing, an empty ‘PackageMetadata’
     would be returned and would be indistinguishable from the presence
     of an empty file.

   - gh-146228(23): Cached FastPath objects in importlib.metadata are
     now cleared on fork, avoiding broken references to zip files during
     fork.

   - gh-146171(24): Nested *note AttributeError: 1a9. suggestions now
     include property-backed attributes on nested objects without
     executing the property getter.

   - gh-145410(25): On Windows, *note sysconfig.get_platform(): 15e8.
     now gets the platform from the ‘_sysconfig’ module instead of
     parsing *note sys.version: 6a8. string.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-146091(26): Fix a bug in *note termios.tcsetwinsize(): 192e.
     where passing a sequence that raises an exception in ‘__getitem__’
     would cause a *note SystemError: 3ea. instead of propagating the
     original exception.

   - gh-146083(27): Update bundled libexpat(28) to version 2.7.5.

   - gh-146076(29): *note zoneinfo: 13d.: fix crashes when deleting
     ‘_weak_cache’ from a *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: cb1. subclass.

   - gh-123471(30): Make concurrent iteration over *note
     itertools.zip_longest: 1643. safe under free-threading.

   - gh-146075(31): Errors when calling *note functools.partial(): 4a6.
     with a malformed keyword will no longer crash the interpreter.

   - gh-146054(32): Limit the size of *note encodings.search_function():
     192f. cache.  Found by OSS Fuzz in #493449985(33).

   - gh-146004(34): All *note -X: 178. options from the Python command
     line are now propagated to child processes spawned by *note
     multiprocessing: 98, not just a hard-coded subset.  This makes the
     behavior consistent between default «spawn» and «forkserver» start
     methods and the old «fork» start method.  The options that were
     previously not propagated are: ‘context_aware_warnings’,
     ‘cpu_count’, ‘disable-remote-debug’, ‘int_max_str_digits’,
     ‘lazy_imports’, ‘no_debug_ranges’, ‘pathconfig_warnings’, ‘perf’,
     ‘perf_jit’, ‘presite’, ‘pycache_prefix’, ‘thread_inherit_context’,
     and ‘warn_default_encoding’.

   - gh-145980(35): Added the 'alphabet' parameter in *note
     b2a_base64(): 1fc, *note a2b_base64(): 1fd, *note b2a_base85():
     1fa. and *note a2b_base85(): 1fb. and a number of ‘*_ALPHABET’
     constants in the *note binascii: 11. module.  Removed ‘b2a_z85()’
     and ‘a2b_z85()’.

   - gh-145968(36): Fix translation in *note base64.b64decode(): 1ec.
     when altchars overlaps with the standard ones.

   - gh-145966(37): Non-*note AttributeError: 1a9. exceptions raised
     during dialect attribute lookup in *note csv: 2c. are no longer
     silently suppressed.

   - gh-145883(38): *note zoneinfo: 13d.: Fix heap buffer overflow reads
     from malformed TZif data.  Found by OSS Fuzz, issues #492245058(39)
     and #492230068(40).

   - gh-145850(41): Changed some implementation details in *note
     struct.Struct: 2fb.: calling it with non-ASCII string format will
     now raise a *note ValueError: 277. instead of *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: a67, calling it with non-ASCII bytes format
     will now raise a ‘ValueError’ instead of *note struct.error: 16c8,
     getting the ‘format’ attribute of uninitialized object will now
     raise an *note AttributeError: 1a9. instead of *note RuntimeError:
     30d.

   - gh-123720(42): asyncio: Fix *note asyncio.Server.serve_forever():
     ed9. shutdown regression.  Since 3.12, cancelling ‘serve_forever()’
     could hang waiting for a handler blocked on a read from a client
     that never closed (effectively requiring two interrupts to stop);
     the shutdown sequence now ensures client streams are closed so
     ‘serve_forever()’ exits promptly and handlers observe EOF.

   - gh-138122(43): The ‘profiling.sampling’ module now supports
     differential flamegraph visualization via ‘--diff-flamegraph’ to
     compare two profiling runs.  Functions are colored red
     (regressions), blue (improvements), gray (neutral), or purple
     (new).  Elided stacks show code paths that disappeared between
     runs.

   - gh-145754(44): Request signature during mock autospec with
     ‘FORWARDREF’ annotation format.  This prevents runtime errors when
     an annotation uses a name that is not defined at runtime.

   - gh-145750(45): Avoid undefined behaviour from signed integer
     overflow when parsing format strings in the *note struct: de.
     module.  Found by OSS Fuzz in #488466741(46).

   - gh-145719(47): Add ‘application/efi’ MIME type to *note mimetypes:
     93.

   - gh-145717(48): Add a few Microsoft-specific MIME types.

   - gh-145703(49): *note asyncio: b.: Make sure that *note
     loop.call_at: ecb. and *note loop.call_later: eca. trigger
     scheduled events on time when the clock resolution becomes too
     small.

   - gh-145697(50): Add ‘application/sql’ and ‘application/vnd.sqlite3’
     into ‘mimetypes’.

   - gh-145492(51): Fix infinite recursion in *note
     collections.defaultdict: 1565. ‘__repr__’ when a ‘defaultdict’
     contains itself.  Based on analysis by KowalskiThomas in
     gh-145492(52).

   - gh-145650(53): Add *note __repr__(): 1bc. support to *note
     logging.Formatter: 1839. and *note logging.Filter: 15a4, showing
     the format string and filter name respectively.

   - gh-145587(54): Resolved a performance regression in
     ‘multiprocessing.connection.wait’ on Windows that caused infinite
     busy loops when called with no objects.  The function now properly
     yields control to the OS to conserve CPU resources.  Patch By Shrey
     Naithani

   - gh-145616(55): Detect Android sysconfig ABI correctly on 32-bit ARM
     Android on 64-bit ARM kernel

   - gh-145546(56): Fix ‘unittest.util.sorted_list_difference()’ to
     deduplicate remaining elements when one input list is exhausted
     before the other.

   - gh-145446(57): Now *note functools: 62. is safer in free-threaded
     build when using keywords in *note functools.partial(): 4a6.

   - gh-145264(58): Base64 decoder (see *note binascii.a2b_base64():
     1fd, *note base64.b64decode(): 1ec, etc) no longer ignores excess
     data after the first padded quad in non-strict (default) mode.
     Instead, in conformance with RFC 4648(59), section 3.3, it now
     ignores the pad character, «=», if it is present before the end of
     the encoded data.

   - gh-145035(60): Allows omitting the internal library ‘_pyrepl’ with
     limited loss of functionality.  This allows complete removal of the
     modern REPL, which is an unsupported configuration, but still
     desirable for some distributions.

   - gh-144270(61): Made the 'tag' parameter of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 343. and the 'parent' and 'tag'
     parameters of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement(): 1930.
     positional-only, matching the behavior of the C accelerator.

   - gh-144984(62): Fix crash in *note
     xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate(): 1931.
     when an allocation fails.  The error paths could dereference NULL
     ‘handlers’ and double-decrement the parent parser’s reference
     count.

   - gh-144975(63): *note wave.Wave_write.setframerate(): 1932. now
     validates the frame rate after rounding to an integer, preventing
     values like ‘0.5’ from being accepted and causing confusing errors
     later.  Patch by Michiel Beijen.

   - gh-140715(64): Add ‘%n’ and ‘%t’ support to *note strptime(): 2d2.

   - gh-144259(65): Fix inconsistent display of long multiline pasted
     content in the REPL.

   - gh-140814(66): *note multiprocessing.freeze_support(): 1933. no
     longer sets the default start method as a side effect, which
     previously caused a subsequent *note
     multiprocessing.set_start_method(): 4d7. call to raise *note
     RuntimeError: 30d.

   - gh-123471(67): Make concurrent iteration over *note
     itertools.accumulate: dbf. safe under free-threading.

   - gh-143715(68): Calling the ‘Struct.__new__()’ without required
     argument now is deprecated.  Calling *note __init__(): 2fa. method
     on initialized *note Struct: 2fb. objects is deprecated.

   - gh-142763(69): Fix a race condition between *note
     zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: cb1. creation and *note
     zoneinfo.ZoneInfo.clear_cache(): 1934. that could raise *note
     KeyError: 7df.

   - gh-141707(70): Don’t change *note tarfile.TarInfo: 15b8. type from
     ‘AREGTYPE’ to ‘DIRTYPE’ when parsing GNU long name or link headers.

   - gh-138577(71): *note getpass.getpass(): 4ab. with non-empty
     ‘echo_char’ now handles keyboard shortcuts including Ctrl+A/E
     (cursor movement), Ctrl+K/U (kill line), Ctrl+W (erase word), and
     Ctrl+V (literal next) by reading the terminal’s control character
     settings and processing them appropriately in non-canonical mode.
     Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - gh-140049(72): *note traceback.format_exception_only(): c26. now
     colorizes exception notes.

   - gh-139933(73): Improve *note AttributeError: 1a9. suggestions for
     classes with a custom *note __dir__(): 1935. method returning a
     list of unsortable values.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-139633(74): The *note netrc: 9f. security check is now run once
     per parse rather than once per entry.

   - gh-130472(75): Add fancycompleter and enable it by default when
     using pyrepl.  This gives colored tab completion.

   - gh-112632(76): Add an 'expand' keyword argument for *note
     pprint.pprint(): c01, *note pprint.pformat(): 132a, *note
     pprint.pp(): de7. by passing on all 'kwargs' and *note
     pprint.PrettyPrinter: 1329.  Contributed by Stefan Todoran and
     Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-66419(77): Optional argument with *note nargs: 1936. equals to
     ‘argparse.REMAINDER’ now consumes all remaining arguments including
     ‘'--'’.

   - gh-60729(78): Add support for floating point audio wave files in
     *note wave: 11c.

   - bpo-36461(79): Make the target time of *note
     timeit.Timer.autorange(): 283. configurable and add ‘--target-time’
     option to the command-line interface of *note timeit: f8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144503

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148153

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73613

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146613

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/147944

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146080

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146556

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146090

   (9) https://sqlite.org/rescode.html#busy

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146090

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146507

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145056

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145056

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145633

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146440

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146431

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146310

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141510

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146238

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140947

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146151

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143387

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146228

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146171

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145410

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146091

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146083

   (28) https://libexpat.github.io/

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146076

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123471

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146075

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146054

   (33) https://issues.oss-fuzz.com/issues/493449985

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146004

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145980

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145968

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145966

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145883

   (39) https://issues.oss-fuzz.com/issues/492245058

   (40) https://issues.oss-fuzz.com/issues/492230068

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145850

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123720

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145754

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145750

   (46) https://issues.oss-fuzz.com/issues/488466741

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145719

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145717

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145703

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145697

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145492

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145492

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145650

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145587

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145616

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145546

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145446

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145264

   (59) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145035

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144270

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144984

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144975

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140715

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144259

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140814

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123471

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143715

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142763

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141707

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138577

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140049

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139933

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139633

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130472

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112632

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66419

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60729

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36461


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<3>,  Next: Tests<2>,  Prev: Library<3>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8

1.26.3.4 Documentation
......................

   - gh-126676(1): Expand *note argparse: 7. documentation for
     ‘type=bool’ with a demonstration of the surprising behavior and
     pointers to common alternatives.

   - gh-145649(2): Fix text wrapping and formatting of ‘-X’ option
     descriptions in the ‘python(1)(3)’ man page by using proper roff
     markup.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126676

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145649

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/python(1)


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<2>,  Next: Build<2>,  Prev: Documentation<3>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8

1.26.3.5 Tests
..............

   - gh-144418(1): The Android testbed’s emulator RAM has been increased
     from 2 GB to 4 GB.

   - gh-146202(2): Fix a race condition in regrtest: make sure that the
     temporary directory is created in the worker process.  Previously,
     temp_cwd() could fail on Windows if the «build» directory was not
     created.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146202


File: python.info,  Node: Build<2>,  Next: Windows<2>,  Prev: Tests<2>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8

1.26.3.6 Build
..............

   - gh-146541(1): The Android testbed can now be built for 32-bit ARM
     and x86 targets.

   - gh-146498(2): The iOS XCframework build script now ensures
     libpython isn’t included in installed app content, and is more
     robust in identifying standard library binary content that requires
     processing.

   - gh-146450(3): The Android build script was modified to improve
     parity with other platform build scripts.

   - gh-146446(4): The clean target for the Apple/iOS XCframework build
     script is now more selective when targeting a single architecture.

   - gh-146444(5): The Apple/iOS build script has been moved to the
     Platforms directory.

   - gh-146210(6): Fix building the jit stencils on Windows when the
     interpreter is built with a different clang version.  Patch by
     Chris Eibl.

   - gh-145844(7): Update to WASI SDK 32.

   - gh-145801(8): When Python build is optimized with GCC using PGO,
     use ‘-fprofile-update=atomic’ option to use atomic operations when
     updating profile information.  This option reduces the risk of gcov
     Data Files (.gcda) corruption which can cause random GCC crashes.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-138850(9): Add *note -disable-epoll: 193a. to ‘configure’

   - gh-145633(10): Remove support for ancient ARM platforms (ARMv4L and
     ARMv5L OABI boards), using mixed-endian representation for doubles.
     Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-85277(11): Fix building without ‘stropts.h’ or empty ‘stropts.h’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146541

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146498

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146450

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146446

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146444

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146210

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145844

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145801

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138850

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145633

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85277


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<2>,  Next: macOS<2>,  Prev: Build<2>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8

1.26.3.7 Windows
................

   - gh-140131(1): Fix REPL cursor position on Windows when module
     completion suggestion line hits console width.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140131


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<2>,  Next: Tools/Demos,  Prev: Windows<2>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8

1.26.3.8 macOS
..............

   - gh-137586(1): Invoke ‘osascript’ with absolute path in *note
     webbrowser: 11e. and ‘turtledemo’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137586


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos,  Next: C API<2>,  Prev: macOS<2>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8

1.26.3.9 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-135953(1): Properly identify the main thread in the Gecko
     profiler collector by using a status flag from the interpreter
     state instead of relying on *note threading.main_thread(): 137b. in
     the collector process.

   - gh-145976(2): Remove ‘Misc/indent.pro’, a configuration file for
     GNU ‘indent(1)(3)’.

   - gh-145976(4): Remove ‘Misc/vgrindefs’ and ‘Misc/Porting’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135953

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145976

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/indent(1)

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145976


File: python.info,  Node: C API<2>,  Prev: Tools/Demos,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8

1.26.3.10 C API
...............

   - gh-146636(1): The *note Py_mod_abi: 358. slot is now mandatory for
     modules created from a slots array (using *note
     PyModule_FromSlotsAndSpec(): 38c. or the *note PyModExport_*: 19c.
     export hook).

   - gh-146175(2): The following macros are *note soft deprecated: 1a7.:
     *note Py_ALIGNED: 3c5, *note PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T: 3c6, *note Py_LL:
     3c7, *note Py_ULL: 3c8, *note PY_LONG_LONG: 3c9, *note
     PY_LLONG_MIN: 3ca, *note PY_LLONG_MAX: 3cb, *note PY_ULLONG_MAX:
     3cc, *note PY_INT32_T: 3cd, *note PY_UINT32_T: 3ce, *note
     PY_INT64_T: 3cf, *note PY_UINT64_T: 3d0, *note PY_SIZE_MAX: 3d1,
     *note Py_UNICODE_SIZE: 3d2, *note Py_VA_COPY: 3d3.

     The macro *note Py_UNICODE_WIDE: 3d4, which was scheduled for
     removal, is *note soft deprecated: 1a7. instead.

   - gh-146143(3): *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUCS4(): 5eb. now accepts a
     pointer to a constant buffer of ‘Py_UCS4’.

   - gh-146056(4): *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteRepr(): 5e8. now supports
     ‘NULL’ argument.

   - gh-145010(5): Use GCC dialect alternatives for inline assembly in
     ‘object.h’ so that the Python headers compile correctly with
     ‘-masm=intel’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146636

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146175

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146143

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/146056

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145010


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 15 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 15 0 alpha 8,  Up: Changelog

1.26.4 Python 3.15.0 alpha 7
----------------------------

'Release date: 2026-03-10'

* Menu:

* Windows: Windows<3>.
* Tests: Tests<3>.
* Security: Security<4>.
* Library: Library<4>.
* Documentation: Documentation<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<4>.
* C API: C API<3>.
* Build: Build<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<3>,  Next: Tests<3>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 7

1.26.4.1 Windows
................

   - gh-145731(1): Fix negative timestamp during DST on Windows.  Patch
     by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-145307(2): Defers loading of the ‘psapi.dll’ module until it is
     used by *note ctypes.util.dllist(): 483.

   - gh-144551(3): Updated bundled version of OpenSSL to 3.5.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145731

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145307

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144551


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<3>,  Next: Security<4>,  Prev: Windows<3>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 7

1.26.4.2 Tests
..............

   - gh-144741(1): Fix ‘test_frame_pointer_unwind’ when Python is built
     with *note -enable-shared: c3a.  Classify also libpython frames as
     ‘"python"’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-144739(2): When Python was compiled with system expat older then
     2.7.2 but tests run with newer expat, still skip
     ‘test.test_pyexpat.MemoryProtectionTest’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144741

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144739


File: python.info,  Node: Security<4>,  Next: Library<4>,  Prev: Tests<3>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 7

1.26.4.3 Security
.................

   - gh-145506(1): Fixes CVE 2026-2297(2) by ensuring that
     ‘SourcelessFileLoader’ uses *note io.open_code(): 1943. when
     opening ‘.pyc’ files.

   - gh-144370(3): Disallow usage of control characters in status in
     *note wsgiref.handlers: 122. to prevent HTTP header injections.
     Patch by Benedikt Johannes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145506

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2026-2297

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144370


File: python.info,  Node: Library<4>,  Next: Documentation<4>,  Prev: Security<4>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 7

1.26.4.4 Library
................

   - gh-145623(1): Fix crash in *note struct: de. when calling *note
     repr(): 45b. or ‘__sizeof__()’ on an uninitialized *note
     struct.Struct: 2fb. object created via ‘Struct.__new__()’ without
     calling ‘__init__()’.

   - gh-145551(2): Fix InvalidStateError when cancelling process created
     by *note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): e3a. or *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): e3b.  Patch by Daan De Meyer.

   - gh-141510(3): *note marshal: 90. now supports *note frozendict:
     182. objects.  The marshal format version was increased to 6.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-145417(4): *note venv: 11a.: Prevent incorrect preservation of
     SELinux context when copying the ‘Activate.ps1’ script.  The script
     inherited the SELinux security context of the system template
     directory, rather than the destination project directory.

   - gh-145335(5): ‘os.listdir(-1)’ and ‘os.scandir(-1)’ now fail with
     ‘OSError(errno.EBADF)’ rather than listing the current directory.
     ‘os.listxattr(-1)’ now fails with ‘OSError(errno.EBADF)’ rather
     than listing extended attributes of the current directory.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-145376(6): Fix double free and null pointer dereference in
     unusual error scenarios in *note hashlib: 6b. and *note hmac: 6d.
     modules.

   - gh-145301(7): *note hmac: 6d.: fix a crash when the initialization
     of the underlying C extension module fails.

   - gh-145301(8): *note hashlib: 6b.: fix a crash when the
     initialization of the underlying C extension module fails.

   - gh-76007(9): The ‘version’ attribute of the *note tarfile: e7.
     module is deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.20.

   - gh-145158(10): Avoid undefined behaviour from signed integer
     overflow when parsing format strings in the *note struct: de.
     module.

   - gh-123853(11): Removed Windows 95 compatibility for *note
     locale.getdefaultlocale(): 233.

   - gh-66802(12): Add *note unicodedata.block(): 29d. function to
     return the Unicode block(13) of a character.

   - gh-145033(14): Add *note typing.TypeForm: 28f, implementing PEP
     747(15).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-141510(16): *note dataclasses.field(): 1945.: if 'metadata' is
     ‘None’, use an empty *note frozendict: 182, instead of a *note
     MappingProxyType(): 189. of an empty *note dict: 188.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-145006(17): Add *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be. hints when a
     module for a different ABI exists.

   - gh-141510(18): ‘ParameterizedMIMEHeader.params’ of *note
     email.headerregistry: 45. is now a *note frozendict: 182. instead
     of a *note types.MappingProxyType: 189.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-134872(19): Add valid import name suggestions on *note
     ModuleNotFoundError: 1be.

   - gh-88091(20): Fix *note unicodedata.decomposition(): 1946. for
     Hangul characters.

   - gh-144986(21): Fix a memory leak in *note atexit.register(): c54.
     Patch by Shamil Abdulaev.

   - gh-144777(22): Fix data races in *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 1947. in the *note free-threaded
     build: 198.

   - gh-144809(23): Make *note collections.deque: 9d6. copy atomic in
     the *note free-threaded build: 198.

   - gh-141510(24): The *note copy: 29. module now supports the *note
     frozendict: 182. type.  Patch by Pieter Eendebak based on work by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-141510(25): The *note json: 85. module now supports the *note
     frozendict: 182. type.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-144835(26): Added missing explanations for some parameters in
     *note glob.glob(): 2d4. and *note glob.iglob(): be1.

   - gh-144833(27): Fixed a use-after-free in *note ssl: d8. when
     ‘SSL_new()’ returns NULL in ‘newPySSLSocket()’.  The error was
     reported via a dangling pointer after the object had already been
     freed.

   - gh-140715(28): Add ‘'%D'’ support to *note strptime(): 2d2.

   - gh-144782(29): Fix *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc. to be *note
     pickleable: ab.

   - gh-144763(30): Fix a race condition in *note tracemalloc: 108.: it
     no longer detaches the attached thread state to acquire its
     internal lock.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-142224(31): *note unicodedata.bidirectional(): 1948. now return
     the correct default bidi class for unassigned code points.

   - gh-117865(32): Reduce the import time of *note inspect: 81. module
     by ~20%.

   - gh-144156(33): Fix the folding of headers by the *note email: 3e.
     library when RFC 2047(34) encoded words are used.  Now whitespace
     is correctly preserved and also correctly added between adjacent
     encoded words.  The latter property was broken by the fix for
     gh-92081(35), which mostly fixed previous failures to preserve
     whitespace.

   - gh-66305(36): Fixed a hang on Windows in the *note tempfile: e9.
     module when trying to create a temporary file or subdirectory in a
     non-writable directory.

   - gh-144615(37): Methods directly decorated with *note
     @functools.singledispatchmethod: 21e. now dispatch on the second
     argument when called after being accessed as class attributes.
     Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-144321(38): The functional syntax for creating *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 2e4. classes now supports passing any *note
     iterable: 15ce. of fields and types.  Previously, only sequences
     were supported.

   - gh-144475(39): Calling *note repr(): 45b. on *note
     functools.partial(): 4a6. is now safer when the partial object’s
     internal attributes are replaced while the string representation is
     being generated.

   - gh-144285(40): Attribute suggestions in *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     tracebacks are now formatted differently to make them easier to
     understand, for example: ‘Did you mean '.datetime.now' instead of
     '.now'’.  Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-144316(41): Fix crash in ‘_remote_debugging’ that caused
     ‘test_external_inspection’ to intermittently fail.  Patch by
     Taegyun Kim.

   - gh-143637(42): Fixed a crash in socket.sendmsg() that could occur
     if ancillary data is mutated re-entrantly during argument parsing.

   - gh-140652(43): Fix a crash in ‘_interpchannels.list_all()’ after
     closing a channel.

   - gh-143698(44): Allow 'scheduler' and 'setpgroup' arguments to be
     explicitly *note None: a65. when calling *note os.posix_spawn():
     731. or *note os.posix_spawnp(): 1949.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-143698(45): Raise *note TypeError: 291. instead of *note
     SystemError: 3ea. when the 'scheduler' in *note os.posix_spawn():
     731. or *note os.posix_spawnp(): 1949. is not a tuple.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-142516(46): *note ssl: d8.: fix reference leaks in *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 336. objects.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-85809(47): Added *note path-like object: 79f. support for *note
     shutil.make_archive(): 8c3.

   - gh-143304(48): Fix *note ctypes.CDLL: dad. to honor the ‘handle’
     parameter on POSIX systems.

   - gh-142781(49): *note zoneinfo: 13d.: fix a crash when instantiating
     *note ZoneInfo: cb1. objects for which the internal class-level
     cache is inconsistent.

   - gh-142787(50): Fix assertion failure in *note sqlite3: d7. blob
     subscript when slicing with indices that result in an empty slice.

   - gh-142352(51): Fix *note asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls(): 9fa. to
     transfer buffered data from *note StreamReader: 194a. to the SSL
     layer, preventing data loss when upgrading a connection to TLS
     mid-stream (e.g., when implementing PROXY protocol support).

   - gh-139899(52): Introduced *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.discover(): 194b. and *note
     importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.discover(): 194c. to allow module and
     submodule name discovery without assuming the use of traditional
     filesystem based imports.

   - gh-137335(53): Get rid of any possibility of a name conflict for
     named pipes in *note multiprocessing: 98. and *note asyncio: b. on
     Windows, no matter how small.

   - gh-135883(54): Fix *note sqlite3: d7.’s *note interactive shell:
     257. keeping part of previous commands when scrolling history.

   - gh-124748(55): Improve *note TypeError: 291. error message when
     ‘weakref.WeakKeyDictionary.update()’ is used with keyword-only
     parameters.

   - gh-80667(56): Add support for Tangut Ideographs names in *note
     unicodedata: 10e.

   - bpo-42353(57): The *note re: c1. module gains a new *note
     re.prefixmatch(): 24a. function as an explicit spelling of what has
     to date always been known as *note re.match(): 24c.  *note
     re.Pattern: 194d. similary gains a *note re.Pattern.prefixmatch():
     24b. method.

     Why?  Explicit is better than implicit.  Other widely used
     languages all use the term «match» to mean what Python uses the
     term «search» for.  The unadorened «match» name in Python has been
     a frequent case of confusion and coding bugs due to the
     inconsistency with the rest if the software industry.

     We do not plan to deprecate and remove the older ‘match’ name.

   - bpo-40243(58): Fix ‘unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0.numeric()’ for
     non-decimal values.

   - bpo-40212(59): Re-enable *note os.posix_fallocate(): 114d. and
     *note os.posix_fadvise(): 114c. on AIX.

   - bpo-3405(60): Add support for user data of Tk virtual events and
     detail for ‘Enter’, ‘Leave’, ‘FocusIn’, ‘FocusOut’, and
     ‘ConfigureRequest’ events to *note tkinter: f9.

   - bpo-32234(61): *note mailbox.Mailbox: 15f1. instances can now be
     used as a context manager.  The Mailbox is locked on context entry
     and unlocked and closed at context exit.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145623

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145551

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141510

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145417

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145335

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145376

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145301

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145301

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145158

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123853

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66802

   (13) 
https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode17.0.0/core-spec/chapter-3/#G64189

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145033

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0747/

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141510

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145006

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141510

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134872

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88091

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144986

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144777

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144809

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141510

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141510

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144835

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144833

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140715

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144782

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144763

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142224

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117865

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144156

   (34) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92081

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66305

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144615

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144321

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144475

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144285

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144316

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143637

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140652

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143698

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143698

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142516

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85809

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143304

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142781

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142787

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142352

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139899

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137335

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135883

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124748

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80667

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42353

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40243

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40212

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3405

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32234


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<4>,  Next: Core and Builtins<4>,  Prev: Library<4>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 7

1.26.4.5 Documentation
......................

   - gh-145450(1): Document missing public *note wave.Wave_write: 2e7.
     getter methods.

   - gh-110937(2): Document rest of full public *note
     importlib.metadata.Distribution: 194f. API. Also add the (already
     documented) *note PackagePath: 1950. to ‘__all__’.

   - gh-136246(3): A new «Improve this page» link is available in the
     left-hand sidebar of the docs, offering links to create GitHub
     issues, discussion forum posts, or pull requests.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145450

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110937

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136246


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<4>,  Next: C API<3>,  Prev: Documentation<4>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 7

1.26.4.6 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-145701(1): Fix *note SystemError: 3ea. when ‘__classdict__’ or
     ‘__conditional_annotations__’ is in a class-scope inlined
     comprehension.  Found by OSS Fuzz in #491105000(2).

   - gh-145615(3): Fixed a memory leak in the *note free-threaded build:
     198. where mimalloc pages could become permanently unreclaimable
     until the owning thread exited.

   - gh-116738(4): Make ‘mmap.mmap.set_name()’ thread-safe on the *note
     free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-145566(5): In the free threading build, skip the stop-the-world
     pause when reassigning ‘__class__’ on a newly created object.

   - gh-143055(6): Fix crash in AST unparser when unparsing dict
     comprehension unpacking.  Found by OSS Fuzz in #489790200(7).

   - gh-145335(8): Fix a crash in *note os.pathconf(): 14a7. when called
     with ‘-1’ as the path argument.

   - gh-145376(9): Fix reference leaks in various unusual error
     scenarios.

   - gh-145234(10): Fixed a ‘SystemError’ in the parser when an encoding
     cookie (for example, UTF-7) decodes to carriage returns (‘\r’).
     Newlines are now normalized after decoding in the string tokenizer.

     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-145275(11): Added the *note -X pathconfig_warnings: 178. and
     *note PYTHON_PATHCONFIG_WARNINGS: 1952. options, allowing to
     disable warnings from *note The initialization of the sys.path
     module search path: 1953.

   - gh-145273(12): A warning is now shown during *note The
     initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1953. if it
     can’t find a valid standard library.

   - gh-145241(13): Specialized the parser error for when ‘with’ items
     are followed by a trailing comma (for example, ‘with item,:’),
     raising a clearer *note SyntaxError: 17e. message.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo and Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-130555(14): Fix use-after-free in *note dict.clear(): 1954. when
     the dictionary values are embedded in an object and a destructor
     causes re-entrant mutation of the dictionary.

   - gh-145197(15): Fix JIT trace crash when recording function from
     cleared generator frame.

   - gh-145187(16): Fix compiler assertion fail when a type parameter
     bound contains an invalid expression in a conditional block.

   - gh-145142(17): Fix a crash in the free-threaded build when the
     dictionary argument to *note str.maketrans(): 187. is concurrently
     modified.

   - gh-145118(18): *note str.maketrans(): 187. now accepts *note
     frozendict: 182.

   - gh-144015(19): Speed up *note bytes.hex(): 111e, *note
     bytearray.hex(): 111f, *note binascii.hexlify(): 1955, and *note
     hashlib: 6b. ‘.hexdigest()’ operations with SIMD on x86-64, ARM64,
     and ARM32 with NEON when built with gcc (version 12 or higher) or
     clang (version 3 or higher) compilers.  Around 1.1-3x faster for
     common 16-64 byte inputs such as hashlib hex digests, and up to 8x
     faster for larger data.

   - gh-145118(20): *note type(): 186. now accepts *note frozendict:
     182. as an argument.

   - gh-145064(21): Fix JIT optimizer assertion failure during
     ‘CALL_ALLOC_AND_ENTER_INIT’ side exit.

   - gh-145055(22): *note exec(): 185. and *note eval(): 184. now accept
     *note frozendict: 182. for 'globals'.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-145058(23): Fix a crash when ‘__lazy_import__()’ is passed a
     non-string argument, by raising an *note TypeError: 291. instead.

   - gh-144995(24): Optimize *note memoryview: 1d2. comparison: a
     ‘memoryview’ is equal to itself, there is no need to compare
     values.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-141510(25): Update specializer to support frozendict.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - gh-141510(26): Optimize ‘frozendict.fromkeys()’ to avoid
     unnecessary thread-safety operations in frozendict cases.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - gh-100239(27): Speedup ‘BINARY_OP_EXTEND’ for exact floats and
     medium-size integers by up to 15%.  Patch by Chris Eibl.

   - gh-144914(28): Use ‘mimalloc’ for raw memory allocations such as
     via *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf. for better performance on *note
     free-threaded builds: 198.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-144872(29): Fix heap buffer overflow in the parser found by
     OSS-Fuzz.

   - gh-144766(30): Fix a crash in fork child process when perf support
     is enabled.

   - gh-144759(31): Fix undefined behavior in the lexer when ‘start’ and
     ‘multi_line_start’ pointers are ‘NULL’ in
     ‘_PyLexer_remember_fstring_buffers()’ and
     ‘_PyLexer_restore_fstring_buffers()’.  The ‘NULL’ pointer
     arithmetic (‘NULL - valid_pointer’) is now guarded with explicit
     ‘NULL’ checks.

   - gh-141510(32): Add built-in *note frozendict: 182. type.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-144681(33): Fix a JIT assertion failure when a conditional
     branch jumps to the same target as the fallthrough path.

   - gh-143300(34): Add *note PyUnstable_SetImmortal(): 397. C-API
     function to mark objects as *note immortal: 398.

   - gh-144702(35): Clarify the error message raised when a class
     pattern is used to match on a non-class object.

   - gh-144569(36): Optimize ‘BINARY_SLICE’ for list, tuple, and unicode
     by avoiding temporary ‘slice’ object creation.

   - gh-144438(37): Align the QSBR thread state array to a 64-byte cache
     line boundary to avoid false sharing in the *note free-threaded
     build: 198.

   - gh-142349(38): Implement PEP 810(39).  Patch by Pablo Galindo and
     Dino Viehland.

   - gh-141226(40): Deprecate PEP 456(41) support for providing an
     external definition of the string hashing scheme.  Removal is
     scheduled for Python 3.19.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-138912(42): Improve *note MATCH_CLASS: afd. performance by up to
     52% in certain cases.  Patch by Marc Mueller.

   - gh-130327(43): Fix erroneous clearing of an object’s *note
     __dict__: 1bf. if overwritten at runtime.

   - gh-80667(44): Literals using the ‘\N{name}’ escape syntax can now
     construct CJK ideographs and Hangul syllables using
     case-insensitive names.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145701

   (2) https://issues.oss-fuzz.com/issues/491105000

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145615

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145566

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143055

   (7) https://issues.oss-fuzz.com/issues/489790200

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145335

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145376

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145234

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145275

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145273

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145241

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130555

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145197

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145187

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145142

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145118

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144015

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145118

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145064

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145055

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145058

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144995

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141510

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141510

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144914

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144872

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144766

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144759

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141510

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144681

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143300

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144702

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144569

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144438

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142349

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0810/

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141226

   (41) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138912

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130327

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80667


File: python.info,  Node: C API<3>,  Next: Build<3>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<4>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 7

1.26.4.7 C API
..............

   - gh-142417(1): Restore private provisional ‘_Py_InitializeMain()’
     function removed in Python 3.14.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-144748(2): *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 880. now raises the
     exception scheduled by *note PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): f82, if
     any.

   - gh-144981(3): Made *note PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra(): 1957, *note
     PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra(): 1958, and *note
     PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex(): 1959. thread-safe on the
     *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-141510(4): Add the following functions for the new *note
     frozendict: 182. type:

        * *note PyAnyDict_Check(): 34c.

        * *note PyAnyDict_CheckExact(): 34d.

        * *note PyFrozenDict_Check(): 34e.

        * *note PyFrozenDict_CheckExact(): 34f.

        * *note PyFrozenDict_New(): 350.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-121617(5): ‘Python.h’ now also includes ‘<string.h>’ in the
     limited C API version 3.11 and newer to fix the *note Py_CLEAR:
     97c. macro which uses ‘memcpy()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-144175(6): Add *note PyArg_ParseArray(): 349. and *note
     PyArg_ParseArrayAndKeywords(): 34a. functions to parse arguments of
     functions using the *note METH_FASTCALL: 34b. calling convention.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142417

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144748

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144981

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141510

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121617

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144175


File: python.info,  Node: Build<3>,  Prev: C API<3>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 7

1.26.4.8 Build
..............

   - gh-144533(1): Use wasmtime’s ‘--argv0’ to auto-discover sysconfig
     in WASI builds

   - gh-145110(2): Fix targets «Clean» and «CLeanAll» in case of PGO
     builds on Windows.  Patch by Chris Eibl.

   - gh-144679(3): When building with Visual Studio 2026 (Version 18),
     use PlatformToolSet v145 by default.  Patch by Chris Eibl.

   - gh-144675(4): Update to WASI SDK 30.

   - gh-136677(5): Introduce executable specific linker flags to
     ‘./configure’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144533

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/145110

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144679

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144675

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136677


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 15 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 15 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.26.5 Python 3.15.0 alpha 6
----------------------------

'Release date: 2026-02-11'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<3>.
* Windows: Windows<4>.
* Tests: Tests<4>.
* Security: Security<5>.
* Library: Library<5>.
* IDLE: IDLE<4>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<5>.
* C API: C API<4>.
* Build: Build<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<3>,  Next: Windows<4>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6

1.26.5.1 macOS
..............

   - gh-144648(1): Allowed _remote_debugging to build on more OS
     versions by using proc_listpids() rather than proc_listallpids().

   - gh-124111(2): Update macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk 9.0.3.

   - gh-144551(3): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.5.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144648

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124111

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144551


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<4>,  Next: Tests<4>,  Prev: macOS<3>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6

1.26.5.2 Windows
................

   - gh-80620(1): Support negative timestamps in *note time.gmtime():
     1569, *note time.localtime(): 189b, and various *note datetime: 33.
     functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80620


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<4>,  Next: Security<5>,  Prev: Windows<4>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6

1.26.5.3 Tests
..............

   - gh-144415(1): The Android testbed now distinguishes between
     stdout/stderr messages which were triggered by a newline, and those
     triggered by a manual call to ‘flush’.  This fixes logging of
     progress indicators and similar content.

   - gh-65784(2): Add support for parametrized resource ‘wantobjects’ in
     regrtests, which allows to run Tkinter tests with the specified
     value of ‘tkinter.wantobjects’, for example ‘-u wantobjects=0’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144415

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65784


File: python.info,  Node: Security<5>,  Next: Library<5>,  Prev: Tests<4>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6

1.26.5.4 Security
.................

   - gh-144125(1): *note BytesGenerator: 1578. will now refuse to
     serialize (write) headers that are unsafely folded or delimited;
     see *note verify_generated_headers: 6f7.  (Contributed by Bas
     Bloemsaat and Petr Viktorin in gh-121650(2)).

   - gh-143935(3): Fixed a bug in the folding of comments when
     flattening an email message using a modern email policy.  Comments
     consisting of a very long sequence of non-foldable characters could
     trigger a forced line wrap that omitted the required leading space
     on the continuation line, causing the remainder of the comment to
     be interpreted as a new header field.  This enabled header
     injection with carefully crafted inputs.

   - gh-143925(4): Reject control characters in ‘data:’ URL media types.

   - gh-143923(5): Reject control characters in POP3 commands.

   - gh-143921(6): Reject control characters in IMAP commands.

   - gh-143919(7): Reject control characters in *note
     http.cookies.Morsel: fc3. fields and values.

   - gh-143916(8): Reject C0 control characters within
     wsgiref.headers.Headers fields, values, and parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144125

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143935

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143925

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143923

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143921

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143919

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143916


File: python.info,  Node: Library<5>,  Next: IDLE<4>,  Prev: Security<5>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6

1.26.5.5 Library
................

   - gh-144538(1): Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to
     version 26.0.1

   - gh-144493(2): Improve an exception error message in
     ‘_overlapped.BindLocal()’ that is raised when *note
     asyncio.loop.sock_connect(): 1181. is called on a *note
     asyncio.ProactorEventLoop: 9fe. with a socket that has an invalid
     address family.

   - gh-144386(3): Add support for arbitrary descriptors ‘__enter__()’,
     ‘__exit__()’, ‘__aenter__()’, and ‘__aexit__()’ in *note
     contextlib.ExitStack: 208. and *note contextlib.AsyncExitStack:
     209, for consistency with the *note with: 20a. and *note async
     with: 20b. statements.

   - gh-123471(4): Make concurrent iteration over *note
     itertools.combinations_with_replacement: 1626. and *note
     itertools.permutations: 1961. safe under free-threading.

   - gh-74453(5): Deprecate *note os.path.commonprefix(): 333. in favor
     of *note os.path.commonpath(): 334. for path segment prefixes.

     The *note os.path.commonprefix(): 333. function is being deprecated
     due to having a misleading name and module.  The function is not
     safe to use for path prefixes despite being included in a module
     about path manipulation, meaning it is easy to accidentally
     introduce path traversal vulnerabilities into Python programs by
     using this function.

   - gh-144380(6): Improve performance of *note io.BufferedReader: 15b5.
     line iteration by ~49%.

   - gh-144363(7): Update bundled libexpat(8) to 2.7.4

   - gh-140824(9): When *note faulthandler: 5b. dumps the list of
     third-party extension modules, ignore sub-modules of stdlib
     packages.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-144206(10): Improve error messages for buffer overflow in *note
     fcntl.fcntl(): 1962. and *note fcntl.ioctl(): 181d.

   - gh-144264(11): Speed up Base64 decoding of data containing ignored
     characters (both in non-strict mode and with an explicit
     'ignorechars' argument).  It is now up to 2 times faster for
     multiline Base64 data.

   - gh-144249(12): Add filename context to *note OSError: 53c.
     exceptions raised by *note ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): 797,
     allowing users to have more context.

   - gh-132888(13): Fix incorrect use of *note ctypes.GetLastError():
     1963. and add missing error checks for Windows API calls in
     ‘_pyrepl.windows_console’.

   - gh-142956(14): Updated *note tomllib: 105. to parse TOML 1.1.0.

   - gh-144217(15): *note mimetypes: 93.: Add support for DICOM files
     (for medical imaging) with the official MIME type
     ‘application/dicom’.  Patch by Benedikt Johannes.

   - gh-144212(16): Mime type ‘image/jxl’ is now supported by *note
     mimetypes: 93.

   - gh-143594(17): Add *note symtable.Function.get_cells(): 26b. and
     *note symtable.Symbol.is_cell(): 26c. methods.

   - gh-144169(18): Fix three crashes when non-string keyword arguments
     are supplied to objects in the *note ast: 9. module.

   - gh-144128(19): Fix a crash in *note array.array.fromlist(): 1964.
     when an element’s *note __index__(): 43d. method mutates the input
     list during conversion.

   - gh-144100(20): Fixed a crash in ctypes when using a deprecated
     ‘POINTER(str)’ type in ‘argtypes’.  Instead of aborting, ctypes now
     raises a proper Python exception when the pointer target type is
     unresolved.

   - gh-143658(21): *note importlib.metadata: 7d.: Use *note
     str.lower(): 1965. and *note str.replace(): 6c0. to further improve
     performance of ‘importlib.metadata.Prepared.normalize()’.  Patch by
     Hugo van Kemenade and Henry Schreiner.

   - gh-144050(22): Fix *note stat.filemode(): 14f6. in the pure-Python
     implementation to avoid misclassifying invalid mode values as block
     devices.

   - gh-83069(23): *note subprocess.Popen.wait(): 266.: when ‘timeout’
     is not ‘None’, an efficient event-driven mechanism now waits for
     process termination, if available.  Linux >= 5.3 uses *note
     os.pidfd_open(): 267. + *note select.poll(): 268.  macOS and other
     BSD variants use *note select.kqueue(): 269. + ‘KQ_FILTER_PROC’ +
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXIT’.  Windows keeps using ‘WaitForSingleObject’
     (unchanged).  If none of these mechanisms are available, the
     function falls back to the traditional busy loop (non-blocking call
     and short sleeps).  Patch by Giampaolo Rodola.

   - gh-144030(24): The Python implementation of *note
     functools.lru_cache(): db3. differed from the default C
     implementation in that it did not check that its argument is
     callable.  This discrepancy is now fixed and both raise a *note
     TypeError: 291.

   - gh-144001(25): Added the 'ignorechars' parameter in *note
     binascii.a2b_base64(): 1fd. and *note base64.b64decode(): 1ec.

   - gh-144023(26): Fixed validation of file descriptor 0 in posix
     functions when used with follow_symlinks parameter.

   - gh-143999(27): Fix an issue where *note
     inspect.getgeneratorstate(): 15dc. and *note
     inspect.getcoroutinestate(): 11cd. could fail for generators
     wrapped by *note types.coroutine(): 1239. in the suspended state.

   - gh-143952(28): Fixed *note asyncio: b. debugging tools to work with
     new remote debugging API. Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-143904(29): *note struct.pack_into(): 1966. now raises
     OverflowError instead of IndexError for too large 'offset'
     argument.

   - gh-143897(30): Remove the ‘isxidstart()’ and ‘isxidcontinue()’
     methods of *note unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0: 17d6.  They are now only
     exposed as *note unicodedata.isxidstart(): 297. and *note
     unicodedata.isxidcontinue(): 298.

   - gh-143831(31): *note annotationlib.ForwardRef: 1967. objects are
     now hashable when created from annotation scopes with closures.
     Previously, hashing such objects would throw an exception.  Patch
     by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-143874(32): Fixed a bug in *note pdb: aa. where expression
     results were not sent back to remote client.

   - gh-143754(33): Add new *note tkinter: f9. widget methods
     ‘pack_content()’, ‘place_content()’ and ‘grid_content()’ which are
     alternative spelling of old ‘*_slaves()’ methods.

   - gh-143756(34): Fix potential thread safety issues in *note ssl: d8.
     module.

   - gh-132604(35): Previously, *note Protocol: 76c. classes that were
     not decorated with *note @~typing.runtime_checkable: 861, but that
     inherited from another ‘Protocol’ class that did have this
     decorator, could be used in *note isinstance(): 2ef. and *note
     issubclass(): 2f0. checks.  This behavior is now deprecated and
     such checks will throw a *note TypeError: 291. in Python 3.20.
     Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-143543(36): Fix a crash in itertools.groupby that could occur
     when a user-defined *note __eq__(): ec0. method re-enters the
     iterator during key comparison.

   - gh-143689(37): Fix *note io.BufferedReader.read1(): 1968. state
     cleanup on buffer allocation failure.

   - gh-143602(38): Fix a inconsistency issue in *note write(): 174e.
     that leads to unexpected buffer overwrite by deduplicating the
     buffer exports.

   - gh-142434(39): Use ‘ppoll()’ if available in *note select.poll():
     268. to have a timeout resolution of 1 nanosecond, instead of a
     resolution of 1 ms.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-140557(40): *note array.array: 6c5. buffers now have the same
     alignment when empty as when allocated.  Unaligned buffers can
     still be created by slicing.

   - gh-143423(41): Fix free-threaded build detection in the sampling
     profiler when Py_GIL_DISABLED is set to 0.

   - gh-101178(42): Add Ascii85, Base85, and Z85 support to *note
     binascii: 11. and improve the performance of the base-85 converters
     in *note base64: f.

   - gh-142966(43): Fix ‘ctypes.POINTER.set_type()’ not updating the
     format string to match the type.

   - gh-142555(44): *note array: 8.: fix a crash in ‘a[i] = v’ when
     converting 'i' to an index via *note i.__index__: 43d. or *note
     i.__float__: d92. mutates the array.

   - gh-142438(45): Fix _decimal builds configured with
     EXTRA_FUNCTIONALITY by correcting the Context.apply wrapper to pass
     the right argument.

   - gh-141860(46): Add an ‘on_error’ keyword-only parameter to *note
     multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload(): 1969. to control how
     import failures during module preloading are handled.  Accepts
     ‘'ignore'’ (default, silent), ‘'warn'’ (emit *note ImportWarning:
     907.), or ‘'fail'’ (raise exception).  Contributed by Nick Neumann
     and Gregory P. Smith.

   - gh-125346(47): Accepting ‘+’ and ‘/’ characters with an alternative
     alphabet in *note base64.b64decode(): 1ec. and *note
     base64.urlsafe_b64decode(): 1ee. is now deprecated.  In future
     Python versions they will be errors in the strict mode and
     discarded in the non-strict mode.

   - gh-140715(48): Add ‘'%F'’ support to *note strptime(): 2d2.

   - gh-67041(49): Add the 'missing_as_none' parameter to *note
     urlparse(): 2a4, *note urlsplit(): 2a3. and *note urldefrag(): 2a5.
     functions.  Add the 'keep_empty' parameter to *note urlunparse():
     2a7. and *note urlunsplit(): 2a6. functions.  This allows to
     distinguish between empty and not defined URI components and
     preserve empty components.

   - gh-77188(50): The *note pickle: ab. module now properly handles
     name-mangled private methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144538

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144493

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144386

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123471

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74453

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144380

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144363

   (8) https://libexpat.github.io/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140824

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144206

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144264

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144249

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132888

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142956

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144217

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144212

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143594

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144169

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144128

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144100

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143658

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144050

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83069

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144030

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144001

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144023

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143999

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143952

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143904

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143897

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143831

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143874

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143754

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143756

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132604

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143543

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143689

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143602

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142434

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140557

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143423

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101178

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142966

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142555

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142438

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141860

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125346

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140715

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67041

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77188


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<4>,  Next: Core and Builtins<5>,  Prev: Library<5>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6

1.26.5.6 IDLE
.............

   - gh-143774(1): Better explain the operation of Format / Format
     Paragraph.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143774


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<5>,  Next: C API<4>,  Prev: IDLE<4>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6

1.26.5.7 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-134584(1): Optimize and eliminate ref-counting in
     ‘_BINARY_OP_SUBSCR_LIST_SLICE’

   - gh-144563(2): Fix interaction of the Tachyon profiler and *note
     ctypes: 2d. and other modules that load the Python shared library
     (if present) in an independent map as this was causing the
     mechanism that loads the binary information to be confused.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-144601(3): Fix crash when importing a module whose ‘PyInit’
     function raises an exception from a subinterpreter.

   - gh-144549(4): Fix building the tail calling interpreter on Visual
     Studio 2026 with free-threading.

   - gh-144513(5): Fix potential deadlock when using critical sections
     during stop-the-world pauses in the free-threaded build.

   - gh-131798(6): Optimise ‘_GUARD_TOS_SLICE’ in the JIT.

   - gh-144330(7): Move ‘classmethod’ and ‘staticmethod’ initialization
     from ‘__init__()’ to ‘__new__()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-144446(8): Fix data races in the free-threaded build when
     reading frame object attributes while another thread is executing
     the frame.

   - gh-120321(9): Add ‘gi_state’, ‘cr_state’, and ‘ag_state’ attributes
     to generators, coroutines, and async generators that return the
     current state as a string (e.g., ‘GEN_RUNNING’).  The *note
     inspect: 81. module functions *note getgeneratorstate(): 15dc,
     *note getcoroutinestate(): 11cd, and *note getasyncgenstate(): 8a3.
     now return these attributes directly.

   - gh-141563(10): Fix thread safety of ‘ PyDateTime_IMPORT’.

   - gh-144280(11): Fix a bug in JIT where the predicate symbol had no
     truthiness

   - gh-140550(12): In *note PyModuleDef.m_slots: 196c, allow slots that
     repeat information present in *note PyModuleDef: d45.

   - gh-139103(13): Improve scaling of *note namedtuple(): 1cf.
     instantiation in the free-threaded build.

   - gh-144307(14): Prevent a reference leak in module teardown at
     interpreter finalization.

   - gh-144319(15): Add huge pages support for the pymalloc allocator.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-120321(16): Made ‘gi_yieldfrom’ thread-safe in the
     free-threading build by using a lightweight lock on the frame
     state.

   - gh-144194(17): Fix error handling in perf jitdump initialization on
     memory allocation failure.

   - gh-143962(18): Name suggestion for not normalized name suggests now
     the normalized name or the closest name to the normalized name.  If
     the suggested name is not ASCII, include also its ASCII
     representation.

   - gh-144157(19): *note bytes.translate(): 196d. now allows the
     compiler to unroll its loop more usefully for a 2x speedup in the
     common no-deletions specified case.

   - gh-144068(20): Fix JIT tracer memory leak, ensure the JIT tracer
     state is freed when daemon threads are cleaned up during
     interpreter shutdown.

   - gh-144012(21): Check if the result is ‘NULL’ in ‘BINARY_OP_EXTENT’
     opcode.

   - gh-144007(22): Eliminate redundant refcounting in the JIT for
     ‘BINARY_OP’.

   - gh-144005(23): Eliminate redundant refcounting from
     ‘BINARY_OP_EXTEND’.

   - gh-143939(24): Fix erroneous «cannot reuse already awaited
     coroutine» error that could occur when a generator was run during
     the process of clearing a coroutine’s frame.

   - gh-141805(25): Fix crash in *note set: 42b. when objects with the
     same hash are concurrently added to the set after removing an
     element with the same hash while the set still contains elements
     with the same hash.

   - gh-143670(26): Fixes a crash in ‘ga_repr_items_list’ function.

   - gh-143650(27): Fix race condition in *note importlib: 7a. where a
     thread could receive a stale module reference when another thread’s
     import fails.

   - gh-143569(28): Generator expressions in 3.15 now conform to the
     documented behavior when the iterable does not support iteration.
     This matches the behavior in 3.14 and earlier

   - gh-143192(29): Improve performance of bitwise operations on
     multi-digit ints.

   - gh-132657(30): If we are specializing to ‘LOAD_GLOBAL_MODULE’ or
     ‘LOAD_ATTR_MODULE’, try to enable deferred reference counting for
     the value, if the object is owned by a different thread.  This
     applies to the free-threaded build only and should improve scaling
     of multi-threaded programs.  Note that when deferred reference
     counting is enabled, the object will be deallocated by the GC,
     rather than by *note Py_DECREF(): 975.

   - gh-143055(31): Implement PEP 798(32) (Unpacking in Comprehensions).
     Patch by Adam Hartz.

   - gh-142037(33): Improve error messages for printf-style formatting.
     For errors in the format string, always include the position of the
     start of the format unit.  For errors related to the formatted
     arguments, always include the number or the name of the argument.
     Raise more specific errors and include more information (type and
     number of arguments, most probable causes of error).

   - gh-140557(34): *note bytearray: 1c6. buffers now have the same
     alignment when empty as when allocated.  Unaligned buffers can
     still be created by slicing.

   - gh-140232(35): Frozenset objects with immutable elements are no
     longer tracked by the garbage collector.

   - gh-115231(36): Setup ‘__module__’ attribute for built-in static
     methods.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144563

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144601

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144549

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144513

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144330

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144446

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120321

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141563

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144280

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140550

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139103

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144307

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144319

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120321

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144194

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143962

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144157

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144068

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144012

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144007

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144005

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143939

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141805

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143670

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143650

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143569

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143192

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132657

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143055

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0798/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142037

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140557

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140232

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115231


File: python.info,  Node: C API<4>,  Next: Build<4>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<5>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6

1.26.5.8 C API
..............

   - gh-143869(1): Added *note PyLong_GetNativeLayout(): 5d4, *note
     PyLongLayout: 196f, *note PyLongExport: 1970, *note
     PyLong_Export(): 5d5, *note PyLong_FreeExport(): 5d6, *note
     PyLongWriter: 1971, *note PyLongWriter_Create(): 5d7, *note
     PyLongWriter_Finish(): 5d8. and *note PyLongWriter_Discard(): 5d9.
     to the limited API.

   - gh-141070(2): Renamed ‘PyUnstable_Object_Dump()’ to *note
     PyObject_Dump(): 374.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143869

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141070


File: python.info,  Node: Build<4>,  Prev: C API<4>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6

1.26.5.9 Build
..............

   - gh-140421(1): Disable the perf trampoline on older macOS versions
     where it cannot be built.

   - gh-144309(2): Build Python with POSIX 2024, instead of POSIX 2008.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-144278(3): Enables defining the ‘_PY_IMPL_NAME’ and
     ‘_PY_IMPL_CACHE_TAG’ preprocessor definitions to override *note
     sys.implementation: 926. at build time.  Definitions need to
     include quotes when setting to a string literal.  Setting the cache
     tag to ‘NULL’ has the effect of completely disabling automatic
     creation and use of ‘.pyc’ files.

   - gh-143960(4): Add support for OpenSSL 3.6, drop EOL 3.2.  Patch by
     Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-143941(5): Move WASI-related files to ‘Platforms/WASI’.  Along
     the way, leave a deprecated ‘Tools/wasm/wasi/__main__.py’ behind
     for backwards-compatibility.

   - gh-143842(6): Prevent static builds from clashing with curses by
     making the optimizer COLORS table static.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140421

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144309

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/144278

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143960

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143941

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143842


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 15 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 15 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 15 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.26.6 Python 3.15.0 alpha 5
----------------------------

'Release date: 2026-01-14'

* Menu:

* Windows: Windows<5>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<2>.
* Tests: Tests<5>.
* Library: Library<6>.
* Documentation: Documentation<5>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<6>.
* C API: C API<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<5>,  Next: Tools/Demos<2>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 5

1.26.6.1 Windows
................

   - gh-143082(1): Fix *note pdb: aa. arrow key history not working when
     ‘stdin’ is ‘sys.stdin’.

   - gh-128067(2): Fix a bug in PyREPL on Windows where output without a
     trailing newline was overwritten by the next prompt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143082

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128067


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<2>,  Next: Tests<5>,  Prev: Windows<5>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 5

1.26.6.2 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-142095(1): Make gdb “py-bt” command use frame from thread local
     state when available.  Patch by Sam Gross and Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142095


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<5>,  Next: Library<6>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<2>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 5

1.26.6.3 Tests
..............

   - gh-143460(1): Skip tests relying on infinite recusion if stack size
     is unlimited.

   - gh-143553(2): Add support for parametrized resources, such as ‘-u
     xpickle=2.7’.

   - bpo-31391(3): Forward-port test_xpickle from Python 2 to Python 3
     and add the resource back to test’s command line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143460

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143553

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31391


File: python.info,  Node: Library<6>,  Next: Documentation<5>,  Prev: Tests<5>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 5

1.26.6.4 Library
................

   - gh-143706(1): Fix *note multiprocessing: 98. forkserver so that
     *note sys.argv: 1609. is correctly set before ‘__main__’ is
     preloaded.  Previously, ‘sys.argv’ was empty during main module
     import in forkserver child processes.  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.13.8 and 3.14.1.  Root caused by Aaron Wieczorek,
     test provided by Thomas Watson, thanks!

   - gh-143638(2): Forbid reentrant calls of the *note pickle.Pickler:
     de2. and *note pickle.Unpickler: 1978. methods for the C
     implementation.  Previously, this could cause crash or data
     corruption, now concurrent calls of methods of the same object
     raise *note RuntimeError: 30d.

   - gh-143658(3): *note importlib.metadata: 7d.: Use *note
     str.translate(): 1979. to improve performance of
     ‘importlib.metadata.Prepared.normalize()’.  Patch by Hugo van
     Kemenade and Henry Schreiner.

   - gh-78724(4): Raise *note RuntimeError: 30d.’s when user attempts to
     call methods on half-initialized *note Struct: 2fb. objects, For
     example, created by ‘Struct.__new__(Struct)’.  Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-143196(5): Fix crash when the internal encoder object returned
     by undocumented function ‘json.encoder.c_make_encoder()’ was called
     with non-zero second ('_current_indent_level') argument.

   - gh-143191(6): *note _thread.stack_size(): 197a. now raises *note
     ValueError: 277. if the stack size is too small.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-143547(7): Fix *note sys.unraisablehook(): 70c. when the hook
     raises an exception and changes ‘sys.unraisablehook()’: hold a
     strong reference to the old hook.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-139686(8): Revert 0a97941245f1dda6d838f9aaf0512104e5253929 and
     57db12514ac686f0a752ec8fe1c08b6daa0c6219 which made
     importlib.reload a no-op for lazy modules; caused Buildbot
     failures.

   - gh-143517(9): *note annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. no longer
     raises a *note SyntaxError: 17e. when evaluating a stringified
     starred annotation that starts with one or more whitespace
     characters followed by a ‘*’.  Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-143474(10): Add *note os.RWF_ATOMIC: 197b. constant for Linux
     6.11+.

   - gh-143445(11): Speed up *note copy.deepcopy(): f2b. by 1.04x.

   - gh-143378(12): Fix use-after-free crashes when a *note BytesIO:
     1255. object is concurrently mutated during *note write(): 174e. or
     *note writelines(): 197c.

   - gh-143368(13): Fix endless retry loop in *note profiling.sampling:
     b6. blocking mode when threads cannot be seized due to ‘EPERM’.
     Such threads are now skipped instead of causing repeated error
     messages.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-143346(14): Fix incorrect wrapping of the Base64 data in
     ‘plistlib._PlistWriter’ when the indent contains a mix of tabs and
     spaces.

   - gh-140025(15): *note queue: be.: Fix ‘SimpleQueue.__sizeof__()’
     computation.

   - gh-143310(16): *note tkinter: f9.: fix a crash when a Python *note
     list: 4d9. is mutated during the conversion to a Tcl object (e.g.,
     when setting a Tcl variable).  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-143309(17): Fix a crash in *note os.execve(): 14a5. on
     non-Windows platforms when given a custom environment mapping which
     is then mutated during parsing.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-143308(18): *note pickle: ab.: fix use-after-free crashes when a
     *note PickleBuffer: 1908. is concurrently mutated by a custom
     buffer callback during pickling.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran and Aaron
     Wieczorek.

   - gh-142939(19): Performance optimisations for *note
     difflib.get_close_matches(): 197d.

   - gh-124951(20): The base64 implementation behind the *note binascii:
     11, *note base64: f, and related codec has been optimized for
     modern pipelined CPU architectures and now performs 2-3x faster
     across all platforms.

   - gh-143237(21): Fix support of named pipes in the rotating *note
     logging: 8a. handlers.

   - gh-143249(22): Fix possible buffer leaks in Windows overlapped I/O
     on error handling.

   - gh-143241(23): *note zoneinfo: 13d.: fix infinite loop in *note
     ZoneInfo.from_file: 197e. when parsing a malformed TZif file.
     Patch by Fatih Celik.

   - gh-142830(24): *note sqlite3: d7.: fix use-after-free crashes when
     the connection’s callbacks are mutated during a callback execution.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-143200(25): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: fix
     use-after-free crashes in *note __getitem__(): 787. and *note
     __setitem__(): 1670. methods of *note Element: 343. when the
     element is concurrently mutated.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-143214(26): Add the 'wrapcol' parameter in *note
     binascii.b2a_base64(): 1fc. and *note base64.b64encode(): 1eb.

   - gh-142195(27): Updated timeout evaluation logic in *note
     subprocess: df. to be compatible with deterministic environments
     like Shadow where time moves exactly as requested.

   - gh-140739(28): Fix several crashes due to reading invalid memory in
     the new Tachyon sampling profiler.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-142164(29): Fix the ctypes bitfield overflow error message to
     report the correct offset and size calculation.

   - gh-143145(30): Fixed a possible reference leak in ctypes when
     constructing results with multiple output parameters on error.

   - gh-143103(31): Add padding support to *note base64.z85encode():
     1e6. via the ‘pad’ parameter.

   - gh-130796(32): Undeprecate the *note locale.getdefaultlocale():
     233. function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-74902(33): Add the *note iter_graphemes(): 299. function in the
     *note unicodedata: 10e. module to iterate over grapheme clusters
     according to rules defined in Unicode Standard Annex #29, "Unicode
     Text Segmentation"(34).  Add *note grapheme_cluster_break(): 29a,
     *note indic_conjunct_break(): 29b. and *note
     extended_pictographic(): 29c. functions to get the properties of
     the character which are related to the above algorithm.

   - gh-143004(35): Fix a potential use-after-free in *note
     collections.Counter.update(): 197f. when user code mutates the
     Counter during an update.

   - gh-140648(36): The *note asyncio: b. REPL now respects the *note
     -I: d28. flag (isolated mode).  Previously, it would load and
     execute *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453. even if the flag was set.
     Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-142991(37): Fixed socket operations such as recvfrom() and
     sendto() for FreeBSD divert(4) socket.

   - gh-116738(38): Make the attributes in *note lzma: 8d. thread-safe
     on the *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-142950(39): Fix regression in *note argparse: 7. where format
     specifiers in help strings raised *note ValueError: 277.

   - gh-142881(40): Fix concurrent and reentrant call of *note
     atexit.unregister(): 1980.

   - gh-142615(41): Fix possible crashes when initializing *note
     asyncio.Task: 460. or *note asyncio.Future: f8b. multiple times.
     These classes can now be initialized only once and any subsequent
     initialization attempt will raise a RuntimeError.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-142517(42): The non-‘compat32’ *note email: 3e. policies now
     correctly handle refolding encoded words that contain bytes that
     can not be decoded in their specified character set.  Previously
     this resulted in an encoding exception during folding.

   - gh-138122(43): The Tachyon profiler’s live TUI now integrates with
     the experimental ‘_colorize’ theming system.  Users can customize
     colors via ‘_colorize.set_theme()’ (experimental API, subject to
     change).  A ‘LiveProfilerLight’ theme is provided for light
     terminal backgrounds.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-142306(44): Improve errors for *note Element.remove: 1981.

   - gh-63016(45): Add a ‘flags’ parameter to *note mmap.mmap.flush():
     e5e. to control synchronization behavior.

   - gh-139262(46): Some keystrokes can be swallowed in the new ‘PyREPL’
     on Windows, especially when used together with the ALT key.  Fix by
     Chris Eibl.

   - gh-138897(47): Improved *note license: 1982./*note copyright:
     1983./*note credits: 1984. display in the *note REPL: 69d.: now
     uses a pager.

   - gh-135852(48): Add ‘_winapi.RegisterEventSource()’,
     ‘_winapi.DeregisterEventSource()’ and ‘_winapi.ReportEvent()’.
     Using these functions in *note NTEventLogHandler: 1985. to replace
     ‘pywin32’.

   - gh-109263(49): Starting a process from spawn context in *note
     multiprocessing: 98. no longer sets the start method globally.

   - gh-132715(50): Skip writing objects during marshalling once a
     failure has occurred.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143706

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143638

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143658

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78724

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143196

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143191

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143547

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139686

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143517

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143474

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143445

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143378

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143368

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143346

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140025

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143310

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143309

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143308

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142939

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124951

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143237

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143249

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143241

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142830

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143200

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143214

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142195

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140739

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142164

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143145

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143103

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130796

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74902

   (34) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr29/

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143004

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140648

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142991

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142950

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142881

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142615

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142517

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142306

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63016

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139262

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138897

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135852

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109263

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132715


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<5>,  Next: Core and Builtins<6>,  Prev: Library<6>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 5

1.26.6.5 Documentation
......................

   - gh-140806(1): Add documentation for *note enum.bin(): 1987.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140806


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<6>,  Next: C API<5>,  Prev: Documentation<5>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 5

1.26.6.6 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-134584(1): Eliminate redundant refcounting from ‘_CONTAINS_OP’,
     ‘_CONTAINS_OP_SET’ and ‘_CONTAINS_OP_DICT’.

   - gh-143604(2): Fix a reference counting issue in the JIT tracer
     where the current executor could be prematurely freed during
     tracing.

   - gh-143469(3): Enable ‘LOAD_ATTR_MODULE’ specialization even if
     ‘__getattr__()’ is defined in module.

   - gh-134584(4): Eliminate redundant refcounting from ‘TO_BOOL_STR’.

   - gh-143377(5): Fix a crash in ‘_interpreters.capture_exception()’
     when the exception is incorrectly formatted.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-139757(6): Add ‘BINARY_OP_SUBSCR_USTR_INT’ to specialize reading
     an ASCII character from any string.  Patch by Chris Eibl.

   - gh-141504(7): Factor out tracing and optimization heuristics into a
     single object.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-142982(8): Specialize *note CALL_FUNCTION_EX: 1108. for Python
     and non-Python callables.

   - gh-136924(9): The interactive help mode in the *note REPL: 69d. no
     longer incorrectly syntax highlights text input as Python code.
     Contributed by Olga Matoula.

   - gh-139757(10): Fix unintended bytecode specialization for non-ascii
     string.  Patch by Donghee Na, Ken Jin and Chris Eibl.

   - gh-143361(11): Add ‘PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET’ to
     ‘_Py_CallBuiltinClass_StackRefSteal’ to avoid redundant allocations

   - gh-131798(12): The JIT optimizer now understands more generator
     instructions.

   - gh-134584(13): Eliminate redundant refcounting from
     ‘_LOAD_ATTR_SLOT’.

   - gh-143189(14): Fix crash when inserting a non-*note str: 1df. key
     into a split table dictionary when the key matches an existing key
     in the split table but has no corresponding value in the dict.

   - gh-143228(15): Fix use-after-free in perf trampoline when toggling
     profiling while threads are running or during interpreter
     finalization with daemon threads active.  The fix uses reference
     counting to ensure trampolines are not freed while any code object
     could still reference them.  Pach by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-142664(16): Fix a use-after-free crash in *note
     memoryview.__hash__: ec1. when the ‘__hash__’ method of the
     referenced object mutates that object or the view.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-142557(17): Fix a use-after-free crash in *note
     bytearray.__mod__: 113a. when the ‘bytearray’ is mutated while
     formatting the ‘%’-style arguments.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-143195(18): Fix use-after-free crashes in *note bytearray.hex():
     111f. and *note memoryview.hex(): 1120. when the separator’s *note
     __len__(): 1989. mutates the original object.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-143183(19): Fix a bug in the JIT when dealing with unsupported
     control-flow or operations.

   - gh-142975(20): Fix crash after unfreezing all objects tracked by
     the garbage collector on the *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-143135(21): Set *note sys.flags.inspect: 198a. to ‘1’ when *note
     PYTHONINSPECT: 187c. is ‘0’.  Previously, it was set to ‘0’ in this
     case.

   - gh-143123(22): Protect the JIT against recursive tracing.

   - gh-143092(23): Fix a crash in the JIT when dealing with
     ‘list.append(x)’ style code.

   - gh-143003(24): Fix an overflow of the shared empty buffer in *note
     bytearray.extend(): 198b. when ‘__length_hint__()’ returns 0 for
     non-empty iterator.

   - gh-143006(25): Fix a possible assertion error when comparing
     negative non-integer ‘float’ and ‘int’ with the same number of bits
     in the integer part.

   - gh-116738(26): Fix thread safety of *note
     contextvars.Context.run(): 198c.

   - gh-142829(27): Fix a use-after-free crash in *note
     contextvars.Context: 421. comparison when a custom ‘__eq__’ method
     modifies the context via *note set(): 198d.

   - gh-142863(28): Generate optimized bytecode when calling *note list:
     4d9. or *note set: 42b. with generator expression.

   - gh-41779(29): Allowed defining any *note __slots__: 1cd. for a
     class derived from *note tuple: 1ce. (including classes created by
     *note collections.namedtuple(): 1cf.).

   - gh-69605(30): Fix edge-cases around already imported modules in the
     *note REPL: 69d. auto-completion of imports.

   - gh-138568(31): Adjusted the built-in *note help(): ca9. function so
     that empty inputs are ignored in interactive mode.

   - gh-131798(32): Remove bounds check when indexing into tuples with a
     constant index.

   - gh-134584(33): Eliminate redundant refcounting from ‘_CALL_TYPE_1’.
     Patch by Tomas Roun

   - gh-132108(34): Speed up *note int.from_bytes(): 198e. when passed
     object supports *note buffer protocol: 311, like *note bytearray:
     1c6. by ~1.2x.

   - gh-128334(35): Make the *note slice: 1d0. class subscriptable at
     runtime to be consistent with typing implementation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143604

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143469

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143377

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139757

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141504

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142982

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136924

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139757

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143361

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143189

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143228

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142664

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142557

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143195

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143183

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142975

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143135

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143123

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143092

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143003

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143006

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142829

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142863

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/41779

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69605

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138568

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132108

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128334


File: python.info,  Node: C API<5>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<6>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 5

1.26.6.7 C API
..............

   - gh-141671(1): *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 1875. (and the new *note
     PyMODEXPORT_FUNC: 1990.) now adds a linkage declaration
     (‘__declspec(dllexport)’) on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141671


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 15 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 15 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 15 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.26.7 Python 3.15.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2026-01-13'

* Menu:

* Tests: Tests<6>.
* Library: Library<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<6>,  Next: Library<7>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 4

1.26.7.1 Tests
..............

   - gh-142836(1): Accommodated Solaris in
     ‘test_pdb.test_script_target_anonymous_pipe’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142836


File: python.info,  Node: Library<7>,  Next: Core and Builtins<7>,  Prev: Tests<6>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 4

1.26.7.2 Library
................

   - gh-122431(1): Corrected the error message in *note
     readline.append_history_file(): 1202. to state that ‘nelements’
     must be non-negative instead of positive.

   - gh-143046(2): The *note asyncio: b. REPL no longer prints copyright
     and version messages in the quiet mode (*note -q: 1994.).  Patch by
     Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-80744(3): Fix issue where ‘pdb’ would read a ‘.pdbrc’ twice if
     launched from the home directory

   - gh-138122(4): Add blocking mode to Tachyon for accurate stack
     traces in applications with many generators or fast-changing call
     stacks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-143010(5): Fixed a bug in *note mailbox: 8e. where the precise
     timing of an external event could result in the library opening an
     existing file instead of a file it expected to create.

   - gh-112127(6): Fix possible use-after-free in *note
     atexit.unregister(): 1980. when the callback is unregistered during
     comparison.

   - gh-138122(7): Fix incomplete stack traces in the Tachyon profiler’s
     frame cache when profiling code with deeply nested generators.  The
     frame cache now validates that stack traces reach the base frame
     before caching, preventing broken flamegraphs.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - gh-142834(8): Change the *note pdb: aa. ‘commands’ command to use
     the last available breakpoint instead of failing when the most
     recently created breakpoint was deleted.

   - gh-142783(9): Fix zoneinfo use-after-free with descriptor
     _weak_cache.  a descriptor as _weak_cache could cause crashes
     during object creation.  The fix ensures proper reference counting
     for descriptor-provided objects.

   - gh-76007(10): Deprecate ‘VERSION’ from *note xml.etree.ElementTree:
     12e. and ‘version’ from ‘xml.sax.expatreader’ and *note
     xml.sax.handler: 133.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-142784(11): The *note asyncio: b. REPL now properly closes the
     loop upon the end of interactive session.  Previously, it could
     cause surprising warnings.  Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-138122(12): Add binary output format to *note
     profiling.sampling: b6. for compact storage of profiling data.  The
     new ‘--binary’ option captures samples to a file that can be
     converted to other formats using the ‘replay’ command.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-142495(13): *note collections.defaultdict: 1565. now prioritizes
     *note __setitem__(): 1670. when inserting default values from
     ‘default_factory’.  This prevents race conditions where a default
     value would overwrite a value set before ‘default_factory’ returns.

   - gh-142654(14): Show the clearer error message when using
     ‘profiling.sampling’ on an unknown PID.

   - gh-142560(15): Fix use-after-free in *note bytearray: 1c6.
     search-like methods (*note find(): 1746, *note count(): 1995, *note
     index(): 1996, *note rindex(): 1997, and *note rfind(): 1747.) by
     marking the storage as exported which causes reallocation attempts
     to raise *note BufferError: 1998.  For *note contains(): cac, *note
     split(): 1999, and *note rsplit(): 199a. the *note buffer protocol:
     311. is used for this.

   - gh-142419(16): *note mmap.mmap.set_name(): 23d. method added to
     annotate an anonymous memory map if Linux kernel supports
     ‘PR_SET_VMA_ANON_NAME’ (Linux 5.17 or newer).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-139971(17): *note pydoc: bd.: Ensure that the link to the online
     documentation of a *note stdlib: 1bb. module is correct.

   - gh-124098(18): Fix issue where methods in handlers that lacked the
     protocol name but matched a valid base handler method (e.g.,
     ‘_open()’ or ‘error()’) were incorrectly added to *note
     urllib.request.OpenerDirector: 199b.’s handlers.  Contributed by
     Andrea Mattei.

   - gh-136282(19): Add support for *note UNNAMED_SECTION: 199c. when
     creating a section via the mapping protocol access

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122431

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143046

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80744

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143010

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112127

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142834

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142783

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142784

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142495

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142654

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142560

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142419

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139971

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124098

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136282


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<7>,  Prev: Library<7>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 4

1.26.7.3 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-143057(1): Avoid locking in *note PyTraceMalloc_Track(): f74.
     and *note PyTraceMalloc_Untrack(): f75. when *note tracemalloc:
     108. is not enabled.

   - gh-139109(2): Add missing terminator in certain cases when tracing
     in the new JIT compiler.

   - gh-142961(3): Fix a segfault in the JIT when constant folding
     ‘len(tuple)’.

   - gh-142776(4): Fix a file descriptor leak in import.c

   - gh-139757(5): Fix building JIT stencils on free-threaded builds.

   - gh-129068(6): Make concurrent iteration over the same range
     iterator thread-safe in the free threading build.

   - gh-142543(7): Fix a stack overflow on Clang JIT build
     configurations with full LTO.

   - gh-142448(8): Fix a bug when using monitoring with the JIT.

   - gh-142766(9): Clear the frame of a generator when *note
     generator.close(): 199e. is called.

   - gh-134584(10): Eliminate redundant refcounting from
     ‘_LOAD_ATTR_INSTANCE_VALUE’.

   - gh-134584(11): Eliminate redundant refcounting from
     ‘_STORE_ATTR_WITH_HINT’.

   - gh-142476(12): Fix a memory leak in the experimental Tier 2
     optimizer when creating executors.  Patched by Shamil Abdulaev.

   - gh-100964(13): Fix reference cycle in exhausted generator frames.
     Patch by Savannah Ostrowski.

   - gh-139922(14): Allow building CPython with the tail calling
     interpreter on Visual Studio 2026 MSVC. This provides a performance
     gain over the prior interpreter for MSVC. Patch by Ken Jin, Brandt
     Bucher, and Chris Eibl.  With help from the MSVC team including
     Hulon Jenkins.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143057

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139109

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142961

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142776

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139757

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129068

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142543

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142448

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142766

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142476

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100964

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139922


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 15 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 15 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.8 Python 3.15.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2025-12-16'

* Menu:

* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<3>.
* Tests: Tests<7>.
* Security: Security<6>.
* Library: Library<8>.
* Documentation: Documentation<6>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<8>.
* C API: C API<6>.
* Build: Build<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<3>,  Next: Tests<7>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 3

1.26.8.1 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-141692(1): Each slice of an iOS XCframework now contains a ‘lib’
     folder that contains a symlink to the libpython dylib.  This allows
     binary modules to be compiled for iOS using dynamic libreary
     linking, rather than Framework linking.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141692


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<7>,  Next: Security<6>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<3>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 3

1.26.8.2 Tests
..............

   - gh-140381(1): Fix flaky test_profiling tests on i686 and s390x
     architectures by increasing slow_fibonacci call frequency from
     every 5th iteration to every 2nd iteration.

   - gh-140210(2): Make
     ‘test_sysconfig.test_parse_makefile_renamed_vars’ less fragile by
     clearing the environment variables before parsing the Makefile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140381

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140210


File: python.info,  Node: Security<6>,  Next: Library<8>,  Prev: Tests<7>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 3

1.26.8.3 Security
.................

   - gh-142145(1): Remove quadratic behavior in ‘xml.minidom’ node ID
     cache clearing.

   - gh-42400(2): Fix buffer overflow in ‘_Py_wrealpath()’ for paths
     exceeding ‘MAXPATHLEN’ bytes by using dynamic memory allocation
     instead of fixed-size buffer.  Patch by Shamil Abdulaev.

   - gh-119451(3): Fix a potential memory denial of service in the *note
     http.client: 72. module.  When connecting to a malicious server, it
     could cause an arbitrary amount of memory to be allocated.  This
     could have led to symptoms including a *note MemoryError: 18fa,
     swapping, out of memory (OOM) killed processes or containers, or
     even system crashes.

   - gh-119342(4): Fix a potential memory denial of service in the *note
     plistlib: b0. module.  When reading a Plist file received from
     untrusted source, it could cause an arbitrary amount of memory to
     be allocated.  This could have led to symptoms including a *note
     MemoryError: 18fa, swapping, out of memory (OOM) killed processes
     or containers, or even system crashes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142145

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/42400

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119451

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119342


File: python.info,  Node: Library<8>,  Next: Documentation<6>,  Prev: Security<6>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 3

1.26.8.4 Library
................

   - gh-142754(1): Add the 'ownerDocument' attribute to *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 12b. elements and attributes created by directly
     instantiating the ‘Element’ or ‘Attr’ class.  Note that this way of
     creating nodes is not supported; creator functions like *note
     xml.dom.Document.documentElement(): 19a4. should be used instead.

   - gh-142594(2): Fix crash in ‘TextIOWrapper.close()’ when the
     underlying buffer’s ‘closed’ property calls *note detach(): 19a5.

   - gh-76007(3): Deprecate ‘__version__’ from *note ctypes: 2d.  Patch
     by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-76007(4): Deprecate ‘__version__’ from *note
     wsgiref.simple_server: 124.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-142651(5): *note unittest.mock: 110.: fix a thread safety issue
     where *note Mock.call_count: 19a6. may return inaccurate values
     when the mock is called concurrently from multiple threads.

   - gh-76007(6): Deprecate ‘__version__’ from *note http.server: 75.
     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-138122(7): Add ‘--subprocesses’ flag to *note
     profiling.sampling: b6. CLI to automatically profile subprocesses
     spawned by the target.  When enabled, the profiler monitors for new
     Python subprocesses and profiles each one separately, writing
     results to individual output files.  This is useful for profiling
     applications that use *note multiprocessing: 98, *note
     ProcessPoolExecutor: 206, or other subprocess-based parallelism.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-142595(8): Added type check during initialization of the *note
     decimal: 39. module to prevent a crash in case of broken stdlib.
     Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-142556(9): Fix crash when a task gets re-registered during
     finalization in *note asyncio: b.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-138122(10): Add ‘--mode=exception’ to the sampling profiler to
     capture samples only from threads with an active exception, useful
     for analyzing exception handling overhead.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-142539(11): *note traceback: 107.: Fix location of carets in
     *note SyntaxError: 17e.s when the source contains wide characters.

   - gh-123241(12): Avoid reference count operations in garbage
     collection of *note ctypes: 2d. objects.

   - gh-142451(13): *note hmac: 6d.: correctly copy *note HMAC: efd.
     attributes for objects copied through *note HMAC.copy(): 19a7.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-138122(14): The ‘profiling.sampling’ flamegraph profiler now
     supports inverted flamegraph view that aggregates all leaf nodes.
     In a standard flamegraph, if a hot function is called from multiple
     locations, it appears multiple times as separate leaf nodes.  In
     the inverted flamegraph, all occurrences of the same leaf function
     are merged into a single aggregated node at the root, showing the
     total hotness of that function in one place.  The children of each
     aggregated node represent its callers, making it easier to identify
     which functions consume the most CPU time and where they are called
     from.

   - gh-112527(15): The help text for required options in *note
     argparse: 7. no longer extended with « (default: None)».

   - gh-142438(16): Fixed a possible leaked GIL in
     _PySSL_keylog_callback.

   - gh-138122(17): Add bytecode-level instruction profiling to the
     sampling profiler via the new ‘--opcodes’ flag.  When enabled, the
     profiler captures which bytecode opcode is executing at each
     sample, including Python 3.11+ adaptive specializations, and
     visualizes this data in the heatmap, flamegraph, gecko, and live
     output formats.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-142389(18): Add backtick markup support in *note argparse: 7.
     description and epilog text to highlight inline code when color
     output is enabled.

   - gh-142346(19): Fix usage formatting for mutually exclusive groups
     in *note argparse: 7. when they are preceded by positional
     arguments or followed or intermixed with other optional arguments.

   - gh-142374(20): Fix cumulative percentage calculation for recursive
     functions in the new sampling profiler.  When profiling recursive
     functions, cumulative statistics (cumul%, cumtime) could exceed
     100% because each recursive frame in a stack was counted
     separately.  For example, a function recursing 500 times in every
     sample would show 50000% cumulative presence.  The fix deduplicates
     locations within each sample so cumulative stats correctly
     represent «percentage of samples where this function was on the
     stack».  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-142315(21): Pdb can now run scripts from anonymous pipes used in
     process substitution.  Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-64532(22): Subparser help now includes required optional
     arguments from the parent parser in the usage, making it clearer
     what arguments are needed to run a subcommand.  Patch by Savannah
     Ostrowski.

   - gh-142207(23): Fix: profiling.sampling may cause assertion
     ‘!(has_gil && gil_requested)’

   - gh-142332(24): Fix usage formatting for positional arguments in
     mutually exclusive groups in *note argparse: 7.  in ‘argparse’.

   - gh-142282(25): Fix *note winreg.QueryValueEx(): 19a8. to not
     accidentally read garbage buffer under race condition.

   - gh-142318(26): Fix typing ‘'q'’ at the help of the interactive
     tachyon profiler exiting the profiler.

   - gh-75949(27): Fix *note argparse: 7. to preserve ‘|’ separators in
     mutually exclusive groups when the usage line wraps due to length.

   - gh-142267(28): Improve *note argparse: 7. performance by caching
     the formatter used for argument validation.

   - gh-139862(29): Remove ‘color’ parameter from
     ‘argparse.HelpFormatter’ constructor.  Color is controlled by *note
     ArgumentParser: 1dc.

   - gh-68552(30): ‘MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect’ and ‘Missing header
     name’ defects are now correctly passed to the ‘handle_defect’
     method of ‘policy’ in *note FeedParser: 19a9.

   - gh-142206(31): The resource tracker in the *note multiprocessing:
     98. module can now understand messages from older versions of
     itself.  This avoids issues with upgrading Python while it is
     running.  (Note that such “in-place” upgrades are not tested.)

   - gh-142214(32): Fix two regressions in *note dataclasses: 32. in
     Python 3.14.1 related to annotations.

        * An exception is no longer raised if ‘slots=True’ is used and
          the ‘__init__’ method does not have an ‘__annotate__’
          attribute (likely because ‘init=False’ was used).

        * An exception is no longer raised if annotations are requested
          on the ‘__init__’ method and one of the fields is not present
          in the class annotations.  This can occur in certain dynamic
          scenarios.

     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-142203(33): Remove the 'debug_override' parameter from *note
     importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 330. which has been deprecated
     since Python 3.5.

   - gh-138122(34): The ‘_remote_debugging’ module now implements frame
     caching in the ‘RemoteUnwinder’ class to reduce memory reads when
     profiling remote processes.  When ‘cache_frames=True’, unchanged
     portions of the call stack are reused from previous samples,
     significantly improving profiling performance for deep call stacks.

   - gh-116738(35): Fix *note cmath: 19. data race when initializing
     trigonometric tables with subinterpreters.

   - gh-141982(36): Allow *note pdb: aa. to set breakpoints on async
     functions with function names.

   - gh-74389(37): When the stdin being used by a *note
     subprocess.Popen: 6bf. instance is closed, this is now ignored in
     *note subprocess.Popen.communicate(): 19aa. instead of leaving the
     class in an inconsistent state.

   - gh-87512(38): Fix *note subprocess.Popen.communicate(): 19aa.
     timeout handling on Windows when writing large input.  Previously,
     the timeout was ignored during stdin writing, causing the method to
     block indefinitely if the child process did not consume input
     quickly.  The stdin write is now performed in a background thread,
     allowing the timeout to be properly enforced.

   - gh-141939(39): Add color to all interpolated values in *note
     argparse: 7. help, like ‘%(default)s’ or ‘%(choices)s’.  Patch by
     Alex Prengère.

   - gh-141473(40): When *note subprocess.Popen.communicate(): 19aa. was
     called with 'input' and a 'timeout' and is called for a second time
     after a *note TimeoutExpired: 19ab. exception before the process
     has died, it should no longer hang.

   - gh-141999(41): Correctly allow *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96. to
     stop the process when using ‘profiling.sampling’.

   - gh-142006(42): Fix a bug in the *note email.policy.default: 19ac.
     folding algorithm which incorrectly resulted in a doubled newline
     when a line ending at exactly max_line_length was followed by an
     unfoldable token.

   - gh-141968(43): Remove data copy from *note re: c1. compilation of
     regexes with large charsets by using *note bytearray.take_bytes():
     1c5.

   - gh-141968(44): Remove data copy from *note encodings.idna: 55.
     *note encode(): 19ad. and *note encode(): 19ae. by using *note
     bytearray.take_bytes(): 1c5.

   - gh-141968(45): Remove data copy from *note codecs: 1c. ‘punycode’
     encoding by using *note bytearray.take_bytes(): 1c5.

   - gh-141968(46): Remove data copy from *note
     wave.Wave_read.readframes(): 19af. and *note
     wave.Wave_write.writeframes(): 1396. by using *note
     bytearray.take_bytes(): 1c5.

   - gh-141968(47): Remove a data copy from *note base64.b32decode():
     1e8. and *note base64.b32encode(): 1e7. by using *note
     bytearray.take_bytes(): 1c5.

   - gh-59000(48): Fix *note pdb: aa. breakpoint resolution for class
     methods when the module defining the class is not imported.

   - gh-116738(49): Fix thread safety issue with *note re: c1. scanner
     objects in free-threaded builds.

   - gh-138122(50): The ‘profiling.sampling’ flamegraph profiler now
     displays thread status statistics showing the percentage of time
     threads spend holding the GIL, running without the GIL, waiting for
     the GIL, and performing garbage collection.  These statistics help
     identify GIL contention and thread behavior patterns.  When
     filtering by thread, the display shows per-thread metrics.

   - gh-141781(51): Fixed an issue where pdb.line_prefix assignment was
     ignored if assigned after the module was imported.

   - gh-141863(52): Update *note Streams: 19b0. to use *note
     bytearray.take_bytes(): 1c5. for a over 10% performance improvement
     on pyperformance asyncio_tcp benchmark.

   - gh-141817(53): Add ‘socket.IPV6_HDRINCL’ constant.

   - gh-105836(54): Fix *note asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(): c58.
     leaving underlying cancelled asyncio task running.

   - gh-141570(55): Support *note file-like object: 19b1. raising *note
     OSError: 53c. from *note fileno(): 19b2. in color detection
     (‘_colorize.can_colorize()’).  This can occur when ‘sys.stdout’ is
     redirected.

   - gh-141679(56): Add colour to defaults in *note argparse: 7. help.
     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-141686(57): Break reference cycles created by each call to *note
     json.dump(): 10fb. or *note json.JSONEncoder.iterencode(): 19b3.

   - gh-141659(58): Fix bad file descriptor errors from
     ‘_posixsubprocess’ on AIX.

   - gh-141645(59): Add a new ‘--live’ mode to the tachyon profiler in
     ‘profiling.sampling’ module.  This mode consist of a live TUI that
     displays real-time profiling statistics as the target application
     runs, similar to ‘top’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-141615(60): Check ‘stdin’ instead of ‘stdout’ for ‘use_rawinput’
     in *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-69113(61): Fix *note doctest: 3d. to correctly report line
     numbers for doctests in ‘__test__’ dictionary when formatted as
     triple-quoted strings by finding unique lines in the string and
     matching them in the source file.

   - gh-141600(62): Fix musl version detection on Void Linux.

   - gh-48752(63): Add *note readline.get_pre_input_hook(): 19b4.
     function to retrieve the current pre-input hook.  This allows
     applications to save and restore the hook without overwriting user
     settings.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - gh-141565(64): Add async-aware profiling to the Tachyon sampling
     profiler.  The profiler now reconstructs and displays async task
     hierarchies in flamegraphs, making the output more actionable for
     users.  Patch by Savannah Ostrowski and Pablo Galindo Salgado.

   - gh-60107(65): Remove a copy from *note io.RawIOBase.read(): 11d0.
     If the underlying I/O class keeps a reference to the mutable
     memory, raise a *note BufferError: 1998.

   - gh-116738(66): Make csv module thread-safe on the *note free
     threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-140911(67): *note collections: 1e.: Ensure that the methods
     ‘UserString.rindex()’ and ‘UserString.index()’ accept *note
     collections.UserString: 118c. instances as the sub argument.

   - gh-140875(68): Fix handling of unclosed character references (named
     and numerical) followed by the end of file in *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: c4d. with ‘convert_charrefs=False’.

   - gh-140677(69): Add heatmap visualization mode to the Tachyon
     sampling profiler.  The new ‘--heatmap’ output format provides a
     line-by-line view showing execution intensity with color-coded
     samples, inline statistics, and interactive call graph navigation
     between callers and callees.

   - gh-139946(70): Distinguish stdout and stderr when colorizing output
     in argparse module.

   - gh-76007(71): *note pydoc: bd.: Fix *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.
     being raised when generating doc for *note stdlib: 1bb. modules.

   - gh-138697(72): Fix inferring 'dest' from a single-dash long option
     in *note argparse: 7.  If a short option and a single-dash long
     option are passed to ‘add_argument()’, 'dest' is now inferred from
     the single-dash long option.

   - gh-138525(73): Add support for single-dash long options and
     alternate prefix characters in *note
     argparse.BooleanOptionalAction: 1db.

   - gh-79986(74): Add parsing for ‘References’ and ‘In-Reply-To’
     headers to the *note email: 3e. library that parses the header
     content as lists of message id tokens.  This prevents them from
     being folded incorrectly.

   - gh-135559(75): Flag: a ‘dir()’ on a ‘Flag’ enumeration now shows
     non-canonical members.  (i.e.  aliases).

   - gh-134453(76): Fixed *note subprocess.Popen.communicate(): 19aa.
     ‘input=’ handling of *note memoryview: 1d2. instances that were
     non-byte shaped on POSIX platforms.  Those are now properly cast to
     a byte shaped view instead of truncating the input.  Windows
     platforms did not have this bug.

   - gh-127930(77): Add ‘__all__’ to *note tkinter.simpledialog: 101.

   - gh-115952(78): Fix a potential memory denial of service in the
     *note pickle: ab. module.  When reading a pickled data received
     from untrusted source, it could cause an arbitrary amount of memory
     to be allocated, even if the code that is allowed to execute is
     restricted by overriding the *note find_class(): 19b5. method.
     This could have led to symptoms including a *note MemoryError:
     18fa, swapping, out of memory (OOM) killed processes or containers,
     or even system crashes.

   - bpo-40350(79): Fix support for namespace packages in *note
     modulefinder: 95.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142754

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142594

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142651

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142595

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142556

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142539

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123241

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142451

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112527

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142438

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142389

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142346

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142374

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142315

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64532

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142207

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142332

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142282

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142318

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75949

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142267

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139862

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68552

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142206

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142214

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142203

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141982

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74389

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87512

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141939

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141473

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141999

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142006

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141968

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141968

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141968

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141968

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141968

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59000

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141781

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141863

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141817

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105836

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141570

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141679

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141686

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141659

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141645

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141615

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69113

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141600

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48752

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141565

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60107

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140911

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140875

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140677

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139946

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138697

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138525

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79986

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135559

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134453

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127930

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115952

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40350


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<6>,  Next: Core and Builtins<8>,  Prev: Library<8>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 3

1.26.8.5 Documentation
......................

   - gh-141994(1): *note xml.sax.handler: 133.: Make Documentation of
     *note xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges: 19b7. warn of opening
     up to external entity attacks(2).  Patch by Sebastian Pipping.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141994

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_external_entity_attack


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<8>,  Next: C API<6>,  Prev: Documentation<6>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 3

1.26.8.6 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-134584(1): Eliminate redundant refcounting from
     ‘_STORE_ATTR_INSTANCE_VALUE’.

   - gh-142718(2): JIT: Fix segfault caused by not flushing the stack to
     memory at side exits.

   - gh-142737(3): Tracebacks will be displayed in fallback mode even if
     *note io.open(): 92b. is lost.  Previously, this would crash the
     interpreter.  Patch by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-116738(4): Make the attributes in *note bz2: 14. thread-safe on
     the *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-134584(5): Eliminate redundant refcounting from
     ‘_CALL_LIST_APPEND’.

   - gh-142554(6): Fix a crash in *note divmod(): d6a. when
     ‘_pylong.int_divmod()’ does not return a tuple of length two
     exactly.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-142531(7): Fix a free-threaded GC performance regression.  If
     there are many untracked tuples, the GC will run too often,
     resulting in poor performance.  The fix is to include untracked
     tuples in the «long lived» object count.  The number of frozen
     objects is also now included since the free-threaded GC must scan
     those too.

   - gh-142402(8): Fix reference counting when adjacent literal parts
     are merged while constructing *note string.templatelib.Template:
     415, preventing the displaced string object from leaking.

   - gh-116738(9): Make the attributes in *note zlib: 13c. thread-safe
     on the *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-142343(10): Fix SIGILL crash on m68k due to incorrect assembly
     constraint.

   - gh-142236(11): Improve the «Perhaps you forgot a comma?» syntax
     error for multi-line string concatenations to point to the last
     string instead of the first, making it easier to locate where the
     comma is missing.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-142236(12): Fix incorrect keyword suggestions for syntax errors
     in *note traceback: 107.  The keyword typo suggestion mechanism
     would incorrectly suggest replacements when the extracted source
     code was incomplete rather than containing an actual typo.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-142305(13): Decrease the size of the generated stencils and the
     runtime JIT code.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-135379(14): Implement a limited form of register allocation
     known as «top of stack caching» in the JIT. It works by keeping 0-3
     of the top items in the stack in registers.  The code generator
     generates multiple versions of those uops that do not escape and
     are relatively small.  During JIT compilation, the copy that
     produces the least memory traffic is selected, spilling or
     reloading values when needed.

   - gh-142276(15): Fix missing type watcher when promoting attribute
     loads to constants in the JIT. Patch by Ken Jin.  Reproducer by
     Yuancheng Jiang.

   - gh-142218(16): Fix crash when inserting into a split table
     dictionary with a non *note str: 1df. key that matches an existing
     key.

   - gh-141976(17): Check against abstract stack overflow in the JIT
     optimizer.

   - gh-97850(18): Remove all ‘*.load_module()’ usage and definitions
     from the import system and importlib.  The method has been
     deprecated in favor of ‘importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module()’ since
     Python 3.4.

   - gh-142048(19): Fix quadratically increasing garbage collection
     delays in free-threaded build.

   - gh-65961(20): Stop setting ‘__cached__’ on modules.

   - gh-141770(21): Annotate anonymous mmap usage only when supported by
     the Linux kernel and if ‘-X dev’ is used or Python is built in
     debug mode.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-142029(22): Raise *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be. instead of
     crashing when a nonexistent module is used as a name in
     ‘_imp.create_builtin()’.

   - gh-142029(23): Raise *note ValueError: 277. instead of crashing
     when empty string is used as a name in ‘_imp.create_builtin()’.

   - gh-141976(24): Protect against specialization failures in the
     tracing JIT compiler for performance reasons.

   - gh-141861(25): Fix invalid memory read in the ‘ENTER_EXECUTOR’
     instruction.

   - gh-141930(26): When importing a module, use Python’s regular file
     object to ensure that writes to ‘.pyc’ files are complete or an
     appropriate error is raised.

   - gh-138122(27): Add incomplete sample detection to prevent corrupted
     profiling data.  Each thread state now contains an embedded base
     frame (sentinel at the bottom of the frame stack) with owner type
     ‘FRAME_OWNED_BY_INTERPRETER’.  The profiler validates that stack
     unwinding terminates at this sentinel frame.  Samples that fail to
     reach the base frame (due to race conditions, memory corruption, or
     other errors) are now rejected rather than being included as
     spurious data.

   - gh-120158(28): Fix inconsistent state when enabling or disabling
     monitoring events too many times.

   - gh-140638(29): Expose a ‘"candidates"’ stat in *note
     gc.get_stats(): 557. and *note gc.callbacks: 1474.

   - gh-141780(30): Fix *note Py_mod_gil: 691. with API added in PEP
     793(31): ‘PyModule_FromSlotsAndSpec()’ and ‘PyModExport’ hooks

   - gh-141732(32): Ensure the *note __repr__(): 1bc. for *note
     ExceptionGroup: 6d8. and *note BaseExceptionGroup: 767. does not
     change when the exception sequence that was original passed in to
     its constructor is subsequently mutated.

   - gh-140638(33): Expose a ‘"duration"’ stat in *note gc.get_stats():
     557. and *note gc.callbacks: 1474.

   - gh-139653(34): Only raise a ‘RecursionError’ or trigger a fatal
     error if the stack pointer is both below the limit pointer 'and'
     above the stack base.  If outside of these bounds assume that it is
     OK. This prevents false positives when user-space threads swap
     stacks.

   - gh-41779(35): Allowed defining the '__dict__' and '__weakref__'
     *note __slots__: 1cd. for any class.

   - gh-139103(36): Improve multithreaded scaling of dataclasses on the
     free-threaded build.

   - gh-141589(37): Change ‘backoff counter’ to use prime numbers
     instead of powers of 2.  Use only 3 bits for ‘counter’ and 13 bits
     for ‘value’.  This allows to support values up to 8191.  Patch by
     Mikhail Efimov.

   - gh-137007(38): Fix a bug during JIT compilation failure which
     caused garbage collection debug assertions to fail.

   - gh-132657(39): For the free-threaded build, avoid locking the *note
     set: 42b. object for the ‘__contains__’ method.

   - gh-134584(40): Eliminate redundant refcounting from ‘_CALL_STR_1’.

   - gh-134584(41): Eliminate redundant refcounting from
     ‘_CALL_BUILTIN_O’.

   - gh-134584(42): Eliminate redundant refcounting from
     ‘_CALL_TUPLE_1’.  Patch by Noam Cohen

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142718

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142737

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142554

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142531

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142402

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142343

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142236

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142236

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142305

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135379

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142276

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142218

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141976

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142048

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141770

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142029

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142029

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141976

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141861

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141930

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120158

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140638

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141780

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0793/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141732

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140638

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139653

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/41779

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139103

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141589

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137007

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132657

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584


File: python.info,  Node: C API<6>,  Next: Build<5>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<8>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 3

1.26.8.7 C API
..............

   - gh-142589(1): Fix *note
     PyUnstable_Object_IsUniqueReferencedTemporary(): 5f3. handling of
     tagged ints on the interpreter stack.

   - gh-142571(2): ‘PyUnstable_CopyPerfMapFile()’ now checks that
     opening the file succeeded before flushing.

   - gh-142225(3): Fixed the *note PyABIInfo_VAR: 35a. macro.

   - gh-141049(4): ‘_PyObject_CallMethodId()’, ‘_PyObject_GetAttrId()’
     and ‘_PyUnicode_FromId()’ are deprecated since 3.15 and will be
     removed in 3.20.  Instead, use *note PyUnicode_InternFromString():
     3b5. and cache the result in the module state, then call *note
     PyObject_CallMethod(): 3b6. or *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 3b7.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-142163(5): Fix the ‘HAVE_THREAD_LOCAL’ macro being defined
     without the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’ macro set after including ‘Python.h’.

   - gh-137422(6): Fix *note free threading: 487. race condition in
     *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 7f1.  It was previously possible for
     two calls to the function return two different objects, only one of
     which was stored in *note sys.modules: 19ba.

   - gh-141726(7): Add *note PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 7db. to the Stable
     ABI.

   - gh-140042(8): Removed the sqlite3_shutdown call that could cause
     closing connections for sqlite when used with multiple sub
     interpreters.

   - gh-141070(9): Add ‘PyUnstable_Object_Dump()’ to dump an object to
     ‘stderr’.  It should only be used for debugging.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-139165(10): Expose the functions *note Py_SIZE(): b61, *note
     Py_IS_TYPE(): 19bb. and *note Py_SET_SIZE(): b62. in the Stable
     ABI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142589

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142571

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142225

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141049

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142163

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137422

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141726

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140042

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141070

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139165


File: python.info,  Node: Build<5>,  Prev: C API<6>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 3

1.26.8.8 Build
..............

   - gh-131372(1): Add ‘LDVERSION’ and ‘EXE’ to the ‘base_interpreter’
     value of ‘build-details.json’.

   - gh-142454(2): When calculating the digest of the JIT stencils
     input, sort the hashed files by filenames before adding their
     content to the hasher.  This ensures deterministic hash input and
     hence deterministic hash, independent on filesystem order.

   - gh-131372(3): ‘build-details.py’ will only be installed as part of
     the main install (‘make install’).  ‘make altinstall’ will no
     longer include it.

   - gh-142234(4): Allow ‘--enable-wasm-dynamic-linking’ for WASI. While
     CPython doesn’t directly support it so external/downstream users do
     not have to patch in support for the flag.

   - gh-142050(5): Fixed a bug where JIT stencils produced on Windows
     contained debug data.  Patch by Chris Eibl.

   - gh-141808(6): Do not generate the jit stencils twice in case of PGO
     builds on Windows.

   - gh-141926(7): ‘RUNSHARED’ is no longer cleared when
     cross-compiling.  Previously, ‘RUNSHARED’ was cleared when
     cross-compiling, which breaks PGO when using ‘--enabled-shared’ on
     systems where the cross-compiled CPython is otherwise executable
     (e.g., via transparent emulation).

   - gh-141808(8): When running ‘make clean-retain-profile’, keep the
     generated JIT stencils.  That way, the stencils are not generated
     twice when Profile-guided optimization (PGO) is used.  It also
     allows distributors to supply their own pre-built JIT stencils.

   - gh-141784(9): Fix ‘_remote_debugging_module.c’ compilation on
     32-bit Linux.  Include Python.h before system headers to make sure
     that ‘_remote_debugging_module.c’ uses the same types (ABI) than
     Python.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-141172(10): Update to WASI SDK 29.

   - gh-139707(11): Add configure option *note
     -with-missing-stdlib-config=FILE: 3d7. allows which distributors to
     pass a JSON(12) configuration file containing custom error messages
     for missing *note standard library: 3d8. modules.

   - gh-108819(13): Honor *note -with-platlibdir: 19bd. in the
     pure-Python standard library installation path, if ‘PLATLIBDIR’
     doesn’t match the value used in ‘LIBDIR’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131372

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142454

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131372

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142234

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/142050

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141808

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141926

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141808

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141784

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141172

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139707

   (12) https://www.json.org/json-en.html

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108819


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 15 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.9 Python 3.15.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2025-11-18'

* Menu:

* Windows: Windows<6>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<4>.
* Tests: Tests<8>.
* Security: Security<7>.
* Library: Library<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<9>.
* Library: Library<10>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<10>.
* Library: Library<11>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<11>.
* Library: Library<12>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<12>.
* Library: Library<13>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<13>.
* Library: Library<14>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<14>.
* C API: C API<7>.
* Build: Build<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<6>,  Next: Tools/Demos<4>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.1 Windows
................

   - gh-140849(1): Update bundled liblzma to version 5.8.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140849


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<4>,  Next: Tests<8>,  Prev: Windows<6>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.2 Tools/Demos
....................

   - gh-141442(1): The iOS testbed now correctly handles test arguments
     that contain spaces.

   - gh-140702(2): The iOS testbed app will now expose the
     ‘GITHUB_ACTIONS’ environment variable to iOS apps being tested.

   - gh-139198(3): Remove ‘Tools/scripts/checkpip.py’ script.

   - gh-139188(4): Remove ‘Tools/tz/zdump.py’ script.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141442

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140702

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139198

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139188


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<8>,  Next: Security<7>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<4>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.3 Tests
..............

   - gh-140482(1): Preserve and restore the state of ‘stty echo’ as part
     of the test environment.

   - gh-140082(2): Update ‘python -m test’ to set ‘FORCE_COLOR=1’ when
     being run with color enabled so that *note unittest: 10f. which is
     run by it with redirected output will output in color.

   - gh-136442(3): Use exitcode ‘1’ instead of ‘5’ if *note
     unittest.TestCase.setUpClass(): e12. raises an exception

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140482

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140082

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136442


File: python.info,  Node: Security<7>,  Next: Library<9>,  Prev: Tests<8>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.4 Security
.................

   - gh-137836(1): Add support of the «plaintext» element, RAWTEXT
     elements «xmp», «iframe», «noembed» and «noframes», and optionally
     RAWTEXT element «noscript» in *note html.parser.HTMLParser: c4d.

   - gh-136063(2): *note email.message: 47.: ensure linear complexity
     for legacy HTTP parameters parsing.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-136065(3): Fix quadratic complexity in *note
     os.path.expandvars(): 177c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137836

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136063

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136065


File: python.info,  Node: Library<9>,  Next: Core and Builtins<9>,  Prev: Security<7>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.5 Library
................

   - gh-141497(1): *note ipaddress: 83.: ensure that the methods *note
     IPv4Network.hosts(): 19c4. and *note IPv6Network.hosts(): 19c5.
     always return an iterator.

   - gh-140938(2): The *note statistics.stdev(): ac1. and *note
     statistics.pstdev(): 19c6. functions now raise a *note ValueError:
     277. when the input contains an infinity or a NaN.

   - gh-124111(3): Updated Tcl threading configuration in *note
     _tkinter: 3. to assume that threads are always available in Tcl 9
     and later.

   - gh-137109(4): The *note os.fork: 6bd. and related forking APIs will
     no longer warn in the common case where Linux or macOS platform
     APIs return the number of threads in a process and find the answer
     to be 1 even when a *note os.register_at_fork(): 332.
     ‘after_in_parent=’ callback (re)starts a thread.

   - gh-141314(5): Fix assertion failure in *note
     io.TextIOWrapper.tell(): 19c7. when reading files with standalone
     carriage return (‘\r’) line endings.

   - gh-141311(6): Fix assertion failure in ‘io.BytesIO.readinto()’ and
     undefined behavior arising when read position is above capcity in
     *note io.BytesIO: 1255.

   - gh-87710(7): *note mimetypes: 93.: Update mime type for ‘.ai’ files
     to ‘application/pdf’.

   - gh-85524(8): Update ‘io.FileIO.readall’, an implementation of *note
     io.RawIOBase.readall(): 19c8, to follow *note io.IOBase: 70a.
     guidelines and raise *note io.UnsupportedOperation: 19c9. when a
     file is in «w» mode rather than *note OSError: 53c.

   - gh-141141(9): Fix a thread safety issue with *note
     base64.b85decode(): 1f2.  Contributed by Benel Tayar.

   - gh-141018(10): *note mimetypes: 93.: Update ‘.exe’, ‘.dll’, ‘.rtf’
     and (when ‘strict=False’) ‘.jpg’ to their correct IANA mime type.

   - gh-137969(11): Fix *note annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate(): 150.
     returning *note ForwardRef: 1967. objects which don’t update with
     new globals.

   - gh-75593(12): Add support of *note path-like objects: 79f. and
     *note bytes-like objects: 436. in *note wave.open(): d17.

   - gh-140797(13): The undocumented ‘re.Scanner’ class now forbids
     regular expressions containing capturing groups in its lexicon
     patterns.  Patterns using capturing groups could previously lead to
     crashes with segmentation fault.  Use non-capturing groups (?:…)
     instead.

   - gh-125115(14): Refactor the *note pdb: aa. parsing issue so
     positional arguments can pass through intuitively.

   - gh-140815(15): *note faulthandler: 5b. now detects if a frame or a
     code object is invalid or freed.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-100218(16): Correctly set *note errno: 19ca. when *note
     socket.if_nametoindex(): df2. or *note socket.if_indextoname():
     df3. raise an *note OSError: 53c.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-140734(17): *note multiprocessing: 98.: fix off-by-one error
     when checking the length of a temporary socket file path.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-140873(18): Add support of non-*note descriptor: 21f. callables
     in *note functools.singledispatchmethod(): 21e.

   - gh-140874(19): Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to
     version 25.3

   - gh-140826(20): Now ‘winreg.HKEYType’ objects are compared by their
     underlying Windows registry handle value instead of their object
     identity.

   - gh-140808(21): The internal class ‘mailbox._ProxyFile’ is no longer
     a parameterized generic.

   - gh-140691(22): In *note urllib.request: 114, when opening a FTP URL
     fails because a data connection cannot be made, the control
     connection’s socket is now closed to avoid a *note ResourceWarning:
     74f.

   - gh-103847(23): Fix hang when cancelling process created by *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): e3a. or *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): e3b.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-137821(24): Convert ‘_json’ module to use Argument Clinic.
     Patched by Yoonho Hann.

   - gh-140790(25): Initialize all Pdb’s instance variables in
     ‘__init__’, remove some hasattr/getattr

   - gh-140766(26): Add *note enum.show_flag_values(): 19cb. and
     ‘enum.bin’ to ‘enum.__all__’.

   - gh-120057(27): Add *note os.reload_environ(): 4e4. to ‘os.__all__’.

   - gh-140741(28): Fix ‘profiling.sampling.sample()’ incorrectly
     handling a *note FileNotFoundError: 243. or *note PermissionError:
     10f9.

   - gh-140228(29): Avoid making unnecessary filesystem calls for frozen
     modules in *note linecache: 88. when the global module cache is not
     present.

   - gh-139946(30): Error and warning keywords in
     ‘argparse.ArgumentParser’ messages are now colorized when color
     output is enabled, fixing a visual inconsistency in which they
     remained plain text while other output was colorized.

   - gh-140590(31): Fix arguments checking for the
     ‘functools.partial.__setstate__()’ that may lead to internal state
     corruption and crash.  Patch by Sergey Miryanov.

   - gh-125434(32): Display thread name in *note faulthandler: 5b. on
     Windows.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-140634(33): Fix a reference counting bug in
     ‘os.sched_param.__reduce__()’.

   - gh-140650(34): Fix an issue where closing *note io.BufferedWriter:
     1754. could crash if the closed attribute raised an exception on
     access or could not be converted to a boolean.

   - gh-140633(35): Ignore *note AttributeError: 1a9. when setting a
     module’s ‘__file__’ attribute when loading an extension module
     packaged as Apple Framework.

   - gh-140601(36): *note xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(): 3eb. now
     emits a *note ResourceWarning: 74f. when the iterator is not
     explicitly closed and was opened with a filename.  This helps
     developers identify and fix resource leaks.  Patch by Osama
     Abdelkader.

   - gh-140593(37): *note xml.parsers.expat: 12f.: Fix a memory leak
     that could affect users with *note ElementDeclHandler(): 1922. set
     to a custom element declaration handler.  Patch by Sebastian
     Pipping.

   - gh-140607(38): Inside *note io.RawIOBase.read(): 11d0, validate
     that the count of bytes returned by *note io.RawIOBase.readinto():
     11d1. is valid (inside the provided buffer).

   - gh-138162(39): Fix *note logging.LoggerAdapter: 169a. with
     ‘merge_extra=True’ and without the 'extra' argument.

   - gh-140481(40): Improve error message when trying to iterate a Tk
     widget, image or font.

   - gh-138774(41): *note ast.unparse(): cb6. now generates full source
     code when handling *note ast.Interpolation: 19cc. nodes that do not
     have a specified source.

   - gh-140474(42): Fix memory leak in *note array.array: 6c5. when
     creating arrays from an empty *note str: 1df. and the ‘u’ type
     code.

   - gh-140448(43): Change the default of ‘suggest_on_error’ to ‘True’
     in ‘argparse.ArgumentParser’.

   - gh-137530(44): *note dataclasses: 32. Fix annotations for generated
     ‘__init__’ methods by replacing the annotations that were in-line
     in the generated source code with ‘__annotate__’ functions attached
     to the methods.

   - gh-140348(45): Fix regression in Python 3.14.0 where using the ‘|’
     operator on a *note typing.Union: 341. object combined with an
     object that is not a type would raise an error.

   - gh-76007(46): *note decimal: 39.: Deprecate ‘__version__’ and
     replace with *note decimal.SPEC_VERSION: 2fd.

   - gh-76007(47): Deprecate ‘__version__’ from *note imaplib: 77.
     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-140272(48): Fix memory leak in the ‘clear()’ method of the *note
     dbm.gnu: 36. database.

   - gh-129117(49): *note unicodedata: 10e.: Add *note isxidstart():
     297. and *note isxidcontinue(): 298. functions to check whether a
     character can start or continue a Unicode Standard Annex #31(50)
     identifier.

   - gh-140251(51): Colorize the default import statement ‘import
     asyncio’ in asyncio REPL.

   - gh-140212(52): Calendar’s HTML formatting now accepts year and
     month as options.  Previously, running ‘python -m calendar -t html
     2025 10’ would result in an error message.  It now generates an
     HTML document displaying the calendar for the specified month.
     Contributed by Pål Grønås Drange.

   - gh-135801(53): Improve filtering by module in *note
     warnings.warn_explicit(): 2ab. if no 'module' argument is passed.
     It now tests the module regular expression in the warnings filter
     not only against the filename with ‘.py’ stripped, but also against
     module names constructed starting from different parent directories
     of the filename (with ‘/__init__.py’, ‘.py’ and, on Windows, ‘.pyw’
     stripped).

   - gh-139707(54): Improve *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be. error
     message when a *note standard library: 3d8. module is missing.

   - gh-140041(55): Fix import of *note ctypes: 2d. on Android and
     Cygwin when ABI flags are present.

   - gh-140120(56): Fixed a memory leak in *note hmac: 6d. when it was
     using the hacl-star backend.  Discovered by ‘@ashm-dev’ using
     AddressSanitizer.

   - gh-140141(57): The *note importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError:
     19cd. traceback raised when
     ‘importlib.metadata.Distribution.from_name’ cannot discover a
     distribution no longer includes a transient *note StopIteration:
     fba. exception trace.

     Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki in gh-140142(58).

   - gh-140166(59): *note mimetypes: 93.: Per the IANA assignment(60),
     update the MIME type for the ‘.texi’ and ‘.texinfo’ file formats to
     ‘application/texinfo’, instead of ‘application/x-texinfo’.

   - gh-140135(61): Speed up *note io.RawIOBase.readall(): 19c8. by
     using PyBytesWriter API (about 4x faster)

   - gh-76007(62): *note zlib: 13c.: Deprecate ‘__version__’ and
     schedule for removal in Python 3.20.

   - gh-136702(63): *note encodings: 54.: Deprecate passing a non-ascii
     'encoding' name to *note encodings.normalize_encoding(): 313. and
     schedule removal of support for Python 3.17.

   - gh-139940(64): Print clearer error message when using ‘pdb’ to
     attach to a non-existing process.

   - gh-139462(65): When a child process in a *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. terminates abruptly,
     the resulting traceback will now tell you the PID and exit code of
     the terminated process.  Contributed by Jonathan Berg.

   - gh-63161(66): Fix *note tokenize.detect_encoding(): 19ce.  Support
     non-UTF-8 shebang and comments if non-UTF-8 encoding is specified.
     Detect decoding error for non-UTF-8 encoding.  Detect null bytes in
     source code.

   - gh-101828(67): Fix ‘'shift_jisx0213'’, ‘'shift_jis_2004'’,
     ‘'euc_jisx0213'’ and ‘'euc_jis_2004'’ codecs truncating null chars
     as they were treated as part of multi-character sequences.

   - gh-139246(68): fix: paste zero-width in default repl width is
     wrong.

   - gh-83714(69): Implement *note os.statx(): 23f. on Linux kernel
     versions 4.11 and later with glibc versions 2.28 and later.
     Contributed by Jeffrey Bosboom and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-138891(70): Fix ‘SyntaxError’ when ‘inspect.get_annotations(f,
     eval_str=True)’ is called on a function annotated with a PEP
     646(71) ‘star_expression’

   - gh-138859(72): Fix generic type parameterization raising a *note
     TypeError: 291. when omitting a ‘ParamSpec’ that has a default
     which is not a list of types.

   - gh-138764(73): Prevent *note
     annotationlib.call_annotate_function(): 19cf. from calling
     ‘__annotate__’ functions that don’t support
     ‘VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS’ in a fake globals namespace with empty
     globals.

     Make ‘FORWARDREF’ and ‘STRING’ annotations fall back to using
     ‘VALUE’ annotations in the case that neither their own format, nor
     ‘VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS’ are supported.

   - gh-138775(74): Use of ‘python -m’ with *note base64: f. has been
     fixed to detect input from a terminal so that it properly notices
     EOF.

   - gh-98896(75): Fix a failure in multiprocessing resource_tracker
     when SharedMemory names contain colons.  Patch by Rani Pinchuk.

   - gh-138425(76): Fix partial evaluation of *note
     annotationlib.ForwardRef: 1967. objects which rely on names defined
     as globals.

   - gh-138151(77): In *note annotationlib: 6, improve evaluation of
     forward references to nonlocal variables that are not yet defined
     when the annotations are initially evaluated.

   - gh-69528(78): The *note mode: 19d0. attribute of files opened in
     the ‘'wb+'’ mode is now ‘'wb+'’ instead of ‘'rb+'’.

   - gh-137627(79): Speed up *note csv.Sniffer.sniff(): 2c2. delimiter
     detection by up to 1.6x.

   - gh-55531(80): *note encodings: 54.: Improve *note
     normalize_encoding(): 313. performance by implementing the function
     in C using the private ‘_Py_normalize_encoding’ which has been
     modified to make lowercase conversion optional.

   - gh-136057(81): Fixed the bug in *note pdb: aa. and *note bdb: 10.
     where ‘next’ and ‘step’ can’t go over the line if a loop exists in
     the line.

   - gh-133390(82): Support table, index, trigger, view, column,
     function, and schema completion for *note sqlite3: d7.’s *note
     command-line interface: 257.

   - gh-135307(83): *note email: 3e.: Fix exception in ‘set_content()’
     when encoding text and max_line_length is set to ‘0’ or ‘None’
     (unlimited).

   - gh-133789(84): Fix unpickling of *note pathlib: a8. objects that
     were pickled in Python 3.13.

   - gh-133601(85): Remove deprecated
     ‘typing.no_type_check_decorator()’.

   - gh-132686(86): Add parameters 'inherit_class_doc' and
     'fallback_to_class_doc' for *note inspect.getdoc(): 22c.

   - gh-131116(87): *note inspect.getdoc(): 22c. now correctly returns
     an inherited docstring on *note cached_property: 94e. objects if
     none is given in a subclass.

   - gh-130693(88): Add support for ‘-nolinestop’, and ‘-strictlimits’
     options to ‘tkinter.Text.search()’.  Also add the
     ‘tkinter.Text.search_all()’ method for ‘-all’ and ‘-overlap’
     options.

   - gh-122255(89): In the *note linecache: 88. module and in the Python
     implementation of the *note warnings: 11b. module, a
     ‘DeprecationWarning’ is issued when ‘mod.__loader__’ differs from
     ‘mod.__spec__.loader’ (like in the C implementation of the
     ‘warnings’ module).

   - gh-121011(90): *note math.log(): 1862. now supports arbitrary large
     integer-like arguments in the same way as arbitrary large integer
     arguments.

   - gh-119668(91): Publicly expose and document *note
     importlib.machinery.NamespacePath: 19d1.

   - gh-102431(92): Clarify constraints for «logical» arguments in
     methods of *note decimal.Context: 145c.

   - gh-81313(93): Add the *note math.integer: 92. module ( PEP
     791(94)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141497

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140938

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124111

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137109

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141314

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141311

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87710

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85524

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141141

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141018

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137969

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75593

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140797

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125115

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140815

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100218

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140734

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140873

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140874

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140826

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140808

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140691

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103847

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137821

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140790

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140766

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120057

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140741

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140228

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139946

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140590

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125434

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140634

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140650

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140633

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140601

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140593

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140607

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138162

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140481

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138774

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140474

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140448

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137530

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140348

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140272

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129117

   (50) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr31/

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140251

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140212

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135801

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139707

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140041

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140120

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140141

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140142

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140166

   (60) https://www.iana.org/assignments/media-types/application/texinfo

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140135

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136702

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139940

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139462

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63161

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101828

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139246

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83714

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138891

   (71) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138859

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138764

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138775

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98896

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138425

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138151

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69528

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137627

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/55531

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136057

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133390

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135307

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133789

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133601

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132686

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131116

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130693

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122255

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121011

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119668

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102431

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81313

   (94) https://peps.python.org/pep-0791/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<9>,  Next: Library<10>,  Prev: Library<9>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.6 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-141579(1): Fix *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 885. to
     properly support the ‘perf_jit’ backend.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-114203(2): Skip locking if object is already locked by two-mutex
     critical section.

   - gh-141528(3): Suggest using *note
     concurrent.interpreters.Interpreter.close(): 19d3. instead of the
     private ‘_interpreters.destroy’ function when warning about
     remaining subinterpreters.  Patch by Sergey Miryanov.

   - gh-141367(4): Specialize ‘CALL_LIST_APPEND’ instruction only for
     lists, not for list subclasses, to avoid unnecessary deopt.  Patch
     by Mikhail Efimov.

   - gh-141312(5): Fix the assertion failure in the ‘__setstate__’
     method of the range iterator when a non-integer argument is passed.
     Patch by Sergey Miryanov.

   - gh-140643(6): Add support for ‘<GC>’ and ‘<native>’ frames to
     ‘profiling.sampling’ output to denote active garbage collection and
     calls to native code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141579

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114203

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141528

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141367

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141312

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140643


File: python.info,  Node: Library<10>,  Next: Core and Builtins<10>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<9>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.7 Library
................

   - gh-140942(1): Add ‘.cjs’ to *note mimetypes: 93. to give CommonJS
     modules a MIME type of ‘application/node’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140942


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<10>,  Next: Library<11>,  Prev: Library<10>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.8 Core and Builtins
..........................

   - gh-140479(1): Update JIT compilation to use LLVM 21 at build time.

   - gh-140939(2): Fix memory leak when *note bytearray: 1c6. or *note
     bytes: 1c7. is formated with the ‘%*b’ format with a large width
     that results in a *note MemoryError: 18fa.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140479

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140939


File: python.info,  Node: Library<11>,  Next: Core and Builtins<11>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<10>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.9 Library
................

   - gh-140260(1): Fix *note struct: de. data race in endian table
     initialization with subinterpreters.  Patch by Shamil Abdulaev.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140260


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<11>,  Next: Library<12>,  Prev: Library<11>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.10 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-140530(1): Fix a reference leak when ‘raise exc from cause’
     fails.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140530


File: python.info,  Node: Library<12>,  Next: Core and Builtins<12>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<11>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.11 Library
.................

   - gh-90344(1): Replace *note io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 1947. with
     non incremental newline decoders in codebase where
     ‘io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder.decode()’ was being called once.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90344


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<12>,  Next: Library<13>,  Prev: Library<12>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.12 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-140373(1): Correctly emit ‘PY_UNWIND’ event when generator
     object is closed.  Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

   - gh-140729(2): Fix pickling error in the sampling profiler when
     using ‘concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor’ script can not be
     properly pickled and executed in worker processes.

   - gh-131527(3): Dynamic borrow checking for stackrefs is added to
     ‘Py_STACKREF_DEBUG’ mode.  Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

   - gh-140576(4): Fixed crash in *note tokenize.generate_tokens(): 8ea.
     in case of specific incorrect input.  Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

   - gh-140544(5): Speed up accessing interpreter state by caching it in
     a thread local variable.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-140551(6): Fixed crash in *note dict: 188. if *note
     dict.clear(): 1954. is called at the lookup stage.  Patch by
     Mikhail Efimov and Inada Naoki.

   - gh-140517(7): Fixed a reference leak when iterating over the result
     of *note map(): 43e. with ‘strict=True’ when the input iterables
     have different lengths.  Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

   - gh-133467(8): Fix race when updating ‘type.__bases__’ that could
     allow a read of ‘type.__base__’ to observe an inconsistent value on
     the free threaded build.

   - gh-140471(9): Fix potential buffer overflow in *note ast.AST: 2ec.
     node initialization when encountering malformed *note _fields:
     19da. containing non-*note str: 1df.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140373

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140729

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131527

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140576

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140544

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140551

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140517

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133467

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140471


File: python.info,  Node: Library<13>,  Next: Core and Builtins<13>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<12>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.13 Library
.................

   - gh-140443(1): The logarithm functions (such as *note math.log10():
     19dc. and *note math.log(): 1862.) may now produce slightly
     different results for extremely large integers that cannot be
     converted to floats without overflow.  These results are generally
     more accurate, with reduced worst-case error and a tighter overall
     error distribution.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140443


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<13>,  Next: Library<14>,  Prev: Library<13>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.14 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-140431(1): Fix a crash in Python’s *note garbage collector:
     19de. due to partially initialized *note coroutine: 8a2. objects
     when coroutine origin tracking depth is enabled (*note
     sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): f4b.).

   - gh-140476(2): Optimize *note PySet_Add(): 17e8. for *note
     frozenset: 9d4. in *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-135904(3): Add special labels to the assembly created during
     stencil creation to support relocations that the native object file
     format does not support.  Specifically, 19 bit branches for AArch64
     in Mach-O object files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140431

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140476

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135904


File: python.info,  Node: Library<14>,  Next: Core and Builtins<14>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<13>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.15 Library
.................

   - gh-140398(1): Fix memory leaks in *note readline: c2. functions
     *note read_init_file(): 19e0, *note read_history_file(): 19e1,
     *note write_history_file(): 19e2, and *note append_history_file():
     1202. when *note PySys_Audit(): 808. fails.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140398


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<14>,  Next: C API<7>,  Prev: Library<14>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.16 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-140406(1): Fix memory leak when an object’s *note __hash__():
     ec1. method returns an object that isn’t an *note int: 326.

   - gh-140358(2): Restore elapsed time and unreachable object count in
     GC debug output.  These were inadvertently removed during a
     refactor of ‘gc.c’.  The debug log now again reports elapsed
     collection time and the number of unreachable objects.  Contributed
     by Pål Grønås Drange.

   - gh-136895(3): Update JIT compilation to use LLVM 20 at build time.

   - gh-139109(4): A new tracing frontend for the JIT compiler has been
     implemented.  Patch by Ken Jin.  Design for CPython by Ken Jin,
     Mark Shannon and Brandt Bucher.

   - gh-140306(5): Fix memory leaks in cross-interpreter channel
     operations and shared namespace handling.

   - gh-116738(6): Make _suggestions module thread-safe on the *note
     free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-140301(7): Fix memory leak of ‘PyConfig’ in subinterpreters.

   - gh-140257(8): Fix data race between interpreter_clear() and
     take_gil() on eval_breaker during finalization with daemon threads.

   - gh-139951(9): Fixes a regression in GC performance for a growing
     heap composed mostly of small tuples.

        * Counts number of actually tracked objects, instead of
          trackable objects.  This ensures that untracking tuples has
          the desired effect of reducing GC overhead.

        * Does not track most untrackable tuples during creation.  This
          prevents large numbers of small tuples causing excessive GCs.

   - gh-140253(10): Wrong placement of a double-star pattern inside a
     mapping pattern now throws a specialized syntax error.  Contributed
     by Bartosz Sławecki in gh-140253(11).

   - gh-140104(12): Fix a bug with exception handling in the JIT. Patch
     by Ken Jin.  Bug reported by Daniel Diniz.

   - gh-140149(13): Speed up parsing bytes literals concatenation by
     using PyBytesWriter API and a single memory allocation (about 3x
     faster).

   - gh-140061(14): Fixing the checking of whether an object is uniquely
     referenced to ensure free-threaded compatibility.  Patch by Sergey
     Miryanov.

   - gh-140080(15): Fix hang during finalization when attempting to call
     *note atexit: d. handlers under no memory.

   - gh-139871(16): Update *note bytearray: 1c6. to use a *note bytes:
     1c7. under the hood as its buffer and add *note
     bytearray.take_bytes(): 1c5. to take it out.

   - gh-140067(17): Fix memory leak in sub-interpreter creation.

   - gh-139914(18): Restore support for HP PA-RISC, which has an
     upwards-growing stack.

   - gh-139817(19): Attribute ‘__qualname__’ is added to *note
     typing.TypeAliasType: 52a.  Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

   - gh-135801(20): Many functions related to compiling or parsing
     Python code, such as *note compile(): 1c8, *note ast.parse(): 1c9,
     *note symtable.symtable(): 1ca, and *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code(): 1cb. now allow to
     specify the module name.  It is needed to unambiguous *note filter:
     1cc. syntax warnings by module name.

   - gh-139640(21): *note ast.parse(): 1c9. no longer emits syntax
     warnings for ‘return’/‘break’/‘continue’ in ‘finally’ (see PEP
     765(22)) – they are only emitted during compilation.

   - gh-139640(23): Fix swallowing some syntax warnings in different
     modules if they accidentally have the same message and are emitted
     from the same line.  Fix duplicated warnings in the ‘finally’
     block.

   - gh-139475(24): Changes in stackref debugging mode when
     ‘Py_STACKREF_DEBUG’ is set.  We use the same pattern of refcounting
     for stackrefs as in production build.

   - gh-139269(25): Fix undefined behavior when using unaligned store in
     JIT’s ‘patch_*’ functions.

   - gh-138944(26): Fix *note SyntaxError: 17e. message when invalid
     syntax appears on the same line as a valid ‘import ... as ...’ or
     ‘from ... import ... as ...’ statement.  Patch by Brian Schubert.

   - gh-138857(27): Improve *note SyntaxError: 17e. message for ‘case’
     keyword placed outside *note match: 1d4. body.

   - gh-131253(28): Support the ‘--enable-pystats’ build option for the
     free-threaded build.

   - gh-136327(29): Errors when calling functions with invalid values
     after ‘*’ and ‘**’ now do not include the function name.  Patch by
     Ilia Solin.

   - gh-134786(30): If *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. and *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 39d. are used, then *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. must be used as well.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140406

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140358

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136895

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139109

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140306

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140301

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140257

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139951

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140253

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140253

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140104

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140149

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140061

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140080

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139871

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140067

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139914

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139817

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135801

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139640

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0765/

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139640

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139475

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139269

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138944

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138857

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131253

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136327

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134786


File: python.info,  Node: C API<7>,  Next: Build<6>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<14>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.17 C API
...............

   - gh-141341(1): On Windows, rename the ‘COMPILER’ macro to
     ‘_Py_COMPILER’ to avoid name conflicts.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116146(2): Add a new *note PyImport_CreateModuleFromInitfunc():
     369. C-API for creating a module from a 'spec' and 'initfunc'.
     Patch by Itamar Oren.

   - gh-141042(3): Make qNaN in *note PyFloat_Pack2(): b47. and *note
     PyFloat_Pack4(): b48, if while conversion to a narrower precision
     floating-point format — the remaining after truncation payload will
     be zero.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-141004(4): ‘Py_MATH_El’ and ‘Py_MATH_PIl’ are deprecated.

   - gh-141004(5): The ‘Py_INFINITY’ macro is *note soft deprecated:
     1a7.

   - gh-140556(6): PEP 793(7): Add a new entry point for C extension
     modules, ‘PyModExport_<modulename>’.

   - gh-140487(8): Fix *note Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED: 19e5. in limited
     C API 3.11 and older: don’t treat ‘Py_NotImplemented’ as immortal.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-140153(9): Fix *note Py_REFCNT(): 54b. definition on limited C
     API 3.11-3.13.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-139653(10): Add *note
     PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection(): 395. and *note
     PyUnstable_ThreadState_ResetStackProtection(): 396. functions to
     set the stack protection base address and stack protection size of
     a Python thread state.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141341

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116146

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141042

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141004

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141004

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140556

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0793/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140487

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140153

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139653


File: python.info,  Node: Build<6>,  Prev: C API<7>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2

1.26.9.18 Build
...............

   - gh-140454(1): When building the JIT, match the jit_stencils
     filename expectations in Makefile with the generator script.  This
     avoid needless JIT recompilation during ‘make install’.

   - gh-140768(2): Warn when the WASI SDK version doesn’t match what’s
     supported.

   - gh-140513(3): Generate a clear compilation error when
     ‘_Py_TAIL_CALL_INTERP’ is enabled but either ‘preserve_none’ or
     ‘musttail’ is not supported.

   - gh-140475(4): Support WASI SDK 25.

   - gh-140239(5): Check ‘statx’ availability only on Linux (including
     Android).

   - gh-140189(6): iOS builds were added to CI.

   - gh-137618(7): ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN’ now requires Python 3.10 to Python
     3.15.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140454

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140768

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140513

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140475

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140239

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140189

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137618


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 14 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 15 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.10 Python 3.15.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2025-10-14'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<4>.
* Windows: Windows<7>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<5>.
* Tests: Tests<9>.
* Security: Security<8>.
* Library: Library<15>.
* IDLE: IDLE<5>.
* Documentation: Documentation<7>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<15>.
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* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<16>.
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* Build: Build<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<4>,  Next: Windows<7>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.1 macOS
...............

   - gh-115119(1): Update macOS installer to use libmpdecimal 4.0.1.

   - gh-124111(2): Update macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk 9.0.2.

   - gh-132339(3): Update macOS installer version of OpenSSL to 3.5.4.

   - gh-137450(4): macOS installer shell path management improvements:
     separate the installer ‘Shell profile updater’ postinstall script
     from the ‘Update Shell Profile.command’ to enable more robust error
     handling.

   - gh-137134(5): Update macOS installer to ship with SQLite version
     3.50.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124111

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132339

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137450

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137134


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<7>,  Next: Tools/Demos<5>,  Prev: macOS<4>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.2 Windows
.................

   - gh-139810(1): Installing with ‘py install 3[.x]-dev’ will now
     select final versions as well as prereleases.

   - gh-139573(2): Updated bundled version of OpenSSL to 3.0.18.

   - gh-138896(3): Fix error installing C runtime on non-updated Windows
     machines

   - gh-138314(4): Add *note winreg.DeleteTree(): 19ea.

   - gh-137136(5): Suppress build warnings when build on Windows with
     ‘--experimental-jit-interpreter’.

   - gh-137134(6): Update Windows installer to ship with SQLite 3.50.4.

   - gh-135099(7): Fix a crash that could occur on Windows when a
     background thread waits on a *note PyMutex: 693. while the main
     thread is shutting down the interpreter.

   - gh-130727(8): Fix a race in internal calls into WMI that can result
     in an «invalid handle» exception under high load.  Patch by Chris
     Eibl.

   - gh-76023(9): Make *note os.path.realpath(): 241. ignore Windows
     error 1005 when in non-strict mode.

   - gh-133779(10): Reverts the change to generate different
     ‘pyconfig.h’ files based on compiler settings, as it was frequently
     causing extension builds to break.  In particular, the
     ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’ preprocessor variable must now always be defined
     explicitly when compiling for the experimental free-threaded
     runtime.  The *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): 41e. function can
     be used to determine whether the current runtime was compiled with
     that flag or not.

   - gh-133626(11): Ensures packages are not accidentally bundled into
     the traditional installer.

   - gh-133580(12): Fix *note sys.getwindowsversion(): 10a4. failing
     without setting an exception when called on some WinAPI partitions.

   - gh-133572(13): Avoid LsaNtStatus to WinError conversion on
     unsupported WinAPI partitions.

   - gh-133568(14): Fix compile error when using a WinAPI partition that
     doesn’t support the RPC runtime library.

   - gh-133562(15): Disable handling of security descriptors by *note
     os.mkdir(): 72e. with mode ‘0o700’ on WinAPI partitions that do not
     support it.  This only affects custom builds for specialized
     targets.

   - gh-133537(16): Avoid using console I/O in WinAPI partitions that
     don’t support it

   - gh-131942(17): Use the Python-specific *note Py_DEBUG: 19eb. macro
     rather than ‘_DEBUG’ in Windows-related C code.  Patch by Xuehai
     Pan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139810

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139573

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138896

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138314

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137136

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137134

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135099

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130727

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76023

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133779

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133626

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133580

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133572

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133568

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133562

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133537

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131942


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<5>,  Next: Tests<9>,  Prev: Windows<7>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.3 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-139330(1): SBOM generation tool didn’t cross-check the version
     and checksum values against the ‘Modules/expat/refresh.sh’ script,
     leading to the values becoming out-of-date during routine updates.

   - gh-132006(2): XCframeworks now include privacy manifests to satisfy
     Apple App Store submission requirements.

   - gh-138171(3): A script for building an iOS XCframework was added.
     As part of this change, the top level ‘iOS’ folder has been moved
     to be a subdirectory of the ‘Apple’ folder.

   - gh-137873(4): The iOS test runner has been simplified, resolving
     some issues that have been observed using the runner in GitHub
     Actions and Azure Pipelines test environments.

   - gh-137484(5): Have ‘Tools/wasm/wasi’ put the build Python into a
     directory named after the build triple instead of «build».

   - gh-137025(6): The ‘wasm_build.py’ script has been removed.
     ‘Tools/wasm/emscripten’ and ‘Tools/wasm/wasi’ should be used
     instead, as described in the Dev Guide(7).

   - gh-137248(8): Add a ‘--logdir’ option to ‘Tools/wasm/wasi’ for
     specifying where to write log files.

   - gh-137243(9): Have Tools/wasm/wasi detect a WASI SDK install in
     /opt when it was directly extracted from a release tarball.

   - gh-136251(10): Fixes and usability improvements for
     ‘Tools/wasm/emscripten/web_example’

   - gh-135968(11): Stubs for ‘strip’ are now provided as part of an iOS
     install.

   - gh-135379(12): The cases generator no longer accepts type
     annotations on stack items.  Conversions to non-default types are
     now done explicitly in bytecodes.c and optimizer_bytecodes.c.  This
     will simplify code generation for top-of-stack caching and other
     future features.

   - gh-134215(13): *note REPL: 69d. import autocomplete only suggests
     private modules when explicitly specified.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139330

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132006

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138171

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137873

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137484

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137025

   (7) https://devguide.python.org/contrib/workflows/compile/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137248

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137243

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136251

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135968

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135379

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134215


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<9>,  Next: Security<8>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<5>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-139208(1): Fix regrtest ‘--fast-ci --verbose’: don’t ignore the
     ‘--verbose’ option anymore.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-138313(2): Restore skipped test and add janky workaround to
     prevent select buildbots from failing with a ResourceWarning.

   - gh-135966(3): The iOS testbed now handles the ‘app_packages’ folder
     as a site directory.

   - gh-135494(4): Fix regrtest to support excluding tests from ‘--pgo’
     tests.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-132815(5): Fix test__opcode: add ‘JUMP_BACKWARD’ to
     specialization stats.

   - gh-135489(6): Show verbose output for failing tests during PGO
     profiling step with –enable-optimizations.

   - gh-135401(7): Add a new GitHub CI job to test the *note ssl: d8.
     module with AWS-LC(8) as the backing cryptography and TLS library.

   - gh-135120(9): Add ‘test.support.subTests()’.

   - gh-134567(10): Expose log formatter to users in
     TestCase.assertLogs.  *note unittest.TestCase.assertLogs(): 29f.
     will now optionally accept a formatter that will be used to format
     the strings in output if provided.

   - gh-133744(11): Fix multiprocessing interrupt test.  Add an event to
     synchronize the parent process with the child process: wait until
     the child process starts sleeping.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-133682(12): Fixed test case
     ‘test.test_annotationlib.TestStringFormat.test_displays’ which
     ensures proper handling of complex data structures (lists, sets,
     dictionaries, and tuples) in string annotations.

   - gh-133639(13): Fix
     ‘TestPyReplAutoindent.test_auto_indent_default()’ doesn’t run
     ‘input_code’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139208

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138313

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135966

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135494

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132815

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135489

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135401

   (8) https://github.com/aws/aws-lc

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135120

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134567

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133744

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133682

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133639


File: python.info,  Node: Security<8>,  Next: Library<15>,  Prev: Tests<9>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.5 Security
..................

   - gh-139700(1): Check consistency of the zip64 end of central
     directory record.  Support records with «zip64 extensible data» if
     there are no bytes prepended to the ZIP file.

   - gh-139400(2): *note xml.parsers.expat: 12f.: Make sure that parent
     Expat parsers are only garbage-collected once they are no longer
     referenced by subparsers created by *note
     ExternalEntityParserCreate(): 1931.  Patch by Sebastian Pipping.

   - gh-139283(3): *note sqlite3: d7.: correctly handle maximum number
     of rows to fetch in *note Cursor.fetchmany: 19ef. and reject
     negative values for *note Cursor.arraysize: 19f0.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-136053(4): *note marshal: 90.: fix a possible crash when
     deserializing *note slice: 1d0. objects.

   - gh-135661(5): Fix parsing start and end tags in *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: c4d. according to the HTML5 standard.

        * Whitespaces no longer accepted between ‘</’ and the tag name.
          E.g.  ‘</ script>’ does not end the script section.

        * Vertical tabulation (‘\v’) and non-ASCII whitespaces no longer
          recognized as whitespaces.  The only whitespaces are
          ‘\t\n\r\f’ and space.

        * Null character (U+0000) no longer ends the tag name.

        * Attributes and slashes after the tag name in end tags are now
          ignored, instead of terminating after the first ‘>’ in quoted
          attribute value.  E.g.  ‘</script/foo=">"/>’.

        * Multiple slashes and whitespaces between the last attribute
          and closing ‘>’ are now ignored in both start and end tags.
          E.g.  ‘<a foo=bar/ //>’.

        * Multiple ‘=’ between attribute name and value are no longer
          collapsed.  E.g.  ‘<a foo==bar>’ produces attribute «foo» with
          value «=bar».

   - gh-135661(6): Fix CDATA section parsing in *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: c4d. according to the HTML5 standard: ‘]
     ]>’ and ‘]] >’ no longer end the CDATA section.  Add private method
     ‘_set_support_cdata()’ which can be used to specify how to parse
     ‘<[CDATA[’ — as a CDATA section in foreign content (SVG or MathML)
     or as a bogus comment in the HTML namespace.

   - gh-102555(7): Fix comment parsing in *note html.parser.HTMLParser:
     c4d. according to the HTML5 standard.  ‘--!>’ now ends the comment.
     ‘-- >’ no longer ends the comment.  Support abnormally ended empty
     comments ‘<-->’ and ‘<--->’.

   - gh-135462(8): Fix quadratic complexity in processing specially
     crafted input in *note html.parser.HTMLParser: c4d.  End-of-file
     errors are now handled according to the HTML5 specs – comments and
     declarations are automatically closed, tags are ignored.

   - gh-118350(9): Fix support of escapable raw text mode (elements
     «textarea» and «title») in *note html.parser.HTMLParser: c4d.

   - gh-135034(10): Fixes multiple issues that allowed ‘tarfile’
     extraction filters (‘filter="data"’ and ‘filter="tar"’) to be
     bypassed using crafted symlinks and hard links.

     Addresses CVE 2024-12718(11), CVE 2025-4138(12), CVE 2025-4330(13),
     and CVE 2025-4517(14).

   - gh-133767(15): Fix use-after-free in the «unicode-escape» decoder
     with a non-«strict» error handler.

   - gh-133623(16): Indicate through *note ssl.HAS_PSK_TLS13: 259.
     whether the *note ssl: d8. module supports «External PSKs» in
     TLSv1.3, as described in RFC 9258.  Patch by Will Childs-Klein.

   - gh-128840(17): Short-circuit the processing of long IPv6 addresses
     early in *note ipaddress: 83. to prevent excessive memory
     consumption and a minor denial-of-service.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139700

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139400

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139283

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136053

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135661

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135661

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102555

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135462

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118350

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135034

   (11) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4138

   (13) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4330

   (14) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4517

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133767

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133623

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128840


File: python.info,  Node: Library<15>,  Next: IDLE<5>,  Prev: Security<8>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.6 Library
.................

   - gh-139482(1): Optimize *note os.environ.clear(): 4e5. by calling
     ‘clearenv(3)(2)’ when this function is available.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-139958(3): The ‘application/toml’ mime type is now supported by
     *note mimetypes: 93.  Patch by Gil Forcada.

   - gh-139823(4): *note ensurepip: 58. now fails with a nicer error
     message when the *note zlib: 13c. module is not available.

   - gh-139905(5): Add suggestion to error message for *note
     typing.Generic: 19f2. subclasses when ‘cls.__parameters__’ is
     missing due to a parent class failing to call *note
     super().__init_subclass__(): a22. in its ‘__init_subclass__’.

   - gh-139894(6): Fix incorrect sharing of current task with the child
     process while forking in *note asyncio: b.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-139845(7): Fix to not print KeyboardInterrupt twice in default
     asyncio REPL.

   - gh-139783(8): Fix *note inspect.getsourcelines(): 19f3. for the
     case when a decorator is followed by a comment or an empty line.

   - gh-139809(9): Prevent premature colorization of subparser ‘prog’ in
     *note argparse.ArgumentParser.add_subparsers(): fd6. to respect
     color environment variable changes after parser creation.

   - gh-139736(10): Fix excessive indentation in the default *note
     argparse: 7. ‘HelpFormatter’.  Patch by Alexander Edland.

   - gh-70765(11): *note http.server: 75.: fix default handling of
     HTTP/0.9 requests in *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 226.
     Previously, ‘BaseHTTPRequestHandler.parse_request()’ incorrectly
     waited for headers in the request although those are not supported
     in HTTP/0.9.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-139322(12): Fix *note os.getlogin(): 19f4. error handling: fix
     the error number.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-135953(13): Add a Gecko format output to the tachyon profiler
     via ‘--gecko’.

   - gh-139184(14): *note os.forkpty(): 6be. does now make the returned
     file descriptor non-inheritable.

   - gh-139391(15): Fix an issue when, on non-Windows platforms, it was
     not possible to gracefully exit a ‘python -m asyncio’ process
     suspended by Ctrl+Z and later resumed by ‘fg(16)’ other than with
     ‘kill(17)’.

   - gh-139374(18): *note timeit: f8.: Add color to error tracebacks.

   - gh-90949(19): Add *note
     SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionActivationThreshold(): 2b9. and
     *note SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionMaximumAmplification(): 2ba.
     to *note xmlparser: 2b8. objects to tune protections against
     billion laughs(20) attacks.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-139312(21): Upgrade bundled libexpat to 2.7.3

   - gh-139289(22): Do a real lazy-import on *note rlcompleter: c5. in
     *note pdb: aa. and restore the existing completer after importing
     ‘rlcompleter’.

   - gh-90949(23): Add *note SetAllocTrackerActivationThreshold(): 2b6.
     and *note SetAllocTrackerMaximumAmplification(): 2b7. to *note
     xmlparser: 2b8. objects to tune protections against disproportional
     amounts of dynamic memory usage from within an Expat parser.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-67795(24): Functions that take timestamp or timeout arguments
     now accept any real numbers (such as *note Decimal: 1c2. and *note
     Fraction: 1c3.), not only integers or floats, although this does
     not improve precision.

   - gh-95953(25): A CSS class, ‘diff_changed’, was added to the changed
     lines in the ‘make_table’ output of *note difflib.HtmlDiff: 214.
     Patch by Katie Gardner.

   - gh-139210(26): Fix use-after-free when reporting unknown event in
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(): 3eb.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - gh-138860(27): Lazy import *note rlcompleter: c5. in *note pdb: aa.
     to avoid deadlock in subprocess.

   - gh-112729(28): Fix crash when calling *note
     concurrent.interpreters.create(): 19f5. when the process is out of
     memory.

   - gh-126016(29): Fix an assertion failure when sending *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: d96. to a Python process running a
     subinterpreter in a separate thread.

   - gh-118803(30): *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2cb. has been
     removed from ‘collections.abc.__all__’, and *note
     typing.ByteString: 2e3. has been removed from ‘typing.__all__’.
     The former has been deprecated since Python 3.12, and the latter
     has been deprecated since Python 3.9.  Both classes are scheduled
     for removal in Python 3.17.

     Additionally, the following statements now cause
     ‘DeprecationWarning’s to be emitted at runtime: ‘from
     collections.abc import ByteString’, ‘from typing import
     ByteString’, ‘import collections.abc; collections.abc.ByteString’
     and ‘import typing; typing.ByteString’.  Both classes already
     caused ‘DeprecationWarning’s to be emitted if they were subclassed
     or used as the second argument to ‘isinstance()’ or ‘issubclass()’,
     but they did not previously lead to ‘DeprecationWarning’s if they
     were merely imported or accessed from their respective modules.

   - gh-135729(31): Fix unraisable exception during finalization when
     using *note concurrent.interpreters: 25. in the REPL.

   - gh-139076(32): Fix a bug in the *note pydoc: bd. module that was
     hiding functions in a Python module if they were implemented in an
     extension module and the module did not have ‘__all__’.

   - gh-139090(33): Add *note os.RWF_DONTCACHE: 19f6. constant for Linux
     6.14+.

   - gh-139065(34): Fix trailing space before a wrapped long word if the
     line length is exactly 'width' in *note textwrap: f5.

   - gh-139001(35): Fix race condition in *note pathlib.Path: 4ee. on
     the internal ‘_raw_paths’ field.

   - gh-138813(36): ‘multiprocessing.BaseProcess’ defaults ‘kwargs’ to
     ‘None’ instead of a shared dictionary.

   - gh-138998(37): Update bundled libexpat to 2.7.2

   - gh-138993(38): Dedent *note credits: 1984. text.

   - gh-118803(39): Add back *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2cb. and
     *note typing.ByteString: 2e3.  Both had been removed in prior
     alpha, beta and release candidates for Python 3.14, but their
     removal has now been postponed to Python 3.17.

   - gh-130567(40): Fix possible crash in *note locale.strxfrm(): 19f7.
     due to a platform bug on macOS.

   - gh-137226(41): Fix *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. calls on
     generic *note typing.TypedDict: 290. classes defined with string
     annotations.

   - gh-138899(42): Executing ‘quit’ command in *note pdb: aa. will
     raise *note bdb.BdbQuit: 500. when ‘pdb’ is started from an asyncio
     console using *note breakpoint(): 4f9. or *note pdb.set_trace():
     4fa.

   - gh-138804(43): Raise *note TypeError: 291. instead of *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. when an argument of incorrect type is passed
     to *note shlex.quote(): 781.  This restores the behavior of the
     function prior to 3.14.

   - gh-138779(44): Support device numbers larger than ‘2**63-1’ for the
     *note st_rdev: 19f8. field of the *note os.stat_result: 1863.
     structure.

   - gh-138682(45): Added symmetric difference support to *note
     collections.Counter: 204. objects.

   - gh-138712(46): Add *note os.NODEV: 19f9.

   - gh-128636(47): Fix crash in PyREPL when os.environ is overwritten
     with an invalid value for mac

   - gh-138720(48): Fix an issue where *note io.BufferedWriter: 1754.
     and *note io.BufferedRandom: 1755. had different definitions of
     «closed» for *note close(): 70b. and *note flush(): 19fa. which
     resulted in an exception when close called flush but flush thought
     the file was already closed.

   - gh-138706(49): Update *note unicodedata: 10e. database to Unicode
     17.0.0.

   - gh-76007(50): Deprecate ‘__version__’ from a number of standard
     library modules.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-138535(51): Speed up *note os.stat(): 4f5. for files with
     reasonable timestamps.  Contributed by Jeffrey Bosboom.

   - gh-116946(52): *note curses.panel: 30.: the type of *note
     curses.panel.new_panel(): 19fb. is now immutable.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-116946(53): *note zlib: 13c.: the types of *note
     zlib.compressobj(): 19fc. and *note zlib.decompressobj(): 19fd. are
     now immutable.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-116946(54): *note os: a5.: the *note os.DirEntry: 8ac. type and
     the type of *note os.scandir(): e23. are now immutable.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-116946(55): *note tkinter: f9.: the types ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’
     (wrapper for Tcl objects), ‘_tkinter.tktimertoken’ (obtained by
     calling ‘createtimerhandler()’ on a *note Tk: 19fe. application)
     and ‘_tkinter.tkapp’ (the runtime type of Tk applications) are now
     immutable.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-138514(56): Raise *note ValueError: 277. when a multi-character
     string is passed to the 'echo_char' parameter of *note
     getpass.getpass(): 4ab.  Patch by Benjamin Johnson.

   - gh-137706(57): Fix the partial evaluation of annotations that use
     ‘typing.Annotated[T, x]’ where ‘T’ is a forward reference.

   - gh-88375(58): Fix normalization of the ‘robots.txt’ rules and URLs
     in the *note urllib.robotparser: 116. module.  No longer ignore
     trailing ‘?’.  Distinguish raw special characters ‘?’, ‘=’ and ‘&’
     from the percent-encoded ones.

   - gh-138515(59): *note email: 3e. is added to Emscripten build.

   - gh-99948(60): *note ctypes.util.find_library(): 10fe. now works in
     Emscripten build.

   - gh-111788(61): Fix parsing errors in the *note urllib.robotparser:
     116. module.  Don’t fail trying to parse weird paths.  Don’t fail
     trying to decode non-UTF-8 ‘robots.txt’ files.

   - gh-138432(62): *note zoneinfo.reset_tzpath(): 19ff. will now
     convert any *note os.PathLike: 100f. objects it receives into
     strings before adding them to ‘TZPATH’.  It will raise ‘TypeError’
     if anything other than a string is found after this conversion.  If
     given an ‘os.PathLike’ object that represents a relative path, it
     will now raise ‘ValueError’ instead of ‘TypeError’, and present a
     more informative error message.

   - gh-132657(63): Improve the scaling of *note copy.copy(): 942. and
     *note copy.deepcopy(): f2b. in the free-threading build.

   - gh-116946(64): The types of *note select.poll(): 268. and *note
     select.epoll(): 133d. objects are now immutable.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-116946(65): The ‘_random.Random’ C type is now immutable.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-57911(66): When extracting tar files on Windows, slashes in
     symlink targets will be replaced by backslashes to prevent
     corrupted links.

   - gh-138205(67): Removed the *note resize(): 3e9. method on platforms
     that don’t support the underlying syscall, instead of raising a
     *note SystemError: 3ea.

   - gh-138008(68): Fix segmentation faults in the *note ctypes: 2d.
     module due to invalid *note argtypes: 1a00.  Patch by Dung Nguyen.

   - gh-138252(69): *note ssl: d8.: *note SSLContext: 336. objects can
     now set client and server TLS signature algorithms.  If Python has
     been built with OpenSSL 3.5 or later, *note SSLSocket: cbb. objects
     can return the signature algorithms selected on a connection.

   - gh-138253(70): Add the 'block' parameter in the ‘put()’ and ‘get()’
     methods of the *note concurrent.interpreters: 25. queues for
     compatibility with the *note queue.Queue: 1738. interface.

   - gh-60462(71): Fix *note locale.strxfrm(): 19f7. on Solaris (and
     possibly other platforms).

   - gh-138239(72): The REPL now highlights *note type: 85a. as a soft
     keyword in *note type statements: 85a.

   - gh-78502(73): *note mmap.mmap: 23c. now has a 'trackfd' parameter
     on Windows; if it is ‘False’, the file handle corresponding to
     'fileno' will not be duplicated.

   - gh-138204(74): Forbid expansion of shared anonymous *note memory
     maps: 94. on Linux, which caused a bus error.

   - gh-138010(75): Fix an issue where defining a class with a *note
     @warnings.deprecated: 695.-decorated base class may not invoke the
     correct *note __init_subclass__(): a22. method in cases involving
     multiple inheritance.  Patch by Brian Schubert.

   - gh-134716(76): Add support of regular expressions in the *note -W:
     1c0. option and the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: 1c1. environment
     variable.

   - gh-138133(77): Prevent infinite traceback loop when sending CTRL^C
     to Python through ‘strace’.

   - gh-138122(78): Implement PEP 799(79) – A dedicated profiling
     package for organizing Python profiling tools.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - gh-138092(80): Fixed a bug in *note mmap.mmap.flush(): e5e. where
     calling with only an offset parameter would fail.

   - gh-138044(81): Remove compatibility shim for deprecated parameter
     'package' in *note importlib.resources.files(): 2d7.  Patch by
     Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-86819(82): *note socket: d4.: Add missing constants for ISO-TP
     sockets.

   - gh-137884(83): Add *note threading.get_native_id(): e01. support
     for Illumos/Solaris.  Patch by Yüce Tekol.

   - gh-134869(84): Fix an issue where pressing Ctrl+C during tab
     completion in the REPL would leave the autocompletion menu in a
     corrupted state.

   - gh-137840(85): *note typing.TypedDict: 290. now supports the
     ‘closed’ and ‘extra_items’ keyword arguments (as described in PEP
     728(86)) to control whether additional non-required keys are
     allowed and to specify their value type.

   - gh-132947(87): Applied changes to ‘importlib.metadata’ from
     importlib_metadata 8.7(88), including ‘dist’ now disallowed for
     ‘EntryPoints.select’; deferred imports for faster import times;
     added support for metadata with newlines (python/cpython#119650);
     and ‘metadata()’ function now returns ‘None’ when a metadata
     directory is present but no metadata is present.

   - gh-90548(89): Fix ‘musl’ detection for *note platform.libc_ver():
     1a01. on Alpine Linux if compiled with –strip-all.

   - gh-137317(90): *note inspect.signature(): 4bd. now correctly
     handles classes that use a descriptor on a wrapped ‘__init__()’ or
     ‘__new__()’ method.  Contributed by Yongyu Yan.

   - gh-137754(91): Fix import of the *note zoneinfo: 13d. module if the
     C implementation of the *note datetime: 33. module is not
     available.

   - gh-125854(92): Improve error messages for invalid category in *note
     warnings.warn(): 18bb.

   - gh-137729(93): *note locale.setlocale(): 231. now supports language
     codes with ‘@’-modifiers.  ‘@’-modifier are no longer silently
     removed in *note locale.getlocale(): 232, but included in the
     language code.

   - gh-73487(94): Speedup processing arguments (up to 1.5x) in the
     *note decimal: 39. module methods, that now using *note
     METH_FASTCALL: 34b. calling convention.  Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-137634(95): Calendar pages generated by the *note
     calendar.HTMLCalendar: 202. class now support dark mode and have
     been migrated to the HTML5 standard for improved accessibility.

   - gh-137630(96): The ‘_interpreters’ module now uses Argument Clinic
     to parse arguments.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-137583(97): Fix a deadlock introduced in 3.13.6 when a call to
     *note ssl.SSLSocket.recv: 115d. was blocked in one thread, and then
     another method on the object (such as *note ssl.SSLSocket.send:
     1160.) was subsequently called in another thread.

   - gh-92936(98): Update regex used by ‘http.cookies.SimpleCookie’ to
     handle values containing double quotes.

   - gh-137426(99): Remove the code deprecation of
     ‘importlib.abc.ResourceLoader’.  It is documented as deprecated,
     but left for backwards compatibility with other classes in
     ‘importlib.abc’.

   - gh-137490(100): Handle *note ECANCELED: 1a02. in the same way as
     *note EINTR: 1140. in *note signal.sigwaitinfo(): 1164. on NetBSD.

   - gh-137512(101): Add new constants in the *note resource: c4.
     module: *note RLIMIT_NTHR: 24f, *note RLIMIT_UMTXP: 250, *note
     RLIMIT_PIPEBUF: 1a03, *note RLIMIT_THREADS: 251, *note
     RLIM_SAVED_CUR: 252, and *note RLIM_SAVED_MAX: 253.

   - gh-137044(102): *note resource.RLIM_INFINITY: 3e6. is now always a
     positive integer.  On all supported platforms, it is larger than
     any limited resource value, which simplifies comparison of the
     resource values.  Previously, it could be negative, such as -1 or
     -3, depending on platform.

   - gh-137477(103): Fix ‘inspect.getblock()’, *note
     inspect.getsourcelines(): 19f3. and *note inspect.getsource():
     1a04. for generator expressions.

   - gh-137481(104): Calendar uses the lengths of the locale’s weekdays
     to decide if the width requires abbreviation.

   - gh-137466(105): Remove undocumented ‘glob.glob0()’ and
     ‘glob.glob1()’ functions, which have been deprecated since Python
     3.13.  Use *note glob.glob(): 2d4. and pass a directory to its
     'root_dir' argument instead.

   - gh-137044(106): Return large limit values as positive integers
     instead of negative integers in *note resource.getrlimit(): 1a05.
     Accept large values and reject negative values (except *note
     RLIM_INFINITY: 3e6.) for limits in *note resource.setrlimit(): 3e7.

   - gh-115766(107): Fix ‘ipaddress.IPv4Interface.is_unspecified’.

   - gh-75989(108): *note tarfile.TarFile.extractall(): 27a. and *note
     tarfile.TarFile.extract(): 27b. now overwrite symlinks when
     extracting hardlinks.  (Contributed by Alexander Enrique Urieles
     Nieto in gh-75989(109).)

   - gh-137017(110): Fix *note threading.Thread.is_alive: d18. to remain
     ‘True’ until the underlying OS thread is fully cleaned up.  This
     avoids false negatives in edge cases involving thread monitoring or
     premature ‘threading.Thread.is_alive’ calls.

   - gh-137273(111): Fix debug assertion failure in *note
     locale.setlocale(): 231. on Windows.

   - gh-137191(112): Fix how type parameters are collected, when *note
     typing.Protocol: 76c. are specified with explicit parameters.  Now,
     *note typing.Generic: 19f2. and ‘typing.Protocol’ always dictate
     the parameter number and parameter ordering of types.  Previous
     behavior was a bug.

   - gh-137282(113): Fix tab completion and *note dir(): a23. on *note
     concurrent.futures: 24.

   - gh-137257(114): Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to
     version 25.2

   - gh-137239(115): *note heapq: 6c.: Update ‘heapq.__all__’ with
     ‘*_max’ functions.

   - gh-124503(116): *note ast.literal_eval(): fd7. is 10-20% faster for
     small inputs.

   - gh-137226(117): Fix behavior of *note
     annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate(): 150. when the 'type_params'
     parameter is passed and the name of a type param is also present in
     an enclosing scope.

   - gh-137197(118): *note SSLContext: 336. objects can now set TLS 1.3
     cipher suites via *note set_ciphersuites(): 25e.

   - gh-81325(119): *note tarfile.TarFile: 15b7. now accepts a *note
     path-like: 79f. when working on a tar archive.  (Contributed by
     Alexander Enrique Urieles Nieto in gh-81325(120).)

   - gh-137185(121): Fix a potential async-signal-safety issue in *note
     faulthandler: 5b. when printing C stack traces.

   - gh-133951(122): Remove lib64-lib symlink creation when creating new
     virtual environments in *note venv: 11a. module

   - gh-130522(123): Fix unraisable *note TypeError: 291. raised during
     *note interpreter shutdown: 1a0. in the *note threading: f6.
     module.

   - gh-137059(124): Fix handling of file URLs with a Windows drive
     letter in the URL authority by *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     539.  This fixes a regression in earlier pre-releases of Python
     3.14.

   - gh-136980(125): Remove unused C tracing code in bdb for event type
     ‘c_call’, ‘c_return’ and ‘c_exception’

   - gh-130577(126): *note tarfile: e7. now validates archives to ensure
     member offsets are non-negative.  (Contributed by Alexander Enrique
     Urieles Nieto in gh-130577(127).)

   - gh-136170(128): Removed the unreleased
     ‘zipfile.ZipFile.data_offset’ property added in 3.14.0a7 as it
     wasn’t fully clear which behavior it should have in some situations
     so the result was not always what a user might expect.

   - gh-121237(129): Support ‘%:z’ directive for *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 2d2, *note datetime.time.strptime():
     1a06. and *note time.strptime(): 17cf.  Patch by Lucas Esposito and
     Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-136929(130): Ensure that hash functions guaranteed to be always
     'available' exist as attributes of *note hashlib: 6b. even if they
     will not work at runtime due to missing backend implementations.
     For instance, ‘hashlib.md5’ will no longer raise *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. if OpenSSL is not available and Python has
     been built without MD5 support.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-124621(131): pyrepl now works in Emscripten.

   - gh-136914(132): Fix retrieval of *note doctest.DocTest.lineno:
     1a07. for objects decorated with *note functools.cache(): 1a08. or
     *note functools.cached_property: 94e.

   - gh-136912(133): *note hmac.digest(): efc. now properly handles
     large keys and messages by falling back to the pure Python
     implementation when necessary.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-83424(134): Allows creating a *note ctypes.CDLL: dad. without
     name when passing a handle as an argument.

   - gh-135228(135): When *note dataclasses: 32. replaces a class with a
     slotted dataclass, the original class can now be garbage collected
     again.  Earlier changes in Python 3.14 caused this class to always
     remain in existence together with the replacement class synthesized
     by ‘dataclasses’.

   - gh-136874(136): Discard URL query and fragment in *note
     urllib.request.url2pathname(): 539.

   - gh-136787(137): *note hashlib: 6b.: improve exception messages when
     a hash algorithm is not recognized, blocked by the current security
     policy or incompatible with the desired operation (for instance,
     using HMAC with SHAKE). Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-130645(138): Enable color help by default in *note argparse: 7.

   - gh-131724(139): In *note http.client: 72, a new
     'max_response_headers' keyword-only parameter has been added to
     *note HTTPConnection: 223. and *note HTTPSConnection: 224.
     constructors.  This parameter sets the maximum number of allowed
     response headers, helping to prevent denial-of-service attacks.

   - gh-135427(140): With *note -Werror: 1c0, the DeprecationWarning
     emitted by *note os.fork(): 6bd. and *note os.forkpty(): 6be. in
     mutli-threaded processes is now raised as an exception.  Previously
     it was silently ignored.  Patch by Rani Pinchuk.

   - gh-136234(141): Fix *note asyncio.WriteTransport.writelines():
     1a09. to be robust to connection failure, by using the same
     behavior as *note write(): 1a0a.

   - gh-53144(142): ‘encodings.aliases’: Add ‘latin_N’ aliases

   - gh-136669(143): ‘_asyncio’ is now statically linked for improved
     performance.

   - gh-136134(144): ‘SMTP.auth_cram_md5()’ now raises an *note
     SMTPException: 134a. instead of a *note ValueError: 277. if Python
     has been built without MD5 support.  In particular, *note SMTP:
     cfa. clients will not attempt to use this method even if the remote
     server is assumed to support it.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-136134(145): *note IMAP4.login_cram_md5: 1a0b. now raises an
     *note IMAP4.error: 1a0c. if CRAM-MD5 authentication is not
     supported.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-136591(146): ‘_hashlib’: avoid using deprecated functions
     ‘ERR_func_error_string(147)’ and ‘EVP_MD_CTX_md(148)’ when using
     OpenSSL 3.0 and later.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-136571(149): *note datetime.date.fromisocalendar(): db0. can now
     raise OverflowError for out of range arguments.

   - gh-136549(150): Fix signature of *note threading.excepthook(): c23.

   - gh-136492(151): Expose PEP 667(152)’s *note FrameLocalsProxyType:
     28c. in the *note types: 10c. module.

   - gh-83336(153): ‘utf8_sig’ is now aliased to *note
     encodings.utf_8_sig: 57.

   - gh-136523(154): Fix *note wave.Wave_write: 2e7. emitting an
     unraisable when open raises.

   - gh-136507(155): Fix mimetypes CLI to handle multiple file
     parameters.

   - gh-52876(156): Add missing ‘keepends’ (default ‘True’) parameter to
     ‘codecs.StreamReaderWriter.readline()’ and
     ‘codecs.StreamReaderWriter.readlines()’.

   - gh-136470(157): Correct *note
     concurrent.futures.InterpreterPoolExecutor: 46a.’s default thread
     name.

   - gh-136476(158): Fix a bug that was causing the
     ‘get_async_stack_trace’ function to miss some frames in the stack
     trace.

   - gh-136434(159): Fix docs generation of ‘UnboundItem’ in *note
     concurrent.interpreters: 25. when running with *note -OO: 116e.

   - gh-136380(160): Raises *note AttributeError: 1a9. when accessing
     *note concurrent.futures.InterpreterPoolExecutor: 46a. and
     subinterpreters are not available.

   - gh-72327(161): Suggest using the system command prompt when ‘pip
     install’ is typed into the REPL. Patch by Tom Viner, Richard Si,
     and Brian Schubert.

   - gh-135953(162): Implement a new high-frequency runtime profiler
     that leverages the existing remote debugging functionality to
     collect detailed execution statistics from running Python
     processes.  This tool is exposed in the ‘profile.sample’ module and
     enables non-intrusive observation of production applications by
     attaching to already-running processes without requiring any code
     modifications, restarts, or special startup flags.  The observer
     can perform extremely high-frequency sampling of stack traces and
     interpreter state, providing detailed runtime execution analysis of
     live applications.

   - gh-136021(163): Make ‘type_params’ parameter required in
     ‘typing._eval_type()’ after a deprecation period for not providing
     this parameter.  Also remove the *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. for
     the old behavior.

   - gh-136286(164): Fix pickling failures for protocols 0 and 1 for
     many objects related to subinterpreters.

   - gh-136047(165): Fix issues with *note typing: 10d. when the C
     implementation of *note abc: 4. is not available.

   - gh-136316(166): Improve support for evaluating nested forward
     references in *note typing.evaluate_forward_ref(): 151.

   - gh-136306(167): *note ssl: d8. can now get and set groups used for
     key agreement.

   - gh-136156(168): *note tempfile.TemporaryFile(): 1a0d. no longer
     uses *note os.O_EXCL: 1a0e. with *note os.O_TMPFILE: 131d, so it’s
     possible to use ‘linkat()’ on the file descriptor.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-133982(169): Update Python implementation of *note io.BytesIO:
     1255. to be thread safe.

   - gh-136193(170): Improve *note TypeError: 291. error message, when
     richcomparing two *note types.SimpleNamespace: 6ea. objects.

   - gh-136097(171): Fix potential infinite recursion and KeyError in
     ‘sysconfig --generate-posix-vars’.

   - gh-85702(172): If ‘zoneinfo._common.load_tzdata’ is given a package
     without a resource a *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 1a0f. is
     raised rather than a *note PermissionError: 10f9.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-90733(173): Improve error messages when reporting invalid
     parameters in *note hashlib.scrypt(): ffc.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-134759(174): Fix *note UnboundLocalError: 18d8. in *note
     email.message.Message.get_payload(): 1576. when the payload to
     decode is a *note bytes: 1c7. object.  Patch by Kliment Lamonov.

   - gh-136028(175): Fix parsing month names containing «İ» (U+0130,
     LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH DOT ABOVE) in *note time.strptime():
     17cf.  This affects locales az_AZ, ber_DZ, ber_MA and crh_UA.

   - gh-87135(176): Acquiring a *note threading.Lock: 1a10. or *note
     threading.RLock: 2df. at interpreter shutdown will raise *note
     PythonFinalizationError: 68a. if Python can determine that it would
     otherwise deadlock.

   - gh-135995(177): In the palmos encoding, make byte ‘0x9b’ decode to
     ‘›’ (U+203A - SINGLE RIGHT-POINTING ANGLE QUOTATION MARK).

   - gh-105456(178): Removed ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and
     ‘sre_parse’ modules.

   - gh-53203(179): Fix *note time.strptime(): 17cf. for ‘%c’ and ‘%x’
     formats on locales byn_ER, wal_ET and lzh_TW, and for ‘%X’ format
     on locales ar_SA, bg_BG and lzh_TW.

   - gh-135878(180): Fixes a crash of *note types.SimpleNamespace: 6ea.
     on *note free threading: 487. builds, when several threads were
     calling its *note __repr__(): 1bc. method at the same time.

   - gh-135853(181): Add *note math.fmax(): 237. and *note math.fmin():
     238. to get the larger and smaller of two floating-point values.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-135836(182): Fix *note IndexError: 18d7. in *note
     asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 9f9. that could occur when
     non-*note OSError: 53c. exception is raised during connection and
     socket’s ‘close()’ raises ‘OSError’.

   - gh-135853(183): *note math: 91.: expose C99 *note signbit(): 239.
     function to determine whether the sign bit of a floating-point
     value is set.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-134531(184): *note hmac: 6d.: use the ‘EVP_MAC(3ssl)(185)’
     interface for HMAC when Python is built with OpenSSL 3.0 and later
     instead of the deprecated ‘HMAC_CTX(3ssl)(186)’ interface.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-135836(187): Fix *note IndexError: 18d7. in *note
     asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 9f9. that could occur when the
     Happy Eyeballs algorithm resulted in an empty exceptions list
     during connection attempts.

   - gh-135855(188): Raise *note TypeError: 291. instead of *note
     SystemError: 3ea. when ‘_interpreters.set___main___attrs()’ is
     passed a non-dict object.  Patch by Brian Schubert.

   - gh-135823(189): *note netrc: 9f.: improve the error message when
     the security check for the ownership of the default configuration
     file ‘~/.netrc’ fails.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-135815(190): *note netrc: 9f.: skip security checks if *note
     os.getuid(): 1a11. is missing.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-135640(191): Address bug where it was possible to call *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write(): e5b. on an ElementTree
     object with an invalid root element.  This behavior blanked the
     file passed to ‘write’ if it already existed.

   - gh-90117(192): Speed up *note pprint: b3. for *note list: 4d9. and
     *note tuple: 1ce.

   - gh-135759(193): *note hashlib: 6b.: reject negative digest lengths
     in OpenSSL-based SHAKE objects by raising a *note ValueError: 277.
     Previously, negative lengths were implicitly rejected by raising a
     *note MemoryError: 18fa. or a *note SystemError: 3ea.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-123471(194): Make concurrent iterations over *note
     itertools.chain: 190. safe under *note free threading: 487.

   - gh-135645(195): Added ‘supports_isolated_interpreters’ field to
     *note sys.implementation: 926.

   - gh-135646(196): Raise consistent *note NameError: 665. exceptions
     in *note annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate(): 150.

   - gh-135557(197): Fix races on *note heapq: 6c. updates and *note
     list: 4d9. reads on the *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-119180(198): Only fetch globals and locals if necessary in *note
     annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c.

   - gh-135561(199): Fix a crash on DEBUG builds when an HACL* HMAC
     routine fails.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-135386(200): Fix opening a *note dbm.sqlite3: 38. database for
     reading from read-only file or directory.

   - gh-135444(201): Fix *note asyncio.DatagramTransport.sendto(): 6d1.
     to account for datagram header size when data cannot be sent.

   - gh-65697(202): *note configparser: 26.’s error message when
     attempting to write an invalid key is now more helpful.

   - gh-135497(203): Fix *note os.getlogin(): 19f4. failing for longer
     usernames on BSD-based platforms.

   - gh-135487(204): Fix ‘reprlib.Repr.repr_int()’ when given integers
     with more than *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits(): 1a12. digits.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-135429(205): Fix the argument mismatch in ‘_lsprof’ for
     ‘PY_THROW’ event.

   - gh-135368(206): Fix *note unittest.mock.Mock: e0e. generation on
     *note dataclasses.dataclass(): 6e6. objects.  Now all special
     attributes are set as it was before gh-124429(207).

   - gh-135336(208): *note json: 85. now encodes strings up to 2.2x
     faster if they consist solely of characters that don’t require
     escaping.

   - gh-135335(209): *note multiprocessing: 98.: Flush ‘stdout’ and
     ‘stderr’ after preloading modules in the ‘forkserver’.

   - gh-126631(210): Fix *note multiprocessing: 98. ‘forkserver’ bug
     which prevented ‘__main__’ from being preloaded.

   - gh-133967(211): Do not normalize *note locale: 89. name “C.UTF-8”
     to “en_US.UTF-8”.

   - gh-130870(212): Preserve *note types.GenericAlias: bc7. subclasses
     in *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e.

   - gh-135321(213): Raise a correct exception for values greater than
     0x7fffffff for the ‘BINSTRING’ opcode in the C implementation of
     *note pickle: ab.

   - gh-121914(214): Changed the names of the symbol tables for lambda
     expressions and generator expressions to «<lambda>» and «<genexpr>»
     respectively to avoid conflicts with user-defined names.

   - gh-135276(215): Synchronized zipfile.Path with zipp 3.23, including
     improved performance of *note zipfile.Path.open(): 1a13. for
     non-reading modes, rely on *note functools.cached_property(): 94e.
     to cache values on the instance.  Rely on ‘save_method_args’ to
     save the initialization method arguments.  Fixed ‘.name’, ‘.stem’
     and other basename-based properties on Windows when working with a
     zipfile on disk.

   - gh-135234(216): *note hashlib: 6b.: improve exception messages when
     an OpenSSL function failed.  When memory allocation fails on
     OpenSSL’s side, a *note MemoryError: 18fa. is raised instead of a
     *note ValueError: 277.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-135244(217): *note uuid: 119.: when the MAC address cannot be
     determined, the 48-bit node ID is now generated with a
     cryptographically-secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG) as
     per RFC 9562, §6.10.3(218).  This affects *note uuid1(): f67. and
     *note uuid6(): 53e.

   - gh-135241(219): The ‘INT’ opcode of the C accelerator ‘_pickle’
     module was updated to look only for «00» and «01» to push booleans
     onto the stack, aligning with the Python *note pickle: ab. module.

   - gh-133934(220): Improve *note sqlite3: d7. CLI’s ‘.help’ message.

   - gh-135069(221): Fix the «Invalid error handling» exception in
     ‘encodings.idna.IncrementalDecoder’ to correctly replace the
     “errors” parameter.

   - gh-130662(222): +Accept leading zeros in precision and width fields
     for +:class:*note Decimal: 1c2. formatting, for example
     ‘format(Decimal(1.25), '.016f')’.

   - gh-130662(223): Accept leading zeros in precision and width fields
     for *note Fraction: 1c3. formatting, for example
     ‘format(Fraction(1, 3), '.016f')’.

   - gh-135004(224): Rewrite and cleanup the internal ‘_blake2’ module.
     Some exception messages were changed but their types were left
     untouched.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-134953(225): Expand ‘_colorize’ theme with ‘keyword_constant’
     and implement in *note repl: 69d.

   - gh-134978(226): *note hashlib: 6b.: Supporting the ‘string’ keyword
     parameter in hash function constructors such as *note new(): 2f1.
     or the direct hash-named constructors such as *note md5(): 2f2. and
     *note sha256(): 2f3. is now deprecated and slated for removal in
     Python 3.19.  Prefer passing the initial data as a positional
     argument for maximum backwards compatibility.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-134970(227): Fix the «unknown action» exception in *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group(): 31d. to correctly
     replace the action class.

   - gh-134718(228): By default, omit optional ‘Load()’ values in *note
     ast.dump(): 1e1.

   - gh-134718(229): *note ast.dump(): 1e1. now only omits ‘None’ and
     ‘[]’ values if they are default values.

   - gh-134939(230): Add the *note concurrent.interpreters: 25. module.
     See PEP 734(231).

   - gh-108885(232): Run each example as a subtest in unit tests
     synthesized by *note doctest.DocFileSuite(): 1a14. and *note
     doctest.DocTestSuite(): 11ac.  Add the *note
     doctest.DocTestRunner.report_skip(): 1a15. method.

   - gh-134885(233): Fix possible crash in the *note compression.zstd:
     23. module related to setting parameter types.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-134857(234): Improve error report for *note doctest: 3d.s run
     with *note unittest: 10f.  Remove ‘doctest’ module frames from
     tracebacks and redundant newline character from a failure message.

   - gh-128840(235): Fix parsing long IPv6 addresses with embedded IPv4
     address.

   - gh-133579(236): *note curses: 2e.: Consistently report failures of
     curses C API calls in module-level methods by raising a *note
     curses.error: 1a16.  This affects *note assume_default_colors():
     489, *note baudrate(): 1a17, *note cbreak(): 1a18, *note echo():
     1a19, *note longname(): 1a1a, *note initscr(): 1a1b, *note nl():
     1a1c, *note raw(): 1a1d, *note termattrs(): 1a1e, *note termname():
     1a1f. and *note unctrl(): 1a20.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-133579(237): *note curses.window.refresh(): 1a21. and *note
     curses.window.noutrefresh(): 1a22. now raise a *note TypeError:
     291. instead of *note curses.error: 1a16. when called with an
     incorrect number of arguments for *note pads: 1a23.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-133579(238): *note curses.window: 1a24.: Consistently report
     failures of curses C API calls in Window methods by raising a *note
     curses.error: 1a16.  This affects *note addch(): 1a25, *note
     addnstr(): 1a26, *note addstr(): 1a27, *note border(): 1a28, *note
     box(): 1a29, *note chgat(): 1a2a, *note getbkgd(): 1a2b, *note
     inch(): 1a2c, *note insstr(): 1a2d. and *note insnstr(): 1a2e.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-134771(239): The ‘time_clockid_converter()’ function now selects
     correct type for ‘clockid_t’ on Cygwin which fixes a build error.

   - gh-134637(240): Fix performance regression in calling a *note
     ctypes: 2d. function pointer in *note free threading: 487.

   - gh-134696(241): Built-in HACL* and OpenSSL implementations of hash
     function constructors now correctly accept the same 'documented'
     named arguments.  For instance, *note md5(): 2f2. could be
     previously invoked as ‘md5(data=data)’ or ‘md5(string=string)’
     depending on the underlying implementation but these calls were not
     compatible.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-132710(242): If possible, ensure that *note uuid.getnode(): f66.
     returns the same result even across different processes.
     Previously, the result was constant only within the same process.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-134531(243): ‘_hashlib’: Rename internal C functions for
     ‘_hashlib.HASH’ and ‘_hashlib.HASHXOF’ objects.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-134698(244): Fix a crash when calling methods of *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 336. or *note ssl.SSLSocket: cbb. across multiple
     threads.

   - gh-134151(245): *note email: 3e.: Fix *note TypeError: 291. in
     *note email.utils.decode_params(): 1a2f. when sorting RFC 2231(246)
     continuations that contain an unnumbered section.

   - gh-134635(247): *note zlib: 13c.: Allow to combine Adler-32 and
     CRC-32 checksums via *note adler32_combine(): 2bc. and *note
     crc32_combine(): 2bd.  Patch by Callum Attryde and Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-134657(248): *note asyncio: b.: Remove some private names from
     ‘asyncio.__all__’.

   - gh-134210(249): *note curses.window.getch(): 1a30. now correctly
     handles signals.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-80334(250): *note multiprocessing.freeze_support(): 1933. now
     checks for work on any «spawn» start method platform rather than
     only on Windows.

   - gh-134582(251): Fix tokenize.untokenize() round-trip errors related
     to t-strings braces escaping

   - gh-134580(252): Improved the styling of HTML diff pages generated
     by the *note difflib.HtmlDiff: 214. class, and migrated the output
     to the HTML5 standard.

   - gh-134565(253): *note unittest.doModuleCleanups(): 1a31. no longer
     swallows all but first exception raised in the cleanup code, but
     raises a *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8. if multiple errors occurred.

   - gh-134546(254): Ensure *note pdb: aa. remote debugging script is
     readable by remote Python process.

   - gh-134451(255): Converted ‘asyncio.tools.CycleFoundException’ from
     dataclass to a regular exception type.

   - gh-114177(256): Fix *note asyncio: b. to not close subprocess pipes
     which would otherwise error out when the event loop is already
     closed.

   - gh-90871(257): Fixed an off by one error concerning the backlog
     parameter in *note create_unix_server(): 6d0.  Contributed by
     Christian Harries.

   - gh-134323(258): Fix the *note threading.RLock.locked(): 1a32.
     method.

   - gh-86802(259): Fixed asyncio memory leak in cancelled shield tasks.
     For shielded tasks where the shield was cancelled, log potential
     exceptions through the exception handler.  Contributed by Christian
     Harries.

   - gh-71189(260): Add support of the all-but-last mode in *note
     os.path.realpath(): 241.

   - gh-72902(261): Improve speed (x1.1-1.8) of the *note Fraction: 1c3.
     constructor for typical inputs (*note float: 327.’s, *note Decimal:
     1c2.’s or strings).

   - gh-134209(262): *note curses: 2e.: The *note curses.window.instr():
     1a33. and *note curses.window.getstr(): 1a34. methods now allocate
     their internal buffer on the heap instead of the stack; in
     addition, the max buffer size is increased from 1023 to 2047.

   - gh-88994(263): Change *note datetime.datetime.now(): 8fa. to
     half-even rounding for consistency with *note
     datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 8fb.  Patch by John Keith Hohm.

   - gh-80184(264): The default queue size is now ‘socket.SOMAXCONN’ for
     *note socketserver.TCPServer: 16c4.

   - gh-132983(265): Add ‘compression.zstd’ version information to
     ‘test.pythoninfo’.

   - gh-134235(266): Updated tab completion on REPL to include builtin
     modules.  Contributed by Tom Wang, Hunter Young

   - gh-134152(267): Fixed *note UnboundLocalError: 18d8. that could
     occur during *note email: 3e. header parsing if an expected
     trailing delimiter is missing in some contexts.

   - gh-134152(268): *note email: 3e.: Fix parsing of email message ID
     with invalid domain.

   - gh-134168(269): *note http.server: 75.: Fix IPv6 address binding
     and *note -directory: 1a35. handling when using HTTPS.

   - gh-62184(270): Remove import of C implementation of *note
     io.FileIO: 16b4. from Python implementation which has its own
     implementation

   - gh-134087(271): Remove support for arbitrary positional or keyword
     arguments in the C implementation of *note threading.RLock: 2df.
     objects.  This was deprecated since Python 3.14.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-134173(272): Speed up *note asyncio: b. performance of
     transferring state from thread pool *note
     concurrent.futures.Future: 155b. by up to 4.4x.  Patch by J. Nick
     Koston.

   - gh-133982(273): Emit *note RuntimeWarning: 6dd. in the Python
     implementation of *note io: 82. when the *note file-like object:
     156c. is not closed explicitly in the presence of multiple I/O
     layers.

   - gh-133890(274): The *note tarfile: e7. module now handles *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: a67. in the same way as *note OSError: 53c.
     when cannot extract a member.

   - gh-134097(275): Fix interaction of the new *note REPL: 69d. and
     *note -X showrefcount: 178. command line option.

   - gh-133889(276): The generated directory listing page in *note
     http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 22a. now only shows the
     decoded path component of the requested URL, and not the query and
     fragment.

   - gh-134098(277): Fix handling paths that end with a percent-encoded
     slash (‘%2f’ or ‘%2F’) in *note
     http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 22a.

   - gh-132124(278): On POSIX-compliant systems,
     ‘multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir()’ now ignores ‘TMPDIR’ (and
     similar environment variables) if the path length of ‘AF_UNIX’
     socket files exceeds the platform-specific maximum length when
     using the *note forkserver: 46c. start method.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-134062(279): *note ipaddress: 83.: fix collisions in *note
     __hash__(): ec1. for *note IPv4Network: 712. and *note IPv6Network:
     713. objects.

   - gh-134004(280): *note shelve: cb. as well as underlying ‘dbm.dumb’
     and ‘dbm.sqlite’ now have ‘reorganize()’ methods to recover unused
     free space previously occupied by deleted entries.

   - gh-133970(281): Make ‘string.templatelib.Template’ and
     ‘string.templatelib.Interpolation’ generic.

   - gh-71253(282): Raise *note ValueError: 277. in *note open(): 32b.
     if 'opener' returns a negative file-descriptor in the Python
     implementation of *note io: 82. to match the C implementation.

   - gh-133960(283): Simplify and improve *note
     typing.evaluate_forward_ref(): 151.  It now no longer raises errors
     on certain invalid types.  In several situations, it is now able to
     evaluate forward references that were previously unsupported.

   - gh-133925(284): Make the private class ‘typing._UnionGenericAlias’
     hashable.

   - gh-133604(285): Remove ‘platform.java_ver()’ which was deprecated
     since Python 3.13.

   - gh-133875(286): Removed deprecated
     ‘pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved()’.  Use *note os.path.isreserved():
     2d9. to detect reserved paths on Windows.

   - gh-133873(287): Remove the deprecated ‘getmark()’, ‘setmark()’ and
     ‘getmarkers()’ methods of the *note Wave_read: 2e6. and *note
     Wave_write: 2e7. classes, which were deprecated since Python 3.13.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-133866(288): Remove the undocumented function
     ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’, which has been deprecated since Python
     3.13.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-133823(289): Remove support for ‘TD = TypedDict("TD")’ and ‘TD =
     TypedDict("TD", None)’ calls for constructing *note
     typing.TypedDict: 290. objects with zero field.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-125996(290): Fix thread safety of *note collections.OrderedDict:
     9d5.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-133817(291): Remove support for creating *note NamedTuple: 2e4.
     classes via the undocumented keyword argument syntax.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-133653(292): Fix *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc. with the
     'formatter_class' argument.  Fix TypeError when 'formatter_class'
     is a custom subclass of ‘HelpFormatter’.  Fix TypeError when
     'formatter_class' is not a subclass of ‘HelpFormatter’ and
     non-standard 'prefix_char' is used.  Fix support of colorizing when
     'formatter_class' is not a subclass of ‘HelpFormatter’.

   - gh-133810(293): Remove ‘http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler’ and
     ‘--cgi’ flag from the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line
     interface.  They were deprecated in Python 3.13.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-132641(294): Fixed a race in *note functools.lru_cache(): db3.
     under free-threading.

   - gh-133783(295): Fix bug with applying *note copy.replace(): 45a. to
     *note ast: 9. objects.  Attributes that default to ‘None’ were
     incorrectly treated as required for manually created AST nodes.

   - gh-133684(296): Fix bug where *note
     annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. would return the wrong result
     for certain classes that are part of a class hierarchy where ‘from
     __future__ import annotations’ is used.

   - gh-77057(297): Fix handling of invalid markup declarations in *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: c4d.

   - gh-130328(298): Speedup pasting in ‘PyREPL’ on Windows in a legacy
     console.  Patch by Chris Eibl.

   - gh-133701(299): Fix bug where *note typing.TypedDict: 290. classes
     defined under ‘from __future__ import annotations’ and inheriting
     from another ‘TypedDict’ had an incorrect ‘__annotations__’
     attribute.

   - gh-133656(300): Remove deprecated
     ‘zipimport.zipimporter.load_module()’.  Use *note
     zipimport.zipimporter.exec_module(): 2e9. instead.

   - gh-133722(301): Added a 'color' option to *note
     difflib.unified_diff(): 213. that colors output similar to ‘git
     diff’.

   - gh-133489(302): *note random.getrandbits(): 13b6. can now generate
     more that 2^31 bits.  *note random.randbytes(): 1a36. can now
     generate more that 256 MiB.

   - gh-133595(303): Clean up *note sqlite3.Connection: 3df. APIs.  All
     parameters of *note sqlite3.connect(): 3e0. except 'database' are
     now keyword-only.  The first three parameters of methods *note
     create_function(): 3e1. and *note create_aggregate(): 3e2. are now
     positional-only.  The first parameter of methods *note
     set_authorizer(): 3e3, *note set_progress_handler(): 3e4. and *note
     set_trace_callback(): 3e5. is now positional-only.

   - gh-133581(304): Improve unparsing of t-strings in *note
     ast.unparse(): cb6. and ‘from __future__ import annotations’.
     Empty t-strings now round-trip correctly and formatting in
     interpolations is preserved.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-133577(305): Add parameter ‘formatter’ to *note
     logging.basicConfig(): dc2.

   - gh-92897(306): Removed the ‘check_home’ parameter from *note
     sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2dd, deprecated since Python 3.12.

   - gh-133551(307): Support t-strings ( PEP 750(308)) in *note
     annotationlib: 6.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-133517(309): Remove *note os.listdrives(): 8ae, *note
     os.listvolumes(): 8af. and *note os.listmounts(): 8b0. in non
     Windows desktop builds since the underlying functionality is
     missing.

   - gh-133439(310): Fix dot commands with trailing spaces are mistaken
     for multi-line SQL statements in the sqlite3 command-line
     interface.

   - gh-133447(311): Add basic color to *note sqlite3: d7. CLI
     interface.

   - gh-133253(312): Fix thread-safety issues in *note linecache: 88.

   - gh-133390(313): Support keyword completion in the *note sqlite3:
     d7. command-line interface and add *note sqlite3.SQLITE_KEYWORDS:
     1a37. constant.

   - gh-132493(314): Avoid accessing ‘__annotations__’ unnecessarily in
     *note inspect.signature(): 4bd.

   - gh-133017(315): Improve the error message of *note
     multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Array(): 1a38, *note
     multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawArray(): 1a39, *note
     multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Value(): 1a3a. and *note
     multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawValue(): 1a3b. when an invalid
     typecode is passed.  Patch by Tomas Roun

   - gh-132813(316): Improve error messages for incorrect types and
     values of *note csv.Dialect: 1a3c. attributes.

   - gh-132969(317): Prevent the *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206.
     executor thread, which remains running when *note
     shutdown(wait=False): cbe, from attempting to adjust the pool’s
     worker processes after the object state has already been reset
     during shutdown.  A combination of conditions, including a worker
     process having terminated abormally, resulted in an exception and a
     potential hang when the still-running executor thread attempted to
     replace dead workers within the pool.

   - gh-132876(318): ‘ldexp()’ on Windows doesn’t round subnormal
     results before Windows 11, but should.  Python’s *note
     math.ldexp(): 1a3d. wrapper now does round them, so results may
     change slightly, in rare cases of very small results, on Windows
     versions before 11.

   - gh-133009(319): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: Fix a crash in
     *note Element.__deepcopy__: 1909. when the element is concurrently
     mutated.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-132908(320): Add *note math.isnormal(): 235. and *note
     math.issubnormal(): 236. functions.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-95380(321): *note fcntl.fcntl(): 1962. and *note fcntl.ioctl():
     181d.: Remove the 1024 bytes limit on the size of not mutated
     bytes-like argument.

   - gh-122781(322): Fix ‘%z’ directive in *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 2d2. to allow for no provided offset
     as was documented.

   - gh-123471(323): Make concurrent iterations over *note
     itertools.combinations: 16b6. and *note itertools.product: 16b7.
     safe under free-threading.

   - gh-127081(324): Fix libc thread safety issues with *note dbm: 34.
     by performing stateful operations in critical sections.

   - gh-127081(325): Fix libc thread safety issues with *note os: a5. by
     replacing ‘getlogin’ with ‘getlogin_r’ re-entrant version.

   - gh-127081(326): Fix libc thread safety issues with *note pwd: ba.
     by locking access to ‘getpwall’.

   - gh-132551(327): Make *note io.BytesIO: 1255. safe in *note
     free-threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-107583(328): Fix ‘Flag’ inversion when flag set has missing
     values (‘IntFlag’ still flips all bits); fix negative assigned
     values during flag creation (both ‘Flag’ and ‘IntFlag’ ignore
     missing values).

   - gh-87790(329): Support underscore and comma as thousands separators
     in the fractional part for *note Fraction: 1c3.’s formatting.
     Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-87790(330): Support underscore and comma as thousands separators
     in the fractional part for *note Decimal: 1c2.’s formatting.  Patch
     by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-131884(331): Fix formatting issues in *note json.dump(): 10fb.
     when both 'indent' and 'skipkeys' are used.

   - gh-131788(332): Make ‘ResourceTracker.send’ from *note
     multiprocessing: 98. re-entrant safe

   - gh-91349(333): Adjust default ‘compressionlevel=’ to 6 (down from
     9) in *note gzip: 6a. and *note tarfile: e7.  It is the default
     level used by most compression tools and a better tradeoff between
     speed and performance.

   - gh-131146(334): Fix *note calendar.TextCalendar: 1a3e, *note
     calendar.HTMLCalendar: 202, and the *note calendar: 15. CLI to
     display month names in the nominative case by adding *note
     calendar.standalone_month_name: 1a3f. and *note
     calendar.standalone_month_abbr: 1a40, which provide month names and
     abbreviations in the grammatical form used when a month name stands
     by itself, if the locale supports it.

   - gh-123471(335): Make concurrent iterations over *note
     itertools.cycle: 1a41. safe under free-threading.

   - gh-130664(336): Handle corner-case for *note Fraction: 1c3.’s
     formatting: treat zero-padding (preceding the width field by a zero
     (‘'0'’) character) as an equivalent to a fill character of ‘'0'’
     with an alignment type of ‘'='’, just as in case of *note float:
     327.’s.

   - gh-130999(337): Avoid exiting the new REPL and offer suggestions
     even if there are non-string candidates when errors occur.

   - gh-88473(338): Implement a fast path for *note datetime.date: 48d.
     objects in *note datetime.date.today(): 186c. which results in a 5x
     performance gain while proper subclasses retain their previous
     performance.

   - gh-126883(339): Add check that timezone fields are in range for
     *note datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): a0a. and *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): a09.  Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-125028(340): *note functools.Placeholder: 4a5. cannot be passed
     to *note functools.partial(): 4a6. as a keyword argument.

   - gh-125843(341): If possible, indicate which *note curses: 2e. C
     function or macro is responsible for raising a *note curses.error:
     1a16. exception.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-119109(342): *note functools.partial(): 4a6. calls are now
     faster when keyword arguments are used.

   - gh-124033(343): ‘SimplePath’ is now presented in
     ‘importlib.metadata.__all__’.

   - gh-91216(344): ‘importlib.metadata’ now raises a ‘KeyError’ instead
     of returning ‘None’ when a key is missing from the metadata.

   - gh-120492(345): ‘importlib.metadata’ now prioritizes valid dists to
     invalid dists when retrieving by name.

   - gh-99631(346): The *note shelve: cb. module now accepts custom
     serialization and deserialization functions.

   - gh-119186(347): Slightly speed up *note os.walk(): 8b9. by calling
     *note os.path.join(): 1a42. less often.

   - gh-120170(348): Fix an issue in the ‘_pickle’ extension module in
     which importing *note multiprocessing: 98. could change how pickle
     identifies which module an object belongs to, potentially breaking
     the unpickling of those objects.

   - gh-118981(349): Fix potential hang in
     ‘multiprocessing.popen_spawn_posix’ that can happen when the child
     proc dies early by closing the child fds right away.

   - gh-105497(350): Fix flag mask inversion when unnamed flags exist.

   - gh-99813(351): *note ssl: d8. now uses ‘SSL_sendfile’ internally
     when it is possible (see *note OP_ENABLE_KTLS: 1a43.).  The
     function sends a file more efficiently because it performs TLS
     encryption in the kernel to avoid additional context switches.
     Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-62824(352): Fix aliases for ‘iso8859_8’ encoding.  Patch by Dave
     Goncalves.

   - gh-86155(353): *note html.parser.HTMLParser.close(): 1a44. no
     longer loses data when the ‘<script>’ tag is not closed.  Patch by
     Waylan Limberg.

   - gh-78319(354): UTF8 support for the IMAP APPEND command has been
     made RFC compliant.

   - gh-93334(355): Reraise *note KeyError: 7df. as *note
     ModuleNotFoundError: 1be. when *note
     importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec(): 13ba. is called on a
     submodule without importing the parent (and without a ‘path’
     argument).

   - gh-69426(356): Fix *note html.parser.HTMLParser: c4d. to not
     unescape character entities in attribute values if they are
     followed by an ASCII alphanumeric or an equals sign.

   - bpo-38735(357): Fix failure when importing a module from the root
     directory on unix-like platforms with sys.pycache_prefix set.

   - bpo-45959(358): *note pprint: b3. can now pretty-print dict views.

   - gh-84683(359): *note zoneinfo: 13d.: Check in
     ‘<prefix>/share/zoneinfo’ for data files on Windows

   - bpo-43429(360): The *note size(): 1a45. method of the *note
     mmap.mmap: 23c. class now returns the size of an anonymous mapping
     on both Unix and Windows.  Previously, the size would be returned
     on Windows and an *note OSError: 53c. would be raised on Unix.
     *note ValueError: 277. is now raised instead of ‘OSError’ when
     ‘trackfd=False’.

   - bpo-41839(361): Allow negative priority values from *note
     os.sched_get_priority_min(): 14b5. and *note
     os.sched_get_priority_max(): 14b4. functions.

   - bpo-28494(362): Improve Zip file validation false positive rate in
     *note zipfile.is_zipfile(): 16cf.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139482

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/clearenv(3)

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139958

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139823

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139905

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139894

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139845

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139783

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139809

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139736

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70765

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139322

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135953

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139184

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139391

   (16) https://manpages.debian.org/fg

   (17) https://manpages.debian.org/kill

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139374

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90949

   (20) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs_attack

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139312

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139289

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90949

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67795

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95953

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139210

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138860

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112729

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126016

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118803

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135729

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139076

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139090

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139065

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139001

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138813

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138998

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138993

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118803

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130567

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137226

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138899

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138804

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138779

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138682

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138712

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128636

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138720

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138706

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138535

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116946

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116946

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116946

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116946

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138514

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137706

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88375

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138515

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99948

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111788

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138432

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132657

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116946

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116946

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57911

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138205

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138008

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138252

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138253

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60462

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138239

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78502

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138204

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138010

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134716

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138133

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138122

   (79) https://peps.python.org/pep-0799/

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138092

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138044

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86819

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137884

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134869

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137840

   (86) https://peps.python.org/pep-0728/

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132947

   (88) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v8-7-0

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90548

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137317

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137754

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125854

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137729

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73487

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137634

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137630

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137583

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92936

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137426

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137490

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137512

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137044

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137477

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137481

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137466

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137044

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115766

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75989

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75989

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137017

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137273

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137191

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137282

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137257

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137239

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124503

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137226

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137197

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81325

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81325

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137185

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133951

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130522

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137059

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136980

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130577

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130577

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136170

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121237

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136929

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124621

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136914

   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136912

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83424

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135228

   (136) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136874

   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136787

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130645

   (139) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131724

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135427

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136234

   (142) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53144

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136669

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136134

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136134

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136591

   (147) https://manpages.debian.org/ERR_func_error_string

   (148) https://manpages.debian.org/EVP_MD_CTX_md

   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136571

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136549

   (151) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136492

   (152) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83336

   (154) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136523

   (155) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136507

   (156) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52876

   (157) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136470

   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136476

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136434

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136380

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72327

   (162) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135953

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136021

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136286

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136047

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136316

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136306

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136156

   (169) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133982

   (170) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136193

   (171) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136097

   (172) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85702

   (173) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90733

   (174) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134759

   (175) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136028

   (176) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87135

   (177) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135995

   (178) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105456

   (179) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203

   (180) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135878

   (181) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135853

   (182) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135836

   (183) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135853

   (184) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134531

   (185) https://manpages.debian.org/EVP_MAC(3ssl)

   (186) https://manpages.debian.org/hmac(3)

   (187) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135836

   (188) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135855

   (189) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135823

   (190) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135815

   (191) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135640

   (192) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90117

   (193) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135759

   (194) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123471

   (195) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135645

   (196) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135646

   (197) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135557

   (198) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180

   (199) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135561

   (200) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135386

   (201) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135444

   (202) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65697

   (203) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135497

   (204) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135487

   (205) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135429

   (206) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135368

   (207) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124429

   (208) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135336

   (209) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135335

   (210) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126631

   (211) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133967

   (212) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130870

   (213) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135321

   (214) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121914

   (215) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135276

   (216) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135234

   (217) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135244

   (218) 
https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-6.10-3

   (219) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135241

   (220) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133934

   (221) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135069

   (222) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130662

   (223) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130662

   (224) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135004

   (225) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134953

   (226) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134978

   (227) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134970

   (228) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134718

   (229) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134718

   (230) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134939

   (231) https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/

   (232) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108885

   (233) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134885

   (234) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134857

   (235) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128840

   (236) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133579

   (237) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133579

   (238) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133579

   (239) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134771

   (240) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134637

   (241) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134696

   (242) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132710

   (243) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134531

   (244) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134698

   (245) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134151

   (246) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (247) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134635

   (248) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134657

   (249) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134210

   (250) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80334

   (251) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134582

   (252) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134580

   (253) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134565

   (254) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134546

   (255) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134451

   (256) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114177

   (257) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90871

   (258) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134323

   (259) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86802

   (260) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71189

   (261) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72902

   (262) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134209

   (263) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88994

   (264) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80184

   (265) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132983

   (266) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134235

   (267) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134152

   (268) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134152

   (269) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134168

   (270) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62184

   (271) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134087

   (272) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134173

   (273) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133982

   (274) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133890

   (275) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134097

   (276) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133889

   (277) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134098

   (278) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132124

   (279) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134062

   (280) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134004

   (281) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133970

   (282) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71253

   (283) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133960

   (284) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133925

   (285) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133604

   (286) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133875

   (287) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133873

   (288) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133866

   (289) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133823

   (290) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125996

   (291) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133817

   (292) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133653

   (293) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133810

   (294) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132641

   (295) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133783

   (296) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133684

   (297) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77057

   (298) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130328

   (299) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133701

   (300) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133656

   (301) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133722

   (302) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133489

   (303) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133595

   (304) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133581

   (305) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133577

   (306) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92897

   (307) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133551

   (308) https://peps.python.org/pep-0750/

   (309) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133517

   (310) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133439

   (311) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133447

   (312) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133253

   (313) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133390

   (314) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132493

   (315) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133017

   (316) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132813

   (317) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132969

   (318) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132876

   (319) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133009

   (320) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132908

   (321) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95380

   (322) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122781

   (323) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123471

   (324) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127081

   (325) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127081

   (326) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127081

   (327) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132551

   (328) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107583

   (329) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87790

   (330) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87790

   (331) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131884

   (332) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131788

   (333) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91349

   (334) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131146

   (335) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123471

   (336) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130664

   (337) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130999

   (338) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88473

   (339) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126883

   (340) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125028

   (341) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125843

   (342) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119109

   (343) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124033

   (344) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91216

   (345) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120492

   (346) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99631

   (347) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119186

   (348) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120170

   (349) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118981

   (350) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105497

   (351) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99813

   (352) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62824

   (353) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86155

   (354) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78319

   (355) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93334

   (356) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69426

   (357) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38735

   (358) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45959

   (359) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84683

   (360) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43429

   (361) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41839

   (362) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28494


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<5>,  Next: Documentation<7>,  Prev: Library<15>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.7 IDLE
..............

   - gh-96491(1): Deduplicate version number in IDLE shell title bar
     after saving to a file.

   - gh-139742(2): Colorize t-string prefixes for template strings in
     IDLE, as done for f-string prefixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96491

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139742


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<7>,  Next: Core and Builtins<15>,  Prev: IDLE<5>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.8 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-136155(1): We are now checking for fatal errors in EPUB builds
     in CI.

   - gh-135171(2): Document that the *note iterator: 6ce. for the
     leftmost ‘for’ clause in the generator expression is created
     immediately.

   - bpo-45210(3): Document that error indicator may be set in
     tp_dealloc, and how to avoid clobbering it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136155

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135171

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45210


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<15>,  Next: Library<16>,  Prev: Documentation<7>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.9 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-140000(1): Fix potential memory leak when a reference cycle
     exists between an instance of *note typing.TypeAliasType: 52a,
     *note typing.TypeVar: 294, *note typing.ParamSpec: 295, or *note
     typing.TypeVarTuple: 293. and its ‘__name__’ attribute.  Patch by
     Mikhail Efimov.

   - gh-140009(2): Improve performance of list extension by dictionary
     items.

   - gh-139988(3): Fix a memory leak when failing to create a *note
     Union: 341. type.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-139748(4): Fix reference leaks in error branches of functions
     accepting path strings or bytes such as *note compile(): 1c8. and
     *note os.system(): 17ff.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-139516(5): Fix lambda colon erroneously start format spec in
     f-string in tokenizer.

   - gh-63161(6): Support non-UTF-8 shebang and comments in Python
     source files if non-UTF-8 encoding is specified.  Detect decoding
     error in comments for default (UTF-8) encoding.  Show the line and
     position of decoding error for default encoding in a traceback.
     Show the line containing the coding cookie when it conflicts with
     the BOM in a traceback.

   - gh-139116(7): Prevent a deadlock when multiple threads start, stop
     and use *note tracemalloc: 108. simultaneously.

   - gh-139275(8): Fix compilation problems in
     ‘_remote_debugging_module.c’ when the system doesn’t have
     ‘process_vm_readv’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-133059(9): Increased the number of cached small positive
     integers from 256 to 1024.

   - gh-74857(10): PEP 538(11): Coerce the POSIX locale to a UTF-8 based
     locale.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140000

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/140009

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139988

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139748

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139516

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63161

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139116

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139275

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133059

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74857

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<16>,  Next: Core and Builtins<16>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<15>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.10 Library
..................

   - gh-116738(1): Make *note mmap: 94. thread-safe on the *note free
     threaded: 487. build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<16>,  Next: Library<17>,  Prev: Library<16>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.11 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-138558(1): Fix handling of unusual t-string annotations in
     annotationlib.  Patch by Dave Peck.

   - gh-134466(2): Don’t run PyREPL in a degraded environment where
     setting termios attributes is not allowed.

   - gh-138794(3): When a new tracing function is registered with *note
     PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 805, replacing the current a call to the
     trace function will be made with the object set to 'NULL' and
     'event' set to *note PyRefTracer_TRACKER_REMOVED: 1a4b.  This will
     happen just before the new function is registered.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-71810(4): Raise *note OverflowError: c57. for ‘(-1).to_bytes()’
     for signed conversions when bytes count is zero.  Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-138716(5): Improve *note SyntaxError: 17e. message for *note
     assert: d31. in cases like ‘assert a := b’.

   - gh-105487(6): Remove non-existent *note __copy__(): 1a4c, *note
     __deepcopy__(): 1909, and *note __bases__: 184e. from the *note
     __dir__(): 1935. entries of *note types.GenericAlias: bc7.

   - gh-138192(7): Fix *note contextvars: 28. initialization so that all
     subinterpreters are assigned the *note MISSING: 1a4d. value.

   - gh-138479(8): Fix a crash when a generic object’s
     ‘__typing_subst__’ returns an object that isn’t a *note tuple: 1ce.

   - gh-138431(9): Fix a bug in the JIT optimizer when round-tripping
     strings and tuples.

   - gh-138378(10): Move the globals-to-const JIT optimizer pass into to
     the main JIT optimizer pass

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138558

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134466

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138794

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71810

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138716

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105487

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138192

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138479

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138431

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138378


File: python.info,  Node: Library<17>,  Next: Core and Builtins<17>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<16>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.12 Library
..................

   - gh-138401(1): Add missing validation of argument ‘count’ in *note
     os.sendfile(): ed3. to be non-negative.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138401


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<17>,  Next: Library<18>,  Prev: Library<17>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.13 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-138372(1): Fix *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. emitted for erroneous
     subscript expressions involving *note template string literals:
     1a50.  Patch by Brian Schubert.

   - gh-138302(2): ‘BINARY_OP’ now specializes to ‘BINARY_OP_ADD_INT’,
     ‘BINARY_OP_SUBTRACT_INT’ or ‘BINARY_OP_MULTIPLY_INT’ if operands
     are compact ints.

   - gh-138318(3): The default REPL now avoids highlighting built-in
     names (for instance *note set: 42b. or *note format(): 439.) when
     they are used as attribute names (for instance in ‘value.set’ or
     ‘text.format’).

   - gh-138349(4): Fix crash in certain cases where a module contains
     both a module-level annotation and a comprehension.

   - gh-69605(5): Fix some standard library submodules missing from the
     *note REPL: 69d. auto-completion of imports.

   - gh-61206(6): *note zipimport: 13b. now supports zstandard
     compressed zip file entries.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138372

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138302

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138318

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138349

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69605

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61206


File: python.info,  Node: Library<18>,  Next: Core and Builtins<18>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<17>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.14 Library
..................

   - gh-116738(1): Make ‘cProfile’ thread-safe on the *note free
     threaded: 487. build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<18>,  Next: Library<19>,  Prev: Library<18>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.15 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-137838(1): Fix JIT trace buffer overrun by increasing possible
     exit stubs.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-71679(2): Use the same quoting algorithm for the repr of
     bytearrays as for bytes objects and strings – use double quotes for
     quoting if the bytearray contains single quotes and does not
     contain double quotes.

   - gh-137384(3): Fix a crash when using the *note warnings: 11b.
     module in a finalizer at shutdown.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137838

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71679

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137384


File: python.info,  Node: Library<19>,  Next: Core and Builtins<19>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<18>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.16 Library
..................

   - gh-138004(1): On Solaris/Illumos platforms, thread names are now
     encoded as ASCII to avoid errors on systems (e.g.  OpenIndiana)
     that don’t support non-ASCII names.

   - gh-137976(2): Removed ‘localtime’ from the list of reported system
     timezones.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138004

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137976


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<19>,  Next: Library<20>,  Prev: Library<19>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.17 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-137992(1): Ensure that *note PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 805. sync
     with all existing threads when called to avoid races in the free
     threaded build.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-137967(2): Show error suggestions on nested attribute access.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-137959(3): Replace the shim code added to every piece of jitted
     code with a single trampoline function.

   - gh-137883(4): Fix runaway recursion when calling a function with
     keyword arguments.

   - gh-137079(5): Fix keyword typo recognition when parsing files.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-137728(6): Fix the JIT’s handling of many local variables.  This
     previously caused a segfault.

   - gh-137716(7): Fix double period in *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     message for invalid mock assertions

   - gh-137433(8): Fix a potential deadlock in the *note free threading:
     487. build when daemon threads enable or disable profiling or
     tracing while the main thread is shutting down the interpreter.

   - gh-137576(9): Fix for incorrect source code being shown in
     tracebacks from the Basic REPL when *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453. is
     given.  Patch by Adam Hartz.

   - gh-37817(10): Allow assignment to *note __bases__: 184e. of direct
     subclasses of builtin classes.

   - gh-132732(11): Optimize ‘_COMPARE_OP’, ‘_CONTAINS_OP’,
     ‘_UNARY_NEGATIVE’, ‘_UNARY_NOT’, and ‘_UNARY_INVERT’ in JIT builds
     with constant-loading uops (‘_POP_TWO_LOAD_CONST_INLINE_BORROW’ and
     ‘_POP_TOP_LOAD_CONST_INLINE_BORROW’), and then remove both to
     reduce instruction count.

   - gh-137400(12): Fix a crash in the *note free threading: 487. build
     when disabling profiling or tracing across all threads with *note
     PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads(): 966. or *note
     PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 851. or their Python equivalents *note
     threading.settrace_all_threads(): 8d8. and *note
     threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 8d9.

   - gh-133143(13): Add *note sys.abi_info: 26e. object to make ABI
     information more easily accessible.

   - gh-137400(14): Fix a crash in the *note free threading: 487. build
     when disabling profiling or tracing across all threads with *note
     PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads(): 966. or *note
     PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 851. or their Python equivalents *note
     threading.settrace_all_threads(): 8d8. and *note
     threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 8d9.

   - gh-120037(15): Disable user site packages directory when a ‘._pth’
     file is used, even if it contains ‘import site’.

   - gh-58124(16): Fix name of the Python encoding in Unicode errors of
     the code page codec: use «cp65000» and «cp65001» instead of
     «CP_UTF7» and «CP_UTF8» which are not valid Python code names.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-136966(17): The *note object.__dict__: 1bf. and ‘__weakref__’
     descriptors now use a single descriptor instance per interpreter,
     shared across all types that need them.  This speeds up class
     creation, and helps avoid reference cycles.

   - gh-137314(18): Fixed a regression where raw f-strings incorrectly
     interpreted escape sequences in format specifications.  Raw
     f-strings now properly preserve literal backslashes in format
     specs, matching the behavior from Python 3.11.  For example,
     ‘rf"{obj:\xFF}"’ now correctly produces ‘'\\xFF'’ instead of ‘'ÿ'’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-137308(19): A standalone docstring in a node body is optimized
     as a *note pass: 427. statement to ensure that the node’s body is
     never empty.  There was a *note ValueError: 277. in *note
     compile(): 1c8. otherwise.

   - gh-137288(20): Fix bug where some bytecode instructions of a
     boolean expression are not associated with the correct exception
     handler.

   - gh-137291(21): The perf profiler can now be used if a previous
     frame evaluation API has been provided.

   - gh-134291(22): Remove some newer macOS API usage from the JIT
     compiler in order to restore compatibility with older OSX 10.15
     deployment targets.

   - gh-88886(23): The codecs lookup function now again performs only
     minimal normalization of the encoding name before passing it to the
     search functions: all ASCII letters are converted to lower case,
     spaces are replaced with hyphens.  This restores the pre-Python 3.9
     behavior.

   - gh-131338(24): Disable computed stack limit checks on non-glibc
     linux platforms to fix crashes on deep recursion.

   - gh-136870(25): Fix data races while de-instrumenting bytecode of
     code objects running concurrently in threads.

   - gh-132732(26): Optimize constant comparison for ‘_COMPARE_OP_INT’,
     ‘_COMPARE_OP_FLOAT’ and ‘_COMPARE_OP_STR’ in JIT builds

   - gh-127598(27): Improve *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be. by adding
     flavour text to the exception when the *note -S: 1551. option is
     passed.  Patch by Andrea Mattei.

   - gh-136801(28): Fix PyREPL syntax highlighting on match cases after
     multi-line case.  Contributed by Olga Matoula.

   - gh-74185(29): The *note __repr__(): 1bc. of *note ImportError: 1bd.
     and *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be. now shows «name» and «path» as
     ‘name=<name>’ and ‘path=<path>’ if they were given as keyword
     arguments at construction time.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka, Oleg
     Iarygin, and Yoav Nir

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137992

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137967

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137959

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137883

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137079

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137728

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137716

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137433

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137576

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/37817

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132732

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137400

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133143

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137400

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120037

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58124

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136966

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137314

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137308

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137288

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137291

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134291

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88886

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131338

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136870

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132732

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127598

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136801

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74185


File: python.info,  Node: Library<20>,  Next: Core and Builtins<20>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<19>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.18 Library
..................

   - gh-116738(1): Make functions in *note syslog: e5. thread-safe on
     the *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-116738(2): Make functions in *note pwd: ba. thread-safe on the
     *note free threaded: 487. build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<20>,  Next: Library<21>,  Prev: Library<20>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.19 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-136616(1): Improve *note SyntaxError: 17e. error messages for
     invalid *note assert: d31. usages.

   - gh-136599(2): Improve performance of *note int: 326. hash
     calculations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136616

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136599


File: python.info,  Node: Library<21>,  Next: Core and Builtins<21>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<20>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.20 Library
..................

   - gh-136421(1): Fix crash when initializing *note datetime: 33.
     concurrently.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136421


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<21>,  Next: Library<22>,  Prev: Library<21>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.21 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-136541(1): Fix some issues with the perf trampolines on x86-64
     and aarch64.  The trampolines were not being generated correctly
     for some cases, which could lead to the perf integration not
     working correctly.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136541


File: python.info,  Node: Library<22>,  Next: Core and Builtins<22>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<21>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.22 Library
..................

   - gh-107545(1): Improve the error messages that may be raised by
     *note setsockopt(): 1093.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107545


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<22>,  Next: Library<23>,  Prev: Library<22>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.23 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-136517(1): Fixed a typo that prevented printing of uncollectable
     objects when the *note gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE: 156b. mode was set.

   - gh-136525(2): Fix issue where per-thread bytecode was not
     instrumented for newly created threads.

   - gh-132657(3): Improve performance of *note frozenset: 9d4. by
     removing locks in the free-threading build.

   - gh-136459(4): Add support for perf trampoline on macOS, to allow
     profilers wit JIT map support to read Python calls.  While
     profiling, ‘PYTHONPERFSUPPORT=1’ can be appended to enable the
     trampoline.

   - gh-132661(5): ‘Interpolation.expression’ now has a default, the
     empty string.

   - gh-132661(6): Reflect recent PEP 750(7) change.

     Disallow concatenation of ‘string.templatelib.Template’ and *note
     str: 1df.  Also, disallow implicit concatenation of t-string
     literals with string or f-string literals.

   - gh-91636(8): While performing garbage collection, clear weakrefs to
     unreachable objects that are created during running of finalizers.
     If those weakrefs were are not cleared, they could reveal
     unreachable objects.

   - gh-136355(9): Deprecate *note -b: 2ed. and ‘-bb’ command line
     options and schedule them to become no-op in Python 3.17.

   - gh-109700(10): Fix memory error handling in *note
     PyDict_SetDefault(): 7dc.

   - gh-135552(11): Fix a bug caused by the garbage collector clearing
     weakrefs too early.  The weakrefs in the ‘tp_subclasses’ dictionary
     are needed in order to correctly invalidate type caches (for
     example, by calling ‘PyType_Modified()’).  Clearing weakrefs before
     calling finalizers causes the caches to not be correctly
     invalidated.  That can cause crashes since the caches can refer to
     invalid objects.  Defer the clearing of weakrefs without callbacks
     until after finalizers are executed.

   - gh-136203(12): Improve *note TypeError: 291. error message, when
     richcomparing two *note types.MappingProxyType: 189. objects.

   - gh-136003(13): Fix *note threading.Thread: 420. objects becoming
     incorrectly daemon when created from an *note atexit: d. callback
     or a pending call (*note Py_AddPendingCall(): d49.).

   - gh-78465(14): Fix error message for ‘cls.__new__(cls, ...)’ where
     ‘cls’ is not instantiable builtin or extension type (with ‘tp_new’
     set to ‘NULL’).

   - gh-135904(15): Perform more aggressive control-flow optimizations
     on the machine code templates emitted by the experimental JIT
     compiler.

   - gh-129958(16): Differentiate between t-strings and f-strings in
     syntax error for newlines in format specifiers of single-quoted
     interpolated strings.

   - gh-135871(17): Non-blocking mutex lock attempts now return
     immediately when the lock is busy instead of briefly spinning in
     the *note free threading: 487. build.

   - gh-134584(18): Specialize *note POP_TOP: 1a5b. in the JIT compiler
     by specializing for reference lifetime and type.  This will also
     enable easier top of stack caching in the JIT compiler.

   - gh-135106(19): Restrict the trashcan mechanism to GC’ed objects and
     untrack them while in the trashcan to prevent the GC and trashcan
     mechanisms conflicting.

   - gh-135379(20): Changes specialization of ‘BINARY_OP’ for ints to
     only specialize for «compact» ints.  This streamlines the fast path
     at the cost of fewer specializations when very large integers are
     used.

   - gh-135607(21): Fix potential *note weakref: 11d. races in an
     object’s destructor on the *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-135608(22): Fix a crash in the JIT involving attributes of
     modules.

   - gh-82088(23): Improve performance of ‘PyLongObject’ conversion
     functions ‘PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow()’, ‘PyLong_AsSsize_t()’,
     ‘PyLong_AsUnsignedLong()’, ‘PyLong_AsSize_t()’,
     ‘PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask()’, ‘PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask()’,
     ‘PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow()’ for integers larger than 2**30 up
     to 30%.

   - gh-135551(24): Sorting randomly ordered lists will often run a bit
     faster, thanks to a new scheme for picking minimum run lengths from
     Stefan Pochmann, which arranges for the merge tree to be as evenly
     balanced as is possible.

   - gh-135543(25): Emit ‘sys.remote_exec’ audit event when *note
     sys.remote_exec(): 418. is called and migrate
     ‘remote_debugger_script’ to ‘cpython.remote_debugger_script’.

   - gh-135496(26): Fix typo in the f-string conversion type error
     («exclamanation» -> «exclamation»).

   - gh-135474(27): Specialize integer operations only on compact
     integers.  This is a CPython internal change.

   - gh-135371(28): Fixed *note asyncio: b. debugging tools to properly
     display internal coroutine call stacks alongside external task
     dependencies.  The ‘python -m asyncio ps’ and ‘python -m asyncio
     pstree’ commands now show complete execution context.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-135422(29): Fix regression in *note SyntaxError: 17e. messages
     after gh-134036(30).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136517

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136525

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132657

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136459

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132661

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132661

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0750/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91636

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136355

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109700

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135552

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136203

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136003

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78465

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135904

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129958

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135871

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135106

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135379

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135607

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135608

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82088

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135551

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135543

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135496

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135474

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135371

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135422

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134036


File: python.info,  Node: Library<23>,  Next: Core and Builtins<23>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<22>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.24 Library
..................

   - gh-116738(1): Make functions in *note grp: 69. thread-safe on the
     *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-127319(2): Set the ‘allow_reuse_port’ class variable to ‘False’
     on the XMLRPC, logging, and HTTP servers.  This matches the
     behavior in prior Python releases, which is to not allow port
     reuse.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127319


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<23>,  Next: Library<24>,  Prev: Library<23>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.25 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-130077(1): Properly raise custom syntax errors when incorrect
     syntax containing names that are prefixes of soft keywords is
     encountered.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-131798(2): Optimize _CALL_LEN in the JIT when the length is
     known.  Patch by Tomas Roun

   - gh-131798(3): Optimize ‘_UNARY_NEGATIVE’ in JIT-compiled code.

   - gh-135148(4): Fixed a bug where f-string debug expressions (using
     =) would incorrectly strip out parts of strings containing escaped
     quotes and # characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-131798(5): Optimize ‘_UNARY_INVERT’ in JIT-compiled code.

   - gh-131798(6): Optimize away ‘_CALL_TYPE_1’ in the JIT when the
     return type is known.  Patch by Tomas Roun

   - gh-133136(7): Limit excess memory usage in the *note free
     threading: 487. build when a large dictionary or list is resized
     and accessed by multiple threads.

   - gh-131798(8): Optimize ‘_CHECK_METHOD_VERSION’ into
     ‘_CHECK_FUNCTION_VERSION_INLINE’ in JIT-compiled code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130077

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135148

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133136

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798


File: python.info,  Node: Library<24>,  Next: Core and Builtins<24>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<23>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.26 Library
..................

   - gh-116738(1): Make methods in *note heapq: 6c. thread-safe on the
     *note free threaded: 487. build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<24>,  Next: Library<25>,  Prev: Library<24>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.27 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-134280(1): Disable constant folding for ‘~’ with a boolean
     argument.  This moves the deprecation warning from compile time to
     runtime.

   - gh-134876(2): Add support to PEP 768(3) remote debugging for Linux
     kernels which don’t have CONFIG_CROSS_MEMORY_ATTACH configured.

   - gh-134889(4): Fix handling of a few opcodes that leave operands on
     the stack when optimizing ‘LOAD_FAST’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134280

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134876

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134889


File: python.info,  Node: Library<25>,  Next: Core and Builtins<25>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<24>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.28 Library
..................

   - gh-134908(1): Fix crash when iterating over lines in a text file on
     the *note free threaded: 487. build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134908


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<25>,  Next: Library<26>,  Prev: Library<25>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.29 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-117852(1): Fix argument checking of *note athrow(): 906.

   - gh-132617(2): Fix *note dict.update(): 1807. modification check
     that could incorrectly raise a «dict mutated during update» error
     when a different dictionary was modified that happens to share the
     same underlying keys object.

   - gh-131798(3): Allow the JIT to remove unnecessary
     ‘_ITER_CHECK_TUPLE’ ops.

   - gh-134679(4): Fix crash in the *note free threading: 487. build’s
     QSBR code that could occur when changing an object’s ‘__dict__’
     attribute.

   - gh-133912(5): Fix the C API function ‘PyObject_GenericSetDict’ to
     handle extension classes with inline values.

   - gh-131798(6): Make the JIT optimizer understand that slicing a
     string/list/tuple returns the same type.

   - gh-134584(7): Add a reference count elimination pass to the JIT
     compiler.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - gh-131798(8): Optimize ‘_POP_CALL_TWO_LOAD_CONST_INLINE_BORROW’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117852

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132617

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134679

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133912

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134584

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798


File: python.info,  Node: Library<26>,  Next: Core and Builtins<26>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<25>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.30 Library
..................

   - gh-134381(1): Fix *note RuntimeError: 30d. when using a not-started
     *note threading.Thread: 420. after calling *note os.fork(): 6bd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134381


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<26>,  Next: Library<27>,  Prev: Library<26>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.31 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-127960(1): PyREPL interactive shell no longer starts with
     ‘__package__’ and ‘__file__’ global names set to ‘_pyrepl’ package
     internals.  Contributed by Yuichiro Tachibana.

   - gh-130397(2): Remove special-casing for C stack depth limits for
     WASI. Due to WebAssembly’s built-in stack protection this does not
     pose a security concern.

   - gh-131798(3): JIT: replace ‘_LOAD_SMALL_INT’ with
     ‘_LOAD_CONST_INLINE_BORROW’

   - gh-131798(4): Improve the JIT’s ability to optimize away cached
     class attribute and method loads.

   - gh-128066(5): Fixes an edge case where PyREPL improperly threw an
     error when Python is invoked on a read only filesystem while trying
     to write history file entries.

   - gh-131798(6): Improve the JIT’s ability to narrow unknown classes
     to constant values.

   - gh-134268(7): Add ‘_POP_CALL_TWO_LOAD_CONST_INLINE_BORROW’ and use
     it to further optimize ‘CALL_ISINSTANCE’.

   - gh-131798(8): Split ‘CALL_LIST_APPEND’ into several uops.  Patch by
     Diego Russo.

   - gh-69605(9): When auto-completing an import in the *note REPL: 69d,
     finding no candidates now issues no suggestion, rather than
     suggestions from the current namespace.

   - gh-134170(10): Add colorization to *note sys.unraisablehook(): 70c.
     by default.

   - gh-91153(11): Fix a crash when a *note bytearray: 1c6. is
     concurrently mutated during item assignment.

   - gh-134158(12): Fix coloring of double braces in f-strings and
     t-strings in the *note REPL: 69d.

   - gh-134119(13): Fix crash when calling *note next(): bb5. on an
     exhausted template string iterator.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-134100(14): Fix a use-after-free bug that occurs when an
     imported module isn’t in *note sys.modules: 19ba. after its initial
     import.  Patch by Nico-Posada.

   - gh-134036(15): Improve *note SyntaxError: 17e. message when using
     invalid *note raise: 9e4. statements.

   - gh-133999(16): Fix *note SyntaxError: 17e. regression in *note
     except: 447. parsing after gh-123440(17).

   - gh-133886(18): Fix *note sys.remote_exec(): 418. for non-ASCII
     paths in non-UTF-8 locales and non-UTF-8 paths in UTF-8 locales.

   - gh-133400(19): Fixed Ctrl+D (^D) behavior in _pyrepl module to
     match old pre-3.13 REPL behavior.

   - gh-133703(20): Fix hashtable in dict can be bigger than intended in
     some situations.

   - gh-133778(21): Fix bug where assigning to the *note
     __annotations__: 1a64. attributes of classes defined under ‘from
     __future__ import annotations’ had no effect.

   - gh-133711(22): Implement PEP 686(23): Enable *note Python UTF-8
     Mode: a46. by default.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-132762(24): *note fromkeys(): 4da. no longer loops forever when
     adding a small set of keys to a large base dict.  Patch by Angela
     Liss.

   - gh-133541(25): Inconsistent indentation in user input crashed the
     new REPL when syntax highlighting was active.  This is now fixed.

   - gh-133516(26): Raise *note ValueError: 277. when constants ‘True’,
     ‘False’ or ‘None’ are used as an identifier after NFKC
     normalization.

   - gh-131798(27): Allow the JIT to remove int guards after ‘_GET_LEN’
     by setting the return type to int.

   - gh-131798(28): Split ‘CALL_ISINSTANCE’ into several uops, allowing
     the JIT to remove some of them.

   - gh-132554(29): Change iteration to use «virtual iterators» for
     sequences.  Instead of creating an iterator, a tagged integer
     representing the next index is pushed to the stack above the
     iterable.  For non-sequence iterators, ‘NULL’ is pushed.

   - gh-130821(30): Enhance wrong type error messages and make them more
     consistent.  Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-131798(31): Narrow the return type and constant-evaluate
     ‘CALL_ISINSTANCE’ for a subset of known values in the JIT. Patch by
     Tomas Roun

   - gh-132542(32): Update *note Thread.native_id: e02. after
     ‘fork(2)(33)’ to ensure accuracy.  Patch by Noam Cohen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127960

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130397

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128066

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134268

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69605

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134170

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91153

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134158

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134119

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134100

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134036

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133999

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123440

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133886

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133400

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133703

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133778

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133711

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132762

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133541

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133516

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132554

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130821

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132542

   (33) https://manpages.debian.org/fork(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Library<27>,  Next: Core and Builtins<27>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<26>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.32 Library
..................

   - gh-132732(1): Automatically constant evaluate bytecode operations
     marked as pure in the JIT optimizer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132732


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<27>,  Next: Library<28>,  Prev: Library<27>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.33 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-127971(1): Fix off-by-one read beyond the end of a string in
     string search.

   - gh-132042(2): Improve class creation times by up to 12% by
     pre-computing type slots just once.  Patch by Sergey Miryanov.

   - gh-133379(3): Correct usage of 'arguments' in error messages.

   - gh-127266(4): In the free-threaded build, avoid data races caused
     by updating type slots or type flags after the type was initially
     created.  For those (typically rare) cases, use the stop-the-world
     mechanism.  Remove the use of atomics when reading or writing type
     flags.  The use of atomics is not sufficient to avoid races (since
     flags are sometimes read without a lock and without atomics) and
     are no longer required.

   - gh-130425(5): Add ‘"Did you mean: 'attr'?"’ suggestion when using
     ‘del obj.attr’ if ‘attr’ does not exist.

   - gh-128640(6): Fix a crash when using threads inside of a
     subinterpreter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127971

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132042

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133379

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127266

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130425

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128640


File: python.info,  Node: Library<28>,  Next: Core and Builtins<28>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<27>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.34 Library
..................

   - gh-116738(1): Make the module *note json: 85. safe to use under the
     free-threading build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116738


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<28>,  Next: C API<8>,  Prev: Library<28>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.35 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-119494(1): Exception text when trying to delete attributes of
     types was clarified.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119494


File: python.info,  Node: C API<8>,  Next: Build<7>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<28>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.36 C API
................

   - gh-139924(1): Function watchers can now receive a
     PyFunction_PYFUNC_EVENT_MODIFY_QUALNAME event when a watched
     functions qualname is changed.

   - gh-111489(2): Add *note PyTuple_FromArray(): 36a. to create a *note
     tuple: 1ce. from an array.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-136355(3): Deprecate *note PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3c4. field
     and schedule its removal in 3.17.

   - gh-138886(4): Remove deprecated ‘PySys_ResetWarnOptions()’ C-API
     function.

   - gh-129813(5): Implement PEP 782(6), the *note PyBytesWriter: 3b4.
     API. Add functions:

        * *note PyBytesWriter_Create(): 35c.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_Discard(): 35d.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_FinishWithPointer(): 35e.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_FinishWithSize(): 35f.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_Finish(): 360.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_Format(): 361.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_GetData(): 362.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_GetSize(): 363.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_GrowAndUpdatePointer(): 364.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_Grow(): 365.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_Resize(): 366.

        * *note PyBytesWriter_WriteBytes(): 367.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-137956(7): Display and raise an exception if an extension
     compiled for non-free-threaded Python is loaded in a free-threaded
     interpreter.

   - gh-137573(8): Mark ‘_PyOptimizer_Optimize’ as *note Py_NO_INLINE:
     1a6a. to prevent stack overflow crashes on macOS.

   - gh-128813(9): Functions *note _Py_c_sum(): 3bd, *note _Py_c_diff():
     3be, *note _Py_c_neg(): 3bf, *note _Py_c_prod(): 3c0, *note
     _Py_c_quot(): 3c1, *note _Py_c_pow(): 3c2. and previously
     undocumented *note _Py_c_abs(): 3c3. are *note soft deprecated:
     1a7.  Deprecate also *note cval: 3b8. field of the *note
     PyComplexObject: 3b9. type.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-137210(10): Add API for checking an extension module’s ABI
     compatibility: *note Py_mod_abi: 358, *note PyABIInfo_Check(): 359,
     *note PyABIInfo_VAR: 35a. and ‘Py_mod_abi’.

   - gh-136759(11): Rename ‘lock.h’ to ‘pylock.h’ to avoid potential
     include conflicts.

   - gh-112068(12): Revert support of nullable arguments in *note
     PyArg_Parse(): 1a6b.

   - gh-136006(13): On Solaris, the ‘Py_NAN’ macro now expands to a
     ‘double’ instead of a function address.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-135075(14): Make *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 1927. and *note
     PyObject_SetAttrString(): 1a6c. fail if called with ‘NULL’ value
     and an exception set.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-135906(15): Fix compilation errors when compiling the internal
     headers with a C++ compiler.

   - gh-133296(16): New variants for the critical section API that
     accept one or two *note PyMutex: 693. pointers rather than *note
     PyObject: 19b. instances are now public in the non-limited C API.

   - gh-133157(17): Remove the private, undocumented macro
     ‘_Py_NO_SANITIZE_UNDEFINED’.

   - gh-134989(18): Fix ‘Py_RETURN_NONE’, ‘Py_RETURN_TRUE’ and
     ‘Py_RETURN_FALSE’ macros in the limited C API 3.11 and older: don’t
     treat ‘Py_None’, ‘Py_True’ and ‘Py_False’ as immortal.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-134989(19): Implement *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1a6d. and *note
     PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1a6e. as macros in the limited C API 3.12
     and older.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-134745(20): Change ‘PyThread_allocate_lock()’ implementation to
     ‘PyMutex’.  On Windows, ‘PyThread_acquire_lock_timed()’ now
     supports the 'intr_flag' parameter: it can be interrupted.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-134891(21): Add *note PyUnstable_Unicode_GET_CACHED_HASH: 357.
     to get the cached hash of a string.

   - gh-134009(22): Expose *note PyMutex_IsLocked(): 676. as part of the
     public C API.

   - gh-134144(23): Fix crash when calling *note Py_EndInterpreter():
     1a6f. with a *note thread state: 1a70. that isn’t the initial
     thread for the interpreter.

   - gh-133968(24): Add *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII(): 5e6.
     function to write an ASCII string into a *note PyUnicodeWriter:
     5e0.  The function is faster than *note
     PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(): 5ec, but has an undefined behavior if
     the input string contains non-ASCII characters.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-133644(25): Remove deprecated Python initialization getter
     functions ‘Py_Get*’.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-133644(26): Remove deprecated function ‘PyWeakref_GetObject()’
     and macro ‘PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT’.  Use *note PyWeakref_GetRef():
     3a4. instead.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-133644(27): Remove deprecated alias
     ‘PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()’ of *note PyImport_ImportModule():
     3a3.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-133610(28): Remove deprecated functions
     ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’,
     ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’, and ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’.

   - gh-132629(29): For unsigned integer formats in *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1, accepting Python integers with value that
     is larger than the maximal value for the C type or less than the
     minimal value for the corresponding signed integer type of the same
     size is now deprecated.

   - gh-131185(30): *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5. no longer crashes
     when called after interpreter finalization.

   - gh-108512(31): Add functions *note PySys_GetAttr(): 352, *note
     PySys_GetAttrString(): 353, *note PySys_GetOptionalAttr(): 354. and
     *note PySys_GetOptionalAttrString(): 355.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/139924

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111489

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136355

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138886

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129813

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0782/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137956

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137573

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128813

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137210

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136759

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112068

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136006

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135075

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135906

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133296

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133157

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134989

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134989

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134745

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134891

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134009

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134144

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133968

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133644

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133644

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133644

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133610

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132629

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131185

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108512


File: python.info,  Node: Build<7>,  Prev: C API<8>,  Up: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1

1.26.10.37 Build
................

   - gh-138489(1): When cross-compiling for WASI by ‘build_wasm’ or
     ‘build_emscripten’, the ‘build-details.json’ step is now included
     in the build process, just like with native builds.

     This fixes the ‘libinstall’ task which requires the
     ‘build-details.json’ file during the process.

   - gh-138497(2): The LLVM version used by the JIT at build time can
     now be modified using the ‘LLVM_VERSION’ environment variable.  Use
     this at your own risk, as there is only one officially supported
     LLVM version.  For more information, please check
     ‘Tools/jit/README.md’.

   - gh-95952(3): When cross-compiling for WASI, require that the
     HOSTRUNNER environment variable be explicitly set.

     This was needed as macOS lacks the appropriate CLI tools to set a
     reasonable default.

   - gh-138061(4): Ensure reproducible builds by making JIT stencil
     header generation deterministic.

   - gh-128042(5): ‘./configure’ now warns when ‘--enable-optimizations’
     and ‘CFLAGS=-O0’ are both set, suggesting removing ‘-O0’ from
     ‘CFLAGS’ for optimal performance.  Patch by Taegyun Kim.

   - gh-132339(6): Add support for OpenSSL 3.5.

   - gh-135621(7): PyREPL no longer depends on the *note curses: 2e.
     standard library.  Contributed by Łukasz Langa.

   - gh-135927(8): Fix building with MSVC when passing option
     ‘/std:clatest’.

   - gh-119132(9): Remove «experimental» tag from the CPython
     free-threading build.

   - gh-135497(10): Fix the detection of ‘MAXLOGNAME’ in the
     ‘configure.ac’ script.

   - gh-134923(11): Windows builds with profile-guided optimization
     enabled now use ‘/GENPROFILE’ and ‘/USEPROFILE’ instead of
     deprecated ‘/LTCG:’ options.

   - gh-134632(12): Fixed ‘build-details.json’ generation to use
     ‘INCLUDEPY’, in order to reference the ‘pythonX.Y’ subdirectory of
     the include directory, as required in PEP 739(13), instead of the
     top-level include directory.

   - gh-134486(14): The *note ctypes: 2d. module now performs a more
     portable test for the definition of ‘alloca(3)(15)’, fixing a
     compilation failure on NetBSD.

   - gh-134455(16): Fixed ‘build-details.json’ generation to use the
     correct ‘c_api.headers’ as defined in PEP 739(17), instead of
     ‘c_api.include’.

   - gh-134273(18): Add support for configuring compiler flags for the
     JIT with ‘CFLAGS_JIT’

   - gh-115119(19): Removed implicit fallback to the bundled copy of the
     ‘libmpdec’ library.  Now this should be explicitly enabled via
     *note -with-system-libmpdec: 3d6. set to ‘no’ or
     ‘--without-system-libmpdec’.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-131769(20): Fix detecting when the build Python in a cross-build
     is a pydebug build.

   - gh-117088(21): AIX linker don’t support -h option, so avoid it
     through platform check

   - gh-123681(22): Check the ‘strftime()’ behavior at runtime instead
     of at the compile time to support cross-compiling.  Remove the
     internal macro ‘_Py_NORMALIZE_CENTURY’.

   - gh-127545(23): Fix crash when building on Linux/m68k.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138489

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138497

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95952

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/138061

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128042

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132339

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135621

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135927

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119132

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135497

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134923

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134632

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0739/

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134486

   (15) https://manpages.debian.org/alloca(3)

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134455

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0739/

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134273

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131769

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117088

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123681

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127545


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 14 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 15 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.11 Python 3.14.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2025-05-06'

* Menu:

* Windows: Windows<8>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<6>.
* Tests: Tests<10>.
* Security: Security<9>.
* Library: Library<29>.
* IDLE: IDLE<6>.
* Documentation: Documentation<8>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<29>.
* Library: Library<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<30>.
* Library: Library<31>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<31>.
* Library: Library<32>.
* C API: C API<9>.
* Build: Build<8>.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<8>,  Next: Tools/Demos<6>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.1 Windows
.................

   - gh-132930(1): Marks the installer for Windows as deprecated and
     updates documentation to cover the new Python install manager.

   - gh-127405(2): Add ‘ABIFLAGS’ to *note sysconfig.get_config_vars():
     51e. on Windows.  Patch by Xuehai Pan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132930

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127405


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<6>,  Next: Tests<10>,  Prev: Windows<8>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.2 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-130453(1): Allow passing multiple keyword arguments with the
     same function name in ‘pygettext’.

   - gh-130195(2): Add warning messages when ‘pygettext’ unimplemented
     ‘-a/--extract-all’ option is called.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130453

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130195


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<10>,  Next: Security<9>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<6>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.3 Tests
...............

   - gh-133131(1): The iOS testbed will now select the most recently
     released «SE-class» device for testing if a device isn’t explicitly
     specified.

   - gh-91048(2): Add ability to externally inspect all pending asyncio
     tasks, even if no task is currently entered on the event loop.

   - gh-109981(3): The test helper that counts the list of open file
     descriptors now uses the optimised ‘/dev/fd’ approach on all Apple
     platforms, not just macOS. This avoids crashes caused by guarded
     file descriptors.

   - gh-132678(4): Add ‘--prioritize’ to ‘-m test’.  This option allows
     the user to specify which selected tests should execute first, even
     if the order is otherwise randomized.  This is particularly useful
     for tests that run the longest.

   - gh-131290(5): Tests in ‘Lib/test’ can now be correctly executed as
     standalone scripts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133131

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91048

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109981

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132678

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131290


File: python.info,  Node: Security<9>,  Next: Library<29>,  Prev: Tests<10>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.4 Security
..................

   - gh-115322(1): The underlying extension modules behind *note
     readline: c2.:, *note subprocess: df, and *note ctypes: 2d. now
     raise audit events on previously uncovered code paths that could
     lead to file system access related to C function calling and
     external binary execution.  The ‘ctypes.call_function’ audit hook
     has also been fixed to use an unsigned value for its ‘function
     pointer’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115322


File: python.info,  Node: Library<29>,  Next: IDLE<6>,  Prev: Security<9>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.5 Library
.................

   - gh-133490(1): Add color support to PDB in remote mode.

   - gh-132493(2): Avoid eagerly evaluating annotations in functions
     decorated with *note reprlib.recursive_repr(): 159c.

   - gh-130645(3): Add color to stdlib argparse CLIs.  Patch by Hugo van
     Kemenade.

   - gh-119180(4): Make *note annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c.
     succeed with the ‘FORWARDREF’ format if evaluating the annotations
     throws an exception other than *note NameError: 665. or *note
     AttributeError: 1a9.

   - gh-133351(5): Fix remote PDB to correctly request tab completions
     for Python expressions from the server when completing a
     continuation line of a multi-line Python block.

   - gh-133367(6): Add the ‘--feature-version’, ‘--optimize’, and
     ‘--show-empty’ options to the *note ast: 9. command-line interface.
     Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-133363(7): The *note cmd.Cmd: 1a78. class has been fixed to
     reliably call the ‘completedefault’ method whenever the ‘do_shell’
     method is not defined and tab completion is requested for a line
     beginning with ‘!’.

   - gh-113081(8): Highlight syntax on source code in *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-133349(9): Introduced auto-indent in *note pdb: aa. multi-line
     input.

   - gh-133306(10): Use ‘\z’ instead of ‘\Z’ in *note
     fnmatch.translate(): 1a79. and *note glob.translate(): 700.

   - gh-133306(11): Support ‘\z’ as a synonym for ‘\Z’ in *note regular
     expressions: c1.

   - gh-133300(12): Make *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc.’s
     ‘suggest_on_error’ a keyword-only parameter.  Patch by Hugo van
     Kemenade.

   - gh-133290(13): Fix attribute caching issue when setting *note
     ctypes._Pointer._type_: 1a7a. in the undocumented and deprecated
     ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function and the undocumented
     ‘set_type()’ method.

   - gh-133223(14): When PDB is attached to a remote process, do a
     better job of intercepting Ctrl+C and forwarding it to the remote
     process.

   - gh-133153(15): Do not complete *note pdb: aa. commands in
     ‘interact’ mode of ‘pdb’.

   - gh-133139(16): Add the *note curses.assume_default_colors(): 489.
     function, a refinement of the *note curses.use_default_colors():
     48a. function which allows to change the color pair ‘0’.

   - gh-133089(17): Use original timeout value for *note
     subprocess.TimeoutExpired: 19ab. when the func *note
     subprocess.run(): f45. is called with a timeout instead of
     sometimes a confusing partial remaining time out value used
     internally on the final ‘wait()’.

   - gh-133036(18): *note codecs.open(): 32c. is now deprecated.  Use
     *note open(): 32b. instead.  Contributed by Inada Naoki.

   - gh-132987(19): Many builtin and extension functions which accept an
     unsigned integer argument, now use *note __index__(): 43d. if
     available.

   - gh-124703(20): Set return code to ‘1’ when aborting process from
     *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-133005(21): Support passing ‘preset’ option to *note
     tarfile.open(): 1228. when using ‘'w|xz'’ mode.

   - gh-115032(22): Support for custom logging handlers with the 'strm'
     argument is deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.16.
     Define handlers with the 'stream' argument instead.  Patch by
     Mariusz Felisiak.

   - gh-132991(23): Add ‘socket.IP_FREEBIND’ constant on Linux 2.4 and
     later.

   - gh-132995(24): Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to
     version 25.1.1

   - gh-132933(25): The zipapp module now applies the filter when
     creating the list of files to add, rather than waiting until the
     file is being added to the archive.

   - gh-121249(26): Always support the float complex and double complex
     C types in the *note struct: de. module.  Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-132915(27): *note fcntl.fcntl(): 1962. and *note fcntl.ioctl():
     181d. can now detect a buffer overflow and raise *note SystemError:
     3ea.  The stack and memory can be corrupted in such case, so treat
     this error as fatal.

   - gh-132017(28): Fix error when ‘pyrepl’ is suspended, then resumed
     and terminated.

   - gh-132893(29): Improved *note statistics.NormalDist.cdf(): 1a7b.
     accuracy for inputs smaller than the mean.

   - gh-130328(30): Speedup pasting in ‘PyREPL’ on Windows.  Fix by
     Chris Eibl.

   - gh-132882(31): Fix copying of *note typing.Union: 341. objects
     containing objects that do not support the ‘|’ operator.

   - gh-93696(32): Fixed the breakpoint display error for frozen modules
     in *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-129965(33): Add MIME types for ‘.7z’, ‘.apk’, ‘.deb’, ‘.glb’,
     ‘.gltf’, ‘.gz’, ‘.m4v’, ‘.php’, ‘.rar’, ‘.rpm’, ‘.stl’ and ‘.wmv’.
     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-132742(34): *note fcntl.fcntl(): 1962. now supports arbitrary
     *note bytes-like objects: 436, not only *note bytes: 1c7.  *note
     fcntl.ioctl(): 181d. now automatically retries system calls failing
     with EINTR and releases the GIL during a system call even for large
     bytes-like object.

   - gh-132451(35): The CLI for the PDB debugger now accepts a ‘-p PID’
     argument to allow attaching to a running process.  The process must
     be running the same version of Python as the one running PDB.

   - gh-125618(36): Add a 'format' parameter to *note
     annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate(): 150.  Evaluating annotations
     in the ‘FORWARDREF’ format now succeeds in more cases that would
     previously have raised an exception.

   - gh-132805(37): Fix incorrect handling of nested non-constant values
     in the FORWARDREF format in *note annotationlib: 6.

   - gh-132734(38): Add new constants for Bluetooth *note sockets: d4.

   - gh-132673(39): Fix *note AssertionError: a97. raised on *note
     ctypes.Structure: 47c. with ‘_align_ = 0’ and ‘_fields_ = []’.

   - gh-132578(40): Rename the ‘threading.Thread._handle’ field to avoid
     shadowing methods defined on subclasses of ‘threading.Thread’.

   - gh-132561(41): Fix the public ‘locked’ method of
     ‘multiprocessing.SemLock’ class.  Also adding 2 tests for the
     derivated *note multiprocessing.Lock: 1a7c. and *note
     multiprocessing.RLock: 1a7d. classes.

   - gh-121468(42): Add *note pdb.set_trace_async(): 501. function to
     support *note await: 432. statements in *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-132493(43): *note typing.Protocol: 76c. now uses *note
     annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. when checking whether or not
     an instance implements the protocol with *note isinstance(): 2ef.
     This enables support for ‘isinstance’ checks against classes with
     deferred annotations.

   - gh-132536(44): Do not disable *note PY_THROW: 271. event in *note
     bdb: 10. because it can’t be disabled.

   - gh-132527(45): Include the valid typecode “w” in the error message
     when an invalid typecode is passed to *note array.array: 6c5.

   - gh-132099(46): The Bluetooth socket with the *note BTPROTO_HCI:
     509. protocol on Linux now accepts an address in the format of an
     integer ‘device_id’, not only a tuple ‘(device_id,)’.

   - gh-81793(47): Fix *note os.link(): 149b. on platforms (like Linux)
     where the system ‘link()’ function does not follow symlinks.  On
     Linux, it now follows symlinks by default or if
     ‘follow_symlinks=True’ is specified.  On Windows, it now raises an
     error if ‘follow_symlinks=True’ is passed.  On macOS, it now raises
     an error if ‘follow_symlinks=False’ is passed and the system
     ‘linkat()’ function is not available at runtime.

   - gh-132493(48): Support creation of *note typing.Protocol: 76c.
     classes with annotations that cannot be resolved at class creation
     time.

   - gh-132491(49): Rename ‘annotationlib.value_to_string’ to *note
     annotationlib.type_repr(): 1a7e. and provide better handling for
     function objects.

   - gh-132426(50): Add *note
     annotationlib.get_annotate_from_class_namespace(): 66e. as a helper
     for accessing annotations in metaclasses, and remove
     ‘annotationlib.get_annotate_function’.

   - gh-70145(51): Add support for channels in Bluetooth HCI protocol
     (*note BTPROTO_HCI: 509.).

   - gh-131913(52): Add a shortcut function *note
     multiprocessing.Process.interrupt(): 4dd. alongside the existing
     *note multiprocessing.Process.terminate(): 1a7f. and *note
     multiprocessing.Process.kill(): f15. for an improved control over
     child process termination.

   - gh-132439(53): Fix ‘PyREPL’ on Windows: characters entered via
     AltGr are swallowed.  Patch by Chris Eibl.

   - gh-132429(54): Fix support of Bluetooth sockets on NetBSD and
     DragonFly BSD. Add support for 'cid' and 'bdaddr_type' in the
     BTPROTO_L2CAP address on FreeBSD. Return 'cid' in ‘getsockname()’
     for BTPROTO_L2CAP if it is not zero.

   - gh-132106(55): *note QueueListener.start: 4d0. now raises a *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. if the listener is already started.

   - gh-132417(56): Fix a ‘NULL’ pointer dereference when a C function
     called using *note ctypes: 2d. with ‘restype’ *note py_object: 486.
     returns ‘NULL’.

   - gh-132385(57): Fix instance error suggestions trigger potential
     exceptions in *note object.__getattr__(): 8e3. in *note traceback:
     107.

   - gh-125866(58): Add optional 'add_scheme' argument to *note
     urllib.request.pathname2url(): 53b.; when set to true, a complete
     URL is returned.  Likewise add optional 'require_scheme' argument
     to *note url2pathname(): 539.; when set to true, a complete URL is
     accepted.

   - gh-132308(59): A *note traceback.TracebackException: 764. now
     correctly renders the ‘__context__’ and ‘__cause__’ attributes from
     *note falsey: 1a80. *note Exception: d9e, and the ‘exceptions’
     attribute from falsey *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8.

   - gh-130645(60): Add colour to *note argparse: 7. help output.  Patch
     by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-127495(61): In PyREPL, append a new entry to the
     ‘PYTHON_HISTORY’ file 'after' every statement.  This should
     preserve command-line history after interpreter is terminated.
     Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-129463(62): Comparison of *note annotationlib.ForwardRef: 1967.
     objects no longer uses the internal ‘__code__’ and ‘__ast_node__’
     attributes, which are used as caches.

   - gh-132250(63): Fixed the *note SystemError: 3ea. in ‘cProfile’ when
     locating the actual C function of a method raises an exception.

   - gh-132064(64): *note annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. now uses
     the ‘__annotate__’ attribute if it is present, even if
     ‘__annotations__’ is not present.  Additionally, the function now
     raises a *note TypeError: 291. if it is passed an object that does
     not have any annotatins.

   - gh-130664(65): Support the ‘'_'’ digit separator in formatting of
     the integral part of *note Decimal: 1c2.’s.  Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-131952(66): Add color output to the ‘json’ CLI. Patch by Tomas
     Roun.

   - gh-132063(67): Prevent exceptions that evaluate as falsey (namely,
     when their ‘__bool__’ method returns ‘False’ or their ‘__len__’
     method returns 0) from being ignored by *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. and *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: b27.

   - gh-132106(68): *note logging.handlers.QueueListener: 4cf. now
     implements the context manager protocol, allowing it to be used in
     a *note with: 20a. statement.

   - gh-132054(69): The ‘application/yaml’ mime type ( RFC 9512(70)) is
     now supported by *note mimetypes: 93.  Patch by Sasha «Nelie»
     Chernykh and Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-119605(71): Respect ‘follow_wrapped’ for ‘__init__()’ and
     ‘__new__()’ methods when getting the class signature for a class
     with *note inspect.signature(): 4bd.  Preserve class signature
     after wrapping with *note warnings.deprecated(): 695.  Patch by
     Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-118761(72): Improve import times by up to 33x for the *note
     shlex: cc. module, and improve the performance of *note
     shlex.quote(): 781. by up to 12x.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-85302(73): Add support for *note BTPROTO_SCO: 50a. in sockets on
     FreeBSD.

   - gh-131757(74): Make *note functools.lru_cache(): db3. call the
     cached function unlocked to allow concurrency.

   - gh-131423(75): *note ssl: d8. can show descriptions for errors
     added in OpenSSL 3.4.1.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-131434(76): Improve error reporting for incorrect format in
     *note time.strptime(): 17cf.

   - gh-131524(77): Add help message to *note platform: af. command-line
     interface.  Contributed by Harry Lees.

   - gh-100926(78): Move *note ctypes.POINTER(): 484. types cache from a
     global internal cache (‘_pointer_type_cache’) to the *note
     ctypes._CData.__pointer_type__: 485. attribute of the corresponding
     *note ctypes: 2d. types.  This will stop the cache from growing
     without limits in some situations.

   - gh-85702(79): If ‘zoneinfo._common.load_tzdata’ is given a package
     without a resource a ‘ZoneInfoNotFoundError’ is raised rather than
     a *note IsADirectoryError: 1401.

   - gh-123471(80): Make concurrent iterations over *note
     itertools.repeat: 1a81. safe under free-threading.

   - gh-131127(81): Systems using LibreSSL now successfully build.

   - gh-89157(82): Make the pure Python implementation of *note
     datetime.date.fromisoformat(): a08, only accept ASCII strings for
     consistency with the C implementation.

   - gh-130941(83): Fix *note configparser.ConfigParser: 6e4. parsing
     empty interpolation with ‘allow_no_value’ set to ‘True’.

   - gh-110067(84): Make *note heapq: 6c. max-heap functions *note
     heapq.heapify_max(): 4af, *note heapq.heappush_max(): 4b0, *note
     heapq.heappop_max(): 4b1, and *note heapq.heapreplace_max(): 4b2.
     public.  Previous underscored naming is kept for backwards
     compatibility.  Additionally, the missing function *note
     heapq.heappushpop_max(): 4b3. has been added to both the C and
     Python implementations.

   - gh-129098(85): Fix REPL traceback reporting when using *note
     compile(): 1c8. with an inexisting file.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-130631(86): ‘http.cookiejar.join_header_words()’ is now more
     similar to the original Perl version.  It now quotes the same set
     of characters and always quote values that end with ‘"\n"’.

   - gh-130482(87): Add ability to specify name for ‘tkinter.OptionMenu’
     and ‘tkinter.ttk.OptionMenu’.

   - gh-77065(88): Add keyword-only optional argument 'echo_char' for
     *note getpass.getpass(): 4ab. for optional visual keyboard feedback
     support.  Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-130317(89): Fix *note PyFloat_Pack2(): b47. and *note
     PyFloat_Unpack2(): b4a. for NaN’s with payload.  This corrects
     round-trip for *note struct.unpack(): 1a82. and *note
     struct.pack(): 161b. in case of the IEEE 754 binary16 «half
     precision» type.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-130402(90): Joining running daemon threads during interpreter
     shutdown now raises *note PythonFinalizationError: 68a.

   - gh-130167(91): Improve speed of *note difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK(): 552.
     Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-101410(92): Added more detailed messages for domain errors in
     the *note math: 91. module.

   - gh-128384(93): Make *note warnings.catch_warnings: 423. use a
     context variable for holding the warning filtering state if the
     *note sys.flags.context_aware_warnings: 42f. flag is set to true.
     This makes using the context manager thread-safe in multi-threaded
     programs.  The flag is true by default in free-threaded builds and
     is otherwise false.  The value of the flag can be overridden by the
     *note -X context_aware_warnings: 178. command-line option or by the
     *note PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS: 1a83. environment variable.

   - gh-129719(94): Fix missing ‘socket.CAN_RAW_ERR_FILTER’ constant in
     the socket module on Linux systems.  It was missing since Python
     3.11.

   - gh-129027(95): Raise *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. for *note
     sys._clear_type_cache(): 344.  This function was deprecated in
     Python 3.13 but it didn’t raise a runtime warning.

   - gh-128307(96): Add ‘eager_start’ keyword argument to *note
     asyncio.loop.create_task(): 463.

   - gh-127604(97): Add support for printing the C stack trace on
     systems that support it via *note faulthandler.dump_c_stack(): 49f.
     or via the 'c_stack' argument in *note faulthandler.enable(): 219.

   - gh-127385(98): Add the ‘F_DUPFD_QUERY’ constant to the *note fcntl:
     5c. module.

   - gh-126838(99): Add 'resolve_host' keyword-only parameter to *note
     urllib.request.url2pathname(): 539, and fix handling of file URLs
     with authorities.

   - gh-82129(100): Fix *note NameError: 665. when calling *note
     typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. on a *note dataclasses.dataclass():
     6e6. created by *note dataclasses.make_dataclass(): 1a84. with
     un-annotated fields.

   - gh-122559(101): Remove ‘__reduce__()’ and ‘__reduce_ex__()’ methods
     that always raise *note TypeError: 291. in the C implementation of
     *note io.FileIO: 16b4, *note io.BufferedReader: 15b5, *note
     io.BufferedWriter: 1754. and *note io.BufferedRandom: 1755. and
     replace them with default ‘__getstate__()’ methods that raise
     ‘TypeError’.  This restores fine details of behavior of Python 3.11
     and older versions.

   - gh-122179(102): *note hashlib.file_digest(): a33. now raises *note
     BlockingIOError: 4c3. when no data is available during non-blocking
     I/O. Before, it added spurious null bytes to the digest.

   - gh-53032(103): Expose *note decimal.IEEEContext(): 491. to support
     creation of contexts corresponding to the IEEE 754 (2008) decimal
     interchange formats.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-120220(104): Deprecate the ‘tkinter.Variable’ methods
     ‘trace_variable()’, ‘trace_vdelete()’ and ‘trace_vinfo()’.  Methods
     ‘trace_add()’, ‘trace_remove()’ and ‘trace_info()’ can be used
     instead.

   - gh-113539(105): *note webbrowser: 11e.: Names in the ‘BROWSER’
     environment variable can now refer to already registered web
     browsers, instead of always generating a new browser command.

     This makes it possible to set ‘BROWSER’ to the value of one of the
     supported browsers on macOS.

   - bpo-44172(106): Keep a reference to original *note curses: 2e.
     windows in subwindows so that the original window does not get
     deleted before subwindows.

   - gh-75223(107): Deprecate undotted extensions in *note
     mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(): 30c.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133490

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132493

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130645

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133351

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133367

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133363

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113081

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133349

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133306

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133306

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133300

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133290

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133223

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133153

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133139

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133089

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133036

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132987

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124703

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133005

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132991

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132995

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132933

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121249

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132915

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132017

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132893

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130328

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132882

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93696

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129965

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132742

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132451

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125618

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132805

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132734

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132673

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132578

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132561

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121468

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132493

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132536

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132527

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132099

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81793

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132493

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132491

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132426

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70145

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131913

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132439

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132429

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132106

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132417

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132385

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125866

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132308

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130645

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127495

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129463

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132250

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132064

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130664

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131952

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132063

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132106

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132054

   (70) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9512.html

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119605

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85302

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131757

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131423

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131434

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131524

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100926

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85702

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123471

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131127

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89157

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130941

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110067

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129098

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130631

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130482

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77065

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130317

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130402

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130167

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101410

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128384

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129719

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129027

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128307

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127604

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127385

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126838

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82129

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122559

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122179

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53032

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120220

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113539

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44172

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<6>,  Next: Documentation<8>,  Prev: Library<29>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.6 IDLE
..............

   - gh-112936(1): fix IDLE: no Shell menu item in single-process mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112936


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<8>,  Next: Core and Builtins<29>,  Prev: IDLE<6>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.7 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-107006(1): Move documentation and example code for *note
     threading.local: 1a87. from its docstring to the official docs.

   - gh-125142(2): As part of the builtin help intro text, show the
     keyboard shortcuts for the new, non-basic REPL (F1, F2, and F3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107006

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125142


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<29>,  Next: Library<30>,  Prev: Documentation<8>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.8 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-133336(1): ‘-J’ is no longer reserved for use by Jython.  Patch
     by Adam Turner.

   - gh-133261(2): Fix bug where the cycle GC could untrack objects in
     the trashcan because they looked like they were immortal.  When
     objects are added to the trashcan, we take care to ensure they keep
     a mortal reference count.

   - gh-133346(3): Added experimental color theming support to the
     ‘_colorize’ module.

   - gh-132917(4): For the free-threaded build, check the process memory
     usage increase before triggering a full automatic garbage
     collection.  If the memory used has not increased 10% since the
     last collection then defer it.

   - gh-91048(5): Add a new ‘python -m asyncio ps PID’ command-line
     interface to inspect asyncio tasks in a running Python process.
     Displays a flat table of await relationships.  A variant showing a
     tree view is also available as ‘python -m asyncio pstree PID’.
     Both are useful for debugging async code.  Patch by Pablo Galindo,
     Łukasz Langa, Yury Selivanov, and Marta Gomez Macias.

   - gh-133304(6): Workaround NaN’s «canonicalization» in *note
     PyFloat_Pack4(): b48. and *note PyFloat_Unpack4(): b4b. on RISC-V.

   - gh-133197(7): Improve *note SyntaxError: 17e. error messages for
     incompatible string / bytes prefixes.

   - gh-133231(8): Add new utilities of observing JIT compilation: *note
     sys._jit.is_available(): 662, *note sys._jit.is_enabled(): 663, and
     *note sys._jit.is_active(): 1a89.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133336

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133261

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133346

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132917

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91048

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133304

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133197

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133231


File: python.info,  Node: Library<30>,  Next: Core and Builtins<30>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<29>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.9 Library
.................

   - gh-133194(1): *note ast.parse(): 1c9. will no longer parse new PEP
     758(2) syntax with older 'feature_version' passed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133194

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0758/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<30>,  Next: Library<31>,  Prev: Library<30>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.10 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-131798(1): Split ‘CALL_LEN’ into several uops allowing the JIT
     to remove them when optimizing.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-131798(2): Use ‘sym_new_type’ instead of ‘sym_new_not_null’ for
     _BUILD_STRING, _BUILD_SET

   - gh-132942(3): Fix two races in the type lookup cache.  This
     affected the free-threaded build and could cause crashes
     (apparently quite difficult to trigger).

   - gh-131798(4): Propagate the return type of
     ‘_BINARY_OP_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT’ in JIT. Patch by Tomas Roun

   - gh-132952(5): Speed up startup with the ‘-S’ argument by importing
     the private ‘_io’ module instead of *note io: 82.  This fixes a
     performance regression introduced earlier in Python 3.14
     development and restores performance to the level of Python 3.13.

   - gh-131798(6): Allow the JIT to remove int guards after ‘_CALL_LEN’
     by setting the return type to int.  Patch by Diego Russo

   - gh-131798(7): Split ‘CALL_TUPLE_1’ into several uops allowing the
     JIT to remove some of them.  Patch by Tomas Roun

   - gh-131798(8): Split ‘CALL_STR_1’ into several uops allowing the JIT
     to remove some of them.  Patch by Tomas Roun

   - gh-132825(9): Enhance unhashable key/element error messages for
     *note dict: 188. and *note set: 42b.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-131591(10): Reset any PEP 768(11) remote debugging pending call
     in children after *note os.fork(): 6bd. calls.

   - gh-132713(12): Fix ‘repr(list)’ race condition: hold a strong
     reference to the item while calling ‘repr(item)’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-132661(13): Implement PEP 750(14) (Template Strings).  Add new
     syntax for t-strings and implement new internal
     ‘string.templatelib.Template’ and
     ‘string.templatelib.Interpolation’ types.

   - gh-132479(15): Fix compiler crash in certain circumstances where
     multiple module-level annotations include comprehensions and other
     nested scopes.

   - gh-132747(16): Fix a crash when calling *note __get__(): 188a. of a
     *note method: 1a8c. with a *note None: a65. second argument.

   - gh-132744(17): Certain calls now check for runaway recursion and
     respect the system recursion limit.

   - gh-132449(18): Syntax errors that look like misspellings of Python
     keywords now provide a helpful fix suggestion for the typo.
     Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132942

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132952

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132825

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131591

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132713

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132661

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0750/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132479

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132747

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132744

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132449


File: python.info,  Node: Library<31>,  Next: Core and Builtins<31>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<30>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.11 Library
..................

   - gh-132737(1): Support profiling code that requires ‘__main__’, such
     as *note pickle: ab.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132737


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<31>,  Next: Library<32>,  Prev: Library<31>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.12 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-132639(1): Added *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 7fc, *note
     PyLong_FromNativeBytes(): 7fd. and *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(): 7fe. to the limited C API.

   - gh-100239(2): Add specialisation for ‘BINARY_OP/SUBSCR’ on list and
     slice.

   - gh-132508(3): Uses tagged integers on the evaluation stack to
     represent the instruction offsets when reraising an exception.
     This avoids the need to box the integer which could fail in low
     memory conditions.

   - gh-124476(4): Fix decoding from the locale encoding in the C.UTF-8
     locale.

   - gh-131927(5): Compiler warnings originating from the same module
     and line number are now only emitted once, matching the behaviour
     of warnings emitted from user code.  This can also be configured
     with *note warnings: 11b. filters.

   - gh-132457(6): Make *note staticmethod(): 666. and *note
     classmethod(): 69a. generic.

   - gh-131798(7): Use ‘sym_new_type’ instead of ‘sym_new_not_null’ for
     _BUILD_LIST, _BUILD_SET, _BUILD_MAP

   - gh-131798(8): Split ‘CALL_TYPE_1’ into several uops allowing the
     JIT to remove some of them.

   - gh-132386(9): Fix crash when passing a dict subclass as the
     ‘globals’ parameter to *note exec(): 185.

   - gh-127682(10): No longer call ‘__iter__’ twice when creating and
     executing a generator expression.  Creating a generator expression
     from a non-interable will raise only when the generator expression
     is executed.  This brings the behavior of generator expressions in
     line with other generators.

   - gh-132261(11): The internal storage for annotations and annotate
     functions on classes now uses different keys in the class
     dictionary.  This eliminates various edge cases where access to the
     ‘__annotate__’ and ‘__annotations__’ attributes would behave
     unpredictably.

   - gh-132284(12): Don’t wrap base ‘PyCFunction’ slots on class
     creation if not overridden.

   - gh-130415(13): Improve the JIT’s ability to remove unused constant
     and local variable loads, and fix an issue where deallocating
     unused values could cause JIT code to crash or behave incorrectly.

   - gh-126703(14): Fix possible use after free in cases where a
     method’s definition has the same lifetime as its ‘self’.

   - gh-132286(15): Fix that *note type.__annotate__: 1a8f. was not
     deleted, when *note type.__annotations__: 1a64. was deleted.

   - gh-131798(16): Allow the JIT to remove an extra ‘_TO_BOOL_BOOL’
     instruction after ‘_CONTAINS_OP_DICT’ by setting the return type to
     bool.

   - gh-124715(17): Prevents against stack overflows when calling *note
     Py_DECREF(): 975.  Third-party extension objects no longer need to
     use the «trashcan» mechanism, as protection is now built into the
     ‘Py_DECREF()’ macro.

   - gh-131798(18): Allow the JIT compiler to remove some type checks
     for operations on lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets.

   - gh-128398(19): Improve error message when an object supporting the
     synchronous (resp.  asynchronous) context manager protocol is
     entered using *note async with: 20b. (resp.  *note with: 20a.)
     instead of ‘with’ (resp.  ‘async with’).  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-131798(20): Allow the JIT to remove unicode guards after
     ‘_BINARY_OP_SUBSCR_STR_INT’ by setting the return type to string.

   - gh-131878(21): Handle uncaught exceptions in the main input loop
     for the new REPL.

   - gh-131878(22): Fix support of unicode characters with two or more
     codepoints on Windows in the new REPL.

   - gh-126835(23): Move constant folding to the peephole optimizer.
     Rename AST optimization related files (Python/ast_opt.c ->
     Python/ast_preprocess.c), structs (_PyASTOptimizeState ->
     _PyASTPreprocessState) and functions (_PyAST_Optimize ->
     _PyAST_Preprocess, _PyCompile_AstOptimize ->
     _PyCompile_AstPreprocess).

   - gh-114809(24): Add support for macOS multi-arch builds with the JIT
     enabled

   - gh-131507(25): PyREPL now supports syntax highlighting.
     Contributed by Łukasz Langa.

   - gh-130907(26): If the ‘__annotations__’ of a module object are
     accessed while the module is executing, return the annotations that
     have been defined so far, without caching them.

   - gh-130104(27): Three-argument *note pow(): 441. now try calling
     *note __rpow__(): 442. if necessary.  Previously it was only called
     in two-argument ‘pow()’ and the binary power operator.

   - gh-130070(28): Fixed an assertion error for *note exec(): 185.
     passed a string ‘source’ and a non-‘None’ ‘closure’.  Patch by
     Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-129958(29): Fix a bug that was allowing newlines inconsistently
     in format specifiers for single-quoted f-strings.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - gh-129858(30): ‘elif’ statements that follow an ‘else’ block now
     have a specific error message.

   - gh-69605(31): Add module autocomplete to PyREPL.

   - gh-128555(32): Add the *note sys.flags.thread_inherit_context: 41f.
     flag.

        * This flag is set to true by default on the free-threaded build
          and false otherwise.  If the flag is true, starting a new
          thread using *note threading.Thread: 420. will, by default,
          use a copy of the *note contextvars.Context: 421. from the
          caller of *note threading.Thread.start(): 422. rather than
          using an empty context.

        * Add the *note -X thread_inherit_context: 178. command-line
          option and *note PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT: 1a90.
          environment variable, which set the *note
          thread_inherit_context: 41f. flag.

        * Add the ‘context’ keyword parameter to *note Thread: 420.  It
          can be used to explicitly pass a context value to be used by a
          new thread.

        * Make the ‘_contextvars’ module built-in.

   - gh-123539(33): Improve *note SyntaxError: 17e. message for using
     ‘import ... as’ and ‘from ... import ... as’ with not a name.

   - gh-102567(34): *note -X importtime: 178. now accepts value ‘2’,
     which indicates that an ‘importtime’ entry should also be printed
     if an imported module has already been loaded.  Patch by Noah Kim
     and Adam Turner.

   - gh-116436(35): Improve error message when *note TypeError: 291.
     occurs during *note dict.update(): 1807.

   - gh-103997(36): String arguments passed to «-c» are now
     automatically dedented.  This allows «python -c» invocations to be
     indented in shell scripts without causing indentation errors.
     (Patch by Jon Crall and Steven Sun)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132639

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132508

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124476

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131927

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132457

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132386

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127682

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132261

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132284

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130415

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126703

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132286

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124715

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128398

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131878

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131878

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126835

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114809

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131507

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130907

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130104

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130070

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129958

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129858

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69605

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128555

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123539

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102567

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116436

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103997


File: python.info,  Node: Library<32>,  Next: C API<9>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<31>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.13 Library
..................

   - gh-89562(1): Remove ‘hostflags’ member from ‘PySSLContext’ struct.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89562


File: python.info,  Node: C API<9>,  Next: Build<8>,  Prev: Library<32>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.14 C API
................

   - gh-133166(1): Fix regression where *note PyType_GetModuleByDef():
     827. returns NULL without setting *note TypeError: 291. when a
     static type is passed.

   - gh-133164(2): Add *note
     PyUnstable_Object_IsUniqueReferencedTemporary(): 5f3. function for
     determining if an object exists as a unique temporary variable on
     the interpreter’s stack.  This is a replacement for some cases
     where checking that *note Py_REFCNT(): 54b. is one is no longer
     sufficient to determine if it’s safe to modify a Python object
     in-place with no visible side effects.

   - gh-133140(3): Add *note PyUnstable_Object_IsUniquelyReferenced():
     5f2. as a replacement for ‘Py_REFNCT(op) == 1’ on *note free
     threaded: 487. builds of Python.

   - gh-131747(4): On non-Windows platforms, deprecate using *note
     ctypes.Structure._pack_: 318. to use a Windows-compatible layout on
     non-Windows platforms.  The layout should be specified explicitly
     by setting *note ctypes.Structure._layout_: 319. to ‘'ms'’.

   - gh-128972(5): For non-free-threaded builds, the memory layout of
     *note PyASCIIObject: 151e. is reverted to match Python 3.13.  (Note
     that the structure is not part of stable ABI and so its memory
     layout is 'guaranteed' to remain stable.)

   - gh-133079(6): The undocumented APIs ‘Py_C_RECURSION_LIMIT’ and
     ‘PyThreadState.c_recursion_remaining’, added in 3.13, are removed
     without a deprecation period.

   - gh-132987(7): The ‘k’ and ‘K’ formats in *note PyArg_Parse(): 1a6b.
     now support the *note __index__(): 43d. special method, like all
     other integer formats.

   - gh-132909(8): Fix an overflow when handling the *note K: 1a93.
     format in *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-132798(9): Deprecated and undocumented functions
     ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’,
     ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’ and ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’
     are scheduled for removal in 3.15.

   - gh-132470(10): Creating a *note ctypes.CField: 47e. with a
     'byte_size' that does not match the actual type size now raises a
     *note ValueError: 277. instead of crashing the interpreter.

   - gh-112068(11): [Reverted in gh-136991(12)] Add support of nullable
     arguments in *note PyArg_Parse(): 1a6b. and similar functions.
     Adding ‘?’ after any format unit makes ‘None’ be accepted as a
     value.

   - gh-50333(13): Non-tuple sequences are deprecated as argument for
     the ‘(items)’ format unit in *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. and
     other *note argument parsing: 601. functions if 'items' contains
     format units which store a *note borrowed buffer: 602. or a *note
     borrowed reference: 603.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133166

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133164

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133140

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131747

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128972

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133079

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132987

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132909

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132798

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132470

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112068

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136991

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50333


File: python.info,  Node: Build<8>,  Prev: C API<9>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 beta 1

1.26.11.15 Build
................

   - gh-113464(1): Use the cpython-bin-deps «externals» repository for
     Windows LLVM dependency management.  Installing LLVM manually is no
     longer necessary for Windows JIT builds.

   - gh-133183(2): iOS compiler shims now include
     ‘IPHONEOS_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET’ in target triples, ensuring that SDK
     version minimums are honored.

   - gh-133167(3): Fix compilation process with ‘--enable-optimizations’
     and ‘--without-docstrings’.

   - gh-133171(4): Since free-threaded builds do not support the
     experimental JIT compiler, prevent these configurations from being
     combined.

   - gh-132758(5): Fix building with tail call interpreter and pystats.

   - gh-132649(6): The ‘PClayout’ script now allows passing
     ‘--include-tcltk’ on Windows ARM64.

   - gh-132257(7): Change the default LTO flags on GCC to not pass
     ‘-flto-partition=none’, and allow parallelization of LTO. For newer
     GNU makes and GCC, this has a multiple factor speedup for LTO build
     times, with no noticeable loss in performance.

   - gh-132026(8): Fix use of undefined identifiers in platform triplet
     detection on MIPS Linux platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113464

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133183

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133167

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133171

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132758

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132649

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132257

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132026


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 14 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.12 Python 3.14.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2025-04-08'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<5>.
* Windows: Windows<9>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<7>.
* Tests: Tests<11>.
* Security: Security<10>.
* Library: Library<33>.
* Documentation: Documentation<9>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<32>.
* Library: Library<34>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<33>.
* C API: C API<10>.
* Build: Build<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<5>,  Next: Windows<9>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7

1.26.12.1 macOS
...............

   - gh-124111(1): Update macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.16.

   - gh-131423(2): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.16.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-131025(3): Update macOS installer to ship with SQLite 3.49.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124111

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131423

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131025


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<9>,  Next: Tools/Demos<7>,  Prev: macOS<5>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7

1.26.12.2 Windows
.................

   - gh-131423(1): Update bundled version of OpenSSL to 3.0.16.  The new
     build also disables uplink support, which may be relevant to
     embedders but has no impact on normal use.

   - gh-131453(2): Some ‘SND_*’ and ‘MB_*’ constants are added to *note
     winsound: 120.

   - gh-91349(3): Replaces our copy of ‘zlib’ with ‘zlib-ng’, for
     performance improvements in *note zlib: 13c.

   - gh-131025(4): Update Windows installer to ship with SQLite 3.49.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131423

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131453

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91349

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131025


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<7>,  Next: Tests<11>,  Prev: Windows<9>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7

1.26.12.3 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-132121(1): Always escape non-printable Unicode characters in
     ‘pygettext’.

   - gh-131852(2): ‘msgfmt’ no longer adds the ‘POT-Creation-Date’ to
     generated ‘.mo’ files for consistency with GNU ‘msgfmt’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132121

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131852


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<11>,  Next: Security<10>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<7>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7

1.26.12.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-131277(1): Allow to unset one or more environment variables at
     once via *note EnvironmentVarGuard.unset(): 1a9a.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-131050(2): ‘test_ssl.test_dh_params’ is skipped if the
     underlying TLS library does not support finite-field ephemeral
     Diffie-Hellman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131277

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131050


File: python.info,  Node: Security<10>,  Next: Library<33>,  Prev: Tests<11>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7

1.26.12.5 Security
..................

   - gh-131809(1): Update bundled libexpat to 2.7.1

   - gh-131261(2): Upgrade to libexpat 2.7.0

   - gh-121284(3): Fix bug in the folding of rfc2047 encoded-words when
     flattening an email message using a modern email policy.
     Previously when an encoded-word was too long for a line, it would
     be decoded, split across lines, and re-encoded.  But commas and
     other special characters in the original text could be left
     unencoded and unquoted.  This could theoretically be used to spoof
     header lines using a carefully constructed encoded-word if the
     resulting rendered email was transmitted or re-parsed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131809

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131261

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121284


File: python.info,  Node: Library<33>,  Next: Documentation<9>,  Prev: Security<10>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7

1.26.12.6 Library
.................

   - gh-132174(1): Fix function name in error message of
     ‘_interpreters.run_string’.

   - gh-132171(2): Fix crash of ‘_interpreters.run_string’ on string
     subclasses.

   - gh-129204(3): Introduce new ‘_PYTHON_SUBPROCESS_USE_POSIX_SPAWN’
     environment variable knob in *note subprocess: df. to control the
     use of *note os.posix_spawn(): 731.

   - gh-132159(4): Do not shadow user arguments in generated ‘__new__()’
     by decorator *note warnings.deprecated: 695.  Patch by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-132168(5): The *note ctypes.py_object: 486. type now supports
     subscription, making it a *note generic type: 1d1.

   - gh-84481(6): Add the ‘zipfile.ZipFile.data_offset’ attribute, which
     stores the offset to the beginning of ZIP data in a file when
     available.  When the *note zipfile.ZipFile: ab1. is opened in
     either mode ‘'w'’ or ‘'x'’ and the underlying file does not support
     ‘tell()’, the value will be ‘None’ instead.

   - gh-132075(7): Fix possible use of *note socket: d4. address
     structures with uninitialized members.  Now all structure members
     are initialized with zeroes by default.

   - gh-118761(8): Improve import times by up to 27x for the *note
     string: db. module.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-125434(9): Display thread name in *note faulthandler: 5b.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-132002(10): Fix crash when deallocating *note
     contextvars.ContextVar: 1a9d. with weird unahashable string names.

   - gh-131938(11): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: update the error
     message when an element to remove via *note Element.remove: 1981.
     is not found.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-115942(12): Add *note threading.RLock.locked(): 1a32, *note
     multiprocessing.Lock.locked(): 1a9e, *note
     multiprocessing.RLock.locked(): 1a9f, and allow *note
     multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Lock(): 173b. and *note
     multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.RLock(): 173c. to proxy
     ‘locked()’ call.

   - gh-131974(13): Fix several thread-safety issues in *note ctypes:
     2d. on the *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-118761(14): Improve the import time of the *note ast: 9. module
     by extracting the *note unparse(): cb6. function to a helper
     module.

   - gh-107369(15): Improved performance of *note textwrap.indent():
     77d. by an average of ~1.3x.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-131792(16): Improved performance of *note textwrap.dedent():
     55f. by an average of ~2.4x, (with improvements of up to 4x for
     large inputs), and fixed a bug where blank lines with whitespace
     characters other than space or horizontal tab were not normalised
     to the newline.  Patch by Adam Turner, Marius Juston, and Pieter
     Eendebak.

   - gh-131668(17): *note socket: d4.: Fix code parsing AF_BLUETOOTH
     socket addresses.

   - gh-60115(18): Support frozen modules for *note linecache.getline():
     4cd.

   - gh-131492(19): Fix a resource leak when constructing a *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 849. with a filename fails, for example when passing
     an invalid ‘compresslevel’.

   - gh-131435(20): 10-20% performance improvement of *note
     random.randint(): 15d5.

   - gh-131461(21): Fix *note ResourceWarning: 74f. when constructing a
     *note gzip.GzipFile: 849. in write mode with a broken file object.

   - gh-125866(22): Deprecate the ‘nturl2path’ module.  Call *note
     urllib.request.url2pathname(): 539. and *note pathname2url(): 53b.
     instead.

   - gh-126367(23): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     539. raised *note OSError: 53c. when given a Windows URI containing
     a colon character not following a drive letter, such as before an
     NTFS alternate data stream.

   - gh-120144(24): Disable ‘CALL’ event in *note bdb: 10. in
     ‘monitoring’ backend when we don’t need any new events on the code
     object to get a better performance.

   - gh-131358(25): Register ‘cseuckr’ as an encoding alias for
     ‘euc_kr’.

   - gh-131325(26): Fix sendfile fallback implementation to drain data
     after writing to transport in *note asyncio: b.

   - gh-90548(27): *note platform.libc_ver(): 1a01. can now detect and
     report the version of ‘musl’ on Alpine Linux.

   - gh-129843(28): Fix incorrect argument passing in *note
     warnings.warn_explicit(): 2ab.

   - gh-70647(29): When creating a *note datetime: 33. object with an
     out of range date a more informative error is raised.

   - gh-130914(30): Allow *note graphlib.TopologicalSorter.prepare():
     4ad. to be called more than once as long as sorting has not
     started.  Patch by Daniel Pope.

   - gh-131236(31): Allow to generate multiple UUIDs at once via *note
     python -m uuid -count: 543.

   - gh-126895(32): Fix *note readline: c2. in *note free-threaded: 487.
     build.

   - gh-121468(33): ‘$_asynctask’ is added as a *note pdb: aa.
     convenience variable to access the current asyncio task if
     applicable.

   - gh-118761(34): Improve import time of *note locale: 89. using lazy
     import ‘re’.  Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-129598(35): Fix *note ast.unparse(): cb6. when *note
     ast.Interactive: 1aa0. contains multiple statements.

   - gh-85162(36): The *note http.server: 75. module now includes
     built-in support for HTTPS servers exposed by *note
     http.server.HTTPSServer: 4b6.  This functionality is exposed by the
     command-line interface (‘python -m http.server’) through the
     ‘--tls-cert’, ‘--tls-key’ and ‘--tls-password-file’ options.  Patch
     by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-129463(37): The implementations of equality and hashing for
     *note annotationlib.ForwardRef: 1967. now use all attributes on the
     object.  Two ‘ForwardRef’ objects are equal only if all attributes
     are equal.

   - gh-128593(38): *note annotationlib.ForwardRef: 1967. objects no
     longer cache their value when they are successfully evaluated.
     Successive calls to *note annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate(): 150.
     may return different values.

   - gh-117779(39): Fix reading duplicated entries in *note zipfile:
     13a. by name.  Reading duplicated entries (except the last one) by
     ‘ZipInfo’ now emits a warning instead of raising an exception.

   - gh-128715(40): The class of *note Structure: 47c./*note Union: 47d.
     field descriptors is now available as *note CField: 47e, and has
     new attributes to aid debugging and introspection.

   - gh-128055(41): Fix ‘test.test_sysconfig.test_sysconfigdata_json’
     when running outside the build directory (eg.  after installing).

   - gh-126037(42): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: Fix a crash in
     *note Element.find: 1aa1, *note Element.findtext: 190a. and *note
     Element.findall: 1aa2. when the tag to find implements an *note
     __eq__(): ec0. method mutating the element being queried.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-127794(43): When headers are added to *note
     email.message.Message: 780. objects, either through *note
     email.message.Message.__setitem__(): 1aa3. or *note
     email.message.Message.add_header(): 1aa4, the field name is now
     validated according to RFC 5322, Section 2.2(44) and a *note
     ValueError: 277. is raised if the field name contains any invalid
     characters.

   - gh-123599(45): Deprecate ‘pathlib.PurePath.as_uri()’; use *note
     pathlib.Path.as_uri(): 587. instead.

   - gh-126033(46): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: Fix a crash in
     *note Element.remove: 1981. when the element is concurrently
     mutated.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-120144(47): Add the optional backend of ‘sys.monitoring’ to
     *note bdb: 10. and use it for *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-74598(48): Add *note fnmatch.filterfalse(): 4a1. for excluding
     names matching a pattern.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-114917(49): Add support for AI_NUMERICSERV in getaddrinfo
     emulation

   - bpo-17254(50): Added aliases for Thai Language using Microsoft Code
     Pages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132174

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132171

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129204

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132159

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132168

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84481

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132075

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125434

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132002

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131938

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115942

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131974

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107369

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131792

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131668

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60115

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131492

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131435

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131461

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125866

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126367

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120144

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131358

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131325

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90548

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129843

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130914

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131236

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126895

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121468

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129598

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85162

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129463

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128593

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117779

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128715

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128055

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126037

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127794

   (44) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html#section-2.2

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123599

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126033

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120144

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74598

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114917

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17254


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<9>,  Next: Core and Builtins<32>,  Prev: Library<33>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7

1.26.12.7 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-131417(1): Mention *note asyncio.Future: f8b. and *note
     asyncio.Task: 460. in generic classes list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131417


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<32>,  Next: Library<34>,  Prev: Documentation<9>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7

1.26.12.8 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-131798(1): Allow the JIT to remove an extra ‘_TO_BOOL_BOOL’
     instruction after ‘_CONTAINS_OP_SET’ by setting the return type to
     bool.

   - gh-132011(2): Fix crash when calling *note list.append(): aba. as
     an unbound method.

   - gh-131998(3): Fix a crash when using an unbound method *note
     descriptor: 21f. object in a function where a bound method
     descriptor was used.

   - gh-131591(4): Implement PEP 768(5) (Safe external debugger
     interface for CPython).  Add a new *note sys.remote_exec(): 418.
     function to the *note sys: e2. module.  This function schedules the
     execution of a Python file in a separate process.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo, Matt Wozniski and Ivona Stojanovic.

   - gh-131798(6): Allow JIT to omit str guard in truthiness test when
     str type is known.

   - gh-131833(7): Add support for optionally dropping grouping
     parentheses when using multiple exception types as per PEP 758(8).
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-130924(9): Usage of a name in a function-scope annotation no
     longer triggers creation of a cell for that variable.  This fixes a
     regression in earlier alphas of Python 3.14.

   - gh-131800(10): Improve the experimental JIT’s ability to remove
     type checks for certain subscripting operations.

   - gh-131738(11): Compiler emits optimized code for builtin
     any/all/tuple calls over a generator expression.

   - gh-131719(12): Fix missing NULL check in ‘_PyMem_FreeDelayed’ in
     *note free-threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-131670(13): Fix *note anext(): bb3. failing on sync *note
     __anext__(): 1aa7. raising an exception.

   - gh-131666(14): Fix signature of ‘anext_awaitable.close’ objects.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-130415(15): Optimize comparison of two constants in JIT builds

   - gh-129149(16): Add fast path for small and medium-size integers in
     *note PyLong_FromInt32(): 5d0, *note PyLong_FromUInt32(): 5d2,
     *note PyLong_FromInt64(): 5d1. and *note PyLong_FromUInt64(): 5d3.
     Patch by Chris Eibl.

   - gh-130887(17): Optimize the AArch64 code generation for the JIT.
     Patch by Diego Russo

   - gh-130956(18): Optimize the AArch64 code generation for the JIT.
     Patch by Diego Russo

   - gh-130928(19): Fix error message when formatting bytes using the
     ‘'i'’ flag.  Patch by Maxim Ageev.

   - gh-130935(20): Annotations at the class and module level that are
     conditionally defined are now only reflected in ‘__annotations__’
     if the block they are in is executed.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-130775(21): Do not crash on negative ‘column’ and ‘end_column’
     in *note ast: 9. locations.

   - gh-130704(22): Optimize ‘LOAD_FAST’ and its superinstruction form
     to reduce reference counting overhead.  These instructions are
     replaced with faster variants that load borrowed references onto
     the operand stack when we can prove that the reference in the frame
     outlives the reference loaded onto the stack.

   - gh-88887(23): Fixing multiprocessing Resource Tracker process
     leaking, usually observed when running Python as PID 1.

   - gh-130115(24): Fix an issue with thread identifiers being
     sign-extended on some platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132011

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131998

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131591

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131798

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131833

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0758/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130924

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131800

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131738

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131719

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131670

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131666

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130415

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129149

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130887

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130956

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130928

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130935

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130775

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130704

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88887

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130115


File: python.info,  Node: Library<34>,  Next: Core and Builtins<33>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<32>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7

1.26.12.9 Library
.................

   - gh-99108(1): Add support for built-in implementation of HMAC ( RFC
     2104(2)) based on HACL*.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<33>,  Next: C API<10>,  Prev: Library<34>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7

1.26.12.10 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-130080(1): Implement PEP 765: Disallow return/break/continue
     that exit a finally block.

   - gh-129900(2): Fix return codes inside *note SystemExit: 10f7. not
     getting returned by the REPL.

   - gh-128632(3): Disallow ‘__classdict__’ as the name of a type
     parameter.  Using this name would previously crash the interpreter
     in some circumstances.

   - gh-126703(4): Improve performance of builtin methods by using a
     freelist.

   - gh-126703(5): Improve performance of *note range: d0f. by using a
     freelist.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130080

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129900

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128632

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126703

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126703


File: python.info,  Node: C API<10>,  Next: Build<9>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<33>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7

1.26.12.11 C API
................

   - gh-131740(1): Update PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects to traverse perm
     gen.

   - gh-131525(2): The PyTupleObject now caches the computed hash value
     in the new field ob_hash.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131740

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131525


File: python.info,  Node: Build<9>,  Prev: C API<10>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7

1.26.12.12 Build
................

   - gh-131865(1): The DTrace build now properly passes the ‘CC’ and
     ‘CFLAGS’ variables to the ‘dtrace’ command when utilizing SystemTap
     on Linux.

   - gh-131675(2): Fix mimalloc library builds for 32-bit ARM targets.

   - gh-131691(3): clang-cl on Windows needs option ‘/EHa’ to support
     SEH (structured exception handling) correctly.  Fix by Chris Eibl.

   - gh-131278(4): Add optimizing flag ‘WITH_COMPUTED_GOTOS’ to Windows
     builds for when using a compiler that supports it (currently
     clang-cl).  Patch by Chris Eibl.

   - gh-130213(5): Update the vendored HACL* library to fix build issues
     with older clang compilers.

   - gh-130673(6): Fix potential ‘KeyError’ when handling object
     sections during JIT building process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131865

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131675

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131691

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131278

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130213

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130673


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 14 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.26.13 Python 3.14.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2025-03-14'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<6>.
* Windows: Windows<10>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<8>.
* Tests: Tests<12>.
* Security: Security<11>.
* Library: Library<35>.
* Documentation: Documentation<10>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<34>.
* Library: Library<36>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<35>.
* Library: Library<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<36>.
* C API: C API<11>.
* Build: Build<10>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<6>,  Next: Windows<10>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.1 macOS
...............

   - gh-128540(1): Ensure web browser is launched by *note
     webbrowser.open(): 1923. on macOS, even for ‘file://’ URLs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128540


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<10>,  Next: Tools/Demos<8>,  Prev: macOS<6>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.2 Windows
.................

   - gh-131020(1): pylauncher(2) correctly detects a BOM when searching
     for the shebang.  Fix by Chris Eibl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131020

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/PC/launcher2.c


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<8>,  Next: Tests<12>,  Prev: Windows<10>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.3 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-130453(1): Make it possible to override default keywords in
     ‘pygettext’.

   - gh-85012(2): Correctly reset ‘msgctxt’ when compiling messages in
     ‘msgfmt’.

   - gh-130453(3): Extend support for specifying custom keywords in
     ‘pygettext’.

   - gh-130195(4): Add warning messages when ‘pygettext’ unimplemented
     ‘-a/--extract-all’ option is called.

   - gh-130057(5): Add support for translator comments in
     ‘pygettext.py’.

   - gh-130025(6): The iOS testbed now correctly handles symlinks used
     as Python framework references.

   - gh-129911(7): Fix the keyword entry in the help output of
     ‘pygettext’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130453

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85012

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130453

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130195

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130057

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130025

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129911


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<12>,  Next: Security<11>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<8>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-129200(1): Multiple iOS testbed runners can now be started at
     the same time without introducing an ambiguity over simulator
     ownership.

   - gh-130292(2): The iOS testbed will now run successfully on a
     machine that has not previously run Xcode tests (such as CI
     configurations).

   - gh-130293(3): The tests of terminal colorization are no longer
     sensitive to the value of the ‘TERM’ variable in the testing
     environment.

   - gh-129401(4): Fix a flaky test in ‘test_repr_rlock’ that checks the
     representation of *note multiprocessing.RLock: 1a7d.

   - gh-126332(5): Add unit tests for pyrepl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129200

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130292

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130293

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129401

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126332


File: python.info,  Node: Security<11>,  Next: Library<35>,  Prev: Tests<12>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.5 Security
..................

   - gh-127371(1): Avoid unbounded buffering for
     ‘tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile.writelines()’.  Previously, disk
     spillover was only checked after the lines iterator had been
     exhausted.  This is now done after each line is written.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127371


File: python.info,  Node: Library<35>,  Next: Documentation<10>,  Prev: Security<11>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.6 Library
.................

   - gh-131204(1): Use monospace font from System Font Stack for
     cross-platform support in *note difflib.HtmlDiff: 214.

   - gh-131196(2): Improve performance of *note uuid.UUID.hex: 1ab3. and
     *note uuid.UUID.__str__: a0f.

   - gh-130940(3): The behavior of ‘PyConfig.use_system_logger’ was
     modified to be enabled by default on iOS. It remains disabled by
     default on macOS.

   - gh-131123(4): Supported completions for attributes of convenience
     variables in *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-93096(5): Removed undocumented CLI ‘python -m difflib’.  Use
     ‘python -m doctest Lib/difflib.py -v’ instead.  Patch by Semyon
     Moroz.

   - gh-93096(6): Removed undocumented ‘-t’ and ‘-v’ arguments of
     ‘python -m pickle’.  Use ‘python -m doctest Lib/pickle.py -v’
     instead.  Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-81267(7): Correct *note time.sleep(): a8c. error message when an
     object that cannot be interpreted as an integer or float is
     provided.

   - gh-93096(8): Removed undocumented ‘-t’ and ‘-v’ arguments of
     ‘python -m pickletools’.  Use ‘python -m doctest Lib/pickletools.py
     -v’ instead.  Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-131045(9): Fix issue with ‘__contains__’, values, and
     pseudo-members for *note enum.Flag: a14.

   - gh-130959(10): Fix pure-Python implementation of *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): a09. to reject times with spaces in
     fractional part (for example, ‘12:34:56.400 +02:00’), matching the
     C implementation.  Patch by Michał Gorny.

   - gh-130806(11): Deleting *note gzip.GzipFile: 849. before it is
     closed now emits a *note ResourceWarning: 74f.

   - gh-130637(12): Add validation for numeric response data in
     poplib.POP3.stat() method

   - gh-130665(13): Only apply locale to *note calendar CLI: 201. when
     set via ‘--locale’ and not via ‘LANG’ environment variable.

   - gh-130660(14): ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’ are now restored after *note
     code.interact(): 1ab4. call.

   - gh-130608(15): Remove 'dirs_exist_ok' argument from *note
     pathlib.Path.copy(): 4ef. and *note copy_into(): 4f0.  These
     methods are new in Python 3.14.

   - gh-130461(16): Remove ‘.. index::’ directives from the *note uuid:
     119. module documentation.  These directives previously created
     entries in the general index for *note getnode(): f66. as well as
     the *note uuid1(): f67, *note uuid3(): 561, *note uuid4(): 563,
     *note uuid5(): 562, and *note uuid8(): 540. constructor functions.

   - gh-130379(17): The zipapp module now calculates the list of files
     to be added to the archive before creating the archive.  This
     avoids accidentally including the target when it is being created
     in the source directory.

   - gh-82987(18): Inline breakpoints like *note breakpoint(): 4f9. or
     *note pdb.set_trace(): 4fa. will always stop the program at calling
     frame, ignoring the ‘skip’ pattern (if any).

   - gh-125377(19): ‘<tab>’ at the beginning of the line in *note pdb:
     aa. multi-line input will fill in a 4-space indentation now,
     instead of inserting a ‘\t’ character.

   - gh-125413(20): Ensure the path returned from *note
     pathlib.Path.copy(): 4ef. or *note move(): 4f1. has fresh *note
     info: 4f3.

   - gh-65697(21): stdlib configparser will now attempt to validate that
     keys it writes will not result in file corruption (creating a file
     unable to be accurately parsed by a future read() call from the
     same parser).  Attempting a corrupting write() will raise an
     InvalidWriteError.

   - gh-125413(22): Speed up *note Path.copy: 4ef. by making better use
     of *note info: 4f3. internally.

   - gh-130285(23): Fix corner case for *note random.sample(): b2b.
     allowing the 'counts' parameter to specify an empty population.  So
     now, ‘sample([], 0, counts=[])’ and ‘sample('abc', k=0, counts=[0,
     0, 0])’ both give the same result as ‘sample([], 0)’.

   - gh-124703(24): Executing ‘quit’ command in *note pdb: aa. will
     raise *note bdb.BdbQuit: 500. when ‘pdb’ is started from an
     interactive console using *note breakpoint(): 4f9. or *note
     pdb.set_trace(): 4fa.

   - gh-107773(25): Make *note datetime: 33. subclass *note __repr__():
     1bc. consistent both implementations.  Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-130250(26): Fix regression in ‘traceback.print_last()’.

   - gh-123471(27): Make concurrent iterations over *note
     itertools.batched: 715. safe under free-threading.

   - gh-57537(28): Support breakpoints for *note zipimport: 13b. modules
     on *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-130230(29): Fix crash in *note pow(): 441. with only *note
     Decimal: 1c2. third argument.

   - gh-126944(30): Show explicit errors when required arguments of
     *note pdb: aa. commands are missing

   - gh-127750(31): Improve repr of *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 21e. methods and descriptors.

   - gh-128520(32): Apply type conversion consistently in *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 8b6. and *note Path: 4ee. methods can accept a
     path object as an argument, such as *note match(): 8bc. and *note
     rename(): 1ab5.  The argument is now converted to path object if it
     lacks a *note with_segments(): 8b7. attribute, and not otherwise.

   - gh-118761(33): Reverts a change in the previous release attempting
     to make some stdlib imports used within the *note subprocess: df.
     module lazy as this was causing errors during ‘__del__’ finalizers
     calling methods such as ‘terminate’, or ‘kill’, or ‘send_signal’.

   - gh-130164(34): Fixed failure to raise *note TypeError: 291. in
     *note inspect.Signature.bind(): 1ab6. for positional-only arguments
     provided by keyword when a variadic keyword argument (e.g.
     ‘**kwargs’) is present.

   - gh-130151(35): Fix reference leaks in ‘_hashlib.hmac_new()’ and
     ‘_hashlib.hmac_digest()’.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-130145(36): Fix ‘asyncio.AbstractEventloop.run_forever()’ when
     another loop is already running.

   - gh-130139(37): Fix bug where *note ast.parse(): 1c9. did not error
     on AST input which is not of the correct type, when called with
     optimize=False.

   - gh-127260(38): Forbid the use of colon («:») as a fractional
     component separator and other improvements to the consistency of
     error raising between the C and Python implementations of *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): a09. and *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): a0a.  Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-85795(39): Using *note super(): 443. and ‘__class__’ *note
     closure variable: 1ab7. in user-defined methods of *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 2e4. subclasses is now explicitly prohibited at
     runtime.  Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki in gh-130082(40).

   - gh-118761(41): Improve import time of *note cmd: 1a. by lazy
     importing *note inspect: 81. and removing *note string: db.  Patch
     by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-129726(42): Fix *note gzip.GzipFile: 849. raising an unraisable
     exception during garbage collection when referring to a temporary
     object by breaking the reference loop with *note weakref: 11d.

   - gh-127750(43): Remove broken *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod(): 21e. caching introduced in
     gh-85160(44).  Achieve the same performance using different
     optimization.

   - gh-129948(45): Add support for shared *note set: 42b. to *note
     multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager: 1ab8. via *note
     SyncManager.set(): 4db.

   - gh-129965(46): Update MIME types for ‘.avi’ and ‘.wav’.  Add MIME
     types for ‘.docx’, ‘.pptx’, ‘.xlsx’, ‘.epub’, ‘.flac’, ‘.m4a’,
     ‘.odg’, ‘.odp’, ‘.ods’, ‘.odt’, ‘.oga’, ‘.ogg’, ‘.ogx’ and ‘.weba’.
     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-129889(47): Support context manager protocol by *note
     contextvars.Token: 479.  Patch by Andrew Svetlov.

   - gh-97850(48): Update the deprecation warning of
     ‘importlib.abc.Loader.load_module’.

   - gh-129678(49): *note configparser.ConfigParser: 6e4.: do not write
     an empty unnamed section

   - gh-128641(50): Restore *note configparser.ConfigParser.read():
     180a. performance.

   - gh-129569(51): Fix *note unicodedata.normalize(): ac2. to always
     return a built-in *note str: 1df. object when given an input of a
     ‘str’ subclass, regardless of whether the string is already
     normalized.

   - gh-128231(52): Execution of multiple statements in the new REPL now
     stops immediately upon the first exception encountered.  Patch by
     Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-96092(53): Fix bug in *note traceback.walk_stack(): 1232. called
     with None where it was skipping more frames than in prior versions.
     This bug fix also changes walk_stack to walk the stack in the frame
     where it was called rather than where it first gets used.

   - gh-129288(54): Add optional ‘l2_cid’ and ‘l2_bdaddr_type’ fields to
     *note socket: d4. ‘BTPROTO_L2CAP’ sockaddr tuple.

   - gh-128703(55): Fix *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 71b. to use
     default mapping for empty ‘Content-Type’ in registry.

   - gh-128647(56): Eagerly write to buffers passed to *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 849.’s *note readinto(): 1ab9. and *note
     readinto1(): 11cf. implementations, avoiding unnecessary
     allocations.  Patch by Chris Markiewicz.

   - gh-128184(57): Improve display of *note annotationlib.ForwardRef:
     1967. object within *note inspect.Signature: 6e8. representations.
     This also fixes a *note NameError: 665. that was raised when using
     *note dataclasses.dataclass(): 6e6. on classes with unresolvable
     forward references.

   - gh-128041(58): Add *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.terminate_workers(): 471.
     and *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.kill_workers():
     472. as ways to terminate or kill all living worker processes in
     the given pool.  (Contributed by Charles Machalow in
     gh-130849(59).)

   - gh-127647(60): Add protocols *note io.Reader: 4c4. and *note
     io.Writer: 4c5. as alternatives to *note typing.IO: 4c6, *note
     typing.TextIO: 4c7, and *note typing.BinaryIO: 4c8.

   - gh-109798(61): Added additional information into error messages in
     *note datetime: 33, and made the messages more consistent between
     the C and Python implementations.  Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-125746(62): Delay deprecated
     ‘zipimport.zipimporter.load_module()’ removal time to 3.15.  Use
     *note zipimport.zipimporter.exec_module(): 2e9. instead.

   - gh-74028(63): Add the optional ‘buffersize’ parameter to *note
     concurrent.futures.Executor.map(): 473. to limit the number of
     submitted tasks whose results have not yet been yielded.  If the
     buffer is full, iteration over the 'iterables' pauses until a
     result is yielded from the buffer.

   - gh-124927(64): Non-printing characters are now properly handled in
     the new REPL.

   - gh-124096(65): Turn on virtual terminal mode and enable bracketed
     paste in REPL on Windows console.  (If the terminal does not
     support bracketed paste, enabling it does nothing.)

   - gh-89083(66): Add *note uuid.uuid7(): 53f. for generating UUIDv7
     objects as specified in RFC 9562(67).  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-89083(68): Add *note uuid.uuid6(): 53e. for generating UUIDv6
     objects as specified in RFC 9562(69).  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-117151(70): Increase ‘io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE’ from 8k to 128k
     and adjust *note open(): 32b. on platforms where *note os.fstat():
     1145. provides a ‘st_blksize’ field (such as Linux) to use
     ‘max(min(blocksize, 8 MiB), io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)’ rather than
     always using the device block size.  This should improve I/O
     performance.  Patch by Romain Morotti.

   - gh-105499(71): Make *note types.UnionType: 527. an alias for *note
     typing.Union: 341.  Both ‘int | str’ and ‘Union[int, str]’ now
     create instances of the same type.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-93096(72): Document the command-line for *note mimetypes: 93.
     It now exits with ‘1’ on failure instead of ‘0’ and ‘2’ on
     incorrect command-line parameters instead of ‘1’.  Also, errors are
     printed to stderr instead of stdout and their text is made tighter.
     Patch by Oleg Iarygin and Hugo van Kemenade.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131204

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131196

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130940

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131123

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81267

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131045

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130959

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130806

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130637

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130665

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130660

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130608

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130461

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130379

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82987

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125377

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125413

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65697

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125413

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130285

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124703

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107773

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130250

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123471

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57537

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130230

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126944

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127750

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128520

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130164

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130151

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130145

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130139

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127260

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85795

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130082

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129726

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127750

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85160

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129948

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129965

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129889

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129678

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128641

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129569

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128231

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96092

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129288

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128703

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128647

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128184

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128041

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130849

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127647

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109798

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125746

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74028

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124927

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124096

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89083

   (67) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89083

   (69) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117151

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<10>,  Next: Core and Builtins<34>,  Prev: Library<35>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.7 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-125722(1): Require Sphinx 8.2.0 or later to build the Python
     documentation.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-129712(2): The wheel tags supported by each macOS universal SDK
     option are now documented.

   - gh-46236(3): C API: Document *note PyUnicode_RSplit(): 1abb, *note
     PyUnicode_Partition(): 1abc. and *note PyUnicode_RPartition():
     1abd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125722

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129712

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46236


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<34>,  Next: Library<36>,  Prev: Documentation<10>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.8 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-131141(1): Fix data race in *note sys.monitoring: e3.
     instrumentation while registering callback.

   - gh-130804(2): Fix support of unicode characters on Windows in the
     new REPL.

   - gh-130932(3): Fix incorrect exception handling in
     ‘_PyModule_IsPossiblyShadowing’

   - gh-122029(4): *note sys.setprofile(): 18a0. and *note
     sys.settrace(): 55c. will not generate a ‘c_call’ event for
     ‘INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ if the callable is a method with a
     C function wrapped, because we do not generate ‘c_return’ event in
     such case.

   - gh-129964(5): Fix JIT crash on Windows on Arm.  Patch by Diego
     Russo and Brandt Bucher.

   - gh-130851(6): Fix a crash in the *note free threading: 487. build
     when constructing a *note code: 1b. object with *note co_consts:
     1abf. that contains instances of types that are not otherwise
     generated by the bytecode compiler.

   - gh-128534(7): Ensure that both left and right branches have the
     same source for ‘async for’ loops.  Add these branches to the
     ‘co_branches()’ iterator.

   - gh-130794(8): Fix memory leak in the *note free threaded: 487.
     build when resizing a shared list or dictionary from multiple
     short-lived threads.

   - gh-130415(9): Improve JIT understanding of integers in boolean
     context.

   - gh-130382(10): Fix ‘PyRefTracer_DESTROY’ not being sent from
     ‘Python/ceval.c’ ‘Py_DECREF()’.

   - gh-130574(11): Renumber *note RESUME: 7b4. from 149 to 128.

   - gh-124878(12): Fix race conditions during runtime finalization that
     could lead to accessing freed memory.

   - gh-130415(13): Improve the experimental JIT’s ability to narrow
     boolean values based on the results of truthiness tests.

   - gh-130618(14): Fix a bug that was causing ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ or
     ‘SystemError’ to be raised when using f-strings with ‘lambda’
     expressions with non-ASCII characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-123044(15): Make sure that the location of branch targets in
     ‘match’ cases is in the body, not the pattern.

   - gh-128534(16): Add branch monitoring (‘BRANCH_LEFT’ and
     ‘BRANCH_RIGHT’ events) for ‘async for’ loops.

   - gh-130163(17): Fix possible crashes related to concurrent change
     and use of the *note sys: e2. module attributes.

   - gh-122029(18): ‘INSTRUMENTED_CALL_KW’ will expand the method before
     monitoring to reflect the actual behavior more accurately.

   - gh-130415(19): Improve JIT’s ability to optimize strings in boolean
     contexts.

   - gh-130396(20): Use actual stack limits (from
     ‘pthread_getattr_np(3)(21)’) for linux, and other systems with
     ‘_GNU_SOURCE’ defined, when determining limits for C stack
     protection.

   - gh-128396(22): Fix a crash that occurs when calling *note locals():
     28b. inside an inline comprehension that uses the same local
     variable as the outer frame scope where the variable is a free or
     cell var.

   - gh-129107(23): Fix two more *note bytearray: 1c6. functions for
     *note free threading: 487.

   - gh-127705(24): Use tagged references (‘_PyStackRef’) for the
     default build as well as for the free-threading build.  This has a
     small negative performance impact short-term but will enable larger
     speedups in the future and significantly reduce maintenance costs
     by allowing a single implementation of tagged references in the
     future.

   - gh-130094(25): Fix two race conditions involving concurrent imports
     that could lead to spurious failures with *note
     ModuleNotFoundError: 1be.

   - gh-129107(26): Make *note bytearray: 1c6. iterator safe under *note
     free threading: 487.

   - gh-115802(27): Use the more efficient «medium» code model for
     JIT-compiled code on supported platforms.

   - gh-107956(28): A ‘build-details.json’ file is now install in the
     platform-independent standard library directory ( PEP 739(29)
     implementation).

   - gh-116042(30): Fix location for SyntaxErrors of invalid escapes in
     the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-91079(31): Change C stack overflow protection to consider the
     amount of stack consumed, rather than a counter.  This allows
     deeper recursion in many cases, but remains safe.

   - gh-129715(32): Improve the experimental JIT’s handling of returns
     to unknown callers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131141

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130804

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130932

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122029

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129964

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130851

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128534

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130794

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130415

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130382

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130574

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124878

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130415

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130618

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123044

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128534

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130163

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122029

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130415

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130396

   (21) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_getattr_np(3)

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128396

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129107

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127705

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130094

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129107

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115802

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107956

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0739/

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116042

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91079

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129715


File: python.info,  Node: Library<36>,  Next: Core and Builtins<35>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<34>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.9 Library
.................

   - gh-129983(1): Fix data race in compile_template in ‘sre.c’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129983


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<35>,  Next: Library<37>,  Prev: Library<36>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.10 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-129967(1): Fix a race condition in the *note free threading:
     487. build when ‘repr(set)’ is called concurrently with
     ‘set.clear()’.

   - gh-129953(2): The internal (evaluation) stack is now spilled to
     memory whenever execution escapes from the interpreter or JIT
     compiled code.  This should have no observable effect in either
     Python or builtin extensions, but will allow various important
     optimizations in the future.

   - gh-129515(3): Clarify syntax error messages for conditional
     expressions when a statement is specified before an *note if: 322.
     or after an *note else: 320. keyword.

   - gh-129349(4): *note bytes.fromhex(): 434. and *note
     bytearray.fromhex(): 435. now accepts ASCII *note bytes: 1c7. and
     *note bytes-like objects: 436.

   - gh-129149(5): Add fast path for medium-size integers in *note
     PyLong_FromSsize_t(): 1ac2.  Patch by Chris Eibl.

   - gh-129107(6): Make the *note bytearray: 1c6. safe under *note free
     threading: 487.

   - gh-128974(7): Fix a crash in *note UnicodeError.__str__: a0f. when
     custom attributes implement ‘__str__()’ with side-effects.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-126085(8): *note typing.TypeAliasType: 52a. now supports star
     unpacking.

   - gh-125331(9): ‘from __future__ import barry_as_FLUFL’ now works in
     more contexts, including when it is used in files, with the ‘-c’
     flag, and in the REPL when there are multiple statements on the
     same line.  Previously, it worked only on subsequent lines in the
     REPL, and when the appropriate flags were passed directly to *note
     compile(): 1c8.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-121464(10): Make concurrent iterations over the same *note
     enumerate(): 1823. iterator safe under free-threading.  See
     Strategy for Iterators in Free Threading(11).

   - gh-87790(12): Support underscore and comma as thousands separators
     in the fractional part for floating-point presentation types of the
     new-style string formatting (with *note format(): 439. or *note
     f-strings: 43a.).  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-124445(13): Fix specialization of generic aliases that are
     generic over a *note typing.ParamSpec: 295. and have been
     specialized with a nested type variable.

   - gh-120608(14): Adapt *note reversed(): c3c. for use in the
     free-threading build.  The ‘reversed()’ is still not thread-safe in
     the sense that concurrent iterations may see the same object, but
     they will not corrupt the interpreter state.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129967

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129515

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129349

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129149

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129107

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128974

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126085

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125331

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121464

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124397

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87790

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124445

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120608


File: python.info,  Node: Library<37>,  Next: Core and Builtins<36>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<35>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.11 Library
..................

   - gh-100388(1): Fix the ‘platform._sys_version()’ method when
     ‘__DATE__’ is undefined at buildtime by changing default buildtime
     datetime string to the UNIX epoch.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100388


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<36>,  Next: C API<11>,  Prev: Library<37>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.12 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-44369(1): Improve syntax errors for incorrectly closed strings.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44369


File: python.info,  Node: C API<11>,  Next: Build<10>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<36>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.13 C API
................

   - gh-111178(1): Fix *note PyCMethod: b46. API: replace ‘size_t nargs’
     with ‘Py_ssize_t nargs’ in ‘PyCMethod’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-130947(2): Add again *note PySequence_Fast(): 1ac6. to the
     limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-128863(3): The following private functions are deprecated and
     planned for removal in Python 3.18:

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Init()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer)’ with *note writer =
          PyUnicodeWriter_Create(0): 5e1.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(writer): 5e4.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_Discard(writer): 5e3.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(&writer, ch)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(writer, ch): 5e7.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(&writer, str)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, str): 5e9.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(&writer, str, start, end)’
          with *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(writer, str, start,
          end): 5ea.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(&writer, str)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(writer, str): 5ec.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(&writer, str)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(writer, str): 5ec.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare()’: (no replacement).

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind()’: (no replacement).

     The pythoncapi-compat project(4) can be used to get these new
     public functions on Python 3.13 and older.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-45325(5): Add a new ‘p’ format parameter to *note
     Py_BuildValue(): 5ee. that allows to take a C integer and produce a
     Python *note bool: 5ef. object.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111178

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130947

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128863

   (4) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/45325


File: python.info,  Node: Build<10>,  Prev: C API<11>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6

1.26.13.14 Build
................

   - gh-131035(1): Use ‘-flto=thin’ for faster build times using
     clang-cl on Windows.  Patch by Chris Eibl.

   - gh-130740(2): Ensure that ‘Python.h’ is included before ‘stdbool.h’
     unless ‘pyconfig.h’ is included before or in some platform-specific
     contexts.

   - gh-130090(3): Building with ‘PlatformToolset=ClangCL’ on Windows
     now supports PGO (profile guided optimization).  Patch by Chris
     Eibl with invaluable support from Steve Dover.

   - gh-129819(4): Allow building the JIT with the tailcall interpreter.

   - gh-129989(5): Fix a bug where the tailcall interpreter was enabled
     when ‘--without-tail-call-interp’ was provided to the configure
     script.

   - gh-129838(6): Don’t redefine ‘_Py_NO_SANITIZE_UNDEFINED’ when
     compiling with a recent GCC version and undefined sanitizer
     enabled.

   - gh-82909(7): ‘#pragma’-based linking with ‘python3*.lib’ can now be
     switched off with *note Py_NO_LINK_LIB: 657.  Patch by
     Jean-Christophe Fillion-Robin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131035

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130740

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130090

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129819

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129989

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129838

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82909


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 14 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.26.14 Python 3.14.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2025-02-11'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<7>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<9>.
* Tests: Tests<13>.
* Security: Security<12>.
* Library: Library<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<7>.
* Documentation: Documentation<11>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<37>.
* Library: Library<39>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<38>.
* Library: Library<40>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<39>.
* Library: Library<41>.
* C API: C API<12>.
* Build: Build<11>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<7>,  Next: Tools/Demos<9>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.1 macOS
...............

   - gh-91132(1): Update macOS installer to use ncurses 6.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91132


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<9>,  Next: Tests<13>,  Prev: macOS<7>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.2 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-129248(1): The iOS test runner now strips the log prefix from
     each line output by the test suite.

   - gh-104400(2): Fix several bugs in extraction by switching to an AST
     parser in ‘pygettext’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129248

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104400


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<13>,  Next: Security<12>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<9>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.3 Tests
...............

   - gh-129386(1): Add ‘test.support.reset_code’, which can be used to
     reset various bytecode-level optimizations and local
     instrumentation for a function.

   - gh-128474(2): Disable ‘test_embed’ test cases that segfault on BOLT
     instrument binaries.  The tests are only disabled when BOLT is
     enabled.

   - gh-128003(3): Add an option ‘--parallel-threads=N’ to the
     regression test runner that runs individual tests in multiple
     threads in parallel in order to find concurrency bugs.  Note that
     most of the test suite is not yet reviewed for thread-safety or
     annotated with ‘@thread_unsafe’ when necessary.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129386

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128474

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128003


File: python.info,  Node: Security<12>,  Next: Library<38>,  Prev: Tests<13>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.4 Security
..................

   - gh-105704(1): When using *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): 2a3. and
     *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 2a4. host parsing would not reject
     domain names containing square brackets (‘[’ and ‘]’).  Square
     brackets are only valid for IPv6 and IPvFuture hosts according to
     RFC 3986 Section 3.2.2(2).

   - gh-126108(3): Fix a possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in
     ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’.

   - gh-80222(4): Fix bug in the folding of quoted strings when
     flattening an email message using a modern email policy.
     Previously when a quoted string was folded so that it spanned more
     than one line, the surrounding quotes and internal escapes would be
     omitted.  This could theoretically be used to spoof header lines
     using a carefully constructed quoted string if the resulting
     rendered email was transmitted or re-parsed.

   - gh-119511(5): Fix a potential denial of service in the *note
     imaplib: 77. module.  When connecting to a malicious server, it
     could cause an arbitrary amount of memory to be allocated.  On many
     systems this is harmless as unused virtual memory is only a
     mapping, but if this hit a virtual address size limit it could lead
     to a *note MemoryError: 18fa. or other process crash.  On unusual
     systems or builds where all allocated memory is touched and backed
     by actual ram or storage it could’ve consumed resources doing so
     until similarly crashing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105704

   (2) https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc3986#section-3.2.2

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126108

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80222

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119511


File: python.info,  Node: Library<38>,  Next: IDLE<7>,  Prev: Security<12>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.5 Library
.................

   - gh-129939(1): Comparison pages with highlighted changes generated
     by the *note difflib.HtmlDiff: 214. class now support dark mode.

   - gh-129928(2): Raise *note sqlite3.ProgrammingError: 57d. if a
     user-defined SQL function with invalid number of parameters is
     created.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-129583(3): Update bundled pip to 25.0.1

   - gh-129766(4): Fix crash in *note warnings: 11b, when calling
     ‘_release_lock()’ with no existing lock.

   - gh-129005(5): ‘_pyio.FileIO.readall()’ now allocates, resizes, and
     fills a data buffer using the same algorithm ‘_io.FileIO.readall()’
     uses.

   - gh-129646(6): Update the locale alias mapping in the *note locale:
     89. module to match the latest X Org locale alias mapping and
     support new locales in Glibc 2.41.

   - gh-128317(7): Put CLI calendar highlighting in private class,
     removing ‘highlight_day’ from public *note calendar.TextCalendar:
     1a3e. API. Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-129603(8): Fix bugs where *note sqlite3.Row: 1222. objects could
     segfault if their inherited *note description: 1ace. was set to
     ‘None’.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-129559(9): Add *note bytearray.resize(): 1928. method so *note
     bytearray: 1c6. can be efficiently resized in place.

   - gh-129502(10): Unlikely errors in preparing arguments for *note
     ctypes: 2d. callback are now handled in the same way as errors
     raised in the callback of in converting the result of the callback
     – using *note sys.unraisablehook(): 70c. instead of *note
     sys.excepthook(): be5. and not setting *note sys.last_exc: 8ce. and
     other variables.

   - gh-129403(11): Corrected *note ValueError: 277. message for *note
     asyncio.Barrier: 9f7. and *note threading.Barrier: 158c.

   - gh-129409(12): Fix an integer overflow in the *note csv: 2c. module
     when writing a data field larger than 2GB.

   - gh-126400(13): Add a socket 'timeout' keyword argument to *note
     logging.handlers.SysLogHandler: a4c.

   - gh-118761(14): Always lazy import ‘warnings’ in *note threading:
     f6.  Patch by Taneli Hukkinen.

   - gh-118761(15): Improve import time of *note subprocess: df. by lazy
     importing ‘locale’ and ‘signal’.  Patch by Taneli Hukkinen.

   - gh-129346(16): In *note sqlite3: d7, handle out-of-memory when
     creating user-defined SQL functions.

   - gh-129005(17): Optimize ‘_pyio.FileIO.readinto’ by avoiding
     unnecessary objects and copies using *note os.readinto(): 4eb.

   - gh-129195(18): Support reporting call graph information from
     ‘asyncio.staggered.staggered_race()’.

   - gh-129205(19): Add *note os.readinto(): 4eb. to read into a *note
     buffer object: 311. from a file descriptor.

   - gh-128772(20): Fix *note pydoc: bd. for methods with the
     ‘__module__’ attribute equal to ‘None’.

   - gh-129061(21): Fix FORCE_COLOR and NO_COLOR when empty strings.
     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-92897(22): Scheduled the deprecation of the ‘check_home’
     argument of *note sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2dd. to Python 3.15.

   - gh-129064(23): Deprecate ‘sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars()’, in
     favor of using *note sysconfig.get_paths(): 156. with the ‘vars’
     argument.

   - gh-128550(24): Removed an incorrect optimization relating to eager
     tasks in *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 6d7. that resulted in
     cancellations being missed.

   - gh-128991(25): Release the enter frame reference within *note bdb:
     10. callback

   - gh-118761(26): Reduce import time of *note pstats: b8. and *note
     zipfile: 13a. by up to 20%, by removing unnecessary imports to
     *note typing: 10d.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-128978(27): Fix a *note NameError: 665. in
     ‘sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars()’.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-128961(28): Fix a crash when setting state on an exhausted *note
     array.array: 6c5. iterator.

   - gh-128894(29): Fix
     ‘traceback.TracebackException._format_syntax_error’ not to fail on
     exceptions with custom metadata.

   - gh-128916(30): Do not attempt to set ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ on sockets of
     address families other than ‘AF_INET’ and ‘AF_INET6’, as it is
     meaningless with these address families, and the call with fail
     with Linux kernel 6.12.9 and newer.

   - gh-118761(31): Improve import time of *note tomllib: 105. by
     removing ‘typing’, ‘string’, and ‘tomllib._types’ imports.  Patch
     by Taneli Hukkinen.

   - gh-128679(32): *note tracemalloc: 108.: Fix race conditions when
     *note tracemalloc.stop(): 1acf. is called by a thread, while other
     threads are tracing memory allocations.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-128891(33): Add specialized opcodes to ‘opcode.opname’.

   - gh-118761(34): Reduce import time of *note gettext: 66. by up to
     ten times, by importing *note re: c1. on demand.  In particular,
     ‘re’ is no longer implicitly exposed as ‘gettext.re’.  Patch by Eli
     Schwartz.

   - gh-118761(35): Reduce the import time of *note optparse: a4. when
     no help text is printed.  Patch by Eli Schwartz.

   - gh-128657(36): Fix possible extra reference when using objects
     returned by *note hashlib.sha256(): 2f3. under *note free
     threading: 487.

   - gh-118761(37): Reduce the import time of *note csv: 2c. by up to
     five times, by importing *note re: c1. on demand.  In particular,
     ‘re’ is no more implicitly exposed as ‘csv.re’.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-128308(38): Support the 'name' keyword argument for eager tasks
     in *note asyncio.loop.create_task(): 463, *note
     asyncio.create_task(): 462. and *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 464, by passing on all 'kwargs' to
     the task factory set by *note asyncio.loop.set_task_factory(): 461.

   - gh-118761(39): Improve the performance of *note base64.b16decode():
     1f1. by up to ten times by more efficiently checking the
     byte-string for hexadecimal digits.  Reduce the import time of
     *note base64: f. by up to six times, by no longer importing *note
     re: c1.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran, Chris Markiewicz, and Adam Turner.

   - gh-128156(40): When using macOS system ‘libffi’, support for
     complex types in *note ctypes: 2d. is now checked at runtime (macOS
     10.15 or newer).  The types must also be available at build time.

   - gh-128636(41): Fix PyREPL failure when *note os.environ: 4e5. is
     overwritten with an invalid value.

   - gh-128498(42): Default to stdout isatty for color detection instead
     of stderr.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-128384(43): Add locking to *note warnings: 11b. to avoid some
     data races when free-threading is used.  Change
     ‘_warnings_runtime_state.mutex’ to be a recursive mutex and expose
     it to ‘warnings’, via the ‘_acquire_lock()’ and ‘_release_lock()’
     functions.  The lock is held when ‘filters’ and ‘_filters_version’
     are updated.

   - gh-128509(44): Add *note sys._is_immortal(): 517. for identifying
     *note immortal: 398. objects at runtime.

   - gh-128479(45): Fix ‘asyncio.staggered.staggered_race()’ leaking
     tasks and issuing an unhandled exception.

   - gh-128427(46): *note uuid.NIL: 541. and *note uuid.MAX: 542. are
     now available to represent the Nil and Max UUID formats as defined
     by RFC 9562(47).

   - gh-91279(48): *note zipfile.ZipFile.writestr(): 548. now respect
     ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ that distributions can set centrally and have
     build tools consume this in order to produce reproducible output.

   - gh-112064(49): Fix incorrect handling of negative read sizes in
     *note HTTPResponse.read: 1ad0.  Patch by Yury Manushkin.

   - gh-58956(50): Fixed a frame reference leak in *note bdb: 10.

   - gh-128131(51): Completely support random access of uncompressed
     unencrypted read-only zip files obtained by *note ZipFile.open:
     84a.

   - gh-127975(52): Avoid reusing quote types in *note ast.unparse():
     cb6. if not needed.

   - gh-115514(53): Fix exceptions and incomplete writes after
     ‘asyncio._SelectorTransport’ is closed before writes are completed.

   - gh-121604(54): Add missing Deprecation warnings for *note
     importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 1ad1, *note
     importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 1ad2, *note
     importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder: 10e2, *note
     importlib.abc.ResourceLoader: fa7, *note
     importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime(): 1532.

   - gh-127873(55): When ‘-E’ is set, only ignore ‘PYTHON_COLORS’ and
     not ‘FORCE_COLOR’/‘NO_COLOR’/‘TERM’ when colourising output.  Patch
     by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-125413(56): Add *note pathlib.Path.info: 4f3. attribute, which
     stores an object implementing the *note pathlib.types.PathInfo:
     4f4. protocol (also new).  The object supports querying the file
     type and internally caching *note stat(): 4f5. results.  Path
     objects generated by *note iterdir(): 4f6. are initialized with
     file type information gleaned from scanning the parent directory.

   - gh-127712(57): Fix handling of the ‘secure’ argument of *note
     logging.handlers.SMTPHandler: 1ad3.

   - gh-127096(58): Do not recreate unnamed section on every read in
     *note configparser.ConfigParser: 6e4.  Patch by Andrey Efremov.

   - gh-124369(59): Deprecate ‘pdb.Pdb.curframe_locals’

   - gh-126332(60): Fix _pyrepl crash when entering a double CTRL-Z on
     an overflowing line.

   - gh-125553(61): Fix round-trip invariance for backslash
     continuations in *note tokenize.untokenize(): 1ad4.

   - gh-91048(62): Add *note asyncio.capture_call_graph(): 465. and
     *note asyncio.print_call_graph(): 466. functions.

   - gh-124703(63): Quitting *note pdb: aa. in ‘inline’ mode will emit a
     confirmation prompt and exit gracefully now, instead of printing an
     exception traceback.

   - gh-123987(64): Fixed issue in NamespaceReader where a non-path item
     in a namespace path, such as a sentinel added by an editable
     installer, would break resource loading.

   - gh-119349(65): Add the *note ctypes.util.dllist(): 483. function to
     list the loaded shared libraries for the current process.

   - gh-55454(66): Add IMAP4 ‘IDLE’ support to the *note imaplib: 77.
     module.  Patch by Forest.

   - gh-119257(67): Show tab completions menu below the current line,
     which results in less janky behaviour, and fixes a cursor movement
     bug.  Patch by Daniel Hollas

   - gh-101410(68): Support custom messages for domain errors in the
     *note math: 91. module (*note math.sqrt(): dc8, *note math.log():
     1862. and *note math.atanh(): 177a. were modified as examples).
     Patch by Charlie Zhao and Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-81340(69): Use *note os.copy_file_range(): 1ad5. in *note
     shutil.copy(): e1e, *note shutil.copy2(): e1f, and *note
     shutil.copyfile(): e1d. functions by default.  An underlying Linux
     system call gives filesystems an opportunity to implement the use
     of copy-on-write (in case of btrfs and XFS) or server-side copy (in
     the case of NFS.) Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-27307(70): Add attribute and item access support to *note
     string.Formatter: 126b. in auto-numbering mode, which allows format
     strings like “{.name}” and “{[1]}”.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129939

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129928

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129583

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129766

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129005

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129646

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128317

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129603

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129559

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129502

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129403

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129409

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126400

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129346

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129005

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129195

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129205

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128772

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129061

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92897

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129064

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128550

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128991

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128978

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128961

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128894

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128916

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128679

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128891

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128657

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128308

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128156

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128636

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128498

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128384

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128509

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128479

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128427

   (47) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91279

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112064

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58956

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128131

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127975

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115514

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121604

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127873

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125413

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127712

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127096

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124369

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126332

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125553

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91048

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124703

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123987

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119349

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/55454

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119257

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101410

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81340

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27307


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<7>,  Next: Documentation<11>,  Prev: Library<38>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.6 IDLE
..............

   - gh-129873(1): Simplify displaying the IDLE doc by only copying the
     text section of idle.html to idlelib/help.html.  Patch by Stan
     Ulbrych.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129873


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<11>,  Next: Core and Builtins<37>,  Prev: IDLE<7>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.7 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-125722(1): Require Sphinx 8.1.3 or later to build the Python
     documentation.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-67206(2): Document that *note string.printable: 1ad8. is not
     printable in the POSIX sense.  In particular, *note
     string.printable.isprintable(): 1191. returns *note False: ef5.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125722

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67206


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<37>,  Next: Library<39>,  Prev: Documentation<11>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.8 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-100239(1): Replace the opcode BINARY_SUBSCR and its family by
     BINARY_OP with oparg NB_SUBSCR.

   - gh-129732(2): Fixed a race in ‘_Py_qsbr_reserve’ in the free
     threading build.

   - gh-129763(3): Remove the internal ‘LLTRACE’ macro (use *note
     Py_DEBUG: 19eb. instead).

   - gh-129715(4): Improve JIT performance for generators.

   - gh-129643(5): Fix thread safety of *note PyList_Insert(): 1ada. in
     free-threading builds.

   - gh-129668(6): Fix race condition when raising *note MemoryError:
     18fa. in the free threaded build.

   - gh-129643(7): Fix thread safety of *note PyList_SetItem(): 1adb. in
     free-threading builds.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-128563(8): Fix an issue where the «lltrace» debug feature could
     have been incorrectly enabled for some frames.

   - gh-129393(9): On FreeBSD, *note sys.platform: 518. doesn’t contain
     the major version anymore.  It is always ‘'freebsd'’, instead of
     ‘'freebsd13'’ or ‘'freebsd14'’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129732

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129763

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129715

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129643

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129668

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129643

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128563

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129393


File: python.info,  Node: Library<39>,  Next: Core and Builtins<38>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<37>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.9 Library
.................

   - gh-129345(1): Fix null pointer dereference in *note
     syslog.openlog(): 94b. when an audit hook raises an exception.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129345


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<38>,  Next: Library<40>,  Prev: Library<39>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.10 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-129231(1): Improve memory layout of JIT traces.  Patch by Diego
     Russo

   - gh-129149(2): Add fast path for medium-size integers in *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(): 1ade, *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(): 1adf. and *note PyLong_FromSize_t():
     1ae0.

   - gh-129201(3): The free-threaded version of the cyclic garbage
     collector has been optimized to conditionally use CPU prefetch
     instructions during the collection.  This can reduce collection
     times by making it more likely that data is in the CPU cache when
     it is needed.  The prefetch instructions are enabled if the number
     of long-lived objects (objects surviving a full collection) exceeds
     a threshold.

   - gh-129093(4): Fix f-strings such as ‘f'{expr=}'’ sometimes not
     displaying the full expression when the expression contains ‘!=’.

   - gh-124363(5): Treat debug expressions in f-string as raw strings.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-128714(6): Fix the potential races in get/set dunder methods
     ‘__annotations__’, ‘__annotate__’ and ‘__type_params__’ for
     function object, and add related tests.

   - gh-128799(7): Add frame of ‘except*’ to traceback when it wraps a
     naked exception.

   - gh-128842(8): Collect JIT memory stats using pystats.  Patch by
     Diego Russo.

   - gh-100239(9): Specialize ‘BINARY_OP’ for bitwise logical operations
     on compact ints.

   - gh-128910(10): Undocumented and unused private C-API functions
     ‘_PyTrash_begin’ and ‘_PyTrash_end’ are removed.

   - gh-128807(11): Add a marking phase to the free-threaded GC. This is
     similar to what was done in gh-126491(12).  Since the free-threaded
     GC does not have generations and is not incremental, the marking
     phase looks for all objects reachable from known roots.  The roots
     are objects known to not be garbage, like the module dictionary for
     *note sys: e2.  For most programs, this marking phase should make
     the GC a bit faster since typically less work is done per object.

   - gh-100239(13): Add opcode ‘BINARY_OP_EXTEND’ which executes a pair
     of functions (guard and specialization functions) accessed from the
     inline cache.

   - gh-128563(14): A new type of interpreter has been added to CPython.
     This interpreter uses tail calls for its instruction handlers.
     Preliminary benchmark results suggest 7-11% geometric mean faster
     on pyperformance (depending on platform), and up to 30% faster on
     Python-intensive workloads.  This interpreter currently only works
     on newer compilers, such as ‘clang-19’.  Other compilers will
     continue using the old interpreter.  Patch by Ken Jin, with ideas
     on how to implement this in CPython by Mark Shannon, Garret Gu,
     Haoran Xu, and Josh Haberman.

   - gh-126703(15): Improve performance of iterating over lists and
     tuples by using a freelist for the iterator objects.

   - gh-127953(16): The time to handle a ‘LINE’ event in sys.monitoring
     (and sys.settrace) is now independent of the number of lines in the
     code object.

   - gh-128330(17): Restore terminal control characters on REPL exit.

   - gh-128016(18): Improved the ‘SyntaxWarning’ message for invalid
     escape sequences to clarify that such sequences will raise a
     ‘SyntaxError’ in future Python releases.  The new message also
     suggests a potential fix, i.e., ‘Did you mean "\\e"?’.

   - gh-126004(19): Fix handling of *note UnicodeError.start: 1ae1. and
     *note UnicodeError.end: 1ae2. values in the *note
     codecs.replace_errors(): 1ae3. error handler.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-126004(20): Fix handling of *note UnicodeError.start: 1ae1. and
     *note UnicodeError.end: 1ae2. values in the *note
     codecs.backslashreplace_errors(): 1ae4. error handler.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-126004(21): Fix handling of *note UnicodeError.start: 1ae1. and
     *note UnicodeError.end: 1ae2. values in the *note
     codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors(): 1ae5. error handler.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-127119(22): Slightly optimize the *note int: 326. deallocator.

   - gh-127349(23): Fixed the error when resizing terminal in Python
     REPL. Patch by Semyon Moroz.

   - gh-125723(24): Fix crash with ‘gi_frame.f_locals’ when generator
     frames outlive their generator.  Patch by Mikhail Efimov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129231

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129149

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129201

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129093

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124363

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128714

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128799

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128842

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128910

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128807

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126491

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100239

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128563

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126703

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127953

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128330

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128016

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126004

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126004

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126004

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127119

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127349

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125723


File: python.info,  Node: Library<40>,  Next: Core and Builtins<39>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<38>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.11 Library
..................

   - gh-126349(1): Add *note turtle.fill(): 523, *note turtle.poly():
     524. and *note turtle.no_animation(): 525. context managers.  Patch
     by Marie Roald and Yngve Mardal Moe.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126349


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<39>,  Next: Library<41>,  Prev: Library<40>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.12 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-115911(1): If the current working directory cannot be determined
     due to permissions, then import will no longer raise *note
     PermissionError: 10f9.  Patch by Alex Willmer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115911


File: python.info,  Node: Library<41>,  Next: C API<12>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<39>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.13 Library
..................

   - gh-112713(1): Added support for the ‘Partitioned’ cookie flag in
     *note http.cookies: 74.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112713


File: python.info,  Node: C API<12>,  Next: Build<11>,  Prev: Library<41>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.14 C API
................

   - gh-129533(1): Update *note PyGC_Enable(): c7a, *note
     PyGC_Disable(): c7b, *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): c7c. to use atomic
     operation for thread-safety at free-threading build.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - gh-89188(2): Implement *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 1526. and *note
     PyUnicode_DATA(): 1522. as function, in addition to the macros with
     the same names.  The macros rely on C bit fields which have
     compiler-specific layout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91417(3): Remove *note PySequence_Fast(): 1ac6. from the limited
     C API, since this function has to be used with *note
     PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM: 5f7. which never worked in the limited C
     API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-128509(4): Add *note PyUnstable_IsImmortal(): 5f0. for
     determining whether an object is *note immortal: 398.

   - gh-129033(5): Remove ‘_PyInterpreterState_GetConfigCopy()’ and
     ‘_PyInterpreterState_SetConfig()’ private functions.  Use instead
     *note PyConfig_Get(): 3a6. and *note PyConfig_Set(): 5aa, public C
     API added by PEP 741(6) «Python Configuration C API».  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-129033(7): Remove the private ‘_Py_InitializeMain()’ function.
     It was a *note provisional API: 5fd. added to Python 3.8 by PEP
     587(8).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-128844(9): Add *note PyUnstable_TryIncRef(): 1aea. and *note
     PyUnstable_EnableTryIncRef(): 1aeb. unstable APIs.  These are
     helpers for dealing with unowned references in a thread-safe way,
     particularly in the free threading build.

   - gh-128911(10): Add *note PyImport_ImportModuleAttr(): 5c3. and
     *note PyImport_ImportModuleAttrString(): 5c4. helper functions to
     import a module and get an attribute of the module.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-128863(11): The following private functions are deprecated and
     planned for removal in Python 3.18:

        * ‘_PyBytes_Join()’: use *note PyBytes_Join(): 5b0.

        * ‘_PyDict_GetItemStringWithError()’: use *note
          PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 634.

        * ‘_PyDict_Pop()’: use *note PyDict_Pop(): 635.

        * ‘_PyLong_Sign()’: use *note PyLong_GetSign(): 5c7.

        * ‘_PyLong_FromDigits()’ and ‘_PyLong_New()’: use *note
          PyLongWriter_Create(): 5d7.

        * ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’: use *note
          PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 636.

        * ‘_PyUnicode_AsString()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): 637.

        * ‘_Py_HashPointer()’: use *note Py_HashPointer(): 638.

        * ‘_Py_fopen_obj()’: use *note Py_fopen(): 5c0.

     The pythoncapi-compat project(12) can be used to get these new
     public functions on Python 3.13 and older.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-126599(13): Remove some internal test APIs for the experimental
     JIT compiler.

   - gh-127925(14): Convert the *note decimal: 39. module to use PEP
     757(15) C API (export-import integers), offering some speed-up if
     the integer part of the *note Decimal: 1c2. instance is small.
     Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129533

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89188

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91417

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128509

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129033

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0741/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129033

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128844

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128911

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128863

   (12) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126599

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127925

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0757/


File: python.info,  Node: Build<11>,  Prev: C API<12>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5

1.26.14.15 Build
................

   - gh-129660(1): Drop ‘test_embed’ from PGO training, whose
     contribution in recent versions is considered to be ignorable.

   - gh-128902(2): Fix compile errors with Clang 9 and older due to lack
     of ‘__attribute__((fallthrough))’ support.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/129660

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128902


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 14 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.26.15 Python 3.14.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2025-01-14'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<8>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<10>.
* Tests: Tests<14>.
* Library: Library<42>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<40>.
* Library: Library<43>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<41>.
* Library: Library<44>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<42>.
* C API: C API<13>.
* Build: Build<12>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<8>,  Next: Tools/Demos<10>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4

1.26.15.1 macOS
...............

   - gh-127592(1): Usage of the unified Apple System Log APIs was
     disabled when the minimum macOS version is earlier than 10.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127592


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<10>,  Next: Tests<14>,  Prev: macOS<8>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4

1.26.15.2 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-128152(1): Fix a bug where Argument Clinic’s C pre-processor
     parser tried to parse pre-processor directives inside C comments.
     Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128152


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<14>,  Next: Library<42>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<10>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4

1.26.15.3 Tests
...............

   - gh-128690(1): Temporarily do not use test_embed in PGO profile
     builds until the problem with test_init_pyvenv_cfg failing in some
     configurations is resolved.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128690


File: python.info,  Node: Library<42>,  Next: Core and Builtins<40>,  Prev: Tests<14>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4

1.26.15.4 Library
.................

   - gh-128731(1): Fix *note ResourceWarning: 74f. in *note
     urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser.read(): 1af2.

   - gh-71339(2): Add new assertion methods for *note unittest: 10f.:
     *note assertHasAttr(): 530, *note assertNotHasAttr(): 531, *note
     assertIsSubclass(): 532, *note assertNotIsSubclass(): 533. *note
     assertStartsWith(): 534, *note assertNotStartsWith(): 535, *note
     assertEndsWith(): 536. and *note assertNotEndsWith(): 537.

   - gh-118761(3): Improve import time of *note pickle: ab. by 25% by
     removing an unnecessary regular expression.  As such, *note re: c1.
     is no more implicitly available as ‘pickle.re’.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-128661(4): Fixes *note typing.evaluate_forward_ref(): 151. not
     showing deprecation when ‘type_params’ arg is not passed.

   - gh-128562(5): Fix possible conflicts in generated *note tkinter:
     f9. widget names if the widget class name ends with a digit.

   - gh-128559(6): Improved import time of *note asyncio: b.

   - gh-128552(7): Fix cyclic garbage introduced by *note
     asyncio.loop.create_task(): 463. and *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 464. holding a reference to the
     created task if it is eager.

   - gh-128340(8): Add internal thread safe handle to be used in *note
     asyncio.loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): ec9. for thread safe
     cancellation.

   - gh-128182(9): Fix crash when using *note ctypes: 2d. pointers
     concurrently on the *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-128400(10): Only show the current thread in *note faulthandler:
     5b. on the *note free threaded: 487. build to prevent races.

   - gh-128400(11): Fix crash when using *note
     faulthandler.dump_traceback(): 21a. while other threads are active
     on the *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-128388(12): Fix ‘PyREPL’ on Windows to support more keybindings,
     like the ‘Control’-‘←’ and ‘Control’-‘→’ word-skipping keybindings
     and those with meta (i.e.  ‘Alt’), e.g.  ‘Alt’-‘d’ to ‘kill-word’
     or ‘Alt’-‘Backspace’ ‘backward-kill-word’.

   - gh-88834(13): Unify the instance check for *note typing.Union: 341.
     and *note types.UnionType: 527.: ‘Union’ now uses the instance
     checks against its parameters instead of the subclass checks.

   - gh-128302(14): Fix
     ‘xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMEntityResolver.resolveEntity()’, which was
     broken by the Python 3.0 transition.

   - gh-128317(15): Highlight today in colour in *note calendar: 15.’s
     CLI output.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-128302(16): Allow ‘xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMParser.parse()’ to
     correctly handle ‘xml.dom.xmlbuilder.DOMInputSource’ instances that
     only have a ‘systemId’ attribute set.

   - gh-128151(17): Improve generation of *note UUID: e25. objects
     version 3, 4, 5, and 8 via their dedicated functions by 30%.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-128118(18): Improve performance of *note copy.copy(): 942. by
     30% via a fast path for atomic types and container types.

   - gh-127946(19): Fix crash when modifying *note ctypes._CFuncPtr:
     1af3. objects concurrently on the *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-128062(20): Revert the font of *note turtledemo: 10b.’s menu bar
     to its default value and display the shortcut keys in the correct
     position.

   - gh-128014(21): Fix resetting the default window icon by passing
     ‘default=''’ to the *note tkinter: f9. method ‘wm_iconbitmap()’.

   - gh-41872(22): Fix quick extraction of module docstrings from a file
     in *note pydoc: bd.  It now supports docstrings with single quotes,
     escape sequences, raw string literals, and other Python syntax.

   - gh-127060(23): Set TERM environment variable to «dumb» to disable
     traceback colors in IDLE, since IDLE doesn’t understand ANSI escape
     sequences.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-126742(24): Fix support of localized error messages reported by
     ‘dlerror(3)(25)’ and ‘gdbm_strerror(26)’ in *note ctypes: 2d. and
     *note dbm.gnu: 36. functions respectively.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-122548(27): Adds two new local events to sys.monitoring,
     ‘BRANCH_LEFT’ and ‘BRANCH_RIGHT’.  This allows the two arms of the
     branch to be disabled independently, which should hugely improve
     performance of branch-level coverage tools.  The old branch event,
     ‘BRANCH’ is now deprecated.

   - gh-127847(28): Fix the position when doing interleaved seeks and
     reads in uncompressed, unencrypted zip files returned by *note
     zipfile.ZipFile.open(): 84a.

   - gh-127688(29): Add the *note SCHED_DEADLINE: 4e9. and *note
     SCHED_NORMAL: 4ea. constants to the *note os: a5. module.

   - gh-83662(30): Add missing ‘__class_getitem__’ method to the Python
     implementation of *note functools.partial(): 4a6, to make it
     compatible with the C version.  This is mainly relevant for
     alternative Python implementations like PyPy and GraalPy, because
     CPython will usually use the C-implementation of that function.

   - gh-127586(31): *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool: 1315. now properly
     restores blocked signal handlers of the parent thread when creating
     processes via either 'spawn' or 'forkserver'.

   - gh-98188(32): Fix an issue in *note
     email.message.Message.get_payload(): 1576. where data cannot be
     decoded if the Content Transfer Encoding mechanism contains
     trailing whitespaces or additional junk text.  Patch by Hui Liu.

   - gh-127529(33): Correct behavior of
     ‘asyncio.selector_events.BaseSelectorEventLoop._accept_connection()’
     in handling *note ConnectionAbortedError: 1405. in a loop.  This
     improves performance on OpenBSD.

   - gh-127360(34): When a descriptive error message cannot be provided
     for an *note ssl.SSLError: 161e, the «unknown error» message now
     shows the internal error code (as retrieved by ‘ERR_get_error’ and
     similar OpenSSL functions).

   - gh-127196(35): Fix crash when dict with keys in invalid encoding
     were passed to several functions in ‘_interpreters’ module.

   - gh-124130(36): Fix a bug in matching regular expression ‘\B’ in
     empty input string.  Now it is always the opposite of ‘\b’.  To get
     an old behavior, use ‘(?!\A\Z)\B’.  To get a new behavior in old
     Python versions, use ‘(?!\b)’.

   - gh-126639(37): *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 8d6. will now
     issue a *note ResourceWarning: 74f. when it is finalized by the
     garbage collector without being explicitly closed.

   - gh-126624(38): Expose error code *note XML_ERROR_NOT_STARTED: 1af4.
     of Expat >=2.6.4 in *note xml.parsers.expat.errors: 130.

   - gh-126225(39): *note getopt: 64. and *note optparse: a4. are no
     longer marked as deprecated.  There are legitimate reasons to use
     one of these modules in preference to *note argparse: 7, and none
     of these modules are at risk of being removed from the standard
     library.  Of the three, ‘argparse’ remains the recommended default
     choice, 'unless' one of the concerns noted at the top of the
     ‘optparse’ module documentation applies.

   - gh-124761(40): Add *note SO_REUSEPORT_LB: 1af5. constant to *note
     socket: d4. for FreeBSD.

   - gh-121720(41): *note enum.EnumDict: 6fb. can now be used without
     resorting to private API.

   - gh-123424(42): Add *note zipfile.ZipInfo._for_archive(): 546.
     setting default properties on *note ZipInfo: 547. objects.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran and Jason R. Coombs.

   - gh-121676(43): Deprecate calling the Python implementation of *note
     functools.reduce(): 153. with a ‘function’ or ‘sequence’ as a *note
     keyword argument: 10cc.  This will be forbidden in Python 3.16 in
     order to match the C implementation.

   - gh-112015(44): *note ctypes.memoryview_at(): 481. now exists to
     create a *note memoryview: 1d2. object that refers to the supplied
     pointer and length.  This works like *note ctypes.string_at(): 482.
     except it avoids a buffer copy, and is typically useful when
     implementing pure Python callback functions that are passed
     dynamically-sized buffers.

   - gh-95371(45): Added support for other image formats (PNG, PGM, and
     PPM) to the turtle module.  Patch by Shin-myoung-serp.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128731

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71339

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128661

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128562

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128559

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128552

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128340

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128182

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128400

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128400

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128388

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88834

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128302

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128317

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128302

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128151

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128118

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127946

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128062

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128014

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/41872

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127060

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126742

   (25) https://manpages.debian.org/dlerror(3)

   (26) https://manpages.debian.org/gdbm(3)

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122548

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127847

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127688

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83662

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127586

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98188

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127529

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127360

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127196

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124130

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126639

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126624

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126225

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124761

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121720

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123424

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121676

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112015

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95371


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<40>,  Next: Library<43>,  Prev: Library<42>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4

1.26.15.5 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-128078(1): Fix a *note SystemError: 3ea. when using *note
     anext(): bb3. with a default tuple value.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-128717(2): Fix a crash when setting the recursion limit while
     other threads are active on the *note free threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-124483(3): Treat ‘Py_DECREF’ and variants as escaping when
     generating opcode and uop metadata.  This prevents the possibility
     of a ‘__del__’ method causing the JIT to behave incorrectly.

   - gh-126703(4): Improve performance of class methods by using a
     freelist.

   - gh-128137(5): Update *note PyASCIIObject: 151e. layout to handle
     interned field with the atomic operation.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128078

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128717

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124483

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126703

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128137


File: python.info,  Node: Library<43>,  Next: Core and Builtins<41>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<40>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4

1.26.15.6 Library
.................

   - gh-128192(1): Upgrade HTTP digest authentication algorithm for
     *note urllib.request: 114. by supporting SHA-256 digest
     authentication as specified in RFC 7616(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128192

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7616.html


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<41>,  Next: Library<44>,  Prev: Library<43>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4

1.26.15.7 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-126868(1): Increase usage of freelist for *note int: 326.
     allocation.

   - gh-114203(2): Optimize ‘Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION’ for simple
     recursive calls.

   - gh-127705(3): Adds stackref debugging when ‘Py_STACKREF_DEBUG’ is
     set.  Finds all double-closes and leaks, logging the origin and
     last borrow.

     Inspired by HPy’s debug mode.
     ‘https://docs.hpyproject.org/en/latest/debug-mode.html’

   - gh-128079(4): Fix a bug where *note except*: 448. does not properly
     check the return value of an *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8.’s *note
     split(): 1af9. function, leading to a crash in some cases.  Now
     when ‘split()’ returns an invalid object, ‘except*’ raises a *note
     TypeError: 291. with the original raised ‘ExceptionGroup’ object
     chained to it.

   - gh-128030(5): Avoid error from calling ‘PyModule_GetFilenameObject’
     on a non-module object when importing a non-existent symbol from a
     non-module object.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126868

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114203

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127705

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128079

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128030


File: python.info,  Node: Library<44>,  Next: Core and Builtins<42>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<41>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4

1.26.15.8 Library
.................

   - gh-128035(1): Indicate through *note ssl.HAS_PHA: 50e. whether the
     *note ssl: d8. module supports TLSv1.3 post-handshake client
     authentication (PHA). Patch by Will Childs-Klein.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128035


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<42>,  Next: C API<13>,  Prev: Library<44>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4

1.26.15.9 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-127274(1): Add a new flag, ‘CO_METHOD’, to *note co_flags: 1afc.
     that indicates whether the code object belongs to a function
     defined in class scope.

   - gh-66409(2): During the *note path initialization: 1953, we now
     check if ‘base_exec_prefix’ is the same as ‘base_prefix’ before
     falling back to searching the Python interpreter directory.

   - gh-127970(3): We now use the location of the ‘libpython’ runtime
     library used in the current process to determine *note
     sys.base_prefix: 3aa. on all platforms implementing the dladdr(4)
     function defined by the UNIX standard — this includes Linux,
     Android, macOS, iOS, FreeBSD, etc.  This was already the case on
     Windows and macOS Framework builds.

   - gh-127773(5): Do not use the type attribute cache for types with
     incompatible *note MRO: 1afd.

   - gh-127903(6): ‘Objects/unicodeobject.c’: fix a crash on DEBUG
     builds in ‘_copy_characters’ when there is nothing to copy.

   - gh-127809(7): Fix an issue where the experimental JIT may infer an
     incorrect result type for exponentiation (‘**’ and ‘**=’), leading
     to bugs or crashes.

   - gh-126862(8): Fix a possible overflow when a class inherits from an
     absurd number of super-classes.  Reported by Valery Fedorenko.
     Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127274

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66409

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127970

   (4) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/functions/dladdr.html

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127773

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127903

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127809

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126862


File: python.info,  Node: C API<13>,  Next: Build<12>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<42>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4

1.26.15.10 C API
................

   - gh-128400(1): *note Py_FatalError(): d4b. no longer shows all
     threads on the *note free threaded: 487. build to prevent crashes.

   - gh-128629(2): Add macros *note Py_PACK_VERSION(): 5ac. and *note
     Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION(): 5ad. for bit-packing Python version
     numbers.

   - gh-128008(3): Add *note PyWeakref_IsDead(): 1aff. function, which
     tests if a weak reference is dead.

   - gh-127350(4): Add *note Py_fopen(): 5c0. function to open a file.
     Similar to the ‘fopen()’ function, but the 'path' parameter is a
     Python object and an exception is set on error.  Add also *note
     Py_fclose(): 5c1. function to close a file, function needed for
     Windows support.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128400

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128629

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128008

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127350


File: python.info,  Node: Build<12>,  Prev: C API<13>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4

1.26.15.11 Build
................

   - gh-128627(1): For Emscripten builds the function pointer cast call
     trampoline now uses the wasm-gc ref.test instruction if it’s
     available instead of Wasm JS type reflection.

   - gh-128472(2): Skip BOLT optimization of functions using computed
     gotos, fixing errors on build with LLVM 19.

   - gh-115765(3): GNU Autoconf 2.72 is now required to generate
     ‘configure’.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-123925(4): Fix building the *note curses: 2e. module on
     platforms with libncurses but without libncursesw.

   - gh-90905(5): Add support for cross-compiling to x86_64 on
     aarch64/arm64 macOS.

   - gh-128321(6): Set ‘LIBS’ instead of ‘LDFLAGS’ when checking if
     *note sqlite3: d7. library functions are available.  This fixes the
     ordering of linked libraries during checks, which was incorrect
     when using a statically linked ‘libsqlite3’.

   - gh-100384(7): Error on ‘unguarded-availability’ in macOS builds,
     preventing invalid use of symbols that are not available in older
     versions of the OS.

   - gh-128104(8): Remove ‘Py_STRFTIME_C99_SUPPORT’ conditions in favor
     of requiring C99 ‘strftime(3)(9)’ specifier support at build time.
     When cross-compiling, there is no build time check and support is
     assumed.

   - gh-127951(10): Add option ‘--pystats’ to the Windows build to
     enable performance statistics collection.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128627

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128472

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115765

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123925

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90905

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128321

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100384

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128104

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127951


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 14 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.16 Python 3.14.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-12-17'

* Menu:

* Windows: Windows<11>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<11>.
* Tests: Tests<15>.
* Security: Security<13>.
* Library: Library<45>.
* Documentation: Documentation<12>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<43>.
* Library: Library<46>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<44>.
* C API: C API<14>.
* Build: Build<13>.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<11>,  Next: Tools/Demos<11>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3

1.26.16.1 Windows
.................

   - gh-127353(1): Allow to force color output on Windows using
     environment variables.  Patch by Andrey Efremov.

   - gh-125729(2): Makes the presence of the *note turtle: 10a. module
     dependent on the Tcl/Tk installer option.  Previously, the module
     was always installed but would be unusable without Tcl/Tk.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127353

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125729


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<11>,  Next: Tests<15>,  Prev: Windows<11>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3

1.26.16.2 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-126700(1): Add support for multi-argument *note gettext: 66.
     functions in ‘pygettext.py’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126700


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<15>,  Next: Security<13>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<11>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3

1.26.16.3 Tests
...............

   - gh-127906(1): Test the limited C API in test_cppext.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-127637(2): Add tests for the *note dis: 3b. command-line
     interface.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-126925(3): iOS test results are now streamed during test
     execution, and the deprecated xcresulttool is no longer used.

   - gh-127076(4): Disable strace based system call tests when
     LD_PRELOAD is set.

   - gh-127076(5): Filter out memory-related ‘mmap’, ‘munmap’, and
     ‘mprotect’ calls from file-related ones when testing *note io: 82.
     behavior using strace.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127906

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127637

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126925

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127076

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127076


File: python.info,  Node: Security<13>,  Next: Library<45>,  Prev: Tests<15>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3

1.26.16.4 Security
..................

   - gh-127655(1): Fixed the
     ‘asyncio.selector_events._SelectorSocketTransport’ transport not
     pausing writes for the protocol when the buffer reaches the high
     water mark when using *note asyncio.WriteTransport.writelines():
     1a09.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127655


File: python.info,  Node: Library<45>,  Next: Documentation<12>,  Prev: Security<13>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3

1.26.16.5 Library
.................

   - gh-126907(1): Fix crash when using *note atexit: d. concurrently on
     the *note free-threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-127870(2): Detect recursive calls in ctypes ‘_as_parameter_’
     handling.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-127732(3): The *note platform: af. module now correctly detects
     Windows Server 2025.

   - gh-126789(4): Fixed *note sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 51e, *note
     sysconfig.get_paths(): 156, and siblings, returning outdated cached
     data if the value of *note sys.prefix: 3ab. or *note
     sys.exec_prefix: 3a8. changes.  Overwriting ‘sys.prefix’ or
     ‘sys.exec_prefix’ still is discouraged, as that might break other
     parts of the code.

   - gh-127718(5): Add colour to *note test.regrtest: ec. output.  Patch
     by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-127610(6): Added validation for more than one var-positional or
     var-keyword parameters in *note inspect.Signature: 6e8.  Patch by
     Maxim Ageev.

   - gh-127627(7): Added ‘posix._emscripten_debugger()’ to help with
     debugging the test suite on the Emscripten target.

   - gh-126821(8): macOS and iOS apps can now choose to redirect stdout
     and stderr to the system log during interpreter configuration.

   - gh-93312(9): Include ‘<sys/pidfd.h>’ to get ‘os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK’
     constant.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-127481(10): Add the ‘EPOLLWAKEUP’ constant to the *note select:
     c9. module.

   - gh-127065(11): Make *note operator.methodcaller(): 11e7.
     thread-safe and re-entrant safe.

   - gh-127321(12): *note pdb.set_trace(): 4fa. will not stop at an
     opcode that does not have an associated line number anymore.

   - gh-127429(13): Fixed bug where, on cross-builds, the *note
     sysconfig: e4. POSIX data was being generated with the host
     Python’s ‘Makefile’.  The data is now generated from current
     build’s ‘Makefile’.

   - gh-127413(14): Add the *note dis -specialized: 49a. command-line
     option to show specialized bytecode.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125413(15): Revert addition of ‘pathlib.Path.scandir()’.  This
     method was added in 3.14.0a2.  The optimizations remain for file
     system paths, but other subclasses should only have to implement
     *note pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 4f6.

   - gh-127257(16): In *note ssl: d8, system call failures that OpenSSL
     reports using ‘ERR_LIB_SYS’ are now raised as *note OSError: 53c.

   - gh-59705(17): On Linux, *note threading.Thread: 420. now sets the
     thread name to the operating system.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-127303(18): Publicly expose *note EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES: 1b07. in
     ‘token.__all__’.

   - gh-127331(19): *note ssl: d8. can show descriptions for errors
     added in OpenSSL 3.4.

   - gh-123967(20): Fix faulthandler for trampoline frames.  If the
     top-most frame is a trampoline frame, skip it.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-127178(21): A ‘_sysconfig_vars_(...).json’ file is now shipped
     in the standard library directory.  It contains the output of *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 51e. on the default environment
     encoded as JSON data.  This is an implementation detail, and may
     change at any time.

   - gh-127072(22): Remove outdated ‘socket.NETLINK_*’ constants not
     present in Linux kernels beyond 2.6.17.

   - gh-127255(23): The *note CopyComPointer(): 480. function is now
     public.  Previously, this was private and only available in
     ‘_ctypes’.

   - gh-127182(24): Fix ‘io.StringIO.__setstate__()’ crash, when *note
     None: a65. was passed as the first value.

   - gh-127217(25): Fix *note urllib.request.pathname2url(): 53b. for
     paths starting with multiple slashes on Posix.

   - gh-125866(26): *note urllib.request.pathname2url(): 53b. now adds
     an empty authority when generating a URL for a path that begins
     with exactly one slash.  For example, the path ‘/etc/hosts’ is
     converted to the scheme-less URL ‘///etc/hosts’.  As a result of
     this change, URLs without authorities are only generated for
     relative paths.

   - gh-127221(27): Add colour to *note unittest: 10f. output.  Patch by
     Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-127035(28): Fix *note shutil.which: 8c4. on Windows.  Now it
     looks at direct match if and only if the command ends with a
     PATHEXT extension or X_OK is not in mode.  Support extensionless
     files if «.» is in PATHEXT. Support PATHEXT extensions that end
     with a dot.

   - gh-122273(29): Support PyREPL history on Windows.  Patch by
     devdanzin and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-125866(30): *note urllib.request.pathname2url(): 53b. and *note
     url2pathname(): 539. no longer convert Windows drive letters to
     uppercase.

   - gh-127078(31): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     539. failed to discard an extra slash before a UNC drive in the URL
     path on Windows.

   - gh-126766(32): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     539. failed to discard any “localhost” authority present in the
     URL.

   - gh-127065(33): Fix crash when calling a *note
     operator.methodcaller(): 11e7. instance from multiple threads in
     the free threading build.

   - gh-127090(34): Fix value of *note urllib.response.addinfourl.url:
     1b08. for ‘file:’ URLs that express relative paths and absolute
     Windows paths.  The canonical URL generated by *note
     urllib.request.pathname2url(): 53b. is now used.

   - gh-126992(35): Fix LONG and INT opcodes to only use base 10 for
     string to integer conversion in *note pickle: ab.

   - gh-126997(36): Fix support of STRING and GLOBAL opcodes with
     non-ASCII arguments in *note pickletools: ac.  *note
     pickletools.dis(): 1080. now outputs non-ASCII bytes in STRING,
     BINSTRING and SHORT_BINSTRING arguments as escaped (‘\xXX’).

   - gh-126316(37): *note grp: 69.: Make *note grp.getgrall(): 1b09.
     thread-safe by adding a mutex.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-126618(38): Fix the representation of *note itertools.count:
     1628. objects when the count value is *note sys.maxsize: 156e.

   - gh-126615(39): The *note COMError: 47f. exception is now public.
     Previously, this was private and only available in ‘_ctypes’.

   - gh-126985(40): When running under a virtual environment with the
     *note site: cf. disabled (see *note -S: 1551.), *note sys.prefix:
     3ab. and *note sys.base_prefix: 3aa. will now point to the virtual
     environment, instead of the base installation.

   - gh-112192(41): In the *note trace: 106. module, increase the
     coverage precision (‘cov%’) to one decimal.

   - gh-118761(42): Improve import time of *note mimetypes: 93. by
     around 11-16 times.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-126947(43): Raise *note TypeError: 291. in
     ‘_pydatetime.timedelta.__new__()’ if the passed arguments are not
     *note int: 326. or *note float: 327, so that the Python
     implementation is in line with the C implementation.

   - gh-126946(44): Improve the *note GetoptError: 1b0a. error message
     when a long option prefix matches multiple accepted options in
     *note getopt.getopt(): 185d. and *note getopt.gnu_getopt(): 185c.

   - gh-126899(45): Make tkinter widget methods ‘after()’ and
     ‘after_idle()’ accept arguments passed by keyword.

   - gh-85168(46): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     539. and *note pathname2url(): 53b. always used UTF-8 when quoting
     and unquoting file URIs.  They now use the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 948.

   - gh-126780(47): Fix *note os.path.normpath(): 16be. for
     drive-relative paths on Windows.

   - gh-126775(48): Make *note linecache.checkcache(): 1b0b. thread safe
     and GC re-entrancy safe.

   - gh-126601(49): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     53b. raised *note OSError: 53c. when given a Windows path
     containing a colon character not following a drive letter, such as
     before an NTFS alternate data stream.

   - gh-126727(50): ‘locale.nl_langinfo(locale.ERA)’ now returns
     multiple era description segments separated by semicolons.
     Previously it only returned the first segment on platforms with
     Glibc.

   - gh-85046(51): Add *note EHWPOISON: 49c. error code to *note errno:
     5a.

   - gh-118201(52): Fixed intermittent failures of *note os.confstr:
     1b0c, *note os.pathconf: 14a7. and *note os.sysconf: 1b0d. on iOS
     and Android.

   - gh-86463(53): The ‘usage’ parameter of *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc. no longer affects the default value
     of the ‘prog’ parameter in subparsers.

   - gh-124008(54): Fix possible crash (in debug build), incorrect
     output or returning incorrect value from raw binary ‘write()’ when
     writing to console on Windows.

   - gh-123401(55): The *note http.cookies: 74. module now supports
     parsing obsolete RFC 850(56) date formats, in accordance with RFC
     9110(57) requirements.  Patch by Nano Zheng.

   - gh-122431(58): *note readline.append_history_file(): 1202. now
     raises a *note ValueError: 277. when given a negative value.

   - gh-122356(59): Guarantee that the position of a file-like object
     passed to *note zipfile.is_zipfile(): 16cf. is left untouched after
     the call.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-122288(60): Improve the performances of *note
     fnmatch.translate(): 1a79. by a factor 1.7.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-88110(61): Fixed *note multiprocessing.Process: 4de. reporting a
     ‘.exitcode’ of 1 even on success when using the ‘"fork"’ start
     method while using a *note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor:
     b27.

   - gh-97514(62): Authentication was added to the *note
     multiprocessing: 98. forkserver start method control socket so that
     only processes with the authentication key generated by the process
     that spawned the forkserver can control it.  This is an enhancement
     over the other gh-97514(63) fixes so that access is no longer
     limited only by filesystem permissions.

     The file descriptor exchange of control pipes with the forked
     worker process now requires an explicit acknowledgement byte to be
     sent over the socket after the exchange on all forkserver
     supporting platforms.  That makes testing the above much easier.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126907

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127870

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127732

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126789

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127718

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127610

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127627

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126821

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127481

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127065

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127321

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127429

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127413

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125413

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127257

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59705

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127303

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127331

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123967

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127178

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127072

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127255

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127182

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127217

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125866

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127221

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127035

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122273

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125866

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127078

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126766

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127065

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127090

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126992

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126997

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126316

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126618

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126615

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126985

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112192

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118761

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126947

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126946

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126899

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85168

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126780

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126775

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126601

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126727

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85046

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118201

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86463

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124008

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123401

   (56) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc850.html

   (57) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122431

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122356

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122288

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88110

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97514

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97514


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<12>,  Next: Core and Builtins<43>,  Prev: Library<45>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3

1.26.16.6 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-127347(1): Publicly expose *note traceback.print_list(): 1b0f.
     in ‘traceback.__all__’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127347


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<43>,  Next: Library<46>,  Prev: Documentation<12>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3

1.26.16.7 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-127740(1): Fix error message in *note bytes.fromhex(): 434. when
     given an odd number of digits to properly indicate that an even
     number of hexadecimal digits is required.

   - gh-127058(2): ‘PySequence_Tuple’ now creates the resulting tuple
     atomically, preventing partially created tuples being visible to
     the garbage collector or through ‘gc.get_referrers()’

   - gh-127599(3): Fix statistics for increments of object reference
     counts (in particular, when a reference count was increased by more
     than 1 in a single operation).

   - gh-127651(4): When raising *note ImportError: 1bd. for missing
     symbols in ‘from’ imports, use ‘__file__’ in the error message if
     ‘__spec__.origin’ is not a location

   - gh-127582(5): Fix non-thread-safe object resurrection when calling
     finalizers and watcher callbacks in the free threading build.

   - gh-127434(6): The iOS compiler shims can now accept arguments with
     spaces.

   - gh-127536(7): Add missing locks around some list assignment
     operations in the free threading build.

   - gh-127085(8): Fix race when exporting a buffer from a *note
     memoryview: 1d2. object on the *note free-threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-127238(9): Correct error message for *note
     sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 1b11.

   - gh-113841(10): Fix possible undefined behavior division by zero in
     *note complex: 328.’s *note _Py_c_pow(): 3c2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127740

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127058

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127599

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127651

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127582

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127434

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127536

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127085

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127238

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113841


File: python.info,  Node: Library<46>,  Next: Core and Builtins<44>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<43>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3

1.26.16.8 Library
.................

   - gh-127133(1): Calling *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group(): 31d. on an argument
     group, and calling ‘argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group()’
     or *note argparse.ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group():
     567. on a mutually exclusive group now raise exceptions.  This
     nesting was never supported, often failed to work correctly, and
     was unintentionally exposed through inheritance.  This
     functionality has been deprecated since Python 3.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127133


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<44>,  Next: C API<14>,  Prev: Library<46>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3

1.26.16.9 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-126491(1): Add a marking phase to the GC. All objects that can
     be transitively reached from builtin modules or the stacks are
     marked as reachable before cycle detection.  This reduces the
     amount of work done by the GC by approximately half.

   - gh-127020(2): Fix a crash in the free threading build when *note
     PyCode_GetCode(): b5a, *note PyCode_GetVarnames(): b5b, *note
     PyCode_GetCellvars(): b5c, or *note PyCode_GetFreevars(): b5d. were
     called from multiple threads at the same time.

   - gh-127010(3): Simplify GC tracking of dictionaries.  All
     dictionaries are tracked when created, rather than being lazily
     tracked when a trackable object was added to them.  This simplifies
     the code considerably and results in a slight speedup.

   - gh-126980(4): Fix *note __buffer__(): 879. of *note bytearray: 1c6.
     crashing when *note READ: 1b14. or *note WRITE: 1b15. are passed as
     flags.

   - gh-126937(5): Fix *note TypeError: 291. when a *note
     ctypes.Structure: 47c. has a field size that doesn’t fit into an
     unsigned 16-bit integer.  Instead, the maximum number of 'bits' is
     *note sys.maxsize: 156e.

   - gh-126868(6): Increase performance of *note int: 326. by adding a
     freelist for compact ints.

   - gh-126881(7): Fix crash in finalization of dtoa state.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-126892(8): Require cold or invalidated code to «warm up» before
     being JIT compiled again.

   - gh-126091(9): Ensure stack traces are complete when throwing into a
     generator chain that ends in a custom generator.

   - gh-126024(10): Optimize decoding of short UTF-8 sequences
     containing non-ASCII characters by approximately 15%.

   - gh-125420(11): Add *note memoryview.index(): 1b16. to *note
     memoryview: 1d2. objects.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125420(12): Add *note memoryview.count(): 1b17. to *note
     memoryview: 1d2. objects.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-124470(13): Fix crash in free-threaded builds when replacing
     object dictionary while reading attribute on another thread

   - gh-69639(14): Implement mixed-mode arithmetic rules combining real
     and complex numbers as specified by C standards since C99.  Patch
     by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-120010(15): Correct invalid corner cases which resulted in
     ‘(nan+nanj)’ output in complex multiplication, e.g.,
     ‘(1e300+1j)*(nan+infj)’.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-109746(16): If ‘_thread.start_new_thread()’ fails to start a new
     thread, it deletes its state from interpreter and thus avoids its
     repeated cleanup on finalization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126491

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127020

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127010

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126980

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126937

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126868

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126881

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126892

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126091

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126024

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125420

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125420

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124470

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69639

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120010

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109746


File: python.info,  Node: C API<14>,  Next: Build<13>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<44>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3

1.26.16.10 C API
................

   - gh-127896(1): The previously undocumented function *note
     PySequence_In(): 604. is *note soft deprecated: 1a7.  Use *note
     PySequence_Contains(): 605. instead.

   - gh-127791(2): Fix loss of callbacks after more than one call to
     *note PyUnstable_AtExit(): 1b19.

   - gh-127691(3): The *note Unicode Exception Objects: 674. C API now
     raises a *note TypeError: 291. if its exception argument is not a
     *note UnicodeError: 675. object.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-123378(4): Ensure that the value of *note
     UnicodeEncodeError.end: 1ae2. retrieved by *note
     PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd(): 1b1a. lies in ‘[min(1, objlen),
     max(min(1, objlen), objlen)]’ where 'objlen' is the length of *note
     UnicodeEncodeError.object: 1b1b.  Similar arguments apply to *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: dd7. and *note UnicodeTranslateError: 1b1c. and
     their corresponding C interface.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-127314(5): Improve error message when calling the C API without
     an active thread state on the *note free-threaded: 487. build.

   - gh-123378(6): Ensure that the value of *note
     UnicodeEncodeError.start: 1ae1. retrieved by *note
     PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart(): 1b1d. lies in ‘[0, max(0, objlen -
     1)]’ where 'objlen' is the length of *note
     UnicodeEncodeError.object: 1b1b.  Similar arguments apply to *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: dd7. and *note UnicodeTranslateError: 1b1c. and
     their corresponding C interface.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-109523(7): Reading text from a non-blocking stream with ‘read’
     may now raise a *note BlockingIOError: 4c3. if the operation cannot
     immediately return bytes.

   - gh-102471(8): Add a new import and export API for Python *note int:
     326. objects ( PEP 757(9)):

        * *note PyLong_GetNativeLayout(): 5d4.;

        * *note PyLong_Export(): 5d5.;

        * *note PyLong_FreeExport(): 5d6.;

        * *note PyLongWriter_Create(): 5d7.;

        * *note PyLongWriter_Finish(): 5d8.;

        * *note PyLongWriter_Discard(): 5d9.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-121058(10): ‘PyThreadState_Clear()’ now warns (and calls
     ‘sys.excepthook’) if the thread state still has an active
     exception.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127896

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127791

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127691

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123378

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127314

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123378

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109523

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102471

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0757/

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121058


File: python.info,  Node: Build<13>,  Prev: C API<14>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3

1.26.16.11 Build
................

   - gh-127865(1): Fix build failure on systems without thread-locals
     support.

   - gh-127629(2): Emscripten builds now include ctypes support.

   - gh-127111(3): Updated the Emscripten web example to use ES6 modules
     and be built into a distinct ‘web_example’ subfolder.

   - gh-115869(4): Make ‘jit_stencils.h’ (which is produced during JIT
     builds) reproducible.

   - gh-126898(5): The Emscripten build of Python is now based on ES6
     modules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127865

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127629

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127111

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115869

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 14 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.17 Python 3.14.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-11-19'

* Menu:

* Windows: Windows<12>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<12>.
* Tests: Tests<16>.
* Security: Security<14>.
* Library: Library<47>.
* Documentation: Documentation<13>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<45>.
* Library: Library<48>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<46>.
* Library: Library<49>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<47>.
* Library: Library<50>.
* C API: C API<15>.
* Build: Build<14>.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<12>,  Next: Tools/Demos<12>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.1 Windows
.................

   - gh-126911(1): Update credits command output.

   - gh-118973(2): Ensures the experimental free-threaded install
     includes the ‘_tkinter’ module.  The optional Tcl/Tk component must
     also be installed in order for the module to work.

   - gh-126497(3): Fixes venv failure due to missing redirector
     executables in experimental free-threaded installs.

   - gh-126074(4): Removed unnecessary DLLs from Windows embeddable
     package

   - gh-125315(5): Avoid crashing in *note platform: af. due to slow WMI
     calls on some Windows machines.

   - gh-126084(6): Fix venvwlauncher to launch pythonw instead of python
     so no extra console window is created.

   - gh-125842(7): Fix a *note SystemError: 3ea. when *note sys.exit():
     4ff. is called with ‘0xffffffff’ on Windows.

   - gh-125550(8): Enable the *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python:
     9bc. to detect Python 3.14 installs from the Windows Store.

   - gh-123803(9): All Windows code pages are now supported as «cpXXX»
     codecs on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126911

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118973

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126497

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126074

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125315

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126084

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125842

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125550

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123803


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<12>,  Next: Tests<16>,  Prev: Windows<12>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.2 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-126807(1): Fix extraction warnings in ‘pygettext.py’ caused by
     mistaking function definitions for function calls.

   - gh-126167(2): The iOS testbed was modified so that it can be used
     by third-party projects for testing purposes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126807

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126167


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<16>,  Next: Security<14>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<12>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.3 Tests
...............

   - gh-126909(1): Fix test_os extended attribute tests to work on
     filesystems with 1 KiB xattr size limit.

   - gh-125730(2): Change ‘make test’ to not run GUI tests by default.
     Use ‘make ci’ to run tests with GUI tests instead.

   - gh-124295(3): Add translation tests to the *note argparse: 7.
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126909

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125730

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124295


File: python.info,  Node: Security<14>,  Next: Library<47>,  Prev: Tests<16>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.4 Security
..................

   - gh-126623(1): Upgrade libexpat to 2.6.4

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126623


File: python.info,  Node: Library<47>,  Next: Documentation<13>,  Prev: Security<14>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.5 Library
.................

   - gh-85957(1): Add missing MIME types for images with RFCs: emf,
     fits, g3fax, jp2, jpm, jpx, t38, tiff-fx and wmf.  Patch by Hugo
     van Kemenade.

   - gh-126920(2): Fix the ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ keys from *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 51e. incorrectly having the same value
     as *note sys.base_prefix: 3aa. and *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3a7,
     respectively, inside virtual environments.  They now accurately
     reflect *note sys.prefix: 3ab. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3a8.

   - gh-67877(3): Fix memory leaks when *note regular expression: c1.
     matching terminates abruptly, either because of a signal or because
     memory allocation fails.

   - gh-125063(4): *note marshal: 90. now supports *note slice: 1d0.
     objects.  The marshal format version was increased to 5.

   - gh-126789(5): Fixed the values of *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 51e, *note sysconfig.get_paths(): 156,
     and their siblings when the *note site: cf. initialization happens
     after *note sysconfig: e4. has built a cache for
     ‘sysconfig.get_config_vars()’.

   - gh-126188(6): Update bundled pip to 24.3.1

   - gh-126766(7): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.url2pathname():
     539. failed to discard two leading slashes introducing an empty
     authority section.

   - gh-126705(8): Allow *note os.PathLike: 100f. to be a base for
     Protocols.

   - gh-126699(9): Allow *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: 1196. to
     be a base for Protocols.

   - gh-126654(10): Fix crash when non-dict was passed to several
     functions in ‘_interpreters’ module.

   - gh-104745(11): Limit starting a patcher (from *note
     unittest.mock.patch(): 1243. or *note unittest.mock.patch.object():
     1b25.) more than once without stopping it

   - gh-126595(12): Fix a crash when instantiating *note
     itertools.count: 1628. with an initial count of *note sys.maxsize:
     156e. on debug builds.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-120423(13): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     53b. mishandled Windows paths with embedded forward slashes.

   - gh-126565(14): Improve performances of *note zipfile.Path.open():
     1a13. for non-reading modes.

   - gh-126505(15): Fix bugs in compiling case-insensitive *note regular
     expressions: c1. with character classes containing non-BMP
     characters: upper-case non-BMP character did was ignored and the
     ASCII flag was ignored when matching a character range whose upper
     bound is beyond the BMP region.

   - gh-117378(16): Fixed the *note multiprocessing: 98. ‘"forkserver"’
     start method forkserver process to correctly inherit the parent’s
     *note sys.path: 194. during the importing of *note
     multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload(): 1969. modules in the same
     manner as ‘sys.path’ is configured in workers before executing work
     items.

     This bug caused some forkserver module preloading to silently fail
     to preload.  This manifested as a performance degradation in child
     processes when the ‘sys.path’ was required due to additional
     repeated work in every worker.

     It could also have a side effect of ‘""’ remaining in *note
     sys.path: 194. during forkserver preload imports instead of the
     absolute path from *note os.getcwd(): 1b26. at multiprocessing
     import time used in the worker ‘sys.path’.

     The ‘sys.path’ differences between phases in the child process
     could potentially have caused preload to import incorrect things
     from the wrong location.  We are unaware of that actually having
     happened in practice.

   - gh-125679(17): The *note multiprocessing.Lock: 1a7c. and *note
     multiprocessing.RLock: 1a7d. ‘repr’ values no longer say «unknown»
     on macOS.

   - gh-126476(18): Raise *note calendar.IllegalMonthError: 1915. (now a
     subclass of *note IndexError: 18d7.) for *note calendar.month():
     1b27. when the input month is not correct.

   - gh-126489(19): The Python implementation of *note pickle: ab. no
     longer calls *note pickle.Pickler.persistent_id(): 1b28. for the
     result of ‘persistent_id()’.

   - gh-126451(20): Register the *note contextvars.Context: 421. type to
     *note collections.abc.Mapping: c9c.

   - gh-126175(21): Add ‘msg’, ‘doc’, ‘pos’, ‘lineno’ and ‘colno’
     attributes to *note tomllib.TOMLDecodeError: 1b29.  Deprecate
     instantiating with free-form arguments.

   - gh-89416(22): Add RFC 9559(23) MIME types for Matroska audiovisual
     container formats.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-126417(24): Register the ‘multiprocessing.managers.DictProxy’
     and ‘multiprocessing.managers.ListProxy’ types in *note
     multiprocessing.managers: 9b. to *note
     collections.abc.MutableMapping: 1459. and *note
     collections.abc.MutableSequence: 6c6, respectively.

   - gh-126390(25): Add support for returning intermixed options and
     non-option arguments in order in *note getopt.gnu_getopt(): 185c.

   - gh-126374(26): Add support for options with optional arguments in
     the *note getopt: 64. module.

   - gh-126363(27): Speed up pattern parsing in *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. by skipping creation of a *note
     pathlib.Path: 4ee. object for the pattern.

   - gh-126353(28): *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 56c. now does not
     implicitly creates an event loop.  It now raises a *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. if there is no set event loop.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-126313(29): Fix an issue in *note curses.napms(): 1b2a. when
     *note curses.initscr(): 1a1b. has not yet been called.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-126303(30): Fix pickling and copying of *note os.sched_param:
     1b2b. objects.

   - gh-126138(31): Fix a use-after-free crash on *note asyncio.Task:
     460. objects whose underlying coroutine yields an object that
     implements an evil *note __getattribute__(): f90.  Patch by Nico
     Posada.

   - gh-120057(32): Replace the ‘os.environ.refresh()’ method with a new
     *note os.reload_environ(): 4e4. function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-126220(33): Fix crash in ‘cProfile.Profile’ and
     ‘_lsprof.Profiler’ when their callbacks were directly called with 0
     arguments.

   - gh-126212(34): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     53b. and *note url2pathname(): 539. removed slashes from Windows
     DOS drive paths and URLs.

   - gh-126223(35): Raise a *note UnicodeEncodeError: a67. instead of a
     *note SystemError: 3ea. upon calling ‘_interpreters.create()’ with
     an invalid Unicode character.

   - gh-126205(36): Fix issue where *note urllib.request.pathname2url():
     53b. generated URLs beginning with four slashes (rather than two)
     when given a Windows UNC path.

   - gh-126156(37): Improved performances of creating *note Morsel: fc3.
     objects by a factor of 3.8x.

   - gh-126105(38): Fix a crash in *note ast: 9. when the *note
     ast.AST._fields: 19da. attribute is deleted.

   - gh-126106(39): Fixes a possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in *note
     ssl: d8.

   - gh-126080(40): Fix a use-after-free crash on *note asyncio.Task:
     460. objects for which the underlying event loop implements an evil
     *note __getattribute__(): f90.  Reported by Nico-Posada.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125322(41): Correct detection of complex numbers support in
     libffi.

   - gh-126083(42): Fixed a reference leak in *note asyncio.Task: 460.
     objects when reinitializing the same object with a non-‘None’
     context.  Patch by Nico Posada.

   - gh-126068(43): Fix exceptions in the *note argparse: 7. module so
     that only error messages for ArgumentError and ArgumentTypeError
     are now translated.  ArgumentError is now only used for command
     line errors, not for logical errors in the program.  TypeError is
     now raised instead of ValueError for some logical errors.

   - gh-125413(44): Add ‘pathlib.Path.scandir()’ method to efficiently
     fetch directory children and their file attributes.  This is a
     trivial wrapper of *note os.scandir(): e23.

   - gh-125984(45): Fix use-after-free crashes on *note asyncio.Future:
     f8b. objects for which the underlying event loop implements an evil
     *note __getattribute__(): f90.  Reported by Nico-Posada.  Patch by
     Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125926(46): Fix *note urllib.parse.urljoin(): 1247. for base URI
     with undefined authority.  Although RFC 3986(47) only specify
     reference resolution for absolute base URI, ‘urljoin()’ should
     continue to return sensible result for relative base URI.

   - gh-125969(48): Fix an out-of-bounds crash when an evil *note
     asyncio.loop.call_soon(): ec8. mutates the length of the internal
     callbacks list.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-125966(49): Fix a use-after-free crash in *note
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback(): 1b2c.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-125789(50): Fix possible crash when mutating list of callbacks
     returned by ‘asyncio.Future._callbacks’.  It now always returns a
     new copy in C implementation ‘_asyncio’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-126916(51): Allow the 'initial' parameter of *note
     functools.reduce(): 153. to be passed as a keyword argument.  Patch
     by Sayandip Dutta.

   - gh-124452(52): Fix an issue in *note
     email.policy.EmailPolicy.header_source_parse(): 1b2d. and *note
     email.policy.Compat32.header_source_parse(): 1b2e. that introduced
     spurious leading whitespaces into header values when the header
     includes a newline character after the header name delimiter (‘:’)
     and before the value.

   - gh-117941(53): ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ now rejects option
     names starting with ‘--no-’.

   - gh-125884(54): Fixed the bug for *note pdb: aa. where it can’t set
     breakpoints on functions with certain annotations.

   - gh-125355(55): Fix several bugs in *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(): ec5.

        * The parser no longer changes temporarily during parsing.

        * Default values are not processed twice.

        * Required mutually exclusive groups containing positional
          arguments are now supported.

        * The missing arguments report now includes the names of all
          required optional and positional arguments.

        * Unknown options can be intermixed with positional arguments in
          parse_known_intermixed_args().

   - gh-125767(56): *note super: 443. objects are now *note pickleable:
     ab. and *note copyable: 29.

   - gh-124969(57): ‘locale.nl_langinfo(locale.ALT_DIGITS)’ now returns
     a string again.  The returned value consists of up to 100
     semicolon-separated symbols.

   - gh-84850(58): Remove ‘URLopener’ and ‘FancyURLopener’ classes from
     *note urllib.request: 114.  They had previously raised *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. since Python 3.3.

   - gh-125666(59): Avoid the exiting the interpreter if a null byte is
     given as input in the new REPL.

   - gh-125710(60): [Enum] fix hashable<->nonhashable comparisons for
     member values

   - gh-125631(61): Restore ability to set *note persistent_id: 1b28.
     and *note persistent_load: 1b2f. attributes of instances of the
     ‘Pickler’ and ‘Unpickler’ classes in the *note pickle: ab. module.

   - gh-125378(62): Fixed the bug in *note pdb: aa. where after a
     multi-line command, an empty line repeats the first line of the
     multi-line command, instead of the full command.

   - gh-125682(63): Reject non-ASCII digits in the Python implementation
     of *note json.loads(): 22f. conforming to the JSON specification.

   - gh-125660(64): Reject invalid unicode escapes for Python
     implementation of *note json.loads(): 22f.

   - gh-52551(65): Use ‘wcsftime()’ to implement *note time.strftime():
     1592. on Windows.

   - gh-125259(66): Fix the notes removal logic for errors thrown in
     enum initialization.

   - gh-125633(67): Add function *note inspect.ispackage(): 4c0. to
     determine whether an object is a *note package: 4c1. or not.

   - gh-125614(68): In the *note FORWARDREF: 40c. format of *note
     annotationlib: 6, fix bug where nested expressions were not
     returned as *note annotationlib.ForwardRef: 1967. format.

   - gh-125590(69): Allow ‘FrameLocalsProxy’ to delete and pop if the
     key is not a fast variable.

   - gh-125600(70): Only show stale code warning in *note pdb: aa. when
     we display source code.

   - gh-125542(71): Deprecate passing keyword-only 'prefix_chars'
     argument to *note argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument_group():
     31d.

   - gh-125541(72): Pressing ‘Ctrl’-‘C’ while blocked in *note
     threading.Lock.acquire(): a87, *note threading.RLock.acquire():
     122c, and *note threading.Thread.join(): 158d. now interrupts the
     function call and raises a *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96. exception
     on Windows, similar to how those functions behave on macOS and
     Linux.

   - gh-125519(73): Improve traceback if *note importlib.reload(): 928.
     is called with an object that is not a module.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-125451(74): Fix deadlock when *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. shuts down
     concurrently with an error when feeding a job to a worker process.

   - gh-125115(75): Fixed a bug in *note pdb: aa. where arguments
     starting with ‘-’ can’t be passed to the debugged script.

   - gh-125398(76): Fix the conversion of the ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ path in the
     activate script in *note venv: 11a. when running in Git Bash for
     Windows.

   - gh-125245(77): Fix race condition when importing *note
     collections.abc: 1f, which could incorrectly return an empty
     module.

   - gh-52551(78): Fix encoding issues in *note time.strftime(): 1592,
     the *note strftime(): 1051. method of the *note datetime: 33.
     classes *note datetime: 6e7, *note date: 48d. and *note time: 48e.
     and formatting of these classes.  Characters not encodable in the
     current locale are now acceptable in the format string.  Surrogate
     pairs and sequence of surrogatescape-encoded bytes are no longer
     recombinated.  Embedded null character no longer terminates the
     format string.

   - gh-124984(79): Fixed thread safety in *note ssl: d8. in the
     free-threaded build.  OpenSSL operations are now protected by a
     per-object lock.

   - gh-124651(80): Properly quote template strings in *note venv: 11a.
     activation scripts.

   - gh-124694(81): We’ve added *note
     concurrent.futures.InterpreterPoolExecutor: 46a, which allows you
     to run code in multiple isolated interpreters.  This allows you to
     circumvent the limitations of CPU-bound threads (due to the GIL).
     Patch by Eric Snow.

     This addition is unrelated to PEP 734(82).

   - gh-58032(83): Deprecate the *note argparse.FileType: 31e. type
     converter.

   - gh-99749(84): Adds a feature to optionally enable suggestions for
     argument choices and subparser names if mistyped by the user.

   - gh-58956(85): Fixed a bug in *note pdb: aa. where sometimes the
     breakpoint won’t trigger if it was set on a function which is
     already in the call stack.

   - gh-124111(86): The tkinter module can now be built to use either
     the new version 9.0.0 of Tcl/Tk or the latest release 8.6.15 of
     Tcl/Tk 8.  Tcl/Tk 9 includes many improvements, both to the Tcl
     language and to the appearance and utility of the graphical user
     interface provided by Tk.

   - gh-80958(87): unittest discovery supports PEP 420 namespace
     packages as start directory again.

   - gh-123370(88): Fix the canvas not clearing after running turtledemo
     clock.

   - gh-89083(89): Add *note uuid.uuid8(): 540. for generating UUIDv8
     objects as specified in RFC 9562(90).  Patch by Bénédikt Tran

   - gh-122549(91): Add *note platform.invalidate_caches(): 505. to
     invalidate cached results.

   - gh-120754(92): Update unbounded ‘read’ calls in *note zipfile: 13a.
     to specify an explicit ‘size’ putting a limit on how much data they
     may read.  This also updates handling around ZIP max comment size
     to match the standard instead of reading comments that are one byte
     too long.

   - gh-121267(93): Improve the performance of *note tarfile: e7. when
     writing files, by caching user names and group names.

   - gh-70764(94): Fixed an issue where *note inspect.getclosurevars():
     1481. would incorrectly classify an attribute name as a global
     variable when the name exists both as an attribute name and a
     global variable.

   - gh-118289(95): ‘posixpath.realpath()’ now raises *note
     NotADirectoryError: 1402. when 'strict' mode is enabled and a
     non-directory path with a trailing slash is supplied.

   - gh-119826(96): Always return an absolute path for *note
     os.path.abspath(): 16bf. on Windows.

   - gh-97850(97): Remove deprecated ‘pkgutil.get_loader()’ and
     ‘pkgutil.find_loader()’.

   - gh-118986(98): Add ‘socket.IPV6_RECVERR’ constant (available since
     Linux 2.2).

   - gh-116897(99): Accepting objects with false values (like ‘0’ and
     ‘[]’) except empty strings, byte-like objects and ‘None’ in *note
     urllib.parse: 113. functions *note parse_qsl(): 588. and *note
     parse_qs(): 589. is now deprecated.

   - gh-101955(100): Fix SystemError when match regular expression
     pattern containing some combination of possessive quantifier,
     alternative and capture group.

   - gh-71936(101): Fix a race condition in *note
     multiprocessing.pool.Pool: 1315.

   - bpo-46128(102): Strip *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342.
     stack frames from reported stacktraces.

   - gh-84852(103): Add MIME types for MS Embedded OpenType, OpenType
     Layout, TrueType, WOFF 1.0 and 2.0 fonts.  Patch by Sahil Prajapati
     and Hugo van Kemenade.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85957

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126920

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67877

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125063

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126789

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126188

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126766

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126705

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126699

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126654

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104745

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126595

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120423

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126565

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126505

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117378

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125679

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126476

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126489

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126451

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126175

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89416

   (23) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9559.html

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126417

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126390

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126374

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126363

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126353

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126313

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126303

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126138

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120057

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126220

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126212

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126223

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126205

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126156

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126105

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126106

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126080

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125322

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126083

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126068

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125413

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125984

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125926

   (47) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125969

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125966

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125789

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126916

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124452

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117941

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125884

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125355

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125767

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124969

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84850

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125666

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125710

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125631

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125378

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125682

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125660

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52551

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125259

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125633

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125614

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125590

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125600

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125542

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125541

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125519

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125451

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125115

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125398

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125245

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52551

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124984

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124651

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124694

   (82) https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58032

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99749

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58956

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124111

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80958

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123370

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89083

   (90) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122549

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120754

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121267

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70764

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118289

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119826

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118986

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116897

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101955

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71936

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46128

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84852


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<13>,  Next: Core and Builtins<45>,  Prev: Library<47>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.6 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-126622(1): Added stub pages for removed modules explaining their
     removal, where to find replacements, and linking to the last Python
     version that supported them.  Contributed by Ned Batchelder.

   - gh-125277(2): Require Sphinx 7.2.6 or later to build the Python
     documentation.  Patch by Adam Turner.

   - gh-60712(3): Include the *note object: e4d. type in the lists of
     documented types.  Change by Furkan Onder and Martin Panter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126622

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125277

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60712


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<45>,  Next: Library<48>,  Prev: Documentation<13>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.7 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-126795(1): Increase the threshold for JIT code warmup.
     Depending on platform and workload, this can result in performance
     gains of 1-9% and memory savings of 3-5%.

   - gh-126341(2): Now *note ValueError: 277. is raised instead of *note
     SystemError: 3ea. when trying to iterate over a released *note
     memoryview: 1d2. object.

   - gh-126688(3): Fix a crash when calling *note os.fork(): 6bd. on
     some operating systems, including SerenityOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126795

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126341

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126688


File: python.info,  Node: Library<48>,  Next: Core and Builtins<46>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<45>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.8 Library
.................

   - gh-126066(1): Fix *note importlib: 7a. to not write an incomplete
     .pyc files when a ulimit or some other operating system mechanism
     is preventing the write to go through fully.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126066


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<46>,  Next: Library<49>,  Prev: Library<48>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.9 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-126222(1): Do not include count of «peek» items in
     ‘_PyUop_num_popped’.  This ensures that the correct number of items
     are popped from the stack when a micro-op exits with an error.

   - gh-126366(2): Fix crash when using ‘yield from’ on an object that
     raises an exception in its ‘__iter__’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126222

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126366


File: python.info,  Node: Library<49>,  Next: Core and Builtins<47>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<46>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.10 Library
..................

   - gh-126209(1): Fix an issue with ‘skip_file_prefixes’ parameter
     which resulted in an inconsistent behaviour between the C and
     Python implementations of *note warnings.warn(): 18bb.  Patch by
     Daehee Kim.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126209


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<47>,  Next: Library<50>,  Prev: Library<49>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.11 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-126312(1): Fix crash during garbage collection on an object
     frozen by *note gc.freeze(): ef8. on the free-threaded build.

   - gh-103951(2): Relax optimization requirements to allow fast
     attribute access to module subclasses.

   - gh-126072(3): Following gh-126101(4), for *note Code Objects: 9b4.
     like lambda, annotation and type alias, we no longer add ‘None’ to
     its *note co_consts: 1abf.

   - gh-126195(5): Improve JIT performance by 1.4% on macOS Apple
     Silicon by using platform-specific memory protection APIs.  Patch
     by Diego Russo.

   - gh-126139(6): Provide better error location when attempting to use
     a *note future statement: 1166. with an unknown future feature.

   - gh-126072(7): Add a new attribute in *note co_flags: 1afc. to
     indicate whether the first item in *note co_consts: 1abf. is the
     docstring.  If a code object has no docstring, ‘None’ will 'NOT' be
     inserted.

   - gh-126076(8): Relocated objects such as ‘tuple’, ‘bytes’ and ‘str’
     objects are properly tracked by *note tracemalloc: 108. and its
     associated hooks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-90370(9): Avoid temporary tuple creation for vararg in argument
     passing with Argument Clinic generated code (if arguments either
     vararg or positional-only).

   - gh-126018(10): Fix a crash in *note sys.audit(): 1b36. when passing
     a non-string as first argument and Python was compiled in debug
     mode.

   - gh-126012(11): The *note memoryview: 1d2. type now supports
     subscription, making it a *note generic type: 1d1.

   - gh-125837(12): Adds *note LOAD_SMALL_INT: 59d. and
     ‘LOAD_CONST_IMMORTAL’ instructions.  ‘LOAD_SMALL_INT’ pushes a
     small integer equal to the ‘oparg’ to the stack.
     ‘LOAD_CONST_IMMORTAL’ does the same as ‘LOAD_CONST’ but is more
     efficient for immortal objects.  Removes ‘RETURN_CONST’
     instruction.

   - gh-125942(13): On Android, the ‘errors’ setting of *note
     sys.stdout: e9c. was changed from ‘surrogateescape’ to
     ‘backslashreplace’.

   - gh-125859(14): Fix a crash in the free threading build when *note
     gc.get_objects(): bdd. or *note gc.get_referrers(): bde. is called
     during an in-progress garbage collection.

   - gh-125868(15): It was possible in 3.14.0a1 only for attribute
     lookup to give the wrong value.  This was due to an incorrect
     specialization in very specific circumstances.  This is fixed in
     3.14.0a2.

   - gh-125498(16): The JIT has been updated to leverage Clang 19’s new
     ‘preserve_none’ attribute, which supports more platforms and is
     more useful than LLVM’s existing ‘ghccc’ calling convention.  This
     also removes the need to manually patch the calling convention in
     LLVM IR, simplifying the JIT compilation process.

   - gh-125703(17): Correctly honour *note tracemalloc: 108. hooks in
     specialized ‘Py_DECREF’ paths.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-125593(18): Use color to highlight error locations in traceback
     from exception group

   - gh-125017(19): Fix crash on certain accesses to the
     ‘__annotations__’ of *note staticmethod: 666. and *note
     classmethod: 69a. objects.

   - gh-125588(20): The Python PEG generator can now use f-strings in
     the grammar actions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-125444(21): Fix illegal instruction for older Arm architectures.
     Patch by Diego Russo, testing by Ross Burton.

   - gh-118423(22): Add a new ‘INSTRUCTION_SIZE’ macro to the cases
     generator which returns the current instruction size.

   - gh-125038(23): Fix crash when iterating over a generator expression
     after direct changes on ‘gi_frame.f_locals’.  Patch by Mikhail
     Efimov.

   - gh-124855(24): Don’t allow the JIT and perf support to be active at
     the same time.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-123714(25): Update JIT compilation to use LLVM 19

   - gh-123930(26): Improve the error message when a script shadowing a
     module from the standard library causes *note ImportError: 1bd. to
     be raised during a «from» import.  Similarly, improve the error
     message when a script shadowing a third party module attempts to
     «from» import an attribute from that third party module while still
     initialising.

   - gh-119793(27): The *note map(): 43e. built-in now has an optional
     keyword-only 'strict' flag like *note zip(): 43f. to check that all
     the iterables are of equal length.  Patch by Wannes Boeykens.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126312

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103951

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126072

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126101

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126195

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126139

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126072

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126076

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90370

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126018

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126012

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125837

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125942

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125859

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125868

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125498

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125703

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125593

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125017

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125588

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125444

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118423

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125038

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124855

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123714

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123930

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119793


File: python.info,  Node: Library<50>,  Next: C API<15>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<47>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.12 Library
..................

   - gh-118950(1): Fix bug where SSLProtocol.connection_lost wasn’t
     getting called when OSError was thrown on writing to socket.

   - gh-113570(2): Fixed a bug in ‘reprlib.repr’ where it incorrectly
     called the repr method on shadowed Python built-in types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118950

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113570


File: python.info,  Node: C API<15>,  Next: Build<14>,  Prev: Library<50>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.13 C API
................

   - gh-126554(1): Fix error handling in *note ctypes.CDLL: dad. objects
     which could result in a crash in rare situations.

   - gh-126061(2): Add *note PyLong_IsPositive(): 5c8, *note
     PyLong_IsNegative(): 5c9. and *note PyLong_IsZero(): 5ca. for
     checking if a *note PyLongObject: 5cb. is positive, negative, or
     zero, respectively.

   - gh-125608(3): Fix a bug where dictionary watchers (e.g., *note
     PyDict_Watch(): 969.) on an object’s attribute dictionary (*note
     __dict__: 1bf.) were not triggered when the object’s attributes
     were modified.

   - gh-123619(4): Added the *note
     PyUnstable_Object_EnableDeferredRefcount(): 5f1. function for
     enabling PEP 703(5) deferred reference counting.

   - gh-121654(6): Add *note PyType_Freeze(): 5dc. function to make a
     type immutable.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-120026(7): The ‘Py_HUGE_VAL’ macro is *note soft deprecated:
     1a7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126554

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126061

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125608

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123619

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121654

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120026


File: python.info,  Node: Build<14>,  Prev: C API<15>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2

1.26.17.14 Build
................

   - gh-126691(1): Removed the ‘--with-emscripten-target’ configure
     flag.  We unified the ‘node’ and ‘browser’ options and the same
     build can now be used, independent of target runtime.

   - gh-123877(2): Use ‘wasm32-wasip1’ as the target triple for WASI
     instead of ‘wasm32-wasi’.  The latter will eventually be reclaimed
     for WASI 1.0 while CPython currently only supports WASI preview1.

   - gh-126458(3): Disable SIMD support for HACL under WASI.

   - gh-89640(4): Hard-code float word ordering as little endian on
     WASM.

   - gh-126206(5): ‘make clinic’ now runs Argument Clinic using the
     ‘--force’ option, thus forcefully regenerating generated code.

   - gh-126187(6): Introduced ‘Tools/wasm/emscripten.py’ to simplify
     doing Emscripten builds.

   - gh-124932(7): For cross builds, there is now support for having a
     different install ‘prefix’ than the ‘host_prefix’ used by
     ‘getpath.py’.  This is set to ‘/’ by default for Emscripten, on
     other platforms the default behavior is the same as before.

   - gh-125946(8): The minimum supported Android version is now 7.0 (API
     level 24).

   - gh-125940(9): The Android build now supports 16 KB page sizes(10).

   - gh-89640(11): Improve detection of float word ordering on Linux
     when link-time optimizations are enabled.

   - gh-124928(12): Emscripten builds now require node >= 18.

   - gh-115382(13): Fix cross compile failures when the host and target
     SOABIs match.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126691

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123877

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126458

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89640

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126206

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126187

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124932

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125946

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125940

   (10) https://developer.android.com/guide/practices/page-sizes

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89640

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124928

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115382


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 13 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 14 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.18 Python 3.14.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-10-15'

* Menu:

* macOS: macOS<9>.
* Windows: Windows<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<13>.
* Tests: Tests<17>.
* Security: Security<15>.
* Library: Library<51>.
* IDLE: IDLE<8>.
* Documentation: Documentation<14>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<48>.
* Library: Library<52>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<49>.
* Library: Library<53>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<50>.
* Library: Library<54>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<51>.
* Library: Library<55>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<52>.
* Library: Library<56>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<53>.
* Library: Library<57>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<54>.
* Library: Library<58>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<55>.
* C API: C API<16>.
* Build: Build<15>.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<9>,  Next: Windows<13>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.1 macOS
...............

   - gh-124448(1): Update bundled Tcl/Tk in macOS installer to 8.6.15.

   - gh-123797(2): Check for runtime availability of ‘ptsname_r’
     function on macos.

   - gh-123418(3): Updated macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124448

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123797

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<13>,  Next: Tools/Demos<13>,  Prev: macOS<9>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.2 Windows
.................

   - gh-124487(1): Increases Windows required OS and API level to
     Windows 10.

   - gh-124609(2): Fix ‘_Py_ThreadId’ for Windows builds using MinGW.
     Patch by Tony Roberts.

   - gh-124448(3): Updated bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.15.

   - gh-124254(4): Ensures experimental free-threaded binaries remain
     installed when updating.

   - gh-123915(5): Ensure that ‘Tools\msi\buildrelease.bat’ uses
     different directories for AMD64 and ARM64 builds.

   - gh-123418(6): Updated Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

   - gh-123476(7): Add support for ‘socket.TCP_QUICKACK’ on Windows
     platforms.

   - gh-122573(8): The Windows build of CPython now requires 3.10 or
     newer.

   - gh-100256(9): *note mimetypes: 93. no longer fails when it
     encounters an inaccessible registry key.

   - gh-119679(10): Ensures correct import libraries are included in
     Windows installs.

   - gh-119690(11): Adds Unicode support and fixes audit events for
     ‘_winapi.CreateNamedPipe’.

   - gh-111201(12): Add support for new pyrepl on Windows

   - gh-119070(13): Fixes ‘py.exe’ handling of shebangs like
     ‘/usr/bin/env python3.12’, which were previously interpreted as
     ‘python3.exe’ instead of ‘python3.12.exe’.

   - gh-117505(14): Fixes an issue with the Windows installer not
     running ensurepip in a fully isolated environment.  This could
     cause unexpected interactions with the user site-packages.

   - gh-118209(15): Avoid crashing in *note mmap: 94. on Windows when
     the mapped memory is inaccessible due to file system errors or
     access violations.

   - gh-79846(16): Makes ‘ssl.create_default_context()’ ignore invalid
     certificates in the Windows certificate store

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124487

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124609

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124448

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124254

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123915

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123476

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122573

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100256

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119679

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119690

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119070

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117505

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118209

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79846


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<13>,  Next: Tests<17>,  Prev: Windows<13>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.3 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-123418(1): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.15 and
     multissltests to use 3.0.15, 3.1.7, and 3.2.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<17>,  Next: Security<15>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<13>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.4 Tests
...............

   - gh-125041(1): Re-enable skipped tests for *note zlib: 13c. on the
     s390x architecture: only skip checks of the compressed bytes, which
     can be different between zlib’s software implementation and the
     hardware-accelerated implementation.

   - gh-124378(2): Updated ‘test_ttk’ to pass with Tcl/Tk 8.6.15.

   - gh-124213(3): Detect whether the test suite is running inside a
     systemd-nspawn container with ‘--suppress-sync=true’ option, and
     skip the ‘test_os’ and ‘test_mmap’ tests that are failing in this
     scenario.

   - gh-124190(4): Add capability to ignore entire files or directories
     in check warning CI tool

   - gh-121921(5): Update ‘Lib/test/crashers/bogus_code_obj.py’ so that
     it crashes properly again.

   - gh-112301(6): Add tooling to check for changes in compiler
     warnings.  Patch by Nate Ohlson.

   - gh-59022(7): Add tests for *note pkgutil.extend_path(): 1b3f.
     Patch by Andreas Stocker.

   - gh-99242(8): *note os.getloadavg(): 1b40. may throw *note OSError:
     53c. when running regression tests under certain conditions (e.g.
     chroot).  This error is now caught and ignored, since reporting
     load average is optional.

   - gh-121084(9): Fix test_typing random leaks.  Clear typing ABC
     caches when running tests for refleaks (‘-R’ option): call
     ‘_abc_caches_clear()’ on typing abstract classes and their
     subclasses.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-121160(10): Add a test for *note readline.set_history_length():
     1b41.  Note that this test may fail on readline libraries.

   - gh-121200(11): Fix ‘test_expanduser_pwd2()’ of ‘test_posixpath’.
     Call ‘getpwnam()’ to get ‘pw_dir’, since it can be different than
     ‘getpwall()’ ‘pw_dir’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-121188(12): When creating the JUnit XML file, regrtest now
     escapes characters which are invalid in XML, such as the chr(27)
     control character used in ANSI escape sequences.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-120801(13): Cleaned up fixtures for importlib.metadata tests and
     consolidated behavior with “test.support.os_helper”.

   - gh-119727(14): Add ‘--single-process’ command line option to Python
     test runner (regrtest).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-119273(15): Python test runner no longer runs tests using TTY
     (ex: test_ioctl) in a process group (using ‘setsid()’).
     Previously, tests using TTY were skipped.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-119050(16): regrtest test runner: Add XML support to the refleak
     checker (-R option).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-101525(17): Skip ‘test_gdb’ if the binary is relocated by BOLT.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-107562(18): Test certificates have been updated to expire far in
     the future.  This allows testing Y2038 with system time set to
     after that, so that actual Y2038 issues can be exposed, and not
     masked by expired certificate errors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125041

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124378

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124213

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124190

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121921

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112301

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59022

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99242

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121084

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121160

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121200

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121188

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120801

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119727

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119273

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119050

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101525

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107562


File: python.info,  Node: Security<15>,  Next: Library<51>,  Prev: Tests<17>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.5 Security
..................

   - gh-125140(1): Remove the current directory from ‘sys.path’ when
     using PyREPL.

   - gh-123678(2): Upgrade libexpat to 2.6.3

   - gh-112301(3): Enable compiler options that warn of potential
     security vulnerabilities.

   - gh-122792(4): Changed IPv4-mapped ‘ipaddress.IPv6Address’ to
     consistently use the mapped IPv4 address value for deciding
     properties.  Properties which have their behavior fixed are
     ‘is_multicast’, ‘is_reserved’, ‘is_link_local’, ‘is_global’, and
     ‘is_unspecified’.

   - gh-112301(5): Add ability to ignore warnings per file with warning
     count in warning checking tooling.  Patch by Nate Ohlson.

   - gh-112301(6): Add macOS warning tracking to warning check tooling.
     Patch by Nate Ohlson.

   - gh-122133(7): Authenticate the socket connection for the
     ‘socket.socketpair()’ fallback on platforms where ‘AF_UNIX’ is not
     available like Windows.

     Patch by Gregory P. Smith <<greg@krypto.org>> and Seth Larson
     <<seth@python.org>>.  Reported by Ellie <<el@horse64.org>>

   - gh-121957(8): Fixed missing audit events around interactive use of
     Python, now also properly firing for ‘python -i’, as well as for
     ‘python -m asyncio’.  The events in question are
     ‘cpython.run_stdin’ and ‘cpython.run_startup’.

   - gh-112301(9): Enable runtime protections for glibc to abort
     execution when unsafe behavior is encountered, for all platforms
     except Windows.

   - gh-121285(10): Remove backtracking from tarfile header parsing for
     ‘hdrcharset’, PAX, and GNU sparse headers.

   - gh-112301(11): Add default compiler options to improve security.
     Enable -Wimplicit-fallthrough, -fstack-protector-strong,
     -Wtrampolines.

   - gh-118773(12): Fixes creation of ACLs in *note os.mkdir(): 72e. on
     Windows to work correctly on non-English machines.

   - gh-118486(13): *note os.mkdir(): 72e. on Windows now accepts 'mode'
     of ‘0o700’ to restrict the new directory to the current user.  This
     fixes CVE 2024-4030(14) affecting *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 730. in
     scenarios where the base temporary directory is more permissive
     than the default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125140

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123678

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112301

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122792

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112301

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112301

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122133

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121957

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112301

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121285

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112301

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118773

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486

   (14) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030


File: python.info,  Node: Library<51>,  Next: IDLE<8>,  Prev: Security<15>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.6 Library
.................

   - gh-125422(1): Fixed the bug where *note pdb: aa. and *note bdb: 10.
     can step into the bottom caller frame.

   - gh-100141(2): Fixed the bug where *note pdb: aa. will be stuck in
     an infinite loop when debugging an empty file.

   - gh-53203(3): Fix *note time.strptime(): 17cf. for ‘%c’, ‘%x’ and
     ‘%X’ formats in many locales that use non-ASCII digits, like
     Persian, Burmese, Odia and Shan.

   - gh-125206(4): Workaround for old libffi versions is added.  Module
     ctypes supports double complex only with libffi >= 3.3.0.  Patch by
     Mikhail Efimov.

   - gh-89967(5): Make *note WeakKeyDictionary: 1b44. and *note
     WeakValueDictionary: 1b45. safe against concurrent mutations from
     other threads.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-125260(6): The *note gzip.compress(): a2d. 'mtime' parameter now
     defaults to 0 for reproducible output.  Patch by Bernhard M.
     Wiedemann and Adam Turner.

   - gh-125243(7): Fix data race when creating *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo:
     cb1. objects in the free threading build.

   - gh-125254(8): Fix a bug where ArgumentError includes the incorrect
     ambiguous option in *note argparse: 7.

   - gh-125235(9): Keep *note tkinter: f9. TCL paths in venv pointing to
     base installation on Windows.

   - gh-61011(10): Fix inheritance of nested mutually exclusive groups
     from parent parser in *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc.
     Previously, all nested mutually exclusive groups lost their
     connection to the group containing them and were displayed as
     belonging directly to the parser.

   - gh-125118(11): Don’t copy arbitrary values to _Bool in the *note
     struct: de. module.

   - gh-125069(12): Fix an issue where providing a *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 8b6. object as an initializer argument to a
     second ‘PurePath’ object with a different *note parser: 739.
     resulted in arguments to the former object’s initializer being
     joined by the latter object’s parser.

   - gh-125096(13): If the *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 452. environment
     variable is set, the *note site: cf. module no longer imports the
     ‘_pyrepl’ module.  Moreover, the ‘site’ module now respects *note
     -E: d27. and *note -I: d28. command line options: ignore
     ‘PYTHON_BASIC_REPL’ in this case.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-124969(14): Fix ‘locale.nl_langinfo(locale.ALT_DIGITS)’.  Now it
     returns a tuple of up to 100 strings (an empty tuple on most
     locales).  Previously it returned the first item of that tuple or
     an empty string.

   - gh-124960(15): Fix support for the ‘barry_as_FLUFL’ future flag in
     the new REPL.

   - gh-69998(16): Fix *note locale.nl_langinfo(): 667. in case when
     different categories have different locales.  The function now sets
     temporarily the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale in some cases.  This temporary
     change affects other threads.

   - gh-124958(17): Fix refcycles in exceptions raised from *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup: 6d7. and the python implementation of *note
     asyncio.Future: f8b.

   - gh-53203(18): Fix *note time.strptime(): 17cf. for ‘%c’ and ‘%x’
     formats in many locales: Arabic, Bislama, Breton, Bodo, Kashubian,
     Chuvash, Estonian, French, Irish, Ge’ez, Gurajati, Manx Gaelic,
     Hebrew, Hindi, Chhattisgarhi, Haitian Kreyol, Japanese, Kannada,
     Korean, Marathi, Malay, Norwegian, Nynorsk, Punjabi, Rajasthani,
     Tok Pisin, Yoruba, Yue Chinese, Yau/Nungon and Chinese.

   - gh-123961(19): Convert *note curses: 2e. to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(20)), thereby fixing reference leaks at
     interpreter shutdown.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-124944(21): Add ‘SO_ORIGINAL_DST’ to the *note socket: d4.
     module.

   - gh-117151(22): The default buffer size used by *note
     shutil.copyfileobj(): e21. has been increased from 64k to 256k on
     non-Windows platforms.  It was already larger on Windows.

   - gh-90102(23): Skip the ‘isatty’ system call during open() when the
     file is known to not be a character device.  This provides a slight
     performance improvement when reading whole files.

   - gh-124917(24): Allow calling *note os.path.exists(): dd2. and *note
     os.path.lexists(): dd3. with keyword arguments on Windows.  Fixes a
     regression in 3.13.0.

   - gh-65865(25): *note argparse: 7. now raises early error for invalid
     ‘help’ arguments to *note add_argument(): 3ed, *note
     add_subparsers(): fd6. and ‘add_parser()’.

   - gh-124653(26): Fix detection of the minimal Queue API needed by the
     *note logging: 8a. module.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-91818(27): The CLI of many modules (*note ast: 9, *note
     ensurepip: 58, *note json: 85, *note pdb: aa, *note sqlite3: d7,
     *note tokenize: 104, *note venv: 11a.) now uses the actual
     executable name instead of simply «python» to display in the usage
     message.

   - gh-124858(28): Fix reference cycles left in tracebacks in *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): edc. when used with
     ‘happy_eyeballs_delay’

   - gh-124390(29): Fixed *note AssertionError: a97. when using
     ‘asyncio.staggered.staggered_race()’ with *note
     asyncio.eager_task_factory: 88d.

   - gh-85935(30): *note argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 3ed.
     now raises an exception if an *note action: 1b46. that does not
     consume arguments (like “store_const” or “store_true”) or explicit
     ‘nargs=0’ are specified for positional arguments.

   - gh-124835(31): Make *note tomllib.loads(): 1b47. raise *note
     TypeError: 291. not *note AttributeError: 1a9. on bad input types
     that do not have the ‘replace’ attribute.  Improve error message
     when *note bytes: 1c7. is received.

   - gh-124693(32): Fix a bug where *note argparse: 7. doesn’t recognize
     negative complex numbers or negative numbers using scientific
     notation.

   - gh-124787(33): Fix *note typing.TypeAliasType: 52a. with incorrect
     ‘type_params’ argument.  Now it raises a *note TypeError: 291. when
     a type parameter without a default follows one with a default, and
     when an entry in the ‘type_params’ tuple is not a type parameter
     object.

   - gh-66436(34): Improved *note prog: 457. default value for *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc.  It will now include the name of the
     Python executable along with the module or package name, or the
     path to a directory, ZIP file, or directory within a ZIP file if
     the code was run that way.

   - gh-116850(35): Fix *note argparse: 7. for namespaces with not
     directly writable dict (e.g.  classes).

   - gh-101552(36): Add an 'annoation_format' parameter to *note
     inspect.signature(): 4bd.  Add an 'quote_annotation_strings'
     parameter to *note inspect.Signature.format(): 4bf.  Use the new
     functionality to improve the display of annotations in signatures
     in *note pydoc: bd.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-58573(37): Fix conflicts between abbreviated long options in the
     parent parser and subparsers in *note argparse: 7.

   - gh-124594(38): All *note asyncio: b. REPL prompts run in the same
     *note context: 421.  Contributed by Bartosz Sławecki.

   - gh-61181(39): Fix support of *note choices: 1b48. with string value
     in *note argparse: 7.  Substrings of the specified string no longer
     considered valid values.

   - gh-116750(40): Provide *note sys.monitoring.clear_tool_id(): 1b49.
     to unregister all events and callbacks set by the tool.

   - gh-124552(41): Improve the accuracy of *note bdb: 10.’s check for
     the possibility of breakpoint in a frame.  This makes it possible
     to disable unnecessary events in functions.

   - gh-124538(42): Fixed crash when using *note gc.get_referents():
     bdf. on a capsule object.

   - gh-80259(43): Fix *note argparse: 7. support of positional
     arguments with ‘nargs='?'’, ‘default=argparse.SUPPRESS’ and
     specified ‘type’.

   - gh-120378(44): Fix a crash related to an integer overflow in *note
     curses.resizeterm(): 1b4a. and *note curses.resize_term(): 1b4b.

   - gh-124498(45): Fix *note typing.TypeAliasType: 52a. not to be
     generic, when ‘type_params’ is an empty tuple.

   - gh-53834(46): Fix support of arguments with *note choices: 1b48. in
     *note argparse: 7.  Positional arguments with *note nargs: 1936.
     equal to ‘'?'’ or ‘'*'’ no longer check *note default: 1b4c.
     against ‘choices’.  Optional arguments with ‘nargs’ equal to ‘'?'’
     no longer check *note const: 1b4d. against ‘choices’.

   - gh-123884(47): Fixed bug in itertools.tee() handling of other tee
     inputs (a tee in a tee).  The output now has the promised 'n'
     independent new iterators.  Formerly, the first iterator was
     identical (not independent) to the input iterator.  This would
     sometimes give surprising results.

   - gh-123017(48): Due to unreliable results on some devices, *note
     time.strftime(): 1592. no longer accepts negative years on Android.

   - gh-123014(49): *note os.pidfd_open(): 267. and *note
     signal.pidfd_send_signal(): cf8. are now unavailable when building
     against Android API levels older than 31, since the underlying
     system calls may cause a crash.

   - gh-124176(50): Add support for *note dataclasses.dataclass(): 6e6.
     in *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1b4e.  Now
     ‘create_autospec’ will check for potential dataclasses and use
     *note dataclasses.fields(): 1b4f. function to retrieve the spec
     information.

   - gh-124345(51): *note argparse: 7. supports abbreviated single-dash
     long options separated by ‘=’ from its value.

   - gh-124400(52): Fixed a *note pdb: aa. bug where ‘until’ has no
     effect when it appears in a ‘commands’ sequence.  Also avoid
     printing the frame information at a breakpoint that has a command
     list containing a command that resumes execution.

   - gh-90562(53): Modify dataclasses to support zero-argument super()
     when ‘slots=True’ is specified.  This works by modifying all
     references to ‘__class__’ to point to the newly created class.

   - gh-104860(54): Fix disallowing abbreviation of single-dash long
     options in *note argparse: 7. with ‘allow_abbrev=False’.

   - gh-63143(55): Fix parsing mutually exclusive arguments in *note
     argparse: 7.  Arguments with the value identical to the default
     value (e.g.  booleans, small integers, empty or 1-character
     strings) are no longer considered «not present».

   - gh-72795(56): Positional arguments with *note nargs: 1936. equal to
     ‘'*'’ or ‘argparse.REMAINDER’ are no longer required.  This allows
     to use positional argument with ‘nargs='*'’ and without ‘default’
     in mutually exclusive group and improves error message about
     required arguments.

   - gh-59317(57): Fix parsing positional argument with *note nargs:
     1936. equal to ‘'?'’ or ‘'*'’ if it is preceded by an option and
     another positional argument.

   - gh-100980(58): The *note _fields_: 1b50. attribute of *note
     ctypes.Structure: 47c. and *note Union: 47d. is no longer set if
     the setattr operation raises an error.

   - gh-53780(59): *note argparse: 7. now ignores the first ‘"--"’
     (double dash) between an option and command.

   - gh-124217(60): Add RFC 9637 reserved IPv6 block ‘3fff::/20’ in
     *note ipaddress: 83. module.

   - gh-111513(61): Improve the error message that may be raised by
     *note datetime.date.fromtimestamp(): f92.

   - gh-124248(62): Fixed potential crash when using *note struct: de.
     to process zero-width “Pascal string” fields (‘0p’).

   - gh-81691(63): Fix handling of multiple ‘"--"’ (double dashes) in
     *note argparse: 7.  Only the first one has now been removed, all
     subsequent ones are now taken literally.

   - gh-87041(64): Fix a bug in *note argparse: 7. where lengthy
     subparser argument help is incorrectly indented.

   - gh-84559(65): The default *note multiprocessing: 98. start method
     on Linux and other POSIX systems has been changed away from often
     unsafe ‘"fork"’ to ‘"forkserver"’ (when the platform supports
     sending file handles over pipes as most do) or ‘"spawn"’.  Mac and
     Windows are unchanged as they already default to ‘"spawn"’.

   - gh-124212(66): Fix invalid variable in *note venv: 11a. handling of
     failed symlink on Windows

   - gh-124171(67): Add workaround for broken ‘fmod()’ implementations
     on Windows, that loose zero sign (e.g.  ‘fmod(-10, 1)’ returns
     ‘0.0’).  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-123978(68): Remove broken *note time.thread_time(): d03. and
     *note time.thread_time_ns(): f50. on NetBSD.

   - gh-123934(69): Fix *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: 1240. resetting
     magic methods return values after ‘.reset_mock(return_value=True)’
     was called.

   - gh-124016(70): Update *note unicodedata: 10e. database to Unicode
     16.0.0.

   - gh-123968(71): Fix the command-line interface for the *note random:
     c0. module to select floats between 0 and N, not 1 and N.

   - gh-123945(72): Fix a bug where *note argparse: 7. doesn’t recognize
     negative numbers with underscores

   - gh-123935(73): Fix parent slots detection for dataclasses that
     inherit from classes with ‘__dictoffset__’.

   - gh-123892(74): Add ‘"_wmi"’ to *note sys.stdlib_module_names: c1a.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-84808(75): Fix error handling in *note socket: 115a. method
     *note connect_ex(): 18db. on platforms where ‘errno’ can be
     negative.

   - gh-123756(76): Added a new argument ‘mode’ to *note pdb.Pdb: 4fb.
     Only allow *note pdb: aa. from command line to use ‘restart’
     command.

   - gh-122765(77): Fix unbalanced quote errors occurring when
     activate.csh in *note venv: 11a. was sourced with a custom prompt
     containing unpaired quotes or newlines.

   - gh-123657(78): Fix crash and memory leak in *note
     decimal.getcontext(): 1b51.  It crashed when using a thread-local
     context by ‘--with-decimal-contextvar=no’.

   - gh-123339(79): Fix *note inspect.getsource(): 1a04. for classes in
     *note collections.abc: 1f. and *note decimal: 39. (for pure Python
     implementation) modules.  *note inspect.getcomments(): 1b52. now
     raises OSError instead of IndexError if the ‘__firstlineno__’ value
     for a class is out of bound.

   - gh-123374(80): Remove check for redefined memo entry in *note
     pickletools.dis(): 1080.

   - gh-123504(81): Fixed reference leak in the finalization of *note
     tkinter: f9.

   - gh-123430(82): Pages generated by the *note http.server: 75. module
     allow the browser to apply its default dark mode.

   - gh-123446(83): Fix empty function name in *note TypeError: 291.
     when *note csv.reader(): 898, *note csv.writer(): 899, or *note
     csv.register_dialect(): 1b53. are used without the required args.

   - gh-123448(84): Fixed memory leak of *note typing.NoDefault: 76a. by
     moving it to the static types array.

   - gh-123409(85): Fix *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.reverse_pointer:
     1b54. output according to RFC 3596, §2.5(86).  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-123089(87): Make *note weakref.WeakSet: 9d7. safe against
     concurrent mutations while it is being iterated.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-123363(88): Show string value of *note CONTAINS_OP: 1b55. oparg
     in *note dis: 3b. output.  Patch by Alexandr153.

   - gh-123341(89): Add *note __class_getitem__(): b21. to
     ‘tkinter.Event’ for type subscript support at runtime.  Patch by
     Adonis Rakateli.

   - gh-123340(90): Show string value of *note IS_OP: 1b56. oparg in
     *note dis: 3b. output.

   - gh-119518(91): Speed up normalization of *note pathlib.PurePath:
     8b6. and *note Path: 4ee. objects by not interning string parts.

   - gh-123270(92): Applied a more surgical fix for malformed payloads
     in *note zipfile.Path: ab6. causing infinite loops (gh-122905(93))
     without breaking contents using legitimate characters.

   - gh-73991(94): Add *note pathlib.Path.copy_into(): 4f0. and *note
     move_into(): 4f2, which copy and move files and directories into
     'existing' directories.

   - gh-123228(95): Fix return type for
     ‘_pyrepl.readline._ReadlineWrapper.get_line_buffer()’ to be *note
     str(): 1df.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-123240(96): Raise audit events for the *note input(): 167d. in
     the new REPL.

   - gh-76960(97): Fix *note urllib.parse.urljoin(): 1247. and *note
     urllib.parse.urldefrag(): 2a5. for URIs containing empty
     components.  For example, ‘urljoin()’ with relative reference «?»
     now sets empty query and removes fragment.  Preserve empty
     components (authority, params, query, fragment) in ‘urljoin()’.
     Preserve empty components (authority, params, query) in
     ‘urldefrag()’.

   - gh-116810(98): Resolve a memory leak introduced in CPython 3.10’s
     *note ssl: d8. when the *note ssl.SSLSocket.session: 1b57. property
     was accessed.  Speeds up read and write access to said property by
     no longer unnecessarily cloning session objects via serialization.

   - gh-123243(99): Fix memory leak in ‘_decimal’.

   - gh-122546(100): Consistently use same file name for different
     exceptions in the new repl.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-123213(101): *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend(): 157c.
     and *note Element: 343. assignment no longer hide the internal
     exception if an erroneous generator is passed.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - gh-85110(102): Preserve relative path in URL without netloc in
     *note urllib.parse.urlunsplit(): 2a6. and *note
     urllib.parse.urlunparse(): 2a7.

   - gh-123165(103): Add support for rendering *note Positions: 1b58. in
     *note dis: 3b.

   - gh-122909(104): In urllib.request when URLError is raised opening
     an ftp URL, the exception argument is now consistently a string.
     Earlier versions passed either a string or an ftplib exception
     instance as the argument to URLError.

   - gh-123084(105): Deprecate ‘shutil.ExecError’, which hasn’t been
     raised by any *note shutil: cd. function since Python 3.4.  It’s
     now an alias for *note RuntimeError: 30d.

   - gh-123085(106): In a bare call to *note
     importlib.resources.files(): 2d7, ensure the caller’s frame is
     properly detected when ‘importlib.resources’ is itself available as
     a compiled module only (no source).

   - gh-123067(107): Fix quadratic complexity in parsing ‘"’-quoted
     cookie values with backslashes by *note http.cookies: 74.

   - gh-123049(108): Add support for *note UNNAMED_SECTION: 199c. in
     *note configparser.ConfigParser.add_section(): 1612.

   - gh-121735(109): When working with zip archives, importlib.resources
     now properly honors module-adjacent references (e.g.
     ‘files(pkg.mod)’ and not just ‘files(pkg)’).

   - gh-122981(110): Fix *note inspect.getsource(): 1a04. for generated
     classes with Python base classes (e.g.  enums).

   - gh-122903(111): ‘zipfile.Path.glob’ now correctly matches
     directories instead of silently omitting them.

   - gh-122905(112): *note zipfile.Path: ab6. objects now sanitize names
     from the zipfile.

   - gh-122873(113): Enable *note json: 85. module to work as a script
     using the *note -m: 4ca. switch: ‘python -m json’.  See the *note
     JSON command-line interface: 4cb. documentation.  Patch by Trey
     Hunner.

   - gh-122858(114): Deprecate ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ in favor
     of *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 302.

   - gh-116263(115): *note logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 1b59.
     no longer rolls over empty log files.

   - gh-105376(116): Restore the deprecated *note logging: 8a. ‘warn()’
     method.  It was removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1.  Keep the
     deprecated ‘warn()’ method in Python 3.13.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-122311(117): Improve errors in the *note pickle: ab. module.
     *note PicklingError: 1b5a. is now raised more often instead of
     *note UnicodeEncodeError: a67, *note ValueError: 277. and *note
     AttributeError: 1a9, and the original exception is chained to it.
     Improve and unify error messages in Python and C implementations.

   - gh-122744(118): Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to
     version 24.2.

   - gh-118761(119): Improve import time of *note pprint: b3. by around
     seven times.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-118974(120): Add ‘decorator’ parameter to *note
     dataclasses.make_dataclass(): 1a84. to customize the functional
     creation of dataclasses.

   - gh-118814(121): Fix the *note typing.TypeVar: 294. constructor when
     name is passed by keyword.

   - gh-122637(122): Adjust ‘cmath.tanh(nanj)’ and ‘cmath.tanh(infj)’
     for recent C standards.

   - gh-122478(123): Remove internal frames from tracebacks shown in
     *note code.InteractiveInterpreter: 1b5b. with non-default *note
     sys.excepthook(): be5.  Save correct tracebacks in *note
     sys.last_traceback: 8d1. and update ‘__traceback__’ attribute of
     *note sys.last_value: 8d0. and *note sys.last_exc: 8ce.

   - gh-116622(124): On Android, the ‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’
     constants are no longer exposed by *note fcntl: 5c, as these ioctls
     are blocked by SELinux.

   - gh-82378(125): Make sure that the new *note REPL: 69d. interprets
     *note sys.tracebacklimit: 1b5c. in the same way that the classic
     REPL did.

   - gh-122334(126): Fix crash when importing *note ssl: d8. after the
     main interpreter restarts.

   - gh-122459(127): Optimize *note pickling: ab. by name objects
     without the ‘__module__’ attribute.

   - gh-87320(128): In *note code.InteractiveInterpreter: 1b5b, handle
     exceptions caused by calling a non-default *note sys.excepthook():
     be5.  Before, the exception bubbled up to the caller, ending the
     *note REPL: 69d.

   - gh-122272(129): On some platforms such as Linux, year with century
     was not 0-padded when formatted by *note strftime(): 1051. with
     C99-specific specifiers ‘'%C'’ or ‘'%F'’.  The 0-padding behavior
     is now guaranteed when the format specifiers ‘'%C'’ and ‘'%F'’ are
     supported by the C library.  Patch by Ben Hsing

   - gh-122400(130): Handle *note ValueError: 277.s raised by *note
     os.stat(): 4f5. in *note filecmp.dircmp: 12eb. and *note
     filecmp.cmpfiles(): 1b5d.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-122311(131): Fix some error messages in *note pickle: ab.

   - gh-121650(132): *note email: 3e. headers with embedded newlines are
     now quoted on output.  The *note generator: 43. will now refuse to
     serialize (write) headers that are unsafely folded or delimited;
     see *note verify_generated_headers: 6f7.  (Contributed by Bas
     Bloemsaat and Petr Viktorin in gh-121650(133).)

   - gh-122332(134): Fixed segfault with *note asyncio.Task.get_coro():
     da0. when using an eager task factory.

   - gh-105733(135): *note ctypes.ARRAY(): 79d. is now *note soft
     deprecated: 1a7.: it no longer emits deprecation warnings and is
     not scheduled for removal.

   - gh-122213(136): Add notes for pickle serialization errors that
     allow to identify the source of the error.

   - gh-119180(137): As part of PEP 749(138), add the following
     attributes for customizing evaluation of annotation scopes:

        * ‘evaluate_value’ on *note typing.TypeAliasType: 52a.

        * ‘evaluate_bound’, ‘evaluate_constraints’, and
          ‘evaluate_default’ on *note typing.TypeVar: 294.

        * ‘evaluate_default’ on *note typing.ParamSpec: 295.

        * ‘evaluate_default’ on *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 293.

   - gh-119180(139): Fix handling of classes with custom metaclasses in
     ‘annotationlib.get_annotations’.

   - gh-122170(140): Handle *note ValueError: 277.s raised by *note
     os.stat(): 4f5. in *note linecache: 88.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-122163(141): Add notes for JSON serialization errors that allow
     to identify the source of the error.

   - gh-122129(142): Improve support of method descriptors and wrappers
     in the help title.

   - gh-122145(143): Fix an issue when reporting tracebacks
     corresponding to Python code emitting an empty AST body.  Patch by
     Nikita Sobolev and Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-121723(144): Make *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 1559.
     accept any object implementing the Queue public API. See the *note
     queue configuration: 1b5e. section for details.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-82951(145): Serializing objects with complex ‘__qualname__’
     (such as unbound methods and nested classes) by name no longer
     involves serializing parent objects by value in pickle protocols <
     4.

   - gh-120754(146): ‘Pathlib.read_bytes’ no longer opens the file in
     Python’s buffered I/O mode.  This reduces overheads as the code
     reads a file in whole leading to a modest speedup.

   - gh-113785(147): *note csv: 2c. now correctly parses numeric fields
     (when used with *note csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 1b5f. or *note
     csv.QUOTE_STRINGS: 897.) which start with an escape character.

   - gh-122088(148): *note @warnings.deprecated: 695. now copies the
     coroutine status of functions and methods so that *note
     inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 302. returns the correct result.

   - gh-122081(149): Fix a crash in the ‘decimal.IEEEContext()’ optional
     function available via the ‘EXTRA_FUNCTIONALITY’ configuration
     flag.

   - gh-73991(150): Add *note pathlib.Path.move(): 4f1, which moves a
     file or directory tree.

   - gh-121268(151): Remove workarounds for non-IEEE 754 systems in
     *note cmath: 19.

   - gh-119698(152): Due to the lack of interest for
     ‘symtable.Class.get_methods()’, the method is marked as deprecated
     and will be removed in Python 3.16.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-121889(153): Adjusts ‘cmath.acosh(complex('0+nanj'))’ for recent
     C standards.

   - gh-121804(154): Correctly show error locations, when *note
     SyntaxError: 17e. raised in new repl.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-121797(155): Add alternative *note Fraction: 1c3. constructor
     *note Fraction.from_number(): 4a3.

   - gh-121798(156): Add alternative *note Decimal: 1c2. constructor
     *note Decimal.from_number(): 490.

   - gh-120930(157): Fixed a bug introduced by gh-92081(158) that added
     an incorrect extra blank to encoded words occurring in wrapped
     headers.

   - gh-57141(159): The 'shallow' argument to *note filecmp.dircmp:
     12eb. (new in Python 3.13) is now keyword-only.

   - gh-121245(160): Simplify handling of the history file in
     ‘site.register_readline()’ helper.  The ‘CAN_USE_PYREPL’ variable
     now will be initialized, when imported.  Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-121249(161): Support the float complex and double complex C
     types in the *note struct: de. module if the compiler has C11
     complex arithmetic.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-121486(162): *note math: 91. functions *note isqrt(): dc7, *note
     log(): 1862, *note log2(): 1487. and *note log10(): 19dc. now
     support integers larger than ‘2**2**32’ on 32-bit platforms.

   - gh-121474(163): Fix missing sanity check for ‘parties’ arg in *note
     threading.Barrier: 158c. constructor.  Patch by Clinton Christian
     (pygeek).

   - gh-121450(164): Hard-coded breakpoints (*note breakpoint(): 4f9.
     and *note pdb.set_trace(): 4fa.) now reuse the most recent ‘Pdb’
     instance that calls ‘Pdb.set_trace()’, instead of creating a new
     one each time.  As a result, all the instance specific data like
     ‘display’ and ‘commands’ are preserved across Hard-coded
     breakpoints.

   - gh-119169(165): Slightly speed up *note os.walk(): 8b9. by
     simplifying exception handling.

   - gh-121423(166): Improve import time of *note socket: d4. by lazy
     importing modules and writing ‘socket.errorTab’ as a constant.

   - gh-59110(167): *note zipimport: 13b. supports now namespace
     packages when no directory entry exists.

   - gh-119004(168): Fix a crash in *note OrderedDict.__eq__: 1b60. when
     operands are mutated during the check.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-121313(169): Limit the reading size in the *note
     multiprocessing.connection.Connection: 148c. class to 64 KiB to
     prevent memory overallocation and unnecessary memory management
     system calls.

   - gh-121332(170): Fix constructor of *note ast: 9. nodes with custom
     ‘_attributes’.  Previously, passing custom attributes would raise a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  Passing arguments to the
     constructor that are not in ‘_fields’ or ‘_attributes’ remains
     deprecated.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-121245(171): Fix a bug in the handling of the command history of
     the new *note REPL: 69d. that caused the history file to be wiped
     at REPL exit.

   - gh-121210(172): Handle AST nodes with missing runtime fields or
     attributes in *note ast.compare(): 459.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-121163(173): Add support for ‘all’ as an valid ‘action’ for
     *note warnings.simplefilter(): aae. and *note
     warnings.filterwarnings(): 184b.

   - gh-121151(174): Fix wrapping of long usage text of arguments inside
     a mutually exclusive group in *note argparse: 7.

   - gh-121141(175): Add support for *note copy.replace(): 45a. to AST
     nodes.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-87744(176): Fix waitpid race while calling *note send_signal():
     1b61. in asyncio.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-121027(177): Add a future warning in
     ‘functools.partial.__get__()’.  In future Python versions *note
     functools.partial: 4a6. will be a method descriptor.

   - gh-121027(178): Make the *note functools.partial: 4a6. object a
     method descriptor.

   - gh-117784(179): CPython now detects whether its linked TLS library
     supports TLSv1.3 post-handshake authentication and disables that
     feature if support is lacking.

   - gh-121025(180): Improve the *note __repr__(): 1bc. of *note
     functools.partialmethod: 4a7.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-121018(181): Fixed issues where
     ‘argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args()’ did not honor
     ‘exit_on_error=False’.  Based on patch by Ben Hsing.

   - gh-119614(182): Fix truncation of strings with embedded null
     characters in some internal operations in *note tkinter: f9.

   - gh-120910(183): When reading installed files from an egg, use
     ‘relative_to(walk_up=True)’ to honor files installed outside of the
     installation root.

   - gh-61103(184): Support float complex, double complex and long
     double complex C types in *note ctypes: 2d. as *note
     c_float_complex: 2ce, *note c_double_complex: 2cf. and *note
     c_longdouble_complex: 2d0. if the compiler has C11 complex
     arithmetic.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-120888(185): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip
     24.1.1)

   - gh-101830(186): Accessing the *note tkinter: f9. object’s string
     representation no longer converts the underlying Tcl object to a
     string on Windows.

   - gh-120678(187): Fix regression in the new REPL that meant that
     globals from files passed using the ‘-i’ argument would not be
     included in the REPL’s global namespace.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-120811(188): Fix possible memory leak in *note
     contextvars.Context.run(): 198c.

   - gh-120782(189): Fix wrong references of the *note datetime: 33.
     types after reloading the module.

   - gh-120713(190): *note datetime.datetime.strftime(): 1051. now
     0-pads years with less than four digits for the format specifiers
     ‘%Y’ and ‘%G’ on Linux.  Patch by Ben Hsing

   - gh-120769(191): Make empty line in *note pdb: aa. repeats the last
     command even when the command is from ‘cmdqueue’.

   - gh-120780(192): Show string value of LOAD_SPECIAL oparg in *note
     dis: 3b. output.

   - gh-41431(193): Add *note datetime.time.strptime(): 1a06. and *note
     datetime.date.strptime(): 48c.  Contributed by Wannes Boeykens.

   - gh-120743(194): *note Soft deprecate: 1a7. *note os.popen(): 585.
     and *note os.spawn*: 586. functions.  They should no longer be used
     to write new code.  The *note subprocess: df. module is recommended
     instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-120732(195): Fix ‘name’ passing to *note unittest.mock.Mock:
     e0e. object when using *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1b4e.

   - gh-111259(196): *note re: c1. now handles patterns like ‘"[\s\S]"’
     or ‘"\s|\S"’ which match any character as effectively as a dot with
     the ‘DOTALL’ modifier (‘"(?s:.)"’).

   - gh-120683(197): Fix an error in *note logging.LogRecord: 138f, when
     the integer part of the timestamp is rounded up, while the
     millisecond calculation truncates, causing the log timestamp to be
     wrong by up to 999 ms (affected roughly 1 in 8 million timestamps).

   - gh-118710(198): *note ipaddress.IPv4Address: 710. and *note
     ipaddress.IPv6Address: 711. attributes ‘version’ and
     ‘max_prefixlen’ are now available on the class.

   - gh-120633(199): Move scrollbar and remove tear-off menus in
     turtledemo.

   - gh-120606(200): Allow users to use EOF to exit ‘commands’
     definition in *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-120284(201): Allow *note asyncio.Runner.run(): 1b62. to accept
     *note awaitable: 6cf. objects instead of simply *note coroutine:
     8a2.s.

   - gh-120541(202): Improve the prompt in the «less» pager when *note
     help(): ca9. is called with non-string argument.

   - gh-120495(203): Fix incorrect exception handling in Tab Nanny.
     Patch by Wulian233.

   - gh-120388(204): Improve a warning message when a test method in
     *note unittest: 10f. returns something other than ‘None’.  Now we
     show the returned object type and optional asyncio-related tip.

   - gh-120381(205): Correct *note inspect.ismethoddescriptor(): 1b63.
     to check also for the lack of *note __delete__(): 1b64.  Patch by
     Jan Kaliszewski.

   - gh-90425(206): The OS byte in gzip headers is now always set to 255
     when using *note gzip.compress(): a2d.

   - gh-120343(207): Fix column offset reporting for tokens that come
     after multiline f-strings in the *note tokenize: 104. module.

   - gh-119180(208): As part of implementing PEP 649(209) and PEP
     749(210), add a new module ‘annotationlib’.  Add support for
     unresolved forward references in annotations to *note dataclasses:
     32, *note typing.TypedDict: 290, and *note typing.NamedTuple: 2e4.

   - gh-119600(211): Fix *note unittest.mock.patch(): 1243. to not read
     attributes of the target when ‘new_callable’ is set.  Patch by
     Robert Collins.

   - gh-120289(212): Fixed the use-after-free issue in ‘cProfile’ by
     disallowing ‘disable()’ and ‘clear()’ in external timers.

   - gh-82017(213): Added support for converting any objects that have
     the ‘as_integer_ratio()’ method to a *note Fraction: 1c3.

   - gh-114053(214): Fix edge-case bug where *note
     typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. would produce incorrect results if
     type parameters in a class scope were overridden by assignments in
     a class scope and ‘from __future__ import annotations’ semantics
     were enabled.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-114053(215): Fix erroneous *note NameError: 665. when calling
     *note inspect.get_annotations(): bec. with ‘eval_str=True`’ on a
     class that made use of PEP 695(216) type parameters in a module
     that had ‘from __future__ import annotations’ at the top of the
     file.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-120268(217): Prohibit passing ‘None’ to pure-Python *note
     datetime.date.fromtimestamp(): f92. to achieve consistency with
     C-extension implementation.

   - gh-120244(218): Fix memory leak in *note re.sub(): 7a1. when the
     replacement string contains backreferences.

   - gh-120254(219): Added ‘commands’ argument to *note pdb.set_trace():
     4fa. which allows users to send debugger commands from the source
     file.

   - gh-120211(220): Fix *note tkinter.ttk: 102. with Tcl/Tk 9.0.

   - gh-71587(221): Fix crash in C version of *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 2d2. when called again on the
     restarted interpreter.

   - gh-117983(222): Defer the ‘threading’ import in ‘importlib.util’
     until lazy loading is used.

   - gh-120157(223): Remove unused constant
     ‘concurrent.futures._base._FUTURE_STATES’ in *note
     concurrent.futures: 24.  Patch by Clinton Christian (pygeek).

   - gh-120161(224): *note datetime: 33. no longer crashes in certain
     complex reference cycle situations.

   - gh-119698(225): Fix ‘symtable.Class.get_methods()’ and document its
     behaviour.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-120121(226): Add *note concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError:
     1b65. to module’s ‘__all__’.

   - gh-119933(227): Add the *note symtable.SymbolTableType: 1b66.
     enumeration to represent the possible outputs of the *note
     symtable.SymbolTable.get_type: 1b67. method.  Patch by Bénédikt
     Tran.

   - gh-120029(228): Expose *note symtable.Symbol: 511. methods *note
     is_free_class(): 514, *note is_comp_iter(): 513. and *note
     is_comp_cell(): 512.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-120108(229): Fix calling *note copy.deepcopy(): f2b. on *note
     ast: 9. trees that have been modified to have references to parent
     nodes.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-120056(230): Add ‘socket.IP_RECVERR’ and ‘socket.IP_RECVTTL’
     constants (both available since Linux 2.2).  And
     ‘socket.IP_RECVORIGDSTADDR’ constant (available since Linux
     2.6.29).

   - gh-112672(231): Support building *note tkinter: f9. with Tcl 9.0.

   - gh-120057(232): Added the *note os.environ.refresh(): 4e5. method
     to update ‘os.environ’ with changes to the environment made by
     *note os.putenv(): 4e7, by *note os.unsetenv(): 4e8, or made
     outside Python in the same process.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-120029(233): Expose *note symtable.Symbol.is_type_parameter():
     1b68. in the *note symtable: e1. module.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-119819(234): Fix regression to allow logging configuration with
     multiprocessing queue types.

   - gh-65454(235): *note unittest.mock.Mock.attach_mock(): 1b69. no
     longer triggers a call to a ‘PropertyMock’ being attached.

   - gh-117142(236): The *note ctypes: 2d. module may now be imported in
     all subinterpreters, including those that have their own GIL.

   - gh-118835(237): Fix _pyrepl crash when using custom prompt with
     ANSI escape codes.

   - gh-81936(238): ‘help()’ and ‘showtopic()’ methods now respect a
     configured 'output' argument to ‘pydoc.Helper’ and not use the
     pager in such cases.  Patch by Enrico Tröger.

   - gh-117398(239): The ‘_datetime’ module (C implementation for *note
     datetime: 33.) now supports being imported in multiple
     interpreters.

   - gh-119824(240): Print stack entry in *note pdb: aa. when and only
     when user input is needed.

   - gh-119838(241): In mixed arithmetic operations with *note Fraction:
     1c3. and complex, the fraction is now converted to *note float:
     327. instead of *note complex: 328.

   - gh-119770(242): Make *note termios: ea. ‘ioctl()’ constants
     positive.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-89727(243): Fix issue with *note shutil.rmtree(): 335. where a
     *note RecursionError: 1121. is raised on deep directory trees.

   - gh-119577(244): The *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. emitted when
     testing the truth value of an *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element:
     343. now describes unconditionally returning ‘True’ in a future
     version rather than raising an exception in Python 3.14.

   - gh-89727(245): Partially fix issue with *note shutil.rmtree(): 335.
     where a *note RecursionError: 1121. is raised on deep directory
     trees.  A recursion error is no longer raised when
     ‘rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks’ is false.

   - gh-93963(246): Remove deprecated names from ‘importlib.abc’ as
     found in ‘importlib.resources.abc’.

   - gh-119118(247): Fix performance regression in the *note tokenize:
     104. module by caching the ‘line’ token attribute and calculating
     the column offset more efficiently.

   - gh-89727(248): Fix issue with *note os.fwalk(): f18. where a *note
     RecursionError: 1121. was raised on deep directory trees by
     adjusting the implementation to be iterative instead of recursive.

   - gh-119594(249): If one calls pow(fractions.Fraction, x, module)
     with modulo not None, the error message now says that the types are
     incompatible rather than saying pow only takes 2 arguments.  Patch
     by Wim Jeantine-Glenn and Mark Dickinson.

   - gh-119588(250): ‘zipfile.Path.is_symlink’ now assesses if the given
     path is a symlink.

   - gh-119562(251): Remove ‘ast.Num’, ‘ast.Str’, ‘ast.Bytes’,
     ‘ast.NameConstant’ and ‘ast.Ellipsis’.  They had all emitted
     deprecation warnings since Python 3.12.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-119555(252): Catch *note SyntaxError: 17e. from *note compile():
     1c8. in the runsource() method of the InteractiveColoredConsole.
     Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-118908(253): Limit exposed globals from internal imports and
     definitions on new REPL startup.  Patch by Eugene Triguba and Pablo
     Galindo.

   - gh-117865(254): Improve the import time of the *note ast: 9. module
     by deferring the import of *note re: c1.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-119127(255): Positional arguments of *note functools.partial():
     4a6. objects now support placeholders via *note
     functools.Placeholder: 4a5.

   - gh-113892(256): Now, the method ‘sock_connect’ of *note
     asyncio.ProactorEventLoop: 9fe. raises a *note ValueError: 277. if
     given socket is not in non-blocking mode, as well as in other loop
     implementations.

   - gh-119506(257): Fix ‘io.TextIOWrapper.write()’ method breaks
     internal buffer when the method is called again during flushing
     internal buffer.

   - gh-69214(258): Fix ‘fcntl.ioctl()’ 'request' parameter: use an
     ‘unsigned long’ instead of an ‘unsigned int’ for the 'request'
     parameter of *note fcntl.ioctl(): 181d. to support requests larger
     than ‘UINT_MAX’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-119105(259): ‘difflib’’s ‘DIffer.compare()’ (and so also
     ‘ndiff’) can no longer be provoked into cubic-time behavior, or
     into unbounded recursion, and should generally be faster in
     ordinary cases too.  Results may change in some cases, although
     that should be rare.  Correctness of diffs is not affected.  Some
     similar lines far apart may be reported as deleting one and adding
     the other, where before they were displayed on adjacent output
     lines with markup showing the intraline differences.

   - gh-119443(260): The interactive REPL no longer runs with ‘from
     __future__ import annotations’ enabled.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-119461(261): Add ‘socket.VMADDR_CID_LOCAL’ constant.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117398(262): Objects in the datetime C-API are now all
     statically allocated, which means better memory safety, especially
     when the module is reloaded.  This should be transparent to users.

   - gh-118894(263): *note asyncio: b. REPL now has the same
     capabilities as PyREPL.

   - gh-118830(264): Bump *note pickle: ab. default protocol to ‘5’.

   - gh-118911(265): In PyREPL, updated ‘maybe-accept’’s logic so that
     if the user hits ‘Enter’ twice, they are able to terminate the
     block even if there’s trailing whitespace.  Also, now when the user
     hits arrow up, the cursor is on the last functional line.  This
     matches IPython’s behavior.  Patch by Aya Elsayed.

   - gh-115225(266): Raise error on certain technically valid but
     pathological ISO 8601 strings passed to *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): a09. that were previously parsed
     incorrectly.

   - gh-111201(267): Remove dependency to *note readline: c2. from the
     new Python REPL.

   - gh-119189(268): When using the ‘**’ operator or *note pow(): 441.
     with *note Fraction: 1c3. as the base and an exponent that is not
     rational, a float, or a complex, the fraction is no longer
     converted to a float.

   - gh-119174(269): Fix high DPI causes turtledemo(turtle-graphics
     examples) windows blurry Patch by Wulian233 and Terry Jan Reedy

   - gh-119121(270): Fix a NameError happening in
     ‘asyncio.staggered.staggered_race’.  This function is now tested.

   - gh-119105(271): ‘difflib.Differ’ is much faster for some cases of
     diffs where many pairs of lines are equally similar.

   - gh-119113(272): Fix issue where *note
     pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix(): 1b6a. didn’t raise *note TypeError:
     291. when given ‘None’ as a suffix.

   - gh-118643(273): Fix an AttributeError in the *note email: 3e.
     module when re-fold a long address list.  Also fix more cases of
     incorrect encoding of the address separator in the address list.

   - gh-73991(274): Add *note pathlib.Path.copy(): 4ef, which copies a
     file or directory to another.

   - gh-58933(275): Make *note pdb: aa. return to caller frame correctly
     when ‘f_trace’ of the caller frame is not set

   - gh-82805(276): Support single-dot file extensions in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.suffix: 1b6b. and related attributes and methods.
     For example, the *note suffixes: 1b6c. of ‘PurePath('foo.bar.')’
     are now ‘['.bar', '.']’ rather than ‘[]’.  This brings file
     extension splitting in line with *note os.path.splitext(): 1b6d.

   - gh-118924(277): Remove ‘version’ and ‘version_info’ from *note
     sqlite3: d7.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-118928(278): Disallow using a sequence of parameters with named
     placeholders in *note sqlite3: d7. queries.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - gh-118895(279): Setting attributes on *note typing.NoDefault: 76a.
     now raises *note AttributeError: 1a9. instead of *note TypeError:
     291.

   - gh-118868(280): Fixed issue where kwargs were no longer passed to
     the logging handler QueueHandler

   - gh-118827(281): Remove deprecated ‘Quoter’ class from *note
     urllib.parse: 113.  It had previously raised a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. since Python 3.11.  Patch by Nikita
     Sobolev.

   - gh-118824(282): Remove deprecated ‘pty.master_open()’ and
     ‘pty.slave_open()’.  Use *note pty.openpty(): 579. instead.  Patch
     by Nikita Sobolev.

   - gh-118851(283): ‘ctx’ arguments to the constructors of *note ast:
     9. node classes now default to *note ast.Load(): 6c9.  Patch by
     Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-101588(284): Remove copy, deepcopy, and pickle from itertools.
     These had previously raised a DeprecationWarning since Python 3.12.

   - gh-118805(285): Remove 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’.  They were deprecated since
     Python 3.12.

   - gh-118803(286): ‘typing.ByteString’ and
     ‘collections.abc.ByteString’ are removed.  They had previously
     raised a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. since Python 3.12.

   - gh-118798(287): The 'isdst' parameter has been removed from *note
     email.utils.localtime(): 56f.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-118760(288): Restore the default value of ‘tkiter.wantobjects’
     to ‘1’.

   - gh-118760(289): Fix errors in calling Tkinter bindings on Windows.

   - gh-74033(290): Drop support for passing keyword arguments to *note
     pathlib.Path: 4ee.

   - gh-101357(291): Suppress all *note OSError: 53c. exceptions from
     *note pathlib.Path.exists(): dda. and ‘is_*()’ methods, rather than
     a selection of more common errors.  The new behaviour is consistent
     with *note os.path.exists(): dd2, *note os.path.isdir(): dd4, etc.
     Use *note pathlib.Path.stat(): bfc. to retrieve the file status
     without suppressing exceptions.

   - gh-78707(292): Drop support for passing additional positional
     arguments to *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 575. and *note
     is_relative_to(): 576.

   - gh-118507(293): Fix *note os.path.isfile(): dd5. on Windows for
     pipes.  Speedup *note os.path.isjunction(): 8b3. and *note
     os.path.lexists(): dd3. on Windows with a native implementation.

   - gh-118772(294): Allow *note typing.TypeVar: 294. instances without
     a default to follow instances without a default in some cases.
     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-118714(295): Allow ‘restart’ in post-mortem debugging of *note
     pdb: aa.  Removed restart message when the user quits pdb from
     post-mortem mode.

   - gh-118673(296): Removed executable bits and shebang from stdlib
     modules.

   - gh-110863(297): *note os.path.realpath(): 241. now suppresses any
     *note OSError: 53c. from *note os.readlink(): ced. when 'strict'
     mode is disabled (the default).

   - gh-118263(298): Speed up *note os.path.splitroot(): 8b4. & *note
     os.path.normpath(): 16be. with a direct C call.

   - gh-110190(299): Fix ctypes structs with array on SPARC by setting
     ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 32 in stgdict.  Patch by Jakub Kulik

   - gh-118033(300): Fix *note dataclasses.dataclass(): 6e6. not
     creating a ‘__weakref__’ slot when subclassing *note
     typing.Generic: 19f2.

   - gh-117766(301): Always use *note str(): 1df. to print ‘choices’ in
     *note argparse: 7.

   - gh-106531(302): In *note importlib.resources: 7e, sync with
     importlib_resources 6.3.2(303), including: ‘MultiplexedPath’ now
     expects ‘Traversable’ paths, deprecating string arguments to
     ‘MultiplexedPath’; Enabled support for resources in namespace
     packages in zip files; Fixed ‘NotADirectoryError’ when calling
     files on a subdirectory of a namespace package.

   - gh-115937(304): Removed extra preprocessing for the ‘__signature__’
     attribute: the code just check if it’s a *note inspect.Signature:
     6e8. instance.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-115808(305): Add *note operator.is_none(): 4e1. and *note
     operator.is_not_none(): 4e2. functions.

   - gh-114264(306): Improve performance of *note copy.deepcopy(): f2b.
     by adding a fast path for atomic types.

   - gh-113878(307): Add 'doc' parameter to *note dataclasses.field():
     1945, so it can be stored and shown as a documentation / metadata.
     If ‘@dataclass(slots=True)’ is used, then the supplied string is
     available in the *note __slots__: 188d. dict.  Otherwise, the
     supplied string is only available in the corresponding *note
     dataclasses.Field: 1b6e. object.

     In order to support this feature we are changing the ‘__slots__’
     format in dataclasses from *note tuple: 1ce. to *note dict: 188.
     when documentation / metadata is present.

   - gh-113978(308): Ignore warnings on text completion inside REPL.

   - gh-113008(309): Correct argparse usage output for required,
     mutually exclusive groups containing a positional argument

   - gh-108172(310): ‘webbrowser’ honors OS preferred browser on Linux
     when its desktop entry name contains the text of a known browser
     name.

   - gh-109109(311): You can now get the raw TLS certificate chains from
     TLS connections via *note ssl.SSLSocket.get_verified_chain(): 1b6f.
     and *note ssl.SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain(): 1b70. methods.

     Contributed by Mateusz Nowak.

   - gh-105623(312): Fix performance degradation in *note
     logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 1b59.  Patch by Craig Robson.

   - gh-102450(313): Add missing ISO-8601 24:00 alternative to midnight
     of next day to *note datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): a0a. and
     *note datetime.time.fromisoformat(): a09.  Patch by Izan
     «TizzySaurus» Robinson (<tizzysaurus@gmail.com>)

   - gh-103956(314): Fix lack of newline characters in *note trace: 106.
     module output when line tracing is enabled but source code line for
     current frame is not available.

   - gh-92081(315): Fix missing spaces in email headers when the spaces
     are mixed with encoded 8-bit characters.

   - gh-103194(316): Prepare Tkinter for C API changes in Tcl 8.7/9.0 to
     avoid ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ being unexpectedly returned instead of
     *note bool: 5ef, *note str: 1df, *note bytearray: 1c6, or *note
     int: 326.

   - gh-87106(317): Fixed handling in *note inspect.Signature.bind():
     1ab6. of keyword arguments having the same name as positional-only
     arguments when a variadic keyword argument (e.g.  ‘**kwargs’) is
     present.

   - gh-103134(318): Add additional methods to *note proxy objects: 4d8.
     in the ‘multiprocessing’ module:

        * ‘clear()’ and ‘copy()’ for proxies of *note list: 4d9.

        * *note fromkeys(): 4da, ‘reversed(d)’, ‘d | {}’, ‘{} | d’, ‘d
          |= {'b': 2}’ for proxies of *note dict: 188.

   - bpo-45767(319): Fix integer conversion in *note os.major(): 1b71,
     *note os.minor(): 1b72, and *note os.makedev(): 1b73.  Support
     device numbers larger than ‘2**63-1’.  Support non-existent device
     number (‘NODEV’).

   - bpo-44864(320): Do not translate user-provided strings in *note
     argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc.

   - bpo-41843(321): Solaris now uses *note os.sendfile(): ed3.
     fast-copy syscall for more efficient *note shutil: cd. file copy
     related functions.

   - bpo-15987(322): Implemented *note ast.compare(): 459. for comparing
     two ASTs.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya with some help from Jeremy
     Hylton.

   - gh-67693(323): Fix *note urllib.parse.urlunparse(): 2a7. and *note
     urllib.parse.urlunsplit(): 2a6. for URIs with path starting with
     multiple slashes and no authority.  Based on patch by Ashwin
     Ramaswami.

   - bpo-14074(324): Fix *note argparse: 7. metavar processing to allow
     positional arguments to have a tuple metavar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125422

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100141

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125206

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89967

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125260

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125243

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125254

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125235

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61011

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125118

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125069

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125096

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124969

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124960

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69998

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124958

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123961

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124944

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117151

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90102

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124917

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65865

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124653

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91818

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124858

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124390

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85935

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124835

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124693

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124787

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66436

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116850

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   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58573

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124594

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61181

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116750

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   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124538

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   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123340

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   (324) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14074


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<8>,  Next: Documentation<14>,  Prev: Library<51>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.7 IDLE
..............

   - gh-122392(1): Increase currently inadequate vertical spacing for
     the IDLE browsers (path, module, and stack) on high-resolution
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   - gh-112938(2): Fix uninteruptable hang when Shell gets rapid
     continuous output.

   - gh-122482(3): Change About IDLE to direct users to
     discuss.python.org instead of the now unused idle-dev email and
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   - gh-78889(4): Stop Shell freezes by blocking user access to
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   - gh-120083(5): Add explicit black IDLE Hovertip foreground color
     needed for recent macOS. Fixes Sonoma showing unreadable white on
     pale yellow.  Patch by John Riggles.

   - gh-120104(6): Fix padding in config and search dialog windows in
     IDLE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122392

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112938

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122482

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78889

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120083

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120104


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<14>,  Next: Core and Builtins<48>,  Prev: IDLE<8>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.8 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-124872(1): Added definitions for *note context: 1b76, *note
     current context: 1b77, and *note context management protocol: 1b78,
     updated related definitions to be consistent, and expanded the
     documentation for *note contextvars.Context: 421.

   - gh-125018(2): The *note importlib.metadata: 7d. documentation now
     includes semantic cross-reference targets for the significant
     documented APIs.  This means intersphinx references like *note
     importlib.metadata.version(): 1b79. will now work as expected.

   - gh-124720(3): Update «Using Python on a Mac» section of the «Python
     Setup and Usage» document and include information on installing
     free-threading support.

   - gh-124457(4): Remove coverity scan from the CPython repo.  It has
     not been used since 2020 and is currently unmaintained.

   - gh-116622(5): Add an Android platform guide, and flag modules not
     available on Android.

   - gh-123976(6): Refresh docs around custom providers.

   - gh-70870(7): Clarified the dual usage of the term «free variable»
     (both the formal meaning of any reference to names defined outside
     the local scope, and the narrower pragmatic meaning of nonlocal
     variables named in ‘co_freevars’).

   - gh-121277(8): Writers of CPython’s documentation can now use ‘next’
     as the version for the ‘versionchanged’, ‘versionadded’,
     ‘deprecated’ directives.

   - gh-117765(9): Improved documentation for *note
     unittest.mock.patch.dict(): 1b7a.

   - gh-121749(10): Fix documentation for *note PyModule_AddObjectRef():
     800.

   - gh-120012(11): Clarify the behaviours of *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.empty(): 1b7b. and *note
     multiprocessing.SimpleQueue.empty(): 1b7c. on closed queues.  Patch
     by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-119574(12): Added some missing environment variables to the
     output of *note -help-env: 9e9.

   - bpo-34008(13): The *note Py_Main(): fe2. documentation moved from
     the «Very High Level API» section to the «Initialization and
     Finalization» section.

     Also make it explicit that we expect ‘Py_Main’ to typically be
     called instead of ‘Py_Initialize’ rather than after it (since
     ‘Py_Main’ makes its own call to ‘Py_Initialize’).  Document that
     calling both is supported but is version dependent on which
     settings will be applied correctly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124872

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125018

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124720

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124457

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123976

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70870

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121277

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117765

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121749

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120012

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119574

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008


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1.26.18.9 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-124375(1): Fix a crash in the free threading build when the GC
     runs concurrently with a new thread starting.

   - gh-125221(2): Fix possible race condition when calling *note
     __reduce_ex__(): 1b7e. for the first time in the free threading
     build.

   - gh-125174(3): Make the handling of reference counts of immortal
     objects more robust.  Immortal objects with reference counts that
     deviate from their original reference count by up to a billion
     (half a billion on 32 bit builds) are still counted as immortal.

   - gh-125039(4): Make ‘this_instr’ and ‘prev_instr’ const in cases
     generator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124375

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125221

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125174

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125039


File: python.info,  Node: Library<52>,  Next: Core and Builtins<49>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<48>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.10 Library
..................

   - gh-125008(1): Fix *note tokenize.untokenize(): 1ad4. producing
     invalid syntax for double braces preceded by certain escape
     characters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125008


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<49>,  Next: Library<53>,  Prev: Library<52>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.11 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-124871(1): Fix compiler bug (in some versions of 3.13) where an
     assertion fails during reachability analysis.

   - gh-123378(2): Fix a crash in the *note __str__(): a0f. method of
     *note UnicodeError: 675. objects when the *note UnicodeError.start:
     1ae1. and *note UnicodeError.end: 1ae2. values are invalid or
     out-of-range.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-118093(3): Improve the experimental JIT compiler’s ability to
     stay «on trace» when encountering highly-biased branches.

   - gh-124642(4): Fixed scalability issue in free-threaded builds for
     lock-free reads from dictionaries in multi-threaded scenarios

   - gh-116510(5): Fix a crash caused by immortal interned strings being
     shared between sub-interpreters that use basic single-phase init.
     In that case, the string can be used by an interpreter that
     outlives the interpreter that created and interned it.  For
     interpreters that share obmalloc state, also share the interned
     dict with the main interpreter.

   - gh-116510(6): Fix a bug that can cause a crash when
     sub-interpreters use «basic» single-phase extension modules.
     Shared objects could refer to PyGC_Head nodes that had been freed
     as part of interpreter cleanup.

   - gh-119180(7): The ‘__main__’ module no longer always contains an
     ‘__annotations__’ dictionary in its global namespace.

   - gh-124547(8): When deallocating an object with inline values whose
     ‘__dict__’ is still live: if memory allocation for the inline
     values fails, clear the dictionary.  Prevents an interpreter crash.

   - gh-124513(9): Fix a crash in FrameLocalsProxy constructor: check
     the number of arguments.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-124442(10): Fix nondeterminism in compilation by sorting the
     value of *note __static_attributes__: 688.  Patch by kp2pml30.

   - gh-124285(11): Fix bug where ‘bool(a)’ can be invoked more than
     once during the evaluation of a compound boolean expression.

   - gh-123856(12): Fix PyREPL failure when a keyboard interrupt is
     triggered after using a history search

   - gh-65961(13): Deprecate the setting and using ‘__package__’ and
     ‘__cached__’.

   - gh-119726(14): The JIT now generates more efficient code for calls
     to C functions resulting in up to 0.8% memory savings and 1.5%
     speed improvement on AArch64.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-122878(15): Use the ‘pager’ binary, if available (e.g.  on
     Debian and derivatives), to display REPL ‘help()’.

   - gh-124188(16): Fix reading and decoding a line from the source file
     with non-UTF-8 encoding for syntax errors raised in the compiler.

   - gh-124027(17): Support ‘<page up>’, ‘<page down>’, and ‘<delete>’
     keys in the Python REPL when ‘$TERM’ is set to ‘vt100’.

   - gh-124022(18): Fix bug where docstring is removed from classes in
     interactive mode.

   - gh-123958(19): docstrings are now removed from the optimized AST in
     optimization level 2.

   - gh-123923(20): The ‘f_executable’ field in the internal *note
     _PyInterpreterFrame: 1b81. struct now uses a tagged pointer.
     Profilers and debuggers that uses this field should clear the least
     significant bit to recover the *note PyObject: 19b.* pointer.

   - gh-77894(21): Fix possible crash in the garbage collector when it
     tries to break a reference loop containing a *note memoryview: 1d2.
     object.  Now a ‘memoryview’ object can only be cleared if there are
     no buffers that refer it.

   - gh-120221(22): asyncio REPL is now again properly recognizing
     KeyboardInterrupts.  Display of exceptions raised in secondary
     threads is fixed.

   - gh-119310(23): Allow the new interactive shell to read history
     files written with the editline library that use unicode-escaped
     entries.  Patch by aorcajo and Łukasz Langa.

   - gh-123572(24): Fix key mappings for various F-keys in Windows for
     the new REPL. Patch by devdanzin

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124871

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123378

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118093

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124642

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116510

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116510

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124547

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124513

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124442

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124285

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123856

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119726

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122878

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124188

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124027

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124022

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123958

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123923

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77894

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120221

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119310

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123572


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1.26.18.12 Library
..................

   - gh-123614(1): Add *note turtle.save(): 1b83. to easily save Turtle
     drawings as PostScript files.  Patch by Marie Roald and Yngve
     Mardal Moe.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123614


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<50>,  Next: Library<54>,  Prev: Library<53>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.13 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-123339(1): Setting the ‘__module__’ attribute for a class now
     removes the ‘__firstlineno__’ item from the type’s dict, so they
     will no longer be inconsistent.

   - gh-119034(2): Change ‘<page up>’ and ‘<page down>’ keys of the
     Python REPL to history search forward/backward.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-123562(3): Improve *note SyntaxError: 17e. message for using
     ‘case ... as ...’ with not a name.

   - gh-123545(4): Fix a double decref in rare cases on experimental JIT
     builds.

   - gh-123484(5): Fix ‘_Py_DebugOffsets’ for long objects to be
     relative to the start of the object rather than the start of a
     subobject.

   - gh-123446(6): Fix empty function name in *note TypeError: 291. when
     builtin magic methods are used without the required args.

   - gh-123440(7): Improve *note SyntaxError: 17e. message for using
     ‘except as’ with not a name.

   - gh-116017(8): Improved JIT memory consumption by periodically
     freeing memory used by infrequently-executed code.  This change is
     especially likely to improve the memory footprint of long-running
     programs.

   - gh-123344(9): Add AST optimizations for type parameter defaults.

   - gh-123321(10): Prevent Parser/myreadline race condition from
     segfaulting on multi-threaded use.  Patch by Bar Harel and Amit
     Wienner.

   - gh-123177(11): Fix a bug causing stray prompts to appear in the
     middle of wrapped lines in the new REPL.

   - gh-122982(12): Extend the deprecation period for bool inversion
     (‘~’) by two years.

   - gh-123271(13): Make concurrent iterations over the same *note
     zip(): 43f. iterator safe under free-threading.

   - gh-123275(14): Support *note -X gil=1: 178. and *note PYTHON_GIL=1:
     6a6. on non-free-threaded builds.

   - gh-123177(15): Deactivate line wrap in the Apple Terminal via a
     ANSI escape code.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-123229(16): Fix valgrind warning by initializing the f-string
     buffers to 0 in the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-122298(17): Restore printout of GC stats when
     ‘gc.set_debug(gc.DEBUG_STATS)’ is called.  This feature was
     accidentally removed when implementing incremental GC.

   - gh-121804(18): Correctly show error locations when a *note
     SyntaxError: 17e. is raised in the basic REPL. Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-115776(19): Enables inline values (Python’s equivalent of hidden
     classes) on any class who’s instances are of a fixed size.

   - gh-123142(20): Fix too-wide source location in exception tracebacks
     coming from broken iterables in comprehensions.

   - gh-123048(21): Fix a bug where pattern matching code could emit a
     *note JUMP_FORWARD: 1b85. with no source location.

   - gh-118093(22): Break up ‘CALL_ALLOC_AND_ENTER_INIT’ into micro-ops
     and relax requirement for exact args, in order to increase the
     amount of code supported by tier 2.

   - gh-123123(23): Fix displaying *note SyntaxError: 17e. exceptions
     covering multiple lines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-123083(24): Fix a potential use-after-free in
     ‘STORE_ATTR_WITH_HINT’.

   - gh-123022(25): Fix crash in free-threaded build when calling *note
     Py_Initialize(): 673. from a non-main thread.

   - gh-118093(26): Add three specializations for *note CALL_KW: 5a1.:

        * ‘CALL_KW_PY’ for calls to Python functions

        * ‘CALL_KW_BOUND_METHOD’ for calls to bound methods

        * ‘CALL_KW_NON_PY’ for all other calls

   - gh-122821(27): Make sure that branches in *note while: 1b86.
     statements have consistent offsets for *note sys.monitoring: e3.
     ‘while’ statements are now compiled with a simple jump at the end
     of the body, instead of duplicating the test.

   - gh-122907(28): Building with ‘HAVE_DYNAMIC_LOADING’ now works as
     well as it did in 3.12.  Existing deficiences will be addressed
     separately.  (See
     ‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122950’.)

   - gh-122888(29): Fix crash on certain calls to ‘str()’ with
     positional arguments of the wrong type.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-118093(30): Improve the experimental JIT’s handling of
     polymorphic code.

   - gh-122697(31): Fixed memory leaks at interpreter shutdown in the
     free-threaded build, and also reporting of leaked memory blocks via
     *note -X showrefcount: 178.

   - gh-116622(32): Fix Android stdout and stderr messages being
     truncated or lost.

   - gh-122527(33): Fix a crash that occurred when a ‘PyStructSequence’
     was deallocated after its type’s dictionary was cleared by the GC.
     The type’s *note tp_basicsize: d4f. now accounts for non-sequence
     fields that aren’t included in the *note Py_SIZE: b61. of the
     sequence.

   - gh-122445(34): Add only fields which are modified via self.* to
     *note __static_attributes__: 688.

   - gh-122417(35): In the free-threaded build, the reference counts for
     heap type objects are now partially stored in a distributed manner
     in per-thread arrays.  This reduces contention on the heap type’s
     reference count fields when creating or destroying instances of the
     same type from multiple threads concurrently.

   - gh-116090(36): Fix an issue in JIT builds that prevented some *note
     for: 321. loops from correctly firing *note RAISE: 273. monitoring
     events.

   - gh-122300(37): Preserve AST nodes for f-string with single-element
     format specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-120906(38): *note frame.f_locals: 28d. now supports arbitrary
     hashable objects as keys.

   - gh-122239(39): When a *note list: 4d9, *note tuple: 1ce. or *note
     dict: 188. with too many elements is unpacked, show the actual
     length in the error message.

   - gh-122245(40): Detection of writes to ‘__debug__’ is moved from the
     compiler’s codegen stage to the symtable.  This means that these
     errors are now detected even in code that is optimized away before
     codegen (such as assertions with the *note -O: 431. command line
     option).

   - gh-122234(41): Specializations for sums with float and complex
     inputs in *note sum(): 881. now always use compensated summation.
     Also, for integer items in above specializations: *note
     PyLong_AsDouble(): 1b87. is used, instead of *note
     PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 160b.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-122208(42): Dictionary watchers now only deliver the
     PyDict_EVENT_ADDED event when the insertion is in a known good
     state to succeed.

   - gh-122160(43): Remove the ‘BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP’ opcode.  Use *note
     BUILD_MAP: 598. instead.

   - gh-122029(44): Emit ‘c_call’ events in *note sys.setprofile():
     18a0. when a ‘PyMethodObject’ pointing to a ‘PyCFunction’ is
     called.

   - gh-122026(45): Fix a bug that caused the tokenizer to not correctly
     identify mismatched parentheses inside f-strings in some
     situations.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-99108(46): Python’s hashlib now unconditionally uses the
     vendored HACL* library for Blake2.  Python no longer accepts libb2
     as an optional dependency for Blake2.

     We refreshed HACL* to the latest version, and now vendor HACL*”s
     128-bit and 256-bit wide vector implementations for Blake2, which
     are used on x86/x64 toolchains when the required CPU features are
     available at runtime.

     HACL*”s 128-bit wide vector implementation of Blake2 can also run
     on ARM NEON and Power8, but lacking evidence of a performance gain,
     these are not enabled (yet).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123339

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119034

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123562

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123545

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123484

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123446

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123440

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116017

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123344

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123321

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123177

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122982

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123271

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123275

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123177

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123229

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122298

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121804

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115776

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123142

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123048

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118093

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123123

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123083

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123022

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118093

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122821

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122907

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122888

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118093

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122697

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122527

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122445

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122417

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116090

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122300

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120906

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122239

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122245

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122234

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122208

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122160

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122029

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122026

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108


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1.26.18.14 Library
..................

   - gh-121999(1): The default extraction filter for the *note tarfile:
     e7. module is now set to *note 'data': 279.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121999


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<51>,  Next: Library<55>,  Prev: Library<54>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.15 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-121860(1): Fix crash when rematerializing a managed dictionary
     after it was deleted.

   - gh-121795(2): Improve performance of set membership testing,
     ‘set.remove()’ and ‘set.discard()’ when the argument is a set.

   - gh-121814(3): Fixed the SegFault when *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 850.
     is used with no Python frame on stack.

   - gh-121295(4): Fix PyREPL console getting into a blocked state after
     interrupting a long paste

   - gh-121794(5): Fix bug in free-threaded Python where a resurrected
     object could lead to a negative ref count assertion failure.

   - gh-121657(6): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 17e. message if the
     user tries to use *note yield from: d93. outside a function.

   - gh-121609(7): Fix pasting of characters containing unicode
     character joiners in the new REPL. Patch by Marta Gomez Macias

   - gh-121297(8): Previously, incorrect usage of *note await: 432. or
     asynchronous comprehensions in code removed by the *note -O: 431.
     option was not flagged by the Python compiler.  Now, such code
     raises *note SyntaxError: 17e.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-117482(9): Unexpected slot wrappers are no longer created for
     builtin static types in subinterpreters.

   - gh-121562(10): Optimized performance of hex_from_char by replacing
     switch-case with a lookup table

   - gh-121499(11): Fix a bug affecting how multi-line history was being
     rendered in the new REPL after interacting with the new screen
     cache.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-121497(12): Fix a bug that was preventing the REPL to correctly
     respect the history when an input hook was set.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-121012(13): Tier 2 execution now ensures that list iterators
     remain exhausted, once they become exhausted.

   - gh-121439(14): Allow tuples of length 20 in the freelist to be
     reused.

   - gh-121288(15): *note ValueError: 277. messages for *note
     list.index(): 1767, *note range.index(): 1b8a, ‘deque.index()’,
     ‘deque.remove()’ and ‘ShareableList.index()’ no longer contain the
     repr of the searched value (which can be arbitrary large) and are
     consistent with error messages for other *note index(): 1b8b. and
     *note remove(): 1b8c. methods.

   - gh-121368(16): Fix race condition in ‘_PyType_Lookup’ in the
     free-threaded build due to a missing memory fence.  This could lead
     to ‘_PyType_Lookup’ returning incorrect results on arm64.

   - gh-121149(17): Added specialization for summation of complexes,
     this also improves accuracy of builtin *note sum(): 881. for such
     inputs.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-121130(18): Fix f-strings with debug expressions in format
     specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121860

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121795

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121814

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121295

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121794

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121657

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121609

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121297

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117482

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121562

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121499

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121497

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121012

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121439

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121288

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121368

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121149

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121130


File: python.info,  Node: Library<55>,  Next: Core and Builtins<52>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<51>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.16 Library
..................

   - gh-121381(1): Remove ‘subprocess._USE_VFORK’ escape hatch code and
     documentation.  It was added just in case, and doesn’t have any
     known cases that require it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121381


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<52>,  Next: Library<56>,  Prev: Library<55>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.17 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-119726(1): Optimize code layout for calls to C functions from
     the JIT on AArch64.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-121115(2): *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 7fc. no longer uses
     *note __index__(): 43d. methods by default.  The
     ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX’ flag has been added to allow it.

   - gh-120838(3): *note Py_Finalize(): 672. and *note Py_FinalizeEx():
     10cf. now always run with the main interpreter active.

   - gh-113433(4): Subinterpreters now get cleaned up automatically
     during runtime finalization.

   - gh-119726(5): Improve the speed and memory use of C function calls
     from JIT code on AArch64.  Patch by Diego Russo

   - gh-116017(6): Simplify the warmup mechanism used for «side exits»
     in JIT code, resulting in slightly better performance and slightly
     lower memory usage for most platforms.

   - gh-98442(7): Fix too wide source locations of the cleanup
     instructions of a with statement.

   - gh-120754(8): Reduce the number of system calls invoked when
     reading a whole file (ex.  ‘open('a.txt').read()’).  For a sample
     program that reads the contents of the 400+ ‘.rst’ files in the
     cpython repository ‘Doc’ folder, there is an over 10% reduction in
     system call count.

   - gh-119462(9): Make sure that invariants of type versioning are
     maintained: * Superclasses always have their version number
     assigned before subclasses * The version tag is always zero if the
     tag is not valid.  * The version tag is always non-if the tag is
     valid.

   - gh-120437(10): Fix ‘_CHECK_STACK_SPACE’ optimization problems
     introduced in gh-118322(11).

   - gh-120722(12): Correctly set the bytecode position on return
     instructions within lambdas.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-120367(13): Fix bug where compiler creates a redundant jump
     during pseudo-op replacement.  Can only happen with a synthetic AST
     that has a try on the same line as the instruction following the
     exception handler.

   - gh-120507(14): Remove the ‘BEFORE_WITH’ and ‘BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH’
     instructions.  Add the new *note LOAD_SPECIAL: 59e. instruction.
     Generate code for ‘with’ and ‘async with’ statements using the new
     instruction.

   - gh-113993(15): Strings interned with *note sys.intern(): 1680. are
     again garbage-collected when no longer used, as per the
     documentation.  Strings interned with the C function *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): c84. are still immortal.  Internals of
     the string interning mechanism have been changed.  This may affect
     performance and identities of *note str: 1df. objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119726

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121115

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120838

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113433

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119726

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116017

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98442

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120754

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119462

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120437

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118322

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120722

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120367

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120507

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113993


File: python.info,  Node: Library<56>,  Next: Core and Builtins<53>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<52>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.18 Library
..................

   - gh-120485(1): Add an override of ‘allow_reuse_port’ on classes
     subclassing ‘socketserver.TCPServer’ where ‘allow_reuse_address’ is
     also overridden.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120485


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<53>,  Next: Library<57>,  Prev: Library<56>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.19 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-120384(1): Fix an array out of bounds crash in
     ‘list_ass_subscript’, which could be invoked via some specifically
     tailored input: including concurrent modification of a list object,
     where one thread assigns a slice and another clears it.

   - gh-120367(2): Fix crash in compiler on code with redundant NOPs and
     JUMPs which show up after exception handlers are moved to the end
     of the code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120384

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120367


File: python.info,  Node: Library<57>,  Next: Core and Builtins<54>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<53>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.20 Library
..................

   - gh-120380(1): Fix Python implementation of *note pickle.Pickler:
     de2. for *note bytes: 1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6. objects when
     using protocol version 5.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120380


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<54>,  Next: Library<58>,  Prev: Library<57>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.21 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-120397(1): Improve the throughput by up to two times for the
     *note str.count(): 1b93, *note bytes.count(): 1b94. and *note
     bytearray.count(): 1995. methods for counting single characters.

   - gh-120221(2): Deliver real signals on Ctrl-C and Ctrl-Z in the new
     REPL. Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-120346(3): Respect *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 452. when running in
     interactive inspect mode (‘python -i’).  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-93691(4): Fix source locations of instructions generated for the
     iterator of a for statement.

   - gh-120198(5): Fix a crash when multiple threads read and write to
     the same ‘__class__’ of an object concurrently.

   - gh-120298(6): Fix use-after free in ‘list_richcompare_impl’ which
     can be invoked via some specifically tailored evil input.

   - gh-119666(7): Fix a compiler crash in the case where two
     comprehensions in class scope both reference ‘__class__’.

   - gh-119726(8): JIT: Re-use trampolines on AArch64 when creating
     stencils.  Patch by Diego Russo

   - gh-120225(9): Fix crash in compiler on empty block at end of
     exception handler.

   - gh-93691(10): Fix source locations of instructions generated for
     with statements.

   - gh-120097(11): ‘FrameLocalsProxy’ now subclasses
     ‘collections.abc.Mapping’ and can be matched as a mapping in
     ‘match’ statements

   - gh-120080(12): Direct call to the ‘int.__round__()’ now accepts
     ‘None’ as a valid argument.

   - gh-119933(13): Improve *note SyntaxError: 17e. messages for invalid
     expressions in a type parameters bound, a type parameter constraint
     tuple or a default type parameter.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-119724(14): Reverted improvements to error messages for
     ‘elif’/‘else’ statements not matching any valid statements, which
     made in hard to locate the syntax errors inside those ‘elif’/‘else’
     blocks.

   - gh-119879(15): String search is now slightly faster for certain
     cases.  It now utilizes last character gap (good suffix rule) for
     two-way periodic needles.

   - gh-119842(16): Honor *note PyOS_InputHook(): 986. in the new REPL.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-119180(17): *note classmethod(): 69a. and *note staticmethod():
     666. now wrap the *note __annotations__: 66b. and *note
     __annotate__: 1b95. attributes of their underlying callable lazily.
     See PEP 649(18).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-119821(19): Fix execution of *note annotation scopes: 6b4.
     within classes when ‘globals’ is set to a non-dict.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-118934(20): Make ‘PyEval_GetLocals’ return borrowed reference

   - gh-119740(21): Remove the previously-deprecated delegation of *note
     int(): 326. to *note __trunc__(): 43b.

   - gh-119689(22): Generate stack effect metadata for pseudo
     instructions from bytecodes.c.

   - gh-109218(23): *note complex(): 328. accepts now a string only as a
     positional argument.  Passing a complex number as the «real» or
     «imag» argument is deprecated; it should only be passed as a single
     positional argument.

   - gh-119548(24): Add a ‘clear’ command to the REPL. Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-111999(25): Fix the signature of *note str.format_map(): 1190.

   - gh-119560(26): An invalid assert in beta 1 has been removed.  The
     assert would fail if ‘PyState_FindModule()’ was used in an
     extension module’s init function before the module def had been
     initialized.

   - gh-119369(27): Fix deadlock during thread deletion in free-threaded
     build, which could occur when the GIL was enabled at runtime.

   - gh-119525(28): Fix deadlock involving ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ cache in
     the free-threaded build when the GIL is dynamically enabled at
     runtime.

   - gh-119258(29): Eliminate type version guards in the tier two
     interpreter.

     Note that setting the ‘tp_version_tag’ manually (which has never
     been supported) may result in crashes.

   - gh-119311(30): Fix bug where names are unexpectedly mangled in the
     bases of generic classes.

   - gh-119395(31): Fix bug where names appearing after a generic class
     are mangled as if they are in the generic class.

   - gh-119372(32): Correct invalid corner cases in complex division
     (resulted in ‘(nan+nanj)’ output), e.g.  ‘1/complex('(inf+infj)')’.
     Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-119180(33): Evaluation of annotations is now deferred.  See PEP
     649(34) for details.

   - gh-119180(35): Replace ‘LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR’ opcode with *note
     LOAD_COMMON_CONSTANT: 599. and add support for *note
     NotImplementedError: 59a.

   - gh-119213(36): Non-builtin modules built with argument clinic were
     crashing if used in a subinterpreter before the main interpreter.
     The objects that were causing the problem by leaking between
     interpreters carelessly have been fixed.

   - gh-119011(37): Fixes ‘type.__type_params__’ to return an empty
     tuple instead of a descriptor.

   - gh-118692(38): Avoid creating unnecessary *note StopIteration: fba.
     instances for monitoring.

   - gh-119180(39): Add an ‘__annotate__’ attribute to functions,
     classes, and modules as part of PEP 649(40).  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-119049(41): Fix displaying the source line for warnings created
     by the C API if the *note warnings: 11b. module had not yet been
     imported.

   - gh-119057(42): Improve *note ZeroDivisionError: d11. error message.
     Now, all error messages are harmonized: all ‘/’, ‘//’, and ‘%’
     operations just use «division by zero» message.  And ‘0 ** -1’
     operation uses «zero to a negative power».

   - gh-118844(43): Fix build failures when configuring with both
     ‘--disable-gil’ and ‘--enable-experimental-jit’.

   - gh-118921(44): Add ‘copy()’ method for ‘FrameLocalsProxy’ which
     returns a snapshot ‘dict’ for local variables.

   - gh-117657(45): Fix data races on the field that stores a pointer to
     the interpreter’s main thread that occur in free-threaded builds.

   - gh-118750(46): If the C version of the ‘decimal’ module is
     available, ‘int(str)’ now uses it to supply an asymptotically much
     faster conversion.  However, this only applies if the string
     contains over about 2 million digits.

   - gh-118767(47): Using *note NotImplemented: 440. in a boolean
     context now raises *note TypeError: 291.  Contributed by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-118561(48): Fix race condition in free-threaded build where
     *note list.extend(): 7f8. could expose uninitialised memory to
     concurrent readers.

   - gh-117139(49): Convert the Python evaluation stack to use internal
     stack references.  The purpose is to support tagged pointers.  In
     PEP 703(50), this will allow for its form of deferred reference
     counting.  For both the default and free-threaded builds, this sets
     up the infrastructure for unboxed integers in the future.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120397

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120221

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120346

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93691

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120198

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120298

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119666

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119726

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120225

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93691

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120097

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120080

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119933

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119724

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119879

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119842

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119821

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118934

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119740

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119689

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119548

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111999

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119560

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119369

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119525

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119258

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119311

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119395

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119372

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119213

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119011

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118692

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119180

   (40) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119049

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119057

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118844

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118921

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117657

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118750

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118767

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118561

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117139

   (50) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<58>,  Next: Core and Builtins<55>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<54>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.22 Library
..................

   - gh-115801(1): Raise ‘TypeError’ when passing a string to *note
     difflib.unified_diff(): 213. and *note difflib.context_diff():
     1b97.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115801


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<55>,  Next: C API<16>,  Prev: Library<58>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.23 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-117558(1): Improve error messages when a string, bytes or
     bytearray object of length 1 is expected.

   - gh-117195(2): Avoid assertion failure for debug builds when calling
     ‘object.__sizeof__(1)’

   - gh-116022(3): Improve the *note __repr__(): 1bc. output of *note
     AST: 2ec. nodes.

   - gh-114091(4): Changed the error message for awaiting something that
     can’t be awaited from «object <type> can’t be used in an await
     expression» to «”<type>” object can’t be awaited».

   - gh-113190(5): *note Py_Finalize(): 672. now deletes all interned
     strings.

   - gh-84978(6): Add class methods *note float.from_number(): 437. and
     *note complex.from_number(): 438.

   - gh-95144(7): Improve the error message from ‘a in b’ when ‘b’ is
     not a container to mention the term «container».

   - bpo-24766(8): Fix handling of ‘doc’ argument to subclasses of
     ‘property’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117558

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117195

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116022

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114091

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113190

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84978

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95144

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24766


File: python.info,  Node: C API<16>,  Next: Build<15>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<55>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.24 C API
................

   - gh-123961(1): Convert the *note curses.window: 1a24. static type
     exposed by the ‘PyCursesWindow_Type’ macro in ‘Include/py_curses.h’
     to a *note heap type: d2f.  Patch by Bénédikt Tran.

   - gh-124502(2): Add *note PyUnicode_Equal(): 5df. function to the
     limited C API: test if two strings are equal.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-124296(3): *note PyDictObject: 83e. no longer maintains a
     private version tag field ‘ma_version_tag’ per PEP 699(4).  This
     field was originally added in Python 3.6 ( PEP 509(5)) and
     deprecated in Python 3.12.

   - gh-124160(6): Fix crash when importing modules containing state and
     single-phase initialization in a subinterpreter.

   - gh-124153(7): Add *note PyType_GetBaseByToken(): 5dd. and *note
     Py_tp_token: 5de. slot for easier type checking, related to PEP
     489(8) and PEP 630(9).

   - gh-124127(10): In the limited C API 3.14 and newer, *note
     Py_REFCNT(): 54b. is now implemented as an opaque function call to
     hide implementation details.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-123880(11): Fixed a bug that prevented circular imports of
     extension modules that use single-phase initialization.

   - gh-123909(12): *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e, *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 38f. and *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390. will now fail if the metaclass of
     the new type has custom *note tp_new: 981.

   - gh-107954(13): Add functions to configure the Python initialization
     ( PEP 741(14)):

        * *note PyInitConfig_Create(): 5b4.

        * *note PyInitConfig_Free(): 5b5.

        * *note PyInitConfig_GetError(): 5b7.

        * *note PyInitConfig_GetExitCode(): 5b8.

        * *note PyInitConfig_HasOption(): 5bc.

        * *note PyInitConfig_GetInt(): 5b9.

        * *note PyInitConfig_GetStr(): 5ba.

        * *note PyInitConfig_GetStrList(): 5bb.

        * *note PyInitConfig_FreeStrList(): 5b6.

        * *note PyInitConfig_SetInt(): 5bd.

        * *note PyInitConfig_SetStr(): 5be.

        * *note PyInitConfig_SetStrList(): 5bf.

        * *note PyInitConfig_AddModule(): 5a9.

        * *note Py_InitializeFromInitConfig(): 5b3.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107954(15): Add functions to get and set the current runtime
     Python configuration:

        * *note PyConfig_Get(): 3a6.

        * *note PyConfig_GetInt(): 5b1.

        * *note PyConfig_Set(): 5aa.

        * *note PyConfig_Names(): 5b2.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-123465(16): *note Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET: 959. is now allowed in
     *note PyMemberDef: 95a. for the special offset member
     ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’, as well as the discouraged special offset
     members ‘"__dictoffset__"’ and ‘"__weaklistoffset__"’

   - gh-100554(17): Added a slot ‘Py_tp_vectorcall’ to set *note
     tp_vectorcall: 1b9a. via the *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e. function
     family.  Limited API extensions can use this feature to provide
     more efficient vector call-based implementation of ‘__new__’ and
     ‘__init__’.

   - gh-122854(18): Add *note Py_HashBuffer(): 5c2. to compute and
     return the hash value of a buffer.  Patch by Antoine Pitrou and
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-122728(19): Fix *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 7ee. to avoid *note
     SystemError: 3ea. («bad argument to internal function»).  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116622(20): Make *note PyObject_Print: 18fe. work around a bug
     in Android and OpenBSD which prevented it from throwing an
     exception when trying to write to a read-only stream.

   - gh-105201(21): Add *note PyIter_NextItem(): 5c5. to replace *note
     PyIter_Next(): 5c6, which has an ambiguous return value.  Patch by
     Irit Katriel and Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-121489(22): Export private ‘_PyBytes_Join()’ again.

   - gh-121645(23): Add *note PyBytes_Join(sep, iterable): 5b0.
     function, similar to ‘sep.join(iterable)’ in Python.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-89364(24): Export the *note PySignal_SetWakeupFd(): 177e.
     function.  Previously, the function was documented but it couldn’t
     be used in 3rd party code.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-113993(25): *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): c84. no longer
     prevents its argument from being garbage collected.

     Several functions that take ‘char *’ are now documented as possibly
     preventing string objects from being garbage collected; refer to
     their documentation for details: *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 3b5, *note PyDict_SetItemString():
     1b9b, *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 1a6c, *note
     PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1a6e, ‘PyUnicode_InternFromString()’, and
     ‘PyModule_Add*’ convenience functions.

   - gh-113601(26): Removed debug build assertions related to interning
     strings, which were falsely triggered by stable ABI extensions.

   - gh-112136(27): Restore the private ‘_PyArg_Parser’ structure and
     the private ‘_PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywordsFast()’ function,
     previously removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-120642(28): Remove the private ‘_Py_CODEUNIT’ type from the
     public C API. The internal ‘pycore_code.h’ header should now be
     used to get this internal type.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-120858(29): *note PyDict_Next(): 1b9c. no longer locks the
     dictionary in the free-threaded build.  The locking needs to be
     done by the caller around the entire iteration loop.

   - gh-120642(30): Remove the following unstable functions:

        * ‘PyUnstable_Replace_Executor()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_SetOptimizer()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_GetOptimizer()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_GetExecutor()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_Optimizer_NewCounter()’

        * ‘PyUnstable_Optimizer_NewUOpOptimizer()’

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-120389(31): Add new functions to convert C ‘<stdint.h>’ numbers
     from/to Python *note int: 326.:

        * *note PyLong_FromInt32(): 5d0.

        * *note PyLong_FromUInt32(): 5d2.

        * *note PyLong_FromInt64(): 5d1.

        * *note PyLong_FromUInt64(): 5d3.

        * *note PyLong_AsInt32(): 5cc.

        * *note PyLong_AsUInt32(): 5ce.

        * *note PyLong_AsInt64(): 5cd.

        * *note PyLong_AsUInt64(): 5cf.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-120600(32): In the limited C API 3.14 and newer, *note
     Py_TYPE(): 5f5. is now implemented as an opaque function call to
     hide implementation details.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-70278(33): *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e. no longer produces
     the ending ‘\ufffd’ character for truncated C string when use
     precision with ‘%s’ and ‘%V’.  It now truncates the string before
     the start of truncated multibyte sequences.

   - gh-119771(34): Set *note errno: 5a. in *note _Py_c_pow(): 3c2. on
     overflows.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-119182(35): Add a new *note PyUnicodeWriter: 5e0. API to create
     a Python *note str: 1df. object:

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_Create(): 5e1.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_Discard(): 5e3.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(): 5e4.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(): 5e7.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(): 5ec.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUCS4(): 5eb.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteWideChar(): 5ed.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(): 5e9.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteRepr(): 5e8.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(): 5ea.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_Format(): 5e5.

        * *note PyUnicodeWriter_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 5e2.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-119613(36): Soft deprecate the *note Py_MEMCPY: 1b9d. macro: use
     directly ‘memcpy()’ instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-119775(37): Creating *note immutable types: 5fb. with mutable
     bases was deprecated since 3.12 and now raises a *note TypeError:
     291.

   - gh-119585(38): Fix crash when a thread state that was created by
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5. calls a destructor that during
     *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1b9e. that calls back into
     ‘PyGILState_Ensure()’ and *note PyGILState_Release(): 1a6.  This
     might occur when in the free-threaded build or when using
     thread-local variables whose destructors call
     ‘PyGILState_Ensure()’.

   - gh-119613(39): Macros ‘Py_IS_NAN’, ‘Py_IS_INFINITY’ and
     ‘Py_IS_FINITE’ are *note soft deprecated: 1a7.

   - gh-119336(40): Restore the removed ‘_PyLong_NumBits()’ function.
     It is used by the pywin32 project.  Patch by Ethan Smith

   - gh-119344(41): The critical section API is now public as part of
     the non-limited C API.

   - gh-119333(42): Add *note PyContext_AddWatcher(): 1b9f. and *note
     PyContext_ClearWatcher(): 1ba0. APIs to register callbacks to
     receive notification on enter and exit of context objects.

   - gh-119247(43): Added ‘Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION_SEQUENCE_FAST’ and
     ‘Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION_SEQUENCE_FAST’ macros to make it possible
     to use PySequence_Fast APIs safely when free-threaded, and update
     str.join to work without the GIL using them.

   - gh-111389(44): Add *note PyHASH_MULTIPLIER: 1ba1. constant: prime
     multiplier used in string and various other hashes.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-118771(45): Several C declarations with names that didn’t start
     with the ‘Py’ or ‘_Py’ prefixes, which were added by mistake in
     3.13 alpha and beta releases, were moved to internal headers.

   - gh-116984(46): Make mimalloc includes relative to the current file
     to avoid embedders or extensions needing to include
     ‘Internal/mimalloc’ if they are already including internal CPython
     headers.

   - gh-118789(47): Add *note
     PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks(): 1ba2, which clears
     weakrefs without calling their callbacks.

   - gh-118789(48): Restore ‘_PyWeakref_ClearRef’ that was previously
     removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1.

   - gh-117511(49): Make the *note PyMutex: 693. public in the
     non-limited C API.

   - gh-116560(50): Add *note PyLong_GetSign(): 5c7. function.  Patch by
     Sergey B Kirpichev.

   - gh-97588(51): Fix creating bitfields in *note ctypes: 2d.
     structures and unions.  Fields no longer overlap.

   - gh-87135(52): Attempting to acquire the GIL after runtime
     finalization has begun in a different thread now causes the thread
     to hang rather than terminate, which avoids potential crashes or
     memory corruption caused by attempting to terminate a thread that
     is running code not specifically designed to support termination.
     In most cases this hanging is harmless since the process will soon
     exit anyway.

     The ‘PyThread_exit_thread’ function is now deprecated.  Its
     behavior is inconsistent across platforms, and it can only be used
     safely in the unlikely case that every function in the entire call
     stack has been designed to support the platform-dependent
     termination mechanism.  It is recommended that users of this
     function change their design to not require thread termination.  In
     the unlikely case that thread termination is needed and can be done
     safely, users may migrate to calling platform-specific APIs such as
     ‘pthread_exit’ (POSIX) or ‘_endthreadex’ (Windows) directly.

   - bpo-34008(53): Added ‘Py_IsInitialized’ to the list of APIs that
     are safe to call before the interpreter is initialized, and updated
     the embedding tests to cover it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123961

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124502

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124296

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0509/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124160

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124153

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0630/

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124127

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123880

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123909

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107954

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0741/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107954

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123465

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100554

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122854

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122728

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105201

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121489

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121645

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89364

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113993

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113601

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112136

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120642

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120858

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120642

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120389

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120600

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70278

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119771

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119182

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119613

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119775

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119585

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119613

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119336

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119344

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119333

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119247

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111389

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118771

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116984

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118789

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118789

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117511

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116560

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97588

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87135

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008


File: python.info,  Node: Build<15>,  Prev: C API<16>,  Up: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1

1.26.18.25 Build
................

   - gh-125269(1): Fix detection of whether ‘-latomic’ is needed when
     cross-compiling CPython using the configure script.

   - gh-123990(2): Remove ‘WITH_FREELISTS’ macro and
     ‘--without-freelists’ build configuration

   - gh-124102(3): Update internal documentation under PCbuild, so it
     now correctly states that Windows requires VS2017 or later and
     Python 3.10 or later

   - gh-124043(4): Building using *note -with-trace-refs: 828. is
     (temporarily) disallowed when the GIL is disabled.

   - gh-123418(5): Updated Android build to use OpenSSL 3.0.15.

   - gh-123297(6): Propagate the value of ‘LDFLAGS’ to ‘LDCXXSHARED’ in
     *note sysconfig: e4.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-121634(7): Allow for specifying the target compile triple for
     WASI.

   - gh-122578(8): Use WASI SDK 24 for testing.

   - gh-116622(9): Rename build variable ‘MODULE_LDFLAGS’ back to
     ‘LIBPYTHON’, as it’s used by package build systems (e.g.  Meson).

   - gh-118943(10): Fix an issue where the experimental JIT could be
     built several times by the ‘make regen-all’ target, leading to
     possible race conditions on heavily parallelized builds.

   - gh-121996(11): Introduce ./configure –disable-safety and
     –enable-slower-safety options.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-120522(12): Added a *note -with-app-store-compliance: 1ba4.
     option to patch out known issues with macOS/iOS App Store review
     processes.

   - gh-120371(13): Support WASI SDK 22 by explicitly skipping functions
     that are just stubs in wasi-libc.

   - gh-121731(14): Fix mimalloc compile error on GNU/Hurd

   - gh-121487(15): Fix deprecation warning for ATOMIC_VAR_INIT in
     mimalloc.

   - gh-121467(16): Fix a Makefile bug that prevented mimalloc header
     files from being installed.

   - gh-121103(17): On POSIX systems, excluding macOS framework
     installs, the lib directory for the free-threaded build now
     includes a «t» suffix to avoid conflicts with a co-located default
     build installation.

   - gh-120831(18): The default minimum iOS version was increased to
     13.0.

   - gh-121082(19): Fix build failure when the developer use
     ‘--enable-pystats’ arguments in configuration command after
     #118450.

   - gh-120671(20): Fix failing configure tests due to a missing space
     when appending to CFLAGS.

   - gh-120602(21): Correctly handle LLVM installs with
     ‘LLVM_VERSION_SUFFIX’ when building with
     ‘--enable-experimental-jit’.

   - gh-120688(22): On WASI in debug mode, Python is now built with
     compiler flag ‘-O3’ instead of ‘-Og’, to support more recursive
     calls.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-118943(23): Fix a possible race condition affecting parallel
     builds configured with ‘--enable-experimental-jit’, in which *note
     FileNotFoundError: 243. could be caused by another process already
     moving ‘jit_stencils.h.new’ to ‘jit_stencils.h’.

   - gh-120326(24): On Windows, fix build error when ‘--disable-gil’ and
     ‘--experimental-jit’ options are combined.

   - gh-120291(25): Make the ‘python-config’ shell script compatible
     with non-bash shells.

   - gh-113565(26): Improve *note curses: 2e. and *note curses.panel:
     30. dependency checks in ‘configure’.

   - gh-119729(27): On POSIX systems, the pkg-config (‘.pc’) filenames
     now include the ABI flags, which may include debug («d») and
     free-threaded («t»).  For example: * ‘python-3.14.pc’ (default,
     non-debug build) * ‘python-3.14d.pc’ (default, debug build) *
     ‘python-3.14t.pc’ (free-threaded build)

   - gh-119400(28): ‘make_ssl_certs’, the script that prepares
     certificate data for the test suite, now allows specifying
     expiration dates.

   - gh-115119(29): Fall back to the bundled libmpdec if a system
     version cannot be found.

   - gh-119132(30): Update *note sys.version: 6a8. to identify whether
     the build is default build or free-threading build.  Patch By
     Donghee Na.

   - gh-118836(31): Fix an ‘AssertionError’ when building with
     ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ and the compiler emits a ‘SHT_NOTE’
     section.

   - gh-118943(32): Fix a possible race condition affecting parallel
     builds configured with ‘--enable-experimental-jit’, in which
     compilation errors could be caused by an incompletely-generated
     header file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125269

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123990

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124102

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124043

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123418

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/123297

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121634

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122578

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118943

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121996

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120522

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120371

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121731

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121487

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121467

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121103

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120831

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121082

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120671

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120602

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120688

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118943

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120326

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/120291

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113565

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119729

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119400

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/119132

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118836

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118943


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 14 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.19 Python 3.13.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-05-08'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<16>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<56>.
* Library: Library<59>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<57>.
* Library: Library<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<15>.
* Build: Build<16>.
* Windows: Windows<14>.
* macOS: macOS<10>.
* IDLE: IDLE<9>.
* C API: C API<17>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<16>,  Next: Core and Builtins<56>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.26.19.1 Security
..................

   - gh-116741(1): Update bundled libexpat to 2.6.2

   - gh-117233(2): Detect BLAKE2, SHA3, Shake, & truncated SHA512
     support in the OpenSSL-ish libcrypto library at build time.  This
     allows *note hashlib: 6b. to be used with libraries that do not to
     support every algorithm that upstream OpenSSL does.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116741

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117233


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<56>,  Next: Library<59>,  Prev: Security<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.26.19.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-118414(1): Add instrumented opcodes to YIELD_VALUE assertion for
     tracing cases.

   - gh-117953(2): When a builtin or extension module is imported for
     the first time, while a subinterpreter is active, the module’s init
     function is now run by the main interpreter first before import
     continues in the subinterpreter.  Consequently, single-phase init
     modules now fail in an isolated subinterpreter without the init
     function running under that interpreter, whereas before it would
     run under the subinterpreter 'before' failing, potentially leaving
     behind global state and callbacks and otherwise leaving the module
     in an inconsistent state.

   - gh-117549(3): Don’t use designated initializer syntax in inline
     functions in internal headers.  They cause problems for C++ or MSVC
     users who aren’t yet using the latest C++ standard (C++20).  While
     internal, pycore_backoff.h, is included (indirectly, via
     pycore_code.h) by some key 3rd party software that does so for
     speed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118414

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117953

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117549


File: python.info,  Node: Library<59>,  Next: Core and Builtins<57>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<56>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.26.19.3 Library
.................

   - gh-95382(1): Improve performance of *note json.dumps(): 248. and
     *note json.dump(): 10fb. when using the argument 'indent'.
     Depending on the data the encoding using ‘json.dumps()’ with
     'indent' can be up to 2 to 3 times faster.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95382


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<57>,  Next: Library<60>,  Prev: Library<59>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.26.19.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-116322(1): In ‘--disable-gil’ builds, the GIL will be enabled
     while loading C extension modules.  If the module indicates that it
     supports running without the GIL, the GIL will be disabled once
     loading is complete.  Otherwise, the GIL will remain enabled for
     the remainder of the interpreter’s lifetime.  This behavior does
     not apply if the GIL has been explicitly enabled or disabled with
     ‘PYTHON_GIL’ or ‘-Xgil’.

   - gh-118513(2): Fix incorrect *note UnboundLocalError: 18d8. when two
     comprehensions in the same function both reference the same name,
     and in one comprehension the name is bound while in the other it’s
     an implicit global.

   - gh-118518(3): Allow the Linux perf support to work without frame
     pointers using perf’s advanced JIT support.  The feature is
     activated when using the ‘PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT’ environment
     variable or when running Python with ‘-Xperf_jit’.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - gh-117514(4): Add ‘sys._is_gil_enabled()’ function that returns
     whether the GIL is currently enabled.  In the default build it
     always returns ‘True’ because the GIL is always enabled.  In the
     free-threaded build, it may return ‘True’ or ‘False’.

   - gh-118164(5): Break a loop between the Python implementation of the
     *note decimal: 39. module and the Python code for integer to string
     conversion.  Also optimize integer to string conversion for values
     in the range from 9_000 to 135_000 decimal digits.

   - gh-118473(6): Fix *note sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 1baa. not to be
     partially set when raising *note TypeError: 291.

   - gh-118465(7): Compiler populates the new ‘__firstlineno__’ field on
     a class with the line number of the first line of the class
     definition.

   - gh-118492(8): Fix an issue where the type cache can expose a
     previously accessed attribute when a finalizer is run.

   - gh-117714(9): update ‘async_generator.athrow().close()’ and
     ‘async_generator.asend().close()’ to close their section of the
     underlying async generator

   - gh-111201(10): The *note interactive: 451. interpreter is now
     implemented in Python, which allows for a number of new features
     like colors, multiline input, history viewing, and paste mode.
     Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Łukasz Langa and Lysandros Nikolaou
     based on code from the PyPy project.

   - gh-74929(11): Implement PEP 667: converted *note
     FrameType.f_locals: 28d. and *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 84e. to
     return a write-through proxy object when the frame refers to a
     function or comprehension.

   - gh-116767(12): Fix crash in compiler on “async with” that has many
     context managers.

   - gh-118335(13): Change how to use the tier 2 interpreter.  Instead
     of running Python with ‘-X uops’ or setting the environment
     variable ‘PYTHON_UOPS=1’, this choice is now made at build time by
     configuring with ‘--enable-experimental-jit=interpreter’.

     'Beware!'  This changes the environment variable to enable or
     disable micro-ops to ‘PYTHON_JIT’.  The old ‘PYTHON_UOPS’ is no
     longer used.

   - gh-118306(14): Update JIT compilation to use LLVM 18

   - gh-118160(15): *note Annotation scopes: 6b4. within classes can now
     contain comprehensions.  However, such comprehensions are not
     inlined into their parent scope at runtime.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-118272(16): Fix bug where ‘generator.close’ does not free the
     generator frame’s locals.

   - gh-118216(17): Don’t consider *note __future__: 0. imports with
     dots before the module name.

   - gh-118074(18): Make sure that the Executor objects in the
     COLD_EXITS array aren’t assumed to be GC-able (which would access
     bytes outside the object).

   - gh-107674(19): Lazy load frame line number to improve performance
     of tracing

   - gh-118082(20): Improve *note SyntaxError: 17e. message for imports
     without names, like in ‘from x import’ and ‘import’ cases.  It now
     points out to users that *note import: 9da. expects at least one
     name after it.

   - gh-118090(21): Improve *note SyntaxError: 17e. message for empty
     type param brackets.

   - gh-117958(22): Added a ‘get_jit_code()’ method to access JIT
     compiled machine code from the UOp Executor when the experimental
     JIT is enabled.  Patch by Anthony Shaw.

   - gh-117901(23): Add option for compiler’s codegen to save nested
     instruction sequences for introspection.

   - gh-116622(24): Redirect stdout and stderr to system log when
     embedded in an Android app.

   - gh-109118(25): *note annotation scope: 6b4. within class scopes can
     now contain lambdas.

   - gh-117894(26): Prevent ‘agen.aclose()’ objects being re-used after
     ‘.throw()’.

   - gh-117881(27): prevent concurrent access to an async generator via
     athrow().throw() or asend().throw()

   - gh-117536(28): Fix a *note RuntimeWarning: 6dd. when calling
     ‘agen.aclose().throw(Exception)’.

   - gh-117755(29): Fix mimalloc allocator for huge memory allocation
     (around 8,589,934,592 GiB) on s390x.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117750(30): Fix issue where an object’s dict would get out of
     sync with the object’s internal values when being cleared.
     ‘obj.__dict__.clear()’ now clears the internal values, but leaves
     the dict attached to the object.

   - gh-117431(31): Improve the performance of the following *note
     bytes: 1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6. methods by adapting them to
     the *note METH_FASTCALL: 34b. calling convention:

        * ‘count()’

        * ‘find()’

        * ‘index()’

        * ‘rfind()’

        * ‘rindex()’

   - gh-117709(32): Speed up calls to *note str(): 1df. with
     positional-only argument, by using the PEP 590(33) ‘vectorcall’
     calling convention.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-117680(34): Give ‘_PyInstructionSequence’ a Python interface and
     use it in tests.

   - gh-115776(35): Statically allocated objects are, by definition,
     immortal so must be marked as such regardless of whether they are
     in extension modules or not.

   - gh-117385(36): Remove unhandled ‘PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH’ and
     ‘PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED’ events from *note
     sys.settrace(): 55c.

   - gh-116322(37): Extension modules may indicate to the runtime that
     they can run without the GIL. Multi-phase init modules do so by
     calling providing ‘Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED’ for the ‘Py_mod_gil’ slot,
     while single-phase init modules call ‘PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(mod,
     Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED)’ from their init function.

   - gh-116129(38): Implement PEP 696(39), adding support for defaults
     on type parameters.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-93502(40): Add two new functions to the C-API, *note
     PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 805. and *note PyRefTracer_GetTracer():
     806, that allows to track object creation and destruction the same
     way the *note tracemalloc: 108. module does.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-107674(41): Improved the performance of *note sys.settrace():
     55c. significantly

   - gh-95754(42): Improve the error message when a script shadowing a
     module from the standard library causes *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     to be raised.  Similarly, improve the error message when a script
     shadowing a third party module attempts to access an attribute from
     that third party module while still initialising.

   - gh-99180(43): Elide uninformative traceback indicators in ‘return’
     and simple ‘assignment’ statements.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-105879(44): Allow the 'globals' and 'locals' arguments to *note
     exec(): 185. and *note eval(): 184. to be passed as keywords.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116322

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118513

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118518

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117514

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118164

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118473

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118465

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118492

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117714

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116767

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118335

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118306

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118160

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118272

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118216

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118074

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107674

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118082

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118090

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117958

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117901

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117894

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117881

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117536

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117755

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117750

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117431

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117709

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117680

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115776

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117385

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116322

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116129

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93502

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107674

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95754

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99180

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105879


File: python.info,  Node: Library<60>,  Next: Documentation<15>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<57>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.26.19.5 Library
.................

   - gh-118418(1): A *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. is now emitted if
     you fail to pass a value to the new 'type_params' parameter of
     ‘typing._eval_type()’ or ‘typing.ForwardRef._evaluate()’.  (Using
     either of these private and undocumented functions is discouraged
     to begin with, but failing to pass a value to the ‘type_params’
     parameter may lead to incorrect behaviour on Python 3.12 or newer.)

   - gh-118660(2): Add an optional second type parameter to *note
     typing.ContextManager: 104e. and *note typing.AsyncContextManager:
     1bac, representing the return types of *note __exit__(): 16a5. and
     *note __aexit__(): 1bad. respectively.  This parameter defaults to
     ‘bool | None’.

   - gh-118650(3): The ‘enum’ module allows method named ‘_repr_*’ to be
     defined on ‘Enum’ types.

   - gh-118648(4): Add type parameter defaults to *note
     typing.Generator: 1bae. and *note typing.AsyncGenerator: 1baf.

   - gh-101137(5): Mime type ‘text/x-rst’ is now supported by *note
     mimetypes: 93.

   - gh-118164(6): The Python implementation of the ‘decimal’ module
     could appear to hang in relatively small power cases (like
     ‘2**117’) if context precision was set to a very high value.  A
     different method to check for exactly representable results is used
     now that doesn’t rely on computing ‘10**precision’ (which could be
     effectively too large to compute).

   - gh-111744(7): ‘breakpoint()’ and ‘pdb.set_trace()’ now enter the
     debugger immediately after the call rather than before the next
     line is executed.

   - gh-118500(8): Add *note pdb: aa. support for zipapps

   - gh-118406(9): Add signature for *note sqlite3.Connection: 3df.
     objects.

   - gh-101732(10): Use a Y2038 compatible openssl time function when
     available.

   - gh-118404(11): Fix *note inspect.signature(): 4bd. for
     non-comparable callables.

   - gh-118402(12): Fix *note inspect.signature(): 4bd. for the result
     of the *note functools.cmp_to_key(): 1583. call.

   - gh-116622(13): On Android, *note sysconfig.get_platform: 15e8. now
     returns the format specified by PEP 738(14).

   - gh-118285(15): Allow to specify the signature of custom callable
     instances of extension type by the ‘__text_signature__’ attribute.
     Specify signatures of *note operator.attrgetter: 11e6, *note
     operator.itemgetter: e26, and *note operator.methodcaller: 11e7.
     instances.

   - gh-118314(16): Fix an edge case in *note binascii.a2b_base64():
     1fd. strict mode, where excessive padding is not detected when no
     padding is necessary.

   - gh-118271(17): Add the ‘PhotoImage’ methods ‘read()’ to read an
     image from a file and ‘data()’ to get the image data.  Add
     'background' and 'grayscale' parameters to ‘PhotoImage’ method
     ‘write()’.

   - gh-118225(18): Add the ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy_replace()’ to copy
     a region from one image to other image, possibly with pixel zooming
     and/or subsampling.  Add 'from_coords' parameter to ‘PhotoImage’
     methods ‘copy()’, ‘zoom()’ and ‘subsample()’.  Add 'zoom' and
     'subsample' parameters to ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy()’.

   - gh-118221(19): Fix a bug where *note sqlite3.Connection.iterdump():
     751. could fail if a custom *note row factory: 1bb0. was used.
     Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-118013(20): Fix regression introduced in gh-103193(21) that
     meant that calling *note inspect.getattr_static(): 8a5. on an
     instance would cause a strong reference to that instance’s class to
     persist in an internal cache in the *note inspect: 81. module.
     This caused unexpected memory consumption if the class was
     dynamically created, the class held strong references to other
     objects which took up a significant amount of memory, and the cache
     contained the sole strong reference to the class.  The fix for the
     regression leads to a slowdown in ‘getattr_static()’, but the
     function should still be significantly faster than it was in Python
     3.11.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-118218(22): Speed up *note itertools.pairwise(): bee. in the
     common case by up to 1.8x.

   - gh-117486(23): Improve the behavior of user-defined subclasses of
     *note ast.AST: 2ec.  Such classes will now require no changes in
     the usual case to conform with the behavior changes of the *note
     ast: 9. module in Python 3.13.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-90848(24): Fixed *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1b4e. to
     configure parent mock with keyword arguments.

   - gh-118168(25): Fix incorrect argument substitution when *note
     typing.Unpack: 1bb1. is used with the builtin *note tuple: 1ce.
     ‘typing.Unpack’ now raises *note TypeError: 291. when used with
     certain invalid types.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-118131(26): Add command-line interface for the *note random: c0.
     module.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-118107(27): Fix *note zipimport: 13b. reading of ZIP64 files
     with file entries that are too big or offset too far.

   - gh-102511(28): Fix *note os.path.normpath(): 16be. for UNC paths on
     Windows.  Speed up *note os.path.splitroot(): 8b4. with a native
     implementation.

   - gh-117535(29): Change the unknown filename of *note warnings: 11b.
     from ‘sys’ to ‘<sys>’ to clarify that it’s not a real filename.

   - gh-114053(30): Fix erroneous *note NameError: 665. when calling
     *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. on a class that made use of PEP
     695(31) type parameters in a module that had ‘from __future__
     import annotations’ at the top of the file.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-116931(32): Add parameter 'fileobj' check for *note
     tarfile.TarFile.addfile(): 1bb2.

   - gh-117995(33): Don’t raise *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. when a
     *note sequence: 8ff. of parameters is used to bind indexed,
     nameless placeholders.  See also gh-100668(34).

   - gh-80361(35): Fix TypeError in *note
     email.message.Message.get_payload(): 1576. when the charset is RFC
     2231(36) encoded.

   - gh-86650(37): Fix IndexError when parse some emails with invalid
     Message-ID (including one-off addresses generated by Microsoft
     Outlook).

   - gh-117691(38): Improve the error messages emitted by *note tarfile:
     e7. deprecation warnings relating to PEP 706.  If a ‘filter’
     argument is not provided to ‘extract()’ or ‘extractall’, the
     deprecation warning now points to the line in the user’s code where
     the relevant function was called.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-115874(39): Fixed a possible segfault during garbage collection
     of ‘_asyncio.FutureIter’ objects.  Patch by Savannah Ostrowski.

   - gh-115060(40): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. by omitting
     an initial *note is_dir(): 73d. call.  As a result of this change,
     ‘glob()’ can no longer raise *note OSError: 53c.

   - gh-77102(41): *note site: cf. module now parses ‘.pth’ file with
     UTF-8 first, and *note locale encoding: 74d. if
     ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ happened.  It supported only locale encoding
     before.

   - gh-76785(42): We’ve exposed the low-level ‘_interpreters’ module
     for the sake of the PyPI implementation of PEP 734(43).  It was
     sometimes available as the ‘_xxsubinterpreters’ module and was
     formerly used only for testing.  For the most part, it should be
     considered an internal module, like ‘_thread’ and ‘_imp’.  See
     ‘https://discuss.python.org/t/pep-734-multiple-interpreters-in-the-stdlib/41147/26’.

   - gh-115060(44): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. by not
     scanning directories for non-wildcard pattern segments.

   - gh-117727(45): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 4f6. by using
     *note os.scandir(): e23. internally.

   - gh-117586(46): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 8b8. by working
     with strings internally.

   - gh-117722(47): Change the new multi-separator support in *note
     asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil(): 6d6. to only accept tuples of
     separators rather than arbitrary iterables.

   - gh-117692(48): Fixes a bug when *note doctest.DocTestFinder: 1bb3.
     was failing on wrapped ‘builtin_function_or_method’.

   - gh-117348(49): Largely restored import time performance of
     configparser by avoiding dataclasses.

   - gh-117641(50): Speedup *note os.path.commonpath(): 334. on Unix.

   - gh-117663(51): Fix ‘_simple_enum’ to detect aliases when multiple
     arguments are present but only one is the member value.

   - gh-117636(52): Speedup *note os.path.join(): 1a42.

   - gh-117618(53): Support ‘package.module’ as ‘filename’ for ‘break’
     command of *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-102247(54): the status codes enum with constants in
     http.HTTPStatus are updated to include the names from RFC9110.
     This RFC includes some HTTP statuses previously only used for
     WEBDAV and assigns more generic names to them.

     The old constants are preserved for backwards compatibility.

   - gh-117607(55): Speedup *note os.path.relpath(): 8ba.

   - gh-117586(56): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. by working
     with strings internally.

   - gh-117225(57): Add colour to doctest output.  Patch by Hugo van
     Kemenade.

   - gh-117566(58): *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_loopback(): 1bb4.
     will now return ‘True’ for IPv4-mapped loopback addresses, i.e.
     addresses in the ‘::ffff:127.0.0.0/104’ address space.

   - gh-117546(59): Fix issue where *note os.path.realpath(): 241.
     stopped resolving symlinks after encountering a symlink loop on
     POSIX.

   - gh-116720(60): Improved behavior of *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 6d7.
     when an external cancellation collides with an internal
     cancellation.  For example, when two task groups are nested and
     both experience an exception in a child task simultaneously, it was
     possible that the outer task group would misbehave, because its
     internal cancellation was swallowed by the inner task group.

     In the case where a task group is cancelled externally and also
     must raise an *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8, it will now call the
     parent task’s *note cancel(): 6d9. method.  This ensures that a
     *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da. will be raised at the next *note
     await: 432, so the cancellation is not lost.

     An added benefit of these changes is that task groups now preserve
     the cancellation count (*note asyncio.Task.cancelling(): 6db.).

     In order to handle some corner cases, *note
     asyncio.Task.uncancel(): 6dc. may now reset the undocumented
     ‘_must_cancel’ flag when the cancellation count reaches zero.

   - gh-117516(61): Add *note typing.TypeIs: 697, implementing PEP
     742(62).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-117503(63): Fix support of non-ASCII user names in bytes paths
     in *note os.path.expanduser(): dd8. on Posix.

   - gh-117394(64): *note os.path.ismount(): dd6. is now 2-3 times
     faster if the user has permissions.

   - gh-117313(65): Only treat ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’ and ‘'\r\n'’ as line
     separators in re-folding the *note email: 3e. messages.  Preserve
     control characters ‘'\v'’, ‘'\f'’, ‘'\x1c'’, ‘'\x1d'’ and ‘'\x1e'’
     and Unicode line separators ‘'\x85'’, ‘'\u2028'’ and ‘'\u2029'’ as
     is.

   - gh-117142(66): Convert ‘_ctypes’ to multi-phase initialisation (
     PEP 489(67)).

   - gh-66543(68): Add the *note mimetypes.guess_file_type(): 71a.
     function which works with file path.  Passing file path instead of
     URL in *note guess_type(): 71b. is *note soft deprecated: 1a7.

   - gh-68583(69): webbrowser CLI: replace getopt with argparse, add
     long options.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-116871(70): Name suggestions for *note AttributeError: 1a9. and
     *note ImportError: 1bd. now only include underscored names if the
     original name was underscored.

   - gh-116023(71): Don’t show empty fields (value ‘None’ or ‘[]’) in
     *note ast.dump(): 1e1. by default.  Add ‘show_empty=False’
     parameter to optionally show them.

   - gh-115961(72): Added ‘name’ and ‘mode’ attributes for compressed
     and archived file-like objects in modules *note bz2: 14, *note
     lzma: 8d, *note tarfile: e7. and *note zipfile: 13a.  The value of
     the ‘mode’ attribute of *note gzip.GzipFile: 849. was changed from
     integer (‘1’ or ‘2’) to string (‘'rb'’ or ‘'wb'’).  The value of
     the ‘mode’ attribute of the readable file-like object returned by
     *note zipfile.ZipFile.open(): 84a. was changed from ‘'r'’ to
     ‘'rb'’.

   - gh-82062(73): Fix *note inspect.signature(): 4bd. to correctly
     handle parameter defaults on methods in extension modules that use
     names defined in the module namespace.

   - gh-83856(74): Honor *note atexit: d. for all *note multiprocessing:
     98. start methods

   - gh-113081(75): Print colorized exception just like built-in
     traceback in *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-112855(76): Speed up pickling of *note pathlib.PurePath: 8b6.
     objects.  Patch by Barney Gale.

   - gh-111744(77): Support opcode events in *note bdb: 10.

   - gh-109617(78): ‘ncurses’: fixed a crash that could occur on macOS
     13 or earlier when Python was built with Apple Xcode 15’s SDK.

   - gh-83151(79): Enabled arbitrary statements and evaluations in *note
     pdb: aa. shell to access the local variables of the current frame,
     which made it possible for multi-scope code like generators or
     nested function to work.

   - gh-110209(80): Add *note __class_getitem__(): b21. to *note
     types.GeneratorType: 1bb5. and *note types.CoroutineType: 123a. for
     type hinting purposes.  Patch by James Hilton-Balfe.

   - gh-108191(81): The *note types.SimpleNamespace: 6ea. now accepts an
     optional positional argument which specifies initial values of
     attributes as a dict or an iterable of key-value pairs.

   - gh-62090(82): Fix assertion errors caused by whitespace in metavars
     or ‘SUPPRESS’-ed groups in *note argparse: 7. by simplifying usage
     formatting.  Patch by Ali Hamdan.

   - gh-102402(83): Adjust ‘logging.LogRecord’ to use ‘time.time_ns()’
     and fix minor bug related to floating-point math.

   - gh-100242(84): Bring pure Python implementation
     ‘functools.partial.__new__’ more in line with the C-implementation
     by not just always checking for the presence of the attribute
     ‘'func'’ on the first argument of ‘partial’.  Instead, both the
     Python version and the C version perform an ‘isinstance(func,
     partial)’ check on the first argument of ‘partial’.

   - gh-99730(85): HEAD requests are no longer upgraded to GET request
     during redirects in urllib.

   - gh-66410(86): Setting the ‘tkinter’ module global ‘wantobjects’ to
     ‘2’ before creating the *note Tk: 1bb6. object or call the
     ‘wantobjects()’ method of the ‘Tk’ object with argument ‘2’ makes
     now arguments to callbacks registered in the *note tkinter: f9.
     module to be passed as various Python objects (‘int’, ‘float’,
     ‘bytes’, ‘tuple’), depending on their internal representation in
     Tcl, instead of always ‘str’.  ‘tkinter.wantobjects’ is now set to
     ‘2’ by default.

   - bpo-40943(87): Fix several IndexError when parse emails with
     truncated Message-ID, address, routes, etc, e.g.  ‘example@’.

   - bpo-39324(88): Add mime type mapping for .md <-> text/markdown

   - bpo-18108(89): *note shutil.chown(): 74b. now supports 'dir_fd' and
     'follow_symlinks' keyword arguments.

   - bpo-30988(90): Fix parsing of emails with invalid address headers
     having a leading or trailing dot.  Patch by tsufeki.

   - bpo-32839(91): Add the ‘after_info()’ method for Tkinter widgets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118418

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118660

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118650

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118648

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101137

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118164

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111744

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118500

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118406

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101732

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118404

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118402

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118285

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118314

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118271

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118221

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118013

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118218

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117486

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90848

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118168

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118131

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118107

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102511

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117535

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114053

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116931

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117995

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100668

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80361

   (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86650

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117691

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115874

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115060

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77102

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76785

   (43) https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115060

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117727

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117586

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117722

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117692

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117348

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117641

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117663

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117636

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117618

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102247

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117607

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117586

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117225

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117566

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117546

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116720

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117516

   (62) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117503

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117394

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117313

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117142

   (67) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68583

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116871

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116023

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82062

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83856

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113081

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112855

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111744

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109617

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83151

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110209

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108191

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62090

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102402

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100242

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99730

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66410

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39324

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18108

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30988

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32839


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<15>,  Next: Build<16>,  Prev: Library<60>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.26.19.6 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-117928(1): The minimum Sphinx version required for the
     documentation is now 6.2.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117928


File: python.info,  Node: Build<16>,  Next: Windows<14>,  Prev: Documentation<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.26.19.7 Build
...............

   - gh-118734(1): Fixes Windows build when invoked directly (not
     through the ‘build.bat’ script) without specifying a value for
     ‘UseTIER2’.

   - gh-115119(2): The ‘configure’ option *note -with-system-libmpdec:
     3d6. now defaults to ‘yes’.  The bundled copy of ‘libmpdecimal’
     will be removed in Python 3.15.

   - gh-117845(3): Fix building against recent libedit versions by
     detecting readline hook signatures in ‘configure’.

   - gh-116622(4): A testbed project was added to run the test suite on
     Android.

   - gh-117645(5): Increase WASI stack size from 512 KiB to 8 MiB and
     the initial memory from 10 MiB to 20 MiB. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-115119(6): ‘configure’ now uses ‘pkg-config’ to detect *note
     decimal: 39. dependencies if the *note -with-system-libmpdec: 3d6.
     option is given.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118734

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117845

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117645

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<14>,  Next: macOS<10>,  Prev: Build<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.26.19.8 Windows
.................

   - gh-115119(1): Update Windows installer to use libmpdecimal 4.0.0.

   - gh-118486(2): *note os.mkdir(): 72e. now accepts 'mode' of ‘0o700’
     to restrict the new directory to the current user.

   - gh-118347(3): Fixes launcher updates not being installed.

   - gh-118293(4): The ‘multiprocessing’ module now passes the
     ‘STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK’ flag when spawning processes to tell
     Windows not to change the mouse cursor.

   - gh-115009(5): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.45.3.

   - gh-90329(6): Suppress the warning displayed on virtual environment
     creation when the requested and created paths differ only by a
     short (8.3 style) name.  Warnings will continue to be shown if a
     junction or symlink in the path caused the venv to be created in a
     different location than originally requested.

   - gh-117786(7): Fixes virtual environments not correctly launching
     when created from a Store install.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118347

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118293

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90329

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117786


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<10>,  Next: IDLE<9>,  Prev: Windows<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.26.19.9 macOS
...............

   - gh-115119(1): Update macOS installer to use libmpdecimal 4.0.0.

   - gh-114099(2): iOS preprocessor symbol usage was made compatible
     with older macOS SDKs.

   - gh-115009(3): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.45.3.

   - gh-91629(4): Use ‘~/.config/fish/conf.d’ configs and
     ‘fish_add_path’ to set ‘PATH’ when installing for the Fish shell.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91629


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<9>,  Next: C API<17>,  Prev: macOS<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.26.19.10 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-34774(1): Use user-selected color theme for Help => IDLE Doc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34774


File: python.info,  Node: C API<17>,  Prev: IDLE<9>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 beta 1

1.26.19.11 C API
................

   - gh-118124(1): Fix *note Py_BUILD_ASSERT: 1bbd. and *note
     Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR: 1bbe. for non-constant expressions: use
     ‘static_assert()’ on C11 and newer.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110850(2): Add «Raw» variant of PyTime functions

        * *note PyTime_MonotonicRaw(): 7d1.

        * *note PyTime_PerfCounterRaw(): 7d3.

        * *note PyTime_TimeRaw(): 7d5.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117987(3): Restore functions removed in Python 3.13 alpha 1:

        * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 1bbf.

        * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 1bc0.

        * *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 1bc1.

        * *note PySys_SetArgv(): 1bc2.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117929(4): Restore removed *note PyEval_InitThreads(): 1bc3.
     function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117534(5): Improve validation logic in the C implementation of
     *note datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): a0a. to better handle
     invalid years.  Patch by Vlad Efanov.

   - gh-68114(6): Fixed skipitem()”s handling of the old “w” and “w#”
     formatters.  These are no longer supported and now raise an
     exception if used.

   - gh-111997(7): Add a C-API for firing monitoring events.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118124

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110850

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117987

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117929

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117534

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68114

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111997


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.20 Python 3.13.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-04-09'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<58>.
* Library: Library<61>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<59>.
* Library: Library<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<16>.
* Tests: Tests<18>.
* Build: Build<17>.
* Windows: Windows<15>.
* C API: C API<18>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<58>,  Next: Library<61>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.26.20.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-117494(1): Refactored the instruction sequence data structure
     out of compile.c into instruction_sequence.c.

   - gh-116968(2): Introduce a unified 16-bit backoff counter type
     (‘_Py_BackoffCounter’), shared between the Tier 1 adaptive
     specializer and the Tier 2 optimizer.  The API used for adaptive
     specialization counters is changed but the behavior is (supposed to
     be) identical.

     The behavior of the Tier 2 counters is changed:

        * There are no longer dynamic thresholds (we never varied
          these).

        * All counters now use the same exponential backoff.

        * The counter for ‘JUMP_BACKWARD’ starts counting down from 16.

        * The ‘temperature’ in side exits starts counting down from 64.

   - gh-117431(3): Improve the performance of the following *note bytes:
     1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6. methods by adapting them to the
     *note METH_FASTCALL: 34b. calling convention:

        * ‘endswith()’

        * ‘startswith()’

   - gh-117431(4): Improve the performance of the following *note str:
     1df. methods by adapting them to the *note METH_FASTCALL: 34b.
     calling convention:

        * *note count(): 1b93.

        * *note endswith(): 127a.

        * *note find(): 1259.

        * *note index(): 1bc6.

        * *note rfind(): 125a.

        * *note rindex(): 15fc.

        * *note startswith(): 1279.

   - gh-117411(5): Move ‘PyFutureFeatures’ to an internal header and
     make it private.

   - gh-109120(6): Added handle of incorrect star expressions, e.g ‘f(3,
     *)’.  Patch by Grigoryev Semyon

   - gh-117266(7): Fix crashes for certain user-created subclasses of
     *note ast.AST: 2ec.  Such classes are now expected to set the
     ‘_field_types’ attribute.

   - gh-99108(8): Updated the *note hashlib: 6b. built-in HACL*
     project(9) C code from upstream that we use for many
     implementations when they are not present via OpenSSL in a given
     build.  This also avoids the rare potential for a C symbol name one
     definition rule linking issue.

   - gh-117108(10): Change the old space bit of objects in the young
     generation from 0 to gcstate->visited, so that any objects created
     during GC will have the old bit set correctly if they get moved
     into the old generation.

   - gh-117108(11): The cycle GC now chooses the size of increments
     based on the total heap size, instead of the rate of object
     creation.  This ensures that it can keep up with growing heaps.

   - gh-116735(12): For ‘INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX’, set ‘arg0’ to
     ‘sys.monitoring.MISSING’ instead of ‘None’ for *note CALL: 1bc7.
     event.

   - gh-113964(13): Starting new threads and process creation through
     *note os.fork(): 6bd. are now only prevented once all non-daemon
     threads exit.

   - gh-116626(14): Ensure ‘INSTRUMENTED_CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ always emits
     *note CALL: 1bc7.

   - gh-116554(15): ‘list.sort()’ now exploits more cases of partial
     ordering, particularly those with long descending runs with
     sub-runs of equal values.  Those are recognized as single runs now
     (previously, each block of repeated values caused a new run to be
     created).

   - gh-114099(16): Added a Loader that can discover extension modules
     in an iOS-style Frameworks folder.

   - gh-115775(17): Compiler populates the new ‘__static_attributes__’
     field on a class with the names of attributes of this class which
     are accessed through self.X from any function in its body.

   - gh-115776(18): The array of values, the ‘PyDictValues’ struct is
     now embedded in the object during allocation.  This provides better
     performance in the common case, and does not degrade as much when
     the object’s ‘__dict__’ is materialized.

   - gh-108362(19): Implement an incremental cyclic garbage collector.
     By collecting the old generation in increments, there is no need
     for a full heap scan.  This can hugely reduce maximum pause time
     for programs with large heaps.

     Reduce the number of generations from three to two.  The old
     generation is split into two spaces, «visited» and «pending».

     Collection happens in two steps:: * An increment is formed from the
     young generation and a small part of the pending space.  * This
     increment is scanned and the survivors moved to the end of the
     visited space.

     When the collecting space becomes empty, the two spaces are
     swapped.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117494

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116968

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117431

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117431

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117411

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109120

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117266

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (9) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117108

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117108

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116735

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113964

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116626

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116554

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115775

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115776

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108362


File: python.info,  Node: Library<61>,  Next: Core and Builtins<59>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<58>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.26.20.2 Library
.................

   - gh-109870(1): Dataclasses now calls *note exec(): 185. once per
     dataclass, instead of once per method being added.  This can speed
     up dataclass creation by up to 20%.

   - gh-97901(2): Mime type ‘text/rtf’ is now supported by *note
     mimetypes: 93.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109870

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97901


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<59>,  Next: Library<62>,  Prev: Library<61>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.26.20.3 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-24612(1): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 17e. that happens when
     “not” appears after an operator.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24612


File: python.info,  Node: Library<62>,  Next: Documentation<16>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<59>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.26.20.4 Library
.................

   - gh-117648(1): Improve performance of *note os.path.join(): 1a42.
     and *note os.path.expanduser(): dd8.

   - gh-117584(2): Raise *note TypeError: 291. for non-paths in *note
     posixpath.relpath: 8ba.

   - gh-117467(3): Preserve mailbox ownership when rewriting in *note
     mailbox.mbox.flush: 1bcb.  Patch by Tony Mountifield.

   - gh-114848(4): Raise *note FileNotFoundError: 243. when ‘getcwd()’
     returns “(unreachable)”, which can happen on Linux >= 2.6.36 with
     glibc < 2.27.

   - gh-117459(5): ‘asyncio.asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe()’ now
     keeps the traceback of ‘CancelledError’, *note TimeoutError: c0e.
     and ‘InvalidStateError’ which are raised in the coroutine.

   - gh-117381(6): Fix error message for ‘ntpath.commonpath()’.

   - gh-117337(7): Deprecate undocumented ‘glob.glob0()’ and
     ‘glob.glob1()’ functions.  Use *note glob.glob(): 2d4. and pass a
     directory to its 'root_dir' argument instead.

   - gh-117349(8): Optimise several functions in *note os.path: a6.

   - gh-117348(9): Refactored ‘configparser.RawConfigParser._read()’ to
     reduce cyclometric complexity and improve comprehensibility.

   - gh-117335(10): Raise TypeError for non-sequences for
     ‘ntpath.commonpath()’.

   - gh-66449(11): *note configparser.ConfigParser: 6e4. now accepts
     unnamed sections before named ones, if configured to do so.

   - gh-88014(12): In documentation of *note gzip.GzipFile: 849. in
     module gzip, explain data type of optional constructor argument
     'mtime', and recommend ‘mtime = 0’ for generating deterministic
     streams.

   - gh-117310(13): Fixed an unlikely early & extra ‘Py_DECREF’
     triggered crash in *note ssl: d8. when creating a new
     ‘_ssl._SSLContext’ if CPython was built implausibly such that the
     default cipher list is empty 'or' the SSL library it was linked
     against reports a failure from its C ‘SSL_CTX_set_cipher_list()’
     API.

   - gh-117294(14): A ‘DocTestCase’ now reports as skipped if all
     examples in the doctest are skipped.

   - gh-98966(15): In *note subprocess: df, raise a more informative
     message when ‘stdout=STDOUT’.

   - gh-117225(16): doctest: only print «and X failed» when non-zero,
     don’t pluralise «1 items».  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-117205(17): Speed up *note compileall.compile_dir(): ee8. by 20%
     when using multiprocessing by increasing ‘chunksize’.

   - gh-117178(18): Fix regression in lazy loading of self-referential
     modules, introduced in gh-114781(19).

   - gh-112383(20): Fix *note dis: 3b. module’s handling of
     ‘ENTER_EXECUTOR’ instructions.

   - gh-117182(21): Lazy-loading of modules that modify their own
     ‘__class__’ no longer reverts the ‘__class__’ to *note
     types.ModuleType: 11c7.

   - gh-117084(22): Fix *note zipfile: 13a. extraction for directory
     entries with the name containing backslashes on Windows.

   - gh-117114(23): Make *note os.path.isdevdrive(): 1bcc. available on
     all platforms.  For those that do not offer Dev Drives, it will
     always return ‘False’.

   - gh-117110(24): Fix a bug that prevents subclasses of *note
     typing.Any: a9a. to be instantiated with arguments.  Patch by Chris
     Fu.

   - gh-109653(25): Deferred select imports in importlib.metadata and
     importlib.resources for a 14% speedup.

   - gh-70647(26): Start the deprecation period for the current behavior
     of *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 2d2. and *note
     time.strptime(): 17cf. which always fails to parse a date string
     with a *note ValueError: 277. involving a day of month such as
     ‘strptime("02-29", "%m-%d")’ when a year is 'not' specified and the
     date happen to be February 29th.  This should help avoid users
     finding new bugs every four years due to a natural mistaken
     assumption about the API when parsing partial date values.

   - gh-116987(27): Fixed ‘inspect.findsource()’ for class code objects.

   - gh-114099(28): Modify standard library to allow for iOS platform
     differences.

   - gh-90872(29): On Windows, *note subprocess.Popen.wait(): 266. no
     longer calls ‘WaitForSingleObject()’ with a negative timeout: pass
     ‘0’ ms if the timeout is negative.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116957(30): configparser: Don’t leave ConfigParser values in an
     invalid state (stored as a list instead of a str) after an earlier
     read raised DuplicateSectionError or DuplicateOptionError.

   - gh-115538(31): ‘_io.WindowsConsoleIO’ now emit a warning if a
     boolean value is passed as a filedescriptor argument.

   - gh-90095(32): Ignore empty lines and comments in ‘.pdbrc’

   - gh-106531(33): Refreshed zipfile._path from zipp 3.18(34),
     providing better compatibility for PyPy, better glob performance
     for deeply nested zipfiles, and providing internal access to
     ‘CompleteDirs.inject’ for use in other tests (like
     importlib.resources).

   - gh-63207(35): On Windows, *note time.time(): 75e. now uses the
     ‘GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime()’ clock to have a resolution
     better than 1 us, instead of the ‘GetSystemTimeAsFileTime()’ clock
     which has a resolution of 15.6 ms.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116764(36): Restore support of ‘None’ and other false values in
     *note urllib.parse: 113. functions *note parse_qs(): 589. and *note
     parse_qsl(): 588.  Also, they now raise a TypeError for non-zero
     integers and non-empty sequences.

   - gh-116811(37): In ‘PathFinder.invalidate_caches’, delegate to
     ‘MetadataPathFinder.invalidate_caches’.

   - gh-116647(38): Fix recursive child in dataclasses

   - gh-113171(39): Fixed various false positives and false negatives in

        * *note ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_private: 1bcd. (see these docs
          for details)

        * *note ipaddress.IPv4Address.is_global: 1309.

        * *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private: 1bce.

        * *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_global: 1bcf.

     Also in the corresponding *note ipaddress.IPv4Network: 712. and
     *note ipaddress.IPv6Network: 713. attributes.

   - gh-63283(40): In *note encodings.idna: 55, any capitalization of
     the ACE prefix (‘xn--’) is now acceptable.  Patch by Pepijn de Vos
     and Zackery Spytz.

   - gh-71042(41): Add *note platform.android_ver(): 1bd0, which
     provides device and OS information on Android.

   - gh-73468(42): Added new *note math.fma(): 718. function, wrapping
     C99’s ‘fma()’ operation: fused multiply-add function.  Patch by
     Mark Dickinson and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116608(43): The *note importlib.resources: 7e. functions *note
     is_resource(): 702, *note open_binary(): 703, *note open_text():
     704, *note path(): 705, *note read_binary(): 706, and *note
     read_text(): 707. are un-deprecated, and support subdirectories via
     multiple positional arguments.  The *note contents(): 708. function
     also allows subdirectories, but remains deprecated.

   - gh-116484(44): Change automatically generated ‘tkinter.Checkbutton’
     widget names to avoid collisions with automatically generated
     ‘tkinter.ttk.Checkbutton’ widget names within the same parent
     widget.

   - gh-114314(45): In *note ctypes: 2d, ctype data is now stored in
     type objects directly rather than in a dict subclass.  This is an
     internal change that should not affect usage.

   - gh-116401(46): Fix blocking *note os.fwalk(): f18. and *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 335. on opening named pipe.

   - gh-71052(47): Implement *note ctypes.util.find_library(): 10fe. on
     Android.

   - gh-90535(48): Fix support of 'interval' values > 1 in
     ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’ for ‘when='MIDNIGHT'’ and
     ‘when='Wx'’.

   - gh-113308(49): Remove some internal protected parts from *note
     uuid: 119.: ‘_has_uuid_generate_time_safe’, ‘_netbios_getnode’,
     ‘_ipconfig_getnode’, and ‘_load_system_functions’.  They were
     unused.

   - gh-115627(50): Fix the *note ssl: d8. module error handling of
     connection terminate by peer.  It now throws an OSError with the
     appropriate error code instead of an EOFError.

   - gh-114847(51): Speed up *note os.path.realpath(): 241. on
     non-Windows platforms.

   - gh-114271(52): Fix a race in ‘threading.Thread.join()’.

     ‘threading._MainThread’ now always represents the main thread of
     the main interpreter.

     ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ and ‘PyThreadState.on_delete_data’ have
     been removed.

   - gh-113538(53): Add *note asyncio.Server.close_clients(): 6d4. and
     *note asyncio.Server.abort_clients(): 6d5. methods which allow to
     more forcefully close an asyncio server.

   - gh-85287(54): Changes Unicode codecs to return UnicodeEncodeError
     or UnicodeDecodeError, rather than just UnicodeError.

   - gh-113548(55): *note pdb: aa. now allows CLI arguments to ‘pdb -m’.

   - gh-112948(56): Make completion of *note pdb: aa. similar to Python
     REPL

   - gh-105866(57): Fixed ‘_get_slots’ bug which caused error when
     defining dataclasses with slots and a weakref_slot.

   - gh-96471(58): Add *note asyncio.Queue: e39. termination with *note
     shutdown(): 6d2. method.

   - gh-89739(59): The *note zipimport: 13b. module can now read ZIP64
     files.

   - bpo-33533(60): *note asyncio.as_completed(): 6cc. now returns an
     object that is both an asynchronous iterator and plain iterator.
     The new asynchronous iteration pattern allows for easier
     correlation between prior tasks and their completed results.  This
     is a closer match to *note concurrent.futures.as_completed():
     1bd1.”s iteration pattern.  Patch by Justin Arthur.

   - bpo-27578(61): *note inspect.getsource(): 1a04. (and related
     functions) work with empty module files, returning ‘'\n'’ (or
     reasonable equivalent) instead of raising ‘OSError’.  Patch by
     Kernc.

   - bpo-37141(62): Accept an iterable of separators in *note
     asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil(): 6d6, stopping when one of them is
     encountered.

   - gh-66543(63): Make *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 71b. properly
     parsing of URLs with only a host name, URLs containing fragment or
     query, and filenames with only a UNC sharepoint on Windows.  Based
     on patch by Dong-hee Na.

   - bpo-15010(64): *note unittest.TestLoader.discover(): 138e. now
     saves the original value of ‘unittest.TestLoader._top_level_dir’
     and restores it at the end of the call.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117648

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117584

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117467

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114848

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117459

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117381

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117337

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117349

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117348

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117335

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66449

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88014

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117310

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117294

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98966

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117225

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117205

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117178

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114781

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112383

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117182

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117084

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117114

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117110

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116987

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90872

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116957

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115538

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90095

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531

   (34) https://zipp.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-18-0

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63207

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116764

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116811

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116647

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113171

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63283

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71042

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73468

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116484

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114314

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116401

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90535

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113308

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115627

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114847

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114271

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85287

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113548

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112948

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105866

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96471

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89739

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33533

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27578

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37141

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15010


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<16>,  Next: Tests<18>,  Prev: Library<62>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.26.20.5 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-115977(1): Remove compatibility references to Emscripten.

   - gh-114099(2): Add an iOS platform guide, and flag modules not
     available on iOS.

   - gh-91565(3): Changes to documentation files and config outputs to
     reflect the new location for reporting bugs - i.e.  GitHub rather
     than bugs.python.org.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115977

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91565


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<18>,  Next: Build<17>,  Prev: Documentation<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.26.20.6 Tests
...............

   - gh-83434(1): Disable JUnit XML output (‘--junit-xml=FILE’ command
     line option) in regrtest when hunting for reference leaks (‘-R’
     option).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-117187(2): Fix XML tests for vanilla Expat <2.6.0.

   - gh-116333(3): Tests of TLS related things (error codes, etc) were
     updated to be more lenient about specific error message strings and
     behaviors as seen in the BoringSSL and AWS-LC forks of OpenSSL.

   - gh-117089(4): Consolidated tests for importlib.metadata in their
     own ‘metadata’ package.

   - gh-115979(5): Update test_importlib so that it passes under WASI
     SDK 21.

   - gh-112536(6): Add –tsan to test.regrtest for running TSAN tests in
     reasonable execution times.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-116307(7): Added import helper ‘isolated_modules’ as
     ‘CleanImport’ does not remove modules imported during the context.
     Use it in importlib.resources tests to avoid leaving ‘mod’ around
     to impede importlib.metadata tests.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83434

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117187

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116333

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117089

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115979

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112536

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116307


File: python.info,  Node: Build<17>,  Next: Windows<15>,  Prev: Tests<18>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.26.20.7 Build
...............

   - gh-114736(1): Have WASI builds use WASI SDK 21.

   - gh-115983(2): Skip building test modules that must be built as
     shared under WASI.

   - gh-71052(3): Add Android build script and instructions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114736

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115983

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<15>,  Next: C API<18>,  Prev: Build<17>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.26.20.8 Windows
.................

   - gh-117267(1): Ensure ‘DirEntry.stat().st_ctime’ behaves
     consistently with *note os.stat(): 4f5. during the deprecation
     period of ‘st_ctime’ by containing the same value as
     ‘st_birthtime’.  After the deprecation period, ‘st_ctime’ will be
     the metadata change time (or unavailable through ‘DirEntry’), and
     only ‘st_birthtime’ will contain the creation time.

   - gh-116195(2): Improves performance of *note os.getppid(): 1bd6. by
     using an alternate system API when available.  Contributed by
     vxiiduu.

   - gh-88494(3): On Windows, *note time.monotonic(): 75d. now uses the
     ‘QueryPerformanceCounter()’ clock to have a resolution better than
     1 us, instead of the ‘GetTickCount64()’ clock which has a
     resolution of 15.6 ms.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116773(4): Fix instances of ‘<_overlapped.Overlapped object at
     0xXXX> still has pending operation at deallocation, the process may
     crash’.

   - gh-91227(5): Fix the asyncio ProactorEventLoop implementation so
     that sending a datagram to an address that is not listening does
     not prevent receiving any more datagrams.

   - gh-115119(6): Switched from vendored ‘libmpdecimal’ code to a
     separately-hosted external package in the ‘cpython-source-deps’
     repository when building the ‘_decimal’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117267

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116195

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88494

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116773

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91227

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115119


File: python.info,  Node: C API<18>,  Prev: Windows<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6

1.26.20.9 C API
...............

   - gh-117642(1): Fix PEP 737(2) implementation for ‘%#T’ and ‘%#N’.

   - gh-87193(3): *note _PyBytes_Resize(): 3b3. can now be called for
     bytes objects with reference count > 1, including 1-byte bytes
     objects.  It creates a new bytes object and destroys the old one if
     it has reference count > 1.

   - gh-117021(4): Fix integer overflow in *note PyLong_AsPid(): 1bd8.
     on non-Windows 64-bit platforms.

   - gh-115756(5): ‘PyCode_GetFirstFree()’ is an ustable API now and has
     been renamed to *note PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree(): 81b.
     (Contributed by Bogdan Romanyuk in gh-115781(6))

   - gh-116869(7): Add ‘test_cext’ test: build a C extension to check if
     the Python C API emits C compiler warnings.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-116869(8): Make the C API compatible with
     ‘-Werror=declaration-after-statement’ compiler flag again.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116936(9): Add *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 827. to the
     limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-116809(10): Restore removed private ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-115754(11): In the limited C API version 3.13, getting
     ‘Py_None’, ‘Py_False’, ‘Py_True’, ‘Py_Ellipsis’ and
     ‘Py_NotImplemented’ singletons is now implemented as function calls
     at the stable ABI level to hide implementation details.  Getting
     these constants still return borrowed references.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-115754(12): Add *note Py_GetConstant(): 7ef. and *note
     Py_GetConstantBorrowed(): 7f0. functions to get constants.  For
     example, ‘Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_ZERO)’ returns a *note strong
     reference: 7da. to the constant zero.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111696(13): Add support for ‘%T’, ‘%T#’, ‘%N’ and ‘%N#’ formats
     to *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e.: format the fully qualified
     name of an object type and of a type: call *note
     PyType_GetModuleName(): 80c.  See PEP 737(14) for more information.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111696(15): Add *note PyType_GetModuleName(): 80c. function to
     get the type’s module name.  Equivalent to getting the
     ‘type.__module__’ attribute.  Patch by Eric Snow and Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-111696(16): Add *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 80a.
     function to get the type’s fully qualified name.  Equivalent to
     ‘f"{type.__module__}.{type.__qualname__}"’, or ‘type.__qualname__’
     if ‘type.__module__’ is not a string or is equal to ‘"builtins"’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-85283(17): The ‘fcntl’, ‘grp’, ‘pwd’, ‘termios’, ‘_statistics’
     and ‘_testconsole’ C extensions are now built with the *note
     limited C API: 829.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111140(18): Add additional flags to *note
     PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 7fc. and *note PyLong_FromNativeBytes():
     7fd. to allow the caller to determine how to handle edge cases
     around values that fill the entire buffer.

   - gh-113024(19): Add *note PyObject_GenericHash(): 802. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117642

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0737/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87193

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117021

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115756

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115781

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116869

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116869

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116936

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116809

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115754

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115754

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0737/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111140

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113024


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.26.21 Python 3.13.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-03-12'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<17>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<60>.
* Library: Library<63>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<61>.
* Library: Library<64>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<62>.
* Library: Library<65>.
* Documentation: Documentation<17>.
* Tests: Tests<19>.
* Build: Build<18>.
* Windows: Windows<16>.
* macOS: macOS<11>.
* IDLE: IDLE<10>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<14>.
* C API: C API<19>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<17>,  Next: Core and Builtins<60>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.1 Security
..................

   - gh-115398(1): Allow controlling Expat >=2.6.0 reparse deferral (
     CVE 2023-52425(2)) by adding five new methods:

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.flush(): 777.

        * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.flush(): 778.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          779.

        * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled():
          77a.

        * ‘xml.sax.expatreader.ExpatParser.flush()’

   - gh-114572(3): *note ssl.SSLContext.cert_store_stats(): 1355. and
     *note ssl.SSLContext.get_ca_certs(): 1356. now correctly lock
     access to the certificate store, when the *note ssl.SSLContext:
     336. is shared across multiple threads.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115398

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114572


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<60>,  Next: Library<63>,  Prev: Security<17>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-116604(1): Respect the status of the garbage collector when
     indirect calls are made via *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 880. and
     the evaluation breaker.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112087(2): *note list: 4d9. is now compatible with the
     implementation of PEP 703(3).

   - gh-116381(4): Add specialization for ‘CONTAINS_OP’.

   - gh-116296(5): Fix possible refleak in ‘object.__reduce__()’
     internal error handling.

   - gh-115823(6): Properly calculate error ranges in the parser when
     raising *note SyntaxError: 17e. exceptions caused by invalid byte
     sequences.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-115778(7): Add ‘tierN’ annotation for instruction definition in
     interpreter DSL.

   - gh-115733(8): Fix crash when calling ‘next()’ on exhausted list
     iterators.

   - gh-115700(9): The regen-cases build stage now works on Windows.

   - gh-115347(10): Fix bug where docstring was replaced by a redundant
     NOP when Python is run with ‘-OO’.

   - gh-115323(11): Make error message more meaningful for when *note
     bytearray.extend(): 198b. is called with a *note str: 1df. object.

   - gh-112175(12): Every ‘PyThreadState’ now has its own
     ‘eval_breaker’, allowing specific threads to be interrupted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116604

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112087

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116381

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116296

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115823

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115778

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115733

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115700

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115347

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115323

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112175


File: python.info,  Node: Library<63>,  Next: Core and Builtins<61>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<60>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.3 Library
.................

   - gh-115154(1): Fix a bug that was causing the *note
     tokenize.untokenize(): 1ad4. function to handle unicode named
     literals incorrectly.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115154


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<61>,  Next: Library<64>,  Prev: Library<63>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-112433(1): Add ability to force alignment of *note
     ctypes.Structure: 47c. by way of the new ‘_align_’ attribute on the
     class.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112433


File: python.info,  Node: Library<64>,  Next: Core and Builtins<62>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<61>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.5 Library
.................

   - gh-104090(1): The multiprocessing resource tracker now exits with
     non-zero status code if a resource leak was detected.  It still
     exits with status code 0 otherwise.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104090


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<62>,  Next: Library<65>,  Prev: Library<64>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.6 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-105858(1): Improve the constructors for *note ast: 9. nodes.
     Arguments of list types now default to an empty list if omitted,
     and optional fields default to ‘None’.  AST nodes now have an
     ‘__annotations__’ attribute with the expected types of their
     attributes.  Passing unrecognized extra arguments to AST nodes is
     deprecated and will become an error in Python 3.15.  Omitting a
     required argument to an AST node is deprecated and will become an
     error in Python 3.15.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-101860(2): Expose ‘__name__’ attribute on property.

   - gh-96497(3): Fix incorrect resolution of mangled class variables
     used in assignment expressions in comprehensions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105858

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101860

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96497


File: python.info,  Node: Library<65>,  Next: Documentation<17>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<62>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.7 Library
.................

   - gh-116600(1): Fix *note repr(): 45b. for global *note Flag: a14.
     members.

   - gh-116349(2): ‘platform.java_ver()’ is deprecated and will be
     removed in 3.15.  It was largely untested, had a confusing API, and
     was only useful for Jython support.

   - gh-116143(3): Fix a race in pydoc ‘_start_server’, eliminating a
     window in which ‘_start_server’ can return a thread that is
     «serving» but without a ‘docserver’ set.

   - gh-116127(4): *note typing: 10d.: implement PEP 705(5) which adds
     *note typing.ReadOnly: 696. support to *note typing.TypedDict: 290.

   - gh-116325(6): *note typing: 10d.: raise *note SyntaxError: 17e.
     instead of *note AttributeError: 1a9. on forward references as
     empty strings.

   - gh-115957(7): When ‘asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task’ is called on an
     inactive ‘asyncio.TaskGroup’, the given coroutine will be closed
     (which prevents a ‘RuntimeWarning’).

   - gh-115978(8): Disable preadv(), readv(), pwritev(), and writev() on
     WASI.

     Under wasmtime for WASI 0.2, these functions don’t pass test_posix
     (‘https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasmtime/issues/7830’).

   - gh-88352(9): Fix the computation of the next rollover time in the
     ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’ handler.  ‘computeRollover()’
     now always returns a timestamp larger than the specified time and
     works correctly during the DST change.  ‘doRollover()’ no longer
     overwrite the already rolled over file, saving from data loss when
     run at midnight or during repeated time at the DST change.

   - gh-87115(10): Set ‘__main__.__spec__’ to ‘None’ when running a
     script with *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-76511(11): Fix UnicodeEncodeError in ‘email.Message.as_string()’
     that results when a message that claims to be in the ascii
     character set actually has non-ascii characters.  Non-ascii
     characters are now replaced with the U+FFFD replacement character,
     like in the ‘replace’ error handler.

   - gh-89547(12): Add support for nested typing special forms like
     Final[ClassVar[int]].

   - gh-65824(13): Improve the ‘less’ prompt in *note pydoc: bd.

   - gh-116040(14): [Enum] fix by-value calls when second value is
     falsey; e.g.  Cardinal(1, 0)

   - gh-115821(15): [Enum] Improve error message when calling
     super().__new__() in custom __new__.

   - gh-85644(16): Use the ‘XDG_CURRENT_DESKTOP’ environment variable in
     *note webbrowser: 11e. to check desktop.  Prefer it to the
     deprecated ‘GNOME_DESKTOP_SESSION_ID’ for GNOME detection.

   - gh-75988(17): Fixed *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1b4e. to
     pass the call through to the wrapped object to return the real
     result.

   - gh-115881(18): Fix issue where *note ast.parse(): 1c9. would
     incorrectly flag conditional context managers (such as ‘with (x()
     if y else z()): ...’) as invalid syntax if ‘feature_version=(3, 8)’
     was passed.  This reverts changes to the grammar made as part of
     gh-94949(19).

   - gh-115886(20): Fix silent truncation of the name with an embedded
     null character in *note multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory:
     1be1.

   - gh-115532(21): Add kernel density estimation to the statistics
     module.

   - gh-115714(22): On WASI, the *note time: f7. module no longer get
     process time using ‘times()’ or ‘CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID’, system
     API is that is unreliable and is likely to be removed from WASI.
     The affected clock functions fall back to calling ‘clock()’.

   - gh-115809(23): Improve algorithm for computing which rolled-over
     log files to delete in ‘logging.TimedRotatingFileHandler’.  It is
     now reliable for handlers without ‘namer’ and with arbitrary
     deterministic ‘namer’ that leaves the datetime part in the file
     name unmodified.

   - gh-74668(24): *note urllib.parse: 113. functions *note parse_qs():
     589. and *note parse_qsl(): 588. now support bytes arguments
     containing raw and percent-encoded non-ASCII data.

   - gh-67044(25): *note csv.writer(): 899. now always quotes or escapes
     ‘'\r'’ and ‘'\n'’, regardless of 'lineterminator' value.

   - gh-115712(26): Restore support of space delimiter with
     ‘skipinitialspace=True’ in *note csv: 2c.  *note csv.writer(): 899.
     now quotes empty fields if delimiter is a space and
     skipinitialspace is true and raises exception if quoting is not
     possible.

   - gh-112364(27): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): cb6. to handle
     format_spec with ‘"’, ‘'’ or ‘\\’.  Patched by Frank Hoffmann.

   - gh-112997(28): Stop logging potentially sensitive callback
     arguments in *note asyncio: b. unless debug mode is active.

   - gh-114914(29): Fix an issue where an abandoned ‘StreamWriter’ would
     not be garbage collected.

   - gh-111358(30): Fix a bug in
     ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop.shutdown_default_executor()’ to ensure the
     timeout passed to the coroutine behaves as expected.

   - gh-115618(31): Fix improper decreasing the reference count for
     ‘None’ argument in *note property: 6bb. methods *note getter():
     1be2, *note setter(): 1be3. and *note deleter(): 1be4.

   - gh-112720(32): Refactor ‘dis.ArgResolver’ to make it possible to
     subclass and change the way jump args are interpreted.

   - gh-112006(33): Fix *note inspect.unwrap(): 1306. for types with the
     ‘__wrapper__’ data descriptor.  Fix *note
     inspect.Signature.from_callable(): b20. for builtins *note
     classmethod(): 69a. and *note staticmethod(): 666.

   - gh-101293(34): Support callables with the ‘__call__()’ method and
     types with ‘__new__()’ and ‘__init__()’ methods set to class
     methods, static methods, bound methods, partial functions, and
     other types of methods and descriptors in *note
     inspect.Signature.from_callable(): b20.

   - gh-103092(35): Isolate ‘_lsprof’ (apply PEP 687(36)).

   - gh-113942(37): *note pydoc: bd. no longer skips global functions
     implemented as builtin methods, such as ‘MethodDescriptorType’ and
     ‘WrapperDescriptorType’.

   - gh-115256(38): Added DeprecationWarning when accessing the tarfile
     attribute of TarInfo objects.  The attribute is never used
     internally and is only attached to TarInfos when the tarfile is
     opened in write-mode, not read-mode.  The attribute creates an
     unnecessary reference cycle which may cause corruption when not
     closing the handle after writing a tarfile.

   - gh-115197(39): ‘urllib.request’ no longer resolves the hostname
     before checking it against the system’s proxy bypass list on macOS
     and Windows.

   - gh-113812(40): ‘DatagramTransport.sendto()’ will now send
     zero-length datagrams if called with an empty bytes object.  The
     transport flow control also now accounts for the datagram header
     when calculating the buffer size.

   - gh-114763(41): Protect modules loaded with *note
     importlib.util.LazyLoader: 106e. from race conditions when multiple
     threads try to access attributes before the loading is complete.

   - gh-114709(42): ‘posixpath.commonpath()’ now raises a *note
     ValueError: 277. exception when passed an empty iterable.
     Previously, *note IndexError: 18d7. was raised.

     ‘posixpath.commonpath()’ now raises a *note TypeError: 291.
     exception when passed ‘None’.  Previously, *note ValueError: 277.
     was raised.

   - gh-114610(43): Fix bug where *note pathlib.PurePath.with_stem():
     1be5. converted a non-empty path suffix to a stem when given an
     empty 'stem' argument.  It now raises *note ValueError: 277, just
     like *note pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix(): 1b6a. does when called
     on a path with an empty stem, given a non-empty 'suffix' argument.

   - gh-107361(44): Add *note ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 68f. and
     ‘VERIFY_X509_STRICT’ to the default SSL context created with *note
     ssl.create_default_context(): 68e.

   - gh-112281(45): Allow creating *note union of types: ba2. for *note
     typing.Annotated: d09. with unhashable metadata.

   - gh-111775(46): Fix
     ‘importlib.resources.simple.ResourceHandle.open()’ for text mode,
     added missed ‘stream’ argument.

   - gh-90095(47): Make .pdbrc and -c work with any valid pdb commands.

   - gh-107625(48): Raise *note configparser.ParsingError: 914. from
     *note read(): 180a. and *note read_file(): 915. methods of *note
     configparser.ConfigParser: 6e4. if a key without a corresponding
     value is continued (that is, followed by an indented line).

   - gh-107155(49): Fix incorrect output of ‘help(x)’ where ‘x’ is a
     *note lambda: 1642. function, which has an ‘__annotations__’
     dictionary attribute with a ‘"return"’ key.

   - gh-57141(50): Add option for 'non-shallow' comparisons to *note
     filecmp.dircmp: 12eb. like *note filecmp.cmp(): 1be6.  Original
     patch by Steven Ward.  Enhanced by Tobias Rautenkranz

   - gh-69990(51): ‘Profile.print_stats()’ has been improved to accept
     multiple sort arguments.  Patched by Chiu-Hsiang Hsu and Furkan
     Onder.

   - gh-104061(52): Add ‘socket.SO_BINDTOIFINDEX’ constant.

   - gh-60346(53): Fix ArgumentParser inconsistent with
     parse_known_args.

   - gh-102389(54): Add ‘windows_31j’ to aliases for ‘cp932’ codec

   - gh-72249(55): Always include the *note module: 1be7. name in the
     *note repr(): 45b. of *note functools.partial(): 4a6. objects.
     Patch by Furkan Onder and Anilyka Barry.

   - gh-100985(56): Update HTTPSConnection to consistently wrap IPv6
     Addresses when using a proxy.

   - gh-100884(57): email: fix misfolding of comma in address-lists over
     multiple lines in combination with unicode encoding.

   - gh-95782(58): Fix ‘io.BufferedReader.tell()’,
     ‘io.BufferedReader.seek()’, ‘_pyio.BufferedReader.tell()’,
     ‘io.BufferedRandom.tell()’, ‘io.BufferedRandom.seek()’ and
     ‘_pyio.BufferedRandom.tell()’ being able to return negative
     offsets.

   - gh-96310(59): Fix a traceback in *note argparse: 7. when all
     options in a mutually exclusive group are suppressed.

   - gh-93205(60): Fixed a bug in *note
     logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler: 130b. where multiple
     rotating handler instances pointing to files with the same name but
     different extensions would conflict and not delete the correct
     files.

   - bpo-31116(61): Add Z85 encoding to ‘base64’.

   - bpo-44865(62): Add missing call to localization function in *note
     argparse: 7.

   - bpo-43952(63): Fix *note
     multiprocessing.connection.Listener.accept(): 1be8. to accept empty
     bytes as authkey.  Not accepting empty bytes as key causes it to
     hang indefinitely.

   - bpo-42125(64): linecache: get module name from ‘__spec__’ if
     available.  This allows getting source code for the ‘__main__’
     module when a custom loader is used.

   - bpo-41122(65): Failing to pass arguments properly to *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod(): 21e. now throws a TypeError
     instead of hitting an index out of bounds internally.

   - bpo-40818(66): The asyncio REPL now runs *note
     sys.__interactivehook__: 1371. on startup.  The default
     implementation of ‘sys.__interactivehook__’ provides
     auto-completion to the asyncio REPL. Patch contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-33775(67): Add “default” and “version” help text for
     localization in argparse.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116600

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116349

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116143

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116127

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116325

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115957

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115978

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88352

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87115

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76511

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89547

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65824

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116040

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115821

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85644

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75988

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115881

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94949

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115886

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115532

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115714

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115809

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74668

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67044

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115712

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112364

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112997

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114914

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111358

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115618

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112720

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112006

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101293

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (36) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113942

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115256

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115197

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113812

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114763

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114709

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114610

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107361

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112281

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111775

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90095

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107625

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107155

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57141

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69990

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104061

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60346

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102389

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72249

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100985

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100884

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95782

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96310

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93205

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31116

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44865

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43952

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42125

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41122

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40818

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33775


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<17>,  Next: Tests<19>,  Prev: Library<65>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.8 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-115399(1): Document CVE 2023-52425(2) of Expat <2.6.0 under «XML
     vulnerabilities».

   - gh-109653(3): Improve import time of *note uuid: 119. on Linux.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115399

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<19>,  Next: Build<18>,  Prev: Documentation<17>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.9 Tests
...............

   - gh-71052(1): Add test exclusions to support running the test suite
     on Android.

   - gh-71052(2): Enable ‘test_concurrent_futures’ on platforms that
     support threading but not multiprocessing.

   - gh-115796(3): Make “_testinternalcapi.assemble_code_object”
     construct the exception table for the code object.

   - gh-115720(4): Leak tests (‘-R’, ‘--huntrleaks’) now show a summary
     of the number of leaks found in each iteration.

   - gh-115122(5): Add ‘--bisect’ option to regrtest test runner: run
     failed tests with ‘test.bisect_cmd’ to identify failing tests.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-115596(6): Fix ‘ProgramPriorityTests’ in ‘test_os’ permanently
     changing the process priority.

   - gh-115556(7): On Windows, commas passed in arguments to
     ‘Tools\buildbot\test.bat’ and ‘PCbuild\\rt.bat’ are now properly
     handled.

   - gh-115420(8): Fix translation of exception handler targets by
     ‘_testinternalcapi.optimize_cfg’.

   - gh-115376(9): Fix segfault in ‘_testinternalcapi.compiler_codegen’
     on bad input.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115796

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115720

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115122

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115596

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115556

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115420

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115376


File: python.info,  Node: Build<18>,  Next: Windows<16>,  Prev: Tests<19>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.10 Build
................

   - gh-116313(1): Get WASI builds to work under wasmtime 18 w/ WASI
     0.2/preview2 primitives.

   - gh-71052(2): Change Android’s *note sys.platform: 518. from
     ‘"linux"’ to ‘"android"’.

   - gh-116117(3): Backport ‘libb2’’s PR #42 to fix compiling CPython on
     32-bit Windows with ‘clang-cl’.

   - gh-71052(4): Fix several Android build issues

   - gh-114099(5): A testbed project was added to run the test suite on
     iOS.

   - gh-115350(6): Fix building ctypes module with -DWIN32_LEAN_AND_MEAN
     defined

   - gh-111225(7): Link extension modules against libpython on Android.

   - gh-115737(8): The install name for libPython is now correctly set
     for non-framework macOS builds.

   - gh-114099(9): Makefile targets were added to support compiling an
     iOS-compatible framework build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116313

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116117

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71052

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115350

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111225

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115737

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<16>,  Next: macOS<11>,  Prev: Build<18>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.11 Windows
..................

   - gh-116012(1): Ensure the value of ‘GetLastError()’ is preserved
     across GIL operations.

   - gh-115582(2): Building extensions intended for free-threaded builds
     of CPython now require compiling with ‘/DPy_GIL_DISABLED’ manually
     when using a regular install.  This is expected to change in future
     releases.

   - gh-115554(3): The installer now has more strict rules about
     updating the *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc.  In
     general, most users only have a single launcher installed and will
     see no difference.  When multiple launchers have been installed,
     the option to install the launcher is disabled until all but one
     have been removed.  Downgrading the launcher (which was never
     allowed) is now more obviously blocked.

   - gh-115543(4): *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc. can now
     detect Python 3.13 when installed from the Microsoft Store, and
     will install Python 3.12 by default when ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’
     is set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116012

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115582

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115554

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115543


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<11>,  Next: IDLE<10>,  Prev: Windows<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.12 macOS
................

   - gh-116145(1): Update macOS installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116145


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<10>,  Next: Tools/Demos<14>,  Prev: macOS<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.13 IDLE
...............

   - gh-88516(1): On macOS show a proxy icon in the title bar of editor
     windows to match platform behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88516


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<14>,  Next: C API<19>,  Prev: IDLE<10>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.14 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-100176(1): Remove outdated Tools/{io,cc,string}bench

   - bpo-45101(2): Add consistency in usage message IO between 2
     versions of python-config.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45101


File: python.info,  Node: C API<19>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5

1.26.21.15 C API
................

   - gh-114626(1): Add again ‘_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ name,
     removed in Python 3.13 alpha 4 by mistake.  Keep the old private
     ‘_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ name (Python 3.7) as an alias to the
     new public name ‘PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ (Python 3.13a4).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111418(2): Add *note PyHASH_MODULUS: 1bf1, *note PyHASH_BITS:
     1bf2, *note PyHASH_INF: 1bf3. and *note PyHASH_IMAG: 1bf4. C
     macros.  Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114626

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111418


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.26.22 Python 3.13.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-02-15'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<18>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<63>.
* Library: Library<66>.
* Documentation: Documentation<18>.
* Tests: Tests<20>.
* Build: Build<19>.
* Windows: Windows<17>.
* macOS: macOS<12>.
* IDLE: IDLE<11>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<15>.
* C API: C API<20>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<18>,  Next: Core and Builtins<63>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.26.22.1 Security
..................

   - gh-115399(1): Update bundled libexpat to 2.6.0

   - gh-115243(2): Fix possible crashes in *note
     collections.deque.index(): 1189. when the deque is concurrently
     modified.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115399

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115243


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<63>,  Next: Library<66>,  Prev: Security<18>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.26.22.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-112087(1): For an empty reverse iterator for list will be
     reduced to *note reversed(): c3c.  Patch by Donghee Na

   - gh-114570(2): Add *note PythonFinalizationError: 68a. exception.
     This exception derived from *note RuntimeError: 30d. is raised when
     an operation is blocked during the *note Python finalization: 1a0.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-114695(3): Add *note sys._clear_internal_caches(): 345, which
     clears all internal performance-related caches (and deprecate the
     less-general *note sys._clear_type_cache(): 344. function).

   - gh-114828(4): Fix compilation crashes in uncommon code examples
     using *note super(): 443. inside a comprehension in a class body.

   - gh-112069(5): Adapt *note set: 42b. and *note frozenset: 9d4.
     methods to Argument Clinic.

   - gh-115011(6): Setters for members with an unsigned integer type now
     support the same range of valid values for objects that has a *note
     __index__(): 43d. method as for *note int: 326.

   - gh-114887(7): Changed socket type validation in *note
     create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a. to accept all non-stream sockets.
     This fixes a regression in compatibility with raw sockets.

   - gh-114944(8): Fixes a race between ‘PyParkingLot_Park’ and
     ‘_PyParkingLot_UnparkAll’.

   - gh-113462(9): Limit the number of versions that a single class can
     use.  Prevents a few wayward classes using up all the version
     numbers.

   - gh-76763(10): The *note chr(): 1bf8. builtin function now always
     raises *note ValueError: 277. for values outside the valid range.
     Previously it raised *note OverflowError: c57. for very large or
     small values.

   - gh-114806(11): No longer specialize calls to classes, if those
     classes have metaclasses.  Fixes bug where the ‘__call__’ method of
     the metaclass was not being called.

   - gh-107944(12): Improve error message for function calls with bad
     keyword arguments via getargs

   - gh-112529(13): The free-threaded build no longer allocates space
     for the ‘PyGC_Head’ structure in objects that support cyclic
     garbage collection.  A number of other fields and data structures
     are used as replacements, including ‘ob_gc_bits’, ‘ob_tid’, and
     mimalloc internal data structures.

   - gh-114456(14): Lower the recursion limit under a debug build of
     WASI.

   - gh-114083(15): Compiler applies folding of LOAD_CONST with
     following instruction in a separate pass before other
     optimisations.  This enables jump threading in certain
     circumstances.

   - gh-114388(16): Fix a *note RuntimeWarning: 6dd. emitted when assign
     an integer-like value that is not an instance of *note int: 326. to
     an attribute that corresponds to a C struct member of *note type:
     1bf9. T_UINT and T_ULONG. Fix a double ‘RuntimeWarning’ emitted
     when assign a negative integer value to an attribute that
     corresponds to a C struct member of type T_UINT.

   - gh-114265(17): Compiler propagates line numbers before
     optimization, leading to more optimization opportunities and
     removing the need for the ‘guarantee_lineno_for_exits’ hack.

   - gh-112529(18): The free-threaded build now has its own thread-safe
     GC implementation that uses mimalloc to find GC tracked objects.
     It is non-generational, unlike the existing GC implementation.

   - gh-114050(19): Fix segmentation fault caused by an incorrect format
     string in ‘TypeError’ exception when more than two arguments are
     passed to ‘int’.

   - gh-112354(20): The ‘END_FOR’ instruction now pops only one value.
     This is to better support side exits in loops.

   - gh-113884(21): Make *note queue.SimpleQueue: f27. thread safe when
     the GIL is disabled.

   - gh-114058(22): Implement the foundations of the Tier 2 redundancy
     eliminator.

   - gh-113939(23): frame.clear(): Clear frame.f_locals as well, and not
     only the fast locals.  This is relevant once frame.f_locals was
     accessed, which would contain also references to all the locals.

   - gh-112050(24): Convert *note collections.deque: 9d6. to use
     Argument Clinic.

   - gh-112050(25): Make methods on *note collections.deque: 9d6.
     thread-safe when the GIL is disabled.

   - gh-113464(26): Add an option (‘--enable-experimental-jit’ for
     ‘configure’-based builds or ‘--experimental-jit’ for
     ‘PCbuild’-based ones) to build an 'experimental' just-in-time
     compiler, based on copy-and-patch(27)

   - gh-113055(28): Make interp->obmalloc a pointer.  For interpreters
     that share state with the main interpreter, this points to the same
     static memory structure.  For interpreters with their own obmalloc
     state, it is heap allocated.  Add free_obmalloc_arenas() which will
     free the obmalloc arenas and radix tree structures for interpreters
     with their own obmalloc state.

   - gh-55664(29): Add warning when creating *note type: 186. using a
     namespace dictionary with non-string keys.  Patched by Daniel Urban
     and Furkan Onder.

   - gh-104530(30): Use native Win32 condition variables.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112087

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114570

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114695

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114828

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112069

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115011

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114887

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114944

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113462

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76763

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114806

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107944

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112529

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114456

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114083

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114388

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114265

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112529

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114050

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112354

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113884

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114058

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113939

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112050

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112050

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113464

   (27) https://fredrikbk.com/publications/copy-and-patch.pdf

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113055

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/55664

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104530


File: python.info,  Node: Library<66>,  Next: Documentation<18>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<63>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.26.22.3 Library
.................

   - gh-115392(1): Fix a bug in *note doctest: 3d. where incorrect line
     numbers would be reported for decorated functions.

   - gh-114563(2): Fix several *note format(): 439. bugs when using the
     C implementation of *note Decimal: 1c2.: * memory leak in some rare
     cases when using the ‘z’ format option (coerce negative 0) *
     incorrect output when applying the ‘z’ format option to type ‘F’
     (fixed-point with capital ‘NAN’ / ‘INF’) * incorrect output when
     applying the ‘#’ format option (alternate form)

   - gh-102840(3): Fix confused traceback when floordiv, mod, or divmod
     operations happens between instances of *note fractions.Fraction:
     1c3. and *note complex: 328.

   - gh-115165(4): Most exceptions are now ignored when attempting to
     set the ‘__orig_class__’ attribute on objects returned when calling
     *note typing: 10d. generic aliases (including generic aliases
     created using *note typing.Annotated: d09.).  Previously only *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. was ignored.  Patch by Dave Shawley.

   - gh-112903(5): Fix «issubclass() arg 1 must be a class» errors in
     certain cases of multiple inheritance with generic aliases
     (regression in early 3.13 alpha releases).

   - gh-115133(6): Fix tests for *note XMLPullParser: 139c. with Expat
     2.6.0.

   - gh-115059(7): ‘io.BufferedRandom.read1()’ now flushes the
     underlying write buffer.

   - gh-79382(8): Trailing ‘**’ no longer allows to match files and
     non-existing paths in recursive *note glob(): 2d4.

   - gh-67837(9): Avoid race conditions in the creation of directories
     during concurrent extraction in *note tarfile: e7. and *note
     zipfile: 13a.

   - gh-115060(10): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. by removing
     redundant regex matching.

   - gh-97928(11): Partially revert the behavior of
     ‘tkinter.Text.count()’.  By default it preserves the behavior of
     older Python versions, except that setting ‘wantobjects’ to 0 no
     longer has effect.  Add a new parameter 'return_ints': specifying
     ‘return_ints=True’ makes ‘Text.count()’ always returning the single
     count as an integer instead of a 1-tuple or ‘None’.

   - gh-114628(12): When csv.Error is raised when handling TypeError, do
     not print the TypeError traceback.

   - gh-85984(13): Added ‘_POSIX_VDISABLE’ from C’s ‘<unistd.h>’ to
     *note termios: ea.

   - gh-114965(14): Update bundled pip to 24.0

   - gh-114959(15): *note tarfile: e7. no longer ignores errors when
     trying to extract a directory on top of a file.

   - gh-114894(16): Add *note array.array.clear(): 6c7.

   - gh-114071(17): Support tuple subclasses using auto() for enum
     member value.

   - gh-109475(18): Fix support of explicit option value «–» in *note
     argparse: 7. (e.g.  ‘--option=--’).

   - gh-49766(19): Fix *note date: 48d.-*note datetime: 6e7. comparison.
     Now the special comparison methods like ‘__eq__’ and ‘__lt__’
     return *note NotImplemented: 440. if one of comparands is ‘date’
     and other is ‘datetime’ instead of ignoring the time part and the
     time zone or forcefully return «not equal» or raise *note
     TypeError: 291.  It makes comparison of ‘date’ and ‘datetime’
     subclasses more symmetric and allows to change the default behavior
     by overriding the special comparison methods in subclasses.

   - gh-110190(20): Fix ctypes structs with array on Windows ARM64
     platform by setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 32 in stgdict.  Patch by
     Diego Russo

   - gh-114678(21): Ensure that deprecation warning for “N” specifier in
     *note Decimal: 1c2. format is not raised for cases where “N”
     appears in other places in the format specifier.  Based on patch by
     Stefan Krah.

   - gh-70303(22): Return both files and directories from *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. if a pattern ends with «‘**’».
     Previously only directories were returned.

   - gh-109653(23): Improve import time of *note importlib.metadata: 7d.
     and *note email.utils: 53.

   - gh-113280(24): Fix a leak of open socket in rare cases when error
     occurred in *note ssl.SSLSocket: cbb. creation.

   - gh-77749(25): *note email.policy.EmailPolicy.fold(): 1bfb. now
     always encodes non-ASCII characters in headers if *note utf8: 217.
     is false.

   - gh-83383(26): Synchronization of the *note dbm.dumb: 35. database
     is now no-op if there was no modification since opening or last
     synchronization.  The directory file for a newly created empty
     ‘dbm.dumb’ database is now created immediately after opening
     instead of deferring this until synchronizing or closing.

   - gh-91602(27): Add 'filter' keyword-only parameter to *note
     sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 751. for filtering database objects
     to dump.  Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

   - gh-112451(28): Prohibit subclassing pure-Python *note
     datetime.timezone: 146c.  This is consistent with C-extension
     implementation.  Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

   - gh-69893(29): Add the ‘close()’ method for the iterator returned by
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(): 3eb.

   - gh-109653(30): Reduce the import time of *note threading: f6.
     module by ~50%.  Patch by Daniel Hollas.

   - gh-114492(31): Make the result of *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1bfc.
     reproducible on Alpine Linux.  Previously it could leave a random
     garbage in some fields.

   - gh-114315(32): Make *note threading.Lock: 1a10. a real class, not a
     factory function.  Add ‘__new__’ to ‘_thread.lock’ type.

   - gh-100414(33): Add *note dbm.sqlite3: 38. as a backend to *note
     dbm: 34, and make it the new default ‘dbm’ backend.  Patch by
     Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-113267(34): Revert changes in gh-106584(35) which made calls of
     ‘TestResult’ methods ‘startTest()’ and ‘stopTest()’ unbalanced.

   - gh-75128(36): Ignore an *note OSError: 53c. in
     ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop.create_server()’ when IPv6 is available but
     the interface cannot actually support it.

   - gh-114423(37): ‘_DummyThread’ entries in ‘threading._active’ are
     now automatically removed when the related thread dies.

   - gh-114257(38): Dismiss the ‘FileNotFound’ error in *note
     ctypes.util.find_library(): 10fe. and just return ‘None’ on Linux.

   - gh-114321(39): Expose more platform specific constants in the *note
     fcntl: 5c. module on Linux, macOS, FreeBSD and NetBSD.

   - gh-114328(40): The *note tty.setcbreak(): 1bfd. and new *note
     tty.cfmakecbreak(): 1bfe. no longer clears the terminal input ICRLF
     flag.  This fixes a regression introduced in 3.12 that no longer
     matched how OSes define cbreak mode in their ‘stty(1)’ manual
     pages.

   - gh-114281(41): Remove type hints from ‘Lib/asyncio/staggered.py’.
     The annotations in the typeshed(42) project should be used instead.

   - gh-101438(43): Avoid reference cycle in ElementTree.iterparse.  The
     iterator returned by ‘ElementTree.iterparse’ may hold on to a file
     descriptor.  The reference cycle prevented prompt clean-up of the
     file descriptor if the returned iterator was not exhausted.

   - gh-114198(44): The signature for the ‘__replace__’ method on *note
     dataclasses: 32. now has the first argument named ‘self’, rather
     than ‘obj’.

   - gh-104522(45): *note OSError: 53c. raised when run a subprocess now
     only has 'filename' attribute set to 'cwd' if the error was caused
     by a failed attempt to change the current directory.

   - gh-114149(46): Enum: correctly handle tuple subclasses in custom
     ‘__new__’.

   - gh-83648(47): Support deprecation of options, positional arguments
     and subcommands in *note argparse: 7.

   - gh-114087(48): Speed up ‘dataclasses.asdict’ up to 1.35x.

   - gh-109534(49): Fix a reference leak in
     ‘asyncio.selector_events.BaseSelectorEventLoop’ when SSL handshakes
     fail.  Patch contributed by Jamie Phan.

   - gh-79634(50): Accept *note path-like objects: 79f. as patterns in
     *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. and *note rglob(): 73b.

   - gh-112202(51): Ensure that a *note asyncio.Condition.notify():
     1bff. call does not get lost if the awakened ‘Task’ is
     simultaneously cancelled or encounters any other error.

   - gh-113951(52): Fix the behavior of ‘tag_unbind()’ methods of
     ‘tkinter.Text’ and ‘tkinter.Canvas’ classes with three arguments.
     Previously, ‘widget.tag_unbind(tag, sequence, funcid)’ destroyed
     the current binding for 'sequence', leaving 'sequence' unbound, and
     deleted the 'funcid' command.  Now it removes only 'funcid' from
     the binding for 'sequence', keeping other commands, and deletes the
     'funcid' command.  It leaves 'sequence' unbound only if 'funcid'
     was the last bound command.

   - gh-97959(53): Fix rendering class methods, bound methods, method
     and function aliases in *note pydoc: bd.  Class methods no longer
     have «method of builtins.type instance» note.  Corresponding notes
     are now added for class and unbound methods.  Method and function
     aliases now have references to the module or the class where the
     origin was defined if it differs from the current.  Bound methods
     are now listed in the static methods section.  Methods of builtin
     classes are now supported as well as methods of Python classes.

   - gh-113796(54): Add more validation checks in the *note csv.Dialect:
     1a3c. constructor.  *note ValueError: 277. is now raised if the
     same character is used in different roles.

   - gh-113732(55): Fix support of *note QUOTE_NOTNULL: 896. and *note
     QUOTE_STRINGS: 897. in *note csv.reader(): 898.

   - gh-113225(56): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 8b8. by using
     *note os.DirEntry.path: 1c00. where possible.

   - gh-89039(57): When replace() method is called on a subclass of
     datetime, date or time, properly call derived constructor.
     Previously, only the base class’s constructor was called.

     Also, make sure to pass non-zero fold values when creating
     subclasses in various methods.  Previously, fold was silently
     ignored.

   - gh-112919(58): Speed-up *note datetime.datetime.replace(): 186d,
     *note datetime.date.replace(): 1c01. and *note
     datetime.time.replace(): 1c02.

   - gh-59013(59): Set breakpoint on the first executable line of the
     function, instead of the line of function definition when the user
     do ‘break func’ using *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-112343(60): Improve handling of pdb convenience variables to
     avoid replacing string contents.

   - gh-112240(61): Add option to calendar module CLI to specify the
     weekday to start each week.  Patch by Steven Ward.

   - gh-111741(62): Recognise ‘image/webp’ as a standard format in the
     *note mimetypes: 93. module.

   - gh-43457(63): Fix the *note tkinter: f9. widget method
     ‘wm_attributes()’.  It now accepts the attribute name without the
     minus prefix to get window attributes and allows to specify
     attributes and values to set as keyword arguments.  Add new
     optional keyword argument 'return_python_dict': calling
     ‘w.wm_attributes(return_python_dict=True)’ returns the attributes
     as a dict instead of a tuple.  Calling ‘w.wm_attributes()’ now
     returns a tuple instead of string if 'wantobjects' was set to 0.

   - gh-82626(64): Many functions now emit a warning if a boolean value
     is passed as a file descriptor argument.

   - gh-111051(65): Added check for file modification during debugging
     with *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-110345(66): Show the Tcl/Tk patchlevel (rather than version) in
     ‘tkinter._test()’.

   - gh-38807(67): Fix race condition in *note trace: 106.  Instead of
     checking if a directory exists and creating it, directly call *note
     os.makedirs(): 72f. with the kwarg ‘exist_ok=True’.

   - gh-75705(68): Set unixfrom envelope in *note mailbox.mbox: 1c03.
     and *note mailbox.MMDF: 1c04.

   - gh-106233(69): Fix stacklevel in ‘InvalidTZPathWarning’ during
     *note zoneinfo: 13d. module import.

   - gh-105102(70): Allow *note ctypes.Union: 47d. to be nested in *note
     ctypes.Structure: 47c. when the system endianness is the opposite
     of the classes.

   - gh-104282(71): Fix null pointer dereference in
     ‘lzma._decode_filter_properties()’ due to improper handling of BCJ
     filters with properties of zero length.  Patch by Radislav
     Chugunov.

   - gh-96471(72): Add *note queue.Queue: 1738. termination with *note
     shutdown(): 745.

   - gh-101599(73): Changed argparse flag options formatting to remove
     redundancy.

   - gh-85984(74): Add POSIX pseudo-terminal functions *note
     os.posix_openpt(): 1c05, *note os.grantpt(): 1c06, *note
     os.unlockpt(): 1c07, and *note os.ptsname(): 1c08.

   - gh-102512(75): When *note os.fork(): 6bd. is called from a foreign
     thread (aka ‘_DummyThread’), the type of the thread in a child
     process is changed to ‘_MainThread’.  Also changed its name and
     daemonic status, it can be now joined.

   - gh-88569(76): Add *note os.path.isreserved(): 2d9, which identifies
     reserved pathnames such as «NUL», «AUX» and «CON».  This function
     is only available on Windows.

     Deprecate ‘pathlib.PurePath.is_reserved()’.

   - bpo-38364(77): The ‘inspect’ functions ‘isgeneratorfunction’,
     ‘iscoroutinefunction’, ‘isasyncgenfunction’ now support
     ‘functools.partialmethod’ wrapped functions the same way they
     support ‘functools.partial’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115392

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114563

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102840

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115165

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112903

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115133

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115059

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79382

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67837

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115060

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114628

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114965

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114959

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114894

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114071

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109475

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/49766

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114678

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70303

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113280

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77749

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83383

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91602

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112451

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69893

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114492

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114315

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113267

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106584

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75128

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114423

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114257

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114321

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114328

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114281

   (42) https://github.com/python/typeshed

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101438

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114198

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104522

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114149

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83648

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114087

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109534

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79634

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112202

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113951

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97959

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113796

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113732

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113225

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89039

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112919

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59013

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112343

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112240

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111741

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82626

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111051

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110345

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/38807

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75705

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106233

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105102

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104282

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96471

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101599

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102512

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38364


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<18>,  Next: Tests<20>,  Prev: Library<66>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.26.22.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-115233(1): Fix an example for *note LoggerAdapter: 169a. in the
     Logging Cookbook.

   - gh-114123(2): Move the *note csv: 2c. module docstring to the ‘csv’
     module instead of reexporting it from the internal ‘_csv’ module,
     and remove ‘__doc__’ from ‘csv.__all__’.

     Move ‘csv.__version__’ to the ‘csv’ module instead of reexporting
     it from the internal ‘_csv’ module, and remove ‘__version__’ from
     ‘csv.__all__’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115233

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114123


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<20>,  Next: Build<19>,  Prev: Documentation<18>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.26.22.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-114099(1): Added test exclusions required to run the test suite
     on iOS.

   - gh-105089(2): Fix
     ‘test.test_zipfile.test_core.TestWithDirectory.test_create_directory_with_write’
     test in AIX by doing a bitwise AND of 0xFFFF on mode , so that it
     will be in sync with ‘zinfo.external_attr’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105089


File: python.info,  Node: Build<19>,  Next: Windows<17>,  Prev: Tests<20>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.26.22.6 Build
...............

   - gh-115167(1): Avoid vendoring ‘vcruntime140_threads.dll’ when
     building with Visual Studio 2022 version 17.8.

   - gh-113632(2): Promote WASI to a tier 2 platform and drop Emscripten
     from tier 3 in configure.ac.

   - gh-114099(3): configure and Makefile were refactored to accommodate
     framework builds on Apple platforms other than macOS.

   - gh-114875(4): Add ‘getgrent()’ as a prerequisite for building the
     *note grp: 69. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115167

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113632

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114875


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<17>,  Next: macOS<12>,  Prev: Build<19>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.26.22.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-115049(1): Fixes ‘py.exe’ launcher failing when run as users
     without user profiles.

   - gh-115009(2): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.45.1.

   - gh-109991(3): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.13.

   - gh-111239(4): Update Windows builds to use zlib v1.3.1.

   - gh-100107(5): The ‘py.exe’ launcher will no longer attempt to run
     the Microsoft Store redirector when launching a script containing a
     ‘/usr/bin/env’ shebang

   - gh-112984(6): Adds free-threaded binaries to Windows installer as
     an optional component.

   - gh-89240(7): Allows *note multiprocessing: 98. to create pools of
     greater than 62 processes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115049

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111239

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100107

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112984

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89240


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<12>,  Next: IDLE<11>,  Prev: Windows<17>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.26.22.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-115009(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.45.1.

   - gh-109991(2): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.13.

   - gh-114490(3): Add Mach-O linkage support for *note
     platform.architecture(): 1c0e.

   - gh-87804(4): On macOS the result of ‘os.statvfs’ and ‘os.fstatvfs’
     now correctly report the size of very large disks, in previous
     versions the reported number of blocks was wrong for disks with at
     least 2**32 blocks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115009

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114490

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87804


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<11>,  Next: Tools/Demos<15>,  Prev: macOS<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.26.22.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-96905(1): In idlelib code, stop redefining built-ins “dict” and
     “object”.

   - gh-103820(2): Revise IDLE bindings so that events from mouse button
     4/5 on non-X11 windowing systems (i.e.  Win32 and Aqua) are not
     mistaken for scrolling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96905

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103820


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<15>,  Next: C API<20>,  Prev: IDLE<11>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.26.22.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-113516(1): Don’t set ‘LDSHARED’ when building for WASI.

   - gh-109991(2): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.13 and
     multissltests to use 1.1.1w, 3.0.13, 3.1.5, and 3.2.1.

   - gh-115015(3): Fix a bug in Argument Clinic that generated incorrect
     code for methods with no parameters that use the *note METH_METHOD
     | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 1c11. calling convention.  Only
     the positional parameter count was checked; any keyword argument
     passed would be silently accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113516

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115015


File: python.info,  Node: C API<20>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4

1.26.22.11 C API
................

   - gh-111140(1): Adds *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 7fc, *note
     PyLong_FromNativeBytes(): 7fd. and *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(): 7fe. functions.

   - gh-114685(2): *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): b42. now raises a *note
     SystemError: 3ea. if called with *note PyBUF_READ: 1c13. or *note
     PyBUF_WRITE: 1c14. as flags.  These flags should only be used with
     the ‘PyMemoryView_*’ C API.

   - gh-114685(3): *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c. now raises a *note
     SystemError: 3ea. if called with *note PyBUF_READ: 1c13. or *note
     PyBUF_WRITE: 1c14. as flags.  These flags should only be used with
     the ‘PyMemoryView_*’ C API.

   - gh-114626(4): Add ‘PyCFunctionFast’ and
     ‘PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ typedefs (identical to the existing
     ‘_PyCFunctionFast’ and ‘_PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords’ typedefs,
     just without a leading ‘_’ prefix).

   - gh-114329(5): Add *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 7f4, which is similar
     to *note PyList_GetItem(): 7f5. but returns a *note strong
     reference: 7da. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 603.

   - gh-110850(6): Add PyTime C API:

        * *note PyTime_t: 7cc. type.

        * *note PyTime_MIN: 7cd. and *note PyTime_MAX: 7ce. constants.

        * *note PyTime_AsSecondsDouble(): 7cf, *note PyTime_Monotonic():
          7d0, *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 7d2, and *note PyTime_Time():
          7d4. functions.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-112066(7): Add *note PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 7db.: insert a key
     and value into a dictionary if the key is not already present.
     This is similar to *note dict.setdefault(): 1421, but returns an
     integer value indicating if the key was already present.  It is
     also similar to *note PyDict_SetDefault(): 7dc, but returns a
     strong reference instead of a borrowed reference.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111140

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114685

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114685

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114626

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114329

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110850

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112066


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.23 Python 3.13.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2024-01-17'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<19>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<64>.
* Library: Library<67>.
* Documentation: Documentation<19>.
* Tests: Tests<21>.
* Build: Build<20>.
* Windows: Windows<18>.
* macOS: macOS<13>.
* IDLE: IDLE<12>.
* C API: C API<21>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<19>,  Next: Core and Builtins<64>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.26.23.1 Security
..................

   - gh-113659(1): Skip ‘.pth’ files with names starting with a dot or
     hidden file attribute.

   - gh-112302(2): Created a Software Bill-of-Materials document and
     tooling for tracking dependencies.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113659

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112302


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<64>,  Next: Library<67>,  Prev: Security<19>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.26.23.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-107901(1): Compiler duplicates basic blocks that have an eval
     breaker check, no line number, and multiple predecessors.

   - gh-107901(2): A jump leaving an exception handler back to normal
     code no longer checks the eval breaker.

   - gh-113655(3): Set the C recursion limit to 4000 on Windows, and
     10000 on Linux/OSX. This seems to be near the sweet spot to
     maintain safety, but not compromise backwards compatibility.

   - gh-113710(4): Add typed stack effects to the interpreter DSL, along
     with various instruction annotations.

   - gh-77046(5): On Windows, file descriptors wrapping Windows handles
     are now created non inheritable by default ( PEP 446(6)).  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-113853(7): Guarantee that all executors make progress.  This
     then guarantees that tier 2 execution always makes progress.

   - gh-113753(8): Fix an issue where the finalizer of ‘PyAsyncGenASend’
     objects might not be called if they were allocated from a free
     list.

   - gh-107901(9): Compiler changed so that synthetic jumps which are
     not at loop end no longer check the eval breaker.

   - gh-113703(10): Fix a regression in the *note codeop: 1d. module
     that was causing it to incorrectly identify incomplete f-strings.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-89811(11): Check for a valid ‘tp_version_tag’ before performing
     bytecode specializations that rely on this value being usable.

   - gh-111488(12): Changed error message in case of no “in” keyword
     after “for” in list comprehensions

   - gh-113657(13): Fix an issue that caused important instruction
     pointer updates to be optimized out of tier two traces.

   - gh-113603(14): Fixed bug where a redundant NOP is not removed,
     causing an assertion to fail in the compiler in debug mode.

   - gh-113602(15): Fix an error that was causing the parser to try to
     overwrite existing errors and crashing in the process.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-113486(16): No longer issue spurious ‘PY_UNWIND’ events for
     optimized calls to classes.

   - gh-113297(17): Fix segfault in the compiler on with statement with
     19 context managers.

   - gh-113212(18): Improve *note super: 443. error messages.

   - gh-111375(19): Only use ‘NULL’ in the exception stack to indicate
     an exception was handled.  Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - gh-112215(20): Increase the C recursion limit by a factor of 3 for
     non-debug builds, except for webassembly and s390 platforms which
     are unchanged.  This mitigates some regressions in 3.12 with deep
     recursion mixing builtin (C) and Python code.

   - gh-113054(21): Fixed bug where a redundant NOP is not removed,
     causing an assertion to fail in the compiler in debug mode.

   - gh-106905(22): Use per AST-parser state rather than global state to
     track recursion depth within the AST parser to prevent potential
     race condition due to simultaneous parsing.

     The issue primarily showed up in 3.11 by multithreaded users of
     *note ast.parse(): 1c9.  In 3.12 a change to when garbage
     collection can be triggered prevented the race condition from
     occurring.

   - gh-108866(23): Change the API and contract of ‘_PyExecutorObject’
     to return the next_instr pointer, instead of the frame, and to
     always execute at least one instruction.

   - gh-90350(24): Optimize builtin functions *note min(): 12b9. and
     *note max(): 12ba.

   - gh-112943(25): Correctly compute end column offsets for multiline
     tokens in the *note tokenize: 104. module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112125(26): Fix ‘None.__ne__(None)’ returning ‘NotImplemented’
     instead of ‘False’.

   - gh-74616(27): *note input(): 167d. now raises a ValueError when
     output on the terminal if the prompt contains embedded null
     characters instead of silently truncating it.

   - gh-112716(28): Fix SystemError in the ‘import’ statement and in
     ‘__reduce__()’ methods of builtin types when ‘__builtins__’ is not
     a dict.

   - gh-112730(29): Use color to highlight error locations in
     tracebacks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112625(30): Fixes a bug where a bytearray object could be
     cleared while iterating over an argument in the ‘bytearray.join()’
     method that could result in reading memory after it was freed.

   - gh-112660(31): Do not clear unexpected errors during formatting
     error messages for ImportError and AttributeError for modules.

   - gh-105967(32): Workaround a bug in Apple’s macOS platform zlib
     library where *note zlib.crc32(): 1c18. and *note binascii.crc32():
     1c19. could produce incorrect results on multi-gigabyte inputs.
     Including when using *note zipfile: 13a. on zips containing large
     data.

   - gh-95754(33): Provide a better error message when accessing invalid
     attributes on partially initialized modules.  The origin of the
     module being accessed is now included in the message to help with
     the common issue of shadowing other modules.

   - gh-112217(34): Add check for the type of ‘__cause__’ returned from
     calling the type ‘T’ in ‘raise from T’.

   - gh-111058(35): Change coro.cr_frame/gen.gi_frame to return ‘None’
     after the coroutine/generator has been closed.  This fixes a bug
     where *note getcoroutinestate(): 11cd. and *note
     getgeneratorstate(): 15dc. return the wrong state for a closed
     coroutine/generator.

   - gh-112388(36): Fix an error that was causing the parser to try to
     overwrite tokenizer errors.  Patch by pablo Galindo

   - gh-112387(37): Fix error positions for decoded strings with
     backwards tokenize errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-99606(38): Make code generated for an empty f-string identical
     to the code of an empty normal string.

   - gh-112367(39): Avoid undefined behaviour when using the perf
     trampolines by not freeing the code arenas until shutdown.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112320(40): The Tier 2 translator now tracks the confidence
     level for staying «on trace» (i.e.  not exiting back to the Tier 1
     interpreter) for branch instructions based on the number of bits
     set in the branch «counter».  Trace translation ends when the
     confidence drops below 1/3rd.

   - gh-109598(41): *note PyComplex_RealAsDouble(): 1c1a./*note
     PyComplex_ImagAsDouble(): 1c1b. now tries to convert an object to a
     *note complex: 328. instance using its ‘__complex__()’ method
     before falling back to the ‘__float__()’ method.  Patch by Sergey B
     Kirpichev.

   - gh-94606(42): Fix UnicodeEncodeError when
     ‘email.message.get_payload()’ reads a message with a Unicode
     surrogate character and the message content is not well-formed for
     surrogateescape encoding.  Patch by Sidney Markowitz.

   - bpo-21861(43): Use the object’s actual class name in
     ‘_io.FileIO.__repr__()’, ‘_io._WindowsConsoleIO()’ and
     ‘_io.TextIOWrapper.__repr__()’, to make these methods subclass
     friendly.

   - bpo-45369(44): Remove LibreSSL workarounds as per PEP 644(45).

   - bpo-34392(46): Added *note sys._is_interned(): 75a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113655

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113710

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77046

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113853

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113753

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113703

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89811

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111488

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113657

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113603

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113602

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113486

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113297

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113212

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111375

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112215

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113054

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106905

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108866

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90350

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112943

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112125

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74616

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112716

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112730

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112625

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112660

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105967

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95754

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112217

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111058

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112388

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112387

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99606

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112367

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112320

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109598

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94606

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21861

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45369

   (45) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34392


File: python.info,  Node: Library<67>,  Next: Documentation<19>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<64>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.26.23.3 Library
.................

   - gh-114077(1): Fix possible *note OverflowError: c57. in *note
     socket.socket.sendfile(): 120e. when pass 'count' larger than 2 GiB
     on 32-bit platform.

   - gh-111803(2): *note plistlib: b0. now supports loading more deeply
     nested lists in binary format.

   - gh-114014(3): Fixed a bug in *note fractions.Fraction: 1c3. where
     an invalid string using ‘d’ in the decimals part creates a
     different error compared to other invalid letters/characters.
     Patch by Jeremiah Gabriel Pascual.

   - gh-108364(4): *note sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 751. now ensures
     that foreign key support is disabled before dumping the database
     schema, if there is any foreign key violation.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland and Mariusz Felisiak.

   - gh-113971(5): The *note zipfile.ZipInfo: 547. previously protected
     ‘._compresslevel’ attribute has been made public as
     ‘.compress_level’ with the old ‘_compresslevel’ name remaining
     available as a property to retain compatibility.

   - gh-113877(6): Fix *note tkinter: f9. method ‘winfo_pathname()’ on
     64-bit Windows.

   - gh-113868(7): Added *note mmap.MAP_NORESERVE: 1c1d, *note
     mmap.MAP_NOEXTEND: 1c1e, *note mmap.MAP_HASSEMAPHORE: 1c1f, *note
     mmap.MAP_NOCACHE: 1c20, *note mmap.MAP_JIT: 1c21, *note
     mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN: 1c22, *note mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA:
     1c23, *note mmap.MAP_32BIT: 1c24, *note
     mmap.MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE: 1c25, *note mmap.MAP_UNIX03:
     1c26. and *note mmap.MAP_TPRO: 1c27.  All of them are ‘mmap(2)’
     flags on macOS.

   - gh-113848(8): *note asyncio.TaskGroup(): 6d7. and *note
     asyncio.timeout(): 9f5. context managers now handle *note
     CancelledError: 6da. subclasses as well as exact ‘CancelledError’.

   - gh-113661(9): unittest runner: Don’t exit 5 if tests were skipped.
     The intention of exiting 5 was to detect issues where the test
     suite wasn’t discovered at all.  If we skipped tests, it was
     correctly discovered.

   - gh-96037(10): Insert *note TimeoutError: c0e. in the context of the
     exception that was raised during exiting an expired *note
     asyncio.timeout(): 9f5. block.

   - gh-113781(11): Silence unraisable AttributeError when warnings are
     emitted during Python finalization.

   - gh-113238(12): Add ‘Anchor’ to ‘importlib.resources’ (in order for
     the code to comply with the documentation)

   - gh-111693(13): *note asyncio.Condition.wait(): 1c28. now re-raises
     the same ‘CancelledError’ instance that may have caused it to be
     interrupted.  Fixed race condition in *note
     asyncio.Semaphore.acquire(): 1c29. when interrupted with a
     ‘CancelledError’.

   - gh-113791(14): Add ‘CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW_APPROX’ and
     ‘CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW_APPROX’ to *note time: f7. on macOS. These are
     clocks available on macOS 10.12 or later.

   - gh-112932(15): Restore the ability for *note zipfile: 13a. to
     ‘extractall’ from zip files with a «/» directory entry in them as
     is commonly added to zips by some wiki or bug tracker data
     exporters.

   - gh-113568(16): Raise deprecation warnings from *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 8b6. and not its private base class
     ‘PurePathBase’.

   - gh-113594(17): Fix *note UnicodeEncodeError: a67. in *note email:
     3e. when re-fold lines that contain unknown-8bit encoded part
     followed by non-unknown-8bit encoded part.

   - gh-113538(18): In ‘asyncio.StreamReaderProtocol.connection_made()’,
     there is callback that logs an error if the task wrapping the
     «connected callback» fails.  This callback would itself fail if the
     task was cancelled.  Prevent this by checking whether the task was
     cancelled first.  If so, close the transport but don’t log an
     error.

   - gh-113626(19): Add support for the 'allow_code' argument in the
     *note marshal: 90. module.  Passing ‘allow_code=False’ prevents
     serialization and de-serialization of code objects which is
     incompatible between Python versions.

   - gh-85567(20): Fix resource warnings for unclosed files in *note
     pickle: ab. and *note pickletools: ac. command line interfaces.

   - gh-113537(21): Support loads ‘str’ in *note plistlib.loads(): d1b.

   - gh-89850(22): Add default implementations of *note
     pickle.Pickler.persistent_id(): 1b28. and *note
     pickle.Unpickler.persistent_load(): 1b2f. methods in the C
     implementation.  Calling ‘super().persistent_id()’ and
     ‘super().persistent_load()’ in subclasses of the C implementation
     of *note pickle.Pickler: de2. and *note pickle.Unpickler: 1978.
     classes no longer causes infinite recursion.

   - gh-113569(23): Indicate if there were no actual calls in unittest
     *note assert_has_calls(): 1c2a. failure.

   - gh-101225(24): Increase the backlog for *note
     multiprocessing.connection.Listener: 1c2b. objects created by
     ‘multiprocessing.manager’ and ‘multiprocessing.resource_sharer’ to
     significantly reduce the risk of getting a connection refused error
     when creating a *note multiprocessing.connection.Connection: 148c.
     to them.

   - gh-113568(25): Raise audit events from *note pathlib.Path: 4ee. and
     not its private base class ‘PathBase’.

   - gh-113543(26): Make sure that ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript’ sends
     ‘webbrowser.open’ audit event.

   - gh-113028(27): When a second reference to a string appears in the
     input to *note pickle: ab, and the Python implementation is in use,
     we are guaranteed that a single copy gets pickled and a single
     object is shared when reloaded.  Previously, in protocol 0, when a
     string contained certain characters (e.g.  newline) it resulted in
     duplicate objects.

   - gh-113421(28): Fix multiprocessing logger for ‘%(filename)s’.

   - gh-111784(29): Fix segfaults in the ‘_elementtree’ module.  Fix
     first segfault during deallocation of ‘_elementtree.XMLParser’
     instances by keeping strong reference to ‘pyexpat’ module in module
     state for capsule lifetime.  Fix second segfault which happens in
     the same deallocation process by keeping strong reference to
     ‘_elementtree’ module in ‘XMLParser’ structure for ‘_elementtree’
     module lifetime.

   - gh-113407(30): Fix import of *note unittest.mock: 110. when CPython
     is built without docstrings.

   - gh-113320(31): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where *note Protocol:
     76c. classes that were not marked as *note runtime-checkable: 861.
     would be unnecessarily introspected, potentially causing exceptions
     to be raised if the protocol had problematic members.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - gh-53502(32): Add a new option ‘aware_datetime’ in *note plistlib:
     b0. to loads or dumps aware datetime.

   - gh-113358(33): Fix rendering tracebacks with exceptions with a
     broken __getattr__

   - gh-113214(34): Fix an ‘AttributeError’ during asyncio SSL protocol
     aborts in SSL-over-SSL scenarios.

   - gh-113246(35): Update bundled pip to 23.3.2.

   - gh-87264(36): Fixed tarfile list() method to show file type.

   - gh-112182(37): ‘asyncio.futures.Future.set_exception()’ now
     transforms *note StopIteration: fba. into *note RuntimeError: 30d.
     instead of hanging or other misbehavior.  Patch contributed by
     Jamie Phan.

   - gh-113225(38): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. by using
     *note os.DirEntry.path: 1c00. where possible.

   - gh-113149(39): Improve error message when a JSON array or object
     contains a trailing comma.  Patch by Carson Radtke.

   - gh-113117(40): The *note subprocess: df. module can now use the
     *note os.posix_spawn(): 731. function with ‘close_fds=True’ on
     platforms where ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np’ is
     available.  Patch by Jakub Kulik.

   - gh-113199(41): Make ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.read1’ and
     ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.readline’ close IO after reading all data
     when content length is known.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-113191(42): Add support of *note os.fchmod(): 72d. and a file
     descriptor in *note os.chmod(): 72c. on Windows.

   - gh-113188(43): Fix *note shutil.copymode(): 1c2c. and *note
     shutil.copystat(): 14da. on Windows.  Previously they worked
     differently if 'dst' is a symbolic link: they modified the
     permission bits of 'dst' itself rather than the file it points to
     if 'follow_symlinks' is true or 'src' is not a symbolic link, and
     did not modify the permission bits if 'follow_symlinks' is false
     and 'src' is a symbolic link.

   - gh-113119(44): *note os.posix_spawn(): 731. now accepts ‘env=None’,
     which makes the newly spawned process use the current process
     environment.  Patch by Jakub Kulik.

   - gh-113202(45): Add a ‘strict’ option to ‘batched()’ in the
     ‘itertools’ module.

   - gh-61648(46): Detect line numbers of properties in doctests.

   - gh-113175(47): Sync with importlib_metadata 7.0, including improved
     type annotations, fixed issue with symlinked packages in
     ‘package_distributions’, added ‘EntryPoints.__repr__’, introduced
     the ‘diagnose’ script, added ‘Distribution.origin’ property, and
     removed deprecated ‘EntryPoint’ access by numeric index (tuple
     behavior).

   - gh-59616(48): Add support of *note os.lchmod(): 72b. and the
     'follow_symlinks' argument in *note os.chmod(): 72c. on Windows.
     Note that the default value of 'follow_symlinks' in ‘os.lchmod()’
     is ‘False’ on Windows.

   - gh-112559(49): *note signal.signal(): 14e0. and *note
     signal.getsignal(): 1c2d. no longer call ‘repr’ on callable
     handlers.  *note asyncio.run(): 309. and *note
     asyncio.Runner.run(): 1b62. no longer call ‘repr’ on the task
     results.  Patch by Yilei Yang.

   - gh-112962(50): *note dis: 3b. module functions add cache
     information to the *note Instruction: 494. instance rather than
     creating fake ‘Instruction’ instances to represent the cache
     entries.

   - gh-112989(51): Reduce overhead to connect sockets with *note
     asyncio: b. SelectorEventLoop.

   - gh-112970(52): Use ‘closefrom()’ on Linux where available (e.g.
     glibc-2.34), rather than only FreeBSD.

   - gh-110190(53): Fix ctypes structs with array on PPC64LE platform by
     setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 64 in stgdict.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-112540(54): The statistics.geometric_mean() function now returns
     zero for datasets containing a zero.  Formerly, it would raise an
     exception.

   - gh-87286(55): Added ‘LOG_FTP’, ‘LOG_NETINFO’, ‘LOG_REMOTEAUTH’,
     ‘LOG_INSTALL’, ‘LOG_RAS’, and ‘LOG_LAUNCHD’ tot the *note syslog:
     e5. module, all of them constants on used on macOS.

   - gh-112800(56): Fix *note asyncio: b. ‘SubprocessTransport.close()’
     not to throw ‘PermissionError’ when used with setuid executables.

   - gh-51944(57): Add the following constants to the *note termios: ea.
     module.  These values are present in macOS system headers:
     ‘ALTWERASE’, ‘B14400’, ‘B28800’, ‘B7200’, ‘B76800’, ‘CCAR_OFLOW’,
     ‘CCTS_OFLOW’, ‘CDSR_OFLOW’, ‘CDTR_IFLOW’, ‘CIGNORE’, ‘CRTS_IFLOW’,
     ‘EXTPROC’, ‘IUTF8’, ‘MDMBUF’, ‘NL2’, ‘NL3’, ‘NOKERNINFO’, ‘ONOEOT’,
     ‘OXTABS’, ‘VDSUSP’, ‘VSTATUS’.

   - gh-79325(58): Fix an infinite recursion error in *note
     tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(): 15da. cleanup on Windows.

   - gh-94692(59): *note shutil.rmtree(): 335. now only catches OSError
     exceptions.  Previously a symlink attack resistant version of
     ‘shutil.rmtree()’ could ignore or pass to the error handler
     arbitrary exception when invalid arguments were provided.

   - gh-112736(60): The use of del-safe symbols in ‘subprocess’ was
     refactored to allow for use in cross-platform build environments.

   - gh-112727(61): Speed up *note pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1c2e.  Patch
     by Barney Gale.

   - gh-74690(62): Speedup *note issubclass(): 2f0. checks against
     simple *note runtime-checkable protocols: 861. by around 6%.  Patch
     by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-74690(63): Speedup *note isinstance(): 2ef. checks by roughly
     20% for *note runtime-checkable protocols: 861. that only have one
     callable member.  Speedup *note issubclass(): 2f0. checks for these
     protocols by roughly 10%.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-112645(64): Remove deprecation error on passing ‘onerror’ to
     *note shutil.rmtree(): 335.

   - gh-112640(65): Add ‘kwdefaults’ parameter to *note
     types.FunctionType: c59. to set default keyword argument values.

   - gh-112622(66): Ensure ‘name’ parameter is passed to event loop in
     *note asyncio.create_task(): 462.

   - gh-112618(67): Fix a caching bug relating to *note
     typing.Annotated: d09.  ‘Annotated[str, True]’ is no longer
     identical to ‘Annotated[str, 1]’.

   - gh-112334(68): Fixed a performance regression in 3.12’s *note
     subprocess: df. on Linux where it would no longer use the fast-path
     ‘vfork()’ system call when it could have due to a logic bug,
     instead falling back to the safe but slower ‘fork()’.

     Also fixed a second 3.12.0 potential security bug.  If a value of
     ‘extra_groups=[]’ was passed to *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf. or
     related APIs, the underlying ‘setgroups(0, NULL)’ system call to
     clear the groups list would not be made in the child process prior
     to ‘exec()’.

     This was identified via code inspection in the process of fixing
     the first bug.

   - gh-110190(69): Fix ctypes structs with array on Arm platform by
     setting ‘MAX_STRUCT_SIZE’ to 32 in stgdict.  Patch by Diego Russo.

   - gh-81194(70): Fix a crash in *note socket.if_indextoname(): df3.
     with specific value (UINT_MAX). Fix an integer overflow in
     ‘socket.if_indextoname()’ on 64-bit non-Windows platforms.

   - gh-112578(71): Fix a spurious *note RuntimeWarning: 6dd. when
     executing the *note zipfile: 13a. module.

   - gh-112516(72): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.3.1.

   - gh-112510(73): Add *note readline.backend: 1c2f. for the backend
     readline uses (‘editline’ or ‘readline’)

   - gh-112328(74): [Enum] Make ‘EnumDict’, ‘EnumDict.member_names’,
     ‘EnumType._add_alias_’ and ‘EnumType._add_value_alias_’ public.

   - gh-112509(75): Fix edge cases that could cause a key to be present
     in both the ‘__required_keys__’ and ‘__optional_keys__’ attributes
     of a *note typing.TypedDict: 290.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-101336(76): Add ‘keep_alive’ keyword parameter for
     ‘AbstractEventLoop.create_server()’ and
     ‘BaseEventLoop.create_server()’.

   - gh-63284(77): Added support for TLS-PSK (pre-shared key) mode to
     the *note ssl: d8. module.

   - gh-112414(78): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where calling *note
     repr(): 45b. on a module that had been imported using a custom
     *note loader: 1c30. could fail with *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-112358(79): Revert change to *note struct.Struct: 2fb.
     initialization that broke some cases of subclassing.

   - gh-112405(80): Optimize *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 575.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-94722(81): Fix bug where comparison between instances of *note
     DocTest: 1c31. fails if one of them has ‘None’ as its lineno.

   - gh-112361(82): Speed up a small handful of *note pathlib: a8.
     methods by removing some temporary objects.

   - gh-112345(83): Improve error message when trying to call *note
     issubclass(): 2f0. against a *note typing.Protocol: 76c. that has
     non-method members.  Patch by Randolf Scholz.

   - gh-112137(84): Change *note dis: 3b. output to display no-lineno as
     «–» instead of «None».

   - gh-112332(85): Deprecate the ‘exc_type’ field of *note
     traceback.TracebackException: 764.  Add ‘exc_type_str’ to replace
     it.

   - gh-81620(86): Add extra tests for *note random.binomialvariate():
     8c0.

   - gh-112292(87): Fix a crash in *note readline: c2. when imported
     from a sub interpreter.  Patch by Anthony Shaw

   - gh-77621(88): Slightly improve the import time of the *note
     pathlib: a8. module by deferring some imports.  Patch by Barney
     Gale.

   - gh-112137(89): Change *note dis: 3b. output to display logical
     labels for jump targets instead of offsets.

   - gh-112139(90): Add ‘Signature.format()’ to format signatures to
     string with extra options.  And use it in *note pydoc: bd. to
     render more readable signatures that have new lines between
     parameters.

   - gh-112105(91): Make *note readline.set_completer_delims(): 1c32.
     work with libedit

   - gh-106922(92): Display multiple lines with ‘traceback’ when errors
     span multiple lines.

   - gh-111874(93): When creating a *note typing.NamedTuple: 2e4. class,
     ensure *note __set_name__(): 100c. is called on all objects that
     define ‘__set_name__’ and exist in the values of the ‘NamedTuple’
     class’s class dictionary.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-68166(94): Add support of the «vsapi» element type in *note
     tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create(): 760.

   - gh-110275(95): Named tuple’s methods ‘_replace()’ and
     ‘__replace__()’ now raise TypeError instead of ValueError for
     invalid keyword arguments.

   - gh-99367(96): Do not mangle ‘sys.path[0]’ in *note pdb: aa. if
     safe_path is set

   - gh-111615(97): Fix a regression caused by a fix to gh-93162(98)
     whereby you couldn’t configure a ‘QueueHandler’ without specifying
     handlers.

   - gh-75666(99): Fix the behavior of *note tkinter: f9. widget’s
     ‘unbind()’ method with two arguments.  Previously,
     ‘widget.unbind(sequence, funcid)’ destroyed the current binding for
     'sequence', leaving 'sequence' unbound, and deleted the 'funcid'
     command.  Now it removes only 'funcid' from the binding for
     'sequence', keeping other commands, and deletes the 'funcid'
     command.  It leaves 'sequence' unbound only if 'funcid' was the
     last bound command.

   - gh-67790(100): Implement basic formatting support (minimum width,
     alignment, fill) for *note fractions.Fraction: 1c3.

   - gh-111049(101): Fix crash during garbage collection of the *note
     io.BytesIO: 1255. buffer object.

   - gh-102980(102): Redirect the output of ‘interact’ command of *note
     pdb: aa. to the same channel as the debugger.  Add tests and
     improve docs.

   - gh-102988(103): *note email.utils.getaddresses(): 6f8. and *note
     email.utils.parseaddr(): 6f9. now return ‘('', '')’ 2-tuples in
     more situations where invalid email addresses are encountered
     instead of potentially inaccurate values.  Add optional 'strict'
     parameter to these two functions: use ‘strict=False’ to get the old
     behavior, accept malformed inputs.  ‘getattr(email.utils,
     'supports_strict_parsing', False)’ can be use to check if the
     'strict' parameter is available.  Patch by Thomas Dwyer and Victor
     Stinner to improve the CVE 2023-27043(104) fix.

   - gh-52161(105): *note cmd.Cmd.do_help(): 1c33. now cleans docstrings
     with *note inspect.cleandoc(): 1c34. before writing them.  Patch by
     Filip Łapkiewicz.

   - gh-82300(106): Add ‘track’ parameter to *note
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory: 1be1. that allows using
     shared memory blocks without having to register with the POSIX
     resource tracker that automatically releases them upon process
     exit.

   - gh-110109(107): Add private ‘pathlib._PurePathBase’ class: a base
     class for *note pathlib.PurePath: 8b6. that omits certain magic
     methods.  It may be made public (along with ‘_PathBase’) in future.

   - gh-109858(108): Protect *note zipfile: 13a. from «quoted-overlap»
     zipbomb.  It now raises BadZipFile when try to read an entry that
     overlaps with other entry or central directory.

   - gh-109786(109): Fix possible reference leaks and crash when
     re-enter the ‘__next__()’ method of *note itertools.pairwise: bee.

   - gh-91539(110): Small (10 - 20%) and trivial performance improvement
     of ‘urllib.request.getproxies_environment()’, typically useful when
     there are many environment variables to go over.

   - gh-103363(111): Add 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument to
     *note pathlib.Path.owner(): 73e. and *note group(): 73f, defaulting
     to ‘True’.

   - gh-102130(112): Support tab completion in *note cmd: 1a. for
     ‘editline’.

   - gh-99437(113): *note runpy.run_path(): 6ae. now decodes path-like
     objects, making sure __file__ and sys.argv[0] of the module being
     run are always strings.

   - gh-104003(114): Add *note warnings.deprecated(): 695, a decorator
     to mark deprecated functions to static type checkers and to warn on
     usage of deprecated classes and functions.  See PEP 702(115).
     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-103708(116): Make hardcoded python name, a configurable
     parameter so that different implementations of python can override
     it instead of making huge diffs in sysconfig.py

   - gh-66515(117): *note mailbox.MH: 1c35. now supports folders that do
     not contain a ‘.mh_sequences’ file (e.g.  Claws Mail IMAP-cache
     folders).  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - gh-83162(118): Renamed ‘re.error’ to ‘PatternError’ for clarity,
     and kept ‘re.error’ for backward compatibility.  Patch by Matthias
     Bussonnier and Adam Chhina.

   - gh-91133(119): Fix a bug in *note tempfile.TemporaryDirectory:
     15da. cleanup, which now no longer dereferences symlinks when
     working around file system permission errors.

   - bpo-43153(120): On Windows, ‘tempfile.TemporaryDirectory’
     previously masked a ‘PermissionError’ with ‘NotADirectoryError’
     during directory cleanup.  It now correctly raises
     ‘PermissionError’ if errors are not ignored.  Patch by Andrei
     Kulakov and Ken Jin.

   - bpo-32731(121): *note getpass.getuser(): 848. now raises *note
     OSError: 53c. for all failures rather than *note ImportError: 1bd.
     on systems lacking the *note pwd: ba. module or *note KeyError:
     7df. if the password database is empty.

   - bpo-34321(122): *note mmap.mmap: 23c. now has a 'trackfd' parameter
     on Unix; if it is ‘False’, the file descriptor specified by
     'fileno' will not be duplicated.

   - bpo-35332(123): The *note shutil.rmtree(): 335. function now
     ignores errors when calling *note os.close(): f31. when
     'ignore_errors' is ‘True’, and ‘os.close()’ no longer retried after
     error.

   - bpo-35928(124): *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. now correctly handles
     the decoding buffer after ‘read()’ and ‘write()’.

   - bpo-26791(125): *note shutil.move(): e20. now moves a symlink into
     a directory when that directory is the target of the symlink.  This
     provides the same behavior as the mv shell command.  The previous
     behavior raised an exception.  Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

   - bpo-41422(126): Fixed memory leaks of *note pickle.Pickler: de2.
     and *note pickle.Unpickler: 1978. involving cyclic references via
     the internal memo mapping.

   - bpo-19821(127): The ‘pydoc.ispackage()’ function has been
     deprecated.

   - bpo-40262(128): The ‘ssl.SSLSocket.recv_into()’ method no longer
     requires the 'buffer' argument to implement ‘__len__’ and supports
     buffers with arbitrary item size.

   - bpo-39912(129): *note warnings.filterwarnings(): 184b. and *note
     warnings.simplefilter(): aae. now raise appropriate exceptions
     instead of ‘AssertionError’.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37260(130): Fixed a race condition in *note shutil.rmtree():
     335. in which directory entries removed by another process or
     thread while ‘shutil.rmtree()’ is running can cause it to raise
     FileNotFoundError.  Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

   - bpo-36959(131): Fix some error messages for invalid ISO format
     string combinations in ‘strptime()’ that referred to directives not
     contained in the format string.  Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-18060(132): Fixed a class inheritance issue that can cause
     segfaults when deriving two or more levels of subclasses from a
     base class of Structure or Union.

   - bpo-29779(133): Add a new *note PYTHON_HISTORY: 6b9. environment
     variable to set the location of a ‘.python_history’ file.

   - bpo-21360(134): *note mailbox.Maildir: 84b. now ignores files with
     a leading dot.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114077

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111803

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114014

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108364

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113971

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113877

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113868

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113848

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113661

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96037

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113781

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113238

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111693

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113791

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112932

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113568

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113594

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113626

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85567

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113537

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89850

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113569

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101225

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113568

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113543

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113028

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113421

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111784

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113407

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113320

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53502

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113358

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113214

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113246

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87264

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112182

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113225

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113149

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113199

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113191

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113188

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113119

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113202

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61648

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113175

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59616

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112559

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112962

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112989

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112970

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112540

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87286

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112800

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51944

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79325

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94692

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112736

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112727

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112645

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112640

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112622

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112618

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112334

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110190

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81194

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112578

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112516

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112510

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112328

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112509

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101336

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63284

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112414

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112358

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112405

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94722

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112361

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112345

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112137

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112292

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77621

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112137

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112139

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112105

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106922

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111874

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110275

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99367

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111615

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93162

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75666

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67790

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111049

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102980

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (104) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-27043

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52161

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82300

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110109

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109858

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109786

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91539

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103363

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102130

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99437

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104003

   (115) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103708

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66515

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83162

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91133

   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43153

   (121) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32731

   (122) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34321

   (123) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35332

   (124) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35928

   (125) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26791

   (126) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41422

   (127) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19821

   (128) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40262

   (129) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39912

   (130) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37260

   (131) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36959

   (132) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18060

   (133) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29779

   (134) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21360


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<19>,  Next: Tests<21>,  Prev: Library<67>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.26.23.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-111699(1): Relocate ‘smtpd’ deprecation notice to its own
     section rather than under ‘locale’ in What’s New in Python 3.12
     document

   - gh-110746(2): Improved markup for valid options/values for methods
     ttk.treeview.column and ttk.treeview.heading, and for Layouts.

   - gh-95649(3): Document that the *note asyncio: b. module contains
     code taken from v0.16.0 of the uvloop project(4), as well as the
     required MIT licensing information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111699

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110746

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95649

   (4) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop/tree/v0.16.0


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<21>,  Next: Build<20>,  Prev: Documentation<19>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.26.23.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-111798(1): Disable ‘test_super_deep()’ from ‘test_call’ under
     pydebug builds on WASI; the stack depth is too small to make the
     test useful.

   - gh-111801(2): Lower the recursion limit in ‘test_isinstance’ for
     ‘test_infinitely_many_bases()’.  This prevents a stack overflow on
     a pydebug build of WASI.

   - gh-111802(3): Specify a low recursion depth for
     ‘test_bad_getattr()’ in ‘test.pickletester’ to avoid exhausting the
     stack under a pydebug build for WASI.

   - gh-44626(4): Fix *note os.path.isabs(): 734. incorrectly returning
     ‘True’ when given a path that starts with exactly one (back)slash
     on Windows.

     Fix ‘pathlib.PureWindowsPath.is_absolute()’ incorrectly returning
     ‘False’ for some paths beginning with two (back)slashes.

   - gh-113633(5): Use module state for the _testcapi extension module.

   - gh-109980(6): Fix ‘test_tarfile_vs_tar’ in ‘test_shutil’ for macOS,
     where system tar can include more information in the archive than
     *note shutil.make_archive: 8c3.

   - gh-112769(7): The tests now correctly compare zlib version when
     *note zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 1517. contains non-integer
     suffixes.  For example zlib-ng defines the version as
     ‘1.3.0.zlib-ng’.

   - gh-112334(8): Adds a regression test to verify that ‘vfork()’ is
     used when expected by *note subprocess: df. on vfork enabled POSIX
     systems (Linux).

   - gh-108927(9): Fixed order dependence in running tests in the same
     process when a test that has submodules (e.g.  test_importlib)
     follows a test that imports its submodule (e.g.
     test_importlib.util) and precedes a test (e.g.  test_unittest or
     test_compileall) that uses that submodule.

   - bpo-40648(10): Test modes that file can get with chmod() on
     Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111798

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111801

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111802

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44626

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113633

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109980

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112769

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112334

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108927

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40648


File: python.info,  Node: Build<20>,  Next: Windows<18>,  Prev: Tests<21>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.26.23.6 Build
...............

   - gh-114013(1): Fix ‘Tools/wasm/wasi.py’ to not include the path to
     ‘python.wasm’ as part of ‘HOSTRUNNER’.  The environment variable is
     meant to specify how to run the WASI host only, having
     ‘python.wasm’ and relevant flags appended to the ‘HOSTRUNNER’.
     This fixes ‘make test’ work.

   - gh-113258(2): Changed the Windows build to write out generated
     frozen modules into the build tree instead of the source tree.

   - gh-112305(3): Fixed the ‘check-clean-src’ step performed on out of
     tree builds to detect errant ‘$(srcdir)/Python/frozen_modules/*.h’
     files and recommend appropriate source tree cleanup steps to get a
     working build again.

   - gh-112536(4): Add support for thread sanitizer (TSAN)

   - gh-112867(5): Fix the build for the case that
     WITH_PYMALLOC_RADIX_TREE=0 set.

   - gh-103065(6): Introduce ‘Tools/wasm/wasi.py’ to simplify doing a
     WASI build.

   - bpo-11102(7): The *note os.major(): 1b71, *note os.makedev(): 1b73,
     and *note os.minor(): 1b72. functions are now available on HP-UX
     v3.

   - bpo-36351(8): Do not set ipv6type when cross-compiling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114013

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113258

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112305

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112536

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112867

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103065

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11102

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36351


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<18>,  Next: macOS<13>,  Prev: Build<20>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.26.23.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-114096(1): Process privileges that are activated for creating
     directory junctions are now restored afterwards, avoiding behaviour
     changes in other parts of the program.

   - gh-111877(2): *note os.stat(): 4f5. calls were returning incorrect
     time values for files that could not be accessed directly.

   - gh-111973(3): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.44.2.

   - gh-113009(4): *note multiprocessing: 98.: On Windows, fix a race
     condition in ‘Process.terminate()’: no longer set the ‘returncode’
     attribute to always call ‘WaitForSingleObject()’ in
     ‘Process.wait()’.  Previously, sometimes the process was still
     running after ‘TerminateProcess()’ even if ‘GetExitCodeProcess()’
     is not ‘STILL_ACTIVE’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-86179(5): Fixes path calculations when launching Python on
     Windows through a symlink.

   - gh-71383(6): Update Tcl/Tk in Windows installer to 8.6.13 with a
     patch to suppress incorrect ThemeChanged warnings.

   - gh-111650(7): Ensures the ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’ preprocessor variable
     is defined in ‘pyconfig.h’ so that extension modules written in C
     are able to use it.

   - gh-112278(8): Reduce the time cost for some functions in *note
     platform: af. on Windows if current user has no permission to the
     WMI.

   - gh-73427(9): Deprecate *note sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding():
     30e.  Use *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 30f. instead.  Patch
     by Inada Naoki.

   - gh-87868(10): Correctly sort and remove duplicate environment
     variables in ‘_winapi.CreateProcess()’.

   - bpo-37308(11): Fix mojibake in *note mmap.mmap: 23c. when using a
     non-ASCII 'tagname' argument on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114096

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111877

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111973

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113009

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86179

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71383

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111650

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112278

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73427

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87868

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37308


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<13>,  Next: IDLE<12>,  Prev: Windows<18>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.26.23.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-113666(1): Add the following constants to module *note stat:
     d9.: ‘UF_SETTABLE’, ‘UF_TRACKED’, ‘UF_DATAVAULT’, ‘SF_SUPPORTED’,
     ‘SF_SETTABLE’, ‘SF_SYNTHETIC’, ‘SF_RESTRICTED’, ‘SF_FIRMLINK’ and
     ‘SF_DATALESS’.  The values ‘UF_SETTABLE’, ‘SF_SUPPORTED’,
     ‘SF_SETTABLE’ and ‘SF_SYNTHETIC’ are only available on macOS.

   - gh-113536(2): *note os.waitid(): 1152. is now available on macOS

   - gh-110459(3): Running ‘configure ... --with-openssl-rpath=X/Y/Z’ no
     longer fails to detect OpenSSL on macOS.

   - gh-74573(4): Document that *note dbm.ndbm: 37. can silently corrupt
     DBM files on updates when exceeding undocumented platform limits,
     and can crash (segmentation fault) when reading such a corrupted
     file.  (FB8919203)

   - gh-65701(5): The ‘freeze’ tool doesn’t work with framework builds
     of Python.  Document this and bail out early when running the tool
     with such a build.

   - gh-87277(6): webbrowser: Don’t look for X11 browsers on macOS.
     Those are generally not used and probing for them can result in
     starting XQuartz even if it isn’t used otherwise.

   - gh-111973(7): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.44.2.

   - gh-108269(8): Set ‘CFBundleAllowMixedLocalizations’ to true in the
     Info.plist for the framework, embedded Python.app and IDLE.app with
     framework installs on macOS. This allows applications to pick up
     the user’s preferred locale when that’s different from english.

   - gh-102362(9): Make sure the result of ‘sysconfig.get_plaform()’
     includes at least a major and minor versions, even if
     ‘MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET’ is set to only a major version during
     build to match the format expected by pip.

   - gh-110017(10): Disable a signal handling stress test on macOS due
     to a bug in macOS (FB13453490).

   - gh-110820(11): Make sure the preprocessor definitions for
     ‘ALIGNOF_MAX_ALIGN_T’, ‘SIZEOF_LONG_DOUBLE’ and
     ‘HAVE_GCC_ASM_FOR_X64’ are correct for Universal 2 builds on macOS.

   - gh-109981(12): Use ‘/dev/fd’ on macOS to determine the number of
     open files in ‘test.support.os_helper.fd_count’ to avoid a crash
     with «guarded» file descriptors when probing for open files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113666

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113536

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110459

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74573

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65701

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87277

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111973

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108269

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102362

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110017

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110820

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109981


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<12>,  Next: C API<21>,  Prev: macOS<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.26.23.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-72284(1): Improve the lists of features, editor key bindings,
     and shell key bingings in the IDLE doc.

   - gh-113903(2): Fix rare failure of test.test_idle, in
     test_configdialog.

   - gh-113729(3): Fix the «Help -> IDLE Doc» menu bug in 3.11.7 and
     3.12.1.

   - gh-113269(4): Fix test_editor hang on macOS Catalina.

   - gh-112898(5): Fix processing unsaved files when quitting IDLE on
     macOS.

   - bpo-13586(6): Enter the selected text when opening the «Replace»
     dialog.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72284

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113903

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113729

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113269

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112898

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13586


File: python.info,  Node: C API<21>,  Prev: IDLE<12>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3

1.26.23.10 C API
................

   - gh-106560(1): Fix redundant declarations in the public C API.
     Declare PyBool_Type, PyLong_Type and PySys_Audit() only once.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-112438(2): Fix support of format units «es», «et», «es#», and
     «et#» in nested tuples in *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1.-like
     functions.

   - gh-111545(3): Add *note Py_HashPointer(): 638. function to hash a
     pointer.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-65210(4): Change the declaration of the 'keywords' parameter of
     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818. and *note
     PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 819. for better compatibility with
     C++.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106560

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112438

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111545

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65210


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.24 Python 3.13.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-11-22'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<65>.
* Library: Library<68>.
* Tests: Tests<22>.
* Build: Build<21>.
* Windows: Windows<19>.
* macOS: macOS<14>.
* IDLE: IDLE<13>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<16>.
* C API: C API<22>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<65>,  Next: Library<68>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.26.24.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-112243(1): Don’t include comments in f-string debug expressions.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-112287(2): Slightly optimize the Tier 2 (uop) interpreter by
     only loading ‘oparg’ and ‘operand’ when needed.  Also double the
     trace size limit again, to 512 this time.

   - gh-112266(3): Change docstrings of *note __dict__: 1bf. and
     ‘__weakref__’.

   - gh-111807(4): Lower the max parser stack depth to 1000 under WASI
     debug builds.

   - gh-111798(5): When Python is built in debug mode, set the C
     recursion limit to 500 instead of 1500.  A debug build is likely
     built with low optimization level which implies higher stack memory
     usage than a release build.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106529(6): Enable translating unspecialized ‘FOR_ITER’ to Tier
     2.

   - gh-111916(7): Make hashlib related modules thread-safe without the
     GIL

   - gh-81137(8): Deprecate assignment to a function’s ‘__code__’ field
     when the new code object is of a mismatched type (e.g., from a
     generator to a plain function).

   - gh-79932(9): Raise exception if *note frame.clear(): 784. is called
     on a suspended frame.

   - gh-81925(10): Implement native thread ids for GNU KFreeBSD.

   - gh-111843(11): Use exponential backoff to reduce the number of
     failed tier 2 optimization attempts by over 99%.

   - gh-110829(12): Joining a thread now ensures the underlying OS
     thread has exited.  This is required for safer fork() in
     multi-threaded processes.

   - gh-109369(13): Make sure that tier 2 traces are de-optimized if the
     code is instrumented

   - gh-111772(14): Specialize slot loads and stores for _Py_T_OBJECT as
     well as Py_T_OBJECT_EX

   - gh-111666(15): Speed up *note BaseExceptionGroup.derive(): 1c3f,
     *note BaseExceptionGroup.subgroup(): 1c40, and *note
     BaseExceptionGroup.split(): 1af9. by changing how they parse passed
     arguments.

   - gh-111654(16): Fix runtime crash when some error happens in opcode
     ‘LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF’.

   - gh-111623(17): Add support for sharing tuples between interpreters
     using the cross-interpreter API. Patch by Anthony Shaw.

   - gh-111354(18): The oparg of *note YIELD_VALUE: 7b3. is now ‘1’ if
     the instruction is part of a yield-from or await, and ‘0’
     otherwise.

     The SUSPENDED frame state is now split into ‘SUSPENDED’ and
     ‘SUSPENDED_YIELD_FROM’.  This simplifies the code in ‘_PyGen_yf’.

   - gh-111520(19): Merge the Tier 1 (bytecode) and Tier 2 (micro-ops)
     interpreters together, moving the Tier 2 interpreter loop and
     switch into ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’ in ‘Python/ceval.c’.  The
     ‘Python/executor.c’ file is gone.  Also the ‘TIER_ONE’ and
     ‘TIER_TWO’ macros are now handled by the code generator.

     'Beware!'  This changes the environment variables to enable
     micro-ops and their debugging to ‘PYTHON_UOPS’ and
     ‘PYTHON_LLTRACE’.

   - gh-109181(20): Speed up ‘Traceback’ object creation by lazily
     compute the line number.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-111420(21): Allow type comments in parenthesized ‘with’
     statements

   - gh-111438(22): Add support for sharing floats between interpreters
     using the cross-interpreter API. Patch by Anthony Shaw.

   - gh-111435(23): Add support for sharing of ‘True’ and ‘False’
     between interpreters using the cross-interpreter API. Patch by
     Anthony Shaw.

   - gh-102388(24): Fix a bug where ‘iso2022_jp_3’ and ‘iso2022_jp_2004’
     codecs read out of bounds

   - gh-111366(25): Fix an issue in the *note codeop: 1d. that was
     causing *note SyntaxError: 17e. exceptions raised in the presence
     of invalid syntax to not contain precise error messages.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-111380(26): Fix a bug that was causing *note SyntaxWarning: 44a.
     to appear twice when parsing if invalid syntax is encountered
     later.  Patch by Pablo galindo

   - gh-111374(27): Added a new environment variable *note
     PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: 6b6.  It determines whether or not frozen
     modules are ignored by the import machinery, equivalent of the
     *note -X frozen_modules: 178. command-line option.

   - gh-111354(28): Remove ‘oparg’ from *note YIELD_VALUE: 7b3.  Change
     ‘oparg’ of *note RESUME: 7b4. to include information about the
     except-depth.  These changes make it possible to simplify the code
     in generator close.

   - gh-94438(29): Fix a regression that prevented jumping across ‘is
     None’ and ‘is not None’ when debugging.  Patch by Savannah
     Ostrowski.

   - gh-67224(30): Show source lines in tracebacks when using the ‘-c’
     option when running Python.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-111123(31): Fix a bug where a *note global: 6b5. declaration in
     an *note except: 447. block is rejected when the global is used in
     the *note else: 320. block.

   - gh-110938(32): Fix error messages for indented blocks with
     functions and classes with generic type parameters.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-109214(33): Remove unnecessary instruction pointer updates
     before returning from frames.

   - gh-110912(34): Correctly display the traceback for *note
     MemoryError: 18fa. exceptions using the *note traceback: 107.
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-109894(35): Fixed crash due to improperly initialized static
     *note MemoryError: 18fa. in subinterpreter.

   - gh-110892(36): Return ‘NULL’ for ‘PyTrace_RETURN’ events caused by
     an exception

   - gh-110864(37): Fix argument parsing by
     ‘_PyArg_UnpackKeywordsWithVararg’ for functions defining
     pos-or-keyword, vararg, and kw-only parameters.

   - gh-109094(38): Replace ‘prev_instr’ on the interpreter frame by
     ‘instr_ptr’ which points to the beginning of the instruction that
     is currently executing (or will execute once the frame resumes).

   - gh-110805(39): Allow the repl to show source code and complete
     tracebacks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-110722(40): Add ‘PYTHON_PRESITE=package.module’ to import a
     module early in the interpreter lifecycle before ‘site.py’ is
     executed.  Python needs to be *note built in debug mode: 3dc. for
     this option to exist.

   - gh-110481(41): Implement biased reference counting in
     ‘--disable-gil’ builds.

   - gh-110543(42): Fix regression in Python 3.12 where
     ‘types.CodeType.replace()’ would produce a broken code object if
     called on a module or class code object that contains a
     comprehension.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-89519(43): Removed chained *note classmethod: 69a. descriptors
     (introduced in bpo-19072(44)).  This can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors such as *note property: 6bb.  The core design of
     this feature was flawed and caused a number of downstream problems.
     To «pass-through» a ‘classmethod’, consider using the ‘__wrapped__’
     attribute that was added in Python 3.10.

   - gh-103615(45): Use local events for opcode tracing

   - bpo-46657(46): Add mimalloc memory allocator support.

   - gh-106718(47): When PyConfig.stdlib_dir is explicitly set, it’s now
     respected and won’t be overridden by PyConfig.home.

   - gh-106905(48): Fix incorrect SystemError about AST constructor
     recursion depth mismatch.

   - gh-100445(49): Improve error message for unterminated strings with
     escapes.

   - bpo-45759(50): Improved error messages for ‘elif’/‘else’ statements
     not matching any valid statements.  Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112243

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112287

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112266

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111807

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111798

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106529

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111916

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81137

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79932

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81925

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111843

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110829

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109369

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111772

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111666

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111654

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111623

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111354

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111520

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109181

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111420

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111438

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111435

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102388

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111366

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111380

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111374

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111354

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67224

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111123

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110938

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109214

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110912

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109894

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110892

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110864

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109094

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110805

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110722

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110481

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110543

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103615

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46657

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106718

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106905

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100445

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45759


File: python.info,  Node: Library<68>,  Next: Tests<22>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<65>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.26.24.2 Library
.................

   - gh-111942(1): Fix SystemError in the TextIOWrapper constructor with
     non-encodable «errors» argument in non-debug mode.

   - gh-111995(2): Added the ‘NI_IDN’ constant to the *note socket: d4.
     module when present in C at build time for use with *note
     socket.getnameinfo(): 1c42.

   - gh-109538(3): Issue warning message instead of having *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. be displayed when event loop has already been
     closed at ‘StreamWriter.__del__()’.

   - gh-111942(4): Fix crashes in *note io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure():
     f06. when pass invalid arguments, e.g.  non-string encoding.

   - gh-111460(5): *note curses: 2e.: restore wide character support
     (including *note curses.unget_wch(): 1445. and *note get_wch():
     1444.) on macOS, which was unavailable due to a regression in
     Python 3.12.

   - gh-103791(6): *note contextlib.suppress: 12d3. now supports
     suppressing exceptions raised as part of a *note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 767, in addition to the recent support for
     *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8.

   - gh-111835(7): The *note mmap.mmap: 23c. class now has an *note
     seekable(): 71d. method that can be used when a seekable file-like
     object is required.  The *note seek(): 71e. method now returns the
     new absolute position.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-111804(8): Remove posix.fallocate() under WASI as the underlying
     posix_fallocate() is not available in WASI preview2.

   - gh-111841(9): Fix truncating arguments on an embedded null
     character in *note os.putenv(): 4e7. and *note os.unsetenv(): 4e8.
     on Windows.

   - gh-111768(10): *note wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop(): 1c43. is now
     exposed correctly in ‘__all__’.

   - gh-80731(11): Avoid executing the default function in *note
     cmd.Cmd: 1a78. in an except block

   - gh-111541(12): Fix *note doctest: 3d. for *note SyntaxError: 17e.
     not-builtin subclasses.

   - gh-111719(13): Add extra argument validation for ‘alias’ command in
     *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-111482(14): *note time: f7.: Make *note time.clock_gettime():
     1509. and *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): ea9. functions up to 2x
     faster by faster calling convention.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110894(15): Call loop exception handler for exceptions in
     ‘client_connected_cb’ of *note asyncio.start_server(): edd. so that
     applications can handle it.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-111531(16): Fix reference leaks in ‘bind_class()’ and
     ‘bind_all()’ methods of *note tkinter: f9. widgets.

   - gh-111246(17): *note asyncio.loop.create_unix_server(): 6d0. will
     now automatically remove the Unix socket when the server is closed.

   - gh-111356(18): Added *note io.text_encoding(): 1c44, *note
     io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1c45, and *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 1947. to ‘io.__all__’.

   - gh-66425(19): Remove the code to set the REMOTE_HOST header from
     wsgiref module, as it is unreachable.  This header is used for
     performance reasons, which is not necessary in the wsgiref module.

   - gh-111429(20): Speed up *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 575.
     and *note is_relative_to(): 576.

   - gh-111342(21): Fixed typo in *note math.sumprod(): 8a8.

   - gh-68166(22): Remove mention of not supported «vsapi» element type
     in *note tkinter.ttk.Style.element_create(): 760.  Add tests for
     ‘element_create()’ and other ‘ttk.Style’ methods.  Add examples for
     ‘element_create()’ in the documentation.

   - gh-111388(23): Add ‘show_group’ parameter to *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): c26, which allows to format
     *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8. instances.

   - gh-79033(24): Another attempt at fixing *note
     asyncio.Server.wait_closed(): 1c46.  It now blocks until both
     conditions are true: the server is closed, 'and' there are no more
     active connections.  (This means that in some cases where in 3.12.0
     this function would 'incorrectly' have returned immediately, it
     will now block; in particular, when there are no active connections
     but the server hasn’t been closed yet.)

   - gh-111259(25): Optimize recursive wildcards in *note pathlib: a8.

   - gh-111295(26): Fix *note time: f7. not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111253(27): Add error checking during ‘_socket’ module init.

   - gh-111251(28): Fix ‘_blake2’ not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111233(29): Fix *note select: c9. not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111230(30): Fix *note ssl: d8. not checking for errors when
     initializing.

   - gh-111174(31): Fix crash in *note io.BytesIO.getbuffer(): 159a.
     called repeatedly for empty BytesIO.

   - gh-111187(32): Postpone removal version for
     locale.getdefaultlocale() to Python 3.15.

   - gh-111159(33): Fix *note doctest: 3d. output comparison for
     exceptions with notes.

   - gh-110910(34): Fix invalid state handling in *note
     asyncio.TaskGroup: 6d7. and *note asyncio.Timeout: 1c47.  They now
     raise proper RuntimeError if they are improperly used and are left
     in consistent state after this.

   - gh-111092(35): Make turtledemo run without default root enabled.

   - gh-110944(36): Support alias and convenience vars for *note pdb:
     aa. completion

   - gh-110745(37): Added 'newline' parameter to *note
     pathlib.Path.read_text(): 11f6.  Patch by Junya Okabe.

   - gh-84583(38): Make *note pdb: aa. enter post-mortem mode even for
     *note SyntaxError: 17e.

   - gh-80675(39): Set ‘f_trace_lines = True’ on all frames upon *note
     pdb.set_trace(): 4fa.

   - gh-110771(40): Expose the setup and cleanup portions of
     ‘asyncio.run_forever()’ as the standalone methods
     ‘asyncio.run_forever_setup()’ and ‘asyncio.run_forever_cleanup()’.
     This allows for tighter integration with GUI event loops.

   - gh-110774(41): Support setting the *note asyncio.Runner: 30a.
     loop_factory kwarg in *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342.

   - gh-110392(42): Fix *note tty.setraw(): 1c48. and *note
     tty.setcbreak(): 1bfd.: previously they returned partially modified
     list of the original tty attributes.  *note tty.cfmakeraw(): 1c49.
     and *note tty.cfmakecbreak(): 1bfe. now make a copy of the list of
     special characters before modifying it.

   - gh-59013(43): Make line number of function breakpoint more precise
     in *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-88434(44): Emit deprecation warning for non-integer numbers in
     *note gettext: 66. functions and methods that consider plural forms
     even if the translation was not found.

   - gh-110395(45): Ensure that *note select.kqueue(): 269. objects
     correctly appear as closed in forked children, to prevent
     operations on an invalid file descriptor.

   - gh-110196(46): Add ‘__reduce__’ method to ‘IPv6Address’ in order to
     keep ‘scope_id’

   - gh-109747(47): Improve errors for unsupported look-behind patterns.
     Now re.error is raised instead of OverflowError or RuntimeError for
     too large width of look-behind pattern.

   - gh-109466(48): Add the *note ipaddress.IPv4Address.ipv6_mapped:
     70f. property, which returns the IPv4-mapped IPv6 address.

   - gh-85098(49): Implement the CLI of the *note symtable: e1. module
     and improve the repr of *note Symbol: 511.

   - gh-108791(50): Improved error handling in *note pdb: aa. command
     line interface, making it produce more concise error messages.

   - gh-105931(51): Change *note compileall: 21. to only strip the
     stripdir prefix from the full path recorded in the compiled ‘.pyc’
     file, when the prefix matches the start of the full path in its
     entirety.  When the prefix does not match, no stripping is
     performed and a warning to this effect is displayed.

     Previously all path components of the stripdir prefix that matched
     the full path were removed, while those that did not match were
     left alone (including ones interspersed between matching
     components).

   - gh-107431(52): Make the ‘DictProxy’ and ‘ListProxy’ types in *note
     multiprocessing.managers: 9b. *note Generic Alias Types: a9f. for
     ‘[]’ use in typing contexts.

   - gh-72904(53): Add *note glob.translate(): 700.  This function
     converts a pathname with shell-style wildcards to a regular
     expression.

   - gh-90026(54): Define ‘USE_XATTRS’ on Cygwin so that XATTR-related
     functions in the *note os: a5. module become available.

   - gh-90890(55): New methods *note mailbox.Maildir.get_info(): 1c4a,
     *note mailbox.Maildir.set_info(): 1c4b, *note
     mailbox.Maildir.get_flags(): 1c4c, *note
     mailbox.Maildir.set_flags(): 1c4d, *note
     mailbox.Maildir.add_flag(): 1c4e, *note
     mailbox.Maildir.remove_flag(): 1c4f.  These methods speed up
     accessing a message’s info and/or flags and are useful when it is
     not necessary to access the message’s contents, as when iterating
     over a Maildir to find messages with specific flags.

   - gh-102956(56): Fix returning of empty byte strings after seek in
     zipfile module

   - gh-102895(57): Added a parameter ‘local_exit’ for *note
     code.interact(): 1ab4. to prevent ‘exit()’ and ‘quit’ from closing
     ‘sys.stdin’ and raise ‘SystemExit’.

   - gh-97928(58): Change the behavior of ‘tkinter.Text.count()’.  It
     now always returns an integer if one or less counting options are
     specified.  Previously it could return a single count as a 1-tuple,
     an integer (only if option ‘"update"’ was specified) or ‘None’ if
     no items found.  The result is now the same if ‘wantobjects’ is set
     to ‘0’.

   - gh-96954(59): Switch the storage of the unicode codepoint names to
     use a different data-structure, a directed acyclic word graph(60).
     This makes the unicodedata shared library about 440 KiB smaller.
     Contributed by Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick using code from the PyPy
     project.

   - gh-73561(61): Omit the interface scope from an IPv6 address when
     used as Host header by *note http.client: 72.

   - gh-86826(62): ‘zipinfo’ now supports the full range of values in
     the TZ string determined by RFC 8536 and detects all invalid
     formats.  Both Python and C implementations now raise exceptions of
     the same type on invalid data.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111942

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111995

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109538

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111942

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111460

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103791

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111835

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111804

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111841

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111768

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80731

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111541

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111719

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111482

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110894

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111531

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111246

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111356

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66425

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111429

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111342

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111388

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79033

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111259

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111295

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111253

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111251

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111233

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111230

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111174

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111159

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110910

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111092

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110944

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110745

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84583

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80675

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110771

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110774

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110392

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59013

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88434

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110395

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110196

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109747

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109466

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85098

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108791

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105931

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107431

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72904

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90026

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90890

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102956

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102895

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96954

   (60) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_acyclic_finite_state_automaton

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73561

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86826


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<22>,  Next: Build<21>,  Prev: Library<68>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.26.24.3 Tests
...............

   - gh-111808(1): Make the default value of
     ‘test.support.infinite_recursion()’ to be conditional based on
     whether optimizations were used when compiling the interpreter.
     This helps with platforms like WASI whose stack size is greatly
     restricted in debug builds.

   - gh-110722(2): Gathering line coverage of standard libraries within
     the regression test suite is now precise, as well as much faster.
     Patch by Łukasz Langa.

   - gh-110367(3): Make regrtest ‘--verbose3’ option compatible with
     ‘--huntrleaks -jN’ options.  The ‘./python -m test -j1 -R 3:3
     --verbose3’ command now works as expected.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-111165(4): Remove no longer used functions ‘run_unittest()’ and
     ‘run_doctest()’ from the *note test.support: ed. module.

   - gh-110932(5): Fix regrtest if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment
     variable is defined: use the variable value as the random seed.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110995(6): test_gdb: Fix detection of gdb built without Python
     scripting support.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110918(7): Test case matching patterns specified by options
     ‘--match’, ‘--ignore’, ‘--matchfile’ and ‘--ignorefile’ are now
     tested in the order of specification, and the last match determines
     whether the test case be run or ignored.

   - gh-108747(8): Add unit test for ‘usercustomize’ and ‘sitecustomize’
     hooks from *note site: cf.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111808

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110722

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110367

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111165

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110932

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110995

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110918

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108747


File: python.info,  Node: Build<21>,  Next: Windows<19>,  Prev: Tests<22>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.26.24.4 Build
...............

   - gh-96954(1): Make ‘make regen-unicodedata’ work for out-of-tree
     builds of CPython.

   - gh-112088(2): Add ‘Tools/build/regen-configure.sh’ script to
     regenerate the ‘configure’ with an Ubuntu container image.  The
     ‘quay.io/tiran/cpython_autoconf:271’ container image
     (tiran/cpython_autoconf(3)) is no longer used.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-111046(4): For wasi-threads, memory is now exported to fix
     compatibility issues with some wasm runtimes.

   - gh-110828(5): AIX 32bit needs ‘-latomic’ to build the ‘_testcapi’
     extension module.

   - gh-85283(6): The ‘errno’, ‘md5’, ‘resource’, ‘winsound’,
     ‘_ctypes_test’, ‘_multiprocessing.posixshmem’, ‘_scproxy’, ‘_stat’,
     ‘_testimportmultiple’ and ‘_uuid’ C extensions are now built with
     the *note limited C API: 829.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96954

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112088

   (3) https://github.com/tiran/cpython_autoconf

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111046

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110828

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<19>,  Next: macOS<14>,  Prev: Build<21>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.26.24.5 Windows
.................

   - gh-111856(1): Fixes *note fstat(): 1145. on file systems that do
     not support file ID requests.  This includes FAT32 and exFAT.

   - gh-111293(2): Fix *note os.DirEntry.inode: 1c53. dropping higher 64
     bits of a file id on some filesystems on Windows.

   - gh-110913(3): WindowsConsoleIO now correctly chunks large buffers
     without splitting up UTF-8 sequences.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111856

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111293

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110913


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<14>,  Next: IDLE<13>,  Prev: Windows<19>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.26.24.6 macOS
...............

   - gh-59703(1): For macOS framework builds, in ‘getpath.c’ use the
     system ‘dladdr’ function to find the path to the shared library
     rather than depending on deprecated macOS APIs.

   - gh-110950(2): Update macOS installer to include an upstream Tcl/Tk
     fix for the ‘Secure coding is not enabled for restorable state!’
     warning encountered in Tkinter on macOS 14 Sonoma.

   - gh-111015(3): Ensure that IDLE.app and Python Launcher.app are
     installed with appropriate permissions on macOS builds.

   - gh-71383(4): Update macOS installer to include an upstream Tcl/Tk
     fix for the ‘ttk::ThemeChanged’ error encountered in Tkinter.

   - gh-92603(5): Update macOS installer to include a fix accepted by
     upstream Tcl/Tk for a crash encountered after the first *note
     tkinter.Tk(): 1bb6. instance is destroyed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59703

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110950

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111015

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/71383

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92603


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<13>,  Next: Tools/Demos<16>,  Prev: macOS<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.26.24.7 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35668(1): Add docstrings to the IDLE debugger module.  Fix two
     bugs: initialize ‘Idb.botframe’ (should be in Bdb); in
     ‘Idb.in_rpc_code’, check whether ‘prev_frame’ is ‘None’ before
     trying to use it.  Greatly expand test_debugger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35668


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<16>,  Next: C API<22>,  Prev: IDLE<13>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.26.24.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - gh-111903(1): Argument Clinic now supports the ‘@critical_section’
     directive that instructs Argument Clinic to generate a critical
     section around the function call, which locks the ‘self’ object in
     ‘--disable-gil’ builds.  Patch by Sam Gross.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111903


File: python.info,  Node: C API<22>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<16>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2

1.26.24.9 C API
...............

   - gh-112026(1): Add again the private ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’
     function as an alias to the new public *note
     PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 636. function.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-112026(2): Restore the removed
     ‘_PyDict_GetItemStringWithError()’ function.  It is used by numpy.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-112026(3): Restore removed private C API functions, macros and
     structures which have no simple replacement for now:

        * _PyDict_GetItem_KnownHash()

        * _PyDict_NewPresized()

        * _PyHASH_BITS

        * _PyHASH_IMAG

        * _PyHASH_INF

        * _PyHASH_MODULUS

        * _PyHASH_MULTIPLIER

        * _PyLong_Copy()

        * _PyLong_FromDigits()

        * _PyLong_New()

        * _PyLong_Sign()

        * _PyObject_CallMethodId()

        * _PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()

        * _PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()

        * _PyObject_CallOneArg()

        * _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT

        * _PyObject_FastCallDict()

        * _PyObject_GetAttrId()

        * _PyObject_Vectorcall()

        * _PyObject_VectorcallMethod()

        * _PyStack_AsDict()

        * _PyThread_CurrentFrames()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter structure

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_Finish()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_Init()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr()

        * _PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring()

        * _PyUnicode_AsString()

        * _PyUnicode_FromId()

        * _PyVectorcall_Function()

        * _Py_IDENTIFIER()

        * _Py_c_abs()

        * _Py_c_diff()

        * _Py_c_neg()

        * _Py_c_pow()

        * _Py_c_prod()

        * _Py_c_quot()

        * _Py_c_sum()

        * _Py_static_string()

        * _Py_static_string_init()

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-112026(4): Add again ‘<ctype.h>’ and ‘<unistd.h>’ includes in
     ‘Python.h’, but don’t include them in the limited C API version
     3.13 and newer.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111956(5): Add internal-only one-time initialization API:
     ‘_PyOnceFlag’ and ‘_PyOnceFlag_CallOnce’.

   - gh-111262(6): Add *note PyDict_Pop(): 635. and *note
     PyDict_PopString(): 7dd. functions: remove a key from a dictionary
     and optionally return the removed value.  This is similar to *note
     dict.pop(): 7de, but without the default value and not raising
     *note KeyError: 7df. if the key missing.  Patch by Stefan Behnel
     and Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111863(7): Rename ‘Py_NOGIL’ to ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’.  Patch by
     Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-111138(8): Add *note PyList_Extend(): 7f6. and *note
     PyList_Clear(): 7f7. functions: similar to Python ‘list.extend()’
     and ‘list.clear()’ methods.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108765(9): On Windows, ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the
     ‘<stddef.h>’ standard header file.  If needed, it should now be
     included explicitly.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-111569(10): Implement «Python Critical Sections» from PEP
     703(11).  These are macros to help replace the GIL with per-object
     locks in the ‘--disable-gil’ build of CPython.  The macros are
     no-ops in the default build.

   - gh-111506(12): In the limited C API version 3.13, *note
     Py_SET_REFCNT(): c7e. function is now implemented as an opaque
     function call.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108082(13): Add *note PyErr_FormatUnraisable(): 7e7. function.

   - gh-110964(14): Move the undocumented private _PyArg functions and
     _PyArg_Parser structure to internal C API (‘pycore_modsupport.h’).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110815(15): Support non-ASCII keyword names in *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818.

   - gh-109587(16): Introduced
     ‘PyUnstable_PerfTrampoline_CompileCode()’,
     ‘PyUnstable_PerfTrampoline_SetPersistAfterFork()’ and
     ‘PyUnstable_CopyPerfMapFile()’.  These functions allow extension
     modules to initialize trampolines eagerly, after the application is
     «warmed up».  This makes it possible to have perf-trampolines
     running in an always-enabled fashion.

   - gh-85283(17): Add the *note PySys_Audit(): 808. function to the
     limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-85283(18): Add *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf, *note
     PyMem_RawCalloc(): 824, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 825. and *note
     PyMem_RawFree(): 826. to the limited C API. Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-106672(19): Functions *note PyDict_GetItem(): 81c, *note
     PyDict_GetItemString(): 81d, *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 814, *note
     PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 816, *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 810, *note
     PyObject_HasAttrString(): 812, and *note PySys_GetObject(): 356,
     which clear all errors occurred during calling the function, report
     now them using *note sys.unraisablehook(): 70c.

   - gh-67565(20): Remove redundant C-contiguity check in ‘getargs.c’,
     *note binascii: 11, *note ssl: d8. and Argument Clinic.  Patched by
     Stefan Krah and Furkan Onder

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112026

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111956

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111262

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111863

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111138

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111569

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111506

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108082

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110964

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110815

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109587

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106672

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67565


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.25 Python 3.13.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-10-13'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<20>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<66>.
* Library: Library<69>.
* Documentation: Documentation<20>.
* Tests: Tests<23>.
* Build: Build<22>.
* Windows: Windows<20>.
* macOS: macOS<15>.
* IDLE: IDLE<14>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<17>.
* C API: C API<23>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<20>,  Next: Core and Builtins<66>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.26.25.1 Security
..................

   - gh-108310(1): Fixed an issue where instances of *note
     ssl.SSLSocket: cbb. were vulnerable to a bypass of the TLS
     handshake and included protections (like certificate verification)
     and treating sent unencrypted data as if it were post-handshake TLS
     encrypted data.  Security issue reported as CVE 2023-40217(2) by
     Aapo Oksman.  Patch by Gregory P. Smith.

   - gh-107774(3): PEP 669 specifies that
     ‘sys.monitoring.register_callback’ will generate an audit event.
     Pre-releases of Python 3.12 did not generate the audit event.  This
     is now fixed.

   - gh-102988(4): Reverted the *note email.utils: 53. security
     improvement change released in 3.12beta4 that unintentionally
     caused *note email.utils.getaddresses: 6f8. to fail to parse email
     addresses with a comma in the quoted name field.  See gh-106669(5).

   - gh-99108(6): Refresh our new HACL* built-in *note hashlib: 6b. code
     from upstream.  Built-in SHA2 should be faster and an issue with
     SHA3 on 32-bit platforms is fixed.

   - gh-102509(7): Start initializing ‘ob_digit’ during creation of
     *note PyLongObject: 5cb. objects.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108310

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-40217

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107774

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106669

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102509


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<66>,  Next: Library<69>,  Prev: Security<20>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.26.25.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-110782(1): Fix crash when *note typing.TypeVar: 294. is
     constructed with a keyword argument.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-110752(2): Reset ‘ceval.eval_breaker’ in ‘interpreter_clear()’

   - gh-110721(3): Use the *note traceback: 107. implementation for the
     default ‘PyErr_Display()’ functionality.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-110696(4): Fix incorrect error message for invalid argument
     unpacking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104169(5): Split the tokenizer into two separate directories: -
     One part includes the actual lexeme producing logic and lives in
     ‘Parser/lexer’.  - The second part wraps the lexer according to the
     different tokenization modes we have (string, utf-8, file,
     interactive, readline) and lives in ‘Parser/tokenizer’.

   - gh-110688(6): Remove undocumented ‘test_c_api’ method from *note
     set: 42b, which was only defined for testing purposes under
     ‘Py_DEBUG’.  Now we have proper CAPI tests.

   - gh-104584(7): Fix a reference leak when running with ‘PYTHONUOPS’
     or *note -X uops: 178. enabled.

   - gh-110514(8): Add ‘PY_THROW’ to *note sys.setprofile(): 18a0.
     events

   - gh-110489(9): Optimise *note math.ceil(): 1761. when the input is
     exactly a float, resulting in about a 10% improvement.

   - gh-110455(10): Guard ‘assert(tstate->thread_id > 0)’ with ‘#ifndef
     HAVE_PTHREAD_STUBS’.  This allows for pydebug builds to work under
     WASI which (currently) lacks thread support.

   - gh-110309(11): Remove unnecessary empty constant nodes in the ast
     of f-string specs.

   - gh-110259(12): Correctly identify the format spec in f-strings
     (with single or triple quotes) that have multiple lines in the
     expression part and include a formatting spec.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-110237(13): Fix missing error checks for calls to
     ‘PyList_Append’ in ‘_PyEval_MatchClass’.

   - gh-110164(14): regrtest: If the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment
     variable is defined, regrtest now disables tests randomization.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109889(15): Fix the compiler’s redundant NOP detection algorithm
     to skip over NOPs with no line number when looking for the next
     instruction’s lineno.

   - gh-109853(16): ‘sys.path[0]’ is now set correctly for
     subinterpreters.

   - gh-109923(17): Set line number on the ‘POP_TOP’ that follows a
     ‘RETURN_GENERATOR’.

   - gh-105716(18): Subinterpreters now correctly handle the case where
     they have threads running in the background.  Before, such threads
     would interfere with cleaning up and destroying them, as well as
     prevent running another script.

   - gh-109369(19): The internal eval_breaker and supporting flags, plus
     the monitoring version have been merged into a single atomic
     integer to speed up checks.

   - gh-109823(20): Fix bug where compiler does not adjust labels when
     removing an empty basic block which is a jump target.

   - gh-109793(21): The main thread no longer exits prematurely when a
     subinterpreter is cleaned up during runtime finalization.  The bug
     was a problem particularly because, when triggered, the Python
     process would always return with a 0 exitcode, even if it failed.

   - gh-109719(22): Fix missing jump target labels when compiler
     reorders cold/warm blocks.

   - gh-109595(23): Add *note -X cpu_count: 178. command line option to
     override return results of *note os.cpu_count(): 6e1. and *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0.  This option is useful for users who
     need to limit CPU resources of a container system without having to
     modify the container (application code).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-109627(24): Fix bug where the compiler does not assign a new
     jump target label to a duplicated small exit block.

   - gh-109596(25): Fix some tokens in the grammar that were incorrectly
     marked as soft keywords.  Also fix some repeated rule names and
     ensure that repeated rules are not allowed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-109496(26): On a Python built in debug mode, *note Py_DECREF():
     975. now calls ‘_Py_NegativeRefcount()’ if the object is a dangling
     pointer to deallocated memory: memory filled with ‘0xDD’ «dead
     byte» by the debug hook on memory allocators.  The fix is to check
     the reference count 'before' checking for ‘_Py_IsImmortal()’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107265(27): Deopt opcodes hidden by the executor when base
     opcode is needed

   - gh-109371(28): Deopted instructions correctly for tool
     initialization and modified the incorrect assertion in
     instrumentation, when a previous tool already sets INSTRUCTION
     events

   - gh-105658(29): Fix bug where the line trace of an except block
     ending with a conditional includes an excess event with the line of
     the conditional expression.

   - gh-109219(30): Fix compiling type param scopes that use a name
     which is also free in an inner scope.

   - gh-109351(31): Fix crash when compiling an invalid AST involving a
     named (walrus) expression.

   - gh-109341(32): Fix crash when compiling an invalid AST involving a
     *note ast.TypeAlias: 1c5b.

   - gh-109195(33): Fix source location for the ‘LOAD_*’ instruction
     preceding a ‘LOAD_SUPER_ATTR’ to load the ‘super’ global (or
     shadowing variable) so that it encompasses only the name ‘super’
     and not the following parentheses.

   - gh-109256(34): Opcode IDs for specialized opcodes are allocated in
     their own range to improve stability of the IDs for the “real”
     opcodes.

   - gh-109216(35): Fix possible memory leak in *note BUILD_MAP: 598.

   - gh-109207(36): Fix a SystemError in ‘__repr__’ of symtable entry
     object.

   - gh-109179(37): Fix bug where the C traceback display drops notes
     from *note SyntaxError: 17e.

   - gh-109118(38): Disallow nested scopes (lambdas, generator
     expressions, and comprehensions) within PEP 695 annotation scopes
     that are nested within classes.

   - gh-109156(39): Add tests for de-instrumenting instructions while
     keeping the instrumentation for lines

   - gh-109114(40): Relax the detection of the error message for invalid
     lambdas inside f-strings to not search for arbitrary replacement
     fields to avoid false positives.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105848(41): Add a new *note CALL_KW: 5a1. opcode, used for calls
     containing keyword arguments.  Also, fix a possible crash when
     jumping over method calls in a debugger.

   - gh-109052(42): Use the base opcode when comparing code objects to
     avoid interference from instrumentation

   - gh-109118(43): Fix interpreter crash when a NameError is raised
     inside the type parameters of a generic class.

   - gh-88943(44): Improve syntax error for non-ASCII character that
     follows a numerical literal.  It now points on the invalid
     non-ASCII character, not on the valid numerical literal.

   - gh-108976(45): Fix crash that occurs after de-instrumenting a code
     object in a monitoring callback.

   - gh-108732(46): Make iteration variables of module- and class-scoped
     comprehensions visible to pdb and other tools that use
     ‘frame.f_locals’ again.

   - gh-108959(47): Fix caret placement for error locations for
     subscript and binary operations that involve non-semantic
     parentheses and spaces.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104584(48): Fix a crash when running with ‘PYTHONUOPS’ or *note
     -X uops: 178. enabled and an error occurs during optimization.

   - gh-108727(49): Define ‘tp_dealloc’ for ‘CounterOptimizer_Type’.
     This fixes a segfault on deallocation.

   - gh-108520(50): Fix
     ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock.__setstate__()’ to properly
     initialize ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock._is_fork_ctx’.
     This fixes a regression when passing a SemLock across nested
     processes.

     Rename ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock.is_fork_ctx’ to
     ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.SemLock._is_fork_ctx’ to avoid
     exposing it as public API.

   - gh-108654(51): Restore locals shadowed by an inlined comprehension
     if the comprehension raises an exception.

   - gh-108488(52): Change the initialization of inline cache entries so
     that the cache entry for ‘JUMP_BACKWARD’ is initialized to zero,
     instead of the ‘adaptive_counter_warmup()’ value used for all other
     instructions.  This counter, unique among instructions, counts up
     from zero.

   - gh-108716(53): Turn off deep-freezing of code objects.  Modules are
     still frozen, so that a file system search is not needed for common
     modules.

   - gh-108614(54): Add RESUME_CHECK instruction, to avoid having to
     handle instrumentation, signals, and contexts switches in the tier
     2 execution engine.

   - gh-108487(55): Move an assert that would cause a spurious crash in
     a devious case that should only trigger deoptimization.

   - gh-106176(56): Use a ‘WeakValueDictionary’ to track the lists
     containing the modules each thread is currently importing.  This
     helps avoid a reference leak from keeping the list around longer
     than necessary.  Weakrefs are used as GC can’t interrupt the
     cleanup.

   - gh-105481(57): The regen-opcode build stage was removed and its
     work is now done in regen-cases.

   - gh-107901(58): Fix missing line number on *note JUMP_BACKWARD: af8.
     at the end of a for loop.

   - gh-108113(59): The *note compile(): 1c8. built-in can now accept a
     new flag, ‘ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST’, which is similar to
     ‘ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’ except that the returned ‘AST’ is optimized
     according to the value of the ‘optimize’ argument.

     *note ast.parse(): 1c9. now accepts an optional argument ‘optimize’
     which is passed on to the *note compile(): 1c8. built-in.  This
     makes it possible to obtain an optimized ‘AST’.

   - gh-107971(60): Opcode IDs are generated from bytecodes.c instead of
     being hard coded in opcode.py.

   - gh-107944(61): Improve error message for function calls with bad
     keyword arguments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-108390(62): Raise an exception when setting a non-local event
     (‘RAISE’, ‘EXCEPTION_HANDLED’, etc.)  in
     ‘sys.monitoring.set_local_events’.

     Fixes crash when tracing in recursive calls to Python classes.

   - gh-108035(63): Remove the ‘_PyCFrame’ struct, moving the pointer to
     the current interpreter frame back to the threadstate, as it was
     for 3.10 and earlier.  The ‘_PyCFrame’ existed as a performance
     optimization for tracing.  Since PEP 669 has been implemented, this
     optimization no longer applies.

   - gh-91051(64): Fix abort / segfault when using all eight type
     watcher slots, on platforms where ‘char’ is signed by default.

   - gh-106581(65): Fix possible assertion failures and missing
     instrumentation events when ‘PYTHONUOPS’ or *note -X uops: 178. is
     enabled.

   - gh-107526(66): Revert converting ‘vars’, ‘dir’, ‘next’, ‘getattr’,
     and ‘iter’ to argument clinic.

   - gh-84805(67): Autogenerate signature for *note METH_NOARGS: 1876.
     and *note METH_O: 18a9. extension functions.

   - gh-107758(68): Make the ‘dump_stack()’ routine used by the
     ‘lltrace’ feature (low-level interpreter debugging) robust against
     recursion by ensuring that it never calls a ‘__repr__’ method
     implemented in Python.  Also make the similar output for Tier-2
     uops appear on ‘stdout’ (instead of ‘stderr’), to match the
     ‘lltrace’ code in ceval.c.

   - gh-107659(69): Add docstrings for *note ctypes.pointer(): 1c5c. and
     *note ctypes.POINTER(): 484.

   - gh-105848(70): Modify the bytecode so that the actual callable for
     a *note CALL: af3. is at a consistent position on the stack
     (regardless of whether or not bound-method-calling optimizations
     are active).

   - gh-107674(71): Fixed performance regression in ‘sys.settrace’.

   - gh-107724(72): In pre-release versions of 3.12, up to rc1, the
     sys.monitoring callback function for the ‘PY_THROW’ event was
     missing the third, exception argument.  That is now fixed.

   - gh-84436(73): Skip reference count modifications for many known
     immortal objects.

   - gh-107596(74): Specialize subscripting *note str: 1df. objects by
     *note int: 326. indexes.

   - gh-107080(75): Trace refs builds (‘--with-trace-refs’) were
     crashing when used with isolated subinterpreters.  The problematic
     global state has been isolated to each interpreter.  Other fixing
     the crashes, this change does not affect users.

   - gh-107557(76): Generate the cases needed for the barebones tier 2
     abstract interpreter for optimization passes in CPython.

   - gh-106608(77): Make ‘_PyUOpExecutorObject’ variable length.

   - gh-100964(78): Clear generators” exception state after ‘return’ to
     break reference cycles.

   - gh-107455(79): Improve error messages when converting an
     incompatible type to *note ctypes.c_char_p: 1c5d, *note
     ctypes.c_wchar_p: 1c5e. and *note ctypes.c_void_p: 1c5f.

   - gh-107263(80): Increase C recursion limit for functions other than
     the main interpreter from 800 to 1500.  This should allow functions
     like ‘list.__repr__’ and ‘json.dumps’ to handle all the inputs that
     they could prior to 3.12

   - gh-104584(81): Fix an issue which caused incorrect inline caches to
     be read when running with ‘PYTHONUOPS’ or *note -X uops: 178.
     enabled.

   - gh-104432(82): Fix potential unaligned memory access on C APIs
     involving returned sequences of ‘char *’ pointers within the *note
     grp: 69. and *note socket: d4. modules.  These were revealed using
     a ‘-fsaniziter=alignment’ build on ARM macOS. Patch by Christopher
     Chavez.

   - gh-106078(83): Isolate ‘_decimal’ (apply PEP 687(84)).  Patch by
     Charlie Zhao.

   - gh-106898(85): Add the exception as the third argument to
     ‘PY_UNIND’ callbacks in ‘sys.monitoring’.  This makes the
     ‘PY_UNWIND’ callback consistent with the other exception handling
     callbacks.

   - gh-106895(86): Raise a ‘ValueError’ when a monitoring callback
     function returns ‘DISABLE’ for events that cannot be disabled
     locally.

   - gh-106897(87): Add a ‘RERAISE’ event to ‘sys.monitoring’, which
     occurs when an exception is reraise, either explicitly by a plain
     ‘raise’ statement, or implicitly in an ‘except’ or ‘finally’ block.

   - gh-77377(88): Ensure that multiprocessing synchronization objects
     created in a fork context are not sent to a different process
     created in a spawn context.  This changes a segfault into an
     actionable RuntimeError in the parent process.

   - gh-106931(89): Statically allocated string objects are now interned
     globally instead of per-interpreter.  This fixes a situation where
     such a string would only be interned in a single interpreter.
     Normal string objects are unaffected.

   - gh-104621(90): Unsupported modules now always fail to be imported.

   - gh-107122(91): Add ‘dbm.ndbm.ndbm.clear()’ to *note dbm.ndbm: 37.
     Patch By Donghee Na.

   - gh-107122(92): Add ‘dbm.gnu.gdbm.clear()’ to *note dbm.gnu: 36.
     Patch By Donghee Na.

   - gh-107015(93): The ASYNC and AWAIT tokens are removed from the
     Grammar, which removes the possibility of making ‘async’ and
     ‘await’ soft keywords when using ‘feature_version<7’ in *note
     ast.parse(): 1c9.

   - gh-106917(94): Fix classmethod-style *note super(): 443. method
     calls (i.e., where the second argument to ‘super()’, or the implied
     second argument drawn from ‘self/cls’ in the case of zero-arg
     super, is a type) when the target of the call is not a classmethod.

   - gh-105699(95): Python no longer crashes due an infrequent race when
     initializing per-interpreter interned strings.  The crash would
     manifest when the interpreter was finalized.

   - gh-105699(96): Python no longer crashes due to an infrequent race
     in setting ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’ and
     ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’ (both deprecated), when
     simultaneously initializing two isolated subinterpreters.  Now they
     are only set during runtime initialization.

   - gh-106908(97): Fix various hangs, reference leaks, test failures,
     and tracing/introspection bugs when running with ‘PYTHONUOPS’ or
     *note -X uops: 178. enabled.

   - gh-106092(98): Fix a segmentation fault caused by a use-after-free
     bug in ‘frame_dealloc’ when the trashcan delays the deallocation of
     a ‘PyFrameObject’.

   - gh-106485(99): Reduce the number of materialized instances
     dictionaries by dematerializing them when possible.

   - gh-106719(100): No longer suppress arbitrary errors in the
     ‘__annotations__’ getter and setter in the type and module types.

   - gh-106723(101): Propagate ‘frozen_modules’ to multiprocessing
     spawned process interpreters.

   - gh-104909(102): Split ‘LOAD_ATTR_INSTANCE_VALUE’ into micro-ops.

   - gh-104909(103): Split *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 1c60. specializations into
     micro-ops.

   - gh-106597(104): A new debug structure of offsets has been added to
     the ‘_PyRuntimeState’ that will help out-of-process debuggers and
     profilers to obtain the offsets to relevant interpreter structures
     in a way that is agnostic of how Python was compiled and that
     doesn’t require copying the headers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-106487(105): Allow the 'count' argument of *note str.replace():
     6c0. to be a keyword.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-96844(106): Improve error message of *note list.remove(): 1c61.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-81283(107): Compiler now strips indents from docstrings.  It
     reduces ‘pyc’ file size 5% when the module is heavily documented.
     This change affects to ‘__doc__’ so tools like doctest will be
     affected.

   - gh-106396(108): When the format specification of an f-string
     expression is empty, the parser now generates an empty *note
     ast.JoinedStr: 1c62. node for it instead of an one-element
     ‘ast.JoinedStr’ with an empty string *note ast.Constant: 569.

   - gh-100288(109): Specialize *note LOAD_ATTR: 8ed. for
     non-descriptors on the class.  Adds
     ‘LOAD_ATTR_NONDESCRIPTOR_WITH_VALUES’ and
     ‘LOAD_ATTR_NONDESCRIPTOR_NO_DICT’.

   - gh-106008(110): Fix possible reference leaks when failing to
     optimize comparisons with *note None: a65. in the bytecode
     compiler.

   - gh-106145(111): Make ‘end_lineno’ and ‘end_col_offset’ required on
     ‘type_param’ ast nodes.

   - gh-106213(112): Changed the way that Emscripten call trampolines
     work for compatibility with Wasm/JS Promise integration.

   - gh-106182(113): *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): 1017. and *note
     sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors: 10a3. now return interned Unicode
     object.

   - gh-106210(114): Removed Emscripten import trampoline as it was no
     longer necessary for Pyodide.

   - gh-104584(115): Added a new, experimental, tracing optimizer and
     interpreter (a.k.a.  «tier 2»).  This currently pessimizes, so
     don’t use yet – this is infrastructure so we can experiment with
     optimizing passes.  To enable it, pass ‘-Xuops’ or set
     ‘PYTHONUOPS=1’.  To get debug output, set ‘PYTHONUOPSDEBUG=N’ where
     ‘N’ is a debug level (0-4, where 0 is no debug output and 4 is
     excessively verbose).

   - gh-105775(116): *note LOAD_CLOSURE: 1c63. is now a pseudo-op.

   - gh-105730(117): Allow any callable other than type objects as the
     condition predicate in *note BaseExceptionGroup.split(): 1af9. and
     *note BaseExceptionGroup.subgroup(): 1c40.

   - gh-105979(118): Fix crash in ‘_imp.get_frozen_object()’ due to
     improper exception handling.

   - gh-106003(119): Add a new *note TO_BOOL: 1c64. instruction, which
     performs boolean conversions for *note POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE: 1c65,
     *note POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE: 1c66, and *note UNARY_NOT: 1c67. (which
     all expect exact *note bool: 5ef. values now).  Also, modify the
     oparg of *note COMPARE_OP: d32. to include an optional «boolean
     conversion» flag.

   - gh-98931(120): Ensure custom *note SyntaxError: 17e. error messages
     are raised for invalid imports with multiple targets.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105724(121): Improve ‘assert’ error messages by providing exact
     error range.

   - gh-105908(122): Fixed bug where gh-99111(123) breaks future import
     ‘barry_as_FLUFL’ in the Python REPL.

   - gh-105840(124): Fix possible crashes when specializing function
     calls with too many ‘__defaults__’.

   - gh-105831(125): Fix an f-string bug, where using a debug expression
     (the ‘=’ sign) that appears in the last line of a file results to
     the debug buffer that holds the expression text being one character
     too small.

   - gh-105800(126): Correctly issue *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. in
     f-strings if invalid sequences are used.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105340(127): Include the comprehension iteration variable in
     ‘locals()’ inside a module- or class-scope comprehension.

   - gh-105331(128): Raise *note ValueError: 277. if the ‘delay’
     argument to *note asyncio.sleep(): e33. is a NaN (matching *note
     time.sleep(): a8c.).

   - gh-105587(129): The runtime can’t guarantee that immortal objects
     will not be mutated by Extensions.  Thus, this modifies
     _PyStaticObject_CheckRefcnt to warn instead of asserting.

   - gh-105564(130): Don’t include artificil newlines in the ‘line’
     attribute of tokens in the APIs of the *note tokenize: 104. module.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105549(131): Tokenize separately ‘NUMBER’ and ‘NAME’ tokens that
     are not ambiguous.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-105588(132): Fix an issue that could result in crashes when
     compiling malformed *note ast: 9. nodes.

   - gh-100987(133): Allow objects other than code objects as the
     «executable» in internal frames.  In the long term, this can help
     tools like Cython and PySpy interact more efficiently.  In the
     shorter term, it allows us to perform some optimizations more
     simply.

   - gh-105375(134): Fix bugs in the *note builtins: 13. module where
     exceptions could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(135): Fix bug in the compiler where an exception could
     end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(136): Improve error handling in *note
     PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap(): 1c68. where an exception could end up
     being overwritten.

   - gh-105486(137): Change the repr of ‘ParamSpec’ list of args in
     ‘types.GenericAlias’.

   - gh-105678(138): Break the ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ instruction into two
     parts, ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ which makes the function and
     ‘SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE’ which sets the attributes on the function.
     This makes the stack effect of ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ regular to ease
     optimization and code generation.

   - gh-105435(139): Fix spurious newline character if file ends on a
     comment without a newline.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105390(140): Correctly raise *note tokenize.TokenError: 94f.
     exceptions instead of *note SyntaxError: 17e. for tokenize errors
     such as incomplete input.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105259(141): Don’t include newline character for trailing
     ‘NEWLINE’ tokens emitted in the *note tokenize: 104. module.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104635(142): Eliminate redundant *note STORE_FAST: 1c69.
     instructions in the compiler.  Patch by Donghee Na and Carl Meyer.

   - gh-105324(143): Fix the main function of the *note tokenize: 104.
     module when reading from ‘sys.stdin’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-33092(144): Simplify and speed up interpreter for f-strings.
     Removes ‘FORMAT_VALUE’ opcode.  Add ‘CONVERT_VALUE’,
     ‘FORMAT_SIMPLE’ and ‘FORMAT_WITH_SPEC’ opcode.  Compiler emits more
     efficient sequence for each format expression.

   - gh-105229(145): Remove remaining two-codeunit superinstructions.
     All remaining superinstructions only take a single codeunit,
     simplifying instrumentation and quickening.

   - gh-105235(146): Prevent out-of-bounds memory access during
     ‘mmap.find()’ calls.

   - gh-98963(147): Restore the ability for a subclass of *note
     property: 6bb. to define ‘__slots__’ or otherwise be dict-less by
     ignoring failures to set a docstring on such a class.  This
     behavior had regressed in 3.12beta1.  An *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     where there had not previously been one was disruptive to existing
     code.

   - gh-104812(148): The «pending call» machinery now works for all
     interpreters, not just the main interpreter, and runs in all
     threads, not just the main thread.  Some calls are still only done
     in the main thread, ergo in the main interpreter.  This change does
     not affect signal handling nor the existing public C-API
     (‘Py_AddPendingCall()’), which both still only target the main
     thread.  The new functionality is meant strictly for internal use
     for now, since consequences of its use are not well understood yet
     outside some very restricted cases.  This change brings the
     capability in line with the intention when the state was made
     per-interpreter several years ago.

   - gh-105194(149): Do not escape with backslashes f-string format
     specifiers.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105229(150): Replace some dynamic superinstructions with single
     instruction equivalents.

   - gh-105162(151): Fixed bug in generator.close()/throw() where an
     inner iterator would be ignored when the outer iterator was
     instrumented.

   - gh-105164(152): Ensure annotations are set up correctly if the only
     annotation in a block is within a *note match: 1d4. block.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-105148(153): Make ‘_PyASTOptimizeState’ internal to ast_opt.c.
     Make ‘_PyAST_Optimize’ take two integers instead of a pointer to
     this struct.  This avoids the need to include pycore_compile.h in
     ast_opt.c.

   - gh-104799(154): Attributes of *note ast: 9. nodes that are lists
     now default to the empty list if omitted.  This means that some
     code that previously raised *note TypeError: 291. when the AST node
     was used will now proceed with the empty list instead.  Patch by
     Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-105111(155): Remove the old trashcan macros
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’.  They should
     be replaced by the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

   - gh-105035(156): Fix *note super(): 443. calls on types with custom
     *note tp_getattro: 1c6a. implementation (e.g.  meta-types.)

   - gh-105017(157): Show CRLF lines in the tokenize string attribute in
     both NL and NEWLINE tokens.  Patch by Marta Gómez.

   - gh-105013(158): Fix handling of multiline parenthesized lambdas in
     *note inspect.getsource(): 1a04.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-105017(159): Do not include an additional final ‘NL’ token when
     parsing files having CRLF lines.  Patch by Marta Gómez.

   - gh-104976(160): Ensure that trailing ‘DEDENT’ ‘tokenize.TokenInfo’
     objects emitted by the *note tokenize: 104. module are reported as
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104972(161): Ensure that the ‘line’ attribute in
     ‘tokenize.TokenInfo’ objects in the *note tokenize: 104. module are
     always correct.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104955(162): Fix signature for the new *note
     __release_buffer__(): 1c6b. slot.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104690(163): Starting new threads and process creation through
     *note os.fork(): 6bd. during interpreter shutdown (such as from
     *note atexit: d. handlers) is no longer supported.  It can lead to
     race condition between the main Python runtime thread freeing
     thread states while internal *note threading: f6. routines are
     trying to allocate and use the state of just created threads.  Or
     forked children trying to use the mid-shutdown runtime and thread
     state in the child process.

   - gh-104879(164): Fix crash when accessing the ‘__module__’ attribute
     of type aliases defined outside a module.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104825(165): Tokens emitted by the *note tokenize: 104. module
     do not include an implicit ‘\n’ character in the ‘line’ attribute
     anymore.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-104770(166): If a generator returns a value upon being closed,
     the value is now returned by *note generator.close(): 199e.

   - gh-89091(167): Raise *note RuntimeWarning: 6dd. for unawaited async
     generator methods like *note asend(): cab, *note athrow(): 906. and
     *note aclose(): caa.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96663(168): Add a better, more introspect-able error message
     when setting attributes on classes without a ‘__dict__’ and no slot
     member for the attribute.

   - gh-93627(169): Update the Python pickle module implementation to
     match the C implementation of the pickle module.  For objects
     setting reduction methods like *note __reduce_ex__(): 1b7e. or
     *note __reduce__(): d97. to ‘None’, pickling will result in a *note
     TypeError: 291.

   - gh-101006(170): Improve error handling when read *note marshal: 90.
     data.

   - gh-91095(171): Specializes calls to most Python classes.
     Specifically, any class that inherits from ‘object’, or another
     Python class, and does not override ‘__new__’.

     The specialized instruction does the following:

       1. Creates the object (by calling ‘object.__new__’)

       2. Pushes a shim frame to the frame stack (to cleanup after
          ‘__init__’)

       3. Pushes the frame for ‘__init__’ to the frame stack

     Speeds up the instantiation of most Python classes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110782

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110752

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110721

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110696

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104169

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110688

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110514

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110489

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110455

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110309

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110259

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110237

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110164

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109889

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109853

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109923

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105716

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109369

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109823

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109793

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109719

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109595

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109627

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109596

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109496

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107265

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109371

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105658

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109219

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109351

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109341

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109195

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109256

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109216

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109207

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109179

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109156

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109114

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105848

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109052

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88943

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108976

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108732

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108959

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108727

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108520

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108654

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108488

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108716

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108614

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108487

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106176

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107901

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107971

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107944

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108390

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108035

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106581

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107526

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84805

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107758

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107659

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105848

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107674

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107724

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107596

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107080

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107557

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106608

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100964

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107455

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107263

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104432

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106078

   (84) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106898

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106895

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106897

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77377

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106931

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104621

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107122

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107122

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107015

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106917

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105699

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105699

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106908

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106092

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106485

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106719

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106723

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104909

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104909

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106597

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106487

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96844

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81283

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106396

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100288

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106008

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106145

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106213

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106182

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106210

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105775

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105730

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105979

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106003

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105724

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105908

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99111

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105840

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105831

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105800

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105340

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105331

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105587

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105564

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105549

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105588

   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100987

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (136) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105486

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105678

   (139) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105435

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105390

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105259

   (142) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104635

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105324

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/33092

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105229

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105235

   (147) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98963

   (148) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104812

   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105194

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105229

   (151) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105162

   (152) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105164

   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105148

   (154) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (155) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105111

   (156) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105035

   (157) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105017

   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105013

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105017

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104976

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104972

   (162) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104955

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104690

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104879

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104825

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104770

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89091

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96663

   (169) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93627

   (170) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101006

   (171) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91095


File: python.info,  Node: Library<69>,  Next: Documentation<20>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<66>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.26.25.3 Library
.................

   - gh-110786(1): *note sysconfig: e4.’s CLI now ignores *note
     BrokenPipeError: 1404, making it exit normally if its output is
     being piped and the pipe closes.

   - gh-103480(2): The *note sysconfig: e4. module is now a package,
     instead of a single-file module.

   - gh-110733(3): Micro-optimization: Avoid calling ‘min()’, ‘max()’ in
     ‘BaseEventLoop._run_once()’.

   - gh-94597(4): Added *note asyncio.EventLoop: 1c6d. for use with the
     *note asyncio.run(): 309. 'loop_factory' kwarg to avoid calling the
     asyncio policy system.

   - gh-110682(5): *note runtime-checkable protocols: 861. used to
     consider ‘__match_args__’ a protocol member in ‘__instancecheck__’
     if it was present on the protocol.  Now, this attribute is ignored
     if it is present.

   - gh-110488(6): Fix a couple of issues in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.with_name(): 1c6e.: a single dot was incorrectly
     considered a valid name, and in ‘PureWindowsPath’, a name with an
     NTFS alternate data stream, like ‘a:b’, was incorrectly considered
     invalid.

   - gh-110590(7): Fix a bug in ‘_sre.compile()’ where *note TypeError:
     291. would be overwritten by *note OverflowError: c57. when the
     'code' argument was a list of non-ints.

   - gh-65052(8): Prevent *note pdb: aa. from crashing when trying to
     display undisplayable objects

   - gh-110519(9): Deprecation warning about non-integer number in *note
     gettext: 66. now always refers to the line in the user code where
     gettext function or method is used.  Previously it could refer to a
     line in ‘gettext’ code.

   - gh-89902(10): Deprecate non-standard format specifier «N» for *note
     decimal.Decimal: 1c2.  It was not documented and only supported in
     the C implementation.

   - gh-110378(11): *note contextmanager(): 20e. and *note
     asynccontextmanager(): 20f. context managers now close an invalid
     underlying generator object that yields more then one value.

   - gh-106670(12): In *note pdb: aa, set convenience variable
     ‘$_exception’ for post mortem debugging.

   - gh-110365(13): Fix *note termios.tcsetattr(): 1c6f. bug that was
     overwriting existing errors during parsing integers from ‘term’
     list.

   - gh-109653(14): Slightly improve the import time of several
     standard-library modules by deferring imports of *note warnings:
     11b. within those modules.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-110273(15): *note dataclasses.replace(): 1c70. now raises
     TypeError instead of ValueError if specify keyword argument for a
     field declared with init=False or miss keyword argument for
     required InitVar field.

   - gh-110249(16): Add ‘--inline-caches’ flag to ‘dis’ command line.

   - gh-109653(17): Fix a Python 3.12 regression in the import time of
     *note random: c0.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-110222(18): Add support of struct sequence objects in *note
     copy.replace(): 45a.  Patched by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-109649(19): *note multiprocessing: 98, *note concurrent.futures:
     24, *note compileall: 21.: Replace *note os.cpu_count(): 6e1. with
     *note os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0. to select the default number of
     worker threads and processes.  Get the CPU affinity if supported.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110150(20): Fix base case handling in statistics.quantiles.  Now
     allows a single data point.

   - gh-110036(21): On Windows, multiprocessing ‘Popen.terminate()’ now
     catches *note PermissionError: 10f9. and get the process exit code.
     If the process is still running, raise again the ‘PermissionError’.
     Otherwise, the process terminated as expected: store its exit code.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110038(22): Fixed an issue that caused ‘KqueueSelector.select()’
     to not return all the ready events in some cases when a file
     descriptor is registered for both read and write.

   - gh-110045(23): Update the *note symtable: e1. module to support the
     new scopes introduced by PEP 695(24).

   - gh-88402(25): Add new variables to *note
     sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 51e. on Windows: ‘LIBRARY’,
     ‘LDLIBRARY’, ‘LIBDIR’, ‘SOABI’, and ‘Py_NOGIL’.

   - gh-109631(26): *note re: c1. functions such as *note re.findall():
     13d2, *note re.split(): 7a0, *note re.search(): 15d3. and *note
     re.sub(): 7a1. which perform short repeated matches can now be
     interrupted by user.

   - gh-109653(27): Reduce the import time of *note email.utils: 53. by
     around 43%.  This results in the import time of *note
     email.message: 47. falling by around 18%, which in turn reduces the
     import time of *note importlib.metadata: 7d. by around 6%.  Patch
     by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-109818(28): Fix *note reprlib.recursive_repr(): 159c. not
     copying ‘__type_params__’ from decorated function.

   - gh-109047(29): *note concurrent.futures: 24.: The 'executor manager
     thread' now catches exceptions when adding an item to the 'call
     queue'.  During Python finalization, creating a new thread can now
     raise *note RuntimeError: 30d.  Catch the exception and call
     ‘terminate_broken()’ in this case.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109782(30): Ensure the signature of *note os.path.isdir(): dd4.
     is identical on all platforms.  Patch by Amin Alaee.

   - gh-109653(31): Improve import time of *note functools: 62. by
     around 13%.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-109590(32): *note shutil.which(): 8c4. will prefer files with an
     extension in ‘PATHEXT’ if the given mode includes ‘os.X_OK’ on
     win32.  If no ‘PATHEXT’ match is found, a file without an extension
     in ‘PATHEXT’ can be returned.  This change will have
     ‘shutil.which()’ act more similarly to previous behavior in Python
     3.11.

   - gh-109653(33): Reduce the import time of *note enum: 59. by over
     50%.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-109593(34): Avoid deadlocking on a reentrant call to the
     multiprocessing resource tracker.  Such a reentrant call, though
     unlikely, can happen if a GC pass invokes the finalizer for a
     multiprocessing object such as SemLock.

   - gh-109653(35): Reduce the import time of *note typing: 10d. by
     around a third.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-109649(36): Add *note os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0. function to
     get the number of logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the
     current process.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-74481(37): Add ‘set_error_mode’ related constants in ‘msvcrt’
     module in Python debug build.

   - gh-109613(38): Fix *note os.stat(): 4f5. and *note
     os.DirEntry.stat(): 1c71.: check for exceptions.  Previously, on
     Python built in debug mode, these functions could trigger a fatal
     Python error (and abort the process) when a function succeeded with
     an exception set.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109599(39): Expose the type of PyCapsule objects as
     ‘types.CapsuleType’.

   - gh-109109(40): You can now get the raw TLS certificate chains from
     TLS connections via *note ssl.SSLSocket.get_verified_chain(): 1b6f.
     and *note ssl.SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain(): 1b70. methods.

     Contributed by Mateusz Nowak.

   - gh-109559(41): Update *note unicodedata: 10e. database to Unicode
     15.1.0.

   - gh-109543(42): Remove unnecessary *note hasattr(): 8e2. check
     during *note typing.TypedDict: 290. creation.

   - gh-109495(43): Remove unnecessary extra ‘__slots__’ in *note
     datetime: 6e7.'s pure python implementation to reduce memory size,
     as they are defined in the superclass.  Patch by James Hilton-Balfe

   - gh-109461(44): *note logging: 8a.: Use a context manager for lock
     acquisition.

   - gh-109096(45): ‘http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler’ has been
     deprecated for removal in 3.15.  Its design is old and the web
     world has long since moved beyond CGI.

   - gh-109409(46): Fix error when it was possible to inherit a frozen
     dataclass from multiple parents some of which were possibly not
     frozen.

   - gh-109375(47): The *note pdb: aa. ‘alias’ command now prevents
     registering aliases without arguments.

   - gh-109319(48): Deprecate the ‘dis.HAVE_ARGUMENT’ field in favour of
     ‘dis.hasarg’.

   - gh-107219(49): Fix a race condition in ‘concurrent.futures’.  When
     a process in the process pool was terminated abruptly (while the
     future was running or pending), close the connection write end.  If
     the call queue is blocked on sending bytes to a worker process,
     closing the connection write end interrupts the send, so the queue
     can be closed.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-66143(50): The *note codecs.CodecInfo: 1c72. object has been
     made copyable and pickleable.  Patched by Robert Lehmann and Furkan
     Onder.

   - gh-109187(51): *note pathlib.Path.resolve(): 1c73. now treats
     symlink loops like other errors: in strict mode, *note OSError:
     53c. is raised, and in non-strict mode, no exception is raised.

   - gh-50644(52): Attempts to pickle or create a shallow or deep copy
     of *note codecs: 1c. streams now raise a TypeError.  Previously,
     copying failed with a RecursionError, while pickling produced wrong
     results that eventually caused unpickling to fail with a
     RecursionError.

   - gh-109174(53): Add support of *note types.SimpleNamespace: 6ea. in
     *note copy.replace(): 45a.

   - gh-109164(54): *note pdb: aa.: Replace *note getopt: 64. with *note
     argparse: 7. for parsing command line arguments.

   - gh-109151(55): Enable ‘readline’ editing features in the *note
     sqlite3 command-line interface: 257. (‘python -m sqlite3’).

   - gh-108987(56): Fix *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 6bc. race
     condition.  If a thread is created during Python finalization, the
     newly spawned thread now exits immediately instead of trying to
     access freed memory and lead to a crash.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108682(57): Enum: require ‘names=()’ or ‘type=...’ to create an
     empty enum using the functional syntax.

   - gh-109033(58): Exceptions raised by os.utime builtin function now
     include the related filename

   - gh-108843(59): Fix an issue in *note ast.unparse(): cb6. when
     unparsing f-strings containing many quote types.

   - gh-108469(60): *note ast.unparse(): cb6. now supports new *note
     f-string: 858. syntax introduced in Python 3.12.  Note that the
     f-string quotes are reselected for simplicity under the new syntax.
     (Patch by Steven Sun)

   - gh-108751(61): Add *note copy.replace(): 45a. function which allows
     to create a modified copy of an object.  It supports named tuples,
     dataclasses, and many other objects.

   - gh-108682(62): Enum: raise *note TypeError: 291. if
     ‘super().__new__()’ is called from a custom ‘__new__’.

   - gh-108278(63): Deprecate passing the callback callable by keyword
     for the following *note sqlite3.Connection: 3df. APIs:

        * *note set_authorizer(): 3e3.

        * *note set_progress_handler(): 3e4.

        * *note set_trace_callback(): 3e5.

     The affected parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-105829(64): Fix concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor deadlock

   - gh-108295(65): Fix crashes related to use of weakrefs on *note
     typing.TypeVar: 294.

   - gh-108463(66): Make expressions/statements work as expected in pdb

   - gh-108277(67): Add *note os.timerfd_create(): 722, *note
     os.timerfd_settime(): 723, *note os.timerfd_gettime(): 725, *note
     os.timerfd_settime_ns(): 724, and *note os.timerfd_gettime_ns():
     726. to provide a low level interface for Linux’s timer
     notification file descriptor.

   - gh-107811(68): *note tarfile: e7.: extraction of members with
     overly large UID or GID (e.g.  on an OS with 32-bit ‘id_t’) now
     fails in the same way as failing to set the ID.

   - gh-64662(69): Fix support for virtual tables in *note
     sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 751.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - gh-108111(70): Fix a regression introduced in gh-101251(71) for
     3.12, resulting in an incorrect offset calculation in
     ‘gzip.GzipFile.seek()’.

   - gh-108294(72): *note time.sleep(): a8c. now raises an auditing
     event.

   - gh-108278(73): Deprecate passing name, number of arguments, and the
     callable as keyword arguments, for the following *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 3df. APIs:

        * *note create_function(): 3e1.

        * *note create_aggregate(): 3e2.

     The affected parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-108322(74): Speed-up NormalDist.samples() by using the inverse
     CDF method instead of calling random.gauss().

   - gh-83417(75): Add the ability for venv to create a ‘.gitignore’
     file which causes the created environment to be ignored by Git.  It
     is on by default when venv is called via its CLI.

   - gh-105736(76): Harmonized the pure Python version of *note
     OrderedDict: 9d5. with the C version.  Now, both versions set up
     their internal state in ‘__new__’.  Formerly, the pure Python
     version did the set up in ‘__init__’.

   - gh-108083(77): Fix bugs in the constructor of *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 3df. and *note sqlite3.Connection.close(): 750.
     where exceptions could be leaked.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-107932(78): Fix ‘dis’ module to properly report and display
     bytecode that do not have source lines.

   - gh-105539(79): *note sqlite3: d7. now emits an *note
     ResourceWarning: 74f. if a *note sqlite3.Connection: 3df. object is
     not ‘closed’ explicitly.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-107995(80): The ‘__module__’ attribute on instances of *note
     functools.cached_property: 94e. is now set to the name of the
     module in which the cached_property is defined, rather than
     «functools».  This means that doctests in ‘cached_property’
     docstrings are now properly collected by the *note doctest: 3d.
     module.  Patch by Tyler Smart.

   - gh-107963(81): Fix *note multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload():
     1969. to check the given list of modules names.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-106242(82): Fixes *note os.path.normpath(): 16be. to handle
     embedded null characters without truncating the path.

   - gh-81555(83): *note xml.dom.minidom: 12b. now only quotes ‘"’ in
     attributes.

   - gh-50002(84): *note xml.dom.minidom: 12b. now preserves whitespaces
     in attributes.

   - gh-93057(85): Passing more than one positional argument to *note
     sqlite3.connect(): 3e0. and the *note sqlite3.Connection: 3df.
     constructor is deprecated.  The remaining parameters will become
     keyword-only in Python 3.15.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-76913(86): Add 'merge_extra' parameter/feature to *note
     logging.LoggerAdapter: 169a.

   - gh-107913(87): Fix possible losses of ‘errno’ and ‘winerror’ values
     in *note OSError: 53c. exceptions if they were cleared or modified
     by the cleanup code before creating the exception object.

   - gh-107845(88): *note tarfile.data_filter(): 279. now takes the
     location of symlinks into account when determining their target, so
     it will no longer reject some valid tarballs with
     ‘LinkOutsideDestinationError’.

   - gh-107812(89): Extend socket’s netlink support to the FreeBSD
     platform.

   - gh-107805(90): Fix signatures of module-level generated functions
     in *note turtle: 10a.

   - gh-107782(91): *note pydoc: bd. is now able to show signatures
     which are not representable in Python, e.g.  for ‘getattr’ and
     ‘dict.pop’.

   - gh-56166(92): Deprecate passing optional arguments 'maxsplit',
     'count' and 'flags' in module-level functions *note re.split():
     7a0, *note re.sub(): 7a1. and *note re.subn(): 7a2. as positional.
     They should only be passed by keyword.

   - gh-107710(93): Speed up *note logging.getHandlerNames(): 1c74.

   - gh-107715(94): Fix *note doctest.DocTestFinder.find(): 1c75. in
     presence of class names with special characters.  Patch by Gertjan
     van Zwieten.

   - gh-100814(95): Passing a callable object as an option value to a
     Tkinter image now raises the expected TclError instead of an
     AttributeError.

   - gh-72684(96): Add *note tkinter: f9. widget methods:
     ‘tk_busy_hold()’, ‘tk_busy_configure()’, ‘tk_busy_cget()’,
     ‘tk_busy_forget()’, ‘tk_busy_current()’, and ‘tk_busy_status()’.

   - gh-106684(97): Raise *note ResourceWarning: 74f. when *note
     asyncio.StreamWriter: 1c76. is not closed leading to memory leaks.
     Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-107465(98): Add *note pathlib.Path.from_uri(): 737. classmethod.

   - gh-107077(99): Seems that in some conditions, OpenSSL will return
     ‘SSL_ERROR_SYSCALL’ instead of ‘SSL_ERROR_SSL’ when a certification
     verification has failed, but the error parameters will still
     contain ‘ERR_LIB_SSL’ and ‘SSL_R_CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED’.  We
     are now detecting this situation and raising the appropriate
     ‘ssl.SSLCertVerificationError’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-107576(100): Fix *note types.get_original_bases(): 8de. to only
     return ‘__orig_bases__’ if it is present on ‘cls’ directly.  Patch
     by James Hilton-Balfe.

   - gh-105481(101): Remove ‘opcode.is_pseudo’,
     ‘opcode.MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE’ and ‘opcode.MAX_PSEUDO_OPCODE’, which
     were added in 3.12, were never documented and were not intended to
     be used externally.

   - gh-105481(102): ‘opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’ (which was added in
     3.12 but never documented or intended for external usage) is moved
     to ‘_opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’ where tests can access it.

   - gh-107396(103): tarfiles; Fixed use before assignment of
     self.exception for gzip decompression

   - gh-107409(104): Set ‘__wrapped__’ attribute in *note
     reprlib.recursive_repr(): 159c.

   - gh-107406(105): Implement new ‘__repr__()’ method for *note
     struct.Struct: 2fb.  Now it returns ‘Struct(<format repr>)’.

   - gh-107369(106): Optimize *note textwrap.indent(): 77d.  It is ~30%
     faster for large input.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - gh-78722(107): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 4f6.
     did not raise *note OSError: 53c. until iterated.

   - gh-105578(108): Deprecate *note typing.AnyStr: 7a4. in favor of the
     new Type Parameter syntax.  See PEP 695.

   - gh-62519(109): Make *note gettext.pgettext(): db8. search plural
     definitions when translation is not found.

   - gh-107089(110): Shelves opened with *note shelve.open(): 1c77. have
     a much faster ‘clear()’ method.  Patch by James Cave.

   - gh-82500(111): Fix overflow on 32-bit systems with *note asyncio:
     b. *note os.sendfile(): ed3. implementation.

   - gh-83006(112): Document behavior of *note shutil.disk_usage():
     14d9. for non-mounted filesystems on Unix.

   - gh-65495(113): Use lowercase ‘mail from’ and ‘rcpt to’ in
     ‘smptlib.SMTP’.

   - gh-106186(114): Do not report ‘MultipartInvariantViolationDefect’
     defect when the *note email.parser.Parser: 1546. class is used to
     parse emails with ‘headersonly=True’.

   - gh-105002(115): Fix invalid result from ‘PurePath.relative_to()’
     method when attempting to walk a «‘..’» segment in 'other' with
     'walk_up' enabled.  A *note ValueError: 277. exception is now
     raised in this case.

   - gh-106739(116): Add the ‘rtype_cache’ to the warning message (as an
     addition to the type of leaked objects and the number of leaked
     objects already included in the message) to make debugging leaked
     objects easier when the multiprocessing resource tracker process
     finds leaked objects at shutdown.  This helps more quickly identify
     what was leaked and/or why the leaked object was not properly
     cleaned up.

   - gh-106751(117): Optimize ‘SelectSelector.select()’ for many
     iteration case.  Patch By Donghee Na.

   - gh-106751(118): Optimize ‘_PollLikeSelector.select()’ for many
     iteration case.

   - gh-106751(119): Optimize ‘KqueueSelector.select()’ for many
     iteration case.  Patch By Donghee Na.

   - gh-106831(120): Fix potential missing ‘NULL’ check of
     ‘d2i_SSL_SESSION’ result in ‘_ssl.c’.

   - gh-105481(121): The various opcode lists in the *note dis: 3b.
     module are now generated from bytecodes.c instead of explicitly
     constructed in opcode.py.

   - gh-106727(122): Make *note inspect.getsource(): 1a04. smarter for
     class for same name definitions

   - gh-106789(123): Remove import of *note pprint: b3. from *note
     sysconfig: e4.

   - gh-105726(124): Added ‘__slots__’ to *note
     contextlib.AbstractContextManager: 104d. and *note
     contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager: eeb. so that child classes
     can use ‘__slots__’.

   - gh-106774(125): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.2.1.

   - gh-106751(126): *note selectors: ca.: Optimize
     ‘EpollSelector.select()’ code by moving some code outside of the
     loop.

   - gh-106752(127): Fixed several bugs in zipfile.Path, including: in
     ‘zipfile.Path.match()’, Windows separators are no longer honored
     (and never were meant to be); Fixed
     ‘name’/‘suffix’/‘suffixes’/‘stem’ operations when no filename is
     present and the Path is not at the root of the zipfile; Reworked
     glob for performance and more correct matching behavior.

   - gh-105293(128): Remove call to ‘SSL_CTX_set_session_id_context’
     during client side context creation in the *note ssl: d8. module.

   - gh-106734(129): Disable tab completion in multiline mode of *note
     pdb: aa.

   - gh-105481(130): Expose opcode metadata through ‘_opcode’.

   - gh-106670(131): Add the new ‘exceptions’ command to the Pdb
     debugger.  It makes it possible to move between chained exceptions
     when using post mortem debugging.

   - gh-106602(132): Add __copy__ and __deepcopy__ in *note enum: 59.

   - gh-106664(133): *note selectors: ca.: Add ‘_SelectorMapping.get()’
     method and optimize ‘_SelectorMapping.__getitem__()’.

   - gh-106628(134): Speed up parsing of emails by about 20% by not
     compiling a new regular expression for every single email.

   - gh-89427(135): Set the environment variable ‘VIRTUAL_ENV_PROMPT’ at
     *note venv: 11a. activation, even when ‘VIRTUAL_ENV_DISABLE_PROMPT’
     is set.

   - gh-106530(136): Revert a change to *note colorsys.rgb_to_hls():
     1c78. that caused division by zero for certain almost-white inputs.
     Patch by Terry Jan Reedy.

   - gh-106584(137): Fix exit code for ‘unittest’ if all tests are
     skipped.  Patch by Egor Eliseev.

   - gh-106566(138): Optimize ‘(?!)’ (pattern which always fails) in
     regular expressions.

   - gh-106554(139): *note selectors: ca.: Reduce Selector overhead by
     using a ‘dict.get()’ to lookup file descriptors.

   - gh-106558(140): Remove ref cycle in callers of ‘convert_to_error()’
     by deleting ‘result’ from scope in a ‘finally’ block.

   - gh-100502(141): Add ‘pathlib.PurePath.pathmod’ class attribute that
     stores the implementation of *note os.path: a6. used for low-level
     path operations: either ‘posixpath’ or ‘ntpath’.

   - gh-106527(142): Reduce overhead to add and remove *note asyncio: b.
     readers and writers.

   - gh-106524(143): Fix crash in ‘_sre.template()’ with templates
     containing invalid group indices.

   - gh-106531(144): Removed ‘_legacy’ and the names it provided from
     ‘importlib.resources’: ‘Resource’, ‘contents’, ‘is_resource’,
     ‘open_binary’, ‘open_text’, ‘path’, ‘read_binary’, and ‘read_text’.

   - gh-106052(145): *note re: c1. module: fix the matching of
     possessive quantifiers in the case of a subpattern containing
     backtracking.

   - gh-106510(146): Improve debug output for atomic groups in regular
     expressions.

   - gh-106503(147): Fix ref cycle in ‘asyncio._SelectorSocketTransport’
     by removing ‘_write_ready’ in ‘close’.

   - gh-105497(148): Fix flag mask inversion when unnamed flags exist.

   - gh-90876(149): Prevent ‘multiprocessing.spawn’ from failing to
     'import' in environments where ‘sys.executable’ is ‘None’.  This
     regressed in 3.11 with the addition of support for path-like
     objects in multiprocessing.

   - gh-106403(150): Instances of *note typing.TypeVar: 294, *note
     typing.ParamSpec: 295, *note typing.ParamSpecArgs: ba6, *note
     typing.ParamSpecKwargs: ba7, and *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 293.
     once again support weak references, fixing a regression introduced
     in Python 3.12.0 beta 1.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-89812(151): Add private ‘pathlib._PathBase’ class, which
     provides experimental support for virtual filesystems, and may be
     made public in a future version of Python.

   - gh-106292(152): Check for an instance-dict cached value in the
     ‘__get__()’ method of *note functools.cached_property(): 94e.  This
     better matches the pre-3.12 behavior and improves compatibility for
     users subclassing ‘functools.cached_property()’ and adding a
     ‘__set__()’ method.

   - gh-106350(153): Detect possible memory allocation failure in the
     libtommath function ‘mp_init()’ used by the ‘_tkinter’ module.

   - gh-106330(154): Fix incorrect matching of empty paths in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 8bc.  This bug was introduced in Python
     3.12.0 beta 1.

   - gh-106309(155): Deprecate ‘typing.no_type_check_decorator()’.  No
     major type checker ever added support for this decorator.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - gh-102541(156): Make ‘pydoc.doc()’ catch bad module *note
     ImportError: 1bd. when output stream is not ‘None’.

   - gh-106263(157): Fix crash when calling ‘repr’ with a manually
     constructed SignalDict object.  Patch by Charlie Zhao.

   - gh-106236(158): Replace ‘assert’ statements with ‘raise
     RuntimeError’ in *note threading: f6, so that ‘_DummyThread’ cannot
     be joined even with ‘-OO’.

   - gh-106238(159): Fix rare concurrency bug in lock acquisition by the
     logging package.

   - gh-106152(160): Added PY_THROW event hook for ‘cProfile’ for
     generators

   - gh-106075(161): Added ‘asyncio.taskgroups.__all__’ to
     ‘asyncio.__all__’ for export in star imports.

   - gh-104527(162): Zipapp will now skip over appending an archive to
     itself.

   - gh-106046(163): Improve the error message from *note os.fspath():
     1011. if called on an object where ‘__fspath__’ is set to ‘None’.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-105987(164): Fix crash due to improper reference counting in
     *note asyncio: b. eager task factory internal routines.

   - gh-105974(165): Fix bug where a *note typing.Protocol: 76c. class
     that had one or more non-callable members would raise *note
     TypeError: 291. when *note issubclass(): 2f0. was called against
     it, even if it defined a custom ‘__subclasshook__’ method.  The
     behaviour in Python 3.11 and lower – which has now been restored –
     was not to raise ‘TypeError’ in these situations if a custom
     ‘__subclasshook__’ method was defined.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-96145(166): Reverted addition of ‘json.AttrDict’.

   - gh-89812(167): Add *note pathlib.UnsupportedOperation: 736, which
     is raised instead of *note NotImplementedError: 59a. when a path
     operation isn’t supported.

   - gh-105808(168): Fix a regression introduced in gh-101251(169) for
     3.12, causing ‘gzip.GzipFile.flush()’ to not flush the compressor
     (nor pass along the ‘zip_mode’ argument).

   - gh-105481(170): *note stack_effect(): 12dc. no longer raises an
     exception if an ‘oparg’ is provided for an ‘opcode’ that doesn’t
     use its arg, or when it is not provided for an ‘opcode’ that does
     use it.  In the latter case, the stack effect is returned for
     ‘oparg=0’.

   - gh-104799(171): Enable *note ast.unparse(): cb6. to unparse
     function and class definitions created without the new
     ‘type_params’ field from PEP 695(172).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-105793(173): Add 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument to
     *note pathlib.Path.is_dir(): 73d. and *note is_file(): 73c,
     defaulting to ‘True’.

   - gh-105570(174): Deprecate two methods of creating *note
     typing.TypedDict: 290. classes with 0 fields using the functional
     syntax: ‘TD = TypedDict("TD")’ and ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’.
     Both will be disallowed in Python 3.15.  To create a ‘TypedDict’
     class with 0 fields, either use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD
     = TypedDict("TD", {})’.

   - gh-105745(175): Fix ‘webbrowser.Konqueror.open’ method.

   - gh-105733(176): *note ctypes: 2d.: Deprecate undocumented
     ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ and ‘ctypes.ARRAY()’ functions.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105687(177): Remove deprecated ‘re.template’, ‘re.T’,
     ‘re.TEMPLATE’, ‘sre_constans.SRE_FLAG_TEMPLATE’.

   - gh-105684(178): Supporting *note asyncio.Task.set_name(): da1. is
     now mandatory for third party task implementations.  The
     undocumented ‘_set_task_name()’ function (deprecated since 3.8) has
     been removed.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-105375(179): Fix a bug in ‘_Unpickler_SetInputStream()’ where an
     exception could end up being overwritten in case of failure.

   - gh-105626(180): Change the default return value of *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers(): 1c79. to
     be ‘None’ and not ‘{}’.

   - gh-105375(181): Fix bugs in *note sys: e2. where exceptions could
     end up being overwritten because of deferred error handling.

   - gh-105605(182): Harden ‘pyexpat’ error handling during module
     initialisation to prevent exceptions from possibly being
     overwritten, and objects from being dereferenced twice.

   - gh-105375(183): Fix bug in *note decimal: 39. where an exception
     could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(184): Fix bugs in ‘_datetime’ where exceptions could be
     overwritten in case of module initialisation failure.

   - gh-105375(185): Fix bugs in ‘_ssl’ initialisation which could lead
     to leaked references and overwritten exceptions.

   - gh-105375(186): Fix a bug in *note array.array: 6c5. where an
     exception could end up being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(187): Fix bugs in ‘_ctypes’ where exceptions could end up
     being overwritten.

   - gh-105375(188): Fix a bug in the *note posix: b2. module where an
     exception could be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(189): Fix bugs in ‘_elementtree’ where exceptions could
     be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(190): Fix bugs in *note zoneinfo: 13d. where exceptions
     could be overwritten.

   - gh-105375(191): Fix bugs in *note errno: 5a. where exceptions could
     be overwritten.

   - gh-105566(192): Deprecate creating a *note typing.NamedTuple: 2e4.
     class using keyword arguments to denote the fields (‘NT =
     NamedTuple("NT", x=int, y=str)’).  This will be disallowed in
     Python 3.15.  Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax
     instead.

     Two methods of creating ‘NamedTuple’ classes with 0 fields using
     the functional syntax are also deprecated, and will be disallowed
     in Python 3.15: ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT")’ and ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT",
     None)’.  To create a ‘NamedTuple’ class with 0 fields, either use
     ‘class NT(NamedTuple): pass’ or ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", [])’.

   - gh-105545(193): Remove deprecated in 3.11
     ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript._name’ attribute.

   - gh-105497(194): Fix flag inversion when alias/mask members exist.

   - gh-105509(195): *note typing.Annotated: d09. is now implemented as
     an instance of ‘typing._SpecialForm’ rather than a class.  This
     should have no user-facing impact for users of the *note typing:
     10d. module public API.

   - gh-105375(196): Fix bugs in *note pickle: ab. where exceptions
     could be overwritten.

   - gh-70303(197): Emit *note FutureWarning: 847. from *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. and *note rglob(): 73b. if the given
     pattern ends with «‘**’».  In a future Python release, patterns
     with this ending will match both files and directories.  Add a
     trailing slash to only match directories.

   - gh-105375(198): Fix a bug in *note sqlite3: d7. where an exception
     could be overwritten in the *note collation: a66. callback.

   - gh-105382(199): Remove 'cafile', 'capath' and 'cadefault'
     parameters of the *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 57f. function,
     deprecated in Python 3.6.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105376(200): *note logging: 8a.: Remove undocumented and
     untested ‘Logger.warn()’ and ‘LoggerAdapter.warn()’ methods and
     ‘logging.warn()’ function.  Deprecated since Python 3.3, they were
     aliases to the *note logging.Logger.warning(): 1c7a. method,
     ‘logging.LoggerAdapter.warning()’ method and *note
     logging.warning(): 331. function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105332(201): Revert pickling method from by-name back to
     by-value.

   - gh-104554(202): Add RTSPS scheme support in urllib.parse

   - gh-105292(203): Add option to *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): c26. to recurse into the nested
     exception of a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 767.

   - gh-105280(204): Fix bug where ‘isinstance([],
     collections.abc.Mapping)’ could evaluate to ‘True’ if garbage
     collection happened at the wrong time.  The bug was caused by
     changes to the implementation of *note typing.Protocol: 76c. in
     Python 3.12.

   - gh-80480(205): *note array: 8.: Add ‘'w'’ typecode that represents
     ‘Py_UCS4’.

   - gh-105239(206): Fix longstanding bug where ‘issubclass(object,
     typing.Protocol)’ would evaluate to ‘True’ in some edge cases.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-104310(207): In the beta 1 release we added a utility function
     for extension module authors, to use when testing their module for
     support in multiple interpreters or under a per-interpreter GIL.
     The name of that function has changed from
     ‘allowing_all_extensions’ to
     ‘_incompatible_extension_module_restrictions’.  The default for the
     «disable_check» argument has change from ‘True’ to ‘False’, to
     better match the new function name.

   - gh-105080(208): Fixed inconsistent signature on derived classes for
     *note inspect.signature(): 4bd.

   - gh-105144(209): Fix a recent regression in the *note typing: 10d.
     module.  The regression meant that doing ‘class Foo(X,
     typing.Protocol)’, where ‘X’ was a class that had *note
     abc.ABCMeta: 12c9. as its metaclass, would then cause subsequent
     ‘isinstance(1, X)’ calls to erroneously raise *note TypeError: 291.
     Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-62948(210): The *note io.IOBase: 70a. finalizer now logs the
     ‘close()’ method errors with *note sys.unraisablehook: 70c.
     Previously, errors were ignored silently by default, and only
     logged in *note Python Development Mode: 70d. or on *note Python
     built on debug mode: 3dc.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105096(211): *note wave: 11c.: Deprecate the ‘getmark()’,
     ‘setmark()’ and ‘getmarkers()’ methods of the *note wave.Wave_read:
     2e6. and *note wave.Wave_write: 2e7. classes.  They will be removed
     in Python 3.15.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104992(212): Remove the untested and undocumented
     ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ method, deprecated in Python
     3.11.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-104996(213): Improve performance of *note pathlib.PurePath: 8b6.
     initialisation by deferring joining of paths when multiple
     arguments are given.

   - gh-101588(214): Deprecate undocumented copy/deepcopy/pickle support
     for itertools.

   - gh-103631(215): Fix
     ‘pathlib.PurePosixPath(pathlib.PureWindowsPath(...))’ not
     converting path separators to restore 3.11 compatible behavior.

   - gh-104947(216): Make comparisons between *note
     pathlib.PureWindowsPath: 1c7b. objects consistent across Windows
     and Posix to match 3.11 behavior.

   - gh-104773(217): PEP 594(218): Remove the ‘audioop’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(219): PEP 594(220): Remove the ‘aifc’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(221): PEP 594(222): Remove the ‘uu’ module, deprecated in
     Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104935(223): Fix bugs with the interaction between *note
     typing.runtime_checkable(): 861. and *note typing.Generic: 19f2.
     that were introduced by the PEP 695(224) implementation.  Patch by
     Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104773(225): PEP 594(226): Remove the ‘crypt’ module and its
     private ‘_crypt’ extension, deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(227): PEP 594(228): Remove the ‘nis’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104898(229): Add missing *note __slots__: 188d. to *note
     os.PathLike: 100f.

   - gh-104773(230): PEP 594(231): Remove the ‘xdrlib’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(232): PEP 594(233): Remove the ‘nntplib’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104886(234): Remove the undocumented
     ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ class, deprecated in the
     docstring since Python 3.2, and with a deprecation warning since
     Python 3.11.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-104786(235): Remove kwargs-based *note typing.TypedDict: 290.
     creation

   - gh-104876(236): Remove the ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’
     method, deprecated in docs since Python 3.1 and with a deprecation
     warning since Python 3.11.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-104773(237): PEP 594(238): Removed the ‘msilib’ package,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.

   - gh-104773(239): PEP 594(240): Remove the ‘spwd’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11: the python-pam(241) project can be used instead.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-75552(242): Removed the ‘tkinter.tix’ module, deprecated since
     Python 3.6.

   - gh-104773(243): PEP 594(244): Remove the ‘chunk’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(245): PEP 594(246): Remove the ‘mailcap’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(247): PEP 594(248): Remove the ‘sunau’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104780(249): PEP 594(250): Remove the ‘ossaudiodev’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(251): PEP 594(252): Remove the ‘pipes’ module, deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104873(253): Add *note typing.get_protocol_members(): 76b. to
     return the set of members defining a *note typing.Protocol: 76c.
     Add *note typing.is_protocol(): 76d. to check whether a class is a
     ‘typing.Protocol’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104874(254): Document the ‘__name__’ and ‘__supertype__’
     attributes of *note typing.NewType: 10b1.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-104835(255): Removed the following *note unittest: 10f.
     functions, deprecated in Python 3.11:

        * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’

        * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’

        * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 792. methods instead:

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 793.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 794.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 795.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-104804(256): Remove the untested and undocumented *note
     webbrowser: 11e. ‘MacOSX’ class, deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch
     by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-83863(257): Support for using *note pathlib.Path: 4ee. objects
     as context managers has been removed.  Before Python 3.9, exiting
     the context manager marked a path as «closed», which caused some
     (but not all!)  methods to raise when called.  Since Python 3.9,
     using a path as a context manager does nothing.

   - gh-104799(258): Adjust the location of the (see PEP 695(259))
     ‘type_params’ field on *note ast.ClassDef: 1c7c, *note
     ast.AsyncFunctionDef: 1c7d, and *note ast.FunctionDef: 1c7e. to
     better preserve backward compatibility.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra

   - gh-104797(260): Allow *note typing.Protocol: 76c. classes to
     inherit from *note collections.abc.Buffer: 312.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - gh-104783(261): Remove ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function deprecated
     in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104780(262): Remove the ‘2to3’ program and the ‘lib2to3’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(263): PEP 594(264): Remove the ‘telnetlib’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(265): PEP 594(266): Remove the ‘imghdr’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(267): PEP 594(268): Remove the ‘cgi’ and ‘cgitb’ modules,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104773(269): PEP 594(270): Remove the ‘sndhdr’ module,
     deprecated in Python 3.11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104372(271): On Linux where *note subprocess: df. can use the
     ‘vfork()’ syscall for faster spawning, prevent the parent process
     from blocking other threads by dropping the GIL while it waits for
     the vfork’ed child process ‘exec()’ outcome.  This prevents
     spawning a binary from a slow filesystem from blocking the rest of
     the application.

   - gh-99108(272): We now release the GIL around built-in *note
     hashlib: 6b. computations of reasonable size for the SHA families
     and MD5 hash functions, matching what our OpenSSL backed hash
     computations already does.

   - gh-102613(273): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     73a. when expanding a pattern with a non-terminal «‘**’» component
     by filtering walked paths through a regular expression, rather than
     calling *note os.scandir(): e23. more than once on each directory.

   - gh-104399(274): Prepare the ‘_tkinter’ module for building with Tcl
     9.0 and future libtommath by replacing usage of deprecated
     functions ‘mp_to_unsigned_bin_n()’ and ‘mp_unsigned_bin_size()’
     when necessary.

   - gh-102676(275): Add fields ‘start_offset’, ‘cache_offset’,
     ‘end_offset’, ‘baseopname’, ‘baseopcode’, ‘jump_target’ and ‘oparg’
     to *note dis.Instruction: 494.

   - gh-103558(276): Fixed ‘parent’ argument validation mechanism of
     *note argparse: 7.  Improved test coverage.

   - gh-103464(277): Provide helpful usage messages when parsing
     incorrect *note pdb: aa. commands.

   - gh-103384(278): Generalize the regex pattern
     ‘BaseConfigurator.INDEX_PATTERN’ to allow spaces and
     non-alphanumeric characters in keys.

   - gh-103124(279): Added multiline statement support for *note pdb:
     aa.

   - gh-101162(280): Forbid using ‘builtins.issubclass()’ with *note
     types.GenericAlias: bc7. as the first argument.

   - gh-103200(281): Fix cache repopulation semantics of
     zipimport.invalidate_caches().  The cache is now repopulated upon
     retrieving files with an invalid cache, not when the cache is
     invalidated.

   - gh-100061(282): Fix a bug that causes wrong matches for regular
     expressions with possessive qualifier.

   - gh-77609(283): Add 'follow_symlinks' argument to *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. and *note rglob(): 73b, defaulting to
     false.

   - gh-102541(284): Hide traceback in *note help(): ca9. prompt, when
     import failed.

   - gh-102120(285): Added a stream mode to ‘tarfile’ that allows for
     reading archives without caching info about the inner files.

   - gh-102029(286): Deprecate passing any arguments to *note
     threading.RLock(): 2df.

   - gh-88233(287): Refactored ‘zipfile._strip_extra’ to use higher
     level abstractions for extras instead of a heavy-state loop.

   - gh-102024(288): Reduce calls of ‘_idle_semaphore.release()’ in
     ‘concurrent.futures.thread._worker()’.

   - gh-73435(289): Add support for recursive wildcards in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 8bc.

   - gh-84867(290): *note unittest.TestLoader: 792. no longer loads test
     cases from exact *note unittest.TestCase: 52f. and *note
     unittest.FunctionTestCase: 1c7f. classes.

   - gh-99203(291): Restore following CPython <= 3.10.5 behavior of
     *note shutil.make_archive(): 8c3.: do not create an empty archive
     if ‘root_dir’ is not a directory, and, in that case, raise *note
     FileNotFoundError: 243. or *note NotADirectoryError: 1402.
     regardless of ‘format’ choice.  Beyond the brought-back behavior,
     the function may now also raise these exceptions in ‘dry_run’ mode.

   - gh-80480(292): Emit *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. for *note array:
     8.’s ‘'u'’ type code, deprecated in docs since Python 3.3.

   - gh-94924(293): *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1b4e. now
     properly returns coroutine functions compatible with *note
     inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 302.

   - gh-94777(294): Fix hanging *note multiprocessing: 98.
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ when a child process crashes while data is
     being written in the call queue.

   - gh-92871(295): Remove the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ namespaces,
     deprecated since Python 3.8.  All items are still available from
     the main *note typing: 10d. module.

   - bpo-43633(296): Improve the textual representation of IPv4-mapped
     IPv6 addresses ( RFC 4291(297) Sections 2.2, 2.5.5.2) in *note
     ipaddress: 83.  Patch by Oleksandr Pavliuk.

   - bpo-44850(298): Improve performance of *note
     operator.methodcaller(): 11e7. using the PEP 590(299) ‘vectorcall’
     convention.  Patch by Anthony Lee and Pieter Eendebak.

   - bpo-44185(300): *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 1390. will call
     the ‘close()’ method of the file handle mock when it is exiting
     from the context manager.  Patch by Samet Yaslan.

   - bpo-40988(301): Improve performance of *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 21e. by caching the generated
     dispatch wrapper.  Optimization suggested by frederico.  Patch by
     @mental32, Alex Waygood and Pieter Eendebak.

   - bpo-41768(302): *note unittest.mock: 110. speccing no longer calls
     class properties.  Patch by Melanie Witt.

   - bpo-18319(303): Ensure ‘gettext(msg)’ retrieve translations even if
     a plural form exists.  In other words: ‘gettext(msg) ==
     ngettext(msg, '', 1)’.

   - bpo-17013(304): Add ‘ThreadingMock’ to *note unittest.mock: 110.
     that can be used to create Mock objects that can wait until they
     are called.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan and Mario Corchero.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110786

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103480

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110733

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110682

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110488

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110590

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65052

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110519

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110378

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106670

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110365

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110273

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110249

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110222

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110150

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110036

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110038

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110045

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88402

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109631

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109818

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109047

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109782

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109590

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109593

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74481

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109613

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109599

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109109

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109559

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109543

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109495

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109461

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109409

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109375

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109319

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107219

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66143

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109187

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50644

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109174

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109164

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109151

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108987

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108682

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109033

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108843

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108469

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108751

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108682

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105829

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108295

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108463

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108277

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107811

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64662

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108111

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101251

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108294

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108322

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83417

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105736

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108083

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107932

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105539

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107995

   (81) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107963

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106242

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81555

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50002

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93057

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76913

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107913

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107845

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107812

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107805

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107782

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/56166

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107710

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107715

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100814

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72684

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106684

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107465

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107077

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107576

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107396

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107409

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107406

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107369

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78722

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105578

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62519

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107089

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82500

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83006

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65495

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106186

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105002

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106739

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106831

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106727

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106789

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105726

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106774

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106751

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106752

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105293

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106734

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106670

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106602

   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106664

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106628

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89427

   (136) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106530

   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106584

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106566

   (139) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106554

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106558

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100502

   (142) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106527

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106524

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106052

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106510

   (147) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106503

   (148) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105497

   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90876

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106403

   (151) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89812

   (152) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106292

   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106350

   (154) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106330

   (155) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106309

   (156) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102541

   (157) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106263

   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106236

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106238

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106152

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106075

   (162) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104527

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106046

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105987

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105974

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96145

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89812

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105808

   (169) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101251

   (170) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (171) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (172) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (173) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105793

   (174) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105570

   (175) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105745

   (176) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733

   (177) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105687

   (178) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105684

   (179) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (180) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105626

   (181) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (182) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105605

   (183) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (184) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (185) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (186) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

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   (191) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (192) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566

   (193) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105545

   (194) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105497

   (195) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105509

   (196) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (197) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70303

   (198) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (199) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105382

   (200) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105376

   (201) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105332

   (202) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104554

   (203) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105292

   (204) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105280

   (205) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480

   (206) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105239

   (207) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104310

   (208) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105080

   (209) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105144

   (210) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62948

   (211) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105096

   (212) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104992

   (213) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104996

   (214) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588

   (215) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103631

   (216) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104947

   (217) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (218) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (219) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (220) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (221) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (222) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (223) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104935

   (224) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (225) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (226) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (227) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (228) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (229) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104898

   (230) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (231) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (232) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (233) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (234) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104886

   (235) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104786

   (236) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104876

   (237) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (238) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (239) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (240) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (241) https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/

   (242) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75552

   (243) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (244) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (245) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (246) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (247) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (248) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (249) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780

   (250) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (251) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773

   (252) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (253) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873

   (254) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104874

   (255) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104835

   (256) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104804

   (257) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83863

   (258) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104799

   (259) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (260) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104797

   (261) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104783

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   (270) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (271) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104372

   (272) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (273) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613

   (274) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104399

   (275) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102676

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   (281) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103200

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   (289) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73435

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   (291) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99203

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   (293) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94924

   (294) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94777

   (295) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92871

   (296) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43633

   (297) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html

   (298) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44850

   (299) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (300) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44185

   (301) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40988

   (302) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41768

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<20>,  Next: Tests<23>,  Prev: Library<69>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.26.25.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-109209(1): The minimum Sphinx version required for the
     documentation is now 4.2.

   - gh-108826(2): *note dis: 3b. module command-line interface is now
     mentioned in documentation.

   - gh-107305(3): Add documentation for *note PyInterpreterConfig: 973.
     and *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 876.  Also clarify some of
     the nearby docs relative to per-interpreter GIL.

   - gh-107008(4): Document the *note curses: 2e. module variables *note
     LINES: 11a4. and *note COLS: 11a5.

   - gh-106948(5): Add a number of standard external names to
     ‘nitpick_ignore’.

   - gh-106232(6): Make timeit doc command lines compatible with Windows
     by using double quotes for arguments.  This works on linux and
     macOS also.

   - gh-105172(7): Fixed *note functools.lru_cache(): db3. docstring
     accounting for ‘typed’ argument’s different handling of str and
     int.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - gh-105052(8): Update ‘timeit’ doc to specify that time in seconds
     is just the default.

   - gh-89455(9): Add missing documentation for the ‘max_group_depth’
     and ‘max_group_width’ parameters and the ‘exceptions’ attribute of
     the *note traceback.TracebackException: 764. class.

   - gh-89412(10): Add missing documentation for the ‘end_lineno’ and
     ‘end_offset’ attributes of the *note traceback.TracebackException:
     764. class.

   - gh-104943(11): Remove mentions of old Python versions in *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 2e4.

   - gh-54738(12): Add documentation on how to localize the *note
     argparse: 7. module.

   - gh-102823(13): Document the return type of ‘x // y’ when ‘x’ and
     ‘y’ have type *note float: 327.

   - gh-102759(14): Align function signature for ‘functools.reduce’ in
     documentation and docstring with the C implementation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109209

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108826

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107305

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107008

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106948

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106232

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105172

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105052

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89455

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89412

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104943

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/54738

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102823

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102759


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<23>,  Next: Build<22>,  Prev: Documentation<20>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.26.25.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-110647(1): Fix test_stress_modifying_handlers() of test_signal.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103053(2): Fix test_tools.test_freeze on FreeBSD: run «make
     distclean» instead of «make clean» in the copied source directory
     to remove also the «python» program.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110167(3): Fix a deadlock in test_socket when server fails with
     a timeout but the client is still running in its thread.  Don’t
     hold a lock to call cleanup functions in doCleanups().  One of the
     cleanup function waits until the client completes, whereas the
     client could deadlock if it called addCleanup() in such situation.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110388(4): Add tests for *note tty: 109.

   - gh-81002(5): Add tests for *note termios: ea.

   - gh-110367(6): regrtest: When using worker processes (-jN) with
     –verbose3 option, regrtest can now display the worker output even
     if a worker process does crash.  Previously, sys.stdout and
     sys.stderr were replaced and so the worker output was lost on a
     crash.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110267(7): Add tests for pickling and copying PyStructSequence
     objects.  Patched by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-110171(8): ‘libregrtest’ now always sets and shows
     ‘random.seed’, so tests are more reproducible.  Use ‘--randseed’
     flag to pass the explicit random seed for tests.

   - gh-110152(9): Remove ‘Tools/scripts/run_tests.py’ and ‘make
     hostrunnertest’.  Just run ‘./python -m test --slow-ci’, ‘make
     buildbottest’ or ‘make test’ instead.  Python test runner
     (regrtest) now handles cross-compilation and HOSTRUNNER. It also
     adds options to Python such fast ‘-u -E -W default -bb’ when
     ‘--fast-ci’ or ‘--slow-ci’ option is used.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-110031(10): Skip test_threading tests using thread+fork if
     Python is built with Address Sanitizer (ASAN). Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-110088(11): Fix test_asyncio timeouts: don’t measure the maximum
     duration, a test should not measure a CI performance.  Only measure
     the minimum duration when a task has a timeout or delay.  Add
     ‘CLOCK_RES’ to ‘test_asyncio.utils’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109974(12): Fix race conditions in test_threading lock tests.
     Wait until a condition is met rather than using *note time.sleep():
     a8c. with a hardcoded number of seconds.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110033(13): Fix ‘test_interprocess_signal()’ of ‘test_signal’.
     Make sure that the ‘subprocess.Popen’ object is deleted before the
     test raising an exception in a signal handler.  Otherwise,
     ‘Popen.__del__()’ can get the exception which is logged as
     ‘Exception ignored in: ...’ and the test fails.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-109594(14): Fix test_timeout() of
     test_concurrent_futures.test_wait.  Remove the future which may or
     may not complete depending if it takes longer than the timeout or
     not.  Keep the second future which does not complete before wait()
     timeout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109972(15): Split test_gdb.py file into a test_gdb package made
     of multiple tests, so tests can now be run in parallel.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109566(16): regrtest: When ‘--fast-ci’ or ‘--slow-ci’ option is
     used, regrtest now replaces the current process with a new process
     to add ‘-u -W default -bb -E’ options to Python.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-109748(17): Fix ‘test_zippath_from_non_installed_posix()’ of
     test_venv: don’t copy ‘__pycache__/’ sub-directories, because they
     can be modified by other Python tests running in parallel.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109739(18): regrtest: Fix reference leak check on Windows.
     Disable the load tracker on Windows in the reference leak check
     mode (-R option).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109276(19): regrtest: When a test fails with «env changed» and
     the –rerun option is used, the test is now re-run in verbose mode
     in a fresh process.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103053(20): Skip test_freeze_simple_script() of
     test_tools.test_freeze if Python is built with ‘./configure
     --enable-optimizations’, which means with Profile Guided
     Optimization (PGO): it just makes the test too slow.  The freeze
     tool is tested by many other CIs with other (faster) compiler
     flags.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109580(21): Skip ‘test_perf_profiler’ if Python is built with
     ASAN, MSAN or UBSAN sanitizer.  Python does crash randomly in this
     test on such build.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109566(22): regrtest: Add ‘--fast-ci’ and ‘--slow-ci’ options.
     ‘--fast-ci’ uses a default timeout of 10 minutes and ‘-u all,-cpu’
     (skip slowest tests).  ‘--slow-ci’ uses a default timeout of 20
     minutes and ‘-u all’ (run all tests).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109425(23): libregrtest now decodes stdout of test worker
     processes with the «backslashreplace» error handler to log
     corrupted stdout, instead of failing with an error and not logging
     the stdout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109396(24): Fix ‘test_socket.test_hmac_sha1()’ in FIPS mode.
     Use a longer key: FIPS mode requires at least of at least 112 bits.
     The previous key was only 32 bits.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104736(25): Fix test_gdb on Python built with LLVM clang 16 on
     Linux ppc64le (ex: Fedora 38).  Search patterns in gdb «bt» command
     output to detect when gdb fails to retrieve the traceback.  For
     example, skip a test if ‘Backtrace stopped: frame did not save the
     PC’ is found.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109276(26): libregrtest now calls *note random.seed(): 1618.
     before running each test file when ‘-r/--randomize’ command line
     option is used.  Moreover, it’s also called in worker processes.
     It should help to make tests more deterministic.  Previously, it
     was only called once in the main process before running all test
     files and it was not called in worker processes.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-109276(27): libregrtest now uses a separated file descriptor to
     write test result as JSON. Previously, if a test wrote debug
     messages late around the JSON, the main test process failed to
     parse JSON. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108996(28): Fix and enable ‘test_msvcrt’.

   - gh-109237(29): Fix ‘test_site.test_underpth_basic()’ when the
     working directory contains at least one non-ASCII character: encode
     the ‘._pth’ file to UTF-8 and enable the UTF-8 Mode to use UTF-8
     for the child process stdout.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109230(30): Fix ‘test_pyexpat.test_exception()’: it can now be
     run from a directory different than Python source code directory.
     Before, the test failed in this case.  Skip the test if
     Modules/pyexpat.c source is not available.  Skip also the test on
     Python implementations other than CPython.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-108996(31): Add tests for ‘msvcrt’.

   - gh-109015(32): Fix test_asyncio, test_imaplib and test_socket tests
     on FreeBSD if the TCP blackhole is enabled (‘sysctl
     net.inet.tcp.blackhole’).  Skip the few tests which failed with
     ‘ETIMEDOUT’ which such non standard configuration.  Currently, the
     FreeBSD GCP image enables TCP and UDP blackhole(33) (‘sysctl
     net.inet.tcp.blackhole=2’ and ‘sysctl net.inet.udp.blackhole=1’).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91960(34): Skip ‘test_gdb’ if gdb is unable to retrieve Python
     frame objects: if a frame is ‘<optimized out>’.  When Python is
     built with «clang -Og», gdb can fail to retrieve the 'frame'
     parameter of ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’.  In this case, tests
     like ‘py_bt()’ are likely to fail.  Without getting access to
     Python frames, ‘python-gdb.py’ is mostly clueless on retrieving the
     Python traceback.  Moreover, ‘test_gdb’ is no longer skipped on
     macOS if Python is built with Clang.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108962(35): Skip ‘test_tempfile.test_flags()’ if ‘chflags()’
     fails with «OSError: [Errno 45] Operation not supported» (ex: on
     FreeBSD 13).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91960(36): FreeBSD 13.2 CI coverage for pull requests is now
     provided by Cirrus-CI (a hosted CI service that supports Linux,
     macOS, Windows, and FreeBSD).

   - gh-89392(37): Removed support of ‘test_main()’ function in tests.
     They now always use normal unittest test runner.

   - gh-108851(38): Fix ‘test_tomllib’ recursion tests for WASI
     buildbots: reduce the recursion limit and compute the maximum
     nested array/dict depending on the current available recursion
     limit.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108851(39): Add ‘get_recursion_available()’ and
     ‘get_recursion_depth()’ functions to the *note test.support: ed.
     module.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(40): Add ‘--fail-rerun option’ option to regrtest: if a
     test failed when then passed when rerun in verbose mode, exit the
     process with exit code 2 (error), instead of exit code 0 (success).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(41): Rename regrtest ‘--verbose2’ option (‘-w’) to
     ‘--rerun’.  Keep ‘--verbose2’ as a deprecated alias.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108834(42): When regrtest reruns failed tests in verbose mode
     (‘./python -m test --rerun’), tests are now rerun in fresh worker
     processes rather than being executed in the main process.  If a
     test does crash or is killed by a timeout, the main process can
     detect and handle the killed worker process.  Tests are rerun in
     parallel if the ‘-jN’ option is used to run tests in parallel.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108822(43): ‘regrtest’ now computes statistics on all tests:
     successes, failures and skipped.  ‘test_netrc’,
     ‘test_pep646_syntax’ and ‘test_xml_etree’ now return results in
     their ‘test_main()’ function.  Patch by Victor Stinner and Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-108794(44): The *note doctest.DocTestRunner.run(): 6f3. method
     now counts the number of skipped tests.  Add *note
     doctest.DocTestRunner.skips: 6f4. and *note
     doctest.TestResults.skipped: 6f5. attributes.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-108388(45): Convert test_concurrent_futures to a package of 7
     sub-tests.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108388(46): Split test_multiprocessing_fork,
     test_multiprocessing_forkserver and test_multiprocessing_spawn into
     test packages.  Each package is made of 4 sub-tests: processes,
     threads, manager and misc.  It allows running more tests in
     parallel and so reduce the total test duration.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-105776(47): Fix test_cppext when the C compiler command
     ‘-std=c11’ option: remove ‘-std=’ options from the compiler
     command.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107652(48): Set up CIFuzz to run fuzz targets in GitHub Actions.
     Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-107237(49): ‘test_logging’: Fix ‘test_udp_reconnection()’ by
     increasing the timeout from 100 ms to 5 minutes (LONG_TIMEOUT).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107178(50): Add the C API test for functions in the Mapping
     Protocol, the Sequence Protocol and some functions in the Object
     Protocol.

   - gh-106714(51): test_capi: Fix test_no_FatalError_infinite_loop() to
     no longer write a coredump, by using
     test.support.SuppressCrashReport.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-104090(52): Avoid creating a reference to the test object in
     *note collectedDurations(): 1c82.

   - gh-106752(53): Moved tests for ‘zipfile.Path’ into
     ‘Lib/test/test_zipfile/_path’.  Made ‘zipfile._path’ a package.

   - gh-106690(54): Add .coveragerc to cpython repository for use with
     coverage package.

   - gh-101634(55): When running the Python test suite with ‘-jN’
     option, if a worker stdout cannot be decoded from the locale
     encoding report a failed testn so the exitcode is non-zero.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105084(56): When the Python build is configured
     ‘--with-wheel-pkg-dir’, tests requiring the ‘setuptools’ and
     ‘wheel’ wheels will search for the wheels in ‘WHEEL_PKG_DIR’.

   - gh-81005(57): String tests are modified to reflect that ‘str’ and
     ‘unicode’ are merged in Python 3.  Patch by Daniel Fortunov.

   - gh-103186(58): Suppress and assert expected RuntimeWarnings in
     test_sys_settrace.py

   - gh-69714(59): Add additional tests to *note calendar: 15. to
     achieve full test coverage.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110647

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110167

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110388

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81002

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110367

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110267

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110171

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110152

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110031

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110088

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109974

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110033

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109594

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109972

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109566

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109748

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109739

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109276

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109580

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109566

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109425

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109396

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104736

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109276

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109276

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108996

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109237

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109230

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108996

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109015

   (33) https://reviews.freebsd.org/D41751

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91960

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108962

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91960

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89392

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108851

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108851

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108834

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108822

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108794

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108388

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108388

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105776

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107652

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107237

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107178

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106714

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104090

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106752

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106690

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101634

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105084

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81005

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103186

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69714


File: python.info,  Node: Build<22>,  Next: Windows<20>,  Prev: Tests<23>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.26.25.6 Build
...............

   - gh-103053(1): «make check-clean-src» now also checks if the
     «python» program is found in the source directory: fail with an
     error if it does exist.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109191(2): Fix compile error when building with recent versions
     of libedit.

   - gh-110276(3): No longer ignore *note PROFILE_TASK: 1c84. failure
     silently: command used by Profile Guided Optimization (PGO). Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109566(4): Remove ‘make testall’ target: use ‘make buildbottest’
     instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109740(5): The experimental ‘--disable-gil’ configure flag now
     includes «t» (for «threaded») in extension ABI tags.

   - gh-109054(6): Fix building the ‘_testcapi’ extension on Linux
     AArch64 which requires linking to libatomic when
     ‘<cpython/pyatomic.h>’ is used: the ‘_Py_atomic_or_uint64()’
     function requires libatomic ‘__atomic_fetch_or_8()’ on this
     platform.  The configure script now checks if linking to libatomic
     is needed and generates a new LIBATOMIC variable used to build the
     _testcapi extension.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-63760(7): Fix Solaris build: no longer redefine the
     ‘gethostname()’ function.  Solaris defines the function since 2005.
     Patch by Victor Stinner, original patch by Jakub Kulík.

   - gh-108740(8): Fix a race condition in ‘make regen-all’.  The
     ‘deepfreeze.c’ source and files generated by Argument Clinic are
     now generated or updated before generating «global objects».
     Previously, some identifiers may miss depending on the order in
     which these files were generated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108634(9): Python built with ‘configure’ *note -with-trace-refs:
     828. (tracing references) is now ABI compatible with Python release
     build and *note debug build: 3dc.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-85283(10): The ‘_stat’ C extension is now built with the *note
     limited C API: 829.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108447(11): Fix x86_64 GNU/Hurd build

   - gh-107814(12): When calling ‘find_python.bat’ with ‘-q’ it did not
     properly silence the output of nuget.  That is now fixed.

   - gh-105481(13): Remove the make target ‘regen-opcode-targets’, merge
     its work into ‘regen-opcode’ which repeats most of the calculation.
     This simplifies the code for the build and reduces code
     duplication.

   - gh-106881(14): Check for ‘linux/limits.h’ before including it in
     ‘Modules/posixmodule.c’.

   - gh-95855(15): Refactor platform triplet detection code and add
     detection for MIPS soft float and musl libc.

   - gh-106962(16): Detect MPI compilers in ‘configure’.

   - gh-106118(17): Fix compilation for platforms without ‘O_CLOEXEC’.
     The issue was introduced with Python 3.12b1 in gh-103295(18).
     Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-105875(19): SQLite 3.15.2 or newer is required to build the
     *note sqlite3: d7. extension module.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-90005(20): Fix a regression in ‘configure’ where we could end up
     unintentionally linking with ‘libbsd’.

   - gh-102404(21): Document how to perform a WASI build on Linux.  Also
     add Tools/wasm/build_wasi.sh as a reference implementation of the
     docs.

   - gh-89886(22): Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 is now required to
     regenerate ‘configure’.

   - gh-104692(23): Include ‘commoninstall’ as a prerequisite for
     ‘bininstall’

     This ensures that ‘commoninstall’ is completed before ‘bininstall’
     is started when parallel builds are used (‘make -j install’), and
     so the ‘python3’ symlink is only installed after all standard
     library modules are installed.

   - gh-101538(24): Add experimental wasi-threads support.  Patch by
     Takashi Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103053

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109191

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110276

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109566

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109740

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109054

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63760

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108740

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108447

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107814

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106881

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95855

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106962

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106118

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103295

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105875

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102404

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104692

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101538


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<20>,  Next: macOS<15>,  Prev: Build<22>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.26.25.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-110437(1): Allows overriding the source of VC redistributables
     so that releases can be guaranteed to never downgrade between
     updates.

   - gh-109286(2): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.43.1.

   - gh-82367(3): *note os.path.realpath(): 241. now resolves MS-DOS
     style file names even if the file is not accessible.  Patch by
     Moonsik Park.

   - gh-109991(4): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 3.0.11.

   - gh-106242(5): Fixes *note realpath(): 241. to behave consistently
     when passed a path containing an embedded null character on
     Windows.  In strict mode, it now raises *note OSError: 53c. instead
     of the unexpected *note ValueError: 277, and in non-strict mode
     will make the path absolute.

   - gh-83180(6): Changes the *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python:
     9bc. to prefer an active virtual environment when the launched
     script has a shebang line using a Unix-like virtual command, even
     if the command requests a specific version of Python.

   - gh-106844(7): Fix integer overflow and truncating by the null
     character in ‘_winapi.LCMapStringEx()’ which affects
     ‘ntpath.normcase()’.

   - gh-105436(8): Ensure that an empty environment block is terminated
     by two null characters, as is required by Windows.

   - gh-105146(9): Updated the links at the end of the installer to
     point to Discourse rather than the mailing lists.

   - gh-103646(10): When installed from the Microsoft Store, ‘pip’ no
     longer defaults to per-user installs.  However, as the install
     directory is unwritable, it should automatically decide to do a
     per-user install anyway.  This should resolve issues when ‘pip’ is
     passed an option that conflicts with ‘--user’.

   - gh-88745(11): Improve performance of *note shutil.copy2(): e1f. by
     using the operating system’s ‘CopyFile2’ function.  This may result
     in subtle changes to metadata copied along with some files,
     bringing them in line with normal OS behavior.

   - gh-104820(12): Fixes *note stat(): 4f5. and related functions on
     file systems that do not support file ID requests.  This includes
     FAT32 and exFAT.

   - gh-104803(13): Add *note os.path.isdevdrive(): 1bcc. to detect
     whether a path is on a Windows Dev Drive.  Returns ‘False’ on
     platforms that do not support Dev Drive, and is absent on
     non-Windows platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110437

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109286

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82367

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106242

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83180

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106844

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105436

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105146

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103646

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88745

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104820

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104803


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<15>,  Next: IDLE<14>,  Prev: Windows<20>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.26.25.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-109286(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.43.1.

   - gh-109991(2): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.11.

   - gh-99079(3): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 3.0.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109286

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99079


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<14>,  Next: Tools/Demos<17>,  Prev: macOS<15>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.26.25.9 IDLE
..............

   - gh-104719(1): Remove IDLE’s modification of tokenize.tabsize and
     test other uses of tokenize data and methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104719


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<17>,  Next: C API<23>,  Prev: IDLE<14>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.26.25.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-109991(1): Update GitHub CI workflows to use OpenSSL 3.0.11 and
     multissltests to use 1.1.1w, 3.0.11, and 3.1.3.

   - gh-108494(2): Argument Clinic(3) now has a partial support of the
     *note Limited API: 829.: see documentation in the Python
     Developer's Guide(4) Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107704(5): It is now possible to deprecate passing keyword
     arguments for keyword-or-positional parameters with Argument
     Clinic, using the new ‘/ [from X.Y]’ syntax.  (To be read as
     '«positional-only from Python version X.Y»'.)  See documentation in
     the Python Developer's Guide(6) for more information.

   - gh-107880(7): Argument Clinic can now clone ‘__init__()’ and
     ‘__new__()’ methods.

   - gh-104683(8): Add ‘--exclude’ option to Argument Clinic CLI.

   - gh-95065(9): Argument Clinic now supports overriding automatically
     generated signature by using directive ‘@text_signature’.  See
     documentation in the Python Developer's Guide(10)

   - gh-107609(11): Fix duplicate module check in Argument Clinic.
     Previously, a duplicate definition would incorrectly be silently
     accepted.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-107467(12): The Argument Clinic command-line tool now prints to
     stderr instead of stdout on failure.

   - gh-106970(13): Fix bugs in the Argument Clinic ‘destination <name>
     clear’ command; the destination buffers would never be cleared, and
     the ‘destination’ directive parser would simply continue to the
     fault handler after processing the command.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - gh-106706(14): Change bytecode syntax for families to remove
     redundant name matching pseudo syntax.

   - gh-106359(15): Argument Clinic now explicitly forbids «kwarg
     splats» in function calls used as annotations.

   - gh-103186(16): ‘freeze’ now fetches ‘CONFIG_ARGS’ from the original
     CPython instance the Makefile uses to call utility scripts.  Patch
     by Ijtaba Hussain.

   - gh-95065(17): It is now possible to deprecate passing parameters
     positionally with Argument Clinic, using the new ‘* [from X.Y]’
     syntax.  (To be read as '«keyword-only from Python version X.Y»'.)
     See documentation in the Python Developer's Guide(18) for more
     information.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland with help from Alex
     Waygood, Nikita Sobolev, and Serhiy Storchaka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109991

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108494

   (3) https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/

   (4) 
https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-limited-capi

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107704

   (6) 
https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-deprecate-keyword

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107880

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104683

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95065

   (10) 
https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-override-signature

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107609

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107467

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106970

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106706

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106359

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103186

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95065

   (18) 
https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/#clinic-howto-deprecate-positional


File: python.info,  Node: C API<23>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<17>,  Up: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1

1.26.25.11 C API
................

   - gh-85283(1): If the *note Py_LIMITED_API: 84d. macro is defined,
     ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’, ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ and ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’
     macros are now undefined by ‘<Python.h>’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-110289(2): Add *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 80d. and
     *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8(): 80e. functions.

   - gh-110235(3): Raise *note TypeError: 291. for duplicate/unknown
     fields in ‘PyStructSequence’ constructor.  Patched by Xuehai Pan.

   - gh-110014(4): Remove undocumented ‘PY_TIMEOUT_MAX’ constant from
     the limited C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-109521(5): *note PyImport_GetImporter(): 1c8a. now sets
     RuntimeError if it fails to get *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd. or
     *note sys.path_importer_cache: 9db. or they are not list and dict
     correspondingly.  Previously it could return NULL without setting
     error in obscure cases, crash or raise SystemError if these
     attributes have wrong type.

   - gh-108724(6): Add *note PyMutex: 693. internal-only lightweight
     locking API.

   - gh-85283(7): Add *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 807. function: similar
     to *note PySys_Audit(): 808, but pass event arguments as a Python
     *note tuple: 1ce. object.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108867(8): Add *note PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 636.
     function: similar to *note PyThreadState_Get(): 809, but don’t kill
     the process with a fatal error if it is NULL. The caller is
     responsible to check if the result is NULL. Previously, the
     function was private and known as ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108765(9): ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<ctype.h>’
     standard header file.  If needed, it should now be included
     explicitly.  For example, it provides ‘isalpha()’ and ‘tolower()’
     functions which are locale dependent.  Python provides locale
     independent functions, like ‘Py_ISALPHA()’ and ‘Py_TOLOWER()’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108765(10): ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<unistd.h>’
     standard header file.  If needed, it should now be included
     explicitly.  For example, it provides the functions: ‘close()’,
     ‘getpagesize()’, ‘getpid()’ and ‘sysconf()’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-108765(11): ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘<ieeefp.h>’
     standard header.  It was included for the ‘finite()’ function which
     is now provided by the ‘<math.h>’ header.  It should now be
     included explicitly if needed.  Remove also the ‘HAVE_IEEEFP_H’
     macro.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108765(12): ‘Python.h’ no longer includes these standard header
     files: ‘<time.h>’, ‘<sys/select.h>’ and ‘<sys/time.h>’.  If needed,
     they should now be included explicitly.  For example, ‘<time.h>’
     provides the ‘clock()’ and ‘gmtime()’ functions, ‘<sys/select.h>’
     provides the ‘select()’ function, and ‘<sys/time.h>’ provides the
     ‘futimes()’, ‘gettimeofday()’ and ‘setitimer()’ functions.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108511(13): Add functions *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError():
     80f, *note PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 811, *note
     PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 813. and *note
     PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 815.

   - gh-107073(14): Add *note PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 803. and
     *note PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 804. functions which must be
     called by the traverse and clear functions of a type using *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. flag.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108634(15): Python built with ‘configure’ *note
     -with-trace-refs: 828. (tracing references) now supports the *note
     Limited API: 829.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108014(16): Add *note PyLong_AsInt(): 7fa. function: similar to
     *note PyLong_AsLong(): 7fb, but store the result in a C int instead
     of a C long.  Previously, it was known as the private function
     ‘_PyLong_AsInt()’ (with an underscore prefix).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-108314(17): Add *note PyDict_ContainsString(): 7d6. function:
     same as *note PyDict_Contains(): 7d7, but 'key' is specified as a
     const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note
     PyObject: 19b.*.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-108337(18): Add atomic operations on additional data types in
     pyatomic.h.

   - gh-108014(19): Add *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 7f3. function: check if
     the main Python interpreter is *note shutting down: 1a0.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107916(20): C API functions *note
     PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(): 1c8b, *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 1c8c. and *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 1c8d. save now the error
     code before calling *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 1c8e.

   - gh-107915(21): Such C API functions as ‘PyErr_SetString()’,
     ‘PyErr_Format()’, ‘PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename()’ and many
     others no longer crash or ignore errors if it failed to format the
     error message or decode the filename.  Instead, they keep a
     corresponding error.

   - gh-107810(22): Improve *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. for uses of
     *note PyType_Spec: 1c8f. with metaclasses that have custom
     ‘tp_new’.

   - gh-107249(23): Implement the *note Py_UNUSED: 1c90. macro for
     Windows MSVC compiler.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-107226(24): *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 800. is now only
     available in the limited API version 3.10 or later.

   - gh-106320(25): Remove private ‘_PyUnicode_AsString()’ alias to
     *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): 637.  It was kept for backward
     compatibility with Python 3.0 - 3.2.  The ‘PyUnicode_AsUTF8()’ is
     available since Python 3.3.  The *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8String():
     1537. function can be used to keep compatibility with Python 3.2
     and older.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106572(26): Convert *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1a6d. and *note
     PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1a6e. macros to functions.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106307(27): Add *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 7e0.
     function.

   - gh-106521(28): Add *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 7e4. and *note
     PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 7e5. functions.

   - gh-106320(29): Remove ‘_PyInterpreterState_Get()’ alias to *note
     PyInterpreterState_Get(): 83b. which was kept for backward
     compatibility with Python 3.8.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106316(30): Remove ‘cpython/pytime.h’ header file: it only
     contained private functions.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106023(31): Remove private ‘_PyObject_FastCall()’ function: use
     ‘PyObject_Vectorcall()’ which is available since Python 3.8 ( PEP
     590(32)).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106168(33): If Python is built in *note debug mode: 3dc. or
     *note with assertions: 820, *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 821. and
     *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 822. now check the index argument with an
     assertion.  If the assertion fails, make sure that the size is set
     before.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106084(34): Remove the old aliases to functions calling
     functions which were kept for backward compatibility with Python
     3.8 provisional API:

        * ‘_PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()’: use
          ‘PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()’

        * ‘_PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()’: use
          ‘PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()’

        * ‘_PyObject_CallOneArg()’: use ‘PyObject_CallOneArg()’

        * ‘_PyObject_FastCallDict()’: use ‘PyObject_VectorcallDict()’

        * ‘_PyObject_Vectorcall()’: use ‘PyObject_Vectorcall()’

        * ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod()’: use
          ‘PyObject_VectorcallMethod()’

        * ‘_PyVectorcall_Function()’: use ‘PyVectorcall_Function()’

     Just remove the underscore prefix to update your code.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-106004(35): Adds *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 7d8. and *note
     PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 634. functions: similar to *note
     PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 7d9. but returning a *note strong
     reference: 7da. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 603.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105927(36): Deprecate the ‘PyWeakref_GetObject()’ and
     ‘PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT()’ functions: use the new *note
     PyWeakref_GetRef(): 3a4. function instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-105927(37): Add *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 3a4. function: similar
     to ‘PyWeakref_GetObject()’ but returns a *note strong reference:
     7da, or ‘NULL’ if the referent is no longer live.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-105922(38): Add *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 7f1.: similar to
     *note PyImport_AddModule(): 7f2, but return a *note strong
     reference: 7da. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 603.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105227(39): The new *note PyType_GetDict(): 1c91. provides the
     dictionary for the given type object that is normally exposed by
     ‘cls.__dict__’.  Normally it’s sufficient to use *note tp_dict:
     1c92, but for the static builtin types ‘tp_dict’ is now always
     ‘NULL’.  ‘PyType_GetDict()’ provides the correct dict object
     instead.

   - gh-105375(40): Fix a bug in *note PyErr_WarnExplicit(): 1c93. where
     an exception could end up being overwritten if the API failed
     internally.

   - gh-105603(41): We’ve renamed the new (in 3.12)
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig.own_gil’ to ‘PyInterpreterConfig.gil’ and
     changed the meaning of the value from «bool» to an integer with
     supported values of ‘PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL’,
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL’, and
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL’.  The default is «shared».

   - gh-105387(42): In the limited C API version 3.12, *note
     Py_INCREF(): 974. and *note Py_DECREF(): 975. functions are now
     implemented as opaque function calls to hide implementation
     details.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105396(43): Deprecate the ‘PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()’
     function which is just an alias to *note PyImport_ImportModule():
     3a3. since Python 3.3.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-103968(44): *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391. now allows
     metaclasses with ‘tp_new’ set to ‘NULL’.

   - gh-105268(45): Remove the old private, undocumented and untested
     ‘_PyGC_FINALIZED()’ macro which was kept for backward compatibility
     with Python 3.8 and older.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105182(46): Remove ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ReleaseLock()’ functions, deprecated in Python 3.2.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105182(47): Remove ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ functions, deprecated in Python 3.9.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105145(48): Deprecate old Python initialization functions:

        * ‘PySys_ResetWarnOptions()’

        * ‘Py_GetExecPrefix()’

        * ‘Py_GetPath()’

        * ‘Py_GetPrefix()’

        * ‘Py_GetProgramFullPath()’

        * ‘Py_GetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_GetPythonHome()’

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-85275(49): ‘PyObject_AsCharBuffer()’, ‘PyObject_AsReadBuffer()’,
     ‘PyObject_CheckReadBuffer()’, and ‘PyObject_AsWriteBuffer()’ are
     removed.  Please migrate to new buffer protocol; *note
     PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c. and *note PyBuffer_Release(): 82d.

   - gh-105156(50): Deprecate the old ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’
     types: use directly the ‘wchar_t’ type instead.  Since Python 3.3,
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’ are just aliases to ‘wchar_t’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105145(51): Remove the following old functions to configure the
     Python initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’

        * ‘PySys_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105107(52): Remove functions deprecated in Python 3.9.

        * ‘PyEval_CallObject()’, ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords()’: use
          *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 82e. and *note PyObject_Call():
          82f. (positional arguments must not be 'NULL') instead.

        * ‘PyEval_CallFunction()’: use *note PyObject_CallFunction():
          831. instead.

        * ‘PyEval_CallMethod()’: use *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 3b6.
          instead.

        * ‘PyCFunction_Call()’: use *note PyObject_Call(): 82f. instead.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-105115(53): ‘PyTypeObject.tp_bases’ (and ‘tp_mro’) for builtin
     static types are now shared by all interpreters, whereas in
     3.12-beta1 they were stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Also note
     that now the tuples are immortal objects.

   - gh-105071(54): Add ‘PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar’ to the unstable
     C api to expose the implementation of *note except*: 448.

   - gh-104922(55): ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ is no longer required to use
     ‘'#'’ formats in APIs like *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. and *note
     Py_BuildValue(): 5ee.  They uses ‘Py_ssize_t’ for ‘'#'’ regardless
     ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’.

   - gh-104584(56): Add an unstable C API for hooking in an optimizer.
     This is mainly internal, but marked «unstable» to allow third-party
     experimentation.

   - gh-104668(57): Don’t call *note PyOS_InputHook: 986. or *note
     PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer: 987. in subinterpreters, since it’s
     generally difficult to avoid using global state in their registered
     callbacks.  This also avoids situations where extensions may find
     themselves running in a subinterpreter they don’t support (or
     haven’t yet been loaded in).

   - bpo-42327(58): Add *note PyModule_Add(): 7ff. function: similar to
     *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 800. and *note PyModule_AddObject():
     801, but always steals a reference to the value.

   - bpo-40309(59): Properly handle trailing spaces before closing
     parenthesis in *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee. format strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110289

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110235

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110014

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109521

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108724

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108867

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108511

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107073

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108314

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108337

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107916

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107915

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107810

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107249

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107226

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106572

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106307

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106521

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106316

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106023

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106168

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106084

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106004

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105922

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105227

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105375

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105603

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105387

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105396

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103968

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105268

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85275

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105156

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105107

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105115

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105071

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104922

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104584

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104668

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42327

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40309


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.26 Python 3.12.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-05-22'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<21>.
* Library: Library<70>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<67>.
* Library: Library<71>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<68>.
* Library: Library<72>.
* Documentation: Documentation<21>.
* Tests: Tests<24>.
* Build: Build<23>.
* Windows: Windows<21>.
* macOS: macOS<16>.
* IDLE: IDLE<15>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<18>.
* C API: C API<24>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<21>,  Next: Library<70>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99889(1): Fixed a security in flaw in ‘uu.decode()’ that could
     allow for directory traversal based on the input if no ‘out_file’
     was specified.

   - gh-104049(2): Do not expose the local on-disk location in directory
     indexes produced by ‘http.client.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler’.

   - gh-99108(3): Upgrade built-in *note hashlib: 6b. SHA3
     implementation to a verified implementation from the ‘HACL*’
     project.  Used when OpenSSL is not present or lacks SHA3.

   - gh-102153(4): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): 2a3. now strips
     leading C0 control and space characters following the specification
     for URLs defined by WHATWG in response to CVE 2023-24329(5).  Patch
     by Illia Volochii.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99889

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104049

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102153

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-24329


File: python.info,  Node: Library<70>,  Next: Core and Builtins<67>,  Prev: Security<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.2 Library
.................

   - gh-102856(1): Implement PEP 701 changes in the *note tokenize: 104.
     module.  Patch by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo Salgado

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<67>,  Next: Library<71>,  Prev: Library<70>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.3 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-104615(1): Fix wrong ordering of assignments in code like ‘a, a
     = x, y’.  Contributed by Carl Meyer.

   - gh-104572(2): Improve syntax error message for invalid constructs
     in PEP 695(3) contexts and in annotations when ‘from __future__
     import annotations’ is active.

   - gh-104482(4): Fix three error handling bugs in ast.c’s validation
     of pattern matching statements.

   - gh-102818(5): Do not add a frame to the traceback in the
     ‘sys.setprofile’ and ‘sys.settrace’ trampoline functions.  This
     ensures that frames are not duplicated if an exception is raised in
     the callback function, and ensures that frames are not omitted if a
     C callback is used and that does not add the frame.

   - gh-104405(6): Fix an issue where some *note bytecode: 6b3.
     instructions could ignore PEP 523(7) when «inlining» calls.

   - gh-103082(8): Change behavior of ‘sys.monitoring.events.LINE’
     events in ‘sys.monitoring’: Line events now occur when a new line
     is reached dynamically, instead of using a static approximation, as
     before.  This makes the behavior very similar to that of «line»
     events in ‘sys.settrace’.  This should ease porting of tools from
     3.11 to 3.12.

   - gh-104263(9): Fix ‘float("nan")’ to produce a quiet NaN on
     platforms (like MIPS) where the meaning of the signalling / quiet
     bit is inverted from its usual meaning.  Also introduce a new macro
     ‘Py_INFINITY’ matching C99’s ‘INFINITY’, and refactor internals to
     rely on C99’s ‘NAN’ and ‘INFINITY’ macros instead of hard-coding
     bit patterns for infinities and NaNs.  Thanks Sebastian Berg.

   - gh-99113(10): Multi-phase init extension modules may now indicate
     that they support running in subinterpreters that have their own
     GIL. This is done by using ‘Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED’
     as the value for the ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ module def
     slot.  Otherwise the module, by default, cannot be imported in such
     subinterpreters.  (This does not affect the main interpreter or
     subinterpreters that do not have their own GIL.) In addition to the
     isolation that multi-phase init already normally requires, support
     for per-interpreter GIL involves one additional constraint:
     thread-safety.  If the module has external (linked) dependencies
     and those libraries have any state that isn’t thread-safe then the
     module must do the additional work to add thread-safety.  This
     should be an uncommon case.

   - gh-99113(11): The GIL is now (optionally) per-interpreter.  This is
     the fundamental change for PEP 684.  This is all made possible by
     virtue of the isolated state of each interpreter in the process.
     The behavior of the main interpreter remains unchanged.  Likewise,
     interpreters created using ‘Py_NewInterpreter()’ are not affected.
     To get an interpreter with its own GIL, call
     ‘Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’.

   - gh-104108(12): Multi-phase init extension modules may now indicate
     whether or not they actually support multiple interpreters.  By
     default such modules are expected to support use in multiple
     interpreters.  In the uncommon case that one does not, it may use
     the new ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ module def slot.  A value of
     ‘0’ means the module does not support them.  ‘1’ means it does.
     The default is ‘1’.

   - gh-104142(13): Fix an issue where *note list: 4d9. or *note tuple:
     1ce. repetition could fail to respect PEP 683(14).

   - gh-104078(15): Improve the performance of *note
     PyObject_HasAttrString(): 812.

   - gh-104066(16): Improve the performance of *note hasattr(): 8e2. for
     module objects with a missing attribute.

   - gh-104028(17): Reduce object creation while calling callback
     function from gc.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-104018(18): Disallow the «z» format specifier in %-format of
     bytes objects.

   - gh-102213(19): Fix performance loss when accessing an object’s
     attributes with ‘__getattr__’ defined.

   - gh-103895(20): Improve handling of edge cases in showing
     ‘Exception.__notes__’.  Ensures that the messages always end with a
     newline and that string/bytes are not exploded over multiple lines.
     Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - gh-103907(21): Don’t modify the refcounts of known immortal objects
     (*note True: fcc, *note False: ef5, and *note None: a65.) in the
     main interpreter loop.

   - gh-103899(22): Provide a helpful hint in the *note TypeError: 291.
     message when accidentally calling a *note module: 1be7. object that
     has a callable attribute of the same name (such as *note dis.dis():
     496. or *note datetime.datetime: 6e7.).

   - gh-103845(23): Remove both line and instruction instrumentation
     before adding new ones for monitoring, to avoid newly added
     instrumentation being removed immediately.

   - gh-103763(24): Implement PEP 695(25), adding syntactic support for
     generic classes, generic functions, and type aliases.

     A new ‘type X = ...’ syntax is added for type aliases, which
     resolves at runtime to an instance of the new class
     ‘typing.TypeAliasType’.  The value is lazily evaluated and is
     accessible through the ‘.__value__’ attribute.  This is implemented
     as a new AST node ‘ast.TypeAlias’.

     New syntax (‘class X[T]: ...’, ‘def func[T](): ...’) is added for
     defining generic functions and classes.  This is implemented as a
     new ‘type_params’ attribute on the AST nodes for classes and
     functions.  This node holds instances of the new AST classes
     ‘ast.TypeVar’, ‘ast.ParamSpec’, and ‘ast.TypeVarTuple’.

     ‘typing.TypeVar’, ‘typing.ParamSpec’, ‘typing.ParamSpecArgs’,
     ‘typing.ParamSpecKwargs’, ‘typing.TypeVarTuple’, and
     ‘typing.Generic’ are now implemented in C rather than Python.

     There are new bytecode instructions ‘LOAD_LOCALS’,
     ‘LOAD_CLASSDICT_OR_GLOBAL’, and ‘LOAD_CLASSDICT_OR_DEREF’ to
     support correct resolution of names in class namespaces.

     Patch by Eric Traut, Larry Hastings, and Jelle Zijlstra.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104615

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104572

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104482

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102818

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104405

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104263

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99113

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99113

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104108

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104142

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104078

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104066

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104028

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104018

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102213

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103895

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103907

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103899

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103845

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103763

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<71>,  Next: Core and Builtins<68>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<67>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.4 Library
.................

   - gh-103801(1): Adds three minor linting fixes to the wasm module
     caught that were caught by ruff.

   - gh-103793(2): Optimized asyncio Task creation by deferring
     expensive string formatting (task name generation) from Task
     creation to the first time ‘get_name’ is called.  This makes
     asyncio benchmarks up to 5% faster.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103801

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103793


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<68>,  Next: Library<72>,  Prev: Library<71>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.5 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102310(1): Change the error range for invalid bytes literals.

   - gh-103590(2): Do not wrap a single exception raised from a
     ‘try-except*’ construct in an *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8.

   - gh-103650(3): Change the perf map format to remove the “0x” prefix
     from the addresses

   - gh-102856(4): Implement the required C tokenizer changes for PEP
     701.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Lysandros Nikolaou, Batuhan
     Taskaya, Marta Gómez Macías and sunmy2019.

   - gh-100530(5): Clarify the error message raised when the called part
     of a class pattern isn’t actually a class.

   - gh-101517(6): Fix bug in line numbers of instructions emitted for
     *note except*: 448.

   - gh-103492(7): Clarify *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. with literal ‘is’
     comparison by specifying which literal is problematic, since
     comparisons using ‘is’ with e.g.  ‘None’ and bool literals are
     idiomatic.

   - gh-87729(8): Add *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 8eb. (and a specialization
     for ‘super().method()’) to speed up ‘super().method()’ and
     ‘super().attr’.  This makes ‘super().method()’ roughly 2.3x faster
     and brings it within 20% of the performance of a simple method
     call.  Patch by Vladimir Matveev and Carl Meyer.

   - gh-103488(9): Change the internal offset distinguishing yield and
     return target addresses, so that the instruction pointer is correct
     for exception handling and other stack unwinding.

   - gh-82012(10): The bitwise inversion operator (‘~’) on bool is
     deprecated.  It returns the bitwise inversion of the underlying
     ‘int’ representation such that ‘bool(~True) == True’, which can be
     confusing.  Use ‘not’ for logical negation of bools.  In the rare
     case that you really need the bitwise inversion of the underlying
     ‘int’, convert to int explicitly ‘~int(x)’.

   - gh-77757(11): Exceptions raised in a typeobject’s ‘__set_name__’
     method are no longer wrapped by a *note RuntimeError: 30d.  Context
     information is added to the exception as a PEP 678(12) note.

   - gh-103333(13): *note AttributeError: 1a9. now retains the ‘name’
     attribute when pickled and unpickled.

   - gh-103242(14): Migrate *note set_ecdh_curve(): 25b. method not to
     use deprecated OpenSSL APIs.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-103323(15): We’ve replaced our use of
     ‘_PyRuntime.tstate_current’ with a thread-local variable.  This is
     a fairly low-level implementation detail, and there should be no
     change in behavior.

   - gh-84436(16): The implementation of PEP-683 which adds Immortal
     Objects by using a fixed reference count that skips reference
     counting to make objects truly immutable.

   - gh-102700(17): Allow built-in modules to be submodules.  This
     allows submodules to be statically linked into a CPython binary.

   - gh-103082(18): Implement PEP 669(19) Low Impact Monitoring for
     CPython.

   - gh-88691(20): Reduce the number of inline *note CACHE: ae6. entries
     for *note CALL: af3.

   - gh-102500(21): Make the buffer protocol accessible in Python code
     using the new ‘__buffer__’ and ‘__release_buffer__’ magic methods.
     See PEP 688(22) for details.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-97933(23): PEP 709(24): inline list, dict and set comprehensions
     to improve performance and reduce bytecode size.

   - gh-99184(25): Bypass instance attribute access of ‘__name__’ in
     ‘repr’ of *note weakref.ref: 1399.

   - gh-98003(26): Complex function calls are now faster and consume no
     C stack space.

   - bpo-39610(27): ‘len()’ for 0-dimensional *note memoryview: 1d2.
     objects (such as ‘memoryview(ctypes.c_uint8(42))’) now raises a
     *note TypeError: 291.  Previously this returned ‘1’, which was not
     consistent with ‘mem_0d[0]’ raising an *note IndexError: 18d7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102310

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103590

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103650

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100530

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101517

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103492

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87729

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103488

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82012

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77757

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103333

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103242

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103323

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102700

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88691

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102500

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97933

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99184

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98003

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39610


File: python.info,  Node: Library<72>,  Next: Documentation<21>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<68>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.6 Library
.................

   - bpo-31821(1): Fix ‘pause_reading()’ to work when called from
     ‘connection_made()’ in *note asyncio: b.

   - gh-104600(2): *note functools.update_wrapper(): 13cb. now sets the
     ‘__type_params__’ attribute (added by PEP 695(3)).

   - gh-104340(4): When an ‘asyncio’ pipe protocol loses its connection
     due to an error, and the caller doesn’t await ‘wait_closed()’ on
     the corresponding ‘StreamWriter’, don’t log a warning about an
     exception that was never retrieved.  After all, according to the
     ‘StreamWriter.close()’ docs, the ‘wait_closed()’ call is optional
     («not mandatory»).

   - gh-104555(5): Fix issue where an *note issubclass(): 2f0. check
     comparing a class ‘X’ against a *note runtime-checkable protocol:
     861. ‘Y’ with non-callable members would not cause *note TypeError:
     291. to be raised if an *note isinstance(): 2ef. call had
     previously been made comparing an instance of ‘X’ to ‘Y’.  This
     issue was present in edge cases on Python 3.11, but became more
     prominent in 3.12 due to some unrelated changes that were made to
     runtime-checkable protocols.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-104372(6): Refactored the ‘_posixsubprocess’ internals to avoid
     Python C API usage between fork and exec when marking ‘pass_fds=’
     file descriptors inheritable.

   - gh-104484(7): Added 'case_sensitive' argument to *note
     pathlib.PurePath.match(): 8bc.

   - gh-75367(8): Fix data descriptor detection in *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 8a5.

   - gh-104536(9): Fix a race condition in the internal
     ‘multiprocessing.process’ cleanup logic that could manifest as an
     unintended ‘AttributeError’ when calling ‘process.close()’.

   - gh-103857(10): Update datetime deprecations” stracktrace to point
     to the calling line

   - gh-101520(11): Move the core functionality of the ‘tracemalloc’
     module in the ‘Python/’ folder, leaving just the module wrapper in
     ‘Modules/’.

   - gh-104392(12): Remove undocumented and unused ‘_paramspec_tvars’
     attribute from some classes in *note typing: 10d.

   - gh-102613(13): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a.
     raised *note RecursionError: 1121. when walking deep directory
     trees.

   - gh-103000(14): Improve performance of *note dataclasses.asdict():
     190d. for the common case where 'dict_factory' is ‘dict’.  Patch by
     David C Ellis.

   - gh-104301(15): Allow leading whitespace in disambiguated statements
     in *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-104139(16): Teach ‘urllib.parse.unsplit()’ to retain the ‘"//"’
     when assembling ‘itms-services://?action=generate-bugs’ style Apple
     Platform Deployment(17) URLs.

   - gh-104307(18): *note socket.getnameinfo(): 1c42. now releases the
     GIL while contacting the DNS server

   - gh-104310(19): Users may now use
     ‘importlib.util.allowing_all_extensions()’ (a context manager) to
     temporarily disable the strict compatibility checks for importing
     extension modules in subinterpreters.

   - gh-87695(20): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a.
     raised *note OSError: 53c. when it encountered a symlink to an
     overly long path.

   - gh-104265(21): Prevent possible crash by disallowing instantiation
     of the ‘_csv.Reader’ and ‘_csv.Writer’ types.  The regression was
     introduced in 3.10.0a4 with PR 23224 (bpo-14935(22)).  Patch by
     Radislav Chugunov.

   - gh-102613(23): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     73a. when expanding recursive wildcards (»‘**’») by merging
     adjacent wildcards and de-duplicating results only when necessary.

   - gh-65772(24): Remove unneeded comments and code in turtle.py.

   - gh-90208(25): Fixed issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a.
     returned incomplete results when it encountered a *note
     PermissionError: 10f9.  This method now suppresses all *note
     OSError: 53c. exceptions, except those raised from calling *note
     is_dir(): 73d. on the top-level path.

   - gh-104144(26): Optimize *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 6d7. when using
     *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 88d.  Skip scheduling a done
     callback if a TaskGroup task completes eagerly.

   - gh-104144(27): Optimize *note asyncio.gather(): 9f4. when using
     *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 88d. to complete eagerly if all
     fututres completed eagerly.  Avoid scheduling done callbacks for
     futures that complete eagerly.

   - gh-104114(28): Fix issue where *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a.
     returns paths using the case of non-wildcard segments for
     corresponding path segments, rather than the real filesystem case.

   - gh-104104(29): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     73a. by using *note re.IGNORECASE: 1c9b. to implement
     case-insensitive matching.

   - gh-104102(30): Improve performance of *note pathlib.Path.glob():
     73a. when evaluating patterns that contain ‘'../'’ segments.

   - gh-103822(31): Update the return type of ‘weekday’ to the newly
     added Day attribute

   - gh-103629(32): Update the ‘repr’ of *note typing.Unpack: 1bb1.
     according to PEP 692(33).

   - gh-103963(34): Make *note dis: 3b. display the names of the args
     for ‘CALL_INTRINSIC_*’.

   - gh-104035(35): Do not ignore user-defined ‘__getstate__’ and
     ‘__setstate__’ methods for slotted frozen dataclasses.

   - gh-103987(36): In *note mmap: 94, fix several bugs that could lead
     to access to memory-mapped files after they have been invalidated.

   - gh-103977(37): Improve import time of *note platform: af. module.

   - gh-88773(38): Added *note turtle.teleport(): 1c9c. to the *note
     turtle: 10a. module to move a turtle to a new point without tracing
     a line, visible or invisible.  Patch by Liam Gersten.

   - gh-103935(39): Use *note io.open_code(): 1943. for files to be
     executed instead of raw *note open(): 32b.

   - gh-68968(40): Fixed garbled output of *note assertEqual(): 937.
     when an input lacks final newline.

   - gh-100370(41): Fix potential *note OverflowError: c57. in *note
     sqlite3.Connection.blobopen(): a71. for 32-bit builds.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-102628(42): Substitute CTRL-D with CTRL-Z in *note sqlite3: d7.
     CLI banner when running on Windows.

   - gh-103636(43): Module-level attributes ‘January’ and ‘February’ are
     deprecated from *note calendar: 15.

   - gh-103583(44): Isolate ‘_multibytecodec’ and codecs extension
     modules.  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103848(45): Add checks to ensure that ‘[’ bracketed ‘]’ hosts
     found by *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): 2a3. are of IPv6 or
     IPvFuture format.

   - gh-103872(46): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.1.2.

   - gh-99944(47): Make *note dis: 3b. display the value of oparg of
     ‘KW_NAMES’.

   - gh-74940(48): The C.UTF-8 locale is no longer converted to
     en_US.UTF-8, enabling the use of UTF-8 encoding on systems which
     have no locales installed.

   - gh-103861(49): Fix ‘zipfile.Zipfile’ creating invalid zip files
     when ‘force_zip64’ was used to add files to them.  Patch by Carey
     Metcalfe.

   - gh-103857(50): Deprecated *note datetime.datetime.utcnow(): 32e.
     and *note datetime.datetime.utcfromtimestamp(): 32f.  (Patch by
     Paul Ganssle)

   - gh-103839(51): Avoid compilation error due to tommath.h not being
     found when building Tkinter against Tcl 8.7 built with bundled
     libtommath.

   - gh-103791(52): *note contextlib.suppress: 12d3. now supports
     suppressing exceptions raised as part of an *note ExceptionGroup:
     6d8.  If other exceptions exist on the group, they are re-raised in
     a group that does not contain the suppressed exceptions.

   - gh-90750(53): Use *note datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): db1.
     in the implementation of *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 2d2,
     which should now accept only valid ISO dates.  (Patch by Paul
     Ganssle)

   - gh-103685(54): Prepare ‘tkinter.Menu.index()’ for Tk 8.7 so that it
     does not raise ‘TclError: expected integer but got ""’ when it
     should return ‘None’.

   - gh-81403(55): *note urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler: 1c9d. no longer
     raises ‘URLError’ if a cached FTP instance is reused.  ftplib’s
     endtransfer method calls voidresp to drain the connection to handle
     FTP instance reuse properly.

   - gh-103699(56): Add ‘__orig_bases__’ to non-generic TypedDicts,
     call-based TypedDicts, and call-based NamedTuples.  Other
     TypedDicts and NamedTuples already had the attribute.

   - gh-103693(57): Add convenience variable feature to *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-92248(58): Deprecate ‘type’, ‘choices’, and ‘metavar’ parameters
     of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’.

   - gh-89415(59): Add *note socket: d4. constants for source-specific
     multicast.  Patch by Reese Hyde.

   - gh-103673(60): *note socketserver: d5. gains
     ‘ForkingUnixStreamServer’ and ‘ForkingUnixDatagramServer’ classes.
     Patch by Jay Berry.

   - gh-103636(61): Added Enum for months and days in the calendar
     module.

   - gh-84976(62): Create a new ‘Lib/_pydatetime.py’ file that defines
     the Python version of the ‘datetime’ module, and make ‘datetime’
     import the contents of the new library only if the C implementation
     is missing.  Currently, the full Python implementation is defined
     and then deleted if the C implementation is not available, slowing
     down ‘import datetime’ unnecessarily.

   - gh-103596(63): Attributes/methods are no longer shadowed by
     same-named enum members, although they may be shadowed by
     enum.property’s.

   - gh-103584(64): Updated ‘importlib.metadata’ with changes from
     ‘importlib_metadata’ 5.2 through 6.5.0, including: Support
     ‘installed-files.txt’ for ‘Distribution.files’ when present.
     ‘PackageMetadata’ now stipulates an additional ‘get’ method
     allowing for easy querying of metadata keys that may not be
     present.  ‘packages_distributions’ now honors packages and modules
     with Python modules that not ‘.py’ sources (e.g.  ‘.pyc’, ‘.so’).
     Expand protocol for ‘PackageMetadata.get_all’ to match the upstream
     implementation of ‘email.message.Message.get_all’ in
     python/typeshed#9620.  Deprecated use of ‘Distribution’ without
     defining abstract methods.  Deprecated expectation that
     ‘PackageMetadata.__getitem__’ will return ‘None’ for missing keys.
     In the future, it will raise a ‘KeyError’.

   - gh-103578(65): Fixed a bug where *note pdb: aa. crashes when
     reading source file with different encoding by replacing *note
     io.open(): 92b. with *note io.open_code(): 1943.  The new method
     would also call into the hook set by *note
     PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 1c9e.

   - gh-103556(66): Now creating *note inspect.Signature: 6e8. objects
     with positional-only parameter with a default followed by a
     positional-or-keyword parameter without one is impossible.

   - gh-103559(67): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 23.1.1.

   - gh-103548(68): Improve performance of *note
     pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1c2e. and *note cwd(): 1c9f. by joining
     paths only when necessary.  Also improve performance of *note
     pathlib.PurePath.is_absolute(): 1ca0. on Posix by skipping path
     parsing and normalization.

   - gh-103538(69): Remove ‘_tkinter’ module code guarded by definition
     of the ‘TK_AQUA’ macro which was only needed for Tk 8.4.7 or
     earlier and was never actually defined by any build system or
     documented for manual use.

   - gh-103533(70): Update ‘cProfile’ to use PEP 669 API

   - gh-103525(71): Fix misleading exception message when mixed ‘str’
     and ‘bytes’ arguments are supplied to *note pathlib.PurePath: 8b6.
     and *note Path: 4ee.

   - gh-103489(72): Add *note getconfig(): 8c9. and *note setconfig():
     8ca. to *note Connection: 3df. to make configuration changes to a
     database connection.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103365(73): Set default Flag boundary to ‘STRICT’ and fix
     bitwise operations.

   - gh-103472(74): Avoid a potential *note ResourceWarning: 74f. in
     *note http.client.HTTPConnection: 223. by closing the proxy /
     tunnel’s CONNECT response explicitly.

   - gh-103462(75): Fixed an issue with using *note writelines(): 1a09.
     in *note asyncio: b. to send very large payloads that exceed the
     amount of data that can be written in one call to *note
     socket.socket.send(): 1160. or *note socket.socket.sendmsg(): 88c,
     resulting in the remaining buffer being left unwritten.

   - gh-103449(76): Fix a bug in doc string generation in *note
     dataclasses.dataclass(): 6e6.

   - gh-103092(77): Isolate ‘_collections’ (apply PEP 687(78)).  Patch
     by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103357(79): Added support for *note logging.Formatter: 1839.
     ‘defaults’ parameter to *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 1559.
     and *note logging.config.fileConfig(): f0e.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - gh-103092(80): Adapt the *note winreg: 11f. extension module to PEP
     687(81).

   - gh-74690(82): The performance of *note isinstance(): 2ef. checks
     against *note runtime-checkable protocols: 861. has been
     considerably improved for protocols that only have a few members.
     To achieve this improvement, several internal implementation
     details of the *note typing: 10d. module have been refactored,
     including ‘typing._ProtocolMeta.__instancecheck__’,
     ‘typing._is_callable_members_only’, and
     ‘typing._get_protocol_attrs’.  Patches by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-74690(83): The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now
     considered «frozen» at runtime as soon as the class has been
     created.  See *note «What’s new in Python 3.12»: 8e1. for more
     details.

   - gh-103256(84): Fixed a bug that caused *note hmac: 6d. to raise an
     exception when the requested hash algorithm was not available in
     OpenSSL despite being available separately as part of ‘hashlib’
     itself.  It now falls back properly to the built-in.  This could
     happen when, for example, your OpenSSL does not include SHA3
     support and you want to compute ‘hmac.digest(b'K', b'M',
     'sha3_256')’.

   - gh-102778(85): Support ‘sys.last_exc’ in *note idlelib: 76.

   - gh-103285(86): Improve performance of *note
     ast.get_source_segment(): d9c.

   - gh-103225(87): Fix a bug in *note pdb: aa. when displaying line
     numbers of module-level source code.

   - gh-103092(88): Adapt the *note msvcrt: 97. extension module to PEP
     687(89).

   - gh-103092(90): Adapt the *note winsound: 120. extension module to
     PEP 687(91).

   - gh-93910(92): Remove deprecation of enum ‘member.member’ access.

   - gh-102978(93): Fixes *note unittest.mock.patch(): 1243. not
     enforcing function signatures for methods decorated with
     ‘@classmethod’ or ‘@staticmethod’ when patch is called with
     ‘autospec=True’.

   - gh-103092(94): Isolate ‘_socket’ (apply PEP 687(95)).  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100479(96): Add *note pathlib.PurePath.with_segments(): 8b7,
     which creates a path object from arguments.  This method is called
     whenever a derivative path is created, such as from *note
     pathlib.PurePath.parent: 1ca1.  Subclasses may override this method
     to share information between path objects.

   - gh-103220(97): Fix issue where *note os.path.join(): 1a42. added a
     slash when joining onto an incomplete UNC drive with a trailing
     slash on Windows.

   - gh-103204(98): Fixes *note http.server: 75. accepting HTTP requests
     with HTTP version numbers preceded by “+”, or “-”, or with
     digit-separating “_” characters.  The length of the version numbers
     is also constrained.

   - gh-75586(99): Fix various Windows-specific issues with
     ‘shutil.which’.

   - gh-103193(100): Improve performance of *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 8a5.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-103176(101): *note sys._current_exceptions(): 8d2. now returns a
     mapping from thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a
     ‘(typ, exc, tb)’ tuple.

   - gh-103143(102): Polish the help messages and docstrings of *note
     pdb: aa.

   - gh-103015(103): Add 'entrypoint' keyword-only parameter to *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 8c8, for overriding the SQLite
     extension entry point.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-103000(104): Improve performance of *note dataclasses.astuple():
     190e. and *note dataclasses.asdict(): 190d. in cases where the
     contents are common Python types.

   - gh-102953(105): The extraction methods in *note tarfile: e7, and
     *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 882, have a new a 'filter' argument
     that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or
     dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination
     directory.  See *note Extraction filters: 883. for details.

   - gh-97696(106): Implemented an eager task factory in asyncio.  When
     used as a task factory on an event loop, it performs eager
     execution of coroutines.  Coroutines that are able to complete
     synchronously (e.g.  return or raise without blocking) are returned
     immediately as a finished task, and the task is never scheduled to
     the event loop.  If the coroutine blocks, the (pending) task is
     scheduled and returned.

   - gh-81079(107): Add 'case_sensitive' keyword-only argument to *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. and *note rglob(): 73b.

   - gh-101819(108): Isolate the *note io: 82. extension module by
     applying PEP 687(109).  Patch by Kumar Aditya, Victor Stinner, and
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91896(110): Deprecate *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2cb.

   - gh-101362(111): Speed up *note pathlib.Path: 4ee. construction by
     omitting the path anchor from the internal list of path parts.

   - gh-102114(112): Functions in the *note dis: 3b. module that accept
     a source code string as argument now print a more concise traceback
     when the string contains a syntax or indentation error.

   - gh-62432(113): The *note unittest: 10f. runner will now exit with
     status code 5 if no tests were run.  It is common for test runner
     misconfiguration to fail to find any tests, this should be an
     error.

   - gh-78079(114): Fix incorrect normalization of UNC device path
     roots, and partial UNC share path roots, in *note pathlib.PurePath:
     8b6.  Pathlib no longer appends a trailing slash to such paths.

   - gh-85984(115): Add *note tty.cfmakeraw(): 1c49. and *note
     tty.cfmakecbreak(): 1bfe. to *note tty: 109. and modernize, the
     behavior of *note tty.setraw(): 1c48. and *note tty.setcbreak():
     1bfd. to use POSIX.1-2017 Chapter 11 «General Terminal Interface»
     flag masks by default.

   - gh-101688(116): Implement *note types.get_original_bases(): 8de. to
     provide further introspection for types.

   - gh-101640(117): *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc. now catches
     errors when writing messages, such as when *note sys.stderr: d05.
     is ‘None’.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-83861(118): Fix datetime.astimezone method return value when
     invoked on a naive datetime instance that represents local time
     falling in a timezone transition gap.  PEP 495 requires that
     instances with fold=1 produce earlier times than those with fold=0
     in this case.

   - gh-89550(119): Decrease execution time of some *note gzip: 6a. file
     writes by 15% by adding more appropriate buffering.

   - gh-95299(120): Remove the bundled setuptools wheel from
     ‘ensurepip’, and stop installing setuptools in environments created
     by ‘venv’.

   - gh-99353(121): Respect the *note http.client.HTTPConnection: 223.
     ‘.debuglevel’ flag in ‘urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler’ when its
     constructor parameter ‘debuglevel’ is not set.  And do the same for
     ‘*HTTPS*’.

   - gh-98040(122): Remove the long-deprecated ‘imp’ module.

   - gh-97850(123): Deprecate ‘pkgutil.find_loader()’ and
     ‘pkgutil.get_loader()’ in favor of *note
     importlib.util.find_spec(): 7a7.

   - gh-94473(124): Flatten arguments in ‘tkinter.Canvas.coords()’.  It
     now accepts not only ‘x1, y1, x2, y2, ...’ and ‘[x1, y1, x2, y2,
     ...]’, but also ‘(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...’ and ‘[(x1, y1), (x2, y2),
     ...]’.

   - gh-98040(125): Remove more deprecated importlib APIs:
     ‘find_loader()’, ‘find_module()’, ‘importlib.abc.Finder’,
     ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’.

   - gh-96522(126): Fix potential deadlock in pty.spawn()

   - gh-96534(127): Support divert(4) added in FreeBSD 14.

   - gh-87474(128): Fix potential file descriptor leaks in *note
     subprocess.Popen: 6bf.

   - gh-94906(129): Support multiple steps in *note math.nextafter():
     8a9.  Patch by Shantanu Jain and Matthias Gorgens.

   - gh-51574(130): Make *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 730. return absolute
     paths when its 'dir' parameter is relative.

   - gh-94518(131): Convert private ‘_posixsubprocess.fork_exec()’ to
     use Argument Clinic.

   - gh-92184(132): When creating zip files using *note zipfile: 13a,
     ‘os.altsep’, if not ‘None’, will always be treated as a path
     separator even when it is not ‘/’.  Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - bpo-46797(133): Deprecation warnings are now emitted for ‘ast.Num’,
     ‘ast.Bytes’, ‘ast.Str’, ‘ast.NameConstant’ and ‘ast.Ellipsis’.
     These have been documented as deprecated since Python 3.8, and will
     be removed in Python 3.14.

   - bpo-44844(134): Enables *note webbrowser: 11e. to detect and launch
     Microsoft Edge browser.

   - bpo-45606(135): Fixed the bug in *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. –
     previously a dangling symlink would not be found by this method
     when the pattern is an exact match, but would be found when the
     pattern contains a wildcard or the recursive wildcard (‘**’).  With
     this change, a dangling symlink will be found in both cases.

   - bpo-23041(136): Add *note QUOTE_STRINGS: 897. and *note
     QUOTE_NOTNULL: 896. to the suite of *note csv: 2c. module quoting
     styles.

   - bpo-24964(137): Added *note
     http.client.HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers(): 1c79. that
     provides access to the HTTP headers on a proxy server response to
     the ‘CONNECT’ request.

   - bpo-17258(138): *note multiprocessing: 98. now supports stronger
     HMAC algorithms for inter-process connection authentication rather
     than only HMAC-MD5.

   - bpo-39744(139): Make *note
     asyncio.subprocess.Process.communicate(): 1ca2. close the
     subprocess’s stdin even when called with ‘input=None’.

   - bpo-22708(140): http.client CONNECT method tunnel improvements: Use
     HTTP 1.1 protocol; send a matching Host: header with CONNECT, if
     one is not provided; convert IDN domain names to Punycode.  Patch
     by Michael Handler.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31821

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104600

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104340

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104555

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104372

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104484

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75367

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104536

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101520

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104392

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103000

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104301

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104139

   (17) 
https://support.apple.com/en-gb/guide/deployment/depce7cefc4d/web

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104307

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104310

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87695

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104265

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14935

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102613

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65772

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90208

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104144

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104144

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104114

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104104

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104102

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103822

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103963

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104035

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103987

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103977

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88773

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103935

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68968

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100370

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102628

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103583

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103848

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103872

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99944

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74940

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103861

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103839

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103791

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90750

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103685

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81403

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103699

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103693

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89415

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103673

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84976

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103596

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103584

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103578

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103556

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103559

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103548

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103538

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103533

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103525

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103489

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103365

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103472

   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103462

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103449

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (78) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103357

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (81) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (82) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (83) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690

   (84) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103256

   (85) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (86) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103285

   (87) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103225

   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (89) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (91) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93910

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102978

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103092

   (95) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100479

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103220

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103204

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75586

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103143

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103015

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103000

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102953

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97696

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81079

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101819

   (109) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102114

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62432

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78079

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101688

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101640

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83861

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89550

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99353

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (123) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94473

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96522

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96534

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87474

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94906

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51574

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92184

   (133) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46797

   (134) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44844

   (135) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45606

   (136) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23041

   (137) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24964

   (138) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17258

   (139) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39744

   (140) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22708


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<21>,  Next: Tests<24>,  Prev: Library<72>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.7 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-67056(1): Document that the effect of registering or
     unregistering an *note atexit: d. cleanup function from within a
     registered cleanup function is undefined.

   - gh-103629(2): Mention the new way of typing ‘**kwargs’ with
     ‘Unpack’ and ‘TypedDict’ introduced in PEP 692(3).

   - gh-48241(4): Clarifying documentation about the url parameter to
     urllib.request.urlopen and urllib.request.Request needing to be
     encoded properly.

   - gh-86094(5): Add support for Unicode Path Extra Field in ZipFile.
     Patch by Yeojin Kim and Andrea Giudiceandrea

   - gh-99202(6): Fix extension type from documentation for compiling in
     C++20 mode

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67056

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48241

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86094

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99202


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<24>,  Next: Build<23>,  Prev: Documentation<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.8 Tests
...............

   - gh-104494(1): Update ‘test_pack_configure_in’ and
     ‘test_place_configure_in’ for changes to error message formatting
     in Tk 8.7.

   - gh-104461(2): Run test_configure_screen on X11 only, since the
     ‘DISPLAY’ environment variable and ‘-screen’ option for toplevels
     are not useful on Tk for Win32 or Aqua.

   - gh-86275(3): Added property-based tests to the *note zoneinfo: 13d.
     tests, along with stubs for the ‘hypothesis’ interface.  (Patch by
     Paul Ganssle)

   - gh-103329(4): Regression tests for the behaviour of
     ‘unittest.mock.PropertyMock’ were added.

   - gh-102795(5): fix use of poll in test_epoll’s test_control_and_wait

   - gh-75729(6): Fix the *note os.spawn*: 586. tests failing on Windows
     when the working directory or interpreter path contains spaces.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104494

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86275

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103329

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102795

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75729


File: python.info,  Node: Build<23>,  Next: Windows<21>,  Prev: Tests<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.9 Build
...............

   - gh-101282(1): BOLT optimization is now applied to the libpython
     shared library if building a shared library.  BOLT instrumentation
     and application settings can now be influenced via the
     ‘BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS’ and ‘BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS’ configure variables.

   - gh-99017(2): ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN’ now require Python 3.10 or newer.

   - gh-104490(3): Define ‘.PHONY’ / virtual make targets consistently
     and properly.

   - gh-104106(4): Add gcc fallback of mkfifoat/mknodat for macOS. Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - gh-103532(5): The ‘TKINTER_PROTECT_LOADTK’ macro is no longer
     defined or used in the ‘_tkinter’ module.  It was previously only
     defined when building against Tk 8.4.13 and older, but Tk older
     than 8.5.12 has been unsupported since gh-91152(6).

   - gh-99069(7): Extended workaround defining ‘static_assert’ when
     missing from the libc headers to all clang and gcc builds.  In
     particular, this fixes building on macOS <= 10.10.

   - gh-100220(8): Changed the default value of the ‘SHELL’ Makefile
     variable from ‘/bin/sh’ to ‘/bin/sh -e’ to ensure that complex
     recipes correctly fail after an error.  Previously, ‘make install’
     could fail to install some files and yet return a successful
     result.

   - gh-90656(9): Add platform triplets for 64-bit LoongArch:

        * loongarch64-linux-gnusf

        * loongarch64-linux-gnuf32

        * loongarch64-linux-gnu

     Patch by Zhang Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101282

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99017

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104490

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104106

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103532

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91152

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99069

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100220

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90656


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<21>,  Next: macOS<16>,  Prev: Build<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.10 Windows
..................

   - gh-104623(1): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.42.0.

   - gh-82814(2): Fix a potential ‘[Errno 13] Permission denied’ when
     using *note shutil.copystat(): 14da. within Windows Subsystem for
     Linux (WSL) on a mounted filesystem by adding ‘errno.EACCES’ to the
     list of ignored errors within the internal implementation.

   - gh-103088(3): Fix virtual environment ‘activate’ script having
     incorrect line endings for Cygwin.

   - gh-103088(4): Fixes venvs not working in bash on Windows across
     different disks

   - gh-102997(5): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.41.2.

   - gh-88013(6): Fixed a bug where *note TypeError: 291. was raised
     when calling ‘ntpath.realpath()’ with a bytes parameter in some
     cases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104623

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82814

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103088

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103088

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102997

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88013


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<16>,  Next: IDLE<15>,  Prev: Windows<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.11 macOS
................

   - gh-99834(1): Update macOS installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.13.

   - gh-104623(2): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.42.0.

   - gh-103545(3): Add ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD’,
     ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS’, ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_BG’ and
     ‘os.PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI’.  These can be used with ‘os.setpriority’ to
     run the process at a lower priority and make use of the efficiency
     cores on Apple Silicon systems.

   - gh-104180(4): Support reading SOCKS proxy configuration from macOS
     System Configuration.  Patch by Sam Schott.

   - gh-60436(5): update curses textbox to additionally handle backspace
     using the ‘curses.ascii.DEL’ key press.

   - gh-102997(6): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.41.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99834

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104623

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103545

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104180

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60436

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102997


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<15>,  Next: Tools/Demos<18>,  Prev: macOS<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.12 IDLE
...............

   - gh-104499(1): Fix completions for Tk Aqua 8.7 (currently blank).

   - gh-104496(2): About prints both tcl and tk versions if different
     (expected someday).

   - gh-88496(3): Fix IDLE test hang on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104499

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104496

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88496


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<18>,  Next: C API<24>,  Prev: IDLE<15>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.13 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-104389(1): Argument Clinic C converters now accept the ‘unused’
     keyword, for wrapping a parameter with *note Py_UNUSED: 1c90.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104389


File: python.info,  Node: C API<24>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 beta 1

1.26.26.14 C API
................

   - gh-101291(1): Added unstable C API for extracting the value of
     «compact» integers: *note PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 988. and
     *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 989.

   - gh-104109(2): We’ve added ‘Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’ and
     ‘PyInterpreterConfig’ to the public C-API (but not the stable ABI;
     not yet at least).  The new function may be used to create a new
     interpreter with various features configured.  The function was
     added to support PEP 684 (per-interpreter GIL).

   - gh-103968(3): *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e. and its variants now
     allow creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 981.
     The ‘tp_new’ is ignored.  This behavior is deprecated and will be
     disallowed in 3.14+.  The new *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391.
     already disallows it.

   - gh-103743(4): Add *note PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData():
     1cab. function that can be used to allocate additional memory after
     an object for data not managed by Python.

   - gh-103295(5): Introduced *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry():
     1cac, *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 1cad. and *note
     PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini(): 1cae.  These allow extension
     modules (JIT compilers in particular) to write to perf-map files in
     a thread safe manner.  The *note Python support for the perf map
     compatible profilers: 1caf. also uses these APIs to write entries
     in the perf-map file.

   - gh-103509(6): Added C API for extending types whose instance memory
     layout is opaque: *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 199. can now be zero
     or negative, *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 19a. can be used to get
     subclass-specific data, and *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 956. can
     be used to safely extend variable-size objects.  See PEP 697(7) for
     details.

   - gh-103091(8): Add a new C-API function to eagerly assign a version
     tag to a PyTypeObject: ‘PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag()’.

   - gh-101408(9): *note PyObject_GC_Resize: 1cb0. should calculate
     preheader size if needed.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-98836(10): Add support of more formatting options (left
     aligning, octals, uppercase hexadecimals, ‘intmax_t’, ‘ptrdiff_t’,
     ‘wchar_t’ C strings, variable width and precision) in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     979.

   - gh-96803(11): Add unstable C-API functions to get the code object,
     lasti and line number from the internal ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ in
     the limited API. The functions are:

        * ‘PyCodeObject * PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

        * ‘int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

        * ‘int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine(struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame)’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104109

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103968

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103743

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103295

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103509

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103091

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101408

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98836

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96803


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.27 Python 3.12.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-04-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<69>.
* Library: Library<73>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<70>.
* Build: Build<24>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<71>.
* Library: Library<74>.
* Documentation: Documentation<22>.
* Tests: Tests<25>.
* Build: Build<25>.
* Windows: Windows<22>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<19>.
* C API: C API<25>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<69>,  Next: Library<73>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.26.27.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102192(1): Deprecated ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’ in favour of
     ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’.

   - gh-89987(2): Reduce the number of inline *note CACHE: ae6. entries
     for ‘BINARY_SUBSCR’.

   - gh-102859(3): Removed ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ and
     ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ instructions.

   - gh-101975(4): Fixed ‘stacktop’ value on tracing entries to avoid
     corruption on garbage collection.

   - gh-102778(5): Add *note sys.last_exc: 8ce. and deprecate *note
     sys.last_type: 8cf, *note sys.last_value: 8d0. and *note
     sys.last_traceback: 8d1, which hold the same information in its
     legacy form.

   - gh-100982(6): Replace all occurrences of ‘COMPARE_AND_BRANCH’ with
     *note COMPARE_OP: d32.

   - gh-102701(7): Fix overflow when creating very large dict.

   - gh-102755(8): Add *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 648. which takes
     just an exception instance, to replace the legacy ‘PyErr_Display()’
     which takes the ‘(typ, exc, tb)’ triplet.

   - gh-102594(9): Add note to exception raised in ‘PyErr_SetObject’
     when normalization fails.

   - gh-90997(10): Shrink the number of inline *note CACHE: ae6. entries
     used by *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 1c60.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102192

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89987

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102859

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101975

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102701

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102594

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997


File: python.info,  Node: Library<73>,  Next: Core and Builtins<70>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<69>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.26.27.2 Library
.................

   - gh-102491(1): Improve import time of ‘platform’ by removing
     IronPython version parsing.  The IronPython version parsing was not
     functional (see
     ‘https://github.com/IronLanguages/ironpython3/issues/1667’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102491


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<70>,  Next: Build<24>,  Prev: Library<73>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.26.27.3 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-101291(1): Rearrage bits in first field (after header) of
     PyLongObject.  * Bits 0 and 1: 1 - sign.  I.e.  0 for positive
     numbers, 1 for zero and 2 for negative numbers.  * Bit 2 reserved
     (probably for the immortal bit) * Bits 3+ the unsigned size.

     This makes a few operations slightly more efficient, and will
     enable a more compact and faster 2s-complement representation of
     most ints in future.

   - gh-102397(2): Fix segfault from race condition in signal handling
     during garbage collection.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102406(3): *note codecs: 1c. encoding/decoding errors now get
     the context information (which operation and which codecs) attached
     as PEP 678(4) notes instead of through chaining a new instance of
     the exception.

   - gh-102281(5): Fix potential nullptr dereference and use of
     uninitialized memory in fileutils.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102300(6): Reuse operands with refcount of 1 in float
     specializations of BINARY_OP.

   - gh-102213(7): Fix performance loss when accessing an object’s
     attributes with ‘__getattr__’ defined.

   - gh-102255(8): Improve build support for the Xbox.  Patch by Max
     Bachmann.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102397

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102406

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102281

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102300

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102213

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102255


File: python.info,  Node: Build<24>,  Next: Core and Builtins<71>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<70>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.26.27.4 Build
...............

   - gh-102027(1): Fix SSE2 and SSE3 detection in ‘_blake2’ internal
     module.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102027


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<71>,  Next: Library<74>,  Prev: Build<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.26.27.5 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-101865(1): Deprecate ‘co_lnotab’ in code objects, schedule it
     for removal in Python 3.14

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101865


File: python.info,  Node: Library<74>,  Next: Documentation<22>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<71>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.26.27.6 Library
.................

   - bpo-1635741(1): Adapt ‘_pickle’ to PEP 687(2).  Patch by Mohamed
     Koubaa and Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-103085(3): Pure python *note locale.getencoding(): a45. will not
     warn deprecation.

   - gh-103068(4): It’s no longer possible to register conditional
     breakpoints in *note Pdb: 4fb. that raise *note SyntaxError: 17e.
     Patch by Tian Gao.

   - gh-102549(5): Don’t ignore exceptions in member type creation.

   - gh-103056(6): Ensure final ‘_generate_next_value_’ is a
     ‘staticmethod’.

   - gh-103046(7): Display current line label correctly in *note dis:
     3b. when ‘show_caches’ is False and ‘lasti’ points to a CACHE
     entry.

   - gh-102433(8): *note isinstance(): 2ef. checks against *note
     runtime-checkable protocols: 861. now use *note
     inspect.getattr_static(): 8a5. rather than *note hasattr(): 8e2. to
     lookup whether attributes exist.  This means that descriptors and
     *note __getattr__(): 8e3. methods are no longer unexpectedly
     evaluated during ‘isinstance()’ checks against runtime-checkable
     protocols.  However, it may also mean that some objects which used
     to be considered instances of a runtime-checkable protocol may no
     longer be considered instances of that protocol on Python 3.12+,
     and vice versa.  Most users are unlikely to be affected by this
     change.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-103023(9): It’s no longer possible to register expressions to
     display in *note Pdb: 4fb. that raise *note SyntaxError: 17e.
     Patch by Tian Gao.

   - gh-102947(10): Improve traceback when *note dataclasses.fields():
     1b4f. is called on a non-dataclass.  Patch by Alex Waygood

   - gh-102780(11): The *note asyncio.Timeout: 1c47. context manager now
     works reliably even when performing cleanup due to task
     cancellation.  Previously it could raise a *note CancelledError:
     6da. instead of an *note TimeoutError: 1cb8. in such cases.

   - gh-102871(12): Remove support for obsolete browsers from *note
     webbrowser: 11e.  Removed browsers include Grail, Mosaic, Netscape,
     Galeon, Skipstone, Iceape, Firebird, and Firefox versions 35 and
     below.

   - gh-102839(13): Improve performance of *note math.log(): 1862.
     arguments handling by removing the argument clinic.

   - gh-102828(14): Add the ‘onexc’ arg to *note shutil.rmtree(): 335,
     which is like ‘onerror’ but expects an exception instance rather
     than an exc_info tuple.  Deprecate ‘onerror’.

   - gh-88965(15): typing: Fix a bug relating to substitution in custom
     classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 295.  Previously, if the
     ‘ParamSpec’ was substituted with a parameters list that itself
     contained a *note TypeVar: 294, the ‘TypeVar’ in the parameters
     list could not be subsequently substituted.  This is now fixed.

     Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

   - gh-76846(16): Fix issue where ‘__new__()’ and ‘__init__()’ methods
     of *note pathlib.PurePath: 8b6. and *note Path: 4ee. subclasses
     were not called in some circumstances.

   - gh-78530(17): *note asyncio.wait(): 891. now accepts generators
     yielding tasks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102748(18): *note asyncio.iscoroutine(): 890. now returns
     ‘False’ for generators as *note asyncio: b. does not support legacy
     generator-based coroutines.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102670(19): Optimized fmean(), correlation(), covariance(), and
     linear_regression() using the new math.sumprod() function.

   - gh-102615(20): Typing: Improve the ‘repr’ of generic aliases for
     classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 295.  (Use square brackets
     to represent a parameter list.)

   - gh-100112(21): *note asyncio.Task.get_coro(): da0. now always
     returns a coroutine when wrapping an awaitable object.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102578(22): Speed up setting or deleting mutable attributes on
     non-dataclass subclasses of frozen dataclasses.  Due to the
     implementation of ‘__setattr__’ and ‘__delattr__’ for frozen
     dataclasses, this previously had a time complexity of 'O'('n').  It
     now has a time complexity of 'O'(1).

   - gh-102519(23): Add *note os.listdrives(): 8ae, *note
     os.listvolumes(): 8af. and *note os.listmounts(): 8b0. functions on
     Windows for enumerating drives, volumes and mount points

   - gh-74468(24): Attribute name of the extracted *note tarfile: e7.
     file object now holds filename of itself rather than of the archive
     it is contained in.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-102378(25): Private helper method
     ‘inspect._signature_strip_non_python_syntax’ will no longer strip
     ‘/’ from the input string.

   - gh-79940(26): Add *note inspect.getasyncgenstate(): 8a3. and *note
     inspect.getasyncgenlocals(): 8a4.  Patch by Thomas Krennwallner.

   - gh-102103(27): Add ‘module’ argument to *note
     dataclasses.make_dataclass(): 1a84. and make classes produced by it
     pickleable.

   - gh-102069(28): Fix ‘__weakref__’ descriptor generation for custom
     dataclasses.

   - gh-102038(29): Skip a ‘stat’ in *note site: cf. if we have already
     found a ‘pyvenv.cfg’

   - gh-98886(30): Fix issues when defining dataclasses that have fields
     with specific underscore names that aren’t clearly reserved by
     *note dataclasses: 32.

   - gh-101673(31): Fix a *note pdb: aa. bug where ‘ll’ clears the
     changes to local variables.

   - gh-101313(32): Added -h and –help arguments to the webbrowser CLI

   - gh-100372(33): *note ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): 129c.
     no longer incorrectly accepts some cases of trailing data when
     parsing DER.

   - gh-89727(34): Fix pathlib.Path.walk RecursionError on deep
     directory trees by rewriting it using iteration instead of
     recursion.

   - gh-100131(35): Added an optional ‘delete’ keyword argument to *note
     tempfile.TemporaryDirectory: 15da.

   - gh-48330(36): Added ‘--durations’ command line option, showing the
     N slowest test cases.  *note unittest.TextTestRunner: 1cb9. and
     *note unittest.TextTestResult: 93f. constructors accept a new
     'durations' keyword argument.  Subclasses should take this into
     account or accept ‘**kwargs’.  Added *note
     unittest.TestResult.addDuration(): 1cba. method and *note
     unittest.TestResult.collectedDurations: 1c82. attribute.

     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - gh-98169(37): Fix *note dataclasses.astuple(): 190e. crash when
     *note collections.defaultdict: 1565. is present in the attributes.

   - gh-96931(38): Fix incorrect results from *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers(): 121d.

   - gh-95495(39): When built against OpenSSL 3.0, the *note ssl: d8.
     module had a bug where it reported unauthenticated EOFs (i.e.
     without close_notify) as a clean TLS-level EOF. It now raises *note
     SSLEOFError: 1903, matching the behavior in previous versions of
     OpenSSL. The *note options: c11. attribute on *note SSLContext:
     336. also no longer includes *note OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: c10.
     by default.  This option may be set to specify the previous OpenSSL
     3.0 behavior.

   - gh-94684(40): Now *note uuid.uuid3(): 561. and *note uuid.uuid5():
     562. functions support *note bytes: 1c7. objects as their 'name'
     argument.

   - gh-94440(41): Fix a ‘concurrent.futures.process’ bug where
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ shutdown could hang after a future has been
     quickly submitted and canceled.

   - gh-72346(42): Added deprecation warning to 'isdst' parameter of
     *note email.utils.localtime(): 56f.

   - bpo-36305(43): Fix handling of Windows filenames that resemble
     drives, such as ‘./a:b’, in *note pathlib: a8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103085

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103068

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102549

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103056

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103046

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102433

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103023

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102947

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102780

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102871

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102839

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88965

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76846

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78530

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102748

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102670

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102615

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100112

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102578

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102519

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74468

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102378

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79940

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102103

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102069

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102038

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98886

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101673

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101313

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100372

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100131

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48330

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98169

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96931

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95495

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94684

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94440

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36305


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<22>,  Next: Tests<25>,  Prev: Library<74>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.26.27.7 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-103112(1): Add docstring to *note
     http.client.HTTPResponse.read(): 1ad0. to fix ‘pydoc’ output.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103112


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<25>,  Next: Build<25>,  Prev: Documentation<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.26.27.8 Tests
...............

   - gh-102980(1): Improve test coverage on *note pdb: aa.

   - gh-102537(2): Adjust the error handling strategy in
     ‘test_zoneinfo.TzPathTest.python_tzpath_context’.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - gh-101377(3): Improved test_locale_calendar_formatweekday of
     calendar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102980

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102537

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101377


File: python.info,  Node: Build<25>,  Next: Windows<22>,  Prev: Tests<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.26.27.9 Build
...............

   - gh-102973(1): Add a dev container (along with accompanying
     Dockerfile) for development purposes.

   - gh-102711(2): Fix ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ compiler warnings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102973

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102711


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<22>,  Next: Tools/Demos<19>,  Prev: Build<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.26.27.10 Windows
..................

   - gh-102690(1): Update *note webbrowser: 11e. to fall back to
     Microsoft Edge instead of Internet Explorer.

   - gh-99726(2): Improves correctness of stat results for Windows, and
     uses faster API when available

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102690

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<19>,  Next: C API<25>,  Prev: Windows<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.26.27.11 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-102809(1): ‘Misc/gdbinit’ was removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102809


File: python.info,  Node: C API<25>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7

1.26.27.12 C API
................

   - gh-102013(1): Add a new (unstable) C-API function for iterating
     over GC’able objects using a callback: ‘PyUnstable_VisitObjects’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102013


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.26.28 Python 3.12.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-03-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<22>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<72>.
* Library: Library<75>.
* Documentation: Documentation<23>.
* Tests: Tests<26>.
* Build: Build<26>.
* Windows: Windows<23>.
* macOS: macOS<17>.
* C API: C API<26>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<22>,  Next: Core and Builtins<72>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.26.28.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99108(1): Replace builtin hashlib implementations of MD5 and
     SHA1 with verified ones from the HACL* project.

   - gh-101727(2): Updated the OpenSSL version used in Windows and macOS
     binary release builds to 1.1.1t to address CVE 2023-0286(3), CVE
     2022-4303(4), and CVE 2022-4303(5) per the OpenSSL 2023-02-07
     security advisory(6).

   - gh-99108(7): Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 6b. implementations
     of SHA2-384 and SHA2-512 originally from LibTomCrypt with formally
     verified, side-channel resistant code from the HACL*(8) project.
     The builtins remain a fallback only used when OpenSSL does not
     provide them.

   - gh-101283(9): *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf. now uses a safer
     approach to find ‘cmd.exe’ when launching with ‘shell=True’.  Patch
     by Eryk Sun, based on a patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101727

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-0286

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-4303

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-4303

   (6) https://openssl-library.org/news/secadv/20230207.txt

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (8) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101283


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<72>,  Next: Library<75>,  Prev: Security<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.26.28.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-102493(1): Fix regression in semantics of normalisation in
     ‘PyErr_SetObject’.

   - gh-102416(2): Do not memoize incorrectly automatically generated
     loop rules in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-102356(3): Fix a bug that caused a crash when deallocating
     deeply nested filter objects.  Patch by Marta Gómez Macías.

   - gh-102336(4): Cleanup Windows 7 specific special handling.  Patch
     by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102250(5): Fixed a segfault occurring when the interpreter calls
     a ‘__bool__’ method that raises.

   - gh-102126(6): Fix deadlock at shutdown when clearing thread states
     if any finalizer tries to acquire the runtime head lock.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-102027(7): Use ‘GetCurrentProcessId’ on Windows when ‘getpid’ is
     unavailable.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-102056(8): Fix error handling bugs in interpreter’s exception
     printing code, which could cause a crash on infinite recursion.

   - gh-100982(9): Restrict the scope of the ‘FOR_ITER_RANGE’
     instruction to the scope of the original *note FOR_ITER: 1cc4.
     instruction, to allow instrumentation.

   - gh-101967(10): Fix possible segfault in
     ‘positional_only_passed_as_keyword’ function, when new list
     created.

   - gh-101952(11): Fix possible segfault in ‘BUILD_SET’ opcode, when
     new set created.

   - gh-74895(12): *note socket.getaddrinfo: 1925. no longer raises
     *note OverflowError: c57. for *note int: 326. 'port' values outside
     of the C long range.  Out of range values are left up to the
     underlying string based C library API to report.  A *note
     socket.gaierror: 1cc5. ‘SAI_SERVICE’ may occur instead, or no error
     at all as not all platform C libraries generate an error.

   - gh-101799(13): Add *note CALL_INTRINSIC_2: 8f1. and use it instead
     of ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’.

   - gh-101857(14): Fix xattr support detection on Linux systems by
     widening the check to linux, not just glibc.  This fixes support
     for musl.

   - gh-84783(15): Make the slice object hashable.  Patch by Will
     Bradshaw and Furkan Onder.

   - gh-87849(16): Change the ‘SEND’ instruction to leave the receiver
     on the stack.  This allows the specialized form of ‘SEND’ to skip
     the chain of C calls and jump directly to the ‘RESUME’ in the
     generator or coroutine.

   - gh-101765(17): Fix SystemError / segmentation fault in iter
     ‘__reduce__’ when internal access of ‘builtins.__dict__’ keys
     mutates the iter object.

   - gh-101430(18): Update *note tracemalloc: 108. to handle presize of
     object properly.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101696(19): Invalidate type version tag in
     ‘_PyStaticType_Dealloc’ for static types, avoiding bug where a
     false cache hit could crash the interpreter.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-101632(20): Adds a new ‘RETURN_CONST’ instruction.

   - gh-100719(21): Remove gi_code field from generator (and coroutine
     and async generator) objects as it is redundant.  The frame already
     includes a reference to the code object.

   - gh-98627(22): When an interpreter is configured to check (and only
     then), importing an extension module will now fail when the
     extension does not support multiple interpreters (i.e.  doesn’t
     implement PEP 489 multi-phase init).  This does not apply to the
     main interpreter, nor to subinterpreters created with
     ‘Py_NewInterpreter()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102493

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102416

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102356

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102336

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102250

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102126

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102027

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102056

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101967

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101952

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74895

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101799

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101857

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84783

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87849

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101765

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101430

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101696

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101632

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100719

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98627


File: python.info,  Node: Library<75>,  Next: Documentation<23>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<72>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.26.28.3 Library
.................

   - gh-102302(1): Micro-optimise hashing of *note inspect.Parameter:
     6e9, reducing the time it takes to hash an instance by around 40%.

   - gh-101979(2): Fix a bug where parentheses in the ‘metavar’ argument
     to *note argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 3ed. were dropped.
     Patch by Yeojin Kim.

   - gh-91038(3): *note platform.platform(): 1cc7. now has boolean
     default arguments.

   - gh-81652(4): Add *note mmap.MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER: 1cc8. FreeBSD and
     *note mmap.MAP_CONCEAL: 1cc9. OpenBSD constants to *note mmap: 94.
     Patch by Yeojin Kim.

   - gh-102179(5): Fix *note os.dup2(): f20. error message for negative
     fds.

   - gh-101961(6): For the binary mode, ‘fileinput.hookcompressed()’
     doesn’t set the ‘encoding’ value even if the value is ‘None’.
     Patch by Gihwan Kim.

   - gh-101936(7): The default value of ‘fp’ becomes *note io.BytesIO:
     1255. if *note HTTPError: 1387. is initialized without a designated
     ‘fp’ parameter.  Patch by Long Vo.

   - gh-101566(8): In zipfile, sync Path with zipp 3.14(9), including
     fix for extractall on the underlying zipfile after being wrapped in
     ‘Path’.

   - gh-97930(10): Apply changes from importlib_resources 5.12(11),
     including fix for ‘MultiplexedPath’ to support directories in
     multiple namespaces (python/importlib_resources#265).

   - gh-101997(12): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip
     23.0.1)

   - gh-99108(13): The built-in extension modules for *note hashlib: 6b.
     SHA2 algorithms, used when OpenSSL does not provide them, now live
     in a single internal ‘_sha2’ module instead of separate ‘_sha256’
     and ‘_sha512’ modules.

   - gh-101892(14): Callable iterators no longer raise *note
     SystemError: 3ea. when the callable object exhausts the iterator
     but forgets to either return a sentinel value or raise *note
     StopIteration: fba.

   - gh-87634(15): Remove locking behavior from *note
     functools.cached_property(): 94e.

   - gh-97786(16): Fix potential undefined behaviour in corner cases of
     floating-point-to-time conversions.

   - gh-101517(17): Fixed bug where *note bdb: 10. looks up the source
     line with *note linecache: 88. with a ‘lineno=None’, which causes
     it to fail with an unhandled exception.

   - gh-101773(18): Optimize *note fractions.Fraction: 1c3. for small
     components.  The private argument ‘_normalize’ of the
     ‘fractions.Fraction’ constructor has been removed.

   - gh-101693(19): In *note sqlite3.Cursor.execute(): 7a8, *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. is now emitted when *note named
     placeholders: 7aa. are used together with parameters supplied as a
     *note sequence: 8ff. instead of as a *note dict: 188.  Starting
     from Python 3.14, using named placeholders with parameters supplied
     as a sequence will raise a *note ProgrammingError: 57d.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-101446(20): Change repr of *note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5.
     to use regular dictionary formatting instead of pairs of keys and
     values.

   - gh-101362(21): Speed up *note pathlib.PurePath: 8b6. construction
     by handling arguments more uniformly.  When a *note pathlib.Path:
     4ee. argument is supplied, we use its string representation rather
     than joining its parts with *note os.path.join(): 1a42.

   - gh-101362(22): Speed up *note pathlib.PurePath: 8b6. construction
     by calling *note os.path.join(): 1a42. only when two or more
     arguments are given.

   - gh-101362(23): Speed up *note pathlib.Path: 4ee. construction by
     running the path flavour compatibility check only when pathlib is
     imported.

   - gh-85984(24): Refactored the implementation of *note pty.fork():
     1cca. to use *note os.login_tty(): 1ccb.

     A *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. is now raised by
     ‘pty.master_open()’ and ‘pty.slave_open()’.  They were undocumented
     and deprecated long long ago in the docstring in favor of *note
     pty.openpty(): 579.

   - gh-101561(25): Add a new decorator *note typing.override(): 869.
     See PEP 698(26) for details.  Patch by Steven Troxler.

   - gh-63301(27): Set exit code when *note tabnanny: e6. CLI exits on
     error.

   - gh-101360(28): Fix anchor matching in
     ‘pathlib.PureWindowsPath.match()’.  Path and pattern anchors are
     now matched with *note fnmatch: 5f, just like other path parts.
     This allows patterns such as ‘"*:/Users/*"’ to be matched.

   - gh-101277(29): Remove global state from *note itertools: 84. module
     ( PEP 687(30)).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100809(31): Fix handling of drive-relative paths (like “C:” and
     “C:foo”) in *note pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1c2e.  This method now
     uses the OS API to retrieve the correct current working directory
     for the drive.

   - gh-99138(32): Apply PEP 687(33) to *note zoneinfo: 13d.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-96764(34): *note asyncio.wait_for(): 9f6. now uses *note
     asyncio.timeout(): 9f5. as its underlying implementation.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-88233(35): Correctly preserve «extra» fields in ‘zipfile’
     regardless of their ordering relative to a zip64 «extra.»

   - bpo-23224(36): Fix segfaults when creating *note
     lzma.LZMADecompressor: 18f8. and *note bz2.BZ2Decompressor: 18f9.
     objects without calling ‘__init__()’, and fix leakage of locks and
     internal buffers when calling the ‘__init__()’ methods of
     ‘lzma.LZMADecompressor’, *note lzma.LZMACompressor: 1ccc, *note
     bz2.BZ2Compressor: 1ccd, and ‘bz2.BZ2Decompressor’ objects multiple
     times.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102302

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101979

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91038

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81652

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102179

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101961

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101936

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101566

   (9) https://zipp.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-14-0

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (11) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v5-12-0

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101997

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101892

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87634

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97786

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101517

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101773

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101693

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101446

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101362

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101561

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63301

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101360

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101277

   (30) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100809

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99138

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0687/

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96764

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88233

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23224


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<23>,  Next: Tests<26>,  Prev: Library<75>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.26.28.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-85417(1): Update *note cmath: 19. documentation to clarify
     behaviour on branch cuts.

   - gh-97725(2): Fix *note asyncio.Task.print_stack(): 1ccf.
     description for ‘file=None’.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85417

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97725


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<26>,  Next: Build<26>,  Prev: Documentation<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.26.28.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-102019(1): Fix deadlock on shutdown if
     ‘test_current_{exception,frames}’ fails.  Patch by Jacob Bower.

   - gh-85984(2): Utilize new «winsize» functions from termios in pty
     tests.

   - gh-89792(3): ‘test_tools’ now copies up to 10x less source data to
     a temporary directory during the ‘freeze’ test by ignoring git
     metadata and other artifacts.  It also limits its python build
     parallelism based on os.cpu_count instead of hard coding it as 8
     cores.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102019

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89792


File: python.info,  Node: Build<26>,  Next: Windows<23>,  Prev: Tests<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.26.28.6 Build
...............

   - gh-99942(1): On Android, in a static build, python-config in embed
     mode no longer incorrectly reports a library to link to.

   - gh-99942(2): On Android, python.pc now correctly reports the
     library to link to, the same as python-config.sh.

   - gh-100221(3): Fix creating install directories in ‘make
     sharedinstall’ if they exist outside ‘DESTDIR’ already.

   - gh-96821(4): Explicitly mark C extension modules that need defined
     signed integer overflow, and add a configure option *note
     -with-strict-overflow: 1cd2.  Patch by Matthias Görgens and
     Shantanu Jain.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99942

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99942

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100221

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<23>,  Next: macOS<17>,  Prev: Build<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.26.28.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-102344(1): Implement ‘winreg.QueryValue’ using ‘QueryValueEx’
     and ‘winreg.SetValue’ using ‘SetValueEx’.  Patch by Max Bachmann.

   - gh-101881(2): Handle read and write operations on non-blocking
     pipes properly on Windows.

   - gh-101881(3): Add support for the os.get_blocking() and
     os.set_blocking() functions on Windows.

   - gh-101849(4): Ensures installer will correctly upgrade existing
     ‘py.exe’ launcher installs.

   - gh-101763(5): Updates copy of libffi bundled with Windows installs
     to 3.4.4.

   - gh-101759(6): Update Windows installer to SQLite 3.40.1.

   - gh-101614(7): Correctly handle extensions built against debug
     binaries that reference ‘python3_d.dll’.

   - gh-101196(8): The functions ‘os.path.isdir’, ‘os.path.isfile’,
     ‘os.path.islink’ and ‘os.path.exists’ are now 13% to 28% faster on
     Windows, by making fewer Win32 API calls.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102344

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101881

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101881

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101849

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101763

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101759

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101614

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101196


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<17>,  Next: C API<26>,  Prev: Windows<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.26.28.8 macOS
...............

   - gh-101759(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.40.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101759


File: python.info,  Node: C API<26>,  Prev: macOS<17>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6

1.26.28.9 C API
...............

   - gh-101907(1): Removes use of non-standard C++ extension in public
     header files.

   - gh-99293(2): Document that the Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG is an
     internal feature, should not be used, and will be removed.

   - gh-101578(3): Add *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 63f. for saving and restoring the
     current exception.  These functions return and accept a single
     exception object, rather than the triple arguments of the
     now-deprecated *note PyErr_Fetch(): 63b. and *note PyErr_Restore():
     63e.  This is less error prone and a bit more efficient.

     Add *note PyException_GetArgs(): 970. and *note
     PyException_SetArgs(): 971. as convenience functions for retrieving
     and modifying the *note args: 972. passed to the exception’s
     constructor.

   - gh-91744(4): Introduced the 'Unstable C API tier', marking APi that
     is allowed to change in minor releases without a deprecation
     period.  See PEP 689(5) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101907

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99293

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91744

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0689/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.26.29 Python 3.12.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-02-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<23>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<73>.
* Library: Library<76>.
* Documentation: Documentation<24>.
* Tests: Tests<27>.
* Build: Build<27>.
* Windows: Windows<24>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<23>,  Next: Core and Builtins<73>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.26.29.1 Security
..................

   - gh-99108(1): Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 6b. implementations
     of SHA2-224 and SHA2-256 originally from LibTomCrypt with formally
     verified, side-channel resistant code from the HACL*(2) project.
     The builtins remain a fallback only used when OpenSSL does not
     provide them.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99108

   (2) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<73>,  Next: Library<76>,  Prev: Security<23>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.26.29.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-92173(1): Fix the ‘defs’ and ‘kwdefs’ arguments to *note
     PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1cd9. and a reference leak in that function.

   - gh-59956(2): The GILState API is now partially compatible with
     subinterpreters.  Previously, ‘PyThreadState_GET()’ and
     ‘PyGILState_GetThisThreadState()’ would get out of sync, causing
     inconsistent behavior and crashes.

   - gh-101400(3): Fix wrong lineno in exception message on *note
     continue: 429. or *note break: 428. which are not in a loop.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101372(4): Fix *note is_normalized(): e0b. to properly handle
     the UCD 3.2.0 cases.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101266(5): Fix *note sys.getsizeof(): 1cda. reporting for *note
     int: 326. subclasses.

   - gh-101291(6): Refactor the ‘PyLongObject’ struct into a normal
     Python object header and a ‘PyLongValue’ struct.

   - gh-101046(7): Fix a possible memory leak in the parser when raising
     *note MemoryError: 18fa.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-101037(8): Fix potential memory underallocation issue for
     instances of *note int: 326. subclasses with value zero.

   - gh-100762(9): Record the (virtual) exception block depth in the
     oparg of *note YIELD_VALUE: 7b3.  Use this to avoid the expensive
     ‘throw()’ when closing generators (and coroutines) that can be
     closed trivially.

   - gh-100982(10): Adds a new ‘COMPARE_AND_BRANCH’ instruction.  This
     is a bit more efficient when performing a comparison immediately
     followed by a branch, and restores the design intent of PEP 659
     that specializations are local to a single instruction.

   - gh-100942(11): Fixed segfault in property.getter/setter/deleter
     that occurred when a property subclass overrode the ‘__new__’
     method to return a non-property instance.

   - gh-100923(12): Remove the ‘mask’ cache entry for the *note
     COMPARE_OP: d32. instruction and embed the mask into the oparg.

   - gh-100892(13): Fix race while iterating over thread states in
     clearing *note threading.local: 1a87.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91351(14): Fix a case where re-entrant imports could corrupt the
     import deadlock detection code and cause a *note KeyError: 7df. to
     be raised out of ‘importlib/_bootstrap’.  In addition to the
     straightforward cases, this could also happen when garbage
     collection leads to a warning being emitted – as happens when it
     collects an open socket or file)

   - gh-100726(15): Optimize construction of ‘range’ object for medium
     size integers.

   - gh-100712(16): Added option to build cpython with specialization
     disabled, by setting ‘ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION=False’ in ‘opcode’,
     followed by ‘make regen-all’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92173

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59956

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101400

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101372

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101266

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101291

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101046

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101037

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100762

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100982

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100942

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100923

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100892

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91351

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100726

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100712


File: python.info,  Node: Library<76>,  Next: Documentation<24>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<73>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.26.29.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-32780(1): Inter-field padding is now inserted into the PEP3118
     format strings obtained from *note ctypes.Structure: 47c. objects,
     reflecting their true representation in memory.

   - gh-101541(2): [Enum] - fix psuedo-flag creation

   - gh-101570(3): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip 23.0)

   - gh-101323(4): Fix a bug where errors where not thrown by
     zlib._ZlibDecompressor if encountered during decompressing.

   - gh-101317(5): Add 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' parameter for *note
     asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls(): 9fa.

   - gh-101326(6): Fix regression when passing ‘None’ as second or third
     argument to ‘FutureIter.throw’.

   - gh-92123(7): Adapt the ‘_elementtree’ extension module to
     multi-phase init ( PEP 489(8)).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-100795(9): Avoid potential unexpected ‘freeaddrinfo’ call
     (double free) in *note socket: d4. when a libc ‘getaddrinfo()’
     implementation leaves garbage in an output pointer when returning
     an error.  Original patch by Sergey G. Brester.

   - gh-101143(10): Remove unused references to *note TimerHandle: 1cdc.
     in ‘asyncio.base_events.BaseEventLoop._add_callback’.

   - gh-101144(11): Make *note zipfile.Path.open(): 1a13. and *note
     zipfile.Path.read_text(): 1cdd. also accept ‘encoding’ as a
     positional argument.  This was the behavior in Python 3.9 and
     earlier.  3.10 introduced a regression where supplying it as a
     positional argument would lead to a *note TypeError: 291.

   - gh-94518(12): Group-related variables of ‘_posixsubprocess’ module
     are renamed to stress that supplementary group affinity is added to
     a fork, not replace the inherited ones.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-101015(13): Fix *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. on
     ‘'*tuple[...]'’ and ‘*tuple[...]’.  It must not drop the ‘Unpack’
     part.

   - gh-101000(14): Add *note os.path.splitroot(): 8b4, which splits a
     path into a 3-item tuple ‘(drive, root, tail)’.  This new function
     is used by *note pathlib: a8. to improve the performance of path
     construction by up to a third.

   - gh-100573(15): Fix a Windows *note asyncio: b. bug with named pipes
     where a client doing ‘os.stat()’ on the pipe would cause an error
     in the server that disabled serving future requests.

   - gh-39615(16): *note warnings.warn(): 18bb. now has the ability to
     skip stack frames based on code filename prefix rather than only a
     numeric ‘stacklevel’ via the new ‘skip_file_prefixes’ keyword
     argument.

   - gh-100750(17): pass encoding kwarg to subprocess in platform

   - gh-100160(18): Emit a deprecation warning in
     ‘asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy.get_event_loop()’ if there is no
     current event loop set and it decides to create one.

   - gh-96290(19): Fix handling of partial and invalid UNC drives in
     ‘ntpath.splitdrive()’, and in ‘ntpath.normpath()’ on non-Windows
     systems.  Paths such as “\server” and “\” are now considered by
     ‘splitdrive()’ to contain only a drive, and consequently are not
     modified by ‘normpath()’ on non-Windows systems.  The behaviour of
     ‘normpath()’ on Windows systems is unaffected, as native OS APIs
     are used.  Patch by Eryk Sun, with contributions by Barney Gale.

   - gh-99952(20): Fix a reference undercounting issue in *note
     ctypes.Structure: 47c. with ‘from_param()’ results larger than a C
     pointer.

   - gh-67790(21): Add float-style formatting support for *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1c3. instances.

   - gh-99266(22): Preserve more detailed error messages in *note
     ctypes: 2d.

   - gh-86682(23): Ensure runtime-created collections have the correct
     module name using the newly added (internal) *note
     sys._getframemodulename(): 1cde.

   - gh-88597(24): *note uuid: 119. now has a command line interface.
     Try ‘python -m uuid -h’.

   - gh-60580(25): ‘ctypes.wintypes.BYTE’ definition changed from *note
     c_byte: 1cdf. to *note c_ubyte: 1ce0. to match Windows SDK. Patch
     by Anatoly Techtonik and Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-94518(26): ‘_posixsubprocess’ now initializes all UID and GID
     variables using a reserved ‘-1’ value instead of a separate flag.
     Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-38941(27): The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. module now
     emits *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. when testing the truth value
     of an *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 343.  Before, the Python
     implementation emitted *note FutureWarning: 847, and the C
     implementation emitted nothing.

   - bpo-40077(28): Convert ‘elementtree’ types to heap types.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-29847(29): Fix a bug where *note pathlib.Path: 4ee. accepted
     and ignored keyword arguments.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-77772(30): *note ctypes.CDLL: dad, *note ctypes.OleDLL: 1ce1,
     *note ctypes.WinDLL: 1ce2, and *note ctypes.PyDLL: 1ce3. now accept
     *note path-like objects: 79f. as their ‘name’ argument.  Patch by
     Robert Hoelzl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32780

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101541

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101570

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101323

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101317

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101326

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92123

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100795

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101143

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101144

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101015

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101000

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100573

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/39615

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100750

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96290

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99952

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67790

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99266

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86682

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88597

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60580

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94518

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38941

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29847

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77772


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<24>,  Next: Tests<27>,  Prev: Library<76>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.26.29.4 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-88324(1): Reword *note subprocess: df. to emphasize default
     behavior of 'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' arguments.  Remove
     inaccurate statement about child file handle inheritance.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88324


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<27>,  Next: Build<27>,  Prev: Documentation<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.26.29.5 Tests
...............

   - gh-101334(1): ‘test_tarfile’ has been updated to pass when run as a
     high UID.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101334


File: python.info,  Node: Build<27>,  Next: Windows<24>,  Prev: Tests<27>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.26.29.6 Build
...............

   - gh-101282(1): Update BOLT configuration not to use deprecated usage
     of ‘--split functions’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-101522(2): Allow overriding Windows dependencies versions and
     paths using MSBuild properties.

   - gh-77532(3): Minor fixes to allow building with
     ‘PlatformToolset=ClangCL’ on Windows.

   - gh-101152(4): In accordance with PEP 699(5), the ‘ma_version_tag’
     field in *note PyDictObject: 83e. is deprecated for extension
     modules.  Accessing this field will generate a compiler warning at
     compile time.  This field will be removed in Python 3.14.

   - gh-100340(6): Allows -Wno-int-conversion for wasm-sdk 17 and
     onwards, thus enables building WASI builds once against the latest
     sdk.

   - gh-101060(7): Conditionally add ‘-fno-reorder-blocks-and-partition’
     in configure.  Effectively fixes ‘--enable-bolt’ when using Clang,
     as this appears to be a GCC-only flag.

   - gh-98705(8): ‘__bool__’ is defined in AIX system header files which
     breaks the build in AIX, so undefine it.

   - gh-98636(9): Fix a regression in detecting ‘gdbm_compat’ library
     for the ‘_gdbm’ module build.

   - gh-96305(10): ‘_aix_support’ now uses a simple code to get platform
     details rather than the now non-existent ‘_bootsubprocess’ during
     bootstrap.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101282

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101522

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77532

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101152

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100340

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101060

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98705

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98636

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96305


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<24>,  Prev: Build<27>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5

1.26.29.7 Windows
.................

   - gh-101543(1): Ensure the install path in the registry is only used
     when the standard library hasn’t been located in any other way.

   - gh-101467(2): The ‘py.exe’ launcher now correctly filters when only
     a single runtime is installed.  It also correctly handles prefix
     matches on tags so that ‘-3.1’ does not match ‘3.11’, but would
     still match ‘3.1-32’.

   - gh-99834(3): Updates bundled copy of Tcl/Tk to 8.6.13.0

   - gh-101135(4): Restore ability to launch older 32-bit versions from
     the ‘py.exe’ launcher when both 32-bit and 64-bit installs of the
     same version are available.

   - gh-82052(5): Fixed an issue where writing more than 32K of Unicode
     output to the console screen in one go can result in mojibake.

   - gh-100320(6): Ensures the ‘PythonPath’ registry key from an install
     is used when launching from a different copy of Python that relies
     on an existing install to provide a copy of its modules and
     standard library.

   - gh-100247(7): Restores support for the ‘py.exe’ launcher finding
     shebang commands in its configuration file using the full command
     name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101543

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101467

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99834

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101135

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82052

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100320

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100247


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.26.30 Python 3.12.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2023-01-10'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<74>.
* Library: Library<77>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<75>.
* Library: Library<78>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<76>.
* Library: Library<79>.
* Documentation: Documentation<25>.
* Tests: Tests<28>.
* Build: Build<28>.
* Windows: Windows<25>.
* macOS: macOS<18>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<20>.
* C API: C API<27>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<74>,  Next: Library<77>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.26.30.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-100776(1): Fix misleading default value in *note input():
     167d.”s ‘__text_signature__’.

   - gh-99005(2): Remove ‘UNARY_POSITIVE’, ‘ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’ and
     ‘LIST_TO_TUPLE’, replacing them with intrinsics.

   - gh-99005(3): Add new *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 8f0. instruction.
     Remove ‘IMPORT_STAR’, ‘PRINT_EXPR’ and ‘STOPITERATION_ERROR’,
     replacing them with the ‘CALL_INTRINSIC_1’ instruction.

   - gh-100288(4): Remove the LOAD_ATTR_METHOD_WITH_DICT specialized
     instruction.  Stats show it is not useful.

   - gh-100720(5): Added ‘_PyFrame_NumSlotsForCodeObject’, which returns
     the number of slots needed in a frame for a given code object.

   - gh-100719(6): Removed the co_nplaincellvars field from the code
     object, as it is redundant.

   - gh-100637(7): Fix ‘int.__sizeof__()’ calculation to include the
     1-element ‘ob_digit’ array for ‘0’ and ‘False’.

   - gh-100649(8): Update the native_thread_id field of PyThreadState
     after fork.

   - gh-100126(9): Fix an issue where «incomplete» frames could be
     briefly visible to C code while other frames are being torn down,
     possibly resulting in corruption or hard crashes of the interpreter
     while running finalizers.

   - gh-87447(10): Fix *note SyntaxError: 17e. on comprehension rebind
     checking with names that are not actually redefined.

     Now reassigning ‘b’ in ‘[(b := 1) for a, b.prop in some_iter]’ is
     allowed.  Reassigning ‘a’ is still disallowed as per PEP 572(11).

   - gh-100268(12): Add *note int.is_integer(): 1cea. to improve duck
     type compatibility between *note int: 326. and *note float: 327.

   - gh-100425(13): Improve the accuracy of ‘sum()’ with compensated
     summation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100776

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100288

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100720

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100719

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100637

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100649

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100126

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87447

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100268

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100425


File: python.info,  Node: Library<77>,  Next: Core and Builtins<75>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<74>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.26.30.2 Library
.................

   - gh-100374(1): Fix incorrect result and delay in *note
     socket.getfqdn(): 1cec.  Patch by Dominic Socular.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100374


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<75>,  Next: Library<78>,  Prev: Library<77>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.26.30.3 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-100357(1): Convert ‘vars’, ‘dir’, ‘next’, ‘getattr’, and ‘iter’
     to argument clinic.

   - gh-100117(2): Improve the output of *note codeobject.co_lines():
     32d. by emitting only one entry for each line range.

   - gh-90043(3): Handle NaNs when specializing *note COMPARE_OP: d32.
     for *note float: 327. values.

   - gh-100222(4): Redefine the ‘_Py_CODEUNIT’ typedef as a union to
     describe its layout to the C compiler, avoiding type punning and
     improving clarity.

   - gh-99955(5): Internal compiler functions (in compile.c) now
     consistently return -1 on error and 0 on success.

   - gh-100188(6): The ‘BINARY_SUBSCR_LIST_INT’ and
     ‘BINARY_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT’ instructions are no longer used for
     negative integers because those instructions always miss when
     encountering negative integers.

   - gh-99110(7): Initialize frame->previous in frameobject.c to fix a
     segmentation fault when accessing frames created by *note
     PyFrame_New(): 1cee.

   - gh-94155(8): Improved the hashing algorithm for code objects,
     mitigating some hash collisions.

   - gh-99540(9): ‘None’ now hashes to a constant value.  This is not a
     requirements change.

   - gh-100143(10): When built with ‘--enable-pystats’, stats collection
     is now off by default.  To enable it early at startup, pass the
     ‘-Xpystats’ flag.  Stats are now always dumped, even if switched
     off.

   - gh-100146(11): Improve ‘BUILD_LIST’ opcode so that it works
     similarly to the ‘BUILD_TUPLE’ opcode, by stealing references from
     the stack rather than repeatedly using stack operations to set list
     elements.  Implementation details are in a new private API
     ‘_PyList_FromArraySteal()’.

   - gh-100110(12): Specialize ‘FOR_ITER’ for tuples.

   - gh-100050(13): Honor existing errors obtained when searching for
     mismatching parentheses in the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-92216(14): Improve the performance of *note hasattr(): 8e2. for
     type objects with a missing attribute.

   - gh-99582(15): Freeze *note zipimport: 13b. module into
     ‘_bootstrap_python’.

   - gh-99554(16): Pack debugging location tables more efficiently
     during bytecode compilation.

   - gh-98522(17): Add an internal version number to code objects, to
     give better versioning of inner functions and comprehensions, and
     thus better specialization of those functions.  This change is
     invisible to both Python and C extensions.

   - gh-94603(18): Improve performance of ‘list.pop’ for small lists.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100357

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100117

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90043

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100222

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99955

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100188

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99110

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94155

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99540

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100143

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100146

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100110

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100050

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92216

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99582

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99554

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98522

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94603


File: python.info,  Node: Library<78>,  Next: Core and Builtins<76>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<75>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.26.30.4 Library
.................

   - gh-89051(1): Add *note ssl.OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT: 1cf0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89051


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<76>,  Next: Library<79>,  Prev: Library<78>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.26.30.5 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32782(1): ‘ctypes’ arrays of length 0 now report a correct
     itemsize when a ‘memoryview’ is constructed from them, rather than
     always giving a value of 0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32782


File: python.info,  Node: Library<79>,  Next: Documentation<25>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<76>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.26.30.6 Library
.................

   - gh-100833(1): Speed up *note math.fsum(): 1777. by removing
     defensive ‘volatile’ qualifiers.

   - gh-100805(2): Modify *note random.choice(): 15d6. implementation to
     once again work with NumPy arrays.

   - gh-100813(3): Add ‘socket.IP_PKTINFO’ constant.

   - gh-100792(4): Make *note email.message.Message.__contains__():
     1cf3. twice as fast.

   - gh-91851(5): Microoptimizations for *note
     fractions.Fraction.__round__(): 1cf4, *note
     fractions.Fraction.__ceil__(): 1cf5. and *note
     fractions.Fraction.__floor__(): 1cf6.

   - gh-90104(6): Avoid RecursionError on ‘repr’ if a dataclass field
     definition has a cyclic reference.

   - gh-100689(7): Fix crash in ‘pyexpat’ by statically allocating
     ‘PyExpat_CAPI’ capsule.

   - gh-100740(8): Fix ‘unittest.mock.Mock’ not respecting the spec for
     attribute names prefixed with ‘assert’.

   - gh-91219(9): Change ‘SimpleHTTPRequestHandler’ to support
     subclassing to provide a different set of index file names instead
     of using ‘__init__’ parameters.

   - gh-100690(10): ‘Mock’ objects which are not unsafe will now raise
     an ‘AttributeError’ when accessing an attribute that matches the
     name of an assertion but without the prefix ‘assert_’, e.g.
     accessing ‘called_once’ instead of ‘assert_called_once’.  This is
     in addition to this already happening for accessing attributes with
     prefixes ‘assert’, ‘assret’, ‘asert’, ‘aseert’, and ‘assrt’.

   - gh-89727(11): Simplify and optimize *note os.walk(): 8b9. by using
     *note isinstance(): 2ef. checks to check the top of the stack.

   - gh-100485(12): Add math.sumprod() to compute the sum of products.

   - gh-86508(13): Fix *note asyncio.open_connection(): edc. to skip
     binding to local addresses of different family.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-97930(14): ‘importlib.resources.files’ now accepts a module as
     an anchor instead of only accepting packages.  If a module is
     passed, resources are resolved adjacent to that module (in the same
     package or at the package root).  The parameter was renamed from
     ‘package’ to ‘anchor’ with a compatibility shim for those passing
     by keyword.  Additionally, the new ‘anchor’ parameter is now
     optional and will default to the caller’s module.

   - gh-100585(15): Fixed a bug where importlib.resources.as_file was
     leaving file pointers open

   - gh-100562(16): Improve performance of *note
     pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1c2e. by nearly 2x.  This comes at the
     cost of a performance regression in *note pathlib.Path.cwd(): 1c9f,
     which is generally used less frequently in user code.

   - gh-100519(17): Small simplification of
     ‘http.cookiejar.eff_request_host()’ that improves readability and
     better matches the RFC wording.

   - gh-100287(18): Fix the interaction of *note unittest.mock.seal():
     f60. with *note unittest.mock.AsyncMock: e0d.

   - gh-100488(19): Add ‘Fraction.is_integer()’ to check whether a *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1c3. is an integer.  This improves duck type
     compatibility with *note float: 327. and *note int: 326.

   - gh-100474(20): *note http.server: 75. now checks that an index page
     is actually a regular file before trying to serve it.  This avoids
     issues with directories named ‘index.html’.

   - gh-100363(21): Speed up *note asyncio.get_running_loop(): ecf. by
     removing redundant ‘getpid’ checks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-78878(22): Fix crash when creating an instance of
     ‘_ctypes.CField’.

   - gh-100348(23): Fix ref cycle in ‘asyncio._SelectorSocketTransport’
     by removing ‘_read_ready_cb’ in ‘close’.

   - gh-100344(24): Provide C implementation for *note
     asyncio.current_task(): 88f. for a 4x-6x speedup.

   - gh-100272(25): Fix JSON serialization of OrderedDict.  It now
     preserves the order of keys.

   - gh-83076(26): Instantiation of ‘Mock()’ and ‘AsyncMock()’ is now
     3.8x faster.

   - gh-100234(27): Set a default value of 1.0 for the ‘lambd’ parameter
     in random.expovariate().

   - gh-100228(28): A *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. may be raised when
     *note os.fork(): 6bd. or *note os.forkpty(): 6be. is called from
     multi-threaded processes.  Forking with threads is unsafe and can
     cause deadlocks, crashes and subtle problems.  Lack of a warning
     does not indicate that the fork call was actually safe, as Python
     may not be aware of all threads.

   - gh-100039(29): Improve signatures for enums and flags.

   - gh-100133(30): Fix regression in *note asyncio: b. where a
     subprocess would sometimes lose data received from pipe.

   - bpo-44592(31): Fixes inconsistent handling of case sensitivity of
     'extrasaction' arg in *note csv.DictWriter: 15a7.

   - gh-100098(32): Fix ‘tuple’ subclasses being cast to ‘tuple’ when
     used as enum values.

   - gh-85432(33): Rename the 'fmt' parameter of the pure-Python
     implementation of *note datetime.time.strftime(): 1cf7. to
     'format'.  Rename the 't' parameter of *note
     datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 8fb. to 'timestamp'.  These
     changes mean the parameter names in the pure-Python implementation
     now match the parameter names in the C implementation.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - gh-98778(34): Update *note HTTPError: 1387. to be initialized
     properly, even if the ‘fp’ is ‘None’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-99925(35): Unify error messages in JSON serialization between
     ‘json.dumps(float('nan'), allow_nan=False)’ and
     ‘json.dumps(float('nan'), allow_nan=False, indent=<SOMETHING>)’.
     Now both include the representation of the value that could not be
     serialized.

   - gh-89727(36): Fix issue with *note os.walk(): 8b9. where a *note
     RecursionError: 1121. would occur on deep directory structures by
     adjusting the implementation of ‘os.walk()’ to be iterative instead
     of recursive.

   - gh-94943(37): Add *note Dataclass support: 1cf8. to the *note Enum:
     a21. *note __repr__(): 1cf9.  When inheriting from a *note
     dataclass: 6e6, only show the field names in the value section of
     the member *note repr(): 45b, and not the dataclass” class name.

   - gh-83035(38): Fix *note inspect.getsource(): 1a04. handling of
     decorator calls with nested parentheses.

   - gh-99576(39): Fix ‘.save()’ method for ‘LWPCookieJar’ and
     ‘MozillaCookieJar’: saved file was not truncated on repeated save.

   - gh-94912(40): Add *note inspect.markcoroutinefunction(): 8a1.
     decorator which manually marks a function as a coroutine for the
     benefit of ‘iscoroutinefunction()’.

   - gh-99509(41): Add PEP 585(42) support for
     ‘multiprocessing.queues.Queue’.

   - gh-99482(43): Remove ‘Jython’ partial compatibility code from
     several stdlib modules.

   - gh-99433(44): Fix *note doctest: 3d. failure on *note
     types.MethodWrapperType: a3a. in modules.

   - gh-85267(45): Several improvements to *note inspect.signature():
     4bd.”s handling of ‘__text_signature’.  - Fixes a case where
     ‘inspect.signature()’ dropped parameters - Fixes a case where
     ‘inspect.signature()’ raised *note tokenize.TokenError: 94f. -
     Allows ‘inspect.signature()’ to understand defaults involving
     binary operations of constants - ‘inspect.signature()’ is
     documented as only raising *note TypeError: 291. or *note
     ValueError: 277, but sometimes raised *note RuntimeError: 30d.
     These cases now raise ‘ValueError’ - Removed a dead code path

   - gh-91166(46): *note asyncio: b. is optimized to avoid excessive
     copying when writing to socket and use *note sendmsg(): 88c. if the
     platform supports it.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98030(47): Add missing TCP socket options from Linux:
     ‘TCP_MD5SIG’, ‘TCP_THIN_LINEAR_TIMEOUTS’, ‘TCP_THIN_DUPACK’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_QUEUE’, ‘TCP_QUEUE_SEQ’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_OPTIONS’, ‘TCP_TIMESTAMP’, ‘TCP_CC_INFO’,
     ‘TCP_SAVE_SYN’, ‘TCP_SAVED_SYN’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_WINDOW’,
     ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_CONNECT’, ‘TCP_ULP’, ‘TCP_MD5SIG_EXT’,
     ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_KEY’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_NO_COOKIE’,
     ‘TCP_ZEROCOPY_RECEIVE’, ‘TCP_INQ’, ‘TCP_TX_DELAY’.

   - gh-88500(48): Reduced the memory usage of *note
     urllib.parse.unquote(): 1cfa. and *note
     urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes(): 1cfb. on large values.

   - gh-96127(49): ‘inspect.signature’ was raising ‘TypeError’ on call
     with mock objects.  Now it correctly returns ‘(*args, **kwargs)’ as
     inferred signature.

   - gh-95882(50): Fix a 3.11 regression in *note asynccontextmanager():
     20f, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks and fix a 3.11 regression in *note contextmanager():
     20e, which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect
     tracebacks for *note StopIteration: fba.

   - gh-78707(51): Deprecate passing more than one positional argument
     to *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 575. and *note
     is_relative_to(): 576.

   - gh-92122(52): Fix reStructuredText syntax errors in docstrings in
     the *note enum: 59. module.

   - gh-91851(53): Optimize the *note Fraction: 1c3. arithmetics for
     small components.

   - bpo-24132(54): Make *note pathlib.PurePath: 8b6. and *note Path:
     4ee. subclassable (private to start).  Previously, attempting to
     instantiate a subclass resulted in an *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     being raised.  Patch by Barney Gale.

   - bpo-40447(55): Accept *note os.PathLike: 100f. (such as *note
     pathlib.Path: 4ee.) in the ‘stripdir’ arguments of *note
     compileall.compile_file(): 1199. and *note
     compileall.compile_dir(): ee8.

   - bpo-36880(56): Fix a reference counting issue when a *note ctypes:
     2d. callback with return type *note py_object: 486. returns ‘None’,
     which could cause crashes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100833

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100805

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100813

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100792

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91851

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90104

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100689

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100740

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91219

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100690

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100485

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86508

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100585

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100562

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100519

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100287

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100488

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100474

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100363

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78878

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100348

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100344

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100272

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83076

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100234

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100228

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100039

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100133

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44592

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100098

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85432

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98778

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99925

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89727

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94943

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83035

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99576

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94912

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99509

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99482

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99433

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85267

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91166

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98030

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88500

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96127

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95882

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78707

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92122

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91851

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24132

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40447

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36880


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<25>,  Next: Tests<28>,  Prev: Library<79>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.26.30.7 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-100616(1): Document existing ‘attr’ parameter to *note
     curses.window.vline(): 1cfd. function in *note curses: 2e.

   - gh-100472(2): Remove claim in documentation that the ‘stripdir’,
     ‘prependdir’ and ‘limit_sl_dest’ parameters of *note
     compileall.compile_dir(): ee8. and *note compileall.compile_file():
     1199. could be *note bytes: 1c7.

   - bpo-25377(3): Clarify use of octal format of mode argument in
     help(os.chmod) as well as help(os.fchmod)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100616

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100472

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25377


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<28>,  Next: Build<28>,  Prev: Documentation<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.26.30.8 Tests
...............

   - gh-100454(1): Start running SSL tests with OpenSSL 3.1.0-beta1.

   - gh-100086(2): The Python test runner (libregrtest) now logs Python
     build information like «debug» vs «release» build, or LTO and PGO
     optimizations.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93018(3): Make two tests forgiving towards host system libexpat
     with backported security fixes applied.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100454

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100086

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93018


File: python.info,  Node: Build<28>,  Next: Windows<25>,  Prev: Tests<28>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.26.30.9 Build
...............

   - gh-100540(1): Removed the ‘--with-system-ffi’ ‘configure’ option;
     ‘libffi’ must now always be supplied by the system on all
     non-Windows platforms.  The option has had no effect on non-Darwin
     platforms for several releases, and in 3.11 only had the
     non-obvious effect of invoking ‘pkg-config’ to find ‘libffi’ and
     never setting ‘-DUSING_APPLE_OS_LIBFFI’.  Now on Darwin platforms
     ‘configure’ will first check for the OS ‘libffi’ and then fall back
     to the same processing as other platforms if it is not found.

   - gh-88267(2): Avoid exporting Python symbols in linked Windows
     applications when the core is built as static.

   - bpo-41916(3): Allow override of ac_cv_cxx_thread so that cross
     compiled python can set -pthread for CXX.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100540

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88267

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41916


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<25>,  Next: macOS<18>,  Prev: Build<28>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.26.30.10 Windows
..................

   - gh-100180(1): Update Windows installer to OpenSSL 1.1.1s

   - gh-99191(2): Use ‘_MSVC_LANG >= 202002L’ instead of less-precise
     ‘_MSC_VER >=1929’ to more accurately test for C++20 support in
     ‘PC/_wmimodule.cpp’.

   - gh-79218(3): Define ‘MS_WIN64’ for Mingw-w64 64bit, fix cython
     compilation failure.

   - gh-99941(4): Ensure that *note asyncio.Protocol.data_received():
     1d01. receives an immutable *note bytes: 1c7. object (as
     documented), instead of *note bytearray: 1c6.

   - bpo-43984(5): *note winreg.SetValueEx(): 1d02. now leaves the
     target value untouched in the case of conversion errors.
     Previously, ‘-1’ would be written in case of such errors.

   - bpo-34816(6): ‘hasattr(ctypes.windll, 'nonexistant')’ now returns
     ‘False’ instead of raising *note OSError: 53c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100180

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99191

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79218

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99941

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43984

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34816


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<18>,  Next: Tools/Demos<20>,  Prev: Windows<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.26.30.11 macOS
................

   - gh-100180(1): Update macOS installer to OpenSSL 1.1.1s

   - gh-100540(2): Removed obsolete ‘dlfcn.h’ shim from the ‘_ctypes’
     extension module, which has not been necessary since Mac OS X 10.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100180

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100540


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<20>,  Next: C API<27>,  Prev: macOS<18>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.26.30.12 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-45256(1): Fix a bug that caused an *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     to be raised in ‘python-gdb.py’ when ‘py-locals’ is used without a
     frame.

   - gh-100342(2): Add missing ‘NULL’ check for possible allocation
     failure in ‘*args’ parsing in Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45256

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100342


File: python.info,  Node: C API<27>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4

1.26.30.13 C API
................

   - gh-99947(1): Raising SystemError on import will now have its cause
     be set to the original unexpected exception.

   - gh-99240(2): In argument parsing, after deallocating newly
     allocated memory, reset its pointer to NULL.

   - gh-98724(3): The *note Py_CLEAR: 97c, *note Py_SETREF: 97d. and
     *note Py_XSETREF: 97e. macros now only evaluate their arguments
     once.  If an argument has side effects, these side effects are no
     longer duplicated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99947

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99240

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.31 Python 3.12.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-12-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<24>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<77>.
* Library: Library<80>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<78>.
* Library: Library<81>.
* Documentation: Documentation<26>.
* Tests: Tests<29>.
* Build: Build<29>.
* Windows: Windows<26>.
* macOS: macOS<19>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<21>.
* C API: C API<28>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<24>,  Next: Core and Builtins<77>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.26.31.1 Security
..................

   - gh-100001(1): ‘python -m http.server’ no longer allows terminal
     control characters sent within a garbage request to be printed to
     the stderr server log.

     This is done by changing the *note http.server: 75.
     ‘BaseHTTPRequestHandler’ ‘.log_message’ method to replace control
     characters with a ‘\xHH’ hex escape before printing.

   - gh-87604(2): Avoid publishing list of active per-interpreter audit
     hooks via the *note gc: 63. module

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100001

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87604


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<77>,  Next: Library<80>,  Prev: Security<24>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.26.31.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-99891(1): Fix a bug in the tokenizer that could cause infinite
     recursion when showing syntax warnings that happen in the first
     line of the source.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-91054(2): Add *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 96c. and *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 96d. APIs to register callbacks to receive
     notification on creation and destruction of code objects.

   - gh-99729(3): Fix an issue that could cause frames to be visible to
     Python code as they are being torn down, possibly leading to memory
     corruption or hard crashes of the interpreter.

   - gh-99708(4): Fix bug where compiler crashes on an if expression
     with an empty body block.

   - gh-99578(5): Fix a reference bug in ‘_imp.create_builtin()’ after
     the creation of the first sub-interpreter for modules ‘builtins’
     and ‘sys’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-99581(6): Fixed a bug that was causing a buffer overflow if the
     tokenizer copies a line missing the newline character from a file
     that is as long as the available tokenizer buffer.  Patch by Pablo
     galindo

   - gh-99553(7): Fix bug where an *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8. subclass
     can wrap a *note BaseException: 9b9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99891

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91054

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99729

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99708

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99578

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99581

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99553


File: python.info,  Node: Library<80>,  Next: Core and Builtins<78>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<77>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.26.31.3 Library
.................

   - gh-99547(1): Add a function to os.path to check if a path is a
     junction: isjunction.  Add similar functionality to pathlib.Path as
     is_junction.

   - gh-99370(2): Fix zip path for venv created from a non-installed
     python on POSIX platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99370


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<78>,  Next: Library<81>,  Prev: Library<80>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.26.31.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-99377(1): Add audit events for thread creation and clear
     operations.

   - gh-98686(2): Remove the ‘BINARY_OP_GENERIC’ and
     ‘COMPARE_OP_GENERIC’ «specializations».

   - gh-99298(3): Remove the remaining error paths for attribute
     specializations, and refuse to specialize attribute accesses on
     types that haven’t had *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. called on them
     yet.

   - gh-99127(4): Allow some features of *note syslog: e5. to the main
     interpreter only.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-91053(5): Optimizing interpreters and JIT compilers may need to
     invalidate internal metadata when functions are modified.  This
     change adds the ability to provide a callback that will be invoked
     each time a function is created, modified, or destroyed.

   - gh-90994(6): Improve error messages when there’s a syntax error
     with call arguments.  The following three cases are covered: - No
     value is assigned to a named argument, eg ‘foo(a=)’.  - A value is
     assigned to a star argument, eg ‘foo(*args=[0])’.  - A value is
     assigned to a double-star keyword argument, eg ‘foo(**kwarg={'a':
     0})’.

   - bpo-45026(7): Optimize the *note range: d0f. object iterator.  It
     is now smaller, faster iteration of ranges containing large
     numbers.  Smaller pickles, faster unpickling.

   - bpo-31718(8): Raise *note ValueError: 277. instead of *note
     SystemError: 3ea. when methods of uninitialized *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 1947. objects are called.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-38031(9): Fix a possible assertion failure in *note io.FileIO:
     16b4. when the opener returns an invalid file descriptor.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99377

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99298

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99127

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91053

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90994

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45026

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31718

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38031


File: python.info,  Node: Library<81>,  Next: Documentation<26>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<78>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.26.31.5 Library
.................

   - gh-100001(1): Also escape s in the http.server
     BaseHTTPRequestHandler.log_message so that it is technically
     possible to parse the line and reconstruct what the original data
     was.  Without this a xHH is ambiguous as to if it is a hex
     replacement we put in or the characters r»x» came through in the
     original request line.

   - gh-99957(2): Add ‘frozen_default’ parameter to *note
     typing.dataclass_transform(): 8e4.

   - gh-79033(3): Fix *note asyncio.Server.wait_closed(): 1c46. to
     actually do what the docs promise – wait for all existing
     connections to complete, after closing the server.

   - gh-51524(4): Fix bug when calling trace.CoverageResults with valid
     infile.

   - gh-99645(5): Fix a bug in handling class cleanups in *note
     unittest.TestCase: 52f.  Now ‘addClassCleanup()’ uses separate
     lists for different ‘TestCase’ subclasses, and ‘doClassCleanups()’
     only cleans up the particular class.

   - gh-99508(6): Fix ‘TypeError’ in
     ‘Lib/importlib/_bootstrap_external.py’ while calling
     ‘_imp.source_hash()’.

   - gh-66285(7): Fix *note asyncio: b. to not share event loop and
     signal wakeupfd in forked processes.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-97001(8): Release the GIL when calling termios APIs to avoid
     blocking threads.

   - gh-92647(9): Use final status of an enum to determine lookup or
     creation branch of functional API.

   - gh-99388(10): Add 'loop_factory' parameter to *note asyncio.run():
     309. to allow specifying a custom event loop factory.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-99341(11): Fix *note ast.increment_lineno(): 1d0c. to also cover
     *note ast.TypeIgnore: 1d0d. when changing line numbers.

   - gh-99382(12): Check the number of arguments in substitution in user
     generics containing a *note TypeVarTuple: 293. and one or more
     *note TypeVar: 294.

   - gh-99379(13): Fix substitution of *note ParamSpec: 295. followed by
     *note TypeVarTuple: 293. in generic aliases.

   - gh-99344(14): Fix substitution of *note TypeVarTuple: 293. and
     *note ParamSpec: 295. together in user generics.

   - gh-99284(15): Remove ‘_use_broken_old_ctypes_structure_semantics_’
     old untested and undocumented hack from *note ctypes: 2d.

   - gh-99201(16): Fix *note IndexError: 18d7. when initializing the
     config variables on Windows if ‘HAVE_DYNAMIC_LOADING’ is not set.

   - gh-99240(17): Fix double-free bug in Argument Clinic
     ‘str_converter’ by extracting memory clean up to a new
     ‘post_parsing’ section.

   - gh-64490(18): Fix refcount error when arguments are packed to tuple
     in Argument Clinic.

   - gh-99029(19): *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 575. now treats
     naked Windows drive paths as relative.  This brings its behaviour
     in line with other parts of pathlib.

   - gh-98253(20): The implementation of the typing module is now more
     resilient to reference leaks in binary extension modules.

     Previously, a reference leak in a typed C API-based extension
     module could leak internals of the typing module, which could in
     turn introduce leaks in essentially any other package with typed
     function signatures.  Although the typing package is not the
     original source of the problem, such non-local dependences
     exacerbate debugging of large-scale projects, and the
     implementation was therefore changed to reduce harm by providing
     better isolation.

   - gh-98458(21): Fix infinite loop in unittest when a self-referencing
     chained exception is raised

   - gh-93453(22): *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 56c. and many other
     *note asyncio: b. functions like *note asyncio.ensure_future():
     1035, *note asyncio.shield(): e34. or *note asyncio.gather(): 9f4,
     and also the ‘get_event_loop()’ method of
     ‘asyncio.BaseDefaultEventLoopPolicy’ now raise a *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. if called when there is no running event loop
     and the current event loop was not set.  Previously they implicitly
     created and set a new current event loop.  *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9. is no longer emitted if there is no
     running event loop but the current event loop was set.

   - gh-97966(23): On ‘uname_result’, restored expectation that
     ‘_fields’ and ‘_asdict’ would include all six properties including
     ‘processor’.

   - gh-98248(24): Provide informative error messages in *note
     struct.pack(): 161b. when its integral arguments are not in range.

   - gh-98108(25): ‘zipfile.Path’ is now pickleable if its
     initialization parameters were pickleable (e.g.  for file system
     paths).

   - gh-98098(26): Created packages from zipfile and test_zipfile
     modules, separating ‘zipfile.Path’ functionality.

   - gh-82836(27): Fix *note is_private: 1bcd. properties in the *note
     ipaddress: 83. module.  Previously non-private networks (0.0.0.0/0)
     would return ‘True’ from this method; now they correctly return
     ‘False’.

   - gh-96828(28): Add an *note OP_ENABLE_KTLS: 1a43. option for
     enabling the use of the kernel TLS (kTLS). Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-88863(29): To avoid apparent memory leaks when *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): edc. raises, break reference cycles
     generated by local exception and future instances (which has
     exception instance as its member var).  Patch by Dong Uk, Kang.

   - gh-91078(30): ‘TarFile.next()’ now returns ‘None’ when called on an
     empty tarfile.

   - bpo-47220(31): Document the optional 'callback' parameter of
     ‘WeakMethod’.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-44817(32): Ignore WinError 53 (ERROR_BAD_NETPATH), 65
     (ERROR_NETWORK_ACCESS_DENIED) and 161 (ERROR_BAD_PATHNAME) when
     using ntpath.realpath().

   - bpo-41260(33): Rename the 'fmt' parameter of the pure Python
     implementation of *note datetime.date.strftime(): 1052. to
     'format'.

   - bpo-15999(34): All built-in functions now accept arguments of any
     type instead of just ‘bool’ and ‘int’ for boolean parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100001

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99957

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79033

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/51524

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99645

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99508

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66285

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97001

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92647

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99388

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99341

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99382

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99379

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99344

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99284

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99201

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99240

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64490

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99029

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98253

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98458

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93453

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97966

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98248

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98108

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98098

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82836

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96828

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88863

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91078

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47220

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44817

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41260

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15999


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<26>,  Next: Tests<29>,  Prev: Library<81>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.26.31.6 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-99931(1): Use sphinxext-opengraph(2) to generate OpenGraph
     metadata(3).

   - gh-89682(4): Reworded docstring of the default ‘__contains__’ to
     clarify that it returns a *note bool: 5ef.

   - gh-88330(5): Improved the description of what a resource is in
     importlib.resources docs.

   - gh-92892(6): Document that calling variadic functions with ctypes
     requires special care on macOS/arm64 (and possibly other
     platforms).

   - bpo-41825(7): Restructured the documentation for the *note
     os.wait*: 1151. family of functions, and improved the docs for
     *note os.waitid(): 1152. with more explanation of the possible
     argument constants.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99931

   (2) https://sphinxext-opengraph.readthedocs.io/

   (3) https://ogp.me/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89682

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88330

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92892

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41825


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<29>,  Next: Build<29>,  Prev: Documentation<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.26.31.7 Tests
...............

   - gh-99892(1): Skip test_normalization() of test_unicodedata if it
     fails to download NormalizationTest.txt file from pythontest.net.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-99934(2): Correct test_marsh on (32 bit) x86: test_deterministic
     sets was failing.

   - gh-99741(3): We’ve implemented multi-phase init (PEP 489/630/687)
     for the internal (for testing) _xxsubinterpreters module.

   - gh-99659(4): Optional big memory tests in ‘test_sqlite3’ now catch
     the correct ‘sqlite.DataError’ exception type in case of too large
     strings and/or blobs passed.

   - gh-99593(5): Cover the Unicode C API with tests.

   - gh-96002(6): Add functional test for Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99892

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99934

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99741

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99659

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99593

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96002


File: python.info,  Node: Build<29>,  Next: Windows<26>,  Prev: Tests<29>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.26.31.8 Build
...............

   - gh-99086(1): Fix ‘-Wimplicit-int’, ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’, and
     ‘-Wimplicit-function-declaration’ compiler warnings in ‘configure’
     checks.

   - gh-99337(2): Fix a compilation issue with GCC 12 on macOS.

   - gh-99289(3): Add a ‘COMPILEALL_OPTS’ variable in Makefile to
     override *note compileall: 21. options (default: ‘-j0’) in ‘make
     install’.  Also merged the ‘compileall’ commands into a single
     command building .pyc files for the all optimization levels (0, 1,
     2) at once.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98872(4): Fix a possible fd leak in ‘Programs/_freeze_module.c’
     introduced in Python 3.11.

   - gh-88226(5): Always define ‘TARGET_*’ labels in ‘Python/ceval.c’,
     even if ‘USE_COMPUTED_GOTOS’ is disabled.  This allows breakpoints
     to be set at those labels in (for instance) ‘gdb’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99086

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99337

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99289

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98872

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88226


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<26>,  Next: macOS<19>,  Prev: Build<29>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.26.31.9 Windows
.................

   - gh-99345(1): Use faster initialization functions to detect install
     location for Windows Store package

   - gh-98629(2): Fix initialization of *note sys.version: 6a8. and
     ‘sys._git’ on Windows

   - gh-99442(3): Fix handling in *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης
     Python: 9bc. when ‘argv[0]’ does not include a file extension.

   - bpo-40882(4): Fix a memory leak in *note
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory: 1be1. on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99345

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98629

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99442

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40882


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<19>,  Next: Tools/Demos<21>,  Prev: Windows<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.26.31.10 macOS
................

   - gh-87235(1): On macOS ‘python3 /dev/fd/9 9</path/to/script.py’
     failed for any script longer than a couple of bytes.

   - gh-98940(2): Fix ‘Mac/Extras.install.py’ file filter bug.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87235

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98940


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<21>,  Next: C API<28>,  Prev: macOS<19>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.26.31.11 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-64490(1): Argument Clinic varargs bugfixes

        * Fix out-of-bounds error in
          ‘_PyArg_UnpackKeywordsWithVararg()’.

        * Fix incorrect check which allowed more than one varargs in
          clinic.py.

        * Fix miscalculation of ‘noptargs’ in generated code.

        * Do not generate ‘noptargs’ when there is a vararg argument and
          no optional argument.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64490


File: python.info,  Node: C API<28>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3

1.26.31.12 C API
................

   - gh-98680(1): ‘PyBUF_*’ constants were marked as part of Limited API
     of Python 3.11+.  These were available in 3.11.0 with *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 84d. defined for 3.11, and are necessary to use the
     buffer API.

   - gh-99612(2): Fix *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 1d15. for
     ASCII-only data: ‘*consumed’ was not set.

   - gh-47146(3): The ‘structmember.h’ header is deprecated.  Its
     non-deprecated contents are now available just by including
     ‘Python.h’, with a ‘Py_’ prefix added if it was missing.
     (Deprecated contents are *note T_OBJECT: 992, *note T_NONE: 994,
     and no-op flags.)  Patch by Petr Viktorin, based on earlier work by
     Alexander Belopolsky and Matthias Braun.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98680

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99612

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47146


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.32 Python 3.12.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-11-14'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<25>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<79>.
* Build: Build<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<80>.
* Library: Library<82>.
* Documentation: Documentation<27>.
* Tests: Tests<30>.
* Build: Build<31>.
* Windows: Windows<27>.
* macOS: macOS<20>.
* C API: C API<29>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<25>,  Next: Core and Builtins<79>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.26.32.1 Security
..................

   - gh-98433(1): The IDNA codec decoder used on DNS hostnames by *note
     socket: d4. or *note asyncio: b. related name resolution functions
     no longer involves a quadratic algorithm.  This prevents a
     potential CPU denial of service if an out-of-spec excessive length
     hostname involving bidirectional characters were decoded.  Some
     protocols such as *note urllib: 111. http ‘3XX’ redirects
     potentially allow for an attacker to supply such a name.

     Individual labels within an IDNA encoded DNS name will now raise an
     error early during IDNA decoding if they are longer than 1024
     unicode characters given that each decoded DNS label must be 63 or
     fewer characters and the entire decoded DNS name is limited to 255.
     Only an application presenting a hostname or label consisting
     primarily of RFC 3454(2) section 3.1 «Nothing» characters to be
     removed would run into of this new limit.  See also RFC 5894(3)
     section 6 and RFC 3491(4).

   - gh-98739(5): Update bundled libexpat to 2.5.0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98433

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5894.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3491.html

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98739


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<79>,  Next: Build<30>,  Prev: Security<25>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.26.32.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-81057(1): The docs clearly say that *note PyImport_Inittab:
     1d19, *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 1d1a, and *note
     PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 1d1b. should not be used after *note
     Py_Initialize(): 673. has been called.  We now enforce this for the
     two functions.  Additionally, the runtime now uses an internal copy
     of ‘PyImport_Inittab’, to guard against modification.

   - gh-99298(2): Fix an issue that could potentially cause incorrect
     error handling for some bytecode instructions.

   - gh-99254(3): The compiler now removes all unused constants from
     code objects (except the first one, which may be a docstring).

   - gh-99205(4): Fix an issue that prevented *note PyThreadState: b6c.
     and *note PyInterpreterState: c90. memory from being freed
     properly.

   - gh-81057(5): The 18 global C variables holding the state of the
     allocators have been moved to ‘_PyRuntimeState’.  This is a
     strictly internal change with no change in behavior.

   - gh-99181(6): Fix failure in *note except*: 448. with unhashable
     exceptions.

   - gh-99204(7): Fix calculation of ‘sys._base_executable’ when inside
     a POSIX virtual environment using copies of the python binary when
     the base installation does not provide the executable name used by
     the venv.  Calculation will fall back to alternative names
     («python<MAJOR>», «python<MAJOR>.<MINOR>»).

   - gh-96055(8): Update *note faulthandler: 5b. to emit an error
     message with the proper unexpected signal number.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-99153(9): Fix location of *note SyntaxError: 17e. for a *note
     try: ad6. block with both *note except: 447. and *note except*:
     448.

   - gh-98686(10): Merge the adaptive opcode logic into each
     instruction’s unquickened variant, and merge the logic in
     ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’ into *note EXTENDED_ARG: 1d1c.  With these
     changes, the quickening that happens at code object creation is now
     only responsible for initializing warmup counters and inserting
     superinstructions.

   - gh-99103(11): Fix the error reporting positions of specialized
     traceback anchors when the source line contains Unicode characters.

   - gh-99139(12): Improve the error suggestion for *note NameError:
     665. exceptions for instances.  Now if a ‘NameError’ is raised in a
     method and the instance has an attribute that’s exactly equal to
     the name in the exception, the suggestion will include
     ‘self.<NAME>’ instead of the closest match in the method scope.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-98401(13): Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ (ex:
     ‘"\477"’), deprecated in Python 3.11, now produce a *note
     SyntaxWarning: 44a, instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  In a
     future Python version they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError:
     17e.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98401(14): A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape
     sequence now generates a *note SyntaxWarning: 44a, instead of *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  For example, ‘re.compile("\d+\.\d+")’ now
     emits a ‘SyntaxWarning’ (‘"\d"’ is an invalid escape sequence), use
     raw strings for regular expression: ‘re.compile(r"\d+\.\d+")’.  In
     a future Python version, *note SyntaxError: 17e. will eventually be
     raised, instead of ‘SyntaxWarning’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96793(15): Handle StopIteration and StopAsyncIteration raised in
     generator or coroutines in the bytecode, rather than in wrapping C
     code.

   - gh-98931(16): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 17e. error message
     when the user types ‘import x from y’ instead of ‘from y import x’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-98852(17): Fix subscription of type aliases containing bare
     generic types or types like *note TypeVar: 294.: for example
     ‘tuple[A, T][int]’ and ‘tuple[TypeVar, T][int]’, where ‘A’ is a
     generic type, and ‘T’ is a type variable.

   - gh-98925(18): Lower the recursion depth for marshal on WASI to
     support (in-development) wasmtime 2.0.

   - gh-98783(19): Fix multiple crashes in debug mode when ‘str’
     subclasses are used instead of ‘str’ itself.

   - gh-98811(20): Use complete source locations to simplify detection
     of ‘__future__’ imports which are not at the beginning of the file.
     Also corrects the offset in the exception raised in one case, which
     was off by one and impeded highlighting.

   - gh-96793(21): Add specialization of *note FOR_ITER: 1cc4. for
     generators.  Saves multiple layers of dispatch and checking to get
     from the ‘FOR_ITER’ instruction in the caller to the *note RESUME:
     7b4. in the generator.

   - gh-98762(22): Fix source locations of *note match: 1d4.
     sub-patterns.

   - gh-98586(23): Added the methods *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 963.
     and *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 964. to the *note Limited
     API: 95c. along with the auxiliary macro constant *note
     PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 965.

     The availability of these functions enables more efficient PEP
     590(24) vector calls from binary extension modules that avoid
     argument boxing/unboxing overheads.

   - gh-99257(25): Fix an issue where member descriptors (such as those
     for *note __slots__: 188d.) could behave incorrectly or crash
     instead of raising a *note TypeError: 291. when accessed via an
     instance of an invalid type.

   - gh-93143(26): Rather than changing ‘co_code’, the interpreter will
     now display a *note RuntimeWarning: 6dd. and assign *note None:
     a65. to any fast locals that are left unbound after jumps or *note
     del: 1d1d. statements executed while tracing.

   - gh-96421(27): When calling into Python code from C code, through
     *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 13d6. or a related C-API function, a
     shim frame in inserted into the call stack.  This occurs in the
     ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’ function.  The extra frame should be
     invisible to all Python and most C extensions, but out-of-process
     profilers and debuggers need to be aware of it.  These shim frames
     can be detected by checking ‘frame->owner ==
     FRAME_OWNED_BY_CSTACK’.

     Extensions implementing their own interpreters using PEP 523 need
     to be aware of this shim frame and the changes to the semantics of
     *note RETURN_VALUE: 1d1e, *note YIELD_VALUE: 7b3, and *note
     RETURN_GENERATOR: ae9, which now clear the frame.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81057

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99298

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99254

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99205

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81057

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99181

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99204

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96055

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99153

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99103

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99139

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98852

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98925

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98783

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98811

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98762

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98586

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99257

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96421


File: python.info,  Node: Build<30>,  Next: Core and Builtins<80>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<79>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.26.32.3 Build
...............

   - gh-98415(1): Fix detection of MAC addresses for *note uuid: 119. on
     certain OSs.  Patch by Chaim Sanders

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98415


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<80>,  Next: Library<82>,  Prev: Build<30>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.26.32.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-98686(1): Quicken all code objects, and specialize adaptive
     bytecode instructions more aggressively.

   - gh-92119(2): Print exception class name instead of its string
     representation when raising errors from *note ctypes: 2d. calls.

   - gh-91058(3): *note ImportError: 1bd. raised from failed ‘from
     <module> import <name>’ now include suggestions for the value of
     ‘<name>’ based on the available names in ‘<module>’.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96793(4): The *note FOR_ITER: 1cc4. now leaves the iterator on
     the stack on termination of the loop.  This is to assist
     specialization of loops for generators.

   - gh-90716(5): Add _pylong.py module.  It includes asymptotically
     faster algorithms that can be used for operations on integers with
     many digits.  It is used by longobject.c to speed up some
     operations.

   - gh-95389(6): Expose *note ETH_P_ALL: 1d21. and some of the *note
     ETHERTYPE_* constants: 1d22. in *note socket: d4.  Patch by Noam
     Cohen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98686

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92119

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91058

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96793

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90716

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95389


File: python.info,  Node: Library<82>,  Next: Documentation<27>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<80>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.26.32.5 Library
.................

   - gh-93696(1): Allow *note pdb: aa. to locate source for frozen
     modules in the standard library.

   - gh-99418(2): Fix bug in *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 2a4. that
     causes URL schemes that begin with a digit, a plus sign, or a minus
     sign to be parsed incorrectly.

   - gh-94597(3): Deprecate ‘asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher’ to be removed
     in Python 3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-99305(4): Improve performance of *note secrets.token_hex():
     1d24.

   - gh-74044(5): Fixed bug where *note inspect.signature(): 4bd.
     reported incorrect arguments for decorated methods.

   - gh-99275(6): Fix ‘SystemError’ in *note ctypes: 2d. when exception
     was not set during ‘__initsubclass__’.

   - gh-99277(7): Remove older version of
     ‘_SSLProtocolTransport.get_write_buffer_limits’ in
     ‘asyncio.sslproto’

   - gh-99248(8): fix negative numbers failing in verify()

   - gh-99155(9): Fix *note statistics.NormalDist: dfc. pickle with ‘0’
     and ‘1’ protocols.

   - gh-93464(10): ‘enum.auto()’ is now correctly activated when
     combined with other assignment values.  E.g.  ‘ONE = auto(), 'some
     text'’ will now evaluate as ‘(1, 'some text')’.

   - gh-99134(11): Update the bundled copy of pip to version 22.3.1.

   - gh-92584(12): Remove the ‘distutils’ package.  It was deprecated in
     Python 3.10 by PEP 632(13) «Deprecate distutils module».  For
     projects still using ‘distutils’ and cannot be updated to something
     else, the ‘setuptools’ project can be installed: it still provides
     ‘distutils’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98999(14): Now ‘_pyio’ is consistent with ‘_io’ in raising
     ‘ValueError’ when executing methods over closed buffers.

   - gh-83004(15): Clean up refleak on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_zoneinfo’

   - gh-83004(16): Clean up refleaks on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_pickle’

   - gh-83004(17): Clean up refleak on failed module initialisation in
     ‘_io’.

   - gh-98897(18): Fix memory leak in *note math.dist(): dc4. when both
     points don’t have the same dimension.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98878(19): Use the frame bound builtins when offering a name
     suggestion in *note traceback: 107. to prevent crashing when
     ‘__builtins__’ is not a dict.

   - gh-98139(20): In ‘importlib._bootstrap’, enhance namespace package
     repr to ‘<module 'x' (namespace) from ['path']>’.

   - gh-90352(21): Fix ‘_SelectorDatagramTransport’ to inherit from
     *note DatagramTransport: 1d25. in *note asyncio: b.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-98793(22): Fix argument typechecks in ‘_overlapped.WSAConnect()’
     and ‘_overlapped.Overlapped.WSASendTo()’ functions.

   - gh-98744(23): Prevent crashing in *note traceback: 107. when
     retrieving the byte-offset for some source files that contain
     certain unicode characters.

   - gh-98740(24): Fix internal error in the *note re: c1. module which
     in very rare circumstances prevented compilation of a regular
     expression containing a *note conditional expression: 1d26. without
     the «else» branch.

   - gh-98703(25): Fix *note asyncio.StreamWriter.drain(): 1d27. to call
     ‘protocol.connection_lost’ callback only once on Windows.

   - gh-98624(26): Add a mutex to unittest.mock.NonCallableMock to
     protect concurrent access to mock attributes.

   - gh-98658(27): The *note array.array: 6c5. class now supports
     subscripting, making it a *note generic type: 1d1.

   - gh-98284(28): Improved *note TypeError: 291. message for undefined
     abstract methods of a *note abc.ABC: 12c8. instance.  The names of
     the missing methods are surrounded by single-quotes to highlight
     them.

   - gh-96151(29): Allow ‘BUILTINS’ to be a valid field name for frozen
     dataclasses.

   - gh-98086(30): Make sure ‘patch.dict()’ can be applied on async
     functions.

   - gh-72719(31): Remove modules ‘asyncore’ and ‘asynchat’, which were
     deprecated by PEP 594(32).

   - gh-96192(33): Fix handling of ‘bytes’ *note path-like objects: 79f.
     in ‘os.ismount()’.

   - gh-94172(34): *note ftplib: 61.: Remove the ‘FTP_TLS.ssl_version’
     class attribute: use the 'context' parameter instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner

   - gh-94172(35): Remove the 'keyfile' and 'certfile' parameters from
     the *note ftplib: 61, *note imaplib: 77, *note poplib: b1. and
     *note smtplib: d2. modules, and the 'key_file', 'cert_file' and
     'check_hostname' parameters from the *note http.client: 72. module,
     all deprecated since Python 3.6.  Use the 'context' parameter
     ('ssl_context' in ‘imaplib’) instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-83638(36): Add the *note autocommit: 8c6. attribute to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 3df. and the 'autocommit' parameter to *note
     sqlite3.connect(): 3e0. to control PEP 249(37)-compliant *note
     transaction handling: 8c7.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-92452(38): Fixed a race condition that could cause *note
     sysconfig.get_config_var(): 41e. to incorrectly return *note None:
     a65. in multi-threaded programs.

   - gh-91803(39): Fix an error when using a method of objects mocked
     with *note unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1b4e. after it was
     sealed with *note unittest.mock.seal(): f60. function.

   - bpo-38523(40): *note shutil.copytree(): ded. now applies the
     'ignore_dangling_symlinks' argument recursively.

   - bpo-40358(41): Add walk_up argument in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 575.

   - bpo-36267(42): Fix IndexError in *note argparse.ArgumentParser:
     1dc. when a ‘store_true’ action is given an explicit argument.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93696

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99418

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99305

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74044

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99275

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99277

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99248

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99155

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93464

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99134

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92584

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98999

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83004

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98897

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98878

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98139

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90352

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98793

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98744

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98740

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98703

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98624

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98658

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98284

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96151

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98086

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72719

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96192

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83638

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92452

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91803

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38523

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40358

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36267


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<27>,  Next: Tests<30>,  Prev: Library<82>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.26.32.6 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-98832(1): Changes wording of docstring for *note
     pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 4f6.

   - gh-97966(2): Update uname docs to clarify the special nature of the
     platform attribute and to indicate when it became late-bound.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98832

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97966


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<30>,  Next: Build<31>,  Prev: Documentation<27>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.26.32.7 Tests
...............

   - gh-98903(1): The Python test suite now fails with exit code 4 if no
     tests ran.  It should help detecting typos in test names and test
     methods.

   - gh-98713(2): Fix a bug in the *note typing: 10d. tests where a test
     relying on CPython-specific implementation details was not
     decorated with ‘@cpython_only’ and was not skipped on other
     implementations.

   - gh-87390(3): Add tests for star-unpacking with PEP 646, and some
     other miscellaneous PEP 646 tests.

   - gh-96853(4): Added explicit coverage of ‘Py_Initialize’ (and hence
     ‘Py_InitializeEx’) back to the embedding tests (all other embedding
     tests migrated to ‘Py_InitializeFromConfig’ in Python 3.11)

   - bpo-34272(5): Some C API tests were moved into the new
     Lib/test/test_capi/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98903

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98713

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87390

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96853

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34272


File: python.info,  Node: Build<31>,  Next: Windows<27>,  Prev: Tests<30>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.26.32.8 Build
...............

   - gh-99086(1): Fix ‘-Wimplicit-int’ compiler warning in ‘configure’
     check for ‘PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM’.

   - gh-99016(2): Fix build with ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN=python3.8’.

   - gh-97731(3): Specify the full path to the source location for ‘make
     docclean’ (needed for cross-builds).

   - gh-98949(4): Drop unused build dependency on ‘readelf’.

   - gh-98989(5): Use ‘python3.11’, if available, for regeneration and
     freezing.

   - gh-98831(6): Add new tooling, in ‘Tools/cases_generator’, to
     generate the interpreter switch statement from a list of opcode
     definitions.  This only affects adding, modifying or removing
     instruction definitions.  The instruction definitions now live in
     ‘Python/bytecodes.c’, in the form of a custom DSL (under
     development)(7).  The tooling reads this file and writes
     ‘Python/generated_cases.c.h’, which is then included by
     ‘Python/ceval.c’ to provide most of the cases of the main
     interpreter switch.

   - gh-98817(8): Remove PCbuild/lib.pyproj: it’s not used for anything,
     is only a minor convenience for Visual Studio users (who probably
     mostly don’t even know about it), and it takes a lot of maintenance
     effort to keep updated.

   - gh-98776(9): Fix ‘make regen-test-levenshtein’ for out-of-tree
     builds.

   - gh-98707(10): Don’t use vendored ‘libmpdec’ headers if *note
     -with-system-libmpdec: 3d6. is passed to ‘configure’.  Don’t use
     vendored ‘libexpat’ headers if *note -with-system-expat: 1d2b. is
     passed to ‘configure’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99086

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99016

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97731

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98949

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98989

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98831

   (7) 
https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas/blob/main/3.12/interpreter_definition.md

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98817

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98776

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98707


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<27>,  Next: macOS<20>,  Prev: Build<31>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.26.32.9 Windows
.................

   - gh-98689(1): Update Windows builds to zlib v1.2.13.  v1.2.12 has
     CVE 2022-37434(2), but the vulnerable ‘inflateGetHeader’ API is not
     used by Python.

   - gh-98790(3): Assumes that a missing ‘DLLs’ directory means that
     standard extension modules are in the executable’s directory.

   - gh-98745(4): Update ‘py.exe’ launcher to install 3.11 by default
     and 3.12 on request.

   - gh-98692(5): Fix the *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc.
     ignoring unrecognized shebang lines instead of treating them as
     local paths

   - gh-94328(6): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.39.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98689

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-37434

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98790

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98745

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98692

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94328


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<20>,  Next: C API<29>,  Prev: Windows<27>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.26.32.10 macOS
................

   - gh-94328(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.39.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94328


File: python.info,  Node: C API<29>,  Prev: macOS<20>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2

1.26.32.11 C API
................

   - gh-98724(1): The *note Py_CLEAR: 97c, *note Py_SETREF: 97d. and
     *note Py_XSETREF: 97e. macros now only evaluate their argument
     once.  If the argument has side effects, these side effects are no
     longer duplicated.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98978(2): Fix use-after-free in ‘Py_SetPythonHome(NULL)’,
     ‘Py_SetProgramName(NULL)’ and ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath(NULL)’
     function calls.  Issue reported by Benedikt Reinartz.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98410(3): Add ‘getbufferproc’ and ‘releasebufferproc’ to the
     stable API.

   - gh-98610(4): Some configurable capabilities of sub-interpreters
     have changed.  They always allow subprocesses (*note subprocess:
     df.) now, whereas before subprocesses could be optionally
     disallowed for a sub-interpreter.  Instead ‘os.exec()’ can now be
     disallowed.  Disallowing daemon threads is now supported.
     Disallowing all threads is still allowed, but is never done by
     default.  Note that the optional restrictions are only available
     through ‘_Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’, which isn’t a public API.
     They do not affect the main interpreter, nor *note
     Py_NewInterpreter(): 1d2f.

   - gh-98608(5): A ‘_PyInterpreterConfig’ has been added and
     ‘_Py_NewInterpreter()’ has been renamed to
     ‘_Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig()’.  The «isolated_subinterpreters»
     argument is now a granular config that captures the previous
     behavior.  Note that this is all «private» API.

   - gh-96853(6): ‘Py_InitializeEx’ now correctly calls ‘PyConfig_Clear’
     after initializing the interpreter (the omission didn’t cause a
     memory leak only because none of the dynamically allocated config
     fields are populated by the wrapper function)

   - gh-91248(7): Add *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 96e. and *note
     PyFrame_GetVarString(): 96f. functions to get a frame variable by
     its name.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98978

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98410

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98610

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98608

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96853

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91248


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.33 Python 3.12.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-10-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<26>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<81>.
* Library: Library<83>.
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* Library: Library<85>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<84>.
* Library: Library<86>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<85>.
* Library: Library<87>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<86>.
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* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<89>.
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* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<90>.
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* Documentation: Documentation<28>.
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* C API: C API<30>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<26>,  Next: Core and Builtins<81>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.1 Security
..................

   - gh-97616(1): Fix multiplying a list by an integer (‘list *= int’):
     detect the integer overflow when the new allocated length is close
     to the maximum size.  Issue reported by Jordan Limor.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-97514(2): On Linux the *note multiprocessing: 98. module returns
     to using filesystem backed unix domain sockets for communication
     with the 'forkserver' process instead of the Linux abstract socket
     namespace.  Only code that chooses to use the *note «forkserver»
     start method: 46d. is affected.

     Abstract sockets have no permissions and could allow any user on
     the system in the same network namespace(3) (often the whole
     system) to inject code into the multiprocessing 'forkserver'
     process.  This was a potential privilege escalation.  Filesystem
     based socket permissions restrict this to the 'forkserver' process
     user as was the default in Python 3.8 and earlier.

     This prevents Linux CVE 2022-42919(4).

   - gh-87389(5): *note http.server: 75.: Fix an open redirection
     vulnerability in the HTTP server when an URI path starts with ‘//’.
     Vulnerability discovered, and initial fix proposed, by Hamza Avvan.

   - gh-79096(6): LWPCookieJar and MozillaCookieJar create files with
     file mode 600 instead of 644 (Microsoft Windows is not affected)

   - gh-92888(7): Fix ‘memoryview’ use after free when accessing the
     backing buffer in certain cases.

   - gh-68966(8): The deprecated mailcap module now refuses to inject
     unsafe text (filenames, MIME types, parameters) into shell
     commands.  Instead of using such text, it will warn and act as if a
     match was not found (or for test commands, as if the test failed).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97616

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97514

   (3) https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/network_namespaces.7.html

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-42919

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87389

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79096

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92888

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<81>,  Next: Library<83>,  Prev: Security<26>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-98374(1): Suppress ImportError for invalid query for help()
     command.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-98461(2): Fix source location in bytecode for list, set and dict
     comprehensions as well as generator expressions.

   - gh-98354(3): Added unicode check for ‘name’ attribute of ‘spec’
     argument passed in ‘_imp.create_builtin()’ function.

   - gh-98398(4): Fix source location of “assert” bytecodes.

   - gh-98390(5): Fix location of sub-expressions of boolean
     expressions, by reducing their scope to that of the sub-expression.

   - gh-98254(6): Modules from the standard library are now potentially
     suggested as part of the error messages displayed by the
     interpreter when an *note NameError: 665. is raised to the top
     level.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-97997(7): Add running column offset to the tokenizer state to
     avoid calculating AST column information with pointer arithmetic.

   - gh-97973(8): Modify the tokenizer to return all necessary
     information the parser needs to set location information in the AST
     nodes, so that the parser does not have to calculate those doing
     pointer arithmetic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98374

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98354

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98398

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98390

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98254

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97997

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97973


File: python.info,  Node: Library<83>,  Next: Core and Builtins<82>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<81>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.3 Library
.................

   - gh-96078(1): *note os.sched_yield(): 14bd. now release the GIL
     while calling sched_yield(2).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-97955(2): Migrate *note zoneinfo: 13d. to Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96078

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97955


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<82>,  Next: Library<84>,  Prev: Library<83>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-97912(1): The compiler now avoids quadratic behavior when
     finding which instructions should use the *note LOAD_FAST_CHECK:
     8f4. opcode.

   - gh-97002(2): Fix an issue where several frame objects could be
     backed by the same interpreter frame, possibly leading to corrupted
     memory and hard crashes of the interpreter.

   - gh-97943(3): Bugfix: *note PyFunction_GetAnnotations(): 1d35.
     should return a borrowed reference.  It was returning a new
     reference.

   - gh-97922(4): The Garbage Collector now runs only on the eval
     breaker mechanism of the Python bytecode evaluation loop instead on
     object allocations.  The GC can also run when *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 880. is called so C extensions that need to
     run for a long time without executing any Python code also have a
     chance to execute the GC periodically.

   - gh-65961(5): When ‘__package__’ is different than
     ‘__spec__.parent’, raise a ‘DeprecationWarning’ instead of
     ‘ImportWarning’.

     Also remove ‘importlib.util.set_package()’ which was scheduled for
     removal.

   - gh-97850(6): Long deprecated, ‘module_repr()’ should now be
     completely eradicated.

   - gh-86298(7): In cases where ‘warnings.warn_explicit()’ consults the
     module’s loader, an ‘DeprecationWarning’ is issued when
     ‘m.__loader__’ differs from ‘m.__spec__.loader’.

   - gh-97779(8): Ensure that all Python frame objects are backed by
     «complete» frames.

   - gh-91052(9): Add API for subscribing to modification events on
     selected dictionaries.

   - gh-97752(10): Fix possible data corruption or crashes when
     accessing the ‘f_back’ member of newly-created generator or
     coroutine frames.

   - gh-97591(11): Fixed a missing incref/decref pair in
     ‘Exception.__setstate__()’.  Patch by Ofey Chan.

   - gh-97670(12): Remove the ‘sys.getdxp()’ function and the
     ‘Tools/scripts/analyze_dxp.py’ script.  DXP stands for «dynamic
     execution pairs».  They were related to ‘DYNAMIC_EXECUTION_PROFILE’
     and ‘DXPAIRS’ macros which have been removed in Python 3.11.
     Python can now be built with *note ./configure -enable-pystats:
     1d36. to gather statistics on Python opcodes.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-94526(13): Fix the Python path configuration used to initialized
     *note sys.path: 194. at Python startup.  Paths are no longer
     encoded to UTF-8/strict to avoid encoding errors if it contains
     surrogate characters (bytes paths are decoded with the
     surrogateescape error handler).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96670(14): The parser now raises *note SyntaxError: 17e. when
     parsing source code containing null bytes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96975(15): Fix a crash occurring when *note PyEval_GetFrame():
     1d37. is called while the topmost Python frame is in a
     partially-initialized state.

   - gh-96848(16): Fix command line parsing: reject *note -X
     int_max_str_digits: 178. option with no value (invalid) when the
     *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1d38. environment variable is set to a
     valid limit.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-95921(17): Fix overly-broad source position information for
     chained comparisons used as branching conditions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97912

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97002

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97943

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97922

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86298

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97779

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91052

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97752

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97591

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97670

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94526

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96975

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96848

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95921


File: python.info,  Node: Library<84>,  Next: Core and Builtins<83>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<82>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.5 Library
.................

   - gh-96821(1): Fix undefined behaviour in ‘audioop.c’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<83>,  Next: Library<85>,  Prev: Library<84>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.6 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-96821(1): Fix undefined behaviour in ‘_testcapimodule.c’.

   - gh-95778(2): When *note ValueError: 277. is raised if an integer is
     larger than the limit, mention the *note
     sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 1b11. function in the error message.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96387(3): At Python exit, sometimes a thread holding the GIL can
     wait forever for a thread (usually a daemon thread) which requested
     to drop the GIL, whereas the thread already exited.  To fix the
     race condition, the thread which requested the GIL drop now resets
     its request before exiting.  Issue discovered and analyzed by
     Mingliang ZHAO. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96864(4): Fix a possible assertion failure, fatal error, or
     *note SystemError: 3ea. if a line tracing event raises an exception
     while opcode tracing is enabled.

   - gh-95778(5): The ‘PyLong_FromString’ function was refactored to
     make it more maintainable and extensible.

   - gh-96678(6): Fix undefined behaviour in C code of null pointer
     arithmetic.

   - gh-96754(7): Make sure that all frame objects created are created
     from valid interpreter frames.  Prevents the possibility of invalid
     frames in backtraces and signal handlers.

   - gh-90997(8): Improve the performance of reading and writing inline
     bytecode caches on some platforms.

   - gh-96751(9): Remove dead code from ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ opcode.

   - gh-90751(10): *note memoryview: 1d2. now supports half-floats.
     Patch by Donghee Na and Antoine Pitrou.

   - gh-96678(11): Fix case of undefined behavior in ceval.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96821

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95778

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96387

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96864

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95778

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96678

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96754

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96751

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90751

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96678


File: python.info,  Node: Library<85>,  Next: Core and Builtins<84>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<83>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.7 Library
.................

   - gh-64373(1): Convert ‘_functools’ to argument clinic.

   - gh-96641(2): Do not expose ‘KeyWrapper’ in ‘_functools’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64373

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96641


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<84>,  Next: Library<86>,  Prev: Library<85>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.8 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-96636(1): Ensure that tracing, ‘sys.setrace()’, is turned on
     immediately.  In pre-release versions of 3.11, some tracing events
     might have been lost when turning on tracing in a ‘__del__’ method
     or interrupt.

   - gh-96572(2): Fix use after free in trace refs build mode.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96611(3): When loading a file with invalid UTF-8 inside a
     multi-line string, a correct SyntaxError is emitted.

   - gh-96612(4): Make sure that incomplete frames do not show up in
     tracemalloc traces.

   - gh-90230(5): Fix compiler warnings and test failures when building
     with ‘--enable-pystats’.

   - gh-96587(6): Correctly raise ‘SyntaxError’ on exception groups (
     PEP 654(7)) on python versions prior to 3.11

   - gh-96569(8): Remove two cases of undefined behavior, by adding NULL
     checks.

   - gh-96582(9): Fix possible ‘NULL’ pointer dereference in
     ‘_PyThread_CurrentFrames’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91079(10): Separate Python recursion checking from C recursion
     checking which reduces the chance of C stack overflow and allows
     the recursion limit to be increased safely.

   - gh-93911(11): Fix an issue that could prevent *note LOAD_ATTR: 8ed.
     from specializing properly when accessing properties.

   - gh-96348(12): Emit a DeprecationWarning when *note throw(): 905,
     *note throw(): 904. or *note athrow(): 906. are called with more
     than one argument.

   - gh-95196(13): Disable incorrect pickling of the C implemented
     classmethod descriptors.

   - gh-96364(14): Fix text signatures of ‘list.__getitem__’ and
     ‘dict.__getitem__’.

   - gh-96352(15): Fix *note AttributeError: 1a9. missing ‘name’ and
     ‘obj’ attributes in *note object.__getattribute__(): f90.  Patch by
     Philip Georgi.

   - gh-93554(16): Change the jump opcodes so that all conditional jumps
     are forward jumps.  Backward jumps are converted by the assembler
     into a conditional forward jump whose target is the fallthrough
     block (and with a reversed condition), followed by an unconditional
     backward jump.  For example:

     ‘POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE BACKWARD_TARGET’ becomes ‘POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE
     NEXT_BLOCK; JUMP BACKWARD_TARGET’.

     All the directed conditional jump opcodes were removed:
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_TRUE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_TRUE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_FALSE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_FALSE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_NONE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_NONE’,
     ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_NOT_NONE’, ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_NOT_NONE’.

     The corresponding opcodes without direction are no longer
     pseudo-instructions, and they implement the forward conditional
     jumps.

   - gh-96268(17): Loading a file with invalid UTF-8 will now report the
     broken character at the correct location.

   - gh-96237(18): The internal field ‘_PyInterpreterFrame.f_func’ is
     renamed to ‘_PyInterpreterFrame.f_funcobj’ and may be any object.
     The ‘f_globals’ and ‘f_builtin’ fields may hold junk values.

     It is safest to treat the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ struct as opaque.

   - gh-96187(19): Fixed a bug that caused ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’ to return
     garbage for negative indexes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-96143(20): Add a new ‘-X perf’ Python command line option as
     well as *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 885. and *note
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 886. function in the *note sys:
     e2. module that allows to set/unset the interpreter in a way that
     the Linux ‘perf’ profiler can detect Python calls.  The new *note
     sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 887. function allows to query the
     state of the perf trampoline.  Design by Pablo Galindo.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory
     P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon.

   - gh-96071(21): Fix a deadlock in *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5.
     when allocating new thread state.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96046(22): *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. now initializes
     ‘ht_cached_keys’ and performs additional checks to ensure that type
     objects are properly configured.  This avoids crashes in 3rd party
     packages that don’t use regular API to create new types.

   - gh-96005(23): On WASI *note ENOTCAPABLE: 1d3d. is now mapped to
     *note PermissionError: 10f9.  The *note errno: 5a. modules exposes
     the new error number.  ‘getpath.py’ now ignores ‘PermissionError’
     when it cannot open landmark files ‘pybuilddir.txt’ and
     ‘pyenv.cfg’.

   - gh-93678(24): Added test a harness for direct unit tests of the
     compiler’s optimization stage.  The
     ‘_testinternalcapi.optimize_cfg()’ function runs the optimiser on a
     sequence of instructions.  The ‘CfgOptimizationTestCase’ class in
     ‘test.support’ has utilities for invoking the optimizer and
     checking the output.

   - gh-95245(25): Reduces the size of a «simple» Python object from 8
     to 6 words by moving the weakreflist pointer into the pre-header
     directly before the object’s dict/values pointer.

   - gh-90997(26): Compile virtual *note try: ad6./*note except: 447.
     blocks to handle exceptions raised during *note close(): 199e. or
     *note throw(): 905. calls through a suspended frame.

   - gh-95977(27): Optimized calling *note __get__(): 188a. with
     vectorcall.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-91210(28): Improve error message when a parameter without a
     default value follows one with a default value, and show the same
     message, even when the non-default/default sequence is preceded by
     positional-only parameters.

   - gh-95922(29): Fixed bug where the compiler’s
     ‘eliminate_empty_basic_blocks’ function ignores the last block of
     the code unit.

   - gh-95818(30): Skip over incomplete frames in *note
     PyThreadState_GetFrame(): b6d.

   - gh-95876(31): Fix format string in
     ‘_PyPegen_raise_error_known_location’ that can lead to memory
     corruption on some 64bit systems.  The function was building a
     tuple with ‘i’ (int) instead of ‘n’ (Py_ssize_t) for Py_ssize_t
     arguments.

   - gh-95605(32): Fix misleading contents of error message when
     converting an all-whitespace string to *note float: 327.

   - gh-95150(33): Update code object hashing and equality to consider
     all debugging and exception handling tables.  This fixes an issue
     where certain non-identical code objects could be «deduplicated»
     during compilation.

   - gh-91146(34): Reduce allocation size of *note list: 4d9. from *note
     str.split(): 125b. and *note str.rsplit(): 15fa.  Patch by Donghee
     Na and Inada Naoki.

   - gh-87092(35): Create a “jump target label” abstraction in the
     compiler so that the compiler’s codegen stage does not work
     directly with basic blocks.  This prepares the code for changes to
     the underlying CFG generation mechanism.

   - gh-95355(36): ‘_PyPegen_Parser_New’ now properly detects token
     memory allocation errors.  Patch by Honglin Zhu.

   - gh-90081(37): Run Python code in tracer/profiler function at full
     speed.  Fixes slowdown in earlier versions of 3.11.

   - gh-95324(38): Emit a warning in debug mode if an object does not
     call *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 18a7. before deallocation.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-95245(39): Merge managed dict and values pointer into a single
     tagged pointer to save one word in the pre-header.

   - gh-93678(40): Add cfg_builder struct and refactor the relevant code
     so that a cfg can be constructed without an instance of the
     compiler struct.

   - gh-95185(41): Prevented crashes in the AST constructor when
     compiling some absurdly long expressions like ‘"+0"*1000000’.
     *note RecursionError: 1121. is now raised instead.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - gh-93351(42): *note ast.AST: 2ec. node positions are now validated
     when provided to *note compile(): 1c8. and other related functions.
     If invalid positions are detected, a *note ValueError: 277. will be
     raised.

   - gh-94438(43): Fix an issue that caused extended opcode arguments
     and some conditional pops to be ignored when calculating valid jump
     targets for assignments to the ‘f_lineno’ attribute of frame
     objects.  In some cases, this could cause inconsistent internal
     state, resulting in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-95060(44): Undocumented ‘PyCode_Addr2Location’ function now
     properly returns when ‘addrq’ argument is less than zero.

   - gh-95113(45): Replace all ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’ instructions with
     basic *note EXTENDED_ARG: 1d1c. instructions in unquickened code.
     Consumers of non-adaptive bytecode should be able to handle
     extended arguments the same way they were handled in CPython 3.10
     and older.

   - gh-91409(46): Fix incorrect source location info caused by certain
     optimizations in the bytecode compiler.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96636

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96572

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96611

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96612

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90230

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96587

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96569

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96582

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91079

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96348

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95196

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96364

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96352

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93554

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96268

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96237

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96187

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96143

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96071

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96046

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96005

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95245

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95977

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91210

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95922

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95818

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95876

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95605

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95150

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91146

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87092

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95355

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90081

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95324

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95245

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95185

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93351

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95060

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95113

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91409


File: python.info,  Node: Library<86>,  Next: Core and Builtins<85>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<84>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.9 Library
.................

   - gh-95023(1): Implement *note os.setns(): 1d3f. and *note
     os.unshare(): 1d40. for Linux.  Patch by Noam Cohen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95023


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<85>,  Next: Library<87>,  Prev: Library<86>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.10 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-94036(1): Fix incorrect source location info for some multi-line
     attribute accesses and method calls.

   - gh-94938(2): Fix error detection in some builtin functions when
     keyword argument name is an instance of a str subclass with
     overloaded ‘__eq__’ and ‘__hash__’.  Previously it could cause
     SystemError or other undesired behavior.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94036

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94938


File: python.info,  Node: Library<87>,  Next: Core and Builtins<86>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<85>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.11 Library
..................

   - gh-94996(1): *note ast.parse(): 1c9. will no longer parse function
     definitions with positional-only params when passed
     ‘feature_version’ less than ‘(3, 8)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94996


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<86>,  Next: Library<88>,  Prev: Library<87>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.12 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-94739(1): Allow jumping within, out of, and across exception
     handlers in the debugger.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94739


File: python.info,  Node: Library<88>,  Next: Core and Builtins<87>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<86>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.13 Library
..................

   - gh-94949(1): *note ast.parse(): 1c9. will no longer parse
     parenthesized context managers when passed ‘feature_version’ less
     than ‘(3, 9)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-94947(2): *note ast.parse(): 1c9. will no longer parse
     assignment expressions when passed ‘feature_version’ less than ‘(3,
     8)’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94949

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94947


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<87>,  Next: Library<89>,  Prev: Library<88>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.14 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-91256(1): Ensures the program name is known for help text during
     interpreter startup.

   - gh-94869(2): Fix the column offsets for some expressions in
     multi-line f-strings *note ast: 9. nodes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-94893(3): Fix an issue where frame object manipulations could
     corrupt inline bytecode caches.

   - gh-94822(4): Fix an issue where lookups of metaclass descriptors
     may be ignored when an identically-named attribute also exists on
     the class itself.

   - gh-91153(5): Fix an issue where a *note bytearray: 1c6. item
     assignment could crash if it’s resized by the new value’s
     ‘__index__()’ method.

   - gh-90699(6): Fix reference counting bug in ‘bool.__repr__()’.
     Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94694(7): Fix an issue that could cause code with multi-line
     method lookups to have misleading or incorrect column offset
     information.  In some cases (when compiling a hand-built AST) this
     could have resulted in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-93252(8): Fix an issue that caused internal frames to outlive
     failed Python function calls, possibly resulting in memory leaks or
     hard interpreter crashes.

   - gh-94215(9): Fix an issue where exceptions raised by line-tracing
     events would cause frames to be left in an invalid state, possibly
     resulting in a hard crash of the interpreter.

   - gh-92228(10): Disable the compiler’s inline-small-exit-blocks
     optimization for exit blocks that are associated with source code
     lines.  This fixes a bug where the debugger cannot tell where an
     exception handler ends and the following code block begins.

   - gh-94485(11): Line number of a module’s ‘RESUME’ instruction is set
     to 0 as specified in PEP 626(12).

   - gh-94438(13): Account for instructions that can push NULL to the
     stack when setting line number in a frame.  Prevents some
     (unlikely) crashes.

   - gh-91719(14): Reload ‘opcode’ when raising ‘unknown opcode error’
     in the interpreter main loop, for C compilers to generate
     dispatching code independently.

   - gh-94329(15): Compile and run code with unpacking of extremely
     large sequences (1000s of elements).  Such code failed to compile.
     It now compiles and runs correctly.

   - gh-94360(16): Fixed a tokenizer crash when reading encoded files
     with syntax errors from ‘stdin’ with non utf-8 encoded text.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-88116(17): Fix an issue when reading line numbers from code
     objects if the encoded line numbers are close to ‘INT_MIN’.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-94262(18): Don’t create frame objects for incomplete frames.
     Prevents the creation of generators and closures from being
     observable to Python and C extensions, restoring the behavior of
     3.10 and earlier.

   - gh-94192(19): Fix error for dictionary literals with invalid
     expression as value.

   - gh-87995(20): *note types.MappingProxyType: 189. instances are now
     hashable if the underlying mapping is hashable.

   - gh-93883(21): Revise the display strategy of traceback enhanced
     error locations.  The indicators are only shown when the location
     doesn’t span the whole line.

   - gh-94163(22): Add *note BINARY_SLICE: 8ee. and *note STORE_SLICE:
     8ef. instructions for more efficient handling and better
     specialization of slicing operations, where the slice is explicit
     in the source code.

   - gh-94021(23): Fix unreachable code warning in
     ‘Python/specialize.c’.

   - gh-93911(24): Specialize ‘LOAD_ATTR’ for objects with custom
     ‘__getattribute__’.

   - gh-93955(25): Improve performance of attribute lookups on objects
     with custom ‘__getattribute__’ and ‘__getattr__’.  Patch by Ken
     Jin.

   - gh-93911(26): Specialize ‘LOAD_ATTR’ for ‘property()’ attributes.

   - gh-93678(27): Refactor compiler optimisation code so that it no
     longer needs the ‘struct assembler’ and ‘struct compiler’ passed
     around.  Instead, each function takes the CFG and other data that
     it actually needs.  This will make it possible to test this code
     directly.

   - gh-93841(28): When built with ‘-enable-pystats’, ‘sys._stats_on()’,
     ‘sys._stats_off()’, ‘sys._stats_clear()’ and ‘sys._stats_dump()’
     functions have been added to enable gathering stats for parts of
     programs.

   - gh-93516(29): Store offset of first traceable instruction in code
     object to avoid having to recompute it for each instruction when
     tracing.

   - gh-93516(30): Lazily create a table mapping bytecode offsets to
     line numbers to speed up calculation of line numbers when tracing.

   - gh-89828(31): *note types.GenericAlias: bc7. no longer relays the
     ‘__class__’ attribute.  For example, ‘isinstance(list[int], type)’
     no longer returns ‘True’.

   - gh-93678(32): Refactor the compiler to reduce boilerplate and
     repetition.

   - gh-93671(33): Fix some exponential backtrace case happening with
     deeply nested sequence patterns in match statements.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - gh-93662(34): Make sure that the end column offsets are correct in
     multi-line method calls.  Previously, the end column could precede
     the column offset.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91256

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94869

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94893

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94822

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91153

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90699

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94694

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93252

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94215

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92228

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94485

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94438

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91719

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94329

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94360

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94262

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94192

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87995

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93883

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94163

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94021

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93955

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93911

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93841

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93516

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93516

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89828

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93678

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93671

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93662


File: python.info,  Node: Library<89>,  Next: Core and Builtins<88>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<87>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.15 Library
..................

   - gh-93461(1): *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): fcf. now drops
     entries from *note sys.path_importer_cache: 9db. with a relative
     path as name.  This solves a caching issue when a process changes
     its current working directory.

     ‘FileFinder’ no longer inserts a dot in the path, e.g.
     ‘/egg/./spam’ is now ‘/egg/spam’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93461


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<88>,  Next: Library<90>,  Prev: Library<89>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.16 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-93621(1): Change order of bytecode instructions emitted for
     *note with: 20a. and *note async with: 20b. to reduce the number of
     entries in the exception table.

   - gh-93533(2): Reduce the size of the inline cache for ‘LOAD_METHOD’
     by 2 bytes.

   - gh-93444(3): Removed redundant fields from the compiler’s
     basicblock struct: ‘b_nofallthrough’, ‘b_exit’, ‘b_return’.  They
     can be easily calculated from the opcode of the last instruction of
     the block.

   - gh-93429(4): ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction has been removed.  It was
     merged back into ‘LOAD_ATTR’.

   - gh-93418(5): Fixed an assert where an f-string has an equal sign
     “=” following an expression, but there’s no trailing brace.  For
     example, f»{i=».

   - gh-93382(6): Cache the result of *note PyCode_GetCode(): b5a.
     function to restore the 'O'(1) lookup of the ‘co_code’ attribute.

   - gh-93359(7): Ensure that custom *note ast: 9. nodes without
     explicit end positions can be compiled.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-93356(8): Code for exception handlers is emitted at the end of
     the code unit’s bytecode.  This avoids one jump when no exception
     is raised.

   - gh-93354(9): Use exponential backoff for specialization counters in
     the interpreter.  Can reduce the number of failed specializations
     significantly and avoid slowdown for those parts of a program that
     are not suitable for specialization.

   - gh-93283(10): Improve error message for invalid syntax of
     conversion character in f-string expressions.

   - gh-93345(11): Fix a crash in substitution of a ‘TypeVar’ in nested
     generic alias after ‘TypeVarTuple’.

   - gh-93223(12): When a bytecode instruction jumps to an unconditional
     jump instruction, the first instruction can often be optimized to
     target the unconditional jump’s target directly.  For tracing
     reasons, this would previously only occur if both instructions have
     the same line number.  This also now occurs if the unconditional
     jump is artificial, i.e., if it has no associated line number.

   - gh-84694(13): The ‘--experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’
     configure option and ‘EXPERIMENTAL_ISOLATED_SUBINTERPRETERS’ macro
     have been removed.

   - gh-91924(14): Fix ‘__lltrace__’ debug feature if the stdout
     encoding is not UTF-8.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93040(15): Wraps unused parameters in ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ with
     ‘Py_UNUSED’.

   - gh-93143(16): Avoid ‘NULL’ checks for uninitialized local variables
     by determining at compile time which variables must be initialized.

   - gh-93061(17): Backward jumps after ‘async for’ loops are no longer
     given dubious line numbers.

   - gh-93065(18): Fix contextvars HAMT implementation to handle
     iteration over deep trees.

     The bug was discovered and fixed by Eli Libman.  See
     MagicStack/immutables#84(19) for more details.

   - gh-93012(20): Added the new function *note PyType_FromMetaclass():
     391, which generalizes the existing *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390. using an additional metaclass
     argument.  This is useful for language binding tools, where it can
     be used to intercept type-related operations like subclassing or
     static attribute access by specifying a metaclass with custom
     slots.

     Importantly, *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391. is available in the
     Limited API, which provides a path towards migrating more binding
     tools onto the Stable ABI.

   - gh-93021(21): Fix the ‘__text_signature__’ for ‘__get__()’ methods
     implemented in C. Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-89914(22): The operand of the ‘YIELD_VALUE’ instruction is set
     to the stack depth.  This is done to help frame handling on ‘yield’
     and may assist debuggers.

   - gh-92955(23): Fix memory leak in code object’s lines and positions
     iterators as they were not finalized at exit.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-92930(24): Fixed a crash in ‘_pickle.c’ from mutating
     collections during ‘__reduce__’ or ‘persistent_id’.

   - gh-90690(25): The PRECALL instruction has been removed.  It offered
     only a small advantage for specialization and is not needed in the
     vast majority of cases.

   - gh-92914(26): Always round the allocated size for lists up to the
     nearest even number.

   - gh-92858(27): Improve error message for some suites with syntax
     error before “:”

   - gh-90473(28): Decrease default recursion limit on WASI to address
     limited call stack size.

   - gh-92804(29): Fix memory leak in ‘memoryview’ iterator as it was
     not finalized at exit.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92777(30): Specialize ‘LOAD_METHOD’ for objects with lazy
     dictionaries.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - gh-92658(31): Add support for connecting and binding to Hyper-V
     sockets on Windows Hyper-V hosts and guests.

   - gh-92236(32): Remove spurious «LINE» event when starting a
     generator or coroutine, visible tracing functions implemented in C.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93621

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93533

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93444

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93429

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93418

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93382

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93359

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93356

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93354

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93283

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93345

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93223

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84694

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91924

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93040

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93061

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93065

   (19) https://github.com/MagicStack/immutables/issues/84

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93021

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89914

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92955

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92930

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90690

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92914

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92858

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92804

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92777

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92658

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92236


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1.26.33.17 Library
..................

   - gh-91102(1): ‘_warnings.warn_explicit()’ is ported to Argument
     Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91102


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<89>,  Next: Library<91>,  Prev: Library<90>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.18 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-92619(1): Make the compiler duplicate an exit block only if none
     of its instructions have a lineno (previously only the first
     instruction in the block was checked, leading to unnecessarily
     duplicated blocks).

   - gh-88750(2): The deprecated debug build only ‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’
     environment variable no longer does anything.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92619

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88750


File: python.info,  Node: Library<91>,  Next: Core and Builtins<90>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<89>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.19 Library
..................

   - gh-92261(1): Fix hang when trying to iterate over a ‘typing.Union’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92261


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<90>,  Next: Library<92>,  Prev: Library<91>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.20 Core and Builtins
............................

   - gh-91432(1): Specialized the *note FOR_ITER: 1cc4. opcode using the
     PEP 659 machinery

   - gh-91399(2): Removed duplicate “{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0}” entry in
     “Objects/unicodetype_db.h”.

   - gh-91578(3): Updates the error message for abstract class.

   - bpo-47091(4): Improve performance of repetition of *note list: 4d9.
     and *note tuple: 1ce. by using ‘memcpy’ to copy data and performing
     the reference increments in one step.

   - bpo-46142(5): Make ‘--help’ output shorter by moving some info to
     the new ‘--help-env’ and ‘--help-xoptions’ command-line options.
     Also add ‘--help-all’ option to print complete usage.

   - bpo-42316(6): Document some places where an assignment expression
     needs parentheses.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91432

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91399

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91578

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47091

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46142

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42316


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1.26.33.21 Library
..................

   - gh-89237(1): Fix hang on Windows in ‘subprocess.wait_closed()’ in
     *note asyncio: b. with *note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-97928(2): ‘tkinter.Text.count()’ raises now an exception for
     options starting with «-» instead of silently ignoring them.

   - gh-98393(3): The *note os: a5. module no longer accepts bytes-like
     paths, like *note bytearray: 1c6. and *note memoryview: 1d2. types:
     only the exact *note bytes: 1c7. type is accepted for bytes
     strings.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98363(4): Added itertools.batched() to batch data into lists of
     a given length with the last list possibly being shorter than the
     others.

   - gh-98331(5): Update the bundled copies of pip and setuptools to
     versions 22.3 and 65.5.0 respectively.

   - gh-98307(6): A *note createSocket(): a4b. method was added to *note
     SysLogHandler: a4c.

   - gh-96035(7): Fix bug in *note urllib.parse.urlparse(): 2a4. that
     causes certain port numbers containing whitespace, underscores,
     plus and minus signs, or non-ASCII digits to be incorrectly
     accepted.

   - gh-98257(8): Make *note sys.setprofile(): 18a0. and *note
     sys.settrace(): 55c. functions reentrant.  They can no long fail
     with: ‘RuntimeError("Cannot install a trace function while another
     trace function is being installed")’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-98251(9): Allow *note venv: 11a. to pass along ‘PYTHON*’
     variables to ‘ensurepip’ and ‘pip’ when they do not impact path
     resolution

   - gh-94597(10): Deprecated
     ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher()’ and
     ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher()’ methods to be
     removed in Python 3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98178(11): On macOS, fix a crash in *note syslog.syslog(): 94d.
     in multi-threaded applications.  On macOS, the libc ‘syslog()’
     function is not thread-safe, so ‘syslog.syslog()’ no longer
     releases the GIL to call it.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-44098(12): Release the GIL when creating *note mmap.mmap: 23c.
     objects on Unix.

   - gh-87730(13): Wrap network errors consistently in urllib FTP
     support, so the test suite doesn’t fail when a network is available
     but the public internet is not reachable.

   - gh-94597(14): The child watcher classes ‘MultiLoopChildWatcher’,
     ‘FastChildWatcher’ and ‘SafeChildWatcher’ are deprecated and will
     be removed in Python 3.14.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-98023(15): Change default child watcher to ‘PidfdChildWatcher’
     on Linux systems which supports it.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-90985(16): Earlier in 3.11 we deprecated
     ‘asyncio.Task.cancel("message")’.  We realized we were too harsh,
     and have undeprecated it.

   - gh-65961(17): Do not rely solely on ‘__cached__’ on modules; code
     will also support ‘__spec__.cached’.

   - gh-97646(18): Replace deprecated ‘application/javascript’ with
     ‘text/javascript’ in *note mimetypes: 93.  See RFC 9239(19).  Patch
     by Noam Cohen.

   - gh-97930(20): Apply changes from importlib_resources 5.8 and 5.9:
     ‘Traversable.joinpath’ provides a concrete implementation.
     ‘as_file’ now supports directories of resources.

   - gh-97850(21): Remove deprecated ‘importlib.util.set_loader()’ and
     ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’ from *note importlib.util: 80.

   - gh-97837(22): Change deprecate warning message in *note unittest:
     10f. from

     ‘It is deprecated to return a value!=None’

     to

     ‘It is deprecated to return a value that is not None from a test
     case’

   - gh-97825(23): Fixes *note AttributeError: 1a9. when *note
     subprocess.check_output(): 136b. is used with argument ‘input=None’
     and either of the arguments 'encoding' or 'errors' are used.

   - gh-97008(24): *note NameError: 665. and *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     spelling suggestions provided since gh-82711(25) are now also
     emitted by the pure Python *note traceback: 107. module.  Tests for
     those suggestions now exercise both implementations to ensure they
     are equivalent.  Patch by Carl Friedrich Bolz-Tereick and Łukasz
     Langa.

   - gh-97799(26): ‘dataclass’ now uses *note inspect.get_annotations():
     bec. to examine the annotations on class objects.

   - gh-97781(27): Removed deprecated interfaces in ‘importlib.metadata’
     (entry points accessed as dictionary, implicit dictionary
     construction of sequence of ‘EntryPoint’ objects, mutablility of
     ‘EntryPoints’ result, access of entry point by index).
     ‘entry_points’ now has a simpler, more straightforward API
     (returning ‘EntryPoints’).

   - gh-96827(28): Avoid spurious tracebacks from *note asyncio: b. when
     default executor cleanup is delayed until after the event loop is
     closed (e.g.  as the result of a keyboard interrupt).

   - gh-95534(29): ‘gzip.GzipFile.read()’ reads 10% faster.

   - gh-97592(30): Avoid a crash in the C version of *note
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback(): 1b2c. when an evil argument
     is passed.

   - gh-97639(31): Remove ‘tokenize.NL’ check from *note tabnanny: e6.

   - gh-97545(32): Make Semaphore run faster.

   - gh-73588(33): Fix generation of the default name of
     ‘tkinter.Checkbutton’.  Previously, checkbuttons in different
     parent widgets could have the same short name and share the same
     state if arguments «name» and «variable» are not specified.  Now
     they are globally unique.

   - gh-96865(34): fix Flag to use boundary CONFORM

     This restores previous Flag behavior of allowing flags with
     non-sequential values to be combined; e.g.

     class Skip(Flag): TWO = 2 EIGHT = 8

     Skip.TWO | Skip.EIGHT -> <Skip.TWO|EIGHT: 10>

   - gh-97005(35): Update bundled libexpat to 2.4.9

   - gh-85760(36): Fix race condition in *note asyncio: b. where *note
     process_exited(): 1d4d. called before the *note
     pipe_data_received(): 1d4e. leading to inconsistent output.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-96704(37): Pass the correct ‘contextvars.Context’ when a
     ‘asyncio’ exception handler is called on behalf of a task or
     callback handle.  This adds a new ‘Task’ method, ‘get_context’, and
     also a new ‘Handle’ method with the same name.  If this method is
     not found on a task object (perhaps because it is a third-party
     library that does not yet provide this method), the context
     prevailing at the time the exception handler is called is used.

   - gh-96819(38): Fixed check in ‘multiprocessing.resource_tracker’
     that guarantees that the length of a write to a pipe is not greater
     than ‘PIPE_BUF’.

   - gh-95865(39): Reduce *note urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(): 1d4f.
     memory use on large values.

     Contributed by Dennis Sweeney.

   - gh-96741(40): Corrected type annotation for dataclass attribute
     ‘pstats.FunctionProfile.ncalls’ to be ‘str’.

   - gh-96734(41): Update *note unicodedata: 10e. database to Unicode
     15.0.0.

   - gh-96735(42): Fix undefined behaviour in *note struct.unpack():
     1a82.

   - gh-46412(43): Improve performance of ‘bool(db)’ for large ndb/gdb
     databases.  Previously this would call ‘len(db)’ which would
     iterate over all keys – the answer (empty or not) is known after
     the first key.

   - gh-96652(44): Fix the faulthandler implementation of
     ‘faulthandler.register(signal, chain=True)’ if the ‘sigaction()’
     function is not available: don’t call the previous signal handler
     if it’s NULL. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-68163(45): Correct conversion of *note numbers.Rational: 1663.’s
     to *note float: 327.

   - gh-96538(46): Speed up ‘bisect.bisect()’ functions by taking
     advantage of type-stability.

   - gh-96465(47): Fraction hashes are now cached.

   - gh-96079(48): In *note typing: 10d, fix missing field ‘name’ and
     incorrect ‘__module__’ in _AnnotatedAlias.

   - gh-96415(49): Remove ‘types._cell_factory’ from module namespace.

   - gh-95987(50): Fix ‘repr’ of ‘Any’ subclasses.

   - gh-96388(51): Work around missing socket functions in *note socket:
     115a.’s ‘__repr__’.

   - gh-96385(52): Fix ‘TypeVarTuple.__typing_prepare_subst__’.
     ‘TypeError’ was not raised when using more than one ‘TypeVarTuple’,
     like ‘[*T, *V]’ in type alias substitutions.

   - gh-96142(53): Add ‘match_args’, ‘kw_only’, ‘slots’, and
     ‘weakref_slot’ to ‘_DataclassParams’.

   - gh-96073(54): In *note inspect: 81, fix overeager replacement of
     «‘typing.’» in formatting annotations.

   - gh-89258(55): Added a *note getChildren(): 1d50. method to *note
     logging.Logger: f0c, to get the immediate child loggers of a
     logger.

   - gh-96346(56): Use double caching for compiled RE patterns.

   - gh-96349(57): Fixed a minor performance regression in
     ‘threading.Event.__init__()’

   - gh-90467(58): Fix ‘asyncio.streams.StreamReaderProtocol’ to keep a
     strong reference to the created task, so that it’s not garbage
     collected

   - gh-96172(59): Fix a bug in ‘unicodedata’: ‘east_asian_width’ used
     to return the wrong value for unassigned characters; and for yet
     unassigned, but reserved characters.

   - gh-96159(60): Fix a performance regression in logging
     TimedRotatingFileHandler.  Only check for special files when the
     rollover time has passed.

   - gh-96175(61): Fix unused ‘localName’ parameter in the ‘Attr’ class
     in *note xml.dom.minidom: 12b.

   - gh-96145(62): Add AttrDict to JSON module for use with object_hook.

   - gh-96052(63): Fix handling compiler warnings (SyntaxWarning and
     DeprecationWarning) in *note codeop.compile_command(): 1d51. when
     checking for incomplete input.  Previously it emitted warnings and
     raised a SyntaxError.  Now it always returns ‘None’ for incomplete
     input without emitting any warnings.

   - gh-96125(64): Fix incorrect condition that causes
     ‘sys.thread_info.name’ to be wrong on pthread platforms.

   - gh-96019(65): Fix a bug in the ‘makeunicodedata.py’ script leading
     to about 13 KiB of space saving in the ‘unicodedata’ module,
     specifically the character decomposition data.

   - gh-95463(66): Remove an incompatible change from bpo-28080(67) that
     caused a regression that ignored the utf8 in ‘ZipInfo.flag_bits’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-69142(68): Add ‘%:z’ strftime format code (generates tzoffset
     with colons as separator), see *note strftime() and strptime()
     behavior: 1d52.

   - gh-95899(69): Fix *note asyncio.Runner: 30a. to call *note
     asyncio.set_event_loop(): 1d53. only once to avoid calling
     ‘attach_loop()’ multiple times on child watchers.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-95736(70): Fix *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342. to
     set event loop before calling setup functions.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - gh-95865(71): Speed up *note urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes(): 1d4f.
     by replacing a list comprehension with ‘map()’.

   - gh-95861(72): Add support for computing Spearman’s correlation
     coefficient to the existing statistics.correlation() function.

   - gh-95804(73): Fix ‘logging’ shutdown handler so it respects
     ‘MemoryHandler.flushOnClose’.

   - gh-95704(74): When a task catches *note asyncio.CancelledError:
     6da. and raises some other error, the other error should generally
     not silently be suppressed.

   - gh-95149(75): The *note HTTPStatus: cd0. enum offers a couple of
     properties to indicate the HTTP status category e.g.
     ‘HTTPStatus.OK.is_success’.

   - gh-95609(76): Update bundled pip to 22.2.2.

   - gh-95289(77): Fix *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 6d7. to propagate
     exception when *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da. was replaced with
     another exception by a context manager.  Patch by Kumar Aditya and
     Guido van Rossum.

   - gh-94909(78): Fix incorrect joining of relative Windows paths with
     drives in *note pathlib.PurePath: 8b6. initializer.

   - gh-95385(79): Faster ‘json.dumps()’ when sorting of keys is not
     requested (default).

   - gh-83901(80): Improve *note Signature.bind: 1ab6. error message for
     missing keyword-only arguments.

   - gh-95339(81): Update bundled pip to 22.2.1.

   - gh-95045(82): Fix GC crash when deallocating ‘_lsprof.Profiler’ by
     untracking it before calling any callbacks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95231(83): Fail gracefully if *note EPERM: 1d54. or *note
     ENOSYS: 1d55. is raised when loading ‘crypt’ methods.  This may
     happen when trying to load ‘MD5’ on a Linux kernel with FIPS
     (Federal Information Processing Standard) enabled.

   - gh-95097(84): Fix *note asyncio.run(): 309. for *note asyncio.Task:
     460. implementations without *note uncancel(): 6dc. method.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95087(85): Fix IndexError in parsing invalid date in the *note
     email: 3e. module.

   - gh-95199(86): Upgrade bundled setuptools to 63.2.0.

   - gh-95194(87): Upgrade bundled pip to 22.2.

   - gh-93899(88): Fix check for existence of *note os.EFD_CLOEXEC:
     1d56, *note os.EFD_NONBLOCK: 1d57. and *note os.EFD_SEMAPHORE:
     1d58. flags on older kernel versions where these flags are not
     present.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-95166(89): Fix *note concurrent.futures.Executor.map(): 473. to
     cancel the currently waiting on future on an error - e.g.
     TimeoutError or KeyboardInterrupt.

   - gh-95132(90): Fix a *note sqlite3: d7. regression where ‘*args’ and
     ‘**kwds’ were incorrectly relayed from *note connect(): 3e0. to the
     *note Connection: 3df. factory.  The regression was introduced in
     3.11a1 with PR 24421 (gh-85128(91)).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93157(92): Fix *note fileinput: 5e. module didn’t support
     ‘errors’ option when ‘inplace’ is true.

   - gh-91212(93): Fixed flickering of the turtle window when the tracer
     is turned off.  Patch by Shin-myoung-serp.

   - gh-95077(94): Add deprecation warning for enum ‘member.member’
     access (e.g.  ‘Color.RED.BLUE’).  Remove ‘EnumMeta.__getattr__’.

   - gh-95109(95): Ensure that timeouts scheduled with *note
     asyncio.Timeout: 1c47. that have already expired are delivered
     promptly.

   - gh-95105(96): ‘wsgiref.types.InputStream.__iter__()’ should return
     ‘Iterator[bytes]’, not ‘Iterable[bytes]’.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-95066(97): Replaced assert with exception in *note ast.parse():
     1c9, when ‘feature_version’ has an invalid major version.  Patch by
     Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-77617(98): Add *note sqlite3: d7. *note command-line interface:
     257.  Patch by Erlend Aasland.

   - gh-95005(99): Replace _PyAccu with _PyUnicodeWriter in JSON encoder
     and StringIO and remove the _PyAccu implementation.

   - gh-90085(100): Remove ‘-c/--clock’ and ‘-t/--time’ CLI options of
     *note timeit: f8.  The options had been deprecated since Python 3.3
     and the functionality was removed in Python 3.7.  Patch by Shantanu
     Jain.

   - gh-94857(101): Fix refleak in ‘_io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure’.
     Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94821(102): Fix binding of unix socket to empty address on Linux
     to use an available address from the abstract namespace, instead of
     «0».

   - gh-94736(103): Fix crash when deallocating an instance of a
     subclass of ‘_multiprocessing.SemLock’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-81620(104): Add random.binomialvariate().

   - gh-74116(105): Allow *note asyncio.StreamWriter.drain(): 1d27. to
     be awaited concurrently by multiple tasks.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-87822(106): When called with ‘capture_locals=True’, the *note
     traceback: 107. module functions swallow exceptions raised from
     calls to ‘repr()’ on local variables of frames.  This is in order
     to prioritize the original exception over rendering errors.  An
     indication of the failure is printed in place of the missing value.
     (Patch by Simon-Martin Schroeder).

   - gh-88050(107): Fix *note asyncio: b. subprocess transport to kill
     process cleanly when process is blocked and avoid ‘RuntimeError’
     when loop is closed.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94637(108): ‘SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths()’ now releases
     the GIL around ‘SSL_CTX_set_default_verify_paths’ call.  The
     function call performs I/O and CPU intensive work.

   - gh-94309(109): Deprecate aliases *note typing.Hashable: 900. and
     *note typing.Sized: 901.

   - gh-92546(110): An undocumented ‘python -m pprint’ benchmark is
     moved into ‘pprint’ suite of pyperformance.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - gh-94607(111): Fix subclassing complex generics with type variables
     in *note typing: 10d.  Previously an error message saying ‘Some
     type variables ... are not listed in Generic[...]’ was shown.
     ‘typing’ no longer populates ‘__parameters__’ with the
     ‘__parameters__’ of a Python class.

   - gh-94619(112): Remove the long-deprecated ‘module_repr()’ from
     *note importlib: 7a.

   - gh-93910(113): The ability to access the other values of an enum on
     an enum (e.g.  ‘Color.RED.BLUE’) has been restored in order to fix
     a performance regression.

   - gh-93896(114): Fix *note asyncio.run(): 309. and *note
     unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342. to always the set event loop
     as it was done in Python 3.10 and earlier.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94343(115): Allow setting the attributes of ‘reprlib.Repr’
     during object initialization

   - gh-94382(116): Port static types of ‘_multiprocessing’ module to
     heap types.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-78724(117): Fix crash in *note struct.Struct: 2fb. when it was
     not completely initialized by initializing it in *note __new__():
     982.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94510(118): Re-entrant calls to *note sys.setprofile(): 18a0.
     and *note sys.settrace(): 55c. now raise *note RuntimeError: 30d.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-92336(119): Fix bug where *note linecache.getline(): 4cd. fails
     on bad files with *note UnicodeDecodeError: dd7. or *note
     SyntaxError: 17e.  It now returns an empty string as per the
     documentation.

   - gh-94398(120): Once a *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 6d7. has started
     shutting down (i.e., at least one task has failed and the task
     group has started cancelling the remaining tasks), it should not be
     possible to add new tasks to the task group.

   - gh-94383(121): ‘xml.etree’: Remove the ‘ElementTree.Element.copy()’
     method of the pure Python implementation, deprecated in Python
     3.10, use the *note copy.copy(): 942. function instead.  The C
     implementation of ‘xml.etree’ has no ‘copy()’ method, only a
     ‘__copy__()’ method.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94379(122): *note zipimport: 13b.: Remove ‘find_loader()’ and
     ‘find_module()’ methods, deprecated in Python 3.10: use the
     ‘find_spec()’ method instead.  See PEP 451(123) for the rationale.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94352(124): *note shlex.split(): 949.: Passing ‘None’ for 's'
     argument now raises an exception, rather than reading *note
     sys.stdin: 94a.  The feature was deprecated in Python 3.9.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94318(125): Strip trailing spaces in *note pydoc: bd. text
     output.

   - gh-89988(126): Fix memory leak in *note pickle.Pickler: de2. when
     looking up ‘dispatch_table’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-90016(127): Deprecate *note sqlite3: d7. *note default adapters
     and converters: 8fd.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-94254(128): Fixed types of *note struct: de. module to be
     immutable.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-93259(129): Now raise ‘ValueError’ when ‘None’ or an empty
     string are passed to ‘Distribution.from_name’ (and other callers).

   - gh-74696(130): *note shutil.make_archive(): 8c3. now passes the
     'root_dir' argument to custom archivers which support it.

   - gh-94216(131): The *note dis: 3b. module now has the opcodes for
     pseudo instructions (those which are used by the compiler during
     code generation but then removed or replaced by real opcodes before
     the final bytecode is emitted).

   - gh-93096(132): Removed undocumented ‘python -m codecs’.  Use
     ‘python -m unittest test.test_codecs.EncodedFileTest’ instead.

   - gh-94207(133): Made ‘_struct.Struct’ GC-tracked in order to fix a
     reference leak in the ‘_struct’ module.

   - gh-93096(134): Removed undocumented ‘-t’ argument of ‘python -m
     base64’.  Use ‘python -m unittest
     test.test_base64.LegacyBase64TestCase.test_encodebytes’ instead.

   - gh-94226(135): Remove the ‘locale.format()’ function, deprecated in
     Python 3.7: use *note locale.format_string(): 92d. instead.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(136): Remove the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  The
     ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ was deprecated in Python 3.7.  OpenSSL
     performs hostname matching since Python 3.7, Python no longer uses
     the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94214(137): Document the ‘context’ object used in the
     ‘venv.EnvBuilder’ class, and add the new environment’s library path
     to it.

   - gh-94199(138): Remove the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function, deprecated
     in Python 3.7: instead, create a *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. object
     and call its *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket: 933. method.  Any
     package that still uses ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is broken and insecure.
     The function neither sends a SNI TLS extension nor validates server
     hostname.  Code is subject to CWE 295(139) Improper Certificate
     Validation.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(140): Remove the ‘ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes()’ function,
     deprecated in Python 3.6: use *note os.urandom(): 931. or *note
     ssl.RAND_bytes(): 932. instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94199(141): *note hashlib: 6b.: Remove the pure Python
     implementation of *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 91e, deprecated in
     Python 3.10.  Python 3.10 and newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 ( PEP
     644(142)): this OpenSSL version provides a C implementation of
     ‘pbkdf2_hmac()’ which is faster.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94196(143): *note gzip: 6a.: Remove the ‘filename’ attribute of
     *note gzip.GzipFile: 849, deprecated since Python 2.6, use the
     *note name: 91c. attribute instead.  In write mode, the ‘filename’
     attribute added ‘'.gz'’ file extension if it was not present.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94182(144): run the ‘asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher’ on the running
     loop, this allows event loops to run subprocesses when there is no
     default event loop running on the main thread

   - gh-94169(145): Remove ‘io.OpenWrapper’ and ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper’,
     deprecated in Python 3.10: just use *note open(): 32b. instead.
     The ‘open()’ (*note io.open(): 92b.) function is a built-in
     function.  Since Python 3.10, ‘_pyio.open()’ is also a static
     method.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91742(146): Fix *note pdb: aa. crash after jump caused by a null
     pointer dereference.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-94101(147): Manual instantiation of *note ssl.SSLSession: 109b.
     objects is no longer allowed as it lead to misconfigured instances
     that crashed the interpreter when attributes where accessed on
     them.

   - gh-84753(148): *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 302, *note
     inspect.isgeneratorfunction(): 1d59, and *note
     inspect.isasyncgenfunction(): 1d5a. now properly return ‘True’ for
     duck-typed function-like objects like instances of *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock: e0d.

     This makes *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 302. consistent
     with the behavior of ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’.  Patch by
     Mehdi ABAAKOUK.

   - gh-94028(149): Fix a regression in the *note sqlite3: d7. where
     statement objects were not properly cleared and reset after use in
     cursor iters.  The regression was introduced by PR 27884 in Python
     3.11a1.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93973(150): Add keyword argument ‘all_errors’ to
     ‘asyncio.create_connection’ so that multiple connection errors can
     be raised as an ‘ExceptionGroup’.

   - gh-93963(151): Officially deprecate from ‘importlib.abc’ classes
     moved to ‘importlib.resources.abc’.

   - gh-93858(152): Prevent error when activating venv in nested fish
     instances.

   - gh-93820(153): Pickle *note enum.Flag: a14. by name.

   - gh-93847(154): Fix repr of enum of generic aliases.

   - gh-91404(155): Revert the *note re: c1. memory leak when a match is
     terminated by a signal or memory allocation failure as the
     implemented fix caused a major performance regression.

   - gh-83499(156): Fix double closing of file description in *note
     tempfile: e9.

   - gh-93820(157): Fixed a regression when *note copy.copy(): 942.-ing
     *note enum.Flag: a14. with multiple flag members.

   - gh-79512(158): Fixed names and ‘__module__’ value of *note weakref:
     11d. classes *note ReferenceType: 1d5b, *note ProxyType: 1d5c,
     *note CallableProxyType: 1d5d.  It makes them pickleable.

   - gh-91389(159): Fix an issue where *note dis: 3b. utilities could
     report missing or incorrect position information in the presence of
     ‘CACHE’ entries.

   - gh-93626(160): Set ‘__future__.annotations’ to have a ‘None’
     mandatoryRelease to indicate that it is currently “TBD”.

   - gh-90473(161): Emscripten and WASI have no home directory and
     cannot provide PEP 370(162) user site directory.

   - gh-90494(163): *note copy.copy(): 942. and *note copy.deepcopy():
     f2b. now always raise a TypeError if ‘__reduce__()’ returns a tuple
     with length 6 instead of silently ignore the 6th item or produce
     incorrect result.

   - gh-90549(164): Fix a multiprocessing bug where a global named
     resource (such as a semaphore) could leak when a child process is
     spawned (as opposed to forked).

   - gh-93521(165): Fixed a case where dataclasses would try to add
     ‘__weakref__’ into the ‘__slots__’ for a dataclass that specified
     ‘weakref_slot=True’ when it was already defined in one of its
     bases.  This resulted in a ‘TypeError’ upon the new class being
     created.

   - gh-79579(166): *note sqlite3: d7. now correctly detects DML queries
     with leading comments.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-93421(167): Update *note sqlite3.Cursor.rowcount: 1d5e. when a
     DML statement has run to completion.  This fixes the row count for
     SQL queries like ‘UPDATE ... RETURNING’.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - gh-93475(168): Expose ‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’ constants in
     *note fcntl: 5c.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - gh-93370(169): Deprecate ‘version’ and ‘version_info’.

   - gh-91810(170): Suppress writing an XML declaration in open files in
     ‘ElementTree.write()’ with ‘encoding='unicode'’ and
     ‘xml_declaration=None’.

   - gh-91162(171): Support splitting of unpacked arbitrary-length tuple
     over ‘TypeVar’ and ‘TypeVarTuple’ parameters.  For example:

        * ‘A[T, *Ts][*tuple[int, ...]]’ -> ‘A[int, *tuple[int, ...]]’

        * ‘A[*Ts, T][*tuple[int, ...]]’ -> ‘A[*tuple[int, ...], int]’

   - gh-93353(172): Fix the *note importlib.resources.as_file(): 89f.
     context manager to remove the temporary file if destroyed late
     during Python finalization: keep a local reference to the *note
     os.remove(): 149c. function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-83658(173): Make ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ raise an exception if
     ‘maxtasksperchild’ is not ‘None’ or a positive int.

   - gh-93312(174): Add *note os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK: 8ab. flag to open a
     file descriptor for a process with *note os.pidfd_open(): 267. in
     non-blocking mode.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-88123(175): Implement ‘Enum.__contains__’ that returns ‘True’ or
     ‘False’ to replace the deprecated behaviour that would sometimes
     raise a *note TypeError: 291.

   - gh-93297(176): Make asyncio task groups prevent child tasks from
     being GCed

   - gh-85308(177): Changed *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc. to use
     *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948. instead of
     default text encoding to read arguments from file (e.g.
     ‘fromfile_prefix_chars’ option).  This change affects Windows;
     argument file should be encoded with UTF-8 instead of ANSI
     Codepage.

   - gh-93156(178): Accessing the *note pathlib.PurePath.parents: bf9.
     sequence of an absolute path using negative index values produced
     incorrect results.

   - gh-93162(179): Add the ability for *note
     logging.config.dictConfig(): 1559. to usefully configure *note
     QueueHandler: 1d5f. and *note QueueListener: 4cf. as a pair, and
     add *note logging.getHandlerByName(): 1d60. and *note
     logging.getHandlerNames(): 1c74. APIs to allow access to handlers
     by name.

   - gh-93243(180): The ‘smtpd’ module was removed per the schedule in
     PEP 594(181).

   - gh-92886(182): Replace ‘assert’ statements with ‘raise
     AssertionError()’ in ‘BaseHandler’ so that the tested behaviour is
     maintained running with optimizations ‘(-O)’.

   - gh-90155(183): Fix broken *note asyncio.Semaphore: e37. when
     acquire is cancelled.

   - gh-90817(184): The ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function is deprecated
     and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use
     ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’ instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-91513(185): Added ‘taskName’ attribute to *note logging: 8a.
     module for use with *note asyncio: b. tasks.

   - gh-74696(186): *note shutil.make_archive(): 8c3. no longer
     temporarily changes the current working directory during creation
     of standard ‘.zip’ or tar archives.

   - gh-92728(187): The ‘re.template()’ function and the corresponding
     ‘re.TEMPLATE’ and ‘re.T’ flags are restored after they were removed
     in 3.11.0b1, but they are now deprecated, so they might be removed
     from Python 3.13.

   - gh-93033(188): Search in some strings (platform dependent i.e
     [U+0xFFFF, U+0x0100] on Windows or [U+0xFFFFFFFF, U+0x00010000] on
     Linux 64-bit) are now up to 10 times faster.

   - gh-89973(189): Fix ‘re.error’ raised in *note fnmatch: 5f. if the
     pattern contains a character range with upper bound lower than
     lower bound (e.g.  ‘[c-a]’).  Now such ranges are interpreted as
     empty ranges.

   - gh-93044(190): No longer convert the database argument of *note
     sqlite3.connect(): 3e0. to bytes before passing it to the factory.

   - gh-93010(191): In a very special case, the email package tried to
     append the nonexistent ‘InvalidHeaderError’ to the defect list.  It
     should have been ‘InvalidHeaderDefect’.

   - gh-92986(192): Fix *note ast.unparse(): cb6. when
     ‘ImportFrom.level’ is ‘None’

   - gh-92932(193): Now *note dis(): 496. and *note get_instructions():
     6f1. handle operand values for instructions prefixed by
     ‘EXTENDED_ARG_QUICK’.  Patch by Sam Gross and Donghee Na.

   - gh-92675(194): Fix ‘venv.ensure_directories()’ to accept *note
     pathlib.Path: 4ee. arguments in addition to *note str: 1df. paths.
     Patch by David Foster.

   - gh-87901(195): Removed the ‘encoding’ argument from *note
     os.popen(): 585. that was added in 3.11b1.

   - gh-91922(196): Fix function ‘sqlite.connect()’ and the
     ‘sqlite.Connection’ constructor on non-UTF-8 locales.  Also, they
     now support bytes paths non-decodable with the current FS encoding.

   - gh-92869(197): Added *note c_time_t: 1d61. to *note ctypes: 2d,
     which has the same size as the ‘time_t’ type in C.

   - gh-92839(198): Fixed crash resulting from calling bisect.insort()
     or bisect.insort_left() with the key argument not equal to ‘None’.

   - gh-90473(199): *note subprocess: df. now fails early on Emscripten
     and WASI platforms to work around missing *note os.pipe(): 1d62. on
     WASI.

   - gh-89325(200): Removed many old deprecated *note unittest: 10f.
     features: *note TestCase: 52f. method aliases, undocumented and
     broken ‘TestCase’ method ‘assertDictContainsSubset’, undocumented
     *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule: 793. parameter
     'use_load_tests', and an underscored alias of the *note
     TextTestResult: 93f. class.

   - gh-92734(201): Allow multi-element reprs emitted by *note reprlib:
     c3. to be pretty-printed using configurable indentation.

   - gh-92671(202): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): cb6. for empty tuples in
     the assignment target context.

   - gh-91581(203): *note utcfromtimestamp(): 32f. no longer attempts to
     resolve ‘fold’ in the pure Python implementation, since the fold is
     never 1 in UTC. In addition to being slightly faster in the common
     case, this also prevents some errors when the timestamp is close to
     *note datetime.min: 1d63.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-86388(204): Removed randrange() functionality deprecated since
     Python 3.10.  Formerly, randrange(10.0) losslessly converted to
     randrange(10).  Now, it raises a TypeError.  Also, the exception
     raised for non-integral values such as randrange(10.5) or
     randrange(“10”) has been changed from ValueError to TypeError.

   - gh-90385(205): Add *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 8b8. as an
     alternative to *note os.walk(): 8b9.

   - gh-92550(206): Fix *note pathlib.Path.rglob(): 73b. for empty
     pattern.

   - gh-92591(207): Allow *note logging: 8a. filters to return a *note
     logging.LogRecord: 138f. instance so that filters attached to *note
     logging.Handler: 1838.s can enrich records without side effects on
     other handlers.

   - gh-92445(208): Fix a bug in *note argparse: 7. where ‘nargs="*"’
     would raise an error instead of returning an empty list when 0
     arguments were supplied if choice was also defined in
     ‘parser.add_argument’.

   - gh-92547(209): Remove undocumented *note sqlite3: d7. features
     deprecated in Python 3.10:

        * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’

        * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-92530(210): Fix an issue that occurred after interrupting *note
     threading.Condition.notify(): 1d64.

   - gh-92531(211): The statistics.median_grouped() function now always
     return a float.  Formerly, it did not convert the input type when
     for sequences of length one.

   - gh-84131(212): The *note pathlib.Path: 4ee. deprecated method
     ‘link_to’ has been removed.  Use 3.10’s *note hardlink_to(): bfa.
     method instead as its semantics are consistent with that of *note
     symlink_to(): bfb.

   - gh-89336(213): Removed *note configparser: 26. module APIs: the
     ‘SafeConfigParser’ class alias, the ‘ParsingError.filename’
     property and parameter, and the ‘ConfigParser.readfp’ method, all
     of which were deprecated since Python 3.2.

   - gh-92391(214): Add *note __class_getitem__(): b21. to *note
     csv.DictReader: da9. and *note csv.DictWriter: 15a7, allowing them
     to be parameterized at runtime.  Patch by Marc Mueller.

   - gh-91968(215): Add ‘SO_RTABLE’ and ‘SO_USER_COOKIE’ constants to
     *note socket: d4.

   - gh-91810(216): *note ElementTree: d19. method *note write(): e5b.
     and function *note tostring(): 139e. now use the text file’s
     encoding («UTF-8» if not available) instead of locale encoding in
     XML declaration when ‘encoding="unicode"’ is specified.

   - gh-81790(217): *note os.path.splitdrive(): fb4. now understands DOS
     device paths with UNC links (beginning ‘\\?\UNC\’).  Contributed by
     Barney Gale.

   - gh-91760(218): Apply more strict rules for numerical group
     references and group names in regular expressions.  Only sequence
     of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.  The
     group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only
     contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.

   - gh-90622(219): Worker processes for *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. are no longer spawned
     on demand (a feature added in 3.9) when the multiprocessing context
     start method is ‘"fork"’ as that can lead to deadlocks in the child
     processes due to a fork happening while threads are running.

   - gh-91577(220): Move imports in ‘SharedMemory’ methods to module
     level so that they can be executed late in python finalization.

   - gh-91581(221): Remove an unhandled error case in the C
     implementation of calls to *note datetime.fromtimestamp: 8fb. with
     no time zone (i.e.  getting a local time from an epoch timestamp).
     This should have no user-facing effect other than giving a possibly
     more accurate error message when called with timestamps that fall
     on 10000-01-01 in the local time.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-91539(222): Improve performance of
     ‘urllib.request.getproxies_environment’ when there are many
     environment variables

   - gh-91524(223): Speed up the regular expression substitution
     (functions *note re.sub(): 7a1. and *note re.subn(): 7a2. and
     corresponding *note re.Pattern: 194d. methods) for replacement
     strings containing group references by 2–3 times.

   - gh-91447(224): Fix findtext in the xml module to only give an empty
     string when the text attribute is set to ‘None’.

   - gh-91456(225): Deprecate current default auto() behavior: In 3.13
     the default will be for for auto() to always return the largest
     member value incremented by 1, and to raise if incompatible value
     types are used.

   - bpo-47231(226): Fixed an issue with inconsistent trailing slashes
     in tarfile longname directories.

   - bpo-39064(227): *note zipfile.ZipFile: ab1. now raises *note
     zipfile.BadZipFile: 1d65. instead of ‘ValueError’ when reading a
     corrupt zip file in which the central directory offset is negative.

   - bpo-41287(228): Fix handling of the ‘doc’ argument in subclasses of
     *note property(): 6bb.

   - gh-90005(229): *note ctypes: 2d. dependency ‘libffi’ is now
     detected with ‘pkg-config’.

   - bpo-32547(230): The constructors for *note DictWriter: 15a7. and
     *note DictReader: da9. now coerce the ‘fieldnames’ argument to a
     *note list: 4d9. if it is an iterator.

   - bpo-35540(231): Fix *note dataclasses.asdict(): 190d. crash when
     *note collections.defaultdict: 1565. is present in the attributes.

   - bpo-47063(232): Add an index_pages parameter to support using
     non-default index page names.

   - bpo-47025(233): Drop support for *note bytes: 1c7. on *note
     sys.path: 194.

   - bpo-46951(234): Order the contents of zipapp archives, to make
     builds more reproducible.

   - bpo-42777(235): Implement *note pathlib.Path.is_mount(): ddb. for
     Windows paths.

   - bpo-46755(236): In ‘QueueHandler’, clear ‘stack_info’ from
     ‘LogRecord’ to prevent stack trace from being written twice.

   - bpo-45393(237): Fix the formatting for ‘await x’ and ‘not x’ in the
     operator precedence table when using the *note help(): ca9. system.

   - bpo-46642(238): Improve error message when trying to subclass an
     instance of *note typing.TypeVar: 294, *note typing.ParamSpec: 295,
     *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 293, etc.  Based on patch by Gregory
     Beauregard.

   - bpo-46364(239): Restrict use of sockets instead of pipes for stdin
     of subprocesses created by *note asyncio: b. to AIX platform only.

   - bpo-28249(240): Set *note doctest.DocTest.lineno: 1a07. to ‘None’
     when an object does not have *note __doc__: cf4.

   - bpo-46197(241): Fix *note ensurepip: 58. environment isolation for
     subprocess running ‘pip’.

   - bpo-45924(242): Fix *note asyncio: b. incorrect traceback when
     future’s exception is raised multiple times.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-45046(243): Add support of context managers in *note unittest:
     10f.: methods *note enterContext(): aa6. and *note
     enterClassContext(): aa7. of class *note TestCase: 52f, method
     *note enterAsyncContext(): aa8. of class *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342. and function *note
     unittest.enterModuleContext(): aa9.

   - bpo-44173(244): Enable fast seeking of uncompressed unencrypted
     ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’

   - bpo-42627(245): Fix incorrect parsing of Windows registry proxy
     settings

   - bpo-42047(246): Add *note threading.get_native_id(): e01. support
     for DragonFly BSD. Patch by David Carlier.

   - bpo-14243(247): The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 8d6.
     function has a new optional parameter 'delete_on_close'

   - bpo-41246(248): Give the same callback function for when the
     overlapped operation is done to the functions ‘recv’, ‘recv_into’,
     ‘recvfrom’, ‘sendto’, ‘send’ and ‘sendfile’ inside ‘IocpProactor’.

   - bpo-39264(249): Fixed ‘collections.UserDict.get()’ to not call
     *note __missing__(): 1566. when a value is not found.  This matches
     the behavior of *note dict: 188.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-38693(250): *note importlib: 7a. now uses f-strings internally
     instead of ‘str.format’.

   - bpo-38267(251): Add 'timeout' parameter to *note
     asyncio.loop.shutdown_default_executor(): cb8.  The default value
     is ‘None’, which means the executor will be given an unlimited
     amount of time.  When called from *note asyncio.Runner: 30a. or
     *note asyncio.run(): 309, the default timeout is 5 minutes.

   - bpo-34828(252): *note sqlite3.Connection.iterdump(): 751. now
     handles databases that use ‘AUTOINCREMENT’ in one or more tables.

   - bpo-32990(253): Support reading wave files with the
     ‘WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE’ format in the *note wave: 11c. module.

   - bpo-26253(254): Allow adjustable compression level for tarfile
     streams in *note tarfile.open(): 1228.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89237

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98363

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98331

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98307

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96035

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98257

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98251

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98178

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44098

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87730

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98023

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90985

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97646

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9239.html

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97837

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97825

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97008

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82711

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97799

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97781

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96827

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95534

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97592

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97639

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97545

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73588

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96865

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97005

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85760

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96704

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96819

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95865

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96741

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96734

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96735

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46412

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96652

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68163

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96538

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96465

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96079

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96415

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95987

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96388

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96385

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96142

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96073

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89258

   (56) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96346

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96349

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90467

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96172

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96159

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96175

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96145

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96052

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96125

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96019

   (66) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95463

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69142

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95899

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95736

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95865

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95861

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95804

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   (75) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95149

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   (79) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95385

   (80) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83901

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   (88) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93899

   (89) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95166

   (90) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95132

   (91) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85128

   (92) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93157

   (93) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91212

   (94) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95077

   (95) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95109

   (96) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95105

   (97) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95066

   (98) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77617

   (99) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95005

   (100) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90085

   (101) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94857

   (102) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94821

   (103) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94736

   (104) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620

   (105) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74116

   (106) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87822

   (107) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88050

   (108) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94637

   (109) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (110) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92546

   (111) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94607

   (112) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94619

   (113) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93910

   (114) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93896

   (115) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94343

   (116) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94382

   (117) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78724

   (118) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94510

   (119) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92336

   (120) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94398

   (121) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94383

   (122) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94379

   (123) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (124) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94352

   (125) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94318

   (126) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89988

   (127) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90016

   (128) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94254

   (129) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93259

   (130) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696

   (131) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216

   (132) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096

   (133) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94207

   (134) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93096

   (135) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94226

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   (137) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94214

   (138) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (139) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/295.html

   (140) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (141) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199

   (142) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/

   (143) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94196

   (144) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94182

   (145) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94169

   (146) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91742

   (147) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94101

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   (149) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94028

   (150) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93973

   (151) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

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   (153) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93820

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   (156) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83499

   (157) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93820

   (158) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79512

   (159) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91389

   (160) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93626

   (161) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (162) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (163) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90494

   (164) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90549

   (165) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93521

   (166) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79579

   (167) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93421

   (168) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93475

   (169) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93370

   (170) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91810

   (171) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91162

   (172) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93353

   (173) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83658

   (174) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312

   (175) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88123

   (176) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93297

   (177) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85308

   (178) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93156

   (179) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93162

   (180) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93243

   (181) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (182) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (183) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90155

   (184) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817

   (185) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91513

   (186) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696

   (187) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92728

   (188) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93033

   (189) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89973

   (190) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93044

   (191) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93010

   (192) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92986

   (193) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92932

   (194) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92675

   (195) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87901

   (196) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91922

   (197) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92869

   (198) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92839

   (199) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (200) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89325

   (201) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92734

   (202) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92671

   (203) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91581

   (204) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86388

   (205) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90385

   (206) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92550

   (207) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92591

   (208) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92445

   (209) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92547

   (210) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92530

   (211) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92531

   (212) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84131

   (213) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89336

   (214) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92391

   (215) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91968

   (216) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91810

   (217) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81790

   (218) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (219) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90622

   (220) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91577

   (221) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91581

   (222) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91539

   (223) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91524

   (224) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91447

   (225) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91456

   (226) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47231

   (227) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39064

   (228) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41287

   (229) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (230) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32547

   (231) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35540

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<28>,  Next: Tests<31>,  Prev: Library<92>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.22 Documentation
........................

   - gh-85525(1): Remove extra row

   - gh-86404(2): Deprecated tools ‘make suspicious’ and ‘rstlint.py’
     are now removed.  They have been replaced by sphinx-lint(3).

   - gh-97741(4): Fix ‘!’ in c domain ref target syntax via a ‘conf.py’
     patch, so it works as intended to disable ref target resolution.

   - gh-96432(5): Fraction literals now support whitespace around the
     forward slash, ‘Fraction('2 / 3')’.

   - gh-96098(6): Improve discoverability of the higher level
     concurrent.futures module by providing clearer links from the lower
     level threading and multiprocessing modules.

   - gh-95957(7): What’s New 3.11 now has instructions for how to
     provide compiler and linker flags for Tcl/Tk and OpenSSL on RHEL 7
     and CentOS 7.

   - gh-95588(8): Clarified the conflicting advice given in the *note
     ast: 9. documentation about *note ast.literal_eval(): fd7. being
     «safe» for use on untrusted input while at the same time warning
     that it can crash the process.  The latter statement is true and is
     deemed unfixable without a large amount of work unsuitable for a
     bugfix.  So we keep the warning and no longer claim that
     ‘literal_eval’ is safe.

   - gh-91207(9): Fix stylesheet not working in Windows CHM htmlhelp
     docs and add warning that they are deprecated.  Contributed by
     C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - gh-95454(10): Replaced incorrectly written true/false values in
     documentation.  Patch by Robert O’Shea

   - gh-95451(11): Update library documentation with *note availability
     information: 1d67. on WebAssembly platforms ‘wasm32-emscripten’ and
     ‘wasm32-wasi’.

   - gh-95415(12): Use consistent syntax for platform availability.  The
     directive now supports a content body and emits a warning when it
     encounters an unknown platform.

   - gh-94321(13): Document the PEP 246(14) style protocol type *note
     sqlite3.PrepareProtocol: 1d68.

   - gh-86128(15): Document a limitation in ThreadPoolExecutor where its
     exit handler is executed before any handlers in atexit.

   - gh-61162(16): Clarify *note sqlite3: d7. behavior when *note How to
     use the connection context manager: 1d69.

   - gh-87260(17): Align *note sqlite3: d7. argument specs with the
     actual implementation.

   - gh-86986(18): The minimum Sphinx version required to build the
     documentation is now 3.2.

   - gh-88831(19): Augmented documentation of asyncio.create_task().
     Clarified the need to keep strong references to tasks and added a
     code snippet detailing how to do this.

   - gh-86438(20): Clarify that *note -W: 1c0. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
     1c1. are matched literally and case-insensitively, rather than as
     regular expressions, in *note warnings: 11b.

   - gh-93031(21): Update tutorial introduction output to use 3.10+
     SyntaxError invalid range.

   - gh-92240(22): Added release dates for «What’s New in Python 3.X»
     for 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.8 and 3.10

   - bpo-47161(23): Document that *note pathlib.PurePath: 8b6. does not
     collapse initial double slashes because they denote UNC paths.

   - bpo-40838(24): Document that *note inspect.getdoc(): 22c, *note
     inspect.getmodule(): 1d6a, and *note inspect.getsourcefile(): 1d6b.
     might return ‘None’.

   - bpo-43689(25): The ‘Differ’ documentation now also mentions other
     whitespace characters, which make it harder to understand the diff
     output.

   - bpo-38056(26): Overhaul the *note Error Handlers: 1d6c.
     documentation in *note codecs: 1c.

   - bpo-13553(27): Document tkinter.Tk args.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85525

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86404

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/sphinx-lint/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97741

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96432

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96098

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95957

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95588

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91207

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95454

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95451

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95415

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94321

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0246/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86128

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61162

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87260

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86986

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88831

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86438

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93031

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92240

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47161

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40838

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43689

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38056

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13553


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<31>,  Next: Build<32>,  Prev: Documentation<28>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.23 Tests
................

   - gh-95027(1): On Windows, when the Python test suite is run with the
     ‘-jN’ option, the ANSI code page is now used as the encoding for
     the stdout temporary file, rather than using UTF-8 which can lead
     to decoding errors.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-96624(2): Fixed the failure of repeated runs of
     ‘test.test_unittest’ caused by side effects in
     ‘test_dotted_but_module_not_loaded’.

   - gh-95243(3): Mitigate the inherent race condition from using
     find_unused_port() in testSockName() by trying to find an unused
     port a few times before failing.  Patch by Ross Burton.

   - gh-95573(4): Lib/test/test_asyncio/test_ssl.py(5) exposed a bug in
     the macOS kernel where intense concurrent load on non-blocking
     sockets occasionally causes *note errno.ENOBUFS: 1d6e. («No buffer
     space available») to be emitted.  FB11063974 filed with Apple, in
     the mean time as a workaround buffer size used in tests on macOS is
     decreased to avoid intermittent failures.  Patch by Fantix King.

   - gh-95280(6): Fix problem with ‘test_ssl’ ‘test_get_ciphers’ on
     systems that require perfect forward secrecy (PFS) ciphers.

   - gh-95212(7): Make multiprocessing test case
     ‘test_shared_memory_recreate’ parallel-safe.

   - gh-95218(8): Move tests for importlib.resources into
     test_importlib.resources.

   - gh-93963(9): Updated tests to use preferred location for
     ‘importlib.resources’ ABCs.

   - gh-94675(10): Add a regression test for *note re: c1. exponentional
     slowdown when using rjsmin.

   - gh-91330(11): Added more tests for *note dataclasses: 32. to cover
     behavior with data descriptor-based fields.

   - gh-94208(12): ‘test_ssl’ is now checking for supported TLS version
     and protocols in more tests.

   - gh-94315(13): Tests now check for DAC override capability instead
     of relying on *note os.geteuid(): 1d6f.

   - gh-54781(14): Rename test_tk to test_tkinter, and rename
     test_ttk_guionly to test_ttk.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93839(15): Move ‘Lib/ctypes/test/’ to ‘Lib/test/test_ctypes/’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93951(16): In test_bdb.StateTestCase.test_skip, avoid including
     auxiliary importers.

   - gh-93957(17): Provide nicer error reporting from subprocesses in
     test_venv.EnsurePipTest.test_with_pip.

   - gh-93884(18): Add test cases for *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 1d70.
     that take a large number or a non-int object as parameter.

   - gh-93852(19): test_asyncio, test_logging, test_socket and
     test_socketserver now create AF_UNIX domains in the current
     directory to no longer fail with ‘OSError("AF_UNIX path too long")’
     if the temporary directory (the ‘TMPDIR’ environment variable) is
     too long.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-93353(20): regrtest now checks if a test leaks temporary files
     or directories if run with -jN option.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-84461(21): ‘run_tests.py’ now handles cross compiling env vars
     correctly and pass ‘HOSTRUNNER’ to regression tests.

   - gh-93616(22): ‘test_modulefinder’ now creates a temporary directory
     in ‘ModuleFinderTest.setUp()’ instead of module scope.

   - gh-93575(23): Fix issue with test_unicode test_raiseMemError.  The
     test case now use ‘test.support.calcobjsize’ to calculate size of
     PyUnicode structs.  *note sys.getsizeof(): 1cda. may return
     different size when string has UTF-8 memory.

   - gh-90473(24): WASI does not have a ‘chmod(2)’ syscall.  *note
     os.chmod(): 72c. is now a dummy function on WASI. Skip all tests
     that depend on working ‘os.chmod()’.

   - gh-90473(25): Skip tests on WASI that require symlinks with
     absolute paths.

   - gh-57539(26): Increase calendar test coverage for
     ‘calendar.LocaleTextCalendar.formatweekday()’.

   - gh-90473(27): Skip symlink tests on WASI. wasmtime uses
     ‘openat2(2)’ with ‘RESOLVE_BENEATH’ flag, which prevents symlinks
     with absolute paths.

   - gh-89858(28): Fix ‘test_embed’ for out-of-tree builds.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92886(29): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_imaplib.py’.

   - gh-92886(30): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_zipimport.py’

   - gh-92886(31): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_py_compile.py’

   - gh-92886(32): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘test_sys_settrace.py’.

   - gh-92886(33): Fixing tests that fail when running with
     optimizations (‘-O’) in ‘_test_multiprocessing.py’

   - gh-92670(34): Skip
     ‘test_shutil.TestCopy.test_copyfile_nonexistent_dir’ test on AIX as
     the test uses a trailing slash to force the OS consider the path as
     a directory, but on AIX the trailing slash has no effect and is
     considered as a file.

   - gh-92514(35): Remove unused ‘test.support.BasicTestRunner’.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-47016(36): Create a GitHub Actions workflow for verifying
     bundled pip and setuptools.  Patch by Illia Volochii and Adam
     Turner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95027

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96624

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95243

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95573

   (5) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/test/test_asyncio/test_ssl.py

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95280

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95212

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95218

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94675

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91330

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94208

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94315

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/54781

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93839

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93951

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93957

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93884

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93852

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93353

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93616

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93575

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57539

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89858

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92886

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92670

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92514

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47016


File: python.info,  Node: Build<32>,  Next: Windows<28>,  Prev: Tests<31>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.24 Build
................

   - gh-96761(1): Fix the build process of clang compiler for
     ‘_bootstrap_python’ if LTO optimization is applied.  Patch by
     Matthias Görgens and Donghee Na.

   - gh-96883(2): ‘wasm32-emscripten’ builds for browsers now include
     *note concurrent.futures: 24. for *note asyncio: b. and *note
     unittest.mock: 110.

   - gh-85936(3): CPython now uses the ThinLTO option as the default
     policy if the Clang compiler accepts the flag.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - gh-96729(4): Ensure that Windows releases built with
     ‘Tools\msi\buildrelease.bat’ are upgradable to and from official
     Python releases.

   - gh-96269(5): Shared module targets now depend on new ‘MODULE_DEPS’
     variable, which includes ‘EXPORTSYMS’.  This fixes a build order
     issue on unsupported AIX platform.

   - gh-84461(6): ‘wasm32-emscripten’ platform no longer builds *note
     resource: c4. module, *note getresuid(): 16ba, *note getresgid():
     16b9, and their setters.  The APIs are stubs and not functional.

   - gh-95973(7): Add a new ‘--with-dsymutil’ configure option to link
     debug information in macOS. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-90536(8): Use the BOLT post-link optimizer to improve
     performance, particularly on medium-to-large applications.

   - gh-93744(9): Remove the ‘configure --with-cxx-main’ build option:
     it didn’t work for many years.  Remove the ‘MAINCC’ variable from
     ‘configure’ and ‘Makefile’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-94801(10): Fix a regression in ‘configure’ script that caused
     some header checks to ignore custom ‘CPPFLAGS’.  The regression was
     introduced in gh-94802(11).

   - gh-95145(12): wasm32-wasi builds no longer depend on WASIX’s
     pthread stubs.  Python now has its own stubbed pthread API.

   - gh-95174(13): Python now detects missing ‘dup’ function in WASI and
     works around some missing *note errno: 5a, *note select: c9, and
     *note socket: d4. constants.

   - gh-95174(14): Python now skips missing *note socket: d4. functions
     and methods on WASI. WASI can only create sockets from existing fd
     / accept and has no netdb.

   - gh-95085(15): Platforms ‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’ and
     ‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’ have been promoted to PEP 11(16) tier 3
     platform support.

   - gh-94847(17): Fixed ‘_decimal’ module build issue on GCC when
     compiling with LTO and pydebug.  Debug builds no longer force
     inlining of functions.

   - gh-94841(18): Fix the possible performance regression of *note
     PyObject_Free(): 1023. compiled with MSVC version 1932.

   - gh-94801(19): ‘configure’ now uses custom flags like ‘ZLIB_CFLAGS’
     and ‘ZLIB_LIBS’ when searching for headers and libraries.

   - gh-94773(20): ‘deepfreeze.py’ now supports code object with
     frozensets that contain incompatible, unsortable types.

   - gh-94682(21): Build and test with OpenSSL 1.1.1q

   - gh-90005(22): Dependencies of *note readline: c2. and *note curses:
     2e. module are now detected in ‘configure’ script with
     ‘pkg-config’.  Only ‘ncurses’ / ‘ncursesw’ are detected
     automatically.  The old ‘curses’ library is not configured
     automatically.  Workaround for missing ‘termcap’ or ‘tinfo’ library
     has been removed.

   - gh-90005(23): Fix building ‘_ctypes’ extension without
     ‘pkg-config’.

   - gh-90005(24): ‘_dbm’ module dependencies are now detected by
     configure.

   - gh-94404(25): ‘makesetup’ now works around an issue with sed on
     macOS and uses correct CFLAGS for object files that end up in a
     shared extension.  Module CFLAGS are used before
     PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS to avoid clashes with system headers.

   - gh-93939(26): C extension modules are now built by ‘configure’ and
     ‘make’ instead of ‘distutils’ and ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-93939(27): The ‘2to3’, ‘idle’, and ‘pydoc’ scripts are now
     generated and installed by ‘Makefile’ instead of ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-94280(28): Updated pegen regeneration script on Windows to find
     and use Python 3.9 or higher.  Prior to this, pegen regeneration
     already required 3.9 or higher, but the script may have used lower
     versions of Python.

   - gh-93584(29): Address race condition in ‘Makefile’ when installing
     a PGO build.  All ‘test’ and ‘install’ targets now depend on ‘all’
     target.

   - gh-93491(30): ‘configure’ now detects and reports PEP 11(31)
     support tiers.

   - gh-69093(32): Fix ‘Modules/Setup.stdlib.in’ rule for ‘_sqlite3’
     extension.

   - gh-93207(33): ‘va_start()’ with two parameters, like
     ‘va_start(args, format),’ is now required to build Python.
     ‘va_start()’ is no longer called with a single parameter.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-93202(34): Python now always use the ‘%zu’ and ‘%zd’ printf
     formats to format a ‘size_t’ or ‘Py_ssize_t’ number.  Building
     Python 3.12 requires a C11 compiler, so these printf formats are
     now always supported.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-90473(35): Disable pymalloc and increase stack size on
     ‘wasm32-wasi’.

   - bpo-34449(36): Drop invalid compiler switch ‘-fPIC’ for HP aCC on
     HP-UX. Patch by Michael Osipov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96761

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96883

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85936

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96729

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96269

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95973

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90536

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93744

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94801

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94802

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95145

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95174

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95174

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95085

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94847

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94841

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94801

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94773

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94682

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90005

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94404

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94280

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93584

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93491

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93207

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93202

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34449


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<28>,  Next: macOS<21>,  Prev: Build<32>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.25 Windows
..................

   - gh-98360(1): Fixes *note multiprocessing: 98. spawning child
     processes on Windows from a virtual environment to ensure that
     child processes that also use ‘multiprocessing’ to spawn more
     children will recognize that they are in a virtual environment.

   - gh-98414(2): Fix ‘py.exe’ launcher handling of ‘-V:<COMPANY>/’
     option when default preferences have been set in environment
     variables or configuration files.

   - gh-97728(3): Fix possible crashes caused by the use of
     uninitialized variables when pass invalid arguments in *note
     os.system(): 17ff. on Windows and in Windows-specific modules (like
     ‘winreg’).

   - gh-90989(4): Made *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc.
     install per-user by default (unless an all users install already
     exists), and clarify some text in the installer.

   - gh-97649(5): The ‘Tools’ directory is no longer installed on
     Windows

   - gh-96965(6): Update libffi to 3.4.3

   - gh-96577(7): Fixes a potential buffer overrun in ‘msilib’.

   - gh-96559(8): Fixes the Windows launcher not using the compatible
     interpretation of default tags found in configuration files when no
     tag was passed to the command.

   - gh-94781(9): Fix ‘pcbuild.proj’ to clean previous instances of
     output files in ‘Python\deepfreeze’ and ‘Python\frozen_modules’
     directories on Windows.  Patch by Charlie Zhao.

   - gh-89545(10): Updates *note platform: af. code getting the Windows
     version to use native Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI)
     queries to determine OS version, type, and architecture.

   - gh-95733(11): Make certain requirements of the Windows Store
     package optional to allow installing on earlier updates of Windows.

   - gh-95656(12): Enable the *note enable_load_extension(): c17. *note
     sqlite3: d7. API.

   - gh-95587(13): Fixes some issues where the Windows installer would
     incorrectly detect certain features of an existing install when
     upgrading.

   - gh-94399(14): Restores the behaviour of *note Διαχειριστής
     εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc. for ‘/usr/bin/env’ shebang lines, which
     will now search ‘PATH’ for an executable matching the given
     command.  If none is found, the usual search process is used.

   - gh-95445(15): Fixes the unsuccessful removal of the HTML document
     directory when uninstalling with Windows msi.

   - gh-95359(16): Fix *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc.
     handling of ‘py.ini’ commands (it was incorrectly expecting a ‘py_’
     prefix on keys) and crashes when reading per-user configuration
     file.

   - gh-95285(17): Fix *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc.
     handling of command lines where it is only passed a short
     executable name.

   - gh-90844(18): Allow virtual environments to correctly launch when
     they have spaces in the path.

   - gh-94772(19): Fix incorrect handling of shebang lines in py.exe
     launcher

   - gh-94018(20): *note zipfile: 13a. will now remove trailing spaces
     from path components when extracting files on Windows.

   - gh-93824(21): Drag and drop of files onto Python files in Windows
     Explorer has been enabled for Windows ARM64.

   - gh-43414(22): *note os.get_terminal_size(): 14ae. now attempts to
     read the size from any provided handle, rather than only supporting
     file descriptors 0, 1 and 2.

   - gh-92817(23): Ensures that ‘py.exe’ will prefer an active virtual
     environment over default tags specified with environment variables
     or through a ‘py.ini’ file.

   - gh-92984(24): Explicitly disable incremental linking for non-Debug
     builds

   - gh-92841(25): *note asyncio: b. no longer throws ‘RuntimeError:
     Event loop is closed’ on interpreter exit after asynchronous socket
     activity.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46907(26): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.4.

   - gh-91061(27): Accept os.PathLike for the argument to
     winsound.PlaySound

   - bpo-42658(28): Support native Windows case-insensitive path
     comparisons by using ‘LCMapStringEx’ instead of *note str.lower():
     1965. in ‘ntpath.normcase()’.  Add ‘LCMapStringEx’ to the ‘_winapi’
     module.

   - bpo-38704(29): Prevent installation on unsupported Windows
     versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98360

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98414

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97728

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90989

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97649

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96965

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96577

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96559

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94781

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89545

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95733

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95656

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95587

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94399

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95445

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95359

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95285

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90844

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94772

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94018

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93824

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43414

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92817

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92984

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92841

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91061

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42658

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38704


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<21>,  Next: IDLE<16>,  Prev: Windows<28>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.26 macOS
................

   - gh-97897(1): The macOS 13 SDK includes support for the ‘mkfifoat’
     and ‘mknodat’ system calls.  Using the ‘dir_fd’ option with either
     *note os.mkfifo(): 1149. or *note os.mknod(): 114a. could result in
     a segfault if cpython is built with the macOS 13 SDK but run on an
     earlier version of macOS. Prevent this by adding runtime support
     for detection of these system calls («weaklinking») as is done for
     other newer syscalls on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97897


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<16>,  Next: Tools/Demos<22>,  Prev: macOS<21>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.27 IDLE
...............

   - gh-97527(1): Fix a bug in the previous bugfix that caused IDLE to
     not start when run with 3.10.8, 3.12.0a1, and at least Microsoft
     Python 3.10.2288.0 installed without the Lib/test package.  3.11.0
     was never affected.

   - gh-65802(2): Document handling of extensions in Save As dialogs.

   - gh-95191(3): Include prompts when saving Shell (interactive input
     and output).

   - gh-95511(4): Fix the Shell context menu copy-with-prompts bug of
     copying an extra line when one selects whole lines.

   - gh-95471(5): In the Edit menu, move ‘Select All’ and add a new
     separator.

   - gh-95411(6): Enable using IDLE’s module browser with .pyw files.

   - gh-89610(7): Add .pyi as a recognized extension for IDLE on macOS.
     This allows opening stub files by double clicking on them in the
     Finder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97527

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65802

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95511

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95471

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95411

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89610


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<22>,  Next: C API<30>,  Prev: IDLE<16>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.28 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-68686(1): Remove ptags and eptags scripts.

   - gh-97681(2): Remove the ‘Tools/demo/’ directory which contained old
     demo scripts.  A copy can be found in the old-demos project(3).
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-97669(4): Remove outdated example scripts of the
     ‘Tools/scripts/’ directory.  A copy can be found in the old-demos
     project(5).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-95853(6): The ‘wasm_build.py’ script now pre-builds Emscripten
     ports, checks for broken EMSDK versions, and warns about pkg-config
     env vars.

   - gh-95853(7): The new tool ‘Tools/wasm/wasm_builder.py’ automates
     configure, compile, and test steps for building CPython on
     WebAssembly platforms.

   - gh-95731(8): Fix handling of module docstrings in
     ‘Tools/i18n/pygettext.py’.

   - gh-93939(9): Add script ‘Tools/scripts/check_modules.py’ to check
     and validate builtin and shared extension modules.  The script also
     handles ‘Modules/Setup’ and will eventually replace ‘setup.py’.

   - gh-94538(10): Fix Argument Clinic output to custom file
     destinations.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-94430(11): Allow parameters named ‘module’ and ‘self’ with
     custom C names in Argument Clinic.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland

   - gh-86087(12): The ‘Tools/scripts/parseentities.py’ script used to
     parse HTML4 entities has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68686

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97681

   (3) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97669

   (5) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95853

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95853

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95731

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94538

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94430

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86087


File: python.info,  Node: C API<30>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<22>,  Up: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1

1.26.33.29 C API
................

   - gh-98393(1): The *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 97b. function no
     longer accepts bytes-like paths, like *note bytearray: 1c6. and
     *note memoryview: 1d2. types: only the exact *note bytes: 1c7. type
     is accepted for bytes strings.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91051(2): Add *note PyType_Watch(): 96b. and related APIs to
     allow callbacks on *note PyType_Modified(): 1d77.

   - gh-95756(3): Lazily create and cache ‘co_’ attributes for better
     performance for code getters.

   - gh-96512(4): Configuration for the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 9ec. now lives in the PyConfig C API struct.

   - gh-95589(5): Extensions classes that set ‘tp_dictoffset’ and
     ‘tp_weaklistoffset’ lose the support for multiple inheritance, but
     are now safe.  Extension classes should use *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     39d. instead.

   - gh-95781(6): An unrecognized format character in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV():
     979. now sets a *note SystemError: 3ea.  In previous versions it
     caused all the rest of the format string to be copied as-is to the
     result string, and any extra arguments discarded.

   - gh-92678(7): Restore the 3.10 behavior for multiple inheritance of
     C extension classes that store their dictionary at the end of the
     struct.

   - gh-92678(8): Support C extensions using managed dictionaries by
     setting the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT’ flag.

   - gh-93274(9): API for implementing vectorcall (*note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 95d, *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 95e.
     and *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 95f.) was added to the limited API
     and stable ABI.

   - gh-95504(10): Fix sign placement when specifying width or precision
     in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e. and *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 979.  Patch by Philip Georgi.

   - gh-93012(11): The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 95d. flag is
     now removed from a class when the class’s *note __call__(): 961.
     method is reassigned.  This makes vectorcall safe to use with
     mutable types (i.e.  heap types without the ‘immutable’ flag).
     Mutable types that do not override *note tp_call: 962. now inherit
     the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’ flag.

   - gh-95388(12): Creating *note immutable types: 5fb. with mutable
     bases is deprecated and is planned to be disabled in Python 3.14.

   - gh-92678(13): Adds unstable C-API functions
     ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict’ and ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict’ to
     allow C extensions to allow the VM to manage their object’s
     dictionaries.

   - gh-94936(14): Added *note PyCode_GetVarnames(): b5b, *note
     PyCode_GetCellvars(): b5c. and *note PyCode_GetFreevars(): b5d. for
     accessing ‘co_varnames’, ‘co_cellvars’ and ‘co_freevars’
     respectively via the C API.

   - gh-94930(15): Fix ‘SystemError’ raised when *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818. is used with ‘#’ in ‘(...)’ but
     without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ defined.

   - gh-94731(16): Python again uses C-style casts for most casting
     operations when compiled with C++.  This may trigger compiler
     warnings, if they are enabled with e.g.  ‘-Wold-style-cast’ or
     ‘-Wzero-as-null-pointer-constant’ options for ‘g++’.

   - gh-93937(17): The following frame functions and type are now
     directly available with ‘#include <Python.h>’, it’s no longer
     needed to add ‘#include <frameobject.h>’:

        * *note PyFrame_Check(): b64.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBack(): b65.

        * *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): b4d.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): b4e.

        * *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): b4f.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): b50.

        * *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 84e.

        * *note PyFrame_Type: b66.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91321(18): Fix the compatibility of the Python C API with C++
     older than C++11.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91731(19): Avoid defining the ‘static_assert’ when compiling
     with C++ 11, where this is a keyword and redefining it can lead to
     undefined behavior.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-89546(20): *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391. (and other
     ‘PyType_From*’ functions) now check that offsets and the base
     class’s *note tp_basicsize: d4f. fit in the new class’s
     ‘tp_basicsize’.

   - gh-93503(21): Add two new public functions to the public C-API,
     *note PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads(): 966. and *note
     PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 851, that allow to set tracing and
     profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the
     calling one.  Also, two analogous functions to the *note threading:
     f6. module (*note threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 8d9. and
     *note threading.settrace_all_threads(): 8d8.) that allow to do the
     same from Python.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - gh-93442(22): Add C++ overloads for _Py_CAST_impl() to handle
     0/NULL. This will allow C++ extensions that pass 0 or NULL to
     macros using _Py_CAST() to continue to compile.

   - gh-93466(23): Slot IDs in PyType_Spec may not be repeated.  The
     documentation was updated to mention this.  For some cases of
     repeated slots, PyType_FromSpec and related functions will now
     raise an exception.

   - gh-92898(24): Fix C++ compiler warnings when casting function
     arguments to ‘PyObject*’.  Patch by Serge Guelton.

   - gh-93103(25): Deprecate global configuration variables, like *note
     Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 61d, in the documentation: the *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. API should be instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-77782(26): Deprecate global configuration variable like *note
     Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 61d.: the *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. API should be instead.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92913(27): Ensures changes to *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 834. are ignored unless *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 9e6. is set

   - gh-92781(28): Avoid mixing declarations and code in the C API to
     fix the compiler warning: «ISO C90 forbids mixed declarations and
     code» [-Werror=declaration-after-statement].  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-92651(29): Remove the ‘token.h’ header file.  There was never
     any public tokenizer C API. The ‘token.h’ header file was only
     designed to be used by Python internals.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92536(30): Remove legacy Unicode APIs based on ‘Py_UNICODE*’.

   - gh-85858(31): Remove the ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function and
     the ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL’ macro.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92193(32): Add new function *note PyFunction_SetVectorcall():
     967. to the C API which sets the vectorcall field of a given *note
     PyFunctionObject: 968.

     Warning: extensions using this API must preserve the behavior of
     the unaltered function!

   - gh-59121(33): Fixed an assert that prevented ‘PyRun_InteractiveOne’
     from providing tracebacks when parsing from the provided FD.

   - bpo-45383(34): The *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e. API will now find
     and use a metaclass based on the provided bases.  An error will be
     raised if there is a metaclass conflict.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95756

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96512

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95589

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95781

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93274

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95504

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92678

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94936

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94930

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94731

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93937

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91321

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91731

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89546

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93442

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93466

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92898

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93103

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77782

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92913

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92781

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92651

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92536

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85858

   (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92193

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59121

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45383


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.34 Python 3.11.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-05-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<27>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<91>.
* Library: Library<93>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<92>.
* Build: Build<33>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<93>.
* Library: Library<94>.
* Documentation: Documentation<29>.
* Tests: Tests<32>.
* Build: Build<34>.
* Windows: Windows<29>.
* macOS: macOS<22>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<23>.
* C API: C API<31>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<27>,  Next: Core and Builtins<91>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.1 Security
..................

   - gh-57684(1): Add the *note -P: 9a3. command line option and the
     *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 9a4. environment variable to not prepend a
     potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 194.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<91>,  Next: Library<93>,  Prev: Security<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - gh-89519(1): Chaining classmethod descriptors (introduced in
     bpo-19072(2)) is deprecated.  It can no longer be used to wrap
     other descriptors such as property().  The core design of this
     feature was flawed, and it caused a number of downstream problems.

   - gh-92345(3): ‘pymain_run_python()’ now imports ‘readline’ and
     ‘rlcompleter’ before sys.path is extended to include the current
     working directory of an interactive interpreter.  Non-interactive
     interpreters are not affected.

   - bpo-43857(4): Improve the *note AttributeError: 1a9. message when
     deleting a missing attribute.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - gh-92245(5): Make sure that PEP 523 is respected in all cases.  In
     3.11a7, specialization may have prevented Python-to-Python calls
     respecting PEP 523.

   - gh-92203(6): Add a closure keyword-only parameter to *note exec():
     185.  It can only be specified when exec-ing a code object that
     uses free variables.  When specified, it must be a tuple, with
     exactly the number of cell variables referenced by the code object.
     closure has a default value of ‘None’, and it must be ‘None’ if the
     code object doesn’t refer to any free variables.

   - gh-91173(7): Disable frozen modules in debug builds.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-92114(8): Improve error message when subscript a type with
     ‘__class_getitem__’ set to ‘None’.

   - gh-92112(9): Fix crash triggered by an evil custom ‘mro()’ on a
     metaclass.

   - gh-92063(10): The ‘PRECALL_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR_FAST_WITH_KEYWORDS’
     instruction now ensures methods are called only on objects of the
     correct type.

   - gh-92031(11): Deoptimize statically allocated code objects during
     ‘Py_FINALIZE()’ so that future ‘_PyCode_Quicken’ calls always start
     with unquickened code.

   - gh-92036(12): Fix a crash in subinterpreters related to the garbage
     collector.  When a subinterpreter is deleted, untrack all objects
     tracked by its GC. To prevent a crash in deallocator functions
     expecting objects to be tracked by the GC, leak a strong reference
     to these objects on purpose, so they are never deleted and their
     deallocator functions are not called.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92032(13): The interpreter can now autocomplete soft keywords,
     as of now ‘match’, ‘case’, and ‘_’ (wildcard pattern) from PEP
     634(14).

   - gh-87999(15): The warning emitted by the Python parser for a
     numeric literal immediately followed by keyword has been changed
     from deprecation warning to syntax warning.

   - gh-91869(16): Fix an issue where specialized opcodes with extended
     arguments could produce incorrect tracing output or lead to
     assertion failures.

   - gh-91603(17): Speed up *note types.UnionType: 527. instantiation.
     Based on patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-89373(18): If Python is built in debug mode, Python now ensures
     that deallocator functions leave the current exception unchanged.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91632(19): Fix a minor memory leak at exit: release the memory
     of the ‘generic_alias_iterator’ type.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - gh-81548(20): Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ now
     produce a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  In a future Python
     version they will be a *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. and eventually a
     *note SyntaxError: 17e.

   - bpo-43950(21): Use a single compact table for line starts, ends and
     column offsets.  Reduces memory consumption for location info by
     half

   - gh-91102(22): Use Argument Clinic for ‘EncodingMap’.  Patch by Oleg
     Iarygin.

   - gh-91636(23): Fixed a crash in a garbage-collection edge-case, in
     which a ‘PyFunction_Type.tp_clear’ function could leave a python
     function object in an inconsistent state.

   - gh-91603(24): Speed up *note isinstance(): 2ef. and *note
     issubclass(): 2f0. checks for *note types.UnionType: 527.  Patch by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - gh-91625(25): Fixed a bug in which adaptive opcodes ignored any
     preceding ‘EXTENDED_ARG’s on specialization failure.

   - gh-78607(26): The LLTRACE special build now looks for the name
     ‘__lltrace__’ defined in module globals, rather than the name
     ‘__ltrace__’, which had been introduced as a typo.

   - gh-91576(27): Speed up iteration of ascii strings by 50%.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - gh-89279(28): Improve interpreter performance on Windows by
     inlining a few specific macros.

   - gh-91502(29): Add a new ‘_PyFrame_IsEntryFrame()’ API function, to
     check if a *note PyFrameObject: b68. is an entry frame.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-91266(30): Refactor the ‘bytearray’ strip methods ‘strip’,
     ‘lstrip’ and ‘rstrip’ to use a common implementation.

   - gh-91479(31): Replaced the ‘__note__’ field of *note BaseException:
     9b9. (added in an earlier version of 3.11) with the final design of
     PEP 678(32).  Namely, ‘BaseException’ gets an ‘add_note()’ method,
     and its ‘__notes__’ field is created when necessary.

   - gh-46055(33): Speed up right shift of negative integers, by
     removing unnecessary creation of temporaries.  Original patch by
     Xinhang Xu, reworked by Mark Dickinson.

   - gh-91462(34): Make the interpreter’s low-level tracing (lltrace)
     feature output more readable by displaying opcode names (rather
     than just numbers), and by displaying stack contents before each
     opcode.

   - gh-89455(35): Fixed an uninitialized bool value in the traceback
     printing code path that was introduced by the initial bpo-45292(36)
     exception groups work.

   - gh-91421(37): Fix a potential integer overflow in _Py_DecodeUTF8Ex.

   - gh-91428(38): Add ‘static const char *const _PyOpcode_OpName[256] =
     {...};’ to ‘opcode.h’ for debug builds to assist in debugging the
     Python interpreter.  It is now more convenient to make various
     forms of debugging output more human-readable by including opcode
     names rather than just the corresponding decimal digits.

   - bpo-47120(39): Make *note POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE: 1c65, *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE: 1c66, *note POP_JUMP_IF_NONE: 1d7b. and *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE: 1d7c. virtual, mapping to new relative jump
     opcodes.

   - bpo-45317(40): Add internal documentation explaining design of new
     (for 3.11) frame stack.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92345

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43857

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92245

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92203

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91173

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92114

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92112

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92063

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92031

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92036

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92032

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91869

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91603

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89373

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91632

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81548

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91102

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91636

   (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91603

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91625

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78607

   (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91576

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89279

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91502

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91266

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91479

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/46055

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91462

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89455

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91421

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91428

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45317


File: python.info,  Node: Library<93>,  Next: Core and Builtins<92>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<91>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-47197(1): ctypes used to mishandle ‘void’ return types, so that
     for instance a function declared like ‘ctypes.CFUNCTYPE(None,
     ctypes.c_int)’ would be called with signature ‘int f(int)’ instead
     of ‘void f(int)’.  Wasm targets require function pointers to be
     called with the correct signatures so this led to crashes.  The
     problem is now fixed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47197


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<92>,  Next: Build<33>,  Prev: Library<93>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-47120(1): Make opcodes ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ and
     ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ relative rather than absolute.

   - bpo-47177(2): Replace the ‘f_lasti’ member of the internal
     ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ structure with a ‘prev_instr’ pointer, which
     reduces overhead in the main interpreter loop.  The ‘f_lasti’
     attribute of Python-layer frame objects is preserved for
     backward-compatibility.

   - bpo-46961(3): Integer mod/remainder operations, including the
     three-argument form of *note pow(): 441, now consistently return
     ints from the global small integer cache when applicable.

   - bpo-46962(4): Classes and functions that unconditionally declared
     their docstrings ignoring the ‘--without-doc-strings’ compilation
     flag no longer do so.

     The classes affected are ‘ctypes.UnionType’, *note
     pickle.PickleBuffer: 1908, ‘testcapi.RecursingInfinitelyError’, and
     *note types.GenericAlias: bc7.

     The functions affected are 24 methods in *note ctypes: 2d.

     Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46942(5): Use Argument Clinic for the *note types.MethodType:
     1d7f. constructor.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-46764(6): Fix wrapping bound methods with @classmethod

   - bpo-43464(7): Optimize *note set.intersection(): 1d80. for non-set
     arguments.

   - bpo-46721(8): Optimize *note set.issuperset(): 1d81. for non-set
     argument.

   - bpo-46509(9): Add type-specialized versions of the ‘Py_DECREF()’,
     and use them for ‘float’, ‘int’, ‘str’, ‘bool’, and ‘None’ to avoid
     pointer-chasing at runtime where types are known at C compile time.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47177

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46961

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46962

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46942

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46764

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43464

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46721

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46509


File: python.info,  Node: Build<33>,  Next: Core and Builtins<93>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<92>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-46045(1): Do not use POSIX semaphores on NetBSD

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46045


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<93>,  Next: Library<94>,  Prev: Build<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.6 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36819(1): Fix crashes in built-in encoders with error handlers
     that return position less or equal than the starting position of
     non-encodable characters.

   - bpo-34093(2): ‘marshal.dumps()’ uses ‘FLAG_REF’ for all interned
     strings.  This makes output more deterministic and helps
     reproducible build.

   - bpo-26579(3): Added ‘object.__getstate__’ which provides the
     default implementation of the ‘__getstate__()’ method.

     Copying and pickling instances of subclasses of builtin types
     bytearray, set, frozenset, collections.OrderedDict,
     collections.deque, weakref.WeakSet, and datetime.tzinfo now copies
     and pickles instance attributes implemented as slots.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36819

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34093

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26579


File: python.info,  Node: Library<94>,  Next: Documentation<29>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<93>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.7 Library
.................

   - gh-87901(1): Add the 'encoding' parameter to *note os.popen(): 585.

   - gh-90997(2): Fix an issue where *note dis: 3b. utilities may
     interpret populated inline cache entries as valid instructions.

   - gh-92332(3): Deprecate *note typing.Text: 340. (removal of the
     class is currently not planned).  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - gh-78157(4): Deprecate nested classes in enum definitions becoming
     members – in 3.13 they will be normal classes; add ‘member’ and
     ‘nonmember’ functions to allow control over results now.

   - gh-92356(5): Fixed a performance regression in ctypes function
     calls.

   - gh-90997(6): Show the actual named values stored in inline caches
     when ‘show_caches=True’ is passed to *note dis: 3b. utilities.

   - gh-92301(7): Prefer ‘close_range()’ to iterating over procfs for
     file descriptor closing in *note subprocess: df. for better
     performance.

   - gh-67248(8): Sort the miscellaneous topics in Cmd.do_help()

   - gh-92210(9): Port ‘socket.__init__’ to Argument Clinic.  Patch by
     Cinder.

   - gh-80010(10): Add support for generalized ISO 8601 parsing to *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): a0a, *note
     datetime.date.fromisoformat(): a08. and *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): a09.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - gh-92118(11): Fix a 3.11 regression in *note contextmanager(): 20e,
     which caused it to propagate exceptions with incorrect tracebacks.

   - gh-90887(12): Adding ‘COPYFILE_STAT’, ‘COPYFILE_ACL’ and
     ‘COPYFILE_XATTR’ constants for ‘os.fcopyfile()’ available in macOs.

   - gh-91215(13): For *note @~dataclasses.dataclass: 6e6, add
     'weakref_slot'.  The new parameter defaults to ‘False’.  If true,
     and if ‘slots=True’, add a slot named ‘"__weakref__"’, which will
     allow instances to be weakref’d.  Contributed by Eric V. Smith

   - gh-85984(14): New function os.login_tty() for Unix.

   - gh-92128(15): Add *note __class_getitem__(): b21. to *note
     logging.LoggerAdapter: 169a. and *note logging.StreamHandler: 15a1,
     allowing them to be parameterized at runtime.  Patch by Alex
     Waygood.

   - gh-92049(16): Forbid pickling constants ‘re._constants.SUCCESS’
     etc.  Previously, pickling did not fail, but the result could not
     be unpickled.

   - gh-92062(17): *note inspect.Parameter: 6e9. now raises *note
     ValueError: 277. if ‘name’ is a keyword, in addition to the
     existing check that it is an identifier.

   - gh-87390(18): Add an ‘__unpacked__’ attribute to *note
     types.GenericAlias: bc7.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-88089(19): Add support for generic *note typing.NamedTuple: 2e4.

   - gh-91996(20): New http.HTTPMethod enum to represent all the
     available HTTP request methods in a convenient way

   - gh-91984(21): Modified test strings in test_argparse.py to not
     contain trailing spaces before end of line.

   - gh-91952(22): Add ‘encoding="locale"’ support to
     ‘TextIOWrapper.reconfigure()’.

   - gh-91954(23): Add 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments to *note
     subprocess.getoutput(): 136c. and *note
     subprocess.getstatusoutput(): 136d.

   - bpo-47029(24): Always close the read end of the pipe used by *note
     multiprocessing.Queue: 1d85. 'after' the last write of buffered
     data to the write end of the pipe to avoid *note BrokenPipeError:
     1404. at garbage collection and at *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.close(): 1d86. calls.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - gh-91928(25): Add ‘datetime.UTC’ alias for ‘datetime.timezone.utc’.

     Patch by Kabir Kwatra.

   - gh-68966(26): The ‘mailcap’ module is now deprecated and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  See PEP 594(27) for the rationale and the
     *note mimetypes: 93. module for an alternative.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-91401(28): Provide a way to disable *note subprocess: df. use of
     ‘vfork()’ just in case it is ever needed and document the existing
     mechanism for ‘posix_spawn()’.

   - gh-64783(29): Fix *note signal.NSIG: 1d87. value on FreeBSD to
     accept signal numbers greater than 32, like ‘signal.SIGRTMIN’ and
     ‘signal.SIGRTMAX’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91910(30): Add missing f prefix to f-strings in error messages
     from the *note multiprocessing: 98. and *note asyncio: b. modules.

   - gh-91860(31): Add *note typing.dataclass_transform(): 8e4,
     implementing PEP 681(32).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-91832(33): Add ‘required’ attribute to *note argparse.Action:
     1d88. repr output.

   - gh-91827(34): In the *note tkinter: f9. module add method
     ‘info_patchlevel()’ which returns the exact version of the Tcl
     library as a named tuple similar to *note sys.version_info: 2fc.

   - gh-84461(35): Add *note -enable-wasm-pthreads: 1d89. to enable
     pthreads support for WASM builds.  ‘Emscripten/node’ no longer has
     threading enabled by default.  Include additional file systems.

   - gh-91821(36): Fix unstable ‘test_from_tuple’ test in
     ‘test_decimal.py’.

   - gh-91217(37): Deprecate the xdrlib module.

   - gh-91217(38): Deprecate the uu module.

   - gh-91760(39): More strict rules will be applied for numerical group
     references and group names in regular expressions.  For now, a
     deprecation warning is emitted for group references and group names
     which will be errors in future Python versions.

   - gh-84461(40): Add provisional *note sys._emscripten_info: 1d8a.
     named tuple with build-time and run-time information about
     Emscripten platform.

   - gh-90623(41): *note signal.raise_signal(): 1d8b. and *note
     os.kill(): 170c. now check immediately for pending signals.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91734(42): Fix OSS audio support on Solaris.

   - gh-90633(43): Include the passed value in the exception thrown by
     *note typing.assert_never(): a95.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - gh-91700(44): Compilation of regular expression containing a
     conditional expression ‘(?(group)...)’ now raises an appropriate
     ‘re.error’ if the group number refers to not defined group.
     Previously an internal RuntimeError was raised.

   - gh-91231(45): Add an optional keyword 'shutdown_timeout' parameter
     to the ‘multiprocessing.BaseManager’ constructor.  Kill the process
     if terminate() takes longer than the timeout.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - gh-91621(46): Fix *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. for *note
     collections.abc.Callable: bc6.  Patch by Shantanu Jain.

   - gh-90568(47): Parsing ‘\N’ escapes of Unicode Named Character
     Sequences in a *note regular expression: c1. raises now ‘re.error’
     instead of ‘TypeError’.

   - gh-91670(48): Remove deprecated ‘SO’ config variable in *note
     sysconfig: e4.

   - gh-91217(49): Deprecate the telnetlib module.

   - gh-91217(50): Deprecate the sunau module.

   - gh-91217(51): Deprecate the spwd module.

   - gh-91217(52): Deprecate the sndhdr module, as well as inline needed
     functionality for ‘email.mime.MIMEAudio’.

   - gh-91616(53): *note re: c1. module, fix *note fullmatch(): 1330.
     mismatch when using Atomic Grouping or Possessive Quantifiers.

   - gh-91217(54): Deprecate the “pipes” module.

   - gh-91217(55): Deprecate the ossaudiodev module.

   - bpo-47256(56): *note re: c1. module, limit the maximum capturing
     group to 1,073,741,823 in 64-bit build, this increases the depth of
     backtracking.

   - gh-91217(57): Deprecate the nis module.

   - gh-91595(58): Fix the comparison of character and integer inside
     ‘Tools.gdb.libpython.write_repr()’.  Patch by Yu Liu.

   - gh-74166(59): Add option to raise all errors from *note
     create_connection(): a62. in an *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8. when it
     fails to create a connection.  The default remains to raise only
     the last error that had occurred when multiple addresses were
     tried.

   - gh-91487(60): Optimize asyncio UDP speed, over 100 times faster
     when transferring a large file.

   - gh-91575(61): Update case-insensitive matching in the *note re: c1.
     module to the latest Unicode version.

   - gh-90622(62): In ‘concurrent.futures.process.ProcessPoolExecutor’
     disallow the «fork» multiprocessing start method when the new
     ‘max_tasks_per_child’ feature is used as the mix of threads+fork
     can hang the child processes.  Default to using the safe «spawn»
     start method in that circumstance if no ‘mp_context’ was supplied.

   - gh-89022(63): In *note sqlite3: d7, ‘SQLITE_MISUSE’ result codes
     are now mapped to *note InterfaceError: a6d. instead of *note
     ProgrammingError: 57d.  Also, more accurate exceptions are raised
     when binding parameters fail.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91526(64): Stop calling ‘os.device_encoding(file.fileno())’ in
     ‘TextIOWrapper’.  It was complex, never documented, and didn’t work
     for most cases.  (Patch by Inada Naoki.)

   - gh-88116(65): Change the frame-related functions in the *note
     inspect: 81. module to return a regular object (that is backwards
     compatible with the old tuple-like interface) that include the
     extended PEP 657(66) position information (end line number, column
     and end column).  The affected functions are: *note
     inspect.getframeinfo(): a3e, *note inspect.getouterframes(): a3f,
     *note inspect.getinnerframes(): a40, *note inspect.stack(): a41.
     and *note inspect.trace(): a42.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - gh-69093(67): Add indexing and slicing support to *note
     sqlite3.Blob: a72.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-69093(68): Add *note context manager: 478. support to *note
     sqlite3.Blob: a72.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - gh-91217(69): Deprecate nntplib.

   - gh-91217(70): Deprecate msilib.

   - gh-91404(71): Improve the performance of *note re: c1. matching by
     using computed gotos (or «threaded code») on supported platforms
     and removing expensive pointer indirections.

   - gh-91217(72): Deprecate the imghdr module.

   - gh-91217(73): Deprecate the crypt module.

   - gh-91276(74): Make space for longer opcodes in *note dis: 3b.
     output.

   - bpo-47000(75): Make ‘TextIOWrapper’ uses locale encoding when
     ‘encoding="locale"’ is specified even in UTF-8 mode.

   - gh-91230(76): *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 423. now accepts
     arguments for *note warnings.simplefilter(): aae, providing a more
     concise way to locally ignore warnings or convert them to errors.

   - gh-91217(77): Deprecate the chunk module.

   - gh-91498(78): Add the ‘TCP_CONNECTION_INFO’ option (available on
     macOS) to *note socket: d4.

   - bpo-47260(79): Fix ‘os.closerange()’ potentially being a no-op in a
     Linux seccomp sandbox.

   - bpo-47087(80): Implement ‘typing.Required’ and ‘typing.NotRequired’
     ( PEP 655(81)).  Patch by David Foster and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-47061(82): Deprecate cgi and cgitb.

   - bpo-47061(83): Deprecate audioop.

   - bpo-47000(84): Add *note locale.getencoding(): a45. to get the
     current locale encoding.  It is similar to
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ but ignores the *note Python
     UTF-8 Mode: a46.

   - bpo-42012(85): Add *note wsgiref.types: 125, containing
     WSGI-specific types for static type checking.

   - bpo-47227(86): Suppress expression chaining for more *note re: c1.
     parsing errors.

   - bpo-47211(87): Remove undocumented and never working function
     ‘re.template()’ and flag ‘re.TEMPLATE’.  This was later reverted in
     3.11.0b2 and deprecated instead.

   - bpo-47135(88): *note decimal.localcontext(): 172b. now accepts
     context attributes via keyword arguments

   - bpo-43323(89): Fix errors in the *note email: 3e. module if the
     charset itself contains undecodable/unencodable characters.

   - bpo-46841(90): Disassembly of quickened code.

   - bpo-46681(91): Forward gzip.compress() compresslevel to zlib.

   - bpo-45100(92): Add *note typing.get_overloads(): a9c. and *note
     typing.clear_overloads(): a9d.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-44807(93): *note typing.Protocol: 76c. no longer silently
     replaces ‘__init__()’ methods defined on subclasses.  Patch by
     Adrian Garcia Badaracco.

   - bpo-46787(94): Fix *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     206. exception memory leak

   - bpo-46720(95): Add support for path-like objects to *note
     multiprocessing.set_executable(): 1d8c. for Windows to be on a par
     with Unix-like systems.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-46696(96): Add ‘SO_INCOMING_CPU’ constant to *note socket: d4.

   - bpo-46053(97): Fix OSS audio support on NetBSD.

   - bpo-45639(98): ‘image/avif’ and ‘image/webp’ were added to *note
     mimetypes: 93.

   - bpo-46285(99): Add command-line option ‘-p’/‘--protocol’ to module
     *note http.server: 75. which specifies the HTTP version to which
     the server is conformant (HTTP/1.1 conformant servers can now be
     run from the command-line interface of module ‘http.server’).
     Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-44791(100): Accept ellipsis as the last argument of *note
     typing.Concatenate: ba4.

   - bpo-46547(101): Remove variables leaking into ‘pydoc.Helper’ class
     namespace.

   - bpo-46415(102): Fix ipaddress.ip_{address,interface,network}
     raising TypeError instead of ValueError if given invalid tuple as
     address parameter.

   - bpo-46075(103): ‘CookieJar’ with ‘DefaultCookiePolicy’ now can
     process cookies from localhost with domain=localhost explicitly
     specified in Set-Cookie header.

   - bpo-45995(104): Add a «z» option to the string formatting
     specification that coerces negative zero floating-point values to
     positive zero after rounding to the format precision.  Contributed
     by John Belmonte.

   - bpo-26175(105): Fully implement the *note io.BufferedIOBase: a83.
     or *note io.TextIOBase: a84. interface for *note
     tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: a82. objects.  This lets them work
     correctly with higher-level layers (like compression modules).
     Patch by Carey Metcalfe.

   - bpo-45138(106): Fix a regression in the *note sqlite3: d7. trace
     callback where bound parameters were not expanded in the passed
     statement string.  The regression was introduced in Python 3.10 by
     bpo-40318(107).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44863(108): Allow *note TypedDict: 290. subclasses to also
     include *note Generic: 19f2. as a base class in class based syntax.
     Thereby allowing the user to define a generic ‘TypedDict’, just
     like a user-defined generic but with ‘TypedDict’ semantics.

   - bpo-44587(109): Fix BooleanOptionalAction to not automatically add
     a default string.  If a default string is desired, use a formatter
     to add it.

   - bpo-43827(110): All positional-or-keyword parameters to
     ‘ABCMeta.__new__’ are now positional-only to avoid conflicts with
     keyword arguments to be passed to ‘__init_subclass__()’.

   - bpo-43218(111): Prevent creation of a venv whose path contains the
     PATH separator.  This could affect the usage of the activate
     script.  Patch by Dustin Rodrigues.

   - bpo-38435(112): Add a ‘process_group’ parameter to *note
     subprocess.Popen: 6bf. to help move more things off of the unsafe
     ‘preexec_fn’ parameter.

   - bpo-42066(113): Fix cookies getting sorted in
     ‘CookieJar.__iter__()’ which is an extra behavior and not mentioned
     in RFC 2965 or Netscape cookie protocol.  Now the cookies in
     ‘CookieJar’ follows the order of the ‘Set-Cookie’ header.  Patch by
     Iman Kermani.

   - bpo-40617(114): Add *note create_window_function(): a70. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 3df. for creating aggregate window functions.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40676(115): Convert *note csv: 2c. to use Argument Clinic for
     *note csv.field_size_limit(): 1d8d, *note csv.get_dialect(): 1d8e,
     *note csv.unregister_dialect(): 1d8f. and *note
     csv.list_dialects(): 1d90.

   - bpo-39716(116): Raise an ‘ArgumentError’ when the same subparser
     name is added twice to an ‘argparse.ArgumentParser’.  This is
     consistent with the (default) behavior when the same option string
     is added twice to an ‘ArgumentParser’.

   - bpo-36073(117): Raise *note ProgrammingError: 57d. instead of
     segfaulting on recursive usage of cursors in *note sqlite3: d7.
     converters.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34975(118): Adds a ‘start_tls()’ method to ‘StreamWriter’,
     which upgrades the connection with TLS using the given *note
     SSLContext: 336.

   - bpo-22276(119): *note Path: 4ee. methods *note glob(): 73a. and
     *note rglob(): 73b. return only directories if 'pattern' ends with
     a pathname components separator (‘/’ or *note sep: a5a.).  Patch by
     Eisuke Kawashima.

   - bpo-24905(120): Add *note blobopen(): a71. to *note
     sqlite3.Connection: 3df.  *note sqlite3.Blob: a72. allows
     incremental I/O operations on blobs.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda and
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87901

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78157

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92356

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92301

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67248

   (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92210

   (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80010

   (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92118

   (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90887

   (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91215

   (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984

   (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92128

   (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92049

   (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92062

   (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87390

   (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88089

   (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91996

   (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91984

   (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91952

   (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91954

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47029

   (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91928

   (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91401

   (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64783

   (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91910

   (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91860

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91832

   (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91827

   (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91821

   (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (39) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (40) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (41) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90623

   (42) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91734

   (43) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90633

   (44) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91700

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91231

   (46) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91621

   (47) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90568

   (48) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91670

   (49) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (50) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (51) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (52) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (53) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91616

   (54) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (55) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47256

   (57) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (58) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91595

   (59) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74166

   (60) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91487

   (61) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91575

   (62) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90622

   (63) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89022

   (64) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91526

   (65) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116

   (66) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (67) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (68) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69093

   (69) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (70) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (71) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404

   (72) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (73) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (74) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91276

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (76) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91230

   (77) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91217

   (78) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91498

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47260

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47087

   (81) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42012

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47227

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47211

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47135

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43323

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46681

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45100

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44807

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46787

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46720

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46696

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46053

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45639

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46285

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44791

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46547

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46415

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46075

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45995

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26175

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45138

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40318

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44863

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44587

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43827

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43218

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38435

   (113) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42066

   (114) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40617

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40676

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39716

   (117) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36073

   (118) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34975

   (119) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22276

   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24905


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<29>,  Next: Tests<32>,  Prev: Library<94>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.8 Documentation
.......................

   - gh-91888(1): Add a new ‘gh’ role to the documentation to link to
     GitHub issues.

   - gh-91783(2): Document security issues concerning the use of the
     function *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 882.

   - gh-91547(3): Remove «Undocumented modules» page.

   - gh-91298(4): In ‘importlib.resources.abc’, refined the
     documentation of the Traversable Protocol, applying changes from
     importlib_resources 5.7.1.

   - bpo-44347(5): Clarify the meaning of 'dirs_exist_ok', a kwarg of
     *note shutil.copytree(): ded.

   - bpo-36329(6): Remove “make -C Doc serve” in favour of “make -C Doc
     htmlview”

   - bpo-47189(7): Add a What’s New in Python 3.11 entry for the Faster
     CPython project.  Documentation by Ken Jin and Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-38668(8): Update the introduction to documentation for *note
     os.path: a6. to remove warnings that became irrelevant after the
     implementations of PEP 383(9) and PEP 529(10).

   - bpo-47115(11): The documentation now lists which members of C
     structs are part of the *note Limited API/Stable ABI: 95c.

   - bpo-46962(12): All docstrings in code snippets are now wrapped into
     *note PyDoc_STR: 1d92. to follow the guideline of PEP 7’s
     Documentation Strings paragraph(13).  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-26792(14): Improve the docstrings of *note runpy.run_module():
     1901. and *note runpy.run_path(): 6ae.  Original patch by Andrew
     Brezovsky.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91888

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91783

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91547

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91298

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44347

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36329

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47189

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38668

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47115

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46962

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/#documentation-strings

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26792


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<32>,  Next: Build<34>,  Prev: Documentation<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.9 Tests
...............

   - gh-92169(1): Use ‘warnings_helper.import_deprecated()’ to import
     deprecated modules uniformly in tests.  Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - gh-84461(2): When multiprocessing is enabled, libregrtest can now
     use a Python executable other than ‘sys.executable’ via the
     ‘--python’ flag.

   - gh-91904(3): Fix initialization of ‘PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD’
     which prevented running regression tests on non-UTF-8 locale.

   - gh-91752(4): Added @requires_zlib to
     test.test_tools.test_freeze.TestFreeze.

   - gh-91607(5): Fix ‘test_concurrent_futures’ to test the correct
     multiprocessing start method context in several cases where the
     test logic mixed this up.

   - bpo-40280(6): Threading tests are now skipped on WASM targets
     without pthread support.

   - bpo-47109(7): Test for ‘ctypes.macholib.dyld’,
     ‘ctypes.macholib.dylib’, and ‘ctypes.macholib.framework’ are
     brought from manual pre-*note unittest: 10f. times to ‘ctypes.test’
     location and structure.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-29890(8): Add tests for *note ipaddress.IPv4Interface: 1d94.
     and *note ipaddress.IPv6Interface: 1d95. construction with tuple
     arguments.  Original patch and tests by louisom.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92169

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91904

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91752

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91607

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47109

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29890


File: python.info,  Node: Build<34>,  Next: Windows<29>,  Prev: Tests<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.10 Build
................

   - gh-89452(1): gdbm-compat is now preferred over ndbm if both are
     available on the system.  This allows avoiding the problematic
     ndbm.h on macOS.

   - gh-91731(2): Python is now built with ‘-std=c11’ compiler option,
     rather than ‘-std=c99’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-47152(3): Add script and make target for generating
     ‘sre_constants.h’.

   - bpo-47103(4): Windows ‘PGInstrument’ builds now copy a required DLL
     into the output directory, making it easier to run the profile
     stage of a PGO build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89452

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91731

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47103


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<29>,  Next: macOS<22>,  Prev: Build<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.11 Windows
..................

   - bpo-46907(1): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.3.

   - bpo-47239(2): Fixed –list and –list-paths output for *note
     Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc. when used in an active
     virtual environment.

   - bpo-46907(3): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.2.

   - bpo-46785(4): Fix race condition between *note os.stat(): 4f5. and
     unlinking a file on Windows, by using errors codes returned by
     ‘FindFirstFileW()’ when appropriate in ‘win32_xstat_impl’.

   - bpo-40859(5): Update Windows build to use xz-5.2.5

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47239

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46785

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40859


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<22>,  Next: Tools/Demos<23>,  Prev: Windows<29>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.12 macOS
................

   - bpo-46907(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.38.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<23>,  Next: C API<31>,  Prev: macOS<22>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.13 Tools/Demos
......................

   - gh-91583(1): Fix regression in the code generated by Argument
     Clinic for functions with the ‘defining_class’ parameter.

   - gh-91575(2): Add script ‘Tools/scripts/generate_re_casefix.py’ and
     the make target ‘regen-re’ for generating additional data for
     case-insensitive matching according to the current Unicode version.

   - gh-91551(3): Remove the ancient Pynche color editor.  It has moved
     to ‘https://gitlab.com/warsaw/pynche’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91583

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91575

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91551


File: python.info,  Node: C API<31>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 beta 1

1.26.34.14 C API
................

   - gh-88279(1): Deprecate the C functions: ‘PySys_SetArgv()’,
     ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’, ‘PySys_SetPath()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-92154(2): Added the *note PyCode_GetCode(): b5a. function.  This
     function does the equivalent of the Python code
     ‘getattr(code_object, 'co_code')’.

   - gh-92173(3): Fix the ‘closure’ argument to *note
     PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1cd9.

   - gh-91320(4): Fix C++ compiler warnings about «old-style cast» (‘g++
     -Wold-style-cast’) in the Python C API. Use C++
     ‘reinterpret_cast<>’ and ‘static_cast<>’ casts when the Python C
     API is used in C++.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - gh-80527(5): Mark functions as deprecated by PEP 623(6):
     ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’, ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’,
     ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’, ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91768(7): *note Py_REFCNT(): 54b, *note Py_TYPE(): 5f5, *note
     Py_SIZE(): b61. and *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 19bb. functions argument
     type is now ‘PyObject*’, rather than ‘const PyObject*’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - gh-91020(8): Add ‘PyBytes_Type.tp_alloc’ to initialize
     ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ for bytes subclasses.

   - bpo-40421(9): Add ‘PyFrame_GetLasti’ C-API function to access frame
     object’s ‘f_lasti’ attribute safely from C code.

   - bpo-35134(10): Remove the ‘Include/code.h’ header file.  C
     extensions should only include the main ‘<Python.h>’ header file.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-47169(11): *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 1d9b. is now exported in
     the Stable ABI on Windows.

   - bpo-47169(12): *note PyThread_get_thread_native_id(): 1d9c. is
     excluded from the stable ABI on platforms where it doesn’t exist
     (like Solaris).

   - bpo-46343(13): Added *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): b51. and
     *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): b52. as simpler alternatives to
     *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): b54. and *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): b53.

     They are included in the stable ABI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88279

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92154

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92173

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91320

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80527

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91768

   (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91020

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47169

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47169

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46343


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.35 Python 3.11.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-04-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<94>.
* Library: Library<95>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<95>.
* Library: Library<96>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<96>.
* Library: Library<97>.
* Documentation: Documentation<30>.
* Tests: Tests<33>.
* Build: Build<35>.
* Windows: Windows<30>.
* macOS: macOS<23>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<24>.
* C API: C API<32>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<94>,  Next: Library<95>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.26.35.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-47212(1): Raise *note IndentationError: b89. instead of *note
     SyntaxError: 17e. for a bare ‘except’ with no following indent.
     Improve ‘SyntaxError’ locations for an un-parenthesized generator
     used as arguments.  Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-47186(2): Replace ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EG_MATCH’ by *note
     CHECK_EG_MATCH: aef. + jump.

   - bpo-47176(3): Emscripten builds cannot handle signals in the usual
     way due to platform limitations.  Python can now handle signals.
     To use, set Module.Py_EmscriptenSignalBuffer to be a single byte
     SharedArrayBuffer and set Py_EMSCRIPTEN_SIGNAL_HANDLING to 1.
     Writing a number into the SharedArrayBuffer will cause the
     corresponding signal to be raised into the Python thread.

   - bpo-47186(4): Replace ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’ by *note
     CHECK_EXC_MATCH: af7. + jump.

   - bpo-47120(5): Replace the absolute jump opcode *note
     JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT: 1d9f. by the relative *note
     JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT: aec.

   - bpo-46841(6): Avoid unnecessary allocations when comparing code
     objects.

   - bpo-47182(7): Fix a crash when using a named unicode character like
     ‘"\N{digit nine}"’ after the main interpreter has been initialized
     a second time.

   - bpo-47162(8): WebAssembly cannot deal with bad function pointer
     casts (different count or types of arguments).  Python can now use
     call trampolines to mitigate the problem.  Define
     ‘PY_CALL_TRAMPOLINE’ to enable call trampolines.

   - bpo-46775(9): Some Windows system error codes(>= 10000) are now
     mapped into the correct errno and may now raise a subclass of *note
     OSError: 53c.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-47129(10): Improve error messages in f-string syntax errors
     concerning empty expressions.

   - bpo-47117(11): Fix a crash if we fail to decode characters in
     interactive mode if the tokenizer buffers are uninitialized.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-47127(12): Speed up calls to c functions with keyword arguments
     by 25% with specialization.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-47120(13): Replaced ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’ by the relative jump *note
     JUMP_BACKWARD: af8.

   - bpo-42197(14): ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’ and
     ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’ are no longer called during profiling nor
     tracing.  C code can access the ‘f_locals’ attribute of *note
     PyFrameObject: b68. by calling *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 84e.

   - bpo-47070(15): Improve performance of ‘array_inplace_repeat’ by
     reducing the number of invocations of ‘memcpy’.  Refactor the
     ‘repeat’ and inplace ‘repeat’ methods of ‘array’, ‘bytes’,
     ‘bytearray’ and ‘unicodeobject’ to use the common
     ‘_PyBytes_Repeat’.

   - bpo-47053(16): Reduce de-optimization in the specialized
     ‘BINARY_OP_INPLACE_ADD_UNICODE’ opcode.

   - bpo-47045(17): Remove the ‘f_state’ field from the
     _PyInterpreterFrame struct.  Add the ‘owner’ field to the
     _PyInterpreterFrame struct to make ownership explicit to simplify
     clearing and deallocing frames and generators.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47212

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47186

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47176

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47186

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47182

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47162

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46775

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47129

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47117

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47127

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47120

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42197

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47070

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47053

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47045


File: python.info,  Node: Library<95>,  Next: Core and Builtins<95>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<94>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.26.35.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-46968(1): Check for the existence of the «sys/auxv.h» header in
     *note faulthandler: 5b. to avoid compilation problems in systems
     where this header doesn’t exist.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<95>,  Next: Library<96>,  Prev: Library<95>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.26.35.3 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46329(1): Use low bit of ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ to indicate whether to
     push a ‘NULL’ before the global.  Helps streamline the call
     sequence a bit.

   - bpo-46841(2): Quicken bytecode in-place by storing it as part of
     the corresponding ‘PyCodeObject’.

   - bpo-47012(3): Speed up iteration of *note bytes: 1c7. and *note
     bytearray: 1c6. by 30%.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-47009(4): Improved the performance of *note list.append(): aba.
     and list comprehensions by optimizing for the common case, where no
     resize is needed.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-47005(5): Improve performance of ‘bytearray_repeat’ and
     ‘bytearray_irepeat’ by reducing the number of invocations of
     ‘memcpy’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47012

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47009

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47005


File: python.info,  Node: Library<96>,  Next: Core and Builtins<96>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<95>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.26.35.4 Library
.................

   - bpo-46829(1): Deprecate passing a message into *note
     asyncio.Future.cancel(): 1da3. and *note asyncio.Task.cancel():
     6d9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46829


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<96>,  Next: Library<97>,  Prev: Library<96>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.26.35.5 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46993(1): Speed up *note bytearray: 1c6. creation from *note
     list: 4d9. and *note tuple: 1ce. by 40%.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-39829(2): Removed the ‘__len__()’ call when initializing a list
     and moved initializing to ‘list_extend’.  Patch by Jeremiah
     Pascual.

   - bpo-46944(3): Speed up throwing exception in generator with *note
     METH_FASTCALL: 34b. calling convention.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46841(4): Modify *note STORE_SUBSCR: 1da5. to use an inline
     cache entry (rather than its oparg) as an adaptive counter.

   - bpo-46841(5): Use inline caching for ‘PRECALL’ and *note CALL: af3,
     and remove the internal machinery for managing the (now unused)
     non-inline caches.

   - bpo-46881(6): Statically allocate and initialize the latin1
     characters.

   - bpo-46838(7): Improve syntax errors for incorrect function
     definitions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43721(8): Fix docstrings of *note getter: 1be2, *note setter:
     1be3, and *note deleter: 1be4. to clarify that they create a new
     copy of the property.

   - bpo-43224(9): Make grammar changes required for PEP 646.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46993

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39829

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46944

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46881

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46838

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43721

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224


File: python.info,  Node: Library<97>,  Next: Documentation<30>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<96>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.26.35.6 Library
.................

   - bpo-47208(1): Allow vendors to override ‘CTYPES_MAX_ARGCOUNT’.

   - bpo-23689(2): *note re: c1. module: fix memory leak when a match is
     terminated by a signal or memory allocation failure.  Patch by Ma
     Lin.

   - bpo-47167(3): Allow overriding a future compliance check in *note
     asyncio.Task: 460.

   - bpo-47151(4): When subprocess tries to use vfork, it now falls back
     to fork if vfork returns an error.  This allows use in situations
     where vfork isn’t allowed by the OS kernel.

   - bpo-47152(5): Convert the *note re: c1. module into a package.
     Deprecate modules ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’.

   - bpo-4833(6): Add ‘ZipFile.mkdir()’

   - bpo-27929(7): Fix *note asyncio.loop.sock_connect(): 1181. to only
     resolve names for *note socket.AF_INET: 1da7. or *note
     socket.AF_INET6: 1da8. families.  Resolution may not make sense for
     other families, like *note socket.AF_BLUETOOTH: 1da9. and *note
     socket.AF_UNIX: 1daa.

   - bpo-14265(8): Adds the fully qualified test name to unittest output

   - bpo-47061(9): Deprecate the aifc module.

   - bpo-39622(10): Handle Ctrl+C in asyncio programs to interrupt the
     main task.

   - bpo-47101(11): *note hashlib.algorithms_available: 1719. now lists
     only algorithms that are provided by activated crypto providers on
     OpenSSL 3.0.  Legacy algorithms are not listed unless the legacy
     provider has been loaded into the default OSSL context.

   - bpo-47099(12): All ‘URLError’ exception messages raised in
     ‘urllib.request.URLopener’ now contain a colon between ‘ftp error’
     and the rest of the message.  Previously, ‘open_ftp()’ missed the
     colon.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-47099(13): Exception chaining is changed from
     ‘Exception.with_traceback()’/*note sys.exc_info(): a7a. to PEP
     3134(14).  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   - bpo-47095(15): *note hashlib: 6b.’s internal ‘_blake2’ module now
     prefers ‘libb2’ from ‘https://www.blake2.net/’ over Python’s
     vendored copy of blake2.

   - bpo-47098(16): The Keccak Code Package for *note hashlib: 6b.’s
     internal ‘_sha3’ module has been replaced with tiny_sha3.  The
     module is used as fallback when Python is built without OpenSSL.

   - bpo-47088(17): Implement *note typing.LiteralString: 9c8, part of
     PEP 675(18).  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-42885(19): Optimize *note re.search(): 15d3, *note re.split():
     7a0, *note re.findall(): 13d2, *note re.finditer(): 189c. and *note
     re.sub(): 7a1. for regular expressions starting with ‘\A’ or ‘^’.

   - bpo-23691(20): Protect the *note re.finditer(): 189c. iterator from
     re-entering.

   - bpo-47067(21): Optimize calling ‘GenericAlias’ objects by using PEP
     590(22) ‘vectorcall’ and by replacing ‘PyObject_SetAttrString’ with
     ‘PyObject_SetAttr’.

   - bpo-28080(23): Add the 'metadata_encoding' parameter in the *note
     zipfile.ZipFile: ab1. constructor and the ‘--metadata-encoding’
     option in the *note zipfile: 13a. CLI to allow reading zipfiles
     using non-standard codecs to encode the filenames within the
     archive.

   - bpo-47000(24): Make *note io.text_encoding(): 1c44. returns «utf-8»
     when UTF-8 mode is enabled.

   - bpo-42369(25): Fix thread safety of ‘zipfile._SharedFile.tell()’ to
     avoid a «zipfile.BadZipFile: Bad CRC-32 for file» exception when
     reading a ‘ZipFile’ from multiple threads.

   - bpo-38256(26): Fix *note binascii.crc32(): 1c19. when it is
     compiled to use zlib’c crc32 to work properly on inputs 4+GiB in
     length instead of returning the wrong result.  The workaround prior
     to this was to always feed the function data in increments smaller
     than 4GiB or to just call the zlib module function.

     We also have *note binascii.crc32(): 1c19. release the GIL when
     computing on larger inputs as *note zlib.crc32(): 1c18. and *note
     hashlib: 6b. do.

     This also boosts performance on Windows as it now uses the zlib
     crc32 implementation for *note binascii.crc32(): 1c19. for a 2-3x
     speedup.

     That the stdlib has a crc32 API in two modules is a known
     historical oddity.  This moves us closer to a single implementation
     behind them.

   - bpo-47066(27): Global inline flags (e.g.  ‘(?i)’) can now only be
     used at the start of the regular expressions.  Using them not at
     the start of expression was deprecated since Python 3.6.

   - bpo-39394(28): A warning about inline flags not at the start of the
     regular expression now contains the position of the flag.

   - bpo-433030(29): Add support of atomic grouping (‘(?>...)’) and
     possessive quantifiers (‘*+’, ‘++’, ‘?+’, ‘{m,n}+’) in *note
     regular expressions: c1.

   - bpo-47062(30): Implement *note asyncio.Runner: 30a. context
     manager.

   - bpo-46382(31): *note dataclass(): 6e6. ‘slots=True’ now correctly
     omits slots already defined in base classes.  Patch by Arie
     Bovenberg.

   - bpo-47057(32): Use FASTCALL convention for ‘FutureIter.throw()’

   - bpo-47061(33): Deprecate the various modules listed by PEP 594(34):

     aifc, asynchat, asyncore, audioop, cgi, cgitb, chunk, crypt,
     imghdr, msilib, nntplib, nis, ossaudiodev, pipes, smtpd, sndhdr,
     spwd, sunau, telnetlib, uu, xdrlib

   - bpo-34790(35): Remove passing coroutine objects to *note
     asyncio.wait(): 891.

   - bpo-47039(36): Normalize ‘repr()’ of asyncio future and task
     objects.

   - bpo-2604(37): Fix bug where doctests using globals would fail when
     run multiple times.

   - bpo-45150(38): Add *note hashlib.file_digest(): a33. helper for
     efficient hashing of file object.

   - bpo-34861(39): Made cumtime the default sorting key for cProfile

   - bpo-45997(40): Fix *note asyncio.Semaphore: e37. re-aquiring FIFO
     order.

   - bpo-47022(41): The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’ and ‘smtpd’ modules have
     been deprecated since at least Python 3.6.  Their documentation and
     deprecation warnings and have now been updated to note they will
     removed in Python 3.12 ( PEP 594(42)).

   - bpo-43253(43): Fix a crash when closing transports where the
     underlying socket handle is already invalid on the Proactor event
     loop.

   - bpo-40280(44): *note select.select(): 1159. now passes ‘NULL’ to
     ‘select’ for each empty fdset.

   - bpo-47004(45): Apply bugfixes from importlib_metadata 4.11.3,
     including bugfix for EntryPoint.extras, which was returning match
     objects and not the extras strings.

   - bpo-46998(46): Allow subclassing of *note typing.Any: a9a.  Patch
     by Shantanu Jain.

   - bpo-46995(47): Deprecate missing *note asyncio.Task.set_name():
     da1. for third-party task implementations, schedule making it
     mandatory in Python 3.13.

   - bpo-46994(48): Accept explicit contextvars.Context in *note
     asyncio.create_task(): 462. and *note asyncio.loop.create_task():
     463.

   - bpo-46981(49): ‘typing.get_args(typing.Tuple[()])’ now returns ‘()’
     instead of ‘((),)’.

   - bpo-46968(50): Add ‘os.sysconf_names['SC_MINSIGSTKSZ']’.

   - bpo-46985(51): Upgrade pip wheel bundled with ensurepip (pip
     22.0.4)

   - bpo-46968(52): *note faulthandler: 5b.: On Linux 5.14 and newer,
     dynamically determine size of signal handler stack size CPython
     allocates using ‘getauxval(AT_MINSIGSTKSZ)’.  This changes allows
     for Python extension’s request to Linux kernel to use AMX_TILE
     instruction set on Sapphire Rapids Xeon processor to succeed,
     unblocking use of the ISA in frameworks.

   - bpo-46917(53): The *note math.nan: a53. value is now always
     available.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46955(54): Expose ‘asyncio.base_events.Server’ as *note
     asyncio.Server: ed6.  Patch by Stefan Zabka.

   - bpo-23325(55): The *note signal: ce. module no longer assumes that
     *note SIG_IGN: 1dab. and *note SIG_DFL: 1dac. are small int
     singletons.

   - bpo-46932(56): Update bundled libexpat to 2.4.7

   - bpo-46933(57): The *note pwd: ba. module is now optional.  *note
     os.path.expanduser(): dd8. returns the path when the ‘pwd’ module
     is not available.

   - bpo-40059(58): PEP 680(59), the *note tomllib: 105. module.  Adds
     support for parsing TOML.

   - bpo-464471(60): *note asyncio.timeout(): 9f5. and *note
     asyncio.timeout_at(): 1dad. context managers added.  Patch by Tin
     Tvrtković and Andrew Svetlov.

   - bpo-46805(61): Added raw datagram socket functions for asyncio:
     ‘sock_sendto()’, ‘sock_recvfrom()’ and ‘sock_recvfrom_into()’.

   - bpo-46644(62): No longer require valid typeforms to be callable.
     This allows *note typing.Annotated: d09. to wrap *note
     typing.ParamSpecArgs: ba6. and *note dataclasses.InitVar: 1dae.
     Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46581(63): Brings ‘ParamSpec’ propagation for ‘GenericAlias’ in
     line with ‘Concatenate’ (and others).

   - bpo-45413(64): Define 'posix_venv' and 'nt_venv' *note sysconfig
     installation schemes: 65c. to be used for bootstrapping new virtual
     environments.  Add 'venv' sysconfig installation scheme to get the
     appropriate one of the above.  The schemes are identical to the
     pre-existing 'posix_prefix' and 'nt' install schemes.  The *note
     venv: 11a. module now uses the 'venv' scheme to create new virtual
     environments instead of hardcoding the paths depending only on the
     platform.  Downstream Python distributors customizing the
     'posix_prefix' or 'nt' install scheme in a way that is not
     compatible with the install scheme used in virtual environments are
     encouraged not to customize the 'venv' schemes.  When Python itself
     runs in a virtual environment, *note
     sysconfig.get_default_scheme(): 1daf. and *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): a7f. with ‘key="prefix"’ returns
     'venv'.

   - bpo-43224(65): Implement support for PEP 646 in typing.py.

   - bpo-43224(66): Allow unpacking types.GenericAlias objects, e.g.
     ‘*tuple[int, str]’.

   - bpo-46557(67): Warnings captured by the logging module are now
     logged without a format string to prevent systems that group logs
     by the msg argument from grouping captured warnings together.

   - bpo-41370(68): *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. now supports
     evaluating strings as forward references in *note PEP 585 generic
     aliases: a9f.

   - bpo-46607(69): Add *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. to
     ‘LegacyInterpolation’, deprecated in the docstring since Python
     3.2.  Will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use ‘BasicInterpolation’ or
     ‘ExtendedInterpolation’ instead.

   - bpo-26120(70): *note pydoc: bd. now excludes __future__ imports
     from the module’s data items.

   - bpo-46480(71): Add *note typing.assert_type(): a99.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46421(72): Fix a unittest issue where if the command was
     invoked as ‘python -m unittest’ and the filename(s) began with a
     dot (.), a ‘ValueError’ is returned.

   - bpo-46245(73): Add optional parameter 'dir_fd' in *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 335.

   - bpo-22859(74): ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ is marked as
     deprecated, to be removed in Python 3.13.

   - bpo-46170(75): Improve the error message when you try to subclass
     an instance of *note typing.NewType: 10b1.

   - bpo-40296(76): Fix supporting generic aliases in *note pydoc: bd.

   - bpo-20392(77): Fix inconsistency with uppercase file extensions in
     ‘MimeTypes.guess_type()’.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46030(78): Add ‘LOCAL_CREDS’, ‘LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT’ and
     ‘SCM_CREDS2’ FreeBSD constants to the socket module.

   - bpo-44439(79): Fix ‘.write()’ method of a member file in ‘ZipFile’,
     when the input data is an object that supports the buffer protocol,
     the file length may be wrong.

   - bpo-45171(80): Fix handling of the ‘stacklevel’ argument to logging
     functions in the *note logging: 8a. module so that it is consistent
     across all logging functions and, as advertised, similar to the
     ‘stacklevel’ argument used in *note warn(): 18bb.

   - bpo-24959(81): Fix bug where *note unittest: 10f. sometimes drops
     frames from tracebacks of exceptions raised in tests.

   - bpo-44859(82): Raise more accurate and PEP 249(83) compatible
     exceptions in *note sqlite3: d7.

        * Raise *note InterfaceError: a6d. instead of *note
          ProgrammingError: 57d. for ‘SQLITE_MISUSE’ errors.

        * Don’t overwrite *note BufferError: 1998. with *note
          ValueError: 277. when conversion to BLOB fails.

        * Raise *note ProgrammingError: 57d. instead of *note Warning:
          1db0. if user tries to *note execute(): 7a8. more than one SQL
          statement.

        * Raise *note ProgrammingError: 57d. instead of *note
          ValueError: 277. if an SQL query contains null characters.

   - bpo-44493(84): Add missing terminated NUL in sockaddr_un’s length

     This was potentially observable when using non-abstract AF_UNIX
     datagram sockets to processes written in another programming
     language.

   - bpo-41930(85): Add *note serialize(): a6e. and *note deserialize():
     a6f. support to *note sqlite3: d7.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-33178(86): Added *note ctypes.BigEndianUnion: 1db1. and *note
     ctypes.LittleEndianUnion: 1db2. classes, as originally documented
     in the library docs but not yet implemented.

   - bpo-43352(87): Add an Barrier object in synchronization primitives
     of 'asyncio' Lib in order to be consistent with Barrier from
     'threading' and 'multiprocessing' libs*

   - bpo-35859(88): *note re: c1. module, fix a few bugs about capturing
     group.  In rare cases, capturing group gets an incorrect string.
     Patch by Ma Lin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47208

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23689

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47167

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47151

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4833

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27929

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14265

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39622

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47101

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47099

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47099

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47095

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47098

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47088

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42885

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23691

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47067

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47000

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42369

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38256

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47066

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39394

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433030

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47062

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46382

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47057

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47039

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2604

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45150

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34861

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45997

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47022

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43253

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47004

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46998

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46995

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46994

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46981

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46985

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46968

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46955

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23325

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46932

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46933

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40059

   (59) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=464471

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46805

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46644

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46581

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46557

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41370

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46607

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26120

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46480

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46421

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46245

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22859

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46170

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40296

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20392

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46030

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44439

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45171

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24959

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44859

   (83) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44493

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41930

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33178

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43352

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35859


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<30>,  Next: Tests<33>,  Prev: Library<97>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.26.35.7 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45099(1): Document internal *note asyncio: b. API.

   - bpo-47126(2): Update PEP URLs to PEP 676(3)’s new canonical form.

   - bpo-47040(4): Clarified the old Python versions compatibility note
     of *note binascii.crc32(): 1c19. / *note zlib.adler32(): 1db4. /
     *note zlib.crc32(): 1c18. functions.

   - bpo-46033(5): Clarify ‘for’ statement execution in its doc.

   - bpo-45790(6): Adjust inaccurate phrasing in *note Defining
     Extension Types; Tutorial: 1db5. about the ‘ob_base’ field and the
     macros used to access its contents.

   - bpo-42340(7): Document that in some circumstances *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: d96. may cause the code to enter an inconsistent
     state.  Provided a sample workaround to avoid it if needed.

   - bpo-41233(8): Link the errnos referenced in
     ‘Doc/library/exceptions.rst’ to their respective section in
     ‘Doc/library/errno.rst’, and vice versa.  Previously this was only
     done for EINTR and InterruptedError.  Patch by Yan «yyyyyyyan»
     Orestes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45099

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47126

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0676/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47040

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46033

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45790

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41233


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<33>,  Next: Build<35>,  Prev: Documentation<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.26.35.8 Tests
...............

   - bpo-47205(1): Skip test for *note sched_getaffinity(): 14b6. and
     *note sched_setaffinity(): 14ba. error case on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-46126(2): Restore “descriptions” when running tests internally.

   - bpo-47104(3): Rewrite *note asyncio.to_thread(): cb9. tests to use
     *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342.

   - bpo-40280(4): The test suite is now passing on the Emscripten
     platform.  All fork, socket, and subprocess-based tests are
     skipped.

   - bpo-47037(5): Skip ‘strftime("%4Y")’ feature test on Windows.  It
     can cause an assertion error in debug builds.

   - bpo-46587(6): Skip tests if platform’s ‘strftime’ does not support
     non-portable glibc extensions.

   - bpo-47015(7): A test case for *note os.sendfile(): ed3. is
     converted from deprecated ‘asyncore’ (see PEP 594(8)) to *note
     asyncio: b.  Patch by Oleg Iarygin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47205

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46126

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47037

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46587

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47015

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/


File: python.info,  Node: Build<35>,  Next: Windows<30>,  Prev: Tests<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.26.35.9 Build
...............

   - bpo-40280(1): Add configure option *note
     -enable-wasm-dynamic-linking: 1db8. to enable ‘dlopen’ and
     MAIN_MODULE / SIDE_MODULE on ‘wasm32-emscripten’.

   - bpo-46023(2): ‘makesetup’ now detects and skips all duplicated
     module definitions.  The first entry wins.

   - bpo-40280(3): Add SOABI ‘wasm32-emscripten’ for Emscripten and
     ‘wasm32-wasi’ for WASI on 32bit WASM as well as ‘wasm64’ counter
     parts.

   - bpo-47032(4): Ensure Windows install builds fail correctly with a
     non-zero exit code when part of the build fails.

   - bpo-47024(5): Update OpenSSL to 1.1.1n for macOS installers and all
     Windows builds.

   - bpo-46996(6): The *note tkinter: f9. package now requires Tcl/Tk
     version 8.5.12 or newer.

   - bpo-46973(7): Add ‘regen-configure’ make target to regenerate
     configure script with Christian’s container image
     ‘quay.io/tiran/cpython_autoconf:269’.

   - bpo-46917(8): Building Python now requires support of IEEE 754
     floating-point numbers.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45774(9): ‘configure’ now verifies that all SQLite C APIs
     needed for the *note sqlite3: d7. extension module are found.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46023

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47032

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47024

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46996

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46973

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45774


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<30>,  Next: macOS<23>,  Prev: Build<35>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.26.35.10 Windows
..................

   - bpo-47194(1): Update ‘zlib’ to v1.2.12 to resolve CVE
     2018-25032(2).

   - bpo-47171(3): Enables installing the ‘py.exe’ launcher on Windows
     ARM64.

   - bpo-46566(4): Upgraded *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc.
     to support a new ‘-V:company/tag’ argument for full PEP 514(5)
     support and to detect ARM64 installs.  The ‘-64’ suffix on
     arguments is deprecated, but still selects any non-32-bit install.
     Setting ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’ and specifying a version that is
     not installed will attempt to install the requested version from
     the Microsoft Store.

   - bpo-47086(6): The installer for Windows now includes documentation
     as loose HTML files rather than a single compiled ‘.chm’ file.

   - bpo-46907(7): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.38.1.

   - bpo-44549(8): Update bzip2 to 1.0.8 in Windows builds to mitigate
     CVE 2016-3189(9) and CVE 2019-12900(10).

   - bpo-46948(11): Prevent CVE 2022-26488(12) by ensuring the Add to
     PATH option in the Windows installer uses the correct path when
     being repaired.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47194

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-25032

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47171

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46566

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47086

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44549

   (9) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-3189

   (10) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-12900

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46948

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2022-26488


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<23>,  Next: Tools/Demos<24>,  Prev: Windows<30>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.26.35.11 macOS
................

   - bpo-46890(1): Fix a regression in the setting of
     ‘sys._base_executable’ in framework builds, and thereby fix a
     regression in *note venv: 11a. virtual environments with such
     builds.

   - bpo-46907(2): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.38.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46890

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46907


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<24>,  Next: C API<32>,  Prev: macOS<23>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.26.35.12 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-40280(1): Replace Emscripten’s limited shell with Katie Bell’s
     browser-ui REPL from python-wasm project.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280


File: python.info,  Node: C API<32>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7

1.26.35.13 C API
................

   - bpo-40421(1): Add ‘PyFrame_GetBuiltins’, ‘PyFrame_GetGenerator’ and
     ‘PyFrame_GetGlobals’ C-API functions to access frame object
     attributes safely from C code.

   - bpo-46850(2): Move the private ‘_PyFrameEvalFunction’ type, and
     private ‘_PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc()’ and
     ‘_PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc()’ functions to the internal
     C API. The ‘_PyFrameEvalFunction’ callback function type now uses
     the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ type which is part of the internal C API.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(3): Move the private undocumented
     ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault()’ function to the internal C API. The
     function now uses the ‘_PyInterpreterFrame’ type which is part of
     the internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(4): Remove the private undocumented function
     ‘_PyEval_CallTracing()’ from the C API. Call the public *note
     sys.call_tracing(): 1dbd. function instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(5): Remove the private undocumented function
     ‘_PyEval_GetCoroutineOriginTrackingDepth()’ from the C API. Call
     the public *note sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): f4a.
     function instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46850(6): Remove the following private undocumented functions
     from the C API:

        * ‘_PyEval_GetAsyncGenFirstiter()’

        * ‘_PyEval_GetAsyncGenFinalizer()’

        * ‘_PyEval_SetAsyncGenFirstiter()’

        * ‘_PyEval_SetAsyncGenFinalizer()’

     Call the public *note sys.get_asyncgen_hooks(): 1dbe. and *note
     sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 1baa. functions instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46987(7): Remove private functions ‘_PySys_GetObjectId()’ and
     ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-46906(8): Add new functions to pack and unpack C double
     (serialize and deserialize): *note PyFloat_Pack2(): b47, *note
     PyFloat_Pack4(): b48, *note PyFloat_Pack8(): b49, *note
     PyFloat_Unpack2(): b4a, *note PyFloat_Unpack4(): b4b. and *note
     PyFloat_Unpack8(): b4c.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46850

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46987

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46906


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.26.36 Python 3.11.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-03-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<97>.
* Library: Library<98>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<98>.
* Library: Library<99>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<99>.
* Library: Library<100>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<100>.
* Library: Library<101>.
* Documentation: Documentation<31>.
* Tests: Tests<34>.
* Build: Build<36>.
* Windows: Windows<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<17>.
* C API: C API<33>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<97>,  Next: Library<98>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46940(1): Avoid overriding *note AttributeError: 1a9. metadata
     information for nested attribute access calls.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-46927(2): Include the type’s name in the error message for
     subscripting non-generic types.

   - bpo-46921(3): Support vectorcall for ‘super()’.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-46841(4): Fix incorrect handling of inline cache entries when
     specializing *note BINARY_OP: 595.

   - bpo-46841(5): Use an oparg to simplify the construction of helpful
     error messages in *note GET_AWAITABLE: 1dc1.

   - bpo-46903(6): Make sure that str subclasses can be used as
     attribute names for instances with virtual dictionaries.  Fixes
     regression in 3.11alpha

   - bpo-46841(7): Add more detailed specialization failure stats for
     *note COMPARE_OP: d32. followed by *note EXTENDED_ARG: 1d1c.

   - bpo-46891(8): Fix bug introduced during 3.11alpha where subclasses
     of ‘types.ModuleType’ with ‘__slots__’ were not initialized
     correctly, resulting in an interpreter crash.

   - bpo-46841(9): Use inline caching for *note LOAD_ATTR: 8ed,
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’, and *note STORE_ATTR: 1dc2.

   - bpo-46841(10): Use inline cache for ‘BINARY_SUBSCR’.

   - bpo-46841(11): Use inline caching for *note COMPARE_OP: d32.

   - bpo-46864(12): Deprecate ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’.  It will be
     removed in Python 3.13.

   - bpo-46841(13): Use inline caching for *note UNPACK_SEQUENCE: 1dc3.

   - bpo-46845(14): Reduces dict size by removing hash value from hash
     table when all inserted keys are Unicode.  For example,
     ‘sys.getsizeof(dict.fromkeys("abcdefg"))’ becomes 272 bytes from
     352 bytes on 64bit platform.

   - bpo-46841(15): Use inline cache for *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 1c60.

   - bpo-46852(16): Rename the private undocumented
     ‘float.__set_format__()’ method to ‘float.__setformat__()’ to fix a
     typo introduced in Python 3.7.  The method is only used by
     test_float.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46852(17): Remove the undocumented private
     ‘float.__set_format__()’ method, previously known as
     ‘float.__setformat__()’ in Python 3.7.  Its docstring said: «You
     probably don’t want to use this function.  It exists mainly to be
     used in Python’s test suite.» Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40116(18): Fix regression that dict.update(other) may don’t
     respect iterate order of other when other is key sharing dict.

   - bpo-46712(19): Share global string identifiers in deep-frozen
     modules.

   - bpo-46430(20): Fix memory leak in interned strings of deep-frozen
     modules.

   - bpo-46841(21): Store *note BINARY_OP: 595. caches inline using a
     new *note CACHE: ae6. instruction.

   - bpo-45107(22): Specialize ‘LOAD_METHOD’ for instances with a dict.

   - bpo-44337(23): Reduce the memory usage of specialized *note
     LOAD_ATTR: 8ed. and *note STORE_ATTR: 1dc2. instructions.

   - bpo-46729(24): Add number of sub-exceptions to
     ‘BaseException.__str__()’.

   - bpo-45885(25): Don’t un-adapt *note COMPARE_OP: d32. when
     collecting specialization stats.

   - bpo-46329(26): Fix specialization stats gathering for ‘PRECALL’
     instructions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46940

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46927

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46921

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46903

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46891

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46864

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46845

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46712

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46430

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45107

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44337

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46729

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329


File: python.info,  Node: Library<98>,  Next: Core and Builtins<98>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<97>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-46794(1): Bump up the libexpat version into 2.4.6

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46794


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<98>,  Next: Library<99>,  Prev: Library<98>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.3 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46823(1): Implement a specialized combined opcode
     ‘LOAD_FAST__LOAD_ATTR_INSTANCE_VALUE’.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-46820(2): Fix parsing a numeric literal immediately (without
     spaces) followed by «not in» keywords, like in ‘1not in x’.  Now
     the parser only emits a warning, not a syntax error.

   - bpo-46329(3): Move ‘KW_NAMES’ before ‘PRECALL’ instruction in call
     sequence.  Change ‘operand’ of ‘CALL’ to match ‘PRECALL’ for easier
     specialization.

   - bpo-46808(4): Remove the ‘NEXT_BLOCK’ macro from compile.c, and
     make the compiler automatically generate implicit blocks when they
     are needed.

   - bpo-46329(5): Add ‘PUSH_NULL’ instruction.  This is used as a
     prefix when evaluating a callable, so that the stack has the same
     shape for methods and other calls.  ‘PRECALL_FUNCTION’ and
     ‘PRECALL_METHOD’ are merged into a single ‘PRECALL’ instruction.

     There is no change in semantics.

   - bpo-46762(6): Fix an assert failure in debug builds when a “<”,
     “>”, or “=” is the last character in an f-string that’s missing a
     closing right brace.

   - bpo-46730(7): Message of AttributeError caused by getting, setting
     or deleting a property without the corresponding function now
     mentions that the attribute is in fact a property and also
     specifies type of the class that it belongs to.

   - bpo-46724(8): Make sure that all backwards jumps use the
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’ instruction, rather than ‘JUMP_FORWARD’ with an
     argument of ‘(2**32)+offset’.

   - bpo-46732(9): Correct the docstring for the *note __bool__(): 167a.
     method.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46072(10): Add more detailed specialization failure statistics
     for *note BINARY_OP: 595.

   - bpo-46707(11): Avoid potential exponential backtracking when
     producing some syntax errors involving lots of brackets.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46823

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46820

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46808

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46762

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46730

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46724

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46732

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46707


File: python.info,  Node: Library<99>,  Next: Core and Builtins<99>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<98>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.4 Library
.................

   - bpo-46323(1): *note ctypes: 2d. now allocates memory on the stack
     instead of on the heap to pass arguments while calling a Python
     callback function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<99>,  Next: Library<100>,  Prev: Library<99>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.5 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-45923(1): Add a quickened form of *note RESUME: 7b4. that skips
     quickening checks.

   - bpo-46702(2): Specialize *note UNPACK_SEQUENCE: 1dc3. for *note
     tuple: 1ce. and *note list: 4d9. unpackings.

   - bpo-46072(3): Opcode pair stats are now gathered with
     ‘--enable-pystats’.  Defining ‘DYNAMIC_EXECUTION_PROFILE’ or
     ‘DXPAIRS’ no longer has any effect.

   - bpo-46675(4): Allow more than 16 items in a split dict before it is
     combined.  The limit is now 254.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45923

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46702

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46675


File: python.info,  Node: Library<100>,  Next: Core and Builtins<100>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<99>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.6 Library
.................

   - bpo-40479(1): Add a missing call to ‘va_end()’ in
     ‘Modules/_hashopenssl.c’.

   - bpo-46323(2): Use *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 963. while calling
     ctypes callback function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<100>,  Next: Library<101>,  Prev: Library<100>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.7 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46615(1): When iterating over sets internally in ‘setobject.c’,
     acquire strong references to the resulting items from the set.
     This prevents crashes in corner-cases of various set operations
     where the set gets mutated.

   - bpo-45828(2): The bytecode compiler now attempts to apply runtime
     stack manipulations at compile-time (whenever it is feasible to do
     so).

   - bpo-30496(3): Fixed a minor portability issue in the implementation
     of *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1dca, and added a fast path for
     single-digit integers to *note PyLong_FromLongLong(): 1dcb.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46615

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30496


File: python.info,  Node: Library<101>,  Next: Documentation<31>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<100>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.8 Library
.................

   - bpo-25707(1): Fixed a file leak in *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(): 3eb. when the iterator is not
     exhausted.  Patch by Jacob Walls.

   - bpo-46877(2): Export *note unittest.doModuleCleanups(): 1a31. in
     *note unittest: 10f.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46848(3): For performance, use the optimized string-searching
     implementations from *note find(): 1dcd. and *note rfind(): 1dce.
     for ‘find()’ and ‘rfind()’.

   - bpo-46736(4): *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 22a. now uses HTML5
     grammar.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44886(5): Inherit asyncio proactor datagram transport from
     *note asyncio.DatagramTransport: 1d25.

   - bpo-46827(6): Support UDP sockets in *note
     asyncio.loop.sock_connect(): 1181. for selector-based event loops.
     Patch by Thomas Grainger.

   - bpo-46811(7): Make test suite support Expat >=2.4.5

   - bpo-46252(8): Raise *note TypeError: 291. if *note ssl.SSLSocket:
     cbb. is passed to transport-based APIs.

   - bpo-46784(9): Fix libexpat symbols collisions with user dynamically
     loaded or statically linked libexpat in embedded Python.

   - bpo-46786(10): The HTML serialisation in xml.etree.ElementTree now
     writes ‘embed’, ‘source’, ‘track’ and ‘wbr’ as empty tags, as
     defined in HTML 5.

   - bpo-39327(11): *note shutil.rmtree(): 335. can now work with
     VirtualBox shared folders when running from the guest
     operating-system.

   - bpo-45390(12): Propagate *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da. message
     from inner task to outer awaiter.

   - bpo-46756(13): Fix a bug in *note
     urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password(): 1dcf. and
     *note
     urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated():
     1dd0. which allowed to bypass authorization.  For example, access
     to URI ‘example.org/foobar’ was allowed if the user was authorized
     for URI ‘example.org/foo’.

   - bpo-46737(14): *note random.gauss(): 1dd1. and *note
     random.normalvariate(): 1dd2. now have default arguments.

   - bpo-46752(15): Add task groups to asyncio (structured concurrency,
     inspired by Trio’s nurseries).  This also introduces a change to
     task cancellation, where a cancelled task can’t be cancelled again
     until it calls .uncancel().

   - bpo-46724(16): Fix *note dis: 3b. behavior on negative jump
     offsets.

   - bpo-46333(17): The ‘__repr__()’ method of *note typing.ForwardRef:
     1dd3. now includes the ‘module’ parameter of ‘typing.ForwardRef’
     when it is set.

   - bpo-46643(18): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e, support
     evaluating stringified ‘ParamSpecArgs’ and ‘ParamSpecKwargs’
     annotations.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-45863(19): When the *note tarfile: e7. module creates a pax
     format archive, it will put an integer representation of timestamps
     in the ustar header (if possible) for the benefit of older
     unarchivers, in addition to the existing full-precision timestamps
     in the pax extended header.

   - bpo-46066(20): Deprecate kwargs-based syntax for *note
     typing.TypedDict: 290. definitions.  It had confusing semantics
     when specifying totality, and was largely unused.  Patch by
     Jingchen Ye.

   - bpo-46676(21): Make *note typing.ParamSpec: 295. args and kwargs
     equal to themselves.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46323(22): ‘ctypes.CFUNCTYPE()’ and ‘ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE()’ now
     fail to create the type if its ‘_argtypes_’ member contains too
     many arguments.  Previously, the error was only raised when calling
     a function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46672(23): Fix ‘NameError’ in *note asyncio.gather(): 9f4. when
     initial type check fails.

   - bpo-46659(24): The *note calendar.LocaleTextCalendar: b29. and
     *note calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar: b2a. classes now use *note
     locale.getlocale(): 232, instead of using *note
     locale.getdefaultlocale(): 233, if no locale is specified.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46659(25): The *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 233. function
     is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13.  Use *note
     locale.setlocale(): 231, *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False):
     947. and *note locale.getlocale(): 232. functions instead.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46655(26): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e, support
     evaluating bare stringified ‘TypeAlias’ annotations.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-45948(27): Fixed a discrepancy in the C implementation of the
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. module.  Now, instantiating an
     *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser: e18. with a ‘target=None’
     keyword provides a default *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder:
     e19. target as the Python implementation does.

   - bpo-46626(28): Expose Linux’s ‘IP_BIND_ADDRESS_NO_PORT’ option in
     *note socket: d4.

   - bpo-46521(29): Fix a bug in the *note codeop: 1d. module that was
     incorrectly identifying invalid code involving string quotes as
     valid code.

   - bpo-46571(30): Improve *note typing.no_type_check(): aa1.

     Now it does not modify external classes and functions.  We also now
     correctly mark classmethods as not to be type checked.

   - bpo-46400(31): expat: Update libexpat from 2.4.1 to 2.4.4

   - bpo-46556(32): Deprecate undocumented support for using a *note
     pathlib.Path: 4ee. object as a context manager.

   - bpo-46534(33): Implement PEP 673(34) *note typing.Self: 9c5.  Patch
     by James Hilton-Balfe.

   - bpo-46522(35): Make various module ‘__getattr__’ AttributeErrors
     more closely match a typical AttributeError

   - bpo-46475(36): Add *note typing.Never: a96. and *note
     typing.assert_never(): a95.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46333(37): The ‘__eq__()’ and ‘__hash__()’ methods of *note
     typing.ForwardRef: 1dd3. now honor the ‘module’ parameter of
     ‘typing.ForwardRef’.  Forward references from different modules are
     now differentiated.

   - bpo-46246(38): Add missing ‘__slots__’ to
     ‘importlib.metadata.DeprecatedList’.  Patch by Arie Bovenberg.

   - bpo-46232(39): The *note ssl: d8. module now handles certificates
     with bit strings in DN correctly.

   - bpo-46195(40): *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. no longer adds
     ‘Optional’ to parameters with ‘None’ as a default.  This aligns to
     changes to PEP 484 in ‘https://github.com/python/peps/pull/689’

   - bpo-31369(41): Add *note RegexFlag: a1e. to ‘re.__all__’ and
     documented it.  Add ‘NOFLAG’ to indicate no flags being set.

   - bpo-45898(42): *note ctypes: 2d. no longer defines ‘ffi_type_*’
     symbols in ‘cfield.c’.  The symbols have been provided by libffi
     for over a decade.

   - bpo-44953(43): Calling ‘operator.itemgetter’ objects and
     ‘operator.attrgetter’ objects is now faster due to use of the
     vectorcall calling convention.

   - bpo-44289(44): Fix an issue with *note is_tarfile(): 1dd4. method
     when using 'fileobj' argument: position in the 'fileobj' was
     advanced forward which made it unreadable with *note
     tarfile.TarFile.open(): 1dd5.

   - bpo-44011(45): Reimplement SSL/TLS support in asyncio, borrow the
     implementation from uvloop library.

   - bpo-41086(46): Make the *note configparser.ConfigParser: 6e4.
     constructor raise *note TypeError: 291. if the ‘interpolation’
     parameter is not of type ‘configparser.Interpolation’

   - bpo-29418(47): Implement *note inspect.ismethodwrapper(): a39. and
     fix *note inspect.isroutine(): 1dd6. for cases where methodwrapper
     is given.  Patch by Hakan Çelik.

   - bpo-14156(48): argparse.FileType now supports an argument of “-” in
     binary mode, returning the .buffer attribute of
     sys.stdin/sys.stdout as appropriate.  Modes including “x” and “a”
     are treated equivalently to “w” when argument is “-”.  Patch
     contributed by Josh Rosenberg

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25707

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46877

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46848

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46736

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44886

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46827

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46811

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46252

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46784

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46786

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39327

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45390

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46756

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46737

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46752

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46724

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46333

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46643

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45863

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46066

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46676

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46323

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46672

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46655

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45948

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46626

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46521

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46571

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46400

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46556

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46534

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46522

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46475

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46333

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46246

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46232

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46195

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31369

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45898

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44953

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44289

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44011

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41086

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29418

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14156


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<31>,  Next: Tests<34>,  Prev: Library<101>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.9 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): ‘Doc/tools/rstlint.py’ has moved to its own
     repository and is now packaged on PyPI as ‘sphinx-lint’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<34>,  Next: Build<36>,  Prev: Documentation<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.10 Tests
................

   - bpo-46913(1): Fix test_faulthandler.test_sigfpe() if Python is
     built with undefined behavior sanitizer (UBSAN): disable UBSAN on
     the faulthandler_sigfpe() function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46760(2): Remove bytecode offsets from expected values in
     test.test_dis module.  Reduces the obstacles to modifying the VM or
     compiler.

   - bpo-46708(3): Prevent default asyncio event loop policy
     modification warning after ‘test_asyncio’ execution.

   - bpo-46678(4): The function ‘make_legacy_pyc’ in
     ‘Lib/test/support/import_helper.py’ no longer fails when
     ‘PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX’ is set to a directory on a different device
     from where tempfiles are stored.

   - bpo-46623(5): Skip test_pair() and test_speech128() of test_zlib on
     s390x since they fail if zlib uses the s390x hardware accelerator.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46913

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46760

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46678

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46623


File: python.info,  Node: Build<36>,  Next: Windows<31>,  Prev: Tests<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.11 Build
................

   - bpo-46860(1): Respect ‘--with-suffix’ when building on
     case-insensitive file systems.

   - bpo-46656(2): Building Python now requires a C11 compiler.
     Optional C11 features are not required.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46656(3): Building Python now requires support for
     floating-point Not-a-Number (NaN): remove the ‘Py_NO_NAN’ macro.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46640(4): Building Python now requires a C99 ‘<math.h>’ header
     file providing a ‘NAN’ constant, or the ‘__builtin_nan()’ built-in
     function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46608(5): Exclude marshalled-frozen data if deep-freezing to
     save 300 KB disk space.  This includes adding a new ‘is_package’
     field to *note _frozen: b57.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-40280(6): Fix wasm32-emscripten test failures and platform
     issues.  - Disable syscalls that are not supported or don’t work,
     e.g.  wait, getrusage, prlimit, mkfifo, mknod, setres[gu]id,
     setgroups.  - Use fd_count to count open fds.  - Add more checks
     for subprocess and fork.  - Add workarounds for missing
     _multiprocessing and failing socket.accept().  - Enable bzip2.  -
     Disable large file support.  - Disable signal.alarm.

   - bpo-46430(7): Intern strings in deep-frozen modules.  Patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46860

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46640

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46608

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46430


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<31>,  Next: IDLE<17>,  Prev: Build<36>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.12 Windows
..................

   - bpo-46744(1): The default all users install directory for ARM64 is
     now under the native ‘Program Files’ folder, rather than ‘Program
     Files (Arm)’ which is intended for ARM (32-bit) files.

   - bpo-46567(2): Adds Tcl and Tk support for Windows ARM64.  This also
     adds IDLE to the installation.

   - bpo-46638(3): Ensures registry virtualization is consistently
     disabled.  For 3.10 and earlier, it remains enabled (some registry
     writes are protected), while for 3.11 and later it is disabled
     (registry modifications affect all applications).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46744

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46567

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46638


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<17>,  Next: C API<33>,  Prev: Windows<31>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.13 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-46630(1): Make query dialogs on Windows start with a cursor in
     the entry box.

   - bpo-45447(2): Apply IDLE syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files.
     Patch by Alex Waygood and Terry Jan Reedy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447


File: python.info,  Node: C API<33>,  Prev: IDLE<17>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6

1.26.36.14 C API
................

   - bpo-46748(1): Python’s public headers no longer import
     ‘<stdbool.h>’, leaving code that embeds/extends Python free to
     define ‘bool’, ‘true’ and ‘false’.

   - bpo-46836(2): Move the *note PyFrameObject: b68. type definition
     (‘struct _frame’) to the internal C API ‘pycore_frame.h’ header
     file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45459(3): Rename ‘Include/buffer.h’ header file to
     ‘Include/pybuffer.h’ to avoid conflicts with projects having an
     existing ‘buffer.h’ header file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45412(4): Remove the ‘HAVE_PY_SET_53BIT_PRECISION’ macro (moved
     to the internal C API). Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46613(5): Added function *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 827,
     which allows access to module state when a method’s defining class
     is not available.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46748

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46836

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46613


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.26.37 Python 3.11.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-02-03'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<101>.
* Library: Library<102>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<102>.
* Library: Library<103>.
* Build: Build<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<103>.
* Library: Library<104>.
* Documentation: Documentation<32>.
* Tests: Tests<35>.
* Build: Build<38>.
* Windows: Windows<32>.
* macOS: macOS<24>.
* IDLE: IDLE<18>.
* C API: C API<34>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<101>,  Next: Library<102>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-45773(1): Remove two invalid «peephole» optimizations from the
     bytecode compiler.

   - bpo-46564(2): Do not create frame objects when creating *note
     super: 443. object.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45885(3): Added more fined-grained specialization failure stats
     regarding the ‘COMPARE_OP’ bytecode.

   - bpo-44977(4): The delegation of *note int(): 326. to ‘__trunc__()’
     is now deprecated.  Calling ‘int(a)’ when ‘type(a)’ implements
     ‘__trunc__()’ but not ‘__int__()’ or ‘__index__()’ now raises a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.

   - bpo-46458(5): Reorder code emitted by the compiler for a *note try:
     ad6.-*note except: 447. block so that the *note else: 320. block’s
     code immediately follows the ‘try’ body (without a jump).  This is
     more optimal for the happy path.

   - bpo-46527(6): Allow passing ‘iterable’ as a keyword argument to
     *note enumerate(): 1823. again.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46528(7): Replace several stack manipulation instructions
     (‘DUP_TOP’, ‘DUP_TOP_TWO’, ‘ROT_TWO’, ‘ROT_THREE’, ‘ROT_FOUR’, and
     ‘ROT_N’) with new *note COPY: af5. and *note SWAP: af6.
     instructions.

   - bpo-46329(8): Use two or three bytecodes to implement most calls.

     Calls without named arguments are implemented as a sequence of two
     instructions: ‘PRECALL; CALL’.  Calls with named arguments are
     implemented as a sequence of three instructions: ‘PRECALL;
     KW_NAMES; CALL’.  There are two different ‘PRECALL’ instructions:
     ‘PRECALL_FUNTION’ and ‘PRECALL_METHOD’.  The latter pairs with
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’.

     This partition into pre-call and call allows better specialization,
     and thus better performance ultimately.

     There is no change in semantics.

   - bpo-46503(9): Fix an assert when parsing some invalid N escape
     sequences in f-strings.

   - bpo-46431(10): Improve error message on invalid calls to
     ‘BaseExceptionGroup.__new__()’.

   - bpo-46476(11): Fix memory leak in code objects generated by
     deepfreeze.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46481(12): Speed up calls to ‘weakref.ref.__call__()’ by using
     the PEP 590(13) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-46417(14): Fix a race condition on setting a type ‘__bases__’
     attribute: the internal function ‘add_subclass()’ now gets the
     ‘PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses’ member after calling *note
     PyWeakref_NewRef(): 1ddf. which can trigger a garbage collection
     which can indirectly modify ‘PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses’.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46417(15): ‘python -X showrefcount’ now shows the total
     reference count after clearing and destroyed the main Python
     interpreter.  Previously, it was shown before.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-43683(16): Add ASYNC_GEN_WRAP opcode to wrap the value to be
     yielded in async generators.  Removes the need to special case
     async generators in the ‘YIELD_VALUE’ instruction.

   - bpo-46407(17): Optimize some modulo operations in
     ‘Objects/longobject.c’.  Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

   - bpo-46409(18): Add new ‘RETURN_GENERATOR’ bytecode to make
     generators.  Simplifies calling Python functions in the VM, as they
     no longer any need to special case generator functions.

     Also add ‘JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT’ bytecode that acts like
     ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’, but does not check for interrupts.

   - bpo-46406(19): The integer division ‘//’ implementation has been
     optimized to better let the compiler understand its constraints.
     It can be 20% faster on the amd64 platform when dividing an int by
     a value smaller than ‘2**30’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45773

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44977

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46458

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46527

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46528

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46329

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46503

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46431

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46476

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46481

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46417

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46417

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43683

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46407

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46409

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46406


File: python.info,  Node: Library<102>,  Next: Core and Builtins<102>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<101>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-46383(1): Fix invalid signature of ‘_zoneinfo’’s ‘module_free’
     function to resolve a crash on wasm32-emscripten platform.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46383


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<102>,  Next: Library<103>,  Prev: Library<102>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.3 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46361(1): Ensure that «small» integers created by *note
     int.from_bytes(): 198e. and *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2. are
     properly cached.

   - bpo-46161(2): Fix the class building error when the arguments are
     constants and CALL_FUNCTION_EX is used.

   - bpo-46028(3): Fixes calculation of ‘sys._base_executable’ when
     inside a virtual environment that uses symlinks with different
     binary names than the base environment provides.

   - bpo-46091(4): Correctly calculate indentation levels for lines with
     whitespace character that are ended by line continuation
     characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46361

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46161

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46028

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46091


File: python.info,  Node: Library<103>,  Next: Build<37>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<102>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.4 Library
.................

   - bpo-30512(1): Add CAN Socket support for NetBSD.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30512


File: python.info,  Node: Build<37>,  Next: Core and Builtins<103>,  Prev: Library<103>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-46045(1): Do not use POSIX semaphores on NetBSD

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46045


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<103>,  Next: Library<104>,  Prev: Build<37>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.6 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-44024(1): Improve the *note TypeError: 291. message for
     non-string second arguments passed to the built-in functions *note
     getattr(): f8f. and *note hasattr(): 8e2.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44024


File: python.info,  Node: Library<104>,  Next: Documentation<32>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<103>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.7 Library
.................

   - bpo-46624(1): Restore support for non-integer arguments of *note
     random.randrange(): c41. and *note random.randint(): 15d5.

   - bpo-46591(2): Make the IDLE doc URL on the About IDLE dialog
     clickable.

   - bpo-46565(3): Remove loop variables that are leaking into modules”
     namespaces.

   - bpo-46553(4): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e, support
     evaluating bare stringified ‘ClassVar’ annotations.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46544(5): Don’t leak ‘x’ & ‘uspace’ intermediate vars in *note
     textwrap.TextWrapper: 1376.

   - bpo-46487(6): Add the ‘get_write_buffer_limits’ method to
     ‘asyncio.transports.WriteTransport’ and to the SSL transport.

   - bpo-45173(7): Note the configparser deprecations will be removed in
     Python 3.12.

   - bpo-45162(8): The deprecated *note unittest: 10f. APIs removed in
     3.11a1 have been temporarily restored to be removed in 3.12 while
     cleanups in external projects go in.

   - bpo-46539(9): In *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e, support
     evaluating stringified ‘ClassVar’ and ‘Final’ annotations inside
     ‘Annotated’.  Patch by Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46510(10): Add missing test for *note types.TracebackType: eb8.
     and *note types.FrameType: 1de6.  Calculate them directly from the
     caught exception without calling *note sys.exc_info(): a7a.

   - bpo-46491(11): Allow *note typing.Annotated: d09. to wrap *note
     typing.Final: 76f. and *note typing.ClassVar: 76e.  Patch by
     Gregory Beauregard.

   - bpo-46483(12): Remove *note __class_getitem__(): b21. from *note
     pathlib.PurePath: 8b6. as this class was not supposed to be
     generic.

   - bpo-46436(13): Fix command-line option ‘-d’/‘--directory’ in module
     *note http.server: 75. which is ignored when combined with
     command-line option ‘--cgi’.  Patch by Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-41403(14): Make ‘mock.patch()’ raise a *note TypeError: 291.
     with a relevant error message on invalid arg.  Previously it
     allowed a cryptic *note AttributeError: 1a9. to escape.

   - bpo-46474(15): In ‘importlib.metadata.EntryPoint.pattern’, avoid
     potential REDoS by limiting ambiguity in consecutive whitespace.

   - bpo-46474(16): Removed private method from
     ‘importlib.metadata.Path’.  Sync with importlib_metadata 4.10.0.

   - bpo-46470(17): Remove unused branch from
     ‘typing._remove_dups_flatten’

   - bpo-46469(18): *note asyncio: b. generic classes now return *note
     types.GenericAlias: bc7. in ‘__class_getitem__’ instead of the same
     class.

   - bpo-41906(19): Support passing filter instances in the ‘filters’
     values of ‘handlers’ and ‘loggers’ in the dictionary passed to
     *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 1559.

   - bpo-46422(20): Use ‘dis.Positions’ in ‘dis.Instruction’ instead of
     a regular ‘tuple’.

   - bpo-46434(21): *note pdb: aa. now gracefully handles ‘help’ when
     *note __doc__: 1de7. is missing, for example when run with
     pregenerated optimized ‘.pyc’ files.

   - bpo-43869(22): Python uses the same time Epoch on all platforms.
     Add an explicit unit test to ensure that it’s the case.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46414(23): Add *note typing.reveal_type(): a98.  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-40280(24): *note subprocess: df. now imports Windows-specific
     imports when ‘msvcrt’ module is available, and POSIX-specific
     imports on all other platforms.  This gives a clean exception when
     ‘_posixsubprocess’ is not available (e.g.  Emscripten browser
     target).

   - bpo-40066(25): ‘IntEnum’, ‘IntFlag’, and ‘StrEnum’ use the mixed-in
     type for their ‘str()’ and ‘format()’ output.

   - bpo-46316(26): Optimize *note pathlib.Path.iterdir(): 4f6. by
     removing an unnecessary check for special entries.

   - bpo-29688(27): Document *note pathlib.Path.absolute(): 1c2e. (which
     has always existed).

   - bpo-43012(28): The pathlib module’s obsolete and internal
     ‘_Accessor’ class has been removed to prepare the terrain for
     upcoming enhancements to the module.

   - bpo-46258(29): Speed up *note math.isqrt(): dc7. for small positive
     integers by replacing two division steps with a lookup table.

   - bpo-46242(30): Improve error message when creating a new *note
     enum.Enum: a21. type subclassing an existing ‘Enum’ with
     ‘_member_names_’ using ‘enum.Enum.__call__()’.

   - bpo-43118(31): Fix a bug in *note inspect.signature(): 4bd. that
     was causing it to fail on some subclasses of classes with a
     ‘__text_signature__’ referencing module globals.  Patch by Weipeng
     Hong.

   - bpo-26552(32): Fixed case where failing *note
     asyncio.ensure_future(): 1035. did not close the coroutine.  Patch
     by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-21987(33): Fix an issue with *note tarfile.TarFile.getmember():
     1de8. getting a directory name with a trailing slash.

   - bpo-46124(34): Update *note zoneinfo: 13d. to rely on
     importlib.resources traversable API.

   - bpo-46103(35): Now *note inspect.getmembers(): 1de9. only gets
     ‘__bases__’ attribute from class type.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-46080(36): Fix exception in argparse help text generation if a
     *note argparse.BooleanOptionalAction: 1db. argument’s default is
     ‘argparse.SUPPRESS’ and it has ‘help’ specified.  Patch by Felix
     Fontein.

   - bpo-44791(37): Fix substitution of *note ParamSpec: 295. in *note
     Concatenate: ba4. with different parameter expressions.
     Substitution with a list of types returns now a tuple of types.
     Substitution with ‘Concatenate’ returns now a ‘Concatenate’ with
     concatenated lists of arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46624

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46591

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46565

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46553

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46544

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46487

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45162

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46539

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46510

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46491

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46483

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46436

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41403

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46474

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46474

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46470

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46469

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41906

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46422

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46434

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43869

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46414

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46316

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29688

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43012

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46258

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46242

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43118

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26552

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21987

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46124

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46103

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46080

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44791


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<32>,  Next: Tests<35>,  Prev: Library<104>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.8 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-46463(1): Fixes ‘escape4chm.py’ script used when building the
     CHM documentation file

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46463


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<35>,  Next: Build<38>,  Prev: Documentation<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.9 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43478(1): Mocks can no longer be provided as the specs for
     other Mocks.  As a result, an already-mocked object cannot be
     passed to ‘mock.Mock()’.  This can uncover bugs in tests since
     these Mock-derived Mocks will always pass certain tests (e.g.
     isinstance) and builtin assert functions (e.g.
     assert_called_once_with) will unconditionally pass.

   - bpo-46616(2): Ensures ‘test_importlib.test_windows’ cleans up
     registry keys after completion.

   - bpo-44359(3): test_ftplib now silently ignores socket errors to
     prevent logging unhandled threading exceptions.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46600(4): Fix test_gdb.test_pycfunction() for Python built with
     ‘clang -Og’.  Tolerate inlined functions in the gdb traceback.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46542(5): Fix a Python crash in test_lib2to3 when using Python
     built in debug mode: limit the recursion limit.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-46576(6): test_peg_generator now disables compiler optimization
     when testing compilation of its own C extensions to significantly
     speed up the testing on non-debug builds of CPython.

   - bpo-46542(7): Fix ‘test_json’ tests checking for *note
     RecursionError: 1121.: modify these tests to use
     ‘support.infinite_recursion()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-13886(8): Skip test_builtin PTY tests on non-ASCII characters
     if the readline module is loaded.  The readline module changes
     input() behavior, but test_builtin is not intended to test the
     readline module.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(9): Add ‘test.support.requires_fork()’ decorators to mark
     tests that require a working *note os.fork(): 6bd.

   - bpo-40280(10): Add ‘test.support.requires_subprocess()’ decorator
     to mark tests which require working *note subprocess: df. module or
     ‘os.spawn*’.  The wasm32-emscripten platform has no support for
     processes.

   - bpo-46126(11): Disable “descriptions” when running tests
     internally.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43478

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46616

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44359

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46600

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46542

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46576

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46542

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13886

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46126


File: python.info,  Node: Build<38>,  Next: Windows<32>,  Prev: Tests<35>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.10 Build
................

   - bpo-46602(1): Tidied up configure.ac so that conftest.c is
     truncated rather than appended.  This assists in the case where the
     “rm” of conftest.c fails to happen between tests.  Downstream
     issues such as a clobbered SOABI can result.

   - bpo-46600(2): Fix the test checking if the C compiler supports
     ‘-Og’ option in the ‘./configure’ script to also use ‘-Og’ on clang
     which supports it.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38472(3): Fix GCC detection in setup.py when cross-compiling.
     The C compiler is now run with LC_ALL=C. Previously, the detection
     failed with a German locale.

   - bpo-46513(4): ‘configure’ no longer uses ‘AC_C_CHAR_UNSIGNED’ macro
     and ‘pyconfig.h’ no longer defines reserved symbol
     ‘__CHAR_UNSIGNED__’.

   - bpo-46471(5): Use global singletons for single byte bytes objects
     in deepfreeze.

   - bpo-46443(6): Deepfreeze now uses cached small integers as it saves
     some space for common small integers.

   - bpo-46429(7): Merge all deep-frozen files into one for space
     savings.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45569(8): The build now defaults to using 30-bit digits for
     Python integers.  Previously either 15-bit or 30-bit digits would
     be selected, depending on the platform.  15-bit digits may still be
     selected using the ‘--enable-big-digits=15’ option to the
     ‘configure’ script, or by defining ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’ in
     ‘pyconfig.h’.

   - bpo-45925(9): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.37.2.

   - bpo-43112(10): Detect musl libc as a separate SOABI (tagged as
     ‘linux-musl’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46602

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38472

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46513

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46471

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46429

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45569

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45925

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43112


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<32>,  Next: macOS<24>,  Prev: Build<38>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.11 Windows
..................

   - bpo-33125(1): The traditional EXE/MSI based installer for Windows
     is now available for ARM64

   - bpo-46362(2): os.path.abspath(«C:CON») is now fixed to return
     «\.CON», not the same path.  The regression was true of all legacy
     DOS devices such as COM1, LPT1, or NUL.

   - bpo-44934(3): The installer now offers a command-line only option
     to add the installation directory to the end of ‘PATH’ instead of
     at the start.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46362

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44934


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<24>,  Next: IDLE<18>,  Prev: Windows<32>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.12 macOS
................

   - bpo-45925(1): Update macOS installer to SQLite 3.37.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45925


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<18>,  Next: C API<34>,  Prev: macOS<24>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.13 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-45296(1): Clarify close, quit, and exit in IDLE. In the File
     menu, “Close” and “Exit” are now “Close Window” (the current one)
     and “Exit” is now “Exit IDLE” (by closing all windows).  In Shell,
     “quit()” and “exit()” mean “close Shell”.  If there are no other
     windows, this also exits IDLE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45296


File: python.info,  Node: C API<34>,  Prev: IDLE<18>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5

1.26.37.14 C API
................

   - bpo-40170(1): Remove the ‘PyHeapType_GET_MEMBERS()’ macro.  It was
     exposed in the public C API by mistake, it must only be used by
     Python internally.  Use the ‘PyTypeObject.tp_members’ member
     instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40170(2): Move _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks() and
     _PyObject_DebugMallocStats() private functions to the internal C
     API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46433(3): The internal function _PyType_GetModuleByDef now
     correctly handles inheritance patterns involving static types.

   - bpo-45459(4): *note Py_buffer: b3a. and various ‘Py_buffer’ related
     functions are now part of the limited API and stable ABI.

   - bpo-14916(5): Fixed bug in the tokenizer that prevented
     ‘PyRun_InteractiveOne’ from parsing from the provided FD.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46433

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14916


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.26.38 Python 3.11.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2022-01-13'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<104>.
* Library: Library<105>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<105>.
* Library: Library<106>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<106>.
* Library: Library<107>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<107>.
* Library: Library<108>.
* Documentation: Documentation<33>.
* Tests: Tests<36>.
* Build: Build<39>.
* Windows: Windows<33>.
* macOS: macOS<25>.
* C API: C API<35>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<104>,  Next: Library<105>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46070(1): *note Py_EndInterpreter(): 1a6f. now explicitly
     untracks all objects currently tracked by the GC. Previously, if an
     object was used later by another interpreter, calling *note
     PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 18a7. on the object crashed if the previous
     or the next object of the ‘PyGC_Head’ structure became a dangling
     pointer.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-46347(2): Fix memory leak in PyEval_EvalCodeEx.

   - bpo-46339(3): Fix a crash in the parser when retrieving the error
     text for multi-line f-strings expressions that do not start in the
     first line of the string.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46331(4): Do not set line number of instruction storing
     doc-string.  Fixes regression introduced in 3.11 alpha.

   - bpo-46314(5): Remove spurious «call» event when creating a lambda
     function that was accidentally introduced in 3.11a4.

   - bpo-46289(6): ASDL declaration of ‘FormattedValue’ has changed to
     reflect ‘conversion’ field is not optional.

   - bpo-46297(7): Fixed an interpreter crash on bootup with multiple
     PythonPaths set in the Windows registry.  Patch by Derzsi Dániel.

   - bpo-46237(8): Fix the line number of tokenizer errors inside
     f-strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46263(9): We always expect the «use_frozen_modules» config to
     be set, now that getpath.c was rewritten in pure Python and the
     logic improved.

   - bpo-46006(10): Fix a regression when a type method like
     ‘__init__()’ is modified in a subinterpreter.  Fix a regression in
     ‘_PyUnicode_EqualToASCIIId()’ and type ‘update_slot()’.  Revert the
     change which made the Unicode dictionary of interned strings
     compatible with subinterpreters: the internal interned dictionary
     is shared again by all interpreters.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45923(11): Add RESUME opcode.  This is a logical no-op.  It is
     emitted by the compiler anywhere a Python function can be entered.
     It is used by the interpreter to perform tracing and optimizer
     checks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46070

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46339

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46331

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46314

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46289

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46297

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46237

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46006

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45923


File: python.info,  Node: Library<105>,  Next: Core and Builtins<105>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<104>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-46208(1): Fix the regression of os.path.normpath(«A/../../B»)
     not returning expected «../B» but «B».

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46208


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<105>,  Next: Library<106>,  Prev: Library<105>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.3 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46240(1): Correct the error message for unclosed parentheses
     when the tokenizer doesn’t reach the end of the source when the
     error is reported.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46009(2): Remove the ‘GEN_START’ opcode.

   - bpo-46235(3): Certain sequence multiplication operations like ‘[0]
     * 1_000’ are now faster due to reference-counting optimizations.
     Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-46221(4): ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’ no longer pushes ‘lasti’ to the
     stack.

   - bpo-46202(5): Remove ‘POP_EXCEPT_AND_RERAISE’ and replace it by an
     equivalent sequence of other opcodes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46240

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46009

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46235

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46221

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46202


File: python.info,  Node: Library<106>,  Next: Core and Builtins<106>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<105>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.4 Library
.................

   - bpo-46085(1): Fix iterator cache mechanism of ‘OrderedDict’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46085


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<106>,  Next: Library<107>,  Prev: Library<106>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.5 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46055(1): Speed up shifting operation involving integers less
     than *note PyLong_BASE: 1df7.  Patch by Xinhang Xu.

   - bpo-46110(2): Add a maximum recursion check to the PEG parser to
     avoid stack overflow.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-46107(3): Fix bug where ‘ExceptionGroup.split()’ and
     ‘ExceptionGroup.subgroup()’ did not copy the exception group’s
     ‘__note__’ field to the parts.

   - bpo-45711(4): The interpreter state’s representation of handled
     exceptions (a.k.a exc_info, or _PyErr_StackItem) now has only the
     ‘exc_value’ field, ‘exc_type’ and ‘exc_traceback’ have been removed
     as their values can be derived from ‘exc_value’.

   - bpo-44525(5): Replace the four call bytecode instructions which one
     pre-call instruction and two call instructions.

     Removes ‘CALL_FUNCTION’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’, ‘CALL_METHOD’ and
     ‘CALL_METHOD_KW’.

     Adds ‘CALL_NO_KW’ and ‘CALL_KW’ call instructions, and
     ‘PRECALL_METHOD’ prefix for pairing with ‘LOAD_METHOD’.

   - bpo-46039(6): Remove the ‘YIELD_FROM’ instruction and replace it
     with the ‘SEND’ instruction which performs the same operation, but
     without the loop.

   - bpo-45635(7): The code called from ‘_PyErr_Display()’ was
     refactored to improve error handling.  It now exits immediately
     upon an unrecoverable error.

   - bpo-46054(8): Fix parser error when parsing non-utf8 characters in
     source files.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46042(9): Improve the location of the caret in *note
     SyntaxError: 17e. exceptions emitted by the symbol table.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-46049(10): Ensure ‘._pth’ files work as intended on platforms
     other than Windows.

   - bpo-46048(11): Fixes parsing of ‘._pth’ files on startup so that
     single-character paths are correctly read.

   - bpo-37971(12): Fix a bug where the line numbers given in a
     traceback when a decorator application raised an exception were
     wrong.

   - bpo-46031(13): Add *note POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE: 1d7c. and *note
     POP_JUMP_IF_NONE: 1d7b. opcodes to speed up conditional jumps.

   - bpo-45654(14): Deepfreeze *note runpy: c6, patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46025(15): Fix a crash in the *note atexit: d. module involving
     functions that unregister themselves before raising exceptions.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46055

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46110

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46107

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46039

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45635

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46054

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46042

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46049

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46048

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37971

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46031

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45654

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46025


File: python.info,  Node: Library<107>,  Next: Core and Builtins<107>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<106>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.6 Library
.................

   - bpo-46000(1): Improve compatibility of the *note curses: 2e. module
     with NetBSD curses.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46000


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<107>,  Next: Library<108>,  Prev: Library<107>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.7 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-44525(1): Specialize the CALL_FUNCTION instruction for calls to
     builtin types with a single argument.  Speeds up ‘range(x)’,
     ‘list(x)’, and specifically ‘type(obj)’.

   - bpo-42918(2): Fix bug where the built-in *note compile(): 1c8.
     function did not always raise a *note SyntaxError: 17e. when passed
     multiple statements in “single” mode.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-45953(3): The main interpreter in _PyRuntimeState.interpreters
     is now statically allocated (as part of _PyRuntime).  Likewise for
     the initial thread state of each interpreter.  This means less
     allocation during runtime init, as well as better memory locality
     for these key state objects.

   - bpo-45292(4): Complete the PEP 654(5) implementation: add
     ‘except*’.

   - bpo-43413(6): Revert changes in ‘set.__init__’.  Subclass of *note
     set: 42b. needs to define a ‘__init__()’ method if it defines a
     ‘__new__()’ method with additional keyword parameters.

   - bpo-43931(7): Added the *note Py_Version: 5ae. constant which bears
     the same value as *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 5af.  Patch by Gabriele N.
     Tornetta.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42918

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45953

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43413

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43931


File: python.info,  Node: Library<108>,  Next: Documentation<33>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<107>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.8 Library
.................

   - bpo-46342(1): The ‘@typing.final’ decorator now sets the
     ‘__final__’ attribute on the decorated object to allow runtime
     introspection.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-46328(2): Added the *note sys.exception(): a7b. method which
     returns the active exception instance.

   - bpo-46307(3): Add *note string.Template.is_valid(): a76. and *note
     string.Template.get_identifiers(): a75. methods.

   - bpo-46306(4): Assume that *note types.CodeType: 2e1. always has
     ‘types.CodeType.co_firstlineno’ in *note doctest: 3d.

   - bpo-40479(5): Fix *note hashlib: 6b. 'usedforsecurity' option to
     work correctly with OpenSSL 3.0.0 in FIPS mode.

   - bpo-46070(6): Fix possible segfault when importing the *note
     asyncio: b. module from different sub-interpreters in parallel.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-46244(7): Removed ‘__slots__’ from *note typing.ParamSpec: 295.
     and *note typing.TypeVar: 294.  They served no purpose.  Patch by
     Arie Bovenberg.

   - bpo-46278(8): Reflect ‘context’ argument in
     ‘AbstractEventLoop.call_*()’ methods.  Loop implementations already
     support it.

   - bpo-46269(9): Remove special-casing of ‘__new__’ in *note
     enum.Enum.__dir__(): 1dfb.

   - bpo-46266(10): Improve day constants in *note calendar: 15.

     Now all constants (‘MONDAY’ … ‘SUNDAY’) are documented, tested, and
     added to ‘__all__’.

   - bpo-46257(11): Optimized the mean, variance, and stdev functions in
     the statistics module.  If the input is an iterator, it is consumed
     in a single pass rather than eating memory by conversion to a list.
     The single pass algorithm is about twice as fast as the previous
     two pass code.

   - bpo-41011(12): Added two new variables to 'pyvenv.cfg' which is
     generated by *note venv: 11a. module: 'executable' for the
     executable and 'command' for the command line used to create the
     environment.

   - bpo-46239(13): Improve error message when importing
     ‘asyncio.windows_events’ on non-Windows.

   - bpo-46238(14): Reuse ‘_winapi’ constants in
     ‘asyncio.windows_events’.

   - bpo-46222(15): Adding ‘SF_NOCACHE’ sendfile constant for FreeBSD
     for the posixmodule.

   - bpo-37295(16): Add fast path for ‘0 <= k <= n <= 67’ for *note
     math.comb(): abd.

   - bpo-46176(17): Adding the ‘MAP_STACK’ constant for the mmap module.

   - bpo-43424(18): Deprecate ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript._name’ and use
     ‘name’ instead.

   - bpo-45321(19): Added missing error codes to module
     ‘xml.parsers.expat.errors’.

   - bpo-46125(20): Refactor tests to test traversable API directly.
     Includes changes from importlib 5.4.0.

   - bpo-46118(21): Moved importlib.resources and its related
     functionality to a package.

   - bpo-37578(22): Add 'include_hidden' parameter to *note glob(): 2d4.
     and *note iglob(): be1. to match hidden files and directories when
     using special characters like ‘*’, ‘**’, ‘?’ and ‘[]’.

   - bpo-20369(23): *note concurrent.futures.wait(): 1dfc. no longer
     blocks forever when given duplicate Futures.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46105(24): Honor spec when generating requirement specs with
     urls and extras (importlib_metadata 4.8.3).

   - bpo-44893(25): EntryPoint objects are no longer tuples.
     Recommended means to access is by attribute (“.name”, “.group”) or
     accessor (“.load()”).  Access by index is deprecated and will raise
     deprecation warning.

   - bpo-22815(26): Print unexpected successes together with failures
     and errors in summary in *note unittest.TextTestResult: 93f.

   - bpo-22047(27): Calling ‘add_argument_group()’ on an argument group
     is deprecated.  Calling ‘add_argument_group()’ or
     ‘add_mutually_exclusive_group()’ on a mutually exclusive group is
     deprecated.

     These features were never supported and do not always work
     correctly.  The functions exist on the API by accident through
     inheritance and will be removed in the future.

   - bpo-26952(28): *note argparse: 7. raises *note ValueError: 277.
     with clear message when trying to render usage for an empty
     mutually exclusive group.  Previously it raised a cryptic *note
     IndexError: 18d7.

   - bpo-45615(29): Functions in the *note traceback: 107. module raise
     *note TypeError: 291. rather than *note AttributeError: 1a9. when
     an exception argument is not of type *note BaseException: 9b9.

   - bpo-16594(30): Add allow allow_reuse_port flag in socketserver.

   - bpo-27718(31): Fix help for the *note signal: ce. module.  Some
     functions (e.g.  ‘signal()’ and ‘getsignal()’) were omitted.

   - bpo-46032(32): The ‘registry()’ method of *note
     functools.singledispatch(): a2a. functions checks now the first
     argument or the first parameter annotation and raises a TypeError
     if it is not supported.  Previously unsupported «types» were
     ignored (e.g.  ‘typing.List[int]’) or caused an error at calling
     time (e.g.  ‘list[int]’).

   - bpo-46014(33): Add ability to use ‘typing.Union’ and
     ‘types.UnionType’ as dispatch argument to
     ‘functools.singledispatch’.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-27062(34): Add ‘__all__’ to *note inspect: 81, patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46018(35): Ensure that *note math.expm1(): 1595. does not raise
     on underflow.

   - bpo-46016(36): Adding ‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ constants
     from FreeBSD into the *note fcntl: 5c. module.

   - bpo-45755(37): *note typing: 10d. generic aliases now reveal the
     class attributes of the original generic class when passed to
     ‘dir()’.  This was the behavior up to Python 3.6, but was changed
     in 3.7-3.9.

   - bpo-45874(38): The empty query string, consisting of no query
     arguments, is now handled correctly in ‘urllib.parse.parse_qsl’.
     This caused problems before when strict parsing was enabled.

   - bpo-44674(39): Change how dataclasses disallows mutable default
     values.  It used to use a list of known types (list, dict, set).
     Now it disallows unhashable objects to be defaults.  It’s using
     unhashability as a proxy for mutability.  Patch by Eric V. Smith,
     idea by Raymond Hettinger.

   - bpo-23882(40): Remove namespace package (PEP 420) support from
     unittest discovery.  It was introduced in Python 3.4 but has been
     broken since Python 3.7.

   - bpo-25066(41): Added a ‘__repr__()’ method to *note
     multiprocessing.Event: 1dfd. objects, patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-45643(42): Added *note signal.SIGSTKFLT: 1dfe. on platforms
     where this signal is defined.

   - bpo-44092(43): Fetch across rollback no longer raises *note
     InterfaceError: a6d.  Instead we leave it to the SQLite library to
     handle these cases.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42413(44): Replace ‘concurrent.futures.TimeoutError’ and
     ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’ with builtin *note TimeoutError: c0e, keep
     these names as deprecated aliases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46342

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46328

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46307

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46306

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46070

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46244

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46278

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46269

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46266

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46257

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41011

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46239

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46238

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46222

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46176

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43424

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45321

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46125

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46118

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37578

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20369

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46105

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44893

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22815

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22047

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26952

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45615

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16594

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27718

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46032

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46014

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27062

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46018

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46016

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45755

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45874

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23882

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25066

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45643

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44092

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<33>,  Next: Tests<36>,  Prev: Library<108>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.9 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-46196(1): Document method *note cmd.Cmd.columnize(): 1e00.

   - bpo-46120(2): State that ‘|’ is preferred for readability over
     ‘Union’ in the *note typing: 10d. docs.

   - bpo-46109(3): Extracted ‘importlib.resources’ and
     ‘importlib.resources.abc’ documentation into separate files.

   - bpo-19737(4): Update the documentation for the *note globals():
     1e01. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46196

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46120

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46109

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19737


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<36>,  Next: Build<39>,  Prev: Documentation<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.10 Tests
................

   - bpo-46296(1): Add a test case for *note enum: 59. with ‘_use_args_
     == True’ and ‘_member_type_ == object’.

   - bpo-46205(2): Fix hang in runtest_mp due to race condition

   - bpo-46263(3): Fix test_capi on FreeBSD 14-dev: instruct jemalloc to
     not fill freed memory with junk byte.

   - bpo-46262(4): Cover ‘ValueError’ path in tests for
     ‘enum.Flag._missing_()’.

   - bpo-46150(5): Now ‘fakename’ in
     ‘test_pathlib.PosixPathTest.test_expanduser’ is checked to be
     non-existent.

   - bpo-46129(6): Rewrite ‘asyncio.locks’ tests with *note
     unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342. usage.

   - bpo-23819(7): Fixed *note asyncio: b. tests in python optimized
     mode.  Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46114(8): Fix test case for OpenSSL 3.0.1 version.  OpenSSL 3.0
     uses ‘0xMNN00PP0L’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46296

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46205

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46262

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46150

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46129

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23819

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46114


File: python.info,  Node: Build<39>,  Next: Windows<33>,  Prev: Tests<36>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.11 Build
................

   - bpo-44133(1): When Python is configured with *note
     -without-static-libpython: c64, the Python static library
     (libpython.a) is no longer built.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44133(2): When Python is built without *note -enable-shared:
     c3a, the ‘python’ program is now linked to object files, rather
     than being linked to the Python static library (libpython.a), to
     make sure that all symbols are exported.  Previously, the linker
     omitted some symbols like the ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ function.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(3): The ‘configure’ script has a new option
     ‘--with-emscripten-target’ to select browser or node as Emscripten
     build target.

   - bpo-46315(4): Added and fixed ‘#ifdef HAVE_FEATURE’ checks for
     functionality that is not available on WASI platform.

   - bpo-45723(5): Fixed a regression in ‘configure’ check for *note
     select.epoll(): 133d.

   - bpo-46263(6): ‘configure’ no longer sets ‘MULTIARCH’ on FreeBSD
     platforms.

   - bpo-46106(7): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1m in Windows builds, macOS
     installer builds, and CI. Patch by Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-46088(8): Automatically detect or install bootstrap Python
     runtime when building from Visual Studio.

   - bpo-46072(9): Add a –with-pystats configure option to turn on
     internal statistics gathering.

   - bpo-40280(10): A new directory ‘Tools/wasm’ contains
     WebAssembly-related helpers like ‘config.site’ override for
     wasm32-emscripten, wasm assets generator to bundle the stdlib, and
     a README.

   - bpo-46023(11): ‘makesetup’ no longer builds extensions that have
     been marked as 'disabled'.  This allows users to disable modules in
     ‘Modules/Setup.local’.

   - bpo-45949(12): Use pure Python ‘freeze_module’ for all but
     importlib bootstrap files.  ‘--with-freeze-module’ ‘configure’
     option is no longer needed for cross builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44133

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44133

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46315

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46263

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46106

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46088

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46072

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46023

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45949


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<33>,  Next: macOS<25>,  Prev: Build<39>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.12 Windows
..................

   - bpo-46217(1): Removed parameter that is unsupported on Windows 8.1
     and early Windows 10 and may have caused build or runtime failures.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46217


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<25>,  Next: C API<35>,  Prev: Windows<33>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.13 macOS
................

   - bpo-40477(1): The Python Launcher app for macOS now properly
     launches scripts and, if necessary, the Terminal app when running
     on recent macOS releases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40477


File: python.info,  Node: C API<35>,  Prev: macOS<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4

1.26.38.14 C API
................

   - bpo-46236(1): Fix a bug in *note PyFunction_GetAnnotations(): 1d35.
     that caused it to return a ‘tuple’ instead of a ‘dict’.

   - bpo-46140(2): *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): b3b, *note
     PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): b3e, *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): b3d.
     and *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): b43. now take buffer info by
     ‘const Py_buffer *’ instead of ‘Py_buffer *’, as they do not need
     mutability.  ‘PyBuffer_FromContiguous()’ also now takes the source
     buffer as ‘const void *’, and similarly ‘PyBuffer_GetPointer()’
     takes the strides as ‘const Py_ssize_t *’.

   - bpo-45855(3): Document that the 'no_block' argument to *note
     PyCapsule_Import(): 1e07. is a no-op now.

   - bpo-45855(4): Replaced deprecated usage of
     ‘PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()’ with *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3. in stdlib modules.  Patch by Kumar
     Aditya.

   - bpo-46007(5): The ‘PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED()’ macro has been
     excluded from the limited C API. It was never usable there, because
     it used internal structures which are not available in the limited
     C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46236

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46140

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45855

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45855

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46007


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.39 Python 3.11.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-12-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<108>.
* Library: Library<109>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<109>.
* Library: Library<110>.
* Documentation: Documentation<34>.
* Tests: Tests<37>.
* Build: Build<40>.
* Windows: Windows<34>.
* macOS: macOS<26>.
* C API: C API<36>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<108>,  Next: Library<109>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.26.39.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-46009(1): Restore behavior from 3.9 and earlier when sending
     non-None to newly started generator.  In 3.9 this did not affect
     the state of the generator.  In 3.10.0 and 3.10.1
     ‘gen_func().send(0)’ is equivalent to
     ‘gen_func().throw(TypeError(...)’ which exhausts the generator.  In
     3.10.2 onward, the behavior has been reverted to that of 3.9.

   - bpo-46004(2): Fix the *note SyntaxError: 17e. location for errors
     involving for loops with invalid targets.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45711(3): ‘_PyErr_ChainStackItem()’ no longer normalizes
     ‘exc_info’ (including setting the traceback on the exception
     instance) because ‘exc_info’ is always normalized.

   - bpo-45607(4): The ‘__note__’ field was added to *note
     BaseException: 9b9.  It is ‘None’ by default but can be set to a
     string which is added to the exception’s traceback.

   - bpo-45947(5): Place pointers to dict and values immediately before
     GC header.  This reduces number of dependent memory loads to access
     either dict or values from 3 to 1.

   - bpo-45915(6): ‘is_valid_fd’ now uses faster ‘fcntl(fd, F_GETFD)’ on
     Linux, macOS, and Windows.

   - bpo-44530(7): Reverts a change to the ‘code.__new__’ *note audit
     event: 1e0a. from an earlier prerelease.

   - bpo-42268(8): Fail the configure step if the selected compiler
     doesn’t support memory sanitizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45711(9): The three values of ‘exc_info’ are now always
     consistent with each other.  In particular, the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ fields are now derived from the exception instance.
     This impacts the return values of *note sys.exc_info(): a7a. and
     *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): b54. if the exception instance is
     modified while the exception is handled, as well as *note
     PyErr_SetExcInfo(): b53, which now ignores the ‘type’ and
     ‘traceback’ arguments provided to it.

   - bpo-45727(10): Refine the custom syntax error that suggests that a
     comma may be missing to trigger only when the expressions are
     detected between parentheses or brackets.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45885(11): Specialized the ‘COMPARE_OP’ opcode using the PEP
     659 machinery.

   - bpo-45786(12): Allocate space for the interpreter frame in the
     frame object, to avoid an additional allocation when the frame
     object outlives the frame activation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46009

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46004

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45607

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45915

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44530

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42268

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45727

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45885

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45786


File: python.info,  Node: Library<109>,  Next: Core and Builtins<109>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<108>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.26.39.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-45614(1): Fix *note traceback: 107. display for exceptions with
     invalid module name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45614


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<109>,  Next: Library<110>,  Prev: Library<109>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.26.39.3 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-45813(1): Fix crash when calling coro.cr_frame.clear() after
     coroutine has been freed.

   - bpo-45811(2): Improve the tokenizer errors when encountering
     invisible control characters in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45848(3): Allow the parser to obtain error lines directly from
     encoded files.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45709(4): Restore behavior from 3.10 when tracing an exception
     raised within a with statement.

   - bpo-44525(5): Adds new *note COPY_FREE_VARS: aeb. opcode, to make
     copying of free variables from function to frame explicit.  Helps
     optimization of calls to Python function.

   - bpo-45829(6): Specialize ‘BINARY_SUBSCR’ for classes with a
     ‘__getitem__’ method implemented in Python

   - bpo-45826(7): Fixed a crash when calling ‘.with_traceback(None)’ on
     ‘NameError’.  This occurs internally in
     ‘unittest.TestCase.assertRaises()’.

   - bpo-45822(8): Fixed a bug in the parser that was causing it to not
     respect PEP 263(9) coding cookies when no flags are provided.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45820(10): Fix a segfault when the parser fails without reading
     any input.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45636(11): Simplify the implementation of *note BINARY_OP: 595.
     by indexing into an array of function pointers (rather than
     switching on the oparg).

   - bpo-42540(12): Fix crash when *note os.fork(): 6bd. is called with
     an active non-default memory allocator.

   - bpo-45738(13): Fix computation of error location for invalid
     continuation characters in the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45636(14): Remove an existing «fast path» for old-style string
     formatting, since it no longer appears to have any measurable
     impact.

   - bpo-45753(15): Make recursion checks a bit more efficient by
     tracking amount of calls left before overflow.

   - bpo-45773(16): Fix a compiler hang when attempting to optimize
     certain jump patterns.

   - bpo-45764(17): The parser now gives a better error message when
     leaving out the opening parenthesis ‘(’ after a ‘def’-statement:

          >>> def f:
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              def f:
                   ^
          SyntaxError: expected '('

   - bpo-45609(18): Specialized the ‘STORE_SUBSCR’ opcode using the PEP
     659 machinery.

   - bpo-45636(19): Replace all numeric ‘BINARY_*’ and ‘INPLACE_*’
     instructions with a single *note BINARY_OP: 595. implementation.

   - bpo-45582(20): Path calculation (known as ‘getpath’) has been
     reimplemented as a frozen Python module.  This should have no
     visible impact, but may affect calculation of all paths referenced
     in *note sys: e2. and *note sysconfig: e4.

   - bpo-45450(21): Improve the syntax error message for parenthesized
     arguments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45813

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45811

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45848

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45829

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45826

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45822

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45820

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42540

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45738

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45753

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45773

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45764

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45609

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45636

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45582

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45450


File: python.info,  Node: Library<110>,  Next: Documentation<34>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<109>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.26.39.4 Library
.................

   - bpo-27946(1): Fix possible crash when getting an attribute of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 343. simultaneously with replacing
     the ‘attrib’ dict.

   - bpo-45711(2): Make *note asyncio: b. normalize exceptions as soon
     as they are captured with *note PyErr_Fetch(): 63b, and before they
     are stored as an exc_info triplet.  This brings ‘asyncio’ in line
     with the rest of the codebase, where an exc_info triplet is always
     normalized.

   - bpo-23819(3): Replaced asserts with exceptions in asyncio, patch by
     Kumar Aditya.

   - bpo-13236(4): *note unittest.TextTestResult: 93f. and *note
     unittest.TextTestRunner: 1cb9. flush now the output stream more
     often.

   - bpo-45917(5): Added *note math.exp2(): a50.:, which returns 2
     raised to the power of x.

   - bpo-37658(6): Fix issue when on certain conditions
     ‘asyncio.wait_for()’ may allow a coroutine to complete
     successfully, but fail to return the result, potentially causing
     memory leaks or other issues.

   - bpo-45876(7): Improve the accuracy of stdev() and pstdev() in the
     statistics module.  When the inputs are floats or fractions, the
     output is a correctly rounded float

   - bpo-44649(8): Handle dataclass(slots=True) with a field that has
     default a default value, but for which init=False.

   - bpo-45803(9): Added missing kw_only parameter to
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().

   - bpo-45837(10): The ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ is deprecated
     since Python 3.1, it now emits a deprecation warning and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.

     Use ‘turtle.RawTurtle.tiltangle()’ instead.

     ‘turtle.RawTurtle.tiltangle()’ was earlier incorrectly marked as
     deprecated, its docstring has been corrected.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45831(11): *note faulthandler: 5b. can now write ASCII-only
     strings (like filenames and function names) with a single write()
     syscall when dumping a traceback.  It reduces the risk of getting
     an unreadable dump when two threads or two processes dump a
     traceback to the same file (like stderr) at the same time.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45828(12): ‘sqlite’ C callbacks now use unraisable exceptions
     if callback tracebacks are enabled.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41735(13): Fix thread lock in ‘zlib.Decompress.flush()’ method
     before ‘PyObject_GetBuffer’.

   - bpo-45235(14): Reverted an argparse bugfix that caused regression
     in the handling of default arguments for subparsers.  This
     prevented leaf level arguments from taking precedence over root
     level arguments.

   - bpo-45754(15): Fix a regression in Python 3.11a1 and 3.11a2 where
     *note sqlite3: d7. incorrectly would use ‘SQLITE_LIMIT_LENGTH’ when
     checking SQL statement lengths.  Now, ‘SQLITE_LIMIT_SQL_LENGTH’ is
     used.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45766(16): Added 'proportional' option to *note
     statistics.linear_regression(): c0a.

   - bpo-45765(17): In importlib.metadata, fix distribution discovery
     for an empty path.

   - bpo-45757(18): Fix bug where *note dis: 3b. produced an incorrect
     oparg when *note EXTENDED_ARG: 1d1c. is followed by an opcode that
     does not use its argument.

   - bpo-45644(19): In-place JSON file formatting using ‘python3 -m
     json.tool infile infile’ now works correctly, previously it left
     the file empty.  Patch by Chris Wesseling.

   - bpo-45703(20): When a namespace package is imported before another
     module from the same namespace is created/installed in a different
     *note sys.path: 194. location while the program is running, calling
     the *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): fcf. function will now
     also guarantee the new module is noticed.

   - bpo-45535(21): Improve output of ‘dir()’ with Enums.

   - bpo-45664(22): Fix *note types.resolve_bases(): f5b. and *note
     types.new_class(): 150c. for *note types.GenericAlias: bc7.
     instance as a base.

   - bpo-45663(23): Fix *note dataclasses.is_dataclass(): 1e0e. for
     dataclasses which are subclasses of *note types.GenericAlias: bc7.

   - bpo-45662(24): Fix the repr of *note dataclasses.InitVar: 1dae.
     with a type alias to the built-in class, e.g.
     ‘InitVar[list[int]]’.

   - bpo-43137(25): Launch GNOME web browsers via gio tool instead of
     obsolete gvfs-open

   - bpo-45429(26): On Windows, *note time.sleep(): a8c. now uses a
     waitable timer which supports high-resolution timers.  Patch by
     Donghee Na and Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-37295(27): Optimize *note math.comb(): abd. and *note
     math.perm(): abe.

   - bpo-45514(28): Deprecated legacy functions in *note
     importlib.resources: 7e.

   - bpo-45507(29): Add tests for truncated/missing trailers in
     gzip.decompress implementation.

   - bpo-45359(30): Implement PEP 585(31) for *note
     graphlib.TopologicalSorter: cb3.

   - bpo-44733(32): Add ‘max_tasks_per_child’ to *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206.  This allows users to
     specify the maximum number of tasks a single process should execute
     before the process needs to be restarted.

   - bpo-28806(33): Improve netrc library.  netrc file no longer needs
     to contain all tokens.  And if the login name is anonymous,
     security check is no longer need.

   - bpo-43498(34): Avoid a possible '«RuntimeError: dictionary changed
     size during iteration»' when adjusting the process count of
     ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’.

   - bpo-42158(35): Add MIME types for N-quads, N-triples, Notation3 and
     TriG to ‘mimetypes’.

   - bpo-30533(36): Add *note inspect.getmembers_static(): a38. , it
     return all members without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27946

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23819

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13236

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45917

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37658

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45876

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44649

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45803

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45837

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45831

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41735

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45235

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45766

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45765

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45757

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45644

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45703

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45535

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45664

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45663

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45662

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43137

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45429

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45514

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45507

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45359

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44733

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28806

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43498

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42158

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30533


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<34>,  Next: Tests<37>,  Prev: Library<110>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.26.39.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42238(1): ‘make -C Doc suspicious’ will be removed soon in
     favor of ‘make -C Doc check’, mark it as deprecated.

   - bpo-45840(2): Improve cross-references in the documentation for the
     data model.

   - bpo-45640(3): Properly marked-up grammar tokens in the
     documentation are now clickable and take you to the definition of a
     given piece of grammar.  Patch by Arthur Milchior.

   - bpo-45788(4): Link doc for sys.prefix to sysconfig doc on
     installation paths.

   - bpo-45772(5): ‘socket.socket’ documentation is corrected to a class
     from a function.

   - bpo-45392(6): Update the docstring of the *note type: 186. built-in
     to remove a redundant line and to mention keyword arguments for the
     constructor.

   - bpo-45250(7): Update the documentation to note that CPython does
     not consistently require iterators to define ‘__iter__’.

   - bpo-25381(8): In the extending chapter of the extending doc, update
     a paragraph about the global variables containing exception
     information.

   - bpo-43905(9): Expanded *note astuple(): 190e. and *note asdict():
     190d. docs, warning about deepcopy being applied and providing a
     workaround.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45840

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45640

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45788

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45772

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45392

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45250

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43905


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<37>,  Next: Build<40>,  Prev: Documentation<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.26.39.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-45695(1): Out-of-tree builds with a read-only source directory
     are now tested by CI.

   - bpo-19460(2): Add new Test for
     ‘Lib/email/mime/nonmultipart.py::MIMENonMultipart’.

   - bpo-45835(3): Fix race condition in test_queue tests with multiple
     «feeder» threads.

   - bpo-45783(4): The test for the freeze tool now handles file moves
     and deletions.

   - bpo-45745(5): Remove the ‘--findleaks’ command line option of
     regrtest: use the ‘--fail-env-changed’ option instead.  Since
     Python 3.7, it was a deprecated alias to the ‘--fail-env-changed’
     option.

   - bpo-45701(6): Add tests with ‘tuple’ type with *note
     functools.lru_cache(): db3. to ‘test_functools’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45695

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19460

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45835

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45783

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45745

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45701


File: python.info,  Node: Build<40>,  Next: Windows<34>,  Prev: Tests<37>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.26.39.7 Build
...............

   - bpo-44035(1): CI now verifies that autoconf files have been
     regenerated with a current and unpatched autoconf package.

   - bpo-45950(2): The build system now uses a ‘_bootstrap_python’
     interpreter for freezing and deepfreezing again.  To speed up build
     process the build tools ‘_bootstrap_python’ and ‘_freeze_module’
     are no longer build with LTO.

   - bpo-45881(3): The ‘configure’ script now accepts
     ‘--with-build-python’ and ‘--with-freeze-module’ options to make
     cross compiling easier.

   - bpo-40280(4): Emscripten platform now uses ‘.wasm’ suffix by
     default.

   - bpo-40280(5): Disable unusable core extension modules on
     WASM/Emscripten targets.

   - bpo-40280(6): ‘configure’ now checks for socket ‘shutdown’
     function.  The check makes it possible to disable ‘SYS_shutdown’
     with ‘ac_cv_func_shutdown=no’ in CONFIG_SITE.

   - bpo-40280(7): ‘configure’ now checks for functions ‘fork1, getegid,
     geteuid, getgid, getppid, getuid, opendir, pipe, system, wait,
     ttyname’.

   - bpo-33393(8): Update ‘config.guess’ to 2021-06-03 and ‘config.sub’
     to 2021-08-14.  ‘Makefile’ now has an ‘update-config’ target to
     make updating more convenient.

   - bpo-45866(9): ‘make regen-all’ now produces the same output when
     run from a directory other than the source tree: when building
     Python out of the source tree.  pegen now strips directory of the
     «generated by pygen from <FILENAME>» header Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-40280(10): ‘configure’ now accepts machine ‘wasm32’ or ‘wasm64’
     and OS ‘wasi’ or ‘emscripten’ for cross building, e.g.
     ‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’, ‘wasm32-wasi’, or
     ‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’.

   - bpo-41498(11): Python now compiles on platforms without ‘sigset_t’.
     Several functions in *note signal: ce. are not available when
     ‘sigset_t’ is missing.

     Based on patch by Roman Yurchak for pyodide.

   - bpo-45881(12): ‘setup.py’ now uses ‘CC’ from environment first to
     discover multiarch and cross compile paths.

   - bpo-45886(13): The ‘_freeze_module’ program path can now be
     overridden on the command line, e.g.  ‘make
     FREEZE_MODULE=../x86_64/Program/_freeze_module’.

   - bpo-45873(14): Get rid of the ‘_bootstrap_python’ build step.  The
     deepfreeze.py script is now run using ‘$(PYTHON_FOR_REGEN)’ which
     can be Python 3.7 or newer (on Windows, 3.8 or newer).

   - bpo-45847(15): Port builtin hashlib extensions to ‘PY_STDLIB_MOD’
     macro and ‘addext()’.

   - bpo-45723(16): Add ‘autoconf’ helpers for saving and restoring
     environment variables:

        * ‘SAVE_ENV’: Save ‘$CFLAGS’, ‘$LDFLAGS’, ‘$LIBS’, and
          ‘$CPPFLAGS’.

        * ‘RESTORE_ENV’: Restore ‘$CFLAGS’, ‘$LDFLAGS’, ‘$LIBS’, and
          ‘$CPPFLAGS’.

        * ‘WITH_SAVE_ENV([SCRIPT])’: Run ‘SCRIPT’ wrapped with
          ‘SAVE_ENV’ and ‘RESTORE_ENV’.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45573(17): Mandatory core modules, that are required to
     bootstrap Python, are now in ‘Modules/Setup.bootstrap’.

   - bpo-45573(18): ‘configure’ now creates ‘Modules/Setup.stdlib’ with
     conditionally enabled/disabled extension module lines.  The file is
     not used, yet.

   - bpo-45573(19): ‘configure’ now uses a unified format to set state,
     compiler flags, and linker flags in Makefile.  The new macro
     ‘PY_STDLIB_MOD’ sets three variables that are consumed by
     ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘setup.py’.

   - bpo-45816(20): Python now supports building with Visual Studio 2022
     (MSVC v143, VS Version 17.0).  Patch by Jeremiah Vivian.

   - bpo-45800(21): Settings for ‘pyexpat’ C extension are now detected
     by ‘configure’.  The bundled ‘expat’ library is built in
     ‘Makefile’.

   - bpo-45798(22): Settings for *note decimal: 39. internal C extension
     are now detected by ‘configure’.  The bundled ‘libmpdec’ library is
     built in ‘Makefile’.

   - bpo-45723(23): ‘configure’ has a new option ‘--with-pkg-config’ to
     disable or require pkg-config.

   - bpo-45774(24): The build dependencies for *note sqlite3: d7. are
     now detected by ‘configure’ and ‘pkg-config’.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-45763(25): The build dependencies for *note zlib: 13c, *note
     bz2: 14, and *note lzma: 8d. are now detected by ‘configure’.

   - bpo-45747(26): gdbm and dbm build dependencies are now detected by
     ‘configure’.

   - bpo-45743(27): On macOS, the build system no longer passes
     ‘search_paths_first’ to the linker.  The flag has been the default
     since Xcode 4 / macOS 10.6.

   - bpo-45723(28): ‘configure.ac’ is now compatible with autoconf 2.71.
     Deprecated checks ‘STDC_HEADERS’ and ‘AC_HEADER_TIME’ have been
     removed.

   - bpo-45723(29): ‘configure’ now prints a warning when pkg-config is
     missing.

   - bpo-45731(30): ‘configure --enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions’ is
     now handled by new ‘PY_SQLITE_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION’ macro instead
     of logic in setup.py.

   - bpo-45723(31): configure.ac now uses custom helper macros and
     ‘AC_CACHE_CHECK’ to simplify and speed up configure runs.

   - bpo-45696(32): Skip the marshal step for frozen modules by
     generating C code that produces a set of ready-to-use code objects.
     This speeds up startup time by another 10% or more.

   - bpo-45561(33): Run smelly.py tool from $(srcdir).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44035

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45950

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45881

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45866

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40280

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41498

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45881

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45886

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45873

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45847

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45573

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45816

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45800

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45798

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45774

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45763

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45747

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45743

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45731

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45723

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45696

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45561


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<34>,  Next: macOS<26>,  Prev: Build<40>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.26.39.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-46105(1): Fixed calculation of *note sys.path: 194. in a venv
     on Windows.

   - bpo-45901(2): When installed through the Microsoft Store and set as
     the default app for ‘*.py’ files, command line arguments will now
     be passed to Python when invoking a script without explicitly
     launching Python (that is, ‘script.py args’ rather than ‘python
     script.py args’).

   - bpo-45616(3): Fix Python Launcher’s ability to distinguish between
     versions 3.1 and 3.10 when either one is explicitly requested.
     Previously, 3.1 would be used if 3.10 was requested but not
     installed, and 3.10 would be used if 3.1 was requested but 3.10 was
     installed.

   - bpo-45850(4): Implement changes to build with deep-frozen modules
     on Windows.  Note that we now require Python 3.10 as the
     «bootstrap» or «host» Python.

   - bpo-45732(5): Updates bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.12.

   - bpo-45720(6): Internal reference to ‘shlwapi.dll’ was dropped to
     help improve startup time.  This DLL will no longer be loaded at
     the start of every Python process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46105

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45901

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45616

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45850

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45732

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45720


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<26>,  Next: C API<36>,  Prev: Windows<34>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.26.39.9 macOS
...............

   - bpo-45732(1): Update python.org macOS installer to use Tcl/Tk
     8.6.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45732


File: python.info,  Node: C API<36>,  Prev: macOS<26>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3

1.26.39.10 C API
................

   - bpo-39026(1): Fix Python.h to build C extensions with Xcode: remove
     a relative include from ‘Include/cpython/pystate.h’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39026


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.40 Python 3.11.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-11-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<110>.
* Library: Library<111>.
* Documentation: Documentation<35>.
* Tests: Tests<38>.
* Build: Build<41>.
* Windows: Windows<35>.
* macOS: macOS<27>.
* IDLE: IDLE<19>.
* C API: C API<37>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<110>,  Next: Library<111>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.26.40.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-45716(1): Improve the *note SyntaxError: 17e. message when
     using ‘True’, ‘None’ or ‘False’ as keywords in a function call.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45688(2): *note sys.stdlib_module_names: c1a. now contains the
     macOS-specific module ‘_scproxy’.

   - bpo-45379(3): Clarify *note ImportError: 1bd. message when we try
     to explicitly import a frozen module but frozen modules are
     disabled.

   - bpo-44525(4): Specialize simple calls to Python functions (no
     starargs, keyword dict, or closure)

   - bpo-45530(5): Cases of sorting using tuples as keys may now be
     significantly faster in some cases.  Patch by Tim Peters.

     The order of the result may differ from earlier releases if the
     tuple elements don’t define a total ordering (see *note Value
     comparisons: 1e17. for information on total ordering).  It’s
     generally true that the result of sorting simply isn’t well-defined
     in the absence of a total ordering on list elements.

   - bpo-45526(6): In obmalloc, set ADDRESS_BITS to not ignore any bits
     (ignored 16 before).  That is safer in the case that the kernel
     gives user-space virtual addresses that span a range greater than
     48 bits.

   - bpo-30570(7): Fixed a crash in ‘issubclass()’ from infinite
     recursion when searching pathological ‘__bases__’ tuples.

   - bpo-45521(8): Fix a bug in the obmalloc radix tree code.  On 64-bit
     machines, the bug causes the tree to hold 46-bits of virtual
     addresses, rather than the intended 48-bits.

   - bpo-45494(9): Fix parser crash when reporting errors involving
     invalid continuation characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-45445(10): Python now fails to initialize if it finds an
     invalid *note -X: 178. option in the command line.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-45340(11): Object attributes are held in an array instead of a
     dictionary.  An object’s dictionary are created lazily, only when
     needed.  Reduces the memory consumption of a typical Python object
     by about 30%.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-45408(12): Fix a crash in the parser when reporting tokenizer
     errors that occur at the same time unclosed parentheses are
     detected.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-29410(13): Add SipHash13 for string hash algorithm and use it
     by default.

   - bpo-45385(14): Fix reference leak from descr_check.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45367(15): Specialized the ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY’ opcode to
     ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY_INT’ and ‘BINARY_MULTIPLY_FLOAT’ using the PEP 659
     machinery.

   - bpo-21736(16): Frozen stdlib modules now have ‘__file__’ to the .py
     file they would otherwise be loaded from, if possible.  For
     packages, ‘__path__’ now has the correct entry instead of being an
     empty list, which allows unfrozen submodules to be imported.  These
     are set only if the stdlib directory is known when the runtime is
     initialized.  Note that the file at ‘__file__’ is not guaranteed to
     exist.  None of this affects non-stdlib frozen modules nor, for
     now, frozen modules imported using ‘PyImport_ImportFrozenModule()’.
     Also, at the moment ‘co_filename’ is not updated for the module.

   - bpo-45020(17): For frozen stdlib modules, record the original
     module name as ‘module.__spec__.loader_state.origname’.  If the
     value is different than ‘module.__spec__.name’ then the module was
     defined as an alias in Tools/scripts/freeze_modules.py.  If it is
     ‘None’ then the module comes from a source file outside the stdlib.

   - bpo-45324(18): In FrozenImporter.find_spec(), we now preserve the
     information needed in exec_module() to load the module.  This
     change mostly impacts internal details, rather than changing the
     importer’s behavior.

   - bpo-45292(19): Implement PEP 654(20).  Add *note ExceptionGroup:
     6d8. and *note BaseExceptionGroup: 767.  Update traceback display
     code.

   - bpo-40116(21): Change to the implementation of split dictionaries.
     Classes where the instances differ either in the exact set of
     attributes, or in the order in which those attributes are set, can
     still share keys.  This should have no observable effect on users
     of Python or the C-API. Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-44050(22): Extensions that indicate they use global state (by
     setting ‘m_size’ to -1) can again be used in multiple interpreters.
     This reverts to behavior of Python 3.8.

   - bpo-44525(23): Setup initial specialization infrastructure for the
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION’ opcode.  Implemented initial specializations for C
     function calls:

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_BUILTIN_O’ for ‘METH_O’ flag.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_BUILTIN_FAST’ for ‘METH_FASTCALL’ flag without
          keywords.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_LEN’ for ‘len(o)’.

        * ‘CALL_FUNCTION_ISINSTANCE’ for ‘isinstance(o, t)’.

   - bpo-44511(24): Improve the generated bytecode for class and mapping
     patterns.

   - bpo-43706(25): Speed up calls to ‘enumerate()’ by using the PEP
     590(26) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45716

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45688

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45530

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45526

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30570

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45521

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45494

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45445

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45340

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45408

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29410

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45385

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45367

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21736

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45324

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44050

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44525

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44511

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43706

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<111>,  Next: Documentation<35>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<110>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.26.40.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-45679(1): Fix caching of multi-value *note typing.Literal: c2d.
     ‘Literal[True, 2]’ is no longer equal to ‘Literal[1, 2]’.

   - bpo-42064(2): Convert *note sqlite3: d7. to multi-phase
     initialisation (PEP 489).  Patches by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45438(3): Fix typing.Signature string representation for
     generic builtin types.

   - bpo-45613(4): *note sqlite3: d7. now sets *note
     sqlite3.threadsafety: a6c. based on the default threading mode the
     underlying SQLite library has been compiled with.  Patch by Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45574(5): Fix warning about ‘print_escape’ being unused.

   - bpo-45581(6): *note sqlite3.connect(): 3e0. now correctly raises
     *note MemoryError: 18fa. if the underlying SQLite API signals
     memory error.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45557(7): *note pprint.pprint(): c01. now handles
     'underscore_numbers' correctly.  Previously it was always setting
     it to ‘False’.

   - bpo-44019(8): Add *note operator.call(): 1e19. to
     ‘operator.__all__’.  Patch by Kreusada.

   - bpo-42174(9): *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 14af. now falls
     back to sane values if the column or line count are 0.

   - bpo-35673(10): Improve the introspectability of the ‘__loader__’
     attribute for namespace packages.  *note
     importlib.machinery.NamespaceLoader: 1300. is now public, and
     implements the *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader: 12fe. interface.
     ‘_NamespaceLoader’ is kept for backward compatibility.

   - bpo-45515(11): Add references to *note zoneinfo: 13d. in the *note
     datetime: 33. documentation, mostly replacing outdated references
     to ‘dateutil.tz’.  Change by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-45475(12): Reverted optimization of iterating *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 849, *note bz2.BZ2File: c3d, and *note
     lzma.LZMAFile: 13b5. (see bpo-43787(13)) because it caused
     regression when user iterate them without having reference of them.
     Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-45489(14): Update *note ForwardRef: 1dd3. to support ‘|’
     operator.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42222(15): Removed deprecated support for float arguments in
     'randrange()'.

   - bpo-45428(16): Fix a regression in py_compile when reading
     filenames from standard input.

   - bpo-45467(17): Fix incremental decoder and stream reader in the
     «raw-unicode-escape» codec.  Previously they failed if the escape
     sequence was split.

   - bpo-45461(18): Fix incremental decoder and stream reader in the
     «unicode-escape» codec.  Previously they failed if the escape
     sequence was split.

   - bpo-45239(19): Fixed *note email.utils.parsedate_tz(): 1e1a.
     crashing with *note UnboundLocalError: 18d8. on certain invalid
     input instead of returning ‘None’.  Patch by Ben Hoyt.

   - bpo-45417(20): Fix quadratic behaviour in the enum module: Creation
     of enum classes with a lot of entries was quadratic.

   - bpo-45249(21): Fix the behaviour of *note traceback.print_exc():
     1e1b. when displaying the caret when the ‘end_offset’ in the
     exception is set to 0.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-45416(22): Fix use of *note asyncio.Condition: e36. with
     explicit *note asyncio.Lock: e35. objects, which was a regression
     due to removal of explicit loop arguments.  Patch by Joongi Kim.

   - bpo-20028(23): Empty escapechar/quotechar is not allowed when
     initializing *note csv.Dialect: 1a3c.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok and
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44904(24): Fix bug in the *note doctest: 3d. module that caused
     it to fail if a docstring included an example with a ‘classmethod’
     ‘property’.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45406(25): Make *note inspect.getmodule(): 1d6a. catch
     ‘FileNotFoundError’ raised by ‘inspect.getabsfile()’, and return
     ‘None’ to indicate that the module could not be determined.

   - bpo-45411(26): Add extensions for files containing subtitles - .srt
     & .vtt - to the mimetypes.py module.

   - bpo-10716(27): Migrated pydoc to HTML5 (without changing the look
     of it).  Side effect is to update xmlrpc’s ‘ServerHTMLDoc’ which
     now uses the CSS too.  cgitb now relies less on pydoc (as it can’t
     use the CSS file).

   - bpo-27580(28): Add support of null characters in *note csv: 2c.

   - bpo-45262(29): Prevent use-after-free in asyncio.  Make sure the
     cached running loop holder gets cleared on dealloc to prevent
     use-after-free in get_running_loop

   - bpo-45386(30): Make *note xmlrpc.client: 137. more robust to C
     runtimes where the underlying C ‘strftime’ function results in a
     ‘ValueError’ when testing for year formatting options.

   - bpo-20028(31): Improve error message of *note csv.Dialect: 1a3c.
     when initializing.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok and Donghee Na.

   - bpo-45343(32): Update bundled pip to 21.2.4 and setuptools to
     58.1.0

   - bpo-45328(33): Fixed *note http.client.HTTPConnection: 223. to work
     properly in OSs that don’t support the ‘TCP_NODELAY’ socket option.

   - bpo-45243(34): Add *note setlimit(): a6a. and *note getlimit():
     a6b. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 3df. for setting and getting
     SQLite limits by connection basis.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-45320(35): Removed from the *note inspect: 81. module:

        * 
          the ‘getargspec’ function, deprecated since Python 3.0;

               use *note inspect.signature(): 4bd. or *note
               inspect.getfullargspec(): b1f. instead.

        * the ‘formatargspec’ function, deprecated since Python 3.5; use
          the *note inspect.signature(): 4bd. function and ‘Signature’
          object directly.

        * the undocumented ‘Signature.from_builtin’ and
          ‘Signature.from_function’ functions, deprecated since Python
          3.5; use the *note Signature.from_callable(): b20. method
          instead.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45192(36): Fix the ‘tempfile._infer_return_type’ function so
     that the ‘dir’ argument of the *note tempfile: e9. functions
     accepts an object implementing the ‘os.PathLike’ protocol.

     Patch by Kyungmin Lee.

   - bpo-45160(37): When tracing a tkinter variable used by a ttk
     OptionMenu, callbacks are no longer made twice.

   - bpo-25625(38): Added non parallel-safe *note chdir(): a01. context
     manager to change the current working directory and then restore it
     on exit.  Simple wrapper around *note chdir(): a02.

   - bpo-24139(39): Add support for SQLite extended result codes in
     *note sqlite3.Error: 1e1c.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-24444(40): Fixed an error raised in *note argparse: 7. help
     display when help for an option is set to 1+ blank spaces or when
     'choices' arg is an empty container.

   - bpo-44547(41): Implement ‘Fraction.__int__’, so that a *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1c3. instance ‘f’ passes an ‘isinstance(f,
     typing.SupportsInt)’ check.

   - bpo-40321(42): Adds support for HTTP 308 redirects to *note urllib:
     111.  See RFC 7538(43) for details.  Patch by Jochem
     Schulenklopper.

   - bpo-41374(44): Ensure that ‘socket.TCP_*’ constants are exposed on
     Cygwin 3.1.6 and greater.

   - bpo-35970(45): Add help flag to the base64 module’s command line
     interface.  Patch contributed by Robert Kuska.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45679

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42064

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45438

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45613

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45574

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45581

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45557

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42174

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35673

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45515

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45475

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43787

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45489

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42222

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45428

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45467

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45461

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45239

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45417

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45249

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45416

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20028

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44904

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45406

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45411

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10716

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27580

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45262

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45386

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20028

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45343

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45328

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45243

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45320

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45192

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45160

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25625

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24139

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24444

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44547

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40321

   (43) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7538.html

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41374

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35970


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<35>,  Next: Tests<38>,  Prev: Library<111>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.26.40.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-45726(1): Improve documentation for *note
     functools.singledispatch(): a2a. and *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 21e.

   - bpo-45680(2): Amend the docs on ‘GenericAlias’ objects to clarify
     that non-container classes can also implement ‘__class_getitem__’.
     Patch contributed by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45618(3): Update Sphinx version used to build the documentation
     to 4.2.0.  Patch by Maciej Olko.

   - bpo-45655(4): Add a new «relevant PEPs» section to the top of the
     documentation for the ‘typing’ module.  Patch by Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45604(5): Add ‘level’ argument to
     ‘multiprocessing.log_to_stderr’ function docs.

   - bpo-45516(6): Add protocol description to the
     ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’ documentation.

   - bpo-45464(7): Mention in the documentation of *note Built-in
     Exceptions: 1e1e. that inheriting from multiple exception types in
     a single subclass is not recommended due to possible memory layout
     incompatibility.

   - bpo-45449(8): Add note about PEP 585(9) in *note collections.abc:
     1f.

   - bpo-45516(10): Add protocol description to the
     ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’ documentation.

   - bpo-20692(11): Add Programming FAQ entry explaining that int
     literal attribute access requires either a space after or
     parentheses around the literal.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45680

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45618

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45655

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45604

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45516

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45464

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45449

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45516

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20692


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<38>,  Next: Build<41>,  Prev: Documentation<35>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.26.40.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-45678(1): Add tests for scenarios in which *note
     functools.singledispatchmethod: 21e. is stacked on top of a method
     that has already been wrapped by two other decorators.  Patch by
     Alex Waygood.

   - bpo-45578(2): Add tests for *note dis.distb(): 497.

   - bpo-45678(3): Add tests to ensure that
     ‘functools.singledispatchmethod’ correctly wraps the attributes of
     the target function.

   - bpo-45668(4): PGO tests now pass when Python is built without test
     extension modules.

   - bpo-45577(5): Add subtests for all ‘pickle’ protocols in
     ‘test_zoneinfo’.

   - bpo-45566(6): Fix ‘test_frozen_pickle’ in ‘test_dataclasses’ to
     check all ‘pickle’ versions.

   - bpo-43592(7): ‘test.libregrtest’ now raises the soft resource limit
     for the maximum number of file descriptors when the default is too
     low for our test suite as was often the case on macOS.

   - bpo-39679(8): Add more test cases for
     ‘@functools.singledispatchmethod’ when combined with ‘@classmethod’
     or ‘@staticmethod’.

   - bpo-45410(9): When libregrtest spawns a worker process, stderr is
     now written into stdout to keep messages order.  Use a single pipe
     for stdout and stderr, rather than two pipes.  Previously, messages
     were out of order which made analysis of buildbot logs harder Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45402(10): Fix test_tools.test_sundry() when Python is built
     out of tree: fix how the freeze_modules.py tool locates the
     _freeze_module program.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45403(11): Fix test_sys.test_stdlib_dir() when Python is built
     outside the source tree: compare normalized paths.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45400(12): Fix
     test_name_error_suggestions_do_not_trigger_for_too_many_locals() of
     test_exceptions if a directory name contains «a1» (like
     «Python-3.11.0a1»): use a stricter regular expression.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-10572(13): Rename *note sqlite3: d7. tests from ‘test_sqlite’
     to ‘test_sqlite3’, and relocate them to ‘Lib/test/test_sqlite3’.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45678

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45578

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45678

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45668

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45577

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45566

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43592

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39679

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45410

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45402

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45403

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45400

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10572


File: python.info,  Node: Build<41>,  Next: Windows<35>,  Prev: Tests<38>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.26.40.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-43158(1): ‘setup.py’ now uses values from configure script to
     build the ‘_uuid’ extension module.  Configure now detects
     util-linux’s ‘libuuid’, too.

   - bpo-45666(2): Fix warning of ‘swprintf’ and ‘%s’ usage in
     ‘_testembed.c’

   - bpo-45548(3): ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘Modules/makesetup’ have been
     improved.  The ‘Setup’ file now contains working rules for all
     extensions.  Outdated comments have been removed.  Rules defined by
     ‘makesetup’ track dependencies correctly.

   - bpo-45548(4): The *note math: 91. and *note cmath: 19.
     implementation now require a C99 compatible ‘libm’ and no longer
     ship with workarounds for missing acosh, asinh, atanh, expm1, and
     log1p functions.

   - bpo-45595(5): ‘setup.py’ and ‘makesetup’ now track build
     dependencies on all Python header files and module specific header
     files.

   - bpo-45571(6): ‘Modules/Setup’ now use ‘PY_CFLAGS_NODIST’ instead of
     ‘PY_CFLAGS’ to compile shared modules.

   - bpo-45570(7): ‘pyexpat’ and ‘_elementtree’ no longer define
     obsolete macros ‘HAVE_EXPAT_CONFIG_H’ and ‘USE_PYEXPAT_CAPI’.
     ‘XML_POOR_ENTROPY’ is now defined in ‘expat_config.h’.

   - bpo-43974(8): ‘setup.py’ no longer defines ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’.
     Instead every module, that uses the internal API, defines the
     macro.

   - bpo-45548(9): Fill in missing entries in Modules/Setup.

   - bpo-45532(10): Update *note sys.version: 6a8. to use ‘main’ as
     fallback information.  Patch by Jeong YunWon.

   - bpo-45536(11): The ‘configure’ script now checks whether OpenSSL
     headers and libraries provide required APIs.  Most common APIs are
     verified.  The check detects outdated or missing OpenSSL. Failures
     do not stop configure.

   - bpo-45221(12): Fixed regression in handling of ‘LDFLAGS’ and
     ‘CPPFLAGS’ options where ‘argparse.parse_known_args()’ could
     interpret an option as one of the built-in command line argument,
     for example ‘-h’ for help.

   - bpo-45440(13): Building Python now requires a C99 ‘<math.h>’ header
     file providing the following functions: ‘copysign()’, ‘hypot()’,
     ‘isfinite()’, ‘isinf()’, ‘isnan()’, ‘round()’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45405(14): Prevent ‘internal configure error’ when running
     ‘configure’ with recent versions of non-Apple clang.  Patch by
     David Bohman.

   - bpo-45433(15): Avoid linking libpython with libcrypt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43158

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45666

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45595

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45571

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45570

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43974

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45532

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45536

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45221

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45405

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45433


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<35>,  Next: macOS<27>,  Prev: Build<41>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.26.40.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43652(1): Update Tcl/Tk to 8.6.11, actually this time.  The
     previous update incorrectly included 8.6.10.

   - bpo-45337(2): venv now warns when the created environment may need
     to be accessed at a different path, due to redirections, links or
     junctions.  It also now correctly installs or upgrades components
     when the alternate path is required.

   - bpo-43851(3): Build SQLite ‘SQLITE_OMIT_AUTOINIT’ on Windows.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43652

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45337

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43851


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<27>,  Next: IDLE<19>,  Prev: Windows<35>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.26.40.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-44828(1): Avoid tkinter file dialog failure on macOS 12
     Monterey when using the Tk 8.6.11 provided by python.org macOS
     installers.  Patch by Marc Culler of the Tk project.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44828


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<19>,  Next: C API<37>,  Prev: macOS<27>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.26.40.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-45495(1): Add context keywords “case” and “match” to
     completions list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45495


File: python.info,  Node: C API<37>,  Prev: IDLE<19>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2

1.26.40.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-29103(1): *note PyType_FromSpec*: 390. now copies the class
     name from the spec to a buffer owned by the class, so the original
     can be safely deallocated.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-45522(2): The internal freelists for frame, float, list, dict,
     async generators, and context objects can now be disabled.

   - bpo-35134(3): Exclude ‘PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT()’ from the limited C
     API. It never worked since the ‘PyWeakReference’ structure is
     opaque in the limited C API.

   - bpo-35081(4): Move the ‘interpreteridobject.h’ header file from
     ‘Include/’ to ‘Include/internal/’.  It only provides private
     functions.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-35134(5): The non-limited API files ‘cellobject.h’,
     ‘classobject.h’, ‘context.h’, ‘funcobject.h’, ‘genobject.h’ and
     ‘longintrepr.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’ directory.
     Moreover, the ‘eval.h’ header file was removed.  These files must
     not be included directly, as they are already included in
     ‘Python.h’: *note Include Files: b63.  If they have been included
     directly, consider including ‘Python.h’ instead.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-45474(6): The following items are no longer available when
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is defined:

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile(): b75.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile(): b76.

        * *note PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString(): b77.

        * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString(): b78.

        * the ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ macro

     These are not part of the *note limited API: b79.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45434(7): Remove the ‘pystrhex.h’ header file.  It only
     contains private functions.  C extensions should only include the
     main ‘<Python.h>’ header file.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45440(8): Remove the ‘Py_FORCE_DOUBLE()’ macro.  It was used by
     the ‘Py_IS_INFINITY()’ macro.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45434(9): ‘<Python.h>’ no longer includes the header files
     ‘<stdlib.h>’, ‘<stdio.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’ and ‘<string.h>’ when the
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is set to ‘0x030b0000’ (Python 3.11) or
     higher.  C extensions should explicitly include the header files
     after ‘#include <Python.h>’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41123(10): Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’ and ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’
     macros, deprecated since Python 3.3.  Use
     ‘PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()’ or ‘memcpy()’ (‘wchar_t*’ string), and
     ‘PyUnicode_Fill()’ functions instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45412(11): Remove the following math macros using the ‘errno’
     variable:

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE1()’

        * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE2()’

        * ‘Py_OVERFLOWED()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERANGE_IF_OVERFLOW()’

        * ‘Py_SET_ERRNO_ON_MATH_ERROR()’

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45395(12): Custom frozen modules (the array set to
     ‘PyImport_FrozenModules’) are now treated as additions, rather than
     replacing all the default frozen modules.  Frozen stdlib modules
     can still be disabled by setting the «code» field of the custom
     array entry to NULL.

   - bpo-43760(13): Add new *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): b38, and
     *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): b39. functions to the limited C
     API to suspend and resume tracing and profiling.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-44220(14): *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: d4a. is added
     to the Stable ABI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29103

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45474

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45395

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44220


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.41 Python 3.11.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-10-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<28>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<111>.
* Library: Library<112>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<112>.
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* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<113>.
* Library: Library<114>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<114>.
* Library: Library<115>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<115>.
* Library: Library<116>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<116>.
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* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<120>.
* Library: Library<121>.
* Documentation: Documentation<36>.
* Tests: Tests<39>.
* Build: Build<42>.
* Windows: Windows<36>.
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* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<25>.
* C API: C API<38>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<28>,  Next: Core and Builtins<111>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42278(1): Replaced usage of *note tempfile.mktemp(): 1e27. with
     *note TemporaryDirectory: 15da. to avoid a potential race
     condition.

   - bpo-44600(2): Fix incorrect line numbers while tracing some failed
     patterns in *note match: 1d4. statements.  Patch by Charles
     Burkland.

   - bpo-41180(3): Add auditing events to the *note marshal: 90. module,
     and stop raising ‘code.__init__’ events for every unmarshalled code
     object.  Directly instantiated code objects will continue to raise
     an event, and audit event handlers should inspect or collect the
     raw marshal data.  This reduces a significant performance overhead
     when loading from ‘.pyc’ files.

   - bpo-44394(4): Update the vendored copy of libexpat to 2.4.1 (from
     2.2.8) to get the fix for the CVE 2013-0340(5) «Billion Laughs»
     vulnerability.  This copy is most used on Windows and macOS.

   - bpo-43124(6): Made the internal ‘putcmd’ function in *note smtplib:
     d2. sanitize input for presence of ‘\r’ and ‘\n’ characters to
     avoid (unlikely) command injection.

   - bpo-44022(7): *note http.client: 72. now avoids infinitely reading
     potential HTTP headers after a ‘100 Continue’ status response from
     the server.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41180

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44394

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2013-0340

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43124

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44022


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<111>,  Next: Library<112>,  Prev: Security<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43760(1): The number of hardware branches per instruction
     dispatch is reduced from two to one by adding a special instruction
     for tracing.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-45061(2): Add a deallocator to the bool type to detect refcount
     bugs in C extensions which call Py_DECREF(Py_True) or
     Py_DECREF(Py_False) by mistake.  Detect also refcount bugs when the
     empty tuple singleton or the Unicode empty string singleton is
     destroyed by mistake.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-24076(3): sum() was further optimised for summing up single
     digit integers.

   - bpo-45190(4): Update Unicode databases to Unicode 14.0.0.

   - bpo-45167(5): Fix deepcopying of *note types.GenericAlias: bc7.
     objects.

   - bpo-45155(6): *note int.to_bytes(): 1e29. and *note
     int.from_bytes(): 198e. now take a default value of ‘"big"’ for the
     ‘byteorder’ argument.  ‘int.to_bytes()’ also takes a default value
     of ‘1’ for the ‘length’ argument.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45061

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24076

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45190

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45167

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45155


File: python.info,  Node: Library<112>,  Next: Core and Builtins<112>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<111>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-44219(1): Release the GIL while performing ‘isatty’ system
     calls on arbitrary file descriptors.  In particular, this affects
     *note os.isatty(): 1e2b, *note os.device_encoding(): 1e2c. and
     *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c.  By extension, *note io.open(): 92b.
     in text mode is also affected.  This change solves a deadlock in
     ‘os.isatty()’.  Patch by Vincent Michel in bpo-44219(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44219

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44219


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<112>,  Next: Library<113>,  Prev: Library<112>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-44959(1): Added fallback to extension modules with “.sl” suffix
     on HP-UX

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44959


File: python.info,  Node: Library<113>,  Next: Core and Builtins<113>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<112>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.5 Library
.................

   - bpo-45121(1): Fix issue where ‘Protocol.__init__’ raises
     ‘RecursionError’ when it’s called directly or via ‘super()’.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45121


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<113>,  Next: Library<114>,  Prev: Library<113>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.6 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-44348(1): The deallocator function of the *note BaseException:
     9b9. type now uses the trashcan mechanism to prevent stack
     overflow.  For example, when a *note RecursionError: 1121. instance
     is raised, it can be linked to another RecursionError through the
     ‘__context__’ attribute or the ‘__traceback__’ attribute, and then
     a chain of exceptions is created.  When the chain is destroyed,
     nested deallocator function calls can crash with a stack overflow
     if the chain is too long compared to the available stack memory.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45123(2): Fix PyAiter_Check to only check for the __anext__
     presence (not for __aiter__).  Rename PyAiter_Check to
     PyAIter_Check, PyObject_GetAiter -> PyObject_GetAIter.

   - bpo-1514420(3): Interpreter no longer attempts to open files with
     names in angle brackets (like «<string>» or «<stdin>») when
     formatting an exception.

   - bpo-41031(4): Match C and Python code formatting of unprintable
     exceptions and exceptions in the *note __main__: 1. module.

   - bpo-37330(5): *note open(): 32b, *note io.open(): 92b, *note
     codecs.open(): 32c. and *note fileinput.FileInput: b1e. no longer
     accept ‘'U'’ («universal newline») in the file mode.  This flag was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45083(6): When the interpreter renders an exception, its name
     now has a complete qualname.  Previously only the class name was
     concatenated to the module name, which sometimes resulted in an
     incorrect full name being displayed.

     (This issue impacted only the C code exception rendering, the *note
     traceback: 107. module was using qualname already).

   - bpo-34561(7): List sorting now uses the merge-ordering strategy
     from Munro and Wild’s ‘powersort()’.  Unlike the former strategy,
     this is provably near-optimal in the entropy of the distribution of
     run lengths.  Most uses of ‘list.sort()’ probably won’t see a
     significant time difference, but may see significant improvements
     in cases where the former strategy was exceptionally poor.
     However, as these are all fast linear-time approximations to a
     problem that’s inherently at best quadratic-time to solve truly
     optimally, it’s also possible to contrive cases where the former
     strategy did better.

   - bpo-45056(8): Compiler now removes trailing unused constants from
     co_consts.

   - bpo-45020(9): Add a new command line option, «-X
     frozen_modules=[on|off]» to opt out of (or into) using optional
     frozen modules.  This defaults to «on» (or «off» if it’s running
     out of the source tree).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44348

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45123

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1514420

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41031

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45083

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34561

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45056

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020


File: python.info,  Node: Library<114>,  Next: Core and Builtins<114>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<113>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.7 Library
.................

   - bpo-45012(1): In *note posix: b2, release GIL during ‘stat()’,
     ‘lstat()’, and ‘fstatat()’ syscalls made by *note
     os.DirEntry.stat(): 1c71.  Patch by Stanisław Skonieczny.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45012


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<114>,  Next: Library<115>,  Prev: Library<114>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.8 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-45018(1): Fixed pickling of range iterators that iterated for
     over ‘2**32’ times.

   - bpo-45000(2): A *note SyntaxError: 17e. is now raised when trying
     to delete *note __debug__: bb7.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44963(3): Implement ‘send()’ and ‘throw()’ methods for
     ‘anext_awaitable’ objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45018

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45000

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44963


File: python.info,  Node: Library<115>,  Next: Core and Builtins<115>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<114>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.9 Library
.................

   - bpo-44962(1): Fix a race in WeakKeyDictionary, WeakValueDictionary
     and WeakSet when two threads attempt to commit the last pending
     removal.  This fixes asyncio.create_task and fixes a data loss in
     asyncio.run where shutdown_asyncgens is not run

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44962


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<115>,  Next: Library<116>,  Prev: Library<115>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.10 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24234(1): Implement the ‘__bytes__()’ special method on the
     *note bytes: 1c7. type, so a bytes object ‘b’ passes an
     ‘isinstance(b, typing.SupportsBytes)’ check.

   - bpo-24234(2): Implement the ‘__complex__()’ special method on the
     *note complex: 328. type, so a complex number ‘z’ passes an
     ‘isinstance(z, typing.SupportsComplex)’ check.

   - bpo-44954(3): Fixed a corner case bug where the result of
     ‘float.fromhex('0x.8p-1074')’ was rounded the wrong way.

   - bpo-44947(4): Refine the syntax error for trailing commas in import
     statements.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44945(5): Specialize the BINARY_ADD instruction using the PEP
     659 machinery.  Adds five new instructions:

        * BINARY_ADD_ADAPTIVE

        * BINARY_ADD_FLOAT

        * BINARY_ADD_INT

        * BINARY_ADD_UNICODE

        * BINARY_ADD_UNICODE_INPLACE_FAST

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44954

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44947

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44945


File: python.info,  Node: Library<116>,  Next: Core and Builtins<116>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<115>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.11 Library
..................

   - bpo-44929(1): Fix some edge cases of ‘enum.Flag’ string
     representation in the REPL. Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44929


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<116>,  Next: Library<117>,  Prev: Library<116>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.12 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-44914(1): Class version tags are no longer recycled.

     This means that a version tag serves as a unique identifier for the
     state of a class.  We rely on this for effective specialization of
     the LOAD_ATTR and other instructions.

   - bpo-44698(2): Restore behaviour of complex exponentiation with
     integer-valued exponent of type *note float: 327. or *note complex:
     328.

   - bpo-44895(3): A debug variable *note PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE: 1e36. is
     added for creating a dump file which is generated by *note
     -with-trace-refs: 828.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44900(4): Add five superinstructions for PEP 659 quickening:

        * LOAD_FAST LOAD_FAST

        * STORE_FAST LOAD_FAST

        * LOAD_FAST LOAD_CONST

        * LOAD_CONST LOAD_FAST

        * STORE_FAST STORE_FAST

   - bpo-44889(5): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’.  The following specialized forms were added:

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_CACHED’

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_MODULE’

        * ‘LOAD_METHOD_CLASS’

   - bpo-44890(6): Specialization stats are always collected in debug
     builds.

   - bpo-44885(7): Correct the ast locations of f-strings with format
     specs and repeated expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44878(8): Remove the loop from the bytecode interpreter.  All
     instructions end with a DISPATCH macro, so the loop is now
     redundant.

   - bpo-44878(9): Remove switch statement for interpreter loop when
     using computed gotos.  This makes sure that we only have one
     dispatch table in the interpreter.

   - bpo-44874(10): Deprecate the old trashcan macros
     (‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’/‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’).  They should be
     replaced by the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and
     ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’.

   - bpo-44872(11): Use new trashcan macros (Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN/END) in
     frameobject.c instead of the old ones (Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN/END).

   - bpo-33930(12): Fix segmentation fault with deep recursion when
     cleaning method objects.  Patch by Augusto Goulart and Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-25782(13): Fix bug where ‘PyErr_SetObject’ hangs when the
     current exception has a cycle in its context chain.

   - bpo-44856(14): Fix reference leaks in the error paths of
     ‘update_bases()’ and ‘__build_class__’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44826(15): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     STORE_ATTR

     Three specialized forms of STORE_ATTR are added:

        * STORE_ATTR_SLOT

        * STORE_ATTR_SPLIT_KEYS

        * STORE_ATTR_WITH_HINT

   - bpo-44838(16): Fixed a bug that was causing the parser to raise an
     incorrect custom *note SyntaxError: 17e. for invalid “if”
     expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44821(17): Create instance dictionaries (__dict__) eagerly, to
     improve regularity of object layout and assist specialization.

   - bpo-44792(18): Improve syntax errors for if expressions.  Patch by
     Miguel Brito

   - bpo-34013(19): Generalize the invalid legacy statement custom error
     message (like the one generated when «print» is called without
     parentheses) to include more generic expressions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-44732(20): Rename ‘types.Union’ to ‘types.UnionType’.

   - bpo-44725(21): Expose specialization stats in python via
     ‘_opcode.get_specialization_stats()’.

   - bpo-44717(22): Improve AttributeError on circular imports of
     submodules.

   - bpo-44698(23): Fix undefined behaviour in complex object
     exponentiation.

   - bpo-44653(24): Support *note typing: 10d. types in parameter
     substitution in the union type.

   - bpo-44676(25): Add ability to serialise ‘types.Union’ objects.
     Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44633(26): Parameter substitution of the union type with wrong
     types now raises ‘TypeError’ instead of returning *note
     NotImplemented: 440.

   - bpo-44661(27): Update ‘property_descr_set’ to use vectorcall if
     possible.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44662(28): Add ‘__module__’ to ‘types.Union’.  This also fixes
     ‘types.Union’ issues with ‘typing.Annotated’.  Patch provided by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44655(29): Include the name of the type in unset __slots__
     attribute errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44655(30): Don’t include a missing attribute with the same name
     as the failing one when offering suggestions for missing
     attributes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44646(31): Fix the hash of the union type: it no longer depends
     on the order of arguments.

   - bpo-44636(32): Collapse union of equal types.  E.g.  the result of
     ‘int | int’ is now ‘int’.  Fix comparison of the union type with
     non-hashable objects.  E.g.  ‘int | str == {}’ no longer raises a
     TypeError.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44914

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44698

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44895

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44900

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44889

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44890

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44885

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44878

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44878

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44874

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44872

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33930

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25782

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44856

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44826

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44838

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44821

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44792

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34013

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44732

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44725

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44717

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44698

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44653

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44676

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44633

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44661

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44662

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44655

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44655

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44646

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44636


File: python.info,  Node: Library<117>,  Next: Core and Builtins<117>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<116>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.13 Library
..................

   - bpo-44611(1): On Windows, *note os.urandom(): 931.: uses
     BCryptGenRandom API instead of CryptGenRandom API which is
     deprecated from Microsoft Windows API. Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44611


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<117>,  Next: Library<118>,  Prev: Library<117>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.14 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-44635(1): Convert ‘None’ to ‘type(None)’ in the union type
     constructor.

   - bpo-26280(2): Implement adaptive specialization for BINARY_SUBSCR

     Three specialized forms of BINARY_SUBSCR are added:

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_LIST_INT

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_TUPLE_INT

        * BINARY_SUBSCR_DICT

   - bpo-44589(3): Mapping patterns in ‘match’ statements with two or
     more equal literal keys will now raise a *note SyntaxError: 17e. at
     compile-time.

   - bpo-44606(4): Fix ‘__instancecheck__’ and ‘__subclasscheck__’ for
     the union type.

   - bpo-42073(5): The ‘@classmethod’ decorator can now wrap other
     classmethod-like descriptors.

   - bpo-41972(6): Tuned the string-searching algorithm of fastsearch.h
     to have a shorter inner loop for most cases.

   - bpo-44590(7): All necessary data for executing a Python function
     (local variables, stack, etc) is now kept in a per-thread stack.
     Frame objects are lazily allocated on demand.  This increases
     performance by about 7% on the standard benchmark suite.
     Introspection and debugging are unaffected as frame objects are
     always available when needed.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   - bpo-44584(8): The threading debug (‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment
     variable) is deprecated in Python 3.10 and will be removed in
     Python 3.12.  This feature requires a debug build of Python.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43895(9): An obsolete internal cache of shared object file
     handles added in 1995 that attempted, but did not guarantee, that a
     .so would not be dlopen’ed twice to work around flaws in mid-1990s
     posix-ish operating systems has been removed from dynload_shlib.c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44635

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26280

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44589

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44606

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42073

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44590

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44584

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43895


File: python.info,  Node: Library<118>,  Next: Core and Builtins<118>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<117>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.15 Library
..................

   - bpo-44490(1): *note typing: 10d. now searches for type parameters
     in ‘types.Union’ objects.  ‘get_type_hints’ will also properly
     resolve annotations with nested ‘types.Union’ objects.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<118>,  Next: Library<119>,  Prev: Library<118>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.16 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-43950(1): Code objects can now provide the column information
     for instructions when available.  This is levaraged during
     traceback printing to show the expressions responsible for errors.

     Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya and Ammar Askar as
     part of PEP 657(2).

   - bpo-44562(3): Remove uses of *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5. in
     error path when initializing *note types.GenericAlias: bc7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44562


File: python.info,  Node: Library<119>,  Next: Core and Builtins<119>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<118>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.17 Library
..................

   - bpo-41486(1): Fix a memory consumption and copying performance
     regression in earlier 3.10 beta releases if someone used an output
     buffer larger than 4GiB with zlib.decompress on input data that
     expands that large.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<119>,  Next: Library<120>,  Prev: Library<119>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.18 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-43908(1): Heap types with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE:
     5fb. flag can now inherit the PEP 590(2) vectorcall protocol.
     Previously, this was only possible for *note static types: b5f.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44553(3): Implement GC methods for ‘types.Union’ to break
     reference cycles and prevent memory leaks.

   - bpo-44490(4): Add ‘__parameters__’ attribute and ‘__getitem__’
     operator to ‘types.Union’.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44523(5): Remove the pass-through for *note hash(): 9e2. of
     *note weakref.proxy: e15. objects to prevent unintended
     consequences when the original referred object dies while the proxy
     is part of a hashable object.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44483(6): Fix a crash in ‘types.Union’ objects when creating a
     union of an object with bad ‘__module__’ field.

   - bpo-44486(7): Modules will always have a dictionary, even when
     created by ‘types.ModuleType.__new__()’

   - bpo-44472(8): Fix ltrace functionality when exceptions are raised.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-12022(9): A *note TypeError: 291. is now raised instead of an
     *note AttributeError: 1a9. in *note with: 20a. and *note async
     with: 20b. statements for objects which do not support the *note
     context manager: 478. or *note asynchronous context manager: 9d2.
     protocols correspondingly.

   - bpo-44297(10): Make sure that the line number is set when entering
     a comprehension scope.  This ensures that backtraces including
     generator expressions show the correct line number.

   - bpo-44456(11): Improve the syntax error when mixing positional and
     keyword patterns.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44409(12): Fix error location information for tokenizer errors
     raised on initialization of the tokenizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44396(13): Fix a possible crash in the tokenizer when raising
     syntax errors for unclosed strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44376(14): Exact integer exponentiation (like ‘i**2’ or ‘pow(i,
     2)’) with a small exponent is much faster, due to reducing overhead
     in such cases.

   - bpo-44313(15): Directly imported objects and modules (through
     import and from import statements) don’t generate
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’/‘CALL_METHOD’ for directly accessed objects on their
     namespace.  They now use the regular ‘LOAD_ATTR’/‘CALL_FUNCTION’.

   - bpo-44338(16): Implement adaptive specialization for LOAD_GLOBAL

     Two specialized forms of LOAD_GLOBAL are added:

        * LOAD_GLOBAL_MODULE

        * LOAD_GLOBAL_BUILTIN

   - bpo-44368(17): Improve syntax errors for invalid «as» targets.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44349(18): Fix an edge case when displaying text from files
     with encoding in syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44337(19): Initial implementation of adaptive specialization of
     LOAD_ATTR

     Four specialized forms of LOAD_ATTR are added:

        * LOAD_ATTR_SLOT

        * LOAD_ATTR_SPLIT_KEYS

        * LOAD_ATTR_WITH_HINT

        * LOAD_ATTR_MODULE

   - bpo-44335(20): Fix a regression when identifying incorrect
     characters in syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43693(21): Computation of the offsets of cell variables is done
     in the compiler instead of at runtime.  This reduces the overhead
     of handling cell and free variables, especially in the case where a
     variable is both an argument and cell variable.

   - bpo-44317(22): Improve tokenizer error with improved locations.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44553

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44523

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44483

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44486

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44472

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12022

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44297

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44456

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44409

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44396

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44376

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44313

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44338

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44368

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44349

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44337

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44335

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43693

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44317


File: python.info,  Node: Library<120>,  Next: Core and Builtins<120>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<119>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.19 Library
..................

   - bpo-44304(1): Fix a crash in the *note sqlite3: d7. module that
     happened when the garbage collector clears ‘sqlite.Statement’
     objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44304


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<120>,  Next: Library<121>,  Prev: Library<120>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.20 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-44305(1): Improve error message for ‘try’ blocks without
     ‘except’ or ‘finally’ blocks.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43413(2): Constructors of subclasses of some builtin classes
     (e.g.  *note tuple: 1ce, *note list: 4d9, *note frozenset: 9d4.) no
     longer accept arbitrary keyword arguments.  [reverted in 3.11a4]
     Subclass of *note set: 42b. can now define a ‘__new__()’ method
     with additional keyword parameters without overriding also
     ‘__init__()’.

   - bpo-43667(3): Improve Unicode support in non-UTF locales on Oracle
     Solaris.  This issue does not affect other Solaris systems.

   - bpo-43693(4): A new opcode MAKE_CELL has been added that
     effectively moves some of the work done on function entry into the
     compiler and into the eval loop.  In addition to creating the
     required cell objects, the new opcode converts relevant arguments
     (and other locals) to cell variables on function entry.

   - bpo-44232(5): Fix a regression in *note type(): 186. when a
     metaclass raises an exception.  The C function ‘type_new()’ must
     properly report the exception when a metaclass constructor raises
     an exception and the winner class is not the metaclass.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44201(6): Avoid side effects of checking for specialized syntax
     errors in the REPL that was causing it to ask for extra tokens
     after a syntax error had been detected.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43693(7): ‘PyCodeObject’ gained ‘co_fastlocalnames’ and
     ‘co_fastlocalkinds’ as the authoritative source of fast locals
     info.  Marshaled code objects have changed accordingly.

   - bpo-44184(8): Fix a crash at Python exit when a deallocator
     function removes the last strong reference to a heap type.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44187(9): Implement quickening in the interpreter.  This offers
     no advantages as yet, but is an enabler of future optimizations.
     See PEP 659 for full explanation.

   - bpo-44180(10): The parser doesn’t report generic syntax errors that
     happen in a position further away that the one it reached in the
     first pass.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44168(11): Fix error message in the parser involving keyword
     arguments with invalid expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-44156(12): String caches in ‘compile.c’ are now subinterpreter
     compatible.

   - bpo-44143(13): Fixed a crash in the parser that manifest when
     raising tokenizer errors when an existing exception was present.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44032(14): Move “fast” locals and other variables from the
     frame object to a per-thread datastack.

   - bpo-44114(15): Fix incorrect dictkeys_reversed and
     dictitems_reversed function signatures in C code, which broke
     webassembly builds.

   - bpo-44110(16): Improve ‘str.__getitem__()’ error message

   - bpo-26110(17): Add ‘CALL_METHOD_KW’ opcode to speed up method calls
     with keyword arguments.  Idea originated from PyPy.  A side effect
     is executing ‘CALL_METHOD’ is now branchless in the evaluation
     loop.

   - bpo-28307(18): Compiler now optimizes simple C-style formatting
     with literal format containing only format codes %s, %r and %a by
     converting them to f-string expressions.

   - bpo-43149(19): Correct the syntax error message regarding multiple
     exception types to not refer to «exception groups».  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-43822(20): The parser will prioritize tokenizer errors over
     custom syntax errors when raising exceptions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-40222(21): «Zero cost» exception handling.

        * Uses a lookup table to determine how to handle exceptions.

        * Removes SETUP_FINALLY and POP_TOP block instructions,
          eliminating the runtime overhead of try statements.

        * Reduces the size of the frame object by about 60%.

     Patch by Mark Shannon

   - bpo-43918(22): Document the signature and ‘default’ argument in the
     docstring of the new ‘anext’ builtin.

   - bpo-43833(23): Emit a deprecation warning if the numeric literal is
     immediately followed by one of keywords: and, else, for, if, in,
     is, or.  Raise a syntax error with more informative message if it
     is immediately followed by other keyword or identifier.

   - bpo-43879(24): Add native_thread_id to PyThreadState.  Patch by
     Gabriele N. Tornetta.

   - bpo-43693(25): Compute cell offsets relative to locals in compiler.
     Allows the interpreter to treats locals and cells a single array,
     which is slightly more efficient.  Also make the LOAD_CLOSURE
     opcode an alias for LOAD_FAST. Preserving LOAD_CLOSURE helps keep
     bytecode a bit more readable.

   - bpo-17792(26): More accurate error messages for access of unbound
     locals or free vars.

   - bpo-28146(27): Fix a confusing error message in *note str.format():
     a12.

   - bpo-11105(28): When compiling *note ast.AST: 2ec. objects with
     recursive references through *note compile(): 1c8, the interpreter
     doesn’t crash anymore instead it raises a *note RecursionError:
     1121.

   - bpo-39091(29): Fix crash when using passing a non-exception to a
     generator’s ‘throw()’ method.  Patch by Noah Oxer

   - bpo-33346(30): Asynchronous comprehensions are now allowed inside
     comprehensions in asynchronous functions.  Outer comprehensions
     implicitly become asynchronous.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44305

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43413

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43667

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43693

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44232

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44201

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43693

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44184

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44187

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44180

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44168

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44156

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44143

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44032

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44114

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44110

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28307

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43918

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43879

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43693

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17792

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28146

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11105

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39091

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33346


File: python.info,  Node: Library<121>,  Next: Documentation<36>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<120>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.21 Library
..................

   - bpo-45371(1): Fix clang rpath issue in ‘distutils’.  The
     UnixCCompiler now uses correct clang option to add a runtime
     library directory (rpath) to a shared library.

   - bpo-45329(2): Fix freed memory access in ‘pyexpat.xmlparser’ when
     building it with an installed expat library <= 2.2.0.

   - bpo-41710(3): On Unix, if the ‘sem_clockwait()’ function is
     available in the C library (glibc 2.30 and newer), the *note
     threading.Lock.acquire(): a87. method now uses the monotonic clock
     (*note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: a88.) for the timeout, rather than
     using the system clock (*note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: a89.), to not be
     affected by system clock changes.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-1596321(4): Fix the ‘threading._shutdown()’ function when the
     *note threading: f6. module was imported first from a thread
     different than the main thread: no longer log an error at Python
     exit.

   - bpo-45274(5): Fix a race condition in the *note Thread.join():
     158d. method of the *note threading: f6. module.  If the function
     is interrupted by a signal and the signal handler raises an
     exception, make sure that the thread remains in a consistent state
     to prevent a deadlock.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-21302(6): In Unix operating systems, *note time.sleep(): a8c.
     now uses the ‘nanosleep()’ function, if ‘clock_nanosleep()’ is not
     available but ‘nanosleep()’ is available.  ‘nanosleep()’ allows to
     sleep with nanosecond precision.

   - bpo-21302(7): On Windows, *note time.sleep(): a8c. now uses a
     waitable timer which has a resolution of 100 nanoseconds (10^-7
     seconds).  Previously, it had a resolution of 1 millisecond (10^-3
     seconds).  Patch by Benjamin Szőke and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45238(8): Fix ‘unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase.debug()’: it
     runs now asynchronous methods and callbacks.

   - bpo-36674(9): *note unittest.TestCase.debug(): 1e40. raises now a
     *note unittest.SkipTest: 138d. if the class or the test method are
     decorated with the skipping decorator.

   - bpo-45235(10): Fix an issue where argparse would not preserve
     values in a provided namespace when using a subparser with
     defaults.

   - bpo-45183(11): Have zipimport.zipimporter.find_spec() not raise an
     exception when the underlying zip file has been deleted and the
     internal cache has been reset via invalidate_cache().

   - bpo-45234(12): Fixed a regression in *note copyfile(): e1d, *note
     copy(): e1e, *note copy2(): e1f. raising *note FileNotFoundError:
     243. when source is a directory, which should raise *note
     IsADirectoryError: 1401.

   - bpo-45228(13): Fix stack buffer overflow in parsing J1939 network
     address.

   - bpo-45225(14): use map function instead of genexpr in capwords.

   - bpo-42135(15): Fix typo: ‘importlib.find_loader’ is really slated
     for removal in Python 3.12 not 3.10, like the others in PR 25169.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-20524(16): Improves error messages on ‘.format()’ operation for
     ‘str’, ‘float’, ‘int’, and ‘complex’.  New format now shows the
     problematic pattern and the object type.

   - bpo-45168(17): Change *note dis.dis(): 496. output to omit op arg
     values that cannot be resolved due to ‘co_consts’, ‘co_names’ etc
     not being provided.  Previously the oparg itself was repeated in
     the value field, which is not useful and can be confusing.

   - bpo-21302(18): In Unix operating systems, *note time.sleep(): a8c.
     now uses the ‘clock_nanosleep()’ function, if available, which
     allows to sleep for an interval specified with nanosecond
     precision.

   - bpo-45173(19): Remove from the *note configparser: 26. module: the
     ‘SafeConfigParser’ class, the ‘filename’ property of the *note
     ParsingError: 914. class, the ‘readfp()’ method of the *note
     ConfigParser: 6e4. class, deprecated since Python 3.2.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-44987(20): Pure ASCII strings are now normalized in constant
     time by *note unicodedata.normalize(): ac2.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35474(21): Calling *note mimetypes.guess_all_extensions():
     1e41. with ‘strict=False’ no longer affects the result of the
     following call with ‘strict=True’.  Also, mutating the returned
     list no longer affects the global state.

   - bpo-45166(22): *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. now works with
     *note Final: 76f. wrapped in *note ForwardRef: 1dd3.

   - bpo-45162(23): Remove many old deprecated *note unittest: 10f.
     features:

        * «‘fail*’» and «‘assert*’» aliases of *note TestCase: 52f.
          methods.

        * Broken from start *note TestCase: 52f. method
          ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’.

        * Ignored ‘<unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule>
          TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()’ parameter 'use_load_tests'.

        * Old alias ‘_TextTestResult’ of *note TextTestResult: 93f.

   - bpo-38371(24): Remove the deprecated ‘split()’ method of
     ‘_tkinter.TkappType’.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-20499(25): Improve the speed and accuracy of
     statistics.pvariance().

   - bpo-45132(26): Remove *note __getitem__(): 787. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: b1c, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: b1d. and *note fileinput.FileInput: b1e,
     deprecated since Python 3.9.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45129(27): Due to significant security concerns, the
     'reuse_address' parameter of *note
     asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a, disabled in Python
     3.9, is now entirely removed.  This is because of the behavior of
     the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-45124(28): The ‘bdist_msi’ command, deprecated in Python 3.9,
     is now removed.

     Use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

     Patch by Hugo van Kemenade.

   - bpo-30856(29): *note unittest.TestResult: 1510. methods *note
     addFailure(): 1e42, *note addError(): 1e43, *note addSkip(): 1e44.
     and *note addSubTest(): 1e45. are now called immediately after
     raising an exception in test or finishing a subtest.  Previously
     they were called only after finishing the test clean up.

   - bpo-45034(30): Changes how error is formatted for ‘struct.pack’
     with ‘'H'’ and ‘'h'’ modes and too large / small numbers.  Now it
     shows the actual numeric limits, while previously it was showing
     arithmetic expressions.

   - bpo-25894(31): *note unittest: 10f. now always reports skipped and
     failed subtests separately: separate characters in default mode and
     separate lines in verbose mode.  Also the test description is now
     output for errors in test method, class and module cleanups.

   - bpo-45081(32): Fix issue when dataclasses that inherit from
     ‘typing.Protocol’ subclasses have wrong ‘__init__’.  Patch provided
     by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-45085(33): The ‘binhex’ module, deprecated in Python 3.9, is
     now removed.  The following *note binascii: 11. functions,
     deprecated in Python 3.9, are now also removed:

        * ‘a2b_hqx()’, ‘b2a_hqx()’;

        * ‘rlecode_hqx()’, ‘rledecode_hqx()’.

     The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): b1b. function remains available.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40360(34): The ‘lib2to3’ package is now deprecated and may not
     be able to parse Python 3.10 or newer.  See the PEP 617(35) (New
     PEG parser for CPython).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45075(36): Rename ‘traceback.StackSummary.format_frame()’ to
     *note traceback.StackSummary.format_frame_summary(): a91.  This
     method was added for 3.11 so it was not released yet.

     Updated code and docs to better distinguish frame and FrameSummary.

   - bpo-31299(37): Add option to completely drop frames from a
     traceback by returning ‘None’ from a ‘format_frame()’ override.

   - bpo-41620(38): *note run(): 150f. now always return a *note
     TestResult: 1510. instance.  Previously it returned ‘None’ if the
     test class or method was decorated with a skipping decorator.

   - bpo-45021(39): Fix a potential deadlock at shutdown of forked
     children when using *note concurrent.futures: 24. module

   - bpo-43913(40): Fix bugs in cleaning up classes and modules in *note
     unittest: 10f.:

        * Functions registered with *note addModuleCleanup(): e0f. were
          not called unless the user defines ‘tearDownModule()’ in their
          test module.

        * Functions registered with *note addClassCleanup(): e10. were
          not called if ‘tearDownClass’ is set to ‘None’.

        * Buffering in *note TestResult: 1510. did not work with
          functions registered with ‘addClassCleanup()’ and
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’.

        * Errors in functions registered with ‘addClassCleanup()’ and
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’ were not handled correctly in buffered
          and debug modes.

        * Errors in ‘setUpModule()’ and functions registered with
          ‘addModuleCleanup()’ were reported in wrong order.

        * And several lesser bugs.

   - bpo-45030(41): Fix integer overflow in pickling and copying the
     range iterator.

   - bpo-45001(42): Made email date parsing more robust against
     malformed input, namely a whitespace-only ‘Date:’ header.  Patch by
     Wouter Bolsterlee.

   - bpo-45010(43): Remove support of special method ‘__div__’ in *note
     unittest.mock: 110.  It is not used in Python 3.

   - bpo-39218(44): Improve accuracy of variance calculations by using
     ‘x*x’ instead of ‘x**2’.

   - bpo-43613(45): Improve the speed of *note gzip.compress(): a2d. and
     *note gzip.decompress(): 15b4. by compressing and decompressing at
     once in memory instead of in a streamed fashion.

   - bpo-37596(46): Ensure that *note set: 42b. and *note frozenset:
     9d4. objects are always *note marshalled: 90. reproducibly.

   - bpo-44019(47): A new function ‘operator.call’ has been added, such
     that ‘operator.call(obj, *args, **kwargs) == obj(*args, **kwargs)’.

   - bpo-42255(48): ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ is deprecated and will be
     removed in Python 3.13.  It is untested and undocumented and also
     not used by *note webbrowser: 11e. itself.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-44955(49): Method *note stopTestRun(): 16ef. is now always
     called in pair with method *note startTestRun(): 16ee. for *note
     TestResult: 1510. objects implicitly created in *note run(): 150f.
     Previously it was not called for test methods and classes decorated
     with a skipping decorator.

   - bpo-39039(50): tarfile.open raises *note ReadError: 1e46. when a
     zlib error occurs during file extraction.

   - bpo-44935(51): *note subprocess: df. on Solaris now also uses *note
     os.posix_spawn(): 731. for better performance.

   - bpo-44911(52): *note IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342. will no longer
     throw an exception while cancelling leaked tasks.  Patch by Bar
     Harel.

   - bpo-41322(53): Added ‘DeprecationWarning’ for tests and async tests
     that return a value!=None (as this may indicate an improperly
     written test, for example a test written as a generator function).

   - bpo-44524(54): Make exception message more useful when subclass
     from typing special form alias.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-38956(55): *note argparse.BooleanOptionalAction: 1db.’s default
     value is no longer printed twice when used with *note
     argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter: 1e47.

   - bpo-44860(56): Fix the ‘posix_user’ scheme in *note sysconfig: e4.
     to not depend on *note sys.platlibdir: 2a9.

   - bpo-44859(57): Improve error handling in *note sqlite3: d7. and
     raise more accurate exceptions.

        * *note MemoryError: 18fa. is now raised instead of *note
          sqlite3.Warning: 1db0. when memory is not enough for encoding
          a statement to UTF-8 in ‘Connection.__call__()’ and
          ‘Cursor.execute()’.

        * ‘UnicodEncodeError’ is now raised instead of *note
          sqlite3.Warning: 1db0. when the statement contains surrogate
          characters in ‘Connection.__call__()’ and ‘Cursor.execute()’.

        * *note TypeError: 291. is now raised instead of *note
          ValueError: 277. for non-string script argument in
          ‘Cursor.executescript()’.

        * *note ValueError: 277. is now raised for script containing the
          null character instead of truncating it in
          ‘Cursor.executescript()’.

        * Correctly handle exceptions raised when getting boolean value
          of the result of the progress handler.

        * Add many tests covering different corner cases.

   - bpo-44581(58): Upgrade bundled pip to 21.2.3 and setuptools to
     57.4.0

   - bpo-44849(59): Fix the *note os.set_inheritable(): 12ac. function
     on FreeBSD 14 for file descriptor opened with the *note O_PATH:
     131c. flag: ignore the *note EBADF: d25. error on ‘ioctl()’,
     fallback on the ‘fcntl()’ implementation.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44605(60): The @functools.total_ordering() decorator now works
     with metaclasses.

   - bpo-44524(61): Fixed an issue wherein the ‘__name__’ and
     ‘__qualname__’ attributes of subscribed specialforms could be
     ‘None’.

   - bpo-44839(62): *note MemoryError: 18fa. raised in user-defined
     functions will now produce a ‘MemoryError’ in *note sqlite3: d7.
     *note OverflowError: c57. will now be converted to *note DataError:
     1e48.  Previously *note OperationalError: 1e49. was produced in
     these cases.

   - bpo-44822(63): *note sqlite3: d7. user-defined functions and
     aggregators returning *note strings: 1df. with embedded NUL
     characters are no longer truncated.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44801(64): Ensure that the *note ParamSpec: 295. variable in
     Callable can only be substituted with a parameters expression (a
     list of types, an ellipsis, ParamSpec or Concatenate).

   - bpo-44806(65): Non-protocol subclasses of *note typing.Protocol:
     76c. ignore now the ‘__init__’ method inherited from protocol base
     classes.

   - bpo-27275(66): *note collections.OrderedDict.popitem(): 1692. and
     ‘collections.OrderedDict.pop()’ no longer call ‘__getitem__’ and
     ‘__delitem__’ methods of the OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-44793(67): Fix checking the number of arguments when subscribe
     a generic type with ‘ParamSpec’ parameter.

   - bpo-44784(68): In importlib.metadata tests, override warnings
     behavior under expected DeprecationWarnings (importlib_metadata
     4.6.3).

   - bpo-44667(69): The *note tokenize.tokenize(): 8e9. doesn’t
     incorrectly generate a ‘NEWLINE’ token if the source doesn’t end
     with a new line character but the last line is a comment, as the
     function is already generating a ‘NL’ token.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   - bpo-44771(70): Added ‘importlib.simple’ module implementing
     adapters from a low-level resources reader interface to a
     ‘TraversableResources’ interface.  Legacy API (‘path’, ‘contents’,
     …) is now supported entirely by the ‘.files()’ API with a
     compatibility shim supplied for resource loaders without that
     functionality.  Feature parity with ‘importlib_resources’ 5.2.

   - bpo-44752(71): ‘rcompleter’ does not call *note getattr(): f8f. on
     *note property: 6bb. objects to avoid the side-effect of evaluating
     the corresponding method.

   - bpo-44747(72): Refactor usage of ‘sys._getframe’ in ‘typing’
     module.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42378(73): Fixes the issue with log file being overwritten when
     *note logging.FileHandler: 1e4a. is used in *note atexit: d. with
     'filemode' set to ‘'w'’.  Note this will cause the message in
     'atexit' not being logged if the log stream is already closed due
     to shutdown of logging.

   - bpo-44720(74): ‘weakref.proxy’ objects referencing non-iterators
     now raise ‘TypeError’ rather than dereferencing the null
     ‘tp_iternext’ slot and crashing.

   - bpo-44704(75): The implementation of ‘collections.abc.Set._hash()’
     now matches that of ‘frozenset.__hash__()’.

   - bpo-44666(76): Fixed issue in *note compileall.compile_file():
     1199. when ‘sys.stdout’ is redirected.  Patch by Stefan Hölzl.

   - bpo-44688(77): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_collation(): a66.
     now accepts non-ASCII collation names.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-44690(78): Adopt 'binacii.a2b_base64'’s strict mode in
     'base64.b64decode'.

   - bpo-42854(79): Fixed a bug in the ‘_ssl’ module that was throwing
     *note OverflowError: c57. when using ‘_ssl._SSLSocket.write()’ and
     ‘_ssl._SSLSocket.read()’ for a big value of the ‘len’ parameter.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-44686(80): Replace ‘unittest.mock._importer’ with
     ‘pkgutil.resolve_name’.

   - bpo-44353(81): Make ‘NewType.__call__’ faster by implementing it in
     C. Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44682(82): Change the *note pdb: aa. 'commands' directive to
     disallow setting commands for an invalid breakpoint and to display
     an appropriate error.

   - bpo-44353(83): Refactor ‘typing.NewType’ from function into
     callable class.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44678(84): Added a separate error message for discontinuous
     padding in 'binascii.a2b_base64' strict mode.

   - bpo-44524(85): Add missing ‘__name__’ and ‘__qualname__’ attributes
     to ‘typing’ module classes.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-40897(86): Give priority to using the current class constructor
     in *note inspect.signature(): 4bd.  Patch by Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-44638(87): Add a reference to the zipp project and hint as to
     how to use it.

   - bpo-44648(88): Fixed wrong error being thrown by *note
     inspect.getsource(): 1a04. when examining a class in the
     interactive session.  Instead of *note TypeError: 291, it should be
     *note OSError: 53c. with appropriate error message.

   - bpo-44608(89): Fix memory leak in ‘_tkinter._flatten()’ if it is
     called with a sequence or set, but not list or tuple.

   - bpo-44594(90): Fix an edge case of ‘ExitStack’ and ‘AsyncExitStack’
     exception chaining.  They will now match ‘with’ block behavior when
     ‘__context__’ is explicitly set to ‘None’ when the exception is in
     flight.

   - bpo-42799(91): In *note fnmatch: 5f, the cache size for compiled
     regex patterns (*note functools.lru_cache(): db3.) was bumped up
     from 256 to 32768, affecting functions: *note fnmatch.fnmatch():
     1e4b, *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 1e4c, *note fnmatch.filter():
     1e4d.

   - bpo-41928(92): Update *note shutil.copyfile(): e1d. to raise *note
     FileNotFoundError: 243. instead of confusing *note
     IsADirectoryError: 1401. when a path ending with a ‘os.path.sep’
     does not exist; *note shutil.copy(): e1e. and *note shutil.copy2():
     e1f. are also affected.

   - bpo-44569(93): Added the ‘StackSummary.format_frame()’ function in
     *note traceback: 107.  This allows users to customize the way
     individual lines are formatted in tracebacks without
     re-implementing logic to handle recursive tracebacks.

   - bpo-44566(94): handle StopIteration subclass raised from
     @contextlib.contextmanager generator

   - bpo-44558(95): Make the implementation consistency of *note
     indexOf(): cad. between C and Python versions.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-41249(96): Fixes ‘TypedDict’ to work with
     ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ and postponed evaluation of annotations
     across modules.

   - bpo-44554(97): Refactor argument processing in ‘pdb.main()’ to
     simplify detection of errors in input loading and clarify behavior
     around module or script invocation.

   - bpo-34798(98): Break up paragraph about *note pprint.PrettyPrinter:
     1329. construction parameters to make it easier to read.

   - bpo-44539(99): Added support for recognizing JPEG files without
     JFIF or Exif markers.

   - bpo-44461(100): Fix bug with *note pdb: aa.’s handling of import
     error due to a package which does not have a ‘__main__’ module

   - bpo-43625(101): Fix a bug in the detection of CSV file headers by
     *note csv.Sniffer.has_header(): 1e4e. and improve documentation of
     same.

   - bpo-44516(102): Update vendored pip to 21.1.3

   - bpo-42892(103): Fixed an exception thrown while parsing a malformed
     multipart email by *note email.message.EmailMessage: 216.

   - bpo-44468(104): *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. now finds
     annotations in classes and base classes with unexpected
     ‘__module__’.  Previously, it skipped those MRO elements.

   - bpo-44491(105): Allow clearing the *note sqlite3: d7. authorizer
     callback by passing *note None: a65. to *note set_authorizer():
     3e3.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43977(106): Set the proper *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1e4f. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1e50. flags for subclasses created
     before a parent has been registered as a *note
     collections.abc.Mapping: c9c. or *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     156d.

   - bpo-44482(107): Fix very unlikely resource leak in *note glob: 67.
     in alternate Python implementations.

   - bpo-44466(108): The *note faulthandler: 5b. module now detects if a
     fatal error occurs during a garbage collector collection.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44471(109): A *note TypeError: 291. is now raised instead of an
     *note AttributeError: 1a9. in *note
     contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context(): 9d0. and *note
     contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context(): 9d1. for objects
     which do not support the *note context manager: 478. or *note
     asynchronous context manager: 9d2. protocols correspondingly.

   - bpo-44404(110): *note tkinter: f9.’s ‘after()’ method now supports
     callables without the ‘__name__’ attribute.

   - bpo-41546(111): Make *note pprint: b3. (like the builtin ‘print’)
     not attempt to write to ‘stdout’ when it is ‘None’.

   - bpo-44458(112): ‘BUFFER_BLOCK_SIZE’ is now declared static, to
     avoid linking collisions when bz2, lmza or zlib are statically
     linked.

   - bpo-44464(113): Remove exception for flake8 in deprecated
     importlib.metadata interfaces.  Sync with importlib_metadata 4.6.

   - bpo-44446(114): Take into account that ‘lineno’ might be ‘None’ in
     *note traceback.FrameSummary: 1235.

   - bpo-44439(115): Fix in ‘bz2.BZ2File.write()’ /
     ‘lzma.LZMAFile.write()’ methods, when the input data is an object
     that supports the buffer protocol, the file length may be wrong.

   - bpo-44434(116): _thread.start_new_thread() no longer calls
     PyThread_exit_thread() explicitly at the thread exit, the call was
     redundant.  On Linux with the glibc, pthread_exit() aborts the
     whole process if dlopen() fails to open libgcc_s.so file (ex:
     EMFILE error).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42972(117): The _thread.RLock type now fully implement the GC
     protocol: add a traverse function and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC:
     39e. flag.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44422(118): The *note threading.enumerate(): 1e51. function now
     uses a reentrant lock to prevent a hang on reentrant call.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38291(119): Importing typing.io or typing.re now prints a
     ‘DeprecationWarning’.

   - bpo-37880(120): argparse actions store_const and append_const each
     receive a default value of ‘None’ when the ‘const’ kwarg is not
     provided.  Previously, this raised a *note TypeError: 291.

   - bpo-44389(121): Fix deprecation of *note ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3: 1e52.

   - bpo-27827(122): ‘pathlib.PureWindowsPath.is_reserved()’ now
     identifies a greater range of reserved filenames, including those
     with trailing spaces or colons.

   - bpo-44395(123): Fix ‘as_string()’ to pass unixfrom properly.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-34266(124): Handle exceptions from parsing the arg of *note
     pdb: aa.’s run/restart command.

   - bpo-44362(125): Improve *note ssl: d8. module’s deprecation
     messages, error reporting, and documentation for deprecations.

   - bpo-44342(126): [Enum] Change pickling from by-value to by-name.

   - bpo-44356(127): [Enum] Allow multiple data-type mixins if they are
     all the same.

   - bpo-44351(128): Restore back ‘parse_makefile()’ in
     ‘distutils.sysconfig’ because it behaves differently than the
     similar implementation in *note sysconfig: e4.

   - bpo-35800(129): ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy’ is now removed as it is
     unusable without an external module, ‘mailman’.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-44357(130): Added a function that returns cube root of the
     given number *note math.cbrt(): a51.

   - bpo-44339(131): Change ‘math.pow(±0.0, -math.inf)’ to return ‘inf’
     instead of raising ‘ValueError’.  This brings the special-case
     handling of ‘math.pow’ into compliance with the IEEE 754 standard.

   - bpo-44242(132): Remove missing flag check from Enum creation and
     move into a ‘verify’ decorator.

   - bpo-44246(133): In ‘importlib.metadata’, restore compatibility in
     the result from ‘Distribution.entry_points’ (‘EntryPoints’) to
     honor expectations in older implementations and issuing deprecation
     warnings for these cases: A. ‘EntryPoints’ objects are once again
     mutable, allowing for ‘sort()’ and other list-based mutation
     operations.  Avoid deprecation warnings by casting to a mutable
     sequence (e.g.  ‘list(dist.entry_points).sort()’).  B.
     ‘EntryPoints’ results once again allow for access by index.  To
     avoid deprecation warnings, cast the result to a Sequence first
     (e.g.  ‘tuple(dist.entry_points)[0]’).

   - bpo-44246(134): In importlib.metadata.entry_points, de-duplication
     of distributions no longer requires loading the full metadata for
     PathDistribution objects, improving entry point loading performance
     by ~10x.

   - bpo-43858(135): Added a function that returns a copy of a dict of
     logging levels: *note logging.getLevelNamesMapping(): a49.

   - bpo-44260(136): The *note random.Random: 1e53. constructor no
     longer reads system entropy without need.

   - bpo-44254(137): On Mac, give turtledemo button text a color that
     works on both light or dark background.  Programmers cannot control
     the latter.

   - bpo-44258(138): Support PEP 515 for Fraction’s initialization from
     string.

   - bpo-44235(139): Remove deprecated functions in the *note gettext:
     66.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38693(140): Prefer f-strings to ‘.format’ in
     importlib.resources.

   - bpo-33693(141): Importlib.metadata now prefers f-strings to
     .format.

   - bpo-44241(142): Incorporate minor tweaks from importlib_metadata
     4.1: SimplePath protocol, support for Metadata 2.2.

   - bpo-43216(143): Remove the ‘@asyncio.coroutine’ *note decorator:
     b18. enabling legacy generator-based coroutines to be compatible
     with async/await code; remove ‘asyncio.coroutines.CoroWrapper’ used
     for wrapping legacy coroutine objects in the debug mode.  The
     decorator has been deprecated since Python 3.8 and the removal was
     initially scheduled for Python 3.10.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-44210(144): Make importlib.metadata._meta.PackageMetadata
     public.

   - bpo-43643(145): Declare readers.MultiplexedPath.name as a property
     per the spec.

   - bpo-27334(146): The *note sqlite3: d7. context manager now performs
     a rollback (thus releasing the database lock) if commit failed.
     Patch by Luca Citi and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-4928(147): Documented existing behavior on POSIX:
     NamedTemporaryFiles are not deleted when creating process is killed
     with SIGKILL

   - bpo-44154(148): Optimize *note fractions.Fraction: 1c3. pickling
     for large components.

   - bpo-33433(149): For IPv4 mapped IPv6 addresses ( RFC 4291(150)
     Section 2.5.5.2), the *note ipaddress.IPv6Address.is_private: 1bce.
     check is deferred to the mapped IPv4 address.  This solves a bug
     where public mapped IPv4 addresses were considered private by the
     IPv6 check.

   - bpo-44150(151): Add optional 'weights' argument to
     statistics.fmean().

   - bpo-44142(152): *note ast.unparse(): cb6. will now drop the
     redundant parentheses when tuples used as assignment targets (e.g
     in for loops).

   - bpo-44145(153): *note hmac: 6d. computations were not releasing the
     GIL while calling the OpenSSL ‘HMAC_Update’ C API (a new feature in
     3.9).  This unintentionally prevented parallel computation as other
     *note hashlib: 6b. algorithms support.

   - bpo-44095(154): *note zipfile.Path: ab6. now supports *note
     zipfile.Path.stem: ab3, *note zipfile.Path.suffixes: ab5, and *note
     zipfile.Path.suffix: ab4. attributes.

   - bpo-44077(155): It’s now possible to receive the type of service
     (ToS), a.k.a.  differentiated services (DS), a.k.a.  differentiated
     services code point (DSCP) and explicit congestion notification
     (ECN) IP header fields with ‘socket.IP_RECVTOS’.

   - bpo-37788(156): Fix a reference leak when a Thread object is never
     joined.

   - bpo-38908(157): Subclasses of ‘typing.Protocol’ which only have
     data variables declared will now raise a ‘TypeError’ when checked
     with ‘isinstance’ unless they are decorated with
     ‘runtime_checkable()’.  Previously, these checks passed silently.
     Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-44098(158): ‘typing.ParamSpec’ will no longer be found in the
     ‘__parameters__’ of most *note typing: 10d. generics except in
     valid use locations specified by PEP 612(159).  This prevents
     incorrect usage like ‘typing.List[P][int]’.  This change means
     incorrect usage which may have passed silently in 3.10 beta 1 and
     earlier will now error.

   - bpo-44089(160): Allow subclassing ‘csv.Error’ in 3.10 (it was
     allowed in 3.9 and earlier but was disallowed in early versions of
     3.10).

   - bpo-44081(161): *note ast.unparse(): cb6. now doesn’t use redundant
     spaces to separate ‘lambda’ and the ‘:’ if there are no parameters.

   - bpo-44061(162): Fix regression in previous release when calling
     *note pkgutil.iter_modules(): 1100. with a list of *note
     pathlib.Path: 4ee. objects

   - bpo-44059(163): Register the SerenityOS Browser in the *note
     webbrowser: 11e. module.

   - bpo-36515(164): The *note hashlib: 6b. module no longer does
     unaligned memory accesses when compiled for ARM platforms.

   - bpo-40465(165): Remove random module features deprecated in Python
     3.9.

   - bpo-44018(166): random.seed() no longer mutates bytearray inputs.

   - bpo-38352(167): Add ‘IO’, ‘BinaryIO’, ‘TextIO’, ‘Match’, and
     ‘Pattern’ to ‘typing.__all__’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-44002(168): *note urllib.parse: 113. now uses
     ‘functool.lru_cache()’ for its internal URL splitting and quoting
     caches instead of rolling its own like its the “90s.

     The undocumented internal *note urllib.parse: 113. ‘Quoted’ class
     API is now deprecated, for removal in 3.14.

   - bpo-43972(169): When *note http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler:
     22a. sends a ‘301 (Moved Permanently)’ for a directory path not
     ending with ‘/’, add a ‘Content-Length: 0’ header.  This improves
     the behavior for certain clients.

   - bpo-28528(170): Fix a bug in *note pdb: aa. where ‘checkline()’
     raises *note AttributeError: 1a9. if it is called after ‘reset()’.

   - bpo-43853(171): Improved string handling for *note sqlite3: d7.
     user-defined functions and aggregates:

        * It is now possible to pass strings with embedded null
          characters to UDFs

        * Conversion failures now correctly raise *note MemoryError:
          18fa.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43666(172): AIX: ‘Lib/_aix_support.get_platform()’ may fail in
     an AIX WPAR. The fileset bos.rte appears to have a builddate in
     both LPAR and WPAR so this fileset is queried rather than bos.mp64.
     To prevent a similar situation (no builddate in ODM) a value (9988)
     sufficient for completing a build is provided.  Patch by M Felt.

   - bpo-43650(173): Fix *note MemoryError: 18fa. in *note
     shutil.unpack_archive(): 882. which fails inside
     ‘shutil._unpack_zipfile()’ on large files.  Patch by Igor
     Bolshakov.

   - bpo-43612(174): *note zlib.compress(): a2e. now accepts a wbits
     parameter which allows users to compress data as a raw deflate
     block without zlib headers and trailers in one go.  Previously this
     required instantiating a ‘zlib.compressobj’.  It also provides a
     faster alternative to ‘gzip.compress’ when wbits=31 is used.

   - bpo-43392(175): ‘importlib._bootstrap._find_and_load()’ now
     implements a two-step check to avoid locking when modules have been
     already imported and are ready.  This improves performance of
     repeated calls to *note importlib.import_module(): 927. and *note
     importlib.__import__(): 1415.

   - bpo-43318(176): Fix a bug where *note pdb: aa. does not always echo
     cleared breakpoints.

   - bpo-43234(177): Prohibit passing non-*note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. executors to
     ‘loop.set_default_executor()’ following a deprecation in Python
     3.8.  Patch by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-43232(178): Prohibit previously deprecated potentially
     disruptive operations on ‘asyncio.trsock.TransportSocket’.  Patch
     by Illia Volochii.

   - bpo-30077(179): Added support for Apple’s aifc/sowt
     pseudo-compression

   - bpo-42971(180): Add definition of ‘errno.EQFULL’ for platforms that
     define this constant (such as macOS).

   - bpo-43086(181): Added a new optional ‘strict_mode’ parameter to
     'binascii.a2b_base64'.  When ‘scrict_mode’ is set to ‘True’, the
     'a2b_base64' function will accept only valid base64 content.  More
     details about what «valid base64 content» is, can be found in the
     function’s documentation.

   - bpo-43024(182): Improve the help signature of *note
     traceback.print_exception(): c27, *note
     traceback.format_exception(): c25. and *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): c26.

   - bpo-33809(183): Add the *note traceback.TracebackException.print():
     a92. method which prints the formatted exception information.

   - bpo-42862(184): *note sqlite3: d7. now utilizes *note
     functools.lru_cache(): db3. to implement the connection statement
     cache.  As a small optimisation, the default statement cache size
     has been increased from 100 to 128.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41818(185): Soumendra Ganguly: add termios.tcgetwinsize(),
     termios.tcsetwinsize().

   - bpo-40497(186): *note subprocess.check_output(): 136b. now raises
     *note ValueError: 277. when the invalid keyword argument 'check' is
     passed by user code.  Previously such use would fail later with a
     *note TypeError: 291.  Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37449(187): ‘ensurepip’ now uses ‘importlib.resources.files()’
     traversable APIs

   - bpo-40956(188): Use Argument Clinic in *note sqlite3: d7.  Patches
     by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41730(189): ‘DeprecationWarning’ is now raised when importing
     ‘tkinter.tix’, which has been deprecated in documentation since
     Python 3.6.

   - bpo-20684(190): Remove unused ‘_signature_get_bound_param’ function
     from *note inspect: 81. - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-41402(191): Fix *note email.message.EmailMessage.set_content():
     1e54. when called with binary data and ‘7bit’ content transfer
     encoding.

   - bpo-32695(192): The 'compresslevel' and 'preset' keyword arguments
     of *note tarfile.open(): 1228. are now both documented and tested.

   - bpo-41137(193): Use utf-8 encoding while reading .pdbrc files.
     Patch by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy

   - bpo-24391(194): Improved reprs of *note threading: f6.
     synchronization objects: *note Semaphore: 1501, *note
     BoundedSemaphore: 1502, *note Event: 1503. and *note Barrier: 158c.

   - bpo-5846(195): Deprecated the following *note unittest: 10f.
     functions, scheduled for removal in Python 3.13:

        * ‘findTestCases()’

        * ‘makeSuite()’

        * ‘getTestCaseNames()’

     Use *note TestLoader: 792. methods instead:

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 793.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 794.

        * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 795.

     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40563(196): Support pathlike objects on dbm/shelve.  Patch by
     Hakan Çelik and Henry-Joseph Audéoud.

   - bpo-34990(197): Fixed a Y2k38 bug in the compileall module where it
     would fail to compile files with a modification time after the year
     2038.

   - bpo-39549(198): Whereas the code for reprlib.Repr had previously
     used a hardcoded string value of “…”, this PR updates it to use of
     a “fillvalue” attribute, whose value defaults to “…” and can be
     reset in either individual reprlib.Repr instances or in subclasses
     thereof.

   - bpo-37022(199): *note pdb: aa. now displays exceptions from
     ‘repr()’ with its ‘p’ and ‘pp’ commands.

   - bpo-38840(200): Fix ‘test___all__’ on platforms lacking a shared
     memory implementation.

   - bpo-39359(201): Add one missing check that the password is a bytes
     object for an encrypted zipfile.

   - bpo-38741(202): *note configparser: 26.: using “]” inside a section
     header will no longer cut the section name short at the “]”

   - bpo-38415(203): Added missing behavior to *note
     contextlib.asynccontextmanager(): 20f. to match *note
     contextlib.contextmanager(): 20e. so decorated functions can
     themselves be decorators.

   - bpo-30256(204): Pass multiprocessing BaseProxy argument
     ‘manager_owned’ through AutoProxy.

   - bpo-27513(205): *note email.utils.getaddresses(): 6f8. now accepts
     *note email.header.Header: 1e55. objects along with string values.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-16379(206): Add SQLite error code and name to *note sqlite3:
     d7. exceptions.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda, Daniel Shahaf, and Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-26228(207): pty.spawn no longer hangs on FreeBSD, macOS, and
     Solaris.

   - bpo-33349(208): lib2to3 now recognizes async generators everywhere.

   - bpo-29298(209): Fix ‘TypeError’ when required subparsers without
     ‘dest’ do not receive arguments.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45371

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45329

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1596321

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45274

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45238

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36674

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45235

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45183

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45234

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45228

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<36>,  Next: Tests<39>,  Prev: Library<121>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.22 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-45216(1): Remove extra documentation listing methods in
     ‘difflib’.  It was rendering twice in pydoc and was outdated in
     some places.

   - bpo-45024(2): *note collections.abc: 1f. documentation has been
     expanded to explicitly cover how instance and subclass checks work,
     with additional doctest examples and an exhaustive list of ABCs
     which test membership purely by presence of the right *note special
     method: 1e57.s.  Patch by Raymond Hettinger.

   - bpo-44957(3): Promote PEP 604 union syntax by using it where
     possible.  Also, mention ‘X | Y’ more prominently in section about
     ‘Union’ and mention ‘X | None’ at all in section about ‘Optional’.

   - bpo-16580(4): Added code equivalents for the *note int.to_bytes():
     1e29. and *note int.from_bytes(): 198e. methods, as well as tests
     ensuring that these code equivalents are valid.

   - bpo-44903(5): Removed the ‘othergui.rst’ file, any references to
     it, and the list of GUI frameworks in the FAQ. In their place I’ve
     added links to the Python Wiki page on GUI frameworks(6).

   - bpo-33479(7): Tkinter documentation has been greatly expanded with
     new «Architecture» and «Threading model» sections.

   - bpo-36700(8): *note base64: f. RFC references were updated to point
     to RFC 4648(9); a section was added to point users to the new
     «security considerations» section of the RFC.

   - bpo-44740(10): Replaced occurrences of uppercase «Web» and
     «Internet» with lowercase versions per the 2016 revised Associated
     Press Style Book.

   - bpo-44693(11): Update the definition of __future__ in the glossary
     by replacing the confusing word «pseudo-module» with a more
     accurate description.

   - bpo-35183(12): Add typical examples to os.path.splitext docs

   - bpo-30511(13): Clarify that *note shutil.make_archive(): 8c3. is
     not thread-safe due to reliance on changing the current working
     directory.

   - bpo-44561(14): Update of three expired hyperlinks in
     Doc/distributing/index.rst: «Project structure», «Building and
     packaging the project», and «Uploading the project to the Python
     Packaging Index».

   - bpo-44651(15): Delete entry «coercion» in Doc/glossary.rst for its
     outdated definition.

   - bpo-42958(16): Updated the docstring and docs of *note
     filecmp.cmp(): 1be6. to be more accurate and less confusing
     especially in respect to 'shallow' arg.

   - bpo-44631(17): Refactored the ‘repr()’ code of the ‘_Environ’ (os
     module).

   - bpo-44613(18): importlib.metadata is no longer provisional.

   - bpo-44558(19): Match the docstring and python implementation of
     *note countOf(): cae. to the behavior of its c implementation.

   - bpo-44544(20): List all kwargs for *note textwrap.wrap(): 1869,
     *note textwrap.fill(): 1868, and *note textwrap.shorten(): 1379.
     Now, there are nav links to attributes of ‘TextWrap’, which makes
     navigation much easier while minimizing duplication in the
     documentation.

   - bpo-38062(21): Clarify that atexit uses equality comparisons
     internally.

   - bpo-40620(22): Convert examples in tutorial controlflow.rst section
     4.3 to be interpreter-demo style.

   - bpo-43066(23): Added a warning to *note zipfile: 13a. docs:
     filename arg with a leading slash may cause archive to be
     un-openable on Windows systems.

   - bpo-39452(24): Rewrote ‘Doc/library/__main__.rst’.  Broadened scope
     of the document to explicitly discuss and differentiate between
     ‘__main__.py’ in packages versus the ‘__name__ == '__main__'’
     expression (and the idioms that surround it).

   - bpo-13814(25): In the Design FAQ, answer «Why don’t generators
     support the with statement?»

   - bpo-27752(26): Documentation of csv.Dialect is more descriptive.

   - bpo-44453(27): Fix documentation for the return type of *note
     sysconfig.get_path(): 16d2.

   - bpo-44392(28): Added a new section in the C API documentation for
     types used in type hinting.  Documented ‘Py_GenericAlias’ and
     ‘Py_GenericAliasType’.

   - bpo-38291(29): Mark ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ as deprecated since
     Python 3.8 in the documentation.  They were never properly
     supported by type checkers.

   - bpo-44322(30): Document that SyntaxError args have a details tuple
     and that details are adjusted for errors in f-string field
     replacement expressions.

   - bpo-42392(31): Document the deprecation and removal of the ‘loop’
     parameter for many functions and classes in *note asyncio: b.

   - bpo-44195(32): Corrected references to ‘TraversableResources’ in
     docs.  There is no ‘TraversableReader’.

   - bpo-41963(33): Document that ‘ConfigParser’ strips off comments
     when reading configuration files.

   - bpo-44072(34): Correct where in the numeric ABC hierarchy ‘**’
     support is added, i.e., in numbers.Complex, not numbers.Integral.

   - bpo-43558(35): Add the remark to *note dataclasses: 32.
     documentation that the ‘__init__()’ of any base class has to be
     called in ‘__post_init__()’, along with a code example.

   - bpo-44025(36): Clarify when “_” in match statements is a keyword,
     and when not.

   - bpo-41706(37): Fix docs about how methods like ‘__add__’ are
     invoked when evaluating operator expressions.

   - bpo-41621(38): Document that *note collections.defaultdict: 1565.
     parameter ‘default_factory’ defaults to ‘None’ and is
     positional-only.

   - bpo-41576(39): document BaseException in favor of bare except

   - bpo-21760(40): The description for __file__ fixed.  Patch by Furkan
     Onder

   - bpo-39498(41): Add a «Security Considerations» index which links to
     standard library modules that have explicitly documented security
     considerations.

   - bpo-33479(42): Remove the unqualified claim that tkinter is
     threadsafe.  It has not been true for several years and likely
     never was.  An explanation of what is true may be added later,
     after more discussion, and possibly after patching _tkinter.c,

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45024

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44957

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16580

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44903

   (6) https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33479

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36700

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44740

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44693

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35183

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30511

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44561

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44651

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42958

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44631

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44613

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44558

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44544

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38062

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40620

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43066

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39452

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13814

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27752

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44453

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44392

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44322

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44195

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41963

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44072

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43558

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44025

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41706

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41621

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41576

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21760

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39498

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33479


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<39>,  Next: Build<42>,  Prev: Documentation<36>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.23 Tests
................

   - bpo-40173(1): Fix *note
     test.support.import_helper.import_fresh_module(): 1e59.

   - bpo-45280(2): Add a test case for empty *note typing.NamedTuple:
     2e4.

   - bpo-45269(3): Cover case when invalid ‘markers’ type is supplied to
     ‘c_make_encoder’.

   - bpo-45128(4): Fix ‘test_multiprocessing_fork’ failure due to
     ‘test_logging’ and ‘sys.modules’ manipulation.

   - bpo-45209(5): Fix ‘UserWarning: resource_tracker’ warning in
     ‘_test_multiprocessing._TestSharedMemory.test_shared_memory_cleaned_after_process_termination’

   - bpo-45185(6): Enables ‘TestEnumerations’ test cases in ‘test_ssl’
     suite.

   - bpo-45195(7): Fix test_readline.test_nonascii(): sometimes, the
     newline character is not written at the end, so don’t expect it in
     the output.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45156(8): Fixes infinite loop on *note unittest.mock.seal():
     f60. of mocks created by ‘create_autospec()’.

   - bpo-45125(9): Improves pickling tests and docs of ‘SharedMemory’
     and ‘SharableList’ objects.

   - bpo-44860(10): Update ‘test_sysconfig.test_user_similar()’ for the
     posix_user scheme: ‘platlib’ doesn’t use *note sys.platlibdir: 2a9.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45052(11):
     ‘WithProcessesTestSharedMemory.test_shared_memory_basics’ test was
     ignored, because ‘self.assertEqual(sms.size, sms2.size)’ line was
     failing.  It is now removed and test is unskipped.

     The main motivation for this line to be removed from the test is
     that the ‘size’ of ‘SharedMemory’ is not ever guaranteed to be the
     same.  It is decided by the platform.

   - bpo-44895(12): libregrtest now clears the type cache later to
     reduce the risk of false alarm when checking for reference leaks.
     Previously, the type cache was cleared too early and libregrtest
     raised a false alarm about reference leaks under very specific
     conditions.  Patch by Irit Katriel and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45042(13): Fixes that test classes decorated with
     ‘@hashlib_helper.requires_hashdigest’ were skipped all the time.

   - bpo-25130(14): Add calls of *note gc.collect(): 44f. in tests to
     support PyPy.

   - bpo-45011(15): Made tests relying on the ‘_asyncio’ C extension
     module optional to allow running on alternative Python
     implementations.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-44949(16): Fix auto history tests of test_readline: sometimes,
     the newline character is not written at the end, so don’t expect it
     in the output.

   - bpo-44891(17): Tests were added to clarify *note id(): 17c5. is
     preserved when ‘obj * 1’ is used on *note str: 1df. and *note
     bytes: 1c7. objects.  Patch by Nikita Sobolev.

   - bpo-44852(18): Add ability to wholesale silence DeprecationWarnings
     while running the regression test suite.

   - bpo-40928(19): Notify users running test_decimal regression tests
     on macOS of potential harmless «malloc can’t allocate region»
     messages spewed by test_decimal.

   - bpo-44734(20): Fixed floating-point precision issue in turtle
     tests.

   - bpo-44708(21): Regression tests, when run with -w, are now
     re-running only the affected test methods instead of re-running the
     entire test file.

   - bpo-42095(22): Added interop tests for Apple plists: generate plist
     files with Python plistlib and parse with Apple plutil; and the
     other way round.

   - bpo-44647(23): Added a permanent Unicode-valued environment
     variable to regression tests to ensure they handle this use case in
     the future.  If your test environment breaks because of that,
     report a bug to us, and temporarily set
     PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD=0 in your test environment.

   - bpo-44515(24): Adjust recently added contextlib tests to avoid
     assuming the use of a refcounted GC

   - bpo-44287(25): Fix asyncio test_popen() of test_windows_utils by
     using a longer timeout.  Use military grade battle-tested *note
     test.support.SHORT_TIMEOUT: 1e5a. timeout rather than a hardcoded
     timeout of 10 seconds: it’s 30 seconds by default, but it is made
     longer on slow buildbots.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44451(26): Reset ‘DeprecationWarning’ filters in
     ‘test.test_importlib.test_metadata_api.APITests.test_entry_points_by_index’
     to avoid ‘StopIteration’ error if ‘DeprecationWarnings’ are
     ignored.

   - bpo-44363(27): Account for address sanitizer in test_capi.
     test_capi now passes when run GCC address sanitizer.

   - bpo-44364(28): Add non integral tests for *note math.sqrt(): dc8.
     function.

   - bpo-43921(29): Fix test_ssl.test_wrong_cert_tls13(): use
     ‘suppress_ragged_eofs=False’, since ‘read()’ can raise *note
     ssl.SSLEOFError: 1903. on Windows.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43921(30): Fix test_pha_required_nocert() of test_ssl: catch
     two more EOF cases (when the ‘recv()’ method returns an empty
     string).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44131(31): Add test_frozenmain to test_embed to test the
     ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ C function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31904(32): Ignore error string case in test_file_not_exists().

   - bpo-42083(33): Add test to check that ‘PyStructSequence_NewType’
     accepts a ‘PyStructSequence_Desc’ with ‘doc’ field set to ‘NULL’.

   - bpo-35753(34): Fix crash in doctest when doctest parses modules
     that include unwrappable functions by skipping those functions.

   - bpo-30256(35): Add test for nested queues when using
     ‘multiprocessing’ shared objects ‘AutoProxy[Queue]’ inside
     ‘ListProxy’ and ‘DictProxy’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40173

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45280

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45269

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45128

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45209

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45185

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45195

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45156

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45125

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44860

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45052

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44895

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45042

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45011

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44949

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44891

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44852

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40928

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44734

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44708

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42095

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44647

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44515

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44287

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44451

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44363

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44364

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43921

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43921

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44131

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42083

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35753

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30256


File: python.info,  Node: Build<42>,  Next: Windows<36>,  Prev: Tests<39>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.24 Build
................

   - bpo-45220(1): Avoid building with the Windows 11 SDK previews
     automatically.  This may be overridden by setting the
     ‘DefaultWindowsSDKVersion’ environment variable before building.

   - bpo-45020(2): Freeze stdlib modules that are imported during
     startup.  This provides significant performance improvements to
     startup.  If necessary, use the previously added «-X
     frozen_modules=off» commandline option to force importing the
     source modules.

   - bpo-45188(3): Windows builds now regenerate frozen modules as the
     first part of the build.  Previously the regeneration was later in
     the build, which would require it to be restarted if any modules
     had changed.

   - bpo-45163(4): Fixes Haiku platform build.

   - bpo-45067(5): The ncurses function extended_color_content was
     introduced in 2017

     (‘https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/NEWS.html#index-t20170401’).
     The

     ncurses-devel package in CentOS 7 had a older version ncurses
     resulted in compilation error.  For compiling ncurses with extended
     color support, we verify the version of the ncurses library >=
     20170401.

   - bpo-45019(6): Generate lines in relevant files for frozen modules.
     Up until now each of the files had to be edited manually.  This
     change makes it easier to add to and modify the frozen modules.

   - bpo-44340(7): Add support for building with clang thin lto via
     –with-lto=thin/full.  Patch by Donghee Na and Brett Holman.

   - bpo-44535(8): Enable building using a Visual Studio 2022 install on
     Windows.

   - bpo-43298(9): Improved error message when building without a
     Windows SDK installed.

   - bpo-44381(10): The Windows build now accepts
     ‘EnableControlFlowGuard’ set to ‘guard’ to enable CFG.

   - bpo-41282(11): Fix broken ‘make install’ that caused standard
     library extension modules to be unnecessarily and incorrectly
     rebuilt during the install phase of cpython.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45220

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45020

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45188

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45163

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45067

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45019

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44340

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44535

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43298

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44381

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<36>,  Next: macOS<28>,  Prev: Build<42>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.25 Windows
..................

   - bpo-45375(1): Fixes an assertion failure due to searching for the
     standard library in unnormalised paths.

   - bpo-45022(2): Update Windows release to include libffi 3.4.2

   - bpo-45007(3): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.1l in Windows build

   - bpo-44848(4): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.36.0.

   - bpo-44572(5): Avoid consuming standard input in the *note platform:
     af. module

   - bpo-44582(6): Accelerate speed of *note mimetypes: 93.
     initialization using a native implementation of the registry scan.

   - bpo-41299(7): Fix 16 milliseconds jitter when using timeouts in
     *note threading: f6, such as with *note threading.Lock.acquire():
     a87. or *note threading.Condition.wait(): 1e5d.

   - bpo-42686(8): Build *note sqlite3: d7. with math functions enabled.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40263(9): This is a follow-on bug from
     ‘https://bugs.python.org/issue26903’.  Once that is applied we run
     into an off-by-one assertion problem.  The assert was not correct.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45375

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45007

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44848

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44572

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44582

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41299

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42686

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40263


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<28>,  Next: IDLE<20>,  Prev: Windows<36>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.26 macOS
................

   - bpo-45007(1): Update macOS installer builds to use OpenSSL 1.1.1l.

   - bpo-34602(2): When building CPython on macOS with ‘./configure
     --with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer --with-pydebug’, the stack size
     is now quadrupled to allow for the entire test suite to pass.

   - bpo-44848(3): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.36.0.

   - bpo-44689(4): *note ctypes.util.find_library(): 10fe. now works
     correctly on macOS 11 Big Sur even if Python is built on an older
     version of macOS. Previously, when built on older macOS systems,
     ‘find_library’ was not able to find macOS system libraries when
     running on Big Sur due to changes in how system libraries are
     stored.

   - bpo-41972(5): The framework build’s user header path in sysconfig
     is changed to add a “pythonX.Y” component to match distutils’s
     behavior.

   - bpo-43109(6): Allow –with-lto configure option to work with
     Apple-supplied Xcode or Command Line Tools.

   - bpo-34932(7): Add socket.TCP_KEEPALIVE support for macOS. Patch by
     Shane Harvey.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45007

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44848

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44689

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43109

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34932


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<20>,  Next: Tools/Demos<25>,  Prev: macOS<28>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.27 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-45296(1): On Windows, change exit/quit message to suggest
     Ctrl-D, which works, instead of <Ctrl-Z Return>, which does not
     work in IDLE.

   - bpo-45193(2): Make completion boxes appear on Ubuntu again.

   - bpo-40128(3): Mostly fix completions on macOS when not using tcl/tk
     8.6.11 (as with 3.9).  The added update_idletask call should be
     harmless and possibly helpful otherwise.

   - bpo-33962(4): Move the indent space setting from the Font tab to
     the new Windows tab.  Patch by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-40468(5): Split the settings dialog General tab into Windows
     and Shell/ED tabs.  Move help sources, which extend the Help menu,
     to the Extensions tab.  Make space for new options and shorten the
     dialog.  The latter makes the dialog better fit small screens.

   - bpo-41611(6): Avoid uncaught exceptions in
     ‘AutoCompleteWindow.winconfig_event()’.

   - bpo-41611(7): Fix IDLE sometimes freezing upon tab-completion on
     macOS.

   - bpo-44010(8): Highlight the new *note match: 1d4. statement’s *note
     soft keywords: be6.: *note match: 1d4, ‘case’, and *note _: be7.
     However, this highlighting is not perfect and will be incorrect in
     some rare cases, including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’ patterns.

   - bpo-44026(9): Include interpreter’s typo fix suggestions in message
     line for NameErrors and AttributeErrors.  Patch by E. Paine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45296

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45193

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41611

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41611

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44010

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44026


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<25>,  Next: C API<38>,  Prev: IDLE<20>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.28 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-44786(1): Fix a warning in regular expression in the c-analyzer
     script.

   - bpo-44967(2): pydoc now returns a non-zero status code when a
     module cannot be found.

   - bpo-44978(3): Allow the Argument Clinic tool to handle
     ‘__complex__’ special methods.

   - bpo-43425(4): Removed the “test2to3” demo project that demonstrated
     using lib2to3 to support Python 2.x and Python 3.x from a single
     source in a distutils package.  Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-44074(5): Make patchcheck automatically detect the correct base
     branch name (previously it was hardcoded to “master”)

   - bpo-20291(6): Added support for variadic positional parameters in
     Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44967

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44978

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43425

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44074

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20291


File: python.info,  Node: C API<38>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<25>,  Up: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1

1.26.41.29 C API
................

   - bpo-41710(1): The PyThread_acquire_lock_timed() function now clamps
     the timeout if it is too large, rather than aborting the process.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-44687(2): ‘BufferedReader.peek()’ no longer raises *note
     ValueError: 277. when the entire file has already been buffered.

   - bpo-45116(3): Add the *note Py_ALWAYS_INLINE: 1e62. macro to ask
     the compiler to always inline a static inline function.  The
     compiler can ignore it and decides to not inline the function.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45094(4): Add the *note Py_NO_INLINE: 1a6a. macro to disable
     inlining on a function.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-45061(5): Add a deallocator to the *note bool: 5ef. type to
     detect refcount bugs in C extensions which call
     ‘Py_DECREF(Py_True);’ or ‘Py_DECREF(Py_False);’ by mistake.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42035(6): Add a new *note PyType_GetQualName(): b37. function
     to get type’s qualified name.

   - bpo-41103(7): Reverts removal of the old buffer protocol because
     they are part of stable ABI.

   - bpo-44751(8): Remove ‘crypt.h’ include from the public ‘Python.h’
     header.

   - bpo-42747(9): The ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG’ type flag now does
     nothing.  The ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_AM_SEND’ flag (which was added in
     3.10) is removed.  Both were unnecessary because it is not possible
     to have type objects with the relevant fields missing.

   - bpo-44530(10): Added the ‘co_qualname’ to the ‘PyCodeObject’
     structure to propagate the qualified name from the compiler to code
     objects.

     Patch by Gabriele N. Tornetta

   - bpo-44441(11): *note Py_RunMain(): d8d. now resets *note
     PyImport_Inittab: 1d19. to its initial value at exit.  It must be
     possible to call *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 1d1a. or *note
     PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 1d1b. at each Python initialization.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39947(12): Remove 4 private trashcan C API functions which were
     only kept for the backward compatibility of the stable ABI with
     Python 3.8 and older, since the trashcan API was not usable with
     the limited C API on Python 3.8 and older.  The trashcan API was
     excluded from the limited C API in Python 3.9.

     Removed functions:

        * _PyTrash_deposit_object()

        * _PyTrash_destroy_chain()

        * _PyTrash_thread_deposit_object()

        * _PyTrash_thread_destroy_chain()

     The trashcan C API was never usable with the limited C API, since
     old trashcan macros accessed directly *note PyThreadState: b6c.
     members like ‘_tstate->trash_delete_nesting’, whereas the
     ‘PyThreadState’ structure is opaque in the limited C API.

     Exclude also the ‘PyTrash_UNWIND_LEVEL’ constant from the C API.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40939(13): Removed documentation for the removed ‘PyParser_*’ C
     API.

   - bpo-43795(14): The list in *note Contents of Limited API: b79. now
     shows the public name *note PyFrameObject: b68. rather than
     ‘_frame’.  The non-existing entry ‘_node’ no longer appears in the
     list.

   - bpo-44378(15): *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 19bb. no longer uses *note
     Py_TYPE(): 5f5. to avoid a compiler warning: no longer cast ‘const
     PyObject*’ to ‘PyObject*’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39573(16): Convert the *note Py_TYPE(): 5f5. and *note
     Py_SIZE(): b61. macros to static inline functions.  The *note
     Py_SET_TYPE(): b60. and *note Py_SET_SIZE(): b62. functions must
     now be used to set an object type and size.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-44263(17): The *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. function now raises
     an error if a type is defined with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC:
     39e. flag set but has no traverse function (*note
     PyTypeObject.tp_traverse: 36b.).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43795(18): The undocumented function ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ is
     removed from the Limited API.

   - bpo-44113(19): Deprecate the following functions to configure the
     Python initialization:

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’

        * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’

        * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’

        * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’

        * ‘Py_SetPath()’

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’

        * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’

        * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’

     Use the new *note PyConfig: 60b. API of the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 837. instead ( PEP 587(20)).

   - bpo-44094(21): Remove ‘PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithUnicodeFilename()’,
     ‘PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithUnicodeFilename()’, and
     ‘PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithUnicodeFilename()’.  They are not
     documented and have been deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-43795(22): *note PyCodec_Unregister(): c6d. is now properly
     exported as a function in the Windows Stable ABI DLL.

   - bpo-44029(23): Remove deprecated ‘Py_UNICODE’ APIs:
     ‘PyUnicode_Encode’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape’,
     ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap’, ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape’,
     ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII’, ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap’,
     ‘PyUnicodeEncodeError_Create’, ‘PyUnicodeTranslateError_Create’.
     See PEP 393(24) and PEP 624(25) for reference.

   - bpo-42035(26): Add a new *note PyType_GetName(): b36. function to
     get type’s short name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44687

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45116

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45094

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45061

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44751

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42747

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44530

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44441

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44378

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44263

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44113

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44094

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44029

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Prev: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.42 Python 3.10.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-05-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<29>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<121>.
* Library: Library<122>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<122>.
* Library: Library<123>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<123>.
* Library: Library<124>.
* Documentation: Documentation<37>.
* Tests: Tests<40>.
* Build: Build<43>.
* Windows: Windows<37>.
* macOS: macOS<29>.
* IDLE: IDLE<21>.
* C API: C API<39>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<29>,  Next: Core and Builtins<121>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-43434(1): Creating *note sqlite3.Connection: 3df. objects now
     also produces ‘sqlite3.connect’ and ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’ *note
     auditing events: 1e65.  Previously these events were only produced
     by *note sqlite3.connect(): 3e0. calls.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43998(2): The *note ssl: d8. module sets more secure cipher
     suites defaults.  Ciphers without forward secrecy and with SHA-1
     MAC are disabled by default.  Security level 2 prohibits weak RSA,
     DH, and ECC keys with less than 112 bits of security.  *note
     SSLContext: 336. defaults to minimum protocol version TLS 1.2.
     Settings are based on Hynek Schlawack’s research.

   - bpo-43882(3): The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of
     a URL could allow some forms of attacks.

     Following the controlling specification for URLs defined by WHATWG
     *note urllib.parse(): 113. now removes ASCII newlines and tabs from
     URLs, preventing such attacks.

   - bpo-43472(4): Ensures interpreter-level audit hooks receive the
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_New’ event when called through the
     ‘_xxsubinterpreters’ module.

   - bpo-43362(5): Fix invalid free in _sha3 module.  The issue was
     introduced in 3.10.0a1.  Python 3.9 and earlier are not affected.

   - bpo-43762(6): Add audit events for ‘sqlite3.connect/handle()’,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): c17, and *note
     sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 8c8.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43756(7): Add new audit event ‘glob.glob/2’ to incorporate the
     new 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' arguments added to *note glob.glob():
     2d4. and *note glob.iglob(): be1.

   - bpo-36384(8): *note ipaddress: 83. module no longer accepts any
     leading zeros in IPv4 address strings.  Leading zeros are ambiguous
     and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries.  For example
     the legacy function *note socket.inet_aton(): d2b. treats leading
     zeros as octal notation.  glibc implementation of modern *note
     inet_pton(): d2c. does not accept any leading zeros.  For a while
     the ‘ipaddress’ module used to accept ambiguous leading zeros.

   - bpo-43075(9): Fix Regular Expression Denial of Service (ReDoS)
     vulnerability in *note urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler:
     1e66.  The ReDoS-vulnerable regex has quadratic worst-case
     complexity and it allows cause a denial of service when identifying
     crafted invalid RFCs.  This ReDoS issue is on the client side and
     needs remote attackers to control the HTTP server.

   - bpo-42800(10): Audit hooks are now fired for frame.f_code,
     traceback.tb_frame, and generator code/frame attribute access.

   - bpo-37363(11): Add audit events to the *note http.client: 72.
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43434

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43998

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43882

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43472

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43362

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43762

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43756

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43075

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42800

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<121>,  Next: Library<122>,  Prev: Security<29>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43977(1): Prevent classes being both a sequence and a mapping
     when pattern matching.

   - bpo-43977(2): Use *note tp_flags: 1e68. on the class object to
     determine if the subject is a sequence or mapping when pattern
     matching.  Avoids the need to import *note collections.abc: 1f.
     when pattern matching.

   - bpo-43892(3): Restore proper validation of complex literal value
     patterns when parsing ‘match’ blocks.

   - bpo-43933(4): Set frame.f_lineno to the line number of the “with”
     kweyword when executing the call to ‘__exit__’.

   - bpo-43933(5): If the current position in a frame has no line number
     then set the f_lineno attribute to None, instead of -1, to conform
     to PEP 626.  This should not normally be possible, but might occur
     in some unusual circumstances.

   - bpo-43963(6): Importing the ‘_signal’ module in a subinterpreter
     has no longer side effects.

   - bpo-42739(7): The internal representation of line number tables is
     changed to not use sentinels, and an explicit length parameter is
     added to the out of process API function
     ‘PyLineTable_InitAddressRange’.  This makes the handling of line
     number tables more robust in some circumstances.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43933

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43933

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43963

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42739


File: python.info,  Node: Library<122>,  Next: Core and Builtins<122>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<121>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-43908(1): Make *note re: c1. types immutable.  Patch by Erlend
     E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43908(2): Make the *note array.array: 6c5. type immutable.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<122>,  Next: Library<123>,  Prev: Library<122>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43901(1): Change class and module objects to lazy-create empty
     annotations dicts on demand.  The annotations dicts are stored in
     the object’s __dict__ for backwards compatibility.

   - bpo-43892(2): Match patterns now use new dedicated AST nodes
     (‘MatchValue’, ‘MatchSingleton’, ‘MatchSequence’, ‘MatchStar’,
     ‘MatchMapping’, ‘MatchClass’) rather than reusing expression AST
     nodes.  ‘MatchAs’ and ‘MatchOr’ are now defined as pattern nodes
     rather than as expression nodes.  Patch by Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-42725(3): Usage of ‘await’/‘yield’/‘yield from’ and named
     expressions within an annotation is now forbidden when PEP 563 is
     activated.

   - bpo-43754(4): When performing structural pattern matching ( PEP
     634(5)), captured names are now left unbound until the 'entire'
     pattern has matched successfully.

   - bpo-42737(6): Annotations for complex targets (everything beside
     simple names) no longer cause any runtime effects with ‘from
     __future__ import annotations’.

   - bpo-43914(7): *note SyntaxError: 17e. exceptions raised by the
     interpreter will highlight the full error range of the expression
     that constitutes the syntax error itself, instead of just where the
     problem is detected.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38605(8): Revert making ‘from __future__ import annotations’
     the default.  This follows the Steering Council decision to
     postpone PEP 563 changes to at least Python 3.11.  See the original
     email for more information regarding the decision:
     ‘https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/thread/CLVXXPQ2T2LQ5MP2Y53VVQFCXYWQJHKZ/’.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43475(9): Hashes of NaN values now depend on object identity.
     Formerly, they always hashed to 0 even though NaN values are not
     equal to one another.  Having the same hash for unequal values
     caused pile-ups in hash tables.

   - bpo-43859(10): Improve the error message for *note
     IndentationError: b89. exceptions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-41323(11): Constant tuple folding in bytecode optimizer now
     reuses tuple in constant table.

   - bpo-43846(12): Data stack usage is much reduced for large literal
     and call expressions.

   - bpo-38530(13): When printing *note NameError: 665. raised by the
     interpreter, ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar
     variable names in the function that the exception was raised from.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43823(14): Improve syntax errors for invalid dictionary
     literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43822(15): Improve syntax errors in the parser for missing
     commas between expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43798(16): *note ast.alias: 1e6b. nodes now include source
     location metadata attributes e.g.  lineno, col_offset.

   - bpo-43797(17): Improve ‘SyntaxError’ error messages for invalid
     comparisons.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43760(18): Move the flag for checking whether tracing is
     enabled to the C stack, from the heap.  Should speed up dispatch in
     the interpreter.

   - bpo-43682(19): Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 666.) and class
     methods (*note @classmethod: 69a.) now inherit the method
     attributes (‘__module__’, ‘__name__’, ‘__qualname__’, ‘__doc__’,
     ‘__annotations__’) and have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43751(20): Fixed a bug where ‘anext(ait, default)’ would
     erroneously return None.

   - bpo-42128(21): *note __match_args__: 1e6c. is no longer allowed to
     be a list.

   - bpo-43683(22): Add GEN_START opcode.  Marks start of generator,
     including async, or coroutine and handles sending values to a newly
     created generator or coroutine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43901

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43892

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43754

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42737

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38605

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43475

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43859

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41323

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43846

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43823

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43798

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43797

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43751

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43683


File: python.info,  Node: Library<123>,  Next: Core and Builtins<123>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<122>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.5 Library
.................

   - bpo-43105(1): Importlib now resolves relative paths when creating
     module spec objects from file locations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43105


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<123>,  Next: Library<124>,  Prev: Library<123>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.6 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43682(1): Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 666.) are now
     callable as regular functions.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42609(2): Prevented crashes in the AST validator and optimizer
     when compiling some absurdly long expressions like ‘"+0"*1000000’.
     *note RecursionError: 1121. is now raised instead.

   - bpo-38530(3): When printing *note AttributeError: 1a9,
     ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar attribute names
     in the object that the exception was raised from.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42609

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530


File: python.info,  Node: Library<124>,  Next: Documentation<37>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<123>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.7 Library
.................

   - bpo-44015(1): In @dataclass(), raise a TypeError if KW_ONLY is
     specified more than once.

   - bpo-25478(2): Added a 'total()' method to collections.Counter() to
     compute the sum of the counts.

   - bpo-43733(3): Change *note netrc.netrc: 1e70. to use UTF-8 encoding
     before using locale encoding.

   - bpo-43979(4): Removed an unnecessary list comprehension before
     looping from *note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 588.  Patch by
     Christoph Zwerschke and Donghee Na.

   - bpo-43993(5): Update bundled pip to 21.1.1.

   - bpo-43957(6): [Enum] Deprecate ‘TypeError’ when non-member is used
     in a containment check; In 3.12 ‘True’ or ‘False’ will be returned
     instead, and containment will return ‘True’ if the value is either
     a member of that enum or one of its members” value.

   - bpo-42904(7): For backwards compatibility with previous minor
     versions of Python, if *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. receives
     no namespace dictionary arguments, ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ will
     search through the global then local namespaces during evaluation
     of stringized type annotations (string forward references) inside a
     class.

   - bpo-43945(8): [Enum] Deprecate non-standard mixin format()
     behavior: in 3.12 the enum member, not the member’s value, will be
     used for format() calls.

   - bpo-41139(9): Deprecate undocumented ‘cgi.log()’ API.

   - bpo-43937(10): Fixed the *note turtle: 10a. module working with
     non-default root window.

   - bpo-43930(11): Update bundled pip to 21.1 and setuptools to 56.0.0

   - bpo-43907(12): Fix a bug in the pure-Python pickle implementation
     when using protocol 5, where bytearray instances that occur several
     time in the pickled object graph would incorrectly unpickle into
     repeated copies of the bytearray object.

   - bpo-43926(13): In ‘importlib.metadata’, provide a uniform interface
     to ‘Description’, allow for any field to be encoded with multiline
     values, remove continuation lines from multiline values, and add a
     ‘.json’ property for easy access to the PEP 566 JSON-compatible
     form.  Sync with ‘importlib_metadata 4.0’.

   - bpo-43920(14): OpenSSL 3.0.0: *note load_verify_locations(): 129c.
     now returns a consistent error message when cadata contains no
     valid certificate.

   - bpo-43607(15): *note urllib: 111. can now convert Windows paths
     with ‘\\?\’ prefixes into URL paths.

   - bpo-43817(16): Add *note inspect.get_annotations(): bec, which
     safely computes the annotations defined on an object.  It works
     around the quirks of accessing the annotations from various types
     of objects, and makes very few assumptions about the object passed
     in.  ‘inspect.get_annotations()’ can also correctly un-stringize
     stringized annotations.

     *note inspect.signature(): 4bd, ‘inspect.from_callable()’, and
     ‘inspect.from_function()’ now call *note inspect.get_annotations():
     bec. to retrieve annotations.  This means ‘inspect.signature()’ and
     ‘inspect.from_callable()’ can now un-stringize stringized
     annotations, too.

   - bpo-43284(17): platform.win32_ver derives the windows version from
     sys.getwindowsversion().platform_version which in turn derives the
     version from kernel32.dll (which can be of a different version than
     Windows itself).  Therefore change the platform.win32_ver to
     determine the version using the platform module’s _syscmd_ver
     private function to return an accurate version.

   - bpo-42854(18): The *note ssl: d8. module now uses ‘SSL_read_ex’ and
     ‘SSL_write_ex’ internally.  The functions support reading and
     writing of data larger than 2 GB. Writing zero-length data no
     longer fails with a protocol violation error.

   - bpo-42333(19): Port ‘_ssl’ extension module to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-43880(20): *note ssl: d8. now raises DeprecationWarning for
     OP_NO_SSL/TLS* options, old TLS versions, old protocols, and other
     features that have been deprecated since Python 3.6, 3.7, or
     OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - bpo-41559(21): PEP 612(22) is now implemented purely in Python;
     builtin ‘types.GenericAlias’ objects no longer include
     ‘typing.ParamSpec’ in ‘__parameters__’ (with the exception of
     ‘collections.abc.Callable’“s ‘GenericAlias’).  This means
     previously invalid uses of ‘ParamSpec’ (such as ‘list[P]’) which
     worked in earlier versions of Python 3.10 alpha, will now raise
     ‘TypeError’ during substitution.

   - bpo-43867(23): The *note multiprocessing: 98. ‘Server’ class now
     explicitly catches *note SystemExit: 10f7. and closes the client
     connection in this case.  It happens when the
     ‘Server.serve_client()’ method reaches the end of file (EOF).

   - bpo-40443(24): Remove unused imports: pyclbr no longer uses copy,
     and typing no longer uses ast.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43820(25): Remove an unneeded copy of the namespace passed to
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().

   - bpo-43787(26): Add ‘__iter__()’ method to *note bz2.BZ2File: c3d,
     *note gzip.GzipFile: 849, and *note lzma.LZMAFile: 13b5.  It makes
     iterating them about 2x faster.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-43680(27): Deprecate io.OpenWrapper and _pyio.OpenWrapper: use
     io.open and _pyio.open instead.  Until Python 3.9, _pyio.open was
     not a static method and builtins.open was set to OpenWrapper to not
     become a bound method when set to a class variable.  _io.open is a
     built-in function whereas _pyio.open is a Python function.  In
     Python 3.10, _pyio.open() is now a static method, and
     builtins.open() is now io.open().

   - bpo-43680(28): The Python ‘_pyio.open()’ function becomes a static
     method to behave as *note io.open(): 92b. built-in function: don’t
     become a bound method when stored as a class variable.  It becomes
     possible since static methods are now callable in Python 3.10.
     Moreover, ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper()’ becomes a simple alias to
     ‘_pyio.open()’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41515(29): Fix *note KeyError: 7df. raised in *note
     typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. due to synthetic modules that don’t
     appear in ‘sys.modules’.

   - bpo-43776(30): When *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf. args are provided
     as a string or as *note pathlib.Path: 4ee, the Popen instance repr
     now shows the right thing.

   - bpo-42248(31): [Enum] ensure exceptions raised in ‘_missing__’ are
     released

   - bpo-43744(32): fix issue with enum member name matching the start
     of a private variable name

   - bpo-43772(33): Fixed the return value of ‘TypeVar.__ror__’.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-43764(34): Add match_args parameter to @dataclass decorator to
     allow suppression of __match_args__ generation.

   - bpo-43799(35): OpenSSL 3.0.0: define ‘OPENSSL_API_COMPAT’ 1.1.1 to
     suppress deprecation warnings.  Python requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 APIs.

   - bpo-43478(36): Mocks can no longer be used as the specs for other
     Mocks.  As a result, an already-mocked object cannot have an
     attribute mocked using ‘autospec=True’ or be the subject of a
     ‘create_autospec(...)’ call.  This can uncover bugs in tests since
     these Mock-derived Mocks will always pass certain tests (e.g.
     *note isinstance(): 2ef.) and builtin assert functions (e.g.
     assert_called_once_with) will unconditionally pass.

   - bpo-43794(37): Add *note ssl.OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: c10.
     constants (OpenSSL 3.0.0)

   - bpo-43785(38): Improve ‘bz2.BZ2File’ performance by removing the
     RLock from BZ2File.  This makes BZ2File thread unsafe in the face
     of multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its
     equivalent classes in *note gzip: 6a. and *note lzma: 8d. have
     always been.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-43789(39): OpenSSL 3.0.0: Don’t call the password callback
     function a second time when first call has signaled an error
     condition.

   - bpo-43788(40): The header files for *note ssl: d8. error codes are
     now OpenSSL version-specific.  Exceptions will now show correct
     reason and library codes.  The ‘make_ssl_data.py’ script has been
     rewritten to use OpenSSL’s text file with error codes.

   - bpo-43766(41): Implement PEP 647(42) in the *note typing: 10d.
     module by adding ‘TypeGuard’.

   - bpo-25264(43): *note os.path.realpath(): 241. now accepts a
     'strict' keyword-only argument.  When set to ‘True’, *note OSError:
     53c. is raised if a path doesn’t exist or a symlink loop is
     encountered.

   - bpo-43780(44): In ‘importlib.metadata’, incorporate changes from
     importlib_metadata 3.10: Add mtime-based caching during
     distribution discovery.  Flagged use of dict result from
     ‘entry_points()’ as deprecated.

   - gh-47383(45): The ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ attributes of *note
     typing.ParamSpec: 295. are now instances of the new classes *note
     typing.ParamSpecArgs: ba6. and *note typing.ParamSpecKwargs: ba7,
     which enables a more useful ‘repr()’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-43731(46): Add an ‘encoding’ parameter ‘logging.fileConfig()’.

   - bpo-43712(47): Add ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ parameters to *note
     fileinput.input(): bd9. and *note fileinput.FileInput: b1e.

   - bpo-38659(48): A ‘simple_enum’ decorator is added to the ‘enum’
     module to convert a normal class into an Enum.  ‘test_simple_enum’
     added to test simple enums against a corresponding normal Enum.
     Standard library modules updated to use ‘simple_enum’.

   - bpo-43764(49): Fix an issue where *note __match_args__: 1e6c.
     generation could fail for some *note dataclasses: 32.

   - bpo-43752(50): Fix *note sqlite3: d7. regression for zero-sized
     blobs with converters, where ‘b""’ was returned instead of ‘None’.
     The regression was introduced by PR 24723.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43655(51): *note tkinter: f9. dialog windows are now recognized
     as dialogs by window managers on macOS and X Window.

   - bpo-43723(52): The following ‘threading’ methods are now deprecated
     and should be replaced:

        - ‘currentThread’ => *note threading.current_thread(): 33e.

        - ‘activeCount’ => *note threading.active_count(): 33f.

        - ‘Condition.notifyAll’ => *note
          threading.Condition.notify_all(): 338.

        - ‘Event.isSet’ => *note threading.Event.is_set(): 339.

        - ‘Thread.setName’ => *note threading.Thread.name: 33d.

        - ‘thread.getName’ => *note threading.Thread.name: 33d.

        - ‘Thread.isDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon: 33b.

        - ‘Thread.setDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon: 33b.

     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-2135(53): Deprecate find_module() and find_loader()
     implementations in importlib and zipimport.

   - bpo-43534(54): *note turtle.textinput(): 1e71. and *note
     turtle.numinput(): 1e72. create now a transient window working on
     behalf of the canvas window.

   - bpo-43532(55): Add the ability to specify keyword-only fields to
     dataclasses.  These fields will become keyword-only arguments to
     the generated __init__.

   - bpo-43522(56): Fix problem with *note hostname_checks_common_name:
     f3c.  OpenSSL does not copy hostflags from 'struct SSL_CTX' to
     'struct SSL'.

   - bpo-8978(57): Improve error message for *note tarfile.open(): 1228.
     when *note lzma: 8d. / *note bz2: 14. are unavailable.  Patch by
     Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-42967(58): Allow *note bytes: 1c7. ‘separator’ argument in
     ‘urllib.parse.parse_qs’ and ‘urllib.parse.parse_qsl’ when parsing
     *note str: 1df. query strings.  Previously, this raised a
     ‘TypeError’.

   - bpo-43296(59): Improve *note sqlite3: d7. error handling:
     ‘sqlite3_value_blob()’ errors that set ‘SQLITE_NOMEM’ now raise
     *note MemoryError: 18fa.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43312(60): New functions *note
     sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): a7f. and *note
     sysconfig.get_default_scheme(): 1daf. are added to query a platform
     for its preferred «user», «home», and «prefix» (default) scheme
     names.

   - bpo-43265(61): Improve *note sqlite3.Connection.backup(): f39.
     error handling.  The error message for non-existent target database
     names is now ‘unknown database <database name>’ instead of ‘SQL
     logic error’.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-41282(62): Install schemes in ‘distutils.command.install’ are
     now loaded from *note sysconfig: e4.

   - bpo-41282(63): ‘distutils.sysconfig’ has been merged to *note
     sysconfig: e4.

   - bpo-43176(64): Fixed processing of a dataclass that inherits from a
     frozen dataclass with no fields.  It is now correctly detected as
     an error.

   - bpo-43080(65): *note pprint: b3. now has support for *note
     dataclasses.dataclass: 6e6.  Patch by Lewis Gaul.

   - bpo-39950(66): Add ‘pathlib.Path.hardlink_to()’ method that
     supersedes ‘link_to()’.  The new method has the same argument order
     as ‘symlink_to()’.

   - bpo-42904(67): *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. now checks the
     local namespace of a class when evaluating PEP 563(68) annotations
     inside said class.

   - bpo-42269(69): Add ‘slots’ parameter to ‘dataclasses.dataclass’
     decorator to automatically generate ‘__slots__’ for class.  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-39529(70): Deprecated use of *note asyncio.get_event_loop():
     56c. without running event loop.  Emit deprecation warning for
     *note asyncio: b. functions which implicitly create a *note Future:
     f8b. or *note Task: 460. objects if there is no running event loop
     and no explicit 'loop' argument is passed: *note ensure_future():
     1035, *note wrap_future(): 1e73, *note gather(): 9f4, *note
     shield(): e34, *note as_completed(): 6cc. and constructors of
     ‘Future’, ‘Task’, *note StreamReader: 194a, ‘StreamReaderProtocol’.

   - bpo-18369(71): Certificate and PrivateKey classes were added to the
     ssl module.  Certificates and keys can now be loaded from memory
     buffer, too.

   - bpo-41486(72): Use a new output buffer management code for *note
     bz2: 14. / *note lzma: 8d. / *note zlib: 13c. modules, and add
     ‘.readall()’ function to ‘_compression.DecompressReader’ class.
     These bring some performance improvements.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-31870(73): The *note ssl.get_server_certificate(): c15.
     function now has a 'timeout' parameter.

   - bpo-41735(74): Fix thread locks in zlib module may go wrong in rare
     case.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-36470(75): Fix dataclasses with ‘InitVar’s and *note replace():
     1c70.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-40849(76): Expose X509_V_FLAG_PARTIAL_CHAIN ssl flag

   - bpo-35114(77): *note ssl.RAND_status(): 1e74. now returns a boolean
     value (as documented) instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’.

   - bpo-39906(78): *note pathlib.Path.stat(): bfc. and *note chmod():
     bfd. now accept a 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument for
     consistency with corresponding functions in the *note os: a5.
     module.

   - bpo-39899(79): *note os.path.expanduser(): dd8. now refuses to
     guess Windows home directories if the basename of current user’s
     home directory does not match their username.

     *note pathlib.Path.expanduser(): 11f3. and *note home(): 11f4. now
     consistently raise *note RuntimeError: 30d. exception when a home
     directory cannot be resolved.  Previously a *note KeyError: 7df.
     exception could be raised on Windows when the ‘"USERNAME"’
     environment variable was unset.

   - bpo-36076(80): Added SNI support to *note
     ssl.get_server_certificate(): c15.

   - bpo-38490(81): Covariance, Pearson’s correlation, and simple linear
     regression functionality was added to statistics module.  Patch by
     Tymoteusz Wołodźko.

   - bpo-33731(82): Provide a locale.localize() function, which converts
     a normalized number string into a locale format.

   - bpo-32745(83): Fix a regression in the handling of ctypes” *note
     ctypes.c_wchar_p: 1c5e. type: embedded null characters would cause
     a *note ValueError: 277. to be raised.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44015

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25478

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43733

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43979

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43993

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43957

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43945

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41139

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43937

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43930

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43907

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43926

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43920

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43607

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43817

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43284

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42854

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43867

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40443

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43820

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43787

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43680

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43680

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41515

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43776

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42248

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43744

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43772

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43764

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43799

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43478

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43794

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43785

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43789

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43788

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43766

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25264

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43780

   (45) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47383

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43731

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43712

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38659

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43764

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43752

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43655

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43723

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2135

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43534

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43532

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43522

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8978

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43296

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43312

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43265

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43176

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43080

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42904

   (68) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42269

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39529

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18369

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31870

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41735

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36470

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40849

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35114

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39906

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39899

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36076

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38490

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33731

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32745


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<37>,  Next: Tests<40>,  Prev: Library<124>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.8 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-43987(1): Add «Annotations Best Practices» document as a new
     HOWTO.

   - bpo-43977(2): Document the new *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1e4f. and
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1e50. type flags.

   - bpo-43959(3): The documentation on the PyContextVar C-API was
     clarified.

   - bpo-43938(4): Update dataclasses documentation to express that
     FrozenInstanceError is derived from AttributeError.

   - bpo-43778(5): Fix the Sphinx glossary_search extension: create the
     _static/ sub-directory if it doesn’t exist.

   - bpo-43755(6): Update documentation to reflect that unparenthesized
     lambda expressions can no longer be the expression part in an ‘if’
     clause in comprehensions and generator expressions since Python
     3.9.

   - bpo-43739(7): Fixing the example code in
     Doc/extending/extending.rst to declare and initialize the pmodule
     variable to be of the right type.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43987

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43977

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43959

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43938

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43778

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43755

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43739


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<40>,  Next: Build<43>,  Prev: Documentation<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.9 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43961(1): Fix test_logging.test_namer_rotator_inheritance() on
     Windows: use *note os.replace(): 149e. rather than *note
     os.rename(): 149d.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43842(2): Fix a race condition in the SMTP test of
     test_logging.  Don’t close a file descriptor (socket) from a
     different thread while asyncore.loop() is polling the file
     descriptor.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43843(3): ‘test.libregrtest’ now marks a test as ENV_CHANGED
     (altered the execution environment) if a thread raises an exception
     but does not catch it.  It sets a hook on *note
     threading.excepthook(): c23.  Use ‘--fail-env-changed’ option to
     mark the test as failed.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43811(4): Tests multiple OpenSSL versions on GitHub Actions.
     Use ccache to speed up testing.

   - bpo-43791(5): OpenSSL 3.0.0: Disable testing of legacy protocols
     TLS 1.0 and 1.1.  Tests are failing with
     TLSV1_ALERT_INTERNAL_ERROR.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43961

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43842

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43843

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43811

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43791


File: python.info,  Node: Build<43>,  Next: Windows<37>,  Prev: Tests<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.10 Build
................

   - bpo-43567(1): Improved generated code refresh
     (AST/tokens/opcodes/keywords) on Windows.

   - bpo-43669(2): Implement PEP 644(3).  Python now requires OpenSSL
     1.1.1 or newer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43567

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<37>,  Next: macOS<29>,  Prev: Build<43>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.11 Windows
..................

   - bpo-35306(1): Adds additional arguments to *note os.startfile():
     1e79. function.

   - bpo-43538(2): Avoid raising errors from *note
     pathlib.Path.exists(): dda. when passed an invalid filename.

   - bpo-38822(3): Fixed *note os.stat(): 4f5. failing on inaccessible
     directories with a trailing slash, rather than falling back to the
     parent directory’s metadata.  This implicitly affected *note
     os.path.exists(): dd2. and *note os.path.isdir(): dd4.

   - bpo-26227(4): Fixed decoding of host names in *note
     socket.gethostbyaddr(): 1e7a. and *note socket.gethostbyname_ex():
     1e7b.

   - bpo-40432(5): Updated pegen regeneration script on Windows to find
     and use Python 3.8 or higher.  Prior to this, pegen regeneration
     already required 3.8 or higher, but the script may have used lower
     versions of Python.

   - bpo-43745(6): Actually updates Windows release to OpenSSL 1.1.1k.
     Earlier releases were mislabelled and actually included 1.1.1i
     again.

   - bpo-43652(7): Update Tcl and Tk to 8.6.11 in Windows installer.

   - bpo-43492(8): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.35.5.

   - bpo-30555(9): Fix ‘WindowsConsoleIO’ errors in the presence of fd
     redirection.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35306

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43538

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38822

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26227

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40432

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43745

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43652

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43492

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30555


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<29>,  Next: IDLE<21>,  Prev: Windows<37>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.12 macOS
................

   - bpo-42119(1): Fix check for macOS SDK paths when building Python.
     Narrow search to match contents of SDKs, namely only files in
     ‘/System/Library’, ‘/System/IOSSupport’, and ‘/usr’ other than
     ‘/usr/local’.  Previously, anything under ‘/System’ was assumed to
     be in an SDK which causes problems with the new file system layout
     in 10.15+ where user file systems may appear to be mounted under
     ‘/System’.  Paths in ‘/Library’ were also incorrectly treated as
     SDK locations.

   - bpo-43568(2): Drop support for MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET < 10.3

   - bpo-44009(3): Provide «python3.x-intel64» executable to allow
     reliably forcing macOS universal2 framework builds to run under
     Rosetta 2 Intel-64 emulation on Apple Silicon Macs.  This can be
     useful for testing or when universal2 wheels are not yet available.

   - bpo-43851(4): Build SQLite with ‘SQLITE_OMIT_AUTOINIT’ on macOS.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43492(5): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.35.4.

   - bpo-42235(6): ‘Mac/BuildScript/build-installer.py’ will now use
     «–enable-optimizations» and ‘--with-lto’ when building on macOS
     10.15 or later.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42119

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43568

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44009

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43851

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43492

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42235


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<21>,  Next: C API<39>,  Prev: macOS<29>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.13 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-37903(1): Add mouse actions to the shell sidebar.  Left click
     and optional drag selects one or more lines, as with the editor
     line number sidebar.  Right click after selecting raises a context
     menu with “copy with prompts”.  This zips together prompts from the
     sidebar with lines from the selected text.

   - bpo-43981(2): Fix reference leak in test_sidebar and test_squeezer.
     Patches by Terry Jan Reedy and Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-37892(3): Indent IDLE Shell input with spaces instead of tabs

   - bpo-43655(4): IDLE dialog windows are now recognized as dialogs by
     window managers on macOS and X Window.

   - bpo-37903(5): IDLE’s shell now shows prompts in a separate
     side-bar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43981

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37892

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43655

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903


File: python.info,  Node: C API<39>,  Prev: IDLE<21>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 beta 1

1.26.42.14 C API
................

   - bpo-43916(1): Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION:
     984. type flag to disallow creating type instances.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43774(2): Remove the now unused ‘PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ macro.  Debug
     hooks on memory allocators are now installed by default if Python
     is built in debug mode (if ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined).  Moreover,
     they can now be used on Python build in release mode (ex: using
     ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’ environment variable).

   - bpo-43962(3): _PyInterpreterState_IDIncref() now calls
     _PyInterpreterState_IDInitref() and always increments id_refcount.
     Previously, calling _xxsubinterpreters.get_current() could create
     an id_refcount inconsistency when a
     _xxsubinterpreters.InterpreterID object was deallocated.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-28254(4): Add new C-API functions to control the state of the
     garbage collector: *note PyGC_Enable(): c7a, *note PyGC_Disable():
     c7b, *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): c7c, corresponding to the functions in
     the *note gc: 63. module.

   - bpo-43908(5): Introduce *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 5fb. flag
     for immutable type objects, and modify *note PyType_Ready(): b5e.
     to set it for static types.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43795(6): *note PyMem_Calloc(): 125e. is now available in the
     limited C API (‘Py_LIMITED_API’).

   - bpo-43868(7): *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 987. is no
     longer exported by limited C API headers and by ‘python3.dll’ on
     Windows.  Like any function that takes ‘FILE*’, it is not part of
     the stable ABI.

   - bpo-43795(8): Stable ABI and limited API definitions are generated
     from a central manifest ( PEP 652(9)).

   - bpo-43753(10): Add the *note Py_Is(x, y): c76. function to test if
     the 'x' object is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in Python.
     Add also the *note Py_IsNone(): c77, *note Py_IsTrue(): c78, *note
     Py_IsFalse(): c79. functions to test if an object is, respectively,
     the ‘None’ singleton, the ‘True’ singleton or the ‘False’
     singleton.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43774

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43962

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28254

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43868

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0652/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43753


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.43 Python 3.10.0 alpha 7
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-04-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<30>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<124>.
* Library: Library<125>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<125>.
* Library: Library<126>.
* Documentation: Documentation<38>.
* Tests: Tests<41>.
* Build: Build<44>.
* Windows: Windows<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<22>.
* C API: C API<40>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<30>,  Next: Core and Builtins<124>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.26.43.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42988(1): CVE 2021-3426(2): Remove the ‘getfile’ feature of the
     *note pydoc: bd. module which could be abused to read arbitrary
     files on the disk (directory traversal vulnerability).  Moreover,
     even source code of Python modules can contain sensitive data like
     passwords.  Vulnerability reported by David Schwörer.

   - bpo-43285(3): *note ftplib: 61. no longer trusts the IP address
     value returned from the server in response to the PASV command by
     default.  This prevents a malicious FTP server from using the
     response to probe IPv4 address and port combinations on the client
     network.

     Code that requires the former vulnerable behavior may set a
     ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’ attribute on their *note
     ftplib.FTP: cca. instances to ‘True’ to re-enable it.

   - bpo-43439(4): Add audit hooks for *note gc.get_objects(): bdd,
     *note gc.get_referrers(): bde. and *note gc.get_referents(): bdf.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42988

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2021-3426

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43285

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43439


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<124>,  Next: Library<125>,  Prev: Security<30>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.26.43.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27129(1): Update CPython bytecode magic number.

   - bpo-43672(2): Raise ImportWarning when calling find_loader().

   - bpo-43660(3): Fix crash that happens when replacing ‘sys.stderr’
     with a callable that can remove the object while an exception is
     being printed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-27129(4): The bytecode interpreter uses instruction, rather
     byte, offsets internally.  This reduces the number of EXTENDED_ARG
     instructions needed and streamlines instruction dispatch a bit.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27129

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43672

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43660

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27129


File: python.info,  Node: Library<125>,  Next: Core and Builtins<125>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<124>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.26.43.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-40645(1): Fix reference leak in the ‘_hashopenssl’ extension.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<125>,  Next: Library<126>,  Prev: Library<125>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.26.43.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42134(1): Calls to find_module() by the import system now raise
     ImportWarning.

   - bpo-41064(2): Improve the syntax error for invalid usage of double
     starred elements (“**”) in f-strings.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43575(3): Speed up calls to ‘map()’ by using the PEP 590(4)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42137(5): The import system now prefers using ‘__spec__’ for
     ‘ModuleType.__repr__’ over ‘module_repr()’.

   - bpo-43452(6): Added micro-optimizations to ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ to
     improve cache lookup performance in the common case of cache hits.

   - bpo-43555(7): Report the column offset for *note SyntaxError: 17e.
     for invalid line continuation characters.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43517(8): Fix misdetection of circular imports when using ‘from
     pkg.mod import attr’, which caused false positives in non-trivial
     multi-threaded code.

   - bpo-43497(9): Emit SyntaxWarnings for assertions with tuple
     constants, this is a regression introduced in python3.7

   - bpo-39316(10): Tracing now has correct line numbers for attribute
     accesses when the attribute is on a different line from the object.
     Improves debugging and profiling for multi-line method chains.

   - bpo-35883(11): Python no longer fails at startup with a fatal error
     if a command line argument contains an invalid Unicode character.
     The *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85. function now escapes byte
     sequences which would be decoded as Unicode characters outside the
     [U+0000; U+10ffff] range.

   - bpo-43410(12): Fix a bug that was causing the parser to crash when
     emitting syntax errors when reading input from stdin.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43406(13): Fix a possible race condition where
     ‘PyErr_CheckSignals’ tries to execute a non-Python signal handler.

   - bpo-42128(14): Add ‘__match_args__’ to *note struct sequence
     objects: 1568.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43390(15): CPython now sets the ‘SA_ONSTACK’ flag in
     ‘PyOS_setsig’ for the VM’s default signal handlers.  This is
     friendlier to other in-process code that an extension module or
     embedding use could pull in (such as Golang’s cgo) where tiny
     thread stacks are the norm and ‘sigaltstack()’ has been used to
     provide for signal handlers.  This is a no-op change for the vast
     majority of processes that don’t use sigaltstack.

   - bpo-43287(16): Speed up calls to ‘filter()’ by using the PEP
     590(17) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37448(18): Add a radix tree based memory map to track in-use
     obmalloc arenas.  Use to replace the old implementation of
     address_in_range().  The radix tree approach makes it easy to
     increase pool sizes beyond the OS page size.  Boosting the pool and
     arena size allows obmalloc to handle a significantly higher
     percentage of requests from its ultra-fast paths.

     It also has the advantage of eliminating the memory unsanitary
     behavior of the previous address_in_range().  The old
     address_in_range() was marked with the annotations
     _Py_NO_SANITIZE_ADDRESS, _Py_NO_SANITIZE_THREAD, and
     _Py_NO_SANITIZE_MEMORY. Those annotations are no longer needed.

     To disable the radix tree map, set a preprocessor flag as follows:
     ‘-DWITH_PYMALLOC_RADIX_TREE=0’.

     Co-authored-by: Tim Peters <<tim.peters@gmail.com>>

   - bpo-29988(19): Only handle asynchronous exceptions and requests to
     drop the GIL when returning from a call or on the back edges of
     loops.  Makes sure that *note __exit__(): 16a5. is always called in
     with statements, even for interrupts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42134

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41064

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43575

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42137

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43452

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43555

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43517

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43497

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39316

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35883

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43410

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43406

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43390

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43287

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37448

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29988


File: python.info,  Node: Library<126>,  Next: Documentation<38>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<125>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.26.43.5 Library
.................

   - bpo-43720(1): Document various stdlib deprecations in imp, pkgutil,
     and importlib.util for removal in Python 3.12.

   - bpo-43433(2): *note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: e1b. no longer
     ignores query and fragment in the URL of the server.

   - bpo-31956(3): The *note index(): bbe. method of *note array.array:
     6c5. now has optional 'start' and 'stop' parameters.

   - bpo-40066(4): Enum: adjust ‘repr()’ to show only enum and member
     name (not value, nor angle brackets) and ‘str()’ to show only
     member name.  Update and improve documentation to match.

   - bpo-42136(5): Deprecate all module_repr() methods found in
     importlib as their use is being phased out by Python 3.12.

   - bpo-35930(6): Raising an exception raised in a «future» instance
     will create reference cycles.

   - bpo-41369(7): Finish updating the vendored libmpdec to version
     2.5.1.  Patch by Stefan Krah.

   - bpo-43422(8): Revert the _decimal C API which was added in
     bpo-41324(9).

   - bpo-43577(10): Fix deadlock when using *note ssl.SSLContext: 336.
     debug callback with *note ssl.SSLContext.sni_callback(): 1e85.

   - bpo-43571(11): It’s now possible to create MPTCP sockets with
     IPPROTO_MPTCP

   - bpo-43542(12): ‘image/heic’ and ‘image/heif’ were added to *note
     mimetypes: 93.

   - bpo-40645(13): The *note hmac: 6d. module now uses OpenSSL’s HMAC
     implementation when digestmod argument is a hash name or builtin
     hash function.

   - bpo-43510(14): Implement PEP 597(15): Add ‘EncodingWarning’
     warning, ‘-X warn_default_encoding’ option, *note
     PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: b9d. environment variable and
     ‘encoding="locale"’ argument value.

   - bpo-43521(16): ‘ast.unparse’ can now render NaNs and empty sets.

   - bpo-42914(17): *note pprint.pprint(): c01. gains a new boolean
     ‘underscore_numbers’ optional argument to emit integers with
     thousands separated by an underscore character for improved
     readability (for example ‘1_000_000’ instead of ‘1000000’).

   - bpo-41361(18): *note rotate(): 1e86. calls are now slightly faster
     due to faster argument parsing.

   - bpo-43423(19): ‘subprocess.communicate()’ no longer raises an
     IndexError when there is an empty stdout or stderr IO buffer during
     a timeout on Windows.

   - bpo-27820(20): Fixed long-standing bug of smtplib.SMTP where doing
     AUTH LOGIN with initial_response_ok=False will fail.

     The cause is that SMTP.auth_login _always_ returns a password if
     provided with a challenge string, thus non-compliant with the
     standard for AUTH LOGIN.

     Also fixes bug with the test for smtpd.

   - bpo-43445(21): Add frozen modules to *note sys.stdlib_module_names:
     c1a.  For example, add ‘"_frozen_importlib"’ and
     ‘"_frozen_importlib_external"’ names.

   - bpo-43245(22): Add keyword arguments support to
     ‘ChainMap.new_child()’.

   - bpo-29982(23): Add optional parameter 'ignore_cleanup_errors' to
     *note tempfile.TemporaryDirectory(): 15da. and allow multiple
     ‘cleanup()’ attempts.  Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - bpo-43428(24): Include changes from importlib_metadata 3.7(25):

     Performance enhancements to distribution discovery.

     ‘entry_points’ only returns unique distributions.

     Introduces new ‘EntryPoints’ object for containing a set of entry
     points with convenience methods for selecting entry points by group
     or name.  ‘entry_points’ now returns this object if selection
     parameters are supplied but continues to return a dict object for
     compatibility.  Users are encouraged to rely on the selection
     interface.  The dict object result is likely to be deprecated in
     the future.

     Added packages_distributions function to return a mapping of
     packages to the distributions that provide them.

   - bpo-43332(26): Improves the networking efficiency of *note
     http.client: 72. when using a proxy via ‘set_tunnel()’.  Fewer
     small send calls are made during connection setup.

   - bpo-43420(27): Improve performance of *note fractions.Fraction:
     1c3. arithmetics for large components.  Contributed by Sergey B.
     Kirpichev.

   - bpo-43356(28): Allow passing a signal number to
     ‘_thread.interrupt_main()’.

   - bpo-43399(29): Fix ‘ElementTree.extend’ not working on iterators
     when using the Python implementation

   - bpo-43369(30): Improve *note sqlite3: d7. error handling: If
     ‘sqlite3_column_text()’ and ‘sqlite3_column_blob()’ set
     ‘SQLITE_NOMEM’, *note MemoryError: 18fa. is now raised.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43368(31): Fix a regression introduced in PR 24562, where an
     empty bytestring was fetched as ‘None’ instead of ‘b''’ in *note
     sqlite3: d7.  Patch by Mariusz Felisiak.

   - bpo-41282(32): Fixed stacklevel of ‘DeprecationWarning’ emitted
     from ‘import distutils’.

   - bpo-42129(33): ‘importlib.resources’ now honors namespace packages,
     merging resources from each location in the namespace as introduced
     in ‘importlib_resources’ 3.2 and including incidental changes
     through 5.0.3.

   - bpo-43295(34): *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 2d2. now raises
     ‘ValueError’ instead of ‘IndexError’ when matching ‘'z'’ with the
     ‘%z’ format specifier.

   - bpo-43125(35): Return empty string if base64mime.body_encode
     receive empty bytes

   - bpo-43084(36): *note curses.window.enclose(): 1e87. returns now
     ‘True’ or ‘False’ (as was documented) instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’.

   - bpo-42994(37): Add MIME types for opus, AAC, 3gpp and 3gpp2

   - bpo-14678(38): Add an invalidate_caches() method to the
     zipimport.zipimporter class to support
     importlib.invalidate_caches().  Patch by Desmond Cheong.

   - bpo-42782(39): Fail fast in *note shutil.move(): e20. to avoid
     creating destination directories on failure.

   - bpo-40066(40): Enum’s ‘repr()’ and ‘str()’ have changed: ‘repr()’
     is now 'EnumClass.MemberName' and ‘str()’ is 'MemberName'.
     Additionally, stdlib Enum’s whose contents are available as module
     attributes, such as ‘RegexFlag.IGNORECASE’, have their ‘repr()’ as
     'module.name', e.g.  ‘re.IGNORECASE’.

   - bpo-26053(41): Fixed bug where the *note pdb: aa. interactive run
     command echoed the args from the shell command line, even if those
     have been overridden at the pdb prompt.

   - bpo-24160(42): Fixed bug where breakpoints did not persist across
     multiple debugger sessions in *note pdb: aa.’s interactive mode.

   - bpo-40701(43): When the *note tempfile.tempdir: 1e88. global
     variable is set to a value of type bytes, it is now handled
     consistently.  Previously exceptions could be raised from some
     tempfile APIs when the directory did not already exist in this
     situation.  Also ensures that the *note tempfile.gettempdir():
     1e89. and *note tempfile.gettempdirb(): 1e8a. functions 'always'
     return ‘str’ and ‘bytes’ respectively.

   - bpo-39342(44): Expose ‘X509_V_FLAG_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS’ as *note
     VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS: 1e8b. to allow proxy certificate
     validation as explained in
     ‘https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man7/proxy-certificates/’.

   - bpo-31861(45): Add builtins.aiter and builtins.anext.  Patch by
     Joshua Bronson (@jab), Daniel Pope (@lordmauve), and Justin Wang
     (@justin39).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43720

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43433

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31956

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42136

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35930

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41369

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43422

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41324

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43577

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43571

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43542

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43510

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43521

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42914

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41361

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43423

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27820

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43445

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43245

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29982

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43428

   (25) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v3-7-0

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43332

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43420

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43399

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43369

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43368

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42129

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43295

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43125

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43084

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42994

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14678

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42782

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26053

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24160

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40701

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39342

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31861


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<38>,  Next: Tests<41>,  Prev: Library<126>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.26.43.6 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-43199(1): Answer «Why is there no goto?» in the Design and
     History FAQ.

   - bpo-43407(2): Clarified that a result from *note time.monotonic():
     75d, *note time.perf_counter(): e49, *note time.process_time():
     e4a, or *note time.thread_time(): d03. can be compared with the
     result from any following call to the same function - not just the
     next immediate call.

   - bpo-43354(3): Fix type documentation for ‘Fault.faultCode’; the
     type has to be ‘int’ instead of ‘str’.

   - bpo-41933(4): Clarified wording of s * n in the Common Sequence
     Operations

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43199

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43407

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43354

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41933


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<41>,  Next: Build<44>,  Prev: Documentation<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.26.43.7 Tests
...............

   - bpo-37945(1): Fix test_getsetlocale_issue1813() of test_locale:
     skip the test if ‘setlocale()’ fails.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41561(2): Add workaround for Ubuntu’s custom OpenSSL security
     level policy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37945

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41561


File: python.info,  Node: Build<44>,  Next: Windows<38>,  Prev: Tests<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.26.43.8 Build
...............

   - bpo-43179(1): Introduce and correctly use ALIGNOF_X in place of
     SIZEOF_X for alignment-related code in optimized string routines.
     Patch by Jessica Clarke.

   - bpo-43631(2): Update macOS, Windows, and CI to OpenSSL 1.1.1k.

   - bpo-43617(3): Improve configure.ac: Check for presence of
     autoconf-archive package and remove our copies of M4 macros.

   - bpo-43466(4): The ‘configure’ script now supports
     ‘--with-openssl-rpath’ option.

   - bpo-43372(5): Use ‘_freeze_importlib’ to generate code for the
     ‘__hello__’ module.  This approach ensures the code matches the
     interpreter version.  Previously, PYTHON_FOR_REGEN was used to
     generate the code, which might be wrong.  The marshal format for
     code objects has changed with bpo-42246(6), commit 877df851.
     Update the code and the expected code sizes in ctypes
     test_frozentable.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43179

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43631

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43617

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43466

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43372

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<38>,  Next: IDLE<22>,  Prev: Build<44>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.26.43.9 Windows
.................

   - bpo-43440(1): Build *note sqlite3: d7. with the ‘R*Tree’ module
     enabled.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43440


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<22>,  Next: C API<40>,  Prev: Windows<38>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.26.43.10 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-42225(1): Document that IDLE can fail on Unix either from
     misconfigured IP masquerade rules or failure displaying complex
     colored (non-ascii) characters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42225


File: python.info,  Node: C API<40>,  Prev: IDLE<22>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7

1.26.43.11 C API
................

   - bpo-43688(1): The limited C API is now supported if Python is built
     in debug mode (if the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined).  In the limited
     C API, the *note Py_INCREF(): 974. and *note Py_DECREF(): 975.
     functions are now implemented as opaque function calls, rather than
     accessing directly the *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: c75. member, if
     Python is built in debug mode and the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro
     targets Python 3.10 or newer.  It became possible to support the
     limited C API in debug mode because the *note PyObject: 19b.
     structure is the same in release and debug mode since Python 3.8
     (see bpo-36465(2)).

     The limited C API is still not supported in the ‘--with-trace-refs’
     special build (‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro).

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(3): Remove the ‘pyarena.h’ header file with functions:

        * ‘PyArena_New()’

        * ‘PyArena_Free()’

        * ‘PyArena_Malloc()’

        * ‘PyArena_AddPyObject()’

     These functions were undocumented, excluded from the limited C API,
     and were only used internally by the compiler.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(4): Remove the compiler and parser functions using
     ‘struct _mod’ type, because the public AST C API was removed:

        * ‘PyAST_Compile()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileEx()’

        * ‘PyAST_CompileObject()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromAST()’

        * ‘PyFuture_FromASTObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFileObject()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFilename()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’

        * ‘PyParser_ASTFromStringObject()’

     These functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C
     API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(5): Remove ‘ast.h’, ‘asdl.h’, and ‘Python-ast.h’ header
     files.  These functions were undocumented and excluded from the
     limited C API. Most names defined by these header files were not
     prefixed by ‘Py’ and so could create names conflicts.  For example,
     ‘Python-ast.h’ defined a ‘Yield’ macro which was conflict with the
     ‘Yield’ name used by the Windows ‘<winbase.h>’ header.  Use the
     Python *note ast: 9. module instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43541(6): Fix a ‘PyEval_EvalCodeEx()’ regression: fix reference
     counting on builtins.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(7): Remove the ‘symtable.h’ header file and the
     undocumented functions:

        * ‘PyST_GetScope()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Build()’

        * ‘PySymtable_BuildObject()’

        * ‘PySymtable_Free()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableString()’

        * ‘Py_SymtableStringObject()’

     The ‘Py_SymtableString()’ function was part the stable ABI by
     mistake but it could not be used, because the ‘symtable.h’ header
     file was excluded from the limited C API.

     The Python *note symtable: e1. module remains available and is
     unchanged.

     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43244(8): Remove the ‘PyAST_Validate()’ function.  It is no
     longer possible to build a AST object (‘mod_ty’ type) with the
     public C API. The function was already excluded from the limited C
     API ( PEP 384(9)).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43688

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43541

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7,  Up: Changelog

1.26.44 Python 3.10.0 alpha 6
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-03-01'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<31>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<126>.
* Library: Library<127>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<127>.
* Library: Library<128>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<128>.
* Library: Library<129>.
* Documentation: Documentation<39>.
* Tests: Tests<42>.
* Build: Build<45>.
* Windows: Windows<39>.
* macOS: macOS<30>.
* IDLE: IDLE<23>.
* C API: C API<41>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<31>,  Next: Core and Builtins<126>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42967(1): Fix web cache poisoning vulnerability by defaulting
     the query args separator to ‘&’, and allowing the user to choose a
     custom separator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<126>,  Next: Library<127>,  Prev: Security<31>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-43321(1): Fix ‘SystemError’ raised when ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ is
     used with ‘#’ but without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ defined.

   - bpo-36346(2): ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ functions now emits
     ‘DeprecationWarning’ when ‘u’ or ‘Z’ format is used.  See PEP
     623(3) for detail.

   - bpo-43277(4): Add a new *note PySet_CheckExact(): c73. function to
     the C-API to check if an object is an instance of *note set: 42b.
     but not an instance of a subtype.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42990(5): The *note types.FunctionType: c59. constructor now
     inherits the current builtins if the 'globals' dictionary has no
     ‘"__builtins__"’ key, rather than using ‘{"None": None}’ as
     builtins: same behavior as *note eval(): 184. and *note exec():
     185. functions.  Defining a function with ‘def function(...): ...’
     in Python is not affected, globals cannot be overridden with this
     syntax: it also inherits the current builtins.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42990(6): Functions have a new ‘__builtins__’ attribute which
     is used to look for builtin symbols when a function is executed,
     instead of looking into ‘__globals__['__builtins__']’.  Patch by
     Mark Shannon and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43149(7): Improve the error message in the parser for exception
     groups without parentheses.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43121(8): Fixed an incorrect *note SyntaxError: 17e. message
     for missing comma in literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43321

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43277

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43121


File: python.info,  Node: Library<127>,  Next: Core and Builtins<127>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<126>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-42819(1): *note readline: c2.: Explicitly disable bracketed
     paste in the interactive interpreter, even if it’s set in the
     inputrc, is enabled by default (eg GNU Readline 8.1), or a user
     calls ‘readline.read_init_file()’.  The Python REPL has not
     implemented bracketed paste support.  Also, bracketed mode writes
     the ‘"\x1b[?2004h"’ escape sequence into stdout which causes test
     failures in applications that don’t support it.  It can still be
     explicitly enabled by calling ‘readline.parse_and_bind("set
     enable-bracketed-paste on")’.  Patch by Dustin Rodrigues.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42819


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<127>,  Next: Library<128>,  Prev: Library<127>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42808(1): Simple calls to ‘type(object)’ are now faster due to
     the ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-42217(2): Make the compiler merges same co_code and
     co_linetable objects in a module like already did for co_consts.

   - bpo-41972(3): Substring search functions such as ‘str1 in str2’ and
     ‘str2.find(str1)’ now sometimes use the «Two-Way» string comparison
     algorithm to avoid quadratic behavior on long strings.

   - bpo-42128(4): Implement PEP 634(5) (structural pattern matching).
     Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42808

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42217

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42128

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<128>,  Next: Core and Builtins<128>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<127>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.5 Library
.................

   - bpo-40692(1): In the *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor:
     206, validate that ‘multiprocess.synchronize()’ is available on a
     given platform and rely on that check in the *note
     concurrent.futures: 24. test suite so we can run tests that are
     unrelated to ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ on those platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40692


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<128>,  Next: Library<129>,  Prev: Library<128>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.6 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-38302(1): If *note object.__ipow__(): bb0. returns *note
     NotImplemented: 440, the operator will correctly fall back to *note
     object.__pow__(): bb1. and *note object.__rpow__(): 442. as
     expected.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38302


File: python.info,  Node: Library<129>,  Next: Documentation<39>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<128>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.7 Library
.................

   - bpo-43316(1): The ‘python -m gzip’ command line application now
     properly fails when detecting an unsupported extension.  It exits
     with a non-zero exit code and prints an error message to stderr.

   - bpo-43317(2): Set the chunk size for the ‘gzip’ module main
     function to io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE. This is slightly faster than
     the 1024 bytes constant that was used previously.

   - bpo-43146(3): Handle None in single-arg versions of *note
     print_exception(): c27. and *note format_exception(): c25.

   - bpo-43260(4): Fix TextIOWrapper can not flush internal buffer
     forever after very large text is written.

   - bpo-43258(5): Prevent needless allocation of *note sqlite3: d7.
     aggregate function context when no rows match an aggregate query.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43251(6): Improve *note sqlite3: d7. error handling:
     ‘sqlite3_column_name()’ failures now result in *note MemoryError:
     18fa.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40956(7): Fix segfault in *note sqlite3.Connection.backup():
     f39. if no argument was provided.  The regression was introduced by
     PR 23838.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43172(8): The readline module now passes its tests when built
     directly against libedit.  Existing irreconcilable API differences
     remain in *note readline.get_begidx(): 1e9a. and *note
     readline.get_endidx(): 1e9b. behavior based on libreadline vs
     libedit use.

   - bpo-43163(9): Fix a bug in *note codeop: 1d. that was causing it to
     not ask for more input when multi-line snippets have unclosed
     parentheses.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43162(10): deprecate unsupported ability to access enum members
     as attributes of other enum members

   - bpo-43146(11): Fix recent regression in None argument handling in
     *note traceback: 107. module functions.

   - bpo-43102(12): The namedtuple __new__ method had its __builtins__
     set to None instead of an actual dictionary.  This created problems
     for introspection tools.

   - bpo-43106(13): Added *note O_EVTONLY: bf3, *note O_FSYNC: bf4,
     *note O_SYMLINK: bf5. and *note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: bf6. for macOS.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-42960(14): Adds *note resource.RLIMIT_KQUEUES: 1e9c. constant
     from FreeBSD to the *note resource: c4. module.

   - bpo-42151(15): Make the pure Python implementation of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. behave the same as the C implementation
     (‘_elementree’) regarding default attribute values (by not setting
     ‘specified_attributes=1’).

   - bpo-29753(16): In ctypes, now packed bitfields are calculated
     properly and the first item of packed bitfields is now shrank
     correctly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43316

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43317

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43260

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43258

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43251

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40956

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43172

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43163

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43162

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43146

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43102

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43106

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42960

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42151

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29753


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<39>,  Next: Tests<42>,  Prev: Library<129>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.8 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-27646(1): Clarify that “yield from <expr>” works with any
     iterable, not just iterators.

   - bpo-36346(2): Update some deprecated unicode APIs which are
     documented as «will be removed in 4.0» to «3.12».  See PEP 623(3)
     for detail.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27646

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<42>,  Next: Build<45>,  Prev: Documentation<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.9 Tests
...............

   - bpo-43288(1): Fix test_importlib to correctly skip Unicode file
     tests if the filesystem does not support them.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43288


File: python.info,  Node: Build<45>,  Next: Windows<39>,  Prev: Tests<42>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.10 Build
................

   - bpo-43174(1): Windows build now uses ‘/utf-8’ compiler option.

   - bpo-43103(2): Add a new configure ‘--without-static-libpython’
     option to not build the ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ static library and
     not install the ‘python.o’ object file.

   - bpo-13501(3): The configure script can now use 'libedit' instead of
     'readline' with the command line option ‘--with-readline=editline’.

   - bpo-42603(4): Make configure script use pkg-config to detect the
     location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries, used to build tkinter.

     On macOS, a Tcl/Tk configuration provided by pkg-config will be
     preferred over Tcl/Tk frameworks installed in
     ‘/{System/,}Library/Frameworks’.  If both exist and the latter is
     preferred, the appropriate ‘--with-tcltk-*’ configuration options
     need to be explicitly set.

   - bpo-39448(5): Add the «regen-frozen» makefile target that
     regenerates the code for the frozen ‘__hello__’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43174

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43103

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13501

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42603

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39448


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<39>,  Next: macOS<30>,  Prev: Build<45>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.11 Windows
..................

   - bpo-43155(1): *note PyCMethod_New(): 1ea1. is now present in
     ‘python3.lib’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43155


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<30>,  Next: IDLE<23>,  Prev: Windows<39>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.12 macOS
................

   - bpo-41837(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.1j.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<23>,  Next: C API<41>,  Prev: macOS<30>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.13 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-43283(1): Document why printing to IDLE’s Shell is often slower
     than printing to a system terminal and that it can be made faster
     by pre-formatting a single string before printing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43283


File: python.info,  Node: C API<41>,  Prev: IDLE<23>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6

1.26.44.14 C API
................

   - bpo-43278(1): Always put compiler and system information on the
     first line of the REPL welcome message.

   - bpo-43270(2): Remove the private ‘_PyErr_OCCURRED()’ macro: use the
     public *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. function instead.

   - bpo-35134(3): Move odictobject.h, parser_interface.h,
     picklebufobject.h, pydebug.h, and pyfpe.h into the cpython/
     directory.  They must not be included directly, as they are already
     included by Python.h: *note Include Files: b63.

   - bpo-35134(4): Move pyarena.h, pyctype.h, and pytime.h into the
     cpython/ directory.  They must not be included directly, as they
     are already included by Python.h: *note Include Files: b63.

   - bpo-40170(5): *note PyExceptionClass_Name(): e2a. is now always
     declared as a function, in order to hide implementation details.
     The macro accessed *note PyTypeObject.tp_name: 1ea6. directly.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-43239(6): The *note PyCFunction_New(): 1ea7. function is now
     exported in the ABI when compiled with ‘-fvisibility=hidden’.

   - bpo-40170(7): *note PyIter_Check(): 1ea8. is now always declared as
     a function, in order to hide implementation details.  The macro
     accessed *note PyTypeObject.tp_iternext: 1892. directly.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40170(8): Convert *note PyDescr_IsData(): 1ea9. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details: The macro accessed *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set: 1eaa. directly.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-43181(9): Convert *note PyObject_TypeCheck(): 1eab. macro to a
     static inline function.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43270

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43239

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43181


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.26.45 Python 3.10.0 alpha 5
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-02-02'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<32>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<129>.
* Library: Library<130>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<130>.
* Library: Library<131>.
* Documentation: Documentation<40>.
* Tests: Tests<43>.
* Build: Build<46>.
* Windows: Windows<40>.
* macOS: macOS<31>.
* IDLE: IDLE<24>.
* C API: C API<42>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<32>,  Next: Core and Builtins<129>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.26.45.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42938(1): Avoid static buffers when computing the repr of *note
     ctypes.c_double: 1eae. and *note ctypes.c_longdouble: 1eaf. values.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42938


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<129>,  Next: Library<130>,  Prev: Security<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.26.45.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42990(1): Refactor the ‘PyEval_’ family of functions.

        * An new function ‘_PyEval_Vector’ is added to simplify calls to
          Python from C.

        * ‘_PyEval_EvalCodeWithName’ is removed

        * ‘PyEval_EvalCodeEx’ is retained as part of the API, but is not
          used internally

   - bpo-38631(2): Replace *note Py_FatalError(): d4b. calls in the
     compiler with regular *note SystemError: 3ea. exceptions.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42997(3): Improve error message for missing «:» before blocks.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-43017(4): Improve error message in the parser when using
     un-parenthesised tuples in comprehensions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42986(5): Fix parser crash when reporting syntax errors in
     f-string with newlines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40176(6): Syntax errors for unterminated string literals now
     point to the start of the string instead of reporting EOF/EOL.

   - bpo-42927(7): The inline cache for ‘LOAD_ATTR’ now also optimizes
     access to attributes defined by ‘__slots__’.  This makes reading
     such attribute up to 30% faster.

   - bpo-42864(8): Improve error messages in the parser when parentheses
     are not closed.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42924(9): Fix ‘bytearray’ repetition incorrectly copying data
     from the start of the buffer, even if the data is offset within the
     buffer (e.g.  after reassigning a slice at the start of the
     ‘bytearray’ to a shorter byte string).

   - bpo-42882(10): Fix the ‘_PyUnicode_FromId()’ function
     (_Py_IDENTIFIER(var) API) when *note Py_Initialize(): 673. / *note
     Py_Finalize(): 672. is called multiple times: preserve
     ‘_PyRuntime.unicode_ids.next_index’ value.

   - bpo-42827(11): Fix a crash when working out the error line of a
     *note SyntaxError: 17e. in some multi-line expressions.

   - bpo-42823(12): frame.f_lineno is correct even if frame.f_trace is
     set to True

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38631

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42997

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43017

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42986

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40176

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42927

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42864

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42924

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42882

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42827

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42823


File: python.info,  Node: Library<130>,  Next: Core and Builtins<130>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<129>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.26.45.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-37324(1): Remove deprecated aliases to *note Αφηρημένες Βασικές
     Κλάσεις Συλλογών: c4e. from the *note collections: 1e. module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37324


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<130>,  Next: Library<131>,  Prev: Library<130>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.26.45.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-41994(1): Fixed possible leak in ‘import’ when ‘sys.modules’ is
     not a ‘dict’.

   - bpo-27772(2): In string formatting, preceding the 'width' field by
     ‘'0'’ no longer affects the default alignment for strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41994

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27772


File: python.info,  Node: Library<131>,  Next: Documentation<40>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<130>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.26.45.5 Library
.................

   - bpo-43108(1): Fixed a reference leak in the *note curses: 2e.
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-43077(2): Update the bundled pip to 21.0.1 and setuptools to
     52.0.0.

   - bpo-41282(3): Deprecate ‘distutils’ in documentation and add
     warning on import.

   - bpo-43014(4): Improve performance of *note tokenize: 104. by
     20-30%.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-42323(5): Fix *note math.nextafter(): 8a9. for NaN on AIX.

   - bpo-42955(6): Add *note sys.stdlib_module_names: c1a, containing
     the list of the standard library module names.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42944(7): Fix ‘random.Random.sample’ when ‘counts’ argument is
     not ‘None’.

   - bpo-42934(8): Use *note TracebackException: 764.’s new ‘compact’
     param in *note TestResult: 1510. to reduce time and memory consumed
     by traceback formatting.

   - bpo-42931(9): Add ‘randbytes()’ to ‘random.__all__’.

   - bpo-38250(10): [Enum] Flags consisting of a single bit are now
     considered canonical, and will be the only flags returned from
     listing and iterating over a Flag class or a Flag member.
     Multi-bit flags are considered aliases; they will be returned from
     lookups and operations that result in their value.  Iteration for
     both Flag and Flag members is in definition order.

   - bpo-42877(11): Added the ‘compact’ parameter to the constructor of
     *note traceback.TracebackException: 764. to reduce time and memory
     for use cases that only need to call ‘TracebackException.format()’
     and ‘TracebackException.format_exception_only()’.

   - bpo-42923(12): The *note Py_FatalError(): d4b. function and the
     *note faulthandler: 5b. module now dump the list of extension
     modules on a fatal error.

   - bpo-42848(13): Removed recursion from *note TracebackException:
     764. to allow it to handle long exception chains.

   - bpo-42901(14): [Enum] move member creation from ‘EnumMeta.__new__’
     to ‘_proto_member.__set_name__’, allowing members to be created and
     visible in ‘__init_subclass__’.

   - bpo-42780(15): Fix os.set_inheritable() for O_PATH file descriptors
     on Linux.

   - bpo-42866(16): Fix a reference leak in the ‘getcodec()’ function of
     CJK codecs.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42846(17): Convert the 6 CJK codec extension modules
     (_codecs_cn, _codecs_hk, _codecs_iso2022, _codecs_jp, _codecs_kr
     and _codecs_tw) to the multiphase initialization API ( PEP
     489(18)).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42851(19): remove __init_subclass__ support for Enum members

   - bpo-42834(20): Make internal caches of the ‘_json’ module
     compatible with subinterpreters.

   - bpo-41748(21): Fix HTMLParser parsing rules for element attributes
     containing commas with spaces.  Patch by Karl Dubost.

   - bpo-40810(22): Require SQLite 3.7.15 or newer.  Patch by Erlend E.
     Aasland.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Convert the _multibytecodec extension module (CJK
     codecs) to multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(24)).  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42802(25): The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command deprecated in
     Python 3.8 has been removed.  The distutils ‘bdist_wheel’ command
     is now recommended to distribute binary packages on Windows.

   - bpo-24464(26): The undocumented built-in function
     ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache’ is now deprecated, scheduled for
     removal in Python 3.12.  Its use is strongly discouraged by the
     SQLite3 documentation.  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42384(27): Make pdb populate sys.path[0] exactly the same as
     regular python execution.

   - bpo-42383(28): Fix pdb: previously pdb would fail to restart the
     debugging target if it was specified using a relative path and the
     current directory changed.

   - bpo-42005(29): Fix CLI of ‘cProfile’ and ‘profile’ to catch *note
     BrokenPipeError: 1404.

   - bpo-41604(30): Don’t decrement the reference count of the previous
     user_ptr when set_panel_userptr fails.

   - bpo-41149(31): Allow executing callables that have a boolean value
     of ‘False’ when passed to ‘Threading.thread’ as the target.  Patch
     contributed by Barney Stratford.

   - bpo-38307(32): Add an “end_lineno” attribute to the Class and
     Function objects that appear in the tree returned by pyclbr
     functions.  This and the existing “lineno” attribute define the
     extent of class and def statements.  Patch by Aviral Srivastava.

   - bpo-39273(33): The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed in the
     *note curses: 2e. module if available.

   - bpo-33289(34): Correct call to *note tkinter.colorchooser: fa. to
     return RGB triplet of ints instead of floats.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43108

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43077

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41282

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43014

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42323

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42955

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42944

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42934

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42931

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38250

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42923

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42848

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42901

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42780

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42866

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42846

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42851

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42834

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41748

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42802

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24464

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42384

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42383

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42005

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41149

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38307

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39273

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33289


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<40>,  Next: Tests<43>,  Prev: Library<131>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.26.45.6 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-40304(1): Fix doc for type(name, bases, dict).  Patch by Boris
     Verkhovskiy and Éric Araujo.

   - bpo-42811(2): Updated importlib.util.resolve_name() doc to use
     __spec__.parent instead of __package__.  (Thanks Yair Frid.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40304

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42811


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<43>,  Next: Build<46>,  Prev: Documentation<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.26.45.7 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40823(1): Use ‘unittest.TestLoader().loadTestsFromTestCase()’
     instead of ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ in *note sqlite3: d7. tests.
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40810(2): In *note sqlite3: d7, fix ‘CheckTraceCallbackContent’
     for SQLite pre 3.7.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40823

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810


File: python.info,  Node: Build<46>,  Next: Windows<40>,  Prev: Tests<43>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.26.45.8 Build
...............

   - bpo-43031(1): Pass ‘--timeout=$(TESTTIMEOUT)’ option to the default
     profile task ‘./python -m test --pgo’ command.

   - bpo-36143(2): ‘make regen-all’ now also runs ‘regen-keyword’.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42874(3): Removed the grep -q and -E flags in the tzpath
     validation section of the configure script to better accommodate
     users of some platforms (specifically Solaris 10).

   - bpo-31904(4): Add library search path by wr-cc in
     add_cross_compiling_paths() for VxWorks.

   - bpo-42856(5): Add ‘--with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH’ option to the
     ‘./configure’ script.  If specified, the *note ensurepip: 58.
     module looks for ‘setuptools’ and ‘pip’ wheel packages in this
     directory: if both are present, these wheel packages are used
     instead of ensurepip bundled wheel packages.

     Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against
     bundling dependencies.  For example, Fedora installs wheel packages
     in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don’t install the
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43031

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36143

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42874

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42856


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<40>,  Next: macOS<31>,  Prev: Build<46>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.26.45.9 Windows
.................

   - bpo-41837(1): Updated Windows installer to include OpenSSL 1.1.1i

   - bpo-42584(2): Upgrade Windows installer to use SQLite 3.34.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42584


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<31>,  Next: IDLE<24>,  Prev: Windows<40>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.26.45.10 macOS
................

   - bpo-42504(1): Ensure that the value of
     sysconfig.get_config_var(“MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET”) is always a
     string, even in when the value is parsable as an integer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42504


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<24>,  Next: C API<42>,  Prev: macOS<31>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.26.45.11 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-43008(1): Make IDLE invoke *note sys.excepthook(): be5. in
     normal, 2-process mode.  Patch by Ken Hilton.

   - bpo-33065(2): Fix problem debugging user classes with __repr__
     method.

   - bpo-23544(3): Disable Debug=>Stack Viewer when user code is running
     or Debugger is active, to prevent hang or crash.  Patch by Zackery
     Spytz.

   - bpo-32631(4): Finish zzdummy example extension module: make menu
     entries work; add docstrings and tests with 100% coverage.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33065

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23544

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32631


File: python.info,  Node: C API<42>,  Prev: IDLE<24>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5

1.26.45.12 C API
................

   - bpo-42979(1): When Python is built in debug mode (with C
     assertions), calling a type slot like ‘sq_length’ (‘__len__()’ in
     Python) now fails with a fatal error if the slot succeeded with an
     exception set, or failed with no exception set.  The error message
     contains the slot, the type name, and the current exception (if an
     exception is set).  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-43030(2): Fixed a compiler warning in *note
     Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE(): 1ebb. on platforms with signed ‘wchar_t’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42979

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43030


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.26.46 Python 3.10.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2021-01-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<131>.
* Library: Library<132>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<132>.
* Library: Library<133>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<133>.
* Library: Library<134>.
* Documentation: Documentation<41>.
* Tests: Tests<44>.
* Build: Build<47>.
* macOS: macOS<32>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<26>.
* C API: C API<43>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<131>,  Next: Library<132>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.26.46.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42814(1): Fix undefined behavior in
     ‘Objects/genericaliasobject.c’.

   - bpo-42806(2): Fix the column offsets for f-strings *note ast: 9.
     nodes surrounded by parentheses and for nodes that spawn multiple
     lines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40631(3): Fix regression where a single parenthesized starred
     expression was a valid assignment target.

   - bpo-27794(4): Improve the error message for failed writes/deletes
     to property objects.  When possible, the attribute name is now
     shown.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42745(5): Make the type attribute lookup cache per-interpreter.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42246(6): Jumps to jumps are not eliminated when it would break
     PEP 626.

   - bpo-42246(7): Make sure that the ‘f_lasti’ and ‘f_lineno’
     attributes of a frame are set correctly when an exception is raised
     or re-raised.  Required for PEP 626.

   - bpo-32381(8): The coding cookie (ex: ‘# coding: latin1’) is now
     ignored in the command passed to the *note -c: 445. command line
     option.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-30858(9): Improve error location in expressions that contain
     assignments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou.

   - bpo-42615(10): Remove jump commands made redundant by the deletion
     of unreachable bytecode blocks

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42814

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42806

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40631

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42745

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30858

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42615


File: python.info,  Node: Library<132>,  Next: Core and Builtins<132>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<131>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.26.46.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-42639(1): Make the *note atexit: d. module state
     per-interpreter.  It is now safe have more than one ‘atexit’ module
     instance.  Patch by Donghee Na and Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<132>,  Next: Library<133>,  Prev: Library<132>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.26.46.3 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32381(1): Fix encoding name when running a ‘.pyc’ file on
     Windows: *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 1ec0. now uses the
     correct encoding to decode the filename.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381


File: python.info,  Node: Library<133>,  Next: Core and Builtins<133>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<132>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.26.46.4 Library
.................

   - bpo-42195(1): The ‘__args__’ of the parameterized generics for
     *note typing.Callable: ba5. and *note collections.abc.Callable:
     bc6. are now consistent.  The ‘__args__’ for
     ‘collections.abc.Callable’ are now flattened while
     ‘typing.Callable’’s have not changed.  To allow this change, *note
     types.GenericAlias: bc7. can now be subclassed and
     ‘collections.abc.Callable’’s ‘__class_getitem__’ will now return a
     subclass of ‘types.GenericAlias’.  Tests for typing were also
     updated to not subclass things like ‘Callable[..., T]’ as that is
     not a valid base class.  Finally, both ‘Callable’s no longer
     validate their ‘argtypes’, in ‘Callable[[argtypes], resulttype]’ to
     prepare for PEP 612(2).  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-40137(3): Convert functools module to use *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390.

   - bpo-40077(4): Convert *note array: 8. to use heap types, and
     establish module state for these.

   - bpo-42008(5): Fix _random.Random() seeding.

   - bpo-1635741(6): Port the ‘pyexpat’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(7)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40137

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42008

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<133>,  Next: Library<134>,  Prev: Library<133>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.26.46.5 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40521(1): Make the Unicode dictionary of interned strings
     compatible with subinterpreters.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-39465(2): Make ‘_PyUnicode_FromId()’ function compatible with
     subinterpreters.  Each interpreter now has an array of identifier
     objects (interned strings decoded from UTF-8).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465


File: python.info,  Node: Library<134>,  Next: Documentation<41>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<133>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.26.46.6 Library
.................

   - bpo-42257(1): Handle empty string in variable executable in
     platform.libc_ver()

   - bpo-42772(2): randrange() now raises a TypeError when step is
     specified without a stop argument.  Formerly, it silently ignored
     the step argument.

   - bpo-42759(3): Fixed equality comparison of ‘tkinter.Variable’ and
     *note tkinter.font.Font: 1ec4.  Objects which belong to different
     Tcl interpreters are now always different, even if they have the
     same name.

   - bpo-42756(4): Configure LMTP Unix-domain socket to use socket
     global default timeout when a timeout is not explicitly provided.

   - bpo-23328(5): Allow / character in username, password fields on
     _PROXY envars.

   - bpo-42740(6): *note typing.get_args(): 315. and *note
     typing.get_origin(): 314. now support PEP 604(7) union types and
     PEP 612(8) additions to ‘Callable’.

   - bpo-42655(9): *note subprocess: df. 'extra_groups' is now correctly
     passed into setgroups() system call.

   - bpo-42727(10): ‘EnumMeta.__prepare__’ now accepts ‘**kwds’ to
     properly support ‘__init_subclass__’

   - bpo-38308(11): Add optional 'weights' to
     'statistics.harmonic_mean()'.

   - bpo-42721(12): When simple query dialogs (*note
     tkinter.simpledialog: 101.), message boxes (*note
     tkinter.messagebox: ff.) or color choose dialog (*note
     tkinter.colorchooser: fa.) are created without arguments 'master'
     and 'parent', and the default root window is not yet created, and
     ‘NoDefaultRoot()’ was not called, a new temporal hidden root window
     will be created automatically.  It will not be set as the default
     root window and will be destroyed right after closing the dialog
     window.  It will help to use these simple dialog windows in
     programs which do not need other GUI.

   - bpo-25246(13): Optimized *note collections.deque.remove(): 1ec5.

   - bpo-35728(14): Added a root parameter to *note
     tkinter.font.nametofont(): 1ec6.

   - bpo-15303(15): *note tkinter: f9. supports now widgets with boolean
     value False.

   - bpo-42681(16): Fixed range checks for color and pair numbers in
     *note curses: 2e.

   - bpo-42685(17): Improved placing of simple query windows in Tkinter
     (such as *note tkinter.simpledialog.askinteger(): 1ec7.).  They are
     now centered at the center of the parent window if it is specified
     and shown, otherwise at the center of the screen.

   - bpo-9694(18): Argparse help no longer uses the confusing phrase,
     «optional arguments».  It uses «options» instead.

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port the ‘_thread’ extension module to the
     multiphase initialization API ( PEP 489(20)) and convert its static
     types to heap types.

   - bpo-37961(21): Fix crash in ‘tracemalloc.Traceback.__repr__()’
     (regressed in Python 3.9).

   - bpo-42630(22): *note tkinter: f9. functions and constructors which
     need a default root window raise now *note RuntimeError: 30d. with
     descriptive message instead of obscure *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     or *note NameError: 665. if it is not created yet or cannot be
     created automatically.

   - bpo-42639(23): ‘atexit._run_exitfuncs()’ now logs callback
     exceptions using *note sys.unraisablehook: 70c, rather than logging
     them directly into *note sys.stderr: d05. and raise the last
     exception.

   - bpo-42644(24): ‘logging.disable’ will now validate the types and
     value of its parameter.  It also now accepts strings representing
     the levels (as does ‘logging.setLevel’) instead of only the
     numerical values.

   - bpo-42639(25): At Python exit, if a callback registered with *note
     atexit.register(): c54. fails, its exception is now logged.
     Previously, only some exceptions were logged, and the last
     exception was always silently ignored.

   - bpo-36541(26): Fixed lib2to3.pgen2 to be able to parse PEP-570
     positional only argument syntax.

   - bpo-42382(27): In ‘importlib.metadata’: - ‘EntryPoint’ objects now
     expose a ‘.dist’ object referencing the ‘Distribution’ when
     constructed from a ‘Distribution’.  - Add support for package
     discovery under package normalization rules.  - The object returned
     by ‘metadata()’ now has a formally defined protocol called
     ‘PackageMetadata’ with declared support for the ‘.get_all()’
     method.  - Synced with importlib_metadata 3.3.

   - bpo-41877(28): A check is added against misspellings of autospect,
     auto_spec and set_spec being passed as arguments to patch,
     patch.object and create_autospec.

   - bpo-39717(29): [tarfile] update nested exception raising to use
     ‘from None’ or ‘from e’

   - bpo-41877(30): AttributeError for suspected misspellings of
     assertions on mocks are now pointing out that the cause are
     misspelled assertions and also what to do if the misspelling is
     actually an intended attribute name.  The unittest.mock document is
     also updated to reflect the current set of recognised misspellings.

   - bpo-41559(31): Implemented PEP 612(32): added ‘ParamSpec’ and
     ‘Concatenate’ to *note typing: 10d.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-42385(33): StrEnum: fix _generate_next_value_ to return a str

   - bpo-31904(34): Define THREAD_STACK_SIZE for VxWorks.

   - bpo-34750(35): [Enum] ‘_EnumDict.update()’ is now supported.

   - bpo-42517(36): Enum: private names do not become members / do not
     generate errors – they remain normal attributes

   - bpo-42678(37): ‘Enum’: call ‘__init_subclass__’ after members have
     been added

   - bpo-28964(38): *note ast.literal_eval(): fd7. adds line number
     information (if available) in error message for malformed nodes.

   - bpo-42470(39): *note random.sample(): b2b. no longer warns on a
     sequence which is also a set.

   - bpo-31904(40): ‘posixpath.expanduser()’ returns the input 'path'
     unchanged if user home directory is None on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42388(41): Fix subprocess.check_output(…, input=None) behavior
     when text=True to be consistent with that of the documentation and
     universal_newlines=True.

   - bpo-34463(42): Fixed discrepancy between *note traceback: 107. and
     the interpreter in formatting of SyntaxError with lineno not set
     (‘traceback’ was changed to match interpreter).

   - bpo-42393(43): Raise *note OverflowError: c57. instead of silent
     truncation in *note socket.ntohs(): c56. and *note socket.htons():
     c55.  Silent truncation was deprecated in Python 3.7.  Patch by
     Erlend E. Aasland

   - bpo-42222(44): Harmonized *note random.randrange(): c41. argument
     handling to match *note range(): d0f.

        * The integer test and conversion in ‘randrange()’ now uses
          *note operator.index(): 1ec8.

        * Non-integer arguments to ‘randrange()’ are deprecated.

        * The ‘ValueError’ is deprecated in favor of a ‘TypeError’.

        * It now runs a little faster than before.

     (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Serhiy Storchaka.)

   - bpo-42163(45): Restore compatibility for ‘uname_result’ around
     deepcopy and _replace.

   - bpo-42090(46): ‘zipfile.Path.joinpath’ now accepts arbitrary
     arguments, same as ‘pathlib.Path.joinpath’.

   - bpo-1635741(47): Port the _csv module to the multi-phase
     initialization API ( PEP 489(48)).

   - bpo-42059(49): *note typing.TypedDict: 290. types created using the
     alternative call-style syntax now correctly respect the ‘total’
     keyword argument when setting their ‘__required_keys__’ and
     ‘__optional_keys__’ class attributes.

   - bpo-41960(50): Add ‘globalns’ and ‘localns’ parameters to the *note
     inspect.signature(): 4bd. and *note
     inspect.Signature.from_callable(): b20.

   - bpo-41907(51): fix ‘format()’ behavior for ‘IntFlag’

   - bpo-41891(52): Ensure asyncio.wait_for waits for task completion

   - bpo-24792(53): Fixed bug where ‘zipimporter’ sometimes reports an
     incorrect cause of import errors.

   - bpo-31904(54): Fix site and sysconfig modules for VxWorks RTOS
     which has no home directories.

   - bpo-41462(55): Add *note os.set_blocking(): 11ed. support for
     VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-40219(56): Lowered ‘tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale’ dummy widget to
     prevent hiding part of the content label.

   - bpo-37193(57): Fixed memory leak in ‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn’
     introduced in Python 3.7.

   - bpo-39068(58): Fix initialization race condition in ‘a85encode()’
     and ‘b85encode()’ in *note base64: f.  Patch by Brandon Stansbury.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42257

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42772

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42759

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42756

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23328

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42740

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42655

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42727

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38308

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42721

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25246

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35728

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15303

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42681

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42685

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9694

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37961

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42630

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42644

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36541

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42382

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39717

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42385

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34750

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42517

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42678

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28964

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42470

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42388

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34463

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42393

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42222

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42163

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42090

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42059

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41960

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41907

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41891

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24792

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41462

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40219

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37193

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39068


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<41>,  Next: Tests<44>,  Prev: Library<134>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.26.46.7 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17140(1): Add documentation for the *note
     multiprocessing.pool.ThreadPool: 1eca. class.

   - bpo-34398(2): Prominently feature listings from the glossary in
     documentation search results.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17140

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34398


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<44>,  Next: Build<47>,  Prev: Documentation<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.26.46.8 Tests
...............

   - bpo-42794(1): Update test_nntplib to use official group name of
     news.aioe.org for testing.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-31904(2): Skip some asyncio tests on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42641(3): Enhance ‘test_select.test_select()’: it now takes 500
     milliseconds rather than 10 seconds.  Use Python rather than a
     shell to make the test more portable.

   - bpo-31904(4): Skip some tests in _test_all_chown_common() on
     VxWorks.

   - bpo-42199(5): Fix bytecode helper assertNotInBytecode.

   - bpo-41443(6): Add more attribute checking in test_posix.py

   - bpo-31904(7): Disable os.popen and impacted tests on VxWorks

   - bpo-41439(8): Port test_ssl and test_uuid to VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42794

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42641

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42199

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41443

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41439


File: python.info,  Node: Build<47>,  Next: macOS<32>,  Prev: Tests<44>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.26.46.9 Build
...............

   - bpo-42692(1): Fix __builtin_available check on older compilers.
     Patch by Joshua Root.

   - bpo-27640(2): Added ‘--disable-test-modules’ option to the
     ‘configure’ script: don’t build nor install test modules.  Patch by
     Xavier de Gaye, Thomas Petazzoni and Peixing Xin.

   - bpo-42604(3): Now all platforms use a value for the «EXT_SUFFIX»
     build variable derived from SOABI (for instance in freeBSD,
     «EXT_SUFFIX» is now «.cpython-310d.so» instead of «.so»).
     Previously only Linux, Mac and VxWorks were using a value for
     «EXT_SUFFIX» that included «SOABI».

   - bpo-42598(4): Fix implicit function declarations in configure which
     could have resulted in incorrect configuration checks.  Patch
     contributed by Joshua Root.

   - bpo-31904(5): Enable libpython3.so for VxWorks.

   - bpo-29076(6): Add fish shell support to macOS installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42692

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27640

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42604

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29076


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<32>,  Next: Tools/Demos<26>,  Prev: Build<47>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.26.46.10 macOS
................

   - bpo-42361(1): Update macOS installer build to use Tcl/Tk 8.6.11
     (rc2, expected to be final release).

   - bpo-41837(2): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.1i.

   - bpo-42584(3): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.34.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42361

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41837

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42584


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<26>,  Next: C API<43>,  Prev: macOS<32>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.26.46.11 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-42726(1): Fixed Python 3 compatibility issue with
     gdb/libpython.py handling of attribute dictionaries.

   - bpo-42613(2): Fix ‘freeze.py’ tool to use the prope config and
     library directories.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42613


File: python.info,  Node: C API<43>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<26>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4

1.26.46.12 C API
................

   - bpo-42591(1): Export the ‘Py_FrozenMain()’ function: fix a Python
     3.9.0 regression.  Python 3.9 uses ‘-fvisibility=hidden’ and the
     function was not exported explicitly and so not exported.

   - bpo-32381(2): Remove the private ‘_Py_fopen()’ function which is no
     longer needed.  Use ‘_Py_wfopen()’ or ‘_Py_fopen_obj()’ instead.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-1635741(3): Port *note resource: c4. extension module to module
     state

   - bpo-42111(4): Update the ‘xxlimited’ module to be a better example
     of how to use the limited C API.

   - bpo-40052(5): Fix an alignment build warning/error in function
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function()’.  Patch by Andreas Schneider, Antoine
     Pitrou and Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42591

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32381

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42111

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40052


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.47 Python 3.10.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-12-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<33>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<134>.
* Library: Library<135>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<135>.
* Library: Library<136>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<136>.
* Library: Library<137>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<137>.
* Library: Library<138>.
* Documentation: Documentation<42>.
* Tests: Tests<45>.
* Build: Build<48>.
* Windows: Windows<41>.
* macOS: macOS<33>.
* IDLE: IDLE<25>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<27>.
* C API: C API<44>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<33>,  Next: Core and Builtins<134>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40791(1): Add ‘volatile’ to the accumulator variable in
     ‘hmac.compare_digest’, making constant-time-defeating optimizations
     less likely.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40791


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<134>,  Next: Library<135>,  Prev: Security<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42576(1): ‘types.GenericAlias’ will now raise a ‘TypeError’
     when attempting to initialize with a keyword argument.  Previously,
     this would cause the interpreter to crash if the interpreter was
     compiled with debug symbols.  This does not affect interpreters
     compiled for release.  Patch by Ken Jin.

   - bpo-42536(2): Several built-in and standard library types now
     ensure that their internal result tuples are always tracked by the
     *note garbage collector: 19de.:

        - *note collections.OrderedDict.items(): 9d5.

        - *note dict.items(): baf.

        - *note enumerate(): 1823.

        - *note functools.reduce(): 153.

        - *note itertools.combinations(): 16b6.

        - *note itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 1626.

        - *note itertools.permutations(): 1961.

        - *note itertools.product(): 16b7.

        - *note itertools.zip_longest(): 1643.

        - *note zip(): 43f.

     Previously, they could have become untracked by a prior garbage
     collection.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-42500(3): Improve handling of exceptions near recursion limit.
     Converts a number of Fatal Errors in RecursionErrors.

   - bpo-42246(4): PEP 626: After a return, the f_lineno attribute of a
     frame is always the last line executed.

   - bpo-42435(5): Speed up comparison of bytes objects with non-bytes
     objects when option *note -b: 2ed. is specified.  Speed up
     comparison of bytarray objects with non-buffer object.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42576

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42500

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42435


File: python.info,  Node: Library<135>,  Next: Core and Builtins<135>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<134>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-1635741(1): Port the ‘_warnings’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(2)).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<135>,  Next: Library<136>,  Prev: Library<135>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-41686(1): On Windows, the ‘SIGINT’ event,
     ‘_PyOS_SigintEvent()’, is now created even if Python is configured
     to not install signal handlers (if *note
     PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: c91. equals to 0, or
     ‘Py_InitializeEx(0)’).

   - bpo-42381(2): Allow assignment expressions in set literals and set
     comprehensions as per PEP 572.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42202(3): Change function parameters annotations internal
     representation to tuple of strings.  Patch provided by Yurii
     Karabas.

   - bpo-42374(4): Fix a regression introduced by the new parser, where
     an unparenthesized walrus operator was not allowed within generator
     expressions.

   - bpo-42316(5): Allow an unparenthesized walrus in subscript indexes.

   - bpo-42349(6): Make sure that the compiler front-end produces a
     well-formed control flow graph.  Be more aggressive in the compiler
     back-end, as it is now safe to do so.

   - bpo-42296(7): On Windows, fix a regression in signal handling which
     prevented to interrupt a program using CTRL+C. The signal handler
     can be run in a thread different than the Python thread, in which
     case the test deciding if the thread can handle signals is wrong.

   - bpo-42332(8): *note types.GenericAlias: bc7. objects can now be the
     targets of weakrefs.

   - bpo-42282(9): Optimise constant subexpressions that appear as part
     of named expressions (previously the AST optimiser did not descend
     into named expressions).  Patch by Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-42266(10): Fixed a bug with the LOAD_ATTR opcode cache that was
     not respecting monkey-patching a class-level attribute to make it a
     descriptor.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41686

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42381

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42374

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42316

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42349

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42296

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42332

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42282

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42266


File: python.info,  Node: Library<136>,  Next: Core and Builtins<136>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<135>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.5 Library
.................

   - bpo-40077(1): Convert *note queue: be. to use heap types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<136>,  Next: Library<137>,  Prev: Library<136>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.6 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42246(1): Improved accuracy of line tracing events and f_lineno
     attribute of Frame objects.  See PEP 626 for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42246


File: python.info,  Node: Library<137>,  Next: Core and Builtins<137>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<136>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.7 Library
.................

   - bpo-40077(1): Convert *note mmap: 94. to use heap types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<137>,  Next: Library<138>,  Prev: Library<137>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.8 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42233(1): Allow ‘GenericAlias’ objects to use *note union type
     expressions: ba2.  This allows expressions like ‘list[int] |
     dict[float, str]’ where previously a ‘TypeError’ would have been
     thrown.  This also fixes union type expressions not de-duplicating
     ‘GenericAlias’ objects.  (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-42233(2).)

   - bpo-26131(3): The import system triggers a ‘ImportWarning’ when it
     falls back to using ‘load_module()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131


File: python.info,  Node: Library<138>,  Next: Documentation<42>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<137>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.9 Library
.................

   - bpo-5054(1): CGIHTTPRequestHandler.run_cgi() HTTP_ACCEPT improperly
     parsed.  Replace the special purpose getallmatchingheaders with
     generic get_all method and add relevant tests.

     Original Patch by Martin Panter.  Modified by Senthil Kumaran.

   - bpo-42562(2): Fix issue when dis failed to parse function that has
     no line numbers.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-17735(3): ‘inspect.findsource()’ now raises *note OSError: 53c.
     instead of *note IndexError: 18d7. when ‘co_lineno’ of a code
     object is greater than the file length.  This can happen, for
     example, when a file is edited after it was imported.  PR by Irit
     Katriel.

   - bpo-42116(4): Fix handling of trailing comments by *note
     inspect.getsource(): 1a04.

   - bpo-42532(5): Remove unexpected call of ‘__bool__’ when passing a
     ‘spec_arg’ argument to a Mock.

   - bpo-38200(6): Added itertools.pairwise()

   - bpo-41818(7): Fix test_master_read() so that it succeeds on all
     platforms that either raise OSError or return b»» upon reading from
     master.

   - bpo-42487(8): ChainMap.__iter__ no longer calls __getitem__ on
     underlying maps

   - bpo-42482(9): *note TracebackException: 764. no longer holds a
     reference to the exception’s traceback object.  Consequently,
     instances of TracebackException for equivalent but non-equal
     exceptions now compare as equal.

   - bpo-41818(10): Make test_openpty() avoid unexpected success due to
     number of rows and/or number of columns being == 0.

   - bpo-42392(11): Remove loop parameter from ‘asyncio.subprocess’ and
     ‘asyncio.tasks’ functions.  Patch provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-42392(12): Remove loop parameter from ‘asyncio.open_connection’
     and ‘asyncio.start_server’ functions.  Patch provided by Yurii
     Karabas.

   - bpo-28468(13): Add *note platform.freedesktop_os_release(): bff.
     function to parse freedesktop.org ‘os-release’ files.

   - bpo-42299(14): Removed the ‘formatter’ module, which was deprecated
     in Python 3.4.  It is somewhat obsolete, little used, and not
     tested.  It was originally scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6,
     but such removals were delayed until after Python 2.7 EOL. Existing
     users should copy whatever classes they use into their code.  Patch
     by Donghee Na and Terry J. Reedy.

   - bpo-26131(15): Deprecate zipimport.zipimporter.load_module() in
     favour of exec_module().

   - bpo-41818(16): Updated tests for the pty library.  test_basic() has
     been changed to test_openpty(); this additionally checks if slave
     termios and slave winsize are being set properly by pty.openpty().
     In order to add support for FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and Darwin,
     this also adds test_master_read(), which demonstrates that
     pty.spawn() should not depend on an OSError to exit from its copy
     loop.

   - bpo-42392(17): Remove loop parameter from ‘__init__’ in all
     ‘asyncio.locks’ and ‘asyncio.Queue’ classes.  Patch provided by
     Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-15450(18): Make *note filecmp.dircmp: 12eb. respect
     subclassing.  Now the *note filecmp.dircmp.subdirs: 1eda. behaves
     as expected when subclassing dircmp.

   - bpo-42413(19): The exception *note socket.timeout: c0d. is now an
     alias of *note TimeoutError: c0e.

   - bpo-31904(20): Support signal module on VxWorks.

   - bpo-42406(21): We fixed an issue in ‘pickle.whichmodule’ in which
     importing ‘multiprocessing’ could change the how pickle identifies
     which module an object belongs to, potentially breaking the
     unpickling of those objects.

   - bpo-42403(22): Simplify the *note importlib: 7a. external bootstrap
     code: ‘importlib._bootstrap_external’ now uses regular imports to
     import builtin modules.  When it is imported, the builtin *note
     __import__(): ca6. function is already fully working and so can be
     used to import builtin modules like *note sys: e2.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Convert _sre module types to heap types (PEP 384).
     Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-42375(24): subprocess module update for DragonFlyBSD support.

   - bpo-41713(25): Port the ‘_signal’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(26)).  Patch by Victor
     Stinner and Mohamed Koubaa.

   - bpo-37205(27): *note time.time(): 75e, *note time.perf_counter():
     e49. and *note time.monotonic(): 75d. functions can no longer fail
     with a Python fatal error, instead raise a regular Python exception
     on failure.

   - bpo-42328(28): Fixed *note tkinter.ttk.Style.map(): 1edb.  The
     function accepts now the representation of the default state as
     empty sequence (as returned by ‘Style.map()’).  The structure of
     the result is now the same on all platform and does not depend on
     the value of ‘wantobjects’.

   - bpo-42345(29): Fix various issues with ‘typing.Literal’ parameter
     handling (flatten, deduplicate, use type to cache key).  Patch
     provided by Yurii Karabas.

   - bpo-37205(30): *note time.perf_counter(): e49. on Windows and *note
     time.monotonic(): 75d. on macOS are now system-wide.  Previously,
     they used an offset computed at startup to reduce the precision
     loss caused by the float type.  Use *note time.perf_counter_ns():
     eac. and *note time.monotonic_ns(): eab. added in Python 3.7 to
     avoid this precision loss.

   - bpo-42318(31): Fixed support of non-BMP characters in *note
     tkinter: f9. on macOS.

   - bpo-42350(32): Fix the *note threading.Thread: 420. class at fork:
     do nothing if the thread is already stopped (ex: fork called at
     Python exit).  Previously, an error was logged in the child
     process.

   - bpo-42333(33): Port _ssl extension module to heap types.

   - bpo-42014(34): The ‘onerror’ callback from ‘shutil.rmtree’ now
     receives correct function when ‘os.open’ fails.

   - bpo-42237(35): Fix ‘os.sendfile()’ on illumos.

   - bpo-42308(36): Add *note threading.__excepthook__: c22. to allow
     retrieving the original value of *note threading.excepthook(): c23.
     in case it is set to a broken or a different value.  Patch by Mario
     Corchero.

   - bpo-42131(37): Implement PEP 451/spec methods on
     zipimport.zipimporter: find_spec(), create_module(), and
     exec_module().

     This also allows for the documented deprecation of find_loader(),
     find_module(), and load_module().

   - bpo-41877(38): Mock objects which are not unsafe will now raise an
     AttributeError if an attribute with the prefix asert, aseert, or
     assrt is accessed, in addition to this already happening for the
     prefixes assert or assret.

   - bpo-42264(39): ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ has been undocumented and
     obsolete since Python 3.3, when it was made an alias to *note str:
     1df.  It is now deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12.

   - bpo-42251(40): Added *note threading.gettrace(): c1e. and *note
     threading.getprofile(): c1f. to retrieve the functions set by *note
     threading.settrace(): c20. and *note threading.setprofile(): c21.
     respectively.  Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-42249(41): Fixed writing binary Plist files larger than 4 GiB.

   - bpo-42236(42): On Unix, the *note os.device_encoding(): 1e2c.
     function now returns ‘'UTF-8'’ rather than the device encoding if
     the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46. is enabled.

   - bpo-41754(43): webbrowser: Ignore 'NotADirectoryError' when calling
     ‘xdg-settings’.

   - bpo-42183(44): Fix a stack overflow error for asyncio Task or
     Future repr().

     The overflow occurs under some circumstances when a Task or Future
     recursively returns itself.

   - bpo-42140(45): Improve asyncio.wait function to create the futures
     set just one time.

   - bpo-42133(46): Update various modules in the stdlib to fall back on
     ‘__spec__.loader’ when ‘__loader__’ isn’t defined on a module.

   - bpo-26131(47): The ‘load_module()’ methods found in ‘importlib’ now
     trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’.

   - bpo-39825(48): Windows: Change
     ‘sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX')’ to the expected full
     ‘platform_tag.extension’ format.  Previously it was hard-coded to
     ‘.pyd’, now it is compatible with ‘distutils.sysconfig’ and will
     result in something like ‘.cp38-win_amd64.pyd’.  This brings
     windows into conformance with the other platforms.

   - bpo-26389(49): The *note traceback.format_exception(): c25, *note
     traceback.format_exception_only(): c26, and *note
     traceback.print_exception(): c27. functions can now take an
     exception object as a positional-only argument.

   - bpo-41889(50): Enum: fix regression involving inheriting a multiply
     inherited enum

   - bpo-41861(51): Convert *note sqlite3: d7. to use heap types (PEP
     384).  Patch by Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40624(52): Added support for the XPath ‘!=’ operator in
     xml.etree

   - bpo-28850(53): Fix *note pprint.PrettyPrinter.format(): 1edc.
     overrides being ignored for contents of small containers.  The
     ‘pprint._safe_repr()’ function was removed.

   - bpo-41625(54): Expose the ‘splice()’ as *note os.splice(): bf2. in
     the *note os: a5. module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-34215(55): Clarify the error message for *note
     asyncio.IncompleteReadError: 1edd. when ‘expected’ is ‘None’.

   - bpo-41543(56): Add async context manager support for
     contextlib.nullcontext.

   - bpo-21041(57): *note pathlib.PurePath.parents: bf9. now supports
     negative indexing.  Patch contributed by Yaroslav Pankovych.

   - bpo-41332(58): Added missing connect_accepted_socket() method to
     ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop’.

   - bpo-12800(59): Extracting a symlink from a tarball should succeed
     and overwrite the symlink if it already exists.  The fix is to
     remove the existing file or symlink before extraction.  Based on
     patch by Chris AtLee, Jeffrey Kintscher, and Senthil Kumaran.

   - bpo-40968(60): *note urllib.request: 114. and *note http.client:
     72. now send ‘http/1.1’ ALPN extension during TLS handshake when no
     custom context is supplied.

   - bpo-41001(61): Add *note os.eventfd(): bf1. to provide a low level
     interface for Linux’s event notification file descriptor.

   - bpo-40816(62): Add AsyncContextDecorator to contextlib to support
     async context manager as a decorator.

   - bpo-40550(63): Fix time-of-check/time-of-action issue in
     subprocess.Popen.send_signal.

   - bpo-39411(64): Add an ‘is_async’ identifier to *note pyclbr: bc.’s
     ‘Function’ objects.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-35498(65): Add slice support to *note pathlib.PurePath.parents:
     bf9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5054

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42562

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17735

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42116

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42532

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38200

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42487

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42482

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28468

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42299

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41818

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15450

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42406

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42403

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42375

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37205

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42328

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37205

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42318

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42350

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42014

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42237

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42308

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42131

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41877

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42264

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42251

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42249

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42236

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41754

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42183

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42140

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39825

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41889

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41861

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40624

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28850

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41625

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34215

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41543

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21041

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41332

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12800

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40968

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41001

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40816

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40550

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39411

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35498


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<42>,  Next: Tests<45>,  Prev: Library<138>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.10 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-42238(1): Tentative to deprecate ‘make suspicious’ by first
     removing it from the CI and documentation builds, but keeping it
     around for manual uses.

   - bpo-42153(2): Fix the URL for the IMAP protocol documents.

   - bpo-41028(3): Language and version switchers, previously maintained
     in every cpython branches, are now handled by docsbuild-script.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42238

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42153

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41028


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<45>,  Next: Build<48>,  Prev: Documentation<42>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.11 Tests
................

   - bpo-41473(1): Re-enable test_gdb on gdb 9.2 and newer:
     ‘https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=1866884’ bug is fixed
     in gdb 10.1.

   - bpo-42553(2): Fix ‘test_asyncio.test_call_later()’ race condition:
     don’t measure asyncio performance in the ‘call_later()’ unit test.
     The test failed randomly on the CI.

   - bpo-31904(3): Fix test_netrc on VxWorks: create temporary
     directories using temp_cwd().

   - bpo-31904(4): skip test_getaddrinfo_ipv6_scopeid_symbolic and
     test_getnameinfo_ipv6_scopeid_symbolic on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(5): skip test_test of test_mailcap on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(6): add shell requirement for test_pipes

   - bpo-31904(7): skip some tests related to fifo on VxWorks

   - bpo-31904(8): Fix test_doctest.py failures for VxWorks.

   - bpo-40754(9): Include ‘_testinternalcapi’ module in Windows
     installer for test suite

   - bpo-41561(10): test_ssl: skip test_min_max_version_mismatch when
     TLS 1.0 is not available

   - bpo-31904(11): Fix os module failures for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-31904(12): Fix fifo test cases for VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41473

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42553

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40754

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41561

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904


File: python.info,  Node: Build<48>,  Next: Windows<41>,  Prev: Tests<45>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.12 Build
................

   - bpo-31904(1): remove libnet dependency from detect_socket() for
     VxWorks

   - bpo-42398(2): Fix a race condition in «make regen-all» when make
     -jN option is used to run jobs in parallel.  The clinic.py script
     now only use atomic write to write files.  Moveover, generated
     files are now left unchanged if the content does not change, to not
     change the file modification time.

   - bpo-41617(3): Fix building ‘pycore_bitutils.h’ internal header on
     old clang version without ‘__builtin_bswap16()’ (ex: Xcode 4.6.3 on
     Mac OS X 10.7).  Patch by Joshua Root and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-38823(4): It is no longer possible to build the ‘_ctypes’
     extension module without ‘wchar_t’ type: remove ‘CTYPES_UNICODE’
     macro.  Anyway, the ‘wchar_t’ type is required to build Python.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42087(5): Support was removed for AIX 5.3 and below.  See
     bpo-40680(6).

   - bpo-40998(7): Addressed three compiler warnings found by undefined
     behavior sanitizer (ubsan).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42398

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41617

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38823

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42087

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40680

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40998


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<41>,  Next: macOS<33>,  Prev: Build<48>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.13 Windows
..................

   - bpo-42120(1): Remove macro definition of ‘copysign’ (to
     ‘_copysign’) in headers.

   - bpo-38506(2): The Windows launcher now properly handles Python 3.10
     when listing installed Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42120

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38506


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<33>,  Next: IDLE<25>,  Prev: Windows<41>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.14 macOS
................

   - bpo-42504(1): Fix build on macOS Big Sur when
     MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET=11

   - bpo-41116(2): Ensure distutils.unixxcompiler.find_library_file can
     find system provided libraries on macOS 11.

   - bpo-41100(3): Add support for macOS 11 and Apple Silicon systems.

     It is now possible to build «Universal 2» binaries using
     «–enable-universalsdk –with-universal-archs=universal2».

     Binaries build on later macOS versions can be deployed back to
     older versions (tested up to macOS 10.9), when using the correct
     deployment target.  This is tested using Xcode 11 and later.

   - bpo-42232(4): Added Darwin specific madvise options to mmap module.

   - bpo-38443(5): The ‘--enable-universalsdk’ and
     ‘--with-universal-archs’ options for the configure script now check
     that the specified architectures can be used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42504

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41116

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42232

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38443


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<25>,  Next: Tools/Demos<27>,  Prev: macOS<33>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.15 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-42508(1): Keep IDLE running on macOS. Remove obsolete
     workaround that prevented running files with shortcuts when using
     new universal2 installers built on macOS 11.

   - bpo-42426(2): Fix reporting offset of the RE error in searchengine.

   - bpo-42415(3): Get docstrings for IDLE calltips more often by using
     inspect.getdoc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42508

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42426

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42415


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<27>,  Next: C API<44>,  Prev: IDLE<25>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.16 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-42212(1): The smelly.py script now also checks the Python
     dynamic library and extension modules, not only the Python static
     library.  Make also the script more verbose: explain what it does.

   - bpo-36310(2): Allow ‘Tools/i18n/pygettext.py’ to detect calls to
     ‘gettext’ in f-strings.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42212

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36310


File: python.info,  Node: C API<44>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<27>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3

1.26.47.17 C API
................

   - bpo-42423(1): The *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 38f. and *note
     PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390. functions now accept a single
     class as the 'bases' argument.

   - bpo-1635741(2): Port *note select: c9. extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(3)).

   - bpo-1635741(4): Port _posixsubprocess extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(5)).

   - bpo-1635741(6): Port _posixshmem extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(7))

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _struct extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(9))

   - bpo-1635741(10): Port ‘spwd’ extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(11))

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note gc: 63. extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13))

   - bpo-1635741(14): Port _queue extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(15))

   - bpo-39573(16): Convert *note Py_TYPE(): 5f5. and *note Py_SIZE():
     b61. back to macros to allow using them as an l-value.  Many third
     party C extension modules rely on the ability of using Py_TYPE()
     and Py_SIZE() to set an object type and size: ‘Py_TYPE(obj) =
     type;’ and ‘Py_SIZE(obj) = size;’.

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port *note symtable: e1. extension module to
     multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(18))

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port *note grp: 69. and *note pwd: ba. extension
     modules to multiphase initialization ( PEP 489(20))

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port _random extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(22))

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port _hashlib extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(24))

   - bpo-41713(25): Removed the undocumented ‘PyOS_InitInterrupts()’
     function.  Initializing Python already implicitly installs signal
     handlers: see *note PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: c91.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-40170(26): The ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ macro no longer accesses
     PyTypeObject attributes, but now can get the condition by calling
     the new private ‘_PyTrash_cond()’ function which hides
     implementation details.

   - bpo-42260(27): ‘Py_GetPath()’, ‘Py_GetPrefix()’,
     ‘Py_GetExecPrefix()’, ‘Py_GetProgramFullPath()’,
     ‘Py_GetPythonHome()’ and ‘Py_GetProgramName()’ functions now return
     ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize(): 673. (before Python
     is initialized).  Use the new *note Python Initialization
     Configuration API: 837. to get the *note Python Path
     Configuration.: c80.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42260(28): The *note PyConfig_Read(): b6f. function now only
     parses *note PyConfig.argv: 607. arguments once: *note
     PyConfig.parse_argv: 1ee6. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are
     parsed.  Since Python arguments are strippped from ‘PyConfig.argv’,
     parsing arguments twice would parse the application options as
     Python options.

   - bpo-42262(29): Added *note Py_NewRef(): c70. and *note
     Py_XNewRef(): c71. functions to increment the reference count of an
     object and return the object.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42260(30): When *note Py_Initialize(): 673. is called twice,
     the second call now updates more *note sys: e2. attributes for the
     configuration, rather than only *note sys.argv: 1609.  Patch by
     Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41832(31): The *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390. function
     now accepts NULL ‘tp_doc’ slot.

   - bpo-1635741(32): Added *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 800.
     function: similar to *note PyModule_AddObject(): 801. but don’t
     steal a reference to the value on success.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42171(33): The *note METH_FASTCALL: 34b. calling convention is
     added to the limited API. The functions *note PyModule_AddType():
     d3d, *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390, *note
     PyType_GetModule(): d37. and *note PyType_GetModuleState(): d38.
     are added to the limited API on Windows.

   - bpo-42085(34): Add dedicated entry to PyAsyncMethods for sending
     values

   - bpo-41073(35): *note PyType_GetSlot(): c72. can now accept static
     types.

   - bpo-30459(36): *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 822, *note
     PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 821. and *note PyCell_SET(): c81. macros can no
     longer be used as l-value or r-value.  For example, ‘x =
     PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c)’ and ‘PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) = x’ now
     fail with a compiler error.  It prevents bugs like ‘if
     (PyList_SET_ITEM (a, b, c) < 0) ...’ test.  Patch by Zackery Spytz
     and Victor Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42423

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42262

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41832

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42171

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42085

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41073

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30459


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.48 Python 3.10.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-11-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<34>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<138>.
* Library: Library<139>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<139>.
* Library: Library<140>.
* Documentation: Documentation<43>.
* Tests: Tests<46>.
* Build: Build<49>.
* Windows: Windows<42>.
* macOS: macOS<34>.
* IDLE: IDLE<26>.
* C API: C API<45>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<34>,  Next: Core and Builtins<138>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.26.48.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-42103(1): Prevented potential DoS attack via CPU and RAM
     exhaustion when processing malformed Apple Property List files in
     binary format.

   - bpo-42051(2): The *note plistlib: b0. module no longer accepts
     entity declarations in XML plist files to avoid XML
     vulnerabilities.  This should not affect users as entity
     declarations are not used in regular plist files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42103

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42051


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<138>,  Next: Library<139>,  Prev: Security<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.26.48.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-42236(1): If the ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ function returns an
     empty string, Python now uses UTF-8 as the filesystem encoding.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42218(2): Fixed a bug in the PEG parser that was causing
     crashes in debug mode.  Now errors are checked in left-recursive
     rules to avoid cases where such errors do not get handled in time
     and appear as long-distance crashes in other places.

   - bpo-42214(3): Fixed a possible crash in the PEG parser when
     checking for the “!=” token in the ‘barry_as_flufl’ rule.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42206(4): Propagate and raise the errors caused by
     ‘PyAST_Validate()’ in the parser.

   - bpo-41796(5): The *note ast: 9. module internal state is now per
     interpreter.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42143(6): Fix handling of errors during creation of
     ‘PyFunctionObject’, which resulted in operations on uninitialized
     memory.  Patch by Yonatan Goldschmidt.

   - bpo-41659(7): Fix a bug in the parser, where a curly brace
     following a ‘primary’ didn’t fail immediately.  This led to invalid
     expressions like ‘a {b}’ to throw a *note SyntaxError: 17e. with a
     wrong offset, or invalid expressions ending with a curly brace like
     ‘a {’ to not fail immediately in the REPL.

   - bpo-42150(8): Fix possible buffer overflow in the new parser when
     checking for continuation lines.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-42123(9): Run the parser two times.  On the first run, disable
     all the rules that only generate better error messages to gain
     performance.  If there’s a parse failure, run the parser a second
     time with those enabled.

   - bpo-42093(10): The ‘LOAD_ATTR’ instruction now uses new «per opcode
     cache» mechanism and it is about 36% faster now.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo and Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-42030(11): Support for the legacy AIX-specific shared library
     loading support has been removed.  All versions of AIX since 4.3
     have supported and defaulted to using the common Unix mechanism
     instead.

   - bpo-41984(12): The garbage collector now tracks all user-defined
     classes.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-41993(13): Fixed potential issues with removing not completely
     initialized module from ‘sys.modules’ when import fails.

   - bpo-41979(14): Star-unpacking is now allowed for with item’s
     targets in the PEG parser.

   - bpo-41974(15): Removed special methods ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’,
     ‘__floordiv__’, ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__rfloordiv__’,
     ‘__rmod__’ and ‘__rdivmod__’ of the *note complex: 328. class.
     They always raised a *note TypeError: 291.

   - bpo-41902(16): Micro optimization when compute *note sq_item: 1eea.
     and *note mp_subscript: 1eeb. of *note range: d0f.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41894(17): When loading a native module and a load failure
     occurs, prevent a possible UnicodeDecodeError when not running in a
     UTF-8 locale by decoding the load error message using the current
     locale’s encoding.

   - bpo-41902(18): Micro optimization for range.index if step is 1.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42236

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42218

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42214

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42206

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41796

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42143

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41659

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42150

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42123

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42093

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42030

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41984

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41993

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41979

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41974

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41902

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41894

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41902


File: python.info,  Node: Library<139>,  Next: Core and Builtins<139>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<138>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.26.48.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-41435(1): Add ‘sys._current_exceptions()’ function to retrieve
     a dictionary mapping each thread’s identifier to the topmost
     exception currently active in that thread at the time the function
     is called.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41435


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<139>,  Next: Library<140>,  Prev: Library<139>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.26.48.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-38605(1): Enable ‘from __future__ import annotations’ ( PEP
     563(2)) by default.  The values found in *note __annotations__:
     66b. dicts are now strings, for example ‘{"x": "int"}’ instead of
     ‘{"x": int}’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38605

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<140>,  Next: Documentation<43>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<139>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.26.48.5 Library
.................

   - bpo-35455(1): On Solaris, *note thread_time(): d03. is now
     implemented with ‘gethrvtime()’ because
     ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ is not always available.
     Patch by Jakub Kulik.

   - bpo-42233(2): The *note repr(): 45b. of *note typing: 10d. types
     containing *note Generic Alias Types: a9f. previously did not show
     the parameterized types in the ‘GenericAlias’.  They have now been
     changed to do so.

   - bpo-29566(3): ‘binhex.binhex()’ consistently writes macOS 9 line
     endings.

   - bpo-26789(4): The *note logging.FileHandler: 1e4a. class now keeps
     a reference to the builtin *note open(): 32b. function to be able
     to open or reopen the file during Python finalization.  Fix errors
     like: ‘NameError: name 'open' is not defined’.  Patch by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-42157(5): Removed the ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ attribute
     which was an internal PyCapsule object.  The related private
     ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure was moved to the internal C API.
     Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42157(6): Convert the *note unicodedata: 10e. extension module
     to the multiphase initialization API ( PEP 489(7)) and convert the
     ‘unicodedata.UCD’ static type to a heap type.  Patch by Mohamed
     Koubaa and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42146(8): Fix memory leak in *note subprocess.Popen(): 6bf. in
     case an uid (gid) specified in ‘user’ (‘group’, ‘extra_groups’)
     overflows ‘uid_t’ (‘gid_t’).

   - bpo-42103(9): *note InvalidFileException: 1eef. and *note
     RecursionError: 1121. are now the only errors caused by loading
     malformed binary Plist file (previously ValueError and TypeError
     could be raised in some specific cases).

   - bpo-41490(10): In ‘importlib.resources’, ‘.path’ method is more
     aggressive about releasing handles to zipfile objects early,
     enabling use-cases like certifi to leave the context open but
     delete the underlying zip file.

   - bpo-41052(11): Pickling heap types implemented in C with protocols
     0 and 1 raises now an error instead of producing incorrect data.

   - bpo-42089(12): In ‘importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError’, make
     reference to the package metadata being missing to improve the user
     experience.

   - bpo-41491(13): plistlib: fix parsing XML plists with hexadecimal
     integer values

   - bpo-42065(14): Fix an incorrectly formatted error from
     ‘_codecs.charmap_decode()’ when called with a mapped value outside
     the range of valid Unicode code points.  PR by Max Bernstein.

   - bpo-41966(15): Fix pickling pure Python *note datetime.time: 48e.
     subclasses.  Patch by Dean Inwood.

   - bpo-19270(16): *note sched.scheduler.cancel(): 1ef0. will now
     cancel the correct event, if two events with same priority are
     scheduled for the same time.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-28660(17): *note textwrap.wrap(): 1869. now attempts to break
     long words after hyphens when ‘break_long_words=True’ and
     ‘break_on_hyphens=True’.

   - bpo-35823(18): Use ‘vfork()’ instead of ‘fork()’ for *note
     subprocess.Popen(): 6bf. on Linux to improve performance in cases
     where it is deemed safe.

   - bpo-42043(19): Add support for ‘zipfile.Path’ inheritance.
     ‘zipfile.Path.is_file()’ now returns False for non-existent names.
     ‘zipfile.Path’ objects now expose a ‘.filename’ attribute and rely
     on that to resolve ‘.name’ and ‘.parent’ when the ‘Path’ object is
     at the root of the zipfile.

   - bpo-42021(20): Fix possible ref leaks in *note sqlite3: d7. module
     init.

   - bpo-39101(21): Fixed tests using IsolatedAsyncioTestCase from
     hanging on BaseExceptions.

   - bpo-41976(22): Fixed a bug that was causing *note
     ctypes.util.find_library(): 10fe. to return ‘None’ when triying to
     locate a library in an environment when gcc>=9 is available and
     ‘ldconfig’ is not.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-41943(23): Fix bug where TestCase.assertLogs doesn’t correctly
     filter messages by level.

   - bpo-41923(24): Implement PEP 613(25), introducing *note
     typing.TypeAlias: ba9. annotation.

   - bpo-41905(26): A new function in abc: 'update_abstractmethods' to
     re-calculate an abstract class’s abstract status.  In addition,
     'dataclass' has been changed to call this function.

   - bpo-23706(27): Added 'newline' parameter to
     ‘pathlib.Path.write_text()’.

   - bpo-41876(28): Tkinter font class repr uses font name

   - bpo-41831(29): ‘str()’ for the ‘type’ attribute of the
     ‘tkinter.Event’ object always returns now the numeric code returned
     by Tk instead of the name of the event type.

   - bpo-39337(30): *note encodings.normalize_encoding(): 313. now
     ignores non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-41747(31): Ensure all methods that generated from *note
     dataclasses.dataclass(): 6e6. objects now have the proper
     ‘__qualname__’ attribute referring to the class they belong to.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-30681(32): Handle exceptions caused by unparsable date headers
     when using email «default» policy.  Patch by Tim Bell, Georges Toth

   - bpo-41586(33): Add F_SETPIPE_SZ and F_GETPIPE_SZ to fcntl module.
     Allow setting pipesize on subprocess.Popen.

   - bpo-41229(34): Add ‘contextlib.aclosing’ for deterministic cleanup
     of async generators which is analogous to ‘contextlib.closing’ for
     non-async generators.  Patch by Joongi Kim and John Belmonte.

   - bpo-16396(35): Allow ‘ctypes.wintypes’ to be imported on
     non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-4356(36): Add a key function to the bisect module.

   - bpo-40592(37): *note shutil.which(): 8c4. now ignores empty entries
     in ‘PATHEXT’ instead of treating them as a match.

   - bpo-40492(38): Fix ‘--outfile’ for ‘cProfile’ / ‘profile’ not
     writing the output file in the original directory when the program
     being profiled changes the working directory.  PR by Anthony
     Sottile.

   - bpo-34204(39): The *note shelve: cb. module now uses *note
     pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: c07. by default instead of *note pickle:
     ab. protocol ‘3’.

   - bpo-27321(40): Fixed KeyError exception when flattening an email to
     a string attempts to replace a non-existent
     Content-Transfer-Encoding header.

   - bpo-38976(41): The *note http.cookiejar: 73. module now supports
     the parsing of cookies in CURL-style cookiejar files through
     MozillaCookieJar on all platforms.  Previously, such cookie entries
     would be silently ignored when loading a cookiejar with such
     entries.

     Additionally, the HTTP Only attribute is persisted in the object,
     and will be correctly written to file if the MozillaCookieJar
     object is subsequently dumped.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35455

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42233

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29566

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26789

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42146

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42103

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41490

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41052

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42089

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41491

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42065

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41966

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19270

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28660

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35823

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42043

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42021

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39101

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41976

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41943

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41923

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41905

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23706

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41876

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41831

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39337

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41747

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30681

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41586

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41229

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16396

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4356

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40592

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40492

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34204

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27321

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38976


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<43>,  Next: Tests<46>,  Prev: Library<140>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.26.48.6 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-42061(1): Document __format__ functionality for IP addresses.

   - bpo-41910(2): Document the default implementation of
     ‘object.__eq__’.

   - bpo-42010(3): Clarify that subscription expressions are also valid
     for certain *note classes: 1ef2. and *note types: 1ef3. in the
     standard library, and for user-defined classes and types if the
     classmethod ‘__class_getitem__()’ is provided.

   - bpo-41805(4): Documented *note generic alias type: a9f. and *note
     types.GenericAlias: bc7.  Also added an entry in glossary for *note
     generic types: 1d1.

   - bpo-39693(5): Fix tarfile’s extractfile documentation

   - bpo-39416(6): Document some restrictions on the default string
     representations of numeric classes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42061

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41910

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42010

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41805

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39693

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39416


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<46>,  Next: Build<49>,  Prev: Documentation<43>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.26.48.7 Tests
...............

   - bpo-41739(1): Fix
     test_logging.test_race_between_set_target_and_flush(): the test now
     waits until all threads complete to avoid leaking running threads.

   - bpo-41970(2): Avoid a test failure in ‘test_lib2to3’ if the module
     has already imported at the time the test executes.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-41944(3): Tests for CJK codecs no longer call ‘eval()’ on
     content received via HTTP.

   - bpo-41306(4): Fixed a failure in ‘test_tk.test_widgets.ScaleTest’
     happening when executing the test with Tk 8.6.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41739

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41970

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41944

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41306


File: python.info,  Node: Build<49>,  Next: Windows<42>,  Prev: Tests<46>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.26.48.8 Build
...............

   - bpo-38980(1): Add ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ to both the compile
     and link line when building with ‘--enable-optimizations’.  Patch
     by Victor Stinner and Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38980


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<42>,  Next: macOS<34>,  Prev: Build<49>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.26.48.9 Windows
.................

   - bpo-38439(1): Updates the icons for IDLE in the Windows Store
     package.

   - bpo-38252(2): Use 8-byte step to detect ASCII sequence in 64-bit
     Windows build.

   - bpo-39107(3): Update Tcl and Tk to 8.6.10 in Windows installer.

   - bpo-41557(4): Update Windows installer to use SQLite 3.33.0.

   - bpo-38324(5): Avoid Unicode errors when accessing certain locale
     data on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38252

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39107

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41557

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38324


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<34>,  Next: IDLE<26>,  Prev: Windows<42>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.26.48.10 macOS
................

   - bpo-41471(1): Ignore invalid prefix lengths in system proxy
     excludes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41471


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<26>,  Next: C API<45>,  Prev: macOS<34>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.26.48.11 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-33987(1): Mostly finish using ttk widgets, mainly for editor,
     settings, and searches.  Some patches by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-40511(2): Typing opening and closing parentheses inside the
     parentheses of a function call will no longer cause unnecessary
     «flashing» off and on of an existing open call-tip, e.g.  when
     typed in a string literal.

   - bpo-38439(3): Add a 256×256 pixel IDLE icon to the Windows .ico
     file.  Created by Andrew Clover.  Remove the low-color gif
     variations from the .ico file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33987

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40511

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439


File: python.info,  Node: C API<45>,  Prev: IDLE<26>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2

1.26.48.12 C API
................

   - bpo-42157(1): The private ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure of the
     PyCapsule API ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ has been moved to the
     internal C API. Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-42015(2): Fix potential crash in deallocating method objects
     when dynamically allocated *note PyMethodDef: 1879.’s lifetime is
     managed through the ‘self’ argument of a *note PyCFunction: 181a.

   - bpo-40423(3): The *note subprocess: df. module and ‘os.closerange’
     will now use the ‘close_range(low, high, flags)’ syscall when it is
     available for more efficient closing of ranges of descriptors.

   - bpo-41845(4): *note PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 1efa. is available
     again in the limited API when targeting 3.10 or later.

   - bpo-40422(5): Add ‘_Py_closerange’ function to provide performant
     closing of a range of file descriptors.

   - bpo-41986(6): ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’ and ‘Py_UTF8Mode’
     are available again in limited API.

   - bpo-41756(7): Add ‘PyIter_Send’ function to allow sending value
     into generator/coroutine/iterator without raising StopIteration
     exception to signal return.

   - bpo-41784(8): Added ‘PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize’ to the limited C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42015

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40423

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41845

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40422

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41756

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41784


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.49 Python 3.10.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-10-05'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<35>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<140>.
* Library: Library<141>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<141>.
* Library: Library<142>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<142>.
* Library: Library<143>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<143>.
* Library: Library<144>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<144>.
* Library: Library<145>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<145>.
* Library: Library<146>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<146>.
* Library: Library<147>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<147>.
* Library: Library<148>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<148>.
* Library: Library<149>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<149>.
* Library: Library<150>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<150>.
* Library: Library<151>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<151>.
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* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<154>.
* Library: Library<155>.
* Documentation: Documentation<44>.
* Tests: Tests<47>.
* Build: Build<50>.
* Windows: Windows<43>.
* macOS: macOS<35>.
* IDLE: IDLE<27>.
* C API: C API<46>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<35>,  Next: Core and Builtins<140>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-41304(1): Fixes ‘python3x._pth’ being ignored on Windows,
     caused by the fix for bpo-29778(2) ( CVE 2020-15801(3)).

   - bpo-41162(4): Audit hooks are now cleared later during finalization
     to avoid missing events.

   - bpo-29778(5): Ensure ‘python3.dll’ is loaded from correct locations
     when Python is embedded ( CVE 2020-15523(6)).

   - bpo-41004(7): The __hash__() methods of ipaddress.IPv4Interface and
     ipaddress.IPv6Interface incorrectly generated constant hash values
     of 32 and 128 respectively.  This resulted in always causing hash
     collisions.  The fix uses hash() to generate hash values for the
     tuple of (address, mask length, network address).

   - bpo-39603(8): Prevent http header injection by rejecting control
     characters in http.client.putrequest(…).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41304

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29778

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-15801

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41162

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29778

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-15523

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41004

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39603


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<140>,  Next: Library<141>,  Prev: Security<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-41909(1): Fixed stack overflow in *note issubclass(): 2f0. and
     *note isinstance(): 2ef. when getting the ‘__bases__’ attribute
     leads to infinite recursion.

   - bpo-41922(2): Speed up calls to ‘reversed()’ by using the PEP
     590(3) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41873(4): Calls to ‘float()’ are now faster due to the
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-41870(5): Speed up calls to ‘bool()’ by using the PEP 590(6)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41909

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41922

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41873

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41870

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<141>,  Next: Core and Builtins<141>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<140>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-1635741(1): Port the ‘_bisect’ module to the multi-phase
     initialization API ( PEP 489(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<141>,  Next: Library<142>,  Prev: Library<141>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.4 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39934(1): Correctly count control blocks in “except” in
     compiler.  Ensures that a syntax error, rather a fatal error,
     occurs for deeply nested, named exception handlers.

   - bpo-41780(2): Fix ‘__dir__()’ of *note types.GenericAlias: bc7.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39934

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41780


File: python.info,  Node: Library<142>,  Next: Core and Builtins<142>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<141>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.5 Library
.................

   - bpo-1635741(1): Port the ‘_lsprof’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(2)).

   - bpo-1635741(3): Port the *note cmath: 19. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(4)).

   - bpo-1635741(5): Port the ‘_scproxy’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(6)).

   - bpo-1635741(7): Port the *note termios: ea. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(8)).

   - bpo-1635741(9): Convert the ‘_sha256’ extension module types to
     heap types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<142>,  Next: Library<143>,  Prev: Library<142>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.6 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-41690(1): Fix a possible stack overflow in the parser when
     parsing functions and classes with a huge amount of arguments.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41690


File: python.info,  Node: Library<143>,  Next: Core and Builtins<143>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<142>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.7 Library
.................

   - bpo-1635741(1): Port the ‘_overlapped’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(2)).

   - bpo-1635741(3): Port the ‘_curses_panel’ extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(4)).

   - bpo-1635741(5): Port the ‘_opcode’ extension module to multi-phase
     initialization ( PEP 489(6)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<143>,  Next: Library<144>,  Prev: Library<143>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.8 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-41681(1): Fixes the wrong error description in the error raised
     by using 2 ‘,’ in format string in f-string and *note str.format():
     a12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41681


File: python.info,  Node: Library<144>,  Next: Core and Builtins<144>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<143>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.9 Library
.................

   - bpo-41675(1): The implementation of *note signal.siginterrupt():
     14e1. now uses ‘sigaction()’ (if it is available in the system)
     instead of the deprecated ‘siginterrupt()’.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41675


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<144>,  Next: Library<145>,  Prev: Library<144>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.10 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-41670(1): Prevent line trace being skipped on platforms not
     compiled with ‘USE_COMPUTED_GOTOS’.  Fixes issue where some lines
     nested within a try-except block were not being traced on Windows.

   - bpo-41654(2): Fix a crash that occurred when destroying subclasses
     of *note MemoryError: 18fa.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41670

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41654


File: python.info,  Node: Library<145>,  Next: Core and Builtins<145>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<144>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.11 Library
..................

   - bpo-1635741(1): Port the *note zlib: 13c. extension module to
     multi-phase initialization ( PEP 489(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<145>,  Next: Library<146>,  Prev: Library<145>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.12 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-41631(1): The ‘_ast’ module uses again a global state.  Using a
     module state per module instance is causing subtle practical
     problems.  For example, the Mercurial project replaces the
     ‘__import__()’ function to implement lazy import, whereas Python
     expected that ‘import _ast’ always return a fully initialized
     ‘_ast’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41631


File: python.info,  Node: Library<146>,  Next: Core and Builtins<146>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<145>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.13 Library
..................

   - bpo-40077(1): Convert ‘_operator’ to use *note PyType_FromSpec():
     38e.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<146>,  Next: Library<147>,  Prev: Library<146>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.14 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-1653741(1): Port ‘_sha3’ to multi-phase init.  Convert static
     types to heap types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1653741


File: python.info,  Node: Library<147>,  Next: Core and Builtins<147>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<146>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.15 Library
..................

   - bpo-1635741(1): Port the ‘_blake2’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<147>,  Next: Library<148>,  Prev: Library<147>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.16 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-41533(1): Free the stack allocated in ‘va_build_stack’ if
     ‘do_mkstack’ fails and the stack is not a ‘small_stack’.

   - bpo-41531(2): Fix a bug that was dropping keys when compiling dict
     literals with more than 0xFFFF elements.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41525(3): The output of ‘python --help’ contains now only ASCII
     characters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41533

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41531

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41525


File: python.info,  Node: Library<148>,  Next: Core and Builtins<148>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<147>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.17 Library
..................

   - bpo-1635741(1): Port the ‘_sha1’, ‘_sha512’, and ‘_md5’ extension
     modules to multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<148>,  Next: Library<149>,  Prev: Library<148>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.18 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-41431(1): Optimize ‘dict_merge()’ for copying dict (e.g.
     ‘dict(d)’ and ‘{}.update(d)’).

   - bpo-41428(2): Implement PEP 604.  This supports (int | str) etc.
     in place of Union[str, int].

   - bpo-41340(3): Removed fallback implementation for ‘strdup’.

   - bpo-38156(4): Handle interrupts that come after EOF correctly in
     ‘PyOS_StdioReadline’.

   - bpo-41342(5): *note round(): 167f. with integer argument is now
     faster (9–60%).

   - bpo-41334(6): Constructors *note str(): 1df, *note bytes(): 1c7.
     and *note bytearray(): 1c6. are now faster (around 30–40% for small
     objects).

   - bpo-41295(7): Resolve a regression in CPython 3.8.4 where defining
     «__setattr__» in a multi-inheritance setup and calling up the
     hierarchy chain could fail if builtins/extension types were
     involved in the base types.

   - bpo-41323(8): Bytecode optimizations are performed directly on the
     control flow graph.  This will result in slightly more compact code
     objects in some circumstances.

   - bpo-41247(9): Always cache the running loop holder when running
     ‘asyncio.set_running_loop’.

   - bpo-41252(10): Fix incorrect refcounting in _ssl.c’s
     ‘_servername_callback()’.

   - bpo-1635741(11): Port *note multiprocessing: 98. to multi-phase
     initialization

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41431

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41340

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38156

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41342

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41334

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41295

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41323

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41247

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41252

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741


File: python.info,  Node: Library<149>,  Next: Core and Builtins<149>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<148>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.19 Library
..................

   - bpo-1635741(1): Port ‘winapi’ to multiphase initialization

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<149>,  Next: Library<150>,  Prev: Library<149>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.20 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-41215(1): Use non-NULL default values in the PEG parser keyword
     list to overcome a bug that was preventing Python from being
     properly compiled when using the XLC compiler.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-41218(2): Python 3.8.3 had a regression where compiling with
     ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT would aggressively mark list
     comprehension with CO_COROUTINE. Now only list comprehension making
     use of async/await will tagged as so.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41215

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41218


File: python.info,  Node: Library<150>,  Next: Core and Builtins<150>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<149>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.21 Library
..................

   - bpo-1635741(1): Port *note faulthandler: 5b. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(2): Port ‘sha256’ to multiphase initialization

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<150>,  Next: Library<151>,  Prev: Library<150>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.22 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-41175(1): Guard against a NULL pointer dereference within
     bytearrayobject triggered by the ‘bytearray() + bytearray()’
     operation.

   - bpo-41100(2): add arm64 to the allowable Mac OS arches in
     mpdecimal.h

   - bpo-41094(3): Fix decoding errors with audit when open files with
     non-ASCII names on non-UTF-8 locale.

   - bpo-39960(4): The «hackcheck» that prevents sneaking around a
     type’s __setattr__() by calling the superclass method was rewritten
     to allow C implemented heap types.

   - bpo-41084(5): Prefix the error message with “f-string: “, when
     parsing an f-string expression which throws a *note SyntaxError:
     17e.

   - bpo-40521(6): Empty frozensets are no longer singletons.

   - bpo-41076(7): Pre-feed the parser with the location of the f-string
     expression, not the f-string itself, which allows us to skip the
     shifting of the AST node locations after the parsing is completed.

   - bpo-41056(8): Fixes a reference to deallocated stack space during
     startup when constructing sys.path involving a relative symlink
     when code was supplied via -c.  (discovered via Coverity)

   - bpo-41061(9): Fix incorrect expressions and asserts in hashtable
     code and tests.

   - bpo-41052(10): Opt out serialization/deserialization for
     _random.Random

   - bpo-40939(11): Rename ‘PyPegen*’ functions to ‘PyParser*’, so that
     we can remove the old set of ‘PyParser*’ functions that were using
     the old parser, but keep everything backwards-compatible.

   - bpo-35975(12): Stefan Behnel reported that cf_feature_version is
     used even when PyCF_ONLY_AST is not set.  This is against the
     intention and against the documented behavior, so it’s been fixed.

   - bpo-40939(13): Remove the remaining files from the old parser and
     the ‘symbol’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41175

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41094

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39960

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41084

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41076

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41056

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41061

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41052

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35975

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939


File: python.info,  Node: Library<151>,  Next: Core and Builtins<151>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<150>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.23 Library
..................

   - bpo-40077(1): Convert ‘_bz2’ to use *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<151>,  Next: Library<152>,  Prev: Library<151>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.24 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-41006(1): The ‘encodings.latin_1’ module is no longer imported
     at startup.  Now it is only imported when it is the filesystem
     encoding or the stdio encoding.

   - bpo-40636(2): *note zip(): 43f. now supports PEP 618(3)’s ‘strict’
     parameter, which raises a *note ValueError: 277. if the arguments
     are exhausted at different lengths.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-1635741(4): Port ‘_gdbm’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-40985(5): Fix a bug that caused the *note SyntaxError: 17e.
     text to be empty when a file ends with a line ending in a line
     continuation character (i.e.  backslash).  The error text should
     contain the text of the last line.

   - bpo-40958(6): Fix a possible buffer overflow in the PEG parser when
     gathering information for emitting syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(7): Port ‘_dbm’ to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-40957(8): Fix refleak in _Py_fopen_obj() when PySys_Audit()
     fails

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41006

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40636

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40985

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40958

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40957


File: python.info,  Node: Library<152>,  Next: Core and Builtins<152>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<151>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.25 Library
..................

   - bpo-40950(1): Add a state to the ‘nis’ module ( PEP 3121(2)) and
     apply the multiphase initialization.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40950

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<152>,  Next: Library<153>,  Prev: Library<152>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.26 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-40947(1): The Python *note Path Configuration: c80. now takes
     *note PyConfig.platlibdir: 1f16. in account.

   - bpo-40939(2): Remove the old parser, the ‘parser’ module and all
     associated support code, command-line options and environment
     variables.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40847(3): Fix a bug where a line with only a line continuation
     character is not considered a blank line at tokenizer level.  In
     such cases, more than a single ‘NEWLINE’ token was emitted.  The
     old parser was working around the issue, but the new parser threw a
     *note SyntaxError: 17e. for valid input due to this.  For example,
     an empty line following a line continuation character was
     interpreted as a ‘SyntaxError’.

   - bpo-40890(4): Each dictionary view now has a ‘mapping’ attribute
     that provides a *note types.MappingProxyType: 189. wrapping the
     original dictionary.  Patch contributed by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-40889(5): Improved the performance of symmetric difference
     operations on dictionary item views.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-40904(6): Fix possible segfault in the new PEG parser when
     parsing f-string containing yield statements with no value
     (‘f"{yield}"’).  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40903(7): Fixed a possible segfault in the new PEG parser when
     producing error messages for invalid assignments of the form
     ‘p=p=’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40880(8): Fix invalid memory read in the new parser when
     checking newlines in string literals.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40883(9): Fix memory leak in when parsing f-strings in the new
     parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40870(10): Raise *note ValueError: 277. when validating custom
     AST’s where the constants ‘True’, ‘False’ and ‘None’ are used
     within a *note ast.Name: 1f17. node.

   - bpo-40854(11): Allow overriding *note sys.platlibdir: 2a9. via a
     new *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 1f18. environment variable.

   - bpo-40826(12): Fix GIL usage in ‘PyOS_Readline()’: lock the GIL to
     set an exception and pass the Python thread state when checking if
     there is a pending signal.

   - bpo-1635741(13): Port *note fcntl: 5c. to multiphase
     initialization.

   - bpo-19468(14): Delete unnecessary instance check in
     importlib.reload().  Patch by Furkan Önder.

   - bpo-40824(15): Unexpected errors in calling the ‘__iter__’ method
     are no longer masked by ‘TypeError’ in the *note in: 323. operator
     and functions *note contains(): cac, *note indexOf(): cad. and
     *note countOf(): cae. of the *note operator: a3. module.

   - bpo-40792(16): Attributes ‘start’, ‘stop’ and ‘step’ of the *note
     range: d0f. object now always has exact type *note int: 326.
     Previously, they could have been an instance of a subclass of
     ‘int’.

   - bpo-40780(17): Fix a corner case where g-style string formatting of
     a float failed to remove trailing zeros.

   - bpo-38964(18): When there’s a *note SyntaxError: 17e. in the
     expression part of an fstring, the filename attribute of the
     ‘SyntaxError’ gets correctly set to the name of the file the
     fstring resides in.

   - bpo-40750(19): Support the «-d» debug flag in the new PEG parser.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40217(20): Instances of types created with *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 38f. will no longer automatically visit
     their class object when traversing references in the garbage
     collector.  The user is expected to manually visit the object’s
     class.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39573(21): *note Py_TYPE(): 5f5. is changed to the inline
     static function.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40696(22): Fix a hang that can arise after *note
     generator.throw(): 905. due to a cycle in the exception context
     chain.

   - bpo-40521(23): Each interpreter now its has own free lists,
     singletons and caches:

        * Free lists: float, tuple, list, dict, frame, context,
          asynchronous generator, MemoryError.

        * Singletons: empty tuple, empty bytes string, empty Unicode
          string, single byte character, single Unicode (latin1)
          character.

        * Slice cache.

     They are no longer shared by all interpreters.

   - bpo-40679(24): Certain *note TypeError: 291. messages about missing
     or extra arguments now include the function’s *note qualified name:
     1f19.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-29590(25): Make the stack trace correct after calling *note
     generator.throw(): 905. on a generator that has yielded from a
     ‘yield from’.

   - bpo-4022(26): Improve performance of generators by not raising
     internal StopIteration.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40947

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40847

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40890

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40889

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40904

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40903

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40880

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40883

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40870

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40854

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40826

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19468

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40824

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40780

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38964

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40750

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40696

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40679

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29590

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4022


File: python.info,  Node: Library<153>,  Next: Core and Builtins<153>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<152>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.27 Library
..................

   - bpo-1635741(1): Port *note mmap: 94. to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(2): Port ‘_lzma’ to multiphase initialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<153>,  Next: Library<154>,  Prev: Library<153>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.28 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-37999(1): Builtin and extension functions that take integer
     arguments no longer accept *note Decimal: 1c2.s, *note Fraction:
     1c3.s and other objects that can be converted to integers only with
     a loss (e.g.  that have the *note __int__(): 43c. method but do not
     have the *note __index__(): 43d. method).

   - bpo-29882(2): Add *note int.bit_count(): bac, counting the number
     of ones in the binary representation of an integer.  Patch by
     Niklas Fiekas.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37999

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29882


File: python.info,  Node: Library<154>,  Next: Core and Builtins<154>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<153>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.29 Library
..................

   - bpo-36982(1): Use ncurses extended color functions when available
     to support terminals with 256 colors, and add the new function
     *note curses.has_extended_color_support(): bd0. to indicate whether
     extended color support is provided by the underlying ncurses
     library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36982


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<154>,  Next: Library<155>,  Prev: Library<154>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.30 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-19569(1): Add the private macros ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_PUSH’,
     ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_IGNORE_DEPR_DECLS’, and ‘_Py_COMP_DIAG_POP’.

   - bpo-26680(2): The int type now supports the x.is_integer() method
     for compatibility with float.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19569

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26680


File: python.info,  Node: Library<155>,  Next: Documentation<44>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<154>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.31 Library
..................

   - bpo-41900(1): C14N 2.0 serialisation in xml.etree.ElementTree
     failed for unprefixed attributes when a default namespace was
     defined.

   - bpo-41887(2): Strip leading spaces and tabs on *note
     ast.literal_eval(): fd7.  Also document stripping of spaces and
     tabs for *note eval(): 184.

   - bpo-41773(3): Note in documentation that *note random.choices():
     1083. doesn’t support non-finite weights, raise *note ValueError:
     277. when given non-finite weights.

   - bpo-41840(4): Fix a bug in the *note symtable: e1. module that was
     causing module-scope global variables to not be reported as both
     local and global.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-41842(5): Add *note codecs.unregister(): bc4. function to
     unregister a codec search function.

   - bpo-40564(6): In ‘zipfile.Path’, mutate the passed ZipFile object
     type instead of making a copy.  Prevents issues when both the local
     copy and the caller’s copy attempt to close the same file handle.

   - bpo-40670(7): More reliable validation of statements in *note
     timeit.Timer: 186a.  It now accepts «empty» statements (only
     whitespaces and comments) and rejects misindentent statements.

   - bpo-41833(8): The *note threading.Thread: 420. constructor now uses
     the target name if the 'target' argument is specified but the
     'name' argument is omitted.

   - bpo-41817(9): fix ‘tkinter.EventType’ Enum so all members are
     strings, and none are tuples

   - bpo-41810(10): *note types.EllipsisType: c29, *note
     types.NotImplementedType: c2b. and *note types.NoneType: c2a. have
     been reintroduced, providing a new set of types readily
     interpretable by static type checkers.

   - bpo-41815(11): Fix SQLite3 segfault when backing up closed
     database.  Patch contributed by Peter David McCormick.

   - bpo-41816(12): StrEnum added: it ensures that all members are
     already strings or string candidates

   - bpo-41517(13): fix bug allowing Enums to be extended via multiple
     inheritance

   - bpo-39587(14): use the correct mix-in data type when constructing
     Enums

   - bpo-41792(15): Add is_typeddict function to typing.py to check if a
     type is a TypedDict class

     Previously there was no way to check that without using private
     API.  See the relevant issue in python/typing(16).

   - bpo-41789(17): Honor ‘object’ overrides in ‘Enum’ class creation
     (specifically, ‘__str__’, ‘__repr__’, ‘__format__’, and
     ‘__reduce_ex__’).

   - bpo-32218(18): ‘enum.Flag’ and ‘enum.IntFlag’ members are now
     iterable.

   - bpo-39651(19): Fix a race condition in the ‘call_soon_threadsafe()’
     method of ‘asyncio.ProactorEventLoop’: do nothing if the self-pipe
     socket has been closed.

   - bpo-1635741(20): Port the ‘mashal’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(21)).

   - bpo-1635741(22): Port the ‘_string’ extension module to the
     multi-phase initialization API ( PEP 489(23)).

   - bpo-41732(24): Added an *note iterator: 6ce. to *note memoryview:
     1d2.

   - bpo-41720(25): Fixed ‘turtle.Vec2D.__rmul__()’ for arguments which
     are not int or float.

   - bpo-41696(26): Fix handling of debug mode in *note asyncio.run():
     309.  This allows setting ‘PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG’ or ‘-X dev’ to
     enable asyncio debug mode when using ‘asyncio.run()’.

   - bpo-41687(27): Fix implementation of sendfile to be compatible with
     Solaris.

   - bpo-41662(28): No longer override exceptions raised in ‘__len__()’
     of a sequence of parameters in *note sqlite3: d7. with *note
     ProgrammingError: 57d.

   - bpo-39010(29): Restarting a ‘ProactorEventLoop’ on Windows no
     longer logs spurious ‘ConnectionResetErrors’.

   - bpo-41638(30): *note ProgrammingError: 57d. message for absent
     parameter in *note sqlite3: d7. contains now the name of the
     parameter instead of its index when parameters are supplied as a
     dict.

   - bpo-41662(31): Fixed crash when mutate list of parameters during
     iteration in *note sqlite3: d7.

   - bpo-41513(32): Improved the accuracy of math.hypot().  Internally,
     each step is computed with extra precision so that the result is
     now almost always correctly rounded.

   - bpo-41609(33): The pdb whatis command correctly reports instance
     methods as “Method” rather than “Function”.

   - bpo-39994(34): Fixed pprint’s handling of dict subclasses that
     override __repr__.

   - bpo-32751(35): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 9f6. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete also in the case when 'timeout' is <= 0, like it does with
     positive timeouts.

   - bpo-37658(36): *note asyncio.wait_for(): 9f6. now properly handles
     races between cancellation of itself and the completion of the
     wrapped awaitable.

   - bpo-40782(37): Change the method
     asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.run_in_executor to not be a coroutine.

   - bpo-41520(38): Fix *note codeop: 1d. regression that prevented
     turning compile warnings into errors.

   - bpo-41528(39): turtle uses math module functions to convert degrees
     to radians and vice versa and to calculate vector norm

   - bpo-41513(40): Minor algorithmic improvement to math.hypot() and
     math.dist() giving small gains in speed and accuracy.

   - bpo-41503(41): Fixed a race between setTarget and flush in
     logging.handlers.MemoryHandler.

   - bpo-41497(42): Fix potential UnicodeDecodeError in dis module.

   - bpo-41467(43): On Windows, fix asyncio ‘recv_into()’ return value
     when the socket/pipe is closed (*note BrokenPipeError: 1404.):
     return ‘0’ rather than an empty byte string (‘b''’).

   - bpo-41425(44): Make tkinter doc example runnable.

   - bpo-41421(45): Make an algebraic simplification to
     random.paretovariate().  It now is slightly less subject to
     round-off error and is slightly faster.  Inputs that used to cause
     ZeroDivisionError now cause an OverflowError instead.

   - bpo-41440(46): Add *note os.cpu_count(): 6e1. support for VxWorks
     RTOS.

   - bpo-41316(47): Fix the *note tarfile: e7. module to write only
     basename of TAR file to GZIP compression header.

   - bpo-41384(48): Raise TclError instead of TypeError when an unknown
     option is passed to tkinter.OptionMenu.

   - bpo-41317(49): Use add_done_callback() in
     asyncio.loop.sock_accept() to unsubscribe reader early on
     cancellation.

   - bpo-41364(50): Reduce import overhead of *note uuid: 119.

   - bpo-35328(51): Set the environment variable ‘VIRTUAL_ENV_PROMPT’ at
     *note venv: 11a. activation.

   - bpo-41341(52): Recursive evaluation of ‘typing.ForwardRef’ in
     ‘get_type_hints’.

   - bpo-41344(53): Prevent creating ‘shared_memory.SharedMemory’
     objects with ‘size=0’.

   - bpo-41333(54): ‘collections.OrderedDict.pop()’ is now 2 times
     faster.

   - bpo-41288(55): Unpickling invalid NEWOBJ_EX opcode with the C
     implementation raises now UnpicklingError instead of crashing.

   - bpo-39017(56): Avoid infinite loop when reading specially crafted
     TAR files using the tarfile module ( CVE 2019-20907(57)).

   - bpo-41273(58): Speed up any transport using
     ‘_ProactorReadPipeTransport’ by calling ‘recv_into’ instead of
     ‘recv’, thus not creating a new buffer for each ‘recv’ call in the
     transport’s read loop.

   - bpo-41235(59): Fix the error handling in *note
     ssl.SSLContext.load_dh_params(): 14ee.

   - bpo-41207(60): In distutils.spawn, restore expectation that
     DistutilsExecError is raised when the command is not found.

   - bpo-29727(61): Register *note array.array: 6c5. as a *note
     MutableSequence: 6c6.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39168(62): Remove the ‘__new__’ method of *note typing.Generic:
     19f2.

   - bpo-41194(63): Fix a crash in the ‘_ast’ module: it can no longer
     be loaded more than once.  It now uses a global state rather than a
     module state.

   - bpo-41195(64): Add read-only ssl.SSLContext.security_level
     attribute to retrieve the context’s security level.

   - bpo-41193(65): The ‘write_history()’ atexit function of the
     readline completer now ignores any *note OSError: 53c. to ignore
     error if the filesystem is read-only, instead of only ignoring
     *note FileNotFoundError: 243. and *note PermissionError: 10f9.

   - bpo-41182(66): selector: use DefaultSelector based upon
     implementation

   - bpo-41161(67): The decimal module now requires libmpdec-2.5.0.
     Users of –with-system-libmpdec should update their system library.

   - bpo-40874(68): The decimal module now requires libmpdec-2.5.0.

   - bpo-41138(69): Fixed the *note trace: 106. module CLI for Python
     source files with non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-31082(70): Use the term «iterable» in the docstring for *note
     functools.reduce(): 153.

   - bpo-40521(71): Remove freelist from collections.deque().

   - bpo-31938(72): Fix default-value signatures of several functions in
     the *note select: c9. module - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-41068(73): Fixed reading files with non-ASCII names from ZIP
     archive directly after writing them.

   - bpo-41058(74): ‘pdb.find_function()’ now correctly determines the
     source file encoding.

   - bpo-41056(75): Invalid file descriptor values are now prevented
     from being passed to os.fpathconf.  (discovered by Coverity)

   - bpo-41056(76): Fix a NULL pointer dereference within the ssl module
     during a MemoryError in the keylog callback.  (discovered by
     Coverity)

   - bpo-41056(77): Fixed an instance where a MemoryError within the
     zoneinfo module might not be reported or not reported at its
     source.  (found by Coverity)

   - bpo-41048(78): *note mimetypes.read_mime_types(): 1f1f. function
     reads the rule file using UTF-8 encoding, not the locale encoding.
     Patch by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy.

   - bpo-41043(79): Fixed the use of *note glob(): 2d4. in the stdlib:
     literal part of the path is now always correctly escaped.

   - bpo-41025(80): Fixed an issue preventing the C implementation of
     *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: cb1. from being subclassed.

   - bpo-35018(81): Add the *note xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler: c33.
     class that is present in other SAX XML implementations.

   - bpo-41002(82): Improve performance of HTTPResponse.read with a
     given amount.  Patch by Bruce Merry.

   - bpo-40448(83): *note ensurepip: 58. now disables the use of ‘pip’
     cache when installing the bundled versions of ‘pip’ and
     ‘setuptools’.  Patch by Krzysztof Konopko.

   - bpo-40967(84): Removed ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and
     ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-40924(85): Ensure ‘importlib.resources.path’ returns an extant
     path for the SourceFileLoader’s resource reader.  Avoids the
     regression identified in master while a long-term solution is
     devised.

   - bpo-40955(86): Fix a minor memory leak in *note subprocess: df.
     module when extra_groups was specified.

   - bpo-40855(87): The standard deviation and variance functions in the
     statistics module were ignoring their mu and xbar arguments.

   - bpo-40939(88): Use the new PEG parser when generating the stdlib
     *note keyword: 87. module.

   - bpo-23427(89): Add *note sys.orig_argv: c19. attribute: the list of
     the original command line arguments passed to the Python
     executable.

   - bpo-33689(90): Ignore empty or whitespace-only lines in .pth files.
     This matches the documentated behavior.  Before, empty lines caused
     the site-packages dir to appear multiple times in sys.path.  By Ido
     Michael, contributors Malcolm Smith and Tal Einat.

   - bpo-40884(91): Added a ‘defaults’ parameter to *note
     logging.Formatter: 1839, to allow specifying default values for
     custom fields.  Patch by Asaf Alon and Bar Harel.

   - bpo-40876(92): Clarify error message in the *note csv: 2c. module.

   - bpo-39791(93): Refresh importlib.metadata from importlib_metadata
     1.6.1.

   - bpo-40807(94): Stop codeop._maybe_compile, used by
     code.InteractiveInterpreter (and IDLE). from emitting each warning
     three times.

   - bpo-32604(95): Fix reference leak in the *note select: c9. module
     when the module is imported in a subinterpreter.

   - bpo-39791(96): Built-in loaders (SourceFileLoader and ZipImporter)
     now supply ‘TraversableResources’ implementations for
     ‘ResourceReader’, and the fallback function has been removed.

   - bpo-39314(97): *note rlcompleter.Completer: 1f20. and the standard
     Python shell now close the parenthesis for functions that take no
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-17005(98): The topological sort functionality that was
     introduced initially in the *note functools: 62. module has been
     moved to a new *note graphlib: 68. module to better accommodate the
     new tools and keep the original scope of the ‘functools’ module.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40834(99): Fix truncate when sending str object
     with_xxsubinterpreters.channel_send.

   - bpo-40755(100): Add rich comparisons to collections.Counter().

   - bpo-26407(101): Unexpected errors in calling the ‘__iter__’ method
     are no longer masked by ‘TypeError’ in *note csv.reader(): 898,
     ‘csv.writer.writerow()’ and ‘csv.writer.writerows()’.

   - bpo-39384(102): Fixed email.contentmanager to allow set_content()
     to set a null string.

   - bpo-40744(103): The *note sqlite3: d7. module uses SQLite API
     functions that require SQLite v3.7.3 or higher.  This patch removes
     support for older SQLite versions, and explicitly requires SQLite
     3.7.3 both at build, compile and runtime.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev
     and Erlend E. Aasland.

   - bpo-40777(104): Initialize PyDateTime_IsoCalendarDateType.tp_base
     at run-time to avoid errors on some compilers.

   - bpo-38488(105): Update ensurepip to install pip 20.1.1 and
     setuptools 47.1.0.

   - bpo-40792(106): The result of *note operator.index(): 1ec8. now
     always has exact type *note int: 326.  Previously, the result could
     have been an instance of a subclass of ‘int’.

   - bpo-40767(107): *note webbrowser: 11e. now properly finds the
     default browser in pure Wayland systems by checking the
     WAYLAND_DISPLAY environment variable.  Patch contributed by Jérémy
     Attali.

   - bpo-40791(108): ‘hashlib.compare_digest()’ uses OpenSSL’s
     ‘CRYPTO_memcmp()’ function when OpenSSL is available.

   - bpo-40795(109): *note ctypes: 2d. module: If ctypes fails to
     convert the result of a callback or if a ctypes callback function
     raises an exception, sys.unraisablehook is now called with an
     exception set.  Previously, the error was logged into stderr by
     *note PyErr_Print(): 1f21.

   - bpo-16995(110): Add *note base64.b32hexencode(): 1e9. and *note
     base64.b32hexdecode(): 1ea. to support the Base32 Encoding with
     Extended Hex Alphabet.

   - bpo-30008(111): Fix *note ssl: d8. code to be compatible with
     OpenSSL 1.1.x builds that use ‘no-deprecated’ and ‘--api=1.1.0’.

   - bpo-30064(112): Fix asyncio ‘loop.sock_*’ race condition issue

   - bpo-40759(113): Deprecate the ‘symbol’ module.

   - bpo-40756(114): The second argument (extra) of
     ‘LoggerAdapter.__init__’ now defaults to None.

   - bpo-37129(115): Add a new *note os.RWF_APPEND: 1f22. flag for *note
     os.pwritev(): f1d.

   - bpo-40737(116): Fix possible reference leak for *note sqlite3: d7.
     initialization.

   - bpo-40726(117): Handle cases where the ‘end_lineno’ is ‘None’ on
     *note ast.increment_lineno(): 1d0c.

   - bpo-40698(118): ‘distutils’ upload creates SHA2-256 and Blake2b-256
     digests.  MD5 digests is skipped if platform blocks MD5.

   - bpo-40695(119): *note hashlib: 6b. no longer falls back to builtin
     hash implementations when OpenSSL provides a hash digest and the
     algorithm is blocked by security policy.

   - bpo-9216(120): *note hashlib.new(): 2f1. passed ‘usedforsecurity’
     to OpenSSL EVP constructor ‘_hashlib.new()’.  test_hashlib and
     test_smtplib handle strict security policy better.

   - bpo-40614(121): *note ast.parse(): 1c9. will not parse self
     documenting expressions in f-strings when passed ‘feature_version’
     is less than ‘(3, 8)’.

   - bpo-40626(122): Add h5 file extension as MIME Type
     application/x-hdf5, as per HDF Group recommendation for HDF5
     formatted data files.  Patch contributed by Mark Schwab.

   - bpo-25920(123): On macOS, when building Python for macOS 10.4 and
     older, which wasn’t the case for python.org macOS installer, *note
     socket.getaddrinfo(): 1925. no longer uses an internal lock to
     prevent race conditions when calling ‘getaddrinfo()’ which is
     thread-safe since macOS 10.5.  Python 3.9 requires macOS 10.6 or
     newer.  The internal lock caused random hang on fork when another
     thread was calling ‘socket.getaddrinfo()’.  The lock was also used
     on FreeBSD older than 5.3, OpenBSD older than 201311 and NetBSD
     older than 4.

   - bpo-40671(124): Prepare ‘_hashlib’ for PEP 489(125) and use *note
     PyModule_AddType(): d3d.

   - bpo-32309(126): Added a new *note coroutine: 8a2. *note
     asyncio.to_thread(): cb9.  It is mainly used for running IO-bound
     functions in a separate thread to avoid blocking the event loop,
     and essentially works as a high-level version of *note
     run_in_executor(): cba. that can directly take keyword arguments.

   - bpo-36543(127): Restored the deprecated ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’
     module.

   - bpo-40611(128): *note MAP_POPULATE: 1f23. constant has now been
     added to the list of exported *note mmap: 94. module flags.

   - bpo-39881(129): PEP 554 for use in the test suite.  (Patch By
     Joannah Nanjekye)

   - bpo-13097(130): ‘ctypes’ now raises an ‘ArgumentError’ when a
     callback is invoked with more than 1024 arguments.

   - bpo-39385(131): A new test assertion context-manager,
     ‘unittest.assertNoLogs()’ will ensure a given block of code emits
     no log messages using the logging module.  Contributed by Kit Yan
     Choi.

   - bpo-23082(132): Updated the error message and docs of
     PurePath.relative_to() to better reflect the function behaviour.

   - bpo-40318(133): Use SQLite3 trace v2 API, if it is available.

   - bpo-40105(134): ZipFile truncates files to avoid corruption when a
     shorter comment is provided in append («a») mode.  Patch by Jan
     Mazur.

   - bpo-40084(135): Fix ‘Enum.__dir__’: dir(Enum.member) now includes
     attributes as well as methods.

   - bpo-31122(136): ssl.wrap_socket() now raises ssl.SSLEOFError rather
     than OSError when peer closes connection during TLS negotiation

   - bpo-39728(137): fix default ‘_missing_’ so a duplicate ‘ValueError’
     is not set as the ‘__context__’ of the original ‘ValueError’.

   - bpo-39244(138): Fixed
     ‘multiprocessing.context.get_all_start_methods’ to properly return
     the default method first on macOS.

   - bpo-39040(139): Fix parsing of invalid mime headers parameters by
     collapsing whitespace between encoded words in a bare-quote-string.

   - bpo-38731(140): Add ‘--quiet’ option to command-line interface of
     *note py_compile: bb.  Patch by Gregory Schevchenko.

   - bpo-35714(141): *note struct.error: 16c8. is now raised if there is
     a null character in a *note struct: de. format string.

   - bpo-38144(142): Added the 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' parameters in
     *note glob.glob(): 2d4.

   - bpo-26543(143): Fix ‘IMAP4.noop()’ when debug mode is enabled (ex:
     ‘imaplib.Debug = 3’).

   - bpo-12178(144): *note csv.writer(): 899. now correctly escapes
     'escapechar' when input contains 'escapechar'.  Patch by Catalin
     Iacob, Berker Peksag, and Itay Elbirt.

   - bpo-36290(145): AST nodes are now raising *note TypeError: 291. on
     conflicting keyword arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-33944(146): Added site.py site-packages tracing in verbose
     mode.

   - bpo-35078(147): Refactor formatweekday, formatmonthname methods in
     LocaleHTMLCalendar and LocaleTextCalendar classes in calendar
     module to call the base class methods.This enables customizable CSS
     classes for LocaleHTMLCalendar.  Patch by Srinivas Reddy
     Thatiparthy

   - bpo-29620(148): *note assertWarns(): 2a0. no longer raises a
     ‘RuntimeException’ when accessing a module’s ‘__warningregistry__’
     causes importation of a new module, or when a new module is
     imported in another thread.  Patch by Kernc.

   - bpo-31844(149): Remove ‘ParserBase.error()’ method from the private
     and undocumented ‘_markupbase’ module.  *note
     html.parser.HTMLParser: c4d. is the only subclass of ‘ParserBase’
     and its ‘error()’ implementation was deprecated in Python 3.4 and
     removed in Python 3.5.

   - bpo-34226(150): Fix ‘cgi.parse_multipart’ without content_length.
     Patch by Roger Duran

   - bpo-33660(151): Fix pathlib.PosixPath to resolve a relative path
     located on the root directory properly.

   - bpo-28557(152): Improve the error message for a misbehaving
     ‘rawio.readinto’

   - bpo-26680(153): The d.is_integer() method is added to the Decimal
     type, for compatibility with other number types.

   - bpo-26680(154): The x.is_integer() method is incorporated into the
     abstract types of the numeric tower, Real, Rational and Integral,
     with appropriate default implementations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41900

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41887

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41773

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41840

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40564

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40670

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41833

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41817

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41810

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41815

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41816

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41517

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39587

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41792

   (16) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/751

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41789

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32218

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39651

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41732

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41720

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41696

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41687

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41662

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39010

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41638

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41662

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41513

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41609

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39994

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37658

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40782

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41520

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41528

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41513

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41503

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41497

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41467

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41425

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41421

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41440

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41316

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41384

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41317

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41364

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35328

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41341

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41344

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41333

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41288

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39017

   (57) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-20907

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41273

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41235

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41207

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29727

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39168

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41194

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41195

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41193

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41182

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41161

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40874

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41138

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31082

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40521

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31938

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41068

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41058

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41056

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41056

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41056

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41048

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41043

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41025

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35018

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41002

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40448

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40967

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40924

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40955

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40855

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40939

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33689

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40884

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40876

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40807

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39314

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40834

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40755

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26407

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39384

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40744

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40777

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38488

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40767

   (108) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40791

   (109) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40795

   (110) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16995

   (111) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30008

   (112) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30064

   (113) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40759

   (114) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40756

   (115) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37129

   (116) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40737

   (117) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40726

   (118) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40698

   (119) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40695

   (120) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9216

   (121) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40614

   (122) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40626

   (123) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25920

   (124) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40671

   (125) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (126) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32309

   (127) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543

   (128) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40611

   (129) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39881

   (130) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13097

   (131) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39385

   (132) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23082

   (133) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40318

   (134) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40105

   (135) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40084

   (136) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31122

   (137) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39728

   (138) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39244

   (139) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39040

   (140) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38731

   (141) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35714

   (142) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38144

   (143) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26543

   (144) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12178

   (145) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36290

   (146) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33944

   (147) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35078

   (148) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29620

   (149) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31844

   (150) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34226

   (151) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33660

   (152) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28557

   (153) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26680

   (154) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26680


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<44>,  Next: Tests<47>,  Prev: Library<155>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.32 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-41428(1): Add documentation for PEP 604(2) (Allow writing union
     types as ‘X | Y’).

   - bpo-41774(3): In Programming FAQ «Sequences (Tuples/Lists)»
     section, add «How do you remove multiple items from a list».

   - bpo-35293(4): Fix RemovedInSphinx40Warning when building the
     documentation.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37149(5): Change Shipman tkinter doc link from archive.org to
     TkDocs.  (The doc has been removed from the NMT server.)  The new
     link responds much faster and includes a short explanatory note.

   - bpo-41726(6): Update the refcounts info of
     ‘PyType_FromModuleAndSpec’.

   - bpo-41624(7): Fix the signature of *note typing.Coroutine: 1f25.

   - bpo-40204(8): Enable Sphinx 3.2 ‘c_allow_pre_v3’ option and disable
     ‘c_warn_on_allowed_pre_v3’ option to make the documentation
     compatible with Sphinx 2 and Sphinx 3.

   - bpo-41045(9): Add documentation for debug feature of f-strings.

   - bpo-41314(10): Changed the release when ‘from __future__ import
     annotations’ becomes the default from ‘4.0’ to ‘3.10’ (following a
     change in PEP 563).

   - bpo-40979(11): Refactored typing.rst, arranging more than 70
     classes, functions, and decorators into new sub-sections.

   - bpo-40552(12): Fix in tutorial section 4.2.  Code snippet is now
     correct.

   - bpo-39883(13): Make code, examples, and recipes in the Python
     documentation be licensed under the more permissive BSD0 license in
     addition to the existing Python 2.0 license.

   - bpo-37703(14): Updated Documentation to comprehensively elaborate
     on the behaviour of gather.cancel()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41774

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35293

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37149

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41624

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40204

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41045

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41314

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40552

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39883

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37703


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<47>,  Next: Build<50>,  Prev: Documentation<44>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.33 Tests
................

   - bpo-41939(1): Fix test_site.test_license_exists_at_url(): call
     ‘urllib.request.urlcleanup()’ to reset the global
     ‘urllib.request._opener’.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41731(2): Make test_cmd_line_script pass with option “-vv”.

   - bpo-41602(3): Add tests for SIGINT handling in the runpy module.

   - bpo-41521(4): *note test.support: ed.: Rename ‘blacklist’ parameter
     of *note check__all__(): 1f27. to ‘not_exported’.

   - bpo-41477(5): Make ctypes optional in test_genericalias.

   - bpo-41085(6): Fix integer overflow in the *note
     array.array.index(): bbe. method on 64-bit Windows for index larger
     than ‘2**31’.

   - bpo-41069(7): ‘test.support.TESTFN’ and the current directory for
     tests when run via ‘test.regrtest’ contain now non-ascii characters
     if possible.

   - bpo-38377(8): On Linux, skip tests using multiprocessing if the
     current user cannot create a file in ‘/dev/shm/’ directory.  Add
     the *note skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize(): 1f28.
     function to the *note test.support: ed. module.

   - bpo-41009(9): Fix use of
     ‘support.require_{linux|mac|freebsd}_version()’ decorators as class
     decorator.

   - bpo-41003(10): Fix ‘test_copyreg’ when ‘numpy’ is installed:
     ‘test.pickletester’ now saves/restores warnings filters when
     importing ‘numpy’, to ignore filters installed by ‘numpy’.

   - bpo-40964(11): Disable remote *note imaplib: 77. tests, host
     cyrus.andrew.cmu.edu is blocking incoming connections.

   - bpo-40927(12): Fix test_binhex when run twice: it now uses
     import_fresh_module() to ensure that it raises DeprecationWarning
     each time.

   - bpo-17258(13): Skip some *note multiprocessing: 98. tests when MD5
     hash digest is blocked.

   - bpo-31904(14): Increase LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT to 10 for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-38169(15): Increase code coverage for SharedMemory and
     ShareableList

   - bpo-34401(16): Make test_gdb properly run on HP-UX. Patch by
     Michael Osipov.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41939

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41731

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41602

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41521

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41477

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41085

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41069

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38377

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41009

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41003

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40964

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40927

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17258

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38169

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34401


File: python.info,  Node: Build<50>,  Next: Windows<43>,  Prev: Tests<47>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.34 Build
................

   - bpo-38249(1): Update *note Py_UNREACHABLE: f73. to use
     __builtin_unreachable() if only the compiler is able to use it.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-41617(2): Fix ‘pycore_bitutils.h’ header file to support old
     clang versions: ‘__builtin_bswap16()’ is not available in LLVM
     clang 3.0.

   - bpo-40204(3): Pin Sphinx version to 2.3.1 in ‘Doc/Makefile’.

   - bpo-36020(4): The C99 functions ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’ are
     now required to build Python.

   - bpo-40684(5): ‘make install’ now uses the ‘PLATLIBDIR’ variable for
     the destination ‘lib-dynload/’ directory when ‘./configure
     --with-platlibdir’ is used.

   - bpo-40683(6): Fixed an issue where the *note zoneinfo: 13d. module
     and its tests were not included when Python is installed with
     ‘make’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38249

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41617

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40204

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40684

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40683


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<43>,  Next: macOS<35>,  Prev: Build<50>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.35 Windows
..................

   - bpo-41744(1): Fixes automatic import of props file when using the
     Nuget package.

   - bpo-41627(2): The user site directory for 32-bit now includes a
     ‘-32’ suffix to distinguish it from the 64-bit interpreter’s
     directory.

   - bpo-41526(3): Fixed layout of final page of the installer by
     removing the special thanks to Mark Hammond (with his permission).

   - bpo-41492(4): Fixes the description that appears in UAC prompts.

   - bpo-40948(5): Improve post-install message to direct people to the
     «py» command.

   - bpo-41412(6): The installer will now fail to install on Windows 7
     and Windows 8.  Further, the UCRT dependency is now always
     downloaded on demand.

   - bpo-40741(7): Update Windows release to include SQLite 3.32.3.

   - bpo-41142(8): ‘msilib’ now supports creating CAB files with
     non-ASCII file path and adding files with non-ASCII file path to
     them.

   - bpo-41074(9): Fixed support of non-ASCII names in functions
     ‘msilib.OpenDatabase()’ and ‘msilib.init_database()’ and non-ASCII
     SQL in method ‘msilib.Database.OpenView()’.

   - bpo-41039(10): Stable ABI redirection DLL (python3.dll) now uses
     ‘#pragma comment(linker)’ for re-exporting.

   - bpo-40164(11): Updates Windows OpenSSL to 1.1.1g

   - bpo-39631(12): Changes the registered MIME type for ‘.py’ files on
     Windows to ‘text/x-python’ instead of ‘text/plain’.

   - bpo-40677(13): Manually define IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK in case
     some old Windows SDK doesn’t have it.

   - bpo-37556(14): Extend py.exe help to mention overrides via venv,
     shebang, environmental variables & ini files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41744

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41627

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41526

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41492

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40948

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41412

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41142

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41074

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41039

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39631

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40677

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37556


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<35>,  Next: IDLE<27>,  Prev: Windows<43>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.36 macOS
................

   - bpo-41557(1): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.33.0.

   - bpo-39580(2): Avoid opening Finder window if running installer from
     the command line.  Patch contributed by Rick Heil.

   - bpo-41100(3): Fix configure error when building on macOS 11.  Note
     that the current Python release was released shortly after the
     first developer preview of macOS 11 (Big Sur); there are other
     known issues with building and running on the developer preview.
     Big Sur is expected to be fully supported in a future bugfix
     release of Python 3.8.x and with 3.9.0.

   - bpo-40741(4): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.32.3.

   - bpo-41005(5): fixed an XDG settings issue not allowing macos to
     open browser in webbrowser.py

   - bpo-40741(6): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.32.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41557

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39580

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41005

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40741


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<27>,  Next: C API<46>,  Prev: macOS<35>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.37 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-41775(1): Use “IDLE Shell” as shell title

   - bpo-35764(2): Rewrite the Calltips doc section.

   - bpo-40181(3): In calltips, stop reminding that “/” marks the end of
     positional-only arguments.

   - bpo-41468(4): Improve IDLE run crash error message (which users
     should never see).

   - bpo-41373(5): Save files loaded with no line ending, as when blank,
     or different line endings, by setting its line ending to the system
     default.  Fix regression in 3.8.4 and 3.9.0b4.

   - bpo-41300(6): Save files with non-ascii chars.  Fix regression
     released in 3.9.0b4 and 3.8.4.

   - bpo-37765(7): Add keywords to module name completion list.  Rewrite
     Completions section of IDLE doc.

   - bpo-41152(8): The encoding of ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’ in
     IDLE is now always UTF-8.

   - bpo-41144(9): Make Open Module open a special module such as
     os.path.

   - bpo-39885(10): Make context menu Cut and Copy work again when
     right-clicking within a selection.

   - bpo-40723(11): Make test_idle pass when run after import.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41775

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35764

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40181

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41468

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41373

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41300

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41152

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41144

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39885

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40723


File: python.info,  Node: C API<46>,  Prev: IDLE<27>,  Up: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1

1.26.49.38 C API
................

   - bpo-41936(1): Removed undocumented macros ‘Py_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and
     ‘Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and the ‘recursion_critical’ field of the
     *note PyInterpreterState: c90. structure.

   - bpo-41692(2): The ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function is now
     deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.12: use *note
     PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): c84. instead.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41842(3): Add *note PyCodec_Unregister(): c6d. function to
     unregister a codec search function.

   - bpo-41834(4): Remove the ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ variable: it has
     been replaced by ‘ceval.recursion_limit’ of the *note
     PyInterpreterState: c90. structure.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-41689(5): Types created with *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e. now
     make any signature in their ‘tp_doc’ slot accessible from
     ‘__text_signature__’.

   - bpo-41524(6): Fix bug in *note PyOS_mystrnicmp(): 1f2e. and *note
     PyOS_mystricmp(): 1f2f. that incremented pointers beyond the end of
     a string.

   - bpo-41324(7): Add a minimal decimal capsule API. The API supports
     fast conversions between Decimals up to 38 digits and their triple
     representation as a C struct.

   - bpo-30155(8): Add *note PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO(): c6b. and
     *note PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO(): c6c. macros for accessing the
     ‘tzinfo’ attributes of *note datetime.datetime: 6e7. and *note
     datetime.time: 48e. objects.

   - bpo-40170(9): Revert *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1f30. change: it
     reads again directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags: 1e68. member
     when the limited C API is not used, rather than always calling
     *note PyType_GetFlags(): 1f31. which hides implementation details.

   - bpo-41123(10): Remove ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy’.

   - bpo-41123(11): Removed ‘PyLong_FromUnicode()’.

   - bpo-41123(12): Removed ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’.

   - bpo-41123(13): Removed ‘Py_UNICODE_str*’ functions manipulating
     ‘Py_UNICODE*’ strings.

   - bpo-41103(14): ‘PyObject_AsCharBuffer()’,
     ‘PyObject_AsReadBuffer()’, ‘PyObject_CheckReadBuffer()’, and
     ‘PyObject_AsWriteBuffer()’ are removed.  Please migrate to new
     buffer protocol; *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c. and *note
     PyBuffer_Release(): 82d.

   - bpo-36346(15): Raises DeprecationWarning for
     ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, size)’ and
     ‘PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’ with ‘size > 0’.

   - bpo-36346(16): Mark ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY’, ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL’,
     ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH’, ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode’,
     ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode’, and ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize’ as
     deprecated in C. Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’ which was deprecated and
     broken since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-40989(17): The *note PyObject_INIT(): 1f32. and *note
     PyObject_INIT_VAR(): 1f33. macros become aliases to, respectively,
     *note PyObject_Init(): e2f. and *note PyObject_InitVar(): 1f34.
     functions.

   - bpo-36020(18): On Windows, ‘#include "pyerrors.h"’ no longer
     defines ‘snprintf’ and ‘vsnprintf’ macros.

   - bpo-40943(19): The ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro must now be defined to
     use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee.
     formats which use ‘#’: ‘es#’, ‘et#’, ‘s#’, ‘u#’, ‘y#’, ‘z#’, ‘U#’
     and ‘Z#’.  See *note Parsing arguments and building values: 601.
     and the PEP 353(20).

   - bpo-40910(21): Export explicitly the *note Py_GetArgcArgv(): 1f35.
     function to the C API and document the function.  Previously, it
     was exported implicitly which no longer works since Python is built
     with ‘-fvisibility=hidden’.

   - bpo-40724(22): Allow defining buffer slots in type specs.

   - bpo-40679(23): Fix a ‘_PyEval_EvalCode()’ crash if 'qualname'
     argument is NULL.

   - bpo-40839(24): Calling *note PyDict_GetItem(): 81c. without *note
     GIL: 411. held had been allowed for historical reason.  It is no
     longer allowed.

   - bpo-40826(25): *note PyOS_InterruptOccurred(): 1f36. now fails with
     a fatal error if it is called with the GIL released.

   - bpo-40792(26): The result of *note PyNumber_Index(): c69. now
     always has exact type *note int: 326.  Previously, the result could
     have been an instance of a subclass of ‘int’.

   - bpo-39573(27): Convert *note Py_REFCNT(): 54b. and *note Py_SIZE():
     b61. macros to static inline functions.  They cannot be used as
     l-value anymore: use *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): c7e. and *note
     Py_SET_SIZE(): b62. to set an object reference count and size.
     This change is backward incompatible on purpose, to prepare the C
     API for an opaque *note PyObject: 19b. structure.

   - bpo-40703(28): The PyType_FromSpec*() functions no longer overwrite
     the type’s «__module__» attribute if it is set via «Py_tp_members»
     or «Py_tp_getset».

   - bpo-39583(29): Remove superfluous «extern C» declarations from
     ‘Include/cpython/*.h’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41936

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41834

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41689

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41524

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41324

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30155

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40989

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40910

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40724

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40679

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40839

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40826

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40703

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39583


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Prev: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.50 Python 3.9.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2020-05-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<36>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<155>.
* Library: Library<156>.
* Documentation: Documentation<45>.
* Tests: Tests<48>.
* Build: Build<51>.
* Windows: Windows<44>.
* macOS: macOS<36>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<28>.
* C API: C API<47>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<36>,  Next: Core and Builtins<155>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.26.50.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40501(1): *note uuid: 119. no longer uses *note ctypes: 2d. to
     load ‘libuuid’ or ‘rpcrt4.dll’ at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40501


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<155>,  Next: Library<156>,  Prev: Security<36>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.26.50.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40663(1): Correctly generate annotations where parentheses are
     omitted but required (e.g: ‘Type[(str, int, *other))]’.

   - bpo-40596(2): Fixed *note str.isidentifier(): 1f3a. for
     non-canonicalized strings containing non-BMP characters on Windows.

   - bpo-40593(3): Improved syntax errors for invalid characters in
     source code.

   - bpo-40585(4): Fixed a bug when using *note
     codeop.compile_command(): 1d51. that was causing exceptions to be
     swallowed with the new parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-40566(5): Apply PEP 573(6) to *note abc: 4.

   - bpo-40502(7): Initialize ‘n->n_col_offset’.  (Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye)

   - bpo-40527(8): Fix command line argument parsing: no longer write
     errors multiple times into stderr.

   - bpo-1635741(9): Port *note errno: 5a. to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(10)).

   - bpo-40523(11): Add pass-throughs for *note hash(): 9e2. and *note
     reversed(): c3c. to *note weakref.proxy: e15. objects.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note syslog: e5. to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13)).

   - bpo-40246(14): Reporting a specialised error message for invalid
     string prefixes, which was introduced in bpo-40246(15), is being
     reverted due to backwards compatibility concerns for strings that
     immediately follow a reserved keyword without whitespace between
     them.  Constructs like ‘bg="#d00" if clear else"#fca"’ were failing
     to parse, which is not an acceptable breakage on such short notice.

   - bpo-40417(16): Fix imp module deprecation warning when
     PyImport_ReloadModule is called.  Patch by Robert Rouhani.

   - bpo-40408(17): Fixed support of nested type variables in
     GenericAlias (e.g.  ‘list[list[T]]’).

   - bpo-1635741(18): Port _stat module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(19)).

   - bpo-29587(20): Enable implicit exception chaining when calling
     *note generator.throw(): 905.

   - bpo-40328(21): Add tools for generating mappings headers for
     CJKCodecs.

   - bpo-40228(22): Setting frame.f_lineno is now robust w.r.t.  changes
     in the source-to-bytecode compiler

   - bpo-38880(23): Added the ability to list interpreters associated
     with channel ends in the internal subinterpreters module.

   - bpo-37986(24): Improve performance of *note PyLong_FromDouble():
     d0e. for values that fit into long.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40663

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40596

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40585

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40566

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40502

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40527

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40523

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40417

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40408

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29587

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40328

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40228

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38880

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37986


File: python.info,  Node: Library<156>,  Next: Documentation<45>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<155>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.26.50.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-40662(1): Fixed *note ast.get_source_segment(): d9c. for ast
     nodes that have incomplete location information.  Patch by Irit
     Katriel.

   - bpo-40665(2): Convert *note bisect: 12. to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-40536(3): Added the *note available_timezones(): 1f3c. function
     to the *note zoneinfo: 13d. module.  Patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-40645(4): The *note hmac.HMAC: efd. exposes internal
     implementation details.  The attributes ‘digest_cons’, ‘inner’, and
     ‘outer’ are deprecated and will be removed in the future.

   - bpo-40645(5): The internal module ‘_hashlib’ wraps and exposes
     OpenSSL’s HMAC API. The new code will be used in Python 3.10 after
     the internal implementation details of the pure Python HMAC module
     are no longer part of the public API.

   - bpo-40637(6): Builtin hash modules can now be disabled or
     selectively enabled with ‘configure
     --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=sha3,blake1’ or
     ‘--without-builtin-hashlib-hashes’.

   - bpo-37630(7): The *note hashlib: 6b. module can now use SHA3 hashes
     and SHAKE XOF from OpenSSL when available.

   - bpo-40479(8): The *note hashlib: 6b. now compiles with OpenSSL
     3.0.0-alpha2.

   - bpo-40257(9): Revert changes to *note inspect.getdoc(): 22c.

   - bpo-40607(10): When cancelling a task due to timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 9f6. will now propagate the exception if an
     error happens during cancellation.  Patch by Roman Skurikhin.

   - bpo-40612(11): Fix edge cases in SyntaxError formatting.  If the
     offset is <= 0, no caret is printed.  If the offset is > line
     length, the caret is printed pointing just after the last
     character.

   - bpo-40597(12): If text content lines are longer than
     policy.max_line_length, always use a content-encoding to make sure
     they are wrapped.

   - bpo-40571(13): Added functools.cache() as a simpler, more
     discoverable way to access the unbounded cache variant of
     lru_cache(maxsize=None).

   - bpo-40503(14): PEP 615(15), the *note zoneinfo: 13d. module.  Adds
     support for the IANA time zone database.

   - bpo-40397(16): Removed attributes ‘__args__’ and ‘__parameters__’
     from special generic aliases like ‘typing.List’ (not subscripted).

   - bpo-40549(17): Convert posixmodule.c («posix» or «nt» module) to
     the multiphase initialization (PEP 489).

   - bpo-31033(18): Add a ‘msg’ argument to ‘Future.cancel()’ and
     ‘Task.cancel()’.

   - bpo-40541(19): Added an optional 'counts' parameter to
     random.sample().

   - bpo-40515(20): The *note ssl: d8. and *note hashlib: 6b. modules
     now actively check that OpenSSL is build with thread support.
     Python 3.7.0 made thread support mandatory and no longer works
     safely with a no-thread builds.

   - bpo-31033(21): When a *note asyncio.Task: 460. is cancelled, the
     exception traceback now chains all the way back to where the task
     was first interrupted.

   - bpo-40504(22): *note functools.lru_cache(): db3. objects can now be
     the targets of weakrefs.

   - bpo-40559(23): Fix possible memory leak in the C implementation of
     *note asyncio.Task: 460.

   - bpo-40480(24): ‘fnmatch.fnmatch()’ could take exponential time in
     the presence of multiple ‘*’ pattern characters.  This was repaired
     by generating more elaborate regular expressions to avoid futile
     backtracking.

   - bpo-40495(25): *note compileall: 21. is now able to use hardlinks
     to prevent duplicates in a case when ‘.pyc’ files for different
     optimization levels have the same content.

   - bpo-40457(26): The ssl module now support OpenSSL builds without
     TLS 1.0 and 1.1 methods.

   - bpo-40355(27): Improve error reporting in *note ast.literal_eval():
     fd7. in the presence of malformed *note ast.Dict: 1f3d. nodes
     instead of silently ignoring any non-conforming elements.  Patch by
     Curtis Bucher.

   - bpo-40465(28): Deprecated the optional 'random' argument to
     'random.shuffle()'.

   - bpo-40459(29): *note platform.win32_ver(): 1f3e. now produces
     correct 'ptype' strings instead of empty strings.

   - bpo-39435(30): The first argument of *note pickle.loads(): 10cb. is
     now positional-only.

   - bpo-39305(31): Update ‘nntplib’ to merge ‘nntplib.NNTP’ and
     ‘nntplib._NNTPBase’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-32494(32): Update *note dbm.gnu: 36. to use gdbm_count if
     possible when calling *note len(): a1f.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40453(33): Add ‘isolated=True’ keyword-only parameter to
     ‘_xxsubinterpreters.create()’.  An isolated subinterpreter cannot
     spawn threads, spawn a child process or call ‘os.fork()’.

   - bpo-40286(34): Remove ‘_random.Random.randbytes()’: the C
     implementation of ‘randbytes()’.  Implement the method in Python to
     ease subclassing: ‘randbytes()’ now directly reuses
     ‘getrandbits()’.

   - bpo-40394(35): Added default arguments to *note
     difflib.SequenceMatcher.find_longest_match(): 1f3f.

   - bpo-39995(36): Fix a race condition in
     concurrent.futures._ThreadWakeup: access to _ThreadWakeup is now
     protected with the shutdown lock.

   - bpo-30966(37): ‘Process.shutdown(wait=True)’ of *note
     concurrent.futures: 24. now closes explicitly the result queue.

   - bpo-30966(38): Add a new *note close(): ce4. method to the *note
     SimpleQueue: ce3. class to explicitly close the queue.

   - bpo-39966(39): Revert bpo-25597(40).  *note
     unittest.mock.MagicMock: 1240. with wraps” set uses default return
     values for magic methods.

   - bpo-39791(41): Added ‘files()’ function to importlib.resources with
     support for subdirectories in package data, matching backport in
     importlib_resources 1.5.

   - bpo-40375(42): *note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): cd6. is added.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-40389(43): ‘repr()’ now returns ‘typing.Optional[T]’ when
     called for ‘typing.Union’ of two types, one of which is ‘NoneType’.

   - bpo-40291(44): Add support for CAN_J1939 sockets (available on
     Linux 5.4+)

   - bpo-40273(45): *note types.MappingProxyType: 189. is now
     reversible.

   - bpo-39075(46): The repr for *note types.SimpleNamespace: 6ea. is
     now insertion ordered rather than alphabetical.

   - bpo-40192(47): On AIX, *note thread_time(): d03. is now implemented
     with ‘thread_cputime()’ which has nanosecond resolution, rather
     than ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ which has a
     resolution of 10 milliseconds.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-40025(48): Raise TypeError when _generate_next_value_ is
     defined after members.  Patch by Ethan Onstott.

   - bpo-39058(49): In the argparse module, the repr for Namespace() and
     other argument holders now displayed in the order attributes were
     added.  Formerly, it displayed in alphabetical order even though
     argument order is preserved the user visible parts of the module.

   - bpo-24416(50): The ‘isocalendar()’ methods of *note datetime.date:
     48d. and *note datetime.datetime: 6e7. now return a *note named
     tuple: a3d. instead of a *note tuple: 1ce.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40665

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40536

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40637

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37630

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40607

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40612

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40597

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40571

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40503

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40397

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40549

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31033

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40541

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40515

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31033

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40504

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40559

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40480

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40495

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40457

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40355

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40459

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39435

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39305

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32494

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40453

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40394

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39995

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39966

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25597

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40375

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40389

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40291

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40273

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39075

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40192

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40025

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39058

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24416


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<45>,  Next: Tests<48>,  Prev: Library<156>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.26.50.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-34790(1): Add version of removal for explicit passing of coros
     to ‘asyncio.wait()’”s documentation

   - bpo-40561(2): Provide docstrings for webbrowser open functions.

   - bpo-40499(3): Mention that *note asyncio.wait(): 891. requires a
     non-empty set of awaitables.

   - bpo-39705(4): Tutorial example for sorted() in the Loop Techniques
     section is given a better explanation.  Also a new example is
     included to explain sorted()”s basic behavior.

   - bpo-39435(5): Fix an incorrect signature for *note pickle.loads():
     10cb. in the docs

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40561

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40499

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39705

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39435


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<48>,  Next: Build<51>,  Prev: Documentation<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.26.50.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40055(1): distutils.tests now saves/restores warnings filters
     to leave them unchanged.  Importing tests imports docutils which
     imports pkg_resources which adds a warnings filter.

   - bpo-40436(2): test_gdb and test.pythoninfo now check gdb command
     exit code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40055

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40436


File: python.info,  Node: Build<51>,  Next: Windows<44>,  Prev: Tests<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.26.50.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-40653(1): Move _dirnameW out of HAVE_SYMLINK to fix a potential
     compiling issue.

   - bpo-40514(2): Add ‘--with-experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’
     build option to ‘configure’: better isolate subinterpreters,
     experimental build mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40653

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40514


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<44>,  Next: macOS<36>,  Prev: Build<51>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.26.50.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-40650(1): Include winsock2.h in pytime.c for timeval.

   - bpo-40458(2): Increase reserved stack space to prevent overflow
     crash on Windows.

   - bpo-39148(3): Add IPv6 support to *note asyncio: b. datagram
     endpoints in ProactorEventLoop.  Change the raised exception for
     unknown address families to ValueError as it’s not coming from
     Windows API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40650

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40458

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39148


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<36>,  Next: Tools/Demos<28>,  Prev: Windows<44>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.26.50.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-34956(1): When building Python on macOS from source, ‘_tkinter’
     now links with non-system Tcl and Tk frameworks if they are
     installed in ‘/Library/Frameworks’, as had been the case on older
     releases of macOS. If a macOS SDK is explicitly configured, by
     using ‘--enable-universalsdk=’ or ‘-isysroot’, only the SDK itself
     is searched.  The default behavior can still be overridden with
     ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’.

   - bpo-35569(2): Expose RFC 3542 IPv6 socket options.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34956

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35569


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<28>,  Next: C API<47>,  Prev: macOS<36>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.26.50.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-40479(1): Update multissltest helper to test with latest
     OpenSSL 1.0.2, 1.1.0, 1.1.1, and 3.0.0-alpha.

   - bpo-40431(2): Fix a syntax typo in ‘turtledemo’ that now raises a
     ‘SyntaxError’.

   - bpo-40163(3): Fix multissltest tool.  OpenSSL has changed download
     URL for old releases.  The multissltest tool now tries to download
     from current and old download URLs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40431

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40163


File: python.info,  Node: C API<47>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<28>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 beta 1

1.26.50.10 C API
................

   - bpo-39465(1): Remove the ‘_PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings()’ function
     from the C API.

   - bpo-38787(2): Add PyCFunction_CheckExact() macro for exact type
     checks now that we allow subtypes of PyCFunction, as well as
     PyCMethod_CheckExact() and PyCMethod_Check() for the new PyCMethod
     subtype.

   - bpo-40545(3): Declare ‘_PyErr_GetTopmostException()’ with
     ‘PyAPI_FUNC()’ to properly export the function in the C API. The
     function remains private (‘_Py’) prefix.

   - bpo-40412(4): Nullify inittab_copy during finalization, preventing
     future interpreter initializations in an embedded situation from
     crashing.  Patch by Gregory Szorc.

   - bpo-40429(5): The *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): b6d. function now
     returns a strong reference to the frame.

   - bpo-40428(6): Remove the following functions from the C API. Call
     *note PyGC_Collect(): d56. explicitly to free all free lists.

        * ‘PyAsyncGen_ClearFreeLists()’

        * ‘PyContext_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyDict_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFloat_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyFrame_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyList_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PySet_ClearFreeList()’

        * ‘PyTuple_ClearFreeList()’

   - bpo-40421(7): New *note PyFrame_GetBack(): b65. function: get the
     frame next outer frame.

   - bpo-40421(8): New *note PyFrame_GetCode(): b69. function: return a
     borrowed reference to the frame code.

   - bpo-40217(9): Ensure that instances of types created with *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 38f. will visit its class object when
     traversing references in the garbage collector (implemented as an
     extension of the provided *note tp_traverse: 36b.).  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-38787(10): Module C state is now accessible from C-defined heap
     type methods ( PEP 573(11)).  Patch by Marcel Plch and Petr
     Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40545

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40412

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40429

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40428

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.51 Python 3.9.0 alpha 6
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-04-27'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<37>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<156>.
* Library: Library<157>.
* Documentation: Documentation<46>.
* Tests: Tests<49>.
* Build: Build<52>.
* Windows: Windows<45>.
* macOS: macOS<37>.
* IDLE: IDLE<28>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<29>.
* C API: C API<48>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<37>,  Next: Core and Builtins<156>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.26.51.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-40121(1): Fixes audit events raised on creating a new socket.

   - bpo-39073(2): Disallow CR or LF in email.headerregistry.Address
     arguments to guard against header injection attacks.

   - bpo-39503(3): CVE 2020-8492(4): The *note AbstractBasicAuthHandler:
     1e66. class of the *note urllib.request: 114. module uses an
     inefficient regular expression which can be exploited by an
     attacker to cause a denial of service.  Fix the regex to prevent
     the catastrophic backtracking.  Vulnerability reported by Ben
     Caller and Matt Schwager.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40121

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39073

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39503

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-8492


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<156>,  Next: Library<157>,  Prev: Security<37>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.26.51.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40313(1): Improve the performance of bytes.hex().

   - bpo-40334(2): Switch to a new parser, based on PEG. For more
     details see PEP 617.  To temporarily switch back to the old parser,
     use ‘-X oldparser’ or ‘PYTHONOLDPARSER=1’.  In Python 3.10 we will
     remove the old parser completely, including the ‘parser’ module
     (already deprecated) and anything that depends on it.

   - bpo-40267(3): Fix the tokenizer to display the correct error
     message, when there is a ‘SyntaxError’ on the last input character
     and no newline follows.  It used to be ‘unexpected EOF while
     parsing’, while it should be ‘invalid syntax’.

   - bpo-39522(4): Correctly unparse explicit ‘u’ prefix for strings
     when postponed evaluation for annotations activated.  Patch by
     Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-40246(5): Report a specialized error message, ‘invalid string
     prefix’, when the tokenizer encounters a string with an invalid
     prefix.

   - bpo-40082(6): Fix the signal handler: it now always uses the main
     interpreter, rather than trying to get the current Python thread
     state.

   - bpo-37388(7): str.encode() and str.decode() no longer check the
     encoding and errors in development mode or in debug mode during
     Python finalization.  The codecs machinery can no longer work on
     very late calls to str.encode() and str.decode().

   - bpo-40077(8): Fix possible refleaks in ‘_json’, memo of
     PyScannerObject should be traversed.

   - bpo-37207(9): Speed up calls to ‘dict()’ by using the PEP 590(10)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.

   - bpo-40141(11): Add column and line information to ‘ast.keyword’
     nodes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(12): Port *note resource: c4. to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(13)).

   - bpo-1635741(14): Port *note math: 91. to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(15)).

   - bpo-1635741(16): Port _uuid module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(17)).

   - bpo-40077(18): Convert json module to use *note PyType_FromSpec():
     38e.

   - bpo-40067(19): Improve the error message for multiple star
     expressions in an assignment.  Patch by Furkan Onder

   - bpo-1635741(20): Port _functools module to multiphase
     initialization (PEP 489).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port operator module to multiphase initialization
     (PEP 489).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-20526(22): Fix *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1b9e.
     ‘PyThreadState.frame’ is a borrowed reference, not a strong
     reference: ‘PyThreadState_Clear()’ must not call
     ‘Py_CLEAR(tstate->frame)’.

   - bpo-1635741(23): Port time module to multiphase initialization (
     PEP 489(24)).  Patch by Paulo Henrique Silva.

   - bpo-1635741(25): Port _weakref extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(26)).

   - bpo-40020(27): Fix a leak and subsequent crash in parsetok.c caused
     by realloc misuse on a rare codepath.

   - bpo-39939(28): Added str.removeprefix and str.removesuffix methods
     and corresponding bytes, bytearray, and collections.UserString
     methods to remove affixes from a string if present.  See PEP
     616(29) for a full description.  Patch by Dennis Sweeney.

   - bpo-39481(30): Implement PEP 585.  This supports list[int],
     tuple[str, …] etc.

   - bpo-32894(31): Support unparsing of infinity numbers in postponed
     annotations.  Patch by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-37207(32): Speed up calls to ‘list()’ by using the PEP 590(33)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Mark Shannon.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40313

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40267

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39522

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40246

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40082

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40141

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40077

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40067

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20526

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40020

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39939

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39481

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32894

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<157>,  Next: Documentation<46>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<156>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.26.51.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-40398(1): *note typing.get_args(): 315. now always returns an
     empty tuple for special generic aliases.

   - bpo-40396(2): Functions *note typing.get_origin(): 314, *note
     typing.get_args(): 315. and *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e.
     support now generic aliases like ‘list[int]’.

   - bpo-38061(3): Optimize the *note subprocess: df. module on FreeBSD
     using ‘closefrom()’.  A single ‘close(fd)’ syscall is cheap, but
     when ‘sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX)’ is high, the loop calling ‘close(fd)’
     on each file descriptor can take several milliseconds.

     The workaround on FreeBSD to improve performance was to load and
     mount the fdescfs kernel module, but this is not enabled by
     default.

     Initial patch by Ed Maste (emaste), Conrad Meyer (cem), Kyle Evans
     (kevans) and Kubilay Kocak (koobs):
     ‘https://bugs.freebsd.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=242274’

   - bpo-38061(4): On FreeBSD, ‘os.closerange(fd_low, fd_high)’ now
     calls ‘closefrom(fd_low)’ if 'fd_high' is greater than or equal to
     ‘sysconf(_SC_OPEN_MAX)’.

     Initial patch by Ed Maste (emaste), Conrad Meyer (cem), Kyle Evans
     (kevans) and Kubilay Kocak (koobs):
     ‘https://bugs.freebsd.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=242274’

   - bpo-40360(5): The ‘lib2to3’ module is pending deprecation due to
     PEP 617(6).

   - bpo-40138(7): Fix the Windows implementation of *note os.waitpid():
     1153. for exit code larger than ‘INT_MAX >> 8’.  The exit status is
     now interpreted as an unsigned number.

   - bpo-39942(8): Set «__main__» as the default module name when
     «__name__» is missing in *note typing.TypeVar: 294.  Patch by
     Weipeng Hong.

   - bpo-40275(9): The *note logging: 8a. package is now imported lazily
     in *note unittest: 10f. only when the *note assertLogs(): 29f.
     assertion is used.

   - bpo-40275(10): The *note asyncio: b. package is now imported lazily
     in *note unittest: 10f. only when the *note
     IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342. class is used.

   - bpo-40330(11): In ‘ShareableList.__setitem__()’, check the size of
     a new string item after encoding it to utf-8, not before.

   - bpo-40148(12): Added ‘pathlib.Path.with_stem()’ to create a new
     Path with the stem replaced.

   - bpo-40325(13): Deprecated support for set objects in
     random.sample().

   - bpo-40257(14): Improved help for the *note typing: 10d. module.
     Docstrings are now shown for all special forms and special generic
     aliases (like ‘Union’ and ‘List’).  Using ‘help()’ with generic
     alias like ‘List[int]’ will show the help for the correspondent
     concrete type (‘list’ in this case).

   - bpo-40257(15): *note inspect.getdoc(): 22c. no longer returns
     docstring inherited from the type of the object or from parent
     class if it is a class if it is not defined in the object itself.
     In *note pydoc: bd. the documentation string is now shown not only
     for class, function, method etc, but for any object that has its
     own ‘__doc__’ attribute.

   - bpo-40287(16): Fixed ‘SpooledTemporaryFile.seek()’ to return the
     position.

   - bpo-40290(17): Added zscore() to statistics.NormalDist().

   - bpo-40282(18): Allow ‘random.getrandbits(0)’ to succeed and to
     return 0.

   - bpo-40286(19): Add *note random.randbytes(): 1a36. function and
     *note random.Random.randbytes(): cf6. method to generate random
     bytes.

   - bpo-40277(20): *note collections.namedtuple(): 1cf. now provides a
     human-readable repr for its field accessors.

   - bpo-40270(21): The included copy of sqlite3 on Windows is now
     compiled with the json extension.  This allows the use of functions
     such as ‘json_object’.

   - bpo-29255(22): Wait in ‘KqueueSelector.select’ when no fds are
     registered

   - bpo-40260(23): Ensure *note modulefinder: 95. uses *note
     io.open_code(): 1943. and respects coding comments.

   - bpo-40234(24): Allow again to spawn daemon threads in
     subinterpreters (revert change which denied them).

   - bpo-39207(25): Workers in *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. are now
     spawned on demand, only when there are no available idle workers to
     reuse.  This optimizes startup overhead and reduces the amount of
     lost CPU time to idle workers.  Patch by Kyle Stanley.

   - bpo-40091(26): Fix a hang at fork in the logging module: the new
     private _at_fork_reinit() method is now used to reinitialize locks
     at fork in the child process.

   - bpo-40149(27): Implement traverse and clear slots in _abc._abc_data
     type.

   - bpo-40208(28): Remove deprecated ‘symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec()’.

   - bpo-40196(29): Fix a bug in the *note symtable: e1. module that was
     causing incorrectly report global variables as local.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40190(30): Add support for ‘_SC_AIX_REALMEM’ to
     ‘posix.sysconf()’.

   - bpo-40182(31): Removed the ‘_field_types’ attribute of the *note
     typing.NamedTuple: 2e4. class.

   - bpo-36517(32): Multiple inheritance with *note typing.NamedTuple:
     2e4. now raises an error instead of silently ignoring other types.

   - bpo-40126(33): Fixed reverting multiple patches in unittest.mock.
     Patcher’s ‘__exit__()’ is now never called if its ‘__enter__()’ is
     failed.  Returning true from ‘__exit__()’ silences now the
     exception.

   - bpo-40094(34): CGIHTTPRequestHandler of http.server now logs the
     CGI script exit code, rather than the CGI script exit status of
     os.waitpid().  For example, if the script is killed by signal 11,
     it now logs: «CGI script exit code -11.»

   - bpo-40108(35): Improve the error message when triying to import a
     module using *note runpy: c6. and incorrectly using the «.py»
     extension at the end of the module name.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40094(36): Add *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): cea.
     function: convert a wait status to an exit code.

   - bpo-40089(37): Fix threading._after_fork(): if fork was not called
     by a thread spawned by threading.Thread, threading._after_fork()
     now creates a _MainThread instance for _main_thread, instead of a
     _DummyThread instance.

   - bpo-40089(38): Add a private ‘_at_fork_reinit()’ method to
     ‘_thread.Lock’, ‘_thread.RLock’, *note threading.RLock: 2df. and
     *note threading.Condition: 1500. classes: reinitialize the lock at
     fork in the child process, reset the lock to the unlocked state.
     Rename also the private ‘_reset_internal_locks()’ method of *note
     threading.Event: 1503. to ‘_at_fork_reinit()’.

   - bpo-25780(39): Expose *note CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS: cfe. in the *note
     socket: d4. module.

   - bpo-39503(40): *note AbstractBasicAuthHandler: 1e66. of *note
     urllib.request: 114. now parses all WWW-Authenticate HTTP headers
     and accepts multiple challenges per header: use the realm of the
     first Basic challenge.

   - bpo-39812(41): Removed daemon threads from *note
     concurrent.futures: 24. by adding an internal
     ‘threading._register_atexit()’, which calls registered functions
     prior to joining all non-daemon threads.  This allows for
     compatibility with subinterpreters, which don’t support daemon
     threads.

   - bpo-40050(42): Fix ‘importlib._bootstrap_external’: avoid creating
     a new ‘winreg’ builtin module if it’s already available in *note
     sys.modules: 19ba, and remove redundant imports.

   - bpo-40014(43): Fix ‘os.getgrouplist()’: if ‘getgrouplist()’
     function fails because the group list is too small, retry with a
     larger group list.  On failure, the glibc implementation of
     ‘getgrouplist()’ sets ‘ngroups’ to the total number of groups.  For
     other implementations, double the group list size.

   - bpo-40017(44): Add *note time.CLOCK_TAI: 1f4b. constant if the
     operating system support it.

   - bpo-40016(45): In re docstring, clarify the relationship between
     inline and argument compile flags.

   - bpo-39953(46): Update internal table of OpenSSL error codes in the
     ‘ssl’ module.

   - bpo-36144(47): Added PEP 584(48) operators to *note
     weakref.WeakValueDictionary: 1b45.

   - bpo-36144(49): Added PEP 584(50) operators to *note
     weakref.WeakKeyDictionary: 1b44.

   - bpo-38891(51): Fix linear runtime behaviour of the ‘__getitem__’
     and ‘__setitem__’ methods in *note
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList: 1f4c.  This avoids
     quadratic performance when iterating a ‘ShareableList’.  Patch by
     Thomas Krennwallner.

   - bpo-39682(52): Remove undocumented support for 'closing' a
     ‘pathlib.Path’ object via its context manager.  The context manager
     magic methods remain, but they are now a no-op, making ‘Path’
     objects immutable.

   - bpo-36144(53): Added PEP 584(54) operators (‘|’ and ‘|=’) to *note
     collections.ChainMap: fdb.

   - bpo-39011(55): Normalization of line endings in ElementTree
     attributes was removed, as line endings which were replaced by
     entity numbers should be preserved in original form.

   - bpo-38410(56): Properly handle *note sys.audit(): 1b36. failures in
     *note sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 1baa.

   - bpo-36541(57): lib2to3 now recognizes named assignment expressions
     (the walrus operator, ‘:=’)

   - bpo-35967(58): In platform, delay the invocation of “uname -p”
     until the processor attribute is requested.

   - bpo-35113(59): *note inspect.getsource(): 1a04. now returns correct
     source code for inner class with same name as module level class.
     Decorators are also returned as part of source of the class.  Patch
     by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-33262(60): Deprecate passing None as an argument for *note
     shlex.split(): 949.”s ‘s’ parameter.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-31758(61): Prevent crashes when using an uninitialized
     ‘_elementtree.XMLParser’ object.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40398

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40396

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40138

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39942

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40275

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40275

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40330

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40148

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40325

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40287

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40290

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40282

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40277

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40270

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29255

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40260

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40234

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39207

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40091

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40149

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40208

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40196

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40190

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40182

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36517

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40126

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40108

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40089

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40089

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25780

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39503

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39812

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40050

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40014

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40017

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40016

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39953

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (48) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (50) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38891

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39682

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (54) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39011

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38410

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36541

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35967

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35113

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33262

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31758


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<46>,  Next: Tests<49>,  Prev: Library<157>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.26.51.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-27635(1): The pickle documentation incorrectly claimed that
     ‘__new__’ isn’t called by default when unpickling.

   - bpo-39879(2): Updated *note Μοντέλο Δεδομένων: 1f4e. docs to
     include *note dict(): 188. insertion order preservation.  Patch by
     Furkan Onder and Samy Lahfa.

   - bpo-38387(3): Document *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 1f4f. macro in the C-API
     reference.

   - bpo-13743(4): Some methods within xml.dom.minidom.Element class are
     now better documented.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27635

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39879

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38387

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13743


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<49>,  Next: Build<52>,  Prev: Documentation<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.26.51.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31904(1): Set expected default encoding in
     test_c_locale_coercion.py for VxWorks RTOS.

   - bpo-40162(2): Update Travis CI configuration to OpenSSL 1.1.1f.

   - bpo-40146(3): Update OpenSSL to 1.1.1f in Azure Pipelines.

   - bpo-40094(4): Add *note test.support.wait_process(): 1f51.
     function.

   - bpo-40003(5): ‘test.bisect_cmd’ now copies Python command line
     options like ‘-O’ or ‘-W’.  Moreover, emit a warning if
     ‘test.bisect_cmd’ is used with ‘-w’/‘--verbose2’ option.

   - bpo-39380(6): Add the encoding in *note ftplib.FTP: cca. and *note
     ftplib.FTP_TLS: ccb. to the constructor as keyword-only and change
     the default from ‘latin-1’ to ‘utf-8’ to follow RFC 2640(7).

   - bpo-39793(8): Use the same domain when testing ‘make_msgid’.  Patch
     by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-1812(9): Fix newline handling in doctest.testfile when loading
     from a package whose loader has a get_data method.  Patch by Peter
     Donis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40162

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40003

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39380

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39793

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1812


File: python.info,  Node: Build<52>,  Next: Windows<45>,  Prev: Tests<49>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.26.51.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38360(1): Support single-argument form of macOS -isysroot flag.

   - bpo-40158(2): Fix CPython MSBuild Properties in NuGet Package
     (build/native/python.props)

   - bpo-38527(3): Fix configure check on Solaris for «float word
     ordering»: sometimes, the correct «grep» command was not being
     used.  Patch by Arnon Yaari.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38360

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40158

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38527


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<45>,  Next: macOS<37>,  Prev: Build<52>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.26.51.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-40164(1): Updates Windows to OpenSSL 1.1.1f

   - bpo-8901(2): Ignore the Windows registry when the ‘-E’ option is
     used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8901


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<37>,  Next: IDLE<28>,  Prev: Windows<45>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.26.51.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38329(1): python.org macOS installers now update the Current
     version symlink of /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions
     for 3.9 installs.  Previously, Current was only updated for Python
     2.x installs.  This should make it easier to embed Python 3 into
     other macOS applications.

   - bpo-40164(2): Update macOS installer builds to use OpenSSL 1.1.1g.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38329

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40164


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<28>,  Next: Tools/Demos<29>,  Prev: macOS<37>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.26.51.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-38439(1): Add a 256×256 pixel IDLE icon to support more modern
     environments.  Created by Andrew Clover.  Delete the unused macOS
     idle.icns icon file.

   - bpo-38689(2): IDLE will no longer freeze when inspect.signature
     fails when fetching a calltip.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38439

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38689


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<29>,  Next: C API<48>,  Prev: IDLE<28>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.26.51.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-40385(1): Removed the checkpyc.py tool.  Please see compileall
     without force mode as a potential alternative.

   - bpo-40179(2): Fixed translation of ‘#elif’ in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-40094(3): Fix ‘which.py’ script exit code: it now uses *note
     os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): cea. to convert *note os.system():
     17ff. exit status into an exit code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40385

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40179

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094


File: python.info,  Node: C API<48>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<29>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6

1.26.51.11 C API
................

   - bpo-40241(1): Move the ‘PyGC_Head’ structure to the internal C API.

   - bpo-40170(2): Convert *note PyObject_IS_GC(): d4c. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details.

   - bpo-40241(3): Add the functions *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): d3e.
     and *note PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): d3f. to the public API to
     allow to query if Python objects are being currently tracked or
     have been already finalized by the garbage collector respectively.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-40170(4): The ‘PyObject_NEW()’ macro becomes an alias to the
     *note PyObject_New(): d4d. macro, and the ‘PyObject_NEW_VAR()’
     macro becomes an alias to the *note PyObject_NewVar(): d4e. macro,
     to hide implementation details.  They no longer access directly the
     *note PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: d4f. member.

   - bpo-40170(5): *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1f30. now always calls
     *note PyType_GetFlags(): 1f31. to hide implementation details.
     Previously, it accessed directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags:
     1e68. member when the limited C API was not used.

   - bpo-40170(6): Convert the ‘PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro
     to a function to hide implementation details: the macro accessed
     directly to the *note PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset: d50. member.

   - bpo-40170(7): Convert *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 82b. macro to a
     function to hide implementation details: the macro accessed
     directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer: d51. member.

   - bpo-40170(8): Always declare *note PyIndex_Check(): d52. as an
     opaque function to hide implementation details: remove
     ‘PyIndex_Check()’ macro.  The macro accessed directly the *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_as_number: d53. member.

   - bpo-39947(9): Add *note PyThreadState_GetID(): d3b. function: get
     the unique identifier of a Python thread state.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6,  Up: Changelog

1.26.52 Python 3.9.0 alpha 5
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-03-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<38>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<157>.
* Library: Library<158>.
* Documentation: Documentation<47>.
* Tests: Tests<50>.
* Build: Build<53>.
* Windows: Windows<46>.
* macOS: macOS<38>.
* IDLE: IDLE<29>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<30>.
* C API: C API<49>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<38>,  Next: Core and Builtins<157>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.26.52.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38576(1): Disallow control characters in hostnames in
     http.client, addressing CVE 2019-18348(2).  Such potentially
     malicious header injection URLs now cause a InvalidURL to be
     raised.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38576

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-18348


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<157>,  Next: Library<158>,  Prev: Security<38>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.26.52.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-40010(1): Optimize pending calls in multithreaded applications.
     If a thread different than the main thread schedules a pending call
     (*note Py_AddPendingCall(): d49.), the bytecode evaluation loop is
     no longer interrupted at each bytecode instruction to check for
     pending calls which cannot be executed.  Only the main thread can
     execute pending calls.

     Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each
     instruction until the main thread executes pending calls.

   - bpo-1635741(2): Port _weakref extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(3)).

   - bpo-1635741(4): Port _collections module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(5)).

   - bpo-40010(6): Optimize signal handling in multithreaded
     applications.  If a thread different than the main thread gets a
     signal, the bytecode evaluation loop is no longer interrupted at
     each bytecode instruction to check for pending signals which cannot
     be handled.  Only the main thread of the main interpreter can
     handle signals.

     Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each
     instruction until the main thread handles signals.

   - bpo-39984(7): If *note Py_AddPendingCall(): d49. is called in a
     subinterpreter, the function is now scheduled to be called from the
     subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main interpreter.
     Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled calls.

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _heapq module to multiphase initialization.

   - bpo-1635741(9): Port itertools module to multiphase initialization
     ( PEP 489(10)).

   - bpo-37207(11): Speed up calls to ‘frozenset()’ by using the PEP
     590(12) ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39984(13): subinterpreters: Move
     ‘_PyRuntimeState.ceval.tracing_possible’ to
     ‘PyInterpreterState.ceval.tracing_possible’: each interpreter now
     has its own variable.

   - bpo-37207(14): Speed up calls to ‘set()’ by using the PEP 590(15)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(16): Port _statistics module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(17)).

   - bpo-39968(18): Use inline function to replace extension modules”
     get_module_state macros.

   - bpo-39965(19): Correctly raise ‘SyntaxError’ if 'await' is used
     inside non-async functions and ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ is set
     (like in the asyncio REPL). Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39562(20): Allow executing asynchronous comprehensions on the
     top level when the ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag is given.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-37207(21): Speed up calls to ‘tuple()’ by using the PEP 590(22)
     ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38373(23): Changed list overallocation strategy.  It no longer
     overallocates if the new size is closer to overallocated size than
     to the old size and adds padding.

   - bpo-39926(24): Update Unicode database to Unicode version 13.0.0.

   - bpo-19466(25): Clear the frames of daemon threads earlier during
     the Python shutdown to call objects destructors.  So «unclosed
     file» resource warnings are now emitted for daemon threads in a
     more reliable way.

   - bpo-38894(26): Fix a bug that was causing incomplete results when
     calling ‘pathlib.Path.glob’ in the presence of symlinks that point
     to files where the user does not have read access.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo and Matt Wozniski.

   - bpo-39877(27): Fix *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 839. random crash
     at exit with daemon threads.  It now accesses the ‘_PyRuntime’
     variable directly instead of using ‘tstate->interp->runtime’, since
     ‘tstate’ can be a dangling pointer after *note Py_Finalize(): 672.
     has been called.  Moreover, the daemon thread now exits before
     trying to take the GIL.

   - bpo-39871(28): Fix a possible *note SystemError: 3ea. in
     ‘math.{atan2,copysign,remainder}()’ when the first argument cannot
     be converted to a *note float: 327.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-39776(29): Fix race condition where threads created by
     PyGILState_Ensure() could get a duplicate id.

     This affects consumers of tstate->id like the contextvar caching
     machinery, which could return invalid cached objects under heavy
     thread load (observed in embedded scenarios).

   - bpo-39778(30): Fixed a crash due to incorrect handling of weak
     references in ‘collections.OrderedDict’ classes.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(31): Port audioop extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(32)).

   - bpo-39702(33): Relax *note decorator: b18. grammar restrictions to
     allow any valid expression ( PEP 614(34)).

   - bpo-38091(35): Tweak import deadlock detection code to not deadlock
     itself.

   - bpo-1635741(36): Port _locale extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(37)).

   - bpo-39087(38): Optimize *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): 637. and *note
     PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): c6f. slightly when they need to create
     internal UTF-8 cache.

   - bpo-39520(39): Fix unparsing of ext slices with no items
     (‘foo[:,]’).  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39220(40): Do not optimize annotations if “from __future__
     import annotations” is used.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35712(41): Using *note NotImplemented: 440. in a boolean
     context has been deprecated.  Patch contributed by Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-22490(42): Don’t leak environment variable
     ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ into the interpreter session on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39965

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39562

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38373

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39926

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19466

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38894

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39871

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39776

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39778

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39702

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38091

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39087

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39520

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39220

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35712

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22490


File: python.info,  Node: Library<158>,  Next: Documentation<47>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<157>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.26.52.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-39830(1): Add *note zipfile.Path: ab6. to ‘__all__’ in the
     *note zipfile: 13a. module.

   - bpo-40000(2): Improved error messages for validation of
     ‘ast.Constant’ nodes.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39999(3): ‘__module__’ of the AST node classes is now set to
     «ast» instead of «_ast».  Added docstrings for dummy AST node
     classes and deprecated attributes.

   - bpo-39991(4): *note uuid.getnode(): f66. now skips IPv6 addresses
     with the same string length than a MAC address (17 characters):
     only use MAC addresses.

   - bpo-39988(5): Deprecated ‘ast.AugLoad’ and ‘ast.AugStore’ node
     classes because they are no longer used.

   - bpo-39656(6): Ensure ‘bin/python3.#’ is always present in virtual
     environments on POSIX platforms - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39969(7): Deprecated ‘ast.Param’ node class because it’s no
     longer used.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39360(8): Ensure all workers exit when finalizing a
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ implicitly via the module finalization
     handlers of multiprocessing.  This fixes a deadlock situation that
     can be experienced when the Pool is not properly finalized via the
     context manager or a call to ‘multiprocessing.Pool.terminate’.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya and Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35370(9): sys.settrace(), sys.setprofile() and
     _lsprof.Profiler.enable() now properly report *note PySys_Audit():
     808. error if «sys.setprofile» or «sys.settrace» audit event is
     denied.

   - bpo-39936(10): AIX: Fix _aix_support module when the subprocess is
     not available, when building Python from scratch.  It now uses new
     private _bootsubprocess module, rather than having two
     implementations depending if subprocess is available or not.  So
     _aix_support.aix_platform() result is now the same if subprocess is
     available or not.

   - bpo-36144(11): *note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5. now implements
     ‘|’ and ‘|=’ ( PEP 584(12)).

   - bpo-39652(13): The column name found in
     ‘sqlite3.Cursor.description’ is now truncated on the first “[” only
     if the PARSE_COLNAMES option is set.

   - bpo-39915(14): Ensure *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock.await_args_list: 1f5c. has call objects in
     the order of awaited arguments instead of using *note
     unittest.mock.Mock.call_args: 1f5d. which has the last value of the
     call.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36144(15): Updated *note os.environ: 4e5. and *note
     os.environb: 4e6. to support PEP 584(16)’s merge (‘|’) and update
     (‘|=’) operators.

   - bpo-38662(17): The ‘ensurepip’ module now invokes ‘pip’ via the
     ‘runpy’ module.  Hence it is no longer tightly coupled with the
     internal API of the bundled ‘pip’ version, allowing easier updates
     to a newer ‘pip’ version both internally and for distributors.

   - bpo-38075(18): Fix the *note random.Random.seed(): 1f5e. method
     when a *note bool: 5ef. is passed as the seed.

   - bpo-39916(19): More reliable use of ‘os.scandir()’ in
     ‘Path.glob()’.  It no longer emits a ResourceWarning when
     interrupted.

   - bpo-39850(20): *note multiprocessing: 98. now supports abstract
     socket addresses (if abstract sockets are supported in the running
     platform).  When creating arbitrary addresses (like when
     default-constructing *note multiprocessing.connection.Listener:
     1c2b. objects) abstract sockets are preferred to avoid the case
     when the temporary-file-generated address is too large for an
     AF_UNIX socket address.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36287(21): *note ast.dump(): 1e1. no longer outputs optional
     fields and attributes with default values.  The default values for
     optional fields and attributes of AST nodes are now set as class
     attributes (e.g.  ‘Constant.kind’ is set to ‘None’).

   - bpo-39889(22): Fixed *note ast.unparse(): cb6. for extended slices
     containing a single element (e.g.  ‘a[i:j,]’).  Remove redundant
     tuples when index with a tuple (e.g.  ‘a[i, j]’).

   - bpo-39828(23): Fix *note json.tool: 86. to catch *note
     BrokenPipeError: 1404.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-13487(24): Avoid a possible '«RuntimeError: dictionary changed
     size during iteration»' from *note inspect.getmodule(): 1d6a. when
     it tried to loop through *note sys.modules: 19ba.

   - bpo-39674(25): Revert «bpo-37330(26): open() no longer accept “U”
     in file mode».  The «U» mode of open() is kept in Python 3.9 to
     ease transition from Python 2.7, but will be removed in Python
     3.10.

   - bpo-28577(27): The hosts method on 32-bit prefix length
     IPv4Networks and 128-bit prefix IPv6Networks now returns a list
     containing the single Address instead of an empty list.

   - bpo-39826(28): Add getConnection method to logging HTTPHandler to
     enable custom connections.

   - bpo-39763(29): Reimplement ‘distutils.spawn.spawn’ function with
     the *note subprocess: df. module.

   - bpo-39794(30): Add –without-decimal-contextvar build option.  This
     enables a thread-local rather than a coroutine local context.

   - bpo-36144(31): *note collections.defaultdict: 1565. now implements
     ‘|’ ( PEP 584(32)).

   - bpo-39517(33): Fix runpy.run_path() when using pathlike objects

   - bpo-39775(34): Change ‘inspect.Signature.parameters’ back to
     ‘collections.OrderedDict’.  This was changed to ‘dict’ in Python
     3.9.0a4.

   - bpo-39678(35): Refactor queue_manager in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. to make it easier to
     maintain.

   - bpo-39764(36): Fix AttributeError when calling get_stack on a
     PyAsyncGenObject Task

   - bpo-39769(37): The *note compileall.compile_dir(): ee8. function’s
     'ddir' parameter and the compileall command line flag ‘-d’ no
     longer write the wrong pathname to the generated pyc file for
     submodules beneath the root of the directory tree being compiled.
     This fixes a regression introduced with Python 3.5.

   - bpo-36144(38): *note types.MappingProxyType: 189. objects now
     support the merge (‘|’) operator from PEP 584(39).

   - bpo-38691(40): The *note importlib: 7a. module now ignores the
     *note PYTHONCASEOK: d26. environment variable when the *note -E:
     d27. or *note -I: d28. command line options are being used.

   - bpo-39719(41): Remove ‘tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile.softspace()’
     as files no longer have the ‘softspace’ attribute in Python 3.
     Patch by Shantanu.

   - bpo-39667(42): Improve pathlib.Path compatibility on zipfile.Path
     and correct performance degradation as found in zipp 3.0.

   - bpo-39638(43): Keep ASDL signatures in the docstrings for ‘AST’
     nodes.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-39639(44): Deprecated ‘ast.Suite’ node class because it’s no
     longer used.  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39609(45): Add thread_name_prefix to default asyncio executor

   - bpo-39548(46): Fix handling of header in *note
     urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler: 1f5f. when the optional
     ‘qop’ parameter is not present.

   - bpo-39509(47): HTTP status codes ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’ and ‘425
     TOO_EARLY’ are added to *note http.HTTPStatus: cd0.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39507(48): Adding HTTP status 418 «I’m a Teapot» to HTTPStatus
     in http library.  Patch by Ross Rhodes.

   - bpo-39495(49): Remove default value from 'attrs' parameter of *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.start(): 1f60. for consistency
     between Python and C implementations.

   - bpo-38971(50): Open issue in the BPO indicated a desire to make the
     implementation of codecs.open() at parity with io.open(), which
     implements a try/except to assure file stream gets closed before an
     exception is raised.

   - bpo-38641(51): Added starred expressions support to ‘return’ and
     ‘yield’ statements for ‘lib2to3’.  Patch by Vlad Emelianov.

   - bpo-37534(52): When using minidom module to generate XML documents
     the ability to add Standalone Document Declaration is added.  All
     the changes are made to generate a document in compliance with
     Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Fifth Edition) W3C
     Recommendation (available here:
     ‘https://www.w3.org/TR/xml/#sec-prolog-dtd’).

   - bpo-34788(53): Add support for scoped IPv6 addresses to *note
     ipaddress: 83.  Patch by Oleksandr Pavliuk.

   - bpo-34822(54): Simplified AST for subscription.  Simple indices are
     now represented by their value, extended slices are represented as
     tuples.  *note ast: 9. classes ‘Index’ and ‘ExtSlice’ are
     considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python
     versions.  In the meantime, ‘Index(value)’ now returns a ‘value’
     itself, ‘ExtSlice(slices)’ returns ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39830

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40000

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39999

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39991

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39988

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39656

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39969

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39360

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35370

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39936

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39652

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39915

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38662

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38075

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39916

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39850

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36287

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39889

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39828

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13487

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39674

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28577

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39826

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39763

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39794

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39517

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39775

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39678

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39764

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39769

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38691

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39719

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39667

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39638

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39639

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39609

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39548

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39509

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39507

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39495

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38971

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38641

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37534

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34788

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<47>,  Next: Tests<50>,  Prev: Library<158>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.26.52.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-39868(1): Updated the Language Reference for PEP 572(2).

   - bpo-13790(3): Change “string” to “specification” in format doc.

   - bpo-17422(4): The language reference no longer restricts default
     class namespaces to dicts only.

   - bpo-39530(5): Fix misleading documentation about mixed-type numeric
     comparisons.

   - bpo-39718(6): Update *note token: 103. documentation to reflect
     additions in Python 3.8

   - bpo-39677(7): Changed operand name of 'MAKE_FUNCTION' from 'argc'
     to 'flags' for module *note dis: 3b.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39868

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13790

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17422

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39530

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39718

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39677


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<50>,  Next: Build<53>,  Prev: Documentation<47>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.26.52.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-40019(1): test_gdb now skips tests if it detects that gdb
     failed to read debug information because the Python binary is
     optimized.

   - bpo-27807(2): ‘test_site.test_startup_imports()’ is now skipped if
     a path of *note sys.path: 194. contains a ‘.pth’ file.

   - bpo-26067(3): Do not fail test_shutil test_chown test when uid or
     gid of user cannot be resolved to a name.

   - bpo-39855(4): test_subprocess.test_user() now skips the test on an
     user name if the user name doesn’t exist.  For example, skip the
     test if the user «nobody» doesn’t exist on Linux.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40019

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27807

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26067

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39855


File: python.info,  Node: Build<53>,  Next: Windows<46>,  Prev: Tests<50>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.26.52.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-39761(1): Fix build with DTrace but without additional DFLAGS.

   - bpo-39763(2): setup.py now uses a basic implementation of the *note
     subprocess: df. module if the ‘subprocess’ module is not available:
     before required C extension modules are built.

   - bpo-1294959(3): Add ‘--with-platlibdir’ option to the configure
     script: name of the platform-specific library directory, stored in
     the new *note sys.platlibdir: 2a9. attribute.  It is used to build
     the path of platform-specific extension modules and the path of the
     standard library.  It is equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms.  On
     Fedora and SuSE, it is equal to ‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms.
     Patch by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and Victor
     Stinner.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39761

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39763

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<46>,  Next: macOS<38>,  Prev: Build<53>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.26.52.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39930(1): Ensures the required ‘vcruntime140.dll’ is included
     in install packages.

   - bpo-39847(2): Avoid hang when computer is hibernated whilst waiting
     for a mutex (for lock-related objects from *note threading: f6.)
     around 49-day uptime.

   - bpo-38597(3): ‘distutils’ will no longer statically link
     ‘vcruntime140.dll’ when a redistributable version is unavailable.
     All future releases of CPython will include a copy of this DLL to
     ensure distributed extensions can continue to load.

   - bpo-38380(4): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.31.1

   - bpo-39789(5): Update Windows release build machines to Visual
     Studio 2019 (MSVC 14.2).

   - bpo-34803(6): Package for nuget.org now includes repository
     reference and bundled icon image.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39930

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39847

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38597

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39789

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34803


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<38>,  Next: IDLE<29>,  Prev: Windows<46>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.26.52.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38380(1): Update macOS builds to use SQLite 3.31.1

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38380


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<29>,  Next: Tools/Demos<30>,  Prev: macOS<38>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.26.52.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27115(1): For “Go to Line”, use a Query box subclass with IDLE
     standard behavior and improved error checking.

   - bpo-39885(2): Since clicking to get an IDLE context menu moves the
     cursor, any text selection should be and now is cleared.

   - bpo-39852(3): Edit «Go to line» now clears any selection,
     preventing accidental deletion.  It also updates Ln and Col on the
     status bar.

   - bpo-39781(4): Selecting code context lines no longer causes a jump.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27115

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39885

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39852

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39781


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<30>,  Next: C API<49>,  Prev: IDLE<29>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.26.52.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-36184(1): Port python-gdb.py to FreeBSD. python-gdb.py now
     checks for «take_gil» function name to check if a frame tries to
     acquire the GIL, instead of checking for «pthread_cond_timedwait»
     which is specific to Linux and can be a different condition than
     the GIL.

   - bpo-38080(2): Added support to fix ‘getproxies’ in the
     ‘lib2to3.fixes.fix_urllib’ module.  Patch by José Roberto Meza
     Cabrera.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36184

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38080


File: python.info,  Node: C API<49>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<30>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5

1.26.52.11 C API
................

   - bpo-40024(1): Add *note PyModule_AddType(): d3d. helper function:
     add a type to a module.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39946(2): Remove ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’ hook and remove
     ‘_PyThreadState_GetFrame’ macro which was an alias to
     ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’.  They were only exposed by the internal C
     API. Remove also ‘PyThreadFrameGetter’ type.

   - bpo-39947(3): Add *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): b6d. function:
     get the current frame of a Python thread state.

   - bpo-37207(4): Add _PyArg_NoKwnames helper function.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39947(5): Add *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): d3a.: get
     the interpreter of a Python thread state.

   - bpo-39947(6): Add *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 83b. function to
     the limited C API.

   - bpo-35370(7): If *note PySys_Audit(): 808. fails in *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 189f. or *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 850, log the
     error as an unraisable exception.

   - bpo-39947(8): Move the static inline function flavor of
     Py_EnterRecursiveCall() and Py_LeaveRecursiveCall() to the internal
     C API: they access PyThreadState attributes.  The limited C API
     provides regular functions which hide implementation details.

   - bpo-39947(9): Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN_CONDITION and Py_TRASHCAN_END macro
     no longer access PyThreadState attributes, but call new private
     _PyTrash_begin() and _PyTrash_end() functions which hide
     implementation details.

   - bpo-39884(10): *note PyDescr_NewMethod(): 1f69. and *note
     PyCFunction_NewEx(): 1f6a. now include the method name in the
     SystemError «bad call flags» error message to ease debug.

   - bpo-39877(11): Deprecated ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ and
     ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’.  Calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ now
     does nothing.

   - bpo-38249(12): *note Py_UNREACHABLE: f73. is now implemented with
     ‘__builtin_unreachable()’ and analogs in release mode.

   - bpo-38643(13): *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 1d70. now raises a *note
     SystemError: 3ea. instead of crashing when called with invalid
     base.

   - bpo-39882(14): The *note Py_FatalError(): d4b. function is replaced
     with a macro which logs automatically the name of the current
     function, unless the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined.

   - bpo-39824(15): Extension modules: *note m_traverse: d42, *note
     m_clear: d43. and *note m_free: d44. functions of *note
     PyModuleDef: d45. are no longer called if the module state was
     requested but is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately
     after the module is created and before the module is executed
     (*note Py_mod_exec: d46. function).  More precisely, these
     functions are not called if *note m_size: d47. is greater than 0
     and the module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState():
     d48.) is ‘NULL’.

     Extension modules without module state (‘m_size <= 0’) are not
     affected.

   - bpo-38913(16): Fixed segfault in ‘Py_BuildValue()’ called with a
     format containing «#» and undefined PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN whwn an
     exception is set.

   - bpo-38500(17): Add a private API to get and set the frame
     evaluation function: add *note
     _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc(): 1f6b. and *note
     _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc(): 1f6c. C functions.  The
     *note _PyFrameEvalFunction: b58. function type now takes a 'tstate'
     parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40024

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39946

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35370

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39884

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38249

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38643

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39882

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39824

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38913

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38500


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5,  Up: Changelog

1.26.53 Python 3.9.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-02-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<39>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<158>.
* Library: Library<159>.
* Documentation: Documentation<48>.
* Tests: Tests<51>.
* Build: Build<54>.
* Windows: Windows<47>.
* IDLE: IDLE<30>.
* C API: C API<50>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<39>,  Next: Core and Builtins<158>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.26.53.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-39184(1): Add audit events to functions in ‘fcntl’, ‘msvcrt’,
     ‘os’, ‘resource’, ‘shutil’, ‘signal’ and ‘syslog’.

   - bpo-39401(2): Avoid unsafe DLL load at startup on Windows 7 and
     earlier.

   - bpo-39184(3): Add audit events to command execution functions in os
     and pty modules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39184

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39401

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39184


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<158>,  Next: Library<159>,  Prev: Security<39>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.26.53.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39382(1): Fix a use-after-free in the single inheritance path
     of ‘issubclass()’, when the ‘__bases__’ of an object has a single
     reference, and so does its first item.  Patch by Yonatan
     Goldschmidt.

   - bpo-39573(2): Update clinic tool to use *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 19bb.
     Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39619(3): Enable use of *note os.chroot(): 1f70. on HP-UX
     systems.

   - bpo-39573(4): Add *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 19bb. static inline function
     to check whether the object 'o' type is 'type'.

   - bpo-39606(5): Fix regression caused by fix for bpo-39386(6), that
     prevented calling ‘aclose’ on an async generator that had already
     been closed or exhausted.

   - bpo-39579(7): Change the ending column offset of ‘Attribute’ nodes
     constructed in ‘ast_for_dotted_name’ to point at the end of the
     current node and not at the end of the last ‘NAME’ node.

   - bpo-1635741(8): Port _crypt extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(9)).

   - bpo-1635741(10): Port _contextvars extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(11)).

   - bpo-39510(12): Fix segfault in ‘readinto()’ method on closed
     BufferedReader.

   - bpo-39502(13): Fix *note time.localtime(): 189b. on 64-bit AIX to
     support years before 1902 and after 2038.  Patch by M Felt.

   - bpo-39492(14): Fix a reference cycle in the C Pickler that was
     preventing the garbage collection of deleted, pickled objects.

   - bpo-39453(15): Fixed a possible crash in ‘list.__contains__()’ when
     a list is changed during comparing items.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39434(16): *note floor division: d10. of float operation now
     has a better performance.  Also the message of *note
     ZeroDivisionError: d11. for this operation is updated.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-1635741(17): Port _codecs extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(18)).

   - bpo-1635741(19): Port _bz2 extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(20)).

   - bpo-1635741(21): Port _abc extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(22)).

   - bpo-39320(23): Replace two complex bytecodes for building dicts
     with two simpler ones.  The new bytecodes ‘DICT_MERGE’ and
     ‘DICT_UPDATE’ have been added The old bytecodes ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK’
     and ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ have been removed.

   - bpo-39219(24): Syntax errors raised in the tokenizer now always set
     correct «text» and «offset» attributes.

   - bpo-36051(25): Drop the GIL during large ‘bytes.join’ operations.
     Patch by Bruce Merry.

   - bpo-38960(26): Fix DTrace build issues on FreeBSD. Patch by David
     Carlier.

   - bpo-37207(27): Speed up calls to ‘range()’ by about 30%, by using
     the PEP 590 ‘vectorcall’ calling convention.  Patch by Mark
     Shannon.

   - bpo-36144(28): *note dict: 188. (and *note collections.UserDict:
     192d.) objects now support PEP 584’s merge (‘|’) and update (‘|=’)
     operators.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-32856(29): Optimized the idiom for assignment a temporary
     variable in comprehensions.  Now ‘for y in [expr]’ in
     comprehensions is as fast as a simple assignment ‘y = expr’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39382

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39619

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39606

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39386

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39579

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39510

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39502

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39492

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39453

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39434

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39320

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39219

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36051

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38960

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32856


File: python.info,  Node: Library<159>,  Next: Documentation<48>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<158>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.26.53.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-30566(1): Fix *note IndexError: 18d7. when trying to decode an
     invalid string with punycode codec.

   - bpo-39649(2): Remove obsolete check for ‘__args__’ in
     ‘bdb.Bdb.format_stack_entry’.

   - bpo-39648(3): Expanded *note math.gcd(): cdf. and *note math.lcm():
     ce0. to handle multiple arguments.

   - bpo-39681(4): Fix a regression where the C pickle module wouldn’t
     allow unpickling from a file-like object that doesn’t expose a
     readinto() method.

   - bpo-35950(5): Raise *note io.UnsupportedOperation: 19c9. in
     ‘io.BufferedReader.truncate()’ when it is called on a read-only
     *note io.BufferedReader: 15b5. instance.

   - bpo-39479(6): Add *note math.lcm(): ce0. function: least common
     multiple.

   - bpo-39674(7): Revert «Do not expose abstract collection classes in
     the collections module» change (bpo-25988(8)).  Aliases to ABC like
     collections.Mapping are kept in Python 3.9 to ease transition from
     Python 2.7, but will be removed in Python 3.10.

   - bpo-39104(9): Fix hanging ProcessPoolExcutor on
     ‘shutdown(wait=False)’ when a task has failed pickling.

   - bpo-39627(10): Fixed TypedDict totality check for inherited keys.

   - bpo-39474(11): Fixed starting position of AST for expressions like
     ‘(a)(b)’, ‘(a)[b]’ and ‘(a).b’.

   - bpo-21016(12): The *note pydoc: bd. and *note trace: 106. modules
     now use the *note sysconfig: e4. module to get the path to the
     Python standard library, to support uncommon installation path like
     ‘/usr/lib64/python3.9/’ on Fedora.  Patch by Jan Matějek.

   - bpo-39590(13): Collections.deque now holds strong references during
     deque.__contains__ and deque.count, fixing crashes.

   - bpo-39586(14): The distutils ‘bdist_msi’ command is deprecated in
     Python 3.9, use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

   - bpo-39595(15): Improved performance of zipfile.Path for files with
     a large number of entries.  Also improved performance and fixed
     minor issue as published with importlib_metadata 1.5(16).

   - bpo-39350(17): Fix regression in *note fractions.Fraction: 1c3. if
     the numerator and/or the denominator is an *note int: 326.
     subclass.  The *note math.gcd(): cdf. function is now used to
     normalize the 'numerator' and 'denominator'.  ‘math.gcd()’ always
     return a ‘int’ type.  Previously, the GCD type depended on
     'numerator' and 'denominator'.

   - bpo-39567(18): Added audit for *note os.walk(): 8b9, *note
     os.fwalk(): f18, *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. and *note
     pathlib.Path.rglob(): 73b.

   - bpo-39559(19): Remove unused, undocumented argument ‘getters’ from
     *note uuid.getnode(): f66.

   - bpo-38149(20): *note sys.audit(): 1b36. is now called only once per
     call of *note glob.glob(): 2d4. and *note glob.iglob(): be1.

   - bpo-39546(21): Fix a regression in *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. where
     ‘allow_abbrev=False’ was ignored for long options that used a
     prefix character other than «-«.

   - bpo-39450(22): Striped whitespace from docstring before returning
     it from ‘unittest.case.shortDescription()’.

   - bpo-12915(23): A new function ‘resolve_name’ has been added to the
     ‘pkgutil’ module.  This resolves a string of the form ‘'a.b.c.d'’
     or ‘'a.b:c.d'’ to an object.  In the example, ‘a.b’ is a
     package/module and ‘c.d’ is an object within that package/module
     reached via recursive attribute access.

   - bpo-39353(24): The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): b1b. function is no
     longer deprecated.

   - bpo-39493(25): Mark ‘typing.IO.closed’ as a property

   - bpo-39491(26): Add *note typing.Annotated: d09. and
     ‘include_extras’ parameter to *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e.
     as part of PEP 593(27).  Patch by Till Varoquaux, documentation by
     Till Varoquaux and Konstantin Kashin.

   - bpo-39485(28): Fix a bug in *note unittest.mock.create_autospec():
     1b4e. that would complain about the wrong number of arguments for
     custom descriptors defined in an extension module returning
     functions.

   - bpo-38932(29): Mock fully resets child objects on reset_mock().
     Patch by Vegard Stikbakke

   - bpo-39082(30): Allow AsyncMock to correctly patch static/class
     methods

   - bpo-39432(31): Implement PEP-489 algorithm for non-ascii «PyInit_…»
     symbol names in distutils to make it export the correct init symbol
     also on Windows.

   - bpo-18819(32): Omit ‘devmajor’ and ‘devminor’ fields for non-device
     files in *note tarfile: e7. archives, enabling bit-for-bit
     compatibility with GNU ‘tar(1)’.

   - bpo-39349(33): Added a new 'cancel_futures' parameter to *note
     concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown(): cbe. that cancels all
     pending futures which have not started running, instead of waiting
     for them to complete before shutting down the executor.

   - bpo-39274(34): ‘bool(fraction.Fraction)’ now returns a boolean even
     if (numerator != 0) does not return a boolean (ex: numpy number).

   - bpo-34793(35): Remove support for ‘with (await asyncio.lock):’ and
     ‘with (yield from asyncio.lock):’.  The same is correct for
     ‘asyncio.Condition’ and ‘asyncio.Semaphore’.

   - bpo-25597(36): Ensure, if ‘wraps’ is supplied to *note
     unittest.mock.MagicMock: 1240, it is used to calculate return
     values for the magic methods instead of using the default return
     values.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36350(37): ‘inspect.Signature.parameters’ and
     ‘inspect.BoundArguments.arguments’ are now dicts instead of
     OrderedDicts.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35727(38): Fix sys.exit() and sys.exit(None) exit code
     propagation when used in multiprocessing.Process.

   - bpo-32173(39): * Add ‘lazycache’ function to ‘__all__’.  * Use
     ‘dict.clear’ to clear the cache.  * Refactoring ‘getline’ function
     and ‘checkcache’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30566

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39681

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35950

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39479

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39674

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39104

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39627

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39474

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21016

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39590

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39586

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39595

   (16) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html#v1-5-0

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39567

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39559

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38149

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39546

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39450

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12915

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39493

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39491

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39485

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38932

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39082

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39432

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18819

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39349

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39274

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34793

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25597

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36350

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35727

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32173


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<48>,  Next: Tests<51>,  Prev: Library<159>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.26.53.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17422(1): The language reference now specifies restrictions on
     class namespaces.  Adapted from a patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-39572(2): Updated documentation of ‘total’ flag of ‘TypedDict’.

   - bpo-39654(3): In pyclbr doc, update “class” to “module” where
     appropriate and add readmodule comment.  Patch by Hakan Çelik.

   - bpo-39153(4): Clarify refcounting semantics for the following
     functions: - PyObject_SetItem - PyMapping_SetItemString -
     PyDict_SetItem - PyDict_SetItemString

   - bpo-39392(5): Explain that when filling with turtle, overlap
     regions may be left unfilled.

   - bpo-39369(6): Update mmap readline method description.  The fact
     that the readline method does update the file position should not
     be ignored since this might give the impression for the programmer
     that it doesn’t update it.

   - bpo-9056(7): Include subsection in TOC for PDF version of docs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17422

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39572

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39153

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39392

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39369

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9056


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<51>,  Next: Build<54>,  Prev: Documentation<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.26.53.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38325(1): Skip tests on non-BMP characters of
     test_winconsoleio.

   - bpo-39502(2): Skip test_zipfile.test_add_file_after_2107() if *note
     time.localtime(): 189b. fails with *note OverflowError: c57.  It is
     the case on AIX 6.1 for example.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38325

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39502


File: python.info,  Node: Build<54>,  Next: Windows<47>,  Prev: Tests<51>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.26.53.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-39489(1): Remove ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ special build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<47>,  Next: IDLE<30>,  Prev: Build<54>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.26.53.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39553(1): Delete unused code related to SxS manifests.

   - bpo-39439(2): Honor the Python path when a virtualenv is active on
     Windows.

   - bpo-39393(3): Improve the error message when attempting to load a
     DLL with unresolved dependencies.

   - bpo-38883(4): *note home(): 11f4. and *note expanduser(): 11f3. on
     Windows now prefer ‘USERPROFILE’ and no longer use ‘HOME’, which is
     not normally set for regular user accounts.  This makes them again
     behave like *note os.path.expanduser(): dd8, which was changed to
     ignore ‘HOME’ in 3.8, see bpo-36264(5).

   - bpo-39185(6): The build.bat script has additional options for
     very-quiet output (-q) and very-verbose output (-vv)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39553

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39439

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39393

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38883

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39185


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<30>,  Next: C API<50>,  Prev: Windows<47>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.26.53.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-39663(1): Add tests for pyparse find_good_parse_start().

   - bpo-39600(2): In the font configuration window, remove duplicated
     font names.

   - bpo-30780(3): Add remaining configdialog tests for buttons and
     highlights and keys tabs.

   - bpo-39388(4): IDLE Settings Cancel button now cancels pending
     changes

   - bpo-38792(5): Close an IDLE shell calltip if a *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: d96. or shell restart occurs.  Patch by Zackery
     Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39663

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39600

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30780

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39388

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38792


File: python.info,  Node: C API<50>,  Prev: IDLE<30>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4

1.26.53.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-35081(1): Move the ‘bytes_methods.h’ header file to the
     internal C API as ‘pycore_bytes_methods.h’: it only contains
     private symbols (prefixed by ‘_Py’), except of the
     ‘PyDoc_STRVAR_shared()’ macro.

   - bpo-35081(2): Move the ‘dtoa.h’ header file to the internal C API
     as ‘pycore_dtoa.h’: it only contains private functions (prefixed by
     ‘_Py’).  The *note math: 91. and *note cmath: 19. modules must now
     be compiled with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’ macro defined.

   - bpo-39573(3): Add *note Py_SET_SIZE(): b62. function to set the
     size of an object.

   - bpo-39500(4): *note PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(): 1f78. does not call
     *note Py_FatalError(): d4b. anymore if the string is not ready.

   - bpo-39573(5): Add *note Py_SET_TYPE(): b60. function to set the
     type of an object.

   - bpo-39573(6): Add a *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): c7e. function to set the
     reference counter of an object.

   - bpo-39542(7): Convert *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1f30, *note
     PyType_Check(): 1f79. and *note PyType_CheckExact(): 1f7a. macros
     to static inline functions.

   - bpo-39542(8): In the limited C API, ‘PyObject_INIT()’ and
     ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’ are now defined as aliases to *note
     PyObject_Init(): e2f. and *note PyObject_InitVar(): 1f34. to make
     their implementation opaque.  It avoids to leak implementation
     details in the limited C API. Exclude the following functions from
     the limited C API: ‘_Py_NewReference()’, ‘_Py_ForgetReference()’,
     ‘_PyTraceMalloc_NewReference()’ and ‘_Py_GetRefTotal()’.

   - bpo-39542(9): Exclude trashcan mechanism from the limited C API: it
     requires access to PyTypeObject and PyThreadState structure fields,
     whereas these structures are opaque in the limited C API.

   - bpo-39511(10): The *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1b9e. function now
     calls the ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ callback.  Previously, that
     happened in *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 1f7b.

   - bpo-38076(11): Fix to clear the interpreter state only after
     clearing module globals to guarantee module state access from C
     Extensions during runtime destruction

   - bpo-39245(12): The Vectorcall API (PEP 590) was made public, adding
     the functions ‘PyObject_Vectorcall’, ‘PyObject_VectorcallMethod’,
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function’, ‘PyObject_CallOneArg’,
     ‘PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs’, ‘PyObject_CallMethodOneArg’,
     ‘PyObject_FastCallDict’, and the flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39511

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38076

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39245


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.54 Python 3.9.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2020-01-24'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<159>.
* Library: Library<160>.
* Documentation: Documentation<49>.
* Build: Build<55>.
* IDLE: IDLE<31>.
* C API: C API<51>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<159>,  Next: Library<160>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.26.54.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39427(1): Document all possibilities for the ‘-X’ options in
     the command line help section.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39421(2): Fix possible crashes when operating with the
     functions in the *note heapq: 6c. module and custom comparison
     operators.

   - bpo-39386(3): Prevent double awaiting of async iterator.

   - bpo-17005(4): Add ‘functools.TopologicalSorter’ to the *note
     functools: 62. module to offers functionality to perform
     topological sorting of graphs.  Patch by Pablo Galindo, Tim Peters
     and Larry Hastings.

   - bpo-39320(5): Replace four complex bytecodes for building sequences
     with three simpler ones.

     The following four bytecodes have been removed:

        * BUILD_LIST_UNPACK

        * BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK

        * BUILD_SET_UNPACK

        * BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL

     The following three bytecodes have been added:

        * LIST_TO_TUPLE

        * LIST_EXTEND

        * SET_UPDATE

   - bpo-39336(6): Import loaders which publish immutable module objects
     can now publish immutable packages in addition to individual
     modules.

   - bpo-39322(7): Added a new function *note gc.is_finalized(): ccd. to
     check if an object has been finalized by the garbage collector.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39048(8): Improve the displayed error message when incorrect
     types are passed to ‘async with’ statements by looking up the
     ‘__aenter__()’ special method before the ‘__aexit__()’ special
     method when entering an asynchronous context manager.  Patch by
     Géry Ogam.

   - bpo-39235(9): Fix AST end location for lone generator expression in
     function call, e.g.  f(i for i in a).

   - bpo-39209(10): Correctly handle multi-line tokens in interactive
     mode.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1635741(11): Port _json extension module to multiphase
     initialization ( PEP 489(12)).

   - bpo-39216(13): Fix constant folding optimization for positional
     only arguments - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39215(14): Fix ‘SystemError’ when nested function has
     annotation on positional-only argument - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-39200(15): Correct the error message when calling the *note
     min(): 12b9. or *note max(): 12ba. with no arguments.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39200(16): Correct the error message when trying to construct
     *note range: d0f. objects with no arguments.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-39166(17): Fix incorrect line execution reporting in trace
     functions when tracing the last iteration of asynchronous for
     loops.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39114(18): Fix incorrect line execution reporting in trace
     functions when tracing exception handlers with name binding.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-39156(19): Split the COMPARE_OP bytecode instruction into four
     distinct instructions.

        * COMPARE_OP for rich comparisons

        * IS_OP for “is” and “is not” tests

        * CONTAINS_OP for “in” and “is not” tests

        * JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH for checking exceptions in “try-except”
          statements.

     This improves the clarity of the interpreter and should provide a
     modest speedup.

   - bpo-38588(20): Fix possible crashes in dict and list when calling
     *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 1f7e.

   - bpo-13601(21): By default, ‘sys.stderr’ is line-buffered now, even
     if ‘stderr’ is redirected to a file.  You can still make
     ‘sys.stderr’ unbuffered by passing the *note -u: 1f7f. command-line
     option or setting the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 1f80. environment
     variable.

     (Contributed by Jendrik Seipp in bpo-13601(22).)

   - bpo-38610(23): Fix possible crashes in several list methods by
     holding strong references to list elements when calling *note
     PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 1f7e.

   - bpo-32021(24): Include brotli .br encoding in mimetypes
     encodings_map

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39421

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39386

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39320

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39336

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39322

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39048

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39235

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39209

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39216

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39215

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39200

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39200

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39166

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39114

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39156

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38588

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38610

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32021


File: python.info,  Node: Library<160>,  Next: Documentation<49>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<159>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.26.54.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-39430(1): Fixed race condition in lazy imports in *note
     tarfile: e7.

   - bpo-39413(2): The *note os.unsetenv(): 4e8. function is now also
     available on Windows.

   - bpo-39390(3): Fixed a regression with the ‘ignore’ callback of
     *note shutil.copytree(): ded.  The argument types are now ‘str’ and
     ‘List[str]’ again.

   - bpo-39395(4): The *note os.putenv(): 4e7. and *note os.unsetenv():
     4e8. functions are now always available.

   - bpo-39406(5): If ‘setenv()’ C function is available, *note
     os.putenv(): 4e7. is now implemented with ‘setenv()’ instead of
     ‘putenv()’, so Python doesn’t have to handle the environment
     variable memory.

   - bpo-39396(6): Fix ‘math.nextafter(-0.0, +0.0)’ on AIX 7.1.

   - bpo-29435(7): Allow *note tarfile.is_tarfile(): 1dd4. to be used
     with file and file-like objects, like *note zipfile.is_zipfile():
     16cf.  Patch by William Woodruff.

   - bpo-39377(8): Removed ‘encoding’ option from *note json.loads():
     22f.  It has been deprecated since Python 3.1.

   - bpo-39389(9): Write accurate compression level metadata in *note
     gzip: 6a. archives, rather than always signaling maximum
     compression.

   - bpo-39366(10): The previously deprecated ‘xpath()’ and ‘xgtitle()’
     methods of ‘nntplib.NNTP’ have been removed.

   - bpo-39357(11): Remove the 'buffering' parameter of *note
     bz2.BZ2File: c3d.  Since Python 3.0, it was ignored and using it
     was emitting *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  Pass an open file
     object, to control how the file is opened.  The 'compresslevel'
     parameter becomes keyword-only.

   - bpo-39353(12): Deprecate binhex4 and hexbin4 standards.  Deprecate
     the ‘binhex’ module and the following *note binascii: 11.
     functions: ‘b2a_hqx()’, ‘a2b_hqx()’, ‘rlecode_hqx()’,
     ‘rledecode_hqx()’, *note crc_hqx(): b1b.

   - bpo-39351(13): Remove ‘base64.encodestring()’ and
     ‘base64.decodestring()’, aliases deprecated since Python 3.1: use
     *note base64.encodebytes(): d1e. and *note base64.decodebytes():
     d1f. instead.

   - bpo-39350(14): Remove ‘fractions.gcd()’ function, deprecated since
     Python 3.5 (bpo-22486(15)): use *note math.gcd(): cdf. instead.

   - bpo-39329(16): *note LMTP: cfc. constructor now has an optional
     'timeout' parameter.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39313(17): Add a new ‘exec_function’ option ('–exec-function'
     in the CLI) to ‘RefactoringTool’ for making ‘exec’ a function.
     Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-39259(18): *note FTP_TLS: ccb. and ‘FTP_TLS’ now raise a *note
     ValueError: 277. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero
     to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-39259(19): *note SMTP: cfa. and *note SMTP_SSL: cfb. now raise
     a *note ValueError: 277. if the given timeout for their constructor
     is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39310(20): Add *note math.ulp(): ce1.: return the value of the
     least significant bit of a float.

   - bpo-39297(21): Improved performance of importlib.metadata
     distribution discovery and resilients to inaccessible sys.path
     entries (importlib_metadata v1.4.0).

   - bpo-39259(22): ‘NNTP’ and ‘NNTP_SSL’ now raise a *note ValueError:
     277. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent
     the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38901(23): When you specify prompt=”.” or equivalently python
     -m venv –prompt .  … the basename of the current directory is used
     to set the created venv’s prompt when it’s activated.

   - bpo-39288(24): Add *note math.nextafter(): 8a9.: return the next
     floating-point value after 'x' towards 'y'.

   - bpo-39259(25): *note POP3: cf0. and *note POP3_SSL: cf1. now raise
     a *note ValueError: 277. if the given timeout for their constructor
     is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39242(26): Updated the Gmane domain from news.gmane.org to
     news.gmane.io which is used for examples of ‘NNTP’ news reader
     server and nntplib tests.

   - bpo-35292(27): Proxy the ‘SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.guess_type’ to
     ‘mimetypes.guess_type’ so the ‘mimetypes.init’ is called lazily to
     avoid unnecessary costs when *note http.server: 75. module is
     imported.

   - bpo-39239(28): The *note select.epoll.unregister(): d24. method no
     longer ignores the *note EBADF: d25. error.

   - bpo-38907(29): In http.server script, restore binding to IPv4 on
     Windows.

   - bpo-39152(30): Fix ttk.Scale.configure([name]) to return
     configuration tuple for name or all options.  Giovanni Lombardo
     contributed part of the patch.

   - bpo-39198(31): If an exception were to be thrown in
     ‘Logger.isEnabledFor’ (say, by asyncio timeouts or stopit) , the
     ‘logging’ global lock may not be released appropriately, resulting
     in deadlock.  This change wraps that block of code with
     ‘try...finally’ to ensure the lock is released.

   - bpo-39191(32): Perform a check for running loop before starting a
     new task in ‘loop.run_until_complete()’ to fail fast; it prevents
     the side effect of new task spawning before exception raising.

   - bpo-38871(33): Correctly parenthesize filter-based statements that
     contain lambda expressions in ‘lib2to3’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-39142(34): A change was made to logging.config.dictConfig to
     avoid converting instances of named tuples to ConvertingTuple.
     It’s assumed that named tuples are too specialised to be treated
     like ordinary tuples; if a user of named tuples requires
     ConvertingTuple functionality, they will have to implement that
     themselves in their named tuple class.

   - bpo-39158(35): ast.literal_eval() now supports empty sets.

   - bpo-39129(36): Fix import path for ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’

   - bpo-39057(37): ‘urllib.request.proxy_bypass_environment()’ now
     ignores leading dots and no longer ignores a trailing newline.

   - bpo-39056(38): Fixed handling invalid warning category in the -W
     option.  No longer import the re module if it is not needed.

   - bpo-39055(39): *note base64.b64decode(): 1ec. with ‘validate=True’
     raises now a binascii.Error if the input ends with a single ‘\n’.

   - bpo-21600(40): Fix ‘mock.patch.stopall()’ to stop active patches
     that were created with ‘mock.patch.dict()’.

   - bpo-39019(41): Implement dummy ‘__class_getitem__’ for *note
     tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: a82.

   - bpo-39019(42): Implement dummy ‘__class_getitem__’ for
     ‘subprocess.Popen’, ‘subprocess.CompletedProcess’

   - bpo-38914(43): Adjusted the wording of the warning issued by
     distutils” ‘check’ command when the ‘author’ and ‘maintainer’
     fields are supplied but no corresponding e-mail field
     (‘author_email’ or ‘maintainer_email’) is found.  The wording now
     reflects the fact that these fields are suggested, but not
     required.  Patch by Juergen Gmach.

   - bpo-38878(44): Fixed __subclasshook__ of *note os.PathLike: 100f.
     to return a correct result upon inheritance.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-38615(45): *note IMAP4: 31a. and *note IMAP4_SSL: cd3. now have
     an optional 'timeout' parameter for their constructors.  Also, the
     *note open(): cd4. method now has an optional 'timeout' parameter
     with this change.  The overridden methods of ‘IMAP4_SSL’ and *note
     IMAP4_stream: cd5. were applied to this change.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-35182(46): Fixed ‘Popen.communicate()’ subsequent call crash
     when the child process has already closed any piped standard
     stream, but still continues to be running.  Patch by Andriy
     Maletsky.

   - bpo-38630(47): On Unix, *note subprocess.Popen.send_signal(): 1781.
     now polls the process status.  Polling reduces the risk of sending
     a signal to the wrong process if the process completed, the *note
     subprocess.Popen.returncode: e52. attribute is still ‘None’, and
     the pid has been reassigned (recycled) to a new different process.

   - bpo-38536(48): Removes trailing space in formatted currency with
     ‘international=True’ and a locale with symbol following value.
     E.g.  ‘locale.currency(12.34, international=True)’ returned ‘'12,34
     EUR '’ instead of ‘'12,34 EUR'’.

   - bpo-38473(49): Use signature from inner mock for autospecced
     methods attached with ‘unittest.mock.attach_mock()’.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-38361(50): Fixed an issue where ‘ident’ could include a leading
     path separator when *note syslog.openlog(): 94b. was called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-38293(51): Add *note copy.copy(): 942. and *note
     copy.deepcopy(): f2b. support to *note property(): 6bb. objects.

   - bpo-37958(52): Added the pstats.Stats.get_profile_dict() method to
     return the profile data as a StatsProfile instance.

   - bpo-28367(53): Termios magic constants for the following baud
     rates: - B500000 - B576000 - B921600 - B1000000 - B1152000 -
     B1500000 - B2000000 - B2500000 - B3000000 - B3500000 - B4000000
     Patch by Andrey Smirnov

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39430

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39413

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39390

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39406

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39396

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29435

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39377

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39389

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39366

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39351

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39329

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39313

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39310

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39297

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38901

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39288

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39242

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35292

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39239

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38907

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39152

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39198

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39191

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38871

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39142

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39158

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39129

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39057

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39056

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39055

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21600

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39019

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39019

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38914

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38878

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38615

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35182

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38630

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38536

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38473

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38361

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38293

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37958

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28367


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<49>,  Next: Build<55>,  Prev: Library<160>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.26.54.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-39381(1): Mention in docs that *note asyncio.get_event_loop():
     56c. implicitly creates new event loop only if called from the main
     thread.

   - bpo-38918(2): Add an entry for ‘__module__’ in the «function» &
     «method» sections of the *note inspect: 81. docs” *note Types and
     members: 1f83. table.

   - bpo-3530(3): In the *note ast: 9. module documentation, fix a
     misleading ‘NodeTransformer’ example and add advice on when to use
     the ‘fix_missing_locations’ function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39381

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38918

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3530


File: python.info,  Node: Build<55>,  Next: IDLE<31>,  Prev: Documentation<49>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.26.54.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-39395(1): On non-Windows platforms, the ‘setenv()’ and
     ‘unsetenv()’ functions are now required to build Python.

   - bpo-39160(2): Updated the documentation in ‘./configure --help’ to
     show default values, reference documentation where required and add
     additional explanation where needed.

   - bpo-39144(3): The ctags and etags build targets both include
     Modules/_ctypes and Python standard library source files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39160

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39144


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<31>,  Next: C API<51>,  Prev: Build<55>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.26.54.5 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-39050(1): Make IDLE Settings dialog Help button work again.

   - bpo-34118(2): Tag memoryview, range, and tuple as classes, the same
     as list, etcetera, in the library manual built-in functions list.

   - bpo-32989(3): Add tests for editor newline_and_indent_event method.
     Remove dead code from pyparse find_good_parse_start method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39050

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34118

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32989


File: python.info,  Node: C API<51>,  Prev: IDLE<31>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3

1.26.54.6 C API
...............

   - bpo-39372(1): Clean header files of interfaces defined but with no
     implementation.  The public API symbols being removed are:
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGroupingLocale’,
     ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGrouping’, ‘_Py_InitializeFromArgs’,
     ‘_Py_InitializeFromWideArgs’, ‘_PyFloat_Repr’, ‘_PyFloat_Digits’,
     ‘_PyFloat_DigitsInit’, ‘PyFrame_ExtendStack’,
     ‘_PyAIterWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNullImporter_Type’, ‘PyCmpWrapper_Type’,
     ‘PySortWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNoArgsFunction’.

   - bpo-39164(2): Add a private ‘_PyErr_GetExcInfo()’ function to
     retrieve exception information of the specified Python thread
     state.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39372

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39164


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.55 Python 3.9.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-12-18'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<40>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<160>.
* Library: Library<161>.
* Documentation: Documentation<50>.
* Tests: Tests<52>.
* Build: Build<56>.
* Windows: Windows<48>.
* macOS: macOS<39>.
* IDLE: IDLE<32>.
* C API: C API<52>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<40>,  Next: Core and Builtins<160>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.26.55.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38945(1): Newline characters have been escaped when performing
     uu encoding to prevent them from overflowing into to content
     section of the encoded file.  This prevents malicious or accidental
     modification of data during the decoding process.

   - bpo-37228(2): Due to significant security concerns, the
     'reuse_address' parameter of *note
     asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a. is no longer
     supported.  This is because of the behavior of ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in
     UDP. For more details, see the documentation for
     ‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’.  (Contributed by Kyle Stanley,
     Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(3).)

   - bpo-38804(4): Fixes a ReDoS vulnerability in *note http.cookiejar:
     73.  Patch by Ben Caller.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38945

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38804


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<160>,  Next: Library<161>,  Prev: Security<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.26.55.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-39028(1): Slightly improve the speed of keyword argument
     parsing with many kwargs by strengthening the assumption that
     kwargs are interned strings.

   - bpo-39080(2): Fix the value of 'end_col_offset' for Starred
     Expression AST nodes when they are among the elements in the 'args'
     attribute of Call AST nodes.

   - bpo-39031(3): When parsing an «elif» node, lineno and col_offset of
     the node now point to the «elif» keyword and not to its condition,
     making it consistent with the «if» node.  Patch by Lysandros
     Nikolaou.

   - bpo-20443(4): In Python 3.9.0a1, sys.argv[0] was made an absolute
     path if a filename was specified on the command line.  Revert this
     change, since most users expect sys.argv to be unmodified.

   - bpo-39008(5): *note PySys_Audit(): 808. now requires ‘Py_ssize_t’
     to be used for size arguments in the format string, regardless of
     whether ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was defined at include time.

   - bpo-38673(6): In REPL mode, don’t switch to PS2 if the line starts
     with comment or whitespace.  Based on work by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-38922(7): Calling ‘replace’ on a code object now raises the
     ‘code.__new__’ audit event.

   - bpo-38920(8): Add audit hooks for when *note sys.excepthook(): be5.
     and *note sys.unraisablehook(): 70c. are invoked.

   - bpo-38892(9): Improve documentation for audit events table and
     functions.

   - bpo-38852(10): Set the thread stack size to 8 Mb for debug builds
     on android platforms.

   - bpo-38858(11): Each Python subinterpreter now has its own «small
     integer singletons»: numbers in [-5; 257] range.  It is no longer
     possible to change the number of small integers at build time by
     overriding ‘NSMALLNEGINTS’ and ‘NSMALLPOSINTS’ macros: macros
     should now be modified manually in ‘pycore_pystate.h’ header file.

   - bpo-36854(12): The garbage collector state becomes per interpreter
     (‘PyInterpreterState.gc’), rather than being global
     (‘_PyRuntimeState.gc’).

   - bpo-38835(13): The ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ and
     ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ macros are empty: they have been doing
     nothing for the last year, so stop using them.

   - bpo-38328(14): Sped up the creation time of constant *note list:
     4d9. and *note set: 42b. displays.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-38707(15): ‘MainThread.native_id’ is now correctly reset in
     child processes spawned using *note multiprocessing.Process: 4de,
     instead of retaining the parent’s value.

   - bpo-38629(16): Added ‘__floor__’ and ‘__ceil__’ methods to float
     object.  Patch by Batuhan Taşkaya.

   - bpo-27145(17): int + int and int - int operators can now return
     small integer singletons.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-38021(18): Provide a platform tag for AIX that is sufficient
     for PEP425 binary distribution identification.  Patch by Michael
     Felt.

   - bpo-35409(19): Ignore GeneratorExit exceptions when throwing an
     exception into the aclose coroutine of an asynchronous generator.

   - bpo-33387(20): Removed WITH_CLEANUP_START, WITH_CLEANUP_FINISH,
     BEGIN_FINALLY, END_FINALLY, CALL_FINALLY and POP_FINALLY bytecodes.
     Replaced with RERAISE and WITH_EXCEPT_START bytecodes.  The
     compiler now generates different code for exceptional and
     non-exceptional branches for “with” and “try-except” statements.
     For “try-finally” statements the “finally” block is replicated for
     each exit from the “try” body.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39028

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39080

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39031

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39008

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38673

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38922

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38920

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38892

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38852

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38858

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36854

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38328

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38707

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38629

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27145

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38021

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35409

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33387


File: python.info,  Node: Library<161>,  Next: Documentation<50>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<160>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.26.55.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-39033(1): Fix *note NameError: 665. in *note zipimport: 13b.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-39022(2): Update importlib.metadata to include improvements
     from importlib_metadata 1.3 including better serialization of
     EntryPoints and improved documentation for custom finders.

   - bpo-39006(3): Fix asyncio when the ssl module is missing: only
     check for ssl.SSLSocket instance if the ssl module is available.

   - bpo-38708(4): Fix a potential IndexError in email parser when
     parsing an empty msg-id.

   - bpo-38698(5): Add a new ‘InvalidMessageID’ token to email parser to
     represent invalid Message-ID headers.  Also, add defects when there
     is remaining value after parsing the header.

   - bpo-38994(6): Implement ‘__class_getitem__’ for ‘os.PathLike’,
     ‘pathlib.Path’.

   - bpo-38979(7): Return class from ‘ContextVar.__class_getitem__’ to
     simplify subclassing.

   - bpo-38978(8): Implement ‘__class_getitem__’ on asyncio objects
     (Future, Task, Queue).  Patch by Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-38916(9): *note array.array: 6c5.: Remove ‘tostring()’ and
     ‘fromstring()’ methods.  They were aliases to ‘tobytes()’ and
     ‘frombytes()’, deprecated since Python 3.2.

   - bpo-38986(10): Make repr of C accelerated TaskWakeupMethWrapper the
     same as of pure Python version.

   - bpo-38982(11): Fix asyncio ‘PidfdChildWatcher’: handle ‘waitpid()’
     error.  If ‘waitpid()’ is called elsewhere, ‘waitpid()’ call fails
     with *note ChildProcessError: 1400.: use return code 255 in this
     case, and log a warning.  It ensures that the pidfd file descriptor
     is closed if this error occurs.

   - bpo-38529(12): Drop too noisy asyncio warning about deletion of a
     stream without explicit ‘.close()’ call.

   - bpo-27413(13): Added ability to pass through ‘ensure_ascii’ options
     to json.dumps in the ‘json.tool’ command-line interface.

   - bpo-38634(14): The *note readline: c2. module now detects if Python
     is linked to libedit at runtime on all platforms.  Previously, the
     check was only done on macOS.

   - bpo-33684(15): Fix ‘json.tool’ failed to read a JSON file with
     non-ASCII characters when locale encoding is not UTF-8.

   - bpo-38698(16): Prevent UnboundLocalError to pop up in
     parse_message_id.

     parse_message_id() was improperly using a token defined inside an
     exception handler, which was raising ‘UnboundLocalError’ on parsing
     an invalid value.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-38927(17): Use ‘python -m pip’ instead of ‘pip’ to upgrade
     dependencies in venv.

   - bpo-26730(18): Fix ‘SpooledTemporaryFile.rollover()’ might corrupt
     the file when it is in text mode.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-38881(19): random.choices() now raises a ValueError when all
     the weights are zero.

   - bpo-38876(20): Raise pickle.UnpicklingError when loading an item
     from memo for invalid input.

     The previous code was raising a ‘KeyError’ for both the Python and
     C implementation.  This was caused by the specified index of an
     invalid input which did not exist in the memo structure, where the
     pickle stores what objects it has seen.  The malformed input would
     have caused either a ‘BINGET’ or ‘LONG_BINGET’ load from the memo,
     leading to a ‘KeyError’ as the determined index was bogus.  Patch
     by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-38688(21): Calling func:‘shutil.copytree’ to copy a directory
     tree from one directory to another subdirectory resulted in an
     endless loop and a RecursionError.  A fix was added to consume an
     iterator and create the list of the entries to be copied, avoiding
     the recursion for newly created directories.  Patch by Bruno P.
     Kinoshita.

   - bpo-38863(22): Improve ‘is_cgi()’ function in *note http.server:
     75, which enables processing the case that cgi directory is a child
     of another directory other than root.

   - bpo-37838(23): *note typing.get_type_hints(): a9e. properly handles
     functions decorated with *note functools.wraps(): 1307.

   - bpo-38870(24): Expose *note ast.unparse(): cb6. as a function of
     the *note ast: 9. module that can be used to unparse an *note
     ast.AST: 2ec. object and produce a string with code that would
     produce an equivalent ‘ast.AST’ object when parsed.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo and Batuhan Taskaya.

   - bpo-38859(25): AsyncMock now returns StopAsyncIteration on the
     exhaustion of a side_effects iterable.  Since PEP-479 its
     Impossible to raise a StopIteration exception from a coroutine.

   - bpo-38857(26): AsyncMock fix for return values that are awaitable
     types.  This also covers side_effect iterable values that happened
     to be awaitable, and wraps callables that return an awaitable type.
     Before these awaitables were being awaited instead of being
     returned as is.

   - bpo-38834(27): *note typing.TypedDict: 290. subclasses now track
     which keys are optional using the ‘__required_keys__’ and
     ‘__optional_keys__’ attributes, to enable runtime validation by
     downstream projects.  Patch by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.

   - bpo-38821(28): Fix unhandled exceptions in *note argparse: 7. when
     internationalizing error messages for arguments with ‘nargs’ set to
     special (non-integer) values.  Patch by Federico Bond.

   - bpo-38820(29): Make Python compatible with OpenSSL 3.0.0.  *note
     ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): 1361. no longer returns IPv6 addresses
     with a trailing new line.

   - bpo-38811(30): Fix an unhandled exception in *note pathlib: a8.
     when *note os.link(): 149b. is missing.  Patch by Toke
     Høiland-Jørgensen.

   - bpo-38686(31): Added support for multiple ‘qop’ values in *note
     urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler: 1f5f.

   - bpo-38712(32): Add the Linux-specific *note
     signal.pidfd_send_signal(): cf8. function, which allows sending a
     signal to a process identified by a file descriptor rather than a
     pid.

   - bpo-38348(33): Add ‘-i’ and ‘--indent’ (indentation level), and
     ‘--no-type-comments’ (type comments) command line options to ast
     parsing tool.

   - bpo-37523(34): Change ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’ to raise ‘ValueError’
     when trying to access the underlying file object after it has been
     closed.  This new behavior is consistent with how accessing closed
     files is handled in other parts of Python.

   - bpo-38045(35): Improve the performance of ‘enum._decompose()’ in
     *note enum: 59.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-36820(36): Break cycle generated when saving an exception in
     socket.py, codeop.py and dyld.py as they keep alive not only the
     exception but user objects through the ‘__traceback__’ attribute.
     Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-36406(37): Handle namespace packages in *note doctest: 3d.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-34776(38): Fix dataclasses to support forward references in
     type annotations

   - bpo-20928(39): ElementTree supports recursive XInclude processing.
     Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-29636(40): Add whitespace options for formatting JSON with the
     ‘json.tool’ CLI. The following mutually exclusive options are now
     supported: ‘--indent’ for setting the indent level in spaces;
     ‘--tab’ for indenting with tabs; ‘--no-indent’ for suppressing
     newlines; and ‘--compact’ for suppressing all whitespace.  The
     default behavior remains the same as ‘--indent=4’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39033

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39022

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39006

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38708

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38698

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38994

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38979

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38978

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38916

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38986

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38982

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38529

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27413

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38634

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33684

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38698

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38927

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26730

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38881

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38876

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38688

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38863

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37838

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38870

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38859

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38857

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38834

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38821

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38811

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38686

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38712

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38348

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37523

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38045

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36820

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36406

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34776

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20928

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29636


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<50>,  Next: Tests<52>,  Prev: Library<161>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.26.55.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-38928(1): Correct when venv’s ‘upgrade_dependencies()’ and
     ‘--upgrade-deps’ are added.

   - bpo-38899(2): Update documentation to state that to activate
     virtual environments under fish one should use ‘source’, not ‘.’ as
     documented at
     ‘https://fishshell.com/docs/current/cmds/source.html’.

   - bpo-22377(3): Improves documentation of the values that *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 2d2. accepts for ‘%Z’.  Patch by Karl
     Dubost.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38928

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38899

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22377


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<52>,  Next: Build<56>,  Prev: Documentation<50>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.26.55.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38546(1): Fix test_ressources_gced_in_workers() of
     test_concurrent_futures: explicitly stop the manager to prevent
     leaking a child process running in the background after the test
     completes.

   - bpo-38546(2): Multiprocessing and concurrent.futures tests now stop
     the resource tracker process when tests complete.

   - bpo-38614(3): Replace hardcoded timeout constants in tests with new
     *note test.support: ed. constants: *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 1f8d,
     *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 1f8e, *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 1e5a. and *note
     LONG_TIMEOUT: 1f8f.  It becomes easier to adjust these four timeout
     constants for all tests at once, rather than having to adjust every
     single test file.

   - bpo-38547(4): Fix test_pty: if the process is the session leader,
     closing the master file descriptor raises a SIGHUP signal: simply
     ignore SIGHUP when running the tests.

   - bpo-38992(5): Fix a test for *note math.fsum(): 1777. that was
     failing due to constant folding.

   - bpo-38991(6): *note test.support: ed.: ‘run_python_until_end()’,
     ‘assert_python_ok()’ and ‘assert_python_failure()’ functions no
     longer strip whitespaces from stderr.  Remove
     ‘test.support.strip_python_stderr()’ function.

   - bpo-38965(7): Fix test_faulthandler on GCC 10.  Use the «volatile»
     keyword in ‘faulthandler._stack_overflow()’ to prevent tail call
     optimization on any compiler, rather than relying on compiler
     specific pragma.

   - bpo-38875(8): test_capi: trashcan tests now require the test «cpu»
     resource.

   - bpo-38841(9): Skip asyncio
     test_create_datagram_endpoint_existing_sock_unix on platforms
     lacking a functional bind() for named unix domain sockets.

   - bpo-38692(10): Skip the test_posix.test_pidfd_open() test if
     ‘os.pidfd_open()’ fails with a *note PermissionError: 10f9.  This
     situation can happen in a Linux sandbox using a syscall whitelist
     which doesn’t allow the ‘pidfd_open()’ syscall yet.

   - bpo-38839(11): Fix some unused functions in tests.  Patch by Adam
     Johnson.

   - bpo-38669(12): Raise *note TypeError: 291. when passing target as a
     string with *note unittest.mock.patch.object(): 1b25.

   - bpo-37957(13): test.regrtest now can receive a list of test
     patterns to ignore (using the -i/–ignore argument) or a file with a
     list of patterns to ignore (using the –ignore-file argument).
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38546

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38546

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38547

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38992

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38991

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38965

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38875

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38841

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38839

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38669

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37957


File: python.info,  Node: Build<56>,  Next: Windows<48>,  Prev: Tests<52>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.26.55.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-37404(1): *note asyncio: b. now raises *note TypeError: 291.
     when calling incompatible methods with an *note ssl.SSLSocket: cbb.
     socket.  Patch by Ido Michael.

   - bpo-36500(2): Added an optional «regen» project to the Visual
     Studio solution that will regenerate all grammar, tokens, and
     opcodes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37404

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36500


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<48>,  Next: macOS<39>,  Prev: Build<56>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.26.55.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-39007(1): Add auditing events to functions in *note winreg:
     11f.

   - bpo-33125(2): Add support for building and releasing Windows ARM64
     packages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39007

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<39>,  Next: IDLE<32>,  Prev: Windows<48>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.26.55.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-37931(1): Fixed a crash on OSX dynamic builds that occurred
     when re-initializing the posix module after a Py_Finalize if the
     environment had changed since the previous ‘import posix’.  Patch
     by Benoît Hudson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37931


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<32>,  Next: C API<52>,  Prev: macOS<39>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.26.55.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-38944(1): Escape key now closes IDLE completion windows.  Patch
     by Johnny Najera.

   - bpo-38943(2): Fix IDLE autocomplete windows not always appearing on
     some systems.  Patch by Johnny Najera.

   - bpo-38862(3): “Strip Trailing Whitespace” on the Format menu
     removes extra newlines at the end of non-shell files.

   - bpo-38636(4): Fix IDLE Format menu tab toggle and file indent
     width.  These functions (default shortcuts Alt-T and Alt-U) were
     mistakenly disabled in 3.7.5 and 3.8.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38943

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38862

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38636


File: python.info,  Node: C API<52>,  Prev: IDLE<32>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2

1.26.55.10 C API
................

   - bpo-38896(1): Remove ‘PyUnicode_ClearFreeList()’ function: the
     Unicode free list has been removed in Python 3.3.

   - bpo-37340(2): Remove ‘PyMethod_ClearFreeList()’ and
     ‘PyCFunction_ClearFreeList()’ functions: the free lists of bound
     method objects have been removed.

   - bpo-38835(3): Exclude ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ and
     ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ macros of ‘pyfpe.h’ from ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
     (stable API).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38896

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.56 Python 3.9.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-11-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<41>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<161>.
* Library: Library<162>.
* Documentation: Documentation<51>.
* Tests: Tests<53>.
* Build: Build<57>.
* Windows: Windows<49>.
* macOS: macOS<40>.
* IDLE: IDLE<33>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<31>.
* C API: C API<53>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<41>,  Next: Core and Builtins<161>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.26.56.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-38722(1): *note runpy: c6. now uses *note io.open_code(): 1943.
     to open code files.  Patch by Jason Killen.

   - bpo-38622(2): Add additional audit events for the *note ctypes: 2d.
     module.

   - bpo-38418(3): Fixes audit event for *note os.system(): 17ff. to be
     named ‘os.system’.

   - bpo-38243(4): Escape the server title of *note
     xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer: 1f97. when rendering the document
     page as HTML. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38243(5).)

   - bpo-38174(6): Update vendorized expat library version to 2.2.8,
     which resolves CVE 2019-15903(7).

   - bpo-37764(8): Fixes email._header_value_parser.get_unstructured
     going into an infinite loop for a specific case in which the email
     header does not have trailing whitespace, and the case in which it
     contains an invalid encoded word.  Patch by Ashwin Ramaswami.

   - bpo-37461(9): Fix an infinite loop when parsing specially crafted
     email headers.  Patch by Abhilash Raj.

   - bpo-37363(10): Adds audit events for the range of supported run
     commands (see *note Command line and environment: 1f98.).

   - bpo-37463(11): ssl.match_hostname() no longer accepts IPv4
     addresses with additional text after the address and only
     quad-dotted notation without trailing whitespaces.  Some
     inet_aton() implementations ignore whitespace and all data after
     whitespace, e.g.  “127.0.0.1 whatever”.

   - bpo-37363(12): Adds audit events for *note ensurepip: 58, *note
     ftplib: 61, *note glob: 67, *note imaplib: 77, ‘nntplib’, *note
     pdb: aa, *note poplib: b1, *note shutil: cd, *note smtplib: d2,
     *note sqlite3: d7, *note subprocess: df, ‘telnetlib’, *note
     tempfile: e9. and *note webbrowser: 11e, as well as *note
     os.listdir(): 14a6, *note os.scandir(): e23. and *note
     breakpoint(): 4f9.

   - bpo-37364(13): *note io.open_code(): 1943. is now used when reading
     ‘.pth’ files.

   - bpo-34631(14): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in Windows installer

   - bpo-34155(15): Fix parsing of invalid email addresses with more
     than one ‘@’ (e.g.  a@b@c.com.)  to not return the part before 2nd
     ‘@’ as valid email address.  Patch by maxking & jpic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38622

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38418

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38243

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38174

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-15903

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37764

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37461

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37463

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37363

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37364

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34631

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34155


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<161>,  Next: Library<162>,  Prev: Security<41>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.26.56.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-38631(1): Replace ‘Py_FatalError()’ call with a regular *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. exception in ‘float.__getformat__()’.

   - bpo-38639(2): Optimized *note math.floor(): 1760, *note
     math.ceil(): 1761. and *note math.trunc(): 1762. for floats.

   - bpo-38640(3): Fixed a bug in the compiler that was causing to raise
     in the presence of break statements and continue statements inside
     always false while loops.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38613(4): Optimized some set operations (e.g.  ‘|’, ‘^’, and
     ‘-’) of ‘dict_keys’.  ‘d.keys() | other’ was slower than ‘set(d) |
     other’ but they are almost same performance for now.

   - bpo-28029(5): ‘"".replace("", s, n)’ now returns ‘s’ instead of an
     empty string for all non-zero ‘n’.  There are similar changes for
     *note bytes: 1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6. objects.

   - bpo-38535(6): Fixed line numbers and column offsets for AST nodes
     for calls without arguments in decorators.

   - bpo-38525(7): Fix a segmentation fault when using reverse iterators
     of empty ‘dict’ objects.  Patch by Donghee Na and Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-38465(8): *note bytearray: 1c6, *note array: 6c5. and *note
     mmap: 23c. objects allow now to export more than ‘2**31’ buffers at
     a time.

   - bpo-38469(9): Fixed a bug where the scope of named expressions was
     not being resolved correctly in the presence of the 'global'
     keyword.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38437(10): Activate the ‘GC_DEBUG’ macro for debug builds of
     the interpreter (when ‘Py_DEBUG’ is set).  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-38379(11): When the garbage collector makes a collection in
     which some objects resurrect (they are reachable from outside the
     isolated cycles after the finalizers have been executed), do not
     block the collection of all objects that are still unreachable.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo and Tim Peters.

   - bpo-38379(12): When cyclic garbage collection (gc) runs finalizers
     that resurrect unreachable objects, the current gc run ends,
     without collecting any cyclic trash.  However, the statistics
     reported by ‘collect()’ and ‘get_stats()’ claimed that all cyclic
     trash found was collected, and that the resurrected objects were
     collected.  Changed the stats to report that none were collected.

   - bpo-38392(13): In debug mode, *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 18a6. now
     calls ‘tp_traverse()’ of the object type to ensure that the object
     is valid: test that objects visited by ‘tp_traverse()’ are valid.

   - bpo-38210(14): Remove unnecessary intersection and update set
     operation in dictview with empty set.  (Contributed by Donghee Na
     in bpo-38210(15).)

   - bpo-38402(16): Check the error from the system’s underlying ‘crypt’
     or ‘crypt_r’.

   - bpo-37474(17): On FreeBSD, Python no longer calls
     ‘fedisableexcept()’ at startup to control the floating-point
     control mode.  The call became useless since FreeBSD 6: it became
     the default mode.

   - bpo-38006(18): Fix a bug due to the interaction of weakrefs and the
     cyclic garbage collector.  We must clear any weakrefs in garbage in
     order to prevent their callbacks from executing and causing a
     crash.

   - bpo-38317(19): Fix warnings options priority:
     ‘PyConfig.warnoptions’ has the highest priority, as stated in the
     PEP 587(20).

   - bpo-38310(21): Predict ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ ->
     ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ opcode pairs in the main interpreter loop.
     Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-36871(22): Improve error handling for the assert_has_calls and
     assert_has_awaits methods of mocks.  Fixed a bug where any errors
     encountered while binding the expected calls to the mock’s spec
     were silently swallowed, leading to misleading error output.

   - bpo-11410(23): Better control over symbol visibility is provided
     through use of the visibility attributes available in gcc >= 4.0,
     provided in a uniform way across POSIX and Windows.  The POSIX
     build files have been updated to compile with -fvisibility=hidden,
     minimising exported symbols.

   - bpo-38219(24): Optimized the *note dict: 188. constructor and the
     *note update(): 1807. method for the case when the argument is a
     dict.

   - bpo-38236(25): Python now dumps path configuration if it fails to
     import the Python codecs of the filesystem and stdio encodings.

   - bpo-38013(26): Allow to call ‘async_generator_athrow().throw(...)’
     even for non-started async generator helper.  It fixes annoying
     warning at the end of *note asyncio.run(): 309. call.

   - bpo-38124(27): Fix an off-by-one error in PyState_AddModule that
     could cause out-of-bounds memory access.

   - bpo-38116(28): The select module is now PEP-384 compliant and no
     longer has static state

   - bpo-38113(29): ast module updated to PEP-384 and all statics
     removed

   - bpo-38076(30): The struct module is now PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38075(31): The random module is now PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38074(32): zlib module made PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38073(33): Make pwd extension module PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38072(34): grp module made PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38069(35): Make _posixsubprocess PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38071(36): Make termios extension module PEP-384 compatible

   - bpo-38005(37): Fixed comparing and creating of InterpreterID and
     ChannelID.

   - bpo-36946(38): Fix possible signed integer overflow when handling
     slices.  Patch by hongweipeng.

   - bpo-37994(39): Fixed silencing arbitrary errors if an attribute
     lookup fails in several sites.  Only AttributeError should be
     silenced.

   - bpo-8425(40): Optimize set difference_update for the case when the
     other set is much larger than the base set.  (Suggested by Evgeny
     Kapun with code contributed by Michele Orrù).

   - bpo-37966(41): The implementation of *note is_normalized(): e0b.
     has been greatly sped up on strings that aren’t normalized, by
     implementing the full normalization-quick-check algorithm from the
     Unicode standard.

   - bpo-37947(42): Adjust correctly the recursion level in the symtable
     generation for named expressions.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37812(43): The ‘CHECK_SMALL_INT’ macro used inside
     ‘Object/longobject.c’ has been replaced with an explicit ‘return’
     at each call site.

   - bpo-37751(44): Fix *note codecs.lookup(): d2d. to normalize the
     encoding name the same way than *note
     encodings.normalize_encoding(): 313, except that ‘codecs.lookup()’
     also converts the name to lower case.

   - bpo-37830(45): Fixed compilation of *note break: 428. and *note
     continue: 429. in the *note finally: 44c. block when the
     corresponding *note try: ad6. block contains *note return: 44b.
     with a non-constant value.

   - bpo-20490(46): Improve import error message for partially
     initialized module on circular ‘from’ imports - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37840(47): Fix handling of negative indices in *note sq_item:
     1eea. of *note bytearray: 1c6.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37802(48): Slightly improve performance of *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(): 1ade, *note
     PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(): 1adf. and *note PyLong_FromSize_t():
     1ae0.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37409(49): Ensure explicit relative imports from interactive
     sessions and scripts (having no parent package) always raise
     ImportError, rather than treating the current module as the
     package.  Patch by Ben Lewis.

   - bpo-32912(50): Reverted bpo-32912(51): emitting *note
     SyntaxWarning: 44a. instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. for
     invalid escape sequences in string and bytes literals.

   - bpo-37757(52): PEP 572(53): As described in the PEP, assignment
     expressions now raise *note SyntaxError: 17e. when their
     interaction with comprehension scoping results in an ambiguous
     target scope.

     The ‘TargetScopeError’ subclass originally proposed by the PEP has
     been removed in favour of just raising regular syntax errors for
     the disallowed cases.

   - bpo-36279(54): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in *note
     os.wait3(): 114f.

   - bpo-36311(55): Decoding bytes objects larger than 2GiB is faster
     and no longer fails when a multibyte characters spans a chunk
     boundary.

   - bpo-34880(56): The *note assert: d31. statement now works properly
     if the *note AssertionError: a97. exception is being shadowed.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-37340(57): Removed object cache (‘free_list’) for bound method
     objects.  Temporary bound method objects are less used than before
     thanks to the ‘LOAD_METHOD’ opcode and the
     ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod’ C API.

   - bpo-37648(58): Fixed minor inconsistency in ‘list.__contains__()’,
     ‘tuple.__contains__()’ and a few other places.  The collection’s
     item is now always at the left and the needle is on the right of
     ‘==’.

   - bpo-37444(59): Update differing exception between
     ‘builtins.__import__()’ and *note importlib.__import__(): 1415.

   - bpo-37619(60): When adding a wrapper descriptor from one class to a
     different class (for example, setting ‘__add__ = str.__add__’ on an
     ‘int’ subclass), an exception is correctly raised when the operator
     is called.

   - bpo-37593(61): Swap the positions of the 'posonlyargs' and 'args'
     parameters in the constructor of ‘ast.parameters’ nodes.

   - bpo-37543(62): Optimized pymalloc for non PGO build.

   - bpo-37537(63): Compute allocated pymalloc blocks inside
     _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks().  This slows down _Py_GetAllocatedBlocks()
     but gives a small speedup to _PyObject_Malloc() and
     _PyObject_Free().

   - bpo-37467(64): Fix *note sys.excepthook(): be5. and
     ‘PyErr_Display()’ if a filename is a bytes string.  For example,
     for a SyntaxError exception where the filename attribute is a bytes
     string.

   - bpo-37433(65): Fix ‘SyntaxError’ indicator printing too many spaces
     for multi-line strings - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37417(66): *note bytearray.extend(): 198b. now correctly
     handles errors that arise during iteration.  Patch by Brandt
     Bucher.

   - bpo-37414(67): The undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function has been
     removed.  Since Python 3.7, it was deprecated and always returned
     ‘None’.  It required a special build option ‘CALL_PROFILE’ which
     was already removed in Python 3.7.

   - bpo-37392(68): Remove ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ and
     ‘sys.setcheckinterval()’ functions.  They were deprecated since
     Python 3.2.  Use *note sys.getswitchinterval(): d15. and *note
     sys.setswitchinterval(): d16. instead.  Remove also
     ‘check_interval’ field of the ‘PyInterpreterState’ structure.

   - bpo-37388(69): In development mode and in debug build, 'encoding'
     and 'errors' arguments are now checked on string encoding and
     decoding operations.  Examples: *note open(): 32b, *note
     str.encode(): ca7. and *note bytes.decode(): ca8.

     By default, for best performances, the 'errors' argument is only
     checked at the first encoding/decoding error, and the 'encoding'
     argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings.

   - bpo-37348(70): Optimized decoding short ASCII string with UTF-8 and
     ascii codecs.  ‘b"foo".decode()’ is about 15% faster.  Patch by
     Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-24214(71): Improved support of the surrogatepass error handler
     in the UTF-8 and UTF-16 incremental decoders.

   - bpo-37330(72): *note open(): 32b, *note io.open(): 92b, *note
     codecs.open(): 32c. and *note fileinput.FileInput: b1e. no longer
     accept ‘'U'’ («universal newline») in the file mode.  This flag was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-35224(73): Reverse evaluation order of key: value in dict
     comprehensions as proposed in PEP 572.  I.e.  in ‘{k: v for ...}’,
     ‘k’ will be evaluated before ‘v’.

   - bpo-37316(74): Fix the *note PySys_Audit(): 808. call in *note
     mmap.mmap: 23c.

   - bpo-37300(75): Remove an unnecessary Py_XINCREF in classobject.c.

   - bpo-37269(76): Fix a bug in the peephole optimizer that was not
     treating correctly constant conditions with binary operators.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-20443(77): Python now gets the absolute path of the script
     filename specified on the command line (ex: «python3 script.py»):
     the __file__ attribute of the __main__ module and sys.path[0]
     become an absolute path, rather than a relative path.

   - bpo-37257(78): Python’s small object allocator (‘obmalloc.c’) now
     allows (no more than) one empty arena to remain available for
     immediate reuse, without returning it to the OS. This prevents
     thrashing in simple loops where an arena could be created and
     destroyed anew on each iteration.

   - bpo-37231(79): The dispatching of type slots to special methods
     (for example calling ‘__mul__’ when doing ‘x * y’) has been made
     faster.

   - bpo-36974(80): Implemented separate vectorcall functions for every
     calling convention of builtin functions and methods.  This improves
     performance for calls.

   - bpo-37213(81): Handle correctly negative line offsets in the
     peephole optimizer.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37219(82): Remove erroneous optimization for empty set
     differences.

   - bpo-15913(83): Implement *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): b3c.
     function (previously documented but not implemented): call *note
     struct.calcsize(): 1f9a.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-36922(84): Slot functions optimize any callable with
     ‘Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR’ instead of only instances of
     ‘function’.

   - bpo-36974(85): The slot ‘tp_vectorcall_offset’ is inherited
     unconditionally to support ‘super().__call__()’ when the base class
     uses vectorcall.

   - bpo-37160(86): *note threading.get_native_id(): e01. now also
     supports NetBSD.

   - bpo-37077(87): Add *note threading.get_native_id(): e01. support
     for AIX. Patch by M. Felt

   - bpo-36781(88): *note sum(): 881. has been optimized for boolean
     values.

   - bpo-34556(89): Add ‘--upgrade-deps’ to venv module.  Patch by
     Cooper Ry Lees

   - bpo-20523(90): ‘pdb.Pdb’ supports ~/.pdbrc in Windows 7.  Patch by
     Tim Hopper and Dan Lidral-Porter.

   - bpo-35551(91): Updated encodings: - Removed the «tis260» encoding,
     which was an alias for the nonexistent «tactis» codec.  - Added
     «mac_centeuro» as an alias for the mac_latin2 encoding.

   - bpo-19072(92): The *note classmethod: 69a. decorator can now wrap
     other descriptors such as property objects.  Adapted from a patch
     written by Graham Dumpleton.

   - bpo-27575(93): Improve speed of dictview intersection by directly
     using set intersection logic.  Patch by David Su.

   - bpo-30773(94): Prohibit parallel running of aclose() / asend() /
     athrow().  Fix ag_running to reflect the actual running status of
     the AG.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38631

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38639

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38640

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38613

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28029

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38535

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38525

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38465

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38437

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38392

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38210

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38210

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38402

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37474

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38006

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38317

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38310

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36871

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11410

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38219

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38236

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38013

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38124

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38116

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38113

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38076

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38075

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38074

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38073

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38072

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38069

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38071

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38005

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36946

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37994

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8425

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37966

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37947

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37812

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37751

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37830

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20490

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37840

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37802

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37409

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32912

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37757

   (53) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36279

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36311

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34880

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37648

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37619

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37593

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37543

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37537

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37467

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37433

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37417

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37414

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37392

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37348

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24214

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37316

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37300

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37269

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37257

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37231

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37213

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37219

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15913

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36922

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37160

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37077

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36781

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34556

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20523

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35551

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27575

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30773


File: python.info,  Node: Library<162>,  Next: Documentation<51>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<161>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.26.56.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-36589(1): The *note curses.update_lines_cols(): 11a3. function
     now returns ‘None’ instead of ‘1’ on success.

   - bpo-38807(2): Update *note TypeError: 291. messages for *note
     os.path.join(): 1a42. to include *note os.PathLike: 100f. objects
     as acceptable input types.

   - bpo-38724(3): Add a repr for ‘subprocess.Popen’ objects.  Patch by
     Andrey Doroschenko.

   - bpo-38786(4): pydoc now recognizes and parses HTTPS URLs.  Patch by
     python273.

   - bpo-38785(5): Prevent asyncio from crashing if parent ‘__init__’ is
     not called from a constructor of object derived from
     ‘asyncio.Future’.

   - bpo-38723(6): *note pdb: aa. now uses *note io.open_code(): 1943.
     to trigger auditing events.

   - bpo-27805(7): Allow opening pipes and other non-seekable files in
     append mode with *note open(): 32b.

   - bpo-38438(8): Simplify the *note argparse: 7. usage message for
     ‘nargs="*"’.

   - bpo-38761(9): WeakSet is now registered as a
     collections.abc.MutableSet.

   - bpo-38716(10): logging: change RotatingHandler namer and rotator to
     class-level attributes.  This stops __init__ from setting them to
     None in the case where a subclass defines them with eponymous
     methods.

   - bpo-38713(11): Add *note os.P_PIDFD: ce9. constant, which may be
     passed to *note os.waitid(): 1152. to wait on a Linux process file
     descriptor.

   - bpo-38692(12): Add ‘asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher’, a Linux-specific
     child watcher implementation that polls process file descriptors.

   - bpo-38692(13): Expose the Linux ‘pidfd_open’ syscall as *note
     os.pidfd_open(): 267.

   - bpo-38602(14): Added constants ‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’ and
     ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’ to the *note fcntl: 5c. module.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-38334(15): Fixed seeking backward on an encrypted
     ‘zipfile.ZipExtFile’.

   - bpo-38312(16): Add *note curses.get_escdelay(): cc0, *note
     curses.set_escdelay(): cc1, *note curses.get_tabsize(): cc2, and
     *note curses.set_tabsize(): cc3. functions - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-38586(17): Now *note fileConfig(): f0e. correctly sets the
     .name of handlers loaded.

   - bpo-38565(18): Add new cache_parameters() method for
     functools.lru_cache() to better support pickling.

   - bpo-34679(19): asynci.ProactorEventLoop.close() now only calls
     signal.set_wakeup_fd() in the main thread.

   - bpo-31202(20): The case the result of ‘pathlib.WindowsPath.glob()’
     matches now the case of the pattern for literal parts.

   - bpo-36321(21): Remove misspelled attribute.  The 3.8 changelog
     noted that this would be removed in 3.9.

   - bpo-38521(22): Fixed erroneous equality comparison in
     statistics.NormalDist().

   - bpo-38493(23): Added *note CLD_KILLED: ce7. and *note CLD_STOPPED:
     ce8. for ‘si_code’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38478(24): Fixed a bug in ‘inspect.signature.bind()’ that was
     causing it to fail when handling a keyword argument with same name
     as positional-only parameter.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33604(25): Fixed ‘hmac.new’ and ‘hmac.HMAC’ to raise TypeError
     instead of ValueError when the digestmod parameter, now required in
     3.8, is omitted.  Also clarified the hmac module documentation and
     docstrings.

   - bpo-38378(26): Parameters 'out' and 'in' of *note os.sendfile():
     ed3. was renamed to 'out_fd' and 'in_fd'.

   - bpo-38417(27): Added support for setting the umask in the child
     process to the subprocess module on POSIX systems.

   - bpo-38449(28): Revert PR 15522, which introduces a regression in
     *note mimetypes.guess_type(): 71b. due to improper handling of
     filenames as urls.

   - bpo-38431(29): Fix ‘__repr__’ method for *note dataclasses.InitVar:
     1dae. to support typing objects, patch by Samuel Colvin.

   - bpo-38109(30): Add missing *note stat.S_IFDOOR: 1364, *note
     stat.S_IFPORT: 1365, *note stat.S_IFWHT: 1366, *note
     stat.S_ISDOOR(): 1f9c, *note stat.S_ISPORT(): 1f9d, and *note
     stat.S_ISWHT(): 1f9e. values to the Python implementation of *note
     stat: d9.

   - bpo-38422(31): Clarify docstrings of pathlib suffix(es)

   - bpo-38405(32): Nested subclasses of *note typing.NamedTuple: 2e4.
     are now pickleable.

   - bpo-38332(33): Prevent *note KeyError: 7df. thrown by
     ‘_encoded_words.decode()’ when given an encoded-word with invalid
     content-type encoding from propagating all the way to
     ‘email.message.get()’.

   - bpo-38371(34): Deprecated the ‘split()’ method in
     ‘_tkinter.TkappType’ in favour of the ‘splitlist()’ method which
     has more consistent and predictable behavior.

   - bpo-38341(35): Add *note smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError: 1f9f. to
     the *note smtplib: d2. exported names.

   - bpo-38319(36): sendfile() used in socket and shutil modules was
     raising OverflowError for files >= 2GiB on 32-bit architectures.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-38242(37): Revert the new asyncio Streams API

   - bpo-13153(38): OS native encoding is now used for converting
     between Python strings and Tcl objects.  This allows to display,
     copy and paste to clipboard emoji and other non-BMP characters.
     Converting strings from Tcl to Python and back now never fails
     (except MemoryError).

   - bpo-38019(39): Correctly handle pause/resume reading of closed
     asyncio unix pipe.

   - bpo-38163(40): Child mocks will now detect their type as either
     synchronous or asynchronous, asynchronous child mocks will be
     AsyncMocks and synchronous child mocks will be either MagicMock or
     Mock (depending on their parent type).

   - bpo-38161(41): Removes _AwaitEvent from AsyncMock.

   - bpo-38216(42): Allow the rare code that wants to send invalid http
     requests from the ‘http.client’ library a way to do so.  The fixes
     for bpo-30458(43) led to breakage for some projects that were
     relying on this ability to test their own behavior in the face of
     bad requests.

   - bpo-28286(44): Deprecate opening *note GzipFile: 849. for writing
     implicitly.  Always specify the 'mode' argument for writing.

   - bpo-38108(45): Any synchronous magic methods on an AsyncMock now
     return a MagicMock.  Any asynchronous magic methods on a MagicMock
     now return an AsyncMock.

   - bpo-38265(46): Update the 'length' parameter of *note os.pread():
     f1c. to accept *note Py_ssize_t: e24. instead of int.

   - bpo-38112(47): *note compileall: 21. has a higher default recursion
     limit and new command-line arguments for path manipulation,
     symlinks handling, and multiple optimization levels.

   - bpo-38248(48): asyncio: Fix inconsistent immediate Task
     cancellation

   - bpo-38237(49): The arguments for the builtin pow function are more
     descriptive.  They can now also be passed in as keywords.

   - bpo-34002(50): Improve efficiency in parts of email package by
     changing while-pop to a for loop, using isdisjoint instead of set
     intersections.

   - bpo-38191(51): Constructors of *note NamedTuple: 2e4. and *note
     TypedDict: 290. types now accept arbitrary keyword argument names,
     including «cls», «self», «typename», «_typename», «fields» and
     «_fields».

   - bpo-38155(52): Add ‘__all__’ to *note datetime: 33.  Patch by Tahia
     Khan.

   - bpo-38185(53): Fixed case-insensitive string comparison in *note
     sqlite3.Row: 1222. indexing.

   - bpo-38136(54): Changes AsyncMock call count and await count to be
     two different counters.  Now await count only counts when a
     coroutine has been awaited, not when it has been called, and
     vice-versa.  Update the documentation around this.

   - bpo-37828(55): Fix default mock name in *note
     unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called(): 10b4. exceptions.  Patch by
     Abraham Toriz Cruz.

   - bpo-38175(56): Fix a memory leak in comparison of *note
     sqlite3.Row: 1222. objects.

   - bpo-33936(57): _hashlib no longer calls obsolete OpenSSL
     initialization function with OpenSSL 1.1.0+.

   - bpo-34706(58): Preserve subclassing in
     inspect.Signature.from_callable.

   - bpo-38153(59): Names of hashing algorithms from OpenSSL are now
     normalized to follow Python’s naming conventions.  For example
     OpenSSL uses sha3-512 instead of sha3_512 or blake2b512 instead of
     blake2b.

   - bpo-38115(60): Fix a bug in dis.findlinestarts() where it would
     return invalid bytecode offsets.  Document that a code object’s
     co_lnotab can contain invalid bytecode offsets.

   - bpo-38148(61): Add slots to *note asyncio: b. transport classes,
     which can reduce memory usage.

   - bpo-38142(62): The _hashlib OpenSSL wrapper extension module is now
     PEP-384 compliant.

   - bpo-9216(63): hashlib constructors now support usedforsecurity flag
     to signal that a hashing algorithm is not used in a security
     context.

   - bpo-36991(64): Fixes a potential incorrect AttributeError exception
     escaping ZipFile.extract() in some unsupported input error
     situations.

   - bpo-38134(65): Remove obsolete copy of PBKDF2_HMAC_fast.  All
     supported OpenSSL versions contain a fast implementation.

   - bpo-38132(66): The OpenSSL hashlib wrapper uses a simpler
     implementation.  Several Macros and pointless caches are gone.  The
     hash name now comes from OpenSSL’s EVP. The algorithm name stays
     the same, except it is now always lower case.

   - bpo-38008(67): Fix parent class check in protocols to correctly
     identify the module that provides a builtin protocol, instead of
     assuming they all come from the *note collections.abc: 1f. module

   - bpo-34037(68): For *note asyncio: b, add a new coroutine
     ‘loop.shutdown_default_executor()’.  The new coroutine provides an
     API to schedule an executor shutdown that waits on the threadpool
     to finish closing.  Also, *note asyncio.run(): 309. has been
     updated to utilize the new coroutine.  Patch by Kyle Stanley.

   - bpo-37405(69): Fixed regression bug for socket.getsockname() for
     non-CAN_ISOTP AF_CAN address family sockets by returning a 1-tuple
     instead of string.

   - bpo-38121(70): Update parameter names on functions in
     importlib.metadata matching the changes in the 0.22 release of
     importlib_metadata.

   - bpo-38110(71): The os.closewalk() implementation now uses the libc
     fdwalk() API on platforms where it is available.

   - bpo-38093(72): Fixes AsyncMock so it doesn’t crash when used with
     AsyncContextManagers or AsyncIterators.

   - bpo-37488(73): Add warning to ‘datetime.utctimetuple()’,
     ‘datetime.utcnow()’ and ‘datetime.utcfromtimestamp()’ .

   - bpo-35640(74): Allow passing a *note path-like object: 79f. as
     ‘directory’ argument to the *note
     http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 22a. class.  Patch by Géry
     Ogam.

   - bpo-38086(75): Update importlib.metadata with changes from
     importlib_metadata 0.21(76).

   - bpo-37251(77): Remove ‘__code__’ check in AsyncMock that
     incorrectly evaluated function specs as async objects but failed to
     evaluate classes with ‘__await__’ but no ‘__code__’ attribute
     defined as async objects.

   - bpo-38037(78): Fix reference counters in the *note signal: ce.
     module.

   - bpo-38066(79): Hide internal asyncio.Stream methods: feed_eof(),
     feed_data(), set_exception() and set_transport().

   - bpo-38059(80): inspect.py now uses sys.exit() instead of exit()

   - bpo-38049(81): Added command-line interface for the *note ast: 9.
     module.

   - bpo-37953(82): In *note typing: 10d, improved the ‘__hash__’ and
     ‘__eq__’ methods for ‘ForwardReferences’.

   - bpo-38026(83): Fixed *note inspect.getattr_static(): 8a5. used
     ‘isinstance’ while it should avoid dynamic lookup.

   - bpo-35923(84): Update *note importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter:
     1070. to use ‘loader._ORIGIN’ instead of a hardcoded value.  Patch
     by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-38010(85): In ‘importlib.metadata’ sync with
     ‘importlib_metadata’ 0.20, clarifying behavior of ‘files()’ and
     fixing issue where only one requirement was returned for
     ‘requires()’ on ‘dist-info’ packages.

   - bpo-38006(86): weakref.WeakValueDictionary defines a local remove()
     function used as callback for weak references.  This function was
     created with a closure.  Modify the implementation to avoid the
     closure.

   - bpo-37995(87): Added the 'indent' option to *note ast.dump(): 1e1.
     which allows it to produce a multiline indented output.

   - bpo-34410(88): Fixed a crash in the ‘tee()’ iterator when re-enter
     it.  RuntimeError is now raised in this case.

   - bpo-37140(89): Fix a ctypes regression of Python 3.8.  When a
     ctypes.Structure is passed by copy to a function, ctypes internals
     created a temporary object which had the side effect of calling the
     structure finalizer (__del__) twice.  The Python semantics requires
     a finalizer to be called exactly once.  Fix ctypes internals to no
     longer call the finalizer twice.

   - bpo-37587(90): ‘_json.scanstring’ is now up to 3x faster when there
     are many backslash escaped characters in the JSON string.

   - bpo-37834(91): Prevent shutil.rmtree exception when built on
     non-Windows system without fd system call support, like older
     versions of macOS.

   - bpo-10978(92): Semaphores and BoundedSemaphores can now release
     more than one waiting thread at a time.

   - bpo-37972(93): Subscripts to the ‘unittest.mock.call’ objects now
     receive the same chaining mechanism as any other custom attributes,
     so that the following usage no longer raises a ‘TypeError’:

     ‘call().foo().__getitem__('bar')’

     Patch by blhsing

   - bpo-37965(94): Fix C compiler warning caused by
     distutils.ccompiler.CCompiler.has_function.

   - bpo-37964(95): Add ‘F_GETPATH’ command to *note fcntl: 5c.

   - bpo-37960(96): ‘repr()’ of buffered and text streams now silences
     only expected exceptions when get the value of «name» and «mode»
     attributes.

   - bpo-37961(97): Add a ‘total_nframe’ field to the traces collected
     by the tracemalloc module.  This field indicates the original
     number of frames before it was truncated.

   - bpo-37951(98): Most features of the subprocess module now work
     again in subinterpreters.  Only 'preexec_fn' is restricted in
     subinterpreters.

   - bpo-36205(99): Fix the rusage implementation of time.process_time()
     to correctly report the sum of the system and user CPU time.

   - bpo-37950(100): Fix *note ast.dump(): 1e1. when call with
     incompletely initialized node.

   - bpo-34679(101): Restores instantiation of Windows IOCP event loops
     from the non-main thread.

   - bpo-36917(102): Add default implementation of the *note
     ast.NodeVisitor.visit_Constant(): e32. method which emits a
     deprecation warning and calls corresponding methods ‘visit_Num()’,
     ‘visit_Str()’, etc.

   - bpo-37798(103): Update test_statistics.py to verify that the
     statistics module works well for both C and Python implementations.
     Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-26589(104): Added a new status code to the http module: 451
     UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS

   - bpo-37915(105): Fix a segmentation fault that appeared when
     comparing instances of ‘datetime.timezone’ and ‘datetime.tzinfo’
     objects.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-32554(106): Deprecate having random.seed() call hash on
     arbitrary types.

   - bpo-9938(107): Add optional keyword argument ‘exit_on_error’ for
     ‘ArgumentParser’.

   - bpo-37851(108): The *note faulthandler: 5b. module no longer
     allocates its alternative stack at Python startup.  Now the stack
     is only allocated at the first faulthandler usage.

   - bpo-32793(109): Fix a duplicated debug message when *note
     smtplib.SMTP.connect(): 1913. is called.

   - bpo-37885(110): venv: Don’t generate unset variable warning on
     deactivate.

   - bpo-37868(111): Fix dataclasses.is_dataclass when given an instance
     that never raises AttributeError in __getattr__.  That is, an
     object that returns something for __dataclass_fields__ even if it’s
     not a dataclass.

   - bpo-37811(112): Fix ‘socket’ module’s ‘socket.connect(address)’
     function being unable to establish connection in case of
     interrupted system call.  The problem was observed on all OSes
     which ‘poll(2)’ system call can take only non-negative integers and
     -1 as a timeout value.

   - bpo-37863(113): Optimizations for Fraction.__hash__ suggested by
     Tim Peters.

   - bpo-21131(114): Fix ‘faulthandler.register(chain=True)’ stack.
     faulthandler now allocates a dedicated stack of ‘SIGSTKSZ*2’ bytes,
     instead of just ‘SIGSTKSZ’ bytes.  Calling the previous signal
     handler in faulthandler signal handler uses more than ‘SIGSTKSZ’
     bytes of stack memory on some platforms.

   - bpo-37798(115): Add C fastpath for statistics.NormalDist.inv_cdf()
     Patch by Donghee Na

   - bpo-37804(116): Remove the deprecated method
     ‘threading.Thread.isAlive()’.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37819(117): Add Fraction.as_integer_ratio() to match the
     corresponding methods in bool, int, float, and decimal.

   - bpo-14465(118): Add an xml.etree.ElementTree.indent() function for
     pretty-printing XML trees.  Contributed by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-37810(119): Fix *note difflib: 3a. ‘?’ hint in diff output when
     dealing with tabs.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37772(120): In ‘zipfile.Path’, when adding implicit dirs,
     ensure that ancestral directories are added and that duplicates are
     excluded.

   - bpo-18578(121): Renamed and documented ‘test.bytecode_helper’ as
     ‘test.support.bytecode_helper’.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37785(122): Fix xgettext warnings in *note argparse: 7.

   - bpo-34488(123): ‘writelines()’ method of *note io.BytesIO: 1255. is
     now slightly faster when many small lines are passed.  Patch by
     Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-37449(124): ‘ensurepip’ now uses
     ‘importlib.resources.read_binary()’ to read data instead of
     ‘pkgutil.get_data()’.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-28292(125): Mark calendar.py helper functions as being private.
     The follows PEP 8 guidance to maintain the style conventions in the
     module and it addresses a known case of user confusion.

   - bpo-18049(126): Add definition of THREAD_STACK_SIZE for AIX in
     Python/thread_pthread.h The default thread stacksize caused crashes
     with the default recursion limit Patch by M Felt

   - bpo-37742(127): The logging.getLogger() API now returns the root
     logger when passed the name “root”, whereas previously it returned
     a non-root logger named “root”.  This could affect cases where user
     code explicitly wants a non-root logger named “root”, or
     instantiates a logger using logging.getLogger(__name__) in some
     top-level module called “root.py”.

   - bpo-37738(128): Fix the implementation of curses ‘addch(str,
     color_pair)’: pass the color pair to ‘setcchar()’, instead of
     always passing 0 as the color pair.

   - bpo-37723(129): Fix performance regression on regular expression
     parsing with huge character sets.  Patch by Yann Vaginay.

   - bpo-35943(130): The function *note PyImport_GetModule(): f71. now
     ensures any module it returns is fully initialized.  Patch by
     Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-32178(131): Fix IndexError in *note email: 3e. package when
     trying to parse invalid address fields starting with ‘:’.

   - bpo-37268(132): The ‘parser’ module is deprecated and will be
     removed in future versions of Python.

   - bpo-11953(133): Completing WSA* error codes in *note socket: d4.

   - bpo-37685(134): Fixed comparisons of *note datetime.timedelta: d94.
     and *note datetime.timezone: 146c.

   - bpo-37697(135): Synchronize ‘importlib.metadata’ with
     importlib_metadata 0.19(136), improving handling of EGG-INFO files
     and fixing a crash when entry point names contained colons.

   - bpo-37695(137): Correct *note curses.unget_wch(): 1445. error
     message.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-37689(138): Add ‘is_relative_to()’ in ‘PurePath’ to determine
     whether or not one path is relative to another.

   - bpo-29553(139): Fixed *note argparse.ArgumentParser.format_usage():
     1fa0. for mutually exclusive groups.  Patch by Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-37691(140): Let math.dist() accept coordinates as sequences (or
     iterables) rather than just tuples.

   - bpo-37685(141): Fixed ‘__eq__’, ‘__lt__’ etc implementations in
     some classes.  They now return *note NotImplemented: 440. for
     unsupported type of the other operand.  This allows the other
     operand to play role (for example the equality comparison with
     *note ANY: 1fa1. will return ‘True’).

   - bpo-37354(142): Make Activate.ps1 Powershell script static to allow
     for signing it.

   - bpo-37664(143): Update wheels bundled with ensurepip (pip 19.2.3
     and setuptools 41.2.0)

   - bpo-37663(144): Bring consistency to venv shell activation scripts
     by always using __VENV_PROMPT__.

   - bpo-37642(145): Allowed the pure Python implementation of *note
     datetime.timezone: 146c. to represent sub-minute offsets close to
     minimum and maximum boundaries, specifically in the ranges (23:59,
     24:00) and (-23:59, 24:00).  Patch by Ngalim Siregar

   - bpo-36161(146): In *note posix: b2, use ‘ttyname_r’ instead of
     ‘ttyname’ for thread safety.

   - bpo-36324(147): Make internal attributes for
     statistics.NormalDist() private.

   - bpo-37555(148): Fix ‘NonCallableMock._call_matcher’ returning tuple
     instead of ‘_Call’ object when ‘self._spec_signature’ exists.
     Patch by Elizabeth Uselton

   - bpo-29446(149): Make ‘from tkinter import *’ import only the
     expected objects.

   - bpo-16970(150): Adding a value error when an invalid value in
     passed to nargs Patch by Robert Leenders

   - bpo-34443(151): Exceptions from *note enum: 59. now use the
     ‘__qualname’ of the enum class in the exception message instead of
     the ‘__name__’.

   - bpo-37491(152): Fix ‘IndexError’ when parsing email headers with
     unexpectedly ending bare-quoted string value.  Patch by Abhilash
     Raj.

   - bpo-37587(153): Make json.loads faster for long strings.  (Patch by
     Marco Paolini)

   - bpo-18378(154): Recognize «UTF-8» as a valid value for LC_CTYPE in
     locale._parse_localename.

   - bpo-37579(155): Return *note NotImplemented: 440. in Python
     implementation of ‘__eq__’ for *note timedelta: d94. and *note
     time: 48e. when the other object being compared is not of the same
     type to match C implementation.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-21478(156): Record calls to parent when autospecced object is
     attached to a mock using ‘unittest.mock.attach_mock()’.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-37531(157): «python3 -m test -jN –timeout=TIMEOUT» now kills a
     worker process if it runs longer than 'TIMEOUT' seconds.

   - bpo-37482(158): Fix serialization of display name in originator or
     destination address fields with both encoded words and special
     chars.

   - bpo-36993(159): Improve error reporting for corrupt zip files with
     bad zip64 extra data.  Patch by Daniel Hillier.

   - bpo-37502(160): pickle.loads() no longer raises TypeError when the
     buffers argument is set to None

   - bpo-37520(161): Correct behavior for zipfile.Path.parent when the
     path object identifies a subdirectory.

   - bpo-18374(162): Fix the ‘.col_offset’ attribute of nested *note
     ast.BinOp: 1fa2. instances which had a too large value in some
     situations.

   - bpo-37424(163): Fixes a possible hang when using a timeout on
     ‘subprocess.run()’ while capturing output.  If the child process
     spawned its own children or otherwise connected its stdout or
     stderr handles with another process, we could hang after the
     timeout was reached and our child was killed when attempting to
     read final output from the pipes.

   - bpo-37421(164): Fix ‘multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir()’
     finalizer: clear also the “tempdir” configuration of the current
     process, so next call to ‘get_temp_dir()’ will create a new
     temporary directory, rather than reusing the removed temporary
     directory.

   - bpo-37481(165): The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command is deprecated
     in Python 3.8, use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead.

   - bpo-37479(166): When ‘Enum.__str__’ is overridden in a derived
     class, the override will be used by ‘Enum.__format__’ regardless of
     whether mixin classes are present.

   - bpo-37440(167): http.client now enables TLS 1.3 post-handshake
     authentication for default context or if a cert_file is passed to
     HTTPSConnection.

   - bpo-37437(168): Update vendorized expat version to 2.2.7.

   - bpo-37428(169): SSLContext.post_handshake_auth = True no longer
     sets SSL_VERIFY_POST_HANDSHAKE verify flag for client connections.
     Although the option is documented as ignored for clients, OpenSSL
     implicitly enables cert chain validation when the flag is set.

   - bpo-37420(170): *note os.sched_setaffinity(): 14ba. now correctly
     handles errors that arise during iteration over its ‘mask’
     argument.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-37412(171): The *note os.getcwdb(): e51. function now uses the
     UTF-8 encoding on Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP
     529(172) for the rationale.  The function is no longer deprecated
     on Windows.

   - bpo-37406(173): The sqlite3 module now raises TypeError, rather
     than ValueError, if operation argument type is not str: execute(),
     executemany() and calling a connection.

   - bpo-29412(174): Fix IndexError in parsing a header value ending
     unexpectedly.  Patch by Abhilash Raj.

   - bpo-36546(175): The 'dist' argument for statistics.quantiles() is
     now positional only.  The current name doesn’t reflect that the
     argument can be either a dataset or a distribution.  Marking the
     parameter as positional avoids confusion and makes it possible to
     change the name later.

   - bpo-37394(176): Fix a bug that was causing the *note queue: be.
     module to fail if the accelerator module was not available.  Patch
     by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37376(177): *note pprint: b3. now has support for *note
     types.SimpleNamespace: 6ea.  Patch by Carl Bordum Hansen.

   - bpo-26967(178): An *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. with
     ‘allow_abbrev=False’ no longer disables grouping of short flags,
     such as ‘-vv’, but only disables abbreviation of long flags as
     documented.  Patch by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.

   - bpo-37212(179): *note unittest.mock.call(): 1fa3. now preserves the
     order of keyword arguments in repr output.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-37372(180): Fix error unpickling datetime.time objects from
     Python 2 with seconds>=24.  Patch by Justin Blanchard.

   - bpo-37345(181): Add formal support for UDPLITE sockets.  Support
     was present before, but it is now easier to detect support with
     ‘hasattr(socket, 'IPPROTO_UDPLITE')’ and there are constants
     defined for each of the values needed: ‘socket.IPPROTO_UDPLITE’,
     ‘UDPLITE_SEND_CSCOV’, and ‘UDPLITE_RECV_CSCOV’.  Patch by Gabe
     Appleton.

   - bpo-37358(182): Optimized ‘functools.partial’ by using vectorcall.

   - bpo-37347(183): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate(): 3e2,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 3e1, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer(): 3e3, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler(): 3e4. *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_trace_callback(): 3e5. methods lead to
     segfaults if some of these methods are called twice with an equal
     object but not the same.  Now callbacks are stored more carefully.
     Patch by Aleksandr Balezin.

   - bpo-37163(184): The 'obj' argument of *note dataclasses.replace():
     1c70. is positional-only now.

   - bpo-37085(185): Add the optional Linux SocketCAN Broadcast Manager
     constants, used as flags to configure the BCM behaviour, in the
     socket module.  Patch by Karl Ding.

   - bpo-37328(186): ‘HTMLParser.unescape’ is removed.  It was
     undocumented and deprecated since Python 3.4.

   - bpo-37305(187): Add .webmanifest -> application/manifest+json to
     list of recognized file types and content type headers

   - bpo-37320(188): ‘aifc.openfp()’ alias to ‘aifc.open()’,
     ‘sunau.openfp()’ alias to ‘sunau.open()’, and ‘wave.openfp()’ alias
     to ‘wave.open()’ have been removed.  They were deprecated since
     Python 3.7.

   - bpo-37315(189): Deprecated accepting floats with integral value
     (like ‘5.0’) in *note math.factorial(): d13.

   - bpo-37312(190): ‘_dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’ modules have
     been removed.  These modules were deprecated since Python 3.7 which
     requires threading support.

   - bpo-33972(191): Email with single part but content-type set to
     ‘multipart/*’ doesn’t raise AttributeError anymore.

   - bpo-37280(192): Use threadpool for reading from file for sendfile
     fallback mode.

   - bpo-37279(193): Fix asyncio sendfile support when sendfile sends
     extra data in fallback mode.

   - bpo-19865(194): *note ctypes.create_unicode_buffer(): 1fa4. now
     also supports non-BMP characters on platforms with 16-bit ‘wchar_t’
     (for example, Windows and AIX).

   - bpo-37266(195): In a subinterpreter, spawning a daemon thread now
     raises an exception.  Daemon threads were never supported in
     subinterpreters.  Previously, the subinterpreter finalization
     crashed with a Python fatal error if a daemon thread was still
     running.

   - bpo-37210(196): Allow pure Python implementation of *note pickle:
     ab. to work even when the C ‘_pickle’ module is unavailable.

   - bpo-21872(197): Fix *note lzma: 8d.: module decompresses data
     incompletely.  When decompressing a FORMAT_ALONE format file, and
     it doesn’t have the end marker, sometimes the last one to dozens
     bytes can’t be output.  Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-35922(198): Fix ‘RobotFileParser.crawl_delay()’ and
     ‘RobotFileParser.request_rate()’ to return ‘None’ rather than raise
     *note AttributeError: 1a9. when no relevant rule is defined in the
     robots.txt file.  Patch by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35766(199): Change the format of feature_version to be a
     (major, minor) tuple.

   - bpo-36607(200): Eliminate *note RuntimeError: 30d. raised by *note
     asyncio.all_tasks(): d20. if internal tasks weak set is changed by
     another thread during iteration.

   - bpo-18748(201): ‘_pyio.IOBase’ destructor now does nothing if
     getting the ‘closed’ attribute fails to better mimic ‘_io.IOBase’
     finalizer.

   - bpo-36402(202): Fix a race condition at Python shutdown when
     waiting for threads.  Wait until the Python thread state of all
     non-daemon threads get deleted (join all non-daemon threads),
     rather than just wait until non-daemon Python threads complete.

   - bpo-37206(203): Default values which cannot be represented as
     Python objects no longer improperly represented as ‘None’ in
     function signatures.

   - bpo-37111(204): Added ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ keyword parameters to
     ‘logging.basicConfig’.

   - bpo-12144(205): Ensure cookies with ‘expires’ attribute are handled
     in ‘CookieJar.make_cookies()’.

   - bpo-34886(206): Fix an unintended ValueError from *note
     subprocess.run(): f45. when checking for conflicting 'input' and
     'stdin' or 'capture_output' and 'stdout' or 'stderr' args when they
     were explicitly provided but with ‘None’ values within a passed in
     ‘**kwargs’ dict rather than as passed directly by name.  Patch
     contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37173(207): The exception message for ‘inspect.getfile()’ now
     correctly reports the passed class rather than the builtins module.

   - bpo-37178(208): Give math.perm() a one argument form that means the
     same as math.factorial().

   - bpo-37178(209): For math.perm(n, k), let k default to n, giving the
     same result as factorial.

   - bpo-37165(210): Converted _collections._count_elements to use the
     Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-34767(211): Do not always create a *note collections.deque:
     9d6. in *note asyncio.Lock: e35.

   - bpo-37158(212): Speed-up statistics.fmean() by switching from a
     function to a generator.

   - bpo-34282(213): Remove ‘Enum._convert’ method, deprecated in 3.8.

   - bpo-37150(214): ‘argparse._ActionsContainer.add_argument’ now
     throws error, if someone accidentally pass FileType class object
     instead of instance of FileType as ‘type’ argument.

   - bpo-28724(215): The socket module now has the *note
     socket.send_fds(): d00. and ‘socket.recv.fds()’ methods.
     Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye, Shinya Okano and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-35621(216): Support running asyncio subprocesses when execution
     event loop in a thread on UNIX.

   - bpo-36520(217): Lengthy email headers with UTF-8 characters are now
     properly encoded when they are folded.  Patch by Jeffrey Kintscher.

   - bpo-30835(218): Fixed a bug in email parsing where a message with
     invalid bytes in content-transfer-encoding of a multipart message
     can cause an AttributeError.  Patch by Andrew Donnellan.

   - bpo-31163(219): pathlib.Path instance’s rename and replace methods
     now return the new Path instance.

   - bpo-25068(220): *note urllib.request.ProxyHandler: 1fa5. now
     lowercases the keys of the passed dictionary.

   - bpo-26185(221): Fix *note repr(): 45b. on empty ‘ZipInfo’ object.
     Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-21315(222): Email headers containing RFC2047 encoded words are
     parsed despite the missing whitespace, and a defect registered.
     Also missing trailing whitespace after encoded words is now
     registered as a defect.

   - bpo-31904(223): Port test_datetime to VxWorks: skip zoneinfo tests
     on VxWorks

   - bpo-35805(224): Add parser for Message-ID header and add it to
     default HeaderRegistry.  This should prevent folding of Message-ID
     using RFC 2048 encoded words.

   - bpo-36871(225): Ensure method signature is used instead of
     constructor signature of a class while asserting mock object
     against method calls.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35070(226): posix.getgrouplist() now works correctly when the
     user belongs to NGROUPS_MAX supplemental groups.  Patch by Jeffrey
     Kintscher.

   - bpo-31783(227): Fix race condition in ThreadPoolExecutor when
     worker threads are created during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-36582(228): Fix ‘UserString.encode()’ to correctly return
     ‘bytes’ rather than a ‘UserString’ instance.

   - bpo-32424(229): Deprecate xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.copy() in
     favor of copy.copy().

     Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley

   - bpo-36564(230): Fix infinite loop in email header folding logic
     that would be triggered when an email policy’s max_line_length is
     not long enough to include the required markup and any values in
     the message.  Patch by Paul Ganssle

   - bpo-36543(231): Removed methods Element.getchildren(),
     Element.getiterator() and ElementTree.getiterator() and the
     xml.etree.cElementTree module.

   - bpo-36409(232): Remove the old plistlib API deprecated in Python
     3.4

   - bpo-36302(233): distutils sorts source file lists so that Extension
     .so files build more reproducibly by default

   - bpo-36250(234): Ignore ‘ValueError’ from ‘signal’ with
     ‘interaction’ in non-main thread.

   - bpo-36046(235): Added ‘user’, ‘group’ and ‘extra_groups’ parameters
     to the subprocess.Popen constructor.  Patch by Patrick McLean.

   - bpo-32627(236): Fix compile error when ‘_uuid’ headers conflicting
     included.

   - bpo-35800(237): Deprecate ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy’ ready for future
     removal.

   - bpo-35168(238): *note shlex.shlex.punctuation_chars: 1fa6. is now a
     read-only property.

   - bpo-8538(239): Add support for boolean actions like ‘--foo’ and
     ‘--no-foo’ to argparse.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-20504(240): Fixes a bug in ‘cgi’ module when a
     multipart/form-data request has no ‘Content-Length’ header.

   - bpo-25988(241): The abstract base classes in *note collections.abc:
     1f. no longer are exposed in the regular *note collections: 1e.
     module.

   - bpo-11122(242): Distutils won’t check for rpmbuild in specified
     paths only.

   - bpo-34775(243): Division handling of PurePath now returns
     NotImplemented instead of raising a TypeError when passed something
     other than an instance of str or PurePath.  Patch by Roger Aiudi.

   - bpo-34749(244): *note binascii.a2b_base64(): 1fd. is now up to 2
     times faster.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34519(245): Add additional aliases for HP Roman 8.  Patch by
     Michael Osipov.

   - bpo-28009(246): Fix uuid.getnode() on platforms with “.” as MAC
     Addr delimiter as well fix for MAC Addr format that omits a leading
     0 in MAC Addr values.  Currently, AIX is the only know platform
     with these settings.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-30618(247): Add *note readlink(): cec.  Patch by Girts
     Folkmanis.

   - bpo-32498(248): Made *note urllib.parse.unquote(): 1cfa. accept
     bytes in addition to strings.  Patch by Stein Karlsen.

   - bpo-33348(249): lib2to3 now recognizes expressions after ‘*’ and
     ‘**’ like in ‘f(*[] or [])’.

   - bpo-32689(250): Update *note shutil.move(): e20. function to allow
     for Path objects to be used as source argument.  Patch by Emily
     Morehouse and Maxwell «5.13b» McKinnon.

   - bpo-32820(251): Added ‘__format__’ to IPv4 and IPv6 classes.
     Always outputs a fully zero-padded string.  Supports b/x/n
     modifiers (bin/hex/native format).  Native format for IPv4 is bin,
     native format for IPv6 is hex.  Also supports “#” and “_”
     modifiers.

   - bpo-27657(252): Fix urllib.parse.urlparse() with numeric paths.  A
     string like «path:80» is no longer parsed as a path but as a scheme
     («path») and a path («80»).

   - bpo-4963(253): Fixed non-deterministic behavior related to
     mimetypes extension mapping and module reinitialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36589

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38807

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38724

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38786

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38785

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38723

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27805

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38438

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38761

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38716

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38713

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692

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   (229) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424

   (230) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36564

   (231) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543

   (232) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36409

   (233) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36302

   (234) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36250

   (235) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36046

   (236) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32627

   (237) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800

   (238) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35168

   (239) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8538

   (240) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20504

   (241) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (242) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11122

   (243) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34775

   (244) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34749

   (245) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34519

   (246) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28009

   (247) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30618

   (248) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32498

   (249) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33348

   (250) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32689

   (251) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32820

   (252) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27657

   (253) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4963


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<51>,  Next: Tests<53>,  Prev: Library<162>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.26.56.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-21767(1): Explicitly mention abc support in
     functools.singledispatch

   - bpo-38816(2): Provides more details about the interaction between
     ‘fork()’ and CPython’s runtime, focusing just on the C-API. This
     includes cautions about where ‘fork()’ should and shouldn’t be
     called.

   - bpo-38351(3): Modernize *note email: 3e. examples from %-formatting
     to f-strings.

   - bpo-38778(4): Document the fact that *note RuntimeError: 30d. is
     raised if *note os.fork(): 6bd. is called in a subinterpreter.

   - bpo-38592(5): Add Brazilian Portuguese to the language switcher at
     Python Documentation website.

   - bpo-38294(6): Add list of no-longer-escaped chars to re.escape
     documentation

   - bpo-38053(7): Modernized the plistlib documentation

   - bpo-26868(8): Fix example usage of *note PyModule_AddObject(): 801.
     to properly handle errors.

   - bpo-36797(9): Fix a dead link in the distutils API Reference.

   - bpo-37977(10): Warn more strongly and clearly about pickle
     insecurity

   - bpo-37979(11): Added a link to dateutil.parser.isoparse in the
     datetime.fromisoformat documentation.  Patch by Paul Ganssle

   - bpo-12707(12): Deprecate info(), geturl(), getcode() methods in
     favor of the headers, url, and status properties, respectively, for
     HTTPResponse and addinfourl.  Also deprecate the code attribute of
     addinfourl in favor of the status attribute.  Patch by Ashwin
     Ramaswami

   - bpo-37937(13): Mention ‘frame.f_trace’ in *note sys.settrace():
     55c. docs.

   - bpo-37878(14): Make *note PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent(): 1fa8.
     Internal.

   - bpo-37759(15): Beginning edits to Whatsnew 3.8

   - bpo-37726(16): Stop recommending getopt in the tutorial for command
     line argument parsing and promote argparse.

   - bpo-32910(17): Remove implementation-specific behaviour of how
     venv’s Deactivate works.

   - bpo-37256(18): Fix wording of arguments for ‘Request’ in *note
     urllib.request: 114.

   - bpo-37284(19): Add a brief note to indicate that any new
     ‘sys.implementation’ required attributes must go through the PEP
     process.

   - bpo-30088(20): Documented that *note mailbox.Maildir: 84b.
     constructor doesn’t attempt to verify the maildir folder layout
     correctness.  Patch by Sviatoslav Sydorenko.

   - bpo-37521(21): Fix ‘importlib’ examples to insert any newly created
     modules via importlib.util.module_from_spec() immediately into
     sys.modules instead of after calling loader.exec_module().

     Thanks to Benjamin Mintz for finding the bug.

   - bpo-37456(22): Slash (“/”) is now part of syntax.

   - bpo-37487(23): Fix PyList_GetItem index description to include 0.

   - bpo-37149(24): Replace the dead link to the Tkinter 8.5 reference
     by John Shipman, New Mexico Tech, with a link to the archive.org
     copy.

   - bpo-37478(25): Added possible exceptions to the description of
     os.chdir().

   - bpo-34903(26): Documented that in *note
     datetime.datetime.strptime(): 2d2, the leading zero in some
     two-digit formats is optional.  Patch by Mike Gleen.

   - bpo-36260(27): Add decompression pitfalls to zipfile module
     documentation.

   - bpo-37004(28): In the documentation for difflib, a note was added
     explicitly warning that the results of SequenceMatcher’s ratio
     method may depend on the order of the input strings.

   - bpo-36960(29): Restructured the *note datetime: 33. docs in the
     interest of making them more user-friendly and improving
     readability.  Patch by Brad Solomon.

   - bpo-36487(30): Make C-API docs clear about what the «main»
     interpreter is.

   - bpo-23460(31): The documentation for decimal string formatting
     using the ‘:g’ specifier has been updated to reflect the correct
     exponential notation cutoff point.  Original patch contributed by
     Tuomas Suutari.

   - bpo-35803(32): Document and test that ‘tempfile’ functions may
     accept a *note path-like object: 79f. for the ‘dir’ argument.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33944(33): Added a note about the intended use of code in .pth
     files.

   - bpo-34293(34): Fix the Doc/Makefile regarding PAPER environment
     variable and PDF builds

   - bpo-25237(35): Add documentation for tkinter modules

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21767

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38816

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38351

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38778

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38592

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38294

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38053

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26868

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36797

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37977

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37979

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12707

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37937

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37878

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37759

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37726

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32910

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37256

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37284

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30088

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37521

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37456

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37487

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37149

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37478

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34903

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36260

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37004

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36960

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36487

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23460

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35803

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33944

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34293

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25237


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<53>,  Next: Build<57>,  Prev: Documentation<51>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.26.56.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-38614(1): Fix test_communicate() of
     test_asyncio.test_subprocess: use ‘support.LONG_TIMEOUT’ (5
     minutes), instead of just 1 minute.

   - bpo-38614(2): Add timeout constants to *note test.support: ed.:
     *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 1f8d, *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 1f8e, *note
     SHORT_TIMEOUT: 1e5a. and *note LONG_TIMEOUT: 1f8f.

   - bpo-38502(3): test.regrtest now uses process groups in the
     multiprocessing mode (-jN command line option) if process groups
     are available: if *note os.setsid(): 1faa. and *note os.killpg():
     1fab. functions are available.

   - bpo-35998(4): Fix a race condition in
     test_asyncio.test_start_tls_server_1().  Previously, there was a
     race condition between the test main() function which replaces the
     protocol and the test ServerProto protocol which sends ANSWER once
     it gets HELLO. Now, only the test main() function is responsible to
     send data, ServerProto no longer sends data.

   - bpo-38470(5): Fix ‘test_compileall.test_compile_dir_maxlevels()’ on
     Windows without long path support: only create 3 subdirectories
     instead of between 20 and 100 subdirectories.

   - bpo-37531(6): On timeout, regrtest no longer attempts to call
     ‘popen.communicate()’ again: it can hang until all child processes
     using stdout and stderr pipes completes.  Kill the worker process
     and ignores its output.  Change also the faulthandler timeout of
     the main process from 1 minute to 5 minutes, for Python slowest
     buildbots.

   - bpo-38239(7): Fix test_gdb for Link Time Optimization (LTO) builds.

   - bpo-38275(8): test_ssl now handles disabled TLS/SSL versions
     better.  OpenSSL’s crypto policy and run-time settings are
     recognized and tests for disabled versions are skipped.  Tests also
     accept more TLS minimum_versions for platforms that override
     OpenSSL’s default with strict settings.

   - bpo-38271(9): The private keys for test_ssl were encrypted with
     3DES in traditional PKCS#5 format.  3DES and the digest algorithm
     of PKCS#5 are blocked by some strict crypto policies.  Use PKCS#8
     format with AES256 encryption instead.

   - bpo-38270(10): test.support now has a helper function to check for
     availability of a hash digest function.  Several tests are
     refactored avoid MD5 and use SHA256 instead.  Other tests are
     marked to use MD5 and skipped when MD5 is disabled.

   - bpo-37123(11): Multiprocessing test test_mymanager() now also
     expects -SIGTERM, not only exitcode 0.
     BaseManager._finalize_manager() sends SIGTERM to the manager
     process if it takes longer than 1 second to stop, which happens on
     slow buildbots.

   - bpo-38212(12): Multiprocessing tests: increase
     test_queue_feeder_donot_stop_onexc() timeout from 1 to 60 seconds.

   - bpo-38117(13): Test with OpenSSL 1.1.1d

   - bpo-38018(14): Increase code coverage for
     multiprocessing.shared_memory.

   - bpo-37805(15): Add tests for json.dump(…, skipkeys=True).  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-37531(16): Enhance regrtest multiprocess timeout: write a
     message when killing a worker process, catch popen.kill() and
     popen.wait() exceptions, put a timeout on the second call to
     popen.communicate().

   - bpo-37876(17): Add tests for ROT-13 codec.

   - bpo-36833(18): Added tests for ‘PyDateTime_XXX_GET_XXX()’ macros of
     the C API of the *note datetime: 33. module.  Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37558(19): Fix
     test_shared_memory_cleaned_after_process_termination name handling

   - bpo-37526(20): Add ‘test.support.catch_threading_exception()’:
     context manager catching *note threading.Thread: 420. exception
     using *note threading.excepthook(): c23.

   - bpo-37421(21): test_concurrent_futures now explicitly stops the
     ForkServer instance if it’s running.

   - bpo-37421(22): multiprocessing tests now stop the ForkServer
     instance if it’s running: close the «alive» file descriptor to ask
     the server to stop and then remove its UNIX address.

   - bpo-37421(23): test_distutils.test_build_ext() is now able to
     remove the temporary directory on Windows: don’t import the newly
     built C extension («xx») in the current process, but test it in a
     separated process.

   - bpo-37421(24): test_concurrent_futures now cleans up
     multiprocessing to remove immediately temporary directories created
     by multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir().

   - bpo-37421(25): test_winconsoleio doesn’t leak a temporary file
     anymore: use tempfile.TemporaryFile() to remove it when the test
     completes.

   - bpo-37421(26): multiprocessing tests now explicitly call
     ‘_run_finalizers()’ to immediately remove temporary directories
     created by tests.

   - bpo-37421(27): urllib.request tests now call *note urlcleanup():
     1fac. to remove temporary files created by ‘urlretrieve()’ tests
     and to clear the ‘_opener’ global variable set by ‘urlopen()’ and
     functions calling indirectly ‘urlopen()’.

   - bpo-37472(28): Remove ‘Lib/test/outstanding_bugs.py’.

   - bpo-37199(29): Fix test failures when IPv6 is unavailable or
     disabled.

   - bpo-19696(30): Replace deprecated method «random.choose» with
     «random.choice» in «test_pkg_import.py».

   - bpo-37335(31): Remove no longer necessary code from c locale
     coercion tests

   - bpo-37421(32): Fix test_shutil to no longer leak temporary files.

   - bpo-37411(33): Fix test_wsgiref.testEnviron() to no longer depend
     on the environment variables (don’t fail if «X» variable is set).

   - bpo-37400(34): Fix test_os.test_chown(): use os.getgroups() rather
     than grp.getgrall() to get groups.  Rename also the test to
     test_chown_gid().

   - bpo-37359(35): Add –cleanup option to python3 -m test to remove
     ‘test_python_*’ directories of previous failed jobs.  Add «make
     cleantest» to run ‘python3 -m test --cleanup’.

   - bpo-37362(36): test_gdb no longer fails if it gets an «unexpected»
     message on stderr: it now ignores stderr.  The purpose of test_gdb
     is to test that python-gdb.py commands work as expected, not to
     test gdb.

   - bpo-35998(37): Avoid TimeoutError in test_asyncio:
     test_start_tls_server_1()

   - bpo-37278(38): Fix test_asyncio ProactorLoopCtrlC: join the thread
     to prevent leaking a running thread and leaking a reference.

   - bpo-37261(39): Fix *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception():
     1fad.: its __exit__() method now ignores unraisable exception
     raised when clearing its ‘unraisable’ attribute.

   - bpo-37069(40): regrtest now uses *note sys.unraisablehook(): 70c.
     to mark a test as «environment altered» (ENV_CHANGED) if it emits
     an «unraisable exception».  Moreover, regrtest logs a warning in
     this case.

     Use ‘python3 -m test --fail-env-changed’ to catch unraisable
     exceptions in tests.

   - bpo-37252(41): Fix assertions in ‘test_close’ and
     ‘test_events_mask_overflow’ devpoll tests.

   - bpo-37169(42): Rewrite ‘_PyObject_IsFreed()’ unit tests.

   - bpo-37153(43): ‘test_venv.test_multiprocessing()’ now explicitly
     calls ‘pool.terminate()’ to wait until the pool completes.

   - bpo-34001(44): Make test_ssl pass with LibreSSL. LibreSSL handles
     minimum and maximum TLS version differently than OpenSSL.

   - bpo-36919(45): Make ‘test_source_encoding.test_issue2301’
     implementation independent.  The test will work now for both
     CPython and IronPython.

   - bpo-30202(46): Update ‘test.test_importlib.test_abc’ to test
     ‘find_spec()’.

   - bpo-28009(47): Modify the test_uuid logic to test when a program is
     available AND can be used to obtain a MACADDR as basis for an UUID.
     Patch by M. Felt

   - bpo-34596(48): Fallback to a default reason when *note
     unittest.skip(): 1fae. is uncalled.  Patch by Naitree Zhu.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38614

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38502

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35998

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38470

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37531

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38239

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38275

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38271

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38270

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37123

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38212

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38018

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37805

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37531

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37876

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36833

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37558

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37526

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37472

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37199

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19696

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37335

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37421

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37411

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37400

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37359

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37362

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35998

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37278

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37261

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37069

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37252

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37169

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37153

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34001

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36919

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30202

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28009

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34596


File: python.info,  Node: Build<57>,  Next: Windows<49>,  Prev: Tests<53>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.26.56.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-38809(1): On Windows, build scripts will now recognize and use
     python.exe from an active virtual env.

   - bpo-38684(2): Fix _hashlib build when Blake2 is disabled, but
     OpenSSL supports it.

   - bpo-38468(3): Misc/python-config.in now uses ‘getvar()’ for all
     still existing ‘sysconfig.get_config_var()’ calls.  Patch by
     Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-37415(4): Fix stdatomic.h header check for ICC compiler: the
     ICC implementation lacks atomic_uintptr_t type which is needed by
     Python.

   - bpo-38301(5): In Solaris family, we must be sure to use
     ‘-D_REENTRANT’.  Patch by Jesús Cea Avión.

   - bpo-36002(6): Locate ‘llvm-profdata’ and ‘llvm-ar’ binaries using
     ‘AC_PATH_TOOL’ rather than ‘AC_PATH_TARGET_TOOL’.

   - bpo-37936(7): The ‘.gitignore’ file systematically keeps «rooted»,
     with a non-trailing slash, all the rules that are meant to apply to
     files in a specific place in the repo.  Previously, when the
     intended file to ignore happened to be at the root of the repo,
     we’d most often accidentally also ignore files and directories with
     the same name anywhere in the tree.

   - bpo-37760(8): The ‘Tools/unicode/makeunicodedata.py’ script, which
     is used for converting information from the Unicode Character
     Database into generated code and data used by the methods of *note
     str: 1df. and by the *note unicodedata: 10e. module, now handles
     each character’s data as a ‘dataclass’ with named attributes,
     rather than a length-18 list of different fields.

   - bpo-37936(9): The ‘.gitignore’ file no longer applies to any files
     that are in fact tracked in the Git repository.  Patch by Greg
     Price.

   - bpo-37725(10): Change «clean» makefile target to also clean the
     program guided optimization (PGO) data.  Previously you would have
     to use «make clean» and «make profile-removal», or «make clobber».

   - bpo-37707(11): Mark some individual tests to skip when –pgo is
     used.  The tests marked increase the PGO task time significantly
     and likely don’t help improve optimization of the final executable.

   - bpo-36044(12): Reduce the number of unit tests run for the PGO
     generation task.  This speeds up the task by a factor of about 15x.
     Running the full unit test suite is slow.  This change may result
     in a slightly less optimized build since not as many code branches
     will be executed.  If you are willing to wait for the much slower
     build, the old behavior can be restored using “./configure [..]
     PROFILE_TASK=»-m test –pgo-extended»”.  We make no guarantees as to
     which PGO task set produces a faster build.  Users who care should
     run their own relevant benchmarks as results can depend on the
     environment, workload, and compiler tool chain.

   - bpo-37468(13): ‘make install’ no longer installs ‘wininst-*.exe’
     files used by distutils bdist_wininst: bdist_wininst only works on
     Windows.

   - bpo-37189(14): Many ‘PyRun_XXX()’ functions like *note
     PyRun_String(): 1fb0. were no longer exported in ‘libpython38.dll’
     by mistake.  Export them again to fix the ABI compatibility.

   - bpo-25361(15): Enables use of SSE2 instructions in Windows 32-bit
     build.

   - bpo-36210(16): Update optional extension module detection for AIX.
     ossaudiodev and spwd are not applicable for AIX, and are no longer
     reported as missing.  3rd-party packaging of ncurses (with ASIS
     support) conflicts with officially supported AIX curses library, so
     configure AIX to use libcurses.a.  However, skip trying to build
     _curses_panel.

     patch by M Felt

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38809

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38468

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37415

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38301

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36002

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37936

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37760

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37936

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37725

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37707

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36044

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37468

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37189

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25361

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36210


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<49>,  Next: macOS<40>,  Prev: Build<57>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.26.56.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-38589(1): Fixes HTML Help shortcut when Windows is not
     installed to C drive

   - bpo-38453(2): Ensure ntpath.realpath() correctly resolves relative
     paths.

   - bpo-38519(3): Restores the internal C headers that were missing
     from the nuget.org and Microsoft Store packages.

   - bpo-38492(4): Remove ‘pythonw.exe’ dependency on the Microsoft C++
     runtime.

   - bpo-38344(5): Fix error message in activate.bat

   - bpo-38359(6): Ensures ‘pyw.exe’ launcher reads correct registry
     key.

   - bpo-38355(7): Fixes ‘ntpath.realpath’ failing on ‘sys.executable’.

   - bpo-38117(8): Update bundled OpenSSL to 1.1.1d

   - bpo-38092(9): Reduce overhead when using multiprocessing in a
     Windows virtual environment.

   - bpo-38133(10): Allow py.exe launcher to locate installations from
     the Microsoft Store and improve display of active virtual
     environments.

   - bpo-38114(11): The ‘pip.ini’ is no longer included in the Nuget
     package.

   - bpo-32592(12): Set Windows 8 as the minimum required version for
     API support

   - bpo-36634(13): *note os.cpu_count(): 6e1. now returns active
     processors rather than maximum processors.

   - bpo-36634(14): venv activate.bat now works when the existing
     variables contain double quote characters.

   - bpo-38081(15): Prevent error calling *note os.path.realpath(): 241.
     on ‘'NUL'’.

   - bpo-38087(16): Fix case sensitivity in test_pathlib and
     test_ntpath.

   - bpo-38088(17): Fixes distutils not finding vcruntime140.dll with
     only the v142 toolset installed.

   - bpo-37283(18): Ensure command-line and unattend.xml setting
     override previously detected states in Windows installer.

   - bpo-38030(19): Fixes *note os.stat(): 4f5. failing for block
     devices on Windows

   - bpo-38020(20): Fixes potential crash when calling *note
     os.readlink(): ced. (or indirectly through *note realpath(): 241.)
     on a file that is not a supported link.

   - bpo-37705(21): Improve the implementation of ‘winerror_to_errno()’.

   - bpo-37549(22): *note os.dup(): 1fb2. no longer fails for standard
     streams on Windows 7.

   - bpo-1311(23): The ‘nul’ file on Windows now returns True from *note
     exists(): dd2. and a valid result from *note os.stat(): 4f5. with
     ‘S_IFCHR’ set.

   - bpo-9949(24): Enable support for following symlinks in
     ‘os.realpath()’.

   - bpo-37834(25): Treat all name surrogate reparse points on Windows
     in *note os.lstat(): 8b1. and other reparse points as regular files
     in *note os.stat(): 4f5.

   - bpo-36266(26): Add the module name in the formatted error message
     when DLL load fail happens during module import in
     ‘_PyImport_FindSharedFuncptrWindows()’.  Patch by Srinivas
     Nyayapati.

   - bpo-25172(27): Trying to import the ‘crypt’ module on Windows will
     result in an *note ImportError: 1bd. with a message explaining that
     the module isn’t supported on Windows.  On other platforms, if the
     underlying ‘_crypt’ module is not available, the ImportError will
     include a message explaining the problem.

   - bpo-37778(28): Fixes the icons used for file associations to the
     Microsoft Store package.

   - bpo-37734(29): Fix use of registry values to launch Python from
     Microsoft Store app.

   - bpo-37702(30): Fix memory leak on Windows in creating an SSLContext
     object or running ‘urllib.request.urlopen('https://...')’.

   - bpo-37672(31): Switch Windows Store package’s pip to use bundled
     ‘pip.ini’ instead of ‘PIP_USER’ variable.

   - bpo-10945(32): Officially drop support for creating bdist_wininst
     installers on non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-37445(33): Include the ‘FORMAT_MESSAGE_IGNORE_INSERTS’ flag in
     ‘FormatMessageW()’ calls.

   - bpo-37369(34): Fixes path for *note sys.executable: 3ac. when
     running from the Microsoft Store.

   - bpo-37380(35): Don’t collect unfinished processes with
     ‘subprocess._active’ on Windows to cleanup later.  Patch by Ruslan
     Kuprieiev.

   - bpo-37351(36): Removes libpython38.a from standard Windows
     distribution.

   - bpo-35360(37): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.28.0.

   - bpo-37267(38): On Windows, *note os.dup(): 1fb2. no longer creates
     an inheritable fd when handling a character file.

   - bpo-36779(39): Ensure ‘time.tzname’ is correct on Windows when the
     active code page is set to CP_UTF7 or CP_UTF8.

   - bpo-32587(40): Make *note winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ: 1fb3. support
     zero-length strings.

   - bpo-28269(41): Replace use of ‘strcasecmp()’ for the system
     function ‘_stricmp()’.  Patch by Minmin Gong.

   - bpo-36590(42): Add native Bluetooth RFCOMM support to socket
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38589

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38453

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38519

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38492

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38344

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38359

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38355

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38092

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38133

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38114

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32592

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36634

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36634

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38081

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38087

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38088

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37283

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38030

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38020

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37705

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37549

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1311

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9949

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36266

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25172

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37778

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37734

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37702

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37672

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10945

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37445

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37369

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37380

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37351

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35360

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37267

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36779

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32587

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28269

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36590


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<40>,  Next: IDLE<33>,  Prev: Windows<49>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.26.56.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-38117(1): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1d in macOS installer.

   - bpo-38089(2): Move Azure Pipelines to latest VM versions and make
     macOS tests optional

   - bpo-18049(3): Increase the default stack size of threads from 5MB
     to 16MB on macOS, to match the stack size of the main thread.  This
     avoids crashes on deep recursion in threads.

   - bpo-34602(4): Avoid test suite failures on macOS by no longer
     calling resource.setrlimit to increase the process stack size limit
     at runtime.  The runtime change is no longer needed since the
     interpreter is being built with a larger default stack size.

   - bpo-35360(5): Update macOS installer to use SQLite 3.28.0.

   - bpo-34631(6): Updated OpenSSL to 1.1.1c in macOS installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38117

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38089

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18049

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35360

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34631


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<33>,  Next: Tools/Demos<31>,  Prev: macOS<40>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.26.56.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-26353(1): Stop adding newline when saving an IDLE shell window.

   - bpo-4630(2): Add an option to toggle IDLE’s cursor blink for shell,
     editor, and output windows.  See Settings, General, Window
     Preferences, Cursor Blink.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-38598(3): Do not try to compile IDLE shell or output windows

   - bpo-36698(4): IDLE no longer fails when write non-encodable
     characters to stderr.  It now escapes them with a backslash, as the
     regular Python interpreter.  Added the ‘errors’ field to the
     standard streams.

   - bpo-35379(5): When exiting IDLE, catch any AttributeError.  One
     happens when EditorWindow.close is called twice.  Printing a
     traceback, when IDLE is run from a terminal, is useless and
     annoying.

   - bpo-38183(6): To avoid problems, test_idle ignores the user config
     directory.  It no longer tries to create or access .idlerc or any
     files within.  Users must run IDLE to discover problems with saving
     settings.

   - bpo-38077(7): IDLE no longer adds “argv” to the user namespace when
     initializing it.  This bug only affected 3.7.4 and 3.8.0b2 to
     3.8.0b4.

   - bpo-38041(8): Shell restart lines now fill the window width, always
     start with “=”, and avoid wrapping unnecessarily.  The line will
     still wrap if the included file name is long relative to the width.

   - bpo-35771(9): To avoid occasional spurious test_idle failures on
     slower machines, increase the ‘hover_delay’ in test_tooltip.

   - bpo-37824(10): Properly handle user input warnings in IDLE shell.
     Cease turning SyntaxWarnings into SyntaxErrors.

   - bpo-37929(11): IDLE Settings dialog now closes properly when there
     is no shell window.

   - bpo-37902(12): Add mousewheel scrolling for IDLE module, path, and
     stack browsers.  Patch by George Zhang.

   - bpo-37849(13): Fixed completions list appearing too high or low
     when shown above the current line.

   - bpo-36419(14): Refactor IDLE autocomplete and improve testing.

   - bpo-37748(15): Reorder the Run menu.  Put the most common choice,
     Run Module, at the top.

   - bpo-37692(16): Improve highlight config sample with example shell
     interaction and better labels for shell elements.

   - bpo-37628(17): Settings dialog no longer expands with font size.

   - bpo-37627(18): Initialize the Customize Run dialog with the command
     line arguments most recently entered before.  The user can
     optionally edit before submitting them.

   - bpo-33610(19): Fix code context not showing the correct context
     when first toggled on.

   - bpo-37530(20): Optimize code context to reduce unneeded background
     activity.  Font and highlight changes now occur along with text
     changes instead of after a random delay.

   - bpo-27452(21): Cleanup ‘config.py’ by inlining ‘RemoveFile’ and
     simplifying the handling of ‘file’ in ‘CreateConfigHandlers’.

   - bpo-37325(22): Fix tab focus traversal order for help source and
     custom run dialogs.

   - bpo-37321(23): Both subprocess connection error messages now refer
     to the “Startup failure” section of the IDLE doc.

   - bpo-17535(24): Add optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows.
     Windows open without line numbers unless set otherwise in the
     General tab of the configuration dialog.

   - bpo-26806(25): To compensate for stack frames added by IDLE and
     avoid possible problems with low recursion limits, add 30 to limits
     in the user code execution process.  Subtract 30 when reporting
     recursion limits to make this addition mostly transparent.

   - bpo-37177(26): Properly “attach” search dialogs to their main
     window so that they behave like other dialogs and do not get hidden
     behind their main window.

   - bpo-37039(27): Adjust «Zoom Height» to individual screens by
     momentarily maximizing the window on first use with a particular
     screen.  Changing screen settings may invalidate the saved height.
     While a window is maximized, «Zoom Height» has no effect.

   - bpo-35763(28): Make calltip reminder about “/” meaning
     positional-only less obtrusive by only adding it when there is room
     on the first line.

   - bpo-5680(29): Add “Run… Customized” to the Run menu to run a module
     with customized settings.  Any “command line arguments” entered are
     added to sys.argv.  One can suppress the normal Shell main module
     restart.

   - bpo-36390(30): Gather Format menu functions into format.py.
     Combine paragraph.py, rstrip.py, and format methods from editor.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26353

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4630

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38598

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36698

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35379

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38183

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38077

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38041

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35771

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37824

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37929

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37902

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37849

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36419

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37748

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37692

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37628

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33610

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37530

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37325

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37321

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26806

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37177

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37039

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35763

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36390


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<31>,  Next: C API<53>,  Prev: IDLE<33>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.26.56.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-38118(1): Update Valgrind suppression file to ignore a false
     alarm in *note PyUnicode_Decode(): 1fb7. when using GCC builtin
     strcmp().

   - bpo-38347(2): pathfix.py: Assume all files that end on “.py” are
     Python scripts when working recursively.

   - bpo-37803(3): pdb’s ‘--help’ and ‘--version’ long options now work.

   - bpo-37942(4): Improve ArgumentClinic converter for floats.

   - bpo-37704(5): Remove ‘Tools/scripts/h2py.py’: use cffi to access a
     C API in Python.

   - bpo-37675(6): 2to3 now works when run from a zipped standard
     library.

   - bpo-37034(7): Argument Clinic now uses the argument name on errors
     with keyword-only argument instead of their position.  Patch
     contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-37064(8): Add option -k to pathscript.py script: preserve
     shebang flags.  Add option -a to pathscript.py script: add flags.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38118

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38347

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37803

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37942

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37704

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37675

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37034

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37064


File: python.info,  Node: C API<53>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<31>,  Up: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1

1.26.56.11 C API
................

   - bpo-37633(1): Re-export some function compatibility wrappers for
     macros in ‘pythonrun.h’.

   - bpo-38644(2): Provide *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 5fe. and *note
     Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): d3c. as regular functions for the limited
     API. Previously, there were defined as macros, but these macros
     didn’t work with the limited API which cannot access
     ‘PyThreadState.recursion_depth’ field.  Remove
     ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ from the stable ABI.

   - bpo-38650(3): The global variable *note
     PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: d4a. is now a constant and refers to
     a constant string.

   - bpo-38540(4): Fixed possible leak in *note PyArg_Parse(): 1a6b. and
     similar functions for format units ‘"es#"’ and ‘"et#"’ when the
     macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ is not defined.

   - bpo-38395(5): Fix a crash in *note weakref.proxy: e15. objects due
     to incorrect lifetime management when calling some associated
     methods that may delete the last reference to object being
     referenced by the proxy.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36389(6): The ‘_PyObject_CheckConsistency()’ function is now
     also available in release mode.  For example, it can be used to
     debug a crash in the ‘visit_decref()’ function of the GC.

   - bpo-38266(7): Revert the removal of PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent()
     with documentation.

   - bpo-38303(8): Update audioop extension module to use the stable ABI
     (PEP-384).  Patch by Tyler Kieft.

   - bpo-38234(9): ‘Py_SetPath()’ now sets *note sys.executable: 3ac. to
     the program full path (‘Py_GetProgramFullPath()’) rather than to
     the program name (‘Py_GetProgramName()’).

   - bpo-38234(10): Python ignored arguments passed to ‘Py_SetPath()’,
     ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’ and ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: fix Python
     initialization to use specified arguments.

   - bpo-38205(11): The *note Py_UNREACHABLE(): f73. macro now calls
     *note Py_FatalError(): d4b.

   - bpo-38140(12): Make dict and weakref offsets opaque for C heap
     types by passing the offsets through PyMemberDef

   - bpo-15088(13): The C function ‘PyGen_NeedsFinalizing’ has been
     removed.  It was not documented, tested or used anywhere within
     CPython after the implementation of PEP 442(14).  Patch by Joannah
     Nanjekye.  (Patch by Joannah Nanjekye)

   - bpo-36763(15): Options added by ‘PySys_AddXOption()’ are now
     handled the same way than ‘PyConfig.xoptions’ and command line ‘-X’
     options.

   - bpo-37926(16): Fix a crash in ‘PySys_SetArgvEx(0, NULL, 0)’.

   - bpo-37879(17): Fix subtype_dealloc to suppress the type decref when
     the base type is a C heap type

   - bpo-37645(18): Add ‘_PyObject_FunctionStr()’ to get a user-friendly
     string representation of a function-like object.  Patch by Jeroen
     Demeyer.

   - bpo-29548(19): The functions ‘PyEval_CallObject’,
     ‘PyEval_CallFunction’, ‘PyEval_CallMethod’ and
     ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords’ are deprecated.  Use *note
     PyObject_Call(): 82f. and its variants instead.

   - bpo-37151(20): ‘PyCFunction_Call’ is now a deprecated alias of
     *note PyObject_Call(): 82f.

   - bpo-37540(21): The vectorcall protocol now requires that the caller
     passes only strings as keyword names.

   - bpo-37207(22): The vectorcall protocol is now enabled for ‘type’
     objects: set ‘tp_vectorcall’ to a vectorcall function to be used
     instead of ‘tp_new’ and ‘tp_init’ when calling the class itself.

   - bpo-21120(23): Exclude Python-ast.h, ast.h and asdl.h from the
     limited API.

   - bpo-37483(24): Add new function ‘_PyObject_CallOneArg’ for calling
     an object with one positional argument.

   - bpo-36763(25): Add *note PyConfig_SetWideStringList(): 1fb9.
     function.

   - bpo-37337(26): Add fast functions for calling methods:
     ‘_PyObject_VectorcallMethod()’, ‘_PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_CallMethodOneArg()’.

   - bpo-28805(27): The *note METH_FASTCALL: 34b. calling convention has
     been documented.

   - bpo-37221(28): The new function ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’
     allows to create code objects like ‘PyCode_New()’, but with an
     extra 'posonlyargcount' parameter for indicating the number of
     positonal-only arguments.

   - bpo-37215(29): Fix dtrace issue introduce by bpo-36842(30)

   - bpo-37194(31): Add a new public *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 82e.
     function to the C API: call a callable Python object without any
     arguments.  It is the most efficient way to call a callback without
     any argument.  On x86-64, for example,
     ‘PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(func, NULL)’ allocates 960 bytes on
     the stack per call, whereas ‘PyObject_CallNoArgs(func)’ only
     allocates 624 bytes per call.

   - bpo-37170(32): Fix the cast on error in *note
     PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(): 1fba.

   - bpo-35381(33): Convert posixmodule.c statically allocated types
     ‘DirEntryType’ and ‘ScandirIteratorType’ to heap-allocated types.

   - bpo-34331(34): Use singular/plural noun in error message when
     instantiating an abstract class with non-overridden abstract
     method(s).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37633

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38650

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36389

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38266

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38303

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38205

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38140

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15088

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37926

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37879

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37645

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29548

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37151

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37540

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21120

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37483

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37337

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28805

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37221

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37215

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36842

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37194

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37170

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35381

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34331


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.57 Python 3.8.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2019-06-04'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<42>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<162>.
* Library: Library<163>.
* Documentation: Documentation<52>.
* Tests: Tests<54>.
* Build: Build<58>.
* Windows: Windows<50>.
* macOS: macOS<41>.
* IDLE: IDLE<34>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<32>.
* C API: C API<54>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<42>,  Next: Core and Builtins<162>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.26.57.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-35907(1): CVE 2019-9948(2): Avoid file reading by disallowing
     ‘local-file://’ and ‘local_file://’ URL schemes in
     ‘URLopener().open()’ and ‘URLopener().retrieve()’ of *note
     urllib.request: 114.

   - bpo-33529(3): Prevent fold function used in email header encoding
     from entering infinite loop when there are too many non-ASCII
     characters in a header.

   - bpo-33164(4): Updated blake2 implementation which uses secure
     memset implementation provided by platform.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35907

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-9948

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33529

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33164


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<162>,  Next: Library<163>,  Prev: Security<42>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.26.57.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-35814(1): Allow unpacking in the right hand side of annotated
     assignments.  In particular, ‘t: Tuple[int, ...] = x, y, *z’ is now
     allowed.

   - bpo-37126(2): All structseq objects are now tracked by the garbage
     collector.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-37122(3): Make the 'co_argcount' attribute of code objects
     represent the total number of positional arguments (including
     positional-only arguments).  The value of 'co_posonlyargcount' can
     be used to distinguish which arguments are positional only, and the
     difference ('co_argcount' - 'co_posonlyargcount') is the number of
     positional-or-keyword arguments.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-20092(4): Constructors of *note int: 326, *note float: 327. and
     *note complex: 328. will now use the *note __index__(): 43d.
     special method, if available and the corresponding method *note
     __int__(): 43c, *note __float__(): d92. or *note __complex__():
     9de. is not available.

   - bpo-37087(5): Add native thread ID (TID) support to OpenBSD.

   - bpo-26219(6): Implemented per opcode cache mechanism and
     ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ instruction use it.  ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ is now about 40%
     faster.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov, and Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-37072(7): Fix crash in PyAST_FromNodeObject() when flags is
     NULL.

   - bpo-37029(8): Freeing a great many small objects could take time
     quadratic in the number of arenas, due to using linear search to
     keep ‘obmalloc.c’’s list of usable arenas sorted by order of number
     of free memory pools.  This is accomplished without search now,
     leaving the worst-case time linear in the number of arenas.  For
     programs where this quite visibly matters (typically with more than
     100 thousand small objects alive simultaneously), this can greatly
     reduce the time needed to release their memory.

   - bpo-26423(9): Fix possible overflow in ‘wrap_lenfunc()’ when
     ‘sizeof(long) < sizeof(Py_ssize_t)’ (e.g., 64-bit Windows).

   - bpo-37050(10): Improve the AST for «debug» f-strings, which use “=”
     to print out the source of the expression being evaluated.  Delete
     expr_text from the FormattedValue node, and instead use a Constant
     string node (possibly merged with adjacent constant expressions
     inside the f-string).

   - bpo-22385(11): The ‘bytes.hex’, ‘bytearray.hex’, and
     ‘memoryview.hex’ methods as well as the ‘binascii.hexlify’ and
     ‘b2a_hex’ functions now have the ability to include an optional
     separator between hex bytes.  This functionality was inspired by
     MicroPython’s hexlify implementation.

   - bpo-26836(12): Add *note os.memfd_create(): dcd.

   - bpo-37032(13): Added new ‘replace()’ method to the code type (*note
     types.CodeType: 2e1.).

   - bpo-37007(14): Implement *note socket.if_nameindex(): df1, *note
     socket.if_nametoindex(): df2, and *note socket.if_indextoname():
     df3. on Windows.

   - bpo-36829(15): *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 7e8. now creates a
     traceback object if there is no current traceback.  Moreover, call
     *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 63d. and *note
     PyException_SetTraceback(): 1fbe. to normalize the exception value.
     Ignore any error.

   - bpo-36878(16): Only accept text after ‘# type: ignore’ if the first
     character is ASCII. This is to disallow things like ‘# type:
     ignoreé’.

   - bpo-36878(17): Store text appearing after a ‘# type: ignore’
     comment in the AST. For example a type ignore like ‘# type:
     ignore[E1000]’ will have the string ‘"[E1000]"’ stored in its AST
     node.

   - bpo-2180(18): Treat line continuation at EOF as a ‘SyntaxError’ by
     Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36907(19): Fix a crash when calling a C function with a keyword
     dict (‘f(**kwargs)’) and changing the dict ‘kwargs’ while that
     function is running.

   - bpo-36946(20): Fix possible signed integer overflow when handling
     slices.

   - bpo-36826(21): Add NamedExpression kind support to ast_unparse.c

   - bpo-1875(22): A *note SyntaxError: 17e. is now raised if a code
     blocks that will be optimized away (e.g.  if conditions that are
     always false) contains syntax errors.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36027(23): Allow computation of modular inverses via
     three-argument ‘pow’: the second argument is now permitted to be
     negative in the case where the first and third arguments are
     relatively prime.

   - bpo-36861(24): Update the Unicode database to version 12.1.0.

   - bpo-28866(25): Avoid caching attributes of classes which type
     defines mro() to avoid a hard cache invalidation problem.

   - bpo-36851(26): The ‘FrameType’ stack is now correctly cleaned up if
     the execution ends with a return and the stack is not empty.

   - bpo-34616(27): The ‘compile()’ builtin functions now support the
     ‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag, which allow to compile
     sources that contains top-level ‘await’, ‘async with’ or ‘async
     for’.  This is useful to evaluate async-code from with an already
     async functions; for example in a custom REPL.

   - bpo-36842(28): Implement PEP 578, adding sys.audit, io.open_code
     and related APIs.

   - bpo-27639(29): Correct return type for UserList slicing operations.
     Patch by Michael Blahay, Erick Cervantes, and vaultah

   - bpo-36737(30): Move PyRuntimeState.warnings into per-interpreter
     state (via «module state»).

   - bpo-36793(31): Removed ‘__str__’ implementations from builtin types
     *note bool: 5ef, *note int: 326, *note float: 327, *note complex:
     328. and few classes from the standard library.  They now inherit
     ‘__str__()’ from *note object: e4d.

   - bpo-36817(32): Add a ‘=’ feature f-strings for debugging.  This can
     precede ‘!s’, ‘!r’, or ‘!a’.  It produces the text of the
     expression, followed by an equal sign, followed by the repr of the
     value of the expression.  So ‘f'{3*9+15=}'’ would be equal to the
     string ‘'3*9+15=42'’.  If ‘=’ is specified, the default conversion
     is set to ‘!r’, unless a format spec is given, in which case the
     formatting behavior is unchanged, and __format__ will be used.

   - bpo-24048(33): Save the live exception during import.c’s
     ‘remove_module()’.

   - bpo-27987(34): pymalloc returns memory blocks aligned by 16 bytes,
     instead of 8 bytes, on 64-bit platforms to conform x86-64 ABI.
     Recent compilers assume this alignment more often.  Patch by Inada
     Naoki.

   - bpo-36601(35): A long-since-meaningless check for ‘getpid() ==
     main_pid’ was removed from Python’s internal C signal handler.

   - bpo-36594(36): Fix incorrect use of ‘%p’ in format strings.  Patch
     by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-36045(37): ‘builtins.help()’ now prefixes ‘async’ for async
     functions.

   - bpo-36084(38): Add native thread ID (TID) to threading.Thread
     objects (supported platforms: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS)

   - bpo-36035(39): Added fix for broken symlinks in combination with
     pathlib

   - bpo-35983(40): Added new trashcan macros to deal with a double
     deallocation that could occur when the ‘tp_dealloc’ of a subclass
     calls the ‘tp_dealloc’ of a base class and that base class uses the
     trashcan mechanism.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-20602(41): Do not clear *note sys.flags: a7c. and *note
     sys.float_info: 1fbf. during shutdown.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-26826(42): Expose ‘copy_file_range()’ as a low level API in the
     *note os: a5. module.

   - bpo-32388(43): Remove cross-version binary compatibility
     requirement in tp_flags.

   - bpo-31862(44): Port binascii to PEP 489 multiphase initialization.
     Patch by Marcel Plch.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35814

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37126

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37122

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37087

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26219

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37072

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37029

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26423

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37050

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22385

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26836

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37032

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37007

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2180

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36907

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36946

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36826

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1875

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36027

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36861

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28866

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36851

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34616

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36842

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27639

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36737

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36793

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36817

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24048

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27987

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36601

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36594

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36045

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36084

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36035

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35983

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20602

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26826

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31862


File: python.info,  Node: Library<163>,  Next: Documentation<52>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<162>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.26.57.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-37128(1): Added *note math.perm(): abe.

   - bpo-37120(2): Add SSLContext.num_tickets to control the number of
     TLSv1.3 session tickets.

   - bpo-12202(3): Fix the error handling in
     ‘msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty()’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-26835(4): The fcntl module now contains file sealing constants
     for sealing of memfds.

   - bpo-29262(5): Add ‘get_origin()’ and ‘get_args()’ introspection
     helpers to ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-12639(6): ‘msilib.Directory.start_component()’ no longer fails
     if 'keyfile' is not ‘None’.

   - bpo-36999(7): Add the ‘asyncio.Task.get_coro()’ method to publicly
     expose the tasks’s coroutine object.

   - bpo-35246(8): Make *note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): e3a.
     accept path-like arguments.

   - bpo-35279(9): Change default 'max_workers' of ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’
     from ‘cpu_count() * 5’ to ‘min(32, cpu_count() + 4)’.  Previous
     value was unreasonably large on many cores machines.

   - bpo-37076(10): *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 6bc. now logs
     uncaught exception raised by the function using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 70c, rather than *note sys.excepthook(): be5,
     so the hook gets access to the function which raised the exception.

   - bpo-33725(11): On macOS, the *note multiprocessing: 98. module now
     uses 'spawn' start method by default.

   - bpo-37054(12): Fix destructor ‘_pyio.BytesIO’ and
     ‘_pyio.TextIOWrapper’: initialize their ‘_buffer’ attribute as soon
     as possible (in the class body), because it’s used by ‘__del__()’
     which calls ‘close()’.

   - bpo-37058(13): PEP 544: Add ‘Protocol’ and ‘@runtime_checkable’ to
     the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-36933(14): The functions ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper’ and
     ‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper’ that were deprecated and marked for
     removal in 3.8 have been removed.

   - bpo-37047(15): Handle late binding and attribute access in *note
     unittest.mock.AsyncMock: e0d. setup for autospeccing.  Document
     newly implemented async methods in *note unittest.mock.MagicMock:
     1240.

   - bpo-37049(16): PEP 589: Add ‘TypedDict’ to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37046(17): PEP 586: Add ‘Literal’ to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37045(18): PEP 591: Add ‘Final’ qualifier and ‘@final’
     decorator to the ‘typing’ module.

   - bpo-37035(19): Don’t log OSError based exceptions if a fatal error
     has occurred in asyncio transport.  Peer can generate almost any
     OSError, user cannot avoid these exceptions by fixing own code.
     Errors are still propagated to user code, it’s just logging them is
     pointless and pollute asyncio logs.

   - bpo-37001(20): *note symtable.symtable(): 1ca. now accepts the same
     input types for source code as the built-in *note compile(): 1c8.
     function.  Patch by Dino Viehland.

   - bpo-37028(21): Implement asyncio REPL

   - bpo-37027(22): Return safe to use proxy socket object from
     transport.get_extra_info(“socket”)

   - bpo-32528(23): Make asyncio.CancelledError a BaseException.

     This will address the common mistake many asyncio users make: an
     «except Exception» clause breaking Tasks cancellation.

     In addition to this change, we stop inheriting asyncio.TimeoutError
     and asyncio.InvalidStateError from their concurrent.futures.*
     counterparts.  There’s no point for these exceptions to share the
     inheritance chain.

   - bpo-1230540(24): Add a new *note threading.excepthook(): c23.
     function which handles uncaught *note threading.Thread.run(): e00.
     exception.  It can be overridden to control how uncaught
     ‘threading.Thread.run()’ exceptions are handled.

   - bpo-36996(25): Handle *note unittest.mock.patch(): 1243. used as a
     decorator on async functions.

   - bpo-37008(26): Add support for calling *note next(): bb5. with the
     mock resulting from *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 1390.

   - bpo-27737(27): Allow whitespace only header encoding in
     ‘email.header’ - by Batuhan Taskaya

   - bpo-36969(28): PDB command ‘args’ now display positional only
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36969(29): PDB command ‘args’ now display keyword only
     arguments.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36983(30): Add missing names to ‘typing.__all__’: ‘ChainMap’,
     ‘ForwardRef’, ‘OrderedDict’ - by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36972(31): Add SupportsIndex protocol to the typing module to
     allow type checking to detect classes that can be passed to
     ‘hex()’, ‘oct()’ and ‘bin()’.

   - bpo-32972(32): Implement ‘unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase’ to help
     testing asyncio-based code.

   - bpo-36952(33): *note fileinput.input(): bd9. and *note
     fileinput.FileInput: b1e. 'bufsize' argument has been removed (was
     deprecated and ignored since Python 3.6), and as a result the
     'mode' and 'openhook' arguments have been made keyword-only.

   - bpo-36952(34): Starting with Python 3.3, importing ABCs from *note
     collections: 1e. is deprecated, and import should be done from
     *note collections.abc: 1f.  Still being able to import from
     ‘collections’ was marked for removal in 3.8, but has been delayed
     to 3.9; documentation and ‘DeprecationWarning’ clarified.

   - bpo-36949(35): Implement __repr__ for WeakSet objects.

   - bpo-36948(36): Fix *note NameError: 665. in
     ‘urllib.request.URLopener.retrieve()’.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-33524(37): Fix the folding of email header when the
     max_line_length is 0 or None and the header contains non-ascii
     characters.  Contributed by Licht Takeuchi (@Licht-T).

   - bpo-24564(38): *note shutil.copystat(): 14da. now ignores *note
     errno.EINVAL: 1fc1. on *note os.setxattr(): 14b3. which may occur
     when copying files on filesystems without extended attributes
     support.

     Original patch by Giampaolo Rodola, updated by Ying Wang.

   - bpo-36888(39): Python child processes can now access the status of
     their parent process using multiprocessing.process.parent_process

   - bpo-36921(40): Deprecate ‘@coroutine’ for sake of ‘async def’.

   - bpo-25652(41): Fix bug in ‘__rmod__’ of ‘UserString’ - by Batuhan
     Taskaya.

   - bpo-36916(42): Remove a message about an unhandled exception in a
     task when writer.write() is used without await and writer.drain()
     fails with an exception.

   - bpo-36889(43): Introduce ‘asyncio.Stream’ class that merges *note
     asyncio.StreamReader: 194a. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter: 1c76.
     functionality.  ‘asyncio.Stream’ can work in readonly, writeonly
     and readwrite modes.  Provide ‘asyncio.connect()’,
     ‘asyncio.connect_unix()’, ‘asyncio.connect_read_pipe()’ and
     ‘asyncio.connect_write_pipe()’ factories to open ‘asyncio.Stream’
     connections.  Provide ‘asyncio.StreamServer’ and ‘UnixStreamServer’
     to serve servers with asyncio.Stream API. Modify *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): e3b. and *note
     asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): e3a. to use ‘asyncio.Stream’
     instead of deprecated ‘StreamReader’ and ‘StreamWriter’.  Deprecate
     ‘asyncio.StreamReader’ and ‘asyncio.StreamWriter’.  Deprecate usage
     of private classes, e.g.  ‘asyncio.FlowControlMixing’ and
     ‘asyncio.StreamReaderProtocol’ outside of asyncio package.

   - bpo-36845(44): Added validation of integer prefixes to the
     construction of IP networks and interfaces in the ipaddress module.

   - bpo-23378(45): Add an extend action to argparser.

   - bpo-36867(46): Fix a bug making a SharedMemoryManager instance and
     its parent process use two separate resource_tracker processes.

   - bpo-23896(47): Adds a grammar to lib2to3.pygram that contains exec
     as a function not as statement.

   - bpo-36895(48): The function ‘time.clock()’ was deprecated in 3.3 in
     favor of ‘time.perf_counter()’ and marked for removal in 3.8, it
     has removed.

   - bpo-35545(49): Fix asyncio discarding IPv6 scopes when ensuring
     hostname resolutions internally

   - bpo-36887(50): Add new function *note math.isqrt(): dc7. to compute
     integer square roots.

   - bpo-34632(51): Introduce the ‘importlib.metadata’ module with
     (provisional) support for reading metadata from third-party
     packages.

   - bpo-36878(52): When using ‘type_comments=True’ in ‘ast.parse’,
     treat ‘# type: ignore’ followed by a non-alphanumeric character and
     then arbitrary text as a type ignore, instead of requiring nothing
     but whitespace or another comment.  This is to permit formations
     such as ‘# type: ignore[E1000]’.

   - bpo-36778(53): ‘cp65001’ encoding (Windows code page 65001) becomes
     an alias to ‘utf_8’ encoding.

   - bpo-36867(54): The multiprocessing.resource_tracker replaces the
     multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker module.  Other than semaphores,
     resource_tracker also tracks shared_memory segments.

   - bpo-30262(55): The ‘Cache’ and ‘Statement’ objects of the *note
     sqlite3: d7. module are not exposed to the user.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-24538(56): In ‘shutil.copystat()’, first copy extended file
     attributes and then file permissions, since extended attributes can
     only be set on the destination while it is still writeable.

   - bpo-36829(57): Add new *note sys.unraisablehook(): 70c. function
     which can be overridden to control how «unraisable exceptions» are
     handled.  It is called when an exception has occurred but there is
     no way for Python to handle it.  For example, when a destructor
     raises an exception or during garbage collection (*note
     gc.collect(): 44f.).

   - bpo-36832(58): Introducing ‘zipfile.Path’, a pathlib-compatible
     wrapper for traversing zip files.

   - bpo-36814(59): Fix an issue where os.posix_spawnp() would
     incorrectly raise a TypeError when file_actions is None.

   - bpo-33110(60): Handle exceptions raised by functions added by
     concurrent.futures add_done_callback correctly when the Future has
     already completed.

   - bpo-26903(61): Limit ‘max_workers’ in ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ to 61
     to work around a WaitForMultipleObjects limitation.

   - bpo-36813(62): Fix *note QueueListener: 4cf. to call
     ‘queue.task_done()’ upon stopping.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-36806(63): Forbid creation of asyncio stream objects like
     StreamReader, StreamWriter, Process, and their protocols outside of
     asyncio package.

   - bpo-36802(64): Provide both sync and async calls for
     StreamWriter.write() and StreamWriter.close()

   - bpo-36801(65): Properly handle SSL connection closing in asyncio
     StreamWriter.drain() call.

   - bpo-36785(66): Implement PEP 574 (pickle protocol 5 with
     out-of-band buffers).

   - bpo-36772(67): functools.lru_cache() can now be used as a straight
     decorator in addition to its existing usage as a function that
     returns a decorator.

   - bpo-6584(68): Add a *note BadGzipFile: dba. exception to the *note
     gzip: 6a. module.

   - bpo-36748(69): Optimized write buffering in C implementation of
     ‘TextIOWrapper’.  Writing ASCII string to ‘TextIOWrapper’ with
     ascii, latin1, or utf-8 encoding is about 20% faster.  Patch by
     Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-8138(70): Don’t mark ‘wsgiref.simple_server.SimpleServer’ as
     multi-threaded since ‘wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer’ is
     single-threaded.

   - bpo-22640(71): *note py_compile.compile(): de9. now supports silent
     mode.  Patch by Joannah Nanjekye

   - bpo-29183(72): Fix double exceptions in *note
     wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler: 1fc2. by calling its ‘close()’ method
     only when no exception is raised.

   - bpo-36548(73): Improved the repr of regular expression flags.

   - bpo-36542(74): The signature of Python functions can now be
     overridden by specifying the ‘__text_signature__’ attribute.

   - bpo-36533(75): Reinitialize logging.Handler locks in forked child
     processes instead of attempting to acquire them all in the parent
     before forking only to be released in the child process.  The
     acquire/release pattern was leading to deadlocks in code that has
     implemented any form of chained logging handlers that depend upon
     one another as the lock acquisition order cannot be guaranteed.

   - bpo-35252(76): Throw a TypeError instead of an AssertionError when
     using an invalid type annotation with singledispatch.

   - bpo-35900(77): Allow reduction methods to return a 6-item tuple
     where the 6th item specifies a custom state-setting method that’s
     called instead of the regular ‘__setstate__’ method.

   - bpo-35900(78): enable custom reduction callback registration for
     functions and classes in _pickle.c, using the new Pickler’s
     attribute ‘reducer_override’

   - bpo-36368(79): Fix a bug crashing SharedMemoryManager instances in
     interactive sessions after a ctrl-c (KeyboardInterrupt) was sent

   - bpo-31904(80): Fix mmap fail for VxWorks

   - bpo-27497(81): *note csv.DictWriter.writeheader(): 15a8. now
     returns the return value of the underlying ‘csv.Writer.writerow()’
     method.  Patch contributed by Ashish Nitin Patil.

   - bpo-36239(82): Parsing .mo files now ignores comments starting and
     ending with #-#-#-#-#.

   - bpo-26707(83): Enable plistlib to read and write binary plist files
     that were created as a KeyedArchive file.  Specifically, this
     allows the plistlib to process 0x80 tokens as UID objects.

   - bpo-31904(84): Add posix module support for VxWorks.

   - bpo-35125(85): Asyncio: Remove inner callback on outer cancellation
     in shield

   - bpo-35721(86): Fix ‘asyncio.SelectorEventLoop.subprocess_exec()’
     leaks file descriptors if ‘Popen’ fails and called with
     ‘stdin=subprocess.PIPE’.  Patch by Niklas Fiekas.

   - bpo-31855(87): *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 1390. results now
     respects the argument of read([size]).  Patch contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35431(88): Implement *note math.comb(): abd. that returns
     binomial coefficient, that computes the number of ways to choose k
     items from n items without repetition and without order.  Patch by
     Yash Aggarwal and Keller Fuchs.

   - bpo-26660(89): Fixed permission errors in *note TemporaryDirectory:
     15da. clean up.  Previously ‘TemporaryDirectory.cleanup()’ failed
     when non-writeable or non-searchable files or directories were
     created inside a temporary directory.

   - bpo-34271(90): Add debugging helpers to ssl module.  It’s now
     possible to dump key material and to trace TLS protocol.  The
     default and stdlib contexts also support SSLKEYLOGFILE env var.

   - bpo-26467(91): Added AsyncMock to support using unittest to mock
     asyncio coroutines.  Patch by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-33569(92): dataclasses.InitVar: Exposes the type used to create
     the init var.

   - bpo-34424(93): Fix serialization of messages containing encoded
     strings when the policy.linesep is set to a multi-character string.
     Patch by Jens Troeger.

   - bpo-34303(94): Performance of *note functools.reduce(): 153. is
     slightly improved.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-33361(95): Fix a bug in *note codecs.StreamRecoder: 1fc3. where
     seeking might leave old data in a buffer and break subsequent read
     calls.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-22454(96): The *note shlex: cc. module now exposes *note
     shlex.join(): deb, the inverse of *note shlex.split(): 949.  Patch
     by Bo Bayles.

   - bpo-31922(97):
     ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.create_datagram_endpoint()’: Do not
     connect UDP socket when broadcast is allowed.  This allows to
     receive replies after a UDP broadcast.

   - bpo-24882(98): Change ThreadPoolExecutor to use existing idle
     threads before spinning up new ones.

   - bpo-31961(99): Added support for bytes and path-like objects in
     *note subprocess.Popen(): 6bf. on Windows.  The 'args' parameter
     now accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. if 'shell' is ‘False’
     and a sequence containing bytes and path-like objects.  The
     'executable' parameter now accepts a bytes and path-like object.
     The 'cwd' parameter now accepts a bytes object.  Based on patch by
     Anders Lorentsen.

   - bpo-33123(100): *note pathlib.Path.unlink: 1fc4. now accepts a
     'missing_ok' parameter to avoid a *note FileNotFoundError: 243.
     from being raised.  Patch by Robert Buchholz.

   - bpo-32941(101): Allow *note mmap.mmap: 23c. objects to access the
     madvise() system call (through *note mmap.mmap.madvise(): dca.).

   - bpo-22102(102): Added support for ZIP files with disks set to 0.
     Such files are commonly created by builtin tools on Windows when
     use ZIP64 extension.  Patch by Francisco Facioni.

   - bpo-32515(103): trace.py can now run modules via python3 -m trace
     -t –module module_name

   - bpo-32299(104): Changed *note unittest.mock.patch.dict(): 1b7a. to
     return the patched dictionary when used as context manager.  Patch
     by Vadim Tsander.

   - bpo-27141(105): Added a ‘__copy__()’ to ‘collections.UserList’ and
     ‘collections.UserDict’ in order to correctly implement shallow
     copying of the objects.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-31829(106): ‘\r’, ‘\0’ and ‘\x1a’ (end-of-file on Windows) are
     now escaped in protocol 0 pickles of Unicode strings.  This allows
     to load them without loss from files open in text mode in Python 2.

   - bpo-23395(107): ‘_thread.interrupt_main()’ now avoids setting the
     Python error status if the ‘SIGINT’ signal is ignored or not
     handled by Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37120

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12202

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26835

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29262

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12639

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36999

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35246

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35279

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37076

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37054

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37058

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36933

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37047

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37049

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37046

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37045

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37035

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37001

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37028

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37027

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1230540

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36996

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37008

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27737

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36969

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36969

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36983

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36972

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32972

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36949

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36948

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33524

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24564

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36888

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36921

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25652

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36916

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36889

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36845

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23378

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36867

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23896

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36895

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35545

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36887

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34632

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36878

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36778

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36867

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30262

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24538

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36832

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36814

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33110

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26903

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36813

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36806

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36802

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36801

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36785

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36772

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6584

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36748

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8138

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22640

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29183

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36548

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36542

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36533

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35252

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36368

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27497

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36239

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26707

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35125

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35721

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31855

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35431

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26660

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34271

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26467

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33569

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34424

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34303

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33361

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22454

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31922

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24882

   (99) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31961

   (100) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33123

   (101) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32941

   (102) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22102

   (103) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32515

   (104) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32299

   (105) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27141

   (106) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31829

   (107) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23395


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<52>,  Next: Tests<54>,  Prev: Library<163>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.26.57.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36896(1): Clarify that some types have unstable constructor
     signature between Python versions.

   - bpo-36686(2): Improve documentation of the stdin, stdout, and
     stderr arguments of the ‘asyncio.subprocess_exec’ function to
     specify which values are supported.  Also mention that decoding as
     text is not supported.

     Add a few tests to verify that the various values passed to the
     std* arguments actually work.

   - bpo-36984(3): Improve version added references in ‘typing’ module -
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-36868(4): What’s new now mentions
     SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name instead of
     SSLContext.host_flags.

   - bpo-35924(5): Add a note to the ‘curses.addstr()’ documentation to
     warn that multiline strings can cause segfaults because of an
     ncurses bug.

   - bpo-36783(6): Added C API Documentation for Time_FromTimeAndFold
     and PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold as per PEP 495.  Patch by
     Edison Abahurire.

   - bpo-36797(7): More of the legacy distutils documentation has been
     either pruned, or else more clearly marked as being retained solely
     until the setuptools documentation covers it independently.

   - bpo-22865(8): Add detail to the documentation on the ‘pty.spawn’
     function.

   - bpo-35397(9): Remove deprecation and document
     urllib.parse.unwrap().  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-32995(10): Added the context variable in glossary.

   - bpo-33519(11): Clarify that ‘copy()’ is not part of the
     ‘MutableSequence’ ABC.

   - bpo-33482(12): Make ‘codecs.StreamRecoder.writelines’ take a list
     of bytes.

   - bpo-25735(13): Added documentation for func factorial to indicate
     that returns integer values

   - bpo-20285(14): Expand object.__doc__ (docstring) to make it
     clearer.  Modify pydoc.py so that help(object) lists object methods
     (for other classes, help omits methods of the object base class.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36896

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36686

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36984

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36868

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35924

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36783

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36797

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22865

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35397

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32995

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33519

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33482

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25735

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20285


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<54>,  Next: Build<58>,  Prev: Documentation<52>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.26.57.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-37069(1): Modify test_coroutines, test_cprofile,
     test_generators, test_raise, test_ssl and test_yield_from to use
     *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception(): 1fad. rather than
     *note test.support.captured_stderr(): 1fc7.

   - bpo-37098(2): Fix test_memfd_create on older Linux Kernels.

   - bpo-37081(3): Test with OpenSSL 1.1.1c

   - bpo-36829(4): Add *note test.support.catch_unraisable_exception():
     1fad.: context manager catching unraisable exception using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 70c.

   - bpo-36915(5): The main regrtest process now always removes all
     temporary directories of worker processes even if they crash or if
     they are killed on KeyboardInterrupt (CTRL+c).

   - bpo-36719(6): «python3 -m test -jN …» now continues the execution
     of next tests when a worker process crash (CHILD_ERROR state).
     Previously, the test suite stopped immediately.  Use –failfast to
     stop at the first error.

   - bpo-36816(7): Update Lib/test/selfsigned_pythontestdotnet.pem to
     match self-signed.pythontest.net’s new TLS certificate.

   - bpo-35925(8): Skip httplib and nntplib networking tests when they
     would otherwise fail due to a modern OS or distro with a default
     OpenSSL policy of rejecting connections to servers with weak
     certificates.

   - bpo-36782(9): Add tests for several C API functions in the *note
     datetime: 33. module.  Patch by Edison Abahurire.

   - bpo-36342(10): Fix test_multiprocessing in test_venv if platform
     lacks functioning sem_open.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37069

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37098

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37081

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36915

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36719

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36816

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35925

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36782

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36342


File: python.info,  Node: Build<58>,  Next: Windows<50>,  Prev: Tests<54>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.26.57.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36721(1): To embed Python into an application, a new ‘--embed’
     option must be passed to ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ to get
     ‘-lpython3.8’ (link the application to libpython).  To support both
     3.8 and older, try ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ first and
     fallback to ‘python3-config --libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the
     previous command fails.

     Add a pkg-config ‘python-3.8-embed’ module to embed Python into an
     application: ‘pkg-config python-3.8-embed --libs’ includes
     ‘-lpython3.8’.  To support both 3.8 and older, try ‘pkg-config
     python-X.Y-embed --libs’ first and fallback to ‘pkg-config
     python-X.Y --libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the previous command
     fails (replace ‘X.Y’ with the Python version).

     On the other hand, ‘pkg-config python3.8 --libs’ no longer contains
     ‘-lpython3.8’.  C extensions must not be linked to libpython
     (except on Android, case handled by the script); this change is
     backward incompatible on purpose.

   - bpo-36786(2): «make install» now runs compileall in parallel.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36786


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<50>,  Next: macOS<41>,  Prev: Build<58>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.26.57.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-36965(1): include of STATUS_CONTROL_C_EXIT without depending on
     MSC compiler

   - bpo-35926(2): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.1b for Windows.

   - bpo-29883(3): Add Windows support for UDP transports for the
     Proactor Event Loop.  Patch by Adam Meily.

   - bpo-33407(4): The *note Py_DEPRECATED(): e6a. macro has been
     implemented for MSVC.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36965

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35926

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29883

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33407


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<41>,  Next: IDLE<34>,  Prev: Windows<50>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.26.57.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-36231(1): Support building Python on macOS without /usr/include
     installed.  As of macOS 10.14, system header files are only
     available within an SDK provided by either the Command Line Tools
     or the Xcode app.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36231


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<34>,  Next: Tools/Demos<32>,  Prev: macOS<41>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.26.57.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35610(1): Replace now redundant .context_use_ps1 with
     .prompt_last_line.  This finishes change started in bpo-31858(2).

   - bpo-37038(3): Make idlelib.run runnable; add test clause.

   - bpo-36958(4): Print any argument other than None or int passed to
     SystemExit or sys.exit().

   - bpo-36807(5): When saving a file, call os.fsync() so bits are
     flushed to e.g.  USB drive.

   - bpo-32411(6): In browser.py, remove extraneous sorting by line
     number since dictionary was created in line number order.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35610

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37038

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36958

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36807

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32411


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<32>,  Next: C API<54>,  Prev: IDLE<34>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.26.57.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-37053(1): Handle strings like u»bar» correctly in
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Chih-Hsuan Yen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37053


File: python.info,  Node: C API<54>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<32>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 beta 1

1.26.57.11 C API
................

   - bpo-36763(1): Implement the PEP 587(2) «Python Initialization
     Configuration».

   - bpo-36379(3): Fix crashes when attempting to use the 'modulo'
     parameter when ‘__ipow__’ is implemented in C.

   - bpo-37107(4): Update *note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 1fce. and
     ‘_PyObject_CallMethodIdObjArgs’ to use ‘_PyObject_GetMethod’ to
     avoid creating a bound method object in many cases.  Patch by
     Michael J. Sullivan.

   - bpo-36974(5): Implement PEP 590(6): Vectorcall: a fast calling
     protocol for CPython.  This is a new protocol to optimize calls of
     custom callable objects.

   - bpo-36763(7): ‘Py_Main()’ now returns the exitcode rather than
     calling ‘Py_Exit(exitcode)’ when calling ‘PyErr_Print()’ if the
     current exception type is ‘SystemExit’.

   - bpo-36922(8): Add new type flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR’ for
     objects behaving like unbound methods.  These are objects
     supporting the optimization given by the
     ‘LOAD_METHOD’/‘CALL_METHOD’ opcodes.  See PEP 590.

   - bpo-36728(9): The ‘PyEval_ReInitThreads()’ function has been
     removed from the C API. It should not be called explicitly: use
     *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 643. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37107

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36922

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36728


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.58 Python 3.8.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-05-06'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<43>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<163>.
* Library: Library<164>.
* Documentation: Documentation<53>.
* Tests: Tests<55>.
* Build: Build<59>.
* Windows: Windows<51>.
* macOS: macOS<42>.
* IDLE: IDLE<35>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<33>.
* C API: C API<55>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<43>,  Next: Core and Builtins<163>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.26.58.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-36742(1): Fixes mishandling of pre-normalization characters in
     urlsplit().

   - bpo-30458(2): Address CVE 2019-9740(3) by disallowing URL paths
     with embedded whitespace or control characters through into the
     underlying http client request.  Such potentially malicious header
     injection URLs now cause an http.client.InvalidURL exception to be
     raised.

   - bpo-35755(4): *note shutil.which(): 8c4. now uses
     ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’ if available and if the ‘PATH’ environment
     variable is not set.  Remove also the current directory from
     ‘posixpath.defpath’.  On Unix, ‘shutil.which()’ and the *note
     subprocess: df. module no longer search the executable in the
     current directory if the ‘PATH’ environment variable is not set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36742

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30458

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-9740

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35755


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<163>,  Next: Library<164>,  Prev: Security<43>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.26.58.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36722(1): In debug build, import now also looks for C
     extensions compiled in release mode and for C extensions compiled
     in the stable ABI.

   - bpo-32849(2): Fix Python Initialization code on FreeBSD to detect
     properly when stdin file descriptor (fd 0) is invalid.

   - bpo-36623(3): Remove parser headers and related function
     declarations that lack implementations after the removal of pgen.

   - bpo-20180(4): ‘dict.pop()’ is now up to 33% faster thanks to
     Argument Clinic.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36611(5): Debug memory allocators: disable serialno field by
     default from debug hooks on Python memory allocators to reduce the
     memory footprint by 5%.  Enable *note tracemalloc: 108. to get the
     traceback where a memory block has been allocated when a fatal
     memory error is logged to decide where to put a breakpoint.
     Compile Python with ‘PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO’ defined to get back the
     field.

   - bpo-36588(6): On AIX, *note sys.platform: 518. doesn’t contain the
     major version anymore.  Always return ‘'aix'’, instead of ‘'aix3'’
     ..  ‘'aix7'’.  Since older Python versions include the version
     number, it is recommended to always use
     ‘sys.platform.startswith('aix')’.  Contributed by M. Felt.

   - bpo-36549(7): Change str.capitalize to use titlecase for the first
     character instead of uppercase.

   - bpo-36540(8): Implement PEP 570(9) (Python positional-only
     parameters).  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36475(10): ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_AcquireThread()’
     now terminate the current thread if called while the interpreter is
     finalizing, making them consistent with *note
     PyEval_RestoreThread(): 839, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): e4e, and
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5.

   - bpo-36504(11): Fix signed integer overflow in _ctypes.c’s
     ‘PyCArrayType_new()’.

   - bpo-20844(12): Fix running script with encoding cookie and LF line
     ending may fail on Windows.

   - bpo-24214(13): Fixed support of the surrogatepass error handler in
     the UTF-8 incremental decoder.

   - bpo-36452(14): Changing ‘dict’ keys during iteration of the dict
     itself, ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, or ‘items()’ will now be detected in
     certain corner cases where keys are deleted/added so that the
     number of keys isn’t changed.  A ‘RuntimeError’ will be raised
     after ‘len(dict)’ iterations.  Contributed by Thomas Perl.

   - bpo-36459(15): Fix a possible double ‘PyMem_FREE()’ due to
     tokenizer.c’s ‘tok_nextc()’.

   - bpo-36433(16): Fixed TypeError message in classmethoddescr_call.

   - bpo-36430(17): Fix a possible reference leak in *note
     itertools.count(): 1628.

   - bpo-36440(18): Include node names in ‘ParserError’ messages,
     instead of numeric IDs.  Patch by A. Skrobov.

   - bpo-36143(19): Regenerate *note keyword: 87. from the Grammar and
     Tokens file using pgen.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-18372(20): Add missing *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 18a6. calls
     in the *note pickle: ab. module.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32849

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36623

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20180

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36611

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36588

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36549

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36540

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36475

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36504

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20844

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24214

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36452

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36459

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36433

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36430

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36440

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36143

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18372


File: python.info,  Node: Library<164>,  Next: Documentation<53>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<163>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.26.58.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35952(1): Fix pythoninfo when the compiler is missing.

   - bpo-28238(2): The ‘.find*()’ methods of xml.etree.ElementTree can
     now search for wildcards like ‘{*}tag’ and ‘{ns}*’ that match a tag
     in any namespace or all tags in a namespace.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-26978(3): ‘pathlib.path.link_to()’ is now implemented.  It
     creates a hard link pointing to a path.

   - bpo-1613500(4): *note fileinput.FileInput: b1e. now uses the input
     file mode to correctly set the output file mode (previously it was
     hardcoded to ‘'w'’) when ‘inplace=True’ is passed to its
     constructor.

   - bpo-36734(5): Fix compilation of ‘faulthandler.c’ on HP-UX.
     Initialize ‘stack_t current_stack’ to zero using ‘memset()’.

   - bpo-13611(6): The xml.etree.ElementTree packages gained support for
     C14N 2.0 serialisation.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-36669(7): Add missing matrix multiplication operator support to
     weakref.proxy.

   - bpo-36676(8): The XMLParser() in xml.etree.ElementTree provides
     namespace prefix context to the parser target if it defines the
     callback methods «start_ns()» and/or «end_ns()».  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-36673(9): The TreeBuilder and XMLPullParser in
     xml.etree.ElementTree gained support for parsing comments and
     processing instructions.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-36650(10): The C version of functools.lru_cache() was treating
     calls with an empty ‘**kwargs’ dictionary as being distinct from
     calls with no keywords at all.  This did not result in an incorrect
     answer, but it did trigger an unexpected cache miss.

   - bpo-28552(11): Fix ‘distutils.sysconfig’ if *note sys.executable:
     3ac. is ‘None’ or an empty string: use *note os.getcwd(): 1b26. to
     initialize ‘project_base’.  Fix also the distutils build command:
     don’t use ‘sys.executable’ if it is ‘None’ or an empty string.

   - bpo-35755(12): *note shutil.which(): 8c4. and
     ‘distutils.spawn.find_executable’ now use ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’
     if available instead of *note os.defpath: 1fd3, if the ‘PATH’
     environment variable is not set.  Moreover, don’t use
     ‘os.confstr("CS_PATH")’ nor ‘os.defpath’ if the ‘PATH’ environment
     variable is set to an empty string.

   - bpo-25430(13): improve performance of ‘IPNetwork.__contains__()’

   - bpo-30485(14): Path expressions in xml.etree.ElementTree can now
     avoid explicit namespace prefixes for tags (or the «{namespace}tag»
     notation) by passing a default namespace with an empty string
     prefix.

   - bpo-36613(15): Fix *note asyncio: b. wait() not removing callback
     if exception

   - bpo-36598(16): Fix ‘isinstance’ check for Mock objects with spec
     when the code is executed under tracing.  Patch by Karthikeyan
     Singaravelan.

   - bpo-18748(17): In development mode (*note -X: 178. ‘dev’) and in
     debug build, the *note io.IOBase: 70a. destructor now logs
     ‘close()’ exceptions.  These exceptions are silent by default in
     release mode.

   - bpo-36575(18): The ‘_lsprof’ module now uses internal timer same to
     ‘time.perf_counter()’ by default.  ‘gettimeofday(2)’ was used on
     Unix.  New timer has better resolution on most Unix platforms and
     timings are no longer impacted by system clock updates since
     ‘perf_counter()’ is monotonic.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-33461(19): ‘json.loads’ now emits ‘DeprecationWarning’ when
     ‘encoding’ option is specified.  Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-36559(20): The random module now prefers the lean internal
     _sha512 module over hashlib for seed(version=2) to optimize import
     time.

   - bpo-17561(21): Set backlog=None as the default for
     socket.create_server.

   - bpo-34373(22): Fix *note time.mktime(): 1591. error handling on AIX
     for year before 1970.

   - bpo-36232(23): Improve error message when trying to open existing
     DBM database that actually doesn’t exist.  Patch by Marco Rougeth.

   - bpo-36546(24): Add statistics.quantiles()

   - bpo-36050(25): Optimized ‘http.client.HTTPResponse.read()’ for
     large response.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36522(26): If 'debuglevel' is set to >0 in *note http.client:
     72, print all values for headers with multiple values for the same
     header name.  Patch by Matt Houglum.

   - bpo-36492(27): Deprecated passing required arguments like 'func' as
     keyword arguments in functions which should accept arbitrary
     keyword arguments and pass them to other function.  Arbitrary
     keyword arguments (even with names «self» and «func») can now be
     passed to these functions if the required arguments are passed as
     positional arguments.

   - bpo-27181(28): Add statistics.geometric_mean().

   - bpo-30427(29): ‘os.path.normcase()’ relies on ‘os.fspath()’ to
     check the type of its argument.  Redundant checks have been removed
     from its ‘posixpath.normcase()’ and ‘ntpath.normcase()’
     implementations.  Patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-36385(30): Stop rejecting IPv4 octets for being ambiguously
     octal.  Leading zeros are ignored, and no longer are assumed to
     specify octal octets.  Octets are always decimal numbers.  Octets
     must still be no more than three digits, including leading zeroes.

   - bpo-36434(31): Errors during writing to a ZIP file no longer
     prevent to properly close it.

   - bpo-36407(32): Fixed wrong indentation writing for CDATA section in
     xml.dom.minidom.  Patch by Vladimir Surjaninov.

   - bpo-36326(33): inspect.getdoc() can now find docstrings for member
     objects when __slots__ is a dictionary.

   - bpo-36366(34): Calling ‘stop()’ on an unstarted or stopped *note
     unittest.mock.patch(): 1243. object will now return ‘None’ instead
     of raising *note RuntimeError: 30d, making the method idempotent.
     Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36348(35): The ‘imap.IMAP4.logout()’ method no longer ignores
     silently arbitrary exceptions.

   - bpo-31904(36): Add time module support and fix test_time failures
     for VxWorks.

   - bpo-36227(37): Added support for keyword arguments
     ‘default_namespace’ and ‘xml_declaration’ in functions
     ‘ElementTree.tostring()’ and ‘ElementTree.tostringlist()’.

   - bpo-36004(38): Added new alternate constructors *note
     datetime.date.fromisocalendar(): db0. and *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): db1, which construct date
     objects from ISO year, week number and weekday; these are the
     inverse of each class’s ‘isocalendar’ method.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - bpo-35936(39): *note modulefinder: 95. no longer depends on the
     deprecated *note imp: 79. module, and the initializer for *note
     modulefinder.ModuleFinder: 1fd4. now has immutable default
     arguments.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-35376(40): *note modulefinder: 95. correctly handles modules
     that have the same name as a bad package.  Patch by Brandt Bucher.

   - bpo-17396(41): *note modulefinder: 95. no longer crashes when
     encountering syntax errors in followed imports.  Patch by Brandt
     Bucher.

   - bpo-35934(42): Added *note create_server(): def. and *note
     has_dualstack_ipv6(): df0. convenience functions to automate the
     necessary tasks usually involved when creating a server socket,
     including accepting both IPv4 and IPv6 connections on the same
     socket.  (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in bpo-17561(43).)

   - bpo-23078(44): Add support for *note classmethod(): 69a. and *note
     staticmethod(): 666. to *note unittest.mock.create_autospec():
     1b4e.  Initial patch by Felipe Ochoa.

   - bpo-35416(45): Fix potential resource warnings in distutils.  Patch
     by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-25451(46): Add transparency methods to ‘tkinter.PhotoImage’.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35082(47): Don’t return deleted attributes when calling dir on
     a *note unittest.mock.Mock: e0e.

   - bpo-34547(48): *note wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler: 1fc2. now
     handles abrupt client connection terminations gracefully.  Patch by
     Petter Strandmark.

   - bpo-31658(49): *note xml.sax.parse(): 1fd5. now supports *note
     path-like: 79f.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-34139(50): Remove stale unix datagram socket before binding

   - bpo-33530(51): Implemented Happy Eyeballs in
     ‘asyncio.create_connection()’.  Added two new arguments,
     'happy_eyeballs_delay' and 'interleave', to specify Happy Eyeballs
     behavior.

   - bpo-33291(52): Do not raise AttributeError when calling the inspect
     functions isgeneratorfunction, iscoroutinefunction,
     isasyncgenfunction on a method created from an arbitrary callable.
     Instead, return False.

   - bpo-31310(53): Fix the multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker so it is
     reused by child processes

   - bpo-31292(54): Fix ‘setup.py check --restructuredtext’ for files
     containing ‘include’ directives.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35952

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28238

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26978

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1613500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36734

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13611

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36669

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36676

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36673

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36650

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28552

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35755

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25430

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30485

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36613

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36598

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36575

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33461

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36559

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34373

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36232

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36050

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36522

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36492

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30427

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36385

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36434

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36407

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36326

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36366

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36348

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36227

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36004

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35936

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35376

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17396

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35934

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23078

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35416

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25451

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35082

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34547

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31658

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34139

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33530

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33291

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31292


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<53>,  Next: Tests<55>,  Prev: Library<164>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.26.58.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36625(1): Remove obsolete comments from docstrings in
     fractions.Fraction

   - bpo-30840(2): Document relative imports

   - bpo-36523(3): Add docstring for io.IOBase.writelines().

   - bpo-36425(4): New documentation translation: Simplified Chinese(5).

   - bpo-36345(6): Avoid the duplication of code from
     ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ in using the ‘literalinclude’ directive
     for the basic wsgiref-based web server in the documentation of
     *note wsgiref: 121.  Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36345(7): Using the code of the ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ script
     as an example in the *note wsgiref: 121. documentation.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36157(8): Added documentation for PyInterpreterState_Main().

   - bpo-33043(9): Updates the docs.python.org page with the addition of
     a “Contributing to Docs” link at the end of the page (between
     “Reporting Bugs” and “About Documentation”).  Updates the “Found a
     Bug” page with additional links and information in the
     Documentation Bugs section.

   - bpo-35581(10): @typing.type_check_only now allows type stubs to
     mark functions and classes not available during runtime.

   - bpo-33832(11): Add glossary entry for “magic method”.

   - bpo-32913(12): Added re.Match.groupdict example to regex HOWTO.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36625

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30840

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36425

   (5) https://docs.python.org/zh-cn/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36345

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36345

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36157

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33043

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35581

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33832

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32913


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<55>,  Next: Build<59>,  Prev: Documentation<53>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.26.58.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-36719(1): regrtest now always detects uncollectable objects.
     Previously, the check was only enabled by ‘--findleaks’.  The check
     now also works with ‘-jN/--multiprocess N’.  ‘--findleaks’ becomes
     a deprecated alias to ‘--fail-env-changed’.

   - bpo-36725(2): When using multiprocessing mode (-jN), regrtest now
     better reports errors if a worker process fails, and it exits
     immediately on a worker thread failure or when interrupted.

   - bpo-36454(3): Change test_time.test_monotonic() to test only the
     lower bound of elapsed time after a sleep command rather than the
     upper bound.  This prevents unnecessary test failures on slow
     buildbots.  Patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-32424(4): Improve test coverage for xml.etree.ElementTree.
     Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-32424(5): Fix typo in test_cyclic_gc() test for
     xml.etree.ElementTree.  Patch by Gordon P. Hemsley.

   - bpo-36635(6): Add a new ‘_testinternalcapi’ module to test the
     internal C API.

   - bpo-36629(7): Fix ‘test_imap4_host_default_value()’ of
     ‘test_imaplib’: catch also *note errno.ENETUNREACH: 1fd8. error.

   - bpo-36611(8): Fix ‘test_sys.test_getallocatedblocks()’ when *note
     tracemalloc: 108. is enabled.

   - bpo-36560(9): Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest: compute also
     deltas (of reference count, allocated memory blocks, file
     descriptor count) during warmup, to ensure that everything is
     initialized before starting to hunt reference leaks.

   - bpo-36565(10): Fix reference hunting (‘python3 -m test -R 3:3’)
     when Python has no built-in abc module.

   - bpo-31904(11): Port test_resource to VxWorks: skip tests cases
     setting RLIMIT_FSIZE and RLIMIT_CPU.

   - bpo-31904(12): Fix test_tabnanny on VxWorks: adjust ENOENT error
     message.

   - bpo-36436(13): Fix ‘_testcapi.pymem_buffer_overflow()’: handle
     memory allocation failure.

   - bpo-31904(14): Fix test_utf8_mode on VxWorks: Python always use
     UTF-8 on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36341(15): Fix tests that may fail with PermissionError upon
     calling bind() on AF_UNIX sockets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36719

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36725

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36454

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32424

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36635

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36629

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36611

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36560

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36565

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36436

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36341


File: python.info,  Node: Build<59>,  Next: Windows<51>,  Prev: Tests<55>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.26.58.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36747(1): Remove the stale scriptsinstall Makefile target.

   - bpo-21536(2): On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to
     libpython except on Android and Cygwin.

     It is now possible for a statically linked Python to load a C
     extension built using a shared library Python.

     When Python is embedded, ‘libpython’ must not be loaded with
     ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, but ‘RTLD_GLOBAL’ instead.  Previously, using
     ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, it was already not possible to load C extensions
     which were not linked to ‘libpython’, such as C extensions of the
     standard library built by the ‘*shared*’ section of
     ‘Modules/Setup’.

     distutils, python-config and python-config.py have been modified.

   - bpo-36707(3): ‘./configure --with-pymalloc’ no longer adds the ‘m’
     flag to SOABI (sys.implementation.cache_tag).  Enabling or
     disabling pymalloc has no impact on the ABI.

   - bpo-36635(4): Change ‘PyAPI_FUNC(type)’, ‘PyAPI_DATA(type)’ and
     ‘PyMODINIT_FUNC’ macros of ‘pyport.h’ when ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’
     is defined.  The ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ define must be now be used
     to build a C extension as a dynamic library accessing Python
     internals: export the ‘PyInit_XXX()’ function in DLL exports on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31904(5): Don’t build the ‘_crypt’ extension on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36618(6): Add ‘-fmax-type-align=8’ to CFLAGS when clang
     compiler is detected.  The pymalloc memory allocator aligns memory
     on 8 bytes.  On x86-64, clang expects alignment on 16 bytes by
     default and so uses MOVAPS instruction which can lead to
     segmentation fault.  Instruct clang that Python is limited to
     alignment on 8 bytes to use MOVUPS instruction instead: slower but
     don’t trigger a SIGSEGV if the memory is not aligned on 16 bytes.
     Sadly, the flag must be added to ‘CFLAGS’ and not just
     ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’, since third party C extensions can have the same
     issue.

   - bpo-36605(7): ‘make tags’ and ‘make TAGS’ now also parse
     ‘Modules/_io/*.c’ and ‘Modules/_io/*.h’.

   - bpo-36465(8): Release builds and debug builds are now ABI
     compatible: defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the
     ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which introduces the only ABI
     incompatibility.  The ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which adds the *note
     sys.getobjects(): 516. function and the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: d6f.
     environment variable, can be set using the new ‘./configure
     --with-trace-refs’ build option.

   - bpo-36577(9): setup.py now correctly reports missing OpenSSL
     headers and libraries again.

   - bpo-36544(10): Fix regression introduced in bpo-36146(11)
     refactoring setup.py

   - bpo-36508(12): ‘python-config --ldflags’ no longer includes flags
     of the ‘LINKFORSHARED’ variable.  The ‘LINKFORSHARED’ variable must
     only be used to build executables.

   - bpo-36503(13): Remove references to «aix3» and «aix4».  Patch by M.
     Felt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36747

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36707

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36635

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36618

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36605

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36577

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36544

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36508

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36503


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<51>,  Next: macOS<42>,  Prev: Build<59>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.26.58.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35920(1): Added platform.win32_edition() and
     platform.win32_is_iot().  Added support for cross-compiling
     packages for Windows ARM32.  Skip tests that are not expected to
     work on Windows IoT Core ARM32.

   - bpo-36649(2): Remove trailing spaces for registry keys when
     installed via the Store.

   - bpo-34144(3): Fixed activate.bat to correctly update codepage when
     chcp.com returns dots in output.  Patch by Lorenz Mende.

   - bpo-36509(4): Added preset-iot layout for Windows IoT ARM
     containers.  This layout doesn’t contain UI components like tkinter
     or IDLE. It also doesn’t contain files to support on-target builds
     since Windows ARM32 builds must be cross-compiled when using MSVC.

   - bpo-35941(5): enum_certificates function of the ssl module now
     returns certificates from all available certificate stores inside
     windows in a query instead of returning only certificates from the
     system wide certificate store.  This includes certificates from
     these certificate stores: local machine, local machine enterprise,
     local machine group policy, current user, current user group
     policy, services, users.  ssl.enum_crls() function is changed in
     the same way to return all certificate revocation lists inside the
     windows certificate revocation list stores.

   - bpo-36441(6): Fixes creating a venv when debug binaries are
     installed.

   - bpo-36085(7): Enable better DLL resolution on Windows by using safe
     DLL search paths and adding *note os.add_dll_directory(): dae.

   - bpo-36010(8): Add the venv standard library module to the nuget
     distribution for Windows.

   - bpo-29515(9): Add the following socket module constants on Windows:
     IPPROTO_AH IPPROTO_CBT IPPROTO_DSTOPTS IPPROTO_EGP IPPROTO_ESP
     IPPROTO_FRAGMENT IPPROTO_GGP IPPROTO_HOPOPTS IPPROTO_ICLFXBM
     IPPROTO_ICMPV6 IPPROTO_IDP IPPROTO_IGMP IPPROTO_IGP IPPROTO_IPV4
     IPPROTO_IPV6 IPPROTO_L2TP IPPROTO_MAX IPPROTO_ND IPPROTO_NONE
     IPPROTO_PGM IPPROTO_PIM IPPROTO_PUP IPPROTO_RDP IPPROTO_ROUTING
     IPPROTO_SCTP IPPROTO_ST

   - bpo-35947(10): Added current version of libffi to
     cpython-source-deps.  Change _ctypes to use current version of
     libffi on Windows.

   - bpo-34060(11): Report system load when running test suite on
     Windows.  Patch by Ammar Askar.  Based on prior work by Jeremy
     Kloth.

   - bpo-31512(12): With the Windows 10 Creators Update, non-elevated
     users can now create symlinks as long as the computer has Developer
     Mode enabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35920

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34144

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36509

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35941

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36010

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29515

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35947

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31512


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<42>,  Next: IDLE<35>,  Prev: Windows<51>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.26.58.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-34602(1): Avoid failures setting macOS stack resource limit
     with resource.setrlimit.  This reverts an earlier fix for
     bpo-18075(2) which forced a non-default stack size when building
     the interpreter executable on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34602

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18075


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<35>,  Next: Tools/Demos<33>,  Prev: macOS<42>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.26.58.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-36429(1): Fix starting IDLE with pyshell.  Add idlelib.pyshell
     alias at top; remove pyshell alias at bottom.  Remove obsolete
     __name__==”__main__” command.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36429


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<33>,  Next: C API<55>,  Prev: IDLE<35>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.26.58.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-14546(1): Fix the argument handling in Tools/scripts/lll.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14546


File: python.info,  Node: C API<55>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<33>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4

1.26.58.11 C API
................

   - bpo-36763(1): Fix memory leak in ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’:
     release memory if the function is called twice.

   - bpo-36641(2): *note PyDoc_VAR: 1fdf.(name) and *note PyDoc_STRVAR:
     1f4f.(name, str) now create ‘static const char name[]’ instead of
     ‘static char name[]’.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36389(3): Change the value of ‘CLEANBYTE’, ‘DEADDYTE’ and
     ‘FORBIDDENBYTE’ internal constants used by debug hooks on Python
     memory allocators (*note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): 1028. function).
     Byte patterns ‘0xCB’, ‘0xDB’ and ‘0xFB’ have been replaced with
     ‘0xCD’, ‘0xDD’ and ‘0xFD’ to use the same values than Windows CRT
     debug ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’.

   - bpo-36443(4): Since Python 3.7.0, calling *note Py_DecodeLocale():
     f85. before *note Py_Initialize(): 673. produces mojibake if the
     ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale is coerced and/or if the UTF-8 Mode is enabled by
     the user configuration.  The LC_CTYPE coercion and UTF-8 Mode are
     now disabled by default to fix the mojibake issue.  They must now
     be enabled explicitly (opt-in) using the new ‘_Py_PreInitialize()’
     API with ‘_PyPreConfig’.

   - bpo-36025(5): Fixed an accidental change to the datetime C API
     where the arguments to the *note PyDate_FromTimestamp(): 1fe0.
     function were incorrectly interpreted as a single timestamp rather
     than an arguments tuple, which causes existing code to start
     raising *note TypeError: 291.  The backwards-incompatible change
     was only present in alpha releases of Python 3.8.  Patch by Paul
     Ganssle.

   - bpo-35810(6): Modify ‘PyObject_Init’ to correctly increase the
     refcount of heap-allocated Type objects.  Also fix the refcounts of
     the heap-allocated types that were either doing this manually or
     not decreasing the type’s refcount in tp_dealloc

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36641

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36389

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36443

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36025

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.59 Python 3.8.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-03-25'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<44>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<164>.
* Library: Library<165>.
* Documentation: Documentation<54>.
* Tests: Tests<56>.
* Build: Build<60>.
* Windows: Windows<52>.
* IDLE: IDLE<36>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<34>.
* C API: C API<56>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<44>,  Next: Core and Builtins<164>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.26.59.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-36216(1): Changes urlsplit() to raise ValueError when the URL
     contains characters that decompose under IDNA encoding
     (NFKC-normalization) into characters that affect how the URL is
     parsed.

   - bpo-35121(2): Don’t send cookies of domain A without Domain
     attribute to domain B when domain A is a suffix match of domain B
     while using a cookiejar with *note
     http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy: 1fe3. policy.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36216

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35121


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<164>,  Next: Library<165>,  Prev: Security<44>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.26.59.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36421(1): Fix a possible double decref in _ctypes.c’s
     ‘PyCArrayType_new()’.

   - bpo-36412(2): Fix a possible crash when creating a new dictionary.

   - bpo-36398(3): Fix a possible crash in ‘structseq_repr()’.

   - bpo-36256(4): Fix bug in parsermodule when parsing a state in a DFA
     that has two or more arcs with labels of the same type.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36365(5): repr(structseq) is no longer limited to 512 bytes.

   - bpo-36374(6): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     ‘merge_consts_recursive()’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-36236(7): At Python initialization, the current directory is no
     longer prepended to *note sys.path: 194. if it has been removed.

   - bpo-36352(8): Python initialization now fails with an error, rather
     than silently truncating paths, if a path is too long.

   - bpo-36301(9): Python initialization now fails if decoding
     ‘pybuilddir.txt’ configuration file fails at startup.

   - bpo-36333(10): Fix leak in _PyRuntimeState_Fini.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36332(11): The builtin *note compile(): 1c8. can now handle AST
     objects that contain assignment expressions.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-36282(12): Improved error message for too much positional
     arguments in some builtin functions.

   - bpo-30040(13): New empty dict uses fewer memory for now.  It used
     more memory than empty dict created by ‘dict.clear()’.  And empty
     dict creation and deletion is about 2x faster.  Patch by Inada
     Naoki.

   - bpo-36262(14): Fix an unlikely memory leak on conversion from
     string to float in the function ‘_Py_dg_strtod()’ used by
     ‘float(str)’, ‘complex(str)’, *note pickle.load(): 10ca, *note
     marshal.load(): 1fe5, etc.

   - bpo-36252(15): Update Unicode databases to version 12.0.0.

   - bpo-36218(16): Fix a segfault occurring when sorting a list of
     heterogeneous values.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre and Elliot
     Gorokhovsky.

   - bpo-36188(17): Cleaned up left-over vestiges of Python 2 unbound
     method handling in method objects and documentation.  Patch by
     Martijn Pieters

   - bpo-36124(18): Add a new interpreter-specific dict and expose it in
     the C-API via PyInterpreterState_GetDict().  This parallels
     PyThreadState_GetDict().  However, extension modules should
     continue using PyModule_GetState() for their own internal
     per-interpreter state.

   - bpo-35975(19): Add a ‘feature_version’ flag to ‘ast.parse()’
     (documented) and ‘compile()’ (hidden) that allows tweaking the
     parser to support older versions of the grammar.  In particular, if
     ‘feature_version’ is 5 or 6, the hacks for the ‘async’ and ‘await’
     keyword from PEP 492 are reinstated.  (For 7 or higher, these are
     unconditionally treated as keywords, but they are still special
     tokens rather than ‘NAME’ tokens that the parser driver
     recognizes.)

   - bpo-31904(20): Use UTF-8 as the system encoding on VxWorks.

   - bpo-36048(21): The *note __index__(): 43d. special method will be
     used instead of *note __int__(): 43c. for implicit conversion of
     Python numbers to C integers.  Using the ‘__int__()’ method in
     implicit conversions has been deprecated.

   - bpo-35808(22): Retire pgen and use a modified version of pgen2 to
     generate the parser.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36421

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36412

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36398

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36256

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36365

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36374

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36236

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36352

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36301

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36333

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36332

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36282

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30040

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36262

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36252

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36218

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36188

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36124

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35975

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35808


File: python.info,  Node: Library<165>,  Next: Documentation<54>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<164>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.26.59.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-36401(1): The class documentation created by pydoc now has a
     separate section for readonly properties.

   - bpo-36320(2): The typing.NamedTuple() class has deprecated the
     _field_types attribute in favor of the __annotations__ attribute
     which carried the same information.  Also, both attributes were
     converted from OrderedDict to a regular dict.

   - bpo-34745(3): Fix *note asyncio: b. ssl memory issues caused by
     circular references

   - bpo-36324(4): Add method to statistics.NormalDist for computing the
     inverse cumulative normal distribution.

   - bpo-36321(5): collections.namedtuple() misspelled the name of an
     attribute.  To be consistent with typing.NamedTuple, the attribute
     name should have been «_field_defaults» instead of
     «_fields_defaults».  For backwards compatibility, both spellings
     are now created.  The misspelled version may be removed in the
     future.

   - bpo-36297(6): «unicode_internal» codec is removed.  It was
     deprecated since Python 3.3.  Patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36298(7): Raise ModuleNotFoundError in pyclbr when a module
     can’t be found.  Thanks to “mental” for the bug report.

   - bpo-36268(8): Switch the default format used for writing tars with
     *note tarfile: e7. to the modern POSIX.1-2001 pax standard, from
     the vendor-specific GNU. Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach.

   - bpo-36285(9): Fix integer overflows in the array module.  Patch by
     Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-31904(10): Add _signal module support for VxWorks.

   - bpo-36272(11): *note logging: 8a. does not silently ignore
     RecursionError anymore.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-36280(12): Add a kind field to ast.Constant.  It is “u” if the
     literal has a “u” prefix (i.e.  a Python 2 style unicode literal),
     else None.

   - bpo-35931(13): The *note pdb: aa. ‘debug’ command now gracefully
     handles all exceptions.

   - bpo-36251(14): Fix format strings used for stderrprinter and
     re.Match reprs.  Patch by Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-36235(15): Fix ‘CFLAGS’ in ‘customize_compiler()’ of
     ‘distutils.sysconfig’: when the ‘CFLAGS’ environment variable is
     defined, don’t override ‘CFLAGS’ variable with the ‘OPT’ variable
     anymore.  Initial patch written by David Malcolm.

   - bpo-35807(16): Update ensurepip to install pip 19.0.3 and
     setuptools 40.8.0.

   - bpo-36139(17): Release GIL when closing *note mmap: 23c. objects.

   - bpo-36179(18): Fix two unlikely reference leaks in _hashopenssl.
     The leaks only occur in out-of-memory cases.

   - bpo-36169(19): Add overlap() method to statistics.NormalDist.
     Computes the overlapping coefficient for two normal distributions.

   - bpo-36103(20): Default buffer size used by ‘shutil.copyfileobj()’
     is changed from 16 KiB to 64 KiB on non-Windows platform to reduce
     system call overhead.  Contributed by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-36130(21): Fix ‘pdb’ with ‘skip=...’ when stepping into a frame
     without a ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35652(22): shutil.copytree(copy_function=…) erroneously pass
     DirEntry instead of a path string.

   - bpo-35178(23): Ensure custom *note warnings.formatwarning(): 1fe7.
     function can receive ‘line’ as positional argument.  Based on patch
     by Tashrif Billah.

   - bpo-36106(24): Resolve potential name clash with libm’s sinpi().
     Patch by Dmitrii Pasechnik.

   - bpo-36091(25): Clean up reference to async generator in Lib/types.
     Patch by Henry Chen.

   - bpo-36043(26): ‘FileCookieJar’ supports *note path-like object:
     79f.  Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35899(27): Enum has been fixed to correctly handle empty
     strings and strings with non-Latin characters (ie.  “α”, “א”)
     without crashing.  Original patch contributed by Maxwell.  Assisted
     by Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-21269(28): Add ‘args’ and ‘kwargs’ properties to mock call
     objects.  Contributed by Kumar Akshay.

   - bpo-30670(29): ‘pprint.pp’ has been added to pretty-print objects
     with dictionary keys being sorted with their insertion order by
     default.  Parameter 'sort_dicts' has been added to ‘pprint.pprint’,
     ‘pprint.pformat’ and ‘pprint.PrettyPrinter’.  Contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35843(30): Implement ‘__getitem__’ for ‘_NamespacePath’.  Patch
     by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35802(31): Clean up code which checked presence of ‘os.stat’ /
     ‘os.lstat’ / ‘os.chmod’ which are always present.  Patch by Anthony
     Sottile.

   - bpo-35715(32): Librates the return value of a ProcessPoolExecutor
     _process_worker after it’s no longer needed to free memory

   - bpo-35493(33): Use *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): 148b.
     instead of polling each 0.2 seconds for worker updates in
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-35661(34): Store the venv prompt in pyvenv.cfg.

   - bpo-35121(35): Don’t set cookie for a request when the request path
     is a prefix match of the cookie’s path attribute but doesn’t end
     with «/».  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-21478(36): Calls to a child function created with *note
     unittest.mock.create_autospec(): 1b4e. should propagate to the
     parent.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35198(37): Fix C++ extension compilation on AIX

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36401

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36320

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34745

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36324

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36321

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36297

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36298

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36268

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36285

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36272

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36280

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35931

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36251

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36235

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35807

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36139

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36179

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36169

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36103

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36130

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35652

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35178

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36106

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36091

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36043

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35899

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21269

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30670

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35843

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35802

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35715

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35493

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35661

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35121

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21478

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35198


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<54>,  Next: Tests<56>,  Prev: Library<165>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.26.59.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36329(1): Declare the path of the Python binary for the usage
     of ‘Tools/scripts/serve.py’ when executing ‘make -C Doc/ serve’.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-36138(2): Improve documentation about converting
     datetime.timedelta to scalars.

   - bpo-21314(3): A new entry was added to the Core Language Section of
     the Programming FAQ, which explaines the usage of slash(/) in the
     signature of a function.  Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36329

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36138

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21314


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<56>,  Next: Build<60>,  Prev: Documentation<54>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.26.59.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-36234(1): test_posix.PosixUidGidTests: add tests for invalid
     uid/gid type (str).  Initial patch written by David Malcolm.

   - bpo-29571(2): Fix ‘test_re.test_locale_flag()’: use
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’ rather than ‘locale.getlocale()’ to
     get the locale encoding.  With some locales, ‘locale.getlocale()’
     returns the wrong encoding.

   - bpo-36123(3): Fix race condition in test_socket.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36234

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36123


File: python.info,  Node: Build<60>,  Next: Windows<52>,  Prev: Tests<56>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.26.59.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-36356(1): Fix leaks that led to build failure when configured
     with address sanitizer.

   - bpo-36146(2): Add ‘TEST_EXTENSIONS’ constant to ‘setup.py’ to allow
     to not build test extensions like ‘_testcapi’.

   - bpo-36146(3): Fix setup.py on macOS: only add ‘/usr/include/ffi’ to
     include directories of _ctypes, not for all extensions.

   - bpo-31904(4): Enable build system to cross-build for VxWorks RTOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36356

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36146

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31904


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<52>,  Next: IDLE<36>,  Prev: Build<60>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.26.59.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-36312(1): Fixed decoders for the following code pages: 50220,
     50221, 50222, 50225, 50227, 50229, 57002 through 57011, 65000 and
     42.

   - bpo-36264(2): Don’t honor POSIX ‘HOME’ in ‘os.path.expanduser’ on
     windows.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-24643(3): Fix name collisions due to ‘#define timezone
     _timezone’ in PC/pyconfig.h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36312

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24643


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<36>,  Next: Tools/Demos<34>,  Prev: Windows<52>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.26.59.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-36405(1): Use dict unpacking in idlelib.

   - bpo-36396(2): Remove fgBg param of idlelib.config.GetHighlight().
     This param was only used twice and changed the return type.

   - bpo-36176(3): Fix IDLE autocomplete & calltip popup colors.
     Prevent conflicts with Linux dark themes (and slightly darken
     calltip background).

   - bpo-23205(4): For the grep module, add tests for findfiles,
     refactor findfiles to be a module-level function, and refactor
     findfiles to use os.walk.

   - bpo-23216(5): Add docstrings to IDLE search modules.

   - bpo-36152(6): Remove colorizer.ColorDelegator.close_when_done and
     the corresponding argument of .close().  In IDLE, both have always
     been None or False since 2007.

   - bpo-32129(7): Avoid blurry IDLE application icon on macOS with Tk
     8.6.  Patch by Kevin Walzer.

   - bpo-36096(8): Refactor class variables to instance variables in
     colorizer.

   - bpo-30348(9): Increase test coverage of idlelib.autocomplete by
     30%.  Patch by Louie Lu

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36405

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36396

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36176

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23216

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36152

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32129

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36096

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30348


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<34>,  Next: C API<56>,  Prev: IDLE<36>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.26.59.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-35132(1): Fix py-list and py-bt commands of python-gdb.py on
     gdb7.

   - bpo-32217(2): Fix freeze script on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35132

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32217


File: python.info,  Node: C API<56>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<34>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3

1.26.59.10 C API
................

   - bpo-36381(1): Raise ‘DeprecationWarning’ when “#” formats are used
     for building or parsing values without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’.

   - bpo-36142(2): The whole coreconfig.h header is now excluded from
     Py_LIMITED_API. Move functions definitions into a new internal
     pycore_coreconfig.h header.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36381

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36142


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.60 Python 3.8.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-02-25'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<165>.
* Library: Library<166>.
* Documentation: Documentation<55>.
* Tests: Tests<57>.
* Windows: Windows<53>.
* IDLE: IDLE<37>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<165>,  Next: Library<166>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.26.60.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-36052(1): Raise a *note SyntaxError: 17e. when assigning a
     value to ‘__debug__’ with the Assignment Operator.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel and Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-36012(2): Doubled the speed of class variable writes.  When a
     non-dunder attribute was updated, there was an unnecessary call to
     update slots.

   - bpo-35942(3): The error message emitted when returning invalid
     types from ‘__fspath__’ in interfaces that allow passing *note
     PathLike: 100f. objects has been improved and now it does explain
     the origin of the error.

   - bpo-36016(4): ‘gc.get_objects’ can now receive an optional
     parameter indicating a generation to get objects from.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-1054041(5): When the main interpreter exits due to an uncaught
     KeyboardInterrupt, the process now exits in the appropriate manner
     for its parent process to detect that a SIGINT or ^C terminated the
     process.  This allows shells and batch scripts to understand that
     the user has asked them to stop.

   - bpo-35992(6): Fix ‘__class_getitem__()’ not being called on a class
     with a custom non-subscriptable metaclass.

   - bpo-35993(7): Fix a crash on fork when using subinterpreters.
     Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35991(8): Fix a potential double free in
     Modules/_randommodule.c.

   - bpo-35961(9): Fix a crash in slice_richcompare(): use strong
     references rather than stolen references for the two temporary
     internal tuples.

   - bpo-35911(10): Enable the creation of cell objects by adding a
     ‘cell.__new__’ method, and expose the type ‘cell’ in ‘Lib/types.py’
     under the name CellType.  Patch by Pierre Glaser.

   - bpo-12822(11): Use monotonic clock for ‘pthread_cond_timedwait’
     when ‘pthread_condattr_setclock’ and ‘CLOCK_MONOTONIC’ are
     available.

   - bpo-15248(12): The compiler emits now syntax warnings in the case
     when a comma is likely missed before tuple or list.

   - bpo-35886(13): The implementation of PyInterpreterState has been
     moved into the internal header files (guarded by Py_BUILD_CORE).

   - bpo-31506(14): Clarify the errors reported when ‘object.__new__’
     and ‘object.__init__’ receive more than one argument.  Contributed
     by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-35724(15): Signal-handling is now guaranteed to happen relative
     to the main interpreter.

   - bpo-33608(16): We added a new internal _Py_AddPendingCall() that
     operates relative to the provided interpreter.  This allows us to
     use the existing implementation to ask another interpreter to do
     work that cannot be done in the current interpreter, like decref an
     object the other interpreter owns.  The existing
     Py_AddPendingCall() only operates relative to the main interpreter.

   - bpo-33989(17): Fix a possible crash in *note list.sort(): f8d. when
     sorting objects with ‘ob_type->tp_richcompare == NULL’.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36052

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36012

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35942

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36016

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1054041

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35992

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35993

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35991

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35961

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35911

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12822

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15248

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35886

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35724

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33608

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33989


File: python.info,  Node: Library<166>,  Next: Documentation<55>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<165>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.26.60.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-35512(1): *note unittest.mock.patch.dict(): 1b7a. used as a
     decorator with string target resolves the target during function
     call instead of during decorator construction.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-36018(2): Add statistics.NormalDist, a tool for creating and
     manipulating normal distributions of random variable.  Features a
     composite class that treats the mean and standard deviation of
     measurement data as single entity.

   - bpo-35904(3): Added statistics.fmean() as a faster, floating-point
     variant of the existing mean() function.

   - bpo-35918(4): Removed broken ‘has_key’ method from
     multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.dict.  Contributed by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-18283(5): Add support for bytes to *note shutil.which(): 8c4.

   - bpo-35960(6): Fix *note dataclasses.field(): 1945. throwing away
     empty mapping objects passed as metadata.

   - bpo-35500(7): Write expected and actual call parameters on separate
     lines in *note unittest.mock.Mock.assert_called_with(): 1ff2.
     assertion errors.  Contributed by Susan Su.

   - bpo-35931(8): The *note pdb: aa. ‘debug’ command now gracefully
     handles syntax errors.

   - bpo-24209(9): In http.server script, rely on getaddrinfo to bind to
     preferred address based on the bind parameter.  Now default bind or
     binding to a name may bind to IPv6 or dual-stack, depending on the
     environment.

   - bpo-35321(10): Set ‘__spec__.origin’ of ‘_frozen_importlib’ to
     frozen so that it matches the behavior of
     ‘_frozen_importlib_external’.  Patch by Nina Zakharenko.

   - bpo-35378(11): Fix a reference issue inside ‘multiprocessing.Pool’
     that caused the pool to remain alive if it was deleted without
     being closed or terminated explicitly.  A new strong reference is
     added to the pool iterators to link the lifetime of the pool to the
     lifetime of its iterators so the pool does not get destroyed if a
     pool iterator is still alive.

   - bpo-34294(12): re module, fix wrong capturing groups in rare cases.
     *note re.search(): 15d3, *note re.findall(): 13d2, *note re.sub():
     7a1. and other functions that scan through string looking for a
     match, should reset capturing groups between two match attempts.
     Patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-35615(13): *note weakref: 11d.: Fix a RuntimeError when copying
     a WeakKeyDictionary or a WeakValueDictionary, due to some keys or
     values disappearing while iterating.

   - bpo-35606(14): Implement *note math.prod(): dc6. as analogous
     function to *note sum(): 881. that returns the product of a “start”
     value (default: 1) times an iterable of numbers.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-32417(15): Performing arithmetic between *note
     datetime.datetime: 6e7. subclasses and *note datetime.timedelta:
     d94. now returns an object of the same type as the
     ‘datetime.datetime’ subclass.  As a result, *note
     datetime.datetime.astimezone(): d95. and alternate constructors
     like *note datetime.datetime.now(): 8fa. and
     ‘datetime.fromtimestamp()’ called with a ‘tz’ argument now 'also'
     retain their subclass.

   - bpo-35153(16): Add 'headers' optional keyword-only parameter to
     *note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: e1b, ‘xmlrpc.client.Transport’ and
     ‘xmlrpc.client.SafeTransport’.  Patch by Cédric Krier.

   - bpo-34572(17): Fix C implementation of pickle.loads to use
     importlib’s locking mechanisms, and thereby avoid using partially
     loaded modules.  Patch by Tim Burgess.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35512

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35904

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35918

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18283

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35960

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35500

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35931

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24209

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35321

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35378

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34294

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35615

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35606

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32417

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35153

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34572


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<55>,  Next: Tests<57>,  Prev: Library<166>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.26.60.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-36083(1): Fix formatting of –check-hash-based-pycs options in
     the manpage Synopsis.

   - bpo-36007(2): Bump minimum sphinx version to 1.8.  Patch by Anthony
     Sottile.

   - bpo-22062(3): Update documentation and docstrings for pathlib.
     Original patch by Mike Short.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36083

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36007

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22062


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<57>,  Next: Windows<53>,  Prev: Documentation<55>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.26.60.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27313(1): Avoid test_ttk_guionly ComboboxTest failure with
     macOS Cocoa Tk.

   - bpo-36019(2): Add test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL and replace references
     of ‘http://www.example.com’ by this new constant.  Contributed by
     Stéphane Wirtel.

   - bpo-36037(3): Fix test_ssl for strict OpenSSL configuration like
     RHEL8 strict crypto policy.  Use older TLS version for minimum TLS
     version of the server SSL context if needed, to test TLS version
     older than default minimum TLS version.

   - bpo-35798(4): Added ‘test.support.check_syntax_warning()’.

   - bpo-35505(5): Make test_imap4_host_default_value independent on
     whether the local IMAP server is running.

   - bpo-35917(6): multiprocessing: provide unit tests for SyncManager
     and SharedMemoryManager classes + all the shareable types which are
     supposed to be supported by them.  (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-35704(7): Skip ‘test_shutil.test_unpack_archive_xztar’ to
     prevent a MemoryError on 32-bit AIX when MAXDATA setting is less
     than 0x20000000.

     Patch by Michael Felt (aixtools)

   - bpo-34720(8): Assert m_state != NULL to mimic GC traversal
     functions that do not correctly handle module creation when the
     module state has not been created.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27313

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36019

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35798

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35505

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35917

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35704

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34720


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<53>,  Next: IDLE<37>,  Prev: Tests<57>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.26.60.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35976(1): Added ARM build support to Windows build files in
     PCBuild.

   - bpo-35692(2): ‘pathlib’ no longer raises when checking file and
     directory existence on drives that are not ready

   - bpo-35872(3): Uses the base Python executable when invoking venv in
     a virtual environment

   - bpo-35873(4): Prevents venv paths being inherited by child
     processes

   - bpo-35299(5): Fix sysconfig detection of the source directory and
     distutils handling of pyconfig.h during PGO profiling

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35976

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35692

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35872

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35873

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35299


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<37>,  Prev: Windows<53>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2

1.26.60.6 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-24310(1): IDLE – Document settings dialog font tab sample.

   - bpo-35833(2): Revise IDLE doc for control codes sent to Shell.  Add
     a code example block.

   - bpo-35689(3): Add docstrings and unittests for colorizer.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24310

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35833

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35689


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.61 Python 3.8.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2019-02-03'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<45>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<166>.
* Library: Library<167>.
* Documentation: Documentation<56>.
* Tests: Tests<58>.
* Build: Build<61>.
* Windows: Windows<54>.
* macOS: macOS<43>.
* IDLE: IDLE<38>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<35>.
* C API: C API<57>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<45>,  Next: Core and Builtins<166>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.26.61.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-35746(1): CVE 2019-5010(2): Fix a NULL pointer deref in ssl
     module.  The cert parser did not handle CRL distribution points
     with empty DP or URI correctly.  A malicious or buggy certificate
     can result into segfault.  Vulnerability (TALOS-2018-0758) reported
     by Colin Read and Nicolas Edet of Cisco.

   - bpo-34812(3): The *note -I: d28. command line option (run Python in
     isolated mode) is now also copied by the *note multiprocessing: 98.
     and ‘distutils’ modules when spawning child processes.  Previously,
     only *note -E: d27. and *note -s: 1732. options (enabled by ‘-I’)
     were copied.

   - bpo-34791(4): The xml.sax and xml.dom.domreg no longer use
     environment variables to override parser implementations when
     sys.flags.ignore_environment is set by -E or -I arguments.

   - bpo-17239(5): The xml.sax and xml.dom.minidom parsers no longer
     processes external entities by default.  External DTD and ENTITY
     declarations no longer load files or create network connections.

   - bpo-34623(6): CVE 2018-14647(7): The C accelerated _elementtree
     module now initializes hash randomization salt from _Py_HashSecret
     instead of libexpat’s default CSPRNG.

   - bpo-34405(8): Updated to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for Windows builds.

   - bpo-33871(9): Fixed sending the part of the file in *note
     os.sendfile(): ed3. on macOS. Using the 'trailers' argument could
     cause sending more bytes from the input file than was specified.

   - bpo-32533(10): Fixed thread-safety of error handling in _ssl.

   - bpo-33136(11): Harden ssl module against LibreSSL CVE
     2018-8970(12).  X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() is called with an
     explicit namelen.  A new test ensures that NULL bytes are not
     allowed.

   - bpo-33001(13): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(14): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(15) and CVE 2018-1061(16).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   - bpo-28414(17): The ssl module now allows users to perform their own
     IDN en/decoding when using SNI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35746

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2019-5010

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34812

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34791

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34623

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-14647

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34405

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33871

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32533

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33136

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-8970

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (15) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (16) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<166>,  Next: Library<167>,  Prev: Security<45>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.26.61.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-35877(1): Make parenthesis optional for named expressions in
     while statement.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35814(2): Allow same right hand side expressions in annotated
     assignments as in normal ones.  In particular, ‘x: Tuple[int, int]
     = 1, 2’ (without parentheses on the right) is now allowed.

   - bpo-35766(3): Add the option to parse PEP 484 type comments in the
     ast module.  (Off by default.)  This is merging the key
     functionality of the third party fork thereof,
     [typed_ast](‘https://github.com/python/typed_ast’).

   - bpo-35713(4): Reorganize Python initialization to get working
     exceptions and sys.stderr earlier.

   - bpo-33416(5): Add end line and end column position information to
     the Python AST nodes.  This is a C-level backwards incompatible
     change.

   - bpo-35720(6): Fixed a minor memory leak in
     pymain_parse_cmdline_impl function in Modules/main.c

   - bpo-35634(7): ‘func(**kwargs)’ will now raise an error when
     ‘kwargs’ is a mapping containing multiple entries with the same
     key.  An error was already raised when other keyword arguments are
     passed before ‘**kwargs’ since Python 3.6.

   - bpo-35623(8): Fix a crash when sorting very long lists.  Patch by
     Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-35214(9): clang Memory Sanitizer build instrumentation was
     added to work around false positives from posix, socket, time,
     test_io, and test_faulthandler.

   - bpo-35560(10): Fix an assertion error in *note format(): 439. in
     debug build for floating-point formatting with «n» format, zero
     padding and small width.  Release build is not impacted.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35552(11): Format characters ‘%s’ and ‘%V’ in *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e. and ‘%s’ in *note
     PyBytes_FromFormat(): 1ffa. no longer read memory past the limit if
     'precision' is specified.

   - bpo-35504(12): Fix segfaults and *note SystemError: 3ea.s when
     deleting certain attributes.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35504(13): Fixed a SystemError when delete the
     characters_written attribute of an OSError.

   - bpo-35494(14): Improved syntax error messages for unbalanced
     parentheses in f-string.

   - bpo-35444(15): Fixed error handling in pickling methods when fail
     to look up builtin «getattr».  Sped up pickling iterators.

   - bpo-35436(16): Fix various issues with memory allocation error
     handling.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35423(17): Separate the signal handling trigger in the eval
     loop from the «pending calls» machinery.  There is no semantic
     change and the difference in performance is insignificant.

   - bpo-35357(18): Internal attributes” names of unittest.mock._Call
     and unittest.mock.MagicProxy (name, parent & from_kall) are now
     prefixed with _mock_ in order to prevent clashes with widely used
     object attributes.  Fixed minor typo in test function name.

   - bpo-35372(19): Fixed the code page decoder for input longer than 2
     GiB containing undecodable bytes.

   - bpo-35336(20): Fix PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=1 environment variable: only
     coerce the C locale if the LC_CTYPE locale is «C».

   - bpo-31241(21): The 'lineno' and 'col_offset' attributes of AST
     nodes for list comprehensions, generator expressions and tuples are
     now point to the opening parenthesis or square brace.  For tuples
     without parenthesis they point to the position of the first item.

   - bpo-33954(22): For *note str.format(): a12, ‘float.__format__()’
     and ‘complex.__format__()’ methods for non-ASCII decimal point when
     using the «n» formatter.

   - bpo-35269(23): Fix a possible segfault involving a newly created
     coroutine.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-35224(24): Implement PEP 572(25) (assignment expressions).
     Patch by Emily Morehouse.

   - bpo-32492(26): Speed up ‘namedtuple()’ attribute access by 1.6x
     using a C fast-path for the name descriptors.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-35214(27): Fixed an out of bounds memory access when parsing a
     truncated unicode escape sequence at the end of a string such as
     ‘'\N'’.  It would read one byte beyond the end of the memory
     allocation.

   - bpo-35214(28): The interpreter and extension modules have had
     annotations added so that they work properly under clang’s Memory
     Sanitizer.  A new configure flag –with-memory-sanitizer has been
     added to make test builds of this nature easier to perform.

   - bpo-35193(29): Fix an off by one error in the bytecode peephole
     optimizer where it could read bytes beyond the end of bounds of an
     array when removing unreachable code.  This bug was present in
     every release of Python 3.6 and 3.7 until now.

   - bpo-35169(30): Improved error messages for forbidden assignments.

   - bpo-34022(31): Fix handling of hash-based bytecode files in *note
     zipimport: 13b.  Patch by Elvis Pranskevichus.

   - bpo-28401(32): Debug builds will no longer to attempt to import
     extension modules built for the ABI as they were never compatible
     to begin with.  Patch by Stefano Rivera.

   - bpo-29341(33): Clarify in the docstrings of *note os: a5. methods
     that path-like objects are also accepted as input parameters.

   - bpo-35050(34): *note socket: d4.: Fix off-by-one bug in length
     check for ‘AF_ALG’ name and type.

   - bpo-29743(35): Raise *note ValueError: 277. instead of *note
     OverflowError: c57. in case of a negative ‘_length_’ in a *note
     ctypes.Array: 1ffb. subclass.  Also raise *note TypeError: 291.
     instead of *note AttributeError: 1a9. for non-integer ‘_length_’.
     Original patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-16806(36): Fix ‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’ for multi-line string
     tokens.

   - bpo-35029(37): *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. raised as an exception at
     code generation time will be now replaced with a *note SyntaxError:
     17e. for better error reporting.

   - bpo-34983(38): Expose *note symtable.Symbol.is_nonlocal(): 1ffc. in
     the symtable module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34974(39): *note bytes: 1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6.
     constructors no longer convert unexpected exceptions (e.g.  *note
     MemoryError: 18fa. and *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96.) to *note
     TypeError: 291.

   - bpo-34939(40): Allow annotated names in module namespace that are
     declared global before the annotation happens.  Patch by Pablo
     Galindo.

   - bpo-34973(41): Fixed crash in *note bytes(): 1c7. when the *note
     list: 4d9. argument is mutated while it is iterated.

   - bpo-34876(42): The 'lineno' and 'col_offset' attributes of the AST
     for decorated function and class refer now to the position of the
     corresponding ‘def’, ‘async def’ and ‘class’ instead of the
     position of the first decorator.  This leads to more correct line
     reporting in tracing.  This is the only case when the position of
     child AST nodes can precede the position of the parent AST node.

   - bpo-34879(43): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     bytesobject.c.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34784(44): Fix the implementation of PyStructSequence_NewType
     in order to create heap allocated StructSequences.

   - bpo-32912(45): A *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. is now emitted instead
     of a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. for invalid escape sequences in
     string and bytes literals.

   - bpo-34854(46): Fixed a crash in compiling string annotations
     containing a lambda with a keyword-only argument that doesn’t have
     a default value.

   - bpo-34850(47): The compiler now produces a *note SyntaxWarning:
     44a. when identity checks (‘is’ and ‘is not’) are used with certain
     types of literals (e.g.  strings, ints).  These can often work by
     accident in CPython, but are not guaranteed by the language spec.
     The warning advises users to use equality tests (‘==’ and ‘!=’)
     instead.

   - bpo-34824(48): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     Modules/_ssl.c.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-30156(49): The C function ‘property_descr_get()’ uses a
     «cached» tuple to optimize function calls.  But this tuple can be
     discovered in debug mode with *note sys.getobjects(): 516.  Remove
     the optimization, it’s not really worth it and it causes 3
     different crashes last years.

   - bpo-34762(50): Fix contextvars C API to use PyObject* pointer
     types.

   - bpo-34751(51): The hash function for tuples is now based on xxHash
     which gives better collision results on (formerly) pathological
     cases.  Additionally, on 64-bit systems it improves tuple hashes in
     general.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer with substantial contributions by
     Tim Peters.

   - bpo-34735(52): Fix a memory leak in Modules/timemodule.c.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34683(53): Fixed a bug where some SyntaxError error pointed to
     locations that were off-by-one.

   - bpo-34651(54): Only allow the main interpreter to fork.  The avoids
     the possibility of affecting the main interpreter, which is
     critical to operation of the runtime.

   - bpo-34653(55): Remove unused function
     PyParser_SimpleParseStringFilename.

   - bpo-32236(56): Warn that line buffering is not supported if *note
     open(): 32b. is called with binary mode and ‘buffering=1’.

   - bpo-34641(57): Further restrict the syntax of the left-hand side of
     keyword arguments in function calls.  In particular,
     ‘f((keyword)=arg)’ is now disallowed.

   - bpo-34637(58): Make the 'start' argument to 'sum()' visible as a
     keyword argument.

   - bpo-1621(59): Do not assume signed integer overflow behavior (C
     undefined behavior) when performing set hash table resizing.

   - bpo-34588(60): Fix an off-by-one in the recursive call pruning
     feature of traceback formatting.

   - bpo-34485(61): On Windows, the LC_CTYPE is now set to the user
     preferred locale at startup.  Previously, the LC_CTYPE locale was
     «C» at startup, but changed when calling setlocale(LC_CTYPE, «») or
     setlocale(LC_ALL, «»).

   - bpo-34485(62): Standard streams like sys.stdout now use the
     «surrogateescape» error handler, instead of «strict», on the POSIX
     locale (when the C locale is not coerced and the UTF-8 Mode is
     disabled).

   - bpo-34485(63): Fix the error handler of standard streams like
     sys.stdout: PYTHONIOENCODING=»:» is now ignored instead of setting
     the error handler to «strict».

   - bpo-34485(64): Python now gets the locale encoding with C code to
     initialize the encoding of standard streams like sys.stdout.
     Moreover, the encoding is now initialized to the Python codec name
     to get a normalized encoding name and to ensure that the codec is
     loaded.  The change avoids importing _bootlocale and _locale
     modules at startup by default.

   - bpo-34527(65): On FreeBSD, Py_DecodeLocale() and Py_EncodeLocale()
     now also forces the ASCII encoding if the LC_CTYPE locale is
     «POSIX», not only if the LC_CTYPE locale is «C».

   - bpo-34527(66): The UTF-8 Mode is now also enabled by the «POSIX»
     locale, not only by the «C» locale.

   - bpo-34403(67): On HP-UX with C or POSIX locale,
     sys.getfilesystemencoding() now returns «ascii» instead of «roman8»
     (when the UTF-8 Mode is disabled and the C locale is not coerced).

   - bpo-34523(68): The Python filesystem encoding is now read earlier
     during the Python initialization.

   - bpo-12458(69): Tracebacks show now correct line number for
     subexpressions in multiline expressions.  Tracebacks show now the
     line number of the first line for multiline expressions instead of
     the line number of the last subexpression.

   - bpo-34408(70): Prevent a null pointer dereference and resource
     leakage in ‘PyInterpreterState_New()’.

   - bpo-34400(71): Fix undefined behavior in parsetok.c.  Patch by
     Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33073(72): Added as_integer_ratio to ints to make them more
     interoperable with floats.

   - bpo-34377(73): Update valgrind suppression list to use
     ‘_PyObject_Free’/‘_PyObject_Realloc’ instead of
     ‘PyObject_Free’/‘PyObject_Realloc’.

   - bpo-34353(74): Added the «socket» option in the ‘stat.filemode()’
     Python implementation to match the C implementation.

   - bpo-34320(75): Fix ‘dict(od)’ didn’t copy iteration order of
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-34113(76): Fixed crash on debug builds when opcode stack was
     adjusted with negative numbers.  Patch by Constantin Petrisor.

   - bpo-34100(77): Compiler now merges constants in tuples and
     frozensets recursively.  Code attributes like ‘co_names’ are merged
     too.

   - bpo-34151(78): Performance of list concatenation, repetition and
     slicing operations is slightly improved.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34170(79): -X dev: it is now possible to override the memory
     allocator using PYTHONMALLOC even if the developer mode is enabled.

   - bpo-33237(80): Improved *note AttributeError: 1a9. message for
     partially initialized module.

   - bpo-34149(81): Fix min and max functions to get default behavior
     when key is None.

   - bpo-34125(82): Profiling of unbound built-in methods now works when
     ‘**kwargs’ is given.

   - bpo-34141(83): Optimized pickling atomic types (None, bool, int,
     float, bytes, str).

   - bpo-34126(84): Fix crashes when profiling certain invalid calls of
     unbound methods.  Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-24618(85): Fixed reading invalid memory when create the code
     object with too small varnames tuple or too large argument counts.

   - bpo-34068(86): In *note io.IOBase.close(): 70b, ensure that the
     *note closed: 1ffd. attribute is not set with a live exception.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz and Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-34087(87): Fix buffer overflow while converting unicode to
     numeric values.

   - bpo-34080(88): Fixed a memory leak in the compiler when it raised
     some uncommon errors during tokenizing.

   - bpo-34066(89): Disabled interruption by Ctrl-C between calling
     ‘open()’ and entering a 'with' block in ‘with open()’.

   - bpo-34042(90): Fix dict.copy() to maintain correct total refcount
     (as reported by sys.gettotalrefcount()).

   - bpo-33418(91): Fix potential memory leak in function object when it
     creates reference cycle.

   - bpo-33985(92): Implement contextvars.ContextVar.name attribute.

   - bpo-33956(93): Update vendored Expat library copy to version 2.2.5.

   - bpo-24596(94): Decref the module object in *note
     PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 1ec0. before calling *note
     PyErr_Print(): 1f21.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33451(95): Close directly executed pyc files before calling
     ‘PyEval_EvalCode()’.

   - bpo-1617161(96): The hash of ‘BuiltinMethodType’ instances (methods
     of built-in classes) now depends on the hash of the identity of
     '__self__' instead of its value.  The hash and equality of
     ‘ModuleType’ and ‘MethodWrapperType’ instances (methods of
     user-defined classes and some methods of built-in classes like
     ‘str.__add__’) now depend on the hash and equality of the identity
     of '__self__' instead of its value.  ‘MethodWrapperType’ instances
     no longer support ordering.

   - bpo-33824(97): Fix «LC_ALL=C python3.7 -V»: reset properly the
     command line parser when the encoding changes after reading the
     Python configuration.

   - bpo-33803(98): Fix a crash in hamt.c caused by enabling GC tracking
     for an object that hadn’t all of its fields set to NULL.

   - bpo-33738(99): Seven macro incompatibilities with the Limited API
     were fixed, and the macros *note PyIter_Check(): 1ea8, *note
     PyIndex_Check(): d52. and *note PyExceptionClass_Name(): e2a. were
     added as functions.  A script for automatic macro checks was added.

   - bpo-33786(100): Fix asynchronous generators to handle GeneratorExit
     in athrow() correctly

   - bpo-30167(101): ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags’ removes ‘__cached__’ from
     module in addition to ‘__file__’.

   - bpo-33706(102): Fix a crash in Python initialization when parsing
     the command line options.  Thanks Christoph Gohlke for the bug
     report and the fix!

   - bpo-33597(103): Reduce ‘PyGC_Head’ size from 3 words to 2 words.

   - bpo-30654(104): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-33622(105): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to
     add an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into
     the *note gc.garbage: 156a. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): d56. can
     now be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-33462(106): Make dict and dict views reversible.  Patch by Rémi
     Lapeyre.

   - bpo-23722(107): A *note RuntimeError: 30d. is now raised when the
     custom metaclass doesn’t provide the ‘__classcell__’ entry in the
     namespace passed to ‘type.__new__’.  A *note DeprecationWarning:
     2c9. was emitted in Python 3.6–3.7.

   - bpo-33499(108): Add *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: d6c. environment
     variable and *note -X: 178. ‘pycache_prefix’ command-line option to
     set an alternate root directory for writing module bytecode cache
     files.

   - bpo-25711(109): The *note zipimport: 13b. module has been rewritten
     in pure Python.

   - bpo-33509(110): Fix module_globals parameter of
     warnings.warn_explicit(): don’t crash if module_globals is not a
     dict.

   - bpo-31849(111): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   - bpo-33475(112): Fixed miscellaneous bugs in converting annotations
     to strings and optimized parentheses in the string representation.

   - bpo-20104(113): Added support for the ‘setpgroup’, ‘resetids’,
     ‘setsigmask’, ‘setsigdef’ and ‘scheduler’ parameters of
     ‘posix_spawn’.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33391(114): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-33363(115): Raise a SyntaxError for ‘async with’ and ‘async
     for’ statements outside of async functions.

   - bpo-28055(116): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by
     Rolf Eike Beer.

   - bpo-33128(117): Fix a bug that causes PathFinder to appear twice on
     sys.meta_path.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

   - bpo-33331(118): Modules imported last are now cleared first at
     interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-33312(119): Fixed clang ubsan (undefined behavior sanitizer)
     warnings in dictobject.c by adjusting how the internal struct
     _dictkeysobject shared keys structure is declared.

   - bpo-33305(120): Improved syntax error messages for invalid
     numerical literals.

   - bpo-33306(121): Improved syntax error messages for unbalanced
     parentheses.

   - bpo-33234(122): The list constructor will pre-size and not
     over-allocate when the input length is known.

   - bpo-33270(123): Intern the names for all anonymous code objects.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-30455(124): The C and Python code and the documentation related
     to tokens are now generated from a single source file
     ‘Grammar/Tokens’.

   - bpo-33176(125): Add a ‘toreadonly()’ method to memoryviews.

   - bpo-33231(126): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-33205(127): Change dict growth function from
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*2+hashtable_size/2)’ to
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*3)’.  Previously, dict is shrunk only
     when ‘used == 0’.  Now dict has more chance to be shrunk.

   - bpo-29922(128): Improved error messages in “async with” when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(129): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   - bpo-33053(130): When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now
     explicitly expanded as the 'starting' working directory, rather
     than being left as the empty path (which allows imports from the
     current working directory at the time of the import)

   - bpo-33138(131): Changed standard error message for non-pickleable
     and non-copyable types.  It now says «cannot pickle» instead of
     «can’t pickle» or «cannot serialize».

   - bpo-33018(132): Improve consistency of errors raised by
     ‘issubclass()’ when called with a non-class and an abstract base
     class as the first and second arguments, respectively.  Patch by
     Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-33083(133): ‘math.factorial’ no longer accepts arguments that
     are not int-like.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-33041(134): Added new opcode *note END_ASYNC_FOR: e6f. and
     fixes the following issues:

        * Setting global *note StopAsyncIteration: 1ffe. no longer
          breaks ‘async for’ loops.

        * Jumping into an ‘async for’ loop is now disabled.

        * Jumping out of an ‘async for’ loop no longer corrupts the
          stack.

   - bpo-25750(135): Fix rare Python crash due to bad refcounting in
     ‘type_getattro()’ if a descriptor deletes itself from the class.
     Patch by Jeroen Demeyer.

   - bpo-33041(136): Fixed bytecode generation for «async for» with a
     complex target.  A StopAsyncIteration raised on assigning or
     unpacking will be now propagated instead of stopping the iteration.

   - bpo-33026(137): Fixed jumping out of «with» block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-33005(138): Fix a crash on fork when using a custom memory
     allocator (ex: using PYTHONMALLOC env var).  _PyGILState_Reinit()
     and _PyInterpreterState_Enable() now use the default RAW memory
     allocator to allocate a new interpreters mutex on fork.

   - bpo-32911(139): Due to unexpected compatibility issues discovered
     during downstream beta testing, reverted bpo-29463(140).
     ‘docstring’ field is removed from Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef,
     and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes which was added in 3.7a1.  Docstring
     expression is restored as a first statement in their body.  Based
     on patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-17288(141): Prevent jumps from “return” and “exception” trace
     events.

   - bpo-32946(142): Importing names from already imported module with
     «from … import …» is now 30% faster if the module is not a package.

   - bpo-32932(143): Make error message more revealing when there are
     non-str objects in ‘__all__’.

   - bpo-32925(144): Optimized iterating and containing test for literal
     lists consisting of non-constants: ‘x in [a, b]’ and ‘for x in [a,
     b]’.  The case of all constant elements already was optimized.

   - bpo-32889(145): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-32836(146): Don’t use temporary variables in cases of
     list/dict/set comprehensions

   - bpo-31356(147): Remove the new API added in bpo-31356(148)
     (gc.ensure_disabled() context manager).

   - bpo-32305(149): For namespace packages, ensure that both ‘__file__’
     and ‘__spec__.origin’ are set to None.

   - bpo-32303(150): Make sure ‘__spec__.loader’ matches ‘__loader__’
     for namespace packages.

   - bpo-32711(151): Fix the warning messages for Python/ast_unparse.c.
     Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32583(152): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   - bpo-32489(153): A *note continue: 429. statement is now allowed in
     the *note finally: 44c. clause.

   - bpo-17611(154): Simplified the interpreter loop by moving the logic
     of unrolling the stack of blocks into the compiler.  The compiler
     emits now explicit instructions for adjusting the stack of values
     and calling the cleaning up code for *note break: 428, *note
     continue: 429. and *note return: 44b.

     Removed opcodes ‘BREAK_LOOP’, ‘CONTINUE_LOOP’, ‘SETUP_LOOP’ and
     ‘SETUP_EXCEPT’.  Added new opcodes ‘ROT_FOUR’, ‘BEGIN_FINALLY’ and
     ‘CALL_FINALLY’ and ‘POP_FINALLY’.  Changed the behavior of
     ‘END_FINALLY’ and ‘WITH_CLEANUP_START’.

   - bpo-32285(155): New function unicodedata.is_normalized, which can
     check whether a string is in a specific normal form.

   - bpo-10544(156): Yield expressions are now disallowed in
     comprehensions and generator expressions except the expression for
     the outermost iterable.

   - bpo-32117(157): Iterable unpacking is now allowed without
     parentheses in yield and return statements, e.g.  ‘yield 1, 2, 3,
     *rest’.  Thanks to David Cuthbert for the change and Jordan Chapman
     for added tests.

   - bpo-31902(158): Fix the ‘col_offset’ attribute for ast nodes
     ‘ast.AsyncFor’, ‘ast.AsyncFunctionDef’, and ‘ast.AsyncWith’.
     Previously, ‘col_offset’ pointed to the keyword after ‘async’.

   - bpo-25862(159): Fix assertion failures in the ‘tell()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-21983(160): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31577(161): Fix a crash in ‘os.utime()’ in case of a bad ns
     argument.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-29832(162): Remove references to “getsockaddrarg” from various
     socket error messages.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35877

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35814

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33416

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35720

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35634

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35623

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35214

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35560

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35552

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35504

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35504

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35494

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   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35423

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   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35269

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32492

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<167>,  Next: Documentation<56>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<166>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.26.61.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-35845(1): Add “order” parameter to memoryview.tobytes().

   - bpo-35864(2): The _asdict() method for collections.namedtuple now
     returns a regular dict instead of an OrderedDict.

   - bpo-35537(3): An ExitStack is now used internally within
     subprocess.Popen to clean up pipe file handles.  No behavior change
     in normal operation.  But if closing one handle were ever to cause
     an exception, the others will now be closed instead of leaked.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola)

   - bpo-35847(4): RISC-V needed the CTYPES_PASS_BY_REF_HACK. Fixes
     ctypes Structure test_pass_by_value.

   - bpo-35813(5): Shared memory submodule added to multiprocessing to
     avoid need for serialization between processes

   - bpo-35780(6): Fix lru_cache() errors arising in recursive,
     reentrant, or multi-threaded code.  These errors could result in
     orphan links and in the cache being trapped in a state with fewer
     than the specified maximum number of links.  Fix handling of
     negative maxsize which should have been treated as zero.  Fix
     errors in toggling the «full» status flag.  Fix misordering of
     links when errors are encountered.  Sync-up the C code and pure
     Python code for the space saving path in functions with a single
     positional argument.  In this common case, the space overhead of an
     lru cache entry is reduced by almost half.  Fix counting of cache
     misses.  In error cases, the miss count was out of sync with the
     actual number of times the underlying user function was called.

   - bpo-35537(7): *note os.posix_spawn(): 731. and *note
     os.posix_spawnp(): 1949. now have a 'setsid' parameter.

   - bpo-23846(8): *note asyncio.ProactorEventLoop: 9fe. now catches and
     logs send errors when the self-pipe is full.

   - bpo-34323(9): *note asyncio: b.: Enhance ‘IocpProactor.close()’
     log: wait 1 second before the first log, then log every second.
     Log also the number of seconds since ‘close()’ was called.

   - bpo-35674(10): Add a new *note os.posix_spawnp(): 1949. function.
     Patch by Joannah Nanjekye.

   - bpo-35733(11): ‘ast.Constant(boolean)’ no longer an instance of
     ‘ast.Num’.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35726(12): QueueHandler.prepare() now makes a copy of the
     record before modifying and enqueueing it, to avoid affecting other
     handlers in the chain.

   - bpo-35719(13): Sped up multi-argument *note math: 91. functions
     atan2(), copysign(), remainder() and hypot() by 1.3–2.5 times.

   - bpo-35717(14): Fix KeyError exception raised when using enums and
     compile.  Patch contributed by Rémi Lapeyre.

   - bpo-35699(15): Fixed detection of Visual Studio Build Tools 2017 in
     distutils

   - bpo-32710(16): Fix memory leaks in asyncio ProactorEventLoop on
     overlapped operation failure.

   - bpo-35702(17): The *note time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: e06. constant is
     now available for macOS 10.12.

   - bpo-32710(18): Fix a memory leak in asyncio in the
     ProactorEventLoop when ‘ReadFile()’ or ‘WSASend()’ overlapped
     operation fail immediately: release the internal buffer.

   - bpo-35682(19): Fix ‘asyncio.ProactorEventLoop.sendfile()’: don’t
     attempt to set the result of an internal future if it’s already
     done.

   - bpo-35283(20): Add a deprecated warning for the
     ‘threading.Thread.isAlive()’ method.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-35664(21): Improve operator.itemgetter() performance by 33%
     with optimized argument handling and with adding a fast path for
     the common case of a single non-negative integer index into a tuple
     (which is the typical use case in the standard library).

   - bpo-35643(22): Fixed a SyntaxWarning: invalid escape sequence in
     Modules/_sha3/cleanup.py.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-35619(23): Improved support of custom data descriptors in *note
     help(): ca9. and *note pydoc: bd.

   - bpo-28503(24): The ‘crypt’ module now internally uses the
     ‘crypt_r()’ library function instead of ‘crypt()’ when available.

   - bpo-35614(25): Fixed help() on metaclasses.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   - bpo-35568(26): Expose ‘raise(signum)’ as ‘raise_signal’

   - bpo-35588(27): The floor division and modulo operations and the
     *note divmod(): d6a. function on *note fractions.Fraction: 1c3.
     types are 2–4x faster.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-35585(28): Speed-up building enums by value, e.g.
     http.HTTPStatus(200).

   - bpo-30561(29): random.gammavariate(1.0, beta) now computes the same
     result as random.expovariate(1.0 / beta).  This synchronizes the
     two algorithms and eliminates some idiosyncrasies in the old
     implementation.  It does however produce a difference stream of
     random variables than it used to.

   - bpo-35537(30): The *note subprocess: df. module can now use the
     *note os.posix_spawn(): 731. function in some cases for better
     performance.

   - bpo-35526(31): Delaying the “joke” of barry_as_FLUFL.mandatory to
     Python version 4.0

   - bpo-35523(32): Remove *note ctypes: 2d. callback workaround: no
     longer create a callback at startup.  Avoid SELinux alert on
     ‘import ctypes’ and ‘import uuid’.

   - bpo-31784(33): *note uuid.uuid1(): f67. now calls *note
     time.time_ns(): eae. rather than ‘int(time.time() * 1e9)’.

   - bpo-35513(34): ‘TextTestRunner’ of ‘unittest.runner’ now uses *note
     time.perf_counter(): e49. rather than *note time.time(): 75e. to
     measure the execution time of a test: ‘time.time()’ can go
     backwards, whereas ‘time.perf_counter()’ is monotonic.

   - bpo-35502(35): Fixed reference leaks in *note
     xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder: e19. in case of unfinished
     building of the tree (in particular when an error was raised during
     parsing XML).

   - bpo-35348(36): Make *note platform.architecture(): 1c0e. parsing of
     ‘file’ command output more reliable: add the ‘-b’ option to the
     ‘file’ command to omit the filename, force the usage of the C
     locale, and search also the «shared object» pattern.

   - bpo-35491(37): *note multiprocessing: 98.: Add ‘Pool.__repr__()’
     and enhance ‘BaseProcess.__repr__()’ (add pid and parent pid) to
     ease debugging.  Pool state constant values are now strings instead
     of integers, for example ‘RUN’ value becomes ‘'RUN'’ instead of
     ‘0’.

   - bpo-35477(38): ‘multiprocessing.Pool.__enter__()’ now fails if the
     pool is not running: ‘with pool:’ fails if used more than once.

   - bpo-31446(39): Copy command line that was passed to CreateProcessW
     since this function can change the content of the input buffer.

   - bpo-35471(40): Python 2.4 dropped MacOS 9 support.  The macpath
     module was deprecated in Python 3.7.  The module is now removed.

   - bpo-23057(41): Unblock Proactor event loop when keyboard interrupt
     is received on Windows

   - bpo-35052(42): Fix xml.dom.minidom cloneNode() on a document with
     an entity: pass the correct arguments to the user data handler of
     an entity.

   - bpo-20239(43): Allow repeated assignment deletion of *note
     unittest.mock.Mock: e0e. attributes.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-17185(44): Set ‘__signature__’ on mock for *note inspect: 81.
     to get signature.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-35445(45): Memory errors during creating posix.environ no
     longer ignored.

   - bpo-35415(46): Validate fileno= argument to socket.socket().

   - bpo-35424(47): ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ destructor now emits *note
     ResourceWarning: 74f. if the pool is still running.

   - bpo-35330(48): When a ‘Mock’ instance was used to wrap an object,
     if ‘side_effect’ is used in one of the mocks of it methods, don’t
     call the original implementation and return the result of using the
     side effect the same way that it is done with return_value.

   - bpo-35346(49): Drop Mac OS 9 and Rhapsody support from the *note
     platform: af. module.  Rhapsody last release was in 2000.  Mac OS 9
     last release was in 2001.

   - bpo-10496(50): ‘check_environ()’ of ‘distutils.utils’ now catches
     *note KeyError: 7df. on calling *note pwd.getpwuid(): 2000.: don’t
     create the ‘HOME’ environment variable in this case.

   - bpo-10496(51): ‘posixpath.expanduser()’ now returns the input
     'path' unchanged if the ‘HOME’ environment variable is not set and
     the current user has no home directory (if the current user
     identifier doesn’t exist in the password database).  This change
     fix the *note site: cf. module if the current user doesn’t exist in
     the password database (if the user has no home directory).

   - bpo-35389(52): *note platform.libc_ver(): 1a01. now uses
     ‘os.confstr('CS_GNU_LIBC_VERSION')’ if available and the
     'executable' parameter is not set.

   - bpo-35394(53): Add empty slots to asyncio abstract protocols.

   - bpo-35310(54): Fix a bug in *note select.select(): 1159. where, in
     some cases, the file descriptor sequences were returned unmodified
     after a signal interruption, even though the file descriptors might
     not be ready yet.  ‘select.select()’ will now always return empty
     lists if a timeout has occurred.  Patch by Oran Avraham.

   - bpo-35380(55): Enable TCP_NODELAY on Windows for proactor asyncio
     event loop.

   - bpo-35341(56): Add generic version of ‘collections.OrderedDict’ to
     the ‘typing’ module.  Patch by Ismo Toijala.

   - bpo-35371(57): Fixed possible crash in ‘os.utime()’ on Windows when
     pass incorrect arguments.

   - bpo-35346(58): *note platform.uname(): 2001. now redirects ‘stderr’
     to *note os.devnull: 2002. when running external programs like ‘cmd
     /c ver’.

   - bpo-35066(59): Previously, calling the strftime() method on a
     datetime object with a trailing “%” in the format string would
     result in an exception.  However, this only occurred when the
     datetime C module was being used; the python implementation did not
     match this behavior.  Datetime is now PEP-399 compliant, and will
     not throw an exception on a trailing “%”.

   - bpo-35345(60): The function ‘platform.popen’ has been removed, it
     was deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note os.popen(): 585.
     instead.

   - bpo-35344(61): On macOS, *note platform.platform(): 1cc7. now uses
     *note platform.mac_ver(): 2003, if it returns a non-empty release
     string, to get the macOS version rather than the darwin version.

   - bpo-35312(62): Make ‘lib2to3.pgen2.parse.ParseError’ round-trip
     pickle-able.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-35308(63): Fix regression in ‘webbrowser’ where default
     browsers may be preferred over browsers in the ‘BROWSER’
     environment variable.

   - bpo-24746(64): Avoid stripping trailing whitespace in doctest fancy
     diff.  Original patch by R. David Murray & Jairo Trad.  Enhanced by
     Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-28604(65): *note locale.localeconv(): fbd. now sets temporarily
     the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_MONETARY’ locale if the two
     locales are different and monetary strings are non-ASCII. This
     temporary change affects other threads.

   - bpo-35277(66): Update ensurepip to install pip 18.1 and setuptools
     40.6.2.

   - bpo-24209(67): Adds IPv6 support when invoking http.server
     directly.

   - bpo-35226(68): Recursively check arguments when testing for
     equality of *note unittest.mock.call: 1fa3. objects and add note
     that tracking of parameters used to create ancestors of mocks in
     ‘mock_calls’ is not possible.

   - bpo-29564(69): The warnings module now suggests to enable
     tracemalloc if the source is specified, the tracemalloc module is
     available, but tracemalloc is not tracing memory allocations.

   - bpo-35189(70): Modify the following fnctl function to retry if
     interrupted by a signal (EINTR): flock, lockf, fnctl

   - bpo-30064(71): Use add_done_callback() in sock_* asyncio API to
     unsubscribe reader/writer early on calcellation.

   - bpo-35186(72): Removed the «built with» comment added when
     ‘setup.py upload’ is used with either ‘bdist_rpm’ or ‘bdist_dumb’.

   - bpo-35152(73): Allow sending more than 2 GB at once on a
     multiprocessing connection on non-Windows systems.

   - bpo-35062(74): Fix incorrect parsing of *note
     io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder: 1947.’s 'translate' argument.

   - bpo-35065(75): Remove ‘StreamReaderProtocol._untrack_reader’.  The
     call to ‘_untrack_reader’ is currently performed too soon, causing
     the protocol to forget about the reader before ‘connection_lost’
     can run and feed the EOF to the reader.

   - bpo-34160(76): ElementTree and minidom now preserve the attribute
     order specified by the user.

   - bpo-35079(77): Improve difflib.SequenceManager.get_matching_blocks
     doc by adding “non-overlapping” and changing “!=” to “<”.

   - bpo-33710(78): Deprecated ‘l*gettext()’ functions and methods in
     the *note gettext: 66. module.  They return encoded bytes instead
     of Unicode strings and are artifacts from Python 2 times.  Also
     deprecated functions and methods related to setting the charset for
     ‘l*gettext()’ functions and methods.

   - bpo-35017(79): *note socketserver.BaseServer.serve_forever(): 14eb.
     now exits immediately if it’s *note shutdown(): 2004. method is
     called while it is polling for new events.

   - bpo-35024(80): ‘importlib’ no longer logs ‘wrote <bytecode path>’
     redundantly after ‘(created|could not create) <bytecode path>’ is
     already logged.  Patch by Quentin Agren.

   - bpo-35047(81): ‘unittest.mock’ now includes mock calls in exception
     messages if ‘assert_not_called’, ‘assert_called_once’, or
     ‘assert_called_once_with’ fails.  Patch by Petter Strandmark.

   - bpo-31047(82): Fix ‘ntpath.abspath’ regression where it didn’t
     remove a trailing separator on Windows.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-35053(83): tracemalloc now tries to update the traceback when
     an object is reused from a «free list» (optimization for faster
     object creation, used by the builtin list type for example).

   - bpo-31553(84): Add the –json-lines option to json.tool.  Patch by
     hongweipeng.

   - bpo-34794(85): Fixed a leak in Tkinter when pass the Python wrapper
     around Tcl_Obj back to Tcl/Tk.

   - bpo-34909(86): Enum: fix grandchildren subclassing when parent
     mixed with concrete data types.

   - bpo-35022(87): *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: 1240. now supports
     the ‘__fspath__’ method (from *note os.PathLike: 100f.).

   - bpo-35008(88): Fixed references leaks when call the
     ‘__setstate__()’ method of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element:
     343. in the C implementation for already initialized element.

   - bpo-23420(89): Verify the value for the parameter “-s” of the
     cProfile CLI. Patch by Robert Kuska

   - bpo-33947(90): dataclasses now handle recursive reprs without
     raising RecursionError.

   - bpo-34890(91): Make *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 302, *note
     inspect.isgeneratorfunction(): 1d59. and *note
     inspect.isasyncgenfunction(): 1d5a. work with *note
     functools.partial(): 4a6.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34521(92): Use *note socket.CMSG_SPACE(): 2005. to calculate
     ancillary data size instead of *note socket.CMSG_LEN(): 2006. in
     ‘multiprocessing.reduction.recvfds()’ as RFC 3542(93) requires the
     use of the former for portable applications.

   - bpo-31522(94): The ‘mailbox.mbox.get_string’ function 'from_'
     parameter can now successfully be set to a non-default value.

   - bpo-34970(95): Protect tasks weak set manipulation in
     ‘asyncio.all_tasks()’

   - bpo-34969(96): gzip: Add –fast, –best on the gzip CLI, these
     parameters will be used for the fast compression method (quick) or
     the best method compress (slower, but smaller file).  Also, change
     the default compression level to 6 (tradeoff).

   - bpo-16965(97): The 2to3 ‘execfile’ fixer now opens the file with
     mode ‘'rb'’.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34966(98): *note pydoc: bd. now supports aliases not only to
     methods defined in the end class, but also to inherited methods.
     The docstring is not duplicated for aliases.

   - bpo-34926(99): *note mimetypes.MimeTypes.guess_type(): 2007. now
     accepts *note path-like object: 79f. in addition to url strings.
     Patch by Mayank Asthana.

   - bpo-23831(100): Add ‘moveto()’ method to the ‘tkinter.Canvas’
     widget.  Patch by Juliette Monsel.

   - bpo-34941(101): Methods ‘find()’, ‘findtext()’ and ‘findall()’ of
     the ‘Element’ class in the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. module
     are now able to find children which are instances of ‘Element’
     subclasses.

   - bpo-32680(102): *note smtplib.SMTP: cfa. objects now always have a
     ‘sock’ attribute present

   - bpo-34769(103): Fix for async generators not finalizing when event
     loop is in debug mode and garbage collector runs in another thread.

   - bpo-34936(104): Fix ‘TclError’ in
     ‘tkinter.Spinbox.selection_element()’.  Patch by Juliette Monsel.

   - bpo-34829(105): Add methods ‘selection_from’, ‘selection_range’,
     ‘selection_present’ and ‘selection_to’ to the ‘tkinter.Spinbox’ for
     consistency with the ‘tkinter.Entry’ widget.  Patch by Juliette
     Monsel.

   - bpo-34911(106): Added 'secure_protocols' argument to
     'http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy' to allow for tweaking of
     protocols and also to add support by default for 'wss', the secure
     websocket protocol.

   - bpo-34922(107): Fixed integer overflow in the *note digest(): 2008.
     and *note hexdigest(): 2009. methods for the SHAKE algorithm in the
     *note hashlib: 6b. module.

   - bpo-34925(108): 25% speedup in argument parsing for the functions
     in the bisect module.

   - bpo-34900(109): Fixed *note unittest.TestCase.debug(): 1e40. when
     used to call test methods with subtests.  Patch by Bruno Oliveira.

   - bpo-34844(110): logging.Formatter enhancement - Ensure styles and
     fmt matches in logging.Formatter - Added validate method in each
     format style class: StrFormatStyle, PercentStyle,
     StringTemplateStyle.  - This method is called in the constructor of
     logging.Formatter class - Also re-raise the KeyError in the format
     method of each style class, so it would a bit clear that it’s an
     error with the invalid format fields.

   - bpo-34897(111): Adjust test.support.missing_compiler_executable
     check so that a nominal command name of «» is ignored.  Patch by
     Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34871(112): Fix inspect module polluted ‘sys.modules’ when
     parsing ‘__text_signature__’ of callable.

   - bpo-34898(113): Add ‘mtime’ argument to ‘gzip.compress’ for
     reproducible output.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-28441(114): On Cygwin and MinGW, ensure that ‘sys.executable’
     always includes the full filename in the path, including the ‘.exe’
     suffix (unless it is a symbolic link).

   - bpo-34866(115): Adding ‘max_num_fields’ to ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ to
     make DOS attacks harder by limiting the number of
     ‘MiniFieldStorage’ objects created by ‘FieldStorage’.

   - bpo-34711(116): http.server ensures it reports HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND
     when the local path ends with «/» and is not a directory, even if
     the underlying OS (e.g.  AIX) accepts such paths as a valid file
     reference.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34872(117): Fix self-cancellation in C implementation of
     asyncio.Task

   - bpo-34849(118): Don’t log waiting for ‘selector.select’ in asyncio
     loop iteration.  The waiting is pretty normal for any asyncio
     program, logging its time just adds a noise to logs without any
     useful information provided.

   - bpo-34022(119): The ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable no
     longer overrides the value of the 'invalidation_mode' argument to
     *note py_compile.compile(): de9, and determines its default value
     instead.

   - bpo-34819(120): Use a monotonic clock to compute timeouts in
     ‘Executor.map()’ and ‘as_completed()’, in order to prevent timeouts
     from deviating when the system clock is adjusted.

   - bpo-34758(121): Add .wasm -> application/wasm to list of recognized
     file types and content type headers

   - bpo-34789(122): *note xml.sax.make_parser(): 200a. now accepts any
     iterable as its 'parser_list' argument.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-34334(123): In ‘QueueHandler’, clear ‘exc_text’ from
     ‘LogRecord’ to prevent traceback from being written twice.

   - bpo-34687(124): On Windows, asyncio now uses ProactorEventLoop,
     instead of SelectorEventLoop, by default.

   - bpo-5950(125): Support reading zip files with archive comments in
     *note zipimport: 13b.

   - bpo-32892(126): The parser now represents all constants as *note
     ast.Constant: 569. instead of using specific constant AST types
     (‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ and ‘Ellipsis’).  These
     classes are considered deprecated and will be removed in future
     Python versions.

   - bpo-34728(127): Add deprecation warning when ‘loop’ is used in
     methods: ‘asyncio.sleep’, ‘asyncio.wait’ and ‘asyncio.wait_for’.

   - bpo-34738(128): ZIP files created by ‘distutils’ will now include
     entries for directories.

   - bpo-34659(129): Add an optional 'initial' argument to
     itertools.accumulate().

   - bpo-29577(130): Support multiple mixin classes when creating Enums.

   - bpo-34670(131): Add SSLContext.post_handshake_auth and
     SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake for TLS 1.3’s post handshake
     authentication feature.

   - bpo-32718(132): The Activate.ps1 script from venv works with
     PowerShell Core 6.1 and is now available under all operating
     systems.

   - bpo-31177(133): Fix bug that prevented using *note reset_mock:
     10b6. on mock instances with deleted attributes

   - bpo-34672(134): Add a workaround, so the ‘'Z'’ *note
     time.strftime(): 1592. specifier on the musl C library can work in
     some cases.

   - bpo-34666(135): Implement ‘asyncio.StreamWriter.awrite’ and
     ‘asyncio.StreamWriter.aclose()’ coroutines.  Methods are needed for
     providing a consistent stream API with control flow switched on by
     default.

   - bpo-6721(136): Acquire the logging module’s commonly used internal
     locks while fork()ing to avoid deadlocks in the child process.

   - bpo-34658(137): Fix a rare interpreter unhandled exception state
     SystemError only seen when using subprocess with a preexec_fn while
     an after_parent handler has been registered with
     os.register_at_fork and the fork system call fails.

   - bpo-34652(138): Ensure *note os.lchmod(): 72b. is never defined on
     Linux.

   - bpo-34638(139): Store a weak reference to stream reader to break
     strong references loop between reader and protocol.  It allows to
     detect and close the socket if the stream is deleted (garbage
     collected) without ‘close()’ call.

   - bpo-34536(140): ‘Enum._missing_’: raise ‘ValueError’ if None
     returned and ‘TypeError’ if non-member is returned.

   - bpo-34636(141): Speed up re scanning of many non-matching
     characters for s w and d within bytes objects.  (microoptimization)

   - bpo-24412(142): Add *note addModuleCleanup(): e0f. and *note
     addClassCleanup(): e10. to unittest to support cleanups for *note
     setUpModule(): e11. and *note setUpClass(): e12.  Patch by Lisa
     Roach.

   - bpo-34630(143): Don’t log SSL certificate errors in asyncio code
     (connection error logging is skipped already).

   - bpo-32490(144): Prevent filename duplication in *note subprocess:
     df. exception messages.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34363(145): dataclasses.asdict() and .astuple() now handle
     namedtuples correctly.

   - bpo-34625(146): Update vendorized expat library version to 2.2.6.

   - bpo-32270(147): The subprocess module no longer mistakenly closes
     redirected fds even when they were in pass_fds when outside of the
     default {0, 1, 2} set.

   - bpo-34622(148): Create a dedicated ‘asyncio.CancelledError’,
     ‘asyncio.InvalidStateError’ and ‘asyncio.TimeoutError’ exception
     classes.  Inherit them from corresponding exceptions from
     ‘concurrent.futures’ package.  Extract ‘asyncio’ exceptions into a
     separate file.

   - bpo-34610(149): Fixed iterator of
     ‘multiprocessing.managers.DictProxy’.

   - bpo-34421(150): Fix distutils logging for non-ASCII strings.  This
     caused installation issues on Windows.

   - bpo-34604(151): Fix possible mojibake in the error message of
     ‘pwd.getpwnam’ and ‘grp.getgrnam’ using string representation
     because of invisible characters or trailing whitespaces.  Patch by
     William Grzybowski.

   - bpo-30977(152): Make uuid.UUID use ‘__slots__’ to reduce its memory
     footprint.  Based on original patch by Wouter Bolsterlee.

   - bpo-34574(153): OrderedDict iterators are not exhausted during
     pickling anymore.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-8110(154): Refactored *note subprocess: df. to check for
     Windows-specific modules rather than ‘sys.platform == 'win32'’.

   - bpo-34530(155): ‘distutils.spawn.find_executable()’ now falls back
     on *note os.defpath: 1fd3. if the ‘PATH’ environment variable is
     not set.

   - bpo-34563(156): On Windows, fix multiprocessing.Connection for very
     large read: fix _winapi.PeekNamedPipe() and _winapi.ReadFile() for
     read larger than INT_MAX (usually ‘2**31-1’).

   - bpo-34558(157): Correct typo in Lib/ctypes/_aix.py

   - bpo-34282(158): Move ‘Enum._convert’ to ‘EnumMeta._convert_’ and
     fix enum members getting shadowed by parent attributes.

   - bpo-22872(159): When the queue is closed, *note ValueError: 277. is
     now raised by *note multiprocessing.Queue.put(): 200b. and *note
     multiprocessing.Queue.get(): 200c. instead of *note AssertionError:
     a97. and *note OSError: 53c, respectively.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34515(160): Fix parsing non-ASCII identifiers in
     ‘lib2to3.pgen2.tokenize’ ( PEP 3131(161)).

   - bpo-13312(162): Avoids a possible integer underflow (undefined
     behavior) in the time module’s year handling code when passed a
     very low negative year value.

   - bpo-34472(163): Improved compatibility for streamed files in *note
     zipfile: 13a.  Previously an optional signature was not being
     written and certain ZIP applications were not supported.  Patch by
     Silas Sewell.

   - bpo-34454(164): Fix the .fromisoformat() methods of datetime types
     crashing when given unicode with non-UTF-8-encodable code points.
     Specifically, datetime.fromisoformat() now accepts surrogate
     unicode code points used as the separator.  Report and tests by
     Alexey Izbyshev, patch by Paul Ganssle.

   - bpo-6700(165): Fix inspect.getsourcelines for module level
     frames/tracebacks.  Patch by Vladimir Matveev.

   - bpo-34171(166): Running the *note trace: 106. module no longer
     creates the ‘trace.cover’ file.

   - bpo-34441(167): Fix crash when an ‘ABC’-derived class with invalid
     ‘__subclasses__’ is passed as the second argument to *note
     issubclass(): 2f0.  Patch by Alexey Izbyshev.

   - bpo-34427(168): Fix infinite loop in ‘a.extend(a)’ for
     ‘MutableSequence’ subclasses.

   - bpo-34412(169): Make *note signal.strsignal(): 200d. work on HP-UX.
     Patch by Michael Osipov.

   - bpo-20849(170): shutil.copytree now accepts a new ‘dirs_exist_ok’
     keyword argument.  Patch by Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-31715(171): Associate ‘.mjs’ file extension with
     ‘application/javascript’ MIME Type.

   - bpo-34384(172): *note os.readlink(): ced. now accepts *note
     path-like: 79f. and *note bytes: 1c7. objects on Windows.

   - bpo-22602(173): The UTF-7 decoder now raises *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: dd7. for ill-formed sequences starting with «+»
     (as specified in RFC 2152).  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-2122(174): The *note mmap.flush(): e5e. method now returns
     ‘None’ on success, raises an exception on error under all
     platforms.

   - bpo-34341(175): Appending to the ZIP archive with the ZIP64
     extension no longer grows the size of extra fields of existing
     entries.

   - bpo-34333(176): Fix %-formatting in *note
     pathlib.PurePath.with_suffix(): 1b6a. when formatting an error
     message.

   - bpo-18540(177): The *note imaplib.IMAP4: 31a. and *note
     imaplib.IMAP4_SSL: cd3. classes now resolve to the local host IP
     correctly when the default value of 'host' parameter (‘''’) is
     used.

   - bpo-26502(178): Implement ‘traceback.FrameSummary.__len__()’ method
     to preserve compatibility with the old tuple API.

   - bpo-34318(179): *note assertRaises(): 93b, *note
     assertRaisesRegex(): 93d, *note assertWarns(): 2a0. and *note
     assertWarnsRegex(): 2a1. no longer success if the passed callable
     is None.  They no longer ignore unknown keyword arguments in the
     context manager mode.  A DeprecationWarning was raised in these
     cases since Python 3.5.

   - bpo-9372(180): Deprecate *note __getitem__(): 787. methods of *note
     xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: b1c, *note
     wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: b1d. and *note fileinput.FileInput: b1e.

   - bpo-33613(181): Fix a race condition in
     ‘multiprocessing.semaphore_tracker’ when the tracker receives
     SIGINT before it can register signal handlers for ignoring it.

   - bpo-34248(182): Report filename in the exception raised when the
     database file cannot be opened by *note dbm.gnu.open(): 200e. and
     *note dbm.ndbm.open(): 200f. due to OS-related error.  Patch by
     Zsolt Cserna.

   - bpo-33089(183): Add math.dist() to compute the Euclidean distance
     between two points.

   - bpo-34246(184): *note smtplib.SMTP.send_message(): 120b. no longer
     modifies the content of the 'mail_options' argument.  Patch by
     Pablo S. Blum de Aguiar.

   - bpo-31047(185): Fix ‘ntpath.abspath’ for invalid paths on windows.
     Patch by Franz Woellert.

   - bpo-32321(186): Add pure Python fallback for functools.reduce.
     Patch by Robert Wright.

   - bpo-34270(187): The default asyncio task class now always has a
     name which can be get or set using two new methods (*note
     get_name(): da2. and *note set_name(): da1.) and is visible in the
     *note repr(): 45b. output.  An initial name can also be set using
     the new ‘name’ keyword argument to *note asyncio.create_task():
     462. or the ‘create_task()’ method of the event loop.  If no
     initial name is set, the default Task implementation generates a
     name like ‘Task-1’ using a monotonic counter.

   - bpo-34263(188): asyncio’s event loop will not pass timeouts longer
     than one day to epoll/select etc.

   - bpo-34035(189): Fix several AttributeError in zipfile seek()
     methods.  Patch by Mickaël Schoentgen.

   - bpo-32215(190): Fix performance regression in *note sqlite3: d7.
     when a DML statement appeared in a different line than the rest of
     the SQL query.

   - bpo-34075(191): Deprecate passing non-ThreadPoolExecutor instances
     to ‘AbstractEventLoop.set_default_executor()’.

   - bpo-34251(192): Restore ‘msilib.Win64’ to preserve backwards
     compatibility since it’s already used by ‘distutils’” ‘bdist_msi’
     command.

   - bpo-19891(193): Ignore errors caused by missing / non-writable
     homedir while writing history during exit of an interactive
     session.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33089(194): Enhanced math.hypot() to support more than two
     dimensions.

   - bpo-34228(195): tracemalloc: PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=0 environment
     variable and -X tracemalloc=0 command line option are now allowed
     to disable explicitly tracemalloc at startup.

   - bpo-13041(196): Use *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 14af. to
     calculate the terminal width correctly in the
     ‘argparse.HelpFormatter’ class.  Initial patch by Zbyszek
     Jędrzejewski-Szmek.

   - bpo-34213(197): Allow frozen dataclasses to have a field named
     «object».  Previously this conflicted with an internal use of
     «object».

   - bpo-34052(198): *note sqlite3.Connection.create_aggregate(): 3e2,
     *note sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 3e1, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_authorizer(): 3e3, *note
     sqlite3.Connection.set_progress_handler(): 3e4. methods raises
     TypeError when unhashable objects are passed as callable.  These
     methods now don’t pass such objects to SQLite API. Previous
     behavior could lead to segfaults.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34197(199): Attributes 'skipinitialspace', 'doublequote' and
     'strict' of the 'dialect' attribute of the *note csv: 2c. reader
     are now *note bool: 5ef. instances instead of integers 0 or 1.

   - bpo-32788(200): Errors other than *note TypeError: 291. raised in
     methods ‘__adapt__()’ and ‘__conform__()’ in the *note sqlite3: d7.
     module are now propagated to the user.

   - bpo-21446(201): The ‘reload’ fixer now uses *note
     importlib.reload(): 928. instead of deprecated ‘imp.reload()’.

   - bpo-940286(202): pydoc’s ‘Helper.showtopic()’ method now prints the
     cross references of a topic correctly.

   - bpo-34164(203): *note base64.b32decode(): 1e8. could raise
     UnboundLocalError or OverflowError for incorrect padding.  Now it
     always raises ‘base64.Error’ in these cases.

   - bpo-33729(204): Fixed issues with arguments parsing in *note
     hashlib: 6b.

   - bpo-34097(205): ZipFile can zip files older than 1980-01-01 and
     newer than 2107-12-31 using a new ‘strict_timestamps’ parameter at
     the cost of setting the timestamp to the limit.

   - bpo-34108(206): Remove extraneous CR in 2to3 refactor.

   - bpo-34070(207): Make sure to only check if the handle is a tty,
     when opening a file with ‘buffering=-1’.

   - bpo-27494(208): Reverted bpo-27494(209).  2to3 rejects now a
     trailing comma in generator expressions.

   - bpo-33967(210): functools.singledispatch now raises TypeError
     instead of IndexError when no positional arguments are passed.

   - bpo-34041(211): Add the parameter 'deterministic' to the *note
     sqlite3.Connection.create_function(): 3e1. method.  Patch by Sergey
     Fedoseev.

   - bpo-34056(212): Ensure the loader shim created by ‘imp.load_module’
     always returns bytes from its ‘get_data()’ function.  This fixes
     using ‘imp.load_module’ with PEP 552(213) hash-based pycs.

   - bpo-34054(214): The multiprocessing module now uses the monotonic
     clock *note time.monotonic(): 75d. instead of the system clock
     *note time.time(): 75e. to implement timeout.

   - bpo-34043(215): Optimize tarfile uncompress performance about 15%
     when gzip is used.

   - bpo-34044(216): ‘subprocess.Popen’ now copies the 'startupinfo'
     argument to leave it unchanged: it will modify the copy, so that
     the same ‘STARTUPINFO’ object can be used multiple times.

   - bpo-34010(217): Fixed a performance regression for reading streams
     with tarfile.  The buffered read should use a list, instead of
     appending to a bytes object.

   - bpo-34019(218): webbrowser: Correct the arguments passed to Opera
     Browser when opening a new URL using the ‘webbrowser’ module.
     Patch by Bumsik Kim.

   - bpo-34003(219): csv.DictReader now creates dicts instead of
     OrderedDicts.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-33978(220): Closed existing logging handlers before
     reconfiguration via fileConfig and dictConfig.  Patch by
     Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-14117(221): Make minor tweaks to turtledemo.  The “wikipedia”
     example is now “rosette”, describing what it draws.  The “penrose”
     print output is reduced.  The’1024” output of “tree” is eliminated.

   - bpo-33974(222): Fixed passing lists and tuples of strings
     containing special characters ‘"’, ‘\’, ‘{’, ‘}’ and ‘\n’ as
     options to *note ttk: 102. widgets.

   - bpo-27500(223): Fix getaddrinfo to resolve IPv6 addresses
     correctly.

   - bpo-24567(224): Improve random.choices() to handle subnormal input
     weights that could occasionally trigger an IndexError.

   - bpo-33871(225): Fixed integer overflow in *note os.readv(): f1b,
     *note os.writev(): f1e, *note os.preadv(): f1a. and *note
     os.pwritev(): f1d. and in *note os.sendfile(): ed3. with 'headers'
     or 'trailers' arguments (on BSD-based OSes and macOS).

   - bpo-25007(226): Add *note copy.copy(): 942. and *note
     copy.deepcopy(): f2b. support to zlib compressors and
     decompressors.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33929(227): multiprocessing: Fix a race condition in Popen of
     multiprocessing.popen_spawn_win32.  The child process now
     duplicates the read end of pipe instead of «stealing» it.
     Previously, the read end of pipe was «stolen» by the child process,
     but it leaked a handle if the child process had been terminated
     before it could steal the handle from the parent process.

   - bpo-33899(228): Tokenize module now implicitly emits a NEWLINE when
     provided with input that does not have a trailing new line.  This
     behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally.
     Contributed by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-33897(229): Added a “force” keyword argument to
     logging.basicConfig().

   - bpo-33695(230): *note shutil.copytree(): ded. uses *note
     os.scandir(): e23. function and all copy functions depending from
     it use cached *note os.stat(): 4f5. values.  The speedup for
     copying a directory with 8000 files is around +9% on Linux, +20% on
     Windows and + 30% on a Windows SMB share.  Also the number of
     ‘os.stat()’ syscalls is reduced by 38% making ‘shutil.copytree()’
     especially faster on network filesystems.  (Contributed by
     Giampaolo Rodola” in bpo-33695(231).)

   - bpo-33916(232): bz2 and lzma: When Decompressor.__init__() is
     called twice, free the old lock to not leak memory.

   - bpo-32568(233): Make select.epoll() and its documentation
     consistent regarding 'sizehint' and 'flags'.

   - bpo-33833(234): Fixed bug in asyncio where ProactorSocketTransport
     logs AssertionError if force closed during write.

   - bpo-33663(235): Convert content length to string before putting to
     header.

   - bpo-33721(236): *note os.path: a6. functions that return a boolean
     result like *note exists(): dd2, *note lexists(): dd3, *note
     isdir(): dd4, *note isfile(): dd5, *note islink(): dd0, and *note
     ismount(): dd6, and *note pathlib.Path: 4ee. methods that return a
     boolean result like *note exists(): dda, *note is_dir(): 73d, *note
     is_file(): 73c, *note is_mount(): ddb, *note is_symlink(): ddc,
     *note is_block_device(): ddd, *note is_char_device(): dde, *note
     is_fifo(): ddf, *note is_socket(): de0. now return ‘False’ instead
     of raising *note ValueError: 277. or its subclasses *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: a67. and *note UnicodeDecodeError: dd7. for
     paths that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS
     level.

   - bpo-26544(237): Fixed implementation of *note platform.libc_ver():
     1a01.  It almost always returned version “2.9” for glibc.

   - bpo-33843(238): Remove deprecated ‘cgi.escape’, ‘cgi.parse_qs’ and
     ‘cgi.parse_qsl’.

   - bpo-33842(239): Remove ‘tarfile.filemode’ which is deprecated since
     Python 3.3.

   - bpo-30167(240): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33805(241): Improve error message of dataclasses.replace() when
     an InitVar is not specified

   - bpo-33687(242): Fix the call to ‘os.chmod()’ for ‘uu.decode()’ if a
     mode is given or decoded.  Patch by Timo Furrer.

   - bpo-33812(243): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-32108(244): In configparser, don’t clear section when it is
     assigned to itself.

   - bpo-27397(245): Make email module properly handle invalid-length
     base64 strings.

   - bpo-33578(246): Implement multibyte encoder/decoder state methods

   - bpo-30805(247): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33476(248): Fix _header_value_parser.py when address group is
     missing final “;”.  Contributed by Enrique Perez-Terron

   - bpo-33694(249): asyncio: Fix a race condition causing data loss on
     pause_reading()/resume_reading() when using the ProactorEventLoop.

   - bpo-32493(250): Correct test for ‘uuid_enc_be’ availability in
     ‘configure.ac’.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-33792(251): Add asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and
     asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy.

   - bpo-33274(252): W3C DOM Level 1 specifies return value of
     Element.removeAttributeNode() as «The Attr node that was removed.»
     xml.dom.minidom now complies with this requirement.

   - bpo-33778(253): Update ‘unicodedata’’s database to Unicode version
     11.0.0.

   - bpo-33165(254): Added a stacklevel parameter to logging calls to
     allow use of wrapper/helper functions for logging APIs.

   - bpo-33770(255): improve base64 exception message for encoded inputs
     of invalid length

   - bpo-33769(256): asyncio/start_tls: Fix error message; cancel
     callbacks in case of an unhandled error; mark SSLTransport as
     closed if it is aborted.

   - bpo-33767(257): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’)
     sequence operations now raise *note TypeError: 291. instead of
     *note SystemError: 3ea. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 23c.
     objects.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33734(258): asyncio/ssl: Fix AttributeError, increase default
     handshake timeout

   - bpo-31014(259): Fixed creating a controller for *note webbrowser:
     11e. when a user specifies a path to an entry in the BROWSER
     environment variable.  Based on patch by John Still.

   - bpo-2504(260): Add gettext.pgettext() and variants.

   - bpo-33197(261): Add description property for _ParameterKind

   - bpo-32751(262): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 9f6. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete.

   - bpo-32684(263): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33654(264): Support protocol type switching in
     SSLTransport.set_protocol().

   - bpo-33674(265): Pause the transport as early as possible to further
     reduce the risk of data_received() being called before
     connection_made().

   - bpo-33671(266): *note shutil.copyfile(): e1d, *note shutil.copy():
     e1e, *note shutil.copy2(): e1f, *note shutil.copytree(): ded. and
     *note shutil.move(): e20. use platform-specific fast-copy syscalls
     on Linux and macOS in order to copy the file more efficiently.  On
     Windows ‘shutil.copyfile()’ uses a bigger default buffer size (1
     MiB instead of 16 KiB) and a *note memoryview(): 1d2.-based variant
     of *note shutil.copyfileobj(): e21. is used.  The speedup for
     copying a 512MiB file is about +26% on Linux, +50% on macOS and
     +40% on Windows.  Also, much less CPU cycles are consumed.
     (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola” in bpo-25427(267).)

   - bpo-33674(268): Fix a race condition in
     SSLProtocol.connection_made() of asyncio.sslproto: start
     immediately the handshake instead of using call_soon().
     Previously, data_received() could be called before the handshake
     started, causing the handshake to hang or fail.

   - bpo-31647(269): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it’s already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-32610(270): Make asyncio.all_tasks() return only pending tasks.

   - bpo-32410(271): Avoid blocking on file IO in sendfile fallback code

   - bpo-33469(272): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-33672(273): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython’s bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33654(274): Fix transport.set_protocol() to support switching
     between asyncio.Protocol and asyncio.BufferedProtocol.  Fix
     loop.start_tls() to work with asyncio.BufferedProtocols.

   - bpo-33652(275): Pickles of type variables and subscripted generics
     are now future-proof and compatible with older Python versions.

   - bpo-32493(276): Fixed *note uuid.uuid1(): f67. on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-33238(277): Add ‘InvalidStateError’ to *note
     concurrent.futures: 24.  ‘Future.set_result’ and
     ‘Future.set_exception’ now raise ‘InvalidStateError’ if the futures
     are not pending or running.  Patch by Jason Haydaman.

   - bpo-33618(278): Finalize and document preliminary and experimental
     TLS 1.3 support with OpenSSL 1.1.1

   - bpo-33625(279): Release GIL on ‘grp.getgrnam’, ‘grp.getgrgid’,
     ‘pwd.getpwnam’ and ‘pwd.getpwuid’ if reentrant variants of these
     functions are available.  Patch by William Grzybowski.

   - bpo-33623(280): Fix possible SIGSGV when asyncio.Future is created
     in __del__

   - bpo-11874(281): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-30877(282): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the
     JSON decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from
     clearing after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33604(283): Remove HMAC default to md5 marked for removal in
     3.8 (removal originally planned in 3.6, bump to 3.8 in PR 7062).

   - bpo-33582(284): Emit a deprecation warning for
     inspect.formatargspec

   - bpo-21145(285): Add ‘functools.cached_property’ decorator, for
     computed properties cached for the life of the instance.

   - bpo-33570(286): Change TLS 1.3 cipher suite settings for
     compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1-pre6 and newer.  OpenSSL 1.1.1
     will have TLS 1.3 ciphers enabled by default.

   - bpo-28556(287): Do not simplify arguments to ‘typing.Union’.  Now
     ‘Union[Manager, Employee]’ is not simplified to ‘Employee’ at
     runtime.  Such simplification previously caused several bugs and
     limited possibilities for introspection.

   - bpo-12486(288): *note tokenize.generate_tokens(): 8ea. is now
     documented as a public API to tokenize unicode strings.  It was
     previously present but undocumented.

   - bpo-33540(289): Add a new ‘block_on_close’ class attribute to
     ‘ForkingMixIn’ and ‘ThreadingMixIn’ classes of *note socketserver:
     d5.

   - bpo-33548(290): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33109(291): argparse subparsers are once again not required by
     default, reverting the change in behavior introduced by
     bpo-26510(292) in 3.7.0a2.

   - bpo-33541(293): Remove unused private method
     ‘_strptime.LocaleTime.__pad’ (a.k.a.  ‘_LocaleTime__pad’).

   - bpo-33536(294): dataclasses.make_dataclass now checks for invalid
     field names and duplicate fields.  Also, added a check for invalid
     field specifications.

   - bpo-33542(295): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead
     of a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(296): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - Fix failure in ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ when ClassVar was provided
     as a string forward reference.

   - bpo-33516(297): *note unittest.mock.MagicMock: 1240. now supports
     the ‘__round__’ magic method.

   - bpo-28612(298): Added support for Site Maps to urllib’s
     ‘RobotFileParser’ as *note RobotFileParser.site_maps(): 2010.
     Patch by Lady Red, based on patch by Peter Wirtz.

   - bpo-28167(299): Remove platform.linux_distribution, which was
     deprecated since 3.5.

   - bpo-33504(300): Switch the default dictionary implementation for
     *note configparser: 26. from *note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5. to
     the standard *note dict: 188. type.

   - bpo-33505(301): Optimize asyncio.ensure_future() by reordering if
     checks: 1.17x faster.

   - bpo-33497(302): Add errors param to cgi.parse_multipart and make an
     encoding in FieldStorage use the given errors (needed for Twisted).
     Patch by Amber Brown.

   - bpo-29235(303): The ‘cProfile.Profile’ class can now be used as a
     context manager.  Patch by Scott Sanderson.

   - bpo-33495(304): Change dataclasses.Fields repr to use the repr of
     each of its members, instead of str.  This makes it more clear what
     each field actually represents.  This is especially true for the
     “type” member.

   - bpo-26103(305): Correct ‘inspect.isdatadescriptor’ to look for
     ‘__set__’ or ‘__delete__’.  Patch by Aaron Hall.

   - bpo-29209(306): Removed the ‘doctype()’ method and the 'html'
     parameter of the constructor of *note XMLParser: e18.  The
     ‘doctype()’ method defined in a subclass will no longer be called.
     Deprecated methods ‘getchildren()’ and ‘getiterator()’ in the *note
     ElementTree: 12e. module emit now a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.
     instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b.

   - bpo-33453(307): Fix dataclasses to work if using literal string
     type annotations or if using PEP 563 «Postponed Evaluation of
     Annotations».  Only specific string prefixes are detected for both
     ClassVar («ClassVar» and «typing.ClassVar») and InitVar («InitVar»
     and «dataclasses.InitVar»).

   - bpo-28556(308): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-33365(309): Print the header values besides the header keys
     instead just the header keys if 'debuglevel' is set to >0 in *note
     http.client: 72.  Patch by Marco Strigl.

   - bpo-20087(310): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(311): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-28167(312): The function ‘platform.linux_distribution’ and
     ‘platform.dist’ now trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and have been
     marked for removal in Python 3.8

   - bpo-33281(313): Fix ctypes.util.find_library regression on macOS.

   - bpo-33311(314): Text and html output generated by cgitb does not
     display parentheses if the current call is done directly in the
     module.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-27300(315): The file classes in 'tempfile' now accept an
     'errors' parameter that complements the already existing
     'encoding'.  Patch by Stephan Hohe.

   - bpo-32933(316): *note unittest.mock.mock_open(): 1390. now supports
     iteration over the file contents.  Patch by Tony Flury.

   - bpo-33217(317): Raise *note TypeError: 291. when looking up
     non-Enum objects in Enum classes and Enum members.

   - bpo-33197(318): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33383(319): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 37. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33375(320): The warnings module now finds the Python file
     associated with a warning from the code object, rather than the
     frame’s global namespace.  This is consistent with how tracebacks
     and pdb find filenames, and should work better for dynamically
     executed code.

   - bpo-33336(321): ‘imaplib’ now allows ‘MOVE’ command in
     ‘IMAP4.uid()’ (RFC 6851: IMAP MOVE Extension) and potentially as a
     name of supported method of ‘IMAP4’ object.

   - bpo-32455(322): Added 'jump' parameter to *note dis.stack_effect():
     12dc.

   - bpo-27485(323): Rename and deprecate undocumented functions in
     *note urllib.parse(): 113.

   - bpo-33332(324): Add ‘signal.valid_signals()’ to expose the POSIX
     sigfillset() functionality.

   - bpo-33251(325): ‘ConfigParser.items()’ was fixed so that key-value
     pairs passed in via *note vars(): 2011. are not included in the
     resulting output.

   - bpo-33329(326): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-33334(327): *note dis.stack_effect(): 12dc. now supports all
     defined opcodes including NOP and EXTENDED_ARG.

   - bpo-991266(328): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 2012.

   - bpo-33131(329): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(330): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when
     converting an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with
     ‘line_info=False’ and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-23403(331): lib2to3 now uses pickle protocol 4 for pre-computed
     grammars.

   - bpo-33266(332): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rf'...'’ strings.

   - bpo-11594(333): Ensure line-endings are respected when using
     lib2to3.

   - bpo-33254(334): Have *note importlib.resources.contents(): 708. and
     ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents()’ return an *note iterable:
     15ce. instead of an *note iterator: 6ce.

   - bpo-33265(335): ‘contextlib.ExitStack’ and
     ‘contextlib.AsyncExitStack’ now use a method instead of a wrapper
     function for exit callbacks.

   - bpo-33263(336): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-33256(337): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33144(338): ‘random.Random()’ and its subclassing mechanism got
     optimized to check only once at class/subclass instantiation time
     whether its ‘getrandbits()’ method can be relied on by other
     methods, including ‘randrange()’, for the generation of arbitrarily
     large random integers.  Patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-33185(339): Fixed regression when running pydoc with the *note
     -m: 4ca. switch.  (The regression was introduced in 3.7.0b3 by the
     resolution of bpo-33053(340))

     This fix also changed pydoc to add ‘os.getcwd()’ to *note sys.path:
     194. when necessary, rather than adding ‘"."’.

   - bpo-29613(341): Added support for the ‘SameSite’ cookie flag to the
     ‘http.cookies’ module.

   - bpo-33169(342): Delete entries of ‘None’ in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 9db. when
     ‘importlib.machinery.invalidate_caches()’ is called.

   - bpo-33203(343): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’
     for empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(344): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(345).  Convert
     an uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(346): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 2013.

   - bpo-32861(347): The urllib.robotparser’s ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the «Crawl-delay» and
     «Request-rate» fields.  Also removes extra newlines that were being
     appended to the end of the string.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-23403(348): ‘DEFAULT_PROTOCOL’ in *note pickle: ab. was bumped
     to 4.  Protocol 4 is described in PEP 3154(349) and available since
     Python 3.4.  It offers better performance and smaller size compared
     to protocol 3 introduced in Python 3.0.

   - bpo-20104(350): Improved error handling and fixed a reference leak
     in *note os.posix_spawn(): 731.

   - bpo-33106(351): Deleting a key from a read-only dbm database raises
     module specific error instead of KeyError.

   - bpo-33175(352): In dataclasses, Field.__set_name__ now looks up the
     __set_name__ special method on the class, not the instance, of the
     default value.

   - bpo-32380(353): Create functools.singledispatchmethod to support
     generic single dispatch on descriptors and methods.

   - bpo-33141(354): Have Field objects pass through __set_name__ to
     their default values, if they have their own __set_name__.

   - bpo-33096(355): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-32873(356): Treat type variables and special typing forms as
     immutable by copy and pickle.  This fixes several minor issues and
     inconsistencies, and improves backwards compatibility with Python
     3.6.

   - bpo-33134(357): When computing dataclass’s __hash__, use the lookup
     table to contain the function which returns the __hash__ value.
     This is an improvement over looking up a string, and then testing
     that string to see what to do.

   - bpo-33127(358): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-32505(359): Raise TypeError if a member variable of a dataclass
     is of type Field, but doesn’t have a type annotation.

   - bpo-33078(360): Fix the failure on OSX caused by the tests relying
     on sem_getvalue

   - bpo-33116(361): Add “Field” to dataclasses.__all__.

   - bpo-32896(362): Fix an error where subclassing a dataclass with a
     field that uses a default_factory would generate an incorrect
     class.

   - bpo-33100(363): Dataclasses: If a field has a default value that’s
     a MemberDescriptorType, then it’s from that field being in
     __slots__, not an actual default value.

   - bpo-32953(364): If a non-dataclass inherits from a frozen
     dataclass, allow attributes to be added to the derived class.  Only
     attributes from the frozen dataclass cannot be assigned to.
     Require all dataclasses in a hierarchy to be either all frozen or
     all non-frozen.

   - bpo-33097(365): Raise RuntimeError when ‘executor.submit’ is called
     during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32968(366): Modulo and floor division involving Fraction and
     float should return float.

   - bpo-33061(367): Add missing ‘NoReturn’ to ‘__all__’ in typing.py

   - bpo-33078(368): Fix the size handling in multiprocessing.Queue when
     a pickling error occurs.

   - bpo-33064(369): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-33056(370): FIX properly close leaking fds in
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.

   - bpo-33021(371): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-31804(372): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33034(373): Providing an explicit error message when casting
     the port property to anything that is not an integer value using
     ‘urlparse()’ and ‘urlsplit()’.  Patch by Matt Eaton.

   - bpo-30249(374): Improve struct.unpack_from() exception messages for
     problems with the buffer size and offset.

   - bpo-33037(375): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-27683(376): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 83. that
     result of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a
     tuple containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-22674(377): Add the strsignal() function in the signal module
     that returns the system description of the given signal, as
     returned by strsignal(3).

   - bpo-32999(378): Fix C implementation of ‘ABC.__subclasscheck__(cls,
     subclass)’ crashed when ‘subclass’ is not a type object.

   - bpo-33009(379): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(380): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32056(381): Improved exceptions raised for invalid number of
     channels and sample width when read an audio file in modules
     ‘aifc’, *note wave: 11c. and ‘sunau’.

   - bpo-32970(382): Improved disassembly of the MAKE_FUNCTION
     instruction.

   - bpo-32844(383): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-32960(384): For dataclasses, disallow inheriting frozen from
     non-frozen classes, and also disallow inheriting non-frozen from
     frozen classes.  This restriction will be relaxed at a future date.

   - bpo-32713(385): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-32257(386): The ssl module now contains OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION
     constant, available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h or 1.1.1.

   - bpo-32951(387): Direct instantiation of SSLSocket and SSLObject
     objects is now prohibited.  The constructors were never documented,
     tested, or designed as public constructors.  Users were suppose to
     use ssl.wrap_socket() or SSLContext.

   - bpo-32929(388): Remove the tri-state parameter «hash», and add the
     boolean «unsafe_hash».  If unsafe_hash is True, add a __hash__
     function, but if a __hash__ exists, raise TypeError.  If
     unsafe_hash is False, add a __hash__ based on the values of eq= and
     frozen=.  The unsafe_hash=False behavior is the same as the old
     hash=None behavior.  unsafe_hash=False is the default, just as
     hash=None used to be.

   - bpo-32947(389): Add OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT and test workaround
     for TLSv1.3 for future compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1.

   - bpo-32146(390): Document the interaction between frozen executables
     and the spawn and forkserver start methods in multiprocessing.

   - bpo-30622(391): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(392): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32759(393): Free unused arenas in multiprocessing.heap.

   - bpo-32859(394): In ‘os.dup2’, don’t check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-32556(395): nt._getfinalpathname, nt._getvolumepathname and
     nt._getdiskusage now correctly convert from bytes.

   - bpo-21060(396): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     «No dist file created in earlier command» to the more helpful «Must
     create and upload files in one command».

   - bpo-32857(397): In *note tkinter: f9, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 277. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-32852(398): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-31333(399): ‘_abc’ module is added.  It is a speedup module
     with C implementations for various functions and methods in ‘abc’.
     Creating an ABC subclass and calling ‘isinstance’ or ‘issubclass’
     with an ABC subclass are up to 1.5x faster.  In addition, this
     makes Python start-up up to 10% faster.

     Note that the new implementation hides internal registry and
     caches, previously accessible via private attributes
     ‘_abc_registry’, ‘_abc_cache’, and ‘_abc_negative_cache’.  There
     are three debugging helper methods that can be used instead
     ‘_dump_registry’, ‘_abc_registry_clear’, and ‘_abc_caches_clear’.

   - bpo-32841(400): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32819(401): ssl.match_hostname() has been simplified and no
     longer depends on re and ipaddress module for wildcard and IP
     addresses.  Error reporting for invalid wildcards has been
     improved.

   - bpo-19675(402): ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ no longer leaks processes if
     its initialization fails.

   - bpo-32394(403): socket: Remove
     TCP_FASTOPEN,TCP_KEEPCNT,TCP_KEEPIDLE,TCP_KEEPINTVL flags on older
     version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-31787(404): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(405): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-30688(406): Added support of ‘\N{name}’ escapes in regular
     expressions.  Based on patch by Jonathan Eunice.

   - bpo-32792(407): collections.ChainMap() preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.

   - bpo-32775(408): *note fnmatch.translate(): 1a79. no longer produces
     patterns which contain set operations.  Sets starting with “[” or
     containing “–”, “&&”, “~~” or “||” will be interpreted differently
     in regular expressions in future versions.  Currently they emit
     warnings.  fnmatch.translate() now avoids producing patterns
     containing such sets by accident.

   - bpo-32622(409): Implement native fast sendfile for Windows proactor
     event loop.

   - bpo-32777(410): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(411): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect
     linking for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked
     against libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32749(412): A *note dbm.dumb: 35. database opened with flags
     “r” is now read-only.  *note dbm.dumb.open(): e5c. with flags “r”
     and “w” no longer creates a database if it does not exist.

   - bpo-32741(413): Implement ‘asyncio.TimerHandle.when()’ method.

   - bpo-32691(414): Use mod_spec.parent when running modules with pdb

   - bpo-32734(415): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(416): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31453(417): Add TLSVersion constants and
     SSLContext.maximum_version / minimum_version attributes.  The new
     API wraps OpenSSL 1.1
     ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180309043602/https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html’
     feature.

   - bpo-24334(418): Internal implementation details of ssl module were
     cleaned up.  The SSLSocket has one less layer of indirection.
     Owner and session information are now handled by the SSLSocket and
     SSLObject constructor.  Channel binding implementation has been
     simplified.

   - bpo-31848(419): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32585(420): Add Ttk spinbox widget to *note tkinter.ttk: 102.
     Patch by Alan D Moore.

   - bpo-32512(421): *note profile: b4. CLI accepts ‘-m module_name’ as
     an alternative to script path.

   - bpo-8525(422): help() on a type now displays builtin subclasses.
     This is intended primarily to help with notification of more
     specific exception subclasses.

     Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31639(423): http.server now exposes a ThreadingHTTPServer class
     and uses it when the module is run with ‘-m’ to cope with web
     browsers pre-opening sockets.

   - bpo-29877(424): compileall: import ProcessPoolExecutor only when
     needed, preventing hangs on low resource platforms

   - bpo-32221(425): Various functions returning tuple containing IPv6
     addresses now omit ‘%scope’ part since the same information is
     already encoded in 'scopeid' tuple item.  Especially this speeds up
     ‘socket.recvfrom()’ when it receives multicast packet since useless
     resolving of network interface name is omitted.

   - bpo-32147(426): *note binascii.unhexlify(): 1ff. is now up to 2
     times faster.  Patch by Sergey Fedoseev.

   - bpo-30693(427): The TarFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-30693(428): The ZipFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-31680(429): Added *note curses.ncurses_version: dab.

   - bpo-31908(430): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-31608(431): Raise a ‘TypeError’ instead of crashing if a
     ‘collections.deque’ subclass returns a non-deque from ‘__new__’.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31425(432): Add support for sockets of the AF_QIPCRTR address
     family, supported by the Linux kernel.  This is used to communicate
     with services, such as GPS or radio, running on Qualcomm devices.
     Patch by Bjorn Andersson.

   - bpo-22005(433): Implemented unpickling instances of *note datetime:
     6e7, *note date: 48d. and *note time: 48e. pickled by Python 2.
     ‘encoding='latin1'’ should be used for successful decoding.

   - bpo-27645(434): *note sqlite3.Connection: 3df. now exposes a *note
     backup: f39. method, if the underlying SQLite library is at version
     3.6.11 or higher.  Patch by Lele Gaifax.

   - bpo-16865(435): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 2d.  Patch
     by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-31508(436): Removed support of arguments in
     ‘tkinter.ttk.Treeview.selection’.  It was deprecated in 3.6.  Use
     specialized methods like ‘selection_set’ for changing the
     selection.

   - bpo-29456(437): Fix bugs in hangul normalization: u1176, u11a7 and
     u11c3

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35845

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35864

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35847

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35813

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35780

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23846

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34323

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35674

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35733

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35726

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<56>,  Next: Tests<58>,  Prev: Library<167>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.26.61.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-21257(1): Document *note http.client.parse_headers(): 2015.

   - bpo-34764(2): Improve example of iter() with 2nd sentinel argument.

   - bpo-35564(3): Explicitly set master_doc variable in conf.py for
     compliance with Sphinx 2.0

   - bpo-35511(4): Specified that profile.Profile class doesn’t not
     support enable or disable methods.  Also, elaborated that Profile
     object as a context manager is only supported in cProfile module.

   - bpo-10536(5): Enhance the gettext docs.  Patch by Éric Araujo

   - bpo-35089(6): Remove mention of ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’.  Their
     types should be imported from ‘typing’ directly.

   - bpo-35038(7): Fix the documentation about an unexisting
     ‘f_restricted’ attribute in the frame object.  Patch by Stéphane
     Wirtel

   - bpo-35042(8): Replace PEP XYZ by the pep role and allow to use the
     direct links to the PEPs.

   - bpo-35044(9): Fix the documentation with the role ‘exc’ for the
     appropriated exception.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-35035(10): Rename documentation for *note email.utils: 53. to
     ‘email.utils.rst’.

   - bpo-34967(11): Use app.add_object_type() instead of the deprecated
     Sphinx function app.description_unit()

   - bpo-34913(12): Add documentation about the new command line
     interface of the gzip module.

   - bpo-32174(13): chm document displays non-ASCII characters properly
     on some MBCS Windows systems.

   - bpo-11233(14): Create availability directive for documentation.
     Original patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-34790(15): Document how passing coroutines to asyncio.wait()
     can be confusing.

   - bpo-34552(16): Make clear that ‘==’ operator sometimes is
     equivalent to ‘is’.  The ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ and ‘>=’ operators are only
     defined where they make sense.

   - bpo-28617(17): Fixed info in the stdtypes docs concerning the types
     that support membership tests.

   - bpo-20177(18): Migrate datetime.date.fromtimestamp to Argument
     Clinic.  Patch by Tim Hoffmann.

   - bpo-34065(19): Fix wrongly written basicConfig documentation markup
     syntax

   - bpo-33460(20): replaced ellipsis with correct error codes in
     tutorial chapter 3.

   - bpo-33847(21): Add “@” operator entry to index.

   - bpo-33409(22): Clarified the relationship between PEP 538(23)’s
     PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE and PEP 540’s PYTHONUTF8 mode.

   - bpo-33197(24): Add versionadded tag to the documentation of
     ParameterKind.description

   - bpo-17045(25): Improve the C-API doc for PyTypeObject.  This
     includes adding several quick-reference tables and a lot of missing
     slot/typedef entries.  The existing entries were also cleaned up
     with a slightly more consistent format.

   - bpo-33736(26): Improve the documentation of *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): edc, *note asyncio.start_server(): edd.
     and their UNIX socket counterparts.

   - bpo-23859(27): Document that ‘asyncio.wait()’ does not cancel its
     futures on timeout.

   - bpo-32436(28): Document PEP 567(29) changes to asyncio.

   - bpo-33604(30): Update HMAC md5 default to a DeprecationWarning,
     bump removal to 3.8.

   - bpo-33594(31): Document ‘getargspec’, ‘from_function’ and
     ‘from_builtin’ as deprecated in their respective docstring, and
     include version since deprecation in DeprecationWarning message.

   - bpo-33503(32): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(33): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   - bpo-33487(34): BZ2file now emit a DeprecationWarning when
     buffering=None is passed, the deprecation message and documentation
     also now explicitly state it is deprecated since 3.0.

   - bpo-33378(35): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(36): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(37): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(38): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’
     document.  ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python
     3.3, but it is missed in the document.

   - bpo-33126(39): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(40): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(41): Update *note zipapp: 139. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(42): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(43): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   - bpo-28124(44): The ssl module function ssl.wrap_socket() has been
     de-emphasized and deprecated in favor of the more secure and
     efficient SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.

   - bpo-17232(45): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32436(46): Add documentation for the contextvars module (PEP
     567).

   - bpo-32800(47): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-11015(48): Update *note test.support: ed. documentation.

   - bpo-32613(49): Update the faq/windows.html to use the py command
     from PEP 397 instead of python.

   - bpo-8722(50): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 1a9.

   - bpo-32614(51): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-20709(52): Remove the paragraph where we explain that
     os.utime() does not support a directory as path under Windows.
     Patch by Jan-Philip Gehrcke

   - bpo-32722(53): Remove the bad example in the tutorial of the
     Generator Expression.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31972(54): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’
     subclasses.

   - bpo-30607(55): Use the externalized ‘python-docs-theme’ package
     when building the documentation.

   - bpo-8243(56): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-32337(57): Update documentation related with ‘dict’ order.

   - bpo-25041(58): Document ‘AF_PACKET’ in the *note socket: d4.
     module.

   - bpo-31432(59): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21257

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34764

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35564

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35511

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10536

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35089

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35038

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35042

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35044

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35035

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34967

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34913

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32174

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11233

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34552

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28617

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20177

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34065

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33460

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33847

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33409

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17045

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33736

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23859

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33594

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33487

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11015

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32613

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20709

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32722

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30607

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32337

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25041

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<58>,  Next: Build<61>,  Prev: Documentation<56>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.26.61.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-35772(1): Fix sparse file tests of test_tarfile on ppc64 with
     the tmpfs filesystem.  Fix the function testing if the filesystem
     supports sparse files: create a file which contains data and
     «holes», instead of creating a file which contains no data.  tmpfs
     effective block size is a page size (tmpfs lives in the page
     cache).  RHEL uses 64 KiB pages on aarch64, ppc64, ppc64le, only
     s390x and x86_64 use 4 KiB pages, whereas the test punch holes of 4
     KiB.

   - bpo-35045(2): Make ssl tests less strict and also accept TLSv1 as
     system default.  The changes unbreaks test_min_max_version on
     Fedora 29.

   - bpo-32710(3): ‘test_asyncio/test_sendfile.py’ now resets the event
     loop policy using ‘tearDownModule()’ as done in other tests, to
     prevent a warning when running tests on Windows.

   - bpo-33717(4): test.pythoninfo now logs information of all clocks,
     not only time.time() and time.perf_counter().

   - bpo-35488(5): Add a test to pathlib’s Path.match() to verify it
     does not support glob-style ** recursive pattern matching.

   - bpo-31731(6): Fix a race condition in ‘check_interrupted_write()’
     of test_io: create directly the thread with SIGALRM signal blocked,
     rather than blocking the signal later from the thread.  Previously,
     it was possible that the thread gets the signal before the signal
     is blocked.

   - bpo-35424(7): Fix test_multiprocessing_main_handling: use
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool’ with a context manager and then explicitly
     join the pool.

   - bpo-35519(8): Rename ‘test.bisect’ module to ‘test.bisect_cmd’ to
     avoid conflict with *note bisect: 12. module when running directly
     a test like ‘./python Lib/test/test_xmlrpc.py’.

   - bpo-35513(9): Replace *note time.time(): 75e. with *note
     time.monotonic(): 75d. in tests to measure time delta.

   - bpo-34279(10): ‘test.support.run_unittest()’ no longer raise
     ‘TestDidNotRun’ if the test result contains skipped tests.  The
     exception is now only raised if no test have been run and no test
     have been skipped.

   - bpo-35412(11): Add testcase to ‘test_future4’: check unicode
     literal.

   - bpo-26704(12): Added test demonstrating double-patching of an
     instance method.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-33725(13): test_multiprocessing_fork may crash on recent
     versions of macOS. Until the issue is resolved, skip the test on
     macOS.

   - bpo-35352(14): Modify test_asyncio to use the certificate set from
     the test directory.

   - bpo-35317(15): Fix ‘mktime()’ overflow error in ‘test_email’: run
     ‘test_localtime_daylight_true_dst_true()’ and
     ‘test_localtime_daylight_false_dst_true()’ with a specific
     timezone.

   - bpo-21263(16): After several reports that test_gdb does not work
     properly on macOS and since gdb is not shipped by default anymore,
     test_gdb is now skipped on macOS when LLVM Clang has been used to
     compile Python.  Patch by Lysandros Nikolaou

   - bpo-34279(17): regrtest issue a warning when no tests have been
     executed in a particular test file.  Also, a new final result state
     is issued if no test have been executed across all test files.
     Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-34962(18): make docstest in Doc now passes., and is enforced in
     CI

   - bpo-23596(19): Use argparse for the command line of the gzip
     module.  Patch by Antony Lee

   - bpo-34537(20): Fix ‘test_gdb.test_strings()’ when ‘LC_ALL=C’ and
     GDB was compiled with Python 3.6 or earlier.

   - bpo-34587(21): test_socket: Remove RDSTest.testCongestion().  The
     test tries to fill the receiver’s socket buffer and expects an
     error.  But the RDS protocol doesn’t require that.  Moreover, the
     Linux implementation of RDS expects that the producer of the
     messages reduces its rate, it’s not the role of the receiver to
     trigger an error.  The test fails on Fedora 28 by design, so just
     remove it.

   - bpo-34661(22): Fix test_shutil if unzip doesn’t support -t.

   - bpo-34200(23): Fixed non-deterministic flakiness of test_pkg by not
     using the scary test.support.module_cleanup() logic to save and
     restore sys.modules contents between test cases.

   - bpo-34569(24): The experimental PEP 554 data channels now correctly
     pass negative PyLong objects between subinterpreters on 32-bit
     systems.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-34594(25): Fix usage of hardcoded ‘errno’ values in the tests.

   - bpo-34579(26): Fix test_embed for AIX Patch by Michael Felt

   - bpo-34542(27): Use 3072 RSA keys and SHA-256 signature for test
     certs and keys.

   - bpo-11193(28): Remove special condition for AIX in
     ‘test_subprocess.test_undecodable_env’

   - bpo-34347(29): Fix ‘test_utf8_mode.test_cmd_line’ for AIX

   - bpo-34490(30): On AIX with AF_UNIX family sockets getsockname()
     does not provide “sockname”, so skip calls to
     transport.get_extra_info(“sockname”)

   - bpo-34391(31): Fix ftplib test for TLS 1.3 by reading from data
     socket.

   - bpo-11192(32): Fix ‘test_socket’ on AIX 6.1 and later IPv6 zone id
     supports only supported by ‘inet_pton6_zone()’.  Switch to
     runtime-based ‘platform.system()’ to establish current platform
     rather than build-time based ‘sys.platform()’

   - bpo-34399(33): Update all RSA keys and DH params to use at least
     2048 bits.

   - bpo-34373(34): Fix ‘test_mktime’ and ‘test_pthread_getcpuclickid’
     tests for AIX Add range checking for ‘_PyTime_localtime’ for AIX
     Patch by Michael Felt

   - bpo-11191(35): Skip the distutils test “test_search_cpp” when using
     XLC as compiler patch by aixtools (Michael Felt)

   - Improved an error message when mock assert_has_calls fails.

   - bpo-33746(36): Fix test_unittest when run in verbose mode.

   - bpo-33901(37): Fix test_dbm_gnu on macOS with gdbm 1.15: add a
     larger value to make sure that the file size changes.

   - bpo-33873(38): Fix a bug in ‘regrtest’ that caused an extra test to
     run if –huntrleaks/-R was used.  Exit with error in case that
     invalid parameters are specified to –huntrleaks/-R (at least one
     warmup run and one repetition must be used).

   - bpo-33562(39): Check that a global asyncio event loop policy is not
     left behind by any tests.

   - bpo-33655(40): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD
     platforms that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-32962(41): Fixed test_gdb when Python is compiled with flags
     -mcet -fcf-protection -O0.

   - bpo-33358(42): Fix
     ‘test_embed.test_pre_initialization_sys_options()’ when the
     interpreter is built with ‘--enable-shared’.

   - bpo-32872(43): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   - bpo-32517(44): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-32663(45): Making sure the ‘SMTPUTF8SimTests’ class of tests
     gets run in ‘test_smtplib.py’.

   - bpo-27643(46): Test_C test case needs «signed short» bitfields, but
     the IBM XLC compiler (on AIX) does not support this Skip the code
     and test when AIX and XLC are used

     Applicable to Python2-2.7 and later

   - bpo-19417(47): Add test_bdb.py.

   - bpo-31809(48): Add tests to verify connection with secp ECDH
     curves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35772

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35045

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32710

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33717

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35488

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31731

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35424

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35519

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35513

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34279

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35412

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26704

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35352

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35317

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21263

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34279

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34962

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23596

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34537

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34587

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34661

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34200

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34569

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34594

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34579

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34542

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11193

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34347

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34490

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34391

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11192

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34399

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34373

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11191

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33746

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33901

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33873

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33562

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33358

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32663

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27643

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31809


File: python.info,  Node: Build<61>,  Next: Windows<54>,  Prev: Tests<58>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.26.61.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-34691(1): The _contextvars module is now built into the core
     Python library on Windows.

   - bpo-35683(2): Improved Azure Pipelines build steps and now
     verifying layouts correctly

   - bpo-35642(3): Remove asynciomodule.c from pythoncore.vcxproj

   - bpo-35550(4): Fix incorrect Solaris #ifdef checks to look for __sun
     && __SVR4 instead of sun when compiling.

   - bpo-35499(5): ‘make profile-opt’ no longer replaces ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     with ‘CFLAGS’.  It now adds profile-guided optimization (PGO) flags
     to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’: existing ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’ flags are kept.

   - bpo-35257(6): Avoid leaking the linker flags from Link Time
     Optimizations (LTO) into distutils when compiling C extensions.

   - bpo-35351(7): When building Python with clang and LTO, LTO flags
     are no longer passed into CFLAGS to build third-party C extensions
     through distutils.

   - bpo-35139(8): Fix a compiler error when statically linking
     ‘pyexpat’ in ‘Modules/Setup’.

   - bpo-35059(9): PCbuild: Set InlineFunctionExpansion to
     OnlyExplicitInline («/Ob1» option) in pyproject.props in Debug mode
     to expand functions marked as inline.  This change should make
     Python compiled in Debug mode a little bit faster on Windows.

   - bpo-35011(10): Restores the use of pyexpatns.h to isolate our
     embedded copy of the expat C library so that its symbols do not
     conflict at link or dynamic loading time with an embedding
     application or other extension modules with their own version of
     libexpat.

   - bpo-28015(11): Have –with-lto works correctly with clang.

   - bpo-34765(12): Update the outdated install-sh file to the latest
     revision from automake v1.16.1

   - bpo-34585(13): Check for floating-point byte order in configure.ac
     using compilation tests instead of executing code, so that these
     checks work in cross-compiled builds.

   - bpo-34710(14): Fixed SSL module build with OpenSSL & pedantic
     CFLAGS.

   - bpo-34582(15): Add JUnit XML output for regression tests and update
     Azure DevOps builds.

   - bpo-34081(16): Make Sphinx warnings as errors in the Docs Makefile.

   - bpo-34555(17): Fix for case where it was not possible to have both
     ‘HAVE_LINUX_VM_SOCKETS_H’ and ‘HAVE_SOCKADDR_ALG’ be undefined.

   - bpo-33015(18): Fix an undefined behaviour in the pthread
     implementation of *note PyThread_start_new_thread(): 2018.: add a
     function wrapper to always return ‘NULL’.

   - bpo-34245(19): The Python shared library is now installed with
     write permission (mode 0755), which is the standard way of
     installing such libraries.

   - bpo-34121(20): Fix detection of C11 atomic support on clang.

   - bpo-32430(21): Rename Modules/Setup.dist to Modules/Setup, and
     remove the necessity to copy the former manually to the latter when
     updating the local source tree.

   - bpo-30345(22): Add -g to LDFLAGS when compiling with LTO to get
     debug symbols.

   - bpo-5755(23): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   - bpo-33614(24): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI
     on Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33648(25): The –with-c-locale-warning configuration flag has
     been removed.  It has had no effect for about a year.

   - bpo-33522(26): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33512(27): configure’s check for «long double» has been
     simplified

   - bpo-33483(28): C compiler is now correctly detected from the
     standard environment variables.  –without-gcc and –with-icc options
     have been removed.

   - bpo-33394(29): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   - bpo-33393(30): Update config.guess and config.sub files.

   - bpo-33377(31): Add new triplets for mips r6 and riscv variants
     (used in extension suffixes).

   - bpo-32232(32): By default, modules configured in ‘Modules/Setup’
     are no longer built with ‘-DPy_BUILD_CORE’.  Instead, modules that
     specifically need that preprocessor definition include it in their
     individual entries.

   - bpo-33182(33): The embedding tests can once again be built with
     clang 6.0

   - bpo-33163(34): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   - bpo-33012(35): gcc 8 has added a new warning heuristic to detect
     invalid function casts and a stock python build seems to hit that
     warning quite often.  The most common is the cast of a METH_NOARGS
     function (that uses just one argument) to a PyCFunction.  Fix this
     by adding a dummy argument to all functions that implement
     METH_NOARGS.

   - bpo-32898(36): Fix the python debug build when using COUNT_ALLOCS.

   - bpo-29442(37): Replace optparse with argparse in setup.py

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34691

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35642

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35550

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35499

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35257

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35351

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35139

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35011

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28015

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34765

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34585

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34710

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34582

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34081

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34555

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33015

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34245

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34121

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32430

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30345

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33648

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33512

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33483

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33377

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32232

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33182

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32898

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29442


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<54>,  Next: macOS<43>,  Prev: Build<61>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.26.61.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-35890(1): Fix API calling consistency of GetVersionEx and
     wcstok.

   - bpo-32560(2): The ‘py’ launcher now forwards its ‘STARTUPINFO’
     structure to child processes.

   - bpo-35854(3): Fix EnvBuilder and –symlinks in venv on Windows

   - bpo-35811(4): Avoid propagating venv settings when launching via
     py.exe

   - bpo-35797(5): Fix default executable used by the multiprocessing
     module

   - bpo-35758(6): Allow building on ARM with MSVC.

   - bpo-29734(7): Fix handle leaks in os.stat on Windows.

   - bpo-35596(8): Use unchecked PYCs for the embeddable distro to avoid
     zipimport restrictions.

   - bpo-35596(9): Fix vcruntime140.dll being added to embeddable distro
     multiple times.

   - bpo-35402(10): Update Windows build to use Tcl and Tk 8.6.9

   - bpo-35401(11): Updates Windows build to OpenSSL 1.1.0j

   - bpo-34977(12): venv on Windows will now use a python.exe redirector
     rather than copying the actual binaries from the base environment.

   - bpo-34977(13): Adds support for building a Windows App Store
     package

   - bpo-35067(14): Remove _distutils_findvs module and use vswhere.exe
     instead.

   - bpo-32557(15): Allow shutil.disk_usage to take a file path on
     Windows

   - bpo-34770(16): Fix a possible null pointer dereference in
     pyshellext.cpp.

   - bpo-34603(17): Fix returning structs from functions produced by
     MSVC

   - bpo-34581(18): Guard MSVC-specific code in socketmodule.c with
     ‘#ifdef _MSC_VER’.

   - bpo-34532(19): Fixes exit code of list version arguments for
     py.exe.

   - bpo-34062(20): Fixed the “–list” and “–list-paths” arguments for
     the py.exe launcher

   - bpo-34225(21): Ensure INCLUDE and LIB directories do not end with a
     backslash.

   - bpo-34011(22): A suite of code has been changed which copied across
     DLLs and init.tcl from the running Python location into a venv
     being created.  These copies are needed only when running from a
     Python source build, and the copying code is now only run when that
     is the case, rather than whenever a venv is created.

   - bpo-34006(23): Revert line length limit for Windows help docs.  The
     line-length limit is not needed because the pages appear in a
     separate app rather than on a browser tab.  It can also interact
     badly with the DPI setting.

   - bpo-31546(24): Restore running PyOS_InputHook while waiting for
     user input at the prompt.  The restores integration of interactive
     GUI windows (such as Matplotlib figures) with the prompt on
     Windows.

   - bpo-30237(25): Output error when ReadConsole is canceled by
     CancelSynchronousIo instead of crashing.

   - bpo-33895(26): GIL is released while calling functions that acquire
     Windows loader lock.

   - bpo-33720(27): Reduces maximum marshal recursion depth on release
     builds.

   - bpo-29097(28): Fix bug where ‘datetime.fromtimestamp()’ erroneously
     throws an *note OSError: 53c. on Windows for values between 0 and
     86400.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-33316(29): PyThread_release_lock always fails

   - bpo-33184(30): Update Windows installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   - bpo-32890(31): Fix usage of GetLastError() instead of errno in
     os.execve() and os.truncate().

   - bpo-33016(32): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(33): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   - bpo-32901(34): Update Tcl and Tk versions to 8.6.8

   - bpo-31966(35): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(36): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(37): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(38): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(39): Fix *note os.readlink(): ced. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   - bpo-1104(40): Correctly handle string length in
     ‘msilib.SummaryInfo.GetProperty()’ to prevent it from truncating
     the last character.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35890

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32560

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35854

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35811

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35797

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35758

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29734

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35596

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35596

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35402

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35401

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34977

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34977

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35067

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32557

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34770

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34603

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34581

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34532

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34062

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34225

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34011

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34006

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31546

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30237

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33895

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29097

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33316

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32890

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1104


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<43>,  Next: IDLE<38>,  Prev: Windows<54>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.26.61.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-35401(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0j.

   - bpo-35025(2): Properly guard the use of the ‘CLOCK_GETTIME’ et al.
     macros in ‘timemodule’ on macOS.

   - bpo-24658(3): On macOS, fix reading from and writing into a file
     with a size larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-34405(4): Update to OpenSSL 1.1.0i for macOS installer builds.

   - bpo-33635(5): In macOS stat on some file descriptors (/dev/fd/3
     f.e) will result in bad file descriptor OSError.  Guard against
     this exception was added in is_dir, is_file and similar methods.
     DirEntry.is_dir can also throw this exception so
     _RecursiveWildcardSelector._iterate_directories was also extended
     with the same error ignoring pattern.

   - bpo-13631(6): The .editrc file in user’s home directory is now
     processed correctly during the readline initialization through
     editline emulation on macOS.

   - bpo-33184(7): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   - bpo-32726(8): Build and link with private copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6 for
     the macOS 10.6+ installer.  The 10.9+ installer variant already
     does this.  This means that the Python 3.7 provided by the
     python.org macOS installers no longer need or use any external
     versions of Tcl/Tk, either system-provided or user-installed, such
     as ActiveTcl.

   - bpo-32901(9): Update macOS 10.9+ installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   - bpo-31903(10): In ‘_scproxy’, drop the GIL when calling into
     ‘SystemConfiguration’ to avoid deadlocks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35401

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35025

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24658

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34405

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33635

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13631

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31903


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<38>,  Next: Tools/Demos<35>,  Prev: macOS<43>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.26.61.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-35770(1): IDLE macosx deletes Options => Configure IDLE. It
     previously deleted Window => Zoom Height by mistake.  (Zoom Height
     is now on the Options menu).  On Mac, the settings dialog is
     accessed via Preferences on the IDLE menu.

   - bpo-35769(2): Change IDLE’s new file name from “Untitled” to
     “untitled”

   - bpo-35660(3): Fix imports in idlelib.window.

   - bpo-35641(4): Proper format ‘calltip’ when the function has no
     docstring.

   - bpo-33987(5): Use ttk Frame for ttk widgets.

   - bpo-34055(6): Fix erroneous “smart” indents and newlines in IDLE
     Shell.

   - bpo-35591(7): Find Selection now works when selection not found.

   - bpo-35196(8): Speed up squeezer line counting.

   - bpo-35598(9): Update config_key: use PEP 8 names and ttk widgets,
     make some objects global, and add tests.

   - bpo-28097(10): Add Previous/Next History entries to Shell menu.

   - bpo-35208(11): Squeezer now properly counts wrapped lines before
     newlines.

   - bpo-35555(12): Gray out Code Context menu entry when it’s not
     applicable.

   - bpo-35521(13): Document the IDLE editor code context feature.  Add
     some internal references within the IDLE doc.

   - bpo-22703(14): The Code Context menu label now toggles between
     Show/Hide Code Context.  The Zoom Height menu now toggles between
     Zoom/Restore Height.  Zoom Height has moved from the Window menu to
     the Options menu.

   - bpo-35213(15): Where appropriate, use “macOS” in idlelib.

   - bpo-34864(16): On macOS, warn if the system preference «Prefer tabs
     when opening documents» is set to «Always».

   - bpo-34864(17): Document two IDLE on MacOS issues.  The System
     Preferences Dock «prefer tabs always» setting disables some IDLE
     features.  Menus are a bit different than as described for Windows
     and Linux.

   - bpo-35202(18): Remove unused imports from lib/idlelib

   - bpo-33000(19): Document that IDLE’s shell has no line limit.  A
     program that runs indefinitely can overfill memory.

   - bpo-23220(20): Explain how IDLE’s Shell displays output.

   - bpo-35099(21): Improve the doc about IDLE running user code.  The
     section is renamed from «IDLE – console differences» is renamed
     «Running user code».  It mostly covers the implications of using
     custom ‘sys.stdXXX’ objects.

   - bpo-35097(22): Add IDLE doc subsection explaining editor windows.
     Topics include opening, title and status bar, .py* extension, and
     running.

   - bpo-35093(23): Document the IDLE document viewer in the IDLE doc.
     Add a paragraph in «Help and preferences», «Help sources»
     subsection.

   - bpo-35088(24): Update idlelib.help.copy_string docstring.  We now
     use git and backporting instead of hg and forward merging.

   - bpo-35087(25): Update idlelib help files for the current doc build.
     The main change is the elimination of chapter-section numbers.

   - bpo-34548(26): Use configured color theme for read-only text views.

   - bpo-1529353(27): Enable «squeezing» of long outputs in the shell,
     to avoid performance degradation and to clean up the history
     without losing it.  Squeezed outputs may be copied, viewed in a
     separate window, and «unsqueezed».

   - bpo-34047(28): Fixed mousewheel scrolling direction on macOS.

   - bpo-34275(29): Make IDLE calltips always visible on Mac.  Some
     MacOS-tk combinations need .update_idletasks().  Patch by Kevin
     Walzer.

   - bpo-34120(30): Fix unresponsiveness after closing certain windows
     and dialogs.

   - bpo-33975(31): Avoid small type when running htests.  Since part of
     the purpose of human-viewed tests is to determine that widgets look
     right, it is important that they look the same for testing as when
     running IDLE.

   - bpo-33905(32): Add test for idlelib.stackview.StackBrowser.

   - bpo-33924(33): Change mainmenu.menudefs key “windows” to “window”.
     Every other menudef key is lowercase version of main menu entry.

   - bpo-33906(34): Rename idlelib.windows as window Match Window on the
     main menu and remove last plural module name.

   - bpo-33917(35): Fix and document idlelib/idle_test/template.py.  The
     revised file compiles, runs, and tests OK. idle_test/README.txt
     explains how to use it to create new IDLE test files.

   - bpo-33904(36): IDLE: In rstrip, rename class RstripExtension as
     Rstrip

   - bpo-33907(37): For consistency and clarity, rename an IDLE module
     and classes.  Module calltips and its class CallTips are now
     calltip and Calltip.  In module calltip_w, class CallTip is now
     CalltipWindow.

   - bpo-33856(38): Add «help» in the welcome message of IDLE

   - bpo-33839(39): IDLE: refactor ToolTip and CallTip and add
     documentation and tests

   - bpo-33855(40): Minimally test all IDLE modules.  Add missing files,
     import module, instantiate classes, and check coverage.  Check
     existing files.

   - bpo-33656(41): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(42): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the
     top of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(43): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(44): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(45): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(46): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   - bpo-33628(47): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(48): IDLE’s code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-21474(49): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(50): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     “u” string prefix cannot be paired with either “r” or “f”.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   - bpo-32984(51): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(52): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   - bpo-32916(53): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(54): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(55): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(56): Using the system and place-dependent default
     encoding for open() is a bad idea for IDLE’s system and
     location-independent files.

   - bpo-32826(57): Add «encoding=utf-8» to open() in IDLE’s
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to “ascii” because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32831(58): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   - bpo-32765(59): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35770

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35769

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35660

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33987

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35591

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35196

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28097

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35208

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35555

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35521

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22703

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35213

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34864

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34864

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35202

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33000

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23220

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35099

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35097

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35093

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35088

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35087

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34548

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34047

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34275

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34120

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33975

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33905

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33924

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33906

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33917

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33904

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33907

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33856

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33839

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33855

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<35>,  Next: C API<57>,  Prev: IDLE<38>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.26.61.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-35884(1): Add a benchmark script for timing various ways to
     access variables: ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’.

   - bpo-34989(2): python-gdb.py now handles errors on computing the
     line number of a Python frame.

   - bpo-20260(3): Argument Clinic now has non-bitwise unsigned int
     converters.

   - bpo-32962(4): python-gdb now catches ‘UnicodeDecodeError’
     exceptions when calling ‘string()’.

   - bpo-32962(5): python-gdb now catches ValueError on read_var(): when
     Python has no debug symbols for example.

   - bpo-33189(6): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(7): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(8): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-25427(9): Remove the pyvenv script in favor of ‘python3 -m
     venv’ in order to lower confusion as to what Python interpreter a
     virtual environment will be created for.

   - bpo-32885(10): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   - bpo-32222(11): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for
     functions with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   - bpo-31583(12): Fix 2to3 for using with –add-suffix option but
     without –output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35884

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34989

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20260

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32962

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: C API<57>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<35>,  Up: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1

1.26.61.11 C API
................

   - bpo-35713(1): The ‘PyByteArray_Init()’ and ‘PyByteArray_Fini()’
     functions have been removed.  They did nothing since Python 2.7.4
     and Python 3.2.0, were excluded from the limited API (stable ABI),
     and were not documented.

   - bpo-33817(2): Fixed *note _PyBytes_Resize(): 3b3. for empty bytes
     objects.

   - bpo-35322(3): Fix memory leak in *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale():
     f88. and *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 201e. on error
     handling.

   - bpo-35059(4): The following C macros have been converted to static
     inline functions: *note Py_INCREF(): 974, *note Py_DECREF(): 975,
     *note Py_XINCREF(): e29, *note Py_XDECREF(): b6e, *note
     PyObject_INIT(): 1f32, *note PyObject_INIT_VAR(): 1f33.

   - bpo-35296(5): ‘make install’ now also installs the internal API:
     ‘Include/internal/*.h’ header files.

   - bpo-35081(6): Internal APIs surrounded by ‘#ifdef Py_BUILD_CORE’
     have been moved from ‘Include/*.h’ headers to new header files
     ‘Include/internal/pycore_*.h’.

   - bpo-35259(7): Conditionally declare *note Py_FinalizeEx(): 10cf.
     (new in 3.6) based on Py_LIMITED_API. Patch by Arthur Neufeld.

   - bpo-35081(8): The ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’ and
     ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’ macros have been removed from the public C
     API.

   - bpo-35134(9): Creation of a new ‘Include/cpython/’ subdirectory.

   - bpo-34725(10): Adds _Py_SetProgramFullPath so embedders may
     override sys.executable

   - bpo-34910(11): Ensure that *note PyObject_Print(): 18fe. always
     returns ‘-1’ on error.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-34523(12): Py_DecodeLocale() and Py_EncodeLocale() now use the
     UTF-8 encoding on Windows if Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag is
     zero.

   - bpo-34193(13): Fix pluralization in TypeError messages in getargs.c
     and typeobject.c: “1 argument” instead of “1 arguments” and “1
     element” instead of “1 elements”.

   - bpo-34127(14): Return grammatically correct error message based on
     argument count.  Patch by Karthikeyan Singaravelan.

   - bpo-23927(15): Fixed *note SystemError: 3ea. in *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818. when the ‘w*’ format unit is
     used for optional parameter.

   - bpo-32455(16): Added *note PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffectWithJump():
     201f.

   - bpo-34008(17): Py_Main() can again be called after Py_Initialize(),
     as in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-32500(18): Fixed error messages for *note PySequence_Size():
     2020, *note PySequence_GetItem(): 2021, *note PySequence_SetItem():
     2022. and *note PySequence_DelItem(): 2023. called with a mapping
     and *note PyMapping_Size(): 2024. called with a sequence.

   - bpo-33818(19): *note PyExceptionClass_Name(): e2a. will now return
     ‘const char *’ instead of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-33042(20): Embedding applications may once again call
     PySys_ResetWarnOptions, PySys_AddWarnOption, and PySys_AddXOption
     prior to calling Py_Initialize.

   - bpo-32374(21): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   - bpo-30863(22): *note PyUnicode_AsWideChar(): 2025. and *note
     PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): c8f. no longer cache the ‘wchar_t*’
     representation of string objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33817

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35322

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35296

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35259

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34725

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34910

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34523

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34193

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34127

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23927

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32455

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34008

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32500

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33818

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33042

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30863


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 final,  Next: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.62 Python 3.7.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-27'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<168>.
* C API: C API<58>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<168>,  Next: C API<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 final

1.26.62.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-33851(1): Fix *note ast.get_docstring(): 2028. for a node that
     lacks a docstring.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33851


File: python.info,  Node: C API<58>,  Prev: Library<168>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 final

1.26.62.2 C API
...............

   - bpo-33932(1): Calling Py_Initialize() twice does nothing, instead
     of failing with a fatal error: restore the Python 3.6 behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33932


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.63 Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-12'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<167>.
* Library: Library<169>.
* Documentation: Documentation<57>.
* Build: Build<62>.
* Windows: Windows<55>.
* IDLE: IDLE<39>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<167>,  Next: Library<169>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.26.63.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33803(1): Fix a crash in hamt.c caused by enabling GC tracking
     for an object that hadn’t all of its fields set to NULL.

   - bpo-33706(2): Fix a crash in Python initialization when parsing the
     command line options.  Thanks Christoph Gohlke for the bug report
     and the fix!

   - bpo-30654(3): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-31849(4): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33803

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33706

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849


File: python.info,  Node: Library<169>,  Next: Documentation<57>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<167>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.26.63.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30167(1): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33812(2): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-30805(3): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33694(4): asyncio: Fix a race condition causing data loss on
     pause_reading()/resume_reading() when using the ProactorEventLoop.

   - bpo-32493(5): Correct test for ‘uuid_enc_be’ availability in
     ‘configure.ac’.  Patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-33792(6): Add asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy and
     asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy.

   - bpo-33778(7): Update ‘unicodedata’’s database to Unicode version
     11.0.0.

   - bpo-33770(8): improve base64 exception message for encoded inputs
     of invalid length

   - bpo-33769(9): asyncio/start_tls: Fix error message; cancel
     callbacks in case of an unhandled error; mark SSLTransport as
     closed if it is aborted.

   - bpo-33767(10): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’)
     sequence operations now raise *note TypeError: 291. instead of
     *note SystemError: 3ea. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 23c.
     objects.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-33734(11): asyncio/ssl: Fix AttributeError, increase default
     handshake timeout

   - bpo-11874(12): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-33582(13): Emit a deprecation warning for inspect.formatargspec

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30805

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33694

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33778

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33770

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33769

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33767

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33734

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11874

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33582


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<57>,  Next: Build<62>,  Prev: Library<169>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.26.63.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33409(1): Clarified the relationship between PEP 538(2)’s
     PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE and PEP 540’s PYTHONUTF8 mode.

   - bpo-33736(3): Improve the documentation of *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): edc, *note asyncio.start_server(): edd.
     and their UNIX socket counterparts.

   - bpo-31432(4): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33409

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33736

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Build<62>,  Next: Windows<55>,  Prev: Documentation<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.26.63.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-5755(1): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<55>,  Next: IDLE<39>,  Prev: Build<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.26.63.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33720(1): Reduces maximum marshal recursion depth on release
     builds.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<39>,  Prev: Windows<55>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1

1.26.63.6 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33656(1): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(2): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top
     of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(3): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(4): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(5): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(6): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.64 Python 3.7.0 beta 5
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-05-30'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<168>.
* Library: Library<170>.
* Documentation: Documentation<58>.
* Tests: Tests<59>.
* Build: Build<63>.
* macOS: macOS<44>.
* IDLE: IDLE<40>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<168>,  Next: Library<170>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.26.64.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33622(1): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add
     an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into the
     *note gc.garbage: 156a. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): d56. can now
     be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-33509(2): Fix module_globals parameter of
     warnings.warn_explicit(): don’t crash if module_globals is not a
     dict.

   - bpo-20104(3): The new ‘os.posix_spawn’ added in 3.7.0b1 was removed
     as we are still working on what the API should look like.  Expect
     this in 3.8 instead.

   - bpo-33475(4): Fixed miscellaneous bugs in converting annotations to
     strings and optimized parentheses in the string representation.

   - bpo-33391(5): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-28055(6): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by Rolf
     Eike Beer.

   - bpo-32911(7): Due to unexpected compatibility issues discovered
     during downstream beta testing, reverted bpo-29463(8).  ‘docstring’
     field is removed from Module, ClassDef, FunctionDef, and
     AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes which was added in 3.7a1.  Docstring
     expression is restored as a first statement in their body.  Based
     on patch by Inada Naoki.

   - bpo-21983(9): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33509

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33475

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33391

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32911

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29463

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21983


File: python.info,  Node: Library<170>,  Next: Documentation<58>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<168>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.26.64.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-32751(1): When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note
     asyncio.wait_for(): 9f6. will now wait until the cancellation is
     complete.

   - bpo-32684(2): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33654(3): Support protocol type switching in
     SSLTransport.set_protocol().

   - bpo-33674(4): Pause the transport as early as possible to further
     reduce the risk of data_received() being called before
     connection_made().

   - bpo-33674(5): Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made()
     of asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of
     using call_soon().  Previously, data_received() could be called
     before the handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or
     fail.

   - bpo-31647(6): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it’s already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-32610(7): Make asyncio.all_tasks() return only pending tasks.

   - bpo-32410(8): Avoid blocking on file IO in sendfile fallback code

   - bpo-33469(9): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-33672(10): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython’s bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33654(11): Fix transport.set_protocol() to support switching
     between asyncio.Protocol and asyncio.BufferedProtocol.  Fix
     loop.start_tls() to work with asyncio.BufferedProtocols.

   - bpo-33652(12): Pickles of type variables and subscripted generics
     are now future-proof and compatible with older Python versions.

   - bpo-32493(13): Fixed *note uuid.uuid1(): f67. on FreeBSD.

   - bpo-33618(14): Finalize and document preliminary and experimental
     TLS 1.3 support with OpenSSL 1.1.1

   - bpo-33623(15): Fix possible SIGSGV when asyncio.Future is created
     in __del__

   - bpo-30877(16): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON
     decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing
     after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33570(17): Change TLS 1.3 cipher suite settings for
     compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1-pre6 and newer.  OpenSSL 1.1.1
     will have TLS 1.3 ciphers enabled by default.

   - bpo-28556(18): Do not simplify arguments to ‘typing.Union’.  Now
     ‘Union[Manager, Employee]’ is not simplified to ‘Employee’ at
     runtime.  Such simplification previously caused several bugs and
     limited possibilities for introspection.

   - bpo-33540(19): Add a new ‘block_on_close’ class attribute to
     ‘ForkingMixIn’ and ‘ThreadingMixIn’ classes of *note socketserver:
     d5.

   - bpo-33548(20): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33109(21): argparse subparsers are once again not required by
     default, reverting the change in behavior introduced by
     bpo-26510(22) in 3.7.0a2.

   - bpo-33536(23): dataclasses.make_dataclass now checks for invalid
     field names and duplicate fields.  Also, added a check for invalid
     field specifications.

   - bpo-33542(24): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead of
     a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(25): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - Fix failure in ‘typing.get_type_hints()’ when ClassVar was provided
     as a string forward reference.

   - bpo-33505(26): Optimize asyncio.ensure_future() by reordering if
     checks: 1.17x faster.

   - bpo-33497(27): Add errors param to cgi.parse_multipart and make an
     encoding in FieldStorage use the given errors (needed for Twisted).
     Patch by Amber Brown.

   - bpo-33495(28): Change dataclasses.Fields repr to use the repr of
     each of its members, instead of str.  This makes it more clear what
     each field actually represents.  This is especially true for the
     “type” member.

   - bpo-33453(29): Fix dataclasses to work if using literal string type
     annotations or if using PEP 563 «Postponed Evaluation of
     Annotations».  Only specific string prefixes are detected for both
     ClassVar («ClassVar» and «typing.ClassVar») and InitVar («InitVar»
     and «dataclasses.InitVar»).

   - bpo-28556(30): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-20087(31): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(32): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-28167(33): The function ‘platform.linux_distribution’ and
     ‘platform.dist’ now trigger a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and have been
     marked for removal in Python 3.8

   - bpo-33197(34): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33263(35): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-32861(36): The urllib.robotparser’s ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the «Crawl-delay» and
     «Request-rate» fields.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-32257(37): The ssl module now contains OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION
     constant, available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h or 1.1.1.

   - bpo-16865(38): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 2d.  Patch by
     Segev Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32684

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31647

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32610

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33672

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33654

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33652

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33623

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30877

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33570

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33548

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33109

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33536

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33542

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26819

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33505

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33497

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33495

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33453

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20087

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33422

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28167

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33263

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32861

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32257

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16865


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<58>,  Next: Tests<59>,  Prev: Library<170>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.26.64.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-23859(1): Document that ‘asyncio.wait()’ does not cancel its
     futures on timeout.

   - bpo-32436(2): Document PEP 567(3) changes to asyncio.

   - bpo-33604(4): Update HMAC md5 default to a DeprecationWarning, bump
     removal to 3.8.

   - bpo-33503(5): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(6): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23859

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33604

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<59>,  Next: Build<63>,  Prev: Documentation<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.26.64.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33655(1): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms
     that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-32604(2): Remove the _xxsubinterpreters module (meant for
     testing) and associated helpers.  This module was originally added
     recently in 3.7b1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604


File: python.info,  Node: Build<63>,  Next: macOS<44>,  Prev: Tests<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.26.64.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-33614(1): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on
     Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33522(2): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33012(3): Add ‘-Wno-cast-function-type’ for gcc 8 for silencing
     warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method
     definition lists.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<44>,  Next: IDLE<40>,  Prev: Build<63>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.26.64.6 macOS
...............

   - bpo-13631(1): The .editrc file in user’s home directory is now
     processed correctly during the readline initialization through
     editline emulation on macOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13631


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<40>,  Prev: macOS<44>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 5

1.26.64.7 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33628(1): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(2): IDLE’s code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-32831(3): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 5,  Up: Changelog

1.26.65 Python 3.7.0 beta 4
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-05-02'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<169>.
* Library: Library<171>.
* Documentation: Documentation<59>.
* Tests: Tests<60>.
* Build: Build<64>.
* Windows: Windows<56>.
* macOS: macOS<45>.
* IDLE: IDLE<41>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<36>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<169>,  Next: Library<171>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.26.65.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33363(1): Raise a SyntaxError for ‘async with’ and ‘async for’
     statements outside of async functions.

   - bpo-33128(2): Fix a bug that causes PathFinder to appear twice on
     sys.meta_path.  Patch by Pablo Galindo Salgado.

   - bpo-33312(3): Fixed clang ubsan (undefined behavior sanitizer)
     warnings in dictobject.c by adjusting how the internal struct
     _dictkeysobject shared keys structure is declared.

   - bpo-33231(4): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-33205(5): Change dict growth function from
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*2+hashtable_size/2)’ to
     ‘round_up_to_power_2(used*3)’.  Previously, dict is shrunk only
     when ‘used == 0’.  Now dict has more chance to be shrunk.

   - bpo-29922(6): Improved error messages in “async with” when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(7): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33363

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33128

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33312

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33231

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33205

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29922

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33199


File: python.info,  Node: Library<171>,  Next: Documentation<59>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<169>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.26.65.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-33281(1): Fix ctypes.util.find_library regression on macOS.

   - bpo-33383(2): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 37. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33329(3): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-991266(4): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 2012.

   - bpo-33131(5): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(6): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when converting
     an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with ‘line_info=False’
     and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-33266(7): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rf'...'’ strings.

   - bpo-11594(8): Ensure line-endings are respected when using lib2to3.

   - bpo-33254(9): Have *note importlib.resources.contents(): 708. and
     ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader.contents()’ return an *note iterable:
     15ce. instead of an *note iterator: 6ce.

   - bpo-33256(10): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33185(11): Fixed regression when running pydoc with the *note
     -m: 4ca. switch.  (The regression was introduced in 3.7.0b3 by the
     resolution of bpo-33053(12)) This fix also changed pydoc to add
     ‘os.getcwd()’ to *note sys.path: 194. when necessary, rather than
     adding ‘"."’.

   - bpo-33169(13): Delete entries of ‘None’ in *note
     sys.path_importer_cache: 9db. when
     ‘importlib.machinery.invalidate_caches()’ is called.

   - bpo-33217(14): Deprecate looking up non-Enum objects in Enum
     classes and Enum members (will raise *note TypeError: 291. in
     3.8+).

   - bpo-33203(15): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’ for
     empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(16): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(17).  Convert an
     uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(18): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 2013.

   - bpo-20104(19): Improved error handling and fixed a reference leak
     in *note os.posix_spawn(): 731.

   - bpo-33175(20): In dataclasses, Field.__set_name__ now looks up the
     __set_name__ special method on the class, not the instance, of the
     default value.

   - bpo-33097(21): Raise RuntimeError when ‘executor.submit’ is called
     during interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-31908(22): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33281

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33383

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33329

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=991266

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33131

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33308

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33266

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11594

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33254

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33256

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33185

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33203

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33224

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33209

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33175

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31908


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<59>,  Next: Tests<60>,  Prev: Library<171>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.26.65.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33378(1): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(2): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(3): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(4): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’ document.
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it
     is missed in the document.

   - bpo-8243(5): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-32337(6): Update documentation related with ‘dict’ order.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32337


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<60>,  Next: Build<64>,  Prev: Documentation<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.26.65.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33358(1): Fix
     ‘test_embed.test_pre_initialization_sys_options()’ when the
     interpreter is built with ‘--enable-shared’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33358


File: python.info,  Node: Build<64>,  Next: Windows<56>,  Prev: Tests<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.26.65.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-33394(1): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   - bpo-33393(2): Update config.guess and config.sub files.

   - bpo-33377(3): Add new triplets for mips r6 and riscv variants (used
     in extension suffixes).

   - bpo-32232(4): By default, modules configured in ‘Modules/Setup’ are
     no longer built with ‘-DPy_BUILD_CORE’.  Instead, modules that
     specifically need that preprocessor definition include it in their
     individual entries.

   - bpo-33182(5): The embedding tests can once again be built with
     clang 6.0

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33393

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33377

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32232

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33182


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<56>,  Next: macOS<45>,  Prev: Build<64>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.26.65.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33184(1): Update Windows installer to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<45>,  Next: IDLE<41>,  Prev: Windows<56>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.26.65.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-33184(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<41>,  Next: Tools/Demos<36>,  Prev: macOS<45>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.26.65.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-21474(1): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(2): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     “u” string prefix cannot be paired with either “r” or “f”.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<36>,  Prev: IDLE<41>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 4

1.26.65.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-33189(1): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(2): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(3): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-31583(4): Fix 2to3 for using with –add-suffix option but
     without –output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.66 Python 3.7.0 beta 3
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-29'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<46>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<170>.
* Library: Library<172>.
* Documentation: Documentation<60>.
* Tests: Tests<61>.
* Build: Build<65>.
* Windows: Windows<57>.
* macOS: macOS<46>.
* IDLE: IDLE<42>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<37>.
* C API: C API<59>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<46>,  Next: Core and Builtins<170>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.26.66.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-33136(1): Harden ssl module against LibreSSL CVE 2018-8970(2).
     X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() is called with an explicit namelen.
     A new test ensures that NULL bytes are not allowed.

   - bpo-33001(3): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(4): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(5) and CVE 2018-1061(6).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33136

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-8970

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<170>,  Next: Library<172>,  Prev: Security<46>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.26.66.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33053(1): When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now
     explicitly expanded as the 'starting' working directory, rather
     than being left as the empty path (which allows imports from the
     current working directory at the time of the import)

   - bpo-33018(2): Improve consistency of errors raised by
     ‘issubclass()’ when called with a non-class and an abstract base
     class as the first and second arguments, respectively.  Patch by
     Josh Bronson.

   - bpo-33041(3): Fixed jumping when the function contains an ‘async
     for’ loop.

   - bpo-33026(4): Fixed jumping out of «with» block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-33005(5): Fix a crash on fork when using a custom memory
     allocator (ex: using PYTHONMALLOC env var).  _PyGILState_Reinit()
     and _PyInterpreterState_Enable() now use the default RAW memory
     allocator to allocate a new interpreters mutex on fork.

   - bpo-17288(6): Prevent jumps from “return” and “exception” trace
     events.

   - bpo-32836(7): Don’t use temporary variables in cases of
     list/dict/set comprehensions

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33018

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33026

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33005

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17288

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32836


File: python.info,  Node: Library<172>,  Next: Documentation<60>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<170>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.26.66.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-33141(1): Have Field objects pass through __set_name__ to their
     default values, if they have their own __set_name__.

   - bpo-33096(2): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-32873(3): Treat type variables and special typing forms as
     immutable by copy and pickle.  This fixes several minor issues and
     inconsistencies, and improves backwards compatibility with Python
     3.6.

   - bpo-33134(4): When computing dataclass’s __hash__, use the lookup
     table to contain the function which returns the __hash__ value.
     This is an improvement over looking up a string, and then testing
     that string to see what to do.

   - bpo-33127(5): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-32505(6): Raise TypeError if a member variable of a dataclass
     is of type Field, but doesn’t have a type annotation.

   - bpo-33078(7): Fix the failure on OSX caused by the tests relying on
     sem_getvalue

   - bpo-33116(8): Add “Field” to dataclasses.__all__.

   - bpo-32896(9): Fix an error where subclassing a dataclass with a
     field that uses a default_factory would generate an incorrect
     class.

   - bpo-33100(10): Dataclasses: If a field has a default value that’s a
     MemberDescriptorType, then it’s from that field being in __slots__,
     not an actual default value.

   - bpo-32953(11): If a non-dataclass inherits from a frozen dataclass,
     allow attributes to be added to the derived class.  Only attributes
     from the frozen dataclass cannot be assigned to.  Require all
     dataclasses in a hierarchy to be either all frozen or all
     non-frozen.

   - bpo-33061(12): Add missing ‘NoReturn’ to ‘__all__’ in typing.py

   - bpo-33078(13): Fix the size handling in multiprocessing.Queue when
     a pickling error occurs.

   - bpo-33064(14): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-33056(15): FIX properly close leaking fds in
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.

   - bpo-33021(16): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-31804(17): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33037(18): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-27683(19): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 83. that result
     of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple
     containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-32999(20): Fix C implementation of ‘ABC.__subclasscheck__(cls,
     subclass)’ crashed when ‘subclass’ is not a type object.

   - bpo-33009(21): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(22): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32056(23): Improved exceptions raised for invalid number of
     channels and sample width when read an audio file in modules
     ‘aifc’, *note wave: 11c. and ‘sunau’.

   - bpo-32844(24): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-32857(25): In *note tkinter: f9, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 277. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31639(26): http.server now exposes a ThreadedHTTPServer class
     and uses it when the module is run with ‘-m’ to cope with web
     browsers pre-opening sockets.

   - bpo-27645(27): *note sqlite3.Connection: 3df. now exposes a *note
     backup: f39. method, if the underlying SQLite library is at version
     3.6.11 or higher.  Patch by Lele Gaifax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33141

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33096

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32873

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33134

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33127

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32505

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33116

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32896

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33100

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32953

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33061

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33078

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33064

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33056

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33021

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31804

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33037

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27683

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32999

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33009

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32969

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32056

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32844

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32857

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<60>,  Next: Tests<61>,  Prev: Library<172>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.26.66.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33126(1): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(2): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(3): Update *note zipapp: 139. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(4): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(5): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<61>,  Next: Build<65>,  Prev: Documentation<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.26.66.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32872(1): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   - bpo-32517(2): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-19417(3): Add test_bdb.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417


File: python.info,  Node: Build<65>,  Next: Windows<57>,  Prev: Tests<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.26.66.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-33163(1): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<57>,  Next: macOS<46>,  Prev: Build<65>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.26.66.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33016(1): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(2): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<46>,  Next: IDLE<42>,  Prev: Windows<57>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.26.66.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Build and link with private copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6 for
     the macOS 10.6+ installer.  The 10.9+ installer variant already
     does this.  This means that the Python 3.7 provided by the
     python.org macOS installers no longer need or use any external
     versions of Tcl/Tk, either system-provided or user-installed, such
     as ActiveTcl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<42>,  Next: Tools/Demos<37>,  Prev: macOS<46>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.26.66.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32984(1): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(2): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<37>,  Next: C API<59>,  Prev: IDLE<42>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.26.66.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-32885(1): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885


File: python.info,  Node: C API<59>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<37>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 3

1.26.66.11 C API
................

   - bpo-33042(1): Embedding applications may once again call
     PySys_ResetWarnOptions, PySys_AddWarnOption, and PySys_AddXOption
     prior to calling Py_Initialize.

   - bpo-32374(2): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33042

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.67 Python 3.7.0 beta 2
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-02-27'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<47>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<171>.
* Library: Library<173>.
* Documentation: Documentation<61>.
* Tests: Tests<62>.
* Build: Build<66>.
* Windows: Windows<58>.
* macOS: macOS<47>.
* IDLE: IDLE<43>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<38>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<47>,  Next: Core and Builtins<171>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.26.67.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-28414(1): The ssl module now allows users to perform their own
     IDN en/decoding when using SNI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<171>,  Next: Library<173>,  Prev: Security<47>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.26.67.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32889(1): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-31356(2): Remove the new API added in bpo-31356(3)
     (gc.ensure_disabled() context manager).

   - bpo-32305(4): For namespace packages, ensure that both ‘__file__’
     and ‘__spec__.origin’ are set to None.

   - bpo-32303(5): Make sure ‘__spec__.loader’ matches ‘__loader__’ for
     namespace packages.

   - bpo-32711(6): Fix the warning messages for Python/ast_unparse.c.
     Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32583(7): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32889

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31356

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32711

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32583


File: python.info,  Node: Library<173>,  Next: Documentation<61>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<171>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.26.67.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-32960(1): For dataclasses, disallow inheriting frozen from
     non-frozen classes, and also disallow inheriting non-frozen from
     frozen classes.  This restriction will be relaxed at a future date.

   - bpo-32713(2): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-32951(3): Direct instantiation of SSLSocket and SSLObject
     objects is now prohibited.  The constructors were never documented,
     tested, or designed as public constructors.  Users were suppose to
     use ssl.wrap_socket() or SSLContext.

   - bpo-32929(4): Remove the tri-state parameter «hash», and add the
     boolean «unsafe_hash».  If unsafe_hash is True, add a __hash__
     function, but if a __hash__ exists, raise TypeError.  If
     unsafe_hash is False, add a __hash__ based on the values of eq= and
     frozen=.  The unsafe_hash=False behavior is the same as the old
     hash=None behavior.  unsafe_hash=False is the default, just as
     hash=None used to be.

   - bpo-32947(5): Add OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT and test workaround
     for TLSv1.3 for future compatibility with OpenSSL 1.1.1.

   - bpo-30622(6): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(7): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32859(8): In ‘os.dup2’, don’t check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-32556(9): nt._getfinalpathname, nt._getvolumepathname and
     nt._getdiskusage now correctly convert from bytes.

   - bpo-25988(10): Emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. when using or
     importing an ABC directly from *note collections: 1e. rather than
     from *note collections.abc: 1f.

   - bpo-21060(11): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     «No dist file created in earlier command» to the more helpful «Must
     create and upload files in one command».

   - bpo-32852(12): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-31333(13): ‘_abc’ module is added.  It is a speedup module with
     C implementations for various functions and methods in ‘abc’.
     Creating an ABC subclass and calling ‘isinstance’ or ‘issubclass’
     with an ABC subclass are up to 1.5x faster.  In addition, this
     makes Python start-up up to 10% faster.  Note that the new
     implementation hides internal registry and caches, previously
     accessible via private attributes ‘_abc_registry’, ‘_abc_cache’,
     and ‘_abc_negative_cache’.  There are three debugging helper
     methods that can be used instead ‘_dump_registry’,
     ‘_abc_registry_clear’, and ‘_abc_caches_clear’.

   - bpo-32841(14): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32819(15): ssl.match_hostname() has been simplified and no
     longer depends on re and ipaddress module for wildcard and IP
     addresses.  Error reporting for invalid wildcards has been
     improved.

   - bpo-32394(16): socket: Remove
     TCP_FASTOPEN,TCP_KEEPCNT,TCP_KEEPIDLE,TCP_KEEPINTVL flags on older
     version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-31787(17): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(18): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-32792(19): collections.ChainMap() preserves the order of the
     underlying mappings.

   - bpo-32775(20): *note fnmatch.translate(): 1a79. no longer produces
     patterns which contain set operations.  Sets starting with “[” or
     containing “–”, “&&”, “~~” or “||” will be interpreted differently
     in regular expressions in future versions.  Currently they emit
     warnings.  fnmatch.translate() now avoids producing patterns
     containing such sets by accident.

   - bpo-32622(21): Implement native fast sendfile for Windows proactor
     event loop.

   - bpo-32777(22): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(23): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking
     for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked against
     libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32741(24): Implement ‘asyncio.TimerHandle.when()’ method.

   - bpo-32691(25): Use mod_spec.parent when running modules with pdb

   - bpo-32734(26): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(27): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-31453(28): Add TLSVersion constants and
     SSLContext.maximum_version / minimum_version attributes.  The new
     API wraps OpenSSL 1.1
     ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180309043602/https://www.openssl.org/docs/man1.1.0/ssl/SSL_CTX_set_min_proto_version.html’
     feature.

   - bpo-24334(29): Internal implementation details of ssl module were
     cleaned up.  The SSLSocket has one less layer of indirection.
     Owner and session information are now handled by the SSLSocket and
     SSLObject constructor.  Channel binding implementation has been
     simplified.

   - bpo-31848(30): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32585(31): Add Ttk spinbox widget to *note tkinter.ttk: 102.
     Patch by Alan D Moore.

   - bpo-32221(32): Various functions returning tuple containing IPv6
     addresses now omit ‘%scope’ part since the same information is
     already encoded in 'scopeid' tuple item.  Especially this speeds up
     ‘socket.recvfrom()’ when it receives multicast packet since useless
     resolving of network interface name is omitted.

   - bpo-30693(33): The TarFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   - bpo-30693(34): The ZipFile class now recurses directories in a
     reproducible way.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32960

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32713

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32929

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32922

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32859

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32556

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32852

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32841

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32819

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32394

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31787

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30157

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32775

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32622

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32777

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32647

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32691

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32734

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32727

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31453

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24334

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31848

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32221

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<61>,  Next: Tests<62>,  Prev: Library<173>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.26.67.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28124(1): The ssl module function ssl.wrap_socket() has been
     de-emphasized and deprecated in favor of the more secure and
     efficient SSLContext.wrap_socket() method.

   - bpo-17232(2): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32436(3): Add documentation for the contextvars module (PEP
     567).

   - bpo-32800(4): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-11015(5): Update *note test.support: ed. documentation.

   - bpo-8722(6): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 1a9.

   - bpo-32614(7): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-31972(8): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’ subclasses.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11015

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<62>,  Next: Build<66>,  Prev: Documentation<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.26.67.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31809(1): Add tests to verify connection with secp ECDH curves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31809


File: python.info,  Node: Build<66>,  Next: Windows<58>,  Prev: Tests<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.26.67.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-32898(1): Fix the python debug build when using COUNT_ALLOCS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32898


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<58>,  Next: macOS<47>,  Prev: Build<66>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.26.67.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-32901(1): Update Tcl and Tk versions to 8.6.8

   - bpo-31966(2): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(3): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(4): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(5): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(6): Fix *note os.readlink(): ced. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<47>,  Next: IDLE<43>,  Prev: Windows<58>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.26.67.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32901(1): Update macOS 10.9+ installer to Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32901


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<43>,  Next: Tools/Demos<38>,  Prev: macOS<47>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.26.67.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32916(1): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(2): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(3): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(4): Using the system and place-dependent default encoding
     for open() is a bad idea for IDLE’s system and location-independent
     files.

   - bpo-32826(5): Add «encoding=utf-8» to open() in IDLE’s
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to “ascii” because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32765(6): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<38>,  Prev: IDLE<43>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 2

1.26.67.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-32222(1): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions
     with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.68 Python 3.7.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-30'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<172>.
* Library: Library<174>.
* Documentation: Documentation<62>.
* Tests: Tests<63>.
* Build: Build<67>.
* Windows: Windows<59>.
* macOS: macOS<48>.
* C API: C API<60>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<172>,  Next: Library<174>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.26.68.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32703(1): Fix coroutine’s ResourceWarning when there’s an
     active error set when it’s being finalized.

   - bpo-32650(2): Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will
     correctly step over (next command) native coroutines.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-28685(3): Optimize list.sort() and sorted() by using type
     specialized comparisons when possible.

   - bpo-32685(4): Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print
     statement is either present on the same line as the header of a
     compound statement or else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a
     newline.  Patch by Nitish Chandra.

   - bpo-32697(5): Python now explicitly preserves the definition order
     of keyword-only parameters.  It’s always preserved their order, but
     this behavior was never guaranteed before; this behavior is now
     guaranteed and tested.

   - bpo-32690(6): The locals() dictionary now displays in the lexical
     order that variables were defined.  Previously, the order was
     reversed.

   - bpo-32677(7): Add ‘.isascii()’ method to ‘str’, ‘bytes’ and
     ‘bytearray’.  It can be used to test that string contains only
     ASCII characters.

   - bpo-32670(8): Enforce PEP 479(9) for all code.  This means that
     manually raising a StopIteration exception from a generator is
     prohibited for all code, regardless of whether “from __future__
     import generator_stop” was used or not.

   - bpo-32591(10): Added built-in support for tracking the origin of
     coroutine objects; see sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth and
     CoroutineType.cr_origin.  This replaces the asyncio debug mode’s
     use of coroutine wrapping for native coroutine objects.

   - bpo-31368(11): Expose preadv and pwritev system calls in the os
     module.  Patch by Pablo Galindo

   - bpo-32544(12): ‘hasattr(obj, name)’ and ‘getattr(obj, name,
     default)’ are about 4 times faster than before when ‘name’ is not
     found and ‘obj’ doesn’t override ‘__getattr__’ or
     ‘__getattribute__’.

   - bpo-26163(13): Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct
     hash values when faced with datasets containing many similar
     values.

   - bpo-32550(14): Remove the STORE_ANNOTATION bytecode.

   - bpo-20104(15): Expose posix_spawn as a low level API in the os
     module.  (removed before 3.7.0rc1)

   - bpo-24340(16): Fixed estimation of the code stack size.

   - bpo-32436(17): Implement PEP 567(18) Context Variables.

   - bpo-18533(19): ‘repr()’ on a dict containing its own ‘values()’ or
     ‘items()’ no longer raises ‘RecursionError’; OrderedDict similarly.
     Instead, use ‘...’, as for other recursive structures.  Patch by
     Ben North.

   - bpo-20891(20): Py_Initialize() now creates the GIL. The GIL is no
     longer created «on demand» to fix a race condition when
     PyGILState_Ensure() is called in a non-Python thread.

   - bpo-32028(21): Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when
     generating suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3
     builtin print function calls.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31179(22): Make dict.copy() up to 5.5 times faster.

   - bpo-31113(23): Get rid of recursion in the compiler for normal
     control flow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32703

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32650

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28685

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32685

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32697

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32690

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32677

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32670

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32591

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31368

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32544

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26163

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32550

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20104

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24340

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18533

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32028

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31179

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31113


File: python.info,  Node: Library<174>,  Next: Documentation<62>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<172>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.26.68.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-25988(1): Deprecate exposing the contents of collections.abc in
     the regular collections module.

   - bpo-31429(2): The default cipher suite selection of the ssl module
     now uses a blacklist approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist.
     Python no longer re-enables ciphers that have been blocked by
     OpenSSL security update.  Default cipher suite selection can be
     configured on compile time.

   - bpo-30306(3): contextlib.contextmanager now releases the arguments
     passed to the underlying generator as soon as the context manager
     is entered.  Previously it would keep them alive for as long as the
     context manager was alive, even when not being used as a function
     decorator.  Patch by Martin Teichmann.

   - bpo-21417(4): Added support for setting the compression level for
     zipfile.ZipFile.

   - bpo-32251(5): Implement asyncio.BufferedProtocol (provisional API).

   - bpo-32513(6): In dataclasses, allow easier overriding of dunder
     methods without specifying decorator parameters.

   - bpo-32660(7): *note termios: ea. makes available ‘FIONREAD’,
     ‘FIONCLEX’, ‘FIOCLEX’, ‘FIOASYNC’ and ‘FIONBIO’ also under
     Solaris/derivatives.

   - bpo-27931(8): Fix email address header parsing error when the
     username is an empty quoted string.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-32659(9): Under Solaris and derivatives, *note os.stat_result:
     1863. provides a st_fstype attribute.

   - bpo-32662(10): Implement Server.start_serving(),
     Server.serve_forever(), and Server.is_serving() methods.  Add
     “start_serving” keyword parameter to loop.create_server() and
     loop.create_unix_server().

   - bpo-32391(11): Implement *note asyncio.StreamWriter.wait_closed():
     ed0. and *note asyncio.StreamWriter.is_closing(): ed1. methods

   - bpo-32643(12): Make Task._step, Task._wakeup and
     Future._schedule_callbacks methods private.

   - bpo-32630(13): Refactor decimal module to use contextvars to store
     decimal context.

   - bpo-32622(14): Add ‘asyncio.AbstractEventLoop.sendfile()’ method.

   - bpo-32304(15): distutils” upload command no longer corrupts tar
     files ending with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to
     CRLF in any of the upload text fields.

   - bpo-32502(16): uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit
     hardware address is encountered.

   - bpo-32596(17): ‘concurrent.futures’ imports ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’
     and ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ lazily (using PEP 562(18)).  It makes
     ‘import asyncio’ about 15% faster because asyncio uses only
     ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ by default.

   - bpo-31801(19): Add ‘_ignore_’ to ‘Enum’ so temporary variables can
     be used during class construction without being turned into
     members.

   - bpo-32576(20): Use queue.SimpleQueue() in places where it can be
     invoked from a weakref callback.

   - bpo-32574(21): Fix memory leak in asyncio.Queue, when the queue has
     limited size and it is full, the cancellation of queue.put() can
     cause a memory leak.  Patch by: José Melero.

   - bpo-32521(22): The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and
     headers location.

   - bpo-32467(23): collections.abc.ValuesView now inherits from
     collections.abc.Collection.

   - bpo-32473(24): Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability

   - bpo-32102(25): New argument ‘capture_output’ for subprocess.run

   - bpo-32521(26): glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc
     headers and library in nis module.

   - bpo-32493(27): UUID module fixes build for FreeBSD/OpenBSD

   - bpo-32503(28): Pickling with protocol 4 no longer creates too small
     frames.

   - bpo-29237(29): Create enum for pstats sorting options

   - bpo-32454(30): Add close(fd) function to the socket module.

   - bpo-25942(31): The subprocess module is now more graceful when
     handling a Ctrl-C KeyboardInterrupt during subprocess.call,
     subprocess.run, or a Popen context manager.  It now waits a short
     amount of time for the child (presumed to have also gotten the
     SIGINT) to exit, before continuing the KeyboardInterrupt exception
     handling.  This still includes a SIGKILL in the call() and run()
     APIs, but at least the child had a chance first.

   - bpo-32433(32): The hmac module now has hmac.digest(), which
     provides an optimized HMAC digest.

   - bpo-28134(33): Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol
     from file descriptor by default.

   - bpo-32404(34): Fix bug where *note
     datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 8fb. did not call __new__ in
     *note datetime.datetime: 6e7. subclasses.

   - bpo-32403(35): Improved speed of *note datetime.date: 48d. and
     *note datetime.datetime: 6e7. alternate constructors.

   - bpo-32228(36): Ensure that ‘truncate()’ preserves the file position
     (as reported by ‘tell()’) after writes longer than the buffer size.

   - bpo-32410(37): Implement ‘loop.sock_sendfile’ for asyncio event
     loop.

   - bpo-22908(38): Added seek and tell to the ZipExtFile class.  This
     only works if the file object used to open the zipfile is seekable.

   - bpo-32373(39): Add socket.getblocking() method.

   - bpo-32248(40): Add *note importlib.resources: 7e. and
     ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’ as the unified API for reading
     resources contained within packages.  Loaders wishing to support
     resource reading must implement the ‘get_resource_reader()’ method.
     File-based and zipimport-based loaders both implement these APIs.
     *note importlib.abc.ResourceLoader: fa7. is deprecated in favor of
     these new APIs.

   - bpo-32320(41): collections.namedtuple() now supports default
     values.

   - bpo-29302(42): Add contextlib.AsyncExitStack.  Patch by Alexander
     Mohr and Ilya Kulakov.

   - bpo-31961(43): 'Removed in Python 3.7.0b2.'  The 'args' argument of
     subprocess.Popen can now be a *note path-like object: 79f.  If
     'args' is given as a sequence, it’s first element can now be a
     path-like object as well.

   - bpo-31900(44): The *note locale.localeconv(): fbd. function now
     sets temporarily the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale
     to decode ‘decimal_point’ and ‘thousands_sep’ byte strings if they
     are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale is
     different than the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale.  This temporary change
     affects other threads.  Same change for the *note str.format():
     a12. method when formatting a number (*note int: 326, *note float:
     327, ‘float’ and subclasses) with the ‘n’ type (ex:
     ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’).

   - bpo-31853(45): Use super().method instead of socket.method in
     SSLSocket.  They were there most likely for legacy reasons.

   - bpo-31399(46): The ssl module now uses OpenSSL’s
     X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_host() and X509_VERIFY_PARAM_set1_ip() API
     to verify hostname and IP addresses.  Subject common name fallback
     can be disabled with SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name.

   - bpo-14976(47): Add a queue.SimpleQueue class, an unbounded FIFO
     queue with a reentrant C implementation of put().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31429

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30306

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21417

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32251

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32513

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32660

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27931

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32659

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32391

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32643

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32630

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32622

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32502

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32596

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31801

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32576

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32574

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32467

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32473

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32493

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32503

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29237

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32454

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25942

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32433

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28134

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32404

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32228

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22908

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32373

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32320

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29302

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31961

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31853

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14976


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<62>,  Next: Tests<63>,  Prev: Library<174>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.26.68.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32724(1): Add references to some commands in the documentation
     of Pdb.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-32649(2): Complete the C API documentation, profiling and
     tracing part with the newly added per-opcode events.

   - bpo-17799(3): Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and
     sys.setprofile and their C-API counterparts regarding which type of
     events are received in each function.  Patch by Pablo Galindo
     Salgado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32724

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17799


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<63>,  Next: Build<67>,  Prev: Documentation<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.26.68.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32721(1): Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is
     not built.

   - bpo-28414(2): Add test cases for IDNA 2003 and 2008 host names.
     IDNA 2003 internationalized host names are working since
     bpo-31399(3) has landed.  IDNA 2008 are still broken.

   - bpo-32604(4): Add a new «_xxsubinterpreters» extension module that
     exposes the existing subinterpreter C-API and a new
     cross-interpreter data sharing mechanism.  The module is primarily
     intended for more thorough testing of the existing subinterpreter
     support.  Note that the _xxsubinterpreters module has been removed
     in 3.7.0rc1.

   - bpo-32602(5): Add test certs and test for ECDSA cert and EC/RSA
     dual mode.

   - bpo-32549(6): On Travis CI, Python now Compiles and uses a local
     copy of OpenSSL 1.1.0g for testing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32721

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32604

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32602

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32549


File: python.info,  Node: Build<67>,  Next: Windows<59>,  Prev: Tests<63>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.26.68.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-32635(1): Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is
     provided instead of libcrypt at the system.

   - bpo-32598(2): Use autoconf to detect OpenSSL libs, headers and
     supported features.  The ax_check_openssl M4 macro uses pkg-config
     to locate OpenSSL and falls back to manual search.

   - bpo-32593(3): Drop support of FreeBSD 9 and older.

   - bpo-29708(4): If the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is
     set, *note py_compile: bb. will always create hash-based ‘.pyc’
     files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32635

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32598

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29708


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<59>,  Next: macOS<48>,  Prev: Build<67>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.26.68.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-32588(1): Create standalone _distutils_findvs module and add
     missing _queue module to installer.

   - bpo-29911(2): Ensure separate Modify and Uninstall buttons are
     displayed.

   - bpo-32507(3): Use app-local UCRT install rather than the proper
     update for old versions of Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32588

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29911

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32507


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<48>,  Next: C API<60>,  Prev: Windows<59>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.26.68.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer
     variant that supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only.
     Upgrade the supplied third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.1.0g and to
     SQLite 3.22.0.  The 10.9+ installer now links with and supplies its
     own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.

   - bpo-28440(2): No longer add /Library/Python/3.x/site-packages to
     sys.path for macOS framework builds to avoid future conflicts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28440


File: python.info,  Node: C API<60>,  Prev: macOS<48>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 beta 1

1.26.68.8 C API
...............

   - bpo-32681(1): Fix uninitialized variable “res” in the C
     implementation of os.dup2.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-10381(2): Add C API access to the ‘datetime.timezone’
     constructor and ‘datetime.timezone.UTC’ singleton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32681

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10381


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.69 Python 3.7.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<173>.
* Library: Library<175>.
* Documentation: Documentation<63>.
* Tests: Tests<64>.
* Windows: Windows<60>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<39>.
* C API: C API<61>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<173>,  Next: Library<175>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.26.69.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31975(1): The default warning filter list now starts with a
     «default::DeprecationWarning:__main__» entry, so deprecation
     warnings are once again shown by default in single-file scripts and
     at the interactive prompt.

   - bpo-32226(2): ‘__class_getitem__’ is now an automatic class method.

   - bpo-32399(3): Add AIX uuid library support for RFC4122 using
     uuid_create() in libc.a

   - bpo-32390(4): Fix the compilation failure on AIX after the f_fsid
     field has been added to the object returned by os.statvfs()
     (bpo-32143(5)).  Original patch by Michael Felt.

   - bpo-32379(6): Make MRO computation faster when a class inherits
     from a single base.

   - bpo-32259(7): The error message of a TypeError raised when unpack
     non-iterable is now more specific.

   - bpo-27169(8): The ‘__debug__’ constant is now optimized out at
     compile time.  This fixes also bpo-22091(9).

   - bpo-32329(10): The *note -R: 2065. option now turns on hash
     randomization when the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1425. environment
     variable is set to ‘0’.  Previously, the option was ignored.
     Moreover, ‘sys.flags.hash_randomization’ is now properly set to 0
     when hash randomization is turned off by ‘PYTHONHASHSEED=0’.

   - bpo-30416(11): The optimizer is now protected from spending much
     time doing complex calculations and consuming much memory for
     creating large constants in constant folding.  Increased limits for
     constants that can be produced in constant folding.

   - bpo-32282(12): Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of
     VersionHelpers.h in socketmodule on Windows.

   - bpo-30579(13): Implement TracebackType.__new__ to allow
     Python-level creation of traceback objects, and make
     TracebackType.tb_next mutable.

   - bpo-32260(14): Don’t byte swap the input keys to the SipHash
     algorithm on big-endian platforms.  This should ensure siphash
     gives consistent results across platforms.

   - bpo-31506(15): Improve the error message logic for object.__new__
     and object.__init__.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-20361(16): ‘-b’ and ‘-bb’ now inject ‘'default::BytesWarning'’
     and ‘error::BytesWarning’ entries into ‘sys.warnoptions’, ensuring
     that they take precedence over any other warning filters configured
     via the ‘-W’ option or the ‘PYTHONWARNINGS’ environment variable.

   - bpo-32230(17): ‘-X dev’ now injects a ‘'default'’ entry into
     sys.warnoptions, ensuring that it behaves identically to actually
     passing ‘-Wdefault’ at the command line.

   - bpo-29240(18): Add a new UTF-8 mode: implementation of the PEP
     540(19).

   - bpo-32226(20): PEP 560(21): Add support for ‘__mro_entries__’ and
     ‘__class_getitem__’.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-32225(22): PEP 562(23): Add support for module ‘__getattr__’
     and ‘__dir__’.  Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-31901(24): The ‘atexit’ module now has its callback stored per
     interpreter.

   - bpo-31650(25): Implement PEP 552(26) (Deterministic pycs).  Python
     now supports invalidating bytecode cache files bashed on a source
     content hash rather than source last-modified time.

   - bpo-29469(27): Move constant folding from bytecode layer to AST
     layer.  Original patch by Eugene Toder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31975

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32399

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32390

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32143

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32379

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32259

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22091

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32329

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30416

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32282

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30579

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32260

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20361

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32230

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32225

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31901

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31650

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29469


File: python.info,  Node: Library<175>,  Next: Documentation<63>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<173>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.26.69.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-32506(1): Now that dict is defined as keeping insertion order,
     drop OrderedDict and just use plain dict.

   - bpo-32279(2): Add params to dataclasses.make_dataclasses(): init,
     repr, eq, order, hash, and frozen.  Pass them through to
     dataclass().

   - bpo-32278(3): Make type information optional on
     dataclasses.make_dataclass().  If omitted, the string “typing.Any”
     is used.

   - bpo-32499(4): Add dataclasses.is_dataclass(obj), which returns True
     if obj is a dataclass or an instance of one.

   - bpo-32468(5): Improve frame repr() to mention filename, code name
     and current line number.

   - bpo-23749(6): asyncio: Implement loop.start_tls()

   - bpo-32441(7): Return the new file descriptor (i.e., the second
     argument) from ‘os.dup2’.  Previously, ‘None’ was always returned.

   - bpo-32422(8): ‘functools.lru_cache’ uses less memory (3 words for
     each cached key) and takes about 1/3 time for cyclic GC.

   - bpo-31721(9): Prevent Python crash from happening when
     Future._log_traceback is set to True manually.  Now it can only be
     set to False, or a ValueError is raised.

   - bpo-32415(10): asyncio: Add Task.get_loop() and Future.get_loop()

   - bpo-26133(11): Don’t unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop
     on interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32363(12): Make asyncio.Task.set_exception() and set_result()
     raise NotImplementedError.  Task._step() and Future.__await__()
     raise proper exceptions when they are in an invalid state, instead
     of raising an AssertionError.

   - bpo-32357(13): Optimize asyncio.iscoroutine() and
     loop.create_task() for non-native coroutines (e.g.  async/await
     compiled with Cython).  “loop.create_task(python_coroutine)” used
     to be 20% faster than “loop.create_task(cython_coroutine)”.  Now,
     the latter is as fast.

   - bpo-32356(14): asyncio.transport.resume_reading() and
     pause_reading() are now idempotent.  New transport.is_reading()
     method is added.

   - bpo-32355(15): Optimize asyncio.gather(); now up to 15% faster.

   - bpo-32351(16): Use fastpath in asyncio.sleep if delay<0 (2x boost)

   - bpo-32348(17): Optimize asyncio.Future schedule/add/remove
     callback.  The optimization shows 3-6% performance improvements of
     async/await code.

   - bpo-32331(18): Fix socket.settimeout() and socket.setblocking() to
     keep socket.type as is.  Fix socket.socket() constructor to reset
     any bit flags applied to socket’s type.  This change only affects
     OSes that have SOCK_NONBLOCK and/or SOCK_CLOEXEC.

   - bpo-32248(19): Add ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’ as an ABC for
     loaders to provide a unified API for reading resources contained
     within packages.  Also add *note importlib.resources: 7e. as the
     port of ‘importlib_resources’.

   - bpo-32311(20): Implement asyncio.create_task(coro) shortcut

   - bpo-32327(21): Convert asyncio functions that were documented as
     coroutines to coroutines.  Affected functions: loop.sock_sendall,
     loop.sock_recv, loop.sock_accept, loop.getaddrinfo,
     loop.getnameinfo.

   - bpo-32323(22): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): 2a3. does not convert
     zone-id (scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in
     hostnames now.

   - bpo-32302(23): Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it
     binary compatible with CRT v140.

   - bpo-29711(24): Fix ‘stop_serving’ in asyncio proactor loop kill all
     listening servers

   - bpo-32308(25): *note re.sub(): 7a1. now replaces empty matches
     adjacent to a previous non-empty match.

   - bpo-29970(26): Abort asyncio SSLProtocol connection if handshake
     not complete within 10 seconds.

   - bpo-32314(27): Implement asyncio.run().

   - bpo-17852(28): Revert incorrect fix based on misunderstanding of
     _Py_PyAtExit() semantics.

   - bpo-32296(29): Implement asyncio._get_running_loop() and
     get_event_loop() in C. This makes them 4x faster.

   - bpo-32250(30): Implement ‘asyncio.current_task()’ and
     ‘asyncio.all_tasks()’.  Add helpers intended to be used by
     alternative task implementations: ‘asyncio._register_task’,
     ‘asyncio._enter_task’, ‘asyncio._leave_task’ and
     ‘asyncio._unregister_task’.  Deprecate
     ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’.

   - bpo-32255(31): A single empty field is now always quoted when
     written into a CSV file.  This allows to distinguish an empty row
     from a row consisting of a single empty field.  Patch by Licht
     Takeuchi.

   - bpo-32277(32): Raise ‘NotImplementedError’ instead of ‘SystemError’
     on platforms where ‘chmod(..., follow_symlinks=False)’ is not
     supported.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-30050(33): New argument warn_on_full_buffer to
     signal.set_wakeup_fd lets you control whether Python prints a
     warning on stderr when the wakeup fd buffer overflows.

   - bpo-29137(34): The ‘fpectl’ library has been removed.  It was never
     enabled by default, never worked correctly on x86-64, and it
     changed the Python ABI in ways that caused unexpected breakage of C
     extensions.

   - bpo-32273(35): Move asyncio.test_utils to test.test_asyncio.

   - bpo-32272(36): Remove asyncio.async() function.

   - bpo-32269(37): Add asyncio.get_running_loop() function.

   - bpo-32265(38): All class and static methods of builtin types now
     are correctly classified by inspect.classify_class_attrs() and
     grouped in pydoc output.  Added types.ClassMethodDescriptorType for
     unbound class methods of builtin types.

   - bpo-32253(39): Deprecate ‘yield from lock’, ‘await lock’, ‘with
     (yield from lock)’ and ‘with await lock’ for asyncio
     synchronization primitives.

   - bpo-22589(40): Changed MIME type of .bmp from “image/x-ms-bmp” to
     “image/bmp”

   - bpo-32193(41): Convert asyncio to use 'async/await' syntax.  Old
     styled ‘yield from’ is still supported too.

   - bpo-32206(42): Add support to run modules with pdb

   - bpo-32227(43): ‘functools.singledispatch’ now supports registering
     implementations using type annotations.

   - bpo-15873(44): Added new alternate constructors *note
     datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): a0a, *note
     datetime.time.fromisoformat(): a09. and *note
     datetime.date.fromisoformat(): a08. as the inverse operation of
     each classes’s respective ‘isoformat’ methods.

   - bpo-32199(45): The getnode() ip getter now uses “ip link” instead
     of “ip link list”.

   - bpo-32143(46): os.statvfs() includes the f_fsid field from
     statvfs(2)

   - bpo-26439(47): Fix ctypes.util.find_library() for AIX by
     implementing ctypes._aix.find_library() Patch by: Michael Felt

   - bpo-31993(48): The pickler now uses less memory when serializing
     large bytes and str objects into a file.  Pickles created with
     protocol 4 will require less memory for unpickling large bytes and
     str objects.

   - bpo-27456(49): Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux.  Tests by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-31778(50): ast.literal_eval() is now more strict.  Addition and
     subtraction of arbitrary numbers no longer allowed.

   - bpo-31802(51): Importing native path module (‘posixpath’, ‘ntpath’)
     now works even if the ‘os’ module still is not imported.

   - bpo-30241(52): Add contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager.  Patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-31699(53): Fix deadlocks in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. when task arguments or
     results cause pickling or unpickling errors.  This should make sure
     that calls to the ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ API always eventually
     return.

   - bpo-15216(54): ‘TextIOWrapper.reconfigure()’ supports changing
     'encoding', 'errors', and 'newline'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32506

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32279

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32278

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32499

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32468

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23749

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32441

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32422

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31721

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32415

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26133

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32363

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32357

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32356

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32355

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32351

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32348

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32331

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32311

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32327

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32323

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32302

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29711

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32308

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29970

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17852

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32296

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32255

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32277

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30050

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29137

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32273

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32272

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32269

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32265

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32253

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22589

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32193

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32206

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32227

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15873

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32199

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32143

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26439

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31993

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31778

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31802

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30241

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31699

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15216


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<63>,  Next: Tests<64>,  Prev: Library<175>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.26.69.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32418(1): Add get_loop() method to Server and AbstractServer
     classes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32418


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<64>,  Next: Windows<60>,  Prev: Documentation<63>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.26.69.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32252(1): Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to
     prevent core dump files when testing crashes.  getrlimit() returns
     zero on success.

   - bpo-32002(2): Adjust C locale coercion testing for the empty locale
     and POSIX locale cases to more readily adjust to platform dependent
     behaviour.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32252

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32002


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<60>,  Next: Tools/Demos<39>,  Prev: Tests<64>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.26.69.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-19764(1): Implement support for
     ‘subprocess.Popen(close_fds=True)’ on Windows.  Patch by Segev
     Finer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19764


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<39>,  Next: C API<61>,  Prev: Windows<60>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.26.69.6 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-24960(1): 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files
     using pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem.  This
     lets 2to3 and lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24960


File: python.info,  Node: C API<61>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<39>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4

1.26.69.7 C API
...............

   - bpo-32030(1): Py_Initialize() doesn’t reset the memory allocators
     to default if the ‘PYTHONMALLOC’ environment variable is not set.

   - bpo-29084(2): Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded
     from the limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never
     worked in the limited C API.

   - bpo-32264(3): Moved the pygetopt.h header into internal/, since it
     has no public APIs.

   - bpo-32241(4): ‘Py_SetProgramName()’ and ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’ now
     take the ‘const wchar *’ arguments instead of ‘wchar *’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32030

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29084

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32264

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32241


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.70 Python 3.7.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<174>.
* Library: Library<176>.
* Documentation: Documentation<64>.
* Tests: Tests<65>.
* Build: Build<68>.
* Windows: Windows<61>.
* macOS: macOS<49>.
* IDLE: IDLE<44>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<40>.
* C API: C API<62>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<174>,  Next: Library<176>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.26.70.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32176(1): co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the
     code object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than
     needing to be set correctly by the caller.  This ensures it will be
     cleared automatically when additional cell references are injected
     into a modified code object and function.

   - bpo-10544(2): Yield expressions are now deprecated in
     comprehensions and generator expressions.  They are still permitted
     in the definition of the outermost iterable, as that is evaluated
     directly in the enclosing scope.

   - bpo-32137(3): The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a
     RecursionError instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.

   - bpo-32096(4): Revert memory allocator changes in the C API: move
     structures back from _PyRuntime to Objects/obmalloc.c.  The memory
     allocators are once again initialized statically, and so
     PyMem_RawMalloc() and Py_DecodeLocale() can be called before
     _PyRuntime_Initialize().

   - bpo-32043(5): Add a new «developer mode»: new «-X dev» command line
     option to enable debug checks at runtime.

   - bpo-32023(6): SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator
     expression without parenthesis is used instead of an inheritance
     list in a class definition.  The duplication of the parentheses can
     be omitted only on calls.

   - bpo-32012(7): SyntaxError is now correctly raised when a generator
     expression without parenthesis is passed as an argument, but
     followed by a trailing comma.  A generator expression always needs
     to be directly inside a set of parentheses and cannot have a comma
     on either side.

   - bpo-28180(8): A new internal ‘_Py_SetLocaleFromEnv(category)’
     helper function has been added in order to improve the consistency
     of behaviour across different ‘libc’ implementations (e.g.  Android
     doesn’t support setting the locale from the environment by
     default).

   - bpo-31949(9): Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks
     (PyTraceBack_Print()).  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now
     suppresses printing tracebacks.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None
     now causes using the default limit.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to
     an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using the limit LONG_MAX
     rather than the default limit.  Fixed integer overflows in the case
     of more than ‘2**31’ traceback items on Windows.  Fixed output
     errors handling.

   - bpo-30696(10): Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly
     when no memory.

   - bpo-20047(11): Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now
     accept only bytes-like objects as separator, as documented.  In
     particular they now raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus
     result when an integer is passed as a separator.

   - bpo-21720(12): BytesWarning no longer emitted when the 'fromlist'
     argument of ‘__import__()’ or the ‘__all__’ attribute of the module
     contain bytes instances.

   - bpo-31845(13): Environment variables are once more read correctly
     at interpreter startup.

   - bpo-28936(14): Ensure that lexically first syntax error involving a
     parameter and ‘global’ or ‘nonlocal’ is detected first at a given
     scope.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-31825(15): Fixed OverflowError in the “unicode-escape” codec
     and in codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii
     byte.

   - bpo-31618(16): The per-frame tracing logic added in 3.7a1 has been
     altered so that ‘frame->f_lineno’ is updated before either ‘"line"’
     or ‘"opcode"’ events are emitted.  Previously, opcode events were
     emitted first, and therefore would occasionally see stale line
     numbers on the frame.  The behavior of this feature has changed
     slightly as a result: when both ‘f_trace_lines’ and
     ‘f_trace_opcodes’ are enabled, line events now occur first.

   - bpo-28603(17): Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on
     interpreter exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable
     or compares equal to later ones.  Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-31786(18): Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31781(19): Prevent crashes when calling methods of an
     uninitialized ‘zipimport.zipimporter’ object.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-30399(20): Standard repr() of BaseException with a single
     argument no longer contains redundant trailing comma.

   - bpo-31626(21): Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator.  There was a
     write to freed memory after shrinking a memory block.

   - bpo-30817(22): ‘PyErr_PrintEx()’ clears now the ignored exception
     that may be raised by ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’, for example when no
     memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32137

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32096

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32043

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32023

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32012

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28180

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31949

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30696

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20047

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21720

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31845

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28936

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31825

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31618

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31786

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31781

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30399

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31626

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30817


File: python.info,  Node: Library<176>,  Next: Documentation<64>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<174>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.26.70.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28556(1): Two minor fixes for ‘typing’ module: allow shallow
     copying instances of generic classes, improve interaction of
     ‘__init_subclass__’ with generics.  Original PRs by Ivan
     Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-32214(2): PEP 557, Data Classes.  Provides a decorator which
     adds boilerplate methods to classes which use type annotations so
     specify fields.

   - bpo-27240(3): The header folding algorithm for the new email
     policies has been rewritten, which also fixes bpo-30788(4),
     bpo-31831(5), and bpo-32182(6).  In particular, RFC2231 folding is
     now done correctly.

   - bpo-32186(7): io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release
     the GIL when getting the file size.  Fixed hang of all threads with
     inaccessible NFS server.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-32101(8): Add *note sys.flags.dev_mode: 206f. flag

   - bpo-32154(9): The ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ function has
     been removed: use directly *note socket.socketpair(): fb5. which is
     available on all platforms since Python 3.5 (before, it wasn’t
     available on Windows).  ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ was
     just an alias to ‘socket.socketpair’ on Python 3.5 and newer.

   - bpo-32089(10): warnings: In development (-X dev) and debug mode
     (pydebug build), use the «default» action for ResourceWarning,
     rather than the «always» action, in the default warnings filters.

   - bpo-32107(11): ‘uuid.getnode()’ now preferentially returns
     universally administered MAC addresses if available, over locally
     administered MAC addresses.  This makes a better guarantee for
     global uniqueness of UUIDs returned from ‘uuid.uuid1()’.  If only
     locally administered MAC addresses are available, the first such
     one found is returned.

   - bpo-23033(12): Wildcard is now supported in hostname when it is one
     and only character in the left most segment of hostname in second
     argument of ‘ssl.match_hostname()’.  Patch by Mandeep Singh.

   - bpo-12239(13): Make ‘msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty()’
     return ‘None’ when the value of property is ‘VT_EMPTY’.  Initial
     patch by Mark Mc Mahon.

   - bpo-28334(14): Use *note os.path.expanduser(): dd8. to find the
     ‘~/.netrc’ file in *note netrc.netrc: 1e70.  If it does not exist,
     *note FileNotFoundError: 243. is raised.  Patch by Dimitri
     Merejkowsky.

   - bpo-32121(15): Made ‘tracemalloc.Traceback’ behave more like the
     traceback module, sorting the frames from oldest to most recent.
     ‘Traceback.format()’ now accepts negative 'limit', truncating the
     result to the ‘abs(limit)’ oldest frames.  To get the old
     behaviour, one can use the new 'most_recent_first' argument to
     ‘Traceback.format()’.  (Patch by Jesse Bakker.)

   - bpo-31325(16): Fix wrong usage of *note collections.namedtuple():
     1cf. in the *note RobotFileParser.parse(): 2070. method.  Initial
     patch by Robin Wellner.

   - bpo-12382(17): ‘msilib.OpenDatabase()’ now raises a better
     exception message when it couldn’t open or create an MSI file.
     Initial patch by William Tisäter.

   - bpo-19610(18): ‘setup()’ now warns about invalid types for some
     fields.  The ‘distutils.dist.Distribution’ class now warns when
     ‘classifiers’, ‘keywords’ and ‘platforms’ fields are not specified
     as a list or a string.

   - bpo-32071(19): Added the ‘-k’ command-line option to ‘python -m
     unittest’ to run only tests that match the given pattern(s).

   - bpo-10049(20): Added 'nullcontext' no-op context manager to
     contextlib.  This provides a simpler and faster alternative to
     ExitStack() when handling optional context managers.

   - bpo-28684(21): The new test.support.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket()
     decorator is used here to skip asyncio tests that fail because the
     platform lacks a functional bind() function for unix domain sockets
     (as it is the case for non root users on the recent Android
     versions that run now SELinux in enforcing mode).

   - bpo-32110(22): ‘codecs.StreamReader.read(n)’ now returns not more
     than 'n' characters/bytes for non-negative 'n'.  This makes it
     compatible with ‘read()’ methods of other file-like objects.

   - bpo-27535(23): The warnings module doesn’t leak memory anymore in
     the hidden warnings registry for the «ignore» action of warnings
     filters.  warn_explicit() function doesn’t add the warning key to
     the registry anymore for the «ignore» action.

   - bpo-32088(24): warnings: When Python is build is debug mode
     (‘Py_DEBUG’), *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9, *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b. and *note ImportWarning: 907.
     warnings are now displayed by default.

   - bpo-1647489(25): Fixed searching regular expression patterns that
     could match an empty string.  Non-empty string can now be correctly
     found after matching an empty string.

   - bpo-25054(26): Added support of splitting on a pattern that could
     match an empty string.

   - bpo-32072(27): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-32069(28): Drop legacy SSL transport from asyncio,
     ssl.MemoryBIO is always used anyway.

   - bpo-32066(29): asyncio: Support pathlib.Path in
     create_unix_connection; sock arg should be optional

   - bpo-32046(30): Updates 2to3 to convert from
     operator.isCallable(obj) to callable(obj).  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-32018(31): inspect.signature should follow PEP 8(32), if the
     parameter has an annotation and a default value.  Patch by Donghee
     Na.

   - bpo-32025(33): Add time.thread_time() and time.thread_time_ns()

   - bpo-32037(34): Integers that fit in a signed 32-bit integer will be
     now pickled with protocol 0 using the INT opcode.  This will
     decrease the size of a pickle, speed up pickling and unpickling,
     and make these integers be unpickled as int instances in Python 2.

   - bpo-32034(35): Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and
     LimitOverrunError pickleable.

   - bpo-32015(36): Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of
     reconnection the socket during waiting async read/write from/to the
     socket.

   - bpo-32011(37): Restored support of loading marshal files with the
     TYPE_INT64 code.  These files can be produced in Python 2.7.

   - bpo-28369(38): Enhance add_reader/writer check that socket is not
     used by some transport.  Before, only cases when add_reader/writer
     were called with an int FD were supported.  Now the check is
     implemented correctly for all file-like objects.

   - bpo-31976(39): Fix race condition when flushing a file is slow,
     which can cause a segfault if closing the file from another thread.

   - bpo-31985(40): Formally deprecated aifc.openfp, sunau.openfp, and
     wave.openfp.  Since change 7bc817d5ba917528e8bd07ec461c635291e7b06a
     in 1993, openfp in each of the three modules had been pointing to
     that module’s open function as a matter of backwards compatibility,
     though it had been both untested and undocumented.

   - bpo-21862(41): cProfile command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’
     as an alternative to script path.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31970(42): Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.

   - bpo-31843(43): 'database' argument of sqlite3.connect() now accepts
     a *note path-like object: 79f, instead of just a string.

   - bpo-31945(44): Add Configurable 'blocksize' to ‘HTTPConnection’ and
     ‘HTTPSConnection’ for improved upload throughput.  Patch by Nir
     Soffer.

   - bpo-31943(45): Add a ‘cancelled()’ method to *note asyncio.Handle:
     2071.  Patch by Marat Sharafutdinov.

   - bpo-9678(46): Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module:
     Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD. Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD,
     NetBSD and OpenBSD. Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.

   - bpo-30057(47): Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().

   - bpo-31933(48): Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big
     endian platforms.  Patch by Jack O’Connor.

   - bpo-21423(49): Add an initializer argument to
     {Process,Thread}PoolExecutor

   - bpo-31927(50): Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8.
     Fixed assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a
     AF_BLUETOOTH address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

   - bpo-27666(51): Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and
     curses.ungetmouse() when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is
     less than the size of C long.  curses.box() now accepts characters
     as arguments.  Based on patch by Steve Fink.

   - bpo-31917(52): Add 3 new clock identifiers: *note
     time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: f4d, *note time.CLOCK_PROF: f4e. and *note
     time.CLOCK_UPTIME: f4f.

   - bpo-31897(53): plistlib now catches more errors when read binary
     plists and raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected
     exceptions.

   - bpo-25720(54): Fix the method for checking pad state of curses
     WINDOW. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-31893(55): Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on
     OpenBSD and NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event
     objects.

   - bpo-31891(56): Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.

   - bpo-31884(57): added required constants to subprocess module for
     setting priority on windows

   - bpo-28281(58): Remove year (1-9999) limits on the
     Calendar.weekday() function.  Patch by Mark Gollahon.

   - bpo-31702(59): crypt.mksalt() now allows to specify the number of
     rounds for SHA-256 and SHA-512 hashing.

   - bpo-30639(60): *note inspect.getfile(): 2072. no longer computes
     the repr of unknown objects to display in an error message, to
     protect against badly behaved custom reprs.

   - bpo-30768(61): Fix the pthread+semaphore implementation of
     PyThread_acquire_lock_timed() when called with timeout > 0 and
     intr_flag=0: recompute the timeout if sem_timedwait() is
     interrupted by a signal (EINTR). See also the PEP 475(62).

   - bpo-31854(63): Add ‘mmap.ACCESS_DEFAULT’ constant.

   - bpo-31834(64): Use optimized code for BLAKE2 only with SSSE3+.  The
     pure SSE2 implementation is slower than the pure C reference
     implementation.

   - bpo-28292(65): Calendar.itermonthdates() will now consistently
     raise an exception when a date falls outside of the 0001-01-01
     through 9999-12-31 range.  To support applications that cannot
     tolerate such exceptions, the new methods itermonthdays3() and
     itermonthdays4() are added.  The new methods return tuples and are
     not restricted by the range supported by datetime.date.

   - bpo-28564(66): The shutil.rmtree() function has been sped up to
     20–40%.  This was done using the os.scandir() function.

   - bpo-28416(67): Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the
     persistent_id() method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the
     persistent_load() method no longer create reference cycles.

   - bpo-31653(68): Don’t release the GIL if we can acquire a
     multiprocessing semaphore immediately.

   - bpo-28326(69): Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or
     stderr is closed or None.

   - bpo-20825(70): Add ‘subnet_of’ and ‘superset_of’ containment tests
     to *note ipaddress.IPv6Network: 713. and *note
     ipaddress.IPv4Network: 712.  Patch by Michel Albert and Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-31827(71): Remove the os.stat_float_times() function.  It was
     introduced in Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python
     2.2, and was deprecated since Python 3.1.

   - bpo-31756(72): Add a ‘subprocess.Popen(text=False)’ keyword
     argument to ‘subprocess’ functions to be more explicit about when
     the library should attempt to decode outputs into text.  Patch by
     Andrew Clegg.

   - bpo-31819(73): Add AbstractEventLoop.sock_recv_into().

   - bpo-31457(74): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-31457(75): The ‘manager’ property on LoggerAdapter objects is
     now properly settable.

   - bpo-31806(76): Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(),
     threading.Lock.acquire() and socket.socket.settimeout() to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31803(77): time.clock() and time.get_clock_info(“clock”) now
     emit a DeprecationWarning warning.

   - bpo-31800(78): Extended support for parsing UTC offsets.  strptime
     “%z” can now parse the output generated by datetime.isoformat,
     including seconds and microseconds.

   - bpo-28603(79): traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during
     printing of exception tracebacks when either the current exception
     or an exception in its context/cause chain is unhashable.  Patch by
     Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-30541(80): Add new function to seal a mock and prevent the
     automatically creation of child mocks.  Patch by Mario Corchero.

   - bpo-31784(81): Implement the PEP 564(82), add new 6 new functions
     with nanosecond resolution to the *note time: f7. module: *note
     clock_gettime_ns(): ea9, *note clock_settime_ns(): eaa, *note
     monotonic_ns(): eab, *note perf_counter_ns(): eac, *note
     process_time_ns(): ead, *note time_ns(): eae.

   - bpo-30143(83): 2to3 now generates a code that uses abstract
     collection classes from collections.abc rather than collections.

   - bpo-31770(84): Prevent a crash when calling the ‘__init__()’ method
     of a ‘sqlite3.Cursor’ object more than once.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31764(85): Prevent a crash in ‘sqlite3.Cursor.close()’ in case
     the ‘Cursor’ object is uninitialized.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31752(86): Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called
     with custom integers.

   - bpo-31620(87): an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn’t leak memory when
     queue.get pollers timeout

   - bpo-31690(88): Allow the flags re.ASCII, re.LOCALE, and re.UNICODE
     to be used as group flags for regular expressions.

   - bpo-30349(89): FutureWarning is now emitted if a regular expression
     contains character set constructs that will change semantically in
     the future (nested sets and set operations).

   - bpo-31664(90): Added support for the Blowfish hashing in the crypt
     module.

   - bpo-31632(91): Fix method set_protocol() of class
     _SSLProtocolTransport in asyncio module.  This method was
     previously modifying a wrong reference to the protocol.

   - bpo-15037(92): Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for
     ncurses 5.7 and earlier.

   - bpo-31307(93): Allow use of bytes objects for arguments to *note
     configparser.ConfigParser.read(): 180a.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-31334(94): Fix ‘poll.poll([timeout])’ in the ‘select’ module
     for arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a
     non-negative integer or -1.  Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.

   - bpo-31310(95): multiprocessing’s semaphore tracker should be
     launched again if crashed.

   - bpo-31308(96): Make multiprocessing’s forkserver process immune to
     Ctrl-C and other user interruptions.  If it crashes, restart it
     when necessary.

   - bpo-31245(97): Added support for AF_UNIX socket in asyncio
     ‘create_datagram_endpoint’.

   - bpo-30553(98): Add HTTP/2 status code 421 (Misdirected Request) to
     *note http.HTTPStatus: cd0.  Patch by Vitor Pereira.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32214

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27240

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30788

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31831

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32182

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32186

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32101

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32154

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32089

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32107

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23033

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12239

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28334

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31325

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12382

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19610

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32071

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10049

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28684

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32110

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27535

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32088

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1647489

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32069

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32066

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32046

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32018

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32025

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32037

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32034

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32015

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32011

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31976

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21862

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31843

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31945

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31943

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9678

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30057

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31933

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21423

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31927

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27666

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31917

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31897

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25720

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31893

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31891

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31884

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28281

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31702

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30639

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30768

   (62) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31854

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31834

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28564

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28416

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31653

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28326

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20825

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31827

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31756

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31819

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31806

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31803

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31800

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30541

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31784

   (82) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30143

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31770

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31764

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31752

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31620

   (88) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31690

   (89) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349

   (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31664

   (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31632

   (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15037

   (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31307

   (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31334

   (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31308

   (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31245

   (98) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30553


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<64>,  Next: Tests<65>,  Prev: Library<176>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.26.70.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32105(1): Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket
     versionadded marker.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32105


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<65>,  Next: Build<68>,  Prev: Documentation<64>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.26.70.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31380(1): Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS:
     fails on APFS.

   - bpo-31705(2): Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older
     than 4.5.  The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le).
     A fix was merged into the kernel 4.5.

   - bpo-32138(3): Skip on Android test_faulthandler tests that raise
     SIGSEGV and remove the test.support.requires_android_level
     decorator.

   - bpo-32136(4): The runtime embedding tests have been split out from
     ‘Lib/test/test_capi.py’ into a new ‘Lib/test/test_embed.py’ file.

   - bpo-28668(5): test.support.requires_multiprocessing_queue is
     removed.  Skip tests with
     test.support.import_module(“multiprocessing.synchronize”) instead
     when the semaphore implementation is broken or missing.

   - bpo-32126(6): Skip test_get_event_loop_new_process in
     test.test_asyncio.test_events when sem_open() is not functional.

   - bpo-31174(7): Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now
     stores the names sample to always test the same files.  It prevents
     false alarms when hunting reference leaks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31380

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32138

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32136

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32126

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31174


File: python.info,  Node: Build<68>,  Next: Windows<61>,  Prev: Tests<65>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.26.70.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-28538(1): Revert the previous changes, the if_nameindex
     structure is defined by Unified Headers.

   - bpo-28762(2): Revert the last commit, the F_LOCK macro is defined
     by Android Unified Headers.

   - bpo-29040(3): Support building Android with Unified Headers.  The
     first NDK release to support Unified Headers is android-ndk-r14.

   - bpo-32059(4): ‘detect_modules()’ in ‘setup.py’ now also searches
     the sysroot paths when cross-compiling.

   - bpo-31957(5): Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for
     Windows.

   - bpo-31609(6): Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat

   - bpo-31934(7): Abort the build when building out of a not clean
     source tree.

   - bpo-31926(8): Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation
     errors when there was more than one function and/or method in a .c
     file with the same name.

   - bpo-28791(9): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28791(10): Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28643(11): Record profile-opt build progress with stamp files.

   - bpo-31866(12): Finish removing support for AtheOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29040

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32059

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31957

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31609

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31934

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31926

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28643

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31866


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<61>,  Next: macOS<49>,  Prev: Build<68>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.26.70.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-1102(1): Return ‘None’ when ‘View.Fetch()’ returns
     ‘ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS’ instead of raising ‘MSIError’.  Initial patch
     by Anthony Tuininga.

   - bpo-31944(2): Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.

   - bpo-20486(3): Implement the ‘Database.Close()’ method to help
     closing MSI database objects.

   - bpo-31857(4): Make the behavior of USE_STACKCHECK deterministic in
     a multi-threaded environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31944

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20486

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31857


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<49>,  Next: IDLE<44>,  Prev: Windows<61>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.26.70.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-31392(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<44>,  Next: Tools/Demos<40>,  Prev: macOS<49>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.26.70.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32207(1): Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When
     tk event handling is driven by IDLE’s run loop, a confusing and
     distracting queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk
     event exception tracebacks.  The traceback is now the same as when
     event handling is driven by user code.  Patch based on a suggestion
     by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-32164(2): Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py.  Use of
     TabbedPageSet in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.

   - bpo-32100(3): IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve
     tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31858(4): IDLE – Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the
     shell.  Editor and output windows only see an empty last prompt
     line.  This simplifies the code and fixes a minor bug when newline
     is inserted.  Sys.ps1, if present, is read on Shell start-up, but
     is not set or changed.

   - bpo-31860(5): The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is
     now editable.  Changes persist while IDLE remains open

   - bpo-31836(6): Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle,
     which sets ps1.  The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it
     to “>>> “ if not.  Test_code_module now properly tests both
     behaviors.  Ditto for ps2.

   - bpo-28603(7): Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when
     printing a traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable.
     Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-13802(8): Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE’s Font settings
     sample.  Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset
     of the unicode Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other
     fonts that define a character.  The expanded example give users of
     non-Latin characters a better idea of what they might see in IDLE’s
     shell and editors.  To make room for the expanded sample, frames on
     the Font tab are re-arranged.  The Font/Tabs help explains a bit
     about the additions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32207

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31836

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<40>,  Next: C API<62>,  Prev: IDLE<44>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.26.70.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-32159(1): Remove CVS and Subversion tools: remove svneol.py and
     treesync.py scripts.  CPython migrated from CVS to Subversion, to
     Mercurial, and then to Git.  CVS and Subversion are no longer used
     to develop CPython.

   - bpo-30722(2): Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions.
     Also, remove the ‘LOCALE’ option since it doesn’t work with string
     patterns in Python 3.  Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32159

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30722


File: python.info,  Node: C API<62>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<40>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3

1.26.70.10 C API
................

   - bpo-20891(1): Fix PyGILState_Ensure().  When PyGILState_Ensure() is
     called in a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only
     call PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix
     a crash.

   - bpo-32125(2): The ‘Py_UseClassExceptionsFlag’ flag has been
     removed.  It was deprecated and wasn’t used anymore since Python
     2.0.

   - bpo-25612(3): Move the current exception state from the frame
     object to the co-routine.  This simplifies the interpreter and
     fixes a couple of obscure bugs caused by having swap exception
     state when entering or exiting a generator.

   - bpo-23699(4): Add Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE macro to reduce boilerplate
     code in rich comparison functions.

   - bpo-30697(5): The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton is removed
     and ‘PyErr_NormalizeException()’ does not use it anymore.  This
     singleton is persistent and its members being never cleared may
     cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter.  See also
     bpo-22898(6).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32125

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25612

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23699

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.71 Python 3.7.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-10-16'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<175>.
* Library: Library<177>.
* Documentation: Documentation<65>.
* Build: Build<69>.
* IDLE: IDLE<45>.
* C API: C API<63>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<175>,  Next: Library<177>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.26.71.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31558(1): ‘gc.freeze()’ is a new API that allows for moving all
     objects currently tracked by the garbage collector to a permanent
     generation, effectively removing them from future collection
     events.  This can be used to protect those objects from having
     their PyGC_Head mutated.  In effect, this enables great
     copy-on-write stability at fork().

   - bpo-31642(2): Restored blocking «from package import module» by
     setting sys.modules[«package.module»] to None.

   - bpo-31708(3): Allow use of asynchronous generator expressions in
     synchronous functions.

   - bpo-31709(4): Drop support of asynchronous __aiter__.

   - bpo-30404(5): The -u option now makes the stdout and stderr streams
     unbuffered rather than line-buffered.

   - bpo-31619(6): Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large
     number of underscores to integer with binary base.

   - bpo-31602(7): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimporter.get_source()’ in case of a bad ‘zlib.decompress()’.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31592(8): Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case
     of a bad ‘unicodedata.normalize()’.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31588(9): Raise a ‘TypeError’ with a helpful error message when
     class creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad ‘__prepare__()’
     method.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31574(10): Importlib was instrumented with two dtrace probes to
     profile import timing.

   - bpo-31566(11): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_warnings.warn()’ in
     case of a bad ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31506(12): Improved the error message logic for
     ‘object.__new__’ and ‘object.__init__’.

   - bpo-31505(13): Fix an assertion failure in ‘json’, in case
     ‘_json.make_encoder()’ received a bad ‘encoder()’ argument.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31492(14): Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import
     from a module with a bad ‘__name__’ attribute, and in case of
     failing to access an attribute of such a module.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31478(15): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_random.Random.seed()’
     in case the argument has a bad ‘__abs__()’ method.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31336(16): Speed up class creation by 10-20% by reducing the
     overhead in the necessary special method lookups.  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-31415(17): Add ‘-X importtime’ option to show how long each
     import takes.  It can be used to optimize application’s startup
     time.  Support the *note PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: ebb. as an
     equivalent way to enable this.

   - bpo-31410(18): Optimized calling wrapper and classmethod
     descriptors.

   - bpo-31353(19): PEP 553(20) - Add a new built-in called
     ‘breakpoint()’ which calls ‘sys.breakpointhook()’.  By default this
     imports ‘pdb’ and calls ‘pdb.set_trace()’, but users may override
     ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ to call whatever debugger they want.  The
     original value of the hook is saved in ‘sys.__breakpointhook__’.

   - bpo-17852(21): Maintain a list of open buffered files, flush them
     before exiting the interpreter.  Based on a patch from Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-31315(22): Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(),
     when spec.name is not a string.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31311(23): Fix a crash in the ‘__setstate__()’ method of
     ‘ctypes._CData’, in case of a bad ‘__dict__’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31293(24): Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a
     timedelta object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31285(25): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘warnings.warn_explicit’, when the return value of the received
     loader’s ‘get_source()’ has a bad ‘splitlines()’ method.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30406(26): Make ‘async’ and ‘await’ proper keywords, as
     specified in PEP 492(27).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31558

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31642

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31709

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30404

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31619

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31602

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31592

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31588

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31574

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31566

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31506

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31505

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31492

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31478

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31336

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31415

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31410

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31353

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0553/

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17852

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31315

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31311

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31293

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31285

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30406

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<177>,  Next: Documentation<65>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<175>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.26.71.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30058(1): Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().

   - bpo-31672(2): ‘idpattern’ in ‘string.Template’ matched some
     non-ASCII characters.  Now it uses ‘-i’ regular expression local
     flag to avoid non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-31701(3): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC and
     COM exceptions.

   - bpo-31728(4): Prevent crashes in ‘_elementtree’ due to unsafe
     cleanup of ‘Element.text’ and ‘Element.tail’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31671(5): Now ‘re.compile()’ converts passed RegexFlag to
     normal int object before compiling.  bm_regex_compile benchmark
     shows 14% performance improvements.

   - bpo-30397(6): The types of compiled regular objects and match
     objects are now exposed as ‘re.Pattern’ and ‘re.Match’.  This adds
     information in pydoc output for the ‘re’ module.

   - bpo-31675(7): Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter’s methods splitlist()
     and split() when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-31673(8): Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter’s method
     adderrorinfo().

   - bpo-31648(9): Improvements to path predicates in ElementTree: Allow
     whitespace around predicate parts, i.e.  «[a = “text”]» instead of
     requiring the less readable «[a=”text”]».  Add support for text
     comparison of the current node, like «[.=”text”]».  Patch by Stefan
     Behnel.

   - bpo-30806(10): Fix the string representation of a netrc object.

   - bpo-31638(11): Add optional argument ‘compressed’ to
     ‘zipapp.create_archive’, and add option ‘--compress’ to the command
     line interface of ‘zipapp’.

   - bpo-25351(12): Avoid venv activate failures with undefined
     variables

   - bpo-20519(13): Avoid ctypes use (if possible) and improve import
     time for uuid.

   - bpo-28293(14): The regular expression cache is no longer completely
     dumped when it is full.

   - bpo-31596(15): Added pthread_getcpuclockid() to the time module

   - bpo-27494(16): Make 2to3 accept a trailing comma in generator
     expressions.  For example, ‘set(x for x in [],)’ is now allowed.

   - bpo-30347(17): Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over
     itertools.groupby() iterators.

   - bpo-30346(18): An iterator produced by itertools.groupby() iterator
     now becomes exhausted after advancing the groupby iterator.

   - bpo-31556(19): Cancel asyncio.wait_for future faster if timeout <=
     0

   - bpo-31540(20): Allow passing a context object in *note
     concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. constructor.  Also,
     free job resources in ‘concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor’
     earlier to improve memory usage when a worker waits for new jobs.

   - bpo-31516(21): ‘threading.current_thread()’ should not return a
     dummy thread at shutdown.

   - bpo-31525(22): In the sqlite module, require the sqlite3_prepare_v2
     API. Thus, the sqlite module now requires sqlite version at least
     3.3.9.

   - bpo-26510(23): argparse subparsers are now required by default.
     This matches behaviour in Python 2.  For optional subparsers, use
     the new parameter ‘add_subparsers(required=False)’.  Patch by
     Anthony Sottile.  (As of 3.7.0rc1, the default was changed to not
     required as had been the case since Python 3.3.)

   - bpo-27541(24): Reprs of subclasses of some collection and iterator
     classes (‘bytearray’, ‘array.array’, ‘collections.deque’,
     ‘collections.defaultdict’, ‘itertools.count’, ‘itertools.repeat’)
     now contain actual type name instead of hardcoded names of the base
     class.

   - bpo-31351(25): python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit
     code if pip bootstrapping has failed.

   - bpo-31389(26): ‘pdb.set_trace()’ now takes an optional keyword-only
     argument ‘header’.  If given, this is printed to the console just
     before debugging begins.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30058

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31672

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31701

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31728

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31671

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30397

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31675

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31673

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31648

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30806

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31638

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25351

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20519

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28293

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31596

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27494

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30347

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30346

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31556

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31540

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31516

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31525

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27541

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31351

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31389


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<65>,  Next: Build<69>,  Prev: Library<177>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.26.71.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31537(1): Fix incorrect usage of ‘get_history_length’ in
     readline documentation example code.  Patch by Brad Smith.

   - bpo-30085(2): The operator functions without double underscores are
     preferred for clarity.  The one with underscores are only kept for
     back-compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31537

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30085


File: python.info,  Node: Build<69>,  Next: IDLE<45>,  Prev: Documentation<65>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.26.71.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-31696(1): Improve compiler version information in *note
     sys.version: 6a8. when Python is built with Clang.

   - bpo-31625(2): Stop using ranlib on static libraries.  Instead, we
     assume ar supports the “s” flag.

   - bpo-31624(3): Remove support for BSD/OS.

   - bpo-22140(4): Prevent double substitution of prefix in
     python-config.sh.

   - bpo-31569(5): Correct PCBuild/ case to PCbuild/ in build scripts
     and documentation.

   - bpo-31536(6): Avoid wholesale rebuild after ‘make regen-all’ if
     nothing changed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31696

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31625

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31624

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22140

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31569

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31536


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<45>,  Next: C API<63>,  Prev: Build<69>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.26.71.5 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31460(1): Simplify the API of IDLE’s Module Browser.  Passing a
     widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option of
     creating a browser frame that is only part of a window.  Passing a
     full file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file
     opens the possibility of browsing python files that do not end in
     .py.

   - bpo-31649(2): IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.

   - bpo-31559(3): Remove test order dependence in
     idle_test.test_browser.

   - bpo-31459(4): Rename IDLE’s module browser from Class Browser to
     Module Browser.  The original module-level class and method browser
     became a module browser, with the addition of module-level
     functions, years ago.  Nested classes and functions were added
     yesterday.  For back-compatibility, the virtual event
     <<open-class-browser>>, which appears on the Keys tab of the
     Settings dialog, is not changed.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31500(5): Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.

   - bpo-1612262(6): IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and
     functions.  Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo
     and Cheryl Sabella, respectively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31460

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31559

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31459

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31500

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262


File: python.info,  Node: C API<63>,  Prev: IDLE<45>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2

1.26.71.6 C API
...............

   - bpo-28280(1): Make ‘PyMapping_Keys()’, ‘PyMapping_Values()’ and
     ‘PyMapping_Items()’ always return a ‘list’ (rather than a ‘list’ or
     a ‘tuple’).  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31532(2): Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in
     getpath.c between Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()

   - bpo-25658(3): Implement PEP 539(4) for Thread Specific Storage
     (TSS) API: it is a new Thread Local Storage (TLS) API to CPython
     which would supersede use of the existing TLS API within the
     CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing API. PEP
     written by Erik M. Bray, patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28280

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31532

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25658

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 6 6 final,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.72 Python 3.7.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2017-09-19'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<48>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<176>.
* Library: Library<178>.
* Documentation: Documentation<66>.
* Tests: Tests<66>.
* Build: Build<70>.
* Windows: Windows<62>.
* IDLE: IDLE<46>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<41>.
* C API: C API<64>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<48>,  Next: Core and Builtins<176>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.26.72.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29781(1): SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when
     handshake over BIO has not been performed yet.

   - bpo-29505(2): Add fuzz tests for float(str), int(str),
     unicode(str); for oss-fuzz.

   - bpo-30947(3): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   - bpo-30730(4): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(5): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(6)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(7) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(8) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0’s fix to CVE 2016-0718(9)) and CVE 2012-0876(10) (Counter
     hash flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(11) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn’t impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(12): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   - bpo-29591(13): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes
     of CVE 2016-0718(14) and CVE 2016-4472(15).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29505

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (9) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (10) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (11) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (14) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (15) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<176>,  Next: Library<178>,  Prev: Security<48>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.26.72.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31490(1): Fix an assertion failure in ‘ctypes’ class
     definition, in case the class has an attribute whose name is
     specified in ‘_anonymous_’ but not in ‘_fields_’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31471(2): Fix an assertion failure in ‘subprocess.Popen()’ on
     Windows, in case the env argument has a bad ‘keys()’ method.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31418(3): Fix an assertion failure in ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable()’
     in case of an exception with a bad ‘__module__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31416(4): Fix assertion failures in case of a bad
     warnings.filters or warnings.defaultaction.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28411(5): Change direct usage of PyInterpreterState.modules to
     PyImport_GetModuleDict().  Also introduce more uniformity in other
     code that deals with sys.modules.  This helps reduce complications
     when working on sys.modules.

   - bpo-28411(6): Switch to the abstract API when dealing with
     ‘PyInterpreterState.modules’.  This allows later support for all
     dict subclasses and other Mapping implementations.  Also add a
     ‘PyImport_GetModule()’ function to reduce a bunch of duplicated
     code.

   - bpo-31411(7): Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case
     warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31344(8): For finer control of tracing behaviour when testing
     the interpreter, two new frame attributes have been added to
     control the emission of particular trace events: ‘f_trace_lines’
     (‘True’ by default) to turn off per-line trace events; and
     ‘f_trace_opcodes’ (‘False’ by default) to turn on per-opcode trace
     events.

   - bpo-31373(9): Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior
     due to floating-point demotions.

   - bpo-30465(10): Location information (‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’) in
     f-strings is now (mostly) correct.  This fixes tools like flake8
     from showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line
     of the file).

   - bpo-30860(11): Consolidate CPython’s global runtime state under a
     single struct.  This improves discoverability of the runtime state.

   - bpo-31347(12): Fix possible undefined behavior in
     _PyObject_FastCall_Prepend.

   - bpo-31343(13): Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and
     makedev().  GNU C library plans to remove the functions from
     sys/types.h.

   - bpo-31291(14): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimport.zipimporter.get_data’ on Windows, when the return value
     of ‘pathname.replace('/','\\')’ isn’t a string.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31271(15): Fix an assertion failure in the ‘write()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’, when the encoder doesn’t return a bytes object.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31243(16): Fix a crash in some methods of ‘io.TextIOWrapper’,
     when the decoder’s state is invalid.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30721(17): ‘print’ now shows correct usage hint for using
     Python 2 redirection syntax.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31070(18): Fix a race condition in importlib
     _get_module_lock().

   - bpo-30747(19): Add a non-dummy implementation of _Py_atomic_store
     and _Py_atomic_load on MSVC.

   - bpo-31095(20): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn’t call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   - bpo-31071(21): Avoid masking original TypeError in call with *
     unpacking when other arguments are passed.

   - bpo-30978(22): str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions
     through.  Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError
     exception.

   - bpo-30808(23): Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal
     state.

   - bpo-30876(24): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30703(25): Improve signal delivery.  Avoid using
     Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling
     signal-unsafe functions.  The tests I’m adding here fail without
     the rest of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal
     delivery logic had defects (some signals could be lost).

   - bpo-30765(26): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-31161(27): Make sure the “Missing parentheses” syntax error
     message is only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses.  Patch
     by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-30814(28): Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from
     a package.

   - bpo-30736(29): The internal unicodedata database has been upgraded
     to Unicode 10.0.

   - bpo-30604(30): Move co_extra_freefuncs from per-thread to
     per-interpreter to avoid crashes.

   - bpo-30597(31): ‘print’ now shows expected input in custom error
     message when used as a Python 2 statement.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   - bpo-30682(32): Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for
     certain f-strings, such as eval(«f”\n”») and eval(«f”\r”»).

   - bpo-30501(33): The compiler now produces more optimal code for
     complex condition expressions in the «if», «while» and «assert»
     statement, the «if» expression, and generator expressions and
     comprehensions.

   - bpo-28180(34): Implement PEP 538(35) (legacy C locale coercion).
     This means that when a suitable coercion target locale is
     available, both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions
     will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text encoding, rather
     than ASCII.

   - bpo-30486(36): Allows setting cell values for __closure__.  Patch
     by Lisa Roach.

   - bpo-30537(37): itertools.islice now accepts integer-like objects
     (having an __index__ method) as start, stop, and slice arguments

   - bpo-25324(38): Tokens needed for parsing in Python moved to C.
     ‘COMMENT’, ‘NL’ and ‘ENCODING’.  This way the tokens and tok_names
     in the token module don’t get changed when you import the tokenize
     module.

   - bpo-29104(39): Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.

   - bpo-27945(40): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(41): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-30039(42): If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter
     is in the middle of resuming a chain of nested “yield from” or
     “await” calls, it’s now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.

   - bpo-28974(43): ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ is now equivalent to
     ‘str(x)’ rather than ‘format(str(self), '')’.

   - bpo-30024(44): Circular imports involving absolute imports with
     binding a submodule to a name are now supported.

   - bpo-12414(45): sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the
     sizes which includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it
     references.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29839(46): len() now raises ValueError rather than
     OverflowError if __len__() returned a large negative integer.

   - bpo-11913(47): README.rst is now included in the list of distutils
     standard READMEs and therefore included in source distributions.

   - bpo-29914(48): Fixed default implementations of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__().  object.__reduce__() no longer takes arguments,
     object.__reduce_ex__() now requires one argument.

   - bpo-29949(49): Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset
     object.

   - bpo-29935(50): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-29816(51): Shift operation now has less opportunity to raise
     OverflowError.  ValueError always is raised rather than
     OverflowError for negative counts.  Shifting zero with non-negative
     count always returns zero.

   - bpo-24821(52): Fixed the slowing down to 25 times in the searching
     of some unlucky Unicode characters.

   - bpo-29102(53): Add a unique ID to PyInterpreterState.  This makes
     it easier to identify each subinterpreter.

   - bpo-29894(54): The deprecation warning is emitted if __complex__
     returns an instance of a strict subclass of complex.  In a future
     versions of Python this can be an error.

   - bpo-29859(55): Show correct error messages when any of the
     pthread_* calls in thread_pthread.h fails.

   - bpo-29849(56): Fix a memory leak when an ImportError is raised
     during from import.

   - bpo-28856(57): Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should
     support objects follow the buffer protocol.

   - bpo-29723(58): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(59) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  The interpreter now
     consistently avoids ever adding the import location’s parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.

   - bpo-29568(60): Escaped percent «%%» in the format string for
     classic string formatting no longer allows any characters between
     two percents.

   - bpo-29714(61): Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when
     containing zero bytes inside.

   - bpo-29695(62): bool(), float(), list() and tuple() no longer take
     keyword arguments.  The first argument of int() can now be passes
     only as positional argument.

   - bpo-28893(63): Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid
     awaitables returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.

   - bpo-28876(64): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises
     *note OverflowError: c57.

   - bpo-29683(65): Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra.
     Patch by Brian Coleman.

   - bpo-29684(66): Fix minor regression of
     PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords.  It should raise TypeError when
     kwargs is not a dict.  But it might cause segv when args=NULL and
     kwargs is not a dict.

   - bpo-28598(67): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29607(68): Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX.
     Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-29602(69): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(70): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29463(71): Add ‘docstring’ field to Module, ClassDef,
     FunctionDef, and AsyncFunctionDef ast nodes.  docstring is not
     first stmt in their body anymore.  It affects ‘co_firstlineno’ and
     ‘co_lnotab’ of code object for module and class.  (Reverted in
     bpo-32911(72).)

   - bpo-29438(73): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29546(74): Set the “path” and “name” attribute on ImportError
     for ‘from ... import ...’.

   - bpo-29546(75): Improve from-import error message with location

   - bpo-29478(76): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   - bpo-29319(77): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(78): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29327(79): Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword
     argument to sorted().

   - bpo-29034(80): Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module
     (path_converter).

   - bpo-29159(81): Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises
     Exception.

   - bpo-29049(82): Call _PyObject_GC_TRACK() lazily when calling Python
     function.  Calling function is up to 5% faster.

   - bpo-28927(83): bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex() now ignore
     all ASCII whitespace, not only spaces.  Patch by Robert Xiao.

   - bpo-28932(84): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-25677(85): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret
     for indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(86): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding
     in alternate form.

   - bpo-18896(87): Python function can now have more than 255
     parameters.  collections.namedtuple() now supports tuples with more
     than 255 elements.

   - bpo-28596(88): The preferred encoding is UTF-8 on Android.  Patch
     written by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22257(89): Clean up interpreter startup (see PEP 432(90)).

   - bpo-26919(91): On Android, operating system data is now always
     encoded/decoded to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to
     avoid inconsistencies with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which
     are already using UTF-8.

   - bpo-28991(92): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28147(93): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.  Patch
     written by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28739(94): f-string expressions are no longer accepted as
     docstrings and by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include
     expressions.

   - bpo-28512(95): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28918(96): Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python
     has been built with Py_DEBUG defined.

   - bpo-23722(97): Rather than silently producing a class that doesn’t
     support zero-argument ‘super()’ in methods, failing to pass the new
     ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry up to ‘type.__new__’ now results in
     a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and a class that supports zero-argument
     ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28797(98): Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__
     method of a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer
     prevents calling the __set_name__ method of other descriptors.

   - bpo-28799(99): Remove the ‘PyEval_GetCallStats()’ function and
     deprecate the untested and undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function.
     Remove the ‘CALL_PROFILE’ special build: use the *note
     sys.setprofile(): 18a0. function, ‘cProfile’ or ‘profile’ to
     profile function calls.

   - bpo-12844(100): More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a
     function.

   - bpo-28782(101): Fix a bug in the implementation ‘yield from’ when
     checking if the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression
     introduced by WORDCODE (bpo-26647(102)).

   - bpo-28774(103): Fix error position of the unicode error in ASCII
     and Latin1 encoders when a string returned by the error handler
     contains multiple non-encodable characters (non-ASCII for the ASCII
     codec, characters out of the U+0000-U+00FF range for Latin1).

   - bpo-28731(104): Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct
     size dict.  Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to
     30%.

   - bpo-28532(105): Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.

   - bpo-27100(106): The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before
     it checks for __exit__.  This gives less confusing error messages
     when both methods are missing.  Patch by Jonathan Ellington.

   - bpo-28746(107): Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on
     platforms that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.

   - bpo-26920(108): Fix not getting the locale’s charset upon
     initializing the interpreter, on platforms that do not have
     langinfo.

   - bpo-28648(109): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28665(110): Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.

   - bpo-19398(111): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components
     in case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28621(112): Sped up converting int to float by reusing faster
     bits counting implementation.  Patch by Adrian Wielgosik.

   - bpo-28580(113): Optimize iterating split table values.  Patch by
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28583(114): PyDict_SetDefault didn’t combine split table when
     needed.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28128(115): Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape
     sequences now prints better information about where the error
     occurs.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-28509(116): dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large
     memory.

   - bpo-28426(117): Fixed potential crash in
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject() in debug build.

   - bpo-28517(118): Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer
     that caused keeping unreachable code.

   - bpo-28214(119): Improved exception reporting for problematic
     __set_name__ attributes.

   - bpo-23782(120): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add()
     and exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28183(121): Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.

   - bpo-26081(122): Added C implementation of asyncio.Future.  Original
     patch by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-28379(123): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(124): The type of long range iterator is now registered
     as Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(125): Creating instances of range_iterator by calling
     range_iterator type now is disallowed.  Calling iter() on range
     instance is the only way.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(126): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(127): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(128): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28201(129): Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash
     table when hashes have same lower bits.

   - bpo-28350(130): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(131): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(132): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-28289(133): ImportError.__init__ now resets not specified
     attributes.

   - bpo-21578(134): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(135): Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error
     message.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-28086(136): Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact tuple.

   - bpo-28214(137): Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead
     of the instance.

   - bpo-27955(138): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28192(139): Don’t import readline in isolated mode.

   - bpo-27441(140): Remove some redundant assignments to ob_size in
     longobject.c.  Thanks Oren Milman.

   - bpo-27222(141): Clean up redundant code in long_rshift function.
     Thanks Oren Milman.

   - Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.

   - bpo-28131(142): Fix a regression in zipimport’s compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-28126(143): Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy().  Visual Studio can
     properly optimize memcpy().

   - bpo-28120(144): Fix dict.pop() for split dictionary when trying to
     remove a «pending key» (Not yet inserted in split-table).  Patch by
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26182(145): Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await
     keywords are used as variable/attribute/class/function name.

   - bpo-26182(146): Fix a refleak in code that raises
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-28721(147): Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow()
     to handle StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.

   - bpo-26110(148): Speed-up method calls: add LOAD_METHOD and
     CALL_METHOD opcodes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<178>,  Next: Documentation<66>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<176>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.26.72.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-31499(1): xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-31482(2): ‘random.seed()’ now works with bytes in version=1

   - bpo-28556(3): typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns
     for classes and modules by default (when no ‘globalns’ was
     specified by the caller).

   - bpo-28556(4): Speed improvements to the ‘typing’ module.  Original
     PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.

   - bpo-31544(5): The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored
     exceptions raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in
     XMLParser().

   - bpo-31234(6): socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a
     reference cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on
     success.

   - bpo-31457(7): LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.

   - bpo-31431(8): SSLContext.check_hostname now automatically sets
     SSLContext.verify_mode to ssl.CERT_REQUIRED instead of failing with
     a ValueError.

   - bpo-31233(9): socketserver.ThreadingMixIn now keeps a list of
     non-daemonic threads to wait until all these threads complete in
     server_close().

   - bpo-28638(10): Changed the implementation strategy for
     collections.namedtuple() to substantially reduce the use of exec()
     in favor of precomputed methods.  As a result, the 'verbose'
     parameter and '_source' attribute are no longer supported.  The
     benefits include 1) having a smaller memory footprint for
     applications using multiple named tuples, 2) faster creation of the
     named tuple class (approx 4x to 6x depending on how it is
     measured), and 3) minor speed-ups for instance creation using
     __new__, _make, and _replace.  (The primary patch contributor is
     Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy
     Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger.)

   - bpo-31400(11): Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error
     numbers.

   - bpo-27629(12): Make return types of SSLContext.wrap_bio() and
     SSLContext.wrap_socket() customizable.

   - bpo-28958(13): ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information
     when a context cannot be instantiated.

   - bpo-28182(14): The SSL module now raises SSLCertVerificationError
     when OpenSSL fails to verify the peer’s certificate.  The exception
     contains more information about the error.

   - bpo-27340(15): SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create
     slices of data.  This fixes support for all bytes-like object.  It
     is also more efficient and avoids costly copies.

   - bpo-14191(16): A new function
     ‘argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args’ provides the
     ability to parse command lines where there user intermixes options
     and positional arguments.

   - bpo-31178(17): Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in
     the subprocess module

   - bpo-31350(18): Micro-optimize ‘asyncio._get_running_loop()’ to
     become up to 10% faster.

   - bpo-31170(19): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   - bpo-29136(20): Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.

   - bpo-1198569(21): ‘string.Template’ subclasses can optionally define
     ‘braceidpattern’ if they want to specify different placeholder
     patterns inside and outside the braces.  If None (the default) it
     falls back to ‘idpattern’.

   - bpo-31326(22): concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor.shutdown()
     now explicitly closes the call queue.  Moreover,
     shutdown(wait=True) now also join the call queue thread, to prevent
     leaking a dangling thread.

   - bpo-27144(23): The ‘map()’ and ‘as_completed()’ iterators in
     ‘concurrent.futures’ now avoid keeping a reference to yielded
     objects.

   - bpo-31281(24): Fix ‘fileinput.FileInput(files, inplace=True)’ when
     ‘files’ contain ‘pathlib.Path’ objects.

   - bpo-10746(25): Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118(26) type codes
     for integer types.

   - bpo-27584(27): ‘AF_VSOCK’ has been added to the socket interface
     which allows communication between virtual machines and their host.

   - bpo-22536(28): The subprocess module now sets the filename when
     FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable
     or cwd not being found.

   - bpo-29741(29): Update some methods in the _pyio module to also
     accept integer types.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31249(30): concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by
     ThreadPoolExecutor now breaks a reference cycle between an
     exception object and the WorkItem object.

   - bpo-31247(31): xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles
     when using sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.

   - bpo-23835(32): configparser: reading defaults in the
     ‘ConfigParser()’ constructor is now using ‘read_dict()’, making its
     behavior consistent with the rest of the parser.  Non-string keys
     and values in the defaults dictionary are now being implicitly
     converted to strings.  Patch by James Tocknell.

   - bpo-31238(33): pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread
     class now waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and
     then explicitly sets its docserver attribute to None to break a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-5001(34): Many asserts in ‘multiprocessing’ are now more
     informative, and some error types have been changed to more
     specific ones.

   - bpo-31109(35): Convert zipimport to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-30102(36): The ssl and hashlib modules now call
     OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL < 1.1.0.  The
     function detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU
     architectures such as POWER8.  Patch is based on research from
     Gustavo Serra Scalet.

   - bpo-18966(37): Non-daemonic threads created by a
     multiprocessing.Process are now joined on child exit.

   - bpo-31183(38): ‘dis’ now works with asynchronous generator and
     coroutine objects.  Patch by George Collins based on diagnosis by
     Luciano Ramalho.

   - bpo-5001(39): There are a number of uninformative asserts in the
     ‘multiprocessing’ module, as noted in issue 5001.  This change
     fixes two of the most potentially problematic ones, since they are
     in error-reporting code, in the
     ‘multiprocessing.managers.convert_to_error’ function.  (It also
     makes more informative a ValueError message.)  The only potentially
     problematic change is that the AssertionError is now a TypeError;
     however, this should also help distinguish it from an
     AssertionError being 'reported' by the function/its caller (such as
     in issue 31169).  - Patch by Allen W. Smith (drallensmith on
     github).

   - bpo-31185(40): Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup
     module.

   - bpo-31151(41): socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close() now waits
     until all child processes completed to prevent leaking zombie
     processes.

   - bpo-31072(42): Add an ‘include_file’ parameter to
     ‘zipapp.create_archive()’

   - bpo-24700(43): Optimize array.array comparison.  It is now from 10x
     up to 70x faster when comparing arrays holding values of the same
     integer type.

   - bpo-31135(44): ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and
     OptionMenu classes.  Call the parent destroy() method even if the
     used attribute doesn’t exist.  The LabeledScale.destroy() method
     now also explicitly clears label and scale attributes to help the
     garbage collector to destroy all widgets.

   - bpo-31107(45): Fix ‘copyreg._slotnames()’ mangled attribute
     calculation for classes whose name begins with an underscore.
     Patch by Shane Harvey.

   - bpo-31080(46): Allow ‘logging.config.fileConfig’ to accept kwargs
     and/or args.

   - bpo-30897(47): ‘pathlib.Path’ objects now include an ‘is_mount()’
     method (only implemented on POSIX). This is similar to
     ‘os.path.ismount(p)’.  Patch by Cooper Ry Lees.

   - bpo-31061(48): Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.

   - bpo-30987(49): Added support for CAN ISO-TP protocol in the socket
     module.

   - bpo-30522(50): Added a ‘setStream’ method to
     ‘logging.StreamHandler’ to allow the stream to be set after
     creation.

   - bpo-30502(51): Fix handling of long oids in ssl.  Based on patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-5288(52): Support tzinfo objects with sub-minute offsets.

   - bpo-30919(53): Fix shared memory performance regression in
     multiprocessing in 3.x.  Shared memory used anonymous memory
     mappings in 2.x, while 3.x mmaps actual files.  Try to be careful
     to do as little disk I/O as possible.

   - bpo-26732(54): Fix too many fds in processes started with the
     «forkserver» method.  A child process would inherit as many fds as
     the number of still-running children.

   - bpo-29403(55): Fix ‘unittest.mock’’s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(56): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in
     tracemalloc.

   - bpo-19896(57): Fix multiprocessing.sharedctypes to recognize
     typecodes ‘'q'’ and ‘'Q'’.

   - bpo-30946(58): Remove obsolete code in readline module for
     platforms where GNU readline is older than 2.1 or where select() is
     not available.

   - bpo-25684(59): Change ‘ttk.OptionMenu’ radiobuttons to be unique
     across instances of ‘OptionMenu’.

   - bpo-30886(60): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now
     waits until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by
     the same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(61): Fix segfault in readline when using readline’s
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30794(62): Added multiprocessing.Process.kill method to
     terminate using the SIGKILL signal on Unix.

   - bpo-30319(63): socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.

   - bpo-30828(64): Fix out of bounds write in
     ‘asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback()’.

   - bpo-30302(65): Use keywords in the ‘repr’ of ‘datetime.timedelta’.

   - bpo-30807(66): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(67): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-29585(68): Avoid importing ‘sysconfig’ from ‘site’ to improve
     startup speed.  Python startup is about 5% faster on Linux and 30%
     faster on macOS.

   - bpo-29293(69): Add missing parameter «n» on
     multiprocessing.Condition.notify().  The doc claims
     multiprocessing.Condition behaves like threading.Condition, but its
     notify() method lacked the optional «n» argument (to specify the
     number of sleepers to wake up) that threading.Condition.notify()
     accepts.

   - bpo-30532(70): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-30596(71): Add a ‘close()’ method to ‘multiprocessing.Process’.

   - bpo-9146(72): Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when
     standard hash functions such as md5 are not available in the linked
     OpenSSL library.  As in some special FIPS-140 build environments.

   - bpo-29169(73): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-30119(74): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30879(75): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(76): Prohibited the “=” character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-30664(77): The description of a unittest subtest now preserves
     the order of keyword arguments of TestCase.subTest().

   - bpo-21071(78): struct.Struct.format type is now *note str: 1df.
     instead of *note bytes: 1c7.

   - bpo-29212(79): Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor
     threads to have a non repr() based thread name by default when no
     thread_name_prefix is supplied.  They will now identify themselves
     as «ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n».

   - bpo-29755(80): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   - bpo-30616(81): Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums.
     Patched by Donghee Na

   - bpo-30038(82): Fix race condition between signal delivery and
     wakeup file descriptor.  Patch by Nathaniel Smith.

   - bpo-23894(83): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rb'...'’ and ‘f'...'’
     strings.

   - bpo-24744(84): pkgutil.walk_packages function now raises ValueError
     if 'path' is a string.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-24484(85): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.

   - bpo-30589(86): Fix multiprocessing.Process.exitcode to return the
     opposite of the signal number when the process is killed by a
     signal (instead of 255) when using the «forkserver» method.

   - bpo-28994(87): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(88): Don’t log exceptions if Task/Future «cancel()»
     method was called.

   - bpo-30645(89): Fix path calculation in ‘imp.load_package()’, fixing
     it for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch
     by Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-11822(90): The dis.dis() function now is able to disassemble
     nested code objects.

   - bpo-30624(91): selectors does not take KeyboardInterrupt and
     SystemExit into account, leaving a fd in a bad state in case of
     error.  Patch by Giampaolo Rodola”.

   - bpo-30595(92): multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls
     its reader in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock
     but the acquire took longer than the timeout.

   - bpo-28556(93): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-30605(94): re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when
     compiling a bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier.  Patch
     by Roy Williams.

   - bpo-29870(95): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(96): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(97): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30014(98): modify() method of poll(), epoll() and devpoll()
     based classes of selectors module is around 10% faster.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola”.

   - bpo-30418(99): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-30463(100): Added empty __slots__ to abc.ABC. This allows
     subclassers to deny __dict__ and __weakref__ creation.  Patch by
     Aaron Hall.

   - bpo-30520(101): Loggers are now pickleable.

   - bpo-30557(102): faulthandler now correctly filters and displays
     exception codes on Windows

   - bpo-30526(103): Add TextIOWrapper.reconfigure() and a
     TextIOWrapper.write_through attribute.

   - bpo-30245(104): Fix possible overflow when organize
     struct.pack_into error message.  Patch by Yuan Liu.

   - bpo-30378(105): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-16500(106): Allow registering at-fork handlers.

   - bpo-30470(107): Deprecate invalid ctypes call protection on
     Windows.  Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-30414(108): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(109): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30149(110): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30436(111): importlib.find_spec() raises ModuleNotFoundError
     instead of AttributeError if the specified parent module is not a
     package (i.e.  lacks a __path__ attribute).

   - bpo-30301(112): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30375(113): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30329(114): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-29196(115): Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes
     Plist, Dict and _InternalDict in the plistlib module.  Dict values
     in the result of functions readPlist() and readPlistFromBytes() are
     now normal dicts.  You no longer can use attribute access to access
     items of these dictionaries.

   - bpo-9850(116): The ‘macpath’ is now deprecated and will be removed
     in Python 3.8.

   - bpo-30299(117): Compiling regular expression in debug mode on
     CPython now displays the compiled bytecode in human readable form.

   - bpo-30048(118): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-30266(119): contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports
     anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None,
     following the pattern introduced in bpo-25958(120).  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-30340(121): Enhanced regular expressions optimization.  This
     increased the performance of matching some patterns up to 25 times.

   - bpo-30298(122): Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for
     inline modifiers.  Now allowed several subsequential inline
     modifiers at the start of the pattern (e.g.  ‘'(?i)(?s)...'’).  In
     verbose mode whitespaces and comments now are allowed before and
     between inline modifiers (e.g.  ‘'(?x) (?i) (?s)...'’).

   - bpo-30285(123): Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching
     of regular expressions.

   - bpo-29990(124): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-29979(125): rewrite cgi.parse_multipart, reusing the
     FieldStorage class and making its results consistent with those of
     FieldStorage for multipart/form-data requests.  Patch by Pierre
     Quentel.

   - bpo-30243(126): Removed the __init__ methods of _json’s scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30215(127): Compiled regular expression objects with the
     re.LOCALE flag no longer depend on the locale at compile time.
     Only the locale at matching time affects the result of matching.

   - bpo-30185(128): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-30103(129): binascii.b2a_uu() and uu.encode() now support using
     ‘'`'’ as zero instead of space.

   - bpo-28556(130): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(131): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30228(132): The seek() and tell() methods of io.FileIO now set
     the internal seekable attribute to avoid one syscall on open() (in
     buffered or text mode).

   - bpo-30190(133): unittest’s assertAlmostEqual and
     assertNotAlmostEqual provide a better message in case of failure
     which includes the difference between left and right arguments.
     (patch by Giampaolo Rodola”)

   - bpo-30101(134): Add support for curses.A_ITALIC.

   - bpo-29822(135): inspect.isabstract() now works during
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-29960(136): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30070(137): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-22352(138): Column widths in the output of dis.dis() are now
     adjusted for large line numbers and instruction offsets.

   - bpo-30061(139): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30218(140): Fix PathLike support for shutil.unpack_archive.
     Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-10076(141): Compiled regular expression and match objects in
     the re module now support copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy() (they are
     considered atomic).

   - bpo-30068(142): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it’s closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(143): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(144): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-26187(145): Test that sqlite3 trace callback is not called
     multiple times when schema is changing.  Indirectly fixed by
     switching to use sqlite3_prepare_v2() in bpo-9303(146).  Patch by
     Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-30017(147): Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry
     writer object multiple times.  Writing to a closed writer now
     always produces a ValueError.

   - bpo-29998(148): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29995(149): re.escape() now escapes only regex special
     characters.

   - bpo-29962(150): Add math.remainder operation, implementing
     remainder as specified in IEEE 754.

   - bpo-29649(151): Improve struct.pack_into() exception messages for
     problems with the buffer size and offset.  Patch by Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-29654(152): Support If-Modified-Since HTTP header (browser
     cache).  Patch by Pierre Quentel.

   - bpo-29931(153): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-29953(154): Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of
     datetime and time objects when pass out of bound fold argument.

   - bpo-29942(155): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-10030(156): Sped up reading encrypted ZIP files by 2 times.

   - bpo-29204(157): Element.getiterator() and the html parameter of
     XMLParser() were deprecated only in the documentation (since Python
     3.2 and 3.4 correspondingly).  Now using them emits a deprecation
     warning.

   - bpo-27863(158): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by
     race conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-25996(159): Added support of file descriptors in os.scandir()
     on Unix.  os.fwalk() is sped up by 2 times by using os.scandir().

   - bpo-28699(160): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-23890(161): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually
     breaks a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than
     expected.

   - bpo-29901(162): The zipapp module now supports general path-like
     objects, not just pathlib.Path.

   - bpo-25803(163): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(164): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-19930(165): The mode argument of os.makedirs() no longer
     affects the file permission bits of newly created
     intermediate-level directories.

   - bpo-29884(166): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(167): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(168): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-8256(169): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes «encoding» or «errors» of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28692(170): Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form
     in gettext is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26121(171): Use C library implementation for math functions
     erf() and erfc().

   - bpo-29619(172): os.stat() and os.DirEntry.inode() now convert inode
     (st_ino) using unsigned integers.

   - bpo-28298(173): Fix a bug that prevented array “Q”, “L” and “I”
     from accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as
     elements.

   - bpo-29645(174): Speed up importing the webbrowser module.
     webbrowser.register() is now thread-safe.

   - bpo-28231(175): The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects
     for external paths.

   - bpo-26915(176): index() and count() methods of
     collections.abc.Sequence now check identity before checking
     equality when do comparisons.

   - bpo-28682(177): Added support for bytes paths in os.fwalk().

   - bpo-29728(178): Add new ‘socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’ (Linux 3.12)
     constant.  Patch by Nathaniel J. Smith.

   - bpo-29623(179): Allow use of path-like object as a single argument
     in ConfigParser.read().  Patch by David Ellis.

   - bpo-9303(180): Migrate sqlite3 module to _v2 API. Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-28963(181): Fix out of bound iteration in
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.

   - bpo-29704(182): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no
     longer closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29271(183): Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks
     implemented in C to accept None argument as their pure Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-29703(184): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29615(185): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError
     (or any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-7769(186): Method register_function() of
     xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher and its subclasses can now be
     used as a decorator.

   - bpo-29376(187): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-28624(188): Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of
     Popen() accepts PathLike objects.  Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.

   - bpo-28518(189): Start a transaction implicitly before a DML
     statement.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-29742(190): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-16285(191): urllib.parse.quote is now based on RFC 3986 and
     hence includes “~” in the set of characters that is not quoted by
     default.  Patch by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath.

   - bpo-29532(192): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-29110(193): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-22807(194): Add uuid.SafeUUID and uuid.UUID.is_safe to relay
     information from the platform about whether generated UUIDs are
     generated with a multiprocessing safe method.

   - bpo-29576(195): Improve some deprecations in importlib.  Some
     deprecated methods now emit DeprecationWarnings and have better
     descriptive messages.

   - bpo-29534(196): Fixed different behaviour of Decimal.from_float()
     for _decimal and _pydecimal.  Thanks Andrew Nester.

   - bpo-10379(197): locale.format_string now supports the “monetary”
     keyword argument, and locale.format is deprecated.

   - bpo-29851(198): importlib.reload() now raises ModuleNotFoundError
     if the module lacks a spec.

   - bpo-28556(199): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(200): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29416(201): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(202): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29377(203): Add WrapperDescriptorType, MethodWrapperType, and
     MethodDescriptorType built-in types to types module.  Original
     patch by Manuel Krebber.

   - bpo-29218(204): Unused install_misc command is now removed.  It has
     been documented as unused since 2000.  Patch by Eric N. Vander
     Weele.

   - bpo-29368(205): The extend() method is now called instead of the
     append() method when unpickle collections.deque and other list-like
     objects.  This can speed up unpickling to 2 times.

   - bpo-29338(206): The help of a builtin or extension class now
     includes the constructor signature if __text_signature__ is
     provided for the class.

   - bpo-29335(207): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(208): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(209): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29197(210): Removed deprecated function ntpath.splitunc().

   - bpo-29210(211): Removed support of deprecated argument «exclude» in
     tarfile.TarFile.add().

   - bpo-29219(212): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-29192(213): Removed deprecated features in the http.cookies
     module.

   - bpo-29193(214): A format string argument for
     string.Formatter.format() is now positional-only.

   - bpo-29195(215): Removed support of deprecated undocumented keyword
     arguments in methods of regular expression objects.

   - bpo-28969(216): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-20804(217): The unittest.mock.sentinel attributes now preserve
     their identity when they are copied or pickled.

   - bpo-29142(218): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   - bpo-28961(219): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don’t ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-15812(220): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the
     first line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-28985(221): Update authorizer constants in sqlite3 module.
     Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - bpo-29079(222): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on
     Windows

   - bpo-13051(223): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-9770(224): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(225): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(226): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-28871(227): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(228): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(229): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a
     sequence that doesn’t own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-16255(230): subprocess.Popen uses /system/bin/sh on Android as
     the shell, instead of /bin/sh.

   - bpo-28779(231): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would
     crash the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated
     some multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-26937(232): The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class
     does not fail now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for
     example on Android platforms.

   - bpo-28847(233): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and
     no longer writes the index file when it is not changed.  A
     deprecation warning is now emitted if the index file is missed and
     recreated in the “r” and “w” modes (will be an error in future
     Python releases).

   - bpo-27030(234): Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
     letter in re.sub() replacement templates regular expressions now
     are errors.

   - bpo-28835(235): Fix a regression introduced in
     warnings.catch_warnings(): call warnings.showwarning() if it was
     overridden inside the context manager.

   - bpo-27172(236): To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously
     documented deprecation of ‘inspect.getfullargspec()’ has been
     reversed.  This decision may be revisited again after the Python
     2.7 branch is no longer officially supported.

   - bpo-28740(237): Add sys.getandroidapilevel(): return the build time
     API version of Android as an integer.  Function only available on
     Android.

   - bpo-26273(238): Add new ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’ (Linux 2.6.13) and
     ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37) constants.  Patch written
     by Omar Sandoval.

   - bpo-28752(239): Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime
     objects.

   - bpo-28727(240): Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern
     objects created by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and
     x!=y operators).  This change should fix the bpo-18383(241): don’t
     duplicate warning filters when the warnings module is reloaded
     (thing usually only done in unit tests).

   - bpo-20572(242): Remove the subprocess.Popen.wait endtime parameter.
     It was deprecated in 3.4 and undocumented prior to that.

   - bpo-25659(243): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the
     from_buffer() and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes
     like Array.

   - bpo-28548(244): In the «http.server» module, parse the protocol
     version if possible, to avoid using HTTP 0.9 in some error
     responses.

   - bpo-19717(245): Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not
     exist.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok

   - bpo-28563(246): Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution
     when handle plural form selections in the gettext module.  The
     expression parser now supports exact syntax supported by GNU
     gettext.

   - bpo-28387(247): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper
     deallocator when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.
     Based on patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-27517(248): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(249): Fixed segfault in curses’s addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(250): tarfile.open() with mode «r» or «r:» now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(251): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-24241(252): The webbrowser in an X environment now prefers
     using the default browser directly.  Also, the webbrowser
     register() function now has a documented “preferred” argument, to
     specify browsers to be returned by get() with no arguments.  Patch
     by David Steele

   - bpo-27939(253): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-28255(254): calendar.TextCalendar.prweek() no longer prints a
     space after a weeks’s calendar.  calendar.TextCalendar.pryear() no
     longer prints redundant newline after a year’s calendar.  Based on
     patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28255(255): calendar.TextCalendar.prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month’s calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(256): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(257): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-28430(258): Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future
     doesn’t accept non-None value is passed to it.send(val).

   - bpo-27025(259): Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by
     the «!» prefix for readability.

   - bpo-25464(260): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module
     by addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(261): shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry «./» to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-25953(262): re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not
     found in the string.  Error message for invalid group reference now
     includes the group index and the position of the reference.  Based
     on patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-28469(263): timeit now uses the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50,…
     instead of 1, 10, 100,… for autoranging.

   - bpo-28115(264): Command-line interface of the zipfile module now
     uses argparse.  Added support of long options.

   - bpo-18219(265): Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of
     columns.  Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-28448(266): Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn’t work on
     Windows.

   - bpo-23214(267): In the «io» module, the argument to BufferedReader
     and BytesIO’s read1() methods is now optional and can be -1,
     matching the BufferedIOBase specification.

   - bpo-28480(268): Fix error building socket module when
     multithreading is disabled.

   - bpo-28240(269): timeit: remove ‘-c/--clock’ and ‘-t/--time’ command
     line options which were deprecated since Python 3.3.

   - bpo-28240(270): timeit now repeats the benchmarks 5 times instead
     of only 3 to make benchmarks more reliable.

   - bpo-28240(271): timeit autorange now uses a single loop iteration
     if the benchmark takes less than 10 seconds, instead of 10
     iterations.  «python3 -m timeit -s “import time” “time.sleep(1)”»
     now takes 4 seconds instead of 40 seconds.

   - Distutils.sdist now looks for README and setup.py files with case
     sensitivity.  This behavior matches that found in Setuptools 6.0
     and later.  See setuptools 100(272) for rationale.

   - bpo-24452(273): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X. Patch
     by Ned Batchelder.

   - bpo-20766(274): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-27998(275): Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on
     Windows.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-28317(276): The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.

   - bpo-28380(277): unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly
     support assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.

   - bpo-28229(278): lzma module now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28321(279): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28225(280): bz2 module now supports pathlib.  Initial patch by
     Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28227(281): gzip now supports pathlib.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28332(282): Deprecated silent truncations in socket.htons and
     socket.ntohs.  Original patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-27358(283): Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and
     improved error message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword
     argument.

   - bpo-28257(284): Improved error message when passing a non-iterable
     as a var-positional argument.  Added opcode
     BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.

   - bpo-28322(285): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-28228(286): imghdr now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28226(287): compileall now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28314(288): Fix function declaration (C flags) for the
     getiterator() method of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.

   - bpo-28148(289): Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time
     module.  Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that
     is similar to POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms.
     Patch by Ed Schouten.

   - bpo-28253(290): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months:
     0001-01 and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2()
     are reimplemented so that they don’t call itermonthdates() which
     can cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(291): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(292): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18844(293): random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only
     argument to improve the readability of common cases and come into
     line with the signature used in other languages.

   - bpo-18893(294): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(295): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.  Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle
     constructor.

   - bpo-27348(296): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like «Exception: None».  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(297): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27778(298): Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the
     getrandom() is interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises
     a Python exception.

   - bpo-28200(299): Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix
     path_converter() function).

   - bpo-25400(300): RobotFileParser now correctly returns default
     values for crawl_delay and request_rate.  Initial patch by Peter
     Wirtz.

   - bpo-27932(301): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(302): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-22493(303): Warning message emitted by using inline flags in
     the middle of regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex
     pattern.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-25270(304): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(305): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(306): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-28114(307): Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains
     byte strings.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-27599(308): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-27906(309): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(310): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn’t properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(311): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(312): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA
     Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(313): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(314): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28325(315): Remove vestigial MacOS 9 macurl2path module and its
     tests.

   - bpo-28368(316): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher
     has no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(317): Raise RuntimeError when transport’s FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(318): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(319): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(320): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(321): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch
     by Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(322): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   - bpo-24142(323): Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in
     an invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-29581(324): ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts ‘**kwargs’, allowing
     abstract base classes to use keyword parameters in
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-25532(325): inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an
     object sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects
     which create a new object on every attribute access.

   - bpo-30177(326): path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path
     after the first element not present in the filesystem.  Patch by
     Antoine Pietri.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31482

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31544

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31234

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31431

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31233

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31400

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27629

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28958

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File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<66>,  Next: Tests<66>,  Prev: Library<178>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.26.72.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31294(1): Fix incomplete code snippet in the
     ZeroMQSocketListener and ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt
     them to Python 3.

   - bpo-21649(2): Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL
     documentation.

   - bpo-31128(3): Allow the pydoc server to bind to arbitrary
     hostnames.

   - bpo-30803(4): Clarify doc on truth value testing.  Original patch
     by Peter Thomassen.

   - bpo-30176(5): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-30052(6): the link targets for *note bytes(): 1c7. and *note
     bytearray(): 1c6. are now their respective type definitions, rather
     than the corresponding builtin function entries.  Use *note bytes:
     2087. and *note bytearray: 2088. to reference the latter.  In order
     to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied
     automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the
     default output caching features in Sphinx.

   - bpo-26985(7): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   - bpo-19824(8): Improve the documentation for, and links to, template
     strings by emphasizing their utility for internationalization, and
     by clarifying some usage constraints.  (See also: bpo-20314(9),
     bpo-12518(10))

   - bpo-28929(11): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(12): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add
     a pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(13): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(14): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   - bpo-23722(15): The data model reference and the porting section in
     the 3.6 What’s New guide now cover the additional ‘__classcell__’
     handling needed for custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487(16)
     and zero-argument ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28513(17): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31294

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30803

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30052

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19824

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20314

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12518

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<66>,  Next: Build<70>,  Prev: Documentation<66>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.26.72.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-29639(1): test.support.HOST is now «localhost», a new HOSTv4
     constant has been added for your ‘127.0.0.1’ needs, similar to the
     existing HOSTv6 constant.

   - bpo-31320(2): Silence traceback in test_ssl

   - bpo-31346(3): Prefer PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT and PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER
     protocols for SSLContext.

   - bpo-25674(4): Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test

   - bpo-30715(5): Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f.
     The latest version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts
     handshake.

   - bpo-30822(6): regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest –all.  When
     running the test suite using –use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata
     since it makes test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots)
     which then times out on some buildbots.  Fix also regrtest command
     line parser to allow passing -u extralargefile to run
     test_zipfile64.

   - bpo-30695(7): Add the ‘set_nomemory(start, stop)’ and
     ‘remove_mem_hooks()’ functions to the ‘_testcapi’ module.

   - bpo-30357(8): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-30197(9): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn’t exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the «as» clause, if there is one.

   - bpo-24932(10): Use proper command line parsing in _testembed

   - bpo-28950(11): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28683(12): Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise
     PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.

   - bpo-26936(13): Fix the test_socket failures on Android -
     getservbyname(), getservbyport() and getaddrinfo() are broken on
     some Android API levels.

   - bpo-28666(14): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(15): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   - bpo-26944(16): Fix test_posix for Android where “id -G” is entirely
     wrong or missing the effective gid.

   - bpo-28409(17): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   - bpo-28217(18): Adds _testconsole module to test console input.

   - bpo-26939(19): Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix
     test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29639

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31320

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31346

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25674

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30715

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30695

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24932

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28683

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26936

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26944

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28217

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26939


File: python.info,  Node: Build<70>,  Next: Windows<62>,  Prev: Tests<66>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.26.72.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-31354(1): Allow ‘--with-lto’ to be used on all builds, not just
     ‘make profile-opt’.

   - bpo-31370(2): Remove support for building –without-threads.  This
     option is not really useful anymore in the 21st century.  Removing
     lots of conditional paths allows us to simplify the code base,
     including in difficult to maintain low-level internal code.

   - bpo-31341(3): Per PEP 11(4), support for the IRIX operating system
     was removed.

   - bpo-30854(5): Fix compile error when compiling –without-threads.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-30687(6): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-20210(7): Support the 'disabled' marker in Setup files.
     Extension modules listed after this marker are not built at all,
     neither by the Makefile nor by setup.py.

   - bpo-29941(8): Add ‘--with-assertions’ configure flag to explicitly
     enable C ‘assert()’ checks.  Defaults to off.  ‘--with-pydebug’
     implies ‘--with-assertions’.

   - bpo-28787(9): Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with
     ‘--with--dtrace’.

   - bpo-29243(10): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during
     ‘make test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when
     configured with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(11): Don’t regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(12): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn’t work.

   - bpo-27593(13): sys.version and the platform module python_build(),
     python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git
     information rather than hg when building from a repo.

   - bpo-29572(14): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2k.

   - bpo-27659(15): Prohibit implicit C function declarations: use
     ‘-Werror=implicit-function-declaration’ when possible (GCC and
     Clang, but it depends on the compiler version).  Patch written by
     Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-29384(16): Remove old Be OS helper scripts.

   - bpo-26851(17): Set Android compilation and link flags.

   - bpo-28768(18): Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto

   - bpo-29080(19): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(20): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-28762(21): lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but
     the F_LOCK macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.

   - bpo-28538(22): Fix the compilation error that occurs because
     if_nameindex() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     if_nameindex structure is not defined.

   - bpo-20211(23): Do not add the directory for installing C header
     files and the directory for installing object code libraries to the
     cross compilation search paths.  Original patch by Thomas
     Petazzoni.

   - bpo-28849(24): Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on
     Android.

   - bpo-10656(25): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(26): Rename –with-optimiations to –enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28444(27): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28208(28): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     SQLite 3.14.2.

   - bpo-28248(29): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   - bpo-21124(30): Fix building the _struct module on Cygwin by passing
     ‘NULL’ instead of ‘&PyType_Type’ to PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT. Patch by
     Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-13756(31): Fix building extensions modules on Cygwin.  Patch by
     Roumen Petrov, based on original patch by Jason Tishler.

   - bpo-21085(32): Add configure check for siginfo_t.si_band, which
     Cygwin does not provide.  Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto with review
     and rebase by Erik Bray.

   - bpo-28258(33): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(34): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-27979(35): A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use
     when building _ctypes on non-OSX UNIX platforms.  An installed copy
     of libffi is now required when building _ctypes on such platforms.

   - bpo-15819(36): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-28676(37): Prevent missing “getentropy” declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31354

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31341

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30854

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20210

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29941

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28787

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29572

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27659

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29384

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26851

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28768

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20211

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28849

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28208

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21124

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13756

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21085

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27979

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<62>,  Next: IDLE<46>,  Prev: Build<70>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.26.72.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-31392(1): Update Windows build to use OpenSSL 1.1.0f

   - bpo-30389(2): Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31358(3): zlib is no longer bundled in the CPython source,
     instead it is downloaded on demand just like bz2, lzma, OpenSSL,
     Tcl/Tk, and SQLite.

   - bpo-31340(4): Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with
     Visual Studio 2017)

   - bpo-30581(5): os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of
     processors on Windows when the number of logical processors is
     greater than 64.

   - bpo-30916(6): Pre-build OpenSSL, Tcl and Tk and include the
     binaries in the build.

   - bpo-30731(7): Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it
     matches the schema.

   - bpo-30291(8): Allow requiring 64-bit interpreters from py.exe using
     -64 suffix.  Contributed by Steve (Gadget) Barnes.

   - bpo-30362(9): Adds list options (-0, -0p) to py.exe launcher.
     Contributed by Steve Barnes.

   - bpo-23451(10): Fix socket deprecation warnings in socketmodule.c.
     Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-30450(11): The build process on Windows no longer depends on
     Subversion, instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python
     script.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py -3.6’),
     NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python.

   - bpo-29579(12): Removes readme.txt from the installer.

   - bpo-25778(13): winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28896(14): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by
     default

   - bpo-28522(15): Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c

   - bpo-28402(16): Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.

   - bpo-28333(17): Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts.
     (Patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28251(18): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(19): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-28161(20): Opening CON for write access fails

   - bpo-28162(21): WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line
     starts with Ctrl+Z

   - bpo-28163(22): WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to
     _open_osfhandle

   - bpo-28164(23): _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths

   - bpo-28137(24): Renames Windows path file to ._pth

   - bpo-28138(25): Windows ._pth file should allow import site

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30389

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31358

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31340

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30581

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30916

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30731

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30362

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23451

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29579

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25778

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28522

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28402

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28333

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28161

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28162

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28163

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28138


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<46>,  Next: Tools/Demos<41>,  Prev: Windows<62>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.26.72.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31493(1): IDLE code context – fix code update and font update
     timers.  Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle
     completes.

   - bpo-31488(2): IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension
     classes.  When applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each
     feature class.  Change ParenMatch so updated options affect
     existing instances attached to existing editor windows.

   - bpo-31477(3): IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc.  Strip trailing
     whitespace strips more than blank spaces.  Multiline string
     literals are not skipped.

   - bpo-31480(4): IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension
     disabled by default.

   - bpo-31421(5): Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs.  IDLE calls
     tcl/tk update in the background in order to make live interaction
     and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.

   - bpo-31414(6): IDLE – fix tk entry box tests by deleting first.
     Adding to an int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting
     because int(“”) will fail.

   - bpo-31051(7): Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window,
     Editor, and Help sections.

   - bpo-30617(8): IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass
     of editor.  Move some data and functions from the class to module
     level.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31287(9): IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in
     test_configdialog.

   - bpo-27099(10): Convert IDLE’s built-in “extensions” to regular
     features.  About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly
     optional extensions.  Their different behavior could be confusing
     or worse for users and not good for maintenance.  Hence the
     conversion.  The main difference for users is that user
     configurable key bindings for builtin features are now handled
     uniformly.  Now, editing a binding in a keyset only affects its
     value in the keyset.  All bindings are defined together in the
     system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def.  All
     custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg.  All
     take effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok.  The affected events
     are “<<force-open-completions>>”, “<<expand-word>>”,
     “<<force-open-calltip>>”, “<<flash-paren>>”,
     “<<format-paragraph>>”, “<<run-module>>”, “<<check-module>>”, and
     “<<zoom-height>>”.  Any (global) customizations made before 3.6.3
     will not affect their keyset-specific customization after 3.6.3.
     and vice versa.  Initial patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-31206(11): IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31001(12): Add tests for configdialog highlight tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31205(13): IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  The slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31130(14): IDLE – stop leaks in test_configdialog.  Initial
     patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31002(15): Add tests for configdialog keys tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-19903(16): IDLE: Calltips use ‘inspect.signature’ instead of
     ‘inspect.getfullargspec’.  This improves calltips for builtins
     converted to use Argument Clinic.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-31083(17): IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in
     configdialog.  Update existing classes to match outline.  Initial
     patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31050(18): Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.  The
     slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31004(19): IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Fix
     General tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30781(20): IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog.  Patches by
     Terry Jan Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31060(21): IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog
     Grouping methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid
     writing tests and improving the tabs and will enable splitting the
     groups into classes.

   - bpo-30853(22): IDLE – Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog.
     Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a
     callback function.  When tracing is turned on, setting the variable
     calls the function.  Test coverage for the new class is 100%.

   - bpo-31003(23): IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.

   - bpo-30993(24): IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests.  In
     configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab
     docstring.  Simplify some attribute names.  Move set_samples calls
     to var_changed_font (idea from Cheryl Sabella).  Move related
     functions to positions after the create widgets function.  In
     test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent.  Fix
     renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget.  Adjust tests for
     movement of set_samples call.  Add tests for load functions.  Put
     all font tests in one class and tab indent tests in another.
     Except for two lines, these tests completely cover the related
     functions.

   - bpo-30981(25): IDLE – Add more configdialog font page tests.

   - bpo-28523(26): IDLE: replace “colour” with “color” in configdialog.

   - bpo-30917(27): Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf.  Increase
     coverage from 46% to 96%.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30934(28): Document coverage details for idlelib tests.  Add
     section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt.  Include check that
     branches are taken both ways.  Exclude IDLE-specific code that does
     not run during unit tests.

   - bpo-30913(29): IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and
     widgets in docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and
     splitting up the class.  Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30899(30): IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in
     config.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30881(31): IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-30851(32): IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog.  One
     is a duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30870(33): IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down
     keys as well as mouse.  Initial patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-8231(34): IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.

   - bpo-30779(35): IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog,
     put in config; test.  * In config, put dump test code in a
     function; run it and unittest in “if __name__ == “__main__”.  * Add
     class config.ConfigChanges based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo
     issue.  * Add class test_config.ChangesTest, partly using
     configdialog_tests_v1.py.  * Revise configdialog to use
     ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804.  * Revise test_configdialog
     to match configdialog changes.  * Remove configdialog functions
     unused or moved to ConfigChanges.  Cheryl Sabella contributed parts
     of the patch.

   - bpo-30777(36): IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix
     comments.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30495(37): IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names,
     and more tests.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30723(38): IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch.  Add
     “parens” style to highlight both opener and closer.  Make “default”
     style, which is not default, a synonym for “opener”.  Make
     time-delay work the same with all styles.  Add help for config
     dialog extensions tab, including help for parenmatch.  Add new
     tests.  Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-30674(39): IDLE: add docstrings to grep module.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella

   - bpo-21519(40): IDLE’s basic custom key entry dialog now detects
     duplicates properly.  Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-29910(41): IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting
     out a region by a key shortcut.  Add ‘return 'break'’ for this and
     other potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.

   - bpo-30728(42): Review and change idlelib.configdialog names.
     Lowercase method and attribute names.  Replace “colour” with
     “color”, expand overly cryptic names, delete unneeded underscores.
     Replace ‘import *’ with specific imports.  Patches by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-6739(43): IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to
     bind them with tk.  Add tests for all 3 validation functions.
     Original patch by G Polo.  Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-15786(44): Fix several problems with IDLE’s autocompletion box.
     The following should now work: clicking on selection box items;
     using the scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return.  Hangs on
     MacOSX should no longer happen.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-25514(45): Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start.
     Popup no-connection message directs users to this section.

   - bpo-30642(46): Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests.  Patches by Louie
     Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30495(47): Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names.
     Patches by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30290(48): Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests.  Increase
     coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
     Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30303(49): Add _utest option to textview; add new tests.
     Increase coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan
     Reedy.

   - bpo-29071(50): IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur
     prefixes).

   - bpo-28572(51): Add 10% to coverage of IDLE’s test_configdialog.
     Update and augment description of the configuration system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31488

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31477

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31480

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31421

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31051

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30617

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31287

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31206

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31001

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31205

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19903

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31083

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31050

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31004

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30781

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31060

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30853

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30993

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30981

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28523

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30917

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30934

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30913

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30899

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30881

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30851

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30870

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8231

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30779

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30777

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30723

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21519

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29910

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30728

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6739

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25514

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30642

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30290

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30303

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29071

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28572


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<41>,  Next: C API<64>,  Prev: IDLE<46>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.26.72.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30983(1): gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.)  work on
     optimized shared builds now, too.  PEP 523(2) introduced
     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on
     non-debug shared builds.  This broke the ability to use py-bt,
     py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb integrations.  The
     problem is fixed by only looking for _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
     frames in python-gdb.py.  Original patch by Bruno «Polaco»
     Penteado.

   - bpo-29748(3): Added the slice index converter in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-24037(4): Argument Clinic now uses the converter
     ‘bool(accept={int})’ rather than ‘int’ for semantical booleans.
     This avoids repeating the default value for Python and C and will
     help in converting to ‘bool’ in future.

   - bpo-29367(5): python-gdb.py now supports also ‘method-wrapper’
     (‘wrapperobject’) objects.

   - bpo-28023(6): Fix python-gdb.py didn’t support new dict
     implementation.

   - bpo-15369(7): The pybench and pystone microbenchmark have been
     removed from Tools.  Please use the new Python benchmark suite
     ‘https://github.com/python/pyperformance’ which is more reliable
     and includes a portable version of pybench working on Python 2 and
     Python 3.

   - bpo-28102(8): The zipfile module CLI now prints usage to stderr.
     Patch by Stephen J. Turnbull.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30983

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29748

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24037

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29367

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28023

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15369

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28102


File: python.info,  Node: C API<64>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<41>,  Up: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1

1.26.72.10 C API
................

   - bpo-31338(1): Added the ‘Py_UNREACHABLE()’ macro for code paths
     which are never expected to be reached.  This and a few other
     useful macros are now documented in the C API manual.

   - bpo-30832(2): Remove own implementation for thread-local storage.
     CPython has provided the own implementation for thread-local
     storage (TLS) on Python/thread.c, it’s used in the case which a
     platform has not supplied native TLS. However, currently all
     supported platforms (Windows and pthreads) have provided native TLS
     and defined the Py_HAVE_NATIVE_TLS macro with unconditional in any
     case.

   - bpo-30708(3): PyUnicode_AsWideCharString() now raises a ValueError
     if the second argument is NULL and the wchar_t* string contains
     null characters.

   - bpo-16500(4): Deprecate PyOS_AfterFork() and add PyOS_BeforeFork(),
     PyOS_AfterFork_Parent() and PyOS_AfterFork_Child().

   - bpo-6532(5): The type of results of PyThread_start_new_thread() and
     PyThread_get_thread_ident(), and the id parameter of
     PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc() changed from «long» to «unsigned long».

   - bpo-27867(6): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is deprecated and
     replaced with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the
     value between 0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or
     0x03060100 or higher.  Added functions PySlice_Unpack() and
     PySlice_AdjustIndices().

   - bpo-29083(7): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   - bpo-28769(8): The result of PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize() and
     PyUnicode_AsUTF8() is now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char
     *’.

   - bpo-29058(9): All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are
     now available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX
     value of the minimum Python version supporting this API.

   - bpo-28822(10): The index parameters 'start' and 'end' of
     PyUnicode_FindChar() are now adjusted to behave like
     ‘str[start:end]’.

   - bpo-28808(11): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   - bpo-28761(12): The fields name and doc of structures PyMemberDef,
     PyGetSetDef, PyStructSequence_Field, PyStructSequence_Desc, and
     wrapperbase are now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-28748(13): Private variable _Py_PackageContext is now of type
     ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’.

   - bpo-19569(14): Compiler warnings are now emitted if use most of
     deprecated functions.

   - bpo-28426(15): Deprecated undocumented functions
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(),
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31338

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30832

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30708

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6532

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28769

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29058

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28822

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28761

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28748

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19569

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 6 final,  Next: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.73 Python 3.6.6 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-27'

There were no new changes in version 3.6.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 5 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 6 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.74 Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-06-11'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<177>.
* Library: Library<179>.
* Documentation: Documentation<67>.
* Tests: Tests<67>.
* Build: Build<71>.
* Windows: Windows<63>.
* macOS: macOS<50>.
* IDLE: IDLE<47>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<42>.
* C API: C API<65>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<177>,  Next: Library<179>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.26.74.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33786(1): Fix asynchronous generators to handle GeneratorExit
     in athrow() correctly

   - bpo-30654(2): Fixed reset of the SIGINT handler to SIG_DFL on
     interpreter shutdown even when there was a custom handler set
     previously.  Patch by Philipp Kerling.

   - bpo-33622(3): Fixed a leak when the garbage collector fails to add
     an object with the ‘__del__’ method or referenced by it into the
     *note gc.garbage: 156a. list.  *note PyGC_Collect(): d56. can now
     be called when an exception is set and preserves it.

   - bpo-31849(4): Fix signed/unsigned comparison warning in pyhash.c.

   - bpo-33391(5): Fix a leak in set_symmetric_difference().

   - bpo-28055(6): Fix unaligned accesses in siphash24().  Patch by Rolf
     Eike Beer.

   - bpo-33231(7): Fix potential memory leak in ‘normalizestring()’.

   - bpo-29922(8): Improved error messages in “async with” when
     ‘__aenter__()’ or ‘__aexit__()’ return non-awaitable object.

   - bpo-33199(9): Fix ‘ma_version_tag’ in dict implementation is
     uninitialized when copying from key-sharing dict.

   - bpo-33041(10): Fixed jumping when the function contains an ‘async
     for’ loop.

   - bpo-32282(11): Fix an unnecessary ifdef in the include of
     VersionHelpers.h in socketmodule on Windows.

   - bpo-21983(12): Fix a crash in ‘ctypes.cast()’ in case the type
     argument is a ctypes structured data type.  Patch by Eryk Sun and
     Oren Milman.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30654

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33622

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31849

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33391

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28055

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33231

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29922

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33199

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32282

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21983


File: python.info,  Node: Library<179>,  Next: Documentation<67>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<177>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.26.74.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-30167(1): Prevent site.main() exception if PYTHONSTARTUP is
     set.  Patch by Steve Weber.

   - bpo-33812(2): Datetime instance d with non-None tzinfo, but with
     d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d) returning None is now treated as naive by the
     astimezone() method.

   - bpo-30805(3): Avoid race condition with debug logging

   - bpo-33767(4): The concatenation (‘+’) and repetition (‘*’) sequence
     operations now raise *note TypeError: 291. instead of *note
     SystemError: 3ea. when performed on *note mmap.mmap: 23c. objects.
     Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32684(5): Fix gather to propagate cancellation of itself even
     with return_exceptions.

   - bpo-33674(6): Fix a race condition in SSLProtocol.connection_made()
     of asyncio.sslproto: start immediately the handshake instead of
     using call_soon().  Previously, data_received() could be called
     before the handshake started, causing the handshake to hang or
     fail.

   - bpo-31647(7): Fixed bug where calling write_eof() on a
     _SelectorSocketTransport after it’s already closed raises
     AttributeError.

   - bpo-33672(8): Fix Task.__repr__ crash with Cython’s bogus
     coroutines

   - bpo-33469(9): Fix RuntimeError after closing loop that used
     run_in_executor

   - bpo-11874(10): Use a better regex when breaking usage into
     wrappable parts.  Avoids bogus assertion errors from custom metavar
     strings.

   - bpo-30877(11): Fixed a bug in the Python implementation of the JSON
     decoder that prevented the cache of parsed strings from clearing
     after finishing the decoding.  Based on patch by c-fos.

   - bpo-33548(12): tempfile._candidate_tempdir_list should consider
     common TEMP locations

   - bpo-33542(13): Prevent ‘uuid.get_node’ from using a DUID instead of
     a MAC on Windows.  Patch by Zvi Effron

   - bpo-26819(14): Fix race condition with
     ‘ReadTransport.resume_reading’ in Windows proactor event loop.

   - bpo-28556(15): Minor fixes in typing module: add annotations to
     ‘NamedTuple.__new__’, pass ‘*args’ and ‘**kwds’ in
     ‘Generic.__new__’.  Original PRs by Paulius Šarka and Chad
     Dombrova.

   - bpo-20087(16): Updated alias mapping with glibc 2.27 supported
     locales.

   - bpo-33422(17): Fix trailing quotation marks getting deleted when
     looking up byte/string literals on pydoc.  Patch by Andrés Delfino.

   - bpo-33197(18): Update error message when constructing invalid
     inspect.Parameters Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-33383(19): Fixed crash in the get() method of the *note
     dbm.ndbm: 37. database object when it is called with a single
     argument.

   - bpo-33329(20): Fix multiprocessing regression on newer glibcs

   - bpo-991266(21): Fix quoting of the ‘Comment’ attribute of *note
     http.cookies.SimpleCookie: 2012.

   - bpo-33131(22): Upgrade bundled version of pip to 10.0.1.

   - bpo-33308(23): Fixed a crash in the ‘parser’ module when converting
     an ST object to a tree of tuples or lists with ‘line_info=False’
     and ‘col_info=True’.

   - bpo-33263(24): Fix FD leak in ‘_SelectorSocketTransport’ Patch by
     Vlad Starostin.

   - bpo-33256(25): Fix display of ‘<module>’ call in the html produced
     by ‘cgitb.html()’.  Patch by Stéphane Blondon.

   - bpo-33203(26): ‘random.Random.choice()’ now raises ‘IndexError’ for
     empty sequences consistently even when called from subclasses
     without a ‘getrandbits()’ implementation.

   - bpo-33224(27): Update difflib.mdiff() for PEP 479(28).  Convert an
     uncaught StopIteration in a generator into a return-statement.

   - bpo-33209(29): End framing at the end of C implementation of *note
     pickle.Pickler.dump(): 2013.

   - bpo-32861(30): The urllib.robotparser’s ‘__str__’ representation
     now includes wildcard entries and the «Crawl-delay» and
     «Request-rate» fields.  Patch by Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-33096(31): Allow ttk.Treeview.insert to insert iid that has a
     false boolean value.  Note iid=0 and iid=False would be same.
     Patch by Garvit Khatri.

   - bpo-33127(32): The ssl module now compiles with LibreSSL 2.7.1.

   - bpo-33021(33): Release the GIL during fstat() calls, avoiding hang
     of all threads when calling mmap.mmap(), os.urandom(), and
     random.seed().  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-27683(34): Fix a regression in *note ipaddress: 83. that result
     of ‘hosts()’ is empty when the network is constructed by a tuple
     containing an integer mask and only 1 bit left for addresses.

   - bpo-32844(35): Fix wrong redirection of a low descriptor (0 or 1)
     to stderr in subprocess if another low descriptor is closed.

   - bpo-31908(36): Fix output of cover files for ‘trace’ module
     command-line tool.  Previously emitted cover files only when
     ‘--missing’ option was used.  Patch by Michael Selik.

   - bpo-31457(37): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-16865(38): Support arrays >=2GiB in *note ctypes: 2d.  Patch by
     Segev Finer.

   - bpo-31238(39): pydoc: the stop() method of the private ServerThread
     class now waits until DocServer.serve_until_quit() completes and
     then explicitly sets its docserver attribute to None to break a
     reference cycle.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30167

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33812

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30805

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33767

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32684

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33674

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31647

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33672

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33469

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11874

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30877

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33548

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33542

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26819

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20087

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33422

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33197

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33383

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33329

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=991266

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33131

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33308

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33263

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33256

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33203

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33224

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33209

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32861

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33096

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33127

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33021

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27683

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32844

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31908

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16865

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31238


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<67>,  Next: Tests<67>,  Prev: Library<179>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.26.74.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-33503(1): Fix broken pypi link

   - bpo-33421(2): Add missing documentation for
     ‘typing.AsyncContextManager’.

   - bpo-33378(3): Add Korean language switcher for
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’

   - bpo-33276(4): Clarify that the ‘__path__’ attribute on modules
     cannot be just any value.

   - bpo-33201(5): Modernize documentation for writing C extension
     types.

   - bpo-33195(6): Deprecate ‘Py_UNICODE’ usage in ‘c-api/arg’ document.
     ‘Py_UNICODE’ related APIs are deprecated since Python 3.3, but it
     is missed in the document.

   - bpo-33126(7): Document PyBuffer_ToContiguous().

   - bpo-27212(8): Modify documentation for the ‘islice()’ recipe to
     consume initial values up to the start index.

   - bpo-28247(9): Update *note zipapp: 139. documentation to describe
     how to make standalone applications.

   - bpo-18802(10): Documentation changes for ipaddress.  Patch by Jon
     Foster and Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-27428(11): Update documentation to clarify that
     ‘WindowsRegistryFinder’ implements ‘MetaPathFinder’.  (Patch by
     Himanshu Lakhara)

   - bpo-8243(12): Add a note about curses.addch and curses.addstr
     exception behavior when writing outside a window, or pad.

   - bpo-31432(13): Clarify meaning of CERT_NONE, CERT_OPTIONAL, and
     CERT_REQUIRED flags for ssl.SSLContext.verify_mode.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33503

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33421

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33378

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33276

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33201

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33195

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33126

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27212

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28247

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18802

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27428

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8243

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31432


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<67>,  Next: Build<71>,  Prev: Documentation<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.26.74.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-33655(1): Ignore test_posix_fallocate failures on BSD platforms
     that might be due to running on ZFS.

   - bpo-19417(2): Add test_bdb.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33655

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19417


File: python.info,  Node: Build<71>,  Next: Windows<63>,  Prev: Tests<67>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.26.74.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-5755(1): Move ‘-Wstrict-prototypes’ option to ‘CFLAGS_NODIST’
     from ‘OPT’.  This option emitted annoying warnings when building
     extension modules written in C++.

   - bpo-33614(2): Ensures module definition files for the stable ABI on
     Windows are correctly regenerated.

   - bpo-33522(3): Enable CI builds on Visual Studio Team Services at
     ‘https://python.visualstudio.com/cpython’

   - bpo-33012(4): Add ‘-Wno-cast-function-type’ for gcc 8 for silencing
     warnings about function casts like casting to PyCFunction in method
     definition lists.

   - bpo-33394(5): Enable the verbose build for extension modules, when
     GNU make is passed macros on the command line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5755

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33614

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33522

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33012

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33394


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<63>,  Next: macOS<50>,  Prev: Build<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.26.74.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33184(1): Update Windows installer to OpenSSL 1.0.2o.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<50>,  Next: IDLE<47>,  Prev: Windows<63>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.26.74.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-33184(1): Update macOS installer build to use OpenSSL 1.0.2o.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33184


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<47>,  Next: Tools/Demos<42>,  Prev: macOS<50>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.26.74.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-33656(1): On Windows, add API call saying that tk scales for
     DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of
     the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than
     96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper.  It should
     otherwise have no effect.

   - bpo-33768(2): Clicking on a context line moves that line to the top
     of the editor window.

   - bpo-33763(3): IDLE: Use read-only text widget for code context
     instead of label widget.

   - bpo-33664(4): Scroll IDLE editor text by lines.  Previously, the
     mouse wheel and scrollbar slider moved text by a fixed number of
     pixels, resulting in partial lines at the top of the editor box.
     The change also applies to the shell and grep output windows, but
     not to read-only text views.

   - bpo-33679(5): Enable theme-specific color configuration for Code
     Context.  Use the Highlights tab to see the setting for built-in
     themes or add settings to custom themes.

   - bpo-33642(6): Display up to maxlines non-blank lines for Code
     Context.  If there is no current context, show a single blank line.

   - bpo-33628(7): IDLE: Cleanup codecontext.py and its test.

   - bpo-33564(8): IDLE’s code context now recognizes async as a block
     opener.

   - bpo-29706(9): IDLE now colors async and await as keywords in 3.6.
     They become full keywords in 3.7.

   - bpo-21474(10): Update word/identifier definition from ascii to
     unicode.  In text and entry boxes, this affects selection by
     double-click, movement left/right by control-left/right, and
     deletion left/right by control-BACKSPACE/DEL.

   - bpo-33204(11): IDLE: consistently color invalid string prefixes.  A
     “u” string prefix cannot be paired with either “r” or “f”.
     Consistently color as much of the prefix, starting at the right, as
     is valid.  Revise and extend colorizer test.

   - bpo-32831(12): Add docstrings and tests for codecontext.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33763

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33664

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33628

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33564

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29706

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21474

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33204

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32831


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<42>,  Next: C API<65>,  Prev: IDLE<47>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.26.74.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-33189(1): ‘pygettext.py’ now recognizes only literal strings as
     docstrings and translatable strings, and rejects bytes literals and
     f-string expressions.

   - bpo-31920(2): Fixed handling directories as arguments in the
     ‘pygettext’ script.  Based on patch by Oleg Krasnikov.

   - bpo-29673(3): Fix pystackv and pystack gdbinit macros.

   - bpo-32885(4): Add an ‘-n’ flag for ‘Tools/scripts/pathfix.py’ to
     disable automatic backup creation (files with ‘~’ suffix).

   - bpo-31583(5): Fix 2to3 for using with –add-suffix option but
     without –output-dir option for relative path to files in current
     directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33189

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31920

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29673

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32885

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31583


File: python.info,  Node: C API<65>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<42>,  Up: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1

1.26.74.10 C API
................

   - bpo-32374(1): Document that m_traverse for multi-phase initialized
     modules can be called with m_state=NULL, and add a sanity check

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32374


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 5 final,  Next: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.75 Python 3.6.5 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-28'

* Menu:

* Tests: Tests<68>.
* Build: Build<72>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<68>,  Next: Build<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 final

1.26.75.1 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32872(1): Avoid regrtest compatibility issue with namespace
     packages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32872


File: python.info,  Node: Build<72>,  Prev: Tests<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 final

1.26.75.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-33163(1): Upgrade pip to 9.0.3 and setuptools to v39.0.1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33163


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 4 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 5 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.76 Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-03-13'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<49>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<178>.
* Library: Library<180>.
* Documentation: Documentation<68>.
* Tests: Tests<69>.
* Build: Build<73>.
* Windows: Windows<64>.
* macOS: macOS<51>.
* IDLE: IDLE<48>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<43>.
* C API: C API<66>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<49>,  Next: Core and Builtins<178>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.26.76.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-33001(1): Minimal fix to prevent buffer overrun in os.symlink
     on Windows

   - bpo-32981(2): Regexes in difflib and poplib were vulnerable to
     catastrophic backtracking.  These regexes formed potential DOS
     vectors (REDOS). They have been refactored.  This resolves CVE
     2018-1060(3) and CVE 2018-1061(4).  Patch by Jamie Davis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33001

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32981

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1060

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2018-1061


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<178>,  Next: Library<180>,  Prev: Security<49>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.26.76.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-33026(1): Fixed jumping out of «with» block by setting
     f_lineno.

   - bpo-17288(2): Prevent jumps from “return” and “exception” trace
     events.

   - bpo-32889(3): Update Valgrind suppression list to account for the
     rename of ‘Py_ADDRESS_IN_RANG’ to ‘address_in_range’.

   - bpo-32650(4): Pdb and other debuggers dependent on bdb.py will
     correctly step over (next command) native coroutines.  Patch by
     Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-32685(5): Improve suggestion when the Python 2 form of print
     statement is either present on the same line as the header of a
     compound statement or else terminated by a semi-colon instead of a
     newline.  Patch by Nitish Chandra.

   - bpo-32583(6): Fix possible crashing in builtin Unicode decoders
     caused by write out-of-bound errors when using customized decode
     error handlers.

   - bpo-26163(7): Improved frozenset() hash to create more distinct
     hash values when faced with datasets containing many similar
     values.

   - bpo-27169(8): The ‘__debug__’ constant is now optimized out at
     compile time.  This fixes also bpo-22091(9).

   - bpo-32329(10): ‘sys.flags.hash_randomization’ is now properly set
     to 0 when hash randomization is turned off by ‘PYTHONHASHSEED=0’.

   - bpo-30416(11): The optimizer is now protected from spending much
     time doing complex calculations and consuming much memory for
     creating large constants in constant folding.

   - bpo-18533(12): ‘repr()’ on a dict containing its own ‘values()’ or
     ‘items()’ no longer raises ‘RecursionError’; OrderedDict similarly.
     Instead, use ‘...’, as for other recursive structures.  Patch by
     Ben North.

   - bpo-32028(13): Leading whitespace is now correctly ignored when
     generating suggestions for converting Py2 print statements to Py3
     builtin print function calls.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-32137(14): The repr of deeply nested dict now raises a
     RecursionError instead of crashing due to a stack overflow.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33026

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17288

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32889

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32650

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32685

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32583

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26163

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22091

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32329

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30416

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18533

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32028

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32137


File: python.info,  Node: Library<180>,  Next: Documentation<68>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<178>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.26.76.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-33064(1): lib2to3 now properly supports trailing commas after
     ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ in function signatures.

   - bpo-31804(2): Avoid failing in multiprocessing.Process if the
     standard streams are closed or None at exit.

   - bpo-33037(3): Skip sending/receiving data after SSL transport
     closing.

   - bpo-30353(4): Fix ctypes pass-by-value for structs on 64-bit
     Cygwin/MinGW.

   - bpo-33009(5): Fix inspect.signature() for single-parameter
     partialmethods.

   - bpo-32969(6): Expose several missing constants in zlib and fix
     corresponding documentation.

   - bpo-32713(7): Fixed tarfile.itn handling of out-of-bounds float
     values.  Patch by Joffrey Fuhrer.

   - bpo-30622(8): The ssl module now detects missing NPN support in
     LibreSSL.

   - bpo-32922(9): dbm.open() now encodes filename with the filesystem
     encoding rather than default encoding.

   - bpo-32859(10): In ‘os.dup2’, don’t check every call whether the
     ‘dup3’ syscall exists or not.

   - bpo-21060(11): Rewrite confusing message from setup.py upload from
     «No dist file created in earlier command» to the more helpful «Must
     create and upload files in one command».

   - bpo-32857(12): In *note tkinter: f9, ‘after_cancel(None)’ now
     raises a *note ValueError: 277. instead of canceling the first
     scheduled function.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-32852(13): Make sure sys.argv remains as a list when running
     trace.

   - bpo-32841(14): Fixed ‘asyncio.Condition’ issue which silently
     ignored cancellation after notifying and cancelling a conditional
     lock.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-31787(15): Fixed refleaks of ‘__init__()’ methods in various
     modules.  (Contributed by Oren Milman)

   - bpo-30157(16): Fixed guessing quote and delimiter in
     csv.Sniffer.sniff() when only the last field is quoted.  Patch by
     Jake Davis.

   - bpo-32394(17): socket: Remove TCP_FASTOPEN, TCP_KEEPCNT flags on
     older version Windows during run-time.

   - bpo-32777(18): Fix a rare but potential pre-exec child process
     deadlock in subprocess on POSIX systems when marking file
     descriptors inheritable on exec in the child process.  This bug
     appears to have been introduced in 3.4.

   - bpo-32647(19): The ctypes module used to depend on indirect linking
     for dlopen.  The shared extension is now explicitly linked against
     libdl on platforms with dl.

   - bpo-32734(20): Fixed ‘asyncio.Lock()’ safety issue which allowed
     acquiring and locking the same lock multiple times, without it
     being free.  Patch by Bar Harel.

   - bpo-32727(21): Do not include name field in SMTP envelope from
     address.  Patch by Stéphane Wirtel

   - bpo-27931(22): Fix email address header parsing error when the
     username is an empty quoted string.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-32304(23): distutils” upload command no longer corrupts tar
     files ending with a CR byte, and no longer tries to convert CR to
     CRLF in any of the upload text fields.

   - bpo-32502(24): uuid.uuid1 no longer raises an exception if a 64-bit
     hardware address is encountered.

   - bpo-31848(25): Fix the error handling in Aifc_read.initfp() when
     the SSND chunk is not found.  Patch by Zackery Spytz.

   - bpo-32555(26): On FreeBSD and Solaris, os.strerror() now always
     decode the byte string from the current locale encoding, rather
     than using ASCII/surrogateescape in some cases.

   - bpo-32521(27): The nis module is now compatible with new libnsl and
     headers location.

   - bpo-32473(28): Improve ABCMeta._dump_registry() output readability

   - bpo-32521(29): glibc has removed Sun RPC. Use replacement libtirpc
     headers and library in nis module.

   - bpo-32228(30): Ensure that ‘truncate()’ preserves the file position
     (as reported by ‘tell()’) after writes longer than the buffer size.

   - bpo-26133(31): Don’t unsubscribe signals in asyncio UNIX event loop
     on interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-32185(32): The SSL module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI
     TLS extension on platforms with OpenSSL 1.0.2+ or inet_pton.

   - bpo-32323(33): *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): 2a3. does not convert
     zone-id (scope) to lower case for scoped IPv6 addresses in
     hostnames now.

   - bpo-32302(34): Fix bdist_wininst of distutils for CRT v142: it
     binary compatible with CRT v140.

   - bpo-32255(35): A single empty field is now always quoted when
     written into a CSV file.  This allows to distinguish an empty row
     from a row consisting of a single empty field.  Patch by Licht
     Takeuchi.

   - bpo-32277(36): Raise ‘NotImplementedError’ instead of ‘SystemError’
     on platforms where ‘chmod(..., follow_symlinks=False)’ is not
     supported.  Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-32199(37): The getnode() ip getter now uses “ip link” instead
     of “ip link list”.

   - bpo-27456(38): Ensure TCP_NODELAY is set on Linux.  Tests by Victor
     Stinner.

   - bpo-31900(39): The *note locale.localeconv(): fbd. function now
     sets temporarily the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale
     to decode ‘decimal_point’ and ‘thousands_sep’ byte strings if they
     are non-ASCII or longer than 1 byte, and the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale is
     different than the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale.  This temporary change
     affects other threads.  Same change for the *note str.format():
     a12. method when formatting a number (*note int: 326, *note float:
     327, ‘float’ and subclasses) with the ‘n’ type (ex:
     ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’).

   - bpo-31802(40): Importing native path module (‘posixpath’, ‘ntpath’)
     now works even if the ‘os’ module still is not imported.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33064

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31804

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30353

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33009

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32969

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32713

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32922

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32859

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21060

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32857

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32852

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32841

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31787

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30157

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32394

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32777

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32647

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32734

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32727

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27931

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32502

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31848

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32555

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32473

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32521

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32228

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26133

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32185

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32323

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32302

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32255

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32277

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32199

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31802


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<68>,  Next: Tests<69>,  Prev: Library<180>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.26.76.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-17232(1): Clarify docs for -O and -OO. Patch by Terry Reedy.

   - bpo-32800(2): Update link to w3c doc for xml default namespaces.

   - bpo-8722(3): Document ‘__getattr__()’ behavior when property
     ‘get()’ method raises *note AttributeError: 1a9.

   - bpo-32614(4): Modify RE examples in documentation to use raw
     strings to prevent *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. and add text to
     REGEX HOWTO to highlight the deprecation.

   - bpo-31972(5): Improve docstrings for ‘pathlib.PurePath’ subclasses.

   - bpo-17799(6): Explain real behaviour of sys.settrace and
     sys.setprofile and their C-API counterparts regarding which type of
     events are received in each function.  Patch by Pablo Galindo
     Salgado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17232

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32800

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8722

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32614

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31972

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17799


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<69>,  Next: Build<73>,  Prev: Documentation<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.26.76.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-32517(1): Fix failing ‘test_asyncio’ on macOS 10.12.2+ due to
     transport of ‘KqueueSelector’ loop was not being closed.

   - bpo-32721(2): Fix test_hashlib to not fail if the _md5 module is
     not built.

   - bpo-32252(3): Fix faulthandler_suppress_crash_report() used to
     prevent core dump files when testing crashes.  getrlimit() returns
     zero on success.

   - bpo-31518(4): Debian Unstable has disabled TLS 1.0 and 1.1 for
     SSLv23_METHOD().  Change TLS/SSL protocol of some tests to
     PROTOCOL_TLS or PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 to make them pass on Debian.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32517

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32721

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32252

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31518


File: python.info,  Node: Build<73>,  Next: Windows<64>,  Prev: Tests<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.26.76.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-32635(1): Fix segfault of the crypt module when libxcrypt is
     provided instead of libcrypt at the system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32635


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<64>,  Next: macOS<51>,  Prev: Build<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.26.76.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-33016(1): Fix potential use of uninitialized memory in
     nt._getfinalpathname

   - bpo-32903(2): Fix a memory leak in os.chdir() on Windows if the
     current directory is set to a UNC path.

   - bpo-31966(3): Fixed WindowsConsoleIO.write() for writing empty
     data.

   - bpo-32409(4): Ensures activate.bat can handle Unicode contents.

   - bpo-32457(5): Improves handling of denormalized executable path
     when launching Python.

   - bpo-32370(6): Use the correct encoding for ipconfig output in the
     uuid module.  Patch by Segev Finer.

   - bpo-29248(7): Fix *note os.readlink(): ced. on Windows, which was
     mistakenly treating the ‘PrintNameOffset’ field of the reparse data
     buffer as a number of characters instead of bytes.  Patch by Craig
     Holmquist and SSE4.

   - bpo-32588(8): Create standalone _distutils_findvs module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33016

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32903

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31966

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32409

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32457

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32370

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29248

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32588


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<51>,  Next: IDLE<48>,  Prev: Windows<64>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.26.76.8 macOS
...............

   - bpo-32726(1): Provide an additional, more modern macOS installer
     variant that supports macOS 10.9+ systems in 64-bit mode only.
     Upgrade the supplied third-party libraries to OpenSSL 1.0.2n, XZ
     5.2.3, and SQLite 3.22.0.  The 10.9+ installer now links with and
     supplies its own copy of Tcl/Tk 8.6.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32726


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<48>,  Next: Tools/Demos<43>,  Prev: macOS<51>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.26.76.9 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32984(1): Set ‘__file__’ while running a startup file.  Like
     Python, IDLE optionally runs one startup file in the Shell window
     before presenting the first interactive input prompt.  For IDLE,
     ‘-s’ runs a file named in environmental variable ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453.; ‘-r file’ runs ‘file’.  Python sets
     ‘__file__’ to the startup file name before running the file and
     unsets it before the first prompt.  IDLE now does the same when run
     normally, without the ‘-n’ option.

   - bpo-32940(2): Simplify and rename StringTranslatePseudoMapping in
     pyparse.

   - bpo-32916(3): Change ‘str’ to ‘code’ in pyparse.

   - bpo-32905(4): Remove unused code in pyparse module.

   - bpo-32874(5): Add tests for pyparse.

   - bpo-32837(6): Using the system and place-dependent default encoding
     for open() is a bad idea for IDLE’s system and location-independent
     files.

   - bpo-32826(7): Add «encoding=utf-8» to open() in IDLE’s
     test_help_about.  GUI test test_file_buttons() only looks at
     initial ascii-only lines, but failed on systems where open()
     defaults to “ascii” because readline() internally reads and decodes
     far enough ahead to encounter a non-ascii character in CREDITS.txt.

   - bpo-32765(8): Update configdialog General tab docstring to add new
     widgets to the widget list.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32984

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32940

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32916

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32905

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32874

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32837

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32826

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32765


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<43>,  Next: C API<66>,  Prev: IDLE<48>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.26.76.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-24960(1): 2to3 and lib2to3 can now read pickled grammar files
     using pkgutil.get_data() rather than probing the filesystem.  This
     lets 2to3 and lib2to3 work when run from a zipfile.

   - bpo-32222(2): Fix pygettext not extracting docstrings for functions
     with type annotated arguments.  Patch by Toby Harradine.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24960

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32222


File: python.info,  Node: C API<66>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<43>,  Up: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1

1.26.76.11 C API
................

   - bpo-29084(1): Undocumented C API for OrderedDict has been excluded
     from the limited C API. It was added by mistake and actually never
     worked in the limited C API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29084


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 4 final,  Next: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.77 Python 3.6.4 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-18'

There were no new code changes in version 3.6.4 since v3.6.4rc1.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 3 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 4 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.78 Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-12-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<179>.
* Library: Library<181>.
* Documentation: Documentation<69>.
* Tests: Tests<70>.
* Build: Build<74>.
* Windows: Windows<65>.
* macOS: macOS<52>.
* IDLE: IDLE<49>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<44>.
* C API: C API<67>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<179>,  Next: Library<181>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.26.78.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-32176(1): co_flags.CO_NOFREE is now always set correctly by the
     code object constructor based on freevars and cellvars, rather than
     needing to be set correctly by the caller.  This ensures it will be
     cleared automatically when additional cell references are injected
     into a modified code object and function.

   - bpo-31949(2): Fixed several issues in printing tracebacks
     (PyTraceBack_Print()).  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to 0 or less now
     suppresses printing tracebacks.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to None
     now causes using the default limit.  Setting sys.tracebacklimit to
     an integer larger than LONG_MAX now means using the limit LONG_MAX
     rather than the default limit.  Fixed integer overflows in the case
     of more than ‘2**31’ traceback items on Windows.  Fixed output
     errors handling.

   - bpo-30696(3): Fix the interactive interpreter looping endlessly
     when no memory.

   - bpo-20047(4): Bytearray methods partition() and rpartition() now
     accept only bytes-like objects as separator, as documented.  In
     particular they now raise TypeError rather of returning a bogus
     result when an integer is passed as a separator.

   - bpo-31852(5): Fix a segmentation fault caused by a combination of
     the async soft keyword and continuation lines.

   - bpo-21720(6): BytesWarning no longer emitted when the 'fromlist'
     argument of ‘__import__()’ or the ‘__all__’ attribute of the module
     contain bytes instances.

   - bpo-31825(7): Fixed OverflowError in the “unicode-escape” codec and
     in codecs.escape_decode() when decode an escaped non-ascii byte.

   - bpo-28603(8): Print the full context/cause chain of exceptions on
     interpreter exit, even if an exception in the chain is unhashable
     or compares equal to later ones.  Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-31786(9): Fix timeout rounding in the select module to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-31642(10): Restored blocking «from package import module» by
     setting sys.modules[«package.module»] to None.

   - bpo-31626(11): Fixed a bug in debug memory allocator.  There was a
     write to freed memory after shrinking a memory block.

   - bpo-31619(12): Fixed a ValueError when convert a string with large
     number of underscores to integer with binary base.

   - bpo-31592(13): Fixed an assertion failure in Python parser in case
     of a bad ‘unicodedata.normalize()’.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31588(14): Raise a ‘TypeError’ with a helpful error message
     when class creation fails due to a metaclass with a bad
     ‘__prepare__()’ method.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31566(15): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_warnings.warn()’ in
     case of a bad ‘__name__’ global.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31505(16): Fix an assertion failure in ‘json’, in case
     ‘_json.make_encoder()’ received a bad ‘encoder()’ argument.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31492(17): Fix assertion failures in case of failing to import
     from a module with a bad ‘__name__’ attribute, and in case of
     failing to access an attribute of such a module.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31490(18): Fix an assertion failure in ‘ctypes’ class
     definition, in case the class has an attribute whose name is
     specified in ‘_anonymous_’ but not in ‘_fields_’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31478(19): Fix an assertion failure in ‘_random.Random.seed()’
     in case the argument has a bad ‘__abs__()’ method.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31315(20): Fix an assertion failure in imp.create_dynamic(),
     when spec.name is not a string.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31311(21): Fix a crash in the ‘__setstate__()’ method of
     ‘ctypes._CData’, in case of a bad ‘__dict__’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31293(22): Fix crashes in true division and multiplication of a
     timedelta object by a float with a bad as_integer_ratio() method.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31285(23): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘warnings.warn_explicit’, when the return value of the received
     loader’s ‘get_source()’ has a bad ‘splitlines()’ method.  Patch by
     Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30817(24): ‘PyErr_PrintEx()’ clears now the ignored exception
     that may be raised by ‘_PySys_SetObjectId()’, for example when no
     memory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31949

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30696

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20047

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31852

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21720

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31825

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31786

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31642

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31626

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31619

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31592

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31588

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31566

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31505

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31492

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31490

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31478

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31315

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31311

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31293

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31285

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30817


File: python.info,  Node: Library<181>,  Next: Documentation<69>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<179>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.26.78.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28556(1): Two minor fixes for ‘typing’ module: allow shallow
     copying instances of generic classes, improve interaction of
     ‘__init_subclass__’ with generics.  Original PRs by Ivan
     Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-27240(2): The header folding algorithm for the new email
     policies has been rewritten, which also fixes bpo-30788(3),
     bpo-31831(4), and bpo-32182(5).  In particular, RFC2231 folding is
     now done correctly.

   - bpo-32186(6): io.FileIO.readall() and io.FileIO.read() now release
     the GIL when getting the file size.  Fixed hang of all threads with
     inaccessible NFS server.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-12239(7): Make ‘msilib.SummaryInformation.GetProperty()’ return
     ‘None’ when the value of property is ‘VT_EMPTY’.  Initial patch by
     Mark Mc Mahon.

   - bpo-31325(8): Fix wrong usage of *note collections.namedtuple():
     1cf. in the *note RobotFileParser.parse(): 2070. method.  Initial
     patch by Robin Wellner.

   - bpo-12382(9): ‘msilib.OpenDatabase()’ now raises a better exception
     message when it couldn’t open or create an MSI file.  Initial patch
     by William Tisäter.

   - bpo-32110(10): ‘codecs.StreamReader.read(n)’ now returns not more
     than 'n' characters/bytes for non-negative 'n'.  This makes it
     compatible with ‘read()’ methods of other file-like objects.

   - bpo-32072(11): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-32034(12): Make asyncio.IncompleteReadError and
     LimitOverrunError pickleable.

   - bpo-32015(13): Fixed the looping of asyncio in the case of
     reconnection the socket during waiting async read/write from/to the
     socket.

   - bpo-32011(14): Restored support of loading marshal files with the
     TYPE_INT64 code.  These files can be produced in Python 2.7.

   - bpo-31970(15): Reduce performance overhead of asyncio debug mode.

   - bpo-9678(16): Fixed determining the MAC address in the uuid module:
     Using ifconfig on NetBSD and OpenBSD. Using arp on Linux, FreeBSD,
     NetBSD and OpenBSD. Based on patch by Takayuki Shimizukawa.

   - bpo-30057(17): Fix potential missed signal in signal.signal().

   - bpo-31933(18): Fix Blake2 params leaf_size and node_offset on big
     endian platforms.  Patch by Jack O’Connor.

   - bpo-31927(19): Fixed compilation of the socket module on NetBSD 8.
     Fixed assertion failure or reading arbitrary data when parse a
     AF_BLUETOOTH address on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

   - bpo-27666(20): Fixed stack corruption in curses.box() and
     curses.ungetmouse() when the size of types chtype or mmask_t is
     less than the size of C long.  curses.box() now accepts characters
     as arguments.  Based on patch by Steve Fink.

   - bpo-31897(21): plistlib now catches more errors when read binary
     plists and raises InvalidFileException instead of unexpected
     exceptions.

   - bpo-25720(22): Fix the method for checking pad state of curses
     WINDOW. Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   - bpo-31893(23): Fixed the layout of the kqueue_event structure on
     OpenBSD and NetBSD. Fixed the comparison of the kqueue_event
     objects.

   - bpo-31891(24): Fixed building the curses module on NetBSD.

   - bpo-28416(25): Instances of pickle.Pickler subclass with the
     persistent_id() method and pickle.Unpickler subclass with the
     persistent_load() method no longer create reference cycles.

   - bpo-28326(26): Fix multiprocessing.Process when stdout and/or
     stderr is closed or None.

   - bpo-31457(27): If nested log adapters are used, the inner
     ‘process()’ methods are no longer omitted.

   - bpo-31457(28): The ‘manager’ property on LoggerAdapter objects is
     now properly settable.

   - bpo-31806(29): Fix timeout rounding in time.sleep(),
     threading.Lock.acquire() and socket.socket.settimeout() to round
     correctly negative timeouts between -1.0 and 0.0.  The functions
     now block waiting for events as expected.  Previously, the call was
     incorrectly non-blocking.  Patch by Pablo Galindo.

   - bpo-28603(30): traceback: Fix a TypeError that occurred during
     printing of exception tracebacks when either the current exception
     or an exception in its context/cause chain is unhashable.  Patch by
     Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-30058(31): Fixed buffer overflow in select.kqueue.control().

   - bpo-31770(32): Prevent a crash when calling the ‘__init__()’ method
     of a ‘sqlite3.Cursor’ object more than once.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31672(33): ‘idpattern’ in ‘string.Template’ matched some
     non-ASCII characters.  Now it uses ‘-i’ regular expression local
     flag to avoid non-ASCII characters.

   - bpo-31764(34): Prevent a crash in ‘sqlite3.Cursor.close()’ in case
     the ‘Cursor’ object is uninitialized.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31752(35): Fix possible crash in timedelta constructor called
     with custom integers.

   - bpo-31701(36): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now ignores MSC
     and COM exceptions.

   - bpo-31728(37): Prevent crashes in ‘_elementtree’ due to unsafe
     cleanup of ‘Element.text’ and ‘Element.tail’.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31620(38): an empty asyncio.Queue now doesn’t leak memory when
     queue.get pollers timeout

   - bpo-31632(39): Fix method set_protocol() of class
     _SSLProtocolTransport in asyncio module.  This method was
     previously modifying a wrong reference to the protocol.

   - bpo-31675(40): Fixed memory leaks in Tkinter’s methods splitlist()
     and split() when pass a string larger than 2 GiB.

   - bpo-31673(41): Fixed typo in the name of Tkinter’s method
     adderrorinfo().

   - bpo-30806(42): Fix the string representation of a netrc object.

   - bpo-15037(43): Added a workaround for getkey() in curses for
     ncurses 5.7 and earlier.

   - bpo-25351(44): Avoid venv activate failures with undefined
     variables

   - bpo-25532(45): inspect.unwrap() will now only try to unwrap an
     object sys.getrecursionlimit() times, to protect against objects
     which create a new object on every attribute access.

   - bpo-30347(46): Stop crashes when concurrently iterate over
     itertools.groupby() iterators.

   - bpo-31516(47): ‘threading.current_thread()’ should not return a
     dummy thread at shutdown.

   - bpo-31351(48): python -m ensurepip now exits with non-zero exit
     code if pip bootstrapping has failed.

   - bpo-31482(49): ‘random.seed()’ now works with bytes in version=1

   - bpo-31334(50): Fix ‘poll.poll([timeout])’ in the ‘select’ module
     for arbitrary negative timeouts on all OSes where it can only be a
     non-negative integer or -1.  Patch by Riccardo Coccioli.

   - bpo-31310(51): multiprocessing’s semaphore tracker should be
     launched again if crashed.

   - bpo-31308(52): Make multiprocessing’s forkserver process immune to
     Ctrl-C and other user interruptions.  If it crashes, restart it
     when necessary.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27240

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30788

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31831

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32182

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32186

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12239

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31325

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12382

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32110

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32034

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32015

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32011

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9678

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30057

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31933

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31927

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27666

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31897

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25720

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31893

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31891

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28416

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28326

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31806

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30058

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31770

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31672

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31764

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31752

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31701

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31728

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31620

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31632

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31675

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31673

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30806

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15037

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25351

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25532

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30347

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31516

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31351

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31482

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31334

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31310

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31308


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<69>,  Next: Tests<70>,  Prev: Library<181>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.26.78.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-32105(1): Added asyncio.BaseEventLoop.connect_accepted_socket
     versionadded marker.

   - bpo-31537(2): Fix incorrect usage of ‘get_history_length’ in
     readline documentation example code.  Patch by Brad Smith.

   - bpo-30085(3): The operator functions without double underscores are
     preferred for clarity.  The one with underscores are only kept for
     back-compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32105

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31537

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30085


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<70>,  Next: Build<74>,  Prev: Documentation<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.26.78.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31380(1): Skip test_httpservers test_undecodable_file on macOS:
     fails on APFS.

   - bpo-31705(2): Skip test_socket.test_sha256() on Linux kernel older
     than 4.5.  The test fails with ENOKEY on kernel 3.10 (on ppc64le).
     A fix was merged into the kernel 4.5.

   - bpo-31174(3): Fix test_tools.test_unparse: DirectoryTestCase now
     stores the names sample to always test the same files.  It prevents
     false alarms when hunting reference leaks.

   - bpo-30695(4): Add the ‘set_nomemory(start, stop)’ and
     ‘remove_mem_hooks()’ functions to the ‘_testcapi’ module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31380

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31174

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30695


File: python.info,  Node: Build<74>,  Next: Windows<65>,  Prev: Tests<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.26.78.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-32059(1): ‘detect_modules()’ in ‘setup.py’ now also searches
     the sysroot paths when cross-compiling.

   - bpo-31957(2): Fixes Windows SDK version detection when building for
     Windows.

   - bpo-31609(3): Fixes quotes in PCbuild/clean.bat

   - bpo-31934(4): Abort the build when building out of a not clean
     source tree.

   - bpo-31926(5): Fixed Argument Clinic sometimes causing compilation
     errors when there was more than one function and/or method in a .c
     file with the same name.

   - bpo-28791(6): Update Windows builds to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-28791(7): Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.21.0.

   - bpo-22140(8): Prevent double substitution of prefix in
     python-config.sh.

   - bpo-31536(9): Avoid wholesale rebuild after ‘make regen-all’ if
     nothing changed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32059

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31957

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31609

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31934

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31926

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28791

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22140

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31536


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<65>,  Next: macOS<52>,  Prev: Build<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.26.78.6 Windows
.................

   - bpo-1102(1): Return ‘None’ when ‘View.Fetch()’ returns
     ‘ERROR_NO_MORE_ITEMS’ instead of raising ‘MSIError’.  Initial patch
     by Anthony Tuininga.

   - bpo-31944(2): Fixes Modify button in Apps and Features dialog.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1102

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31944


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<52>,  Next: IDLE<49>,  Prev: Windows<65>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.26.78.7 macOS
...............

   - bpo-31392(1): Update macOS installer to use OpenSSL 1.0.2m

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<49>,  Next: Tools/Demos<44>,  Prev: macOS<52>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.26.78.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-32207(1): Improve tk event exception tracebacks in IDLE. When
     tk event handling is driven by IDLE’s run loop, a confusing and
     distracting queue.EMPTY traceback context is no longer added to tk
     event exception tracebacks.  The traceback is now the same as when
     event handling is driven by user code.  Patch based on a suggestion
     by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-32164(2): Delete unused file idlelib/tabbedpages.py.  Use of
     TabbedPageSet in configdialog was replaced by ttk.Notebook.

   - bpo-32100(3): IDLE: Fix old and new bugs in pathbrowser; improve
     tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31858(4): IDLE – Restrict shell prompt manipulation to the
     shell.  Editor and output windows only see an empty last prompt
     line.  This simplifies the code and fixes a minor bug when newline
     is inserted.  Sys.ps1, if present, is read on Shell start-up, but
     is not set or changed.

   - bpo-31860(5): The font sample in the IDLE configuration dialog is
     now editable.  Changes persist while IDLE remains open

   - bpo-31836(6): Test_code_module now passes if run after test_idle,
     which sets ps1.  The code module uses sys.ps1 if present or sets it
     to “>>> “ if not.  Test_code_module now properly tests both
     behaviors.  Ditto for ps2.

   - bpo-28603(7): Fix a TypeError that caused a shell restart when
     printing a traceback that includes an exception that is unhashable.
     Patch by Zane Bitter.

   - bpo-13802(8): Use non-Latin characters in the IDLE’s Font settings
     sample.  Even if one selects a font that defines a limited subset
     of the unicode Basic Multilingual Plane, tcl/tk will use other
     fonts that define a character.  The expanded example give users of
     non-Latin characters a better idea of what they might see in IDLE’s
     shell and editors.  To make room for the expanded sample, frames on
     the Font tab are re-arranged.  The Font/Tabs help explains a bit
     about the additions.

   - bpo-31460(9): Simplify the API of IDLE’s Module Browser.  Passing a
     widget instead of an flist with a root widget opens the option of
     creating a browser frame that is only part of a window.  Passing a
     full file name instead of pieces assumed to come from a .py file
     opens the possibility of browsing python files that do not end in
     .py.

   - bpo-31649(10): IDLE - Make _htest, _utest parameters keyword only.

   - bpo-31559(11): Remove test order dependence in
     idle_test.test_browser.

   - bpo-31459(12): Rename IDLE’s module browser from Class Browser to
     Module Browser.  The original module-level class and method browser
     became a module browser, with the addition of module-level
     functions, years ago.  Nested classes and functions were added
     yesterday.  For back-compatibility, the virtual event
     <<open-class-browser>>, which appears on the Keys tab of the
     Settings dialog, is not changed.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31500(13): Default fonts now are scaled on HiDPI displays.

   - bpo-1612262(14): IDLE module browser now shows nested classes and
     functions.  Original patches for code and tests by Guilherme Polo
     and Cheryl Sabella, respectively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32207

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32100

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31858

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31836

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31460

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31649

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31559

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31459

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31500

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<44>,  Next: C API<67>,  Prev: IDLE<49>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.26.78.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30722(1): Make redemo work with Python 3.6 and newer versions.
     Also, remove the ‘LOCALE’ option since it doesn’t work with string
     patterns in Python 3.  Patch by Christoph Sarnowski.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30722


File: python.info,  Node: C API<67>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<44>,  Up: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1

1.26.78.10 C API
................

   - bpo-20891(1): Fix PyGILState_Ensure().  When PyGILState_Ensure() is
     called in a non-Python thread before PyEval_InitThreads(), only
     call PyEval_InitThreads() after calling PyThreadState_New() to fix
     a crash.

   - bpo-31532(2): Fix memory corruption due to allocator mix in
     getpath.c between Py_GetPath() and Py_SetPath()

   - bpo-30697(3): The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton is removed
     and ‘PyErr_NormalizeException()’ does not use it anymore.  This
     singleton is persistent and its members being never cleared may
     cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter.  See also
     bpo-22898(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20891

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31532

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 3 final,  Next: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.79 Python 3.6.3 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-10-03'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<182>.
* Build: Build<75>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<182>,  Next: Build<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 final

1.26.79.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-31641(1): Re-allow arbitrary iterables in
     ‘concurrent.futures.as_completed()’.  Fixes regression in 3.6.3rc1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31641


File: python.info,  Node: Build<75>,  Prev: Library<182>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 final

1.26.79.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-31662(1): Fix typos in Windows ‘uploadrelease.bat’ script.  Fix
     Windows Doc build issues in ‘Doc/make.bat’.

   - bpo-31423(2): Fix building the PDF documentation with newer
     versions of Sphinx.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31662

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31423


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 2 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 3 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.80 Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-09-18'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<50>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<180>.
* Library: Library<183>.
* Documentation: Documentation<70>.
* Tests: Tests<71>.
* Build: Build<76>.
* Windows: Windows<66>.
* IDLE: IDLE<50>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<45>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<50>,  Next: Core and Builtins<180>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.26.80.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29781(1): SSLObject.version() now correctly returns None when
     handshake over BIO has not been performed yet.

   - bpo-30947(2): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29781

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<180>,  Next: Library<183>,  Prev: Security<50>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.26.80.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31471(1): Fix an assertion failure in ‘subprocess.Popen()’ on
     Windows, in case the env argument has a bad ‘keys()’ method.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31418(2): Fix an assertion failure in ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable()’
     in case of an exception with a bad ‘__module__’ attribute.  Patch
     by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31416(3): Fix assertion failures in case of a bad
     warnings.filters or warnings.defaultaction.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31411(4): Raise a TypeError instead of SystemError in case
     warnings.onceregistry is not a dictionary.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31373(5): Fix several possible instances of undefined behavior
     due to floating-point demotions.

   - bpo-30465(6): Location information (‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’) in
     f-strings is now (mostly) correct.  This fixes tools like flake8
     from showing warnings on the wrong line (typically the first line
     of the file).

   - bpo-31343(7): Include sys/sysmacros.h for major(), minor(), and
     makedev().  GNU C library plans to remove the functions from
     sys/types.h.

   - bpo-31291(8): Fix an assertion failure in
     ‘zipimport.zipimporter.get_data’ on Windows, when the return value
     of ‘pathname.replace('/','\\')’ isn’t a string.  Patch by Oren
     Milman.

   - bpo-31271(9): Fix an assertion failure in the ‘write()’ method of
     ‘io.TextIOWrapper’, when the encoder doesn’t return a bytes object.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-31243(10): Fix a crash in some methods of ‘io.TextIOWrapper’,
     when the decoder’s state is invalid.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-30721(11): ‘print’ now shows correct usage hint for using
     Python 2 redirection syntax.  Patch by Sanyam Khurana.

   - bpo-31070(12): Fix a race condition in importlib
     _get_module_lock().

   - bpo-31095(13): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn’t call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   - bpo-31071(14): Avoid masking original TypeError in call with *
     unpacking when other arguments are passed.

   - bpo-30978(15): str.format_map() now passes key lookup exceptions
     through.  Previously any exception was replaced with a KeyError
     exception.

   - bpo-30808(16): Use _Py_atomic API for concurrency-sensitive signal
     state.

   - bpo-30876(17): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30703(18): Improve signal delivery.  Avoid using
     Py_AddPendingCall from signal handler, to avoid calling
     signal-unsafe functions.  The tests I’m adding here fail without
     the rest of the patch, on Linux and OS X. This means our signal
     delivery logic had defects (some signals could be lost).

   - bpo-30765(19): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-31161(20): Make sure the “Missing parentheses” syntax error
     message is only applied to SyntaxError, not to subclasses.  Patch
     by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-30814(21): Fixed a race condition when import a submodule from
     a package.

   - bpo-30597(22): ‘print’ now shows expected input in custom error
     message when used as a Python 2 statement.  Patch by Sanyam
     Khurana.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31471

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31418

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31416

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31411

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31373

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30465

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31343

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31291

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31271

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31243

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30721

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31070

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31071

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30978

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30808

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30703

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31161

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30814

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30597


File: python.info,  Node: Library<183>,  Next: Documentation<70>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<180>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.26.80.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-31499(1): xml.etree: Fix a crash when a parser is part of a
     reference cycle.

   - bpo-28556(2): typing.get_type_hints now finds the right globalns
     for classes and modules by default (when no ‘globalns’ was
     specified by the caller).

   - bpo-28556(3): Speed improvements to the ‘typing’ module.  Original
     PRs by Ivan Levkivskyi and Mitar.

   - bpo-31544(4): The C accelerator module of ElementTree ignored
     exceptions raised when looking up TreeBuilder target methods in
     XMLParser().

   - bpo-31234(5): socket.create_connection() now fixes manually a
     reference cycle: clear the variable storing the last exception on
     success.

   - bpo-31457(6): LoggerAdapter objects can now be nested.

   - bpo-31400(7): Improves SSL error handling to avoid losing error
     numbers.

   - bpo-28958(8): ssl.SSLContext() now uses OpenSSL error information
     when a context cannot be instantiated.

   - bpo-27340(9): SSLSocket.sendall() now uses memoryview to create
     slices of data.  This fixes support for all bytes-like object.  It
     is also more efficient and avoids costly copies.

   - bpo-31178(10): Fix string concatenation bug in rare error path in
     the subprocess module

   - bpo-31350(11): Micro-optimize ‘asyncio._get_running_loop()’ to
     become up to 10% faster.

   - bpo-31170(12): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   - bpo-29136(13): Add TLS 1.3 cipher suites and OP_NO_TLSv1_3.

   - bpo-29212(14): Fix concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor
     threads to have a non repr() based thread name by default when no
     thread_name_prefix is supplied.  They will now identify themselves
     as «ThreadPoolExecutor-y_n».

   - bpo-9146(15): Fix a segmentation fault in _hashopenssl when
     standard hash functions such as md5 are not available in the linked
     OpenSSL library.  As in some special FIPS-140 build environments.

   - bpo-27144(16): The ‘map()’ and ‘as_completed()’ iterators in
     ‘concurrent.futures’ now avoid keeping a reference to yielded
     objects.

   - bpo-10746(17): Fix ctypes producing wrong PEP 3118(18) type codes
     for integer types.

   - bpo-22536(19): The subprocess module now sets the filename when
     FileNotFoundError is raised on POSIX systems due to the executable
     or cwd not being found.

   - bpo-31249(20): concurrent.futures: WorkItem.run() used by
     ThreadPoolExecutor now breaks a reference cycle between an
     exception object and the WorkItem object.

   - bpo-31247(21): xmlrpc.server now explicitly breaks reference cycles
     when using sys.exc_info() in code handling exceptions.

   - bpo-30102(22): The ssl and hashlib modules now call
     OPENSSL_add_all_algorithms_noconf() on OpenSSL < 1.1.0.  The
     function detects CPU features and enables optimizations on some CPU
     architectures such as POWER8.  Patch is based on research from
     Gustavo Serra Scalet.

   - bpo-31185(23): Fixed miscellaneous errors in asyncio speedup
     module.

   - bpo-31135(24): ttk: fix the destroy() method of LabeledScale and
     OptionMenu classes.  Call the parent destroy() method even if the
     used attribute doesn’t exist.  The LabeledScale.destroy() method
     now also explicitly clears label and scale attributes to help the
     garbage collector to destroy all widgets.

   - bpo-31107(25): Fix ‘copyreg._slotnames()’ mangled attribute
     calculation for classes whose name begins with an underscore.
     Patch by Shane Harvey.

   - bpo-31061(26): Fixed a crash when using asyncio and threads.

   - bpo-30502(27): Fix handling of long oids in ssl.  Based on patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-30119(28): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30595(29): multiprocessing.Queue.get() with a timeout now polls
     its reader in non-blocking mode if it succeeded to acquire the lock
     but the acquire took longer than the timeout.

   - bpo-29403(30): Fix ‘unittest.mock’’s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(31): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in
     tracemalloc.

   - bpo-25684(32): Change ‘ttk.OptionMenu’ radiobuttons to be unique
     across instances of ‘OptionMenu’.

   - bpo-30886(33): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now
     waits until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by
     the same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(34): Fix segfault in readline when using readline’s
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30319(35): socket.close() now ignores ECONNRESET error.

   - bpo-30828(36): Fix out of bounds write in
     ‘asyncio.CFuture.remove_done_callback()’.

   - bpo-30807(37): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(38): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-30532(39): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-30879(40): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(41): Prohibited the “=” character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-29755(42): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31499

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31544

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31234

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31457

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31400

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28958

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27340

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31178

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31350

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29212

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9146

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27144

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10746

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22536

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31249

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31247

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30102

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31185

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31135

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31107

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31061

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30502

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30595

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25684

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30319

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30828

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<70>,  Next: Tests<71>,  Prev: Library<183>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.26.80.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-31294(1): Fix incomplete code snippet in the
     ZeroMQSocketListener and ZeroMQSocketHandler examples and adapt
     them to Python 3.

   - bpo-21649(2): Add RFC 7525 and Mozilla server side TLS links to SSL
     documentation.

   - bpo-30803(3): Clarify doc on truth value testing.  Original patch
     by Peter Thomassen.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31294

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21649

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30803


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<71>,  Next: Build<76>,  Prev: Documentation<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.26.80.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-31320(1): Silence traceback in test_ssl

   - bpo-25674(2): Remove sha256.tbs-internet.com ssl test

   - bpo-30715(3): Address ALPN callback changes for OpenSSL 1.1.0f.
     The latest version behaves like OpenSSL 1.0.2 and no longer aborts
     handshake.

   - bpo-30822(4): regrtest: Exclude tzdata from regrtest –all.  When
     running the test suite using –use=all / -u all, exclude tzdata
     since it makes test_datetime too slow (15-20 min on some buildbots)
     which then times out on some buildbots.  Fix also regrtest command
     line parser to allow passing -u extralargefile to run
     test_zipfile64.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31320

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25674

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30715

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822


File: python.info,  Node: Build<76>,  Next: Windows<66>,  Prev: Tests<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.26.80.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-30854(1): Fix compile error when compiling –without-threads.
     Patch by Masayuki Yamamoto.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30854


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<66>,  Next: IDLE<50>,  Prev: Build<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.26.80.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-30389(1): Adds detection of Visual Studio 2017 to distutils on
     Windows.

   - bpo-31340(2): Change to building with MSVC v141 (included with
     Visual Studio 2017)

   - bpo-30581(3): os.cpu_count() now returns the correct number of
     processors on Windows when the number of logical processors is
     greater than 64.

   - bpo-30731(4): Add a missing xmlns to python.manifest so that it
     matches the schema.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30389

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31340

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30581

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30731


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<50>,  Next: Tools/Demos<45>,  Prev: Windows<66>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.26.80.8 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-31493(1): IDLE code context – fix code update and font update
     timers.  Canceling timers prevents a warning message when test_idle
     completes.

   - bpo-31488(2): IDLE - Update non-key options in former extension
     classes.  When applying configdialog changes, call .reload for each
     feature class.  Change ParenMatch so updated options affect
     existing instances attached to existing editor windows.

   - bpo-31477(3): IDLE - Improve rstrip entry in doc.  Strip trailing
     whitespace strips more than blank spaces.  Multiline string
     literals are not skipped.

   - bpo-31480(4): IDLE - make tests pass with zzdummy extension
     disabled by default.

   - bpo-31421(5): Document how IDLE runs tkinter programs.  IDLE calls
     tcl/tk update in the background in order to make live interaction
     and experimentation with tkinter applications much easier.

   - bpo-31414(6): IDLE – fix tk entry box tests by deleting first.
     Adding to an int entry is not the same as deleting and inserting
     because int(“”) will fail.

   - bpo-31051(7): Rearrange IDLE configdialog GenPage into Window,
     Editor, and Help sections.

   - bpo-30617(8): IDLE - Add docstrings and tests for outwin subclass
     of editor.  Move some data and functions from the class to module
     level.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31287(9): IDLE - Do not modify tkinter.message in
     test_configdialog.

   - bpo-27099(10): Convert IDLE’s built-in “extensions” to regular
     features.  About 10 IDLE features were implemented as supposedly
     optional extensions.  Their different behavior could be confusing
     or worse for users and not good for maintenance.  Hence the
     conversion.  The main difference for users is that user
     configurable key bindings for builtin features are now handled
     uniformly.  Now, editing a binding in a keyset only affects its
     value in the keyset.  All bindings are defined together in the
     system-specific default keysets in config-extensions.def.  All
     custom keysets are saved as a whole in config-extension.cfg.  All
     take effect as soon as one clicks Apply or Ok.  The affected events
     are “<<force-open-completions>>”, “<<expand-word>>”,
     “<<force-open-calltip>>”, “<<flash-paren>>”,
     “<<format-paragraph>>”, “<<run-module>>”, “<<check-module>>”, and
     “<<zoom-height>>”.  Any (global) customizations made before 3.6.3
     will not affect their keyset-specific customization after 3.6.3.
     and vice versa.  Initial patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-31206(11): IDLE: Factor HighPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31001(12): Add tests for configdialog highlight tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31205(13): IDLE: Factor KeysPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  The slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31130(14): IDLE – stop leaks in test_configdialog.  Initial
     patch by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-31002(15): Add tests for configdialog keys tab.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-19903(16): IDLE: Calltips use ‘inspect.signature’ instead of
     ‘inspect.getfullargspec’.  This improves calltips for builtins
     converted to use Argument Clinic.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-31083(17): IDLE - Add an outline of a TabPage class in
     configdialog.  Update existing classes to match outline.  Initial
     patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31050(18): Factor GenPage(Frame) class from ConfigDialog.  The
     slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31004(19): IDLE - Factor FontPage(Frame) class from
     ConfigDialog.  Slightly modified tests continue to pass.  Fix
     General tests.  Patch mostly by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30781(20): IDLE - Use ttk widgets in ConfigDialog.  Patches by
     Terry Jan Reedy and Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-31060(21): IDLE - Finish rearranging methods of ConfigDialog
     Grouping methods pertaining to each tab and the buttons will aid
     writing tests and improving the tabs and will enable splitting the
     groups into classes.

   - bpo-30853(22): IDLE – Factor a VarTrace class out of ConfigDialog.
     Instance tracers manages pairs consisting of a tk variable and a
     callback function.  When tracing is turned on, setting the variable
     calls the function.  Test coverage for the new class is 100%.

   - bpo-31003(23): IDLE: Add more tests for General tab.

   - bpo-30993(24): IDLE - Improve configdialog font page and tests.  In
     configdialog: Document causal pathways in create_font_tab
     docstring.  Simplify some attribute names.  Move set_samples calls
     to var_changed_font (idea from Cheryl Sabella).  Move related
     functions to positions after the create widgets function.  In
     test_configdialog: Fix test_font_set so not order dependent.  Fix
     renamed test_indent_scale so it tests the widget.  Adjust tests for
     movement of set_samples call.  Add tests for load functions.  Put
     all font tests in one class and tab indent tests in another.
     Except for two lines, these tests completely cover the related
     functions.

   - bpo-30981(25): IDLE – Add more configdialog font page tests.

   - bpo-28523(26): IDLE: replace “colour” with “color” in configdialog.

   - bpo-30917(27): Add tests for idlelib.config.IdleConf.  Increase
     coverage from 46% to 96%.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30934(28): Document coverage details for idlelib tests.  Add
     section to idlelib/idle-test/README.txt.  Include check that
     branches are taken both ways.  Exclude IDLE-specific code that does
     not run during unit tests.

   - bpo-30913(29): IDLE: Document ConfigDialog tk Vars, methods, and
     widgets in docstrings This will facilitate improving the dialog and
     splitting up the class.  Original patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30899(30): IDLE: Add tests for ConfigParser subclasses in
     config.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-30881(31): IDLE: Add docstrings to browser.py.  Patch by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-30851(32): IDLE: Remove unused variables in configdialog.  One
     is a duplicate, one is set but cannot be altered by users.  Patch
     by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30870(33): IDLE: In Settings dialog, select font with Up, Down
     keys as well as mouse.  Initial patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-8231(34): IDLE: call config.IdleConf.GetUserCfgDir only once.

   - bpo-30779(35): IDLE: Factor ConfigChanges class from configdialog,
     put in config; test.  * In config, put dump test code in a
     function; run it and unittest in “if __name__ == “__main__”.  * Add
     class config.ConfigChanges based on changes_class_v4.py on bpo
     issue.  * Add class test_config.ChangesTest, partly using
     configdialog_tests_v1.py.  * Revise configdialog to use
     ConfigChanges; see tracker msg297804.  * Revise test_configdialog
     to match configdialog changes.  * Remove configdialog functions
     unused or moved to ConfigChanges.  Cheryl Sabella contributed parts
     of the patch.

   - bpo-30777(36): IDLE: configdialog - Add docstrings and fix
     comments.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30495(37): IDLE: Improve textview with docstrings, PEP8 names,
     and more tests.  Patch by Cheryl Sabella.

   - bpo-30723(38): IDLE: Make several improvements to parenmatch.  Add
     “parens” style to highlight both opener and closer.  Make “default”
     style, which is not default, a synonym for “opener”.  Make
     time-delay work the same with all styles.  Add help for config
     dialog extensions tab, including help for parenmatch.  Add new
     tests.  Original patch by Charles Wohlganger.

   - bpo-30674(39): IDLE: add docstrings to grep module.  Patch by
     Cheryl Sabella

   - bpo-21519(40): IDLE’s basic custom key entry dialog now detects
     duplicates properly.  Original patch by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-29910(41): IDLE no longer deletes a character after commenting
     out a region by a key shortcut.  Add ‘return 'break'’ for this and
     other potential conflicts between IDLE and default key bindings.

   - bpo-30728(42): Review and change idlelib.configdialog names.
     Lowercase method and attribute names.  Replace “colour” with
     “color”, expand overly cryptic names, delete unneeded underscores.
     Replace ‘import *’ with specific imports.  Patches by Cheryl
     Sabella.

   - bpo-6739(43): IDLE: Verify user-entered key sequences by trying to
     bind them with tk.  Add tests for all 3 validation functions.
     Original patch by G Polo.  Tests added by Cheryl Sabella.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31493

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31488

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31477

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31480

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31421

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31414

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31051

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30617

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31287

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31206

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31001

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31205

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31130

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19903

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31083

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31050

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31004

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30781

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31060

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30853

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30993

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30981

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28523

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30917

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30934

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30913

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30899

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30881

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30851

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30870

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8231

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30779

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30777

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30723

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30674

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21519

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29910

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30728

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6739


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<45>,  Prev: IDLE<50>,  Up: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1

1.26.80.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-30983(1): gdb integration commands (py-bt, etc.)  work on
     optimized shared builds now, too.  PEP 523(2) introduced
     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault which inlines PyEval_EvalFrameEx on
     non-debug shared builds.  This broke the ability to use py-bt,
     py-up, and a few other Python-specific gdb integrations.  The
     problem is fixed by only looking for _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
     frames in python-gdb.py.  Original patch by Bruno «Polaco»
     Penteado.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30983

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 final,  Next: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.81 Python 3.6.2 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-17'

No changes since release candidate 2


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.82 Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-07'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<51>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<51>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2

1.26.82.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-30730(1): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(2): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(3)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(4) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(5) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0’s fix to CVE 2016-0718(6)) and CVE 2012-0876(7) (Counter hash
     flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(8) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn’t impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(9): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.83 Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-06-17'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<52>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<181>.
* Library: Library<184>.
* IDLE: IDLE<51>.
* C API: C API<68>.
* Build: Build<77>.
* Documentation: Documentation<71>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<46>.
* Tests: Tests<72>.
* Windows: Windows<67>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<52>,  Next: Core and Builtins<181>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.26.83.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-29591(1): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes of
     CVE 2016-0718(2) and CVE 2016-4472(3).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<181>,  Next: Library<184>,  Prev: Security<52>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.26.83.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-30682(1): Removed a too-strict assertion that failed for
     certain f-strings, such as eval(«f”\n”») and eval(«f”\r”»).

   - bpo-30604(2): Move co_extra_freefuncs to not be per-thread to avoid
     crashes

   - bpo-29104(3): Fixed parsing backslashes in f-strings.

   - bpo-27945(4): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(5): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-30039(6): If a KeyboardInterrupt happens when the interpreter
     is in the middle of resuming a chain of nested “yield from” or
     “await” calls, it’s now correctly delivered to the innermost frame.

   - bpo-12414(7): sys.getsizeof() on a code object now returns the
     sizes which includes the code struct and sizes of objects which it
     references.  Patch by Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29949(8): Fix memory usage regression of set and frozenset
     object.

   - bpo-29935(9): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-29859(10): Show correct error messages when any of the
     pthread_* calls in thread_pthread.h fails.

   - bpo-28876(11): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises
     *note OverflowError: c57.

   - bpo-29600(12): Fix wrapping coroutine return values in
     StopIteration.

   - bpo-28856(13): Fix an oversight that %b format for bytes should
     support objects follow the buffer protocol.

   - bpo-29714(14): Fix a regression that bytes format may fail when
     containing zero bytes inside.

   - bpo-29478(15): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30682

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30604

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29104

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30039

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12414

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29949

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29859

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29600

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28856

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29714

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478


File: python.info,  Node: Library<184>,  Next: IDLE<51>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<181>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.26.83.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-30616(1): Functional API of enum allows to create empty enums.
     Patched by Donghee Na

   - bpo-30038(2): Fix race condition between signal delivery and wakeup
     file descriptor.  Patch by Nathaniel Smith.

   - bpo-23894(3): lib2to3 now recognizes ‘rb'...'’ and ‘f'...'’
     strings.

   - bpo-23890(4): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks
     a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.

   - bpo-30149(5): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-30645(6): Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing it
     for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch by
     Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-29931(7): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-30605(8): re.compile() no longer raises a BytesWarning when
     compiling a bytes instance with misplaced inline modifier.  Patch
     by Roy Williams.

   - bpo-24484(9): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup
     (#2159)

   - bpo-28994(10): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(11): Don’t log exceptions if Task/Future «cancel()»
     method was called.

   - bpo-28556(12): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-29870(13): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(14): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(15): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30418(16): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-29822(17): inspect.isabstract() now works during
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-29581(18): ABCMeta.__new__ now accepts ‘**kwargs’, allowing
     abstract base classes to use keyword parameters in
     __init_subclass__.  Patch by Nate Soares.

   - bpo-30557(19): faulthandler now correctly filters and displays
     exception codes on Windows

   - bpo-30378(20): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-29960(21): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30414(22): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(23): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30301(24): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30329(25): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-30375(26): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30048(27): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-30266(28): contextlib.AbstractContextManager now supports
     anti-registration by setting __enter__ = None or __exit__ = None,
     following the pattern introduced in bpo-25958(29).  Patch by Jelle
     Zijlstra.

   - bpo-30298(30): Weaken the condition of deprecation warnings for
     inline modifiers.  Now allowed several subsequential inline
     modifiers at the start of the pattern (e.g.  ‘'(?i)(?s)...'’).  In
     verbose mode whitespaces and comments now are allowed before and
     between inline modifiers (e.g.  ‘'(?x) (?i) (?s)...'’).

   - bpo-29990(31): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-26293(32): Change resulted because of zipfile breakage.  (See
     also: bpo-29094(33))

   - bpo-30243(34): Removed the __init__ methods of _json’s scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30185(35): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-28556(36): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(37): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30070(38): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-30061(39): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30017(40): Allowed calling the close() method of the zip entry
     writer object multiple times.  Writing to a closed writer now
     always produces a ValueError.

   - bpo-30068(41): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it’s closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(42): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(43): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-29998(44): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29953(45): Fixed memory leaks in the replace() method of
     datetime and time objects when pass out of bound fold argument.

   - bpo-29942(46): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-27863(47): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race
     conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-28699(48): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25803(49): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(50): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-29884(51): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(52): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(53): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-29742(54): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-8256(55): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes «encoding» or «errors» of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28298(56): Fix a bug that prevented array “Q”, “L” and “I” from
     accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28231(57): The zipfile module now accepts path-like objects for
     external paths.

   - bpo-26915(58): index() and count() methods of
     collections.abc.Sequence now check identity before checking
     equality when do comparisons.

   - bpo-29615(59): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or
     any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-30177(60): path.resolve(strict=False) no longer cuts the path
     after the first element not present in the filesystem.  Patch by
     Antoine Pietri.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30616

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30038

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23894

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23890

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30149

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29931

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30605

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29822

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29581

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30557

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29960

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30414

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30003

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30301

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30329

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30375

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30048

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30266

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30298

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29990

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30243

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30185

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30205

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30070

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30061

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30017

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30068

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29694

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29692

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29998

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29953

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29942

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27863

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28699

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25803

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29861

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29884

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29800

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29742

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8256

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28298

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28231

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26915

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29615

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30177


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<51>,  Next: C API<68>,  Prev: Library<184>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.26.83.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15786(1): Fix several problems with IDLE’s autocompletion box.
     The following should now work: clicking on selection box items;
     using the scrollbar; selecting an item by hitting Return.  Hangs on
     MacOSX should no longer happen.  Patch by Louie Lu.

   - bpo-25514(2): Add doc subsubsection about IDLE failure to start.
     Popup no-connection message directs users to this section.

   - bpo-30642(3): Fix reference leaks in IDLE tests.  Patches by Louie
     Lu and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30495(4): Add docstrings for textview.py and use PEP8 names.
     Patches by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30290(5): Help-about: use pep8 names and add tests.  Increase
     coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry
     Jan Reedy.

   - bpo-30303(6): Add _utest option to textview; add new tests.
     Increase coverage to 100%.  Patches by Louie Lu and Terry Jan
     Reedy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25514

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30642

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30495

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30290

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30303


File: python.info,  Node: C API<68>,  Next: Build<77>,  Prev: IDLE<51>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.26.83.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() no longer replaced
     with a macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867


File: python.info,  Node: Build<77>,  Next: Documentation<71>,  Prev: C API<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.26.83.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-29941(1): Add ‘--with-assertions’ configure flag to explicitly
     enable C ‘assert()’ checks.  Defaults to off.  ‘--with-pydebug’
     implies ‘--with-assertions’.

   - bpo-28787(2): Fix out-of-tree builds of Python when configured with
     ‘--with--dtrace’.

   - bpo-29243(3): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during ‘make
     test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when configured
     with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(4): Don’t regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(5): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn’t work.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29941

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28787

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<71>,  Next: Tools/Demos<46>,  Prev: Build<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.26.83.7 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-30176(1): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-30052(2): the link targets for *note bytes(): 1c7. and *note
     bytearray(): 1c6. are now their respective type definitions, rather
     than the corresponding builtin function entries.  Use *note bytes:
     2087. and *note bytearray: 2088. to reference the latter.  In order
     to ensure this and future cross-reference updates are applied
     automatically, the daily documentation builds now disable the
     default output caching features in Sphinx.

   - bpo-26985(3): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30052

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<46>,  Next: Tests<72>,  Prev: Documentation<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.26.83.8 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-29367(1): python-gdb.py now supports also ‘method-wrapper’
     (‘wrapperobject’) objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29367


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<72>,  Next: Windows<67>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<46>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.26.83.9 Tests
...............

   - bpo-30357(1): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-30197(2): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn’t exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the «as» clause, if there is one.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<67>,  Prev: Tests<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1

1.26.83.10 Windows
..................

   - bpo-30687(1): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-30450(2): The build process on Windows no longer depends on
     Subversion, instead pulling external code from GitHub via a Python
     script.  If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py -3.6’),
     NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 1 final,  Next: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.84 Python 3.6.1 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-03-21'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<182>.
* Build: Build<78>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<182>,  Next: Build<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 final

1.26.84.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-29723(1): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(2) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  The interpreter now
     consistently avoids ever adding the import location’s parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139


File: python.info,  Node: Build<78>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<182>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 final

1.26.84.2 Build
...............

   - bpo-27593(1): fix format of git information used in sys.version

   - Fix incompatible comment in python.h

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 1 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.85 Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-03-04'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<183>.
* Library: Library<185>.
* IDLE: IDLE<52>.
* Windows: Windows<68>.
* C API: C API<69>.
* Documentation: Documentation<72>.
* Tests: Tests<73>.
* Build: Build<79>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<183>,  Next: Library<185>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.26.85.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28893(1): Set correct __cause__ for errors about invalid
     awaitables returned from __aiter__ and __anext__.

   - bpo-29683(2): Fixes to memory allocation in _PyCode_SetExtra.
     Patch by Brian Coleman.

   - bpo-29684(3): Fix minor regression of
     PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords.  It should raise TypeError when
     kwargs is not a dict.  But it might cause segv when args=NULL and
     kwargs is not a dict.

   - bpo-28598(4): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29607(5): Fix stack_effect computation for CALL_FUNCTION_EX.
     Patch by Matthieu Dartiailh.

   - bpo-29602(6): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(7): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29438(8): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29319(9): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(10): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29327(11): Fixed a crash when pass the iterable keyword
     argument to sorted().

   - bpo-29034(12): Fix memory leak and use-after-free in os module
     (path_converter).

   - bpo-29159(13): Fix regression in bytes(x) when x.__index__() raises
     Exception.

   - bpo-28932(14): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-25677(15): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret
     for indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(16): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding
     in alternate form.

   - bpo-26919(17): On Android, operating system data is now always
     encoded/decoded to/from UTF-8, instead of the locale encoding to
     avoid inconsistencies with os.fsencode() and os.fsdecode() which
     are already using UTF-8.

   - bpo-28991(18): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug triggerable by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28739(19): f-string expressions are no longer accepted as
     docstrings and by ast.literal_eval() even if they do not include
     expressions.

   - bpo-28512(20): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28918(21): Fix the cross compilation of xxlimited when Python
     has been built with Py_DEBUG defined.

   - bpo-28731(22): Optimize _PyDict_NewPresized() to create correct
     size dict.  Improve speed of dict literal with constant keys up to
     30%.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28893

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29684

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29607

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29327

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29034

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29159

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26919

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28739

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28918

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28731


File: python.info,  Node: Library<185>,  Next: IDLE<52>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<183>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.26.85.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-29169(1): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-29623(2): Allow use of path-like object as a single argument in
     ConfigParser.read().  Patch by David Ellis.

   - bpo-28963(3): Fix out of bound iteration in
     asyncio.Future.remove_done_callback implemented in C.

   - bpo-29704(4): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no longer
     closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29271(5): Fix Task.current_task and Task.all_tasks implemented
     in C to accept None argument as their pure Python implementation.

   - bpo-29703(6): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29376(7): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-28624(8): Add a test that checks that cwd parameter of Popen()
     accepts PathLike objects.  Patch by Sayan Chowdhury.

   - bpo-28518(9): Start a transaction implicitly before a DML
     statement.  Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-29532(10): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-29110(11): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-28556(12): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(13): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29519(14): Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter
     shutdown when used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and
     custom codecs.

   - bpo-29416(15): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(16): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29335(17): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(18): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(19): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29316(20): Restore the provisional status of typing module, add
     corresponding note to documentation.  Patch by Ivan L.

   - bpo-29219(21): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-29011(22): Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the
     typing module.

   - bpo-28969(23): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-29142(24): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   - bpo-28961(25): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don’t ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-29203(26): functools.lru_cache() now respects PEP 468(27) and
     preserves the order of keyword arguments.  f(a=1, b=2) is now
     cached separately from f(b=2, a=1) since both calls could
     potentially give different results.

   - bpo-15812(28): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first
     line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-29094(29): Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file
     object and modes «w» and «x» now are relative to the start of the
     file.

   - bpo-29085(30): Allow random.Random.seed() to use high quality OS
     randomness rather than the pid and time.

   - bpo-29061(31): Fixed bug in secrets.randbelow() which would hang
     when given a negative input.  Patch by Brendan Donegan.

   - bpo-29079(32): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.resolve() on
     Windows

   - bpo-13051(33): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-29119(34): Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of
     collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method.  Contributed by Andra
     Bogildea.

   - bpo-9770(35): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(36): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(37): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-29055(38): Neaten-up empty population error on random.choice()
     by suppressing the upstream exception.

   - bpo-28871(39): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(40): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(41): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when passing a
     sequence that doesn’t own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-28779(42): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash
     the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some
     multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-28847(43): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no
     longer writes the index file when it is not changed.

   - bpo-26937(44): The chown() method of the tarfile.TarFile class does
     not fail now when the grp module cannot be imported, as for example
     on Android platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29623

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28963

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29704

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29271

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29703

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29376

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28624

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28518

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29532

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29110

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29100

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29519

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29416

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29444

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29335

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29290

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28735

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29316

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29219

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29011

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28969

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29142

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28961

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29203

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15812

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29085

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29061

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29079

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13051

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29119

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9770

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28427

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28923

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29055

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28871

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19542

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20191

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28779

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26937


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<52>,  Next: Windows<68>,  Prev: Library<185>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.26.85.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-29071(1): IDLE colors f-string prefixes (but not invalid ur
     prefixes).

   - bpo-28572(2): Add 10% to coverage of IDLE’s test_configdialog.
     Update and augment description of the configuration system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29071

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28572


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<68>,  Next: C API<69>,  Prev: IDLE<52>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.26.85.4 Windows
.................

   - bpo-29579(1): Removes readme.txt from the installer

   - bpo-29326(2): Ignores blank lines in ._pth files (Patch by Alexey
     Izbyshev)

   - bpo-28164(3): Correctly handle special console filenames (patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-29409(4): Implement PEP 529(5) for io.FileIO (Patch by Eryk
     Sun)

   - bpo-29392(6): Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into
     msvcrt module.

   - bpo-25778(7): winreg does not truncate string correctly (Patch by
     Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28896(8): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder and disable it by
     default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29579

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29326

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29409

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29392

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25778

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896


File: python.info,  Node: C API<69>,  Next: Documentation<72>,  Prev: Windows<68>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.26.85.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a
     macro if Py_LIMITED_API is not set or set to the value between
     0x03050400 and 0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.

   - bpo-29083(2): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   - bpo-29058(3): All stable API extensions added after Python 3.2 are
     now available only when Py_LIMITED_API is set to the PY_VERSION_HEX
     value of the minimum Python version supporting this API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29058


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<72>,  Next: Tests<73>,  Prev: C API<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.26.85.6 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28929(1): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(2): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a
     pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(3): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(4): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<73>,  Next: Build<79>,  Prev: Documentation<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.26.85.7 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28087(1): Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on
     macOS. Skip some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to
     unresolved issues with the underlying system poll function on some
     macOS versions.

   - bpo-29571(2): to match the behaviour of the ‘re.LOCALE’ flag,
     test_re.test_locale_flag now uses
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ to determine the candidate
     encoding for the test regex (allowing it to correctly skip the test
     when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte encoding)

   - bpo-28950(3): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28683(4): Fix the tests that bind() a unix socket and raise
     PermissionError on Android for a non-root user.

   - bpo-26939(5): Add the support.setswitchinterval() function to fix
     test_functools hanging on the Android armv7 qemu emulator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28087

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28683

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26939


File: python.info,  Node: Build<79>,  Prev: Tests<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1

1.26.85.8 Build
...............

   - bpo-27593(1): sys.version and the platform module python_build(),
     python_branch(), and python_revision() functions now use git
     information rather than hg when building from a repo.

   - bpo-29572(2): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2k.

   - bpo-26851(3): Set Android compilation and link flags.

   - bpo-28768(4): Fix implicit declaration of function _setmode.  Patch
     by Masayuki Yamamoto

   - bpo-29080(5): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(6): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-28762(7): lockf() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     F_LOCK macro is not defined in android-ndk-r13.

   - bpo-28538(8): Fix the compilation error that occurs because
     if_nameindex() is available on Android API level 24, but the
     if_nameindex structure is not defined.

   - bpo-20211(9): Do not add the directory for installing C header
     files and the directory for installing object code libraries to the
     cross compilation search paths.  Original patch by Thomas
     Petazzoni.

   - bpo-28849(10): Do not define sys.implementation._multiarch on
     Android.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27593

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29572

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26851

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28768

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28762

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28538

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20211

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28849


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 final,  Next: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.86 Python 3.6.0 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-23'

No changes since release candidate 2


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.87 Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-16'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<184>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<47>.
* Windows: Windows<69>.
* Build: Build<80>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<184>,  Next: Tools/Demos<47>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.26.87.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28147(1): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.  Patch
     written by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28990(2): Fix asyncio SSL hanging if connection is closed
     before handshake is completed.  (Patch by HoHo-Ho)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28990


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<47>,  Next: Windows<69>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<184>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.26.87.2 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-28770(1): Fix python-gdb.py for fastcalls.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28770


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<69>,  Next: Build<80>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<47>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.26.87.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28896(1): Deprecate WindowsRegistryFinder.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28896


File: python.info,  Node: Build<80>,  Prev: Windows<69>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2

1.26.87.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-28898(1): Prevent gdb build errors due to HAVE_LONG_LONG
     redefinition.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28898


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.88 Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-12-06'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<185>.
* Library: Library<186>.
* C API: C API<70>.
* Documentation: Documentation<73>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<48>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<185>,  Next: Library<186>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.26.88.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-23722(1): Rather than silently producing a class that doesn’t
     support zero-argument ‘super()’ in methods, failing to pass the new
     ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry up to ‘type.__new__’ now results in
     a ‘DeprecationWarning’ and a class that supports zero-argument
     ‘super()’.

   - bpo-28797(2): Modifying the class __dict__ inside the __set_name__
     method of a descriptor that is used inside that class no longer
     prevents calling the __set_name__ method of other descriptors.

   - bpo-28782(3): Fix a bug in the implementation ‘yield from’ when
     checking if the next instruction is YIELD_FROM. Regression
     introduced by WORDCODE (bpo-26647(4)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28797

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28782

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647


File: python.info,  Node: Library<186>,  Next: C API<70>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<185>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.26.88.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27030(1): Unknown escapes in re.sub() replacement template are
     allowed again.  But they still are deprecated and will be disabled
     in 3.7.

   - bpo-28835(2): Fix a regression introduced in
     warnings.catch_warnings(): call warnings.showwarning() if it was
     overridden inside the context manager.

   - bpo-27172(3): To assist with upgrades from 2.7, the previously
     documented deprecation of ‘inspect.getfullargspec()’ has been
     reversed.  This decision may be revisited again after the Python
     2.7 branch is no longer officially supported.

   - bpo-26273(4): Add new ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’ (Linux 2.6.13) and
     ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37) constants.  Patch written
     by Omar Sandoval.

   - bpo-24142(5): Reading a corrupt config file left configparser in an
     invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-28843(6): Fix asyncio C Task to handle exceptions
     __traceback__.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27030

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28835

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24142

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28843


File: python.info,  Node: C API<70>,  Next: Documentation<73>,  Prev: Library<186>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.26.88.3 C API
...............

   - bpo-28808(1): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<73>,  Next: Tools/Demos<48>,  Prev: C API<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.26.88.4 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-23722(1): The data model reference and the porting section in
     the What’s New guide now cover the additional ‘__classcell__’
     handling needed for custom metaclasses to fully support PEP 487(2)
     and zero-argument ‘super()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<48>,  Prev: Documentation<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1

1.26.88.5 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-28023(1): Fix python-gdb.py didn’t support new dict
     implementation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28023


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.89 Python 3.6.0 beta 4
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-11-21'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<186>.
* Library: Library<187>.
* Documentation: Documentation<74>.
* Tests: Tests<74>.
* Build: Build<81>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<186>,  Next: Library<187>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.26.89.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28532(1): Show sys.version when -V option is supplied twice.

   - bpo-27100(2): The with-statement now checks for __enter__ before it
     checks for __exit__.  This gives less confusing error messages when
     both methods are missing.  Patch by Jonathan Ellington.

   - bpo-28746(3): Fix the set_inheritable() file descriptor method on
     platforms that do not have the ioctl FIOCLEX and FIONCLEX commands.

   - bpo-26920(4): Fix not getting the locale’s charset upon
     initializing the interpreter, on platforms that do not have
     langinfo.

   - bpo-28648(5): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19398(6): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in
     case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28665(7): Improve speed of the STORE_DEREF opcode by 40%.

   - bpo-28583(8): PyDict_SetDefault didn’t combine split table when
     needed.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27243(9): Change PendingDeprecationWarning ->
     DeprecationWarning.  As it was agreed in the issue, __aiter__
     returning an awaitable should result in PendingDeprecationWarning
     in 3.5 and in DeprecationWarning in 3.6.

   - bpo-26182(10): Fix a refleak in code that raises
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-28721(11): Fix asynchronous generators aclose() and athrow() to
     handle StopAsyncIteration propagation properly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28532

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27100

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28746

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26920

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28665

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28583

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28721


File: python.info,  Node: Library<187>,  Next: Documentation<74>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<186>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.26.89.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28752(1): Restored the __reduce__() methods of datetime
     objects.

   - bpo-28727(2): Regular expression patterns, _sre.SRE_Pattern objects
     created by re.compile(), become comparable (only x==y and x!=y
     operators).  This change should fix the bpo-18383(3): don’t
     duplicate warning filters when the warnings module is reloaded
     (thing usually only done in unit tests).

   - bpo-20572(4): The subprocess.Popen.wait method’s undocumented
     endtime parameter now raises a DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-25659(5): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer()
     and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.

   - bpo-19717(6): Makes Path.resolve() succeed on paths that do not
     exist.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok

   - bpo-28563(7): Fixed possible DoS and arbitrary code execution when
     handle plural form selections in the gettext module.  The
     expression parser now supports exact syntax supported by GNU
     gettext.

   - bpo-28387(8): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper deallocator
     when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.  Based on
     patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-28600(9): Optimize loop.call_soon.

   - bpo-28613(10): Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if
     called from coroutines/callbacks.

   - bpo-28634(11): Fix asyncio.isfuture() to support unittest.Mock.

   - bpo-26081(12): Fix refleak in _asyncio.Future.__iter__().throw.

   - bpo-28639(13): Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch
     by Justin Mayfield.

   - bpo-28652(14): Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not
     support.

   - bpo-28653(15): Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.

   - bpo-28703(16): Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock
     objects.

   - bpo-28704(17): Fix create_unix_server to support Path-like objects
     (PEP 519).

   - bpo-28720(18): Add collections.abc.AsyncGenerator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28752

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28727

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20572

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25659

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19717

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28563

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28387

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28600

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28634

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28639

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28652

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28653

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28703

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28704

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28720


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<74>,  Next: Tests<74>,  Prev: Library<187>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.26.89.3 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-28513(1): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<74>,  Next: Build<81>,  Prev: Documentation<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.26.89.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28666(1): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(2): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839


File: python.info,  Node: Build<81>,  Prev: Tests<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 4

1.26.89.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-10656(1): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(2): Rename –with-optimiations to –enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28676(3): Prevent missing “getentropy” declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.90 Python 3.6.0 beta 3
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-10-31'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<187>.
* Library: Library<188>.
* Windows: Windows<70>.
* Build: Build<82>.
* Tests: Tests<75>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<187>,  Next: Library<188>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.26.90.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28128(1): Deprecation warning for invalid str and byte escape
     sequences now prints better information about where the error
     occurs.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-28509(2): dict.update() no longer allocate unnecessary large
     memory.

   - bpo-28426(3): Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()
     in debug build.

   - bpo-28517(4): Fixed of-by-one error in the peephole optimizer that
     caused keeping unreachable code.

   - bpo-28214(5): Improved exception reporting for problematic
     __set_name__ attributes.

   - bpo-23782(6): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and
     exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28471(7): Fix «Python memory allocator called without holding
     the GIL» crash in socket.setblocking.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28509

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28517

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28471


File: python.info,  Node: Library<188>,  Next: Windows<70>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<187>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.26.90.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27517(1): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(2): Fixed segfault in curses’s addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(3): tarfile.open() with mode «r» or «r:» now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(4): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-27939(5): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-18844(6): The various ways of specifying weights for
     random.choices() now produce the same result sequences.

   - bpo-28255(7): calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month’s calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(8): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(9): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-28430(10): Fix iterator of C implemented asyncio.Future doesn’t
     accept non-None value is passed to it.send(val).

   - bpo-27025(11): Generated names for Tkinter widgets now start by the
     «!» prefix for readability.

   - bpo-25464(12): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by
     addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(13): shutil.make_archive() no longer adds entry «./» to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-25953(14): re.sub() now raises an error for invalid numerical
     group reference in replacement template even if the pattern is not
     found in the string.  Error message for invalid group reference now
     includes the group index and the position of the reference.  Based
     on patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-18219(15): Optimize csv.DictWriter for large number of columns.
     Patch by Mariatta Wijaya.

   - bpo-28448(16): Fix C implemented asyncio.Future didn’t work on
     Windows.

   - bpo-28480(17): Fix error building socket module when multithreading
     is disabled.

   - bpo-24452(18): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.

   - bpo-20766(19): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-28492(20): Fix how StopIteration exception is raised in
     _asyncio.Future.

   - bpo-28500(21): Fix asyncio to handle async gens GC from another
     thread.

   - bpo-26923(22): Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once
     all children are done.  Patch by Johannes Ebke.

   - bpo-26796(23): Don’t configure the number of workers for default
     threadpool executor.  Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.

   - bpo-28544(24): Implement asyncio.Task in C.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27517

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28549

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28449

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23262

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27939

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28255

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20491

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28353

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28430

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27025

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25464

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28488

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18219

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28448

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28480

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24452

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20766

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28492

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28500

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26923

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26796

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<70>,  Next: Build<82>,  Prev: Library<188>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.26.90.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28522(1): Fixes mishandled buffer reallocation in getpathp.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28522


File: python.info,  Node: Build<82>,  Next: Tests<75>,  Prev: Windows<70>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.26.90.4 Build
...............

   - bpo-28444(1): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28208(2): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     SQLite 3.14.2.

   - bpo-28248(3): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28208

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<75>,  Prev: Build<82>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 3

1.26.90.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-26944(1): Fix test_posix for Android where “id -G” is entirely
     wrong or missing the effective gid.

   - bpo-28409(2): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26944

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.91 Python 3.6.0 beta 2
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-10-10'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<188>.
* Library: Library<189>.
* Windows: Windows<71>.
* C API: C API<71>.
* Build: Build<83>.
* Tests: Tests<76>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<188>,  Next: Library<189>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.26.91.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-28183(1): Optimize and cleanup dict iteration.

   - bpo-26081(2): Added C implementation of asyncio.Future.  Original
     patch by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-28379(3): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(4): The type of long range iterator is now registered as
     Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(5): Creating instances of range_iterator by calling
     range_iterator type now is deprecated.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(6): The constructor of range_iterator now checks that
     step is not 0.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(7): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(8): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(9): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28201(10): Dict reduces possibility of 2nd conflict in hash
     table when hashes have same lower bits.

   - bpo-28350(11): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(12): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(13): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-21578(14): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(15): Fix incorrect type in complex(1.0, {2:3}) error
     message.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-28086(16): Single var-positional argument of tuple subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact tuple.

   - bpo-28214(17): Now __set_name__ is looked up on the class instead
     of the instance.

   - bpo-27955(18): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28192(19): Don’t import readline in isolated mode.

   - Upgrade internal unicode databases to Unicode version 9.0.0.

   - bpo-28131(20): Fix a regression in zipimport’s compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-28126(21): Replace Py_MEMCPY with memcpy().  Visual Studio can
     properly optimize memcpy().

   - bpo-28120(22): Fix dict.pop() for split dictionary when trying to
     remove a «pending key» (Not yet inserted in split-table).  Patch by
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26182(23): Raise DeprecationWarning when async and await
     keywords are used as variable/attribute/class/function name.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28183

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28379

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26906

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18287

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24098

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28201

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28086

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28214

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28192

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28126

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28120

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26182


File: python.info,  Node: Library<189>,  Next: Windows<71>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<188>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.26.91.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-27998(1): Fixed bytes path support in os.scandir() on Windows.
     Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-28317(2): The disassembler now decodes FORMAT_VALUE argument.

   - bpo-26293(3): Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the
     start of the file.  Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the
     start of the archive in conforming to the specification.

   - bpo-28380(4): unittest.mock Mock autospec functions now properly
     support assert_called, assert_not_called, and assert_called_once.

   - bpo-27181(5): remove statistics.geometric_mean and defer until 3.7.

   - bpo-28229(6): lzma module now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28321(7): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28225(8): bz2 module now supports pathlib.  Initial patch by
     Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-28227(9): gzip now supports pathlib.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - bpo-27358(10): Optimized merging var-keyword arguments and improved
     error message when passing a non-mapping as a var-keyword argument.

   - bpo-28257(11): Improved error message when passing a non-iterable
     as a var-positional argument.  Added opcode
     BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL.

   - bpo-28322(12): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-28228(13): imghdr now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28226(14): compileall now supports pathlib.

   - bpo-28314(15): Fix function declaration (C flags) for the
     getiterator() method of xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.

   - bpo-28148(16): Stop using localtime() and gmtime() in the time
     module.  Introduced platform independent _PyTime_localtime API that
     is similar to POSIX localtime_r, but available on all platforms.
     Patch by Ed Schouten.

   - bpo-28253(17): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01
     and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are
     reimplemented so that they don’t call itermonthdates() which can
     cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(18): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(19): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18844(20): random.choices() now has k as a keyword-only
     argument to improve the readability of common cases and come into
     line with the signature used in other languages.

   - bpo-18893(21): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(22): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.  Added the master parameter in the DisplayStyle
     constructor.

   - bpo-27348(23): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like «Exception: None».  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(24): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27778(25): Fix a memory leak in os.getrandom() when the
     getrandom() is interrupted by a signal and a signal handler raises
     a Python exception.

   - bpo-28200(26): Fix memory leak on Windows in the os module (fix
     path_converter() function).

   - bpo-25400(27): RobotFileParser now correctly returns default values
     for crawl_delay and request_rate.  Initial patch by Peter Wirtz.

   - bpo-27932(28): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(29): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-22493(30): Warning message emitted by using inline flags in the
     middle of regular expression now contains a (truncated) regex
     pattern.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-25270(31): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(32): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(33): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-28114(34): Fix a crash in parse_envlist() when env contains
     byte strings.  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-27599(35): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-27906(36): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(37): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn’t properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(38): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(39): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(40): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(41): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28368(42): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher has
     no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(43): Raise RuntimeError when transport’s FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(44): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(45): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(46): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(47): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(48): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27998

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28317

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28380

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28229

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28321

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28225

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28227

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27358

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28322

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28228

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28226

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28314

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28148

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28253

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28275

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27897

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18893

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27611

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27348

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25651

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27778

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28200

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25400

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28075

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25270

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28181

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25895

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28114

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27599

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27906

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28174

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26654

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26909

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28176

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27759

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28368

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28369

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28371

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28372

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28399

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27972


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<71>,  Next: C API<71>,  Prev: Library<189>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.26.91.3 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28402(1): Adds signed catalog files for stdlib on Windows.

   - bpo-28333(2): Enables Unicode for ps1/ps2 and input() prompts.
     (Patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28251(3): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(4): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-28161(5): Opening CON for write access fails

   - bpo-28162(6): WindowsConsoleIO readall() fails if first line starts
     with Ctrl+Z

   - bpo-28163(7): WindowsConsoleIO fileno() passes wrong flags to
     _open_osfhandle

   - bpo-28164(8): _PyIO_get_console_type fails for various paths

   - bpo-28137(9): Renames Windows path file to ._pth

   - bpo-28138(10): Windows ._pth file should allow import site

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28402

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28333

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28161

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28162

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28163

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28164

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28138


File: python.info,  Node: C API<71>,  Next: Build<83>,  Prev: Windows<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.26.91.4 C API
...............

   - bpo-28426(1): Deprecated undocumented functions
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject(), PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject(),
     PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode() and PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426


File: python.info,  Node: Build<83>,  Next: Tests<76>,  Prev: C API<71>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.26.91.5 Build
...............

   - bpo-28258(1): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(2): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-15819(3): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<76>,  Prev: Build<83>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 2

1.26.91.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-28217(1): Adds _testconsole module to test console input.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28217


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.92 Python 3.6.0 beta 1
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-09-12'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<189>.
* Library: Library<190>.
* IDLE: IDLE<53>.
* C API: C API<72>.
* Tests: Tests<77>.
* Build: Build<84>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<49>.
* Windows: Windows<72>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<189>,  Next: Library<190>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.26.92.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-23722(1): The __class__ cell used by zero-argument super() is
     now initialized from type.__new__ rather than __build_class__, so
     class methods relying on that will now work correctly when called
     from metaclass methods during class creation.  Patch by Martin
     Teichmann.

   - bpo-25221(2): Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when
     Python is compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.

   - bpo-27080(3): Implement formatting support for PEP 515(4).  Initial
     patch by Chris Angelico.

   - bpo-27199(5): In tarfile, expose copyfileobj bufsize to improve
     throughput.  Patch by Jason Fried.

   - bpo-27948(6): In f-strings, only allow backslashes inside the
     braces (where the expressions are).  This is a breaking change from
     the 3.6 alpha releases, where backslashes are allowed anywhere in
     an f-string.  Also, require that expressions inside f-strings be
     enclosed within literal braces, and not escapes like
     ‘f'\x7b"hi"\x7d'’.

   - bpo-28046(7): Remove platform-specific directories from sys.path.

   - bpo-28071(8): Add early-out for differencing from an empty set.

   - bpo-25758(9): Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a
     filename (patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-25856(10): The __module__ attribute of extension classes and
     functions now is interned.  This leads to more compact pickle data
     with protocol 4.

   - bpo-27213(11): Rework CALL_FUNCTION* opcodes to produce shorter and
     more efficient bytecode.  Patch by Demur Rumed, design by Serhiy
     Storchaka, reviewed by Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-26331(12): Implement tokenizing support for PEP 515(13).  Patch
     by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-27999(14): Make «global after use» a SyntaxError, and ditto for
     nonlocal.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-28003(15): Implement PEP 525(16) – Asynchronous Generators.

   - bpo-27985(17): Implement PEP 526(18) – Syntax for Variable
     Annotations.  Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-26058(19): Add a new private version to the builtin dict type,
     incremented at each dictionary creation and at each dictionary
     change.  Implementation of the PEP 509.

   - bpo-27364(20): A backslash-character pair that is not a valid
     escape sequence now generates a DeprecationWarning.  Patch by
     Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27350(21): ‘dict’ implementation is changed like PyPy.  It is
     more compact and preserves insertion order.  (Concept developed by
     Raymond Hettinger and patch by Inada Naoki.)

   - bpo-27911(22): Remove unnecessary error checks in
     ‘exec_builtin_or_dynamic()’.

   - bpo-27078(23): Added BUILD_STRING opcode.  Optimized f-strings
     evaluation.

   - bpo-17884(24): Python now requires systems with inttypes.h and
     stdint.h

   - bpo-27961(25): Require platforms to support ‘long long’.  Python
     hasn’t compiled without ‘long long’ for years, so this is basically
     a formality.

   - bpo-27355(26): Removed support for Windows CE. It was never
     finished, and Windows CE is no longer a relevant platform for
     Python.

   - Implement PEP 523(27).

   - bpo-27870(28): A left shift of zero by a large integer no longer
     attempts to allocate large amounts of memory.

   - bpo-25402(29): In int-to-decimal-string conversion, improve the
     estimate of the intermediate memory required, and remove an
     unnecessarily strict overflow check.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-27214(30): In long_invert, be more careful about modifying
     object returned by long_add, and remove an unnecessary check for
     small longs.  Thanks Oren Milman for analysis and patch.

   - bpo-27506(31): Support passing the bytes/bytearray.translate()
     «delete» argument by keyword.

   - bpo-27812(32): Properly clear out a generator’s frame’s
     backreference to the generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().

   - bpo-27811(33): Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been
     awaited is finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.

   - bpo-27587(34): Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer
     check after use of “def” in _PyState_AddModule().  Initial patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-27792(35): The modulo operation applied to ‘bool’ and other
     ‘int’ subclasses now always returns an ‘int’.  Previously the
     return type depended on the input values.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26984(36): int() now always returns an instance of exact int.

   - bpo-25604(37): Fix a minor bug in integer true division; this bug
     could potentially have caused off-by-one-ulp results on platforms
     with unreliable ldexp implementations.

   - bpo-24254(38): Make class definition namespace ordered by default.

   - bpo-27662(39): Fix an overflow check in ‘List_New’: the original
     code was checking against ‘Py_SIZE_MAX’ instead of the correct
     upper bound of ‘Py_SSIZE_T_MAX’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27782(40): Multi-phase extension module import now correctly
     allows the ‘m_methods’ field to be used to add module level
     functions to instances of non-module types returned from
     ‘Py_create_mod’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27936(41): The round() function accepted a second None argument
     for some types but not for others.  Fixed the inconsistency by
     accepting None for all numeric types.

   - bpo-27487(42): Warn if a submodule argument to «python -m» or
     runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages
     are imported, but before the submodule is executed.

   - bpo-27157(43): Make only type() itself accept the one-argument
     form.  Patch by Eryk Sun and Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27558(44): Fix a SystemError in the implementation of «raise»
     statement.  In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there
     is no active exception to reraise.  Patch written by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28008(45): Implement PEP 530(46) – asynchronous comprehensions.

   - bpo-27942(47): Fix memory leak in codeobject.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25221

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27080

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27199

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27948

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28046

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28071

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25758

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25856

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27213

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26331

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27999

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28003

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27985

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26058

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27364

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27350

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27911

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27078

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17884

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27961

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27355

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27870

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25402

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27214

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27506

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27812

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27811

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27587

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27792

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26984

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25604

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24254

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27662

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27782

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27936

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27487

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27157

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27558

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28008

   (46) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942


File: python.info,  Node: Library<190>,  Next: IDLE<53>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<189>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.26.92.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-28732(1): Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args

   - bpo-28485(2): Always raise ValueError for negative
     compileall.compile_dir(workers=…) parameter, even when
     multithreading is unavailable.

   - bpo-28037(3): Use sqlite3_get_autocommit() instead of setting
     Connection->inTransaction manually.

   - bpo-25283(4): Attributes tm_gmtoff and tm_zone are now available on
     all platforms in the return values of time.localtime() and
     time.gmtime().

   - bpo-24454(5): Regular expression match object groups are now
     accessible using __getitem__.  «mo[x]» is equivalent to
     «mo.group(x)».

   - bpo-10740(6): sqlite3 no longer implicitly commit an open
     transaction before DDL statements.

   - bpo-17941(7): Add a 'module' parameter to collections.namedtuple().

   - bpo-22493(8): Inline flags now should be used only at the start of
     the regular expression.  Deprecation warning is emitted if uses
     them in the middle of the regular expression.

   - bpo-26885(9): xmlrpc now supports unmarshalling additional data
     types used by Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics and None.

   - bpo-28070(10): Fixed parsing inline verbose flag in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-19500(11): Add client-side SSL session resumption to the ssl
     module.

   - bpo-28022(12): Deprecate ssl-related arguments in favor of
     SSLContext.  The deprecation include manual creation of SSLSocket
     and certfile/keyfile (or similar) in ftplib, httplib, imaplib,
     smtplib, poplib and urllib.

   - bpo-28043(13): SSLContext has improved default settings:
     OP_NO_SSLv2, OP_NO_SSLv3, OP_NO_COMPRESSION,
     OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE, OP_SINGLE_DH_USE, OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE
     and HIGH ciphers without MD5.

   - bpo-24693(14): Changed some RuntimeError’s in the zipfile module to
     more appropriate types.  Improved some error messages and debugging
     output.

   - bpo-17909(15): ‘json.load’ and ‘json.loads’ now support binary
     input encoded as UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.  Patch by Serhiy
     Storchaka.

   - bpo-27137(16): the pure Python fallback implementation of
     ‘functools.partial’ now matches the behaviour of its accelerated C
     counterpart for subclassing, pickling and text representation
     purposes.  Patch by Emanuel Barry and Serhiy Storchaka.

   - Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with
     unusual usage patterns.

   - bpo-1703178(17): Fix the ability to pass the –link-objects option
     to the distutils build_ext command.

   - bpo-28019(18): itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step
     in range between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.

   - bpo-18401(19): Pdb now supports the “readrc” keyword argument to
     control whether .pdbrc files should be read.  Patch by Martin
     Matusiak and Sam Kimbrel.

   - bpo-25969(20): Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking
     generalizations added in 3.5.

   - bpo-14977(21): mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the
     mailcap files («first match»), as required by RFC 1542.  Patch by
     Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-28082(22): Convert re flag constants to IntFlag.

   - bpo-28025(23): Convert all ssl module constants to IntEnum and
     IntFlags.  SSLContext properties now return flags and enums.

   - bpo-23591(24): Add Flag, IntFlag, and auto() to enum module.

   - bpo-433028(25): Added support of modifier spans in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-24594(26): Validates persist parameter when opening MSI
     database

   - bpo-17582(27): xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in
     attributes (Patch by Duane Griffin.  Reviewed and approved by
     Stefan Behnel.)

   - bpo-28047(28): Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64
     CTE in the new email policies.

   - bpo-27576(29): Fix call order in OrderedDict.__init__().

   - email.generator.DecodedGenerator now supports the policy keyword.

   - bpo-28027(30): Remove undocumented modules from ‘Lib/plat-*’: IN,
     CDROM, DLFCN, TYPES, CDIO, and STROPTS.

   - bpo-27445(31): Don’t pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload().
     Patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-24277(32): The new email API is no longer provisional, and the
     docs have been reorganized and rewritten to emphasize the new API.

   - bpo-22450(33): urllib now includes an ‘Accept: */*’ header among
     the default headers.  This makes the results of REST API requests
     more consistent and predictable especially when proxy servers are
     involved.

   - lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file
     between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the
     hash randomization setting.

   - bpo-28005(34): Allow ImportErrors in encoding implementation to
     propagate.

   - bpo-26667(35): Support path-like objects in importlib.util.

   - bpo-27570(36): Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null
     source pointers in the «ctypes» and «array» modules.

   - bpo-22233(37): Break email header lines 'only' on the RFC specified
     CR and LF characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks.  This
     also fixes a bug in HTTP header parsing.

   - bpo-27331(38): The email.mime classes now all accept an optional
     policy keyword.

   - bpo-27988(39): Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of
     payload list.

   - bpo-16113(40): Add SHA-3 and SHAKE support to hashlib module.

   - Eliminate a tautological-pointer-compare warning in _scproxy.c.

   - bpo-27776(41): The *note os.urandom(): 931. function does now block
     on Linux 3.17 and newer until the system urandom entropy pool is
     initialized to increase the security.  This change is part of the
     PEP 524(42).

   - bpo-27778(43): Expose the Linux ‘getrandom()’ syscall as a new
     *note os.getrandom(): 107b. function.  This change is part of the
     PEP 524(44).

   - bpo-27691(45): Fix ssl module’s parsing of GEN_RID subject
     alternative name fields in X.509 certs.

   - bpo-18844(46): Add random.choices().

   - bpo-25761(47): Improved error reporting about truncated pickle data
     in C implementation of unpickler.  UnpicklingError is now raised
     instead of AttributeError and ValueError in some cases.

   - bpo-26798(48): Add BLAKE2 (blake2b and blake2s) to hashlib.

   - bpo-26032(49): Optimized globbing in pathlib by using os.scandir();
     it is now about 1.5–4 times faster.

   - bpo-25596(50): Optimized glob() and iglob() functions in the glob
     module; they are now about 3–6 times faster.

   - bpo-27928(51): Add scrypt (password-based key derivation function)
     to hashlib module (requires OpenSSL 1.1.0).

   - bpo-27850(52): Remove 3DES from ssl module’s default cipher list to
     counter measure sweet32 attack ( CVE 2016-2183(53)).

   - bpo-27766(54): Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module’s default cipher
     list.  (Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).

   - bpo-25387(55): Check return value of winsound.MessageBeep.

   - bpo-27866(56): Add SSLContext.get_ciphers() method to get a list of
     all enabled ciphers.

   - bpo-27744(57): Add AF_ALG (Linux Kernel crypto) to socket module.

   - bpo-26470(58): Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - bpo-11620(59): Fix support for SND_MEMORY in winsound.PlaySound.
     Based on a patch by Tim Lesher.

   - bpo-11734(60): Add support for IEEE 754 half-precision floats to
     the struct module.  Based on a patch by Eli Stevens.

   - bpo-27919(61): Deprecated ‘extra_path’ distribution option in
     distutils packaging.

   - bpo-23229(62): Add new ‘cmath’ constants: ‘cmath.inf’ and
     ‘cmath.nan’ to match ‘math.inf’ and ‘math.nan’, and also
     ‘cmath.infj’ and ‘cmath.nanj’ to match the format used by complex
     repr.

   - bpo-27842(63): The csv.DictReader now returns rows of type
     OrderedDict.  (Contributed by Steve Holden.)

   - Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access.  It
     never worked but previously didn’t raise.

   - bpo-12885(64): Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.

   - bpo-27881(65): Fixed possible bugs when setting
     sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27861(66): Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a
     factory creates not a cursor.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19884(67): Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.

   - bpo-27706(68): Restore deterministic behavior of
     random.Random().seed() for string seeds using seeding version 1.
     Allows sequences of calls to random() to exactly match those
     obtained in Python 2.  Patch by Nofar Schnider.

   - bpo-10513(69): Fix a regression in Connection.commit().  Statements
     should not be reset after a commit.

   - bpo-12319(70): Chunked transfer encoding support added to
     http.client.HTTPConnection requests.  The
     urllib.request.AbstractHTTPHandler class does not enforce a
     Content-Length header any more.  If a HTTP request has a file or
     iterable body, but no Content-Length header, the library now falls
     back to use chunked transfer-encoding.

   - A new version of typing.py from ‘https://github.com/python/typing’:
     - Collection (only for 3.6) (bpo-27598(71)) - Add FrozenSet to
     __all__ (upstream #261) - fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream
     #259) - Remove the dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type
     (upstream #252)

   - bpo-27832(72): Make ‘_normalize’ parameter to ‘Fraction’
     constructor keyword-only, so that ‘Fraction(2, 3, 4)’ now raises
     ‘TypeError’.

   - bpo-27539(73): Fix unnormalised ‘Fraction.__pow__’ result in the
     case of negative exponent and negative base.

   - bpo-21718(74): cursor.description is now available for queries
     using CTEs.

   - bpo-27819(75): In distutils sdists, simply produce the «gztar»
     (gzipped tar format) distributions on all platforms unless
     «formats» is supplied.

   - bpo-2466(76): posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount
     points which the user does not have permission to access.

   - bpo-9998(77): On Linux, ctypes.util.find_library now looks in
     LD_LIBRARY_PATH for shared libraries.

   - bpo-27573(78): exit message for code.interact is now configurable.

   - bpo-27930(79): Improved behaviour of
     logging.handlers.QueueListener.  Thanks to Paulo Andrade and Petr
     Viktorin for the analysis and patch.

   - bpo-6766(80): Distributed reference counting added to
     multiprocessing to support nesting of shared values / proxy
     objects.

   - bpo-21201(81): Improves readability of multiprocessing error
     message.  Thanks to Wojciech Walczak for patch.

   - asyncio: Add set_protocol / get_protocol to Transports.

   - bpo-27456(82): asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28732

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28485

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28037

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25283

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24454

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10740

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17941

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26885

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28070

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19500

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28043

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24693

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17909

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27137

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1703178

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28019

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18401

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25969

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14977

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28082

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28025

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23591

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433028

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24594

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17582

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28047

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27576

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28027

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27445

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24277

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22450

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28005

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26667

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27570

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22233

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27331

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27988

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16113

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27776

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27778

   (44) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27691

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25761

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26798

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26032

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25596

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27928

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850

   (53) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-2183

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25387

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27866

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11620

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11734

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27919

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23229

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27842

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12885

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27881

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27861

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19884

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27706

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10513

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27832

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27539

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21718

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27819

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2466

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9998

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27573

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27930

   (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6766

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21201

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<53>,  Next: C API<72>,  Prev: Library<190>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.26.92.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-15308(1): Add “interrupt execution” (^C) to Shell menu.  Patch
     by Roger Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.

   - bpo-27922(2): Stop IDLE tests from “flashing” gui widgets on the
     screen.

   - bpo-27891(3): Consistently group and sort imports within idlelib
     modules.

   - bpo-17642(4): add larger font sizes for classroom projection.

   - Add version to title of IDLE help window.

   - bpo-25564(5): In section on IDLE – console differences, mention
     that using exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each
     statement.

   - bpo-27821(6): Fix 3.6.0a3 regression that prevented custom key sets
     from being selected when no custom theme was defined.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15308

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27922

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27891

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17642

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25564

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27821


File: python.info,  Node: C API<72>,  Next: Tests<77>,  Prev: IDLE<53>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.26.92.4 C API
...............

   - bpo-26900(1): Excluded underscored names and other private API from
     limited API.

   - bpo-26027(2): Add support for path-like objects in
     PyUnicode_FSConverter() & PyUnicode_FSDecoder().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26900

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26027


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<77>,  Next: Build<84>,  Prev: C API<72>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.26.92.5 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27427(1): Additional tests for the math module.  Patch by
     Francisco Couzo.

   - bpo-27953(2): Skip math and cmath tests that fail on OS X 10.4 due
     to a poor libm implementation of tan.

   - bpo-26040(3): Improve test_math and test_cmath coverage and rigour.
     Patch by Jeff Allen.

   - bpo-27787(4): Call gc.collect() before checking each test for
     «dangling threads», since the dangling threads are weak references.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27427

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27953

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26040

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27787


File: python.info,  Node: Build<84>,  Next: Tools/Demos<49>,  Prev: Tests<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.26.92.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-27566(1): Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa
     Roach)

   - bpo-27705(2): Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py

   - bpo-27976(3): Deprecate building _ctypes with the bundled copy of
     libffi on non-OSX UNIX platforms.

   - bpo-27983(4): Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as
     required for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than
     make time when ‘--with-optimizations’ is enabled.  Also improve our
     ability to find the llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.

   - bpo-21590(5): Support for DTrace and SystemTap probes.

   - bpo-26307(6): The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the built-in
     modules.

   - bpo-26359(7): Add the –with-optimizations flag to turn on LTO and
     PGO build support when available.

   - bpo-27917(8): Set platform triplets for Android builds.

   - bpo-25825(9): Update references to the $(LIBPL) installation path
     on AIX. This path was changed in 3.2a4.

   - Update OS X installer to use SQLite 3.14.1 and XZ 5.2.2.

   - bpo-21122(10): Fix LTO builds on OS X.

   - bpo-17128(11): Build OS X installer with a private copy of OpenSSL.
     Also provide a sample Install Certificates command script to
     install a set of root certificates from the third-party certifi
     module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27566

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27705

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27976

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27983

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21590

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26307

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27917

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21122

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17128


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<49>,  Next: Windows<72>,  Prev: Build<84>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.26.92.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27952(1): Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and
     the current «re» module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes,
     and fix a bug parsing escaped C quote signs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27952


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<72>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<49>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 beta 1

1.26.92.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-28065(1): Update xz dependency to 5.2.2 and build it from
     source.

   - bpo-25144(2): Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with
     custom install.

   - bpo-1602(3): Windows console doesn’t input or print Unicode (PEP
     528)

   - bpo-27781(4): Change file system encoding on Windows to UTF-8 (PEP
     529)

   - bpo-27731(5): Opt-out of MAX_PATH on Windows 10

   - bpo-6135(6): Adds encoding and errors parameters to subprocess.

   - bpo-27959(7): Adds oem encoding, alias ansi to mbcs, move aliasmbcs
     to codec lookup.

   - bpo-27982(8): The functions of the winsound module now accept
     keyword arguments.

   - bpo-20366(9): Build full text search support into SQLite on
     Windows.

   - bpo-27756(10): Adds new icons for Python files and processes on
     Windows.  Designs by Cherry Wang.

   - bpo-27883(11): Update sqlite to 3.14.1.0 on Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28065

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25144

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1602

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27781

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27731

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6135

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27959

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27982

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20366

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27756

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27883


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.93 Python 3.6.0 alpha 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-08-15'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<190>.
* Library: Library<191>.
* IDLE: IDLE<54>.
* Tests: Tests<78>.
* Windows: Windows<73>.
* Build: Build<85>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<190>,  Next: Library<191>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.26.93.1 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27704(1): Optimized creating bytes and bytearray from byte-like
     objects and iterables.  Speed up to 3 times for short objects.
     Original patch by Naoki Inada.

   - bpo-26823(2): Large sections of repeated lines in tracebacks are
     now abbreviated as «[Previous line repeated {count} more times]» by
     the builtin traceback rendering.  Patch by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27574(3): Decreased an overhead of parsing keyword arguments in
     functions implemented with using Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-22557(4): Now importing already imported modules is up to 2.5
     times faster.

   - bpo-17596(5): Include <wincrypt.h> to help with Min GW building.

   - bpo-17599(6): On Windows, rename the privately defined
     REPARSE_DATA_BUFFER structure to avoid conflicting with the
     definition from Min GW.

   - bpo-27507(7): Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27581(8): Don’t rely on wrapping for overflow check in
     PySequence_Tuple().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-1621(9): Avoid signed integer overflow in list and tuple
     operations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27419(10): Standard __import__() no longer look up «__import__»
     in globals or builtins for importing submodules or «from import».
     Fixed a crash if raise a warning about unabling to resolve package
     from __spec__ or __package__.

   - bpo-27083(11): Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under
     Windows.

   - bpo-27514(12): Make having too many statically nested blocks a
     SyntaxError instead of SystemError.

   - bpo-27366(13): Implemented PEP 487(14) (Simpler customization of
     class creation).  Upon subclassing, the __init_subclass__
     classmethod is called on the base class.  Descriptors are
     initialized with __set_name__ after class creation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27704

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27574

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22557

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17596

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17599

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27507

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27581

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27419

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27083

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27514

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27366

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<191>,  Next: IDLE<54>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<190>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.26.93.2 Library
.................

   - bpo-26027(1): Add PEP 519(2)/__fspath__() support to the os and
     os.path modules.  Includes code from Jelle Zijlstra.  (See also:
     bpo-27524(3))

   - bpo-27598(4): Add Collections to collections.abc.  Patch by Ivan
     Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar.

   - bpo-25958(5): Support «anti-registration» of special methods from
     various ABCs, like __hash__, __iter__ or __len__.  All these (and
     several more) can be set to None in an implementation class and the
     behavior will be as if the method is not defined at all.
     (Previously, this mechanism existed only for __hash__, to make
     mutable classes unhashable.)  Code contributed by Andrew Barnert
     and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-16764(6): Support keyword arguments to zlib.decompress().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27736(7): Prevent segfault after interpreter re-initialization
     due to ref count problem introduced in code for bpo-27038(8) in
     3.6.0a3.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25628(9): The 'verbose' and 'rename' parameters for
     collections.namedtuple are now keyword-only.

   - bpo-12345(10): Add mathematical constant tau to math and cmath.
     See also PEP 628(11).

   - bpo-26823(12): traceback.StackSummary.format now abbreviates large
     sections of repeated lines as «[Previous line repeated {count} more
     times]» (this change then further affects other traceback display
     operations in the module).  Patch by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-27664(13): Add to
     concurrent.futures.thread.ThreadPoolExecutor() the ability to
     specify a thread name prefix.

   - bpo-27181(14): Add geometric_mean and harmonic_mean to statistics
     module.

   - bpo-27573(15): code.interact now prints an message when exiting.

   - bpo-6422(16): Add autorange method to timeit.Timer objects.

   - bpo-27773(17): Correct some memory management errors
     server_hostname in _ssl.wrap_socket().

   - bpo-26750(18): unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly
     for subclasses of property() and other data descriptors.  Removes
     the never publicly used, never documented
     unittest.mock.DescriptorTypes tuple.

   - bpo-26754(19): Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects
     as path in compile() and similar functions is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26800(20): Undocumented support of general bytes-like objects
     as paths in os functions is now deprecated.

   - bpo-26981(21): Add _order_ compatibility shim to enum.Enum for
     Python 2/3 code bases.

   - bpo-27661(22): Added tzinfo keyword argument to datetime.combine.

   - In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or
     window.instr() is passed a negative value.

   - bpo-27783(23): Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in
     operator.methodcaller.

   - bpo-27774(24): Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.

   - bpo-27760(25): Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.

   - bpo-27758(26): Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for
     large record lengths.

   - bpo-27568(27): Prevent HTTPoxy attack ( CVE 2016-1000110(28)).
     Ignore the HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is
     set, which indicates that the script is in CGI mode.

   - bpo-7063(29): Remove dead code from the «array» module’s slice
     handling.  Patch by Chuck.

   - bpo-27656(30): Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.

   - bpo-27130(31): In the «zlib» module, fix handling of large buffers
     (typically 4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing.  Previously,
     inputs were limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression
     operations did not properly handle results of 4 GiB.

   - bpo-24773(32): Implemented PEP 495(33) (Local Time Disambiguation).

   - Expose the EPOLLEXCLUSIVE constant (when it is defined) in the
     select module.

   - bpo-27567(34): Expose the EPOLLRDHUP and POLLRDHUP constants in the
     select module.

   - bpo-1621(35): Avoid signed int negation overflow in the «audioop»
     module.

   - bpo-27533(36): Release GIL in nt._isdir

   - bpo-17711(37): Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol
     0.  Original patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.

   - bpo-27522(38): Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in
     email.feedparser.

   - bpo-27512(39): Fix a segfault when os.fspath() called an
     __fspath__() method that raised an exception.  Patch by Xiang
     Zhang.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26027

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27524

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16764

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27736

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27038

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27664

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27573

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6422

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27773

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26750

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26800

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26981

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27661

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27783

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27774

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27760

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27758

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27568

   (28) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-1000110

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7063

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27656

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27130

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24773

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27567

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1621

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27533

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17711

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27522

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27512


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<54>,  Next: Tests<78>,  Prev: Library<191>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.26.93.3 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27714(1): text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when
     re-run in the same process.  This occurs when test_idle fails when
     run with the -w option but without -jn.  Fix warning from
     test_config.

   - bpo-27621(2): Put query response validation error messages in the
     query box itself instead of in a separate messagebox.  Redo tests
     to match.  Add Mac OSX refinements.  Original patch by Mark
     Roseman.

   - bpo-27620(3): Escape key now closes Query box as cancelled.

   - bpo-27609(4): IDLE: tab after initial whitespace should tab, not
     autocomplete.  This fixes problem with writing docstrings at least
     twice indented.

   - bpo-27609(5): Explicitly return None when there are also non-None
     returns.  In a few cases, reverse a condition and eliminate a
     return.

   - bpo-25507(6): IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter
     imports.  Users must include the same imports required to run
     directly in Python.

   - bpo-27173(7): Add “IDLE Modern Unix” to the built-in key sets.
     Make the default key set depend on the platform.  Add tests for the
     changes to the config module.

   - bpo-27452(8): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27714

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27621

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27620

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27609

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27609

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27173

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<78>,  Next: Windows<73>,  Prev: IDLE<54>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.26.93.4 Tests
...............

   - bpo-25805(1): Skip a test in test_pkgutil as needed that doesn’t
     work when ‘__name__ == __main__’.  Patch by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-27472(2): Add test.support.unix_shell as the path to the
     default shell.

   - bpo-27369(3): In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message
     detail that changed in Expat 2.2.0.

   - bpo-27594(4): Prevent assertion error when running test_ast with
     coverage enabled: ensure code object has a valid first line number.
     Patch suggested by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25805

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27472

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27369

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27594


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<73>,  Next: Build<85>,  Prev: Tests<78>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.26.93.5 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27647(1): Update bundled Tcl/Tk to 8.6.6.

   - bpo-27610(2): Adds PEP 514(3) metadata to Windows installer

   - bpo-27469(4): Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag
     and drop works correctly.

   - bpo-27309(5): Enables proper Windows styles in python[w].exe
     manifest.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27647

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27610

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27469

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27309


File: python.info,  Node: Build<85>,  Prev: Windows<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4

1.26.93.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-27713(1): Suppress spurious build warnings when updating
     importlib’s bootstrap files.  Patch by Xiang Zhang

   - bpo-25825(2): Correct the references to Modules/python.exp, which
     is required on AIX. The references were accidentally changed in
     3.5.0a1.

   - bpo-27453(3): CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch
     by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-27641(4): The configure script now inserts comments into the
     makefile to prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from
     being cross-compiled.

   - bpo-26662(5): Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python program
     to be used for file generation during the build.

   - bpo-10910(6): Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X.
     Also update FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8
     workaround.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27713

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27453

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27641

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26662

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10910


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.94 Python 3.6.0 alpha 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-07-11'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<53>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<191>.
* Library: Library<192>.
* IDLE: IDLE<55>.
* C API: C API<73>.
* Build: Build<86>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<50>.
* Documentation: Documentation<75>.
* Tests: Tests<79>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<53>,  Next: Core and Builtins<191>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.26.94.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-27278(1): Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on
     Linux.  Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough
     random bytes, instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.

   - bpo-22636(2): Avoid shell injection problems with
     ctypes.util.find_library().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22636


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<191>,  Next: Library<192>,  Prev: Security<53>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.26.94.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27473(1): Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and
     bytearray concatenations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-23034(2): The output of a special Python build with defined
     COUNT_ALLOCS, SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT or SHOW_TRACK_COUNT macros is now
     off by default.  It can be re-enabled using the «-X showalloccount»
     option.  It now outputs to stderr instead of stdout.

   - bpo-27443(3): __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer
     return a negative integer for a resized bytearray.

   - bpo-27007(4): The fromhex() class methods of bytes and bytearray
     subclasses now return an instance of corresponding subclass.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27473

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23034

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27443

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27007


File: python.info,  Node: Library<192>,  Next: IDLE<55>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<191>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.26.94.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-26844(1): Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to
     “path” instead of “name”.  Patch by Lev Maximov.

   - bpo-23804(2): Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and not
     raise an error about unclean EOF.

   - bpo-27466(3): Change time format returned by
     http.cookie.time2netscape, confirming the netscape cookie format
     and making it consistent with documentation.

   - bpo-21708(4): Deprecated dbm.dumb behavior that differs from common
     dbm behavior: creating a database in “r” and “w” modes and
     modifying a database in “r” mode.

   - bpo-26721(5): Change the socketserver.StreamRequestHandler.wfile
     attribute to implement BufferedIOBase.  In particular, the write()
     method no longer does partial writes.

   - bpo-22115(6): Added methods trace_add, trace_remove and trace_info
     in the tkinter.Variable class.  They replace old methods
     trace_variable, trace, trace_vdelete and trace_vinfo that use
     obsolete Tcl commands and might not work in future versions of Tcl.
     Fixed old tracing methods: trace_vdelete() with wrong mode no
     longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now always returns a list of
     pairs of strings, tracing in the «u» mode now works.

   - bpo-26243(7): Only the level argument to zlib.compress() is keyword
     argument now.  The first argument is positional-only.

   - bpo-27038(8): Expose the DirEntry type as os.DirEntry.  Code patch
     by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27186(9): Update os.fspath()/PyOS_FSPath() to check the return
     value of __fspath__() to be either str or bytes.

   - bpo-18726(10): All optional parameters of the dump(), dumps(),
     load() and loads() functions and JSONEncoder and JSONDecoder class
     constructors in the json module are now keyword-only.

   - bpo-27319(11): Methods selection_set(), selection_add(),
     selection_remove() and selection_toggle() of ttk.TreeView now allow
     passing multiple items as multiple arguments instead of passing
     them as a tuple.  Deprecated undocumented ability of calling the
     selection() method with arguments.

   - bpo-27079(12): Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl()
     and ispunct().

   - bpo-27294(13): Numerical state in the repr for Tkinter event
     objects is now represented as a combination of known flags.

   - bpo-27177(14): Match objects in the re module now support
     index-like objects as group indices.  Based on patches by Jeroen
     Demeyer and Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26754(15): Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename
     argument encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     byte-like objects are accepted.

   - bpo-26536(16): socket.ioctl now supports SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH.
     Patch by Daniel Stokes.

   - bpo-27048(17): Prevents distutils failing on Windows when
     environment variables contain non-ASCII characters

   - bpo-27330(18): Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.

   - bpo-27238(19): Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module.
     Original patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27122(20): When an exception is raised within the context being
     managed by a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack
     generators catches and raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the
     original exception when exiting, let the new chained one through.
     This avoids the PEP 479(21) bug described in issue25782.

   - bpo-16864(22): sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid now supports REPLACE
     statement.  Initial patch by Alex LordThorsen.

   - bpo-26386(23): Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item
     id’s containing spaces.

   - bpo-8637(24): Honor a pager set by the env var MANPAGER (in
     preference to one set by the env var PAGER).

   - bpo-16182(25): Fix various functions in the «readline» module to
     use the locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to
     return code point indexes.

   - bpo-27392(26): Add loop.connect_accepted_socket().  Patch by Jim
     Fulton.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26844

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23804

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27466

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21708

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26721

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27038

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18726

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27319

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27079

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27294

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27177

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26536

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27048

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27330

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27238

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27122

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16864

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26386

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8637

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16182

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<55>,  Next: C API<73>,  Prev: Library<192>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.26.94.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-27477(1): IDLE search dialogs now use ttk widgets.

   - bpo-27173(2): Add “IDLE Modern Unix” to the built-in key sets.
     Make the default key set depend on the platform.  Add tests for the
     changes to the config module.

   - bpo-27452(3): make command line «idle-test> python test_help.py»
     work.  __file__ is relative when python is started in the file’s
     directory.

   - bpo-27452(4): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   - bpo-27380(5): IDLE: add query.py with base Query dialog and ttk
     widgets.  Module had subclasses SectionName, ModuleName, and
     HelpSource, which are used to get information from users by
     configdialog and file =>Load Module.  Each subclass has itw own
     validity checks.  Using ModuleName allows users to edit bad module
     names instead of starting over.  Add tests and delete the two files
     combined into the new one.

   - bpo-27372(6): Test_idle no longer changes the locale.

   - bpo-27365(7): Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for
     contributor names.

   - bpo-27245(8): IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings.
     Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a
     cascade of warnings was emitted.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24137(9): Run IDLE, test_idle, and htest with tkinter default
     root disabled.  Fix code and tests that fail with this restriction.
     Fix htests to not create a second and redundant root and mainloop.

   - bpo-27310(10): Fix IDLE.app failure to launch on OS X due to
     vestigial import.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27477

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27173

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27380

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27372

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27245

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24137

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27310


File: python.info,  Node: C API<73>,  Next: Build<86>,  Prev: IDLE<55>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.26.94.5 C API
...............

   - bpo-26754(1): PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument
     encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and byte-like
     objects are accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: Build<86>,  Next: Tools/Demos<50>,  Prev: C API<73>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.26.94.6 Build
...............

   - bpo-28066(1): Fix the logic that searches build directories for
     generated include files when building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-27442(2): Expose the Android API level that python was built
     against, in sysconfig.get_config_vars() as “ANDROID_API_LEVEL”.

   - bpo-27434(3): The interpreter that runs the cross-build, found in
     PATH, must now be of the same feature version (e.g.  3.6) as the
     source being built.

   - bpo-26930(4): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   - bpo-23968(5): Rename the platform directory from plat-$(MACHDEP) to
     plat-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET). Rename the config directory (LIBPL) from
     config-$(LDVERSION) to config-$(LDVERSION)-$(PLATFORM_TRIPLET).
     Install the platform specific _sysconfigdata module into the
     platform directory and rename it to include the ABIFLAGS.

   - Don’t use largefile support for GNU/Hurd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27442

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27434

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23968


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<50>,  Next: Documentation<75>,  Prev: Build<86>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.26.94.7 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-27332(1): Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level
     functions generated by Argument Clinic.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-27418(2): Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27332

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27418


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<75>,  Next: Tests<79>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<50>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.26.94.8 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-19489(1): Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header
     and footer of each page.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-27285(2): Update documentation to reflect the deprecation of
     ‘pyvenv’ and normalize on the term «virtual environment».  Patch by
     Steve Piercy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27285


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<79>,  Prev: Documentation<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3

1.26.94.9 Tests
...............

   - bpo-27027(1): Added test.support.is_android that is True when this
     is an Android build.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27027


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.95 Python 3.6.0 alpha 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-13'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<54>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<192>.
* Library: Library<193>.
* IDLE: IDLE<56>.
* Documentation: Documentation<76>.
* Tests: Tests<80>.
* Windows: Windows<74>.
* Build: Build<87>.
* C API: C API<74>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<51>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<54>,  Next: Core and Builtins<192>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.26.95.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-26556(1): Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE 2015-1283(2).

   - Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE 2016-0772(3).
     Reported by Team Oststrom.

   - bpo-26839(4): On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 931. now calls
     ‘getrandom()’ with ‘GRND_NONBLOCK’ to fall back on reading
     ‘/dev/urandom’ if the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet.
     Patch written by Colm Buckley.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26556

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2015-1283

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0772

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26839


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<192>,  Next: Library<193>,  Prev: Security<54>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.26.95.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-27095(1): Simplified MAKE_FUNCTION and removed MAKE_CLOSURE
     opcodes.  Patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-27190(2): Raise NotSupportedError if sqlite3 is older than
     3.3.1.  Patch by Dave Sawyer.

   - bpo-27286(3): Fixed compiling BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode.
     Calling function with generalized unpacking (PEP 448) and
     conflicting keyword names could cause undefined behavior.

   - bpo-27140(4): Added BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP opcode.

   - bpo-27186(5): Add support for os.PathLike objects to open() (part
     of PEP 519(6)).

   - bpo-27066(7): Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open())
     returns a negative number without setting an exception.

   - bpo-26983(8): float() now always return an instance of exact float.
     The deprecation warning is emitted if __float__ returns an instance
     of a strict subclass of float.  In a future versions of Python this
     can be an error.

   - bpo-27097(9): Python interpreter is now about 7% faster due to
     optimized instruction decoding.  Based on patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-26647(10): Python interpreter now uses 16-bit wordcode instead
     of bytecode.  Patch by Demur Rumed.

   - bpo-23275(11): Allow assigning to an empty target list in round
     brackets: () = iterable.

   - bpo-27243(12): Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning
     an awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the
     asynchronous iterator should be returned directly.  Doing the
     former will trigger a PendingDeprecationWarning.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27095

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27190

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27286

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27140

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27066

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26983

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27097

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23275

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243


File: python.info,  Node: Library<193>,  Next: IDLE<56>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<192>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.26.95.3 Library
.................

   - Comment out socket (SO_REUSEPORT) and posix (O_SHLOCK, O_EXLOCK)
     constants exposed on the API which are not implemented on GNU/Hurd.
     They would not work at runtime anyway.

   - bpo-27025(1): Generated names for Tkinter widgets are now more
     meaningful and recognizable.

   - bpo-25455(2): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive
     ElementTree.Element and functools.partial objects.

   - bpo-27294(3): Improved repr for Tkinter event objects.

   - bpo-20508(4): Improve exception message of
     IPv{4,6}Network.__getitem__.  Patch by Gareth Rees.

   - bpo-21386(5): Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property.  It
     was documented since 07a5610bae9d.  Initial patch by Roger Luethi.

   - bpo-27029(6): Removed deprecated support of universal newlines mode
     from ZipFile.open().

   - bpo-27030(7): Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
     letter in regular expressions now are errors.  The re.LOCALE flag
     now can be used only with bytes patterns.

   - bpo-27186(8): Add os.PathLike support to DirEntry (part of PEP
     519(9)).  Initial patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-20900(10): distutils register command now decodes HTTP
     responses correctly.  Initial patch by ingrid.

   - bpo-27186(11): Add os.PathLike support to pathlib, removing its
     provisional status (part of PEP 519).  Initial patch by Dusty
     Phillips.

   - bpo-27186(12): Add support for os.PathLike objects to os.fsencode()
     and os.fsdecode() (part of PEP 519(13)).

   - bpo-27186(14): Introduce os.PathLike and os.fspath() (part of PEP
     519(15)).

   - A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and
     features: @overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text,
     ContextManager, Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug
     fixes (note that some of the new features are not yet implemented
     in mypy or other static analyzers).  Also classes for PEP 492(16)
     (Awaitable, AsyncIterable, AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact
     they made it into 3.5.1 but were never mentioned).

   - bpo-25738(17): Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error()
     from sending a message body for 205 Reset Content.  Also, don’t
     send Content header fields in responses that don’t have a body.
     Patch by Susumu Koshiba.

   - bpo-21313(18): Fix the «platform» module to tolerate when
     sys.version contains truncated build information.

   - bpo-23883(19): Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the
     documented APIs for the following modules: cgi, mailbox, mimetypes,
     plistlib and smtpd.  Patches by Jacek Kołodziej.

   - bpo-27164(20): In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate
     streams with a predefined zdict.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24291(21): Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to
     completely write data to the client.  Previously it could do
     partial writes and truncate data.  Also,
     wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout doing partial
     writes, but this is deprecated.

   - bpo-21272(22): Use _sysconfigdata.py to initialize
     distutils.sysconfig.

   - bpo-19611(23): *note inspect: 81. now reports the implicit ‘.0’
     parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and
     generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only
     parameters called ‘implicit0’.  Patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26809(24): Add ‘__all__’ to *note string: db.  Patch by Emanuel
     Barry.

   - bpo-26373(25): subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores
     BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate()
     is called in more/all circumstances.

   - signal, socket, and ssl module IntEnum constant name lookups now
     return a consistent name for values having multiple names.  Ex:
     signal.Signals(6) now refers to itself as signal.SIGALRM rather
     than flipping between that and signal.SIGIOT based on the
     interpreter’s hash randomization seed.

   - bpo-27167(26): Clarify the subprocess.CalledProcessError error
     message text when the child process died due to a signal.

   - bpo-25931(27): Don’t define socketserver.Forking* names on
     platforms such as Windows that do not support os.fork().

   - bpo-21776(28): distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError.
     Initial patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-26526(29): Replace custom parse tree validation in the parser
     module with a simple DFA validator.

   - bpo-27114(30): Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with
     PermissionError

   - bpo-18383(31): Avoid creating duplicate filters when using
     filterwarnings and simplefilter.  Based on patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-23026(32): winreg.QueryValueEx() now return an integer for
     REG_QWORD type.

   - bpo-26741(33): subprocess.Popen destructor now emits a
     ResourceWarning warning if the child process is still running.

   - bpo-27056(34): Optimize pickle.load() and pickle.loads(), up to 10%
     faster to deserialize a lot of small objects.

   - bpo-21271(35): New keyword only parameters in reset_mock call.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27025

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27294

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20508

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21386

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27029

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27030

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20900

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25738

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21313

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27164

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24291

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21272

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19611

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26809

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26373

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27167

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25931

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21776

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26526

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27114

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23026

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26741

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27056

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21271


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<56>,  Next: Documentation<76>,  Prev: Library<193>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.26.95.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-5124(1): Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on
     X11.  This matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern
     Linux apps, and ttk widgets.  Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24750(2): Switch all scrollbars in IDLE to ttk versions.  Where
     needed, minimal tests are added to cover changes.

   - bpo-24759(3): IDLE requires tk 8.5 and availability ttk widgets.
     Delete now unneeded tk version tests and code for older versions.
     Add test for IDLE syntax colorizer.

   - bpo-27239(4): idlelib.macosx.isXyzTk functions initialize as
     needed.

   - bpo-27262(5): move Aqua unbinding code, which enable context menus,
     to macosx.

   - bpo-24759(6): Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the
     directory is a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool
     for maintainers.

   - bpo-27196(7): Stop “ThemeChanged” warnings when running IDLE tests.
     These persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567.
     Apply Serhiy Storchaka’s update_idletasks solution to four test
     files.  Record this additional advice in idle_test/README.txt

   - bpo-20567(8): Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about
     avoiding tk warning messages from tests.  Apply advice to several
     IDLE tests.

   - bpo-24225(9): Update idlelib/README.txt with new file names and
     event handlers.

   - bpo-27156(10): Remove obsolete code not used by IDLE.

   - bpo-27117(11): Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark
     themes.  Move code for configuring text widget colors to a new
     function.

   - bpo-24225(12): Rename many ‘idlelib/*.py’ and ‘idle_test/test_*.py’
     files.  Edit files to replace old names with new names when the old
     name referred to the module rather than the class it contained.
     See the issue and IDLE section in What’s New in 3.6 for more.

   - bpo-26673(13): When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10.
     Such fonts on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from
     opening.

   - bpo-21939(14): Add test for IDLE’s percolator.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-21676(15): Add test for IDLE’s replace dialog.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18410(16): Add test for IDLE’s search dialog.  Original patch
     by Westley Martínez.

   - bpo-21703(17): Add test for undo delegator.  Patch mostly by
     Saimadhav Heblikar .

   - bpo-27044(18): Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory
     leaks.

   - bpo-23977(19): Add more asserts to test_delegator.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27239

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27262

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27196

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20567

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27156

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27117

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26673

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21939

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21676

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18410

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21703

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27044

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23977


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<76>,  Next: Tests<80>,  Prev: IDLE<56>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.26.95.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-16484(1): Change the default PYTHONDOCS URL to «https:», and
     fix the resulting links to use lowercase.  Patch by Sean Rodman,
     test by Kaushik Nadikuditi.

   - bpo-24136(2): Document the new PEP 448(3) unpacking syntax of 3.5.

   - bpo-22558(4): Add remaining doc links to source code for
     Python-coded modules.  Patch by Yoni Lavi.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16484

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24136

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22558


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<80>,  Next: Windows<74>,  Prev: Documentation<76>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.26.95.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-25285(1): regrtest now uses subprocesses when the -j1 command
     line option is used: each test file runs in a fresh child process.
     Before, the -j1 option was ignored.

   - bpo-25285(2): Tools/buildbot/test.bat script now uses -j1 by
     default to run each test file in fresh child process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25285

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25285


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<74>,  Next: Build<87>,  Prev: Tests<80>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.26.95.7 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27064(1): The py.exe launcher now defaults to Python 3.  The
     Windows launcher ‘py.exe’ no longer prefers an installed Python 2
     version over Python 3 by default when used interactively.

   - bpo-17500(2): Remove unused and outdated icons.  (See also:
     ‘https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945’)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27064

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17500


File: python.info,  Node: Build<87>,  Next: C API<74>,  Prev: Windows<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.26.95.8 Build
...............

   - bpo-27229(1): Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26930(2): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27229

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930


File: python.info,  Node: C API<74>,  Next: Tools/Demos<51>,  Prev: Build<87>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.26.95.9 C API
...............

   - bpo-27186(1): Add the PyOS_FSPath() function (part of PEP 519(2)).

   - bpo-26282(3): PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords() now supports
     positional-only parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<51>,  Prev: C API<74>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2

1.26.95.10 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-26282(1): Argument Clinic now supports positional-only and
     keyword parameters in the same function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Next: Python 3 5 5 final,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.96 Python 3.6.0 alpha 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2016-05-16'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<55>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<193>.
* Library: Library<194>.
* IDLE: IDLE<57>.
* Documentation: Documentation<77>.
* Tests: Tests<81>.
* Build: Build<88>.
* Windows: Windows<75>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<52>.
* C API: C API<75>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<55>,  Next: Core and Builtins<193>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.26.96.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-26657(1): Fix directory traversal vulnerability with
     http.server on Windows.  This fixes a regression that was
     introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and 3.4.0rc1.  Based on patch by Philipp
     Hagemeister.

   - bpo-26313(2): ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows
     cert store is empty.  Patch by Baji.

   - bpo-25939(3): On Windows open the cert store readonly in
     ssl.enum_certificates.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26657

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26313

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25939


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<193>,  Next: Library<194>,  Prev: Security<55>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.26.96.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-20041(1): Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26168(2): Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue()
     with the «N» format unit.

   - bpo-26991(3): Fix possible refleak when creating a function with
     annotations.

   - bpo-27039(4): Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127.
     Based on patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23640(5): int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for
     subclasses.

   - bpo-27005(6): Optimized the float.fromhex() class method for exact
     float.  It is now 2 times faster.

   - bpo-18531(7): Single var-keyword argument of dict subtype was
     passed unscathed to the C-defined function.  Now it is converted to
     exact dict.

   - bpo-26811(8): gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple
     with NULL pointer.

   - bpo-20120(9): Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing
     support for interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python
     3.  Behavior no longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files,
     matching behavior in Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.

   - bpo-26249(10): Memory functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024.
     domain (*note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: 1027.) now use the *note pymalloc
     allocator: 3da. rather than system ‘malloc()’.  Applications
     calling ‘PyMem_Malloc()’ without holding the GIL can now crash: use
     ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’ environment variable to validate the usage of
     memory allocators in your application.

   - bpo-26802(11): Optimize function calls only using unpacking like
     ‘func(*tuple)’ (no other positional argument, no keyword): avoid
     copying the tuple.  Patch written by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-26659(12): Make the builtin slice type support cycle
     collection.

   - bpo-26718(13): super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called
     multiple times.  NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not
     endorsed!

   - bpo-27138(14): Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().

   - bpo-27147(15): Mention PEP 420(16) in the importlib docs.

   - bpo-25339(17): PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in
     setting the error handler for stdin and stdout.

   - bpo-26494(18): Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators.
     Affected classes are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str,
     bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict,
     corresponding views and os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-26574(19): Optimize ‘bytes.replace(b'', b'.')’ and
     ‘bytearray.replace(b'', b'.')’.  Patch written by Josh Snider.

   - bpo-26581(20): If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a
     line in Python source code file, only the first one is taken to
     account.

   - bpo-19711(21): Add tests for reloading namespace packages.

   - bpo-21099(22): Switch applicable importlib tests to use PEP 451(23)
     API.

   - bpo-26563(24): Debug hooks on Python memory allocators now raise a
     fatal error if functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024. family
     are called without holding the GIL.

   - bpo-26564(25): On error, the debug hooks on Python memory
     allocators now use the *note tracemalloc: 108. module to get the
     traceback where a memory block was allocated.

   - bpo-26558(26): The debug hooks on Python memory allocator *note
     PyObject_Malloc(): 1026. now detect when functions are called
     without holding the GIL.

   - bpo-26516(27): Add *note PYTHONMALLOC: 1022. environment variable
     to set the Python memory allocators and/or install debug hooks.

   - bpo-26516(28): The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): 1028. function
     can now also be used on Python compiled in release mode.

   - bpo-26516(29): The *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 2124. environment
     variable can now also be used on Python compiled in release mode.
     It now has no effect if set to an empty string.

   - bpo-26516(30): In debug mode, debug hooks are now also installed on
     Python memory allocators when Python is configured without
     pymalloc.

   - bpo-26464(31): Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first
     replacements removes character, but next replacement uses a
     non-ASCII character or a string longer than 1 character.
     Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-22836(32): Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them
     produces secondary errors.  This affects the reports produced by
     sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.

   - bpo-26302(33): Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal
     character for cookie names.

   - bpo-26136(34): Upgrade the warning when a generator raises
     StopIteration from PendingDeprecationWarning to DeprecationWarning.
     Patch by Anish Shah.

   - bpo-26204(35): The compiler now ignores all constant statements:
     bytes, str, int, float, complex, name constants (None, False,
     True), Ellipsis and ast.Constant; not only str and int.  For
     example, ‘1.0’ is now ignored in ‘def f(): 1.0’.

   - bpo-4806(36): Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when
     using star (‘*’) unpacking in function calls.  Based on patch by
     Hagen Fürstenau and Daniel Urban.

   - bpo-26146(37): Add a new kind of AST node: ‘ast.Constant’.  It can
     be used by external AST optimizers, but the compiler does not emit
     directly such node.

   - bpo-23601(38): Sped-up allocation of dict key objects by using
     Python’s small object allocator.  (Contributed by Julian Taylor.)

   - bpo-18018(39): Import raises ImportError instead of SystemError if
     a relative import is attempted without a known parent package.

   - bpo-25843(40): When compiling code, don’t merge constants if they
     are equal but have a different types.  For example, ‘f1, f2 =
     lambda: 1, lambda: 1.0’ is now correctly compiled to two different
     functions: ‘f1()’ returns ‘1’ (‘int’) and ‘f2()’ returns ‘1.0’
     (‘float’), even if ‘1’ and ‘1.0’ are equal.

   - bpo-26107(41): The format of the ‘co_lnotab’ attribute of code
     objects changes to support negative line number delta.

   - bpo-26154(42): Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()
     function to get the current Python thread state, but don’t issue a
     fatal error if it is NULL. This new function must be used instead
     of accessing directly the _PyThreadState_Current variable.  The
     variable is no more exposed since Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact
     implementation of atomic C types, to avoid compiler issues.

   - bpo-25791(43): If __package__ != __spec__.parent or if neither
     __package__ or __spec__ are defined then ImportWarning is raised.

   - bpo-22995(44): [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability
     tests in _PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in
     Cython-based projects.

   - bpo-25961(45): Disallowed null characters in the type name.

   - bpo-25973(46): Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement
     binds a name starting with two underscores.

   - bpo-22995(47): Instances of extension types with a state that
     aren’t subclasses of list or dict and haven’t implemented any
     pickle-related methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__,
     __getnewargs_ex__, or __getstate__), can no longer be pickled.
     Including memoryview.

   - bpo-20440(48): Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with
     special macro Py_SETREF.

   - bpo-25766(49): Special method __bytes__() now works in str
     subclasses.

   - bpo-25421(50): __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic
     basic size.  This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their
     subclasses with __slots__ defined.

   - bpo-25709(51): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   - bpo-5319(52): New Py_FinalizeEx() API allowing Python to set an
     exit status of 120 on failure to flush buffered streams.

   - bpo-25485(53): telnetlib.Telnet is now a context manager.

   - bpo-24097(54): Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is
     freed inside __getattr__.

   - bpo-24731(55): Fixed crash on converting objects with special
     methods __bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of
     subclasses of bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int,
     and float correspondingly.

   - bpo-25630(56): Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in
     functions that accept filesystem paths.

   - bpo-23564(57): Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the
     _posixsubprocess internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to
     the child.  The bug had no actual impact as subprocess.py already
     avoided it.

   - bpo-25388(58): Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code with a null byte.

   - bpo-25462(59): The hash of the key now is calculated only once in
     most operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-22995(60): Default implementation of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__ now rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.

   - bpo-24802(61): Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(),
     compile(), exec() and eval() are passed bytes-like objects.  These
     objects are not necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the
     functions assumed they were.

   - bpo-25555(62): Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of
     «arg» node when compiling AST from Python objects.

   - bpo-24726(63): Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of
     OrderedDict that was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.

   - bpo-25449(64): Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash
     now raises KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-25395(65): Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict
     structures were garbage collected.

   - bpo-25401(66): Optimize bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex():
     they are now between 2x and 3.5x faster.

   - bpo-25399(67): Optimize bytearray % args using the new private
     _PyBytesWriter API. Formatting is now between 2.5 and 5 times
     faster.

   - bpo-25274(68): sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError
     if the new recursion limit is too low depending at the current
     recursion depth.  Modify also the «lower-water mark» formula to
     make it monotonic.  This mark is used to decide when the overflowed
     flag of the thread state is reset.

   - bpo-24402(69): Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when
     sys.stdout.fileno() fails.

   - bpo-25349(70): Optimize bytes % args using the new private
     _PyBytesWriter API. Formatting is now up to 2 times faster.

   - bpo-24806(71): Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be
     subclassed from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.

   - bpo-25301(72): The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for
     error handlers: ‘ignore’, ‘replace’ and ‘surrogateescape’.

   - bpo-24848(73): Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of
     misformed data.

   - bpo-25267(74): The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for
     error handlers: ‘ignore’, ‘replace’, ‘surrogateescape’,
     ‘surrogatepass’.  Patch co-written with Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-25280(75): Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode
     are no longer formatted twice.

   - bpo-25227(76): Optimize ASCII and latin1 encoders with the
     ‘surrogateescape’ error handler: the encoders are now up to 3 times
     as fast.  Initial patch written by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-25003(77): On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the
     getrandom() function instead of the getentropy() function.  The
     getentropy() function is blocking to generate very good quality
     entropy, os.urandom() doesn’t need such high-quality entropy.

   - bpo-9232(78): Modify Python’s grammar to allow trailing commas in
     the argument list of a function declaration.  For example, «def
     f(*, a = 3,): pass» is now legal.  Patch from Mark Dickinson.

   - bpo-24965(79): Implement PEP 498(80) «Literal String
     Interpolation».  This allows you to embed expressions inside
     f-strings, which are converted to normal strings at run time.
     Given x=3, then f’value={x}” == “value=3”.  Patch by Eric V. Smith.

   - bpo-26478(81): Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with
     dictionary views and tuples.

   - bpo-26171(82): Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in
     zipimporter.get_data().

   - bpo-25660(83): Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.

   - bpo-26288(84): Optimize PyLong_AsDouble.

   - bpo-26289(85): Optimize floor and modulo division for single-digit
     longs.  Microbenchmarks show 2-2.5x improvement.  Built-in “divmod”
     function is now also ~10% faster.  (See also: bpo-26315(86))

   - bpo-25887(87): Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is
     awaited more than once.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20041

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26168

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26991

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27039

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23640

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27005

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18531

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26811

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20120

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26802

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26659

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26718

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27138

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27147

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25339

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26494

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26574

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26581

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19711

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21099

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26563

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26564

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26558

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26464

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22836

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26302

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26136

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26204

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4806

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26146

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23601

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18018

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25843

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26107

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26154

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25961

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25973

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20440

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25766

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25421

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25485

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24097

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24731

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25630

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23564

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25388

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25462

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24802

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25555

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24726

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25395

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25401

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25399

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25274

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24402

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25349

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24806

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25301

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24848

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25267

   (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25280

   (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25227

   (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25003

   (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9232

   (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24965

   (80) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26478

   (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26171

   (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25660

   (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26288

   (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26289

   (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26315

   (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25887


File: python.info,  Node: Library<194>,  Next: IDLE<57>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<193>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.26.96.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-27057(1): Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is
     blocked by SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls
     back to fcntl().  Patch written by Michał Bednarski.

   - bpo-27014(2): Fix infinite recursion using typing.py.  Thanks to
     Kalle Tuure!

   - bpo-27031(3): Removed dummy methods in Tkinter widget classes:
     tk_menuBar() and tk_bindForTraversal().

   - bpo-14132(4): Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target
     only has a query string.  Original fix by Ján Janech.

   - bpo-17214(5): The «urllib.request» module now percent-encodes
     non-ASCII bytes found in redirect target URLs.  Some servers send
     Location header fields with non-ASCII bytes, but «http.client»
     requires the request target to be ASCII-encodable, otherwise a
     UnicodeEncodeError is raised.  Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-27033(6): The default value of the decode_data parameter for
     smtpd.SMTPChannel and smtpd.SMTPServer constructors is changed to
     False.

   - bpo-27034(7): Removed deprecated class asynchat.fifo.

   - bpo-26870(8): Added readline.set_auto_history(), which can stop
     entries being automatically added to the history list.  Based on
     patch by Tyler Crompton.

   - bpo-26039(9): zipfile.ZipFile.open() can now be used to write data
     into a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data.  Patch by Thomas
     Kluyver.

   - bpo-26892(10): Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler.
     Patch contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22274(11): In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be
     redirected to stdout even when stdout is not redirected.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-26807(12): mock_open “files” no longer error on readline at end
     of file.  Patch from Yolanda Robla.

   - bpo-25745(13): Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.

   - bpo-26977(14): Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of
     squares helper in statistics.pvariance.

   - bpo-26002(15): Use bisect in statistics.median instead of a linear
     search.  Patch by Upendra Kuma.

   - bpo-25974(16): Make use of new Decimal.as_integer_ratio() method in
     statistics module.  Patch by Stefan Krah.

   - bpo-26996(17): Add secrets module as described in PEP 506(18).

   - bpo-26881(19): The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode
     arguments.

   - bpo-23815(20): Fixed crashes related to directly created instances
     of types in _tkinter and curses.panel modules.

   - bpo-17765(21): weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword
     arguments.  Patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-26873(22): xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type
     tags instead of silently return incorrect result.

   - bpo-26915(23): The __contains__ methods in the collections ABCs now
     check for identity before checking equality.  This better matches
     the behavior of the concrete classes, allows sensible handling of
     NaNs, and makes it easier to reason about container invariants.

   - bpo-26711(24): Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other
     types.

   - bpo-24114(25): Fix an uninitialized variable in ‘ctypes.util’.  The
     bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches
     for the ‘crle’ program.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.  Tested on SunOS by
     Kees Bos.

   - bpo-26864(26): In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host
     checking against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match
     unrelated host names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a
     suffix.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24902(27): Print server URL on http.server startup.  Initial
     patch by Felix Kaiser.

   - bpo-25788(28): fileinput.hook_encoded() now supports an «errors»
     argument for passing to open.  Original patch by Joseph Hackman.

   - bpo-26634(29): recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26804(30): urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy
     environment variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones.  Patch
     contributed by Hans-Peter Jansen.

   - bpo-26837(31): assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs
     non-stringified differing items (like bytes in the -b mode).  This
     affects assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().

   - bpo-26041(32): Remove «will be removed in Python 3.7» from
     deprecation messages of platform.dist() and
     platform.linux_distribution().  Patch by Kumaripaba Miyurusara
     Athukorala.

   - bpo-26822(33): itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no
     longer silently ignore keyword arguments.

   - bpo-26733(34): Disassembling a class now disassembles class and
     static methods.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26801(35): Fix error handling in *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): 14af, catch *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     instead of *note NameError: 665.  Patch written by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-24838(36): tarfile’s ustar and gnu formats now correctly
     calculate name and link field limits for multibyte character
     encodings like utf-8.

   - bpo-26717(37): Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-26782(38): Add STARTUPINFO to subprocess.__all__ on Windows.

   - bpo-26404(39): Add context manager to socketserver.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-26735(40): Fix *note os.urandom(): 931. on Solaris 11.3 and
     newer when reading more than 1,024 bytes: call ‘getrandom()’
     multiple times with a limit of 1024 bytes per call.

   - bpo-26585(41): Eliminate http.server._quote_html() and use
     html.escape(quote=False).  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26685(42): Raise OSError if closing a socket fails.

   - bpo-16329(43): Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola”.

   - bpo-13952(44): Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Geoff
     Wilson.

   - bpo-26587(45): the site module now allows .pth files to specify
     files to be added to sys.path (e.g.  zip files).

   - bpo-25609(46): Introduce contextlib.AbstractContextManager and
     typing.ContextManager.

   - bpo-26709(47): Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.

   - bpo-23735(48): Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by
     installing our own SIGWINCH handler.  Patch by Eric Price.

   - bpo-25951(49): Change SSLSocket.sendall() to return None, as
     explicitly documented for plain socket objects.  Patch by Aviv
     Palivoda.

   - bpo-26586(50): In http.server, respond with «413 Request header
     fields too large» if there are too many header fields to parse,
     rather than killing the connection and raising an unhandled
     exception.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26676(51): Added missing XMLPullParser to ElementTree.__all__.

   - bpo-22854(52): Change BufferedReader.writable() and
     BufferedWriter.readable() to always return False.

   - bpo-26492(53): Exhausted iterator of array.array now conforms with
     the behavior of iterators of other mutable sequences: it lefts
     exhausted even if iterated array is extended.

   - bpo-26641(54): doctest.DocFileTest and doctest.testfile() now
     support packages (module split into multiple directories) for the
     package parameter.

   - bpo-25195(55): Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock.  _Call is a
     subclass of tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes)
     so we need to implement __ne__ ourselves.  Patch by Andrew Plummer.

   - bpo-26644(56): Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a
     negative length is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().

   - bpo-23804(57): Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero
     bytes instead of up to 1024.

   - bpo-26616(58): Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.

   - bpo-26637(59): The *note importlib: 7a. module now emits an *note
     ImportError: 1bd. rather than a *note TypeError: 291. if *note
     __import__(): ca6. is tried during the Python shutdown process but
     *note sys.path: 194. is already cleared (set to ‘None’).

   - bpo-21925(60): *note warnings.formatwarning(): 1fe7. now catches
     exceptions when calling *note linecache.getline(): 4cd. and *note
     tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(): 2126. to be able to log *note
     ResourceWarning: 74f. emitted late during the Python shutdown
     process.

   - bpo-23848(61): On Windows, faulthandler.enable() now also installs
     an exception handler to dump the traceback of all Python threads on
     any Windows exception, not only on UNIX signals (SIGSEGV, SIGFPE,
     SIGABRT).

   - bpo-26530(62): Add C functions ‘_PyTraceMalloc_Track()’ and
     ‘_PyTraceMalloc_Untrack()’ to track memory blocks using the *note
     tracemalloc: 108. module.  Add ‘_PyTraceMalloc_GetTraceback()’ to
     get the traceback of an object.

   - bpo-26588(63): The _tracemalloc now supports tracing memory
     allocations of multiple address spaces (domains).

   - bpo-24266(64): Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels
     the search mode when compiled with Readline 7.

   - bpo-26590(65): Implement a safe finalizer for the _socket.socket
     type.  It now releases the GIL to close the socket.

   - bpo-18787(66): spwd.getspnam() now raises a PermissionError if the
     user doesn’t have privileges.

   - bpo-26560(67): Avoid potential ValueError in
     BaseHandler.start_response.  Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.

   - bpo-26567(68): Add a new function *note PyErr_ResourceWarning():
     10d1. function to pass the destroyed object.  Add a 'source'
     attribute to ‘warnings.WarningMessage’.  Add
     warnings._showwarnmsg() which uses tracemalloc to get the traceback
     where source object was allocated.

   - bpo-26569(69): Fix *note pyclbr.readmodule(): c04. and *note
     pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): c05. to support importing packages.

   - bpo-26499(70): Account for remaining Content-Length in
     HTTPResponse.readline() and read1().  Based on patch by Silent
     Ghost.  Also document that HTTPResponse now supports these methods.

   - bpo-25320(71): Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is
     scanning.  Patch from Victor van den Elzen.

   - bpo-16181(72): cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is
     higher than datetime.MAXYEAR.

   - bpo-26513(73): Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server

   - bpo-23718(74): Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1.  Original
     patch by Tamás Bence Gedai.

   - bpo-26323(75): Add Mock.assert_called() and
     Mock.assert_called_once() methods to unittest.mock.  Patch written
     by Amit Saha.

   - bpo-20589(76): Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows
     now raise NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.

   - bpo-26177(77): Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar
     widgets.

   - bpo-15068(78): Got rid of excessive buffering in fileinput.  The
     bufsize parameter is now deprecated and ignored.

   - bpo-19475(79): Added an optional argument timespec to the datetime
     isoformat() method to choose the precision of the time component.

   - bpo-2202(80): Fix UnboundLocalError in
     AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls.  Initial patch by
     Mathieu Dupuy.

   - bpo-26167(81): Minimized overhead in copy.copy() and
     copy.deepcopy().  Optimized copying and deepcopying bytearrays,
     NotImplemented, slices, short lists, tuples, dicts, sets.

   - bpo-25718(82): Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator
     with total is None.

   - bpo-26475(83): Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with
     the (?x) flag.

   - bpo-26482(84): Allowed pickling recursive dequeues.

   - bpo-26335(85): Make mmap.write() return the number of bytes written
     like other write methods.  Patch by Jakub Stasiak.

   - bpo-26457(86): Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes
     for the case when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal
     prefix length.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26385(87): Remove the file if the internal open() call in
     NamedTemporaryFile() fails.  Patch by Silent Ghost.

   - bpo-26402(88): Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts
     down a persistent connection.  This was a regression related to the
     new http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.

   - bpo-25913(89): Leading ‘<~’ is optional now in base64.a85decode()
     with adobe=True.  Patch by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-26186(90): Remove an invalid type check in
     importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-26367(91): importlib.__import__() raises ImportError like
     builtins.__import__() when ‘level’ is specified but without an
     accompanying package specified.

   - bpo-26309(92): In the «socketserver» module, shut down the request
     (closing the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false.
     Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-23430(93): Change the socketserver module to only catch
     exceptions raised from a request handler that are derived from
     Exception (instead of BaseException).  Therefore SystemExit and
     KeyboardInterrupt no longer trigger the handle_error() method, and
     will now to stop a single-threaded server.

   - bpo-25995(94): os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the
     tree depth.

   - bpo-25994(95): Added the close() method and the support of the
     context manager protocol for the os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-23992(96): multiprocessing: make MapResult not fail-fast upon
     exception.

   - bpo-26243(97): Support keyword arguments to zlib.compress().  Patch
     by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-26117(98): The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor
     not only when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed
     with error.

   - bpo-25949(99): __dict__ for an OrderedDict instance is now created
     only when needed.

   - bpo-25911(100): Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-26045(101): Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting
     a non-Latin-1 string with http.client.

   - bpo-26039(102): Added zipfile.ZipInfo.from_file() and
     zipinfo.ZipInfo.is_dir().  Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-12923(103): Reset FancyURLopener’s redirect counter even if
     there is an exception.  Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel
     Rocco.

   - bpo-25945(104): Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial
     object with wrong state.  Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial
     constructor.  «args» and «keywords» attributes of functools.partial
     have now always types tuple and dict correspondingly.

   - bpo-26202(105): copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range()
     objects with non-atomic attributes.

   - bpo-23076(106): Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it’s called
     with an invalid pattern.  Patch by Thomas Nyberg.

   - bpo-19883(107): Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.

   - bpo-26227(108): On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and
     gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the
     hostname from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.

   - bpo-26099(109): The site module now writes an error into stderr if
     sitecustomize module can be imported but executing the module raise
     an ImportError.  Same change for usercustomize.

   - bpo-26147(110): xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with
     used non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-25935(111): Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-16620(112): Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().

   - bpo-26013(113): Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles
     created in old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).

   - bpo-26129(114): Deprecated accepting non-integers in
     grp.getgrgid().

   - bpo-25850(115): Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit
     Windows.

   - bpo-25822(116): Add docstrings to the fields of urllib.parse
     results.  Patch contributed by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-22642(117): Convert trace module option parsing mechanism to
     argparse.  Patch contributed by SilentGhost.

   - bpo-24705(118): Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${}
     vars appearing before $() vars.

   - bpo-26069(119): Remove the deprecated apis in the trace module.

   - bpo-22138(120): Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors.
     Restore original values after patching.  Patch contributed by Sean
     McCully.

   - bpo-25672(121): In the ssl module, enable the
     SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode option if it is safe to do so.

   - bpo-26012(122): Don’t traverse into symlinks for ‘**’ pattern in
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().

   - bpo-24120(123): Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().  Patch by Ulrich Petri.

   - bpo-21815(124): Accept ] characters in the data portion of imap
     responses, in order to handle the flags with square brackets
     accepted and produced by servers such as gmail.

   - bpo-25447(125): fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not
     have a buffer attribute (restores backward compatibility).

   - bpo-25971(126): Optimized creating Fractions from floats by 2 times
     and from Decimals by 3 times.

   - bpo-25802(127): Document as deprecated the remaining
     implementations of importlib.abc.Loader.load_module().

   - bpo-25928(128): Add Decimal.as_integer_ratio().

   - bpo-25447(129): Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always
     works, independently from the type of the wrapped object (by
     returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25768(130): Have the functions in compileall return booleans
     instead of ints and add proper documentation and tests for the
     return values.

   - bpo-24103(131): Fixed possible use after free in
     ElementTree.XMLPullParser.

   - bpo-25860(132): os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories
     when error occurs.  Original patch by Samson Lee.

   - bpo-25914(133): Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.

   - bpo-25869(134): Optimized deepcopying ElementTree; it is now 20
     times faster.

   - bpo-25873(135): Optimized iterating ElementTree.  Iterating
     elements Element.iter() is now 40% faster, iterating text
     Element.itertext() is now up to 2.5 times faster.

   - bpo-25902(136): Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree
     iteration.

   - bpo-22227(137): The TarFile iterator is reimplemented using
     generator.  This implementation is simpler that using class.

   - bpo-25638(138): Optimized ElementTree.iterparse(); it is now 2x
     faster.  Optimized ElementTree parsing; it is now 10% faster.

   - bpo-25761(139): Improved detecting errors in broken pickle data.

   - bpo-25717(140): Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most
     fstat() errors when opening files.  This was a regression in 3.5a1,
     and stopped anonymous temporary files from working in special
     cases.

   - bpo-24903(141): Fix regression in number of arguments compileall
     accepts when “-d” is specified.  The check on the number of
     arguments has been dropped completely as it never worked correctly
     anyway.

   - bpo-25764(142): In the subprocess module, preserve any exception
     caused by fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.

   - bpo-25771(143): Tweak the exception message for
     importlib.util.resolve_name() when “package” isn’t specified but
     necessary.

   - bpo-6478(144): _strptime’s regexp cache now is reset after changing
     timezone with time.tzset().

   - bpo-14285(145): When executing a package with the «python -m
     package» option, and package initialization fails, a proper
     traceback is now reported.  The «runpy» module now lets exceptions
     from package initialization pass back to the caller, rather than
     raising ImportError.

   - bpo-19771(146): Also in runpy and the «-m» option, omit the
     irrelevant message «… is a package and cannot be directly executed»
     if the package could not even be initialized (e.g.  due to a bad
     ‘*.pyc’ file).

   - bpo-25177(147): Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very
     large numbers.  As a side effect, statistics.mean and
     statistics.variance should be significantly faster.

   - bpo-25718(148): Fixed copying object with state with boolean value
     is false.

   - bpo-10131(149): Fixed deep copying of minidom documents.  Based on
     patch by Marian Ganisin.

   - bpo-7990(150): dir() on ElementTree.Element now lists properties:
     «tag», «text», «tail» and «attrib».  Original patch by Santoso
     Wijaya.

   - bpo-25725(151): Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when
     unpickling invalid data including tuple instructions.

   - bpo-25663(152): In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate
     global names, and search the global namespace before searching
     builtins.

   - bpo-25688(153): Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising
     an error.

   - bpo-23914(154): Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken
     pickle data.

   - bpo-25691(155): Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element
     attributes.

   - bpo-25624(156): ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for
     directory entries.  Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - bpo-25626(157): Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that
     fit in Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX. This
     resolves a regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read
     chunks larger than 2 or 4 GiB. The change affects the
     zlib.Decompress.decompress() max_length parameter, the
     zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the
     zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.

   - bpo-25583(158): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     os.makedirs(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors
     such as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-25593(159): Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.

   - bpo-6973(160): When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do
     not allow the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do
     anything as they could potentially signal a different process.

   - bpo-23883(161): Added missing APIs to __all__ to match the
     documented APIs for the following modules: calendar, csv, enum,
     fileinput, ftplib, logging, optparse, tarfile, threading and wave.
     Also added a test.support.check__all__() helper.  Patches by Jacek
     Kołodziej, Mauro S. M. Rodrigues and Joel Taddei.

   - bpo-25590(162): In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once
     per attribute.  Also complete names of attributes such as
     properties and slots which are listed by dir() but not yet created
     on an instance.

   - bpo-25498(163): Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects
     created by wrapping a memoryview.  This was a regression made in
     3.5a1.  Based on patch by Eryksun.

   - bpo-25584(164): Added «escape» to the __all__ list in the glob
     module.

   - bpo-25584(165): Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with
     ‘**’.

   - bpo-25446(166): Fix regression in smtplib’s AUTH LOGIN support.

   - bpo-18010(167): Fix the pydoc web server’s module search function
     to handle exceptions from importing packages.

   - bpo-25554(168): Got rid of circular references in regular
     expression parsing.

   - bpo-18973(169): Command-line interface of the calendar module now
     uses argparse instead of optparse.

   - bpo-25510(170): fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b””
     instead of “” at the end if the FileInput was opened with binary
     mode.  Patch by Ryosuke Ito.

   - bpo-25503(171): Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of
     properties.  Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.

   - bpo-25515(172): Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in
     uuid.uuid4.

   - bpo-21827(173): Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest
     common whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace.
     Based on patch by Robert Li.

   - bpo-25447(174): The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied
     and pickled (by returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25390(175): typing: Don’t crash on Union[str, Pattern].

   - bpo-25441(176): asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is
     closed.

   - bpo-25410(177): Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation
     of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-25411(178): Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through
     better use of the email package.  Thanks to user simon04 for the
     patch.

   - Move the imp module from a PendingDeprecationWarning to
     DeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-25407(179): Remove mentions of the formatter module being
     removed in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-25406(180): Fixed a bug in C implementation of
     OrderedDict.move_to_end() that caused segmentation fault or hang in
     iterating after moving several items to the start of ordered dict.

   - bpo-25382(181): pickletools.dis() now outputs implicit memo index
     for the MEMOIZE opcode.

   - bpo-25357(182): Add an optional newline parameter to
     binascii.b2a_base64().  base64.b64encode() uses it to avoid a
     memory copy.

   - bpo-24164(183): Objects that need calling ‘__new__’ with keyword
     arguments, can now be pickled using pickle protocols older than
     protocol version 4.

   - bpo-25364(184): zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.

   - bpo-25328(185): smtpd’s SMTPChannel now correctly raises a
     ValueError if both decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.

   - bpo-16099(186): RobotFileParser now supports Crawl-delay and
     Request-rate extensions.  Patch by Nikolay Bogoychev.

   - bpo-25316(187): distutils raises OSError instead of
     DistutilsPlatformError when MSVC is not installed.

   - bpo-25380(188): Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in
     pickletools.opcodes.

   - bpo-23972(189): Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing
     reuseport and reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding
     the socket.  Mirroring the existing asyncio create_server method
     the reuseaddr option for datagram sockets defaults to True if the
     O/S is “posix” (except if the platform is Cygwin).  Patch by Chris
     Laws.

   - bpo-25304(190): Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe().  This lets
     you submit a coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a
     concurrent.futures.Future.  By Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-25232(191): Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the
     URL at the first question mark (?)  rather than the last.  Patch
     from Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24657(192): Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes
     in the query part of the URL as if it were a path.  Patch from
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25287(193): Don’t add crypt.METHOD_CRYPT to crypt.methods if
     it’s not supported.  Check if it is supported, it may not be
     supported on OpenBSD for example.

   - bpo-23600(194): Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was
     returning wrong results in some cases.

   - bpo-25203(195): Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer
     left the module in inconsistent state.

   - bpo-25011(196): rlcompleter now omits private and special attribute
     names unless the prefix starts with underscores.

   - bpo-25209(197): rlcompleter now can add a space or a colon after
     completed keyword.

   - bpo-22241(198): timezone.utc name is now plain “UTC”, not
     “UTC-00:00”.

   - bpo-23517(199): fromtimestamp() and utcfromtimestamp() methods of
     datetime.datetime now round microseconds to nearest with ties going
     to nearest even integer (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), as round(float), instead
     of rounding towards -Infinity (ROUND_FLOOR).

   - bpo-23552(200): Timeit now warns when there is substantial (4x)
     variance between best and worst times.  Patch from Serhiy
     Storchaka.

   - bpo-24633(201): site-packages/README -> README.txt.

   - bpo-24879(202): help() and pydoc can now list named tuple fields in
     the order they were defined rather than alphabetically.  The
     ordering is determined by the _fields attribute if present.

   - bpo-24874(203): Improve speed of itertools.cycle() and make its
     pickle more compact.

   - Fix crash in itertools.cycle.__setstate__() when the first argument
     wasn’t a list.

   - bpo-20059(204): urllib.parse raises ValueError on all invalid
     ports.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-24360(205): Improve __repr__ of argparse.Namespace() for
     invalid identifiers.  Patch by Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-23426(206): run_setup was broken in distutils.  Patch from
     Alexander Belopolsky.

   - bpo-13938(207): 2to3 converts StringTypes to a tuple.  Patch from
     Mark Hammond.

   - bpo-2091(208): open() accepted a “U” mode string containing “+”,
     but “U” can only be used with “r”.  Patch from Jeff Balogh and John
     O’Connor.

   - bpo-8585(209): improved tests for zipimporter2.  Patch from Mark
     Lawrence.

   - bpo-18622(210): unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse
     infinitely.  Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.

   - bpo-24426(211): Fast searching optimization in regular expressions
     now works for patterns that starts with capturing groups.  Fast
     searching optimization now can’t be disabled at compile time.

   - bpo-23661(212): unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions
     again.  This was a regression vs Python 3.4.  Patch from Ignacio
     Rossi

   - bpo-13248(213): Remove deprecated inspect.getmoduleinfo function.

   - bpo-25578(214): Fix (another) memory leak in
     SSLSocket.getpeercer().

   - bpo-25530(215): Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default
     when creating ssl.SSLContext.

   - bpo-25569(216): Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().

   - bpo-25471(217): Sockets returned from accept() shouldn’t appear to
     be nonblocking.

   - bpo-25319(218): When threading.Event is reinitialized, the
     underlying condition should use a regular lock rather than a
     recursive lock.

   - Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved.  Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26050(219): Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method.  Patch
     by Марк Коренберг.

   - bpo-25924(220): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on OS X versions 10.5 or higher.  Original patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26406(221): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD. Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26848(222): Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle
     empty input.  Patch by Jack O’Connor.

   - bpo-27040(223): Add loop.get_exception_handler method

   - bpo-27041(224): asyncio: Add loop.create_future method

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27057

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27014

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27031

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14132

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17214

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27033

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27034

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26870

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26892

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22274

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26807

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25745

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26977

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26002

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25974

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26996

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26881

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23815

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17765

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26873

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26915

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   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24114

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26864

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<57>,  Next: Documentation<77>,  Prev: Library<194>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.26.96.4 IDLE
..............

   - bpo-20640(1): Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit.  Patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - In the “IDLE-console differences” section of the IDLE doc, clarify
     how running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.

   - bpo-25507(2): fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented
     printing.  Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding
     functions.

   - bpo-25905(3): Revert unwanted conversion of “ to ’ RIGHT SINGLE
     QUOTATION MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with
     “ascii”.  Re-encode CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with “utf-8”.

   - bpo-15348(4): Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process)
     before closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process).
     This prevents the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.

   - bpo-24455(5): Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell
     while the debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with
     the [X] button (15348); and c) activating the debugger when already
     active (24455).  The patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two
     changes.  1.  Suspend and resume the gui.interaction method with
     the tcl vwait mechanism intended for this purpose (instead of
     root.mainloop & .quit).  2.  In gui.run, allow any existing
     interaction to terminate first.

   - Change “The program” to “Your program” in an IDLE “kill program?”
     message to make it clearer that the program referred to is the
     currently running user program, not IDLE itself.

   - bpo-24750(6): Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window
     status bar.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25313(7): Change the handling of new built-in text color themes
     to better address the compatibility problem introduced by the
     addition of IDLE Dark.  Consistently use the revised
     idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.

   - bpo-24782(8): Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE
     Preferences dialog rather than a separate dialog.  The former tabs
     are now a sorted list.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-22726(9): Re-activate the config dialog help button with some
     content about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.

   - bpo-24820(10): IDLE now has an “IDLE Dark” built-in text color
     theme.  It is more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt
     blue background.  Strings, comments, keywords, … are still green,
     red, orange, … .  To use it with IDLEs released before November
     2015, hit the “Save as New Custom Theme” button and enter a new
     name, such as “Custom Dark”.  The custom theme will work with any
     IDLE release, and can be modified.

   - bpo-25224(11): README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE
     developers and curious users.  The previous user content is now in
     the IDLE doc chapter.  “IDLE” now means “Integrated Development and
     Learning Environment”.

   - bpo-24820(12): Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings ->
     Custom Highlighting.  Original patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24972(13): Inactive selection background now matches active
     selection background, as configured by users, on all systems.
     Found items are now always highlighted on Windows.  Initial patch
     by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24570(14): Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on
     Macs affected by a tk regression.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24988(15): Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger)
     now work on Mac Aqua.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24801(16): Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua.
     Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25173(17): Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific
     widget.  For Mac OSX, make them a “sheet”.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25198(18): Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle
     Help.  Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman).
     Give code snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background.
     Re-use initial width and height set by users for shell and editor.
     When the Table of Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section
     header at the top of the screen.

   - bpo-25225(19): Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text
     colors.

   - bpo-21995(20): Explain some differences between IDLE and console
     Python.

   - bpo-22820(21): Explain need for 'print' when running file from Idle
     editor.

   - bpo-25224(22): Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess
     section.

   - bpo-25219(23): Update doc for Idle command line options.  Some were
     missing and notes were not correct.

   - bpo-24861(24): Most of idlelib is private and subject to change.
     Use idleib.idle.* to start Idle.  See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.

   - bpo-25199(25): Idle: add synchronization comments for future
     maintainers.

   - bpo-16893(26): Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc
     display.  The new idlelib/help.html is rstripped
     Doc/build/html/library/idle.html.  It looks better than help.txt
     and will better document Idle as released.  The tkinter html viewer
     that works for this file was written by Rose Roseman.  The now
     unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are
     deprecated.

   - bpo-24199(27): Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible
     removal in 3.6.

   - bpo-24790(28): Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 & 3
     conflicts).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20640

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25905

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15348

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24455

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25313

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24782

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22726

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24972

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24570

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24988

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24801

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25173

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25198

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25225

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21995

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22820

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25219

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24861

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25199

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24199

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24790


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<77>,  Next: Tests<81>,  Prev: IDLE<57>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.26.96.5 Documentation
.......................

   - bpo-26736(1): Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if
     possible.

   - bpo-6953(2): Rework the Readline module documentation to group
     related functions together, and add more details such as what
     underlying Readline functions and variables are accessed.

   - bpo-23606(3): Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding
     cdll.msvcrt.

   - bpo-24952(4): Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in
     the «threading» and «_thread» modules.  Patch from Mattip.

   - bpo-26014(5): Update 3.x packaging documentation: * «See also»
     links to the new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links
     to setuptools documentation have been updated

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26736

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6953

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23606

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24952

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26014


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<81>,  Next: Build<88>,  Prev: Documentation<77>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.26.96.6 Tests
...............

   - bpo-21916(1): Added tests for the turtle module.  Patch by ingrid,
     Gregory Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26295(2): When using «python3 -m test –testdir=TESTDIR»,
     regrtest doesn’t add «test.» prefix to test module names.

   - bpo-26523(3): The multiprocessing thread pool
     (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool) was untested.

   - bpo-26015(4): Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable
     sequences.

   - bpo-26325(5): Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to
     check that no ResourceWarning is emitted.

   - bpo-25940(6): Changed test_ssl to use its internal local server
     more.  This avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently
     changed root certificate.

   - bpo-25616(7): Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from
     test_collections into separate file test_ordered_dict.

   - bpo-25449(8): Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-25188(9): Add -P/–pgo to test.regrtest to suppress error output
     when running the test suite for the purposes of a PGO build.
     Initial patch by Alecsandru Patrascu.

   - bpo-22806(10): Add ‘python -m test --list-tests’ command to list
     tests.

   - bpo-18174(11): ‘python -m test --huntrleaks ...’ now also checks
     for leak of file descriptors.  Patch written by Richard Oudkerk.

   - bpo-25260(12): Fix ‘python -m test --coverage’ on Windows.  Remove
     the list of ignored directories.

   - ‘PCbuild\rt.bat’ now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to
     pass along to regrtest.py.  Previously there was a limit of 9.

   - bpo-26583(13): Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if
     bytecode files cannot be written.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26295

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26015

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26325

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25940

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25616

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25188

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22806

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18174

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25260

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26583


File: python.info,  Node: Build<88>,  Next: Windows<75>,  Prev: Tests<81>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.26.96.7 Build
...............

   - bpo-21277(1): Don’t try to link _ctypes with a ffi_convenience
     library.

   - bpo-26884(2): Fix linking extension modules for cross builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26932(3): Fixed support of RTLD_* constants defined as enum
     values, not via macros (in particular on Android).  Patch by Chi
     Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22359(4): Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and
     pgen when cross-compiling.  The output of these programs is
     normally saved with the source code anyway, and is still
     regenerated when doing a native build.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-21668(5): Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to
     libm, except on Mac OS X. Patch written by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-25702(6): A –with-lto configure option has been added that will
     enable link time optimizations at build time during a make
     profile-opt.  Some compilers and toolchains are known to not
     produce stable code when using LTO, be sure to test things
     thoroughly before relying on it.  It can provide a few % speed up
     over profile-opt alone.

   - bpo-26624(7): Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with
     warning for old versions.

   - bpo-17603(8): Avoid error about nonexistent fileblocks.o file by
     using a lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.

   - bpo-26079(9): Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6.
     Patch by Bjoern Thiel.

   - bpo-26465(10): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-25348(11): Added ‘--pgo’ and ‘--pgo-job’ arguments to
     ‘PCbuild\build.bat’ for building with Profile-Guided Optimization.
     The old ‘PCbuild\build_pgo.bat’ script is removed.

   - bpo-25827(12): Add support for building with ICC to ‘configure’,
     including a new ‘--with-icc’ flag.

   - bpo-25696(13): Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.

   - bpo-24986(14): It is now possible to build Python on Windows
     without errors when external libraries are not available.

   - bpo-24421(15): Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building
     extensions.  Previously it could fail to compile properly if the
     math and cmath builds were concurrent.

   - bpo-26465(16): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-26268(17): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.

   - bpo-25136(18): Support Apple Xcode 7’s new textual SDK stub
     libraries.

   - bpo-24324(19): Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using
     gcc as the option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc
     and has been silently removed as of gcc-4.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21277

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26884

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26932

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21668

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25702

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26624

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17603

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26079

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25827

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25696

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24986

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24421

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25136

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24324


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<75>,  Next: Tools/Demos<52>,  Prev: Build<88>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.26.96.8 Windows
.................

   - bpo-27053(1): Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP
     file.

   - bpo-26268(2): Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL
     releases that don’t include the contents of the include directory
     (that is, 1.0.2e and later).

   - bpo-26071(3): bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find
     32bit Python

   - bpo-26073(4): Update the list of magic numbers in launcher

   - bpo-26065(5): Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable
     distro.

   - bpo-25022(6): Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26071

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26073

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26065

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25022


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<52>,  Next: C API<75>,  Prev: Windows<75>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.26.96.9 Tools/Demos
.....................

   - bpo-26799(1): Fix python-gdb.py: don’t get C types once when the
     Python code is loaded, but get C types on demand.  The C types can
     change if python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable.
     Patch written by Thomas Ilsche.

   - bpo-26271(2): Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed
     through configure.  Patch by Daniel Shaulov.

   - bpo-26489(3): Add dictionary unpacking support to
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-26316(4): Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-25440(5): Fix output of python-config –extension-suffix.

   - bpo-25154(6): The pyvenv script has been deprecated in favour of
     ‘python3 -m venv’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26271

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26489

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26316

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25440

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25154


File: python.info,  Node: C API<75>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<52>,  Up: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1

1.26.96.10 C API
................

   - bpo-26312(1): SystemError is now raised in all programming bugs
     with using PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords().  RuntimeError did raised
     before in some programming bugs.

   - bpo-26198(2): ValueError is now raised instead of TypeError on
     buffer overflow in parsing «es#» and «et#» format units.
     SystemError is now raised instead of TypeError on programmatical
     error in parsing format string.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26312

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26198


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 5 final,  Next: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.97 Python 3.5.5 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2018-02-04'

There were no new changes in version 3.5.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 4 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 5 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.98 Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1
----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2018-01-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<56>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<194>.
* Library: Library<195>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<56>,  Next: Core and Builtins<194>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.26.98.1 Security
..................

   - bpo-32551(1): The ‘sys.path[0]’ initialization change for
     bpo-29139(2) caused a regression by revealing an inconsistency in
     how sys.path is initialized when executing ‘__main__’ from a
     zipfile, directory, or other import location.  This is considered a
     potential security issue, as it may lead to privileged processes
     unexpectedly loading code from user controlled directories in
     situations where that was not previously the case.  The interpreter
     now consistently avoids ever adding the import location’s parent
     directory to ‘sys.path’, and ensures no other ‘sys.path’ entries
     are inadvertently modified when inserting the import location named
     on the command line.  (Originally reported as bpo-29723(3) against
     Python 3.6rc1, but it was missed at the time that the then upcoming
     Python 3.5.4 release would also be affected)

   - bpo-30657(4): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     PyBytes_DecodeEscape, CVE 2017-1000158(5).  Original patch by Jay
     Bosamiya; rebased to Python 3 by Miro Hrončok.

   - bpo-30947(6): Upgrade libexpat embedded copy from version 2.2.1 to
     2.2.3 to get security fixes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32551

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29139

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29723

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30657

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-1000158

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30947


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<194>,  Next: Library<195>,  Prev: Security<56>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.26.98.2 Core and Builtins
...........................

   - bpo-31095(1): Fix potential crash during GC caused by ‘tp_dealloc’
     which doesn’t call ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31095


File: python.info,  Node: Library<195>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<194>,  Up: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1

1.26.98.3 Library
.................

   - bpo-32072(1): Fixed issues with binary plists: Fixed saving
     bytearrays.  Identical objects will be saved only once.  Equal
     references will be load as identical objects.  Added support for
     saving and loading recursive data structures.

   - bpo-31170(2): expat: Update libexpat from 2.2.3 to 2.2.4.  Fix
     copying of partial characters for UTF-8 input (libexpat bug 115):
     ‘https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/issues/115’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32072

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31170


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 4 final,  Next: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.99 Python 3.5.4 final
--------------------------

'Release date: 2017-08-07'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<196>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<196>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 final

1.26.99.1 Library
.................

   - bpo-30119(1): ftplib.FTP.putline() now throws ValueError on
     commands that contains CR or LF. Patch by Donghee Na.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30119


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 3 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 4 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.100 Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-07-23'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<57>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<195>.
* Library: Library<197>.
* Documentation: Documentation<78>.
* Tests: Tests<82>.
* Build: Build<89>.
* Windows: Windows<76>.
* C API: C API<76>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<57>,  Next: Core and Builtins<195>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.26.100.1 Security
...................

   - bpo-30730(1): Prevent environment variables injection in subprocess
     on Windows.  Prevent passing other environment variables and
     command arguments.

   - bpo-30694(2): Upgrade expat copy from 2.2.0 to 2.2.1 to get fixes
     of multiple security vulnerabilities including: CVE 2017-9233(3)
     (External entity infinite loop DoS), CVE 2016-9063(4) (Integer
     overflow, re-fix), CVE 2016-0718(5) (Fix regression bugs from
     2.2.0’s fix to CVE 2016-0718(6)) and CVE 2012-0876(7) (Counter hash
     flooding with SipHash).  Note: the CVE 2016-5300(8) (Use
     os-specific entropy sources like getrandom) doesn’t impact Python,
     since Python already gets entropy from the OS to set the expat
     secret using ‘XML_SetHashSalt()’.

   - bpo-30500(9): Fix urllib.parse.splithost() to correctly parse
     fragments.  For example, ‘splithost('//127.0.0.1#@evil.com/')’ now
     correctly returns the ‘127.0.0.1’ host, instead of treating
     ‘@evil.com’ as the host in an authentication (‘login@host’).

   - bpo-29591(10): Update expat copy from 2.1.1 to 2.2.0 to get fixes
     of CVE 2016-0718(11) and CVE 2016-4472(12).  See
     ‘https://sourceforge.net/p/expat/bugs/537/’ for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30730

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30694

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2017-9233

   (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-9063

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2012-0876

   (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-5300

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30500

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29591

   (11) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0718

   (12) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-4472


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<195>,  Next: Library<197>,  Prev: Security<57>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.26.100.2 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-30876(1): Relative import from unloaded package now reimports
     the package instead of failing with SystemError.  Relative import
     from non-package now fails with ImportError rather than
     SystemError.

   - bpo-30765(2): Avoid blocking in pthread_mutex_lock() when
     PyThread_acquire_lock() is asked not to block.

   - bpo-27945(3): Fixed various segfaults with dict when input
     collections are mutated during searching, inserting or comparing.
     Based on patches by Duane Griffin and Tim Mitchell.

   - bpo-25794(4): Fixed type.__setattr__() and type.__delattr__() for
     non-interned attribute names.  Based on patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-29935(5): Fixed error messages in the index() method of tuple,
     list and deque when pass indices of wrong type.

   - bpo-28876(6): ‘bool(range)’ works even if ‘len(range)’ raises *note
     OverflowError: c57.

   - bpo-29600(7): Fix wrapping coroutine return values in
     StopIteration.

   - bpo-29537(8): Restore runtime compatibility with bytecode files
     generated by CPython 3.5.0 to 3.5.2, and adjust the eval loop to
     avoid the problems that could be caused by the malformed variant of
     the BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL opcode that they may contain.  Patch
     by Petr Viktorin, Serhiy Storchaka, and Nick Coghlan.

   - bpo-28598(9): Support __rmod__ for subclasses of str being called
     before str.__mod__.  Patch by Martijn Pieters.

   - bpo-29602(10): Fix incorrect handling of signed zeros in complex
     constructor for complex subclasses and for inputs having a
     __complex__ method.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-29347(11): Fixed possibly dereferencing undefined pointers when
     creating weakref objects.

   - bpo-29438(12): Fixed use-after-free problem in key sharing dict.

   - bpo-29319(13): Prevent RunMainFromImporter overwriting sys.path[0].

   - bpo-29337(14): Fixed possible BytesWarning when compare the code
     objects.  Warnings could be emitted at compile time.

   - bpo-29478(15): If max_line_length=None is specified while using the
     Compat32 policy, it is no longer ignored.  Patch by Mircea Cosbuc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30876

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30765

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27945

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25794

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29935

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28876

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29600

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29537

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28598

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29602

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29347

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29438

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29319

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29337

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29478


File: python.info,  Node: Library<197>,  Next: Documentation<78>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<195>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.26.100.3 Library
..................

   - bpo-29403(1): Fix ‘unittest.mock’’s autospec to not fail on
     method-bound builtin functions.  Patch by Aaron Gallagher.

   - bpo-30961(2): Fix decrementing a borrowed reference in tracemalloc.

   - bpo-30886(3): Fix multiprocessing.Queue.join_thread(): it now waits
     until the thread completes, even if the thread was started by the
     same process which created the queue.

   - bpo-29854(4): Fix segfault in readline when using readline’s
     history-size option.  Patch by Nir Soffer.

   - bpo-30807(5): signal.setitimer() may disable the timer when passed
     a tiny value.  Tiny values (such as 1e-6) are valid non-zero values
     for setitimer(), which is specified as taking
     microsecond-resolution intervals.  However, on some platform, our
     conversion routine could convert 1e-6 into a zero interval,
     therefore disabling the timer instead of (re-)scheduling it.

   - bpo-30441(6): Fix bug when modifying os.environ while iterating
     over it

   - bpo-30532(7): Fix email header value parser dropping folding white
     space in certain cases.

   - bpo-29169(8): Update zlib to 1.2.11.

   - bpo-30879(9): os.listdir() and os.scandir() now emit bytes names
     when called with bytes-like argument.

   - bpo-30746(10): Prohibited the “=” character in environment variable
     names in ‘os.putenv()’ and ‘os.spawn*()’.

   - bpo-29755(11): Fixed the lgettext() family of functions in the
     gettext module.  They now always return bytes.

   - bpo-30645(12): Fix path calculation in imp.load_package(), fixing
     it for cases when a package is only shipped with bytecodes.  Patch
     by Alexandru Ardelean.

   - bpo-23890(13): unittest.TestCase.assertRaises() now manually breaks
     a reference cycle to not keep objects alive longer than expected.

   - bpo-30149(14): inspect.signature() now supports callables with
     variable-argument parameters wrapped with partialmethod.  Patch by
     Donghee Na.

   - bpo-29931(15): Fixed comparison check for ipaddress.ip_interface
     objects.  Patch by Sanjay Sundaresan.

   - bpo-24484(16): Avoid race condition in multiprocessing cleanup.

   - bpo-28994(17): The traceback no longer displayed for SystemExit
     raised in a callback registered by atexit.

   - bpo-30508(18): Don’t log exceptions if Task/Future «cancel()»
     method was called.

   - bpo-28556(19): Updates to typing module: Add generic
     AsyncContextManager, add support for ContextManager on all
     versions.  Original PRs by Jelle Zijlstra and Ivan Levkivskyi

   - bpo-29870(20): Fix ssl sockets leaks when connection is aborted in
     asyncio/ssl implementation.  Patch by Michaël Sghaïer.

   - bpo-29743(21): Closing transport during handshake process leaks
     open socket.  Patch by Nikolay Kim

   - bpo-27585(22): Fix waiter cancellation in asyncio.Lock.  Patch by
     Mathieu Sornay.

   - bpo-30418(23): On Windows, subprocess.Popen.communicate() now also
     ignore EINVAL on stdin.write() if the child process is still
     running but closed the pipe.

   - bpo-30378(24): Fix the problem that logging.handlers.SysLogHandler
     cannot handle IPv6 addresses.

   - bpo-29960(25): Preserve generator state when
     _random.Random.setstate() raises an exception.  Patch by Bryan
     Olson.

   - bpo-30414(26): multiprocessing.Queue._feed background running
     thread do not break from main loop on exception.

   - bpo-30003(27): Fix handling escape characters in HZ codec.  Based
     on patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-30301(28): Fix AttributeError when using SimpleQueue.empty()
     under 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods.

   - bpo-30329(29): imaplib and poplib now catch the Windows socket
     WSAEINVAL error (code 10022) on shutdown(SHUT_RDWR): An invalid
     operation was attempted.  This error occurs sometimes on SSL
     connections.

   - bpo-30375(30): Warnings emitted when compile a regular expression
     now always point to the line in the user code.  Previously they
     could point into inners of the re module if emitted from inside of
     groups or conditionals.

   - bpo-30048(31): Fixed ‘Task.cancel()’ can be ignored when the task
     is running coroutine and the coroutine returned without any more
     ‘await’.

   - bpo-29990(32): Fix range checking in GB18030 decoder.  Original
     patch by Ma Lin.

   - bpo-26293(33): Change resulted because of zipfile breakage.  (See
     also: bpo-29094(34))

   - bpo-30243(35): Removed the __init__ methods of _json’s scanner and
     encoder.  Misusing them could cause memory leaks or crashes.  Now
     scanner and encoder objects are completely initialized in the
     __new__ methods.

   - bpo-30185(36): Avoid KeyboardInterrupt tracebacks in forkserver
     helper process when Ctrl-C is received.

   - bpo-28556(37): Various updates to typing module: add
     typing.NoReturn type, use WrapperDescriptorType, minor bug-fixes.
     Original PRs by Jim Fasarakis-Hilliard and Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-30205(38): Fix getsockname() for unbound AF_UNIX sockets on
     Linux.

   - bpo-30070(39): Fixed leaks and crashes in errors handling in the
     parser module.

   - bpo-30061(40): Fixed crashes in IOBase methods __next__() and
     readlines() when readline() or __next__() respectively return
     non-sizeable object.  Fixed possible other errors caused by not
     checking results of PyObject_Size(), PySequence_Size(), or
     PyMapping_Size().

   - bpo-30068(41): _io._IOBase.readlines will check if it’s closed
     first when hint is present.

   - bpo-29694(42): Fixed race condition in pathlib mkdir with flags
     parents=True.  Patch by Armin Rigo.

   - bpo-29692(43): Fixed arbitrary unchaining of RuntimeError
     exceptions in contextlib.contextmanager.  Patch by Siddharth
     Velankar.

   - bpo-29998(44): Pickling and copying ImportError now preserves name
     and path attributes.

   - bpo-29942(45): Fix a crash in itertools.chain.from_iterable when
     encountering long runs of empty iterables.

   - bpo-27863(46): Fixed multiple crashes in ElementTree caused by race
     conditions and wrong types.

   - bpo-28699(47): Fixed a bug in pools in multiprocessing.pool that
     raising an exception at the very first of an iterable may swallow
     the exception or make the program hang.  Patch by Davin Potts and
     Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-25803(48): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     Path.mkdir(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors such
     as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-29861(49): Release references to tasks, their arguments and
     their results as soon as they are finished in multiprocessing.Pool.

   - bpo-29884(50): faulthandler: Restore the old sigaltstack during
     teardown.  Patch by Christophe Zeitouny.

   - bpo-25455(51): Fixed crashes in repr of recursive buffered
     file-like objects.

   - bpo-29800(52): Fix crashes in partial.__repr__ if the keys of
     partial.keywords are not strings.  Patch by Michael Seifert.

   - bpo-29742(53): get_extra_info() raises exception if get called on
     closed ssl transport.  Patch by Nikolay Kim.

   - bpo-8256(54): Fixed possible failing or crashing input() if
     attributes «encoding» or «errors» of sys.stdin or sys.stdout are
     not set or are not strings.

   - bpo-28298(55): Fix a bug that prevented array “Q”, “L” and “I” from
     accepting big intables (objects that have __int__) as elements.
     Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-29615(56): SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher no longer chains KeyError (or
     any other exception) to exception(s) raised in the dispatched
     methods.  Patch by Petr Motejlek.

   - bpo-29704(57): asyncio.subprocess.SubprocessStreamProtocol no
     longer closes before all pipes are closed.

   - bpo-29703(58): Fix asyncio to support instantiation of new event
     loops in child processes.

   - bpo-29376(59): Fix assertion error in
     threading._DummyThread.is_alive().

   - bpo-29110(60): Fix file object leak in aifc.open() when file is
     given as a filesystem path and is not in valid AIFF format.  Patch
     by Anthony Zhang.

   - bpo-28961(61): Fix unittest.mock._Call helper: don’t ignore the
     name parameter anymore.  Patch written by Jiajun Huang.

   - bpo-29532(62): Altering a kwarg dictionary passed to
     functools.partial() no longer affects a partial object after
     creation.

   - bpo-28556(63): Various updates to typing module: typing.Counter,
     typing.ChainMap, improved ABC caching, etc.  Original PRs by Jelle
     Zijlstra, Ivan Levkivskyi, Manuel Krebber, and Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-29100(64): Fix datetime.fromtimestamp() regression introduced
     in Python 3.6.0: check minimum and maximum years.

   - bpo-29519(65): Fix weakref spewing exceptions during interpreter
     shutdown when used with a rare combination of multiprocessing and
     custom codecs.

   - bpo-29416(66): Prevent infinite loop in pathlib.Path.mkdir

   - bpo-29444(67): Fixed out-of-bounds buffer access in the group()
     method of the match object.  Based on patch by WGH.

   - bpo-29335(68): Fix subprocess.Popen.wait() when the child process
     has exited to a stopped instead of terminated state (ex: when under
     ptrace).

   - bpo-29290(69): Fix a regression in argparse that help messages
     would wrap at non-breaking spaces.

   - bpo-28735(70): Fixed the comparison of mock.MagickMock with
     mock.ANY.

   - bpo-29011(71): Fix an important omission by adding Deque to the
     typing module.

   - bpo-29219(72): Fixed infinite recursion in the repr of
     uninitialized ctypes.CDLL instances.

   - bpo-28969(73): Fixed race condition in C implementation of
     functools.lru_cache.  KeyError could be raised when cached function
     with full cache was simultaneously called from different threads
     with the same uncached arguments.

   - bpo-29142(74): In urllib.request, suffixes in no_proxy environment
     variable with leading dots could match related hostnames again
     (e.g.  .b.c matches a.b.c).  Patch by Milan Oberkirch.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29403

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30961

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30886

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29854

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30807

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30441

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30532

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29169

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30879

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30746

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29755

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30645

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23890

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30149

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29931

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24484

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28994

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29870

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29743

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27585

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30418

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30378

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29960

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30414

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30003

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30301

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30329

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30375

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30048

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29990

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26293

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30243

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30185

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30205

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30070

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30061

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30068

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29694

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29692

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29998

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29942

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27863

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28699

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25803

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29861

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29884

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25455

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29800

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29742

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8256

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28298

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29615

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29704

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29703

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29376

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29110

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28961

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29532

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28556

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29100

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29519

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29416

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29444

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29335

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29290

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28735

   (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29011

   (72) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29219

   (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28969

   (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29142


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<78>,  Next: Tests<82>,  Prev: Library<197>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.26.100.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-30176(1): Add missing attribute related constants in curses
     documentation.

   - bpo-26985(2): Add missing info of code object in inspect
     documentation.

   - bpo-28929(3): Link the documentation to its source file on GitHub.

   - bpo-25008(4): Document smtpd.py as effectively deprecated and add a
     pointer to aiosmtpd, a third-party asyncio-based replacement.

   - bpo-26355(5): Add canonical header link on each page to
     corresponding major version of the documentation.  Patch by
     Matthias Bussonnier.

   - bpo-29349(6): Fix Python 2 syntax in code for building the
     documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30176

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26985

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28929

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25008

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26355

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29349


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<82>,  Next: Build<89>,  Prev: Documentation<78>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.26.100.5 Tests
................

   - bpo-30822(1): Fix regrtest command line parser to allow passing -u
     extralargefile to run test_zipfile64.

   - bpo-30383(2): regrtest: Enhance regrtest and backport features from
     the master branch.  Add options: –coverage, –testdir, –list-tests
     (list test files, don’t run them), –list-cases (list test
     identifiers, don’t run them, bpo-30523(3)), –matchfile (load a list
     of test filters from a text file, bpo-30540(4)), –slowest (alias to
     –slow).  Enhance output: add timestamp, test result, currently
     running tests, «Tests result: xxx» summary with total duration,
     etc.  Fix reference leak hunting in regrtest, –huntrleaks: regrtest
     now warms up caches, create explicitly all internal singletons
     which are created on demand to prevent false positives when
     checking for reference leaks.  (bpo-30675(5)).

   - bpo-30357(6): test_thread: setUp() now uses
     support.threading_setup() and support.threading_cleanup() to wait
     until threads complete to avoid random side effects on following
     tests.  Initial patch written by Grzegorz Grzywacz.

   - bpo-28087(7): Skip test_asyncore and test_eintr poll failures on
     macOS. Skip some tests of select.poll when running on macOS due to
     unresolved issues with the underlying system poll function on some
     macOS versions.

   - bpo-30197(8): Enhanced functions swap_attr() and swap_item() in the
     test.support module.  They now work when delete replaced attribute
     or item inside the with statement.  The old value of the attribute
     or item (or None if it doesn’t exist) now will be assigned to the
     target of the «as» clause, if there is one.

   - bpo-29571(9): to match the behaviour of the ‘re.LOCALE’ flag,
     test_re.test_locale_flag now uses
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ to determine the candidate
     encoding for the test regex (allowing it to correctly skip the test
     when the default locale encoding is a multi-byte encoding)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30822

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30383

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30523

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30540

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30675

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30357

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28087

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30197

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29571


File: python.info,  Node: Build<89>,  Next: Windows<76>,  Prev: Tests<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.26.100.6 Build
................

   - bpo-29243(1): Prevent unnecessary rebuilding of Python during ‘make
     test’, ‘make install’ and some other make targets when configured
     with ‘--enable-optimizations’.

   - bpo-23404(2): Don’t regenerate generated files based on file
     modification time anymore: the action is now explicit.  Replace
     ‘make touch’ with ‘make regen-all’.

   - bpo-29643(3): Fix ‘--enable-optimization’ didn’t work.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29243

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29643


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<76>,  Next: C API<76>,  Prev: Build<89>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.26.100.7 Windows
..................

   - bpo-30687(1): Locate msbuild.exe on Windows when building rather
     than vcvarsall.bat

   - bpo-29392(2): Prevent crash when passing invalid arguments into
     msvcrt module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30687

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29392


File: python.info,  Node: C API<76>,  Prev: Windows<76>,  Up: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1

1.26.100.8 C API
................

   - bpo-27867(1): Function PySlice_GetIndicesEx() is replaced with a
     macro if Py_LIMITED_API is set to the value between 0x03050400 and
     0x03060000 (not including) or 0x03060100 or higher.

   - bpo-29083(2): Fixed the declaration of some public API functions.
     PyArg_VaParse() and PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords() were not
     available in limited API. PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(),
     PyArg_UnpackTuple() and Py_BuildValue() were not available in
     limited API of version < 3.3 when PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN is defined.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29083


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 3 final,  Next: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.101 Python 3.5.3 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2017-01-17'

There were no code changes between 3.5.3rc1 and 3.5.3 final.


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 2 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 3 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.102 Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2017-01-02'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<58>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<196>.
* Library: Library<198>.
* IDLE: IDLE<58>.
* C API: C API<77>.
* Documentation: Documentation<79>.
* Tests: Tests<83>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<53>.
* Windows: Windows<77>.
* Build: Build<90>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<58>,  Next: Core and Builtins<196>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.26.102.1 Security
...................

   - bpo-27278(1): Fix os.urandom() implementation using getrandom() on
     Linux.  Truncate size to INT_MAX and loop until we collected enough
     random bytes, instead of casting a directly Py_ssize_t to int.

   - bpo-22636(2): Avoid shell injection problems with
     ctypes.util.find_library().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27278

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22636


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<196>,  Next: Library<198>,  Prev: Security<58>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.26.102.2 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-29073(1): bytearray formatting no longer truncates on first
     null byte.

   - bpo-28932(2): Do not include <sys/random.h> if it does not exist.

   - bpo-28147(3): Fix a memory leak in split-table dictionaries:
     setattr() must not convert combined table into split table.

   - bpo-25677(4): Correct the positioning of the syntax error caret for
     indented blocks.  Based on patch by Michael Layzell.

   - bpo-29000(5): Fixed bytes formatting of octals with zero padding in
     alternate form.

   - bpo-28512(6): Fixed setting the offset attribute of SyntaxError by
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx() and PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject().

   - bpo-28991(7): functools.lru_cache() was susceptible to an obscure
     reentrancy bug caused by a monkey-patched len() function.

   - bpo-28648(8): Fixed crash in Py_DecodeLocale() in debug build on
     Mac OS X when decode astral characters.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19398(9): Extra slash no longer added to sys.path components in
     case of empty compile-time PYTHONPATH components.

   - bpo-28426(10): Fixed potential crash in PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()
     in debug build.

   - bpo-23782(11): Fixed possible memory leak in _PyTraceback_Add() and
     exception loss in PyTraceBack_Here().

   - bpo-28379(12): Added sanity checks and tests for
     PyUnicode_CopyCharacters().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-28376(13): The type of long range iterator is now registered as
     Iterator.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-28376(14): The constructor of range_iterator now checks that
     step is not 0.  Patch by Oren Milman.

   - bpo-26906(15): Resolving special methods of uninitialized type now
     causes implicit initialization of the type instead of a fail.

   - bpo-18287(16): PyType_Ready() now checks that tp_name is not NULL.
     Original patch by Niklas Koep.

   - bpo-24098(17): Fixed possible crash when AST is changed in process
     of compiling it.

   - bpo-28350(18): String constants with null character no longer
     interned.

   - bpo-26617(19): Fix crash when GC runs during weakref callbacks.

   - bpo-27942(20): String constants now interned recursively in tuples
     and frozensets.

   - bpo-21578(21): Fixed misleading error message when ImportError
     called with invalid keyword args.

   - bpo-28203(22): Fix incorrect type in error message from
     ‘complex(1.0, {2:3})’.  Patch by Soumya Sharma.

   - bpo-27955(23): Fallback on reading /dev/urandom device when the
     getrandom() syscall fails with EPERM, for example when blocked by
     SECCOMP.

   - bpo-28131(24): Fix a regression in zipimport’s compile_source().
     zipimport should use the same optimization level as the
     interpreter.

   - bpo-25221(25): Fix corrupted result from PyLong_FromLong(0) when
     Python is compiled with NSMALLPOSINTS = 0.

   - bpo-25758(26): Prevents zipimport from unnecessarily encoding a
     filename (patch by Eryk Sun)

   - bpo-28189(27): dictitems_contains no longer swallows compare
     errors.  (Patch by Xiang Zhang)

   - bpo-27812(28): Properly clear out a generator’s frame’s
     backreference to the generator to prevent crashes in frame.clear().

   - bpo-27811(29): Fix a crash when a coroutine that has not been
     awaited is finalized with warnings-as-errors enabled.

   - bpo-27587(30): Fix another issue found by PVS-Studio: Null pointer
     check after use of “def” in _PyState_AddModule().  Initial patch by
     Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-26020(31): set literal evaluation order did not match
     documented behaviour.

   - bpo-27782(32): Multi-phase extension module import now correctly
     allows the ‘m_methods’ field to be used to add module level
     functions to instances of non-module types returned from
     ‘Py_create_mod’.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27936(33): The round() function accepted a second None argument
     for some types but not for others.  Fixed the inconsistency by
     accepting None for all numeric types.

   - bpo-27487(34): Warn if a submodule argument to «python -m» or
     runpy.run_module() is found in sys.modules after parent packages
     are imported, but before the submodule is executed.

   - bpo-27558(35): Fix a SystemError in the implementation of «raise»
     statement.  In a brand new thread, raise a RuntimeError since there
     is no active exception to reraise.  Patch written by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27419(36): Standard __import__() no longer look up «__import__»
     in globals or builtins for importing submodules or «from import».
     Fixed handling an error of non-string package name.

   - bpo-27083(37): Respect the PYTHONCASEOK environment variable under
     Windows.

   - bpo-27514(38): Make having too many statically nested blocks a
     SyntaxError instead of SystemError.

   - bpo-27473(39): Fixed possible integer overflow in bytes and
     bytearray concatenations.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27507(40): Add integer overflow check in bytearray.extend().
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27581(41): Don’t rely on wrapping for overflow check in
     PySequence_Tuple().  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27443(42): __length_hint__() of bytearray iterators no longer
     return a negative integer for a resized bytearray.

   - bpo-27942(43): Fix memory leak in codeobject.c

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29073

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28932

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28147

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25677

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29000

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28512

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28991

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28648

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19398

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28426

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23782

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28379

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28376

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26906

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18287

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24098

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28350

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26617

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21578

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28203

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27955

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28131

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25221

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25758

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28189

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27812

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27811

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27587

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26020

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27782

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27936

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27487

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27558

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27419

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27083

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27514

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27473

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27507

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27581

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27443

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27942


File: python.info,  Node: Library<198>,  Next: IDLE<58>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<196>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.26.102.3 Library
..................

   - bpo-15812(1): inspect.getframeinfo() now correctly shows the first
     line of a context.  Patch by Sam Breese.

   - bpo-29094(2): Offsets in a ZIP file created with extern file object
     and modes «w» and «x» now are relative to the start of the file.

   - bpo-13051(3): Fixed recursion errors in large or resized
     curses.textpad.Textbox.  Based on patch by Tycho Andersen.

   - bpo-29119(4): Fix weakrefs in the pure python version of
     collections.OrderedDict move_to_end() method.  Contributed by Andra
     Bogildea.

   - bpo-9770(5): curses.ascii predicates now work correctly with
     negative integers.

   - bpo-28427(6): old keys should not remove new values from
     WeakValueDictionary when collecting from another thread.

   - bpo-28923(7): Remove editor artifacts from Tix.py.

   - bpo-28871(8): Fixed a crash when deallocate deep ElementTree.

   - bpo-19542(9): Fix bugs in WeakValueDictionary.setdefault() and
     WeakValueDictionary.pop() when a GC collection happens in another
     thread.

   - bpo-20191(10): Fixed a crash in resource.prlimit() when pass a
     sequence that doesn’t own its elements as limits.

   - bpo-28779(11): multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload() would crash
     the forkserver process if a preloaded module instantiated some
     multiprocessing objects such as locks.

   - bpo-28847(12): dbm.dumb now supports reading read-only files and no
     longer writes the index file when it is not changed.

   - bpo-25659(13): In ctypes, prevent a crash calling the from_buffer()
     and from_buffer_copy() methods on abstract classes like Array.

   - bpo-28732(14): Fix crash in os.spawnv() with no elements in args

   - bpo-28485(15): Always raise ValueError for negative
     compileall.compile_dir(workers=…) parameter, even when
     multithreading is unavailable.

   - bpo-28387(16): Fixed possible crash in _io.TextIOWrapper
     deallocator when the garbage collector is invoked in other thread.
     Based on patch by Sebastian Cufre.

   - bpo-27517(17): LZMA compressor and decompressor no longer raise
     exceptions if given empty data twice.  Patch by Benjamin Fogle.

   - bpo-28549(18): Fixed segfault in curses’s addch() with ncurses6.

   - bpo-28449(19): tarfile.open() with mode «r» or «r:» now tries to
     open a tar file with compression before trying to open it without
     compression.  Otherwise it had 50% chance failed with
     ignore_zeros=True.

   - bpo-23262(20): The webbrowser module now supports Firefox 36+ and
     derived browsers.  Based on patch by Oleg Broytman.

   - bpo-27939(21): Fixed bugs in tkinter.ttk.LabeledScale and
     tkinter.Scale caused by representing the scale as float value
     internally in Tk.  tkinter.IntVar now works if float value is set
     to underlying Tk variable.

   - bpo-28255(22): calendar.TextCalendar().prmonth() no longer prints a
     space at the start of new line after printing a month’s calendar.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-20491(23): The textwrap.TextWrapper class now honors
     non-breaking spaces.  Based on patch by Kaarle Ritvanen.

   - bpo-28353(24): os.fwalk() no longer fails on broken links.

   - bpo-25464(25): Fixed HList.header_exists() in tkinter.tix module by
     addin a workaround to Tix library bug.

   - bpo-28488(26): shutil.make_archive() no longer add entry «./» to
     ZIP archive.

   - bpo-24452(27): Make webbrowser support Chrome on Mac OS X.

   - bpo-20766(28): Fix references leaked by pdb in the handling of
     SIGINT handlers.

   - bpo-26293(29): Fixed writing ZIP files that starts not from the
     start of the file.  Offsets in ZIP file now are relative to the
     start of the archive in conforming to the specification.

   - bpo-28321(30): Fixed writing non-BMP characters with binary format
     in plistlib.

   - bpo-28322(31): Fixed possible crashes when unpickle itertools
     objects from incorrect pickle data.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - Fix possible integer overflows and crashes in the mmap module with
     unusual usage patterns.

   - bpo-1703178(32): Fix the ability to pass the –link-objects option
     to the distutils build_ext command.

   - bpo-28253(33): Fixed calendar functions for extreme months: 0001-01
     and 9999-12.  Methods itermonthdays() and itermonthdays2() are
     reimplemented so that they don’t call itermonthdates() which can
     cause datetime.date under/overflow.

   - bpo-28275(34): Fixed possible use after free in the decompress()
     methods of the LZMADecompressor and BZ2Decompressor classes.
     Original patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-27897(35): Fixed possible crash in
     sqlite3.Connection.create_collation() if pass invalid string-like
     object as a name.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-18893(36): Fix invalid exception handling in
     Lib/ctypes/macholib/dyld.py.  Patch by Madison May.

   - bpo-27611(37): Fixed support of default root window in the
     tkinter.tix module.

   - bpo-27348(38): In the traceback module, restore the formatting of
     exception messages like «Exception: None».  This fixes a regression
     introduced in 3.5a2.

   - bpo-25651(39): Allow false values to be used for msg parameter of
     subTest().

   - bpo-27932(40): Prevent memory leak in win32_ver().

   - Fix UnboundLocalError in socket._sendfile_use_sendfile.

   - bpo-28075(41): Check for ERROR_ACCESS_DENIED in Windows
     implementation of os.stat().  Patch by Eryk Sun.

   - bpo-25270(42): Prevent codecs.escape_encode() from raising
     SystemError when an empty bytestring is passed.

   - bpo-28181(43): Get antigravity over HTTPS. Patch by Kaartic
     Sivaraam.

   - bpo-25895(44): Enable WebSocket URL schemes in
     urllib.parse.urljoin.  Patch by Gergely Imreh and Markus
     Holtermann.

   - bpo-27599(45): Fixed buffer overrun in binascii.b2a_qp() and
     binascii.a2b_qp().

   - bpo-19003(46): m email.generator now replaces only ‘\r’ and/or ‘\n’
     line endings, per the RFC, instead of all unicode line endings.

   - bpo-28019(47): itertools.count() no longer rounds non-integer step
     in range between 1.0 and 2.0 to 1.

   - bpo-25969(48): Update the lib2to3 grammar to handle the unpacking
     generalizations added in 3.5.

   - bpo-14977(49): mailcap now respects the order of the lines in the
     mailcap files («first match»), as required by RFC 1542.  Patch by
     Michael Lazar.

   - bpo-24594(50): Validates persist parameter when opening MSI
     database

   - bpo-17582(51): xml.etree.ElementTree nows preserves whitespaces in
     attributes (Patch by Duane Griffin.  Reviewed and approved by
     Stefan Behnel.)

   - bpo-28047(52): Fixed calculation of line length used for the base64
     CTE in the new email policies.

   - bpo-27445(53): Don’t pass str(_charset) to MIMEText.set_payload().
     Patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-22450(54): urllib now includes an ‘Accept: */*’ header among
     the default headers.  This makes the results of REST API requests
     more consistent and predictable especially when proxy servers are
     involved.

   - lib2to3.pgen3.driver.load_grammar() now creates a stable cache file
     between runs given the same Grammar.txt input regardless of the
     hash randomization setting.

   - bpo-27570(55): Avoid zero-length memcpy() etc calls with null
     source pointers in the «ctypes» and «array» modules.

   - bpo-22233(56): Break email header lines 'only' on the RFC specified
     CR and LF characters, not on arbitrary unicode line breaks.  This
     also fixes a bug in HTTP header parsing.

   - bpo-27988(57): Fix email iter_attachments incorrect mutation of
     payload list.

   - bpo-27691(58): Fix ssl module’s parsing of GEN_RID subject
     alternative name fields in X.509 certs.

   - bpo-27850(59): Remove 3DES from ssl module’s default cipher list to
     counter measure sweet32 attack ( CVE 2016-2183(60)).

   - bpo-27766(61): Add ChaCha20 Poly1305 to ssl module’s default cipher
     list.  (Required OpenSSL 1.1.0 or LibreSSL).

   - bpo-26470(62): Port ssl and hashlib module to OpenSSL 1.1.0.

   - Remove support for passing a file descriptor to os.access.  It
     never worked but previously didn’t raise.

   - bpo-12885(63): Fix error when distutils encounters symlink.

   - bpo-27881(64): Fixed possible bugs when setting
     sqlite3.Connection.isolation_level.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-27861(65): Fixed a crash in sqlite3.Connection.cursor() when a
     factory creates not a cursor.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-19884(66): Avoid spurious output on OS X with Gnu Readline.

   - bpo-27706(67): Restore deterministic behavior of
     random.Random().seed() for string seeds using seeding version 1.
     Allows sequences of calls to random() to exactly match those
     obtained in Python 2.  Patch by Nofar Schnider.

   - bpo-10513(68): Fix a regression in Connection.commit().  Statements
     should not be reset after a commit.

   - A new version of typing.py from ‘https://github.com/python/typing’:
     Collection (only for 3.6) (bpo-27598(69)).  Add FrozenSet to
     __all__ (upstream #261).  Fix crash in _get_type_vars() (upstream
     #259).  Remove the dict constraint in ForwardRef._eval_type
     (upstream #252).

   - bpo-27539(70): Fix unnormalised ‘Fraction.__pow__’ result in the
     case of negative exponent and negative base.

   - bpo-21718(71): cursor.description is now available for queries
     using CTEs.

   - bpo-2466(72): posixpath.ismount now correctly recognizes mount
     points which the user does not have permission to access.

   - bpo-27773(73): Correct some memory management errors
     server_hostname in _ssl.wrap_socket().

   - bpo-26750(74): unittest.mock.create_autospec() now works properly
     for subclasses of property() and other data descriptors.

   - In the curses module, raise an error if window.getstr() or
     window.instr() is passed a negative value.

   - bpo-27783(75): Fix possible usage of uninitialized memory in
     operator.methodcaller.

   - bpo-27774(76): Fix possible Py_DECREF on unowned object in _sre.

   - bpo-27760(77): Fix possible integer overflow in binascii.b2a_qp.

   - bpo-27758(78): Fix possible integer overflow in the _csv module for
     large record lengths.

   - bpo-27568(79): Prevent HTTPoxy attack ( CVE 2016-1000110(80)).
     Ignore the HTTP_PROXY variable when REQUEST_METHOD environment is
     set, which indicates that the script is in CGI mode.

   - bpo-27656(81): Do not assume sched.h defines any SCHED_* constants.

   - bpo-27130(82): In the «zlib» module, fix handling of large buffers
     (typically 4 GiB) when compressing and decompressing.  Previously,
     inputs were limited to 4 GiB, and compression and decompression
     operations did not properly handle results of 4 GiB.

   - bpo-27533(83): Release GIL in nt._isdir

   - bpo-17711(84): Fixed unpickling by the persistent ID with protocol
     0.  Original patch by Alexandre Vassalotti.

   - bpo-27522(85): Avoid an unintentional reference cycle in
     email.feedparser.

   - bpo-26844(86): Fix error message for imp.find_module() to refer to
     “path” instead of “name”.  Patch by Lev Maximov.

   - bpo-23804(87): Fix SSL zero-length recv() calls to not block and
     not raise an error about unclean EOF.

   - bpo-27466(88): Change time format returned by
     http.cookie.time2netscape, confirming the netscape cookie format
     and making it consistent with documentation.

   - bpo-26664(89): Fix activate.fish by removing mis-use of ‘$’.

   - bpo-22115(90): Fixed tracing Tkinter variables: trace_vdelete()
     with wrong mode no longer break tracing, trace_vinfo() now always
     returns a list of pairs of strings, tracing in the «u» mode now
     works.

   - Fix a scoping issue in importlib.util.LazyLoader which triggered an
     UnboundLocalError when lazy-loading a module that was already put
     into sys.modules.

   - bpo-27079(91): Fixed curses.ascii functions isblank(), iscntrl()
     and ispunct().

   - bpo-26754(92): Some functions (compile() etc) accepted a filename
     argument encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     byte-like objects are accepted.

   - bpo-27048(93): Prevents distutils failing on Windows when
     environment variables contain non-ASCII characters

   - bpo-27330(94): Fixed possible leaks in the ctypes module.

   - bpo-27238(95): Got rid of bare excepts in the turtle module.
     Original patch by Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-27122(96): When an exception is raised within the context being
     managed by a contextlib.ExitStack() and one of the exit stack
     generators catches and raises it in a chain, do not re-raise the
     original exception when exiting, let the new chained one through.
     This avoids the PEP 479(97) bug described in issue25782.

   - bpo-26386(98): Fixed ttk.TreeView selection operations with item
     id’s containing spaces.

   - bpo-16182(99): Fix various functions in the «readline» module to
     use the locale encoding, and fix get_begidx() and get_endidx() to
     return code point indexes.

   - bpo-27392(100): Add loop.connect_accepted_socket().  Patch by Jim
     Fulton.

   - bpo-27930(101): Improved behaviour of
     logging.handlers.QueueListener.  Thanks to Paulo Andrade and Petr
     Viktorin for the analysis and patch.

   - bpo-21201(102): Improves readability of multiprocessing error
     message.  Thanks to Wojciech Walczak for patch.

   - bpo-27456(103): asyncio: Set TCP_NODELAY by default.

   - bpo-27906(104): Fix socket accept exhaustion during high TCP
     traffic.  Patch by Kevin Conway.

   - bpo-28174(105): Handle when SO_REUSEPORT isn’t properly supported.
     Patch by Seth Michael Larson.

   - bpo-26654(106): Inspect functools.partial in
     asyncio.Handle.__repr__.  Patch by iceboy.

   - bpo-26909(107): Fix slow pipes IO in asyncio.  Patch by INADA
     Naoki.

   - bpo-28176(108): Fix callbacks race in
     asyncio.SelectorLoop.sock_connect.

   - bpo-27759(109): Fix selectors incorrectly retain invalid file
     descriptors.  Patch by Mark Williams.

   - bpo-28368(110): Refuse monitoring processes if the child watcher
     has no loop attached.  Patch by Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-28369(111): Raise RuntimeError when transport’s FD is used with
     add_reader, add_writer, etc.

   - bpo-28370(112): Speedup asyncio.StreamReader.readexactly.  Patch by
     Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-28371(113): Deprecate passing asyncio.Handles to
     run_in_executor.

   - bpo-28372(114): Fix asyncio to support formatting of non-python
     coroutines.

   - bpo-28399(115): Remove UNIX socket from FS before binding.  Patch
     by Коренберг Марк.

   - bpo-27972(116): Prohibit Tasks to await on themselves.

   - bpo-26923(117): Fix asyncio.Gather to refuse being cancelled once
     all children are done.  Patch by Johannes Ebke.

   - bpo-26796(118): Don’t configure the number of workers for default
     threadpool executor.  Initial patch by Hans Lawrenz.

   - bpo-28600(119): Optimize loop.call_soon().

   - bpo-28613(120): Fix get_event_loop() return the current loop if
     called from coroutines/callbacks.

   - bpo-28639(121): Fix inspect.isawaitable to always return bool Patch
     by Justin Mayfield.

   - bpo-28652(122): Make loop methods reject socket kinds they do not
     support.

   - bpo-28653(123): Fix a refleak in functools.lru_cache.

   - bpo-28703(124): Fix asyncio.iscoroutinefunction to handle Mock
     objects.

   - bpo-24142(125): Reading a corrupt config file left the parser in an
     invalid state.  Original patch by Florian Höch.

   - bpo-28990(126): Fix SSL hanging if connection is closed before
     handshake completed.  (Patch by HoHo-Ho)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15812

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29094

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13051

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29119

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9770

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28427

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28923

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28871

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19542

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20191

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28779

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25659

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28732

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28485

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   (60) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-2183

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<58>,  Next: C API<77>,  Prev: Library<198>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.26.102.4 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-15308(1): Add “interrupt execution” (^C) to Shell menu.  Patch
     by Roger Serwy, updated by Bayard Randel.

   - bpo-27922(2): Stop IDLE tests from “flashing” gui widgets on the
     screen.

   - Add version to title of IDLE help window.

   - bpo-25564(3): In section on IDLE – console differences, mention
     that using exec means that __builtins__ is defined for each
     statement.

   - bpo-27714(4): text_textview and test_autocomplete now pass when
     re-run in the same process.  This occurs when test_idle fails when
     run with the -w option but without -jn.  Fix warning from
     test_config.

   - bpo-25507(5): IDLE no longer runs buggy code because of its tkinter
     imports.  Users must include the same imports required to run
     directly in Python.

   - bpo-27452(6): add line counter and crc to IDLE configHandler test
     dump.

   - bpo-27365(7): Allow non-ascii chars in IDLE NEWS.txt, for
     contributor names.

   - bpo-27245(8): IDLE: Cleanly delete custom themes and key bindings.
     Previously, when IDLE was started from a console or by import, a
     cascade of warnings was emitted.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15308

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27922

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25564

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27714

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27452

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27245


File: python.info,  Node: C API<77>,  Next: Documentation<79>,  Prev: IDLE<58>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.26.102.5 C API
................

   - bpo-28808(1): PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString() now never raises
     exceptions.

   - bpo-26754(2): PyUnicode_FSDecoder() accepted a filename argument
     encoded as an iterable of integers.  Now only strings and
     bytes-like objects are accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28808

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<79>,  Next: Tests<83>,  Prev: C API<77>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.26.102.6 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-28513(1): Documented command-line interface of zipfile.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28513


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<83>,  Next: Tools/Demos<53>,  Prev: Documentation<79>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.26.102.7 Tests
................

   - bpo-28950(1): Disallow -j0 to be combined with -T/-l/-M in regrtest
     command line arguments.

   - bpo-28666(2): Now test.support.rmtree is able to remove unwritable
     or unreadable directories.

   - bpo-23839(3): Various caches now are cleared before running every
     test file.

   - bpo-28409(4): regrtest: fix the parser of command line arguments.

   - bpo-27787(5): Call gc.collect() before checking each test for
     «dangling threads», since the dangling threads are weak references.

   - bpo-27369(6): In test_pyexpat, avoid testing an error message
     detail that changed in Expat 2.2.0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28950

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28666

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23839

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28409

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27787

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27369


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<53>,  Next: Windows<77>,  Prev: Tests<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.26.102.8 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-27952(1): Get Tools/scripts/fixcid.py working with Python 3 and
     the current «re» module, avoid invalid Python backslash escapes,
     and fix a bug parsing escaped C quote signs.

   - bpo-27332(2): Fixed the type of the first argument of module-level
     functions generated by Argument Clinic.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-27418(3): Fixed Tools/importbench/importbench.py.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27952

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27332

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27418


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<77>,  Next: Build<90>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<53>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.26.102.9 Windows
..................

   - bpo-28251(1): Improvements to help manuals on Windows.

   - bpo-28110(2): launcher.msi has different product codes between
     32-bit and 64-bit

   - bpo-25144(3): Ensures TargetDir is set before continuing with
     custom install.

   - bpo-27469(4): Adds a shell extension to the launcher so that drag
     and drop works correctly.

   - bpo-27309(5): Enabled proper Windows styles in python[w].exe
     manifest.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28251

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28110

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25144

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27469

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27309


File: python.info,  Node: Build<90>,  Prev: Windows<77>,  Up: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1

1.26.102.10 Build
.................

   - bpo-29080(1): Removes hard dependency on hg.exe from
     PCBuild/build.bat

   - bpo-23903(2): Added missed names to PC/python3.def.

   - bpo-10656(3): Fix out-of-tree building on AIX. Patch by Tristan
     Carel and Michael Haubenwallner.

   - bpo-26359(4): Rename –with-optimiations to –enable-optimizations.

   - bpo-28444(5): Fix missing extensions modules when cross compiling.

   - bpo-28248(6): Update Windows build and OS X installers to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2j.

   - bpo-28258(7): Fixed build with Estonian locale (python-config and
     distclean targets in Makefile).  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes
     Taifersar Arahesis.

   - bpo-26661(8): setup.py now detects system libffi with multiarch
     wrapper.

   - bpo-28066(9): Fix the logic that searches build directories for
     generated include files when building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-15819(10): Remove redundant include search directory option for
     building outside the source tree.

   - bpo-27566(11): Fix clean target in freeze makefile (patch by Lisa
     Roach)

   - bpo-27705(12): Update message in validate_ucrtbase.py

   - bpo-27983(13): Cause lack of llvm-profdata tool when using clang as
     required for PGO linking to be a configure time error rather than
     make time when –with-optimizations is enabled.  Also improve our
     ability to find the llvm-profdata tool on MacOS and some Linuxes.

   - bpo-26307(14): The profile-opt build now applies PGO to the
     built-in modules.

   - bpo-26359(15): Add the –with-optimizations configure flag.

   - bpo-27713(16): Suppress spurious build warnings when updating
     importlib’s bootstrap files.  Patch by Xiang Zhang

   - bpo-25825(17): Correct the references to Modules/python.exp and
     ld_so_aix, which are required on AIX. This updates references to an
     installation path that was changed in 3.2a4, and undoes changed
     references to the build tree that were made in 3.5.0a1.

   - bpo-27453(18): CPP invocation in configure must use CPPFLAGS. Patch
     by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-27641(19): The configure script now inserts comments into the
     makefile to prevent the pgen and _freeze_importlib executables from
     being cross-compiled.

   - bpo-26662(20): Set PYTHON_FOR_GEN in configure as the Python
     program to be used for file generation during the build.

   - bpo-10910(21): Avoid C++ compilation errors on FreeBSD and OS X.
     Also update FreedBSD version checks for the original ctype UTF-8
     workaround.

   - bpo-28676(22): Prevent missing “getentropy” declaration warning on
     macOS. Patch by Gareth Rees.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29080

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23903

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10656

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28444

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28248

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28258

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26661

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28066

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15819

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27566

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27705

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27983

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26307

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27713

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25825

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27453

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27641

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26662

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10910

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28676


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 2 final,  Next: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.103 Python 3.5.2 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-26'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<197>.
* Tests: Tests<84>.
* IDLE: IDLE<59>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<197>,  Next: Tests<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.26.103.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-26930(1): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<84>,  Next: IDLE<59>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<197>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.26.103.2 Tests
................

   - bpo-26867(1): Ubuntu’s openssl OP_NO_SSLv3 is forced on by default;
     fix test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26867


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<59>,  Prev: Tests<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 final

1.26.103.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-27365(1): Allow non-ascii in idlelib/NEWS.txt - minimal part
     for 3.5.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27365


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 1 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 2 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.104 Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2016-06-12'

* Menu:

* Security: Security<59>.
* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<198>.
* Library: Library<199>.
* IDLE: IDLE<60>.
* Documentation: Documentation<80>.
* Tests: Tests<85>.
* Build: Build<91>.
* Windows: Windows<78>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<54>.


File: python.info,  Node: Security<59>,  Next: Core and Builtins<198>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.26.104.1 Security
...................

   - bpo-26556(1): Update expat to 2.1.1, fixes CVE 2015-1283(2).

   - Fix TLS stripping vulnerability in smtplib, CVE 2016-0772(3).
     Reported by Team Oststrom.

   - bpo-26839(4): On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 931. now calls
     ‘getrandom()’ with ‘GRND_NONBLOCK’ to fall back on reading
     ‘/dev/urandom’ if the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet.
     Patch written by Colm Buckley.

   - bpo-26657(5): Fix directory traversal vulnerability with
     http.server on Windows.  This fixes a regression that was
     introduced in 3.3.4rc1 and 3.4.0rc1.  Based on patch by Philipp
     Hagemeister.

   - bpo-26313(6): ssl.py _load_windows_store_certs fails if windows
     cert store is empty.  Patch by Baji.

   - bpo-25939(7): On Windows open the cert store readonly in
     ssl.enum_certificates.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26556

   (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2015-1283

   (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2016-0772

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26839

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26657

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26313

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25939


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<198>,  Next: Library<199>,  Prev: Security<59>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.26.104.2 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-27066(1): Fixed SystemError if a custom opener (for open())
     returns a negative number without setting an exception.

   - bpo-20041(2): Fixed TypeError when frame.f_trace is set to None.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-26168(3): Fixed possible refleaks in failing Py_BuildValue()
     with the «N» format unit.

   - bpo-26991(4): Fix possible refleak when creating a function with
     annotations.

   - bpo-27039(5): Fixed bytearray.remove() for values greater than 127.
     Patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23640(6): int.from_bytes() no longer bypasses constructors for
     subclasses.

   - bpo-26811(7): gc.get_objects() no longer contains a broken tuple
     with NULL pointer.

   - bpo-20120(8): Use RawConfigParser for .pypirc parsing, removing
     support for interpolation unintentionally added with move to Python
     3.  Behavior no longer does any interpolation in .pypirc files,
     matching behavior in Python 2.7 and Setuptools 19.0.

   - bpo-26659(9): Make the builtin slice type support cycle collection.

   - bpo-26718(10): super.__init__ no longer leaks memory if called
     multiple times.  NOTE: A direct call of super.__init__ is not
     endorsed!

   - bpo-25339(11): PYTHONIOENCODING now has priority over locale in
     setting the error handler for stdin and stdout.

   - bpo-26494(12): Fixed crash on iterating exhausting iterators.
     Affected classes are generic sequence iterators, iterators of str,
     bytes, bytearray, list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, OrderedDict,
     corresponding views and os.scandir() iterator.

   - bpo-26581(13): If coding cookie is specified multiple times on a
     line in Python source code file, only the first one is taken to
     account.

   - bpo-26464(14): Fix str.translate() when string is ASCII and first
     replacements removes character, but next replacement uses a
     non-ASCII character or a string longer than 1 character.
     Regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-22836(15): Ensure exception reports from PyErr_Display() and
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable() are sensible even when formatting them
     produces secondary errors.  This affects the reports produced by
     sys.__excepthook__() and when __del__() raises an exception.

   - bpo-26302(16): Correct behavior to reject comma as a legal
     character for cookie names.

   - bpo-4806(17): Avoid masking the original TypeError exception when
     using star (‘*’) unpacking in function calls.  Based on patch by
     Hagen Fürstenau and Daniel Urban.

   - bpo-27138(18): Fix the doc comment for FileFinder.find_spec().

   - bpo-26154(19): Add a new private _PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()
     function to get the current Python thread state, but don’t issue a
     fatal error if it is NULL. This new function must be used instead
     of accessing directly the _PyThreadState_Current variable.  The
     variable is no more exposed since Python 3.5.1 to hide the exact
     implementation of atomic C types, to avoid compiler issues.

   - bpo-26194(20): Deque.insert() gave odd results for bounded deques
     that had reached their maximum size.  Now an IndexError will be
     raised when attempting to insert into a full deque.

   - bpo-25843(21): When compiling code, don’t merge constants if they
     are equal but have a different types.  For example, ‘f1, f2 =
     lambda: 1, lambda: 1.0’ is now correctly compiled to two different
     functions: ‘f1()’ returns ‘1’ (‘int’) and ‘f2()’ returns ‘1.0’
     (‘int’), even if ‘1’ and ‘1.0’ are equal.

   - bpo-22995(22): [UPDATE] Comment out the one of the pickleability
     tests in _PyObject_GetState() due to regressions observed in
     Cython-based projects.

   - bpo-25961(23): Disallowed null characters in the type name.

   - bpo-25973(24): Fix segfault when an invalid nonlocal statement
     binds a name starting with two underscores.

   - bpo-22995(25): Instances of extension types with a state that
     aren’t subclasses of list or dict and haven’t implemented any
     pickle-related methods (__reduce__, __reduce_ex__, __getnewargs__,
     __getnewargs_ex__, or __getstate__), can no longer be pickled.
     Including memoryview.

   - bpo-20440(26): Massive replacing unsafe attribute setting code with
     special macro Py_SETREF.

   - bpo-25766(27): Special method __bytes__() now works in str
     subclasses.

   - bpo-25421(28): __sizeof__ methods of builtin types now use dynamic
     basic size.  This allows sys.getsize() to work correctly with their
     subclasses with __slots__ defined.

   - bpo-25709(29): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   - bpo-27147(30): Mention PEP 420(31) in the importlib docs.

   - bpo-24097(32): Fixed crash in object.__reduce__() if slot name is
     freed inside __getattr__.

   - bpo-24731(33): Fixed crash on converting objects with special
     methods __bytes__, __trunc__, and __float__ returning instances of
     subclasses of bytes, int, and float to subclasses of bytes, int,
     and float correspondingly.

   - bpo-26478(34): Fix semantic bugs when using binary operators with
     dictionary views and tuples.

   - bpo-26171(35): Fix possible integer overflow and heap corruption in
     zipimporter.get_data().

   - bpo-25660(36): Fix TAB key behaviour in REPL with readline.

   - bpo-25887(37): Raise a RuntimeError when a coroutine object is
     awaited more than once.

   - bpo-27243(38): Update the __aiter__ protocol: instead of returning
     an awaitable that resolves to an asynchronous iterator, the
     asynchronous iterator should be returned directly.  Doing the
     former will trigger a PendingDeprecationWarning.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27066

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20041

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26168

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26991

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27039

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23640

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26811

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20120

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26659

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26718

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25339

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26494

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26581

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26464

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22836

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26302

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4806

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27138

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26154

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26194

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25843

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25961

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25973

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20440

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25766

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25421

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27147

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24097

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24731

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26478

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26171

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25660

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25887

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243


File: python.info,  Node: Library<199>,  Next: IDLE<60>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<198>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.26.104.3 Library
..................

   - bpo-21386(1): Implement missing IPv4Address.is_global property.  It
     was documented since 07a5610bae9d.  Initial patch by Roger Luethi.

   - bpo-20900(2): distutils register command now decodes HTTP responses
     correctly.  Initial patch by ingrid.

   - A new version of typing.py provides several new classes and
     features: @overload outside stubs, Reversible, DefaultDict, Text,
     ContextManager, Type[], NewType(), TYPE_CHECKING, and numerous bug
     fixes (note that some of the new features are not yet implemented
     in mypy or other static analyzers).  Also classes for PEP 492(3)
     (Awaitable, AsyncIterable, AsyncIterator) have been added (in fact
     they made it into 3.5.1 but were never mentioned).

   - bpo-25738(4): Stop http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_error()
     from sending a message body for 205 Reset Content.  Also, don’t
     send Content header fields in responses that don’t have a body.
     Patch by Susumu Koshiba.

   - bpo-21313(5): Fix the «platform» module to tolerate when
     sys.version contains truncated build information.

   - bpo-27164(6): In the zlib module, allow decompressing raw Deflate
     streams with a predefined zdict.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24291(7): Fix wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler to
     completely write data to the client.  Previously it could do
     partial writes and truncate data.  Also,
     wsgiref.handler.ServerHandler can now handle stdout doing partial
     writes, but this is deprecated.

   - bpo-26809(8): Add ‘__all__’ to *note string: db.  Patch by Emanuel
     Barry.

   - bpo-26373(9): subprocess.Popen.communicate now correctly ignores
     BrokenPipeError when the child process dies before .communicate()
     is called in more/all circumstances.

   - bpo-21776(10): distutils.upload now correctly handles HTTPError.
     Initial patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-27114(11): Fix SSLContext._load_windows_store_certs fails with
     PermissionError

   - bpo-18383(12): Avoid creating duplicate filters when using
     filterwarnings and simplefilter.  Based on patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-27057(13): Fix os.set_inheritable() on Android, ioctl() is
     blocked by SELinux and fails with EACCESS. The function now falls
     back to fcntl().  Patch written by Michał Bednarski.

   - bpo-27014(14): Fix infinite recursion using typing.py.  Thanks to
     Kalle Tuure!

   - bpo-14132(15): Fix urllib.request redirect handling when the target
     only has a query string.  Original fix by Ján Janech.

   - bpo-17214(16): The «urllib.request» module now percent-encodes
     non-ASCII bytes found in redirect target URLs.  Some servers send
     Location header fields with non-ASCII bytes, but «http.client»
     requires the request target to be ASCII-encodable, otherwise a
     UnicodeEncodeError is raised.  Based on patch by Christian Heimes.

   - bpo-26892(17): Honor debuglevel flag in urllib.request.HTTPHandler.
     Patch contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen.

   - bpo-22274(18): In the subprocess module, allow stderr to be
     redirected to stdout even when stdout is not redirected.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-26807(19): mock_open “files” no longer error on readline at end
     of file.  Patch from Yolanda Robla.

   - bpo-25745(20): Fixed leaking a userptr in curses panel destructor.

   - bpo-26977(21): Removed unnecessary, and ignored, call to sum of
     squares helper in statistics.pvariance.

   - bpo-26881(22): The modulefinder module now supports extended opcode
     arguments.

   - bpo-23815(23): Fixed crashes related to directly created instances
     of types in _tkinter and curses.panel modules.

   - bpo-17765(24): weakref.ref() no longer silently ignores keyword
     arguments.  Patch by Georg Brandl.

   - bpo-26873(25): xmlrpc now raises ResponseError on unsupported type
     tags instead of silently return incorrect result.

   - bpo-26711(26): Fixed the comparison of plistlib.Data with other
     types.

   - bpo-24114(27): Fix an uninitialized variable in ‘ctypes.util’.  The
     bug only occurs on SunOS when the ctypes implementation searches
     for the ‘crle’ program.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.  Tested on SunOS by
     Kees Bos.

   - bpo-26864(28): In urllib.request, change the proxy bypass host
     checking against no_proxy to be case-insensitive, and to not match
     unrelated host names that happen to have a bypassed hostname as a
     suffix.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26634(29): recursive_repr() now sets __qualname__ of wrapper.
     Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26804(30): urllib.request will prefer lower_case proxy
     environment variables over UPPER_CASE or Mixed_Case ones.  Patch
     contributed by Hans-Peter Jansen.

   - bpo-26837(31): assertSequenceEqual() now correctly outputs
     non-stringified differing items (like bytes in the -b mode).  This
     affects assertListEqual() and assertTupleEqual().

   - bpo-26041(32): Remove «will be removed in Python 3.7» from
     deprecation messages of platform.dist() and
     platform.linux_distribution().  Patch by Kumaripaba Miyurusara
     Athukorala.

   - bpo-26822(33): itemgetter, attrgetter and methodcaller objects no
     longer silently ignore keyword arguments.

   - bpo-26733(34): Disassembling a class now disassembles class and
     static methods.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26801(35): Fix error handling in *note
     shutil.get_terminal_size(): 14af, catch *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     instead of *note NameError: 665.  Patch written by Emanuel Barry.

   - bpo-24838(36): tarfile’s ustar and gnu formats now correctly
     calculate name and link field limits for multibyte character
     encodings like utf-8.

   - bpo-26717(37): Stop encoding Latin-1-ized WSGI paths with UTF-8.
     Patch by Anthony Sottile.

   - bpo-26735(38): Fix *note os.urandom(): 931. on Solaris 11.3 and
     newer when reading more than 1,024 bytes: call ‘getrandom()’
     multiple times with a limit of 1024 bytes per call.

   - bpo-16329(39): Add .webm to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by
     Giampaolo Rodola”.

   - bpo-13952(40): Add .csv to mimetypes.types_map.  Patch by Geoff
     Wilson.

   - bpo-26709(41): Fixed Y2038 problem in loading binary PLists.

   - bpo-23735(42): Handle terminal resizing with Readline 6.3+ by
     installing our own SIGWINCH handler.  Patch by Eric Price.

   - bpo-26586(43): In http.server, respond with «413 Request header
     fields too large» if there are too many header fields to parse,
     rather than killing the connection and raising an unhandled
     exception.  Patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-22854(44): Change BufferedReader.writable() and
     BufferedWriter.readable() to always return False.

   - bpo-25195(45): Fix a regression in mock.MagicMock.  _Call is a
     subclass of tuple (changeset 3603bae63c13 only works for classes)
     so we need to implement __ne__ ourselves.  Patch by Andrew Plummer.

   - bpo-26644(46): Raise ValueError rather than SystemError when a
     negative length is passed to SSLSocket.recv() or read().

   - bpo-23804(47): Fix SSL recv(0) and read(0) methods to return zero
     bytes instead of up to 1024.

   - bpo-26616(48): Fixed a bug in datetime.astimezone() method.

   - bpo-21925(49): *note warnings.formatwarning(): 1fe7. now catches
     exceptions on ‘linecache.getline(...)’ to be able to log *note
     ResourceWarning: 74f. emitted late during the Python shutdown
     process.

   - bpo-24266(50): Ctrl+C during Readline history search now cancels
     the search mode when compiled with Readline 7.

   - bpo-26560(51): Avoid potential ValueError in
     BaseHandler.start_response.  Initial patch by Peter Inglesby.

   - bpo-26569(52): Fix *note pyclbr.readmodule(): c04. and *note
     pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): c05. to support importing packages.

   - bpo-26499(53): Account for remaining Content-Length in
     HTTPResponse.readline() and read1().  Based on patch by Silent
     Ghost.  Also document that HTTPResponse now supports these methods.

   - bpo-25320(54): Handle sockets in directories unittest discovery is
     scanning.  Patch from Victor van den Elzen.

   - bpo-16181(55): cookiejar.http2time() now returns None if year is
     higher than datetime.MAXYEAR.

   - bpo-26513(56): Fixes platform module detection of Windows Server

   - bpo-23718(57): Fixed parsing time in week 0 before Jan 1.  Original
     patch by Tamás Bence Gedai.

   - bpo-20589(58): Invoking Path.owner() and Path.group() on Windows
     now raise NotImplementedError instead of ImportError.

   - bpo-26177(59): Fixed the keys() method for Canvas and Scrollbar
     widgets.

   - bpo-15068(60): Got rid of excessive buffering in the fileinput
     module.  The bufsize parameter is no longer used.

   - bpo-2202(61): Fix UnboundLocalError in
     AbstractDigestAuthHandler.get_algorithm_impls.  Initial patch by
     Mathieu Dupuy.

   - bpo-25718(62): Fixed pickling and copying the accumulate() iterator
     with total is None.

   - bpo-26475(63): Fixed debugging output for regular expressions with
     the (?x) flag.

   - bpo-26457(64): Fixed the subnets() methods in IP network classes
     for the case when resulting prefix length is equal to maximal
     prefix length.  Based on patch by Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-26385(65): Remove the file if the internal open() call in
     NamedTemporaryFile() fails.  Patch by Silent Ghost.

   - bpo-26402(66): Fix XML-RPC client to retry when the server shuts
     down a persistent connection.  This was a regression related to the
     new http.client.RemoteDisconnected exception in 3.5.0a4.

   - bpo-25913(67): Leading ‘<~’ is optional now in base64.a85decode()
     with adobe=True.  Patch by Swati Jaiswal.

   - bpo-26186(68): Remove an invalid type check in
     importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-26367(69): importlib.__import__() raises SystemError like
     builtins.__import__() when ‘level’ is specified but without an
     accompanying package specified.

   - bpo-26309(70): In the «socketserver» module, shut down the request
     (closing the connected socket) when verify_request() returns false.
     Patch by Aviv Palivoda.

   - bpo-25995(71): os.walk() no longer uses FDs proportional to the
     tree depth.

   - bpo-26117(72): The os.scandir() iterator now closes file descriptor
     not only when the iteration is finished, but when it was failed
     with error.

   - bpo-25911(73): Restored support of bytes paths in os.walk() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-26045(74): Add UTF-8 suggestion to error message when posting a
     non-Latin-1 string with http.client.

   - bpo-12923(75): Reset FancyURLopener’s redirect counter even if
     there is an exception.  Based on patches by Brian Brazil and Daniel
     Rocco.

   - bpo-25945(76): Fixed a crash when unpickle the functools.partial
     object with wrong state.  Fixed a leak in failed functools.partial
     constructor.  «args» and «keywords» attributes of functools.partial
     have now always types tuple and dict correspondingly.

   - bpo-26202(77): copy.deepcopy() now correctly copies range() objects
     with non-atomic attributes.

   - bpo-23076(78): Path.glob() now raises a ValueError if it’s called
     with an invalid pattern.  Patch by Thomas Nyberg.

   - bpo-19883(79): Fixed possible integer overflows in zipimport.

   - bpo-26227(80): On Windows, getnameinfo(), gethostbyaddr() and
     gethostbyname_ex() functions of the socket module now decode the
     hostname from the ANSI code page rather than UTF-8.

   - bpo-26147(81): xmlrpc now works with strings not encodable with
     used non-UTF-8 encoding.

   - bpo-25935(82): Garbage collector now breaks reference loops with
     OrderedDict.

   - bpo-16620(83): Fixed AttributeError in msilib.Directory.glob().

   - bpo-26013(84): Added compatibility with broken protocol 2 pickles
     created in old Python 3 versions (3.4.3 and lower).

   - bpo-25850(85): Use cross-compilation by default for 64-bit Windows.

   - bpo-17633(86): Improve zipimport’s support for namespace packages.

   - bpo-24705(87): Fix sysconfig._parse_makefile not expanding ${} vars
     appearing before $() vars.

   - bpo-22138(88): Fix mock.patch behavior when patching descriptors.
     Restore original values after patching.  Patch contributed by Sean
     McCully.

   - bpo-25672(89): In the ssl module, enable the
     SSL_MODE_RELEASE_BUFFERS mode option if it is safe to do so.

   - bpo-26012(90): Don’t traverse into symlinks for ‘**’ pattern in
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().

   - bpo-24120(91): Ignore PermissionError when traversing a tree with
     pathlib.Path.[r]glob().  Patch by Ulrich Petri.

   - bpo-25447(92): fileinput now uses sys.stdin as-is if it does not
     have a buffer attribute (restores backward compatibility).

   - bpo-25447(93): Copying the lru_cache() wrapper object now always
     works, independently from the type of the wrapped object (by
     returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-24103(94): Fixed possible use after free in
     ElementTree.XMLPullParser.

   - bpo-25860(95): os.fwalk() no longer skips remaining directories
     when error occurs.  Original patch by Samson Lee.

   - bpo-25914(96): Fixed and simplified OrderedDict.__sizeof__.

   - bpo-25902(97): Fixed various refcount issues in ElementTree
     iteration.

   - bpo-25717(98): Restore the previous behaviour of tolerating most
     fstat() errors when opening files.  This was a regression in 3.5a1,
     and stopped anonymous temporary files from working in special
     cases.

   - bpo-24903(99): Fix regression in number of arguments compileall
     accepts when “-d” is specified.  The check on the number of
     arguments has been dropped completely as it never worked correctly
     anyway.

   - bpo-25764(100): In the subprocess module, preserve any exception
     caused by fork() failure when preexec_fn is used.

   - bpo-6478(101): _strptime’s regexp cache now is reset after changing
     timezone with time.tzset().

   - bpo-14285(102): When executing a package with the «python -m
     package» option, and package initialization fails, a proper
     traceback is now reported.  The «runpy» module now lets exceptions
     from package initialization pass back to the caller, rather than
     raising ImportError.

   - bpo-19771(103): Also in runpy and the «-m» option, omit the
     irrelevant message «… is a package and cannot be directly executed»
     if the package could not even be initialized (e.g.  due to a bad
     ‘*.pyc’ file).

   - bpo-25177(104): Fixed problem with the mean of very small and very
     large numbers.  As a side effect, statistics.mean and
     statistics.variance should be significantly faster.

   - bpo-25718(105): Fixed copying object with state with boolean value
     is false.

   - bpo-10131(106): Fixed deep copying of minidom documents.  Based on
     patch by Marian Ganisin.

   - bpo-25725(107): Fixed a reference leak in pickle.loads() when
     unpickling invalid data including tuple instructions.

   - bpo-25663(108): In the Readline completer, avoid listing duplicate
     global names, and search the global namespace before searching
     builtins.

   - bpo-25688(109): Fixed file leak in ElementTree.iterparse() raising
     an error.

   - bpo-23914(110): Fixed SystemError raised by unpickler on broken
     pickle data.

   - bpo-25691(111): Fixed crash on deleting ElementTree.Element
     attributes.

   - bpo-25624(112): ZipFile now always writes a ZIP_STORED header for
     directory entries.  Patch by Dingyuan Wang.

   - Skip getaddrinfo if host is already resolved.  Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26050(113): Add asyncio.StreamReader.readuntil() method.  Patch
     by Марк Коренберг.

   - bpo-25924(114): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on OS X versions 10.5 or higher.  Original patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26406(115): Avoid unnecessary serialization of getaddrinfo(3)
     calls on current versions of OpenBSD and NetBSD. Patch by A. Jesse
     Jiryu Davis.

   - bpo-26848(116): Fix asyncio/subprocess.communicate() to handle
     empty input.  Patch by Jack O’Connor.

   - bpo-27040(117): Add loop.get_exception_handler method

   - bpo-27041(118): asyncio: Add loop.create_future method

   - bpo-27223(119): asyncio: Fix _read_ready and _write_ready to
     respect _conn_lost.  Patch by Łukasz Langa.

   - bpo-22970(120): asyncio: Fix inconsistency cancelling
     Condition.wait.  Patch by David Coles.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21386

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20900

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25738

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21313

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27164

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24291

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26809

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26373

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21776

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27114

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18383

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27057

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27014

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14132

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17214

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26892

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22274

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26807

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25745

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26977

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26881

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23815

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17765

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26873

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26711

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24114

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26864

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26634

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26804

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26837

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<60>,  Next: Documentation<80>,  Prev: Library<199>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.26.104.4 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-5124(1): Paste with text selected now replaces the selection on
     X11.  This matches how paste works on Windows, Mac, most modern
     Linux apps, and ttk widgets.  Original patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-24759(2): Make clear in idlelib.idle_test.__init__ that the
     directory is a private implementation of test.test_idle and tool
     for maintainers.

   - bpo-27196(3): Stop “ThemeChanged” warnings when running IDLE tests.
     These persisted after other warnings were suppressed in #20567.
     Apply Serhiy Storchaka’s update_idletasks solution to four test
     files.  Record this additional advice in idle_test/README.txt

   - bpo-20567(4): Revise idle_test/README.txt with advice about
     avoiding tk warning messages from tests.  Apply advice to several
     IDLE tests.

   - bpo-27117(5): Make colorizer htest and turtledemo work with dark
     themes.  Move code for configuring text widget colors to a new
     function.

   - bpo-26673(6): When tk reports font size as 0, change to size 10.
     Such fonts on Linux prevented the configuration dialog from
     opening.

   - bpo-21939(7): Add test for IDLE’s percolator.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-21676(8): Add test for IDLE’s replace dialog.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18410(9): Add test for IDLE’s search dialog.  Original patch by
     Westley Martínez.

   - bpo-21703(10): Add test for IDLE’s undo delegator.  Original patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar .

   - bpo-27044(11): Add ConfigDialog.remove_var_callbacks to stop memory
     leaks.

   - bpo-23977(12): Add more asserts to test_delegator.

   - bpo-20640(13): Add tests for idlelib.configHelpSourceEdit.  Patch
     by Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - In the “IDLE-console differences” section of the IDLE doc, clarify
     how running with IDLE affects sys.modules and the standard streams.

   - bpo-25507(14): fix incorrect change in IOBinding that prevented
     printing.  Augment IOBinding htest to include all major IOBinding
     functions.

   - bpo-25905(15): Revert unwanted conversion of “ to ’ RIGHT SINGLE
     QUOTATION MARK in README.txt and open this and NEWS.txt with
     “ascii”.  Re-encode CREDITS.txt to utf-8 and open it with “utf-8”.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5124

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24759

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27196

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20567

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27117

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26673

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21939

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21676

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18410

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21703

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27044

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23977

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20640

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25507

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25905


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<80>,  Next: Tests<85>,  Prev: IDLE<60>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.26.104.5 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-19489(1): Moved the search box from the sidebar to the header
     and footer of each page.  Patch by Ammar Askar.

   - bpo-24136(2): Document the new PEP 448(3) unpacking syntax of 3.5.

   - bpo-26736(4): Used HTTPS for external links in the documentation if
     possible.

   - bpo-6953(5): Rework the Readline module documentation to group
     related functions together, and add more details such as what
     underlying Readline functions and variables are accessed.

   - bpo-23606(6): Adds note to ctypes documentation regarding
     cdll.msvcrt.

   - bpo-25500(7): Fix documentation to not claim that __import__ is
     searched for in the global scope.

   - bpo-26014(8): Update 3.x packaging documentation: * «See also»
     links to the new docs are now provided in the legacy pages * links
     to setuptools documentation have been updated

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19489

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24136

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26736

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6953

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23606

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25500

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26014


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<85>,  Next: Build<91>,  Prev: Documentation<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.26.104.6 Tests
................

   - bpo-21916(1): Added tests for the turtle module.  Patch by ingrid,
     Gregory Loyse and Jelle Zijlstra.

   - bpo-26523(2): The multiprocessing thread pool
     (multiprocessing.dummy.Pool) was untested.

   - bpo-26015(3): Added new tests for pickling iterators of mutable
     sequences.

   - bpo-26325(4): Added test.support.check_no_resource_warning() to
     check that no ResourceWarning is emitted.

   - bpo-25940(5): Changed test_ssl to use self-signed.pythontest.net.
     This avoids relying on svn.python.org, which recently changed root
     certificate.

   - bpo-25616(6): Tests for OrderedDict are extracted from
     test_collections into separate file test_ordered_dict.

   - bpo-26583(7): Skip test_timestamp_overflow in test_import if
     bytecode files cannot be written.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21916

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26523

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26015

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26325

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25940

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25616

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26583


File: python.info,  Node: Build<91>,  Next: Windows<78>,  Prev: Tests<85>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.26.104.7 Build
................

   - bpo-26884(1): Fix linking extension modules for cross builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-22359(2): Disable the rules for running _freeze_importlib and
     pgen when cross-compiling.  The output of these programs is
     normally saved with the source code anyway, and is still
     regenerated when doing a native build.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-27229(3): Fix the cross-compiling pgen rule for in-tree builds.
     Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-21668(4): Link audioop, _datetime, _ctypes_test modules to
     libm, except on Mac OS X. Patch written by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-25702(5): A –with-lto configure option has been added that will
     enable link time optimizations at build time during a make
     profile-opt.  Some compilers and toolchains are known to not
     produce stable code when using LTO, be sure to test things
     thoroughly before relying on it.  It can provide a few % speed up
     over profile-opt alone.

   - bpo-26624(6): Adds validation of ucrtbase[d].dll version with
     warning for old versions.

   - bpo-17603(7): Avoid error about nonexistent fileblocks.o file by
     using a lower-level check for st_blocks in struct stat.

   - bpo-26079(8): Fixing the build output folder for tix-8.4.3.6.
     Patch by Bjoern Thiel.

   - bpo-26465(9): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2g.

   - bpo-24421(10): Compile Modules/_math.c once, before building
     extensions.  Previously it could fail to compile properly if the
     math and cmath builds were concurrent.

   - bpo-25348(11): Added ‘--pgo’ and ‘--pgo-job’ arguments to
     ‘PCbuild\build.bat’ for building with Profile-Guided Optimization.
     The old ‘PCbuild\build_pgo.bat’ script is now deprecated, and
     simply calls ‘PCbuild\build.bat --pgo %*’.

   - bpo-25827(12): Add support for building with ICC to ‘configure’,
     including a new ‘--with-icc’ flag.

   - bpo-25696(13): Fix installation of Python on UNIX with make -j9.

   - bpo-26930(14): Update OS X 10.5+ 32-bit-only installer to build and
     link with OpenSSL 1.0.2h.

   - bpo-26268(15): Update Windows builds to use OpenSSL 1.0.2f.

   - bpo-25136(16): Support Apple Xcode 7’s new textual SDK stub
     libraries.

   - bpo-24324(17): Do not enable unreachable code warnings when using
     gcc as the option does not work correctly in older versions of gcc
     and has been silently removed as of gcc-4.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26884

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27229

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21668

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25702

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26624

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17603

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26079

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26465

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24421

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25348

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25827

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25696

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26930

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25136

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24324


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<78>,  Next: Tools/Demos<54>,  Prev: Build<91>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.26.104.8 Windows
..................

   - bpo-27053(1): Updates make_zip.py to correctly generate library ZIP
     file.

   - bpo-26268(2): Update the prepare_ssl.py script to handle OpenSSL
     releases that don’t include the contents of the include directory
     (that is, 1.0.2e and later).

   - bpo-26071(3): bdist_wininst created binaries fail to start and find
     32bit Python

   - bpo-26073(4): Update the list of magic numbers in launcher

   - bpo-26065(5): Excludes venv from library when generating embeddable
     distro.

   - bpo-17500(6): Remove unused and outdated icons.  (See also:
     ‘https://github.com/python/pythondotorg/issues/945’)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27053

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26071

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26073

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26065

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17500


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<54>,  Prev: Windows<78>,  Up: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1

1.26.104.9 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-26799(1): Fix python-gdb.py: don’t get C types once when the
     Python code is loaded, but get C types on demand.  The C types can
     change if python-gdb.py is loaded before the Python executable.
     Patch written by Thomas Ilsche.

   - bpo-26271(2): Fix the Freeze tool to properly use flags passed
     through configure.  Patch by Daniel Shaulov.

   - bpo-26489(3): Add dictionary unpacking support to
     Tools/parser/unparse.py.  Patch by Guo Ci Teo.

   - bpo-26316(4): Fix variable name typo in Argument Clinic.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26271

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26489

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26316


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 1 final,  Next: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.105 Python 3.5.1 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2015-12-06'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<199>.
* Windows: Windows<79>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<199>,  Next: Windows<79>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 final

1.26.105.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-25709(1): Fixed problem with in-place string concatenation and
     utf-8 cache.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25709


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<79>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<199>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 final

1.26.105.2 Windows
..................

   - bpo-25715(1): Python 3.5.1 installer shows wrong upgrade path and
     incorrect logic for launcher detection.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25715


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 final,  Prev: Python 3 5 1 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.106 Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-11-22'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<200>.
* Library: Library<200>.
* IDLE: IDLE<61>.
* Documentation: Documentation<81>.
* Tests: Tests<86>.
* Build: Build<92>.
* Windows: Windows<80>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<55>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<200>,  Next: Library<200>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.26.106.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-25630(1): Fix a possible segfault during argument parsing in
     functions that accept filesystem paths.

   - bpo-23564(2): Fixed a partially broken sanity check in the
     _posixsubprocess internals regarding how fds_to_pass were passed to
     the child.  The bug had no actual impact as subprocess.py already
     avoided it.

   - bpo-25388(3): Fixed tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code with a null byte.

   - bpo-25462(4): The hash of the key now is calculated only once in
     most operations in C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-22995(5): Default implementation of __reduce__ and
     __reduce_ex__ now rejects builtin types with not defined __new__.

   - bpo-25555(6): Fix parser and AST: fill lineno and col_offset of
     «arg» node when compiling AST from Python objects.

   - bpo-24802(7): Avoid buffer overreads when int(), float(),
     compile(), exec() and eval() are passed bytes-like objects.  These
     objects are not necessarily terminated by a null byte, but the
     functions assumed they were.

   - bpo-24726(8): Fixed a crash and leaking NULL in repr() of
     OrderedDict that was mutated by direct calls of dict methods.

   - bpo-25449(9): Iterating OrderedDict with keys with unstable hash
     now raises KeyError in C implementations as well as in Python
     implementation.

   - bpo-25395(10): Fixed crash when highly nested OrderedDict
     structures were garbage collected.

   - bpo-25274(11): sys.setrecursionlimit() now raises a RecursionError
     if the new recursion limit is too low depending at the current
     recursion depth.  Modify also the «lower-water mark» formula to
     make it monotonic.  This mark is used to decide when the overflowed
     flag of the thread state is reset.

   - bpo-24402(12): Fix input() to prompt to the redirected stdout when
     sys.stdout.fileno() fails.

   - bpo-24806(13): Prevent builtin types that are not allowed to be
     subclassed from being subclassed through multiple inheritance.

   - bpo-24848(14): Fixed a number of bugs in UTF-7 decoding of
     misformed data.

   - bpo-25280(15): Import trace messages emitted in verbose (-v) mode
     are no longer formatted twice.

   - bpo-25003(16): On Solaris 11.3 or newer, os.urandom() now uses the
     getrandom() function instead of the getentropy() function.  The
     getentropy() function is blocking to generate very good quality
     entropy, os.urandom() doesn’t need such high-quality entropy.

   - bpo-25182(17): The stdprinter (used as sys.stderr before the io
     module is imported at startup) now uses the backslashreplace error
     handler.

   - bpo-25131(18): Make the line number and column offset of set/dict
     literals and comprehensions correspond to the opening brace.

   - bpo-25150(19): Hide the private ‘_Py_atomic_XXX’ symbols from the
     public Python.h header to fix a compilation error with OpenMP.
     PyThreadState_GET() becomes an alias to PyThreadState_Get() to
     avoid ABI incompatibilities.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25630

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23564

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25388

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25462

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22995

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25555

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24802

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24726

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25395

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25274

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24402

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24806

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24848

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25280

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25003

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25182

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25131

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25150


File: python.info,  Node: Library<200>,  Next: IDLE<61>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<200>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.26.106.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-25626(1): Change three zlib functions to accept sizes that fit
     in Py_ssize_t, but internally cap those sizes to UINT_MAX. This
     resolves a regression in 3.5 where GzipFile.read() failed to read
     chunks larger than 2 or 4 GiB. The change affects the
     zlib.Decompress.decompress() max_length parameter, the
     zlib.decompress() bufsize parameter, and the
     zlib.Decompress.flush() length parameter.

   - bpo-25583(2): Avoid incorrect errors raised by
     os.makedirs(exist_ok=True) when the OS gives priority to errors
     such as EACCES over EEXIST.

   - bpo-25593(3): Change semantics of EventLoop.stop() in asyncio.

   - bpo-6973(4): When we know a subprocess.Popen process has died, do
     not allow the send_signal(), terminate(), or kill() methods to do
     anything as they could potentially signal a different process.

   - bpo-25590(5): In the Readline completer, only call getattr() once
     per attribute.

   - bpo-25498(6): Fix a crash when garbage-collecting ctypes objects
     created by wrapping a memoryview.  This was a regression made in
     3.5a1.  Based on patch by Eryksun.

   - bpo-25584(7): Added «escape» to the __all__ list in the glob
     module.

   - bpo-25584(8): Fixed recursive glob() with patterns starting with
     ‘**’.

   - bpo-25446(9): Fix regression in smtplib’s AUTH LOGIN support.

   - bpo-18010(10): Fix the pydoc web server’s module search function to
     handle exceptions from importing packages.

   - bpo-25554(11): Got rid of circular references in regular expression
     parsing.

   - bpo-25510(12): fileinput.FileInput.readline() now returns b””
     instead of “” at the end if the FileInput was opened with binary
     mode.  Patch by Ryosuke Ito.

   - bpo-25503(13): Fixed inspect.getdoc() for inherited docstrings of
     properties.  Original patch by John Mark Vandenberg.

   - bpo-25515(14): Always use os.urandom as a source of randomness in
     uuid.uuid4.

   - bpo-21827(15): Fixed textwrap.dedent() for the case when largest
     common whitespace is a substring of smallest leading whitespace.
     Based on patch by Robert Li.

   - bpo-25447(16): The lru_cache() wrapper objects now can be copied
     and pickled (by returning the original object unchanged).

   - bpo-25390(17): typing: Don’t crash on Union[str, Pattern].

   - bpo-25441(18): asyncio: Raise error from drain() when socket is
     closed.

   - bpo-25410(19): Cleaned up and fixed minor bugs in C implementation
     of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-25411(20): Improved Unicode support in SMTPHandler through
     better use of the email package.  Thanks to user simon04 for the
     patch.

   - bpo-25407(21): Remove mentions of the formatter module being
     removed in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-25406(22): Fixed a bug in C implementation of
     OrderedDict.move_to_end() that caused segmentation fault or hang in
     iterating after moving several items to the start of ordered dict.

   - bpo-25364(23): zipfile now works in threads disabled builds.

   - bpo-25328(24): smtpd’s SMTPChannel now correctly raises a
     ValueError if both decode_data and enable_SMTPUTF8 are set to true.

   - bpo-25316(25): distutils raises OSError instead of
     DistutilsPlatformError when MSVC is not installed.

   - bpo-25380(26): Fixed protocol for the STACK_GLOBAL opcode in
     pickletools.opcodes.

   - bpo-23972(27): Updates asyncio datagram create method allowing
     reuseport and reuseaddr socket options to be set prior to binding
     the socket.  Mirroring the existing asyncio create_server method
     the reuseaddr option for datagram sockets defaults to True if the
     O/S is “posix” (except if the platform is Cygwin).  Patch by Chris
     Laws.

   - bpo-25304(28): Add asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe().  This lets
     you submit a coroutine to a loop from another thread, returning a
     concurrent.futures.Future.  By Vincent Michel.

   - bpo-25232(29): Fix CGIRequestHandler to split the query from the
     URL at the first question mark (?)  rather than the last.  Patch
     from Xiang Zhang.

   - bpo-24657(30): Prevent CGIRequestHandler from collapsing slashes in
     the query part of the URL as if it were a path.  Patch from Xiang
     Zhang.

   - bpo-24483(31): C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now
     calculates key’s hash only once.

   - bpo-22958(32): Constructor and update method of
     weakref.WeakValueDictionary now accept the self and the dict
     keyword arguments.

   - bpo-22609(33): Constructor of collections.UserDict now accepts the
     self keyword argument.

   - bpo-25111(34): Fixed comparison of traceback.FrameSummary.

   - bpo-25262(35): Added support for BINBYTES8 opcode in Python
     implementation of unpickler.  Highest 32 bits of 64-bit size for
     BINUNICODE8 and BINBYTES8 opcodes no longer silently ignored on
     32-bit platforms in C implementation.

   - bpo-25034(36): Fix string.Formatter problem with auto-numbering and
     nested format_specs.  Patch by Anthon van der Neut.

   - bpo-25233(37): Rewrite the guts of asyncio.Queue and
     asyncio.Semaphore to be more understandable and correct.

   - bpo-25203(38): Failed readline.set_completer_delims() no longer
     left the module in inconsistent state.

   - bpo-23600(39): Default implementation of tzinfo.fromutc() was
     returning wrong results in some cases.

   - bpo-23329(40): Allow the ssl module to be built with older versions
     of LibreSSL.

   - Prevent overflow in _Unpickler_Read.

   - bpo-25047(41): The XML encoding declaration written by Element Tree
     now respects the letter case given by the user.  This restores the
     ability to write encoding names in uppercase like «UTF-8», which
     worked in Python 2.

   - bpo-25135(42): Make deque_clear() safer by emptying the deque
     before clearing.  This helps avoid possible reentrancy issues.

   - bpo-19143(43): platform module now reads Windows version from
     kernel32.dll to avoid compatibility shims.

   - bpo-25092(44): Fix datetime.strftime() failure when errno was
     already set to EINVAL.

   - bpo-23517(45): Fix rounding in fromtimestamp() and
     utcfromtimestamp() methods of datetime.datetime: microseconds are
     now rounded to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer
     (ROUND_HALF_EVEN), instead of being rounding towards minus infinity
     (ROUND_FLOOR). It’s important that these methods use the same
     rounding mode than datetime.timedelta to keep the property:
     (datetime(1970,1,1) + timedelta(seconds=t)) ==
     datetime.utcfromtimestamp(t).  It also the rounding mode used by
     round(float) for example.

   - bpo-25155(46): Fix datetime.datetime.now() and
     datetime.datetime.utcnow() on Windows to support date after year
     2038.  It was a regression introduced in Python 3.5.0.

   - bpo-25108(47): Omitted internal frames in traceback functions
     print_stack(), format_stack(), and extract_stack() called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-25118(48): Fix a regression of Python 3.5.0 in os.waitpid() on
     Windows.

   - bpo-24684(49): socket.socket.getaddrinfo() now calls
     PyUnicode_AsEncodedString() instead of calling the encode() method
     of the host, to handle correctly custom string with an encode()
     method which doesn’t return a byte string.  The encoder of the IDNA
     codec is now called directly instead of calling the encode() method
     of the string.

   - bpo-25060(50): Correctly compute stack usage of the BUILD_MAP
     opcode.

   - bpo-24857(51): Comparing call_args to a long sequence now correctly
     returns a boolean result instead of raising an exception.  Patch by
     A Kaptur.

   - bpo-23144(52): Make sure that HTMLParser.feed() returns all the
     data, even when convert_charrefs is True.

   - bpo-24982(53): shutil.make_archive() with the «zip» format now adds
     entries for directories (including empty directories) in ZIP file.

   - bpo-25019(54): Fixed a crash caused by setting non-string key of
     expat parser.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-16180(55): Exit pdb if file has syntax error, instead of
     trapping user in an infinite loop.  Patch by Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-24891(56): Fix a race condition at Python startup if the file
     descriptor of stdin (0), stdout (1) or stderr (2) is closed while
     Python is creating sys.stdin, sys.stdout and sys.stderr objects.
     These attributes are now set to None if the creation of the object
     failed, instead of raising an OSError exception.  Initial patch
     written by Marco Paolini.

   - bpo-24992(57): Fix error handling and a race condition (related to
     garbage collection) in collections.OrderedDict constructor.

   - bpo-24881(58): Fixed setting binary mode in Python implementation
     of FileIO on Windows and Cygwin.  Patch from Akira Li.

   - bpo-25578(59): Fix (another) memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercer().

   - bpo-25530(60): Disable the vulnerable SSLv3 protocol by default
     when creating ssl.SSLContext.

   - bpo-25569(61): Fix memory leak in SSLSocket.getpeercert().

   - bpo-25471(62): Sockets returned from accept() shouldn’t appear to
     be nonblocking.

   - bpo-25319(63): When threading.Event is reinitialized, the
     underlying condition should use a regular lock rather than a
     recursive lock.

   - bpo-21112(64): Fix regression in unittest.expectedFailure on
     subclasses.  Patch from Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-24764(65): cgi.FieldStorage.read_multi() now ignores the
     Content-Length header in part headers.  Patch written by Peter
     Landry and reviewed by Pierre Quentel.

   - bpo-24913(66): Fix overrun error in deque.index().  Found by John
     Leitch and Bryce Darling.

   - bpo-24774(67): Fix docstring in http.server.test.  Patch from
     Chiu-Hsiang Hsu.

   - bpo-21159(68): Improve message in
     configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError.  Patch from Łukasz
     Langa.

   - bpo-20362(69): Honour TestCase.longMessage correctly in
     assertRegex.  Patch from Ilia Kurenkov.

   - bpo-23572(70): Fixed functools.singledispatch on classes with false
     metaclasses.  Patch by Ethan Furman.

   - asyncio: ensure_future() now accepts awaitable objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25626

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25583

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6973

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25590

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25498

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25584

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25446

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18010

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25554

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25510

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25503

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25515

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21827

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25447

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25390

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25441

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25410

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25411

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25407

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25406

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25364

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25328

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25316

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25380

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23972

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25304

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25232

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24657

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24483

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22958

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22609

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25111

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25262

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25034

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25233

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25203

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23600

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23329

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25047

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25135

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19143

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25092

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23517

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25155

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25108

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25118

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24684

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25060

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24857

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23144

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24982

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25019

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16180

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24891

   (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24992

   (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24881

   (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25578

   (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25530

   (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25569

   (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25471

   (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25319

   (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21112

   (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24764

   (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24913

   (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24774

   (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21159

   (69) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20362

   (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23572


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<61>,  Next: Documentation<81>,  Prev: Library<200>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.26.106.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-15348(1): Stop the debugger engine (normally in a user process)
     before closing the debugger window (running in the IDLE process).
     This prevents the RuntimeErrors that were being caught and ignored.

   - bpo-24455(2): Prevent IDLE from hanging when a) closing the shell
     while the debugger is active (15347); b) closing the debugger with
     the [X] button (15348); and c) activating the debugger when already
     active (24455).  The patch by Mark Roseman does this by making two
     changes.  1.  Suspend and resume the gui.interaction method with
     the tcl vwait mechanism intended for this purpose (instead of
     root.mainloop & .quit).  2.  In gui.run, allow any existing
     interaction to terminate first.

   - Change “The program” to “Your program” in an IDLE “kill program?”
     message to make it clearer that the program referred to is the
     currently running user program, not IDLE itself.

   - bpo-24750(3): Improve the appearance of the IDLE editor window
     status bar.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25313(4): Change the handling of new built-in text color themes
     to better address the compatibility problem introduced by the
     addition of IDLE Dark.  Consistently use the revised
     idleConf.CurrentTheme everywhere in idlelib.

   - bpo-24782(5): Extension configuration is now a tab in the IDLE
     Preferences dialog rather than a separate dialog.  The former tabs
     are now a sorted list.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-22726(6): Re-activate the config dialog help button with some
     content about the other buttons and the new IDLE Dark theme.

   - bpo-24820(7): IDLE now has an “IDLE Dark” built-in text color
     theme.  It is more or less IDLE Classic inverted, with a cobalt
     blue background.  Strings, comments, keywords, … are still green,
     red, orange, … .  To use it with IDLEs released before November
     2015, hit the “Save as New Custom Theme” button and enter a new
     name, such as “Custom Dark”.  The custom theme will work with any
     IDLE release, and can be modified.

   - bpo-25224(8): README.txt is now an idlelib index for IDLE
     developers and curious users.  The previous user content is now in
     the IDLE doc chapter.  “IDLE” now means “Integrated Development and
     Learning Environment”.

   - bpo-24820(9): Users can now set breakpoint colors in Settings ->
     Custom Highlighting.  Original patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24972(10): Inactive selection background now matches active
     selection background, as configured by users, on all systems.
     Found items are now always highlighted on Windows.  Initial patch
     by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24570(11): Idle: make calltip and completion boxes appear on
     Macs affected by a tk regression.  Initial patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24988(12): Idle ScrolledList context menus (used in debugger)
     now work on Mac Aqua.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-24801(13): Make right-click for context menu work on Mac Aqua.
     Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25173(14): Associate tkinter messageboxes with a specific
     widget.  For Mac OSX, make them a “sheet”.  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-25198(15): Enhance the initial html viewer now used for Idle
     Help.  Properly indent fixed-pitch text (patch by Mark Roseman).
     Give code snippet a very Sphinx-like light blueish-gray background.
     Re-use initial width and height set by users for shell and editor.
     When the Table of Contents (TOC) menu is used, put the section
     header at the top of the screen.

   - bpo-25225(16): Condense and rewrite Idle doc section on text
     colors.

   - bpo-21995(17): Explain some differences between IDLE and console
     Python.

   - bpo-22820(18): Explain need for 'print' when running file from Idle
     editor.

   - bpo-25224(19): Doc: augment Idle feature list and no-subprocess
     section.

   - bpo-25219(20): Update doc for Idle command line options.  Some were
     missing and notes were not correct.

   - bpo-24861(21): Most of idlelib is private and subject to change.
     Use idleib.idle.* to start Idle.  See idlelib.__init__.__doc__.

   - bpo-25199(22): Idle: add synchronization comments for future
     maintainers.

   - bpo-16893(23): Replace help.txt with help.html for Idle doc
     display.  The new idlelib/help.html is rstripped
     Doc/build/html/library/idle.html.  It looks better than help.txt
     and will better document Idle as released.  The tkinter html viewer
     that works for this file was written by Mark Roseman.  The now
     unused EditorWindow.HelpDialog class and helt.txt file are
     deprecated.

   - bpo-24199(24): Deprecate unused idlelib.idlever with possible
     removal in 3.6.

   - bpo-24790(25): Remove extraneous code (which also create 2 & 3
     conflicts).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15348

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24455

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24750

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25313

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24782

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24820

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24972

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24570

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24988

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24801

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25173

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25198

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25225

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21995

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22820

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25224

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25219

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24861

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25199

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24199

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24790


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<81>,  Next: Tests<86>,  Prev: IDLE<61>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.26.106.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-22558(1): Add remaining doc links to source code for
     Python-coded modules.  Patch by Yoni Lavi.

   - bpo-12067(2): Rewrite Comparisons section in the Expressions
     chapter of the language reference.  Some of the details of
     comparing mixed types were incorrect or ambiguous.  NotImplemented
     is only relevant at a lower level than the Expressions chapter.
     Added details of comparing range() objects, and default behaviour
     and consistency suggestions for user-defined classes.  Patch from
     Andy Maier.

   - bpo-24952(3): Clarify the default size argument of stack_size() in
     the «threading» and «_thread» modules.  Patch from Mattip.

   - bpo-23725(4): Overhaul tempfile docs.  Note deprecated status of
     mktemp.  Patch from Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek.

   - bpo-24808(5): Update the types of some PyTypeObject fields.  Patch
     by Joseph Weston.

   - bpo-22812(6): Fix unittest discovery examples.  Patch from Pam
     McA’Nulty.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22558

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12067

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24952

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23725

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24808

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22812


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<86>,  Next: Build<92>,  Prev: Documentation<81>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.26.106.5 Tests
................

   - bpo-25449(1): Added tests for OrderedDict subclasses.

   - bpo-25099(2): Make test_compileall not fail when an entry on
     sys.path cannot be written to (commonly seen in administrative
     installs on Windows).

   - bpo-23919(3): Prevents assert dialogs appearing in the test suite.

   - ‘PCbuild\rt.bat’ now accepts an unlimited number of arguments to
     pass along to regrtest.py.  Previously there was a limit of 9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25449

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25099

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23919


File: python.info,  Node: Build<92>,  Next: Windows<80>,  Prev: Tests<86>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.26.106.6 Build
................

   - bpo-24915(1): Add LLVM support for PGO builds and use the test
     suite to generate the profile data.  Initial patch by Alecsandru
     Patrascu of Intel.

   - bpo-24910(2): Windows MSIs now have unique display names.

   - bpo-24986(3): It is now possible to build Python on Windows without
     errors when external libraries are not available.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24915

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24910

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24986


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<80>,  Next: Tools/Demos<55>,  Prev: Build<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.26.106.7 Windows
..................

   - bpo-25450(1): Updates shortcuts to start Python in installation
     directory.

   - bpo-25164(2): Changes default all-users install directory to match
     per-user directory.

   - bpo-25143(3): Improves installer error messages for unsupported
     platforms.

   - bpo-25163(4): Display correct directory in installer when using
     non-default settings.

   - bpo-25361(5): Disables use of SSE2 instructions in Windows 32-bit
     build

   - bpo-25089(6): Adds logging to installer for case where launcher is
     not selected on upgrade.

   - bpo-25165(7): Windows uninstallation should not remove launcher if
     other versions remain

   - bpo-25112(8): py.exe launcher is missing icons

   - bpo-25102(9): Windows installer does not precompile for -O or -OO.

   - bpo-25081(10): Makes Back button in installer go back to upgrade
     page when upgrading.

   - bpo-25091(11): Increases font size of the installer.

   - bpo-25126(12): Clarifies that the non-web installer will download
     some components.

   - bpo-25213(13): Restores requestedExecutionLevel to manifest to
     disable UAC virtualization.

   - bpo-25022(14): Removed very outdated PC/example_nt/ directory.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25450

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25164

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25143

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25163

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25361

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25089

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25165

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25112

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25102

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25081

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25091

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25126

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25213

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25022


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<55>,  Prev: Windows<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1

1.26.106.8 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-25440(1): Fix output of python-config –extension-suffix.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25440


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 final,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.107 Python 3.5.0 final
---------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-13'

* Menu:

* Build: Build<93>.


File: python.info,  Node: Build<93>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 final

1.26.107.1 Build
................

   - bpo-25071(1): Windows installer should not require TargetDir
     parameter when installing quietly.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25071


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 final,  Up: Changelog

1.26.108 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-09'

* Menu:

* Library: Library<201>.
* Build: Build<94>.


File: python.info,  Node: Library<201>,  Next: Build<94>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4

1.26.108.1 Library
..................

   - bpo-25029(1): Fixes MemoryError in test_strptime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25029


File: python.info,  Node: Build<94>,  Prev: Library<201>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4

1.26.108.2 Build
................

   - bpo-25027(1): Reverts partial-static build options and adds
     vcruntime140.dll to Windows installation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25027


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.109 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-09-07'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<201>.
* Library: Library<202>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<201>,  Next: Library<202>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3

1.26.109.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24305(1): Prevent import subsystem stack frames from being
     counted by the warnings.warn(stacklevel=) parameter.

   - bpo-24912(2): Prevent __class__ assignment to immutable built-in
     objects.

   - bpo-24975(3): Fix AST compilation for PEP 448(4) syntax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24305

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24912

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24975

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: Library<202>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<201>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3

1.26.109.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24917(1): time_strftime() buffer over-read.

   - bpo-24748(2): To resolve a compatibility problem found with py2exe
     and pywin32, imp.load_dynamic() once again ignores previously
     loaded modules to support Python modules replacing themselves with
     extension modules.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-24635(3): Fixed a bug in typing.py where isinstance([],
     typing.Iterable) would return True once, then False on subsequent
     calls.

   - bpo-24989(4): Fixed buffer overread in BytesIO.readline() if a
     position is set beyond size.  Based on patch by John Leitch.

   - bpo-24913(5): Fix overrun error in deque.index().  Found by John
     Leitch and Bryce Darling.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24917

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24748

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24635

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24989

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24913


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.110 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-08-25'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<202>.
* Library: Library<203>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<202>,  Next: Library<203>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2

1.26.110.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24769(1): Interpreter now starts properly when dynamic loading
     is disabled.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-21167(2): NAN operations are now handled correctly when python
     is compiled with ICC even if -fp-model strict is not specified.

   - bpo-24492(3): A «package» lacking a __name__ attribute when trying
     to perform a ‘from .. import ...’ statement will trigger an
     ImportError instead of an AttributeError.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24769

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21167

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24492


File: python.info,  Node: Library<203>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<202>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2

1.26.110.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24847(1): Removes vcruntime140.dll dependency from Tcl/Tk.

   - bpo-24839(2): platform._syscmd_ver raises DeprecationWarning

   - bpo-24867(3): Fix Task.get_stack() for “async def” coroutines

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24847

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24839

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24867


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.111 Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1
-----------------------------------------

'Release date: 2015-08-09'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<203>.
* Library: Library<204>.
* IDLE: IDLE<62>.
* Documentation: Documentation<82>.
* Tests: Tests<87>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<203>,  Next: Library<204>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.26.111.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24667(1): Resize odict in all cases that the underlying dict
     resizes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24667


File: python.info,  Node: Library<204>,  Next: IDLE<62>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<203>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.26.111.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-24824(1): Signatures of codecs.encode() and codecs.decode() now
     are compatible with pydoc.

   - bpo-24634(2): Importing uuid should not try to load libc on Windows

   - bpo-24798(3): _msvccompiler.py doesn’t properly support manifests

   - bpo-4395(4): Better testing and documentation of binary operators.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23973(5): Update typing.py from GitHub repo.

   - bpo-23004(6): mock_open() now reads binary data correctly when the
     type of read_data is bytes.  Initial patch by Aaron Hill.

   - bpo-23888(7): Handle fractional time in cookie expiry.  Patch by
     ssh.

   - bpo-23652(8): Make it possible to compile the select module against
     the libc headers from the Linux Standard Base, which do not include
     some EPOLL macros.  Patch by Matt Frank.

   - bpo-22932(9): Fix timezones in email.utils.formatdate.  Patch from
     Dmitry Shachnev.

   - bpo-23779(10): imaplib raises TypeError if authenticator tries to
     abort.  Patch from Craig Holmquist.

   - bpo-23319(11): Fix ctypes.BigEndianStructure, swap correctly bytes.
     Patch written by Matthieu Gautier.

   - bpo-23254(12): Document how to close the TCPServer listening
     socket.  Patch from Martin Panter.

   - bpo-19450(13): Update Windows and OS X installer builds to use
     SQLite 3.8.11.

   - bpo-17527(14): Add PATCH to wsgiref.validator.  Patch from Luca
     Sbardella.

   - bpo-24791(15): Fix grammar regression for call syntax: “g(*a or
     b)”.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24824

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24634

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24798

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4395

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23973

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23004

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23888

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23652

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22932

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23779

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23319

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23254

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19450

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17527

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24791


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<62>,  Next: Documentation<82>,  Prev: Library<204>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.26.111.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-23672(1): Allow Idle to edit and run files with astral chars in
     name.  Patch by Mohd Sanad Zaki Rizvi.

   - bpo-24745(2): Idle editor default font.  Switch from Courier to
     platform-sensitive TkFixedFont.  This should not affect current
     customized font selections.  If there is a problem, edit
     $HOME/.idlerc/config-main.cfg and remove “‘fontXXX’” entries from
     [Editor Window].  Patch by Mark Roseman.

   - bpo-21192(3): Idle editor.  When a file is run, put its name in the
     restart bar.  Do not print false prompts.  Original patch by Adnan
     Umer.

   - bpo-13884(4): Idle menus.  Remove tearoff lines.  Patch by Roger
     Serwy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23672

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24745

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21192

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13884


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<82>,  Next: Tests<87>,  Prev: IDLE<62>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.26.111.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-24129(1): Clarify the reference documentation for name
     resolution.  This includes removing the assumption that readers
     will be familiar with the name resolution scheme Python used prior
     to the introduction of lexical scoping for function namespaces.
     Patch by Ivan Levkivskyi.

   - bpo-20769(2): Improve reload() docs.  Patch by Dorian Pula.

   - bpo-23589(3): Remove duplicate sentence from the FAQ. Patch by
     Yongzhi Pan.

   - bpo-24729(4): Correct IO tutorial to match implementation regarding
     encoding parameter to open function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24129

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20769

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23589

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24729


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<87>,  Prev: Documentation<82>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1

1.26.111.5 Tests
................

   - bpo-24751(1): When running regrtest with the ‘-w’ command line
     option, a test run is no longer marked as a failure if all tests
     succeed when re-run.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24751


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.112 Python 3.5.0 beta 4
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-07-26'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<204>.
* Library: Library<205>.
* Build: Build<95>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<204>,  Next: Library<205>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.26.112.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23573(1): Restored optimization of bytes.rfind() and
     bytearray.rfind() for single-byte argument on Linux.

   - bpo-24569(2): Make PEP 448(3) dictionary evaluation more
     consistent.

   - bpo-24583(4): Fix crash when set is mutated while being updated.

   - bpo-24407(5): Fix crash when dict is mutated while being updated.

   - bpo-24619(6): New approach for tokenizing async/await.  As a
     consequence, it is now possible to have one-line “async def foo():
     await ..” functions.

   - bpo-24687(7): Plug refleak on SyntaxError in function parameters
     annotations.

   - bpo-15944(8): memoryview: Allow arbitrary formats when casting to
     bytes.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24569

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24583

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24407

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24619

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24687

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15944


File: python.info,  Node: Library<205>,  Next: Build<95>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<204>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.26.112.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23441(1): rcompleter now prints a tab character instead of
     displaying possible completions for an empty word.  Initial patch
     by Martin Sekera.

   - bpo-24683(2): Fixed crashes in _json functions called with
     arguments of inappropriate type.

   - bpo-21697(3): shutil.copytree() now correctly handles symbolic
     links that point to directories.  Patch by Eduardo Seabra and
     Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-14373(4): Fixed segmentation fault when gc.collect() is called
     during constructing lru_cache (C implementation).

   - bpo-24695(5): Fix a regression in traceback.print_exception().  If
     exc_traceback is None we shouldn’t print a traceback header like
     described in the documentation.

   - bpo-24620(6): Random.setstate() now validates the value of state
     last element.

   - bpo-22485(7): Fixed an issue that caused ‘inspect.getsource’ to
     return incorrect results on nested functions.

   - bpo-22153(8): Improve unittest docs.  Patch from Martin Panter and
     evilzero.

   - bpo-24580(9): Symbolic group references to open group in re
     patterns now are explicitly forbidden as well as numeric group
     references.

   - bpo-24206(10): Fixed __eq__ and __ne__ methods of inspect classes.

   - bpo-24631(11): Fixed regression in the timeit module with multiline
     setup.

   - bpo-18622(12): unittest.mock.mock_open().reset_mock would recurse
     infinitely.  Patch from Nicola Palumbo and Laurent De Buyst.

   - bpo-23661(13): unittest.mock side_effects can now be exceptions
     again.  This was a regression vs Python 3.4.  Patch from Ignacio
     Rossi

   - bpo-24608(14): chunk.Chunk.read() now always returns bytes, not
     str.

   - bpo-18684(15): Fixed reading out of the buffer in the re module.

   - bpo-24259(16): tarfile now raises a ReadError if an archive is
     truncated inside a data segment.

   - bpo-15014(17): SMTP.auth() and SMTP.login() now support RFC 4954’s
     optional initial-response argument to the SMTP AUTH command.

   - bpo-24669(18): Fix inspect.getsource() for “async def” functions.
     Patch by Kai Groner.

   - bpo-24688(19): ast.get_docstring() for “async def” functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23441

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24683

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21697

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24695

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24620

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22485

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22153

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24580

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24206

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24631

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18622

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23661

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24608

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18684

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24259

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24669

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24688


File: python.info,  Node: Build<95>,  Prev: Library<205>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 4

1.26.112.3 Build
................

   - bpo-24603(1): Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24603


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.113 Python 3.5.0 beta 3
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-07-05'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<205>.
* Library: Library<206>.
* Tests: Tests<88>.
* Documentation: Documentation<83>.
* Build: Build<96>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<205>,  Next: Library<206>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.26.113.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24467(1): Fixed possible buffer over-read in bytearray.  The
     bytearray object now always allocates place for trailing null byte
     and it’s buffer now is always null-terminated.

   - Upgrade to Unicode 8.0.0.

   - bpo-24345(2): Add Py_tp_finalize slot for the stable ABI.

   - bpo-24400(3): Introduce a distinct type for PEP 492(4) coroutines;
     add types.CoroutineType, inspect.getcoroutinestate,
     inspect.getcoroutinelocals; coroutines no longer use CO_GENERATOR
     flag; sys.set_coroutine_wrapper works only for “async def”
     coroutines; inspect.iscoroutine no longer uses
     collections.abc.Coroutine, it’s intended to test for pure “async
     def” coroutines only; add new opcode: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER; fix
     generators wrapper used in types.coroutine to be instance of
     collections.abc.Generator; collections.abc.Awaitable and
     collections.abc.Coroutine can no longer be used to detect
     generator-based coroutines–use inspect.isawaitable instead.

   - bpo-24450(5): Add gi_yieldfrom to generators and cr_await to
     coroutines.  Contributed by Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-19235(6): Add new RecursionError exception.  Patch by Georg
     Brandl.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24467

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24345

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24450

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235


File: python.info,  Node: Library<206>,  Next: Tests<88>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<205>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.26.113.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-21750(1): mock_open.read_data can now be read from each
     instance, as it could in Python 3.3.

   - bpo-24552(2): Fix use after free in an error case of the _pickle
     module.

   - bpo-24514(3): tarfile now tolerates number fields consisting of
     only whitespace.

   - bpo-19176(4): Fixed doctype() related bugs in C implementation of
     ElementTree.  A deprecation warning no longer issued by XMLParser
     subclass with default doctype() method.  Direct call of doctype()
     now issues a warning.  Parser’s doctype() now is not called if
     target’s doctype() is called.  Based on patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-20387(5): Restore semantic round-trip correctness in
     tokenize/untokenize for tab-indented blocks.

   - bpo-24456(6): Fixed possible buffer over-read in adpcm2lin() and
     lin2adpcm() functions of the audioop module.

   - bpo-24336(7): The contextmanager decorator now works with functions
     with keyword arguments called «func» and «self».  Patch by Martin
     Panter.

   - bpo-24522(8): Fix possible integer overflow in json accelerator
     module.

   - bpo-24489(9): ensure a previously set C errno doesn’t disturb
     cmath.polar().

   - bpo-24408(10): Fixed AttributeError in measure() and metrics()
     methods of tkinter.Font.

   - bpo-14373(11): C implementation of functools.lru_cache() now can be
     used with methods.

   - bpo-24347(12): Set KeyError if PyDict_GetItemWithError returns
     NULL.

   - bpo-24348(13): Drop superfluous incref/decref.

   - bpo-24359(14): Check for changed OrderedDict size during iteration.

   - bpo-24368(15): Support keyword arguments in OrderedDict methods.

   - bpo-24362(16): Simplify the C OrderedDict fast nodes resize logic.

   - bpo-24377(17): Fix a ref leak in OrderedDict.__repr__.

   - bpo-24369(18): Defend against key-changes during iteration.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21750

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24552

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24514

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19176

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20387

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24456

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24336

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24522

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24489

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24408

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24347

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24348

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24359

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24368

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24362

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24377

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24369


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<88>,  Next: Documentation<83>,  Prev: Library<206>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.26.113.3 Tests
................

   - bpo-24373(1): _testmultiphase and xxlimited now use tp_traverse and
     tp_finalize to avoid reference leaks encountered when combining
     tp_dealloc with PyType_FromSpec (see bpo-16690(2) for details)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16690


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<83>,  Next: Build<96>,  Prev: Tests<88>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.26.113.4 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-24458(1): Update documentation to cover multi-phase
     initialization for extension modules (PEP 489).  Patch by Petr
     Viktorin.

   - bpo-24351(2): Clarify what is meant by «identifier» in the context
     of string.Template instances.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24458

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24351


File: python.info,  Node: Build<96>,  Prev: Documentation<83>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 3

1.26.113.5 Build
................

   - bpo-24432(1): Update Windows builds and OS X 10.5 installer to use
     OpenSSL 1.0.2c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24432


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.114 Python 3.5.0 beta 2
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-05-31'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<206>.
* Library: Library<207>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<206>,  Next: Library<207>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 2

1.26.114.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24284(1): The startswith and endswith methods of the str class
     no longer return True when finding the empty string and the indexes
     are completely out of range.

   - bpo-24115(2): Update uses of PyObject_IsTrue(), PyObject_Not(),
     PyObject_IsInstance(), PyObject_RichCompareBool() and
     _PyDict_Contains() to check for and handle errors correctly.

   - bpo-24328(3): Fix importing one character extension modules.

   - bpo-11205(4): In dictionary displays, evaluate the key before the
     value.

   - bpo-24285(5): Fixed regression that prevented importing extension
     modules from inside packages.  Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24284

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24115

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24328

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11205

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24285


File: python.info,  Node: Library<207>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<206>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 2

1.26.114.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23247(1): Fix a crash in the StreamWriter.reset() of CJK
     codecs.

   - bpo-24270(2): Add math.isclose() and cmath.isclose() functions as
     per PEP 485(3).  Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat.

   - bpo-5633(4): Fixed timeit when the statement is a string and the
     setup is not.

   - bpo-24326(5): Fixed audioop.ratecv() with non-default weightB
     argument.  Original patch by David Moore.

   - bpo-16991(6): Add a C implementation of OrderedDict.

   - bpo-23934(7): Fix inspect.signature to fail correctly for builtin
     types lacking signature information.  Initial patch by James
     Powell.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23247

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5633

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24326

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16991

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23934


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.115 Python 3.5.0 beta 1
----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-05-24'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<207>.
* Library: Library<208>.
* IDLE: IDLE<63>.
* Tests: Tests<89>.
* Documentation: Documentation<84>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<56>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<207>,  Next: Library<208>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.26.115.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-24276(1): Fixed optimization of property descriptor getter.

   - bpo-24268(2): PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization.
     Patch by Petr Viktorin.

   - bpo-23955(3): Add pyvenv.cfg option to suppress
     registry/environment lookup for generating sys.path on Windows.

   - bpo-24257(4): Fixed system error in the comparison of faked
     types.SimpleNamespace.

   - bpo-22939(5): Fixed integer overflow in iterator object.  Patch by
     Clement Rouault.

   - bpo-23985(6): Fix a possible buffer overrun when deleting a slice
     from the front of a bytearray and then appending some other bytes
     data.

   - bpo-24102(7): Fixed exception type checking in standard error
     handlers.

   - bpo-15027(8): The UTF-32 encoder is now 3x to 7x faster.

   - bpo-23290(9): Optimize set_merge() for cases where the target is
     empty.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka.)

   - bpo-2292(10): PEP 448: Additional Unpacking Generalizations.

   - bpo-24096(11): Make warnings.warn_explicit more robust against
     mutation of the warnings.filters list.

   - bpo-23996(12): Avoid a crash when a delegated generator raises an
     unnormalized StopIteration exception.  Patch by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-23910(13): Optimize property() getter calls.  Patch by Joe
     Jevnik.

   - bpo-23911(14): Move path-based importlib bootstrap code to a
     separate frozen module.

   - bpo-24192(15): Fix namespace package imports.

   - bpo-24022(16): Fix tokenizer crash when processing undecodable
     source code.

   - bpo-9951(17): Added a hex() method to bytes, bytearray, and
     memoryview.

   - bpo-22906(18): PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside
     generators.

   - bpo-24017(19): PEP 492: Coroutines with async and await syntax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24276

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24268

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23955

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24257

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22939

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23985

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24102

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15027

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23290

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2292

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24096

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23996

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23910

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23911

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24192

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24022

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9951

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22906

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017


File: python.info,  Node: Library<208>,  Next: IDLE<63>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<207>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.26.115.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-14373(1): Added C implementation of functools.lru_cache().
     Based on patches by Matt Joiner and Alexey Kachayev.

   - bpo-24230(2): The tempfile module now accepts bytes for prefix,
     suffix and dir parameters and returns bytes in such situations
     (matching the os module APIs).

   - bpo-22189(3): collections.UserString now supports __getnewargs__(),
     __rmod__(), casefold(), format_map(), isprintable(), and
     maketrans().  Patch by Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-24244(4): Prevents termination when an invalid format string is
     encountered on Windows in strftime.

   - bpo-23973(5): PEP 484: Add the typing module.

   - bpo-23086(6): The collections.abc.Sequence() abstract base class
     added 'start' and 'stop' parameters to the index() mixin.  Patch by
     Devin Jeanpierre.

   - bpo-20035(7): Replaced the ‘tkinter._fix’ module used for setting
     up the Tcl/Tk environment on Windows with a private function in the
     ‘_tkinter’ module that makes no permanent changes to the
     environment.

   - bpo-24257(8): Fixed segmentation fault in sqlite3.Row constructor
     with faked cursor type.

   - bpo-15836(9): assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns()
     and assertWarnsRegex() assertments now check the type of the first
     argument to prevent possible user error.  Based on patch by Daniel
     Wagner-Hall.

   - bpo-9858(10): Add missing method stubs to _io.RawIOBase.  Patch by
     Laura Rupprecht.

   - bpo-22955(11): attrgetter, itemgetter and methodcaller objects in
     the operator module now support pickling.  Added readable and
     evaluable repr for these objects.  Based on patch by Josh
     Rosenberg.

   - bpo-22107(12): tempfile.gettempdir() and tempfile.mkdtemp() now try
     again when a directory with the chosen name already exists on
     Windows as well as on Unix.  tempfile.mkstemp() now fails early if
     parent directory is not valid (not exists or is a file) on Windows.

   - bpo-23780(13): Improved error message in os.path.join() with single
     argument.

   - bpo-6598(14): Increased time precision and random number range in
     email.utils.make_msgid() to strengthen the uniqueness of the
     message ID.

   - bpo-24091(15): Fixed various crashes in corner cases in C
     implementation of ElementTree.

   - bpo-21931(16): msilib.FCICreate() now raises TypeError in the case
     of a bad argument instead of a ValueError with a bogus FCI error
     number.  Patch by Jeffrey Armstrong.

   - bpo-13866(17): 'quote_via' argument added to
     urllib.parse.urlencode.

   - bpo-20098(18): New mangle_from policy option for email, default
     True for compat32, but False for all other policies.

   - bpo-24211(19): The email library now supports RFC 6532: it can
     generate headers using utf-8 instead of encoded words.

   - bpo-16314(20): Added support for the LZMA compression in distutils.

   - bpo-21804(21): poplib now supports RFC 6856 (UTF8).

   - bpo-18682(22): Optimized pprint functions for builtin scalar types.

   - bpo-22027(23): smtplib now supports RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8).

   - bpo-23488(24): Random generator objects now consume 2x less memory
     on 64-bit.

   - bpo-1322(25): platform.dist() and platform.linux_distribution()
     functions are now deprecated.  Initial patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-22486(26): Added the math.gcd() function.  The fractions.gcd()
     function now is deprecated.  Based on patch by Mark Dickinson.

   - bpo-24064(27): Property() docstrings are now writeable.  (Patch by
     Berker Peksag.)

   - bpo-22681(28): Added support for the koi8_t encoding.

   - bpo-22682(29): Added support for the kz1048 encoding.

   - bpo-23796(30): peek and read1 methods of BufferedReader now raise
     ValueError if they called on a closed object.  Patch by John
     Hergenroeder.

   - bpo-21795(31): smtpd now supports the 8BITMIME extension whenever
     the new 'decode_data' constructor argument is set to False.

   - bpo-24155(32): optimize heapq.heapify() for better cache
     performance when heapifying large lists.

   - bpo-21800(33): imaplib now supports RFC 5161 (enable), RFC 6855
     (utf8/internationalized email) and automatically encodes non-ASCII
     usernames and passwords to UTF8.

   - bpo-20274(34): When calling a _sqlite.Connection, it now complains
     if passed any keyword arguments.  Previously it silently ignored
     them.

   - bpo-20274(35): Remove ignored and erroneous «kwargs» parameters
     from three METH_VARARGS methods on _sqlite.Connection.

   - bpo-24134(36): assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns()
     and assertWarnsRegex() checks now emits a deprecation warning when
     callable is None or keyword arguments except msg is passed in the
     context manager mode.

   - bpo-24018(37): Add a collections.abc.Generator abstract base class.
     Contributed by Stefan Behnel.

   - bpo-23880(38): Tkinter’s getint() and getdouble() now support
     Tcl_Obj.  Tkinter’s getdouble() now supports any numbers (in
     particular int).

   - bpo-22619(39): Added negative limit support in the traceback
     module.  Based on patch by Dmitry Kazakov.

   - bpo-24094(40): Fix possible crash in json.encode with poorly
     behaved dict subclasses.

   - bpo-9246(41): On POSIX, os.getcwd() now supports paths longer than
     1025 bytes.  Patch written by William Orr.

   - bpo-17445(42): add difflib.diff_bytes() to support comparison of
     byte strings (fixes a regression from Python 2).

   - bpo-23917(43): Fall back to sequential compilation when
     ProcessPoolExecutor doesn’t exist.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23008(44): Fixed resolving attributes with boolean value is
     False in pydoc.

   - Fix asyncio issue 235: LifoQueue and PriorityQueue’s put didn’t
     increment unfinished tasks (this bug was introduced when
     JoinableQueue was merged with Queue).

   - bpo-23908(45): os functions now reject paths with embedded null
     character on Windows instead of silently truncating them.

   - bpo-23728(46): binascii.crc_hqx() could return an integer outside
     of the range 0-0xffff for empty data.

   - bpo-23887(47): urllib.error.HTTPError now has a proper repr()
     representation.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - asyncio: New event loop APIs: set_task_factory() and
     get_task_factory().

   - asyncio: async() function is deprecated in favour of
     ensure_future().

   - bpo-24178(48): asyncio.Lock, Condition, Semaphore, and
     BoundedSemaphore support new “async with” syntax.  Contributed by
     Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24179(49): Support “async for” for asyncio.StreamReader.
     Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24184(50): Add AsyncIterator and AsyncIterable ABCs to
     collections.abc.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-22547(51): Implement informative __repr__ for
     inspect.BoundArguments.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24190(52): Implement inspect.BoundArgument.apply_defaults()
     method.  Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-20691(53): Add “follow_wrapped” argument to
     inspect.Signature.from_callable() and inspect.signature().
     Contributed by Yury Selivanov.

   - bpo-24248(54): Deprecate inspect.Signature.from_function() and
     inspect.Signature.from_builtin().

   - bpo-23898(55): Fix inspect.classify_class_attrs() to support
     attributes with overloaded __eq__ and __bool__.  Patch by Mike
     Bayer.

   - bpo-24298(56): Fix inspect.signature() to correctly unwrap wrappers
     around bound methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24230

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22189

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24244

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23973

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23086

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20035

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24257

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15836

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9858

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22955

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22107

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23780

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6598

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24091

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21931

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13866

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20098

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24211

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16314

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21804

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18682

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22027

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23488

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1322

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22681

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22682

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23796

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21795

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24155

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20274

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20274

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24134

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24018

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23880

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22619

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24094

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9246

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17445

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23917

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23008

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23908

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23728

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23887

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24178

   (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24179

   (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24184

   (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22547

   (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24190

   (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20691

   (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24248

   (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23898

   (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24298


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<63>,  Next: Tests<89>,  Prev: Library<208>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.26.115.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-23184(1): remove unused names and imports in idlelib.  Initial
     patch by Al Sweigart.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23184


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<89>,  Next: Documentation<84>,  Prev: IDLE<63>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.26.115.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-21520(1): test_zipfile no longer fails if the word “bad”
     appears anywhere in the name of the current directory.

   - bpo-9517(2): Move script_helper into the support package.  Patch by
     Christie Wilson.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21520

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9517


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<84>,  Next: Tools/Demos<56>,  Prev: Tests<89>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.26.115.5 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-22155(1): Add File Handlers subsection with createfilehandler
     to tkinter doc.  Remove obsolete example from FAQ. Patch by Martin
     Panter.

   - bpo-24029(2): Document the name binding behavior for submodule
     imports.

   - bpo-24077(3): Fix typo in man page for -I command option: -s, not
     -S

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22155

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24029

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24077


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<56>,  Prev: Documentation<84>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 beta 1

1.26.115.6 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-24000(1): Improved Argument Clinic’s mapping of converters to
     legacy «format units».  Updated the documentation to match.

   - bpo-24001(2): Argument Clinic converters now use accept={type}
     instead of types={“type”} to specify the types the converter
     accepts.

   - bpo-23330(3): h2py now supports arbitrary filenames in #include.

   - bpo-24031(4): make patchcheck now supports git checkouts, too.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24000

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24001

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23330

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24031


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 beta 1,  Up: Changelog

1.26.116 Python 3.5.0 alpha 4
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-04-19'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<208>.
* Library: Library<209>.
* Build: Build<97>.
* Tests: Tests<90>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<57>.
* C API: C API<78>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<208>,  Next: Library<209>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.26.116.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-22980(1): Under Linux, GNU/KFreeBSD and the Hurd, C extensions
     now include the architecture triplet in the extension name, to make
     it easy to test builds for different ABIs in the same working tree.
     Under OS X, the extension name now includes PEP 3149(2)-style
     information.

   - bpo-22631(3): Added Linux-specific socket constant
     CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES. Patch courtesy of Joe Jevnik.

   - bpo-23731(4): Implement PEP 488(5): removal of .pyo files.

   - bpo-23726(6): Don’t enable GC for user subclasses of non-GC types
     that don’t add any new fields.  Patch by Eugene Toder.

   - bpo-23309(7): Avoid a deadlock at shutdown if a daemon thread is
     aborted while it is holding a lock to a buffered I/O object, and
     the main thread tries to use the same I/O object (typically stdout
     or stderr).  A fatal error is emitted instead.

   - bpo-22977(8): Fixed formatting Windows error messages on Wine.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23466(9): %c, %o, %x, and %X in bytes formatting now raise
     TypeError on non-integer input.

   - bpo-24044(10): Fix possible null pointer dereference in list.sort
     in out of memory conditions.

   - bpo-21354(11): PyCFunction_New function is exposed by python DLL
     again.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22980

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22631

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23731

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23726

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23309

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22977

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23466

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24044

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21354


File: python.info,  Node: Library<209>,  Next: Build<97>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<208>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.26.116.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23840(1): tokenize.open() now closes the temporary binary file
     on error to fix a resource warning.

   - bpo-16914(2): new debuglevel 2 in smtplib adds timestamps to debug
     output.

   - bpo-7159(3): urllib.request now supports sending auth credentials
     automatically after the first 401.  This enhancement is a superset
     of the enhancement from bpo-19494(4) and supersedes that change.

   - bpo-23703(5): Fix a regression in urljoin() introduced in
     901e4e52b20a.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-4254(6): Adds _curses.update_lines_cols().  Patch by Arnon
     Yaari

   - bpo-19933(7): Provide default argument for ndigits in round.  Patch
     by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-23193(8): Add a numeric_owner parameter to
     tarfile.TarFile.extract and tarfile.TarFile.extractall.  Patch by
     Michael Vogt and Eric Smith.

   - bpo-23342(9): Add a subprocess.run() function than returns a
     CalledProcess instance for a more consistent API than the existing
     call* functions.

   - bpo-21217(10): inspect.getsourcelines() now tries to compute the
     start and end lines from the code object, fixing an issue when a
     lambda function is used as decorator argument.  Patch by Thomas
     Ballinger and Allison Kaptur.

   - bpo-24521(11): Fix possible integer overflows in the pickle module.

   - bpo-22931(12): Allow “[” and “]” in cookie values.

   - The keywords attribute of functools.partial is now always a
     dictionary.

   - bpo-23811(13): Add missing newline to the PyCompileError error
     message.  Patch by Alex Shkop.

   - bpo-21116(14): Avoid blowing memory when allocating a
     multiprocessing shared array that’s larger than 50% of the
     available RAM. Patch by Médéric Boquien.

   - bpo-22982(15): Improve BOM handling when seeking to multiple
     positions of a writable text file.

   - bpo-23464(16): Removed deprecated asyncio JoinableQueue.

   - bpo-23529(17): Limit the size of decompressed data when reading
     from GzipFile, BZ2File or LZMAFile.  This defeats denial of service
     attacks using compressed bombs (i.e.  compressed payloads which
     decompress to a huge size).  Patch by Martin Panter and Nikolaus
     Rath.

   - bpo-21859(18): Added Python implementation of io.FileIO.

   - bpo-23865(19): close() methods in multiple modules now are
     idempotent and more robust at shutdown.  If they need to release
     multiple resources, all are released even if errors occur.

   - bpo-23400(20): Raise same exception on both Python 2 and 3 if
     sem_open is not available.  Patch by Davin Potts.

   - bpo-10838(21): The subprocess now module includes SubprocessError
     and TimeoutError in its list of exported names for the users wild
     enough to use ‘from subprocess import *’.

   - bpo-23411(22): Added DefragResult, ParseResult, SplitResult,
     DefragResultBytes, ParseResultBytes, and SplitResultBytes to
     urllib.parse.__all__.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23881(23): urllib.request.ftpwrapper constructor now closes the
     socket if the FTP connection failed to fix a ResourceWarning.

   - bpo-23853(24): *note socket.socket.sendall(): 1161. does no more
     reset the socket timeout each time data is sent successfully.  The
     socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data.

   - bpo-22721(25): An order of multiline pprint output of set or dict
     containing orderable and non-orderable elements no longer depends
     on iteration order of set or dict.

   - bpo-15133(26): _tkinter.tkapp.getboolean() now supports Tcl_Obj and
     always returns bool.  tkinter.BooleanVar now validates input values
     (accepted bool, int, str, and Tcl_Obj).  tkinter.BooleanVar.get()
     now always returns bool.

   - bpo-10590(27): xml.sax.parseString() now supports string argument.

   - bpo-23338(28): Fixed formatting ctypes error messages on Cygwin.
     Patch by Makoto Kato.

   - bpo-15582(29): inspect.getdoc() now follows inheritance chains.

   - bpo-2175(30): SAX parsers now support a character stream of
     InputSource object.

   - bpo-16840(31): Tkinter now supports 64-bit integers added in Tcl
     8.4 and arbitrary precision integers added in Tcl 8.5.

   - bpo-23834(32): Fix socket.sendto(), use the C Py_ssize_t type to
     store the result of sendto() instead of the C int type.

   - bpo-23618(33): *note socket.socket.connect(): 115c. now waits until
     the connection completes instead of raising *note InterruptedError:
     1141. if the connection is interrupted by signals, signal handlers
     don’t raise an exception and the socket is blocking or has a
     timeout.  ‘socket.socket.connect()’ still raise ‘InterruptedError’
     for non-blocking sockets.

   - bpo-21526(34): Tkinter now supports new boolean type in Tcl 8.5.

   - bpo-23836(35): Fix the faulthandler module to handle reentrant
     calls to its signal handlers.

   - bpo-23838(36): linecache now clears the cache and returns an empty
     result on MemoryError.

   - bpo-10395(37): Added os.path.commonpath().  Implemented in
     posixpath and ntpath.  Based on patch by Rafik Draoui.

   - bpo-23611(38): Serializing more «lookupable» objects (such as
     unbound methods or nested classes) now are supported with pickle
     protocols < 4.

   - bpo-13583(39): sqlite3.Row now supports slice indexing.

   - bpo-18473(40): Fixed 2to3 and 3to2 compatible pickle mappings.
     Fixed ambiguous reverse mappings.  Added many new mappings.  Import
     mapping is no longer applied to modules already mapped with full
     name mapping.

   - bpo-23485(41): select.select() is now retried automatically with
     the recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception.  This change is part of the PEP
     475(42).

   - bpo-23752(43): When built from an existing file descriptor,
     io.FileIO() now only calls fstat() once.  Before fstat() was called
     twice, which was not necessary.

   - bpo-23704(44): collections.deque() objects now support __add__,
     __mul__, and __imul__().

   - bpo-23171(45): csv.Writer.writerow() now supports arbitrary
     iterables.

   - bpo-23745(46): The new email header parser now handles duplicate
     MIME parameter names without error, similar to how get_param
     behaves.

   - bpo-22117(47): Fix os.utime(), it now rounds the timestamp towards
     minus infinity (-inf) instead of rounding towards zero.

   - bpo-23310(48): Fix MagicMock’s initializer to work with
     __methods__, just like configure_mock().  Patch by Kasia Jachim.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23840

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16914

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7159

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23703

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4254

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19933

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23193

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23342

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21217

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24521

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22931

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23811

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21116

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22982

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23464

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23529

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21859

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23865

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23400

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10838

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23411

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23881

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22721

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15133

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10590

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23338

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15582

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2175

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16840

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23834

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23618

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21526

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23836

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23838

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10395

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23611

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13583

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18473

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23485

   (42) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23752

   (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23171

   (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23745

   (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22117

   (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23310


File: python.info,  Node: Build<97>,  Next: Tests<90>,  Prev: Library<209>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.26.116.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23817(1): FreeBSD now uses «1.0» in the SOVERSION as other
     operating systems, instead of just «1».

   - bpo-23501(2): Argument Clinic now generates code into separate
     files by default.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23817

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23501


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<90>,  Next: Tools/Demos<57>,  Prev: Build<97>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.26.116.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-23799(1): Added test.support.start_threads() for running and
     cleaning up multiple threads.

   - bpo-22390(2): test.regrtest now emits a warning if temporary files
     or directories are left after running a test.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23799

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22390


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<57>,  Next: C API<78>,  Prev: Tests<90>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.26.116.5 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-18128(1): pygettext now uses standard +NNNN format in the
     POT-Creation-Date header.

   - bpo-23935(2): Argument Clinic’s understanding of format units
     accepting bytes, bytearrays, and buffers is now consistent with
     both the documentation and the implementation.

   - bpo-23944(3): Argument Clinic now wraps long impl prototypes at
     column 78.

   - bpo-20586(4): Argument Clinic now ensures that functions without
     docstrings have signatures.

   - bpo-23492(5): Argument Clinic now generates argument parsing code
     with PyArg_Parse instead of PyArg_ParseTuple if possible.

   - bpo-23500(6): Argument Clinic is now smarter about generating the
     «#ifndef» (empty) definition of the methoddef macro: it’s only
     generated once, even if Argument Clinic processes the same symbol
     multiple times, and it’s emitted at the end of all processing
     rather than immediately after the first use.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18128

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23935

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23944

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20586

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23492

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23500


File: python.info,  Node: C API<78>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<57>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4

1.26.116.6 C API
................

   - bpo-23998(1): PyImport_ReInitLock() now checks for lock allocation
     error

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23998


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4,  Up: Changelog

1.26.117 Python 3.5.0 alpha 3
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-03-28'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<209>.
* Library: Library<210>.
* Build: Build<98>.
* Tests: Tests<91>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<58>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<209>,  Next: Library<210>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.26.117.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23573(1): Increased performance of string search operations
     (str.find, str.index, str.count, the in operator, str.split,
     str.partition) with arguments of different kinds (UCS1, UCS2,
     UCS4).

   - bpo-23753(2): Python doesn’t support anymore platforms without
     stat() or fstat(), these functions are always required.

   - bpo-23681(3): The -b option now affects comparisons of bytes with
     int.

   - bpo-23632(4): Memoryviews now allow tuple indexing (including for
     multi-dimensional memoryviews).

   - bpo-23192(5): Fixed generator lambdas.  Patch by Bruno Cauet.

   - bpo-23629(6): Fix the default __sizeof__ implementation for
     variable-sized objects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23753

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23681

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23632

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23192

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23629


File: python.info,  Node: Library<210>,  Next: Build<98>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<209>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.26.117.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-14260(1): The groupindex attribute of regular expression
     pattern object now is non-modifiable mapping.

   - bpo-23792(2): Ignore KeyboardInterrupt when the pydoc pager is
     active.  This mimics the behavior of the standard unix pagers, and
     prevents pipepager from shutting down while the pager itself is
     still running.

   - bpo-23775(3): pprint() of OrderedDict now outputs the same
     representation as repr().

   - bpo-23765(4): Removed IsBadStringPtr calls in ctypes

   - bpo-22364(5): Improved some re error messages using regex for
     hints.

   - bpo-23742(6): ntpath.expandvars() no longer loses unbalanced single
     quotes.

   - bpo-21717(7): The zipfile.ZipFile.open function now supports “x”
     (exclusive creation) mode.

   - bpo-21802(8): The reader in BufferedRWPair now is closed even when
     closing writer failed in BufferedRWPair.close().

   - bpo-23622(9): Unknown escapes in regular expressions that consist
     of ‘'\'’ and ASCII letter now raise a deprecation warning and will
     be forbidden in Python 3.6.

   - bpo-23671(10): string.Template now allows specifying the «self»
     parameter as a keyword argument.  string.Formatter now allows
     specifying the «self» and the «format_string» parameters as keyword
     arguments.

   - bpo-23502(11): The pprint module now supports mapping proxies.

   - bpo-17530(12): pprint now wraps long bytes objects and bytearrays.

   - bpo-22687(13): Fixed some corner cases in breaking words in
     tetxtwrap.  Got rid of quadratic complexity in breaking long words.

   - bpo-4727(14): The copy module now uses pickle protocol 4 (PEP 3154)
     and supports copying of instances of classes whose __new__ method
     takes keyword-only arguments.

   - bpo-23491(15): Added a zipapp module to support creating executable
     zip file archives of Python code.  Registered «.pyz» and «.pyzw»
     extensions on Windows for these archives (PEP 441).

   - bpo-23657(16): Avoid explicit checks for str in zipapp, adding
     support for pathlib.Path objects as arguments.

   - bpo-23688(17): Added support of arbitrary bytes-like objects and
     avoided unnecessary copying of memoryview in gzip.GzipFile.write().
     Original patch by Wolfgang Maier.

   - bpo-23252(18): Added support for writing ZIP files to unseekable
     streams.

   - bpo-23647(19): Increase imaplib’s MAXLINE to accommodate modern
     mailbox sizes.

   - bpo-23539(20): If body is None, http.client.HTTPConnection.request
     now sets Content-Length to 0 for PUT, POST, and PATCH headers to
     avoid 411 errors from some web servers.

   - bpo-22351(21): The nntplib.NNTP constructor no longer leaves the
     connection and socket open until the garbage collector cleans them
     up.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23704(22): collections.deque() objects now support methods for
     index(), insert(), and copy().  This allows deques to be registered
     as a MutableSequence and it improves their substitutability for
     lists.

   - bpo-23715(23): *note signal.sigwaitinfo(): 1164. and *note
     signal.sigtimedwait(): 1163. are now retried when interrupted by a
     signal not in the 'sigset' parameter, if the signal handler does
     not raise an exception.  signal.sigtimedwait() recomputes the
     timeout with a monotonic clock when it is retried.

   - bpo-23001(24): Few functions in modules mmap, ossaudiodev, socket,
     ssl, and codecs, that accepted only read-only bytes-like object now
     accept writable bytes-like object too.

   - bpo-23646(25): If time.sleep() is interrupted by a signal, the
     sleep is now retried with the recomputed delay, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (PEP 475).

   - bpo-23136(26): _strptime now uniformly handles all days in week 0,
     including Dec 30 of previous year.  Based on patch by Jim Carroll.

   - bpo-23700(27): Iterator of NamedTemporaryFile now keeps a reference
     to NamedTemporaryFile instance.  Patch by Bohuslav Kabrda.

   - bpo-22903(28): The fake test case created by unittest.loader when
     it fails importing a test module is now picklable.

   - bpo-22181(29): On Linux, os.urandom() now uses the new getrandom()
     syscall if available, syscall introduced in the Linux kernel 3.17.
     It is more reliable and more secure, because it avoids the need of
     a file descriptor and waits until the kernel has enough entropy.

   - bpo-2211(30): Updated the implementation of the http.cookies.Morsel
     class.  Setting attributes key, value and coded_value directly now
     is deprecated.  update() and setdefault() now transform and check
     keys.  Comparing for equality now takes into account attributes
     key, value and coded_value.  copy() now returns a Morsel, not a
     dict.  repr() now contains all attributes.  Optimized checking keys
     and quoting values.  Added new tests.  Original patch by Demian
     Brecht.

   - bpo-18983(31): Allow selection of output units in timeit.  Patch by
     Julian Gindi.

   - bpo-23631(32): Fix traceback.format_list when a traceback has been
     mutated.

   - bpo-23568(33): Add rdivmod support to MagicMock() objects.  Patch
     by Håkan Lövdahl.

   - bpo-2052(34): Add charset parameter to HtmlDiff.make_file().

   - bpo-23668(35): Support os.truncate and os.ftruncate on Windows.

   - bpo-23138(36): Fixed parsing cookies with absent keys or values in
     cookiejar.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23051(37): multiprocessing.Pool methods imap() and
     imap_unordered() now handle exceptions raised by an iterator.
     Patch by Alon Diamant and Davin Potts.

   - bpo-23581(38): Add matmul support to MagicMock.  Patch by Håkan
     Lövdahl.

   - bpo-23566(39): enable(), register(), dump_traceback() and
     dump_traceback_later() functions of faulthandler now accept file
     descriptors.  Patch by Wei Wu.

   - bpo-22928(40): Disabled HTTP header injections in http.client.
     Original patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23615(41): Modules bz2, tarfile and tokenize now can be
     reloaded with imp.reload().  Patch by Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-23605(42): os.walk() now calls os.scandir() instead of
     os.listdir().  The usage of os.scandir() reduces the number of
     calls to os.stat().  Initial patch written by Ben Hoyt.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14260

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23792

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23775

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23765

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22364

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23742

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21802

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23622

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23671

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23502

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17530

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22687

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4727

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23491

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23657

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23688

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23252

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23647

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23539

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22351

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23715

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23001

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23646

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23136

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23700

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22903

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22181

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2211

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18983

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23631

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23568

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2052

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23668

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23138

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23051

   (38) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23581

   (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23566

   (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22928

   (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23615

   (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23605


File: python.info,  Node: Build<98>,  Next: Tests<91>,  Prev: Library<210>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.26.117.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23585(1): make patchcheck will ensure the interpreter is built.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23585


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<91>,  Next: Tools/Demos<58>,  Prev: Build<98>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.26.117.4 Tests
................

   - bpo-23583(1): Added tests for standard IO streams in IDLE.

   - bpo-22289(2): Prevent test_urllib2net failures due to ftp
     connection timeout.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23583

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22289


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<58>,  Prev: Tests<91>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3

1.26.117.5 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-22826(1): The result of open() in Tools/freeze/bkfile.py is now
     better compatible with regular files (in particular it now supports
     the context management protocol).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22826


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Next: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3,  Up: Changelog

1.26.118 Python 3.5.0 alpha 2
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-03-09'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<210>.
* Library: Library<211>.
* Build: Build<99>.
* C API: C API<79>.
* Windows: Windows<81>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<210>,  Next: Library<211>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.26.118.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23571(1): PyObject_Call() and PyCFunction_Call() now raise a
     SystemError if a function returns a result and raises an exception.
     The SystemError is chained to the previous exception.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23571


File: python.info,  Node: Library<211>,  Next: Build<99>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<210>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.26.118.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-22524(1): New os.scandir() function, part of the PEP 471(2):
     «os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator».
     Patch written by Ben Hoyt.

   - bpo-23103(3): Reduced the memory consumption of IPv4Address and
     IPv6Address.

   - bpo-21793(4): BaseHTTPRequestHandler again logs response code as
     numeric, not as stringified enum.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23476(5): In the ssl module, enable OpenSSL’s
     X509_V_FLAG_TRUSTED_FIRST flag on certificate stores when it is
     available.

   - bpo-23576(6): Avoid stalling in SSL reads when EOF has been reached
     in the SSL layer but the underlying connection hasn’t been closed.

   - bpo-23504(7): Added an __all__ to the types module.

   - bpo-23563(8): Optimized utility functions in urllib.parse.

   - bpo-7830(9): Flatten nested functools.partial.

   - bpo-20204(10): Added the __module__ attribute to _tkinter classes.

   - bpo-19980(11): Improved help() for non-recognized strings.
     help(“”) now shows the help on str.  help(“help”) now shows the
     help on help().  Original patch by Mark Lawrence.

   - bpo-23521(12): Corrected pure python implementation of timedelta
     division.  Eliminated OverflowError from ‘timedelta * float’ for
     some floats; Corrected rounding in timedelta true division.

   - bpo-21619(13): Popen objects no longer leave a zombie after exit in
     the with statement if the pipe was broken.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22936(14): Make it possible to show local variables in
     tracebacks for both the traceback module and unittest.

   - bpo-15955(15): Add an option to limit the output size in
     bz2.decompress().  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-6639(16): Module-level turtle functions no longer raise
     TclError after closing the window.

   - bpo-814253(17): Group references and conditional group references
     now work in lookbehind assertions in regular expressions.  (See
     also: bpo-9179(18))

   - bpo-23215(19): Multibyte codecs with custom error handlers that
     ignores errors consumed too much memory and raised SystemError or
     MemoryError.  Original patch by Aleksi Torhamo.

   - bpo-5700(20): io.FileIO() called flush() after closing the file.
     flush() was not called in close() if closefd=False.

   - bpo-23374(21): Fixed pydoc failure with non-ASCII files when stdout
     encoding differs from file system encoding (e.g.  on Mac OS).

   - bpo-23481(22): Remove RC4 from the SSL module’s default cipher
     list.

   - bpo-21548(23): Fix pydoc.synopsis() and pydoc.apropos() on modules
     with empty docstrings.

   - bpo-22885(24): Fixed arbitrary code execution vulnerability in the
     dbm.dumb module.  Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23239(25): ssl.match_hostname() now supports matching of IP
     addresses.

   - bpo-23146(26): Fix mishandling of absolute Windows paths with
     forward slashes in pathlib.

   - bpo-23096(27): Pickle representation of floats with protocol 0 now
     is the same for both Python and C implementations.

   - bpo-19105(28): pprint now more efficiently uses free space at the
     right.

   - bpo-14910(29): Add allow_abbrev parameter to
     argparse.ArgumentParser.  Patch by Jonathan Paugh, Steven Bethard,
     paul j3 and Daniel Eriksson.

   - bpo-21717(30): tarfile.open() now supports “x” (exclusive creation)
     mode.

   - bpo-23344(31): marshal.dumps() is now 20-25% faster on average.

   - bpo-20416(32): marshal.dumps() with protocols 3 and 4 is now 40-50%
     faster on average.

   - bpo-23421(33): Fixed compression in tarfile CLI. Patch by wdv4758h.

   - bpo-23367(34): Fix possible overflows in the unicodedata module.

   - bpo-23361(35): Fix possible overflow in Windows subprocess creation
     code.

   - logging.handlers.QueueListener now takes a respect_handler_level
     keyword argument which, if set to True, will pass messages to
     handlers taking handler levels into account.

   - bpo-19705(36): turtledemo now has a visual sorting algorithm demo.
     Original patch from Jason Yeo.

   - bpo-23801(37): Fix issue where cgi.FieldStorage did not always
     ignore the entire preamble to a multipart body.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22524

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23103

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23476

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23576

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23504

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23563

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7830

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19980

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23521

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21619

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22936

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6639

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=814253

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9179

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23215

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5700

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23374

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23481

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21548

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22885

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23239

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23146

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23096

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19105

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14910

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23344

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20416

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23421

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23367

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23361

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19705

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23801


File: python.info,  Node: Build<99>,  Next: C API<79>,  Prev: Library<211>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.26.118.3 Build
................

   - bpo-23445(1): pydebug builds now use «gcc -Og» where possible, to
     make the resulting executable faster.

   - bpo-23686(2): Update OS X 10.5 installer build to use OpenSSL
     1.0.2a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23445

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23686


File: python.info,  Node: C API<79>,  Next: Windows<81>,  Prev: Build<99>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.26.118.4 C API
................

   - bpo-20204(1): Deprecation warning is now raised for builtin types
     without the __module__ attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<81>,  Prev: C API<79>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2

1.26.118.5 Windows
..................

   - bpo-23465(1): Implement PEP 486(2) - Make the Python Launcher aware
     of virtual environments.  Patch by Paul Moore.

   - bpo-23437(3): Make user scripts directory versioned on Windows.
     Patch by Paul Moore.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23465

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23437


File: python.info,  Node: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1,  Prev: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2,  Up: Changelog

1.26.119 Python 3.5.0 alpha 1
-----------------------------

'Release date: 2015-02-08'

* Menu:

* Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<211>.
* Library: Library<212>.
* IDLE: IDLE<64>.
* Build: Build<100>.
* C API: C API<80>.
* Documentation: Documentation<85>.
* Tests: Tests<92>.
* Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<59>.
* Windows: Windows<82>.


File: python.info,  Node: Core and Builtins<211>,  Next: Library<212>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.26.119.1 Core and Builtins
............................

   - bpo-23285(1): PEP 475 - EINTR handling.

   - bpo-22735(2): Fix many edge cases (including crashes) involving
     custom mro() implementations.

   - bpo-22896(3): Avoid using PyObject_AsCharBuffer(),
     PyObject_AsReadBuffer() and PyObject_AsWriteBuffer().

   - bpo-21295(4): Revert some changes (bpo-16795(5)) to AST line
     numbers and column offsets that constituted a regression.

   - bpo-22986(6): Allow changing an object’s __class__ between a
     dynamic type and static type in some cases.

   - bpo-15859(7): PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS()
     and PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage() now raise an exception if the object
     is not a Unicode object.  For PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(), it was
     already the case on platforms other than Windows.  Patch written by
     Campbell Barton.

   - bpo-21408(8): The default __ne__() now returns NotImplemented if
     __eq__() returned NotImplemented.  Original patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23321(9): Fixed a crash in str.decode() when error handler
     returned replacement string longer than malformed input data.

   - bpo-22286(10): The «backslashreplace» error handlers now works with
     decoding and translating.

   - bpo-23253(11): Delay-load ShellExecute[AW] in os.startfile for
     reduced startup overhead on Windows.

   - bpo-22038(12): pyatomic.h now uses stdatomic.h or GCC built-in
     functions for atomic memory access if available.  Patch written by
     Vitor de Lima and Gustavo Temple.

   - bpo-20284(13): %-interpolation (aka printf) formatting added for
     bytes and bytearray.

   - bpo-23048(14): Fix jumping out of an infinite while loop in the
     pdb.

   - bpo-20335(15): bytes constructor now raises TypeError when encoding
     or errors is specified with non-string argument.  Based on patch by
     Renaud Blanch.

   - bpo-22834(16): If the current working directory ends up being set
     to a non-existent directory then import will no longer raise
     FileNotFoundError.

   - bpo-22869(17): Move the interpreter startup & shutdown code to a
     new dedicated pylifecycle.c module

   - bpo-22847(18): Improve method cache efficiency.

   - bpo-22335(19): Fix crash when trying to enlarge a bytearray to
     0x7fffffff bytes on a 32-bit platform.

   - bpo-22653(20): Fix an assertion failure in debug mode when doing a
     reentrant dict insertion in debug mode.

   - bpo-22643(21): Fix integer overflow in Unicode case operations
     (upper, lower, title, swapcase, casefold).

   - bpo-17636(22): Circular imports involving relative imports are now
     supported.

   - bpo-22604(23): Fix assertion error in debug mode when dividing a
     complex number by (nan+0j).

   - bpo-21052(24): Do not raise ImportWarning when sys.path_hooks or
     sys.meta_path are set to None.

   - bpo-16518(25): Use “bytes-like object required” in error messages
     that previously used the far more cryptic «“x” does not support the
     buffer protocol.

   - bpo-22470(26): Fixed integer overflow issues in «backslashreplace»,
     «xmlcharrefreplace», and «surrogatepass» error handlers.

   - bpo-22540(27): speed up ‘PyObject_IsInstance’ and
     ‘PyObject_IsSubclass’ in the common case that the second argument
     has metaclass ‘type’.

   - bpo-18711(28): Add a new ‘PyErr_FormatV’ function, similar to
     ‘PyErr_Format’ but accepting a ‘va_list’ argument.

   - bpo-22520(29): Fix overflow checking when generating the repr of a
     unicode object.

   - bpo-22519(30): Fix overflow checking in PyBytes_Repr.

   - bpo-22518(31): Fix integer overflow issues in latin-1 encoding.

   - bpo-16324(32): _charset parameter of MIMEText now also accepts
     email.charset.Charset instances.  Initial patch by Claude Paroz.

   - bpo-1764286(33): Fix inspect.getsource() to support decorated
     functions.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-18554(34): os.__all__ includes posix functions.

   - bpo-21391(35): Use os.path.abspath in the shutil module.

   - bpo-11471(36): avoid generating a JUMP_FORWARD instruction at the
     end of an if-block if there is no else-clause.  Original patch by
     Eugene Toder.

   - bpo-22215(37): Now ValueError is raised instead of TypeError when
     str or bytes argument contains not permitted null character or
     byte.

   - bpo-22258(38): Fix the internal function set_inheritable() on
     Illumos.  This platform exposes the function ‘ioctl(FIOCLEX)’, but
     calling it fails with errno is ENOTTY: «Inappropriate ioctl for
     device».  set_inheritable() now falls back to the slower ‘fcntl()’
     (‘F_GETFD’ and then ‘F_SETFD’).

   - bpo-21389(39): Displaying the __qualname__ of the underlying
     function in the repr of a bound method.

   - bpo-22206(40): Using pthread, PyThread_create_key() now sets errno
     to ENOMEM and returns -1 (error) on integer overflow.

   - bpo-20184(41): Argument Clinic based signature introspection added
     for 30 of the builtin functions.

   - bpo-22116(42): C functions and methods (of the
     “builtin_function_or_method” type) can now be weakref’ed.  Patch by
     Wei Wu.

   - bpo-22077(43): Improve index error messages for bytearrays, bytes,
     lists, and tuples by adding “or slices”.  Added “, not <typename>”
     for bytearrays.  Original patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-20179(44): Apply Argument Clinic to bytes and bytearray.  Patch
     by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-22082(45): Clear interned strings in slotdefs.

   - Upgrade Unicode database to Unicode 7.0.0.

   - bpo-21897(46): Fix a crash with the f_locals attribute with closure
     variables when frame.clear() has been called.

   - bpo-21205(47): Add a new ‘__qualname__’ attribute to generator, the
     qualified name, and use it in the representation of a generator
     (‘repr(gen)’).  The default name of the generator (‘__name__’
     attribute) is now get from the function instead of the code.  Use
     ‘gen.gi_code.co_name’ to get the name of the code.

   - bpo-21669(48): With the aid of heuristics in SyntaxError.__init__,
     the parser now attempts to generate more meaningful (or at least
     more search engine friendly) error messages when «exec» and «print»
     are used as statements.

   - bpo-21642(49): In the conditional if-else expression, allow an
     integer written with no space between itself and the ‘else’ keyword
     (e.g.  ‘True if 42else False’) to be valid syntax.

   - bpo-21523(50): Fix over-pessimistic computation of the stack effect
     of some opcodes in the compiler.  This also fixes a quadratic
     compilation time issue noticeable when compiling code with a large
     number of «and» and «or» operators.

   - bpo-21418(51): Fix a crash in the builtin function super() when
     called without argument and without current frame (ex: embedded
     Python).

   - bpo-21425(52): Fix flushing of standard streams in the interactive
     interpreter.

   - bpo-21435(53): In rare cases, when running finalizers on objects in
     cyclic trash a bad pointer dereference could occur due to a subtle
     flaw in internal iteration logic.

   - bpo-21377(54): PyBytes_Concat() now tries to concatenate in-place
     when the first argument has a reference count of 1.  Patch by
     Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20355(55): -W command line options now have higher priority
     than the PYTHONWARNINGS environment variable.  Patch by Arfrever.

   - bpo-21274(56): Define PATH_MAX for GNU/Hurd in Python/pythonrun.c.

   - bpo-20904(57): Support setting FPU precision on m68k.

   - bpo-21209(58): Fix sending tuples to custom generator objects with
     the yield from syntax.

   - bpo-21193(59): pow(a, b, c) now raises ValueError rather than
     TypeError when b is negative.  Patch by Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-21176(60): PEP 465: Add the “@” operator for matrix
     multiplication.

   - bpo-21134(61): Fix segfault when str is called on an uninitialized
     UnicodeEncodeError, UnicodeDecodeError, or UnicodeTranslateError
     object.

   - bpo-19537(62): Fix PyUnicode_DATA() alignment under m68k.  Patch by
     Andreas Schwab.

   - bpo-20929(63): Add a type cast to avoid shifting a negative number.

   - bpo-20731(64): Properly position in source code files even if they
     are opened in text mode.  Patch by Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-20637(65): Key-sharing now also works for instance dictionaries
     of subclasses.  Patch by Peter Ingebretson.

   - bpo-8297(66): Attributes missing from modules now include the
     module name in the error text.  Original patch by ysj.ray.

   - bpo-19995(67): %c, %o, %x, and %X now raise TypeError on
     non-integer input.

   - bpo-19655(68): The ASDL parser - used by the build process to
     generate code for managing the Python AST in C - was rewritten.
     The new parser is self contained and does not require to carry long
     the spark.py parser-generator library; spark.py was removed from
     the source base.

   - bpo-12546(69): Allow ‘\x00’ to be used as a fill character when
     using str, int, float, and complex __format__ methods.

   - bpo-20480(70): Add ipaddress.reverse_pointer.  Patch by Leon Weber.

   - bpo-13598(71): Modify string.Formatter to support auto-numbering of
     replacement fields.  It now matches the behavior of str.format() in
     this regard.  Patches by Phil Elson and Ramchandra Apte.

   - bpo-8931(72): Make alternate formatting (“#”) for type “c” raise an
     exception.  In versions prior to 3.5, “#” with “c” had no effect.
     Now specifying it is an error.  Patch by Torsten Landschoff.

   - bpo-23165(73): Perform overflow checks before allocating memory in
     the _Py_char2wchar function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23285

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22735

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22896

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21295

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16795

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15859

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23321

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22286

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23253

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22038

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20284

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23048

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20335

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File: python.info,  Node: Library<212>,  Next: IDLE<64>,  Prev: Core and Builtins<211>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.26.119.2 Library
..................

   - bpo-23399(1): pyvenv creates relative symlinks where possible.

   - bpo-20289(2): cgi.FieldStorage() now supports the context
     management protocol.

   - bpo-13128(3): Print response headers for CONNECT requests when
     debuglevel > 0.  Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-15381(4): Optimized io.BytesIO to make less allocations and
     copyings.

   - bpo-22818(5): Splitting on a pattern that could match an empty
     string now raises a warning.  Patterns that can only match empty
     strings are now rejected.

   - bpo-23099(6): Closing io.BytesIO with exported buffer is rejected
     now to prevent corrupting exported buffer.

   - bpo-23326(7): Removed __ne__ implementations.  Since fixing default
     __ne__ implementation in bpo-21408(8) they are redundant.

   - bpo-23363(9): Fix possible overflow in itertools.permutations.

   - bpo-23364(10): Fix possible overflow in itertools.product.

   - bpo-23366(11): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     itertools.combinations.

   - bpo-23369(12): Fixed possible integer overflow in
     _json.encode_basestring_ascii.

   - bpo-23353(13): Fix the exception handling of generators in
     PyEval_EvalFrameEx().  At entry, save or swap the exception state
     even if PyEval_EvalFrameEx() is called with throwflag=0.  At exit,
     the exception state is now always restored or swapped, not only if
     why is WHY_YIELD or WHY_RETURN. Patch co-written with Antoine
     Pitrou.

   - bpo-14099(14): Restored support of writing ZIP files to tellable
     but non-seekable streams.

   - bpo-14099(15): Writing to ZipFile and reading multiple ZipExtFiles
     is threadsafe now.

   - bpo-19361(16): JSON decoder now raises JSONDecodeError instead of
     ValueError.

   - bpo-18518(17): timeit now rejects statements which can’t be
     compiled outside a function or a loop (e.g.  «return» or «break»).

   - bpo-23094(18): Fixed readline with frames in Python implementation
     of pickle.

   - bpo-23268(19): Fixed bugs in the comparison of ipaddress classes.

   - bpo-21408(20): Removed incorrect implementations of __ne__() which
     didn’t returned NotImplemented if __eq__() returned NotImplemented.
     The default __ne__() now works correctly.

   - bpo-19996(21): ‘email.feedparser.FeedParser’ now handles
     (malformed) headers with no key rather than assuming the body has
     started.

   - bpo-20188(22): Support Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation
     (ALPN) in the ssl module.

   - bpo-23133(23): Pickling of ipaddress objects now produces more
     compact and portable representation.

   - bpo-23248(24): Update ssl error codes from latest OpenSSL git
     master.

   - bpo-23266(25): Much faster implementation of
     ipaddress.collapse_addresses() when there are many non-consecutive
     addresses.

   - bpo-23098(26): 64-bit dev_t is now supported in the os module.

   - bpo-21817(27): When an exception is raised in a task submitted to a
     ProcessPoolExecutor, the remote traceback is now displayed in the
     parent process.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-15955(28): Add an option to limit output size when
     decompressing LZMA data.  Patch by Nikolaus Rath and Martin Panter.

   - bpo-23250(29): In the http.cookies module, capitalize «HttpOnly»
     and «Secure» as they are written in the standard.

   - bpo-23063(30): In the distutils” check command, fix parsing of reST
     with code or code-block directives.

   - bpo-23209(31): selectors.BaseSelector.get_key() now raises a
     RuntimeError if the selector is closed.  And
     selectors.BaseSelector.close() now clears its internal reference to
     the selector mapping to break a reference cycle.  Initial patch
     written by Martin Richard.  (See also: bpo-23225(32))

   - bpo-17911(33): Provide a way to seed the linecache for a PEP-302
     module without actually loading the code.

   - bpo-17911(34): Provide a new object API for traceback, including
     the ability to not lookup lines at all until the traceback is
     actually rendered, without any trace of the original objects being
     kept alive.

   - bpo-19777(35): Provide a home() classmethod on Path objects.
     Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi.

   - bpo-23206(36): Make ‘json.dumps(..., ensure_ascii=False)’ as fast
     as the default case of ‘ensure_ascii=True’.  Patch by Naoki Inada.

   - bpo-23185(37): Add math.inf and math.nan constants.

   - bpo-23186(38): Add ssl.SSLObject.shared_ciphers() and
     ssl.SSLSocket.shared_ciphers() to fetch the client’s list ciphers
     sent at handshake.

   - bpo-23143(39): Remove compatibility with OpenSSLs older than 0.9.8.

   - bpo-23132(40): Improve performance and introspection support of
     comparison methods created by functool.total_ordering.

   - bpo-19776(41): Add an expanduser() method on Path objects.

   - bpo-23112(42): Fix SimpleHTTPServer to correctly carry the query
     string and fragment when it redirects to add a trailing slash.

   - bpo-21793(43): Added http.HTTPStatus enums (i.e.  HTTPStatus.OK,
     HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND). Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23093(44): In the io, module allow more operations to work on
     detached streams.

   - bpo-23111(45): In the ftplib, make ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23 the default
     protocol version.

   - bpo-22585(46): On OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, os.urandom() now calls
     getentropy(), instead of reading /dev/urandom, to get pseudo-random
     bytes.

   - bpo-19104(47): pprint now produces evaluable output for wrapped
     strings.

   - bpo-23071(48): Added missing names to codecs.__all__.  Patch by
     Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22783(49): Pickling now uses the NEWOBJ opcode instead of the
     NEWOBJ_EX opcode if possible.

   - bpo-15513(50): Added a __sizeof__ implementation for pickle
     classes.

   - bpo-19858(51): pickletools.optimize() now aware of the MEMOIZE
     opcode, can produce more compact result and no longer produces
     invalid output if input data contains MEMOIZE opcodes together with
     PUT or BINPUT opcodes.

   - bpo-22095(52): Fixed HTTPConnection.set_tunnel with default port.
     The port value in the host header was set to «None».  Patch by
     Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-23016(53): A warning no longer produces an AttributeError when
     the program is run with pythonw.exe.

   - bpo-21775(54): shutil.copytree(): fix crash when copying to VFAT.
     An exception handler assumed that OSError objects always have a
     “winerror” attribute.  That is not the case, so the exception
     handler itself raised AttributeError when run on Linux (and,
     presumably, any other non-Windows OS). Patch by Greg Ward.

   - bpo-1218234(55): Fix inspect.getsource() to load updated source of
     reloaded module.  Initial patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-21740(56): Support wrapped callables in doctest.  Patch by
     Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-23009(57): Make sure selectors.EpollSelector.select() works
     when no FD is registered.

   - bpo-22959(58): In the constructor of http.client.HTTPSConnection,
     prefer the context’s check_hostname attribute over the
     'check_hostname' parameter.

   - bpo-22696(59): Add function *note sys.is_finalizing(): e4f. to know
     about interpreter shutdown.

   - bpo-16043(60): Add a default limit for the amount of data
     xmlrpclib.gzip_decode will return.  This resolves CVE
     2013-1753(61).

   - bpo-14099(62): ZipFile.open() no longer reopen the underlying file.
     Objects returned by ZipFile.open() can now operate independently of
     the ZipFile even if the ZipFile was created by passing in a
     file-like object as the first argument to the constructor.

   - bpo-22966(63): Fix __pycache__ pyc file name clobber when
     pyc_compile is asked to compile a source file containing multiple
     dots in the source file name.

   - bpo-21971(64): Update turtledemo doc and add module to the index.

   - bpo-21032(65): Fixed socket leak if HTTPConnection.getresponse()
     fails.  Original patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22407(66): Deprecated the use of re.LOCALE flag with str
     patterns or re.ASCII. It was newer worked.

   - bpo-22902(67): The «ip» command is now used on Linux to determine
     MAC address in uuid.getnode().  Patch by Bruno Cauet.

   - bpo-22960(68): Add a context argument to xmlrpclib.ServerProxy
     constructor.

   - bpo-22389(69): Add contextlib.redirect_stderr().

   - bpo-21356(70): Make ssl.RAND_egd() optional to support LibreSSL.
     The availability of the function is checked during the compilation.
     Patch written by Bernard Spil.

   - bpo-22915(71): SAX parser now supports files opened with file
     descriptor or bytes path.

   - bpo-22609(72): Constructors and update methods of mapping classes
     in the collections module now accept the self keyword argument.

   - bpo-22940(73): Add readline.append_history_file.

   - bpo-19676(74): Added the «namereplace» error handler.

   - bpo-22788(75): Add 'context' parameter to
     logging.handlers.HTTPHandler.

   - bpo-22921(76): Allow SSLContext to take the 'hostname' parameter
     even if OpenSSL doesn’t support SNI.

   - bpo-22894(77): TestCase.subTest() would cause the test suite to be
     stopped when in failfast mode, even in the absence of failures.

   - bpo-22796(78): HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to
     protect against potential injection attacks.

   - bpo-22370(79): Windows detection in pathlib is now more robust.

   - bpo-22841(80): Reject coroutines in asyncio add_signal_handler().
     Patch by Ludovic.Gasc.

   - bpo-19494(81): Added urllib.request.HTTPBasicPriorAuthHandler.
     Patch by Matej Cepl.

   - bpo-22578(82): Added attributes to the re.error class.

   - bpo-22849(83): Fix possible double free in the io.TextIOWrapper
     constructor.

   - bpo-12728(84): Different Unicode characters having the same
     uppercase but different lowercase are now matched in
     case-insensitive regular expressions.

   - bpo-22821(85): Fixed fcntl() with integer argument on 64-bit
     big-endian platforms.

   - bpo-21650(86): Add an ‘--sort-keys’ option to ‘json.tool’ CLI.

   - bpo-22824(87): Updated reprlib output format for sets to use set
     literals.  Patch contributed by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-22824(88): Updated reprlib output format for arrays to display
     empty arrays without an unnecessary empty list.  Suggested by
     Serhiy Storchaka.

   - bpo-22406(89): Fixed the uu_codec codec incorrectly ported to 3.x.
     Based on patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-17293(90): uuid.getnode() now determines MAC address on AIX
     using netstat.  Based on patch by Aivars Kalvāns.

   - bpo-22769(91): Fixed ttk.Treeview.tag_has() when called without
     arguments.

   - bpo-22417(92): Verify certificates by default in httplib (PEP 476).

   - bpo-22775(93): Fixed unpickling of http.cookies.SimpleCookie with
     protocol 2 and above.  Patch by Tim Graham.

   - bpo-22776(94): Brought excluded code into the scope of a try block
     in SysLogHandler.emit().

   - bpo-22665(95): Add missing get_terminal_size and SameFileError to
     shutil.__all__.

   - bpo-6623(96): Remove deprecated Netrc class in the ftplib module.
     Patch by Matt Chaput.

   - bpo-17381(97): Fixed handling of case-insensitive ranges in regular
     expressions.

   - bpo-22410(98): Module level functions in the re module now cache
     compiled locale-dependent regular expressions taking into account
     the locale.

   - bpo-22759(99): Query methods on pathlib.Path() (exists(), is_dir(),
     etc.)  now return False when the underlying stat call raises
     NotADirectoryError.

   - bpo-8876(100): distutils now falls back to copying files when hard
     linking doesn’t work.  This allows use with special filesystems
     such as VirtualBox shared folders.

   - bpo-22217(101): Implemented reprs of classes in the zipfile module.

   - bpo-22457(102): Honour load_tests in the start_dir of discovery.

   - bpo-18216(103): gettext now raises an error when a .mo file has an
     unsupported major version number.  Patch by Aaron Hill.

   - bpo-13918(104): Provide a locale.delocalize() function which can
     remove locale-specific number formatting from a string representing
     a number, without then converting it to a specific type.  Patch by
     Cédric Krier.

   - bpo-22676(105): Make the pickling of global objects which don’t
     have a __module__ attribute less slow.

   - bpo-18853(106): Fixed ResourceWarning in shlex.__nain__.

   - bpo-9351(107): Defaults set with set_defaults on an argparse
     subparser are no longer ignored when also set on the parent parser.

   - bpo-7559(108): unittest test loading ImportErrors are reported as
     import errors with their import exception rather than as attribute
     errors after the import has already failed.

   - bpo-19746(109): Make it possible to examine the errors from
     unittest discovery without executing the test suite.  The new
     ‘errors’ attribute on ‘TestLoader’ exposes these non-fatal errors
     encountered during discovery.

   - bpo-21991(110): Make email.headerregistry’s header “params”
     attributes be read-only (MappingProxyType).  Previously the
     dictionary was modifiable but a new one was created on each access
     of the attribute.

   - bpo-22638(111): SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard
     library.  It can still be enabled by instantiating a SSLContext
     manually.

   - bpo-22641(112): In asyncio, the default SSL context for client
     connections is now created using ssl.create_default_context(), for
     stronger security.

   - bpo-17401(113): Include closefd in io.FileIO repr.

   - bpo-21338(114): Add silent mode for compileall.  quiet parameters
     of compile_{dir, file, path} functions now have a multilevel value.
     Also, -q option of the CLI now have a multilevel value.  Patch by
     Thomas Kluyver.

   - bpo-20152(115): Convert the array and cmath modules to Argument
     Clinic.

   - bpo-18643(116): Add socket.socketpair() on Windows.

   - bpo-22435(117): Fix a file descriptor leak when socketserver bind
     fails.

   - bpo-13096(118): Fixed segfault in CTypes POINTER handling of large
     values.

   - bpo-11694(119): Raise ConversionError in xdrlib as documented.
     Patch by Filip Gruszczyński and Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-19380(120): Optimized parsing of regular expressions.

   - bpo-1519638(121): Now unmatched groups are replaced with empty
     strings in re.sub() and re.subn().

   - bpo-18615(122): sndhdr.what/whathdr now return a namedtuple.

   - bpo-22462(123): Fix pyexpat’s creation of a dummy frame to make it
     appear in exception tracebacks.

   - bpo-21965(124): Add support for in-memory SSL to the ssl module.
     Patch by Geert Jansen.

   - bpo-21173(125): Fix len() on a WeakKeyDictionary when .clear() was
     called with an iterator alive.

   - bpo-11866(126): Eliminated race condition in the computation of
     names for new threads.

   - bpo-21905(127): Avoid RuntimeError in pickle.whichmodule() when
     sys.modules is mutated while iterating.  Patch by Olivier Grisel.

   - bpo-11271(128): concurrent.futures.Executor.map() now takes a
     'chunksize' argument to allow batching of tasks in child processes
     and improve performance of ProcessPoolExecutor.  Patch by Dan
     O’Reilly.

   - bpo-21883(129): os.path.join() and os.path.relpath() now raise a
     TypeError with more helpful error message for unsupported or
     mismatched types of arguments.

   - bpo-22219(130): The zipfile module CLI now adds entries for
     directories (including empty directories) in ZIP file.

   - bpo-22449(131): In the ssl.SSLContext.load_default_certs, consult
     the environmental variables SSL_CERT_DIR and SSL_CERT_FILE on
     Windows.

   - bpo-22508(132): The email.__version__ variable has been removed;
     the email code is no longer shipped separately from the stdlib, and
     __version__ hasn’t been updated in several releases.

   - bpo-20076(133): Added non derived UTF-8 aliases to locale aliases
     table.

   - bpo-20079(134): Added locales supported in glibc 2.18 to locale
     alias table.

   - bpo-20218(135): Added convenience methods read_text/write_text and
     read_bytes/ write_bytes to pathlib.Path objects.

   - bpo-22396(136): On 32-bit AIX platform, don’t expose
     os.posix_fadvise() nor os.posix_fallocate() because their
     prototypes in system headers are wrong.

   - bpo-22517(137): When an io.BufferedRWPair object is deallocated,
     clear its weakrefs.

   - bpo-22437(138): Number of capturing groups in regular expression is
     no longer limited by 100.

   - bpo-17442(139): InteractiveInterpreter now displays the full
     chained traceback in its showtraceback method, to match the built
     in interactive interpreter.

   - bpo-23392(140): Added tests for marshal C API that works with
     FILE*.

   - bpo-10510(141): distutils register and upload methods now use HTML
     standards compliant CRLF line endings.

   - bpo-9850(142): Fixed macpath.join() for empty first component.
     Patch by Oleg Oshmyan.

   - bpo-5309(143): distutils” build and build_ext commands now accept a
     ‘-j’ option to enable parallel building of extension modules.

   - bpo-22448(144): Improve canceled timer handles cleanup to prevent
     unbound memory usage.  Patch by Joshua Moore-Oliva.

   - bpo-22427(145): TemporaryDirectory no longer attempts to clean up
     twice when used in the with statement in generator.

   - bpo-22362(146): Forbidden ambiguous octal escapes out of range
     0-0o377 in regular expressions.

   - bpo-20912(147): Now directories added to ZIP file have correct Unix
     and MS-DOS directory attributes.

   - bpo-21866(148): ZipFile.close() no longer writes ZIP64 central
     directory records if allowZip64 is false.

   - bpo-22278(149): Fix urljoin problem with relative urls, a
     regression observed after changes to issue22118 were submitted.

   - bpo-22415(150): Fixed debugging output of the GROUPREF_EXISTS
     opcode in the re module.  Removed trailing spaces in debugging
     output.

   - bpo-22423(151): Unhandled exception in thread no longer causes
     unhandled AttributeError when sys.stderr is None.

   - bpo-21332(152): Ensure that ‘bufsize=1’ in subprocess.Popen()
     selects line buffering, rather than block buffering.  Patch by
     Akira Li.

   - bpo-21091(153): Fix API bug:
     email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment is now a method.

   - bpo-21079(154): Fix email.message.EmailMessage.is_attachment to
     return the correct result when the header has parameters as well as
     a value.

   - bpo-22247(155): Add NNTPError to nntplib.__all__.

   - bpo-22366(156): urllib.request.urlopen will accept a context object
     (SSLContext) as an argument which will then be used for HTTPS
     connection.  Patch by Alex Gaynor.

   - bpo-4180(157): The warnings registries are now reset when the
     filters are modified.

   - bpo-22419(158): Limit the length of incoming HTTP request in
     wsgiref server to 65536 bytes and send a 414 error code for higher
     lengths.  Patch contributed by Devin Cook.

   - Lax cookie parsing in http.cookies could be a security issue when
     combined with non-standard cookie handling in some web browsers.
     Reported by Sergey Bobrov.

   - bpo-20537(159): logging methods now accept an exception instance as
     well as a Boolean value or exception tuple.  Thanks to Yury
     Selivanov for the patch.

   - bpo-22384(160): An exception in Tkinter callback no longer crashes
     the program when it is run with pythonw.exe.

   - bpo-22168(161): Prevent turtle AttributeError with non-default
     Canvas on OS X.

   - bpo-21147(162): sqlite3 now raises an exception if the request
     contains a null character instead of truncating it.  Based on patch
     by Victor Stinner.

   - bpo-13968(163): The glob module now supports recursive search in
     subdirectories using the ‘**’ pattern.

   - bpo-21951(164): Fixed a crash in Tkinter on AIX when called Tcl
     command with empty string or tuple argument.

   - bpo-21951(165): Tkinter now most likely raises MemoryError instead
     of crash if the memory allocation fails.

   - bpo-22338(166): Fix a crash in the json module on memory allocation
     failure.

   - bpo-12410(167): imaplib.IMAP4 now supports the context management
     protocol.  Original patch by Tarek Ziadé.

   - bpo-21270(168): We now override tuple methods in mock.call objects
     so that they can be used as normal call attributes.

   - bpo-16662(169): ‘load_tests()’ is now unconditionally run when it
     is present in a package’s ‘__init__.py’.
     ‘TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule()’ still accepts use_load_tests,
     but it is deprecated and ignored.  A new keyword-only attribute
     ‘pattern’ is added and documented.  Patch given by Robert Collins,
     tweaked by Barry Warsaw.

   - bpo-22226(170): First letter no longer is stripped from the
     «status» key in the result of Treeview.heading().

   - bpo-19524(171): Fixed resource leak in the HTTP connection when an
     invalid response is received.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-20421(172): Add a .version() method to SSL sockets exposing the
     actual protocol version in use.

   - bpo-19546(173): configparser exceptions no longer expose
     implementation details.  Chained KeyErrors are removed, which leads
     to cleaner tracebacks.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-22051(174): turtledemo no longer reloads examples to re-run
     them.  Initialization of variables and gui setup should be done in
     main(), which is called each time a demo is run, but not on import.

   - bpo-21933(175): Turtledemo users can change the code font size with
     a menu selection or control(command) “-” or “+” or
     control-mousewheel.  Original patch by Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21597(176): The separator between the turtledemo text pane and
     the drawing canvas can now be grabbed and dragged with a mouse.
     The code text pane can be widened to easily view or copy the full
     width of the text.  The canvas can be widened on small screens.
     Original patches by Jan Kanis and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-18132(177): Turtledemo buttons no longer disappear when the
     window is shrunk.  Original patches by Jan Kanis and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-22043(178): time.monotonic() is now always available.
     ‘threading.Lock.acquire()’, ‘threading.RLock.acquire()’ and socket
     operations now use a monotonic clock, instead of the system clock,
     when a timeout is used.

   - bpo-21527(179): Add a default number of workers to
     ThreadPoolExecutor equal to 5 times the number of CPUs.  Patch by
     Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-22216(180): smtplib now resets its state more completely after
     a quit.  The most obvious consequence of the previous behavior was
     a STARTTLS failure during a connect/starttls/quit/connect/starttls
     sequence.

   - bpo-22098(181): ctypes” BigEndianStructure and
     LittleEndianStructure now define an empty __slots__ so that
     subclasses don’t always get an instance dict.  Patch by Claudiu
     Popa.

   - bpo-22185(182): Fix an occasional RuntimeError in
     threading.Condition.wait() caused by mutation of the waiters queue
     without holding the lock.  Patch by Doug Zongker.

   - bpo-22287(183): On UNIX, _PyTime_gettimeofday() now uses
     clock_gettime(CLOCK_REALTIME) if available.  As a side effect,
     Python now depends on the librt library on Solaris and on Linux
     (only with glibc older than 2.17).

   - bpo-22182(184): Use e.args to unpack exceptions correctly in
     distutils.file_util.move_file.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - The webbrowser module now uses subprocess’s start_new_session=True
     rather than a potentially risky preexec_fn=os.setsid call.

   - bpo-22042(185): signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd) now raises an exception if
     the file descriptor is in blocking mode.

   - bpo-16808(186): inspect.stack() now returns a named tuple instead
     of a tuple.  Patch by Daniel Shahaf.

   - bpo-22236(187): Fixed Tkinter images copying operations in
     NoDefaultRoot mode.

   - bpo-2527(188): Add a 'globals' argument to timeit functions, in
     order to override the globals namespace in which the timed code is
     executed.  Patch by Ben Roberts.

   - bpo-22118(189): Switch urllib.parse to use RFC 3986 semantics for
     the resolution of relative URLs, rather than RFCs 1808 and 2396.
     Patch by Demian Brecht.

   - bpo-21549(190): Added the «members» parameter to TarFile.list().

   - bpo-19628(191): Allow compileall recursion depth to be specified
     with a -r option.

   - bpo-15696(192): Add a __sizeof__ implementation for mmap objects on
     Windows.

   - bpo-22068(193): Avoided reference loops with Variables and Fonts in
     Tkinter.

   - bpo-22165(194): SimpleHTTPRequestHandler now supports undecodable
     file names.

   - bpo-15381(195): Optimized line reading in io.BytesIO.

   - bpo-8797(196): Raise HTTPError on failed Basic Authentication
     immediately.  Initial patch by Sam Bull.

   - bpo-20729(197): Restored the use of lazy
     iterkeys()/itervalues()/iteritems() in the mailbox module.

   - bpo-21448(198): Changed FeedParser feed() to avoid 'O'('n'^2)
     behavior when parsing long line.  Original patch by Raymond
     Hettinger.

   - bpo-22184(199): The functools LRU Cache decorator factory now gives
     an earlier and clearer error message when the user forgets the
     required parameters.

   - bpo-17923(200): glob() patterns ending with a slash no longer match
     non-dirs on AIX. Based on patch by Delhallt.

   - bpo-21725(201): Added support for RFC 6531 (SMTPUTF8) in smtpd.

   - bpo-22176(202): Update the ctypes module’s libffi to v3.1.  This
     release adds support for the Linux AArch64 and POWERPC ELF ABIv2
     little endian architectures.

   - bpo-5411(203): Added support for the «xztar» format in the shutil
     module.

   - bpo-21121(204): Don’t force 3rd party C extensions to be built with
     -Werror=declaration-after-statement.

   - bpo-21975(205): Fixed crash when using uninitialized sqlite3.Row
     (in particular when unpickling pickled sqlite3.Row).  sqlite3.Row
     is now initialized in the __new__() method.

   - bpo-20170(206): Convert posixmodule to use Argument Clinic.

   - bpo-21539(207): Add an 'exists_ok' argument to ‘Pathlib.mkdir()’ to
     mimic ‘mkdir -p’ and ‘os.makedirs()’ functionality.  When true,
     ignore ‘FileExistsErrors’.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-22127(208): Bypass IDNA for pure-ASCII host names in the socket
     module (in particular for numeric IPs).

   - bpo-21047(209): set the default value for the 'convert_charrefs'
     argument of HTMLParser to True.  Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - Add an __all__ to html.entities.

   - bpo-15114(210): the strict mode and argument of HTMLParser,
     HTMLParser.error, and the HTMLParserError exception have been
     removed.

   - bpo-22085(211): Dropped support of Tk 8.3 in Tkinter.

   - bpo-21580(212): Now Tkinter correctly handles bytes arguments
     passed to Tk.  In particular this allows initializing images from
     binary data.

   - bpo-22003(213): When initialized from a bytes object, io.BytesIO()
     now defers making a copy until it is mutated, improving performance
     and memory use on some use cases.  Patch by David Wilson.

   - bpo-22018(214): On Windows, signal.set_wakeup_fd() now also
     supports sockets.  A side effect is that Python depends to the
     WinSock library.

   - bpo-22054(215): Add os.get_blocking() and os.set_blocking()
     functions to get and set the blocking mode of a file descriptor
     (False if the O_NONBLOCK flag is set, True otherwise).  These
     functions are not available on Windows.

   - bpo-17172(216): Make turtledemo start as active on OS X even when
     run with subprocess.  Patch by Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21704(217): Fix build error for _multiprocessing when
     semaphores are not available.  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar
     Arahesis.

   - bpo-20173(218): Convert sha1, sha256, sha512 and md5 to
     ArgumentClinic.  Patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - Fix repr(_socket.socket) on Windows 64-bit: don’t fail with
     OverflowError on closed socket.  repr(socket.socket) already works
     fine.

   - bpo-22033(219): Reprs of most Python implemented classes now
     contain actual class name instead of hardcoded one.

   - bpo-21947(220): The dis module can now disassemble
     generator-iterator objects based on their gi_code attribute.  Patch
     by Clement Rouault.

   - bpo-16133(221): The asynchat.async_chat.handle_read() method now
     ignores BlockingIOError exceptions.

   - bpo-22044(222): Fixed premature DECREF in call_tzinfo_method.
     Patch by Tom Flanagan.

   - bpo-19884(223): readline: Disable the meta modifier key if stdout
     is not a terminal to not write the ANSI sequence ‘"\033[1034h"’
     into stdout.  This sequence is used on some terminal (ex:
     TERM=xterm-256color») to enable support of 8 bit characters.

   - bpo-4350(224): Removed a number of out-of-dated and non-working for
     a long time Tkinter methods.

   - bpo-6167(225): Scrollbar.activate() now returns the name of active
     element if the argument is not specified.  Scrollbar.set() now
     always accepts only 2 arguments.

   - bpo-15275(226): Clean up and speed up the ntpath module.

   - bpo-21888(227): plistlib’s load() and loads() now work if the fmt
     parameter is specified.

   - bpo-22032(228): __qualname__ instead of __name__ is now always used
     to format fully qualified class names of Python implemented
     classes.

   - bpo-22031(229): Reprs now always use hexadecimal format with the
     «0x» prefix when contain an id in form « at 0x…».

   - bpo-22018(230): signal.set_wakeup_fd() now raises an OSError
     instead of a ValueError on ‘fstat()’ failure.

   - bpo-21044(231): tarfile.open() now handles fileobj with an integer
     “name” attribute.  Based on patch by Antoine Pietri.

   - bpo-21966(232): Respect -q command-line option when code module is
     ran.

   - bpo-19076(233): Don’t pass the redundant “file” argument to
     self.error().

   - bpo-16382(234): Improve exception message of warnings.warn() for
     bad category.  Initial patch by Phil Elson.

   - bpo-21932(235): os.read() now uses a *note Py_ssize_t(): e24. type
     instead of int for the size to support reading more than 2 GB at
     once.  On Windows, the size is truncated to INT_MAX. As any call to
     os.read(), the OS may read less bytes than the number of requested
     bytes.

   - bpo-21942(236): Fixed source file viewing in pydoc’s server mode on
     Windows.

   - bpo-11259(237): asynchat.async_chat().set_terminator() now raises a
     ValueError if the number of received bytes is negative.

   - bpo-12523(238): asynchat.async_chat.push() now raises a TypeError
     if it doesn’t get a bytes string

   - bpo-21707(239): Add missing kwonlyargcount argument to
     ModuleFinder.replace_paths_in_code().

   - bpo-20639(240): calling Path.with_suffix(“”) allows removing the
     suffix again.  Patch by July Tikhonov.

   - bpo-21714(241): Disallow the construction of invalid paths using
     Path.with_name().  Original patch by Antony Lee.

   - bpo-15014(242): Added “auth” method to smtplib to make implementing
     auth mechanisms simpler, and used it internally in the login
     method.

   - bpo-21151(243): Fixed a segfault in the winreg module when ‘None’
     is passed as a ‘REG_BINARY’ value to SetValueEx.  Patch by John
     Ehresman.

   - bpo-21090(244): io.FileIO.readall() does not ignore I/O errors
     anymore.  Before, it ignored I/O errors if at least the first C
     call read() succeed.

   - bpo-5800(245): headers parameter of wsgiref.headers.Headers is now
     optional.  Initial patch by Pablo Torres Navarrete and SilentGhost.

   - bpo-21781(246): ssl.RAND_add() now supports strings longer than 2
     GB.

   - bpo-21679(247): Prevent extraneous fstat() calls during open().
     Patch by Bohuslav Kabrda.

   - bpo-21863(248): cProfile now displays the module name of C
     extension functions, in addition to their own name.

   - bpo-11453(249): asyncore: emit a ResourceWarning when an unclosed
     file_wrapper object is destroyed.  The destructor now closes the
     file if needed.  The close() method can now be called twice: the
     second call does nothing.

   - bpo-21858(250): Better handling of Python exceptions in the sqlite3
     module.

   - bpo-21476(251): Make sure the email.parser.BytesParser
     TextIOWrapper is discarded after parsing, so the input file isn’t
     unexpectedly closed.

   - bpo-20295(252): imghdr now recognizes OpenEXR format images.

   - bpo-21729(253): Used the «with» statement in the dbm.dumb module to
     ensure files closing.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21491(254): socketserver: Fix a race condition in child
     processes reaping.

   - bpo-21719(255): Added the ‘st_file_attributes’ field to
     os.stat_result on Windows.

   - bpo-21832(256): Require named tuple inputs to be exact strings.

   - bpo-21722(257): The distutils «upload» command now exits with a
     non-zero return code when uploading fails.  Patch by Martin
     Dengler.

   - bpo-21723(258): asyncio.Queue: support any type of number (ex:
     float) for the maximum size.  Patch written by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21711(259): support for «site-python» directories has now been
     removed from the site module (it was deprecated in 3.4).

   - bpo-17552(260): new socket.sendfile() method allowing a file to be
     sent over a socket by using high-performance os.sendfile() on UNIX.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola”.

   - bpo-18039(261): dbm.dump.open() now always creates a new database
     when the flag has the value “n”.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21326(262): Add a new is_closed() method to
     asyncio.BaseEventLoop.  run_forever() and run_until_complete()
     methods of asyncio.BaseEventLoop now raise an exception if the
     event loop was closed.

   - bpo-21766(263): Prevent a security hole in CGIHTTPServer by URL
     unquoting paths before checking for a CGI script at that path.

   - bpo-21310(264): Fixed possible resource leak in failed open().

   - bpo-21256(265): Printout of keyword args should be in deterministic
     order in a mock function call.  This will help to write better
     doctests.

   - bpo-21677(266): Fixed chaining nonnormalized exceptions in io
     close() methods.

   - bpo-11709(267): Fix the pydoc.help function to not fail when
     sys.stdin is not a valid file.

   - bpo-21515(268): tempfile.TemporaryFile now uses os.O_TMPFILE flag
     is available.

   - bpo-13223(269): Fix pydoc.writedoc so that the HTML documentation
     for methods that use “self” in the example code is generated
     correctly.

   - bpo-21463(270): In urllib.request, fix pruning of the FTP cache.

   - bpo-21618(271): The subprocess module could fail to close open fds
     that were inherited by the calling process and already higher than
     POSIX resource limits would otherwise allow.  On systems with a
     functioning /proc/self/fd or /dev/fd interface the max is now
     ignored and all fds are closed.

   - bpo-20383(272): Introduce importlib.util.module_from_spec() as the
     preferred way to create a new module.

   - bpo-21552(273): Fixed possible integer overflow of too long string
     lengths in the tkinter module on 64-bit platforms.

   - bpo-14315(274): The zipfile module now ignores extra fields in the
     central directory that are too short to be parsed instead of
     letting a struct.unpack error bubble up as this «bad data» appears
     in many real world zip files in the wild and is ignored by other
     zip tools.

   - bpo-13742(275): Added «key» and «reverse» parameters to
     heapq.merge().  (First draft of patch contributed by Simon Sapin.)

   - bpo-21402(276): tkinter.ttk now works when default root window is
     not set.

   - bpo-3015(277): ‘_tkinter.create()’ now creates ‘tkapp’ object with
     ‘wantobjects=1’ by default.

   - bpo-10203(278): sqlite3.Row now truly supports sequence protocol.
     In particular it supports reverse() and negative indices.  Original
     patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-18807(279): If copying (no symlinks) specified for a venv, then
     the python interpreter aliases (python, python3) are now created by
     copying rather than symlinking.

   - bpo-20197(280): Added support for the WebP image type in the imghdr
     module.  Patch by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-21513(281): Speedup some properties of IP addresses
     (IPv4Address, IPv6Address) such as .is_private or .is_multicast.

   - bpo-21137(282): Improve the repr for threading.Lock() and its
     variants by showing the «locked» or «unlocked» status.  Patch by
     Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-21538(283): The plistlib module now supports loading of binary
     plist files when reference or offset size is not a power of two.

   - bpo-21455(284): Add a default backlog to socket.listen().

   - bpo-21525(285): Most Tkinter methods which accepted tuples now
     accept lists too.

   - bpo-22166(286): With the assistance of a new internal
     _codecs._forget_codec helping function, test_codecs now clears the
     encoding caches to avoid the appearance of a reference leak

   - bpo-22236(287): Tkinter tests now don’t reuse default root window.
     New root window is created for every test class.

   - bpo-10744(288): Fix PEP 3118(289) format strings on ctypes objects
     with a nontrivial shape.

   - bpo-20826(290): Optimize ipaddress.collapse_addresses().

   - bpo-21487(291): Optimize ipaddress.summarize_address_range() and
     ipaddress.{IPv4Network,IPv6Network}.subnets().

   - bpo-21486(292): Optimize parsing of netmasks in
     ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network.

   - bpo-13916(293): Disallowed the surrogatepass error handler for non
     UTF-* encodings.

   - bpo-20998(294): Fixed re.fullmatch() of repeated single character
     pattern with ignore case.  Original patch by Matthew Barnett.

   - bpo-21075(295): fileinput.FileInput now reads bytes from standard
     stream if binary mode is specified.  Patch by Sam Kimbrel.

   - bpo-19775(296): Add a samefile() method to pathlib Path objects.
     Initial patch by Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21226(297): Set up modules properly in
     PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (and friends).

   - bpo-21398(298): Fix a unicode error in the pydoc pager when the
     documentation contains characters not encodable to the stdout
     encoding.

   - bpo-16531(299): ipaddress.IPv4Network and ipaddress.IPv6Network now
     accept an (address, netmask) tuple argument, so as to easily
     construct network objects from existing addresses.

   - bpo-21156(300): importlib.abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code() is now
     a staticmethod.

   - bpo-21424(301): Simplified and optimized heaqp.nlargest() and
     nmsmallest() to make fewer tuple comparisons.

   - bpo-21396(302): Fix TextIOWrapper(…, write_through=True) to not
     force a flush() on the underlying binary stream.  Patch by akira.

   - bpo-18314(303): Unlink now removes junctions on Windows.  Patch by
     Kim Gräsman

   - bpo-21088(304): Bugfix for curses.window.addch() regression in
     3.4.0.  In porting to Argument Clinic, the first two arguments were
     reversed.

   - bpo-21407(305): _decimal: The module now supports function
     signatures.

   - bpo-10650(306): Remove the non-standard “watchexp” parameter from
     the Decimal.quantize() method in the Python version.  It had never
     been present in the C version.

   - bpo-21469(307): Reduced the risk of false positives in robotparser
     by checking to make sure that robots.txt has been read or does not
     exist prior to returning True in can_fetch().

   - bpo-19414(308): Have the OrderedDict mark deleted links as
     unusable.  This gives an early failure if the link is deleted
     during iteration.

   - bpo-21421(309): Add __slots__ to the MappingViews ABC. Patch by
     Josh Rosenberg.

   - bpo-21101(310): Eliminate double hashing in the C speed-up code for
     collections.Counter().

   - bpo-21321(311): itertools.islice() now releases the reference to
     the source iterator when the slice is exhausted.  Patch by Anton
     Afanasyev.

   - bpo-21057(312): TextIOWrapper now allows the underlying binary
     stream’s read() or read1() method to return an arbitrary bytes-like
     object (such as a memoryview).  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20951(313): SSLSocket.send() now raises either SSLWantReadError
     or SSLWantWriteError on a non-blocking socket if the operation
     would block.  Previously, it would return 0.  Patch by Nikolaus
     Rath.

   - bpo-13248(314): removed previously deprecated asyncore.dispatcher
     __getattr__ cheap inheritance hack.

   - bpo-9815(315): assertRaises now tries to clear references to local
     variables in the exception’s traceback.

   - bpo-19940(316): ssl.cert_time_to_seconds() now interprets the given
     time string in the UTC timezone (as specified in RFC 5280), not the
     local timezone.

   - bpo-13204(317): Calling sys.flags.__new__ would crash the
     interpreter, now it raises a TypeError.

   - bpo-19385(318): Make operations on a closed dbm.dumb database
     always raise the same exception.

   - bpo-21207(319): Detect when the os.urandom cached fd has been
     closed or replaced, and open it anew.

   - bpo-21291(320): subprocess’s Popen.wait() is now thread safe so
     that multiple threads may be calling wait() or poll() on a Popen
     instance at the same time without losing the Popen.returncode
     value.

   - bpo-21127(321): Path objects can now be instantiated from str
     subclass instances (such as ‘numpy.str_’).

   - bpo-15002(322): urllib.response object to use _TemporaryFileWrapper
     (and _TemporaryFileCloser) facility.  Provides a better way to
     handle file descriptor close.  Patch contributed by Christian
     Theune.

   - bpo-12220(323): mindom now raises a custom ValueError indicating it
     doesn’t support spaces in URIs instead of letting a “split”
     ValueError bubble up.

   - bpo-21068(324): The ssl.PROTOCOL* constants are now enum members.

   - bpo-21276(325): posixmodule: Don’t define USE_XATTRS on KFreeBSD
     and the Hurd.

   - bpo-21262(326): New method assert_not_called for Mock.  It raises
     AssertionError if the mock has been called.

   - bpo-21238(327): New keyword argument ‘unsafe’ to Mock.  It raises
     ‘AttributeError’ in case of an attribute startswith assert or
     assret.

   - bpo-20896(328): ssl.get_server_certificate() now uses
     PROTOCOL_SSLv23, not PROTOCOL_SSLv3, for maximum compatibility.

   - bpo-21239(329): patch.stopall() didn’t work deterministically when
     the same name was patched more than once.

   - bpo-21203(330): Updated fileConfig and dictConfig to remove
     inconsistencies.  Thanks to Jure Koren for the patch.

   - bpo-21222(331): Passing name keyword argument to
     mock.create_autospec now works.

   - bpo-21197(332): Add lib64 -> lib symlink in venvs on 64-bit non-OS
     X POSIX.

   - bpo-17498(333): Some SMTP servers disconnect after certain errors,
     violating strict RFC conformance.  Instead of losing the error code
     when we issue the subsequent RSET, smtplib now returns the error
     code and defers raising the SMTPServerDisconnected error until the
     next command is issued.

   - bpo-17826(334): setting an iterable side_effect on a mock function
     created by create_autospec now works.  Patch by Kushal Das.

   - bpo-7776(335): Fix ‘Host:’ header and reconnection when using
     http.client.HTTPConnection.set_tunnel().  Patch by Nikolaus Rath.

   - bpo-20968(336): unittest.mock.MagicMock now supports division.
     Patch by Johannes Baiter.

   - bpo-21529(337): Fix arbitrary memory access in
     JSONDecoder.raw_decode with a negative second parameter.  Bug
     reported by Guido Vranken.  (See also: CVE 2014-4616(338))

   - bpo-21169(339): getpass now handles non-ascii characters that the
     input stream encoding cannot encode by re-encoding using the
     replace error handler.

   - bpo-21171(340): Fixed undocumented filter API of the rot13 codec.
     Patch by Berker Peksag.

   - bpo-20539(341): Improved math.factorial error message for large
     positive inputs and changed exception type (OverflowError ->
     ValueError) for large negative inputs.

   - bpo-21172(342): isinstance check relaxed from dict to
     collections.Mapping.

   - bpo-21155(343): asyncio.EventLoop.create_unix_server() now raises a
     ValueError if path and sock are specified at the same time.

   - bpo-21136(344): Avoid unnecessary normalization of Fractions
     resulting from power and other operations.  Patch by Raymond
     Hettinger.

   - bpo-17621(345): Introduce importlib.util.LazyLoader.

   - bpo-21076(346): signal module constants were turned into enums.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola”.

   - bpo-20636(347): Improved the repr of Tkinter widgets.

   - bpo-19505(348): The items, keys, and values views of OrderedDict
     now support reverse iteration using reversed().

   - bpo-21149(349): Improved thread-safety in logging cleanup during
     interpreter shutdown.  Thanks to Devin Jeanpierre for the patch.

   - bpo-21058(350): Fix a leak of file descriptor in *note
     tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(): 8d6, close the file descriptor if
     *note io.open(): 92b. fails

   - bpo-21200(351): Return None from pkgutil.get_loader() when __spec__
     is missing.

   - bpo-21013(352): Enhance ssl.create_default_context() when used for
     server side sockets to provide better security by default.

   - bpo-20145(353): ‘assertRaisesRegex’ and ‘assertWarnsRegex’ now
     raise a ‘TypeError’ if the second argument is not a string or
     compiled regex.

   - bpo-20633(354): Replace relative import by absolute import.

   - bpo-20980(355): Stop wrapping exception when using ThreadPool.

   - bpo-21082(356): In os.makedirs, do not set the process-wide umask.
     Note this changes behavior of makedirs when exist_ok=True.

   - bpo-20990(357): Fix issues found by pyflakes for multiprocessing.

   - bpo-21015(358): SSL contexts will now automatically select an
     elliptic curve for ECDH key exchange on OpenSSL 1.0.2 and later,
     and otherwise default to «prime256v1».

   - bpo-21000(359): Improve the command-line interface of json.tool.

   - bpo-20995(360): Enhance default ciphers used by the ssl module to
     enable better security and prioritize perfect forward secrecy.

   - bpo-20884(361): Don’t assume that __file__ is defined on
     importlib.__init__.

   - bpo-21499(362): Ignore __builtins__ in several
     test_importlib.test_api tests.

   - bpo-20627(363): xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy is now a context manager.

   - bpo-19165(364): The formatter module now raises DeprecationWarning
     instead of PendingDeprecationWarning.

   - bpo-13936(365): Remove the ability of datetime.time instances to be
     considered false in boolean contexts.

   - bpo-18931(366): selectors module now supports /dev/poll on Solaris.
     Patch by Giampaolo Rodola”.

   - bpo-19977(367): When the ‘LC_TYPE’ locale is the POSIX locale (‘C’
     locale), *note sys.stdin: 94a. and *note sys.stdout: e9c. are now
     using the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, instead of the ‘strict’
     error handler.

   - bpo-20574(368): Implement incremental decoder for cp65001 code
     (Windows code page 65001, Microsoft UTF-8).

   - bpo-20879(369): Delay the initialization of encoding and decoding
     tables for base32, ascii85 and base85 codecs in the base64 module,
     and delay the initialization of the unquote_to_bytes() table of the
     urllib.parse module, to not waste memory if these modules are not
     used.

   - bpo-19157(370): Include the broadcast address in the usable hosts
     for IPv6 in ipaddress.

   - bpo-11599(371): When an external command (e.g.  compiler) fails,
     distutils now prints out the whole command line (instead of just
     the command name) if the environment variable DISTUTILS_DEBUG is
     set.

   - bpo-4931(372): distutils should not produce unhelpful «error: None»
     messages anymore.  distutils.util.grok_environment_error is kept
     but doc-deprecated.

   - bpo-20875(373): Prevent possible gzip «“read” is not defined»
     NameError.  Patch by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-11558(374): ‘email.message.Message.attach’ now returns a more
     useful error message if ‘attach’ is called on a message for which
     ‘is_multipart’ is False.

   - bpo-20283(375): RE pattern methods now accept the string keyword
     parameters as documented.  The pattern and source keyword
     parameters are left as deprecated aliases.

   - bpo-20778(376): Fix modulefinder to work with bytecode-only
     modules.

   - bpo-20791(377): copy.copy() now doesn’t make a copy when the input
     is a bytes object.  Initial patch by Peter Otten.

   - bpo-19748(378): On AIX, time.mktime() now raises an OverflowError
     for year outsize range [1902; 2037].

   - bpo-19573(379): inspect.signature: Use enum for parameter kind
     constants.

   - bpo-20726(380): inspect.signature: Make Signature and Parameter
     picklable.

   - bpo-17373(381): Add inspect.Signature.from_callable method.

   - bpo-20378(382): Improve repr of inspect.Signature and
     inspect.Parameter.

   - bpo-20816(383): Fix inspect.getcallargs() to raise correct
     TypeError for missing keyword-only arguments.  Patch by Jeremiah
     Lowin.

   - bpo-20817(384): Fix inspect.getcallargs() to fail correctly if more
     than 3 arguments are missing.  Patch by Jeremiah Lowin.

   - bpo-6676(385): Ensure a meaningful exception is raised when
     attempting to parse more than one XML document per pyexpat
     xmlparser instance.  (Original patches by Hirokazu Yamamoto and
     Amaury Forgeot d’Arc, with suggested wording by David Gutteridge)

   - bpo-21117(386): Fix inspect.signature to better support
     functools.partial.  Due to the specifics of functools.partial
     implementation, positional-or-keyword arguments passed as keyword
     arguments become keyword-only.

   - bpo-20334(387): inspect.Signature and inspect.Parameter are now
     hashable.  Thanks to Antony Lee for bug reports and suggestions.

   - bpo-15916(388): doctest.DocTestSuite returns an empty
     unittest.TestSuite instead of raising ValueError if it finds no
     tests

   - bpo-21209(389): Fix asyncio.tasks.CoroWrapper to workaround a bug
     in yield-from implementation in CPythons prior to 3.4.1.

   - asyncio: Add gi_{frame,running,code} properties to CoroWrapper
     (upstream bpo-163(390)).

   - bpo-21311(391): Avoid exception in _osx_support with non-standard
     compiler configurations.  Patch by John Szakmeister.

   - bpo-11571(392): Ensure that the turtle window becomes the topmost
     window when launched on OS X.

   - bpo-21801(393): Validate that __signature__ is None or an instance
     of Signature.

   - bpo-21923(394): Prevent AttributeError in
     distutils.sysconfig.customize_compiler due to possible
     uninitialized _config_vars.

   - bpo-21323(395): Fix http.server to again handle scripts in CGI
     subdirectories, broken by the fix for security bpo-19435(396).
     Patch by Zach Byrne.

   - bpo-22733(397): Fix ffi_prep_args not zero-extending argument
     values correctly on 64-bit Windows.

   - bpo-23302(398): Default to TCP_NODELAY=1 upon establishing an
     HTTPConnection.  Removed use of hard-coded MSS as it’s an
     optimization that’s no longer needed with Nagle disabled.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23399

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20289

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13128

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22818

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23099

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23326

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21408

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23363

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23364

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23366

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23369

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23353

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14099

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   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19361

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File: python.info,  Node: IDLE<64>,  Next: Build<100>,  Prev: Library<212>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.26.119.3 IDLE
...............

   - bpo-20577(1): Configuration of the max line length for the
     FormatParagraph extension has been moved from the General tab of
     the Idle preferences dialog to the FormatParagraph tab of the
     Config Extensions dialog.  Patch by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-16893(2): Update Idle doc chapter to match current Idle and add
     new information.

   - bpo-3068(3): Add Idle extension configuration dialog to Options
     menu.  Changes are written to HOME/.idlerc/config-extensions.cfg.
     Original patch by Tal Einat.

   - bpo-16233(4): A module browser (File : Class Browser, Alt+C)
     requires an editor window with a filename.  When Class Browser is
     requested otherwise, from a shell, output window, or “Untitled”
     editor, Idle no longer displays an error box.  It now pops up an
     Open Module box (Alt+M). If a valid name is entered and a module is
     opened, a corresponding browser is also opened.

   - bpo-4832(5): Save As to type Python files automatically adds .py to
     the name you enter (even if your system does not display it).  Some
     systems automatically add .txt when type is Text files.

   - bpo-21986(6): Code objects are not normally pickled by the pickle
     module.  To match this, they are no longer pickled when running
     under Idle.

   - bpo-17390(7): Adjust Editor window title; remove “Python”, move
     version to end.

   - bpo-14105(8): Idle debugger breakpoints no longer disappear when
     inserting or deleting lines.

   - bpo-17172(9): Turtledemo can now be run from Idle.  Currently, the
     entry is on the Help menu, but it may move to Run.  Patch by
     Ramchandra Apt and Lita Cho.

   - bpo-21765(10): Add support for non-ascii identifiers to
     HyperParser.

   - bpo-21940(11): Add unittest for WidgetRedirector.  Initial patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-18592(12): Add unittest for SearchDialogBase.  Patch by Phil
     Webster.

   - bpo-21694(13): Add unittest for ParenMatch.  Patch by Saimadhav
     Heblikar.

   - bpo-21686(14): add unittest for HyperParser.  Original patch by
     Saimadhav Heblikar.

   - bpo-12387(15): Add missing upper(lower)case versions of default
     Windows key bindings for Idle so Caps Lock does not disable them.
     Patch by Roger Serwy.

   - bpo-21695(16): Closing a Find-in-files output window while the
     search is still in progress no longer closes Idle.

   - bpo-18910(17): Add unittest for textView.  Patch by Phil Webster.

   - bpo-18292(18): Add unittest for AutoExpand.  Patch by Saihadhav
     Heblikar.

   - bpo-18409(19): Add unittest for AutoComplete.  Patch by Phil
     Webster.

   - bpo-21477(20): htest.py - Improve framework, complete set of tests.
     Patches by Saimadhav Heblikar

   - bpo-18104(21): Add idlelib/idle_test/htest.py with a few sample
     tests to begin consolidating and improving human-validated tests of
     Idle.  Change other files as needed to work with htest.  Running
     the module as __main__ runs all tests.

   - bpo-21139(22): Change default paragraph width to 72, the PEP 8(23)
     recommendation.

   - bpo-21284(24): Paragraph reformat test passes after user changes
     reformat width.

   - bpo-17654(25): Ensure IDLE menus are customized properly on OS X
     for non-framework builds and for all variants of Tk.

   - bpo-23180(26): Rename IDLE «Windows» menu item to «Window».  Patch
     by Al Sweigart.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20577

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16893

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3068

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16233

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4832

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21986

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17390

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14105

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17172

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21765

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21940

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18592

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21694

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21686

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12387

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21695

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18910

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18292

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18409

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21477

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18104

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21139

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21284

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17654

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23180


File: python.info,  Node: Build<100>,  Next: C API<80>,  Prev: IDLE<64>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.26.119.4 Build
................

   - bpo-15506(1): Use standard PKG_PROG_PKG_CONFIG autoconf macro in
     the configure script.

   - bpo-22935(2): Allow the ssl module to be compiled if openssl
     doesn’t support SSL 3.

   - bpo-22592(3): Drop support of the Borland C compiler to build
     Python.  The distutils module still supports it to build
     extensions.

   - bpo-22591(4): Drop support of MS-DOS, especially of the DJGPP
     compiler (MS-DOS port of GCC).

   - bpo-16537(5): Check whether self.extensions is empty in setup.py.
     Patch by Jonathan Hosmer.

   - bpo-22359(6): Remove incorrect uses of recursive make.  Patch by
     Jonas Wagner.

   - bpo-21958(7): Define HAVE_ROUND when building with Visual Studio
     2013 and above.  Patch by Zachary Turner.

   - bpo-18093(8): the programs that embed the CPython runtime are now
     in a separate «Programs» directory, rather than being kept in the
     Modules directory.

   - bpo-15759(9): «make suspicious», «make linkcheck» and «make
     doctest» in Doc/ now display special message when and only when
     there are failures.

   - bpo-21141(10): The Windows build process no longer attempts to find
     Perl, instead relying on OpenSSL source being configured and ready
     to build.  The ‘PCbuild\build_ssl.py’ script has been re-written
     and re-named to ‘PCbuild\prepare_ssl.py’, and takes care of
     configuring OpenSSL source for both 32 and 64 bit platforms.
     OpenSSL sources obtained from svn.python.org will always be
     pre-configured and ready to build.

   - bpo-21037(11): Add a build option to enable AddressSanitizer
     support.

   - bpo-19962(12): The Windows build process now creates «python.bat»
     in the root of the source tree, which passes all arguments through
     to the most recently built interpreter.

   - bpo-21285(13): Refactor and fix curses configure check to always
     search in a ncursesw directory.

   - bpo-15234(14): For BerkeleyDB and Sqlite, only add the found
     library and include directories if they aren’t already being
     searched.  This avoids an explicit runtime library dependency.

   - bpo-17861(15): Tools/scripts/generate_opcode_h.py automatically
     regenerates Include/opcode.h from Lib/opcode.py if the latter gets
     any change.

   - bpo-20644(16): OS X installer build support for documentation build
     changes in 3.4.1: assume externally supplied sphinx-build is
     available in /usr/bin.

   - bpo-20022(17): Eliminate use of deprecated bundlebuilder in OS X
     builds.

   - bpo-15968(18): Incorporated Tcl, Tk, and Tix builds into the
     Windows build solution.

   - bpo-17095(19): Fix Modules/Setup 'shared' support.

   - bpo-21811(20): Anticipated fixes to support OS X versions > 10.9.

   - bpo-21166(21): Prevent possible segfaults and other random failures
     of python –generate-posix-vars in pybuilddir.txt build target.

   - bpo-18096(22): Fix library order returned by python-config.

   - bpo-17219(23): Add library build dir for Python extension
     cross-builds.

   - bpo-22919(24): Windows build updated to support VC 14.0 (Visual
     Studio 2015), which will be used for the official release.

   - bpo-21236(25): Build _msi.pyd with cabinet.lib instead of fci.lib

   - bpo-17128(26): Use private version of OpenSSL for OS X 10.5+
     installer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15506

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22935

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22592

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22591

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16537

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22359

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21958

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18093

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15759

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21141

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21037

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19962

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21285

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15234

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17861

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20644

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20022

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15968

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17095

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21811

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21166

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18096

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17219

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22919

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21236

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17128


File: python.info,  Node: C API<80>,  Next: Documentation<85>,  Prev: Build<100>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.26.119.5 C API
................

   - bpo-14203(1): Remove obsolete support for view==NULL in
     PyBuffer_FillInfo(), bytearray_getbuffer(), bytesiobuf_getbuffer()
     and array_buffer_getbuf().  All functions now raise BufferError in
     that case.

   - bpo-22445(2): PyBuffer_IsContiguous() now implements precise
     contiguity tests, compatible with NumPy’s
     NPY_RELAXED_STRIDES_CHECKING compilation flag.  Previously the
     function reported false negatives for corner cases.

   - bpo-22079(3): PyType_Ready() now checks that statically allocated
     type has no dynamically allocated bases.

   - bpo-22453(4): Removed non-documented macro PyObject_REPR().

   - bpo-18395(5): Rename ‘_Py_char2wchar()’ to *note Py_DecodeLocale():
     f85, rename ‘_Py_wchar2char()’ to *note Py_EncodeLocale(): f86, and
     document these functions.

   - bpo-21233(6): Add new C functions: PyMem_RawCalloc(),
     PyMem_Calloc(), PyObject_Calloc(), _PyObject_GC_Calloc().
     bytes(int) is now using ‘calloc()’ instead of ‘malloc()’ for large
     objects which is faster and use less memory.

   - bpo-20942(7): PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject() no longer sets
     __file__ to match what importlib does; this affects
     _frozen_importlib as well as any module loaded using
     imp.init_frozen().

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14203

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22445

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22079

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22453

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18395

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20942


File: python.info,  Node: Documentation<85>,  Next: Tests<92>,  Prev: C API<80>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.26.119.6 Documentation
........................

   - bpo-19548(1): Update the codecs module documentation to better
     cover the distinction between text encodings and other codecs,
     together with other clarifications.  Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22394(2): Doc/Makefile now supports ‘make venv
     PYTHON=../python’ to create a venv for generating the
     documentation, e.g., ‘make html PYTHON=venv/bin/python3’.

   - bpo-21514(3): The documentation of the json module now refers to
     new JSON RFC 7159 instead of obsoleted RFC 4627.

   - bpo-21777(4): The binary sequence methods on bytes and bytearray
     are now documented explicitly, rather than assuming users will be
     able to derive the expected behaviour from the behaviour of the
     corresponding str methods.

   - bpo-6916(5): undocument deprecated asynchat.fifo class.

   - bpo-17386(6): Expanded functionality of the ‘Doc/make.bat’ script
     to make it much more comparable to ‘Doc/Makefile’.

   - bpo-21312(7): Update the thread_foobar.h template file to include
     newer threading APIs.  Patch by Jack McCracken.

   - bpo-21043(8): Remove the recommendation for specific CA
     organizations and to mention the ability to load the OS
     certificates.

   - bpo-20765(9): Add missing documentation for PurePath.with_name()
     and PurePath.with_suffix().

   - bpo-19407(10): New package installation and distribution guides
     based on the Python Packaging Authority tools.  Existing guides
     have been retained as legacy links from the distutils docs, as they
     still contain some required reference material for tool developers
     that isn’t recorded anywhere else.

   - bpo-19697(11): Document cases where __main__.__spec__ is None.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19548

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22394

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21514

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21777

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6916

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17386

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21312

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21043

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20765

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19407

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19697


File: python.info,  Node: Tests<92>,  Next: Tools/Demos<59>,  Prev: Documentation<85>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.26.119.7 Tests
................

   - bpo-18982(1): Add tests for CLI of the calendar module.

   - bpo-19548(2): Added some additional checks to test_codecs to ensure
     that statements in the updated documentation remain accurate.
     Patch by Martin Panter.

   - bpo-22838(3): All test_re tests now work with unittest test
     discovery.

   - bpo-22173(4): Update lib2to3 tests to use unittest test discovery.

   - bpo-16000(5): Convert test_curses to use unittest.

   - bpo-21456(6): Skip two tests in test_urllib2net.py if _ssl module
     not present.  Patch by Remi Pointel.

   - bpo-20746(7): Fix test_pdb to run in refleak mode (-R). Patch by
     Xavier de Gaye.

   - bpo-22060(8): test_ctypes has been somewhat cleaned up and
     simplified; it now uses unittest test discovery to find its tests.

   - bpo-22104(9): regrtest.py no longer holds a reference to the suite
     of tests loaded from test modules that don’t define test_main().

   - bpo-22111(10): Assorted cleanups in test_imaplib.  Patch by Milan
     Oberkirch.

   - bpo-22002(11): Added ‘load_package_tests’ function to test.support
     and used it to implement/augment test discovery in test_asyncio,
     test_email, test_importlib, test_json, and test_tools.

   - bpo-21976(12): Fix test_ssl to accept LibreSSL version strings.
     Thanks to William Orr.

   - bpo-21918(13): Converted test_tools from a module to a package
     containing separate test files for each tested script.

   - bpo-9554(14): Use modern unittest features in test_argparse.
     Initial patch by Denver Coneybeare and Radu Voicilas.

   - bpo-20155(15): Changed HTTP method names in failing tests in
     test_httpservers so that packet filtering software (specifically
     Windows Base Filtering Engine) does not interfere with the
     transaction semantics expected by the tests.

   - bpo-19493(16): Refactored the ctypes test package to skip tests
     explicitly rather than silently.

   - bpo-18492(17): All resources are now allowed when tests are not run
     by regrtest.py.

   - bpo-21634(18): Fix pystone micro-benchmark: use floor division
     instead of true division to benchmark integers instead of
     floating-point numbers.  Set pystone version to 1.2.  Patch written
     by Lennart Regebro.

   - bpo-21605(19): Added tests for Tkinter images.

   - bpo-21493(20): Added test for ntpath.expanduser().  Original patch
     by Claudiu Popa.

   - bpo-19925(21): Added tests for the spwd module.  Original patch by
     Vajrasky Kok.

   - bpo-21522(22): Added Tkinter tests for Listbox.itemconfigure(),
     PanedWindow.paneconfigure(), and Menu.entryconfigure().

   - bpo-17756(23): Fix test_code test when run from the installed
     location.

   - bpo-17752(24): Fix distutils tests when run from the installed
     location.

   - bpo-18604(25): Consolidated checks for GUI availability.  All
     platforms now at least check whether Tk can be instantiated when
     the GUI resource is requested.

   - bpo-21275(26): Fix a socket test on KFreeBSD.

   - bpo-21223(27): Pass test_site/test_startup_imports when some of the
     extensions are built as builtins.

   - bpo-20635(28): Added tests for Tk geometry managers.

   - Add test case for freeze.

   - bpo-20743(29): Fix a reference leak in test_tcl.

   - bpo-21097(30): Move test_namespace_pkgs into test_importlib.

   - bpo-21503(31): Use test_both() consistently in test_importlib.

   - bpo-20939(32): Avoid various network test failures due to new
     redirect of ‘http://www.python.org/’ to ‘https://www.python.org’:
     use ‘http://www.example.com’ instead.

   - bpo-20668(33): asyncio tests no longer rely on tests.txt file.
     (Patch by Vajrasky Kok)

   - bpo-21093(34): Prevent failures of ctypes test_macholib on OS X if
     a copy of libz exists in $HOME/lib or /usr/local/lib.

   - bpo-22770(35): Prevent some Tk segfaults on OS X when running gui
     tests.

   - bpo-23211(36): Workaround test_logging failure on some OS X 10.6
     systems.

   - bpo-23345(37): Prevent test_ssl failures with large OpenSSL patch
     level values (like 0.9.8zc).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18982

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19548

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22838

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22173

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16000

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21456

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20746

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22060

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22104

   (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22111

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22002

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21976

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21918

   (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9554

   (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20155

   (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19493

   (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18492

   (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21634

   (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21605

   (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21493

   (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19925

   (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21522

   (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17756

   (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17752

   (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18604

   (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21275

   (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21223

   (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20635

   (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20743

   (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21097

   (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21503

   (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20939

   (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20668

   (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21093

   (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22770

   (36) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23211

   (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23345


File: python.info,  Node: Tools/Demos<59>,  Next: Windows<82>,  Prev: Tests<92>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.26.119.8 Tools/Demos
......................

   - bpo-22314(1): pydoc now works when the LINES environment variable
     is set.

   - bpo-22615(2): Argument Clinic now supports the «type» argument for
     the int converter.  This permits using the int converter with enums
     and typedefs.

   - bpo-20076(3): The makelocalealias.py script no longer ignores UTF-8
     mapping.

   - bpo-20079(4): The makelocalealias.py script now can parse the
     SUPPORTED file from glibc sources and supports command line options
     for source paths.

   - bpo-22201(5): Command-line interface of the zipfile module now
     correctly extracts ZIP files with directory entries.  Patch by Ryan
     Wilson.

   - bpo-22120(6): For functions using an unsigned integer return
     converter, Argument Clinic now generates a cast to that type for
     the comparison to -1 in the generated code.  (This suppresses a
     compilation warning.)

   - bpo-18974(7): Tools/scripts/diff.py now uses argparse instead of
     optparse.

   - bpo-21906(8): Make Tools/scripts/md5sum.py work in Python 3.  Patch
     by Zachary Ware.

   - bpo-21629(9): Fix Argument Clinic’s «–converters» feature.

   - Add support for ‘yield from’ to 2to3.

   - Add support for the PEP 465(10) matrix multiplication operator to
     2to3.

   - bpo-16047(11): Fix module exception list and __file__ handling in
     freeze.  Patch by Meador Inge.

   - bpo-11824(12): Consider ABI tags in freeze.  Patch by Meador Inge.

   - bpo-20535(13): PYTHONWARNING no longer affects the run_tests.py
     script.  Patch by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22314

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22615

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20076

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20079

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22201

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22120

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18974

   (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21906

   (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21629

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/

   (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16047

   (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11824

   (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20535


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<82>,  Prev: Tools/Demos<59>,  Up: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1

1.26.119.9 Windows
..................

   - bpo-23260(1): Update Windows installer

   - The bundled version of Tcl/Tk has been updated to 8.6.3.  The most
     visible result of this change is the addition of new native file
     dialogs when running on Windows Vista or newer.  See Tcl/Tk’s TIP
     432 for more information.  Also, this version of Tcl/Tk includes
     support for Windows 10.

   - bpo-17896(2): The Windows build scripts now expect external library
     sources to be in ‘PCbuild\..\externals’ rather than
     ‘PCbuild\..\..’.

   - bpo-17717(3): The Windows build scripts now use a copy of NASM
     pulled from svn.python.org to build OpenSSL.

   - bpo-21907(4): Improved the batch scripts provided for building
     Python.

   - bpo-22644(5): The bundled version of OpenSSL has been updated to
     1.0.1j.

   - bpo-10747(6): Use versioned labels in the Windows start menu.
     Patch by Olive Kilburn.

   - bpo-22980(7): .pyd files with a version and platform tag (for
     example, «.cp35-win32.pyd») will now be loaded in preference to
     those without tags.

'(For information about older versions, consult the HISTORY file.)'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23260

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17896

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17717

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21907

   (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22644

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10747

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22980


File: python.info,  Node: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python,  Next: Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python,  Prev: Τι νέο υπάρχει στην Python,  Up: Top

2 Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python
*************************

     Πρακτική συμβουλή: Αυτός ο οδηγός εκμάθησης έχει σχεδιαστεί για
     'προγραμματιστές' που είναι νέοι στην γλώσσα Python, 'όχι' για
     'αρχάριους' που είναι νέοι στο προγραμματισμό.

Η Python είναι μια εύκολη στην εκμάθηση, ισχυρή γλώσσα προγραμματισμού.
Έχει αποτελεσματικές δομές δεδομένων υψηλού επιπέδου και μια απλή αλλά
αποτελεσματική προσέγγιση στον αντικειμενοστραφή προγραμματισμό.  Το
κομψό συντακτικό και η δυναμική τυποποίηση της Python, σε συνδυασμό με
τη διερμηνευμένη φύση της, την καθιστούν ιδανική γλώσσα για scripting
και ταχεία ανάπτυξη εφαρμογών σε πολλούς τομείς στις περισσότερες
πλατφόρμες.

Ο διερμηνέας της Python και η εκτεταμένη τυπική (standard) βιβλιοθήκη
διατίθενται ελεύθερα σε πηγαία ή δυαδική μορφή για όλες τις κύριες
πλατφόρμες από την ιστοσελίδα της Python, ‘https://www.python.org/’ και
μπορούν να διανεμηθούν ελεύθερα.  Ο ίδιος ιστότοπος περιέχει επίσης
διανομές και δείκτες σε πολλά δωρεάν modules τρίτων, προγράμματα και
εργαλεία Python, καθώς και πρόσθετη τεκμηρίωση.

Ο διερμηνέας της Python επεκτείνεται εύκολα με νέες συναρτήσεις και
τύπους δεδομένων που υλοποιούνται σε C ή C++ (ή άλλες γλώσσες που
μπορούν να κληθούν από τη C). Η Python είναι επίσης κατάλληλη ως γλώσσα
επέκτασης για προσαρμόσιμες εφαρμογές.

Αυτό το tutorial εισάγει τον αναγνώστη ανεπίσημα στις βασικές έννοιες
και δυνατότητες της γλώσσας και του συστήματος Python.  Λάβετε υπόψη ότι
απαιτεί να έχετε μια βασική κατανόηση του προγραμματισμού γενικά.
Βοηθάει να έχετε πρόχειρο έναν διερμηνέα Python για πρακτική εμπειρία,
αλλά όλα τα παραδείγματα είναι αυτοτελή, οπότε το tutorial μπορεί να
διαβαστεί και εκτός σύνδεσης.

Για μια περιγραφή των τυποποιημένων αντικειμένων και ενοτήτων, δείτε
*note The Python Standard Library: 3f7.  Το *note Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς
της Γλώσσας Python: 3f8. δίνει έναν πιο επίσημο ορισμό της γλώσσας.  Για
να γράψετε επεκτάσεις σε C ή C++, διαβάστε το *note Επέκταση και
Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python: 21aa. και το *note Python/C API
reference manual: 21ab.  Υπάρχουν επίσης αρκετά βιβλία που καλύπτουν την
Python σε βάθος.

Αυτό το tutorial δεν προσπαθεί να είναι περιεκτικό και να καλύψει κάθε
χαρακτηριστικό ή ακόμη και κάθε συχνά χρησιμοποιούμενο χαρακτηριστικό.
Αντίθετα, θα σας παρουσιάσει πολλά από τα πιο αξιοσημείωτα
χαρακτηριστικά της Python και θα σας δώσει μια καλή ιδέα για τη γεύση
και το ύφος της γλώσσας.  Αφού το διαβάσετε, θα είστε σε θέση να
διαβάζετε και να γράφετε modules και προγράμματα Python, και θα είστε
έτοιμοι να μάθετε περισσότερα για τα διάφoρα modules βιβλιοθηκών Python
που περιγράφονται στο *note The Python Standard Library: 3f7.

Αξίζει επίσης να διαβάσετε το *note Γλωσσάρι: 21ac.

* Menu:

* Ανοίγοντας την όρεξή σας::
* Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Interpreter της Python::
* Μία Άτυπη Εισαγωγή στην Python::
* Περισσότερα εργαλεία Ελέγχου Ροής::
* Δομές Δεδομένων::
* Modules: Modules<2>.
* Είσοδος και Έξοδος::
* Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις::
* Κλάσεις::
* Brief tour of the standard library::
* Brief tour of the standard library — part II::
* Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα και πακέτα::
* Και τώρα τι;::
* Διαδραστική Επεξεργασία Input και Αντικατάσταση Ιστορικού::
* Αριθμητική Κινητής Υποδιαστολής; Ζητήματα και Περιορισμοί: Αριθμητική Κινητής Υποδιαστολής Ζητήματα και Περιορισμοί.
* Παράρτημα::


File: python.info,  Node: Ανοίγοντας την όρεξή σας,  Next: Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Interpreter της Python,  Up: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python

2.1 Ανοίγοντας την όρεξή σας
============================

Εάν κάνετε πολλή δουλειά σε υπολογιστές, τελικά θα διαπιστώσετε ότι
υπάρχει κάποια εργασία που θα θέλατε να αυτοματοποιήσετε.  Για
παράδειγμα, μπορεί να θέλετε να πραγματοποιήσετε αναζήτηση και
αντικατάσταση σε μεγάλο αριθμό αρχείων κειμένου ή να μετονομάσετε και να
αναδιατάξετε μια δέσμη αρχείων φωτογραφιών με περίπλοκο τρόπο.  Ίσως θα
θέλατε να γράψετε μια μικρή προσαρμοσμένη βάση δεδομένων ή μια
εξειδικευμένη εφαρμογή GUI ή ένα απλό παιχνίδι.

Εάν είστε επαγγελματίας προγραμματιστής λογισμικού, μπορεί να χρειαστεί
να εργαστείτε με πολλές βιβλιοθήκες C/C++/Java, αλλά ο συνηθισμένος
κύκλος εγγραφής/compile/δοκιμής/re-compile είναι πολύ αργός.  Ίσως
γράφετε ένα test suite για μια τέτοια βιβλιοθήκη και βρίσκετε τη
δημιουργία κώδικα testing μια κουραστική διαδικασία.  Ή ίσως έχετε
γράψει ένα πρόγραμμα που θα μπορούσε να χρησιμοποιεί μια γλώσσα
επέκτασης, και δεν θέλετε να σχεδιάσετε και να εφαρμόσετε μια εντελώς
νέα γλώσσα για την εφαρμογή σας.

Η Python είναι απλώς η γλώσσα για εσάς.

Θα μπορούσατε να γράψετε ένα Unix shell script ή Windows batch αρχεία
για ορισμένες από αυτές τις εργασίες, αλλά τα shell scripts είναι τα
καλύτερα για τη μετακίνηση αρχείων και την αλλαγή δεδομένων κειμένου,
δεν είναι κατάλληλα για εφαρμογές ή παιχνίδια GUI. Θα μπορούσατε να
γράψετε ένα C/C++/Java πρόγραμμα, αλλά μπορεί να χρειαστεί πολύς χρόνος
ανάπτυξης για να δημιουργηθεί μια πρώτη έκδοση του προγράμματος.  Η
Python είναι πιο απλή στη χρήση, διαθέσιμη σε λειτουργικά συστήματα
Windows, macOS και Unix και θα σας βοηθήσει να ολοκληρώσετε τη δουλειά
πιο γρήγορα.

Η Python είναι απλή στη χρήση, αλλά είναι μια πραγματική γλώσσα
προγραμματισμού, που προσφέρει πολύ περισσότερη δομή και υποστήριξη για
μεγάλα προγράμματα από ό,τι μπορούν να προσφέρουν τα shell scripts ή τα
batch αρχεία.  Από την άλλη πλευρά, η Python προσφέρει επίσης πολύ
περισσότερο έλεγχο σφαλμάτων από τη C και, όντας μια γλώσσα 'πολύ υψηλού
επιπέδου', έχει ενσωματωμένους τύπους δεδομένων υψηλού επιπέδου, όπως
ευέλικτους πίνακες, και λεξικά.  Λόγω των πιο γενικών τύπων δεδομένων
της, η Python μπορεί να εφαρμοστεί σε έναν πολύ μεγαλύτερο τομέα
προβλημάτων από την Awk ή ακόμα και την Perl, ωστόσο πολλά πράγματα
είναι τουλάχιστον τόσο εύκολα στην Python όσο σε αυτές τις γλώσσες.

Η Python σάς επιτρέπει να χωρίσετε το πρόγραμμά σας σε modules που
μπορούν να επαναχρησιμοποιηθούν σε άλλα προγράμματα Python.  Έρχεται με
μια μεγάλη συλλογή standard modules που μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε ως
βάση των προγραμμάτων σας — ή ως παράδειγμα για να ξεκινήσετε να
μαθαίνετε να προγραμματίζετε σε Python.  Ορισμένα από αυτά τα modules
παρέχουν πράγματα όπως I/O αρχείων, κλήσεις συστήματος, sockets, ακόμη
και interfaces σε toolkits γραφικών διεπαφής χρήστη, όπως το Tk.

Η Python είναι μια interpreted γλώσσα, η οποία μπορεί να σας
εξοικονομήσει σημαντικό χρόνο κατά την ανάπτυξη του προγράμματος, επειδή
δεν απαιτείται compilation και linking.  Ο interpreter μπορεί να
χρησιμοποιηθεί διαδραστικά, γεγονός που καθιστά εύκολο τον πειραματισμό
με χαρακτηριστικά της γλώσσας, τη σύνταξη προγραμμάτων ή τον έλεγχο
συναρτήσεων κατά την ανάπτυξη προγράμματος από κάτω προς τα πάνω.  Είναι
επίσης μια εύχρηστη αριθμομηχανή.

Η Python επιτρέπει στα προγράμματα να γράφονται συμπαγή και ευανάγνωστα.
Τα προγράμματα που είναι γραμμένα σε Python είναι συνήθως πολύ μικρότερα
από τα αντίστοιχα προγράμματα C, C++ ή Java, για διάφορους λόγους:

   * οι τύποι δεδομένων υψηλού επιπέδου σάς επιτρέπουν να εκφράσετε
     πολύπλοκες λειτουργίες σε μία μόνο δήλωση∙

   * η ομαδοποίηση δηλώσεων γίνεται με εσοχή αντί για αγκύλες αρχής και
     λήξης∙

   * δεν απαιτούνται δηλώσεις μεταβλητών ή ορισμάτων.

Η Python είναι 'επεκτάσιμη': αν ξέρετε πώς να προγραμματίζετε σε C είναι
εύκολο να προσθέσετε μια νέα ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση ή module στον
interpreter, είτε για να εκτελέσετε κρίσιμες λειτουργίες με μέγιστη
ταχύτητα, είτε για να συνδέσετε προγράμματα Python με βιβλιοθήκες που
μπορεί να είναι διαθέσιμες μόνο σε δυαδική μορφή (όπως μια βιβλιοθήκη
γραφικών για συγκεκριμένο προμηθευτή).  Μόλις κολλήσετε πραγματικά,
μπορείτε να συνδέσετε τον Python interpreter σε μια εφαρμογή γραμμένη σε
C και να τη χρησιμοποιήσετε ως επέκταση ή γλώσσα εντολών για αυτήν την
εφαρμογή.

Παρεμπιπτόντως, η γλώσσα πήρε το όνομά της από την εκπομπή του BBC
«Monty Python’s Flying Circus» και δεν έχει καμία σχέση με ερπετά.  Η
αναφορά σε σκετς Monty Python στην τεκμηρίωση όχι μόνο επιτρέπεται, αλλά
και ενθαρρύνεται!

Τώρα που είστε όλοι ενθουσιασμένοι με την Python, θα θέλετε να την
εξετάσετε με περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.  Επειδή ο καλύτερος τρόπος για
να μάθετε μια γλώσσα είναι να τη χρησιμοποιήσετε, ο οδηγός εκμάθησης σας
προσκαλεί να παίξετε με τον Python interpreter καθώς διαβάζετε.

Στο επόμενο κεφάλαιο, εξηγείται η μηχανική της χρήσης του interpreter.
Αυτή είναι μάλλον πεζή πληροφορία, αλλά απαραίτητη για τη δοκιμή των
παραδειγμάτων που παρουσιάζονται αργότερα.

Ο υπόλοιπος οδηγός εκμάθησης εισάγει διάφορα χαρακτηριστικά της γλώσσας
και του συστήματος Python μέσω παραδειγμάτων, ξεκινώντας με απλές
εκφράσεις, δηλώσεις και τύπους δεδομένων, μέσω συναρτήσεων και modules
και τέλος αγγίζοντας προηγμένες έννοιες όπως εξαιρέσεις και κλάσεις που
καθορίζονται από τον χρήστη.


File: python.info,  Node: Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Interpreter της Python,  Next: Μία Άτυπη Εισαγωγή στην Python,  Prev: Ανοίγοντας την όρεξή σας,  Up: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python

2.2 Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Interpreter της Python
==============================================

* Menu:

* Κάνοντας invoke τον Interpreter::
* Ο Interpreter και το Περιβάλλον του::


File: python.info,  Node: Κάνοντας invoke τον Interpreter,  Next: Ο Interpreter και το Περιβάλλον του,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Interpreter της Python

2.2.1 Κάνοντας invoke τον Interpreter
-------------------------------------

Ο διερμηνέας της Python εγκαθίσταται συνήθως ως
‘/usr/local/bin/python3.16’ σε εκείνα τα μηχανήματα όπου είναι
διαθέσιμος· βάζοντας ‘/usr/local/bin’ στη διαδρομή αναζήτησης του Unix
shell σας επιτρέπει να το εκκινήσετε πληκτρολογώντας την εντολή:

     python3.16

στο shell.  (1)  Εφόσον η επιλογή του καταλόγου όπου βρίσκεται ο
interpreter είναι μια επιλογή εγκατάστασης, και άλλα μέρη είναι πιθανά∙
επικοινωνήστε με τον τοπικό σας guru της Python ή τον διαχειριστή
συστήματος.  (π.χ., ‘/usr/local/python’ είναι μια δημοφιλής εναλλακτική
τοποθεσία.)

Σε μηχανήματα με Windows όπου έχετε εγκαταστήσει την Python από το *note
Microsoft Store: 21b6, η εντολή ‘python3.16’ θα είναι διαθέσιμη.  Εάν
έχετε το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης *note py.exe launcher: 9bc. εγκατεστημένο,
μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε την εντολή ‘py’.  Βλ.  *note Διαχειριστής
εγκατάστασης Python: 21b7. για άλλους τρόπους εκκίνησης της Python.

Η πληκτρολόγηση ενός χαρακτήρα τέλους αρχείου (‘Control’-‘D’ στο Unix,
‘Control’-‘Z’ στα Windows) στην κύρια γραμμή εντολών αναγκάζει τον
interpreter να βγει με μηδενική κατάσταση εξόδου.  Εάν αυτό δεν
λειτουργεί, μπορείτε να βγείτε από τον διερμηνέα πληκτρολογώντας την
ακόλουθη εντολή: ‘quit()’.

The interpreter’s line-editing features include interactive editing,
history substitution and code completion on most systems.  Perhaps the
quickest check to see whether command line editing is supported is
typing a word in on the Python prompt, then pressing Left arrow (or
‘Control’-‘b’).  If the cursor moves, you have command line editing; see
Appendix *note Διαδραστική Επεξεργασία Input και Αντικατάσταση
Ιστορικού: 21b8. for an introduction to the keys.  If nothing appears to
happen, or if a sequence like ‘^[[D’ or ‘^B’ appears, command line
editing isn’t available; you’ll only be able to use backspace to remove
characters from the current line.

Ο interpreter λειτουργεί κάπως όπως το Unix shell: όταν καλείται μια
standard είσοδο συνδεδεμένη σε μια συσκευή tty, διαβάζει και εκτελεί
εντολές αλληλεπιδραστικά∙ όταν καλείται με ένα όρισμα ονόματος αρχείου ή
με ένα αρχείο ως standard είσοδο, διαβάζει και εκτελεί ένα 'script' από
αυτό το αρχείο.

Ένας δεύτερος τρόπος εκκίνησης του interpreter είναι ‘python -c command
[arg] ...’, η οποία εκτελεί τις εντολές στο 'command', ανάλογο με την
επιλογή *note -c: 445. του shell.  Εφόσον οι δηλώσεις Python συχνά
περιέχουν κενά διαστήματα ή άλλους χαρακτήρες που είναι ειδικοί για το
shell, συνήθως συνίσταται να αναφέρετε το 'command' στο σύνολο του.

Ορισμένα Python modules είναι επίσης χρήσιμα ως scripts.  Αυτά μπορούν
να κληθούν χρησιμοποιώντας το ‘python -m module [arg] ...’, το οποίο
εκτελεί το πηγαίο αρχείο για το 'module' σαν να είχατε γράψει το πλήρες
όνομα του, στη γραμμή εντολών.

Όταν χρησιμοποιείται ένα script αρχείο, μερικές φορές είναι χρήσιμο να
μπορείτε να εκτελέσετε το script και να εισέλθετε σε interactive
λειτουργία μετά.  Αυτό μπορεί να γίνει περνώντας το *note -i: 187d. πριν
από το script.

Όλες οι επιλογές της γραμμής εντολών περιγράφονται στο *note Command
line and environment: 1f98.

* Menu:

* Εισαγωγή Ορίσματος::
* Interactive Λειτουργία::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Στο Unix, ο Python 3.x interpreter από προεπιλογή δεν είναι
εγκατεστημένος με το εκτελέσιμο αρχείο που ονομάζεται ‘python’, έτσι
ώστε να μην έρχεται σε conflict με ένα εκτελέσιμο Python 2.x που
εγκαθίσταται ταυτόχρονα.


File: python.info,  Node: Εισαγωγή Ορίσματος,  Next: Interactive Λειτουργία,  Up: Κάνοντας invoke τον Interpreter

2.2.1.1 Εισαγωγή Ορίσματος
..........................

Όταν είναι γνωστά στον interpreter, το όνομα του script και τα πρόσθετα
ορίσματα στην συνέχεια μετατρέπονται σε λίστα συμβολοσειρών και
εκχωρούνται στην μεταβλητή ‘argv’ στο module ‘sys’.  Μπορείτε να
αποκτήσετε πρόσβαση σε αυτήν την λίστα εκτελώντας το ‘import sys’.  Το
μήκος της λίστας είναι τουλάχιστον ένα∙ όταν δεν δίνονται script και δεν
δίνονται ορίσματα, το ‘sys.argv[0]’ είναι μια κενή συμβολοσειρά.  Όταν
το όνομα του script δίνεται ως ‘'-'’ (που σημαίνει standard είσοδος), το
‘sys.argv[0]’ ορίζεται ως ‘'-'’.  Όταν χρησιμοποιείται η 'εντολή' *note
-c: 445, το ‘sys.argv[0]’ ορίζεται σε ‘'-c'’.  Όταν χρησιμοποιείται η
'εντολή' *note -m: 4ca. , το ‘sys.argv[0]’ ορίζεται ως το πλήρες όνομα
του module που βρίσκεται.  Οι επιλογές που βρέθηκαν μετά την 'εντολή'
‘-c’ ή το ‘-m’ 'module' δεν καταναλώνονται από τον επεξεργαστή επιλογών
του interpreter της Python αλλά αφήνονται στο ‘sys.argv’ για την εντολή
ή το module να το διαχειριστεί.


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive Λειτουργία,  Prev: Εισαγωγή Ορίσματος,  Up: Κάνοντας invoke τον Interpreter

2.2.1.2 Interactive Λειτουργία
..............................

Όταν διαβάζονται εντολές από ένα tty, ο interpreter λέγεται ότι
βρίσκεται σε 'interactive λειτουργία'.  Σε αυτή τη λειτουργία
υπενθυμίζει την επόμενη εντολή με την 'κύρια εντολή', συνήθως τρία
σύμβολα μεγαλύτερο (‘>>>’)∙ για τις γραμμές συνέχειας, υπενθυμίζει με τη
'δευτερεύουσα εντολή', από προεπιλογή τρεις τελείες (‘...’).  Ο
interpreter εκτυπώνει ένα μήνυμα καλωσορίσματος που αναφέρει τον αριθμό
έκδοσης και μια ειδοποίηση πνευματικών δικαιωμάτων πριν εκτυπώσει το
πρώτο μήνυμα:

     $ python3.16
     Python 3.16 (default, May 7 2026, 19:03:04)
     [GCC 10.2.0] on linux
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>>

Απαιτούνται γραμμές συνέχειας όταν εισάγεται μια κατασκευή πολλών
γραμμών.  Για παράδειγμα ρίξτε μια ματιά σε αυτήν την δήλωση *note if:
322.:

     >>> the_world_is_flat = True
     >>> if the_world_is_flat:
     ...     print("Be careful not to fall off!")
     ...
     Be careful not to fall off!

Για περισσότερα σχετικά με την interactive λειτουργία, βλ.  *note
Διαδραστική Λειτουργία: 6a0.


File: python.info,  Node: Ο Interpreter και το Περιβάλλον του,  Prev: Κάνοντας invoke τον Interpreter,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Interpreter της Python

2.2.2 Ο Interpreter και το Περιβάλλον του
-----------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Κωδικοποίηση Πηγαίου Κώδικα::


File: python.info,  Node: Κωδικοποίηση Πηγαίου Κώδικα,  Up: Ο Interpreter και το Περιβάλλον του

2.2.2.1 Κωδικοποίηση Πηγαίου Κώδικα
...................................

Από προεπιλογή, τα πηγαία αρχεία Python αντιμετωπίζονται ως
κωδικοποιημένα στο UTF-8.  Σε αυτήν την κωδικοποίηση, οι χαρακτήρες των
περισσότερων γλωσσών στον κόσμο μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν ταυτόχρονα σε
literal συμβολοσειρές, αναγνωριστικά και σχόλια — αν και η τυπική
βιβλιοθήκη χρησιμοποιεί μόνο χαρακτήρες ASCII για αναγνωριστικά, μια
σύμβαση που πρέπει να ακολουθεί οποιοδήποτε φορητός κώδικας.  Για να
εμφανίσει σωστά όλους αυτούς τους χαρακτήρες, το λογισμικό επεξεργασίας
σας πρέπει να αναγνωρίσει ότι το αρχείο είναι UTF-8 και πρέπει να
χρησιμοποιεί μια γραμματοσειρά που να υποστηρίζει όλους τους χαρακτήρες
του αρχείου.

Για να δηλώσετε μια κωδικοποίηση διαφορετική από την προεπιλεγμένη, θα
πρέπει να προστεθεί μια ειδική γραμμή σχολίων ως 'πρώτη' γραμμή του
αρχείου.  Η σύνταξη είναι η εξής:

     # -*- coding: encoding -*-

όπου το 'encoding' είναι ένα από τα έγκυρα *note codecs: 1c. που
υποστηρίζονται από την Python.

Για παράδειγμα, για να δηλώσετε ότι πρόκειται να χρησιμοποιηθεί η
κωδικοποίηση Windows-1252 , η πρώτη γραμμή του αρχείου του πηγαίου
κώδικα θα πρέπει να είναι:

     # -*- coding: cp1252 -*-

Μια εξαίρεση στον κανόνα 'first line' είναι όταν ο πηγαίος κώδικας
ξεκινά με μια γραμμή *note UNIX «shebang»: 21c0.  Σε αυτήν την
περίπτωση, η δήλωση κωδικοποίησης θα πρέπει να προστεθεί ως δεύτερη
γραμμή του αρχείου.  Για παράδειγμα:

     #!/usr/bin/env python3
     # -*- coding: cp1252 -*-

Υποσημειώσεις
.............


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2.3 Μία Άτυπη Εισαγωγή στην Python
==================================

Στα ακόλουθα παραδείγματα, η είσοδος και η έξοδος διακρίνονται από την
παρουσία ή την απουσία prompts (*note >>>: 69e. και *note …: 69f.): για
να επαναλάβετε το παράδειγμα, πρέπει να πληκτρολογήσετε τα πάντα μετά το
prompt, όταν αυτό υπάρχει∙ οι γραμμές που δεν αρχίζουν με prompt είναι
έξοδος από τον διερμηνέα.  Σημείωση ότι ένα δευτερεύον prompt μόνο του
σε μια γραμμή σε ένα παράδειγμα σημαίνει ότι πρέπει να πληκτρολογήσετε
μια κενή γραμμή∙ αυτό χρησιμοποιείται για να τερματίσετε μια εντολή
πολλών γραμμών.

Πολλά από τα παραδείγματα σε αυτόν τον οδηγό, ακόμη και αυτά που
εισάγονται στο διαδραστικό prompt, περιέχουν σχόλια.  Τα σχόλια στην
Python ξεκινούν με τον χαρακτήρα hashtag, ‘#’, και εκτείνονται μέχρι το
τέλος της γραμμής.  Ένα σχόλιο μπορεί να εμφανιστεί στην αρχή μιας
σειράς ή μετά από κενά διαστήματα ή κώδικα, αλλά όχι μέσα σε μία
συμβολοσειρά.  Ένας χαρακτήρας hashtag μέσα σε μία συμβολοσειρά είναι
απλώς ένας χαρακτήρας hashtag.  Δεδομένου ότι τα σχόλια αποσκοπούν στην
αποσαφήνιση του κώδικα και δεν ερμηνεύονται από την Python, μπορούν να
παραλείπονται κατά την πληκτρολόγηση παραδειγμάτων.

Μερικά παραδείγματα:

     # this is the first comment
     spam = 1  # and this is the second comment
               # ... and now a third!
     text = "# This is not a comment because it's inside quotes."

* Menu:

* Χρησιμοποιώντας την Python ως Αριθμομηχανή::
* Πρώτα Βήματα Προς Τον Προγραμματισμό::


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2.3.1 Χρησιμοποιώντας την Python ως Αριθμομηχανή
------------------------------------------------

Ας δοκιμάσουμε μερικές απλές εντολές της Python.  Ξεκινήστε τον
διερμηνέα και περιμένετε το πρώτο prompt, ‘`>>>`’.  (Δεν θα πάρει πολύ
χρόνο.)

* Menu:

* Αριθμοί::
* Κείμενο::
* Λίστες::


File: python.info,  Node: Αριθμοί,  Next: Κείμενο,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας την Python ως Αριθμομηχανή

2.3.1.1 Αριθμοί
...............

Ο διερμηνέας λειτουργεί ως μία απλή αριθμομηχανή: μπορείτε να
πληκτρολογήσετε μία έκφραση μέσα σε αυτή και εκείνη θα γράψει την τιμή.
Το συντακτικό μίας έκφρασης είναι απλό: οι τελεστές ‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’ και
‘/’ μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την εκτέλεση αριθμητικών πράξεων∙ οι
παρενθέσεις (‘()’) μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για ομαδοποίηση.  Για
παράδειγμα:

     >>> 2 + 2
     4
     >>> 50 - 5*6
     20
     >>> (50 - 5*6) / 4
     5.0
     >>> 8 / 5  # division always returns a floating-point number
     1.6

Οι ακέραιοι αριθμοί (π.χ.  ‘2’, ‘4’, ‘20’) έχουν τον τύπο *note int:
326, οι αριθμοί με δεκαδικά ψηφία (π.χ.  ‘5.0’, ‘1.6’) έχουν τον τύπο
*note float: 327.  Θα δούμε περισσότερα για τους αριθμητικούς τύπους
αργότερα σε αυτόν τον οδηγό.

Η διαίρεση (‘/’) πάντα επιστρέφει ένα float.  Για να κάνετε *note floor
division: d10. (ακέραια διαίρεση) και να πάρετε ένα ακέραιο αποτέλεσμα,
μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε τον τελεστή ‘//’ ∙ για να υπολογίσετε το το
υπόλοιπο μίας διαίρεσης, χρησιμοποιήστε τον τελεστή ‘%’:

     >>> 17 / 3  # classic division returns a float
     5.666666666666667
     >>>
     >>> 17 // 3  # floor division discards the fractional part
     5
     >>> 17 % 3  # the % operator returns the remainder of the division
     2
     >>> 5 * 3 + 2  # floored quotient * divisor + remainder
     17

Στην Python, είναι εφικτό να χρησιμοποιήσετε τον τελεστή ‘**’ για να
υπολογίσετε δυνάμεις (1):

     >>> 5 ** 2  # 5 squared
     25
     >>> 2 ** 7  # 2 to the power of 7
     128

Το σύμβολο της ισότητας (‘=’) χρησιμοποιείται για την ανάθεση μιας τιμής
σε μια μεταβλητή.  Στη συνέχεια, δεν εμφανίζεται αποτέλεσμα πριν από το
επόμενο διαδραστικό prompt:

     >>> width = 20
     >>> height = 5 * 9
     >>> width * height
     900

Αν μία μεταβλητή δεν έχει «οριστεί» (δεν της έχει αποδοθεί κάποια τιμή),
η προσπάθεια χρήσης της θα σας δώσει ένα σφάλμα:

     >>> n  # try to access an undefined variable
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     NameError: name 'n' is not defined

Υπάρχει πλήρης υποστήριξη για δεκαδικά ψηφία∙ τελεστές με τελεστέους
μικτού τύπου μετατρέπουν τον ακέραιο τελεστέο σε δεκαδικό:

     >>> 4 * 3.75 - 1
     14.0

Στη διαδραστική λειτουργία, η τελευταία εκτυπωμένη έκφραση εκχωρείται
στη μεταβλητή ‘_’.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι όταν χρησιμοποιείτε την Python ως
αριθμομηχανή γραφείου, είναι κάπως πιο εύκολο να συνεχίσετε
προηγούμενους υπολογισμούς, για παράδειγμα:

     >>> tax = 12.5 / 100
     >>> price = 100.50
     >>> price * tax
     12.5625
     >>> price + _
     113.0625
     >>> round(_, 2)
     113.06

Αυτή η μεταβλητή θα πρέπει να αντιμετωπίζεται από τον χρήστη ως μόνο για
ανάγνωση.  Μην της αναθέτετε ρητά μια τιμή — θα δημιουργούσατε μια
ανεξάρτητη τοπική μεταβλητή με το ίδιο όνομα αποκρύπτοντας την
ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή με τη μαγική της συμπεριφορά.

Εκτός από *note int: 326. και *note float: 327, η Python υποστηρίζει και
άλλους τύπους αριθμών, όπως *note Decimal: 1c2. και *note Fraction: 1c3.
Η Python έχει επίσης ενσωματωμένη υποστήριξη για *note complex numbers:
21c9. (μιγαδικούς αριθμούς), και χρησιμοποιεί την κατάληξη ‘j’ ή ‘J’ για
να δηλώσει το φανταστικό μέρος (π.χ.  ‘3+5j’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Δεδομένου ότι το ‘**’ έχει μεγαλύτερη προτεραιότητα από το ‘-’,
το ‘-3**2’ θα ερμηνευτεί ως ‘-(3**2)’ και έτσι θα προκύψει ‘-9’.  Για να
το αποφύγετε αυτό και να πάρετε ‘9’, μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε
‘(-3)**2’.


File: python.info,  Node: Κείμενο,  Next: Λίστες,  Prev: Αριθμοί,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας την Python ως Αριθμομηχανή

2.3.1.2 Κείμενο
...............

Η Python μπορεί να χειριστεί κείμενο (που αντιπροσωπεύεται από τον τύπο
*note str: 1df, τις λεγόμενες «συμβολοσειρές») καθώς και αριθμούς.  Αυτό
περιλαμβάνει χαρακτήρες «‘!’», λέξεις «‘κουνέλι’», ονόματα «‘Παρίσι’»,
προτάσεις «‘Καλύπτω τα νώτα σου.’», κ.λπ.  «‘Ναι! :)’».  Μπορούν να
περικλείονται σε μονά εισαγωγικά (‘'...'’) ή διπλά εισαγωγικά (‘"..."’)
με το ίδιο αποτέλεσμα (1).

     >>> 'spam eggs'  # single quotes
     'spam eggs'
     >>> "Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!"  # double quotes
     'Paris rabbit got your back :)! Yay!'
     >>> '1975'  # digits and numerals enclosed in quotes are also strings
     '1975'

Για να προσθέσουμε ένα εισαγωγικό, πρέπει να το «κάνουμε escape»,
προτάσσοντάς του μία ‘\’.  Εναλλακτικά, μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε τον
άλλο τύπο εισαγωγικών:

     >>> 'doesn\'t'  # use \' to escape the single quote...
     "doesn't"
     >>> "doesn't"  # ...or use double quotes instead
     "doesn't"
     >>> '"Yes," they said.'
     '"Yes," they said.'
     >>> "\"Yes,\" they said."
     '"Yes," they said.'
     >>> '"Isn\'t," they said.'
     '"Isn\'t," they said.'

Στο shell της Python, ο ορισμός συμβολοσειράς και η συμβολοσειρά εξόδου
μπορεί να μοιάζουν διαφορετικά.  Η συνάρτηση *note print(): 131f.
παράγει μια πιο ευανάγνωστη έξοδο, παραλείποντας τα εισαγωγικά που
περικλείουν την συμβολοσειρά και εκτυπώνοντας escaped και ειδικούς
χαρακτήρες:

     >>> s = 'First line.\nSecond line.'  # \n means newline
     >>> s  # without print(), special characters are included in the string
     'First line.\nSecond line.'
     >>> print(s)  # with print(), special characters are interpreted, so \n produces new line
     First line.
     Second line.

Εάν δεν θέλετε οι χαρακτήρες που προηγούνται από μία ‘\’ να ερμηνεύονται
ως ειδικοί χαρακτήρες, μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε 'ακατέργαστες
συμβολοσειρές' προσθέτοντας ένα ‘r’ πριν από το πρώτο εισαγωγικό:

     >>> print('C:\this\name')  # here \t means tab, \n means newline
     C:      his
     ame
     >>> print(r'C:\this\name')  # note the r before the quote
     C:\this\name

Υπάρχει μια δυσδιάκριτη πτυχή στις ακατέργαστες συμβολοσειρές: μια
ακατέργαστη συμβολοσειρά δεν μπορεί να τελειώνει σε περιττό αριθμό
χαρακτήρων ‘\’” δείτε *note το λήμμα των Συχνών Ερωτήσεων: 21cc. για
περισσότερες πληροφορίες και λύσεις.

Οι συμβολοσειρές κυριολεξίας μπορούν να καλύπτουν πολλές γραμμές.  Ένας
τρόπος είναι χρησιμοποιώντας τριπλά εισαγωγικά: ‘"""..."""’ ή
‘'''...'''’.  Οι χαρακτήρες στο τέλος των γραμμών συμπεριλαμβάνονται
αυτόματα στην συμβολοσειρά, αλλά είναι εφικτό να το αποτρέψετε αυτό
προσθέτοντας μία ‘\’ στο τέλος της γραμμής.  Στο ακόλουθο παράδειγμα, η
αρχική νέα γραμμή δεν περιλαμβάνεται:

     >>> print("""\
     ... Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
     ...      -h                        Display this usage message
     ...      -H hostname               Hostname to connect to
     ... """)
     Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
          -h                        Display this usage message
          -H hostname               Hostname to connect to

     >>>

Οι συμβολοσειρές μπορούν να συνδεθούν (κολληθούν η μία στην άλλη) με τον
τελεστή ‘+’, και να επαναληφθούν με τον τελεστή ‘*’:

     >>> # 3 times 'un', followed by 'ium'
     >>> 3 * 'un' + 'ium'
     'unununium'

Δύο ή παραπάνω 'συμβολοσειρές' (που περικλείονται σε εισαγωγικά) η μία
δίπλα στην άλλη συνδέονται αυτόματα.

     >>> 'Py' 'thon'
     'Python'

Αυτή η λειτουργία είναι ιδιαίτερα χρήσιμη όταν θέλετε να σπάσετε μεγάλες
συμβολοσειρές:

     >>> text = ('Put several strings within parentheses '
     ...         'to have them joined together.')
     >>> text
     'Put several strings within parentheses to have them joined together.'

Ωστόσο, αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο με κυριολεκτικές συμβολοσειρές, όχι με
μεταβλητές ή εκφράσεις:

     >>> prefix = 'Py'
     >>> prefix 'thon'  # can't concatenate a variable and a string literal
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         prefix 'thon'
                ^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax
     >>> ('un' * 3) 'ium'
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         ('un' * 3) 'ium'
                    ^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

Αν θέλετε να συνδέσετε μεταβλητές ή μία μεταβλητή και μία κυριολεκτική
συμβολοσειρά, χρησιμοποιήστε το ‘+’:

     >>> prefix + 'thon'
     'Python'

Οι συμβολοσειρές μπορούν να είναι 'προσπελάσιμες' (μέσω ευρετηρίου), με
τον πρώτο χαρακτήρα να έχει τον δείκτη 0.  Δεν υπάρχει ξεχωριστός τύπος
για χαρακτήρες∙ ένας χαρακτήρας είναι απλώς μία συμβολοσειρά με μέγεθος
ένα:

     >>> word = 'Python'
     >>> word[0]  # character in position 0
     'P'
     >>> word[5]  # character in position 5
     'n'

Οι δείκτες μπορούν να είναι και αρνητικοί αριθμοί, για να ξεκινήσετε την
αρίθμηση από τα δεξιά:

     >>> word[-1]  # last character
     'n'
     >>> word[-2]  # second-last character
     'o'
     >>> word[-6]
     'P'

Σημειώστε ότι αφού το -0 είναι το ίδιο με το 0, οι αρνητικοί δείκτες
ξεκινούν από το -1.

Εκτός από την ευρετηρίαση, υποστηρίζεται επίσης ο 'τεμαχισμός'.  Ενώ η
ευρετηρίαση χρησιμοποιείται για την απόκτηση μεμονομένων χαρακτήρων, ο
'τεμαχισμός' σας επιτρέπει να αποκτήσετε ένας μέρος της συμβολοσειράς:

     >>> word[0:2]  # characters from position 0 (included) to 2 (excluded)
     'Py'
     >>> word[2:5]  # characters from position 2 (included) to 5 (excluded)
     'tho'

Οι δείκτες ενός τεμαχισμού έχουν χρήσιμες προεπιλογές∙ η παράλειψη του
πρώτου δείκτη έχει ως προεπιλογή το μηδέν, η παράλειψη του δεύτερου
δείκτη έχει ως προεπιλογή το μέγεθος της συμβολοσειράς που τεμαχίζεται.

     >>> word[:2]   # character from the beginning to position 2 (excluded)
     'Py'
     >>> word[4:]   # characters from position 4 (included) to the end
     'on'
     >>> word[-2:]  # characters from the second-last (included) to the end
     'on'

Προσέξτε πώς η αρχή περιλαμβάνεται πάντα, ενώ το τέλος πάντα εξαιρείται.
Αυτό εξασφαλίζει ότι το ‘s[:i] + s[i:]’ είναι πάντα ίσο με ‘s’:

     >>> word[:2] + word[2:]
     'Python'
     >>> word[:4] + word[4:]
     'Python'

Ένας τρόπος να θυμάστε πώς λειτουργούν οι τεμαχισμοί είναι να σκεφτείτε
ότι οι δείκτες δείχνουν 'μεταξύ' χαρακτήρων, με το αριστερό άκρο του
πρώτου χαρακτήρα να αριθμείται με 0.  Τότε το δεξιό άκρο του τελευταίου
χαρακτήρα μιας συμβολοσειράς 'ν' χαρακτήρων έχει δείκτη 'ν', για
παράδειγμα:

      +---+---+---+---+---+---+
      | P | y | t | h | o | n |
      +---+---+---+---+---+---+
      0   1   2   3   4   5   6
     -6  -5  -4  -3  -2  -1

Η πρώτη σειρά αριθμών δίνει τη θέση των δεικτών 0…6 στην συμβολοσειρά∙ η
δεύτερη σειρά δίνει τους αντίστοιχους αρνητικούς δείκτες.  Ο τεμαχισμός
από 'i' έως 'j' αποτελείται από όλους τους χαρακτήρες μεταξύ των άκρων
με ετικέτες 'i' και 'j', αντίστοιχα.

Για μη αρνητικούς δείκτες, το μήκος ενός τεμαχισμού είναι η διαφορά των
δεικτών, εάν και οι δύο είναι εντός των ορίων.  Για παράδειγμα, το μήκος
του ‘word[1:3]’ είναι 2.

Η απόπειρα χρήσης ενός πολύ μεγάλου δείκτη θα οδηγήσει σε σφάλμα:

     >>> word[42]  # the word only has 6 characters
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     IndexError: string index out of range

Ωστόσο, οι δείκτες εκτός εύρους αντιμετωπίζονται χωρίς σφάλμα όταν
χρησιμοποιούνται για τεμαχισμούς:

     >>> word[4:42]
     'on'
     >>> word[42:]
     ''

Οι συμβολοσειρές της Python δεν μπορούν να αλλάξουν — είναι *note
immutable: 181.  Επομένως, η ανάθεση σε μια συγκεκριμένη θέση στη
συμβολοσειρά οδηγεί σε σφάλμα:

     >>> word[0] = 'J'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
     >>> word[2:] = 'py'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

Εάν χρειάζεστε μια διαφορετική συμβολοσειρά, θα πρέπει να δημιουργήσετε
μια νέα:

     >>> 'J' + word[1:]
     'Jython'
     >>> word[:2] + 'py'
     'Pypy'

Η ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note len(): a1f. επιστρέφει το μήκος μιας
συμβολοσειράς:

     >>> s = 'supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'
     >>> len(s)
     34

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Τύπος Ακολουθίας (Sequence) Κειμένου — str: 21cd.

     Οι συμβολοσειρές είναι παραδείγματα 'τύπων ακολουθίας' και
     υποστηρίζουν τις κοινές πράξεις που υποστηρίζονται από τέτοιους
     τύπους.

*note Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς (String): 21ce.

     Οι συμβολοσειρές υποστηρίζουν έναν μεγάλο αριθμό μεθόδων για
     βασικούς μετασχηματισμούς και αναζήτηση.

*note f-strings: 43a.

     Κυριολεκτικές συμβολοσειρές που έχουν ενσωματωμένες εκφράσεις.

*note Format string syntax: 173f.

     Πληροφορίες σχετικά με τη μορφοποίηση συμβολοσειρών με τη μέθοδο
     *note str.format(): a12.

*note printf-style String Formatting: ab9.

     Οι παλιές λειτουργίες μορφοποίησης που καλούνται όταν οι
     συμβολοσειρές είναι ο αριστερός τελεστέος του τελεστή ‘%’
     περιγράφονται λεπτομερέστερα εδώ.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Σε αντίθεση με άλλες γλώσσες, οι ειδικοί χαρακτήρες όπως το ‘\n’
έχουν την ίδια σημασία τόσο με απλά (‘'...'’) όσο και με διπλά (‘"..."’)
εισαγωγικά.  Η μόνη διαφορά μεταξύ των δύο είναι ότι μέσα σε απλά
εισαγωγικά δεν χρειάζεται να αποφύγετε το ‘"’ (αλλά πρέπει να αποφύγετε
το ‘\'’) και το αντίστροφο.


File: python.info,  Node: Λίστες,  Prev: Κείμενο,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας την Python ως Αριθμομηχανή

2.3.1.3 Λίστες
..............

Η Python γνωρίζει έναν αριθμό 'σύνθετων' τύπων δεδομένων, που
χρησιμοποιούνται για την ομαδοποίηση άλλων τιμών.  Ο πιο ευέλικτος είναι
ο τύπος 'λίστα', ο οποίος μπορεί να γραφτεί ως μια λίστα διαχωρισμένων
με κόμμα τιμών (στοιχείων) ανάμεσα σε τετράγωνες αγκύλες.  Οι λίστες
μπορεί να περιέχουν στοιχεία διαφορετικών τύπων, αλλά συνήθως όλα τα
στοιχεία έχουν τον ίδιο τύπο.

     >>> squares = [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
     >>> squares
     [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]

Όπως οι συμβολοσειρές (και όλοι οι άλλοι ενσωματωμένοι τύποι *note
sequence: 8ff.), οι λίστες μπορούν να δεικτοδοτηθούν και να τεμαχιστούν:

     >>> squares[0]  # indexing returns the item
     1
     >>> squares[-1]
     25
     >>> squares[-3:]  # slicing returns a new list
     [9, 16, 25]

Οι λίστες υποστηρίζουν επίσης λειτουργίες όπως σύνδεση:

     >>> squares + [36, 49, 64, 81, 100]
     [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]

Σε αντίθεση με τις συμβολοσειρές, οι οποίες είναι *note immutable: 181,
οι λίστες είναι *note mutable: 21d1. τύπος, δηλαδή είναι δυνατόν να
αλλάξετε το περιεχόμενό τους:

     >>> cubes = [1, 8, 27, 65, 125]  # something's wrong here
     >>> 4 ** 3  # the cube of 4 is 64, not 65!
     64
     >>> cubes[3] = 64  # replace the wrong value
     >>> cubes
     [1, 8, 27, 64, 125]

Μπορείτε επίσης να προσθέσετε νέα στοιχεία στο τέλος της λίστας,
χρησιμοποιώντας *note list.append(): aba. 'μέθοδο' (θα δούμε περισσότερα
για τις μεθόδους αργότερα):

     >>> cubes.append(216)  # add the cube of 6
     >>> cubes.append(7 ** 3)  # and the cube of 7
     >>> cubes
     [1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343]

Η απλή ανάθεση στην Python δεν αντιγράφει ποτέ δεδομένα.  Όταν αναθέτετε
μια λίστα σε μια μεταβλητή, η μεταβλητή αναφέρεται στην 'υπάρχουσα
λίστα'.  Οποιεσδήποτε αλλαγές κάνετε στη λίστα μέσω μιας μεταβλητής θα
γίνουν αντιληπτές από όλες τις άλλες μεταβλητές που αναφέρονται σε
αυτήν:

     >>> rgb = ["Red", "Green", "Blue"]
     >>> rgba = rgb
     >>> id(rgb) == id(rgba)  # they reference the same object
     True
     >>> rgba.append("Alph")
     >>> rgb
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"]

Όλοι οι τεμαχισμοί επιστρέφουν μια νέα λίστα που περιέχει τα ζητούμενα
στοιχεία.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι ο ακόλουθος τεμαχισμός επιστρέφει ένα *note
shallow copy: 21d2. (ρηχό αντίγραφο) της λίστας:

     >>> correct_rgba = rgba[:]
     >>> correct_rgba[-1] = "Alpha"
     >>> correct_rgba
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alpha"]
     >>> rgba
     ["Red", "Green", "Blue", "Alph"]

Η ανάθεση σε τεμαχισμούς είναι επίσης δυνατή, και αυτό μπορεί ακόμη και
να αλλάξει το μέγεθος της λίστας ή να τη διαγράψει εντελώς:

     >>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # replace some values
     >>> letters[2:5] = ['C', 'D', 'E']
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # now remove them
     >>> letters[2:5] = []
     >>> letters
     ['a', 'b', 'f', 'g']
     >>> # clear the list by replacing all the elements with an empty list
     >>> letters[:] = []
     >>> letters
     []

Η ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note len(): a1f. εφαρμόζεται επίσης στις
λίστες:

     >>> letters = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
     >>> len(letters)
     4

Είναι δυνατό να εμφωλεύσετε λίστες (να δημιουργήσετε λίστες που
περιέχουν άλλες λίστες), για παράδειγμα:

     >>> a = ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> n = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> x = [a, n]
     >>> x
     [['a', 'b', 'c'], [1, 2, 3]]
     >>> x[0]
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> x[0][1]
     'b'


File: python.info,  Node: Πρώτα Βήματα Προς Τον Προγραμματισμό,  Prev: Χρησιμοποιώντας την Python ως Αριθμομηχανή,  Up: Μία Άτυπη Εισαγωγή στην Python

2.3.2 Πρώτα Βήματα Προς Τον Προγραμματισμό
------------------------------------------

Φυσικά, μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε την Python για πιο περίπλοκες
εργασίες από την πρόσθεση δύο και δύο μαζί.  Για παράδειγμα, μπορούμε να
γράψουμε μια αρχική υπο-σειρά της Σειράς Fibonacci(1) ως ακολουθεί:

     >>> # Fibonacci series:
     >>> # the sum of two elements defines the next
     >>> a, b = 0, 1
     >>> while a < 10:
     ...     print(a)
     ...     a, b = b, a+b
     ...
     0
     1
     1
     2
     3
     5
     8

Αυτό το παράδειγμα εισάγει διάφορα νέα χαρακτηριστικά.

   * Η πρώτη γραμμή περιέχει μια 'πολλαπλή ανάθεση': οι μεταβλητές ‘a’
     και ‘b’ παίρνουν ταυτόχρονα τις νέες τιμές 0 και 1.  Στην τελευταία
     γραμμή αυτό χρησιμοποιείται ξανά, αποδεικνύοντας ότι οι εκφράσεις
     στη δεξιά πλευρά αξιολογούνται όλες πρώτα πριν γίνει οποιαδήποτε
     ανάθεση.  Οι εκφράσεις στην δεξιά πλευρά αξιολογούνται από αριστερά
     προς τα δεξιά.

   * Ο βρόχος *note while: 1b86. εκτελείται όσο η συνθήκη (εδώ: ‘a <
     10’) παραμένει αληθής.  Στην Python, όπως και στη C, οποιαδήποτε μη
     μηδενική ακέραια τιμή είναι αληθής, το μηδέν είναι ψευδές.  Η
     συνθήκη μπορεί επίσης να είναι μια συμβολοσειρά ή μια λίστα, στην
     πραγματικότητα οποιαδήποτε ακολουθία∙ οτιδήποτε με μη μηδενικό
     μήκος είναι αληθές, κενές ακολουθίες είναι ψευδείς.  Το τεστ που
     χρησιμοποιείται στο παράδειγμα είναι μια απλή σύγκριση.  Οι τυπικοί
     τελεστές σύγκρισης γράφονται όπως στη C: ‘<’ (μικρότερο από), ‘>’
     (μεγαλύτερο από), ‘==’ (ίσο με), ‘<=’ (μικρότερο ή ίσο με), ‘>=’
     (μεγαλύτερο ή ίσο με) και ‘!=’ (μη ίσο με).

   * Στο 'σώμα' του βρόχου υπάρχει 'εσοχή': η εσοχή είναι ο τρόπος της
     Python να ομαδοποιεί εντολές.  Στο διαδραστικό prompt, πρέπει να
     πληκτρολογήσετε ένα tab ή κενό(α) για κάθε γραμμή με εσοχή.  Στην
     πράξη θα προετοιμάσετε πιο περίπλοκες εισαγωγές για την Python με
     έναν επεξεργαστή κειμένου∙ όλοι οι αξιοπρεπείς επεξεργαστές
     κειμένου διαθέτουν την δυνατότητα αυτόματης εσοχής.  Όταν εισάγεται
     μια σύνθετη εντολή διαδραστικά, πρέπει να ακολουθείται από μια κενή
     γραμμή για να υποδηλώνει την ολοκλήρωση (αφού ο συντακτικός
     αναλυτής δεν μπορεί να μαντέψει πότε πληκτρολογήσατε την τελευταία
     γραμμή).  Σημείωση ότι κάθε γραμμή μέσα σε ένα βασικό μπλοκ πρέπει
     να έχει την ίδια εσοχή.

   * Η συνάρτηση *note print(): 131f. γράφει την τιμή του(των)
     ορίσματος(ων) που της δίνεται.  Διαφέρει από το να γράφετε απλώς
     την έκφραση που θέλετε να γράψετε (όπως κάναμε νωρίτερα στα
     παραδείγματα της αριθμομηχανής) στον τρόπο με τον οποίο χειρίζεται
     πολλαπλά ορίσματα, αριθμούς με δεκαδικά ψηφία και συμβολοσειρές.
     Οι συμβολοσειρές εκτυπώνονται χωρίς εισαγωγικά, και ένα κενό
     παρεμβάλλεται μεταξύ των στοιχείων, ώστε να μπορείτε να
     μορφοποιήσετε τα πράγματα όμορφα, όπως εδώ:

          >>> i = 256*256
          >>> print('The value of i is', i)
          The value of i is 65536

     Το όρισμα-κλειδί 'end' μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την αποφυγή της
     νέας γραμμής μετά την έξοδο, ή για να τελειώσετε την έξοδο με μια
     διαφορετική συμβολοσειρά:

          >>> a, b = 0, 1
          >>> while a < 1000:
          ...     print(a, end=',')
          ...     a, b = b, a+b
          ...
          0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,

Υποσημειώσεις
.............

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_sequence


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2.4 Περισσότερα εργαλεία Ελέγχου Ροής
=====================================

Εκτός από τη πρόταση *note while: 1b86. που μόλις εισήχθη, η Python
χρησιμοποιεί μερικές ακόμη που θα συναντήσουμε σε αυτό το κεφάλαιο.

* Menu:

* Προτάσεις if::
* Προτάσεις for::
* Η συνάρτηση range(): Η συνάρτηση range.
* break και continue Προτάσεις::
* else Ρήτρες στους βρόχους::
* Προτάσεις pass::
* Προτάσεις match::
* Καθορισμός Συναρτήσεων::
* Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων::
* Intermezzo; Στυλ Κώδικα: Intermezzo Στυλ Κώδικα.


File: python.info,  Node: Προτάσεις if,  Next: Προτάσεις for,  Up: Περισσότερα εργαλεία Ελέγχου Ροής

2.4.1 Προτάσεις ‘if’
--------------------

Ίσως ο πιο γνωστός τύπος statement είναι η πρόταση *note if: 322.  Για
παράδειγμα:

     >>> x = int(input("Please enter an integer: "))
     Please enter an integer: 42
     >>> if x < 0:
     ...     x = 0
     ...     print('Negative changed to zero')
     ... elif x == 0:
     ...     print('Zero')
     ... elif x == 1:
     ...     print('Single')
     ... else:
     ...     print('More')
     ...
     More

Μπορεί να υπάρχουν μηδέν ή περισσότερα μέρη *note elif: 425. και το
τμήμα *note else: 320. είναι προαιρετικό.  To keyword “‘elif’” είναι
συντομογραφία του “else if”, και είναι χρήσιμη για να αποφύγετε την
υπερβολική εσοχή.  Μια ακολουθία ‘if’ … ‘elif’ … ‘elif’ … είναι
υποκατάστατο των δηλώσεων ‘switch’ ή ‘case’ που υπάρχουν σε άλλες
γλώσσες.

Εάν συγκρίνετε την ίδια τιμή με πολλές σταθερές ή ελέγχετε για
συγκεκριμένους τύπους ή χαρακτηριστικά, μπορεί επίσης να βρείτε χρήσιμη
τη δήλωση ‘match’ Για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες, ανατρέξτε στο *note
Προτάσεις match: 21db.


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2.4.2 Προτάσεις ‘for’
---------------------

Η δήλωση *note for: 321. στην Python διαφέρει λίγο από αυτό που μπορεί
να έχετε συνηθίσει στη C ή στην Pascal.  Αντί να επαναλαμβάνετε πάντα
μια αριθμητική πρόοδο αριθμών (όπως στη Pascal) ή να δίνετε στον χρήστη
τη δυνατότητα να ορίσει τόσο το βήμα επανάληψης όσο και τη συνθήκη
διακοπής (όπως C),η δήλωση της Python ‘for’ επαναλαμβάνεται πάνω από τα
στοιχεία οποιασδήποτε ακολουθίας (λίστας ή συμβολοσειράς), με τη σειρά
που εμφανίζονται στην ακολουθία.  Για παράδειγμα (χωρίς λογοπαίγνιο):

     >>> # Measure some strings:
     >>> words = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
     >>> for w in words:
     ...     print(w, len(w))
     ...
     cat 3
     window 6
     defenestrate 12

Ο κώδικας που τροποποιεί μια συλλογή ενώ επαναλαμβάνεται πάνω από την
ίδια συλλογή μπορεί να είναι δύσκολος για να γίνει σωστός.  Αντίθετα,
είναι συνήθως πιο απλό να κάνετε loop πάνω από ένα αντίγραφο συλλογής ή
να δημιουργήσετε μια νέα συλλογή:

     # Create a sample collection
     users = {'Hans': 'active', 'Éléonore': 'inactive', '景太郎': 'active'}

     # Strategy:  Iterate over a copy
     for user, status in users.copy().items():
         if status == 'inactive':
             del users[user]

     # Strategy:  Create a new collection
     active_users = {}
     for user, status in users.items():
         if status == 'active':
             active_users[user] = status


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2.4.3 Η συνάρτηση ‘range()’
---------------------------

Εάν χρειάζεται να κάνετε επανάληψη σε μια ακολουθία αριθμών, η
ενσωματωμένη (built-in) συνάρτηση *note range(): d0f. είναι χρήσιμη.
Δημιουργεί αριθμητικές προόδους:

     >>> for i in range(5):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     0
     1
     2
     3
     4

Το δεδομένο τελικό σημείο δεν αποτελεί ποτέ μέρος της παραγόμενης
ακολουθίας· το ‘range(10)’ δημιουργεί 10 τιμές, τους δείκτες για
στοιχεία μιας ακολουθίας μήκους 10.  Είναι δυνατόν να αφήσουμε το εύρος
να ξεκινά από άλλο αριθμό ή για να καθορίσετε μια διαφορετική προσαύξηση
(ακόμη και αρνητική, μερικές φορές αυτό ονομάζεται “βήμα”):

     >>> list(range(5, 10))
     [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
     [0, 3, 6, 9]

     >>> list(range(-10, -100, -30))
     [-10, -40, -70]

Για να γίνουν iterate οι δείκτες μια ακολουθίας, μπορείτε να συνδυάσετε
τις *note range(): d0f. και *note len(): a1f. ως εξής:

     >>> a = ['Mary', 'had', 'a', 'little', 'lamb']
     >>> for i in range(len(a)):
     ...     print(i, a[i])
     ...
     0 Mary
     1 had
     2 a
     3 little
     4 lamb

Στις περισσότερες τέτοιες περιπτώσεις, ωστόσο, είναι βολικό να
χρησιμοποιήσετε τη συνάρτηση *note enumerate(): 1823, δείτε *note
Τεχνικές Looping: 21e0.

Ένα περίεργο πράγμα συμβαίνει αν απλώς εκτυπώσετε ένα range:

     >>> range(10)
     range(0, 10)

Με πολλούς τρόπους το αντικείμενο που επιστρέφεται από το *note range():
d0f. συμπεριφέρεται σαν να είναι μια λίστα, αλλά στην πραγματικότητα δεν
είναι.  Είναι ένα αντικείμενο που επιστρέφει τα διαδοχικά στοιχεία της
επιθυμητής ακολουθίας όταν κάνετε επανάληψη πάνω του, αλλά δεν μπαίνει
πραγματικά στη λίστα, εξοικονομώντας έτσι χώρο.

Λέμε ότι ένα τέτοιο αντικείμενο είναι *note iterable: 15ce, δηλαδή,
κατάλληλο ως στόχος για συναρτήσεις και κατασκευές που περιμένουν κάτι
από το οποίο μπορούν να λάβουν διαδοχικά στοιχεία μέχρι να εξαντληθεί η
προσφορά.  Είδαμε ότι η δήλωση *note for: 321. είναι μια τέτοια
κατασκευή, ενώ ένα παράδειγμα συνάρτησης που παίρνει ένα iterable είναι
η *note sum(): 881.:

     >>> sum(range(4))  # 0 + 1 + 2 + 3
     6

Later we will see more functions that return iterables and take
iterables as arguments.  In chapter *note Δομές Δεδομένων: 21e1, we will
discuss *note list(): 4d9. in more detail.


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2.4.4 ‘break’ και ‘continue’ Προτάσεις
--------------------------------------

Η δήλωση *note break: 428. ξεφεύγει από τον πιο εσωτερικό βρόχο *note
for: 321. ή *note while: 1b86.:

     >>> for n in range(2, 10):
     ...     for x in range(2, n):
     ...         if n % x == 0:
     ...             print(f"{n} equals {x} * {n//x}")
     ...             break
     ...
     4 equals 2 * 2
     6 equals 2 * 3
     8 equals 2 * 4
     9 equals 3 * 3

Η δήλωση *note continue: 429. συνεχίζεται με την επόμενη επανάληψη του
βρόχου:

     >>> for num in range(2, 10):
     ...     if num % 2 == 0:
     ...         print(f"Found an even number {num}")
     ...         continue
     ...     print(f"Found an odd number {num}")
     ...
     Found an even number 2
     Found an odd number 3
     Found an even number 4
     Found an odd number 5
     Found an even number 6
     Found an odd number 7
     Found an even number 8
     Found an odd number 9


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2.4.5 ‘else’ Ρήτρες στους βρόχους
---------------------------------

Σε έναν βρόχο ‘for’ ή ‘while’ η πρόταση ‘break’ μπορεί να συνδυαστεί με
μια πρόταση ‘else’.  Εάν ο βρόχος τελειώσει χωρίς να εκτελεστεί η
‘break’, εκτελείται ο όρος ‘else’.

Σε έναν βρόχο *note for: 321, η πρόταση ‘else’ εκτελείται αφού ο βρόχος
ολοκληρώσει στην τελική του επανάληψη, δηλαδή αν δεν σημειωθεί
διάλειμμα.

Σε έναν βρόχο *note while: 1b86, εκτελείται αφού η συνθήκη του βρόχου
είναι ψευδής.

Σε οποιοδήποτε είδος βρόχου, η πρόταση ‘else’ 'δεν' εκτελείται εάν ο
βρόχος τερματίστηκε με μια λέξη *note break: 428.  Φυσικά, άλλοι τρόποι
για να τερματίσετε νωρίς τον βρόχο, όπως ένα *note return: 44b. ή μια
αυξημένη εξαίρεση, θα παρακάμψουν επίσης την εκτέλεση της πρότασης *note
else: 320.

Αυτό αποδεικνύεται στον ακόλουθο βρόχο ‘for’, που αναζητά πρώτους
αριθμούς:

     >>> for n in range(2, 10):
     ...     for x in range(2, n):
     ...         if n % x == 0:
     ...             print(n, 'equals', x, '*', n//x)
     ...             break
     ...     else:
     ...         # loop fell through without finding a factor
     ...         print(n, 'is a prime number')
     ...
     2 is a prime number
     3 is a prime number
     4 equals 2 * 2
     5 is a prime number
     6 equals 2 * 3
     7 is a prime number
     8 equals 2 * 4
     9 equals 3 * 3

(Ναι, αυτός είναι ο σωστός κώδικας.  Κοιτάξτε προσεκτικά: η πρόταση
‘else’ ανήκει στον βρόχο ‘for’, 'όχι' στη δήλωση ‘if’.)

Ένας τρόπος για να σκεφτούμε την ρήτρα else είναι να τη φανταστούμε σε
σύζευξη με το ‘if’ μέσα στον βρόχο.  Καθώς εκτελείται ο βρόχος, θα
εκτελέσει μια ακολουθία όπως if/if/if/else.  Το ‘if’ βρίσκεται μέσα στον
βρόχο, συναντάται πολλές φορές.  Εάν η συνθήκη είναι ποτέ αληθής, θα
συμβεί ‘break’.  Εάν η συνθήκη δεν είναι ποτέ αληθής, θα εκτελεστεί ο
όρος ‘else’ εκτός του βρόχου.

Όταν χρησιμοποιείται με έναν βρόχο, η πρόταση ‘else’ έχει περισσότερα
κοινά με την πρόταση ‘else’ μιας πρότασης *note try: ad6. παρά με αυτήν
των statements ‘if’ η πρόταση ‘else’ μιας ‘try’ εκτελείται όταν δεν
υπάρχει εξαίρεση, και η πρόταση ‘else’ ενός βρόχου εκτελείται όταν δεν
υπάρχει ‘break’.  Για περισσότερα με τη δήλωση ‘try’ και τις εξαιρέσεις,
δείτε *note Διαχείριση Εξαιρέσεων: 21e7.


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2.4.6 Προτάσεις ‘pass’
----------------------

Η δήλωση *note pass: 427. δεν κάνει τίποτα.  Μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί
όταν απαιτείται συντακτικά μια πρόταση, αλλά το πρόγραμμα δεν απαιτεί
καμία ενέργεια.  Για παράδειγμα:

     >>> while True:
     ...     pass  # Busy-wait for keyboard interrupt (Ctrl+C)
     ...

Αυτό χρησιμοποιείται συνήθως για τη δημιουργία ελάχιστων κλάσεων:

     >>> class MyEmptyClass:
     ...     pass
     ...

Ένα άλλο μέρος *note pass: 427. που μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί είναι ως
place-holder για μια συνάρτηση ή το σώμα υπό όρους όταν εργάζεστε σε νέο
κώδικα, επιτρέποντας σας να συνεχίσετε να σκέφτεστε σε ένα πιο αφηρημένο
επίπεδο.  Το ‘pass’ αγνοείται σιωπηλά:

     >>> def initlog(*args):
     ...     pass   # Remember to implement this!
     ...

Για αυτήν την τελευταία περίπτωση, πολλοί άνθρωποι χρησιμοποιούν το
literale αποσιωπητικών ‘...’ αντί για ‘pass’.  Αυτή η χρήση δεν έχει
ειδική σημασία για την Python και δεν αποτελεί μέρος του ορισμού της
γλώσσας (θα μπορούσατε να χρησιμοποιήσετε οποιαδήποτε σταθερή έκφραση
εδώ), αλλά το ‘...’ χρησιμοποιείται συμβατικά και ως σώμα placeholder.
Δείτε *note Το αντικείμενο Ellipsis: 21ea.


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2.4.7 Προτάσεις ‘match’
-----------------------

Μια δήλωση *note match: 1d4. παίρνει μια έκφραση και συγκρίνει την τιμή
της με διαδοχικά μοτίβα που δίνονται ως ένα ή περισσότερα μπλοκ
πεζών-κεφαλαίων.  Αυτή είναι επιφανειακά παρόμοια με μια πρόταση switch
στην C, Java ή JavaScript (και πολλές άλλες γλώσσες), αλλά είναι πιο
παρόμοια με την αντιστοίχιση προτύπων σε γλώσσες όπως η Rust ή η
Haskell.  Εκτελείται μόνο το πρώτο μοτίβο που ταιριάζει και μπορεί
επίσης να εξαγάγει στοιχεία (στοιχεία ακολουθίας ή ιδιότητες
αντικειμένου) από την τιμή σε μεταβλητές.  Εάν καμία περίπτωση δεν
ταιριάζει, κανένας από τους κλάδους δεν εκτελείται.

Η απλούστερη φόρμα συγκρίνει μια τιμή θέματος με ένα ή περισσότερα
literals:

     def http_error(status):
         match status:
             case 400:
                 return "Bad request"
             case 404:
                 return "Not found"
             case 418:
                 return "I'm a teapot"
             case _:
                 return "Something's wrong with the internet"

Σημειώστε το τελευταίο μπλοκ: το «variable name» ‘_’ λειτουργεί ως
'μπαλαντέρ' και δεν αποτυγχάνει ποτέ να ταιριάζει.

Μπορείτε να συνδυάσετε πολλά γράμματα σε ένα μόνο μοτίβο χρησιμοποιώντας
το ‘|’ («ή»):

     case 401 | 403 | 404:
         return "Not allowed"

Τα μοτίβα μπορεί να μοιάζουν με αναθέσεις unpacking, και μπορούν να
χρησιμοποιηθούν για τη σύνδεση μεταβλητών:

     # point is an (x, y) tuple
     match point:
         case (0, 0):
             print("Origin")
         case (0, y):
             print(f"Y={y}")
         case (x, 0):
             print(f"X={x}")
         case (x, y):
             print(f"X={x}, Y={y}")
         case _:
             raise ValueError("Not a point")

Μελετήστε το ένα προσεκτικά!  Το πρώτο μοτίβο έχει δύο literals, και
μπορεί να θεωρηθεί ως επέκταση του literal μοτίβου που φαίνεται
παραπάνω.  Αλλά τα επόμενα δύο μοτίβα συνδυάζουν ένα literal σε μια
μεταβλητή, και η μεταβλητή 'δεσμεύει' μια τιμή από το θέμα (‘point’).
Το τέταρτο μοτίβο συλλαμβάνει δύο τιμές, γεγονός που το κάνει
εννοιολογικά παρόμοιο με την ανάθεση unpacking ‘(x, y) = point’.

Εάν χρησιμοποιείτε κλάσεις για τη δομή των δεδομένων σας, μπορείτε να
χρησιμοποιήσετε το όνομα της κλάσης ακολουθούμενο από μια λίστα
ορισμάτων που μοιάζει με έναν κατασκευαστή, αλλά με τη δυνατότητα να
συλλαμβάνει χαρακτηριστικά σε μεταβλητές:

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

     def where_is(point):
         match point:
             case Point(x=0, y=0):
                 print("Origin")
             case Point(x=0, y=y):
                 print(f"Y={y}")
             case Point(x=x, y=0):
                 print(f"X={x}")
             case Point():
                 print("Somewhere else")
             case _:
                 print("Not a point")

Μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε παραμέτρους θέσης με ορισμένες ενσωματωμένες
κλάσεις που παρέχουν μια σειρά για τα χαρακτηριστικά τους (π.χ.  κλάσεις
δεδομένων).  Μπορείτε επίσης να ορίσετε μια συγκεκριμένη θέση για
χαρακτηριστικά σε μοτίβα, ορίζοντας το ειδικό χαρακτηριστικό
‘__match_args__’ στις κλάσεις σας.  Εάν έχει οριστεί σε («x», «y»), τα
ακόλουθα μοτίβα είναι όλα ισοδύναμα (και όλα δεσμεύουν το χαρακτηριστικό
‘y’ στη μεταβλητή ‘var’):

     Point(1, var)
     Point(1, y=var)
     Point(x=1, y=var)
     Point(y=var, x=1)

Ένας συνιστώμενος τρόπος για να διαβάσετε τα μοτίβα είναι να τα δείτε ως
μια εκτεταμένη μορφή αυτού που θα βάλετε στα αριστερά μιας ανάθεσης, για
να κατανοήσετε ποιες μεταβλητές θα οριστούν σε τι.  Μόνο τα ανεξάρτητα
ονόματα (όπως ‘var’ παραπάνω) εκχωρούνται από μια δήλωση αντιστοίχισης.
Ονόματα με κουκκίδες (όπως ‘foo.bar’), ονόματα χαρακτηριστικών (τα ‘x=’
και ‘y=’ παραπάνω) ή ονόματα κλάσεων (αναγνωρίζονται από το «(…)» που
βρίσκεται δίπλα όπως το ‘Point’ παραπάνω) δεν ανατίθενται ποτέ.

Τα μοτίβα μπορούν να είναι αυθαίρετα ένθετα.  Για παράδειγμα, εάν έχουμε
μια σύντομη λίστα με πόντους, με προσθήκη ‘__match_args__’, θα
μπορούσαμε να την αντιστοιχίσουμε ως εξής:

     class Point:
         __match_args__ = ('x', 'y')
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

     match points:
         case []:
             print("No points")
         case [Point(0, 0)]:
             print("The origin")
         case [Point(x, y)]:
             print(f"Single point {x}, {y}")
         case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]:
             print(f"Two on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2}")
         case _:
             print("Something else")

Μπορούμε να προσθέσουμε μια πρόταση ‘if’ σε ένα μοτίβο, γνωστό ως
«guard».  Εάν το guard είναι false, το ‘match’ συνεχίζει για να
δοκιμάσει το επόμενο μπλοκ πεζών-κεφαλαίων.  Λάβετε υπόψη ότι η σύλληψη
της τιμής γίνεται πριν ο guard αξιολογηθεί:

     match point:
         case Point(x, y) if x == y:
             print(f"Y=X at {x}")
         case Point(x, y):
             print(f"Not on the diagonal")

Πολλά άλλα βασικά χαρακτηριστικά αυτής της δήλωσης:

   - Όπως το unpacking αναθέσεων, τα μοτίβα πλειάδας (tuple) και λίστας
     έχουν ακριβώς την ίδια σημασία και ταιριάζουν πραγματικά με
     αυθαίρετες ακολουθίες.  Μια σημαντική εξαίρεση είναι ότι δεν
     ταιριάζουν με iterators ή συμβολοσειρές.

   - Τα μοτίβα ακολουθίας υποστηρίζουν εκτεταμένο unpacking: ‘[x, y,
     *rest]’ και ‘(x, y, *rest)’ λειτουργεί παρόμοια με το unpacking
     αναθέσεων.  Το όνομα μετά το ‘*’ μπορεί επίσης να είναι ‘_’, οπότε
     το ‘(x, y, *_)’ αντιστοιχεί σε μια ακολουθία τουλάχιστον δύο
     στοιχείων χωρίς να δεσμεύει τα υπόλοιπα στοιχεία.

   - Μοτίβα αντιστοίχισης: ‘{"bandwidth": b, "latency": l}’ καταγράφει
     τις τιμές ‘"bandwidth"’ και ‘"latency"’ από ένα λεξικό.  Σε
     αντίθεση με τα μοτίβα ακολουθίας, επιπλέον κλειδιά αγνοούνται.
     Υποστηρίζεται επίσης το unpacking όπως το ‘**rest’.  (Αλλά το ‘**_’
     θα ήταν περιττό, επομένως δεν επιτρέπεται.)

   - Τα δευτερεύοντα μοτίβα μπορούν να αποτυπωθούν χρησιμοποιώντας το
     keyword ‘as’:

          case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ...

     θα καταγράψει το δεύτερο στοιχείο της εισόδου ως ‘p2’ (εφόσον η
     είσοδος είναι μια ακολουθία δύο σημείων)

   - Τα περισσότερα literals συγκρίνονται με ισότητα, ωστόσο τα
     singletons ‘True’, ‘False’ και ‘None’ συγκρίνονται με ταυτότητα.

   - Patterns may use named constants.  These must be dotted names to
     prevent them from being interpreted as capture variables:

          from enum import Enum
          class Color(Enum):
              RED = 'red'
              GREEN = 'green'
              BLUE = 'blue'

          color = Color(input("Enter your choice of 'red', 'blue' or 'green': "))

          match color:
              case Color.RED:
                  print("I see red!")
              case Color.GREEN:
                  print("Grass is green")
              case Color.BLUE:
                  print("I'm feeling the blues :(")

Για πιο λεπτομερή επεξήγηση και πρόσθετα παραδείγματα, μπορείτε να δείτε
το PEP 636(1) το οποίο είναι γραμμένο σε μορφή εκμάθησης.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Καθορισμός Συναρτήσεων,  Next: Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων,  Prev: Προτάσεις match,  Up: Περισσότερα εργαλεία Ελέγχου Ροής

2.4.8 Καθορισμός Συναρτήσεων
----------------------------

Μπορούμε να δημιουργήσουμε μια συνάρτηση που γράφει τη σειρά Fibonacci
σε ένα αυθαίρετο όριο:

     >>> def fib(n):    # write Fibonacci series less than n
     ...     """Print a Fibonacci series less than n."""
     ...     a, b = 0, 1
     ...     while a < n:
     ...         print(a, end=' ')
     ...         a, b = b, a+b
     ...     print()
     ...
     >>> # Now call the function we just defined:
     >>> fib(2000)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597

Το keyword *note def: 17fc. εισάγει μια συνάρτηση 'ορισμός'.  Πρέπει να
ακολουθείται από το όνομα της συνάρτησης και τη λίστα των τυπικών
παραμέτρων σε παρένθεση.  Οι δηλώσεις που σχηματίζουν το σώμα της
συνάρτησης ξεκινούν από την επόμενη γραμμή και πρέπει να είναι εσοχές.

Η πρώτη δήλωση του σώματος της συνάρτησης μπορεί προαιρετικά να είναι
ένα literal συμβολοσειράς· αυτό το literal συμβολοσειράς είναι η
συμβολοσειρά τεκμηρίωσης της συνάρτησης ή 'docstring'.  (Περισσότερα για
τα docstring μπορείτε να βρείτε στην ενότητα *note Συμβολοσειρές
Τεκμηρίωσης: 21ee.)  Υπάρχουν εργαλεία που χρησιμοποιούν docstrings για
την αυτόματη παραγωγή διαδικτυακής ή έντυπης τεκμηρίωσης ή για να
αφήσουν τον χρήστη να περιηγηθεί διαδραστικά στον κώδικα· είναι καλή
πρακτική να συμπεριλαμβάνονται docstrings στον κώδικα που γράφετε, για
αυτό κάντε το συνήθεια.

Η 'εκτέλεση' μιας συνάρτησης εισάγει έναν νέο πίνακα συμβόλων που
χρησιμοποιείται για τις τοπικές μεταβλητές της συνάρτησης.  Πιο
συγκεκριμένα, όλες οι εκχωρήσεις μεταβλητών σε μια συνάρτηση αποθηκεύουν
την τιμή στον πίνακα τοπικών συμβόλων∙ ενώ οι αναφορές μεταβλητών
κοιτάζονται πρώτα στον πίνακα τοπικών συμβόλων, στη συνέχεια στους
πίνακες τοπικών συμβόλων των συναρτήσεων που περικλείουν, μετά στον
πίνακα καθολικών συμβόλων και, τέλος, στον πίνακα ενσωματωμένων
ονομάτων.  Έτσι, οι καθολικές μεταβλητές και οι μεταβλητές των
συναρτήσεων που περικλείουν δεν μπορούν να εκχωρηθούν ως μια τιμή μέσα
σε μια συνάρτηση (εκτός εάν, για καθολικές μεταβλητές, που ονομάζονται
σε μια δήλωση *note global: 6b5. ή, για μεταβλητές συναρτήσεων που
περικλείουν, ονομάζονται ως μια δήλωση *note nonlocal: 164c.), αν και
μπορεί να αναφέρονται.

Οι πραγματικές παράμετροι (ορίσματα) σε μια κλήση συνάρτησης εισάγονται
στον τοπικό πίνακα συμβόλων της καλούμενης συνάρτησης όταν αυτή
καλείται· έτσι, τα ορίσματα μεταβιβάζονται χρησιμοποιώντας 'call by
value' (όπου η 'value' είναι πάντα ένα αντικείμενο 'reference', όχι την
τιμή του αντικειμένου).  (1)  Όταν μια συνάρτηση καλεί μια άλλη
συνάρτηση ή καλεί τον εαυτό της αναδρομικά, δημιουργείται ένας νέος
πίνακας τοπικών συμβόλων για αυτήν την κλήση.

Ένας ορισμός συνάρτησης συσχετίζει το όνομα της συνάρτησης με το
αντικείμενο συνάρτησης στον τρέχοντα πίνακα συμβόλων.  Ο διερμηνέας
αναγνωρίζει το αντικείμενο στο οποίο επισημαίνεται αυτό το όνομα ως
συνάρτηση που ορίζεται από τον χρήστη.  Άλλα ονόματα μπορούν επίσης να
δείχνουν το ίδιο αντικείμενο συνάρτησης και μπορούν επίσης να
χρησιμοποιηθούν για πρόσβαση στη συνάρτηση:

     >>> fib
     <function fib at 10042ed0>
     >>> f = fib
     >>> f(100)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89

Προερχόμενοι από άλλες γλώσσες, μπορεί να αντιταχθείτε ότι το ‘fib’ δεν
είναι μια συνάρτηση αλλά μια διαδικασία, καθώς δεν επιστρέφει μια τιμή.
Στην πραγματικότητα, ακόμη και συναρτήσεις χωρίς δήλωση *note return:
44b. επιστρέφουν μια τιμή, αν και μάλλον βαρετή.  Αυτή η τιμή ονομάζεται
‘None’.  Η εγγραφή της τιμής ‘None’ από τον διερμηνέα, εάν θα ήταν η
μόνη τιμή που γράφεται.  Μπορείτε να το δείτε αν το θέλετε πραγματικά
χρησιμοποιώντας τη *note print(): 131f.:

     >>> fib(0)
     >>> print(fib(0))
     None

Είναι απλό να γράψετε μια συνάρτηση που επιστρέφει μια λίστα με τους
αριθμούς της σειράς Fibonacci, αντί να την εκτυπώσετε:

     >>> def fib2(n):  # return Fibonacci series up to n
     ...     """Return a list containing the Fibonacci series up to n."""
     ...     result = []
     ...     a, b = 0, 1
     ...     while a < n:
     ...         result.append(a)    # see below
     ...         a, b = b, a+b
     ...     return result
     ...
     >>> f100 = fib2(100)    # call it
     >>> f100                # write the result
     [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]

Αυτό το παράδειγμα, ως συνήθως, δείχνει μερικά νέα χαρακτηριστικά
Python:

   * Η δήλωση *note return: 44b. επιστρέφει με μια τιμή από μια
     συνάρτηση.  Το ‘return’ χωρίς όρισμα έκφρασης, επιστρέφει το
     ‘None’.  Η πτώση του τέλους μιας συνάρτησης επιστρέφει επίσης
     ‘None’.

   * Η δήλωση ‘result.append(a)’ καλεί μια 'μέθοδο' του αντικειμένου της
     λίστας ‘result’.  Μια μέθοδος είναι μια συνάρτηση που “ανήκει” σε
     ένα αντικείμενο και ονομάζεται ‘obj.methodname’, όπου ‘obj’ είναι
     κάποιο αντικείμενο (αυτό μπορεί να είναι μια έκφραση), και το
     ‘methodname’ είναι το όνομα μιας μεθόδου που ορίζεται από τον τύπο
     του αντικειμένου.  Διαφορετικοί τύποι ορίζουν διαφορετικές
     μεθόδους.  Μέθοδοι διαφορετικών τύπων μπορεί να έχουν το ίδιο όνομα
     χωρίς να προκαλούν ασάφεια.  (Είναι δυνατό να ορίσετε τους δικούς
     σας τύπους αντικειμένων και μεθόδους, χρησιμοποιώντας 'classes',
     δείτε *note Κλάσεις: 21ef.) Η μέθοδος *note append(): aba. που
     εμφανίζεται στο παράδειγμα ορίζεται για αντικείμενα λίστας·
     προσθέτει ένα νέο στοιχείο στο τέλος της λίστας.  Σε αυτό το
     παράδειγμα είναι ισοδύναμο με ‘result = result + [a]’, αλλά πιο
     αποτελεσματικό.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Στην πραγματικότητα, η 'κλήση με αναφορά αντικειμένου' θα ήταν
μια καλύτερη περιγραφή, καθώς εάν μεταβιβαστεί ένα μεταβλητό
αντικείμενο, ο καλών θα δει τυχόν αλλαγές που κάνει ο καλών σε αυτό
(στοιχεία που εισάγονται σε μια λίστα).


File: python.info,  Node: Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων,  Next: Intermezzo Στυλ Κώδικα,  Prev: Καθορισμός Συναρτήσεων,  Up: Περισσότερα εργαλεία Ελέγχου Ροής

2.4.9 Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων
-----------------------------------------------

Είναι επίσης δυνατός ο ορισμός συναρτήσεων με μεταβλητό αριθμό
ορισμάτων.  Υπάρχουν τρεις μορφές, που μπορούν να συνδυαστούν.

* Menu:

* Προεπιλεγμένες Τιμές Ορίσματος::
* Ορίσματα Keyword::
* Ειδικές παράμετροι::
* Λίστες Αυθαίρετων Ορισμάτων::
* Unpacking Λίστες Ορισμάτων::
* Εκφράσεις Lambda::
* Συμβολοσειρές Τεκμηρίωσης::
* Annotations Συναρτήσεων::


File: python.info,  Node: Προεπιλεγμένες Τιμές Ορίσματος,  Next: Ορίσματα Keyword,  Up: Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων

2.4.9.1 Προεπιλεγμένες Τιμές Ορίσματος
......................................

Η πιο χρήσιμη φόρμα είναι να καθορίσετε μια προεπιλεγμένη τιμή για ένα ή
περισσότερα ορίσματα.  Αυτό δημιουργεί μια συνάρτηση που μπορεί να
κληθεί με λιγότερα ορίσματα από αυτά που έχει ορίσει ότι επιτρέπει.  Για
παράδειγμα:

     def ask_ok(prompt, retries=4, reminder='Please try again!'):
         while True:
             reply = input(prompt)
             if reply in {'y', 'ye', 'yes'}:
                 return True
             if reply in {'n', 'no', 'nop', 'nope'}:
                 return False
             retries = retries - 1
             if retries < 0:
                 raise ValueError('invalid user response')
             print(reminder)

Αυτή η συνάρτηση μπορεί να κληθεί με διάφορους τρόπους:

   * δίνοντας μόνο το υποχρεωτικό όρισμα: ‘ask_ok('Do you really want to
     quit?')’

   * δίνοντας ένα από τα προαιρετικά ορίσματα: ‘ask_ok('OK to overwrite
     the file?', 2)’

   * ή δίνοντας όλα τα ορίσματα: ‘ask_ok('OK to overwrite the file?', 2,
     'Come on, only yes or no!')’

Αυτό το παράδειγμα εισάγει επίσης το keyword *note in: 323.  Αυτό
ελέγχει εάν μια ακολουθία περιέχει ή όχι μια συγκεκριμένη τιμή.

Οι προεπιλεγμένες τιμές αξιολογούνται στο σημείο του ορισμού της
συνάρτησης στο πεδίο που 'ορίζεται', έτσι ώστε

     i = 5

     def f(arg=i):
         print(arg)

     i = 6
     f()

θα εκτυπώσει ‘5’.

'Σημαντική προειδοποίηση:' Η προεπιλεγμένη τιμή αξιολογείται μόνο μία
φορά.  Αυτό κάνει τη διαφορά όταν η προεπιλογή είναι ένα μεταβλητό
αντικείμενο, όπως μια λίστα, λεξικό ή στιγμιότυπα των περισσότερων
κλάσεων.  Για παράδειγμα, η ακόλουθη συνάρτηση συσσωρεύει τα ορίσματα
που διαβάζονται σε αυτό σε επόμενες κλήσεις:

     def f(a, L=[]):
         L.append(a)
         return L

     print(f(1))
     print(f(2))
     print(f(3))

Αυτό θα εκτυπώσει

     [1]
     [1, 2]
     [1, 2, 3]

Εάν δεν θέλετε να γίνεται κοινή χρήση της προεπιλογής μεταξύ των
επόμενων κλήσεων, μπορείτε να γράψετε τη συνάρτηση ως εξής:

     def f(a, L=None):
         if L is None:
             L = []
         L.append(a)
         return L


File: python.info,  Node: Ορίσματα Keyword,  Next: Ειδικές παράμετροι,  Prev: Προεπιλεγμένες Τιμές Ορίσματος,  Up: Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων

2.4.9.2 Ορίσματα Keyword
........................

Οι συναρτήσεις μπορούν επίσης να κληθούν χρησιμοποιώντας το *note
keyword arguments: 10cc. της μορφής ‘kwarg=value’.  Για παράδειγμα, την
ακόλουθη συνάρτηση:

     def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom', type='Norwegian Blue'):
         print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
         print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.")
         print("-- Lovely plumage, the", type)
         print("-- It's", state, "!")

δέχεται ένα απαιτούμενο όρισμα (‘voltage’) και τρία προαιρετικά ορίσματα
(‘state’, ‘action’, και ‘type’).  Αυτή η συνάρτηση μπορεί να κληθεί με
οποιονδήποτε από τους ακόλουθους τρόπους:

     parrot(1000)                                          # 1 positional argument
     parrot(voltage=1000)                                  # 1 keyword argument
     parrot(voltage=1000000, action='VOOOOOM')             # 2 keyword arguments
     parrot(action='VOOOOOM', voltage=1000000)             # 2 keyword arguments
     parrot('a million', 'bereft of life', 'jump')         # 3 positional arguments
     parrot('a thousand', state='pushing up the daisies')  # 1 positional, 1 keyword

αλλά όλες οι ακόλουθες κλήσεις θα ήταν άκυρες:

     parrot()                     # required argument missing
     parrot(voltage=5.0, 'dead')  # non-keyword argument after a keyword argument
     parrot(110, voltage=220)     # duplicate value for the same argument
     parrot(actor='John Cleese')  # unknown keyword argument

Σε μια κλήση συνάρτησης, τα keyword ορίσματα πρέπει να ακολουθούν
ορίσματα θέσης.  Όλα τα keyword ορίσματα που διαβάζονται πρέπει να
ταιριάζουν με ένα από τα ορίσματα που γίνονται δεκτά από τη συνάρτηση
(π.χ.  το ‘actor’ δεν είναι έγκυρο όρισμα για τη συνάρτηση ‘parrot’),
και η διάταξη τους δεν είναι σημαντική.  Αυτό περιλαμβάνει επίσης μη
προαιρετικά ορίσματα (π.χ.  ‘parrot(voltage=1000)’ είναι επίσης έγκυρο).
Κανένα όρισμα δεν μπορεί να λάβει μια τιμή περισσότερες από μία φορές.
Ακολουθεί ένα παράδειγμα που αποτυγχάνει λόγω αυτού του περιορισμού:

     >>> def function(a):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> function(0, a=0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: function() got multiple values for argument 'a'

Όταν υπάρχει μια τελική επίσημη παράμετρος της μορφής ‘**name’, λαμβάνει
ένα λεξικό (δείτε *note Mapping types — dict, frozendict: e8c.) που
περιέχει όλα τα keyword ορίσματα εκτός από αυτά που αντιστοιχούν σε μια
επίσημη παράμετρο.  Αυτό μπορεί να συνδυαστεί με μια επίσημη παράμετρος
της μορφής ‘*name’ (που περιγράφεται στην επόμενη υποενότητα) η οποία
λαμβάνει ένα *note tuple: 21f6. που περιέχει τα ορίσματα θέσης πέρα από
την επίσημη λίστα παραμέτρων.  (Το ‘*name’ πρέπει να εμφανίζεται πριν
από το ‘**name’.)  Για παράδειγμα, αν ορίσουμε μια συνάρτηση όπως αυτή:

     def cheeseshop(kind, *arguments, **keywords):
         print("-- Do you have any", kind, "?")
         print("-- I'm sorry, we're all out of", kind)
         for arg in arguments:
             print(arg)
         print("-" * 40)
         for kw in keywords:
             print(kw, ":", keywords[kw])

Μπορεί να καλεστεί κάπως έτσι:

     cheeseshop("Limburger", "It's very runny, sir.",
                "It's really very, VERY runny, sir.",
                shopkeeper="Michael Palin",
                client="John Cleese",
                sketch="Cheese Shop Sketch")

και φυσικά θα εκτυπώσει:

     -- Do you have any Limburger ?
     -- I'm sorry, we're all out of Limburger
     It's very runny, sir.
     It's really very, VERY runny, sir.
     ----------------------------------------
     shopkeeper : Michael Palin
     client : John Cleese
     sketch : Cheese Shop Sketch

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι η σειρά με την οποία εκτυπώνονται τα keyword ορίσματα
είναι εγγυημένη ότι ταιριάζει με τη σειρά με την οποία δόθηκαν στην
κλήση της συνάρτησης.


File: python.info,  Node: Ειδικές παράμετροι,  Next: Λίστες Αυθαίρετων Ορισμάτων,  Prev: Ορίσματα Keyword,  Up: Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων

2.4.9.3 Ειδικές παράμετροι
..........................

Από προεπιλογή, τα ορίσματα μπορούν να μεταβιβαστούν σε μια συνάρτηση
Python είτε με βάση τη θέση είτε ρητά με το keyword.  Για αναγνωσιμότητα
και απόδοση, είναι λογικό να περιοριστεί ο τρόπος με τον οποίο μπορούν
να περάσουν τα ορίσματα, έτσι ώστε ένας προγραμματιστής να μην
χρειάζεται να κοιτάξει τον ορισμό της συνάρτησης για να προσδιορίσει εάν
τα στοιχεία μεταβιβάζονται κατά θέση, κατά θέση ή keyword, ή κατά
keyword.

Ένας ορισμός συνάρτησης μπορεί να μοιάζει με αυτό:

     def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):
           -----------    ----------     ----------
             |             |                  |
             |        Positional or keyword   |
             |                                - Keyword only
              -- Positional only

όπου τα ‘/’ και ‘*’ είναι προαιρετικά.  Εάν χρησιμοποιούνται, αυτά τα
σύμβολα υποδεικνύουν το είδος της παραμέτρους με τον τρόπο που τα
ορίσματα μπορούν να μεταβιβαστούν στη συνάρτηση: μόνο θέσης
(positional-only), θέσης ή keyword (positional-or-keyword), και μόνο
keyword (keyword-only).  Οι keyword παράμετροι αναφέρονται επίσης ως
ονομασμένες παράμετροι.

* Menu:

* Παράμετροι Θέσης ή Keyword::
* Παράμετροι Μόνο-Θέσης::
* Ορίσματα μόνο Keyword::
* Παραδείγματα Συναρτήσεων::
* Ανακεφαλαίωση::


File: python.info,  Node: Παράμετροι Θέσης ή Keyword,  Next: Παράμετροι Μόνο-Θέσης,  Up: Ειδικές παράμετροι

2.4.9.4 Παράμετροι Θέσης ή Keyword
..................................

Εάν τα ‘/’ και ‘*’ δεν υπάρχουν στον ορισμό της συνάρτησης, τα ορίσματα
μπορούν να μεταβιβαστούν σε μια συνάρτηση ανά θέση ή κατά keyword.


File: python.info,  Node: Παράμετροι Μόνο-Θέσης,  Next: Ορίσματα μόνο Keyword,  Prev: Παράμετροι Θέσης ή Keyword,  Up: Ειδικές παράμετροι

2.4.9.5 Παράμετροι Μόνο-Θέσης
.............................

Επανεξετάζοντας αυτό το θέμα λίγο πιο λεπτομερώς, είναι δυνατό να
επισημάνετε ορισμένες παραμέτρους ως 'μόνο θέσης'.Εάν 'μόνο θέσης', η
σειρά των παραμέτρων έχει σημασία και οι παράμετροι δεν μπορούν να
μεταβιβαστούν με keyword.  Οι παράμετροι μόνο θέσης τοποθετούνται πριν
από ένα ‘/’ (προς τα εμπρός-κάθετος).  Το ‘/’ χρησιμοποιείται για να
διαχωρίσει λογικά τις παραμέτρους μόνο θέσης από τις υπόλοιπες
παραμέτρους.  Εάν δεν υπάρχει το ‘/’ στον ορισμό της συνάρτησης, δεν
υπάρχουν παράμετροι μόνο θέσης.

Οι παράμετροι που ακολουθούν το ‘/’ μπορεί να είναι 'θέσης ή keyword' ή
'μόνο keyword'.


File: python.info,  Node: Ορίσματα μόνο Keyword,  Next: Παραδείγματα Συναρτήσεων,  Prev: Παράμετροι Μόνο-Θέσης,  Up: Ειδικές παράμετροι

2.4.9.6 Ορίσματα μόνο Keyword
.............................

Για να επισημάνετε τις παραμέτρους ως 'μόνο keyword', υποδεικνύοντας ότι
οι παράμετροι πρέπει να περάσουν από το keyword όρισμα, τοποθετήσετε ένα
‘*’ στη λίστα ορισμάτων ακριβώς πριν από την πρώτη παράμετρο 'μόνο
keyword'.


File: python.info,  Node: Παραδείγματα Συναρτήσεων,  Next: Ανακεφαλαίωση,  Prev: Ορίσματα μόνο Keyword,  Up: Ειδικές παράμετροι

2.4.9.7 Παραδείγματα Συναρτήσεων
................................

Σκεφτείτε τα ακόλουθα παραδείγματα ορισμών συναρτήσεων δίνοντας
ιδιαίτερη προσοχή στους δείκτες ‘/’ και ‘*’:

     >>> def standard_arg(arg):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def pos_only_arg(arg, /):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def kwd_only_arg(*, arg):
     ...     print(arg)
     ...
     >>> def combined_example(pos_only, /, standard, *, kwd_only):
     ...     print(pos_only, standard, kwd_only)

Ο πρώτος ορισμός συνάρτησης, ‘standard_arg’, η πιο οικεία μορφή, δεν
θέτει περιορισμούς στη σύμβαση κλήσης και τα ορίσματα μπορούν να
περάσουν από θέση ή από keyword:

     >>> standard_arg(2)
     2

     >>> standard_arg(arg=2)
     2

Η δεύτερη συνάρτηση ‘pos_only_arg’ περιορίζεται στη χρήση μόνο
παραμέτρων θέσης καθώς υπάρχει ένα ‘/’ στον ορισμός της συνάρτησης:

     >>> pos_only_arg(1)
     1

     >>> pos_only_arg(arg=1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: pos_only_arg() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'arg'

Η τρίτη συνάρτηση ‘kwd_only_arg’ επιτρέπει μόνο keyword ορίσματα όπως
υποδεικνύεται από ένα ‘*’ στον ορισμός της συνάρτησης:

     >>> kwd_only_arg(3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: kwd_only_arg() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given

     >>> kwd_only_arg(arg=3)
     3

Και το τελευταίο χρησιμοποιεί και τις τρεις συμβάσεις κλήσης στον ίδιο
ορισμό συνάρτησης:

     >>> combined_example(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: combined_example() takes 2 positional arguments but 3 were given

     >>> combined_example(1, 2, kwd_only=3)
     1 2 3

     >>> combined_example(1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)
     1 2 3

     >>> combined_example(pos_only=1, standard=2, kwd_only=3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: combined_example() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'pos_only'

Τέλος, εξετάστε αυτόν τον ορισμό συνάρτησης που έχει μια πιθανή
σύγκρουση μεταξύ του ορίσματος θέσης ‘name’ και ‘**kwds’ που έχει ως
κλειδί το ‘name’:

     def foo(name, **kwds):
         return 'name' in kwds

Δεν υπάρχει καμία πιθανή κλήση που θα την κάνει να επιστρέψει ‘True’
καθώς το keyword ‘'name'’ θα συνδέεται πάντα με την πρώτη παράμετρο.
Για παράδειγμα:

     >>> foo(1, **{'name': 2})
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: foo() got multiple values for argument 'name'
     >>>

Αλλά χρησιμοποιώντας ‘/’ (ορίσματα μόνο θέσης), είναι δυνατό καθώς
επιτρέπει το ‘name’ ως όρισμα θέσης και το ‘'name'’ ως κλειδί στα
keyword ορίσματα:

     >>> def foo(name, /, **kwds):
     ...     return 'name' in kwds
     ...
     >>> foo(1, **{'name': 2})
     True

Με άλλα λόγια, τα ονόματα των παραμέτρων μόνο θέσης μπορούν να
χρησιμοποιηθούν σε ‘**kwds’ χωρίς ασάφεια.


File: python.info,  Node: Ανακεφαλαίωση,  Prev: Παραδείγματα Συναρτήσεων,  Up: Ειδικές παράμετροι

2.4.9.8 Ανακεφαλαίωση
.....................

Η περίπτωση χρήσης θα καθορίσει ποιες παραμέτρους θα χρησιμοποιηθούν
στον ορισμό της συνάρτησης:

     def f(pos1, pos2, /, pos_or_kwd, *, kwd1, kwd2):

Ως καθοδήγηση:

   * Χρησιμοποιήστε τη θέση μόνο εάν θέλετε το όνομα των παραμέτρων να
     μην είναι διαθέσιμο στο χρήστη.  Αυτό είναι χρήσιμο όταν τα ονόματα
     παραμέτρων δεν έχουν πραγματικό νόημα, εάν δεν θέλετε να επιβάλετε
     τη σειρά των ορισμάτων όταν καλείται η συνάρτηση ή εάν πρέπει να
     ληφθούν ορισμένες παράμετροι θέσης και αυθαίρετα keywords.

   * Χρησιμοποιήστε keyword μόνο όταν τα ονόματα έχουν νόημα και ο
     ορισμός της συνάρτησης είναι πιο κατανοητός όταν είναι ρητός με
     ονόματα ή θέλετε να αποτρέψετε τους χρήστες να βασίζονται στη θέση
     του επιχειρήματος που μεταβιβάζεται.

   * Για ένα API, χρησιμοποιήστε το μόνο θέσης για να αποτρέψετε τη
     διακοπή των αλλαγών τους API, εάν το όνομα της παραμέτρου
     τροποποιηθεί στο μέλλον.


File: python.info,  Node: Λίστες Αυθαίρετων Ορισμάτων,  Next: Unpacking Λίστες Ορισμάτων,  Prev: Ειδικές παράμετροι,  Up: Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων

2.4.9.9 Λίστες Αυθαίρετων Ορισμάτων
...................................

Τέλος, η λιγότερο συχνά χρησιμοποιούμενη επιλογή είναι να ορίσετε ότι
μια συνάρτηση μπορεί να κληθεί με έναν αυθαίρετο αριθμός ορισμάτων.
Αυτά τα ορίσματα θα τυλιχθούν σε μια πλειάδα (tuple) (βλ.  *note
Πλειάδες (Tuples) και Ακολουθίες: 21f6.).  Πριν από τον μεταβλητό αριθμό
ορισμάτων ενδέχεται να προκύψουν μηδέν ή περισσότερα κανονικά ορίσματα.

     def write_multiple_items(file, separator, *args):
         file.write(separator.join(args))

Κανονικά, αυτά τα 'variadic' ορίσματα θα είναι τελευταία στη λίστα των
επίσημων παραμέτρων, επειδή συλλέγουν όλα τα υπόλοιπα ορίσματα εισόδου
που μεταβιβάζονται στη συνάρτηση.  Οποιεσδήποτε τυπικές παράμετροι που
εμφανίζονται μετά την παράμετρο ‘*args’ είναι “μόνο keyword” ορίσματα,
που σημαίνει ότι μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν μόνο ως λέξεις-κλειδιά και
όχι ως ορίσματα θέσης.

     >>> def concat(*args, sep="/"):
     ...     return sep.join(args)
     ...
     >>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus")
     'earth/mars/venus'
     >>> concat("earth", "mars", "venus", sep=".")
     'earth.mars.venus'


File: python.info,  Node: Unpacking Λίστες Ορισμάτων,  Next: Εκφράσεις Lambda,  Prev: Λίστες Αυθαίρετων Ορισμάτων,  Up: Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων

2.4.9.10 Unpacking Λίστες Ορισμάτων
...................................

Η αντίστροφη κατάσταση συμβαίνει όταν τα ορίσματα βρίσκονται ήδη σε μια
λίστα ή πλειάδα (tuple), αλλά πρέπει να αποσυμπιεστούν για μια κλήση
συνάρτησης που απαιτεί ξεχωριστά ορίσματα θέσης.  Για παράδειγμα, η
ενσωματωμένη (built-in) συνάρτηση *note range(): d0f. αναμένει ξεχωριστά
'start' και 'stop' ορίσματα.  Εάν δεν είναι διαθέσιμα ξεχωριστά, γράψτε
την κλήση συνάρτησης με τον ‘*’-τελεστή για να αποσυμπιέσετε τα ορίσματα
από μια λίστα ή πλειάδα (tuple):

     >>> list(range(3, 6))            # normal call with separate arguments
     [3, 4, 5]
     >>> args = [3, 6]
     >>> list(range(*args))            # call with arguments unpacked from a list
     [3, 4, 5]

Με τον ίδιο τρόπο, τα λεξικά μπορούν να παραδίδουν keyword ορίσματα με
τον ‘**’-τελεστή:

     >>> def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom'):
     ...     print("-- This parrot wouldn't", action, end=' ')
     ...     print("if you put", voltage, "volts through it.", end=' ')
     ...     print("E's", state, "!")
     ...
     >>> d = {"voltage": "four million", "state": "bleedin' demised", "action": "VOOM"}
     >>> parrot(**d)
     -- This parrot wouldn't VOOM if you put four million volts through it. E's bleedin' demised !


File: python.info,  Node: Εκφράσεις Lambda,  Next: Συμβολοσειρές Τεκμηρίωσης,  Prev: Unpacking Λίστες Ορισμάτων,  Up: Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων

2.4.9.11 Εκφράσεις Lambda
.........................

Μπορούν αν δημιουργηθούν μικρές ανώνυμες συναρτήσεις με το keyword *note
lambda: 1642.  Αυτή η συνάρτηση επιστρέφει το άθροισμα των δύο ορισμάτων
της: ‘lambda a, b: a+b’.  Οι συναρτήσεις Lambda μπορούν να
χρησιμοποιηθούν όπου απαιτούνται αντικείμενα συνάρτησης.  Περιορίζονται
συντακτικά σε μία μόνο έκφραση.  Σημασιολογικά, είναι απλώς syntactic
sugar για έναν ορισμό κανονικής συνάρτησης.  Όπως οι ορισμοί ένθετων
συναρτήσεων, οι συναρτήσεις lambda μπορούν να παραπέμπουν σε μεταβλητές
από το πεδίο που περιέχει:

     >>> def make_incrementor(n):
     ...     return lambda x: x + n
     ...
     >>> f = make_incrementor(42)
     >>> f(0)
     42
     >>> f(1)
     43

Το παραπάνω παράδειγμα χρησιμοποιεί μια έκφραση lambda για να επιστρέψει
μια συνάρτηση.  Μια άλλη χρήση είναι η μετάδοση μιας μικρής συνάρτησης
ως όρισμα.  Για παράδειγμα, η *note list.sort(): f8d. δέχεται μια
συνάρτηση ταξινόμησης κλειδιού 'key' η οποία μπορεί να είναι μια
συνάρτηση lambda:

     >>> pairs = [(1, 'one'), (2, 'two'), (3, 'three'), (4, 'four')]
     >>> pairs.sort(key=lambda pair: pair[1])
     >>> pairs
     [(4, 'four'), (1, 'one'), (3, 'three'), (2, 'two')]


File: python.info,  Node: Συμβολοσειρές Τεκμηρίωσης,  Next: Annotations Συναρτήσεων,  Prev: Εκφράσεις Lambda,  Up: Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων

2.4.9.12 Συμβολοσειρές Τεκμηρίωσης
..................................

Ακολουθούν ορισμένες συμβάσεις σχετικά με το περιεχόμενο και τη
μορφοποίηση των συμβολοσειρών τεκμηρίωσης.

Η πρώτη γραμμή πρέπει να είναι πάντα μια σύντομη, συνοπτική περίληψη του
σκοπού του αντικειμένου.  Για συντομία, δεν πρέπει να αναφέρει ρητά το
όνομα ή τον τύπο του αντικειμένου , καθώς αυτά είναι διαθέσιμα με άλλα
μέσα (εκτός εάν το όνομα είναι ρήμα που περιγράφει τη λειτουργία της
συνάρτησης).  Αυτή η γραμμή πρέπει να ξεκινά με κεφαλαίο γράμμα και να
τελειώνει με τελεία.

Εάν υπάρχουν περισσότερες γραμμές στη συμβολοσειρά τεκμηρίωσης, η
δεύτερη γραμμή θα πρέπει να είναι κενή, διαχωρίζοντας οπτικά τη σύνοψη
από την υπόλοιπη περιγραφή.  Οι ακόλουθες γραμμές πρέπει να είναι μία ή
περισσότερες παράγραφοι που περιγράφουν τις συμβάσεις κλήσης του
αντικειμένου, τις παρενέργειές του κ.λπ..

The Python parser strips indentation from multi-line string literals
when they serve as module, class, or function docstrings.

Ακολουθεί ένα παράδειγμα ενός πολλαπλών γραμμών docstring:

     >>> def my_function():
     ...     """Do nothing, but document it.
     ...
     ...     No, really, it doesn't do anything:
     ...
     ...         >>> my_function()
     ...         >>>
     ...     """
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> print(my_function.__doc__)
     Do nothing, but document it.

     No, really, it doesn't do anything:

         >>> my_function()
         >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Annotations Συναρτήσεων,  Prev: Συμβολοσειρές Τεκμηρίωσης,  Up: Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων

2.4.9.13 Annotations Συναρτήσεων
................................

Το *note Function annotations: 2206. είναι εντελώς προαιρετικές
πληροφορίες μεταδεδομένων σχετικά με τους τύπους χρησιμοποιούνται από
συναρτήσεις που καθορίζονται από το χρήστη (δείτε PEP 3107(1) και PEP
484(2) για περισσότερες πληροφορίες).

Το *note Annotations: 2207. αποθηκεύονται στο χαρακτηριστικό *note
__annotations__: 66b. της συνάρτησης ως λεξικό και δεν έχουνε καμία
επίδραση σε κανένα άλλο μέρος της συνάρτησης.  Τα annotations των
παραμέτρων ορίζονται με άνω και κάτω τελεία μετά το όνομα παραμέτρου,
ακολουθούμενη από μια έκφραση που αξιολογεί την τιμή του annotation.  Τα
annotations επιστροφής ορίζονται από ένα literal ‘->’, ακολουθούμενο από
μια έκφραση, μεταξύ της λίστας παραμέτρων και της άνω και κάτω τελείας
που υποδηλώνει το τέλος της δήλωσης *note def: 17fc.  Το ακόλουθο
παράδειγμα έχει ένα απαιτούμενο όρισμα, ένα προαιρετικό όρισμα και την
επιστρεφόμενη τιμή σε annotations:

     >>> def f(ham: str, eggs: str = 'eggs') -> str:
     ...     print("Annotations:", f.__annotations__)
     ...     print("Arguments:", ham, eggs)
     ...     return ham + ' and ' + eggs
     ...
     >>> f('spam')
     Annotations: {'ham': <class 'str'>, 'return': <class 'str'>, 'eggs': <class 'str'>}
     Arguments: spam eggs
     'spam and eggs'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Intermezzo Στυλ Κώδικα,  Prev: Περισσότερο για τον Καθορισμό Συναρτήσεων,  Up: Περισσότερα εργαλεία Ελέγχου Ροής

2.4.10 Intermezzo: Στυλ Κώδικα
------------------------------

Now that you are about to write longer, more complex pieces of Python,
it is a good time to talk about 'coding style'.  Most languages can be
written (or more concisely, 'formatted') in different styles; some are
more readable than others.  Making it easy for others to read your code
is always a good idea, and adopting a nice coding style helps
tremendously for that.

Για την Python, το PEP 8(1) έχει αναδειχθεί ως οδηγός στυλ στον οποίο
τηρούν τα περισσότερα έργα· προωθεί ένα πολύ ευανάγνωστο και ευχάριστο
στυλ κώδικα.  Κάθε προγραμματιστής Python θα πρέπει να το διαβάσει
κάποια στιγμή· εδώ είναι τα πιο σημαντικό σημεία που εξάγονται για εσάς:

   * Χρησιμοποιήστε εσοχή 4 διαστημάτων και όχι tabs.

     Τα 4 κενά είναι ένας καλός συμβιβασμός μεταξύ της μικρής εσοχής
     (επιτρέπει μεγαλύτερο βάθος εμφώλευσης) και της μεγάλης εσοχής
     (ευκολότερη στην ανάγνωση).  Τα tabs δημιουργούν σύγχυση, και είναι
     καλύτερο να παραμείνουν απέξω.

   * Τυλίξτε τις γραμμές έτσι ώστε να μην υπερβαίνουν τους 79
     χαρακτήρες.

     Αυτό βοηθά του χρήστες με μικρές οθόνες και καθιστά δυνατή την
     ύπαρξη πολλών αρχείων κώδικα δίπλα-δίπλα σε μεγαλύτερες οθόνες.

   * Χρησιμοποιείστε κενές γραμμές για να διαχωρίσετε συναρτήσεις και
     κλάσεις και μεγαλύτερα μπλοκ κώδικα μέσα συναρτήσεις.

   * Όταν είναι δυνατόν, βάλτε σχόλια σε μια δική τους γραμμή.

   * Χρησιμοποιήστε docstrings.

   * Χρησιμοποιήστε κενά γύρω από τελεστές και μετά από κόμματα, αλλά
     όχι απευθείας μέσα δε δομές αγκύλων: ‘a = f(1, 2) + g(3, 4)’.

   * Ονομάστε τις κλάσεις και τις συναρτήσεις σας με συνέπεια· η σύμβαση
     είναι να χρησιμοποιείτε ‘UpperCamelCase’ για τις κλάσεις και
     ‘lowercase_with_underscores’ για τις συναρτήσεις και τις μεθόδους.
     Χρησιμοποιείτε πάντα το ‘self’ ως όνομα για το πρώτο όρισμα μεθόδου
     (δείτε *note Μια πρώτη ματιά στις Κλάσεις: 220a. για περισσότερα
     σχετικά με τις κλάσεις και τις μεθόδους).

   * Μην χρησιμοποιείτε φανταχτερές κωδικοποιήσεις εάν ο κώδικας σας
     προορίζεται να χρησιμοποιηθεί σε διεθνή περιβάλλοντα.  Η προεπιλογή
     της Python, UTF-8, ή ακόμα και το απλό ASCII λειτουργούν καλύτερα
     σε κάθε περίπτωση.

   * Ομοίως, μη χρησιμοποιείτε χαρακτήρες που δεν είναι ASCII σε
     αναγνωριστικά εάν υπάρχει μόνο η παραμικρή πιθανότητα οι άνθρωποι
     που μιλούν διαφορετική γλώσσα να διαβάσουν ή να διατηρήσουν τον
     κώδικα.

Υποσημειώσεις
.............

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Δομές Δεδομένων,  Next: Modules<2>,  Prev: Περισσότερα εργαλεία Ελέγχου Ροής,  Up: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python

2.5 Δομές Δεδομένων
===================

Αυτό το κεφάλαιο περιγράφει ορισμένα πράγματα τα οποία έχετε μάθει ήδη
με περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες και προσθέτει επίσης μερικά νέα.

* Menu:

* Περισσότερα για τις Λίστες::
* Η δήλωση del::
* Πλειάδες (Tuples) και Ακολουθίες: Πλειάδες Tuples και Ακολουθίες.
* Σύνολα (Sets): Σύνολα Sets.
* Λεξικά (Dictionaries): Λεξικά Dictionaries.
* Τεχνικές Looping::
* Περισσότερα για τις συνθήκες::
* Σύγκριση ακολουθιών και άλλων τύπων::


File: python.info,  Node: Περισσότερα για τις Λίστες,  Next: Η δήλωση del,  Up: Δομές Δεδομένων

2.5.1 Περισσότερα για τις Λίστες
--------------------------------

Ο τύπος δεδομένων *note λίστα: 2210. έχει μερικές ακόμη μεθόδους.  Εδώ
είναι όλες οι μέθοδοι των αντικειμένων λίστας:

 -- Μέθοδος: list.append (value, /)

     Προσθέτει ένα στοιχείο στο τέλος της λίστας.  Παρόμοιο με
     ‘a[len(a):] = [x]’.

 -- Μέθοδος: list.extend (iterable, /)

     Επεκτείνει τη λίστα προσθέτοντας όλα τα στοιχεία από το iterable.
     Παρόμοιο με ‘a[len(a):] = iterable’.

 -- Μέθοδος: list.insert (index, value, /)

     Εισάγει ένα στοιχείο σε μια δεδομένη θέση.  Το πρώτο όρισμα είναι
     το index του στοιχείου πριν από το οποίο θα εισαχθεί, επομένως
     ‘a.insert(0, x)’ εισάγεται στο μπροστινό μέρος της λίστας, και το
     ‘a.insert(len(a), x)’ ισοδυναμεί με ‘a.append(x)’.

 -- Μέθοδος: list.remove (value, /)

     Remove the first item from the list whose value is equal to
     'value'.  It raises a *note ValueError: 277. if there is no such
     item.

 -- Μέθοδος: list.pop (index=-1, /)

     Καταργεί το στοιχείο στη δεδομένη θέση στη λίστα, και το
     επιστρέφει.  Εάν δεν έχει καθοριστεί ευρετήριο, το ‘a.pop()’
     αφαιρεί και επιστρέφει το τελευταίο στοιχείο στη λίστα.  Κάνει
     raise ένα *note IndexError: 18d7. εάν η λίστα είναι κενή ή το
     ευρετήριο βρίσκεται εκτός του εύρους της λίστας.

 -- Μέθοδος: list.clear ()

     Αφαιρεί όλα τα στοιχεία από τη λίστα.  Παρόμοιο με ‘del a[:]’.

 -- Μέθοδος: list.index (value[, start[, stop]])

     Return zero-based index of the first occurrence of 'value' in the
     list.  Raises a *note ValueError: 277. if there is no such item.

     Τα προαιρετικά ορίσματα 'start' και 'end' ερμηνεύονται όπως στη
     σημειογραφία slice και χρησιμοποιούνται για τον περιορισμό της
     αναζήτησης σε μια συγκεκριμένη υποακολουθία της λίστας.  Ο
     επιστρεφόμενος δείκτης υπολογίζεται σε σχέση με την αρχή της
     πλήρους ακολουθίας αντί για το όρισμα 'start'.

 -- Μέθοδος: list.count (value, /)

     Return the number of times 'value' appears in the list.

 -- Μέθοδος: list.sort (*, key=None, reverse=False)

     Ταξινομεί τα στοιχεία της λίστας στη θέση τους (τα ορίσματα μπορούν
     να χρησιμοποιηθούν για προσαρμογή ταξινόμησης, βλ.  *note sorted():
     f8c. για την εξήγησή τους).

 -- Μέθοδος: list.reverse ()

     Αντιστρέφει τα στοιχεία της λίστας στη θέση τους.

 -- Μέθοδος: list.copy ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα shallow (ρηχό) αντίγραφο της λίστας.  Παρόμοιο με
     ‘a[:]’.

Ένα παράδειγμα που χρησιμοποιεί τις περισσότερες από τις μεθόδους της
λίστας:

     >>> fruits = ['orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'banana', 'kiwi', 'apple', 'banana']
     >>> fruits.count('apple')
     2
     >>> fruits.count('tangerine')
     0
     >>> fruits.index('banana')
     3
     >>> fruits.index('banana', 4)  # Find next banana starting at position 4
     6
     >>> fruits.reverse()
     >>> fruits
     ['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange']
     >>> fruits.append('grape')
     >>> fruits
     ['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange', 'grape']
     >>> fruits.sort()
     >>> fruits
     ['apple', 'apple', 'banana', 'banana', 'grape', 'kiwi', 'orange', 'pear']
     >>> fruits.pop()
     'pear'

Μπορεί να έχετε παρατηρήσει ότι μέθοδοι όπως ‘insert’, ‘remove’ or
‘sort’ που τροποποιούν μόνο τη λίστα δεν έχουν εκτυπωμένη τιμή
επιστροφής – επιστρέφουν το προεπιλεγμένο (default) ‘None’.  (1)  Αυτή
είναι μια αρχή σχεδιασμού για όλες τις μεταβλητές δομές δεδομένων στην
Python.

Ένα άλλο πράγμα που μπορεί να παρατηρήσετε είναι ότι δεν μπορούν να
ταξινομηθούν ή να συγκριθούν όλα τα δεδομένα.  Για παράδειγμα, ‘[None,
'hello', 10]’ δεν ταξινομούνται γιατί ακέραιοι αριθμοί δεν μπορούν να
συγκριθούν με συμβολοσειρές (strings) και το ‘None’ δεν μπορεί να
συγκριθεί με άλλους τύπους.  Επίσης, υπάρχουν ορισμένοι τύποι που δεν
έχουν καθορισμένη σχέση διάταξης.  Για παράδειγμα, το ‘3+4j < 5+7j’ δεν
είναι έγκυρη σύγκριση.

* Menu:

* Χρήστη Λιστών ως Στοίβες (Stacks): Χρήστη Λιστών ως Στοίβες Stacks.
* Χρήση λιστών ως Ουρές (Queues): Χρήση λιστών ως Ουρές Queues.
* Comprehensions Λίστας::
* Comprehensions Ένθετων Λιστών::
* Unpacking in Lists and List Comprehensions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Άλλες γλώσσες ενδέχεται να επιστρέψουν το μεταλλαγμένο
αντικείμενο, το οποίο επιτρέπει την αλυσιδωτή εκτέλεση μεθόδων, όπως
‘d->insert("a")->remove("b")->sort();’.


File: python.info,  Node: Χρήστη Λιστών ως Στοίβες Stacks,  Next: Χρήση λιστών ως Ουρές Queues,  Up: Περισσότερα για τις Λίστες

2.5.1.1 Χρήστη Λιστών ως Στοίβες (Stacks)
.........................................

Οι μέθοδοι λίστας καθιστούν πιο εύκολη τη χρήση μιας λίστα ως στοίβας
(stack), όπου το τελευταίο στοιχείο που προστέθηκε είναι το πρώτο
στοιχείο που ανακτήθηκε («last-in, first-out»).  Για να προσθέσετε ένα
στοιχείο στην κορυφή της στοίβας, χρησιμοποιήστε την *note append():
aba.  Για να ανακτήσετε ένα στοιχείο από την κορυφή της στοίβας,
χρησιμοποιήστε την *note pop(): 2213. χωρίς κάποιο σαφές index.  Για
παράδειγμα:

     >>> stack = [3, 4, 5]
     >>> stack.append(6)
     >>> stack.append(7)
     >>> stack
     [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
     >>> stack.pop()
     7
     >>> stack
     [3, 4, 5, 6]
     >>> stack.pop()
     6
     >>> stack.pop()
     5
     >>> stack
     [3, 4]


File: python.info,  Node: Χρήση λιστών ως Ουρές Queues,  Next: Comprehensions Λίστας,  Prev: Χρήστη Λιστών ως Στοίβες Stacks,  Up: Περισσότερα για τις Λίστες

2.5.1.2 Χρήση λιστών ως Ουρές (Queues)
......................................

Είναι επίσης δυνατό να χρησιμοποιηθεί μια λίστα ως ουρά (queue), όπου το
πρώτο στοιχείο που προστίθεται είναι το πρώτο στοιχείο που ανακτάται
(«first-in, first-out») ∙ ωστόσο, οι λίστες δεν είναι αποτελεσματικές
για αυτόν τον σκοπό.  Ενώ το να προσθέσεις και να αφαιρέσεις (στοιχεία)
στο τέλος της λίστας είναι γρήγορο, κάνοντας αυτές τις προσθέσεις και
τις αφαιρέσεις (στοιχείων) στην αρχή της λίστα είναι αργό (επειδή όλα τα
στοιχεία πρέπει να μετατοπιστούν κατά ένα).

Για να εφαρμόσετε μια ουρά (queue), χρησιμοποιήστε την *note
collections.deque: 9d6. η οποία σχεδιάστηκε για να έχει γρήγορες
προσθέσεις και αφαιρέσεις και από τα δύο άκρα.  Για παράδειγμα:΅:

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> queue = deque(["Eric", "John", "Michael"])
     >>> queue.append("Terry")           # Terry arrives
     >>> queue.append("Graham")          # Graham arrives
     >>> queue.popleft()                 # The first to arrive now leaves
     'Eric'
     >>> queue.popleft()                 # The second to arrive now leaves
     'John'
     >>> queue                           # Remaining queue in order of arrival
     deque(['Michael', 'Terry', 'Graham'])


File: python.info,  Node: Comprehensions Λίστας,  Next: Comprehensions Ένθετων Λιστών,  Prev: Χρήση λιστών ως Ουρές Queues,  Up: Περισσότερα για τις Λίστες

2.5.1.3 Comprehensions Λίστας
.............................

Τα comprehensions λίστας παρέχουν ένα συνοπτικό τρόπο δημιουργίας
λιστών.  Οι συνήθεις εφαρμογές είναι η δημιουργία νέων λιστών όπου κάθε
στοιχείο είναι το αποτέλεσμα κάποιων πράξεων που εφαρμόζονται σε κάθε
μέλος μιας άλλης ακολουθίας ή iterable, ή η δημιουργία μιας
υποακολουθίας αυτών των στοιχείων που ικανοποιούν μια συγκεκριμένη
συνθήκη.

Για παράδειγμα, ας υποθέσουμε ότι θέλουμε να δημιουργήσουμε μια λίστα
τετραγώνων όπως:

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(10):
     ...     squares.append(x**2)
     ...
     >>> squares
     [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι αυτό δημιουργεί (ή αντικαθιστά) μια μεταβλητή με το
όνομα ‘x’ που εξακολουθεί να υπάρχει μετά την ολοκλήρωση της loop.
Μπορούμε να υπολογίσουμε τη λίστα των τετραγώνων χωρίς παρενέργειες
χρησιμοποιώντας:

     squares = list(map(lambda x: x**2, range(10)))

ή, ισοδύναμα:

     squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]

που είναι πιο συνοπτικό και ευανάγνωστο.

Ένα comprehension λίστας αποτελείται από αγκύλες που περιέχουν μια
έκφραση ακολουθούμενη από μια πρόταση ‘for’, στη συνέχεια μηδέν ή
περισσότερες προτάσεις ‘for’ ή ‘if’.  Το αποτέλεσμα θα είναι μια νέα
λίστα που προκύπτει από την αξιολόγηση της έκφρασης στο πλαίσιο των
προτάσεων ‘for’ και ‘if’ που την ακολουθούν.  Για παράδειγμα, αυτή η
λίστα συνδυάζει τα στοιχεία δύο λιστών εάν δεν είναι ίσες:

     >>> [(x, y) for x in [1,2,3] for y in [3,1,4] if x != y]
     [(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]

και ισοδυναμεί με:

     >>> combs = []
     >>> for x in [1,2,3]:
     ...     for y in [3,1,4]:
     ...         if x != y:
     ...             combs.append((x, y))
     ...
     >>> combs
     [(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]

Σημειώστε πώς η σειρά των δηλώσεων *note for: 321. και *note if: 322.
είναι ίδια και στα δύο αποσπάσματα.

Εάν η έκφραση είναι πλειάδα (π.χ.  το ‘(x, y)’ στο προηγούμενο
παράδειγμα), πρέπει να μπει σε παρένθεση.

     >>> vec = [-4, -2, 0, 2, 4]
     >>> # create a new list with the values doubled
     >>> [x*2 for x in vec]
     [-8, -4, 0, 4, 8]
     >>> # filter the list to exclude negative numbers
     >>> [x for x in vec if x >= 0]
     [0, 2, 4]
     >>> # apply a function to all the elements
     >>> [abs(x) for x in vec]
     [4, 2, 0, 2, 4]
     >>> # call a method on each element
     >>> freshfruit = ['  banana', '  loganberry ', 'passion fruit  ']
     >>> [weapon.strip() for weapon in freshfruit]
     ['banana', 'loganberry', 'passion fruit']
     >>> # create a list of 2-tuples like (number, square)
     >>> [(x, x**2) for x in range(6)]
     [(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)]
     >>> # the tuple must be parenthesized, otherwise an error is raised
     >>> [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         [x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
          ^^^^^^^
     SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?
     >>> # flatten a list using a listcomp with two 'for'
     >>> vec = [[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]]
     >>> [num for elem in vec for num in elem]
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

Τα comprehensions λίστας μπορεί να περιέχουν σύνθετες εκφράσεις και
ένθετες συναρτήσεις:

     >>> from math import pi
     >>> [str(round(pi, i)) for i in range(1, 6)]
     ['3.1', '3.14', '3.142', '3.1416', '3.14159']


File: python.info,  Node: Comprehensions Ένθετων Λιστών,  Next: Unpacking in Lists and List Comprehensions,  Prev: Comprehensions Λίστας,  Up: Περισσότερα για τις Λίστες

2.5.1.4 Comprehensions Ένθετων Λιστών
.....................................

Η αρχική έκφραση σε ένα comprehension λίστας μπορεί να είναι οποιαδήποτε
αυθαίρετη έκφραση, συμπεριλαμβανομένης ενός άλλου comprehension λίστας.

Σκεφτείτε το ακόλουθο παράδειγμα μιας μήτρας 3x4 που υλοποιήθηκε ως μια
λίστα 3 λιστών μήκους 4:

     >>> matrix = [
     ...     [1, 2, 3, 4],
     ...     [5, 6, 7, 8],
     ...     [9, 10, 11, 12],
     ... ]

Το ακόλουθο comprehension λίστας θα μεταφέρει γραμμές και στήλες:

     >>> [[row[i] for row in matrix] for i in range(4)]
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

Όπως είδαμε στην προηγούμενη ενότητα, το comprehension της εσωτερικής
λίστας αξιολογείται στο πλαίσιο του *note for: 321. που την ακολουθεί,
επομένως αυτό το παράδειγμα είναι ισοδύναμο με:

     >>> transposed = []
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     transposed.append([row[i] for row in matrix])
     ...
     >>> transposed
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

το οποίο, με τη σειρά του, είναι το ίδιο με:

     >>> transposed = []
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     # the following 3 lines implement the nested listcomp
     ...     transposed_row = []
     ...     for row in matrix:
     ...         transposed_row.append(row[i])
     ...     transposed.append(transposed_row)
     ...
     >>> transposed
     [[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]

Στον πραγματικό κόσμο, θα πρέπει να προτιμάτε τις ενσωματωμένες
(built-in) συναρτήσεις από τις σύνθετες εντολές ροής.  Η συνάρτηση *note
zip(): 43f. θα έκανε εξαιρετική δουλειά για αυτήν την περίπτωση χρήσης:

     >>> list(zip(*matrix))
     [(1, 5, 9), (2, 6, 10), (3, 7, 11), (4, 8, 12)]

Δείτε *note Unpacking Λίστες Ορισμάτων: 21ff. για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά
με τον αστερίσκο σε αυτήν τη γραμμή.


File: python.info,  Node: Unpacking in Lists and List Comprehensions,  Prev: Comprehensions Ένθετων Λιστών,  Up: Περισσότερα για τις Λίστες

2.5.1.5 Unpacking in Lists and List Comprehensions
..................................................

The section on *note Unpacking Λίστες Ορισμάτων: 21ff. describes the use
of ‘*’ to «unpack» the elements of an iterable object, providing each
one separately as an argument to a function.  Unpacking can also be used
in other contexts, for example, when creating lists.  When specifying
elements of a list, prefixing an expression by a ‘*’ will unpack the
result of that expression, adding each of its elements to the list we’re
creating:

     >>> x = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> [0, *x, 4, 5, 6]
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

This only works if the expression following the ‘*’ evaluates to an
iterable object; trying to unpack a non-iterable object will raise an
exception:

     >>> x = 1
     >>> [0, *x, 2, 3, 4]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-1>", line 1, in <module>
         [0, *x, 2, 3, 4]
     TypeError: Value after * must be an iterable, not int

Unpacking can also be used in list comprehensions, as a way to build a
new list representing the concatenation of an arbitrary number of
iterables:

     >>> x = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [], [7], [8, 9]]
     >>> [*element for element in x]
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

Note that the effect is that each element from ‘x’ is unpacked.  This
works for arbitrary iterable objects, not just lists:

     >>> x = [[1, 2, 3], 'cat', {'spam': 'eggs'}]
     >>> [*element for element in x]
     [1, 2, 3, 'c', 'a', 't', 'spam']

But if the objects in ‘x’ are not iterable, this expression would again
raise an exception.


File: python.info,  Node: Η δήλωση del,  Next: Πλειάδες Tuples και Ακολουθίες,  Prev: Περισσότερα για τις Λίστες,  Up: Δομές Δεδομένων

2.5.2 Η δήλωση ‘del’
--------------------

Υπάρχει ένας τρόπος να αφαιρέσετε ένα στοιχείο από μια λίστα με το
ευρετήριο του αντί για την τιμή του: η δήλωση *note del: 1d1d.  Αυτό
διαφέρει από τη μέθοδο *note pop(): 2213. που επιστρέφει μια τιμή.  Η
δήλωση ‘del’ μπορεί επίσης να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την αφαίρεση τμημάτων
από μια λίστα ή για να καθαρίσει ολόκληρη τη λίστα (που κάναμε νωρίτερα
με την εκχώρηση μιας κενής λίστας στο τμήμα).  Για παράδειγμα:

     >>> a = [-1, 1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[0]
     >>> a
     [1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[2:4]
     >>> a
     [1, 66.25, 1234.5]
     >>> del a[:]
     >>> a
     []

Το *note del: 1d1d. μπορεί επίσης να χρησιμοποιηθεί για τη διαγραφή
ολόκληρων μεταβλητών:

     >>> del a

Η αναφορά στο όνομα ‘a’ στο εξής είναι ένα σφάλμα (τουλάχιστον μέχρι να
του εκχωρηθεί άλλη τιμή).  Θα βρούμε άλλες χρήσεις για το *note del:
1d1d. αργότερα.


File: python.info,  Node: Πλειάδες Tuples και Ακολουθίες,  Next: Σύνολα Sets,  Prev: Η δήλωση del,  Up: Δομές Δεδομένων

2.5.3 Πλειάδες (Tuples) και Ακολουθίες
--------------------------------------

Είδαμε ότι οι λίστες και οι συμβολοσειρές (strings) έχουνε πολλές κοινές
ιδιότητες, όπως λειτουργίες indexing και slicing.  Είναι δύο
παραδείγματα τύπων δεδομένων 'sequence' (δείτε *note Τύποι Ακολουθίας
(Sequence) — list, tuple, range: 221d.).  Δεδομένου ότι η Python είναι
μια εξελισσόμενη γλώσσα, άλλοι τύποι δεδομένων ακολουθίας μπορούν να
προστεθούν.  Υπάρχει επίσης ένας άλλος τυπικός τύπος δεδομένων
ακολουθίας type: the 'πλειάδα' ('tuple').

Μια πλειάδα (tuple) αποτελείται από έναν αριθμό τιμών που χωρίζονται με
κόμματα, για παράδειγμα:

     >>> t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'
     >>> t[0]
     12345
     >>> t
     (12345, 54321, 'hello!')
     >>> # Tuples may be nested:
     >>> u = t, (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
     >>> u
     ((12345, 54321, 'hello!'), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
     >>> # Tuples are immutable:
     >>> t[0] = 88888
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
     >>> # but they can contain mutable objects:
     >>> v = ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
     >>> v
     ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
     >>> # they support unpacking just like lists:
     >>> x = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> 0, *x, 4
     (0, 1, 2, 3, 4)

Όπως βλέπετε, οι πλειάδες (tuples) στην έξοδο περικλείονται πάντα σε
παρενθέσεις, έτσι ώστε οι ένθετε πλειάδες (tuples) να ερμηνεύονται
σωστά∙ μπορούν να εισαχθούν με ή χωρίς περιβάλλουσες παρενθέσεις, αν και
συχνά οι παρενθέσεις είναι απαραίτητες ούτως ή άλλως (αν η πλειάδα είναι
μέρος μιας μεγαλύτερης έκφρασης).  Δεν είναι δυνατή η αντιστοίχιση σε
μεμονωμένα στοιχεία μιας πλειάδας, ωστόσο είναι δυνατό να δημιουργηθούν
πλειάδες (tuples) που περιέχουν μεταβλητά αντικείμενα, όπως λίστες.

Αν και οι πλειάδες (tuples) μπορεί να φαίνονται παρόμοιες με λίστες,
χρησιμοποιούνται συχνά σε διαφορετικές καταστάσεις και για διαφορετικούς
σκοπούς.  Οι πλειάδες (tuples) είναι *note immutable: 181, και συνήθως
περιέχουν μια ετερογενή ακολουθία στοιχείων στα οποία η πρόσβαση γίνεται
μέσω unpacking (δείτε παρακάτω σε αυτήν την ενότητα) ή το indexing (ή
ακόμα και κατά χαρακτηριστικό στην περίπτωση *note namedtuples: 1cf.).
Οι λίστες είναι *note mutable: 21d1, και τα στοιχεία τους είναι συνήθως
ομοιογενή και προσπελάζονται με επανάληψη στη λίστα.

Ένα ειδικό πρόβλημα είναι η κατασκευή πλειάδων (tuples) που περιέχουν 0
ή 1 στοιχεία: η σύνταξη έχει κάποιες επιπλέον ιδιορρυθμίες για να τις
προσαρμόσει.  Οι κενές πλειάδες κατασκευάζονται από ένα κενό ζευγάρι
παρενθέσεων, μια πλειάδα (tuple) με ένα στοιχείο δημιουργείται
ακολουθώντας μια τιμή με κόμμα (δεν αρκεί να περικλείεται μια μόνο τιμή
σε παρενθέσεις).  Άσχημο, αλλά αποτελεσματικό.  Για παράδειγμα:

     >>> empty = ()
     >>> singleton = 'hello',    # <-- note trailing comma
     >>> len(empty)
     0
     >>> len(singleton)
     1
     >>> singleton
     ('hello',)

Η δήλωση ‘t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'’ είναι ένα παράδειγμα 'tuple
packing': οι τιμές ‘12345’, ‘54321’ και ‘'hello!'’ είναι συσκευασμένες
μαζί σε μια πλειάδα (tuple).  Η αντίστροφη λειτουργία είναι επίσης
εφικτή:

     >>> x, y, z = t

Αυτό ονομάζεται, αρκετά σωστά, 'sequence unpacking' και λειτουργεί για
οποιαδήποτε ακολουθία στη δεξιά πλευρά.  Το sequence unpacking απαιτεί
να υπάρχουν τόσες μεταβλητές στην αριστερή πλευρά του συμβόλου ισότητας
όσα στοιχεία υπάρχουν στην ακολουθία.  Σημείωση ότι η πολλαπλή ανάθεση
είναι στην πραγματικότητα απλώς ένας συνδυασμός tuple packing και
sequence unpacking.


File: python.info,  Node: Σύνολα Sets,  Next: Λεξικά Dictionaries,  Prev: Πλειάδες Tuples και Ακολουθίες,  Up: Δομές Δεδομένων

2.5.4 Σύνολα (Sets)
-------------------

Η Python περιλαμβάνει επίσης έναν τύπο δεδομένων για *note sets: 2220.
Ένα set είναι μια μη ταξινομημένη συλλογή χωρίς διπλότυπα στοιχεία.  Οι
βασικές χρήσεις περιλαμβάνουν τη δοκιμή ιδιότητας μέλους και την
εξάλειψη διπλότυπων εγγραφών.  Τα αντικείμενα συνόλου υποστηρίζουν
επίσης μαθηματικές πράξεις όπως ένωση, τομή, διαφορά και συμμετρική
διαφορά.

Τα άγκιστρα ή η συνάρτηση *note set(): 42b. μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν
για τη δημιουργία συνόλων.  Σημείωση: για να δημιουργήσετε ένα κενό
σύνολο πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσετε το ‘set()’, όχι το ‘{}’ ∙ το τελευταίο
δημιουργεί ένα κενό λεξικό, μια δομή δεδομένων που θα συζητήσουμε στην
επόμενη ενότητα.

Because sets are unordered, iterating over them or printing them can
produce the elements in a different order than you expect.

Ακολουθεί μια σύντομη επίδειξη:

     >>> basket = {'apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana'}
     >>> print(basket)                      # show that duplicates have been removed
     {'orange', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple'}
     >>> 'orange' in basket                 # fast membership testing
     True
     >>> 'crabgrass' in basket
     False

     >>> # Demonstrate set operations on unique letters from two words
     >>>
     >>> a = set('abracadabra')
     >>> b = set('alacazam')
     >>> a                                  # unique letters in a
     {'a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'}
     >>> a - b                              # letters in a but not in b
     {'r', 'd', 'b'}
     >>> a | b                              # letters in a or b or both
     {'a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}
     >>> a & b                              # letters in both a and b
     {'a', 'c'}
     >>> a ^ b                              # letters in a or b but not both
     {'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}

Similarly to *note list comprehensions: 2217, set comprehensions are
also supported, including comprehensions with unpacking:

     >>> a = {x for x in 'abracadabra' if x not in 'abc'}
     >>> a
     {'r', 'd'}

     >>> fruits = [{'apple', 'avocado', 'apricot'}, {'banana', 'blueberry'}]
     >>> {*fruit for fruit in fruits}
     {'blueberry', 'banana', 'avocado', 'apple', 'apricot'}


File: python.info,  Node: Λεξικά Dictionaries,  Next: Τεχνικές Looping,  Prev: Σύνολα Sets,  Up: Δομές Δεδομένων

2.5.5 Λεξικά (Dictionaries)
---------------------------

Ένα άλλος χρήσιμος τύπος δεδομένων που είναι ενσωματωμένος στην Python
είναι το 'dictionary' (βλ.  *note Mapping types — dict, frozendict:
e8c.).  Τα λεξικά βρίσκονται μερικές φορές σε άλλες γλώσσες ως
«συσχετιστικές μνήμες» ή «συσχετιστικοί πίνακες».  Σε αντίθεση με τις
ακολουθίες, οι οποίες είναι με indexes με ένα εύρος αριθμών, τα λεξικά
γίνονται index με 'keys', που μπορεί να είναι οποιοσδήποτε αμετάβλητος
τύπος∙ οι συμβολοσειρές και οι αριθμοί μπορούν πάντα να είναι κλειδιά.
Οι πλειάδες (tuples) μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν ως κλειδιά εάν περιέχουν
μόνο συμβολοσειρές, αριθμούς ή πλειάδες (tuples)∙ εάν μια πλειάδα
περιέχει οποιοδήποτε μεταβλητό αντικείμενο είτε άμεσα είτε έμμεσα, δεν
μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ως κλειδί.  Δεν μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε
λίστες ως κλειδιά, καθώς οι λίστες μπορούν να τροποποιηθούν επιτόπου
χρησιμοποιώντας αναθέσεις index, αναθέσεις slice, ή μεθόδους όπως *note
append(): aba. και *note extend(): 7f8.

Είναι καλύτερο να σκεφτείτε ένα λεξικό ως ένα σύνολο ζευγών 'key:
value', με την προϋπόθεση ότι τα κλειδιά είναι μοναδικά (σε ένα λεξικό).
Ένα ζεύγος αγκύλων δημιουργεί ένα κενό λεξικό: ‘{}’.  Η τοποθέτηση μιας
λίστας ζευγών key:value στο λεξικό, αυτός είναι επίσης ο τρόπος με τον
οποίο γράφονται τα λεξικά στην έξοδο.

Οι κύριες λειτουργίες σε ένα λεξικό είναι η αποθήκευση μιας τιμής με
κάποιο κλειδί και η εξαγωγή της τιμής που δίνεται στο κλειδί.  Είναι
επίσης δυνατή η διαγραφή ενός ζεύγους key:value με ‘del’.  Εάν
αποθηκεύετε χρησιμοποιώντας ένα κλειδί που βρίσκεται ήδη σε χρήση, η
παλιά τιμή που σχετίζεται με αυτό το κλειδί έχει ξεχαστεί.

Η εξαγωγή μιας τιμής για ένα μη υπάρχον κλειδί με δεικτοδότηση
(‘d[key]’) προκαλεί ένα *note KeyError: 7df.  Για να αποφύγετε αυτό το
σφάλμα όταν προσπαθείτε να αποκτήσετε πρόσβαση σε ένα πιθανώς μη υπάρχον
κλειδί, χρησιμοποιήστε αντίθετα τη μέθοδο *note get(): 2223, η οποία
επιστρέφει ‘None’ (ή μια καθορισμένη προεπιλεγμένη τιμή) εάν το κλειδί
δεν βρίσκεται στο λεξικό.

Η εκτέλεση του ‘list(d)’ σε ένα λεξικό επιστρέφει μια λίστα με όλα τα
κλειδιά που χρησιμοποιούνται στο λεξικό, με σειρά εισαγωγής (αν θέλετε
να ταξινομηθεί, απλώς χρησιμοποιήστε το ‘sorted(d)’).  Για να ελέγξετε
εάν υπάρχει ένα μεμονωμένο κλειδί στο λεξικό, χρησιμοποιήστε τη
λέξη-κλειδί *note in: 323.

Ακολουθεί ένα μικρό παράδειγμα χρησιμοποιώντας ένα λεξικό:

     >>> tel = {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139}
     >>> tel['guido'] = 4127
     >>> tel
     {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127}
     >>> tel['jack']
     4098
     >>> tel['irv']
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     KeyError: 'irv'
     >>> print(tel.get('irv'))
     None
     >>> del tel['sape']
     >>> tel['irv'] = 4127
     >>> tel
     {'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127, 'irv': 4127}
     >>> list(tel)
     ['jack', 'guido', 'irv']
     >>> sorted(tel)
     ['guido', 'irv', 'jack']
     >>> 'guido' in tel
     True
     >>> 'jack' not in tel
     False

Ο constructor *note dict(): 188. δημιουργεί λεξικά απευθείας από
ακολουθίες ζευγών key-value:

     >>> dict([('sape', 4139), ('guido', 4127), ('jack', 4098)])
     {'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}

Επιπλέον, τα comprehensions λεξικών μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για τη
δημιουργία λεξικών από αυθαίρετες εκφράσεις κλειδιού και τιμών:

     >>> {x: x**2 for x in (2, 4, 6)}
     {2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36}

And dictionary unpacking (via ‘**’) can be used to merge multiple
dictionaries:

     >>> odds = {i: i**2 for i in (1, 3, 5)}
     >>> evens = {i: i**2 for i in (2, 4, 6)}
     >>> {**odds, **evens}
     {1: 1, 3: 9, 5: 25, 2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36}

     >>> all_values = [odds, evens, {0: 0}]
     >>> {**i for i in all_values}
     {1: 1, 3: 9, 5: 25, 2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36, 0: 0}

Όταν τα κλειδιά είναι απλές συμβολοσειρές, μερικές φορές είναι πιο
εύκολο να ορίσετε ζεύγη χρησιμοποιώντας ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών:

     >>> dict(sape=4139, guido=4127, jack=4098)
     {'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}


File: python.info,  Node: Τεχνικές Looping,  Next: Περισσότερα για τις συνθήκες,  Prev: Λεξικά Dictionaries,  Up: Δομές Δεδομένων

2.5.6 Τεχνικές Looping
----------------------

Κατά το looping μέσω λεξικών, το κλειδί και η αντίστοιχη τιμή μπορούν να
ανακτηθούν ταυτόχρονα χρησιμοποιώντας τη μέθοδο *note items(): baf.

     >>> knights = {'gallahad': 'the pure', 'robin': 'the brave'}
     >>> for k, v in knights.items():
     ...     print(k, v)
     ...
     gallahad the pure
     robin the brave

Κατά το looping μέσω ακολουθίας, ο δείκτης θέσης και η αντίστοιχη τιμή
μπορούν να ανακτηθούν ταυτόχρονα χρησιμοποιώντας τη συνάρτηση *note
enumerate(): 1823.

     >>> for i, v in enumerate(['tic', 'tac', 'toe']):
     ...     print(i, v)
     ...
     0 tic
     1 tac
     2 toe

Για να κάνετε loop σε δύο ή περισσότερες ακολουθίες ταυτόχρονα, οι
καταχωρίσεις μπορούν να αντιστοιχιστούν με τη συνάρτηση *note zip():
43f.

     >>> questions = ['name', 'quest', 'favorite color']
     >>> answers = ['lancelot', 'the holy grail', 'blue']
     >>> for q, a in zip(questions, answers):
     ...     print('What is your {0}?  It is {1}.'.format(q, a))
     ...
     What is your name?  It is lancelot.
     What is your quest?  It is the holy grail.
     What is your favorite color?  It is blue.

Για να κάνετε loop σε μια ακολουθία αντίστροφα, καθορίστε πρώτα την
ακολουθία προς τα εμπρός και μετά καλέστε τη συνάρτηση *note reversed():
c3c.

     >>> for i in reversed(range(1, 10, 2)):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     9
     7
     5
     3
     1

Για να κάνετε loop σε μια ακολουθία με ταξινομημένη σειρά,
χρησιμοποιήστε τη συνάρτηση *note sorted(): f8c, η οποία επιστρέφει μια
νέα ταξινομημένη λίστα αφήνοντας την πηγή αναλλοίωτη.

     >>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
     >>> for i in sorted(basket):
     ...     print(i)
     ...
     apple
     apple
     banana
     orange
     orange
     pear

Η χρήση του *note set(): 42b. σε μια ακολουθία εξαλείφει τα διπλά
στοιχεία.  Η χρήση του *note sorted(): f8c. σε συνδυασμό με το ‘set()’
σε μια ακολουθία είναι ένας ιδιωματικός τρόπος για να κάνετε loop πάνω
από μοναδικά στοιχεία της ακολουθίας σε ταξινομημένη σειρά.

     >>> basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
     >>> for f in sorted(set(basket)):
     ...     print(f)
     ...
     apple
     banana
     orange
     pear

Μερικές φορές είναι δελεαστικό να αλλάζετε μια λίστα ενώ την
περιηγείστε∙ ωστόσο, είναι συχνά πιο απλό και ασφαλές να δημιουργήσετε
μια νέα λίστα.

     >>> import math
     >>> raw_data = [56.2, float('NaN'), 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, float('NaN'), 47.8]
     >>> filtered_data = []
     >>> for value in raw_data:
     ...     if not math.isnan(value):
     ...         filtered_data.append(value)
     ...
     >>> filtered_data
     [56.2, 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, 47.8]


File: python.info,  Node: Περισσότερα για τις συνθήκες,  Next: Σύγκριση ακολουθιών και άλλων τύπων,  Prev: Τεχνικές Looping,  Up: Δομές Δεδομένων

2.5.7 Περισσότερα για τις συνθήκες
----------------------------------

Οι συνθήκες που χρησιμοποιούνται στις δηλώσεις ‘while’ και ‘if’ μπορούν
να περιέχουν οποιουσδήποτε τελεστές, όχι μόνο συγκρίσεις.

Οι τελεστές σύγκρισης ‘in’ και ‘not in’ είναι δοκιμές ιδιότητας μέλους
που καθορίζουν εάν μια τιμή βρίσκεται (ή όχι σε) ένα container.  Οι
τελεστές ‘is’ και ‘is not’ συγκρίνουν εάν δύο αντικείμενα είναι
πραγματικά το ίδιο αντικείμενο.  Όλοι οι τελεστές σύγκρισης έχουν την
ίδια προτεραιότητα, η οποία είναι χαμηλότερη από αυτή όλων των
αριθμητικών τελεστών.

Οι συγκρίσεις μπορούν να είναι αλυσιδωτές.  Για παράδειγμα, ‘a < b == c’
ελέγχει εάν το ‘a’ είναι μικρότερο από ‘b’ και επιπλέον το ‘b’ ισούται
με ‘c’.

Οι συγκρίσεις μπορούν να συνδυαστούν χρησιμοποιώντας τους λογικούς
τελεστές ‘and’ και ‘or’, και το αποτέλεσμα μιας σύγκρισης (ή
οποιασδήποτε άλλης λογικής έκφρασης) μπορεί να ακυρωθεί με ‘not’.  Αυτοί
έχουν χαμηλότερες προτεραιότητες μεταξύ των τελεστών σύγκρισης, το ‘not’
έχει την υψηλότερη προτεραιότητα και το ‘or’ τη χαμηλότερη, έτσι ώστε το
‘A and not B or C’ ισοδυναμεί με ‘(A and (not B)) or C’.  Όπως πάντα, οι
παρενθέσεις μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για να εκφράσουν την επιθυμητή
σύνθεση.

Οι λογικοί τελεστές ‘and’ και ‘or’ είναι οι λεγόμενοι τελεστές
'short-circuit': τα ορίσματα τους αξιολογούνται από αριστερά προς τα
δεξιά και η αξιολόγηση σταματά μόλις καθοριστεί το αποτέλεσμα.  Για
παράδειγμα, εάν το ‘A’ and ‘C’ είναι αληθές, αλλά το ‘B’ είναι ψευδές,
το ‘A and B and C’ δεν αξιολογεί την έκφραση ‘C’.  Όταν χρησιμοποιείται
ως γενική τιμή και όχι ως λογική, η τιμή επιστροφής ενός short-circuit
τελεστή είναι το τελευταίο αξιολογημένο όρισμα.

Είναι δυνατό να αντιστοιχίσετε το αποτέλεσμα μιας σύγκρισης ή άλλη
δυαδική έκφρασης σε μια μεταβλητή.  Για παράδειγμα,

     >>> string1, string2, string3 = '', 'Trondheim', 'Hammer Dance'
     >>> non_null = string1 or string2 or string3
     >>> non_null
     'Trondheim'

Σημειώστε ότι στην Python, σε αντίθεση με την C, η ανάθεση εντός των
εκφράσεων πρέπει να γίνεται ρητά με τον τελεστή *note walrus operator:
2227. ‘:=’.  Αυτό αποφεύγει μια κοινή κατηγορία προβλημάτων που
συναντώνται στα προγράμματα C: πληκτρολογώντας ‘=’ σε μια έκφραση όταν
προοριζόταν το ‘==’.


File: python.info,  Node: Σύγκριση ακολουθιών και άλλων τύπων,  Prev: Περισσότερα για τις συνθήκες,  Up: Δομές Δεδομένων

2.5.8 Σύγκριση ακολουθιών και άλλων τύπων
-----------------------------------------

Τα αντικείμενα ακολουθίας μπορούν συνήθως να συγκριθούν με άλλα
αντικείμενα με τον ίδιο τύπο ακολουθίας.  Η σύγκριση χρησιμοποιεί
'lexicographical' σειρά: πρώτα συγκρίνονται τα δύο πρώτα στοιχεία και αν
διαφέρουν αυτό καθορίζει το αποτέλεσμα της σύγκρισης∙ εάν είναι ίσα, τα
επόμενα δύο στοιχεία συγκρίνονται και ούτω καθεξής, έως ότου εξαντληθεί
η μία από τις δύο ακολουθίες.  Εάν δύο στοιχεία προς σύγκριση είναι τα
ίδια ακολουθίες του ίδιου τύπου, η λεξικογραφική σύγκριση
πραγματοποιείται αναδρομικά.  Εάν όλα τα στοιχεία δύο ακολουθιών
συγκρίνονται ίσα, οι ακολουθίες θεωρούνται ίσες.  Εάν η μια ακολουθία
είναι αρχική υποακολουθία της άλλης, η μικρότερη ακολουθία είναι η
μικρότερη (ελάχιστη).  Η λεξικογραφική ταξινόμηση συμβολοσειρών
χρησιμοποιεί τον αριθμό κωδικού σημείου Unicode για να ταξινομήσει
μεμονωμένους χαρακτήρες.  Μερικά παραδείγματα συγκρίσεων μεταξύ
ακολουθιών του ίδιου τύπου:

     (1, 2, 3)              < (1, 2, 4)
     [1, 2, 3]              < [1, 2, 4]
     'ABC' < 'C' < 'Pascal' < 'Python'
     (1, 2, 3, 4)           < (1, 2, 4)
     (1, 2)                 < (1, 2, -1)
     (1, 2, 3)             == (1.0, 2.0, 3.0)
     (1, 2, ('aa', 'ab'))   < (1, 2, ('abc', 'a'), 4)

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι η σύγκριση αντικειμένων διαφορετικών τύπων με ‘<’ ή ‘>’
είναι νόμιμη υπό τον όρο ότι τα αντικείμενα διαθέτουν κατάλληλες
μεθόδους σύγκρισης.  Για παράδειγμα, οι μικτές αριθμητικοί τύποι
συγκρίνονται σύμφωνα με την αριθμητική τους τιμή, οπότε το 0 ισούται με
0.0, κλπ.  Διαφορετικά, αντί να παρέχει μια αυθαίρετη παραγγελία, ο
διερμηνέας θα κάνει raise μια εξαίρεση *note TypeError: 291.

Υποσημειώσεις
.............


File: python.info,  Node: Modules<2>,  Next: Είσοδος και Έξοδος,  Prev: Δομές Δεδομένων,  Up: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python

2.6 Modules
===========

Εάν βγείτε από τον interpreter της Python και μπείτε ξανά, οι ορισμοί
που έχετε κάνει (συναρτήσεις και μεταβλητές) χάνονται.  Επομένως, εάν
θέλετε να γράψετε ένα κάπως μεγαλύτερο πρόγραμμα, είναι προτιμότερο να
χρησιμοποιήσετε έναν επεξεργαστή κειμένου για να προετοιμάσετε την
εισαγωγή για τον interpreter και την εκτέλεση του με αυτό το αρχείο ως
input.  Αυτό είναι γνωστό ως δημιουργία 'script'.  Καθώς το πρόγραμμα
σας μεγαλώνει, μπορεί να θέλετε να το χωρίσετε σε πολλά αρχεία για
ευκολότερη συντήρηση.  Μπορεί επίσης να θέλετε να χρησιμοποιήσετε μια
εύχρηστη συνάρτηση που έχετε γράψει σε πολλά προγράμματα χωρίς να
αντιγράψετε τον ορισμό της σε κάθε πρόγραμμα.

Για να το υποστηρίξει αυτό, η Python έχει έναν τρόπο να βάζει ορισμούς
σε ένα αρχείο και να τους χρησιμοποιεί σε ένα script ή σε ένα
διαδραστικό instance του interpreter.  Ένα τέτοιο αρχείο ονομάζεται
'module*∙ ορισμοί από μια ενότητα μπορούν να *εισαχθούν' σε άλλα modules
ή στο 'κύριο' module (η συλλογή των μεταβλητών στις οποίες έχετε
πρόσβαση σε ένα script που εκτελείται στον ανώτερο επίπεδο και σε
λειτουργία αριθμομηχανής).

Ένα module είναι ένα αρχείο που περιέχει ορισμούς και δηλώσεις Python.
Το όνομα αρχείου είναι το όνομα του module με το επίθημα ‘.py’.  Μέσε σε
ένα module, το όνομα του module (ως συμβολοσειρά) είναι διαθέσιμο ως
τιμή της global μεταβλητής ‘__name__’.  Για παράδειγμα, χρησιμοποιήστε
το αγαπημένος σας πρόγραμμα επεξεργασίας κειμένου για να δημιουργήσετε
ένα αρχείο που ονομάζεται ‘fibo.py’ στον τρέχοντα κατάλογο με τα
ακόλουθα περιεχόμενα:

     # Fibonacci numbers module

     def fib(n):
         """Write Fibonacci series up to n."""
         a, b = 0, 1
         while a < n:
             print(a, end=' ')
             a, b = b, a+b
         print()

     def fib2(n):
         """Return Fibonacci series up to n."""
         result = []
         a, b = 0, 1
         while a < n:
             result.append(a)
             a, b = b, a+b
         return result

Τώρα εισάγετε τον Python interpreter και εισάγετε αυτό το module με την
ακόλουθη εντολή:

     >>> import fibo

Αυτό δεν προσθέτει τα ονόματα των συναρτήσεων που ορίζονται στο ‘fibo’
απευθείας στον τρέχοντα *note namespace: 222e. (βλ.  *note Εμβέλεια και
Πεδία Ονομάτων στην Python: 222f. για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες):
προσθέτει μόνο το όνομα του module ‘fibo’ εκεί.  Χρησιμοποιώντας το
όνομα του module μπορείτε να αποκτήσετε πρόσβαση στις λειτουργίες:

     >>> fibo.fib(1000)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987
     >>> fibo.fib2(100)
     [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]
     >>> fibo.__name__
     'fibo'

Εάν σκοπεύετε να χρησιμοποιείτε συχνά μια συνάρτηση, μπορείτε να την
αντιστοιχίσετε σε ένα τοπικό όνομα:

     >>> fib = fibo.fib
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

* Menu:

* Περισσότερα για τα Modules::
* Standard Modules::
* Η συνάρτηση dir(): Η συνάρτηση dir.
* Πακέτα::


File: python.info,  Node: Περισσότερα για τα Modules,  Next: Standard Modules,  Up: Modules<2>

2.6.1 Περισσότερα για τα Modules
--------------------------------

Ένα module μπορεί να περιέχει εκτελέσιμες δηλώσεις καθώς και ορισμούς
συναρτήσεων.  Αυτές οι δηλώσεις προορίζονται για την προετοιμασία του
module.  Εκτελούνται μόνο την 'πρώτη' φορά που εμφανίζεται το όνομα του
module σε μια δήλωση εισαγωγής.  (1)  (Εκτελούνται επίσης εάν το αρχείο
εκτελείται ως script.)

Κάθε module έχει τον δικό της ιδιωτικό namespace, ο οποίος
χρησιμοποιείται ως global namespace από όλες τις συναρτήσεις που
ορίζονται στο module.  Έτσι, ο συντάκτης μιας ενότητας μπορεί να
χρησιμοποιήσει global μεταβλητές στο module χωρίς να ανησυχεί για τυχαία
conflicts με τις global μεταβλητές του χρήστη.  Από την άλλη πλευρά, εάν
ξέρετε τι κάνετε, μπορείτε να αγγίξετε τις global μεταβλητές ενός module
με το ίδιο notation που χρησιμοποιείται για να αναφέρεται στις
συναρτήσεις, ‘modname.itemname’.

Τα modules μπορούν να εισάγουν άλλα modules.  Είναι σύνηθες, αλλά δεν
απαιτείται να τοποθετούνται όλες οι δηλώσεις *note import: 9da. στην
αρχή μιας ενότητα (ή σεναρίου, για αυτό το θέμα).  Τα ονόματα των
modules που εισάγονται, εάν τοποθετούνται στο ανώτερο επίπεδο του ένα
module (εκτός οποιωνδήποτε συναρτήσεων ή κλάσεων), προστίθενται στον
global namespace του module.

Υπάρχει μια παραλλαγή της δήλωσης *note import: 9da. που εισάγει ονόματα
από ένα module απευθείας στον χώρο στα importing module’s namespace.
Για παράδειγμα:

     >>> from fibo import fib, fib2
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Αυτό δεν εισάγει το όνομα ενός module από το οποίο λαμβάνονται οι
εισαγωγές στο τοπικό namespace (αρά στο παράδειγμα, το ‘fibo’ δεν
ορίζεται).

Υπάρχει ακόμη και μια παραλλαγή για την εισαγωγή όλων των ονομάτων που
ορίζει μια ενότητα:

     >>> from fibo import *
     >>> fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Αυτό εισάγει όλα τα ονόματα εκτός από αυτά που ξεκινούν με κάτω παύλα
(‘_’).  Στις περισσότερες περιπτώσεις, οι προγραμματιστές Python δεν
χρησιμοποιούν αυτήν την δυνατότητα , καθώς εισάγει ένα άγνωστο σύνολο
ονομάτων στον interpreter, κρύβοντας πιθανώς κάποια πράγματα που έχετε
ήδη ορίσει.

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι γενικά η πρακτική της εισαγωγής ‘*’ από ένα module ή
ένα πακέτο αποδοκιμάζεται, καθώς προκαλεί συχνά κακώς αναγνώσιμο κώδικα.
Ωστόσο, είναι εντάξει να τον χρησιμοποιήσετε για να αποθηκεύσετε την
πληκτρολόγηση σε διαδραστικές περιόδους σύνδεσης.

Εάν το όνομα του module ακολουθείται από ‘as’, τότε το όνομα που
ακολουθεί ‘as’ συνδέεται απευθείας με το εισαγόμενο module.

     >>> import fibo as fib
     >>> fib.fib(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

Αυτό ουσιαστικά εισάγει το module με τον ίδιο τρόπο που θα κάνει το
‘import fibo’ , με τη μόνη διαφορά ότι είναι διαθέσιμο ως ‘fib’.

Μπορεί επίσης να χρησιμοποιηθεί όταν χρησιμοποιείτε *note from: 1650. με
παρόμοια εφέ:

     >>> from fibo import fib as fibonacci
     >>> fibonacci(500)
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377

     Σημείωση: Για λόγους αποτελεσματικότητας, κάθε module εισάγεται
     μόνο μία φορά ανά περίοδο λειτουργίες του interpreter.  Επομένως,
     εάν αλλάξετε τα modules σας, πρέπει να επανεκκινήσετε τον διερμηνέα
     – ή, εάν είναι μόνο ένα module που θέλετε να δοκιμάσετε
     διαδραστικά, χρησιμοποιήστε το *note importlib.reload(): 928, π.χ.
     ‘import importlib; importlib.reload(modulename)’.

* Menu:

* Εκτέλεση modules ως scripts::
* Το Search Path του Module::
* «Compiled» Python αρχεία::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Στην πραγματικότητα, οι ορισμοί συναρτήσεων είναι επίσης
“statements” που “εκτελούνται”∙ η εκτέλεση ενός ορισμού συνάρτησης σε
επίπεδο module προσθέτει το όνομα της συνάρτησης στον καθολικό namespace
του module.


File: python.info,  Node: Εκτέλεση modules ως scripts,  Next: Το Search Path του Module,  Up: Περισσότερα για τα Modules

2.6.1.1 Εκτέλεση modules ως scripts
...................................

Όταν εκτελείτε ένα Python module με:

     python fibo.py <arguments>

ο κώδικας στο module θα εκτελεστεί, ακριβώς σαν να τον εισαγάγετε, αλλά
με το ‘name’ να έχει οριστεί σε ‘"__main__"’.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι
προσθέτοντας αυτόν τον κώδικα στο τέλος του module σας:

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import sys
         fib(int(sys.argv[1]))

μπορείτε να κάνετε το αρχείο χρησιμοποιήσιμο ως script καθώς και ως
module που μπορεί να εισαχθεί, επειδή ο κώδικας που αναλύει την γραμμή
εντολών εκτελείται μόνο εάν το module εκτελείται ως το «main» αρχείο:

     $ python fibo.py 50
     0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34

Εάν το module έχει εισαχθεί, ο κώδικας δεν εκτελείται:

     >>> import fibo
     >>>

Αυτό χρησιμοποιείται συχνά είτε για την παροχή ενός βολικού user
interface σε ένα module, είτε για σκοπούς δοκιμής (η εκτέλεση του module
ως script εκτελεί μια δοκιμαστική σουίτα).


File: python.info,  Node: Το Search Path του Module,  Next: «Compiled» Python αρχεία,  Prev: Εκτέλεση modules ως scripts,  Up: Περισσότερα για τα Modules

2.6.1.2 Το Search Path του Module
.................................

Όταν εισάγετε ένα module με το όνομα ‘spam’, ο interpreter αναζητά πρώτα
ένα ενσωματωμένο module με αυτό το όνομα.  Αυτά τα ονόματα των module
παρατίθενται στο *note sys.builtin_module_names: 2236.  Εάν δεν βρεθεί,
τότε αναζητά ένα αρχείο με το όνομα ‘spam.py’ σε μια λίστα καταλόγων που
δίνονται από τη μεταβλητή *note sys.path: 194.  Το ‘sys.path’
αρχικοποιείται από αυτές τις θέσεις:

   * Ο κατάλογος που περιέχει το input script (ή τον τρέχοντα κατάλογο
     όταν δεν έχει καθοριστεί αρχείο).

   * *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6. (μια λίστα ονομάτων καταλόγου, με την ίδια
     σύνταξη με τη μεταβλητή του shell ‘PATH’).

   * Η προεπιλογή που εξαρτάται από την εγκατάσταση (κατά σύμβαση,
     συμπεριλαμβανομένου ενός καταλόγου ‘site-packages’, που χειρίζεται
     το module *note site: cf.

Περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες βρίσκονται στο *note The initialization of the
sys.path module search path: 1953.

     Σημείωση: Στα συστήματα αρχείων που υποστηρίζουν symlinks, ο
     κατάλογο που περιέχει το input script υπολογίζεται αφού ακολουθηθεί
     το symlink.  Με άλλα λόγια, ο κατάλογος που περιέχει το symlink
     'δεν' προστίθεται στη διαδρομή αναζήτησης του module.

Μετά την προετοιμασία, τα προγράμματα Python μπορούν να τροποποιήσουν το
*note sys.path: 194.  Ο κατάλογος που περιέχει το script που εκτελείται
τοποθετείται στην αρχή της διαδρομής αναζήτησης , μπροστά από την τυπική
διαδρομή της βιβλιοθήκης.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι τα scripts σε αυτόν τον
κατάλογο θα είναι φορτωμένα αντί για τα modules με το ίδιο όνομα στον
κατάλογο μιας βιβλιοθήκης.  Αυτό είναι ένα σφάλμα, εκτός εάν προορίζεται
η αντικατάσταση.  Βλ.  την ενότητα *note Standard Modules: 2237. για
περισσότερες πληροφορίες.


File: python.info,  Node: «Compiled» Python αρχεία,  Prev: Το Search Path του Module,  Up: Περισσότερα για τα Modules

2.6.1.3 «Compiled» Python αρχεία
................................

Για να επιταχύνει τη φόρτωση modules, η Python κάνει cache την compiled
έκδοση κάθε module στον κατάλογο ‘__pycache__’ κάτω από το όνομα
‘module.`version'.pyc’, όπου η έκδοση κωδικοποιεί τη μορφή του compiled
αρχείου∙ γενικά περιέχει τον αριθμό έκδοσης της Python.  Για παράδειγμα,
στην έκδοση CPython 3.3 η compiled έκδοση του spam.py θα αποθηκευτεί ως
‘__pycache__/spam.cpython-33.pyc’.  Αυτή η σύμβαση ονομασίας, επιτρέπει
σε compiled modules από διαφορετικές εκδόσεις και διαφορετικές εκδόσεις
της Python να συνυπάρχουν.

Η Python ελέγχει την ημερομηνία τροποποίησης του πηγαίου έναντι της
compiled έκδοσης για να δει εάν είναι ξεπερασμένη και χρειάζεται να
γίνει compile ξανά.  Αυτή είναι μια εντελώς αυτόματη διαδικασία.
Επίσης, τα compiled modules είναι ανεξάρτητες από πλατφόρμα, επομένως η
ίδια βιβλιοθήκη μπορεί να κοινοποιηθεί ανάμεσα σε συστήματα με
διαφορετικές αρχιτεκτονικές.

Η Python δεν ελέγχει την cache σε δύο περιπτώσεις.  Πρώτον, πάντα κάνει
compile ξανά και δεν αποθηκεύει το αποτέλεσμα για το module που
φορτώνεται απευθείας από τη γραμμή εντολών.  Δεύτερον, δεν ελέγχει τη
μνήμη cache εάν δεν υπάρχει το source module.  Για να υποστηρίξετε μια
διανομή χωρίς πηγαίο (compiled μόνο), το compiled module πρέπει να
βρίσκεται στον source κατάλογο και δεν πρέπει να υπάρχει source module.

Μερικές συμβουλές για ειδικούς:

   * Μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε τους switches *note -O: 431. ή *note
     -OO: 116e. στην εντολή Python για να μειώσετε το μέγεθος ενός
     compiled module.  Το ‘-O’ switch αφαιρεί τις assert statements, το
     ‘-OO’ switch αφαιρεί τόσο τα assert statements όσο και τις __doc__
     συμβολοσειρές .  Εφόσον ορισμένα προγράμματα μπορεί να βασίζονται
     στην ύπαρξη αυτών των διαθέσιμων, θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσετε
     αυτήν την επιλογή μόνο εάν γνωρίζετε τι κάνετε.  «Optimized»
     modules έχουν ένα ‘opt-’ tag και είναι συνήθως μικρότερες.  Οι
     μελλοντικές εκδόσεις μπορεί να αλλάξουν τα αποτελέσματα της
     βελτιστοποίησης.

   * Ένα πρόγραμμα δεν εκτελείται πιο γρήγορα όταν διαβάζεται από ένα
     αρχείο ‘.pyc’ από ό,τι όταν διαβάζεται από ένα αρχείο ‘.py’ ∙ το
     μόνο πράγμα που είναι πιο γρήγορο από τα αρχεία ‘.pyc’ είναι η
     ταχύτητα με την οποία φορτώνονται.

   * Το module *note compileall: 21. μπορεί να δημιουργήσει αρχεία .pyc
     για όλα τα modules σε ένα κατάλογο.

   * Υπάρχουν περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με αυτή τη διαδικασία,
     συμπεριλαμβανομένου ενός διαγράμματος ροής των αποφάσεων, στο PEP
     3147(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Modules,  Next: Η συνάρτηση dir,  Prev: Περισσότερα για τα Modules,  Up: Modules<2>

2.6.2 Standard Modules
----------------------

Η Python συνοδεύεται από μια βιβλιοθήκη standard modules, η οποία
περιγράφεται σε ένα ξεχωριστό έγγραφο, την Αναφορά Βιβλιοθήκης Python
(«Library Reference» hereafter).  Ορισμένα modules είναι ενσωματωμένα
στον interpreter∙ αυτές παρέχουν πρόσβαση σε λειτουργίες που δεν
αποτελούν μέρος του πυρήνα της γλώσσας, αλλά εντούτοις είναι
ενσωματωμένα, είτε για αποτελεσματικότητα είτε για την παροχή πρόσβασης
σε πρωτόγονα στοιχεία του λειτουργικού συστήματος όπως οι κλήσεις
συστήματος.  Το σύνολο τέτοιων modules είναι μια επιλογή διαμόρφωσης που
εξαρτάται επίσης από την υποκείμενη πλατφόρμα.  Για παράδειγμα, το
module *note winreg: 11f. παρέχεται μόνο σε συστήματα Windows.  Ένα
συγκεκριμένο module που αξίζει κάποια προσοχή είναι το *note sys: e2, το
οποίο είναι ενσωματωμένο στον interpreter της Python.  Οι μεταβλητές
‘sys.ps1’ και ‘sys.ps2’ ορίζουν τις συμβολοσειρές που χρησιμοποιούνται
ως κύρια και δευτερεύοντα prompts:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.ps1
     '>>> '
     >>> sys.ps2
     '... '
     >>> sys.ps1 = 'C> '
     C> print('Yuck!')
     Yuck!
     C>

Αυτές οι δύο μεταβλητές ορίζονται μόνο εάν ο interpreter βρίσκεται σε
διαδραστική λειτουργία.

Η μεταβλητή ‘sys.path’ είναι μια λίστα συμβολοσειρών που καθορίζει τη
διαδρομή αναζήτησης του διερμηνέα για modules.  Αρχικοποιείται σε μια
προεπιλεγμένη διαδρομή που λαμβάνεται από τη μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος
*note PYTHONPATH: 13c6, ή από μια ενσωματωμένη προεπιλογή εάν το
‘PYTHONPATH’ δεν έχει οριστεί.  Μπορείτε να το τροποποιήσετε
χρησιμοποιώντας τυπικές λειτουργίες λίστας:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path.append('/ufs/guido/lib/python')


File: python.info,  Node: Η συνάρτηση dir,  Next: Πακέτα,  Prev: Standard Modules,  Up: Modules<2>

2.6.3 Η συνάρτηση ‘dir()’
-------------------------

Η ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note dir(): a23. χρησιμοποιείται για να
ανακαλύψει ποια ονόματα ορίζει ένα module.  Επιστρέφει μια ταξινομημένη
λίστα συμβολοσειρών:

     >>> import fibo, sys
     >>> dir(fibo)
     ['__name__', 'fib', 'fib2']
     >>> dir(sys)
     ['__breakpointhook__', '__displayhook__', '__doc__', '__excepthook__',
      '__interactivehook__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__spec__',
      '__stderr__', '__stdin__', '__stdout__', '__unraisablehook__',
      '_clear_type_cache', '_current_frames', '_debugmallocstats', '_framework',
      '_getframe', '_git', '_home', '_xoptions', 'abiflags', 'addaudithook',
      'api_version', 'argv', 'audit', 'base_exec_prefix', 'base_prefix',
      'breakpointhook', 'builtin_module_names', 'byteorder', 'call_tracing',
      'callstats', 'copyright', 'displayhook', 'dont_write_bytecode', 'exc_info',
      'excepthook', 'exec_prefix', 'executable', 'exit', 'flags', 'float_info',
      'float_repr_style', 'get_asyncgen_hooks', 'get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth',
      'getallocatedblocks', 'getdefaultencoding', 'getdlopenflags',
      'getfilesystemencodeerrors', 'getfilesystemencoding', 'getprofile',
      'getrecursionlimit', 'getrefcount', 'getsizeof', 'getswitchinterval',
      'gettrace', 'hash_info', 'hexversion', 'implementation', 'int_info',
      'intern', 'is_finalizing', 'last_traceback', 'last_type', 'last_value',
      'maxsize', 'maxunicode', 'meta_path', 'modules', 'path', 'path_hooks',
      'path_importer_cache', 'platform', 'prefix', 'ps1', 'ps2', 'pycache_prefix',
      'set_asyncgen_hooks', 'set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth', 'setdlopenflags',
      'setprofile', 'setrecursionlimit', 'setswitchinterval', 'settrace', 'stderr',
      'stdin', 'stdout', 'thread_info', 'unraisablehook', 'version', 'version_info',
      'warnoptions']

Χωρίς ορίσματα, η *note dir(): a23. παραθέτει τα ονόματα που έχετε
ορίσει αυτήν τη στιγμή:

     >>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
     >>> import fibo
     >>> fib = fibo.fib
     >>> dir()
     ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'a', 'fib', 'fibo', 'sys']

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι παραθέτει όλους τους τύπους ονομάτων: μεταβλητές,
modules, συναρτήσεις, κ.λπ.

Η *note dir(): a23. δεν παραθέτει τα ονόματα των ενσωματωμένων
συναρτήσεων και μεταβλητών.  Εάν θέλετε μια λίστα από αυτές, ορίζονται
στην τυπική ενότητα *note builtins: 13.:

     >>> import builtins
     >>> dir(builtins)
     ['ArithmeticError', 'AssertionError', 'AttributeError', 'BaseException',
      'BlockingIOError', 'BrokenPipeError', 'BufferError', 'BytesWarning',
      'ChildProcessError', 'ConnectionAbortedError', 'ConnectionError',
      'ConnectionRefusedError', 'ConnectionResetError', 'DeprecationWarning',
      'EOFError', 'Ellipsis', 'EnvironmentError', 'Exception', 'False',
      'FileExistsError', 'FileNotFoundError', 'FloatingPointError',
      'FutureWarning', 'GeneratorExit', 'IOError', 'ImportError',
      'ImportWarning', 'IndentationError', 'IndexError', 'InterruptedError',
      'IsADirectoryError', 'KeyError', 'KeyboardInterrupt', 'LookupError',
      'MemoryError', 'NameError', 'None', 'NotADirectoryError', 'NotImplemented',
      'NotImplementedError', 'OSError', 'OverflowError',
      'PendingDeprecationWarning', 'PermissionError', 'ProcessLookupError',
      'ReferenceError', 'ResourceWarning', 'RuntimeError', 'RuntimeWarning',
      'StopIteration', 'SyntaxError', 'SyntaxWarning', 'SystemError',
      'SystemExit', 'TabError', 'TimeoutError', 'True', 'TypeError',
      'UnboundLocalError', 'UnicodeDecodeError', 'UnicodeEncodeError',
      'UnicodeError', 'UnicodeTranslateError', 'UnicodeWarning', 'UserWarning',
      'ValueError', 'Warning', 'ZeroDivisionError', '_', '__build_class__',
      '__debug__', '__doc__', '__import__', '__name__', '__package__', 'abs',
      'all', 'any', 'ascii', 'bin', 'bool', 'bytearray', 'bytes', 'callable',
      'chr', 'classmethod', 'compile', 'complex', 'copyright', 'credits',
      'delattr', 'dict', 'dir', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'eval', 'exec', 'exit',
      'filter', 'float', 'format', 'frozenset', 'getattr', 'globals', 'hasattr',
      'hash', 'help', 'hex', 'id', 'input', 'int', 'isinstance', 'issubclass',
      'iter', 'len', 'license', 'list', 'locals', 'map', 'max', 'memoryview',
      'min', 'next', 'object', 'oct', 'open', 'ord', 'pow', 'print', 'property',
      'quit', 'range', 'repr', 'reversed', 'round', 'set', 'setattr', 'slice',
      'sorted', 'staticmethod', 'str', 'sum', 'super', 'tuple', 'type', 'vars',
      'zip']


File: python.info,  Node: Πακέτα,  Prev: Η συνάρτηση dir,  Up: Modules<2>

2.6.4 Πακέτα
------------

Τα πακέτα είναι ένας τρόπος δόμησης του namespace του module
χρησιμοποιώντας «dotted module names».  Για παράδειγμα, το όνομα του
module ‘A.B’ υποδηλώνει ένα submodule με όνομα ‘B’ σε ένα πακέτο με
όνομα ‘A’.  Ακριβώς όπως η χρήση των modules σώζει τους δημιουργούς
διαφορετικών modules να ανησυχούν ο ένας για τα καθολικά ονόματα
μεταβλητών του άλλου, η χρήση dotted module ονομάτων σώζει τους
δημιουργούς των multi-module πακέτων όπως το NumbPY ή το Pillow από το
να χρειάζεται να ανησυχούν ο ένας για τα module ονόματα του άλλου.

Ας υποθέσουμε ότι θέλετε να σχεδιάσετε μια συλλογή από module (ένα
«πακέτο») για τον ομοιόμορφο χειρισμό αρχείων ήχου και δεδομένων ήχου.
Υπάρχουν πολλές διαφορετικές μορφές αρχείων ήχου (που συνήθως
αναγνωρίζονται από την επέκτασή τους, για παράδειγμα: ‘.wav’, ‘.aiff’,
‘.au’), επομένως μπορεί να χρειαστεί να δημιουργήσετε και να διατηρήσετε
μια αυξανόμενη συλλογή λειτουργιών για τη μετατροπή μεταξύ των διαφόρων
μορφών αρχείων.  Υπάρχουν επίσης πολλές διαφορετικές λειτουργίες που
μπορεί να θέλετε να εκτελέσετε σε δεδομένα ήχου (όπως μίξη, προσθήκη
ηχούς, εφαρμογή μιας λειτουργίας ισοσταθμιστή, δημιουργία τεχνητού
στερεοφωνικού εφέ), επομένως επιπλέον θα γράφετε μια ατελείωτη ροή από
modules για να εκτελέσετε αυτές τις λειτουργίες.  Ακολουθεί μια πιθανή
δομή για το πακέτο σας (που εκφράζεται ως ιεραρχικό σύστημα αρχείων):

     sound/                          Top-level package
           __init__.py               Initialize the sound package
           formats/                  Subpackage for file format conversions
                   __init__.py
                   wavread.py
                   wavwrite.py
                   aiffread.py
                   aiffwrite.py
                   auread.py
                   auwrite.py
                   ...
           effects/                  Subpackage for sound effects
                   __init__.py
                   echo.py
                   surround.py
                   reverse.py
                   ...
           filters/                  Subpackage for filters
                   __init__.py
                   equalizer.py
                   vocoder.py
                   karaoke.py
                   ...

Κατά την εισαγωγή του πακέτου, η Python πραγματοποιεί αναζήτηση στους
καταλόγους στο ‘sys.path’ αναζητώντας τον υποκατάλογο του πακέτου.

Τα ‘__init__.py’ αρχεία απαιτούνται για να κάνει την Python να
αντιμετωπίζει του καταλόγου που περιέχουν το αρχείο ως πακέτα (εκτός εάν
χρησιμοποιεί ένα *note namespace package: 52e, ένα σχετικά προηγμένο
χαρακτηριστικό).  Αυτό αποτρέπει τους καταλόγους με κοινό όνομα, όπως
π.χ.  ως ‘string’, από την ακούσια απόκρυψη έγκυρων modules που
εμφανίζονται αργότερα στο path αναζήτησης του module.  Στην απλούστερη
περίπτωση, το ‘__init__.py’ μπορεί απλώς να είναι κενό αρχείο, αλλά
μπορεί επίσης να εκτελέσει initialization κώδικα για το πακέτο ή να
ορίσει την μεταβλητή ‘__all__’, που περιγράφεται αργότερα.

Οι χρήστες του πακέτου μπορούν να εισάγουν μεμονωμένα module από το
πακέτο, για παράδειγμα:

     import sound.effects.echo

Αυτό φορτώνει το submodule ‘sound.effects.echo’.  Πρέπει να αναφέρεται
με το πλήρες όνομά του.

     sound.effects.echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

Ένα εναλλακτικός τρόπος για την εισαγωγή του submodule είναι:

     from sound.effects import echo

Αυτό φορτώνει επίσης το submodule ‘echo’, και την καθιστά διαθέσιμη
χωρίς το πρόθεμα πακέτου, ώστε να μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ως εξής:

     echo.echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

Μια άλλη παραλλαγή είναι η απευθείας εισαγωγή της επιθυμητής συνάρτησης
ή μεταβλητής:

     from sound.effects.echo import echofilter

Και πάλι, αυτό φορτώνει το submodule ‘echo’, αλλά αυτό κάνει τη
συνάρτηση της ‘echofilter()’ άμεσα διαθέσιμη:

     echofilter(input, output, delay=0.7, atten=4)

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι όταν χρησιμοποιείτε ‘from package import item’, το
στοιχείο μπορεί να είναι είτε submodule (ή υποπακέτο) του πακέτου ή
κάποιο άλλο όνομα που ορίζεται στο πακέτο, όπως μια συνάρτηση, κλάση ή
μεταβλητή.  Η ‘import’ δήλωση ελέγχει πρώτα εάν το στοιχείο έχει οριστεί
στο πακέτο, εάν όχι, υποθέτει ότι είναι ένα module και επιχειρεί να το
φορτώσει , αν δεν το βρει δημιουργεί η εξαίρεση *note ImportError: 1bd.

Αντίθετα, όταν χρησιμοποιείται σύνταξη όπως ‘import
item.subitem.subsubitem’, κάθε στοιχείο εκτός από αυτό το τελευταίο
πρέπει να είναι πακέτο∙ το τελευταίο στοιχείο μπορεί να είναι ένα module
ή ένα πακέτο αλλά δεν μπορεί να είναι μια κλάση ή συνάρτηση ή μεταβλητή
που ορίζεται από προηγούμενο στοιχείο.

* Menu:

* Εισάγοντας * από ένα Πακέτο::
* Intra-package αναφορές::
* Πακέτα σε Πολλαπλούς Καταλόγους::


File: python.info,  Node: Εισάγοντας * από ένα Πακέτο,  Next: Intra-package αναφορές,  Up: Πακέτα

2.6.4.1 Εισάγοντας * από ένα Πακέτο
...................................

Τώρα τι συμβαίνει όταν ο χρήστης γράφει ‘from sound.effects import *’;
Ιδανικά, θα ήλπιζε κανείς ότι αυτό θα βγει με κάποιο τρόπο στο σύστημα
αρχείων, θα βρει κάποια submodules που υπάρχουν το πακέτο, και θα τα
εισάγει όλα σε αυτό.  Αυτό θα μπορούσε να πάρει πολύ χρόνο και η
εισαγωγή submodules μπορεί να έχει ανεπιθύμητες παρενέργειες που θα
έπρεπε να συμβούν όταν το submodule εισάγεται ρητά.

Η μόνη λύση είναι να παρέχει ο συντάκτης του πακέτου ένα ρητό ευρετήριο
του πακέτου.  Η δήλωση *note import: 9da. χρησιμοποιεί την ακόλουθη
σύμβαση: εάν ο κώδικας ‘__init__.py’ του πακέτου ορίζει μια λίστα με το
όνομα ‘__all__’, θεωρείται ότι είναι η λίστα με τα ονόματα των modules
που θα πρέπει να εισαχθούν όταν συναντήσετε ‘from package import *’.
Είναι στην διακριτή ευχέρεια του συντάκτη του πακέτου να διατηρεί αυτή
τη λίστα ενημερωμένη, όταν κυκλοφορήσει μια νέα έκδοση του πακέτου.  Οι
συντάκτες του πακέτου ενδέχεται επίσης να αποφασίσουν να μην το
υποστηρίξουν, εάν δεν βλέπουν ότι χρησιμοποιείται η εισαγωγή του * από
το πακέτο τους.  Για παράδειγμα το αρχείο ‘sound/effects/__init__.py’ θα
μπορούσε να περιέχει τον ακόλουθο κώδικα:

     __all__ = ["echo", "surround", "reverse"]

Αυτό θα σήμαινε ότι ‘from sound.effects import *’ θα εισαγάγει τα τρία
submodules με το όνομα του πακέτου ‘sound.effects’.

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι τα submodules ενδέχεται να σκιάζονται από τοπικά
καθορισμένα ονόματα.  Για παράδειγμα, εάν προσθέσατε μια ‘reverse’
συνάρτηση στο αρχείο ‘sound/effects/__init__.py’, το ‘from sound.effects
import *’ θα εισαγάγει μόνο τα δύο submodules ‘echo’ και ‘surround’,
αλλά 'όχι' το submodule ‘reverse’, επειδή επισκιάζεται από την τοπικά
καθορισμένη συνάρτηση ‘reverse’:

     __all__ = [
         "echo",      # refers to the 'echo.py' file
         "surround",  # refers to the 'surround.py' file
         "reverse",   # !!! refers to the 'reverse' function now !!!
     ]

     def reverse(msg: str):  # <-- this name shadows the 'reverse.py' submodule
         return msg[::-1]    #     in the case of a 'from sound.effects import *'

Εάν δεν έχει οριστεί το ‘__all__’, η δήλωση ‘from sound.effects import
*’ 'δεν' εισάγει όλα τα submodules από το πακέτο ‘sound.effects’ στο
τρέχων namespace∙ διασφαλίζει μόνο ότι το πακέτο ‘sound.effects’ έχει
εισαχθεί (ενδεχομένως να εκτελείται οποιοσδήποτε κωδικός προετοιμασίας
στο στο ‘__init__.py’) και στη συνέχεια εισάγει οποιαδήποτε ονόματα
ορίζονται στο πακέτο.  Αυτό περιλαμβάνει τυχόν ονόματα που ορίζονται
(και submodules που έχουν φορτωθεί ρητά) από το ‘__init__.py’.
Περιλαμβάνει επίσης τυχόν submodules του πακέτου που φορτώθηκαν ρητά από
προηγούμενες δηλώσεις *note import: 9da.  Σκεφτείτε αυτόν τον κώδικα:

     import sound.effects.echo
     import sound.effects.surround
     from sound.effects import *

Σε αυτό το παράδειγμα, τα modules ‘echo’ και ‘surround’ εισάγονται στο
τρέχον namespace επειδή ορίζονται στο πακέτο ‘sound.effects’ όταν η
δήλωση ‘from...import’ εκτελείται.  (Αυτό λειτουργεί επίσης όταν
ορίζεται το ‘__all__’).

Αν και ορισμένα modules έχουν σχεδιαστεί για να εξάγουν μόνο ονόματα που
ακολουθούν ορισμένα μοτίβα όταν χρησιμοποιείτε το ‘import *’,
εξακολουθεί να θεωρείται κακή πρακτική στον κώδικα παραγωγής.

Θυμηθείτε, δεν υπάρχει τίποτα κακό με τη χρήση του ‘from package import
specific_submodule’!  Στην πραγματικότητα, αυτή είναι η προτεινόμενη
σημείωση, εκτός εάν το module εισαγωγής χρειάζεται να χρησιμοποιήσει
submodules με το ίδιο όνομα από διαφορετικά πακέτα.


File: python.info,  Node: Intra-package αναφορές,  Next: Πακέτα σε Πολλαπλούς Καταλόγους,  Prev: Εισάγοντας * από ένα Πακέτο,  Up: Πακέτα

2.6.4.2 Intra-package αναφορές
..............................

Όταν τα πακέτα είναι δομημένα σε υποπακέτα (όπως με το πακέτο ‘sound’
στο παράδειγμα), μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε απόλυτες εισαγωγές για να
αναφερθείτε σε submodules αδερφών πακέτων.  Για παράδειγμα, εάν το
module ‘sound.filters.vocoder’ πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσει το module ‘echo’
στο πακέτο ‘sound.effects’ , μπορεί να χρησιμοποιήσει το ‘from
sound.effects import echo’.

Μπορείτε επίσης να γράψετε σχετικές εισαγωγές, με τη φόρμα ‘from module
import name’ της δήλωσης εισαγωγής.  Αυτές οι εισαγωγές χρησιμοποιούν
leading dots για να υποδείξουν τα τρέχοντα και γονικά πακέτα που
εμπλέκονται στη σχετική εισαγωγή.  Από το ‘surround’ module για
παράδειγμα, μπορεί να χρησιμοποιήσετε:

     from . import echo
     from .. import formats
     from ..filters import equalizer

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι οι σχετικές εισαγωγές βασίζονται στο όνομα του
τρέχοντος module.  Επειδή το όνομα του κύριου module δεν έχει πακέτο, τα
modules που προορίζονται για χρήση ως το κύριο module μιας εφαρμογής
Python πρέπει πάντα να χρησιμοποιούν απόλυτες εισαγωγές.


File: python.info,  Node: Πακέτα σε Πολλαπλούς Καταλόγους,  Prev: Intra-package αναφορές,  Up: Πακέτα

2.6.4.3 Πακέτα σε Πολλαπλούς Καταλόγους
.......................................

Τα πακέτα υποστηρίζουν ένα ακόμη ειδικό χαρακτηριστικό, *note __path__:
2243.  Αυτό έχει αρχικοποιηθεί ως μια *note sequence: 8ff. από
συμβολοσειρές που περιέχει το όνομα του καταλόγου που το ‘__init__.py’
του πακέτου πριν από την εκτέλεση του κώδικα σε αυτό το αρχείο.  Αυτή η
μεταβλητή μπορεί να τροποποιηθεί, αυτό επηρεάζει τις μελλοντικές
αναζητήσεις για modules και υποπακέτα που περιέχονται στο πακέτο.

Ενώ αυτή η δυνατότητα δεν χρειάζεται συχνά, μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για
την επέκταση του συνόλου των modules που βρίσκονται σε ένα πακέτο.

Υποσημειώσεις
.............


File: python.info,  Node: Είσοδος και Έξοδος,  Next: Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις,  Prev: Modules<2>,  Up: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python

2.7 Είσοδος και Έξοδος
======================

Υπάρχουν διάφοροι τρόποι για να παρουσιάσετε τα αποτελέσματα ενός
προγράμματος· τα δεδομένα μπορούν να εκτυπωθούν σε μορφή αναγνώσιμη από
τον άνθρωπο ή να εγγραφούν σε ένα αρχείο για μελλοντική χρήση.  Αυτό το
κεφάλαιο θα συζητήσει μερικές από τις δυνατότητες.

* Menu:

* Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου::
* Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων::


File: python.info,  Node: Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου,  Next: Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων,  Up: Είσοδος και Έξοδος

2.7.1 Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου
-----------------------------------

Μέχρι στιγμής έχουμε συναντήσει δύο τρόπους γραφής τιμών: 'expression
statements' και τη συνάρτηση *note print(): 131f.  (Ένας τρίτος τρόπος
είναι η χρήση της μεθόδου *note write(): 224a. των αντικειμένων αρχείων·
το standard αρχείο εξόδου μπορεί να αναφέρεται ως ‘sys.stdout’.  Δείτε
την Αναφορά Βιβλιοθήκης για περισσότερες πληροφορίες σχετικά με αυτό.)

Συχνά θα θέλετε περισσότερο έλεγχο στη μορφοποίηση της εξόδου σας παρά
απλώς να εκτυπώνετε τιμές διαχωρισμένες με διάστημα.  Υπάρχουν διάφοροι
τρόποι για να μορφοποιήσετε την έξοδο.

   * Για να χρησιμοποιήσετε *note formatted string literals: 224b,
     ξεκινήστε μια συμβολοσειρά με ‘f’ or ‘F’ πριν από το αρχικό
     εισαγωγικό ή το τριπλό εισαγωγικό.  Μέσα σε αυτήν την συμβολοσειρά,
     μπορείτε να γράψετε μια έκφραση Python μεταξύ χαρακτήρων ‘{’ και
     ‘}’ που μπορεί να αναφέρεται σε μεταβλητές ή κυριολεκτικές τιμές.

          >>> year = 2016
          >>> event = 'Referendum'
          >>> f'Results of the {year} {event}'
          'Results of the 2016 Referendum'

   * Η μέθοδος *note str.format(): a12. των συμβολοσειρών απαιτεί
     περισσότερη μη χειροκίνητη προσπάθεια.  Θα εξακολουθείτε να
     χρησιμοποιείτε τα ‘{’ και ‘}’ για να επισημάνετε που θα
     αντικατασταθεί μια μεταβλητή και μπορεί να παρέχει λεπτομερείς
     οδηγίες μορφοποίησης, αλλά θα χρειαστεί επίσης να παρέχετε τις
     πληροφορίες που θα μορφοποιήσετε.  Στο παρακάτω μπλοκ κώδικα
     υπάρχουν δύο παραδείγματα για τον τρόπο μορφοποίησης μεταβλητών:

          >>> yes_votes = 42_572_654
          >>> total_votes = 85_705_149
          >>> percentage = yes_votes / total_votes
          >>> '{:-9} YES votes  {:2.2%}'.format(yes_votes, percentage)
          ' 42572654 YES votes  49.67%'

     Παρατηρήστε πως τα ‘yes_votes’ συμπληρώνονται με κενά και αρνητικό
     πρόσημο μόνο για αρνητικούς αριθμούς.  Το παράδειγμα εκτυπώνει
     επίσης το ‘percentage’ πολλαπλασιασμένο επί 100, με 2 δεκαδικά
     ψηφία και ακολουθούμενο από ένα σύμβολο ποσοστού (δείτε το *note
     Format specification mini-language: 6fe. για λεπτομέρειες).

   * Τέλος, μπορείτε να κάνετε μόνοι σας όλο τον χειρισμό συμβολοσειράς
     χρησιμοποιώντας λειτουργίες slicing και συνένωσης συμβολοσειρών για
     να δημιουργήσετε οποιαδήποτε διάταξη μπορείτε να φανταστείτε.  Ο
     τύπος συμβολοσειράς έχει ορισμένες μεθόδους που εκτελούν χρήσιμες
     λειτουργίες για την προσθήκη συμβολοσειρών σε ένα δεδομένο πλάτος
     στήλης.

Όταν δεν χρειάζεστε φανταχτερή έξοδο, άλλα θέλετε απλώς μια γρήγορη
εμφάνιση ορισμένων μεταβλητών για σκοπούς εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων, μπορείτε
να μετατρέψετε οποιαδήποτε τιμή σε μια συμβολοσειρά με τις συναρτήσεις
*note repr(): 45b. ή *note str(): 1df.

Η συνάρτηση *note str(): 1df. προορίζεται να επιστρέφει αναπαραστάσεις
τιμών που είναι αρκετά αναγνώσιμες από τον άνθρωπο, ενώ το *note repr():
45b. προορίζεται για τη δημιουργία αναπαραστάσεων που μπορούν να
διαβαστούν από τον διερμηνέα (ή θα επιβάλουν ένα *note SyntaxError: 17e.
αν δεν υπάρχει ισοδύναμη σύνταξη).  Για αντικείμενα που δεν έχουν
συγκεκριμένη αναπαράσταση για ανθρώπινη κατανάλωση, η ‘str()’ θα
επιστρέψει την ίδια τιμή με το ‘repr()’.  Πολλές τιμές, όπως αριθμοί ή
δομές όπως λίστες και λεξικά, έχουν την ίδια αναπαράσταση
χρησιμοποιώντας οποιαδήποτε συνάρτηση.  Τα strings, συγκεκριμένα, έχουν
δύο διακριτές παραστάσεις.

Μερικά παραδείγματα:

     >>> s = 'Hello, world.'
     >>> str(s)
     'Hello, world.'
     >>> repr(s)
     "'Hello, world.'"
     >>> str(1/7)
     '0.14285714285714285'
     >>> x = 10 * 3.25
     >>> y = 200 * 200
     >>> s = 'The value of x is ' + repr(x) + ', and y is ' + repr(y) + '...'
     >>> print(s)
     The value of x is 32.5, and y is 40000...
     >>> # The repr() of a string adds string quotes and backslashes:
     >>> hello = 'hello, world\n'
     >>> hellos = repr(hello)
     >>> print(hellos)
     'hello, world\n'
     >>> # The argument to repr() may be any Python object:
     >>> repr((x, y, ('spam', 'eggs')))
     "(32.5, 40000, ('spam', 'eggs'))"

Το *note string: db. module περιέχει υποστήριξη για μια απλή προσέγγιση
templating βασισμένη σε κανονικές εκφράσεις, μέσω της *note
string.Template: a77.  Αυτό προσφέρει έναν ακόμη τρόπο για να
αντικαταστήσετε τιμές σε συμβολοσειρές, χρησιμοποιώντας θέσεις κράτησης
όπως ‘$x’ και αντικαθιστώντας τις με τιμές από ένα λεξικό.

* Menu:

* Μορφοποιημένα String Literals::
* Η μέθοδος String format(): Η μέθοδος String format.
* Χειροκίνητη Μορφοποίηση Συμβολοσειρών::
* Παλιά μορφοποίηση συμβολοσειράς::


File: python.info,  Node: Μορφοποιημένα String Literals,  Next: Η μέθοδος String format,  Up: Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου

2.7.1.1 Μορφοποιημένα String Literals
.....................................

Τα *note Formatted string literals: 43a. (ονομάζονται επίσης f-strings
για συντομία) σας επιτρέπουν να συμπεριλάβετε την τιμή των εκφράσεων
Python μέσα σε μια συμβολοσειρά, θέτοντας πρόθεμα στη συμβολοσειρά με
‘f’ ή ‘F’ και γράφοντας εκφράσεις ως ‘{expression}’.

Ένας προαιρετικός αναθέτης (specifier) μορφής μπορεί να ακολουθεί την
έκφραση.  Αυτό επιτρέπει μεγαλύτερο έλεγχο στον τρόπο μορφοποίησης της
τιμής.  Το παρακάτω παράδειγμα στρογγυλοποιεί το pi σε τρία ψηφία μετά
το δεκαδικό:

     >>> import math
     >>> print(f'The value of pi is approximately {math.pi:.3f}.')
     The value of pi is approximately 3.142.

Η μετάδοση ενός ακέραιου αριθμού μετά το ‘':'’ θα έχει ως αποτέλεσμα
αυτό το πεδίο να έχει πλάτος ελάχιστου αριθμού χαρακτήρων.  Αυτό είναι
χρήσιμο για την ευθυγράμμιση στηλών.

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 7678}
     >>> for name, phone in table.items():
     ...     print(f'{name:10} ==> {phone:10d}')
     ...
     Sjoerd     ==>       4127
     Jack       ==>       4098
     Dcab       ==>       7678

Μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν άλλοι τροποποιητές για την μετατροπή της
τιμής πριν τη μορφοποίηση της.  Το ‘'!a'’ ισχύει για *note ascii():
1789, το ‘'!s'’ ισχύει για *note str(): 1df, και το ‘'!r'’ ισχύει για
*note repr(): 45b.:

     >>> animals = 'eels'
     >>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals}.')
     My hovercraft is full of eels.
     >>> print(f'My hovercraft is full of {animals!r}.')
     My hovercraft is full of 'eels'.

Ο αναθέτης (specifier) ‘=’ μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να επεκτείνει
μια έκφραση στο κείμενο της έκφρασης, ένα σύμβολο ίσο, και μετά την
αναπαράσταση της αξιολογούμενης έκφρασης:

     >>> bugs = 'roaches'
     >>> count = 13
     >>> area = 'living room'
     >>> print(f'Debugging {bugs=} {count=} {area=}')
     Debugging bugs='roaches' count=13 area='living room'

Δείτε το *note self-documenting expressions: d70. για περισσότερες
πληροφορίες σχετικά με τον αναθέτη (specifier) ‘=’.  Για αναφορά σε
αυτές τις προδιαγραφές μορφής, ανατρέξτε στον οδηγό αναφοράς για το
*note Format specification mini-language: 6fe.


File: python.info,  Node: Η μέθοδος String format,  Next: Χειροκίνητη Μορφοποίηση Συμβολοσειρών,  Prev: Μορφοποιημένα String Literals,  Up: Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου

2.7.1.2 Η μέθοδος String format()
.................................

Η βασική χρήση της μεθόδου *note str.format(): a12. μοιάζει με αυτό:

     >>> print('We are the {} who say "{}!"'.format('knights', 'Ni'))
     We are the knights who say "Ni!"

Οι αγκύλες και οι χαρακτήρες μέσα σε αυτές (που ονομάζονται πεδία
μορφής) αντικαθίστανται με τα αντικείμενα που μεταβιβάζονται στη μέθοδο
*note str.format(): a12.  Ένας αριθμός στις αγκύλες μπορεί να
χρησιμοποιηθεί για να αναφέρεται στη θέση του αντικειμένου που
μεταβιβάζεται στη μέθοδο ‘str.format()’.

     >>> print('{0} and {1}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
     spam and eggs
     >>> print('{1} and {0}'.format('spam', 'eggs'))
     eggs and spam

Εάν χρησιμοποιούνται keyword ορίσματα στη μέθοδο *note str.format():
a12, οι τιμές τους αναφέρονται χρησιμοποιώντας το όνομα του ορίσματος.

     >>> print('This {food} is {adjective}.'.format(
     ...       food='spam', adjective='absolutely horrible'))
     This spam is absolutely horrible.

Τα ορίσματα θέσης και λέξης-κλειδιού μπορούν να συνδυαστούν αυθαίρετα:

     >>> print('The story of {0}, {1}, and {other}.'.format('Bill', 'Manfred',
     ...                                                    other='Georg'))
     The story of Bill, Manfred, and Georg.

Εάν έχετε μια συμβολοσειρά πολύ μακριάς μορφής που δεν θέλετε να
χωρίσετε, θα ήταν ωραίο να αναφέρετε τις μεταβλητές που θα μορφοποιηθούν
με βάση το όνομα αντί για τη θέση.  Αυτό μπορεί να γίνει απλά περνώντας
το λεξικό και χρησιμοποιώντας αγκύλες ‘'[]'’ για πρόσβαση στα κλειδιά

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
     >>> print('Jack: {0[Jack]:d}; Sjoerd: {0[Sjoerd]:d}; '
     ...       'Dcab: {0[Dcab]:d}'.format(table))
     Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

Αυτό θα μπορούσε επίσης να γίνει περνώντας το λεξικό ‘table’ ως ορίσματα
λέξεων-κλειδιών με την σημείωση ‘**’.

     >>> table = {'Sjoerd': 4127, 'Jack': 4098, 'Dcab': 8637678}
     >>> print('Jack: {Jack:d}; Sjoerd: {Sjoerd:d}; Dcab: {Dcab:d}'.format(**table))
     Jack: 4098; Sjoerd: 4127; Dcab: 8637678

Αυτό είναι ιδιαίτερα χρήσιμο σε συνδυασμό με την ενσωματωμένη (built-in)
συνάρτηση *note vars(): 2011, η οποία επιστρέφει ένα λεξικό που περιέχει
όλες τις τοπικές μεταβλητές:

     >>> table = {k: str(v) for k, v in vars().items()}
     >>> message = " ".join([f'{k}: ' + '{' + k +'};' for k in table.keys()])
     >>> print(message.format(**table))
     __name__: __main__; __doc__: None; __package__: None; __loader__: ...

Για παράδειγμα, οι ακόλουθες γραμμές παράγουν ένα τακτοποιημένο σύνολο
στηλών που δίνουν ακέραιους αριθμούς και τα τετράγωνα και τους κύβους
τους:

     >>> for x in range(1, 11):
     ...     print('{0:2d} {1:3d} {2:4d}'.format(x, x*x, x*x*x))
     ...
      1   1    1
      2   4    8
      3   9   27
      4  16   64
      5  25  125
      6  36  216
      7  49  343
      8  64  512
      9  81  729
     10 100 1000

Για μια πλήρη επισκόπηση της μορφοποίησης συμβολοσειρών με *note
str.format(): a12, δείτε *note Format string syntax: 173f.


File: python.info,  Node: Χειροκίνητη Μορφοποίηση Συμβολοσειρών,  Next: Παλιά μορφοποίηση συμβολοσειράς,  Prev: Η μέθοδος String format,  Up: Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου

2.7.1.3 Χειροκίνητη Μορφοποίηση Συμβολοσειρών
.............................................

Ακολουθεί ο ίδιος πίνακας τετραγώνων και κύβων, μορφοποιημένος
χειροκίνητα:

     >>> for x in range(1, 11):
     ...     print(repr(x).rjust(2), repr(x*x).rjust(3), end=' ')
     ...     # Note use of 'end' on previous line
     ...     print(repr(x*x*x).rjust(4))
     ...
      1   1    1
      2   4    8
      3   9   27
      4  16   64
      5  25  125
      6  36  216
      7  49  343
      8  64  512
      9  81  729
     10 100 1000

(Σημειώστε ότι το ένα κενό μεταξύ κάθε στήλης προστέθηκε με τον τρόπο
που λειτουργεί το *note print(): 131f.: προσθέτει πάντα κενά μεταξύ των
ορισμάτων του.)

Η μέθοδος *note str.rjust(): 2250. των αντικειμένων συμβολοσειράς
τοποθετεί δεξιά μια συμβολοσειρά σε ένα πεδίο δεδομένου πλάτους
συμπληρώνοντας την με κενά στα αριστερά.  Υπάρχουν παρόμοιες μέθοδοι
*note str.ljust(): 2251. και *note str.center(): 2252.  Αυτές οι μέθοδοι
δεν γράφουν τίποτα, απλώς επιστρέφουν μια συμβολοσειρά.  Εάν η
συμβολοσειρά εισόδου είναι πολύ μεγάλη, δεν την περικόπτουν, αλλά την
επιστρέφουν αμετάβλητη· αυτό θα μπερδέψει τη διάταξη της στήλης σας,
αλλά αυτό είναι συνήθως καλύτερο από την εναλλακτική, που θα ήταν ψέματα
για μια τιμή.  (Αν θέλετε πραγματικά περικοπή, μπορείτε πάντα να
προσθέσετε μια λειτουργία slice, όπως στο ‘x.ljust(n)[:n]’.)

Υπάρχει μια άλλη μέθοδος, η *note str.zfill(): 1854, η οποία συμπληρώνει
μια αριθμητική συμβολοσειρά στα αριστερά με μηδενικά.  Καταλαβαίνει τα
σύμβολα συν και πλην:

     >>> '12'.zfill(5)
     '00012'
     >>> '-3.14'.zfill(7)
     '-003.14'
     >>> '3.14159265359'.zfill(5)
     '3.14159265359'


File: python.info,  Node: Παλιά μορφοποίηση συμβολοσειράς,  Prev: Χειροκίνητη Μορφοποίηση Συμβολοσειρών,  Up: Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου

2.7.1.4 Παλιά μορφοποίηση συμβολοσειράς
.......................................

Ο τελεστής % (modulo) μπορεί επίσης να χρησιμοποιηθεί για τη μορφοποίηση
συμβολοσειρών.  Δεδομένων των τιμών ‘format % values’ (όπου 'format'
είναι μια συμβολοσειρά), οι προδιαγραφές μετατροπής ‘%’ σε 'format'
αντικαθίστανται με μηδέν ή περισσότερα στοιχεία 'τιμών'.  Αυτή η
λειτουργία είναι κοινώς γνωστή ως παρεμβολή συμβολοσειρών.  Για
παράδειγμα:

     >>> import math
     >>> print('The value of pi is approximately %5.3f.' % math.pi)
     The value of pi is approximately 3.142.

Περισσότερες πληροφορίες μπορείτε να βρείτε στην ενότητα *note
printf-style String Formatting: ab9.


File: python.info,  Node: Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων,  Prev: Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου,  Up: Είσοδος και Έξοδος

2.7.2 Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων
----------------------------------

Η *note open(): 32b. επιστρέφει ένα *note file object: 156c, και
χρησιμοποιείται πιο συχνά με δύο ορίσματα θέσης και ένα όρισμα
λέξης-κλειδιού: ‘open(filename, mode, encoding=None)’

     >>> f = open('workfile', 'w', encoding="utf-8")

Το πρώτο όρισμα είναι μια συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει το όνομα αρχείου.
Το δεύτερο όρισμα είναι μια άλλη συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει μερικούς
χαρακτήρες που περιγράφουν τον τρόπο με τον οποίο θα χρησιμοποιηθεί το
αρχείο.  Η 'mode' μπορεί να είναι ‘'r'’ όταν το αρχείο θα είναι μόνο για
διάβασμα, ‘'w'’ μόνο για εγγραφή (ένα υπάρχον αρχείο με το ίδιο όνομα θα
διαγραφεί) και το ‘'a'’ ανοίγει το αρχείο για προσάρτηση· οποιαδήποτε
δεδομένα γράφονται στο αρχείο και προστίθενται αυτόματα στο τέλος.  Το
‘'r+'’ ανοίγει το αρχείο τόσο για ανάγνωση όσο και για γραφή.  Το όρισμα
'mode' είναι προαιρετικό· το ‘'r'’ θα θεωρείται εάν παραληφθεί.

Κανονικά, τα αρχεία ανοίγουν σε 'text mode', που σημαίνει ότι διαβάζετε
και γράφετε συμβολοσειρές από και προς το αρχείο, οι οποίες
κωδικοποιούνται σε μια συγκεκριμένη 'κωδικοποίηση'.  Εάν δεν έχει
καθοριστεί η 'κωδικοποιήση', η προεπιλογή είναι εξαρτώμενη από την
πλατφόρμα (δείτε *note open(): 32b.).  Επειδή το UTF-8 είναι το σύγχρονο
de-facto standard, ‘encoding="utf-8"’ συνίσταται εκτός εάν γνωρίζετε ότι
πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσετε διαφορετική κωδικοποίηση.  Η προσθήκη ενός
‘'b'’ στη λειτουργία ανοίγει το αρχείο σε 'binary mode'.  Τα δεδομένα
δυαδικής λειτουργίας διαβάζονται και γράφονται ως αντικείμενα *note
bytes: 1c7.  Δεν μπορείτε να καθορίσετε 'κωδικοποίηση' όταν ανοίγετε
αρχείο σε δυαδική λειτουργία.

Στη λειτουργία κειμένου, η προεπιλογή (default) κατά την ανάγνωση είναι
να μετατρέψετε τις καταλήξεις γραμμών για συγκεκριμένη πλατφόρμα (‘\n’
στο Unix, ‘\r\n’ στα Windows) σε μόνο ‘\n’.  Όταν γράφετε σε λειτουργία
κειμένου, η προεπιλογή είναι να μετατρέπονται οι εμφανίσεις ‘\n’ σε
καταλήξεις γραμμών για συγκεκριμένη πλατφόρμα.  Αυτή η παρασκηνιακή
τροποποίηση στα δεδομένα αρχείων είναι καλή για αρχεία κειμένου, αλλά θα
καταστρέψει δυαδικά δεδομένα όπως αυτό σε αρχεία ‘JPEG’ ή ‘EXE’.  Να
είστε πολύ προσεκτικοί να χρησιμοποιείτε τη δυαδική λειτουργία όταν
διαβάζετε και γράφετε τέτοια αρχεία.

Είναι καλή πρακτική να χρησιμοποιείτε το keyword *note with: 20a. όταν
ασχολούμαστε με αντικείμενα αρχείου.  Το πλεονέκτημα είναι ότι το αρχείο
κλείνει σωστά μετά την ολοκλήρωση της εκτέλεσής του, ακόμα κι αν κάποια
στιγμή προκύψει εξαίρεση.  Χρησιμοποιώντας το ‘with’ είναι επίσης πολύ
πιο σύντομο από την σύνταξη ισοδύναμου *note try: ad6.-*note finally:
44c. blocks:

     >>> with open('workfile', encoding="utf-8") as f:
     ...     read_data = f.read()

     >>> # We can check that the file has been automatically closed.
     >>> f.closed
     True

Εάν δεν χρησιμοποιείτε τη keyword *note with: 20a, τότε θα πρέπει να
καλείτε τη ‘f.close()’ για να κλείσετε το αρχείο και να ελευθερώσετε
αμέσως τυχόν πόρους συστήματος που χρησιμοποιούνται από αυτό.

     Προειδοποίηση: Η κλήση του ‘f.write()’ χωρίς τη χρήση της keyword
     ‘with’ ή η κλήση του ‘f.close()’ 'μπορεί' να οδηγήσει στα ορίσματα
     του ‘f.write()’ να μην εγγραφεί πλήρως στο δίσκο, ακόμα και αν το
     πρόγραμμα εξέλθει με επιτυχία.

Μετά το κλείσιμο ενός αντικειμένου αρχείου, είτε μια δήλωση *note with:
20a. είτε καλώντας ‘f.close()’, οι προσπάθειες χρήσης του αντικειμένου
αρχείου θα αποτύχουν αυτόματα.

     >>> f.close()
     >>> f.read()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: I/O operation on closed file.

* Menu:

* Μέθοδοι Αντικειμένων Αρχείων::
* Αποθήκευση δομημένων δεδομένων με json::


File: python.info,  Node: Μέθοδοι Αντικειμένων Αρχείων,  Next: Αποθήκευση δομημένων δεδομένων με json,  Up: Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων

2.7.2.1 Μέθοδοι Αντικειμένων Αρχείων
....................................

Τα υπόλοιπα παραδείγματα σε αυτήν την ενότητα θα υποθέσουν ότι ένα
αντικείμενο αρχείου που ονομάζεται ‘f’ έχει ήδη δημιουργηθεί.

Για να διαβάσετε τα περιεχόμενα ενός αρχείου, καλέστε το ‘f.read(size)’,
το οποίο διαβάζει κάποια ποσότητα δεδομένων και την επιστρέφει ως
συμβολοσειρά (σε λειτουργία κειμένου) ή ως αντικείμενο bytes (σε δυαδική
λειτουργία).  Το 'size' είναι προαιρετικό αριθμητικό όρισμα.  Όταν το
'size' παραλείπεται ή είναι αρνητικό, ολόκληρο το περιεχόμενο του
αρχείου θα διαβαστεί και θα επιστραφεί∙ είναι δικό σας πρόβλημα εάν το
αρχείο είναι διπλάσιο από τη μνήμη του υπολογιστή σας.  Διαφορετικά,
διαβάζονται και επιστρέφονται το πολύ 'size' χαρακτήρες (σε λειτουργία
κειμένου) ή byte 'size' (σε δυαδική λειτουργία).  Εάν έχει φτάσει το
τέλος του αρχείου, το ‘f.read()’ θα επιστρέψει μια κενή συμβολοσειρά
(‘''’).

     >>> f.read()
     'This is the entire file.\n'
     >>> f.read()
     ''

Το ‘f.readline()’ διαβάζει μία γραμμή από το αρχείο· ένας χαρακτήρας
νέας γραμμής (‘\n’) παραμένει στο τέλος της συμβολοσειράς, και
παραλείπεται μόνο στην τελευταία γραμμή του αρχείου εάν το αρχείο δεν
τελειώνει σε μια νέα γραμμή.  Αυτό καθιστά την τιμή επιστροφής σαφή· εάν
το ‘f.readline()’ επιστρέφει μια κενή συμβολοσειρά, έχει φτάσει στο
τέλος του αρχείου, ενώ μια κενή γραμμή αντιπροσωπεύεται από ‘'\n'’, μια
συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει μόνο μία νέα γραμμή.

     >>> f.readline()
     'This is the first line of the file.\n'
     >>> f.readline()
     'Second line of the file\n'
     >>> f.readline()
     ''

Για την ανάγνωση γραμμών από ένα αρχείο, μπορείτε να κάνετε loop πάνω
από το αντικείμενο του αρχείου.  Αυτό είναι αποδοτικό στη μνήμη, γρήγορο
και οδηγεί σε απλό κώδικα:

     >>> for line in f:
     ...     print(line, end='')
     ...
     This is the first line of the file.
     Second line of the file

Εάν θέλετε να διαβάσετε όλες τις γραμμές ενός αρχείου σε μια λίστα,
μπορείτε επίσης να χρησιμοποιήσετε το ‘list(f)’ ή ‘f.readlines()’.

Το ‘f.write(string)’ γράφει τα περιεχόμενα του 'string' στο αρχείο,
επιστρέφοντας τον αριθμό των χαρακτήρων που γράφτηκαν.

     >>> f.write('This is a test\n')
     15

Άλλοι τύποι αντικειμένων πρέπει να μετατραπούν – είτε σε μια
συμβολοσειρά (σε λειτουργία κειμένου) ή σε ένα αντικείμενο bytes (σε
δυαδική λειτουργία) – πριν τα γράψετε:

     >>> value = ('the answer', 42)
     >>> s = str(value)  # convert the tuple to string
     >>> f.write(s)
     18

Το ‘f.tell()’ επιστρέφει έναν ακέραιο που δίνει την τρέχουσα θέση του
αντικειμένου αρχείου στο αρχείο που αντιπροσωπεύεται ως αριθμό byte από
την αρχή του αρχείου όταν βρίσκεται σε δυαδική λειτουργία και έναν
αδιαφανή αριθμό όταν βρίσκεται σε λειτουργία κειμένου.

Για να αλλάξετε τη θέση του αντικειμένου, χρησιμοποιήστε το
‘f.seek(offset, whence)’.  Η θέση υπολογίζεται από την προσθήκη 'offset'
σε ένα σημείο αναφοράς· το σημείο αναφοράς επιλέγεται από το όρισμα
'whence'.  Μια 0 τιμή 'whence' μετρά από την αρχή του αρχείο το 1
χρησιμοποιεί την τρέχουσα θέση αρχείου και το 2 χρησιμοποιεί το τέλος
του αρχείου ως σημείο αναφοράς.  Το 'whence' μπορεί να παραληφθεί και να
οριστεί από προεπιλογή 0, χρησιμοποιώντας την αρχή του αρχείου ως σημείο
αναφοράς.

     >>> f = open('workfile', 'rb+')
     >>> f.write(b'0123456789abcdef')
     16
     >>> f.seek(5)      # Go to the 6th byte in the file
     5
     >>> f.read(1)
     b'5'
     >>> f.seek(-3, 2)  # Go to the 3rd byte before the end
     13
     >>> f.read(1)
     b'd'

Σε αρχεία κειμένου (αυτά που ανοίγουν χωρίς ‘b’ στη λειτουργία string),
επιτρέπονται μόνο αναζητήσεις σε σχέση με την αρχή του αρχείου (η
εξαίρεση είναι η αναζήτηση μέχρι το ίδιο το αρχείο που τελειώνει με
‘seek(0, 2)’) και οι μόνες έγκυρες τιμές 'offset' είναι αυτές που
επιστρέφονται από το ‘f.tell()’, ή μηδέν.  Οποιαδήποτε άλλη τιμή
'offset' παράγει απροσδιόριστη συμπεριφορά.

Τα αντικείμενα αρχείου έχουν ορισμένες πρόσθετες μεθόδους, όπως *note
isatty(): 2258. και *note truncate(): 16b5. που χρησιμοποιούνται
λιγότερο συχνά· συμβουλευτείτε την Αναφορά της Βιβλιοθήκης για έναν
πλήρη οδηγό για τα αντικείμενα αρχείων.


File: python.info,  Node: Αποθήκευση δομημένων δεδομένων με json,  Prev: Μέθοδοι Αντικειμένων Αρχείων,  Up: Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων

2.7.2.2 Αποθήκευση δομημένων δεδομένων με ‘json’
................................................

Οι συμβολοσειρές μπορούν εύκολα να γραφούν και να διαβαστούν από ένα
αρχείο.  Οι αριθμοί απαιτούν λίγο περισσότερη προσπάθεια, καθώς η
μέθοδος *note read(): 225b. επιστρέφει μόνο συμβολοσειρές, οι οποίες θα
πρέπει να περάσουν μια συνάρτηση όπως *note int(): 326, που παίρνει μια
συμβολοσειρά όπως ‘'123'’ και επιστρέφει την αριθμητική της τιμή 123.
Όταν θέλετε να αποθηκεύσετε πιο σύνθετους τύπους δεδομένων, όπως ένθετε
λίστες και λεξικά, η ανάλυση και η σειριοποίηση με το χέρι γίνεται
περίπλοκη.

Αντί να χρειάζεται οι χρήστες να γράφουν και να διορθώνουν συνεχώς
κώδικα για να αποθηκεύουν πολύπλοκους τύπους δεδομένων σε αρχεία, η
Python σας επιτρέπει να χρησιμοποιείτε τη δημοφιλή μορφή ανταλλαγής
δεδομένων που ονομάζεται JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)(1).  Το
standard module που ονομάζεται *note json: 85. μπορεί να λάβει ιεραρχίες
δεδομένων Python, και να τις μετατρέψει σε αναπαραστάσεις συμβολοσειρών·
αυτή η διαδικασία ονομάζεται 'serializing'..  Η ανασύνθεση των δεδομένων
από την αναπαράσταση συμβολοσειράς ονομάζεται 'deserializing'.  Μεταξύ
σειριοποίησης και αποσειριοποίησης, η συμβολοσειρά που αντιπροσωπεύει το
αντικείμενο μπορεί να έχει αποθηκευτεί σε ένα αρχείο ή δεδομένα ή να
έχει σταλεί μέσω μιας σύνδεσης δικτύου σε κάποιο απομακρυσμένο μηχάνημα.

     Σημείωση: Η μορφή JSON χρησιμοποιείται συνήθως από σύγχρονες
     εφαρμογές για να επιτρέπει την ανταλλαγή δεδομένων.  Πολλοί
     προγραμματιστές είναι ήδη εξοικειωμένοι με αυτήν, γεγονός που την
     καθιστά καλή επιλογή για διαλειτουργικότητα.

Εάν έχετε ένα αντικείμενο ‘x’, μπορείτε να δείτε την αναπαράσταση
συμβολοσειράς JSON με μια απλή γραμμή κώδικα:

     >>> import json
     >>> x = [1, 'simple', 'list']
     >>> json.dumps(x)
     '[1, "simple", "list"]'

Μια άλλη παραλλαγή της συνάρτησης *note dumps(): 248, που ονομάζεται
*note dump(): 10fb, απλώς σειριοποιεί το αντικείμενο σε ένα *note text
file: 225c.  Έτσι, εάν το ‘f’ είναι ένα αντικείμενο text file που
ανοίγει για εγγραφή, μπορούμε να κάνουμε αυτό:

     json.dump(x, f)

Για να αποκωδικοποιήσετε ξανά το αντικείμενο, εάν το ‘f’ είναι ένα
αντικείμενο *note binary file: 225d. ή *note text file: 225c. που έχει
ανοίξει για ανάγνωση:

     x = json.load(f)

     Σημείωση: Τα αρχεία JSON πρέπει να είναι κωδικοποιημένα σε UTF-8.
     Χρησιμοποιήστε το ‘encoding="utf-8"’ όταν ανοίγετε το αρχείο JSON
     ως *note text file: 225c. τόσο για ανάγνωση όσο και για εγγραφή.

Αυτή η απλή τεχνική σειριοποίησης μπορεί να χειριστεί λίστες και λεξικά,
άλλα η σειριοποίηση αυθαίρετων στιγμιοτύπων κλάσεων σε JSON απαιτεί λίγη
επιπλέον προσπάθεια.  Η αναφορά για το module *note json: 85. περιέχει
μια εξήγηση για αυτό.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note pickle: ab. - το pickle module

Σε αντίθεση με το *note JSON: 225a, το 'pickle' είναι ένα πρωτόκολλο που
επιτρέπει τη σειριοποίηση αυθαίρετα πολύπλοκων αντικειμένων Python.  Ως
εκ τούτου, είναι συγκεκριμένο για την Python και δεν μπορεί να
χρησιμοποιηθεί για επικοινωνία με εφαρμογές γραμμένες σε άλλες γλώσσες.
Είναι επίσης ανασφαλές από προεπιλογή: η αποσειριοποίηση pickle
δεδομένων που προέρχονται από μια μη αξιόπιστη πηγή μπορεί να εκτελέσει
αυθαίρετο κώδικα, εάν τα δεδομένα έχουν δημιουργηθεί από έναν έμπειρο
εισβολέα.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://json.org


File: python.info,  Node: Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις,  Next: Κλάσεις,  Prev: Είσοδος και Έξοδος,  Up: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python

2.8 Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις
===========================

Μέχρι τώρα τα μηνύματα σφαλμάτων (error messages) δεν ήταν περισσότερα
από όσα αναφέρθηκαν, αλλά αν έχετε δοκιμάσει τα παραδείγματα, πιθανότατα
έχετε δει μερικά.  Υπάρχουν (τουλάχιστον) δύο διαφορετικά είδη
σφαλμάτων: 'syntax errors' (συντακτικά σφάλματα) και 'exceptions'
(εξαιρέσεις).

* Menu:

* Syntax Errors (Συντακτικά Σφάλματα): Syntax Errors Συντακτικά Σφάλματα.
* Exceptions (Εξαιρέσεις): Exceptions Εξαιρέσεις.
* Διαχείριση Εξαιρέσεων::
* Raising Εξαιρέσεων::
* Αλυσιδωτές Εξαιρέσεις::
* Εξαιρέσεις που καθορίζονται από το χρήστη::
* Καθορισμός ενεργειών καθαρισμού::
* Προκαθορισμένες ενέργειες καθαρισμού::
* Raising και Χειρισμός Πολλαπλών Άσχετων Εξαιρέσεων::
* Εμπλουτίζοντας τις Εξαιρέσεις με Σημειώσεις::


File: python.info,  Node: Syntax Errors Συντακτικά Σφάλματα,  Next: Exceptions Εξαιρέσεις,  Up: Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις

2.8.1 Syntax Errors (Συντακτικά Σφάλματα)
-----------------------------------------

Τα syntax errors, γνωστά και ως parsing errors, είναι ίσως το πιο
συνηθισμένο είδος παραπόνου που λαμβάνετε ενώ εξακολουθείτε να μαθαίνετε
Python:

     >>> while True print('Hello world')
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         while True print('Hello world')
                    ^^^^^
     SyntaxError: invalid syntax

Ο αναλυτής επαναλαμβάνει την παραβατική γραμμή και εμφανίζει μικρά βέλη
που δείχνουν προς το μέρος όπου που εντοπίστηκε το σφάλμα.  Σημειώστε
ότι αυτό δεν είναι πάντα το μέρος που πρέπει να διορθωθεί.  Στο
παράδειγμα, το σφάλμα εντοπίζεται στη συνάρτηση *note print(): 131f,
καθώς λείπει μια άνω και κάτω τελεία (‘':'’) ακριβώς πριν από αυτήν.

Το όνομα αρχείου (‘<stdin>’ στο παράδειγμά μας) και ο αριθμός γραμμής
εκτυπώνονται, ώστε να να γνωρίζετε πού να ψάξετε σε περίπτωση που η
είσοδος προήλθε από αρχείο.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions Εξαιρέσεις,  Next: Διαχείριση Εξαιρέσεων,  Prev: Syntax Errors Συντακτικά Σφάλματα,  Up: Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις

2.8.2 Exceptions (Εξαιρέσεις)
-----------------------------

Ακόμη και αν μια πρόταση ή μια έκφραση είναι συντακτικά σωστή, μπορεί να
προκαλέσει σφάλμα όταν γίνεται προσπάθεια εκτέλεσης της.  Τα σφάλματα
που εντοπίζονται κατά την εκτέλεση ονομάζονται 'εξαιρέσεις' και δεν
είναι άνευ όρων μοιραία (fatal): σύντομα θα μάθετε πως να τα χειρίζεστε
σε προγράμματα Python.  Ωστόσο, οι περισσότερες εξαιρέσεις δεν
αντιμετωπίζονται από προγράμματα και οδηγούν σε μηνύματα σφάλματος όπως
φαίνεται εδώ:

     >>> 10 * (1/0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         10 * (1/0)
               ~^~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> 4 + spam*3
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         4 + spam*3
             ^^^^
     NameError: name 'spam' is not defined
     >>> '2' + 2
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         '2' + 2
         ~~~~^~~
     TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "int") to str

Η τελευταία γραμμή του μηνύματος σφάλματος υποδεικνύει τι συνέβη.  Οι
εξαιρέσεις υπάρχουν σε διαφορετικούς τύπους και ο τύπος εκτυπώνεται ως
μέρος του μηνύματος: οι τύποι στο παράδειγμα είναι *note
ZeroDivisionError: d11, *note NameError: 665. και *note TypeError: 291.
Η συμβολοσειρά που εκτυπώνεται ως τύπος εξαίρεσης είναι όνομα της
ενσωματωμένης εξαίρεσης που προέκυψε.  Αυτό ισχύει για όλες τις
ενσωματωμένες (built-in) εξαιρέσεις, αλλά δεν χρειάζεται να ισχύει για
εξαιρέσεις που ορίζονται από το χρήστη (αν και είναι μια χρήσιμη
σύμβαση).  Οι standard εξαιρέσεις είναι ενσωματωμένα (built-in)
αναγνωριστικά (όχι δεσμευμένες λέξεις-κλειδιά).

Η υπόλοιπη γραμμή παρέχει λεπτομέρειες με βάση τον τύπο της εξαίρεσης
και το τι την προκάλεσε.

Το προηγούμενο μέρος του μηνύματος σφάλματος εμφανίζει το περιβάλλον
όπου συνέβη η εξαίρεση, με τη μορφή ανίχνευσης στοίβας.  Γενικά περιέχει
μια στοίβα ανίχνευσης γραμμών πηγής∙ ωστόσο, δεν θα εμφανίζει γραμμές
που διαβάζονται από standard είσοδο.

Το *note Built-in Exceptions: 1e1e. παραθέτει τις ενσωματωμένες
εξαιρέσεις και τις έννοιές τους.


File: python.info,  Node: Διαχείριση Εξαιρέσεων,  Next: Raising Εξαιρέσεων,  Prev: Exceptions Εξαιρέσεις,  Up: Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις

2.8.3 Διαχείριση Εξαιρέσεων
---------------------------

Είναι δυνατό να γραφτεί κώδικας που χειρίζεται επιλεγμένες εξαιρέσεις.
Κοιτάξτε το ακόλουθο παράδειγμα, το οποίο ζητά από τον χρήστη να εισάγει
έναν έγκυρο ακέραιο αριθμό, αλλά επιτρέπει στον χρήστη να διακόψει το
πρόγραμμα (χρησιμοποιώντας ‘Control’-‘C’ ή ό,τι υποστηρίζει το
λειτουργικό σύστημα)· σημειώστε ότι μια διακοπή που δημιουργείται από
τον χρήστη σηματοδοτείται κάνοντας raise την εξαίρεση *note
KeyboardInterrupt: d96.

     >>> while True:
     ...     try:
     ...         x = int(input("Please enter a number: "))
     ...         break
     ...     except ValueError:
     ...         print("Oops!  That was no valid number.  Try again...")
     ...

Η δήλωση *note try: ad6. λειτουργεί ως εξής.

   * Πρώτον, εκτελείται η 'try clause' (η πρόταση(εις) μεταξύ των
     λέξεων-κλειδιών *note try: ad6. and *note except: 447.).

   * Εάν δεν προκύψει εξαίρεση, η 'except clause' παραλείπεται και η
     εκτέλεση της πρότασης *note try: ad6. ολοκληρώνεται.

   * Εάν παρουσιαστεί μια εξαίρεση κατά την εκτέλεση της πρότασης *note
     try: ad6, η υπόλοιπη πρόταση παραλείπεται.  Στη συνέχεια, εάν ο
     τύπος της ταιριάζει με την εξαίρεση που ονομάζεται από τη
     λέξη-κλειδί *note except: 447, η 'except clause' εκτελείται, και
     στη συνέχεια η εκτέλεση συνεχίζεται μετά το μπλοκ try/except.

   * Εάν προκύψει μια εξαίρεση που δεν ταιριάζει με την εξαίρεση που
     αναφέρεται στην 'except clause', μεταβιβάζεται σε εξωτερικές
     εντολές *note try: ad6. · εάν δεν βρεθεί κανένας χειριστής, είναι
     μια 'unhandled exception' και η εκτέλεση σταματά με μήνυμα
     σφάλματος.

A *note try: ad6. statement may have more than one 'except clause', to
specify handlers for different exceptions.  At most one handler will be
executed.  Handlers only handle exceptions that occur in the
corresponding 'try clause', not in other handlers of the same ‘try’
statement.  An 'except clause' may name multiple exceptions, for
example:

     ... except RuntimeError, TypeError, NameError:
     ...     pass

Μια κλάση σε μια πρόταση *note except: 447. ταιριάζει με εξαιρέσεις που
είναι στιγμιότυπα της ίδιας της κλάσης ή μιας από τις παραγόμενες
κλάσεις της (αλλά όχι το αντίστροφο — μια 'except clause' που παραθέτει
μια παράγωγη κλάση δεν ταιριάζει με τις παρουσίες των βασικών της
κλάσεων).  Για παράδειγμα, ο ακόλουθος κώδικας θα εκτυπώσει τα B, C, D
με αυτή τη σειρά:

     class B(Exception):
         pass

     class C(B):
         pass

     class D(C):
         pass

     for cls in [B, C, D]:
         try:
             raise cls()
         except D:
             print("D")
         except C:
             print("C")
         except B:
             print("B")

Σημειώστε ότι εάν οι 'except clauses' είχαν αντιστραφεί (με το ‘except
B’ πρώτα), θα είχε εκτυπωθεί B, B, B — ενεργοποιείται η πρώτη
αντιστοίχιση 'except clause'.

Όταν προκύπτει μια εξαίρεση, μπορεί να έχει συσχετισμένες τιμές, γνωστές
και ως 'ορίσματα' της εξαίρεσης.  Η παρουσία και οι τύποι των ορισμάτων
εξαρτώνται από τον τύπο εξαίρεσης.

Το 'except clause' μπορεί να καθορίσει μια μεταβλητή μετά το όνομα της
εξαίρεσης.  Η μεταβλητή συνδέεται με το στιγμιότυπο της εξαίρεσης η
οποία συνήθως έχει ένα χαρακτηριστικό ‘args’ που αποθηκεύει τα ορίσματα.
Για ευκολία, οι ενσωματωμένοι (builtin) τύποι εξαίρεσης ορίζουν *note
__str__(): a0f. για να εκτυπώσετε όλα τα ορίσματα χωρίς ρητή πρόσβαση
στο ‘.args’.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise Exception('spam', 'eggs')
     ... except Exception as inst:
     ...     print(type(inst))    # the exception type
     ...     print(inst.args)     # arguments stored in .args
     ...     print(inst)          # __str__ allows args to be printed directly,
     ...                          # but may be overridden in exception subclasses
     ...     x, y = inst.args     # unpack args
     ...     print('x =', x)
     ...     print('y =', y)
     ...
     <class 'Exception'>
     ('spam', 'eggs')
     ('spam', 'eggs')
     x = spam
     y = eggs

Η έξοδος της εξαίρεσης *note __str__(): a0f. εκτυπώνεται ως το τελευταίο
μέρος (“λεπτομέρεια”) του μηνύματος για μη χειριζόμενες εξαιρέσεις.

Η *note BaseException: 9b9. είναι η κοινή βασική κλάση όλων των
εξαιρέσεων.  Μια από τις υποκατηγορίες της, *note Exception: d9e, είναι
η βασική κλάση όλων των μη μοιραίων εξαιρέσεων.  Εξαιρέσεις που δεν
είναι υποκλάσεις του ‘Exception’ δεν αντιμετωπίζονται συνήθως, επειδή
χρησιμοποιούνται για να υποδείξουν ότι το πρόγραμμα πρέπει να
τερματιστεί.  Περιλαμβάνουν το *note SystemExit: 10f7. το οποίο
αυξάνεται από το *note sys.exit(): 4ff. και το *note KeyboardInterrupt:
d96. το οποίο γίνεται raise όταν ο χρήστης επιθυμεί να διακόψει την
εκτέλεση του προγράμματος.

Η *note Exception: d9e. μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ως μπαλαντέρ που πιάνει
(σχεδόν) τα πάντα.  Ωστόσο, είναι καλή πρακτική να είμαστε όσο το
δυνατόν πιο συγκεκριμένοι με τους τύπους εξαιρέσεων που σκοπεύουμε να
χειριστούμε και να επιτρέπουμε τυχόν απροσδόκητες εξαιρέσεις που
εξαπλώνονται.

Το πιο κοινό μοτίβο για το χειρισμό *note Exception: d9e. είναι να
εκτυπώσετε ή να καταγράψετε την εξαίρεση και στη συνέχεια να την
επαναφέρετε (επιτρέποντας σε έναν καλούντα να χειριστεί και την
εξαίρεση):

     import sys

     try:
         f = open('myfile.txt')
         s = f.readline()
         i = int(s.strip())
     except OSError as err:
         print("OS error:", err)
     except ValueError:
         print("Could not convert data to an integer.")
     except Exception as err:
         print(f"Unexpected {err=}, {type(err)=}")
         raise

Η πρόταση *note try: ad6. … *note except: 447. έχει ένα προαιρετικό
'else clause', το οποίο, όταν υπάρχει, πρέπει να ακολουθεί όλες τις
'except clauses'.  Είναι χρήσιμο για κώδικα που πρέπει να εκτελεστεί εάν
το 'try clause' δεν κάνει raise μια εξαίρεση.  Για παράδειγμα:

     for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
         try:
             f = open(arg, 'r')
         except OSError:
             print('cannot open', arg)
         else:
             print(arg, 'has', len(f.readlines()), 'lines')
             f.close()

Η χρήση της πρότασης ‘else’ είναι καλύτερη από την προσθήκη πρόσθετου
κώδικα στην πρόταση *note try: ad6, επειδή αποφεύγει την κατά λάθος
σύλληψη μιας εξαίρεσης που δεν προέκυψε από τον κώδικα που προστατεύεται
από την πρόταση ‘try’ … ‘except’.

Οι χειριστές εξαιρέσεων δεν χειρίζονται μόνο τις εξαιρέσεις που
εμφανίζονται αμέσως στη 'try clause', αλλά και εκείνες που εμφανίζονται
μέσα σε συναρτήσεις που καλούνται (ακόμη και έμμεσα) στην 'try clause'.
Για παράδειγμα:

     >>> def this_fails():
     ...     x = 1/0
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     this_fails()
     ... except ZeroDivisionError as err:
     ...     print('Handling run-time error:', err)
     ...
     Handling run-time error: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: Raising Εξαιρέσεων,  Next: Αλυσιδωτές Εξαιρέσεις,  Prev: Διαχείριση Εξαιρέσεων,  Up: Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις

2.8.4 Raising Εξαιρέσεων
------------------------

Η δήλωση *note raise: 9e4. επιτρέπει στον προγραμματιστή να αναγκάσει να
εμφανιστεί μια καθορισμένη εξαίρεση.  Για παράδειγμα:

     >>> raise NameError('HiThere')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         raise NameError('HiThere')
     NameError: HiThere

Το μοναδικό όρισμα στο *note raise: 9e4. υποδεικνύει την εξαίρεση που
πρέπει να γίνει raise.  Αυτή πρέπει να είναι είτε μια παρουσία εξαίρεσης
ή μια εξαίρεση κλάση (μια κλάση που προέρχεται από *note BaseException:
9b9, όπως *note Exception: d9e. ή μία από τις υποκλάσεις της).  Εάν
περάσει μια κλάση εξαίρεσης, θα δημιουργηθεί σιωπηρά καλώντας τον
constructor της χωρίς ορίσματα:

     κάνει raise ένα ValueError # συντομογραφία για το 'raise ValueError()'

Εάν πρέπει να προσδιορίσετε εάν έχει εγγραφεί μια εξαίρεση, αλλά δεν
σκοπεύετε να τη χειριστείτε, μια απλούστερη μορφή της δήλωσης *note
raise: 9e4. σας επιτρέπει να κάνετε ξανά raise την εξαίρεση:

     >>> try:
     ...     raise NameError('HiThere')
     ... except NameError:
     ...     print('An exception flew by!')
     ...     raise
     ...
     An exception flew by!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         raise NameError('HiThere')
     NameError: HiThere


File: python.info,  Node: Αλυσιδωτές Εξαιρέσεις,  Next: Εξαιρέσεις που καθορίζονται από το χρήστη,  Prev: Raising Εξαιρέσεων,  Up: Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις

2.8.5 Αλυσιδωτές Εξαιρέσεις
---------------------------

Εάν παρουσιαστεί μια μη χειριζόμενη (unhandled) εξαίρεση μέσα σε μια
ενότητα *note except: 447, θα επισυνάψει την εξαίρεση που θα χειριστεί
και θα συμπεριληφθεί στο μήνυμα σφάλματος:

     >>> try:
     ...     open("database.sqlite")
     ... except OSError:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("unable to handle error")
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         open("database.sqlite")
         ~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     FileNotFoundError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory: 'database.sqlite'

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError("unable to handle error")
     RuntimeError: unable to handle error

Για να υποδείξετε ότι μια εξαίρεση είναι άμεση συνέπεια μιας άλλης, η
πρόταση *note raise: 9e4. επιτρέπει μια προαιρετική πρόταση ‘from’:

     # Το exc πρέπει να είναι παράδειγμα εξαίρεσης ή None.
     κάνει raise το RuntimeError από exc

Αυτό μπορεί να είναι χρήσιμο όταν μετασχηματίζεται εξαιρέσεις.  Για
παράδειγμα:

     >>> def func():
     ...     raise ConnectionError
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     func()
     ... except ConnectionError as exc:
     ...     raise RuntimeError('Failed to open database') from exc
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         func()
         ~~~~^^
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in func
     ConnectionError

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError('Failed to open database') from exc
     RuntimeError: Failed to open database

Επιτρέπει επίσης την απενεργοποίηση της αυτόματης αλυσίδας εξαιρέσεων
χρησιμοποιώντας ‘from None’ idiom:

     >>> try:
     ...     open('database.sqlite')
     ... except OSError:
     ...     raise RuntimeError from None
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError from None
     RuntimeError

Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες σχετικά με την μηχανική αλυσίδων, δείτε
*note Built-in Exceptions: 1e1e.


File: python.info,  Node: Εξαιρέσεις που καθορίζονται από το χρήστη,  Next: Καθορισμός ενεργειών καθαρισμού,  Prev: Αλυσιδωτές Εξαιρέσεις,  Up: Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις

2.8.6 Εξαιρέσεις που καθορίζονται από το χρήστη
-----------------------------------------------

Τα προγράμματα μπορούν να ονομάσουν τις δικές τους εξαιρέσεις
δημιουργώντας μια νέα κλάση εξαιρέσεων (δείτε *note Κλάσεις: 21ef. για
περισσότερα σχετικά με τις κλάσεις Python).  Οι εξαιρέσεις θα πρέπει
συνήθως να προέρχονται από την κλάση *note Exception: d9e, είτε άμεσα
είτε έμμεσα.

Μπορούν να οριστούν κλάσεις εξαίρεσης που κάνουν οτιδήποτε μπορεί να
κάνει οποιαδήποτε άλλη κλάση, αλλά συνήθως διατηρούνται απλές, συχνά
προσφέρουν μόνο έναν αριθμό χαρακτηριστικών που επιτρέπουν την εξαγωγή
πληροφοριών σχετικά με το σφάλμα από τους χειριστές για την εξαίρεση.

Οι περισσότερες εξαιρέσεις ορίζονται με ονόματα που τελειώνουν σε
«Error», παρόμοια με την ονομασία των τυπικών εξαιρέσεων.

Πολλά standard modules ορίζουν τις δικές τους εξαιρέσεις για την αναφορά
σφαλμάτων που μπορεί να προκύψουν σε συναρτήσεις που ορίζουν.


File: python.info,  Node: Καθορισμός ενεργειών καθαρισμού,  Next: Προκαθορισμένες ενέργειες καθαρισμού,  Prev: Εξαιρέσεις που καθορίζονται από το χρήστη,  Up: Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις

2.8.7 Καθορισμός ενεργειών καθαρισμού
-------------------------------------

Η δήλωση *note try: ad6. έχει μια άλλη προαιρετική πρόταση που
προορίζεται να ορίσει ενέργειες καθαρισμού που πρέπει να εκτελεστούν υπό
οποιεσδήποτε συνθήκες.  Για παράδειγμα:

     >>> try:
     ...     raise KeyboardInterrupt
     ... finally:
     ...     print('Goodbye, world!')
     ...
     Goodbye, world!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         raise KeyboardInterrupt
     KeyboardInterrupt

Εάν υπάρχει μια πρόταση *note finally: 44c, η πρόταση ‘finally’ θα
εκτελεστεί ως η τελευταία εργασία πριν από την ολοκλήρωση της πρότασης
*note try: ad6.  Η πρόταση ‘finally’ εκτελείται είτε όχι η πρόταση ‘try’
παράγει μια εξαίρεση.  Τα ακόλουθα σημεία συζητούν πιο περίπλοκες
περιπτώσεις όταν εμφανίζεται μια εξαίρεση:

   * Εάν παρουσιαστεί μια εξαίρεση κατά την εκτέλεση της πρότασης ‘try’,
     η εξαίρεση μπορεί να αντιμετωπιστεί από μια πρόταση *note except:
     447, Εάν η εξαίρεση δεν αντιμετωπίζεται από μια πρόταση ‘except’, η
     εξαίρεση γίνεται ξανά raise μετά την εκτέλεση της πρότασης
     ‘finally’.

   * Μια εξαίρεση θα μπορούσε να προκύψει κατά την εκτέλεση μιας
     πρότασης ‘except’ ή ‘else’.  Και πάλι, η εξαίρεση τίθεται ξανά μετά
     την εκτέλεση της πρότασης ‘finally’.

   * Εάν η πρόταση ‘finally’ εκτελέσει μια πρόταση *note break: 428,
     *note continue: 429. ή *note return: 44b, οι εξαιρέσεις δεν
     γίνονται raise εκ νέου.  Αυτό μπορεί να προκαλέσει σύγχυση και ως
     εκ τούτου αποθαρρύνεται.  Από την έκδοση 3.14, ο μεταγλωττιστής
     εκπέμπει μια *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. για αυτό (δείτε PEP 765(1)).

   * Εάν η πρόταση ‘try’ φτάσει σε μια δήλωση *note break: 428, *note
     continue: 429. ή *note return: 44b, η πρόταση ‘finally’ θα
     εκτελεστεί ακριβώς πριν από τα ‘break’, ‘continue’ or ‘return’ της
     εκτέλεσης της δήλωσης.

   * Εάν μια πρόταση ‘finally’ περιλαμβάνει μια δήλωση ‘return’, η τιμή
     που επιστρέφεται θα είναι αυτή από την πρόταση ‘finally’ της
     δήλωσης της ‘return’, και όχι η τιμή από τη δήλωση ‘try’ της
     πρότασης ‘return’.  Αυτό μπορεί να προκαλέσει σύγχυση και επομένως
     αποθαρρύνεται.  Από την έκδοση 3.14, ο μεταγλωττιστής εκπέμπει ένα
     *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. για αυτό (δείτε PEP 765(2)).

Για παράδειγμα:

     >>> def bool_return():
     ...     try:
     ...         return True
     ...     finally:
     ...         return False
     ...
     >>> bool_return()
     False

Ένα πιο περίπλοκο παράδειγμα:

     >>> def divide(x, y):
     ...     try:
     ...         result = x / y
     ...     except ZeroDivisionError:
     ...         print("division by zero!")
     ...     else:
     ...         print("result is", result)
     ...     finally:
     ...         print("executing finally clause")
     ...
     >>> divide(2, 1)
     result is 2.0
     executing finally clause
     >>> divide(2, 0)
     division by zero!
     executing finally clause
     >>> divide("2", "1")
     executing finally clause
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         divide("2", "1")
         ~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^
       File "<stdin>", line 3, in divide
         result = x / y
                  ~~^~~
     TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'str' and 'str'

Όπως μπορείτε να δείτε, η πρόταση *note finally: 44c. εκτελείται σε
οποιαδήποτε περίπτωση.  Το *note TypeError: 291. που δημιουργείται με τη
διαίρεση δύο συμβολοσειρών δεν χειρίζεται από την πρόταση *note except:
447. και επομένως γίνεται ξανά raise μετά την εκτέλεση του όρου
‘finally’.

Στις εφαρμογές του πραγματικού κόσμου, η πρόταση *note finally: 44c.
είναι χρήσιμη για την απελευθέρωση εξωτερικών πόρων (όπως αρχεία ή
συνδέσεις δικτύου), ανεξάρτητα από το εάν η χρήση του πόρου ήταν
επιτυχής.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0765/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0765/


File: python.info,  Node: Προκαθορισμένες ενέργειες καθαρισμού,  Next: Raising και Χειρισμός Πολλαπλών Άσχετων Εξαιρέσεων,  Prev: Καθορισμός ενεργειών καθαρισμού,  Up: Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις

2.8.8 Προκαθορισμένες ενέργειες καθαρισμού
------------------------------------------

Μερικά αντικείμενα ορίζουν τις τυπικές ενέργειες καθαρισμού που πρέπει
να αναλαμβάνονται όταν το αντικείμενο δεν χρειάζεται πλέον, ανεξάρτητα
από το εάν η λειτουργία που χρησιμοποιεί το αντικείμενο πέτυχε ή
απέτυχε.  Κοιτάξτε το ακόλουθο αντικείμενο, το οποίο προσπαθεί να
ανοίξει ένα αρχείο και να εκτυπώσει τα περιεχόμενα του στην οθόνη.

     for line in open("myfile.txt"):
         print(line, end="")

Το πρόβλημα με αυτόν τον κώδικα είναι ότι αφήνει το αρχείο ανοιχτό για
απροσδιόριστο χρονικό διάστημα μετά την ολοκλήρωση της εκτέλεσης αυτού
του τμήματος του κώδικα.  Αυτό δεν είναι πρόβλημα σε απλά σενάρια, αλλά
μπορεί να είναι πρόβλημα για μεγαλύτερες εφαρμογές.  Η δήλωση *note
with: 20a. επιτρέπει σε αντικείμενα όπως αρχεία να χρησιμοποιούνται με
τρόπο που διασφαλίζει ότι καθαρίζονται πάντα άμεσα και σωστά.

     with open("myfile.txt") as f:
         for line in f:
             print(line, end="")

Μετά την εκτέλεση της πρότασης, το αρχείο 'f' είναι πάντα κλειστό, ακόμα
και αν παρουσιάστηκε πρόβλημα κατά την επεξεργασία των γραμμών.  Τα
αντικείμενα που, όπως τα αρχεία παρέχουν προκαθορισμένες ενέργειες
καθαρισμού θα το υποδεικνύουν στην τεκμηρίωση τους.


File: python.info,  Node: Raising και Χειρισμός Πολλαπλών Άσχετων Εξαιρέσεων,  Next: Εμπλουτίζοντας τις Εξαιρέσεις με Σημειώσεις,  Prev: Προκαθορισμένες ενέργειες καθαρισμού,  Up: Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις

2.8.9 Raising και Χειρισμός Πολλαπλών Άσχετων Εξαιρέσεων
--------------------------------------------------------

Υπάρχουν περιπτώσεις όπου είναι απαραίτητο να αναφερθούν πολλές
εξαιρέσεις που έχουν συμβεί.  Αυτό συμβαίνει συχνά σε πλαίσια
ταυτόχρονης χρήσης, όταν πολλές εργασίες μπορεί να έχουνε αποτύχει
παράλληλα, αλλά υπάρχουν και άλλες περιπτώσεις χρήσης όπου είναι
επιθυμητό να συνεχιστεί η εκτέλεση και η συλλογή πολλαπλών σφαλμάτων
αντί να κάνει raise την πρώτη εξαίρεση.

Η ενσωματωμένη (builtin) *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8. αναδιπλώνει μια
λίστα με παρουσίες εξαιρέσεων ώστε να μπορούν να αυξηθούν μαζί.  Είναι
μια εξαίρεση από μόνη της, επομένως μπορεί να συλληφθεί όπως κάθε άλλη
εξαίρεση.

     >>> def f():
     ...     excs = [OSError('error 1'), SystemError('error 2')]
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup('there were problems', excs)
     ...
     >>> f()
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       |     f()
       |     ~^^
       |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in f
       |     raise ExceptionGroup('there were problems', excs)
       | ExceptionGroup: there were problems (2 sub-exceptions)
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | OSError: error 1
         +---------------- 2 ----------------
         | SystemError: error 2
         +------------------------------------
     >>> try:
     ...     f()
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)}: {e}')
     ...
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'>: there were problems (2 sub-exceptions)
     >>>

Χρησιμοποιώντας ‘except*’ αντί για ‘except’, μπορούμε επιλεκτικά να
χειριστούμε μόνο τις εξαιρέσεις στην ομάδα που αντιστοιχούν σε έναν
συγκεκριμένο τύπο.  Στο παρακάτω παράδειγμα, το οποίο δείχνει μια ένθετη
ομάδα εξαιρέσεων, κάθε πρόταση ‘except*’ εξάγει από τις εξαιρέσεις της
ομάδας ενός συγκεκριμένου τύπου, ενώ αφήνει όλες τις άλλες εξαιρέσεις να
διαδοθούν σε άλλες προτάσεις και τελικά να ξαναγίνουν raise.

     >>> def f():
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup(
     ...         "group1",
     ...         [
     ...             OSError(1),
     ...             SystemError(2),
     ...             ExceptionGroup(
     ...                 "group2",
     ...                 [
     ...                     OSError(3),
     ...                     RecursionError(4)
     ...                 ]
     ...             )
     ...         ]
     ...     )
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     f()
     ... except* OSError as e:
     ...     print("There were OSErrors")
     ... except* SystemError as e:
     ...     print("There were SystemErrors")
     ...
     There were OSErrors
     There were SystemErrors
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
       |     f()
       |     ~^^
       |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
       |     raise ExceptionGroup(
       |     ...<12 lines>...
       |     )
       | ExceptionGroup: group1 (1 sub-exception)
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | ExceptionGroup: group2 (1 sub-exception)
         +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
           | RecursionError: 4
           +------------------------------------
     >>>

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι οι εξαιρέσεις που είναι ένθετες σε μια ομάδα εξαιρέσεων
πρέπει να είναι στιγμιότυπα, όχι τύποι.  Αυτό συμβαίνει επειδή στην
πράξη οι εξαιρέσεις θα ήταν συνήθως αυτές που έχουν ήδη αναφερθεί και
καταγραφεί από το πρόγραμμα, σύμφωνα με το ακόλουθο μοτίβο:

     >>> excs = []
     ... for test in tests:
     ...     try:
     ...         test.run()
     ...     except Exception as e:
     ...         excs.append(e)
     ...
     >>> if excs:
     ...    raise ExceptionGroup("Test Failures", excs)
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: Εμπλουτίζοντας τις Εξαιρέσεις με Σημειώσεις,  Prev: Raising και Χειρισμός Πολλαπλών Άσχετων Εξαιρέσεων,  Up: Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις

2.8.10 Εμπλουτίζοντας τις Εξαιρέσεις με Σημειώσεις
--------------------------------------------------

Όταν δημιουργείται μια εξαίρεση προκειμένου να γίνει raise, συνήθως
αρχικοποιείται με πληροφορίες που περιγράφουν το σφάλμα που έχει
προκύψει.  Υπάρχουν περιπτώσεις όπου είναι χρήσιμο να προστεθούν
πληροφορίες μετά την σύλληψη της εξαίρεσης.  Για το σκοπό αυτό, οι
εξαιρέσεις έχουνε μια μέθοδο ‘add_note(note)’ που δέχεται μια
συμβολοσειρά και την προσθέτει στη λίστα σημειώσεων της εξαίρεσης.  Η
standard απόδοση παρακολούθησης περιλαμβάνει όλες τις σημειώσεις, με τη
σειρά που προστέθηκα, μετά την εξαίρεση.

     >>> try:
     ...     raise TypeError('bad type')
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     e.add_note('Add some information')
     ...     e.add_note('Add some more information')
     ...     raise
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         raise TypeError('bad type')
     TypeError: bad type
     Add some information
     Add some more information
     >>>

Για παράδειγμα, όταν συλλέγουμε εξαιρέσεις σε μια ομάδα εξαιρέσεων,
μπορεί να θέλουμε να προσθέσουμε πληροφορίες περιβάλλοντος για τα
μεμονωμένα σφάλματα.  Στην συνέχεια κάθε εξαίρεση στην ομάδα έχει μια
σημείωση που υποδεικνύει πότε έχει συμβεί αυτό το σφάλμα.

     >>> def f():
     ...     raise OSError('operation failed')
     ...
     >>> excs = []
     >>> for i in range(3):
     ...     try:
     ...         f()
     ...     except Exception as e:
     ...         e.add_note(f'Happened in Iteration {i+1}')
     ...         excs.append(e)
     ...
     >>> raise ExceptionGroup('We have some problems', excs)
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       |     raise ExceptionGroup('We have some problems', excs)
       | ExceptionGroup: We have some problems (3 sub-exceptions)
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |     f()
         |     ~^^
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         |     raise OSError('operation failed')
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 1
         +---------------- 2 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |     f()
         |     ~^^
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         |     raise OSError('operation failed')
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 2
         +---------------- 3 ----------------
         | Traceback (most recent call last):
         |   File "<stdin>", line 3, in <module>
         |     f()
         |     ~^^
         |   File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
         |     raise OSError('operation failed')
         | OSError: operation failed
         | Happened in Iteration 3
         +------------------------------------
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Κλάσεις,  Next: Brief tour of the standard library,  Prev: Σφάλματα και Εξαιρέσεις,  Up: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python

2.9 Κλάσεις
===========

Οι κλάσεις παρέχουν ένα μέσο ομαδοποίησης δεδομένων και
λειτουργικότητας.  Η δημιουργία μιας νέας κλάσης δημιουργεί έναν νέο
'τύπο' αντικειμένου, επιτρέποντας νέα 'στιγμιότυπα' αυτού του τύπου που
πρόκειται να γίνουν.  Κάθε στιγμιότυπο κλάσης μπορεί να έχει
χαρακτηριστικά που συνδέονται με αυτό για τη διατήρηση της κατάστασής
του.  Τα στιγμιότυπα κλάσης μπορούν να έχουν επίσης μεθόδους (που
ορίζονται από την κλάση του) για την τροποποίηση της κατάστασής του.

Σε σύγκριση με άλλες γλώσσες προγραμματισμού, ο μηχανισμός κλάσης της
Python προσθέτει κλάσεις με ελάχιστο νέο συντακτικό και σημασιολογία.
Είναι ένα μείγμα των μηχανισμών κλάσεων που βρέθηκαν στη C++ και στο
Modula-3.  Οι κλάσεις της Python παρέχουν όλα τα standard χαρακτηριστικά
του Αντικειμενοστραφούς Προγραμματισμού: ο μηχανισμός της
κληρονομικότητας της κλάσης επιτρέπει την ύπαρξη πολλαπλών βασικών
κλάσεων, μια παραγόμενη κλάση να μπορεί να παρακάμψει οποιεσδήποτε
μεθόδους της βασικής κλάσης ή κλάσεων, και μια μέθοδος να μπορεί να
καλέσει τη μέθοδο μίας βασικής κλάσης με το ίδιο όνομα.  Τα αντικείμενα
μπορούν να περιέχουν αυθαίρετα ποσά και είδη δεδομένων.  Όπως ισχύει για
τα modules, οι κλάσεις συμμετέχουν στη δυναμική φύση της Python:
δημιουργούνται κατά το χρόνο εκτέλεσης και μπορούν να τροποποιηθούν
περαιτέρω μετά τη δημιουργία.

Στην ορολογία της C++, συνήθως τα μέλη της κλάσης (συμπεριλαμβανομένων
των μελών δεδομένων) είναι 'δημόσια' (εκτός από βλέπε παρακάτω *note
Ιδιωτικές Μεταβλητές: 2278.), και όλες οι συμμετέχουσες συναρτήσεις
είναι 'εικονικές'.  Όπως και στο Modula-3, δεν υπάρχουν συντομογραφίες
για την αναφορά στα μέλη του αντικειμένου από τις μεθόδους του: η
μέθοδος δηλώνεται με ρητό πρώτο όρισμα που αντιπροσωπεύει το
αντικείμενο, το οποίο παρέχεται έμμεσα από την κλήση.  Όπως και στο
Smalltalk, οι ίδιες οι κλάσεις είναι αντικείμενα.Αυτό παρέχει
σημασιολογία για εισαγωγή και μετονομασία.  Σε αντίθεση με τις γλώσσες
C++ και Modula-3, οι built-in τύποι μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν ως
βασικές κλάσεις για επέκταση από τον χρήστη.  Επίσης, όπως στην C++, οι
περισσότεροι built-in τελεστές με ειδική σύνταξη (αριθμητικοί τελεστές,
εγγραφή κ.λπ.)  μπορούν να επαναπροσδιοριστούν για τα στιγμιότυπα
κλάσης.

(Ελλείψει καθολικής αποδεκτής ορολογίας για να μιλήσω για τις κλάσεις,
θα κάνω περιστασιακή χρήση όρων από τη Smalltalk και τη C++.  Θα
χρησιμοποιούσα όρους από τη Modula-3, καθώς η αντικειμενοστραφής
σημασιολογία του είναι πιο κοντά σε αυτήν της Python από ότι της C++,
Αλλά πιστεύω ότι λίγοι αναγνώστες το έχουν ακούσει.)

* Menu:

* Λίγα λόγια για Ονόματα και Αντικείμενα::
* Εμβέλεια και Πεδία Ονομάτων στην Python::
* Μια πρώτη ματιά στις Κλάσεις::
* Τυχαίες Παρατηρήσεις::
* Κληρονομικότητα::
* Ιδιωτικές Μεταβλητές::
* Μικροπράγματα::
* Επαναλήπτες::
* Γεννήτορες (Generators): Γεννήτορες Generators.
* Εκφράσεις Γεννήτορων::


File: python.info,  Node: Λίγα λόγια για Ονόματα και Αντικείμενα,  Next: Εμβέλεια και Πεδία Ονομάτων στην Python,  Up: Κλάσεις

2.9.1 Λίγα λόγια για Ονόματα και Αντικείμενα
--------------------------------------------

Τα αντικείμενα έχουν μοναδικότητα και πολλά ονόματα (σε πολλαπλά πεδία)
μπορούν να συνδεθούν στο ίδιο αντικείμενο.  Αυτό είναι γνωστό ως
ψευδώνυμο σε άλλες γλώσσες.Αυτό συνήθως δεν εκτιμάται με μια πρώτη ματιά
στην Python και μπορεί να αγνοείται με ασφάλεια όταν ασχολείται με
αμετάβλητους βασικούς τύπους (αριθμοί, συμβολοσειρές, πλειάδες
(tuples)).  Ωστόσο, το ψευδώνυμο έχει μια πιθανώς εκπληκτική επίδραση
στη σημασιολογία του κώδικα της Python που περιλαμβάνει ευμετάβλητα
αντικείμενα όπως λίστες, λεξικά, και τους περισσότερους άλλους τύπους.
Αυτό χρησιμοποιείται συνήθως προς όφελος του προγράμματος, δεδομένου ότι
τα ψευδώνυμα συμπεριφέρονται σαν δείκτες από ορισμένες απόψεις.  Για
παράδειγμα, η μετάδοση ενός αντικειμένου είναι ανέξοδη αφού μόνο ένας
δείκτης περνά από την υλοποίηση, και αν μια συνάρτηση τροποποιεί ένα
αντικείμενο που έχει περάσει ως όρισμα, ο καλών θα δει την αλλαγή — αυτό
εξαλείφει την ανάγκη για δύο διαφορετικούς μηχανισμούς μετάδοσης
ορισμάτων όπως στην Pascal.


File: python.info,  Node: Εμβέλεια και Πεδία Ονομάτων στην Python,  Next: Μια πρώτη ματιά στις Κλάσεις,  Prev: Λίγα λόγια για Ονόματα και Αντικείμενα,  Up: Κλάσεις

2.9.2 Εμβέλεια και Πεδία Ονομάτων στην Python
---------------------------------------------

Πριν από την εισαγωγή των κλάσεων, πρέπει πρώτα να σας πω κάτι για τους
κανόνες εμβέλειας της Python.  Οι ορισμοί των κλάσεων παίζουν μερικά
ξεκάθαρα κόλπα με τα πεδία ονομάτων και πρέπει να γνωρίζετε πώς
λειτουργούν πλήρως τα πεδία ονομάτων και η εμβέλεια για να κατανοήσετε
πλήρως τι συμβαίνει.  Παρεμπιπτόντως, η γνώση για αυτό το θέμα είναι
χρήσιμη για κάθε προχωρημένο προγραμματιστή της Python.

Ας ξεκινήσουμε με ορισμένους ορισμούς.

Ένας 'πεδίο ονομάτων (namespace)' είναι μια αντιστοίχιση από ονόματα σε
αντικείμενα.  Τα περισσότερα πεδία ονομάτων υλοποιούνται επί του
παρόντος ως λεξικά Python, αλλά αυτό συνήθως δεν γίνεται αντιληπτό με
κανέναν τρόπο (εκτός από την απόδοση) και μπορεί να αλλάξει στο μέλλον.
Παραδείγματα πεδίων ονομάτων είναι: το σύνολο των ενσωματωμένων ονομάτων
(που περιέχει συναρτήσεις όπως *note abs(): 227c. και ενσωματωμένα
ονόματα εξαιρέσεων)∙ τα καθολικά ονόματα σε ένα module και τα τοπικά
ονόματα σε μια επίκληση συνάρτησης.  Κατά μία έννοια το σύνολο των
χαρακτηριστικών ενός αντικειμένου σχηματίζει επίσης ένα πεδίο ονομάτων.
Το σημαντικό πράγμα που πρέπει να γνωρίζετε για τα πεδία ονομάτων είναι
ότι δεν υπάρχει καμία απολύτως σχέση μεταξύ ονομάτων σε διαφορετικά
πεδία ονομάτων, για παράδειγμα, δύο διαφορετικά modules μπορεί και τα
δύο να ορίσουν μια συνάρτηση ‘maximize’ χωρίς σύγχυση — χρήστες των
modules πρέπει να την προσθέσουν με το όνομα του module.

Παρεμπιπτόντως, χρησιμοποιώ τη λέξη 'attribute' για οποιοδήποτε όνομα
που ακολουθεί μια τελεία — για παράδειγμα, στην έκφραση ‘z.real’, το
‘real’ είναι ένα attribute του αντικειμένου ‘z’.  Αυστηρά μιλώντας, οι
αναφορές σε ονόματα των modules είναι αναφορές σε attributes: στην
έκφραση ‘modname.funcname’, το ‘modname’ είναι ένα module αντικείμενο
και το ‘funcname’ είναι ένα attribute του αντικειμένου.  Σε αυτήν την
περίπτωση συμβαίνει να υπάρχει μια απλή αντιστοίχιση μεταξύ των
attributes των modules και των καθολικών ονομάτων που ορίζονται στο
module: μοιράζονται τον ίδιο χώρο ονομάτων!  (1)

Τα attributes μπορεί να είναι μόνο για ανάγνωση ή εγγράψιμα.  Στην
τελευταία περίπτωση, είναι δυνατή η ανάθεση attributes.  Τα attributes
των modules είναι εγγράψιμα: μπορείτε να γράψετε ‘modname.the_answer =
42’.  Τα εγγράψιμα attributes μπορούν επίσης να διαγραφούν με την δήλωση
*note del: 1d1d.  Για παράδειγμα, ‘del modname.the_answer’ θα αφαιρέσει
το attribute ‘the_answer’ από το αντικείμενο που ονομάστηκε από το
‘modname’.

Οι χώροι ονομάτων δημιουργούνται σε διαφορετικές στιγμές και έχουν
διαφορετική διάρκεια ζωής.Ο χώρος ονομάτων που περιέχει τα built-in
ονόματα δημιουργείται κατά την εκκίνηση του διερμηνέα της Python και δεν
διαγράφεται ποτέ.  Ο καθολικός χώρος ονομάτων για ένα module
δημιουργείται όταν διαβάζεται ο ορισμός του module.  Κανονικά, οι χώροι
ονομάτων των modules διαρκούν επίσης μέχρι να τερματιστεί ο διερμηνέας.
Οι δηλώσεις που εκτελούνται από την επίκληση ανώτατου επιπέδου του
διερμηνέα, είτε διαβάζονται από ένα script είτε διαδραστικά, θεωρούνται
μέρος ενός module που ονομάζεται *note __main__: 1, επομένως έχουν τον
δικό τους καθολικό χώρο ονομάτων.  (Τα ενσωματωμένα ονόματα στην
πραγματικότητα υπάρχουν επίσης σε ένα module,αυτό ονομάζεται *note
builtins: 13.)

Ο τοπικός χώρος ονομάτων για μια συνάρτηση δημιουργείται όταν καλείται η
συνάρτηση, και διαγράφεται όταν η συνάρτηση επιστρέφει ή δημιουργεί μια
εξαίρεση που δεν αντιμετωπίζεται στην συνάρτηση.  (Στην πραγματικότητα,
η λήθη θα ήταν καλύτερος τρόπος για να περιγράψουμε τι πραγματικά
συμβαίνει.)  Φυσικά, οι επαναλαμβανόμενες επικλήσεις έχουν το δικό τους
τοπικό χώρο ονομάτων.

Η εμβέλεια είναι μια περιοχή κειμένου ενός προγράμματος Python όπου ένας
χώρος ονομάτων είναι άμεσα προσβάσιμος.  Το «Άμεση πρόσβαση» εδώ
σημαίνει ότι μια ανεπιφύλακτη αναφορά σε ένα όνομα προσπαθεί να βρει το
όνομα στον χώρο ονομάτων.

Παρόλο που τα πεδία προσδιορίζονται στατικά, χρησιμοποιούνται δυναμικά.
Σε οποιοδήποτε χρόνο κατά την διάρκεια της εκτέλεσης, υπάρχουν 3 ή 4
ένθετα πεδία των οποίων οι χώροι ονομάτων είναι άμεσα προσβάσιμοι:

   * η ενδότερη εμβέλεια, η οποία αναζητείται πρώτα, περιέχει τα τοπικά
     ονόματα

   * η εμβέλεια οποιωνδήποτε εσωκλειόμενων συναρτήσεων, τα οποία
     αναζητούνται ξεκινώντας από την πλησιέστερη εσωκλειόμενη εμβέλεια,
     περιέχει μη τοπικά, αλλά και μη καθολικά ονόματα

   * η επόμενη προς την τελευταία εμβέλεια περιέχει τα τρέχοντα καθολικά
     ονόματα του module

   * η πιο απομακρυσμένη εμβέλεια (που έγινε τελευταία αναζήτηση) είναι
     ο χώρος ονομάτων που περιέχει built-in ονόματα

Εάν ένα όνομα έχει δηλωθεί ως καθολικό, τότε όλες οι αναφορές και οι
εκχωρήσεις πηγαίνουν απευθείας στο επόμενο προς το τελευταίο πεδίο που
περιέχει τα καθολικά ονόματα του module.  Για την επανασύνδεση
μεταβλητών που βρίσκονται εκτός της ενδότερης εμβέλειας ,μπορεί να
χρησιμοποιηθεί η δήλωση του *note nonlocal: 164c. .  Εάν δεν δηλωθούν ως
μη τοπικές, αυτές οι μεταβλητές είναι μόνο για ανάγνωση (μια προσπάθεια
εγγραφής σε μια τέτοια μεταβλητή θα δημιουργήσει απλώς μια 'νέα' τοπική
μεταβλητή στην ενδότερη εμβέλεια, αφήνοντας αμετάβλητη την εξωτερική
μεταβλητή με το ίδιο όνομα ).

Συνήθως, η τοπική εμβέλεια παραπέμπει στα τοπικά ονόματα της (κείμενης)
τρέχουσας συνάρτησης.  Εκτός συναρτήσεων, η τοπική εμβέλεια αναφέρεται
στον ίδιο χώρο ονομάτων με την καθολική εμβέλεια: τον χώρο ονομάτων του
module.Οι ορισμοί κλάσεων τοποθετούν έναν ακόμη χώρο ονομάτων στην
τοπική εμβέλεια.

Είναι σημαντικό να συνειδητοποιήσουμε ότι οι εμβέλειες καθορίζονται με
κείμενο: η καθολική εμβέλεια μιας συνάρτησης που ορίζεται σε ένα module
είναι ο χώρος ονομάτων αυτού του module ανεξάρτητα από το πού ή με ποιο
ψευδώνυμο καλείται η συνάρτηση.  Από την άλλη πλευρά, η πραγματική
αναζήτηση ονομάτων γίνεται δυναμικά, κατά το χρόνο εκτέλεσης — ωστόσο, ο
ορισμός της γλώσσας εξελίσσεται προς τη στατική ανάλυση ονομάτων, την
ώρα της «μεταγλώττισης», επομένως μην βασίζεστε σε δυναμική ανάλυση
ονόματος!  (Στην πραγματικότητα, οι τοπικές μεταβλητές έχουν ήδη
καθοριστεί στατικά.)

Μια ιδιαίτερη ιδιορρυθμία της Python είναι ότι – αν οι δηλώσεις *note
global: 6b5. ή *note nonlocal: 164c. δεν είναι σε ισχύ – οι εκχωρήσεις
στα ονόματα πηγαίνουν πάντα στην ενδότερη εμβέλεια.  Οι εκχωρήσεις δεν
αντιγράφουν δεδομένα — απλώς δεσμεύουν ονόματα σε αντικείμενα.  Το ίδιο
ισχύει και για τις διαγραφές: η δήλωση ‘del x’ αφαιρεί την σύνδεση του
‘x’ από τον χώρο ονομάτων που αναφέρεται από την τοπική εμβέλεια.  Στην
πραγματικότητα, όλες οι λειτουργίες που εισάγουν νέα ονόματα
χρησιμοποιούν την τοπική εμβέλεια: συγκεκριμένα οι δηλώσεις, *note
import: 9da. και οι ορισμοί συναρτήσεων δεσμεύουν το όνομα του module ή
της συνάρτησης στην τοπική εμβέλεια.

Η δήλωση *note global: 6b5. μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να υποδείξει
ότι συγκεκριμένες μεταβλητές ζουν στην καθολική εμβέλεια και θα πρέπει
να ανακάμψουν εκεί.  Η δήλωση *note nonlocal: 164c. υποδηλώνει ότι
συγκεκριμένες μεταβλητές ζουν σε μια εσώκλειστη εμβέλεια και θα πρέπει
να ανακάμψουν εκεί.

* Menu:

* Παράδειγμα Εμβέλειας και Χώρων Ονομάτων::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Εκτός από ένα πράγμα.  Τα αντικείμενα του module έχουν ένα
μυστικό χαρακτηριστικό μόνο για ανάγνωση που καλείται *note __dict__:
1bf. το οποίο επιστρέφει το λεξικό που χρησιμοποιείται για την υλοποίηση
του χώρου ονομάτων του module.Το όνομα ‘__dict__’ είναι ένα
χαρακτηριστικό αλλά όχι καθολικό όνομα.  Προφανώς, η χρήση αυτού
παραβιάζει την αφαίρεση υλοποίησης χώρου ονομάτων και θα πρέπει να
περιορίζεται σε πράγματα όπως τα ύστερα προγράμματα εντοπισμού
σφαλμάτων.


File: python.info,  Node: Παράδειγμα Εμβέλειας και Χώρων Ονομάτων,  Up: Εμβέλεια και Πεδία Ονομάτων στην Python

2.9.2.1 Παράδειγμα Εμβέλειας και Χώρων Ονομάτων
...............................................

Αυτό είναι ένα παράδειγμα που δείχνει τον τρόπο αναφοράς στα διαφορετικά
πεδία και χώρους ονομάτων και πώς τα *note global: 6b5. και *note
nonlocal: 164c. επηρεάζουν τα variable binding:

     def scope_test():
         def do_local():
             spam = "local spam"

         def do_nonlocal():
             nonlocal spam
             spam = "nonlocal spam"

         def do_global():
             global spam
             spam = "global spam"

         spam = "test spam"
         do_local()
         print("After local assignment:", spam)
         do_nonlocal()
         print("After nonlocal assignment:", spam)
         do_global()
         print("After global assignment:", spam)

     scope_test()
     print("In global scope:", spam)

Το αποτέλεσμα του κώδικα στο παράδειγμα είναι:

     After local assignment: test spam
     After nonlocal assignment: nonlocal spam
     After global assignment: nonlocal spam
     In global scope: global spam

Σημειώστε πώς η εκχώρηση 'τοπική' (η οποία είναι προεπιλεγμένη) δεν
άλλαξε την δέσμευση 'scope_test"s του 'spam'.  Η εκχώρηση *note
nonlocal: 164c. άλλαξε την δέσμευση του 'scope_test"s του 'spam' και η
εκχώρηση του *note global: 6b5. άλλαξε τη δέσμευση σε επίπεδο module.

Μπορείτε επίσης να δείτε ότι δεν υπήρχε προηγούμενη δέσμευση για 'spam'
πριν από την εκχώρηση *note global: 6b5..


File: python.info,  Node: Μια πρώτη ματιά στις Κλάσεις,  Next: Τυχαίες Παρατηρήσεις,  Prev: Εμβέλεια και Πεδία Ονομάτων στην Python,  Up: Κλάσεις

2.9.3 Μια πρώτη ματιά στις Κλάσεις
----------------------------------

Οι Κλάσεις εισάγουν λίγη νέα σύνταξη, τρεις νέους τύπους αντικειμένων
και κάποια νέα σημασιολογία.

* Menu:

* Σύνταξη Ορισμού Κλάσης::
* Αντικείμενα Κλάσης::
* Αντικείμενα Στιγμιοτύπων::
* Αντικείμενα Μεθόδου::
* Μεταβλητές Κλάσης και Στιγμιότυπου::


File: python.info,  Node: Σύνταξη Ορισμού Κλάσης,  Next: Αντικείμενα Κλάσης,  Up: Μια πρώτη ματιά στις Κλάσεις

2.9.3.1 Σύνταξη Ορισμού Κλάσης
..............................

Η απλούστερη μορφή ορισμού κλάσης μοιάζει με αυτό:

     class ClassName:
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

Ορισμοί κλάσεων, όπως ορισμοί συναρτήσεων (*note def: 17fc. δηλώσεις)
πρέπει να εκτελεστούν προτού έχουν οποιοδήποτε αποτέλεσμα.  (Θα
μπορούσατε να τοποθετήσετε έναν ορισμό κλάσης σε έναν κλάδο μιας δήλωσης
*note if: 322. ή μέσα σε μια συνάρτηση.)

Στην πράξη, οι δηλώσεις μέσα σε έναν ορισμό κλάσης συνήθως θα είναι
ορισμοί συναρτήσεων, αλλά επιτρέπονται άλλες δηλώσεις και μερικές φορές
χρήσιμες — θα επανέλθουμε σε αυτό αργότερα.  Οι ορισμοί συναρτήσεων μέσα
σε μια κλάση συνήθως έχουν μια περίεργη μορφή λίστας ορισμάτων, που
υπαγορεύεται από τις συμβάσεις κλήσης για μεθόδους — και πάλι, αυτό
εξηγείται αργότερα.

Όταν εισάγεται ένας ορισμός κλάσης, δημιουργείται ένας νέος χώρος
ονομάτων και χρησιμοποιείται ως τοπική εμβέλεια — επομένως, όλες οι
εκχωρήσεις σε τοπικές μεταβλητές πηγαίνουν σε αυτόν τον νέο χώρο
ονομάτων.  Συγκεκριμένα, οι ορισμοί συναρτήσεων δεσμεύουν το όνομα της
νέας συνάρτησης εδώ.

Όταν ένας ορισμός κλάσης αφήνεται κανονικά (μέσω του
τέλους),δημιουργείται ένα 'αντικείμενο κλάσης'.  Αυτό είναι βασικά ένα
περιτύλιγμα γύρω από τα περιεχόμενα του χώρου ονομάτων που δημιουργήθηκε
από τον ορισμό κλάσης.  θα μάθουμε περισσότερα για τα αντικείμενα κλάσης
στην επόμενη ενότητα.Η αρχική τοπική εμβέλεια(αυτό που ίσχυε λίγο πριν
από την εισαγωγή του ορισμού της κλάσης) αποκαθίσταται και το
αντικείμενο κλάσης δεσμεύεται εδώ στο όνομα κλάσης που δίνεται στην
κεφαλίδα ορισμού κλάσης (‘ClassName’ στο παράδειγμα).


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα Κλάσης,  Next: Αντικείμενα Στιγμιοτύπων,  Prev: Σύνταξη Ορισμού Κλάσης,  Up: Μια πρώτη ματιά στις Κλάσεις

2.9.3.2 Αντικείμενα Κλάσης
..........................

Τα αντικείμενα κλάσης υποστηρίζουν δύο είδη πράξεων: αναφορές
χαρακτηριστικών και στιγμιότυπο.

Οι 'Αναφορές χαρακτηριστικών' χρησιμοποιούν την τυπική σύνταξη που
χρησιμοποιείται για όλα τις αναφορές χαρακτηριστικών στην Python:
‘obj.name’.  Τα έγκυρα ονόματα χαρακτηριστικών είναι όλα τα ονόματα που
βρίσκονταν στον χώρο ονομάτων της κλάσης όταν δημιουργήθηκε το
αντικείμενο της κλάσης.  Έτσι, αν ο ορισμός της κλάσης έμοιαζε ως εξής:

     class MyClass:
         """A simple example class"""
         i = 12345

         def f(self):
             return 'hello world'

τότε τα ‘MyClass.i’ και ‘MyClass.f’ είναι έγκυρες αναφορές
χαρακτηριστικών, επιστρέφοντας έναν ακέραιο και ένα αντικείμενο
συνάρτησης, αντίστοιχα.Τα attributes κλάσης μπορούν επίσης να
εκχωρηθούν, ώστε να μπορείτε να αλλάξετε την τιμή του ‘MyClass.i’ ανά
ανάθεση.  Το *note __doc__: 2284. είναι επίσης ένα έγκυρο
χαρακτηριστικό, επιστρέφοντας το docstring που ανήκει στην κλάση: ‘"Ένα
απλό παράδειγμα κλάσης"’.

Η κλάση 'στιγμιότυπο' χρησιμοποιεί σημειογραφία συνάρτησης.  Απλώς
προσποιηθείτε ότι το αντικείμενο της κλάσης είναι μια συνάρτηση χωρίς
παραμέτρους που επιστρέφει ένα νέο στιγμιότυπο της κλάσης.Για παράδειγμα
(υποθέτοντας την παραπάνω κλάση):

     x = MyClass()

δημιουργεί ένα νέο 'στιγμιότυπο' της κλάσης και εκχωρεί αυτό το
αντικείμενο στην τοπική μεταβλητή ‘x’.

Η λειτουργία του στιγμιότυπου («calling» ένα αντικείμενο κλάσης)
δημιουργεί ένα κενό αντικείμενο.  Σε πολλές κλάσεις αρέσει να
δημιουργούν αντικείμενα με στιγμιότυπα προσαρμοσμένα σε μια συγκεκριμένη
αρχική κατάσταση.  Επομένως μια κλάση μπορεί να ορίσει μια ειδική μέθοδο
με το όνομα *note __init__(): 2fa, όπως αυτό:

     def __init__(self):
         self.data = []

Όταν μια κλάση ορίζει μια μέθοδο *note __init__(): 2fa, το στιγμιότυπο
κλάσης καλεί αυτόματα ‘__init__()’ για το στιγμιότυπο κλάσης που
δημιουργήθηκε πρόσφατα.  Έτσι σε αυτό το παράδειγμα,ένα νέο,
αρχικοποιημένο στιγμιότυπο μπορεί να ληφθεί από:

     x = MyClass()

Φυσικά, η μέθοδος *note __init__(): 2fa. μπορεί να έχει ορίσματα για
μεγαλύτερη ευελιξία.  Σε αυτήν την περίπτωση, τα ορίσματα που δίνονται
στον τελεστή στιγμιότυπου κλάσης μεταβιβάζονται σε ‘__init__()’.  Για
παράδειγμα,

     >>> class Complex:
     ...     def __init__(self, realpart, imagpart):
     ...         self.r = realpart
     ...         self.i = imagpart
     ...
     >>> x = Complex(3.0, -4.5)
     >>> x.r, x.i
     (3.0, -4.5)


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα Στιγμιοτύπων,  Next: Αντικείμενα Μεθόδου,  Prev: Αντικείμενα Κλάσης,  Up: Μια πρώτη ματιά στις Κλάσεις

2.9.3.3 Αντικείμενα Στιγμιοτύπων
................................

Τώρα τι μπορούμε να κάνουμε με τα αντικείμενα στιγμιοτύπων; Οι μόνες
λειτουργίες που γίνονται κατανοητές από τα αντικείμενα στιγμιοτύπων
είναι οι αναφορές χαρακτηριστικών.  Υπάρχουν δύο είδη έγκυρων ονομάτων
attributes: attributes και μέθοδοι δεδομένων.

'Τα χαρακτηριστικά δεδομένων' αντιστοιχούν στις «μεταβλητές
στιγμιότυπου» στο Smalltalk και στα «μέλη δεδομένων» στη C++.  Τα
χαρακτηριστικά δεδομένων δεν χρειάζεται να δηλωθούν, όπως και οι τοπικές
μεταβλητές, εμφανίζονται όταν εκχωρούνται για πρώτη φορά.  Για
παράδειγμα, εάν το ‘x’ είναι στιγμιότυπο της ‘MyClass’ που δημιουργήθηκε
παραπάνω, το ακόλουθο κομμάτι κώδικα θα εκτυπώσει την τιμή ‘16’, χωρίς
να αφήσει ίχνος:

     x.counter = 1
     while x.counter < 10:
         x.counter = x.counter * 2
     print(x.counter)
     del x.counter

Το άλλο είδος αναφοράς χαρακτηριστικού στιγμιότυπου είναι μια 'μέθοδος'.
Μια μέθοδος είναι μια συνάρτηση που «ανήκει» σε ένα αντικείμενο.

Τα έγκυρα ονόματα μεθόδων ενός αντικειμένου στιγμιότυπου εξαρτώνται από
την κλάση του.  Εξ ορισμού, όλα τα χαρακτηριστικά μιας κλάσης που είναι
αντικείμενα συνάρτησης ορίζουν τις αντίστοιχες μεθόδους των στιγμιοτύπων
της.  Έτσι στο παράδειγμά μας, το ‘x.f’ είναι μια έγκυρη αναφορά
μεθόδου, αφού το ‘MyClass.f’ είναι συνάρτηση, αλλά το ‘x.i’ δεν είναι
αφού το ‘MyClass.i’ δεν είναι.  Αλλά το ‘x.f’ δεν είναι το ίδιο πράγμα
με το ‘MyClass.f’ — είναι ένα 'αντικείμενο μεθόδου', όχι ένα αντικείμενο
συνάρτησης.


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα Μεθόδου,  Next: Μεταβλητές Κλάσης και Στιγμιότυπου,  Prev: Αντικείμενα Στιγμιοτύπων,  Up: Μια πρώτη ματιά στις Κλάσεις

2.9.3.4 Αντικείμενα Μεθόδου
...........................

Συνήθως, μια μέθοδος καλείται αμέσως μετά τη δέσμευσή της:

     x.f()

Αν ‘x = MyClass()’, όπως παραπάνω, αυτό θα επιστρέψει τη συμβολοσειρά
‘'hello world'’.  Ωστόσο, δεν είναι απαραίτητο να καλέσετε μια μέθοδο
αμέσως: το ‘x.f’ είναι ένα αντικείμενο μεθόδου και μπορεί να αποθηκευτεί
και να κληθεί αργότερα.  Για παράδειγμα:

     xf = x.f
     while True:
         print(xf())

θα συνεχίσει να εκτυπώνει το ‘hello world’ μέχρι το τέλος του χρόνου.

Τι ακριβώς συμβαίνει όταν καλείται μια μέθοδος; Ίσως έχετε παρατηρήσει
ότι ‘x.f()’ κλήθηκε χωρίς όρισμα παραπάνω, παρόλο που ο ορισμός της
συνάρτησης για ‘f()’ καθόριζε ένα όρισμα.  Τι συνέβη με το όρισμα;
Σίγουρα η Python δημιουργεί μια εξαίρεση όταν μια συνάρτηση που απαιτεί
όρισμα καλείται χωρίς — ακόμα κι αν το όρισμα δεν χρησιμοποιείται στην
πραγματικότητα..

Στην πραγματικότητα, μπορεί να έχετε μαντέψει την απάντηση: το ιδιαίτερο
με τις μεθόδους είναι ότι το αντικείμενο του στιγμιότυπου μεταβιβάζεται
ως το πρώτο όρισμα της συνάρτησης.  Στο παράδειγμά μας, η κλήση ‘x.f()’
είναι ακριβώς ισοδύναμη με το ‘MyClass.f(x)’.  Γενικά, η κλήση μιας
μεθόδου με μια λίστα από 'n' ορίσματα ισοδυναμεί με την κλήση της
αντίστοιχης συνάρτησης με μια λίστα ορισμάτων που δημιουργείται με την
εισαγωγή του αντικειμένου στιγμιότυπου της μεθόδου πριν από το πρώτο
όρισμα.

Γενικά, οι μέθοδοι λειτουργούν ως εξής.  Όταν γίνεται αναφορά σε ένα
χαρακτηριστικό μη δεδομένων ενός στιγμιότυπου, γίνεται η αναζήτηση της
κλάσης του στιγμιότυπου.  Εάν το όνομα υποδηλώνει ένα έγκυρο
χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης που είναι αντικείμενο συνάρτησης, οι αναφορές τόσο
στο αντικείμενο στιγμιότυπου όσο και στο αντικείμενο συνάρτησης
συσκευάζονται σε ένα αντικείμενο μεθόδου.  Όταν το αντικείμενο της
μεθόδου καλείται με μια λίστα ορισμάτων,δημιουργείται μια νέα λίστα
ορισμάτων από το αντικείμενο στιγμιότυπου και τη λίστα ορισμάτων, και το
αντικείμενο συνάρτησης καλείται με αυτήν τη νέα λίστα ορισμάτων.


File: python.info,  Node: Μεταβλητές Κλάσης και Στιγμιότυπου,  Prev: Αντικείμενα Μεθόδου,  Up: Μια πρώτη ματιά στις Κλάσεις

2.9.3.5 Μεταβλητές Κλάσης και Στιγμιότυπου
..........................................

Σε γενικές γραμμές, οι μεταβλητές στιγμιότυπου προορίζονται για δεδομένα
μοναδικά για κάθε στιγμιότυπο και οι μεταβλητές κλάσης είναι για
χαρακτηριστικά και μεθόδους που μοιράζονται όλα τα στιγμιότυπα της
κλάσης:

     class Dog:

         kind = 'canine'         # class variable shared by all instances

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name    # instance variable unique to each instance

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.kind                  # shared by all dogs
     'canine'
     >>> e.kind                  # shared by all dogs
     'canine'
     >>> d.name                  # unique to d
     'Fido'
     >>> e.name                  # unique to e
     'Buddy'

As discussed in *note Λίγα λόγια για Ονόματα και Αντικείμενα: 227a,
shared data can have possibly surprising effects involving *note
mutable: 21d1. objects such as lists and dictionaries.  For example, the
'tricks' list in the following code should not be used as a class
variable because just a single list would be shared by all 'Dog'
instances:

     class Dog:

         tricks = []             # mistaken use of a class variable

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name

         def add_trick(self, trick):
             self.tricks.append(trick)

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.add_trick('roll over')
     >>> e.add_trick('play dead')
     >>> d.tricks                # unexpectedly shared by all dogs
     ['roll over', 'play dead']

Ο σωστός σχεδιασμός της κλάσης θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιεί μια μεταβλητή
στιγμιότυπου αντί:

     class Dog:

         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name
             self.tricks = []    # creates a new empty list for each dog

         def add_trick(self, trick):
             self.tricks.append(trick)

     >>> d = Dog('Fido')
     >>> e = Dog('Buddy')
     >>> d.add_trick('roll over')
     >>> e.add_trick('play dead')
     >>> d.tricks
     ['roll over']
     >>> e.tricks
     ['play dead']


File: python.info,  Node: Τυχαίες Παρατηρήσεις,  Next: Κληρονομικότητα,  Prev: Μια πρώτη ματιά στις Κλάσεις,  Up: Κλάσεις

2.9.4 Τυχαίες Παρατηρήσεις
--------------------------

Αν το ίδιο όνομα χαρακτηριστικού εμφανίζεται και σε ένα στιγμιότυπο και
σε μια κλάση, τότε η αναζήτηση χαρακτηριστικών δίνει προτεραιότητα στο
στιγμιότυπο:

     >>> class Warehouse:
     ...    purpose = 'storage'
     ...    region = 'west'
     ...
     >>> w1 = Warehouse()
     >>> print(w1.purpose, w1.region)
     storage west
     >>> w2 = Warehouse()
     >>> w2.region = 'east'
     >>> print(w2.purpose, w2.region)
     storage east

Τα χαρακτηριστικά δεδομένων μπορούν να αναφέρονται με μεθόδους καθώς και
από απλούς χρήστες («πελάτες») ενός αντικειμένου.  Με άλλα λόγια, οι
κλάσεις δεν μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την υλοποίηση καθαρών
αφηρημένων τύπων δεδομένων.  Στην πραγματικότητα, τίποτα στην Python δεν
καθιστά δυνατή την επιβολή της απόκρυψης δεδομένων — όλα βασίζονται σε
σύμβαση.  (από την άλλη πλευρά, η εφαρμογή Python, γραμμένη σε C, μπορεί
να αποκρύψει εντελώς τις λεπτομέρειες υλοποίησης και να ελέγξει την
πρόσβαση σε ένα αντικείμενο εάν είναι απαραίτητο αυτό μπορεί να
χρησιμοποιηθεί από επεκτάσεις στην Python γραμμένες σε C.)

Οι χρήστες θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούν τα χαρακτηριστικά δεδομένων με
προσοχή — οι χρήστες ενδέχεται να μπερδέψουν τα αμετάβλητα που
διατηρούνται από τις μεθόδους σφραγίζοντας τα χαρακτηριστικά των
δεδομένων τους.  Λάβετε υπόψη ότι οι χρήστες μπορούν να προσθέσουν δικά
τους χαρακτηριστικά δεδομένων σε ένα αντικείμενο στιγμιότυπου χωρίς να
επηρεάσουν την εγκυρότητα των μεθόδων, εφόσον αποφεύγονται οι
συγκρούσεις ονομάτων — και πάλι, μια σύμβαση ονομασίας μπορεί να σώσει
πολλούς πονοκεφάλους εδώ.

Δεν υπάρχει συντομογραφία για την αναφορά χαρακτηριστικών δεδομένων (ή
άλλων μεθόδων!)  μέσα από τις μεθόδους.  Διαπιστώνω ότι αυτό στην
πραγματικότητα αυξάνει την αναγνωσιμότητα των μεθόδων: δεν υπάρχει καμία
πιθανότητα σύγχυσης τοπικών μεταβλητών και των μεταβλητών παραδείγματος
όταν εξετάζουμε μια μέθοδο.

Συχνά, το πρώτο όρισμα μιας μεθόδου ονομάζεται ‘self’.  Αυτό δεν είναι
τίποτα περισσότερο από μια σύμβαση: το όνομα ‘self’ δεν έχει καμία
απολύτως ιδιαίτερη σημασία για την Python.  Σημειώστε, ωστόσο, ότι αν
δεν ακολουθήσετε τη σύμβαση ο κώδικάς σας μπορεί να είναι λιγότερο
ευανάγνωστος σε άλλους προγραμματιστές Python, και είναι επίσης
κατανοητό ότι μπορεί να γραφτεί ένα πρόγραμμα 'class browser' που να
βασίζεται σε μια τέτοια σύμβαση.

Κάθε αντικείμενο συνάρτησης που είναι χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης ορίζει μια
μέθοδο για στιγμιότυπα αυτής της κλάσης.  Δεν είναι απαραίτητο ο ορισμός
της συνάρτησης να περικλείεται με κείμενο στον ορισμό της κλάσης: η
αντιστοίχηση ενός αντικειμένου συνάρτησης σε μια τοπική μεταβλητή της
κλάσης είναι επίσης εντάξει.  Για παράδειγμα:

     # Function defined outside the class
     def f1(self, x, y):
         return min(x, x+y)

     class C:
         f = f1

         def g(self):
             return 'hello world'

         h = g

Τώρα τα ‘f’, ‘g’ και ‘h’ είναι όλα χαρακτηριστικά της κλάσης ‘C’ που
αναφέρονται σε αντικείμενα συνάρτησης, και κατά συνέπεια είναι όλες
μέθοδοι στιγμιοτύπων του ‘C’ — Το ‘h’ είναι ακριβώς ισοδύναμο με το ‘g’.
Σημειώστε ότι αυτή η πρακτική συνήθως χρησιμεύει μόνο για να μπερδέψει
τον αναγνώστη ενός προγράμματος.

Οι μέθοδοι μπορούν να καλούν άλλες μεθόδους χρησιμοποιώντας
χαρακτηριστικά μεθόδου του argument ‘self’:

     class Bag:
         def __init__(self):
             self.data = []

         def add(self, x):
             self.data.append(x)

         def addtwice(self, x):
             self.add(x)
             self.add(x)

Οι μέθοδοι μπορεί να αναφέρονται σε καθολικά ονόματα με τον ίδιο τρόπο
όπως οι συνηθισμένες συναρτήσεις.Η καθολική εμβέλεια που σχετίζεται με
μια μέθοδο είναι το module που περιέχει τον ορισμό της.  (Μια κλάση δεν
χρησιμοποιείται ποτέ ως καθολική εμβέλεια.)  Αν και σπάνια συναντά
κανείς έναν καλό λόγο για τη χρήση καθολικών δεδομένων σε μια μέθοδο,
υπάρχουν πολλές Νόμιμες χρήσεις της καθολικής εμβέλειας: για ένα πράγμα,
οι λειτουργίες και οι λειτουργικές μονάδες που εισάγονται στην καθολική
εμβέλεια μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν από μεθόδους, καθώς και συναρτήσεις
και κλάσεις που ορίζονται σε αυτό.  Συνήθως, η κλάση που περιέχει τη
μέθοδο ορίζεται από μόνη της σε αυτή την καθολική εμβέλεια, και στην
επόμενη ενότητα θα βρούμε μερικούς καλούς λόγους για τους οποίους μια
μέθοδος θα ήθελε να αναφέρει τη δική της κλάση.

Κάθε τιμή είναι ένα αντικείμενο και επομένως έχει μια 'κλάση'
(ονομάζεται επίσης 'τύπος' της).  Αποθηκεύεται ως ‘object.__class__’.


File: python.info,  Node: Κληρονομικότητα,  Next: Ιδιωτικές Μεταβλητές,  Prev: Τυχαίες Παρατηρήσεις,  Up: Κλάσεις

2.9.5 Κληρονομικότητα
---------------------

Φυσικά, ένα χαρακτηριστικό γλώσσας δεν θα ήταν αντάξιο του ονόματος
«class» χωρίς την υποστήριξη της κληρονομικότητας.  Η σύνταξη για έναν
παραγόμενο ορισμό κλάσης μοιάζει με αυτό:

     class DerivedClassName(BaseClassName):
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

Το όνομα ‘BaseClassName’ πρέπει να οριστεί σε έναν χώρο ονομάτων
προσβάσιμο από το πεδίο που περιέχει τον παραγόμενο ορισμό κλάσης.  Στη
θέση ενός ονόματος βασικής κλάσης, επιτρέπονται και άλλες αυθαίρετες
εκφράσεις.  Αυτό μπορεί να είναι χρήσιμο, για παράδειγμα, όταν η βασική
κλάση ορίζεται σε άλλη module:

     class DerivedClassName(modname.BaseClassName):

Η εκτέλεση ενός παραγόμενου ορισμού κλάσης προχωρά το ίδιο όπως για μια
βασική κλάση.  Όταν το αντικείμενο της κλάσης κατασκευάζεται, η βασική
κλάση απομνημονεύεται.Αυτό χρησιμοποιείται για την επίλυση αναφορών
χαρακτηριστικών: εάν ένα ζητούμενο χαρακτηριστικό δεν βρεθεί στην κλάση,
η αναζήτηση προχωρά στην αναζήτηση στη βασική κλάση.  Αυτός ο κανόνας
εφαρμόζεται αναδρομικά εάν η ίδια η βασική κλάση προέρχεται από κάποια
άλλη κλάση.

Δεν υπάρχει τίποτα το ιδιαίτερο σχετικά με την δημιουργία στιγμιότυπου
παραγόμενων κλάσεων: ‘DerivedClassName()’ δημιουργεί ένα νέο στιγμιότυπο
της κλάσης.  Οι αναφορές μεθόδων επιλύονται ως εξής: γίνεται αναζήτηση
του αντίστοιχου χαρακτηριστικού κλάσης, κατεβαίνοντας προς τα κάτω στην
αλυσίδα των βασικών κλάσεων εάν είναι απαραίτητο, και η αναφορά της
μεθόδου είναι έγκυρη εάν αυτό αποδίδει ένα αντικείμενο συνάρτησης.

Οι παράγωγες κλάσεις ενδέχεται να παρακάμπτουν τις μεθόδους των βασικών
τους κλάσεων.  Επειδή οι μέθοδοι δεν έχουν ειδικά προνόμια όταν καλούν
άλλες μεθόδους του ίδιου αντικειμένου, μια μέθοδος μιας βασικής κλάσης
που καλεί μια άλλη μέθοδο που ορίζεται στην ίδια βασική κλάση μπορεί να
καταλήξει να καλεί μια μέθοδο μιας παραγόμενης κλάσης που την
αντικαθιστά.(Για προγραμματιστές C++: όλες οι μέθοδοι στην Python είναι
ουσιαστικά «εικονικές».)

Μια υπερισχύουσα μέθοδος σε μια παραγόμενη κλάση μπορεί στην
πραγματικότητα να θέλει να επεκτείνει αντί να αντικαταστήσει απλώς τη
μέθοδο βασικής κλάσης με το ίδιο όνομα.  Υπάρχει ένας απλός τρόπος για
να καλέσετε τη μέθοδο βασικής κλάσης απευθείας: απλώς καλέστε το
‘BaseClassName.methodname(self, arguments)’.  Αυτό είναι περιστασιακά
χρήσιμο στους χρήστες (Λάβετε υπόψη ότι αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο εάν η
βασική κλάση είναι προσβάσιμη ως ‘BaseClassName’ στην καθολική
εμβέλεια.)

Η Python έχει δύο (ενσωματωμένες) built-in συναρτήσεις που λειτουργούν
με κληρονομικότητα:

   * Χρησιμοποιήστε το *note isinstance(): 2ef. για να ελέγξετε τον τύπο
     ενός στιγμιότυπου: το ‘isinstance(obj, int)’ θα είναι ‘True’ μόνο
     εάν το ‘obj.__class__’ είναι *note int: 326. ή προέρχεται από
     κάποια κλάση από ‘int’.

   * Χρησιμοποιήστε το *note issubclass(): 2f0. για να ελέγξετε την
     κληρονομικότητα κλάσης: Το ‘issubclass(bool, int)’ είναι ‘True’
     αφού το *note bool: 5ef. είναι υποκλάση του *note int: 326.
     Ωστόσο, το ‘issubclass(float, int)’ είναι ‘False’ αφού το *note
     float: 327. δεν είναι υποκλάση του ‘int’.

* Menu:

* Πολλαπλή Κληρονομικότητα::


File: python.info,  Node: Πολλαπλή Κληρονομικότητα,  Up: Κληρονομικότητα

2.9.5.1 Πολλαπλή Κληρονομικότητα
................................

Η Python υποστηρίζει επίσης μια μορφή πολλαπλής κληρονομικότητας.  Ένας
ορισμός κλάσης με πολλαπλές βασικές κλάσεις μοιάζει με αυτό:

     class DerivedClassName(Base1, Base2, Base3):
         <statement-1>
         .
         .
         .
         <statement-N>

Για τους περισσότερους σκοπούς, στις πιο απλές περιπτώσεις, μπορείτε να
σκεφτείτε την αναζήτηση χαρακτηριστικών που κληρονομήθηκαν από μια
γονική κλάση ως depth-first, από αριστερά προς τα δεξιά, χωρίς αναζήτηση
δύο φορές στην ίδια κλάση όπου υπάρχει επικάλυψη στην ιεραρχία.  Έτσι,
εάν δεν βρεθεί ένα χαρακτηριστικό στο ‘DerivedClassName’, αναζητείται
στο ‘Base1’ και μετά (αναδρομικά) στις βασικές κλάσεις του ‘Base1’, και
αν δεν βρέθηκε εκεί,αναζητήθηκε στο ‘Base2’, και ούτω καθεξής.

Στην πραγματικότητα, είναι λίγο πιο περίπλοκο από αυτό.  Η σειρά
ανάλυσης της μεθόδου αλλάζει δυναμικά για να υποστηρίξει συνεργατικές
κλήσεις σε *note super(): 443.  Αυτή η προσέγγιση είναι γνωστή σε
ορισμένες άλλες γλώσσες πολλαπλής κληρονομικότητας ως call-next-method
και είναι πιο ισχυρή από τη σούπερ κλήση που βρίσκεται σε γλώσσες
μεμονωμένης κληρονομικότητας.

Η δυναμική σειρά είναι απαραίτητη επειδή όλες οι περιπτώσεις πολλαπλής
κληρονομικότητας εμφανίζουν μία ή περισσότερες σχέσεις διαμαντιών (όπου
τουλάχιστον μια από τις γονικές κλάσεις μπορεί να προσπελαστεί μέσω
πολλαπλών διαδρομών από την κατώτατη κλάση).  Για παράδειγμα, όλες οι
κλάσεις κληρονομούν από *note object: e4d, επομένως κάθε περίπτωση
πολλαπλής κληρονομικότητας παρέχει περισσότερες από μία διαδρομές για να
φτάσετε στο ‘object’.  Για να μην υπάρχει πρόσβαση στις βασικές κλάσεις
περισσότερες από μία φορές, ο δυναμικός αλγόριθμος γραμμικοποιεί τη
σειρά αναζήτησης με τρόπο που διατηρεί τη σειρά από αριστερά προς τα
δεξιά-που καθορίζεται σε κάθε κλάση, που καλεί κάθε γονέα μόνο μία φορά,
και που είναι μονότονος (που σημαίνει ότι μια κλάση μπορεί να γίνει
υπό-κλάση χωρίς να επηρεαστεί η σειρά προτεραιότητας των γονέων της).
Συνολικά, αυτές οι ιδιότητες καθιστούν δυνατό τον σχεδιασμό αξιόπιστων
και επεκτάσιμων κλάσεων με πολλαπλή κληρονομικότητα.  Για περισσότερες
λεπτομέρειες, δείτε *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 184c.

In some cases multiple inheritance is not allowed; see *note Multiple
inheritance: 2291. for details.


File: python.info,  Node: Ιδιωτικές Μεταβλητές,  Next: Μικροπράγματα,  Prev: Κληρονομικότητα,  Up: Κλάσεις

2.9.6 Ιδιωτικές Μεταβλητές
--------------------------

Οι μεταβλητές στιγμιοτύπου «Private» στις οποίες δεν είναι δυνατή η
πρόσβαση εκτός από το εσωτερικό ενός αντικειμένου,δεν υπάρχουν στην
Python.  Ωστόσο, υπάρχει μια σύμβαση που ακολουθείται από τον
περισσότερο Python κώδικα: ένα όνομα με πρόθεμα κάτω παύλα (π.χ.
‘_spam’) θα πρέπει να αντιμετωπίζεται ως μη δημόσιο μέρος του API (είτε
πρόκειται για συνάρτηση,μέθοδο ή μέλος δεδομένων).  Θα πρέπει να
θεωρείται ως λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης και υπόκειται σε αλλαγές χωρίς
προειδοποίηση.

Δεδομένου ότι υπάρχει μια έγκυρη περίπτωση χρήσης για ιδιωτικά μέλη της
κλάσης (δηλαδή για να αποφευχθούν συγκρούσεις ονομάτων με ονόματα που
ορίζονται από υποκλάσεις), υπάρχει περιορισμένη υποστήριξη για έναν
τέτοιο μηχανισμό, που ονομάζεται 'name mangling'.  Οποιοδήποτε
αναγνωριστικό της φόρμας ‘__spam’ (τουλάχιστον δύο προπορευόμενες κάτω
παύλες, το πολύ μια στη συνέχεια κάτω παύλα) αντικαθίσταται με κείμενο
με το ‘_classname__spam’, όπου το ‘classname’ είναι το όνομα της
τρέχουσας τάξης με την πρώτη υπογράμμιση stripped.  Αυτό το mangling
γίνεται χωρίς να λαμβάνεται υπόψη η συντακτική θέση του του
αναγνωριστικού, αρκεί να εμφανίζεται εντός του ορισμού μιας κλάσης.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Οι *note προδιαγραφές παραποίησης ιδιωτικού ονόματος: 2293. για
λεπτομέρειες και ειδικές περιπτώσεις.

Η παραβίαση ονομάτων είναι χρήσιμη για να επιτρέπεται στις υποκλάσεις να
παρακάμπτουν μεθόδους χωρίς να διακόπτουν τις κλήσεις μεθόδων
ενδοκλάσεων.  Για παράδειγμα:

     class Mapping:
         def __init__(self, iterable):
             self.items_list = []
             self.__update(iterable)

         def update(self, iterable):
             for item in iterable:
                 self.items_list.append(item)

         __update = update   # private copy of original update() method

     class MappingSubclass(Mapping):

         def update(self, keys, values):
             # provides new signature for update()
             # but does not break __init__()
             for item in zip(keys, values):
                 self.items_list.append(item)

Το παραπάνω παράδειγμα θα λειτουργούσε ακόμα και αν το ‘MappingSubclass’
εισήγαγε ένα αναγνωριστικό ‘__update’ αφού αντικαταστάθηκε με το
‘_Mapping__update’ στην κλάση ‘Mapping’ και με το
‘_MappingSubclass__update’ στη κλάση ‘MappingSubclass’ αντίστοιχα.

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι οι κανόνες παραβίασης έχουν σχεδιαστεί κυρίως για την
αποφυγή ατυχημάτων.Εξακολουθεί να είναι δυνατή η πρόσβαση ή η
τροποποίηση μιας μεταβλητής που θεωρείται ιδιωτική.  Αυτό μπορεί να
είναι χρήσιμο ακόμη και σε ειδικές περιπτώσεις, όπως στο πρόγραμμα
εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων(debugger).

Σημειώστε ότι ο κώδικας που μεταβιβάστηκε στο ‘exec()’ ή στο ‘eval()’
δεν θεωρεί ότι το το όνομα κλάσης της κλάσης επίκλησης να είναι η
τρέχουσα κλάση.  Αυτό είναι παρόμοιο με το αποτέλεσμα της ‘καθολικής’
δήλωσης , το αποτέλεσμα της οποίας επίσης περιορίζεται στον κώδικα που
έχει μεταγλωττιστεί μαζί(byte-compiled).  Ο ίδιος περιορισμός ισχύει για
τα ‘getattr()’, ‘setattr()’ και ‘delattr()’, καθώς και όταν γίνεται
αναφορά απευθείας στο ‘__dict__’.


File: python.info,  Node: Μικροπράγματα,  Next: Επαναλήπτες,  Prev: Ιδιωτικές Μεταβλητές,  Up: Κλάσεις

2.9.7 Μικροπράγματα
-------------------

Μερικές φορές είναι χρήσιμο να έχετε έναν τύπο δεδομένων παρόμοιο με τον
Pascal «record» ή C «struct», ομαδοποιώντας μερικά επώνυμα στοιχεία
δεδομένων.  Η ιδιωματική προσέγγιση είναι η χρήση *note dataclasses: 32.
για αυτόν τον σκοπό:

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass
     class Employee:
         name: str
         dept: str
         salary: int

     >>> john = Employee('john', 'computer lab', 1000)
     >>> john.dept
     'computer lab'
     >>> john.salary
     1000

Ένα κομμάτι κώδικα Python που αναμένει έναν συγκεκριμένο αφηρημένο τύπο
δεδομένων μπορεί συχνά να περάσει σε μια κλάση που μιμείται τις μεθόδους
αυτού του τύπου δεδομένων.  Για παράδειγμα, εάν έχετε μια συνάρτηση που
μορφοποιεί ορισμένα δεδομένα από ένα αντικείμενο αρχείου, μπορείτε να
ορίσετε μια κλάση με μεθόδους *note read(): 225b. και *note readline():
2296. που λαμβάνουν τα δεδομένα από ένα buffer συμβολοσειρών αντ” αυτού,
και περάστε το ως όρισμα.

*note Instance method objects: 2297. έχουν επίσης χαρακτηριστικά: *note
m.__self__: 176b. είναι το αντικείμενο παρουσίας με τη μέθοδο ‘m()’, και
*note m.__func__: 16a1. είναι το *note αντικείμενο συνάρτησης: 79b. που
αντιστοιχεί στη μέθοδο.


File: python.info,  Node: Επαναλήπτες,  Next: Γεννήτορες Generators,  Prev: Μικροπράγματα,  Up: Κλάσεις

2.9.8 Επαναλήπτες
-----------------

Μέχρι τώρα πιθανότατα έχετε παρατηρήσει ότι τα περισσότερα αντικείμενα
container μπορούν να επαναληφθούν χρησιμοποιώντας μια δήλωση *note for:
321.:

     for element in [1, 2, 3]:
         print(element)
     for element in (1, 2, 3):
         print(element)
     for key in {'one':1, 'two':2}:
         print(key)
     for char in "123":
         print(char)
     for line in open("myfile.txt"):
         print(line, end='')

Αυτό το στυλ πρόσβασης είναι σαφές, συνοπτικό και βολικό.  Η χρήση των
Iterators διαπερνά και ενοποιεί την Python.  Στο παρασκήνιο, η δήλωση
*note for: 321. καλεί *note iter(): bb4. στο αντικείμενο container.  Η
συνάρτηση επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο iterator που ορίζει τη μέθοδο *note
__next__(): 1672. η οποία έχει πρόσβαση σε στοιχεία στο container ένα
κάθε φορά.  Όταν δεν υπάρχουν άλλα στοιχεία, το ‘__next__()’ δημιουργεί
μια *note StopIteration: fba. εξαίρεση που λέει τον βρόχο ‘for’ να
τερματιστεί.  Μπορείτε να καλέσετε τη μέθοδο ‘__next__()’
χρησιμοποιώντας την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note next(): bb5.  Αυτό το
παράδειγμα δείχνει πώς λειτουργούν όλα:

     >>> s = 'abc'
     >>> it = iter(s)
     >>> it
     <str_iterator object at 0x10c90e650>
     >>> next(it)
     'a'
     >>> next(it)
     'b'
     >>> next(it)
     'c'
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         next(it)
     StopIteration

Έχοντας δει τους μηχανισμούς πίσω από το πρωτόκολλο iterator, είναι
εύκολο να προσθέσετε συμπεριφορά iterator στις κλάσεις σας.  Ορίστε μια
μέθοδο *note __iter__(): 229a. που επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο με μια
μέθοδο *note __next__(): 1672.  Εάν η κλάση ορίζει ‘__next__()’, τότε το
‘__iter__()’ μπορεί απλώς να επιστρέψει ‘self’:

     class Reverse:
         """Iterator for looping over a sequence backwards."""
         def __init__(self, data):
             self.data = data
             self.index = len(data)

         def __iter__(self):
             return self

         def __next__(self):
             if self.index == 0:
                 raise StopIteration
             self.index = self.index - 1
             return self.data[self.index]

     >>> rev = Reverse('spam')
     >>> iter(rev)
     <__main__.Reverse object at 0x00A1DB50>
     >>> for char in rev:
     ...     print(char)
     ...
     m
     a
     p
     s


File: python.info,  Node: Γεννήτορες Generators,  Next: Εκφράσεις Γεννήτορων,  Prev: Επαναλήπτες,  Up: Κλάσεις

2.9.9 Γεννήτορες (Generators)
-----------------------------

*note Generators: 1409. είναι ένα απλό και ισχυρό εργαλείο για τη
δημιουργία iterators.  Είναι γραμμένες σαν κανονικές συναρτήσεις αλλά
χρησιμοποιούν τη *note yield: d93. όποτε θέλουν να επιστρέψουν δεδομένα.
Κάθε φορά που καλείται *note next(): bb5. σε αυτό, ο generator συνεχίζει
από εκεί που σταμάτησε (θυμάται όλες τις τιμές δεδομένων και ποια δήλωση
εκτελέστηκε τελευταία).  Ένα παράδειγμα δείχνει ότι οι generators μπορεί
να είναι ασήμαντα εύκολο να δημιουργηθούν:

     def reverse(data):
         for index in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1):
             yield data[index]

     >>> for char in reverse('golf'):
     ...     print(char)
     ...
     f
     l
     o
     g

Οτιδήποτε μπορεί να γίνει με generators μπορεί να γίνει και με iterators
που βασίζονται σε κλάσεις, όπως περιγράφεται στην προηγούμενη ενότητα.
Αυτό που κάνει τους generators τόσο συμπαγείς είναι ότι οι μέθοδοι *note
__iter__(): 229d. και *note __next__(): 229e. δημιουργούνται αυτόματα.

Ένα άλλο βασικό χαρακτηριστικό είναι ότι οι τοπικές μεταβλητές και η
κατάσταση εκτέλεσης αποθηκεύονται αυτόματα μεταξύ των κλήσεων.  Αυτό
έκανε τη συνάρτηση πιο εύκολη στην γραφή και πολύ πιο ξεκάθαρη από μια
προσέγγιση που χρησιμοποιεί μεταβλητές παράδειγμα όπως ‘self.index’ και
‘self.data’.

Εκτός από την αυτόματη δημιουργία μεθόδου και την αποθήκευση της
κατάστασης του προγράμματος, όταν οι generators τερματίζονται, εγείρουν
αυτόματα την εξαίρεση *note StopIteration: fba.  Σε συνδυασμό, αυτά τα
χαρακτηριστικά καθιστούν εύκολη τη δημιουργία επαναλήψεων χωρίς
περισσότερη προσπάθεια από τη σύνταξη μιας κανονικής συνάρτησης.


File: python.info,  Node: Εκφράσεις Γεννήτορων,  Prev: Γεννήτορες Generators,  Up: Κλάσεις

2.9.10 Εκφράσεις Γεννήτορων
---------------------------

Ορισμένοι απλοί generators μπορούν να κωδικοποιηθούν συνοπτικά ως
εκφράσεις χρησιμοποιώντας μια σύνταξη παρόμοια με τις list
comprehensions, αλλά με παρενθέσεις αντί για αγκύλες.  Αυτές οι
εκφράσεις έχουν σχεδιαστεί για καταστάσεις όπου ο generator
χρησιμοποιείται αμέσως από μια περικλείουσα συνάρτηση.  Οι εκφράσεις
generator είναι πιο συμπαγείς αλλά λιγότερο ευέλικτες από τους ορισμούς
πλήρους generator και τείνουν να είναι περισσότερο φιλικό προς τη μνήμη
από αντίστοιχα list comprehensions.

Παραδείγματα:

     >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))                 # sum of squares
     285

     >>> xvec = [10, 20, 30]
     >>> yvec = [7, 5, 3]
     >>> sum(x*y for x,y in zip(xvec, yvec))         # dot product
     260

     >>> unique_words = set(word for line in page  for word in line.split())

     >>> valedictorian = max((student.gpa, student.name) for student in graduates)

     >>> data = 'golf'
     >>> list(data[i] for i in range(len(data)-1, -1, -1))
     ['f', 'l', 'o', 'g']

     >>> x = [[1,2,3], [], [4, 5]]
     >>> g = (*i for i in x)
     >>> list(g)
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

In most cases, generator expressions must be wrapped in parentheses.  As
a special case, however, when provided as the sole argument to a
function (as in the examples involving ‘sum’, ‘set’, ‘max’, and ‘list’
above), the generator expression does not need to be wrapped in an
additional set of parentheses.  That is to say, the following two pieces
of code are semantically equivalent:

     >>> f(x for x in y)
     >>> f((x for x in y))

as are the following:

     >>> f(*x for x in y)
     >>> f((*x for x in y))

Υποσημειώσεις
.............


File: python.info,  Node: Brief tour of the standard library,  Next: Brief tour of the standard library — part II,  Prev: Κλάσεις,  Up: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python

2.10 Brief tour of the standard library
=======================================

* Menu:

* Operating system interface::
* File wildcards::
* Command-line arguments::
* Error output redirection and program termination::
* String pattern matching::
* Μαθηματικά::
* Internet access::
* Dates and times::
* Data compression::
* Performance measurement::
* Quality control::
* Batteries included::


File: python.info,  Node: Operating system interface,  Next: File wildcards,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library

2.10.1 Operating system interface
---------------------------------

Το module *note os: a5. παρέχει δεκάδες λειτουργίες για αλληλεπίδραση με
το λειτουργικό σύστημα:

     >>> import os
     >>> os.getcwd()      # Return the current working directory
     'C:\\Python316'
     >>> os.chdir('/server/accesslogs')   # Change current working directory
     >>> os.system('mkdir today')   # Run the command mkdir in the system shell
     0

Βεβαιωθείτε ότι χρησιμοποιείτε το στυλ ‘import os’ αντί για το ‘from os
import *’.  Αυτό θα κρατήσει το *note os.open(): 114b. υπό τη σκίαση της
ενσωματωμένης συνάρτησης *note open(): 32b. που λειτουργεί πολύ
διαφορετικά.

Οι ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις *note dir(): a23. και *note help(): ca9.
είναι χρήσιμες ως διαδραστικά βοηθήματα για εργασία με μεγάλα modules
όπως *note os: a5.:

     >>> import os
     >>> dir(os)
     <επιστρέφει μια λίστα από όλες τις συναρτήσεις module>
     >>> help(os)
     <επιστρέφει μια εκτενή σελίδα εγχειριδίου που δημιουργήθηκε από τα docstrings του module>

Για καθημερινές διαχειριστικές εργασίες σε αρχεία και καταλόγους, το
module *note shutil: cd. παρέχει μια διεπαφή υψηλότερου επιπέδου που
είναι πιο εύκολη στην χρήση:

     >>> import shutil
     >>> shutil.copyfile('data.db', 'archive.db')
     'archive.db'
     >>> shutil.move('/build/executables', 'installdir')
     'installdir'


File: python.info,  Node: File wildcards,  Next: Command-line arguments,  Prev: Operating system interface,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library

2.10.2 File wildcards
---------------------

Το module *note glob: 67. παρέχει μια λειτουργία για τη δημιουργία
λιστών αρχείων από αναζητήσεις με χαρακτήρες μπαλαντέρ καταλόγου:

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('*.py')
     ['primes.py', 'random.py', 'quote.py']


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line arguments,  Next: Error output redirection and program termination,  Prev: File wildcards,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library

2.10.3 Command-line arguments
-----------------------------

Τα κοινά scripts βοηθητικών προγραμμάτων συχνά χρειάζονται να
επεξεργάζονται ορίσματα γραμμής εντολών.  Αυτά τα ορίσματα αποθηκεύονται
στο χαρακτηριστικό 'argv' του module *note sys: e2. ως λίστα.  Για
παράδειγμα, ας πάρουμε το ακόλουθο αρχείο ‘demo.py’:

     # File demo.py
     import sys
     print(sys.argv)

Εδώ είναι το αποτέλεσμα από την εκτέλεση του ‘python demo.py one two
three’ στη γραμμή εντολών:

     ['demo.py', 'one', 'two', 'three']

Το module *note argparse: 7. παρέχει έναν πιο εξελιγμένο μηχανισμό για
την επεξεργασία ορισμάτων γραμμής εντολών.  Το ακόλουθο script εξάγει
ένα ή περισσότερα ονόματα αρχείων και έναν προαιρετικό αριθμό γραμμών
που θα εμφανιστούν:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
         prog='top',
         description='Show top lines from each file')
     parser.add_argument('filenames', nargs='+')
     parser.add_argument('-l', '--lines', type=int, default=10)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args)

Όταν εκτελείται στη γραμμή εντολών το ‘python top.py --lines=5 alpha.txt
beta.txt’, το script ορίζει το ‘args.lines’ σε ‘5’ και το
‘args.filenames’ σε ‘['alpha.txt', 'beta.txt']’.


File: python.info,  Node: Error output redirection and program termination,  Next: String pattern matching,  Prev: Command-line arguments,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library

2.10.4 Error output redirection and program termination
-------------------------------------------------------

Το module *note sys: e2. έχει επίσης χαρακτηριστικά για 'stdin',
'stdout', και 'stderr'.  Το τελευταίο είναι χρήσιμο για την εκπομπή
προειδοποιήσεων και μηνυμάτων σφαλμάτων ώστε να είναι ορατά ακόμα και
όταν το 'stdout' έχει ανακατευθυνθεί:

     >>> sys.stderr.write('Warning, log file not found starting a new one\n')
     Warning, log file not found starting a new one

Ο πιο άμεσος τρόπος για να τερματίσετε ένα script είναι να
χρησιμοποιήσετε το ‘sys.exit()’.


File: python.info,  Node: String pattern matching,  Next: Μαθηματικά,  Prev: Error output redirection and program termination,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library

2.10.5 String pattern matching
------------------------------

Το module *note re: c1. παρέχει εργαλεία κανονική έκφρασης για προηγμένη
επεξεργασία συμβολοσειρών.  Για πολύπλοκη αντιστοίχιση και χειρισμό, οι
τυπικές εκφράσεις προσφέρουν συνοπτικές, βελτιστοποιημένες λύσεις:

     >>> import re
     >>> re.findall(r'\bf[a-z]*', 'which foot or hand fell fastest')
     ['foot', 'fell', 'fastest']
     >>> re.sub(r'(\b[a-z]+) \1', r'\1', 'cat in the the hat')
     'cat in the hat'

Όταν χρειάζονται μόνο απλές δυνατότητες, προτιμώνται οι μέθοδοι
συμβολοσειρών, επειδή είναι ευκολότερες στην ανάγνωση και τον εντοπισμό
σφαλμάτων:

     >>> 'tea for too'.replace('too', 'two')
     'tea for two'


File: python.info,  Node: Μαθηματικά,  Next: Internet access,  Prev: String pattern matching,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library

2.10.6 Μαθηματικά
-----------------

Το module *note math: 91. δίνει πρόσβαση στις υποκείμενες συναρτήσεις
της βιβλιοθήκης C για μαθηματικά κινητής υποδιαστολής:

     >>> import math
     >>> math.cos(math.pi / 4)
     0.70710678118654757
     >>> math.log(1024, 2)
     10.0

Το module *note random: c0. παρέχει εργαλεία για να κάνουμε τυχαίες
επιλογές:

     >>> import random
     >>> random.choice(['apple', 'pear', 'banana'])
     'apple'
     >>> random.sample(range(100), 10)   # sampling without replacement
     [30, 83, 16, 4, 8, 81, 41, 50, 18, 33]
     >>> random.random()    # random float from the interval [0.0, 1.0)
     0.17970987693706186
     >>> random.randrange(6)    # random integer chosen from range(6)
     4

Το module *note statistics: da. υπολογίζει βασικές στατιστικές ιδιότητες
(μέσος όρος, διάμεσος, διακύμανση, κ.λπ.)  αριθμητικών δεδομένων:

     >>> import statistics
     >>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
     >>> statistics.mean(data)
     1.6071428571428572
     >>> statistics.median(data)
     1.25
     >>> statistics.variance(data)
     1.3720238095238095

Το έργο SciPy <‘https://scipy.org’> έχει πολλές άλλες ενότητες για
αριθμητικούς υπολογισμούς.


File: python.info,  Node: Internet access,  Next: Dates and times,  Prev: Μαθηματικά,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library

2.10.7 Internet access
----------------------

Υπάρχει ένας αριθμός modules για πρόσβαση στο διαδίκτυο και επεξεργασία
πρωτοκόλλων διαδικτύου.  Δύο από τα πιο απλά είναι το *note
urllib.request: 114. για να την ανάκτηση δεδομένων από διευθύνσεις URL
και το *note smtplib: d2. για την αποστολή αλληλογραφίας:

     >>> from urllib.request import urlopen
     >>> with urlopen('https://docs.python.org/3/') as response:
     ...     for line in response:
     ...         line = line.decode()             # Convert bytes to a str
     ...         if 'updated' in line:
     ...             print(line.rstrip())         # Remove trailing newline
     ...
           Last updated on Nov 11, 2025 (20:11 UTC).

     >>> import smtplib
     >>> server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     >>> server.sendmail('soothsayer@example.org', 'jcaesar@example.org',
     ... """To: jcaesar@example.org
     ... From: soothsayer@example.org
     ...
     ... Beware the Ides of March.
     ... """)
     >>> server.quit()

(Σημειώστε ότι το δεύτερο παράδειγμα χρειάζεται διακομιστή αλληλογραφίας
που εκτελείται σε localhost.)


File: python.info,  Node: Dates and times,  Next: Data compression,  Prev: Internet access,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library

2.10.8 Dates and times
----------------------

Το module *note datetime: 33. παρέχει κλάσεις για χειρισμό ημερομηνιών
και ωρών με απλούς και σύνθετους τρόπους.  Ενώ υποστηρίζεται η
αριθμητική ημερομηνία και ώρα, η υλοποίηση εστιάζεται στην
αποτελεσματική εξαγωγή μελών για μορφοποίηση και χειρισμό εξόδου.  Το
module επίσης υποστηρίζει αντικείμενα που έχουν επίγνωση ζώνης ώρας.

     >>> # dates are easily constructed and formatted
     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> now = dt.date.today()
     >>> now
     datetime.date(2003, 12, 2)
     >>> now.strftime("%m-%d-%y. %d %b %Y is a %A on the %d day of %B.")
     '12-02-03. 02 Dec 2003 is a Tuesday on the 02 day of December.'

     >>> # dates support calendar arithmetic
     >>> birthday = dt.date(1964, 7, 31)
     >>> age = now - birthday
     >>> age.days
     14368


File: python.info,  Node: Data compression,  Next: Performance measurement,  Prev: Dates and times,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library

2.10.9 Data compression
-----------------------

Οι συνήθεις μορφές αρχειοθέτησης και συμπίεσης δεδομένων υποστηρίζονται
άμεσα από modules όπως: *note zlib: 13c, *note gzip: 6a, *note bz2: 14,
*note lzma: 8d, *note zipfile: 13a. και *note tarfile: e7.

     >>> import zlib
     >>> s = b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
     >>> len(s)
     41
     >>> t = zlib.compress(s)
     >>> len(t)
     37
     >>> zlib.decompress(t)
     b'witch which has which witches wrist watch'
     >>> zlib.crc32(s)
     226805979


File: python.info,  Node: Performance measurement,  Next: Quality control,  Prev: Data compression,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library

2.10.10 Performance measurement
-------------------------------

Ορισμένοι χρήστες Python αναπτύσσουν βαθύ ενδιαφέρον να γνωρίζουν τη
σχετική απόδοση διαφορετικών προσεγγίσεων στο ίδιο πρόβλημα.  Η Python
παρέχει ένα εργαλείο μέτρησης που απαντά σε αυτές τις ερωτήσεις αμέσως.

Για παράδειγμα, μπορεί να είναι δελεαστικό να χρησιμοποιήσετε τη
δυνατότητα tuple packing και unpacking αντί της παραδοσιακής προσέγγισης
για την εναλλαγή ορισμάτων.  Το module *note timeit: f8. δείχνει γρήγορα
ένα ταπεινό πλεονέκτημα απόδοσης:

     >>> from timeit import Timer
     >>> Timer('t=a; a=b; b=t', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
     0.57535828626024577
     >>> Timer('a,b = b,a', 'a=1; b=2').timeit()
     0.54962537085770791

Σε αντίθεση με το λεπτό επίπεδο ευκρίνειας του *note timeit: f8, τα
modules *note profile: b4. και *note pstats: b8. παρέχουν εργαλεία για
τον εντοπισμό κρίσιμων χρονικών τμημάτων σε μεγαλύτερα μπλοκ κώδικα.


File: python.info,  Node: Quality control,  Next: Batteries included,  Prev: Performance measurement,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library

2.10.11 Quality control
-----------------------

Μια καλή προσέγγιση για την ανάπτυξη λογισμικού υψηλής ποιότητας είναι
να γράφονται tests για κάθε λειτουργία καθώς αναπτύσσεται και να
εκτελούνται συχνά αυτά τα tests κατά τη διαδικασία ανάπτυξης.

Το module *note doctest: 3d. παρέχει ένα εργαλείο για τη σάρωση ενός
module και την επικύρωση tests που είναι ενσωματωμένες στις
συμβολοσειρές εγγράφων ενός προγράμματος.  Η κατασκευή του test είναι
τόσο απλή όσο η αποκοπή και επικόλληση μιας τυπικής κλήσης μαζί με τα
αποτελέσματα της στη συμβολοσειρά εγγράφων.  Αυτό βελτιώνει την
τεκμηρίωση παρέχοντας στον χρήστη ένα παράδειγμα και επιτρέπει στην
ενότητα doctest να βεβαιωθεί ότι ο κώδικας παραμένει πιστός στην
τεκμηρίωση:

     def average(values):
         """Υπολογίζει έναν αριθμητικό μέσο για μια λίστα από αριθμούς.

         >>> print(average([20, 30, 70]))
         40.0
         """
         return sum(values) / len(values)

     import doctest
     doctest.testmod()   # automatically validate the embedded tests

Το module *note unittest: 10f. δεν είναι τόσο εύκολο όσο το module *note
doctest: 3d, αλλά επιτρέπει τη διατήρηση ενός πιο ολοκληρωμένου συνόλου
tests σε ξεχωριστό αρχείο:

     import unittest

     class TestStatisticalFunctions(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_average(self):
             self.assertEqual(average([20, 30, 70]), 40.0)
             self.assertEqual(round(average([1, 5, 7]), 1), 4.3)
             with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError):
                 average([])
             with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
                 average(20, 30, 70)

     unittest.main()  # Calling from the command line invokes all tests


File: python.info,  Node: Batteries included,  Prev: Quality control,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library

2.10.12 Batteries included
--------------------------

Η Python έχει μια φιλοσοφία «συμπεριλαμβάνονται μπαταρίες».  Αυτό
φαίνεται καλύτερα μέσα από τις εξελιγμένες και ισχυρές δυνατότητες των
μεγαλύτερων πακέτων της.  Για παράδειγμα:

   * Τα modules *note xmlrpc.client: 137. και *note xmlrpc.server: 138.
     καθιστούν την υλοποίηση κλήσεων απομακρυσμένων διαδικασιών σε μια
     σχεδόν ασήμαντη εργασία.  Παρά τα ονόματα των modules, δεν
     απαιτείται άμεση γνώση ή χειρισμός της XML.

   * Το πακέτο *note email: 3e. είναι μια βιβλιοθήκη για τη διαχείριση
     μηνυμάτων ηλεκτρονικού ταχυδρομείου, συμπεριλαμβανομένων MIME και
     άλλων μηνυμάτων εγγράφων που βασίζονται σε RFC 5322(1).  Σε
     αντίθεση με τα *note smtplib: d2. και *note poplib: b1. που στην
     πραγματικότητα στέλνουν και λαμβάνουν μηνύματα, το πακέτο email
     έχει ένα πλήρες σύνολο εργαλείων για τη δημιουργία ή την
     αποκωδικοποίηση πολύπλοκων δομών μηνυμάτων (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των
     συνημμένων) και για την εφαρμογή κωδικοποίηση και πρωτόκολλο
     κεφαλίδων στο διαδίκτυο.

   * Το πακέτο *note json: 85. παρέχει ισχυρή υποστήριξη για την ανάλυση
     αυτής της δημοφιλούς μορφής ανταλλαγής δεδομένων.  Το module *note
     csv: 2c. υποστηρίζει την άμεση ανάγνωση και εγγραφή αρχείων σε
     μορφή τιμής διαχωρισμένου με κόμματα, που συνήθως υποστηρίζεται από
     βάσεις δεδομένων και υπολογιστικά φύλλα.  Η XML επεξεργασία
     υποστηρίζεται από τα πακέτα *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e, *note
     xml.dom: 12a. και *note xml.sax: 132.  Μαζί, αυτές οι μονάδες και
     τα πακέτα απλοποιούν σημαντικά την ανταλλαγή δεδομένων μεταξύ
     εφαρμογών Python και άλλων εργαλείων.

   * Το module *note sqlite3: d7. αποτελεί έναν wrapper για τη
     βιβλιοθήκη της βάσης δεδομένων SQLite, παρέχοντας μια συνεχής βάση
     δεδομένων που μπορεί να ενημερωθεί και να προσπελαστεί
     χρησιμοποιώντας ελαφρώς μη τυπική σύνταξη SQL.

   * Η διεθνοποίηση υποστηρίζεται από έναν αριθμό modules,
     συμπεριλαμβανομένων των *note gettext: 66, *note locale: 89, και το
     πακέτο *note codecs: 1c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: Brief tour of the standard library — part II,  Next: Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα και πακέτα,  Prev: Brief tour of the standard library,  Up: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python

2.11 Brief tour of the standard library — part II
=================================================

Αυτή η δεύτερη περιήγηση καλύπτει τα πιο προηγμένα modules που
υποστηρίζουν επαγγελματικές ανάγκες προγραμματισμού.  Αυτά τα modules
σπάνια εμφανίζονται σε μικρά scripts.

* Menu:

* Output formatting::
* Templating::
* Working with binary data record layouts::
* Multi-threading: Multi-threading<2>.
* Logging::
* Weak references::
* Tools for working with lists::
* Decimal floating-point arithmetic::


File: python.info,  Node: Output formatting,  Next: Templating,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library — part II

2.11.1 Output formatting
------------------------

Το module *note reprlib: c3. παρέχει μια έκδοση του *note repr(): 45b.
προσαρμοσμένη για συντομευμένες εμφανίσεις μεγάλων ή βαθιά ένθετων
containers:

     >>> import reprlib
     >>> reprlib.repr(set('supercalifragilisticexpialidocious'))
     "{'a', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', ...}"

Το module *note pprint: b3. προσφέρει πιο εξελιγμένο έλεγχο της
εκτύπωσης τόσο των ενσωματωμένων (built-in) και των καθορισμένων από τον
χρήστη αντικειμένων με τρόπο που είναι ευανάγνωστο από τον διερμηνέα.
Όταν το αποτέλεσμα είναι μεγαλύτερο από μία γραμμή, ο «pretty printer»
προσθέτει αλλαγές γραμμής και εσοχές για να εμφανιστεί πιο ξεκάθαρα η
δομή δεδομένων:

     >>> import pprint
     >>> t = [[[['black', 'cyan'], 'white', ['green', 'red']], [['magenta',
     ...     'yellow'], 'blue']]]
     ...
     >>> pprint.pprint(t, width=30)
     [
         [
             [
                 ['black', 'cyan'],
                 'white',
                 ['green', 'red'],
             ],
             [
                 [
                     'magenta',
                     'yellow',
                 ],
                 'blue',
             ],
         ],
     ]

Το module *note textwrap: f5. μορφοποιεί τις παραγράφους του κειμένου
ώστε να ταιριάζει σε ένα δεδομένο πλάτος οθόνης:

     >>> import textwrap
     >>> doc = """The wrap() method is just like fill() except that it returns
     ... a list of strings instead of one big string with newlines to separate
     ... the wrapped lines."""
     ...
     >>> print(textwrap.fill(doc, width=40))
     The wrap() method is just like fill()
     except that it returns a list of strings
     instead of one big string with newlines
     to separate the wrapped lines.

Το module *note locale: 89. έχει πρόσβαση σε μια βάση δεδομένων μορφών
δεδομένων συγκεκριμένης κουλτούρας.  Το χαρακτηριστικό ομαδοποίησης της
συνάρτησης μορφοποίησης της τοπικής ρύθμισης παρέχει έναν άμεσο τρόπο
μορφοποίησης αριθμών με διαχωριστικά ομάδων:

     >>> import locale
     >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'English_United States.1252')
     'English_United States.1252'
     >>> conv = locale.localeconv()          # get a mapping of conventions
     >>> x = 1234567.8
     >>> locale.format_string("%d", x, grouping=True)
     '1,234,567'
     >>> locale.format_string("%s%.*f", (conv['currency_symbol'],
     ...                      conv['frac_digits'], x), grouping=True)
     '$1,234,567.80'


File: python.info,  Node: Templating,  Next: Working with binary data record layouts,  Prev: Output formatting,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library — part II

2.11.2 Templating
-----------------

Το module *note string: db. περιλαμβάνει μια ευέλικτη κλάση *note
Template: a77. με απλοποιημένη σύνταξη κατάλληλη για επεξεργασία από
τελικούς χρήστες.  Αυτό επιτρέπει στους χρήστες να προσαρμόζουν τις
εφαρμογές τους χωρίς να χρειάζεται να αλλάξουν την εφαρμογή.

Η μορφή χρησιμοποιεί ονόματα κράτησης θέσης που σχηματίζονται από ‘$’ με
έγκυρα αναγνωριστικά Python (αλφαριθμητικούς χαρακτήρες και κάτω
παύλες).  Περιβάλλοντας το placeholder με αγκύλες επιτρέπει να
ακολουθείται από περισσότερα αλφαριθμητικά γράμματα χωρίς ενδιάμεσα
κενά.  Γράφοντας ‘$$’ δημιουργεί ένα ενιαίο ‘$’:

     >>> from string import Template
     >>> t = Template('${village}folk send $$10 to $cause.')
     >>> t.substitute(village='Nottingham', cause='the ditch fund')
     'Nottinghamfolk send $10 to the ditch fund.'

Η μέθοδος *note substitute(): 22c5. κάνει raise ένα *note KeyError: 7df.
όταν ένα placeholder δεν παρέχεται σε ένα λεξικό ή ένα όρισμα
λέξης-κλειδιού.  Για εφαρμογές στυλ συγχώνευσης mail, τα δεδομένα που
παρέχονται από τον χρήστη ενδέχεται να είναι ελλιπή και η μέθοδος *note
safe_substitute(): 22c6. μπορεί να είναι πιο κατάλληλη — θα αφήσει
αμετάβλητα τα placeholders εάν λείπουν δεδομένα:

     >>> t = Template('Return the $item to $owner.')
     >>> d = dict(item='unladen swallow')
     >>> t.substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError: 'owner'
     >>> t.safe_substitute(d)
     'Return the unladen swallow to $owner.'

Οι υποκατηγορίες προτύπων μπορούν να καθορίσουν έναν προσαρμοσμένο
οριοθέτη.  Για παράδειγμα, ένα batch πρόγραμμα μετονομασίας για ένα
πρόγραμμα περιήγησης φωτογραφιών μπορεί να επιλέξει να χρησιμοποιεί
σύμβολα ποσοστού για placeholders όπως η τρέχουσα ημερομηνία, ο αριθμός
ακολουθίας εικόνων ή η μορφή αρχείου:

     >>> import time, os.path
     >>> photofiles = ['img_1074.jpg', 'img_1076.jpg', 'img_1077.jpg']
     >>> class BatchRename(Template):
     ...     delimiter = '%'
     ...
     >>> fmt = input('Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  ')
     Enter rename style (%d-date %n-seqnum %f-format):  Ashley_%n%f

     >>> t = BatchRename(fmt)
     >>> date = time.strftime('%d%b%y')
     >>> for i, filename in enumerate(photofiles):
     ...     base, ext = os.path.splitext(filename)
     ...     newname = t.substitute(d=date, n=i, f=ext)
     ...     print('{0} --> {1}'.format(filename, newname))

     img_1074.jpg --> Ashley_0.jpg
     img_1076.jpg --> Ashley_1.jpg
     img_1077.jpg --> Ashley_2.jpg

Μια άλλη εφαρμογή για templating είναι ο διαχωρισμός της λογικής του
προγράμματος από τις λεπτομέρειες πολλαπλών μορφών εξόδου.  Αυτό καθιστά
δυνατή την αντικατάσταση προσαρμοσμένων προτύπων για αρχεία XML,
αναφορές απλού κειμένου και αναφορές ιστού HTML.


File: python.info,  Node: Working with binary data record layouts,  Next: Multi-threading<2>,  Prev: Templating,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library — part II

2.11.3 Working with binary data record layouts
----------------------------------------------

Το module *note struct: de. παρέχει τις συναρτήσεις *note pack(): 161b.
και *note unpack(): 1a82. για εργασία με μορφές δυαδικών (binary)
εγγραφών μεταβλητού μήκους.  Το ακόλουθο παράδειγμα δείχνει πως να
κάνετε μια λούπα μέσω των πληροφοριών κεφαλίδας στο ένα αρχείο ZIP χωρίς
τη χρήση του module *note zipfile: 13a.  Οι κωδικοί πακέτου ‘"H"’ και
‘"I"’ αντιπροσωπεύουν αριθμούς χωρίς υπογραφή δύο και τεσσάρων byte
αντίστοιχα.  Το ‘"<"’ υποδηλώνει ότι είναι τυπικού μεγέθους και σε σειρά
byte λίγο endian:

     import struct

     with open('myfile.zip', 'rb') as f:
         data = f.read()

     start = 0
     for i in range(3):                      # show the first 3 file headers
         start += 14
         fields = struct.unpack('<IIIHH', data[start:start+16])
         crc32, comp_size, uncomp_size, filenamesize, extra_size = fields

         start += 16
         filename = data[start:start+filenamesize]
         start += filenamesize
         extra = data[start:start+extra_size]
         print(filename, hex(crc32), comp_size, uncomp_size)

         start += extra_size + comp_size     # skip to the next header


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-threading<2>,  Next: Logging,  Prev: Working with binary data record layouts,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library — part II

2.11.4 Multi-threading
----------------------

Το threading είναι μια τεχνική για την αποσύνδεση εργασιών που είναι
διαδοχικά εξαρτώμενες.  Τα νήματα μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την
βελτίωση της ανταπόκρισης των εφαρμογών που δέχονται είσοδο από τον
χρήστη ενώ άλλες εργασίες εκτελούνται στο παρασκήνιο.  Μια σχετική
περίπτωση χρήσης εκτελεί I/O παράλληλα με υπολογισμούς στο άλλο νήμα.

Ο ακόλουθος κώδικας δείχνει πως το module υψηλού επιπέδου *note
threading: f6. μπορεί να εκτελεί εργασίες στο παρασκήνιο ενώ το κύριο
πρόγραμμα συνεχίζει να εκτελείται:

     import threading, zipfile

     class AsyncZip(threading.Thread):
         def __init__(self, infile, outfile):
             super().__init__()
             self.infile = infile
             self.outfile = outfile

         def run(self):
             with zipfile.ZipFile(self.outfile, 'w', zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED) as f:
                 f.write(self.infile)
             print('Finished background zip of:', self.infile)

     background = AsyncZip('mydata.txt', 'myarchive.zip')
     background.start()
     print('The main program continues to run in foreground.')

     background.join()    # Wait for the background task to finish
     print('Main program waited until background was done.')

Η κύρια πρόκληση των εφαρμογών πολλαπλών νημάτων είναι ο συντονισμός
νημάτων που μοιράζονται δεδομένα ή άλλους πόρους.  Για το σκοπό αυτό, το
thread module παρέχει έναν αριθμό πρωτόγονων συγχρονισμού,
συμπεριλαμβανομένων locks, events, μεταβλητών συνθηκών, και semaphores.

Ενώ αυτά τα εργαλεία είναι ισχυρά, μικρά σφάλματα σχεδιασμού μπορεί να
οδηγήσουν σε προβλήματα που είναι δύσκολο να αναπαραχθούν.  Επομένως, η
προτιμώμενη προσέγγιση στον συντονισμό εργασιών είναι να συγκεντρωθεί
όλη η πρόσβαση σε έναν πόρο σε ένα μόνο νήμα και στη συνέχεια να
χρησιμοποιηθεί το module *note queue: be, για τροφοδοτήσει αυτό το νήμα
με αιτήματα από άλλα νήματα.  Οι εφαρμογές που χρησιμοποιούν αντικείμενα
*note Queue: 1738. για επικοινωνία και συντονισμό μεταξύ νημάτων είναι
πιο εύκολο να σχεδιαστούν, είναι πιο ευανάγνωστες και πιο αξιόπιστες.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging,  Next: Weak references,  Prev: Multi-threading<2>,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library — part II

2.11.5 Logging
--------------

Το module *note logging: 8a. προσφέρει ένα πλήρως εξοπλισμένο και
ευέλικτο σύστημα καταγραφής.  Στην απλούστερη μορφή του, τα μηνύματα
καταγραφής αποστέλλονται σε ένα αρχείο ή στο ‘sys.stderr’:

     import logging
     logging.debug('Debugging information')
     logging.info('Informational message')
     logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf')
     logging.error('Error occurred')
     logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down')

Αυτό παράγει την ακόλουθη έξοδο:

     WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found
     ERROR:root:Error occurred
     CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down

Από default (προεπιλογή), τα ενημερωτικά μηνύματα και τα μηνύματα
εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων αποκρύπτονται και η έξοδος αποστέλλεται σε τυπικό
σφάλμα.  Άλλες επιλογές εξόδου περιλαμβάνουν δρομολόγηση μηνυμάτων μέσω
email, datagrams, υποδοχών (sockets), ή σε HTTP διακομιστή (server).  Τα
νέα φίλτρα μπορούν να επιλέξουν διαφορετική δρομολόγηση με βάση την
προτεραιότητα του μηνύματος: *note DEBUG: 22cd, *note INFO: 22ce, *note
WARNING: 22cf, *note ERROR: 22d0, και *note CRITICAL: 22d1.

Το σύστημα logging μπορεί να διαμορφωθεί απευθείας από την Python ή
μπορεί να φορτωθεί από ένα επεξεργάσιμο αρχείο διαμόρφωσης για
προσαρμοσμένη καταγραφή χωρίς την τροποποίηση της εφαρμογής.


File: python.info,  Node: Weak references,  Next: Tools for working with lists,  Prev: Logging,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library — part II

2.11.6 Weak references
----------------------

Η Python κάνει αυτόματη διαχείριση μνήμης (καταμέτρηση αναφορών για τα
περισσότερα αντικείμενα και *note garbage collection: 19de. για την
εξάλειψη των κύκλων).  Η μνήμη ελευθερώνεται λίγο μετά την κατάργηση της
τελευταίας αναφοράς σε αυτήν.

Αυτή η προσέγγιση λειτουργεί καλά για τις περισσότερες εφαρμογές, αλλά
περιστασιακά υπάρχει ανάγκη παρακολούθησης αντικειμένων μόνο εφόσον
χρησιμοποιούνται από κάτι άλλο.  Δυστυχώς, η παρακολούθηση τους
δημιουργεί μια αναφορά που τα κάνει μόνιμα.  Το module *note weakref:
11d. παρέχει εργαλεία για την παρακολούθηση αντικειμένων χωρίς τη
δημιουργία αναφοράς.  Όταν το αντικείμενο δεν χρειάζεται πλέον,
αφαιρείται αυτόματα από έναν πίνακα ασθενούς αναφοράς και ενεργοποιείται
μια επιστροφή κλήσης για αντικείμενα ασθενούς αναφοράς:

     >>> import weakref, gc
     >>> class A:
     ...     def __init__(self, value):
     ...         self.value = value
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return str(self.value)
     ...
     >>> a = A(10)                   # create a reference
     >>> d = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()
     >>> d['primary'] = a            # does not create a reference
     >>> d['primary']                # fetch the object if it is still alive
     10
     >>> del a                       # remove the one reference
     >>> gc.collect()                # run garbage collection right away
     0
     >>> d['primary']                # entry was automatically removed
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
         d['primary']                # entry was automatically removed
       File "C:/python316/lib/weakref.py", line 46, in __getitem__
         o = self.data[key]()
     KeyError: 'primary'


File: python.info,  Node: Tools for working with lists,  Next: Decimal floating-point arithmetic,  Prev: Weak references,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library — part II

2.11.7 Tools for working with lists
-----------------------------------

Πολλές ανάγκες δομών δεδομένων μπορούν να καλυφθούν με τον ενσωματωμένο
τύπο λίστας.  Ωστόσο, μερικές φορές υπάρχει ανάγκη για εναλλακτικές
υλοποιήσεις με διαφορετικούς συμβιβασμούς απόδοσης.

Το module *note array: 8. παρέχει ένα αντικείμενο *note array: 6c5. που
μοιάζει με μια λίστα που αποθηκεύει μόνο ομοιογενή δεδομένα και τα
αποθηκεύει με πιο συμπαγή τρόπο.  Το ακόλουθο παράδειγμα δείχνει έναν
πίνακα αριθμών που είναι αποθηκευμένοι ως δύο byte ανυπόγραφων δυαδικών
(binary) αριθμών (κωδικός τύπου ‘"H"’) αντί για τα συνηθισμένα 16 byte
ανά καταχώρηση για κανονικές λίστες αντικειμένων τύπου Python int:

     >>> from array import array
     >>> a = array('H', [4000, 10, 700, 22222])
     >>> sum(a)
     26932
     >>> a[1:3]
     array('H', [10, 700])

Το module *note collections: 1e. παρέχει ένα αντικείμενο *note deque:
9d6. που μοιάζει με λίστα με ταχύτερα προσαρτήματα και αναδύεται από την
αριστερή πλευρά αλλά με πιο αργές αναζητήσεις στη μέση.  Αυτά τα
αντικείμενα είναι κατάλληλα για υλοποίηση ουρών και αναζητήσεων σε πρώτο
δέντρο εύρους:

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> d = deque(["task1", "task2", "task3"])
     >>> d.append("task4")
     >>> print("Handling", d.popleft())
     Handling task1

     unsearched = deque([starting_node])
     def breadth_first_search(unsearched):
         node = unsearched.popleft()
         for m in gen_moves(node):
             if is_goal(m):
                 return m
             unsearched.append(m)

Εκτός από τις εναλλακτικές υλοποιήσεις λιστών, η βιβλιοθήκη προσφέρει
επίσης και άλλα εργαλεία όπως το module *note bisect: 12. με συναρτήσεις
για τον χειρισμό ταξινομημένων λιστών:

     >>> import bisect
     >>> scores = [(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]
     >>> bisect.insort(scores, (300, 'ruby'))
     >>> scores
     [(100, 'perl'), (200, 'tcl'), (300, 'ruby'), (400, 'lua'), (500, 'python')]

Το module *note heapq: 6c. παρέχει λειτουργίες για την υλοποίηση σωρών
(heaps) που βασίζονται σε κανονικές λίστες.  Η καταχώριση με την
χαμηλότερη τιμή διατηρείται πάντα στη θέση μηδέν.  Αυτό είναι χρήσιμο
για εφαρμογές που έχουν επανειλημμένα πρόσβαση στο μικρότερο στοιχείο
αλλά δεν θέλουν να εκτελέσουν μια πλήρη ταξινόμηση λίστας:

     >>> from heapq import heapify, heappop, heappush
     >>> data = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0]
     >>> heapify(data)                      # rearrange the list into heap order
     >>> heappush(data, -5)                 # add a new entry
     >>> [heappop(data) for i in range(3)]  # fetch the three smallest entries
     [-5, 0, 1]


File: python.info,  Node: Decimal floating-point arithmetic,  Prev: Tools for working with lists,  Up: Brief tour of the standard library — part II

2.11.8 Decimal floating-point arithmetic
----------------------------------------

Το module *note decimal: 39. προσφέρουν έναν τύπο δεδομένων *note
Decimal: 1c2. για δεκαδική αριθμητική κινητής υποδιαστολής.  Σε σύγκριση
με την ενσωματωμένη (built-in) εφαρμογή *note float: 327. του δυαδικού
κινητής υποδιαστολής, η κλάση είναι ιδιαίτερα χρήσιμη για

   * οικονομικές εφαρμογές και άλλες χρήσεις που απαιτούν ακριβή
     δεκαδική αναπαράσταση,

   * έλεγχος για την ακρίβεια,

   * έλεγχος της στρογγυλοποίησης για την εκπλήρωση νομικών ή
     κανονιστικών απαιτήσεων,

   * παρακολούθηση σημαντικών δεκαδικών ψηφίων, ή

   * εφαρμογές όπου ο χρήστης αναμένει ότι τα αποτελέσματα ταιριάζουν με
     υπολογισμούς που έγιναν με το χέρι.

Για παράδειγμα, ο υπολογισμός ενός φόρου 5% σε χρέωση τηλεφώνου 70
λεπτών δίνει διαφορετικά αποτελέσματα σε δεκαδική κινητή υποδιαστολή και
σε δυαδική (binary) κινητή υποδιαστολή.  Η διαφορά γίνεται σημαντική εάν
τα αποτελέσματα στρογγυλοποιηθούν στο πλησιέστερο λεπτό:

     >>> from decimal import *
     >>> round(Decimal('0.70') * Decimal('1.05'), 2)
     Decimal('0.74')
     >>> round(.70 * 1.05, 2)
     0.73

Το αποτέλεσμα *note Decimal: 1c2. διατηρεί ένα μηδέν στο τέλος,
συνάγοντας αυτόματα τη σημασία τεσσάρων θέσεων από πολλαπλάσια με
σημασία δύο θέσεων.  Το δεκαδικό αναπαράγει τα μαθηματικά όπως γίνονται
με το χέρι και αποφεύγει ζητήματα που μπορεί να προκύψουν όταν η δυαδική
κινητή υποδιαστολή δεν μπορεί να αντιπροσωπεύει ακριβώς τις δεκαδικές
ποσότητες.

Η ακριβής αναπαράσταση επιτρέπει στην κλάση *note Decimal: 1c2. να
εκτελεί υπολογισμούς modulo και δοκιμές ισότητας που είναι ακατάλληλες
για δυαδική κινητή υποδιαστολή:

     >>> Decimal('1.00') % Decimal('.10')
     Decimal('0.00')
     >>> 1.00 % 0.10
     0.09999999999999995

     >>> sum([Decimal('0.1')]*10) == Decimal('1.0')
     True
     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 1.0
     False

Το module *note decimal: 39. παρέχει αριθμητική με όση ακρίβεια
χρειάζεται:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 36
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857')


File: python.info,  Node: Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα και πακέτα,  Next: Και τώρα τι;,  Prev: Brief tour of the standard library — part II,  Up: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python

2.12 Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα και πακέτα
=====================================

* Menu:

* Εισαγωγή::
* Δημιουργία εικονικών περιβάλλοντων::
* Διαχείριση Πακέτων με το pip::


File: python.info,  Node: Εισαγωγή,  Next: Δημιουργία εικονικών περιβάλλοντων,  Up: Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα και πακέτα

2.12.1 Εισαγωγή
---------------

Οι εφαρμογές Python συχνά χρησιμοποιούν πακέτα και modules που δεν
αποτελούν μέρος της τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης.  Οι εφαρμογές μερικές φορές
χρειάζονται μια συγκεκριμένη έκδοση μιας βιβλιοθήκης, επειδή η εφαρμογή
μπορεί να απαιτεί την επιδιόρθωση ενός συγκεκριμένου σφάλματος ή επειδή
η εφαρμογή έχει γραφεί χρησιμοποιώντας μια ξεπερασμένη έκδοση της
διεπαφής της βιβλιοθήκης.

Αυτό σημαίνει ότι μπορεί να μην είναι δυνατό για μία εγκατάσταση Python
να πληροί τις απαιτήσεις κάθε εφαρμογής.  Εάν η εφαρμογή A χρειάζεται
την έκδοση 1.0 ενός συγκεκριμένου module, αλλά η εφαρμογή B χρειάζεται
την έκδοση 2.0, τότε οι απαιτήσεις βρίσκονται σε σύγκρουση και η
εγκατάσταση της έκδοσης 1.0 ή 2.0 θα αφήσει μια εφαρμογή ανίκανη να
εκτελεστεί.

Η λύση για αυτό το πρόβλημα είναι να δημιουργήσετε ένα *note virtual
environment: 22dd, ένα αυτόνομο δέντρο καταλόγου που περιέχει μια
εγκατάσταση Python για μια συγκεκριμένη έκδοση της Python, καθώς και
έναν αριθμό πρόσθετων πακέτων.

Διαφορετικές εφαρμογές μπορούν στη συνέχεια να χρησιμοποιούν διαφορετικά
εικονικά περιβάλλοντα.  Για να επιλύσετε το προηγούμενο παράδειγμα
αντικρουόμενων απαιτήσεων, η εφαρμογή A μπορεί να έχει το δικό της
εικονικό περιβάλλον με εγκατεστημένη την έκδοση 1.0 ενώ η εφαρμογή B
έχει άλλο εικονικό περιβάλλον με την έκδοση 2.0.  Εάν η εφαρμογή B
απαιτεί αναβάθμιση βιβλιοθήκης στην έκδοση 3.0, αυτό δεν θα επηρεάσει το
περιβάλλον της εφαρμογής A.


File: python.info,  Node: Δημιουργία εικονικών περιβάλλοντων,  Next: Διαχείριση Πακέτων με το pip,  Prev: Εισαγωγή,  Up: Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα και πακέτα

2.12.2 Δημιουργία εικονικών περιβάλλοντων
-----------------------------------------

Το module που χρησιμοποιείται για τη δημιουργία και τη διαχείριση
εικονικών περιβαλλόντων ονομάζεται *note venv: 11a.  Το ‘venv’ θα
εγκαταστήσει την έκδοση Python από την οποία εκτελέστηκε η εντολή (όπως
αναφέρεται από την επιλογή *note -version: 10d5.).  Για παράδειγμα, η
εκτέλεση της εντολής με το ‘python3.12’ θα εγκαταστήσει την έκδοση 3.12.

Για να δημιουργήσετε ένα εικονικό περιβάλλον, αποφασίστε έναν φάκελο
όπου θέλετε να το τοποθετήσετε και εκτελέστε το module *note venv: 11a.
ως ένα script με τη διαδρομή καταλόγου:

     python -m venv tutorial-env

Αυτό θα δημιουργήσει τον κατάλογο ‘tutorial-env’ εάν δεν υπάρχει, και
επίσης θα δημιουργήσει καταλόγους μέσα σε αυτόν που περιέχουν ένα
αντίγραφο του interpreter της Python και διάφορα υποστηρικτικά αρχεία.

Μια κοινή τοποθεσία καταλόγου για ένα εικονικό περιβάλλον είναι ‘.venv’.
Αυτό το όνομα κρατά τον κατάλογο συνήθως κρυμμένο στο shell σας και
συνεπώς μακριά από τη διαδρομή, ενώ του δίνει ένα όνομα που εξηγεί γιατί
υπάρχει ο κατάλογος.  Αποτρέπει επίσης τη σύγκρουση με αρχεία ορισμού
μεταβλητών περιβάλλοντος ‘.env’ που υποστηρίζουν ορισμένα εργαλεία.

Μόλις δημιουργήσετε ένα εικονικό περιβάλλον, μπορεί να το
ενεργοποιήσετε.

Σε Windows, εκτελέστε:

     tutorial-env\Scripts\activate

Σε Unix ή MacOS, εκτελέστε:

     source tutorial-env/bin/activate

(Αυτό το script είναι γραμμένο για το bash shell.  Εάν χρησιμοποιείτε τα
shells ‘csh’ ή ‘fish’, υπάρχουν εναλλακτικά scripts που θα πρέπει να
χρησιμοποιούνται αντί αυτών, όπως ‘activate.csh’ και ‘activate.fish’.)

Η ενεργοποίηση του εικονικού περιβάλλοντος θα αλλάξει το prompt του
shell σας για να δείξει ποιο εικονικό περιβάλλον χρησιμοποιείτε και θα
τροποποιήσει το περιβάλλον έτσι ώστε η εκτέλεση της ‘python’ να σας
δώσει τη συγκεκριμένη έκδοση και εγκατάσταση της Python.  Για
παράδειγμα:

     $ source ~/envs/tutorial-env/bin/activate
     (tutorial-env) $ python
     Python 3.5.1 (default, May  6 2016, 10:59:36)
       ...
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.path
     ['', '/usr/local/lib/python35.zip', ...,
     '~/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.5/site-packages']
     >>>

Για να απενεργοποιήσετε ένα εικονικό περιβάλλον, πληκτρολογήστε:

     απενεργοποίηση

μέσα στο terminal.


File: python.info,  Node: Διαχείριση Πακέτων με το pip,  Prev: Δημιουργία εικονικών περιβάλλοντων,  Up: Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα και πακέτα

2.12.3 Διαχείριση Πακέτων με το pip
-----------------------------------

Μπορείτε να εγκαταστήσετε, να αναβαθμίσετε και να αφαιρέσετε πακέτα
χρησιμοποιώντας ένα πρόγραμμα που ονομάζεται ‘pip’.  Από προεπιλογή το
‘pip’ θα εγκαταστήσει πακέτα από το Python Package Index(1).  Εσείς
μπορείτε να περιηγηθείτε στο Python Package Index μεταβαίνοντας σε αυτό
στο πρόγραμμα περιήγησης σας.

Το ‘pip’ έχει έναν αριθμό υποεντολών: «install», «uninstall», «freeze»,
κ.λπ.  (Συμβουλευτείτε τον οδηγό *note Installing Python modules: 12a6.
για πλήρη τεκμηρίωση για το ‘pip’.)

Μπορείτε να εγκαταστήσετε την τελευταία έκδοση ενός πακέτου
προσδιορίζοντας ένα όνομα ενός πακέτου:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install novas
     Collecting novas
       Downloading novas-3.1.1.3.tar.gz (136kB)
     Installing collected packages: novas
       Running setup.py install for novas
     Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3

Μπορείτε επίσης να εγκαταστήσετε μια συγκεκριμένη έκδοση ενός πακέτου
δίνοντας το όνομα του πακέτου ακολουθούμενο από ‘==’ και τον αριθμό
έκδοσης:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install requests==2.6.0
     Collecting requests==2.6.0
       Using cached requests-2.6.0-py2.py3-none-any.whl
     Installing collected packages: requests
     Successfully installed requests-2.6.0

Εάν εκτελέσετε ξανά αυτήν την εντολή, το ‘pip’ θα παρατηρήσει ότι η
ζητούμενη έκδοση είναι ήδη εγκατεστημένη και δεν θα κάνει τίποτα.
Μπορείτε να δώσετε έναν διαφορετικό αριθμός έκδοσης για να λάβετε αυτήν
την έκδοση ή μπορείτε να εκτελέσετε το ‘python -m pip install --upgrade’
για να αναβαθμίσετε το πακέτο στην πιο πρόσφατη έκδοση:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install --upgrade requests
     Collecting requests
     Installing collected packages: requests
       Found existing installation: requests 2.6.0
         Uninstalling requests-2.6.0:
           Successfully uninstalled requests-2.6.0
     Successfully installed requests-2.7.0

Το ‘python -m pip uninstall’ συνοδευόμενο από ένα ή περισσότερα ονόματα
πακέτου θα διαγράψει τα πακέτα από το εικονικό περιβάλλον.

Το ‘python -m pip show’ θα εμφανίσει πληροφορίες σχετικά με ένα
συγκεκριμένο πακέτο:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip show requests
     ---
     Metadata-Version: 2.0
     Name: requests
     Version: 2.7.0
     Summary: Python HTTP for Humans.
     Home-page: http://python-requests.org
     Author: Kenneth Reitz
     Author-email: me@kennethreitz.com
     License: Apache 2.0
     Location: /Users/akuchling/envs/tutorial-env/lib/python3.4/site-packages
     Requires:

Το ‘python -m pip list’ θα εμφανίσει όλα τα πακέτα που είναι
εγκατεστημένα στο εικονικό περιβάλλον:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip list
     novas (3.1.1.3)
     numpy (1.9.2)
     pip (7.0.3)
     requests (2.7.0)
     setuptools (16.0)

Το ‘python -m pip freeze’ θα δημιουργήσει μια παρόμοια λίστα με τα
εγκατεστημένα πακέτα, αλλά η έξοδος χρησιμοποιεί τη μορφή που αναμένει
το ‘python -m pip install’.  Μια κοινή σύμβαση είναι να τοποθετήσετε
αυτήν τη λίστα σε ένα ‘requirements.txt’ αρχείο:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip freeze > requirements.txt
     (tutorial-env) $ cat requirements.txt
     novas==3.1.1.3
     numpy==1.9.2
     requests==2.7.0

Το ‘requirements.txt’ μπορεί στη συνέχεια να δημοσιευθεί στον έλεγχο
έκδοσης και να διατεθεί ως μέρος μιας εφαρμογής.  Οι χρήστες μπορούν στη
συνέχεια να εγκαταστήσουν όλα τα απαραίτητα πακέτα με το ‘install -r’:

     (tutorial-env) $ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt
     Collecting novas==3.1.1.3 (from -r requirements.txt (line 1))
       ...
     Collecting numpy==1.9.2 (from -r requirements.txt (line 2))
       ...
     Collecting requests==2.7.0 (from -r requirements.txt (line 3))
       ...
     Installing collected packages: novas, numpy, requests
       Running setup.py install for novas
     Successfully installed novas-3.1.1.3 numpy-1.9.2 requests-2.7.0

Το ‘pip’ έχει πολλές περισσότερες επιλογές.  Συμβουλευτείτε τον οδηγό
*note Installing Python modules: 12a6. για πλήρη τεκμηρίωση για το
‘pip’.  Όταν έχετε γράψει ένα πακέτο και θέλετε να το κάνετε διαθέσιμο
στο Ευρετήριο Πακέτων Python, συμβουλευτείτε τον Python packaging user
guide(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/


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2.13 Και τώρα τι;
=================

Η ανάγνωση αυτού του διδακτικού υλικού πιθανότατα ενίσχυσε το ενδιαφέρον
σας για τη χρήση της Python — θα πρέπει να είστε πρόθυμοι να εφαρμόσετε
την Python για την επίλυση των προβλημάτων του πραγματικού σας κόσμου.
Που πρέπει να πάτε για να μάθετε περισσότερα;

Αυτό το διδακτικό υλικό είναι μέρος του συνόλου τεκμηρίωσης της Python.
Μερικά άλλα έγγραφα του συνόλου είναι:

   * *note The Python Standard Library: 3f7.:

     Θα πρέπει να περιηγηθείτε σε αυτό το εγχειρίδιο, το οποίο παρέχει
     πλήρες (αν και συνοπτικό) υλικό σχετικά με τους τύπους, τις
     συναρτήσεις, και τα modules στην standard βιβλιοθήκη.  Η standard
     διανομή Python περιλαμβάνει 'πολύ' πρόσθετο κώδικα.  Υπάρχουν
     modules για ανάγνωση ηλεκτρονικού γραμματοκιβωτίου Unix, ανάκτηση
     εγγράφων μέσω HTTP, δημιουργία τυχαίων αριθμών, ανάλυση επιλογών
     γραμμής εντολών, συμπίεση δεδομένων και πολλές εργασίες.  Το
     Skimming μέσω της βιβλιοθήκης θα σας δώσει μια ιδέα για το τι είναι
     διαθέσιμο.

   * *note Installing Python modules: 12a6. εξηγεί πως να εγκαταστήσετε
     πρόσθετα modules γραμμένα από άλλους χρήστες Python.

   * *note Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python: 3f8.: Μια λεπτομερής
     εξήγηση της σύνταξης και της σημασιολογίας.  Είναι βαριά ανάγνωση,
     αλλά είναι χρήσιμο ως πλήρης οδηγός για την ίδια τη γλώσσα.

Περισσότερα Βοηθήματα για Python:

   * ‘https://www.python.org’: Ο κύριος ιστότοπος της Python.  Περιέχει
     κώδικα, τεκμηρίωση, και δείκτες που σχετίζονται με την Python στο
     web.

   * ‘https://docs.python.org’: Γρήγορη πρόσβαση στην τεκμηρίωση της
     Python.

   * ‘https://pypi.org’: Το ευρετήριο Πακέτων Python, που προηγουμένως
     ονομαζόταν επίσης Τυροκομείο (1), είναι ένα ευρετήριο Python
     modules που έχουν δημιουργηθεί από χρήστες που είναι διαθέσιμα για
     λήψη.  Μόλις ξεκινήσετε την κυκλοφορία του κώδικα, μπορείτε να τον
     καταχωρήσετε εδώ για το βρουν άλλοι.

   * ‘https://code.activestate.com/recipes/langs/python/’: Το Python
     Cookbook είναι μια αρκετά μεγάλη συλλογή παραδειγμάτων κώδικα,
     μεγαλύτερα modules και χρήσιμα scripts.  Ιδιαίτερα αξιοσημείωτες
     συνεισφορές συλλέγονται σε ένα βιβλίο με τίτλο Python Cookbook
     (O’Reilly & Associates, ISBN 0-596-00797-3.)

   * ‘https://pyvideo.org’ συλλέγει συνδέσμους προς βίντεο που
     σχετίζονται με την Python από συνέδρια και συναντήσεις ομάδων
     χρηστών.

   * ‘https://scipy.org’: Το έργο Scientific Python περιλαμβάνει modules
     για γρήγορους υπολογισμούς και χειρισμούς πινάκων συν μια σειρά από
     πακέτα για πράγματα όπως η γραμμική άλγεβρα, οι μετασχηματισμοί
     Fourier, οι μη γραμμικοί λύτες, οι κατανομές τυχαίνω αριθμών, η
     στατιστική ανάλυση και τα λοιπά παρόμοια.

Για ερωτήσεις και αναφορές προβλημάτων που σχετίζονται με Python,
μπορείτε να δημοσιεύσετε στην ομάδα συζήτησης ‘comp.lang.python’, ή να
τις στείλετε στη λίστα αλληλογραφίας στην διεύθυνση
<python-list@python.org>.  Η ομάδα συζήτησης και η λίστα αλληλογραφίας
είναι gatewayed , έτσι ώστε τα μηνύματα που δημοσιεύονται στο ένα θα
προωθούνται αυτόματα στο άλλο.  Υπάρχουν εκατοντάδες αναρτήσεις την
ημέρα, που κάνουν (και απαντούν) ερωτήσεις, προτείνουν νέες δυνατότητες
και ανακοινώνουν νέα modules.  Τα αρχεία της λίστα αλληλογραφίας είναι
διαθέσιμα στη διεύθυνση ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/’.

Πριν από τη δημοσίευση, φροντίστε να ελέγξετε τη λίστα με *note
Frequently Asked Questions: 22e4. (σε συντομογραφία FAQ). Οι FAQ
ερωτήσεις απαντούν σε πολλές από τις ερωτήσεις που εμφανίζονται ξανά και
ξανά και μπορεί να περιέχουν ήδη τη λύση για το πρόβλημά σας.

Υποσημειώσεις
.............

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) «Cheese Shop» is a Monty Python sketch: a customer enters a
cheese shop, but whatever cheese he asks for, the clerk says it’s
missing.


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2.14 Διαδραστική Επεξεργασία Input και Αντικατάσταση Ιστορικού
==============================================================

Ορισμένες εκδόσεις του interpreter της Python υποστηρίζουν την
επεξεργασία του τρέχοντος input και την αντικατάσταση του ιστορικού,
παρόμοια με τις λειτουργίες που βρίσκονται στο κέλυφος Korn και στο
κέλυφος GNU Bash.  Αυτό υλοποιείται χρησιμοποιώντας τη βιβλιοθήκη GNU
Readline(1), η οποία υποστηρίζει διάφορα στυλ επεξεργασίας.  Αυτή η
βιβλιοθήκη έχει τη δική της τεκμηρίωση που δεν θα αντιγράψουμε εδώ.

* Menu:

* Συμπλήρωση Tab και Επεξεργασία Ιστορικού::
* Εναλλακτικές λύσεις για τον Διαδραστικό Interpreter::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html


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2.14.1 Συμπλήρωση Tab και Επεξεργασία Ιστορικού
-----------------------------------------------

Η ολοκλήρωση των ονομάτων των μεταβλητών και των modules *note
ενεργοποιείται αυτόματα: 1372. κατά την εκκίνηση του interpreter, έτσι
ώστε το κλειδί ‘Tab’ να καλεί τη συνάρτηση ολοκλήρωσης∙ κοιτάζει τα
ονόματα δηλώσεων της Python, τις τρέχουσες τοπικές μεταβλητές, και τα
διαθέσιμα ονόματα των modules.  Για dotted εκφράσεις, όπως ‘string.a’,
θα αξιολογήσει την έκφραση μέχρι το τελικό ‘'.'’ και στη συνέχεια θα
προτείνει συμπληρώσεις από τα χαρακτηριστικά του αντικειμένου που
προκύπτει.  Σημειώστε ότι αυτό μπορεί να εκτελέσει κώδικα που ορίζεται
από την εφαρμογή εάν ένα αντικείμενο με μια μέθοδο *note __getattr__():
8e3. είναι μέρος της πρότασης.  Η προεπιλεγμένη διαμόρφωση αποθηκεύει
επίσης το ιστορικό σας σε ένα αρχείο με το όνομα ‘.python_history’ στον
κατάλογο του χρήστης σας.  Το ιστορικό θα είναι ξανά διαθέσιμο κατά την
επόμενη συνεδρία διαδραστικού interpreter.


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2.14.2 Εναλλακτικές λύσεις για τον Διαδραστικό Interpreter
----------------------------------------------------------

Αυτή η λειτουργία είναι ένα τεράστιο βήμα προς τα εμπρός σε σύγκριση με
τις προηγούμενες εκδόσεις του διερμηνέα∙ ωστόσο, παραμένουν μερικές
επιθυμίες: Θα ήταν ωραίο να προταθεί η κατάλληλη εσοχή στις γραμμές
συνέχειας (ο parser γνωρίζει εάν ένα *note INDENT: 22ec. token
απαιτείται στη συνέχεια).  Ο μηχανισμός ολοκλήρωσης μπορεί να
χρησιμοποιήσει τον πίνακα συμβόλων του διερμηνέα.  Θα ήταν επίσης
χρήσιμη μια εντολή για να ελέγξετε (ή ακόμα και να προτείνετε)
αντίστοιχες παρενθέσεις, εισαγωγικά κ.λπ.

Ένας εναλλακτικός, βελτιωμένος, διαδραστικός interpreter που υπάρχει εδώ
και αρκετό καιρό είναι το IPython(1), το οποίο διαθέτει συμπλήρωση tab,
εξερεύνηση αντικειμένων και προηγμένη διαχείριση ιστορικού.  Μπορεί
επίσης να προσαρμοστεί πλήρως και να ενσωματωθεί σε άλλες εφαρμογές.
Ένα άλλο παρόμοιο βελτιωμένο διαδραστικό περιβάλλον είναι το bpython(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://ipython.org/

   (2) https://bpython-interpreter.org/


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2.15 Αριθμητική Κινητής Υποδιαστολής: Ζητήματα και Περιορισμοί
==============================================================

Οι αριθμοί κινητής υποδιαστολής αντιπροσωπεύονται στο υλικό του
υπολογιστή ως κλάσματα με βάση το 2 (δυαδικά).  Για παράδειγμα, το
'δεκαδικό' κλάσμα ‘0.625’ έχει τιμή 6/10 + 2/100 + 5/1000, και με τον
ίδιο τρόπο το 'δυαδικό' κλάσμα ‘0.101’ έχει τιμή 1/2 + 0/4 + 1/8.  Αυτά
τα δύο κλάσματα έχουν πανομοιότυπες τιμές, η μόνη πραγματική διαφορά
είναι ότι το πρώτο είναι γραμμένο με κλασματικό συμβολισμό με βάση το
10, και το δεύτερο με βάση το 2.

Δυστυχώς, τα περισσότερα δεκαδικά κλάσματα δεν μπορούν να αναπαρασταθούν
ακριβώς ως κλάσματα.  Η συνέπεια είναι ότι, γενικά, οι δεκαδικοί αριθμοί
κινητής υποδιαστολής που εισάγετε προσεγγίζονται μόνο από τους δυαδικούς
αριθμούς κινητής υποδιαστολής που είναι πράγματι αποθηκευμένοι στο
μηχάνημα.

Το πρόβλημα είναι πιο κατανοητό στην αρχή με βάση το 10.  Θεωρήστε το
κλάσμα 1/3.  Μπορεί να το προσεγγίσετε ως κλάσμα βάσης 10:

     0.3

ή, καλύτερα,

     0.33

ή, καλύτερα,

     0.333

και ούτω καθεξής.  Όσα ψηφία και αν είστε διατεθειμένοι να γράψετε, το
αποτέλεσμα δεν θα είναι ποτέ ακριβώς το 1/3, αλλά θα είναι μια ολοένα
και καλύτερη προσέγγιση του 1/3.

Με τον ίδιο τρόπο, ανεξάρτητα από το πόσα ψηφία βάσης 2 είστε
διατεθειμένοι να χρησιμοποιήσετε, η δεκαδική τιμή 0,1 δεν μπορεί να
αναπαρασταθεί ακριβώς ως κλάσμα βάση 2.  Στη βάση 2, το 1/10 είναι το
κλάσμα που επαναλαμβάνεται

     0.0001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011...

Σταματήστε σε οποιονδήποτε πεπερασμένο αριθμό bit και λαμβάνετε μια
προσέγγιση.  Στις περισσότερες μηχανές σήμερα, οι floats προσεγγίζονται
χρησιμοποιώντας τα πρώτα 53 bit ξεκινώντας από το πιο σημαντικό bit και
με τον παρανομαστή ως δύναμη του δύο.  Στην περίπτωση του 1/10, το
δυαδικό κλάσμα είναι ‘3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55’ που είναι κοντά αλλά
όχι ακριβώς ίσο με την πραγματική τιμή του 1/10.

Πολλοί χρήστες δεν γνωρίζουν την προσέγγιση λόγω του τρόπου με τον οποίο
εμφανίζονται οι τιμές.  Η Python εκτυπώνει μόνο μια δεκαδική προσέγγιση
στην πραγματική δεκαδική τιμή της δυαδικής προσέγγισης που είναι
αποθηκευμένη από το μηχάνημα.  Στα περισσότερα μηχανήματα, αν η Python
τύπωνε την πραγματική δεκαδική τιμή της δυαδικής προσέγγισης που είναι
αποθηκευμένη για 0,1, θα πρέπει να εμφανίζει:

     >>> 0.1
     0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625

Αυτά είναι περισσότερα ψηφία από όσα βρίσκουν χρήσιμα οι περισσότεροι,
επομένως η Python διατηρεί τον αριθμό των διαχειρίσιμων ψηφίων
εμφανίζοντας μια στρογγυλεμένη τιμή αντ” αυτού:

     >>> 1 / 10
     0.1

Απλώς θυμηθείτε, παρόλο που το εκτυπωμένο αποτέλεσμα μοιάζει με την
ακριβή τιμή του 1/10, η πραγματική αποθηκευμένη τιμή είναι το
πλησιέστερο αναπαραστάσιμο δυαδικό κλάσμα.

Είναι ενδιαφέρον ότι υπάρχουν πολλοί διαφορετικοί δεκαδικοί αριθμοί που
μοιράζονται το ίδιο πλησιέστερο κατά προσέγγιση δυαδικό κλάσμα.  Για
παράδειγμα, οι αριθμοί ‘0.1’ και
‘0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625’ είναι όλα
κατά προσέγγιση με ‘3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55’.  Δεδομένου ότι όλες
αυτές οι δεκαδικές τιμές μοιράζονται την ίδια προσέγγιση, οποιαδήποτε
από αυτές θα μπορούσε να εμφανιστεί διατηρώντας παράλληλα το αμετάβλητο
‘eval(repr(x)) == x’.

Ιστορικά, το prompt της Python και η ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note
repr(): 45b. θα επέλεγε αυτό με 17 σημαντικά ψηφία,
‘0.10000000000000001’.  Ξεκινώντας με την Python 3.1, η Python (στα
περισσότερα συστήματα) είναι πλέον σε θέση να επιλέξει το συντομότερο
από αυτά και απλά εμφανίζει το ‘0.1’.

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι αυτό είναι στην ίδια τη φύση του δυαδικού κινητής
υποδιαστολής: αυτό δεν είναι σφάλμα στην Python, ούτε είναι σφάλμα στον
κώδικα σας.  Θα δείτε το ίδιο πράγμα σε όλες τις γλώσσες που
υποστηρίζουν την αριθμητική κινητής υποδιαστολής του υλικού σας (αν και
ορισμένες γλώσσες μπορεί να μην 'εμφανίζουν' τη διαφορά από προεπιλογή ή
σε όλες τις λειτουργίες εξόδου).

Για πιο ευχάριστη απόδοση, μπορεί να θέλετε να χρησιμοποιήσετε
μορφοποίηση συμβολοσειράς για να δημιουργήσετε έναν περιορισμένο αριθμό
σημαντικών ψηφίων:

     >>> format(math.pi, '.12g')  # give 12 significant digits
     '3.14159265359'

     >>> format(math.pi, '.2f')   # give 2 digits after the point
     '3.14'

     >>> repr(math.pi)
     '3.141592653589793'

Είναι σημαντικό να συνειδητοποιήσουμε ότι αυτό είναι, με την πραγματική
έννοια, μια ψευδαίσθηση: απλά στρογγυλεύετε την 'παρουσίαση' της
πραγματικής αξίας του μηχανήματος.

Μια ψευδαίσθηση μπορεί να γεννήσει μια άλλη.  Για παράδειγμα, καθώς το
0,1 δεν είναι ακριβώς το 1/10, το άθροισμα τριών τιμών του 0,1 μπορεί να
μην αποφέρει ακριβώς 0,3:

     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 0.3
     False

Επίσης, εφόσον το 0.1 δεν μπορεί να πλησιάσει την ακριβή τιμή του 1/10
και το 0.3 δεν μπορεί να πλησιάσει την ακριβή τιμή του 3/10, τότε η
προ-στρογγυλοποίηση με τη συνάρτηση *note round(): 167f. δεν μπορεί να
βοηθήσει:

     >>> round(0.1, 1) + round(0.1, 1) + round(0.1, 1) == round(0.3, 1)
     False

Αν και οι αριθμοί δεν μπορούν να γίνουν πιο κοντά στις προβλεπόμενες
ακριβείς τιμές τους, η συνάρτηση *note math.isclose(): 1169. μπορεί να
είναι χρήσιμη για τη σύγκριση ανακριβών τιμών:

     >>> math.isclose(0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1, 0.3)
     True

Εναλλακτικά, η συνάρτηση *note round(): 167f. μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί
για τη σύγκριση χονδρικών προσεγγίσεων:

     >>> round(math.pi, ndigits=2) == round(22 / 7, ndigits=2)
     True

Η αριθμητική δυαδικής κινητής υποδιαστολής επιφυλάσσει πολλές εκπλήξεις
όπως αυτή.  Το πρόβλημα με το «0.1» εξηγείται λεπτομερώς παρακάτω, στην
ενότητα «Σφάλμα Αναπαράστασης».  Δείτε Παραδείγματα προβλημάτων κινητής
υποδιαστολής(1) για μια ευχάριστη περίληψη του τρόπου λειτουργίας της
δυαδικής κινητής υποδιαστολής και των ειδών προβλημάτων που
αντιμετωπίζονται συνήθως στην πράξη.  Δείτε επίσης ‘Οι κίνδυνοι του
Floating Point <http://www.indowsway.com/floatingpoint.htm>'_’ για μια
πιο ολοκληρωμένη περιγραφή άλλων κοινών εκπλήξεων.

Όπως λέει αυτό κοντά στο τέλος, «δεν υπάρχουν εύκολες απαντήσεις.»
Ωστόσο, μην είστε υπερβολικά επιφυλακτικοί με την κινητή υποδιαστολή!
Τα σφάλματα στις λειτουργίες κινητής υποδιαστολής Python κληρονομούνται
από το υλικό κινητής υποδιαστολής και στα περισσότερα μηχανήματα δεν
είναι της τάξης του 1 σε 2**53 ανά πράξη.  Αυτό είναι παραπάνω από
επαρκές για τις περισσότερες εργασίες, αλλά πρέπει να έχετε κατά νου ότι
δεν είναι δεκαδική αριθμητική και ότι κάθε λειτουργία float μπορεί να
υποστεί νέο σφάλμα στρογγυλοποίησης.

Ενώ υπάρχουν παθολογικές περιπτώσεις, για την πιο περιστασιακή χρήση της
αριθμητικής κινητής υποδιαστολής, θα δείτε στο τέλος το αποτέλεσμα που
περιμένετε εάν απλώς στρογγυλοποιήσετε την εμφάνιση των τελικών
αποτελεσμάτων σας στον αριθμό των δεκαδικών ψηφίων που περιμένετε.  Το
*note str(): 1df. συνήθως αρκεί, και για καλύτερο έλεγχο δείτε τους
προσδιοριστές μορφής της μεθόδου *note str.format(): a12. σε *note
Format string syntax: 173f.

Για περιπτώσεις χρήσης που απαιτούν ακριβή δεκαδική αναπαράσταση,
δοκιμάστε να χρησιμοποιήσετε το module *note decimal: 39. που εφαρμόζει
δεκαδική αριθμητική κατάλληλη για λογιστικές εφαρμογές και εφαρμογές
υψηλής ακριβείας.

Μια άλλη μορφή ακριβούς αριθμητικής υποστηρίζεται από το module *note
fractions: 60, η οποία υλοποιεί την αριθμητική με βάση τους ορθολογικούς
αριθμούς (έτσι οι αριθμοί όπως το 1/3 μπορούν να αναπαρασταθούν
ακριβώς).

Εάν είστε ένα εντατικός χρήστης πράξεων κινητής υποδιαστολής, θα πρέπει
να ρίξετε μια ματιά στο πακέτο NumPy και πολλά άλλα πακέτα για
μαθηματικές και στατιστικές πράξεις που παρέχονται από το project SciPy.
Δείτε <‘https://scipy.org’>.

Η Python παρέχει εργαλεία που μπορεί να βοηθήσουν σε εκείνες τις σπάνιες
περιπτώσεις που πραγματικά θέλετε να μάθετε την ακριβή τιμή ενός float.
Η μέθοδος *note float.as_integer_ratio(): 22f1. εκφράζει την τιμή ενός
float ως κλάσμα:

     >>> x = 3.14159
     >>> x.as_integer_ratio()
     (3537115888337719, 1125899906842624)

Δεδομένου ότι η αναλογία είναι ακριβής, μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την
αναδημιουργία χωρίς απώλειες της αρχικής τιμής:

     >>> x == 3537115888337719 / 1125899906842624
     True

Η μέθοδος *note float.hex(): 22f2. εκφράζει ένα float σε δεκαεξαδικό
(βάση 16), δίνοντας πάλι την ακριβή τιμή που έχει αποθηκευτεί στον
υπολογιστή σας:

     >>> x.hex()
     '0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1'

Αυτή η ακριβής δεκαεξαδική αναπαράσταση μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την
ανακατασκευή της τιμής float ακριβώς:

     >>> x == float.fromhex('0x1.921f9f01b866ep+1')
     True

Δεδομένου ότι η αναπαράσταση είναι ακριβής, είναι χρήσιμη για την
αξιόπιστη μεταφορά τιμών σε διαφορετικές εκδόσεις της Python
(ανεξαρτησία πλατφόρμας) και την ανταλλαγή δεδομένων με άλλες γλώσσες
που υποστηρίζουν την ίδια μορφή (όπως Java και C99).

Ένα άλλο χρήσιμο εργαλείο είναι η συνάρτηση *note sum(): 881. που βοηθά
στον μετριασμό της απώλειας ακρίβειας κατά την άθροιση.  Χρησιμοποιεί
εκτεταμένη ακρίβεια για ενδιάμεσα βήματα στρογγυλοποίησης καθώς οι τιμές
προστίθενται σε ένα τρέχον σύνολο.  Αυτό μπορεί να κάνει τη διαφορά στη
συνολική ακρίβεια, ώστε τα σφάλματα να μην συσσωρεύονται στο σημείο που
επηρεάζουν το τελικό σύνολο:

     >>> 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 == 1.0
     False
     >>> sum([0.1] * 10) == 1.0
     True

Το *note math.fsum(): 1777. πηγαίνει πιο μακριά και παρακολουθεί όλα τα
«χαμένα ψηφία» καθώς οι τιμές προστίθενται σε ένα τρέχον σύνολο, έτσι
ώστε το αποτέλεσμα να έχει μόνο μία στρογγυλοποίηση.  Αυτό είναι πιο
αργό από το *note sum(): 881. αλλά θα είναι πιο ακριβές σε ασυνήθιστες
περιπτώσεις όπου οι είσοδοι μεγάλου μεγέθους ακυρώνουν η μία την άλλη
αφήνοντας ένα τελικό άθροισμα κοντά στο μηδέν:

     >>> arr = [-0.10430216751806065, -266310978.67179024, 143401161448607.16,
     ...        -143401161400469.7, 266262841.31058735, -0.003244936839808227]
     >>> float(sum(map(Fraction, arr)))   # Exact summation with single rounding
     8.042173697819788e-13
     >>> math.fsum(arr)                   # Single rounding
     8.042173697819788e-13
     >>> sum(arr)                         # Multiple roundings in extended precision
     8.042178034628478e-13
     >>> total = 0.0
     >>> for x in arr:
     ...     total += x                   # Multiple roundings in standard precision
     ...
     >>> total                            # Straight addition has no correct digits!
     -0.0051575902860057365

* Menu:

* Σφάλμα Αναπαράστασης::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://jvns.ca/blog/2023/01/13/examples-of-¨floating-point-problems/


File: python.info,  Node: Σφάλμα Αναπαράστασης,  Up: Αριθμητική Κινητής Υποδιαστολής Ζητήματα και Περιορισμοί

2.15.1 Σφάλμα Αναπαράστασης
---------------------------

Αυτή η ενότητα εξηγεί το παράδειγμα «0.1» λεπτομερώς και δείχνει πώς
μπορείτε να εκτελέσετε μια ακριβή ανάλυση περιπτώσεων όπως αυτή μόνοι
σας.  Υποτίθεται ότι έχετε βασική εξοικείωση με την αναπαράσταση
δυαδικής κινητής υποδιαστολής.

Το 'Σφάλμα αναπαράστασης (Representation error)' αναφέρεται στο γεγονός
ότι ορισμένα (τα περισσότερα, στην πραγματικότητα) δεκαδικά κλάσματα δεν
μπορούν να αναπαρασταθούν ακριβώς ως δυαδικά (βάση 2) κλάσματα.  Αυτός
είναι ο κύριος λόγος για τον οποίο η Python (ή Perl, C, C++, Java,
Fortran, και πολλές άλλες) συχνά δεν εμφανίζουν τον ακριβή δεκαδικό
αριθμό που περιμένετε.

Γιατί συμβαίνει αυτό; Το 1/10 δεν μπορεί να αναπαρασταθεί ακριβώς ως
δυαδικό κλάσμα.  Από το 2000 τουλάχιστον, σχεδόν όλες οι μηχανές
χρησιμοποιούν δυαδική αριθμητική κινητής υποδιαστολής IEEE 754 και
σχεδόν όλες οι πλατφόρμες αντιστοιχίζουν τα Python floats σε IEEE
binary64 «διπλής ακρίβειας» τιμές.  Οι τιμές του IEEE 754 binary64
περιέχουν 53 bits ακρίβειας, επομένως κατά την είσοδο ο υπολογιστής
προσπαθεί να μετατρέψει το 0,1 στο πλησιέστερο κλάσμα που μπορεί να έχει
τη μορφή 'J'/2**'N' όπου 'J' είναι ένας ακέραιος που περιέχει ακριβώς 53
bits.  Ξαναγράφεται

     1 / 10 ~= J / (2**N)

ως

     J ~= 2**N / 10

και υπενθυμίζοντας ότι το 'J' έχει ακριβώς 53 bits (είναι ‘>= 2**52’
αλλά ‘< 2**53’), η καλύτερη τιμή για το 'N' είναι 56:

     >>> 2**52 <=  2**56 // 10  < 2**53
     True

Δηλαδή, το 56 είναι η μόνη τιμή για το 'N' που αφήνει το 'J' με ακριβώς
53 bits.  Η καλύτερη δυνατή τιμή για το 'J' είναι τότε αυτό το πηλίκο
στρογγυλοποιημένο:

     >>> q, r = divmod(2**56, 10)
     >>> r
     6

Δεδομένου ότι το υπόλοιπο είναι περισσότερο από το μισό του 10, η
καλύτερη προσέγγιση επιτυγχάνεται με στρογγυλοποίηση προς τα επάνω:

     >>> q+1
     7205759403792794

Ως εκ τούτου, η καλύτερη δυνατή προσέγγιση στο 1/10 στο IEEE 754 διπλής
ακρίβειας είναι:

     7205759403792794 / 2 ** 56

Η διαίρεση του αριθμητή και του παρονομαστή με δύο μειώνει το κλάσμα σε:

     3602879701896397 / 2 ** 55

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι από τη στιγμή που κάναμε στρογγυλοποίηση, αυτό είναι
στην πραγματικότητα λίγο μεγαλύτερο από το 1/10· αν δεν είχαμε
στρογγυλοποιήσει προς τα πάνω, το πηλίκο θα ήταν λίγο μικρότερο από το
1/10.  Αλλά σε καμία περίπτωση δεν μπορεί να είναι 'ακριβώς' 1/10!

Έτσι ο υπολογιστής δεν «βλέπει» ποτέ 1/10: αυτό που βλέπει είναι το
ακριβές κλάσμα που δίνεται παραπάνω, η καλύτερη διπλή προσέγγιση IEEE
754 που μπορεί να πάρει:

     >>> 0.1 * 2 ** 55
     3602879701896397.0

Αν πολλαπλασιάσουμε αυτό το κλάσμα με 10**55, μπορούμε να δούμε την τιμή
με 55 δεκαδικά ψηφία:

     >>> 3602879701896397 * 10 ** 55 // 2 ** 55
     1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625

που σημαίνει ότι ο ακριβής αριθμός που είναι αποθηκευμένος στον
υπολογιστή είναι ίσος με την δεκαδική τιμή
0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625.  Αντί να
εμφανιστεί η πλήρης τιμή, πολλές γλώσσες (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των
παλαιότερων εκδόσεων της Python), στρογγυλοποιούν το αποτέλεσμα σε 17
σημαντικά ψηφία:

     >>> format(0.1, '.17f')
     '0.10000000000000001'

Τα modules *note fractions: 60. και *note decimal: 39. κάνουν αυτούς
τους υπολογισμούς εύκολους:

     >>> from decimal import Decimal
     >>> from fractions import Fraction

     >>> Fraction.from_float(0.1)
     Fraction(3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)

     >>> (0.1).as_integer_ratio()
     (3602879701896397, 36028797018963968)

     >>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
     Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')

     >>> format(Decimal.from_float(0.1), '.17')
     '0.10000000000000001'


File: python.info,  Node: Παράρτημα,  Prev: Αριθμητική Κινητής Υποδιαστολής Ζητήματα και Περιορισμοί,  Up: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python

2.16 Παράρτημα
==============

* Menu:

* Διαδραστική Λειτουργία::


File: python.info,  Node: Διαδραστική Λειτουργία,  Up: Παράρτημα

2.16.1 Διαδραστική Λειτουργία
-----------------------------

Υπάρχουν δύο παραλλαγές του διαδραστικού *note REPL: 69d.  Ο κλασικός
βασικός διερμηνέας υποστηρίζει σε όλες τις πλατφόρμες με ελάχιστες
δυνατότητες ελέγχου γραμμής.

Since Python 3.13, a new interactive shell is used by default.  This one
supports color, multiline editing, history browsing, and paste mode.  To
disable color, see *note Controlling color: 1af. for details.  Function
keys provide some additional functionality.  ‘F1’ enters the interactive
help browser *note pydoc: bd.  ‘F2’ allows for browsing command-line
history with neither output nor the *note >>>: 69e. and *note …: 69f.
prompts.  ‘F3’ enters «paste mode», which makes pasting larger blocks of
code easier.  Press ‘F3’ to return to the regular prompt.

Όταν χρησιμοποιείτε το νέο διαδραστικό κέλυφος, βγείτε από το shell
πληκτρολογώντας ‘exit’ or ‘quit’.  Η προσθήκη παρενθέσεων κλήσης μετά
από αυτές τις εντολές δεν απαιτείται.

Εάν το νέο διαδραστικό shell δεν είναι επιθυμητό, μπορεί να
απενεργοποιηθεί μέσω της μεταβλητής περιβάλλοντος *note
PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 452.

* Menu:

* Διαχείριση Σφαλμάτων::
* Εκτελέσιμα Python Scripts::
* Το διαδραστικό αρχείο εκκίνησης::
* Τα Modules Προσαρμογής::


File: python.info,  Node: Διαχείριση Σφαλμάτων,  Next: Εκτελέσιμα Python Scripts,  Up: Διαδραστική Λειτουργία

2.16.1.1 Διαχείριση Σφαλμάτων
.............................

Όταν παρουσιαστεί ένα σφάλμα, ο interpreter εμφανίζει ένα μήνυμα
σφάλματος και ένα stack trace.  Στη διαδραστική λειτουργία, στη συνέχεια
επιστρέφει στην κύρια γραμμή εντολών∙ όταν η είσοδος προέρχεται από ένα
αρχείο, εξέρχεται με κατάσταση εξόδου μη μηδενική μετά την εκτύπωση του
stack trace.  (Οι εξαιρέσεις που αντιμετωπίζονται από μια εντολή *note
except: 447. σε ένα *note try: ad6. μπλοκ, δεν είναι σφάλματα σε αυτό το
πλαίσιο.)  Ορισμένα σφάλματα είναι άνευ όρων μοιραία και προκαλούν έξοδο
με κατάσταση εξόδου μη μηδενική.  Αυτό ισχύει για εσωτερικές ασυνέπειες
και ορισμένες περιπτώσεις εξάντλησης της μνήμης.  Όλα τα μηνύματα
σφάλματος εγγράφονται στην τυπική ροή σφαλμάτων∙ η κανονική έξοδος από
τις εκτελεσμένες εντολές γράφεται στην τυπική έξοδο.

Πληκτρολογώντας τον χαρακτήρα διακοπής (συνήθως ‘Control’-‘C’ ή
‘Delete’) στην κύρια ή δευτερεύουσα γραμμή εντολών ακυρώνει την είσοδο
και επιστρέφει στην κύρια γραμμή εντολών.  (1)  Πληκτρολογώντας μια
διακοπή ενώ εκτελείται μια εντολή δημιουργείται η εξαίρεση *note
KeyboardInterrupt: d96, η οποία μπορεί να αντιμετωπιστεί από μια πρόταση
*note try: ad6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Ένα πρόβλημα με το πακέτο GNU Readline μπορεί να το αποτρέψει.


File: python.info,  Node: Εκτελέσιμα Python Scripts,  Next: Το διαδραστικό αρχείο εκκίνησης,  Prev: Διαχείριση Σφαλμάτων,  Up: Διαδραστική Λειτουργία

2.16.1.2 Εκτελέσιμα Python Scripts
..................................

Στα συστήματα BSD’ish Unix systems, τα Python scripts μπορούν να γίνουν
άμεσα εκτελέσιμα, όπως τα shell scripts, βάζοντας τη γραμμή:

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

(υποθέτοντας ότι ο interpreter βρίσκεται στο ‘PATH’ του χρήστη) στην
αρχή του σεναρίου και δίνοντας στο αρχείο μια εκτελέσιμη λειτουργία.  Το
‘#!’ πρέπει να είναι οι δύο πρώτοι χαρακτήρες του αρχείου.  Σε ορισμένες
πλατφόρμες, αυτή η πρώτη γραμμή πρέπει να τελειώνει με μια γραμμή τύπου
Unix που τελειώνει με μια γραμμή τύπου Unix που τελειώνει (‘'\n'’), όχι
με γραμμή Windows (‘'\r\n'’).  Σημειώστε ότι ο χαρακτήρας
κατακερματισμού, , ‘'#'’, χρησιμοποιείται για την έναρξη ενός σχολίου
στην Python.

Το script μπορεί να δοθεί μια εκτελέσιμη λειτουργία ή άδεια,
χρησιμοποιώντας την εντολή ‘chmod’.

     $ chmod +x myscript.py

Στα συστήματα Windows, δεν υπάρχει η έννοια της «εκτελέσιμη
λειτουργίας».  Το πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης της Python συσχετίζει αυτόματα
τα αρχεία ‘.py’ με το ‘python.exe’ έτσι ώστε να εκτελείται ένα διπλό
κλικ σε ένα αρχείο Python ως script.  Η επέκταση μπορεί επίσης να είναι
‘.pyw’, σε αυτήν την περίπτωση, το παράθυρο της κονσόλας που εμφανίζεται
συνήθως αποκρύπτεται.


File: python.info,  Node: Το διαδραστικό αρχείο εκκίνησης,  Next: Τα Modules Προσαρμογής,  Prev: Εκτελέσιμα Python Scripts,  Up: Διαδραστική Λειτουργία

2.16.1.3 Το διαδραστικό αρχείο εκκίνησης
........................................

Όταν χρησιμοποιείτε την Python διαδραστικά, είναι συχνά βολικό να
εκτελούνται ορισμένες τυπικές εντολές κάθε φορά που ξεκινά ο
interpreter.  Μπορείτε να το κάνετε αυτό ορίζοντας μια μεταβλητή
περιβάλλοντος με το όνομα *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453. στο όνομα ενός
αρχείου που περιέχει τις εντολές εκκίνησης σας.  Αυτό είναι παρόμοιο με
το χαρακτηριστικό ‘.profile’ στα Unix shells.

Αυτό το αρχείο διαβάζεται μόνο σε διαδραστικές συνεδρίες, όχι όταν η
Python διαβάζει εντολές από ένα script, και όχι όταν το ‘/dev/tty’
δίνεται ως η ρητή πηγή εντολών (η οποία κατά τα άλλα συμπεριφέρεται σαν
μια διαδραστική συνεδρία).  Εκτελείται στον ίδιο χώρο ονομάτων όπου
εκτελούνται αλληλεπιδραστικές εντολές, έτσι ώστε τα αντικείμενα που
ορίζει ή εισάγει να μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν χωρίς επιφύλαξη στη
διαδραστική περίοδο λειτουργίας.  Μπορείτε επίσης να αλλάξετε τις
προτροπές ‘sys.ps1’ και ‘sys.ps2’ σε αυτό το αρχείο.

Εάν θέλετε να διαβάσετε ένα επιπλέον αρχείο εκκίνησης από τον τρέχοντα
κατάλογο, μπορείτε να το προγραμματίσετε στο καθολικό αρχείο εκκίνησης
χρησιμοποιώντας κώδικα όπως ‘if os.path.isfile('.pythonrc.py'):
exec(open('.pythonrc.py').read())’.  Εάν θέλετε να χρησιμοποιήσετε το
αρχείο εκκίνησης σε ένα σενάριο, πρέπει να το κάνετε ρητά στο script:

     import os
     filename = os.environ.get('PYTHONSTARTUP')
     if filename and os.path.isfile(filename):
         with open(filename) as fobj:
             startup_file = fobj.read()
         exec(startup_file)


File: python.info,  Node: Τα Modules Προσαρμογής,  Prev: Το διαδραστικό αρχείο εκκίνησης,  Up: Διαδραστική Λειτουργία

2.16.1.4 Τα Modules Προσαρμογής
...............................

Η Python παρέχει δύο άγκιστρα για να σας επιτρέψει να την προσαρμόσετε:
sitecustomize και usercustomize.  Για να δείτε πώς λειτουργεί, πρέπει
πρώτα να βρείτε τη θέση του καταλόγου πακέτων ιστοτόπων χρήστη.
Ξεκινήστε την Python και εκτελέσετε αυτός ο κώδικας:

     >>> import site
     >>> site.getusersitepackages()
     '/home/user/.local/lib/python3.x/site-packages'

Τώρα μπορείτε να δημιουργήσετε ένα αρχείο με το όνομα ‘usercustomize.py’
σε αυτόν τον κατάλογο και να βάλετε ό,τι θέλετε σε αυτόν.  Θα επηρεάσει
κάθε επίκληση της Python, εκτός εάν ξεκινήσει με την επιλογή *note -s:
1732. απενεργοποιήστε την αυτόματη εισαγωγή.

Το sitecustomize λειτουργεί με τον ίδιο τρόπο, αλλά συνήθως
δημιουργείται από έναν διαχειριστή του υπολογιστή στον παγκόσμιο
κατάλογο πακέτων τοποθεσιών και εισάγεται πριν από το usercustomize.
Δείτε την τεκμηρίωση του module *note site: cf. για περισσότερες
λεπτομέρειες.

Υποσημειώσεις
.............


File: python.info,  Node: Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python,  Next: Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python,  Prev: Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python,  Up: Top

3 Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python
******************************

Αυτό το μέρος της τεκμηρίωσης είναι αφιερωμένο σε γενικές πληροφορίες
σχετικά με τη ρύθμιση του περιβάλλοντος της Python σε διαφορετικές
πλατφόρμες, την εκκίνηση του διερμηνέα και πράγματα που κάνουν το να
δουλεύεις με την Python ευκολότερα.

* Menu:

* Command line and environment: Command line and environment<2>.
* Χρήση της Python σε πλατφόρμες Unix::
* Configure Python::
* Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows::
* Χρησιμοποιώντας Python σε macOS::
* Χρήση της Python σε Android::
* Χρήση Python σε iOS::
* Επεξεργαστές Κειμένου και IDEs::


File: python.info,  Node: Command line and environment<2>,  Next: Χρήση της Python σε πλατφόρμες Unix,  Up: Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python

3.1 Command line and environment
================================

The CPython interpreter scans the command line and the environment for
various settings.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Other implementations” command line
schemes may differ.  See *note Εναλλακτικές Υλοποιήσεις: 2307. for
further resources.

* Menu:

* Command line::
* Environment variables::


File: python.info,  Node: Command line,  Next: Environment variables,  Up: Command line and environment<2>

3.1.1 Command line
------------------

When invoking Python, you may specify any of these options:

     python [-bBdEhiIOPqRsSuvVWx?] [-c command | -m module-name | script | - ] [args]

The most common use case is, of course, a simple invocation of a script:

     python myscript.py

* Menu:

* Interface options::
* Generic options::
* Miscellaneous options::
* Controlling color::


File: python.info,  Node: Interface options,  Next: Generic options,  Up: Command line

3.1.1.1 Interface options
.........................

The interpreter interface resembles that of the UNIX shell, but provides
some additional methods of invocation:

   * When called with standard input connected to a tty device, it
     prompts for commands and executes them until an EOF (an end-of-file
     character, you can produce that with ‘Ctrl’-‘D’ on UNIX or
     ‘Ctrl’-‘Z,’ ‘Enter’ on Windows) is read.  For more on interactive
     mode, see *note Διαδραστική Λειτουργία: 6a0.

   * When called with a file name argument or with a file as standard
     input, it reads and executes a script from that file.

   * When called with a directory name argument, it reads and executes
     an appropriately named script from that directory.

   * When called with ‘-c command’, it executes the Python statement(s)
     given as 'command'.  Here 'command' may contain multiple statements
     separated by newlines.

   * When called with ‘-m module-name’, the given module is located on
     the Python module path and executed as a script.

In non-interactive mode, the entire input is parsed before it is
executed.

An interface option terminates the list of options consumed by the
interpreter, all consecutive arguments will end up in *note sys.argv:
1609. – note that the first element, subscript zero (‘sys.argv[0]’), is
a string reflecting the program’s source.

 -- Option: -c <command>

     Execute the Python code in 'command'.  'command' can be one or more
     statements separated by newlines, with significant leading
     whitespace as in normal module code.

     If this option is given, the first element of *note sys.argv: 1609.
     will be ‘"-c"’ and the current directory will be added to the start
     of *note sys.path: 194. (allowing modules in that directory to be
     imported as top level modules).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘cpython.run_command’ with
     argument ‘command’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: 'command' is automatically dedented before
     execution.

 -- Option: -m <module-name>

     Search *note sys.path: 194. for the named module and execute its
     contents as the *note __main__: 1. module.

     Since the argument is a 'module' name, you must not give a file
     extension (‘.py’).  The module name should be a valid absolute
     Python module name, but the implementation may not always enforce
     this (e.g.  it may allow you to use a name that includes a hyphen).

     Package names (including namespace packages) are also permitted.
     When a package name is supplied instead of a normal module, the
     interpreter will execute ‘<pkg>.__main__’ as the main module.  This
     behaviour is deliberately similar to the handling of directories
     and zipfiles that are passed to the interpreter as the script
     argument.

          Σημείωση: This option cannot be used with built-in modules and
          extension modules written in C, since they do not have Python
          module files.  However, it can still be used for precompiled
          modules, even if the original source file is not available.

     If this option is given, the first element of *note sys.argv: 1609.
     will be the full path to the module file (while the module file is
     being located, the first element will be set to ‘"-m"’).  As with
     the *note -c: 445. option, the current directory will be added to
     the start of *note sys.path: 194.

     *note -I: d28. option can be used to run the script in isolated
     mode where *note sys.path: 194. contains neither the current
     directory nor the user’s site-packages directory.  All ‘PYTHON*’
     environment variables are ignored, too.

     Many standard library modules contain code that is invoked on their
     execution as a script.  An example is the *note timeit: f8. module:

          python -m timeit -s "setup here" "benchmarked code here"
          python -m timeit -h # for details

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘cpython.run_module’ with
     argument ‘module-name’.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note runpy.run_module(): 1901.

          Equivalent functionality directly available to Python code

     PEP 338(1) – Executing modules as scripts

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Supply the package name to run a ‘__main__’
     submodule.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: namespace packages are also supported

 -- Describe: -

     Read commands from standard input (*note sys.stdin: 94a.).  If
     standard input is a terminal, *note -i: 187d. is implied.

     If this option is given, the first element of *note sys.argv: 1609.
     will be ‘"-"’ and the current directory will be added to the start
     of *note sys.path: 194.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘cpython.run_stdin’ with no
     arguments.

 -- Describe: <script>

     Execute the Python code contained in 'script', which must be a
     filesystem path (absolute or relative) referring to either a Python
     file, a directory containing a ‘__main__.py’ file, or a zipfile
     containing a ‘__main__.py’ file.

     If this option is given, the first element of *note sys.argv: 1609.
     will be the script name as given on the command line.

     If the script name refers directly to a Python file, the directory
     containing that file is added to the start of *note sys.path: 194,
     and the file is executed as the *note __main__: 1. module.

     If the script name refers to a directory or zipfile, the script
     name is added to the start of *note sys.path: 194. and the
     ‘__main__.py’ file in that location is executed as the *note
     __main__: 1. module.

     *note -I: d28. option can be used to run the script in isolated
     mode where *note sys.path: 194. contains neither the script’s
     directory nor the user’s site-packages directory.  All ‘PYTHON*’
     environment variables are ignored, too.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘cpython.run_file’ with
     argument ‘filename’.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note runpy.run_path(): 6ae.

          Equivalent functionality directly available to Python code

If no interface option is given, *note -i: 187d. is implied,
‘sys.argv[0]’ is an empty string (‘""’) and the current directory will
be added to the start of *note sys.path: 194.  Also, tab-completion and
history editing is automatically enabled, if available on your platform
(see *note Readline configuration: 1372.).

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Κάνοντας invoke τον Interpreter: 21b5.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Automatic enabling of tab-completion and history
editing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/


File: python.info,  Node: Generic options,  Next: Miscellaneous options,  Prev: Interface options,  Up: Command line

3.1.1.2 Generic options
.......................

 -- Option: -?
 -- Option: -h
 -- Option: --help

     Print a short description of all command line options and
     corresponding environment variables and exit.

 -- Option: --help-env

     Print a short description of Python-specific environment variables
     and exit.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --help-xoptions

     Print a description of implementation-specific *note -X: 178.
     options and exit.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --help-all

     Print complete usage information and exit.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: -V
 -- Option: --version

     Print the Python version number and exit.  Example output could be:

          Python 3.8.0b2+

     When given twice, print more information about the build, like:

          Python 3.8.0b2+ (3.8:0c076caaa8, Apr 20 2019, 21:55:00)
          [GCC 6.2.0 20161005]

     Added in version 3.6: The ‘-VV’ option.


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous options,  Next: Controlling color,  Prev: Generic options,  Up: Command line

3.1.1.3 Miscellaneous options
.............................

 -- Option: -b

     Issue a warning when converting *note bytes: 1c7. or *note
     bytearray: 1c6. to *note str: 1df. without specifying encoding or
     comparing ‘bytes’ or ‘bytearray’ with ‘str’ or ‘bytes’ with *note
     int: 326.  Issue an error when the option is given twice (‘-bb’).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Affects also comparisons of *note bytes:
     1c7. with *note int: 326.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15: Deprecate *note -b: 2ed. and ‘-bb’
     command line options and schedule them to become no-op in Python
     3.17.  These were primarily helpers for the Python 2 -> 3
     transition.  Starting with Python 3.17, no *note BytesWarning: 2ee.
     will be raised for these cases; use a type checker instead.

 -- Option: -B

     If given, Python won’t try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the import of
     source modules.  See also *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1771.

 -- Option: --check-hash-based-pycs default|always|never

     Control the validation behavior of hash-based ‘.pyc’ files.  See
     *note Ακύρωση cached bytecode: 9e3.  When set to ‘default’, checked
     and unchecked hash-based bytecode cache files are validated
     according to their default semantics.  When set to ‘always’, all
     hash-based ‘.pyc’ files, whether checked or unchecked, are
     validated against their corresponding source file.  When set to
     ‘never’, hash-based ‘.pyc’ files are not validated against their
     corresponding source files.

     The semantics of timestamp-based ‘.pyc’ files are unaffected by
     this option.

 -- Option: -d

     Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only).  See also the
     *note PYTHONDEBUG: 2313. environment variable.

     This option requires a *note debug build of Python: 3dc, otherwise
     it’s ignored.

 -- Option: -E

     Ignore all ‘PYTHON*’ environment variables, e.g.  *note PYTHONPATH:
     13c6. and *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad, that might be set.

     See also the *note -P: 9a3. and *note -I: d28. (isolated) options.

 -- Option: -i

     Enter interactive mode after execution.

     Using the *note -i: 187d. option will enter interactive mode in any
     of the following circumstances:

        * When a script is passed as first argument

        * When the *note -c: 445. option is used

        * When the *note -m: 4ca. option is used

     Interactive mode will start even when *note sys.stdin: 94a. does
     not appear to be a terminal.  The *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453. file is
     not read.

     This can be useful to inspect global variables or a stack trace
     when a script raises an exception.  See also *note PYTHONINSPECT:
     187c.

 -- Option: -I

     Run Python in isolated mode.  This also implies *note -E: d27,
     *note -P: 9a3. and *note -s: 1732. options.

     In isolated mode *note sys.path: 194. contains neither the script’s
     directory nor the user’s site-packages directory.  All ‘PYTHON*’
     environment variables are ignored, too.  Further restrictions may
     be imposed to prevent the user from injecting malicious code.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Option: -O

     Remove assert statements and any code conditional on the value of
     *note __debug__: bb7.  Augment the filename for compiled (*note
     bytecode: 6b3.) files by adding ‘.opt-1’ before the ‘.pyc’
     extension (see PEP 488(1)).  See also *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE: 2314.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Modify ‘.pyc’ filenames according to PEP
     488(2).

 -- Option: -OO

     Do *note -O: 431. and also discard docstrings.  Augment the
     filename for compiled (*note bytecode: 6b3.) files by adding
     ‘.opt-2’ before the ‘.pyc’ extension (see PEP 488(3)).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Modify ‘.pyc’ filenames according to PEP
     488(4).

 -- Option: -P

     Don’t prepend a potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 194.:

        * ‘python -m module’ command line: Don’t prepend the current
          working directory.

        * ‘python script.py’ command line: Don’t prepend the script’s
          directory.  If it’s a symbolic link, resolve symbolic links.

        * ‘python -c code’ and ‘python’ (REPL) command lines: Don’t
          prepend an empty string, which means the current working
          directory.

     See also the *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 9a4. environment variable, and
     *note -E: d27. and *note -I: d28. (isolated) options.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: -q

     Don’t display the copyright and version messages even in
     interactive mode.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Option: -R

     Turn on hash randomization.  This option only has an effect if the
     *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1425. environment variable is set to anything
     other than ‘random’, since hash randomization is enabled by
     default.

     On previous versions of Python, this option turns on hash
     randomization, so that the *note __hash__(): ec1. values of str and
     bytes objects are «salted» with an unpredictable random value.
     Although they remain constant within an individual Python process,
     they are not predictable between repeated invocations of Python.

     Hash randomization is intended to provide protection against a
     denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that exploit
     the worst case performance of a dict construction, 'O'('n'^2)
     complexity.  See ‘https://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html’
     for details.

     *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1425. allows you to set a fixed value for the
     hash seed secret.

     Added in version 3.2.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The option is no longer ignored.

 -- Option: -s

     Don’t add the *note user site-packages directory: 2315. to *note
     sys.path: 194.

     See also *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1733.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 370(5) – Per user site-packages directory

 -- Option: -S

     Disable the import of the module *note site: cf. and the
     site-dependent manipulations of *note sys.path: 194. that it
     entails.  Also disable these manipulations if ‘site’ is explicitly
     imported later (call *note site.main(): 2316. if you want them to
     be triggered).

 -- Option: -u

     Force the stdout and stderr streams to be unbuffered.  This option
     has no effect on the stdin stream.

     See also *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 1f80.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The text layer of the stdout and stderr
     streams now is unbuffered.

 -- Option: -v

     Print a message each time a module is initialized, showing the
     place (filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded.  When
     given twice (‘-vv’), print a message for each file that is checked
     for when searching for a module.  Also provides information on
     module cleanup at exit.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The *note site: cf. module reports the
     site-specific paths and ‘.pth’ files being processed.

     See also *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 2317.

 -- Option: -W arg

     Warning control.  Python’s warning machinery by default prints
     warning messages to *note sys.stderr: d05.

     The simplest settings apply a particular action unconditionally to
     all warnings emitted by a process (even those that are otherwise
     ignored by default):

          -Wdefault  # Warn once per call location
          -Werror    # Convert to exceptions
          -Walways   # Warn every time
          -Wall      # Same as -Walways
          -Wmodule   # Warn once per calling module
          -Wonce     # Warn once per Python process
          -Wignore   # Never warn

     The action names can be abbreviated as desired and the interpreter
     will resolve them to the appropriate action name.  For example,
     ‘-Wi’ is the same as ‘-Wignore’.

     The full form of argument is:

          action:message:category:module:lineno

     Empty fields match all values; trailing empty fields may be
     omitted.  For example ‘-W ignore::DeprecationWarning’ ignores all
     DeprecationWarning warnings.

     The 'action' field is as explained above but only applies to
     warnings that match the remaining fields.

     The 'message' field must match the start of the warning message;
     this match is case-insensitive.  If it starts and ends with a
     forward slash (‘/’), it specifies a regular expression, otherwise
     it specifies a literal string.

     The 'category' field matches the warning category (ex:
     ‘DeprecationWarning’).  This must be a class name; the match test
     whether the actual warning category of the message is a subclass of
     the specified warning category.

     The 'module' field matches the (fully qualified) module name; this
     match is case-sensitive.  If it starts and ends with a forward
     slash (‘/’), it specifies a regular expression that the start of
     the fully qualified module name must match, otherwise it specifies
     a literal string that the fully qualified module name must be equal
     to.

     The 'lineno' field matches the line number, where zero matches all
     line numbers and is thus equivalent to an omitted line number.

     Multiple *note -W: 1c0. options can be given; when a warning
     matches more than one option, the action for the last matching
     option is performed.  Invalid ‘-W’ options are ignored (though, a
     warning message is printed about invalid options when the first
     warning is issued).

     Warnings can also be controlled using the *note PYTHONWARNINGS:
     1c1. environment variable and from within a Python program using
     the *note warnings: 11b. module.  For example, the *note
     warnings.filterwarnings(): 184b. function can be used to use a
     regular expression on the warning message.

     See *note Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων: 1cc. and *note Περιγραφή
     Φίλτρων Προειδοποιήσεων: 2319. for more details.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added regular expression support for
     'message' and 'module'.

 -- Option: -x

     Skip the first line of the source, allowing use of non-Unix forms
     of ‘#!cmd’.  This is intended for a DOS specific hack only.

 -- Option: -X

     Reserved for various implementation-specific options.  CPython
     currently defines the following possible values:

        * ‘-X faulthandler’ to enable *note faulthandler: 5b.  See also
          *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 142d.

          Added in version 3.3.

        * ‘-X showrefcount’ to output the total reference count and
          number of used memory blocks when the program finishes or
          after each statement in the interactive interpreter.  This
          only works on *note debug builds: 3dc.

          Added in version 3.4.

        * ‘-X tracemalloc’ to start tracing Python memory allocations
          using the *note tracemalloc: 108. module.  By default, only
          the most recent frame is stored in a traceback of a trace.
          Use ‘-X tracemalloc=NFRAME’ to start tracing with a traceback
          limit of 'NFRAME' frames.  See *note tracemalloc.start():
          231b. and *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 231c. for more information.

          Added in version 3.4.

        * ‘-X int_max_str_digits’ configures the *note integer string
          conversion length limitation: 9ec.  See also *note
          PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1d38.

          Added in version 3.11.

        * ‘-X importtime’ to show how long each import takes.  It shows
          module name, cumulative time (including nested imports) and
          self time (excluding nested imports).  Note that its output
          may be broken in multi-threaded application.  Typical usage is
          ‘python -X importtime -c 'import asyncio'’.

          ‘-X importtime=2’ enables additional output that indicates
          when an imported module has already been loaded.  In such
          cases, the string ‘cached’ will be printed in both time
          columns.

          See also *note PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: ebb.

          Added in version 3.7.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added ‘-X importtime=2’ to also trace
          imports of loaded modules, and reserved values other than ‘1’
          and ‘2’ for future use.

        * ‘-X dev’: enable *note Python Development Mode: 70d,
          introducing additional runtime checks that are too expensive
          to be enabled by default.  See also *note PYTHONDEVMODE: eb5.

          Added in version 3.7.

        * ‘-X utf8’ enables the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46.  ‘-X
          utf8=0’ explicitly disables *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46.
          (even when it would otherwise activate automatically).  See
          also *note PYTHONUTF8: 1ad.

          Added in version 3.7.

        * ‘-X pycache_prefix=PATH’ enables writing ‘.pyc’ files to a
          parallel tree rooted at the given directory instead of to the
          code tree.  See also *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: d6c.

          Added in version 3.8.

        * ‘-X warn_default_encoding’ issues a *note EncodingWarning:
          231d. when the locale-specific default encoding is used for
          opening files.  See also *note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: b9d.

          Added in version 3.10.

        * ‘-X no_debug_ranges’ disables the inclusion of the tables
          mapping extra location information (end line, start column
          offset and end column offset) to every instruction in code
          objects.  This is useful when smaller code objects and pyc
          files are desired as well as suppressing the extra visual
          location indicators when the interpreter displays tracebacks.
          See also *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 9b5.

          Added in version 3.11.

        * ‘-X frozen_modules’ determines whether or not frozen modules
          are ignored by the import machinery.  A value of ‘on’ means
          they get imported and ‘off’ means they are ignored.  The
          default is ‘on’ if this is an installed Python (the normal
          case).  If it’s under development (running from the source
          tree) then the default is ‘off’.  Note that the
          ‘importlib_bootstrap’ and ‘importlib_bootstrap_external’
          frozen modules are always used, even if this flag is set to
          ‘off’.  See also *note PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: 6b6.

          Added in version 3.11.

        * ‘-X perf’ enables support for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler.  When
          this option is provided, the ‘perf’ profiler will be able to
          report Python calls.  This option is only available on some
          platforms and will do nothing if is not supported on the
          current system.  The default value is «off».  See also *note
          PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 884. and *note Python support for the perf
          map compatible profilers: 6b7.

          Added in version 3.12.

        * ‘-X perf_jit’ enables support for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler
          with DWARF support.  When this option is provided, the ‘perf’
          profiler will be able to report Python calls using DWARF
          information.  This option is only available on some platforms
          and will do nothing if is not supported on the current system.
          The default value is «off».  See also *note
          PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 6b8. and *note Python support for the
          perf map compatible profilers: 6b7.

          Added in version 3.13.

        * ‘-X disable_remote_debug’ disables the remote debugging
          support as described in PEP 768(6).  This includes both the
          functionality to schedule code for execution in another
          process and the functionality to receive code for execution in
          the current process.

          This option is only available on some platforms and will do
          nothing if is not supported on the current system.  See also
          *note PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG: 419. and PEP 768(7).

          Added in version 3.14.

        * ‘-X cpu_count=N’ overrides *note os.cpu_count(): 6e1, *note
          os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0, and *note
          multiprocessing.cpu_count(): 1319.  'n' must be greater than
          or equal to 1.  This option may be useful for users who need
          to limit CPU resources of a container system.  See also *note
          PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 721.  If 'n' is ‘default’, nothing is
          overridden.

          Added in version 3.13.

        * ‘-X presite=MODULE’ or ‘-X presite=MODULE:FUNC’ specifies an
          entry point that should be executed before the *note site: cf.
          module is executed and before the *note __main__: 1. module
          exists.  Therefore, the imported module isn’t ‘__main__’.
          This can be used to execute code early during Python
          initialization.  Python needs to be *note built in debug mode:
          3dc. for this option to exist.  See also *note PYTHON_PRESITE:
          18ff.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accept also ‘module:func’ entry point
          format.

          Added in version 3.13.

        * ‘-X gil=0,1’ forces the GIL to be disabled or enabled,
          respectively.  Setting to ‘0’ is only available in builds
          configured with *note -disable-gil: 6a5.  See also *note
          PYTHON_GIL: 6a6. and *note Free-threaded CPython: 67f.

          Added in version 3.13.

        * ‘-X thread_inherit_context=0,1’ causes *note Thread: 420. to,
          by default, use a copy of context of the caller of
          ‘Thread.start()’ when starting.  Otherwise, threads will start
          with an empty context.  If unset, the value of this option
          defaults to ‘1’ on free-threaded builds and to ‘0’ otherwise.
          See also *note PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT: 1a90.

          Added in version 3.14.

        * ‘-X context_aware_warnings=0,1’ causes the *note
          warnings.catch_warnings: 423. context manager to use a *note
          ContextVar: 1a9d. to store warnings filter state.  If unset,
          the value of this option defaults to ‘1’ on free-threaded
          builds and to ‘0’ otherwise.  See also *note
          PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS: 1a83.

          Added in version 3.14.

        * ‘-X pathconfig_warnings=0,1’ if true (‘1’) then *note The
          initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1953. is
          allowed to log warnings into stderr.  If false (‘0’) suppress
          these warnings.  Set to true by default.  See also *note
          PYTHON_PATHCONFIG_WARNINGS: 1952.

          Added in version 3.15.

        * ‘-X tlbc=0,1’ enables (1, the default) or disables (0)
          thread-local bytecode in builds configured with *note
          -disable-gil: 6a5.  When disabled, this also disables the
          specializing interpreter.  See also *note PYTHON_TLBC: 231e.

          Added in version 3.14.

        * ‘-X lazy_imports=ALL,NONE,NORMAL’ controls lazy import
          behavior.  ‘all’ makes all imports lazy by default, ‘none’
          disables lazy imports entirely (even explicit ‘lazy’
          statements become eager), and ‘normal’ (the default) respects
          the ‘lazy’ keyword in source code.  See also *note
          PYTHON_LAZY_IMPORTS: 179.

          Added in version 3.15.

     It also allows passing arbitrary values and retrieving them through
     the *note sys._xoptions: 231f. dictionary.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Removed the ‘-X showalloccount’ option.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the ‘-X oldparser’ option.

Removed in version 3.14: ‘-J’ is no longer reserved for use by
Jython(8), and now has no special meaning.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/

   (8) https://www.jython.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Controlling color,  Prev: Miscellaneous options,  Up: Command line

3.1.1.4 Controlling color
.........................

The Python interpreter is configured by default to use colors to
highlight output in certain situations such as when displaying
tracebacks.  This behavior can be controlled by setting different
environment variables.

Setting the environment variable ‘TERM’ to ‘dumb’ will disable color.

If the FORCE_COLOR(1) environment variable is set, then color will be
enabled regardless of the value of TERM. This is useful on CI systems
which aren’t terminals but can still display ANSI escape sequences.

If the NO_COLOR(2) environment variable is set, Python will disable all
color in the output.  This takes precedence over ‘FORCE_COLOR’.

All these environment variables are used also by other tools to control
color output.  To control the color output only in the Python
interpreter, the *note PYTHON_COLORS: 687. environment variable can be
used.  This variable takes precedence over ‘NO_COLOR’, which in turn
takes precedence over ‘FORCE_COLOR’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://force-color.org/

   (2) https://no-color.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Environment variables,  Prev: Command line,  Up: Command line and environment<2>

3.1.2 Environment variables
---------------------------

These environment variables influence Python’s behavior, they are
processed before the command-line switches other than -E or -I. It is
customary that command-line switches override environmental variables
where there is a conflict.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONHOME

     Change the location of the standard Python libraries.  By default,
     the libraries are searched in ‘`prefix'/lib/python`version'’ and
     ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`version'’, where ‘`prefix'’ and
     ‘`exec_prefix'’ are installation-dependent directories, both
     defaulting to ‘/usr/local’.

     When *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. is set to a single directory, its value
     replaces both ‘`prefix'’ and ‘`exec_prefix'’.  To specify different
     values for these, set ‘PYTHONHOME’ to ‘`prefix':`exec_prefix'’.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONPATH

     Augment the default search path for module files.  The format is
     the same as the shell’s ‘PATH’: one or more directory pathnames
     separated by *note os.pathsep: 2322. (e.g.  colons on Unix or
     semicolons on Windows).  Non-existent directories are silently
     ignored.

     In addition to normal directories, individual *note PYTHONPATH:
     13c6. entries may refer to zipfiles containing pure Python modules
     (in either source or compiled form).  Extension modules cannot be
     imported from zipfiles.

     The default search path is installation dependent, but generally
     begins with ‘`prefix'/lib/python`version'’ (see *note PYTHONHOME:
     3ad. above).  It is 'always' appended to *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6.

     An additional directory will be inserted in the search path in
     front of *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6. as described above under *note
     Interface options: 230a.  The search path can be manipulated from
     within a Python program as the variable *note sys.path: 194.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONSAFEPATH

     If this is set to a non-empty string, don’t prepend a potentially
     unsafe path to *note sys.path: 194.: see the *note -P: 9a3. option
     for details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONPLATLIBDIR

     If this is set to a non-empty string, it overrides the *note
     sys.platlibdir: 2a9. value.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONSTARTUP

     If this is the name of a readable file, the Python commands in that
     file are executed before the first prompt is displayed in
     interactive mode.  The file is executed in the same namespace where
     interactive commands are executed so that objects defined or
     imported in it can be used without qualification in the interactive
     session.  You can also change the prompts *note sys.ps1: 2323. and
     *note sys.ps2: 2324. and the hook *note sys.__interactivehook__:
     1371. in this file.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘cpython.run_startup’ with
     the filename as the argument when called on startup.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONOPTIMIZE

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -O: 431. option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent
     to specifying ‘-O’ multiple times.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONBREAKPOINT

     If this is set, it names a callable using dotted-path notation.
     The module containing the callable will be imported and then the
     callable will be run by the default implementation of *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): e9f. which itself is called by built-in *note
     breakpoint(): 4f9.  If not set, or set to the empty string, it is
     equivalent to the value «pdb.set_trace».  Setting this to the
     string «0» causes the default implementation of
     ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ to do nothing but return immediately.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONDEBUG

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -d: 2312. option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent
     to specifying ‘-d’ multiple times.

     This environment variable requires a *note debug build of Python:
     3dc, otherwise it’s ignored.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONINSPECT

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -i: 187d. option.

     This variable can also be modified by Python code using *note
     os.environ: 4e5. to force inspect mode on program termination.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘cpython.run_stdin’ with no
     arguments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12.5: (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and
     3.8.20) Emits audit events.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Uses PyREPL if possible, in which case
     *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453. is also executed.  Emits audit events.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONUNBUFFERED

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -u: 1f7f. option.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONVERBOSE

     If this is set to a non-empty string it is equivalent to specifying
     the *note -v: 17c7. option.  If set to an integer, it is equivalent
     to specifying ‘-v’ multiple times.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONCASEOK

     If this is set, Python ignores case in *note import: 9da.
     statements.  This only works on Windows and macOS.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE

     If this is set to a non-empty string, Python won’t try to write
     ‘.pyc’ files on the import of source modules.  This is equivalent
     to specifying the *note -B: 1770. option.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX

     If this is set, Python will write ‘.pyc’ files in a mirror
     directory tree at this path, instead of in ‘__pycache__’
     directories within the source tree.  This is equivalent to
     specifying the *note -X: 178. ‘pycache_prefix=PATH’ option.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONHASHSEED

     If this variable is not set or set to ‘random’, a random value is
     used to seed the hashes of str and bytes objects.

     If *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1425. is set to an integer value, it is
     used as a fixed seed for generating the hash() of the types covered
     by the hash randomization.

     Its purpose is to allow repeatable hashing, such as for selftests
     for the interpreter itself, or to allow a cluster of python
     processes to share hash values.

     The integer must be a decimal number in the range [0,4294967295].
     Specifying the value 0 will disable hash randomization.

     Added in version 3.2.3.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS

     If this variable is set to an integer, it is used to configure the
     interpreter’s global *note integer string conversion length
     limitation: 9ec.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONIOENCODING

     If this is set before running the interpreter, it overrides the
     encoding used for stdin/stdout/stderr, in the syntax
     ‘encodingname:errorhandler’.  Both the ‘encodingname’ and the
     ‘:errorhandler’ parts are optional and have the same meaning as in
     *note str.encode(): ca7.

     For stderr, the ‘:errorhandler’ part is ignored; the handler will
     always be ‘'backslashreplace'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The ‘encodingname’ part is now optional.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: On Windows, the encoding specified by this
     variable is ignored for interactive console buffers unless *note
     PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: 1019. is also specified.  Files and pipes
     redirected through the standard streams are not affected.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONNOUSERSITE

     This is equivalent to the *note -s: 1732. option.  If this is set,
     Python won’t add the *note user site-packages directory: 2315. to
     *note sys.path: 194.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 370(1) – Per user site-packages directory

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONUSERBASE

     Defines the *note user base directory: 16c1, which is used to
     compute the path of the *note user site-packages directory: 2315.
     and *note installation paths: 2325. for ‘python -m pip install
     --user’.

     To disable the user site-packages, see *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE:
     1733. or the *note -s: 1732. option.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 370(2) – Per user site-packages directory

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONEXECUTABLE

     If this environment variable is set, ‘sys.argv[0]’ will be set to
     its value instead of the value got through the C runtime.  Only
     works on macOS.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONWARNINGS

     This is equivalent to the *note -W: 1c0. option.  If set to a comma
     separated string, it is equivalent to specifying ‘-W’ multiple
     times, with filters later in the list taking precedence over those
     earlier in the list.

     The simplest settings apply a particular action unconditionally to
     all warnings emitted by a process (even those that are otherwise
     ignored by default):

          PYTHONWARNINGS=default  # Warn once per call location
          PYTHONWARNINGS=error    # Convert to exceptions
          PYTHONWARNINGS=always   # Warn every time
          PYTHONWARNINGS=all      # Same as PYTHONWARNINGS=always
          PYTHONWARNINGS=module   # Warn once per calling module
          PYTHONWARNINGS=once     # Warn once per Python process
          PYTHONWARNINGS=ignore   # Never warn

     See *note Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων: 1cc. and *note Περιγραφή
     Φίλτρων Προειδοποιήσεων: 2319. for more details.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added regular expression support for
     'message' and 'module'.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONFAULTHANDLER

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, *note
     faulthandler.enable(): 219. is called at startup: install a handler
     for *note SIGSEGV: 1428, *note SIGFPE: 1429, *note SIGABRT: 142a,
     *note SIGBUS: 142b. and *note SIGILL: 142c. signals to dump the
     Python traceback.  This is equivalent to *note -X: 178.
     ‘faulthandler’ option.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONTRACEMALLOC

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, start
     tracing Python memory allocations using the *note tracemalloc: 108.
     module.  The value of the variable is the maximum number of frames
     stored in a traceback of a trace.  For example,
     ‘PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=1’ stores only the most recent frame.  See the
     *note tracemalloc.start(): 231b. function for more information.
     This is equivalent to setting the *note -X: 178. ‘tracemalloc’
     option.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME

     If this environment variable is set to ‘1’, Python will show how
     long each import takes.  If set to ‘2’, Python will include output
     for imported modules that have already been loaded.  This is
     equivalent to setting the *note -X: 178. ‘importtime’ option.

     Added in version 3.7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added ‘PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME=2’ to also
     trace imports of loaded modules.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, enable
     the *note debug mode: 2328. of the *note asyncio: b. module.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONMALLOC

     Set the Python memory allocators and/or install debug hooks.

     Set the family of memory allocators used by Python:

        * ‘default’: use the *note default memory allocators: 2329.

        * ‘malloc’: use the ‘malloc()’ function of the C library for all
          domains (*note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 232a, *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM:
          1027, *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: 1025.).

        * ‘pymalloc’: use the *note pymalloc allocator: 3da. for *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: 1027. and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: 1025.
          domains and use the ‘malloc()’ function for the *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 232a. domain.

        * ‘mimalloc’: use the *note mimalloc allocator: 232b. for *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: 1027. and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: 1025.
          domains and use the ‘malloc()’ function for the *note
          PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 232a. domain.

     Install *note debug hooks: 232c.:

        * ‘debug’: install debug hooks on top of the *note default
          memory allocators: 2329.

        * ‘malloc_debug’: same as ‘malloc’ but also install debug hooks.

        * ‘pymalloc_debug’: same as ‘pymalloc’ but also install debug
          hooks.

        * ‘mimalloc_debug’: same as ‘mimalloc’ but also install debug
          hooks.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded: 487. build, the
          ‘malloc’, ‘malloc_debug’, ‘pymalloc’, and ‘pymalloc_debug’
          values are not supported.  Only ‘default’, ‘debug’,
          ‘mimalloc’, and ‘mimalloc_debug’ are accepted.

     Added in version 3.6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the ‘"default"’ allocator.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONMALLOCSTATS

     If set to a non-empty string, Python will print statistics of the
     *note pymalloc memory allocator: 3da. or the *note mimalloc memory
     allocator: 232b. (whichever is in use) every time a new object
     arena is created, and on shutdown.

     This variable is ignored if the *note PYTHONMALLOC: 1022.
     environment variable is used to force the ‘malloc()’ allocator of
     the C library, or if Python is configured without both ‘pymalloc’
     and ‘mimalloc’ support.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: This variable can now also be used on
     Python compiled in release mode.  It now has no effect if set to an
     empty string.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_PYMALLOC_HUGEPAGES

     If set to a non-zero integer, enable huge page support for *note
     pymalloc: 3da. arenas.  Set to ‘0’ or unset to disable.  Python
     must be compiled with *note -with-pymalloc-hugepages: 3d9. for this
     variable to have any effect.

     When enabled, arena allocation uses ‘MAP_HUGETLB’ (Linux) or
     ‘MEM_LARGE_PAGES’ (Windows) with automatic fallback to regular
     pages if huge pages are not available.

          Προειδοποίηση: On Linux, if the huge-page pool is exhausted,
          page faults — including copy-on-write faults triggered by
          *note os.fork(): 6bd. — deliver ‘SIGBUS’ and kill the process.
          Only enable this in environments where the huge-page pool is
          properly sized and fork-safety is not a concern.

          On Windows you need a special privilege.  See the Windows
          documentation for large pages(3) for details.  Python will
          fail on startup if the required privilege
          SeLockMemoryPrivilege(4) is not held by the user.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING

     If set to a non-empty string, the default *note filesystem encoding
     and error handler: 948. mode will revert to their pre-3.6 values of
     “mbcs” and “replace”, respectively.  Otherwise, the new defaults
     “utf-8” and “surrogatepass” are used.

     This may also be enabled at runtime with *note
     sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 30e.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.6: See PEP 529(5) for more details.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO

     If set to a non-empty string, does not use the new console reader
     and writer.  This means that Unicode characters will be encoded
     according to the active console code page, rather than using utf-8.

     This variable is ignored if the standard streams are redirected (to
     files or pipes) rather than referring to console buffers.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE

     If set to the value ‘0’, causes the main Python command line
     application to skip coercing the legacy ASCII-based C and POSIX
     locales to a more capable UTF-8 based alternative.

     If this variable is 'not' set (or is set to a value other than
     ‘0’), the ‘LC_ALL’ locale override environment variable is also not
     set, and the current locale reported for the ‘LC_CTYPE’ category is
     either the default ‘C’ locale, or else the explicitly ASCII-based
     ‘POSIX’ locale, then the Python CLI will attempt to configure the
     following locales for the ‘LC_CTYPE’ category in the order listed
     before loading the interpreter runtime:

        * ‘C.UTF-8’

        * ‘C.utf8’

        * ‘UTF-8’

     If setting one of these locale categories succeeds, then the
     ‘LC_CTYPE’ environment variable will also be set accordingly in the
     current process environment before the Python runtime is
     initialized.  This ensures that in addition to being seen by both
     the interpreter itself and other locale-aware components running in
     the same process (such as the GNU ‘readline’ library), the updated
     setting is also seen in subprocesses (regardless of whether or not
     those processes are running a Python interpreter), as well as in
     operations that query the environment rather than the current C
     locale (such as Python’s own *note locale.getdefaultlocale():
     233.).

     Configuring one of these locales (either explicitly or via the
     above implicit locale coercion) automatically enables the
     ‘surrogateescape’ *note error handler: 1d6c. for *note sys.stdin:
     94a. and *note sys.stdout: e9c. (*note sys.stderr: d05. continues
     to use ‘backslashreplace’ as it does in any other locale).  This
     stream handling behavior can be overridden using *note
     PYTHONIOENCODING: 13b3. as usual.

     For debugging purposes, setting ‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn’ will
     cause Python to emit warning messages on ‘stderr’ if either the
     locale coercion activates, or else if a locale that 'would' have
     triggered coercion is still active when the Python runtime is
     initialized.

     Also note that even when locale coercion is disabled, or when it
     fails to find a suitable target locale, *note PYTHONUTF8: 1ad. will
     still activate by default in legacy ASCII-based locales.  Both
     features must be disabled in order to force the interpreter to use
     ‘ASCII’ instead of ‘UTF-8’ for system interfaces.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.7: See PEP 538(6) for more details.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONDEVMODE

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, enable
     *note Python Development Mode: 70d, introducing additional runtime
     checks that are too expensive to be enabled by default.  This is
     equivalent to setting the *note -X: 178. ‘dev’ option.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONUTF8

     If set to ‘1’, enable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46.

     If set to ‘0’, disable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46.

     Setting any other non-empty string causes an error during
     interpreter initialisation.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING

     If this environment variable is set to a non-empty string, issue a
     *note EncodingWarning: 231d. when the locale-specific default
     encoding is used.

     See *note Opt-in EncodingWarning: 1ac. for details.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES

     If this variable is set, it disables the inclusion of the tables
     mapping extra location information (end line, start column offset
     and end column offset) to every instruction in code objects.  This
     is useful when smaller code objects and pyc files are desired as
     well as suppressing the extra visual location indicators when the
     interpreter displays tracebacks.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONPERFSUPPORT

     If this variable is set to a nonzero value, it enables support for
     the Linux ‘perf’ profiler so Python calls can be detected by it.

     If set to ‘0’, disable Linux ‘perf’ profiler support.

     See also the *note -X perf: 178. command-line option and *note
     Python support for the perf map compatible profilers: 6b7.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT

     If this variable is set to a nonzero value, it enables support for
     the Linux ‘perf’ profiler so Python calls can be detected by it
     using DWARF information.

     If set to ‘0’, disable Linux ‘perf’ profiler support.

     See also the *note -X perf_jit: 178. command-line option and *note
     Python support for the perf map compatible profilers: 6b7.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG

     If this variable is set to a non-empty string, it disables the
     remote debugging feature described in PEP 768(7).  This includes
     both the functionality to schedule code for execution in another
     process and the functionality to receive code for execution in the
     current process.

     See also the *note -X disable_remote_debug: 178. command-line
     option.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_CPU_COUNT

     If this variable is set to a positive integer, it overrides the
     return values of *note os.cpu_count(): 6e1. and *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0.

     See also the *note -X cpu_count: 178. command-line option.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES

     If this variable is set to ‘on’ or ‘off’, it determines whether or
     not frozen modules are ignored by the import machinery.  A value of
     ‘on’ means they get imported and ‘off’ means they are ignored.  The
     default is ‘on’ for non-debug builds (the normal case) and ‘off’
     for debug builds.  Note that the ‘importlib_bootstrap’ and
     ‘importlib_bootstrap_external’ frozen modules are always used, even
     if this flag is set to ‘off’.

     See also the *note -X frozen_modules: 178. command-line option.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_COLORS

     If this variable is set to ‘1’, the interpreter will colorize
     various kinds of output.  Setting it to ‘0’ deactivates this
     behavior.  See also *note Controlling color: 1af.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_BASIC_REPL

     If this variable is set to any value, the interpreter will not
     attempt to load the Python-based *note REPL: 69d. that requires
     *note readline: c2, and will instead use the traditional
     parser-based REPL.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_BASIC_COMPLETER

     If this variable is set to any value, PyREPL will use *note
     rlcompleter: c5. to implement tab completion, instead of the
     default one which uses colors.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_HISTORY

     This environment variable can be used to set the location of a
     ‘.python_history’ file (by default, it is ‘.python_history’ in the
     user’s home directory).

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_GIL

     If this variable is set to ‘1’, the global interpreter lock (GIL)
     will be forced on.  Setting it to ‘0’ forces the GIL off (needs
     Python configured with the *note -disable-gil: 6a5. build option).

     See also the *note -X gil: 178. command-line option, which takes
     precedence over this variable, and *note Free-threaded CPython:
     67f.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT

     If this variable is set to ‘1’ then *note Thread: 420. will, by
     default, use a copy of context of the caller of ‘Thread.start()’
     when starting.  Otherwise, new threads will start with an empty
     context.  If unset, this variable defaults to ‘1’ on free-threaded
     builds and to ‘0’ otherwise.  See also *note -X
     thread_inherit_context: 178.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS

     If set to ‘1’ then the *note warnings.catch_warnings: 423. context
     manager will use a *note ContextVar: 1a9d. to store warnings filter
     state.  If unset, this variable defaults to ‘1’ on free-threaded
     builds and to ‘0’ otherwise.  See *note -X context_aware_warnings:
     178.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_PATHCONFIG_WARNINGS

     If true (‘1’) then *note The initialization of the sys.path module
     search path: 1953. is allowed to log warnings into stderr.  If
     false (‘0’) suppress these warnings.  Set to true by default.  See
     also *note -X pathconfig_warnings: 178.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_JIT

     On builds where experimental just-in-time compilation is available,
     this variable can force the JIT to be disabled (‘0’) or enabled
     (‘1’) at interpreter startup.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_TLBC

     If set to ‘1’ enables thread-local bytecode.  If set to ‘0’
     thread-local bytecode and the specializing interpreter are
     disabled.  Only applies to builds configured with *note
     -disable-gil: 6a5.

     See also the *note -X tlbc: 178. command-line option.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_LAZY_IMPORTS

     Controls lazy import behavior.  Accepts three values: ‘all’ makes
     all imports lazy by default, ‘none’ disables lazy imports entirely
     (even explicit ‘lazy’ statements become eager), and ‘normal’ (the
     default) respects the ‘lazy’ keyword in source code.

     See also the *note -X lazy_imports: 178. command-line option.

     Added in version 3.15.

* Menu:

* Debug-mode variables::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (3) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/memory/large-page-support

   (4) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/previous-versions/windows/it-pro/windows-10/security/threat-protection/security-policy-settings/lock-pages-in-memory

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/


File: python.info,  Node: Debug-mode variables,  Up: Environment variables

3.1.2.1 Debug-mode variables
............................

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONDUMPREFS

     If set, Python will dump objects and reference counts still alive
     after shutting down the interpreter.

     Needs Python configured with the *note -with-trace-refs: 828. build
     option.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE

     If set, Python will dump objects and reference counts still alive
     after shutting down the interpreter into a file under the path
     given as the value to this environment variable.

     Needs Python configured with the *note -with-trace-refs: 828. build
     option.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHON_PRESITE

     If this variable is set to a module, that module will be imported
     early in the interpreter lifecycle, before the *note site: cf.
     module is executed, and before the *note __main__: 1. module is
     created.  Therefore, the imported module is not treated as
     ‘__main__’.

     This can be used to execute code early during Python
     initialization.

     To import a submodule, use ‘package.module’ as the value, like in
     an import statement.

     See also the *note -X presite: 178. command-line option, which
     takes precedence over this variable.

     Needs Python configured with the *note -with-pydebug: 853. build
     option.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accept also ‘module:func’ entry point
     format.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Χρήση της Python σε πλατφόρμες Unix,  Next: Configure Python,  Prev: Command line and environment<2>,  Up: Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python

3.2 Χρήση της Python σε πλατφόρμες Unix
=======================================

* Menu:

* Λήψη και εγκατάσταση της πιο πρόσφατης έκδοσης Python::
* Μεταγλώττιση της Python::
* Διαδρομές και αρχεία που σχετίζονται με την Python::
* Διάφορα::
* Custom OpenSSL::


File: python.info,  Node: Λήψη και εγκατάσταση της πιο πρόσφατης έκδοσης Python,  Next: Μεταγλώττιση της Python,  Up: Χρήση της Python σε πλατφόρμες Unix

3.2.1 Λήψη και εγκατάσταση της πιο πρόσφατης έκδοσης Python
-----------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Σε Linux::
* Σε FreeBSD και OpenBSD::


File: python.info,  Node: Σε Linux,  Next: Σε FreeBSD και OpenBSD,  Up: Λήψη και εγκατάσταση της πιο πρόσφατης έκδοσης Python

3.2.1.1 Σε Linux
................

Η Python είναι προεγκατεστημένη στις περισσότερες διανομές Linux, ενώ
διατίθεται ως πακέτο σε όλες τις υπόλοιπες.  Ωστόσο, υπάρχουν ορισμένα
χαρακτηριστικά που μπορεί να θέλετε να χρησιμοποιήσετε, τα οποία δεν
είναι διαθέσιμα στο πακέτο της διανομής σας.  Μπορείτε να κάνετε compile
την πιο πρόσφατη έκδοση της Python από τον πηγαίο κώδικα.

Στην περίπτωση που η πιο πρόσφατη έκδοση Python δεν είναι
προεγκατεστημένη και επίσης δεν ανήκει στα αποθετήρια, μπορείτε να
δημιουργήσετε πακέτα για τη δική σας διανομή.  Δείτε τα παρακάτω links:

Δείτε επίσης
............

‘https://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/maint-guide/first.en.html’

     για τους χρήστες του Debian

‘https://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Packaging’

     για τους χρήστες του OpenSuse

‘https://docs.fedoraproject.org/en-US/package-maintainers/Packaging_Tutorial_GNU_Hello/’

     για τους χρήστες του Fedora

‘https://slackbook.org/html/package-management-making-packages.html’

     για τους χρήστες του Slackware

* Menu:

* Εγκατάσταση του IDLE::


File: python.info,  Node: Εγκατάσταση του IDLE,  Up: Σε Linux

3.2.1.2 Εγκατάσταση του IDLE
............................

Σε μερικές περιπτώσεις, το IDLE μπορεί να μην περιλαμβάνεται στην
εγκατάσταση της Python.

   * Για τους χρήστες του Debian και του Ubuntu:

          sudo apt update
          sudo apt install idle

   * Για τους χρήστες των Fedora, RHEL, και CentOS:

          sudo dnf install python3-idle

   * Για τους χρήστες των SUSE και OpenSUSE:

          sudo zypper install python3-idle

   * Για τους χρήστες του Alpine Linux:

          sudo apk add python3-idle


File: python.info,  Node: Σε FreeBSD και OpenBSD,  Prev: Σε Linux,  Up: Λήψη και εγκατάσταση της πιο πρόσφατης έκδοσης Python

3.2.1.3 Σε FreeBSD και OpenBSD
..............................

   * Χρήστες του FreeBSD, για την προσθήκη του πακέτου χρησιμοποιήστε:

          pkg install python3

   * Χρήστες του OpenBSD, για την προσθήκη του πακέτου χρησιμοποιήστε:

          pkg_add -r python

          pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/<insert your architecture here>/python-<version>.tgz

     Για παράδειγμα, χρήστες του i386 κάνουν λήψη της έκδοσης 2.5.1
     χρησιμοποιώντας:

          pkg_add ftp://ftp.openbsd.org/pub/OpenBSD/4.2/packages/i386/python-2.5.1p2.tgz


File: python.info,  Node: Μεταγλώττιση της Python,  Next: Διαδρομές και αρχεία που σχετίζονται με την Python,  Prev: Λήψη και εγκατάσταση της πιο πρόσφατης έκδοσης Python,  Up: Χρήση της Python σε πλατφόρμες Unix

3.2.2 Μεταγλώττιση της Python
-----------------------------

Δείτε επίσης
............

Αν θέλετε να συνεισφέρετε στο CPython, ανατρέξτε στον devguide(1), που
περιλαμβάνει οδηγίες μεταγλώττισης και άλλες συμβουλές για τη ρύθμιση
του περιβάλλοντος.

Αν θέλετε να κάνετε compile το CPython μόνοι σας, το πρώτο πράγμα που
πρέπει να κάνετε είναι να πάρετε τον πηγαίο κώδικα(2).  Μπορείτε να
κατεβάσετε είτε τον πηγαίο κώδικα της τελευταίας έκδοσης είτε απλά να
πάρετε έναν καινούργιο clone(3).  Θα χρειαστεί επίσης να εγκαταστήσετε
τις *note build requirements: 2339.

Η διαδικασία της μεταγλώττισης απαρτίζεται από τις συνήθεις εντολές:

     ./configure
     make
     make install

Το *note Configuration options: 233a. και οι όροι για συγκεκριμένες
πλατφόρμες Unix τεκμηριώνονται εκτενώς στο αρχείο README.rst(4) στην
βάση του πηγαίου δέντρου της Python.

     Προειδοποίηση: Το ‘make install’ μπορεί να αντικαταστήσει ή να
     μεταμφιέσει το ‘python3’ σε δυαδικό.  Επομένως προτείνεται το ‘make
     altinstall’ σε σχέση με το ‘make install’ που μπορεί να
     εγκαταστήσει μόνο το ‘`exec_prefix'/bin/python`version'’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/getting-started/setup-building/

   (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/source/

   (3) https://devguide.python.org/setup/#get-the-source-code

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: Διαδρομές και αρχεία που σχετίζονται με την Python,  Next: Διάφορα,  Prev: Μεταγλώττιση της Python,  Up: Χρήση της Python σε πλατφόρμες Unix

3.2.3 Διαδρομές και αρχεία που σχετίζονται με την Python
--------------------------------------------------------

Αυτά ενδέχεται να διαφέρουν ανάλογα με τις τοπικές συμβάσεις
εγκατάστασης∙ τα *note prefix: 233c. και *note exec_prefix: 233d.
εξαρτώνται από την εγκατάσταση και θα πρέπει να ερμηνεύονται όπως για το
λογισμικό GNU∙ μπορεί να είναι τα ίδια.

Για παράδειγμα, στα περισσότερα Linux συστήματα, η προεπιλογή είναι και
για τα δύο ‘/usr’.

File/directory                                      Που σημαίνει
                                                    
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘`exec_prefix'/bin/python3’                         Προτεινόμενη θέση του διερμηνέα.
                                                    
                                                    
‘`prefix'/lib/python`version'’,                     Προτεινόμενες θέσεις για τους καταλόγους που
‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`version'’                 περιέχουν τα βασικά modules.
                                                    
                                                    
‘`prefix'/include/python`version'’,                 Προτεινόμενες θέσεις των καταλόγων που
‘`exec_prefix'/include/python`version'’             περιέχουν τα αρχεία κεφαλίδων (include
                                                    files) που απαιτούνται για την ανάπτυξη
                                                    επεκτάσεων της Python και την ενσωμάτωση του
                                                    διερμηνέα.
                                                    


File: python.info,  Node: Διάφορα,  Next: Custom OpenSSL,  Prev: Διαδρομές και αρχεία που σχετίζονται με την Python,  Up: Χρήση της Python σε πλατφόρμες Unix

3.2.4 Διάφορα
-------------

Για να εκτελείτε εύκολα τα Python scripts σε συστήματα Unix, πρέπει να
τα κάνετε εκτελέσιμα, για παράδειγμα με

     $ chmod +x script

και να προσθέσετε μια κατάλληλη γραμμή Shebang στην αρχή του script.
Μια καλή επιλογή είναι συνήθως

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

που κάνει αναζήτηση για τον διερμηνέα της Python σε ολόκληρο το ‘PATH’.
Ωστόσο, ορισμένα Unices μπορεί να μην έχουν την εντολή ‘env’, οπότε
μπορεί να χρειαστεί να κωδικοποιήσετε το ‘/usr/bin/python3’ ως διαδρομή
του διερμηνέα.

Για να χρησιμοποιήσετε εντολές shell στα Python script σας, δείτε την
ενότητα *note subprocess: df.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom OpenSSL,  Prev: Διάφορα,  Up: Χρήση της Python σε πλατφόρμες Unix

3.2.5 Custom OpenSSL
--------------------

  1. Για να χρησιμοποιήσετε τις ρυθμίσεις του OpenSSL και το αποθετήριο
     εμπιστοσύνης συστήματος, εντοπίστε τον κατάλογο με το αρχείο
     ‘openssl.cnf’ ή τον συμβολικό σύνδεσμο στο ‘/etc’.  Στις
     περισσότερες διανομές το αρχείο βρίσκεται είτε στο ‘/etc/ssl’ είτε
     στο ‘/etc/pki/tls’.  Ο κατάλογος θα πρέπει επίσης να περιέχει ένα
     αρχείο ‘cert.pem’ και/ή έναν κατάλογο ‘certs’.

          $ find /etc/ -name openssl.cnf -printf "%h\n"
          /etc/ssl

  2. Λήψη, δημιουργία και εγκατάσταση του OenSSL. Βεβαιωθείτε ότι
     χρησιμοποιείτε το ‘install_sw’ και όχι το ‘install’.  Ο στόχος
     ‘install_sw’ δεν παρακάμπτει το αρχείο ‘openssl.cnf’.

          $ curl -O https://www.openssl.org/source/openssl-VERSION.tar.gz
          $ tar xzf openssl-VERSION
          $ pushd openssl-VERSION
          $ ./config \
              --prefix=/usr/local/custom-openssl \
              --libdir=lib \
              --openssldir=/etc/ssl
          $ make -j1 depend
          $ make -j8
          $ make install_sw
          $ popd

  3. Μεταγλώττιση της Python με προσαρμοσμένο OpenSSL (δείτε τις
     επιλογές configure ‘----with-openssl’ και ‘----with-openssl-rpath’)

          $ pushd python-3.x.x
          $ ./configure -C \
              --with-openssl=/usr/local/custom-openssl \
              --with-openssl-rpath=auto \
              --prefix=/usr/local/python-3.x.x
          $ make -j8
          $ make altinstall

     Σημείωση: Οι διορθωτικές εκδόσεις του OpenSSL έχουν μια δυαδική
     διεπαφή εφαρμογής (ABI) συμβατή προς τα πίσω.  Δεν χρειάζεται να
     κάνετε compile εκ νέου την Python για να ενημερώσετε το OpenSSL.
     Αρκεί να αντικαταστήσετε την προσαρμοσμένη εγκατάσταση του OpenSSL
     με μια νεότερη έκδοση.


File: python.info,  Node: Configure Python,  Next: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows,  Prev: Χρήση της Python σε πλατφόρμες Unix,  Up: Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python

3.3 Configure Python
====================

* Menu:

* Build Requirements::
* Generated files::
* Configure Options::
* Python Build System::
* Compiler and linker flags::


File: python.info,  Node: Build Requirements,  Next: Generated files,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.1 Build Requirements
------------------------

To build CPython, you will need:

   * A C11(1) compiler.  Optional C11 features(2) are not required.

   * On Windows, Microsoft Visual Studio 2017 or later is required.

   * Support for IEEE 754(3) floating-point numbers and floating-point
     Not-a-Number (NaN)(4).

   * Support for threads.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: On Windows, Visual Studio 2015 or later is now
required.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Selected C99 features, like ‘<stdint.h>’ and
‘static inline’ functions, are now required.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Thread support is now required.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: C11 compiler, IEEE 754 and NaN support are now
required.  On Windows, Visual Studio 2017 or later is required.

See also PEP 7(5) «Style Guide for C Code» and PEP 11(6) «CPython
platform support».

* Menu:

* Requirements for optional modules::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/11

   (2) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)#Optional_features

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NaN#Floating_point

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: Requirements for optional modules,  Up: Build Requirements

3.3.1.1 Requirements for optional modules
.........................................

Some *note optional modules: 2347. of the standard library require
third-party libraries installed for development (for example, header
files must be available).

Missing requirements are reported in the ‘configure’ output.  Modules
that are missing due to missing dependencies are listed near the end of
the ‘make’ output, sometimes using an internal name, for example,
‘_ctypes’ for *note ctypes: 2d. module.

If you distribute a CPython interpreter without optional modules, it’s
best practice to advise users, who generally expect that standard
library modules are available.

Dependencies to build optional modules are:

Dependency                            Minimum version                       Python module
                                                                            
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                            
libbz2(1)                                                                   *note bz2: 14.
                                                                            
                                                                            
libffi(2)                             3.3.0 recommended                     *note ctypes: 2d.
                                                                            
                                                                            
liblzma(3)                                                                  *note lzma: 8d.
                                                                            
                                                                            
libmpdec(4)                           2.5.0                                 *note decimal: 39. (5)
                                                                            
                                                                            
libreadline(6) or libedit(7) (8)                                            *note readline: c2.
                                                                            
                                                                            
libuuid(9)                                                                  ‘_uuid’ (10)
                                                                            
                                                                            
ncurses(11) (12)                                                            *note curses: 2e.
                                                                            
                                                                            
OpenSSL(13)                                3.0.18 recommended               *note ssl: d8, *note hashlib: 6b.
                                           (1.1.1 minimum)                  (14)
                                                                            
                                                                            
SQLite(15)                            3.15.2                                *note sqlite3: d7.
                                                                            
                                                                            
Tcl/Tk(16)                            8.5.12                                *note tkinter: f9,
                                                                            *note IDLE: 13be,
                                                                            *note turtle: 10a.
                                                                            
                                                                            
zlib(17)                              1.2.2.1                               *note zlib: 13c, *note gzip: 6a,
                                                                            *note ensurepip: 58.
                                                                            
                                                                            
zstd(18)                              1.4.5                                 *note compression.zstd: 23.
                                                                            

Note that the table does not include all optional modules; in
particular, platform-specific modules like *note winreg: 11f. are not
listed here.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * The devguide(19) includes a full list of dependencies required to
     build all modules and instructions on how to install them on common
     platforms.

   * *note -with-system-expat: 1d2b. allows building with an external
     libexpat(20) library.

   * *note Options for third-party dependencies: 234a.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Tcl/Tk version 8.3.1 is now required for *note
tkinter: f9.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Tcl/Tk version 8.4 is now required for *note
tkinter: f9.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: OpenSSL 1.0.2 is now required for *note hashlib:
6b. and *note ssl: d8.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: OpenSSL 1.1.1 is now required for *note
hashlib: 6b. and *note ssl: d8.  SQLite 3.7.15 is now required for *note
sqlite3: d7.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Tcl/Tk version 8.5.12 is now required for *note
tkinter: f9.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: SQLite 3.15.2 is now required for *note
sqlite3: d7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sourceware.org/bzip2/

   (2) https://sourceware.org/libffi/

   (3) https://tukaani.org/xz/

   (4) https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/doc/libmpdec/

   (5) If 'libmpdec' is not available, the *note decimal: 39. module
will use a pure-Python implementation.  See *note -with-system-libmpdec:
3d6. for details.

   (6) https://tiswww.case.edu/php/chet/readline/rltop.html

   (7) https://www.thrysoee.dk/editline/

   (8) See *note -with-readline: 2348. for choosing the backend for the
*note readline: c2. module.

   (9) https://linux.die.net/man/3/libuuid

   (10) The *note uuid: 119. module uses ‘_uuid’ to generate «safe»
UUIDs.  See the module documentation for details.

   (11) https://gnu.org/software/ncurses/ncurses.html

   (12) The *note curses: 2e. module requires the ‘libncurses’ or
‘libncursesw’ library.  The *note curses.panel: 30. module additionally
requires the ‘libpanel’ or ‘libpanelw’ library.

   (13) https://openssl-library.org/

   (14) If OpenSSL is not available, the *note hashlib: 6b. module will
use bundled implementations of several hash functions.  See *note
-with-builtin-hashlib-hashes: 2349. for 'forcing' usage of OpenSSL.

   (15) https://sqlite.org/

   (16) https://www.tcl-lang.org/

   (17) https://www.zlib.net

   (18) https://facebook.github.io/zstd/

   (19) 
https://devguide.python.org/getting-started/setup-building/#install-dependencies

   (20) https://libexpat.github.io/


File: python.info,  Node: Generated files,  Next: Configure Options,  Prev: Build Requirements,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.2 Generated files
---------------------

To reduce build dependencies, Python source code contains multiple
generated files.  Commands to regenerate all generated files:

     make regen-all
     make regen-stdlib-module-names
     make regen-limited-abi
     make regen-configure

The ‘Makefile.pre.in’ file documents generated files, their inputs, and
tools used to regenerate them.  Search for ‘regen-*’ make targets.

* Menu:

* configure script::


File: python.info,  Node: configure script,  Up: Generated files

3.3.2.1 configure script
........................

The ‘make regen-configure’ command regenerates the ‘aclocal.m4’ file and
the ‘configure’ script using the ‘Tools/build/regen-configure.sh’ shell
script which uses an Ubuntu container to get the same tools versions and
have a reproducible output.

The container is optional, the following command can be run locally:

     autoreconf -ivf -Werror

The generated files can change depending on the exact versions of the
tools used.  The container that CPython uses has Autoconf(1) 2.72,
‘aclocal’ from Automake(2) 1.16.5, and pkg-config(3) 1.8.1.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.5 and are now
used to regenerate ‘configure’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Autoconf 2.72 is now used to regenerate
‘configure’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gnu.org/software/autoconf

   (2) https://www.gnu.org/software/automake

   (3) https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/pkg-config/


File: python.info,  Node: Configure Options,  Next: Python Build System,  Prev: Generated files,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.3 Configure Options
-----------------------

List all ‘configure’ script options using:

     ./configure --help

See also the ‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ in the Python source distribution.

* Menu:

* General Options::
* C compiler options::
* Linker options::
* Options for third-party dependencies::
* WebAssembly Options::
* Install Options::
* Performance options::
* Python Debug Build::
* Debug options::
* Linker options: Linker options<2>.
* Libraries options::
* Security Options::
* macOS Options::
* iOS Options::
* Cross Compiling Options::


File: python.info,  Node: General Options,  Next: C compiler options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.1 General Options
.......................

 -- Option: --enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions

     Support loadable extensions in the ‘_sqlite’ extension module
     (default is no) of the *note sqlite3: d7. module.

     See the *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): c17.
     method of the *note sqlite3: d7. module.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --disable-ipv6

     Disable IPv6 support (enabled by default if supported), see the
     *note socket: d4. module.

 -- Option: --enable-big-digits=[15|30]

     Define the size in bits of Python *note int: 326. digits: 15 or 30
     bits.

     By default, the digit size is 30.

     Define the ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’ to ‘15’ or ‘30’.

     See *note sys.int_info.bits_per_digit: 1638.

 -- Option: --with-suffix=SUFFIX

     Set the Python executable suffix to 'SUFFIX'.

     The default suffix is ‘.exe’ on Windows and macOS (‘python.exe’
     executable), ‘.js’ on Emscripten node, ‘.html’ on Emscripten
     browser, ‘.wasm’ on WASI, and an empty string on other platforms
     (‘python’ executable).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The default suffix on WASM platform is one
     of ‘.js’, ‘.html’ or ‘.wasm’.

 -- Option: --with-tzpath=<list of absolute paths separated by pathsep>

     Select the default time zone search path for *note zoneinfo.TZPATH:
     2353.  See the *note Compile-time configuration: 2354. of the *note
     zoneinfo: 13d. module.

     Default:
     ‘/usr/share/zoneinfo:/usr/lib/zoneinfo:/usr/share/lib/zoneinfo:/etc/zoneinfo’.

     See *note os.pathsep: 2322. path separator.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --without-decimal-contextvar

     Build the ‘_decimal’ extension module using a thread-local context
     rather than a coroutine-local context (default), see the *note
     decimal: 39. module.

     See *note decimal.HAVE_CONTEXTVAR: 2356. and the *note contextvars:
     28. module.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --with-dbmliborder=<list of backend names>

     Override order to check db backends for the *note dbm: 34. module

     A valid value is a colon (‘:’) separated string with the backend
     names:

        * ‘ndbm’;

        * ‘gdbm’;

        * ‘bdb’.

 -- Option: --without-c-locale-coercion

     Disable C locale coercion to a UTF-8 based locale (enabled by
     default).

     Don’t define the ‘PY_COERCE_C_LOCALE’ macro.

     See *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: e9b. and the PEP 538(1).

 -- Option: --with-platlibdir=DIRNAME

     Python library directory name (default is ‘lib’).

     Fedora and SuSE use ‘lib64’ on 64-bit platforms.

     See *note sys.platlibdir: 2a9.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH

     Directory of wheel packages used by the *note ensurepip: 58. module
     (none by default).

     Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against
     bundling dependencies.  For example, Fedora installs wheel packages
     in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don’t install the
     ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Option: --with-pkg-config=[check|yes|no]

     Whether configure should use ‘pkg-config’ to detect build
     dependencies.

        * ‘check’ (default): ‘pkg-config’ is optional

        * ‘yes’: ‘pkg-config’ is mandatory

        * ‘no’: configure does not use ‘pkg-config’ even when present

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --with-missing-stdlib-config=FILE

     Path to a JSON(2) configuration file containing custom error
     messages for missing *note standard library: 3d8. modules.

     This option is intended for Python distributors who wish to provide
     distribution-specific guidance when users encounter standard
     library modules that are missing or packaged separately.

     The JSON file should map missing module names to custom error
     message strings.  For example, if your distribution packages *note
     tkinter: f9. and *note _tkinter: 3. separately and excludes ‘_gdbm’
     for legal reasons, the configuration could contain:

          {
              "_gdbm": "The '_gdbm' module is not available in this distribution",
              "tkinter": "Install the python-tk package to use tkinter",
              "_tkinter": "Install the python-tk package to use tkinter",
          }

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Option: --enable-pystats

     Turn on internal Python performance statistics gathering.

     By default, statistics gathering is off.  Use ‘python3 -X pystats’
     command or set ‘PYTHONSTATS=1’ environment variable to turn on
     statistics gathering at Python startup.

     At Python exit, dump statistics if statistics gathering was on and
     not cleared.

     Effects:

        * Add *note -X pystats: 178. command line option.

        * Add ‘PYTHONSTATS’ environment variable.

        * Define the ‘Py_STATS’ macro.

        * Add functions to the *note sys: e2. module:

             * ‘sys._stats_on()’: Turns on statistics gathering.

             * ‘sys._stats_off()’: Turns off statistics gathering.

             * ‘sys._stats_clear()’: Clears the statistics.

             * ‘sys._stats_dump()’: Dump statistics to file, and clears
               the statistics.

     The statistics will be dumped to a arbitrary (probably unique) file
     in ‘/tmp/py_stats/’ (Unix) or ‘C:\temp\py_stats\’ (Windows).  If
     that directory does not exist, results will be printed on stderr.

     Use ‘Tools/scripts/summarize_stats.py’ to read the stats.

     Statistics:

        * Opcode:

             * Specialization: success, failure, hit, deferred, miss,
               deopt, failures;

             * Execution count;

             * Pair count.

        * Call:

             * Inlined Python calls;

             * PyEval calls;

             * Frames pushed;

             * Frame object created;

             * Eval calls: vector, generator, legacy, function
               VECTORCALL, build class, slot, function «ex», API,
               method.

        * Object:

             * incref and decref;

             * interpreter incref and decref;

             * allocations: all, 512 bytes, 4 kiB, big;

             * free;

             * to/from free lists;

             * dictionary materialized/dematerialized;

             * type cache;

             * optimization attempts;

             * optimization traces created/executed;

             * uops executed.

        * Garbage collector:

             * Garbage collections;

             * Objects visited;

             * Objects collected.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --disable-gil

     Enables support for running Python without the *note global
     interpreter lock: 685. (GIL): *note free-threaded build: 198.

     Defines the ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’ macro and adds ‘"t"’ to *note
     sys.abiflags: e28.

     See *note Free-threaded CPython: 67f. for more detail.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Option: --enable-experimental-jit=[no|yes|yes-off|interpreter]

     Indicate how to integrate the *note experimental just-in-time
     compiler: 406.

        * ‘no’: Don’t build the JIT.

        * ‘yes’: Enable the JIT. To disable it at runtime, set the
          environment variable *note PYTHON_JIT=0: 660.

        * ‘yes-off’: Build the JIT, but disable it by default.  To
          enable it at runtime, set the environment variable *note
          PYTHON_JIT=1: 660.

        * ‘interpreter’: Enable the «JIT interpreter» (only useful for
          those debugging the JIT itself).  To disable it at runtime,
          set the environment variable *note PYTHON_JIT=0: 660.

     ‘--enable-experimental-jit=no’ is the default behavior if the
     option is not provided, and ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ is
     shorthand for ‘--enable-experimental-jit=yes’.  See
     ‘Tools/jit/README.md’ for more information, including how to
     install the necessary build-time dependencies.

          Σημείωση: When building CPython with JIT enabled, ensure that
          your system has Python 3.11 or later installed.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Option: PKG_CONFIG

     Path to ‘pkg-config’ utility.

 -- Option: PKG_CONFIG_LIBDIR

 -- Option: PKG_CONFIG_PATH

     ‘pkg-config’ options.

 -- Option: --disable-epoll

     Build without ‘epoll’, meaning that *note select.epoll(): 133d.
     will not be present even if the system provides an
     ‘epoll_create(3)’ function.  This may be used on systems where
     ‘epoll_create’ or ‘epoll_create1(4)’ is available but incompatible
     with Linux semantics.

     Added in version 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (2) https://www.json.org/json-en.html

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/epoll_create(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/epoll_create1(2)


File: python.info,  Node: C compiler options,  Next: Linker options,  Prev: General Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.2 C compiler options
..........................

 -- Option: CC

     C compiler command.

 -- Option: CFLAGS

     C compiler flags.

 -- Option: CPP

     C preprocessor command.

 -- Option: CPPFLAGS

     C preprocessor flags, e.g.  ‘-IINCLUDE_DIR’.


File: python.info,  Node: Linker options,  Next: Options for third-party dependencies,  Prev: C compiler options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.3 Linker options
......................

 -- Option: LDFLAGS

     Linker flags, e.g.  ‘-LLIBRARY_DIRECTORY’.

 -- Option: LIBS

     Libraries to pass to the linker, e.g.  ‘-lLIBRARY’.

 -- Option: MACHDEP

     Name for machine-dependent library files.


File: python.info,  Node: Options for third-party dependencies,  Next: WebAssembly Options,  Prev: Linker options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.4 Options for third-party dependencies
............................................

Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: BZIP2_CFLAGS

 -- Option: BZIP2_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags to link Python to ‘libbz2’, used by
     *note bz2: 14. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: CURSES_CFLAGS

 -- Option: CURSES_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libncurses’ or ‘libncursesw’, used
     by *note curses: 2e. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: GDBM_CFLAGS

 -- Option: GDBM_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘gdbm’.

 -- Option: LIBEDIT_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBEDIT_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libedit’, used by *note readline:
     c2. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBFFI_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBFFI_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libffi’, used by *note ctypes: 2d.
     module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBMPDEC_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libmpdec’, used by *note decimal:
     39. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

          Σημείωση: These environment variables have no effect unless
          *note -with-system-libmpdec: 3d6. is specified.

 -- Option: LIBLZMA_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBLZMA_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘liblzma’, used by *note lzma: 8d.
     module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBREADLINE_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBREADLINE_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libreadline’, used by *note
     readline: c2. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBSQLITE3_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBSQLITE3_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libsqlite3’, used by *note
     sqlite3: d7. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBUUID_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBUUID_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libuuid’, used by *note uuid: 119.
     module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: LIBZSTD_CFLAGS

 -- Option: LIBZSTD_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libzstd’, used by *note
     compression.zstd: 23. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Option: PANEL_CFLAGS

 -- Option: PANEL_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for PANEL, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libpanel’ or ‘libpanelw’, used by
     *note curses.panel: 30. module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: TCLTK_CFLAGS

 -- Option: TCLTK_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for TCLTK, overriding ‘pkg-config’.

 -- Option: ZLIB_CFLAGS

 -- Option: ZLIB_LIBS

     C compiler and linker flags for ‘libzlib’, used by *note gzip: 6a.
     module, overriding ‘pkg-config’.


File: python.info,  Node: WebAssembly Options,  Next: Install Options,  Prev: Options for third-party dependencies,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.5 WebAssembly Options
...........................

 -- Option: --enable-wasm-dynamic-linking

     Turn on dynamic linking support for WASM.

     Dynamic linking enables ‘dlopen’.  File size of the executable
     increases due to limited dead code elimination and additional
     features.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --enable-wasm-pthreads

     Turn on pthreads support for WASM.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Install Options,  Next: Performance options,  Prev: WebAssembly Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.6 Install Options
.......................

 -- Option: --prefix=PREFIX

     Install architecture-independent files in PREFIX. On Unix, it
     defaults to ‘/usr/local’.

     This value can be retrieved at runtime using *note sys.prefix: 3ab.

     As an example, one can use ‘--prefix="$HOME/.local/"’ to install a
     Python in its home directory.

 -- Option: --exec-prefix=EPREFIX

     Install architecture-dependent files in EPREFIX, defaults to *note
     -prefix: 233c.

     This value can be retrieved at runtime using *note sys.exec_prefix:
     3a8.

 -- Option: --disable-test-modules

     Don’t build nor install test modules, like the *note test: eb.
     package or the ‘_testcapi’ extension module (built and installed by
     default).

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Option: --with-ensurepip=[upgrade|install|no]

     Select the *note ensurepip: 58. command run on Python installation:

        * ‘upgrade’ (default): run ‘python -m ensurepip --altinstall
          --upgrade’ command.

        * ‘install’: run ‘python -m ensurepip --altinstall’ command;

        * ‘no’: don’t run ensurepip;

     Added in version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Performance options,  Next: Python Debug Build,  Prev: Install Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.7 Performance options
...........................

Configuring Python using ‘--enable-optimizations --with-lto’ (PGO + LTO)
is recommended for best performance.  The experimental ‘--enable-bolt’
flag can also be used to improve performance.

 -- Option: --enable-optimizations

     Enable Profile Guided Optimization (PGO) using *note PROFILE_TASK:
     1c84. (disabled by default).

     The C compiler Clang requires ‘llvm-profdata’ program for PGO. On
     macOS, GCC also requires it: GCC is just an alias to Clang on
     macOS.

     Disable also semantic interposition in libpython if
     ‘--enable-shared’ and GCC is used: add
     ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ to the compiler and linker flags.

          Σημείωση: During the build, you may encounter compiler
          warnings about profile data not being available for some
          source files.  These warnings are harmless, as only a subset
          of the code is exercised during profile data acquisition.  To
          disable these warnings on Clang, manually suppress them by
          adding ‘-Wno-profile-instr-unprofiled’ to *note CFLAGS: 1859.

     Added in version 3.6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Use ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ on GCC.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PROFILE_TASK

     Environment variable used in the Makefile: Python command line
     arguments for the PGO generation task.

     Default: ‘-m test --pgo --timeout=$(TESTTIMEOUT)’.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Task failure is no longer ignored
     silently.

 -- Option: --with-lto=[full|thin|no|yes]

     Enable Link Time Optimization (LTO) in any build (disabled by
     default).

     The C compiler Clang requires ‘llvm-ar’ for LTO (‘ar’ on macOS), as
     well as an LTO-aware linker (‘ld.gold’ or ‘lld’).

     Added in version 3.6.

     Added in version 3.11: To use ThinLTO feature, use
     ‘--with-lto=thin’ on Clang.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Use ThinLTO as the default optimization
     policy on Clang if the compiler accepts the flag.

 -- Option: --enable-bolt

     Enable usage of the BOLT post-link binary optimizer(1) (disabled by
     default).

     BOLT is part of the LLVM project but is not always included in
     their binary distributions.  This flag requires that ‘llvm-bolt’
     and ‘merge-fdata’ are available.

     BOLT is still a fairly new project so this flag should be
     considered experimental for now.  Because this tool operates on
     machine code its success is dependent on a combination of the build
     environment + the other optimization configure args + the CPU
     architecture, and not all combinations are supported.  BOLT
     versions before LLVM 16 are known to crash BOLT under some
     scenarios.  Use of LLVM 16 or newer for BOLT optimization is
     strongly encouraged.

     The ‘BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS’ and ‘BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS’ ‘configure’
     variables can be defined to override the default set of arguments
     for ‘llvm-bolt’ to instrument and apply BOLT data to binaries,
     respectively.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Option: BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS

     Arguments to ‘llvm-bolt’ when creating a BOLT optimized binary(2).

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Option: BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS

     Arguments to ‘llvm-bolt’ when instrumenting binaries.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Option: --with-computed-gotos

     Enable computed gotos in evaluation loop (enabled by default on
     supported compilers).

 -- Option: --with-tail-call-interp

     Enable interpreters using tail calls in CPython.  If enabled,
     enabling PGO (*note -enable-optimizations: c39.) is highly
     recommended.  This option specifically requires a C compiler with
     proper tail call support, and the preserve_none(3) calling
     convention.  For example, Clang 19 and newer supports this feature.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Option: --without-frame-pointers

     Disable frame pointers, which are enabled by default (see PEP
     831(4)).

     By default, the build appends flags to generate frame or backchain
     pointers to ‘BASECFLAGS’:

        - ‘-fno-omit-frame-pointer’ and/or
          ‘-mno-omit-leaf-frame-pointer’ are added when the compiler
          supports them.

        - ‘-marm’ and/or ‘-mno-thumb’ is added on 32-bit ARM when
          supported,

        - on s390x platforms, when supported, ‘-mbackchain’ is added
          'instead'.  of the above frame pointer flags.

        - on ppc64le platforms, no compiler flags is needed since the
          power ABI requires that compilers maintain a back chain by
          default.

     Frame pointers enable profilers, debuggers, and system tracing
     tools (‘perf’, ‘eBPF’, ‘dtrace’, ‘gdb’) to walk the C call stack
     without DWARF metadata.  The flags propagate to third-party C
     extensions through *note sysconfig: e4.  On compilers that do not
     understand them, the build silently skips them.

     Downstream packagers and authors of native libraries built with
     custom build systems should set the same flags so the unwind chain
     stays unbroken across all native frames.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Option: --without-mimalloc

     Disable the fast *note mimalloc: 232b. allocator (enabled by
     default).

     This option cannot be used together with *note -disable-gil: 6a5.
     because the *note free-threaded: 487. build requires mimalloc.

     See also *note PYTHONMALLOC: 1022. environment variable.

 -- Option: --without-pymalloc

     Disable the specialized Python memory allocator *note pymalloc:
     3da. (enabled by default).

     See also *note PYTHONMALLOC: 1022. environment variable.

 -- Option: --with-pymalloc-hugepages

     Enable huge page support for *note pymalloc: 3da. arenas (disabled
     by default).  When enabled, the arena size on 64-bit platforms is
     increased to 2 MiB and arena allocation uses ‘MAP_HUGETLB’ (Linux)
     or ‘MEM_LARGE_PAGES’ (Windows) with automatic fallback to regular
     pages.

     Even when compiled with this option, huge pages are 'not' used at
     runtime unless the *note PYTHON_PYMALLOC_HUGEPAGES: 3db.
     environment variable is set to ‘1’.  This opt-in is required
     because huge pages

        * carry risks on Linux: if the huge-page pool is exhausted, page
          faults (including copy-on-write faults after *note os.fork():
          6bd.) deliver ‘SIGBUS’ and kill the process.

        * need a special privilege on Windows.  See the Windows
          documentation for large pages(5) for details.  Python will
          fail on startup if the required privilege
          SeLockMemoryPrivilege(6) is not held by the user.

     The configure script checks that the platform supports
     ‘MAP_HUGETLB’ and emits a warning if it is not available.

     On Windows, use the ‘--pymalloc-hugepages’ flag with ‘build.bat’ or
     set the ‘UsePymallocHugepages’ MSBuild property.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Option: --without-doc-strings

     Disable static documentation strings to reduce the memory footprint
     (enabled by default).  Documentation strings defined in Python are
     not affected.

     Don’t define the ‘WITH_DOC_STRINGS’ macro.

     See the ‘PyDoc_STRVAR()’ macro.

 -- Option: --enable-profiling

     Enable C-level code profiling with ‘gprof’ (disabled by default).

 -- Option: --with-strict-overflow

     Add ‘-fstrict-overflow’ to the C compiler flags (by default we add
     ‘-fno-strict-overflow’ instead).

 -- Option: --without-remote-debug

     Deactivate remote debugging support described in PEP 768(7)
     (enabled by default).  When this flag is provided the code that
     allows the interpreter to schedule the execution of a Python file
     in a separate process as described in PEP 768(8) is not compiled.
     This includes both the functionality to schedule code to be
     executed and the functionality to receive code to be executed.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_REMOTE_DEBUG

          This macro is defined by default, unless Python is configured
          with *note -without-remote-debug: 41a.

          Note that even if the macro is defined, remote debugging may
          not be available (for example, on an incompatible platform).

     Added in version 3.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/llvm/llvm-project/tree/main/bolt

   (2) https://github.com/facebookarchive/BOLT

   (3) https://clang.llvm.org/docs/AttributeReference.html#preserve-none

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0831/

   (5) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/memory/large-page-support

   (6) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/previous-versions/windows/it-pro/windows-10/security/threat-protection/security-policy-settings/lock-pages-in-memory

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Debug Build,  Next: Debug options,  Prev: Performance options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.8 Python Debug Build
..........................

A debug build is Python built with the *note -with-pydebug: 853.
configure option.

Effects of a debug build:

   * Display all warnings by default: the list of default warning
     filters is empty in the *note warnings: 11b. module.

   * Add ‘d’ to *note sys.abiflags: e28.

   * Add ‘sys.gettotalrefcount()’ function.

   * Add *note -X showrefcount: 178. command line option.

   * Add *note -d: 2312. command line option and *note PYTHONDEBUG:
     2313. environment variable to debug the parser.

   * Add support for the ‘__lltrace__’ variable: enable low-level
     tracing in the bytecode evaluation loop if the variable is defined.

   * Install *note debug hooks on memory allocators: 2329. to detect
     buffer overflow and other memory errors.

   * Define ‘Py_DEBUG’ and ‘Py_REF_DEBUG’ macros.

   * Add runtime checks: code surrounded by ‘#ifdef Py_DEBUG’ and
     ‘#endif’.  Enable ‘assert(...)’ and ‘_PyObject_ASSERT(...)’
     assertions: don’t set the ‘NDEBUG’ macro (see also the *note
     -with-assertions: 820. configure option).  Main runtime checks:

        * Add sanity checks on the function arguments.

        * Unicode and int objects are created with their memory filled
          with a pattern to detect usage of uninitialized objects.

        * Ensure that functions which can clear or replace the current
          exception are not called with an exception raised.

        * Check that deallocator functions don’t change the current
          exception.

        * The garbage collector (*note gc.collect(): 44f. function) runs
          some basic checks on objects consistency.

        * The ‘Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST()’ macro checks for integer underflow
          and overflow when downcasting from wide types to narrow types.

See also the *note Python Development Mode: 70d. and the *note
-with-trace-refs: 828. configure option.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Release builds are now ABI compatible with debug
builds: defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the
‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro (see the *note -with-trace-refs: 828. option).
However, debug builds still expose more symbols than release builds and
code built against a debug build is not necessarily compatible with a
release build.


File: python.info,  Node: Debug options,  Next: Linker options<2>,  Prev: Python Debug Build,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.9 Debug options
.....................

 -- Option: --with-pydebug

     *note Build Python in debug mode: 3dc.: define the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro
     (disabled by default).

 -- Option: --with-trace-refs

     Enable tracing references for debugging purpose (disabled by
     default).

     Effects:

        * Define the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro.

        * Add *note sys.getobjects(): 516. function.

        * Add *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: d6f. environment variable.

     The *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: d6f. environment variable can be used to
     dump objects and reference counts still alive at Python exit.

     *note Statically allocated objects: b5f. are not traced.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: This build is now ABI compatible with
     release build and *note debug build: 3dc.

 -- Option: --with-assertions

     Build with C assertions enabled (default is no): ‘assert(...);’ and
     ‘_PyObject_ASSERT(...);’.

     If set, the ‘NDEBUG’ macro is not defined in the *note OPT: 2393.
     compiler variable.

     See also the *note -with-pydebug: 853. option (*note debug build:
     3dc.) which also enables assertions.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-valgrind

     Enable Valgrind support (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-dtrace

     Enable DTrace support (default is no).

     See *note Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap: 102a.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-address-sanitizer

     Enable AddressSanitizer memory error detector, ‘asan’ (default is
     no).  To improve ASan detection capabilities you may also want to
     combine this with *note -without-pymalloc: 238d. to disable the
     specialized small-object allocator whose allocations are not
     tracked by ASan.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-memory-sanitizer

     Enable MemorySanitizer allocation error detector, ‘msan’ (default
     is no).

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer

     Enable UndefinedBehaviorSanitizer undefined behaviour detector,
     ‘ubsan’ (default is no).

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Option: --with-thread-sanitizer

     Enable ThreadSanitizer data race detector, ‘tsan’ (default is no).

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Linker options<2>,  Next: Libraries options,  Prev: Debug options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.10 Linker options
.......................

 -- Option: --enable-shared

     Enable building a shared Python library: ‘libpython’ (default is
     no).

 -- Option: --without-static-libpython

     Do not build ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ and do not install ‘python.o’
     (built and enabled by default).

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Option: --enable-static-libpython-for-interpreter

     Do not link the Python interpreter binary (‘python3’) against the
     shared Python library; instead, statically link the interpreter
     against ‘libpython’ as if ‘--enable-shared’ had not been used, but
     continue to build the shared ‘libpython’ (for use by other
     programs).

     This option does nothing if ‘--enable-shared’ is not used.

     The default (when ‘-enable-shared’ is used) is to link the Python
     interpreter against the built shared library.

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Libraries options,  Next: Security Options,  Prev: Linker options<2>,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.11 Libraries options
..........................

 -- Option: --with-libs='lib1 ...'

     Link against additional libraries (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-system-expat

     Build the ‘pyexpat’ module using an installed ‘expat’ library
     (default is no).

 -- Option: --with-system-libmpdec

     Build the ‘_decimal’ extension module using an installed
     ‘mpdecimal’ library, see the *note decimal: 39. module (default is
     yes).

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Default to using the installed ‘mpdecimal’
     library.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: A bundled copy of the library will no
     longer be selected implicitly if an installed ‘mpdecimal’ library
     is not found.  In Python 3.15 only, it can still be selected
     explicitly using ‘--with-system-libmpdec=no’ or
     ‘--without-system-libmpdec’.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.13, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.16: A
     copy of the ‘mpdecimal’ library sources will no longer be
     distributed with Python 3.16.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS: 2372. and *note LIBMPDEC_LIBS: 2373.

 -- Option: --with-readline=readline|editline

     Designate a backend library for the *note readline: c2. module.

        * readline: Use readline as the backend.

        * editline: Use editline as the backend.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Option: --without-readline

     Don’t build the *note readline: c2. module (built by default).

     Don’t define the ‘HAVE_LIBREADLINE’ macro.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Option: --with-libm=STRING

     Override ‘libm’ math library to 'STRING' (default is
     system-dependent).

 -- Option: --with-libc=STRING

     Override ‘libc’ C library to 'STRING' (default is
     system-dependent).

 -- Option: --with-openssl=DIR

     Root of the OpenSSL directory.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Option: --with-openssl-rpath=[no|auto|DIR]

     Set runtime library directory (rpath) for OpenSSL libraries:

        * ‘no’ (default): don’t set rpath;

        * ‘auto’: auto-detect rpath from *note -with-openssl: 23a0. and
          ‘pkg-config’;

        * 'DIR': set an explicit rpath.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Security Options,  Next: macOS Options,  Prev: Libraries options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.12 Security Options
.........................

 -- Option: --with-hash-algorithm=[fnv|siphash13|siphash24]

     Select hash algorithm for use in ‘Python/pyhash.c’:

        * ‘siphash13’ (default);

        * ‘siphash24’;

        * ‘fnv’.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Added in version 3.11: ‘siphash13’ is added and it is the new
     default.

 -- Option:
          --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=md5,sha1,sha256,sha512,sha3,blake2

     Built-in hash modules:

        * ‘md5’;

        * ‘sha1’;

        * ‘sha256’;

        * ‘sha512’;

        * ‘sha3’ (with shake);

        * ‘blake2’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --with-ssl-default-suites=[python|openssl|STRING]

     Override the OpenSSL default cipher suites string:

        * ‘python’ (default): use Python’s preferred selection;

        * ‘openssl’: leave OpenSSL’s defaults untouched;

        * 'STRING': use a custom string

     See the *note ssl: d8. module.

     Added in version 3.7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The settings ‘python’ and 'STRING' also
     set TLS 1.2 as minimum protocol version.

 -- Option: --disable-safety

     Disable compiler options that are recommended by OpenSSF(1) for
     security reasons with no performance overhead.  If this option is
     not enabled, CPython will be built based on safety compiler options
     with no slow down.  When this option is enabled, CPython will not
     be built with the compiler options listed below.

     The following compiler options are disabled with
     ‘--disable-safety’:

        * -fstack-protector-strong(2): Enable run-time checks for
          stack-based buffer overflows.

        * -Wtrampolines(3): Enable warnings about trampolines that
          require executable stacks.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Option: --enable-slower-safety

     Enable compiler options that are recommended by OpenSSF(4) for
     security reasons which require overhead.  If this option is not
     enabled, CPython will not be built based on safety compiler options
     which performance impact.  When this option is enabled, CPython
     will be built with the compiler options listed below.

     The following compiler options are enabled with
     ‘--enable-slower-safety’:

        * -D_FORTIFY_SOURCE=3(5): Fortify sources with compile- and
          run-time checks for unsafe libc usage and buffer overflows.

     Added in version 3.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/ossf/wg-best-practices-os-developers/blob/main/docs/Compiler-Hardening-Guides/Compiler-Options-Hardening-Guide-for-C-and-C++.md

   (2) 
https://github.com/ossf/wg-best-practices-os-developers/blob/main/docs/Compiler-Hardening-Guides/Compiler-Options-Hardening-Guide-for-C-and-C++.md#enable-run-time-checks-for-stack-based-buffer-overflows

   (3) 
https://github.com/ossf/wg-best-practices-os-developers/blob/main/docs/Compiler-Hardening-Guides/Compiler-Options-Hardening-Guide-for-C-and-C++.md#enable-warning-about-trampolines-that-require-executable-stacks

   (4) 
https://github.com/ossf/wg-best-practices-os-developers/blob/main/docs/Compiler-Hardening-Guides/Compiler-Options-Hardening-Guide-for-C-and-C++.md

   (5) 
https://github.com/ossf/wg-best-practices-os-developers/blob/main/docs/Compiler-Hardening-Guides/Compiler-Options-Hardening-Guide-for-C-and-C++.md#fortify-sources-for-unsafe-libc-usage-and-buffer-overflows


File: python.info,  Node: macOS Options,  Next: iOS Options,  Prev: Security Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.13 macOS Options
......................

See Mac/README.rst(1).

 -- Option: --enable-universalsdk

 -- Option: --enable-universalsdk=SDKDIR

     Create a universal binary build.  'SDKDIR' specifies which macOS
     SDK should be used to perform the build (default is no).

 -- Option: --enable-framework

 -- Option: --enable-framework=INSTALLDIR

     Create a Python.framework rather than a traditional Unix install.
     Optional 'INSTALLDIR' specifies the installation path (default is
     no).

 -- Option: --with-universal-archs=ARCH

     Specify the kind of universal binary that should be created.  This
     option is only valid when *note -enable-universalsdk: d34. is set.

     Options:

        * ‘universal2’ (x86-64 and arm64);

        * ‘32-bit’ (PPC and i386);

        * ‘64-bit’ (PPC64 and x86-64);

        * ‘3-way’ (i386, PPC and x86-64);

        * ‘intel’ (i386 and x86-64);

        * ‘intel-32’ (i386);

        * ‘intel-64’ (x86-64);

        * ‘all’ (PPC, i386, PPC64 and x86-64).

     Note that values for this configuration item are 'not' the same as
     the identifiers used for universal binary wheels on macOS. See the
     Python Packaging User Guide for details on the packaging platform
     compatibility tags used on macOS(2)

 -- Option: --with-framework-name=FRAMEWORK

     Specify the name for the python framework on macOS only valid when
     *note -enable-framework: 23a6. is set (default: ‘Python’).

 -- Option: --with-app-store-compliance

 -- Option: --with-app-store-compliance=PATCH-FILE

     The Python standard library contains strings that are known to
     trigger automated inspection tool errors when submitted for
     distribution by the macOS and iOS App Stores.  If enabled, this
     option will apply the list of patches that are known to correct app
     store compliance.  A custom patch file can also be specified.  This
     option is disabled by default.

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Mac/README.rst

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/platform-compatibility-tags/#macos


File: python.info,  Node: iOS Options,  Next: Cross Compiling Options,  Prev: macOS Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.14 iOS Options
....................

See iOS/README.rst(1).

 -- Option: --enable-framework=INSTALLDIR

     Create a Python.framework.  Unlike macOS, the 'INSTALLDIR' argument
     specifying the installation path is mandatory.

 -- Option: --with-framework-name=FRAMEWORK

     Specify the name for the framework (default: ‘Python’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/iOS/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: Cross Compiling Options,  Prev: iOS Options,  Up: Configure Options

3.3.3.15 Cross Compiling Options
................................

Cross compiling, also known as cross building, can be used to build
Python for another CPU architecture or platform.  Cross compiling
requires a Python interpreter for the build platform.  The version of
the build Python must match the version of the cross compiled host
Python.

 -- Option: --build=BUILD

     configure for building on BUILD, usually guessed by ‘config.guess’.

 -- Option: --host=HOST

     cross-compile to build programs to run on HOST (target platform)

 -- Option: --with-build-python=path/to/python

     path to build ‘python’ binary for cross compiling

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: CONFIG_SITE=file

     An environment variable that points to a file with configure
     overrides.

     Example 'config.site' file:

          # config.site-aarch64
          ac_cv_buggy_getaddrinfo=no
          ac_cv_file__dev_ptmx=yes
          ac_cv_file__dev_ptc=no

 -- Option: HOSTRUNNER

     Program to run CPython for the host platform for cross-compilation.

     Added in version 3.11.

Cross compiling example:

     CONFIG_SITE=config.site-aarch64 ../configure \
         --build=x86_64-pc-linux-gnu \
         --host=aarch64-unknown-linux-gnu \
         --with-build-python=../x86_64/python


File: python.info,  Node: Python Build System,  Next: Compiler and linker flags,  Prev: Configure Options,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.4 Python Build System
-------------------------

* Menu:

* Main files of the build system::
* Main build steps::
* Main Makefile targets::
* C extensions::


File: python.info,  Node: Main files of the build system,  Next: Main build steps,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.1 Main files of the build system
......................................

   * ‘configure.ac’ => ‘configure’;

   * ‘Makefile.pre.in’ => ‘Makefile’ (created by ‘configure’);

   * ‘pyconfig.h’ (created by ‘configure’);

   * ‘Modules/Setup’: C extensions built by the Makefile using
     ‘Module/makesetup’ shell script;


File: python.info,  Node: Main build steps,  Next: Main Makefile targets,  Prev: Main files of the build system,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.2 Main build steps
........................

   * C files (‘.c’) are built as object files (‘.o’).

   * A static ‘libpython’ library (‘.a’) is created from objects files.

   * ‘python.o’ and the static ‘libpython’ library are linked into the
     final ‘python’ program.

   * C extensions are built by the Makefile (see ‘Modules/Setup’).


File: python.info,  Node: Main Makefile targets,  Next: C extensions,  Prev: Main build steps,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.3 Main Makefile targets
.............................

* Menu:

* make::
* make platform::
* make profile-opt::
* make clean::
* make distclean::
* make install::
* make test::
* make ci::
* make buildbottest::
* make regen-all::


File: python.info,  Node: make,  Next: make platform,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.4 make
............

For the most part, when rebuilding after editing some code or refreshing
your checkout from upstream, all you need to do is execute ‘make’, which
(per Make’s semantics) builds the default target, the first one defined
in the Makefile.  By tradition (including in the CPython project) this
is usually the ‘all’ target.  The ‘configure’ script expands an
‘autoconf’ variable, ‘@DEF_MAKE_ALL_RULE@’ to describe precisely which
targets ‘make all’ will build.  The three choices are:

   * ‘profile-opt’ (configured with ‘--enable-optimizations’)

   * ‘build_wasm’ (chosen if the host platform matches ‘wasm32-wasi*’ or
     ‘wasm32-emscripten’)

   * ‘build_all’ (configured without explicitly using either of the
     others)

Depending on the most recent source file changes, Make will rebuild any
targets (object files and executables) deemed out-of-date, including
running ‘configure’ again if necessary.  Source/target dependencies are
many and maintained manually however, so Make sometimes doesn’t have all
the information necessary to correctly detect all targets which need to
be rebuilt.  Depending on which targets aren’t rebuilt, you might
experience a number of problems.  If you have build or test problems
which you can’t otherwise explain, ‘make clean && make’ should work
around most dependency problems, at the expense of longer build times.


File: python.info,  Node: make platform,  Next: make profile-opt,  Prev: make,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.5 make platform
.....................

Build the ‘python’ program, but don’t build the standard library
extension modules.  This generates a file named ‘platform’ which
contains a single line describing the details of the build platform,
e.g., ‘macosx-14.3-arm64-3.12’ or ‘linux-x86_64-3.13’.


File: python.info,  Node: make profile-opt,  Next: make clean,  Prev: make platform,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.6 make profile-opt
........................

Build Python using profile-guided optimization (PGO). You can use the
configure *note -enable-optimizations: c39. option to make this the
default target of the ‘make’ command (‘make all’ or just ‘make’).


File: python.info,  Node: make clean,  Next: make distclean,  Prev: make profile-opt,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.7 make clean
..................

Remove built files.


File: python.info,  Node: make distclean,  Next: make install,  Prev: make clean,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.8 make distclean
......................

In addition to the work done by ‘make clean’, remove files created by
the configure script.  ‘configure’ will have to be run before building
again.  (1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘git clean -fdx’ is an even more extreme way to «clean» your
checkout.  It removes all files not known to Git.  When bug hunting
using ‘git bisect’, this is recommended between probes
(https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114505#issuecomment-1907021718)
to guarantee a completely clean build.  'Use with care', as it will
delete all files not checked into Git, including your new, uncommitted
work.


File: python.info,  Node: make install,  Next: make test,  Prev: make distclean,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.9 make install
....................

Build the ‘all’ target and install Python.


File: python.info,  Node: make test,  Next: make ci,  Prev: make install,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.10 make test
..................

Build the ‘all’ target and run the Python test suite with the
‘--fast-ci’ option without GUI tests.  Variables:

   * ‘TESTOPTS’: additional regrtest command-line options.

   * ‘TESTPYTHONOPTS’: additional Python command-line options.

   * ‘TESTTIMEOUT’: timeout in seconds (default: 10 minutes).


File: python.info,  Node: make ci,  Next: make buildbottest,  Prev: make test,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.11 make ci
................

This is similar to ‘make test’, but uses the ‘-ugui’ to also run GUI
tests.

Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: make buildbottest,  Next: make regen-all,  Prev: make ci,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.12 make buildbottest
..........................

This is similar to ‘make test’, but uses the ‘--slow-ci’ option and
default timeout of 20 minutes, instead of ‘--fast-ci’ option.


File: python.info,  Node: make regen-all,  Prev: make buildbottest,  Up: Main Makefile targets

3.3.4.13 make regen-all
.......................

Regenerate (almost) all generated files.  These include (but are not
limited to) bytecode cases, and parser generator file.  ‘make
regen-stdlib-module-names’ and ‘autoconf’ must be run separately for the
remaining *note generated files: 234b.


File: python.info,  Node: C extensions,  Prev: Main Makefile targets,  Up: Python Build System

3.3.4.14 C extensions
.....................

Some C extensions are built as built-in modules, like the ‘sys’ module.
They are built with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ macro defined.  Built-in
modules have no ‘__file__’ attribute:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys
     <module 'sys' (built-in)>
     >>> sys.__file__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: module 'sys' has no attribute '__file__'

Other C extensions are built as dynamic libraries, like the ‘_asyncio’
module.  They are built with the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ macro defined.
Example on Linux x86-64:

     >>> import _asyncio
     >>> _asyncio
     <module '_asyncio' from '/usr/lib64/python3.9/lib-dynload/_asyncio.cpython-39-x86_64-linux-gnu.so'>
     >>> _asyncio.__file__
     '/usr/lib64/python3.9/lib-dynload/_asyncio.cpython-39-x86_64-linux-gnu.so'

‘Modules/Setup’ is used to generate Makefile targets to build C
extensions.  At the beginning of the files, C extensions are built as
built-in modules.  Extensions defined after the ‘*shared*’ marker are
built as dynamic libraries.

The ‘PyAPI_FUNC()’, ‘PyAPI_DATA()’ and *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 1875.
macros of ‘Include/exports.h’ are defined differently depending if the
‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ macro is defined:

   * Use ‘Py_EXPORTED_SYMBOL’ if the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ is defined

   * Use ‘Py_IMPORTED_SYMBOL’ otherwise.

If the ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ macro is used by mistake on a C extension
built as a shared library, its ‘PyInit_XXX()’ function is not exported,
causing an *note ImportError: 1bd. on import.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler and linker flags,  Prev: Python Build System,  Up: Configure Python

3.3.5 Compiler and linker flags
-------------------------------

Options set by the ‘./configure’ script and environment variables and
used by ‘Makefile’.

* Menu:

* Preprocessor flags::
* Compiler flags::
* Linker flags::


File: python.info,  Node: Preprocessor flags,  Next: Compiler flags,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.1 Preprocessor flags
..........................

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS

     Value of *note CPPFLAGS: 185b. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CPPFLAGS

     (Objective) C/C++ preprocessor flags, e.g.  ‘-IINCLUDE_DIR’ if you
     have headers in a nonstandard directory 'include_dir'.

     Both *note CPPFLAGS: 185b. and *note LDFLAGS: 185a. need to contain
     the shell’s value to be able to build extension modules using the
     directories specified in the environment variables.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: BASECPPFLAGS

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PY_CPPFLAGS

     Extra preprocessor flags added for building the interpreter object
     files.

     Default: ‘$(BASECPPFLAGS) -I. -I$(srcdir)/Include
     $(CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS) $(CPPFLAGS)’.

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler flags,  Next: Linker flags,  Prev: Preprocessor flags,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.2 Compiler flags
......................

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CC

     C compiler command.

     Example: ‘gcc -pthread’.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CXX

     C++ compiler command.

     Example: ‘g++ -pthread’.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CFLAGS

     C compiler flags.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CFLAGS_NODIST

     *note CFLAGS_NODIST: 23ca. is used for building the interpreter and
     stdlib C extensions.  Use it when a compiler flag should 'not' be
     part of *note CFLAGS: 1859. once Python is installed (gh-65320(1)).

     In particular, *note CFLAGS: 1859. should not contain:

        * the compiler flag ‘-I’ (for setting the search path for
          include files).  The ‘-I’ flags are processed from left to
          right, and any flags in *note CFLAGS: 1859. would take
          precedence over user- and package-supplied ‘-I’ flags.

        * hardening flags such as ‘-Werror’ because distributions cannot
          control whether packages installed by users conform to such
          heightened standards.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: COMPILEALL_OPTS

     Options passed to the *note compileall: 21. command line when
     building PYC files in ‘make install’.  Default: ‘-j0’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: EXTRA_CFLAGS

     Extra C compiler flags.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CONFIGURE_CFLAGS

     Value of *note CFLAGS: 1859. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST

     Value of *note CFLAGS_NODIST: 23ca. variable passed to the
     ‘./configure’ script.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: BASECFLAGS

     Base compiler flags.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: OPT

     Optimization flags.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CFLAGS_ALIASING

     Strict or non-strict aliasing flags used to compile
     ‘Python/dtoa.c’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CFLAGS_CEVAL

     Flags used to compile ‘Python/ceval.c’.

     Added in version 3.14.5.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CCSHARED

     Compiler flags used to build a shared library.

     For example, ‘-fPIC’ is used on Linux and on BSD.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CFLAGSFORSHARED

     Extra C flags added for building the interpreter object files.

     Default: ‘$(CCSHARED)’ when *note -enable-shared: c3a. is used, or
     an empty string otherwise.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PY_CFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(BASECFLAGS) $(OPT) $(CONFIGURE_CFLAGS) $(CFLAGS)
     $(EXTRA_CFLAGS)’.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PY_CFLAGS_NODIST

     Default: ‘$(CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST) $(CFLAGS_NODIST)
     -I$(srcdir)/Include/internal’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS

     C flags used for building the interpreter object files.

     Default: ‘$(PY_CFLAGS) $(PY_CFLAGS_NODIST) $(PY_CPPFLAGS)
     $(CFLAGSFORSHARED)’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PY_CORE_CFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS) -DPy_BUILD_CORE’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PY_BUILTIN_MODULE_CFLAGS

     Compiler flags to build a standard library extension module as a
     built-in module, like the *note posix: b2. module.

     Default: ‘$(PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS) -DPy_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PURIFY

     Purify command.  Purify is a memory debugger program.

     Default: empty string (not used).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65320


File: python.info,  Node: Linker flags,  Prev: Compiler flags,  Up: Compiler and linker flags

3.3.5.3 Linker flags
....................

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: LINKCC

     Linker command used to build programs like ‘python’ and
     ‘_testembed’.

     Default: ‘$(PURIFY) $(CC)’.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS

     Value of *note LDFLAGS: 185a. variable passed to the ‘./configure’
     script.

     Avoid assigning *note CFLAGS: 1859, *note LDFLAGS: 185a, etc.  so
     users can use them on the command line to append to these values
     without stomping the pre-set values.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: LDFLAGS_NODIST

     *note LDFLAGS_NODIST: 23dd. is used in the same manner as *note
     CFLAGS_NODIST: 23ca.  Use it when a linker flag should 'not' be
     part of *note LDFLAGS: 185a. once Python is installed
     (gh-65320(1)).

     In particular, *note LDFLAGS: 185a. should not contain:

        * the compiler flag ‘-L’ (for setting the search path for
          libraries).  The ‘-L’ flags are processed from left to right,
          and any flags in *note LDFLAGS: 185a. would take precedence
          over user- and package-supplied ‘-L’ flags.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST

     Value of *note LDFLAGS_NODIST: 23dd. variable passed to the
     ‘./configure’ script.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: LDFLAGS

     Linker flags, e.g.  ‘-LLIB_DIR’ if you have libraries in a
     nonstandard directory 'lib_dir'.

     Both *note CPPFLAGS: 185b. and *note LDFLAGS: 185a. need to contain
     the shell’s value to be able to build extension modules using the
     directories specified in the environment variables.

     Please consider using ‘EXE_LDFLAGS’ if the supplied linker flags
     are executable specific, e.g.  GCC’s ‘-pie’ flag.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: LIBS

     Linker flags to pass libraries to the linker when linking the
     Python executable.

     Example: ‘-lrt’.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: LDSHARED

     Command to build a shared library.

     Default: ‘@LDSHARED@ $(PY_LDFLAGS)’.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: BLDSHARED

     Command to build ‘libpython’ shared library.

     Default: ‘@BLDSHARED@ $(PY_CORE_LDFLAGS)’.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PY_LDFLAGS

     Default: ‘$(CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS) $(LDFLAGS)’.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PY_LDFLAGS_NODIST

     Default: ‘$(CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST) $(LDFLAGS_NODIST)’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PY_CORE_LDFLAGS

     Linker flags used for building the interpreter object files.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: EXE_LDFLAGS

     Linker flags used for building executable targets such as the
     interpreter.  If supplied, *note PY_CORE_EXE_LDFLAGS: 23e6. will be
     used in replacement of *note PY_CORE_LDFLAGS: 23e4.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: CONFIGURE_EXE_LDFLAGS

     Value of *note EXE_LDFLAGS: 23e5. variable passed to the
     ‘./configure’ script.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PY_CORE_EXE_LDFLAGS

     Linker flags used for building the interpreter and executable
     targets.

     Default: ‘$(PY_CORE_LDFLAGS)’

     Added in version 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65320


File: python.info,  Node: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows,  Next: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python σε macOS,  Prev: Configure Python,  Up: Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python

3.4 Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows
======================================

Αυτό το έγγραφο στοχεύει να δώσει μια επισκόπηση της συμπεριφοράς των
Windows που πρέπει να γνωρίζετε, όταν χρησιμοποιείτε την Python στα
Microsoft Windows.

Σε αντίθεση με τα περισσότερα συστήματα και υπηρεσίες Unix, τα Windows
δεν περιλαμβάνουν μια υποστηριζόμενη από το σύστημα εγκατάσταση της
Python.  Αντίθετα, η Python μπορεί να αποκτηθεί από αρκετούς διανομείς,
συμπεριλαμβανομένης της άμεσης λήψης από την ομάδα CPython.  Κάθε
διανομή Python θα έχει τα δικά της πλεονεκτήματα και μειονεκτήματα,
ωστόσο, η συνέπεια με άλλα εργαλεία που χρησιμοποιείτε είναι γενικά ένα
αξιόλογο πλεονέκτημα.  Πριν δεσμευτείτε στη διαδικασία που περιγράφεται
εδώ, συνιστούμε να ερευνήσετε τα υπάρχοντα εργαλεία σας για να δείτε αν
μπορούν να παρέχουν την Python απευθείας.

Για να αποκτήσετε την Python από την ομάδα CPython, χρησιμοποιήστε τον
Python Install Manager.  Αυτό είναι ένα αυτόνομο εργαλείο που καθιστά
την Python διαθέσιμη ως παγκόσμιες εντολές στον υπολογιστή σας με
Windows, ενσωματώνεται με το σύστημα και υποστηρίζει ενημερώσεις με την
πάροδο του χρόνου.  Μπορείτε να κατεβάσετε τον Python Install Manager
από το python.org/downloads(1) ή μέσω του Microsoft Store app(2).

Μόλις εγκαταστήσετε τον Python Install Manager, η παγκόσμια εντολή
‘python’ μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί από οποιοδήποτε τερματικό για να
εκκινήσει την τρέχουσα τελευταία έκδοση της Python.  Αυτή η έκδοση
μπορεί να αλλάξει με την πάροδο του χρόνου καθώς προσθέτετε ή αφαιρείτε
διαφορετικές εκδόσεις, και η εντολή ‘py list’ θα δείξει ποια είναι η
τρέχουσα.

Γενικά, συνιστούμε να δημιουργήσετε ένα *note εικονικό περιβάλλον: 22da.
για κάθε έργο και να εκτελέσετε ‘<env>\Scripts\Activate’ στο τερματικό
σας για να το χρησιμοποιήσετε.  Αυτό παρέχει απομόνωση μεταξύ των έργων,
συνέπεια με την πάροδο του χρόνου και διασφαλίζει ότι οι επιπλέον
εντολές που προστίθενται από τα πακέτα είναι επίσης διαθέσιμες στη
συνεδρία σας.  Δημιουργήστε ένα εικονικό περιβάλλον χρησιμοποιώντας
‘python -m venv <env path>’.

Εάν οι εντολές ‘python’ ή ‘py’ δεν φαίνεται να λειτουργούν, παρακαλούμε
δείτε την ενότητα *note Επίλυση προβλημάτων: 23eb. παρακάτω.  Υπάρχουν
μερικές φορές επιπλέον χειροκίνητα βήματα που απαιτούνται για τη
διαμόρφωση του υπολογιστή σας.

Εκτός από τη χρήση του διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης Python, η Python μπορεί
επίσης να αποκτηθεί ως πακέτο NuGet.  Δείτε *note Τα πακέτα nuget.org:
23ec. παρακάτω για περισσότερες πληροφορίες σχετικά με αυτά τα πακέτα.

Οι ενσωματώσιμες διανομές είναι ελάχιστα πακέτα της Python κατάλληλα για
ενσωμάτωση σε μεγαλύτερες εφαρμογές.  Μπορούν να εγκατασταθούν
χρησιμοποιώντας τον διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης Python.  Δείτε *note Το
ενσωματωμένο πακέτο: 23ed. παρακάτω για περισσότερες πληροφορίες σχετικά
με αυτά τα πακέτα.
* Menu:

* Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python::
* Το ενσωματωμένο πακέτο::
* Τα πακέτα nuget.org: Τα πακέτα nuget org.
* Εναλλακτικά πακέτα::
* Υποστηριζόμενες εκδόσεις των Windows::
* Αφαίρεση του περιορισμού MAX_PATH::
* Λειτουργία UTF-8::
* Εύρεση modules::
* Πρόσθετα modules::
* Μεταγλώττιση Python στα Windows::
* Το πλήρες πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης::
* Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows (Απαρχαιωμένο): Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (2) https://apps.microsoft.com/detail/9NQ7512CXL7T


File: python.info,  Node: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python,  Next: Το ενσωματωμένο πακέτο,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows

3.4.1 Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python
--------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Εγκατάσταση::
* Βασική χρήση::
* Εντολή βοήθειας::
* Καταχώριση χρόνων εκτέλεσης::
* Εγκαθιστώντας χρόνους εκτέλεσης::
* Εγκαταστάσεις εκτός σύνδεσης::
* Απεγκατάσταση χρόνων εκτέλεσης::
* Διαμόρφωση::
* Γραμμές Shebang::
* Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση::
* Διαχειριστική διαμόρφωση::
* Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα::
* Index signatures::
* Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων::


File: python.info,  Node: Εγκατάσταση,  Next: Βασική χρήση,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.1 Εγκατάσταση
...................

Ο διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python μπορεί να εγκατασταθεί από την
εφαρμογή Microsoft Store app(1) ή να ληφθεί και να εγκατασταθεί από το
python.org/downloads(2).  Οι δύο εκδόσεις είναι ταυτόσημες.

Για να εγκαταστήσετε μέσω του Store, απλώς κάντε κλικ στο «Εγκατάσταση».
Αφού ολοκληρωθεί, ανοίξτε ένα τερματικό και πληκτρολογήστε ‘python’ για
να ξεκινήσετε.

Για να εγκαταστήσετε το αρχείο που κατεβάσατε από το python.org, είτε
κάντε διπλό κλικ και επιλέξτε «Εγκατάσταση», είτε εκτελέστε
‘Add-AppxPackage <διαδρομή προς MSIX>’ στα Windows Powershell.

Μετά την εγκατάσταση, οι εντολές ‘python’, ‘py’ και ‘pymanager’ θα
πρέπει να είναι διαθέσιμες.  Αν έχετε υπάρχουσες εγκαταστάσεις της
Python, ή έχετε τροποποιήσει τη μεταβλητή ‘PATH’, ίσως χρειαστεί να τις
αφαιρέσετε ή να αναιρέσετε τις τροποποιήσεις.  Δείτε *note Αντιμετώπιση
προβλημάτων: 23eb. για περισσότερη βοήθεια σχετικά με την αποκατάσταση
μη λειτουργικών εντολών.

Όταν εγκαθιστάτε για πρώτη φορά ένα runtime, πιθανότατα θα σας ζητηθεί
να προσθέσετε έναν φάκελο στη μεταβλητή ‘PATH’.  Αυτό είναι προαιρετικό,
αν προτιμάτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε την εντολή ‘py’, αλλά προσφέρεται για
όσους προτιμούν να είναι διαθέσιμη η πλήρης γκάμα ψευδωνύμων (όπως το
‘python3.14.exe’).  Ο φάκελος θα είναι ‘%LocalAppData%\Python\bin’ από
προεπιλογή, αλλά μπορεί να προσαρμοστεί από έναν διαχειριστή.  Κάντε
κλικ στο Έναρξη και αναζητήστε «Επεξεργασία μεταβλητών περιβάλλοντος για
τον λογαριασμό σας» για τη σελίδα ρυθμίσεων συστήματος για να προσθέσετε
τη διαδρομή.

Κάθε runtime της Python που εγκαθιστάτε θα έχει το δικό του φάκελο για
σενάρια.  Αυτά πρέπει επίσης να προστεθούν στη μεταβλητή ‘PATH’ αν
θέλετε να τα χρησιμοποιήσετε.

Ο διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python θα ενημερώνεται αυτόματα σε νέες
εκδόσεις.  Αυτό δεν επηρεάζει καμία εγκατάσταση runtime της Python.  Η
απεγκατάσταση του διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης Python δεν απεγκαθιστά καμία
εγκατάσταση runtime της Python.

Εάν δεν μπορείτε να εγκαταστήσετε ένα MSIX στο πλαίσιο σας, για
παράδειγμα, χρησιμοποιείτε λογισμικό αυτοματοποιημένης ανάπτυξης που δεν
το υποστηρίζει, ή στοχεύετε τα Windows Server 2019, παρακαλώ δείτε *note
Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση: 23f1. παρακάτω για περισσότερες πληροφορίες.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://apps.microsoft.com/detail/9NQ7512CXL7T

   (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/


File: python.info,  Node: Βασική χρήση,  Next: Εντολή βοήθειας,  Prev: Εγκατάσταση,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.2 Βασική χρήση
....................

Η συνιστώμενη εντολή για την εκκίνηση της Python είναι ‘python’, η οποία
θα εκκινήσει είτε την έκδοση που ζητείται από το σενάριο που εκκινείται,
είτε ένα ενεργό εικονικό περιβάλλον, είτε την προεπιλεγμένη
εγκατεστημένη έκδοση, η οποία θα είναι η τελευταία σταθερή έκδοση εκτός
αν έχει ρυθμιστεί διαφορετικά.  Εάν δεν ζητηθεί συγκεκριμένα καμία
έκδοση και δεν είναι εγκατεστημένες καθόλου εκδόσεις, η τρέχουσα
τελευταία έκδοση θα εγκατασταθεί αυτόματα.

Για όλα τα σενάρια που περιλαμβάνουν πολλαπλές εκδόσεις runtime, η
συνιστώμενη εντολή είναι ‘py’.  Αυτή μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί οπουδήποτε
αντί για ‘python’ ή τον παλαιότερο εκκινητή ‘py.exe’.  Από προεπιλογή,
το ‘py’ ταιριάζει με τη συμπεριφορά του ‘python’, αλλά επιτρέπει επίσης
επιλογές γραμμής εντολών για την επιλογή μιας συγκεκριμένης έκδοσης,
καθώς και υποεντολές για τη διαχείριση εγκαταστάσεων.  Αυτές
περιγράφονται λεπτομερώς παρακάτω.

Because the ‘py’ command may already be taken by the previous version,
there is also an unambiguous ‘pymanager’ command.  Scripted installs
that are intending to use Python install manager should consider using
‘pymanager’, due to the lower chance of encountering a conflict with
existing installs.  The only difference between the two commands is when
running without any arguments: ‘py’ will launch your default
interpreter, while ‘pymanager’ will display help (‘pymanager exec ...’
provides equivalent behaviour to ‘py ...’).

Κάθε μία από αυτές τις εντολές έχει επίσης μια έκδοση με παράθυρο που
αποφεύγει τη δημιουργία ενός παραθύρου κονσόλας.  Αυτές είναι οι ‘pyw’,
‘pythonw’ και ‘pymanagerw’.  Μια εντολή ‘python3’ περιλαμβάνεται επίσης
που μιμείται την εντολή ‘python’.  Είναι σχεδιασμένη να συλλαμβάνει
τυχαίες χρήσεις της τυπικής εντολής POSIX σε Windows, αλλά δεν
προορίζεται να χρησιμοποιείται ευρέως ή να συνιστάται.

Για να εκκινήσετε το προεπιλεγμένο χρόνο εκτέλεσης σας, εκτελέστε το
‘python’ ή το ‘py’ με τα ορίσματα που θέλετε να περαστούν στο χρόνο
εκτέλεσης (όπως αρχεία σεναρίων ή το module για εκκίνηση):

     $> py
     ...
     $> python my-script.py
     ...
     $> py -m this
     ...

Ο προεπιλεγμένος χρόνος εκτέλεσης μπορεί να παρακαμφθεί με τη μεταβλητή
περιβάλλοντος *note PYTHON_MANAGER_DEFAULT: 23f3, ή ένα αρχείο
διαμόρφωσης.  Δείτε *note Διαμόρφωση: 23f4. για πληροφορίες σχετικά με
τις ρυθμίσεις διαμόρφωσης.

Για να εκκινήσετε ένα συγκεκριμένο χρόνο εκτέλεσης, η εντολή ‘py’
δέχεται μια επιλογή ‘-V:<TAG>’.  Αυτή η επιλογή πρέπει να καθοριστεί
πριν από οποιεσδήποτε άλλες.  Το tag είναι μέρος ή όλο το αναγνωριστικό
για το χρόνο εκτέλεσης.  Για αυτά από την ομάδα CPython, μοιάζει με την
έκδοση, πιθανώς με την πλατφόρμα.  Για λόγους συμβατότητας, το ‘V:’
μπορεί να παραλειφθεί σε περιπτώσεις όπου το tag αναφέρεται σε μια
επίσημη έκδοση και ξεκινά με ‘3’.

     $> py -V:3.14 ...
     $> py -V:3-arm64 ...

Οι χρόνοι εκτέλεσης από άλλους διανομείς μπορεί να απαιτούν να
συμπεριληφθεί και η 'εταιρεία'.  Αυτό θα πρέπει να διαχωρίζεται από το
tag με μια κάθετο, και μπορεί να είναι ένα πρόθεμα.  Η καθορισμός της
εταιρείας είναι προαιρετικός όταν είναι ‘PythonCore’, και η καθορισμός
του tag είναι προαιρετικός (αλλά όχι η κάθετος) όταν θέλετε την
τελευταία έκδοση για μια συγκεκριμένη εταιρεία.

     $> py -V:Distributor\1.0 ...
     $> py -V:distrib/ ...

Εάν δεν καθοριστεί καμία έκδοση, αλλά περαστεί ένα αρχείο σεναρίου, το
σενάριο θα επιθεωρηθεί για μια 'shebang line'.  Αυτό είναι μια ειδική
μορφή για την πρώτη γραμμή σε ένα αρχείο που επιτρέπει την παράκαμψη της
εντολής.  Δείτε *note Γραμμές Shebang: 23f5. για περισσότερες
πληροφορίες.  Όταν δεν υπάρχει shebang line, ή δεν μπορεί να επιλυθεί,
το σενάριο θα εκκινήσει με το προεπιλεγμένο χρόνο εκτέλεσης.

Εάν τρέχετε σε ένα ενεργό εικονικό περιβάλλον, δεν έχετε ζητήσει μια
συγκεκριμένη έκδοση, και δεν υπάρχει shebang line, το προεπιλεγμένο
runtime θα είναι αυτό το εικονικό περιβάλλον.Σε αυτό το σενάριο, η
εντολή ‘python’ πιθανότατα είχε ήδη παρακαμφθεί και κανένας από αυτούς
τους ελέγχους δεν συνέβη.  Ωστόσο, αυτή η συμπεριφορά διασφαλίζει ότι η
εντολή ‘py’ μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί εναλλακτικά.

When no runtimes are installed, any launch command will try to install
the requested version and launch it.  However, after any version is
installed, only the ‘py exec ...’ and ‘pymanager exec ...’ commands will
install if the requested version is absent.  Other forms of commands
will display an error and direct you to use ‘py install’ first.


File: python.info,  Node: Εντολή βοήθειας,  Next: Καταχώριση χρόνων εκτέλεσης,  Prev: Βασική χρήση,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.3 Εντολή βοήθειας
.......................

Η εντολή ‘py help’ θα εμφανίσει την πλήρη λίστα των υποστηριζόμενων
εντολών, μαζί με τις επιλογές τους.  Οποιαδήποτε εντολή μπορεί να
περάσει την επιλογή ‘-?’ για να εμφανίσει τη βοήθειά της, ή το όνομά της
μπορεί να περαστεί στην εντολή ‘py help’.

     $> py help
     $> py help install
     $> py install /?

Όλες οι εντολές υποστηρίζουν μερικές κοινές επιλογές, οι οποίες θα
εμφανιστούν από το ‘py help’.  Αυτές οι επιλογές πρέπει να καθοριστούν
μετά από οποιοδήποτε υποεντολή.  Ο καθορισμός του ‘-v’ ή ‘--verbose’ θα
αυξήσει την ποσότητα της εμφανιζόμενης εξόδου, και ‘-vv’ θα την αυξήσει
περαιτέρω για σκοπούς αποσφαλμάτωσης.  Η μετάβαση του ‘-q’ ή ‘--quiet’
θα μειώσει την έξοδο, και ‘-qq’ θα την μειώσει περαιτέρω.

Η επιλογή ‘--config=<PATH>’ επιτρέπει τον καθορισμό ενός αρχείου
διαμόρφωσης για να παρακαμφθούν πολλές ρυθμίσεις ταυτόχρονα.  Δείτε
*note Διαμόρφωση: 23f4. παρακάτω για περισσότερες πληροφορίες σχετικά με
αυτά τα αρχεία.


File: python.info,  Node: Καταχώριση χρόνων εκτέλεσης,  Next: Εγκαθιστώντας χρόνους εκτέλεσης,  Prev: Εντολή βοήθειας,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.4 Καταχώριση χρόνων εκτέλεσης
...................................

     $> py list [-f=|--format=<FMT>] [-1|--one] [--online|-s=|--source=<URL>] [<TAG>...]

Η λίστα των εγκατεστημένων χρόνων εκτέλεσης μπορεί να προβληθεί
χρησιμοποιώντας το ‘py list’.  Μπορεί να προστεθεί ένα φίλτρο με τη
μορφή ενός ή περισσότερων tags (με ή χωρίς καθοριστή εταιρείας), και το
καθένα μπορεί να περιλαμβάνει ένα πρόθεμα ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>=’ ή ‘>’ για
περιορισμό σε μια περιοχή.

Ένα εύρος μορφών υποστηρίζεται, και μπορεί να περαστεί ως η επιλογή
‘--format=<FMT>’ ή ‘-f <FMT>’.  Οι μορφές περιλαμβάνουν ‘table’ (μια
φιλική προς το χρήστη προβολή πίνακα), ‘csv’ (πίνακας με
κόμμα-διαχωρισμό), ‘json’ (ένα μόνο JSON blob), ‘jsonl’ (ένα JSON blob
ανά αποτέλεσμα), ‘exe’ (μόνο η διαδρομή εκτελέσιμου), ‘prefix’ (μόνο η
διαδρομή προθέματος).

Το ‘--one’ ή ‘-1’ εμφανίζει μόνο ένα αποτέλεσμα.  Εάν περιλαμβάνεται ο
προεπιλεγμένος χρόνος εκτέλεσης, θα είναι αυτός.  Διαφορετικά,
εμφανίζεται το «καλύτερο» αποτέλεσμα (το «καλύτερο» είναι σκόπιμα ασαφώς
ορισμένο, αλλά συνήθως θα είναι η πιο πρόσφατη έκδοση).  Το αποτέλεσμα
που εμφανίζεται από το ‘py list --one <TAG>’ θα ταιριάξει με το χρόνο
εκτέλεσης που θα εκκινηθεί από το ‘py -V:<TAG>’.

Η επιλογή ‘--only-managed’ εξαιρεί αποτελέσματα που δεν εγκαταστάθηκαν
από τον διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης Python.  Αυτό είναι χρήσιμο κατά τον
προσδιορισμό των χρόνων εκτέλεσης που μπορούν να ενημερωθούν ή να
απεγκατασταθούν μέσω της εντολής ‘py’.

Η επιλογή ‘--online’ είναι συντομογραφία για τη μετάβαση του
‘--source=<URL>’ με την προεπιλεγμένη πηγή.  Η μετάβαση οποιασδήποτε από
αυτές τις επιλογές θα αναζητήσει στο διαδικτυακό ευρετήριο για χρόνους
εκτέλεσης που μπορούν να εγκατασταθούν.  Το αποτέλεσμα που εμφανίζεται
από το ‘py list --online --one <TAG>’ θα ταιριάξει με το χρόνο εκτέλεσης
που θα εγκατασταθεί από το ‘py install <TAG>’.

     $> py list --online 3.14

Για συμβατότητα με τον παλιό εκκινητή, οι εντολές ‘--list’,
‘--list-paths’, ‘-0’ και ‘-0p’ (π.χ.  ‘py -0p’) διατηρούνται.  Δεν
επιτρέπουν πρόσθετες επιλογές, και θα παράγουν έξοδο σε παλιά μορφή.


File: python.info,  Node: Εγκαθιστώντας χρόνους εκτέλεσης,  Next: Εγκαταστάσεις εκτός σύνδεσης,  Prev: Καταχώριση χρόνων εκτέλεσης,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.5 Εγκαθιστώντας χρόνους εκτέλεσης
.......................................

     $> py install [-s=|--source=<URL>] [-f|--force] [-u|--update] [--dry-run] [<TAG>...]

Νέες εκδόσεις χρόνων εκτέλεσης μπορούν να προστεθούν χρησιμοποιώντας το
‘py install’.  Μπορεί να καθοριστεί ένα ή περισσότερα tags, και το
ειδικό tag ‘default’ μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την επιλογή του
προεπιλεγμένου.  Οι περιοχές δεν υποστηρίζονται για εγκατάσταση.

Η επιλογή ‘--source=<URL>’ επιτρέπει την παράκαμψη του διαδικτυακού
ευρετηρίου που χρησιμοποιείται για την απόκτηση χρόνων εκτέλεσης.  Αυτό
μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί με ευρετήριο εκτός σύνδεσης, όπως φαίνεται στο
*note Εγκαταστάσεις εκτός σύνδεσης: 23f9.

Περνώντας την επιλογή ‘--force’ θα αγνοήσει τυχόν αρχεία στην προσωρινή
μνήμη και θα αφαιρέσει οποιαδήποτε υπάρχουσα εγκατάσταση για να την
αντικαταστήσει με την καθορισμένη.

Περνώντας την επιλογή ‘--update’ θα αντικαταστήσει υπάρχουσες
εγκαταστάσεις εάν η νέα έκδοση είναι νεότερη.  Διαφορετικά, θα
παραμείνουν.  Εάν δεν παρέχονται tags με το ‘--update’, όλες οι
εγκαταστάσεις που διαχειρίζεται ο διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python θα
ενημερωθούν εάν υπάρχουν νεότερες εκδόσεις.  Οι ενημερώσεις θα
αφαιρέσουν τυχόν τροποποιήσεις που έγιναν στην εγκατάσταση,
συμπεριλαμβανομένων των παγκοσμίως εγκατεστημένων πακέτων, αλλά τα
εικονικά περιβάλλοντα θα συνεχίσουν να λειτουργούν.

Περνώντας την επιλογή ‘--dry-run’ θα δημιουργήσει έξοδο και αρχεία
καταγραφής, αλλά δεν θα τροποποιήσει καμία εγκατάσταση.

Passing ‘--refresh’ will update all registrations for installed
runtimes.  This will recreate Start menu shortcuts, registry keys, and
global aliases (such as ‘python3.14.exe’ or for any installed scripts).
These are automatically refreshed on installation of any runtime, but
may need to be manually refreshed after installing packages.

In addition to the above options, the ‘--target’ option will extract the
runtime to the specified directory instead of doing a normal install.
This is useful for embedding runtimes into larger applications.  Unlike
a normal install, ‘py’ will not be aware of the extracted runtime, and
no Start menu or other shortcuts will be created.  To launch the
runtime, directly execute the main executable (typically ‘python.exe’)
in the target directory.

     $> py install ... [-t=|--target=<PATH>] <TAG>

The ‘py exec’ command will install the requested runtime if it is not
already present.  This is controlled by the ‘automatic_install’
configuration ( *note PYTHON_MANAGER_AUTOMATIC_INSTALL: 23fa.), and is
enabled by default.  If no runtimes are available at all, all launch
commands will do an automatic install if the configuration setting
allows.  This is to ensure a good experience for new users, but should
not generally be relied on rather than using the ‘py exec’ command or
explicit install commands.


File: python.info,  Node: Εγκαταστάσεις εκτός σύνδεσης,  Next: Απεγκατάσταση χρόνων εκτέλεσης,  Prev: Εγκαθιστώντας χρόνους εκτέλεσης,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.6 Εγκαταστάσεις εκτός σύνδεσης
....................................

Για να πραγματοποιήσετε εγκαταστάσεις εκτός σύνδεσης της Python, θα
χρειαστεί πρώτα να δημιουργήσετε ένα ευρετήριο εκτός σύνδεσης σε ένα
μηχάνημα που έχει πρόσβαση στο δίκτυο.

     $> py install --download=<PATH> ... <TAG>...

Η επιλογή ‘--download=<PATH>’ θα κατεβάσει τα πακέτα για τα καταχωρημένα
tags και θα δημιουργήσει έναν κατάλογο που τα περιέχει και ένα αρχείο
‘index.json’ κατάλληλο για μεταγενέστερη εγκατάσταση.  Ολόκληρος αυτός ο
κατάλογος μπορεί να μετακινηθεί στο μηχάνημα εκτός σύνδεσης και να
χρησιμοποιηθεί για την εγκατάσταση ενός ή περισσότερων από τους
παρεχόμενους χρόνους εκτέλεσης:

     $> py install --source="<PATH>\index.json" <TAG>...

Ο διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python μπορεί να εγκατασταθεί κατεβάζοντας
τον εγκαταστάτη του και μεταφέροντάς τον σε άλλο μηχάνημα πριν την
εγκατάσταση.

Διαφορετικά, τα αρχεία ZIP σε έναν κατάλογο ευρετηρίου εκτός σύνδεσης
μπορούν απλά να μεταφερθούν σε άλλο μηχάνημα και να εξαχθούν.  Αυτό δεν
θα καταχωρήσει την εγκατάσταση με κανέναν τρόπο, και έτσι πρέπει να
εκκινηθεί αναφερόμενο απευθείας στα εκτελέσιμα αρχεία στον εξαγόμενο
φάκελο, αλλά μερικές φορές είναι μια προτιμότερη προσέγγιση σε
περιπτώσεις όπου η εγκατάσταση του διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης Python δεν
είναι δυνατή ή βολική.

Με αυτόν τον τρόπο, οι χρόνοι εκτέλεσης της Python μπορούν να
εγκατασταθούν και να διαχειριστούν σε ένα μηχάνημα χωρίς πρόσβαση στο
διαδίκτυο.


File: python.info,  Node: Απεγκατάσταση χρόνων εκτέλεσης,  Next: Διαμόρφωση,  Prev: Εγκαταστάσεις εκτός σύνδεσης,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.7 Απεγκατάσταση χρόνων εκτέλεσης
......................................

     $> py uninstall [-y|--yes] <TAG>...

Οι χρόνοι εκτέλεσης μπορούν να αφαιρεθούν χρησιμοποιώντας την εντολή ‘py
uninstall’.  Πρέπει να καθοριστούν μία ή περισσότερες ετικέτες.  Οι
περιοχές δεν υποστηρίζονται εδώ.

Η επιλογή ‘--yes’ παρακάμπτει την προτροπή επιβεβαίωσης πριν από την
απεγκατάσταση.

Διαφορετικά από το να περάσετε ετικέτες μεμονωμένα, μπορεί να καθοριστεί
η επιλογή ‘--purge’.  Αυτό θα αφαιρέσει όλους τους χρόνους εκτέλεσης που
διαχειρίζεται ο διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python, συμπεριλαμβανομένου
του καθαρισμού του μενού Έναρξης, του μητρώου και τυχόν προσωρινών
αποθηκεύσεων λήψης.  Οι χρόνοι εκτέλεσης που δεν εγκαταστάθηκαν από τον
διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης Python δεν θα επηρεαστούν, και ούτε τα
χειροκίνητα δημιουργημένα αρχεία διαμόρφωσης.

     $> py uninstall [-y|--yes] --purge

Ο διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python μπορεί να απεγκατασταθεί μέσω της
σελίδας ρυθμίσεων των Windows «Εγκατεστημένες εφαρμογές».  Αυτό δεν
αφαιρεί κανέναν χρόνο εκτέλεσης, και θα εξακολουθούν να είναι
χρησιμοποιήσιμοι, αν και οι παγκόσμιες εντολές ‘python’ και ‘py’ θα
αφαιρεθούν.  Η επανεγκατάσταση του διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης Python θα
σας επιτρέψει να διαχειριστείτε αυτούς τους χρόνους εκτέλεσης ξανά.  Για
να καθαρίσετε πλήρως όλους τους χρόνους εκτέλεσης Python, εκτελέστε με
‘--purge’ πριν από την απεγκατάσταση του διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης
Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Διαμόρφωση,  Next: Γραμμές Shebang,  Prev: Απεγκατάσταση χρόνων εκτέλεσης,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.8 Διαμόρφωση
..................

Ο διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python διαμορφώνεται με μια ιεραρχία αρχείων
διαμόρφωσης, μεταβλητών περιβάλλοντος, επιλογών γραμμής εντολών, και
ρυθμίσεων μητρώου.  Γενικά, τα αρχεία διαμόρφωσης έχουν τη δυνατότητα να
διαμορφώσουν τα πάντα, συμπεριλαμβανομένης της τοποθεσίας άλλων αρχείων
διαμόρφωσης, ενώ οι ρυθμίσεις μητρώου είναι μόνο για διαχειριστές και θα
παρακάμψουν τα αρχεία διαμόρφωσης.

Αυτή η ενότητα θα περιγράψει τις προεπιλογές, αλλά να γνωρίζετε ότι οι
τροποποιημένες ή παρακαμφθείσες εγκαταστάσεις μπορεί να επιλύσουν τις
ρυθμίσεις διαφορετικά.

A global configuration file may be configured by an administrator, and
would be read first.  The user configuration file is stored at
‘%AppData%\Python\pymanager.json’ (note that this location is under
‘Roaming’, not ‘Local’) and is read next, overwriting any settings from
earlier files.  An additional configuration file may be specified as the
‘PYTHON_MANAGER_CONFIG’ environment variable or the ‘--config’ command
line option (but not both).  These locations may be modified by
administrative customization options listed later.

Οι ακόλουθες ρυθμίσεις είναι αυτές που θεωρούνται πιθανό να
τροποποιηθούν σε κανονική χρήση.  Οι επόμενες ενότητες απαριθμούν αυτές
που προορίζονται για διοικητική προσαρμογή.

Τυπικές επιλογές διαμόρφωσης
............................

Κλειδί Διαμόρφωσης                    Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος               Περιγραφή
                                                                            
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                            
‘default_tag’                          -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος:          Η προτιμώμενη προεπιλεγμένη έκδοση
                                                PYTHON_MANAGER_DEFAULT      για εκκίνηση ή εγκατάσταση.  Κατά
                                                                            προεπιλογή, αυτό ερμηνεύεται ως η
                                                                            πιο πρόσφατη μη-προκαταρκτική
                                                                            έκδοση από την ομάδα CPython.
                                                                            
                                                                            
‘default_platform’                    ‘PYTHON_MANAGER_DEFAULT_PLATFORM’     Η προτιμώμενη προεπιλεγμένη
                                                                            πλατφόρμα για εκκίνηση ή
                                                                            εγκατάσταση.  Αυτό αντιμετωπίζεται
                                                                            ως κατάληξη στο καθορισμένο tag,
                                                                            έτσι ώστε το ‘py -V:3.14’ θα
                                                                            προτιμούσε μια εγκατάσταση για το
                                                                            ‘3.14-64’ εάν υπάρχει (και το
                                                                            ‘default_platform’ είναι ‘-64’),
                                                                            αλλά θα χρησιμοποιούσε το ‘3.14’
                                                                            εάν δεν υπάρχει εγκατάσταση με tag.
                                                                            
                                                                            
‘logs_dir’                            ‘PYTHON_MANAGER_LOGS’                 Η τοποθεσία όπου γράφονται τα
                                                                            αρχεία καταγραφής.  Κατά
                                                                            προεπιλογή, ‘%TEMP%’.
                                                                            
                                                                            
‘automatic_install’                    -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος:          True to allow automatic installs
                                                PYTHON_MANAGER_AUTOMATIC_INSTALLwhen using ‘py exec’ to launch (or
                                                                            ‘py’ when no runtimes are installed
                                                                            yet).  Other commands will not
                                                                            automatically install, regardless
                                                                            of this setting.  By default, true.
                                                                            
                                                                            
‘include_unmanaged’                   ‘PYTHON_MANAGER_INCLUDE_UNMANAGED’    True για να επιτρέπεται η
                                                                            καταχώριση και η εκκίνηση χρόνων
                                                                            εκτέλεσης που δεν εγκαταστάθηκαν
                                                                            από τον διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης
                                                                            Python, ή false για να τους
                                                                            εξαιρέσετε.  Κατά προεπιλογή, true.
                                                                            
                                                                            
‘shebang_can_run_anything’            ‘PYTHON_MANAGER_SHEBANG_CAN_RUN_ANYTHING’True για να επιτρέπεται στις
                                                                            shebangs σε αρχεία ‘.py’ να
                                                                            εκκινούν εφαρμογές εκτός από
                                                                            χρόνους εκτέλεσης Python, ή false
                                                                            για να το αποτρέψετε.  Κατά
                                                                            προεπιλογή, true.
                                                                            
                                                                            
‘log_level’                           ‘PYMANAGER_VERBOSE’,                  Ορίζει το προεπιλεγμένο επίπεδο
                                      ‘PYMANAGER_DEBUG’                     εξόδου (0-50).  Κατά προεπιλογή,
                                                                            20.  Χαμηλότερες τιμές παράγουν
                                                                            περισσότερη έξοδο.  Οι μεταβλητές
                                                                            περιβάλλοντος είναι boolean, και
                                                                            μπορεί να παράγουν επιπλέον έξοδο
                                                                            κατά την εκκίνηση που αργότερα
                                                                            καταστέλλεται από άλλες ρυθμίσεις.
                                                                            
                                                                            
‘confirm’                             ‘PYTHON_MANAGER_CONFIRM’              True για να επιβεβαιώσετε ορισμένες
                                                                            ενέργειες πριν τις εκτελέσετε (όπως
                                                                            η απεγκατάσταση), ή false για να
                                                                            παραλείψετε την επιβεβαίωση.  Κατά
                                                                            προεπιλογή, true.
                                                                            
                                                                            
‘install.source’                      ‘PYTHON_MANAGER_SOURCE_URL’           Αντικαταστήστε την πηγή του δείκτη
                                                                            για να αποκτήσετε νέες
                                                                            εγκαταστάσεις.
                                                                            
                                                                            
‘install.enable_entrypoints’          (none)                                True to generate global commands
                                                                            for installed packages (such as
                                                                            ‘pip.exe’).  These are defined by
                                                                            the packages themselves.  If set to
                                                                            false, only the Python interpreter
                                                                            has global commands created.  By
                                                                            default, true.  You should run ‘py
                                                                            install --refresh’ after changing
                                                                            this setting.
                                                                            
                                                                            
‘list.format’                         ‘PYTHON_MANAGER_LIST_FORMAT’          Καθορίστε την προεπιλεγμένη μορφή
                                                                            που χρησιμοποιείται από την εντολή
                                                                            ‘py list’.  Κατά προεπιλογή,
                                                                            ‘table’.
                                                                            
                                                                            
‘install_dir’                         (none)                                Καθορίστε τον ριζικό κατάλογο στον
                                                                            οποίο θα εγκατασταθούν οι χρόνοι
                                                                            εκτέλεσης.  Εάν αλλάξετε αυτήν τη
                                                                            ρύθμιση, οι προηγουμένως
                                                                            εγκατεστημένοι χρόνοι εκτέλεσης δεν
                                                                            θα είναι χρησιμοποιήσιμοι εκτός εάν
                                                                            τους μετακινήσετε στη νέα
                                                                            τοποθεσία.
                                                                            
                                                                            
‘global_dir’                          (none)                                Specify the directory where global
                                                                            commands (such as ‘python3.14.exe’
                                                                            and ‘pip.exe’) are stored.  This
                                                                            directory should be added to your
                                                                            ‘PATH’ to make the commands
                                                                            available from your terminal.
                                                                            
                                                                            
‘download_dir’                        (none)                                Καθορίστε τον κατάλογο όπου
                                                                            αποθηκεύονται τα αρχεία που έχουν
                                                                            ληφθεί.  Αυτός ο κατάλογος είναι
                                                                            μια προσωρινή μνήμη και μπορεί να
                                                                            καθαριστεί από καιρό σε καιρό.
                                                                            

Τα ονόματα με τελείες θα πρέπει να είναι εμφωλευμένα μέσα σε αντικείμενα
JSON, για παράδειγμα, ‘list.format’ θα καθοριζόταν ως ‘{"list":
{"format": "table"}}’.


File: python.info,  Node: Γραμμές Shebang,  Next: Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση,  Prev: Διαμόρφωση,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.9 Γραμμές Shebang
.......................

Εάν η πρώτη γραμμή ενός αρχείου σεναρίου ξεκινά με ‘#!’, είναι γνωστή ως
γραμμή «shebang».  Τα Linux και άλλα λειτουργικά συστήματα παρόμοια με
το Unix έχουν ενσωματωμένη υποστήριξη για τέτοιες γραμμές και
χρησιμοποιούνται συνήθως σε τέτοια συστήματα για να υποδείξουν πώς
πρέπει να εκτελεστεί ένα script.  Οι εντολές ‘python’ και ‘py’
επιτρέπουν την ίδια δυνατότητα να χρησιμοποιηθεί με scripts Python στα
Windows.

Για να επιτρέψετε στις γραμμές shebang σε σενάρια Python να είναι
φορητές μεταξύ Unix και Windows, υποστηρίζονται αρκετές “εικονικές”
εντολές για να καθορίσετε ποιο διερμηνέα να χρησιμοποιήσετε.  Οι
υποστηριζόμενες εικονικές εντολές είναι:

   * ‘/usr/bin/env <ALIAS>’

   * ‘/usr/bin/env -S <ALIAS>’

   * ‘/usr/bin/<ALIAS>’

   * ‘/usr/local/bin/<ALIAS>’

   * ‘<ALIAS>’

Για παράδειγμα, εάν η πρώτη γραμμή του script σας ξεκινά με

     #! /usr/bin/python

Η προεπιλεγμένη Python ή ένα ενεργό εικονικό περιβάλλον θα εντοπιστεί
και θα χρησιμοποιηθεί.  Καθώς πολλά Python scripts που έχουν γραφεί για
να λειτουργούν σε Unix θα έχουν ήδη αυτή τη γραμμή, θα διαπιστώσετε ότι
αυτά τα σενάρια μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν από τον εκκινητή χωρίς
τροποποίηση.  Εάν γράφετε ένα νέο σενάριο στα Windows που ελπίζετε να
είναι χρήσιμο σε Unix, θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσετε μία από τις γραμμές
shebang που ξεκινούν με ‘/usr’.

Οποιαδήποτε από τις παραπάνω εικονικές εντολές μπορούν να έχουν το
‘<ALIAS>’ αντικατασταθεί από ένα ψευδώνυμο από μια εγκατεστημένη
runtime.  Δηλαδή, οποιαδήποτε εντολή που δημιουργείται στον παγκόσμιο
κατάλογο ψευδωνύμων (τον οποίο μπορεί να έχετε προσθέσει στη μεταβλητή
περιβάλλοντος ‘PATH’) μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί σε ένα shebang, ακόμη και
αν δεν είναι στο ‘PATH’.  Αυτό επιτρέπει τη χρήση shebangs όπως
‘/usr/bin/python3.12’ για να επιλέξετε μια συγκεκριμένη runtime.

Εάν δεν υπάρχουν εγκατεστημένοι χρόνοι εκτέλεσης, ή εάν η αυτόματη
εγκατάσταση είναι ενεργοποιημένη, ο ζητούμενος χρόνος εκτέλεσης θα
εγκατασταθεί εάν είναι απαραίτητο.  Δείτε *note Διαμόρφωση: 23f4. για
πληροφορίες σχετικά με τις ρυθμίσεις διαμόρφωσης.

Η μορφή shebang γραμμής ‘/usr/bin/env’ θα αναζητήσει επίσης τη μεταβλητή
περιβάλλοντος ‘PATH’ για μη αναγνωρισμένες εντολές.  Αυτό αντιστοιχεί
στη συμπεριφορά του προγράμματος Unix ‘env’, το οποίο εκτελεί την ίδια
αναζήτηση, αλλά προτιμά την εκκίνηση γνωστών εντολών Python.  Μπορεί να
εμφανιστεί μια προειδοποίηση κατά την αναζήτηση για αυθαίρετα εκτελέσιμα
αρχεία, και αυτή η αναζήτηση μπορεί να απενεργοποιηθεί από την επιλογή
διαμόρφωσης ‘shebang_can_run_anything’.

Οι γραμμές shebang που δεν ταιριάζουν με κανένα από τα πρότυπα
αντιμετωπίζονται ως 'Windows' διαδρομές εκτελέσιμων αρχείων που είναι
απόλυτες ή σχετικές προς τον κατάλογο που περιέχει το αρχείο σεναρίου.
Αυτό είναι μια ευκολία για σενάρια μόνο για Windows, όπως αυτά που
δημιουργούνται από έναν εγκαταστάτη, καθώς η συμπεριφορά δεν είναι
συμβατή με κελύφη τύπου Unix.  Αυτές οι διαδρομές μπορεί να είναι σε
εισαγωγικά, και μπορεί να περιλαμβάνουν πολλαπλά ορίσματα, μετά τα οποία
θα προστεθεί η διαδρομή προς το σενάριο και τυχόν πρόσθετα ορίσματα.
Αυτή η λειτουργικότητα μπορεί να απενεργοποιηθεί από την επιλογή
διαμόρφωσης ‘shebang_can_run_anything’.

     Σημείωση: Η συμπεριφορά των shebangs στον διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης
     Python είναι λεπτά διαφορετική από τον προηγούμενο εκκινητή
     ‘py.exe’, και οι παλιές επιλογές διαμόρφωσης δεν ισχύουν πλέον.
     Εάν βασίζεστε συγκεκριμένα στην παλιά συμπεριφορά ή διαμόρφωση,
     συνιστούμε την εγκατάσταση του legacy launcher(1).  Η εντολή ‘py’
     του legacy launcher θα παρακάμψει αυτήν του PyManager από
     προεπιλογή, και θα χρειαστεί να χρησιμοποιήσετε τις εντολές
     ‘pymanager’ για εγκατάσταση και απεγκατάσταση.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.14.0/win32/launcher.msi


File: python.info,  Node: Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση,  Next: Διαχειριστική διαμόρφωση,  Prev: Γραμμές Shebang,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.10 Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση
................................

Για καταστάσεις όπου ένα MSIX δεν μπορεί να εγκατασταθεί, όπως ορισμένες
παλαιότερες πλατφόρμες διανομής για διαχειριστές, υπάρχει ένα MSI
διαθέσιμο από τη σελίδα λήψεων του python.org.  Αυτό το MSI δεν έχει
διεπαφή χρήστη, και μπορεί μόνο να πραγματοποιήσει εγκαταστάσεις ανά
μηχάνημα στην προεπιλεγμένη τοποθεσία στα Program Files.  Θα προσπαθήσει
να τροποποιήσει τη συστημική μεταβλητή ‘PATH’ για να συμπεριλάβει αυτή
την τοποθεσία εγκατάστασης, αλλά βεβαιωθείτε ότι το επαληθεύετε στη
διαμόρφωσή σας.

     Σημείωση: Τα Windows Server 2019 είναι η μόνη έκδοση των Windows
     που υποστηρίζει η CPython και δεν υποστηρίζει MSIX. Για τα Windows
     Server 2019, θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσετε το MSI.

Να γνωρίζετε ότι το πακέτο MSI δεν περιλαμβάνει κανέναν χρόνο εκτέλεσης,
και έτσι δεν είναι κατάλληλο για εγκαταστάσεις σε περιβάλλοντα χωρίς
σύνδεση στο διαδίκτυο χωρίς επίσης τη δημιουργία ενός ευρετηρίου
εγκατάστασης χωρίς σύνδεση.  Δείτε *note Εγκαταστάσεις εκτός σύνδεσης:
23f9. και *note Διαχειριστική διαμόρφωση: 2400. για πληροφορίες σχετικά
με τη διαχείριση αυτών των σεναρίων.

Οι χρόνοι εκτέλεσης που εγκαθίστανται από το MSI κοινοποιούνται με
αυτούς που εγκαθίστανται από το MSIX, και είναι όλοι μόνο ανά χρήστη.  Ο
διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python δεν υποστηρίζει την εγκατάσταση χρόνων
εκτέλεσης ανά μηχάνημα.  Για να μιμηθείτε μια εγκατάσταση ανά μηχάνημα,
μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε το ‘py install --target=<shared location>’
ως διαχειριστής και να προσθέσετε τις δικές σας τροποποιήσεις σε ‘PATH’,
το μητρώο, ή το μενού Έναρξης.

Όταν το MSIX είναι εγκατεστημένο, αλλά οι εντολές δεν είναι διαθέσιμες
στη ‘PATH’ μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος, μπορούν να βρεθούν στο
‘%LocalAppData%\Microsoft\WindowsApps\PythonSoftwareFoundation.PythonManager_3847v3x7pw1km’
ή
‘%LocalAppData%\Microsoft\WindowsApps\PythonSoftwareFoundation.PythonManager_qbz5n2kfra8p0’,
ανάλογα με το αν εγκαταστάθηκε από το python.org ή μέσω του Windows
Store.  Η προσπάθεια εκτέλεσης του εκτελέσιμου απευθείας από τα Program
Files δεν συνιστάται.

Για να εγκαταστήσετε προγραμματιστικά τον διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης
Python, είναι πιο εύκολο να χρησιμοποιήσετε το WinGet, το οποίο
περιλαμβάνεται σε όλες τις υποστηριζόμενες εκδόσεις των Windows:

     $> winget install 9NQ7512CXL7T -e --accept-package-agreements --disable-interactivity

     # Optionally run the configuration checker and accept all changes
     $> py install --configure -y

Για να κατεβάσετε τον διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης Python και να τον
εγκαταστήσετε σε άλλο μηχάνημα, η ακόλουθη εντολή WinGet θα κατεβάσει τα
απαιτούμενα αρχεία από το Store στον κατάλογο Λήψεις σας (προσθέστε ‘-d
<location>’ για να προσαρμόσετε την τοποθεσία εξόδου).  Αυτό επίσης
δημιουργεί ένα αρχείο YAML που φαίνεται να είναι περιττό, καθώς το
κατεβασμένο MSIX μπορεί να εγκατασταθεί με την εκκίνηση ή τη χρήση των
παρακάτω εντολών.

     $> winget download 9NQ7512CXL7T -e --skip-license --accept-package-agreements --accept-source-agreements

Για να εγκαταστήσετε ή να απεγκαταστήσετε προγραμματιστικά ένα MSIX
χρησιμοποιώντας μόνο το PowerShell, συνιστώνται τα PowerShell cmdlets
Add-AppxPackage(1) και Remove-AppxPackage(2):

     $> Add-AppxPackage C:\Downloads\python-manager-25.0.msix
     ...
     $> Get-AppxPackage PythonSoftwareFoundation.PythonManager | Remove-AppxPackage

Η τελευταία έκδοση μπορεί να ληφθεί και να εγκατασταθεί από τα Windows
με τη μετάδοση του αρχείου AppInstaller στην εντολή Add-AppxPackage.
Αυτό εγκαθιστά χρησιμοποιώντας το MSIX στο python.org, και συνιστάται
μόνο για περιπτώσεις όπου η εγκατάσταση μέσω του Store (διαδραστικά ή
χρησιμοποιώντας το WinGet) δεν είναι δυνατή.

     $> Add-AppxPackage -AppInstallerFile https://www.python.org/ftp/python/pymanager/pymanager.appinstaller

Άλλα εργαλεία και API μπορούν επίσης να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την παροχή
ενός πακέτου MSIX για όλους τους χρήστες σε μια μηχανή, αλλά η Python
δεν θεωρεί αυτό ένα υποστηριζόμενο σενάριο.  Προτείνουμε να εξετάσετε το
PowerShell Add-AppxProvisionedPackage(3) cmdlet, την εγγενή κλάση
Windows PackageManager(4), ή την τεκμηρίωση και υποστήριξη για το
εργαλείο ανάπτυξής σας.

Ανεξάρτητα από τη μέθοδο εγκατάστασης, οι χρήστες θα πρέπει να
εγκαταστήσουν τις δικές τους αντίγραφα της Python, καθώς δεν υπάρχει
τρόπος να ενεργοποιηθούν αυτές οι εγκαταστάσεις χωρίς να είναι
συνδεδεμένος χρήστης.  Όταν χρησιμοποιείτε το MSIX, η τελευταία έκδοση
της Python θα είναι διαθέσιμη για όλους τους χρήστες για εγκατάσταση
χωρίς πρόσβαση στο δίκτυο.

Σημειώστε ότι το MSIX που μπορεί να ληφθεί από το Store και από τον
ιστότοπο της Python είναι ελαφρώς διαφορετικό και δεν μπορούν να
εγκατασταθούν ταυτόχρονα.  Όπου είναι δυνατόν, προτείνουμε τη χρήση των
παραπάνω εντολών WinGet για τη λήψη του πακέτου από το Store για να
μειωθεί ο κίνδυνος ρύθμισης συγκρουόμενων εγκαταστάσεων.  Δεν υπάρχουν
περιορισμοί αδειοδότησης στον διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης Python που να
εμποδίζουν τη χρήση του πακέτου Store με αυτόν τον τρόπο.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/powershell/module/appx/add-appxpackage

   (2) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/powershell/module/appx/remove-appxpackage

   (3) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/powershell/module/dism/add-appxprovisionedpackage

   (4) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/uwp/api/windows.management.deployment.packagemanager


File: python.info,  Node: Διαχειριστική διαμόρφωση,  Next: Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα,  Prev: Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.11 Διαχειριστική διαμόρφωση
.................................

Υπάρχουν πολλές επιλογές που μπορεί να είναι χρήσιμες για τους
διαχειριστές για να υπερκαλύψουν τη διαμόρφωση του διαχειριστή
εγκατάστασης Python.  Αυτές μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την παροχή
τοπικής προσωρινής αποθήκευσης, την απενεργοποίηση ορισμένων τύπων
συντομεύσεων, την υπερκάλυψη ενσωματωμένου περιεχομένου.  Όλες οι
παραπάνω επιλογές διαμόρφωσης μπορούν να οριστούν, καθώς και αυτές
παρακάτω.

Οι επιλογές διαμόρφωσης μπορούν να υπερκαλυφθούν στο μητρώο ρυθμίζοντας
τιμές κάτω από ‘HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\Software\Policies\Python\PyManager’,
όπου το όνομα της τιμής ταιριάζει με το κλειδί διαμόρφωσης και ο τύπος
τιμής είναι ‘REG_SZ’.  Σημειώστε ότι αυτό το κλειδί μπορεί να
προσαρμοστεί, αλλά μόνο τροποποιώντας το βασικό αρχείο διαμόρφωσης που
διανέμεται με τον διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης Python.  Ωστόσο, συνιστούμε,
ωστόσο, ότι οι τιμές μητρώου χρησιμοποιούνται μόνο για να ορίσουν
‘base_config’ σε ένα αρχείο JSON που περιέχει το πλήρες σύνολο των
υπερκαλύψεων.  Οι υπερκαλύψεις κλειδιών μητρώου θα αντικαταστήσουν
οποιαδήποτε άλλη ρυθμισμένη ρύθμιση, ενώ ‘base_config’ επιτρέπει στους
χρήστες να τροποποιούν περαιτέρω ρυθμίσεις που μπορεί να χρειαστούν.

Σημειώστε ότι οι περισσότερες ρυθμίσεις με μεταβλητές περιβάλλοντος
υποστηρίζουν αυτές τις μεταβλητές επειδή η προεπιλεγμένη ρύθμισή τους
καθορίζει τη μεταβλητή.  Εάν τις υπερκαλύψετε, η μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος
δεν θα λειτουργεί πλέον, εκτός εάν την υπερκαλύψετε με άλλη.  Για
παράδειγμα, η προεπιλεγμένη τιμή του ‘confirm’ είναι κυριολεκτικά
‘%PYTHON_MANAGER_CONFIRM%’, η οποία θα επιλύσει τη μεταβλητή κατά το
χρόνο φόρτωσης.  Εάν υπερκαλύψετε την τιμή σε ‘yes’, τότε η μεταβλητή
περιβάλλοντος δεν θα χρησιμοποιείται πλέον.  Εάν υπερκαλύψετε την τιμή
σε ‘%CONFIRM%’, τότε θα χρησιμοποιηθεί αυτή η μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος.

Οι ρυθμίσεις διαμόρφωσης που είναι διαδρομές ερμηνεύονται ως σχετικές με
τον κατάλογο που περιέχει το αρχείο διαμόρφωσης που τις καθόρισε.

Διαχειριστικές επιλογές διαμόρφωσης
...................................

Κλειδί Διαμόρφωσης                                     Περιγραφή
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
‘base_config’                                          Το αρχείο διαμόρφωσης με την υψηλότερη προτεραιότητα
                                                       για ανάγνωση.  Σημειώστε ότι μόνο το ενσωματωμένο
                                                       αρχείο διαμόρφωσης και το μητρώο μπορούν να
                                                       τροποποιήσουν αυτήν τη ρύθμιση.
                                                       
                                                       
‘user_config’                                          Το δεύτερο αρχείο διαμόρφωσης για ανάγνωση.
                                                       
                                                       
‘additional_config’                                    Το τρίτο αρχείο διαμόρφωσης για ανάγνωση.
                                                       
                                                       
‘registry_override_key’                                Τοποθεσία μητρώου για έλεγχο για υπερκαλύψεις.
                                                       Σημειώστε ότι μόνο το ενσωματωμένο αρχείο
                                                       διαμόρφωσης μπορεί να τροποποιήσει αυτήν τη ρύθμιση.
                                                       
                                                       
‘bundled_dir’                                          Κατάλογος μόνο για ανάγνωση που περιέχει τοπικά
                                                       αποθηκευμένα αρχεία.
                                                       
                                                       
‘install.fallback_source’                              Διαδρομή ή URL σε έναν ευρετήριο για συμβουλή όταν
                                                       δεν είναι δυνατή η πρόσβαση στον κύριο ευρετήριο.
                                                       
                                                       
‘install.enable_shortcut_kinds’                        Λίστα με κόμμα διαχωρισμένων ειδών συντομεύσεων για
                                                       να επιτρέπονται (π.χ.  ‘"pep514,start"’).  Οι
                                                       ενεργοποιημένες συντομεύσεις ενδέχεται ακόμη να
                                                       απενεργοποιηθούν από το ‘disable_shortcut_kinds’.
                                                       
                                                       
‘install.disable_shortcut_kinds’                       Λίστα με κόμμα διαχωρισμένων ειδών συντομεύσεων για
                                                       να εξαιρούνται (π.χ.  ‘"pep514,start"’).  Οι
                                                       απενεργοποιημένες συντομεύσεις δεν
                                                       επανενεργοποιούνται από το ‘enable_shortcut_kinds’.
                                                       
                                                       
‘install.hard_link_entrypoints’                        True to use hard links for global shortcuts to save
                                                       disk space.  If false, each shortcut executable is
                                                       copied instead.  After changing this setting, you
                                                       must run ‘py install --refresh --force’ to update
                                                       existing commands.  By default, true.  Disabling
                                                       this may be necessary for troubleshooting or systems
                                                       that have issues with file links.
                                                       
                                                       
‘pep514_root’                                          Τοποθεσία μητρώου για ανάγνωση και εγγραφή
                                                       καταχωρήσεων PEP 514.  Από προεπιλογή,
                                                       ‘HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Python’.
                                                       
                                                       
‘start_folder’                                         Φάκελος μενού Έναρξης για εγγραφή συντομεύσεων.  Από
                                                       προεπιλογή, ‘Python’.  Αυτή η διαδρομή είναι σχετική
                                                       με το φάκελο Προγράμματα του χρήστη.
                                                       
                                                       
‘virtual_env’                                          Διαδρομή προς το ενεργό εικονικό περιβάλλον.  Από
                                                       προεπιλογή, αυτό είναι ‘%VIRTUAL_ENV%’, αλλά μπορεί
                                                       να οριστεί κενό για να απενεργοποιηθεί η ανίχνευση
                                                       venv.
                                                       
                                                       
‘shebang_can_run_anything_silently’                    True για να καταστείλει ορατές προειδοποιήσεις όταν
                                                       ένα shebang εκκινεί μια εφαρμογή εκτός από μια
                                                       εκτελέσιμη Python.
                                                       
                                                       
‘source_settings’                                      A mapping from source URL to settings specific to
                                                       that index.  When multiple configuration files
                                                       include this section, URL settings are added or
                                                       overwritten, but individual settings are not merged.
                                                       These settings are currently only for
                                                       *note index signatures: 2402.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα,  Next: Index signatures,  Prev: Διαχειριστική διαμόρφωση,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.12 Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα
........................................................

Added in version 3.13.

Οι προ-κατασκευασμένες διανομές της έκδοσης με ελεύθερα νήματα είναι
διαθέσιμες με την εγκατάσταση ετικετών με το επίθημα ‘t’.

     $> py install 3.14t
     $> py install 3.14t-arm64
     $> py install 3.14t-32

Αυτό θα εγκαταστήσει και θα καταχωρήσει ως κανονικό.  Εάν δεν έχετε
άλλες εκτελέσιμες εγκαταστάσεις, τότε το ‘python’ θα εκκινήσει αυτήν.
Αλλιώς, θα χρειαστεί να χρησιμοποιήσετε το ‘py -V:3.14t ...’ ή, εάν
έχετε προσθέσει τον παγκόσμιο κατάλογο ψευδωνύμων στη μεταβλητή
περιβάλλοντος ‘PATH’, τις εντολές ‘python3.14t.exe’.


File: python.info,  Node: Index signatures,  Next: Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων,  Prev: Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.13 Index signatures
.........................

Added in version 26.2.

Index files may be signed to detect tampering.  A signature is a catalog
file at the same URL as the index with ‘.cat’ added to the filename.
The catalog file should contain the hash of its matching index file, and
should be signed with a valid Authenticode signature.  This allows
standard tooling (on Windows) to generate a signature, and any
certificate may be used as long as the client operating system already
trusts its certification authority (root CA).

Index signatures are only downloaded and checked when the local
configuration’s ‘source_settings’ section includes the index URL and
‘requires_signature’ is true, or the index JSON contains
‘requires_signature’ set to true.  When the setting exists in local
configuration, even when false, settings in the index are ignored.

As well as requiring a valid signature, the ‘required_root_subject’ and
‘required_publisher_subject’ settings can further restrict acceptable
signatures based on the certificate Subject fields.  Any attribute
specified in the configuration must match the attribute in the
certificate (additional attributes in the certificate are ignored).
Typical attributes are ‘CN=’ for the common name, ‘O=’ for the
organizational unit, and ‘C=’ for the publisher’s country.

Finally, the ‘required_publisher_eku’ setting allows requiring that a
specific Enhanced Key Usage (EKU) has been assigned to the publisher
certificate.  For example, the EKU ‘1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.3’ indicates that
the certificate was intended for code signing (as opposed to server or
client authentication).  In combination with a specific root CA, this
provides another mechanism to verify a legitimate signature.

This is an example ‘source_settings’ section from a configuration file.
In this case, the publisher of the feed is uniquely identified by the
combination of the Microsoft Identity Verification root and the EKU
assigned by that root.  The signature for this case would be found at
‘https://www.python.org/ftp/python/index-windows.json.cat’.

     {
       "source_settings": {
         "https://www.python.org/ftp/python/index-windows.json": {
           "requires_signature": true,
           "required_root_subject": "CN=Microsoft Identity Verification Root Certificate Authority 2020",
           "required_publisher_subject": "CN=Python Software Foundation",
           "required_publisher_eku": "1.3.6.1.4.1.311.97.608394634.79987812.305991749.578777327"
         }
       }
     }

The same settings could be specified in the ‘index.json’ file instead.
In this case, the root and EKU are omitted, meaning that the signature
must be valid and have a specific common name in the publisher’s
certificate, but no other checks are used.

     {
       "requires_signature": true,
       "required_publisher_subject": "CN=Python Software Foundation",
       "versions": [
         // ...
       ]
     }

When settings from inside a feed are used, the user is notified and the
settings are shown in the log file or verbose output.  It is recommended
to copy these settings into a local configuration file for feeds that
will be used frequently, so that unauthorised modifications to the feed
cannot disable verification.

It is not possible to override the location of the signature file in the
feed or through a configuration file.  Administrators can provide their
own ‘source_settings’ in a mandatory configuration file (see *note
Διαχειριστική διαμόρφωση: 2400.).

If signature validation fails, you will be notified and prompted to
continue.  When interactive confirmation is not allowed (for example,
because ‘--yes’ was specified), it will always abort.  To use a feed
with invalid configuration in this scenario, you must provide a
configuration file that disables signature checking for that feed.

     "source_settings": {
       "https://www.example.com/feed-with-invalid-signature.json": {
         "requires_signature": false
       }
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων,  Prev: Index signatures,  Up: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python

3.4.1.14 Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων
.................................

If your Python install manager does not seem to be working correctly,
please work through these tests and fixes to see if it helps.  If not,
please report an issue at our bug tracker(1), including any relevant log
files (written to your ‘%TEMP%’ directory by default).

Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων
........................

Σύμπτωμα                                               Πράγματα που μπορείτε να δοκιμάσετε
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
το ‘python’ μου δίνει σφάλμα «command not found» ή     Εγκαταστήσατε το
ανοίγει την εφαρμογή Store όταν το πληκτρολογώ στο     *note install the Python install manager: 23ee.
τερματικό μου.                                         

                                                       Κάντε κλικ στο Έναρξη, ανοίξτε το «Διαχείριση
                                                       εκτέλεσης εφαρμογών» και ελέγξτε ότι τα aliases για
                                                       το «Python (default)» είναι ενεργοποιημένα.  Εάν ήδη
                                                       είναι, δοκιμάστε να τα απενεργοποιήσετε και να τα
                                                       ενεργοποιήσετε ξανά για να ανανεώσετε την εντολή.
                                                       Οι εντολές «Python (default windowed)» και «Python
                                                       install manager» ενδέχεται επίσης να χρειάζονται
                                                       ανανέωση.
                                                       
                                                       
                                                       Ελέγξτε ότι οι εντολές ‘py’ και ‘pymanager’
                                                       λειτουργούν.
                                                       
                                                       
                                                       Ensure your ‘PATH’ variable contains the entry for
                                                       ‘%UserProfile%\AppData\Local\Microsoft\WindowsApps’.
                                                       The operating system includes this entry once by
                                                       default, after other user paths.  If removed,
                                                       shortcuts will not be found.
                                                       
                                                       
Το ‘py’ μου δίνει σφάλμα «command not found» όταν το   Εγκαταστήσατε το
πληκτρολογώ στο τερματικό μου.                         *note install the Python install manager: 23ee.
                                                       
                                                       
                                                       Κάντε κλικ στο Έναρξη, ανοίξτε το «Διαχείριση
                                                       εκτέλεσης εφαρμογών» και ελέγξτε ότι τα aliases για
                                                       το «Python (default)» είναι ενεργοποιημένα.  Εάν ήδη
                                                       είναι, δοκιμάστε να τα απενεργοποιήσετε και να τα
                                                       ενεργοποιήσετε ξανά για να ανανεώσετε την εντολή.
                                                       Οι εντολές «Python (default windowed)» και «Python
                                                       install manager» ενδέχεται επίσης να χρειάζονται
                                                       ανανέωση.
                                                       
                                                       
                                                       Ensure your ‘PATH’ variable contains the entry for
                                                       ‘%UserProfile%\AppData\Local\Microsoft\WindowsApps’.
                                                       The operating system includes this entry once by
                                                       default, after other user paths.  If removed,
                                                       shortcuts will not be found.
                                                       
                                                       
το ‘py’ μου δίνει σφάλμα «can’t open file» όταν        Αυτό συνήθως σημαίνει ότι έχετε εγκαταστήσει τον
πληκτρολογώ εντολές στο τερματικό μου.                 παλιό launcher και έχει προτεραιότητα έναντι του
                                                       διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης Python.  Για να το
                                                       αφαιρέσετε, κάντε κλικ στο Έναρξη, ανοίξτε το
                                                       «Εγκατεστημένες εφαρμογές», αναζητήστε το «Python
                                                       launcher» και απεγκαταστήστε το.
                                                       
                                                       
η ‘python’ δεν ξεκινά το ίδιο runtime με το ‘py’       Κάντε κλικ στο Έναρξη, ανοίξτε το «Εγκατεστημένες
                                                       εφαρμογές», αναζητήστε τους υπάρχοντες Python
                                                       runtimes και είτε αφαιρέστε τους είτε τροποποιήστε
                                                       και απενεργοποιήστε τις επιλογές ‘PATH’.
                                                       
                                                       
                                                       Κάντε κλικ στο Έναρξη, ανοίξτε το «Διαχείριση
                                                       εκτέλεσης εφαρμογών» και ελέγξτε ότι το alias
                                                       ‘python.exe’ είναι ρυθμισμένο σε «Python (default)»
                                                       
                                                       
‘python’ και ‘py’ δεν ξεκινούν το runtime που          Ελέγξτε τη μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος
περιμένω                                               *note PYTHON_MANAGER_DEFAULT: 23f3. ή τη διαμόρφωση
                                                       ‘default_tag’.  Η εντολή ‘py list’ θα εμφανίσει την
                                                       προεπιλογή σας με βάση αυτές τις ρυθμίσεις.
                                                       
                                                       
                                                       Εγκαταστάσεις που διαχειρίζονται από τον διαχειριστή
                                                       εγκατάστασης Python θα επιλεγούν πριν από τις μη
                                                       διαχειριζόμενες εγκαταστάσεις.  Χρησιμοποιήστε το
                                                       ‘py install’ για να εγκαταστήσετε το runtime που
                                                       περιμένετε, ή διαμορφώστε την προεπιλεγμένη ετικέτα
                                                       σας.
                                                       
                                                       
                                                       Prerelease and experimental installs that are not
                                                       managed by the Python install manager may be chosen
                                                       ahead of stable releases.  Configure your default
                                                       tag or uninstall the prerelease runtime and
                                                       reinstall it using ‘py install’.
                                                       
                                                       
‘pythonw’ ή ‘pyw’ δεν ξεκινούν το ίδιο runtime με το   Κάντε κλικ στο Έναρξη, ανοίξτε το «Διαχείριση
‘python’ ή το ‘py’                                     εκτέλεσης εφαρμογών» και ελέγξτε ότι τα aliases σας
                                                       ‘pythonw.exe’ και ‘pyw.exe’ είναι συνεπή με τα άλλα.
                                                       
                                                       
Το ‘pip’ μου δίνει σφάλμα «command not found» όταν     Έχετε ενεργοποιήσει ένα εικονικό περιβάλλον;
το πληκτρολογώ στο τερματικό μου.                      Εκτελέστε το script ‘.venv\Scripts\activate’ στο
                                                       τερματικό σας για να το ενεργοποιήσετε.
                                                       
                                                       
                                                       The package may be available but missing the
                                                       generated executable.  We recommend using the
                                                       ‘python -m pip’ command instead.  Running ‘py
                                                       install --refresh’ and ensuring that the global
                                                       shortcuts directory is on ‘PATH’ (it will be shown
                                                       in the command output if it is not) should make
                                                       commands such as ‘pip’ (and other installed
                                                       packages) available.
                                                       
                                                       
I installed a package with ‘pip’ but its command is    Έχετε ενεργοποιήσει ένα εικονικό περιβάλλον;
not found.                                             Εκτελέστε το script ‘.venv\Scripts\activate’ στο
                                                       τερματικό σας για να το ενεργοποιήσετε.
                                                       
                                                       
                                                       New packages do not automatically have global
                                                       shortcuts created by the Python install manager.
                                                       Similarly, uninstalled packages do not have their
                                                       shortcuts removed.  Run ‘py install --refresh’ to
                                                       update the global shortcuts for newly installed
                                                       packages.
                                                       
                                                       
Πληκτρολογώντας ‘script-name.py’ στο τερματικό         Αυτή είναι μια γνωστή περιορισμός του λειτουργικού
ανοίγει σε νέο παράθυρο.                               συστήματος.  Είτε καθορίστε ‘py’ πριν από το όνομα
                                                       του script, δημιουργήστε ένα αρχείο batch που
                                                       περιέχει ‘@py "%~dpn0.py" %*’ με το ίδιο όνομα με το
                                                       script, είτε εγκαταστήστε τον legacy launcher(2) και
                                                       επιλέξτε τον ως την συσχέτιση για τα scripts.
                                                       
                                                       
Το drag-dropping αρχείων σε ένα script δεν             Αυτή είναι μια γνωστή περιορισμός του λειτουργικού
λειτουργεί                                             συστήματος.  Υποστηρίζεται με τον legacy
                                                       launcher(3), ή με τον διαχειριστή εγκατάστασης
                                                       Python όταν εγκαθίσταται από το MSI.
                                                       
                                                       
I have installed the Python install manager multiple   It is possible to install from the Store or WinGet,
times.                                                 from the MSIX on the Python website, and from the
                                                       MSI, all at once.  They are all compatible and will
                                                       share configuration and runtimes.
                                                       
                                                       
                                                       See the earlier *note Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση: 23f1.
                                                       section for ways to uninstall the install manager
                                                       other than the typical Installed Apps (Add and
                                                       Remove Programs) settings page.
                                                       
                                                       
My old ‘py.ini’ settings no longer work.               The new Python install manager no longer supports
                                                       this configuration file or its settings, and so it
                                                       will be ignored.  See *note Διαμόρφωση: 23f4. for
                                                       information about configuration settings.
                                                       

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/pymanager/issues

   (2) https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.14.0/win32/launcher.msi

   (3) https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.14.0/win32/launcher.msi


File: python.info,  Node: Το ενσωματωμένο πακέτο,  Next: Τα πακέτα nuget org,  Prev: Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows

3.4.2 Το ενσωματωμένο πακέτο
----------------------------

Added in version 3.5.

Η ενσωματωμένη διανομή είναι ένα αρχείο ZIP που περιέχει ένα ελάχιστο
περιβάλλον Python.  Προορίζεται για δράση ως μέρος μιας άλλης εφαρμογής,
αντί να έχει άμεση πρόσβαση από τους τελικούς χρήστες.

Για να εγκαταστήσετε μια ενσωματωμένη διανομή, προτείνουμε τη χρήση του
‘py install’ με την επιλογή ‘--target’:

     $> py install 3.14-embed --target=<directory>

Όταν εξάγεται, η ενσωματωμένη διανομή απομονώνεται (σχεδόν) πλήρως από
το σύστημα του χρήστη, συμπεριλαμβανομένων μεταβλητών περιβάλλοντος,
ρυθμίσεων μητρώου συστήματος και εγκατεστημένων πακέτων.  Η τυπική
βιβλιοθήκη περιλαμβάνεται ως προ-μεταγλωττισμένα και βελτιστοποιημένα
αρχεία ‘.pyc’ σε ένα ZIP και ‘python3.dll’, ‘python313.dll’,
‘python.exe’ και ‘pythonw.exe’ παρέχονται όλα.  Το Tcl/tk
(συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των εξαρτημένων, όπως το Idle), το pip και η
τεκμηρίωση Python δεν συμπεριλαμβάνονται.

Ένα προεπιλεγμένο αρχείο ‘._pth’ περιλαμβάνεται, το οποίο περιορίζει
περαιτέρω τις προεπιλεγμένες διαδρομές αναζήτησης (όπως περιγράφεται
παρακάτω στο *note Εύρεση modules: fdf.).  Αυτό το αρχείο προορίζεται
για τροποποίηση από ενσωματωτές όπως είναι απαραίτητο.

Τα πακέτα τρίτων θα πρέπει να εγκατασταθούν από το πρόγραμμα
εγκατάστασης της εφαρμογής παράλληλα με την ενσωματωμένη διανομή.  Η
χρήση pip για τη διαχείριση εξαρτήσεων όπως για μια κανονική εγκατάσταση
Python δεν υποστηρίζεται με αυτήν τη διανομή, αν και με λίγη προσοχή
μπορεί να είναι δυνατό, να συμπεριληφθεί και να χρησιμοποιηθεί το pip
για αυτόματες ενημερώσεις.  Γενικά, τα πακέτα τρίτων θα πρέπει να
αντιμετωπίζονται ως μέρος της εφαρμογής («vendoring»), έτσι ώστε ο
προγραμματιστής να μπορεί να διασφαλίσει τη συμβατότητα με νεότερες
εκδόσεις προτού παρέχει ενημερώσεις στους χρήστες.

Οι δύο προτεινόμενες περιπτώσεις χρήσης για αυτήν τη διανομή
περιγράφονται παρακάτω.

* Menu:

* Εφαρμογή Python::
* Ενσωμάτωση Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Εφαρμογή Python,  Next: Ενσωμάτωση Python,  Up: Το ενσωματωμένο πακέτο

3.4.2.1 Εφαρμογή Python
.......................

Μια εφαρμογή γραμμένη σε Python δεν απαιτεί απαραίτητα από τους χρήστες
να γνωρίζουν αυτό το γεγονός.  Η ενσωματωμένη διανομή μπορεί να
χρησιμοποιηθεί σε αυτήν την περίπτωση για να συμπεριλάβει μια ιδιωτική
έκδοση της Python σε ένα πακέτο εγκατάστασης.  Ανάλογα με το πόσο
διαφανές θα πρέπει να είναι (ή αντίστροφα, πόσο επαγγελματικό θα έπρεπε
να φαίνεται), υπάρχουν δύο επιλογές.

Η χρήση ενός εξειδικευμένου εκτελέσιμου ως προγράμματος εκκίνησης
απαιτεί κάποια κωδικοποίηση, αλλά παρέχει την πιο διαφανής εμπειρία για
τους χρήστες.  Με έναν προσαρμοσμένο πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης, δεν υπάρχουν
προφανείς ενδείξεις ότι το πρόγραμμα εκτελείται σε Python: τα εικονίδια
μπορούν να προσαρμοστούν, οι πληροφορίες εταιρείας και έκδοσης μπορούν
να καθορίζεται και οι συσχετισμοί αρχείων συμπεριφέρονται σωστά.  Στις
περισσότερες περιπτώσεις, ένα προσαρμοσμένο πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης θα
πρέπει απλώς να μην μπορεί να καλεί το ‘Py_Main’ με μια σκληρά
κωδικοποιημένη γραμμή εντολών.

Η απλούστερη προσέγγιση είναι να παρέχετε ένα αρχείο δέσμης ή μια
συντόμευση που δημιουργείται που καλεί απευθείας το ‘python.exe’ ή το
‘pythonw.exe’ με τα απαιτούμενα ορίσματα γραμμής εντολών.  Σε αυτήν την
περίπτωση, η εφαρμογή φαίνεται να είναι Python και όχι το πραγματικό της
όνομα, και οι χρήστες μπορεί να έχουν πρόβλημα να το ξεχωρίσουν από
άλλες διεργασίες Python που εκτελούνται ή συσχετίσεις αρχείων.

Με την τελευταία προσέγγιση, τα πακέτα θα πρέπει να εγκατασταθούν ως
κατάλογοι μαζί με το εκτελέσιμο Python για να διασφαλιστεί ότι είναι
διαθέσιμα στην διαδρομή.  Με το εξειδικευμένο πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης τα
πακέτα μπορούν να βρίσκονται σε άλλες τοποθεσίες, καθώς υπάρχει η
ευκαιρία να καθοριστεί η διαδρομή αναζήτησης πριν από την εκκίνηση της
εφαρμογής.


File: python.info,  Node: Ενσωμάτωση Python,  Prev: Εφαρμογή Python,  Up: Το ενσωματωμένο πακέτο

3.4.2.2 Ενσωμάτωση Python
.........................

Οι εφαρμογές που είναι γραμμένες σε εγγενή κώδικα απαιτούν συχνά κάποια
μορφή scripting γλώσσας και η ενσωματωμένη διανομή Python μπορεί να
χρησιμοποιηθεί για αυτόν τον σκοπό.  Γενικά, η πλειονότητα της εφαρμογής
είναι σε εγγενή κώδικα και κάποιο μέρος είτε θα καλέσει το ‘python.exe’
ή θα χρησιμοποιήσει απευθείας το ‘python3.dll’.  Και στις δύο
περιπτώσεις, η εξαγωγή της ενσωματωμένης διανομής σε έναν υποκατάλογο
της εγκατάστασης της εφαρμογής αρκεί για να παρέχει έναν διερμηνέα
Python με δυνατότητα φόρτωσης.

Όπως και με τη χρήση της εφαρμογής, τα πακέτα μπορούν να εγκατασταθούν
σε οποιαδήποτε τοποθεσία, καθώς υπάρχει η ευκαιρία να καθορίσουν
διαδρομές αναζήτησης πριν αρχικοποιηθεί ο διερμηνέας.  Διαφορετικά , δεν
υπάρχουν θεμελιώδεις διαφορές μεταξύ της χρήσης της ενσωματωμένης
διανομή και μιας κανονικής εγκατάστασης.


File: python.info,  Node: Τα πακέτα nuget org,  Next: Εναλλακτικά πακέτα,  Prev: Το ενσωματωμένο πακέτο,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows

3.4.3 Τα πακέτα nuget.org
-------------------------

Added in version 3.5.2.

Το πακέτο nuget.org είναι ένα περιβάλλον Python μειωμένου μεγέθους που
προορίζεται για χρήση σε συνεχή ενοποίηση και δημιουργία συστημάτων που
δεν έχουν εγκατάσταση Python.  Ενώ το nuget είναι «ο διαχειριστής
πακέτων για .NET», λειτουργεί επίσης τέλεια για πακέτα που περιέχουν
εργαλεία χρόνου κατασκευής.

Επισκεφτείτε το nuget.org(1) για τις πιο ενημερωμένες πληροφορίες
σχετικά με τη χρήση του nuget.  Αυτό που ακολουθεί είναι μια περίληψη
που είναι επαρκής για προγραμματιστές Python.

Το εργαλείο γραμμής εντολών ‘nuget.exe’ μπορεί να ληφθεί απευθείας από
το ‘https://aka.ms/nugetclidl’, για παράδειγμα, χρησιμοποιώντας curl ή
PowerShell.  Με το εργαλείο, η πιο πρόσφατη έκδοση της Python για
μηχανήματα 64-bit ή 32-bit εγκαθίστανται χρησιμοποιώντας:

     nuget.exe install python -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .
     nuget.exe install pythonx86 -ExcludeVersion -OutputDirectory .

Για να επιλέξετε μια συγκεκριμένη έκδοση, προσθέστε ένα ‘-Version
3.x.y’.  Ο κατάλογος εξόδου μπορεί να αλλάξει από ‘.’, και το πακέτο να
εγκατασταθεί σε έναν υποκατάλογο.  Από προεπιλογή, ο υποκατάλογος
ονομάζεται όπως και το πακέτο, και χωρίς την επιλογή ‘-ExcludeVersion’,
αυτό το όνομα θα περιλαμβάνει τη συγκεκριμένη έκδοση που έχει
εγκατασταθεί.  Μέσα στον υποκατάλογο υπάρχει ένας κατάλογος ‘tools’ που
περιέχει την εγκατάσταση Python:

     # Without -ExcludeVersion
     > .\python.3.5.2\tools\python.exe -V
     Python 3.5.2

     # With -ExcludeVersion
     > .\python\tools\python.exe -V
     Python 3.5.2

Γενικά, τα πακέτα nuget δεν μπορούν να αναβαθμιστούν και οι νεότερες
εκδόσεις θα πρέπει να εγκατασταθούν δίπλα-δίπλα και να αναφέρονται
χρησιμοποιώντας την πλήρη διαδρομή.  Εναλλακτικά, διαγράψτε τον κατάλογο
πακέτων με μη αυτόματο τρόπο και εγκαταστήστε τον ξανά.  Πολλά συστήματα
CI θα το κάνουν αυτόματα εάν δεν διατηρούν αρχεία μεταξύ των εκδόσεων.

Δίπλα στον κατάλογο ‘tools’ υπάρχει ένας κατάλογος ‘build\native’.
Αυτός περιέχει ένα αρχείο ιδιοτήτων MSBuild ‘python.props’ που μπορεί να
χρησιμοποιηθεί σε ένα έργο C++ για αναφορά στην εγκατάσταση της Python.
Η συμπερίληψη των ρυθμίσεων θα χρησιμοποιεί αυτόματα τις κεφαλίδες και
θα εισάγει βιβλιοθήκες στο build σας.

Οι σελίδες πληροφοριών πακέτων στο nuget.org είναι
www.nuget.org/packages/python(2) για την έκδοση 64 bit,
www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86(3) για την έκδοση 32 bit και
www.nuget.org/packages/pythonarm64(4) για την έκδοση ARM64.

* Menu:

* Πακέτα με ελεύθερα νήματα::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.nuget.org/

   (2) https://www.nuget.org/packages/python

   (3) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86

   (4) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonarm64


File: python.info,  Node: Πακέτα με ελεύθερα νήματα,  Up: Τα πακέτα nuget org

3.4.3.1 Πακέτα με ελεύθερα νήματα
.................................

Added in version 3.13.

Πακέτα που περιέχουν ελεύθερα νήματα ονομάζονται python-freethreaded(1)
για την έκδοση 64 bit, pythonx86-freethreaded(2) για την έκδοση 32 bit
και pythonarm64-freethreaded(3) για την έκδοση ARM64.  Αυτά τα πακέτα
περιέχουν τόσο τα σημεία εισόδου ‘python3.13t.exe’ όσο και ‘python.exe’,
και τα δύο από τα οποία εκτελούν ελεύθερα νήματα.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.nuget.org/packages/python-freethreaded

   (2) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonx86-freethreaded

   (3) https://www.nuget.org/packages/pythonarm64-freethreaded


File: python.info,  Node: Εναλλακτικά πακέτα,  Next: Υποστηριζόμενες εκδόσεις των Windows,  Prev: Τα πακέτα nuget org,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows

3.4.4 Εναλλακτικά πακέτα
------------------------

Εκτός από την τυπική διανομή CPython, υπάρχουν τροποποιημένα πακέτα που
περιλαμβάνουν πρόσθετες λειτουργίες.  Ακολουθεί μια λίστα με δημοφιλείς
εκδόσεις και τα βασικά χαρακτηριστικά τους:

ActivePython(1)

     Πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης με συμβατότητα πολλαπλών πλατφορμών,
     τεκμηρίωση, PyWin32

Anaconda(2)

     Δημοφιλείς επιστημονικά modules (όπως το numpy, scipy και pandas)
     και ο διαχειριστής πακέτων ‘conda’.

Enthought Deployment Manager(3)

     «Η επόμενη γενικά Διαχειριστή Περιβάλλοντος και Πακέτων Python».

     Προηγουμένως, η Enthought παρείχε το Canopy, αλλά έφτασε στο τέλος
     της ζωής του το 2016(4).

WinPython(5)

     Διανομή ειδικά για Windows με προκατασκευασμένα επιστημονικά πακέτα
     και εργαλεία για την κατασκευή πακέτων.

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι αυτά τα πακέτα ενδέχεται να μην περιλαμβάνουν τις πιο
πρόσφατες εκδόσεις της Python ή άλλες βιβλιοθήκες και δεν διατηρούνται ή
υποστηρίζονται από την βασική ομάδα της Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/

   (2) https://www.anaconda.com/download/

   (3) https://www.enthought.com/edm/

   (4) 
https://support.enthought.com/hc/en-us/articles/360038600051-Canopy-GUI-end-of-life-transition-to-the-Enthought-Deployment-Manager-EDM-and-Visual-Studio-Code

   (5) https://winpython.github.io/


File: python.info,  Node: Υποστηριζόμενες εκδόσεις των Windows,  Next: Αφαίρεση του περιορισμού MAX_PATH,  Prev: Εναλλακτικά πακέτα,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows

3.4.5 Υποστηριζόμενες εκδόσεις των Windows
------------------------------------------

Όπως ορίζεται στο PEP 11(1), μια έκδοση Python υποστηρίζει μόνο μια
πλατφόρμα Windows, ενώ η Microsoft θεωρεί την πλατφόρμα υπό εκτεταμένη
υποστήριξη.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι η Python 3.16 υποστηρίζει Windows 8.1 και
νεότερες εκδόσεις.  Εάν χρειάζεστε υποστήριξη Windows 7, εγκαταστήστε
την Python 3.8.  Εάν χρειάζεστε υποστήριξη Windows 8.1, εγκαταστήστε την
Python 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: Αφαίρεση του περιορισμού MAX_PATH,  Next: Λειτουργία UTF-8,  Prev: Υποστηριζόμενες εκδόσεις των Windows,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows

3.4.6 Αφαίρεση του περιορισμού MAX_PATH
---------------------------------------

Τα Windows έχουν ιστορικά περιορισμένα μήκη διαδρομής στους 260
χαρακτήρες.  Αυτό σήμαινε ότι διαδρομές μεγαλύτερες από αυτό δεν θα
επιλύονταν και θα προέκυπταν σφάλματα.

Στις πιο πρόσφατες εκδόσεις των Windows, αυτός ο περιορισμός μπορεί να
επεκταθεί σε πάνω από 32.000 χαρακτήρες.  Ο διαχειριστής σας θα πρέπει
να ενεργοποιήσει την πολιτική ομάδας «Ενεργοποίηση μακρών διαδρομών
Win32» ή να ορίσει το ‘LongPathsEnabled’ σε ‘1’ στο κλειδί μητρώου
‘HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSystem’.

Αυτό επιτρέπει στη συνάρτηση *note open(): 32b, στο module *note os: a5.
και στις περισσότερες άλλες λειτουργίες διαδρομής να αποδέχονται και να
επιστρέφουν διαδρομές μεγαλύτερες από 260 χαρακτήρες.

Μετά την αλλαγή της παραπάνω επιλογής, δεν απαιτείται περαιτέρω
διαμόρφωση.


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3.4.7 Λειτουργία UTF-8
----------------------

Added in version 3.7.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Python UTF-8 mode is now enabled by default (
PEP 686(1)).

Τα Windows εξακολουθούν να χρησιμοποιούν κωδικοποιήσεις παλαιού τύπου
για την κωδικοποίηση του συστήματος (τη σελίδα κώδικα ANSI). Η Python τη
χρησιμοποιεί για την προεπιλεγμένη κωδικοποίηση αρχείων κειμένου (π.χ.
*note locale.getencoding(): a45.).

Αυτό μπορεί να προκαλέσει προβλήματα επειδή το UTF-8 χρησιμοποιείται
ευρέως στο διαδίκτυο και στα περισσότερα συστήματα Unix,
συμπεριλαμβανομένου του WSL (Windows Subsystem for Linux).

The *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46, enabled by default, can help by
changing the default text encoding to UTF-8.  When the *note UTF-8 mode:
a46. is enabled, you can still use the system encoding (the ANSI Code
Page) via the «mbcs» codec.

You can disable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46. via the ‘-X utf8=0’
command line option, or the ‘PYTHONUTF8=0’ environment variable.  See
*note PYTHONUTF8: 1ad. for disabling UTF-8 mode, and *note Διαχειριστής
εγκατάστασης Python: 21b7. for how to modify environment variables.

     Συμβουλή: Adding ‘PYTHONUTF8={0,1}’ to the default environment
     variables will affect all Python 3.7+ applications on your system.
     If you have any Python 3.7+ applications which rely on the legacy
     system encoding, it is recommended to set the environment variable
     temporarily or use the ‘-X utf8’ command line option.

     Σημείωση: Ακόμη και όταν η λειτουργία UTF-8 είναι απενεργοποιημένη,
     η Python χρησιμοποιεί το UTF-8 από προεπιλογή στα Windows για:

        * I/O κονσόλας με τυπικό I/O (δείτε το PEP 528(2) για
          λεπτομέρειες).

        * Το *note filesystem encoding: 948. (δείτε το PEP 529(3) για
          λεπτομέρειες).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: Εύρεση modules,  Next: Πρόσθετα modules,  Prev: Λειτουργία UTF-8,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows

3.4.8 Εύρεση modules
--------------------

Αυτές οι σημειώσεις συμπληρώνουν την περιγραφή *note The initialization
of the sys.path module search path: 1953. με λεπτομερείς σημειώσεις των
Windows.

Όταν δεν βρεθεί αρχείο ‘._pth’, συμπληρώνεται έτσι το *note sys.path:
194. στα Windows:

   * Μια κενή καταχώρηση προστίθεται στην αρχή, η οποία αντιστοιχεί στον
     τρέχοντα κατάλογο.

   * Εάν υπάρχει η μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6, όπως
     περιγράφεται στο *note Environment variables: 9e8, οι εγγραφές της
     προστίθενται στη συνέχεια.  Σημειώστε ότι στα Windows, οι διαδρομές
     σε αυτήν τη μεταβλητή πρέπει να διαχωρίζονται με ερωτηματικά, για
     να γίνει διάκριση από την άνω και κάτω τελεία που χρησιμοποιείται
     στα αναγνωριστικά μονάδων δίσκου (‘C:\’ κλπ.).

   * Μπορούν να προστεθούν επιπλέον «διαδρομές εφαρμογής» στο μητρώο ως
     δευτερεύοντα κλειδιά του
     ‘\SOFTWARE\Python\PythonCore{version}\PythonPath’ κάτω από τις
     κυψέλες ‘HKEY_CURRENT_USER’ και ‘HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE’.  Τα
     δευτερεύοντα κλειδιά που έχουν ως προεπιλεγμένη τιμή συμβολοσειρές
     διαδρομής οριοθετημένη με ερωτηματικό θα προκαλέσει την προσθήκη
     κάθε διαδρομής στο *note sys.path: 194.  (Λάβετε υπόψη ότι όλα τα
     γνωστά προγράμματα εγκατάστασης χρησιμοποιούν μόνο HKLM, επομένως
     το HKCU είναι συνήθως κενό.)

   * Εάν έχει οριστεί η μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad,
     θεωρείται ότι είναι «Python Home».  Διαφορετικά, η διαδρομή του
     κύριου εκτελέσιμου Python χρησιμοποιείται για τον εντοπισμό ενός
     «αρχείου ορόσημο» (είτε ‘Lib\os.py’ ή ‘pythonXY.zip’) για να
     συμπεράνουμε το «Python Home».  Αν βρεθεί ένα Python home, οι
     σχετικοί υποκατάλογοι που προστέθηκαν στο *note sys.path: 194.
     (‘Lib’, ‘plat-win’, κ.λπ.)  βασίζονται σε αυτόν τον φάκελο.
     Διαφορετικά, η διαδρομή του πυρήνα της Python δημιουργείται από το
     PythonPath που είναι αποθηκευμένο στο μητρώο.

   * Εάν δεν μπορεί να εντοπιστεί το Python Home, δεν καθορίζεται *note
     PYTHONPATH: 13c6. στο περιβάλλον και δεν μπορούν να βρεθούν
     καταχωρίσεις μητρώου, χρησιμοποιείται μια προεπιλεγμένη διαδρομή με
     σχετικές καταχωρήσεις (π.χ.  ‘.\Lib;.\plat-win’, κλπ).

Εάν ένα αρχείο ‘pyvenv.cfg’ βρίσκεται δίπλα στο κύριο εκτελέσιμο αρχείο
ή στον κατάλογο ένα επίπεδο πάνω από το εκτελέσιμο αρχείο, ισχύουν οι
ακόλουθες παραλλαγές:

   * Εάν το ‘home’ είναι μια απόλυτη διαδρομή και το *note PYTHONHOME:
     3ad. δεν έχει οριστεί, αυτή η διαδρομή χρησιμοποιείται αντί για τη
     διαδρομή προς το κύριο εκτελέσιμο κατά την εξαγωγή της αρχικής
     τοποθεσίας.

Το τελικό αποτέλεσμα όλων αυτών είναι:

   * Όταν εκτελείται το ‘python.exe’, ή οποιοδήποτε άλλο .exe στον κύριο
     κατάλογο της Python (είτε μια εγκατεστημένη έκδοση, είτε απευθείας
     από τον κατάλογο PCbuild), συνάγεται η διαδρομή του πυρήνα και οι
     βασικές διαφορές στο μητρώο αγνοούνται.  Άλλες «διαδρομές
     εφαρμογής» στο μητρώο διαβάζονται πάντα.

   * Όταν η Python φιλοξενείται σε άλλο .exe (διαφορετικός κατάλογος,
     ενσωματωμένος μέσω COM, κ.λπ.), το «Python Home» δεν θα συναχθεί
     επομένως χρησιμοποιείται η βασική διαδρομή από το μητρώο.  Άλλες
     «διαδρομές εφαρμογής» στο μητρώο διαβάζονται πάντα.

   * Εάν η Python δεν μπορεί να βρει το home της και δεν υπάρχει τιμή
     μητρώου (frozen .exe, κάποια πολύ περίεργη εγκατάσταση) λαμβάνετε
     μια διαδρομή με κάποιες προεπιλεγμένες, αλλά σχετικές, διαδρομές.

Για όσους θέλουν να ενσωματώσουν την Python στην εφαρμογή ή την διανομή
τους, οι ακόλουθες συμβουλές θα αποτρέψουν τις διενέξεις με άλλες
εγκαταστάσεις:

   * Συμπεριλάβετε ένα αρχείο ‘._pth’ δίπλα στο εκτελέσιμο αρχείο σας
     που περιέχει τους καταλόγους που θέλετε να συμπεριλάβετε.  Αυτό θα
     αγνοήσει τις διαδρομές που παρατίθενται στο μητρώο και τις
     μεταβλητές περιβάλλοντος και θα αγνοήσει επίσης το *note site: cf.
     εκτός εάν αναφέρεται το ‘import site’.

   * Εάν φορτώνετε το ‘python3.dll’ ή το ‘python37.dll’ στο δικό σας
     εκτελέσιμο αρχείο, ορίστε ρητά το *note
     PyConfig.module_search_paths: 834. πριν από το *note
     Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a.

   * Διαγράψτε και/ή αντικαταστήστε το *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6. και
     ορίστε το *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. πριν από την εκκίνηση του
     ‘python.exe’ από την εφαρμογή σας.

   * Εάν δεν μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε τις προηγούμενες προτάσεις (για
     παράδειγμα, είστε μια διανομή που επιτρέπει στους χρήστες να
     εκτελούν απευθείας το ‘python.exe’), βεβαιωθείτε ότι το αρχείο
     ορόσημο (‘Lib\os.py’) υπάρχει στον κατάλογο εγκατάστασης σας.
     (Λάβετε υπόψη ότι δεν θα εντοπιστεί σε ένα αρχείο ZIP, αλλά θα
     εντοπιστεί ένα αρχείο ZIP με το σωστό όνομα.)

Αυτά θα διασφαλίσουν ότι τα αρχεία σε μια εγκατάσταση σε όλο το σύστημα
δεν θα υπερισχύουν του αντιγράφου της τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης που συνοδεύει
την εφαρμογή σας.  Διαφορετικά, οι χρήστες σας ενδέχεται να
αντιμετωπίσουν προβλήματα με τη χρήση της εφαρμογής σας.  Λάβετε υπόψη
ότι η πρώτη πρόταση είναι η καλύτερη, καθώς τα άλλα μπορεί να
εξακολουθούν να είναι επιρρεπή σε μη τυπικές διαδρομές στο μητρώο και
στα πακέτα ιστοτόπων χρηστών.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Προσθήκη υποστήριξης αρχείου ‘._pth’ και
καταργείται η επιλογή ‘applocal’ από το ‘pyvenv.cfg’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Προσθήκη ‘python`XX'.zip’ ως πιθανό ορόσημο όταν
βρίσκεται ακριβώς δίπλα στο εκτελέσιμο αρχείο.

Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.6: Τα modules που καθορίζονται στο μητρώο στην
περιοχή ‘Modules’ (όχι ‘PythonPath’) μπορούν να εισαχθούν από το *note
importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder: 10e2.  Αυτό το πρόγραμμα
εύρεσης είναι ενεργοποιημένο στα Windows σε 3.6.0 και παλαιότερες
εκδόσεις, αλλά ενδέχεται να πρέπει να προστεθεί ρητά στο *note
sys.meta_path: 10e3. στο μέλλον.


File: python.info,  Node: Πρόσθετα modules,  Next: Μεταγλώττιση Python στα Windows,  Prev: Εύρεση modules,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows

3.4.9 Πρόσθετα modules
----------------------

Αν και η Python στοχεύει να είναι φορητή σε όλες τις πλατφόρμες,
υπάρχουν δυνατότητες που είναι μοναδικές για τα Windows.  Μερικά
modules, τόσο στην τυπική βιβλιοθήκη όσο και στην εξωτερική, και
αποσπάσματα υπάρχουν για χρήση αυτών των δυνατοτήτων.

Τα τυπικά modules ειδικά για Windows τεκμηριώνονται στο *note MS Windows
Specific Services: 2411.

* Menu:

* PyWin32::
* cx_Freeze::


File: python.info,  Node: PyWin32,  Next: cx_Freeze,  Up: Πρόσθετα modules

3.4.9.1 PyWin32
...............

Το module PyWin32(1) του Mark Hammond είναι μια συλλογή από modules για
προηγμένη υποστήριξη ειδικά για Windows.  Αυτό περιλαμβάνει βοηθητικά
προγράμματα για:

   * Component Object Model(2) (COM)

   * Win32 API κλήσεις

   * Μητρώο

   * Μητρώο συμβάντων

   * Τα Microsoft Foundation Classes(3) (MFC) διεπαφές χρήστη

Το PythonWin(4) είναι ένα δείγμα εφαρμογής MFC που αποστέλλεται με το
PyWin32.  Είναι ένα ενσωματωμένο IDE με ενσωματωμένο πρόγραμμα
εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Win32 How Do I...?(5)

     από τον Tim Golden

Python and COM(6)

     από τους David και Paul Boddie

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pywin32

   (2) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/com/component-object-model-com-portal

   (3) https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/mfc/mfc-desktop-applications

   (4) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20060524042422/https://www.python.org/windows/pythonwin/

   (5) http://timgolden.me.uk/python/win32_how_do_i.html

   (6) https://www.boddie.org.uk/python/COM.html


File: python.info,  Node: cx_Freeze,  Prev: PyWin32,  Up: Πρόσθετα modules

3.4.9.2 cx_Freeze
.................

Το cx_Freeze(1) αναδιπλώνει Python scripts σε εκτελέσιμα προγράμματα των
Windows (‘`*'.exe’ αρχεία).  Όταν το κάνετε αυτό, μπορείτε να διανείμετε
την εφαρμογή σας χωρίς να απαιτείται από τους χρήστες σας να
εγκαταστήσουν την Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cx-freeze.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Μεταγλώττιση Python στα Windows,  Next: Το πλήρες πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης,  Prev: Πρόσθετα modules,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows

3.4.10 Μεταγλώττιση Python στα Windows
--------------------------------------

Εάν θέλετε να μεταγλωττίσετε μόνοι σας το CPython, το πρώτο πράγμα που
πρέπει να κάνετε είναι να λάβετε το source(1).  Μπορείτε να κάνετε λήψη
είτε τον πηγαίο κώδικα της πιο πρόσφατης έκδοσης είτε απλώς να πάρετε
μια φρέσκια έκδοση checkout(2).

Το δέντρο προέλευσης περιέχει μια λύση έκδοσης και αρχεία έργου για το
Microsoft Visual Studio, που είναι ο μεταγλωττιστής που χρησιμοποιείται
για τη δημιουργία των επίσημων εκδόσεων Python.  Αυτά τα αρχεία
βρίσκονται στον κατάλογο ‘PCbuild’.

Ελέγξτε το ‘PCbuild/readme.txt’ για γενικές πληροφορίες σχετικά με τη
διαδικασία κατασκευής.

Για modules επέκτασης, συμβουλευτείτε το *note Building C and C++
Extensions on Windows: 2415.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/source/

   (2) https://devguide.python.org/setup/#get-the-source-code


File: python.info,  Node: Το πλήρες πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης,  Next: Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο,  Prev: Μεταγλώττιση Python στα Windows,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows

3.4.11 Το πλήρες πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης
---------------------------------------

Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: Αυτό το πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης έχει
αποσυρθεί από την έκδοση 3.14 και δεν θα παραχθεί για την Python 3.16 ή
νεότερη έκδοση.  Δείτε το *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 23ee.
για το σύγχρονο πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης.

* Menu:

* Βήματα Εγκατάστασης::
* Αφαίρεση του περιορισμού MAX_PATH: Αφαίρεση του περιορισμού MAX_PATH<2>.
* Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη::
* Εγκατάσταση χωρίς λήψη::
* Τροποποίηση εγκατάστασης::
* Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα: Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Βήματα Εγκατάστασης,  Next: Αφαίρεση του περιορισμού MAX_PATH<2>,  Up: Το πλήρες πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης

3.4.11.1 Βήματα Εγκατάστασης
............................

Τέσσερα προγράμματα εγκατάστασης Python 3.16 είναι διαθέσιμα για λήψη -
δύο το καθένα για τις εκδόσεις 32-bit και 64-bit του διερμηνέα.  Το
'πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης web' είναι μια αρχική λήψη και θα
πραγματοποιήσει αυτόματα λήψη των απαιτούμενων στοιχείων, όπως
απαιτείται.  Το 'πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης εκτός σύνδεσης' περιλαμβάνει τα
στοιχεία που είναι απαραίτητα για μια προεπιλεγμένη εγκατάσταση και
απαιτεί μόνο σύνδεση στο διαδίκτυο για προαιρετικές λειτουργίες.  Δείτε
το *note Εγκατάσταση χωρίς λήψη: 2419. για άλλους τρόπους αποφυγής λήψης
κατά την εγκατάσταση.

Μετά την εκκίνηση του προγράμματος εγκατάστασης, μπορεί να επιλέγει μία
από τις δύο επιλογές:

[image src="python-figures/win_installer.png"]


Εάν επιλέξετε «Install Now»:

   * 'Δεν' θα χρειάζεται να είστε διαχειριστής (εκτός εάν απαιτείται
     ενημέρωση συστήματος για τη Βιβλιοθήκη C Runtime ή εγκαταστήσετε το
     *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc. για όλους τους
     χρήστες)

   * Η Python θα εγκατασταθεί στον κατάλογο του χρήστη σας

   * Το *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc. θα εγκατασταθεί
     σύμφωνα με την επιλογή στο κάτω μέρος της πρώτης σελίδας

   * Θα εγκατασταθεί η τυπική βιβλιοθήκη, η δοκιμαστική σουίτα, ο
     εκκινητής και το pip

   * Εάν επιλεγεί, ο κατάλογος εγκατάστασης θα προστεθεί στο ‘PATH’ σας

   * Οι συντομεύσεις θα είναι ορατές μόνο για τον τρέχοντα χρήστη

Επιλέγοντας «Customize installation» θα σας επιτρέψει να επιλέξετε τις
λειτουργίες προς εγκατάσταση, τη θέση εγκατάστασης και άλλες επιλογές ή
ενέργειες μετά την εγκατάσταση.  Για να εγκαταστήσετε σύμβολα εντοπισμού
σφαλμάτων ή δυαδικά αρχεία, θα χρειαστεί να χρησιμοποιήσετε αυτήν την
επιλογή.

Για να εκτελέσετε μια εγκατάσταση για όλους τους χρήστες, θα πρέπει να
επιλέξετε «Customize installation».  Σε αυτήν την περίπτωση:

   * Ενδέχεται να σας ζητηθεί να παρέχετε διαπιστευτήρια διαχείρισης ή
     έγκριση

   * Η Python θα εγκατασταθεί στον κατάλογο Program Files

   * Το *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc. θα εγκατασταθεί
     στον κατάλογο των Windows

   * Προαιρετικά χαρακτηριστικά μπορούν να επιλεγούν κατά την
     εγκατάσταση

   * Η τυπική βιβλιοθήκη μπορεί να προ-μεταγλωττιστεί σε bytecode

   * Εάν επιλεγεί, ο κατάλογος εγκατάστασης θα προστεθεί στο σύστημα
     ‘PATH’

   * Οι συντομεύσεις είναι διαθέσιμες για όλους τους χρήστες


File: python.info,  Node: Αφαίρεση του περιορισμού MAX_PATH<2>,  Next: Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη,  Prev: Βήματα Εγκατάστασης,  Up: Το πλήρες πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης

3.4.11.2 Αφαίρεση του περιορισμού MAX_PATH
..........................................

Τα Windows έχουν ιστορικά περιορισμένα μήκη διαδρομής στους 260
χαρακτήρες.  Αυτό σήμαινε ότι διαδρομές μεγαλύτερες από αυτό δεν θα
επιλύονταν και θα προέκυπταν σφάλματα.

Στις πιο πρόσφατες εκδόσεις των Windows, αυτός ο περιορισμός μπορεί να
επεκταθεί σε περίπου 32.000 χαρακτήρες.  Ο διαχειριστής σας θα πρέπει να
ενεργοποιήσει την πολιτική ομάδας «Enable Win32 long paths», ή να ορίσει
‘LongPathsEnabled’ σε ‘1’ το κλειδί μητρώου
‘HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSystem’.

Αυτό επιτρέπει στη συνάρτηση *note open(): 32b, στο module *note os: a5.
και στις περισσότερες άλλες λειτουργίες διαδρομής να αποδέχονται και να
επιστρέφουν διαδρομές μεγαλύτερες από 260 χαρακτήρες.

Μετά την αλλαγή της παραπάνω επιλογής, δεν απαιτείται περαιτέρω
διαμόρφωση.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Η υποστήριξη για μεγάλες διαδρομές ήταν
ενεργοποιημένη στην Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη,  Next: Εγκατάσταση χωρίς λήψη,  Prev: Αφαίρεση του περιορισμού MAX_PATH<2>,  Up: Το πλήρες πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης

3.4.11.3 Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη
.....................................................

Όλες οι διαθέσιμες επιλογές στη διεπαφή χρήστη του προγράμματος
εγκατάστασης μπορούν επίσης να καθοριστούν από τη γραμμή εντολών,
επιτρέποντας στους εγκαταστάτες με script να αναπαράγουν μια εγκατάσταση
σε πολλά μηχανήματα χωρίς αλληλεπίδραση με τον χρήστη.  Αυτές οι
επιλογές μπορούν επίσης να οριστούν χωρίς να καταργηθεί η διεπαφή χρήστη
προκειμένου να αλλάξουν ορισμένες από τις προεπιλογές.

Οι ακόλουθες επιλογές (που βρίσκονται εκτελώντας το πρόγραμμα
εγκατάστασης με ‘/?’) μπορούν να περάσουν στο πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης:

Όνομα                     Περιγραφή
                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                          
/passive                  για εμφάνιση προόδου χωρίς να απαιτείται αλληλεπίδραση με
                          τον χρήστη
                          
                          
/quiet                    για εγκατάσταση/απεγκατάσταση χωρίς εμφάνιση διεπαφής
                          χρήστη
                          
                          
/simple                   για να αποτρέψετε την προσαρμογή του χρήστη
                          
                          
/uninstall                για να αφαιρέσετε την Python (χωρίς επιβεβαίωση)
                          
                          
/layout [κατάλογος]       για προ-λήψη όλων των στοιχείων
                          
                          
/log [όνομα αρχείου]      για να καθορίσετε τη θέση των αρχείων καταγραφής
                          

Όλες οι άλλες επιλογές μεταβιβάζονται ως ‘name=value’, όπου η τιμή είναι
συνήθως ‘0’ για να απενεργοποιήσετε ένα χαρακτηριστικό, ‘1’ για να
ενεργοποιήσετε ένα χαρακτηριστικό ή μια διαδρομή.  Η πλήρης λίστα των
διαθέσιμων επιλογών φαίνεται παρακάτω.

Όνομα                           Περιγραφή                                  Προεπιλογή
                                                                           
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
InstallAllUsers                 Εκτέλεση εγκατάστασης σε όλο το σύστημα.   0
                                                                           
                                                                           
TargetDir                       Ο κατάλογος εγκατάστασης                   Επιλέχθηκε με βάση το
                                                                           InstallAllUsers
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultAllUsersTargetDir        Ο προεπιλεγμένος κατάλογος εγκατάστασης    ‘%ProgramFiles%\Python X.Y’
                                για τις εγκαταστάσεις όλων των χρηστών     or
                                                                           ‘%ProgramFiles(x86)%\Python
                                                                           X.Y’
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultJustForMeTargetDir       Ο προεπιλεγμένος κατάλογος εγκατάστασης    ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY’
                                για εξατομικευμένες εγκαταστάσεις          or
                                                                           ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY-32’
                                                                           or
                                                                           ‘%LocalAppData%\Programs\Python\PythonXY-64’
                                                                           
                                                                           
DefaultCustomTargetDir          Ο προεπιλεγμένος κατάλογος                 (empty)
                                προσαρμοσμένης εγκατάστασης που            
                                εμφανίζεται στο UI
                                
                                                                           
AssociateFiles                  Δημιουργήστε συσχετίσεις αρχείων εάν       1
                                είναι επίσης εγκατεστημένο το πρόγραμμα    
                                εκκίνησης.
                                
                                                                           
CompileAll                      Μεταγλώττιση όλων των αρχείων ‘.py’ σε     0
                                ‘.pyc’.                                    
                                
                                                                           
PrependPath                     Προετοιμάστε τους καταλόγους               0
                                εγκατάστασης και Scripts στο ‘PATH’ και    
                                προσθέστε το ‘.PY’ στο ‘PATHEXT’
                                
                                                                           
AppendPath                      Προσθήκη καταλόγων εγκατάστασης και        0
                                Scripts σε ‘PATH’ και προσθήκη ‘.PY’ σε    
                                ‘PATHEXT’
                                
                                                                           
Συντομεύσεις                    Δημιουργήστε συντομεύσεις για τον          1
                                διερμηνέα, την τεκμηρίωση και το IDLE      
                                εάν είναι εγκατεστημένα.
                                
                                                                           
Include_doc                     Εγκαταστήστε το εγχειρίδιο της Python      1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_debug                   Εγκαταστήστε δυαδικά αρχεία εντοπισμού     0
                                σφαλμάτων                                  
                                
                                                                           
Include_dev                     Εγκατάσταση κεφαλίδων και βιβλιοθηκών      1
                                προγραμματιστή.  Η παράλειψη αυτού         
                                μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε μη χρησιμοποιήσιμη
                                εγκατάσταση.
                                
                                                                           
Include_exe                     Εγκατάσταση ‘python.exe’ και σχετικών      1
                                αρχείων.  Η παράλειψη αυτού μπορεί να      
                                οδηγήσει σε μη χρησιμοποιήσιμη
                                εγκατάσταση.
                                
                                                                           
Include_launcher                Εγκαταστήστε το                            1
                                *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc.
                                
                                                                           
InstallLauncherAllUsers         Εγκαθιστά το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης για       1
                                όλους του χρήστες.  Επίσης, απαιτείται η   
                                ρύθμιση ‘Include_launcher’ να τεθεί σε 1
                                
                                                                           
Include_lib                     Εγκαταστήστε τυπικά module βιβλιοθήκης     1
                                και επέκτασης.  Η παράλειψη αυτού μπορεί   
                                να οδηγήσει σε μη χρησιμοποιήσιμη
                                εγκατάσταση.
                                
                                                                           
Include_pip                     Εγκαταστήστε το πακέτο pip και             1
                                setuptools                                 
                                
                                                                           
Include_symbols                 Εγκατάσταση συμβόλων εντοπισμού            0
                                σφαλμάτων (‘*.pdb’)                        
                                
                                                                           
Include_tcltk                   Εγκατάσταση υποστήριξης Tcl/Tk και IDLE    1
                                                                           
                                                                           
Include_test                    Εγκαταστήστε την τυπική σουίτα δοκιμών     1
                                βιβλιοθήκης                                
                                
                                                                           
Include_tools                   Εγκαταστήστε βοηθητικά scripts             1
                                                                           
                                                                           
LauncherOnly                    Εγκαθιστά μόνο το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης.     0
                                Αυτό θα παρακάμψει τις περισσότερες        
                                άλλες επιλογές.
                                
                                                                           
SimpleInstall                   Απενεργοποιήστε τις περισσότερες           0
                                διεπαφές εγκατάστασης                      
                                
                                                                           
SimpleInstallDescription        Ένα προσαρμοσμένο μήνυμα που θα            (empty)
                                εμφανίζεται όταν χρησιμοποιείται το        
                                απλοποιημένο περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη.
                                

Για παράδειγμα, για να εγκαταστήσετε αθόρυβα μια προεπιλεγμένη
εγκατάσταση Python σε όλο το σύστημα, θα μπορούσατε να χρησιμοποιήσετε
την ακόλουθη εντολή (από μια ανυψωμένη γραμμή εντολών):

     python-3.9.0.exe /quiet InstallAllUsers=1 PrependPath=1 Include_test=0

Για να επιτρέψετε στους χρήστες να εγκαταστήσουν εύκολα ένα προσωπικό
αντίγραφο της Python χωρίς τη δοκιμαστική σουίτα, θα μπορούσατε να
παρέχετε μια συντόμευση με την ακόλουθη εντολή.  Αυτή θα εμφανίσει μια
απλοποιημένη αρχική σελίδα και θα απαγορεύσει την προσαρμογή:

     python-3.9.0.exe InstallAllUsers=0 Include_launcher=0 Include_test=0
         SimpleInstall=1 SimpleInstallDescription="Just for me, no test suite."

(Λάβετε υπόψη ότι η παράλειψη της εφαρμογής εκκίνησης παραλείπει επίσης
συσχετίσεις αρχείων και συνίσταται μόνο για εγκαταστάσεις ανά χρήστη
όταν υπάρχει επίσης εγκατάσταση σε όλο το σύστημα που περιλάμβανε τη
λειτουργία εκκίνησης.)

Οι επιλογές που αναφέρονται παραπάνω μπορούν επίσης να παρέχονται σε ένα
αρχείο με το όνομα ‘unattend.xml’ δίπλα στο εκτελέσιμο αρχείο.  Αυτό το
αρχείο καθορίζει μια λίστα επιλογών και τιμών.  Όταν μια τιμή παρέχεται
ως χαρακτηριστικό, θα μετατραπεί σε αριθμό εάν είναι δυνατόν.  Οι τιμές
που παρέχονται ως κείμενο στοιχείου παραμένουν πάντα ως συμβολοσειρές.
Αυτό το αρχείο παραδείγματος ορίζει τις ίδιες επιλογές με το προηγούμενο
παράδειγμα:

     <Options>
         <Option Name="InstallAllUsers" Value="no" />
         <Option Name="Include_launcher" Value="0" />
         <Option Name="Include_test" Value="no" />
         <Option Name="SimpleInstall" Value="yes" />
         <Option Name="SimpleInstallDescription">Just for me, no test suite</Option>
     </Options>


File: python.info,  Node: Εγκατάσταση χωρίς λήψη,  Next: Τροποποίηση εγκατάστασης,  Prev: Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη,  Up: Το πλήρες πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης

3.4.11.4 Εγκατάσταση χωρίς λήψη
...............................

Καθώς ορισμένες δυνατότητες της Python δεν περιλαμβάνονται στην αρχική
λήψη του προγράμματος εγκατάστασης, η επιλογή αυτών των δυνατοτήτων
ενδέχεται να απαιτεί σύνδεση στο διαδίκτυο.  Για να αποφευχθεί αυτή η
ανάγκη, όλα τα πιθανά στοιχεία μπορούν να ληφθούν κατ” απαίτηση για να
δημιουργηθεί μια πλήρης 'διάταξη' που δεν θα απαιτεί πλέον μια σύνδεση
στο Διαδίκτυο, ανεξάρτητα από τις επιλεγμένες δυνατότητες.  Λάβετε υπόψη
ότι αυτή η λήψη μπορεί να είναι μεγαλύτερη από την απαιτούμενη, αλλά
όπου πρόκειται να πραγματοποιηθεί μεγάλος αριθμός εγκαταστάσεων, είναι
πολύ χρήσιμο να έχετε ένα αντίγραφο προσωρινής αποθήκευσης.

Εκτελέστε την ακόλουθη εντολή από τη Γραμμή Εντολών για λήψη όλων των
πιθανών απαιτούμενων αρχείων.  Θυμηθείτε να αντικαταστήσετε το
‘python-3.9.0.exe’ για το πραγματικό όνομα του προγράμματος εγκατάστασης
και να δημιουργήσετε διατάξεις στους δικούς τους καταλόγους για να
αποφύγετε συγκρούσεις μεταξύ αρχείων με το ίδιο όνομα.

     python-3.9.0.exe /layout [optional target directory]

Μπορείτε επίσης να καθορίσετε την επιλογή ‘/quiet’ για απόκρυψη της
εμφάνισης προόδου.


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3.4.11.5 Τροποποίηση εγκατάστασης
.................................

Μόλις εγκατασταθεί η Python, μπορείτε να προσθέσετε ή να αφαιρέσετε
λειτουργίες μέσω του εργαλείου Προγράμματα και Δυνατότητες που είναι
μέρος των Windows.  Επιλέξτε την καταχώρηση Python και επιλέξτε
«Κατάργηση εγκατάστασης/Αλλαγή» για να ανοίξετε το πρόγραμμα
εγκατάστασης σε λειτουργία συντήρησης.

Η «Αλλαγή» σάς επιτρέπει να προσθέτετε ή να αφαιρείτε λειτουργίες
τροποποιώντας τα πλαίσια ελέγχου - τα αμετάβλητα πλαίσια ελέγχου δεν θα
εγκαταστήσουν ή θα αφαιρέσουν τίποτα.  Ορισμένες επιλογές δεν μπορούν να
αλλάξουν σε αυτήν τη λειτουργία, όπως ο κατάλογος εγκατάστασης· για να
τις τροποποιήσετε, θα χρειαστεί αν αφαιρέσετε και, στη συνέχεια να
επανεγκαταστήσετε ξανά την Python.

Η «Επιδιόρθωση» θα επαληθεύσει όλα τα αρχεία που πρέπει να εγκατασταθούν
χρησιμοποιώντας τις τρέχουσες ρυθμίσεις και θα αντικαταστήσει όσα έχουν
αφαιρεθεί ή τροποποιηθεί.

Η «Κατάργηση εγκατάστασης» θα καταργήσει πλήρως την Python, με εξαίρεση
το *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc, το οποίο έχει τη δική
του καταχώριση στο Προγράμματα και Δυνατότητες.


File: python.info,  Node: Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα<2>,  Prev: Τροποποίηση εγκατάστασης,  Up: Το πλήρες πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης

3.4.11.6 Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα
........................................................

Added in version 3.13.

Για να εγκαταστήσετε προ-κατασκευασμένα δυαδικά αρχεία με ενεργοποιημένο
το free-threading (δείτε το PEP 703(1)), θα πρέπει να επιλέξετε
«Προσαρμοσμένη εγκατάσταση».  Η δεύτερη σελίδα επιλογών περιλαμβάνει το
πλαίσιο επιλογής «Λήψη δυαδικών αρχείων με ελεύθερο νήμα».

[image src="python-figures/win_install_freethreaded.png"]


Η επιλογή αυτής της επιλογής θα κατεβάσει και θα εγκαταστήσει πρόσθετα
δυαδικά αρχεία στην ίδια τοποθεσία με την κύρια εγκατάσταση Python.  Το
κύριο εκτελέσιμο αρχείο ονομάζεται ‘python3.13t.exe’, και άλλα δυαδικά
αρχεία είτε λαμβάνουν μια κατάληξη ‘t’ είτε μια πλήρη κατάληξη ABI. Τα
αρχεία πηγαίου κώδικα Python και οι ενσωματωμένες εξαρτήσεις τρίτων
μοιράζονται με την κύρια εγκατάσταση.

Η έκδοση με ελεύθερο νήμα καταχωρείται ως κανονική εγκατάσταση Python με
την ετικέτα ‘3.13t’ (με κατάληξη ‘-32’ ή ‘-arm64’ ως κανονική για αυτές
τις πλατφόρμες).  Αυτό επιτρέπει στα εργαλεία να την ανακαλύψουν και για
το *note Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc. να υποστηρίζει το
‘py.exe -3.13t’.  Σημειώστε ότι το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης θα ερμηνεύσει το
‘py.exe -3’ (ή ένα shebang ‘python3’) ως «την τελευταία εγκατάσταση
3.x», η οποία θα προτιμήσει τα δυαδικά αρχεία με ελεύθερο νήμα έναντι
των κανονικών, ενώ το ‘py.exe -3.13’ δεν θα το κάνει.  Εάν
χρησιμοποιείτε το σύντομο στυλ επιλογής, μπορεί να προτιμάτε να μην
εγκαταστήσετε τα δυαδικά αρχεία με ελεύθερο νήμα αυτή τη στιγμή.

Για να καθορίσετε την επιλογή εγκατάστασης στη γραμμή εντολών,
χρησιμοποιήστε ‘Include_freethreaded=1’.  Δείτε *note Εγκατάσταση χωρίς
λήψη: 2419. για οδηγίες σχετικά με την προληπτική λήψη των πρόσθετων
δυαδικών αρχείων για εγκατάσταση εκτός σύνδεσης.  Οι επιλογές για την
συμπερίληψη συμβόλων και δυαδικών αρχείων εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων ισχύουν
επίσης για τις κατασκευές με ελεύθερο νήμα.

Τα δυαδικά αρχεία με ελεύθερο νήμα είναι επίσης διαθέσιμα *note στο
nuget.org: 23ec.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/


File: python.info,  Node: Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο,  Prev: Το πλήρες πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows

3.4.12 Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows (Απαρχαιωμένο)
---------------------------------------------------------------

Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης και αυτή η
τεκμηρίωση έχουν αντικατασταθεί από το Python Install Manager που
περιγράφεται παραπάνω.  Αυτό διατηρείται προσωρινά για ιστορικό
ενδιαφέρον.

Added in version 3.3.

Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows είναι ένα βοηθητικό πρόγραμμα
που βοηθά στον εντοπισμό και την εκτέλεση διαφορετικών εκδόσεων Python.
Επιτρέπει στα scripts (ή στη γραμμή εντολών) να υποδείξουν μια προτίμηση
για μια συγκεκριμένη έκδοση Python και θα εντοπίσουν και θα εκτελέσουν
αυτήν την έκδοση.

Σε αντίθεση με τη μεταβλητή ‘PATH’, το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης θα επιλέξει
σωστά την καταλληλότερη έκδοση της Python.  Θα προτιμήσει τις
εγκαταστάσεις ανά χρήστη έναντι των εγκαταστάσεων σε όλο το σύστημα και
τις παραγγελίες ανά έκδοση γλώσσας αντί να χρησιμοποιεί την πιο πρόσφατα
εγκατεστημένη έκδοση.

Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης προσδιορίστηκε αρχικά στο PEP 397(1).

* Menu:

* Ξεκινώντας::
* Γραμμές Shebang: Γραμμές Shebang<2>.
* Ορίσματα στις γραμμές shebang::
* Προσαρμογή::
* Διαγνωστικά::
* Dry run::
* Εγκατάσταση κατ” απαίτηση::
* Επιστρεφόμενοι κωδικοί::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/


File: python.info,  Node: Ξεκινώντας,  Next: Γραμμές Shebang<2>,  Up: Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο

3.4.12.1 Ξεκινώντας
...................

* Menu:

* Από τη γραμμή εντολών::
* Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα::
* Από ένα script::
* Από συσχετίσεις αρχείων::


File: python.info,  Node: Από τη γραμμή εντολών,  Next: Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα,  Up: Ξεκινώντας

3.4.12.2 Από τη γραμμή εντολών
..............................

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6.

Εγκαταστάσεις σε όλο το σύστημα της Python 3.3 και νεότερες εκδόσεις θα
τοποθετήσουν το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης στο ‘PATH’.  Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης
είναι συμβατό με όλες τις διαθέσιμες εκδόσεις της Python, επομένως δεν
έχει σημασία ποια έκδοση είναι εγκατεστημένη.  Για να ελέγξτε ότι το
πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης είναι διαθέσιμο, εκτελέστε την ακόλουθη εντολή στη
Γραμμή Εντολών:

     py

Θα πρέπει να διαπιστώσετε ότι η πιο πρόσφατη έκδοση της Python που έχετε
εγκαταστήσει έχει ξεκινήσει - μπορεί να βγει κανονικά και τυχόν πρόσθετα
ορίσματα γραμμής εντολών που καθορίστηκαν θα σταλούν απευθείας στην
Python.

Εάν έχετε εγκαταστήσει πολλές εκδόσεις της Python (π.χ.  3.7 και 3.16)
θα έχετε παρατηρήσει ότι ξεκίνησε η Python 3.16 - για να εκκινήσετε την
Python 3.7, δοκιμάστε την εντολή:

     py -3.7

Αν θέλετε την πιο πρόσφατη έκδοση της Python 2 που έχετε εγκαταστήσει,
δοκιμάστε την εντολή:

     py -2

Αν δείτε το ακόλουθο σφάλμα, δεν έχετε εγκαταστήσει τον εκκινητή
(launcher):

     Το 'py' δεν αναγνωρίζεται ως εσωτερική ή εξωτερική εντολή,
     λειτουργικό πρόγραμμα ή αρχείο παρτίδας.

Η εντολή:

     py --list

εμφανίζει τις τρέχουσες εγκατεστημένες εκδόσεις της Python.

Το όρισμα ‘-x.y’ είναι η σύντομη μορφή του ορίσματος ‘-V:Company/Tag’,
το οποίο επιτρέπει την επιλογή ενός συγκεκριμένου χρόνου εκτέλεσης
Python, συμπεριλαμβανομένων εκείνων που μπορεί να έχουν προέλθει από
κάπου διαφορετικά από το python.org.  Οποιοσδήποτε χρόνος εκτέλεσης έχει
καταχωρηθεί ακολουθώντας το PEP 514(1) θα είναι ανιχνεύσιμος.  Η εντολή
‘--list’ παραθέτει όλους τους διαθέσιμους χρόνους εκτέλεσης
χρησιμοποιώντας τη μορφή ‘-V:’.

Όταν χρησιμοποιείται το όρισμα ‘-V:’, ο καθορισμός της Εταιρείας θα
περιορίσει την επιλογή σε χρόνους εκτέλεσης από αυτόν τον πάροχο, ενώ ο
καθορισμός μόνο της ετικέτας θα επιλέγεται από όλους τους παρόχους.
Σημειώστε ότι η παράλειψη της καθέτου (slash) συνεπάγεται μια ετικέτα:

     # Select any '3.*' tagged runtime
     py -V:3

     # Select any 'PythonCore' released runtime
     py -V:PythonCore/

     # Select PythonCore's latest Python 3 runtime
     py -V:PythonCore/3

Η σύντομη μορφή του ορίσματος (‘-3’) επιλέγει μόνο από τις βασικές
εκδόσεις Python, και όχι άλλες διανομές.  Ωστόσο, η μεγαλύτερη μορφή
(‘-V:3’) θα επιλέξει από οποιαδήποτε.

Η εταιρεία έχει αντιστοιχιστεί στην πλήρη συμβολοσειρά, χωρίς διάκριση
πεζών-κεφαλαίων.  Η ετικέτα αντιστοιχίζεται είτε με την πλήρη
συμβολοσειρά είτε με ένα πρόθεμα, με την προϋπόθεση ότι ο επόμενος
χαρακτήρας είναι μια τελεία ή μια παύλα.  Αυτό επιτρέπει την
αντιστοίχιση του ‘-V:3.1’ με το ‘3.1-32’, αλλά όχι ‘3.10’.  Οι ετικέτες
ταξινομούνται με αριθμητική σειρά (‘3.10’ είναι νεότερο από ‘3.1’), αλλά
συγκρίνονται χρησιμοποιώντας κείμενο (‘-V:3.01’ δεν ταιριάζει με το
‘3.1’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/


File: python.info,  Node: Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα,  Next: Από ένα script,  Prev: Από τη γραμμή εντολών,  Up: Ξεκινώντας

3.4.12.3 Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα
..............................

Added in version 3.5.

Εάν το πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης εκτελείται χωρίς ρητές προδιαγραφές
έκδοσης Python και ένα εικονικό περιβάλλον (δημιουργημένο με το τυπικό
module βιβλιοθήκης *note venv: 11a. ή το εξωτερικό εργαλείο
‘virtualenv’) ενεργό, το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης θα εκτελέσει τον διερμηνέα
του εικονικού περιβάλλοντος αντί για το καθολικό.  Για να εκτελέσετε τον
καθολικό διερμηνέα, είτε απενεργοποιήστε το εικονικό περιβάλλον είτε
καθορίστε ρητά την καθολική έκδοση Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Από ένα script,  Next: Από συσχετίσεις αρχείων,  Prev: Εικονικά Περιβάλλοντα,  Up: Ξεκινώντας

3.4.12.4 Από ένα script
.......................

Ας δημιουργήσουμε ένα δοκιμαστικό Python script - δημιουργήστε ένα
αρχείο που ονομάζεται ‘hello.py’ με τα ακόλουθα περιεχόμενα

     #! python
     import sys
     sys.stdout.write("hello from Python %s\n" % (sys.version,))

Από τον κατάλογο στον οποίο ζει το hello.py, εκτελέστε την εντολή:

     py hello.py

Θα πρέπει να παρατηρήσετε ότι ο αριθμός έκδοσης της τελευταίας
εγκατάστασης Python 2.x έχει εκτυπωθεί.  Τώρα δοκιμάστε να αλλάξετε την
πρώτη γραμμή σε:

     #! python3

Η επανεκτέλεση της εντολής θα πρέπει τώρα να εκτυπώσει τις πιο πρόσφατες
πληροφορίες Python 3.x.  Όπως και με τα παραπάνω παραδείγματα γραμμής
εντολών, μπορείτε να καθορίσετε έναν πιο σαφή προσδιορισμό έκδοσης.
Υποθέτοντας ότι έχετε εγκαταστήσει την Python 3.7, δοκιμάστε να αλλάξετε
την πρώτη γραμμή σε ‘#! python3.7’ και θα πρέπει να βρείτε τυπωμένες τις
πληροφορίες της έκδοσης 3.7.

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι σε αντίθεση με τη διαδραστική χρήση, ένα γυμνό «python»
θα χρησιμοποιεί την πιο πρόσφατη έκδοση της Python 2.x που έχετε
εγκαταστήσει.  Αυτή είναι μια συμβατότητα προς τα πίσω και για
συμβατότητα με Unix, όπου συνήθως αναφέρεται η εντολή ‘python’ στην
Python 2.


File: python.info,  Node: Από συσχετίσεις αρχείων,  Prev: Από ένα script,  Up: Ξεκινώντας

3.4.12.5 Από συσχετίσεις αρχείων
................................

Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης θα έπρεπε να είχε συσχετιστεί με αρχεία Python
(δηλαδή αρχεία ‘.py’, ‘.pyw’, ‘.pyc’) όταν εγκαταστάθηκε.  Αυτό σημαίνει
ότι όταν κάνετε διπλό κλικ σε ένα από αυτά τα αρχεία από τον Windows
Explorer, το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης θα χρησιμοποιηθεί και επομένως μπορείτε
να χρησιμοποιήσετε τις ίδιες ευκολίες που περιγράφονται παραπάνω για να
έχετε το script να καθορίζει ποια έκδοση θα χρησιμοποιηθεί.

Το βασικό πλεονέκτημα αυτού είναι ότι ένας μεμονωμένο πρόγραμμα
εκκίνησης μπορεί να υποστηρίξει πολλές εκδόσεις Python ταυτόχρονα,
ανάλογα με τα περιεχόμενα της πρώτης γραμμής.


File: python.info,  Node: Γραμμές Shebang<2>,  Next: Ορίσματα στις γραμμές shebang,  Prev: Ξεκινώντας,  Up: Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο

3.4.12.6 Γραμμές Shebang
........................

Εάν η πρώτη γραμμή ενός script αρχείου ξεκινά με ‘#!’, είναι γνωστή ως
γραμμή «shebang».  Το Linux και άλλα Unix λειτουργικά συστήματα έχουν
εγγενή υποστήριξη για τέτοιες γραμμές και χρησιμοποιούνται συνήθως σε
τέτοιες γραμμές συστήματα για να υποδείξουν πως πρέπει να εκτελεστεί ένα
script.  Αυτό το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης επιτρέπει τη χρήση των ίδιων
εγκαταστάσεων με Python scripts στα Windows και τα παραπάνω παραδείγματα
δείχνουν τη χρήση τους.

Για να επιτραπεί στις γραμμές shebang σε Python scripts να είναι φορητές
μεταξύ Unix και Windows, αυτό το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης υποστηρίζει έναν
αριθμό “εικονικών” εντολών για να καθορίσει ποιος διερμηνέας θα
χρησιμοποιηθεί.  Οι υποστηριζόμενες εικονικές εντολές είναι:

   * ‘/usr/bin/env’

   * ‘/usr/bin/python’

   * ‘/usr/local/bin/python’

   * ‘python’

Για παράδειγμα, εάν η πρώτη γραμμή του script σας ξεκινά με

     #! /usr/bin/python

Η προεπιλεγμένη Python ή ένα ενεργό εικονικό περιβάλλον θα εντοπιστεί
και θα χρησιμοποιηθεί.  Καθώς πολλά Python scripts που έχουν γραφεί για
να λειτουργούν σε Unix θα έχουν ήδη αυτή τη γραμμή, θα διαπιστώσετε ότι
αυτά τα σενάρια μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν από τον εκκινητή χωρίς
τροποποίηση.  Εάν γράφετε ένα νέο σενάριο στα Windows που ελπίζετε να
είναι χρήσιμο σε Unix, θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσετε μία από τις γραμμές
shebang που ξεκινούν με ‘/usr’.

Οποιαδήποτε από τις παραπάνω εικονικές εντολές μπορεί να προστεθεί με
μια ρητή έκδοση (είτε μόνο η κύρια έκδοση, είτε η κύρια και δευτερεύουσα
έκδοση).  Επιπλέον, η έκδοση 32-bit μπορεί να ζητηθεί προσθέτοντας «-32»
μετά τη δευτερεύουσα έκδοση.  Δηλαδή ‘/usr/bin/python3.7-32’ θα ζητήσει
τη χρήση της python 3.7.  Εάν ένα εικονικό περιβάλλον είναι ενεργό, η
έκδοση θα αγνοηθεί και θα χρησιμοποιηθεί το περιβάλλον.

Added in version 3.7: Ξεκινώντας με το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python 3.7,
είναι δυνατό να ζητηθεί η έκδοση 64-bit με το επίθημα «-64».  Επιπλέον,
είναι δυνατό να καθοριστεί μια κύρια έκδοση και μια αρχιτεκτονική χωρίς
δευτερεύοντα (δηλαδή ‘/usr/bin/python3-64’).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Το επίθημα «-64» έχει καταργηθεί, και τώρα
υποδηλώνει «οποιαδήποτε αρχιτεκτονική που δεν είναι αποδεδειγμένα
i386/32-bit».  Για να ζητήσετε ένα συγκεκριμένο περιβάλλον,
χρησιμοποιήστε το νέο ‘-V:TAG’ όρισμα με την πλήρη ετικέτα.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Οι εικονικές εντολές που αναφέρονται σε
‘python’ προτιμούν πλέον ένα ενεργό εικονικό περιβάλλον αντί να
αναζητούν το ‘PATH’.  Αυτό χειρίζεται περιπτώσεις όπου το shebang
καθορίζει ‘/usr/bin/env python3’ αλλά το ‘python3.exe’ δεν υπάρχει στο
ενεργό περιβάλλον.

Η φόρμα ‘/usr/bin/env’ της γραμμής shebang έχει μια επιπλέον ειδική
ιδιότητα.  Πριν αναζητήσετε εγκατεστημένους διερμηνείς Python, αυτή η
φόρμα θα αναζητήσει στο εκτελέσιμο αρχείο ‘PATH’ για ένα εκτελέσιμο
αρχείο Python που ταιριάζει με το όνομα που παρέχεται ως το πρώτο
όρισμα.  Αυτό αντιστοιχεί στη συμπεριφορά του προγράμματος Unix ‘env’,
το οποίο εκτελεί μια αναζήτηση ‘PATH’.  Εάν δεν μπορεί να βρεθεί ένα
εκτελέσιμο αρχείο που ταιριάζει με το πρώτο όρισμα μετά την εντολή
‘env’, αλλά το όρισμα ξεκινά με ‘python’, ο χειρισμός του θα γίνει όπως
περιγράφεται για τις άλλες εικονικές εντολές.  Η μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος
‘PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH’ μπορεί να οριστεί (σε οποιαδήποτε τιμή) για
να παραλείψει αυτήν την αναζήτηση για ‘PATH’.

Οι γραμμές Shebang που δεν ταιριάζουν με κανένα από αυτά τα μοτίβα
αναζητούνται στην ενότητα ‘[commands]’ του προγράμματος εκκίνησης *note
.INI file: 2426.  Αυτό μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για τον χειρισμό
ορισμένων εντολών με τρόπο που να έχει νόημα για το σύστημά σας.  Το
όνομα της εντολής πρέπει να είναι ένα μεμονωμένο όρισμα (δεν υπάρχουν
κενά στο εκτελέσιμο αρχείο shebang) και η τιμή που αντικαθίσταται είναι
η πλήρης διαδρομή προς το εκτελέσιμο (τα πρόσθετα ορίσματα που
καθορίζονται στο .INI θα αναφέρονται ως μέρος του ονόματος αρχείου).

     [commands]
     /bin/xpython=C:\Program Files\XPython\python.exe

Οποιεσδήποτε εντολές που δεν βρίσκονται στο αρχείο .INI αντιμετωπίζονται
ως εκτελέσιμες διαδρομές 'Windows' που είναι απόλυτες ή σχετικές με τον
κατάλογο που περιέχει το script αρχείο.  Αυτό είναι μια ευκολία για
σενάρια μόνο για Windows, όπως αυτά που δημιουργούνται από ένα πρόγραμμα
εγκατάστασης, δεδομένου ότι η συμπεριφορά δεν είναι συμβατή με κελύφη
τύπου Unix.  Αυτές οι διαδρομές μπορεί να αναφέρονται και μπορεί να
περιλαμβάνουν πολλαπλά ορίσματα, μετά τη διαδρομή προς το script και θα
προσαρτηθούν τυχόν πρόσθετα ορίσματα.


File: python.info,  Node: Ορίσματα στις γραμμές shebang,  Next: Προσαρμογή,  Prev: Γραμμές Shebang<2>,  Up: Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο

3.4.12.7 Ορίσματα στις γραμμές shebang
......................................

Οι γραμμές shebang μπορούν επίσης να καθορίσουν πρόσθετες επιλογές που
θα μεταβιβαστούν στον διερμηνέα Python.  Για παράδειγμα, εάν έχετε μια
γραμμή shebang:

     #! /usr/bin/python -v

Στη συνέχεια, η Python θα ξεκινήσει με την επιλογή ‘-v’


File: python.info,  Node: Προσαρμογή,  Next: Διαγνωστικά,  Prev: Ορίσματα στις γραμμές shebang,  Up: Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο

3.4.12.8 Προσαρμογή
...................

* Menu:

* Προσαρμογή μέσω αρχείων INI::
* Προσαρμογή προεπιλεγμένων εκδόσεων Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Προσαρμογή μέσω αρχείων INI,  Next: Προσαρμογή προεπιλεγμένων εκδόσεων Python,  Up: Προσαρμογή

3.4.12.9 Προσαρμογή μέσω αρχείων INI
....................................

Θα γίνει αναζήτηση δύο αρχείων .ini από το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης -
‘py.ini’ στον κατάλογο δεδομένων εφαρμογής του τρέχοντος χρήστη
(‘%LOCALAPPDATA%’ ή ‘$env:LocalAppData’) και ‘py.ini’ στον ίδιο κατάλογο
με το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης.  Τα ίδια αρχεία .ini χρησιμοποιούνται τόσο
για την έκδοση “κονσόλας” του προγράμματος εκκίνησης (π.χ.  py.exe) όσο
και για την έκδοση “windows” (δηλ.  pyw.exe).

Η προσαρμογή που καθορίζεται στον «κατάλογο εφαρμογών» θα έχει
προτεραιότητα έναντι αυτής που βρίσκεται δίπλα στο εκτελέσιμο αρχείο,
επομένως ένας χρήστης, ο οποίος ενδέχεται να μην έχει πρόσβαση εγγραφής
στο αρχείο .ini δίπλα στο πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης, μπορεί να παρακάμψει
εντολές σε αυτό το καθολικό .ini αρχείο.


File: python.info,  Node: Προσαρμογή προεπιλεγμένων εκδόσεων Python,  Prev: Προσαρμογή μέσω αρχείων INI,  Up: Προσαρμογή

3.4.12.10 Προσαρμογή προεπιλεγμένων εκδόσεων Python
...................................................

Σε ορισμένες περιπτώσεις, ένας προσδιορισμός έκδοσης μπορεί να
συμπεριληφθεί σε μια εντολή για να υπαγορεύσει ποια έκδοση της Python θα
χρησιμοποιηθεί από την εντολή.  Ένας προσδιοριστής έκδοσης ξεκινά με τον
αριθμό κύριας έκδοσης και μπορεί προαιρετικά να ακολουθείται από μια
τελεία (“.”) και ένας δευτερεύων προσδιοριστής έκδοσης.  Επιπλέον, είναι
δυνατό να καθοριστεί εάν θα ζητηθεί υλοποίηση 32 ή 64 bit προσθέτοντας
«-32» ή «-64».

Για παράδειγμα, μια γραμμή shebang του ‘#!python’ δεν έχει
προσδιοριστικό έκδοσης, ενώ το ‘#!python3’ έχει έναν προσδιορισμό
έκδοσης που καθορίζει μόνο μια κύρια έκδοση.

Εάν δεν βρεθούν κριτήρια έκδοσης σε μια εντολή, η μεταβλητή
περιβάλλοντος ‘PY_PYTHON’ μπορεί να οριστεί για να καθορίσει τον
προσδιορισμό της προεπιλεγμένης έκδοσης.  Εάν δεν έχει οριστεί, η
προεπιλογή είναι «3», «3.7», «3.7-32» ή «3.7-64».  (Σημειώστε ότι η
επιλογή «-64» είναι διαθέσιμη μόνο με το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης που
περιλαμβάνεται στην Python 3.7 ή νεότερη έκδοση.)

Εάν δεν βρεθούν περιορισμοί δευτερεύουσας έκδοσης, η μεταβλητή
περιβάλλοντος ‘PY_PYTHON{major}’ (όπου ‘{major}’ είναι ο προσδιορισμός
της τρέχουσας κύριας έκδοσης όπως προσδιορίζεται παραπάνω) μπορεί να
οριστεί για να καθορίσει την πλήρη έκδοση.  Εάν όχι αν βρεθεί τέτοια
επιλογή, ο εκκινητής θα απαριθμήσει τις εγκατεστημένες εκδόσεις Python
και θα χρησιμοποιήσει την πιο πρόσφατη δευτερεύουσα έκδοση που βρέθηκε
για την κύρια έκδοση, η οποία είναι πιθανό, αν και δεν είναι εγγυημένη,
να είναι η πιο πρόσφατα εγκατεστημένη έκδοση σε αυτήν την οικογένεια.

Σε Windows 64-bit με εγκατεστημένες υλοποιήσεις 32-bit και 64-bit της
ίδιας (κύριας.δευτερεύουσας) έκδοσης Python, η έκδοση 64-bit θα
προτιμάται πάντα.  Αυτό θα ισχύει τόσο για 32-bit όσο και για 64-bit
υλοποιήσεις του προγράμματος εκκίνησης - ένα πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης 32-bit
θα προτιμήσει να εκτελέσει μια εγκατάσταση Python 64-bit της
καθορισμένης έκδοσης, εάν είναι διαθέσιμη.  Αυτό είναι έτσι, ώστε η
συμπεριφορά του προγράμματος εκκίνησης μπορεί να προβλεφθεί γνωρίζοντας
μόνο ποιες εκδόσεις είναι εγκατεστημένες στον υπολογιστή και χωρίς να
λαμβάνεται υπόψη η σειρά με την οποία εγκαταστάθηκαν (δηλαδή, χωρίς να
γνωρίζουμε εάν μια έκδοση 32 ή 64-bit της Python και το αντίστοιχο
πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης εγκαταστάθηκε τελευταίο).  Όπως σημειώθηκε παραπάνω,
ένα προαιρετικό επίθημα «-32» ή «-64» μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί σε έναν
προσδιοριστή έκδοσης για την αλλαγή αυτής της συμπεριφοράς.

Παραδείγματα:

   * Εάν δεν οριστούν σχετικές επιλογές, οι εντολές ‘python’ και
     ‘python2’ θα χρησιμοποιήσουν την πιο πρόσφατη εγκατεστημένη έκδοση
     Python 2.x και η εντολή ‘python3’ θα χρησιμοποιήσει την πιο
     πρόσφατη εγκατεστημένη Python 3.x.

   * Η εντολή ‘python3.7’ δεν θα συμβουλευτεί καμία απολύτως επιλογή
     καθώς οι εκδόσεις είναι πλήρως καθορισμένες.

   * Εάν ‘PY_PYTHON=3’, οι εντολές ‘python’ και ‘python3’ θα
     χρησιμοποιούν και οι δύο την πιο πρόσφατη εγκατεστημένη έκδοση
     Python 3.

   * Εάν ‘PY_PYTHON=3.7-32’, η εντολή ‘python’ θα χρησιμοποιήσει την
     υλοποίηση 32-bit του 3.7 ενώ η εντολή ‘python3’ θα χρησιμοποιήσει
     την πιο πρόσφατη εγκατεστημένη Python (Το PY_PYTHON δεν θεωρήθηκε
     καθόλου καθώς καθορίστηκε μια κύρια έκδοση.)

   * Εάν ‘PY_PYTHON=3’ και ‘PY_PYTHON3=3.7’, οι εντολές ‘python’ και
     ‘python3’ θα χρησιμοποιούν και οι δύο συγκεκριμένα την 3.7

Εκτός από τις μεταβλητές περιβάλλοντος, οι ίδιες ρυθμίσεις μπορούν να
διαμορφωθούν στο αρχείο .INI που χρησιμοποιείται από το πρόγραμμα
εκκίνησης.  Η ενότητα στο αρχείο INI ονομάζεται ‘[defaults]’ και το
όνομα του κλειδιού θα είναι το ίδιο με τις μεταβλητές περιβάλλοντος
χωρίς το αρχικό πρόθεμα ‘PY_’ (και σημειώστε ότι τα ονόματα κλειδιών στο
αρχείο INI δεν έχουν διάκριση πεζών-κεφαλαίων.)  Τα περιεχόμενα μιας
μεταβλητής περιβάλλοντος θα αντικαταστήσουν τα στοιχεία που καθορίζονται
στο αρχείο INI.

Για παράδειγμα:

   * Η ρύθμιση ‘PY_PYTHON=3.7’ είναι ισοδύναμη με το αρχείο INI που
     περιέχει:

     [defaults]
     python=3.7

   * Η ρύθμιση ‘PY_PYTHON=3’ και ‘PY_PYTHON3=3.7’ ισοδυναμεί με το
     αρχείο INI που περιέχει:

     [defaults]
     python=3
     python3=3.7


File: python.info,  Node: Διαγνωστικά,  Next: Dry run,  Prev: Προσαρμογή,  Up: Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο

3.4.12.11 Διαγνωστικά
.....................

Εάν μια μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος ‘PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG’ έχει οριστεί (σε
οποιαδήποτε τιμή), το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης θα εκτυπώσει διαγνωστικές
πληροφορίες στο stderr (δηλαδή στην κονσόλα).  Ενώ αυτές οι πληροφορίες
καταφέρνουν να είναι ταυτόχρονα αναλυτικές 'και', θα πρέπει να
επιτρέπουν για να δείτε ποιες εκδόσεις της Python εντοπίστηκαν, γιατί
επιλέχθηκε μια συγκεκριμένη έκδοση και η ακριβής γραμμή εντολών που
χρησιμοποιήθηκε για την εκτέλεση του στόχου Python.  Προορίζεται κυρίως
για δοκιμή και εντοπισμό σφαλμάτων.


File: python.info,  Node: Dry run,  Next: Εγκατάσταση κατ” απαίτηση,  Prev: Διαγνωστικά,  Up: Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο

3.4.12.12 Dry run
.................

Εάν μια μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος ‘PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN’ έχει οριστεί (σε
οποιαδήποτε τιμή), το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης θα δώσει την εντολή που θα
εκτελούσε, αλλά δεν θα εκκινήσει πραγματικά την Python.  Αυτό μπορεί να
είναι χρήσιμο για εργαλεία που θέλουν να χρησιμοποιήσουν το πρόγραμμα
εκκίνησης για να εντοπιστεί και να εκκινηθεί απευθείας η Python.
Σημειώστε ότι η εντολή που είναι γραμμένη στην τυπική έξοδο
κωδικοποιείται πάντα με χρήση UTF-8 και ενδέχεται να μην αποδίδεται
σωστά στην κονσόλα.


File: python.info,  Node: Εγκατάσταση κατ” απαίτηση,  Next: Επιστρεφόμενοι κωδικοί,  Prev: Dry run,  Up: Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο

3.4.12.13 Εγκατάσταση κατ” απαίτηση
...................................

Εάν μια μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL’ έχει οριστεί
(σε οποιαδήποτε τιμή), και η ζητούμενη έκδοση Python δεν είναι
εγκατεστημένη αλλά είναι διαθέσιμη στο Microsoft Store, το πρόγραμμα
εκκίνησης θα επιχειρήσει να την εγκαταστήσει.  Αυτό μπορεί να απαιτεί
την ολοκλήρωση της αλληλεπίδρασης του χρήστη και ίσως χρειαστεί να
εκτελέσετε ξανά την εντολή.

Μια πρόσθετη μεταβλητή ‘PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL’ αναγκάζει το
πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης να προσπαθεί πάντα να εγκαταστήσει την Python, ακόμα
κι αν εντοπιστεί.  Αυτό προορίζεται κυρίως για δοκιμή (και θα πρέπει να
χρησιμοποιείται με το ‘PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN’).


File: python.info,  Node: Επιστρεφόμενοι κωδικοί,  Prev: Εγκατάσταση κατ” απαίτηση,  Up: Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο

3.4.12.14 Επιστρεφόμενοι κωδικοί
................................

Οι ακόλουθοι κωδικοί εξόδου μπορεί να επιστραφούν από τον εκκινητή
Python.  Δυστυχώς, δεν υπάρχει τρόπος να διακρίνουμε αυτούς από τον
κωδικό εξόδου της ίδιας της Python.

Τα ονόματα των κωδικών είναι όπως χρησιμοποιούνται στις πηγές και είναι
μόνο για αναφορά.  Δεν υπάρχει τρόπος πρόσβασης ή επίλυσης τους εκτός
από την ανάγνωση αυτής της σελίδας.  Οι καταχωρήσεις παρατίθενται με
αλφαβητική σειρά των ονομάτων.

Όνομα                   Τιμή        Περιγραφή
                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
RC_BAD_VENV_CFG         107         Βρέθηκε ένα ‘pyvenv.cfg’ αλλά είναι
                                    κατεστραμμένο.
                                    
                                    
RC_CREATE_PROCESS       101         Απέτυχε η εκκίνηση της Python.
                                    
                                    
RC_INSTALLING           111         Ξεκίνησε μια εγκατάσταση, αλλά η εντολή θα πρέπει
                                    να εκτελεστεί ξανά μετά την ολοκλήρωση της.
                                    
                                    
RC_INTERNAL_ERROR       109         Απροσδόκητο σφάλμα.  Αναφέρετε ένα σφάλμα.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_COMMANDLINE       108         Δεν είναι δυνατή η λήψη της γραμμής εντολών από
                                    το λειτουργικό σύστημα.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_PYTHON            103         Δεν είναι δυνατός ο εντοπισμός της ζητούμενης
                                    έκδοσης.
                                    
                                    
RC_NO_VENV_CFG          106         Απαιτήθηκε ένα ‘pyvenv.cfg’ αλλά δεν βρέθηκε.
                                    


File: python.info,  Node: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python σε macOS,  Next: Χρήση της Python σε Android,  Prev: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python στα Windows,  Up: Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python

3.5 Χρησιμοποιώντας Python σε macOS
===================================

Αυτό το έγγραφο αποσκοπεί στο να δώσει μια επισκόπηση της συμπεριφοράς
που σχετίζεται με το macOS που θα πρέπει να γνωρίζετε για να ξεκινήσετε
με την Python σε υπολογιστές Mac.  Η Python σε Mac που εκτελεί macOS
είναι πολύ παρόμοια με την Python σε άλλες πλατφόρμες που προέρχονται
από το Unix, αλλά υπάρχουν κάποιες διαφορές στην εγκατάσταση και κάποιες
δυνατότητες.

Υπάρχουν διάφοροι τρόποι για να αποκτήσετε και να εγκαταστήσετε την
Python για macOS. Προκατασκευασμένες εκδόσεις των πιο πρόσφατων εκδόσεων
της Python είναι διαθέσιμες από έναν αριθμό διανομέων.  Πολλές από αυτές
τις πληροφορίες περιγράφουν τη χρήση της Python που παρέχονται από την
ομάδα κυκλοφορίας CPython για λήψη από την ιστοσελίδα python.org(1).
Δείτε *note Εναλλακτικές Διανομές: 2433. για μερικές άλλες επιλογές.
* Menu:

* Χρησιμοποιώντας Python για macOS από το python.org: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python για macOS από το python org.
* Εναλλακτικές Διανομές::
* Εγκατάσταση πρόσθετων πακέτων Python::
* Προγραμματισμός GUI::
* Προχωρημένα θέματα::
* Άλλοι πόροι::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/


File: python.info,  Node: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python για macOS από το python org,  Next: Εναλλακτικές Διανομές,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python σε macOS

3.5.1 Χρησιμοποιώντας Python για macOS από το ‘python.org’
----------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Βήματα εγκατάστασης::
* Πώς να εκτελέσετε ένα σενάριο Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Βήματα εγκατάστασης,  Next: Πώς να εκτελέσετε ένα σενάριο Python,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python για macOS από το python org

3.5.1.1 Βήματα εγκατάστασης
...........................

Για τρέχουσες εκδόσεις Python(1) (εκτός από αυτές που είναι σε κατάσταση
‘security’), η ομάδα κυκλοφορίας παράγει ένα 'Python για macOS' πακέτο
εγκατάστασης για κάθε νέα κυκλοφορία.  Μια λίστα διαθέσιμων εγκαταστατών
είναι διαθέσιμη εδώ(2).  Συνιστούμε τη χρήση της πιο πρόσφατης
υποστηριζόμενης έκδοσης Python όπου είναι δυνατόν.  Οι τρέχοντες
εγκαταστάτες παρέχουν μια universal2 binary(3) έκδοση της Python που
εκτελείται εγγενώς σε όλους τους υπολογιστές Mac (Apple Silicon και
Intel) που υποστηρίζονται από μια ευρεία γκάμα εκδόσεων macOS, αυτή τη
στιγμή συνήθως από τουλάχιστον 'macOS 10.15 Catalina' και μετά.

Το αρχείο που κατεβάσατε είναι ένα τυπικό αρχείο πακέτου εγκατάστασης
macOS (‘.pkg’).  Οι πληροφορίες ακεραιότητας αρχείου (έλεγχος
ταυτότητας, μέγεθος, υπογραφή sigstore κ.λπ.)  για κάθε αρχείο
περιλαμβάνονται στη σελίδα λήψης κυκλοφορίας.  Τα πακέτα εγκατάστασης
και το περιεχόμενό τους είναι υπογεγραμμένα και επικυρωμένα με ‘Python
Software Foundation’ Apple Developer ID πιστοποιητικά για να ικανοποιούν
τις απαιτήσεις macOS Gatekeeper(4).

Για μια τυπική εγκατάσταση, κάντε διπλό κλικ στο αρχείο πακέτου
εγκατάστασης που κατεβάσατε.  Αυτό θα πρέπει να εκκινήσει την τυπική
εφαρμογή εγκατάστασης macOS και να εμφανίσει το πρώτο από αρκετά βήματα
παραθύρου εγκατάστασης.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_01_introduction.png"]


Κάνοντας κλικ στο κουμπί 'Continue' εμφανίζεται το 'Read Me' για αυτόν
τον εγκαταστάτη.  Εκτός από άλλες σημαντικές πληροφορίες, το 'Read Me'
καταγράφει ποια έκδοση Python πρόκειται να εγκατασταθεί και σε ποιες
εκδόσεις macOS υποστηρίζεται.  Ίσως χρειαστεί να κάνετε κύλιση για να
διαβάσετε ολόκληρο το αρχείο.  Από προεπιλογή, αυτό το 'Read Me' θα
εγκατασταθεί επίσης στο ‘/Applications/Python 3.16/’ και θα είναι
διαθέσιμο για ανάγνωση οποιαδήποτε στιγμή.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_02_readme.png"]


Κάνοντας κλικ στο 'Continue' προχωρά στην εμφάνιση της άδειας για την
Python και για άλλο περιλαμβανόμενο λογισμικό.  Στη συνέχεια θα
χρειαστεί να 'Συμφωνήσετε' με τους όρους άδειας πριν προχωρήσετε στο
επόμενο βήμα.  Αυτό το αρχείο άδειας θα εγκατασταθεί επίσης και θα είναι
διαθέσιμο για ανάγνωση αργότερα.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_03_license.png"]


Αφού γίνουν αποδεκτοί οι όροι άδειας, το επόμενο βήμα είναι η εμφάνιση
'Τύπος Εγκατάστασης'.  Για τις περισσότερες χρήσεις, το τυπικό σύνολο
λειτουργιών εγκατάστασης είναι κατάλληλο.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_04_installation_type.png"]


Πατώντας το κουμπί 'Customize', μπορείτε να επιλέξετε να παραλείψετε ή
να επιλέξετε ορισμένα πακέτα του εγκαταστάτη.  Κάντε κλικ σε κάθε όνομα
πακέτου για να δείτε μια περιγραφή του τι εγκαθιστά.  Για να
εγκαταστήσετε επίσης υποστήριξη για την προαιρετική δυνατότητα χωρίς
νήματα, δείτε *note Εγκατάσταση εκδόσεων Free-threaded: 6a4.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_05_custom_install.png"]


Σε κάθε περίπτωση, κάνοντας κλικ στο 'Install' θα ξεκινήσει η διαδικασία
εγκατάστασης ζητώντας άδεια για την εγκατάσταση νέου λογισμικού.  Ένα
όνομα χρήστη macOS με ‘Administrator’ δικαιώματα είναι απαραίτητο καθώς
η εγκατεστημένη Python θα είναι διαθέσιμη σε όλους τους χρήστες του Mac.

Όταν ολοκληρωθεί η εγκατάσταση, θα εμφανιστεί το παράθυρο 'Περίληψη'.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_06_summary.png"]


Διπλό κλικ στο εικονίδιο ή το αρχείο ‘Install Certificates.command’ στο
παράθυρο ‘/Applications/Python 3.16/’ για να ολοκληρώσετε την
εγκατάσταση.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_07_applications.png"]


Αυτό θα ανοίξει ένα προσωρινό παράθυρο κελύφους ‘Terminal’ που θα
χρησιμοποιήσει τη νέα Python για να κατεβάσει και να εγκαταστήσει
ριζικούς πιστοποιητικούς SSL για τη χρήση του.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_08_install_certificates.png"]


Εάν εμφανιστεί ‘Successfully installed certifi’ και ‘update complete’
στο παράθυρο τερματικού, η εγκατάσταση είναι ολοκληρωμένη.  Κλείστε αυτό
το παράθυρο τερματικού και το παράθυρο εγκαταστάτη.

Μια προεπιλεγμένη εγκατάσταση θα περιλαμβάνει:

   * Ένας ‘Python 3.16’ φάκελος στον φάκελο ‘Applications’.  Εδώ θα
     βρείτε το ‘IDLE’, το περιβάλλον ανάπτυξης που είναι τυπικό μέρος
     των επίσημων διανομών Python∙ και το ‘Python Launcher’, το οποίο
     χειρίζεται τα διπλά κλικ σε Python scripts από το macOS Finder(5).

   * Ένα πλαίσιο ‘/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework’, το οποίο
     περιλαμβάνει τον εκτελέσιμο κώδικα Python και τις βιβλιοθήκες.  Το
     πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης προσθέτει αυτήν την τοποθεσία στο shell path
     σας.  Για να απεγκαταστήσετε την Python, μπορείτε να αφαιρέσετε
     αυτά τα τρία πράγματα.  Symlinks στον εκτελέσιμο κώδικα Python
     τοποθετούνται στο ‘/usr/local/bin/’.

     Σημείωση: Οι πρόσφατες εκδόσεις του macOS περιλαμβάνουν μια εντολή
     ‘python3’ στο ‘/usr/bin/python3’ που συνδέεται με μια συνήθως
     παλαιότερη και ελλιπή έκδοση της Python που παρέχεται από και για
     χρήση από τα εργαλεία ανάπτυξης της Apple, ‘Xcode’ ή τα ‘Command
     Line Tools for Xcode’.  Δεν θα πρέπει ποτέ να τροποποιήσετε ή να
     προσπαθήσετε να διαγράψετε αυτήν την εγκατάσταση, καθώς ελέγχεται
     από την Apple και χρησιμοποιείται από το λογισμικό που παρέχεται
     από την Apple ή από τρίτους.  Εάν επιλέξετε να εγκαταστήσετε μια
     νεότερη έκδοση Python από το ‘python.org’, θα έχετε δύο
     διαφορετικές αλλά λειτουργικές εγκαταστάσεις Python στον υπολογιστή
     σας που μπορούν να συνυπάρχουν.  Οι προεπιλεγμένες επιλογές
     εγκατάστασης θα πρέπει να διασφαλίσουν ότι η ‘python3’ θα
     χρησιμοποιηθεί αντί της συστήματος ‘python3’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_binary

   (4) https://support.apple.com/en-us/102445

   (5) https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT201732


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς να εκτελέσετε ένα σενάριο Python,  Prev: Βήματα εγκατάστασης,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python για macOS από το python org

3.5.1.2 Πώς να εκτελέσετε ένα σενάριο Python
............................................

Υπάρχουν δύο τρόποι για να καλέσετε τον διερμηνέα Python.  Εάν είστε
εξοικειωμένοι με τη χρήση ενός κελύφους Unix σε ένα παράθυρο τερματικού,
μπορείτε να καλέσετε ‘python3.16’ ή ‘python3’ προαιρετικά ακολουθούμενο
από μία ή περισσότερες επιλογές γραμμής εντολών (περιγράφεται στο *note
Command line and environment: 1f98.).  Το εγχειρίδιο Python έχει επίσης
μια χρήσιμη ενότητα σχετικά με *note using Python interactively from a
shell: 6a0.

Μπορείτε επίσης να καλέσετε τον ερμηνευτή μέσω ενός ενσωματωμένου
αναπτυξιακού περιβάλλοντος.  *note IDLE — Python editor and shell: 13be.
είναι ένας βασικός επεξεργαστής και περιβάλλον ερμηνευτή που
περιλαμβάνεται με την τυπική διανομή Python.  Το ‘IDLE’ περιλαμβάνει ένα
μενού Βοήθειας που σας επιτρέπει να αποκτήσετε πρόσβαση στην τεκμηρίωση
Python.  Εάν είστε εντελώς νέοι στην Python, μπορείτε να διαβάσετε την
εισαγωγή του εγχειριδίου σε αυτό το έγγραφο.

Υπάρχουν πολλοί άλλοι επεξεργαστές και IDE διαθέσιμοι, δείτε *note
Επεξεργαστές Κειμένου και IDEs: 2439. για περισσότερες πληροφορίες.

Για να εκτελέσετε ένα αρχείο script Python από το παράθυρο τερματικού,
μπορείτε να καλέσετε τον ερμηνευτή με το όνομα του αρχείου script:

     ‘python3.16’ ‘myscript.py’

Για να εκτελέσετε το script σας από το Finder, μπορείτε είτε:

   * Σύρετε το στο ‘Python Launcher’.

   * Επιλέξτε το ‘Python Launcher’ ως την προεπιλεγμένη εφαρμογή για να
     ανοίξετε το script σας (ή οποιοδήποτε ‘.py’ script) μέσω του
     παραθύρου πληροφοριών Finder και κάντε διπλό κλικ σε αυτό.  Το
     ‘Python Launcher’ έχει διάφορες προτιμήσεις για να ελέγξει πώς
     εκκινείται το script σας.  Η επιλογή-μεταφορά σας επιτρέπει να
     αλλάξετε αυτά για μία κλήση ή χρησιμοποιήστε το μενού ‘Προτιμήσεις’
     για να αλλάξετε τα πράγματα παγκοσμίως.

Να είστε προσεκτικοί ότι η εκτέλεση του script απευθείας από το macOS
Finder μπορεί να παράγει διαφορετικά αποτελέσματα από την εκτέλεση από
ένα παράθυρο τερματικού καθώς το script δεν θα εκτελείται στο συνήθη
περιβάλλον κελύφους που περιλαμβάνει οποιαδήποτε ρύθμιση μεταβλητών
περιβάλλοντος σε προφίλ κελύφους.  Και, όπως με οποιοδήποτε άλλο script
ή πρόγραμμα, να είστε σίγουροι για το τι πρόκειται να εκτελέσετε.


File: python.info,  Node: Εναλλακτικές Διανομές,  Next: Εγκατάσταση πρόσθετων πακέτων Python,  Prev: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python για macOS από το python org,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python σε macOS

3.5.2 Εναλλακτικές Διανομές
---------------------------

Εκτός από τον τυπικό εγκαταστάτη ‘python.org’ για macOS, υπάρχουν τρίτες
διανομές για macOS που μπορεί να περιλαμβάνουν πρόσθετη λειτουργικότητα.
Ορισμένες δημοφιλείς διανομές και τα βασικά χαρακτηριστικά τους:

ActivePython(1)

     Εγκαταστάτης με συμβατότητα πολλών πλατφορμών, τεκμηρίωση

Anaconda(2)

     Δημοφιλή επιστημονικά modules (όπως numpy, scipy και pandas) και ο
     ‘conda’ διαχειριστής πακέτων.

Homebrew(3)

     Διαχειριστής πακέτων για macOS που περιλαμβάνει πολλές εκδόσεις
     Python και πολλά τρίτα πακέτα Python (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των
     numpy, scipy και pandas).

MacPorts(4)

     Ένας άλλος διαχειριστής πακέτων για macOS που περιλαμβάνει πολλές
     εκδόσεις Python και πολλά τρίτα πακέτα Python.  Μπορεί να
     περιλαμβάνει προ-κατασκευασμένες εκδόσεις της Python και πολλά
     πακέτα για παλαιότερες εκδόσεις του macOS.

Σημειώστε ότι οι διανομές ενδέχεται να μην περιλαμβάνουν τις τελευταίες
εκδόσεις της Python ή άλλων βιβλιοθηκών και δεν υποστηρίζονται ή
συντηρούνται από την κύρια ομάδα Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/

   (2) https://www.anaconda.com/download/

   (3) https://brew.sh

   (4) https://www.macports.org


File: python.info,  Node: Εγκατάσταση πρόσθετων πακέτων Python,  Next: Προγραμματισμός GUI,  Prev: Εναλλακτικές Διανομές,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python σε macOS

3.5.3 Εγκατάσταση πρόσθετων πακέτων Python
------------------------------------------

Ανατρέξτε στον Python Packaging User Guide(1) για περισσότερες
πληροφορίες.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/


File: python.info,  Node: Προγραμματισμός GUI,  Next: Προχωρημένα θέματα,  Prev: Εγκατάσταση πρόσθετων πακέτων Python,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python σε macOS

3.5.4 Προγραμματισμός GUI
-------------------------

Υπάρχουν πολλές επιλογές για την κατασκευή εφαρμογών GUI στον Mac με
Python.

Η τυπική βιβλιοθήκη GUI Python είναι *note tkinter: f9, βασισμένη στο
διαλειτουργικό εργαλείο Tk (‘https://www.tcl.tk’).  Μια εγγενής έκδοση
Tk macOS περιλαμβάνεται με τον εγκαταστάτη.

Το 'PyObjC' είναι ένα Python binding στο πλαίσιο Objective-C/Cocoa της
Apple.  Πληροφορίες σχετικά με το PyObjC είναι διαθέσιμες από pyobjc(1).

Ένας αριθμός εναλλακτικών εργαλείων GUI macOS είναι διαθέσιμος,
συμπεριλαμβανομένων:

   * PySide(2): Επίσημα Python bindings στο Qt GUI toolkit(3).

   * PyQt(4): Εναλλακτικά Python bindings στο Qt.

   * Kivy(5): Ένα διαλειτουργικό εργαλείο GUI που υποστηρίζει desktop
     και mobile πλατφόρμες.

   * Toga(6): Μέρος του BeeWare Project(7); υποστηρίζει εφαρμογές
     desktop, mobile, web και κονσόλας εφαρμογές.

   * wxPython(8): Ένα διαλειτουργικό εργαλείο που υποστηρίζει desktop
     πλατφόρμες.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pyobjc/

   (2) https://www.qt.io/qt-for-python

   (3) https://wiki.qt.io/Qt_for_Python

   (4) https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/

   (5) https://kivy.org

   (6) https://toga.readthedocs.io

   (7) https://beeware.org

   (8) https://wxpython.org


File: python.info,  Node: Προχωρημένα θέματα,  Next: Άλλοι πόροι,  Prev: Προγραμματισμός GUI,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python σε macOS

3.5.5 Προχωρημένα θέματα
------------------------

* Menu:

* Εγκατάσταση εκδόσεων Free-threaded::
* Εγκατάσταση χρησιμοποιώντας τη γραμμή εντολών::
* Διανομή εφαρμογών Python::
* Συμμόρφωση App Store::


File: python.info,  Node: Εγκατάσταση εκδόσεων Free-threaded,  Next: Εγκατάσταση χρησιμοποιώντας τη γραμμή εντολών,  Up: Προχωρημένα θέματα

3.5.5.1 Εγκατάσταση εκδόσεων Free-threaded
..........................................

Added in version 3.13.

Το πακέτο εγκατάστασης ‘python.org’ *note Python for macOS: 2435. μπορεί
προαιρετικά να εγκαταστήσει μια επιπλέον έκδοση της Python 3.16 που
υποστηρίζει PEP 703(1), την πειραματική δυνατότητα ελεύθερης
νηματοποίησης (threading) (εκτέλεση με το *note global interpreter lock:
685. απενεργοποιημένο).  Ελέγξτε τη σελίδα κυκλοφορίας στο ‘python.org’
για πιθανές ενημερωμένες πληροφορίες.

Η λειτουργία ελεύθερου νήματος λειτουργεί και συνεχίζει να βελτιώνεται,
αλλά υπάρχει κάποια πρόσθετη επιβάρυνση στα φορτία εργασίας μονού
νήματος σε σύγκριση με την κανονική έκδοση.  Επιπλέον, τα πακέτα τρίτων
κατασκευαστών, ιδίως αυτά με *note extension module: 2442, ενδέχεται να
μην είναι έτοιμα για χρήση σε μια έκδοση ελεύθερου νήματος και θα
ενεργοποιήσουν ξανά το *note GIL: 411.  Επομένως, η υποστήριξη για
ελεύθερη νηματοποποίησης δεν εγκαθίστανται από προεπιλογή.  Είναι
συσκευασμένη ως ξεχωριστή επιλογή εγκατάστασης, διαθέσιμη κάνοντας κλικ
το κουμπί 'Customize' στο βήμα 'Installation Type' του προγράμματος
εγκατάστασης όπως περιγράφεται παραπάνω.

[image src="python-figures/mac_installer_09_custom_install_free_threaded.png"]


Εάν το πλαίσιο δίπλα στο όνομα πακέτου 'Free-threaded Python' είναι
επιλεγμένο, θα εγκατασταθεί επίσης ένα ξεχωριστό ‘PythonT.framework’
δίπλα στο κανονικό ‘Python.framework’ στο ‘/Library/Frameworks’.  Αυτή η
διαμόρφωση επιτρέπει σε μια έκδοση Python 3.16 ελεύθερης νηματοποίησης
να συγκατοικεί στο σύστημά σας με μια παραδοσιακή (μόνο GIL) Python 3.16
έκδοση με ελάχιστο κίνδυνο κατά την εγκατάσταση ή τη δοκιμή.  Αυτή η
διάταξη εγκατάστασης είναι πειραματική και υπόκειται σε αλλαγές σε
μελλοντικές εκδόσεις.

Γνωστές προφυλάξεις και περιορισμοί:

   - To 'UNIX command-line tools' πακέτο, το οποίο επιλέγεται από
     προεπιλογή, θα εγκαταστήσει συνδέσμους στο ‘/usr/local/bin’ για
     ‘python3.16t’, τον ερμηνευτή ελεύθερης νηματοποίησης και
     ‘python3.16t-config’, ένα βοηθητικό πρόγραμμα διαμόρφωσης που
     μπορεί να είναι χρήσιμο για κατασκευαστές πακέτων.  Δεδομένου ότι
     το ‘/usr/local/bin’ περιλαμβάνεται συνήθως στη μεταβλητή
     περιβάλλοντος ‘PATH’ του κελύφους σας, στις περισσότερες
     περιπτώσεις δεν θα χρειαστούν αλλαγές στις μεταβλητές περιβάλλοντος
     ‘PATH’ για να χρησιμοποιήσετε ‘python3.16t’.

   - Για αυτήν την έκδοση, το πακέτο 'Shell profile updater' και το
     ‘Update Shell Profile.command’ στο ‘/Applications/Python 3.16/’ δεν
     υποστηρίζουν το πακέτο ελεύθερης νηματοποίησης.

   - Η έκδοση ελεύθερης νηματοποίησης και η παραδοσιακή έκδοση έχουν
     ξεχωριστές διαδρομές αναζήτησης και ξεχωριστούς καταλόγους
     ‘site-packages’, οπότε, από προεπιλογή, εάν χρειάζεστε ένα πακέτο
     διαθέσιμο και στις δύο εκδόσεις, μπορεί να χρειαστεί να
     εγκατασταθεί και στις δύο.  Το πακέτο ελεύθερης νηματοποίησης θα
     εγκαταστήσει μια ξεχωριστή έκδοση του ‘pip’ για χρήση με
     ‘python3.16t’.

        - Για να εγκαταστήσετε ένα πακέτο χρησιμοποιώντας ‘pip’ χωρίς
          ‘venv’:

               python3.16t -m pip install <package_name>

   - Όταν εργάζεστε με πολλές Python περιβάλλοντα, είναι συνήθως
     ασφαλέστερο και ευκολότερο να *note create and use virtual
     environments: 22da.  Αυτό μπορεί να αποφύγει πιθανά ονόματα εντολών
     συγκρούσεων και σύγχυση σχετικά με το ποια Python είναι σε χρήση:

          python3.16t -m venv <venv_name>

     τότε ‘activate’.

   - Για να εκτελέσετε μια έκδοση ελεύθερης νηματοποίησης του IDLE:

          python3.16t -m idlelib

   - Οι ερμηνευτές και στις δύο εκδόσεις ανταγωνίζονται στις ίδιες *note
     PYTHON environment variables: 9e8. που μπορεί να έχουν απροσδόκητα
     αποτελέσματα, για παράδειγμα, εάν έχετε ρυθμίσει το ‘PYTHONPATH’ σε
     ένα προφίλ κελύφους.  Εάν είναι απαραίτητο, υπάρχουν *note command
     line options: 230a. όπως ‘-E’ για να αγνοήσετε αυτές τις μεταβλητές
     περιβάλλοντος.

   - Η έκδοση ελεύθερης νηματοποίησης συνδέεται με τις βιβλιοθήκες
     κοινής χρήσης τρίτων, όπως ‘OpenSSL’ και ‘Tk’, που είναι
     εγκατεστημένες στο παραδοσιακό πλαίσιο.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι και οι
     δύο εκδόσεις μοιράζονται επίσης ένα σύνολο πιστοποιητικών
     εμπιστοσύνης όπως εγκαθίστανται από το ‘Install
     Certificates.command’ script, επομένως χρειάζεται να εκτελείται
     μόνο μία φορά.

   - Εάν δεν μπορείτε να εξαρτηθείτε από το σύνδεσμο στο
     ‘/usr/local/bin’ που δείχνει στην έκδοση ‘python3.16t’ ελεύθερης
     νηματοποίησης (για παράδειγμα, εάν θέλετε να εγκαταστήσετε τη δική
     σας έκδοση εκεί ή κάποια άλλη διανομή το κάνει), μπορείτε να
     ορίσετε ρητά τη μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος ‘PATH’ του κελύφους σας για
     να περιλαμβάνει το κατάλογο ‘bin’ του πλαισίου ‘PythonT’:

          export PATH="/Library/Frameworks/PythonT.framework/Versions/3.16/bin":"$PATH"

     Η παραδοσιακή εγκατάσταση πλαισίου από προεπιλογή κάνει κάτι
     παρόμοιο, εκτός από το ‘Python.framework’.  Να είστε προσεκτικοί
     ότι η παρουσία και των δύο καταλόγων ‘bin’ πλαισίου στο ‘PATH’
     μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε σύγχυση εάν υπάρχουν διπλά ονόματα όπως
     ‘python3.16’ και στις δύο∙ ποιο χρησιμοποιείται στην πραγματικότητα
     εξαρτάται από τη σειρά που εμφανίζονται στο ‘PATH’.  Οι εντολές
     ‘which python3.x’ ή ‘which python3.xt’ μπορούν να δείξουν ποια
     διαδρομή χρησιμοποιείται.  Η χρήση εικονικών περιβαλλόντων μπορεί
     να βοηθήσει στην αποφυγή τέτοιων αμφισημιών.  Μια άλλη επιλογή
     μπορεί να είναι η δημιουργία ενός κελύφους ‘alias’ στον επιθυμητό
     διερμηνέα, όπως:

          alias py3.16="/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.16/bin/python3.16"
          alias py3.16t="/Library/Frameworks/PythonT.framework/Versions/3.16/bin/python3.16t"

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/


File: python.info,  Node: Εγκατάσταση χρησιμοποιώντας τη γραμμή εντολών,  Next: Διανομή εφαρμογών Python,  Prev: Εγκατάσταση εκδόσεων Free-threaded,  Up: Προχωρημένα θέματα

3.5.5.2 Εγκατάσταση χρησιμοποιώντας τη γραμμή εντολών
.....................................................

Εάν θέλετε να χρησιμοποιήσετε αυτοματισμό για να εγκαταστήσετε το πακέτο
εγκατάστασης ‘python.org’ (παρά να χρησιμοποιήσετε την οικεία εφαρμογή
‘Installer’ GUI macOS), το βοηθητικό πρόγραμμα ‘installer’ γραμμής
εντολών macOS σας επιτρέπει να επιλέξετε μη προεπιλεγμένες επιλογές,
επίσης.  Εάν δεν είστε εξοικειωμένοι με το ‘installer’, μπορεί να είναι
κάπως κρυπτικό (βλ.  ‘man installer’ για περισσότερες πληροφορίες).  Ως
παράδειγμα, το παρακάτω απόσπασμα κώδικα δείχνει έναν τρόπο να το
κάνετε, χρησιμοποιώντας την έκδοση ‘3.16.0b2’ και επιλέγοντας την
επιλογή διερμηνέα ελεύθερης νηματοποίησης:

     RELEASE="python-3.160b2-macos11.pkg"

     # download installer pkg
     curl -O https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.16.0/${RELEASE}

     # create installer choicechanges to customize the install:
     #    enable the PythonTFramework-3.16 package
     #    while accepting the other defaults (install all other packages)
     cat > ./choicechanges.plist <<EOF
     <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
     <!DOCTYPE plist PUBLIC "-//Apple//DTD PLIST 1.0//EN" "http://www.apple.com/DTDs/PropertyList-1.0.dtd">
     <plist version="1.0">
     <array>
             <dict>
                     <key>attributeSetting</key>
                     <integer>1</integer>
                     <key>choiceAttribute</key>
                     <string>selected</string>
                     <key>choiceIdentifier</key>
                     <string>org.python.Python.PythonTFramework-3.16</string>
             </dict>
     </array>
     </plist>
     EOF

     sudo installer -pkg ./${RELEASE} -applyChoiceChangesXML ./choicechanges.plist -target /

Μπορείτε στη συνέχεια να ελέγξετε ότι και οι δύο εγκαταστάτες είναι
διαθέσιμοι με κάτι σαν:

     $ # test that the free-threaded interpreter was installed if the Unix Command Tools package was enabled
     $ /usr/local/bin/python3.16t -VV
     Python 3.16.0b2 free-threading build (v3.16.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:57:31) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
     $ #    and the traditional interpreter
     $ /usr/local/bin/python3.16 -VV
     Python 3.16.0b2 (v3.16.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:50:24) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
     $ # test that they are also available without the prefix if /usr/local/bin is on $PATH
     $ python3.16t -VV
     Python 3.16.0b2 free-threading build (v3.16.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:57:31) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]
     $ python3.16 -VV
     Python 3.16.0b2 (v3.16.0b2:3a83b172af, Jun  5 2024, 12:50:24) [Clang 15.0.0 (clang-1500.3.9.4)]

     Σημείωση: Τα τρέχοντα προγράμματα εγκατάστασης ‘python.org’
     εγκαθίστανται μόνο σε καθορισμένες τοποθεσίες όπως
     ‘/Library/Frameworks/’, ‘/Applications’ και ‘/usr/local/bin’.  Δεν
     μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε την επιλογή ‘-domain’ του ‘installer’
     για να εγκαταστήσετε σε άλλες τοποθεσίες.


File: python.info,  Node: Διανομή εφαρμογών Python,  Next: Συμμόρφωση App Store,  Prev: Εγκατάσταση χρησιμοποιώντας τη γραμμή εντολών,  Up: Προχωρημένα θέματα

3.5.5.3 Διανομή εφαρμογών Python
................................

Υπάρχει μια σειρά εργαλείων για τη μετατροπή του κώδικα Python σας σε
μια αυτόνομη διανεμόμενη εφαρμογή:

   * py2app(1): Υποστηρίζει τη δημιουργία macOS ‘.app’ πακέτων από ένα
     έργο Python.

   * Briefcase(2): Μέρος του BeeWare Project(3); ένα εργαλείο διανομής
     πολλαπλών πλατφορμών που υποστηρίζει τη δημιουργία ‘.app’ πακέτων
     σε macOS, καθώς και τη διαχείριση υπογραφής και πιστοποίησης.

   * PyInstaller(4): Ένα εργαλείο διανομής πολλαπλών πλατφορμών που
     δημιουργεί ένα μόνο αρχείο ή φάκελο ως διανεμόμενο αντικείμενο.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/py2app/

   (2) https://briefcase.readthedocs.io

   (3) https://beeware.org

   (4) https://pyinstaller.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Συμμόρφωση App Store,  Prev: Διανομή εφαρμογών Python,  Up: Προχωρημένα θέματα

3.5.5.4 Συμμόρφωση App Store
............................

Οι εφαρμογές που υποβάλλονται για διανομή μέσω του macOS App Store
πρέπει να περάσουν τη διαδικασία αναθεώρησης εφαρμογών της Apple.  Αυτή
η διαδικασία περιλαμβάνει ένα σύνολο αυτοματοποιημένων κανόνων
επικύρωσης που ελέγχουν το υποβληθέν πακέτο εφαρμογής για προβληματικό
κώδικα.

Η βιβλιοθήκη προτύπων Python περιέχει κάποιον κώδικα που είναι γνωστό
ότι παραβιάζει αυτούς τους αυτοματοποιημένους κανόνες.  Ενώ αυτές οι
παραβιάσεις φαίνεται να είναι ψευδώς θετικές, οι κανόνες αναθεώρησης της
Apple δεν μπορούν να αμφισβητηθούν.  Επομένως, είναι απαραίτητο να
τροποποιηθεί η βιβλιοθήκη προτύπων Python για να περάσει μια εφαρμογή
την αναθεώρηση του App Store.

Το δέντρο πηγών Python περιέχει ένα αρχείο patch(1) που θα αφαιρέσει όλο
τον κώδικα που είναι γνωστό ότι προκαλεί προβλήματα με τη διαδικασία
αναθεώρησης του App Store.  Αυτή η επιδιόρθωση εφαρμόζεται αυτόματα όταν
η CPython διαμορφώνεται με την *note -with-app-store-compliance: 1ba4.
επιλογή.

Αυτή η επιδιόρθωση δεν απαιτείται κανονικά για τη χρήση της CPython σε
Mac.  Ούτε απαιτείται εάν διανέμετε μια εφαρμογή 'εκτός' του macOS App
Store.  Απαιτείται 'μόνο' εάν χρησιμοποιείτε το macOS App Store ως
κανάλι διανομής.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Mac/Resources/app-store-compliance.patch


File: python.info,  Node: Άλλοι πόροι,  Prev: Προχωρημένα θέματα,  Up: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python σε macOS

3.5.6 Άλλοι πόροι
-----------------

Η python.org Help page(1) έχει συνδέσμους σε πολλούς χρήσιμους πόρους.
Η Pythonmac-SIG mailing list(2) είναι ένας άλλος πόρος υποστήριξης
ειδικά για χρήστες και προγραμματιστές Python στο Mac.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/about/help/

   (2) https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/pythonmac-sig/


File: python.info,  Node: Χρήση της Python σε Android,  Next: Χρήση Python σε iOS,  Prev: Χρησιμοποιώντας Python σε macOS,  Up: Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python

3.6 Χρήση της Python σε Android
===============================

Η Python σε Android διαφέρει από την Python σε πλατφόρμες επιτραπέζιων
υπολογιστών.  Σε μια πλατφόρμα επιτραπέζιων υπολογιστών, η Python
εγκαθίσταται γενικά ως πόρος συστήματος που μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί από
οποιονδήποτε χρήστη αυτού του υπολογιστή.  Οι χρήστες στη συνέχεια
αλληλεπιδρούν με την Python εκτελώντας ένα εκτελέσιμο ‘python’ και
εισάγοντας εντολές σε μια διαδραστική γραμμή εντολών ή εκτελώντας ένα
Python script.

Στο Android, δεν υπάρχει η έννοια της εγκατάστασης ως πόρου συστήματος.
Η μόνη μονάδα διανομής λογισμικού είναι μια «εφαρμογή».  Δεν υπάρχει
κονσόλα όπου θα μπορούσατε να εκτελέσετε ένα εκτελέσιμο αρχείο ‘python’,
ή να αλληλεπιδράσετε με ένα Python REPL.

Ως αποτέλεσμα, ο μόνος τρόπος για να χρησιμοποιήσετε την Python σε
Android είναι σε ενσωματωμένη λειτουργία – δηλαδή, γράφοντας μια εγγενή
εφαρμογή Android, ενσωματώνοντας έναν διερμηνέα Python χρησιμοποιώντας
το ‘libpython’, και καλώντας κώδικα Python χρησιμοποιώντας το *note
Python embedding API: 244c.  Ο πλήρης διερμηνέας Python, η τυπική
βιβλιοθήκη, και όλος ο κώδικας Python συσκευάζονται στη συνέχεια στην
εφαρμογή σας για δική της ιδιωτική χρήση.

Η τυπική βιβλιοθήκη της Python έχει κάποιες αξιοσημείωτες παραλείψεις
και περιορισμούς στο Android.  Δείτε τον *note API availability guide:
244d. για λεπτομέρειες.

* Menu:

* Προσθήκη της Python σε μια εφαρμογή Android::
* Δημιουργία ενός πακέτου Python για Android::


File: python.info,  Node: Προσθήκη της Python σε μια εφαρμογή Android,  Next: Δημιουργία ενός πακέτου Python για Android,  Up: Χρήση της Python σε Android

3.6.1 Προσθήκη της Python σε μια εφαρμογή Android
-------------------------------------------------

Η πλειονότητα των ατόμων που προγραμματίζουν εφαρμογές θα πρέπει να
χρησιμοποιούν ένα από τα ακόλουθα εργαλεία, τα οποία παρέχουν ευκολότερη
εμπειρία:

   * Briefcase(1), from the BeeWare project

   * Buildozer(2), από το έργο Kivy

   * Chaquopy(3)

   * pyqtdeploy(4)

   * Termux(5)

Αν θέλετε να τα κάνετε όλα αυτά χειροκίνητα, συνεχίστε την ανάγνωση.
Μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε την εντολή testbed app(6) ως οδηγό· κάθε
βήμα παρακάτω περιέχει έναν σύνδεσμο προς το σχετικό αρχείο.

   * Πρώτον, αποκτήστε μια έκδοση της Python για Android:

        * Ο ευκολότερος τρόπος είναι να κατεβάσετε μια έκδοση Android
          από το python.org(7).  Ο φάκελος ‘prefix’ που αναφέρεται
          παρακάτω βρίσκεται στο ανώτατο επίπεδο του πακέτου.

        * Ή αν θέλετε να το δημιουργήσετε μόνοι σας, ακολουθήστε τις
          οδηγίες στο αρχείο:source:‘Android/README.md’.  Ο φάκελος
          ‘prefix’ θα δημιουργηθεί κάτω από το ‘cross-build/HOST’.

   * Προσθέστε κώδικα στο αρχείο σας build.gradle(8) για να αντιγράψετε
     τα ακόλουθα στοιχεία στο έργο σας.  Όλα εκτός από τον δικό σας
     κώδικα Python μπορούν να αντιγραφούν από το ‘prefix/lib’:

        * Στις JNI βιβλιοθήκες σας:

             * ‘libpython*.*.so’

             * ‘lib*_python.so’ (εξωτερικές βιβλιοθήκες όπως το OpenSSL)

        * Στα στοιχεία σας:

             * ‘python*.*’ (η τυπική βιβλιοθήκη της Python)

             * ‘python*.*/site-packages’ (ο δικός σας Python κώδικας)

   * Προσθέστε κώδικα στην εφαρμογή σας για να εξαγάγετε τα στοιχεία στο
     σύστημα αρχείων(9).

   * Προσθέστε κώδικα στην εφαρμογή σας για να ξεκινήσετε την Python σε
     ενσωματωμένη λειτουργία(10).  Αυτός θα πρέπει να είναι κώδικας C
     που καλείται μέσω JNI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://briefcase.beeware.org

   (2) https://buildozer.readthedocs.io

   (3) https://chaquo.com/chaquopy

   (4) https://www.riverbankcomputing.com/static/Docs/pyqtdeploy/

   (5) https://termux.dev/en/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Android/testbed

   (7) https://www.python.org/downloads/android/

   (8) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Android/testbed/app/build.gradle.kts

   (9) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Android/testbed/app/src/main/java/org/python/testbed/MainActivity.kt

   (10) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Android/testbed/app/src/main/c/main_activity.c


File: python.info,  Node: Δημιουργία ενός πακέτου Python για Android,  Prev: Προσθήκη της Python σε μια εφαρμογή Android,  Up: Χρήση της Python σε Android

3.6.2 Δημιουργία ενός πακέτου Python για Android
------------------------------------------------

Τα πακέτα Python μπορούν να δημιουργηθούν για Android ως wheels και να
κυκλοφορήσουν στο PyPI. Το προτεινόμενο εργαλείο για αυτό είναι το
cibuildwheel(1), το οποίο αυτοματοποιεί όλες τις λεπτομέρειες του
στησίματος ενός περιβάλλοντος διασταυρούμενης μεταγλώττισης, της
δημιουργίας του wheel και της δοκιμής του σε έναν εξομοιωτή.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cibuildwheel.pypa.io/en/stable/platforms/#android


File: python.info,  Node: Χρήση Python σε iOS,  Next: Επεξεργαστές Κειμένου και IDEs,  Prev: Χρήση της Python σε Android,  Up: Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python

3.7 Χρήση Python σε iOS
=======================


Συγγραφείς: Russell Keith-Magee (2024-03)

Η Python σε iOS διαφέρει από την Python σε πλατφόρμες επιτραπέζιων
υπολογιστών.  Σε μια πλατφόρμα επιτραπέζιων υπολογιστών, η Python
εγκαθίσταται γενικά ως πόρος συστήματος που μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί από
οποιονδήποτε χρήστη αυτού του υπολογιστή.  Στη συνέχεια, οι χρήστες
αλληλεπιδρούν με την Python εκτελώντας ένα εκτελέσιμο αρχείο ‘python’
και εισάγοντας εντολές σε μια διαδραστική γραμμή εντολών ή εκτελώντας
ένα Python script.

Στο iOS, δεν υπάρχει η έννοια της εγκατάστασης ως πόρου συστήματος.  Η
μόνη μονάδα διανομής λογισμικού είναι μια «εφαρμογή».  Επίσης, δεν
υπάρχει κονσόλα που θα μπορούσατε να εκτελέσετε ένα εκτελέσιμο αρχείο
‘python’ ή να αλληλεπιδράσετε με ένα Python REPL.

Ως αποτέλεσμα, ο μόνος τρόπος για να χρησιμοποιήσετε την Python σε iOS
είναι σε ενσωματωμένη λειτουργία - δηλαδή, γράφοντας μια εγγενή εφαρμογή
iOS και ενσωματώνοντας έναν διερμηνέα Python χρησιμοποιώντας το
‘libPython’, και καλώντας κώδικα Python χρησιμοποιώντας το *note Python
embedding API: 244c.  Ο πλήρης διερμηνέας Python, η τυπική βιβλιοθήκη
και όλος ο κώδικας Python σας συσκευάζονται στην συνέχεια ως αυτόνομο
πακέτο που μπορεί να διανεμηθεί μέσω του iOS App Store.

Αν θέλετε να πειραματιστείτε για πρώτη φορά με τη σύνταξη μιας εφαρμογής
iOS σε Python, έργα όπως BeeWare(1) και Kivy(2) θα σας προσφέρουν μια
πολύ πιο προσιτή εμπειρία χρήστη.  Αυτά τα έργα διαχειρίζονται τις
πολυπλοκότητες που σχετίζονται με την εκτέλεση ενός έργου iOS, επομένως
χρειάζεται να ασχοληθείτε μόνο με τον ίδιο τον κώδικα Python.

* Menu:

* Python κατά τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης σε iOS::
* Εγκατάσταση της Python σε iOS::
* Συμμόρφωση με το App Store::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://beeware.org

   (2) https://kivy.org


File: python.info,  Node: Python κατά τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης σε iOS,  Next: Εγκατάσταση της Python σε iOS,  Up: Χρήση Python σε iOS

3.7.1 Python κατά τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης σε iOS
--------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Συμβατότητα έκδοσης iOS::
* Αναγνώριση πλατφόρμας::
* Διαθεσιμότητα τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης::
* Δυαδικά modules επέκτασης::
* Δυαδικά αρχεία προσομοίωσης μεταγλωττιστή::


File: python.info,  Node: Συμβατότητα έκδοσης iOS,  Next: Αναγνώριση πλατφόρμας,  Up: Python κατά τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης σε iOS

3.7.1.1 Συμβατότητα έκδοσης iOS
...............................

Η ελάχιστη υποστηριζόμενη έκδοση iOS καθορίζεται κατά τη στιγμή της
μεταγλώττισης, χρησιμοποιώντας την επιλογή *note -host: 23b0. για τη
‘ρύθμιση’ παραμέτρων.  Από προεπιλογή, όταν μεταγλωττίζεται για iOS, η
Python θα μεταγλωττίζεται με μια ελάχιστη υποστηριζόμενη έκδοση iOS
13.0.  Για να χρησιμοποιήστε μια διαφορετική ελάχιστη έκδοση iOS, δώστε
τον αριθμό έκδοσης ως μέρος του ορίσματος ‘--host’ - για παράδειγμα, το
‘--host=arm64-apple-ios15.4-simulator’ θα μεταγλωττίσει μια έκδοση
προσομοιωτή ARM64 με στόχο ανάπτυξης 15.4.


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3.7.1.2 Αναγνώριση πλατφόρμας
.............................

Κατά την εκτέλεση σε iOS, το ‘sys.platform’ θα αναφέρεται ως ‘ios’.
Αυτή η τιμή θα επιστραφεί σε ένα iPhone ή iPad, ανεξάρτητα από το αν η
εφαρμογή εκτελείται στον προσομοιωτή ή σε μια φυσική συσκευή.

Πληροφορίες σχετικά με το συγκεκριμένο περιβάλλον εκτέλεσης,
συμπεριλαμβανομένης της έκδοσης iOS, του μοντέλου συσκευής και του εάν η
συσκευή είναι προσομοιωτής, μπορούν να ληφθούν χρησιμοποιώντας την *note
platform.ios_ver(): 2457.  Η *note platform.system(): 2458. θα αναφέρει
‘iOS’ ή ‘iPadOS’, ανάλογα με τη συσκευή.

Η *note os.uname(): 14c2. αναφέρει λεπτομέρειες σε επίπεδο πυρήνα∙ θα
αναφέρει ένα όνομα ‘Darwin’.


File: python.info,  Node: Διαθεσιμότητα τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης,  Next: Δυαδικά modules επέκτασης,  Prev: Αναγνώριση πλατφόρμας,  Up: Python κατά τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης σε iOS

3.7.1.3 Διαθεσιμότητα τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης
.........................................

Η τυπική βιβλιοθήκη Python έχει κάποιες αξιοσημείωτες παραλείψεις και
περιορισμούς στο iOS. Δείτε στον οδηγό διαθεσιμότητας *note API
availability guide for iOS: 244d. για λεπτομέρειες.


File: python.info,  Node: Δυαδικά modules επέκτασης,  Next: Δυαδικά αρχεία προσομοίωσης μεταγλωττιστή,  Prev: Διαθεσιμότητα τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης,  Up: Python κατά τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης σε iOS

3.7.1.4 Δυαδικά modules επέκτασης
.................................

Μια αξιοσημείωτη διαφορά σχετικά με το iOS ως πλατφόρμα είναι ότι η
διανομή του App Store επιβάλλει αυστηρές απαιτήσεις σχετικά με τη
συσκευασία μιας εφαρμογής.  Μία από αυτές τις απαιτήσεις διέπει τον
τρόπο διανομής των δυαδικών modules επέκτασης.

Το iOS App Store απαιτεί από 'όλα' τα δυαδικά modules σε μια εφαρμογή
iOS να είναι δυναμικές βιβλιοθήκες, που να περιέχονται σε ένα πλαίσιο με
κατάλληλα μεταδεδομένα, αποθηκευμένα στον φάκελο ‘Frameworks’ της
συσκευασμένης εφαρμογής.  Μπορεί να υπάρχει μόνο ένα δυαδικό αρχείο ανά
πλαίσιο, και δεν μπορεί να υπάρχει εκτελέσιμο υλικό εκτός του φακέλου
‘Frameworks’.

Αυτό έρχεται σε αντίθεση με τη συνήθη προσέγγιση Python για τη διανομή
δυαδικών αρχείων, η οποία επιτρέπει τη φόρτωση μιας δυαδικής επέκτασης
module από οποιαδήποτε τοποθεσία στο ‘sys.path’.  Για να διασφαλιστεί η
συμμόρφωση με τις πολιτικές του App Store, ένα ενεργό iOS πρέπει να
επεξεργαστεί εκ των υστέρων τυχόν πακέτα Python, μετατρέποντας τις
δυαδικές μονάδες ‘.so’ σε μεμονωμένα αυτόνομα πλαίσια με κατάλληλα
μεταδεδομένα και υπογραφή.  Για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με τον τρόπο
εκτέλεσης αυτή της μετα-επεξεργασίας, ανατρέξτε στον οδηγό *note adding
Python to your project: 245b.

Για να βοηθηθεί η Python στην ανακάλυψη δυαδικών αρχείων στη νέα τους
θέση, το αρχικό αρχείο ‘.so’ στο ‘sys.path’ αντικαθίσταται με ένα αρχείο
‘.fwork’.  Αυτό το αρχείο είναι ένα αρχείο κειμένου που περιέχει τη θέση
του δυαδικού αρχείου του framework, σε σχέση με το app bundle.  Για να
επιτραπεί στο framework να επιστρέψει στην αρχική του θέση, το framework
πρέπει να περιέχει ένα αρχείο ‘.origin’ που περιέχει τη θέση του αρχείου
‘.fwork’, σε σχέση με το app bundle.

Για παράδειγμα, εξετάστε την περίπτωση μιας εντολής εισαγωγής ‘from
foo.bar import _whiz’, όπου το ‘_whiz’ υλοποιείται με το δυαδικό module
‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.so’, με το ‘sources’ να είναι η τοποθεσία
που έχει καταχωρηθεί στο ‘sys.path’, σε σχέση με το bundle της
εφαρμογής.  Αυτό το module 'πρέπει' να διανεμηθεί ως
‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz’ (δημιουργώντας το
όνομα του framework από την πλήρη διαδρομή εισαγωγής του module), με ένα
αρχείο ‘Info.plist’ στον φάκελο ‘.framework’ που να ταυτοποιεί το
δυαδικό ως framework.  Το module ‘foo.bar._whiz’ θα εκπροσωπείται στην
αρχική του τοποθεσία με ένα αρχείο δείκτη
‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.fwork’, το οποίο περιέχει τη διαδρομή
‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz/foo.bar._whiz’.  Το framework θα περιέχει
επίσης το ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz.origin’, το
οποίο περιέχει τη διαδρομή προς το αρχείο ‘.fwork’.

Κατά την εκτέλεση σε iOS, ο διερμηνέας της Python θα εγκαταστήσει μια
*note AppleFrameworkLoader: 245c, η οποία μπορεί να διαβάζει και να
εισάγει αρχεία ‘.fwork’.  Μόλις εισαχθεί, το χαρακτηριστικό ‘__file__’
του δυαδικού module θα αναφέρει ως τοποθεσία το αρχείο ‘.fwork’.
Ωστόσο, η *note ModuleSpec: 245d. για το φορτωμένο module θα αναφέρει ως
‘origin’ την τοποθεσία του δυαδικού αρχείου στον φάκελο του framework.


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3.7.1.5 Δυαδικά αρχεία προσομοίωσης μεταγλωττιστή
.................................................

Το Xcode δεν παρέχει άμεσα ξεχωριστούς μεταγλωττιστές για iOS· αντ’
αυτού, χρησιμοποιεί ένα script ‘xcrun’ που επιλύει την πλήρη διαδρομή
του μεταγλωττιστή (π.χ.  ‘xcrun --sdk iphoneos clang’ για να πάρετε τον
‘clang’ για μια συσκευή iPhone).  Ωστόσο, η χρήση αυτού του script
δημιουργεί δύο προβλήματα:

   * Η έξοδος του ‘xcrun’ περιλαμβάνει διαδρομές που εξαρτώνται από τη
     συγκεκριμένη μηχανή, με αποτέλεσμα ένα module sysconfig να μην
     μπορεί να κοινοποιηθεί μεταξύ διαφορετικών χρηστών· και

   * Αυτό έχει ως αποτέλεσμα οι ορισμοί των ‘CC’/‘CPP’/‘LD’/‘AR’ να
     περιλαμβάνουν κενά.  Υπάρχουν πολλά εργαλεία στο οικοσύστημα της C
     που υποθέτουν ότι η εντολή μπορεί να χωριστεί στον πρώτο κενό
     χαρακτήρα ώστε να βρεθεί η διαδρομή προς το εκτελέσιμο του
     μεταγλωττιστή∙ κάτι που δεν ισχύει όταν χρησιμοποιείται το ‘xcrun’.

Για να αποφευχθούν αυτά τα προβλήματα, η Python παρέχει stubs για αυτά
τα εργαλεία.  Αυτά τα stubs είναι wrapper scripts κελύφους που τυλίγουν
τα υποκείμενα εργαλεία του ‘xcrun’, και διανέμονται σε έναν φάκελο ‘bin’
μαζί με το μεταγλωττισμένο iOS framework.  Αυτά τα scripts μπορούν να
προσαρμοστούν σε διαφορετικές τοποθεσίες, και πάντα θα δείχνουν στις
σωστές τοπικές διαδρομές του συστήματος.  Συμπεριλαμβάνοντας αυτά τα
scripts στο φάκελο bin που συνοδεύει ένα framework, το περιεχόμενο του
module ‘sysconfig’ γίνεται χρήσιμο για τους τελικούς χρήστες, ώστε να
μπορούν να μεταγλωττίζουν τα δικά τους modules.  Όταν μεταγλωττίζετε
τρίτα modules Python για iOS, πρέπει να βεβαιωθείτε ότι αυτά τα stub
binaries είναι στο path σας.


File: python.info,  Node: Εγκατάσταση της Python σε iOS,  Next: Συμμόρφωση με το App Store,  Prev: Python κατά τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης σε iOS,  Up: Χρήση Python σε iOS

3.7.2 Εγκατάσταση της Python σε iOS
-----------------------------------

* Menu:

* Εργαλεία για την κατασκευή εφαρμογών iOS::
* Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS::
* Δοκιμή ενός πακέτου Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Εργαλεία για την κατασκευή εφαρμογών iOS,  Next: Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS,  Up: Εγκατάσταση της Python σε iOS

3.7.2.1 Εργαλεία για την κατασκευή εφαρμογών iOS
................................................

Η κατασκευή εφαρμογών για iOS απαιτεί τη χρήση των εργαλείων Xcode της
Apple.Συνιστάται έντονα να χρησιμοποιείτε την πιο πρόσφατη σταθερή
έκδοση του Xcode.  Αυτό θα απαιτήσει να έχετε την πιο πρόσφατη (ή τη
δεύτερη πιο πρόσφατη) έκδοση του macOS, καθώς η Apple δεν υποστηρίζει
παλαιότερες εκδόσεις macOS με νέες εκδόσεις Xcode.  Τα εργαλεία γραμμής
εντολών Xcode δεν επαρκούν για ανάπτυξη iOS∙ χρειάζεται μια 'πλήρης'
εγκατάσταση του Xcode.

Αν θέλετε να τρέξετε τον κώδικά σας στον προσομοιωτή iOS, θα χρειαστεί
επίσης να εγκαταστήσετε μια Πλατφόρμα Προσομοίωσης iOS. Κατά την πρώτη
εκκίνηση του Xcode, θα σας ζητηθεί να επιλέξετε μια Πλατφόρμα
Προσομοίωσης iOS. Εναλλακτικά, μπορείτε να προσθέσετε μια Πλατφόρμα
προσομοίωσηςiOS επιλέγοντας την από την καρτέλα Platforms στο πάνελ
ρυθμίσεων του Xcode.


File: python.info,  Node: Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS,  Next: Δοκιμή ενός πακέτου Python,  Prev: Εργαλεία για την κατασκευή εφαρμογών iOS,  Up: Εγκατάσταση της Python σε iOS

3.7.2.2 Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS
.......................................

Η Python μπορεί να προστεθεί σε οποιοδήποτε έργο iOS, χρησιμοποιώντας
είτε Swift είτε Objective C. Τα ακόλουθα παραδείγματα θα χρησιμοποιήσουν
Objective C∙ εάν χρησιμοποιείτε Swift, μπορεί να σας φανεί χρήσιμη μια
βιβλιοθήκη όπως το PythonKit(1) .

Για να προσθέσετε Python σε ένα έργο iOS Xcode:

  1. Δημιουργήστε ή αποκτήστε ένα Python ‘XCFramework’.  Δείτε τις
     οδηγίες στο iOS/README.rst(2) (στη διανομή πηγαίου κώδικα CPython)
     για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με τον τρόπο δημιουργίας ενός Python
     ‘XCFramework’.  Κατ” ελάχιστον, θα χρειαστείτε μια έκδοση που
     υποστηρίζει το ‘arm64-apple-ios’, καθώς και ένα από τα
     ‘arm64-apple-ios-simulator’ ή ‘x86_64-apple-ios-simulator’.

  2. Μεταφέρετε το ‘XCframework’ στο iOS έργο σας.  Στις ακόλουθες
     οδηγίες, θα υποθέσουμε ότι έχετε αποθέσει το ‘XCframework’ στη ρίζα
     του έργου σας ωστόσο, μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε οποιαδήποτε άλλη
     τοποθεσία θέλετε προσαρμόζοντας τις διαδρομές όπως απαιτείται.

  3. Προσθέστε τον κώδικα της εφαρμογής σας ως φάκελο στο έργο σας στο
     Xcode.  Στις παρακάτω οδηγίες, θα υποθέσουμε ότι ο κώδικας του
     χρήστη βρίσκεται σε έναν φάκελο με όνομα ‘app’ στη ριζική τοποθεσία
     του έργου σας· μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε οποιαδήποτε άλλη
     τοποθεσία, προσαρμόζοντας αναλόγως τις διαδρομές.  Βεβαιωθείτε ότι
     αυτός ο φάκελος έχει συσχετιστεί με τον στόχο (target) της
     εφαρμογής σας.

  4. Επιλέξτε τον στόχο της εφαρμογής επιλέγοντας τον ριζικό κόμβο του
     έργου σας στο Xcode και στη συνέχεια το όνομα του στόχου στην
     πλαϊνή στήλη που εμφανίζεται.

  5. Στις ρυθμίσεις «General» , κάτω από «Frameworks, Libraries and
     Embedded Content», προσθέστε το ‘Python.xcframework’, με επιλεγμένη
     την επιλογή «Embed & Sign»

  6. Στην καρτέλα «Build Settings» , τροποποιήστε τα εξής

        - Build Options

             * User Script Sandboxing: No

             * Enable Testability: Yes

        - Search Paths

             * Framework Search Paths: ‘$(PROJECT_DIR)’

             * Header Search Paths:
               ‘"$(BUILT_PRODUCTS_DIR)/Python.framework/Headers"’

        - Apple Clang - Warnings - All languages

             * Quoted Include In Framework Header: No

  7. Προσθέστε ένα βήμα κατασκευής που αντιγράφει τη βασική βιβλιοθήκη
     Python στην εφαρμογή σας.  Στην καρτέλα «Build Phases», προσθέστε
     ένα νέο βήμα κατασκευής «Run Script» 'πριν' από το βήμα «Embed
     Frameworks», αλλά 'μετά' το βήμα «Copy Bundle Resources».  Ονομάστε
     το βήμα «Install Target Specific Python Standard Library»,
     απενεργοποιήστε το πλαίσιο επιλογής «Based on dependency analysis»
     και ορίστε το περιεχόμενο του script ως εξής:

          set -e
          source $PROJECT_DIR/Python.xcframework/build/build_utils.sh
          install_python Python.xcframework app

     Εάν έχετε τοποθετήσει το XCframework κάπου αλλού εκτός από τη ρίζα
     του έργου σας, τροποποιήστε τη διαδρομή στο πρώτο όρισμα.

  8. Προσθέστε κώδικα Objective C για να αρχικοποιήσετε και να
     χρησιμοποιήσετε έναν διερμηνέα Python σε ενσωματωμένη λειτουργία.
     Θα πρέπει να βεβαιωθείτε ότι:

        * Η λειτουργία UTF-8 (*note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 630.) είναι
          'ενεργοποιημένη' ∙

        * Το Buffered stdio (*note PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 624.) είναι
          'απενεργοποιημένο' ∙

        * Η εγγραφή bytecode (*note PyConfig.write_bytecode: 620.) είναι
          'απενεργοποιημένη' ∙

        * Οι χειριστές σημάτων (*note PyConfig.install_signal_handlers:
          c91.) είναι 'ενεργοποιημένοι' ∙

        * Η καταγραφή συστήματος (*note PyConfig.use_system_logger:
          2462.) είναι 'ενεργοποιημένη' (προαιρετική, αλλά συνίσταται
          ανεπιφύλακτα∙ είναι ενεργοποιημένη από προεπιλογή)∙

        * Το *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. για τον διερμηνέα έχει ρυθμιστεί
          ώστε να δείχνει στον υποφάκελο ‘python’ της δέσμης της
          εφαρμογής σας∙ και

        * Το *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6. για τον διερμηνέα περιλαμβάνει:

             - τον υποφάκελο ‘python/lib/python3.X’ της δέσμης της
               εφαρμογής σας,

             - τον υποφάκελο ‘python/lib/python3.X/lib-dynload’ της
               δέσμης της εφαρμογής σας, και

             - τον υποφάκελο ‘app’ της δέσμης της εφαρμογής σας

     Η τοποθεσία της εφαρμογής σας στο πακέτο μπορεί να προσδιοριστεί
     χρησιμοποιώντας την εντολή ‘[[NSBundle mainBundle] resourcePath]’.

Τα βήματα 7 και 8 αυτών των οδηγιών υποθέτουν ότι έχετε έναν μόνο φάκελο
με καθαρό κώδικα εφαρμογής Python, με όνομα ‘app’.  Εάν έχετε δυαδικά
modules τρίτων στην εφαρμογή σας, θα απαιτηθούν επιπλέον βήματα:

   * Πρέπει να βεβαιωθείτε ότι τυχόν φάκελοι που περιέχουν δυαδικά
     αρχεία τρίτων είναι είτε συσχετισμένοι με τον στόχο της εφαρμογής
     είτε αντιγραμμένοι ως μέρος του βήματος 7.  Το βήμα 7 θα πρέπει
     επίσης να καθαρίσει τυχόν δυαδικά αρχεία που δεν είναι κατάλληλα
     για την πλατφόρμα στην οποία στοχεύει μια συγκεκριμένη έκδοση
     (δηλαδή, να διαγράψει τυχόν δυαδικά αρχεία συσκευής εάν
     δημιουργείτε μια εφαρμογή που στοχεύει τον προσομοιωτή).

   * Εάν χρησιμοποιείτε ξεχωριστό φάκελο για πακέτα τρίτων, βεβαιωθείτε
     ότι ο φάκελος προστίθεται στο τέλος της κλήσης προς το
     ‘install_python’ στο βήμα 7, και ως μέρος της διαμόρφωσης *note
     PYTHONPATH: 13c6. στο βήμα 8.

   * Εάν οποιοιδήποτε από τους φακέλους που περιέχουν πακέτα τρίτων θα
     περιέχουν αρχεία ‘.pth’, θα πρέπει να προσθέσετε αυτόν τον φάκελο
     ως 'site directory' (χρησιμοποιώντας τη *note site.addsitedir():
     2463.), αντί να τον προσθέσετε απευθείας στο *note PYTHONPATH:
     13c6. ή στο *note sys.path: 194.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/pvieito/PythonKit

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/iOS/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: Δοκιμή ενός πακέτου Python,  Prev: Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS,  Up: Εγκατάσταση της Python σε iOS

3.7.2.3 Δοκιμή ενός πακέτου Python
..................................

Το δένδρο πηγαίου κώδικα της CPython περιέχει το a testbed project(1)
που χρησιμοποιείται για την εκτέλεση της σουίτας δοκιμών CPython στον
προσομοιωτή iOS. Αυτό το δοκιμαστικό πλαίσιο μπορεί επίσης να
χρησιμοποιηθεί ως έργο δοκιμαστικής πλατφόρμας για την εκτέλεση της
σουίτας δοκιμών της βιβλιοθήκης Python σε iOS.

Αφού δημιουργήσετε ή αποκτήσετε ένα iOS XCFramework (δείτε το
iOS/README.rst(2) για λεπτομέρειες), δημιουργήστε ένα κλώνο του έργου
δοκιμαστικής πλατφόρμας Python iOS. Εάν χρησιμοποιήσατε το script
κατασκευής ‘Apple’ για να δημιουργήσετε το XCframework, μπορείτε να
εκτελέσετε:

     $ python cross-build/iOS/testbed clone --app <path/to/module1> --app <path/to/module2> app-testbed

Ή, εάν έχετε δημιουργήσει το δικό σας XCframework, εκτελώντας:

     $ python Apple/testbed clone --platform iOS --framework <path/to/Python.xcframework> --app <path/to/module1> --app <path/to/module2> app-testbed

Οποιοιδήποτε φάκελοι καθοριστούν με το flag ‘--app’ θα αντιγραφούν στο
κλωνοποιημένο έργο testbed.  Το τελικό testbed θα δημιουργηθεί στον
φάκελο ‘app-testbed’.  Σε αυτό το παράδειγμα, τα ‘module1’ και ‘module2’
θα είναι module που μπορούν να εισαχθούν κατά τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης.  Αν
το έργο σας έχει επιπλέον εξαρτήσεις μπορείτε να τις εγκαταστήσετε στον
φάκελο ‘app-testbed/Testbed/app_packages’ (χρησιμοποιώντας το ‘pip
install --target app-testbed/Testbed/app_packages’ ή παρόμοια εντολή).

Μπορείτε στη συνέχεια να χρησιμοποιήσετε το φάκελο ‘app-testbed’ για να
εκτελέσετε τη σουίτα δοκιμών για την εφαρμογή σας.  Για παράδειγμα, εάν
το ‘module1.tests’ ήταν το σημείο εισόδου για τη σουίτα δοκιμών σας, θα
μπορούσατε να εκτελέσετε:

     $ python app-testbed run -- module1.tests

Αυτό ισοδυναμεί με την εκτέλεση της εντολής ‘python -m module1.tests’ σε
μια έκδοση Python για επιτραπέζιους υπολογιστές.  Οποιαδήποτε ορίσματα
μετά το ‘--’ θα περαστούν στο testbed σαν να ήταν ορίσματα στην εντολή
‘python -m’ σε έναν επιτραπέζιο υπολογιστή.

Μπορείτε επίσης να ανοίξετε το έργο δοκιμαστικής πλατφόρμας στο Xcode
εκτελώντας:

     $ open app-testbed/iOSTestbed.xcodeproj

Αυτό θα σας επιτρέψει να χρησιμοποιήσετε την πλήρη σουίτα εργαλείων
Xcode για τον εντοπισμό σφαλμάτων.

Τα ορίσματα που χρησιμοποιούνται για την εκτέλεση της σουίτας δοκιμών
ορίζονται ως μέρος του σχεδίου δοκιμών.  Για να τροποποιήσετε το σχέδιο
δοκιμών, επιλέξτε τον κόμβο του σχεδίου δοκιμών στο δέντρο του έργου (θα
πρέπει να είναι το πρώτο παιδί του ριζικού κόμβου) και επιλέξτε την
καρτέλα «Configurations».  Τροποποιήστε την τιμή «Arguments Passed On
Launch» για να αλλάξετε τα ορίσματα δοκιμής.

Το σχέδιο δοκιμών απενεργοποιεί επίσης τις παράλληλες δοκιμές και
καθορίζει τη χρήση του αρχείου ‘Testbed.lldbinit’ για την παροχή
διαμόρφωσης του αποσφαλματωτή.  Η προεπιλεγμένη διαμόρφωση του
αποσφαλματωτή απενεργοποιεί τους αυτόματους σημερινούς σταθμούς
(breakpoints) στα σήματα ‘SIGINT’, ‘SIGUSR1’, ‘SIGUSR2’, και ‘SIGXFSZ’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/iOS/testbed

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/iOS/README.rst


File: python.info,  Node: Συμμόρφωση με το App Store,  Prev: Εγκατάσταση της Python σε iOS,  Up: Χρήση Python σε iOS

3.7.3 Συμμόρφωση με το App Store
--------------------------------

Ο μόνος μηχανισμός για τη διανομή εφαρμογών σε τρίτες συσκευές iOS είναι
η υποβολή της εφαρμογής στο iOS App Store∙ οι εφαρμογές που υποβάλλονται
για διανομή πρέπει να περάσουν τη διαδικασία αξιολόγησης εφαρμογών της
Apple.  Αυτή η διαδικασία περιλαμβάνει ένα σύνολο αυτοματοποιημένων
κανόνων επικύρωσης που ελέγχουν τη δέσμη της υποβληθείσας εφαρμογής για
προβληματικό κώδικα.  Υπάρχουν ορισμένα βήματα που πρέπει να ληφθούν για
να διασφαλιστεί ότι η εφαρμογή σας θα μπορεί να περάσει αυτά τα βήματα
επικύρωσης.

* Menu:

* Κώδικας ασύμβατος με την τυπική βιβλιοθήκη::
* Δηλώσεις απορρήτου::


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3.7.3.1 Κώδικας ασύμβατος με την τυπική βιβλιοθήκη
..................................................

Η τυπική βιβλιοθήκη Python περιέχει κώδικα που είναι γνωστό ότι
παραβιάζει αυτούς τους αυτοματοποιημένους κανόνες.  Ενώ αυτές οι
παραβιάσεις φαίνεται να είναι ψευδώς θετικές, οι κανόνες αξιολόγησης της
Apple δεν μπορούν να αμφισβητηθούν∙ επομένως, είναι απαραίτητο να
τροποποιήσετε την τυπική βιβλιοθήκη Python για να περάσει μια εφαρμογή
την αξιολόγηση του App Store.

Το δένδρο πηγαίου κώδικα της Python περιέχει a patch file(1) που θα
αφαιρέσει όλον τον κώδικα που είναι γνωστό ότι προκαλεί προβλήματα με τη
διαδικασία αξιολόγησης του App Store.  Αυτό το patch εφαρμόζεται
αυτόματα κατά την κατασκευή για iOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Mac/Resources/app-store-compliance.patch


File: python.info,  Node: Δηλώσεις απορρήτου,  Prev: Κώδικας ασύμβατος με την τυπική βιβλιοθήκη,  Up: Συμμόρφωση με το App Store

3.7.3.2 Δηλώσεις απορρήτου
..........................

Τον Απρίλιο του 2025, η Apple εισήγαγε μια απαίτηση για ορισμένες
βιβλιοθήκες τρίτων κατασκευαστών να παρέχουν μια Δήλωση Απορρήτου(1).
Ως αποτέλεσμα, εάν έχετε ένα δυαδικό module που χρησιμοποιεί μία από τις
επηρεαζόμενες βιβλιοθήκες, πρέπει να παρέχετε ένα αρχείο ‘.xcprivacy’
για αυτήν τη βιβλιοθήκη.  Το OpenSSL είναι μία βιβλιοθήκη που
επηρεάζεται από αυτήν την απαίτηση, αλλά υπάρχουν και άλλες.

Εάν παράγετε ένα δυαδικό module με το όνομα ‘mymodule.so’, και
χρησιμοποιήσετε το script κατασκευής Xcode που περιγράφεται στο βήμα 8
παραπάνω, μπορείτε να τοποθετήσετε ένα αρχείο ‘mymodule.xcprivacy’ δίπλα
στο ‘mymodule.so’, και η δήλωση απορρήτου θα εγκατασταθεί στην
απαιτούμενη τοποθεσία όταν το δυαδικό module μετατραπεί σε framework.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://developer.apple.com/support/third-party-SDK-requirements


File: python.info,  Node: Επεξεργαστές Κειμένου και IDEs,  Prev: Χρήση Python σε iOS,  Up: Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python

3.8 Επεξεργαστές Κειμένου και IDEs
==================================

Υπάρχουν αρκετά IDEs που υποστηρίζουν τη γλώσσα προγραμματισμού Python.
Αρκετοί επεξεργαστές κειμένου και IDEs παρέχουν επισήμανση σύνταξης,
εργαλεία αποσφαλμάτωσης και ελέγχους PEP 8(1).

* Menu:

* IDLE — Επεξεργαστής και shell της Python::
* Άλλοι Επεξεργαστές Κειμένου και IDEs::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE — Επεξεργαστής και shell της Python,  Next: Άλλοι Επεξεργαστές Κειμένου και IDEs,  Up: Επεξεργαστές Κειμένου και IDEs

3.8.1 IDLE — Επεξεργαστής και shell της Python
----------------------------------------------

Το IDLE είναι το Ολοκληρωμένο Περιβάλλον Ανάπτυξης και Εκμάθησης της
Python και γενικά συνοδεύει τις εγκαταστάσεις της Python.  Αν
χρησιμοποιείτε Linux και δεν έχετε εγκατεστημένο το IDLE δείτε *note
Installing IDLE on Linux: 2336.  Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες δείτε το
*note IDLE docs: 13be.


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3.8.2 Άλλοι Επεξεργαστές Κειμένου και IDEs
------------------------------------------

Το wiki της κοινότητας της Python έχει πληροφορίες που έχουν υποβληθεί
από την κοινότητα σχετικά με τους επεξεργαστές κειμένου και IDEs.
Παρακαλούμε μεταβείτε στο Python Editors(1) και Integrated Development
Environments(2) για ένα πλήρη κατάλογο.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/IntegratedDevelopmentEnvironments


File: python.info,  Node: Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python,  Next: The Python Standard Library,  Prev: Ρύθμιση και Χρήση της Python,  Up: Top

4 Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python
****************************************

Αυτό το εγχειρίδιο αναφοράς περιγράφει τη σύνταξη και τη «βασική
σημασιολογία» της γλώσσας.  Είναι συνοπτικό, αλλά προσπαθεί να είναι
ακριβές και πλήρες.  Η σημασιολογία των μη απαραίτητων ενσωματωμένων
τύπων αντικειμένων και των ενσωματωμένων συναρτήσεων και modules
περιγράφεται στη *note The Python Standard Library: 3f7.  Για μια άτυπη
εισαγωγή στη γλώσσα, ανατρέξτε στο *note Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python: 21a9.
Για προγραμματιστές C ή C++, υπάρχουν δύο επιπλέον εγχειρίδια: το *note
Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python: 21aa. περιγράφει τη
συνολική εικόνα του τρόπου συγγραφής ενός module επέκτασης της Python
και το *note Python/C API reference manual: 21ab. περιγράφει λεπτομερώς
τις διεπαφές που είναι διαθέσιμες στους προγραμματιστές C/C++.

* Menu:

* Εισαγωγή: Εισαγωγή<2>.
* Λεξική ανάλυση::
* Μοντέλο Δεδομένων::
* Μοντέλο εκτέλεσης::
* Το σύστημα εισαγωγής::
* Expressions::
* Απλές εντολές::
* Compound statements::
* Συστατικά ανωτάτου επιπέδου::
* Πλήρης προδιαγραφή γραμματικής::


File: python.info,  Node: Εισαγωγή<2>,  Next: Λεξική ανάλυση,  Up: Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python

4.1 Εισαγωγή
============

Αυτό το εγχειρίδιο αναφοράς περιγράφει την γλώσσα προγραμματισμού
Python.  Δεν προορίζεται ως εγχειρίδιο εκμάθησης.

Στην προσπάθεια το έγγραφο αυτό να είναι όσο το δυνατόν πιο ακριβές,
επιλέχθηκε αρχικά η Αγγλική γλώσσα, και ύστερα μεταφράστηκε στην
Ελληνική, και όχι οι επίσημες προδιαγραφές, με εξαίρεση την συντακτική
και λεξιλογική ανάλυση.  Αυτό θα πρέπει να κάνει το έγγραφο πιο
κατανοητό στον μέσο αναγνώστη, αλλά θα αφήσει χώρο για αμφισημίες.
Συνεπώς, αν ερχόσουν από τον Άρη και προσπαθούσες να υλοποιήσεις ξανά
την Python από το έγγραφο αυτό και μόνο, μάλλον θα χρειαζόταν να
μαντέψεις κάποια πράγματα και για την ακρίβεια ίσως θα κατέληγες να
υλοποιείς μια τελείως διαφορετική γλώσσα.  Από την άλλη πλευρά, αν
χρησιμοποιείς την Python και αναρωτιέσαι ποιοι είναι οι ακριβείς κανόνες
σχετικά με έναν συγκεκριμένο τομέα της γλώσσας, τότε σίγουρα θα τους
βρεις εδώ πέρα.  Αν θα ήθελες να δεις έναν πιο επίσημο ορισμό της
γλώσσας, ίσως θα μπορούσες να προσφέρεις λίγο από τον χρόνο σου — ή να
φτιάξεις μια μηχανή κλωνοποίησης :-).

Είναι επικίνδυνο να προσθέσουμε πολλές λεπτομέρειες υλοποίησης σε ένα
έγγραφο αναφοράς μίας γλώσσας — η υλοποίηση δύναται να αλλάξει, και
άλλες υλοποιήσεις της ίδιας γλώσσας μπορεί να λειτουργούν διαφορετικά.
Από την άλλη, η CPython είναι μία υλοποίηση της Python με ευρεία χρήση
(ωστόσο εναλλακτικές υλοποιήσεις συνεχίζουν να υποστηρίζονται), και οι
συγκεκριμένες της ιδιομορφίες ενίοτε αξίζουν αναφορά, ειδικά εκεί που η
υλοποίηση επιβάλλει επιπρόσθετους περιορισμούς.  Επομένως, θα βρεις
σύντομες «σημειώσεις υλοποίησης» σε διάφορα μέρη του κειμένου.

Κάθε υλοποίηση της Python συνοδεύεται από έναν αριθμό ενσωματωμένων και
πρότυπων module.  Αυτές είναι καταγεγραμμένες στο *note The Python
Standard Library: 3f7.  Κάποια ενσωματωμένα module αναφέρονται όταν
αλληλεπιδρούν με έναν σημαντικό τρόπο με τον ορισμό της γλώσσας.

* Menu:

* Εναλλακτικές Υλοποιήσεις::
* Σημειογραφία::


File: python.info,  Node: Εναλλακτικές Υλοποιήσεις,  Next: Σημειογραφία,  Up: Εισαγωγή<2>

4.1.1 Εναλλακτικές Υλοποιήσεις
------------------------------

Παρόλο που υπάρχει μία υλοποίηση της Python που είναι μακράν η πιο
διάσημη, υπάρχουν εναλλακτικές υλοποιήσεις που έχουν ιδιαίτερο
ενδιαφέρον για διάφορους ανθρώπους.

Γνωστές υλοποιήσεις περιλαμβάνουν:

CPython

     Αυτή είναι η πρωτότυπη και η πιο καλοδιατηρημένη υλοποίηση της
     Python, γραμμένη στην C. Νέες λειτουργίες της γλώσσας συνήθως
     εμφανίζονται πρώτα εδώ.

Jython

     Η υλοποίηση της Python στην Java.  Αυτή η υλοποίηση μπορεί να
     χρησιμοποιηθεί ως γλώσσα δέσμης ενεργειών για εφαρμογές στην Java,
     ή μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να δημιουργήσει εφαρμογές με τη
     χρήση των βιβλιοθηκών των κλάσεων της Java.  Συχνά επίσης
     χρησιμοποιείται για να δημιουργήσει τεστ για τις βιβλιοθήκες της
     Java.  Περισσότερες πληροφορίες μπορείτε να βρείτε στην ιστοσελίδα
     της Jython(1).

Python για το .NET

     Αυτή η υλοποίηση στην πραγματικότητα χρησιμοποιεί την υλοποίηση
     CPython, αλλά είναι μία διαχειριζόμενη εφαρμογή του .NET και κάνει
     διαθέσιμες τις .NET βιβλιοθήκες.  Δημιουργήθηκε από τον 'Brian
     Lloyd'.  Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες, δείτε την αρχική σελίδα της
     Python για το .NET(2).

IronPython

     Μια εναλλακτική Python για το .NET. Σε αντίθεση με το Python.NET,
     αυτή είναι μία ολοκληρωμένη υλοποίηση της Python που παράγει IL,
     και κάνει μεταγλώττιση του κώδικα της Python απευθείας στη γλώσσα
     assembly του .NET. Δημιουργήθηκε από τον Jim Hugunin, τον πρωτότυπο
     δημιουργό της Jython.  Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες δείτε την
     ιστοσελίδα της IronPython(3).

PyPy

     Μια υλοποίηση της Python γραμμένη εξ ολοκλήρου σε Python.
     Υποστηρίζει αρκετές προηγμένες λειτουργίες που δεν υπάρχουν σε
     άλλες υλοποιήσεις όπως υποστήριξη για stackless και τον
     μεταγλωττιστή Just in Time.  Ένας από τους στόχους του πρότζεκτ
     είναι να ενθαρρύνει τον πειραματισμό με την ίδια την γλώσσα
     κάνοντας πιο εύκολη την τροποποίηση του διερμηνέα (αφού είναι
     γραμμένος στην Python).  Περισσότερες πληροφορίες είναι διαθέσιμες
     στην αρχική σελίδα του PyPy πρότζεκτ(4).

Κάθε μία από αυτές τις υλοποιήσεις διαφοροποιούνται με κάποιον τρόπο από
την γλώσσα όπως καταγράφεται σε αυτό το εγχειρίδιο, ή εισάγει
συγκεκριμένη πληροφορία πέρα από ό,τι καλύπτουν τα πρότυπα έγγραφα της
Python.  Παρακαλώ να συμβουλευτείτε το έγγραφο της συγκεκριμένης
υλοποίησης για να προσδιορίσετε τι άλλο χρειάζεται να ξέρετε σχετικά με
την συγκεκριμένη υλοποίηση που χρησιμοποιείτε.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org/

   (2) https://pythonnet.github.io/

   (3) https://ironpython.net/

   (4) https://www.pypy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Σημειογραφία,  Prev: Εναλλακτικές Υλοποιήσεις,  Up: Εισαγωγή<2>

4.1.2 Σημειογραφία
------------------

Οι περιγραφές στην λεξιλογική ανάλυση και σύνταξη χρησιμοποιούν μια
γραμματική σημειογραφία που είναι μείγμα των EBNF(1) και PEG(2). Για
παράδειγμα:

     name:   *note letter: 2477. (*note letter: 2477. | *note digit: 2478. | "_")*
     letter: "a"..."z" | "A"..."Z"
     digit:  "0"..."9"

Σε αυτό το παράδειγμα, η πρώτη γραμμή αναφέρει ότι ένα ‘name’ είναι ένα
‘letter’ ακολουθούμενο από μια ακολουθία μηδενός ή περισσότερων
‘γραμμάτος’ων, ‘ψηφίο’α, και κάτω παύλων.  Ένα ‘letter’ με τη σειρά του
είναι οποιοσδήποτε από τους μεμονωμένους χαρακτήρες ‘'a'’ έως ‘'z'’ και
‘A’ έως ‘Z’ ∙ ένα ‘digit’ είναι ένας μεμονωμένος χαρακτήρας από ‘0’ έως
‘9’.

Κάθε κανόνας ξεκινά με ένα όνομα (το οποίο προσδιορίζει τον κανόνα που
ορίζεται) ακολουθούμενο από άνω κάτω τελεία, ‘:’.  Ο ορισμός στα δεξιά
της άνω και κάτω τελείας χρησιμοποιεί τα ακόλουθα στοιχεία σύνταξης:

   * ‘name’: Ένα όνομα αναφέρεται σε έναν άλλο κανόνα, Όπου είναι
     δυνατόν, είναι ένας σύνδεσμος προς τον ορισμό του κανόνα.

        * ‘TOKEN’: Ένα κεφαλαίο όνομα αναφέρεται σε ένα *note token:
          2479.  Για τους σκοπούς των γραμματικών ορισμών, τα tokens
          είναι το ίδιο με τους κανόνες.

   * ‘"text"’, ‘'text'’: Το κείμενο σε μονά ή διπλά εισαγωγικά πρέπει να
     ταιριάζει κυριολεκτικά (χωρίς τα εισαγωγικά).  Ο τύπος του
     εισαγωγικού επιλέγεται ανάλογα με τη σημασία του ‘text’:

        * ‘'if'’: Ένα όνομα σε μονά εισαγωγικά υποδηλώνει μια *note
          keyword: 247a.

        * ‘"case"’: Ένα όνομα σε διπλά εισαγωγικά υποδηλώνει ένα *note
          soft-keyword: be6.

        * ‘'@'’: Ένα σύμβολο που δεν περιέχει γράμμα σε μονά εισαγωγικά
          υποδηλώνει ένα *note OP: 247b. token, δηλαδή, ένα *note
          delimiter: 247c. ή *note operator: 247d.

   * ‘e1 e2’: Τα στοιχεία που χωρίζονται μόνο με κενό υποδηλώνουν μια
     ακολουθία.  Εδώ, το ‘e1’ πρέπει να ακολουθείται από το ‘e2’.

   * ‘e1 | e2’: Χρησιμοποιείται μια κάθετη γραμμή για τον διαχωρισμό των
     εναλλακτικών λύσεων.  Υποδηλώνει την «διατεταγμένη επιλογή» του
     PEG: εάν το ‘e1’ ταιριάζει, το ‘e2’ δεν λαμβάνεται υπόψη.  Στις
     παραδοσιακές γραμματικές του PEG, αυτό γράφεται ως κάθετος, ‘/’,
     αντί για κάθετη γραμμή.  Δείτε το PEP 617(3) για περισσότερες
     πληροφορίες και λεπτομέρειες.

   * ‘e*’: Ένας αστερίσκος σημαίνει μηδέν ή περισσότερες επαναλήψεις του
     προηγούμενοι στοιχείου.

   * ‘e+’: Ομοίως, ένα συν σημαίνει μία ή περισσότερες επαναλήψεις.

   * ‘[e]’: Μια φράση που περικλείεται σε αγκύλες σημαίνει μηδέν ή μία
     εμφάνιση.  Με άλλα λόγια, η φράση που περικλείεται είναι
     προαιρετική.

   * ‘e?’: Ένα ερωτηματικό έχει ακριβώς την ίδια σημασία με τις αγκύλες:
     το προηγούμενο στοιχείο είναι προαιρετικό.

   * ‘(e)’: Οι παρενθέσεις χρησιμοποιούνται για ομαδοποίηση.

Η ακόλουθη σημειογραφία χρησιμοποιείται μόνο σε *note λεξιλογικούς
ορισμούς: 247e.

   * ‘"a"..."z"’: Δύο κυριολεκτικοί χαρακτήρες διαχωρισμένοι από τρεις
     τελείες σημαίνουν την επιλογή οποιουδήποτε μεμονωμένου χαρακτήρα
     στο δεδομένο (συμπεριλαμβανομένου) εύρος χαρακτήρων ASCII.

   * ‘<...>’: Μια φράση μέσα σε γωνιακές αγκύλες δίνει μια άτυπη
     περιγραφή του αντίστοιχου συμβόλου (για παράδειγμα ‘<any ASCII
     character except "\">’), ή μια συντομογραφία που ορίζεται σε
     κοντινό κείμενο (για παράδειγμα, ‘<Lu>’).
Ορισμοί επίσης χρησιμοποιούν 'lookaheads', που υποδεικνύουν ότι ένα
στοιχείο πρέπει (ή δεν πρέπει) να ταιριάζει σε μια δεδομένη θέση, αλλά
χωρίς να καταναλώνει οποιαδήποτε είσοδο:

   * ‘&e’: μια θετική προοπτική (δηλαδή, το ‘e’ απαιτείται να ταιριάζει)

   * ‘!e’: μια αρνητική προοπτική (δηλαδή, το ‘e’ απαιτείται 'να μην'
     ταιριάζει)

Οι μοναδιαίοι τελεστές (‘*’, ‘+’, ‘?’) συνδέονται όσο το δυνατόν πιο
σφιχτά∙ η κάθετη γραμμή (‘|’) συνδέεται πιο χαλαρά.

Το κενό έχει νόημα μόνο για τον διαχωρισμό των διακριτικών.

Οι κανόνες συνήθως περιέχονται σε μία μόνο γραμμή, αλλά οι κανόνες που
είναι πολύ μεγάλοι μπορούν να αναδιπλωθούν.

     literal: stringliteral | bytesliteral
              | integer | floatnumber | imagnumber

Εναλλακτικά, οι κανόνες μπορούν να μορφοποιηθούν με την πρώτη γραμμή να
τελειών στην άνω και κάτω τελεία και κάθε εναλλακτική να ξεκινά με μια
κάθετη γραμμή σε μια νέα γραμμή.  Για παράδειγμα:

     literal:
        | stringliteral
        | bytesliteral
        | integer
        | floatnumber
        | imagnumber

Αυτό 'δεν' σημαίνει ότι υπάρχει μια κενή πρώτη εναλλακτική λύση.

* Menu:

* Λεξικοί και Συντακτικοί ορισμοί::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Backus%E2%80%93Naur_form

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/


File: python.info,  Node: Λεξικοί και Συντακτικοί ορισμοί,  Up: Σημειογραφία

4.1.2.1 Λεξικοί και Συντακτικοί ορισμοί
.......................................

Υπάρχει κάποια διαφορά μεταξύ της 'λεξικής' και της 'συντακτικής'
ανάλυσης: ο *note lexical analyzer: 2483. λειτουργεί στους μεμονωμένους
χαρακτήρες της πηγής εισόδου, ενώ ο 'αναλυτής' (συντακτικός αναλυτής)
λειτουργεί στη ροή των *note tokens: 2479. που δημιουργούνται από τη
λεξική ανάλυση.  Ωστόσο, σε ορισμένες περιπτώσεις το ακριβές όριο μεταξύ
των δύο φάσεων είναι μια λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης της CPython.

Η πρακτική διαφορά μεταξύ των δύο είναι ότι στους 'λεξιλογικούς'
ορισμούς, όλα τα κενά είναι σημαντικά.  Ο λεξικός αναλυτής *note
discards: 2484. όλα τα κενά που δεν μετατρέπονται σε διακριτικά όπως
*note token.INDENT: 22ec. ή *note NEWLINE: 2485.  Οι 'συντακτικοί'
ορισμοί χρησιμοποιούν στη συνέχεια αυτά τα διακριτικά, αντί για τους
χαρακτήρες προέλευσης.

Αυτή η τεκμηρίωση χρησιμοποιεί την ίδια γραμματική BNF και για τα δύο
στυλ ορισμών.  Όλες οι χρήσεις του BNF στο επόμενο κεφάλαιο (*note
Λεξική ανάλυση: 2486.) είναι λεξιλογικοί ορισμοί∙ οι χρήσεις στα επόμενα
κεφάλαια είναι συντακτικοί ορισμοί.


File: python.info,  Node: Λεξική ανάλυση,  Next: Μοντέλο Δεδομένων,  Prev: Εισαγωγή<2>,  Up: Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python

4.2 Λεξική ανάλυση
==================

Ένα πρόγραμμα Python διαβάζεται από έναν 'αναλυτή (parser)'.  Η είσοδος
του αναλυτή είναι μια ροή από *note tokens: 2479, που παράγεται από τον
'λεξικό αναλυτή' (γνωστό και ως 'tokenizer').  Αυτό το κεφάλαιο
περιγράφει πώς ο λεξικός αναλυτής παράγει αυτά τα tokens.

Ο λεξικός αναλυτής καθορίζει την *note κωδικοποίηση: 248a. του κειμένου
του προγράμματος (UTF-8 από προεπιλογή) και αποκωδικοποιεί το κείμενο σε
*note χαρακτήρες πηγής: 248b.  Αν το κείμενο δεν μπορεί να
αποκωδικοποιηθεί, γίνεται raise ένα *note SyntaxError: 17e.

Στη συνέχεια, ο λεξικός αναλυτής χρησιμοποιεί τους χαρακτήρες προέλευσης
για να δημιουργήσει μια ροή από tokens.  Ο τύπος ενός παραγόμενου token
γενικά εξαρτάται από τον επόμενο χαρακτήρα πηγής που πρόκειται να
επεξεργαστεί.  Αντίστοιχα, άλλες ειδικές συμπεριφορές του αναλυτή
εξαρτώνται από τον πρώτο χαρακτήρα πηγής που δεν έχει ακόμη
επεξεργαστεί.  Ο παρακάτω πίνακας δίνει μια σύντομη σύνοψη αυτών των
χαρακτήρων πηγής, με συνδέσμους προς τις ενότητες που περιέχουν
περισσότερες πληροφορίες.

Χαρακτήρας                                             Επόμενο token (ή άλλη σχετική τεκμηρίωση)
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
   * κενό                                                 * *note Κενά διαστήματα: 2484.
                                                       
   * tab

   * αλλαγή σελίδας (formfeed)

   * CR, LF                                               * *note Νέα γραμμή: 248c.
                                                       
                                                          * *note Εσοχή: 248d.
                                                       
                                                       
   * ανάστροφη κάθετος (backslash) (‘\’)                  * *note Ρητή συνένωση γραμμών: 248e.
                                                       
                                                          * (Σημαντική επίσης στις
                                                            *note ακολουθίες διαφυγής συμβολοσειρών: 874.)
                                                       
                                                       
   * δίεση (‘#’)                                          * *note Σχόλιο: 248f.
                                                       
                                                       
   * εισαγωγικό (‘'’, ‘"’)                                * *note Συμβολοσειρά: 2490.
                                                       
                                                       
   * γράμμα ASCII (‘a’-‘z’, ‘A’-‘Z’)                      * *note Όνομα: 2491.
                                                       
   * μη-ASCII χαρακτήρας                                  * Λεκτικό
                                                            *note συμβολοσειράς ή bytes με πρόθεμα: 2490.
                                                       
                                                       
   * κάτω παύλα (‘_’)                                     * *note Όνομα: 2491.
                                                       
                                                          * (Μπορεί επίσης να αποτελεί μέρος
                                                            *note αριθμητικών: 2492.)
                                                       
                                                       
   * αριθμός (‘0’-‘9’)                                    * *note Αριθμητικό: 2492.
                                                       
                                                       
   * τελεία (‘.’)                                         * *note Αριθμητικό: 2492.
                                                       
                                                          * *note Τελεστής: 247d.
                                                       
                                                       
   * ερωτηματικό (‘?’)                                    * Σφάλμα (εκτός λεκτικών συμβολοσειράς και
                                                            σχολίων)
   * σύμβολο δολαρίου (‘$’)                            

   * 
     ανάποδο εισαγωγικό (‘​`​’)

   * χαρακτήρας ελέγχου

   * άλλος εκτυπώσιμος χαρακτήρας                         * *note Τελεστής ή delimiter: 247d.
                                                       
                                                       
   * τέλος αρχείου                                        * *note Δείκτης τέλους: 2493.
                                                       

* Menu:

* Δομή γραμμών::
* Άλλα tokens::
* Ονόματα (αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά): Ονόματα αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά.
* Λεκτικά::
* Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes::
* Αριθμητικά λεκτικά::
* Τελεστές και οριοθέτες::


File: python.info,  Node: Δομή γραμμών,  Next: Άλλα tokens,  Up: Λεξική ανάλυση

4.2.1 Δομή γραμμών
------------------

Ένα πρόγραμμα Python χωρίζεται σε έναν αριθμό από 'λογικές γραμμές'.

* Menu:

* Λογικές γραμμές::
* Φυσικές γραμμές::
* Σχόλια::
* Δηλώσεις κωδικοποίησης::
* Ρητή συνένωση γραμμών::
* Έμμεση συνένωση γραμμών::
* Κενές γραμμές::
* Εσοχή::
* Κενοί χαρακτήρες μεταξύ των tokens::
* Δείκτης τέλους::


File: python.info,  Node: Λογικές γραμμές,  Next: Φυσικές γραμμές,  Up: Δομή γραμμών

4.2.1.1 Λογικές γραμμές
.......................

Το τέλος μιας λογικής γραμμής αναπαρίσταται από το token *note NEWLINE:
2485.  Οι εντολές δεν μπορούν να διασχίσουν τα όρια λογικών γραμμών,
εκτός αν το ‘NEWLINE’ επιτρέπεται από τη σύνταξη (π.χ.  μεταξύ εντολών
σε σύνθετες εντολές).  Μια λογική γραμμή κατασκευάζεται από μία ή
περισσότερες 'φυσικές γραμμές' ακολουθώντας τους κανόνες 'συνένωσης
γραμμών' *note ρητής: 248e. ή *note έμμεσης: 2497.


File: python.info,  Node: Φυσικές γραμμές,  Next: Σχόλια,  Prev: Λογικές γραμμές,  Up: Δομή γραμμών

4.2.1.2 Φυσικές γραμμές
.......................

Μια φυσική γραμμή είναι μια ακολουθία χαρακτήρων που τερματίζεται από
μία από τις παρακάτω ακολουθίες τέλους γραμμής:

   * τη μορφή Unix που χρησιμοποιεί ASCII LF (linefeed),

   * τη μορφή Windows που χρησιμοποιεί την ASCII ακολουθία CR LF (return
     ακολουθούμενο από linefeed),

   * τη μορφή “Classic Mac OS(1)” που χρησιμοποιεί τον χαρακτήρα ASCII
     CR (return).

Ανεξάρτητα από την πλατφόρμα, καθεμία από αυτές τις ακολουθίες
αντικαθίσταται από έναν μόνο χαρακτήρα ASCII LF (linefeed).  (Αυτό
γίνεται ακόμη και μέσα σε *note συμβολοσειρές: 2490.)  Κάθε γραμμή
μπορεί να χρησιμοποιεί οποιαδήποτε από τις ακολουθίες· δεν χρειάζεται να
είναι συνεπείς μέσα στο ίδιο αρχείο.

Το τέλος της εισόδου λειτουργεί επίσης ως έμμεσο τέλος για την τελευταία
φυσική γραμμή.

Τυπικά:

     newline: <ASCII LF> | <ASCII CR> <ASCII LF> | <ASCII CR>

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Mac_OS


File: python.info,  Node: Σχόλια,  Next: Δηλώσεις κωδικοποίησης,  Prev: Φυσικές γραμμές,  Up: Δομή γραμμών

4.2.1.3 Σχόλια
..............

Ένα σχόλιο ξεκινά με τον χαρακτήρα δίεσης (‘#’) που δεν αποτελεί μέρος
συμβολοσειράς και τελειώνει στο τέλος της φυσικής γραμμής.  Ένα σχόλιο
σηματοδοτεί το τέλος της λογικής γραμμής, εκτός αν εφαρμόζονται οι
κανόνες έμμεσης συνένωσης γραμμών.  Τα σχόλια αγνοούνται από τη σύνταξη.


File: python.info,  Node: Δηλώσεις κωδικοποίησης,  Next: Ρητή συνένωση γραμμών,  Prev: Σχόλια,  Up: Δομή γραμμών

4.2.1.4 Δηλώσεις κωδικοποίησης
..............................

Αν ένα σχόλιο στην πρώτη ή δεύτερη γραμμή ενός Python script ταιριάζει
με την κανονική έκφραση (regular expression) ‘coding[=:]\s*([-\w.]+)’,
τότε το σχόλιο επεξεργάζεται ως δήλωση κωδικοποίησης· η πρώτη ομάδα
αυτής της έκφρασης ονομάζει την κωδικοποίηση του αρχείου πηγαίου κώδικα.
Η δήλωση κωδικοποίησης πρέπει να εμφανίζεται μόνη της σε μια γραμμή.  Αν
βρίσκεται στη δεύτερη γραμμή, τότε η πρώτη γραμμή πρέπει να περιέχει
μόνο σχόλιο.  Οι προτεινόμενες μορφές δήλωσης κωδικοποίησης είναι

     # -*- coding: <encoding-name> -*-

η οποία αναγνωρίζεται επίσης από το GNU Emacs, και

     # vim:fileencoding=<encoding-name>

η οποία αναγνωρίζεται από το VIM του Bram Moolenaar.

Αν δεν βρεθεί δήλωση κωδικοποίησης, η προεπιλεγμένη κωδικοποίηση είναι
UTF-8.  Αν η έμμεση ή ρητή κωδικοποίηση ενός αρχείου είναι UTF-8, ένα
αρχικό UTF-8 byte-order mark (‘b'\xef\xbb\xbf'’) αγνοείται αντί να
θεωρείται σφάλμα σύνταξης.

Αν δηλωθεί κωδικοποίηση, το όνομά της πρέπει να αναγνωρίζεται από την
Python (βλ.  *note Standard Encodings: 1171.).  Η κωδικοποίηση
χρησιμοποιείται για όλη τη λεξική ανάλυση, συμπεριλαμβανομένων λεκτικών
συμβολοσειράς, σχολίων και αναγνωριστικών.  Όλη η λεξική ανάλυση,
συμπεριλαμβανομένων λεκτικών συμβολοσειράς, σχολίων και αναγνωριστικών,
γίνεται πάνω σε κείμενο Unicode που έχει αποκωδικοποιηθεί με την
κωδικοποίηση πηγής.  Οποιοδήποτε σημείο κώδικα Unicode, εκτός από τον
χαρακτήρα ελέγχου NUL, μπορεί να εμφανιστεί σε πηγαίο κώδικα Python.

     source_character:  <any Unicode code point, except NUL>


File: python.info,  Node: Ρητή συνένωση γραμμών,  Next: Έμμεση συνένωση γραμμών,  Prev: Δηλώσεις κωδικοποίησης,  Up: Δομή γραμμών

4.2.1.5 Ρητή συνένωση γραμμών
.............................

Δύο ή περισσότερες φυσικές γραμμές μπορούν να ενωθούν σε λογικές γραμμές
χρησιμοποιώντας χαρακτήρες ανάστροφης καθέτου (‘\’), ως εξής: όταν μια
φυσική γραμμή τελειώνει με ανάστροφη κάθετο που δεν αποτελεί μέρος
λεκτικού συμβολοσειράς ή σχολίου, ενώνεται με την επόμενη σχηματίζοντας
μία λογική γραμμή, διαγράφοντας την ανάστροφη κάθετο και τον ακόλουθο
χαρακτήρα τέλους γραμμής.  Για παράδειγμα:

     if 1900 < year < 2100 and 1 <= month <= 12 \
        and 1 <= day <= 31 and 0 <= hour < 24 \
        and 0 <= minute < 60 and 0 <= second < 60:   # Looks like a valid date
             return 1

Μια γραμμή που τελειώνει με ανάστροφη κάθετο δεν μπορεί να περιέχει
σχόλιο.  Η ανάστροφη κάθετος δεν συνεχίζει ένα σχόλιο.  Η ανάστροφη
κάθετος δεν συνεχίζει ένα token, εκτός από λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς (δηλ.
tokens διαφορετικά από λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς δεν μπορούν να «σπάσουν» σε
περισσότερες φυσικές γραμμές με χρήση ανάστροφης καθέτου).  Η ανάστροφη
κάθετος είναι παράνομη οπουδήποτε αλλού σε μια γραμμή εκτός λεκτικού
συμβολοσειράς.


File: python.info,  Node: Έμμεση συνένωση γραμμών,  Next: Κενές γραμμές,  Prev: Ρητή συνένωση γραμμών,  Up: Δομή γραμμών

4.2.1.6 Έμμεση συνένωση γραμμών
...............................

Εκφράσεις μέσα σε παρενθέσεις, αγκύλες ή άγκιστρα μπορούν να χωριστούν
σε περισσότερες από μία φυσικές γραμμές χωρίς χρήση ανάστροφων καθέτων.
Για παράδειγμα:

     month_names = ['Januari', 'Februari', 'Maart',      # These are the
                    'April',   'Mei',      'Juni',       # Dutch names
                    'Juli',    'Augustus', 'September',  # for the months
                    'Oktober', 'November', 'December']   # of the year

Οι έμμεσα συνεχόμενες γραμμές μπορούν να περιέχουν σχόλια.  Η εσοχή των
γραμμών συνέχισης δεν είναι σημαντική.  Επιτρέπονται κενές γραμμές
συνέχισης.  Δεν υπάρχει token NEWLINE ανάμεσα σε έμμεσα συνεχόμενες
γραμμές.  Έμμεσα συνεχόμενες γραμμές μπορούν επίσης να εμφανιστούν μέσα
σε συμβολοσειρές τριπλών εισαγωγικών (βλ.  παρακάτω)· σε αυτή την
περίπτωση δεν μπορούν να περιέχουν σχόλια.


File: python.info,  Node: Κενές γραμμές,  Next: Εσοχή,  Prev: Έμμεση συνένωση γραμμών,  Up: Δομή γραμμών

4.2.1.7 Κενές γραμμές
.....................

Μια λογική γραμμή που περιέχει μόνο κενά, tabs, αλλαγές σελίδας και
πιθανόν σχόλιο, αγνοείται (δηλ.  δεν παράγεται token *note NEWLINE:
2485.).  Κατά τη διαδραστική εισαγωγή εντολών, ο χειρισμός μιας κενής
γραμμής μπορεί να διαφέρει ανάλογα με την υλοποίηση του read-eval-print
loop.  Στον τυπικό διαδραστικό διερμηνέα, μια εντελώς κενή λογική γραμμή
(δηλ.  που δεν περιέχει ούτε κενούς χαρακτήρες ούτε σχόλιο) τερματίζει
μια εντολή πολλαπλών γραμμών.


File: python.info,  Node: Εσοχή,  Next: Κενοί χαρακτήρες μεταξύ των tokens,  Prev: Κενές γραμμές,  Up: Δομή γραμμών

4.2.1.8 Εσοχή
.............

Οι αρχικοί κενοί χαρακτήρες (κενά και tabs) στην αρχή μιας λογικής
γραμμής χρησιμοποιούνται για τον υπολογισμό του επιπέδου εσοχής της
γραμμής, το οποίο με τη σειρά του χρησιμοποιείται για να καθοριστεί η
ομαδοποίηση των εντολών.

Τα tabs αντικαθίστανται (από αριστερά προς τα δεξιά) από ένα έως οκτώ
κενά έτσι ώστε το συνολικό πλήθος χαρακτήρων μέχρι και την αντικατάσταση
να είναι πολλαπλάσιο του οκτώ (πρόκειται για τον ίδιο κανόνας που
χρησιμοποιείται στο Unix).  Το συνολικό πλήθος κενών πριν από τον πρώτο
μη-κενό χαρακτήρα καθορίζει την εσοχή της γραμμής.  Η εσοχή δεν μπορεί
να «σπάσει» σε περισσότερες φυσικές γραμμές με χρήση ανάστροφων καθέτων·
οι κενοί χαρακτήρες μέχρι την πρώτη ανάστροφη κάθετο καθορίζουν την
εσοχή.

Η εσοχή απορρίπτεται ως ασυνεπής αν ένα αρχείο πηγαίου κώδικα
αναμειγνύει tabs και κενά με τρόπο που κάνει το νόημα να εξαρτάται από
το πόσα κενά αντιστοιχούν σε ένα tab· σε αυτή την περίπτωση γίνεται
raise ένα *note TabError: 950.

'Σημείωση συμβατότητας μεταξύ πλατφορμών:' λόγω της φύσης των
επεξεργαστών κειμένου σε μη-UNIX πλατφόρμες, δεν είναι συνετό να
χρησιμοποιείται μίξη κενών και tabs για την εσοχή μέσα στο ίδιο αρχείο
πηγαίου κώδικα.  Θα πρέπει επίσης να σημειωθεί ότι διαφορετικές
πλατφόρμες ενδέχεται να περιορίζουν ρητά το μέγιστο επίπεδο εσοχής.

Ένας χαρακτήρας νέας γραμμής μπορεί να υπάρχει στην αρχή της γραμμής· θα
αγνοηθεί για τους παραπάνω υπολογισμούς εσοχής.  Χαρακτήρες νέας γραμμής
που εμφανίζονται αλλού μέσα στους αρχικούς κενούς χαρακτήρες έχουν
απροσδιόριστη επίδραση (για παράδειγμα, μπορεί να μηδενίσουν την
καταμέτρηση κενών).

Τα επίπεδα εσοχής διαδοχικών γραμμών χρησιμοποιούνται για τη δημιουργία
των tokens *note INDENT: 22ec. και *note DEDENT: 24a3, χρησιμοποιώντας
μια στοίβα, ως εξής.

Πριν διαβαστεί η πρώτη γραμμή του αρχείου, ένα μοναδικό μηδενικό ωθείται
στη στοίβα· αυτό δεν θα αφαιρεθεί ποτέ.  Οι αριθμοί που ωθούνται στη
στοίβα θα είναι πάντα αυστηρά αυξανόμενοι από κάτω προς τα πάνω.  Στην
αρχή κάθε λογικής γραμμής, το επίπεδο εσοχής της γραμμής συγκρίνεται με
την κορυφή της στοίβας.  Αν είναι ίσο, δεν συμβαίνει τίποτα.  Αν είναι
μεγαλύτερο, ωθείται στη στοίβα και παράγεται ένα token ‘INDENT’.  Αν
είναι μικρότερο, 'πρέπει' να είναι ένας από τους αριθμούς που υπάρχουν
στη στοίβα· όλοι οι μεγαλύτεροι αριθμοί αφαιρούνται (pop) και για κάθε
αριθμό που αφαιρείται παράγεται ένα token ‘DEDENT’.  Στο τέλος του
αρχείου, παράγεται ένα token ‘DEDENT’ για κάθε αριθμό που απομένει στη
στοίβα και είναι μεγαλύτερος από το μηδέν.

Ακολουθεί ένα παράδειγμα (αν και μπερδεμένο) κώδικα Python με σωστή
εσοχή:

     def perm(l):
             # Compute the list of all permutations of l
         if len(l) <= 1:
                       return [l]
         r = []
         for i in range(len(l)):
                  s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
                  p = perm(s)
                  for x in p:
                   r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
         return r

Το παρακάτω παράδειγμα δείχνει διάφορα σφάλματα εσοχής:

      def perm(l):                       # error: first line indented
     for i in range(len(l)):             # error: not indented
         s = l[:i] + l[i+1:]
             p = perm(l[:i] + l[i+1:])   # error: unexpected indent
             for x in p:
                     r.append(l[i:i+1] + x)
                 return r                # error: inconsistent dedent

(Στην πραγματικότητα, τα τρία πρώτα σφάλματα εντοπίζονται από τον
parser· μόνο το τελευταίο σφάλμα εντοπίζεται από τον λεξικό αναλυτή — η
εσοχή του ‘return r’ δεν ταιριάζει με επίπεδο που αφαιρέθηκε από τη
στοίβα.)


File: python.info,  Node: Κενοί χαρακτήρες μεταξύ των tokens,  Next: Δείκτης τέλους,  Prev: Εσοχή,  Up: Δομή γραμμών

4.2.1.9 Κενοί χαρακτήρες μεταξύ των tokens
..........................................

Except at the beginning of a logical line or in string literals, the
whitespace characters space, tab and formfeed can be used
interchangeably to separate tokens:

     whitespace:  ' ' | tab | formfeed

Whitespace is needed between two tokens only if their concatenation
could otherwise be interpreted as a different token.  For example, ‘ab’
is one token, but ‘a b’ is two tokens.  However, ‘+a’ and ‘+ a’ both
produce two tokens, ‘+’ and ‘a’, as ‘+a’ is not a valid token.


File: python.info,  Node: Δείκτης τέλους,  Prev: Κενοί χαρακτήρες μεταξύ των tokens,  Up: Δομή γραμμών

4.2.1.10 Δείκτης τέλους
.......................

Στο τέλος μη-διαδραστικής εισόδου, ο λεξικός αναλυτής παράγει ένα token
*note ENDMARKER: 24a7.


File: python.info,  Node: Άλλα tokens,  Next: Ονόματα αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά,  Prev: Δομή γραμμών,  Up: Λεξική ανάλυση

4.2.2 Άλλα tokens
-----------------

Εκτός από τα *note NEWLINE: 2485, *note INDENT: 22ec. και *note DEDENT:
24a3, υπάρχουν και οι εξής κατηγορίες tokens: 'αναγνωριστικά' και
'λέξεις-κλειδιά' (*note NAME: 24aa.), 'λεκτικά' (όπως *note NUMBER:
24ab. και *note STRING: 24ac.) και άλλα σύμβολα ('τελεστές' και
'οριοθέτες', *note OP: 247b.).  Οι κενοί χαρακτήρες (εκτός από τους
τερματιστές λογικής γραμμής που συζητήθηκαν νωρίτερα) δεν είναι tokens,
αλλά χρησιμεύουν για τον διαχωρισμό των tokens.  Όπου υπάρχει ασάφεια,
ένα token αποτελείται από τη μεγαλύτερη δυνατή συμβολοσειρά που
σχηματίζει έγκυρο token, όταν διαβάζεται από αριστερά προς τα δεξιά.


File: python.info,  Node: Ονόματα αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά,  Next: Λεκτικά,  Prev: Άλλα tokens,  Up: Λεξική ανάλυση

4.2.3 Ονόματα (αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά)
------------------------------------------------

Τα tokens *note NAME: 24aa. αναπαριστούν 'αναγνωριστικά',
'λέξεις-κλειδιά' και 'ήπιες λέξεις-κλειδιά'.

Τα ονόματα αποτελούνται από τους παρακάτω χαρακτήρες:

   * κεφαλαία και πεζά γράμματα (‘A-Z’ και ‘a-z’),

   * την κάτω παύλα (‘_’),

   * ψηφία (‘0’ έως ‘9’), που δεν μπορούν να εμφανιστούν ως πρώτος
     χαρακτήρας, και

   * μη-ASCII χαρακτήρες.  Έγκυρα ονόματα μπορούν να περιέχουν μόνο
     χαρακτήρες «γραμμάτων” και «ψηφίων”· δείτε *note Μη-ASCII
     χαρακτήρες στα ονόματα: 24ae. για λεπτομέρειες.

Τα ονόματα πρέπει να περιέχουν τουλάχιστον έναν χαρακτήρα, αλλά δεν
έχουν ανώτατο όριο μήκους.  Τα κεφαλαία/πεζά έχουν σημασία.

Τυπικά, τα ονόματα περιγράφονται από τους παρακάτω λεξικούς ορισμούς:

     NAME:          *note name_start: 24b0. *note name_continue: 24b1.*
     name_start:    "a"..."z" | "A"..."Z" | "_" | <non-ASCII character>
     name_continue: name_start | "0"..."9"
     identifier:    <*note NAME: 24af, except keywords>

Σημειώστε ότι δεν είναι έγκυρα όλα τα ονόματα που ταιριάζουν σε αυτή τη
γραμματική· δείτε *note Μη-ASCII χαρακτήρες στα ονόματα: 24ae. για
λεπτομέρειες.

* Menu:

* Λέξεις-κλειδιά::
* Ήπιες λέξεις-κλειδιά::
* Δεσμευμένες κλάσεις αναγνωριστικών::
* Μη-ASCII χαρακτήρες στα ονόματα::


File: python.info,  Node: Λέξεις-κλειδιά,  Next: Ήπιες λέξεις-κλειδιά,  Up: Ονόματα αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά

4.2.3.1 Λέξεις-κλειδιά
......................

Τα παρακάτω ονόματα χρησιμοποιούνται ως δεσμευμένες λέξεις, ή
'λέξεις-κλειδιά' της γλώσσας, και δεν μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν ως
κοινά αναγνωριστικά.  Πρέπει να γράφονται ακριβώς όπως εμφανίζονται εδώ:

     False      await      else       import     pass
     None       break      except     in         raise
     True       class      finally    is         return
     and        continue   for        lambda     try
     as         def        from       nonlocal   while
     assert     del        global     not        with
     async      elif       if         or         yield


File: python.info,  Node: Ήπιες λέξεις-κλειδιά,  Next: Δεσμευμένες κλάσεις αναγνωριστικών,  Prev: Λέξεις-κλειδιά,  Up: Ονόματα αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά

4.2.3.2 Ήπιες λέξεις-κλειδιά
............................

Added in version 3.10.

Κάποια ονόματα είναι δεσμευμένα μόνο σε συγκεκριμένα συμφραζόμενα.  Αυτά
είναι γνωστά ως 'ήπιες λέξεις-κλειδιά':

   - ‘match’, ‘case’ και ‘_’, όταν χρησιμοποιούνται στην εντολή *note
     match: 1d4.

   - ‘type’, όταν χρησιμοποιείται στην εντολή *note type: 85a.

   - ‘lazy’, when used before an *note import: 9da. statement.

Αυτά λειτουργούν συντακτικά ως λέξεις-κλειδιά στα συγκεκριμένα
συμφραζόμενά τους, αλλά αυτή η διάκριση γίνεται στο επίπεδο του parser,
όχι κατά το tokenizing.

Ως ήπιες λέξεις-κλειδιά, η χρήση τους στη γραμματική είναι δυνατή, ενώ
ταυτόχρονα διατηρείται η συμβατότητα με υπάρχον κώδικα που χρησιμοποιεί
αυτά τα ονόματα ως ονόματα αναγνωριστικών.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Το ‘type’ είναι πλέον ήπια λέξη-κλειδί.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: ‘lazy’ is now a soft keyword.


File: python.info,  Node: Δεσμευμένες κλάσεις αναγνωριστικών,  Next: Μη-ASCII χαρακτήρες στα ονόματα,  Prev: Ήπιες λέξεις-κλειδιά,  Up: Ονόματα αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά

4.2.3.3 Δεσμευμένες κλάσεις αναγνωριστικών
..........................................

Ορισμένες κλάσεις αναγνωριστικών (πέρα από τις λέξεις-κλειδιά) έχουν
ειδικές σημασίες.  Αυτές οι κλάσεις αναγνωρίζονται από τα μοτίβα κάτω
παύλων στην αρχή και/ή στο τέλος:

‘_*’

     Δεν εισάγεται με ‘from module import *’.

‘_’

     Σε ένα μοτίβο ‘case’ μέσα σε εντολή *note match: 1d4, το ‘_’ είναι
     *note ήπια λέξη-κλειδί: be6. που δηλώνει ένα *note μπαλαντέρ: be7.

     Ανεξάρτητα από αυτό, ο διαδραστικός διερμηνέας κάνει διαθέσιμο το
     αποτέλεσμα της τελευταίας αξιολόγησης στη μεταβλητή ‘_’.
     (Αποθηκεύεται στο module *note builtins: 13, δίπλα σε ενσωματωμένες
     συναρτήσεις όπως το ‘print’.)

     Αλλού, το ‘_’ είναι ένα κανονικό αναγνωριστικό.  Συχνά
     χρησιμοποιείται για να ονομάζει «ειδικά» αντικείμενα, αλλά δεν
     είναι ιδιαίτερο για την ίδια την Python.

          Σημείωση: Το όνομα ‘_’ χρησιμοποιείται συχνά σε συνδυασμό με
          διεθνοποίηση· ανατρέξτε στην τεκμηρίωση του module *note
          gettext: 66. για περισσότερες πληροφορίες σχετικά με αυτή τη
          σύμβαση.

          Χρησιμοποιείται επίσης συχνά για αχρησιμοποίητες μεταβλητές.

‘__*__’

     Ονόματα ορισμένα από το σύστημα, ατύπως γνωστά ως ονόματα «dunder».
     Αυτά τα ονόματα ορίζονται από τον διερμηνέα και την υλοποίησή του
     (συμπεριλαμβανομένης της τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης).  Τα τρέχοντα ονόματα
     συστήματος συζητούνται στην ενότητα *note Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων:
     102c. και αλλού.  Πιθανότατα θα οριστούν περισσότερα σε μελλοντικές
     εκδόσεις της Python.  'Κάθε' χρήση ονομάτων ‘__*__’, σε οποιοδήποτε
     πλαίσιο, που δεν ακολουθεί ρητά τεκμηριωμένη χρήση, είναι πιθανό να
     «σπάσει» χωρίς προειδοποίηση.

‘__*’

     Ιδιωτικά ονόματα σε κλάση.  Τα ονόματα αυτής της κατηγορίας, όταν
     χρησιμοποιούνται μέσα στο πλαίσιο ενός ορισμού κλάσης,
     ξαναγράφονται σε «παραμορφωμένη» (mangled) μορφή ώστε να
     αποφεύγονται συγκρούσεις ονομάτων μεταξύ «ιδιωτικών» γνωρισμάτων
     βασικών και παραγόμενων κλάσεων.  Δείτε την ενότητα *note
     Identifiers (Names): 24b7.


File: python.info,  Node: Μη-ASCII χαρακτήρες στα ονόματα,  Prev: Δεσμευμένες κλάσεις αναγνωριστικών,  Up: Ονόματα αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά

4.2.3.4 Μη-ASCII χαρακτήρες στα ονόματα
.......................................

Ονόματα που περιέχουν μη-ASCII χαρακτήρες χρειάζονται πρόσθετη
κανονικοποίηση και επικύρωση πέρα από τους κανόνες και τη γραμματική που
εξηγούνται *note παραπάνω: 2491.  Για παράδειγμα, τα ‘ř_1’, ‘蛇’ ή ‘साँप’
είναι έγκυρα ονόματα, αλλά τα ‘r〰2’, ‘€’ ή ‘🐍’ δεν είναι.

Αυτή η ενότητα εξηγεί τους ακριβείς κανόνες.

Όλα τα ονόματα μετατρέπονται στη normalization form(1) NFKC κατά την
ανάλυση.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι, για παράδειγμα, ορισμένες τυπογραφικές
παραλλαγές χαρακτήρων μετατρέπονται στη «βασική» τους μορφή.  Για
παράδειγμα, το ‘ﬁⁿₐˡᵢᶻₐᵗᵢᵒₙ’ κανονικοποιείται σε ‘finalization’, οπότε η
Python τα αντιμετωπίζει ως το ίδιο όνομα:

     >>> ﬁⁿₐˡᵢᶻₐᵗᵢᵒₙ = 3
     >>> finalization
     3

     Σημείωση: Η κανονικοποίηση γίνεται μόνο στο λεξικό επίπεδο.
     Συναρτήσεις χρόνου εκτέλεσης που δέχονται ονόματα ως 'strings'
     γενικά δεν κανονικοποιούν τα ορίσματά τους.  Για παράδειγμα, η
     μεταβλητή που ορίστηκε παραπάνω είναι προσβάσιμη κατά την εκτέλεση
     στο λεξικό *note globals(): 1e01. ως ‘globals()["finalization"]’
     αλλά όχι ως ‘globals()["ﬁⁿₐˡᵢᶻₐᵗᵢᵒₙ"]’.

Όπως ακριβώς τα ονόματα που αποτελούνται μόνο από ASCII πρέπει να
περιέχουν μόνο γράμματα, ψηφία και κάτω παύλα και δεν μπορούν να
ξεκινούν με ψηφίο, έτσι και ένα έγκυρο όνομα πρέπει να ξεκινά με
χαρακτήρα από το σύνολο''xid_start'' τύπου γραμμάτων, και οι υπόλοιποι
χαρακτήρες πρέπει να ανήκουν στο σύνολο ‘xid_continue’ τύπου γραμμάτων
και ψηφίων.

These sets are based on the 'XID_Start' and 'XID_Continue' sets as
defined by the Unicode standard annex UAX-31(2).  Python’s ‘xid_start’
additionally includes the underscore (‘_’).  Note that Python does not
necessarily conform to UAX-31(3).

Μια μη-κανονιστική λίστα χαρακτήρων των συνόλων 'XID_Start' και
'XID_Continue' όπως ορίζονται από το Unicode είναι διαθέσιμη στο αρχείο
DerivedCoreProperties.txt(4) της Unicode Character Database.  Για
αναφορά, οι κανόνες κατασκευής για τα σύνολα ‘xid_*’ δίνονται παρακάτω.

Το σύνολο ‘id_start’ ορίζεται ως η ένωση των:

   * Κατηγορία Unicode ‘<Lu>’ - κεφαλαία γράμματα (περιλαμβάνει ‘A’ έως
     ‘Z’)

   * Κατηγορία Unicode ‘<Ll>’ - πεζά γράμματα (περιλαμβάνει ‘a’ έως ‘z’)

   * Κατηγορία Unicode ‘<Lt>’ - γράμματα τύπου titlecase

   * Κατηγορία Unicode ‘<Lm>’ - τροποποιητικά γράμματα

   * Κατηγορία Unicode ‘<Lo>’ - άλλα γράμματα

   * Κατηγορία Unicode ‘<Nl>’ - αριθμοί-γράμματα

   * {‘"_"’} - η κάτω παύλα

   * ‘<Other_ID_Start>’ - ένα ρητό σύνολο χαρακτήρων στο PropList.txt(5)
     για να υποστηρίζεται η συμβατότητα προς τα πίσω

Το σύνολο ‘xid_start’ κατόπιν «κλείνει» αυτό το σύνολο υπό
κανονικοποίηση NFKC, αφαιρώντας όλους τους χαρακτήρες των οποίων η
κανονικοποίηση δεν είναι της μορφής ‘id_start id_continue*’.

Το σύνολο ‘id_continue’ ορίζεται ως η ένωση των:

   * ‘id_start’ (βλ.  παραπάνω)

   * Κατηγορία Unicode ‘<Nd>’ - δεκαδικοί αριθμοί (περιλαμβάνει ‘0’ έως
     ‘9’)

   * Κατηγορία Unicode ‘<Pc>’ - σημεία στίξης σύνδεσης

   * Κατηγορία Unicode ‘<Mn>’ - nonspacing marks

   * Κατηγορία Unicode ‘<Mc>’ - συνδυαστικά σημάδια με απόσταση

   * ‘<Other_ID_Continue>’ - ένα ακόμη ρητό σύνολο χαρακτήρων στο
     PropList.txt(6) για να υποστηρίζεται η συμβατότητα προς τα πίσω

Και πάλι, το ‘xid_continue’ «κλείνει» αυτό το σύνολο υπό κανονικοποίηση
NFKC.

Οι κατηγορίες Unicode χρησιμοποιούν την έκδοση της Unicode Character
Database όπως περιλαμβάνεται στο module *note unicodedata: 10e.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * PEP 3131(7) – Υποστήριξη μη-ASCII αναγνωριστικών

   * PEP 672(8) – Ζητήματα ασφάλειας σχετικά με το Unicode στην Python

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr15/#Norm_Forms

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr31/

   (3) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr31/

   (4) 
https://www.unicode.org/Public/17.0.0/ucd/DerivedCoreProperties.txt

   (5) https://www.unicode.org/Public/17.0.0/ucd/PropList.txt

   (6) https://www.unicode.org/Public/17.0.0/ucd/PropList.txt

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0672/


File: python.info,  Node: Λεκτικά,  Next: Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes,  Prev: Ονόματα αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά,  Up: Λεξική ανάλυση

4.2.4 Λεκτικά
-------------

Τα λεκτικά είναι σημειογραφίες για σταθερές τιμές ορισμένων
ενσωματωμένων τύπων.

Όσον αφορά τη λεξική ανάλυση, η Python έχει λεκτικά *note συμβολοσειράς,
bytes: 2490. και *note αριθμητικά: 2492.

Άλλα «λεκτικά» δηλώνονται λεξικά μέσω *note λέξεων-κλειδιών: 247a.
(‘None’, ‘True’, ‘False’) και του ειδικού *note token έλλειψης: 24bb.
(‘...’).


File: python.info,  Node: Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes,  Next: Αριθμητικά λεκτικά,  Prev: Λεκτικά,  Up: Λεξική ανάλυση

4.2.5 Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes
-------------------------------------

Τα λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς είναι κείμενο μέσα σε μονά εισαγωγικά (‘'’) ή
διπλά εισαγωγικά (‘"’).  Για παράδειγμα:

     "spam"
     'eggs'

Το εισαγωγικό που χρησιμοποιείται για να ξεκινήσει το λεκτικό το
τερματίζει, οπότε ένα λεκτικό συμβολοσειράς μπορεί να περιέχει μόνο το
άλλο είδος εισαγωγικού (εκτός αν χρησιμοποιηθούν ακολουθίες διαφυγής,
βλ.  παρακάτω).  Για παράδειγμα:

     'Say "Hello", please.'
     "Don't do that!"

Πέρα από αυτόν τον περιορισμό, η επιλογή εισαγωγικού (‘'’ ή ‘"’) δεν
επηρεάζει το πώς αναλύεται το λεκτικό.

Μέσα σε ένα λεκτικό συμβολοσειράς, ο χαρακτήρας ανάστροφης καθέτου (‘\’)
εισάγει μια 'ακολουθία διαφυγής', η οποία έχει ειδική σημασία ανάλογα με
τον χαρακτήρα που ακολουθεί την ανάστροφη κάθετο.  Για παράδειγμα, το
‘\"’ δηλώνει τον χαρακτήρα διπλού εισαγωγικού και 'δεν' τερματίζει τη
συμβολοσειρά:

     >>> print("Say \"Hello\" to everyone!")
     Say "Hello" to everyone!

Δείτε παρακάτω τις *note ακολουθίες διαφυγής: 874. για την πλήρη λίστα
τέτοιων ακολουθιών και περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.

* Menu:

* Συμβολοσειρές τριπλού εισαγωγικού::
* Προθέματα συμβολοσειράς::
* Τυπική γραμματική::
* Ακολουθίες διαφυγής::
* Λεκτικά bytes::
* Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς::
* f-strings::
* t-strings::
* Formal grammar for f-strings::


File: python.info,  Node: Συμβολοσειρές τριπλού εισαγωγικού,  Next: Προθέματα συμβολοσειράς,  Up: Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes

4.2.5.1 Συμβολοσειρές τριπλού εισαγωγικού
.........................................

Οι συμβολοσειρές μπορούν επίσης να περικλείονται σε αντίστοιχες ομάδες
τριών μονών ή τριών διπλών εισαγωγικών.  Αυτές συνήθως αναφέρονται ως
'triple-quoted strings':

     """This is a triple-quoted string."""

Σε λεκτικά τριπλών εισαγωγικών, επιτρέπονται (και διατηρούνται)
εισαγωγικά χωρίς διαφυγή, με εξαίρεση ότι τρία εισαγωγικά χωρίς διαφυγή
στη σειρά τερματίζουν το λεκτικό, αν είναι του ίδιου είδους (‘'’ ή ‘"’)
με αυτό που χρησιμοποιήθηκε στην αρχή:

     """This string has "quotes" inside."""

Επιτρέπονται επίσης (και διατηρούνται) νέες γραμμές χωρίς διαφυγή:

     '''This triple-quoted string
     continues on the next line.'''


File: python.info,  Node: Προθέματα συμβολοσειράς,  Next: Τυπική γραμματική,  Prev: Συμβολοσειρές τριπλού εισαγωγικού,  Up: Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes

4.2.5.2 Προθέματα συμβολοσειράς
...............................

Τα λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς μπορούν να έχουν ένα προαιρετικό 'prefix' που
επηρεάζει το πώς αναλύεται το περιεχόμενο του λεκτικού, για παράδειγμα:

     b"data"
     f'{result=}'

Τα επιτρεπόμενα προθέματα είναι:

   * ‘b’: *note Λεκτικό bytes: 24bf.

   * ‘r’: *note Ακατέργαστη συμβολοσειρά (raw string): 24c0.

   * ‘f’: *note Λεκτικό μορφοποιημένης συμβολοσειράς: 43a. («f-string»)

   * ‘t’: *note Λεκτικό συμβολοσειράς προτύπου: 1a50. («t-string»)

   * ‘u’: Καμία επίδραση (επιτρέπεται για συμβατότητα προς τα πίσω)

Δείτε τις αντίστοιχες ενότητες για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με κάθε τύπο.

Τα προθέματα δεν κάνουν διάκριση κεφαλαίων/πεζών (για παράδειγμα, το
“‘B’” λειτουργεί όπως το “‘b’”).  Το πρόθεμα “‘r’” μπορεί να συνδυαστεί
με “‘f’”, “‘t’” ή “‘b’”, οπότε και τα “‘fr’”, “‘rf’”, “‘tr’”, “‘rt’”,
“‘br’” και “‘rb’” είναι επίσης έγκυρα προθέματα.

Added in version 3.3: Το πρόθεμα ‘'rb'’ για raw bytes λεκτικά έχει
προστεθεί ως συνώνυμο του ‘'br'’.

Η υποστήριξη για το παλιό unicode λεκτικό (‘u'value'’) επανεισήχθη για
να απλοποιηθεί η συντήρηση κωδικών βάσεων που υποστηρίζουν ταυτόχρονα
Python 2.x και 3.x.  Δείτε το PEP 414(1) για περισσότερες πληροφορίες.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0414/


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4.2.5.3 Τυπική γραμματική
.........................

Τα λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς, εκτός από τα *note «f-strings»: 43a. και *note
«t-strings»: 1a50, περιγράφονται από τους παρακάτω λεξικούς ορισμούς.

Αυτοί οι ορισμοί χρησιμοποιούν *note αρνητικά lookaheads: 247f. (‘!’)
για να υποδείξουν ότι ένα τελικό εισαγωγικό τερματίζει το λεκτικό.

     STRING:          [*note stringprefix: 24c3.] (*note stringcontent: 24c4.)
     stringprefix:    <("r" | "u" | "b" | "br" | "rb"), case-insensitive>
     stringcontent:
        | "'''" ( !"'''" *note longstringitem: 24c5.)* "'''"
        | '"""' ( !'"""' *note longstringitem: 24c5.)* '"""'
        | "'" ( !"'" *note stringitem: 24c6.)* "'"
        | '"' ( !'"' *note stringitem: 24c6.)* '"'
     stringitem:      *note stringchar: 24c7. | *note stringescapeseq: 24c8.
     stringchar:      <any *note source_character: 249d, except backslash and newline>
     longstringitem:  *note stringitem: 24c6. | newline
     stringescapeseq: "\" <any *note source_character: 249d.>

Σημειώστε ότι, όπως σε όλους τους λεξικούς ορισμούς, οι κενοί χαρακτήρες
έχουν σημασία.  Συγκεκριμένα, το πρόθεμα (αν υπάρχει) πρέπει να
ακολουθείται αμέσως από το αρχικό εισαγωγικό.


File: python.info,  Node: Ακολουθίες διαφυγής,  Next: Λεκτικά bytes,  Prev: Τυπική γραμματική,  Up: Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes

4.2.5.4 Ακολουθίες διαφυγής
...........................

Εκτός αν υπάρχει πρόθεμα “‘r’” ή “‘R’”, οι ακολουθίες διαφυγής σε
λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και bytes ερμηνεύονται με κανόνες παρόμοιους με
αυτούς της Standard C. Οι αναγνωριζόμενες ακολουθίες διαφυγής είναι:

Ακολουθία διαφυγής                                     Σημασία
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
‘\’<newline>                                           *note Αγνοημένο τέλος γραμμής: 24ca.
                                                       
                                                       
‘\\’                                                   *note Ανάστροφη κάθετος: 24cb.
                                                       
                                                       
‘\'’                                                   *note Μονό εισαγωγικό: 24cb.
                                                       
                                                       
‘\"’                                                   *note Διπλό εισαγωγικό: 24cb.
                                                       
                                                       
‘\a’                                                   ASCII Bell (BEL)
                                                       
                                                       
‘\b’                                                   ASCII Backspace (BS)
                                                       
                                                       
‘\f’                                                   ASCII Formfeed (FF)
                                                       
                                                       
‘\n’                                                   ASCII Linefeed (LF)
                                                       
                                                       
‘\r’                                                   ASCII Carriage Return (CR)
                                                       
                                                       
‘\t’                                                   ASCII Horizontal Tab (TAB)
                                                       
                                                       
‘\v’                                                   ASCII Vertical Tab (VT)
                                                       
                                                       
‘\OOO’                                                 *note Οκταδικός χαρακτήρας: 24cc.
                                                       
                                                       
‘\xHH’                                                 *note Δεκαεξαδικός χαρακτήρας: 24cd.
                                                       
                                                       
‘\N{NAME}’                                             *note Ονοματισμένος χαρακτήρας Unicode: 24ce.
                                                       
                                                       
‘\uXXXX’                                               *note Δεκαεξαδικός χαρακτήρας Unicode: 24cf.
                                                       
                                                       
‘\UXXXXXXXX’                                           *note Δεκαεξαδικός χαρακτήρας Unicode: 24cf.
                                                       

* Menu:

* Αγνοημένο τέλος γραμμής::
* Χαρακτήρες με διαφυγή::
* Οκταδικός χαρακτήρας::
* Δεκαεξαδικός χαρακτήρας::
* Ονοματισμένος χαρακτήρας Unicode::
* Δεκαεξαδικοί χαρακτήρες Unicode::
* Μη αναγνωρισμένες ακολουθίες διαφυγής::


File: python.info,  Node: Αγνοημένο τέλος γραμμής,  Next: Χαρακτήρες με διαφυγή,  Up: Ακολουθίες διαφυγής

4.2.5.5 Αγνοημένο τέλος γραμμής
...............................

Μπορεί να προστεθεί ανάστροφη κάθετος στο τέλος μιας γραμμής για να
αγνοηθεί η νέα γραμμή:

     >>> 'This string will not include \
     ... backslashes or newline characters.'
     'This string will not include backslashes or newline characters.'

Το ίδιο αποτέλεσμα μπορεί να επιτευχθεί με *note συμβολοσειρές τριπλού
εισαγωγικού: 2490, ή με παρενθέσεις και *note συνένωση λεκτικών
συμβολοσειράς: 24d1.


File: python.info,  Node: Χαρακτήρες με διαφυγή,  Next: Οκταδικός χαρακτήρας,  Prev: Αγνοημένο τέλος γραμμής,  Up: Ακολουθίες διαφυγής

4.2.5.6 Χαρακτήρες με διαφυγή
.............................

Για να συμπεριληφθεί μια ανάστροφη κάθετος σε λεκτικό συμβολοσειράς
Python που δεν είναι *note raw: 24c0, πρέπει να διπλασιαστεί.  Η
ακολουθία διαφυγής ‘\\’ δηλώνει έναν μοναδικό χαρακτήρα ανάστροφης
καθέτου:

     >>> print('C:\\Program Files')
     C:\Program Files

Αντίστοιχα, οι ακολουθίες ‘\'’ και ‘\"’ δηλώνουν τον χαρακτήρα μονών και
διπλών εισαγωγικών, αντίστοιχα:

     >>> print('\' and \"')
     ' and "


File: python.info,  Node: Οκταδικός χαρακτήρας,  Next: Δεκαεξαδικός χαρακτήρας,  Prev: Χαρακτήρες με διαφυγή,  Up: Ακολουθίες διαφυγής

4.2.5.7 Οκταδικός χαρακτήρας
............................

Η ακολουθία ‘\OOO’ δηλώνει έναν 'χαρακτήρα' με οκταδική (βάση 8) τιμή
'ooo':

     >>> '\120'
     'P'

Γίνονται δεκτά έως τρία οκταδικά ψηφία (0 έως 7).

Σε λεκτικό bytes, 'χαρακτήρας' σημαίνει ένα 'byte' με τη δεδομένη τιμή.
Σε λεκτικό συμβολοσειράς, σημαίνει χαρακτήρας Unicode με τη δεδομένη
τιμή.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Οκταδικές διαφυγές με τιμή μεγαλύτερη από
‘0o377’ (255) παράγουν ένα *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Οκταδικές διαφυγές με τιμή μεγαλύτερη από
‘0o377’ (255) παράγουν ένα *note SyntaxWarning: 44a.  Σε μελλοντική
έκδοση της Python θα κάνουν raise *note SyntaxError: 17e.


File: python.info,  Node: Δεκαεξαδικός χαρακτήρας,  Next: Ονοματισμένος χαρακτήρας Unicode,  Prev: Οκταδικός χαρακτήρας,  Up: Ακολουθίες διαφυγής

4.2.5.8 Δεκαεξαδικός χαρακτήρας
...............................

Η ακολουθία ‘\xHH’ δηλώνει έναν 'χαρακτήρα' με δεκαεξαδική (βάση 16)
τιμή 'hh':

     >>> '\x50'
     'P'

Σε αντίθεση με την Standard C, απαιτούνται ακριβώς δύο δεκαεξαδικά
ψηφία.

Σε λεκτικό bytes, 'χαρακτήρας' σημαίνει ένα 'byte' με τη δεδομένη τιμή.
Σε λεκτικό συμβολοσειράς, σημαίνει χαρακτήρας Unicode με τη δεδομένη
τιμή.


File: python.info,  Node: Ονοματισμένος χαρακτήρας Unicode,  Next: Δεκαεξαδικοί χαρακτήρες Unicode,  Prev: Δεκαεξαδικός χαρακτήρας,  Up: Ακολουθίες διαφυγής

4.2.5.9 Ονοματισμένος χαρακτήρας Unicode
........................................

Η ακολουθία ‘\N{NAME}’ δηλώνει έναν χαρακτήρα Unicode με το δοσμένο
'όνομα':

     >>> '\N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P}'
     'P'
     >>> '\N{SNAKE}'
     '🐍'

Αυτή η ακολουθία δεν μπορεί να εμφανιστεί σε *note λεκτικά bytes: 24bf.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Support for name aliases(1) has been added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/Public/17.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Δεκαεξαδικοί χαρακτήρες Unicode,  Next: Μη αναγνωρισμένες ακολουθίες διαφυγής,  Prev: Ονοματισμένος χαρακτήρας Unicode,  Up: Ακολουθίες διαφυγής

4.2.5.10 Δεκαεξαδικοί χαρακτήρες Unicode
........................................

Οι ακολουθίες ‘\uXXXX’ και ‘\UXXXXXXXX’ δηλώνουν τον χαρακτήρα Unicode
με τη δεδομένη δεκαεξαδική (βάση 16) τιμή.  Απαιτούνται ακριβώς τέσσερα
ψηφία για το ‘\u’ και ακριβώς οκτώ ψηφία για το ‘\U’.  Η δεύτερη μπορεί
να κωδικοποιήσει οποιονδήποτε χαρακτήρα Unicode.

     >>> '\u1234'
     'ሴ'
     >>> '\U0001f40d'
     '🐍'

Αυτές οι ακολουθίες δεν μπορούν να εμφανιστούν σε *note λεκτικά bytes:
24bf.


File: python.info,  Node: Μη αναγνωρισμένες ακολουθίες διαφυγής,  Prev: Δεκαεξαδικοί χαρακτήρες Unicode,  Up: Ακολουθίες διαφυγής

4.2.5.11 Μη αναγνωρισμένες ακολουθίες διαφυγής
..............................................

Σε αντίθεση με την Standard C, όλες οι μη αναγνωρισμένες ακολουθίες
διαφυγής αφήνονται αμετάβλητες στη συμβολοσειρά, δηλαδή 'η ανάστροφη
κάθετος παραμένει στο αποτέλεσμα':

     >>> print('\q')
     \q
     >>> list('\q')
     ['\\', 'q']

Σημειώστε ότι για λεκτικά bytes, οι ακολουθίες διαφυγής που
αναγνωρίζονται μόνο σε λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς (‘\N...’, ‘\u...’, ‘\U...’)
εμπίπτουν στην κατηγορία των μη αναγνωρισμένων διαφυγών.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Οι μη αναγνωρισμένες ακολουθίες διαφυγής
παράγουν ένα *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Οι μη αναγνωρισμένες ακολουθίες διαφυγής
παράγουν ένα *note SyntaxWarning: 44a.  Σε μελλοντική έκδοση της Python
θα κάνουν raise *note SyntaxError: 17e.


File: python.info,  Node: Λεκτικά bytes,  Next: Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς,  Prev: Ακολουθίες διαφυγής,  Up: Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes

4.2.5.12 Λεκτικά bytes
......................

Τα 'Bytes literals' έχουν πάντα πρόθεμα “‘b’” ή “‘B’”· παράγουν ένα
αντικείμενο του τύπου *note bytes: 1c7. αντί του *note str: 1df.
Μπορούν να περιέχουν μόνο χαρακτήρες ASCII· bytes με αριθμητική τιμή 128
ή μεγαλύτερη πρέπει να εκφράζονται με ακολουθίες διαφυγής (συνήθως *note
Δεκαεξαδικός χαρακτήρας: 24cd. ή *note Οκταδικός χαρακτήρας: 24cc.):

     >>> b'\x89PNG\r\n\x1a\n'
     b'\x89PNG\r\n\x1a\n'
     >>> list(b'\x89PNG\r\n\x1a\n')
     [137, 80, 78, 71, 13, 10, 26, 10]

Αντίστοιχα, ένα μηδενικό byte πρέπει να εκφράζεται με ακολουθία διαφυγής
(συνήθως ‘\0’ ή ‘\x00’).


File: python.info,  Node: Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς,  Next: f-strings,  Prev: Λεκτικά bytes,  Up: Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes

4.2.5.13 Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς
..................................

Τόσο τα λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς όσο και τα λεκτικά bytes μπορούν
προαιρετικά να έχουν πρόθεμα το γράμμα “‘r’” ή “‘R’”· τέτοιες κατασκευές
ονομάζονται 'raw string literals' και 'raw bytes literals' αντίστοιχα
και αντιμετωπίζουν τις ανάστροφες καθέτους ως χαρακτήρες.  Ως
αποτέλεσμα, στα λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς, οι *note ακολουθίες διαφυγής:
874. δεν αντιμετωπίζονται ειδικά:

     >>> r'\d{4}-\d{2}-\d{2}'
     '\\d{4}-\\d{2}-\\d{2}'

Ακόμη και σε ένα raw λεκτικό, τα εισαγωγικά μπορούν να «ξεφύγουν»
(escape) με ανάστροφη κάθετο, αλλά η ανάστροφη κάθετος παραμένει στο
αποτέλεσμα· για παράδειγμα, το ‘r"\""’ είναι έγκυρο λεκτικό
συμβολοσειράς που αποτελείται από δύο χαρακτήρες: μια ανάστροφη κάθετο
και ένα διπλό εισαγωγικό· το ‘r"\"’ δεν είναι έγκυρο λεκτικό
συμβολοσειράς (ακόμη και μια raw συμβολοσειρά δεν μπορεί να τελειώνει με
περιττό αριθμό ανάστροφων καθέτων).  Συγκεκριμένα, 'ένα raw λεκτικό δεν
μπορεί να τελειώνει με μία μόνο ανάστροφη κάθετο' (αφού η ανάστροφη
κάθετος θα διέφευγε τον επόμενο χαρακτήρα εισαγωγικού).  Σημειώστε
επίσης ότι μια μοναδική ανάστροφη κάθετος ακολουθούμενη από νέα γραμμή
ερμηνεύονται ως μέρος του λεκτικού, 'όχι' ως συνέχιση γραμμής.


File: python.info,  Node: f-strings,  Next: t-strings,  Prev: Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς,  Up: Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes

4.2.5.14 f-strings
..................

Added in version 3.6.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The *note await: 432. and *note async for: e70.
can be used in expressions within f-strings.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the debug specifier (‘=’)

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Many restrictions on expressions within
f-strings have been removed.  Notably, nested strings, comments, and
backslashes are now permitted.

A 'formatted string literal' or 'f-string' is a string literal that is
prefixed with “‘f’” or “‘F’”.  Unlike other string literals, f-strings
do not have a constant value.  They may contain 'replacement fields'
delimited by curly braces ‘{}’.  Replacement fields contain expressions
which are evaluated at run time.  For example:

     >>> who = 'nobody'
     >>> nationality = 'Spanish'
     >>> f'{who.title()} expects the {nationality} Inquisition!'
     'Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!'

Any doubled curly braces (‘{{’ or ‘}}’) outside replacement fields are
replaced with the corresponding single curly brace:

     >>> print(f'{{...}}')
     {...}

Other characters outside replacement fields are treated like in ordinary
string literals.  This means that escape sequences are decoded (except
when a literal is also marked as a raw string), and newlines are
possible in triple-quoted f-strings:

     >>> name = 'Galahad'
     >>> favorite_color = 'blue'
     >>> print(f'{name}:\t{favorite_color}')
     Galahad:       blue
     >>> print(rf"C:\Users\{name}")
     C:\Users\Galahad
     >>> print(f'''Three shall be the number of the counting
     ... and the number of the counting shall be three.''')
     Three shall be the number of the counting
     and the number of the counting shall be three.

Expressions in formatted string literals are treated like regular Python
expressions.  Each expression is evaluated in the context where the
formatted string literal appears, in order from left to right.  An empty
expression is not allowed, and both *note lambda: 1642. and assignment
expressions ‘:=’ must be surrounded by explicit parentheses:

     >>> f'{(half := 1/2)}, {half * 42}'
     '0.5, 21.0'

Επιτρέπεται να επαναχρησιμοποιείται ο τύπος εισαγωγικών του εξωτερικού
f-string μέσα σε ένα πεδίο αντικατάστασης:

     >>> a = dict(x=2)
     >>> f"abc {a["x"]} def"
     'abc 2 def'

Επιτρέπονται επίσης ανάστροφες καθέτοι μέσα σε πεδία αντικατάστασης και
αξιολογούνται με τον ίδιο τρόπο όπως σε οποιοδήποτε άλλο πλαίσιο:

     >>> a = ["a", "b", "c"]
     >>> print(f"List a contains:\n{"\n".join(a)}")
     List a contains:
     a
     b
     c

It is possible to nest f-strings:

     >>> name = 'world'
     >>> f'Repeated:{f' hello {name}' * 3}'
     'Repeated: hello world hello world hello world'

Portable Python programs should not use more than 5 levels of nesting.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' CPython does not limit nesting of
f-strings.

Replacement expressions can contain newlines in both single-quoted and
triple-quoted f-strings and they can contain comments.  Everything that
comes after a ‘#’ inside a replacement field is a comment (even closing
braces and quotes).  This means that replacement fields with comments
must be closed in a different line:

     >>> a = 2
     >>> f"abc{a  # This comment  }"  continues until the end of the line
     ...       + 3}"
     'abc5'

After the expression, replacement fields may optionally contain:

   * a 'debug specifier' – an equal sign (‘=’), optionally surrounded by
     whitespace on one or both sides;

   * a 'conversion specifier' – ‘!s’, ‘!r’ or ‘!a’; and/or

   * a 'format specifier' prefixed with a colon (‘:’).

See the *note Standard Library section on f-strings: 24dc. for details
on how these fields are evaluated.

As that section explains, 'format specifiers' are passed as the second
argument to the *note format(): 439. function to format a replacement
field value.  For example, they can be used to specify a field width and
padding characters using the *note Format Specification Mini-Language:
6fe.:

     >>> number = 14.3
     >>> f'{number:20.7f}'
     '          14.3000000'

Top-level format specifiers may include nested replacement fields:

     >>> field_size = 20
     >>> precision = 7
     >>> f'{number:{field_size}.{precision}f}'
     '          14.3000000'

These nested fields may include their own conversion fields and *note
format specifiers: 6fe.:

     >>> number = 3
     >>> f'{number:{field_size}}'
     '                   3'
     >>> f'{number:{field_size:05}}'
     '00000000000000000003'

However, these nested fields may not include more deeply nested
replacement fields.

Formatted string literals cannot be used as *note docstrings: 24dd, even
if they do not include expressions:

     >>> def foo():
     ...     f"Not a docstring"
     ...
     >>> print(foo.__doc__)
     None

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * PEP 498(1) – Literal String Interpolation

   * PEP 701(2) – Syntactic formalization of f-strings

   * *note str.format(): a12, which uses a related format string
     mechanism.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/


File: python.info,  Node: t-strings,  Next: Formal grammar for f-strings,  Prev: f-strings,  Up: Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes

4.2.5.15 t-strings
..................

Added in version 3.14.

A 'template string literal' or 't-string' is a string literal that is
prefixed with “‘t’” or “‘T’”.  These strings follow the same syntax
rules as *note formatted string literals: 43a.  For differences in
evaluation rules, see the *note Standard Library section on t-strings:
24e0.


File: python.info,  Node: Formal grammar for f-strings,  Prev: t-strings,  Up: Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes

4.2.5.16 Formal grammar for f-strings
.....................................

F-strings are handled partly by the *note lexical analyzer: 2483, which
produces the tokens *note FSTRING_START: 24e2, *note FSTRING_MIDDLE:
24e3. and *note FSTRING_END: 24e4, and partly by the parser, which
handles expressions in the replacement field.  The exact way the work is
split is a CPython implementation detail.

Correspondingly, the f-string grammar is a mix of *note lexical and
syntactic definitions: 247e.

Whitespace is significant in these situations:

   * There may be no whitespace in *note FSTRING_START: 24e2. (between
     the prefix and quote).

   * Whitespace in *note FSTRING_MIDDLE: 24e3. is part of the literal
     string contents.

   * In ‘fstring_replacement_field’, if ‘f_debug_specifier’ is present,
     all whitespace after the opening brace until the
     ‘f_debug_specifier’, as well as whitespace immediately following
     ‘f_debug_specifier’, is retained as part of the expression.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' The expression is not handled in
     the tokenization phase; it is retrieved from the source code using
     locations of the ‘{’ token and the token after ‘=’.

The ‘FSTRING_MIDDLE’ definition uses *note negative lookaheads: 247f.
(‘!’) to indicate special characters (backslash, newline, ‘{’, ‘}’) and
sequences (‘f_quote’).

     fstring:    *note FSTRING_START: 24e6. *note fstring_middle: 24e7.* *note FSTRING_END: 24e8.

     FSTRING_START:      *note fstringprefix: 24e9. ("'" | '"' | "'''" | '"""')
     FSTRING_END:        *note f_quote: 24ea.
     fstringprefix:      <("f" | "fr" | "rf"), case-insensitive>
     f_debug_specifier:  '='
     f_quote:            <the quote character(s) used in FSTRING_START>

     fstring_middle:
        | *note fstring_replacement_field: 24ec.
        | *note FSTRING_MIDDLE: 24ed.
     FSTRING_MIDDLE:
        | (!"\" !*note newline: 249a. !'{' !'}' !*note f_quote: 24ea.) *note source_character: 249d.
        | *note stringescapeseq: 24c8.
        | "{{"
        | "}}"
        | <newline, in triple-quoted f-strings only>
     fstring_replacement_field:
        | '{' *note f_expression: 24ee. [*note f_debug_specifier: 24eb.] [*note fstring_conversion: 24ef.]
              [*note fstring_full_format_spec: 24f0.] '}'
     fstring_conversion:
        | "!" ("s" | "r" | "a")
     fstring_full_format_spec:
        | ':' *note fstring_format_spec: 24f1.*
     fstring_format_spec:
        | *note FSTRING_MIDDLE: 24ed.
        | *note fstring_replacement_field: 24ec.
     f_expression:
        | ','.(*note conditional_expression: 24f2. | "*" *note or_expr: 24f3.)+ [","]
        | *note yield_expression: 24f4.

     Σημείωση: In the above grammar snippet, the ‘f_quote’ and
     ‘FSTRING_MIDDLE’ rules are context-sensitive – they depend on the
     contents of ‘FSTRING_START’ of the nearest enclosing ‘fstring’.

     Constructing a more traditional formal grammar from this template
     is left as an exercise for the reader.

The grammar for t-strings is identical to the one for f-strings, with
't' instead of 'f' at the beginning of rule and token names and in the
prefix.

     tstring:    TSTRING_START tstring_middle* TSTRING_END

     <rest of the t-string grammar is omitted; see above>


File: python.info,  Node: Αριθμητικά λεκτικά,  Next: Τελεστές και οριοθέτες,  Prev: Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes,  Up: Λεξική ανάλυση

4.2.6 Αριθμητικά λεκτικά
------------------------

Τα tokens *note NUMBER: 24ab. αναπαριστούν αριθμητικά λεκτικά, τα οποία
είναι τριών τύπων: ακέραιοι, αριθμοί κινητής υποδιαστολής και
φανταστικοί αριθμοί.

     NUMBER: *note integer: 24f8. | *note floatnumber: 24f9. | *note imagnumber: 24fa.

Η αριθμητική τιμή ενός αριθμητικού λεκτικού είναι η ίδια σαν να
περνιόταν ως string στον αντίστοιχο constructor των *note int: 326,
*note float: 327. ή *note complex: 328.  Σημειώστε ότι δεν είναι όλες οι
έγκυρες είσοδοι για αυτούς τους constructors και έγκυρα λεκτικά.

Τα αριθμητικά λεκτικά δεν περιλαμβάνουν πρόσημο· μια έκφραση όπως ‘-1’
είναι στην πραγματικότητα μια έκφραση που αποτελείται από τον μοναδιαίο
τελεστή “‘-’” και το λεκτικό ‘1’.

* Menu:

* Λεκτικά ακεραίων::
* Λεκτικά κινητής υποδιαστολής::
* Λεκτικά φανταστικών::


File: python.info,  Node: Λεκτικά ακεραίων,  Next: Λεκτικά κινητής υποδιαστολής,  Up: Αριθμητικά λεκτικά

4.2.6.1 Λεκτικά ακεραίων
........................

Τα λεκτικά ακεραίων δηλώνουν ακέραιους αριθμούς.  Για παράδειγμα:

     7
     3
     2147483647

Δεν υπάρχει όριο στο μήκος των ακεραίων πέρα από αυτό που μπορεί να
αποθηκευτεί στη διαθέσιμη μνήμη:

     7922816251426433759354395033679228162514264337593543950336

Οι κάτω παύλες μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για ομαδοποίηση ψηφίων ώστε να
βελτιώνεται η αναγνωσιμότητα, και αγνοούνται κατά τον υπολογισμό της
αριθμητικής τιμής του λεκτικού.  Για παράδειγμα, τα παρακάτω λεκτικά
είναι ισοδύναμα:

     100_000_000_000
     100000000000
     1_00_00_00_00_000

Οι κάτω παύλες μπορούν να εμφανίζονται μόνο ανάμεσα σε ψηφία.  Για
παράδειγμα, τα ‘_123’, ‘321_’ και ‘123__321’ 'δεν' είναι έγκυρα λεκτικά.

Οι ακέραιοι μπορούν να δηλωθούν ως δυαδικοί (βάση του 2), οκταδικοί
(βάση του 8) ή δεκαεξαδικοί (βάση του 16) χρησιμοποιώντας τα προθέματα
‘0b’, ‘0o’ και ‘0x’, αντίστοιχα.  Τα δεκαεξαδικά ψηφία 10 έως 15
αναπαριστώνται από τα γράμματα ‘A’-‘F’, χωρίς διάκριση κεφαλαίων/πεζών.
Για παράδειγμα:

     0b100110111
     0b_1110_0101
     0o177
     0o377
     0xdeadbeef
     0xDead_Beef

Μια κάτω παύλα μπορεί να ακολουθεί τον προσδιοριστή βάσης.  Για
παράδειγμα, το ‘0x_1f’ είναι έγκυρο λεκτικό, αλλά τα ‘0_x1f’ και
‘0x__1f’ δεν είναι.

Δεν επιτρέπονται μηδενικά στην αρχή σε μη-μηδενικό δεκαδικό αριθμό.  Για
παράδειγμα, το ‘0123’ δεν είναι έγκυρο λεκτικό.  Αυτό γίνεται για να
αποσαφηνίζεται η διάκριση με οκταδικά λεκτικά τύπου C, τα οποία η Python
χρησιμοποιούσε πριν την έκδοση 3.0.

Τυπικά, τα λεκτικά ακεραίων περιγράφονται από τους παρακάτω λεξικούς
ορισμούς:

     integer:      *note decinteger: 24fd. | *note bininteger: 24fe. | *note octinteger: 24ff. | *note hexinteger: 2500. | *note zerointeger: 2501.
     decinteger:   *note nonzerodigit: 2502. (["_"] *note digit: 2503.)*
     bininteger:   "0" ("b" | "B") (["_"] *note bindigit: 2504.)+
     octinteger:   "0" ("o" | "O") (["_"] *note octdigit: 2505.)+
     hexinteger:   "0" ("x" | "X") (["_"] *note hexdigit: 2506.)+
     zerointeger:  "0"+ (["_"] "0")*
     nonzerodigit: "1"..."9"
     digit:        "0"..."9"
     bindigit:     "0" | "1"
     octdigit:     "0"..."7"
     hexdigit:     *note digit: 2503. | "a"..."f" | "A"..."F"

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Οι κάτω παύλες επιτρέπονται πλέον στα λεκτικά
για σκοπούς ομαδοποίησης.


File: python.info,  Node: Λεκτικά κινητής υποδιαστολής,  Next: Λεκτικά φανταστικών,  Prev: Λεκτικά ακεραίων,  Up: Αριθμητικά λεκτικά

4.2.6.2 Λεκτικά κινητής υποδιαστολής
....................................

Τα λεκτικά κινητής υποδιαστολής (float), όπως ‘3.14’ ή ‘1.5’, δηλώνουν
*note προσεγγίσεις πραγματικών αριθμών: 2509.

Αποτελούνται από 'ακέραιο' και 'κλασματικό' μέρος, το καθένα από
δεκαδικά ψηφία.  Τα μέρη χωρίζονται από τελεία, ‘.’:

     2.71828
     4.0

Σε αντίθεση με τα λεκτικά ακεραίων, επιτρέπονται μηδενικά στην αρχή.
Για παράδειγμα, το ‘077.010’ είναι νόμιμο και δηλώνει τον ίδιο αριθμό με
το ‘77.01’.

Όπως και στα λεκτικά ακεραίων, μονές κάτω παύλες μπορούν να εμφανίζονται
ανάμεσα σε ψηφία για καλύτερη αναγνωσιμότητα:

     96_485.332_123
     3.14_15_93

Κάθε ένα από αυτά τα μέρη μπορεί να είναι κενό, αλλά όχι και τα δύο.
Για παράδειγμα:

     10.  # (ισοδύναμο με το 10.0)
     .001  # (ισοδύναμο με το 0.001)

Προαιρετικά, το ακέραιο και το κλασματικό μέρος μπορεί να ακολουθούνται
από έναν 'εκθέτη': το γράμμα ‘e’ ή ‘E’, ακολουθούμενο από προαιρετικό
πρόσημο, ‘+’ ή ‘-’, και έναν αριθμό στην ίδια μορφή με το ακέραιο και το
κλασματικό μέρος.  Το ‘e’ ή ‘E’ σημαίνει «επί δέκα υψωμένο στη δύναμη»:

     1.0e3  # (αντιπροσωπεύει το 1.0×10³, ή το 1000.0)
     1.166e-5  # (αντιπροσωπεύει το 1.166×10⁻⁵, ή το 0.00001166)
     6.02214076e+23  # (αντιπροσωπεύει το 6.02214076×10²³, ή το 602214076000000000000000.)

Σε floats που έχουν μόνο ακέραιο μέρος και εκθέτη, η υποδιαστολή μπορεί
να παραλειφθεί:

     1e3  # (ισοδύναμο με το 1.e3 και το 1.0e3)
     0e0  # (ισοδύναμο με το 0.)

Τυπικά, τα λεκτικά κινητής υποδιαστολής περιγράφονται από τους παρακάτω
λεξικούς ορισμούς:

     floatnumber:
        | *note digitpart: 250a. "." [*note digitpart: 250a.] [*note exponent: 250b.]
        | "." *note digitpart: 250a. [*note exponent: 250b.]
        | *note digitpart: 250a. *note exponent: 250b.
     digitpart: *note digit: 2503. (["_"] *note digit: 2503.)*
     exponent:  ("e" | "E") ["+" | "-"] *note digitpart: 250a.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Οι κάτω παύλες επιτρέπονται πλέον στα λεκτικά
για σκοπούς ομαδοποίησης.


File: python.info,  Node: Λεκτικά φανταστικών,  Prev: Λεκτικά κινητής υποδιαστολής,  Up: Αριθμητικά λεκτικά

4.2.6.3 Λεκτικά φανταστικών
...........................

Η Python έχει αντικείμενα *note μιγαδικών αριθμών: 21c9, αλλά δεν έχει
λεκτικά μιγαδικών.  Αντί αυτού, τα 'λεκτικά φανταστικών' δηλώνουν
μιγαδικούς αριθμούς με μηδενικό πραγματικό μέρος.

Για παράδειγμα, στα μαθηματικά, ο μιγαδικός αριθμός 3+4.2'i' γράφεται ως
ο πραγματικός αριθμός 3 συν ο φανταστικός αριθμός 4.2'i'.  Η Python
χρησιμοποιεί παρόμοια σύνταξη, με τη διαφορά ότι η φανταστική μονάδα
γράφεται ως ‘j’ αντί για 'i':

     3+4.2j

Αυτή είναι μια έκφραση που αποτελείται από το *note λεκτικό ακεραίου:
24fc. ‘3’, τον *note τελεστή: 247d. “‘+’” και το *note λεκτικό
φανταστικού: 250c. ‘4.2j’.  Εφόσον αυτά είναι τρία ξεχωριστά tokens,
επιτρέπονται κενοί χαρακτήρες ανάμεσά τους:

     3 + 4.2j

Δεν επιτρέπονται κενοί χαρακτήρες 'μέσα' σε κάθε token.  Συγκεκριμένα,
το επίθημα ‘j’ δεν μπορεί να διαχωριστεί από τον αριθμό που προηγείται.

Ο αριθμός πριν από το ‘j’ έχει την ίδια σύνταξη με ένα λεκτικό κινητής
υποδιαστολής.  Άρα, τα παρακάτω είναι έγκυρα λεκτικά φανταστικών:

     4.2j
     3.14j
     10.j
     .001j
     1e100j
     3.14e-10j
     3.14_15_93j

Σε αντίθεση με ένα λεκτικό κινητής υποδιαστολής, η υποδιαστολή μπορεί να
παραλειφθεί αν ο φανταστικός αριθμός έχει μόνο ακέραιο μέρος.  Ο αριθμός
εξακολουθεί να αξιολογείται ως αριθμός κινητής υποδιαστολής, όχι ως
ακέραιος:

     10j
     0j
     1000000000000000000000000j   # ισοδύναμο με το 1e+24j

Το επίθημα ‘j’ δεν κάνει διάκριση κεφαλαίων/πεζών.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι
μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε ‘J’ αντί αυτού:

     3.14J   # ισοδύναμο με το 3.14j

Τυπικά, τα λεκτικά φανταστικών περιγράφονται από τον παρακάτω λεξικό
ορισμό:

     imagnumber: (*note floatnumber: 24f9. | *note digitpart: 250a.) ("j" | "J")


File: python.info,  Node: Τελεστές και οριοθέτες,  Prev: Αριθμητικά λεκτικά,  Up: Λεξική ανάλυση

4.2.7 Τελεστές και οριοθέτες
----------------------------

Η παρακάτω γραμματική ορίζει tokens 'operator' και 'delimiter', δηλαδή
τον γενικό τύπο token *note OP: 247b.  Μια *note λίστα αυτών των tokens
και των ονομάτων τους: 250f. είναι επίσης διαθέσιμη στην τεκμηρίωση του
module ‘token’.

     OP:
        | assignment_operator
        | bitwise_operator
        | comparison_operator
        | enclosing_delimiter
        | other_delimiter
        | arithmetic_operator
        | "..."
        | other_op

     assignment_operator:   "+=" | "-=" | "*=" | "**=" | "/="  | "//=" | "%=" |
                            "&=" | "|=" | "^=" | "<<=" | ">>=" | "@="  | ":="
     bitwise_operator:      "&"  | "|"  | "^"  | "~"   | "<<"  | ">>"
     comparison_operator:   "<=" | ">=" | "<"  | ">"   | "=="  | "!="
     enclosing_delimiter:   "("  | ")"  | "["  | "]"   | "{"   | "}"
     other_delimiter:       ","  | ":"  | "!"  | ";"   | "="   | "->"
     arithmetic_operator:   "+"  | "-"  | "**" | "*"   | "//"  | "/"   | "%"
     other_op:              "."  | "@"

     Σημείωση: Γενικά, οι 'τελεστές' χρησιμοποιούνται για να συνδυάζουν
     *note εκφράσεις: 2518, ενώ οι 'οριοθέτες' εξυπηρετούν άλλους
     σκοπούς.  Ωστόσο, δεν υπάρχει σαφής, τυπική διάκριση μεταξύ των δύο
     κατηγοριών.

     Κάποια tokens μπορούν να λειτουργούν είτε ως τελεστές είτε ως
     οριοθέτες, ανάλογα με τη χρήση.  Για παράδειγμα, το ‘*’ είναι και
     τελεστής πολλαπλασιασμού και οριοθέτης που χρησιμοποιείται για
     unpacking ακολουθιών, και το ‘@’ είναι και πολλαπλασιασμός πινάκων
     και οριοθέτης που εισάγει decorators.

     Για ορισμένα tokens, η διάκριση δεν είναι ξεκάθαρη.  Για
     παράδειγμα, κάποιοι θεωρούν τα ‘.’, ‘(’ και ‘)’ ως οριοθέτες, ενώ
     άλλοι τα βλέπουν ως τον τελεστή *note getattr(): f8f. και τον/τους
     τελεστή/τελεστές κλήσης συνάρτησης.

     Κάποιοι τελεστές της Python, όπως ‘and’, ‘or’ και ‘not in’,
     χρησιμοποιούν tokens *note λέξεων-κλειδιών: 247a. αντί για
     «σύμβολα» (operator tokens).

A sequence of three consecutive periods (‘...’) has a special meaning as
an *note Ellipsis: 2519. literal.


File: python.info,  Node: Μοντέλο Δεδομένων,  Next: Μοντέλο εκτέλεσης,  Prev: Λεξική ανάλυση,  Up: Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python

4.3 Μοντέλο Δεδομένων
=====================

* Menu:

* Αντικείμενα, τιμές και τύποι: Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
* Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου::
* Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων::
* Coroutines::


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι,  Next: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου,  Up: Μοντέλο Δεδομένων

4.3.1 Αντικείμενα, τιμές και τύποι
----------------------------------

Το 'Objects' είναι μια αφαιρετική αναπαράσταση της Python για τα
δεδομένα.  Όλα τα δεδομένα σε ένα Python πρόγραμμα αναπαριστώνται από
αντικείμενα ή από συσχετίσεις μεταξύ αντικειμένων.  Ακόμη και ο κώδικας
αναπαρίσταται από αντικείμενα.

Κάθε αντικείμενο έχει μια ταυτότητα, έναν τύπο και μια τιμή.  Η
'ταυτότητα' ενός αντικειμένου δεν αλλάζει ποτέ αφού δημιουργηθεί∙
μπορείτε να το σκεφτείτε ως τη διεύθυνση του αντικειμένου στη μνήμη.  Ο
τελεστής *note is: 324. συγκρίνει την ταυτότητα δύο αντικειμένων∙ η
συνάρτηση *note id(): 17c5. επιστρέφει έναν ακέραιο αριθμό που
αντιπροσωπεύει την ταυτότητά του.

Για την CPython, το ‘id(x)’ είναι η διεύθυνση μνήμης όπου είναι
αποθηκευμένο το ‘x’.

Ο τύπος ενός αντικειμένου καθορίζει τις λειτουργίες που υποστηρίζει το
αντικείμενο (π.χ., «έχει μήκος;») και ορίζει επίσης τις πιθανές τιμές
για αντικείμενα αυτού του τύπου.  Η συνάρτηση *note type(): 186.
επιστρέφει τον τύπο ενός αντικειμένου (που είναι το ίδιο το
αντικείμενο).  Όπως και η ταυτότητά, το 'type' ενός αντικειμένου είναι
επίσης αμετάβλητο.  (1)

Η 'τιμή' ορισμένων αντικειμένων μπορεί να αλλάξει.  Τα αντικείμενα των
οποίων η τιμή μπορεί να αλλάξει λέγονται 'μεταβλητά*∙ τα αντικείμενα των
οποίων η τιμή είναι αμετάβλητη μόλις δημιουργηθούν ονομάζονται
*αμετάβλητα'.  (Η τιμή ενός αμετάβλητου container αντικειμένου που
περιέχει μια αναφορά σε ένα μεταβλητό αντικείμενο μπορεί να αλλάξει όταν
αλλάξει η τιμή του τελευταίου.  Ωστόσο, το container δεν μπορεί να
θεωρείται ακόμα αμετάβλητο, επειδή η συλλογή δεν μπορεί να αλλάξει.
Έτσι, η αμετάβλητη δεν είναι αυστηρά ίδια με την αμετάβλητη τιμή, είναι
πιο λεπτή.)  Η μεταβλητότητα ενός αντικειμένου καθορίζεται από τον τύπο
του∙ για παράδειγμα οι αριθμοί, οι συμβολοσειρές και οι πλειάδες είναι
αμετάβλητα, ενώ τα λεξικά και οι λίστες είναι μεταβλητά.

Τα αντικείμενα δεν καταστρέφονται ποτέ ρητά∙ ωστόσο, όταν γίνονται
απρόσιτα μπορεί να συλλεχθούν ως σκουπίδια.  Μια υλοποίηση επιτρέπεται
να αναβάλει τη συλλογή σκουπιδιών ή να την παραλείψει εντελώς — είναι
θέμα ποιότητας υλοποίησης πώς θα υλοποιηθεί η συλλογή απορριμμάτων,
εφόσον δεν συλλέγονται αντικείμενα που είναι ακόμα προσβάσιμα.

Η CPython χρησιμοποιεί επί του παρόντος ένα σχήμα μέτρησης αναφορών με
(προαιρετικό) καθυστερημένο εντοπισμό κυκλικά συνδεδεμένων σκουπιδιών,
το οποίο συλλέγει τα περισσότερα αντικείμενα μόλις γίνουν απρόσιτα, αλλά
δεν είναι εγγυημένο ότι συλλέγει σκουπίδια που κάνουν κυκλικές αναφορές.
Δείτε την τεκμηρίωση του module *note gc: 63. για πληροφορίες σχετικά με
τον έλεγχο της συλλογής κυκλικών σκουπιδιών.  Άλλες υλοποιήσεις ενεργούν
διαφορετικά και η CPython μπορεί να αλλάξει.  Μην εξαρτάστε από την
άμεση οριστικοποίηση των αντικειμένων όταν γίνονται απρόσιτα (έτσι θα
πρέπει πάντα να κλείνετε ρητά τα αρχεία).

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι η χρήση των υπηρεσιών ανίχνευσης ή εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων
της υλοποίησης μπορεί να διατηρήσει ζωντανά αντικείμενα που κανονικά θα
μπορούσαν να συλλεχθούν.  Επίσης σημειώστε ότι η σύλληψη μιας εξαίρεσης
με μια δήλωση *note try: ad6.…*note except: 447, μπορεί να κρατήσει
ζωντανά αντικείμενα.

Ορισμένα αντικείμενα περιέχουν αναφορές σε «εξωτερικούς» πόρους, όπως
ανοιχτά αρχεία ή παράθυρα.  Είναι κατανοητό ότι αυτοί οι πόροι
ελευθερώνονται όταν το αντικείμενο συλλέγεται από σκουπίδια, αλλά επειδή
η συλλογή απορριμμάτων δεν είναι εγγυημένη, τέτοια αντικείμενα παρέχουν
επίσης έναν σαφή τρόπο απελευθέρωσης του εξωτερικού πόρου, συνήθως μια
μέθοδο ‘close()’.  Συνιστώνται προγράμματα για τη ρητό κλείσιμο τέτοιων
αντικειμένων.  Η δήλωση *note try: ad6.…*note finally: 44c. και η δήλωση
*note with: 20a. παρέχουν βολικούς τρόπους για να το κάνετε αυτό.

Μερικά αντικείμενα περιέχουν αναφορές σε άλλα αντικείμενα· αυτά
ονομάζονται 'containers'.  Παραδείγματα containers είναι πλειάδες,
λίστες και λεξικά.  Οι αναφορές αποτελούν μέρος της τιμής ενός
container.  Στις περισσότερες περιπτώσεις, όταν μιλάμε για την αξία ενός
container, υπονοούμε τις τιμές, όχι τις ταυτότητες των αντικειμένων που
περιέχονται.  Ωστόσο, όταν μιλάμε για τη μεταβλητότητα ενός δοχείου
υπονοούνται μόνο οι ταυτότητες των αμέσως περιεχομένων αντικειμένων.
Έτσι, εάν ένα αμετάβλητο container (όπως μια πλειάδα) περιέχει μια
αναφορά σε ένα μεταβλητό αντικείμενο, η τιμή του αλλάζει εάν αυτό το
μεταβλητό αντικείμενο αλλάξει.

Οι τύποι επηρεάζουν σχεδόν όλες τις πτυχές της συμπεριφοράς των
αντικειμένων.  Ακόμη και η σημασία της ταυτότητας αντικειμένου
επηρεάζεται κατά κάποιο τρόπο: για αμετάβλητους τύπους, οι πράξεις που
υπολογίζουν νέες τιμές μπορούν στην πραγματικότητα να επιστρέψουν μια
αναφορά σε οποιοδήποτε υπάρχον αντικείμενο με τον ίδιο τύπο και τιμή,
ενώ για μεταβλητά αντικείμενα αυτό δεν επιτρέπεται.  Π.χ., μετά από ‘a =
1; b = 1’, τα 'a' και 'b' μπορεί να αναφέρονται ή να μην αναφέρονται στο
ίδιο αντικείμενο με την τιμή ένα, ανάλογα με την υλοποίηση.  Αυτό
συμβαίνει επειδή το *note int: 326. είναι ένας αμετάβλητος τύπος,
επομένως η αναφορά στο ‘1’ μπορεί να επαναχρησιμοποιηθεί.  Αυτή η
συμπεριφορά εξαρτάται από την υλοποίηση που χρησιμοποιείται, επομένως
δεν πρέπει να βασίζεστε σε αυτήν, αλλά είναι κάτι που πρέπει να
γνωρίζετε όταν χρησιμοποιείτε δοκιμές ταυτότητας αντικειμένων.  Ωστόσο,
μετά από ‘c = []; d = []’, 'c' και 'd' είναι εγγυημένα ότι αναφέρονται
σε δύο διαφορετικές, μοναδικές, νεοδημιουργημένες κενές λίστες.
(Σημειώστε ότι το ‘e = f = []’ αντιστοιχίζει το 'ίδιο' αντικείμενο τόσο
στο 'e' όσο και στο 'f'.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Αυτό 'είναι' δυνατό σε ορισμένες περιπτώσεις να αλλάξει ο τύπος
ενός αντικειμένου, υπό ορισμένες ελεγχόμενες συνθήκες.  Γενικά δεν είναι
καλή ιδέα όμως, καθώς μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε κάποια πολύ περίεργη
συμπεριφορά εάν γίνει λάθος χειρισμός.


File: python.info,  Node: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου,  Next: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων,  Prev: Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι,  Up: Μοντέλο Δεδομένων

4.3.2 Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου
-----------------------------

Ακολουθεί μια λίστα με τους τύπους που είναι ενσωματωμένοι στην Python.
Τα modules επέκτασης (γραμμένες σε C, Java, ή άλλες γλώσσες, ανάλογα με
την υλοποίηση) μπορούν να ορίσουν πρόσθετους τύπους.  Οι μελλοντικές
εκδόσεις της Python ενδέχεται να προσθέσουν τύπους στην ιεραρχία τύπων
(π.χ.  ορθολογικοί αριθμοί, αποτελεσματικά αποθηκευμένοι πίνακες
ακεραίων κ.λπ.), ν και αντ” αυτού παρέχονται τυπικές βιβλιοθήκες.

Ορισμένες από τις παρακάτω περιγραφές τύπων περιέχουν μια παράγραφο με
“ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.” Αυτά είναι χαρακτηριστικά που παρέχουν πρόσβαση
στην υλοποίηση και δεν προορίζονται για γενική χρήση ο ορισμός τους
μπορεί να αλλάξει στο μέλλον.

* Menu:

* None::
* NotImplemented::
* Ellipsis::
* numbers.Number: numbers Number.
* Ακολουθίες::
* Σύνολο τύπων::
* Αντιστοιχίσεις::
* Τύποι με δυνατότητα κλήσης::
* Modules: Modules<3>.
* Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις::
* Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης::
* Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου (γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου): Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
* Εσωτερικοί τύποι::


File: python.info,  Node: None,  Next: NotImplemented,  Up: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου

4.3.2.1 None
............

Αυτό ο τύπος έχει μια ενιαία τιμή.  Υπάρχει ένα μεμονωμένο αντικείμενο
με αυτήν την τιμή.  Η πρόσβαση σε αυτό το αντικείμενο γίνεται μέσω του
ενσωματωμένου ονόματος ‘None’.  Χρησιμοποιείται για να υποδηλώσει την
απουσία τιμής σε πολλές περιπτώσεις, π.χ.  επιστρέφεται από συναρτήσεις
που δεν επιστρέφουν ρητά τίποτα.  Η τιμή αλήθειας του είναι ψευδής.


File: python.info,  Node: NotImplemented,  Next: Ellipsis,  Prev: None,  Up: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου

4.3.2.2 NotImplemented
......................

Αυτός ο τύπος έχει μια ενιαία τιμή.  Υπάρχει ένα μεμονωμένο αντικείμενο
με αυτήν την τιμή.  Η πρόσβαση σε αυτό το αντικείμενο γίνεται μέσω του
ενσωματωμένου ονόματος *note NotImplemented: 440.  Οι αριθμητικές
μέθοδοι και οι μέθοδοι εμπλουτισμένης σύγκρισης θα πρέπει να επιστρέφουν
αυτήν την τιμή εάν δεν εφαρμόζουν τη λειτουργία για τους τελεστές που
παρέχονται.  (Ο διερμηνέας θα δοκιμάσει την ανακλώμενη λειτουργία ή
κάποια άλλη εναλλακτική, ανάλογα με τον τελεστή.)  Δεν πρέπει να
αξιολογείται σε ένα boolean πλαίσιο.

Δείτε το *note Implementing the arithmetic operations: 2523. για
περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Η αξιολόγηση του *note NotImplemented: 440. σε
ένα boolean πλαίσιο έχει αποσυρθεί.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Η αξιολόγηση του *note NotImplemented: 440. σε
ένα boolean πλαίσιο τώρα κάνει raise μια *note TypeError: 291.
Προηγουμένως αξιολογούνταν σε *note True: fcc. και εξέπεμπε μια *note
DeprecationWarning: 2c9. από την Python 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Ellipsis,  Next: numbers Number,  Prev: NotImplemented,  Up: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου

4.3.2.3 Ellipsis
................

Αυτός ο τύπος έχει μια ενιαία τιμή.  Υπάρχει ένα μεμονωμένο αντικείμενο
με αυτή την τιμή.  Η πρόσβαση σε αυτό το αντικείμενο γίνεται μέσω του
literal ‘...’ ή του ενσωματωμένου ονόματος ‘Ellipsis’.  Η τιμή αλήθειας
του είναι αληθής.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Number,  Next: Ακολουθίες,  Prev: Ellipsis,  Up: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου

4.3.2.4 ‘numbers.Number’
........................

Αυτά δημιουργούνται από αριθμητικά literals και επιστρέφονται ως
αποτελέσματα από αριθμητικούς τελεστές και αριθμητικές ενσωματωμένες
συναρτήσεις.  Τα αριθμητικά αντικείμενα είναι αμετάβλητα∙ μόλις
δημιουργηθούν, η τιμή τους δεν αλλάζει ποτέ.  Οι αριθμοί Python φυσικά
σχετίζονται στενά με τους μαθηματικούς αριθμούς, αλλά υπόκεινται στους
περιορισμούς της αριθμητικής αναπαράστασης στους υπολογιστές.

Οι αναπαραστάσεις συμβολοσειρών των αριθμητικών κλάσεων, που
υπολογίζονται από την *note __repr__(): 1bc. και από τη *note __str__():
a0f, έχουν τις ακόλουθες ιδιότητες:

   * Είναι έγκυρα αριθμητικά γράμματα τα οποία, όταν περάσουν στον
     κατασκευαστή της κλάσης τους, παράγουν ένα αντικείμενο που έχει την
     τιμή του αρχικού αριθμητικού.

   * Η αναπαράσταση είναι στη βάση του 10, όταν αυτό είναι εφικτό.

   * Τα προηγούμενα μηδενικά, ενδεχομένως με εξαίρεση ένα μόνο μηδέν
     πριν από μια υποδιαστολή, δεν εμφανίζονται.

   * Τα μηδενικά που ακολουθούν, ενδεχομένως με εξαίρεση ένα μεμονωμένο
     μηδέν μετά από μια υποδιαστολή, δεν εμφανίζονται.

   * Ένα πρόσημο εμφανίζεται μόνο όταν ο αριθμός είναι αρνητικός.

Η Python κάνει διάκριση μεταξύ ακεραίων, αριθμών κινητής υποδιαστολής
και μιγαδικών αριθμών:

* Menu:

* numbers.Integral: numbers Integral.
* numbers.Real (float): numbers Real float.
* numbers.Complex (complex): numbers Complex complex.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Integral,  Next: numbers Real float,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.5 ‘numbers.Integral’
..........................

Αυτά αντιπροσωπεύουν στοιχεία από το μαθηματικό σύνολο ακεραίων (θετικών
και αρνητικών).

     Σημείωση: 
     Οι κανόνες για την αναπαράσταση ακεραίων έχουν σκοπό να δώσουν την
     πιο ουσιαστική ερμηνεία των πράξεων μετατόπισης και κάλυψης που
     περιλαμβάνουν αρνητικούς ακέραιους αριθμούς.

Υπάρχουν δύο τύποι ακεραίων:

Ακέραιοι (*note int: 326.)

     Αυτές αντιπροσωπεύουν αριθμούς σε απεριόριστο εύρος, υπόκεινται
     μόνο στη διαθέσιμη (εικονική) μνήμη.  Για τους σκοπούς των
     λειτουργιών μετατόπισης και κάλυψης, θεωρείται μια δυαδική
     αναπαράσταση και οι αρνητικοί αριθμοί αντιπροσωπεύονται σε μια
     παραλλαγή του συμπληρώματος του 2 που δίνει την ψευδαίσθηση μιας
     άπειρης συμβολοσειράς bits από bits προσήμου που εκτείνονται προς
     τα αριστερά.

Booleans (*note bool: 5ef.)

     Αυτά αντιπροσωπεύουν τις τιμές αλήθειας False και True.  Τα δύο
     αντικείμενα που αντιπροσωπεύουν τις τιμές ‘False’ και ‘True’ είναι
     τα μόνα Boolean αντικείμενα.  Ο Boolean τύπος είναι ένας υποτύπος
     του ακεραίου τύπου και οι Boolean τιμές συμπεριφέρονται όπως οι
     τιμές 0 και 1, αντίστοιχα, σχεδόν σε όλα τα περιβάλλοντα, οι
     εξαιρέσεις που μετατρέπονται σε string είναι ‘"False"’ ή ‘"True"’
     επιστρέφονται, αντίστοιχα.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Real float,  Next: numbers Complex complex,  Prev: numbers Integral,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.6 ‘numbers.Real’ (‘float’)
................................

Αυτοί αντιπροσωπεύουν αριθμούς κινητής υποδιαστολής διπλής ακρίβειας σε
επίπεδο μηχανής.  Βρίσκεστε σε έλεος της υποκείμενης αρχιτεκτονικής
μηχανής (και της εφαρμογής C ή Java) για το αποδεκτό εύρος και τον
χειρισμό υπερχείλισης.  Η Python δεν υποστηρίζει αριθμούς κινητής
υποδιαστολής απλής ακρίβειας∙ η εξοικονόμηση στη χρήση επεξεργαστή και
μνήμης που συνήθως είναι συνήθως ο λόγος για τη χρήση τους μειώνεται από
την επιβάρυνση της χρήσης αντικειμένων στην Python, επομένως δεν υπάρχει
λόγος να περιπλέκουμε τη γλώσσα με δύο είδη αριθμών κινητής
υποδιαστολής.


File: python.info,  Node: numbers Complex complex,  Prev: numbers Real float,  Up: numbers Number

4.3.2.7 ‘numbers.Complex’ (‘complex’)
.....................................

Αυτοί αντιπροσωπεύουν μιγαδικούς αριθμούς ως ζεύγος αριθμών κινητής
υποδιαστολής διπλής ακρίβειας σε επίπεδο μηχανής.  Ισχύουν οι ίδιες
προειδοποιήσεις όπως και για τους αριθμούς κινητής υποδιαστολής.  Τα
πραγματικά και τα φανταστικά μέρη ενός μιγαδικού αριθμού ‘z’ μπορούν να
ανακτηθούν μέσω των χαρακτηριστικών ‘z.real’ και ‘z.imag’ μόνο για
ανάγνωση.


File: python.info,  Node: Ακολουθίες,  Next: Σύνολο τύπων,  Prev: numbers Number,  Up: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου

4.3.2.8 Ακολουθίες
..................

Αυτά αντιπροσωπεύουν πεπερασμένα διατεταγμένα σύνολα ευρετηριασμένα με
μη αρνητικούς αριθμούς.  Η ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note len(): a1f.
επιστρέφει τον αριθμός των στοιχείων μιας ακολουθίας.  Όταν το μήκος μια
ακολουθίας είναι 'n', το σύνολο δεικτών περιέχει τους αριθμούς 0, 1, …,
'n'-1.  Το στοιχείο 'i' της ακολουθίας 'a' επιλέγεται από το ‘a[i]’.
Ορισμένες ακολουθίες, συμπεριλαμβανομένων των ενσωματωμένων ακολουθιών,
ερμηνεύουν αρνητικούς δείκτες προσθέτοντας το μήκος της ακολουθίας.  Για
παράδειγμα, το ‘a[-2]’ ισούται με ‘a[n-2]’, το δεύτερο έως το τελευταίο
στοιχείο της ακολουθίας a με μήκος ‘n’.

The resulting value must be a nonnegative integer less than the number
of items in the sequence.  If it is not, an *note IndexError: 18d7. is
raised.

Sequences also support slicing: ‘a[start:stop]’ selects all items with
index 'k' such that 'start' ‘<=’ 'k' ‘<’ 'stop'.  When used as an
expression, a slice is a sequence of the same type.  The comment above
about negative subscripts also applies to negative slice positions.
Note that no error is raised if a slice position is less than zero or
larger than the length of the sequence.

If 'start' is missing or *note None: a65, slicing behaves as if 'start'
was zero.  If 'stop' is missing or ‘None’, slicing behaves as if 'stop'
was equal to the length of the sequence.

Ορισμένες ακολουθίες υποστηρίζουν επίσης την «εκτεταμένη τμηματοποίηση»
με μια τρίτη παράμετρο «βήμα»: το ‘a[i:j:k]’ επιλέγει όλα τα στοιχεία
του 'a' με ευρετήριο 'x' όπου ‘x = i + n*k’, 'n' ‘>=’ ‘0’ και 'i' ‘<=’
'x' ‘<’ 'j'.

Οι ακολουθίες διακρίνονται ανάλογα με τη μεταβλητότητά τους:

* Menu:

* Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες::
* Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες::


File: python.info,  Node: Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες,  Next: Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες,  Up: Ακολουθίες

4.3.2.9 Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες
..............................

Ένα αντικείμενο ενός τύπου αμετάβλητης ακολουθίας δεν μπορεί να αλλάξει
μόλις δημιουργηθεί.  (Εάν το αντικείμενο περιέχει αναφορές σε άλλα
αντικείμενα, αυτά τα άλλα αντικείμενα μπορεί να είναι μεταβλητά και
μπορεί να αλλάξουν∙ ωστόσο, η συλλογή αντικειμένων που αναφέρονται
απευθείας από ένα αμετάβλητο αντικείμενο δεν μπορεί να αλλάξει.)

Οι ακόλουθοι τύποι είναι αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες:

Συμβολοσειρές

     A string (*note str: 1df.) is a sequence of values that represent
     'characters', or more formally, 'Unicode code points'.  All the
     code points in the range ‘0’ to ‘0x10FFFF’ can be represented in a
     string.

     Python doesn’t have a dedicated 'character' type.  Instead, every
     code point in the string is represented as a string object with
     length ‘1’.

     The built-in function *note ord(): 252c. converts a code point from
     its string form to an integer in the range ‘0’ to ‘0x10FFFF’; *note
     chr(): 1bf8. converts an integer in the range ‘0’ to ‘0x10FFFF’ to
     the corresponding length ‘1’ string object.  *note str.encode():
     ca7. can be used to convert a *note str: 1df. to *note bytes: 1c7.
     using the given text encoding, and *note bytes.decode(): ca8. can
     be used to achieve the opposite.

Πλειάδες (Tuples)

     The items of a *note tuple: 1ce. are arbitrary Python objects.
     Tuples of two or more items are formed by comma-separated lists of
     expressions.  A tuple of one item (a “singleton”) can be formed by
     affixing a comma to an expression (an expression by itself does not
     create a tuple, since parentheses must be usable for grouping of
     expressions).  An empty tuple can be formed by an empty pair of
     parentheses.

Bytes

     A *note bytes: 1c7. object is an immutable array.  The items are
     8-bit bytes, represented by integers in the range 0 <= x < 256.
     Bytes literals (like ‘b'abc'’) and the built-in *note bytes(): 1c7.
     constructor can be used to create bytes objects.  Also, bytes
     objects can be decoded to strings via the *note decode(): ca8.
     method.


File: python.info,  Node: Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες,  Prev: Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες,  Up: Ακολουθίες

4.3.2.10 Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες
..............................

Οι μεταβλητές ακολουθίες μπορούν να αλλάξουν αφού δημιουργηθούν.  Οι
σημειώσεις εγγραφής και τμηματοποίησης μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν ως
στόχος εκχώρησης και δηλώσεων *note del: 1d1d. (delete).

     Σημείωση: 
     Τα modules *note collections: 1e. και *note array: 8. παρέχουν
     πρόσθετα παραδείγματα μεταβλητών τύπων ακολουθιών.

Υπάρχουν επί του παρόντος δύο εγγενείς τύποι μεταβλητών ακολουθιών:

Λίστες

     Τα στοιχεία μιας λίστας είναι αυθαίρετα αντικείμενα Python.  Οι
     λίστες σχηματίζονται τοποθετώντας μια λίστα εκφράσεων διαχωρισμένων
     με κόμματα σε αγκύλες.  (Σημειώστε ότι δεν χρειάζονται ειδικές
     περιπτώσεις για να σχηματιστούν λίστες μήκους 0 ή 1.)

Πίνακες Byte

     Ένα αντικείμενο bytearray είναι ένα ευμετάβλητος πίνακας.
     Δημιουργούνται από τον ενσωματωμένο κατασκευαστή *note bytearray():
     1c6.  Εκτός από το ότι είναι μεταβλητοί (και επομένως μη
     κατακερματισμένοι), οι πίνακες byte κατά τα άλλα παρέχουν την ίδια
     διεπαφή και λειτουργικότητα με τα αμετάβλητα αντικείμενα *note
     bytes: 1c7.


File: python.info,  Node: Σύνολο τύπων,  Next: Αντιστοιχίσεις,  Prev: Ακολουθίες,  Up: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου

4.3.2.11 Σύνολο τύπων
.....................

Αυτά αντιπροσωπεύουν μη διατεταγμένα, πεπερασμένα, σύνολα μοναδικών,
αμετάβλητων αντικειμένων.  Ως εκ τούτου, δεν μπορούν να
ευρετηριοποιηθούν από κανένα δείκτη.  Ωστόσο, μπορούν να επαναληφθούν
και η ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note len(): a1f. επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των
στοιχείων σε ένα σύνολο.  Συνήθεις χρήσεις για τα σύνολα είναι ο
γρήγορος έλεγχος ιδιότητας μέλους, η αφαίρεση διπλότυπων από μια
αλληλουχία, μη συνδυαστική λειτουργία, και συμμετρική διαφορά.

Για τα στοιχεία συνόλου ισχύουν οι ίδιοι κανόνες αμετάβλητης όπως και
για τα κλειδιά λεξικού.  Λάβετε υπόψη ότι οι αριθμητικοί τύποι
λειτουργία στους κανονικούς κανόνες για αριθμητική σύγκριση: εάν δύο
αριθμοί συγκρίνονται ίσοι (π.χ.  ‘1’ και ‘1.0’), μόνο ένας από αυτούς
μπορεί να περιέχεται σε ένα σύνολο.

Υπάρχουν επί του παρόντος δύο εγγενείς τύποι συνόλων:

Σύνολα

     These represent a mutable set.  They are created by the built-in
     *note set(): 42b. constructor and can be modified afterwards by
     several methods, such as *note add(): 252f.

Frozen σύνολα

     Αυτά αντιπροσωπεύουν ένα αμετάβλητο σύνολο.  Δημιουργούνται από τον
     ενσωματωμένο κατασκευαστή *note frozenset(): 9d4.  Καθώς ένα
     παγωμένο σύνολο είναι αμετάβλητο και το *note hashable: 183, μπορεί
     να χρησιμοποιηθεί ξανά ως στοιχείο ενός άλλου συνόλου ή ως κλειδί
     λεξικού.


File: python.info,  Node: Αντιστοιχίσεις,  Next: Τύποι με δυνατότητα κλήσης,  Prev: Σύνολο τύπων,  Up: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου

4.3.2.12 Αντιστοιχίσεις
.......................

Αυτά αντιπροσωπεύουν πεπερασμένα σύνολα αντικειμένων που ευρετηριάζονται
από αυθαίρετα σύνολα ευρετηρίου.  Ο συμβολικός συμβολισμός ‘a[k]’
επιλέγει το στοιχείο που ευρετηριάζεται με ‘k’ από την αντιστοίχιση ‘a’
· αυτό μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί σε εκφράσεις και ως στόχος αναθέσεων ή
δηλώσεων *note del: 1d1d.  Η ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note len(): a1f.
επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των στοιχείων σε μια αντιστοίχιση.

Υπάρχει επί του παρόντος ένας ενιαίος εγγενής τύπος αντιστοίχισης:

* Menu:

* Λεξικά::


File: python.info,  Node: Λεξικά,  Up: Αντιστοιχίσεις

4.3.2.13 Λεξικά
...............

Αυτά αντιπροσωπεύουν πεπερασμένα σύνολα αντικειμένων που ευρετηριάζονται
με σχεδόν αυθαίρετες τιμές.  Οι μόνοι τύποι τιμών που δεν είναι
αποδεκτοί ως κλειδιά είναι τιμές που περιέχουν λίστες ή λεξικά ή άλλους
μεταβλητούς τύπους που συγκρίνονται με βάση την τιμή και όχι με την
ταυτότητα αντικειμένου, ο λόγος είναι ότι η αποτελεσματική υλοποίηση
λεξικών απαιτεί τιμή κατακερματισμού ενός κλειδιού να παραμένει σταθερή.
Οι αριθμητικοί τύποι που χρησιμοποιούνται για κλειδιά υπακούουν στους
κανονικούς κανόνες για αριθμητική σύγκριση: εάν δύο αριθμοί συγκρίνονται
ίσοι (π.χ.  ‘1’ και ‘1.0’), τότε μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν εναλλακτικά
για την ευρετηρίαση της ίδιας καταχώρησης λεξικού.

Τα λεξικά διατηρούν τη σειρά εισαγωγής, πράγμα που σημαίνει ότι τα
κλειδιά θα παράγονται με την ίδια σειρά που προστέθηκαν διαδοχικά στο
λεξικό.  Η αντικατάσταση ενός υπάρχοντος κλειδιού δεν αλλάζει τη σειρά,
ωστόσο η αφαίρεση ενός κλειδιού και η επανεισαγωγή του θα προσθέσει στο
τέλος αντί να διατηρήσει την παλιά του θέση.

Τα λεξικά είναι μεταβλητά· μπορούν να δημιουργηθούν με τη σημείωση
‘{...}’ (βλ.  ενότητα *note Dictionary displays: 1138.).

Τα modules επέκτασης *note dbm.ndbm: 37. και *note dbm.gnu: 36. παρέχουν
πρόσθετα παραδείγματα τύπων αντιστοίχισης, όπως και το module *note
collections: 1e.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Τα λεξικά δεν διατήρησαν τη σειρά εισαγωγής σε
εκδόσεις της Python πριν από την 3.6.  Στη CPython 3.6, η σειρά
εισαγωγής διατηρήθηκε, αλλά θεωρήθηκε ως λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης εκείνη
τη στιγμή και όχι ως εγγύηση γλώσσας.


File: python.info,  Node: Τύποι με δυνατότητα κλήσης,  Next: Modules<3>,  Prev: Αντιστοιχίσεις,  Up: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου

4.3.2.14 Τύποι με δυνατότητα κλήσης
...................................

Αυτοί είναι οι τύποι στους οποίους μπορεί να εφαρμοστεί η λειτουργία
κλήσης συνάρτησης (βλ.  ενότητα *note Calls: 1136.) :

* Menu:

* Συναρτήσεις που ορίζονται από τον χρήστη::
* Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου::
* Generator Συναρτήσεις::
* Coroutine συναρτήσεις::
* Asynchronous generator συναρτήσεις::
* Ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις::
* Ενσωματωμένες μεθόδους::
* Κλάσεις: Κλάσεις<2>.
* Στιγμιότυπα Κλάσης::


File: python.info,  Node: Συναρτήσεις που ορίζονται από τον χρήστη,  Next: Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου,  Up: Τύποι με δυνατότητα κλήσης

4.3.2.15 Συναρτήσεις που ορίζονται από τον χρήστη
.................................................

Ένα αντικείμενο συνάρτησης που ορίζεται από τον χρήστη δημιουργείται από
έναν ορισμό συνάρτησης (βλ.  ενότητα *note Function definitions: 2206.).
Θα πρέπει να καλείται με μια λίστα ορισμών που περιέχει τον ίδιο αριθμό
στοιχείων με την επίσημη λίστα παραμέτρων της συνάρτησης.

* Menu:

* Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση::
* Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά::


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4.3.2.16 Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση
................................................

Χαρακτηριστικό                                         Έννοια
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__builtins__                    A reference to the *note dictionary: 188. that holds
                                                       the function’s builtins namespace.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.10.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__globals__                     Μια αναφορά στη *note dictionary: 188. που περιέχει
                                                       τις *note global variables: 2537. – τον καθολικό
                                                       χώρο ονομάτων του module στην οποία ορίστηκε η
                                                       συνάρτηση.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__closure__                     Το ‘None’ ή μια *note tuple: 1ce. από κελιά που
                                                       περιέχουν δεσμεύσεις για τα ονόματα που καθορίζονται
                                                       στο χαρακτηριστικό *note co_freevars: 2538. του
                                                       *note code object: 79c. της συνάρτησης.
                                                       
                                                       Ένα αντικείμενο κελιού έχει το χαρακτηριστικό
                                                       ‘cell_contents’.  Αυτό μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για
                                                       να ληφθεί η τιμή του κελιού, καθώς και να οριστεί η
                                                       τιμή.
                                                       


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4.3.2.17 Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά
........................................

Τα περισσότερα από αυτά τα χαρακτηριστικά ελέγχουν τον τύπο της
εκχωρημένης τιμής:

Χαρακτηριστικό                                         Έννοια
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__doc__                         Η συμβολοσειρά τεκμηρίωσης της συνάρτηση ή ‘None’
                                                       εάν δεν είναι διαθέσιμη.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__name__                        Το όνομα της συνάρτησης.  Δείτε επίσης
                                                       *note __name__ attributes: 140e.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__qualname__                    Η συνάρτηση είναι *note qualified name: 1f19.  Δείτε
                                                       επίσης *note __qualname__ attributes: 140d.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.3.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__module__                      Το όνομα του module στην οποία ορίστηκε η συνάρτηση
                                                       ή ‘None’ εάν δεν είναι διαθέσιμη.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__defaults__                    Ένα *note tuple: 1ce. που περιέχει προεπιλεγμένες
                                                       τιμές *note parameter: 253c. για εκείνες τις
                                                       παραμέτρους που έχουν προεπιλογές ή ‘None’ εάν καμία
                                                       παράμετρος δεν έχει προεπιλεγμένη τιμή.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__code__                        Το αντικείμενο *note code object: 6eb. που
                                                       αντιπροσωπεύει το μεταγλωττισμένο σώμα συνάρτησης.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__dict__                        Ο χώρος ονομάτων που υποστηρίζει αυθαίρετα
                                                       χαρακτηριστικά συνάρτησης.  Δείτε επίσης
                                                       *note __dict__ attributes: 1bf.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__annotations__                 Μια *note dictionary: 188. που περιέχει annotations
                                                       για *note parameters: 253c.  Τα κλειδιά του λεξικού
                                                       είναι τα ονόματα των παραμέτρων και ‘'return'’, για
                                                       το annotation επιστροφής, εάν παρέχεται.  Δείτε
                                                       επίσης: *note object.__annotations__: 66b.
                                                       
                                                       Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Τα annotations πλέον
                                                       *note lazily evaluated: 872.  Βλ.  PEP 649(1).
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__annotate__                    Η *note annotate function: 40a. για αυτή τη
                                                       συνάρτηση ή ‘None’ εάν η συνάρτηση δεν έχει
                                                       annotations.  Δείτε *note object.__annotate__: 1b95.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.14.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__kwdefaults__                  Μια *note dictionary: 188. που περιέχει προεπιλογές
                                                       για λέξεις-κλειδιά μόνο *note parameters: 253c.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: function.__type_params__                 Μια *note tuple: 1ce. που περιέχει τις παραμέτρους
                                                       *note type parameters: 7a5. μιας
                                                       *note generic function: 86f.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.12.
                                                       

Τα αντικείμενα συναρτήσεων υποστηρίζουν επίσης τη λήψη και τον καθορισμό
αυθαίρετων χαρακτηριστικών , τα οποία μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν, για
παράδειγμα, για την επισύναψη μεταδεδομένων σε συναρτήσεις.  Η τυπική
σημειογραφία σημείων χαρακτηριστικών χρησιμοποιείται για τη λήψη και τον
ορισμό τέτοιων χαρακτηριστικών.

Η τρέχουσα υλοποίηση του CPython υποστηρίζει μόνο χαρακτηριστικά
συναρτήσεων σε συναρτήσεις που καθορίζονται από τον χρήστη.  Τα
χαρακτηριστικά συναρτήσεων σε *note built-in functions: 253f. ενδέχεται
να υποστηρίζονται στο μέλλον.

Μπορούν να ανακτηθούν πρόσθετες πληροφορίες σχετικά με τον ορισμό μιας
συνάρτησης από το αντικείμενο *note code object: 6eb. (προσβάσιμο μέσω
του χαρακτηριστικού *note __code__: 79c.).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/


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4.3.2.18 Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου
.............................

Ένα αντικείμενο μεθόδου στιγμιοτύπου συνδυάζει μια κλάση, ένα
στιγμιότυπο κλάσης και οποιοδήποτε αντικείμενο που μπορεί να κληθεί
(συνήθως μια συνάρτηση που ορίζεται από τον χρήστη.)

Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση:

 -- Ιδιότητα: method.__self__                          Αναφέρεται στο αντικείμενο στιγμιοτύπου κλάσης στο
                                                       οποίο βρίσκεται η μέθοδος *note bound: 2541.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: method.__func__                          Αναφέρεται στο αρχικό *note function object: 79b.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: method.__doc__                           Η τεκμηρίωση της μεθόδου (ίδια με την
                                                       *note method.__func__.__doc__: 1582.).  Μια
                                                       *note string: 1df. εάν η αρχική συνάρτηση είχε
                                                       docstring, αλλιώς ‘None’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: method.__name__                          Το όνομα της μεθόδου (ίδιο με το
                                                       *note method.__func__.__name__: 1679.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: method.__module__                        Το όνομα του module στην οποία ορίστηκε η μέθοδος, ή
                                                       ‘None’ εάν δεν είναι διαθέσιμη.
                                                       

Οι μέθοδοι υποστηρίζουν επίσης την πρόσβαση (αλλά όχι τη ρύθμιση) των
αυθαίρετων χαρακτηριστικών συνάρτησης στο υποκείμενο αντικείμενο *note
function object: 79b.

Τα αντικείμενα μεθόδου που ορίζονται από το χρήστη μπορούν να
δημιουργηθούν όταν λαμβάνεται ένα χαρακτηριστικό μιας κλάσης (ίσως μέσω
ενός στιγμιοτύπου αυτής της κλάσης), εάν αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό είναι
ένα αντικείμενο *note function object: 79b. ή ένα αντικείμενο *note
classmethod: 69a.  Όταν δημιουργείται ένα αντικείμενο μεθόδου
στιγμιοτύπου ανακτώντας ένα αντικείμενο *note function object: 79b. που
ορίζεται από το χρήστη από μια κλάση, το χαρακτηριστικό *note __self__:
176b. είναι το στιγμιότυπο και το αντικείμενό της μεθόδου λέγεται ότι
είναι 'δεσμευμένο'.  Το χαρακτηριστικό *note __func__: 16a1. της νέας
μεθόδου είναι το αρχικό αντικείμενο συνάρτησης.

Όταν ένα αντικείμενο μεθόδου παρουσίας δημιουργείται με ανάκτηση ενός
αντικειμένου *note classmethod: 69a. από μια κλάση ή στιγμιότυπο, το
χαρακτηριστικό *note __self__: 176b. είναι η ίδια κλάση και το
χαρακτηριστικό *note __func__: 16a1. είναι το αντικείμενο συνάρτησης που
βρίσκεται κάτω από τη μέθοδο κλάσης.

Όταν καλείται ένα αντικείμενο μεθόδου στιγμιοτύπου, καλείται η
υποκείμενη συνάρτηση (*note __func__: 16a1.), εισάγοντας το στιγμιότυπο
κλάσης (*note __self__: 176b.) μπροστά από τη λίστα ορισμάτων.  Για
παράδειγμα, όταν η ‘C’ είναι μια κλάση που περιέχει έναν ορισμό για μια
συνάρτηση ‘f()’, και το ‘x’ είναι ένα στιγμιότυπο της ‘C’, η κλήση του
‘x.f(1)’ ισοδυναμεί με την κλήση του ‘C.f(x, 1)’.

Όταν ένα αντικείμενο μεθόδου στιγμιοτύπου προέρχεται από ένα αντικείμενο
*note classmethod: 69a, το «στιγμιότυπο κλάσης» που είναι αποθηκευμένο
στη *note __self__: 176b. θα είναι στη πραγματικότητα η ίδια η κλάση,
έτσι ώστε η κλήση είτε του ‘x.f(1)’ ή του ‘C.f(1)’ ισοδυναμεί με την
κλήση του ‘f(C,1)’ όπου το ‘f’ είναι η υποκείμενη συνάρτηση.

Είναι σημαντικό να σημειωθεί ότι οι συναρτήσεις που ορίζονται από το
χρήστη και είναι χαρακτηριστικό ενός στιγμιοτύπου μιας κλάσης δεν
μετατρέπονται σε δεσμευμένες μεθόδους∙ Αυτό συμβαίνει 'μόνο' όταν η
συνάρτηση είναι χαρακτηριστικό της κλάσης.


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4.3.2.19 Generator Συναρτήσεις
..............................

Μια συνάρτηση ή μέθοδος που χρησιμοποιεί τη δήλωση *note yield: d93.
(βλ.  ενότητα *note Η εντολή yield: d93.) ονομάζεται 'generator
function'.  Μια τέτοια συνάρτηση, όταν καλείται, επιστρέφει πάντα ένα
αντικείμενο *note iterator: 6ce. που μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την
εκτέλεση του σώματος της συνάρτησης: καλώντας τη μέθοδο *note
iterator.__next__(): 1672. του iterator θα προκαλέσει την εκτέλεση της
συνάρτησης έως ότου παρέχει μια τιμή χρησιμοποιώντας τη δήλωση ‘yield’.
Όταν η συνάρτηση εκτελεί μια δήλωση *note return: 44b. ή πέσει στο
τέλος, γίνεται raise μια εξαίρεση *note StopIteration: fba. και ο
iterator θα έχει φτάσει στο τέλος του συνόλου τιμών που θα επιστραφεί.


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4.3.2.20 Coroutine συναρτήσεις
..............................

Μια συνάρτηση ή μέθοδος που ορίζεται χρησιμοποιώντας *note async def:
9cf. ονομάζεται μια 'coroutine function'.  Μια τέτοια συνάρτηση, όταν
καλείται, επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο *note coroutine: 8a2.  Μπορεί να
περιέχει εκφράσεις *note await: 432, καθώς και *note async with: 20b.
και *note async for: e70.  Δείτε επίσης την ενότητα *note Coroutine
Αντικείμενα: 2547.


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4.3.2.21 Asynchronous generator συναρτήσεις
...........................................

Μια συνάρτηση ή μέθοδος που ορίζεται χρησιμοποιώντας *note async def:
9cf. και που χρησιμοποιεί την πρόταση *note yield: d93. ονομάζεται
'asynchronous generator function'.  Μια τέτοια συνάρτηση, όταν καλείται,
επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο *note asynchronous iterator: 6cd. που μπορεί
να χρησιμοποιηθεί σε μια δήλωση *note async for: e70. για την εκτέλεση
του σώματος της συνάρτησης.

Η κλήση της μεθόδου *note aiterator.__anext__: 1aa7. του ασύγχρονου
iterator θα επιστρέψει ένα *note awaitable: 6cf. το οποίο όταν
αναμένεται θα εκτελεστεί έως ότου δώσει μια τιμή χρησιμοποιώντας την
έκφραση *note yield: d93.  Όταν η συνάρτηση εκτελεί μια κενή εντολή
*note return: 44b. ή πέφτει στο τέλος, γίνεται raise μια εξαίρεση *note
StopAsyncIteration: 1ffe. και ο ασύγχρονος iterator θα έχει φτάσει στο
τέλος του συνόλου τιμών που θα αποδοθούν.


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4.3.2.22 Ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις
..................................

Ένα αντικείμενο ενσωματωμένης συνάρτησης είναι ένας wrapper γύρω από μια
συνάρτηση C. Παραδείγματα ενσωματωμένων συναρτήσεων είναι οι *note
len(): a1f. και *note math.sin(): 1860. (*note math: 91. είναι ένα
ενσωματωμένο module).  Ο αριθμός και ο τύπος των ορισμάτων καθορίζονται
από τη συνάρτηση C. Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση:

   * Η ‘__doc__’ είναι η συμβολοσειρά τεκμηρίωσης της συνάρτησης, ή
     ‘None’ εάν δεν είναι διαθέσιμη .  Δείτε *note function.__doc__:
     1582.

   * Η ‘__name__’ είναι το όνομα της συνάρτησης.  Δείτε *note
     function.__name__: 1679.

   * Η ‘__self__’ έχει οριστεί σε ‘None’ (αλλά δείτε το επόμενο
     στοιχείο).

   * Η ‘__module__’ είναι το όνομα του module στην οποία ορίστηκε η
     συνάρτηση ή ‘None’ εάν δεν είναι διαθέσιμη.  Δείτε *note
     function.__module__: 253b.


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4.3.2.23 Ενσωματωμένες μεθόδους
...............................

Αυτή είναι πραγματικά μια διαφορετική μεταμφίεση μιας ενσωματωμένης
συνάρτησης, αυτή τη φορά που περιέχει ένα αντικείμενο που μεταβιβάστηκε
στη συνάρτηση C ως ένα έμμεσο επιπλέον όρισμα.  Ένα παράδειγμα
ενσωματωμένης μεθόδου είναι η ‘alist.append()’, υποθέτοντας ότι το
'alist' είναι αντικείμενο λίστας.  Σε αυτήν την περίπτωση, το ειδικό
χαρακτηριστικό μόνο για ανάγνωση ‘__self__’ ορίζεται στο αντικείμενο που
συμβολίζεται με 'alist'.  (Το χαρακτηριστικό έχει την ίδια σημασιολογία
με το *note other instance methods: 176b.)


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4.3.2.24 Κλάσεις
................

Οι κλάσεις μπορούν να κληθούν.  Αυτά τα αντικείμενα λειτουργούν κανονικά
ως εργοστάσια (factories) για νέα στιγμιότυπα του εαυτού τους, αλλά
είναι δυνατές παραλλαγές για τύπους κλάσεων που παρακάμπτουν το *note
__new__(): 982.  Τα ορίσματα της κλήσης μεταβιβάζονται στην ‘__new__()’
και, στην τυπική περίπτωση, στη *note __init__(): 2fa. για να
αρχικοποιηθεί το νέο στιγμιότυπο.


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4.3.2.25 Στιγμιότυπα Κλάσης
...........................

Τα στιγμιότυπα αυθαίρετων κλάσεων μπορούν να έχουν την δυνατότητα κλήσης
ορίζοντας μια μέθοδο *note __call__(): 961. στην κλάση τους.


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4.3.2.26 Modules
................

Τα modules είναι μια βασική οργανωτική μονάδα κώδικα Python, και
δημιουργούνται από το *note import system: 2551. όπως καλείται είτε από
τη δήλωση *note import: 9da. είτε με κλήση συναρτήσεων όπως *note
importlib.import_module(): 927. και το ενσωματωμένο *note __import__():
ca6.  Ένα αντικείμενο module έχει έναν χώρο ονομάτων που υλοποιείται από
ένα αντικείμενο *note dictionary: 188. (αυτό είναι το λεξικό που
αναφέρεται από τη συνάρτηση *note __globals__: 1678. των συναρτήσεων που
ορίζονται στο module).  Οι αναφορές χαρακτηριστικών μεταφράζονται σε
αναζητήσεις σε αυτό το λεξικό, π.χ., το ‘m.x’ ισοδυναμεί με
‘m.__dict__["x"]’.  Ένα αντικείμενο module δεν περιέχει το αντικείμενο
κώδικα που χρησιμοποιείται για την προετοιμασία του module (καθώς δεν
χρειάζεται μόλις ολοκληρωθεί η προετοιμασία).

Η εκχώρηση χαρακτηριστικών ενημερώνει το λεξικό χώρου ονομάτων του
module, π.χ., ‘m.x = 1’ ισοδυναμεί με ‘m.__dict__["x"] = 1’.

* Menu:

* Χαρακτηριστικά που σχετίζονται με εισαγωγή σε αντικείμενα modules::
* Άλλα εγγράφως χαρακτηριστικά σε αντικείμενα μονάδων::
* Λεξικά Modules::


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4.3.2.27 Χαρακτηριστικά που σχετίζονται με εισαγωγή σε αντικείμενα modules
..........................................................................

Τα αντικείμενα modules έχουν τα ακόλουθα χαρακτηριστικά που σχετίζονται
με το *note import system: 2551.  Όταν δημιουργείται ένα module με τη
χρήση του μηχανήματος που σχετίζεται με το σύστημα εισαγωγής, αυτά τα
χαρακτηριστικά συμπληρώνονται με βάση το *note spec: 2554. του module,
προτού το *note loader: 1c30. εκτελέσει και φορτώσει το module.

Για να δημιουργήσετε ένα module δυναμικά αντί να χρησιμοποιήσετε το
σύστημα εισαγωγής, συνίσταται να χρησιμοποιήσετε τη *note
importlib.util.module_from_spec(): 11c6, η οποία θα ορίσει τα διάφορα
ελεγχόμενα από εισαγωγή χαρακτηριστικών σε κατάλληλες τιμές.  Είναι
επίσης δυνατό να χρησιμοποιηθεί ο κατασκευαστής *note types.ModuleType:
11c7. για τη δημιουργία modules απευθείας, αλλά αυτή η τεχνική είναι πιο
επιρρεπής σε σφάλματα, καθώς τα περισσότερα χαρακτηριστικά πρέπει να
οριστούν χειροκίνητα στο αντικείμενο του module αφού δημιουργηθεί κατά
τη χρήση αυτής της προσέγγισης.

     Προσοχή: Με εξαίρεση το *note __name__: 172f, 'συνίσταται
     ανεπιφύλακτα' να βασίζεστε στο *note __spec__: 2555. και στα
     χαρακτηριστικά του αντί για οποιοδήποτε από τα άλλα μεμονωμένα
     χαρακτηριστικά που αναφέρονται σε αυτήν την υποενότητα.  Σημειώστε
     ότι η ενημέρωση ενός χαρακτηριστικού στο ‘__spec__’ δεν θα
     ενημερώσει το αντίστοιχο χαρακτηριστικό στο ίδιο το module:

          >>> import typing
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('typing', 'typing')
          >>> typing.__spec__.name = 'spelling'
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('typing', 'spelling')
          >>> typing.__name__ = 'keyboard_smashing'
          >>> typing.__name__, typing.__spec__.name
          ('keyboard_smashing', 'spelling')

 -- Ιδιότητα: module.__name__

     Το όνομα που χρησιμοποιείται για την μοναδική αναγνώριση της
     ενότητας στο σύστημα εισαγωγής.  Για ένα άμεσο εκτελούμενο module,
     αυτό θα οριστεί σε ‘"__main__"’.

     Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό πρέπει να οριστεί στο πλήρως προσδιορισμένο
     όνομα του module.  Αναμένεται να ταιριάζει με την τιμή *note
     module.__spec__.name: 2556.

 -- Ιδιότητα: module.__spec__

     Μια εγγραφή της κατάστασης του module που σχετίζεται με το σύστημα
     εισαγωγής.

     Ορίστε την παράμετρο *note module spec: 245d. που χρησιμοποιήθηκε
     κατά την εισαγωγή της ενότητας.  Δείτε το *note Module specs: 2557.
     για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Ιδιότητα: module.__package__

     Το *note package: 4c1. στο οποίο ανήκει μια ενότητα.

     Εάν το module είναι ανώτατου επιπέδου (δηλαδή, δεν αποτελεί μέρος
     κάποιου συγκεκριμένου πακέτου), τότε το χαρακτηριστικό θα πρέπει να
     οριστεί σε ‘''’ (η κενή συμβολοσειρά).  Διαφορετικά, θα πρέπει να
     οριστεί το όνομα του πακέτου της ενότητας (το οποίο μπορεί να είναι
     ίσο με *note module.__name__: 172f. εάν η ίδια η ενότητα είναι
     πακέτο).  Δείτε PEP 366(1) για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.

     Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό χρησιμοποιείται αντί για το *note __name__:
     172f. για την υπολογισμό σαφών σχετικών εισαγωγών για τα κύρια
     modules.  Η προεπιλεγμένη τιμή είναι ‘None’ για modules που
     δημιουργούνται δυναμικά χρησιμοποιώντας τον κατασκευαστή *note
     types.ModuleType: 11c7. ∙ χρησιμοποιήστε το *note
     importlib.util.module_from_spec(): 11c6. για να βεβαιωθείτε ότι το
     χαρακτηριστικό έχει οριστεί σε *note str: 1df.

     Συνίσταται ανεπιφύλακτα να χρησιμοποιείτε την εντολή *note
     module.__spec__.parent: 58d. αντί για την εντολή
     ‘module.__package__’.  Η εντολή *note __package__: 58c.
     χρησιμοποιείται πλέον μόνο ως εφεδρική εντολή εάν η εντολή
     ‘__spec__.parent’ δεν έχει οριστεί και αυτή η εφεδρική διαδρομή
     έχει καταργηθεί.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό έχει πλέον την
     προεπιλεγμένη τιμή ‘None’ για modules που δημιουργούνται δυναμικά
     χρησιμοποιώντας τον κατασκευαστή *note types.ModuleType: 11c7.
     Προηγουμένως, το χαρακτηριστικό ήταν προαιρετικό.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Η τιμή του ‘__package__’ αναμένεται να
     είναι η ίδια με την τιμή του *note __spec__.parent: 58d.  Το *note
     __package__: 58c. χρησιμοποιείται πλέον μόνο ως εφεδρική τιμή κατά
     την ανάλυση εισαγωγής εάν δεν έχει οριστεί το ‘__spec__.parent’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Η *note ImportWarning: 907. γίνεται raised
     εάν η ανάλυση εισαγωγής επανέλθει σε ‘__package__’ αντί για *note
     __spec__.parent: 58d.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Γίνεται *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.
     αντί για *note ImportWarning: 907. κατά την επιστροφή στο
     ‘__package__’ κατά την επίλυση της εισαγωγής.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.13, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15: Το
     ‘__package__’ θα πάψει να ορίζεται ή να λαμβάνεται υπόψη από το
     σύστημα εισαγωγής ή την τυπική βιβλιοθήκη.

 -- Ιδιότητα: module.__loader__

     Το αντικείμενο *note loader: 1c30. που χρησιμοποίησε ο μηχανισμός
     εισαγωγής για τη φόρτωση του module.

     Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό είναι κυρίως χρήσιμο για ενδοσκόπηση, αλλά
     μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για πρόσθετη λειτουργικότητα ειδικά για
     τον loader, για παράδειγμα για τη λήψη δεδομένων που σχετίζονται με
     έναν loader.

     Το ‘__loader__’ έχει προεπιλεγμένη τιμή ‘None’ για modules που
     δημιουργούνται δυναμικά χρησιμοποιώντας τον κατασκευαστή *note
     types.ModuleType: 11c7. ∙ χρησιμοποιήστε τη *note
     importlib.util.module_from_spec(): 11c6. για να βεβαιωθείτε ότι το
     χαρακτηριστικό έχει οριστεί σε ένα αντικείμενο *note loader: 1c30.

     Συνίσταται ανεπιφύλακτα να χρησιμοποιείτε την εντολή *note
     module.__spec__.loader: 300. αντί για την εντολή
     ‘module.__loader__’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό έχει πλέον την
     προεπιλεγμένη τιμή ‘None’ για modules που δημιουργούνται δυναμικά
     χρησιμοποιώντας τον κατασκευαστή *note types.ModuleType: 11c7.
     Προηγουμένως, το χαρακτηριστικό ήταν προαιρετικό.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.16: Ο
     ορισμός του ‘__loader__’ σε ένα module χωρίς τον αντίστοιχο ορισμό
     του ‘__spec__.loader’ θεωρείται παρωχημένος.  Στην Python 3.16, το
     ‘__loader__’ θα πάψει να ορίζεται η να λαμβάνεται υπόψη από το
     σύστημα εισαγωγής ή την τυπική βιβλιοθήκη.

 -- Ιδιότητα: module.__path__

     Μια (ενδεχομένως κενή) *note sequence: 8ff. από συμβολοσειρές που
     απαριθμεί τις τοποθεσίες όπου θα εντοπιστούν τα submodules του
     πακέτου.  Modules που δεν είναι πακέτα δεν θα πρέπει να έχουν το
     χαρακτηριστικό ‘__path__’.  Δείτε το *note Χαρακτηριστικά __path__
     στα modules: 2558. για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.

     Συνίσταται 'ισχυρά' να χρησιμοποιείτε το *note
     module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations: 2559. αντί για το
     ‘module.__path__’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: module.__file__

     ‘__file__’ is an optional attribute that may or may not be set.
     Both attributes should be a *note str: 1df. when they are
     available.

     An optional attribute, ‘__file__’ indicates the pathname of the
     file from which the module was loaded (if loaded from a file), or
     the pathname of the shared library file for extension modules
     loaded dynamically from a shared library.  It might be missing for
     certain types of modules, such as C modules that are statically
     linked into the interpreter, and the *note import system: 2551. may
     opt to leave it unset if it has no semantic meaning (for example, a
     module loaded from a database).

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.13, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15:
     Setting ‘__cached__’ on a module while failing to set
     ‘__spec__.cached’ is deprecated.  In Python 3.15, ‘__cached__’ will
     cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or
     standard library.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: ‘__cached__’ is no longer set.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/


File: python.info,  Node: Άλλα εγγράφως χαρακτηριστικά σε αντικείμενα μονάδων,  Next: Λεξικά Modules,  Prev: Χαρακτηριστικά που σχετίζονται με εισαγωγή σε αντικείμενα modules,  Up: Modules<3>

4.3.2.28 Άλλα εγγράφως χαρακτηριστικά σε αντικείμενα μονάδων
............................................................

Εκτός από τα χαρακτηριστικά που σχετίζονται με τις εισαγωγές που
αναφέρονται παραπάνω, τα αντικείμενα της μονάδας έχουν επίσης τα
ακόλουθα δικαιολογημένα χαρακτηριστικά:

 -- Ιδιότητα: module.__doc__

     Η συμβολοσειρά τεκμηρίωσης του module, ή ‘None’ αν δεν είναι
     διαθέσιμη.  Δείτε επίσης: *note __doc__ attributes: cf4.

 -- Ιδιότητα: module.__annotations__

     Ένα λεξικό που περιέχει *note variable annotations: 110a. που
     συλλέγονται κατά την εκτέλεση του σώματος του module.  Για τις
     βέλτιστες πρακτικές σχετικά με την εργασία με ‘__annotations__’,
     δείτε το *note annotationlib: 6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Τα annotations πλέον *note lazily
     evaluated: 872.  Βλ.  PEP 649(1).

 -- Ιδιότητα: module.__annotate__

     Η *note annotate function: 40a. για αυτό το module, ή ‘None’ εάν το
     module δεν έχει annotations.  Δείτε επίσης: *note __annotate__:
     1b95. attributes.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Ιδιότητα: module.__lazy_modules__

     A container (an object implementing *note __contains__(): 175c.) of
     fully qualified module name strings.  When defined at module scope,
     any regular *note import: 9da. statement in that module whose
     target module name appears in this container is treated as a *note
     lazy import: 255e, as if the *note lazy: 177. keyword had been
     used.  Imports inside functions, class bodies, or *note try:
     ad6./*note except: 447./*note finally: 44c. blocks are unaffected.

     See *note Compatibility via __lazy_modules__: 255f. for details and
     examples.

     Added in version 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/


File: python.info,  Node: Λεξικά Modules,  Prev: Άλλα εγγράφως χαρακτηριστικά σε αντικείμενα μονάδων,  Up: Modules<3>

4.3.2.29 Λεξικά Modules
.......................

Τα αντικείμενα module έχουν επίσης την ακόλουθη ειδική ιδιότητα μόνο για
ανάγνωση:

 -- Ιδιότητα: module.__dict__

     Ο χώρος ονομάτων του module ως αντικείμενο λεξικού.  Μοναδικά
     μεταξύ των χαρακτηριστικών που αναφέρονται εδώ, το ‘__dict__’ δεν
     μπορεί να προσπελαστεί ως καθολική μεταβλητή από μέσα σε ένα
     module∙ μπορεί να προσπελαστεί μόνο ως χαρακτηριστικό σε
     αντικείμενα module.

     Λόγω του τρόπου με τον οποίο η CPython διαγράφει τα λεξικά των
     modules το λεξικό του module θα διαγραφεί όταν το module πέσει
     εκτός πεδίου εφαρμογής, ακόμα κι αν το λεξικό εξακολουθεί να έχει
     ζωντανές αναφορές.  Για να αποφύγετε αυτό, αντιγράψτε το λεξικό ή
     κρατήστε το module ενώ χρησιμοποιείται απευθείας το λεξικό της.


File: python.info,  Node: Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις,  Next: Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης,  Prev: Modules<3>,  Up: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου

4.3.2.30 Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις
...............................

Οι τύποι προσαρμοσμένων κλάσεων δημιουργούνται συνήθως από ορισμούς
κλάσεων (βλ.  ενότητα *note Class definitions: 167c.).  Μια κλάση έχει
έναν χώρο ονομάτων που υλοποιείται από ένα αντικείμενο λεξικού.  Οι
αναφορές χαρακτηριστικών κλάσης μεταφράζονται σε αναζητήσεις σε αυτό το
λεξικό, π.χ., το ‘C.x’ μεταφράζεται σε ‘C.__dict__["x"]’ (αν και άλλα
μέσα για τα οποία επιτρέπεται ο αριθμός των θέσεων υπάρχουν).  Όταν το
όνομα του χαρακτηριστικού δεν βρίσκεται εκεί, η αναζήτηση
χαρακτηριστικών συνεχίζεται στις βασικές κλάσεις.  Αυτή η αναζήτηση των
βασικών κλάσεων χρησιμοποιεί τη σειρά ανάλυσης της μεθόδου C3 η οποία
συμπεριφέρεται σωστά ακόμη και με την παρουσία δομών κληρονομικότητας
«διαμάντι» όπου υπάρχουν πολλαπλές διαδρομές κληρονομικότητας που
οδηγούν πίσω σε έναν κοινό πρόγονο.  Πρόσθετε λεπτομέρειες για το C3 MRO
που χρησιμοποιείται από την Python μπορείτε να βρείτε στην διεύθυνση
*note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 184c.

Όταν μια αναφορά χαρακτηριστικού κλάσης (για την κλάση ‘C’, ας πούμε) θα
έδινε ένα αντικείμενο μεθόδου κλάσης, μετατρέπεται σε ένα αντικείμενο
μεθόδου παρουσίας του οποίου το χαρακτηριστικό *note __self__: 176b.
είναι ‘C’.  Όταν θα έδινε ένα αντικείμενο *note staticmethod: 666,
μετατρέπεται στο αντικείμενο που είναι wrapped από το αντικείμενο
στατικής μεθόδου.  Δείτε την ενότητα *note Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων: 100d.
για έναν άλλο τρόπο με το οποίο τα χαρακτηριστικά που ανακτώνται από μια
κλάση μπορεί να διαφέρουν από αυτά που πραγματικά περιέχονται στο *note
__dict__: 1bf. της.

Οι αναθέσεις χαρακτηριστικών κλάσης ενημερώνουν το λεξικό της κλάσης,
ποτέ το λεξικό μιας βασικής κλάσης.

Ένα αντικείμενο κλάσης μπορεί να κληθεί (δείτε παραπάνω) για να δώσει
ένα στιγμιότυπο κλάσης (δείτε παρακάτω).

* Menu:

* Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά::
* Ειδικές μέθοδοι::


File: python.info,  Node: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά,  Next: Ειδικές μέθοδοι,  Up: Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις

4.3.2.31 Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά
..............................

Χαρακτηριστικό                                         Έννοια
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: type.__name__                            Το όνομα της κλάσης, Δείτε επίσης:
                                                       *note __name__ attributes: 140e.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: type.__qualname__                        Το *note qualified name: 1f19. της κλάσης.  Δείτε
                                                       επίσης: *note __qualname__ attributes: 140d.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: type.__module__                          Το όνομα του module στην οποία ορίστηκε η κλάση.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: type.__dict__                            Μια *note mapping proxy: 189. που παρέχει μια
                                                       προβολή μόνο για ανάγνωση του χώρου ονομάτων της
                                                       κλάσης.  Δείτε επίσης:
                                                       *note __dict__ attributes: 1bf.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: type.__bases__                           Μια *note tuple: 1ce. που περιέχει τις βάσεις της
                                                       κλάσης.  Στις περισσότερες περιπτώσεις, για μια
                                                       κλάση που ορίζεται ως ‘class X(A, B, C)’, το
                                                       ‘X.__bases__’ θα είναι ακριβώς ίσο με ‘(A, B, C)’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: type.__base__                            Η μοναδική βασική κλάση στην αλυσίδα
                                                       κληρονομικότητας που είναι υπεύθυνη για τη διάταξη
                                                       μνήμης των στιγμιοτύπων.  Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό
                                                       αντιστοιχεί στο *note tp_base: 2567. σε επίπεδο C.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: type.__doc__                             Η συμβολοσειρά τεκμηρίωσης της κλάσης ή ‘None’ εάν
                                                       δεν έχει οριστεί.  Δεν κληρονομείται από υποκλάσεις.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: type.__annotations__                     Ένα λεξικό που περιέχει
                                                       *note variable annotations: 110a. που συλλέγονται
                                                       κατά την εκτέλεση του σώματος της κλάσης.  Δείτε
                                                       επίσης: *note __annotations__ attributes: 66b.
                                                       
                                                       Για βέλτιστες πρακτικές σχετικά με την εργασία με
                                                       *note __annotations__: 66b, δείτε το
                                                       *note annotationlib: 6.  Χρησιμοποιήστε την
                                                       *note annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. αντί να
                                                       έχετε άμεση πρόσβαση σε αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό.
                                                       
                                                            Προειδοποίηση: Η πρόσβαση στο χαρακτηριστικό
                                                            ‘__annotations__’ απευθείας σε ένα αντικείμενο
                                                            κλάσης ενδέχεται να επιστρέψει annotations για
                                                            τη λάθος κλάση, συγκεκριμένα σε ορισμένες
                                                            περιπτώσεις όπου η κλάση, η βασική της κλάση ή
                                                            μια μετακλάση ορίζεται με το ‘from __future__
                                                            import annotations’.  Δείτε το 749(1) για
                                                            λεπτομέρειες.
                                                       
                                                            Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό δεν υπάρχει σε ορισμένες
                                                            ενσωματωμένες κλάσεις.  Σε προσαρμοσμένες
                                                            κλάσεις χωρίς ‘__annotations__’, είναι ένα κενό
                                                            λεξικό.
                                                       
                                                       Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Τα annotations πλέον
                                                       *note lazily evaluated: 872.  Βλ.  PEP 649(2).
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Μέθοδος: type.__annotate__ ()                      Η *note annotate function: 40a. για αυτή την κλάση,
                                                       ή ‘None’ εάν η κλάση δεν έχει annotations.  Δείτε
                                                       επίσης: *note __annotate__ attributes: 1b95.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.14.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: type.__type_params__                     Μια *note tuple: 1ce. που περιέχει τις
                                                       *note type parameters: 7a5. μιας
                                                       *note generic class: 86e.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.12.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: type.__static_attributes__               Ένα *note tuple: 1ce. που περιέχει ονόματα
                                                       χαρακτηριστικών αυτής της κλάσης τα οποία
                                                       ανατίθενται μέσω του ‘self.X’ από οποιαδήποτε
                                                       συνάρτηση στο σώμα της.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.13.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: type.__firstlineno__                     Ο αριθμός γραμμής της πρώτης γραμμής του ορισμού της
                                                       κλάσης, συμπεριλαμβανομένων των διακοσμητών.  Ο
                                                       ορισμός του χαρακτηριστικού *note __module__: 80b.
                                                       αφαιρεί το ‘__firstlineno__’ από το λεξικό του
                                                       τύπου.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.13.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: type.__mro__                             Η *note tuple: 1ce. των κλάσεων που λαμβάνονται
                                                       υπόψη κατά την αναζήτηση βασικών κλάσεων κατά την
                                                       ανάλυση της μεθόδου.
                                                       

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/#pep749-metaclasses

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/


File: python.info,  Node: Ειδικές μέθοδοι,  Prev: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά,  Up: Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις

4.3.2.32 Ειδικές μέθοδοι
........................

Εκτός από τα ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά που περιγράφονται παραπάνω, όλες οι
κλάσεις Python έχουν επίσης διαθέσιμες τις ακόλουθες δύο μεθόδους:

 -- Μέθοδος: type.mro ()

     Αυτή η μέθοδος μπορεί να παρακαμφθεί από μια μετακλάση για να
     προσαρμόσετε τη σειρά ανάλυσης της μεθόδου για τις παρουσίες της.
     Καλείται κατά την έναρξη της κλάσης και το αποτέλεσμα της
     αποθηκεύεται στο *note __mro__: 2569.

 -- Μέθοδος: type.__subclasses__ ()

     Κάθε κλάση διατηρεί μια λίστα με ασθενείς αναφορές στις άμεσες
     υποκλάσεις της.  Αυτή η μέθοδος επιστρέφει μια λίστα με όλες αυτές
     τις αναφορές που εξακολουθούν να είναι ενεργές.  Η λίστα είναι με
     σειρά ορισμού.  Παράδειγμα:

          >>> class A: pass
          >>> class B(A): pass
          >>> A.__subclasses__()
          [<class 'B'>]


File: python.info,  Node: Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης,  Next: Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου,  Prev: Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις,  Up: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου

4.3.2.33 Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης
...........................

Ένα στιγμιότυπο κλάσης δημιουργείται καλώντας ένα αντικείμενο κλάσης
(δείτε παραπάνω).  Ένα στιγμιότυπο κλάσης έχει έναν χώρο ονομάτων που
υλοποιείται ως λεξικό που είναι το πρώτο μέρος στο οποίο αναζητούνται οι
αναφορές χαρακτηριστικών.  Όταν ένα χαρακτηριστικό δεν βρίσκεται εκεί
και η κλάση του στιγμιοτύπου έχει ένα χαρακτηριστικό με αυτό το όνομα, η
αναζήτηση συνεχίζεται με τα χαρακτηριστικά κλάσης.  Εάν βρεθεί ένα
χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης που είναι ένα αντικείμενο συνάρτησης που ορίζεται
από το χρήστη, μετατρέπεται σε ένα αντικείμενο μεθόδου στιγμιοτύπου του
οποίου το χαρακτηριστικό *note __self__: 176b. είναι το στιγμιότυπο.  Τα
αντικείμενα στατικής μεθόδου και μεθόδου κλάσης μετασχηματίζονται
επίσης· δείτε παραπάνω στην ενότητα «Κλάσεις».  Δείτε την ενότητα *note
Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων: 100d. για έναν άλλο τρόπο με τον οποίο τα
χαρακτηριστικά μιας κλάσης που ανακτώνται μέσω των στιγμιοτύπων της
μπορεί να διαφέρουν από τα αντικείμενα που είναι πραγματικά αποθηκευμένα
στο *note __dict__: 1bf. της κλάσης.  Εάν δεν βρεθεί χαρακτηριστικό
κλάσης και η κλάση του αντικειμένου έχει μια μέθοδο *note __getattr__():
8e3, αυτή καλείται να ικανοποιήσει την αναζήτηση.

Οι αναθέσεις χαρακτηριστικών ενημερώνουν το λεξικό της παρουσίας και
πότε το λεξικό μιας κλάσης.  Εάν η κλάση έχει μια μέθοδο *note
__setattr__(): 256d. ή *note __delattr__(): 256e, καλείται αντί να
ενημερώνεται απευθείας το λεξικό του στιγμιοτύπου.

Τα στιγμιότυπα κλάσεων μπορούν να προσποιηθούν ότι είναι αριθμοί,
ακολουθίες ή αντιστοιχίσεις εάν έχουν μεθόδους με συγκεκριμένα ειδικά
ονόματα.  Δείτε την ενότητα *note Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων: 102c.

* Menu:

* Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά<2>,  Up: Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης

4.3.2.34 Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά
..............................

 -- Ιδιότητα: object.__class__

     Η κλάση στην οποία ανήκει ένα στιγμιότυπο κλάσης.

 -- Ιδιότητα: object.__dict__

     Ένα λεξικό ή άλλο αντικείμενο αντιστοίχισης που χρησιμοποιείται για
     την αποθήκευση των (εγγράψιμων) χαρακτηριστικών ενός αντικειμένου.
     Δεν έχουν όλα τα στιγμιότυπα ένα χαρακτηριστικό ‘__dict__’ ∙ δείτε
     την ενότητα για τα *note __slots__: 1cd. για περισσότερες
     λεπτομέρειες.


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου,  Next: Εσωτερικοί τύποι,  Prev: Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης,  Up: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου

4.3.2.35 Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου (γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου)
.......................................................................

Ένα αντικείμενο *note file object: 156c. αντιπροσωπεύει ένα ανοιχτό
αρχείο.  Διάφορες συντομεύσεις είναι διαθέσιμες για τη δημιουργία
αντικειμένων αρχείου: η ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note open(): 32b, και
επίσης *note os.popen(): 585, *note os.fdopen(): 2571, και τη μέθοδο
*note makefile(): 1548. των αντικειμένων socket (και ίσως από άλλες
συναρτήσεις ή μεθόδους που παρέχονται από modules επέκτασης).

File objects implement common methods, listed below, to simplify usage
in generic code.  They are expected to be *note Με τους Διαχειριστές
Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης: 2572.

Τα αντικείμενα ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ και ‘sys.stderr’
αρχικοποιούνται για να αρχειοθετούν αντικείμενα που αντιστοιχούν στις
τυπικές ροές εισόδου, εξόδου και σφαλμάτων του διερμηνέα· είναι όλα
ανοιχτά σε λειτουργία κειμένου και επομένως ακολουθούν τη διεπαφή που
ορίζεται από την αφηρημένη κλάση *note io.TextIOBase: a84.

 -- Μέθοδος: file.read (size=-1, /)

     Retrieve up to 'size' data from the file.  As a convenience if
     'size' is unspecified or -1 retrieve all data available.

 -- Μέθοδος: file.write (data, /)

     Store 'data' to the file.

 -- Μέθοδος: file.close ()

     Flush any buffers and close the underlying file.


File: python.info,  Node: Εσωτερικοί τύποι,  Prev: Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου,  Up: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου

4.3.2.36 Εσωτερικοί τύποι
.........................

Μερικοί τύποι που χρησιμοποιούνται εσωτερικά από τον διερμηνέα
εκτίθενται στο χρήστη.  Οι ορισμοί τους μπορεί να αλλάξουν με
μελλοντικές εκδόσεις του διερμηνέα, αλλά αναφέρονται εδώ για πληρότητα.

* Menu:

* Αντικείμενα κώδικα::
* Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων::
* Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης::
* Αντικείμενα τμηματοποίησης::
* Αντικείμενα στατικών μεθόδων::
* Αντικείμενα μεθόδων κλάσεων::


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα κώδικα,  Next: Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων,  Up: Εσωτερικοί τύποι

4.3.2.37 Αντικείμενα κώδικα
...........................

Τα αντικείμενα κώδικα αντιπροσωπεύουν 'byte-compiled' εκτελέσιμο κώδικα
Python, ή *note bytecode: 6b3.  Η διαφορά μεταξύ ενός αντικειμένου
κώδικα και ενός αντικειμένου συνάρτησης είναι ότι το αντικείμενο
συνάρτησης περιέχει μια ρητή αναφορά στα καθολικά της συνάρτησης (το
module στο οποίο ορίστηκε), ενώ ένα αντικείμενο κώδικα δεν περιέχει
πλαίσιο· επίσης, οι προεπιλεγμένες τιμές ορίσματος αποθηκεύονται στο
αντικείμενο συνάρτησης, όχι στο αντικείμενο κώδικα (επειδή
αντιπροσωπεύουν τιμές που υπολογίζονται κατά τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης).  Σε
αντίθεση με τα αντικείμενα συνάρτησης, τα αντικείμενα κώδικα είναι
αμετάβλητα και δεν περιέχουν αναφορές (άμεσα ή έμμεσα) σε μεταβλητά
αντικείμενα.

* Menu:

* Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
* Μέθοδοι σε αντικείμενα κώδικα::


File: python.info,  Node: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>,  Next: Μέθοδοι σε αντικείμενα κώδικα,  Up: Αντικείμενα κώδικα

4.3.2.38 Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση
................................................

 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_name                       Το όνομα της συνάρτησης
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_qualname                   Το πλήρως αναγνωρισμένο όνομα συνάρτησης
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.11.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_argcount                   Ο συνολικός αριθμός των θέσεων
                                                       *note parameters: 253c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των
                                                       παραμέτρων μόνο θέσης και παραμέτρων με
                                                       προεπιλεγμένες τιμές) που έχει η συνάρτηση
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_posonlyargcount            Ο αριθμός των *note parameters: 253c. θέσεως
                                                       (συμπεριλαμβανομένων ορισμάτων με προεπιλεγμένες
                                                       τιμές) που έχει η συνάρτηση
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_kwonlyargcount             Ο αριθμός των *note parameters: 253c. λέξεων
                                                       κλειδιών (συμπεριλαμβανομένων ορισμάτων με
                                                       προεπιλεγμένες τιμές) που έχει η συνάρτηση
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_nlocals                    Ο αριθμός των *note local variables: 2537. που
                                                       χρησιμοποιούνται από τη συνάρτηση
                                                       (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των παραμέτρων)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_varnames                   Μια *note tuple: 1ce. που περιέχει τα ονόματα των
                                                       τοπικών μεταβλητών στη συνάρτηση (ξεκινώντας με τα
                                                       ονόματα των παραμέτρων)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_cellvars                   Ένα *note tuple: 1ce. που περιέχει τα ονόματα των
                                                       *note local variables: 2537. που αναφέρονται από
                                                       τουλάχιστον ένα *note nested scope: 2581. μέσα στη
                                                       συνάρτηση
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_freevars                   Ένα *note tuple: 1ce. που περιέχει τα ονόματα των
                                                       *note free (closure) variables: 1ab7. που αναφέρεται
                                                       από ένα *note nested scope: 2581. σε ένα εξωτερικό
                                                       πλαίσιο.  Δείτε επίσης το
                                                       *note function.__closure__: 1675.
                                                       
                                                       Σημείωση: οι αναφορές σε καθολικά και ενσωματωμένα
                                                       ονόματα 'δεν' περιλαμβάνονται.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_code                       Μια συμβολοσειρά που αντιπροσωπεύει την ακολουθία
                                                       εντολών *note bytecode: 6b3. στη συνάρτηση
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_consts                     Μια *note tuple: 1ce. που περιέχει τα literals που
                                                       χρησιμοποιούνται από το *note bytecode: 6b3. στη
                                                       συνάρτηση
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_names                      Μια *note tuple: 1ce. που περιέχει τα ονόματα που
                                                       χρησιμοποιούνται από τον *note bytecode: 6b3. στην
                                                       συνάρτηση
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_filename                   Το όνομα του αρχείου από το οποίο συντάχθηκε ο
                                                       κώδικας
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_firstlineno                Ο αριθμός γραμμής της πρώτης γραμμής της συνάρτησης
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_stacksize                  Το απαιτούμενο μέγεθος στοίβας του αντικειμένου
                                                       κώδικα
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: codeobject.co_flags                      Μια *note integer: 326. που κωδικοποιεί έναν αριθμό
                                                       flags για τον διερμηνέα.
                                                       

Τα ακόλουθα flag bits ορίζονται για *note co_flags: 1afc.: το bit ‘0x04’
ορίζεται εάν η συνάρτηση χρησιμοποιεί τη σύνταξη ‘*arguments’ για να
αποδεχτεί έναν αυθαίρετο αριθμό ορισμάτων θέσης· το bit ‘0x08’ ορίζεται
εάν η συνάρτηση χρησιμοποιεί τη σύνταξη ‘**keywords’ για να δέχεται
αυθαίρετα ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών· το bit ‘0x20’ ορίζεται εάν η
συνάρτηση είναι γεννήτρια.  Δείτε το *note Code Objects Bit Flags: 2586.
για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με τη σημασιολογία κάθε σημαίας που μπορεί να
υπάρχει.

Οι δηλώσεις μελλοντικών δυνατοτήτων (για παράδειγμα, ‘from __future__
import division’) χρησιμοποιούν επίσης bits στο *note co_flags: 1afc.
για να υποδείξουν εάν ένα αντικείμενο κώδικα έχει συνταχθεί με μια
συγκεκριμένη ενεργοποιημένη δυνατότητα.  Δείτε το *note compiler_flag:
2587.

Άλλα bits στο *note co_flags: 1afc. είναι δεσμευμένα για εσωτερική
χρήση.

Εάν ένα αντικείμενο κώδικα αντιπροσωπεύει μια συνάρτηση και έχει μια
συμβολοσειρά τεκμηρίωσης, το bit *note CO_HAS_DOCSTRING: 2588. ορίζεται
στο *note co_flags: 1afc. και το πρώτο στοιχείο στο *note co_consts:
1abf. είναι η συμβολοσειρά τεκμηρίωσης της συνάρτησης.


File: python.info,  Node: Μέθοδοι σε αντικείμενα κώδικα,  Prev: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>,  Up: Αντικείμενα κώδικα

4.3.2.39 Μέθοδοι σε αντικείμενα κώδικα
......................................

 -- Μέθοδος: codeobject.co_positions ()

     Επιστρέφει έναν iterable πάνω από τις θέσεις του πηγαίου κώδικα
     κάθε εντολής *note bytecode: 6b3. στο αντικείμενο κώδικα.

     Ο iterator επιστρέφει *note tuple: 1ce.s που περιέχει το
     ‘(start_line, end_line, start_column, end_column)’.  Η πλειάδα
     'i-th' αντιστοιχεί στη θέση του πηγαίου κώδικα που μεταγλωττίστηκε
     στην εντολή 'i-th'.  Οι πληροφορίες στηλών είναι μετατοπίσεις utf-8
     byte με ευρετήριο 0 στη δεδομένη γραμμή πηγής.

     Αυτές οι πληροφορίες θέσης μπορεί να λείπουν.  Μια μη εξαντλητική
     λίστα περιπτώσεων όπου αυτό μπορεί να συμβεί:

        - Εκτέλεση του διερμηνέα με *note -X: 178. ‘no_debug_ranges’.

        - Φόρτωση ενός αρχείου pyc που έχει μεταγλωττιστεί κατά τη χρήση
          του *note -X: 178. ‘no_debug_ranges’.

        - Τοποθετεί τις πλειάδες που αντιστοιχούν σε τεχνικές οδηγίες.

        - Αριθμοί γραμμών και στηλών που δεν μπορούν να αναπαρασταθούν
          λόγω περιορισμών για την υλοποίηση.

     Όταν συμβαίνει αυτό, ορισμένα η όλα τα πολλαπλά στοιχεία μπορεί να
     είναι *note None: a65.

     Added in version 3.11.

          Σημείωση: Αυτή η δυνατότητα απαιτεί αποθήκευση θέσεων στηλών
          σε αντικείμενα κώδικα που μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε μικρή αύξηση
          της χρήσης δίσκου των μεταγλωττισμένων αρχείων Python ή της
          χρήσης μνήμης διερμηνέα.  Για να αποφύγετε την αποθήκευση των
          επιπλέον πληροφοριών ή/και να απενεργοποιήσετε την εκτύπωση
          των επιπλέον πληροφοριών παρακολούθησης, μπορεί να
          χρησιμοποιηθεί η σημαία (flag) γραμμής εντολών *note -X: 178.
          ‘no_debug_ranges’ ή η μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος *note
          PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 9b5.

 -- Μέθοδος: codeobject.co_lines ()

     Επιστρέφει έναν iterator που παράγει πληροφορίες σχετικά με
     διαδοχικά εύρη *note bytecode: 6b3.s.  Κάθε στοιχείο που αποδίδεται
     είναι μια ‘(start, end, lineno)’ *note tuple: 1ce.:

        * Το ‘start’ (ένα *note int: 326.) αναπαριστά τη μετατόπιση
          (συμπεριλαμβανομένης) της έναρξης του εύρους *note bytecode:
          6b3.

        * Το ‘end’ (ένα *note int: 326.) αναπαριστά τη μετατόπιση
          (αποκλειστική) του τέλους του εύρους *note bytecode: 6b3.

        * Το ‘lineno’ είναι ένα *note int: 326. που αναπαριστά τον
          αριθμό γραμμής του εύρους *note bytecode: 6b3. ή ‘None’ εάν τα
          bytecodes στη δεδομένη περιοχή δεν έχουν αριθμό γραμμής

     Τα στοιχεία που θα προκύψουν θα έχουν τις ακόλουθες ιδιότητες:

        * Το πρώτο εύρος που θα προκύψει θα έχει ένα ‘start’ 0.

        * Τα εύρη ‘(start, end)’ θα είναι μη φθίνουσες και διαδοχικές.
          Δηλαδή, για οποιοδήποτε ζεύγος *note tuple: 1ce.s, το ‘start’
          του δεύτερου θα είναι ίσο με το το ‘end’ του πρώτου.

        * Κανένα εύρος δεν θα είναι προς τα πίσω: ‘end >= start’ για
          όλες τις τριάδες.

        * Το τελευταίο *note tuple: 1ce. που θα αποφέρει θα έχει ‘end’
          ίσο με το μέγεθος του *note bytecode: 6b3.

     Εύρος μηδενικού πλάτους, όπου ‘start == end’, επιτρέπονται.  Τα
     εύρη μηδενικού πλάτους χρησιμοποιούνται για γραμμές που υπάρχουν
     στον πηγαίο κώδικα, αλλά έχουν εξαλειφθεί από τον μεταγλωττιστή
     *note bytecode: 6b3.

     Added in version 3.10.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 626(1) - Ακριβείς αριθμοί γραμμών για εντοπισμό σφαλμάτων και άλλα εργαλεία.

          Το PEP που εισήγαγε τη μέθοδο ‘co_lines()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: codeobject.replace (**kwargs)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο του αντικειμένου κώδικα με νέες τιμές για
     τα καθορισμένα πεδία.

     Τα αντικείμενα κώδικα υποστηρίζονται επίσης από τη γενική συνάρτηση
     *note copy.replace(): 45a.

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/


File: python.info,  Node: Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων,  Next: Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης,  Prev: Αντικείμενα κώδικα,  Up: Εσωτερικοί τύποι

4.3.2.40 Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων
.............................

Τα αντικείμενα πλαισίου αναπαριστούν πλαίσια εκτέλεσης.  Μπορούν να
εμφανίζονται σε *note traceback objects: eba, και επίσης μεταβιβάζονται
σε καταχωρημένες συναρτήσεις ανίχνευσης.

* Menu:

* Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>.
* Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά: Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά<2>.
* Μέθοδοι αντικειμένων πλαισίου::


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4.3.2.41 Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση
................................................

 -- Ιδιότητα: frame.f_back                             Δείχνει το προηγούμενο πλαίσιο στοίβας (προς από
                                                       εκεί που καλείται), ή ‘None’ αν αυτό είναι το
                                                       πλαίσιο της κάτω στοίβας
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: frame.f_code                             Το αντικείμενο *note code object: 6eb. εκτελείται σε
                                                       αυτό το πλαίσιο.  Η πρόσβαση σε αυτό το
                                                       χαρακτηριστικό κάνει raise σε ένα συμβάν
                                                       *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘object.__getattr__’ με
                                                       ορίσματα ‘obj’ και ‘"f_code"’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: frame.f_locals                           Η αντιστοίχιση που χρησιμοποιείται από το πλαίσιο
                                                       για την αναζήτηση *note local variables: 2537.  Εάν
                                                       το πλαίσιο αναφέρεται σε ένα
                                                       *note optimized scope: 6ad, αυτό μπορεί να
                                                       επιστρέψει ένα αντικείμενο proxy write-through.
                                                       
                                                       Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Επιστρέφει ένα proxy για
                                                       βελτιστοποιημένα πλαίσια.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: frame.f_globals                          Το λεξικό που χρησιμοποιείται από το πλαίσιο για την
                                                       αναζήτηση *note global variables: 2537.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: frame.f_builtins                         Το λεξικό που χρησιμοποιείται από το πλαίσιο για την
                                                       αναζήτηση *note built-in (intrinsic) names: 2537.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: frame.f_lasti                            Η «ακριβής εντολή» του αντικειμένου πλαισίου (αυτό
                                                       είναι ένα ευρετήριο στη συμβολοσειρά
                                                       *note bytecode: 6b3. του αντικειμένου
                                                       *note code object: 6eb.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: frame.f_generator                        Το αντικείμενο *note generator: 1409. ή
                                                       *note coroutine: 8a2. που κατέχει αυτό το πλαίσιο, ή
                                                       ‘None’ εάν το πλαίσιο είναι μια κανονική συνάρτηση.
                                                       
                                                       Added in version 3.14.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά<2>,  Next: Μέθοδοι αντικειμένων πλαισίου,  Prev: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>,  Up: Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων

4.3.2.42 Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά
........................................

 -- Ιδιότητα: frame.f_trace                            Εάν όχι ‘None’, αυτή είναι μια συνάρτηση που
                                                       καλείται για διάφορα συμβάντα κατά την εκτέλεση
                                                       κώδικα (αυτό χρησιμοποιείται από προγράμματα
                                                       εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων).  Κανονικά ένα συμβάν
                                                       ενεργοποιείται για κάθε νέα γραμμή πηγαίου κώδικα
                                                       (δείτε *note f_trace_lines: f9b.).
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: frame.f_trace_lines                      Ορίστε αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό σε *note False: ef5.
                                                       για να απενεργοποιήσετε την ενεργοποίηση ενός
                                                       συμβάντος ανίχνευσης για κάθε γραμμή πηγαίου κώδικα.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: frame.f_trace_opcodes                    Ορίζει αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό σε *note True: fcc.
                                                       για να επιτρέψετε να ζητηθούν συμβάντα ανά opcode.
                                                       Σημειώστε ότι αυτό μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε
                                                       απροσδιόριστη συμπεριφορά διερμηνέα εάν οι
                                                       εξαιρέσεις που προκύπτουν από τη συνάρτηση
                                                       ανίχνευσης διαφεύγουν στη συνάρτηση που
                                                       παρακολουθείται.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: frame.f_lineno                           Ο τρέχων αριθμός γραμμής του πλαισίου – η εγγραφή σε
                                                       αυτό μέσα από μια συνάρτηση ανίχνευσης μεταβαίνει
                                                       στη δεδομένη γραμμή (μόνο για το πιο κάτω πλαίσιο).
                                                       Ένας εντοπισμός σφαλμάτων μπορεί να εφαρμόσει μια
                                                       εντολή Μετάβασης (γνωστή και ως Ορισμός Επόμενης
                                                       Δήλωσης) γράφοντας σε αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Μέθοδοι αντικειμένων πλαισίου,  Prev: Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά<2>,  Up: Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων

4.3.2.43 Μέθοδοι αντικειμένων πλαισίου
......................................

Τα αντικείμενα πλαισίου υποστηρίζουν μια μέθοδο:

 -- Μέθοδος: frame.clear ()

     Αυτή η μέθοδος διαγράφει όλες τις αναφορές σε *note local
     variables: 2537. που τηρούνται από το πλαίσιο.  Επίσης, εάν το
     πλαίσιο ανήκε σε ένα *note generator: 1409, η γεννήτρια έχει
     οριστικοποιηθεί.  Αυτό βοηθά στη διακοπή των κύκλων αναφοράς που
     περιλαμβάνουν αντικείμενα πλαισίου (για παράδειγμα, όταν γίνεται
     catch μια *note exception: 1e1e. και αποθηκεύετε το *note
     traceback: eba. για μετέπειτα χρήση).

     Η *note RuntimeError: 30d. γίνεται raise εάν το πλαίσιο εκτελείται
     ή αναστέλλεται.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Η προσπάθεια εκκαθάρισης ενός ανασταλμένου
     πλαισίου κάνει raise *note RuntimeError: 30d. (όπως πάντα συμβαίνει
     για τα εκτελούμενα πλαίσια).


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης,  Next: Αντικείμενα τμηματοποίησης,  Prev: Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων,  Up: Εσωτερικοί τύποι

4.3.2.44 Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης
...............................

Τα αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης αντιπροσωπεύουν το ίχνος στοίβας μιας *note
exception: 2261.  Ένα αντικείμενο traceback δημιουργείται σιωπηρά όταν
εμφανίζεται μια εξαίρεση και μπορεί επίσης να δημιουργηθεί ρητά καλώντας
το *note types.TracebackType: eb8.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Τα αντικείμενα Traceback μπορούν τώρα να
δημιουργηθούν ρητά από τον κώδικα Python.

Για εμμέσως δημιουργημένα tracebacks, όταν η αναζήτηση για έναν χειριστή
εξαιρέσεων ξετυλίγει τη στοίβα εκτέλεσης, σε κάθε επίπεδο ξετυλίγματος
εισάγεται ένα αντικείμενο traceback μπροστά από το τρέχον traceback.
Όταν εισάγεται ένα χειριστής εξαίρεσης, το ίχνος στοίβας διατίθεται στο
πρόγραμμα.  (Δείτε την ενότητα *note The try statement: ad6.)  Είναι
προσβάσιμο ως το τρίτο στοιχείο της πλειάδα που επιστρέφεται από το
*note sys.exc_info(): a7a. και έχει ως το χαρακτηριστικό *note
__traceback__: 166b. της εξαίρεσης που έχει εντοπιστεί.

Όταν το πρόγραμμα δεν περιέχει ον κατάλληλο χειριστή, το ίχνος στοίβας
γράφεται (όμορφα μορφοποιημένο) στην τυπική ροή σφαλμάτων· εάν ο
διερμηνέα είναι διαδραστικός, διατίθεται επίσης στον χρήστη ως *note
sys.last_traceback: 8d1.

Για ρητά δημιουργημένα tracebacks, εναπόκειται στον δημιουργό του
traceback να καθορίσει πως θα πρέπει να συνδεθούν, τα χαρακτηριστικά
*note tb_next: eb9. για να σχηματίσουν ένα ίχνος πλήρους στοίβας.

Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση:

 -- Ιδιότητα: traceback.tb_frame                       Δείχνει την εκτέλεση *note frame: acd. του τρέχοντος
                                                       επιπέδου.
                                                       
                                                       Η πρόσβαση σε αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό κάνει raise ένα
                                                       *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘object.__getattr__’ με
                                                       ορίσματα ‘obj’ και ‘"tb_frame"’.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: traceback.tb_lineno                      Δίνει τον αριθμό γραμμής όπου προέκυψε η εξαίρεση
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: traceback.tb_lasti                       Δηλώνει την «ακριβή οδηγία».
                                                       

Ο αριθμός γραμμής και η τελευταία εντολή στο traceback μπορεί να
διαφέρουν από τον αριθμό γραμμής του αντικειμένου *note frame object:
acd. εάν η εξαίρεση εμφανίστηκε σε μια πρόταση *note try: ad6. χωρίς
αντιστοίχιση εκτός από τον όρο ή με έναν όρο *note finally: 44c.

 -- Ιδιότητα: traceback.tb_next

     Το ειδικό εγγράψιμο χαρακτηριστικό ‘tb_next’ είναι το επόμενο
     επίπεδο στο ίχνος στοίβας (προς το πλαίσιο όπου σημειώθηκε η
     εξαίρεση), ή ‘None’ εάν δεν υπάρχει επόμενο επίπεδο.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό είναι τώρα εγγράψιμο


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα τμηματοποίησης,  Next: Αντικείμενα στατικών μεθόδων,  Prev: Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης,  Up: Εσωτερικοί τύποι

4.3.2.45 Αντικείμενα τμηματοποίησης
...................................

Τα αντικείμενα τμηματοποίησης χρησιμοποιούνται για να αναπαραστήσουν
τμήματα για μεθόδους *note __getitem__(): 787.  Δημιουργούνται επίσης
από την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note slice(): 1d0.

Added in version 3.15: The *note slice(): 1d0. type now supports *note
subscription: 2599.  For example, ‘slice[float]’ may be used in type
annotations to indicate a slice containing *note float: 327. objects.

Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση: το *note start: 259a. είναι το
κάτω όριο∙ το *note stop: 259b. είναι το άνω όριο∙ και το *note step:
259c. είναι το βήμα∙ κάθε ένα είναι ‘None’ αν παραλειφθεί.  Τα
χαρακτηριστικά μπορούν να έχουν οποιονδήποτε τύπο.

Τα αντικείμενα slice υποστηρίζουν μια μέθοδο:

 -- Μέθοδος: slice.indices (self, length)

     Αυτή η μέθοδος παίρνει ένα μόνο ακέραιο όρισμα 'length' και
     υπολογίζει πληροφορίες σχετικά το slice που θα περιέγραφε το
     αντικείμενο slice εάν εφαρμοστεί σε μια ακολουθία στοιχείων
     'length'.  Επιστρέφει μια πλειάδα τριών ακεραίων αριθμών∙
     αντίστοιχα αυτοί είναι δείκτες 'start' και 'stop' και το 'step' ή
     το μήκος του βήματος του τμήματος.  Οι δείκτες που λείπουν ή είναι
     εκτός ορίων αντιμετωπίζονται με τρόπο που συνάδει με τα κανονικά
     slices.


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα στατικών μεθόδων,  Next: Αντικείμενα μεθόδων κλάσεων,  Prev: Αντικείμενα τμηματοποίησης,  Up: Εσωτερικοί τύποι

4.3.2.46 Αντικείμενα στατικών μεθόδων
.....................................

Τα αντικείμενα στατικής μεθόδου παρέχουν έναν τρόπο εξουδετέρωσης του
μετασχηματισμού αντικειμένων συνάρτησης σε αντικείμενα μεθόδου που
περιγράφονται παραπάνω.  Ένα αντικείμενο στατικής μεθόδου είναι ένα
περιτύλιγμα γύρω από οποιοδήποτε άλλο αντικείμενο , συνήθως ένα
αντικείμενο μεθόδου που ορίζεται από το χρήστη.  Όταν ένα αντικείμενο
στατικής μεθόδου ανακτάται από μια κλάση ή ένα στιγμιότυπο κλάσης, το
αντικείμενο που επιστρέφεται στην πραγματικότητα είναι το τυλιγμένο
αντικείμενο, το οποίο δεν υπόκειται σε περαιτέρω μετασχηματισμό.  Τα
αντικείμενα στατικής μεθόδου μπορούν επίσης να κληθούν.  Τα αντικείμενα
στατικής μεθόδου δημιουργούνται από τον ενσωματωμένο κατασκευαστή *note
staticmethod(): 666.


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα μεθόδων κλάσεων,  Prev: Αντικείμενα στατικών μεθόδων,  Up: Εσωτερικοί τύποι

4.3.2.47 Αντικείμενα μεθόδων κλάσεων
....................................

Ένα αντικείμενο μεθόδου κλάσης, όπως ένα αντικείμενο στατικής μεθόδου,
είναι ένα περιτύλιγμα γύρω από ένα άλλο αντικείμενο που αλλάζει τον
τρόπο με τον οποίο ανακτάται αυτό το αντικείμενο από κλάσεις και
στιγμιότυπα κλάσεων.  Η συμπεριφορά των αντικειμένων της μεθόδου κλάσης
κατά την ανάκτηση αυτή περιγράφεται παραπάνω, στην ενότητα *note
«instance methods»: 2297.  Τα αντικείμενα της μεθόδου κλάσης
δημιουργούνται από τον ενσωματωμένο κατασκευαστή *note classmethod():
69a.


File: python.info,  Node: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων,  Next: Coroutines,  Prev: Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου,  Up: Μοντέλο Δεδομένων

4.3.3 Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων
----------------------------

Μια κλάση μπορεί να εφαρμόσει ορισμένες πράξεις που καλούνται από ειδική
σύνταξη (όπως αριθμητικές πράξεις ή εγγραφή και κοπή) ορίζονται μεθόδους
με ειδικά ονόματα.  Αυτή είναι η προσέγγιση της Python για το 'operator
overloading', επιτρέποντας στις κλάσεις να ορίσουν τη δική τους
συμπεριφορά σε σχέση με τους τελεστές γλώσσας.  Για παράδειγμα, εάν μια
κλάση ορίζει μια μέθοδο με το όνομα *note __getitem__(): 787, και το ‘x’
είναι ένα στιγμιότυπο αυτής της κλάσης, τότε το ‘x[i]’ είναι περίπου
ισοδύναμο με το ‘type(x).__getitem__(x, i)’.  Εκτός από τις περιπτώσεις
που αναφέρονται, οι προσπάθειες εκτέλεσης μιας λειτουργίας δημιουργούν
εξαίρεση όταν δεν ορίζεται κατάλληλη μέθοδος (συνήθως *note
AttributeError: 1a9. ή *note TypeError: 291.).

Ο ορισμός μιας ειδική μεθόδου σε ‘None’ σημαίνει ότι η αντίστοιχη
λειτουργία δεν είναι διαθέσιμη.  Για παράδειγμα, εάν μια κλάση ορίσει
την *note __iter__(): 102d. σε ‘None’ η κλάση δεν είναι iterable,
επομένως η κλήση *note iter(): bb4. στα στιγμιότυπα της θα κάνει raise
μια *note TypeError: 291. (χωρίς να επιστρέψουμε στο *note
__getitem__(): 787.).  (1)

Κατά την υλοποίηση μιας κλάσης που προσομοιώνει οποιονδήποτε
ενσωματωμένο τύπο, είναι σημαντικό η εξομοίωση να υλοποιείται μόνο στο
βαθμό που έχει νόημα για το αντικείμενο που μοντελοποιείται.  Για
παράδειγμα, ορισμένες ακολουθίες μπορεί να λειτουργούν καλά με την
ανάκτηση μεμονωμένων στοιχείων, αλλά η εξαγωγή ενός τμήματος μπορεί να
μην έχει νόημα.  (Ένα παράδειγμα αυτού είναι η διεπαφή *note NodeList:
25a0. στο Μοντέλο Αντικειμένου Εγγράφου του W3C.)

* Menu:

* Βασική προσαρμογή::
* Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών::
* Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης::
* Προσαρμογή ελέγχων παρουσίας και υποκλάσης::
* Εξομοίωση γενικών τύπων::
* Εξομοίωση αντικειμένων με δυνατότητα κλήσης::
* Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ::
* Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων::
* Με τους Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης::
* Προσαρμογή ορισμάτων θέσης στην αντιστοίχιση προτύπων κλάσης::
* Εξομοίωση τύπων buffer::
* Annotations::
* Αναζήτηση ειδικής μεθόδου::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Οι μέθοδοι *note __hash__(): ec1, *note __iter__(): 102d, *note
__reversed__(): 1049, *note __contains__(): 175c, *note
__class_getitem__(): b21. και *note __fspath__(): 1010. έχουν ειδικό
χειρισμό για αυτό.  Άλλες θα εξακολουθούν να κάνουν raise ένα *note
TypeError: 291, αλλά μπορεί να το κάνουν με την αξιοποίηση της
συμπεριφοράς ότι το ‘None’ δεν είναι καλούμενο.


File: python.info,  Node: Βασική προσαρμογή,  Next: Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών,  Up: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

4.3.3.1 Βασική προσαρμογή
.........................

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__new__ (cls[, ...])

     Καλείται για τη δημιουργία ενός νέου στιγμιοτύπου κλάσης 'cls'.  Η
     *note __new__(): 982. είναι μια στατική μέθοδος (ειδική περίπτωση,
     επομένως δεν χρειάζεται να τη δηλώνετε ως τέτοια) που παίρνει την
     κλάση της οποίας ζητήθηκε ένα στιγμιότυπο ως πρώτο όρισμα.  Τα
     υπόλοιπα ορίσματα είναι αυτά που μεταβιβάζονται στην έκφραση του
     κατασκευαστή αντικειμένου (η κλήση στην κλάση).  Η επιστρεφόμενη
     τιμή του ‘__new__()’ θα πρέπει να είναι το νέο στιγμιότυπο
     αντικειμένου (συνήθως ένα στιγμιότυπο του 'cls').

     Οι τυπικές υλοποιήσεις δημιουργούν ένα νέο στιγμιότυπο κλάσης
     επικαλώντας τη μέθοδο *note __new__(): 982. της υπερκλάσης
     χρησιμοποιώντας ‘super().__new__(cls[, ...])’ με κατάλληλα ορίσματα
     και στη συνέχεια τροποποιώντας τη νεο-δημιουργηθείσα παρουσία όπως
     απαιτείται πριν την επιστρέψει.

     Εάν το *note __new__(): 982. καλείται κατά την κατασκευή
     αντικειμένου και επιστρέφει ένα στιγμιότυπο του 'cls', τότε η
     μέθοδος *note __init__(): 2fa. του νέου στιγμιοτύπου θα κληθεί όπως
     ‘__init__(self[, ...])’, όπου το 'self' είναι το νέο στιγμιότυπο
     και τα υπόλοιπα ορίσματα είναι τα ίδια με αυτά που διαβιβάστηκαν
     στον κατασκευαστή του αντικειμένου.

     Εάν το *note __new__(): 982. δεν επιστρέφει ένα στιγμιότυπο του
     'cls', τότε η μέθοδος *note __init__(): 2fa. του νέου στιγμιοτύπου
     δεν θα κληθεί.

     Το *note __new__(): 982. προορίζεται κυρίως για να επιτρέψει σε
     υποκλάσεις αμετάβλητων τύπων (όπως int, str, ή tuple) να
     προσαρμόσουν τη δημιουργία στιγμιοτύπων.  Επίσης συνήθως
     παρακάμπτεται σε προσαρμοσμένες μετακλάσεις προκειμένου να
     προσαρμόσουν τη δημιουργία κλάσεων.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__init__ (self[, ...])

     Καλείται μετά τη δημιουργία του στιγμιοτύπου (από *note __new__():
     982.), αλλά πριν επιστραφεί εκεί που καλέστηκε.  Τα ορίσματα είναι
     αυτά που μεταβιβάζονται στην έκφραση του κατασκευαστή κλάσης.  Εάν
     μια κλάση βάσης έχει μια μέθοδο *note __init__(): 2fa, η μέθοδος
     ‘__init__()’ της παραγόμενης κλάσης, εάν υπάρχει πρέπει να την
     καλέσει ρητά για να διασφαλιστεί η σωστή προετοιμασία του τμήματος
     της βασικής κλάσης του στιγμιοτύπου∙ για παράδειγμα:
     ‘super().__init__([args...])’.

     Επειδή τα *note __new__(): 982. και *note __init__(): 2fa.
     συνεργάζονται για την κατασκευή αντικειμένων (‘__new__()’ για να το
     δημιουργήσετε, και ‘__init__()’ για να το προσαρμόσετε), δεν
     επιτρέπεται να επιστραφεί καμία τιμή μη-‘None’ από το ‘__init__()’
     ∙ αν το κάνετε αυτό, θα εμφανιστεί ένα *note TypeError: 291. κατά
     το χρόνο εκτέλεσης.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__del__ (self)

     Καλείται όταν το παράδειγμα πρόκειται να καταστραφεί.  Αυτό
     ονομάζεται επίσης τελικό ή (κακώς) καταστροφέας.  Εάν μια βασική
     κλάση έχει μια μέθοδο *note __del__(): 13a6, η μέθοδος ‘__del__()’
     της παράγωγης κλάσης, εάν υπάρχει, πρέπει να την καλέσει ρητά για
     να διασφαλιστεί η σωστή διαγραφή του τμήματος της βασικής κλάσης
     του στιγμιοτύπου.

     Είναι δυνατό (αν και δεν συνίσταται!)  η μέθοδος *note __del__():
     13a6. να αναβάλει την καταστροφή του στιγμιότυπου δημιουργώντας μια
     νέα αναφορά σε αυτό.  Αυτό ονομάζεται αντικείμενο 'ανάσταση
     (resurrection)'.  Εξαρτάται από την υλοποίηση εάν το ‘__del__()’
     καλείται δεύτερη φορά όταν ένα αναστημένο αντικείμενο πρόκειται να
     καταστραφεί εξαρτάται από την υλοποίηση∙ η τρέχουσα υλοποίηση του
     *note CPython: ae3. την καλεί μόνο μία φορά.

     Δεν είναι εγγυημένο ότι οι μέθοδοι *note __del__(): 13a6. καλούνται
     για αντικείμενα που εξακολουθούν να υπάρχουν κατά την έξοδο του
     διερμηνέα.  Η *note weakref.finalize: e3e. παρέχει έναν απλό τρόπο
     για την καταχώριση μιας συνάρτησης καθαρισμού που θα καλείται όταν
     ένα αντικείμενο συλλέγεται από τα σκουπίδια.

          Σημείωση: Το ‘del x’ δεν καλεί απευθείας το ‘x.__del__()’ — το
          πρώτο μειώνει το πλήθος αναφοράς για το ‘x’ κατά ένα και το
          δεύτερο καλείται μόνο όταν το πλήθος αναφοράς του ‘x’ φτάσει
          στο μηδέν.

     Είναι δυνατό για έναν κύκλο αναφοράς να εμποδίσει το πλήθος
     αναφοράς ενός να μηδενιστεί.  Σε αυτήν την περίπτωσης, ο κύκλος θα
     εντοπιστεί αργότερα και θα διαγραφεί από τον *note cyclic garbage
     collector: 19de.  Μια κοινή αιτία κύκλων αναφοράς είναι όταν μια
     εξαίρεση έχει εντοπιστεί σε μια τοπική μεταβλητή.  Στη συνέχεια, τα
     τοπικά του πλαισίου αναφέρονται στην εξαίρεση, η οποία αναφέρεται
     στο δικό του traceback, το οποίο αναφέρεται στους τοπικούς αριθμούς
     όλων των καρέ που έχουν εντοπιστεί στο traceback.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     Τεκμηρίωση για το module *note gc: 63.

          Προειδοποίηση: Λόγω των επισφαλών συνθηκών υπό τις οποίες
          καλούνται οι μέθοδοι *note __del__(): 13a6, οι εξαιρέσεις που
          προκύπτουν κατά την εκτέλεση τους αγνοούνται και αντ” αυτού
          εκτυπώνεται μια προειδοποίηση στο ‘sys.stderr’.  Ειδικότερα:

             * Η *note __del__(): 13a6. μπορεί να καλεστεί, όταν
               καλείται αυθαίρετος κώδικα, συμπεριλαμβανομένου
               οποιουδήποτε αυθαίρετου νήματος.  Εάν η ‘__del__()’
               χρειάζεται να κλειδώσει ή να επικαλεστεί οποιονδήποτε
               άλλο πόρο αποκλεισμού, μπορεί να είναι αδιέξοδο καθώς ο
               πόρος μπορεί να έχει ήδη ληφθεί από τον κώδικα που
               διακόπτεται για να εκτελεστεί ‘__del__()’.

             * Η *note __del__(): 13a6. μπορεί να εκτελεστεί κατά τη
               διάρκεια του τερματισμού λειτουργίας του διερμηνέα.  Κατά
               συνέπεια, οι καθολικές μεταβλητές στις οποίες χρειάζεται
               πρόσβαση (συμπεριλαμβανομένων άλλως modules) μπορεί να
               έχουν ήδη διαγραφεί ή να έχουν οριστεί σε ‘None’.  Η
               Python εγγυάται ότι τα καθολικά των οποίων το όνομα
               αρχίζει με μία μόνο υπογράμμιση διαγράφονται από το
               module τους πριν διαγραφούν άλλα καθολικά∙ εάν δεν
               υπάρχουν άλλες αναφορές σε τέτοια καθολικά, αυτό μπορεί
               να βοηθήσει στη διασφάλιση ότι τα εισαγόμενα modules
               εξακολουθούν να είναι διαθέσιμες τη στιγμή που καλείται η
               μέθοδος ‘__del__()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__repr__ (self)

     Καλείται από την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note repr(): 45b. για τον
     υπολογισμό της «official» αναπαράστασης συμβολοσειράς ενός
     αντικειμένου.  Εάν είναι δυνατόν, αυτό θα πρέπει να μοιάζει με μια
     έγκυρη έκφραση Python που θα μπορούσε να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την
     αναδημιουργία ενός αντικειμένου με την ίδια τιμή (δεδομένου ενός
     κατάλληλου περιβάλλοντος).  Εάν αυτό δεν είναι δυνατό, θα πρέπει να
     επιστραφεί μια συμβολοσειρά της μορφής ‘<...κάποια χρήσιμη
     περιγραφή...>’.  Η τιμή επιστροφής πρέπει να είναι αντικείμενο
     συμβολοσειράς.  Εάν μια κλάση ορίζει *note __repr__(): 1bc. αλλά
     όχι *note __str__(): a0f, τότε η ‘__repr__()’ χρησιμοποιείται
     επίσης όταν απαιτείται μια «ανεπίσημη» αναπαράσταση συμβολοσειράς
     στιγμιοτύπων αυτής της κλάσης.

     Αυτό χρησιμοποιείται συνήθως για εντοπισμός σφαλμάτων, επομένως
     είναι σημαντικό η αναπαράσταση να είναι πλούσια σε πληροφορίες και
     ξεκάθαρη.  Μια προεπιλεγμένη υλοποίηση παρέχεται από την ίδια την
     κλάση *note object: e4d.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__str__ (self)

     Καλείται από *note str(object): 1df. και τις ενσωματωμένες
     συναρτήσεις *note __format__(): a10. και *note print(): 131f. για
     τον υπολογισμό της «ανεπίσημης» ή ωραίας εκτύπωσης συμβολοσειράς
     ενός αντικειμένου.  Η τιμή που επιστρέφεται πρέπει να είναι ένα
     αντικείμενο *note string: 21cd.

     Αυτή η μέθοδος διαφέρει από τη *note object.__repr__(): 1bc. στο
     ότι δεν υπάρχει καμία προσδοκία ότι η *note __str__(): a0f. θα
     επιστρέψει μια έγκυρη έκφραση Python: μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί μια
     πιο βολική ή συνοπτική αναπαράσταση.

     Η προεπιλεγμένη υλοποίηση που ορίζεται από τον ενσωματωμένο τύπο
     *note object: e4d. καλεί την *note object.__repr__(): 1bc.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__bytes__ (self)

     Καλείται από *note bytes: 2087. για να υπολογιστεί μια παράσταση
     συμβολοσειράς byte ενός αντικειμένου.  Αυτό θα πρέπει να επιστρέψει
     ένα *note bytes: 1c7. αντικείμενο.  Η ίδια κλάση *note object: e4d.
     δεν παρέχει αυτήν τη μέθοδο.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__format__ (self, format_spec)

     Καλείται από την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note format(): 439. και
     κατ” επέκταση, αξιολόγηση των *note formatted string literals: 43a.
     και της μεθόδου *note str.format(): a12, για την παραγωγή μιας
     «μορφοποιημένης» συμβολοσειράς αναπαράστασης ενός αντικειμένου.  Το
     όρισμα 'format_spec' είναι μια συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει μια
     περιγραφή των επιλογών μορφοποίησης που επιθυμείτε.  Η ερμηνεία του
     ορίσματος 'format_spec' εξαρτάται από τον τύπο που υλοποιεί τη
     *note __format__(): a10, ωστόσο οι περισσότερες κλάσεις είτε θα
     αναθέσουν τη μορφοποίηση σε έναν από τους ενσωματωμένους τύπους
     είτε θα χρησιμοποιήσουν παρόμοια σύνταξη επιλογής μορφοποίησης.

     Δείτε το *note Format specification mini-language: 6fe. για μια
     περιγραφή της τυπικής σύνταξης μορφοποίησης.

     Η τιμή επιστροφής πρέπει να είναι αντικείμενο συμβολοσειράς.

     Η προεπιλεγμένη υλοποίηση από την κλάση *note object: e4d. θα
     πρέπει να λάβει μια κενή συμβολοσειρά 'format_spec'.  Αναθέτει την
     εντολή σε *note __str__(): a0f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Η ίδια μέθοδος __format__ του ‘object’
     κάνει raise μια *note TypeError: 291. εάν περάσει οποιαδήποτε μη
     κενή συμβολοσειρά.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Το ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ είναι πλέον
     ισοδύναμο με το ‘str(x)’ αντί για το ‘format(str(x), '')’.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__lt__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__le__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__eq__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__ne__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__gt__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__ge__ (self, other)

     Αυτές είναι οι λεγόμενες μέθοδοι «πλούσιας σύγκρισης (rich
     comparison)».  Η αντιστοιχία μεταξύ των συμβόλων των τελεστών και
     των ονομάτων των μεθόδων έχει ως εξής: ‘x<y’ καλεί ‘x.__lt__(y)’,
     ‘x<=y’ καλεί ‘x.__le__(y)’, ‘x==y’ καλεί ‘x.__eq__(y)’, ‘x!=y’
     καλεί ‘x.__ne__(y)’, ‘x>y’ καλεί ‘x.__gt__(y)’, και ‘x>=y’ καλεί
     ‘x.__ge__(y)’.

     Μια μέθοδος πλούσια σύγκρισης μπορεί να επιστρέψει το singleton
     *note NotImplemented: 440. εάν δεν υλοποιήσει τη λειτουργία για ένα
     δεδομένο ζεύγος ορισμάτων.  Σύμφωνα με τη σύμβαση, επιστρέφονται οι
     τιμές ‘False’ και ‘True’ για μια επιτυχημένη σύγκριση.  Ωστόσο,
     αυτές οι μέθοδοι μπορούν αν επιστρέψουν οποιαδήποτε τιμή, επομένως
     εάν ο τελεστής σύγκρισης χρησιμοποιείται σε ένα Boolean περιβάλλον
     (π.χ., στη συνθήκη μιας πρότασης ‘if’), η Python θα καλέσει τη
     συνάρτηση *note bool(): 5ef. στην τιμή για να προσδιορίσει εάν το
     αποτέλεσμα είναι αληθές ή ψευδές.

     Από προεπιλογή, το ‘object’ υλοποιεί την *note __eq__(): ec0.
     χρησιμοποιώντας την ‘is’, επιστρέφοντας *note NotImplemented: 440.
     σε περίπτωση ψευδούς σύγκρισης: ‘True if x is y else
     NotImplemented’.  Για την *note __ne__(): 18b9, από προεπιλογή
     αναθέτει σε ‘__eq__()’ και αντιστρέφει το αποτέλεσμα εκτός αν είναι
     ‘NotImplemented’.  Δεν υπάρχουν άλλες σιωπηρές σχέσεις μεταξύ των
     τελεστών σύγκρισης ή των προεπιλεγμένων υλοποιήσεων∙ για
     παράδειγμα, το αληθές του ‘(x<y or x==y)’ δεν συνεπάγεται ‘x<=y’.
     Για να δημιουργήσετε αυτόματα λειτουργίες ταξινόμησης από μία μόνο
     ριζική λειτουργία, ανατρέξτε στο *note functools.total_ordering():
     12ed.

     Από προεπιλογή, η κλάση *note object: e4d. παρέχει υλοποιήσεις
     συμβατές με *note Value comparisons: 1e17.: η ισότητα συγκρίνει
     σύμφωνα με την ταυτότητά του αντικειμένου και οι συγκρίσεις κατά
     σειρά κάνουν raise *note TypeError: 291.  Κάθε προεπιλεγμένη
     μέθοδος μπορεί να δημιουργήσει αυτά τα αποτελέσματα απευθείας, αλλά
     μπορεί επίσης να επιστρέψει την τιμή *note NotImplemented: 440.

     Δείτε την παράγραφο σχετικά με το *note __hash__(): ec1. για
     μερικές σημαντικές σημειώσεις σχετικά με τη δημιουργία αντικειμένων
     *note hashable: 183. τα οποία υποστηρίζουν προσαρμοσμένες
     λειτουργίες σύγκρισης και μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν ως κλειδιά
     λεξικού.

     Δεν υπάρχουν εκδόσεις αυτών των μεθόδων με εναλλασσόμενα ορίσματα
     (που χρησιμοποιούνται όταν το αριστερό όρισμα δεν υποστηρίζει τη
     λειτουργία, αλλά το δεξί όρισμα υποστηρίζει)∙ αντίθετα, οι *note
     __lt__(): 1645. και *note __gt__(): 16b0. είναι η αντανάκλαση η μία
     της άλλης, οι *note __le__(): 16af. και *note __ge__(): 16b1. είναι
     η αντανάκλαση η μία της άλλης, και οι *note __eq__(): ec0. και
     *note __ne__(): 18b9. είναι η δική τους αντανάκλαση.  Εάν οι
     τελεστέοι είναι διαφορετικών τύπων και ο τύπος του δεξιού τελεστέου
     είναι μια άμεση ή έμμεση υποκλάση του τύπου του αριστερού
     τελεστέου, η ανακλώμενη μέθοδος του δεξιού τελεστέου έχει
     προτεραιότητα, διαφορετικά η μέθοδος του αριστερού τελεστέου έχει
     προτεραιότητα.  Η εικονική υποκλάση δεν λαμβάνεται υπόψη.

     Όταν καμία κατάλληλη μέθοδος δεν επιστρέφει καμία τιμή εκτός από
     την *note NotImplemented: 440, οι τελεστές ‘==’ και ‘!=’ θα
     επιστρέψουν στις τιμές ‘is’ και ‘is not’, αντίστοιχα.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__hash__ (self)

     Καλείται από την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note hash(): 9e2. και για
     λειτουργίες σε μέλη κατακερματισμένων συλλόγων, συμπεριλαμβανομένων
     των *note set: 42b, *note frozenset: 9d4, and *note dict: 188.  Η
     μέθοδος ‘__hash__()’ θα πρέπει να επιστρέφει έναν ακέραιο αριθμό.
     Η μόνη απαιτούμενη ιδιότητα είναι ότι τα αντικείμενα που
     συγκρίνονται ίσα έχουν την ίδια τιμή κατακερματισμού.  Συνίσταται
     να αναμειγνύεται τις τιμές κατακερματισμού των στοιχείων του
     αντικειμένου που παίζουν επίσης ρόλο στη σύγκριση αντικειμένων,
     συσκευάζοντας τα σε μια πλειάδα και κατακερματίζοντας την πλειάδα.
     Παράδειγμα:

          def __hash__(self):
              return hash((self.name, self.nick, self.color))

          Σημείωση: Η *note hash(): 9e2. περικόπτει την τιμή που
          επιστρέφεται από την προσαρμοσμένη μέθοδο *note __hash__():
          ec1. ενός αντικειμένου στο μέγεθος *note Py_ssize_t: e24.
          Αυτό είναι συνήθως 8 byte σε εκδόσεις 64-bit και 4 byte σε
          εκδόσεις 32-bit.  Εάν η ‘__hash__()’ ενός αντικειμένου πρέπει
          να διαλειτουργήσει σε εκδόσεις διαφορικών μεγεθών bit,
          φροντίστε να ελέγξετε το πλάτος σε όλες τις υποστηριζόμενες
          εκδόσεις.  Ένας εύκολος τρόπος για να το κάνετε αυτό είναι με
          την ‘python -c "import sys; print(sys.hash_info.width)"’.

     Εάν μια κλάση δεν ορίζει μια μέθοδο *note __eq__(): ec0, δεν θα
     πρέπει να ορίζει ούτε μια λειτουργία *note __hash__(): ec1. ∙ εάν
     ορίζει τη ‘__eq__()’ αλλά όχι τη ‘__hash__()’, τα στιγμιότυπα της
     δεν θα είναι χρησιμοποιήσιμες ως στοιχεία σε συλλογές που μπορούν
     να κατακερματιστούν.  Εάν μια κλάση ορίζει αντικείμενα που μπορούν
     να μεταβληθούν και υλοποιεί μια μέθοδο ‘__eq__()’, δεν θα πρέπει να
     υλοποιεί τη ‘__hash__()’, καθώς η υλοποίηση των συλλογών *note
     hashable: 183. απαιτεί η τιμή hash ενός κλειδιού να είναι
     αμετάβλητη (εάν η τιμή hash του αντικειμένου αλλάξει, θα βρίσκεται
     σε λάθος κάδο hash).

     Οι κλάσεις που ορίζονται από τον χρήστη έχουν από προεπιλογή τις
     μεθόδους *note __eq__(): ec0. και *note __hash__(): ec1. από
     προεπιλογή (κληρονομούνται από την κλάση *note object: e4d.) ∙ με
     αυτές, όλα τα αντικείμενα συγκρίνονται άνισα (εκτός από τον εαυτό
     τους) και το ‘x.__hash__()’ επιστρέφει μια κατάλληλη τιμή έτσι ώστε
     το ‘x == y’ να υπονοεί ότι το ‘x is y’ και ‘hash(x) == hash(y)’.

     Μια κλάση που παρακάμπτει τη *note __eq__(): ec0. και δεν ορίζει τη
     *note __hash__(): ec1. θα έχει τη ‘__hash__()’ της έμμεσα ορισμένο
     σε ‘None’.  Όταν η μέθοδος ‘__hash__()’ μιας κλάσης είναι ‘None’,
     τα στιγμιότυπα της κλάσης θα κάνουν raise μια κατάλληλη *note
     TypeError: 291. όταν ένα πρόγραμμα επιχειρήσει να ανακτήσει την
     τιμή κατακερματισμού τους και θα αναγνωρίσουν επίσης σωστά ως μη
     κατακερματιζόμενες κατά τον έλεγχο του ‘isinstance(obj,
     collections.abc.Hashable)’.

     Εάν μια κλάση που παρακάμπτει την *note __eq__(): ec0. χρειάζεται
     να διατηρήσει την υλοποίηση της *note __hash__(): ec1. από μια
     γονική κλάση, ο διερμηνέας πρέπει να ενημερωθεί ρητά για αυτό
     ορίζονται την ‘__hash__ = <ParentClass>.__hash__’.

     Εάν μια κλάση που δεν παρακάμπτει τη *note __eq__(): ec0. επιθυμεί
     να καταστείλει την υποστήριξη κατακερματισμού, θα πρέπει να
     συμπεριλάβει το ‘__hash__ = None’ στον ορισμός της κλάσης.  Μια
     κλάση που ορίζει τη δικιά της *note __hash__(): ec1. που κάνει
     raise μια *note TypeError: 291. θα αναγνωριστεί εσφαλμένα ως μια
     κλάση που μπορεί να κατακερματιστεί από μια κλήση ‘isinstance(obj,
     collections.abc.Hashable)’.

          Σημείωση: Από προεπιλογή, οι τιμές *note __hash__(): ec1. των
          αντικειμένων str και bytes είναι «salted» με μια απρόβλεπτη
          τυχαία τιμή.  Παρόλο που παραμένουν σταθερές μέσα σε μια
          μεμονωμένη διεργασία Python, δεν είναι προβλέψιμες μεταξύ
          επαναλαμβανόμενων κλήσεων της Python.

          This is intended to provide protection against a
          denial-of-service caused by carefully chosen inputs that
          exploit the worst case performance of a dict insertion,
          'O'('n'^2) complexity.  See
          ‘https://ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2011-003.html’ for
          details.

          Η αλλαγή των τιμών κατακερματισμού επηρεάζει τη σειρά
          επανάληψης των συνόλων.  Η Python δεν έχει δώσει ποτέ
          εγγυήσεις σχετικά με αυτήν τη σειρά (και συνήθως ποικίλει
          μεταξύ εκδόσεων 32-bit και 64-bit).

          Δείτε επίσης *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1425.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Η τυχαιοποίηση κατακερματισμού είναι
     ενεργοποιημένη από προεπιλογή.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__bool__ (self)

     Καλείται για την υλοποίηση ελέγχου τιμών αλήθειας και την
     ενσωματωμένη λειτουργία ‘bool()’ ∙ θα πρέπει να επιστρέφει ‘False’
     ή ‘True’.  Όταν αυτή η μέθοδος δεν έχει οριστεί, καλείται η *note
     __len__(): 1989, εάν έχει οριστεί, και το αντικείμενο θεωρείται
     αληθές εάν το αποτέλεσμα του είναι μη μηδενικό.  Εάν μια κλάση δεν
     ορίζει ούτε ‘__len__()’ ούτε ‘__bool__()’, (κάτι που ισχύει για την
     ίδια την κλάση *note object: e4d.), όλα τα στιγμιότυπα της
     θεωρούνται αληθείς.


File: python.info,  Node: Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών,  Next: Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης,  Prev: Βασική προσαρμογή,  Up: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

4.3.3.2 Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών
............................................

Οι ακόλουθες μέθοδοι μπορούν αν οριστούν για την προσαρμογή της έννοιας
της πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών (χρήση, ανάθεση ή διαγραφή του ‘x.name’)
για στιγμιότυπα κλάσης.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__getattr__ (self, name)

     Καλείται όταν η πρόσβαση προεπιλεγμένου χαρακτηριστικού αποτυγχάνει
     με μια *note AttributeError: 1a9. (είτε η *note __getattribute__():
     f90. κάνει raise μια ‘AttributeError’ επειδή το 'name' δεν είναι
     χαρακτηριστικό στιγμιοτύπου ή χαρακτηριστικό στο δέντρο κλάσης για
     το ‘self’ ∙ ή η *note __get__(): 188a. μια ιδιότητας 'name' κάνει
     raise μια ‘AttributeError’).  Αυτή η μέθοδος θα πρέπει είτε να
     επιστρέψει την (υπολογισμένη) τιμή του χαρακτηριστικού είτε να
     κάνει raise μια εξαίρεση ‘AttributeError’.  Η ίδια η κλάση *note
     object: e4d. δεν παρέχει αυτήν τη μέθοδο.

     Σημειώστε ότι εάν το χαρακτηριστικό βρεθεί μέσω του κανονικού
     μηχανισμού, η *note __getattr__(): 8e3. δεν καλείται.  (Αυτή είναι
     μια σκόπιμη ασυμμετρία μεταξύ της ‘__getattr__()’ και της *note
     __setattr__(): 256d.)  Αυτό γίνεται τόσο για λόγους αποδοτικότητας
     όσο και επειδή διαφορετικά η ‘__getattr__()’ δεν θα είχε κανέναν
     τρόπο να έχει πρόσβαση σε άλλα χαρακτηριστικά του στιγμιοτύπου.
     Σημειώστε ότι τουλάχιστον για τις μεταβλητές στιγμιοτύπου, μπορείτε
     να αναλάβετε πλήρη έλεγχο εισάγοντας καμία τιμή στο λεξικό
     χαρακτηριστικών στιγμιοτύπου (αλλά αντίθετα εισάγοντάς τις σε ένα
     άλλο αντικείμενο).  Δείτε την παρακάτω μέθοδο *note
     __getattribute__(): f90. για έναν τρόπο να έχετε πραγματικά πλήρη
     έλεγχο της πρόσβασης σε χαρακτηριστικά.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__getattribute__ (self, name)

     Καλείται χωρίς προϋποθέσεις για την υλοποίηση της πρόσβασης σε
     χαρακτηριστικά για στιγμιότυπα κλάσης.  Αν η κλάση ορίζει επίσης τη
     μέθοδο *note __getattr__(): 8e3, αυτή δεν θα κληθεί εκτός αν η
     *note __getattribute__(): f90. την καλέσει ρητά ή κάνει raise μια
     εξαίρεση *note AttributeError: 1a9.  Αυτή η μέθοδος πρέπει να
     επιστρέφει την (υπολογισμένη) τιμή του χαρακτηριστικού ή να κάνει
     raise μια εξαίρεση ‘AttributeError’.  Για να αποφευχθεί η ατέρμονη
     αναδρομή μέσα σε αυτή τη μέθοδο, η υλοποίηση της πρέπει πάντα να
     καλεί τη μέθοδο της βασικής κλάσης με το ίδιο όνομα για να έχει
     πρόσβαση σε οποιαδήποτε ιδιότητα χρειάζεται, για παράδειγμα
     ‘object.__getattribute__(self, name)’.

          Σημείωση: Αυτή η μέθοδος μπορεί ακόμα να παρακαμφθεί κατά την
          αναζήτηση ειδικών μεθόδων ως αποτέλεσμα σιωπηρής επίκλησης
          μέσω σύνταξης γλώσσας ή *note built-in functions: 253f.  Βλ.
          *note Αναζήτηση ειδικής μεθόδου: 25a6.

     Για συγκεκριμένες προσβάσεις ευαίσθητων χαρακτηριστικών, δημιουργεί
     ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘object.__getattr__’ με ορίσματα
     ‘obj’ και ‘name’.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__setattr__ (self, name, value)

     Καλείται όταν επιχειρείται εκχώρηση χαρακτηριστικού.  Αυτό καλείται
     αντί για τον κανονικό μηχανισμό (δηλαδή αποθήκευση της τιμής στο
     λεξικό στιγμιοτύπου).  Το 'name' είναι το όνομα του
     χαρακτηριστικού, 'value' είναι η τιμή που θα του εκχωρηθεί.

     Εάν η *note __setattr__(): 256d. θέλει να εκχωρήσει σε ένα
     χαρακτηριστικό στιγμιοτύπου, θα πρέπει να καλέσει τη μέθοδο της
     βασικής κλάσης με το ίδιο όνομα, για παράδειγμα,
     ‘object.__setattr__(self, name, value)’.

     Για ορισμένες εκχωρήσεις ευαίσθητων χαρακτηριστικών, γίνεται raise
     μια *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘object.__setattr__’ με ορίσματα
     ‘obj’, ‘name’, ‘value’.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__delattr__ (self, name)

     Όπως η *note __setattr__(): 256d. αλλά για διαγραφή χαρακτηριστικών
     αντί για ανάθεση.  Αυτό θα πρέπει να εφαρμοστεί μόνο εάν το ‘del
     obj.name’ έχει νόημα για το αντικείμενο.

     Για ορισμένες διαγραφές ευαίσθητων χαρακτηριστικών, κάνει raise ένα
     *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘object.__delattr__’ με ορίσματα ‘obj’
     και ‘name’.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__dir__ (self)

     Καλείται όταν η *note dir(): a23. καλείται στο αντικείμενο.  Πρέπει
     να επιστραφεί ένα iterable.  Η ‘dir()’ μετατρέπει το iterable που
     επιστρέφεται σε λίστα και τον ταξινομεί.

* Menu:

* Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών module::
* Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων::
* Κλήση Descriptors::
* __slots__: __slots__<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών module,  Next: Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων,  Up: Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών

4.3.3.3 Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών module
...................................................

 -- Μέθοδος: module.__getattr__ ()
 -- Μέθοδος: module.__dir__ ()

Οι ειδικές ονομασίες ‘__getattr__’ και ‘__dir__’ μπορούν επίσης να
χρησιμοποιηθούν για την προσαρμογή της πρόσβασης στα χαρακτηριστικά του
module.  Η συνάρτηση ‘__getattr__’ στο επίπεδο του module πρέπει να
δέχεται ένα όρισμα, το οποίο είναι το όνομα ενός χαρακτηριστικού, και να
επιστρέφει την υπολογισμένη τιμή ή να κάνει raise μια εξαίρεση *note
AttributeError: 1a9.  Εάν ένα χαρακτηριστικό δεν βρεθεί σε ένα
αντικείμενο module μέσω της κανονικής αναζήτησης, δηλαδή με τη μέθοδο
*note object.__getattribute__(): f90, τότε η μέθοδος ‘__getattr__’
αναζητείται στο λεξικό ‘__dict__’ του module πριν γίνει raise η εξαίρεση
‘AttributeError’.  Αν βρεθεί, καλείται με το όνομα της ιδιότητας και το
αποτέλεσμα επιστρέφεται.

Η συνάρτηση ‘__dir__’ δεν πρέπει να δέχεται ορίσματα και να επιστρέφει
μια επαναλαμβανόμενη σειρά συμβολοσειρών που αντιπροσωπεύει τα ονόματα
που είναι προσβάσιμα στο module.  Εάν υπάρχει, αυτή η συνάρτηση
παρακάμπτει την τυπική αναζήτηση *note dir(): a23. σε ένα module.

 -- Ιδιότητα: module.__class__

Για μια πιο λεπτομερή προσαρμογή της συμπεριφοράς του module (ρύθμιση
χαρακτηριστικών, ιδιοτήτων κλπ.), μπορεί κανείς να ορίσει το
χαρακτηριστικό ‘__class__’ ενός αντικειμένου module σε μια υποκλάση
*note types.ModuleType: 11c7.  Για παράδειγμα:

     import sys
     from types import ModuleType

     class VerboseModule(ModuleType):
         def __repr__(self):
             return f'Verbose {self.__name__}'

         def __setattr__(self, attr, value):
             print(f'Setting {attr}...')
             super().__setattr__(attr, value)

     sys.modules[__name__].__class__ = VerboseModule

     Σημείωση: Ο καθορισμός του module ‘__getattr__’ και η ρύθμιση του
     module ‘__class__’ επηρεάζουν μόνο τις αναζητήσεις που
     πραγματοποιούνται με χρήση της σύνταξης πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών –
     η απευθείας πρόσβαση στα καθολικά του module (είτε μέσω κώδικας
     εντός του module, είτε μέσω αναφοράς στο λεξικό καθολικών του
     module) δεν επηρεάζεται.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Το χαρακτηριστικό ‘__class__’ του module είναι
πλέον εγγράψιμο.

Added in version 3.7: Τα χαρακτηριστικά ‘__getattr__’ και ‘__dir__’ του
module.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 562(1) - Module __getattr__ and __dir__

     Περιγράφει τις συναρτήσεις ‘__getattr__’ και ‘__dir__’ σε modules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/


File: python.info,  Node: Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων,  Next: Κλήση Descriptors,  Prev: Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών module,  Up: Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών

4.3.3.4 Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων
.............................

Οι παρακάτω μέθοδοι ισχύουν μόνο όταν ένα στιγμιότυπο της κλάσης που
περιέχει τη μέθοδο (μια λεγόμενη κλάση 'περιγραφέα') εμφανίζεται μια
'ιδιοκτήτρια' κλάση (ο περιγραφέας πρέπει να βρίσκεται είτε στο λεξικό
της κλάσης της ιδιοκτήτριας είτε στο λεξικό κλάσης κάποιου από τους
γονείς της).  Στα παρακάτω παραδείγματα, «το χαρακτηριστικό» αναφέρεται
στο χαρακτηριστικό του οποίου το όνομα είναι το κλειδί της ιδιότητας στο
*note __dict__: 1bf. της ιδιοκτήτριας κλάσης.  Η ίδια η κλάση *note
object: e4d. δεν υλοποιεί κανένα από αυτά τα πρωτόκολλα.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__get__ (self, instance, owner=None)

     Καλείται για να ληφθεί η ιδιότητα της ιδιοκτήτρια κλάσης (πρόσβαση
     σε χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης) ή ενός στιγμιοτύπου αυτή της κλάση
     (πρόσβαση σε χαρακτηριστικό στιγμιοτύπου).  Η προαιρετική
     παράμετρος 'owner' είναι η ιδιοκτήτρια κλάση, ενώ η 'instance'
     είναι το στιγμιότυπο μέσω της οποίας έγινε πρόσβαση στο
     χαρακτηριστικό, ή ‘None’ όταν η πρόσβαση στο χαρακτηριστικό έγινε
     μέσω της 'owner'.

     Αυτή η μέθοδος πρέπει να επιστρέφει την υπολογισμένη τιμή του
     χαρακτηριστικού ή να κάνει raise μια *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     εξαίρεση.

     Το PEP 252(1) ορίζει ότι η μέθοδος *note __get__(): 188a. μπορεί να
     καλείται με ένα ή δύο ορίσματα.  Οι ενσωματωμένοι περιγραφείς της
     Python υποστηρίζουν αυτή την προδιαγραφή∙ ωστόσο, είναι πιθανό
     κάποια εργαλεία τρίτων να έχουν περιγραφείς που απαιτούν και τα δύο
     ορίσματα.  Η ενσωματωμένη υλοποίηση της Python για τη μέθοδο *note
     __getattribute__(): f90. περνάει πάντα και τα δύο ορίσματα, είτε
     είναι απαραίτητα είτε όχι.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__set__ (self, instance, value)

     Καλείται για να οριστεί το χαρακτηριστικό σε ένα στιγμιότυπο
     'instance' της ιδιοκτήτρια κλάσης σε μια νέα τιμή, 'value'.

     Σημείωση, η προσθήκη της *note __set__(): 25aa. ή *note
     __delete__(): 1b64. αλλάζει το είδος του περιγραφέα σε έναν
     «περιγραφέα δεδομένων».  Δείτε το *note Κλήση Descriptors: 25ab.
     για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__delete__ (self, instance)

     Καλείται για να διαγραφεί το χαρακτηριστικό σε ένα στιγμιότυπο
     'instance' της ιδιοκτήτρια κλάσης.

Τα στιγμιότυπα περιγραφέων μπορείς επίσης να έχουν διαθέσιμο το
χαρακτηριστικό ‘__objclass__’:

 -- Ιδιότητα: object.__objclass__

     Το χαρακτηριστικό ‘__objclass__’ ερμηνεύεται από το module *note
     inspect: 81. ως ένδειξη κλάσης στην οποία ορίστηκε το αντικείμενο
     (η κατάλληλη ρύθμιση αυτής μπορεί να βοηθήσει στην ανάκτηση
     πληροφοριών κατά την εκτέλεση για δυναμικά χαρακτηριστικά κλάσεων).
     Για αυτά που μπορούν να κληθούν, μπορεί να υποδεικνύει ότι ένα
     στιγμιότυπο του δεδομένου τύπου (ή μιας υποκλάσης του) αναμένεται ή
     απαιτείται ως το πρώτο όρισμα θέσεως (για παράδειγμα, η CPython
     θέτει αυτήν την ιδιότητα για μη δεσμευμένες μεθόδους που έχουν
     υλοποιηθεί σε C).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/


File: python.info,  Node: Κλήση Descriptors,  Next: __slots__<2>,  Prev: Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων,  Up: Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών

4.3.3.5 Κλήση Descriptors
.........................

Γενικά, ένας descriptor είναι ένα χαρακτηριστικό αντικειμένου με
«συμπεριφορά δέσμευσης», δηλαδή μια ιδιότητα της οποίας η πρόσβαση έχει
παρακαμφθεί μέσω μεθόδων του πρωτοκόλλου περιγραφέα *note __get__():
188a, *note __set__(): 25aa, και *note __delete__(): 1b64.  Αν
οποιαδήποτε από αυτές τις μεθόδους έχει οριστεί για ένα αντικείμενο,
τότε το αντικείμενο αυτό θεωρείται descriptor.

Η προεπιλεγμένη συμπεριφορά για την πρόσβαση χαρακτηριστικών είναι η
ανάκτηση, ο ορισμός, ή η διαγραφή του χαρακτηριστικού από το λεξικό ενός
αντικειμένου.  Για παράδειγμα, το ‘a.x’ έχει μια αλυσίδα αναζήτησης που
ξεκινά με ‘a.__dict__['x']’, στη συνέχεια με ‘type(a).__dict__['x']’ και
συνεχίζει στις βασικές κατηγορίες του ‘type(a)’ εξαιρουμένων των
μετακλάσεων.

Ωστόσο, εάν η τιμή αναζήτησης είναι ένα αντικείμενο που ορίζει μία από
τις μεθόδους περιγραφής, τότε η Python μπορεί να παρακάμψει την
προεπιλεγμένη συμπεριφορά και να επικαλεστεί τη μέθοδο περιγραφής.  Το
πού συμβαίνει αυτό στην αλυσίδα προτεραιότητας εξαρτάται από το ποιες
μέθοδοι περιγραφής ορίστηκαν και πώς ονομάστηκαν.

Το σημείο εκκίνηση για την επίκληση του περιγραφέα είναι ένα δεσμευτικό,
‘a.x’.  Ο τρόπος συναρμολόγησης των ορισμάτων εξαρτάται από το ‘a’:

Απευθείας Κλήση

     Η απλούστερη και λιγότερο συνηθισμένη κλήση είναι όταν ο κωδικός
     χρήστη καλεί απευθείας μια μέθοδο περιγραφής: ‘x.__get__(a)’.

Δέσμευση Στιγμιοτύπου

     Εάν δεσμεύεται σε ένα στιγμιότυπο αντικειμένου, το ‘a.x’
     μετατρέπεται στην κλήση: ‘type(a).__dict__['x'].__get__(a,
     type(a))’.

Δέσμευση Κλάσης

     Εάν δεσμεύεται σε μια κλάση, το ‘A.x’ μετατρέπεται στην κλήση:
     ‘A.__dict__['x'].__get__(None, A)’.

Υπερ-Δέσμευση

     Μια διακεκομμένη αναζήτηση όπως ‘super(A, a).x’ αναζητά το
     ‘a.__class__.__mro__’ για μια βασική κλάση ‘B’ μετά το ‘A’ και, στη
     συνέχεια, επιστρέφει το ‘B.__dict__['x'].__get__(a, A)’.  Εάν δεν
     είναι περιγραφέας, το ‘x’ επιστρέφεται αμετάβλητο.

Για δεσμεύσεις στιγμιοτύπου, η προτεραιότητα της κλήση του περιγραφέα
εξαρτάται από το ποιες μέθοδοι περιγραφέα έχουν οριστεί.  Ένα
περιγραφέας μπορεί να ορίσει οποιονδήποτε συνδυασμό των *note __get__():
188a, *note __set__(): 25aa. και *note __delete__(): 1b64.  Αν δεν
ορίσει τη μέθοδο ‘__get__()’, τότε η πρόσβαση στην ιδιότητα θα
επιστρέψει το ίδιο το αντικείμενο του περιγραφέα, εκτός αν υπάρχει τιμή
στο λεξικό στιγμιοτύπου του αντικειμένου.  Αν ο περιγραφέας ορίζει τη
μέθοδο ‘__set__()’ και/ή ‘__delete__()’, θεωρείται περιγραφέας
δεδομένων∙ αν δεν ορίζει καμία από τις δύο, είναι μη-περιγραφέας
δεδομένων.  Συνήθως, οι περιγραφείς δεδομένων ορίζουν και τις δύο
‘__get__()’ και ‘__set__()’, ενώ οι μη-περιγραφείς δεδομένων έχουν μόνο
τη μέθοδο ‘__get__()’.  Οι περιγραφείς δεδομένων που έχουν ορίσει
‘__get__()’ και ‘__set__()’ (και/ή ‘__delete__()’) υπερισχύουν πάντα από
έναν επαναπροσδιορισμό στο λεξικό στιγμιοτύπου.  Αντίθετα, οι μη
περιγραφείς δεδομένων μπορούν να παρακαμφθούν από στιγμιότυπα.

Οι μέθοδοι Python (συμπεριλαμβανομένων εκείνων που είναι διακοσμημένες
με *note @staticmethod: 666. και *note @classmethod: 69a.) υλοποιούνται
ως περιγραφέα χωρίς δεδομένα.  Αντίστοιχα, τα στιγμιότυπα μπορούν να
επαναπροσδιορίσουν και να παρακάμψουν μεθόδους.  Αυτό επιτρέπει σε
μεμονωμένα στιγμιότυπα να αποκτήσουν συμπεριφορές που διαφέρουν από άλλα
στιγμιότυπα της ίδιας κλάσης.

Η συνάρτηση *note property(): 6bb. υλοποιείται ως περιγραφέας δεδομένων.
Συνεπώς, οι περιπτώσεις δεν μπορούν να παρακάμψουν τη συμπεριφορά μιας
ιδιότητας.


File: python.info,  Node: __slots__<2>,  Prev: Κλήση Descriptors,  Up: Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών

4.3.3.6 __slots__
.................

Το '__slots__' μας επιτρέπει να δηλώνουμε ρητά τα μέλη δεδομένων (όπως
ιδιότητες) και να αρνηθούμε τη δημιουργία των *note __dict__: 1bf. και
'__weakref__' (εκτός εάν δηλώνεται ρητά στο '__slots__' ή είναι
διαθέσιμο σε έναν γονέα.)

Ο χώρος που εξοικονομείται χρησιμοποιώντας *note __dict__: 1bf. μπορεί
να είναι σημαντικός.  Η ταχύτητα αναζήτησης χαρακτηριστικών μπορεί
επίσης να βελτιωθεί σημαντικά.

 -- Δεδομένα: object.__slots__

     Σε αυτήν την μεταβλητή κλάσης μπορεί να εκχωρηθεί μια συμβολοσειρά,
     iterable ή ακολουθία συμβολοσειρών με ονόματα μεταβλητών που
     χρησιμοποιούνται από στιγμιότυπα.  Το '__slots__' διατηρεί χώρο για
     τις δηλωμένες μεταβλητές και αποτρέπει την αυτόματη δημιουργία των
     *note __dict__: 1bf. και '__weakref__' για κάθε περίπτωση.
Σημειώσεις σχετικά με τη χρήση '__slots__':

   * Όταν γίνεται κληρονομιά από μια κλάση χωρίς '__slots__', το
     χαρακτηριστικό *note __dict__: 1bf. και '__weakref__' των
     στιγμιοτύπων θα είναι πάντα προσβάσιμο.

   * Χωρίς μια μεταβλητή *note __dict__: 1bf, τα στιγμιότυπα δεν μπορούν
     να αντιστοιχιστούν σε νέες μεταβλητές που δεν αναφέρονται στον
     ορισμό '__slots__'.  Οι προσπάθειες αντιστοίχισης σε ένα όνομα
     μεταβλητής εκτός λίστας κάνουν raise τη *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     Εάν είναι επιθυμητή η δυναμική αντιστοίχιση νέων μεταβλητών, τότε
     προσθέστε το ‘'__dict__'’ στην ακολουθία συμβολοσειρών στη δήλωση
     '__slots__'.

   * Χωρίς μια μεταβλητή '__weakref__' για κάθε στιγμιότυπο, οι κλάσεις
     που ορίζουν '__slots__' δεν υποστηρίζουν *note weak references:
     11d. στα στιγμιότυπα τους.  Εάν απαιτείται αδύναμη υποστήριξη για
     αδύναμες αναφορές, τότε προσθέστε το ‘'__weakref__'’ στην ακολουθία
     των συμβολοσειρών στη δήλωση των '__slots__'.

   * Τα '__slots__' υλοποιούνται σε επίπεδα κλάσης με τη δημιουργία
     *note descriptors: 100d. για κάθε όνομα μεταβλητής.  Ως ένα
     αποτέλεσμα, οι ιδιότητες της κλάσης δεν μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν
     για να ορίσουν προεπιλεγμένες τιμές για μεταβλητές στιγμιοτύπων που
     έχουν δηλωθεί μέσω '__slots__' ∙ διαφορετικά, το χαρακτηριστικό της
     κλάσης θα αντικαθιστούσε την ανάθεση του descriptor.

   * Η ενέργεια μιας δήλωσης '__slots__' δεν περιορίζεται μόνο στην
     κλάση όπου ορίζεται.  Τα '__slots__' που δηλώνονται σε γονικές
     κλάσεις είναι διαθέσιμα και στις θυγατρικές κλάσεις.  Ωστόσο, οι
     θυγατρικές κλάσεις θα αποκτήσουν ένα *note __dict__: 1bf. και
     '__weakref__', εκτός αν δηλώσουν και οι ίδιες '__slots__' (τα οποία
     θα πρέπει να περιέχουν μόνο τα 'επιπλέον' ονόματα slots).

   * Αν μια κλάση ορίσει ένα slot που έχει ήδη οριστεί σε μια γονική
     κλάση, τότε η μεταβλητή στιγμιοτύπου που ορίζεται από το slot της
     γονικής κλάσης γίνεται μη προσβάσιμη (εκτός αν ανακτηθεί απευθείας
     ο descriptor της από τη γονική κλάση).  Αυτό καθιστά το νόημα του
     προγράμματος ασαφές.  Στο μέλλον, μπορεί να προστεθεί έλεγχος που
     να αποτρέπει κάτι τέτοιο.

   * *note TypeError: 291. will be raised if '__slots__' other than
     '__dict__' and '__weakref__' are defined for a class derived from a
     *note "variable-length" built-in type: 25b0. such as *note int:
     326, *note bytes: 1c7, and *note type: 186, except *note tuple:
     1ce.

   * Οποιαδήποτε μη συμβολοσειρά *note iterable: 15ce. μπορεί να
     εκχωρηθεί σε '__slots__'.

   * Αν χρησιμοποιηθεί μια *note dictionary: 188. για την ανάθεση των
     '__slots__', τα κλειδιά του λεξικού θα χρησιμοποιηθούν ως ονόματα
     των slots.  Οι τιμές του λεξικού μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για να
     παρέχουν τεκμηρίωση (docstrings) για κάθε ιδιότητα ξεχωριστά, η
     οποία θα αναγνωρίζεται από τη συνάρτηση *note inspect.getdoc():
     22c. και θα εμφανίζεται στην έξοδο της *note help(): ca9.

   * Η ανάθεση στη *note __class__: 184f. λειτουργεί μόνο αν και οι δύο
     κλάσεις έχουν τα ίδια '__slots__'.

   * *note Multiple inheritance: 2291. with multiple slotted parent
     classes can be used, but only one parent is allowed to have
     attributes created by slots (the other bases must have empty slot
     layouts) - violations raise *note TypeError: 291.

   * Εάν χρησιμοποιείται ένας *note iterator: 6ce. για '__slots__' τότε
     δημιουργείται ένας *note descriptor: 21f. για κάθε μία από τις
     τιμές του iterator.  Ωστόσο, το χαρακτηριστικό '__slots__' θα είναι
     ένας κενός iterator.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Allowed defining the '__dict__' and
'__weakref__' '__slots__' for any class.  Allowed defining any
'__slots__' for a class derived from *note tuple: 1ce.


File: python.info,  Node: Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης,  Next: Προσαρμογή ελέγχων παρουσίας και υποκλάσης,  Prev: Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών,  Up: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

4.3.3.7 Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης
.....................................

Όποτε μια κλάση κληρονομεί από μια άλλη κλάση, τη *note
__init_subclass__(): a22. καλείται μια γονική κλάση.  Με αυτόν τον
τρόπο, είναι δυνατόν να γραφτούν κλάσεις που αλλάζουν τη συμπεριφορά των
υποκλάσεων.  Αυτό σχετίζεται στενά με τους decorators των κλάσεων, αλλά
όπου οι decorators κλάσεων επηρεάζουν μόνο τη συγκεκριμένη κλάση στην
οποία εφαρμόζονται, το ‘__init_subclass__’ ισχύει αποκλειστικά για
μελλοντικές υποκλάσεις της κλάσης που ορίζουν τη μέθοδο.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod object.__init_subclass__ (cls)

     Αυτή η μέθοδος καλείται κάθε φορά που η κλάση περιέχει υποκλάση.
     Το 'cls' είναι τότε η νέα υποκλάση.  Εάν οριστεί ως μια κανονική
     μέθοδος στιγμιοτύπου, αυτή η μέθοδος μετατρέπεται σιωπηρά σε μέθοδο
     κλάσης.

     Τα ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών που δίνονται σε μια νέα κλάση
     μεταβιβάζονται στη ‘__init_subclass__’.  Για συμβατότητα με άλλες
     κλάσεις που χρησιμοποιούν ‘__init_subclass__’, θα πρέπει να
     αφαιρεθούν τα απαραίτητα ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών και να περάσουν
     τα άλλα στη βασική κλάση, όπως στο:

          class Philosopher:
              def __init_subclass__(cls, /, default_name, **kwargs):
                  super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs)
                  cls.default_name = default_name

          class AustralianPhilosopher(Philosopher, default_name="Bruce"):
              pass

     Η προεπιλεγμένη υλοποίηση ‘object.__init_subclass__’ δεν κάνει
     τίποτα, αλλά δημιουργεί ένα σφάλμα εάν καλείται με οποιαδήποτε
     ορίσματα.

          Σημείωση: Η υπόδειξη μετακλάσης ‘metaclass’ καταναλώνεται από
          τα υπόλοιπα μηχανήματα τύπου και δεν μεταβιβάζεται ποτέ στις
          υλοποιήσεις ‘__init_subclass__’.  Η πραγματική μετακλάση (και
          όχι η ρητή υπόδειξη) μπορεί να προσπελαστεί ως ‘type(cls)’.

     Added in version 3.6.

Όταν δημιουργείται μια κλάση, η ‘type.__new__()’ σαρώνει τις μεταβλητές
κλάσης και πραγματοποιεί επανάκληση σε εκείνες με ένα *note
__set_name__(): 100c. hook.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__set_name__ (self, owner, name)

     Καλείται αυτόματα τη στιγμή που δημιουργείται η ιδιοκτήτρια κλάση
     'owner'.  Το αντικείμενο έχει εκχωρηθεί στο 'name' σε αυτήν την
     κλάση:

          class A:
              x = C()  # Automatically calls: x.__set_name__(A, 'x')

     Εάν η μεταβλητή κλάσης εκχωρηθεί μετά τη δημιουργία της κλάσης, η
     *note __set_name__(): 100c. δεν θα κληθεί αυτόματα.  Εάν
     χρειάζεται, η ‘__set_name__()’ μπορεί να κληθεί απευθείας:

          class A:
             pass

          c = C()
          A.x = c                  # The hook is not called
          c.__set_name__(A, 'x')   # Manually invoke the hook

     Δείτε το *note Δημιουργία αντικειμένου κλάσης: 1008. για
     περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.

     Added in version 3.6.

* Menu:

* Μετα-κλάσεις::
* Επίλυση εγγραφών MRO::
* Προσδιορισμός της κατάλληλης μετακλάσης::
* Προετοιμασία του χώρου ονομάτων της κλάσης::
* Εκτέλεση του σώματος της κλάσης::
* Δημιουργία αντικειμένου κλάσης::
* Χρήσεις για μετακλάσεις::


File: python.info,  Node: Μετα-κλάσεις,  Next: Επίλυση εγγραφών MRO,  Up: Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης

4.3.3.8 Μετα-κλάσεις
....................

Από προεπιλογή, οι κλάσεις κατασκευάζονται χρησιμοποιώντας *note type():
186.  Το σώμα κλάσης εκτελείται σε νέο χώρο ονομάτων και το όνομα της
κλάσης συνδέεται τοπικά με το αποτέλεσμα του ‘type(name, bases,
namespace)’.

Η διαδικασία δημιουργία κλάσης μπορεί να προσαρμοστεί μεταβιβάζοντας το
όρισμα λέξης-κλειδιού ‘metaclass’ στη γραμμή ορισμού κλάσης ή
κληρονομώντας από μια υπάρχουσα κλάση που περιλάμβανε ένα τέτοιο όρισμα.
Στο παρακάτω παράδειγμα, τόσο το ‘MyClass’ και ‘MySubclass’ είναι
περιπτώσεις του ‘Meta’:

     class Meta(type):
         pass

     class MyClass(metaclass=Meta):
         pass

     class MySubclass(MyClass):
         pass

Οποιαδήποτε άλλα ορίσματα λέξης-κλειδιού που καθορίζονται στον ορισμό
κλάσης μεταβιβάζονται σε όλες τις λειτουργίες μετακλάσης που
περιγράφονται παρακάτω.

Όταν εκτελείται ένας ορισμός κλάσης, εμφανίζονται τα ακόλουθα βήματα:

   * Οι εγγραφές MRO επιλύονται∙

   * καθορίζεται η κατάλληλη μετακλάση∙

   * προετοιμάζεται ο χώρος ονομάτων της κλάσης∙

   * εκτελείται το σώμα της κλάσης∙

   * δημιουργείται το αντικείμενο της κλάσης.


File: python.info,  Node: Επίλυση εγγραφών MRO,  Next: Προσδιορισμός της κατάλληλης μετακλάσης,  Prev: Μετα-κλάσεις,  Up: Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης

4.3.3.9 Επίλυση εγγραφών MRO
............................

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__mro_entries__ (self, bases)

     Εάν μια βάση που εμφανίζεται σε ένα ορισμό κλάσης δεν είναι ένα
     στιγμιότυπο της *note type: 186, τότε γίνεται αναζήτηση στη βάση
     μιας ‘__mro_entries__()’ μεθόδου.  Εάν βρεθεί μια μέθοδος
     ‘__mro_entries__()’, η βάση αντικαθίσταται με το αποτέλεσμα μιας
     κλήσης στο ‘__mro_entries__()’ κατά τη δημιουργία της κλάσης.  Η
     μέθοδος καλείται με την αρχική πλειάδα βάσεων μεταβιβασμένη στην
     παράμετρο 'bases' και πρέπει να επιστρέψει μια πλειάδα κλάσεων που
     θα χρησιμοποιηθούν αντί για τη βάση.  Η πλειάδα που επιστράφηκε
     μπορεί να είναι κενή: σε αυτές τις περιπτώσεις, η αρχική βάση
     αγνοείται.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note types.resolve_bases(): f5b.

     Επιλύστε δυναμικά βάσεις που δεν είναι στιγμιότυπα του *note type:
     186.

*note types.get_original_bases(): 8de.

     Ανακτήσετε τις «αρχικές βάσεις» μιας κλάσης πριν από τις
     τροποποιήσεις από *note __mro_entries__(): eb1.

PEP 560(1)

     Βασική υποστήριξη για modules τύπων και γενικούς τύπους.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: Προσδιορισμός της κατάλληλης μετακλάσης,  Next: Προετοιμασία του χώρου ονομάτων της κλάσης,  Prev: Επίλυση εγγραφών MRO,  Up: Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης

4.3.3.10 Προσδιορισμός της κατάλληλης μετακλάσης
................................................

Η κατάλληλη μετακλάση για έναν ορισμό κλάσης καθορίζεται ως εξής:

   * εάν δεν δίνονται βάσεις και καμία ρητή μετακλάση, τότε
     χρησιμοποιείται η *note type(): 186. ∙

   * εάν δοθεί μια ρητή μετακλάση και 'δεν' είναι ένα στιγμιότυπο της
     *note type(): 186, τότε χρησιμοποιείται απευθείας ως μετακλάση∙

   * εάν ένα στιγμιότυπο της *note type(): 186. δίνεται ως ρητή
     μετακλάση ή ορίζονται βάσεις, τότε χρησιμοποιείται η πιο παραγόμενη
     μετακλάση.

Η πιο παραγόμενη μετακλάση επιλέγεται από τη ρητά καθορισμένη μετακλάση
(εάν υπάρχει) και τις μετακλάσεις (δηλαδή ‘type(cls)’) όλων των
καθορισμένων βασικών κλάσεων.  Η πιο παραγόμενη μετακλάση είναι αυτή που
είναι υπο-τύπος 'όλων' αυτών των υποψήφιων μετακλάσεων.  Εάν καμία από
τις υποψήφιες μετακλάσεις δεν πληροί αυτό το κριτήριο, τότε ο ορισμός
της κλάσης θα αποτύχει με ‘TypeError’.


File: python.info,  Node: Προετοιμασία του χώρου ονομάτων της κλάσης,  Next: Εκτέλεση του σώματος της κλάσης,  Prev: Προσδιορισμός της κατάλληλης μετακλάσης,  Up: Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης

4.3.3.11 Προετοιμασία του χώρου ονομάτων της κλάσης
...................................................

Μόλις εντοπιστεί η κατάλληλη μετακλάση, τότε προετοιμάζεται ο χώρος
ονομάτων της κλάσης.  Εάν η μετακλάση έχει ένα χαρακτηριστικό
‘__prepare__’, ονομάζεται ‘namespace = metaclass.__prepare__(name,
bases, **kwds)’ (όπου τα πρόσθετα ορίσματα λέξης-κλειδιού, εάν υπάρχουν,
προέρχονται από τον ορισμό της κλάσης).  Η μέθοδος ‘__prepare__’ θα
πρέπει να υλοποιηθεί ως μέθοδος *note classmethod: 69a.  Ο χώρος
ονομάτων που επιστρέφεται από το ‘__prepare__’ μεταβιβάζεται στο
‘__new__’, αλλά όταν δημιουργείται το τελικό αντικείμενο κλάσης, ο χώρος
ονομάτων αντιγράφεται σε ένα νέο ‘dict’.

Εάν η μετακλάση δεν έχει χαρακτηριστικό ‘__prepare__’, τότε ο χώρος
ονομάτων κλάσης αρχικοποιείται ως κενή ταξινομημένη αντιστοίχιση.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3115(1) - Μετακλάσεις στην Python 3000

     Παρουσιάστηκε το άγκιστρο χώρου ονομάτων ‘__prepare__’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: Εκτέλεση του σώματος της κλάσης,  Next: Δημιουργία αντικειμένου κλάσης,  Prev: Προετοιμασία του χώρου ονομάτων της κλάσης,  Up: Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης

4.3.3.12 Εκτέλεση του σώματος της κλάσης
........................................

Το σώμα της κλάσης εκτελείται (περίπου) ως ‘exec(body, globals(),
namespace)’.  Η βασική διαφορά από μια κανονική κλήση στην *note exec():
185. είναι ότι το λεξικό πεδίο εφαρμογής επιτρέπει στο σώμα της κλάσης
(συμπεριλαμβανομένων οποιωνδήποτε μεθόδων) να παραπέμπει σε ονόματα από
το τρέχον και το εξωτερικό πεδίο εφαρμογής όταν ο ορισμός κλάσης
εμφανίζεται μέσα σε μια συνάρτηση.

Ωστόσο, ακόμα και όταν ο ορισμός της κλάσης εμφανίζεται μέσα στη
συνάρτηση, οι μέθοδοι που ορίζονται μέσα στην κλάση εξακολουθούν να μην
μπορούν να δουν ονόματα που ορίζονται στο πεδίο της κλάσης.  Οι
μεταβλητές κλάσης πρέπει να είναι προσβάσιμες μέσω της πρώτης παραμέτρου
των μεθόδων στιγμιοτύπου ή κλάσης ή μέσω της σιωπηρής αναφοράς
‘__class__’ με λεξικό που περιγράφεται στην επόμενη ενότητα.


File: python.info,  Node: Δημιουργία αντικειμένου κλάσης,  Next: Χρήσεις για μετακλάσεις,  Prev: Εκτέλεση του σώματος της κλάσης,  Up: Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης

4.3.3.13 Δημιουργία αντικειμένου κλάσης
.......................................

Μόλις ο χώρος ονομάτων της κλάσης έχει συμπληρωθεί εκτελώντας το σώμα
της κλάσης, το αντικείμενο της κλάσης δημιουργείται καλώντας
‘metaclass(name, bases, namespace, **kwds)’ (οι πρόσθετε λέξεις-κλειδιά
που μεταβιβάζονται εδώ είναι οι ίδιες με αυτές που διαβιβάζονται στο
‘__prepare__’).

Αυτό το αντικείμενο κλάσης είναι αυτό που θα αναφέρεται με τη μορφή
μηδενικού ορίσματος του *note super(): 443.  Το ‘__class__’ είναι μια
σιωπηρή αναφορά κλεισίματος που δημιουργείται από τον μεταγλωττιστή εάν
οποιεσδήποτε μέθοδοι σε ένα σώμα κλάσης αναφέρονται είτε σε ‘__class__’
είτε σε ‘super’.  Αυτό επιτρέπει στη μορφή μηδενικού ορίσματος του
‘super()’ να προσδιορίζει σωστά την κλάση που ορίζεται με βάση το λεξικό
πεδίο εφαρμογής, ενώ η κλάση ή το παράδειγμα που χρησιμοποιήθηκε για την
πραγματοποίηση της τρέχουσας κλήσης προσδιορίζεται με βάση το πρώτο
όρισμα που μεταβιβάστηκε στη μέθοδο.

Στη CPython 3.6 και μεταγενέστερα, το κελί ‘__class__’ μεταβιβάζεται
στην μετακλάση ως μια καταχώρηση ‘__classcell__’ στον χώρο ονομάτων της
κλάσης.  Εάν υπάρχει, αυτό πρέπει να διαδοθεί μέχρι την κλήση
‘type.__new__’, προκειμένου η κλάση να έχει ως αποτέλεσμα να
αρχικοποιηθεί σωστά ώστε να γίνει σωστά.  Αν δεν το κάνετε αυτό θα έχει
ως αποτέλεσμα μια *note RuntimeError: 30d. στην Python 3.8.

Κατά τη χρήση της προεπιλεγμένης μετακλάσης *note type: 186. ή
οποιασδήποτε μετακλάσης που τελικά καλεί ‘type.__new__’, τα ακόλουθα
πρόσθετα βήματα προσαρμογής καλούνται μετά τη δημιουργία του
αντικείμενου κλάσης:

  1. Η μέθοδος ‘type.__new__’ συλλέγει όλα τα χαρακτηριστικά στον χώρο
     ονομάτων της κλάσης που ορίζουν μια μέθοδο *note __set_name__():
     100c. ∙

  2. Αυτές οι μέθοδοι ‘__set_name__’ καλούνται με την κλάση που ορίζεται
     και το εκχωρημένο όνομα του συγκεκριμένου χαρακτηριστικού∙

  3. Το άγκιστρο *note __init_subclass__(): a22. καλείται στον άμεσο
     γονέα της νέας κλάσης στη σειρά ανάλυσης της μεθόδου.

Αφού δημιουργηθεί το αντικείμενο κλάσης, μεταβιβάζεται στους decorators
κλάσης που περιλαμβάνονται στον ορισμό της κλάσης (εάν υπάρχει) και το
αντικείμενο που προκύπτει δεσμεύεται στον τοπικό χώρο ονομάτων ως η
καθορισμένη κλάση.

Όταν δημιουργείται μια νέα κλάση από ‘type.__new__’, το αντικείμενο που
παρέχεται ως παράμετρος στο χώρο ονομάτων αντιγράφεται σε μια νέα
ταξινομημένη αντιστοίχιση και το αρχικό αντικείμενο απορρίπτεται.  Το
νέο αντίγραφο τυλίγεται σε έναν διακομιστή μεσολάβησης μόνο για
ανάγνωση, ο οποίος γίνεται το χαρακτηριστικό *note __dict__: 101b. του
αντικειμένου κλάσης.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3135(1) - Νέο super

     Περιγράφει την σιωπηρή αναφορά κλεισίματος ‘__class__’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3135/


File: python.info,  Node: Χρήσεις για μετακλάσεις,  Prev: Δημιουργία αντικειμένου κλάσης,  Up: Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης

4.3.3.14 Χρήσεις για μετακλάσεις
................................

Οι πιθανές χρήσεις για μετακλάσεις είναι απεριόριστες.  Ορισμένες ιδέες
που έχουν διερευνηθεί περιλαμβάνουν το enum, την καταγραφή, τον έλεγχο
διεπαφής, την αυτόματα ανάθεση την αυτόματη δημιουργία ιδιοτήτων, τους
διακομιστές μεσολάβησης, τα πλαίσια και το αυτόματο κλείδωμα/συγχρονισμό
πόρων.


File: python.info,  Node: Προσαρμογή ελέγχων παρουσίας και υποκλάσης,  Next: Εξομοίωση γενικών τύπων,  Prev: Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης,  Up: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

4.3.3.15 Προσαρμογή ελέγχων παρουσίας και υποκλάσης
...................................................

Οι ακόλουθες μέθοδοι χρησιμοποιούνται για την παράκαμψη της
προεπιλεγμένης συμπεριφοράς των ενσωματωμένων συναρτήσεων *note
isinstance(): 2ef. και *note issubclass(): 2f0.

Συγκεκριμένα, η μετακλάση *note abc.ABCMeta: 12c9. υλοποιεί αυτές τις
μεθόδους προκειμένου να επιτρέψει την προσθήκη Αφηρημένων Βασικών
Κλάσεων (ABCs) ως «εικονικές βασικές κλάσεις» σε οποιαδήποτε κλάση ή
τύπο (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των ενσωματωμένων τύπων), συμπεριλαμβανομένων
άλλων ABCs.

 -- Μέθοδος: type.__instancecheck__ (self, instance)

     Επιστρέφετε true εάν το 'instance' θα πρέπει να θεωρείται ένα
     (άμεσο ή έμμεσο) στιγμιότυπο της 'class'.  Εάν ορίζεται, καλείται
     να υλοποιήσει ‘isinstance(instance, class)’.

 -- Μέθοδος: type.__subclasscheck__ (self, subclass)

     Επιστρέφετε true εάν η 'subclass' πρέπει να θεωρείται μια (άμεση ή
     έμμεση) υποκλάση της 'class'.  Εάν ορίζεται, καλείται να υλοποιήσει
     ‘issubclass(subclass, class)’.

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι αυτές οι μέθοδοι αναζητούνται στον τύπο (μετακλάση)
μιας κλάσης.  Δεν μπορούν να οριστούν ως μέθοδοι κλάσης στην πραγματική
κλάση.  Αυτό είναι σύμφωνο με την αναζήτηση ειδικών μεθόδων που
καλούνται σε στιγμιότυπα, μόνο σε αυτήν την περίπτωση το ίδιο
στιγμιότυπο είναι μια κλάση.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3119(1) - Εισάγοντας τις Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις

     Περιλαμβάνει την προδιαγραφή για την προσαρμογή της συμπεριφορά της
     *note isinstance(): 2ef. και της *note issubclass(): 2f0. μέσω των
     *note __instancecheck__(): 25bc. και *note __subclasscheck__():
     25bd, με κίνητρο για αυτήν τη λειτουργικότητα στο πλαίσιο της
     προσθήκης Αφηρημένης Βασικής Κλάσης (δείτε το module *note abc: 4.)
     στη γλώσσα.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: Εξομοίωση γενικών τύπων,  Next: Εξομοίωση αντικειμένων με δυνατότητα κλήσης,  Prev: Προσαρμογή ελέγχων παρουσίας και υποκλάσης,  Up: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

4.3.3.16 Εξομοίωση γενικών τύπων
................................

Όταν χρησιμοποιείτε το *note type annotations: 409, είναι συχνά χρήσιμο
να 'παραμετροποιήσετε' έναν *note generic type: 1d1. χρησιμοποιώντας τον
συμβολισμό σε αγκύλες της Python.  Για παράδειγμα, το annotation
‘list[int]’ μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να υποδηλώσει μια *note list:
4d9. στην οποία όλα τα στοιχεία της κλάσης είναι τύπου *note int: 326.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 484(1) - Τύπος Hints

     Εισάγοντας το πλαίσιο της Python για τύπους annotations

*note Generic Alias Types: a9f.

     Τεκμηρίωση για αντικείμενα που αντιπροσωπεύουν παραμετροποιημένες
     γενικές κλάσεις

*note Generics: 25bf, *note user-defined generics: 8df. και *note typing.Generic: 19f2.

     Τεκμηρίωση για τον τρόπο υλοποίησης γενικών κλάσεων που μπορούν να
     παραμετροποιηθούν κατά το χρόνο εκτέλεσης και να κατανοηθούν από
     στατικούς ελεγκτές τύπων.

Μια κλάση 'γενικά' μπορεί να παραμετροποιηθεί μόνο εάν ορίζει την ειδική
μέθοδο κλάσης ‘__class_getitem__()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod object.__class_getitem__ (cls, key)

     Επιστρέφετε ένα αντικείμενο που αντιπροσωπεύει την εξειδίκευση μιας
     γενικής κλάσης κατά ορίσματα τύπου που βρίσκονται στο 'key'.

     Όταν ορίζεται σε μια κλάση, το ‘__class_getitem__()’ είναι αυτόματα
     μέθοδος κλάσης.  Ως εκ τούτου, δεν χρειάζεται να γίνει decorated με
     *note @classmethod: 69a. όταν ορίζεται.

* Menu:

* Ο σκοπός του __class_getitem__::
* __class_getitem__ έναντι __getitem__::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Ο σκοπός του __class_getitem__,  Next: __class_getitem__ έναντι __getitem__,  Up: Εξομοίωση γενικών τύπων

4.3.3.17 Ο σκοπός του '__class_getitem__'
.........................................

Ο σκοπός της *note __class_getitem__(): b21. είναι να επιτρέψει την
παραμετροποίηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης των γενικών κλάσεων τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης
προκειμένου να εφαρμοστούν πιο εύκολα *note type hints: 25c1. σε αυτές
τις κλάσεις.

Για να εφαρμόσουν προσαρμοσμένες γενικές κλάσεις που μπορούν να
παραμετροποιηθούν κατά το χρόνο εκτέλεσης και να κατανοηθούν από
στατικούς ελεγκτές τύπων, οι χρήστες θα πρέπει είτε να κληρονομήσουν από
μια τυπική κλάση βιβλιοθήκης που ήδη υλοποιεί τη *note
__class_getitem__(): b21, είτε να κληρονομήσουν από την *note
typing.Generic: 19f2, η οποία έχει τη δική της υλοποίηση του
‘__class_getitem__()’.

Προσαρμοσμένες υλοποιήσεις της *note __class_getitem__(): b21. σε
κλάσεις που ορίζονται εκτός της τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης ενδέχεται να μην
είναι κατανοητές από ελεγκτές τύπων τρίτου μέρους, όπως το mypy.  Η
χρήση ‘__class_getitem__()’ σε οποιαδήποτε κλάση για άλλους σκοπούς
εκτός από την υπόδειξη τύπων δεν ενθαρρύνεται.


File: python.info,  Node: __class_getitem__ έναντι __getitem__,  Prev: Ο σκοπός του __class_getitem__,  Up: Εξομοίωση γενικών τύπων

4.3.3.18 '__class_getitem__' έναντι '__getitem__'
.................................................

Συνήθως, η *note subscription: 2599. ενός αντικειμένου που χρησιμοποιεί
αγκύλες θα καλεί τη μέθοδο του στιγμιοτύπου *note __getitem__(): 787.
που ορίζεται στην κλάση του αντικειμένου.  Ωστόσο, εάν το αντικείμενο
που εγγράφεται είναι το ίδιο μια κλάση, η μέθοδος της κλάσης *note
__class_getitem__(): b21. μπορεί να κληθεί αντί να γίνει.  Το
‘__class_getitem__()’ θα πρέπει να επιστρέψει ένα αντικείμενο *note
GenericAlias: a9f, εάν έχει οριστεί σωστά.

Παρουσιάζεται με το *note expression: 25c4. ‘obj[x]’, ο διερμηνέας
Python ακολουθεί κάτι σαν την ακόλουθη διαδικασία για να αποφασίσει εάν
θα πρέπει να κληθεί *note __getitem__(): 787. ή *note
__class_getitem__(): b21.:

     from inspect import isclass

     def subscribe(obj, x):
         """Return the result of the expression 'obj[x]'"""

         class_of_obj = type(obj)

         # If the class of obj defines __getitem__,
         # call class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)
         if hasattr(class_of_obj, '__getitem__'):
             return class_of_obj.__getitem__(obj, x)

         # Else, if obj is a class and defines __class_getitem__,
         # call obj.__class_getitem__(x)
         elif isclass(obj) and hasattr(obj, '__class_getitem__'):
             return obj.__class_getitem__(x)

         # Else, raise an exception
         else:
             raise TypeError(
                 f"'{class_of_obj.__name__}' object is not subscriptable"
             )

Στην Python, όλες οι κλάσεις είναι οι ίδιες παρουσίες άλλων κλάσεων.  Η
κλάση μιας κλάσης είναι γνωστή ως *note metaclass: 25c5. αυτής της
κλάσης, και οι περισσότερες κλάσεις έχουν ως μετακλάση την κλάση *note
type: 186.  Η ‘type’ δεν ορίζει το *note __getitem__(): 787, πράγμα που
σημαίνει ότι εκφράσεις όπως ‘list[int]’, ‘dict[str, float]’ και
‘tuple[str, bytes]’ έχουν ως αποτέλεσμα την κλήση της *note
__class_getitem__(): b21.:

     >>> # list has class "type" as its metaclass, like most classes:
     >>> type(list)
     <class 'type'>
     >>> type(dict) == type(list) == type(tuple) == type(str) == type(bytes)
     True
     >>> # "list[int]" calls "list.__class_getitem__(int)"
     >>> list[int]
     list[int]
     >>> # list.__class_getitem__ returns a GenericAlias object:
     >>> type(list[int])
     <class 'types.GenericAlias'>

Ωστόσο, εάν μια κλάση έχει μια προσαρμοσμένη μετακλάση που ορίζει *note
__getitem__(): 787, η εγγραφή στην κλάση μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε
διαφορετική συμπεριφορά.  Ένα παράδειγμα αυτού μπορεί να βρεθεί στο
module *note enum: 59.:

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Menu(Enum):
     ...     """A breakfast menu"""
     ...     SPAM = 'spam'
     ...     BACON = 'bacon'
     ...
     >>> # Enum classes have a custom metaclass:
     >>> type(Menu)
     <class 'enum.EnumMeta'>
     >>> # EnumMeta defines __getitem__,
     >>> # so __class_getitem__ is not called,
     >>> # and the result is not a GenericAlias object:
     >>> Menu['SPAM']
     <Menu.SPAM: 'spam'>
     >>> type(Menu['SPAM'])
     <enum 'Menu'>

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 560(1) - Βασική υποστήριξη για module πληκτρολόγησης και γενικούς τύπους

     Παρουσίαση της *note __class_getitem__(): b21, και περιγραφή του
     πότε ένα *note subscription: 2599. έχει ως αποτέλεσμα την κλήση
     ‘__class_getitem__()’ αντί για *note __getitem__(): 787.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: Εξομοίωση αντικειμένων με δυνατότητα κλήσης,  Next: Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ,  Prev: Εξομοίωση γενικών τύπων,  Up: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

4.3.3.19 Εξομοίωση αντικειμένων με δυνατότητα κλήσης
....................................................

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__call__ (self[, args...])

     Καλείται όταν το στιγμιότυπο «καλείται» ως συνάρτηση∙ εάν αυτή η
     μέθοδος οριστεί, το ‘x(arg1, arg2, ...)’ μεταφράζεται χονδρικά σε
     ‘type(x).__call__(x, arg1, ...)’.  Η ίδια η κλάση *note object:
     e4d. δεν παρέχει αυτήν τη μέθοδο.


File: python.info,  Node: Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ,  Next: Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων,  Prev: Εξομοίωση αντικειμένων με δυνατότητα κλήσης,  Up: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

4.3.3.20 Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ
..................................

Οι ακόλουθες μέθοδοι μπορούν να οριστούν για την υλοποίηση αντικειμένων
κοντέινερ.  Καμία από αυτές δεν παρέχεται από την ίδια την κλάση *note
object: e4d.  Τα κοντέινερ είναι συνήθως *note sequences: 8ff. (όπως
*note lists: 4d9. ή *note tuples: 1ce.) ή *note mappings: 1564. (όπως
*note dictionaries: 25ca.), αλλά τα λεξικά μπορούν επίσης να
αντιπροσωπεύουν άλλα κοντέινερ.  Το πρώτο σύνολο μεθόδων χρησιμοποιείται
είτε για την εξομοίωση μιας ακολουθίας είτε για την εξομοίωση μιας
αντιστοίχισης∙ η διαφορά είναι ότι για μια ακολουθία, τα επιτρεπόμενα
κλειδιά θα πρέπει να είναι οι ακέραιοι 'k' για τους οποίους ‘0 <= k < N’
όπου 'N' είναι το μήκος της ακολουθίας, ή αντικείμενα *note slice: 1d0,
τα οποία ορίζουν ένα εύρος στοιχείων.  Συνίσταται επίσης οι
αντιστοιχίσεις να παρέχουν τις μεθόδους ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, ‘items()’,
‘get()’, ‘clear()’, ‘setdefault()’, ‘pop()’, ‘popitem()’, ‘copy()’, και
‘update()’ όπου συμπεριφέρονται παρόμοια με εκείνα για τα τυπικά
αντικείμενα *note dictionary: 188. της Python.  Το module *note
collections.abc: 1f. παρέχει μια *note MutableMapping: 1459. *note
abstract base class: 155f. για να βοηθήσει στη δημιουργία αυτών των
μεθόδων από ένα βασικό σύνολο *note __getitem__(): 787, *note
__setitem__(): 1670, *note __delitem__(): 1671, και ‘keys()’.

Οι μεταβλητές ακολουθίες θα πρέπει να παρέχουν μεθόδους *note append():
25cb, *note clear(): 25cc, *note count(): 25cd, *note extend(): 25ce,
*note index(): 1b8b, *note insert(): 25cf, *note pop(): 25d0, *note
remove(): 1b8c, και *note reverse(): 25d1, όπως τα πρότυπα Python *note
list: 4d9. αντικείμενα.  Τέλος, οι τύποι ακολουθιών θα πρέπει να
υλοποιούν πρόσθεση (που σημαίνει συνένωση) και πολλαπλασιασμό (δηλαδή
επανάληψη) ορίζοντας τις μεθόδους *note __add__(): 25d2, *note
__radd__(): 25d3, *note __iadd__(): 25d4, *note __mul__(): 25d5, *note
__rmul__(): 25d6. και *note __imul__(): 25d7. που περιγράφονται
παρακάτω∙ δεν θα πρέπει να ορίζουν άλλους αριθμητικούς τελεστές.

Αυτό συνίσταται τόσο οι αντιστοιχίσεις όσο και οι ακολουθίες να
εφαρμόζουν τη μέθοδο *note __contains__(): 175c. για να επιτρέπεται η
αποτελεσματική χρήση του τελεστή ‘in’ ∙ για αντιστοιχίσεις, το ‘in’ θα
πρέπει να αναζητήσει τα κλειδιά της αντιστοίχισης∙ για ακολουθίες θα
πρέπει να αναζητήσει τις τιμές.  Συνίσταται περαιτέρω τόσο οι
αντιστοιχίσεις όσο και οι ακολουθίες να εφαρμόζουν τη μέθοδο *note
__iter__(): 102d. για να επιτρέπεται η αποτελεσματική επανάληψη μέσω του
κοντέινερ∙ για αντιστοιχίσεις, η ‘__iter__()’ θα πρέπει να
επαναλαμβάνεται μέσω των κλειδιών του αντικειμένου∙ για ακολουθίες, θα
πρέπει να επαναλαμβάνεται μέσω των τιμών.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__len__ (self)

     Καλείται για την υλοποίηση της ενσωματωμένης συνάρτησης *note
     len(): a1f.  Θα πρέπει να επιστρέψει το μήκος του αντικειμένου,
     ένας ακέραιος αριθμός ‘>=’ 0.  Επίσης, ένα αντικείμενο που δεν
     ορίζει μια μέθοδο *note __bool__(): 167a. και του οποίου η μέθοδος
     ‘__len__()’ επιστρέφει μηδέν, θεωρείται ψευδές σε ένα Boolean
     περιβάλλον.

     Στο CPython, το μήκος απαιτείται να είναι το πολύ *note
     sys.maxsize: 156e.  Εάν το μήκος είναι μεγαλύτερο από ‘sys.maxsize’
     ορισμένες δυνατότητες (όπως *note len(): a1f.) ενδέχεται να
     αυξήσουν το *note OverflowError: c57.  Για να αποφευχθεί να γίνει
     raise ‘OverflowError’ από τον έλεγχο τιμής αλήθειας, ένα
     αντικείμενο πρέπει να ορίσει μια μέθοδο *note __bool__(): 167a.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__length_hint__ (self)

     Καλείται για υλοποίηση *note operator.length_hint(): 1317.  Θα
     πρέπει να επιστρέψει ένα εκτιμώμενο μήκος για το αντικείμενο (το
     οποίο μπορεί να είναι μεγαλύτερο ή μικρότερο από το πραγματικό
     μήκος).  Το μήκος πρέπει να είναι ένας ακέραιος αριθμός ‘>=’ 0.  Η
     τιμή επιστροφής μπορεί επίσης να είναι *note NotImplemented: 440, η
     οποία αντιμετωπίζεται με τον ίδιο τρόπο σαν να μην υπήρχε καθόλου η
     μέθοδος ‘__length_hint__’.  Αυτή η μέθοδος είναι καθαρά
     βελτιστοποίηση και δεν απαιτείται ποτέ για ορθότητα.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__getitem__ (self, subscript)

     Called to implement 'subscription', that is, ‘self[subscript]’.
     See *note Subscriptions and slicings: 2599. for details on the
     syntax.

     There are two types of built-in objects that support subscription
     via ‘__getitem__()’:

        - 'sequences', where 'subscript' (also called *note index:
          25d8.) should be an integer or a *note slice: 1d0. object.
          See the *note sequence documentation: 2529. for the expected
          behavior, including handling ‘slice’ objects and negative
          indices.

        - 'mappings', where 'subscript' is also called the *note key:
          25d9.  See *note mapping documentation: 2530. for the expected
          behavior.

     If 'subscript' is of an inappropriate type, ‘__getitem__()’ should
     raise *note TypeError: 291.  If 'subscript' has an inappropriate
     value, ‘__getitem__()’ should raise an *note LookupError: 25da. or
     one of its subclasses (*note IndexError: 18d7. for sequences; *note
     KeyError: 7df. for mappings).

          Σημείωση: Slicing is handled by ‘__getitem__()’, *note
          __setitem__(): 1670, and *note __delitem__(): 1671.  A call
          like

               a[1:2] = b

          μεταφράζεται σε

               a[slice(1, 2, None)] = b

          and so forth.  Missing slice items are always filled in with
          ‘None’.

          Σημείωση: The sequence iteration protocol (used, for example,
          in *note for: 321. loops), expects that an *note IndexError:
          18d7. will be raised for illegal indexes to allow proper
          detection of the end of a sequence.

          Σημείωση: When *note subscripting: 2599. a 'class', the
          special class method *note __class_getitem__(): b21. may be
          called instead of ‘__getitem__()’.  See *note
          __class_getitem__ έναντι __getitem__: 25c3. for more details.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__setitem__ (self, key, value)

     Καλείται για την υλοποίηση της ανάθεσης στο ‘self[key]’.  Ίδια
     σημείωση με το *note __getitem__(): 787.  Αυτό θα πρέπει να
     εφαρμοστεί μόνο για αντιστοιχίσεις εάν τα αντικείμενα υποστηρίζουν
     αλλαγές στις τιμές για κλειδιά ή εάν μπορούν να προστεθούν νέα
     κλειδιά ή για ακολουθίες εάν μπορούν να αντικατασταθούν στοιχεία.
     Θα πρέπει να δημιουργηθούν οι ίδιες εξαιρέσεις για ακατάλληλες
     τιμές 'key' όπως και για τη μέθοδο ‘__getitem__()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__delitem__ (self, key)

     Κλήθηκε για την υλοποίηση της διαγραφής του ‘self[key]’.  Ίδια
     σημείωση με το *note __getitem__(): 787.  Αυτό θα πρέπει να
     εφαρμόζεται μόνο για αντιστοιχίσεις εάν τα αντικείμενα υποστηρίζουν
     την αφαίρεση πλήκτρων ή για ακολουθίες εάν μπορούν να αφαιρεθούν
     στοιχεία από την ακολουθία.  Θα πρέπει να δημιουργηθούν οι ίδιες
     εξαιρέσεις για ακατάλληλες τιμές 'key' όπως και για τη μέθοδο
     ‘__getitem__()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__missing__ (self, key)

     Κλήθηκε από *note dict: 188.*note __getitem__(): 787. για την
     υλοποίηση του ‘self[key]’ για υποκλάσεις dict όταν το κλειδί δεν
     υπάρχει στο λεξικό.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__iter__ (self)

     Αυτή η μέθοδος καλείται όταν απαιτείται ένας *note iterator: 6ce.
     για ένα κοντέινερ.  Αυτή η μέθοδος θα πρέπει να επιστρέψει ένα νέο
     αντικείμενο iterator που μπορεί να επαναλάβει όλα τα αντικείμενα
     στο κοντέινερ.  Για αντιστοιχίσεις, θα πρέπει να επαναλαμβάνεται
     πάνω από τα κλειδιά του κοντέινερ.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__reversed__ (self)

     Καλείται (εάν υπάρχει) από την ενσωματωμένη *note reversed(): c3c.
     για την υλοποίηση της αντίστροφης επανάληψης.  Θα πρέπει να
     επιστρέψει ένα νέο iterator αντικείμενο που επαναλαμβάνεται πάνω
     από όλα τα αντικείμενα στο κοντέινερ με αντίστροφη σειρά.

     Εάν η μέθοδος *note __reversed__(): 1049. δεν παρέχεται, η
     ενσωματωμένη *note reversed(): c3c. θα χρησιμοποιήσει το πρωτόκολλο
     ακολουθίας (*note __len__(): 1989. και *note __getitem__(): 787.).
     Τα αντικείμενα που υποστηρίζουν το πρωτόκολλο ακολουθίας θα πρέπει
     να παρέχουν μόνο τη ‘__reversed__()’ εάν μπορούν να παρέχουν μια
     υλοποίηση που είναι πιο αποτελεσματική από αυτή που παρέχεται από
     τη ‘reversed()’.

Οι τελεστές τεστ ιδιότητας μέλους (*note in: 323. και *note not in:
a20.) συνήθως υλοποιούνται ως επανάληψη μέσω ενός κοντέινερ.  Ωστόσο, τα
αντικείμενα κοντέινερ μπορούν να παρέχουν την ακόλουθη ειδική μέθοδο μια
μια αποτελεσματική υλοποίηση, η οποία επίσης δεν απαιτεί το αντικείμενο
να είναι επαναλαμβανόμενο.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__contains__ (self, item)

     Καλείται για την εφαρμογή τελεστών δοκιμής ιδιότητας μέλους.  Θα
     πρέπει να επιστρέψει true εάν το 'item' είναι στο 'self', false
     διαφορετικά.  Για την αντιστοίχιση αντικειμένων, αυτό θα πρέπει να
     λαμβάνει υπόψη τα κλειδιά της αντιστοίχισης αντί για τις τιμές ή τα
     ζεύγη κλειδιών-στοιχείων.

     Για αντικείμενα που δεν ορίζουν *note __contains__(): 175c, το τεστ
     ιδιότητας δοκιμάζει πρώτα την επανάληψη μέσω *note __iter__():
     102d, και μετά το παλιό πρωτόκολλο επανάληψης ακολουθίας μέσω *note
     __getitem__(): 787, δείτε *note this section in the language
     reference: 25db.


File: python.info,  Node: Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων,  Next: Με τους Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης,  Prev: Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ,  Up: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

4.3.3.21 Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων
....................................

Οι ακόλουθες μέθοδοι μπορούν να οριστούν για την εξομοίωση αριθμητικών
αντικειμένων.  Οι μέθοδοι που αντιστοιχούν σε πράξεις που δεν
υποστηρίζονται από το συγκεκριμένο είδος αριθμού που υλοποιείται (π.χ.
λειτουργίες bitwise για μη ακέραιους αριθμούς) θα πρέπει να παραμείνουν
απροσδιόριστες.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__add__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__sub__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__mul__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__matmul__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__truediv__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__floordiv__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__mod__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__divmod__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__pow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__lshift__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__rshift__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__and__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__xor__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__or__ (self, other)

     Αυτές οι μέθοδοι καλούνται να υλοποιήσουν τις δυαδικές αριθμητικές
     λειτουργίες (‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’, *note divmod():
     d6a, *note pow(): 441, ‘**’, ‘<<’, ‘>>’, ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’).  Για
     παράδειγμα, για να αξιολογηθεί η έκφραση ‘x + y’, όπου 'x' είναι
     ένα στιγμιότυπο μιας κλάσης που έχει μια μέθοδο *note __add__():
     25d2, καλείται το ‘type(x).__add__(x, y)’.  Η μέθοδος *note
     __divmod__(): 1242. θα πρέπει να είναι ισοδύναμη με τη χρήση των
     *note __floordiv__(): 1896. και *note __mod__(): 25df.; δεν θα
     πρέπει να σχετίζεται με τη *note __truediv__(): 1241.  Σημειώστε
     ότι η *note __pow__(): bb1. θα πρέπει να ορίζεται ώστε να δέχεται
     ένα προαιρετικό τρίτο όρισμα εάν υποστηρίζεται η τριών ορισμάτων
     έκδοση της ενσωματωμένης συνάρτησης ‘pow()’.

     Εάν μία από αυτές τις μεθόδους δεν υποστηρίζει τη λειτουργία με τα
     παρεχόμενα ορίσματα, θα πρέπει να επιστρέψει *note NotImplemented:
     440.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__radd__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__rsub__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__rmul__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__rmatmul__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__rtruediv__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__rfloordiv__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__rmod__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__rdivmod__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__rpow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__rlshift__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__rrshift__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__rand__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__rxor__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__ror__ (self, other)

     Αυτές οι μέθοδοι καλούνται να υλοποιήσουν τις δυαδικές αριθμητικές
     λειτουργίες (‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’, *note divmod():
     d6a, *note pow(): 441, ‘**’, ‘<<’, ‘>>’, ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’) με
     ανακλώμενους (ανταλλαγμένους) τελεστές.  Αυτές οι λειτουργίες
     καλούνται μόνο εάν οι τελεστές είναι διαφορετικών τύπων, όταν ο
     αριστερός τελεστής δεν υποστηρίζει την αντίστοιχη λειτουργία (1), ή
     η κλάση του δεξιού τελεστή προέρχεται από την κλάση του αριστερού
     τελεστή.  (2)  Για παράδειγμα, για να αξιολογηθεί η έκφραση ‘x -
     y’, όπου 'y' είναι ένα στιγμιότυπο μιας κλάσης που έχει μια μέθοδο
     *note __rsub__(): 25e5, καλείται το ‘type(y).__rsub__(y, x)’ εάν το
     ‘type(x).__sub__(x, y)’ επιστρέψει *note NotImplemented: 440. ή το
     ‘type(y)’ είναι υποκλάση του ‘type(x)’.  (3)

     Σημειώστε ότι η *note __rpow__(): 442. θα πρέπει να ορίζεται ώστε
     να δέχεται ένα προαιρετικό τρίτο όρισμα εάν υποστηρίζεται η τριών
     ορισμάτων έκδοση της ενσωματωμένης συνάρτησης *note pow(): 441.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Η τριών ορισμάτων *note pow(): 441. τώρα
     προσπαθεί να καλέσει τη *note __rpow__(): 442. εάν είναι
     απαραίτητο.  Παλαιότερα καλούνταν μόνο στη δύο ορισμάτων ‘pow()’
     και στον δυαδικό τελεστή δύναμης.

          Σημείωση: Εάν ο τύπος του δεξιού τελεστή είναι υποκλάση του
          τύπου του αριστερού τελεστή και αυτή η υποκλάση παρέχει μια
          διαφορετική υλοποίηση της ανακλώμενης μεθόδου για τη
          λειτουργία, αυτή η μέθοδος θα κληθεί πριν από τη μη ανακλώμενη
          μέθοδο του αριστερού τελεστή.  Αυτή η συμπεριφορά επιτρέπει
          στις υποκλάσεις να παρακάμπτουν τις πράξεις των προγόνων τους.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__iadd__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__isub__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__imul__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__imatmul__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__itruediv__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__ifloordiv__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__imod__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__ipow__ (self, other[, modulo])
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__ilshift__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__irshift__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__iand__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__ixor__ (self, other)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__ior__ (self, other)

     Αυτές οι μέθοδοι καλούνται να υλοποιήσουν τις επαυξημένες
     αριθμητικές εκχωρήσεις (‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘*=’, ‘@=’, ‘/=’, ‘//=’, ‘%=’,
     ‘**=’, ‘<<=’, ‘>>=’, ‘&=’, ‘^=’, ‘|=’).  Αυτές οι μέθοδοι θα πρέπει
     να προσπαθήσουν να κάνουν τη λειτουργία επιτόπου (τροποποίηση
     'self') και να επιστρέψουν το αποτέλεσμα (το οποίο θα μπορούσε,
     αλλά δεν χρειάζεται να είναι, 'self').  Εάν δεν έχει οριστεί μια
     συγκεκριμένη μέθοδος ή εάν αυτή η μέθοδος επιστρέψει *note
     NotImplemented: 440, η επαυξημένη ανάθεση επανέρχεται στις
     κανονικές μεθόδους.  Για παράδειγμα, εάν το 'x' είναι ένα
     στιγμιότυπο μιας κλάσης με μια μέθοδο *note __iadd__(): 25d4, το ‘x
     += y’ ισοδυναμεί ‘x = x.__iadd__(y)’ .  Εάν το ‘__iadd__()’ δεν
     υπάρχει, ή εάν το ‘x.__iadd__(y)’ επιστρέφει ‘NotImplemented’, τα
     ‘x.__add__(y)’ και ‘y.__radd__(x)’ θεωρούνται, όπως και με την
     αξιολόγηση του.  Σε ορισμένες περιπτώσεις, η επαυξημένη ανάθεση
     μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε απροσδόκητα σφάλματα (δείτε *note Γιατί το
     a_tuple[i] += [“item”] δημιουργεί μια εξαίρεση όταν λειτουργεί η
     προσθήκη;: 25f7.), αλλά αυτή η συμπεριφορά είναι στην
     πραγματικότητα μέρος του μοντέλου δεδομένων.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__neg__ (self)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__pos__ (self)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__abs__ (self)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__invert__ (self)

     Καλείται για την υλοποίηση μονομερών αριθμητικών πράξεων (‘-’, ‘+’,
     *note abs(): 227c. και ‘~’).

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__complex__ (self)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__int__ (self)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__float__ (self)

     Καλείται για την υλοποίηση των ενσωματωμένων συναρτήσεων *note
     complex(): 328, *note int(): 326. και *note float(): 327.  Θα
     πρέπει να επιστρέψει μια τιμή του κατάλληλου τύπου.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__index__ (self)

     Καλείται για υλοποίηση *note operator.index(): 1ec8, και όποτε η
     Python χρειάζεται να μετατρέψει χωρίς απώλειες το αριθμητικό
     αντικείμενο σε ένα ακέραιο αντικείμενο (όπως στη λειτουργία
     τμηματοποίησης ή στις ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις *note bin(): 164d,
     *note hex(): 1674. και *note oct(): 1673.).  Η παρουσία αυτής της
     μεθόδου υποδεικνύει ότι το αριθμητικό αντικείμενο είναι ακέραιου
     τύπου.  Πρέπει να επιστρέψει έναν ακέραιο αριθμό.

     Εάν οι *note __int__(): 43c, *note __float__(): d92. και *note
     __complex__(): 9de. δεν ορίζονται, τότε οι αντίστοιχες
     ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις *note int(): 326, *note float(): 327. και
     *note complex(): 328. επιστρέφουν στο *note __index__(): 43d.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__round__ (self[, ndigits])
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__trunc__ (self)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__floor__ (self)
 -- Μέθοδος: object.__ceil__ (self)

     Καλείται για την υλοποίηση της ενσωματωμένης συνάρτησης *note
     round(): 167f. και *note math: 91. συναρτήσεις *note trunc(): 1762,
     *note floor(): 1760. και *note ceil(): 1761.  Εκτός εάν το
     'ndigits' μεταβιβαστεί στο ‘__round__()’ όλες αυτές οι μέθοδοι θα
     πρέπει να επιστρέψουν την τιμή του αντικειμένου που περικόπτεται σε
     μια *note Integral: 25ff. (συνήθως ένα *note int: 326.).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Η *note int(): 326. δεν αναθέτει πλέον στη
     μέθοδο *note __trunc__(): 43b.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Το «Δεν υποστηρίζει» εδώ σημαίνει ότι η κλάση δεν έχει τέτοια
μέθοδο ή η μέθοδος επιστρέφει *note NotImplemented: 440.  Μην ορίσετε τη
μέθοδο σε ‘None’ εάν θέλετε να αναγκάσετε την επιστροφή στη μέθοδο
ανακλώμενης του δεξιού τελεστή-αυτό θα έχει το αντίθετο αποτέλεσμα του
ρητού 'μπλοκαρίσματος' αυτού του εναλλακτικού.

   (2) Για τελεστές του ίδιου τύπου, θεωρείται ότι εάν η μη ανακλώμενη
μέθοδος (όπως *note __add__(): 25d2.) αποτύχει τότε η λειτουργία δεν
υποστηρίζεται, γι” αυτό δεν καλείται η ανακλώμενη μέθοδος.

   (3) Εάν ο τύπος του δεξιού τελεστή είναι υποκλάση του τύπου του
αριστερού τελεστή, η προτεραιότητα της ανακλώμενης μεθόδου επιτρέπει
στις υποκλάσεις να υπερισχύουν των λειτουργιών των προγόνων τους.


File: python.info,  Node: Με τους Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης,  Next: Προσαρμογή ορισμάτων θέσης στην αντιστοίχιση προτύπων κλάσης,  Prev: Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων,  Up: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

4.3.3.22 Με τους Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης
...................................................

Ένα 'context manager' είναι ένα αντικείμενο που ορίζει το περιβάλλον
χρόνου εκτέλεσης που θα καθοριστεί κατά την εκτέλεση μιας πρότασης *note
with: 20a.  Ο διαχειριστής περιβάλλοντος χειρίζεται την είσοδο και την
έξοδο από το επιθυμητό περιβάλλον χρόνου εκτέλεσης για την εκτέλεση του
μπλοκ κώδικα.  Οι διαχειριστές περιβάλλοντος συνήθως καλούνται
χρησιμοποιώντας τη δήλωση ‘with’ (που περιγράφεται στην ενότητα *note
The with statement: 20a.), αλλά μπορούν επίσης να χρησιμοποιηθούν με
απευθείας επίκληση των μεθόδων τους.

Οι τυπικές χρήσεις των διαχειριστών περιβάλλοντος περιλαμβάνουν την
αποθήκευση και την επαναφορά διαφόρων ειδών καθολικών καταστάσεων, το
κλείδωμα και το ξεκλείδωμα πόρων, το κλείσιμο των ανοιχτών αρχείων κ.λπ.

Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες σχετικά με τους διαχειριστές περιβάλλοντος,
ανατρέξτε στο *note Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου: 2601.  Η ίδια η
κλάση *note object: e4d. δεν παρέχει τις μεθόδους διαχειριστή
περιβάλλοντος.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__enter__ (self)

     Εισαγάγετε το περιβάλλον χρόνου εκτέλεσης που σχετίζεται με αυτό το
     αντικείμενο.  Η δήλωση *note with: 20a. θα δεσμεύσει την
     επιστρεφόμενη τιμή αυτής της μεθόδου με τους στόχους που
     καθορίζονται στον όρο ‘as’ της πρότασης, εάν υπάρχει.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__exit__ (self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

     Έξοδος από το περιβάλλον χρόνου εκτέλεσης που σχετίζεται με αυτό το
     αντικείμενο.  Οι παράμετροι περιγράφουν την εξαίρεση που προκάλεσε
     την έξοδο από το περιβάλλον.  Εάν το περιβάλλον είχε βγει χωρίς
     εξαίρεση, και τα τρία ορίσματα θα είναι *note None: a65.

     Εάν παρέχεται μια εξαίρεση και η μέθοδος επιθυμεί να καταργήσει την
     εξαίρεση (δηλαδή, να αποτρέψει τη διάδοση της), θα πρέπει να
     επιστρέψει μια πραγματική τιμή.  Διαφορετικά, η εξαίρεση θα
     διεκπεραιωθεί κανονικά κατά την έξοδο από αυτήν τη μέθοδο.

     Λάβετε υπόψη ότι οι μέθοδοι *note __exit__(): 16a5. δεν θα πρέπει
     να επαναφέρουν την εξαίρεση που μεταβιβάστηκε∙ αυτή είναι ευθύνη
     του καλούντος.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 343(1) - Η πρόταση «with»

     Οι προδιαγραφές, το υπόβαθρο και τα παραδείγματα για τη δήλωση
     Python *note with: 20a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: Προσαρμογή ορισμάτων θέσης στην αντιστοίχιση προτύπων κλάσης,  Next: Εξομοίωση τύπων buffer,  Prev: Με τους Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης,  Up: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

4.3.3.23 Προσαρμογή ορισμάτων θέσης στην αντιστοίχιση προτύπων κλάσης
.....................................................................

Όταν χρησιμοποιείται ένα όνομα κλάσης σε ένα μοτίβο, τα ορίσματα θέσης
στο μοτίβο δεν επιτρέπονται από προεπιλογή, δηλαδή ‘case MyClass(x, y)’
δεν είναι συνήθως έγκυρη χωρίς ειδική υποστήριξη στο ‘MyClass’.  Για να
μπορέσει να χρησιμοποιήσει αυτό το είδος μοτίβου, η κλάση πρέπει να
ορίσει ένα χαρακτηριστικό '__match_args__'.

 -- Δεδομένα: object.__match_args__

     Σε αυτήν την μεταβλητή κλάσης μπορεί να εκχωρηθεί μια πλειάδα
     συμβολοσειρών.  Όταν αυτή η κλάση χρησιμοποιείται σε ένα μοτίβο
     κλάσης με ορίσματα θέσης, κάθε όρισμα θέσης θα μετατραπεί σε όρισμα
     λέξης-κλειδιού, χρησιμοποιώντας την αντίστοιχη τιμή στο
     '__match_args__' ως λέξη-κλειδί.  Η απουσία αυτού του
     χαρακτηριστικού ισοδυναμεί με τη ρύθμιση του σε ‘()’.

Για παράδειγμα, εάν το ‘MyClass.__match_args__’ είναι ‘("left",
"center", "right")’ αυτό σημαίνει ότι το ‘case MyClass(x, y)’ ισοδυναμεί
με ‘case MyClass(left=x, center=y)’.  Σημειώστε ότι ο αριθμός των
ορισμάτων στο μοτίβο πρέπει να είναι μικρότερος ή ίσος με τον αριθμό των
στοιχείων στο '__match_args__' ∙ αν είναι μεγαλύτερο, η προσπάθεια
αντιστοίχισης μοτίβου θα κάνει raise μια *note TypeError: 291.

Added in version 3.10.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 634(1) - Αντιστοίχιση δομικών προτύπων

     Η προδιαγραφή για τη δήλωση Python ‘match’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/


File: python.info,  Node: Εξομοίωση τύπων buffer,  Next: Annotations,  Prev: Προσαρμογή ορισμάτων θέσης στην αντιστοίχιση προτύπων κλάσης,  Up: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

4.3.3.24 Εξομοίωση τύπων buffer
...............................

Το πρωτόκολλο *note buffer protocol: 311. παρέχει έναν τρόπο για τα
αντικείμενα της Python να εκθέτουν αποτελεσματική πρόσβαση σε έναν
πίνακα μνήμης χαμηλού επιπέδου.  Αυτό το πρωτόκολλο υλοποιείται από
ενσωματωμένους τύπους όπως *note bytes: 1c7. και *note memoryview: 1d2,
και οι βιβλιοθήκες τρίτων μπορούν να ορίσουν πρόσθετους τύπους buffer.

Ενώ οι τύπου buffer συνήθως υλοποιούνται σε C, είναι επίσης δυνατή η
υλοποίηση του πρωτοκόλλου στην Python.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__buffer__ (self, flags)

     Καλείται όταν ζητείται buffer από τον 'self' (για παράδειγμα, από
     τον κατασκευαστή *note memoryview: 1d2.).  Το όρισμα 'flags' είναι
     ένας ακέραιος αριθμός που αντιπροσωπεύει το είδος της προσωρινής
     μνήμης που ζητήθηκε, επηρεάζοντας για παράδειγμα εάν η προσωρινή
     μνήμη που επιστρέφεται είναι μόνο για ανάγνωση ή για εγγράψιμο.  Η
     *note inspect.BufferFlags: 87a. παρέχει έναν βολικό τρόπο ερμηνείας
     των flags.  Η μέθοδος πρέπει να επιστρέψει ένα αντικείμενο
     ‘memoryview’.

     'Thread safety:' In *note free-threaded: 487. Python,
     implementations must manage any internal export counter using
     atomic operations.  The method must be safe to call concurrently
     from multiple threads, and the returned buffer’s underlying data
     must remain valid until the corresponding *note
     __release_buffer__(): 1c6b. call completes.  See *note Thread
     safety for memoryview objects: 2606. for details.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__release_buffer__ (self, buffer)

     Called when a buffer is no longer needed.  The 'buffer' argument is
     a *note memoryview: 1d2. object that was previously returned by
     *note __buffer__(): 879.  The method must release any resources
     associated with the buffer.  This method should return ‘None’.

     'Thread safety:' In *note free-threaded: 487. Python, any export
     counter decrement must use atomic operations.  Resource cleanup
     must be thread-safe, as the final release may race with concurrent
     releases from other threads.

     Buffer objects that do not need to perform any cleanup are not
     required to implement this method.

Added in version 3.12.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 688(1) - Κάνοντας το πρωτόκολλο buffer προσβάσιμο στην Python

     Παρουσιάζει τις μεθόδους Python ‘__buffer__’ και
     ‘__release_buffer__’.

*note collections.abc.Buffer: 312.

     ABC για τύπους buffer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/


File: python.info,  Node: Annotations,  Next: Αναζήτηση ειδικής μεθόδου,  Prev: Εξομοίωση τύπων buffer,  Up: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

4.3.3.25 Annotations
....................

Οι συναρτήσεις, οι κλάσεις και τα προγράμματα μπορεί να περιέχουν *note
annotations: 409, που είναι ένας τρόπος να συσχετιστεί πληροφορία
(συνήθως *note type hints: 25c1.) με ένα σύμβολο.

 -- Ιδιότητα: object.__annotations__

     Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό περιέχει τα annotations για ένα αντικείμενο.
     Είναι *note lazily evaluated: 872, οπότε η πρόσβαση στο
     χαρακτηριστικό μπορεί να εκτελέσει αυθαίρετο κώδικα και να κάνει
     raise εξαιρέσεις.  Εάν η αξιολόγηση είναι επιτυχής, το
     χαρακτηριστικό ορίζεται σε ένα λεξικό που αντιστοιχεί από ονόματα
     μεταβλητών σε annotations.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Τα annotations αξιολογούνται πλέον
     τεμπέλικα.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__annotate__ (format)

     Ένα *note annotate function: 40a.  Επιστρέφει ένα νέο αντικείμενο
     λεξικού που αντιστοιχεί ονόματα χαρακτηριστικών/παραμέτρων στις
     τιμές των annotations τους.

     Λαμβάνει μια παράμετρο μορφής που καθορίζει τη μορφή στην οποία θα
     πρέπει να παρέχονται οι τιμές των annotations.  Πρέπει να είναι
     μέλος της *note annotationlib.Format: 4be. enum, ή ένας ακέραιος
     αριθμός με τιμή που αντιστοιχεί σε μέλος της enum.

     Εάν μια annotate συνάρτηση δεν υποστηρίζει την ζητούμενη μορφή,
     πρέπει να κάνει raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a.  Οι annotate
     συναρτήσεις πρέπει πάντα να υποστηρίζουν τη μορφή *note VALUE: 40b.
     ∙ δεν πρέπει να κάνουν raise *note NotImplementedError(): 59a. όταν
     καλούνται με αυτή τη μορφή.

     Όταν καλείται με τη μορφή *note VALUE: 40b, μια annotate συνάρτηση
     μπορεί να κάνει raise *note NameError: 665. ∙ δεν πρέπει να κάνει
     raise ‘NameError’ όταν καλείται ζητώντας οποιαδήποτε άλλη μορφή.

     Εάν ένα αντικείμενο δεν έχει κανένα annotation, το *note
     __annotate__: 1b95. θα πρέπει κατά προτίμηση να ορίζεται σε ‘None’
     (δεν μπορεί να διαγραφεί), αντί να ορίζεται σε μια συνάρτηση που
     επιστρέφει ένα κενό dict.

     Added in version 3.14.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 649(1) — Τεμπέλικη αξιολόγηση annotation χρησιμοποιώντας descriptors

     Παρουσιάζει την τεμπέλικη αξιολόγηση των annotations και τη
     συνάρτηση ‘__annotate__’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/


File: python.info,  Node: Αναζήτηση ειδικής μεθόδου,  Prev: Annotations,  Up: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων

4.3.3.26 Αναζήτηση ειδικής μεθόδου
..................................

Για προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις, οι σιωπηρές επικλήσεις ειδικών μεθόδων είναι
εγγυημένο ότι θα λειτουργούν σωστά μόνο εάν ορίζονται στον τύπο ενός
αντικειμένου και όχι στο λεξικό στιγμιοτύπου του αντικειμένου.  Αυτή η
συμπεριφορά είναι ο λόγος για τον οποίο ο ακόλουθος κώδικας κάνει raise
μια εξαίρεση:

     >>> class C:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.__len__ = lambda: 5
     >>> len(c)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: object of type 'C' has no len()

Η λογική πίσω από αυτήν τη συμπεριφορά έγκειται σε μια σειρά ειδικών
μεθόδων όπως *note __hash__(): ec1. και *note __repr__(): 1bc. που
υλοποιούνται από όλα τα αντικείμενα, συμπεριλαμβανομένων των
αντικειμένων τύπου.  Εάν η σιωπηρή αναζήτηση αυτών των μεθόδων
χρησιμοποιούσε τη συμβατική διαδικασία αναζήτησης, θα αποτύγχανε όταν
καλούνταν στο ίδιο το αντικείμενο τύπου:

     >>> 1 .__hash__() == hash(1)
     True
     >>> int.__hash__() == hash(int)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: descriptor '__hash__' of 'int' object needs an argument

Η εσφαλμένη προσπάθειας επίκλησης μιας μη δεσμευμένης μεθόδου μιας
κλάσης με αυτόν τον τρόπο αναφέρεται μερικές φορές ως “σύγχυση
μετακλάσης”, και αποφεύγεται με παράκαμψη της παρουσίας κατά την
αναζήτηση ειδικών μεθόδων:

     >>> type(1).__hash__(1) == hash(1)
     True
     >>> type(int).__hash__(int) == hash(int)
     True

Εκτός από την παράκαμψη οποιωνδήποτε χαρακτηριστικών στιγμιοτύπου για
λόγους ορθότητας, η σιωπηρή αναζήτηση ειδική μεθόδου γενικά παρακάμπτει
επίσης τη μέθοδο *note __getattribute__(): f90. ακόμη και της μετακλάσης
του αντικειμένου:

     >>> class Meta(type):
     ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
     ...         print("Metaclass getattribute invoked")
     ...         return type.__getattribute__(*args)
     ...
     >>> class C(object, metaclass=Meta):
     ...     def __len__(self):
     ...         return 10
     ...     def __getattribute__(*args):
     ...         print("Class getattribute invoked")
     ...         return object.__getattribute__(*args)
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.__len__()                 # Explicit lookup via instance
     Class getattribute invoked
     10
     >>> type(c).__len__(c)          # Explicit lookup via type
     Metaclass getattribute invoked
     10
     >>> len(c)                      # Implicit lookup
     10

Η παράκαμψη του μηχανισμού *note __getattribute__(): f90. με αυτόν τον
τρόπο παρέχει σημαντικά περιθώρια για βελτιστοποιήσεις ταχύτητας εντός
του διερμηνέα, με κόστος κάποιας ευελιξίας στον χειρισμό ειδικών μεθόδων
(η ειδική μέθοδος 'πρέπει' να οριστεί στο ίδιο το αντικείμενο κλάσης για
να καλείται με συνέπεια από τον διερμηνέα).


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutines,  Prev: Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων,  Up: Μοντέλο Δεδομένων

4.3.4 Coroutines
----------------

* Menu:

* Awaitable Αντικείμενα::
* Coroutine Αντικείμενα::
* Ασύγχρονοι Iterators::
* Ασύγχρονοι Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος::


File: python.info,  Node: Awaitable Αντικείμενα,  Next: Coroutine Αντικείμενα,  Up: Coroutines

4.3.4.1 Awaitable Αντικείμενα
.............................

Ένα αντικείμενο *note awaitable: 6cf. εφαρμόζει γενικά μια μέθοδο *note
__await__(): 112e.  Τα *note Coroutine objects: 8a2. που επιστρέφονται
από τις *note async def: 9cf. συναρτήσεις είναι awaitable.

     Σημείωση: Τα αντικείμενα *note generator iterator: f9e. που
     επιστράφηκαν από γεννήτριες διακοσμημένες με *note
     types.coroutine(): 1239. είναι επίσης awaitable, αλλά δεν
     εφαρμόζουν το *note __await__(): 112e.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__await__ (self)

     Πρέπει να επιστρέψει ένα *note iterator: 6ce.  Θα πρέπει να
     χρησιμοποιείται για την υλοποίηση *note awaitable: 6cf.
     αντικειμένων.  Για παράδειγμα, η *note asyncio.Future: f8b.
     υλοποιεί αυτήν την μέθοδο ώστε να είναι συμβατή με την έκφραση
     *note await: 432.  Η ίδια η κλάση *note object: e4d. δεν είναι
     αναμονή και δεν παρέχει αυτήν τη μέθοδο.

          Σημείωση: Η γλώσσα δεν θέτει κανέναν περιορισμό στον τύπο ή
          την τιμή των αντικειμένων που παράγονται από τον iterator που
          επιστρέφεται από το ‘__await__’, καθώς αυτό αφορά συγκεκριμένα
          την υλοποίηση του πλαισίου ασύγχρονης εκτέλεσης (π.χ.  *note
          asyncio: b.) που θα διαχειρίζεται το *note awaitable: 6cf.
          αντικείμενο.

Added in version 3.5.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Το PEP 492(1) για πρόσθετες πληροφορίες σχετικά με τα awaitable
αντικείμενα.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutine Αντικείμενα,  Next: Ασύγχρονοι Iterators,  Prev: Awaitable Αντικείμενα,  Up: Coroutines

4.3.4.2 Coroutine Αντικείμενα
.............................

Τα *note Coroutine objects: 8a2. είναι *note awaitable: 6cf.
αντικείμενα.  Η εκτέλεση μιας coroutine μπορεί να ελεγχθεί καλώντας το
*note __await__(): 112e. και επαναλαμβάνοντας το αποτέλεσμα.  Όταν η
coroutine ολοκληρώσει την εκτέλεση και επιστρέψει ο iterator κάνει raise
την *note StopIteration: fba, και το χαρακτηριστικό *note value: 260c.
της εξαίρεσης διατηρεί την τιμή επιστροφής.  Εάν η coroutine εγείρει μια
εξαίρεση, αυτή διαδίδεται από τον iterator.  Οι coroutines δεν πρέπει να
κάνουν raise ανεξέλεγκτες εξαιρέσεις ‘StopIteration’.

Οι coroutines έχουν επίσης τις μεθόδου που αναφέρονται παρακάτω, οι
οποίες είναι ανάλογες με αυτές των γεννητριών (βλ.  *note
Generator-iterator methods: 260d.).  Ωστόσο, σε αντίθεση με τις
γεννήτριες, οι coroutines δεν υποστηρίζουν άμεσα την επανάληψη.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5.2: Είναι ένα *note RuntimeError: 30d. να
περιμένει κανείς σε μια coroutine περισσότερες από μία φορές.

 -- Μέθοδος: coroutine.send (value)

     Ξεκινά ή συνεχίζει την εκτέλεση της coroutine.  Εάν η 'τιμή' είναι
     ‘None’, αυτό ισοδυναμεί με την προώθηση του iterator που
     επιστρέφεται *note __await__(): 112e.  Εάν η 'τιμή' δεν είναι
     ‘None’, αυτή η μέθοδος εκχωρεί στη μέθοδο *note send(): 260f. του
     iterator που προκάλεσε την αναστολή της coroutine.  Το αποτέλεσμα
     (επιστρεφόμενη τιμή, *note StopIteration: fba, ή άλλη εξαίρεση)
     είναι το ίδιο όπως όταν γίνεται επανάληψη πάνω από την τιμή
     επιστροφής ‘__await__()’ , που περιγράφεται παραπάνω.

 -- Μέθοδος: coroutine.throw (value)

 -- Μέθοδος: coroutine.throw (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Κάνει Raise την καθορισμένη εξαίρεση στην coroutine.  Αυτή η
     μέθοδος εκχωρεί στη μέθοδο *note throw(): 905. του iterator που
     προκάλεσε την αναστολή της coroutine, εάν διαθέτει τέτοια μέθοδο.
     Διαφορετικά, η εξαίρεση γίνεται raise στο σημείο αναστολής.  Το
     αποτέλεσμα (επιστρεφόμενη τιμή, *note StopIteration: fba, ή άλλη
     εξαίρεση) είναι το ίδιο όπως όταν γίνεται επανάληψη πάνω από την
     τιμή επιστροφής *note __await__(): 112e, που περιγράφεται παραπάνω.
     Εάν η εξαίρεση δεν περιλαμβάνεται στην coroutine, διαδίδεται πίσω
     από εκεί που καλέστηκε.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Η δεύτερη υπογραφή (type[, value[,
     traceback]]) έχει καταργηθεί και μπορεί να αφαιρεθεί σε μια
     μελλοντική έκδοση της Python.

 -- Μέθοδος: coroutine.close ()

     Προκαλεί τον καθαρισμό και την έξοδο της coroutine.  Εάν η
     coroutine τεθεί σε αναστολή, αυτή η μέθοδος εκχωρεί πρώτα στην
     μέθοδο *note close(): 199e. του iterator που προκάλεσε την αναστολή
     της coroutine, εάν έχει τέτοια μέθοδο.  Στη συνέχεια, σηκώνει το
     *note GeneratorExit: 176a. στο σημείο αναστολής, με αποτέλεσμα η
     coroutine να καθαριστεί αμέσως.  Τέλος, η coroutine επισημαίνεται
     ότι έχει τελειώσει την εκτέλεση, ακόμα κι αν δεν ξεκίνησε ποτέ.

     Τα αντικείμενα coroutine κλείνουν αυτόματα χρησιμοποιώντας την
     παραπάνω διαδικασία όταν πρόκειται να καταστραφούν.


File: python.info,  Node: Ασύγχρονοι Iterators,  Next: Ασύγχρονοι Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος,  Prev: Coroutine Αντικείμενα,  Up: Coroutines

4.3.4.3 Ασύγχρονοι Iterators
............................

Ένας 'ασύγχρονος iterator' μπορεί να καλέσει ασύγχρονο κώδικα με τη
μέθοδο ‘__anext__’.

Οι ασύγχρονοι iterators μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν σε μια δήλωση *note
async for: e70.

Η ίδια η κλάση *note object: e4d. δεν παρέχει αυτές τις μεθόδους.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__aiter__ (self)

     Πρέπει να επιστρέψει ένα αντικείμενο 'ασύγχρονου iterator'.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__anext__ (self)

     Πρέπει να επιστρέψει ένα 'αναμενόμενο' που θα έχει ως αποτέλεσμα
     μια επόμενη τιμή iterator.  Θα πρέπει να κάνει raise ένα σφάλμα
     *note StopAsyncIteration: 1ffe. όταν τελειώσει η επανάληψη.

Παράδειγμα σύγχρονου iterator αντικειμένου:

     class Reader:
         async def readline(self):
             ...

         def __aiter__(self):
             return self

         async def __anext__(self):
             val = await self.readline()
             if val == b'':
                 raise StopAsyncIteration
             return val

Added in version 3.5.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Πριν από την Python 3.7, η *note __aiter__():
fbb. θα μπορούσε να επιστρέψει ένα 'αναμενόμενο' που θα επιλύονται σε
ένα *note asynchronous iterator: 6cd.

Ξεκινώντας με την Python 3.7, η *note __aiter__(): fbb. πρέπει να
επιστρέψει ένα ασύγχρονο αντικείμενο iterator.  Εάν επιστρέφει οτιδήποτε
άλλο θα έχει ως αποτέλεσμα ένα σφάλμα *note TypeError: 291.


File: python.info,  Node: Ασύγχρονοι Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος,  Prev: Ασύγχρονοι Iterators,  Up: Coroutines

4.3.4.4 Ασύγχρονοι Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος
.............................................

Ένας 'ασύγχρονος διαχειριστής περιβάλλοντος' είναι ένα 'διαχειριστής
περιβάλλοντος' που μπορεί να αναστείλει την εκτέλεση στις μεθόδους
‘__aenter__’ και ‘__aexit__’.

Οι ασύγχρονοι διαχειριστές περιβάλλοντος μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν σε
μια δήλωση *note async with: 20b.

Η ίδια η κλάση *note object: e4d. δεν παρέχει αυτές τις μεθόδους.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__aenter__ (self)

     Σημασιολογικά παρόμοια με *note __enter__(): 9c6, η μόνη διαφορά
     είναι ότι πρέπει να επιστρέψει ένα 'awaitable'.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__aexit__ (self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback)

     Σημασιολογικά παρόμοια με *note __exit__(): 16a5, η μόνη διαφορά
     είναι ότι πρέπει να επιστρέψει ένα 'awaitable'.

Ένα παράδειγμα κλάσης ασύγχρονης διαχείρισης περιβάλλοντος:

     class AsyncContextManager:
         async def __aenter__(self):
             await log('entering context')

         async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
             await log('exiting context')

Added in version 3.5.

Υποσημειώσεις
.............


File: python.info,  Node: Μοντέλο εκτέλεσης,  Next: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής,  Prev: Μοντέλο Δεδομένων,  Up: Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python

4.4 Μοντέλο εκτέλεσης
=====================

* Menu:

* Δομή ενός προγράμματος::
* Ονομασία και σύνδεση::
* Εξαιρέσεις::
* Συστατικά χρόνου εκτέλεσης::


File: python.info,  Node: Δομή ενός προγράμματος,  Next: Ονομασία και σύνδεση,  Up: Μοντέλο εκτέλεσης

4.4.1 Δομή ενός προγράμματος
----------------------------

Ένα πρόγραμμα Python αποτελείται από μπλοκ κώδικα.  Ένα 'μπλοκ' είναι
ένα κομμάτι κειμένου προγράμματος Python που εκτελείται ως μια μονάδα.
Τα παρακάτω είναι μπλοκ: ένα module, το σώμα μιας συνάρτησης, ο ένας
ορισμός κλάσης.  Κάθε εντολή που πληκτρολογείται διαδραστικά αποτελεί
μπλοκ.  Ένα αρχείο δέσμης ενεργειών (ένα αρχείο που δίνεται ως τυπική
είσοδος στο διερμηνέα ή καθορίζεται ως όρισμα γραμμής εντολών στον
διερμηνέα) είναι ένα μπλοκ κώδικα.  Μια script εντολή (μια εντολή που
καθορίζεται στο διερμηνέα με την επιλογή *note -c: 445.) είναι ένα μπλοκ
κώδικα.  Μια ενότητα που εκτελείται ως ανωτέρου επιπέδου script (ως
module ‘__main__’) από τη γραμμή εντολών χρησιμοποιώντας ένα όρισμα
*note -m: 4ca. όρισμα είναι επίσης ένα μπλοκ κώδικα.  Το όρισμα
συμβολοσειράς που περνάει στις ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις *note eval():
184. και *note exec(): 185. είναι ένα μπλοκ κώδικα.

Ένα μπλοκ κώδικα εκτελείται σε ένα 'πλαίσιο εκτέλεσης'.  Ένα πλαίσιο
περιέχει ορισμένες πληροφορίες διαχείρισης (που χρησιμοποιούνται για
αποσφαλμάτωση) και καθορίζει που και πως συνεχίζεται η εκτέλεση μετά την
ολοκλήρωση της εκτέλεσης του μπλοκ κώδικα.


File: python.info,  Node: Ονομασία και σύνδεση,  Next: Εξαιρέσεις,  Prev: Δομή ενός προγράμματος,  Up: Μοντέλο εκτέλεσης

4.4.2 Ονομασία και σύνδεση
--------------------------

* Menu:

* Σύνδεση ονομάτων::
* Επίλυση ονομάτων::
* Σημειογραφία πεδία::
* Καθυστερημένη εκτίμηση::
* Ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις και περιορισμένη εκτέλεση::
* Αλληλεπίδραση με δυναμικές λειτουργίες::


File: python.info,  Node: Σύνδεση ονομάτων,  Next: Επίλυση ονομάτων,  Up: Ονομασία και σύνδεση

4.4.2.1 Σύνδεση ονομάτων
........................

'Names' αναφέρονται σε αντικείμενα.  Τα ονόματα εισάγονται μέσω
λειτουργιών δέσμευσης ονομάτων.

Οι παρακάτω δομές δεσμεύουν ονόματα:

   * τυπικές παράμετροι συναρτήσεων,

   * ορισμοί κλάσεων,

   * ορισμοί συναρτήσεων

   * εκφράσεις ανάθεσης

   * *note targets: 261d. που είναι αναγνωριστικά αν εμφανίζονται σε μια
     ανάθεση:

        + επικεφαλίδα βρόχου *note for: 321,

        + μετά το ‘as’ σε μια δήλωση *note with: 20a, σε ρήτρα *note
          except: 447, σε ρήτρα *note except*: 448. ή στο as-pattern
          κατά τη δομική αντιστοίχησης μοτίβων,

        + σε ένα στιγμιότυπο μοτίβου κατά τη δομική αντιστοίχησης
          μοτίβων

   * δηλώσεις *note import: 9da.

   * δηλώσεις *note type: 85a.

   * *note λίστες παραμέτρων τύπου: 7a5.

Η δήλωση ‘import’ της μορφής ‘from ... import *’ συνδέει όλα τα ονόματα
που ορίζονται στο εισαγόμενο module, εκτός από αυτά που ξεκινούν με μια
κάτω παύλα.  Αυτή η μορφή μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί μόνο στο επίπεδο του
module.

Ένας στόχος που εμφανίζεται σε μια δήλωση *note del: 1d1d. θεωρείται
επίσης δεσμευμένος για αυτό τον σκοπό (αν και η πραγματική σημασιολογία
είναι να αποσυνδέσει το όνομα).

Κάθε δήλωση ανάθεσης ή εισαγωγής συμβαίνει μέσα σε ένα μπλοκ που
ορίζεται από έναν ορισμό κλάσης ή συνάρτησης ή στο επίπεδο του module
(το μπλοκ κώδικα ανώτατου επιπέδου).

Αν ένα όνομα δεσμεύεται σε ένα μπλοκ, είναι μια τοπική μεταβλητή αυτού
του μπλοκ, εκτός αν δηλωθεί ως *note nonlocal: 164c. ή *note global:
6b5.  Αν ένα όνομα δεσμεύεται στο επίπεδο του module, είναι μια καθολική
μεταβλητή.  (Οι μεταβλητές του μπλοκ του module είναι ταυτόχρονα τοπικές
και καθολικές.)  Αν μια μεταβλητή χρησιμοποιείται σε ένα μπλοκ κώδικα
αλλά δεν ορίζεται εκεί, είναι μια *note free variable: 261e.

Κάθε εμφάνιση ενός ονόματος στο κείμενο του προγράμματος αναφέρεται στη
'binding' αυτού του ονόματος που καθορίζεται από τους παρακάτω κανόνες
επίλυσης ονομάτων.


File: python.info,  Node: Επίλυση ονομάτων,  Next: Σημειογραφία πεδία,  Prev: Σύνδεση ονομάτων,  Up: Ονομασία και σύνδεση

4.4.2.2 Επίλυση ονομάτων
........................

Ένα 'scope' ορίζει την ορατότητα ενός ονόματος μέσα σε ένα μπλοκ.  Αν
μια τοπική μεταβλητή οριστεί σε ένα μπλοκ, το πεδίο της περιλαμβάνει το
μπλοκ αυτό.  Αν ο ορισμός συμβαίνει σε ένα μπλοκ συνάρτησης, το πεδίο
επεκτείνεται σε οποιαδήποτε μπλοκ περιέχονται μέσα σε αυτό που την
ορίζει, εκτός αν ένα περιεχόμενο μπλοκ εισάγει διαφορετική σύνδεση για
το όνομα.

Όταν ένα όνομα χρησιμοποιείται σε ένα μπλοκ κώδικα, επιλύεται
χρησιμοποιώντας το πλησιέστερο περιβάλλον πεδίο.  Το σύνολο όλων των
πεδίων που είναι ορατά σε ένα μπλοκ κώδικα ονομάζεται 'environment' του
μπλοκ.

Όταν ένα όνομα δεν βρίσκεται καθόλου, γίνεται raise μια εξαίρεση *note
NameError: 665.  Αν το τρέχον πεδίο είναι πεδίο συνάρτησης και το όνομα
αναφέρεται σε μια τοπική μεταβλητή που δεν έχει ακόμα δεσμευτεί σε
κάποια τιμή στο σημείο που χρησιμοποιείται το όνομα, γίνεται raise μια
εξαίρεση *note UnboundLocalError: 18d8.  Η ‘UnboundLocalError’ είναι μια
υποκλάση της ‘NameError’.

Αν μια λειτουργία σύνδεσης ονομάτων συμβεί οπουδήποτε μέσα σε ένα μπλοκ
κώδικα, όλες οι χρήσεις του ονόματος μέσα στο μπλοκ αντιμετωπίζονται ως
αναφορές στο τρέχον μπλοκ.  Αυτό μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε σφάλματα όταν ένα
όνομα χρησιμοποιείται μέσα σε ένα μπλοκ πριν δεσμευτεί.  Αυτός ο κανόνας
είναι λεπτός.  Η Python δεν διαθέτει δηλώσεις και επιτρέπει τις
λειτουργίες σύνδεση ονομάτων να συμβαίνουν οπουδήποτε μέσα σε ένα μπλοκ
κώδικα.  Οι τοπικές μεταβλητές ενός μπλοκ κώδικα μπορούν να
προσδιοριστούν σαρώνοντας ολόκληρο το κείμενο του μπλοκ για λειτουργίες
σύνδεσης ονομάτων.  Δείτε *note την εγγραφή στο FAQ για το
UnboundLocalError: 2621. για παραδείγματα.

Αν η δήλωση *note global: 6b5. εμφανιστεί μέσα σε ένα μπλοκ, όλες οι
χρήσεις των ονομάτων που καθορίζονται στη δήλωση αναφέρονται στις
συνδέσεις αυτών των ονομάτων στον χώρο ονομάτων ανώτατου επιπέδου.  Τα
ονόματα επιλύονται στον χώρο ανώτατου επιπέδου αναζητώντας πρώτα στον
καθολικό χώρο ονομάτων, δηλαδή τον χώρο ονομάτων του module που περιέχει
το μπλοκ κώδικα, και στη συνέχεια στο χώρο ονομάτων των builtins, τον
χώρο ονομάτων του module *note builtins: 13.  Ο καθολικός χώρος ονομάτων
αναζητείται πρώτος.  Αν τα ονόματα δεν βρεθούν εκεί, γίνεται αναζήτηση
του ενσωματωμένου χώρου ονομάτων.  Εάν τα ονόματα δεν βρίσκονται επίσης
στον ενσωματωμένο χώρο ονομάτων, δημιουργούνται νέες μεταβλητές στον
καθολικό χώρο ονομάτων.  Η καθολική δήλωση πρέπει να προηγείται όλων των
χρήσεων των ονομάτων που αναφέρονται.

Η δήλωση *note global: 6b5. έχει το ίδιο πεδίο με μια λειτουργία
σύνδεσης ονόματος στο ίδιο μπλοκ.  Αν το πλησιέστερο περιβάλλον πεδίου
για μια ελεύθερη μεταβλητή περιέχει μια δήλωση global, η ελεύθερη
μεταβλητή αντιμετωπίζεται ως καθολική.

Η δήλωση *note nonlocal: 164c. προκαλεί τα αντίστοιχα ονόματα να
αναφέρονται σε προηγουμένως δεσμευμένες μεταβλητές στο πλησιέστερο
περιβάλλον πεδίου συνάρτησης.  Μια εξαίρεση *note SyntaxError: 17e.
εγείρεται κατά το χρόνο μεταγλώττισης αν το συγκεκριμένο δεν υπάρχει σε
κανένα περιβάλλον πεδίου συνάρτησης.  *note Οι παράμετροι τύπου: 7a5.
δεν μπορούν να δεσμευτούν εκ νέου με τη δήλωση ‘nonlocal’.

Ο χώρος ονομάτων για ένα module δημιουργείται αυτόματα την πρώτη φορά
που το module εισάγεται Το κύριο module για ένα script ονομάζεται πάντα
*note __main__: 1.

Τα μπλοκ ορισμού κλάσεων και τα ορίσματα στις συναρτήσεις *note exec():
185. και *note eval(): 184. είναι ειδικές περιπτώσεις στο πλαίσιο της
επίλυσης ονομάτων.  Ένας ορισμός κλάσης είναι μια εκτελέσιμη δήλωση που
μπορεί να χρησιμοποιεί και να ορίζει ονόματα.  Αυτές οι αναφορές
ακολουθούν τους κανονικούς κανόνες επίλυσης ονομάτων, με την εξαίρεση
ότι οι αδέσμευτες τοπικές μεταβλητές αναζητούνται στον καθολικό χώρο
ονομάτων.  Ο χώρος ονομάτων του ορισμού της κλάσης γίνεται το λεξικό
χαρακτηριστικών της κλάσης.  Το πεδίο των ονομάτων που ορίζονται σε ένα
μπλοκ κλάσης περιορίζεται στο μπλοκ της κλάσης· δεν επεκτείνεται στα
μπλοκ κώδικα των μεθόδων.  Αυτό περιλαμβάνει συνθέσεις και εκφράσεις
γεννητριών, αλλά δεν περιλαμβάνει *note πεδία σημειώσεων: 6b4, τα οποία
έχουν πρόσβαση στα περιβάλλοντα πεδία της περιβάλλουσας κλάσης.  Αυτό
σημαίνει ότι το παρακάτω θα αποτύχει:

     class A:
         a = 42
         b = list(a + i for i in range(10))

Ωστόσο, το παρακάτω θα επιτύχει:

     class A:
         type Alias = Nested
         class Nested: pass

     print(A.Alias.__value__)  # <type 'A.Nested'>


File: python.info,  Node: Σημειογραφία πεδία,  Next: Καθυστερημένη εκτίμηση,  Prev: Επίλυση ονομάτων,  Up: Ονομασία και σύνδεση

4.4.2.3 Σημειογραφία πεδία
..........................

Τα *note Annotations: 409, *note Οι λίστες παραμέτρων τύπου: 7a5. και οι
δηλώσεις *note type: 85a. εισάγουν 'πεδία σημειογραφίας', τα οποία
συμπεριφέρονται κυρίως όπως τα πεδία συναρτήσεων, αλλά με κάποιες
εξαιρέσεις που συζητούνται παρακάτω.

Τα πεδία σημειογραφίας χρησιμοποιούνται στα παρακάτω συμφραζόμενα:

   * *note Function annotations: 2207.

   * *note Variable annotations: 110a.

   * Λίστες παραμέτρων τύπου για *note generic type aliases: 871.

   * Λίστες τύπου παραμέτρου για *note generic functions: 86f.  Οι
     σημειογραφίες μιας γενικής συνάρτησης εκτελούνται μέσα στο πεδίο
     σημειώσεων, αλλά οι προεπιλογές και οι διακοσμητές της όχι.

   * Λίστες παραμέτρων τύπου για *note generic classes: 86e.  Οι βασικές
     κλάσεις και τα ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών μιας γενικής κλάσης
     εκτελούνται μέσα στο πεδίο σημειώσεων, αλλά οι διακοσμητές της όχι.

   * Τα όρια, οι περιορισμοί οι προεπιλεγμένες τιμές για παραμέτρους
     τύπου (*note lazily evaluated: 872.).

   * Η τιμή των ψευδωνύμων τύπου (*note lazily evaluated: 872.).

Τα πεδία σημειογραφίας διαφέρουν από τα πεδία συναρτήσεων με τους εξής
τρόπους:

   * Τα πεδία σημειογραφίας έχουν πρόσβαση στον χώρο ονομάτων της
     περιβάλλουσας κλάσης.  Αν ένα πεδίο σημειογραφίας βρίσκεται αμέσως
     μέσα σε έναν χώρο κλάσης ή μέσα σε ένα άλλο πεδίο σημειογραφίας που
     βρίσκεται αμέσως μέσα σε έναν χώρο κλάσης, ο κώδικας στο πεδίο
     σημειογραφίας μπορεί να χρησιμοποιεί ονόματα που έχουν οριστεί στον
     χώρο της κλάσης σαν να εκτελούνταν απευθείας στο σώμα της κλάσης.
     Αυτό έρχεται σε αντίθεση με τις κανονικές συναρτήσεις που ορίζονται
     μέσα σε κλάσεις, οι οποίες δεν μπορούν να έχουν πρόσβαση σε ονόματα
     που έχουν οριστεί στο χώρο της κλάσης.

   * Οι εκφράσεις σε πεδία σημειογραφίας δεν μπορούν να περιέχουν τις
     εκφράσεις *note yield: d93, ‘yield from’, *note await: 432. ή *note
     ;=: 2623. εκφράσεις.  (Αυτές οι εκφράσεις επιτρέπονται σε άλλα
     πεδία που περιέχονται μέσα στο πεδίο σημειογραφίας.)

   * Τα ονόματα που ορίζονται σε πεδία σημειογραφίας δεν μπορούν να
     δεσμευτούν εκ νέου με δηλώσεις *note nonlocal: 164c. σε εσωτερικά
     πεδία.  Αυτό περιλαμβάνει μόνο παραμέτρους τύπου, καθώς και κανένα
     άλλο συντακτικό στοιχείο που μπορεί να εμφανιστεί μέσα σε πεδία
     σημειώσεων δεν μπορεί να εισαγάγει νέα ονόματα.

   * Ενώ τα πεδία σημειογραφίας έχουν ένα εσωτερικό όνομα, αυτό το όνομα
     δεν αντικατοπτρίζεται στο *note qualified name: 1f19. των
     αντικειμένων που ορίζονται μέσα στο πεδίο.Αντίθετα, το *note
     __qualname__: 140d. αυτών των αντικειμένων είναι σαν το αντικείμενο
     να είχε οριστεί στο περιβάλλων πεδίο.

Added in version 3.12: Τα πεδία σημειώσεων εισήχθησαν στην Python 3.12
ως μέρος του PEP 695(1).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Οι περιοχές σχολίων τύπου χρησιμοποιούνται
επίσης για τις προεπιλεγμένες τιμές παραμέτρων τύπου, όπως εισάγεται από
το PEP 696(2).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Οι περιοχές σχολίων τύπου χρησιμοποιούνται
επίσης για τα annotations, όπως εισάγεται από το PEP 649(3) and PEP
749(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/


File: python.info,  Node: Καθυστερημένη εκτίμηση,  Next: Ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις και περιορισμένη εκτέλεση,  Prev: Σημειογραφία πεδία,  Up: Ονομασία και σύνδεση

4.4.2.4 Καθυστερημένη εκτίμηση
..............................

Τα περισσότερα πεδία annotation 'αξιολογούνται νωχελικά'.  Αυτό
περιλαμβάνει annotations, τις τιμές των ψευδωνύμων τύπου που
δημιουργούνται μέσω της δήλωσης *note type: 85a. και τα όρια, τους
περιορισμούς και τις προεπιλεγμένες τιμές των μεταβλητών τύπου που
δημιουργούνται μέσω της σύνταξης παραμέτρων *note type parameter syntax:
7a5.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι δεν αξιολογούνται όταν δημιουργείται το
ψευδώνυμο τύπου ή η μεταβλητή τύπου ή όταν δημιουργείται το αντικείμενο
που φέρει σχολιασμούς.  Αντίθετα, αξιολογούνται μόνο όταν είναι
απαραίτητο, για παράδειγμα όταν γίνεται πρόσβαση στο χαρακτηριστικό
‘__value__’ σε ένα ψευδώνυμο τύπου.

Παράδειγμα:

     >>> type Alias = 1/0
     >>> Alias.__value__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> def func[T: 1/0](): pass
     >>> T = func.__type_params__[0]
     >>> T.__bound__
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Εδώ η εξαίρεση εγείρεται μόνο όταν γίνει πρόσβαση στο χαρακτηριστικό
‘__value__’ του ψευδωνύμου τύπου ή στο χαρακτηριστικό ‘__bound__’ της
μεταβλητής τύπου.

Αυτή η συμπεριφορά είναι κυρίως χρήσιμη για αναφορές σε τύπους που δεν
έχουν ακόμη οριστεί κατά τη δημιουργία του ψευδωνύμου τύπου ή της
μεταβλητής τύπου.  Για παράδειγμα, η καθυστερημένη εκτίμηση επιτρέπει τη
δημιουργία αμοιβαίων αναδρομικών ψευδωνύμων τύπων:

     from typing import Literal

     type SimpleExpr = int | Parenthesized
     type Parenthesized = tuple[Literal["("], Expr, Literal[")"]]
     type Expr = SimpleExpr | tuple[SimpleExpr, Literal["+", "-"], Expr]

Οι τιμές που αξιολογούνται καθυστερημένα αξιολογούνται στο *note πεδίο
σημειογραφίας: 6b4, που σημαίνει ότι τα ονόματα που εμφανίζονται μέσα
στην καθυστερημένα αξιολογούμενη τιμή αναζητούνται σαν να
χρησιμοποιήθηκαν στο αμέσως περιβάλλον πεδίο.

Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις και περιορισμένη εκτέλεση,  Next: Αλληλεπίδραση με δυναμικές λειτουργίες,  Prev: Καθυστερημένη εκτίμηση,  Up: Ονομασία και σύνδεση

4.4.2.5 Ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις και περιορισμένη εκτέλεση
...........................................................

Οι χρήστες δεν θα πρέπει να τροποποιούν το ‘__builtins__’· είναι αυστηρά
μια λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης.  Οι χρήστες που θέλουν να παρακάμψουν τιμές
στον χώρο ονομάτων των ενσωματωμένων συναρτήσεων θα πρέπει να κάνουν
*note import: 9da. το module *note builtins: 13. και να τροποποιούν τα
χαρακτηριστικά του κατάλληλα.

Ο χώρος ονομάτων των ενσωματωμένων συναρτήσεων που σχετίζεται με την
εκτέλεση ενός μπλοκ κώδικα βρίσκεται στην πραγματικότητα μέσω αναζήτησης
του ονόματος ‘__builtins__’ στον καθολικό του χώρο ονομάτων· αυτό θα
πρέπει να είναι ένα λεξικό ή ένα module (στη δεύτερη περίπτωση
χρησιμοποιείται το λεξικό του module).  Από προεπιλογή, όταν βρισκόμαστε
στο module *note __main__: 1, το ‘__builtins__’ είναι το ενσωματωμένο
module *note builtins: 13.· όταν βρισκόμαστε σε οποιοδήποτε άλλο module,
το ‘__builtins__’ είναι ένα ψευδώνυμο για το λεξικό του ίδιου του module
‘builtins’.


File: python.info,  Node: Αλληλεπίδραση με δυναμικές λειτουργίες,  Prev: Ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις και περιορισμένη εκτέλεση,  Up: Ονομασία και σύνδεση

4.4.2.6 Αλληλεπίδραση με δυναμικές λειτουργίες
..............................................

Η επίλυση ονομάτων των ελεύθερων μεταβλητών συμβαίνει κατά το χρόνο
εκτέλεσης, όχι κατά το χρόνο μεταγλώττισης.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι ο
παρακάτω κώδικας θα εκτυπώσει το 42:

     i = 10
     def f():
         print(i)
     i = 42
     f()

Οι συναρτήσεις *note eval(): 184. και *note exec(): 185. δεν έχουν
πρόσβαση στο πλήρες περιβάλλον για την επίλυση ονομάτων.  Τα ονόματα
μπορεί να επιλύονται στους τοπικούς και καθολικούς χώρους ονομάτων του
καλούντος.  Οι ελεύθερες μεταβλητές δεν επιλύονται στο πλησιέστερο
περιβάλλον πεδίου, αλλά στον καθολικό χώρο ονομάτων.  (1)  Οι
συναρτήσεις ‘exec()’ και ‘eval()’ έχουν προαιρετικά ορίσματα για να
παρακάμψουν τους καθολικούς και τοπικούς χώρους ονομάτων.  Αν καθοριστεί
μόνο ένας χώρος ονομάτων, χρησιμοποιείται και για τους δύο.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Αυτός ο περιορισμός προκύπτει επειδή ο κώδικας που εκτελείται από
αυτές τις λειτουργίες δεν είναι διαθέσιμος τη στιγμή που το module
μεταγλωττίζεται.


File: python.info,  Node: Εξαιρέσεις,  Next: Συστατικά χρόνου εκτέλεσης,  Prev: Ονομασία και σύνδεση,  Up: Μοντέλο εκτέλεσης

4.4.3 Εξαιρέσεις
----------------

Οι εξαιρέσεις είναι ένας τρόπος διακοπής της κανονικής ροής ελέγχου ενός
μπλοκ κώδικα, προκειμένου να αντιμετωπιστούν σφάλματα ή άλλες
εξαιρετικές συνθήκες.  Μια εξαίρεση 'γίνεται raise' στο σημείο όπου
εντοπίζεται το σφάλμα· μπορεί να 'αντιμετωπιστεί' από το περιβάλλον
μπλοκ κώδικα ή από οποιοδήποτε μπλοκ κώδικα που άμεσα ή έμμεσα εκτέλεσε
το μπλοκ κώδικα όπου συνέβη το σφάλμα.

Ο διερμηνέας της Python εγείρει μια εξαίρεση όταν εντοπίσει ένα σφάλμα
κατά την εκτέλεση(όπως η διαίρεση με το μηδέν).  Ένα πρόγραμμα Python
μπορεί επίσης να εγείρει ρητά μια εξαίρεση με τη δήλωση *note raise:
9e4.  Οι διαχειριστές εξαιρέσεων καθορίζονται με τη δήλωση *note try:
ad6. … *note except: 447.  Η ρήτρα *note finally: 44c. μιας τέτοιας
δήλωσης μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να καθοριστεί κώδικας καθαρισμού, ο
οποίος δεν διαχειρίζεται την εξαίρεση αλλά εκτελείται ανεξάρτητα από το
αν προηγήθηκε εξαίρεση ή όχι στον προηγούμενο κώδικα.

Η Python χρησιμοποιεί το μοντέλο διαχείρισης σφαλμάτων «τερματισμού»:
ένας διαχειριστής εξαιρέσεων μπορεί να διαπιστώσει τι συνέβη και να
συνεχίσει την εκτέλεση σε ένα εξωτερικό επίπεδο, αλλά δεν μπορεί να
διορθώσει την αιτία του σφάλματος και να επαναλάβει τη λειτουργία που
απέτυχε (εκτός αν επανεισαχθεί το προβληματικό κομμάτι κώδικα από την
αρχή).

Όταν μια εξαίρεση δεν αντιμετωπιστεί καθόλου, ο διερμηνέας τερματίζει
την εκτέλεση του προγράμματος ή επιστρέφει στον διαδραστικό κύριο βρόχο
του.  Και στις δύο περιπτώσεις, εκτυπώνει το ίχνος της στοίβας, εκτός αν
η εξαίρεση είναι *note SystemExit: 10f7.

Οι εξαιρέσεις αναγνωρίζονται από στιγμιότυπα κλάσεων.  Η ρήτρα *note
except: 447. επιλέγεται ανάλογα με την κλάση του στιγμιότυπου: πρέπει να
αναφέρεται στην κλάση του στιγμιότυπου ή σε μια *note μη εικονική βασική
κλάση: 155f. αυτής.  Το στιγμιότυπο μπορεί να παραληφθεί από τον
διαχειριστή και να μεταφέρει πρόσθετες πληροφορίες σχετικά με την
εξαιρετική συνθήκη.

     Σημείωση: Τα μηνύματα εξαιρέσεων δεν αποτελούν μέρος του API της
     Python.  Το περιεχόμενό τους μπορεί να αλλάξει από τη μία έκδοση
     της Python στην επόμενη χωρίς προειδοποίηση και δεν θα πρέπει να
     βασίζεται σε αυτά ο κώδικας που θα εκτελεστεί σε πολλαπλές εκδόσεις
     του διερμηνέα.

Δείτε επίσης την περιγραφή της δήλωσης *note try: ad6. στην ενότητα
*note The try statement: ad6. και της δήλωσης *note raise: 9e4. στην
ενότητα *note Η εντολή raise: 9e4.


File: python.info,  Node: Συστατικά χρόνου εκτέλεσης,  Prev: Εξαιρέσεις,  Up: Μοντέλο εκτέλεσης

4.4.4 Συστατικά χρόνου εκτέλεσης
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* Γενικό μοντέλο υπολογισμού::
* Μοντέλο χρόνου εκτέλεσης της Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Γενικό μοντέλο υπολογισμού,  Next: Μοντέλο χρόνου εκτέλεσης της Python,  Up: Συστατικά χρόνου εκτέλεσης

4.4.4.1 Γενικό μοντέλο υπολογισμού
..................................

Το μοντέλο εκτέλεσης της Python δεν λειτουργεί σε κενό.  Εκτελείται σε
μια μηχανή υποδοχής και μέσω του περιβάλλοντος χρόνου εκτέλεσης αυτής
της υποδοχής, συμπεριλαμβανομένου του λειτουργικού της συστήματος (OS),
αν υπάρχει.  Όταν εκτελείται ένα πρόγραμμα, τα εννοιολογικά επίπεδα του
τρόπου με τον οποίο εκτελείται στην υποδοχή μοιάζουν κάπως έτσι:

          'μηχανή υποδοχής'
               'διαδικασία' (παγκόσμιοι πόροι)
                    'νήμα' (εκτελεί κώδικα μηχανής)

Κάθε διαδικασία αντιπροσωπεύει ένα πρόγραμμα που εκτελείται στην
υποδοχή.  Σκεφτείτε κάθε διαδικασία ως το δεδομένο μέρος του
προγράμματός της.  Σκεφτείτε τα νήματα της διαδικασίας ως το εκτελεστικό
μέρος του προγράμματος.  Αυτή η διάκριση θα είναι σημαντική για την
κατανόηση του εννοιολογικού χρόνου εκτέλεσης της Python.

Η διαδικασία, ως το δεδομένο μέρος, είναι το εκτελεστικό πλαίσιο στο
οποίο εκτελείται το πρόγραμμα.  Αποτελείται κυρίως από το σύνολο των
πόρων που ανατίθενται στο πρόγραμμα από την υποδοχή, συμπεριλαμβανομένης
της μνήμης, των σημάτων, των χειριστηρίων αρχείων, των υποδοχών και των
μεταβλητών περιβάλλοντος.

Οι διαδικασίες είναι απομονωμένες και ανεξάρτητες η μία από την άλλη.
(Το ίδιο ισχύει και για τις υποδοχές.)  Η υποδοχή διαχειρίζεται την
πρόσβαση της διαδικασίας στους ανατεθειμένους πόρους της, εκτός από τον
συντονισμό μεταξύ διαδικασιών.

Κάθε νήμα αντιπροσωπεύει την πραγματική εκτέλεση του κώδικα μηχανής του
προγράμματος, που εκτελείται σε σχέση με τους πόρους που έχουν ανατεθεί
στη διαδικασία του προγράμματος.  Είναι αυστηρά στην υποδοχή ο τρόπος
και ο χρόνος με τον οποίο πραγματοποιείται αυτή η εκτέλεση.

Από την άποψη της Python, ένα πρόγραμμα ξεκινά πάντα με ακριβώς ένα
νήμα.  Ωστόσο, το πρόγραμμα μπορεί να αναπτυχθεί για να εκτελείται σε
πολλαπλά ταυτόχρονα νήματα.  Δεν υποστηρίζουν όλοι οι οικοδεσπότες
πολλαπλά νήματα ανά διαδικασία, αλλά οι περισσότεροι το κάνουν.  Σε
αντίθεση με τις διαδικασίες, τα νήματα σε μια διαδικασία δεν είναι
απομονωμένα και ανεξάρτητα το ένα από το άλλο.  Συγκεκριμένα, όλα τα
νήματα σε μια διαδικασία μοιράζονται όλους τους πόρους της διαδικασίας.

Το θεμελιώδες σημείο των νημάτων είναι ότι το καθένα 'εκτελείται'
ανεξάρτητα, ταυτόχρονα με τα άλλα.  Αυτό μπορεί να είναι μόνο
εννοιολογικά ταυτόχρονα («concurrently») ή φυσικά («in parallel»).  Σε
κάθε περίπτωση, τα νήματα εκτελούνται αποτελεσματικά με μη συγχρονισμένο
ρυθμό.

     Σημείωση: Αυτός ο μη συγχρονισμένος ρυθμός σημαίνει ότι δεν
     εγγυάται ότι η μνήμη της διαδικασίας θα παραμείνει συνεπής για τον
     κώδικα που εκτελείται σε οποιοδήποτε δοσμένο νήμα.  Επομένως, τα
     πολυνηματικά προγράμματα πρέπει να φροντίζουν να συντονίζουν την
     πρόσβαση σε σκόπιμα κοινόχρηστους πόρους.  Ομοίως, πρέπει να
     φροντίζουν να είναι απόλυτα επιμελείς ώστε να μην έχουν πρόσβαση σε
     'άλλους' πόρους σε πολλαπλά νήματα· διαφορετικά, δύο νήματα που
     εκτελούνται ταυτόχρονα μπορεί να παρεμβαίνουν κατά λάθος στη χρήση
     κάποιων κοινόχρηστων δεδομένων.  Όλα αυτά ισχύουν τόσο για
     προγράμματα Python όσο και για τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης της Python.

     Το κόστος αυτής της ευρείας, μη δομημένης απαίτησης είναι το
     αντάλλαγμα για τον τύπο της ακατέργαστης ταυτόχρονης εκτέλεσης που
     παρέχουν τα νήματα.  Η εναλλακτική λύση στην απαιτούμενη πειθαρχία
     γενικά σημαίνει την αντιμετώπιση μη ντετερμινιστικών σφαλμάτων και
     διαφθοράς δεδομένων.


File: python.info,  Node: Μοντέλο χρόνου εκτέλεσης της Python,  Prev: Γενικό μοντέλο υπολογισμού,  Up: Συστατικά χρόνου εκτέλεσης

4.4.4.2 Μοντέλο χρόνου εκτέλεσης της Python
...........................................

Τα ίδια εννοιολογικά επίπεδα ισχύουν για κάθε πρόγραμμα Python, με
μερικά επιπλέον επίπεδα δεδομένων συγκεκριμένα για την Python:

          'μηχανή υποδοχής'
               'διαδικασία' (παγκόσμιοι πόροι)
                    Παγκόσμιος χρόνος εκτέλεσης της Python ('κατάσταση')
                         Διερμηνέας Python ('κατάσταση')
                              'thread' (εκτελεί bytecode Python και «C-API»)
                                   'Κατάσταση' νήματος Python

Σε εννοιολογικό επίπεδο: όταν ξεκινά ένα πρόγραμμα Python, μοιάζει
ακριβώς με αυτό το διάγραμμα, με ένα από κάθε στοιχείο.  Ο χρόνος
εκτέλεσης μπορεί να αναπτυχθεί ώστε να περιλαμβάνει πολλαπλούς
διερμηνείς, και κάθε διερμηνέας μπορεί να αναπτυχθεί ώστε να
περιλαμβάνει πολλαπλές καταστάσεις νημάτων.

     Σημείωση: Μια υλοποίηση της Python δεν θα υλοποιήσει απαραίτητα τα
     επίπεδα χρόνου εκτέλεσης με διακριτό ή ακόμη και συγκεκριμένο
     τρόπο.  Η μόνη εξαίρεση είναι τα σημεία όπου τα διακριτά επίπεδα
     καθορίζονται άμεσα ή εκτίθενται στους χρήστες, όπως μέσω του module
     *note threading: f6.

     Σημείωση: Ο αρχικός διερμηνέας ονομάζεται συνήθως ο «κύριος»
     διερμηνέας.  Ορισμένες υλοποιήσεις της Python, όπως η CPython,
     αναθέτουν ειδικούς ρόλους στον κύριο διερμηνέα.

     Ομοίως, το νήμα υποδοχής όπου αρχικοποιήθηκε ο χρόνος εκτέλεσης
     είναι γνωστό ως το «κύριο» νήμα.  Μπορεί να είναι διαφορετικό από
     το αρχικό νήμα της διαδικασίας, αν και συχνά είναι το ίδιο.  Σε
     ορισμένες περιπτώσεις, το «κύριο νήμα» μπορεί να είναι ακόμη πιο
     συγκεκριμένο και να αναφέρεται στην αρχική κατάσταση νήματος.  Ένας
     χρόνος εκτέλεσης της Python μπορεί να αναθέσει συγκεκριμένες
     ευθύνες στο κύριο νήμα, όπως η διαχείριση σημάτων.

Συνολικά, ο χρόνος εκτέλεσης της Python αποτελείται από την παγκόσμια
κατάσταση χρόνου εκτέλεσης, τους διερμηνείς και τις καταστάσεις νημάτων.
Ο χρόνος εκτέλεσης διασφαλίζει ότι όλη αυτή η κατάσταση παραμένει
συνεπής κατά τη διάρκειά της ζωής του, ιδιαίτερα όταν χρησιμοποιείται με
πολλαπλά νήματα υποδοχής.

Ο παγκόσμιος χρόνος εκτέλεσης, σε εννοιολογικό επίπεδο, είναι απλώς ένα
σύνολο διερμηνέων.  Ενώ αυτοί οι διερμηνείς είναι διαφορετικά
απομονωμένοι και ανεξάρτητοι ο ένας από τον άλλον, μπορεί να μοιράζονται
ορισμένα δεδομένα ή άλλους πόρους.  Ο χρόνος εκτέλεσης είναι υπεύθυνος
για τη διαχείριση αυτών των παγκόσμιων πόρων με ασφάλεια.  Η πραγματική
φύση και διαχείριση αυτών των πόρων είναι συγκεκριμένη για την
υλοποίηση.  Τελικά, η εξωτερική χρησιμότητα του παγκόσμιου χρόνου
εκτέλεσης περιορίζεται στη διαχείριση διερμηνέων.

Σε αντίθεση, ένας «διερμηνέας» είναι εννοιολογικά αυτό που θα
σκεφτόμασταν κανονικά ως ο (πλήρως εξοπλισμένος) «χρόνος εκτέλεσης της
Python».  Όταν ο κώδικας μηχανής που εκτελείται σε ένα νήμα υποδοχής
αλληλεπιδράει με τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης της Python, καλεί την Python στο
πλαίσιο ενός συγκεκριμένου διερμηνέα.

     Σημείωση: Ο όρος «διερμηνέας» εδώ δεν είναι ο ίδιος με τον
     «διερμηνέα bytecode», που είναι αυτός που εκτελείται τακτικά σε
     νήματα, εκτελώντας μεταγλωττισμένο κώδικα Python.

     Σε έναν ιδανικό κόσμο, ο όρος «χρόνος εκτέλεσης της Python» θα
     αναφερόταν σε αυτό που τώρα ονομάζουμε «διερμηνέα».  Ωστόσο, έχει
     ονομαστεί «διερμηνέας» τουλάχιστον από την εισαγωγή του το 1997
     (CPython:a027efa5b(1)).

Κάθε διερμηνέας ενσωματώνει πλήρως όλη την κατάσταση που δεν είναι
παγκόσμια για τη διαδικασία και δεν είναι ειδική για το νήμα που
χρειάζεται ο χρόνος εκτέλεσης της Python για να λειτουργήσει.
Σημαντικά, η κατάσταση του διερμηνέα διατηρείται μεταξύ των χρήσεων.
Περιλαμβάνει θεμελιώδη δεδομένα όπως το *note sys.modules: 19ba.  Ο
χρόνος εκτέλεσης διασφαλίζει ότι πολλαπλά νήματα που χρησιμοποιούν τον
ίδιο διερμηνέα θα τον μοιράζονται με ασφάλεια μεταξύ τους.

Μια υλοποίηση της Python μπορεί να υποστηρίζει τη χρήση πολλαπλών
διερμηνέων ταυτόχρονα στην ίδια διαδικασία.  Είναι ανεξάρτητοι και
απομονωμένοι ο ένας από τον άλλον.  Για παράδειγμα, κάθε διερμηνέας έχει
το δικό του *note sys.modules: 19ba.

Για το χρόνο εκτέλεσης ειδικό για τα νήματα, κάθε διερμηνέας έχει ένα
σύνολο καταστάσεων νημάτων, τις οποίες διαχειρίζεται, με τον ίδιο τρόπο
που ο παγκόσμιος χρόνος εκτέλεσης περιέχει ένα σύνολο διερμηνέων.
Μπορεί να έχει καταστάσεις νημάτων για όσα νήματα υποδοχής χρειάζεται.
Μπορεί ακόμη και να έχει πολλαπλές καταστάσεις νημάτων για το ίδιο νήμα
υποδοχής, αν και αυτό δεν είναι τόσο συνηθισμένο.

Κάθε κατάσταση νήματος, εννοιολογικά, έχει όλα τα δεδομένα χρόνου
εκτέλεσης ειδικά για το νήμα που χρειάζεται ένας διερμηνέας για να
λειτουργήσει σε ένα νήμα υποδοχής.  Η κατάσταση νήματος περιλαμβάνει την
τρέχουσα εξαίρεση που έγινε raise και τη στοίβα κλήσεων Python του
νήματος.  Μπορεί να περιλαμβάνει και άλλους πόρους ειδικούς για το νήμα.

     Σημείωση: Ο όρος «νήμα Python» μπορεί μερικές φορές να αναφέρεται
     σε μια κατάσταση νήματος, αλλά συνήθως σημαίνει ένα νήμα που
     δημιουργείται χρησιμοποιώντας το module *note threading: f6.

Κάθε κατάσταση νήματος, κατά τη διάρκεια της ζωής της, συνδέεται πάντα
με ακριβώς έναν διερμηνέα και ακριβώς ένα νήμα υποδοχής.  Θα
χρησιμοποιηθεί μόνο σε αυτό το νήμα και με αυτόν τον διερμηνέα.

Πολλαπλές καταστάσεις νημάτων μπορεί να συνδέονται με το ίδιο νήμα
υποδοχής, είτε για διαφορετικούς διερμηνείς είτε ακόμη και για τον ίδιο
διερμηνέα.  Ωστόσο, για οποιοδήποτε δεδομένο νήμα υποδοχής, μόνο μία από
τις καταστάσεις νημάτων που συνδέονται με αυτό μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί
από το νήμα τη φορά.

Οι καταστάσεις νημάτων είναι απομονωμένες και ανεξάρτητες η μία από την
άλλη και δεν μοιράζονται κανένα δεδομένο, εκτός από το ενδεχόμενο να
μοιράζονται έναν διερμηνέα και αντικείμενα ή άλλους πόρους που ανήκουν
σε αυτόν τον διερμηνέα.

Μόλις εκτελείται ένα πρόγραμμα, μπορούν να δημιουργηθούν νέα νήματα
Python χρησιμοποιώντας το module *note threading: f6. (σε πλατφόρμες και
υλοποιήσεις Python που υποστηρίζουν νήματα).  Μπορούν να δημιουργηθούν
επιπλέον διαδικασίες χρησιμοποιώντας τα modules *note os: a5, *note
subprocess: df. και *note multiprocessing: 98.  Οι διερμηνείς μπορούν να
δημιουργηθούν και να χρησιμοποιηθούν με το module *note interpreters:
25.  Οι συναρτήσεις-συνεργάτες (async) μπορούν να εκτελεστούν
χρησιμοποιώντας το *note asyncio: b. σε κάθε διερμηνέα, συνήθως μόνο σε
ένα νήμα (συχνά το κύριο νήμα).

Υποσημειώσεις
.............

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/commit/a027efa5b


File: python.info,  Node: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής,  Next: Expressions,  Prev: Μοντέλο εκτέλεσης,  Up: Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python

4.5 Το σύστημα εισαγωγής
========================

Ο κώδικας Python σε ένα *note module: 1be7. αποκτά πρόσβαση στον κώδικα
ενός άλλου module μέσω της διαδικασίας του *note importing: 2632.  Η
δήλωση *note import: 9da. είναι ο πιο συνηθισμένος τρόπος ενεργοποίησης
του μηχανισμού import, αλλά δεν είναι ο μόνος.  Συναρτήσεις όπως η *note
importlib.import_module(): 927. και η ενσωματωμένη *note __import__():
ca6. μπορούν επίσης να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την ενεργοποίηση του
μηχανισμού εισαγωγής.

Η δήλωση *note import: 9da. συνδυάζει δύο λειτουργίες· αναζητά το module
με το συγκεκριμένο όνομα και στη συνέχεια συνδέει τα αποτελέσματα αυτής
της αναζήτησης σε ένα όνομα στο τοπικό scope.  Η λειτουργία αναζήτησης
της δήλωσης ‘import’ ορίζεται ως κλήση της συνάρτησης *note
__import__(): ca6, με τα κατάλληλα ορίσματα.  Η τιμή επιστροφής της
‘__import__()’ χρησιμοποιείται για να εκτελεστεί η λειτουργία δέσμευσης
ονόματος της δήλωσης ‘import’.  Δείτε τη δήλωση ‘import’ για τις
ακριβείς λεπτομέρειες αυτής της λειτουργίας.

Μια άμεση κλήση της *note __import__(): ca6. εκτελεί μόνο την αναζήτηση
του module και, αν βρεθεί, τη λειτουργία δημιουργίας του.  Παρότι μπορεί
να προκύψουν ορισμένες παρενέργειες, όπως η εισαγωγή των γονικών πακέτων
και η ενημέρωση διάφορων προσωρινών μνημών (συμπεριλαμβανομένου του
*note sys.modules: 19ba.), μόνο η δήλωση *note import: 9da. εκτελεί
λειτουργία δέσμευσης ονόματος.

Όταν εκτελείται μια δήλωση *note import: 9da, καλείται η τυπική
ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note __import__(): ca6.  Άλλοι μηχανισμοί
ενεργοποίησης του συστήματος εισαγωγής (όπως η *note
importlib.import_module(): 927.) μπορεί να επιλέξουν να παρακάμψουν τη
‘__import__()’ και να χρησιμοποιήσουν δικές τους λύσεις για την
υλοποίηση της σημασιολογίας της εισαγωγής.

Όταν εισάγεται ένα module για πρώτη φορά, η Python το αναζητά και, αν το
βρει, δημιουργεί ένα αντικείμενο module (1), αρχικοποιώντας το.  Αν το
module με το συγκεκριμένο όνομα δεν μπορεί να βρεθεί, γίνεται raise η
εξαίρεση *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be.  Η Python υλοποιεί διάφορες
στρατηγικές αναζήτησης για το module όταν ενεργοποιείται ο μηχανισμός
εισαγωγής.  Αυτές οι στρατηγικές μπορούν να τροποποιηθούν και να
επεκταθούν μέσω διάφορων hooks που περιγράφονται στις παρακάτω ενότητες.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής έχει ενημερωθεί ώστε να
υλοποιεί πλήρως τη δεύτερη φάση του PEP 302(2).  Δεν υπάρχει πλέον
κανένας έμμεσος μηχανισμός εισαγωγής - ο πλήρης μηχανισμός εισαγωγής
εκτίθεται μέσω του *note sys.meta_path: 10e3.  Επιπλέον, έχει υλοποιηθεί
εγγενής υποστήριξη για namespace packages (βλ.  PEP 420(3)).

* Menu:

* importlib: importlib<10>.
* Πακέτα: Πακέτα<2>.
* Αναζήτηση::
* Φόρτωση::
* Finder βασισμένος στη διαδρομή::
* Αντικατάσταση του τυπικού συστήματος εισαγωγής::
* Σχετικές εισαγωγές σε πακέτα::
* Ειδικές περιπτώσεις για το __main__::
* Αναφορές::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Δείτε την *note types.ModuleType: 11c7.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib<10>,  Next: Πακέτα<2>,  Up: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής

4.5.1 ‘importlib’
-----------------

Το module *note importlib: 7a. παρέχει ένα πλούσιο API για αλληλεπίδραση
με το σύστημα εισαγωγής.  Για παράδειγμα, η *note
importlib.import_module(): 927. παρέχει ένα προτεινόμενο, απλούστερο API
από την ενσωματωμένη *note __import__(): ca6. για την ενεργοποίηση του
μηχανισμού εισαγωγής.  Ανατρέξτε στην τεκμηρίωση της βιβλιοθήκης
‘importlib’ για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.


File: python.info,  Node: Πακέτα<2>,  Next: Αναζήτηση,  Prev: importlib<10>,  Up: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής

4.5.2 Πακέτα
------------

Η Python έχει μόνο έναν τύπο αντικειμένου module, και όλα τα modules
είναι αυτού του τύπου, ανεξάρτητα από το αν το module υλοποιείται σε
Python, C ή κάτι άλλο.  Για να βοηθήσει στην οργάνωση των modules και να
παρέχει μια ιεραρχία ονοματοδοσίας, η Python διαθέτει την έννοια των
*note packages: 4c1.

Μπορείτε να σκεφτείτε τα packages ως φακέλους σε ένα σύστημα αρχείων και
τα modules ως αρχεία μέσα σε φακέλους, αλλά μην πάρετε αυτή την αναλογία
κυριολεκτικά, καθώς packages και modules δεν είναι απαραίτητο να
προέρχονται από το σύστημα αρχείων.  Για τους σκοπούς αυτής της
τεκμηρίωσης, θα χρησιμοποιήσουμε αυτή τη βολική αναλογία φακέλων και
αρχείων.  Όπως οι φάκελοι του συστήματος αρχείων, τα packages
οργανώνονται ιεραρχικά, και μπορούν να περιέχουν subpackages, καθώς και
κανονικά modules.

Είναι σημαντικό να έχετε υπόψη ότι όλα τα packages είναι modules, αλλά
δεν είναι όλα τα modules packages.  Με άλλα λόγια, τα packages είναι
απλώς ένας ειδικός τύπος module.  Συγκεκριμένα, οποιοδήποτε module
περιέχει το χαρακτηριστικό ‘__path__’ θεωρείται package.

Όλα τα modules έχουν ένα όνομα.  Τα ονόματα των subpackages
διαχωρίζονται από το όνομα του γονικού package με τελεία, αντίστοιχα με
τη συνηθισμένη σύνταξη πρόσβασης σε χαρακτηριστικά στην Python.  Έτσι,
μπορεί να έχετε ένα package με όνομα *note email: 3e, το οποίο με τη
σειρά του έχει ένα subpackage με όνομα *note email.mime: 48. και ένα
module μέσα σε αυτό το subpackage με όνομα *note email.mime.text: 50.

* Menu:

* Κανονικά πακέτα::
* Namespace πακέτα::


File: python.info,  Node: Κανονικά πακέτα,  Next: Namespace πακέτα,  Up: Πακέτα<2>

4.5.2.1 Κανονικά πακέτα
.......................

Η Python ορίζει δύο τύπους packages: τα *note regular packages: 2636.
και τα *note namespace packages: 52e.  Τα regular packages είναι τα
παραδοσιακά packages όπως υπήρχαν στην Python 3.2 και παλαιότερα.  Ένα
regular package υλοποιείται συνήθως ως φάκελος που περιέχει ένα αρχείο
‘__init__.py’.  Όταν εισάγεται ένα regular package, το αρχείο
‘__init__.py’ εκτελείται έμμεσα, και τα αντικείμενα που ορίζει
δεσμεύονται σε ονόματα στο namespace του package.  Το ‘__init__.py’
μπορεί να περιέχει τον ίδιο κώδικα Python που μπορεί να περιέχει
οποιοδήποτε άλλο module, και η Python θα προσθέσει ορισμένα επιπλέον
χαρακτηριστικά στο module όταν εισάγεται.

Για παράδειγμα, η ακόλουθη διάταξη στο σύστημα αρχείων ορίζει ένα
package ανωτέρου επιπέδου ‘parent’ με τρία subpackages:

     parent/
         __init__.py
         one/
             __init__.py
         two/
             __init__.py
         three/
             __init__.py

Η εισαγωγή του ‘parent.one’ θα εκτελέσει έμμεσα τα ‘parent/__init__.py’
και ‘parent/one/__init__.py’.  Μετέπειτα εισαγωγές του ‘parent.two’ ή
του ‘parent.three’ θα εκτελέσουν τα ‘parent/two/__init__.py’ και
‘parent/three/__init__.py’ αντίστοιχα.


File: python.info,  Node: Namespace πακέτα,  Prev: Κανονικά πακέτα,  Up: Πακέτα<2>

4.5.2.2 Namespace πακέτα
........................

Ένα namespace πακέτο είναι ένας συνδυασμός από διάφορα *note portions:
2639, όπου κάθε portion συνεισφέρει ένα subpackage στο γονικό πακέτο.
Τα portions μπορεί να βρίσκονται σε διαφορετικές τοποθεσίες στο σύστημα
αρχείων.  Μπορεί επίσης να βρίσκονται σε zip αρχεία, στο δίκτυο ή
οπουδήποτε αλλού αναζητά η Python κατά την εισαγωγή.  Τα namespace
πακέτα μπορεί να αντιστοιχούν ή να μην αντιστοιχούν άμεσα σε αντικείμενα
στο σύστημα αρχείων· μπορεί να είναι «εικονικά» modules που δεν έχουν
συγκεκριμένη φυσική αναπαράσταση.

Τα namespace πακέτα δεν χρησιμοποιούν μια συνηθισμένη λίστα για το
χαρακτηριστικό ‘__path__’.  Αντί γι’ αυτό χρησιμοποιούν έναν
προσαρμοσμένο iterable τύπο, ο οποίος θα εκτελέσει αυτόματα μία νέα
αναζήτηση για portions του πακέτου στην επόμενη προσπάθεια εισαγωγής
μέσα σε αυτό το πακέτο, αν αλλάξει το path του γονικού πακέτου (ή το
*note sys.path: 194. για πακέτο ανωτέρου επιπέδου).

Με τα namespace πακέτα, δεν υπάρχει αρχείο ‘parent/__init__.py’.  Στην
πράξη, μπορεί να βρεθούν πολλοί φάκελοι ‘parent’ κατά την αναζήτηση
εισαγωγής, όπου ο καθένας παρέχεται από διαφορετικό portion.  Έτσι, το
‘parent/one’ ενδέχεται να μην βρίσκεται φυσικά δίπλα στο ‘parent/two’.
Σε αυτή την περίπτωση, η Python θα δημιουργήσει ένα namespace πακέτο για
το πακέτο ανωτέρου επιπέδου ‘parent’ κάθε φορά που γίνεται εισαγωγή
αυτού ή κάποιου από τα subpackages του.

Δείτε επίσης το PEP 420(1) για την προδιαγραφή των namespace πακέτων.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: Αναζήτηση,  Next: Φόρτωση,  Prev: Πακέτα<2>,  Up: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής

4.5.3 Αναζήτηση
---------------

Για να ξεκινήσει η αναζήτηση, η Python χρειάζεται το *note πλήρως
αναγνωρισμένο: 1f19. όνομα του module (ή του πακέτου, αλλά για τους
σκοπούς αυτής της συζήτησης η διαφορά δεν έχει σημασία) που εισάγεται.
Αυτό το όνομα μπορεί να προέρχεται από διάφορα ορίσματα της δήλωσης
*note import: 9da. ή από τις παραμέτρους των συναρτήσεων *note
importlib.import_module(): 927. ή *note __import__(): ca6.

Αυτό το όνομα θα χρησιμοποιηθεί σε διάφορες φάσεις της αναζήτησης import
και μπορεί να είναι μια διαδρομή με τελείες προς ένα submodule, π.χ.
‘foo.bar.baz’.  Σε αυτή την περίπτωση, η Python πρώτα προσπαθεί να
εισάγει το ‘foo’, μετά το ‘foo.bar’ και τέλος το ‘foo.bar.baz’.  Αν
αποτύχει κάποιες από τις ενδιάμεσες εισαγωγές, γίνεται raise η *note
ModuleNotFoundError: 1be.

* Menu:

* Η προσωρινή μνήμη του module::
* Finders και loaders::
* Εισαγωγή hooks::
* Το meta path::


File: python.info,  Node: Η προσωρινή μνήμη του module,  Next: Finders και loaders,  Up: Αναζήτηση

4.5.3.1 Η προσωρινή μνήμη του module
....................................

Το πρώτο σημείο που ελέγχεται κατά την αναζήτηση εισαγωγής είναι το
*note sys.modules: 19ba.  Αυτή η αντιστοίχιση λειτουργεί ως προσωρινή
μνήμη όλων των modules που έχουν εισαχθεί στο παρελθόν,
συμπεριλαμβανομένων των ενδιάμεσων διαδρομών.  Έτσι, αν το ‘foo.bar.baz’
είχε εισαχθεί προηγουμένως, το ‘sys.modules’ θα περιέχει εγγραφές για τα
‘foo’, ‘foo.bar’ και ‘foo.bar.baz’.  Κάθε κλειδί θα έχει ως τιμή το
αντίστοιχο αντικείμενο module.

Κατά την εισαγωγή, το όνομα του module αναζητείται στο *note
sys.modules: 19ba. και, αν υπάρχει, η συσχετισμένη τιμή είναι το module
που ικανοποιεί την εισαγωγή και η διαδικασία ολοκληρώνεται.  Ωστόσο, αν
η τιμή είναι ‘None’, τότε γίνεται raise το *note ModuleNotFoundError:
1be.  Αν το όνομα του module λείπει, η Python θα συνεχίσει να αναζητά το
module.

Το *note sys.modules: 19ba. είναι εγγράψιμο.  Η διαγραφή ενός κλειδιού
μπορεί να μην καταστρέψει το αντίστοιχο module (καθώς άλλα modules
μπορεί να κρατούν αναφορές σε αυτό), αλλά θα ακυρώσει την εγγραφή της
προσωρινής μνήμης για το module με το συγκεκριμένο όνομα, προκαλώντας
την Python να το αναζητήσει ξανά στην επόμενο εισαγωγή.  Το κλειδί
μπορεί επίσης να οριστεί σε ‘None’, αναγκάζοντας την επόμενο εισαγωγή
του module να καταλήξει σε *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be.

Προσοχή όμως: αν κρατήσετε μια αναφορά στο αντικείμενο module, ακυρώσετε
την εγγραφή του στην προσωρινή μνήμη του *note sys.modules: 19ba. και
μετά ξανακάνετε εισαγωγή το module με το ίδιο όνομα, τα δύο αντικείμενα
module 'δεν' θα είναι τα ίδια.  Αντίθετα, η *note importlib.reload():
928. θα επαναχρησιμοποιήσει το 'ίδιο' αντικείμενο module και απλώς θα
επαναρχικοποιήσει τα περιεχόμενά του εκτελώντας ξανά τον κώδικα του
module.


File: python.info,  Node: Finders και loaders,  Next: Εισαγωγή hooks,  Prev: Η προσωρινή μνήμη του module,  Up: Αναζήτηση

4.5.3.2 Finders και loaders
...........................

Αν το module με το συγκεκριμένο όνομα δεν βρεθεί στο *note sys.modules:
19ba, τότε ενεργοποιείται το πρωτόκολλο εισαγωγής της Python για να
βρεθεί και να φορτωθεί το module.  Αυτό το πρωτόκολλο αποτελείται από
δύο εννοιολογικά αντικείμενα: *note finders: 263e. και *note loaders:
1c30.  Ο ρόλος ενός finder είναι να καθορίσει αν μπορεί να βρει το
module με το συγκεκριμένο όνομα, χρησιμοποιώντας όποια στρατηγική
γνωρίζει.  Αντικείμενα που υλοποιούν και τις δύο αυτές διεπαφές
αναφέρονται ως *note importers: 263f. - επιστρέφουν τον εαυτό τους όταν
διαπιστώσουν ότι μπορούν να φορτώσουν το ζητούμενο module.

Η Python περιλαμβάνει αρκετούς προεπιλεγμένους finders και importers.
Το πρώτο γνωρίζει πώς να εντοπίζει built-in modules, και το δεύτερο πώς
να εντοπίζει παγωμένα (frozen) modules.  Ένας τρίτος προεπιλεγμένος
finder αναζητά modules σε ένα *note import path: 2640.  Το import path
είναι μια λίστα από τοποθεσίες που μπορεί να είναι διαδρομές του
συστήματος αρχείων ή zip αρχεία.  Μπορεί επίσης να επεκταθεί ώστε να
αναζητά οποιονδήποτε εντοπίσιμο πόρο, όπως αυτούς που προσδιορίζονται
από URLs.

Ο μηχανισμός εισαγωγής είναι επεκτάσιμος, επομένως μπορούν να προστεθούν
νέοι finders ώστε να επεκταθεί το εύρος και η κάλυψη της αναζήτησης των
modules.

Οι finders δεν φορτώνουν πραγματικά τα modules.  Αν μπορούν να βρουν το
module με το συγκεκριμένο όνομα, επιστρέφουν ένα 'module spec', δηλαδή
μια ενθυλάκωση της πληροφορίας που σχετίζεται με την εισαγωγή του
module, την οποία ο μηχανισμός εισαγωγής χρησιμοποιεί στη συνέχεια για
να φορτώσει το module.

Οι ακόλουθες ενότητες περιγράφουν πιο αναλυτικά το πρωτόκολλο για
finders και loaders, συμπεριλαμβανομένου του πώς μπορείτε να
δημιουργήσετε και να καταχωρίσετε νέους, ώστε να επεκτείνετε τον
μηχανισμό εισαγωγής.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Σε παλαιότερες εκδόσεις της Python, οι finders
επέστρεφαν απευθείας *note loaders: 1c30, ενώ τώρα επιστρέφουν module
specs που 'περιέχουν' loaders.  Οι loaders εξακολουθούν να
χρησιμοποιούνται κατά την εισαγωγή, αλλά έχουν λιγότερες ευθύνες.


File: python.info,  Node: Εισαγωγή hooks,  Next: Το meta path,  Prev: Finders και loaders,  Up: Αναζήτηση

4.5.3.3 Εισαγωγή hooks
......................

Ο μηχανισμός εισαγωγής είναι σχεδιασμένος ώστε να είναι επεκτάσιμος· ο
βασικός μηχανισμός για αυτό είναι η 'εισαγωγή hooks'.  Υπάρχουν δύο
τύποι εισαγωγής hooks: 'meta hooks' και 'import path hooks'.

Τα meta hooks καλούνται στην αρχή της επεξεργασίας εισαγωγής, πριν
συμβεί οποιαδήποτε άλλη επεξεργασία εισαγωγής, εκτός από την αναζήτηση
στην προσωρινή μνήμη του *note sys.modules: 19ba.  Αυτό επιτρέπει στα
meta hooks να υπερκαλύπτουν την επεξεργασία του *note sys.path: 194, τα
παγωμένα modules ή ακόμη και τα built-in modules.  Τα meta hooks
καταχωρίζονται προσθέτοντας νέα αντικείμενα finder στο *note
sys.meta_path: 10e3, όπως περιγράφεται παρακάτω.

Τα import path hooks καλούνται ως μέρος της επεξεργασίας του *note
sys.path: 194. (ή του ‘package.__path__’), στο σημείο όπου συναντάται το
αντίστοιχο στοιχείο διαδρομής.  Τα import path hooks καταχωρίζονται
προσθέτοντας νέα callables στο *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd, όπως
περιγράφεται παρακάτω.


File: python.info,  Node: Το meta path,  Prev: Εισαγωγή hooks,  Up: Αναζήτηση

4.5.3.4 Το meta path
....................

Όταν το module με το συγκεκριμένο όνομα δεν βρεθεί στο *note
sys.modules: 19ba, η Python στη συνέχεια το αναζητά στο *note
sys.meta_path: 10e3, το οποίο περιέχει μια λίστα από meta path finder
αντικείμενα.  Αυτοί οι finders ερωτώνται με τη σειρά για να διαπιστωθεί
αν γνωρίζουν πώς να χειριστούν το module.  Οι meta path finders πρέπει
να υλοποιούν μια μέθοδο με όνομα *note find_spec(): c3f, η οποία
λαμβάνει τρία ορίσματα: ένα όνομα, ένα import path και (προαιρετικά) ένα
target module.  Ο meta path finder μπορεί να χρησιμοποιήσει οποιαδήποτε
στρατηγική θέλει για να καθορίσει αν μπορεί να χειριστεί το module ή
όχι.

Αν ο meta path finder γνωρίζει πώς να χειριστεί το module, επιστρέφει
ένα spec αντικείμενο.  Αν δεν μπορεί να χειριστεί το module, επιστρέφει
‘None’.  Αν η επεξεργασία του *note sys.meta_path: 10e3. φτάσει στο
τέλος της λίστας χωρίς να επιστραφεί spec, τότε γίνεται raise το *note
ModuleNotFoundError: 1be.  Οποιεσδήποτε άλλες εξαιρέσεις γίνονται raise
απλώς προωθούνται προς τα πάνω, τερματίζοντας τη διαδικασία εισαγωγής.

Η μέθοδος *note find_spec(): c3f. των meta path finders καλείται με δύο
ή τρία ορίσματα.  Το πρώτο είναι το πλήρως αναγνωρισμένο όνομα του
module που εισάγεται, π.χ.  ‘foo.bar.baz’.  Το δεύτερο όρισμα είναι οι
καταχωρήσεις διαδρομής που θα χρησιμοποιηθούν για την αναζήτηση του
module.  Για modules ανωτέρου επιπέδου, το δεύτερο όρισμα είναι ‘None’,
αλλά για submodules ή subpackages, είναι η τιμή του χαρακτηριστικού
‘__path__’ του γονικού πακέτου.  Αν δεν είναι δυνατή η πρόσβαση στο
κατάλληλο ‘__path__’, γίνεται raise το *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be.
Το τρίτο όρισμα είναι ένα υπάρχον αντικείμενο module που θα αποτελέσει
αργότερα τον στόχο της φόρτωσης.  Το σύστημα εισαγωγής περνά target
module μόνο κατά την επαναφόρτωση.

Το meta path μπορεί να διασχιστεί πολλές φορές για ένα μόνο αίτημα
εισαγωγής.  Για παράδειγμα, υποθέτοντας ότι κανένα από τα εμπλεκόμενα
modules δεν έχει ήδη προστεθεί στην προσωρινή μνήμη, η εισαγωγή του
‘foo.bar.baz’ θα εκτελέσει πρώτα μία εισαγωγή ανωτέρου επιπέδου,
καλώντας το ‘mpf.find_spec("foo", None, None)’ σε κάθε meta path finder
(‘mpf’).  Αφού εισαχθεί το ‘foo’, το ‘foo.bar’ θα εισαχθεί διασχίζοντας
το meta path για δεύτερη φορά, καλώντας την ‘mpf.find_spec("foo.bar",
foo.__path__, None)’.  Μόλις γίνει η εισαγωγή του ‘foo.bar’, η τελική
διάσχιση θα καλέσει το ‘mpf.find_spec("foo.bar.baz", foo.bar.__path__,
None)’.

Ορισμένοι meta path finders υποστηρίζουν μόνο εισαγωγές ανωτέρου
επιπέδου.  Αυτοί οι importers θα επιστρέφουν πάντα ‘None’ όταν ως
δεύτερο όρισμα περάσει οτιδήποτε άλλο εκτός από ‘None’.

Το προεπιλεγμένο *note sys.meta_path: 10e3. της Python έχει τρεις meta
path finders: έναν που γνωρίζει πώς να εισάγει ενσωματωμένα modules,
έναν που γνωρίζει πώς να εισάγει παγωμένα modules, και έναν που γνωρίζει
πώς να εισάγει modules από ένα *note import path: 2640. (δηλ.  τον *note
path based finder: 2643.).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Η μέθοδος *note find_spec(): c3f. των meta path
finders αντικατέστησε τη ‘find_module()’, η οποία πλέον χαρακτηριστεί ως
απαρχαιωμένη.  Αν και θα συνεχίσει να λειτουργεί χωρίς αλλαγές, ο
μηχανισμός εισαγωγής θα τη δοκιμάζει μόνο αν ο finder δεν υλοποιεί τη
‘find_spec()’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Η χρήση της ‘find_module()’ από το σύστημα
εισαγωγής πλέον κάνει raise την *note ImportWarning: 907.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Η ‘find_module()’ έχει αφαιρεθεί.
Χρησιμοποιήστε την *note find_spec(): c3f. στη θέση της.


File: python.info,  Node: Φόρτωση,  Next: Finder βασισμένος στη διαδρομή,  Prev: Αναζήτηση,  Up: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής

4.5.4 Φόρτωση
-------------

Αν και όταν βρεθεί ένα module spec, ο μηχανισμός εισαγωγής θα το
χρησιμοποιήσει (και τον loader που περιέχει) για να φορτώσει το module.
Ακολουθεί μια προσέγγιση του τι συμβαίνει στο στάδιο φόρτωσης του
import:

     module = None
     if spec.loader is not None and hasattr(spec.loader, 'create_module'):
         # It is assumed 'exec_module' will also be defined on the loader.
         module = spec.loader.create_module(spec)
     if module is None:
         module = ModuleType(spec.name)
     # The import-related module attributes get set here:
     _init_module_attrs(spec, module)

     if spec.loader is None:
         # unsupported
         raise ImportError

     sys.modules[spec.name] = module
     try:
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
     except BaseException:
         try:
             del sys.modules[spec.name]
         except KeyError:
             pass
         raise
     return sys.modules[spec.name]

Σημειώστε τις ακόλουθες λεπτομέρειες:

   * Αν υπάρχει ήδη ένα αντικείμενο module με το συγκεκριμένο όνομα στο
     *note sys.modules: 19ba, το import θα το έχει ήδη επιστρέψει.

   * Το module θα υπάρχει στο *note sys.modules: 19ba. πριν ο loader
     εκτελέσει τον κώδικα του module.  Αυτό είναι κρίσιμο, επειδή ο
     κώδικας του module μπορεί (άμεσα ή έμμεσα) να εισάγει τον εαυτό
     του· η προσθήκη του στο ‘sys.modules’ εκ των προτέρων αποτρέπει
     ατέρμονη αναδρομή στη χειρότερη περίπτωση και πολλαπλή φόρτωση στην
     καλύτερη.

   * Αν η φόρτωση αποτύχει, το module που απέτυχε – και μόνο αυτό –
     αφαιρείται από το *note sys.modules: 19ba.  Οποιοδήποτε module
     βρίσκεται ήδη στην προσωρινή μνήμη του ‘sys.modules’, καθώς και
     οποιοδήποτε module φορτώθηκε επιτυχώς ως παρενέργεια, πρέπει να
     παραμείνει στην προσωρινή μνήμη.  Αυτό έρχεται σε αντίθεση με την
     επαναφόρτωση, όπου ακόμη και το module που αποτυγχάνει παραμένει
     στο ‘sys.modules’.

   * Αφού δημιουργηθεί το module αλλά πριν την εκτέλεση, ο μηχανισμός
     εισαγωγής ορίζει τα χαρακτηριστικά του module που σχετίζονται με
     την εισαγωγή («_init_module_attrs» στο παραπάνω παράδειγμα
     ψευδοκώδικα), όπως συνοψίζεται σε μια *note μεταγενέστερη ενότητα:
     2552.

   * Η εκτέλεση του module είναι η κρίσιμη στιγμή της φόρτωσης κατά την
     οποία γεμίζει το namespace του module.  Η εκτέλεση ανατίθεται εξ
     ολοκλήρου στον loader, ο οποίος αποφασίζει τι θα συμπληρωθεί και με
     ποιον τρόπο.

   * Το module που δημιουργείται κατά τη φόρτωση και περνά στη
     exec_module() ενδέχεται να μην είναι αυτό που επιστρέφεται στο
     τέλος του import (1).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The import system has taken over the boilerplate
responsibilities of loaders.  These were previously performed by the
‘importlib.abc.Loader.load_module’ method.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The ‘load_module’ method is no longer used.

* Menu:

* Loaders::
* Submodules::
* Module specs::
* Χαρακτηριστικά __path__ στα modules::
* Reprs των modules::
* Ακύρωση cached bytecode::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Η υλοποίηση του importlib αποφεύγει να χρησιμοποιεί απευθείας την
τιμή επιστροφής.  Αντ’ αυτού, λαμβάνει το αντικείμενο module αναζητώντας
το όνομα του module στο *note sys.modules: 19ba.  Έμμεση συνέπεια αυτού
είναι ότι ένα εισηγμένο module μπορεί να αντικαταστήσει τον εαυτό του
στο ‘sys.modules’.  Αυτή είναι μία ειδική συμπεριφορά της συγκεκριμένης
υλοποίησης και δεν είναι εγγυημένο ότι λειτουργεί σε άλλες υλοποιήσεις
της Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Loaders,  Next: Submodules,  Up: Φόρτωση

4.5.4.1 Loaders
...............

Οι module loaders παρέχουν την κρίσιμη λειτουργία της φόρτωσης: την
εκτέλεση του module.  Ο μηχανισμός εισαγωγής καλεί τη μέθοδο *note
importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): c40. με ένα μόνο όρισμα, το
αντικείμενο module που θα εκτελεστεί.  Οποιαδήποτε τιμή επιστρέφει η
‘exec_module()’ αγνοείται.

Οι loaders πρέπει να ικανοποιούν τις ακόλουθες απαιτήσεις:

   * Αν το module είναι Python module (σε αντίθεση με ένα ενσωματωμένο
     module ή δυναμικά φορτωμένη επέκταση), ο loader θα πρέπει να
     εκτελέσει τον κώδικα του module στο καθολικό namespace του module
     (‘module.__dict__’).

   * Αν ο loader δεν μπορεί να εκτελέσει το module, θα πρέπει να κάνει
     raise το *note ImportError: 1bd, αν και οποιαδήποτε άλλη εξαίρεση
     γίνει raise κατά τη *note exec_module(): c40. θα προωθηθεί προς τα
     πάνω.

Σε πολλές περιπτώσεις, ο finder και ο loader μπορεί να είναι το ίδιο
αντικείμενο· σε αυτές τις περιπτώσεις, η μέθοδος *note find_spec(): c3f.
απλώς θα επιστρέψει ένα spec με τον loader ορισμένο σε ‘self’.

Οι module loaders μπορούν, προαιρετικά, να δημιουργούν το αντικείμενο
module κατά τη φόρτωση υλοποιώντας μια μέθοδο *note create_module():
106f.  Παίρνει ένα όρισμα, το module spec, και επιστρέφει το νέο
αντικείμενο module που θα χρησιμοποιηθεί κατά τη φόρτωση.  Η
‘create_module()’ δεν χρειάζεται να ορίσει χαρακτηριστικά στο
αντικείμενο module.  Αν η μέθοδος επιστρέψει ‘None’, ο μηχανισμός
εισαγωγής θα δημιουργήσει ο ίδιος το νέο module.

Added in version 3.4: Η μέθοδος *note create_module(): 106f. των
loaders.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The ‘importlib.abc.Loader.load_module’ method
was replaced by *note exec_module(): c40. and the import machinery
assumed all the boilerplate responsibilities of loading.

Για συμβατότητα με υπάρχοντες loaders, ο μηχανισμός εισαγωγής θα
χρησιμοποιήσει τη μέθοδο ‘load_module()’ αν υπάρχει και ο loader δεν
υλοποιεί την ‘exec_module()’.  Ωστόσο, η ‘load_module()’ είναι
απαρχαιωμένη και οι loaders θα πρέπει να υλοποιούν την ‘exec_module()’.

Η μέθοδος ‘load_module()’ πρέπει να υλοποιεί όλη την τυποποιημένη
λειτουργικότητα φόρτωσης που περιγράφεται παραπάνω, επιπλέον της
εκτέλεσης του module.  Ισχύουν οι ίδιοι περιορισμοί, με κάποιες επιπλέον
διευκρινίσεις:

   * Αν υπάρχει ήδη αντικείμενο module με το συγκεκριμένο όνομα στο
     *note sys.modules: 19ba, ο loader πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσει αυτό το
     υπάρχον module.  (Διαφορετικά, η *note importlib.reload(): 928. δεν
     θα λειτουργεί σωστά.)  Αν το module με το συγκεκριμένο όνομα δεν
     υπάρχει στο ‘sys.modules’, ο loader πρέπει να δημιουργήσει νέο
     αντικείμενο module και να το προσθέσει στο ‘sys.modules’.

   * Το module 'πρέπει' να υπάρχει στο *note sys.modules: 19ba. πριν ο
     loader εκτελέσει τον κώδικα του module, ώστε να αποτραπεί ατέρμονη
     αναδρομή ή πολλαπλή φόρτωση.

   * Αν η φόρτωση αποτύχει, ο loader πρέπει να αφαιρέσει οποιαδήποτε
     modules έχει εισάγει στο *note sys.modules: 19ba, αλλά πρέπει να
     αφαιρέσει 'μόνο' το/τα module(s) που απέτυχαν, και μόνο αν ο loader
     έχει φορτώσει τα module(s) αυτά ρητά.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Γίνεται raise η *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.
όταν ορίζεται η ‘exec_module()’ αλλά δεν ορίζεται η ‘create_module()’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Γίνεται raise το *note ImportError: 1bd. όταν
ορίζεται η ‘exec_module()’ αλλά δεν ορίζεται η ‘create_module()’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Η χρήση της ‘load_module()’ θα κάνει raise την
*note ImportWarning: 907.


File: python.info,  Node: Submodules,  Next: Module specs,  Prev: Loaders,  Up: Φόρτωση

4.5.4.2 Submodules
..................

Όταν ένα submodule φορτώνεται με οποιονδήποτε μηχανισμό (π.χ.
‘importlib’ APIs, τις δηλώσεις ‘import’ ή ‘import-from’, ή την
ενσωματωμένη ‘__import__()’), δημιουργείται μια δέσμευση στο namespace
του γονικού module προς το αντικείμενο του submodule.  Για παράδειγμα,
αν το πακέτο ‘spam’ έχει submodule ‘foo’, μετά την εισαγωγή του
‘spam.foo’, το ‘spam’ θα έχει ένα χαρακτηριστικό ‘foo’ που είναι
δεσμευμένο στο submodule.  Ας πούμε ότι έχετε την ακόλουθη δομή φακέλων:

     spam/
         __init__.py
         foo.py

και το ‘spam/__init__.py’ περιέχει την ακόλουθη γραμμή:

     from .foo import Foo

τότε, η εκτέλεση των παρακάτω δημιουργεί δεσμεύσεις ονομάτων για τα
‘foo’ και ‘Foo’ στο module ‘spam’:

     >>> import spam
     >>> spam.foo
     <module 'spam.foo' from '/tmp/imports/spam/foo.py'>
     >>> spam.Foo
     <class 'spam.foo.Foo'>

Με δεδομένους τους γνώριμους κανόνες δέσμευσης ονομάτων της Python, αυτό
μπορεί να φαίνεται παράξενο, αλλά στην πραγματικότητα είναι θεμελιώδες
χαρακτηριστικό του συστήματος εισαγωγής.  Η αμετάβλητη συνθήκη είναι
ότι, αν έχετε ‘sys.modules['spam']’ και ‘sys.modules['spam.foo']’ (όπως
θα είχατε μετά την παραπάνω εισαγωγή), το δεύτερο πρέπει να εμφανίζεται
ως το χαρακτηριστικό ‘foo’ του πρώτου.


File: python.info,  Node: Module specs,  Next: Χαρακτηριστικά __path__ στα modules,  Prev: Submodules,  Up: Φόρτωση

4.5.4.3 Module specs
....................

Ο μηχανισμός εισαγωγής χρησιμοποιεί ποικιλία πληροφοριών για κάθε module
κατά την εισαγωγή, ειδικά πριν τη φόρτωση.  Οι περισσότερες από αυτές
τις πληροφορίες είναι κοινές για όλα τα modules.  Ο σκοπός του spec ενός
module είναι να ενθυλακώσει αυτή την πληροφορία που σχετίζεται με την
εισαγωγή, σε βάση ανά module.

Η χρήση ενός spec κατά την εισαγωγή επιτρέπει τη μεταφορά κατάστασης
μεταξύ των συστατικών του συστήματος εισαγωγής, π.χ.  μεταξύ του finder
που δημιουργεί το module spec και του loader που το εκτελεί.  Το
σημαντικότερο είναι ότι επιτρέπει στον μηχανισμό εισαγωγής να εκτελεί
τις τυποποιημένες λειτουργίες φόρτωσης, ενώ χωρίς module spec αυτή η
ευθύνη ανήκε στον loader.

Το spec του module εκτίθεται ως *note module.__spec__: 2555.  Η
κατάλληλη ρύθμιση του ‘__spec__’ ισχύει εξίσου για *note modules που
αρχικοποιούνται κατά την εκκίνηση του διερμηνέα: 2648.  Η μόνη εξαίρεση
είναι το ‘__main__’, όπου το ‘__spec__’ *note τίθεται σε None σε
ορισμένες περιπτώσεις: 2649.

Δείτε την *note ModuleSpec: 245d. για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με τα
περιεχόμενα του module spec.

Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Χαρακτηριστικά __path__ στα modules,  Next: Reprs των modules,  Prev: Module specs,  Up: Φόρτωση

4.5.4.4 Χαρακτηριστικά __path__ στα modules
...........................................

Το χαρακτηριστικό *note __path__: 2243. θα πρέπει να είναι μια
(ενδεχομένως κενή) *note sequence: 8ff. από συμβολοσειρές που απαριθμούν
τις τοποθεσίες όπου θα βρεθούν τα submodules του πακέτου.  Εξ ορισμού,
αν ένα module έχει χαρακτηριστικό ‘__path__’, τότε είναι *note package:
4c1.

Το χαρακτηριστικό *note __path__: 2243. ενός πακέτου χρησιμοποιείται
κατά την εισαγωγή των subpackages του.  Μέσα στον μηχανισμό εισαγωγής,
λειτουργεί παρόμοια με το *note sys.path: 194, δηλαδή παρέχει μια λίστα
τοποθεσιών στις οποίες αναζητούνται modules κατά την εισαγωγή.  Ωστόσο,
το ‘__path__’ είναι συνήθως πολύ πιο περιορισμένο από το ‘sys.path’.

Οι ίδιοι κανόνες που ισχύουν για το *note sys.path: 194. ισχύουν επίσης
και για το ‘__path__’ ενός πακέτου.  Τα *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd. (που
περιγράφονται παρακάτω) λαμβάνονται υπόψη κατά τη διάσχιση του
‘__path__’ ενός πακέτου.

Το αρχείο ‘__init__.py’ ενός πακέτου μπορεί να ορίζει ή να τροποποιεί το
χαρακτηριστικό *note __path__: 2243. του πακέτου, και αυτός ήταν συνήθως
ο τρόπος με τον οποίο υλοποιούνταν τα namespace πακέτα πριν το PEP
420(1).  Με την υιοθέτηση του PEP 420(2), τα namespace πακέτα δεν
χρειάζεται πλέον να παρέχουν αρχεία ‘__init__.py’ που περιέχουν μόνο
κώδικα χειρισμού του ‘__path__’· ο μηχανισμός εισαγωγής ορίζει αυτόματα
σωστά το ‘__path__’ για το namespace πακέτο.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/


File: python.info,  Node: Reprs των modules,  Next: Ακύρωση cached bytecode,  Prev: Χαρακτηριστικά __path__ στα modules,  Up: Φόρτωση

4.5.4.5 Reprs των modules
.........................

Από προεπιλογή, όλα τα modules έχουν ένα χρησιμοποιήσιμο repr· ωστόσο,
ανάλογα με τα χαρακτηριστικά που ορίζονται παραπάνω και στο spec του
module, μπορείτε να ελέγχετε πιο ρητά το repr των αντικειμένων module.

Αν το module έχει spec (‘__spec__’), ο μηχανισμός εισαγωγής θα
προσπαθήσει να παράγει repr από αυτό.  Αν αυτό αποτύχει ή δεν υπάρχει
spec, το σύστημα εισαγωγής θα δημιουργήσει ένα προεπιλεγμένο repr
χρησιμοποιώντας όποια πληροφορία είναι διαθέσιμη στο module.  Θα
προσπαθήσει να χρησιμοποιήσει τα ‘module.__name__’, ‘module.__file__’
και ‘module.__loader__’ ως είσοδο για το repr, με προεπιλογές για
οποιαδήποτε πληροφορία λείπει.

Ακολουθούν οι ακριβείς κανόνες που χρησιμοποιούνται:

   * Αν το module έχει χαρακτηριστικό ‘__spec__’, οι πληροφορίες στο
     spec χρησιμοποιούνται για να παραχθεί το repr.  Λαμβάνονται υπόψη
     τα χαρακτηριστικά «name», «loader», «origin» και «has_location».

   * Αν το module έχει χαρακτηριστικό ‘__file__’, αυτό χρησιμοποιείται
     ως μέρος του repr του module.

   * Αν το module δεν έχει ‘__file__’ αλλά έχει ‘__loader__’ που δεν
     είναι ‘None’, τότε το repr του loader χρησιμοποιείται ως μέρος του
     repr του module.

   * Διαφορετικά, χρησιμοποιείται απλώς το ‘__name__’ του module στο
     repr.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Η χρήση της ‘module_repr()’, η οποία ήταν
δηλωμένη ως απαρχαιωμένη από την Python 3.4, αφαιρέθηκε στην Python 3.12
και δεν καλείται πλέον κατά την επίλυση του repr ενός module.


File: python.info,  Node: Ακύρωση cached bytecode,  Prev: Reprs των modules,  Up: Φόρτωση

4.5.4.6 Ακύρωση cached bytecode
...............................

Πριν η Python φορτώσει cached bytecode από ένα αρχείο ‘.pyc’, ελέγχει αν
η προσωρινή μνήμη είναι ενημερωμένη σε σχέση με το πηγαίο αρχείο ‘.py’.
Από προεπιλογή, η Python το κάνει αυτό αποθηκεύοντας τη χρονική σήμανση
της τελευταίας τροποποίησης και το μέγεθος του πηγαίου αρχείου στο
αρχείο προσωρινής μνήμης κατά την εγγραφή του.  Κατά το χρόνο εκτέλεσης,
το σύστημα εισαγωγής επικυρώνει το αρχείο προσωρινής μνήμης ελέγχοντας
τα αποθηκευμένα μεταδεδομένα του αρχείου προσωρινής μνήμης σε σχέση με
τα μεταδεδομένα του πηγαίου αρχείου.

Η Python υποστηρίζει επίσης αρχεία προσωρινής μνήμης βασισμένα σε hash,
τα οποία αποθηκεύουν ένα hash του περιεχομένου του πηγαίου αρχείου αντί
για τα μεταδεδομένα του.  Υπάρχουν δύο παραλλαγές των ‘.pyc’ αρχείων
βασισμένων σε hash: checked και unchecked.  Για τα checked ‘.pyc’ αρχεία
που βασίζονται σε hash, η Python επικυρώνει το αρχείο προσωρινής μνήμης
δημιουργώντας hash του πηγαίου αρχείου και συγκρίνοντας το αποτέλεσμα με
το hash στο αρχείο προσωρινής μνήμης.  Αν ένα checked αρχείο προσωρινής
μνήμης βασισμένο σε hash βρεθεί μη έγκυρο, η Python το αναδημιουργεί και
γράφει ένα νέο checked αρχείο προσωρινής μνήμης βασισμένο σε hash.  Για
τα unchecked ‘.pyc’ αρχεία βασισμένα σε hash, η Python απλώς θεωρεί ότι
το αρχείο προσωρινής μνήμης είναι έγκυρο αν υπάρχει.  Η συμπεριφορά
επικύρωσης των ‘.pyc’ αρχείων βασισμένων σε hash μπορεί να υπερκαλυφθεί
με τη σημαία *note -check-hash-based-pycs: 2311.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Προστέθηκαν''.pyc'' αρχεία βασισμένα σε hash.
Προηγουμένως, η Python υποστήριζε μόνο ακύρωση των bytecode caches με
βάση χρονικές σημάνσεις.


File: python.info,  Node: Finder βασισμένος στη διαδρομή,  Next: Αντικατάσταση του τυπικού συστήματος εισαγωγής,  Prev: Φόρτωση,  Up: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής

4.5.5 Finder βασισμένος στη διαδρομή
------------------------------------

Όπως αναφέρθηκε προηγουμένως, η Python συνοδεύεται από αρκετούς
προεπιλεγμένους meta path finders.  Ένας από αυτούς, που ονομάζεται
*note path based finder: 2643. (*note PathFinder: 13cc.), αναζητά σε ένα
*note import path: 2640, το οποίο περιέχει μια λίστα από *note path
entries: 264e.  Κάθε path entry ονομάζει μια τοποθεσία όπου θα
αναζητηθούν modules.

Ο ίδιος ο path based finder δεν «γνωρίζει» πώς να εισάγει οτιδήποτε.
Αντ’ αυτού, διασχίζει τις επιμέρους καταχωρήσεις διαδρομής,
συσχετίζοντας το καθένα με έναν finder καταχώρησης διαδρομής που
γνωρίζει πώς να χειριστεί αυτόν τον συγκεκριμένο τύπο διαδρομής.

Το προεπιλεγμένο σύνολο finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής υλοποιεί όλη τη
σημασιολογία για την εύρεση των modules στο σύστημα αρχείων, χειριζόμενο
ειδικούς τύπους αρχείων όπως πηγαίο κώδικα Python (αρχεία ‘.py’), byte
code Python (αρχεία ‘.pyc’) και κοινόχρηστες βιβλιοθήκες (π.χ.  αρχεία
‘.so’).  Όταν υποστηρίζεται από το module *note zipimport: 13b. της
τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης, οι προεπιλεγμένοι finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής
χειρίζονται επίσης τη φόρτωση όλων αυτών των τύπων αρχείων (εκτός από
κοινόχρηστες βιβλιοθήκες) από zipfiles.

Οι καταχωρήσεις διαδρομής δεν χρειάζεται να περιορίζονται σε τοποθεσίες
του συστήματος αρχείων.  Μπορούν να αναφέρονται σε URLs, σε ερωτήματα
βάσεων δεδομένων ή σε οποιαδήποτε άλλη τοποθεσία που μπορεί να εκφραστεί
ως συμβολοσειρά.

Ο path based finder παρέχει επιπλέον hooks και πρωτόκολλα ώστε να
μπορείτε να επεκτείνετε και να προσαρμόσετε τους τύπους των καταχωρήσεων
διαδρομής που μπορούν να αναζητηθούν.  Για παράδειγμα, αν θέλατε να
υποστηρίξετε καταχωρήσεις διαδρομής ως δικτυακά URLs, θα μπορούσατε να
γράψετε ένα hook που υλοποιεί HTTP σημασιολογία για να βρίσκει modules
στο διαδίκτυο.  Αυτό το hook (ένα callable) θα επέστρεφε έναν *note path
entry finder: 1419. που υποστηρίζει το πρωτόκολλο που περιγράφεται
παρακάτω, και στη συνέχεια θα χρησιμοποιούνταν για να ληφθεί ένας loader
για το module από το διαδίκτυο.

Μια προειδοποίηση: αυτή η ενότητα και η προηγούμενη χρησιμοποιούν και οι
δύο τον όρο 'finder', διακρίνοντάς τους με τους όρους *note meta path
finder: 1418. και *note path entry finder: 1419.  Αυτοί οι δύο τύποι
finders είναι πολύ παρόμοιοι, υποστηρίζουν παρόμοια πρωτόκολλα και
λειτουργούν με παρόμοιο τρόπο κατά τη διαδικασία εισαγωγής, αλλά είναι
σημαντικό να θυμάστε ότι έχουν λεπτές διαφορές.  Συγκεκριμένα, οι meta
path finders λειτουργούν στην αρχή της διαδικασίας εισαγωγής, όπως
καθορίζεται από τη διάσχιση του *note sys.meta_path: 10e3.

Αντίθετα, οι path entry finders είναι κατά κάποιον τρόπο μια λεπτομέρεια
υλοποίησης του path based finder και, στην πραγματικότητα, αν ο path
based finder αφαιρούνταν από το *note sys.meta_path: 10e3, δεν θα
ενεργοποιούνταν καθόλου η σημασιολογία των finders καταχώρησης
διαδρομής.

* Menu:

* Finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής (Path entry finders): Finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής Path entry finders.
* Πρωτόκολλο path entry finder::


File: python.info,  Node: Finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής Path entry finders,  Next: Πρωτόκολλο path entry finder,  Up: Finder βασισμένος στη διαδρομή

4.5.5.1 Finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής (Path entry finders)
..........................................................

Ο *note path based finder: 2643. είναι υπεύθυνος για την εύρεση και
φόρτωση Python modules και πακέτων των οποίων η τοποθεσία καθορίζεται με
μία συμβολοσειρά *note path entry: 264e.  Οι περισσότερες καταχωρήσεις
διαδρομής (path entries) δηλώνουν τοποθεσίες στο σύστημα αρχείων, αλλά
δεν περιορίζονται απαραίτητα σε αυτό.

Ως ένα meta path finder, ο *note path based finder: 2643. υλοποιεί το
πρωτόκολλο *note find_spec(): c3f. που περιγράφηκε προηγουμένως, ωστόσο
εκθέτει επιπλέον hooks που μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για να
προσαρμόσετε το πώς βρίσκονται και φορτώνονται τα modules από το *note
import path: 2640.

Τρεις μεταβλητές χρησιμοποιούνται από τον *note path based finder:
2643.: *note sys.path: 194, *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd. και *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 9db.  Επίσης χρησιμοποιούνται τα χαρακτηριστικά
‘__path__’ σε αντικείμενα πακέτου.  Αυτά παρέχουν επιπλέον τρόπους
παραμετροποίησης του μηχανισμού εισαγωγής.

Το *note sys.path: 194. περιέχει μια λίστα από συμβολοσειρές που
παρέχουν τοποθεσίες αναζήτησης για modules και πακέτα.  Αρχικοποιείται
από τη μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6. και από διάφορες
άλλες προεπιλογές που εξαρτώνται από την εγκατάσταση και την υλοποίηση.
Οι εγγραφές στο ‘sys.path’ μπορεί να είναι φάκελοι στο σύστημα αρχείων,
zip αρχεία και ενδεχομένως άλλες «τοποθεσίες» (βλ.  το module *note
site: cf.) στις οποίες πρέπει να γίνει αναζήτηση για modules, όπως URLs
ή ερωτήματα βάσεων δεδομένων.  Στο ‘sys.path’ θα πρέπει να υπάρχουν μόνο
συμβολοσειρές· όλοι οι άλλοι τύποι δεδομένων αγνοούνται.

Ο *note path based finder: 2643. είναι *note meta path finder: 1418,
επομένως ο μηχανισμός εισαγωγής ξεκινά την αναζήτηση στο *note import
path: 2640. καλώντας τη μέθοδο *note find_spec(): 13ba. του path based
finder, όπως περιγράφηκε προηγουμένως.  Όταν δοθεί το όρισμα ‘path’ στη
‘find_spec()’, αυτό θα είναι μια λίστα από συμβολοσειρές διαδρομής προς
διάσχιση - συνήθως το χαρακτηριστικό ‘__path__’ ενός πακέτου για
εισαγωγή μέσα σε εκείνο το πακέτο.  Αν το όρισμα ‘path’ είναι ‘None’,
αυτό υποδηλώνει εισαγωγή ανωτέρου επιπέδου και χρησιμοποιείται το *note
sys.path: 194.

Ο path based finder επαναλαμβάνεται πάνω σε κάθε εγγραφή στη διαδρομή
αναζήτησης και, για καθεμία, αναζητά έναν κατάλληλο *note path entry
finder: 1419. (*note PathEntryFinder: c45.) για τη συγκεκριμένη
καταχώρηση διαδρομής.  Επειδή αυτό μπορεί να είναι δαπανηρή λειτουργία
(π.χ.  μπορεί να υπάρχει overhead από κλήσεις ‘stat()’ για αυτή την
αναζήτηση), ο path based finder διατηρεί μια προσωρινή μνήμη που
αντιστοιχίζει καταχωρήσεις διαδρομής σε path entry finders.  Αυτή η
προσωρινή μνήμη διατηρείται στο *note sys.path_importer_cache: 9db.
(παρά το όνομα, αυτή η προσωρινή μνήμη αποθηκεύει αντικείμενα finder και
όχι μόνο *note importer: 263f. αντικείμενα).  Με αυτόν τον τρόπο, η
ακριβή αναζήτηση για τον *note path entry: 264e. μιας συγκεκριμένης
τοποθεσίας path entry finder χρειάζεται να γίνει μόνο μία φορά.  Ο
κώδικας του χρήστη μπορεί να αφαιρεί εγγραφές από το
‘sys.path_importer_cache’, αναγκάζοντας τον path based finder να
εκτελέσει ξανά την αναζήτηση.

Αν η καταχώρηση διαδρομής δεν υπάρχει στην προσωρινή μνήμη, ο path based
finder επαναλαμβάνεται πάνω σε κάθε callable στο *note sys.path_hooks:
13cd.  Κάθε *note path entry hook: 2650. σε αυτή τη λίστα καλείται με
ένα μόνο όρισμα: την καταχώρηση διαδρομής που θα αναζητηθεί.  Αυτό το
callable μπορεί είτε να επιστρέψει έναν *note path entry finder: 1419.
που μπορεί να χειριστεί την καταχώρηση διαδρομής, είτε να κάνει raise
ένα *note ImportError: 1bd.  Το ‘ImportError’ χρησιμοποιείται από τον
path based finder για να δηλώσει ότι το hook δεν μπορεί να βρει path
entry finder για το συγκεκριμένο *note path entry: 264e.  Η εξαίρεση
αγνοείται και η επανάληψη στο *note import path: 2640. συνεχίζεται.  Το
hook θα πρέπει να αναμένει είτε συμβολοσειρά είτε αντικείμενο bytes· η
κωδικοποίηση των bytes αντικειμένων επαφίεται στο hook (π.χ.  μπορεί να
είναι μία κωδικοποίηση του συστήματος αρχείων, UTF-8 ή κάτι άλλο), και
αν το hook δεν μπορεί να κάνει αποκωδικοποίηση το όρισμα, θα πρέπει να
κάνει raise ένα ‘ImportError’.

Αν η επανάληψη στο *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd. ολοκληρωθεί χωρίς να
επιστραφεί *note path entry finder: 1419, τότε η μέθοδος *note
find_spec(): 13ba. του path based finder θα αποθηκεύσει ‘None’ στο *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 9db. (για να δηλώσει ότι δεν υπάρχει finder για
αυτή την καταχώρηση διαδρομής) και θα επιστρέψει ‘None’, δηλώνοντας ότι
αυτός ο *note meta path finder: 1418. δεν μπόρεσε να βρει το module.

Αν 'επιστραφεί' ένας *note path entry finder: 1419. από κάποιο από τα
*note path entry hook: 2650. callables στο *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd,
τότε χρησιμοποιείται το ακόλουθο πρωτόκολλο για να ζητηθεί από τον
finder ένα module spec, το οποίο στη συνέχεια χρησιμοποιείται κατά τη
φόρτωση του module.

Ο τρέχων κατάλογος εργασίας – που δηλώνεται με κενή συμβολοσειρά –
αντιμετωπίζεται λίγο διαφορετικά από τις άλλες εγγραφές στο *note
sys.path: 194.  Πρώτον, αν δεν μπορεί να προσδιοριστεί ή αν διαπιστωθεί
ότι δεν υπάρχει, δεν αποθηκεύεται τιμή στο *note
sys.path_importer_cache: 9db.  Δεύτερον, η τιμή για τον τρέχοντα
κατάλογο εργασίας αναζητείται εκ νέου για κάθε αναζήτηση module.
Τρίτον, η διαδρομή που χρησιμοποιείται για το ‘sys.path_importer_cache’
και επιστρέφεται από τη *note
importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec(): 13ba. θα είναι ο πραγματικός
τρέχων κατάλογος εργασίας και όχι η κενή συμβολοσειρά.


File: python.info,  Node: Πρωτόκολλο path entry finder,  Prev: Finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής Path entry finders,  Up: Finder βασισμένος στη διαδρομή

4.5.5.2 Πρωτόκολλο path entry finder
....................................

Για να υποστηρίζεται η εισαγωγή των modules και των αρχικοποιημένων
πακέτων, καθώς και για τη συνεισφορά portions σε namespace πακέτα, οι
path entry finders πρέπει να υλοποιούν τη μέθοδο *note find_spec(): c42.

Η *note find_spec(): c42. παίρνει δύο ορίσματα: το πλήρως αναγνωρισμένο
όνομα του module που εισάγεται και το (προαιρετικό) target module.  Η
‘find_spec()’ επιστρέφει ένα πλήρως συμπληρωμένο spec για το module.
Αυτό το spec θα έχει πάντα ορισμένο το «loader» (με μία εξαίρεση).

Για να δηλώσει στον μηχανισμό εισαγωγής ότι το spec αναπαριστά ένα
namespace *note portion: 2639, ο path entry finder ορίζει το
‘submodule_search_locations’ σε μια λίστα που περιέχει το portion.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Η *note find_spec(): c42. αντικατέστησε τις
‘find_loader()’ και ‘find_module()’, οι οποίες έχουν πλέον χαρακτηριστεί
ως απαρχαιωμένες, αλλά θα χρησιμοποιηθούν αν δεν ορίζεται η
‘find_spec()’.

Παλαιότεροι path entry finders μπορεί να υλοποιούν μία από αυτές τις δύο
απαρχαιωμένες μεθόδους αντί για την ‘find_spec()’.  Οι μέθοδοι αυτές
εξακολουθούν να γίνονται δεκτές για λόγους συμβατότητας προς τα πίσω.
Ωστόσο, αν ο path entry finder υλοποιεί ‘find_spec()’, οι παλιές μέθοδοι
αγνοούνται.

Η ‘find_loader()’ παίρνει ένα όρισμα, το πλήρως αναγνωρισμένο όνομα του
module που εισάγεται.  Η ‘find_loader()’ επιστρέφει ένα tuple όπου το
πρώτο στοιχείο είναι ο loader και το δεύτερο στοιχείο είναι ένα
namespace *note portion: 2639.

Για συμβατότητα προς τα πίσω με άλλες υλοποιήσεις του πρωτοκόλλου
εισαγωγής, πολλοί path entry finders υποστηρίζουν επίσης την ίδια
παραδοσιακή μέθοδο ‘find_module()’ που υποστηρίζουν και οι meta path
finders.  Ωστόσο, οι μέθοδοι ‘find_module()’ των path entry finders δεν
καλούνται ποτέ με όρισμα ‘path’ (αναμένεται να έχουν καταγράψει την
κατάλληλη πληροφορία διαδρομής από την αρχική κλήση του path hook).

Η μέθοδος ‘find_module()’ στους path entry finders έχει χαρακτηριστεί ως
απαρχαιωμένη, καθώς δεν επιτρέπει στον path entry finder να συνεισφέρει
portions σε namespace πακέτα.  Αν ένας path entry finder διαθέτει και
‘find_loader()’ και ‘find_module()’, το σύστημα εισαγωγής θα καλεί πάντα
την ‘find_loader()’ αντί για την ‘find_module()’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Οι κλήσεις των ‘find_module()’ και
‘find_loader()’ από το σύστημα εισαγωγής θα κάνουν raise μία *note
ImportWarning: 907.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Οι ‘find_module()’ και ‘find_loader()’ έχουν
αφαιρεθεί.


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικατάσταση του τυπικού συστήματος εισαγωγής,  Next: Σχετικές εισαγωγές σε πακέτα,  Prev: Finder βασισμένος στη διαδρομή,  Up: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής

4.5.6 Αντικατάσταση του τυπικού συστήματος εισαγωγής
----------------------------------------------------

Ο πιο αξιόπιστος μηχανισμός για την αντικατάσταση ολόκληρου του
συστήματος εισαγωγής είναι η διαγραφή των προεπιλεγμένων περιεχομένων
του *note sys.meta_path: 10e3, αντικαθιστώντας τα πλήρως με ένα
προσαρμοσμένο hook μετά-διαδρομής.

If it is acceptable to only alter the behaviour of import statements
without affecting other APIs that access the import system, then
replacing the builtin *note __import__(): ca6. function may be
sufficient.

Για να αποτρέψετε επιλεκτικά την εισαγωγή ορισμένων modules από ένα hook
νωρίς στη μεταδιαδρομή (αντί να απενεργοποιήσετε πλήρως το τυπικό
σύστημα εισαγωγής), αρκεί να κάνετε raise το *note ModuleNotFoundError:
1be. απευθείας από τη *note find_spec(): c3f. αντί να επιστρέψετε
‘None’.  Το ‘None’ δηλώνει ότι η αναζήτηση στη μεταδιαδρομή πρέπει να
συνεχιστεί, ενώ η υποβολή αιτήματος εξαίρεσης την τερματίζει άμεσα.


File: python.info,  Node: Σχετικές εισαγωγές σε πακέτα,  Next: Ειδικές περιπτώσεις για το __main__,  Prev: Αντικατάσταση του τυπικού συστήματος εισαγωγής,  Up: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής

4.5.7 Σχετικές εισαγωγές σε πακέτα
----------------------------------

Οι σχετικές εισαγωγές χρησιμοποιούν τελείες στην αρχή.  Μια και μόνο
τελεία στην αρχή δηλώνει σχετική εισαγωγή που ξεκινά από το τρέχον
πακέτο.  Δύο ή περισσότερες τελείες δηλώνουν σχετική εισαγωγή προς το/τα
γονικό/ά του τρέχοντος πακέτου, ένα επίπεδο ανά τελεία μετά την πρώτη.
Για παράδειγμα, με την ακόλουθη διάταξη πακέτου:

     package/
         __init__.py
         subpackage1/
             __init__.py
             moduleX.py
             moduleY.py
         subpackage2/
             __init__.py
             moduleZ.py
         moduleA.py

Είτε στο ‘subpackage1/moduleX.py’ είτε στο ‘subpackage1/__init__.py’, τα
παρακάτω είναι έγκυρες σχετικές εισαγωγές:

     from .moduleY import spam
     from .moduleY import spam as ham
     from . import moduleY
     from ..subpackage1 import moduleY
     from ..subpackage2.moduleZ import eggs
     from ..moduleA import foo

Οι απόλυτες εισαγωγές μπορούν να χρησιμοποιούν είτε τη σύνταξη ‘import
<>’ είτε τη ‘from <> import <>’, αλλά οι σχετικές εισαγωγές μπορούν να
χρησιμοποιούν μόνο τη δεύτερη μορφή· ο λόγος είναι ότι:

     import XXX.YYY.ZZZ

θα πρέπει να εκθέτει το ‘XXX.YYY.ZZZ’ ως χρησιμοποιήσιμη έκφραση, αλλά
το .moduleY δεν είναι έγκυρη έκφραση.


File: python.info,  Node: Ειδικές περιπτώσεις για το __main__,  Next: Αναφορές,  Prev: Σχετικές εισαγωγές σε πακέτα,  Up: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής

4.5.8 Ειδικές περιπτώσεις για το __main__
-----------------------------------------

Το module *note __main__: 1. είναι μια ειδική περίπτωση σε σχέση με το
σύστημα εισαγωγής της Python.  Όπως σημειώνεται *note αλλού: 2648, το
‘__main__’ αρχικοποιείται απευθείας κατά την εκκίνηση του διερμηνέα,
όπως και τα *note sys: e2. και *note builtins: 13.  Ωστόσο, σε αντίθεση
με αυτά τα δύο, δεν χαρακτηρίζεται αυστηρά ως ενσωματωμένο module.  Αυτό
συμβαίνει επειδή ο τρόπος με τον οποίο αρχικοποιείται το ‘__main__’
εξαρτάται από τις σημαίες και άλλες επιλογές με τις οποίες καλείται ο
διερμηνέας.

* Menu:

* __main__.__spec__: __main__ __spec__.


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ __spec__,  Up: Ειδικές περιπτώσεις για το __main__

4.5.8.1 __main__.__spec__
.........................

Ανάλογα με το πώς αρχικοποιείται το *note __main__: 1, το
‘__main__.__spec__’ ορίζεται κατάλληλα ή σε ‘None’.

Όταν η Python ξεκινά με την επιλογή *note -m: 4ca, το ‘__spec__’
ορίζεται στο module spec του αντίστοιχου module ή πακέτου.  Το
‘__spec__’ συμπληρώνεται επίσης όταν το module ‘__main__’ φορτώνεται ως
μέρος της εκτέλεσης ενός καταλόγου, zipfile ή άλλης εγγραφής του *note
sys.path: 194.

Στις *note υπόλοιπες περιπτώσεις: 230a. το ‘__main__.__spec__’ ορίζεται
σε ‘None’, καθώς ο κώδικας που χρησιμοποιείται για να γεμίσει το *note
__main__: 1. δεν αντιστοιχεί άμεσα σε εισαγόμενο module:

   - διαδραστική προτροπή

   - επιλογή *note -c: 445.

   - εκτέλεση από stdin

   - εκτέλεση απευθείας από το αρχείο πηγαίου κώδικα ή bytecode

Σημειώστε ότι στην τελευταία περίπτωση το ‘__main__.__spec__’ είναι
πάντα ‘None’, 'ακόμη κι αν' το αρχείο θα μπορούσε τεχνικά να εισαχθεί
απευθείας ως module.  Χρησιμοποιήστε το switch *note -m: 4ca. αν
χρειάζεστε έγκυρα module μεταδεδομένων στο *note __main__: 1.

Σημειώστε επίσης ότι ακόμη κι όταν το ‘__main__’ αντιστοιχεί σε
εισαγόμενα module και το ‘__main__.__spec__’ ορίζεται ανάλογα,
εξακολουθούν να θεωρούνται 'διακριτά' modules.  Αυτό οφείλεται στο ότι
μπλοκ κώδικα που προστατεύονται από ελέγχους ‘if __name__ ==
"__main__":’ εκτελούνται μόνο όταν το module χρησιμοποιείται για να
γεμίσει το namespace του ‘__main__’, και όχι κατά την κανονική εισαγωγή.


File: python.info,  Node: Αναφορές,  Prev: Ειδικές περιπτώσεις για το __main__,  Up: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής

4.5.9 Αναφορές
--------------

Ο μηχανισμός εισαγωγής έχει εξελιχθεί σημαντικά από τα πρώτα χρόνια της
Python.  Η αρχική προδιαγραφή για πακέτα(1) είναι ακόμη διαθέσιμη προς
ανάγνωση, αν και ορισμένες λεπτομέρειες έχουν αλλάξει από τότε που
γράφτηκε αυτό το κείμενο.

Η αρχική προδιαγραφή για το *note sys.meta_path: 10e3. ήταν το PEP
302(2), με μεταγενέστερη επέκταση στο PEP 420(3).

Το PEP 420(4) εισήγαγε τα *note namespace πακέτα: 52e. στην Python 3.3.
Το PEP 420(5) εισήγαγε επίσης το πρωτόκολλο ‘find_loader()’ ως
εναλλακτική της ‘find_module()’.

Το PEP 366(6) περιγράφει την προσθήκη του χαρακτηριστικού ‘__package__’
για ρητές σχετικές εισαγωγές σε κύρια modules.

Το PEP 328(7) εισήγαγε απόλυτες και ρητές σχετικές εισαγωγές και αρχικά
πρότεινε το ‘__name__’ για τη σημασιολογία που το PEP 366(8) τελικά
όρισε για το ‘__package__’.

Το PEP 338(9) ορίζει την εκτέλεση modules ως scripts.

Το PEP 451(10) προσθέτει την ενθυλάκωση της κατάστασης εισαγωγής ανά
module σε spec αντικείμενα.  Επίσης μεταφέρει το μεγαλύτερο μέρος των
τυποποιημένων ευθυνών των loaders πίσω στον μηχανισμό εισαγωγής.  Αυτές
οι αλλαγές επιτρέπουν την απόσυρση αρκετών APIs στο σύστημα εισαγωγής
και επίσης την προσθήκη νέων μεθόδων σε finders και loaders.

Υποσημειώσεις
.............

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions,  Next: Απλές εντολές,  Prev: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής,  Up: Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python

4.6 Expressions
===============

This chapter explains the meaning of the elements of expressions in
Python.

'Syntax Notes:' In this and the following chapters, *note grammar
notation: 2475. will be used to describe syntax, not lexical analysis.

When (one alternative of) a syntax rule has the form:

     name: othername

and no semantics are given, the semantics of this form of ‘name’ are the
same as for ‘othername’.

* Menu:

* Arithmetic conversions::
* Atoms::
* Primaries::
* Await expression::
* The power operator::
* Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations::
* Binary arithmetic operations::
* Shifting operations::
* Binary bitwise operations::
* Comparisons::
* Boolean operations::
* Assignment expressions: Assignment expressions<2>.
* Conditional expressions::
* Lambdas::
* Expression lists::
* Evaluation order::
* Operator precedence::


File: python.info,  Node: Arithmetic conversions,  Next: Atoms,  Up: Expressions

4.6.1 Arithmetic conversions
----------------------------

When a description of an arithmetic operator below uses the phrase «the
numeric arguments are converted to a common real type», this means that
the operator implementation for built-in numeric types works as
described in the *note Numeric Types: 265f. section of the standard
library documentation.

Some additional rules apply for certain operators and non-numeric
operands (for example, a string as a left argument to the ‘%’ operator).
Extensions must define their own conversion behavior.


File: python.info,  Node: Atoms,  Next: Primaries,  Prev: Arithmetic conversions,  Up: Expressions

4.6.2 Atoms
-----------

Atoms are the most basic elements of expressions.  The simplest atoms
are *note names: 2491. or literals.  Forms enclosed in parentheses,
brackets or braces are also categorized syntactically as atoms.

Formally, the syntax for atoms is:

     atom:
        | 'True'
        | 'False'
        | 'None'
        | '...'
        | *note identifier: 24b2.
        | *note literal: 2663.
        | *note enclosure: 2664.
     enclosure:
        | *note parenth_form: 2665.
        | *note list_display: 2666.
        | *note dict_display: 2667.
        | *note set_display: 2668.
        | *note generator_expression: 2669.
        | *note yield_atom: 266a.

* Menu:

* Built-in constants::
* Identifiers (Names): Identifiers Names.
* Literals::
* Parenthesized forms::
* Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
* List displays::
* Set displays::
* Dictionary displays::
* Generator expressions::
* Yield expressions::


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in constants,  Next: Identifiers Names,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.1 Built-in constants
..........................

The keywords ‘True’, ‘False’, and ‘None’ name *note built-in constants:
266d.  The token ‘...’ names the *note Ellipsis: 2519. constant.

Evaluation of these atoms yields the corresponding value.

     Σημείωση: Several more built-in constants are available as global
     variables, but only the ones mentioned here are *note keywords:
     247a.  In particular, these names cannot be reassigned or used as
     attributes:

          >>> False = 123
            File "<input>", line 1
             False = 123
             ^^^^^
          SyntaxError: cannot assign to False


File: python.info,  Node: Identifiers Names,  Next: Literals,  Prev: Built-in constants,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.2 Identifiers (Names)
...........................

An identifier occurring as an atom is a name.  See section *note Ονόματα
(αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά): 2491. for lexical definition and
section *note Ονομασία και σύνδεση: 2537. for documentation of naming
and binding.

When the name is bound to an object, evaluation of the atom yields that
object.  When a name is not bound, an attempt to evaluate it raises a
*note NameError: 665. exception.

* Menu:

* Private name mangling::


File: python.info,  Node: Private name mangling,  Up: Identifiers Names

4.6.2.3 Private name mangling
.............................

When an identifier that textually occurs in a class definition begins
with two or more underscore characters and does not end in two or more
underscores, it is considered a 'private name' of that class.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note class specifications: 167c.

More precisely, private names are transformed to a longer form before
code is generated for them.  If the transformed name is longer than 255
characters, implementation-defined truncation may happen.

The transformation is independent of the syntactical context in which
the identifier is used but only the following private identifiers are
mangled:

   - Any name used as the name of a variable that is assigned or read or
     any name of an attribute being accessed.

     The *note __name__: 140e. attribute of nested functions, classes,
     and type aliases is however not mangled.

   - The name of imported modules, e.g., ‘__spam’ in ‘import __spam’.
     If the module is part of a package (i.e., its name contains a dot),
     the name is 'not' mangled, e.g., the ‘__foo’ in ‘import __foo.bar’
     is not mangled.

   - The name of an imported member, e.g., ‘__f’ in ‘from spam import
     __f’.

The transformation rule is defined as follows:

   - The class name, with leading underscores removed and a single
     leading underscore inserted, is inserted in front of the
     identifier, e.g., the identifier ‘__spam’ occurring in a class
     named ‘Foo’, ‘_Foo’ or ‘__Foo’ is transformed to ‘_Foo__spam’.

   - If the class name consists only of underscores, the transformation
     is the identity, e.g., the identifier ‘__spam’ occurring in a class
     named ‘_’ or ‘__’ is left as is.


File: python.info,  Node: Literals,  Next: Parenthesized forms,  Prev: Identifiers Names,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.4 Literals
................

A 'literal' is a textual representation of a value.  Python supports
numeric, string and bytes literals.  *note Format strings: 43a. and
*note template strings: 1a50. are treated as string literals.

Numeric literals consist of a single *note NUMBER: 24f7. token, which
names an integer, floating-point number, or an imaginary number.  See
the *note Αριθμητικά λεκτικά: 2492. section in Lexical analysis
documentation for details.

String and bytes literals may consist of several tokens.  See section
*note String literal concatenation: 24d1. for details.

Note that negative and complex numbers, like ‘-3’ or ‘3+4.2j’, are
syntactically not literals, but *note unary: 2672. or *note binary:
2673. arithmetic operations involving the ‘-’ or ‘+’ operator.

Evaluation of a literal yields an object of the given type (*note int:
326, *note float: 327, *note complex: 328, *note str: 1df, *note bytes:
1c7, or *note Template: 415.) with the given value.  The value may be
approximated in the case of floating-point and imaginary literals.

The formal grammar for literals is:

     literal: *note strings: 2674. | *note NUMBER: 24f7.

* Menu:

* Literals and object identity::
* String literal concatenation::


File: python.info,  Node: Literals and object identity,  Next: String literal concatenation,  Up: Literals

4.6.2.5 Literals and object identity
....................................

All literals correspond to immutable data types, and hence the object’s
identity is less important than its value.  Multiple evaluations of
literals with the same value (either the same occurrence in the program
text or a different occurrence) may obtain the same object or a
different object with the same value.

     CPython implementation detail: For example, in CPython, 'small'
     integers with the same value evaluate to the same object:

          >>> x = 7
          >>> y = 7
          >>> x is y
          True

     However, large integers evaluate to different objects:

          >>> x = 123456789
          >>> y = 123456789
          >>> x is y
          False

     This behavior may change in future versions of CPython.  In
     particular, the boundary between «small» and «large» integers has
     already changed in the past.

     CPython will emit a *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. when you compare
     literals using ‘is’:

          >>> x = 7
          >>> x is 7
          <input>:1: SyntaxWarning: "is" with 'int' literal. Did you mean "=="?
          True

     See *note Πότε μπορώ να βασιστώ σε δοκιμές ταυτότητας με τον
     τελεστή is;: 2676. for more information.

*note Template strings: 1a50. are immutable but may reference mutable
objects as *note Interpolation: 416. values.  For the purposes of this
section, two t-strings have the «same value» if both their structure and
the 'identity' of the values match.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Currently, each evaluation of a
template string results in a different object.


File: python.info,  Node: String literal concatenation,  Prev: Literals and object identity,  Up: Literals

4.6.2.6 String literal concatenation
....................................

Multiple adjacent string or bytes literals, possibly using different
quoting conventions, are allowed, and their meaning is the same as their
concatenation:

     >>> "hello" 'world'
     "helloworld"

This feature is defined at the syntactical level, so it only works with
literals.  To concatenate string expressions at run time, the “+”
operator may be used:

     >>> greeting = "Hello"
     >>> space = " "
     >>> name = "Blaise"
     >>> print(greeting + space + name)   # not: print(greeting space name)
     Hello Blaise

Literal concatenation can freely mix raw strings, triple-quoted strings,
and formatted string literals.  For example:

     >>> "Hello" r', ' f"{name}!"
     "Hello, Blaise!"

This feature can be used to reduce the number of backslashes needed, to
split long strings conveniently across long lines, or even to add
comments to parts of strings.  For example:

     re.compile("[A-Za-z_]"       # letter or underscore
                "[A-Za-z0-9_]*"   # letter, digit or underscore
               )

However, bytes literals may only be combined with other byte literals;
not with string literals of any kind.  Also, template string literals
may only be combined with other template string literals:

     >>> t"Hello" t"{name}!"
     Template(strings=('Hello', '!'), interpolations=(...))

Formally:

     strings: (*note STRING: 24c2. | *note fstring: 24e5.)+ | *note tstring: 24f5.+


File: python.info,  Node: Parenthesized forms,  Next: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries,  Prev: Literals,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.7 Parenthesized forms
...........................

A parenthesized form is an optional expression list enclosed in
parentheses:

     parenth_form: "(" [*note starred_expression: 267a.] ")"

A parenthesized expression list yields whatever that expression list
yields: if the list contains at least one comma, it yields a tuple;
otherwise, it yields the single expression that makes up the expression
list.

An empty pair of parentheses yields an empty tuple object.  Since tuples
are immutable, the same rules as for literals apply (i.e., two
occurrences of the empty tuple may or may not yield the same object).

Note that tuples are not formed by the parentheses, but rather by use of
the comma.  The exception is the empty tuple, for which parentheses
'are' required — allowing unparenthesized «nothing» in expressions would
cause ambiguities and allow common typos to pass uncaught.


File: python.info,  Node: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries,  Next: List displays,  Prev: Parenthesized forms,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.8 Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries
.................................................

For constructing a list, a set or a dictionary Python provides special
syntax called «displays», each of them in two flavors:

   * either the container contents are listed explicitly, or

   * they are computed via a set of looping and filtering instructions,
     called a 'comprehension'.

Common syntax elements for comprehensions are:

     comprehension: *note flexible_expression: 267d. *note comp_for: 267e.
     comp_for:      ["async"] "for" *note target_list: 267f. "in" *note or_test: 2680. [*note comp_iter: 2681.]
     comp_iter:     *note comp_for: 267e. | *note comp_if: 2682.
     comp_if:       "if" *note or_test: 2680. [*note comp_iter: 2681.]

The comprehension consists of a single expression followed by at least
one ‘for’ clause and zero or more ‘for’ or ‘if’ clauses.  In this case,
the elements of the new container are those that would be produced by
considering each of the ‘for’ or ‘if’ clauses a block, nesting from left
to right, and evaluating the expression to produce an element each time
the innermost block is reached.  If the expression is starred, the
result will instead be unpacked to produce zero or more elements.

However, aside from the iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’
clause, the comprehension is executed in a separate implicitly nested
scope.  This ensures that names assigned to in the target list don’t
«leak» into the enclosing scope.

The iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause is evaluated
directly in the enclosing scope and then passed as an argument to the
implicitly nested scope.  Subsequent ‘for’ clauses and any filter
condition in the leftmost ‘for’ clause cannot be evaluated in the
enclosing scope as they may depend on the values obtained from the
leftmost iterable.  For example: ‘[x*y for x in range(10) for y in
range(x, x+10)]’.

To ensure the comprehension always results in a container of the
appropriate type, ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ expressions are prohibited in
the implicitly nested scope.

Since Python 3.6, in an *note async def: 9cf. function, an ‘async for’
clause may be used to iterate over a *note asynchronous iterator: 6cd.
A comprehension in an ‘async def’ function may consist of either a ‘for’
or ‘async for’ clause following the leading expression, may contain
additional ‘for’ or ‘async for’ clauses, and may also use *note await:
432. expressions.

If a comprehension contains ‘async for’ clauses, or if it contains
‘await’ expressions or other asynchronous comprehensions anywhere except
the iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause, it is called an
'asynchronous comprehension'.  An asynchronous comprehension may suspend
the execution of the coroutine function in which it appears.  See also
PEP 530(1).

Added in version 3.6: Asynchronous comprehensions were introduced.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ prohibited in the
implicitly nested scope.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Asynchronous comprehensions are now allowed
inside comprehensions in asynchronous functions.  Outer comprehensions
implicitly become asynchronous.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Unpacking with the ‘*’ operator is now allowed
in the expression.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/


File: python.info,  Node: List displays,  Next: Set displays,  Prev: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.9 List displays
.....................

A list display is a possibly empty series of expressions enclosed in
square brackets:

     list_display: "[" [*note flexible_expression_list: 2685. | *note comprehension: 267c.] "]"

A list display yields a new list object, the contents being specified by
either a list of expressions or a comprehension.  When a comma-separated
list of expressions is supplied, its elements are evaluated from left to
right and placed into the list object in that order.  When a
comprehension is supplied, the list is constructed from the elements
resulting from the comprehension.


File: python.info,  Node: Set displays,  Next: Dictionary displays,  Prev: List displays,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.10 Set displays
.....................

A set display is denoted by curly braces and distinguishable from
dictionary displays by the lack of colons separating keys and values:

     set_display: "{" (*note flexible_expression_list: 2685. | *note comprehension: 267c.) "}"

A set display yields a new mutable set object, the contents being
specified by either a sequence of expressions or a comprehension.  When
a comma-separated list of expressions is supplied, its elements are
evaluated from left to right and added to the set object.  When a
comprehension is supplied, the set is constructed from the elements
resulting from the comprehension.

An empty set cannot be constructed with ‘{}’; this literal constructs an
empty dictionary.


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionary displays,  Next: Generator expressions,  Prev: Set displays,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.11 Dictionary displays
............................

A dictionary display is a possibly empty series of dict items (key/value
pairs) enclosed in curly braces:

     dict_display:       "{" [*note dict_item_list: 2689. | *note dict_comprehension: 268a.] "}"
     dict_item_list:     *note dict_item: 268b. ("," *note dict_item: 268b.)* [","]
     dict_comprehension: *note dict_item: 268b. *note comp_for: 267e.
     dict_item:          *note expression: 42a. ":" *note expression: 42a. | "**" *note or_expr: 24f3.

A dictionary display yields a new dictionary object.

If a comma-separated sequence of dict items is given, they are evaluated
from left to right to define the entries of the dictionary: each key
object is used as a key into the dictionary to store the corresponding
value.  This means that you can specify the same key multiple times in
the dict item list, and the final dictionary’s value for that key will
be the last one given.

A double asterisk ‘**’ denotes 'dictionary unpacking'.  Its operand must
be a *note mapping: 1564.  Each mapping item is added to the new
dictionary.  Later values replace values already set by earlier dict
items and earlier dictionary unpackings.

Added in version 3.5: Unpacking into dictionary displays, originally
proposed by PEP 448(1).

A dict comprehension may take one of two forms:

   - The first form uses two expressions separated with a colon followed
     by the usual «for» and «if» clauses.  When the comprehension is
     run, the resulting key and value elements are inserted in the new
     dictionary in the order they are produced.

   - The second form uses a single expression prefixed by the ‘**’
     dictionary unpacking operator followed by the usual «for» and «if»
     clauses.  When the comprehension is evaluated, the expression is
     evaluated and then unpacked, inserting zero or more key/value pairs
     into the new dictionary.

Both forms of dictionary comprehension retain the property that if the
same key is specified multiple times, the associated value in the
resulting dictionary will be the last one specified.

Restrictions on the types of the key values are listed earlier in
section *note Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου: 2520.  (To summarize, the key
type should be *note hashable: 183, which excludes all mutable objects.)
Clashes between duplicate keys are not detected; the last value
(textually rightmost in the display) stored for a given key value
prevails.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Prior to Python 3.8, in dict comprehensions, the
evaluation order of key and value was not well-defined.  In CPython, the
value was evaluated before the key.  Starting with 3.8, the key is
evaluated before the value, as proposed by PEP 572(2).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Unpacking with the ‘**’ operator is now allowed
in dictionary comprehensions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Generator expressions,  Next: Yield expressions,  Prev: Dictionary displays,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.12 Generator expressions
..............................

A generator expression is a compact generator notation in parentheses:

     generator_expression: "(" *note flexible_expression: 267d. *note comp_for: 267e. ")"

A generator expression yields a new generator object.  Its syntax is the
same as for comprehensions, except that it is enclosed in parentheses
instead of brackets or curly braces.

Variables used in the generator expression are evaluated lazily when the
*note __next__(): 229e. method is called for the generator object (in
the same fashion as normal generators).  However, the iterable
expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause is immediately evaluated, and
the *note iterator: 6ce. is immediately created for that iterable, so
that an error produced while creating the iterator will be emitted at
the point where the generator expression is defined, rather than at the
point where the first value is retrieved.  Subsequent ‘for’ clauses and
any filter condition in the leftmost ‘for’ clause cannot be evaluated in
the enclosing scope as they may depend on the values obtained from the
leftmost iterable.  For example: ‘(x*y for x in range(10) for y in
range(x, x+10))’.

The parentheses can be omitted on calls with only one argument.  See
section *note Calls: 1136. for details.

To avoid interfering with the expected operation of the generator
expression itself, ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ expressions are prohibited
in the implicitly defined generator.

If a generator expression contains either ‘async for’ clauses or *note
await: 432. expressions it is called an 'asynchronous generator
expression'.  An asynchronous generator expression returns a new
asynchronous generator object, which is an asynchronous iterator (see
*note Ασύγχρονοι Iterators: 1130.).

Added in version 3.6: Asynchronous generator expressions were
introduced.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Prior to Python 3.7, asynchronous generator
expressions could only appear in *note async def: 9cf. coroutines.
Starting with 3.7, any function can use asynchronous generator
expressions.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ prohibited in the
implicitly nested scope.


File: python.info,  Node: Yield expressions,  Prev: Generator expressions,  Up: Atoms

4.6.2.13 Yield expressions
..........................

     yield_atom:       "(" *note yield_expression: 24f4. ")"
     yield_from:       "yield" "from" *note expression: 42a.
     yield_expression: "yield" *note yield_list: 2691. | *note yield_from: 2690.

The yield expression is used when defining a *note generator: 1409.
function or an *note asynchronous generator: 2692. function and thus can
only be used in the body of a function definition.  Using a yield
expression in a function’s body causes that function to be a generator
function, and using it in an *note async def: 9cf. function’s body
causes that coroutine function to be an asynchronous generator function.
For example:

     def gen():  # defines a generator function
         yield 123

     async def agen(): # defines an asynchronous generator function
         yield 123

Due to their side effects on the containing scope, ‘yield’ expressions
are not permitted as part of the implicitly defined scopes used to
implement comprehensions and generator expressions.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Yield expressions prohibited in the implicitly
nested scopes used to implement comprehensions and generator
expressions.

Generator functions are described below, while asynchronous generator
functions are described separately in section *note Asynchronous
generator functions: 2693.

When a generator function is called, it returns an iterator known as a
generator.  That generator then controls the execution of the generator
function.  The execution starts when one of the generator’s methods is
called.  At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield
expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of *note
yield_list: 2691. to the generator’s caller, or ‘None’ if ‘yield_list’
is omitted.  By suspended, we mean that all local state is retained,
including the current bindings of local variables, the instruction
pointer, the internal evaluation stack, and the state of any exception
handling.  When the execution is resumed by calling one of the
generator’s methods, the function can proceed exactly as if the yield
expression were just another external call.  The value of the yield
expression after resuming depends on the method which resumed the
execution.  If *note __next__(): 229e. is used (typically via either a
*note for: 321. or the *note next(): bb5. builtin) then the result is
*note None: a65.  Otherwise, if *note send(): 260f. is used, then the
result will be the value passed in to that method.

All of this makes generator functions quite similar to coroutines; they
yield multiple times, they have more than one entry point and their
execution can be suspended.  The only difference is that a generator
function cannot control where the execution should continue after it
yields; the control is always transferred to the generator’s caller.

Yield expressions are allowed anywhere in a *note try: ad6. construct.
If the generator is not resumed before it is finalized (by reaching a
zero reference count or by being garbage collected), the
generator-iterator’s *note close(): 199e. method will be called,
allowing any pending *note finally: 44c. clauses to execute.

When ‘yield from <expr>’ is used, the supplied expression must be an
iterable.  The values produced by iterating that iterable are passed
directly to the caller of the current generator’s methods.  Any values
passed in with *note send(): 260f. and any exceptions passed in with
*note throw(): 905. are passed to the underlying iterator if it has the
appropriate methods.  If this is not the case, then ‘send()’ will raise
*note AttributeError: 1a9. or *note TypeError: 291, while ‘throw()’ will
just raise the passed in exception immediately.

When the underlying iterator is complete, the *note value: 260c.
attribute of the raised *note StopIteration: fba. instance becomes the
value of the yield expression.  It can be either set explicitly when
raising ‘StopIteration’, or automatically when the subiterator is a
generator (by returning a value from the subgenerator).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added ‘yield from <expr>’ to delegate control
flow to a subiterator.

The parentheses may be omitted when the yield expression is the sole
expression on the right hand side of an assignment statement.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 255(1) - Simple Generators

     The proposal for adding generators and the *note yield: d93.
     statement to Python.

PEP 342(2) - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators

     The proposal to enhance the API and syntax of generators, making
     them usable as simple coroutines.

PEP 380(3) - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator

     The proposal to introduce the *note yield_from: 2690. syntax,
     making delegation to subgenerators easy.

PEP 525(4) - Asynchronous Generators

     The proposal that expanded on PEP 492(5) by adding generator
     capabilities to coroutine functions.

* Menu:

* Generator-iterator methods::
* Examples::
* Asynchronous generator functions::
* Asynchronous generator-iterator methods::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Generator-iterator methods,  Next: Examples,  Up: Yield expressions

4.6.2.14 Generator-iterator methods
...................................

This subsection describes the methods of a generator iterator.  They can
be used to control the execution of a generator function.

Note that calling any of the generator methods below when the generator
is already executing raises a *note ValueError: 277. exception.

 -- Μέθοδος: generator.__next__ ()

     Starts the execution of a generator function or resumes it at the
     last executed yield expression.  When a generator function is
     resumed with a ‘__next__()’ method, the current yield expression
     always evaluates to *note None: a65.  The execution then continues
     to the next yield expression, where the generator is suspended
     again, and the value of the *note yield_list: 2691. is returned to
     ‘__next__()’”s caller.  If the generator exits without yielding
     another value, a *note StopIteration: fba. exception is raised.

     This method is normally called implicitly, e.g.  by a *note for:
     321. loop, or by the built-in *note next(): bb5. function.

 -- Μέθοδος: generator.send (value)

     Resumes the execution and «sends» a value into the generator
     function.  The 'value' argument becomes the result of the current
     yield expression.  The ‘send()’ method returns the next value
     yielded by the generator, or raises *note StopIteration: fba. if
     the generator exits without yielding another value.  When ‘send()’
     is called to start the generator, it must be called with *note
     None: a65. as the argument, because there is no yield expression
     that could receive the value.

 -- Μέθοδος: generator.throw (value)

 -- Μέθοδος: generator.throw (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Raises an exception at the point where the generator was paused,
     and returns the next value yielded by the generator function.  If
     the generator exits without yielding another value, a *note
     StopIteration: fba. exception is raised.  If the generator function
     does not catch the passed-in exception, or raises a different
     exception, then that exception propagates to the caller.

     In typical use, this is called with a single exception instance
     similar to the way the *note raise: 9e4. keyword is used.

     For backwards compatibility, however, the second signature is
     supported, following a convention from older versions of Python.
     The 'type' argument should be an exception class, and 'value'
     should be an exception instance.  If the 'value' is not provided,
     the 'type' constructor is called to get an instance.  If
     'traceback' is provided, it is set on the exception, otherwise any
     existing *note __traceback__: 166b. attribute stored in 'value' may
     be cleared.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The second signature (type[, value[,
     traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version
     of Python.

 -- Μέθοδος: generator.close ()

     Raises a *note GeneratorExit: 176a. exception at the point where
     the generator function was paused (equivalent to calling
     ‘throw(GeneratorExit)’).  The exception is raised by the yield
     expression where the generator was paused.  If the generator
     function catches the exception and returns a value, this value is
     returned from ‘close()’.  If the generator function is already
     closed, or raises ‘GeneratorExit’ (by not catching the exception),
     ‘close()’ returns *note None: a65.  If the generator yields a
     value, a *note RuntimeError: 30d. is raised.  If the generator
     raises any other exception, it is propagated to the caller.  If the
     generator has already exited due to an exception or normal exit,
     ‘close()’ returns ‘None’ and has no other effect.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: If a generator returns a value upon being
     closed, the value is returned by ‘close()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples,  Next: Asynchronous generator functions,  Prev: Generator-iterator methods,  Up: Yield expressions

4.6.2.15 Examples
.................

Here is a simple example that demonstrates the behavior of generators
and generator functions:

     >>> def echo(value=None):
     ...     print("Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.")
     ...     try:
     ...         while True:
     ...             try:
     ...                 value = (yield value)
     ...             except Exception as e:
     ...                 value = e
     ...     finally:
     ...         print("Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.")
     ...
     >>> generator = echo(1)
     >>> print(next(generator))
     Execution starts when 'next()' is called for the first time.
     1
     >>> print(next(generator))
     None
     >>> print(generator.send(2))
     2
     >>> generator.throw(TypeError, "spam")
     TypeError('spam',)
     >>> generator.close()
     Don't forget to clean up when 'close()' is called.

For examples using ‘yield from’, see *note PEP 380; Syntax for
Delegating to a Subgenerator: 13e2. in «What’s New in Python.»


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous generator functions,  Next: Asynchronous generator-iterator methods,  Prev: Examples,  Up: Yield expressions

4.6.2.16 Asynchronous generator functions
.........................................

The presence of a yield expression in a function or method defined using
*note async def: 9cf. further defines the function as an *note
asynchronous generator: 2692. function.

When an asynchronous generator function is called, it returns an
asynchronous iterator known as an asynchronous generator object.  That
object then controls the execution of the generator function.  An
asynchronous generator object is typically used in an *note async for:
e70. statement in a coroutine function analogously to how a generator
object would be used in a *note for: 321. statement.

Calling one of the asynchronous generator’s methods returns an *note
awaitable: 6cf. object, and the execution starts when this object is
awaited on.  At that time, the execution proceeds to the first yield
expression, where it is suspended again, returning the value of *note
yield_list: 2691. to the awaiting coroutine.  As with a generator,
suspension means that all local state is retained, including the current
bindings of local variables, the instruction pointer, the internal
evaluation stack, and the state of any exception handling.  When the
execution is resumed by awaiting on the next object returned by the
asynchronous generator’s methods, the function can proceed exactly as if
the yield expression were just another external call.  The value of the
yield expression after resuming depends on the method which resumed the
execution.  If *note __anext__(): 2697. is used then the result is *note
None: a65.  Otherwise, if *note asend(): cab. is used, then the result
will be the value passed in to that method.

If an asynchronous generator happens to exit early by *note break: 428,
the caller task being cancelled, or other exceptions, the generator’s
async cleanup code will run and possibly raise exceptions or access
context variables in an unexpected context–perhaps after the lifetime of
tasks it depends, or during the event loop shutdown when the
async-generator garbage collection hook is called.  To prevent this, the
caller must explicitly close the async generator by calling *note
aclose(): caa. method to finalize the generator and ultimately detach it
from the event loop.

In an asynchronous generator function, yield expressions are allowed
anywhere in a *note try: ad6. construct.  However, if an asynchronous
generator is not resumed before it is finalized (by reaching a zero
reference count or by being garbage collected), then a yield expression
within a ‘try’ construct could result in a failure to execute pending
*note finally: 44c. clauses.  In this case, it is the responsibility of
the event loop or scheduler running the asynchronous generator to call
the asynchronous generator-iterator’s *note aclose(): caa. method and
run the resulting coroutine object, thus allowing any pending ‘finally’
clauses to execute.

To take care of finalization upon event loop termination, an event loop
should define a 'finalizer' function which takes an asynchronous
generator-iterator and presumably calls *note aclose(): caa. and
executes the coroutine.  This 'finalizer' may be registered by calling
*note sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 1baa.  When first iterated over, an
asynchronous generator-iterator will store the registered 'finalizer' to
be called upon finalization.  For a reference example of a 'finalizer'
method see the implementation of ‘asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens’ in
Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(1).

The expression ‘yield from <expr>’ is a syntax error when used in an
asynchronous generator function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous generator-iterator methods,  Prev: Asynchronous generator functions,  Up: Yield expressions

4.6.2.17 Asynchronous generator-iterator methods
................................................

This subsection describes the methods of an asynchronous generator
iterator, which are used to control the execution of a generator
function.

 -- Μέθοδος: async agen.__anext__ ()

     Returns an awaitable which when run starts to execute the
     asynchronous generator or resumes it at the last executed yield
     expression.  When an asynchronous generator function is resumed
     with an ‘__anext__()’ method, the current yield expression always
     evaluates to *note None: a65. in the returned awaitable, which when
     run will continue to the next yield expression.  The value of the
     *note yield_list: 2691. of the yield expression is the value of the
     *note StopIteration: fba. exception raised by the completing
     coroutine.  If the asynchronous generator exits without yielding
     another value, the awaitable instead raises a *note
     StopAsyncIteration: 1ffe. exception, signalling that the
     asynchronous iteration has completed.

     This method is normally called implicitly by a *note async for:
     e70. loop.

 -- Μέθοδος: async agen.asend (value)

     Returns an awaitable which when run resumes the execution of the
     asynchronous generator.  As with the *note send(): 260f. method for
     a generator, this «sends» a value into the asynchronous generator
     function, and the 'value' argument becomes the result of the
     current yield expression.  The awaitable returned by the ‘asend()’
     method will return the next value yielded by the generator as the
     value of the raised *note StopIteration: fba, or raises *note
     StopAsyncIteration: 1ffe. if the asynchronous generator exits
     without yielding another value.  When ‘asend()’ is called to start
     the asynchronous generator, it must be called with *note None: a65.
     as the argument, because there is no yield expression that could
     receive the value.

 -- Μέθοδος: async agen.athrow (value)

 -- Μέθοδος: async agen.athrow (type[, value[, traceback]])

     Returns an awaitable that raises an exception of type ‘type’ at the
     point where the asynchronous generator was paused, and returns the
     next value yielded by the generator function as the value of the
     raised *note StopIteration: fba. exception.  If the asynchronous
     generator exits without yielding another value, a *note
     StopAsyncIteration: 1ffe. exception is raised by the awaitable.  If
     the generator function does not catch the passed-in exception, or
     raises a different exception, then when the awaitable is run that
     exception propagates to the caller of the awaitable.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The second signature (type[, value[,
     traceback]]) is deprecated and may be removed in a future version
     of Python.

 -- Μέθοδος: async agen.aclose ()

     Returns an awaitable that when run will throw a *note
     GeneratorExit: 176a. into the asynchronous generator function at
     the point where it was paused.  If the asynchronous generator
     function then exits gracefully, is already closed, or raises
     ‘GeneratorExit’ (by not catching the exception), then the returned
     awaitable will raise a *note StopIteration: fba. exception.  Any
     further awaitables returned by subsequent calls to the asynchronous
     generator will raise a *note StopAsyncIteration: 1ffe. exception.
     If the asynchronous generator yields a value, a *note RuntimeError:
     30d. is raised by the awaitable.  If the asynchronous generator
     raises any other exception, it is propagated to the caller of the
     awaitable.  If the asynchronous generator has already exited due to
     an exception or normal exit, then further calls to ‘aclose()’ will
     return an awaitable that does nothing.


File: python.info,  Node: Primaries,  Next: Await expression,  Prev: Atoms,  Up: Expressions

4.6.3 Primaries
---------------

Primaries represent the most tightly bound operations of the language.
Their syntax is:

     primary: *note atom: 2662. | *note attributeref: 269d. | *note subscription: 269e. | *note call: 269f.

* Menu:

* Attribute references::
* Subscriptions and slicings::
* Calls::


File: python.info,  Node: Attribute references,  Next: Subscriptions and slicings,  Up: Primaries

4.6.3.1 Attribute references
............................

An attribute reference is a primary followed by a period and a name:

     attributeref: *note primary: 269c. "." *note identifier: 24b2.

The primary must evaluate to an object of a type that supports attribute
references, which most objects do.  This object is then asked to produce
the attribute whose name is the identifier.  The type and value produced
is determined by the object.  Multiple evaluations of the same attribute
reference may yield different objects.

This production can be customized by overriding the *note
__getattribute__(): f90. method or the *note __getattr__(): 8e3. method.
The ‘__getattribute__()’ method is called first and either returns a
value or raises *note AttributeError: 1a9. if the attribute is not
available.

If an *note AttributeError: 1a9. is raised and the object has a
‘__getattr__()’ method, that method is called as a fallback.


File: python.info,  Node: Subscriptions and slicings,  Next: Calls,  Prev: Attribute references,  Up: Primaries

4.6.3.2 Subscriptions and slicings
..................................

The 'subscription' syntax is usually used for selecting an element from
a *note container: 25c9. – for example, to get a value from a *note
dict: 188.:

     >>> digits_by_name = {'one': 1, 'two': 2}
     >>> digits_by_name['two']  # Subscripting a dictionary using the key 'two'
     2

In the subscription syntax, the object being subscribed – a *note
primary: 269b. – is followed by a 'subscript' in square brackets.  In
the simplest case, the subscript is a single expression.

Depending on the type of the object being subscribed, the subscript is
sometimes called a *note key: 25d9. (for mappings), *note index: 25d8.
(for sequences), or 'type argument' (for *note generic types: 1d1.).
Syntactically, these are all equivalent:

     >>> colors = ['red', 'blue', 'green', 'black']
     >>> colors[3]  # Subscripting a list using the index 3
     'black'

     >>> list[str]  # Parameterizing the list type using the type argument str
     list[str]

At runtime, the interpreter will evaluate the primary and the subscript,
and call the primary’s *note __getitem__(): 787. or *note
__class_getitem__(): b21. *note special method: 1e57. with the subscript
as argument.  For more details on which of these methods is called, see
*note __class_getitem__ έναντι __getitem__: 25c3.

To show how subscription works, we can define a custom object that
implements *note __getitem__(): 787. and prints out the value of the
subscript:

     >>> class SubscriptionDemo:
     ...     def __getitem__(self, key):
     ...         print(f'subscripted with: {key!r}')
     ...
     >>> demo = SubscriptionDemo()
     >>> demo[1]
     subscripted with: 1
     >>> demo['a' * 3]
     subscripted with: 'aaa'

See *note __getitem__(): 787. documentation for how built-in types
handle subscription.

Subscriptions may also be used as targets in *note assignment: 261d. or
*note deletion: 1d1d. statements.  In these cases, the interpreter will
call the subscripted object’s *note __setitem__(): 1670. or *note
__delitem__(): 1671. *note special method: 1e57, respectively, instead
of *note __getitem__(): 787.

     >>> colors = ['red', 'blue', 'green', 'black']
     >>> colors[3] = 'white'  # Setting item at index
     >>> colors
     ['red', 'blue', 'green', 'white']
     >>> del colors[3]  # Deleting item at index 3
     >>> colors
     ['red', 'blue', 'green']

All advanced forms of 'subscript' documented in the following sections
are also usable for assignment and deletion.

* Menu:

* Slicings::
* Comma-separated subscripts::
* «Starred» subscriptions::
* Formal subscription grammar::


File: python.info,  Node: Slicings,  Next: Comma-separated subscripts,  Up: Subscriptions and slicings

4.6.3.3 Slicings
................

A more advanced form of subscription, 'slicing', is commonly used to
extract a portion of a *note sequence: 2529.  In this form, the
subscript is a *note slice: 26a5.: up to three expressions separated by
colons.  Any of the expressions may be omitted, but a slice must contain
at least one colon:

     >>> number_names = ['zero', 'one', 'two', 'three', 'four', 'five']
     >>> number_names[1:3]
     ['one', 'two']
     >>> number_names[1:]
     ['one', 'two', 'three', 'four', 'five']
     >>> number_names[:3]
     ['zero', 'one', 'two']
     >>> number_names[:]
     ['zero', 'one', 'two', 'three', 'four', 'five']
     >>> number_names[::2]
     ['zero', 'two', 'four']
     >>> number_names[:-3]
     ['zero', 'one', 'two']
     >>> del number_names[4:]
     >>> number_names
     ['zero', 'one', 'two', 'three']

When a slice is evaluated, the interpreter constructs a *note slice:
1d0. object whose *note start: 259a, *note stop: 259b. and *note step:
259c. attributes, respectively, are the results of the expressions
between the colons.  Any missing expression evaluates to *note None:
a65.  This ‘slice’ object is then passed to the *note __getitem__():
787. or *note __class_getitem__(): b21. *note special method: 1e57, as
above.

     # continuing with the SubscriptionDemo instance defined above:
     >>> demo[2:3]
     subscripted with: slice(2, 3, None)
     >>> demo[::'spam']
     subscripted with: slice(None, None, 'spam')


File: python.info,  Node: Comma-separated subscripts,  Next: «Starred» subscriptions,  Prev: Slicings,  Up: Subscriptions and slicings

4.6.3.4 Comma-separated subscripts
..................................

The subscript can also be given as two or more comma-separated
expressions or slices:

     # continuing with the SubscriptionDemo instance defined above:
     >>> demo[1, 2, 3]
     subscripted with: (1, 2, 3)
     >>> demo[1:2, 3]
     subscripted with: (slice(1, 2, None), 3)

This form is commonly used with numerical libraries for slicing
multi-dimensional data.  In this case, the interpreter constructs a
*note tuple: 1ce. of the results of the expressions or slices, and
passes this tuple to the *note __getitem__(): 787. or *note
__class_getitem__(): b21. *note special method: 1e57, as above.

The subscript may also be given as a single expression or slice followed
by a comma, to specify a one-element tuple:

     >>> demo['spam',]
     subscripted with: ('spam',)


File: python.info,  Node: «Starred» subscriptions,  Next: Formal subscription grammar,  Prev: Comma-separated subscripts,  Up: Subscriptions and slicings

4.6.3.5 «Starred» subscriptions
...............................

Added in version 3.11: Expressions in 'tuple_slices' may be starred.
See PEP 646(1).

The subscript can also contain a starred expression.  In this case, the
interpreter unpacks the result into a tuple, and passes this tuple to
*note __getitem__(): 787. or *note __class_getitem__(): b21.:

     # continuing with the SubscriptionDemo instance defined above:
     >>> demo[*range(10)]
     subscripted with: (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)

Starred expressions may be combined with comma-separated expressions and
slices:

     >>> demo['a', 'b', *range(3), 'c']
     subscripted with: ('a', 'b', 0, 1, 2, 'c')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/


File: python.info,  Node: Formal subscription grammar,  Prev: «Starred» subscriptions,  Up: Subscriptions and slicings

4.6.3.6 Formal subscription grammar
...................................

     subscription:     *note primary: 269c. '[' *note subscript: 26a9. ']'
     subscript:        *note single_subscript: 26aa. | *note tuple_subscript: 26ab.
     single_subscript: *note proper_slice: 26ac. | *note assignment_expression: 2623.
     proper_slice:     [*note expression: 42a.] ":" [*note expression: 42a.] [ ":" [*note expression: 42a.] ]
     tuple_subscript:  ','.(*note single_subscript: 26aa. | *note starred_expression: 267a.)+ [',']

Recall that the ‘|’ operator *note denotes ordered choice: 2475.
Specifically, in ‘subscript’, if both alternatives would match, the
first (‘single_subscript’) has priority.


File: python.info,  Node: Calls,  Prev: Subscriptions and slicings,  Up: Primaries

4.6.3.7 Calls
.............

A call calls a callable object (e.g., a *note function: 26ae.) with a
possibly empty series of *note arguments: 867.:

     call:                 *note primary: 269c. "(" [*note argument_list: 26af. [","] | *note comprehension: 267c.] ")"
     argument_list:        *note positional_arguments: 26b0. ["," *note starred_and_keywords: 26b1.]
                             ["," *note keywords_arguments: 26b2.]
                           | *note starred_and_keywords: 26b1. ["," *note keywords_arguments: 26b2.]
                           | *note keywords_arguments: 26b2.
     positional_arguments: *note positional_item: 26b3. ("," *note positional_item: 26b3.)*
     positional_item:      *note assignment_expression: 2623. | "*" *note expression: 42a.
     starred_and_keywords: ("*" *note expression: 42a. | *note keyword_item: 26b4.)
                           ("," "*" *note expression: 42a. | "," *note keyword_item: 26b4.)*
     keywords_arguments:   (*note keyword_item: 26b4. | "**" *note expression: 42a.)
                           ("," *note keyword_item: 26b4. | "," "**" *note expression: 42a.)*
     keyword_item:         *note identifier: 24b2. "=" *note expression: 42a.

An optional trailing comma may be present after the positional and
keyword arguments but does not affect the semantics.

The primary must evaluate to a callable object (user-defined functions,
built-in functions, methods of built-in objects, class objects, methods
of class instances, and all objects having a *note __call__(): 961.
method are callable).  All argument expressions are evaluated before the
call is attempted.  Please refer to section *note Function definitions:
2206. for the syntax of formal *note parameter: 253c. lists.

If keyword arguments are present, they are first converted to positional
arguments, as follows.  First, a list of unfilled slots is created for
the formal parameters.  If there are N positional arguments, they are
placed in the first N slots.  Next, for each keyword argument, the
identifier is used to determine the corresponding slot (if the
identifier is the same as the first formal parameter name, the first
slot is used, and so on).  If the slot is already filled, a *note
TypeError: 291. exception is raised.  Otherwise, the argument is placed
in the slot, filling it (even if the expression is ‘None’, it fills the
slot).  When all arguments have been processed, the slots that are still
unfilled are filled with the corresponding default value from the
function definition.  (Default values are calculated, once, when the
function is defined; thus, a mutable object such as a list or dictionary
used as default value will be shared by all calls that don’t specify an
argument value for the corresponding slot; this should usually be
avoided.)  If there are any unfilled slots for which no default value is
specified, a ‘TypeError’ exception is raised.  Otherwise, the list of
filled slots is used as the argument list for the call.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' An implementation may provide built-in
functions whose positional parameters do not have names, even if they
are “named” for the purpose of documentation, and which therefore cannot
be supplied by keyword.  In CPython, this is the case for functions
implemented in C that use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. to parse their
arguments.

If there are more positional arguments than there are formal parameter
slots, a *note TypeError: 291. exception is raised, unless a formal
parameter using the syntax ‘*identifier’ is present; in this case, that
formal parameter receives a tuple containing the excess positional
arguments (or an empty tuple if there were no excess positional
arguments).

If any keyword argument does not correspond to a formal parameter name,
a *note TypeError: 291. exception is raised, unless a formal parameter
using the syntax ‘**identifier’ is present; in this case, that formal
parameter receives a dictionary containing the excess keyword arguments
(using the keywords as keys and the argument values as corresponding
values), or a (new) empty dictionary if there were no excess keyword
arguments.

If the syntax ‘*expression’ appears in the function call, ‘expression’
must evaluate to an *note iterable: 15ce.  Elements from these iterables
are treated as if they were additional positional arguments.  For the
call ‘f(x1, x2, *y, x3, x4)’, if 'y' evaluates to a sequence 'y1', …,
'yM', this is equivalent to a call with M+4 positional arguments 'x1',
'x2', 'y1', …, 'yM', 'x3', 'x4'.

A consequence of this is that although the ‘*expression’ syntax may
appear 'after' explicit keyword arguments, it is processed 'before' the
keyword arguments (and any ‘**expression’ arguments – see below).  So:

     >>> def f(a, b):
     ...     print(a, b)
     ...
     >>> f(b=1, *(2,))
     2 1
     >>> f(a=1, *(2,))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: f() got multiple values for keyword argument 'a'
     >>> f(1, *(2,))
     1 2

It is unusual for both keyword arguments and the ‘*expression’ syntax to
be used in the same call, so in practice this confusion does not often
arise.

If the syntax ‘**expression’ appears in the function call, ‘expression’
must evaluate to a *note mapping: 1564, the contents of which are
treated as additional keyword arguments.  If a parameter matching a key
has already been given a value (by an explicit keyword argument, or from
another unpacking), a *note TypeError: 291. exception is raised.

When ‘**expression’ is used, each key in this mapping must be a string.
Each value from the mapping is assigned to the first formal parameter
eligible for keyword assignment whose name is equal to the key.  A key
need not be a Python identifier (e.g.  ‘"max-temp °F"’ is acceptable,
although it will not match any formal parameter that could be declared).
If there is no match to a formal parameter the key-value pair is
collected by the ‘**’ parameter, if there is one, or if there is not, a
*note TypeError: 291. exception is raised.

Formal parameters using the syntax ‘*identifier’ or ‘**identifier’
cannot be used as positional argument slots or as keyword argument
names.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Function calls accept any number of ‘*’ and ‘**’
unpackings, positional arguments may follow iterable unpackings (‘*’),
and keyword arguments may follow dictionary unpackings (‘**’).
Originally proposed by PEP 448(1).

A call always returns some value, possibly ‘None’, unless it raises an
exception.  How this value is computed depends on the type of the
callable object.

If it is—

a user-defined function:

     The code block for the function is executed, passing it the
     argument list.  The first thing the code block will do is bind the
     formal parameters to the arguments; this is described in section
     *note Function definitions: 2206.  When the code block executes a
     *note return: 44b. statement, this specifies the return value of
     the function call.  If execution reaches the end of the code block
     without executing a ‘return’ statement, the return value is ‘None’.

a built-in function or method:

     The result is up to the interpreter; see *note Ενσωματωμένες
     (Built-in) Συναρτήσεις: 1601. for the descriptions of built-in
     functions and methods.

a class object:

     A new instance of that class is returned.

a class instance method:

     The corresponding user-defined function is called, with an argument
     list that is one longer than the argument list of the call: the
     instance becomes the first argument.

a class instance:

     The class must define a *note __call__(): 961. method; the effect
     is then the same as if that method was called.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/


File: python.info,  Node: Await expression,  Next: The power operator,  Prev: Primaries,  Up: Expressions

4.6.4 Await expression
----------------------

Suspend the execution of *note coroutine: 8a2. on an *note awaitable:
6cf. object.  Can only be used inside a *note coroutine function: 112c.

     await_expr: "await" *note primary: 269c.

Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: The power operator,  Next: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations,  Prev: Await expression,  Up: Expressions

4.6.5 The power operator
------------------------

The power operator binds more tightly than unary operators on its left;
it binds less tightly than unary operators on its right.  The syntax is:

     power: (*note await_expr: 26b6. | *note primary: 269c.) ["**" *note u_expr: 26ba.]

Thus, in an unparenthesized sequence of power and unary operators, the
operators are evaluated from right to left (this does not constrain the
evaluation order for the operands): ‘-1**2’ results in ‘-1’.

The power operator has the same semantics as the built-in *note pow():
441. function, when called with two arguments: it yields its left
argument raised to the power of its right argument.  Numeric arguments
are first *note converted to a common type: 265f, and the result is of
that type.

For int operands, the result has the same type as the operands unless
the second argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are
converted to float and a float result is delivered.  For example,
‘10**2’ returns ‘100’, but ‘10**-2’ returns ‘0.01’.

Raising ‘0.0’ to a negative power results in a *note ZeroDivisionError:
d11.  Raising a negative number to a fractional power results in a *note
complex: 328. number.  (In earlier versions it raised a *note
ValueError: 277.)

This operation can be customized using the special *note __pow__(): bb1.
and *note __rpow__(): 442. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations,  Next: Binary arithmetic operations,  Prev: The power operator,  Up: Expressions

4.6.6 Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations
---------------------------------------------

All unary arithmetic and bitwise operations have the same priority:

     u_expr: *note power: 26b9. | "-" *note u_expr: 26ba. | "+" *note u_expr: 26ba. | "~" *note u_expr: 26ba.

The unary ‘-’ (minus) operator yields the negation of its numeric
argument; the operation can be overridden with the *note __neg__():
25f8. special method.

The unary ‘+’ (plus) operator yields its numeric argument unchanged; the
operation can be overridden with the *note __pos__(): 25f9. special
method.

The unary ‘~’ (invert) operator yields the bitwise inversion of its
integer argument.  The bitwise inversion of ‘x’ is defined as ‘-(x+1)’.
It only applies to integral numbers or to custom objects that override
the *note __invert__(): 25fb. special method.

In all three cases, if the argument does not have the proper type, a
*note TypeError: 291. exception is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: Binary arithmetic operations,  Next: Shifting operations,  Prev: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations,  Up: Expressions

4.6.7 Binary arithmetic operations
----------------------------------

The binary arithmetic operations have the conventional priority levels.
Note that some of these operations also apply to certain non-numeric
types.  Apart from the power operator, there are only two levels, one
for multiplicative operators and one for additive operators:

     m_expr: *note u_expr: 26ba. | *note m_expr: 26bd. "*" *note u_expr: 26ba. | *note m_expr: 26bd. "@" *note m_expr: 26bd. |
             *note m_expr: 26bd. "//" *note u_expr: 26ba. | *note m_expr: 26bd. "/" *note u_expr: 26ba. |
             *note m_expr: 26bd. "%" *note u_expr: 26ba.
     a_expr: *note m_expr: 26bd. | *note a_expr: 26be. "+" *note m_expr: 26bd. | *note a_expr: 26be. "-" *note m_expr: 26bd.

The ‘*’ (multiplication) operator yields the product of its arguments.
The arguments must either both be numbers, or one argument must be an
integer and the other must be a sequence.  In the former case, the
numbers are *note converted to a common real type: 265f. and then
multiplied together.  In the latter case, sequence repetition is
performed; a negative repetition factor yields an empty sequence.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __mul__():
25d5. and *note __rmul__(): 25d6. methods.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: If only one operand is a complex number, the
other operand is converted to a floating-point number.

The ‘@’ (at) operator is intended to be used for matrix multiplication.
No builtin Python types implement this operator.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __matmul__():
1132. and *note __rmatmul__(): 1133. methods.

Added in version 3.5.

The ‘/’ (division) and ‘//’ (floor division) operators yield the
quotient of their arguments.  The numeric arguments are first *note
converted to a common type: 265f.  Division of integers yields a float,
while floor division of integers results in an integer; the result is
that of mathematical division with the “floor” function applied to the
result.  Division by zero raises the *note ZeroDivisionError: d11.
exception.

The division operation can be customized using the special *note
__truediv__(): 1241. and *note __rtruediv__(): 25e6. methods.  The floor
division operation can be customized using the special *note
__floordiv__(): 1896. and *note __rfloordiv__(): 25e7. methods.

The ‘%’ (modulo) operator yields the remainder from the division of the
first argument by the second.  The numeric arguments are first *note
converted to a common type: 265f.  A zero right argument raises the
*note ZeroDivisionError: d11. exception.  The arguments may be
floating-point numbers, e.g., ‘3.14%0.7’ equals ‘0.34’ (since ‘3.14’
equals ‘4*0.7 + 0.34’.)  The modulo operator always yields a result with
the same sign as its second operand (or zero); the absolute value of the
result is strictly smaller than the absolute value of the second operand
(1).

The floor division and modulo operators are connected by the following
identity: ‘x == (x//y)*y + (x%y)’.  Floor division and modulo are also
connected with the built-in function *note divmod(): d6a.: ‘divmod(x, y)
== (x//y, x%y)’.  (2).

In addition to performing the modulo operation on numbers, the ‘%’
operator is also overloaded by string objects to perform old-style
string formatting (also known as interpolation).  The syntax for string
formatting is described in the Python Library Reference, section *note
printf-style String Formatting: ab9.

The 'modulo' operation can be customized using the special *note
__mod__(): 25df. and *note __rmod__(): 118e. methods.

The floor division operator, the modulo operator, and the *note
divmod(): d6a. function are not defined for complex numbers.  Instead,
convert to a floating-point number using the *note abs(): 227c. function
if appropriate.

The ‘+’ (addition) operator yields the sum of its arguments.  The
arguments must either both be numbers or both be sequences of the same
type.  In the former case, the numbers are *note converted to a common
real type: 265f. and then added together.  In the latter case, the
sequences are concatenated.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __add__():
25d2. and *note __radd__(): 25d3. methods.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: If only one operand is a complex number, the
other operand is converted to a floating-point number.

The ‘-’ (subtraction) operator yields the difference of its arguments.
The numeric arguments are first *note converted to a common real type:
265f.

This operation can be customized using the special *note __sub__():
25de. and *note __rsub__(): 25e5. methods.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: If only one operand is a complex number, the
other operand is converted to a floating-point number.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) While ‘abs(x%y) < abs(y)’ is true mathematically, for floats it
may not be true numerically due to roundoff.  For example, and assuming
a platform on which a Python float is an IEEE 754 double-precision
number, in order that ‘-1e-100 % 1e100’ have the same sign as ‘1e100’,
the computed result is ‘-1e-100 + 1e100’, which is numerically exactly
equal to ‘1e100’.  The function *note math.fmod(): 26bf. returns a
result whose sign matches the sign of the first argument instead, and so
returns ‘-1e-100’ in this case.  Which approach is more appropriate
depends on the application.

   (2) If x is very close to an exact integer multiple of y, it’s
possible for ‘x//y’ to be one larger than ‘(x-x%y)//y’ due to rounding.
In such cases, Python returns the latter result, in order to preserve
that ‘divmod(x,y)[0] * y + x % y’ be very close to ‘x’.


File: python.info,  Node: Shifting operations,  Next: Binary bitwise operations,  Prev: Binary arithmetic operations,  Up: Expressions

4.6.8 Shifting operations
-------------------------

The shifting operations have lower priority than the arithmetic
operations:

     shift_expr: *note a_expr: 26be. | *note shift_expr: 26c2. ("<<" | ">>") *note a_expr: 26be.

These operators accept integers as arguments.  They shift the first
argument to the left or right by the number of bits given by the second
argument.

The left shift operation can be customized using the special *note
__lshift__(): 25e0. and *note __rlshift__(): 25e9. methods.  The right
shift operation can be customized using the special *note __rshift__():
25e1. and *note __rrshift__(): 25ea. methods.

A right shift by 'n' bits is defined as floor division by ‘pow(2,n)’.  A
left shift by 'n' bits is defined as multiplication with ‘pow(2,n)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Binary bitwise operations,  Next: Comparisons,  Prev: Shifting operations,  Up: Expressions

4.6.9 Binary bitwise operations
-------------------------------

Each of the three bitwise operations has a different priority level:

     and_expr: *note shift_expr: 26c2. | *note and_expr: 26c5. "&" *note shift_expr: 26c2.
     xor_expr: *note and_expr: 26c5. | *note xor_expr: 26c6. "^" *note and_expr: 26c5.
     or_expr:  *note xor_expr: 26c6. | *note or_expr: 24f3. "|" *note xor_expr: 26c6.

The ‘&’ operator yields the bitwise AND of its arguments, which must be
integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding *note
__and__(): 25e2. or *note __rand__(): 25eb. special methods.

The ‘^’ operator yields the bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) of its arguments,
which must be integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding
*note __xor__(): 25e3. or *note __rxor__(): 25ec. special methods.

The ‘|’ operator yields the bitwise (inclusive) OR of its arguments,
which must be integers or one of them must be a custom object overriding
*note __or__(): 25e4. or *note __ror__(): 25ed. special methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparisons,  Next: Boolean operations,  Prev: Binary bitwise operations,  Up: Expressions

4.6.10 Comparisons
------------------

Unlike C, all comparison operations in Python have the same priority,
which is lower than that of any arithmetic, shifting or bitwise
operation.  Also unlike C, expressions like ‘a < b < c’ have the
interpretation that is conventional in mathematics:

     comparison:    *note or_expr: 24f3. (*note comp_operator: 26ca. *note or_expr: 24f3.)*
     comp_operator: "<" | ">" | "==" | ">=" | "<=" | "!="
                    | "is" ["not"] | ["not"] "in"

Comparisons yield boolean values: ‘True’ or ‘False’.  Custom 'rich
comparison methods' may return non-boolean values.  In this case Python
will call *note bool(): 5ef. on such value in boolean contexts.

Comparisons can be chained arbitrarily, e.g., ‘x < y <= z’ is equivalent
to ‘x < y and y <= z’, except that ‘y’ is evaluated only once (but in
both cases ‘z’ is not evaluated at all when ‘x < y’ is found to be
false).

Formally, if 'a', 'b', 'c', …, 'y', 'z' are expressions and 'op1',
'op2', …, 'opN' are comparison operators, then ‘a op1 b op2 c ... y opN
z’ is equivalent to ‘a op1 b and b op2 c and ... y opN z’, except that
each expression is evaluated at most once.

Note that ‘a op1 b op2 c’ doesn’t imply any kind of comparison between
'a' and 'c', so that, e.g., ‘x < y > z’ is perfectly legal (though
perhaps not pretty).

* Menu:

* Value comparisons::
* Membership test operations::
* Identity comparisons::


File: python.info,  Node: Value comparisons,  Next: Membership test operations,  Up: Comparisons

4.6.10.1 Value comparisons
..........................

The operators ‘<’, ‘>’, ‘==’, ‘>=’, ‘<=’, and ‘!=’ compare the values of
two objects.  The objects do not need to have the same type.

Chapter *note Αντικείμενα, τιμές και τύποι: 251d. states that objects
have a value (in addition to type and identity).  The value of an object
is a rather abstract notion in Python: For example, there is no
canonical access method for an object’s value.  Also, there is no
requirement that the value of an object should be constructed in a
particular way, e.g.  comprised of all its data attributes.  Comparison
operators implement a particular notion of what the value of an object
is.  One can think of them as defining the value of an object
indirectly, by means of their comparison implementation.

Because all types are (direct or indirect) subtypes of *note object:
e4d, they inherit the default comparison behavior from ‘object’.  Types
can customize their comparison behavior by implementing 'rich comparison
methods' like *note __lt__(): 1645, described in *note Βασική
προσαρμογή: 25a2.

The default behavior for equality comparison (‘==’ and ‘!=’) is based on
the identity of the objects.  Hence, equality comparison of instances
with the same identity results in equality, and equality comparison of
instances with different identities results in inequality.  A motivation
for this default behavior is the desire that all objects should be
reflexive (i.e.  ‘x is y’ implies ‘x == y’).

A default order comparison (‘<’, ‘>’, ‘<=’, and ‘>=’) is not provided;
an attempt raises *note TypeError: 291.  A motivation for this default
behavior is the lack of a similar invariant as for equality.

The behavior of the default equality comparison, that instances with
different identities are always unequal, may be in contrast to what
types will need that have a sensible definition of object value and
value-based equality.  Such types will need to customize their
comparison behavior, and in fact, a number of built-in types have done
that.

The following list describes the comparison behavior of the most
important built-in types.

   * Numbers of built-in numeric types (*note Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int,
     float, complex: 21c9.) and of the standard library types *note
     fractions.Fraction: 1c3. and *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2. can be
     compared within and across their types, with the restriction that
     complex numbers do not support order comparison.  Within the limits
     of the types involved, they compare mathematically
     (algorithmically) correct without loss of precision.

     The not-a-number values ‘float('NaN')’ and ‘decimal.Decimal('NaN')’
     are special.  Any ordered comparison of a number to a not-a-number
     value is false.  A counter-intuitive implication is that
     not-a-number values are not equal to themselves.  For example, if
     ‘x = float('NaN')’, ‘3 < x’, ‘x < 3’ and ‘x == x’ are all false,
     while ‘x != x’ is true.  This behavior is compliant with IEEE 754.

   * ‘None’ and *note NotImplemented: 440. are singletons.  PEP 8(1)
     advises that comparisons for singletons should always be done with
     ‘is’ or ‘is not’, never the equality operators.

   * Binary sequences (instances of *note bytes: 1c7. or *note
     bytearray: 1c6.) can be compared within and across their types.
     They compare lexicographically using the numeric values of their
     elements.

   * Strings (instances of *note str: 1df.) compare lexicographically
     using the numerical Unicode code points (the result of the built-in
     function *note ord(): 252c.) of their characters.  (2)

     Strings and binary sequences cannot be directly compared.

   * Sequences (instances of *note tuple: 1ce, *note list: 4d9, or *note
     range: d0f.) can be compared only within each of their types, with
     the restriction that ranges do not support order comparison.
     Equality comparison across these types results in inequality, and
     ordering comparison across these types raises *note TypeError: 291.

     Sequences compare lexicographically using comparison of
     corresponding elements.  The built-in containers typically assume
     identical objects are equal to themselves.  That lets them bypass
     equality tests for identical objects to improve performance and to
     maintain their internal invariants.

     Lexicographical comparison between built-in collections works as
     follows:

        - For two collections to compare equal, they must be of the same
          type, have the same length, and each pair of corresponding
          elements must compare equal (for example, ‘[1,2] == (1,2)’ is
          false because the type is not the same).

        - Collections that support order comparison are ordered the same
          as their first unequal elements (for example, ‘[1,2,x] <=
          [1,2,y]’ has the same value as ‘x <= y’).  If a corresponding
          element does not exist, the shorter collection is ordered
          first (for example, ‘[1,2] < [1,2,3]’ is true).

   * Mappings (instances of *note dict: 188.) compare equal if and only
     if they have equal ‘(key, value)’ pairs.  Equality comparison of
     the keys and values enforces reflexivity.

     Order comparisons (‘<’, ‘>’, ‘<=’, and ‘>=’) raise *note TypeError:
     291.

   * Sets (instances of *note set: 42b. or *note frozenset: 9d4.) can be
     compared within and across their types.

     They define order comparison operators to mean subset and superset
     tests.  Those relations do not define total orderings (for example,
     the two sets ‘{1,2}’ and ‘{2,3}’ are not equal, nor subsets of one
     another, nor supersets of one another).  Accordingly, sets are not
     appropriate arguments for functions which depend on total ordering
     (for example, *note min(): 12b9, *note max(): 12ba, and *note
     sorted(): f8c. produce undefined results given a list of sets as
     inputs).

     Comparison of sets enforces reflexivity of its elements.

   * Most other built-in types have no comparison methods implemented,
     so they inherit the default comparison behavior.

User-defined classes that customize their comparison behavior should
follow some consistency rules, if possible:

   * Equality comparison should be reflexive.  In other words, identical
     objects should compare equal:

          ‘x is y’ implies ‘x == y’

   * Comparison should be symmetric.  In other words, the following
     expressions should have the same result:

          ‘x == y’ and ‘y == x’

          ‘x != y’ and ‘y != x’

          ‘x < y’ and ‘y > x’

          ‘x <= y’ and ‘y >= x’

   * Comparison should be transitive.  The following (non-exhaustive)
     examples illustrate that:

          ‘x > y and y > z’ implies ‘x > z’

          ‘x < y and y <= z’ implies ‘x < z’

   * Inverse comparison should result in the boolean negation.  In other
     words, the following expressions should have the same result:

          ‘x == y’ and ‘not x != y’

          ‘x < y’ and ‘not x >= y’ (for total ordering)

          ‘x > y’ and ‘not x <= y’ (for total ordering)

     The last two expressions apply to totally ordered collections (e.g.
     to sequences, but not to sets or mappings).  See also the *note
     total_ordering(): 12ed. decorator.

   * The *note hash(): 9e2. result should be consistent with equality.
     Objects that are equal should either have the same hash value, or
     be marked as unhashable.

Python does not enforce these consistency rules.  In fact, the
not-a-number values are an example for not following these rules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (2) The Unicode standard distinguishes between 'code points' (e.g.
U+0041) and 'abstract characters' (e.g.  «LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A»).
While most abstract characters in Unicode are only represented using one
code point, there is a number of abstract characters that can in
addition be represented using a sequence of more than one code point.
For example, the abstract character «LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH
CEDILLA» can be represented as a single 'precomposed character' at code
position U+00C7, or as a sequence of a 'base character' at code position
U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C), followed by a 'combining character' at
code position U+0327 (COMBINING CEDILLA).

The comparison operators on strings compare at the level of Unicode code
points.  This may be counter-intuitive to humans.  For example,
‘"\u00C7" == "\u0043\u0327"’ is ‘False’, even though both strings
represent the same abstract character «LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH
CEDILLA».

To compare strings at the level of abstract characters (that is, in a
way intuitive to humans), use *note unicodedata.normalize(): ac2.


File: python.info,  Node: Membership test operations,  Next: Identity comparisons,  Prev: Value comparisons,  Up: Comparisons

4.6.10.2 Membership test operations
...................................

The operators *note in: 323. and *note not in: a20. test for membership.
‘x in s’ evaluates to ‘True’ if 'x' is a member of 's', and ‘False’
otherwise.  ‘x not in s’ returns the negation of ‘x in s’.  All built-in
sequences and set types support this as well as dictionary, for which
‘in’ tests whether the dictionary has a given key.  For container types
such as list, tuple, set, frozenset, dict, or collections.deque, the
expression ‘x in y’ is equivalent to ‘any(x is e or x == e for e in y)’.

For the string and bytes types, ‘x in y’ is ‘True’ if and only if 'x' is
a substring of 'y'.  An equivalent test is ‘y.find(x) != -1’.  Empty
strings are always considered to be a substring of any other string, so
‘"" in "abc"’ will return ‘True’.

For user-defined classes which define the *note __contains__(): 175c.
method, ‘x in y’ returns ‘True’ if ‘y.__contains__(x)’ returns a true
value, and ‘False’ otherwise.

For user-defined classes which do not define *note __contains__(): 175c.
but do define *note __iter__(): 102d, ‘x in y’ is ‘True’ if some value
‘z’, for which the expression ‘x is z or x == z’ is true, is produced
while iterating over ‘y’.  If an exception is raised during the
iteration, it is as if *note in: 323. raised that exception.

Lastly, the old-style iteration protocol is tried: if a class defines
*note __getitem__(): 787, ‘x in y’ is ‘True’ if and only if there is a
non-negative integer index 'i' such that ‘x is y[i] or x == y[i]’, and
no lower integer index raises the *note IndexError: 18d7. exception.
(If any other exception is raised, it is as if *note in: 323. raised
that exception).

The operator *note not in: a20. is defined to have the inverse truth
value of *note in: 323.


File: python.info,  Node: Identity comparisons,  Prev: Membership test operations,  Up: Comparisons

4.6.10.3 Identity comparisons
.............................

The operators *note is: 324. and *note is not: 26ce. test for an
object’s identity: ‘x is y’ is true if and only if 'x' and 'y' are the
same object.  An Object’s identity is determined using the *note id():
17c5. function.  ‘x is not y’ yields the inverse truth value.  (1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Due to automatic garbage-collection, free lists, and the dynamic
nature of descriptors, you may notice seemingly unusual behaviour in
certain uses of the *note is: 324. operator, like those involving
comparisons between instance methods, or constants.  Check their
documentation for more info.


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean operations,  Next: Assignment expressions<2>,  Prev: Comparisons,  Up: Expressions

4.6.11 Boolean operations
-------------------------

     or_test:  *note and_test: 26d2. | *note or_test: 2680. "or" *note and_test: 26d2.
     and_test: *note not_test: 26d3. | *note and_test: 26d2. "and" *note not_test: 26d3.
     not_test: *note comparison: 26c9. | "not" *note not_test: 26d3.

In the context of Boolean operations, and also when expressions are used
by control flow statements, the following values are interpreted as
false: ‘False’, ‘None’, numeric zero of all types, and empty strings and
containers (including strings, tuples, lists, dictionaries, sets and
frozensets).  All other values are interpreted as true.  User-defined
objects can customize their truth value by providing a *note __bool__():
167a. method.

The operator *note not: 26d1. yields ‘True’ if its argument is false,
‘False’ otherwise.

The expression ‘x and y’ first evaluates 'x'; if 'x' is false, its value
is returned; otherwise, 'y' is evaluated and the resulting value is
returned.

The expression ‘x or y’ first evaluates 'x'; if 'x' is true, its value
is returned; otherwise, 'y' is evaluated and the resulting value is
returned.

Note that neither *note and: 31f. nor *note or: 325. restrict the value
and type they return to ‘False’ and ‘True’, but rather return the last
evaluated argument.  This is sometimes useful, e.g., if ‘s’ is a string
that should be replaced by a default value if it is empty, the
expression ‘s or 'foo'’ yields the desired value.  Because *note not:
26d1. has to create a new value, it returns a boolean value regardless
of the type of its argument (for example, ‘not 'foo'’ produces ‘False’
rather than ‘''’.)


File: python.info,  Node: Assignment expressions<2>,  Next: Conditional expressions,  Prev: Boolean operations,  Up: Expressions

4.6.12 Assignment expressions
-----------------------------

     assignment_expression: [*note identifier: 24b2. ":="] *note expression: 42a.

An assignment expression (sometimes also called a «named expression» or
«walrus») assigns an *note expression: 42a. to an *note identifier:
24b2, while also returning the value of the ‘expression’.

One common use case is when handling matched regular expressions:

     if matching := pattern.search(data):
         do_something(matching)

Or, when processing a file stream in chunks:

     while chunk := file.read(9000):
         process(chunk)

Assignment expressions must be surrounded by parentheses when used as
expression statements and when used as sub-expressions in slicing,
conditional, lambda, keyword-argument, and comprehension-if expressions
and in ‘assert’, ‘with’, and ‘assignment’ statements.  In all other
places where they can be used, parentheses are not required, including
in ‘if’ and ‘while’ statements.

Added in version 3.8: See PEP 572(1) for more details about assignment
expressions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Conditional expressions,  Next: Lambdas,  Prev: Assignment expressions<2>,  Up: Expressions

4.6.13 Conditional expressions
------------------------------

     conditional_expression: *note or_test: 2680. ["if" *note or_test: 2680. "else" *note expression: 42a.]
     expression:             *note conditional_expression: 24f2. | *note lambda_expr: 26d7.

A conditional expression (sometimes called a «ternary operator») is an
alternative to the if-else statement.  As it is an expression, it
returns a value and can appear as a sub-expression.

The expression ‘x if C else y’ first evaluates the condition, 'C' rather
than 'x'.  If 'C' is true, 'x' is evaluated and its value is returned;
otherwise, 'y' is evaluated and its value is returned.

See PEP 308(1) for more details about conditional expressions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/


File: python.info,  Node: Lambdas,  Next: Expression lists,  Prev: Conditional expressions,  Up: Expressions

4.6.14 Lambdas
--------------

     lambda_expr: "lambda" [*note parameter_list: 26da.] ":" *note expression: 42a.

Lambda expressions (sometimes called lambda forms) are used to create
anonymous functions.  The expression ‘lambda parameters: expression’
yields a function object.  The unnamed object behaves like a function
object defined with:

     def <lambda>(parameters):
         return expression

See section *note Function definitions: 2206. for the syntax of
parameter lists.  Note that functions created with lambda expressions
cannot contain statements or annotations.


File: python.info,  Node: Expression lists,  Next: Evaluation order,  Prev: Lambdas,  Up: Expressions

4.6.15 Expression lists
-----------------------

     starred_expression:       "*" *note or_expr: 24f3. | *note expression: 42a.
     flexible_expression:      *note assignment_expression: 2623. | *note starred_expression: 267a.
     flexible_expression_list: *note flexible_expression: 267d. ("," *note flexible_expression: 267d.)* [","]
     starred_expression_list:  *note starred_expression: 267a. ("," *note starred_expression: 267a.)* [","]
     expression_list:          *note expression: 42a. ("," *note expression: 42a.)* [","]
     yield_list:               *note expression_list: 26dd. | *note starred_expression: 267a. "," [*note starred_expression_list: 26dc.]

Except when part of a list or set display, an expression list containing
at least one comma yields a tuple.  The length of the tuple is the
number of expressions in the list.  The expressions are evaluated from
left to right.

An asterisk ‘*’ denotes 'iterable unpacking'.  Its operand must be an
*note iterable: 15ce.  The iterable is expanded into a sequence of
items, which are included in the new tuple, list, or set, at the site of
the unpacking.

Added in version 3.5: Iterable unpacking in expression lists, originally
proposed by PEP 448(1).

Added in version 3.11: Any item in an expression list may be starred.
See PEP 646(2).

A trailing comma is required only to create a one-item tuple, such as
‘1,’; it is optional in all other cases.  A single expression without a
trailing comma doesn’t create a tuple, but rather yields the value of
that expression.  (To create an empty tuple, use an empty pair of
parentheses: ‘()’.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/


File: python.info,  Node: Evaluation order,  Next: Operator precedence,  Prev: Expression lists,  Up: Expressions

4.6.16 Evaluation order
-----------------------

Python evaluates expressions from left to right.  Notice that while
evaluating an assignment, the right-hand side is evaluated before the
left-hand side.

In the following lines, expressions will be evaluated in the arithmetic
order of their suffixes:

     expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4
     (expr1, expr2, expr3, expr4)
     {expr1: expr2, expr3: expr4}
     expr1 + expr2 * (expr3 - expr4)
     expr1(expr2, expr3, *expr4, **expr5)
     expr3, expr4 = expr1, expr2


File: python.info,  Node: Operator precedence,  Prev: Evaluation order,  Up: Expressions

4.6.17 Operator precedence
--------------------------

The following table summarizes the operator precedence in Python, from
highest precedence (most binding) to lowest precedence (least binding).
Operators in the same box have the same precedence.  Unless the syntax
is explicitly given, operators are binary.  Operators in the same box
group left to right (except for exponentiation and conditional
expressions, which group from right to left).

Note that comparisons, membership tests, and identity tests, all have
the same precedence and have a left-to-right chaining feature as
described in the *note Comparisons: 26c7. section.

Operator                                            Description
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘(expressions...)’,                                 Binding or parenthesized expression,
                                                    list display, dictionary display, set
‘[expressions...]’, ‘{key: value...}’,              display
‘{expressions...}’                                  

‘x[index]’, ‘x[index:index]’ ‘x(arguments...)’,     Subscription (including slicing), call,
‘x.attribute’                                       attribute reference
                                                    
                                                    
*note await x: 432.                                 Await expression
                                                    
                                                    
‘**’                                                Exponentiation (1)
                                                    
                                                    
‘+x’, ‘-x’, ‘~x’                                    Positive, negative, bitwise NOT
                                                    
                                                    
‘*’, ‘@’, ‘/’, ‘//’, ‘%’                            Multiplication, matrix multiplication,
                                                    division, floor division, remainder (2)
                                                    
                                                    
‘+’, ‘-’                                            Addition and subtraction
                                                    
                                                    
‘<<’, ‘>>’                                          Shifts
                                                    
                                                    
‘&’                                                 Bitwise AND
                                                    
                                                    
‘^’                                                 Bitwise XOR
                                                    
                                                    
‘|’                                                 Bitwise OR
                                                    
                                                    
*note in: 323, *note not in: a20, *note is: 324,    Comparisons, including membership tests
*note is not: 26ce, ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’, ‘!=’,     and identity tests
‘==’                                                

*note not x: 26d1.                                  Boolean NOT
                                                    
                                                    
*note and: 31f.                                     Boolean AND
                                                    
                                                    
*note or: 325.                                      Boolean OR
                                                    
                                                    
*note if: 426. – ‘else’                             Conditional expression
                                                    
                                                    
*note lambda: 1642.                                 Lambda expression
                                                    
                                                    
‘:=’                                                Assignment expression
                                                    

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The power operator ‘**’ binds less tightly than an arithmetic or
bitwise unary operator on its right, that is, ‘2**-1’ is ‘0.5’.

   (2) The ‘%’ operator is also used for string formatting; the same
precedence applies.


File: python.info,  Node: Απλές εντολές,  Next: Compound statements,  Prev: Expressions,  Up: Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python

4.7 Απλές εντολές
=================

Μια απλή εντολή περιλαμβάνεται σε μία μόνο λογική γραμμή.  Πολλές απλές
εντολές μπορεί να εμφανιστούν σε μία μόνο γραμμή χωρισμένες με ελληνικό
ερωτηματικό.  Η σύνταξη για απλές εντολές είναι:

     simple_stmt: *note expression_stmt: 26e7.
                  | *note assert_stmt: 26e8.
                  | *note assignment_stmt: 26e9.
                  | *note augmented_assignment_stmt: 26ea.
                  | *note annotated_assignment_stmt: 26eb.
                  | *note pass_stmt: 26ec.
                  | *note del_stmt: 26ed.
                  | *note return_stmt: 26ee.
                  | *note yield_stmt: 26ef.
                  | *note raise_stmt: 26f0.
                  | *note break_stmt: 26f1.
                  | *note continue_stmt: 26f2.
                  | *note import_stmt: 26f3.
                  | *note future_stmt: 26f4.
                  | *note global_stmt: 26f5.
                  | *note nonlocal_stmt: 26f6.
                  | *note type_stmt: 26f7.

* Menu:

* Εντολές έκφρασης::
* Εντολές ανάθεσης::
* Η εντολή assert::
* Η έκφραση pass::
* Η εντολή del::
* Η εντολή return::
* Η εντολή yield::
* Η εντολή raise::
* Η εντολή break::
* Η εντολή continue::
* Η εντολή import::
* Η εντολή global::
* Η εντολή nonlocal::
* Η εντολή type::


File: python.info,  Node: Εντολές έκφρασης,  Next: Εντολές ανάθεσης,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.1 Εντολές έκφρασης
----------------------

Οι εντολές έκφρασης χρησιμοποιούνται (κυρίως διαδραστικά) για τον
υπολογισμό και την εγγραφή μιας τιμής, ή (συνήθως) για την κλήση μιας
διαδικασίας (μια συνάρτηση που δεν επιστρέφει ουσιαστικό αποτέλεσμα·
στην Python, οι διαδικασίες επιστρέφουν την τιμή ‘None’).  Άλλες χρήσεις
εντολών έκφρασης επιτρέπονται και είναι περιστασιακά χρήσιμες.  Η
σύνταξη μιας εντολή έκφρασης είναι:

     expression_stmt: *note starred_expression: 267a.

Μια εντολή έκφρασης αξιολογεί τη λίστα εκφράσεων (που μπορεί να είναι
μία μόνο έκφραση).

Σε διαδραστική λειτουργία, εάν η τιμή δεν είναι ‘None’, μετατρέπεται σε
συμβολοσειρά χρησιμοποιώντας την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note repr():
45b. και η προκύπτουσα συμβολοσειρά γράφεται στην τυπική έξοδο σε μια
γραμμή από μόνη της (εκτός εάν το αποτέλεσμα είναι ‘None’, έτσι ώστε οι
κλήσεις διαδικασίας να μην προκαλούν καμία έξοδο.)


File: python.info,  Node: Εντολές ανάθεσης,  Next: Η εντολή assert,  Prev: Εντολές έκφρασης,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.2 Εντολές ανάθεσης
----------------------

Οι εντολές ανάθεσης χρησιμοποιούνται για την (επανα)δέσμευση ονομάτων σε
τιμές και για την τροποποίηση χαρακτηριστικών ή στοιχείων μεταβλητών
αντικειμένων:

     assignment_stmt: (*note target_list: 267f. "=")+ (*note starred_expression: 267a. | *note yield_expression: 24f4.)
     target_list:     *note target: 26fb. ("," *note target: 26fb.)* [","]
     target:          *note identifier: 24b2.
                      | "(" [*note target_list: 267f.] ")"
                      | "[" [*note target_list: 267f.] "]"
                      | *note attributeref: 269d.
                      | *note subscription: 269e.
                      | "*" *note target: 26fb.

(See section *note Primaries: 269b. for the syntax definitions for
'attributeref' and 'subscription'.)

Μια εντολή ανάθεσης αξιολογεί τη λίστα εκφράσεων (θυμηθείτε ότι αυτή
μπορεί να είναι μια μεμονωμένη έκφραση ή μια λίστα διαχωρισμένη με
κόμματα, με την τελευταία να αποδίδει μια πλειάδα) και αναθέτει το
μεμονωμένο αντικείμενο που προκύπτει σε καθεμία από τις λίστες
προορισμού, από τα αριστερά προς τα δεξιά.

Assignment is defined recursively depending on the form of the target
(list).  When a target is part of a mutable object (an attribute
reference or subscription), the mutable object must ultimately perform
the assignment and decide about its validity, and may raise an exception
if the assignment is unacceptable.  The rules observed by various types
and the exceptions raised are given with the definition of the object
types (see section *note Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου: 2520.).

Η ανάθεση ενός αντικειμένου σε μια λίστα προορισμού, προαιρετικά
περικλεισμένη σε παρενθέσεις ή αγκύλες, ορίζεται αναδρομικά ως εξής.

   * Εάν η λίστα προορισμού είναι ένας μεμονωμένος στόχος χωρίς τελικό
     κόμμα, προαιρετικά σε παρενθέσεις, το αντικείμενο ανατίθεται σε
     αυτόν τον στόχο.

   * Διαφορετικά:

        * Εάν η λίστα προορισμού περιέχει έναν στόχο με πρόθεμα έναν
          αστερίσκο, που ονομάζεται «στόχος με αστερίσκο»: Το
          αντικείμενο πρέπει να είναι ένα iterable με τουλάχιστον τόσα
          στοιχεία όσα και οι στόχοι στη λίστα προορισμού, μείον ένα.
          Τα πρώτα στοιχεία του iterable ανατίθενται, από αριστερά προς
          τα δεξιά, στους στόχους πριν από τον στόχο με αστερίσκο.  Τα
          τελικά στοιχεία του iterable ανατίθενται στους στόχους μετά
          τον στόχο με αστερίσκο.  Μια λίστα με τα υπολειπόμενα στοιχεία
          του iterable ανατίθεται στη συνέχεια στον στόχο με αστερίσκο
          (η λίστα μπορεί να είναι κενή).

        * Διαφορετικά: Το αντικείμενο πρέπει να είναι ένα iterable με
          τον ίδιο αριθμό στοιχείων με τους στόχους στη λίστα προορισμού
          και τα στοιχεία ανατίθενται, από αριστερά προς τα δεξιά, στους
          αντίστοιχους στόχους.

Η ανάθεση ενός αντικειμένου σε έναν μεμονωμένο στόχο ορίζεται αναδρομικά
ως εξής.

   * Εάν ο στόχος είναι ένα αναγνωριστικό (όνομα):

        * Εάν το όνομα δεν εμφανίζεται σε μια εντολή *note global: 6b5.
          ή *note nonlocal: 164c. στο τρέχον μπλοκ κώδικα: το όνομα
          δεσμεύεται στο αντικείμενο στον τρέχον τοπικό namespace.

        * Διαφορετικά: το όνομα δεσμεύεται στο αντικείμενο στο καθολικό
          namespace ή στο εξωτερικό namespace που καθορίζεται από το
          *note nonlocal: 164c, αντίστοιχα.

     Το όνομα επαναδεσμεύεται εάν ήταν ήδη δεσμευμένο.  Αυτό μπορεί να
     προκαλέσει ο μετρητής αναφοράς για το αντικείμενο, που είχε
     προηγουμένως δεσμευτεί στο όνομα, να φτάσει στο μηδέν, προκαλώντας
     την απελευθέρωση του αντικειμένου και την κλήση του καταστροφέα του
     (εάν έχει).

   * Εάν ο στόχος είναι μια αναφορά χαρακτηριστικού: Η κύρια έκφραση
     στην αναφορά αξιολογείται.  Θα πρέπει να αποδώσει ένα αντικείμενο
     με εκχωρήσιμα χαρακτηριστικά· εάν αυτό δεν συμβαίνει, προκαλείται
     *note TypeError: 291.  Στη συνέχεια, ζητείται από αυτό το
     αντικείμενο να αναθέσει το εκχωρημένο αντικείμενο στο δεδομένο
     χαρακτηριστικό· εάν δεν μπορεί να εκτελέσει την ανάθεση, προκαλεί
     μια εξαίρεση (συνήθως αλλά όχι απαραίτητα *note AttributeError:
     1a9.).  Σημείωση: Εάν το αντικείμενο είναι ένα στιγμιότυπο κλάσης
     και η αναφορά χαρακτηριστικού εμφανίζεται και στις δύο πλευρές του
     τελεστή ανάθεσης, η έκφραση στη δεξιά πλευρά, ‘a.x’ μπορεί να έχει
     πρόσβαση είτε σε ένα χαρακτηριστικό στιγμιοτύπου είτε (εάν δεν
     υπάρχει χαρακτηριστικό στιγμιοτύπου) σε ένα χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης.
     Ο στόχος της αριστερής πλευράς ‘a.x’ ορίζεται πάντα ως
     χαρακτηριστικό στιγμιοτύπου, δημιουργώντας το εάν είναι απαραίτητο.
     Έτσι, οι δύο εμφανίσεις του ‘a.x’ δεν αναφέρονται απαραίτητα στο
     ίδιο χαρακτηριστικό: εάν η έκφραση στη δεξιά πλευρά αναφέρεται σε
     ένα χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης, η αριστερή πλευρά δημιουργεί ένα νέο
     χαρακτηριστικό στιγμιοτύπου ως στόχο της ανάθεσης:

          class Cls:
              x = 3             # class variable
          inst = Cls()
          inst.x = inst.x + 1   # writes inst.x as 4 leaving Cls.x as 3

     Αυτή η περιγραφή δεν ισχύει απαραίτητα για τα χαρακτηριστικά
     περιγραφέων, όπως οι ιδιότητες που δημιουργήθηκαν με το *note
     property(): 6bb.

   * If the target is a subscription: The primary expression in the
     reference is evaluated.  Next, the subscript expression is
     evaluated.  Then, the primary’s *note __setitem__(): 1670. method
     is called with two arguments: the subscript and the assigned
     object.

     Typically, *note __setitem__(): 1670. is defined on mutable
     sequence objects (such as lists) and mapping objects (such as
     dictionaries), and behaves as follows.

     Εάν το πρωτεύον είναι ένα μεταβλητό αντικείμενο ακολουθίας (όπως
     μια λίστα), ο δείκτης πρέπει να αποδώσει έναν ακέραιο αριθμό.  Εάν
     είναι αρνητικός, προστίθεται σε αυτόν το μήκος της ακολουθίας.  Η
     προκύπτουσα τιμή πρέπει να είναι ένας μη αρνητικός ακέραιος
     μικρότερος από το μήκος της ακολουθίας και ζητείται από την
     ακολουθία να αναθέσει το εκχωρημένο αντικείμενο στο στοιχείο της με
     αυτόν τον δείκτη.  Εάν ο δείκτης είναι εκτός εμβέλειας, γίνεται
     raise η *note IndexError: 18d7. (η ανάθεση σε μια ακολουθία με
     δείκτη δεν μπορεί να προσθέσει νέα στοιχεία σε μια λίστα).

     Εάν το πρωτεύον είναι ένα αντικείμενο αντιστοίχισης (όπως ένα
     λεξικό), ο δείκτης πρέπει να έχει έναν τύπο συμβατό με τον τύπο
     κλειδιού της αντιστοίχισης και στη συνέχεια ζητείται από την
     αντιστοίχιση να δημιουργήσει ένα ζεύγος κλειδιού/τιμής που
     αντιστοιχίζει τον δείκτη στο εκχωρημένο αντικείμενο.  Αυτό μπορεί
     είτε να αντικαταστήσει ένα υπάρχον ζεύγος κλειδιού/τιμής με την
     ίδια τιμή κλειδιού, είτε να εισαγάγει ένα νέο ζεύγος κλειδιού/τιμής
     (εάν δεν υπήρχε κλειδί με την ίδια τιμή).

     If the target is a slicing: The primary expression should evaluate
     to a mutable sequence object (such as a list).  The assigned object
     should be *note iterable: 15ce.  The slicing’s lower and upper
     bounds should be integers; if they are ‘None’ (or not present), the
     defaults are zero and the sequence’s length.  If either bound is
     negative, the sequence’s length is added to it.  The resulting
     bounds are clipped to lie between zero and the sequence’s length,
     inclusive.  Finally, the sequence object is asked to replace the
     slice with the items of the assigned sequence.  The length of the
     slice may be different from the length of the assigned sequence,
     thus changing the length of the target sequence, if the target
     sequence allows it.

Αν και ο ορισμός της ανάθεσης υπονοεί ότι οι επικαλύψεις μεταξύ της
αριστερής και της δεξιάς πλευράς είναι «ταυτόχρονες» (για παράδειγμα, το
‘a, b = b, a’ εναλλάσσει δύο μεταβλητές), οι επικαλύψεις 'μέσα' στη
συλλογή των μεταβλητών στις οποίες γίνεται ανάθεση συμβαίνουν από
αριστερά προς τα δεξιά, προκαλώντας μερικές φορές σύγχυση.  Για
παράδειγμα, το ακόλουθο πρόγραμμα εκτυπώνει ‘[0, 2]’:

     x = [0, 1]
     i = 0
     i, x[i] = 1, 2 # το i ενημερώνεται, και στη συνέχεια ενημερώνεται το x[i]
     print(x)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3132(1) - Εκτεταμένη αποσυμπίεση επαναλαμβανόμενων

     Η προδιαγραφή για τη δυνατότητα ‘*target’.

* Menu:

* Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης::
* Εντολές ανάθεσης με σχολιασμό::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3132/


File: python.info,  Node: Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης,  Next: Εντολές ανάθεσης με σχολιασμό,  Up: Εντολές ανάθεσης

4.7.2.1 Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης
....................................

Η επαυξημένη ανάθεση είναι ο συνδυασμός, σε μία μόνο εντολή, μιας
δυαδικής λειτουργίας και μιας εντολής ανάθεσης:

     augmented_assignment_stmt: *note augtarget: 26ff. *note augop: 2700. (*note expression_list: 26dd. | *note yield_expression: 24f4.)
     augtarget:                 *note identifier: 24b2. | *note attributeref: 269d. | *note subscription: 269e.
     augop:                     "+=" | "-=" | "*=" | "@=" | "/=" | "//=" | "%=" | "**="
                                | ">>=" | "<<=" | "&=" | "^=" | "|="

(Ανατρέξτε στην ενότητα *note Primaries: 269b. για τους ορισμούς
σύνταξης των τριών τελευταίων συμβόλων.)

Μια επαυξημένη ανάθεση αξιολογεί τον στόχο (ο οποίος, σε αντίθεση με τις
κανονικές εντολές ανάθεσης, δεν μπορεί να είναι αποσυμπίεση) και τη
λίστα εκφράσεων, εκτελεί τη δυαδική λειτουργία που είναι συγκεκριμένη
για τον τύπο ανάθεσης στους δύο τελεστές και αναθέτει το αποτέλεσμα στον
αρχικό στόχο.  Ο στόχος αξιολογείται μόνο μία φορά.

Μια επαυξημένη εντολή ανάθεσης όπως ‘x += 1’ μπορεί να ξαναγραφτεί ως ‘x
= x + 1’ για να επιτευχθεί ένα παρόμοιο, αλλά όχι ακριβώς ίσο
αποτέλεσμα.  Στην επαυξημένη έκδοση, το ‘x’ αξιολογείται μόνο μία φορά.
Επίσης, όταν είναι δυνατό, η πραγματική λειτουργία εκτελείται 'επί
τόπου', πράγμα που σημαίνει ότι αντί να δημιουργηθεί ένα νέο αντικείμενο
και να ανατεθεί αυτό στον στόχο, το παλιό αντικείμενο τροποποιείται αντ”
αυτού.

Σε αντίθεση με τις κανονικές αναθέσεις, οι επαυξημένες αναθέσεις
αξιολογούν την αριστερή πλευρά 'πριν' αξιολογήσουν τη δεξιά πλευρά.  Για
παράδειγμα, το ‘a[i] += f(x)’ πρώτα αναζητά το ‘a[i]’, στη συνέχεια
αξιολογεί το ‘f(x)’ και εκτελεί την πρόσθεση, και τέλος, γράφει το
αποτέλεσμα πίσω στο ‘a[i]’.

Με εξαίρεση την ανάθεση σε πλειάδες και πολλαπλούς στόχους σε μία μόνο
εντολή, η ανάθεση που γίνεται από τις επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης
αντιμετωπίζεται με τον ίδιο τρόπο όπως οι κανονικές αναθέσεις.  Ομοίως,
με εξαίρεση την πιθανή συμπεριφορά 'επί τόπου', η δυαδική λειτουργία που
εκτελείται από την επαυξημένη ανάθεση είναι η ίδια με τις κανονικές
δυαδικές λειτουργίες.

Για στόχους που είναι αναφορές χαρακτηριστικών, ισχύει η ίδια *note
caveat σχετικά με τα χαρακτηριστικά κλάσης και εμφάνισης: 26fc. όπως και
για τις κανονικές αναθέσεις.


File: python.info,  Node: Εντολές ανάθεσης με σχολιασμό,  Prev: Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης,  Up: Εντολές ανάθεσης

4.7.2.2 Εντολές ανάθεσης με σχολιασμό
.....................................

Η ανάθεση *note Σχολιασμός: 110a. είναι ο συνδυασμός, σε μία μόνο
εντολή, ενός σχολιασμού μεταβλητής ή χαρακτηριστικού και μιας
προαιρετικής εντολής ανάθεσης:

     annotated_assignment_stmt: *note augtarget: 26ff. ":" *note expression: 42a.
                                ["=" (*note starred_expression: 267a. | *note yield_expression: 24f4.)]

Η διαφορά από την κανονική *note Εντολές ανάθεσης: 261d. είναι ότι
επιτρέπεται μόνο ένας στόχος.

Ο στόχος ανάθεσης θεωρείται «απλός» εάν αποτελείται από ένα μόνο όνομα
που δεν περικλείεται σε παρενθέσεις.  Για απλούς στόχους ανάθεσης, εάν
βρίσκονται σε εμβέλεια κλάσης ή module, οι σχολιασμοί συγκεντρώνονται σε
ένα *note εύρος σχολιασμού: 6b4. που αξιολογείται με καθυστέρηση.  Οι
σχολιασμοί μπορούν να αξιολογηθούν χρησιμοποιώντας το χαρακτηριστικό
*note __annotations__: 66b. μιας κλάσης ή module ή χρησιμοποιώντας τις
διευκολύνσεις στο module *note annotationlib: 6.

Εάν ο στόχος ανάθεσης δεν είναι απλός (ένα χαρακτηριστικό, ένας κόμβος
δείκτη ή ένα όνομα σε παρένθεση), ο σχολιασμός δεν αξιολογείται ποτέ.

Εάν ένα όνομα σχολιαστεί σε ένα εύρος συνάρτησης, τότε αυτό το όνομα
είναι τοπικό γι’ αυτό το εύρος.  Οι σχολιασμοί δεν αξιολογούνται και δεν
αποθηκεύονται ποτέ σε εύρη συναρτήσεων.

Εάν υπάρχει η δεξιά πλευρά, μια σχολιασμένη ανάθεση εκτελεί την
πραγματική ανάθεση σαν να μην υπήρχε σχολιασμός.  Εάν η δεξιά πλευρά δεν
υπάρχει για έναν στόχο έκφρασης, τότε ο διερμηνέας αξιολογεί τον στόχο
εκτός από την τελευταία κλήση *note __setitem__(): 1670. ή *note
__setattr__(): 256d.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 526(1) - Σύνταξη για σχολιασμούς μεταβλητών

     Η πρόταση που πρόσθεσε σύνταξη για τον σχολιασμό των τύπων των
     μεταβλητών (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των μεταβλητών κλάσης και των
     μεταβλητών εμφάνισης), αντί να τις εκφράζει μέσω σχολίων.

PEP 484(2) - Υποδείξεις τύπων

     Η πρόταση που πρόσθεσε το module *note typing: 10d. για να παρέχει
     μια τυπική σύνταξη για σχολιασμούς τύπων που μπορούν να
     χρησιμοποιηθούν σε εργαλεία στατικής ανάλυσης και IDE.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Πλέον, οι σχολιασμένες αναθέσεις επιτρέπουν τις
ίδιες εκφράσεις στη δεξιά πλευρά με τις κανονικές αναθέσεις.
Προηγουμένως, ορισμένες εκφράσεις (όπως οι εκφράσεις πλειάδας χωρίς
παρενθέσεις) προκαλούσαν σφάλμα σύνταξης.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Οι σχολιασμοί αξιολογούνται πλέον νωχελικά σε
ένα ξεχωριστό *note εύρος σχολιασμού: 6b4.  Εάν ο στόχος της ανάθεσης
δεν είναι απλός, οι σχολιασμοί δεν αξιολογούνται ποτέ.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Η εντολή assert,  Next: Η έκφραση pass,  Prev: Εντολές ανάθεσης,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.3 Η εντολή ‘assert’
-----------------------

Οι εντολές ‘assert’ είναι ένας βολικός τρόπος για την εισαγωγή
ισχυρισμών εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων σε ένα πρόγραμμα:

     assert_stmt: "assert" *note expression: 42a. ["," *note expression: 42a.]

Η απλή μορφή, ‘assert expression’, είναι ισοδύναμη με

     if __debug__:
         if not expression: raise AssertionError

Η εκτεταμένη μορφή, ‘assert expression1, expression2’, είναι ισοδύναμη
με

     if __debug__:
         if not expression1: raise AssertionError(expression2)

Αυτές οι ισοδυναμίες υποθέτουν ότι οι *note __debug__: bb7. και *note
AssertionError: a97. αναφέρονται στις ενσωματωμένες μεταβλητές με αυτά
τα ονόματα.  Στην τρέχουσα υλοποίηση, η ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή
‘__debug__’ είναι ‘True’ υπό κανονικές συνθήκες, ‘False’ όταν ζητείται
βελτιστοποίηση (επιλογή γραμμής εντολών *note -O: 431.).  Ο τρέχων
γεννήτορας κώδικα δεν εκπέμπει κώδικα για μια εντολή *note assert: d31.
όταν ζητείται βελτιστοποίηση κατά τη μεταγλώττιση.  Σημειώστε ότι δεν
είναι απαραίτητο να συμπεριληφθεί ο πηγαίος κώδικας για την έκφραση που
απέτυχε στο μήνυμα σφάλματος· θα εμφανιστεί ως μέρος της ανίχνευσης
στοίβας.

Οι αναθέσεις στο *note __debug__: bb7. είναι παράνομες.  Η τιμή για την
ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή καθορίζεται κατά την έναρξη του διερμηνέα.


File: python.info,  Node: Η έκφραση pass,  Next: Η εντολή del,  Prev: Η εντολή assert,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.4 Η έκφραση ‘pass’
----------------------

     pass_stmt: "pass"

Η εντολή *note pass: 427. είναι μια κενή λειτουργία — όταν εκτελείται,
δεν συμβαίνει τίποτα.  Είναι χρήσιμη ως ένας placeholder όταν απαιτείται
μια εντολή συντακτικά, αλλά δεν χρειάζεται να εκτελεστεί κώδικας, για
παράδειγμα:

     def f(arg): pass    # μια συνάρτηση που δεν κάνει τίποτα (ακόμα)

     class C: pass       # μια κλάση χωρίς μεθόδους (ακόμα)


File: python.info,  Node: Η εντολή del,  Next: Η εντολή return,  Prev: Η έκφραση pass,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.5 Η εντολή ‘del’
--------------------

     del_stmt: "del" *note target_list: 267f.

Η διαγραφή ορίζεται αναδρομικά με παρόμοιο τρόπο με τον τρόπο που
ορίζεται η ανάθεση.  Αντί να το εξηγήσουμε λεπτομερώς, εδώ είναι μερικές
συμβουλές.

Η διαγραφή μιας λίστας προορισμού διαγράφει αναδρομικά κάθε στόχο, από
τα αριστερά προς τα δεξιά.

Η διαγραφή ενός ονόματος καταργεί τη δέσμευση αυτού του ονόματος από το
local ή το global namespace, ανάλογα με το αν το όνομα εμφανίζεται σε
μια εντολή *note global: 6b5. στο ίδιο κομμάτι κώδικα.  Η προσπάθεια
διαγραφής ενός μη δεσμευμένου ονόματος κάνει raise μια εξαίρεση *note
NameError: 665.

Deletion of attribute references and subscriptions is passed to the
primary object involved; deletion of a slicing is in general equivalent
to assignment of an empty slice of the right type (but even this is
determined by the sliced object).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Προηγουμένως, ήταν παράνομο να διαγραφεί ένα
όνομα από το τοπικό namespace εάν εμφανίζεται ως ελεύθερη μεταβλητή σε
ένα εμφωλευμένο μπλοκ.


File: python.info,  Node: Η εντολή return,  Next: Η εντολή yield,  Prev: Η εντολή del,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.6 Η εντολή ‘return’
-----------------------

     return_stmt: "return" [*note expression_list: 26dd.]

Η εντολή *note return: 44b. μπορεί να εμφανιστεί μόνο συντακτικά
ενσωματωμένη σε έναν ορισμό συνάρτησης, όχι μέσα σε έναν εμφωλευμένο
ορισμό κλάσης.

Εάν υπάρχει μια λίστα εκφράσεων, αξιολογείται, αλλιώς αντικαθίσταται με
το ‘None’.

Η εντολή *note return: 44b. εξέρχεται από την τρέχουσα κλήση συνάρτησης
με τη λίστα εκφράσεων (ή ‘None’) ως τιμή επιστροφής.

Όταν η εντολή *note return: 44b. μεταβιβάζει τον έλεγχο από μια εντολή
*note try: ad6. με μια ρήτρα *note finally: 44c, αυτή η ρήτρα ‘finally’
εκτελείται πριν από την πραγματική έξοδο από τη συνάρτηση.

Σε μια συνάρτηση generator, η εντολή *note return: 44b. υποδεικνύει ότι
ο generator έχει ολοκληρωθεί και θα προκαλέσει την εξαίρεση *note
StopIteration: fba.  Η επιστρεφόμενη τιμή (εάν υπάρχει) χρησιμοποιείται
ως όρισμα για την κατασκευή της ‘StopIteration’ και γίνεται το
χαρακτηριστικό *note StopIteration.value: 260c.

Σε μια ασύγχρονη συνάρτηση generator, μια κενή εντολή *note return: 44b.
υποδεικνύει ότι ο ασύγχρονος generator έχει ολοκληρωθεί και θα κάνει
raise την εξαίρεση *note StopAsyncIteration: 1ffe.  Μια μη κενή εντολή
‘return’ είναι συντακτικό σφάλμα σε μια ασύγχρονη συνάρτηση generator.


File: python.info,  Node: Η εντολή yield,  Next: Η εντολή raise,  Prev: Η εντολή return,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.7 Η εντολή ‘yield’
----------------------

     yield_stmt: *note yield_expression: 24f4.

Μια εντολή *note yield: d93. είναι σημασιολογικά ισοδύναμη με μια *note
yield expression: 268f.  Η εντολή ‘yield’ μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για
την παράλειψη των παρενθέσεων που διαφορετικά θα απαιτούνταν στην
ισοδύναμη εντολή έκφρασης απόδοσης.  Για παράδειγμα, οι εντολές απόδοσης

     yield <expr>
     yield from <expr>

είναι ισοδύναμες με τις εντολές έκφρασης απόδοσης

     (yield <expr>)
     (yield from <expr>)

Οι εκφράσεις και οι εντολές απόδοσης χρησιμοποιούνται μόνο κατά τον
ορισμό μιας συνάρτησης *note generator: 1409. και χρησιμοποιούνται μόνο
στο σώμα της συνάρτησης generator.  Η χρήση της *note yield: d93. σε
έναν ορισμό συνάρτησης είναι αρκετή για να προκαλέσει αυτόν τον ορισμό
να δημιουργήσει μια συνάρτηση generator αντί για μια κανονική συνάρτηση.

Για πλήρεις λεπτομέρειες της σημασιολογίας της *note yield: d93,
ανατρέξτε στην ενότητα *note Yield expressions: 268f.


File: python.info,  Node: Η εντολή raise,  Next: Η εντολή break,  Prev: Η εντολή yield,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.8 Η εντολή ‘raise’
----------------------

     raise_stmt: "raise" [*note expression: 42a. ["from" *note expression: 42a.]]

Εάν δεν υπάρχουν εκφράσεις, η *note raise: 9e4. επαναφέρει την εξαίρεση
που αντιμετωπίζεται εκείνη τη στιγμή, η οποία είναι επίσης γνωστή ως
'ενεργή εξαίρεση'.  Εάν δεν υπάρχει προς το παρόν ενεργή εξαίρεση,
εμφανίζεται μια εξαίρεση *note RuntimeError: 30d. που υποδεικνύει ότι
πρόκειται για σφάλμα.

Διαφορετικά, η *note raise: 9e4. αξιολογεί την πρώτη έκφραση ως
αντικείμενο στιγμιοτύπου.  Πρέπει να είναι είτε υποκατηγορία είτε
παράδειγμα της *note BaseException: 9b9.  Εάν είναι κλάση, το
στιγμιότυπο της εξαίρεσης θα ληφθεί όταν χρειαστεί με τη δημιουργία της
κλάσης χωρίς ορίσματα.

Ο 'τύπος' της εξαίρεσης είναι η κλάση του στιγμιοτύπου της εξαίρεσης, η
'τιμή' είναι το ίδιο το στιγμιότυπο.

Ένα αντικείμενο ανίχνευσης (traceback) δημιουργείται κανονικά αυτόματα
όταν προκαλείται μια εξαίρεση και επισυνάπτεται σε αυτήν ως το
χαρακτηριστικό *note __traceback__: 166b.  Μπορείτε να δημιουργήσετε μια
εξαίρεση και να ορίσετε τη δική σας ανίχνευση σε ένα βήμα
χρησιμοποιώντας τη μέθοδο εξαίρεσης *note with_traceback(): 2709. (η
οποία επιστρέφει το ίδιο στιγμιότυπο εξαίρεσης, με το traceback του,
ορισμένο στο όρισμά του), ως εξής:

     raise Exception("foo occurred").with_traceback(tracebackobj)

Η ρήτρα ‘from’ χρησιμοποιείται για την αλυσιδωτή εξαίρεση: εάν δοθεί, η
δεύτερη 'έκφραση' πρέπει να είναι μια άλλη κλάση εξαίρεσης ή
στιγμιότυπο.  Εάν η δεύτερη έκφραση είναι ένα παράδειγμα εξαίρεσης, θα
επισυναφθεί στην εξαίρεση που δημιουργήθηκε ως χαρακτηριστικό *note
__cause__: 166d. (το οποίο είναι εγγράψιμο).  Εάν η έκφραση είναι μια
κλάση εξαίρεσης, η κλάση θα δημιουργηθεί και το προκύπτον στιγμιότυπο
εξαίρεσης θα επισυναφθεί στην εξαίρεση που δημιουργήθηκε ως
χαρακτηριστικό ‘__cause__’.  Εάν η εξαίρεση που δημιουργήθηκε δεν
αντιμετωπιστεί, θα εκτυπωθούν και οι δύο εξαιρέσεις:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except Exception as exc:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         print(1 / 0)
               ~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from exc
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

Ένας παρόμοιος μηχανισμός λειτουργεί σιωπηρά εάν προκύψει μια νέα
εξαίρεση όταν μια εξαίρεση αντιμετωπίζεται ήδη.  Μια εξαίρεση μπορεί να
αντιμετωπιστεί όταν χρησιμοποιείται μια ρήτρα *note except: 447. ή *note
finally: 44c, ή μια εντολή *note with: 20a.  Η προηγούμενη εξαίρεση
επισυνάπτεται στη συνέχεια ως το χαρακτηριστικό *note __context__: 166c.
της νέας εξαίρεσης:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
         print(1 / 0)
               ~~^~~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
         raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened")
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

Η αλυσιδωτή εξαίρεση μπορεί να καταργηθεί ρητά, καθορίζοντας το *note
None: a65. στη ρήτρα ‘from’:

     >>> try:
     ...     print(1 / 0)
     ... except:
     ...     raise RuntimeError("Something bad happened") from None
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 4, in <module>
     RuntimeError: Something bad happened

Πρόσθετες πληροφορίες σχετικά με τις εξαιρέσεις μπορείτε να βρείτε στην
ενότητα *note Εξαιρέσεις: 2629. και πληροφορίες σχετικά με τον χειρισμό
εξαιρέσεων στην ενότητα *note The try statement: ad6.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Το *note None: a65. επιτρέπεται πλέον ως ‘Y’ στο
‘raise X from Y’.

Προστέθηκε το χαρακτηριστικό *note __suppress_context__: 270a. για την
κατάργηση της αυτόματης εμφάνισης του περιβάλλοντος της εξαίρεσης.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Εάν η ανίχνευση της ενεργής εξαίρεσης
τροποποιηθεί σε μια ρήτρα *note except: 447, μια επακόλουθη εντολή
‘raise’ επαναδημιουργεί την εξαίρεση με την τροποποιημένη ανίχνευση.
Προηγουμένως, η εξαίρεση επαναδημιουργούνταν με την ανίχνευση που είχε
όταν εντοπίστηκε.


File: python.info,  Node: Η εντολή break,  Next: Η εντολή continue,  Prev: Η εντολή raise,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.9 Η εντολή ‘break’
----------------------

     break_stmt: "break"

Η εντολή *note break: 428. μπορεί να εμφανιστεί μόνο συντακτικά
ενσωματωμένη σε έναν βρόχο *note for: 321. ή *note while: 1b86, αλλά όχι
ενσωματωμένη σε έναν ορισμό συνάρτησης ή κλάσης μέσα σε αυτόν τον βρόχο.

Τερματίζει τον πλησιέστερο περικλείοντα βρόχο, παρακάμπτοντας την
προαιρετική ρήτρα ‘else’ εάν ο βρόχος έχει μία.

Εάν ένας βρόχος *note for: 321. τερματιστεί από την εντολή *note break:
428, ο στόχος ελέγχου του βρόχου διατηρεί την τρέχουσα τιμή του.

Όταν η εντολή *note break: 428. μεταβιβάζει τον έλεγχο από μια εντολή
*note try: ad6. με μια ρήτρα *note finally: 44c, αυτή η ρήτρα ‘finally’
εκτελείται πριν από την πραγματική έξοδο από τον βρόχο.


File: python.info,  Node: Η εντολή continue,  Next: Η εντολή import,  Prev: Η εντολή break,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.10 Η εντολή ‘continue’
--------------------------

     continue_stmt: "continue"

Η εντολή *note continue: 429. μπορεί να εμφανιστεί μόνο συντακτικά
ενσωματωμένη σε έναν βρόχο *note for: 321. ή *note while: 1b86, αλλά όχι
ενσωματωμένη σε έναν ορισμό συνάρτησης ή κλάσης μέσα σε αυτόν τον βρόχο.
Συνεχίζει με τον επόμενο κύκλο του πλησιέστερου περικλείοντος βρόχου.

Όταν η εντολή *note continue: 429. μεταβιβάζει τον έλεγχο από μια εντολή
*note try: ad6. με μια ρήτρα *note finally: 44c, αυτή η ρήτρα ‘finally’
εκτελείται πριν από την πραγματική έναρξη του επόμενου κύκλου του
βρόχου.


File: python.info,  Node: Η εντολή import,  Next: Η εντολή global,  Prev: Η εντολή continue,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.11 Η εντολή ‘import’
------------------------

     import_stmt:     ["lazy"] "import" *note module: 270e. ["as" *note identifier: 24b2.] ("," *note module: 270e. ["as" *note identifier: 24b2.])*
                      | ["lazy"] "from" *note relative_module: 270f. "import" *note identifier: 24b2. ["as" *note identifier: 24b2.]
                      ("," *note identifier: 24b2. ["as" *note identifier: 24b2.])*
                      | ["lazy"] "from" *note relative_module: 270f. "import" "(" *note identifier: 24b2. ["as" *note identifier: 24b2.]
                      ("," *note identifier: 24b2. ["as" *note identifier: 24b2.])* [","] ")"
                      | "from" *note relative_module: 270f. "import" "*"
     module:          (*note identifier: 24b2. ".")* *note identifier: 24b2.
     relative_module: "."* *note module: 270e. | "."+

Η βασική εντολή εισαγωγής (χωρίς ρήτρα *note from: 1650.) εκτελείται σε
δύο βήματα:

  1. βρείτε ένα module, φορτώστε το και αρχικοποιήστε το εάν είναι
     απαραίτητο

  2. define a name or names in the current namespace for the scope where
     the *note import: 9da. statement occurs, just as an assignment
     statement would (including *note global: 6b5. and *note nonlocal:
     164c. semantics).

Όταν η εντολή περιέχει πολλαπλές ρήτρες (διαχωρισμένες με κόμματα), τα
δύο βήματα εκτελούνται ξεχωριστά για κάθε ρήτρα, σαν οι ρήτρες να είχαν
διαχωριστεί σε μεμονωμένες εντολές εισαγωγής.

Οι λεπτομέρειες του πρώτου βήματος, η εύρεση και η φόρτωση των modules,
περιγράφονται με περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες στην ενότητα για το *note
σύστημα εισαγωγής: 2551, το οποίο περιγράφει επίσης τους διάφορους
τύπους πακέτων και modules που μπορούν να εισαχθούν, καθώς και όλα τα
άγκιστρα που μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την προσαρμογή του
συστήματος εισαγωγής.  Σημειώστε ότι οι αποτυχίες σε αυτό το βήμα μπορεί
να υποδεικνύουν είτε ότι το module δεν ήταν δυνατό να εντοπιστεί, 'ή'
ότι παρουσιάστηκε σφάλμα κατά την αρχικοποίηση του module,
συμπεριλαμβανομένης της εκτέλεσης του κώδικά του.

Εάν το ζητούμενο module ανακτηθεί με επιτυχία, θα είναι διαθέσιμο στο
τοπικό namespace με έναν από τους τρεις τρόπους:

   * Εάν το όνομα του module ακολουθείται από ‘as’, τότε το όνομα που
     ακολουθεί το ‘as’ δεσμεύεται απευθείας στο εισαγόμενο module.

   * Εάν δεν έχει καθοριστεί άλλο όνομα και το module που εισάγεται
     είναι ένα module ανώτατου επιπέδου, το όνομα του module δεσμεύεται
     στο τοπικό namespace ως αναφορά στο εισαγόμενο module

   * Εάν το module που εισάγεται 'δεν' είναι ένα module ανώτατου
     επιπέδου, τότε το όνομα του πακέτου ανώτατου επιπέδου που περιέχει
     το module δεσμεύεται στο τοπικό namespace ως αναφορά στο πακέτο
     ανώτατου επιπέδου.  Η πρόσβαση στο εισαγόμενο module πρέπει να
     γίνεται χρησιμοποιώντας το πλήρες ειδικευμένο όνομά του και όχι
     απευθείας

Η μορφή *note from: 1650. χρησιμοποιεί μια ελαφρώς πιο σύνθετη
διαδικασία:

  1. βρείτε το module που καθορίζεται στη ρήτρα *note from: 1650,
     φορτώστε το και αρχικοποιήστε το εάν είναι απαραίτητο·

  2. για καθένα από τα αναγνωριστικά που καθορίζονται στις ρήτρες *note
     import: 9da.:

       1. ελέγξτε εάν το εισαγόμενο module έχει ένα χαρακτηριστικό με
          αυτό το όνομα

       2. εάν όχι, προσπαθήστε να εισαγάγετε ένα submodule με αυτό το
          όνομα και, στη συνέχεια, ελέγξτε ξανά το εισαγόμενο module για
          αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό

       3. εάν το χαρακτηριστικό δεν βρεθεί, γίνεται raise η *note
          ImportError: 1bd.

       4. otherwise, a reference to that value is stored in the current
          namespace, using the name in the ‘as’ clause if it is present,
          otherwise using the attribute name

Παραδείγματα:

     import foo                 # foo imported and bound locally
     import foo.bar.baz         # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo bound locally
     import foo.bar.baz as fbb  # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo.bar.baz bound as fbb
     from foo.bar import baz    # foo, foo.bar, and foo.bar.baz imported, foo.bar.baz bound as baz
     from foo import attr       # foo imported and foo.attr bound as attr

Εάν η λίστα των αναγνωριστικών αντικατασταθεί από έναν αστερίσκο
(‘'*'’), όλα τα δημόσια ονόματα που ορίζονται στο module δεσμεύονται στο
τοπικό namespace για το εύρος όπου εμφανίζεται η εντολή *note import:
9da.

The 'public names' defined by a module are determined by checking the
module’s namespace for a variable named ‘__all__’; if defined, it must
be a sequence of strings which are names defined or imported by that
module.  Names containing non-ASCII characters must be in the
normalization form(1) NFKC; see *note Μη-ASCII χαρακτήρες στα ονόματα:
24ae. for details.  The names given in ‘__all__’ are all considered
public and are required to exist.  If ‘__all__’ is not defined, the set
of public names includes all names found in the module’s namespace which
do not begin with an underscore character (‘'_'’).  ‘__all__’ should
contain the entire public API. It is intended to avoid accidentally
exporting items that are not part of the API (such as library modules
which were imported and used within the module).

Η μορφή εισαγωγής με χαρακτήρα μπαλαντέρ — ‘from module import *’ —
επιτρέπεται μόνο σε επίπεδο module.  Η προσπάθεια χρήσης της σε ορισμούς
κλάσεων ή συναρτήσεων θα προκαλέσει *note SyntaxError: 17e.

Κατά τον καθορισμό του module προς εισαγωγή, δεν χρειάζεται να
καθορίσετε το απόλυτο όνομα του module.  Όταν ένα module ή ένα πακέτο
περιέχεται μέσα σε ένα άλλο πακέτο, είναι δυνατή η σχετική εισαγωγή μέσα
στο ίδιο πακέτο ανώτατου επιπέδου χωρίς να χρειάζεται να αναφερθεί το
όνομα του πακέτου.  Χρησιμοποιώντας leading dots στο καθορισμένο module
ή πακέτο μετά το *note from: 1650, μπορείτε να καθορίσετε πόσο ψηλά θα
διασχίσετε την τρέχουσα ιεραρχία πακέτων χωρίς να καθορίσετε ακριβή
ονόματα.  Ένα leading dot σημαίνει το τρέχον πακέτο όπου υπάρχει το
module που πραγματοποιεί την εισαγωγή.  Δύο leading dots σημαίνουν ένα
επίπεδο πακέτου προς τα πάνω.  Τρία leading dots είναι δύο επίπεδα προς
τα πάνω, κ.λπ.  Έτσι, εάν εκτελέσετε το ‘from . import mod’ από ένα
module στο πακέτο ‘pkg’, θα καταλήξετε να εισάγετε το ‘pkg.mod’.  Εάν
εκτελέσετε το ‘from ..subpkg2 import mod’ από το ‘pkg.subpkg1’, θα
εισαγάγετε το ‘pkg.subpkg2.mod’.  Η προδιαγραφή για τις σχετικές
εισαγωγές περιέχεται στην ενότητα *note Σχετικές εισαγωγές σε πακέτα:
2654.

Η συνάρτηση *note importlib.import_module(): 927. παρέχεται για την
υποστήριξη εφαρμογών που καθορίζουν δυναμικά τα modules που θα
φορτωθούν.

Κάνει raise ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘import’ με ορίσματα
‘module’, ‘filename’, ‘sys.path’, ‘sys.meta_path’, ‘sys.path_hooks’.
* Menu:

* Lazy imports::
* Μελλοντικές δηλώσεις::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr15/#Norm_Forms


File: python.info,  Node: Lazy imports,  Next: Μελλοντικές δηλώσεις,  Up: Η εντολή import

4.7.11.1 Lazy imports
.....................

The *note lazy: 177. keyword is a *note soft keyword: be6. that only has
special meaning when it appears immediately before an *note import: 9da.
or *note from: 1650. statement.  When an import statement is preceded by
the ‘lazy’ keyword, the import becomes 'lazy': the module is not loaded
immediately at the import statement.  Instead, a lazy proxy object is
created and bound to the name.  The actual module is loaded on first use
of that name.

Lazy imports are only permitted at module scope.  Using *note lazy: 177.
inside a function, class body, or *note try: ad6./*note except:
447./*note finally: 44c. block raises a *note SyntaxError: 17e.  Star
imports cannot be lazy (‘lazy from module import *’ is a syntax error),
and *note future statements: 670. cannot be lazy.

When using ‘lazy from ... import’, each imported name is bound to a lazy
proxy object.  The first access to any of these names triggers loading
of the entire module and resolves only that specific name to its actual
value.  Other names remain as lazy proxies until they are accessed.

Example:

     lazy import json
     import sys

     print('json' in sys.modules)  # False - json module not yet loaded

     # First use triggers loading
     result = json.dumps({"hello": "world"})

     print('json' in sys.modules)  # True - now loaded

If an error occurs during module loading (such as *note ImportError:
1bd. or *note SyntaxError: 17e.), it is raised at the point where the
lazy import is first used, not at the import statement itself.

See PEP 810(1) for the full specification of lazy imports.

Added in version 3.15.

* Menu:

* Compatibility via __lazy_modules__::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0810/


File: python.info,  Node: Compatibility via __lazy_modules__,  Up: Lazy imports

4.7.11.2 Compatibility via ‘__lazy_modules__’
.............................................

As an alternative to using the *note lazy: 177. keyword, a module can
opt into lazy loading for specific imports by defining a module-level
*note __lazy_modules__: 17f. variable.  When present, it must be a
container of fully qualified module name strings.  Any regular
(non-‘lazy’) *note import: 9da. statement at module scope whose target
appears in ‘__lazy_modules__’ is treated as a lazy import, exactly as if
the ‘lazy’ keyword had been used.

This provides a way to enable lazy loading for specific dependencies
without changing individual ‘import’ statements.  This is useful when
supporting Python versions older than 3.15 while using lazy imports in
3.15+:

     __lazy_modules__ = ["json", "pathlib"]

     import json     # loaded lazily (name is in __lazy_modules__)
     import os       # loaded eagerly (name not in __lazy_modules__)

     import pathlib  # loaded lazily

Relative imports are resolved to their absolute name before the lookup,
so ‘__lazy_modules__’ must always contain fully qualified module names.

For ‘from’-style imports, the relevant name is the module following
‘from’, not the names of its members:

     # In mypackage/mymodule.py
     __lazy_modules__ = ["mypackage", "mypackage.sub.utils"]

     from . import helper         # loaded lazily: . resolves to mypackage
     from .sub.utils import func  # loaded lazily: .sub.utils resolves to mypackage.sub.utils
     import json                  # loaded eagerly (not in __lazy_modules__)

Imports inside functions, class bodies, or *note try: ad6./*note except:
447./*note finally: 44c. blocks are always eager, regardless of
‘__lazy_modules__’.

Setting ‘-X lazy_imports=none’ (or the *note PYTHON_LAZY_IMPORTS: 179.
environment variable to ‘none’) overrides ‘__lazy_modules__’ and forces
all imports to be eager.

Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Μελλοντικές δηλώσεις,  Prev: Lazy imports,  Up: Η εντολή import

4.7.11.3 Μελλοντικές δηλώσεις
.............................

Μια 'μελλοντική δήλωση' είναι μια οδηγία προς τον μεταγλωττιστή ότι ένα
συγκεκριμένο module πρέπει να μεταγλωττιστεί χρησιμοποιώντας σύνταξη ή
σημασιολογία που θα είναι διαθέσιμη σε μια καθορισμένη μελλοντική έκδοση
της Python όπου η δυνατότητα γίνεται πρότυπο.

Η μελλοντική δήλωση προορίζεται να διευκολύνει τη μετάβαση σε
μελλοντικές εκδόσεις της Python που εισάγουν ασύμβατες αλλαγές στη
γλώσσα.  Επιτρέπει τη χρήση των νέων δυνατοτήτων ανά module πριν από την
έκδοση στην οποία η δυνατότητα γίνεται πρότυπο.

     future_stmt: "from" "__future__" "import" *note feature: 2713. ["as" *note identifier: 24b2.]
                  ("," *note feature: 2713. ["as" *note identifier: 24b2.])*
                  | "from" "__future__" "import" "(" *note feature: 2713. ["as" *note identifier: 24b2.]
                  ("," *note feature: 2713. ["as" *note identifier: 24b2.])* [","] ")"
     feature:     *note identifier: 24b2.

Μια μελλοντική δήλωση πρέπει να εμφανίζεται κοντά στην κορυφή του
module.  Οι μόνες γραμμές που μπορούν να εμφανιστούν πριν από μια
μελλοντική δήλωση είναι:

   * η συμβολοσειρά τεκμηρίωσης του module (εάν υπάρχει),

   * σχόλια,

   * κενές γραμμές, και

   * άλλες μελλοντικές δηλώσεις.

Η μόνη δυνατότητα που απαιτεί τη χρήση της μελλοντικής δήλωσης είναι τα
‘annotations’ (ανατρέξτε στο PEP 563(1)).

Όλες οι ιστορικές δυνατότητες που ενεργοποιούνται από τη μελλοντική
δήλωση εξακολουθούν να αναγνωρίζονται από την Python 3.  Η λίστα
περιλαμβάνει τα ‘absolute_import’, ‘division’, ‘generators’,
‘generator_stop’, ‘unicode_literals’, ‘print_function’, ‘nested_scopes’
και ‘with_statement’.  Είναι όλα περιττά επειδή είναι πάντα
ενεργοποιημένα και διατηρούνται μόνο για λόγους συμβατότητας προς τα
πίσω.

Μια μελλοντική δήλωση αναγνωρίζεται και αντιμετωπίζεται ειδικά κατά τη
μεταγλώττιση: Οι αλλαγές στη σημασιολογία των βασικών δομών υλοποιούνται
συχνά με τη δημιουργία διαφορετικού κώδικα.  Μπορεί ακόμη και να συμβεί
μια νέα δυνατότητα να εισάγει νέα ασύμβατη σύνταξη (όπως μια νέα
δεσμευμένη λέξη), οπότε ο μεταγλωττιστής μπορεί να χρειαστεί να αναλύσει
το module διαφορετικά.  Τέτοιες αποφάσεις δεν μπορούν να αναβληθούν
μέχρι το χρόνο εκτέλεσης.

Για κάθε δεδομένη έκδοση, ο μεταγλωττιστής γνωρίζει ποια ονόματα
δυνατοτήτων έχουν οριστεί και προκαλεί σφάλμα μεταγλώττισης εάν μια
μελλοντική δήλωση περιέχει μια δυνατότητα που δεν του είναι γνωστή.

Η άμεση σημασιολογία χρόνου εκτέλεσης είναι η ίδια όπως για κάθε εντολή
εισαγωγής: υπάρχει ένα τυπικό module *note __future__: 0, που
περιγράφεται παρακάτω, και θα εισαχθεί με τον συνήθη τρόπο κατά την
εκτέλεση της μελλοντικής δήλωσης.

Η ενδιαφέρουσα σημασιολογία χρόνου εκτέλεσης εξαρτάται από τη
συγκεκριμένη δυνατότητα που ενεργοποιείται από τη μελλοντική δήλωση.

Σημειώστε ότι δεν υπάρχει τίποτα το ιδιαίτερο σχετικά με την εντολή:

     import __future__ [as name]

Αυτή δεν είναι μια μελλοντική δήλωση· είναι μια συνηθισμένη εντολή
εισαγωγής χωρίς ειδικούς περιορισμούς σημασιολογίας ή σύνταξης.

Ο κώδικας που μεταγλωττίζεται από κλήσεις στις ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις
*note exec(): 185. και *note compile(): 1c8. που εμφανίζονται σε ένα
module ‘M’ που περιέχει μια μελλοντική δήλωση θα χρησιμοποιήσει, από
προεπιλογή, τη νέα σύνταξη ή σημασιολογία που σχετίζεται με τη
μελλοντική δήλωση.  Αυτό μπορεί να ελεγχθεί από προαιρετικά ορίσματα στο
‘compile()’ — ανατρέξτε στην τεκμηρίωση αυτής της συνάρτησης για
λεπτομέρειες.

Μια μελλοντική δήλωση που πληκτρολογείται σε μια διαδραστική γραμμή
εντολών του διερμηνέα θα τεθεί σε ισχύ για το υπόλοιπο της περιόδου
λειτουργίας του διερμηνέα.  Εάν ένας διερμηνέας εκκινηθεί με την επιλογή
*note -i: 187d, του δοθεί ένα όνομα σεναρίου για εκτέλεση και το σενάριο
περιλαμβάνει μια μελλοντική δήλωση, θα ισχύει στη διαδραστική συνεδρία
που ξεκίνησε μετά την εκτέλεση του σεναρίου.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 236(2) - Επιστροφή στο __future__

     Η αρχική πρόταση για τον μηχανισμό __future__.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: Η εντολή global,  Next: Η εντολή nonlocal,  Prev: Η εντολή import,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.12 Η εντολή ‘global’
------------------------

     global_stmt: "global" *note identifier: 24b2. ("," *note identifier: 24b2.)*

Η εντολή *note global: 6b5. προκαλεί την ερμηνεία των αναγραφόμενων
αναγνωριστικών ως καθολικών (globals).  Θα ήταν αδύνατο να γίνει ανάθεση
σε μια καθολική μεταβλητή χωρίς το ‘global’, αν και οι ελεύθερες
μεταβλητές μπορεί να αναφέρονται σε καθολικές μεταβλητές χωρίς να
δηλωθούν καθολικές.

Η εντολή ‘global’ ισχύει για ολόκληρο το τρέχον πεδίο (module, σώμα
συνάρτησης ή ορισμός κλάσης).  Ένα *note SyntaxError: 17e. προκαλείται
εάν μια μεταβλητή χρησιμοποιηθεί ή ανατεθεί πριν από την καθολική της
δήλωση στο πεδίο.

Σε επίπεδο module, όλες οι μεταβλητές είναι καθολικές (global), επομένως
μια εντολή ‘global’ δεν έχει κανένα αποτέλεσμα.  Ωστόσο, οι μεταβλητές
δεν πρέπει ακόμα να χρησιμοποιούνται ή να ανατίθενται πριν από τη δήλωσή
τους με το ‘global’.  Αυτή η απαίτηση δεν είναι τόσο ρητή στη
διαδραστική γραμμή εντολών (*note REPL: 69d.).

'Σημείωση προγραμματιστή:' Το *note global: 6b5. είναι μια οδηγία προς
τον parser.  Ισχύει μόνο για κώδικα που αναλύεται ταυτόχρονα με την
εντολή ‘global’.  Συγκεκριμένα, μια εντολή ‘global’ που περιέχεται σε
μια συμβολοσειρά ή αντικείμενο κώδικα που παρέχεται στην ενσωματωμένη
συνάρτηση *note exec(): 185. δεν επηρεάζει το κομμάτι κώδικα 'που
περιέχει' την κλήση συνάρτησης και ο κώδικας που περιέχεται σε μια
τέτοια συμβολοσειρά δεν επηρεάζεται από τις εντολές ‘global’ στον κώδικα
που περιέχει την κλήση συνάρτησης.  Το ίδιο ισχύει για τις συναρτήσεις
*note eval(): 184. και *note compile(): 1c8.


File: python.info,  Node: Η εντολή nonlocal,  Next: Η εντολή type,  Prev: Η εντολή global,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.13 Η εντολή ‘nonlocal’
--------------------------

     nonlocal_stmt: "nonlocal" *note identifier: 24b2. ("," *note identifier: 24b2.)*

Όταν ο ορισμός μιας συνάρτησης ή κλάσης είναι ενσωματωμένος
(περικλείεται) στους ορισμούς άλλων συναρτήσεων, τα μη τοπικά του πεδία
είναι τα τοπικά πεδία των περικλειόμενων συναρτήσεων.  Η εντολή *note
nonlocal: 164c. προκαλεί τα αναγραφόμενα αναγνωριστικά να αναφέρονται σε
ονόματα που είχαν προηγουμένως δεσμευτεί σε μη τοπικά πεδία.  Επιτρέπει
στον ενθυλακωμένο κώδικα να επαναδεσμεύσει τέτοια μη τοπικά
αναγνωριστικά.  Εάν ένα όνομα είναι δεσμευμένο σε περισσότερα από ένα μη
τοπικά πεδία, χρησιμοποιείται η πλησιέστερη δέσμευση.  Εάν ένα όνομα δεν
είναι δεσμευμένο σε κανένα μη τοπικό πεδίο, ή εάν δεν υπάρχει μη τοπικό
πεδίο, γίνεται raise το *note SyntaxError: 17e.

Η εντολή *note nonlocal: 164c. ισχύει για ολόκληρο το πεδίο ενός σώματος
συνάρτησης ή κλάσης.  Ένα *note SyntaxError: 17e. γίνεται raise εάν μια
μεταβλητή χρησιμοποιηθεί ή ανατεθεί πριν από τη μη τοπική της δήλωση στο
πεδίο.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3104(1) - Πρόσβαση σε ονόματα σε εξωτερικά πεδία

     Η προδιαγραφή για την εντολή *note nonlocal: 164c.

'Σημείωση προγραμματιστή:' Το *note nonlocal: 164c. είναι μια οδηγία
προς τον parser και ισχύει μόνο για κώδικα που αναλύεται μαζί του.
Ανατρέξτε στη σημείωση για την εντολή *note global: 6b5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3104/


File: python.info,  Node: Η εντολή type,  Prev: Η εντολή nonlocal,  Up: Απλές εντολές

4.7.14 Η εντολή ‘type’
----------------------

     type_stmt: 'type' *note identifier: 24b2. [*note type_params: 2717.] "=" *note expression: 42a.

Η εντολή ‘type’ δηλώνει ένα ψευδώνυμο τύπου, το οποίο είναι ένα
στιγμιότυπο του *note typing.TypeAliasType: 52a.

Για παράδειγμα, η ακόλουθη εντολή δημιουργεί ένα ψευδώνυμο τύπου:

     type Point = tuple[float, float]

Αυτός ο κώδικας είναι περίπου ισοδύναμος με:

     annotation-def VALUE_OF_Point():
         return tuple[float, float]
     Point = typing.TypeAliasType("Point", VALUE_OF_Point())

Το ‘annotation-def’ υποδεικνύει ένα *note πεδίο σχολιασμού: 6b4, το
οποίο συμπεριφέρεται κυρίως σαν μια συνάρτηση, αλλά με αρκετές μικρές
διαφορές.

Η τιμή του ψευδώνυμου τύπου αξιολογείται στο πεδίο σχολιασμού.  Δεν
αξιολογείται κατά τη δημιουργία του ψευδώνυμου τύπου, αλλά μόνο όταν η
τιμή προσπελαστεί μέσω του χαρακτηριστικού ‘__value__’ του ψευδώνυμου
τύπου (ανατρέξτε στην *note Καθυστερημένη εκτίμηση: 872.).  Αυτό
επιτρέπει στο ψευδώνυμο τύπου να αναφέρεται σε ονόματα που δεν έχουν
ακόμη οριστεί.

Τα ψευδώνυμα τύπων μπορούν να γίνουν generic προσθέτοντας μια *note
λιστα παραμέτρων τύπου: 7a5. μετά το όνομα.  Ανατρέξτε στα *note Generic
type aliases: 871. για περισσότερα.

Το ‘type’ είναι μια *note ήπια λέξη-κλειδί: be6.

Added in version 3.12.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 695(1) - Σύνταξη παραμέτρων τύπου

     Εισήγαγε την εντολή ‘type’ και τη σύνταξη για γενικές κλάσεις και
     συναρτήσεις.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/


File: python.info,  Node: Compound statements,  Next: Συστατικά ανωτάτου επιπέδου,  Prev: Απλές εντολές,  Up: Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python

4.8 Compound statements
=======================

Compound statements contain (groups of) other statements; they affect or
control the execution of those other statements in some way.  In
general, compound statements span multiple lines, although in simple
incarnations a whole compound statement may be contained in one line.

The *note if: 322, *note while: 1b86. and *note for: 321. statements
implement traditional control flow constructs.  *note try: ad6.
specifies exception handlers and/or cleanup code for a group of
statements, while the *note with: 20a. statement allows the execution of
initialization and finalization code around a block of code.  Function
and class definitions are also syntactically compound statements.

A compound statement consists of one or more “clauses.” A clause
consists of a header and a “suite.” The clause headers of a particular
compound statement are all at the same indentation level.  Each clause
header begins with a uniquely identifying keyword and ends with a colon.
A suite is a group of statements controlled by a clause.  A suite can be
one or more semicolon-separated simple statements on the same line as
the header, following the header’s colon, or it can be one or more
indented statements on subsequent lines.  Only the latter form of a
suite can contain nested compound statements; the following is illegal,
mostly because it wouldn’t be clear to which *note if: 322. clause a
following *note else: 320. clause would belong:

     if test1: if test2: print(x)

Also note that the semicolon binds tighter than the colon in this
context, so that in the following example, either all or none of the
*note print(): 131f. calls are executed:

     if x < y < z: print(x); print(y); print(z)

Summarizing:

     compound_stmt: *note if_stmt: 271d.
                    | *note while_stmt: 271e.
                    | *note for_stmt: 271f.
                    | *note try_stmt: 2720.
                    | *note with_stmt: 2721.
                    | *note match_stmt: 2722.
                    | *note funcdef: 2723.
                    | *note classdef: 2724.
                    | *note async_with_stmt: 2725.
                    | *note async_for_stmt: 2726.
                    | *note async_funcdef: 2727.
     suite:         *note stmt_list: 2729. NEWLINE | NEWLINE INDENT *note statement: 272a.+ DEDENT
     statement:     *note stmt_list: 2729. NEWLINE | *note compound_stmt: 271c.
     stmt_list:     *note simple_stmt: 26e6. (";" *note simple_stmt: 26e6.)* [";"]

Note that statements always end in a ‘NEWLINE’ possibly followed by a
‘DEDENT’.  Also note that optional continuation clauses always begin
with a keyword that cannot start a statement, thus there are no
ambiguities (the “dangling *note else: 320.” problem is solved in Python
by requiring nested *note if: 322. statements to be indented).

The formatting of the grammar rules in the following sections places
each clause on a separate line for clarity.
* Menu:

* The if statement::
* The while statement::
* The for statement::
* The try statement::
* The with statement::
* The match statement::
* Function definitions::
* Class definitions::
* Coroutines: Coroutines<2>.
* Type parameter lists::
* Annotations: Annotations<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: The if statement,  Next: The while statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.1 The ‘if’ statement
------------------------

The *note if: 322. statement is used for conditional execution:

     if_stmt: "if" *note assignment_expression: 2623. ":" *note suite: 2728.
              ("elif" *note assignment_expression: 2623. ":" *note suite: 2728.)*
              ["else" ":" *note suite: 2728.]

It selects exactly one of the suites by evaluating the expressions one
by one until one is found to be true (see section *note Boolean
operations: 26cf. for the definition of true and false); then that suite
is executed (and no other part of the *note if: 322. statement is
executed or evaluated).  If all expressions are false, the suite of the
*note else: 320. clause, if present, is executed.


File: python.info,  Node: The while statement,  Next: The for statement,  Prev: The if statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.2 The ‘while’ statement
---------------------------

The *note while: 1b86. statement is used for repeated execution as long
as an expression is true:

     while_stmt: "while" *note assignment_expression: 2623. ":" *note suite: 2728.
                 ["else" ":" *note suite: 2728.]

This repeatedly tests the expression and, if it is true, executes the
first suite; if the expression is false (which may be the first time it
is tested) the suite of the ‘else’ clause, if present, is executed and
the loop terminates.

A *note break: 428. statement executed in the first suite terminates the
loop without executing the ‘else’ clause’s suite.  A *note continue:
429. statement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite
and goes back to testing the expression.


File: python.info,  Node: The for statement,  Next: The try statement,  Prev: The while statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.3 The ‘for’ statement
-------------------------

The *note for: 321. statement is used to iterate over the elements of a
sequence (such as a string, tuple or list) or other iterable object:

     for_stmt: "for" *note target_list: 267f. "in" *note starred_expression_list: 26dc. ":" *note suite: 2728.
               ["else" ":" *note suite: 2728.]

The *note starred_expression_list: 26dc. expression is evaluated once;
it should yield an *note iterable: 15ce. object.  An *note iterator:
6ce. is created for that iterable.  The first item provided by the
iterator is then assigned to the target list using the standard rules
for assignments (see *note Εντολές ανάθεσης: 261d.), and the suite is
executed.  This repeats for each item provided by the iterator.  When
the iterator is exhausted, the suite in the ‘else’ clause, if present,
is executed, and the loop terminates.

A *note break: 428. statement executed in the first suite terminates the
loop without executing the ‘else’ clause’s suite.  A *note continue:
429. statement executed in the first suite skips the rest of the suite
and continues with the next item, or with the ‘else’ clause if there is
no next item.

The for-loop makes assignments to the variables in the target list.
This overwrites all previous assignments to those variables including
those made in the suite of the for-loop:

     for i in range(10):
         print(i)
         i = 5             # this will not affect the for-loop
                           # because i will be overwritten with the next
                           # index in the range

Names in the target list are not deleted when the loop is finished, but
if the sequence is empty, they will not have been assigned to at all by
the loop.  Hint: the built-in type *note range(): d0f. represents
immutable arithmetic sequences of integers.  For instance, iterating
‘range(3)’ successively yields 0, 1, and then 2.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Starred elements are now allowed in the
expression list.


File: python.info,  Node: The try statement,  Next: The with statement,  Prev: The for statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.4 The ‘try’ statement
-------------------------

The ‘try’ statement specifies exception handlers and/or cleanup code for
a group of statements:

     try_stmt:  *note try1_stmt: 272f. | *note try2_stmt: 2730. | *note try3_stmt: 2731.
     try1_stmt: "try" ":" *note suite: 2728.
                ("except" [*note expression: 42a. ["as" *note identifier: 24b2.]] ":" *note suite: 2728.)+
                ["else" ":" *note suite: 2728.]
                ["finally" ":" *note suite: 2728.]
     try2_stmt: "try" ":" *note suite: 2728.
                ("except" "*" *note expression: 42a. ["as" *note identifier: 24b2.] ":" *note suite: 2728.)+
                ["else" ":" *note suite: 2728.]
                ["finally" ":" *note suite: 2728.]
     try3_stmt: "try" ":" *note suite: 2728.
                "finally" ":" *note suite: 2728.

Additional information on exceptions can be found in section *note
Εξαιρέσεις: 2629, and information on using the *note raise: 9e4.
statement to generate exceptions may be found in section *note Η εντολή
raise: 9e4.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Support for optionally dropping grouping
parentheses when using multiple exception types.  See PEP 758(1).

* Menu:

* except clause::
* except* clause::
* else clause::
* finally clause::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0758/


File: python.info,  Node: except clause,  Next: except* clause,  Up: The try statement

4.8.4.1 ‘except’ clause
.......................

The ‘except’ clause(s) specify one or more exception handlers.  When no
exception occurs in the *note try: ad6. clause, no exception handler is
executed.  When an exception occurs in the ‘try’ suite, a search for an
exception handler is started.  This search inspects the ‘except’ clauses
in turn until one is found that matches the exception.  An
expression-less ‘except’ clause, if present, must be last; it matches
any exception.

For an ‘except’ clause with an expression, the expression must evaluate
to an exception type or a tuple of exception types.  Parentheses can be
dropped if multiple exception types are provided and the ‘as’ clause is
not used.  The raised exception matches an ‘except’ clause whose
expression evaluates to the class or a *note non-virtual base class:
155f. of the exception object, or to a tuple that contains such a class.

If no ‘except’ clause matches the exception, the search for an exception
handler continues in the surrounding code and on the invocation stack.
(1)

If the evaluation of an expression in the header of an ‘except’ clause
raises an exception, the original search for a handler is canceled and a
search starts for the new exception in the surrounding code and on the
call stack (it is treated as if the entire *note try: ad6. statement
raised the exception).

When a matching ‘except’ clause is found, the exception is assigned to
the target specified after the ‘as’ keyword in that ‘except’ clause, if
present, and the ‘except’ clause’s suite is executed.  All ‘except’
clauses must have an executable block.  When the end of this block is
reached, execution continues normally after the entire *note try: ad6.
statement.  (This means that if two nested handlers exist for the same
exception, and the exception occurs in the ‘try’ clause of the inner
handler, the outer handler will not handle the exception.)

When an exception has been assigned using ‘as target’, it is cleared at
the end of the ‘except’ clause.  This is as if

     except E as N:
         foo

was translated to

     except E as N:
         try:
             foo
         finally:
             del N

This means the exception must be assigned to a different name to be able
to refer to it after the ‘except’ clause.  Exceptions are cleared
because with the traceback attached to them, they form a reference cycle
with the stack frame, keeping all locals in that frame alive until the
next garbage collection occurs.

Before an ‘except’ clause’s suite is executed, the exception is stored
in the *note sys: e2. module, where it can be accessed from within the
body of the ‘except’ clause by calling *note sys.exception(): a7b.  When
leaving an exception handler, the exception stored in the ‘sys’ module
is reset to its previous value:

     >>> print(sys.exception())
     None
     >>> try:
     ...     raise TypeError
     ... except:
     ...     print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...     try:
     ...          raise ValueError
     ...     except:
     ...         print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...     print(repr(sys.exception()))
     ...
     TypeError()
     ValueError()
     TypeError()
     >>> print(sys.exception())
     None

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The exception is propagated to the invocation stack unless there
is a *note finally: 44c. clause which happens to raise another
exception.  That new exception causes the old one to be lost.


File: python.info,  Node: except* clause,  Next: else clause,  Prev: except clause,  Up: The try statement

4.8.4.2 ‘except*’ clause
........................

The ‘except*’ clause(s) specify one or more handlers for groups of
exceptions (*note BaseExceptionGroup: 767. instances).  A *note try:
ad6. statement can have either *note except: 447. or ‘except*’ clauses,
but not both.  The exception type for matching is mandatory in the case
of ‘except*’, so ‘except*:’ is a syntax error.  The type is interpreted
as in the case of ‘except’, but matching is performed on the exceptions
contained in the group that is being handled.  An *note TypeError: 291.
is raised if a matching type is a subclass of ‘BaseExceptionGroup’,
because that would have ambiguous semantics.

When an exception group is raised in the try block, each ‘except*’
clause splits (see *note split(): 1af9.) it into the subgroups of
matching and non-matching exceptions.  If the matching subgroup is not
empty, it becomes the handled exception (the value returned from *note
sys.exception(): a7b.) and assigned to the target of the ‘except*’
clause (if there is one).  Then, the body of the ‘except*’ clause
executes.  If the non-matching subgroup is not empty, it is processed by
the next ‘except*’ in the same manner.  This continues until all
exceptions in the group have been matched, or the last ‘except*’ clause
has run.

After all ‘except*’ clauses execute, the group of unhandled exceptions
is merged with any exceptions that were raised or re-raised from within
‘except*’ clauses.  This merged exception group propagates on.:

     >>> try:
     ...     raise ExceptionGroup("eg",
     ...         [ValueError(1), TypeError(2), OSError(3), OSError(4)])
     ... except* TypeError as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)} with nested {e.exceptions}')
     ... except* OSError as e:
     ...     print(f'caught {type(e)} with nested {e.exceptions}')
     ...
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (TypeError(2),)
     caught <class 'ExceptionGroup'> with nested (OSError(3), OSError(4))
       + Exception Group Traceback (most recent call last):
       |   File "<doctest default[0]>", line 2, in <module>
       |     raise ExceptionGroup("eg",
       |         [ValueError(1), TypeError(2), OSError(3), OSError(4)])
       | ExceptionGroup: eg (1 sub-exception)
       +-+---------------- 1 ----------------
         | ValueError: 1
         +------------------------------------

If the exception raised from the *note try: ad6. block is not an
exception group and its type matches one of the ‘except*’ clauses, it is
caught and wrapped by an exception group with an empty message string.
This ensures that the type of the target ‘e’ is consistently *note
BaseExceptionGroup: 767.:

     >>> try:
     ...     raise BlockingIOError
     ... except* BlockingIOError as e:
     ...     print(repr(e))
     ...
     ExceptionGroup('', (BlockingIOError(),))

*note break: 428, *note continue: 429. and *note return: 44b. cannot
appear in an ‘except*’ clause.


File: python.info,  Node: else clause,  Next: finally clause,  Prev: except* clause,  Up: The try statement

4.8.4.3 ‘else’ clause
.....................

The optional ‘else’ clause is executed if the control flow leaves the
*note try: ad6. suite, no exception was raised, and no *note return:
44b, *note continue: 429, or *note break: 428. statement was executed.
Exceptions in the ‘else’ clause are not handled by the preceding *note
except: 447. clauses.


File: python.info,  Node: finally clause,  Prev: else clause,  Up: The try statement

4.8.4.4 ‘finally’ clause
........................

If ‘finally’ is present, it specifies a “cleanup” handler.  The *note
try: ad6. clause is executed, including any *note except: 447. and *note
else: 2735. clauses.  If an exception occurs in any of the clauses and
is not handled, the exception is temporarily saved.  The ‘finally’
clause is executed.  If there is a saved exception it is re-raised at
the end of the ‘finally’ clause.  If the ‘finally’ clause raises another
exception, the saved exception is set as the context of the new
exception.  If the ‘finally’ clause executes a *note return: 44b, *note
break: 428. or *note continue: 429. statement, the saved exception is
discarded.  For example, this function returns 42.

     def f():
         try:
             1/0
         finally:
             return 42

The exception information is not available to the program during
execution of the ‘finally’ clause.

When a *note return: 44b, *note break: 428. or *note continue: 429.
statement is executed in the *note try: ad6. suite of a ‘try’…‘finally’
statement, the ‘finally’ clause is also executed “on the way out.”

The return value of a function is determined by the last *note return:
44b. statement executed.  Since the ‘finally’ clause always executes, a
‘return’ statement executed in the ‘finally’ clause will always be the
last one executed.  The following function returns “finally”.

     def foo():
         try:
             return 'try'
         finally:
             return 'finally'

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Prior to Python 3.8, a *note continue: 429.
statement was illegal in the ‘finally’ clause due to a problem with the
implementation.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The compiler emits a *note SyntaxWarning: 44a.
when a *note return: 44b, *note break: 428. or *note continue: 429.
appears in a ‘finally’ block (see PEP 765(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0765/


File: python.info,  Node: The with statement,  Next: The match statement,  Prev: The try statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.5 The ‘with’ statement
--------------------------

The *note with: 20a. statement is used to wrap the execution of a block
with methods defined by a context manager (see section *note Με τους
Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης: 2572.).  This allows common *note
try: ad6.…*note except: 447.…*note finally: 44c. usage patterns to be
encapsulated for convenient reuse.

     with_stmt:          "with" ( "(" *note with_stmt_contents: 2739. ","? ")" | *note with_stmt_contents: 2739. ) ":" *note suite: 2728.
     with_stmt_contents: *note with_item: 273a. ("," *note with_item: 273a.)*
     with_item:          *note expression: 42a. ["as" *note target: 26fb.]

The execution of the *note with: 20a. statement with one «item» proceeds
as follows:

  1. The context expression (the expression given in the *note
     with_item: 273a.) is evaluated to obtain a context manager.

  2. The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 9c6. is loaded for later
     use.

  3. The context manager’s *note __exit__(): 16a5. is loaded for later
     use.

  4. The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 9c6. method is invoked.

  5. If a target was included in the *note with: 20a. statement, the
     return value from *note __enter__(): 9c6. is assigned to it.

          Σημείωση: The *note with: 20a. statement guarantees that if
          the *note __enter__(): 9c6. method returns without an error,
          then *note __exit__(): 16a5. will always be called.  Thus, if
          an error occurs during the assignment to the target list, it
          will be treated the same as an error occurring within the
          suite would be.  See step 7 below.

  6. The suite is executed.

  7. The context manager’s *note __exit__(): 16a5. method is invoked.
     If an exception caused the suite to be exited, its type, value, and
     traceback are passed as arguments to ‘__exit__()’.  Otherwise,
     three *note None: a65. arguments are supplied.

     If the suite was exited due to an exception, and the return value
     from the *note __exit__(): 16a5. method was false, the exception is
     reraised.  If the return value was true, the exception is
     suppressed, and execution continues with the statement following
     the *note with: 20a. statement.

     If the suite was exited for any reason other than an exception, the
     return value from *note __exit__(): 16a5. is ignored, and execution
     proceeds at the normal location for the kind of exit that was
     taken.

The following code:

     with EXPRESSION as TARGET:
         SUITE

is semantically equivalent to:

     manager = (EXPRESSION)
     enter = manager.__enter__
     exit = manager.__exit__
     value = enter()
     hit_except = False

     try:
         TARGET = value
         SUITE
     except:
         hit_except = True
         if not exit(*sys.exc_info()):
             raise
     finally:
         if not hit_except:
             exit(None, None, None)

except that implicit *note special method lookup: 25a6. is used for
*note __enter__(): 9c6. and *note __exit__(): 16a5.

With more than one item, the context managers are processed as if
multiple *note with: 20a. statements were nested:

     with A() as a, B() as b:
         SUITE

is semantically equivalent to:

     with A() as a:
         with B() as b:
             SUITE

You can also write multi-item context managers in multiple lines if the
items are surrounded by parentheses.  For example:

     with (
         A() as a,
         B() as b,
     ):
         SUITE

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Support for multiple context expressions.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Support for using grouping parentheses to break
the statement in multiple lines.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 343(1) - The «with» statement

     The specification, background, and examples for the Python *note
     with: 20a. statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: The match statement,  Next: Function definitions,  Prev: The with statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.6 The ‘match’ statement
---------------------------

Added in version 3.10.

The match statement is used for pattern matching.  Syntax:

     match_stmt:   'match' *note subject_expr: 273d. ":" NEWLINE INDENT *note case_block: 273e.+ DEDENT
     subject_expr: `!star_named_expression` "," `!star_named_expressions`?
                   | `!named_expression`
     case_block:   'case' *note patterns: 273f. [*note guard: 2740.] ":" `!block`

     Σημείωση: This section uses single quotes to denote *note soft
     keywords: be6.

Pattern matching takes a pattern as input (following ‘case’) and a
subject value (following ‘match’).  The pattern (which may contain
subpatterns) is matched against the subject value.  The outcomes are:

   * A match success or failure (also termed a pattern success or
     failure).

   * Possible binding of matched values to a name.  The prerequisites
     for this are further discussed below.

The ‘match’ and ‘case’ keywords are *note soft keywords: be6.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * PEP 634(1) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

   * PEP 636(2) – Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial

* Menu:

* Overview::
* Guards::
* Irrefutable Case Blocks::
* Patterns::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Overview,  Next: Guards,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.1 Overview
................

Here’s an overview of the logical flow of a match statement:

  1. The subject expression ‘subject_expr’ is evaluated and a resulting
     subject value obtained.  If the subject expression contains a
     comma, a tuple is constructed using *note the standard rules: 2742.

  2. Each pattern in a ‘case_block’ is attempted to match with the
     subject value.  The specific rules for success or failure are
     described below.  The match attempt can also bind some or all of
     the standalone names within the pattern.  The precise pattern
     binding rules vary per pattern type and are specified below.  'Name
     bindings made during a successful pattern match outlive the
     executed block and can be used after the match statement'.

          Σημείωση: During failed pattern matches, some subpatterns may
          succeed.  Do not rely on bindings being made for a failed
          match.  Conversely, do not rely on variables remaining
          unchanged after a failed match.  The exact behavior is
          dependent on implementation and may vary.  This is an
          intentional decision made to allow different implementations
          to add optimizations.

  3. If the pattern succeeds, the corresponding guard (if present) is
     evaluated.  In this case all name bindings are guaranteed to have
     happened.

        * If the guard evaluates as true or is missing, the ‘block’
          inside ‘case_block’ is executed.

        * Otherwise, the next ‘case_block’ is attempted as described
          above.

        * If there are no further case blocks, the match statement is
          completed.

     Σημείωση: Users should generally never rely on a pattern being
     evaluated.  Depending on implementation, the interpreter may cache
     values or use other optimizations which skip repeated evaluations.

A sample match statement:

     >>> flag = False
     >>> match (100, 200):
     ...    case (100, 300):  # Mismatch: 200 != 300
     ...        print('Case 1')
     ...    case (100, 200) if flag:  # Successful match, but guard fails
     ...        print('Case 2')
     ...    case (100, y):  # Matches and binds y to 200
     ...        print(f'Case 3, y: {y}')
     ...    case _:  # Pattern not attempted
     ...        print('Case 4, I match anything!')
     ...
     Case 3, y: 200

In this case, ‘if flag’ is a guard.  Read more about that in the next
section.


File: python.info,  Node: Guards,  Next: Irrefutable Case Blocks,  Prev: Overview,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.2 Guards
..............

     guard: "if" `!named_expression`

A ‘guard’ (which is part of the ‘case’) must succeed for code inside the
‘case’ block to execute.  It takes the form: *note if: 322. followed by
an expression.

The logical flow of a ‘case’ block with a ‘guard’ follows:

  1. Check that the pattern in the ‘case’ block succeeded.  If the
     pattern failed, the ‘guard’ is not evaluated and the next ‘case’
     block is checked.

  2. If the pattern succeeded, evaluate the ‘guard’.

        * If the ‘guard’ condition evaluates as true, the case block is
          selected.

        * If the ‘guard’ condition evaluates as false, the case block is
          not selected.

        * If the ‘guard’ raises an exception during evaluation, the
          exception bubbles up.

Guards are allowed to have side effects as they are expressions.  Guard
evaluation must proceed from the first to the last case block, one at a
time, skipping case blocks whose pattern(s) don’t all succeed.  (I.e.,
guard evaluation must happen in order.)  Guard evaluation must stop once
a case block is selected.


File: python.info,  Node: Irrefutable Case Blocks,  Next: Patterns,  Prev: Guards,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.3 Irrefutable Case Blocks
...............................

An irrefutable case block is a match-all case block.  A match statement
may have at most one irrefutable case block, and it must be last.

A case block is considered irrefutable if it has no guard and its
pattern is irrefutable.  A pattern is considered irrefutable if we can
prove from its syntax alone that it will always succeed.  Only the
following patterns are irrefutable:

   * *note AS Patterns: 2746. whose left-hand side is irrefutable

   * *note OR Patterns: 2747. containing at least one irrefutable
     pattern

   * *note Capture Patterns: 2748.

   * *note Wildcard Patterns: be7.

   * parenthesized irrefutable patterns


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns,  Prev: Irrefutable Case Blocks,  Up: The match statement

4.8.6.4 Patterns
................

     Σημείωση: This section uses grammar notations beyond standard EBNF:

        * the notation ‘SEP.RULE+’ is shorthand for ‘RULE (SEP RULE)*’

        * the notation ‘!RULE’ is shorthand for a negative lookahead
          assertion

The top-level syntax for ‘patterns’ is:

     patterns:       *note open_sequence_pattern: 274a. | *note pattern: 274b.
     pattern:        *note as_pattern: 274c. | *note or_pattern: 274d.
     closed_pattern: | *note literal_pattern: 274f.
                     | *note capture_pattern: 2750.
                     | *note wildcard_pattern: 2751.
                     | *note value_pattern: 2752.
                     | *note group_pattern: 2753.
                     | *note sequence_pattern: 2754.
                     | *note mapping_pattern: 2755.
                     | *note class_pattern: 2756.

The descriptions below will include a description «in simple terms» of
what a pattern does for illustration purposes (credits to Raymond
Hettinger for a document that inspired most of the descriptions).  Note
that these descriptions are purely for illustration purposes and 'may
not' reflect the underlying implementation.  Furthermore, they do not
cover all valid forms.

* Menu:

* OR Patterns::
* AS Patterns::
* Literal Patterns::
* Capture Patterns::
* Wildcard Patterns::
* Value Patterns::
* Group Patterns::
* Sequence Patterns::
* Mapping Patterns::
* Class Patterns::


File: python.info,  Node: OR Patterns,  Next: AS Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.5 OR Patterns
...................

An OR pattern is two or more patterns separated by vertical bars ‘|’.
Syntax:

     or_pattern: "|".*note closed_pattern: 274e.+

Only the final subpattern may be *note irrefutable: 2744, and each
subpattern must bind the same set of names to avoid ambiguity.

An OR pattern matches each of its subpatterns in turn to the subject
value, until one succeeds.  The OR pattern is then considered
successful.  Otherwise, if none of the subpatterns succeed, the OR
pattern fails.

In simple terms, ‘P1 | P2 | ...’ will try to match ‘P1’, if it fails it
will try to match ‘P2’, succeeding immediately if any succeeds, failing
otherwise.


File: python.info,  Node: AS Patterns,  Next: Literal Patterns,  Prev: OR Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.6 AS Patterns
...................

An AS pattern matches an OR pattern on the left of the *note as: 2737.
keyword against a subject.  Syntax:

     as_pattern: *note or_pattern: 274d. "as" *note capture_pattern: 2750.

If the OR pattern fails, the AS pattern fails.  Otherwise, the AS
pattern binds the subject to the name on the right of the as keyword and
succeeds.  ‘capture_pattern’ cannot be a ‘_’.

In simple terms ‘P as NAME’ will match with ‘P’, and on success it will
set ‘NAME = <subject>’.


File: python.info,  Node: Literal Patterns,  Next: Capture Patterns,  Prev: AS Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.7 Literal Patterns
........................

A literal pattern corresponds to most *note literals: 24ba. in Python.
Syntax:

     literal_pattern: *note signed_number: 275b.
                      | *note signed_number: 275b. "+" NUMBER
                      | *note signed_number: 275b. "-" NUMBER
                      | *note strings: 2674.
                      | "None"
                      | "True"
                      | "False"
     signed_number:   ["+" | "-"] NUMBER

The rule ‘strings’ and the token ‘NUMBER’ are defined in the *note
standard Python grammar: 275c.  Triple-quoted strings are supported.
Raw strings and byte strings are supported.  *note f-strings: 43a. and
*note t-strings: 1a50. are not supported.

The forms ‘signed_number '+' NUMBER’ and ‘signed_number '-' NUMBER’ are
for expressing *note complex numbers: 250c.; they require a real number
on the left and an imaginary number on the right.  E.g.  ‘3 + 4j’.

In simple terms, ‘LITERAL’ will succeed only if ‘<subject> == LITERAL’.
For the singletons ‘None’, ‘True’ and ‘False’, the *note is: 324.
operator is used.


File: python.info,  Node: Capture Patterns,  Next: Wildcard Patterns,  Prev: Literal Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.8 Capture Patterns
........................

A capture pattern binds the subject value to a name.  Syntax:

     capture_pattern: !'_' NAME

A single underscore ‘_’ is not a capture pattern (this is what ‘!'_'’
expresses).  It is instead treated as a *note wildcard_pattern: 2751.

In a given pattern, a given name can only be bound once.  E.g.  ‘case x,
x: ...’ is invalid while ‘case [x] | x: ...’ is allowed.

Capture patterns always succeed.  The binding follows scoping rules
established by the assignment expression operator in PEP 572(1); the
name becomes a local variable in the closest containing function scope
unless there’s an applicable *note global: 6b5. or *note nonlocal: 164c.
statement.

In simple terms ‘NAME’ will always succeed and it will set ‘NAME =
<subject>’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Wildcard Patterns,  Next: Value Patterns,  Prev: Capture Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.9 Wildcard Patterns
.........................

A wildcard pattern always succeeds (matches anything) and binds no name.
Syntax:

     wildcard_pattern: '_'

‘_’ is a *note soft keyword: be6. within any pattern, but only within
patterns.  It is an identifier, as usual, even within ‘match’ subject
expressions, ‘guard’s, and ‘case’ blocks.

In simple terms, ‘_’ will always succeed.


File: python.info,  Node: Value Patterns,  Next: Group Patterns,  Prev: Wildcard Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.10 Value Patterns
.......................

A value pattern represents a named value in Python.  Syntax:

     value_pattern: *note attr: 2761.
     attr:          *note name_or_attr: 2762. "." NAME
     name_or_attr:  *note attr: 2761. | NAME

The dotted name in the pattern is looked up using standard Python *note
name resolution rules: 2620.  The pattern succeeds if the value found
compares equal to the subject value (using the ‘==’ equality operator).

In simple terms ‘NAME1.NAME2’ will succeed only if ‘<subject> ==
NAME1.NAME2’

     Σημείωση: If the same value occurs multiple times in the same match
     statement, the interpreter may cache the first value found and
     reuse it rather than repeat the same lookup.  This cache is
     strictly tied to a given execution of a given match statement.


File: python.info,  Node: Group Patterns,  Next: Sequence Patterns,  Prev: Value Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.11 Group Patterns
.......................

A group pattern allows users to add parentheses around patterns to
emphasize the intended grouping.  Otherwise, it has no additional
syntax.  Syntax:

     group_pattern: "(" *note pattern: 274b. ")"

In simple terms ‘(P)’ has the same effect as ‘P’.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Patterns,  Next: Mapping Patterns,  Prev: Group Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.12 Sequence Patterns
..........................

A sequence pattern contains several subpatterns to be matched against
sequence elements.  The syntax is similar to the unpacking of a list or
tuple.

     sequence_pattern:       "[" [*note maybe_sequence_pattern: 2767.] "]"
                             | "(" [*note open_sequence_pattern: 274a.] ")"
     open_sequence_pattern:  *note maybe_star_pattern: 2768. "," [*note maybe_sequence_pattern: 2767.]
     maybe_sequence_pattern: ",".*note maybe_star_pattern: 2768.+ ","?
     maybe_star_pattern:     *note star_pattern: 2769. | *note pattern: 274b.
     star_pattern:           "*" (*note capture_pattern: 2750. | *note wildcard_pattern: 2751.)

There is no difference if parentheses or square brackets are used for
sequence patterns (i.e.  ‘(...)’ vs ‘[...]’ ).

     Σημείωση: A single pattern enclosed in parentheses without a
     trailing comma (e.g.  ‘(3 | 4)’) is a *note group pattern: 2763.
     While a single pattern enclosed in square brackets (e.g.  ‘[3 |
     4]’) is still a sequence pattern.

At most one star subpattern may be in a sequence pattern.  The star
subpattern may occur in any position.  If no star subpattern is present,
the sequence pattern is a fixed-length sequence pattern; otherwise it is
a variable-length sequence pattern.

The following is the logical flow for matching a sequence pattern
against a subject value:

  1. If the subject value is not a sequence (1), the sequence pattern
     fails.

  2. If the subject value is an instance of ‘str’, ‘bytes’ or
     ‘bytearray’ the sequence pattern fails.

  3. The subsequent steps depend on whether the sequence pattern is
     fixed or variable-length.

     If the sequence pattern is fixed-length:

       1. If the length of the subject sequence is not equal to the
          number of subpatterns, the sequence pattern fails

       2. Subpatterns in the sequence pattern are matched to their
          corresponding items in the subject sequence from left to
          right.  Matching stops as soon as a subpattern fails.  If all
          subpatterns succeed in matching their corresponding item, the
          sequence pattern succeeds.

     Otherwise, if the sequence pattern is variable-length:

       1. If the length of the subject sequence is less than the number
          of non-star subpatterns, the sequence pattern fails.

       2. The leading non-star subpatterns are matched to their
          corresponding items as for fixed-length sequences.

       3. If the previous step succeeds, the star subpattern matches a
          list formed of the remaining subject items, excluding the
          remaining items corresponding to non-star subpatterns
          following the star subpattern.

       4. Remaining non-star subpatterns are matched to their
          corresponding subject items, as for a fixed-length sequence.

          Σημείωση: The length of the subject sequence is obtained via
          *note len(): a1f. (i.e.  via the *note __len__(): 1989.
          protocol).  This length may be cached by the interpreter in a
          similar manner as *note value patterns: 2760.

In simple terms ‘[P1, P2, P3,’ … ‘, P<N>]’ matches only if all the
following happens:

   * check ‘<subject>’ is a sequence

   * ‘len(subject) == <N>’

   * ‘P1’ matches ‘<subject>[0]’ (note that this match can also bind
     names)

   * ‘P2’ matches ‘<subject>[1]’ (note that this match can also bind
     names)

   * … and so on for the corresponding pattern/element.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In pattern matching, a sequence is defined as one of the
following:

   * a class that inherits from *note collections.abc.Sequence: 156d.

   * a Python class that has been registered as *note
     collections.abc.Sequence: 156d.

   * a builtin class that has its (CPython) *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE:
     1e50. bit set

   * a class that inherits from any of the above

The following standard library classes are sequences:

   * *note array.array: 6c5.

   * *note collections.deque: 9d6.

   * *note list: 4d9.

   * *note memoryview: 1d2.

   * *note range: d0f.

   * *note tuple: 1ce.

     Σημείωση: Subject values of type ‘str’, ‘bytes’, and ‘bytearray’ do
     not match sequence patterns.


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Patterns,  Next: Class Patterns,  Prev: Sequence Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.13 Mapping Patterns
.........................

A mapping pattern contains one or more key-value patterns.  The syntax
is similar to the construction of a dictionary.  Syntax:

     mapping_pattern:     "{" [*note items_pattern: 276c.] "}"
     items_pattern:       ",".*note key_value_pattern: 276d.+ ","?
     key_value_pattern:   (*note literal_pattern: 274f. | *note value_pattern: 2752.) ":" *note pattern: 274b.
                          | *note double_star_pattern: 276e.
     double_star_pattern: "**" *note capture_pattern: 2750.

At most one double star pattern may be in a mapping pattern.  The double
star pattern must be the last subpattern in the mapping pattern.

Duplicate keys in mapping patterns are disallowed.  Duplicate literal
keys will raise a *note SyntaxError: 17e.  Two keys that otherwise have
the same value will raise a *note ValueError: 277. at runtime.

The following is the logical flow for matching a mapping pattern against
a subject value:

  1. If the subject value is not a mapping (1),the mapping pattern
     fails.

  2. If every key given in the mapping pattern is present in the subject
     mapping, and the pattern for each key matches the corresponding
     item of the subject mapping, the mapping pattern succeeds.

  3. If duplicate keys are detected in the mapping pattern, the pattern
     is considered invalid.  A *note SyntaxError: 17e. is raised for
     duplicate literal values; or a *note ValueError: 277. for named
     keys of the same value.

     Σημείωση: Key-value pairs are matched using the two-argument form
     of the mapping subject’s ‘get()’ method.  Matched key-value pairs
     must already be present in the mapping, and not created on-the-fly
     via *note __missing__(): 1566. or *note __getitem__(): 787.

In simple terms ‘{KEY1: P1, KEY2: P2, ... }’ matches only if all the
following happens:

   * check ‘<subject>’ is a mapping

   * ‘KEY1 in <subject>’

   * ‘P1’ matches ‘<subject>[KEY1]’

   * … and so on for the corresponding KEY/pattern pair.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In pattern matching, a mapping is defined as one of the
following:

   * a class that inherits from *note collections.abc.Mapping: c9c.

   * a Python class that has been registered as *note
     collections.abc.Mapping: c9c.

   * a builtin class that has its (CPython) *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING:
     1e4f. bit set

   * a class that inherits from any of the above

The standard library classes *note dict: 188. and *note
types.MappingProxyType: 189. are mappings.


File: python.info,  Node: Class Patterns,  Prev: Mapping Patterns,  Up: Patterns

4.8.6.14 Class Patterns
.......................

A class pattern represents a class and its positional and keyword
arguments (if any).  Syntax:

     class_pattern:       *note name_or_attr: 2762. "(" [*note pattern_arguments: 2771. ","?] ")"
     pattern_arguments:   *note positional_patterns: 2772. ["," *note keyword_patterns: 2773.]
                          | *note keyword_patterns: 2773.
     positional_patterns: ",".*note pattern: 274b.+
     keyword_patterns:    ",".*note keyword_pattern: 2774.+
     keyword_pattern:     NAME "=" *note pattern: 274b.

The same keyword should not be repeated in class patterns.

The following is the logical flow for matching a class pattern against a
subject value:

  1. If ‘name_or_attr’ is not an instance of the builtin *note type:
     186. , raise *note TypeError: 291.

  2. If the subject value is not an instance of ‘name_or_attr’ (tested
     via *note isinstance(): 2ef.), the class pattern fails.

  3. If no pattern arguments are present, the pattern succeeds.
     Otherwise, the subsequent steps depend on whether keyword or
     positional argument patterns are present.

     For a number of built-in types (specified below), a single
     positional subpattern is accepted which will match the entire
     subject; for these types keyword patterns also work as for other
     types.

     If only keyword patterns are present, they are processed as
     follows, one by one:

       1. The keyword is looked up as an attribute on the subject.

             * If this raises an exception other than *note
               AttributeError: 1a9, the exception bubbles up.

             * If this raises *note AttributeError: 1a9, the class
               pattern has failed.

             * Else, the subpattern associated with the keyword pattern
               is matched against the subject’s attribute value.  If
               this fails, the class pattern fails; if this succeeds,
               the match proceeds to the next keyword.

       2. If all keyword patterns succeed, the class pattern succeeds.

     If any positional patterns are present, they are converted to
     keyword patterns using the *note __match_args__: 1e6c. attribute on
     the class ‘name_or_attr’ before matching:

       1. The equivalent of ‘getattr(cls, "__match_args__", ())’ is
          called.

             * If this raises an exception, the exception bubbles up.

             * If the returned value is not a tuple, the conversion
               fails and *note TypeError: 291. is raised.

             * If there are more positional patterns than
               ‘len(cls.__match_args__)’, *note TypeError: 291. is
               raised.

             * Otherwise, positional pattern ‘i’ is converted to a
               keyword pattern using ‘__match_args__[i]’ as the keyword.
               ‘__match_args__[i]’ must be a string; if not *note
               TypeError: 291. is raised.

             * If there are duplicate keywords, *note TypeError: 291. is
               raised.

          Δείτε επίσης
          ............

          *note Προσαρμογή ορισμάτων θέσης στην αντιστοίχιση προτύπων
          κλάσης: 2602.

       2. Once all positional patterns have been converted to keyword
          patterns, the match proceeds as if there were only keyword
          patterns.

     For the following built-in types the handling of positional
     subpatterns is different:

        * *note bool: 5ef.

        * *note bytearray: 1c6.

        * *note bytes: 1c7.

        * *note dict: 188.

        * *note float: 327.

        * *note frozenset: 9d4.

        * *note int: 326.

        * *note list: 4d9.

        * *note set: 42b.

        * *note str: 1df.

        * *note tuple: 1ce.

     These classes accept a single positional argument, and the pattern
     there is matched against the whole object rather than an attribute.
     For example ‘int(0|1)’ matches the value ‘0’, but not the value
     ‘0.0’.

In simple terms ‘CLS(P1, attr=P2)’ matches only if the following
happens:

   * ‘isinstance(<subject>, CLS)’

   * convert ‘P1’ to a keyword pattern using ‘CLS.__match_args__’

   * For each keyword argument ‘attr=P2’:

        * ‘hasattr(<subject>, "attr")’

        * ‘P2’ matches ‘<subject>.attr’

   * … and so on for the corresponding keyword argument/pattern pair.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * PEP 634(1) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

   * PEP 636(2) – Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/


File: python.info,  Node: Function definitions,  Next: Class definitions,  Prev: The match statement,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.7 Function definitions
--------------------------

A function definition defines a user-defined function object (see
section *note Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου: 2520.):

     funcdef:                   [*note decorators: 2776.] "def" *note funcname: 2777. [*note type_params: 2717.] "(" [*note parameter_list: 26da.] ")"
                                ["->" *note expression: 42a.] ":" *note suite: 2728.
     decorators:                *note decorator: 2778.+
     decorator:                 "@" *note assignment_expression: 2623. NEWLINE
     parameter_list:            *note defparameter: 2779. ("," *note defparameter: 2779.)* "," "/" ["," [*note parameter_list_no_posonly: 277a.]]
                                  | *note parameter_list_no_posonly: 277a.
     parameter_list_no_posonly: *note defparameter: 2779. ("," *note defparameter: 2779.)* ["," [*note parameter_list_starargs: 277b.]]
                                | *note parameter_list_starargs: 277b.
     parameter_list_starargs:   "*" [*note star_parameter: 277c.] ("," *note defparameter: 2779.)* ["," [*note parameter_star_kwargs: 277d.]]
                                | "*" ("," *note defparameter: 2779.)+ ["," [*note parameter_star_kwargs: 277d.]]
                                | *note parameter_star_kwargs: 277d.
     parameter_star_kwargs:     "**" *note parameter: 277e. [","]
     parameter:                 *note identifier: 24b2. [":" *note expression: 42a.]
     star_parameter:            *note identifier: 24b2. [":" ["*"] *note expression: 42a.]
     defparameter:              *note parameter: 277e. ["=" *note expression: 42a.]
     funcname:                  *note identifier: 24b2.

A function definition is an executable statement.  Its execution binds
the function name in the current local namespace to a function object (a
wrapper around the executable code for the function).  This function
object contains a reference to the current global namespace as the
global namespace to be used when the function is called.

The function definition does not execute the function body; this gets
executed only when the function is called.  (1)

A function definition may be wrapped by one or more *note decorator:
b18. expressions.  Decorator expressions are evaluated when the function
is defined, in the scope that contains the function definition.  The
result must be a callable, which is invoked with the function object as
the only argument.  The returned value is bound to the function name
instead of the function object.  Multiple decorators are applied in
nested fashion.  For example, the following code

     @f1(arg)
     @f2
     def func(): pass

is roughly equivalent to

     def func(): pass
     func = f1(arg)(f2(func))

except that the original function is not temporarily bound to the name
‘func’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Functions may be decorated with any valid *note
assignment_expression: 2623.  Previously, the grammar was much more
restrictive; see PEP 614(2) for details.

A list of *note type parameters: 7a5. may be given in square brackets
between the function’s name and the opening parenthesis for its
parameter list.  This indicates to static type checkers that the
function is generic.  At runtime, the type parameters can be retrieved
from the function’s *note __type_params__: 253e. attribute.  See *note
Generic functions: 86f. for more.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Type parameter lists are new in Python 3.12.

When one or more *note parameters: 253c. have the form 'parameter' ‘=’
'expression', the function is said to have «default parameter values.»
For a parameter with a default value, the corresponding *note argument:
867. may be omitted from a call, in which case the parameter’s default
value is substituted.  If a parameter has a default value, all following
parameters up until the «‘*’» must also have a default value — this is a
syntactic restriction that is not expressed by the grammar.

'Default parameter values are evaluated from left to right when the
function definition is executed.'  This means that the expression is
evaluated once, when the function is defined, and that the same
«pre-computed» value is used for each call.  This is especially
important to understand when a default parameter value is a mutable
object, such as a list or a dictionary: if the function modifies the
object (e.g.  by appending an item to a list), the default parameter
value is in effect modified.  This is generally not what was intended.
A way around this is to use ‘None’ as the default, and explicitly test
for it in the body of the function, e.g.:

     def whats_on_the_telly(penguin=None):
         if penguin is None:
             penguin = []
         penguin.append("property of the zoo")
         return penguin

Function call semantics are described in more detail in section *note
Calls: 1136.  A function call always assigns values to all parameters
mentioned in the parameter list, either from positional arguments, from
keyword arguments, or from default values.  If the form «‘*identifier’»
is present, it is initialized to a tuple receiving any excess positional
parameters, defaulting to the empty tuple.  If the form «‘**identifier’»
is present, it is initialized to a new ordered mapping receiving any
excess keyword arguments, defaulting to a new empty mapping of the same
type.  Parameters after «‘*’» or «‘*identifier’» are keyword-only
parameters and may only be passed by keyword arguments.  Parameters
before «‘/’» are positional-only parameters and may only be passed by
positional arguments.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘/’ function parameter syntax may be used to
indicate positional-only parameters.  See PEP 570(3) for details.

Parameters may have an *note annotation: 2207. of the form «‘:
expression’» following the parameter name.  Any parameter may have an
annotation, even those of the form ‘*identifier’ or ‘**identifier’.  (As
a special case, parameters of the form ‘*identifier’ may have an
annotation «‘: *expression’».)  Functions may have «return» annotation
of the form «‘-> expression’» after the parameter list.  These
annotations can be any valid Python expression.  The presence of
annotations does not change the semantics of a function.  See *note
Annotations: 277f. for more information on annotations.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Parameters of the form «‘*identifier’» may have
an annotation «‘: *expression’».  See PEP 646(4).

It is also possible to create anonymous functions (functions not bound
to a name), for immediate use in expressions.  This uses lambda
expressions, described in section *note Lambdas: 1642.  Note that the
lambda expression is merely a shorthand for a simplified function
definition; a function defined in a «*note def: 17fc.» statement can be
passed around or assigned to another name just like a function defined
by a lambda expression.  The «‘def’» form is actually more powerful
since it allows the execution of multiple statements and annotations.

'Programmer’s note:' Functions are first-class objects.  A «‘def’»
statement executed inside a function definition defines a local function
that can be returned or passed around.  Free variables used in the
nested function can access the local variables of the function
containing the def.  See section *note Ονομασία και σύνδεση: 2537. for
details.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3107(5) - Function Annotations

     The original specification for function annotations.

PEP 484(6) - Type Hints

     Definition of a standard meaning for annotations: type hints.

PEP 526(7) - Syntax for Variable Annotations

     Ability to type hint variable declarations, including class
     variables and instance variables.

PEP 563(8) - Postponed Evaluation of Annotations

     Support for forward references within annotations by preserving
     annotations in a string form at runtime instead of eager
     evaluation.

PEP 318(9) - Decorators for Functions and Methods

     Function and method decorators were introduced.  Class decorators
     were introduced in PEP 3129(10).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) A string literal appearing as the first statement in the function
body is transformed into the function’s *note __doc__: 1582. attribute
and therefore the function’s *note docstring: 24dd.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/


File: python.info,  Node: Class definitions,  Next: Coroutines<2>,  Prev: Function definitions,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.8 Class definitions
-----------------------

A class definition defines a class object (see section *note Η τυπική
ιεραρχία τύπου: 2520.):

     classdef:    [*note decorators: 2776.] "class" *note classname: 2781. [*note type_params: 2717.] [*note inheritance: 2782.] ":" *note suite: 2728.
     inheritance: "(" [*note argument_list: 26af.] ")"
     classname:   *note identifier: 24b2.

A class definition is an executable statement.  The inheritance list
usually gives a list of base classes (see *note Μετα-κλάσεις: 25b3. for
more advanced uses), so each item in the list should evaluate to a class
object which allows subclassing.  Classes without an inheritance list
inherit, by default, from the base class *note object: e4d.; hence,

     class Foo:
         pass

is equivalent to

     class Foo(object):
         pass

There may be one or more base classes; see *note Multiple inheritance:
2291. below for more information.

The class’s suite is then executed in a new execution frame (see *note
Ονομασία και σύνδεση: 2537.), using a newly created local namespace and
the original global namespace.  (Usually, the suite contains mostly
function definitions.)  When the class’s suite finishes execution, its
execution frame is discarded but its local namespace is saved.  (1)  A
class object is then created using the inheritance list for the base
classes and the saved local namespace for the attribute dictionary.  The
class name is bound to this class object in the original local
namespace.

The order in which attributes are defined in the class body is preserved
in the new class’s *note __dict__: 101b.  Note that this is reliable
only right after the class is created and only for classes that were
defined using the definition syntax.

Class creation can be customized heavily using *note metaclasses: 25b3.

Classes can also be decorated: just like when decorating functions,

     @f1(arg)
     @f2
     class Foo: pass

is roughly equivalent to

     class Foo: pass
     Foo = f1(arg)(f2(Foo))

The evaluation rules for the decorator expressions are the same as for
function decorators.  The result is then bound to the class name.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Classes may be decorated with any valid *note
assignment_expression: 2623.  Previously, the grammar was much more
restrictive; see PEP 614(2) for details.

A list of *note type parameters: 7a5. may be given in square brackets
immediately after the class’s name.  This indicates to static type
checkers that the class is generic.  At runtime, the type parameters can
be retrieved from the class’s *note __type_params__: 2568. attribute.
See *note Generic classes: 86e. for more.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Type parameter lists are new in Python 3.12.

'Programmer’s note:' Variables defined in the class definition are class
attributes; they are shared by instances.  Instance attributes can be
set in a method with ‘self.name = value’.  Both class and instance
attributes are accessible through the notation «‘self.name’», and an
instance attribute hides a class attribute with the same name when
accessed in this way.  Class attributes can be used as defaults for
instance attributes, but using mutable values there can lead to
unexpected results.  *note Descriptors: 100d. can be used to create
instance variables with different implementation details.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3115(3) - Metaclasses in Python 3000

     The proposal that changed the declaration of metaclasses to the
     current syntax, and the semantics for how classes with metaclasses
     are constructed.

PEP 3129(4) - Class Decorators

     The proposal that added class decorators.  Function and method
     decorators were introduced in PEP 318(5).

* Menu:

* Multiple inheritance::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) A string literal appearing as the first statement in the class
body is transformed into the namespace’s *note __doc__: 2284. item and
therefore the class’s *note docstring: 24dd.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/


File: python.info,  Node: Multiple inheritance,  Up: Class definitions

4.8.8.1 Multiple inheritance
............................

Python classes may have multiple base classes, a technique known as
'multiple inheritance'.  The base classes are specified in the class
definition by listing them in parentheses after the class name,
separated by commas.  For example, the following class definition:

     >>> class A: pass
     >>> class B: pass
     >>> class C(A, B): pass

defines a class ‘C’ that inherits from classes ‘A’ and ‘B’.

The *note method resolution order: 2784. (MRO) is the order in which
base classes are searched when looking up an attribute on a class.  See
*note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 184c. for a description of
how Python determines the MRO for a class.

Multiple inheritance is not always allowed.  Attempting to define a
class with multiple inheritance will raise an error if one of the bases
does not allow subclassing, if a consistent MRO cannot be created, if no
valid metaclass can be determined, or if there is an instance layout
conflict.  We’ll discuss each of these in turn.

First, all base classes must allow subclassing.  While most classes
allow subclassing, some built-in classes do not, such as *note bool:
5ef.:

     >>> class SubBool(bool):  # TypeError
     ...    pass
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     TypeError: type 'bool' is not an acceptable base type

In the resolved MRO of a class, the class’s bases appear in the order
they were specified in the class’s bases list.  Additionally, the MRO
always lists a child class before any of its bases.  A class definition
will fail if it is impossible to resolve a consistent MRO that satisfies
these rules from the list of bases provided:

     >>> class Base: pass
     >>> class Child(Base): pass
     >>> class Grandchild(Base, Child): pass  # TypeError
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     TypeError: Cannot create a consistent method resolution order (MRO) for bases Base, Child

In the MRO of ‘Grandchild’, ‘Base’ must appear before ‘Child’ because it
is first in the base class list, but it must also appear after ‘Child’
because it is a parent of ‘Child’.  This is a contradiction, so the
class cannot be defined.

If some of the bases have a custom *note metaclass: 25c5, the metaclass
of the resulting class is chosen among the metaclasses of the bases and
the explicitly specified metaclass of the child class.  It must be a
metaclass that is a subclass of all other candidate metaclasses.  If no
such metaclass exists among the candidates, the class cannot be created,
as explained in *note Προσδιορισμός της κατάλληλης μετακλάσης: 25b6.

Finally, the instance layouts of the bases must be compatible.  This
means that it must be possible to compute a 'solid base' for the class.
Exactly which classes are solid bases depends on the Python
implementation.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' In CPython, a class is a solid base if
it has a nonempty *note __slots__: 188d. definition.  Many but not all
classes defined in C are also solid bases, including most builtins (such
as *note int: 326. or *note BaseException: 9b9.) but excluding most
concrete *note Exception: d9e. classes.  Generally, a C class is a solid
base if its underlying struct is different in size from its base class.

Every class has a solid base.  *note object: e4d, the base class, has
itself as its solid base.  If there is a single base, the child class’s
solid base is that class if it is a solid base, or else the base class’s
solid base.  If there are multiple bases, we first find the solid base
for each base class to produce a list of candidate solid bases.  If
there is a unique solid base that is a subclass of all others, then that
class is the solid base.  Otherwise, class creation fails.

Example:

     >>> class Solid1:
     ...    __slots__ = ("solid1",)
     >>>
     >>> class Solid2:
     ...    __slots__ = ("solid2",)
     >>>
     >>> class SolidChild(Solid1):
     ...    __slots__ = ("solid_child",)
     >>>
     >>> class C1:  # solid base is `object`
     ...    pass
     >>>
     >>> # OK: solid bases are `Solid1` and `object`, and `Solid1` is a subclass of `object`.
     >>> class C2(Solid1, C1):  # solid base is `Solid1`
     ...    pass
     >>>
     >>> # OK: solid bases are `SolidChild` and `Solid1`, and `SolidChild` is a subclass of `Solid1`.
     >>> class C3(SolidChild, Solid1):  # solid base is `SolidChild`
     ...    pass
     >>>
     >>> # Error: solid bases are `Solid1` and `Solid2`, but neither is a subclass of the other.
     >>> class C4(Solid1, Solid2):  # error: no single solid base
     ...    pass
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: multiple bases have instance lay-out conflict


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutines<2>,  Next: Type parameter lists,  Prev: Class definitions,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.9 Coroutines
----------------

Added in version 3.5.

* Menu:

* Coroutine function definition::
* The async for statement::
* The async with statement::


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutine function definition,  Next: The async for statement,  Up: Coroutines<2>

4.8.9.1 Coroutine function definition
.....................................

     async_funcdef: [*note decorators: 2776.] "async" "def" *note funcname: 2777. "(" [*note parameter_list: 26da.] ")"
                    ["->" *note expression: 42a.] ":" *note suite: 2728.

Execution of Python coroutines can be suspended and resumed at many
points (see *note coroutine: 8a2.).  *note await: 432. expressions,
*note async for: e70. and *note async with: 20b. can only be used in the
body of a coroutine function.

Functions defined with ‘async def’ syntax are always coroutine
functions, even if they do not contain ‘await’ or ‘async’ keywords.

It is a *note SyntaxError: 17e. to use a ‘yield from’ expression inside
the body of a coroutine function.

An example of a coroutine function:

     async def func(param1, param2):
         do_stuff()
         await some_coroutine()

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: ‘await’ and ‘async’ are now keywords; previously
they were only treated as such inside the body of a coroutine function.


File: python.info,  Node: The async for statement,  Next: The async with statement,  Prev: Coroutine function definition,  Up: Coroutines<2>

4.8.9.2 The ‘async for’ statement
.................................

     async_for_stmt: "async" *note for_stmt: 271f.

An *note asynchronous iterable: 112d. provides an ‘__aiter__’ method
that directly returns an *note asynchronous iterator: 6cd, which can
call asynchronous code in its ‘__anext__’ method.

The ‘async for’ statement allows convenient iteration over asynchronous
iterables.

The following code:

     async for TARGET in ITER:
         SUITE
     else:
         SUITE2

Is semantically equivalent to:

     iter = (ITER).__aiter__()
     running = True

     while running:
         try:
             TARGET = await iter.__anext__()
         except StopAsyncIteration:
             running = False
         else:
             SUITE
     else:
         SUITE2

except that implicit *note special method lookup: 25a6. is used for
*note __aiter__(): fbb. and *note __anext__(): 1aa7.

It is a *note SyntaxError: 17e. to use an ‘async for’ statement outside
the body of a coroutine function.


File: python.info,  Node: The async with statement,  Prev: The async for statement,  Up: Coroutines<2>

4.8.9.3 The ‘async with’ statement
..................................

     async_with_stmt: "async" *note with_stmt: 2721.

An *note asynchronous context manager: 9d2. is a *note context manager:
478. that is able to suspend execution in its 'enter' and 'exit'
methods.

The following code:

     async with EXPRESSION as TARGET:
         SUITE

is semantically equivalent to:

     manager = (EXPRESSION)
     aenter = manager.__aenter__
     aexit = manager.__aexit__
     value = await aenter()
     hit_except = False

     try:
         TARGET = value
         SUITE
     except:
         hit_except = True
         if not await aexit(*sys.exc_info()):
             raise
     finally:
         if not hit_except:
             await aexit(None, None, None)

except that implicit *note special method lookup: 25a6. is used for
*note __aenter__(): 2613. and *note __aexit__(): 1bad.

It is a *note SyntaxError: 17e. to use an ‘async with’ statement outside
the body of a coroutine function.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 492(1) - Coroutines with async and await syntax

     The proposal that made coroutines a proper standalone concept in
     Python, and added supporting syntax.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/


File: python.info,  Node: Type parameter lists,  Next: Annotations<2>,  Prev: Coroutines<2>,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.10 Type parameter lists
---------------------------

Added in version 3.12.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Support for default values was added (see PEP
696(1)).

     type_params:  "[" *note type_param: 278a. ("," *note type_param: 278a.)* "]"
     type_param:   *note typevar: 278b. | *note typevartuple: 278c. | *note paramspec: 278d.
     typevar:      *note identifier: 24b2. (":" *note expression: 42a.)? ("=" *note expression: 42a.)?
     typevartuple: "*" *note identifier: 24b2. ("=" *note expression: 42a.)?
     paramspec:    "**" *note identifier: 24b2. ("=" *note expression: 42a.)?

*note Functions: 17fc. (including *note coroutines: 9cf.), *note
classes: 167c. and *note type aliases: 85a. may contain a type parameter
list:

     def max[T](args: list[T]) -> T:
         ...

     async def amax[T](args: list[T]) -> T:
         ...

     class Bag[T]:
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[T]:
             ...

         def add(self, arg: T) -> None:
             ...

     type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]

Semantically, this indicates that the function, class, or type alias is
generic over a type variable.  This information is primarily used by
static type checkers, and at runtime, generic objects behave much like
their non-generic counterparts.

Type parameters are declared in square brackets (‘[]’) immediately after
the name of the function, class, or type alias.  The type parameters are
accessible within the scope of the generic object, but not elsewhere.
Thus, after a declaration ‘def func[T](): pass’, the name ‘T’ is not
available in the module scope.  Below, the semantics of generic objects
are described with more precision.  The scope of type parameters is
modeled with a special function (technically, an *note annotation scope:
6b4.) that wraps the creation of the generic object.

Generic functions, classes, and type aliases have a *note
__type_params__: 278e. attribute listing their type parameters.

Type parameters come in three kinds:

   * *note typing.TypeVar: 294, introduced by a plain name (e.g., ‘T’).
     Semantically, this represents a single type to a type checker.

   * *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 293, introduced by a name prefixed with
     a single asterisk (e.g., ‘*Ts’).  Semantically, this stands for a
     tuple of any number of types.

   * *note typing.ParamSpec: 295, introduced by a name prefixed with two
     asterisks (e.g., ‘**P’).  Semantically, this stands for the
     parameters of a callable.

*note typing.TypeVar: 294. declarations can define 'bounds' and
'constraints' with a colon (‘:’) followed by an expression.  A single
expression after the colon indicates a bound (e.g.  ‘T: int’).
Semantically, this means that the ‘typing.TypeVar’ can only represent
types that are a subtype of this bound.  A parenthesized tuple of
expressions after the colon indicates a set of constraints (e.g.  ‘T:
(str, bytes)’).  Each member of the tuple should be a type (again, this
is not enforced at runtime).  Constrained type variables can only take
on one of the types in the list of constraints.

For ‘typing.TypeVar’s declared using the type parameter list syntax, the
bound and constraints are not evaluated when the generic object is
created, but only when the value is explicitly accessed through the
attributes ‘__bound__’ and ‘__constraints__’.  To accomplish this, the
bounds or constraints are evaluated in a separate *note annotation
scope: 6b4.

*note typing.TypeVarTuple: 293.s and *note typing.ParamSpec: 295.s
cannot have bounds or constraints.

All three flavors of type parameters can also have a 'default value',
which is used when the type parameter is not explicitly provided.  This
is added by appending a single equals sign (‘=’) followed by an
expression.  Like the bounds and constraints of type variables, the
default value is not evaluated when the object is created, but only when
the type parameter’s ‘__default__’ attribute is accessed.  To this end,
the default value is evaluated in a separate *note annotation scope:
6b4.  If no default value is specified for a type parameter, the
‘__default__’ attribute is set to the special sentinel object *note
typing.NoDefault: 76a.

The following example indicates the full set of allowed type parameter
declarations:

     def overly_generic[
        SimpleTypeVar,
        TypeVarWithDefault = int,
        TypeVarWithBound: int,
        TypeVarWithConstraints: (str, bytes),
        *SimpleTypeVarTuple = (int, float),
        **SimpleParamSpec = (str, bytearray),
     ](
        a: SimpleTypeVar,
        b: TypeVarWithDefault,
        c: TypeVarWithBound,
        d: Callable[SimpleParamSpec, TypeVarWithConstraints],
        *e: SimpleTypeVarTuple,
     ): ...

* Menu:

* Generic functions::
* Generic classes::
* Generic type aliases::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/


File: python.info,  Node: Generic functions,  Next: Generic classes,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.1 Generic functions
..........................

Generic functions are declared as follows:

     def func[T](arg: T): ...

This syntax is equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         def func(arg: T): ...
         func.__type_params__ = (T,)
         return func
     func = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func()

Here ‘annotation-def’ indicates an *note annotation scope: 6b4, which is
not actually bound to any name at runtime.  (One other liberty is taken
in the translation: the syntax does not go through attribute access on
the *note typing: 10d. module, but creates an instance of *note
typing.TypeVar: 294. directly.)

The annotations of generic functions are evaluated within the annotation
scope used for declaring the type parameters, but the function’s
defaults and decorators are not.

The following example illustrates the scoping rules for these cases, as
well as for additional flavors of type parameters:

     @decorator
     def func[T: int, *Ts, **P](*args: *Ts, arg: Callable[P, T] = some_default):
         ...

Except for the *note lazy evaluation: 872. of the *note TypeVar: 294.
bound, this is equivalent to:

     DEFAULT_OF_arg = some_default

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func():

         annotation-def BOUND_OF_T():
             return int
         # In reality, BOUND_OF_T() is evaluated only on demand.
         T = typing.TypeVar("T", bound=BOUND_OF_T())

         Ts = typing.TypeVarTuple("Ts")
         P = typing.ParamSpec("P")

         def func(*args: *Ts, arg: Callable[P, T] = DEFAULT_OF_arg):
             ...

         func.__type_params__ = (T, Ts, P)
         return func
     func = decorator(TYPE_PARAMS_OF_func())

The capitalized names like ‘DEFAULT_OF_arg’ are not actually bound at
runtime.


File: python.info,  Node: Generic classes,  Next: Generic type aliases,  Prev: Generic functions,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.2 Generic classes
........................

Generic classes are declared as follows:

     class Bag[T]: ...

This syntax is equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         class Bag(typing.Generic[T]):
             __type_params__ = (T,)
             ...
         return Bag
     Bag = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag()

Here again ‘annotation-def’ (not a real keyword) indicates an *note
annotation scope: 6b4, and the name ‘TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag’ is not actually
bound at runtime.

Generic classes implicitly inherit from *note typing.Generic: 19f2.  The
base classes and keyword arguments of generic classes are evaluated
within the type scope for the type parameters, and decorators are
evaluated outside that scope.  This is illustrated by this example:

     @decorator
     class Bag(Base[T], arg=T): ...

This is equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")
         class Bag(Base[T], typing.Generic[T], arg=T):
             __type_params__ = (T,)
             ...
         return Bag
     Bag = decorator(TYPE_PARAMS_OF_Bag())


File: python.info,  Node: Generic type aliases,  Prev: Generic classes,  Up: Type parameter lists

4.8.10.3 Generic type aliases
.............................

The *note type: 85a. statement can also be used to create a generic type
alias:

     type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]

Except for the *note lazy evaluation: 872. of the value, this is
equivalent to:

     annotation-def TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet():
         T = typing.TypeVar("T")

         annotation-def VALUE_OF_ListOrSet():
             return list[T] | set[T]
         # In reality, the value is lazily evaluated
         return typing.TypeAliasType("ListOrSet", VALUE_OF_ListOrSet(), type_params=(T,))
     ListOrSet = TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet()

Here, ‘annotation-def’ (not a real keyword) indicates an *note
annotation scope: 6b4.  The capitalized names like
‘TYPE_PARAMS_OF_ListOrSet’ are not actually bound at runtime.


File: python.info,  Node: Annotations<2>,  Prev: Type parameter lists,  Up: Compound statements

4.8.11 Annotations
------------------

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Annotations are now lazily evaluated by
default.

Variables and function parameters may carry *note annotations: 409,
created by adding a colon after the name, followed by an expression:

     x: annotation = 1
     def f(param: annotation): ...

Functions may also carry a return annotation following an arrow:

     def f() -> annotation: ...

Annotations are conventionally used for *note type hints: 25c1, but this
is not enforced by the language, and in general annotations may contain
arbitrary expressions.  The presence of annotations does not change the
runtime semantics of the code, except if some mechanism is used that
introspects and uses the annotations (such as *note dataclasses: 32. or
*note functools.singledispatch(): a2a.).

By default, annotations are lazily evaluated in an *note annotation
scope: 6b4.  This means that they are not evaluated when the code
containing the annotation is evaluated.  Instead, the interpreter saves
information that can be used to evaluate the annotation later if
requested.  The *note annotationlib: 6. module provides tools for
evaluating annotations.

If the *note future statement: 670. ‘from __future__ import annotations’
is present, all annotations are instead stored as strings:

     >>> from __future__ import annotations
     >>> def f(param: annotation): ...
     >>> f.__annotations__
     {'param': 'annotation'}

This future statement will be deprecated and removed in a future version
of Python, but not before Python 3.13 reaches its end of life (see PEP
749(1)).  When it is used, introspection tools like *note
annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. and *note typing.get_type_hints():
a9e. are less likely to be able to resolve annotations at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/


File: python.info,  Node: Συστατικά ανωτάτου επιπέδου,  Next: Πλήρης προδιαγραφή γραμματικής,  Prev: Compound statements,  Up: Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python

4.9 Συστατικά ανωτάτου επιπέδου
===============================

Ο διερμηνέας της Python μπορεί να λάβει την είσοδό του από διάφορες
πηγές: από ένα script που του δίνεται ως τυπική είσοδος ή ως όρισμα
προγράμματος, πληκτρολογημένο διαδραστικά, από ένα αρχείο πηγαίου κώδικα
που περιέχει ένα module, κ.λπ.  Αυτό το κεφάλαιο παραθέτει τη σύνταξη
που χρησιμοποιείται σε αυτές τις περιπτώσεις.

* Menu:

* Πλήρη προγράμματα Python::
* Είσοδος από αρχείο::
* Διαδραστική είσοδος::
* Είσοδος έκφρασης::


File: python.info,  Node: Πλήρη προγράμματα Python,  Next: Είσοδος από αρχείο,  Up: Συστατικά ανωτάτου επιπέδου

4.9.1 Πλήρη προγράμματα Python
------------------------------

Αν και μια προδιαγραφή γλώσσας δεν χρειάζεται να ορίζει τον τρόπο κλήσης
του διερμηνέα της γλώσσας, είναι χρήσιμο να υπάρχει η έννοια ενός
πλήρους Python προγράμματος.  Ένα πλήρες πρόγραμμα Python εκτελείται σε
ένα ελάχιστα αρχικοποιημένο περιβάλλον: όλα τα ενσωματωμένα και τυπικά
modules είναι διαθέσιμα, αλλά κανένα δεν έχει αρχικοποιηθεί, εκτός από
τα *note sys: e2. (διάφορες υπηρεσίες του συστήματος), *note builtins:
13. (ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις, εξαιρέσεις και ‘None’) και το *note
__main__: 1.  Το τελευταίο χρησιμοποιείται για να παρέχει τον τοπικό και
καθολικό χώρο ονομάτων για την εκτέλεση του πλήρους προγράμματος.

Η σύνταξη για ένα πλήρες πρόγραμμα Python είναι αυτή της εισόδου από
αρχείο, που περιγράφεται στην επόμενη ενότητα.

Ο διερμηνέας μπορεί επίσης να κληθεί σε διαδραστική λειτουργία· σε αυτήν
την περίπτωση, δεν διαβάζει και δεν εκτελεί ένα πλήρες πρόγραμμα αλλά
διαβάζει και εκτελεί μία εντολή (πιθανώς σύνθετη) κάθε φορά.  Το αρχικό
περιβάλλον είναι πανομοιότυπο με αυτό ενός πλήρους προγράμματος· κάθε
εντολή εκτελείται στον χώρο ονομάτων του *note __main__: 1.

Ένα πλήρες πρόγραμμα μπορεί να δοθεί στον διερμηνέα με τρεις μορφές: με
την επιλογή γραμμής εντολών *note -c: 445. 'string', ως αρχείο που
δίνεται ως το πρώτο όρισμα της γραμμής εντολών, ή ως τυπική είσοδος.
Εάν το αρχείο ή η τυπική είσοδος είναι μια συσκευή tty, ο διερμηνέας
εισέρχεται σε διαδραστική λειτουργία· διαφορετικά, εκτελεί το αρχείο ως
πλήρες πρόγραμμα.


File: python.info,  Node: Είσοδος από αρχείο,  Next: Διαδραστική είσοδος,  Prev: Πλήρη προγράμματα Python,  Up: Συστατικά ανωτάτου επιπέδου

4.9.2 Είσοδος από αρχείο
------------------------

Όλη η είσοδος που διαβάζεται από μη διαδραστικά αρχεία έχει την ίδια
μορφή:

     file_input: (NEWLINE | *note statement: 272a.)* ENDMARKER

Αυτή η σύνταξη χρησιμοποιείται στις ακόλουθες περιπτώσεις:

   * κατά την ανάλυση ενός πλήρους προγράμματος Python (από αρχείο ή από
     συμβολοσειρά)·

   * κατά την ανάλυση ενός module·

   * κατά την ανάλυση μιας συμβολοσειράς που δίνεται στη συνάρτηση *note
     exec(): 185.·


File: python.info,  Node: Διαδραστική είσοδος,  Next: Είσοδος έκφρασης,  Prev: Είσοδος από αρχείο,  Up: Συστατικά ανωτάτου επιπέδου

4.9.3 Διαδραστική είσοδος
-------------------------

Η είσοδος σε διαδραστική λειτουργία αναλύεται χρησιμοποιώντας την
ακόλουθη γραμματική:

     interactive_input: [*note stmt_list: 2729.] NEWLINE | *note compound_stmt: 271c. NEWLINE | ENDMARKER

Σημειώστε ότι μια (ανωτάτου επιπέδου) σύνθετη εντολή πρέπει να
ακολουθείται από μια κενή γραμμή σε διαδραστική λειτουργία· αυτό είναι
απαραίτητο για να βοηθήσει τον αναλυτή να εντοπίσει το τέλος της
εισόδου.


File: python.info,  Node: Είσοδος έκφρασης,  Prev: Διαδραστική είσοδος,  Up: Συστατικά ανωτάτου επιπέδου

4.9.4 Είσοδος έκφρασης
----------------------

Η *note eval(): 184. χρησιμοποιείται για την είσοδο των εκφράσεων.
Αγνοεί τα αρχικά κενά.  Το όρισμα συμβολοσειράς στη ‘eval()’ πρέπει να
έχει την ακόλουθη μορφή:

     eval_input: *note expression_list: 26dd. NEWLINE* ENDMARKER


File: python.info,  Node: Πλήρης προδιαγραφή γραμματικής,  Prev: Συστατικά ανωτάτου επιπέδου,  Up: Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python

4.10 Πλήρης προδιαγραφή γραμματικής
===================================

Αυτή είναι η πλήρης γραμματική της Python, που προέρχεται απευθείας από
τη γραμματική που χρησιμοποιείται για τη δημιουργία του αναλυτή CPython
(βλ.  Grammar/python.gram(1)).  Η έκδοση αυτή παραλείπει λεπτομέρειες
που σχετίζονται με τη δημιουργία κώδικα και την ανάκτηση από σφάλματα.

Η σημειογραφία που χρησιμοποιείται εδώ είναι η ίδια με τα προηγούμενα
έγγραφα και περιγράφεται στην ενότητα *note notation: 2475, εκτός από
μερικές επιπλέον επιπλοκές:

   * ‘~’ («cut»): commit to the current alternative; fail the rule if
     the alternative fails to parse

     Python mainly uses cuts for optimizations or improved error
     messages.  They often appear to be useless in the listing below.

     Cuts currently don’t appear inside parentheses, brackets,
     lookaheads and similar.  Their behavior in these contexts is
     deliberately left unspecified.

     # PEG grammar for Python

     @trailer '''
     void *
     _PyPegen_parse(Parser *p)
     {
         // Initialize keywords
         p->keywords = reserved_keywords;
         p->n_keyword_lists = n_keyword_lists;
         p->soft_keywords = soft_keywords;

         // Run parser
         void *result = NULL;
         if (p->start_rule == Py_file_input) {
             result = file_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_single_input) {
             result = interactive_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_eval_input) {
             result = eval_rule(p);
         } else if (p->start_rule == Py_func_type_input) {
             result = func_type_rule(p);
         }

         return result;
     }
     '''

     # ========================= START OF THE GRAMMAR =========================

     # General grammatical elements and rules:
     #
     # * Strings with double quotes (") denote SOFT KEYWORDS
     # * Strings with single quotes (') denote KEYWORDS
     # * Upper case names (NAME) denote tokens in the Grammar/Tokens file
     # * Rule names starting with "invalid_" are used for specialized syntax errors
     #     - These rules are NOT used in the first pass of the parser.
     #     - Only if the first pass fails to parse, a second pass including the invalid
     #       rules will be executed.
     #     - If the parser fails in the second phase with a generic syntax error, the
     #       location of the generic failure of the first pass will be used (this avoids
     #       reporting incorrect locations due to the invalid rules).
     #     - The order of the alternatives involving invalid rules matter
     #       (like any rule in PEG).
     #
     # Grammar Syntax (see PEP 617 for more information):
     #
     # rule_name: expression
     #   Optionally, a type can be included right after the rule name, which
     #   specifies the return type of the C or Python function corresponding to the
     #   rule:
     # rule_name[return_type]: expression
     #   If the return type is omitted, then a void * is returned in C and an Any in
     #   Python.
     # e1 e2
     #   Match e1, then match e2.
     # e1 | e2
     #   Match e1 or e2.
     #   The first alternative can also appear on the line after the rule name for
     #   formatting purposes. In that case, a | must be used before the first
     #   alternative, like so:
     #       rule_name[return_type]:
     #            | first_alt
     #            | second_alt
     # ( e )
     #   Match e (allows also to use other operators in the group like '(e)*')
     # [ e ] or e?
     #   Optionally match e.
     # e*
     #   Match zero or more occurrences of e.
     # e+
     #   Match one or more occurrences of e.
     # s.e+
     #   Match one or more occurrences of e, separated by s. The generated parse tree
     #   does not include the separator. This is otherwise identical to (e (s e)*).
     # &e
     #   Succeed if e can be parsed, without consuming any input.
     # !e
     #   Fail if e can be parsed, without consuming any input.
     # ~
     #   Commit to the current alternative, even if it fails to parse.
     # &&e
     #   Eager parse e. The parser will not backtrack and will immediately
     #   fail with SyntaxError if e cannot be parsed.
     #

     # STARTING RULES
     # ==============

     file[mod_ty]: a=[statements] ENDMARKER { _PyPegen_make_module(p, a) }
     interactive[mod_ty]: a=statement_newline { _PyAST_Interactive(a, p->arena) }
     eval[mod_ty]: a=expressions NEWLINE* ENDMARKER { _PyAST_Expression(a, p->arena) }
     func_type[mod_ty]: '(' a=[type_expressions] ')' '->' b=expression NEWLINE* ENDMARKER { _PyAST_FunctionType(a, b, p->arena) }

     # GENERAL STATEMENTS
     # ==================

     statements[asdl_stmt_seq*]: a=statement+ { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_flatten(p, a) }

     statement[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | a=compound_stmt { _PyPegen_register_stmts(p ,
                                (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)
                             ) }
         | a[asdl_stmt_seq*]=simple_stmts { a }

     single_compound_stmt[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | a=compound_stmt {
             _PyPegen_register_stmts(p, (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)) }

     statement_newline[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | a=single_compound_stmt NEWLINE { a }
         | simple_stmts
         | NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, CHECK(stmt_ty, _PyAST_Pass(EXTRA))) }
         | ENDMARKER { _PyPegen_interactive_exit(p) }

     simple_stmts[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | a=simple_stmt !';' NEWLINE { (asdl_stmt_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) } # Not needed, there for speedup
         | a[asdl_stmt_seq*]=';'.simple_stmt+ [';'] NEWLINE { a }

     # NOTE: assignment MUST precede expression, else parsing a simple assignment
     # will throw a SyntaxError.
     simple_stmt[stmt_ty] (memo):
         | assignment
         | &"type" type_alias
         | &('import' | 'from' | "lazy") import_stmt
         | e=star_expressions { _PyAST_Expr(e, EXTRA) }
         | &'return' return_stmt
         | &'raise' raise_stmt
         | &'pass' pass_stmt
         | &'del' del_stmt
         | &'yield' yield_stmt
         | &'assert' assert_stmt
         | &'break' break_stmt
         | &'continue' continue_stmt
         | &'global' global_stmt
         | &'nonlocal' nonlocal_stmt

     compound_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | &('def' | '@' | 'async') function_def
         | &'if' if_stmt
         | &('class' | '@') class_def
         | &('with' | 'async') with_stmt
         | &('for' | 'async') for_stmt
         | &'try' try_stmt
         | &'while' while_stmt
         | match_stmt

     # SIMPLE STATEMENTS
     # =================

     # NOTE: annotated_rhs may start with 'yield'; yield_expr must start with 'yield'
     assignment[stmt_ty]:
         | a=NAME ':' b=expression c=['=' d=annotated_rhs { d }] {
             CHECK_VERSION(
                 stmt_ty,
                 6,
                 "Variable annotation syntax is",
                 _PyAST_AnnAssign(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), b, c, 1, EXTRA)
             ) }
         | a=('(' b=single_target ')' { b }
              | single_subscript_attribute_target) ':' b=expression c=['=' d=annotated_rhs { d }] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 6, "Variable annotations syntax is", _PyAST_AnnAssign(a, b, c, 0, EXTRA)) }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=(z=star_targets '=' { z })+ b=annotated_rhs !'=' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] {
              _PyAST_Assign(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | a=single_target b=augassign ~ c=annotated_rhs {
              _PyAST_AugAssign(a, b->kind, c, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_assignment

     annotated_rhs[expr_ty]: yield_expr | star_expressions

     augassign[AugOperator*]:
         | '+=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Add) }
         | '-=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Sub) }
         | '*=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Mult) }
         | '@=' { CHECK_VERSION(AugOperator*, 5, "The '@' operator is", _PyPegen_augoperator(p, MatMult)) }
         | '/=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Div) }
         | '%=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Mod) }
         | '&=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitAnd) }
         | '|=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitOr) }
         | '^=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, BitXor) }
         | '<<=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, LShift) }
         | '>>=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, RShift) }
         | '**=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, Pow) }
         | '//=' { _PyPegen_augoperator(p, FloorDiv) }

     return_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'return' a=[star_expressions] { _PyAST_Return(a, EXTRA) }

     raise_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'raise' a=expression 'from' b=expression { _PyAST_Raise(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_raise_stmt
         | 'raise' a=expression { _PyAST_Raise(a, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'raise' { _PyAST_Raise(NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     pass_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'pass' { _PyAST_Pass(EXTRA) }

     break_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'break' { _PyAST_Break(EXTRA) }

     continue_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'continue' { _PyAST_Continue(EXTRA) }

     global_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'global' a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.NAME+ {
         _PyAST_Global(CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p, a)), EXTRA) }

     nonlocal_stmt[stmt_ty]: 'nonlocal' a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.NAME+ {
         _PyAST_Nonlocal(CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p, a)), EXTRA) }

     del_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | 'del' a=del_targets &(';' | NEWLINE) { _PyAST_Delete(a, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_del_stmt

     yield_stmt[stmt_ty]: y=yield_expr { _PyAST_Expr(y, EXTRA) }

     assert_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_assert_stmt
         | 'assert' a=expression b=[',' z=expression { z }] { _PyAST_Assert(a, b, EXTRA) }

     import_stmt[stmt_ty](memo):
         | invalid_import
         | import_name
         | import_from

     # Import statements
     # -----------------

     import_name[stmt_ty]:
         | lazy="lazy"? 'import' a=dotted_as_names { _PyAST_Import(a, lazy ? 1 : 0, EXTRA) }

     # note below: the ('.' | '...') is necessary because '...' is tokenized as ELLIPSIS
     import_from[stmt_ty]:
         | lazy="lazy"? 'from' a=('.' | '...')* b=dotted_name 'import' c=import_from_targets {
             _PyPegen_checked_future_import(p, b->v.Name.id, c, _PyPegen_seq_count_dots(a), lazy, EXTRA) }
         | lazy="lazy"? 'from' a=('.' | '...')+ 'import' b=import_from_targets {
             _PyAST_ImportFrom(NULL, b, _PyPegen_seq_count_dots(a), lazy ? 1 : 0, EXTRA) }
     import_from_targets[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | '(' a=import_from_as_names [','] ')' { a }
         | import_from_as_names !','
         | '*' { (asdl_alias_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, CHECK(alias_ty, _PyPegen_alias_for_star(p, EXTRA))) }
         | invalid_import_from_targets
     import_from_as_names[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_alias_seq*]=','.import_from_as_name+ { a }
     import_from_as_name[alias_ty]:
         | invalid_import_from_as_name
         | a=NAME b=['as' z=NAME { z }] { _PyAST_alias(
             a->v.Name.id, (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Name.id : NULL, EXTRA) }

     dotted_as_names[asdl_alias_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_alias_seq*]=','.dotted_as_name+ { a }
     dotted_as_name[alias_ty]:
         | invalid_dotted_as_name
         | a=dotted_name b=['as' z=NAME { z }] { _PyAST_alias(
             a->v.Name.id, (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Name.id : NULL, EXTRA) }

     dotted_name[expr_ty]:
         | a=dotted_name '.' b=NAME { _PyPegen_join_names_with_dot(p, a, b) }
         | NAME

     # COMPOUND STATEMENTS
     # ===================

     # Common elements
     # ---------------

     block[asdl_stmt_seq*] (memo):
         | NEWLINE INDENT a=statements DEDENT { a }
         | simple_stmts
         | invalid_block

     decorators[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=('@' f=named_expression NEWLINE { f })+ { a }

     # Class definitions
     # -----------------

     class_def[stmt_ty]:
         | a=decorators b=class_def_raw { _PyPegen_class_def_decorators(p, a, b) }
         | class_def_raw

     class_def_raw[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_class_def_raw
         | 'class' a=NAME t=[type_params] b=['(' z=[arguments] ')' { z }] ':' c=block {
             _PyAST_ClassDef(a->v.Name.id,
                          (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                          (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                          c, NULL, t, EXTRA) }

     # Function definitions
     # --------------------

     function_def[stmt_ty]:
         | d=decorators f=function_def_raw { _PyPegen_function_def_decorators(p, d, f) }
         | function_def_raw

     function_def_raw[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_def_raw
         | 'def' n=NAME t=[type_params] '(' params=[params] ')' a=['->' z=expression { z }] ':' tc=[func_type_comment] b=block {
             _PyAST_FunctionDef(n->v.Name.id,
                             (params) ? params : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)),
                             b, NULL, a, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), t, EXTRA) }
         | 'async' 'def' n=NAME t=[type_params] '(' params=[params] ')' a=['->' z=expression { z }] ':' tc=[func_type_comment] b=block {
             CHECK_VERSION(
                 stmt_ty,
                 5,
                 "Async functions are",
                 _PyAST_AsyncFunctionDef(n->v.Name.id,
                                 (params) ? params : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)),
                                 b, NULL, a, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), t, EXTRA)
             ) }

     # Function parameters
     # -------------------

     params[arguments_ty]:
         | invalid_parameters
         | parameters

     parameters[arguments_ty]:
         | a=slash_no_default b[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default* c=param_with_default* d=[star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, a, NULL, b, c, d)) }
         | a=slash_with_default b=param_with_default* c=[star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, a, NULL, b, c)) }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ b=param_with_default* c=[star_etc] {
             _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, a, b, c) }
         | a=param_with_default+ b=[star_etc] { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, a, b)}
         | a=star_etc { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, a) }

     # Some duplication here because we can't write (',' | &')'),
     # which is because we don't support empty alternatives (yet).

     slash_no_default[asdl_arg_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ '/' ',' { a }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=param_no_default+ '/' &')' { a }
     slash_with_default[SlashWithDefault*]:
         | a=param_no_default* b=param_with_default+ '/' ',' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }
         | a=param_no_default* b=param_with_default+ '/' &')' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }

     star_etc[StarEtc*]:
         | invalid_star_etc
         | '*' a=param_no_default b=param_maybe_default* c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' a=param_no_default_star_annotation b=param_maybe_default* c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' ',' b=param_maybe_default+ c=[kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, b, c) }
         | a=kwds { _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, NULL, a) }

     kwds[arg_ty]:
         | invalid_kwds
         | '**' a=param_no_default { a }

     # One parameter.  This *includes* a following comma and type comment.
     #
     # There are three styles:
     # - No default
     # - With default
     # - Maybe with default
     #
     # There are two alternative forms of each, to deal with type comments:
     # - Ends in a comma followed by an optional type comment
     # - No comma, optional type comment, must be followed by close paren
     # The latter form is for a final parameter without trailing comma.
     #

     param_no_default[arg_ty]:
         | a=param ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
         | a=param tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
     param_no_default_star_annotation[arg_ty]:
         | a=param_star_annotation ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
         | a=param_star_annotation tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_add_type_comment_to_arg(p, a, tc) }
     param_with_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=param c=default ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
         | a=param c=default tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
     param_maybe_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=param c=default? ',' tc=TYPE_COMMENT? { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
         | a=param c=default? tc=TYPE_COMMENT? &')' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, tc) }
     param[arg_ty]: a=NAME b=annotation? { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, b, NULL, EXTRA) }
     param_star_annotation[arg_ty]: a=NAME b=star_annotation { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, b, NULL, EXTRA) }
     annotation[expr_ty]: ':' a=expression { a }
     star_annotation[expr_ty]: ':' a=star_expression { a }
     default[expr_ty]: '=' a=expression { a } | invalid_default

     # If statement
     # ------------

     if_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_if_stmt
         | 'if' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=elif_stmt {
             _PyAST_If(a, b, CHECK(asdl_stmt_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, c)), EXTRA) }
         | 'if' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_If(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
     elif_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_elif_stmt
         | 'elif' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=elif_stmt {
             _PyAST_If(a, b, CHECK(asdl_stmt_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, c)), EXTRA) }
         | 'elif' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_If(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
     else_block[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | invalid_else_stmt
         | 'else' &&':' b=block { b }

     # While statement
     # ---------------

     while_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_while_stmt
         | 'while' a=named_expression ':' b=block c=[else_block] { _PyAST_While(a, b, c, EXTRA) }

     # For statement
     # -------------

     for_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_for_stmt
         | 'for' t=star_targets 'in' ~ ex=star_expressions ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block el=[else_block] {
             _PyAST_For(t, ex, b, el, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | 'async' 'for' t=star_targets 'in' ~ ex=star_expressions ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block el=[else_block] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async for loops are", _PyAST_AsyncFor(t, ex, b, el, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_for_target

     # With statement
     # --------------

     with_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_with_stmt_indent
         | 'with' '(' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ','? ')' ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
            _PyAST_With(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | 'with' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
             _PyAST_With(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA) }
         | 'async' 'with' '(' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ','? ')' ':' b=block {
            CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async with statements are", _PyAST_AsyncWith(a, b, NULL, EXTRA)) }
         | 'async' 'with' a[asdl_withitem_seq*]=','.with_item+ ':' tc=[TYPE_COMMENT] b=block {
            CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 5, "Async with statements are", _PyAST_AsyncWith(a, b, NEW_TYPE_COMMENT(p, tc), EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_with_stmt

     with_item[withitem_ty]:
         | e=expression 'as' t=star_target &(',' | ')' | ':') { _PyAST_withitem(e, t, p->arena) }
         | invalid_with_item
         | e=expression { _PyAST_withitem(e, NULL, p->arena) }

     # Try statement
     # -------------

     try_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | invalid_try_stmt
         | 'try' &&':' b=block f=finally_block { _PyAST_Try(b, NULL, NULL, f, EXTRA) }
         | 'try' &&':' b=block ex[asdl_excepthandler_seq*]=except_block+ el=[else_block] f=[finally_block] { _PyAST_Try(b, ex, el, f, EXTRA) }
         | 'try' &&':' b=block ex[asdl_excepthandler_seq*]=except_star_block+ el=[else_block] f=[finally_block] {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 11, "Exception groups are",
                           _PyAST_TryStar(b, ex, el, f, EXTRA)) }


     # Except statement
     # ----------------

     except_block[excepthandler_ty]:
         | invalid_except_stmt_indent
         | 'except' e=expression ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e, NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | 'except' e=expression 'as' t=NAME ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e, ((expr_ty) t)->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA) }
         | 'except' e=expressions ':' b=block {
             CHECK_VERSION(
                 excepthandler_ty,
                 14,
                 "except expressions without parentheses are",
                 _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e, NULL, b, EXTRA)) }
         | 'except' ':' b=block { _PyAST_ExceptHandler(NULL, NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_except_stmt
     except_star_block[excepthandler_ty]:
         | invalid_except_star_stmt_indent
         | 'except' '*' e=expression ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e, NULL, b, EXTRA) }
         | 'except' '*' e=expression 'as' t=NAME ':' b=block {
             _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e, ((expr_ty) t)->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA) }
         | 'except' '*' e=expressions ':' b=block {
             CHECK_VERSION(
                 excepthandler_ty,
                 14,
                 "except expressions without parentheses are",
                 _PyAST_ExceptHandler(e,  NULL, b, EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_except_star_stmt
     finally_block[asdl_stmt_seq*]:
         | invalid_finally_stmt
         | 'finally' &&':' a=block { a }

     # Match statement
     # ---------------

     match_stmt[stmt_ty]:
         | "match" subject=subject_expr ':' NEWLINE INDENT cases[asdl_match_case_seq*]=case_block+ DEDENT {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 10, "Pattern matching is", _PyAST_Match(subject, cases, EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_match_stmt

     subject_expr[expr_ty]:
         | value=star_named_expression ',' values=star_named_expressions? {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, value, values)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | named_expression

     case_block[match_case_ty]:
         | invalid_case_block
         | "case" pattern=patterns guard=guard? ':' body=block {
             _PyAST_match_case(pattern, guard, body, p->arena) }

     guard[expr_ty]: 'if' guard=named_expression { guard }

     patterns[pattern_ty]:
         | patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]=open_sequence_pattern {
             _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }
         | pattern

     pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | as_pattern
         | or_pattern

     as_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | pattern=or_pattern 'as' target=pattern_capture_target {
             _PyAST_MatchAs(pattern, target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_as_pattern

     or_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]='|'.closed_pattern+ {
             asdl_seq_LEN(patterns) == 1 ? asdl_seq_GET(patterns, 0) : _PyAST_MatchOr(patterns, EXTRA) }

     closed_pattern[pattern_ty] (memo):
         | literal_pattern
         | capture_pattern
         | wildcard_pattern
         | value_pattern
         | group_pattern
         | sequence_pattern
         | mapping_pattern
         | class_pattern

     # Literal patterns are used for equality and identity constraints
     literal_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | value=signed_number !('+' | '-') { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | value=complex_number { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | value=strings { _PyAST_MatchValue(value, EXTRA) }
         | 'None' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_None, EXTRA) }
         | 'True' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_True, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_MatchSingleton(Py_False, EXTRA) }

     # Literal expressions are used to restrict permitted mapping pattern keys
     literal_expr[expr_ty]:
         | signed_number !('+' | '-')
         | complex_number
         | &(STRING|FSTRING_START|TSTRING_START) strings
         | 'None' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_None, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'True' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_True, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_False, NULL, EXTRA) }

     complex_number[expr_ty]:
         | real=signed_real_number '+' imag=imaginary_number {
             _PyAST_BinOp(real, Add, imag, EXTRA) }
         | real=signed_real_number '-' imag=imaginary_number  {
             _PyAST_BinOp(real, Sub, imag, EXTRA) }

     signed_number[expr_ty]:
         | NUMBER
         | '+' number=NUMBER { number }
         | '-' number=NUMBER { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, number, EXTRA) }

     signed_real_number[expr_ty]:
         | real_number
         | '+' real=real_number { real }
         | '-' real=real_number { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, real, EXTRA) }

     real_number[expr_ty]:
         | real=NUMBER { _PyPegen_ensure_real(p, real) }

     imaginary_number[expr_ty]:
         | imag=NUMBER { _PyPegen_ensure_imaginary(p, imag) }
         | '+' imag=NUMBER { _PyPegen_ensure_imaginary(p, imag) }

     capture_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | target=pattern_capture_target { _PyAST_MatchAs(NULL, target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }

     pattern_capture_target[expr_ty]:
         | !"_" name=NAME !('.' | '(' | '=') {
             _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, name, Store) }

     wildcard_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | "_" { _PyAST_MatchAs(NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     value_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | attr=attr !('.' | '(' | '=') { _PyAST_MatchValue(attr, EXTRA) }

     attr[expr_ty]:
         | value=name_or_attr '.' attr=NAME {
             _PyAST_Attribute(value, attr->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }

     name_or_attr[expr_ty]:
         | attr
         | NAME

     group_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '(' pattern=pattern ')' { pattern }

     sequence_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '[' patterns=maybe_sequence_pattern? ']' { _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }
         | '(' patterns=open_sequence_pattern? ')' { _PyAST_MatchSequence(patterns, EXTRA) }

     open_sequence_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | pattern=maybe_star_pattern ',' patterns=maybe_sequence_pattern? {
             _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, pattern, patterns) }

     maybe_sequence_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | patterns=','.maybe_star_pattern+ ','? { patterns }

     maybe_star_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | star_pattern
         | pattern

     star_pattern[pattern_ty] (memo):
         | '*' target=pattern_capture_target {
             _PyAST_MatchStar(target->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | '*' wildcard_pattern {
             _PyAST_MatchStar(NULL, EXTRA) }

     mapping_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | '{' '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(NULL, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | '{' rest=double_star_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(NULL, NULL, rest->v.Name.id, EXTRA) }
         | '{' items=items_pattern ',' rest=double_star_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, items)),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, items)),
                 rest->v.Name.id,
                 EXTRA) }
         | '{' items=items_pattern ','? '}' {
             _PyAST_MatchMapping(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, items)),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, items)),
                 NULL,
                 EXTRA) }
         | invalid_mapping_pattern

     items_pattern[asdl_seq*]:
         | ','.key_value_pattern+

     key_value_pattern[KeyPatternPair*]:
         | key=(literal_expr | attr) ':' pattern=pattern {
             _PyPegen_key_pattern_pair(p, key, pattern) }

     double_star_pattern[expr_ty]:
         | '**' target=pattern_capture_target { target }

     class_pattern[pattern_ty]:
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(cls, NULL, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' patterns=positional_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(cls, patterns, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' keywords=keyword_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(
                 cls, NULL,
                 CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p,
                     CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, keywords)))),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, keywords)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | cls=name_or_attr '(' patterns=positional_patterns ',' keywords=keyword_patterns ','? ')' {
             _PyAST_MatchClass(
                 cls,
                 patterns,
                 CHECK(asdl_identifier_seq*, _PyPegen_map_names_to_ids(p,
                     CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_pattern_keys(p, keywords)))),
                 CHECK(asdl_pattern_seq*, _PyPegen_get_patterns(p, keywords)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | invalid_class_pattern

     positional_patterns[asdl_pattern_seq*]:
         | args[asdl_pattern_seq*]=','.pattern+ { args }

     keyword_patterns[asdl_seq*]:
         | ','.keyword_pattern+

     keyword_pattern[KeyPatternPair*]:
         | arg=NAME '=' value=pattern { _PyPegen_key_pattern_pair(p, arg, value) }

     # Type statement
     # ---------------

     type_alias[stmt_ty]:
         | "type" n=NAME t=[type_params] '=' b=expression {
             CHECK_VERSION(stmt_ty, 12, "Type statement is",
             _PyAST_TypeAlias(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, n, Store)), t, b, EXTRA)) }

     # Type parameter declaration
     # --------------------------

     type_params[asdl_type_param_seq*]:
         | invalid_type_params
         | '[' t=type_param_seq ']' {
             CHECK_VERSION(asdl_type_param_seq *, 12, "Type parameter lists are", t) }

     type_param_seq[asdl_type_param_seq*]: a[asdl_type_param_seq*]=','.type_param+ [','] { a }

     type_param[type_param_ty] (memo):
         | a=NAME b=[type_param_bound] c=[type_param_default] { _PyAST_TypeVar(a->v.Name.id, b, c, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_type_param
         | '*' a=NAME b=[type_param_starred_default] { _PyAST_TypeVarTuple(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA) }
         | '**' a=NAME b=[type_param_default] { _PyAST_ParamSpec(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA) }

     type_param_bound[expr_ty]: ':' e=expression { e }
     type_param_default[expr_ty]: '=' e=expression {
         CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 13, "Type parameter defaults are", e) }
     type_param_starred_default[expr_ty]: '=' e=star_expression {
         CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 13, "Type parameter defaults are", e) }

     # EXPRESSIONS
     # -----------

     expressions[expr_ty]:
         | a=expression b=(',' c=expression { c })+ [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=expression ',' { _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | expression

     expression[expr_ty] (memo):
         | invalid_if_expression
         | invalid_expression
         | invalid_legacy_expression
         | if_expression
         | disjunction
         | lambdef

     if_expression[expr_ty]:
         | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction 'else' c=expression { _PyAST_IfExp(b, a, c, EXTRA) }

     yield_expr[expr_ty]:
         | 'yield' 'from' a=expression { _PyAST_YieldFrom(a, EXTRA) }
         | 'yield' a=[star_expressions] { _PyAST_Yield(a, EXTRA) }

     star_expressions[expr_ty]:
         | a=star_expression b=(',' c=star_expression { c })+ [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=star_expression ',' { _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)), Load, EXTRA) }
         | star_expression

     star_expression[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '*' a=bitwise_or { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | expression

     star_named_expressions[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.star_named_expression+ [','] { a }

     star_named_expressions_sequence[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.star_named_expression_sequence+ [','] { a }

     star_named_expression[expr_ty]:
         | '*' a=bitwise_or { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | named_expression

     star_named_expression_sequence[expr_ty]:
         | invalid_starred_expression_unpacking_sequence
         | star_named_expression

     assignment_expression[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME ':=' ~ b=expression {
             CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 8, "Assignment expressions are",
             _PyAST_NamedExpr(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), b, EXTRA)) }

     named_expression[expr_ty]:
         | assignment_expression
         | invalid_named_expression
         | expression !':='

     disjunction[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=conjunction b=('or' c=conjunction { c })+ { _PyAST_BoolOp(
             Or,
             CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)),
             EXTRA) }
         | conjunction

     conjunction[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=inversion b=('and' c=inversion { c })+ { _PyAST_BoolOp(
             And,
             CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)),
             EXTRA) }
         | inversion

     inversion[expr_ty] (memo):
         | 'not' a=inversion { _PyAST_UnaryOp(Not, a, EXTRA) }
         | comparison

     # Comparison operators
     # --------------------

     comparison[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_or b=compare_op_bitwise_or_pair+ {
             _PyAST_Compare(
                 a,
                 CHECK(asdl_int_seq*, _PyPegen_get_cmpops(p, b)),
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_exprs(p, b)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_or

     compare_op_bitwise_or_pair[CmpopExprPair*]:
         | eq_bitwise_or
         | noteq_bitwise_or
         | lte_bitwise_or
         | lt_bitwise_or
         | gte_bitwise_or
         | gt_bitwise_or
         | notin_bitwise_or
         | in_bitwise_or
         | isnot_bitwise_or
         | is_bitwise_or

     eq_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '==' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Eq, a) }
     noteq_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]:
         | (tok='!=' { _PyPegen_check_barry_as_flufl(p, tok) ? NULL : tok}) a=bitwise_or {_PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, NotEq, a) }
     lte_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '<=' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, LtE, a) }
     lt_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '<' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Lt, a) }
     gte_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '>=' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, GtE, a) }
     gt_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: '>' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Gt, a) }
     notin_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'not' 'in' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, NotIn, a) }
     in_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'in' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, In, a) }
     isnot_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'is' 'not' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, IsNot, a) }
     is_bitwise_or[CmpopExprPair*]: 'is' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_cmpop_expr_pair(p, Is, a) }

     # Bitwise operators
     # -----------------

     bitwise_or[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_or '|' b=bitwise_xor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitOr, b, EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_xor

     bitwise_xor[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_xor '^' b=bitwise_and { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitXor, b, EXTRA) }
         | bitwise_and

     bitwise_and[expr_ty]:
         | a=bitwise_and '&' b=shift_expr { _PyAST_BinOp(a, BitAnd, b, EXTRA) }
         | shift_expr

     shift_expr[expr_ty]:
         | a=shift_expr '<<' b=sum { _PyAST_BinOp(a, LShift, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=shift_expr '>>' b=sum { _PyAST_BinOp(a, RShift, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_arithmetic
         | sum

     # Arithmetic operators
     # --------------------

     sum[expr_ty]:
         | a=sum '+' b=term { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Add, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=sum '-' b=term { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Sub, b, EXTRA) }
         | term

     term[expr_ty]:
         | a=term '*' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Mult, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '/' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Div, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '//' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, FloorDiv, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '%' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Mod, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=term '@' b=factor { CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 5, "The '@' operator is", _PyAST_BinOp(a, MatMult, b, EXTRA)) }
         | invalid_factor
         | factor

     factor[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '+' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(UAdd, a, EXTRA) }
         | '-' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(USub, a, EXTRA) }
         | '~' a=factor { _PyAST_UnaryOp(Invert, a, EXTRA) }
         | power

     power[expr_ty]:
         | a=await_primary '**' b=factor { _PyAST_BinOp(a, Pow, b, EXTRA) }
         | await_primary

     # Primary elements
     # ----------------

     # Primary elements are things like "obj.something.something", "obj[something]", "obj(something)", "obj" ...

     await_primary[expr_ty] (memo):
         | 'await' a=primary { CHECK_VERSION(expr_ty, 5, "Await expressions are", _PyAST_Await(a, EXTRA)) }
         | primary

     primary[expr_ty]:
         | a=primary '.' b=NAME { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=primary b=genexp { _PyAST_Call(a, CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, b)), NULL, EXTRA) }
         | a=primary '(' b=[arguments] ')' {
             _PyAST_Call(a,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                      EXTRA) }
         | a=primary '[' b=slices ']' { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Load, EXTRA) }
         | atom

     slices[expr_ty]:
         | a=slice !',' { a }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.(slice | starred_expression)+ [','] { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     slice[expr_ty]:
         | a=[expression] ':' b=[expression] c=[':' d=[expression] { d }] { _PyAST_Slice(a, b, c, EXTRA) }
         | a=named_expression { a }

     atom[expr_ty]:
         | NAME
         | 'True' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_True, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'False' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_False, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | 'None' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_None, NULL, EXTRA) }
         | &(STRING|FSTRING_START|TSTRING_START) strings
         | NUMBER
         | &'(' (genexp | tuple | group)
         | &'[' (listcomp | list)
         | &'{' (dictcomp | setcomp | dict | set)
         | '...' { _PyAST_Constant(Py_Ellipsis, NULL, EXTRA) }

     group[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=(yield_expr | named_expression) ')' { a }
         | invalid_group

     # Lambda functions
     # ----------------

     lambdef[expr_ty]:
         | 'lambda' a=[lambda_params] ':' b=expression {
             _PyAST_Lambda((a) ? a : CHECK(arguments_ty, _PyPegen_empty_arguments(p)), b, EXTRA) }

     lambda_params[arguments_ty]:
         | invalid_lambda_parameters
         | lambda_parameters

     # lambda_parameters etc. duplicates parameters but without annotations
     # or type comments, and if there's no comma after a parameter, we expect
     # a colon, not a close parenthesis.  (For more, see parameters above.)
     #
     lambda_parameters[arguments_ty]:
         | a=lambda_slash_no_default b[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default* c=lambda_param_with_default* d=[lambda_star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, a, NULL, b, c, d)) }
         | a=lambda_slash_with_default b=lambda_param_with_default* c=[lambda_star_etc] {
             CHECK_VERSION(arguments_ty, 8, "Positional-only parameters are", _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, a, NULL, b, c)) }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ b=lambda_param_with_default* c=[lambda_star_etc] {
             _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, a, b, c) }
         | a=lambda_param_with_default+ b=[lambda_star_etc] { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, a, b)}
         | a=lambda_star_etc { _PyPegen_make_arguments(p, NULL, NULL, NULL, NULL, a) }

     lambda_slash_no_default[asdl_arg_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ '/' ',' { a }
         | a[asdl_arg_seq*]=lambda_param_no_default+ '/' &':' { a }

     lambda_slash_with_default[SlashWithDefault*]:
         | a=lambda_param_no_default* b=lambda_param_with_default+ '/' ',' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }
         | a=lambda_param_no_default* b=lambda_param_with_default+ '/' &':' { _PyPegen_slash_with_default(p, (asdl_arg_seq *)a, b) }

     lambda_star_etc[StarEtc*]:
         | invalid_lambda_star_etc
         | '*' a=lambda_param_no_default b=lambda_param_maybe_default* c=[lambda_kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, a, b, c) }
         | '*' ',' b=lambda_param_maybe_default+ c=[lambda_kwds] {
             _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, b, c) }
         | a=lambda_kwds { _PyPegen_star_etc(p, NULL, NULL, a) }

     lambda_kwds[arg_ty]:
         | invalid_lambda_kwds
         | '**' a=lambda_param_no_default { a }

     lambda_param_no_default[arg_ty]:
         | a=lambda_param ',' { a }
         | a=lambda_param &':' { a }
     lambda_param_with_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=lambda_param c=default ',' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
         | a=lambda_param c=default &':' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
     lambda_param_maybe_default[NameDefaultPair*]:
         | a=lambda_param c=default? ',' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
         | a=lambda_param c=default? &':' { _PyPegen_name_default_pair(p, a, c, NULL) }
     lambda_param[arg_ty]: a=NAME { _PyAST_arg(a->v.Name.id, NULL, NULL, EXTRA) }

     # LITERALS
     # ========

     fstring_middle[expr_ty]:
         | fstring_replacement_field
         | t=FSTRING_MIDDLE { _PyPegen_constant_from_token(p, t) }
     fstring_replacement_field[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=annotated_rhs debug_expr='='? conversion=[fstring_conversion] format=[fstring_full_format_spec] rbrace='}' {
             _PyPegen_formatted_value(p, a, debug_expr, conversion, format, rbrace, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_fstring_replacement_field
     fstring_conversion[ResultTokenWithMetadata*]:
         | conv_token="!" conv=NAME { _PyPegen_check_fstring_conversion(p, conv_token, conv) }
     fstring_full_format_spec[ResultTokenWithMetadata*]:
         | colon=':' spec=fstring_format_spec* { _PyPegen_setup_full_format_spec(p, colon, (asdl_expr_seq *) spec, EXTRA) }
     fstring_format_spec[expr_ty]:
         | t=FSTRING_MIDDLE { _PyPegen_decoded_constant_from_token(p, t) }
         | fstring_replacement_field
     fstring[expr_ty]:
         | a=FSTRING_START b=fstring_middle* c=FSTRING_END { _PyPegen_joined_str(p, a, (asdl_expr_seq*)b, c) }

     tstring_format_spec_replacement_field[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=annotated_rhs debug_expr='='? conversion=[fstring_conversion] format=[tstring_full_format_spec] rbrace='}' {
             _PyPegen_formatted_value(p, a, debug_expr, conversion, format, rbrace, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_tstring_replacement_field
     tstring_format_spec[expr_ty]:
         | t=TSTRING_MIDDLE { _PyPegen_decoded_constant_from_token(p, t) }
         | tstring_format_spec_replacement_field
     tstring_full_format_spec[ResultTokenWithMetadata*]:
         | colon=':' spec=tstring_format_spec* { _PyPegen_setup_full_format_spec(p, colon, (asdl_expr_seq *) spec, EXTRA) }
     tstring_replacement_field[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=annotated_rhs debug_expr='='? conversion=[fstring_conversion] format=[tstring_full_format_spec] rbrace='}' {
             _PyPegen_interpolation(p, a, debug_expr, conversion, format, rbrace, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_tstring_replacement_field
     tstring_middle[expr_ty]:
         | tstring_replacement_field
         | t=TSTRING_MIDDLE { _PyPegen_constant_from_token(p, t) }
     tstring[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=TSTRING_START b=tstring_middle* c=TSTRING_END {
             CHECK_VERSION(
                 expr_ty,
                 14,
                 "t-strings are",
                 _PyPegen_template_str(p, a, (asdl_expr_seq*)b, c)) }

     string[expr_ty]: s[Token*]=STRING { _PyPegen_constant_from_string(p, s) }
     strings[expr_ty] (memo):
         | invalid_string_tstring_concat
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=(fstring|string)+ { _PyPegen_concatenate_strings(p, a, EXTRA) }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=tstring+ { _PyPegen_concatenate_tstrings(p, a, EXTRA) }

     list[expr_ty]:
         | '[' a=[star_named_expressions_sequence] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     tuple[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=[y=star_named_expression_sequence ',' z=[star_named_expressions_sequence] { _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, y, z) } ] ')' {
             _PyAST_Tuple(a, Load, EXTRA) }

     set[expr_ty]: '{' a=star_named_expressions_sequence '}' { _PyAST_Set(a, EXTRA) }

     # Dicts
     # -----

     dict[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=[double_starred_kvpairs] '}' {
             _PyAST_Dict(
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_keys(p, a)),
                 CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_get_values(p, a)),
                 EXTRA) }
         | '{' invalid_double_starred_kvpairs '}'

     double_starred_kvpairs[asdl_seq*]: a=','.double_starred_kvpair+ [','] { a }

     double_starred_kvpair[KeyValuePair*]:
         | '**' a=bitwise_or { _PyPegen_key_value_pair(p, NULL, a) }
         | kvpair

     kvpair[KeyValuePair*]: a=expression ':' b=expression { _PyPegen_key_value_pair(p, a, b) }

     # Comprehensions & Generators
     # ---------------------------

     for_if_clauses[asdl_comprehension_seq*]:
         | a[asdl_comprehension_seq*]=for_if_clause+ { a }

     for_if_clause[comprehension_ty]:
         | 'async' 'for' a=star_targets 'in' ~ b=disjunction c[asdl_expr_seq*]=('if' z=disjunction { z })* {
             CHECK_VERSION(comprehension_ty, 6, "Async comprehensions are", _PyAST_comprehension(a, b, c, 1, p->arena)) }
         | 'for' a=star_targets 'in' ~ b=disjunction c[asdl_expr_seq*]=('if' z=disjunction { z })* {
             _PyAST_comprehension(a, b, c, 0, p->arena) }
         | invalid_for_if_clause
         | invalid_for_target

     listcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '[' a=star_named_expression b=for_if_clauses ']' { _PyAST_ListComp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     setcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=star_named_expression b=for_if_clauses '}' { _PyAST_SetComp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     genexp[expr_ty]:
         | '(' a=( assignment_expression | expression !':=' | starred_expression ) b=for_if_clauses ')' { _PyAST_GeneratorExp(a, b, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_comprehension

     dictcomp[expr_ty]:
         | '{' a=kvpair b=for_if_clauses '}' { _PyAST_DictComp(a->key, a->value, b, EXTRA) }
         | '{' '**' a=expression b=for_if_clauses '}' { _PyAST_DictComp(a, NULL, b, EXTRA) }

     # FUNCTION CALL ARGUMENTS
     # =======================

     arguments[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=args [','] &')' { a }
         | invalid_arguments

     args[expr_ty]:
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.(starred_expression | ( assignment_expression | expression !':=') !'=')+ b=[',' k=kwargs {k}] {
             _PyPegen_collect_call_seqs(p, a, b, EXTRA) }
         | a=kwargs { _PyAST_Call(_PyPegen_dummy_name(p),
                               CHECK_NULL_ALLOWED(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_extract_starred_exprs(p, a)),
                               CHECK_NULL_ALLOWED(asdl_keyword_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_delete_starred_exprs(p, a)),
                               EXTRA) }

     kwargs[asdl_seq*]:
         | a=','.kwarg_or_starred+ ',' b=','.kwarg_or_double_starred+ { _PyPegen_join_sequences(p, a, b) }
         | ','.kwarg_or_starred+
         | ','.kwarg_or_double_starred+

     starred_expression[expr_ty]:
         | invalid_starred_expression_unpacking
         | '*' a=expression { _PyAST_Starred(a, Load, EXTRA) }
         | invalid_starred_expression

     kwarg_or_starred[KeywordOrStarred*]:
         | invalid_kwarg
         | a=NAME '=' b=expression {
             _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA)), 1) }
         | a=starred_expression { _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, a, 0) }

     kwarg_or_double_starred[KeywordOrStarred*]:
         | invalid_kwarg
         | a=NAME '=' b=expression {
             _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(a->v.Name.id, b, EXTRA)), 1) }
         | '**' a=expression { _PyPegen_keyword_or_starred(p, CHECK(keyword_ty, _PyAST_keyword(NULL, a, EXTRA)), 1) }

     # ASSIGNMENT TARGETS
     # ==================

     # Generic targets
     # ---------------

     # NOTE: star_targets may contain *bitwise_or, targets may not.
     star_targets[expr_ty]:
         | a=star_target !',' { a }
         | a=star_target b=(',' c=star_target { c })* [','] {
             _PyAST_Tuple(CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b)), Store, EXTRA) }

     star_targets_list_seq[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.star_target+ [','] { a }

     star_targets_tuple_seq[asdl_expr_seq*]:
         | a=star_target b=(',' c=star_target { c })+ [','] { (asdl_expr_seq*) _PyPegen_seq_insert_in_front(p, a, b) }
         | a=star_target ',' { (asdl_expr_seq*) _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }

     star_target[expr_ty] (memo):
         | '*' a=(!'*' star_target) {
             _PyAST_Starred(CHECK(expr_ty, _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store)), Store, EXTRA) }
         | target_with_star_atom

     target_with_star_atom[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Store, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Store, EXTRA) }
         | star_atom

     star_atom[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=target_with_star_atom ')' { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=[star_targets_tuple_seq] ')' { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Store, EXTRA) }
         | '[' a=[star_targets_list_seq] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Store, EXTRA) }

     single_target[expr_ty]:
         | single_subscript_attribute_target
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Store) }
         | '(' a=single_target ')' { a }

     single_subscript_attribute_target[expr_ty]:
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Store, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Store, EXTRA) }

     t_primary[expr_ty]:
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME &t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' &t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Load, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary b=genexp &t_lookahead {
             _PyAST_Call(a, CHECK(asdl_expr_seq*, (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, b)), NULL, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '(' b=[arguments] ')' &t_lookahead {
             _PyAST_Call(a,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.args : NULL,
                      (b) ? ((expr_ty) b)->v.Call.keywords : NULL,
                      EXTRA) }
         | a=atom &t_lookahead { a }

     t_lookahead: '(' | '[' | '.'

     # Targets for del statements
     # --------------------------

     del_targets[asdl_expr_seq*]: a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.del_target+ [','] { a }

     del_target[expr_ty] (memo):
         | a=t_primary '.' b=NAME !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Attribute(a, b->v.Name.id, Del, EXTRA) }
         | a=t_primary '[' b=slices ']' !t_lookahead { _PyAST_Subscript(a, b, Del, EXTRA) }
         | del_t_atom

     del_t_atom[expr_ty]:
         | a=NAME { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Del) }
         | '(' a=del_target ')' { _PyPegen_set_expr_context(p, a, Del) }
         | '(' a=[del_targets] ')' { _PyAST_Tuple(a, Del, EXTRA) }
         | '[' a=[del_targets] ']' { _PyAST_List(a, Del, EXTRA) }

     # TYPING ELEMENTS
     # ---------------

     # type_expressions allow */** but ignore them
     type_expressions[asdl_expr_seq*]:
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '*' b=expression ',' '**' c=expression {
             (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(
                 p,
                 CHECK(asdl_seq*, _PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b)),
                 c) }
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '*' b=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b) }
         | a=','.expression+ ',' '**' b=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(p, a, b) }
         | '*' a=expression ',' '**' b=expression {
             (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_seq_append_to_end(
                 p,
                 CHECK(asdl_seq*, _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a)),
                 b) }
         | '*' a=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | '**' a=expression { (asdl_expr_seq*)_PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | a[asdl_expr_seq*]=','.expression+ {a}

     func_type_comment[Token*]:
         | NEWLINE t=TYPE_COMMENT &(NEWLINE INDENT) { t }  # Must be followed by indented block
         | invalid_double_type_comments
         | TYPE_COMMENT

     # ========================= END OF THE GRAMMAR ===========================



     # ========================= START OF INVALID RULES =======================

     # From here on, there are rules for invalid syntax with specialised error messages
     invalid_arguments:
         | ((','.(starred_expression | ( assignment_expression | expression !':=') !'=')+ ',' kwargs) | kwargs) a=',' ','.(starred_expression !'=')+ {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "iterable argument unpacking follows keyword argument unpacking") }
         | a=expression b=for_if_clauses ',' [args | expression for_if_clauses] {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, _PyPegen_get_last_comprehension_item(PyPegen_last_item(b, comprehension_ty)), "Generator expression must be parenthesized") }
         | a=NAME b='=' expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?")}
         | (args ',')? a=NAME b='=' &(',' | ')') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "expected argument value expression")}
         | a=args b=for_if_clauses { _PyPegen_nonparen_genexp_in_call(p, a, b) }
         | args ',' a=expression b=for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, _PyPegen_get_last_comprehension_item(PyPegen_last_item(b, comprehension_ty)), "Generator expression must be parenthesized") }
         | a=args ',' args { _PyPegen_arguments_parsing_error(p, a) }
     invalid_kwarg:
         | a[Token*]=('True'|'False'|'None') b='=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to %s", PyBytes_AS_STRING(a->bytes)) }
         | a=NAME b='=' expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?")}
         | !(NAME '=') a=expression b='=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
                 a, b, "expression cannot contain assignment, perhaps you meant \"==\"?") }
         | a='**' expression '=' b=expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to keyword argument unpacking") }

     # IMPORTANT: Note that the "_without_invalid" suffix causes the rule to not call invalid rules under it
     expression_without_invalid[expr_ty]:
         | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction 'else' c=expression { _PyAST_IfExp(b, a, c, EXTRA) }
         | disjunction
         | lambdef
     invalid_legacy_expression:
         | a=NAME !'(' b=star_expressions {
             _PyPegen_check_legacy_stmt(p, a) ? RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b,
                 "Missing parentheses in call to '%U'. Did you mean %U(...)?", a->v.Name.id, a->v.Name.id) : NULL}

     invalid_type_param:
         | '*' a=NAME colon=':' e=expression {
                 RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(colon, e->kind == Tuple_kind
                     ? "cannot use constraints with TypeVarTuple"
                     : "cannot use bound with TypeVarTuple")
             }
         | '**' a=NAME colon=':' e=expression {
                 RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(colon, e->kind == Tuple_kind
                     ? "cannot use constraints with ParamSpec"
                     : "cannot use bound with ParamSpec")
             }

     invalid_expression:
        |  STRING a=(!STRING expression_without_invalid)+ STRING {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE( PyPegen_first_item(a, expr_ty), PyPegen_last_item(a, expr_ty),
             "invalid syntax. Is this intended to be part of the string?") }
         # !(NAME STRING) is not matched so we don't show this error with some invalid string prefixes like: kf"dsfsdf"
         # Soft keywords need to also be ignored because they can be parsed as NAME NAME
        | !(NAME STRING | SOFT_KEYWORD) a=disjunction b=expression_without_invalid {
             _PyPegen_raise_error_for_missing_comma(p, a, b) }
        | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction !('else'|':') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "expected 'else' after 'if' expression") }
        | a=disjunction 'if' b=disjunction 'else' !expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("expected expression after 'else', but statement is given") }
        | a[stmt_ty]=(pass_stmt|break_stmt|continue_stmt) 'if' b=disjunction 'else' c=simple_stmt {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION (a, "expected expression before 'if', but statement is given") }
        | a='lambda' [lambda_params] b=':' &FSTRING_MIDDLE  {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "f-string: lambda expressions are not allowed without parentheses") }
        | a='lambda' [lambda_params] b=':' &TSTRING_MIDDLE  {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "t-string: lambda expressions are not allowed without parentheses") }

     invalid_if_expression:
        | disjunction 'if' b=disjunction 'else' a='*' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot unpack only part of a conditional expression") }
        | disjunction 'if' b=disjunction 'else' a='**' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use dict unpacking on only part of a conditional expression") }

     invalid_named_expression(memo):
         | a=expression ':=' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a, "cannot use assignment expressions with %s", _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }
         | a=NAME '=' b=bitwise_or !('='|':=') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid syntax. Maybe you meant '==' or ':=' instead of '='?") }
         | !(list|tuple|genexp|'True'|'None'|'False') a=bitwise_or b='=' bitwise_or !('='|':=') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot assign to %s here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='?",
                                               _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }

     invalid_assignment:
         | a=invalid_ann_assign_target ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a,
                 "only single target (not %s) can be annotated",
                 _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)
             )}
         | a=star_named_expression ',' star_named_expressions* ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "only single target (not tuple) can be annotated") }
         | a=expression ':' expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "illegal target for annotation") }
         | (star_targets '=')* a=star_expressions '=' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(STAR_TARGETS, a) }
         | (star_targets '=')* a=yield_expr '=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "assignment to yield expression not possible") }
         | a=star_expressions augassign annotated_rhs {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a,
                 "'%s' is an illegal expression for augmented assignment",
                 _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)
             )}
     invalid_ann_assign_target[expr_ty]:
         | list
         | tuple
         | '(' a=invalid_ann_assign_target ')' { a }
     invalid_raise_stmt:
         | a='raise' b='from' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "did you forget an expression between 'raise' and 'from'?") }
         | 'raise' expression a='from' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "did you forget an expression after 'from'?") }
     invalid_del_stmt:
         | 'del' a=star_expressions {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(DEL_TARGETS, a) }
     invalid_assert_stmt:
         | 'assert' a=expression '=' b=expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
                 a, b,
                 "cannot assign to %s here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='?",
                 _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }
         | 'assert' expression ',' a=expression '=' b=expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
                 a, b,
                 "cannot assign to %s here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='?",
                 _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }
         | 'assert' a=expression ':=' b=expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
                 a, b,
                 "cannot use named expression without parentheses here") }
         | 'assert' expression ',' a=expression ':=' b=expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
                 a, b,
                 "cannot use named expression without parentheses here") }
     invalid_block:
         | NEWLINE !INDENT { RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block") }
     invalid_comprehension:
         | '[' a='**' b=expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot use dict unpacking in list comprehension") }
         | '(' a='**' b=expression for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot use dict unpacking in generator expression") }
         | ('[' | '{') a=star_named_expression ',' b=star_named_expressions for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, PyPegen_last_item(b, expr_ty),
             "did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?") }
         | ('[' | '{') a=star_named_expression b=',' for_if_clauses {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?") }
     invalid_parameters:
         | a="/" ',' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "at least one parameter must precede /") }
         | (slash_no_default | slash_with_default) param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ may appear only once") }
         | slash_no_default? param_no_default* invalid_parameters_helper a=param_no_default {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameter without a default follows parameter with a default") }
         | param_no_default* a='(' param_no_default+ ','? b=')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "Function parameters cannot be parenthesized") }
         | (slash_no_default | slash_with_default)? param_maybe_default* '*' (',' | param_no_default) param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ must be ahead of *") }
         | param_maybe_default+ '/' a='*' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected comma between / and *") }
     invalid_default:
         | a='=' &(')'|',') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected default value expression") }
     invalid_star_etc:
         | a='*' (')' | ',' (')' | '**')) { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "named parameters must follow bare *") }
         | '*' ',' TYPE_COMMENT { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("bare * has associated type comment") }
         | '*' param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-positional parameter cannot have default value") }
         | '*' (param_no_default | ',') param_maybe_default* a='*' (param_no_default | ',') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "* may appear only once") }
     invalid_kwds:
         | '**' param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-keyword parameter cannot have default value") }
         | '**' param ',' a=param { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameters cannot follow var-keyword parameter") }
         | '**' param ',' a[Token*]=('*'|'**'|'/') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameters cannot follow var-keyword parameter") }
     invalid_parameters_helper: # This is only there to avoid type errors
         | a=slash_with_default { _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | param_with_default+
     invalid_lambda_parameters:
         | a="/" ',' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "at least one parameter must precede /") }
         | (lambda_slash_no_default | lambda_slash_with_default) lambda_param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ may appear only once") }
         | lambda_slash_no_default? lambda_param_no_default* invalid_lambda_parameters_helper a=lambda_param_no_default {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameter without a default follows parameter with a default") }
         | lambda_param_no_default* a='(' ','.lambda_param+ ','? b=')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "Lambda expression parameters cannot be parenthesized") }
         | (lambda_slash_no_default | lambda_slash_with_default)? lambda_param_maybe_default* '*' (',' | lambda_param_no_default) lambda_param_maybe_default* a='/' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "/ must be ahead of *") }
         | lambda_param_maybe_default+ '/' a='*' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expected comma between / and *") }
     invalid_lambda_parameters_helper:
         | a=lambda_slash_with_default { _PyPegen_singleton_seq(p, a) }
         | lambda_param_with_default+
     invalid_lambda_star_etc:
         | '*' (':' | ',' (':' | '**')) { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("named parameters must follow bare *") }
         | '*' lambda_param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-positional parameter cannot have default value") }
         | '*' (lambda_param_no_default | ',') lambda_param_maybe_default* a='*' (lambda_param_no_default | ',') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "* may appear only once") }
     invalid_lambda_kwds:
         | '**' lambda_param a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "var-keyword parameter cannot have default value") }
         | '**' lambda_param ',' a=lambda_param { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameters cannot follow var-keyword parameter") }
         | '**' lambda_param ',' a[Token*]=('*'|'**'|'/') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "parameters cannot follow var-keyword parameter") }
     invalid_double_type_comments:
         | TYPE_COMMENT NEWLINE TYPE_COMMENT NEWLINE INDENT {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("Cannot have two type comments on def") }
     invalid_with_item:
         | expression 'as' a=expression &(',' | ')' | ':') {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(STAR_TARGETS, a) }

     invalid_for_if_clause:
         | 'async'? 'for' (bitwise_or (',' bitwise_or)* [',']) !'in' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("'in' expected after for-loop variables") }

     invalid_for_target:
         | 'async'? 'for' a=star_expressions {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_INVALID_TARGET(FOR_TARGETS, a) }

     invalid_group:
         | '(' a=starred_expression ')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use starred expression here") }
         | '(' a='**' expression ')' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use double starred expression here") }
     invalid_import:
         | a='import' ','.dotted_name+ 'from' dotted_name {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "Did you mean to use 'from ... import ...' instead?") }
         | 'import' token=NEWLINE {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(token, "Expected one or more names after 'import'") }
     invalid_dotted_as_name:
         | dotted_name 'as' !(NAME (',' | ')' | ';' | NEWLINE)) a=expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a,
                 "cannot use %s as import target", _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }
     invalid_import_from_as_name:
         | NAME 'as' !(NAME (',' | ')' | ';' | NEWLINE)) a=expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a,
                 "cannot use %s as import target", _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }

     invalid_import_from_targets:
         | import_from_as_names ',' NEWLINE {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("trailing comma not allowed without surrounding parentheses") }
         | token=NEWLINE {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(token, "Expected one or more names after 'import'") }

     invalid_with_stmt:
         | ['async'] 'with' ','.(expression ['as' star_target])+ trailing=',' ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(trailing, "the last 'with' item has a trailing comma") }
         | ['async'] 'with' ','.(expression ['as' star_target])+ NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | ['async'] 'with' '(' ','.(expressions ['as' star_target])+ ','? ')' NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
     invalid_with_stmt_indent:
         | ['async'] a='with' ','.(expression ['as' star_target])+ ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'with' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | ['async'] a='with' '(' ','.(expressions ['as' star_target])+ ','? ')' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'with' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }

     invalid_try_stmt:
         | a='try' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'try' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | 'try' ':' block !('except' | 'finally') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected 'except' or 'finally' block") }
         | 'try' ':' block* except_block+ a='except' b='*' expression ['as' NAME] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot have both 'except' and 'except*' on the same 'try'") }
         | 'try' ':' block* except_star_block+ a='except' [expression ['as' NAME]] ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot have both 'except' and 'except*' on the same 'try'") }
     invalid_except_stmt:
         | 'except' a=expression ',' expressions 'as' NAME  ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "multiple exception types must be parenthesized when using 'as'") }
         | a='except' expression ['as' NAME ] NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='except' NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | 'except' expression 'as' a=expression ':' block {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a, "cannot use except statement with %s", _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }
     invalid_except_star_stmt:
         | 'except' '*' a=expression ',' expressions 'as' NAME  ':' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "multiple exception types must be parenthesized when using 'as'") }
         | a='except' '*' expression ['as' NAME ] NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='except' '*' (NEWLINE | ':') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected one or more exception types") }
         | 'except' '*' expression 'as' a=expression ':' block {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a, "cannot use except* statement with %s", _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }
     invalid_finally_stmt:
         | a='finally' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'finally' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_except_stmt_indent:
         | a='except' expression ['as' NAME ] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | a='except' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT { RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_except_star_stmt_indent:
         | a='except' '*' expression ['as' NAME ] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'except*' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_match_stmt:
         | "match" subject_expr NEWLINE { CHECK_VERSION(void*, 10, "Pattern matching is", RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") ) }
         | a="match" subject=subject_expr ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'match' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | a="case" patterns guard? b=':' block {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
                 a, b,
                 "case statement must be inside match statement") }
     invalid_case_block:
         | "case" patterns guard? NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a="case" patterns guard? ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'case' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_as_pattern:
         | or_pattern 'as' a="_" { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use '_' as a target") }
         | or_pattern 'as' a=expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
                 a, "cannot use %s as pattern target", _PyPegen_get_expr_name(a)) }
     invalid_class_pattern:
         | name_or_attr '(' a=invalid_class_argument_pattern  { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(
             PyPegen_first_item(a, pattern_ty),
             PyPegen_last_item(a, pattern_ty),
             "positional patterns follow keyword patterns") }
     invalid_mapping_pattern:
         | '{' (items_pattern ',')? rest=double_star_pattern ',' items_pattern ','? '}' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(
             rest,
             "double star pattern must be the last (right-most) subpattern in the mapping pattern") }
     invalid_class_argument_pattern[asdl_pattern_seq*]:
         | [positional_patterns ','] keyword_patterns ',' a=positional_patterns { a }
     invalid_if_stmt:
         | 'if' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='if' a=named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'if' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_elif_stmt:
         | 'elif' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='elif' named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'elif' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_else_stmt:
         | a='else' ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'else' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | 'else' ':' block 'elif' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("'elif' block follows an 'else' block")}
     invalid_while_stmt:
         | 'while' named_expression NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='while' named_expression ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'while' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_for_stmt:
         | ['async'] 'for' star_targets 'in' star_expressions NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | ['async'] a='for' star_targets 'in' star_expressions ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after 'for' statement on line %d", a->lineno) }
     invalid_def_raw:
         | ['async'] a='def' NAME [type_params] '(' [params] ')' ['->' expression] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after function definition on line %d", a->lineno) }
         | ['async'] 'def' NAME [type_params] &&'(' [params] ')' ['->' expression] &&':' [func_type_comment] block
     invalid_class_def_raw:
         | 'class' NAME [type_params] ['(' [arguments] ')'] NEWLINE { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("expected ':'") }
         | a='class' NAME [type_params] ['(' [arguments] ')'] ':' NEWLINE !INDENT {
             RAISE_INDENTATION_ERROR("expected an indented block after class definition on line %d", a->lineno) }

     invalid_double_starred_kvpairs:
         | invalid_kvpair_unpacking [',']
         | ','.double_starred_kvpair+ ',' (invalid_kvpair | invalid_kvpair_unpacking)
         | expression a=':' &('}'|',') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expression expected after dictionary key and ':'") }
     invalid_kvpair_unpacking:
         | a='**' b=if_expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid double starred expression. Did you forget to wrap the conditional expression in parentheses?") }
         | a='*' b=bitwise_or ':' expression { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot use a starred expression in a dictionary key") }
         | a='**' b=bitwise_or ':' expression { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot use dict unpacking in a dictionary key") }
         | expression ':' a='*' b=bitwise_or { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot use a starred expression in a dictionary value") }
         | expression ':' a='**' b=bitwise_or { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot use dict unpacking in a dictionary value") }
     invalid_kvpair:
         | a=expression !(':') {
             RAISE_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(p, PyExc_SyntaxError, a->lineno, a->end_col_offset - 1, a->end_lineno, -1, "':' expected after dictionary key") }
         | expression ':' a='*' bitwise_or { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "cannot use a starred expression in a dictionary value") }
         | expression ':' a='**' bitwise_or { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(a, "cannot use dict unpacking in a dictionary value") }
         | expression a=':' &('}'|',') {RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "expression expected after dictionary key and ':'") }
     invalid_starred_expression_unpacking:
         | a='*' b=if_expression {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "invalid starred expression. Did you forget to wrap the conditional expression in parentheses?") }
         | a='*' expression '=' b=expression { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "cannot assign to iterable argument unpacking") }
     invalid_starred_expression_unpacking_sequence:
         | a='**' bitwise_or {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "cannot use dict unpacking here") }
         | invalid_starred_expression_unpacking
     invalid_starred_expression:
         | '*' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR("Invalid star expression") }
     invalid_fstring_replacement_field:
         | '{' a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '='") }
         | '{' a='!' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '!'") }
         | '{' a=':' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before ':'") }
         | '{' a='}' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "f-string: valid expression required before '}'") }
         | '{' !annotated_rhs { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting a valid expression after '{'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs !('=' | '!' | ':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '=', or '!', or ':', or '}'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '=' !('!' | ':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '!', or ':', or '}'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? invalid_fstring_conversion_character
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? ['!' NAME] !(':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting ':' or '}'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? ['!' NAME] ':' fstring_format_spec* !'}' {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '}', or format specs") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? ['!' NAME] !'}' {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: expecting '}'") }

     invalid_fstring_conversion_character:
         | '!' &(':' | '}') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: missing conversion character") }
         | '!' !NAME { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("f-string: invalid conversion character") }

     invalid_tstring_replacement_field:
         | '{' a='=' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "t-string: valid expression required before '='") }
         | '{' a='!' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "t-string: valid expression required before '!'") }
         | '{' a=':' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "t-string: valid expression required before ':'") }
         | '{' a='}' { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_LOCATION(a, "t-string: valid expression required before '}'") }
         | '{' !annotated_rhs { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("t-string: expecting a valid expression after '{'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs !('=' | '!' | ':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("t-string: expecting '=', or '!', or ':', or '}'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '=' !('!' | ':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("t-string: expecting '!', or ':', or '}'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? invalid_tstring_conversion_character
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? ['!' NAME] !(':' | '}') {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("t-string: expecting ':' or '}'") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? ['!' NAME] ':' fstring_format_spec* !'}' {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("t-string: expecting '}', or format specs") }
         | '{' annotated_rhs '='? ['!' NAME] !'}' {
             PyErr_Occurred() ? NULL : RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("t-string: expecting '}'") }

     invalid_tstring_conversion_character:
         | '!' &(':' | '}') { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("t-string: missing conversion character") }
         | '!' !NAME { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_ON_NEXT_TOKEN("t-string: invalid conversion character") }

     invalid_string_tstring_concat:
         | a=(fstring|string)+ b[expr_ty]=tstring {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(PyPegen_last_item(a, expr_ty), b, "cannot mix t-string literals with string or bytes literals") }
         | a=tstring+ b[expr_ty]=(fstring|string) {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(PyPegen_last_item(a, expr_ty), b, "cannot mix t-string literals with string or bytes literals") }

     invalid_arithmetic:
         | sum ('+'|'-'|'*'|'/'|'%'|'//'|'@') a='not' b=inversion { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "'not' after an operator must be parenthesized") }
     invalid_factor:
         | ('+' | '-' | '~') a='not' b=factor { RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_KNOWN_RANGE(a, b, "'not' after an operator must be parenthesized") }

     invalid_type_params:
         | '[' token=']' {
             RAISE_SYNTAX_ERROR_STARTING_FROM(
                 token,
                 "Type parameter list cannot be empty")}

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Grammar/python.gram


File: python.info,  Node: The Python Standard Library,  Next: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python,  Prev: Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python,  Up: Top

5 The Python Standard Library
*****************************

While *note Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python: 3f8. describes the
exact syntax and semantics of the Python language, this library
reference manual describes the standard library that is distributed with
Python.  It also describes some of the optional components that are
commonly included in Python distributions.

Python’s standard library is very extensive, offering a wide range of
facilities as indicated by the long table of contents listed below.  The
library contains built-in modules (written in C) that provide access to
system functionality such as file I/O that would otherwise be
inaccessible to Python programmers, as well as modules written in Python
that provide standardized solutions for many problems that occur in
everyday programming.  Some of these modules are explicitly designed to
encourage and enhance the portability of Python programs by abstracting
away platform-specifics into platform-neutral APIs.

The Python installers for the Windows platform usually include the
entire standard library and often also include many additional
components.  For Unix-like operating systems Python is normally provided
as a collection of packages, so it may be necessary to use the packaging
tools provided with the operating system to obtain some or all of the
optional components.

In addition to the standard library, there is an active collection of
hundreds of thousands of components (from individual programs and
modules to packages and entire application development frameworks),
available from the Python Package Index(1).

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<4>.
* Ενσωματωμένες (Built-in) Συναρτήσεις: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
* Built-in Constants::
* Τύποι Built-in::
* Built-in Exceptions::
* Thread Safety Guarantees::
* Text Processing Services::
* Υπηρεσίες Δυαδικών Δεδομένων::
* Data Types::
* Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules::
* Functional Programming Modules::
* File and Directory Access::
* Data Persistence::
* Data Compression and Archiving::
* File Formats::
* Cryptographic Services::
* Generic Operating System Services::
* Command-line interface libraries::
* Concurrent Execution::
* Networking and Interprocess Communication::
* Internet Data Handling::
* Structured Markup Processing Tools::
* Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη::
* Multimedia Services::
* Internationalization::
* Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk::
* Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης::
* Debugging and profiling::
* Software Packaging and Distribution::
* Python Runtime Services::
* Custom Python Interpreters::
* Importing Modules::
* Python Language Services::
* MS Windows Specific Services::
* Unix-specific services::
* Command-line interface (Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών) (CLI) για modules: Command-line interface Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών CLI για modules.
* Superseded modules::
* Removed Modules::
* Security Considerations: Security Considerations<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<4>,  Next: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.1 Introduction
================

The «Python library» contains several different kinds of components.

It contains data types that would normally be considered part of the
«core» of a language, such as numbers and lists.  For these types, the
Python language core defines the form of literals and places some
constraints on their semantics, but does not fully define the semantics.
(On the other hand, the language core does define syntactic properties
like the spelling and priorities of operators.)

The library also contains built-in functions and exceptions — objects
that can be used by all Python code without the need of an *note import:
9da. statement.  Some of these are defined by the core language, but
many are not essential for the core semantics and are only described
here.

The bulk of the library, however, consists of a collection of modules.
There are many ways to dissect this collection.  Some modules are
written in C and built in to the Python interpreter; others are written
in Python and imported in source form.  Some modules provide interfaces
that are highly specific to Python, like printing a stack trace; some
provide interfaces that are specific to particular operating systems,
such as access to specific hardware; others provide interfaces that are
specific to a particular application domain, like the World Wide Web.
Some modules are available in all versions and ports of Python; others
are only available when the underlying system supports or requires them;
yet others are available only when a particular configuration option was
chosen at the time when Python was compiled and installed.

This manual is organized «from the inside out:» it first describes the
built-in functions, data types and exceptions, and finally the modules,
grouped in chapters of related modules.

This means that if you start reading this manual from the start, and
skip to the next chapter when you get bored, you will get a reasonable
overview of the available modules and application areas that are
supported by the Python library.  Of course, you don’t 'have' to read it
like a novel — you can also browse the table of contents (in front of
the manual), or look for a specific function, module or term in the
index (in the back).  And finally, if you enjoy learning about random
subjects, you choose a random page number (see module *note random: c0.)
and read a section or two.  Regardless of the order in which you read
the sections of this manual, it helps to start with chapter *note
Ενσωματωμένες (Built-in) Συναρτήσεις: 1601, as the remainder of the
manual assumes familiarity with this material.

Let the show begin!

* Menu:

* Notes on availability::


File: python.info,  Node: Notes on availability,  Up: Introduction<4>

5.1.1 Notes on availability
---------------------------

   * An «Availability: Unix» note means that this function is commonly
     found on Unix systems.  It does not make any claims about its
     existence on a specific operating system.

   * If not separately noted, all functions that claim «Availability:
     Unix» are supported on macOS, iOS and Android, all of which build
     on a Unix core.

   * If an availability note contains both a minimum Kernel version and
     a minimum libc version, then both conditions must hold.  For
     example a feature with note 'Availability: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc
     >= 2.27' requires both Linux 3.17 or newer and glibc 2.27 or newer.

* Menu:

* WebAssembly platforms::
* Mobile platforms::


File: python.info,  Node: WebAssembly platforms,  Next: Mobile platforms,  Up: Notes on availability

5.1.1.1 WebAssembly platforms
.............................

The WebAssembly(1) platforms ‘wasm32-emscripten’ (Emscripten(2)) and
‘wasm32-wasi’ (WASI(3)) provide a subset of POSIX APIs.  WebAssembly
runtimes and browsers are sandboxed and have limited access to the host
and external resources.  Any Python standard library module that uses
processes, threading, networking, signals, or other forms of
inter-process communication (IPC), is either not available or may not
work as on other Unix-like systems.  File I/O, file system, and Unix
permission-related functions are restricted, too.  Emscripten does not
permit blocking I/O. Other blocking operations like *note sleep(): a8c.
block the browser event loop.

The properties and behavior of Python on WebAssembly platforms depend on
the Emscripten(4)-SDK or WASI(5)-SDK version, WASM runtimes (browser,
NodeJS, wasmtime(6)), and Python build time flags.  WebAssembly,
Emscripten, and WASI are evolving standards; some features like
networking may be supported in the future.

For Python in the browser, users should consider Pyodide(7) or
PyScript(8).  PyScript is built on top of Pyodide, which itself is built
on top of CPython and Emscripten.  Pyodide provides access to browsers”
JavaScript and DOM APIs as well as limited networking capabilities with
JavaScript’s ‘XMLHttpRequest’ and ‘Fetch’ APIs.

   * Process-related APIs are not available or always fail with an
     error.  That includes APIs that spawn new processes (*note fork():
     6bd, *note execve(): 14a5.), wait for processes (*note waitpid():
     1153.), send signals (*note kill(): 170c.), or otherwise interact
     with processes.  The *note subprocess: df. is importable but does
     not work.

   * The *note socket: d4. module is available, but is limited and
     behaves differently from other platforms.  On Emscripten, sockets
     are always non-blocking and require additional JavaScript code and
     helpers on the server to proxy TCP through WebSockets; see
     Emscripten Networking(9) for more information.  WASI snapshot
     preview 1 only permits sockets from an existing file descriptor.

   * Some functions are stubs that either don’t do anything and always
     return hardcoded values.

   * Functions related to file descriptors, file permissions, file
     ownership, and links are limited and don’t support some operations.
     For example, WASI does not permit symlinks with absolute file
     names.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://webassembly.org/

   (2) https://emscripten.org/

   (3) https://wasi.dev/

   (4) https://emscripten.org/

   (5) https://wasi.dev/

   (6) https://wasmtime.dev/

   (7) https://pyodide.org/

   (8) https://pyscript.net/

   (9) https://emscripten.org/docs/porting/networking.html


File: python.info,  Node: Mobile platforms,  Prev: WebAssembly platforms,  Up: Notes on availability

5.1.1.2 Mobile platforms
........................

Android and iOS are, in most respects, POSIX operating systems.  File
I/O, socket handling, and threading all behave as they would on any
POSIX operating system.  However, there are several major differences:

   * Mobile platforms can only use Python in «embedded» mode.  There is
     no Python REPL, and no ability to use separate executables such as
     ‘python’ or ‘pip’.  To add Python code to your mobile app, you must
     use the *note Python embedding API: 244c.  For more details, see
     *note Χρήση της Python σε Android: 244a. and *note Χρήση Python σε
     iOS: 2452.

   * Subprocesses:

        * On Android, creating subprocesses is possible but officially
          unsupported(1).  In particular, Android does not support any
          part of the System V IPC API, so *note multiprocessing: 98. is
          not available.

        * An iOS app cannot use any form of subprocessing,
          multiprocessing, or inter-process communication.  If an iOS
          app attempts to create a subprocess, the process creating the
          subprocess will either lock up, or crash.  An iOS app has no
          visibility of other applications that are running, nor any
          ability to communicate with other running applications,
          outside of the iOS-specific APIs that exist for this purpose.

   * Mobile apps have limited access to modify system resources (such as
     the system clock).  These resources will often be 'readable', but
     attempts to modify those resources will usually fail.

   * Console input and output:

        * On Android, the native ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’ are not connected
          to anything, so Python installs its own streams which redirect
          messages to the system log.  These can be seen under the tags
          ‘python.stdout’ and ‘python.stderr’ respectively.

        * iOS apps have a limited concept of console output.  ‘stdout’
          and ‘stderr’ 'exist', and content written to ‘stdout’ and
          ‘stderr’ will be visible in logs when running in Xcode, but
          this content 'won’t' be recorded in the system log.  If a user
          who has installed your app provides their app logs as a
          diagnostic aid, they will not include any detail written to
          ‘stdout’ or ‘stderr’.

        * Mobile apps have no usable ‘stdin’ at all.  While apps can
          display an on-screen keyboard, this is a software feature, not
          something that is attached to ‘stdin’.

          As a result, Python modules that involve console manipulation
          (such as *note curses: 2e. and *note readline: c2.) are not
          available on mobile platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://issuetracker.google.com/issues/128554619#comment4


File: python.info,  Node: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις,  Next: Built-in Constants,  Prev: Introduction<4>,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.2 Ενσωματωμένες (Built-in) Συναρτήσεις
========================================

O interpreter της Python έχει έναν αριθμό από συναρτήσεις και τύπους
ενσωματωμένους (built-in) σε αυτόν, που είναι πάντα διαθέσιμα.
Παρατίθενται εδώ με αλφαβητική σειρά.

Ενσωματωμένες (Built-in)
Συναρτήσεις

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                      
     'A'                           'E'                         'L'                         'R'
     *note abs(): 227c.            *note enumerate(): 1823.     *note len(): a1f.          *note range(): 27b5.
     *note aiter(): bb2.           *note eval(): 184.          *note list(): 27b3.         *note repr(): 45b.
     *note all(): 17c4.            *note exec(): 185.          *note locals(): 28b.        *note reversed(): c3c.
     *note anext(): bb3.                                                                   *note round(): 167f.
     *note any(): 17c3.            'F'                         'M'                         
     *note ascii(): 1789.          *note filter(): c3b.        *note map(): 43e.           'S'
                                   *note float(): 327.         *note max(): 12ba.          *note set(): 27b6.
     'B'                           *note format(): 439.        *note memoryview(): 27b4.     *note setattr(): 27b7.
     *note bin(): 164d.            *note frozenset(): 27b2.     *note min(): 12b9.         *note sentinel(): 18b.
     *note bool(): 5ef.                                                                    *note slice(): 1d0.
     *note breakpoint(): 4f9.      'G'                         'N'                         *note sorted(): f8c.
     *note bytearray(): 2088.      *note getattr(): f8f.       *note next(): bb5.          *note staticmethod(): 666.
     *note bytes(): 2087.          *note globals(): 1e01.                                  *note str(): 27b8.
                                                               'O'                         *note sum(): 881.
     'C'                           'H'                         *note object(): e4d.        *note super(): 443.
     *note callable(): 156f.       *note hasattr(): 8e2.       *note oct(): 1673.          'T'
     *note chr(): 1bf8.            *note hash(): 9e2.          *note open(): 32b.          *note tuple(): 27b9.
     *note classmethod(): 69a.     *note help(): ca9.          *note ord(): 252c.          *note type(): 186.
     *note compile(): 1c8.         *note hex(): 1674.                                      
     *note complex(): 328.                                     'P'                         'V'
                                   'I'                         *note pow(): 441.           *note vars(): 2011.
     'D'                           *note id(): 17c5.           *note print(): 131f.        
     *note delattr(): 1aa.         *note input(): 167d.        *note property(): 6bb.      'Z'
     *note dict(): 27b1.           *note int(): 326.                                       *note zip(): 43f.
     *note dir(): a23.             *note isinstance(): 2ef.                                
     *note divmod(): d6a.          *note issubclass(): 2f0.                                '_'
                                   *note iter(): bb4.                                      *note __import__(): ca6.
                                                                                      

 -- Συνάρτηση: abs (number, /)

     Επιστρέφει την απόλυτη τιμή ενός αριθμού.  Το όρισμα μπορεί να
     είναι ένας ακέραιος, ένας αριθμός κινητής υποδιαστολής, ή ένα
     αντικείμενο που υλοποιεί την *note __abs__(): 25fa.  Εάν το όρισμα
     είναι ένας μιγαδικός αριθμός επιστρέφεται το μέγεθός του.

 -- Συνάρτηση: aiter (async_iterable, /)

     Επιστρέφεται ένας *note asynchronous iterator: 6cd. για ένα *note
     asynchronous iterable: 112d.  Ισοδυναμεί με την κλήση του
     ‘x.__aiter__()’.

     Σημείωση: Σε αντίθεση με το *note iter(): bb4, το *note aiter():
     bb2. δεν έχει παραλλαγή 2 ορισμάτων.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: all (iterable, /)

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν όλα τα στοιχεία του 'iterable' είναι true (ή
     εάν το iterable είναι κενό).  Ισοδυναμεί με:

          def all(iterable):
              for element in iterable:
                  if not element:
                      return False
              return True

 -- Συνάρτηση: awaitable anext (async_iterator, /)

 -- Συνάρτηση: awaitable anext (async_iterator, default, /)

     Όταν αναμένεται, επιστρέφεται το επόμενο στοιχείο από το *note
     asynchronous iterator: 6cd, ή 'default' (προεπιλογή) εάν δίνεται
     και ο iterator έχει εξαντληθεί.

     Αυτό είναι μια ασύγχρονη παραλλαγή της ενσωματωμένης συνάρτησης
     *note next(): bb5, και συμπεριφέρεται παρόμοια.

     Αυτό καλεί την μέθοδο *note __anext__(): 1aa7. του
     'async_iterator', επιστρέφοντας ένα *note awaitable: 6cf.
     Αναμένοντας αυτό, επιστρέφει την επόμενη τιμή του iterator.  Αν
     δίνεται το 'default' (προεπιλογή), αυτό επιστρέφεται εάν ο iterator
     έχει εξαντληθεί, αλλιώς γίνεται raise ένα *note StopAsyncIteration:
     1ffe.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: any (iterable, /)

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν οποιοδήποτε στοιχείο του 'iterable' είναι
     αληθές.  Εάν το iterable είναι κενό, επιστρέφει ‘False’.
     Ισοδυναμεί με:

          def any(iterable):
              for element in iterable:
                  if element:
                      return True
              return False

 -- Συνάρτηση: ascii (object, /)

     Όπως η *note repr(): 45b, επιστρέφει μια συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει
     μια εκτυπώσιμη απεικόνιση ενός αντικειμένου, αλλά αναιρεί τους
     μη-ASCII χαρακτήρες στη συμβολοσειρά που επιστρέφεται από το
     ‘repr()’ χρησιμοποιώντας ‘\x’, ‘\u’, ή ‘\U’ αποδράσεις.  Αυτό
     παράγει μια συμβολοσειρά παρόμοια με αυτή που επιστρέφεται από την
     ‘repr()’ στην Python 2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: bin (integer, /)

     Μετατροπή ενός ακέραιου αριθμού σε μια δυαδική συμβολοσειρά με
     πρόθεμα «0b».  Το αποτέλεσμα είναι μια έγκυρη έκφραση Python.  Εάν
     το 'integer' δεν είναι αντικείμενο της Python *note int: 326,
     πρέπει να οριστεί μια μέθοδος *note __index__(): 43d. που
     επιστρέφει έναν ακέραιο αριθμό.  Κάποια παραδείγματα:

          >>> bin(3)
          '0b11'
          >>> bin(-10)
          '-0b1010'

     Εάν το πρόθεμα «0b» είναι επιθυμητό ή όχι, μπορείτε να
     χρησιμοποιήσετε έναν από τους παρακάτω τρόπους.

          >>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')
          ('0b1110', '1110')
          >>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'
          ('0b1110', '1110')

     See also *note enum.bin(): 1987. to represent negative values as
     twos-complement.

     Δείτε επίσης τη *note format(): 439. για περισσότερες πληροφορίες.

 -- Κλάση: bool (object=False, /)

     Επιστρέφετε μια δυαδική τιμή, π.χ.  μία από τις τιμές ‘True’ ή
     ‘False’.  Το όρισμα μετατρέπεται χρησιμοποιώντας την τυπική *note
     truth testing procedure: 1a80.  Εάν το όρισμα είναι ψευδές ή
     παραλειφθεί, αυτό επιστρέφει ‘False’ ∙ διαφορετικά, επιστρέφει
     ‘True’.  Η κλάση *note bool: 5ef. είναι μια υποκλάση της *note int:
     326. (βλ.  *note Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int, float, complex: 21c9.).
     Δεν μπορεί να γίνει περαιτέρω υποκλάση.  Οι μόνες περιπτώσεις είναι
     ‘False’ και ‘True’ (βλ.  *note Τύπος Boolean - bool: 27ba.).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Η παράμετρος είναι πλέον μόνο παράμετρος
     θέσης.

 -- Συνάρτηση: breakpoint (*args, **kws)

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση μας μεταφέρει στο πρόγραμμα εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων
     στην τοποθεσία της κλήσης.  Συγκεκριμένα, καλεί το *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): e9f, περνώντας απευθείας τα ‘args’ και ‘kws’.
     Από προεπιλογή, το ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ καλεί την *note
     pdb.set_trace(): 4fa. χωρίς να περιμένει ορίσματα.  Σε αυτήν την
     περίπτωση, είναι καθαρά μια βολική συνάρτηση, επομένως δεν
     χρειάζεται να εισάγετε ρητά το *note pdb: aa. ή να πληκτρολογήσετε
     τόσο πολύ κώδικα.  Ωστόσο η ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ μπορεί να
     ρυθμιστεί σε κάποια άλλη συνάρτηση και το *note breakpoint(): 4f9.
     θα το καλέσει αυτόματα, επιτρέποντας σας να πέσετε στο πρόγραμμα
     εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων της επιλογής σας.  Εάν η
     ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ δεν είναι προσβάσιμη, αυτή η συνάρτηση θα
     κάνει raise το *note RuntimeError: 30d.

     Από προεπιλογή, η συμπεριφορά της *note breakpoint(): 4f9. μπορεί
     να αλλάξει με την μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT:
     ea0.  Βλ.  την *note sys.breakpointhook(): e9f. για λεπτομέρειες
     χρήσης.

     Λάβετε υπόψη ότι αυτό δεν είναι εγγυημένο εάν η *note
     sys.breakpointhook(): e9f. έχει αντικατασταθεί.

     Εγείρει ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘builtins.breakpoint’ με
     όρισμα ‘breakpointhook’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Κλάση: bytearray (source=b'')

 -- Κλάση: bytearray (source, encoding, errors='strict')

     Επιστρέφετε ένας νέος πίνακας από bytes.  Η κλάση *note bytearray:
     1c6. είναι μια μεταβλητή ακολουθία ακεραίων στο εύρος 0 <= x < 256.
     Έχει τις περισσότερες από τις συνήθεις μεθόδους μεταβλητών
     ακολουθιών, που περιγράφονται στο *note Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών
     (Sequences): 27bb, καθώς και τις περισσότερες μεθόδους που έχει ο
     τύπος *note bytes: 1c7, δείτε *note Λειτουργίες Bytes και
     Bytearray: 27bc.

     Η προαιρετική παράμετρος 'source' μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την
     αρχικοποίηση του πίνακα με μερικούς διαφορετικούς τρόπους:

        * Εάν είναι 'string', πρέπει επίσης να δώσετε τις παραμέτρους
          'encoding' (και προαιρετικά, 'errors')∙ η *note bytearray():
          1c6. στη συνέχεια μετατρέπει τη συμβολοσειρά σε byte
          χρησιμοποιώντας *note str.encode(): ca7.

        * Εάν είναι 'integer', ο πίνακας θα έχει αυτό το μέγεθος και θα
          αρχικοποιηθεί με null bytes.

        * Εάν είναι αντικείμενο που συμμορφώνεται με το *note buffer
          interface: 311, θα χρησιμοποιηθεί μια προσωρινή μνήμη μόνο για
          ανάγνωση του αντικείμενου για την προετοιμασία του πίνακα με
          τα bytes.

        * Εάν είναι 'iterable', πρέπει να είναι ένας iterable ακεραίων
          στο εύρος ‘0 <= x < 256’, οι οποίοι χρησιμοποιούνται ως αρχικά
          περιεχόμενα του πίνακα.

     Χωρίς όρισμα δημιουργείται ένας πίνακας μεγέθους 0.

     Βλ.  επίσης *note Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes, bytearray,
     memoryview: 27bd. και *note Αντικείμενα Bytearray: 27be.

 -- Κλάση: bytes (source=b'')

 -- Κλάση: bytes (source, encoding, errors='strict')

     Επιστρέφεται ένα νέο αντικείμενο «bytes», που είναι μια αμετάβλητη
     ακολουθία ακεραίων στο εύρος ‘0 <= x < 256’.  Η *note bytes: 1c7.
     είναι μια αμετάβλητη έκδοση του *note bytearray: 1c6. – έχει τις
     ίδιες μεθόδους χωρίς μετάλλαξη και την ίδια συμπεριφορά
     ευρετηριοποίησης και τεμαχισμού.

     Συνεπώς, τα ορίσματα του constructor ερμηνεύονται ως *note
     bytearray(): 1c6.

     Τα αντικείμενα bytes μπορούν επίσης να δημιουργηθούν με literals,
     βλέπε *note Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes: 2490.

     Βλέπε επίσης *note Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes, bytearray,
     memoryview: 27bd, *note Αντικείμενα Bytes: 27bf, και *note
     Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray: 27bc.

 -- Συνάρτηση: callable (object, /)

     Επιστρέφει *note True: fcc. εάν το όρισμα 'object' εμφανίζεται ως
     callable, και *note False: ef5. εάν όχι.  Εάν αυτό επιστρέψει
     ‘True’, είναι ακόμα πιθανό μια κλήση να αποτύχει, αλλά εάν είναι
     ‘False’, η κλήση του 'object' δεν θα πετύχει ποτέ.  Σημειώστε ότι
     οι κλάσεις μπορούν να κληθούν (η κλήση μιας κλάσης επιστρέφει ένα
     νέο instance).  Τα instances μπορούν να κληθούν αν η κλάση τους
     έχει τη μέθοδο *note __call__(): 961.

     Added in version 3.2: Αυτή η συνάρτηση πρώτα αφαιρέθηκε στην Python
     3.0 και στη συνέχεια επανήλθε στην Python 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: chr (codepoint, /)

     Επιστρέφει τη συμβολοσειρά που αναπαριστά έναν χαρακτήρα με το
     συγκεκριμένο Unicode code point.  Για παράδειγμα, το ‘chr(97)’
     επιστρέφει τη συμβολοσειρά ‘'a'’, ενώ το ‘chr(8364)’ επιστρέφει τη
     συμβολοσειρά ‘'€'’.  Αυτό είναι το αντίστροφο της *note ord():
     252c.

     Το έγκυρο εύρος για το όρισμα είναι από 0 έως 1,114,111 (0x10FFFF
     στη βάση 16).  Το *note ValueError: 277. θα γίνει raise εάν είναι
     εκτός αυτού του εύρους.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @classmethod

     Μετατροπή μιας μεθόδου σε μέθοδο κλάσης.

     Μια μέθοδος κλάσης λαμβάνει την κλάση ως σιωπηρό πρώτο όρισμα, όπως
     μια instance μέθοδος λαμβάνει το instance.  Για να δηλώσετε μια
     μέθοδο κλάσης, χρησιμοποιήστε αυτό το ιδίωμα:

          class C:
              @classmethod
              def f(cls, arg1, arg2): ...

     Η φόρμα ‘@classmethod’ είναι μια συνάρτηση *note decorator: b18. –
     βλέπε *note Function definitions: 2206. για λεπτομέρειες.

     Μια μέθοδος κλάσης μπορεί να κληθεί είτε στην κλάση (όπως ‘C.f()’)
     είτε σε ένα instance (όπως ‘C().f()’).  Το instance αγνοείται εκτός
     από την κλάση της.  Εάν μια μέθοδος κλάσης καλείται για μια
     παραγόμενη κλάση, το αντικείμενο παραγόμενης κλάσης μεταβιβάζεται
     ως το υπονοούμενο πρώτο όρισμα.

     Οι μέθοδοι κλάσης διαφέρουν από τις στατικές μεθόδους C++ ή Java.
     Αν θέλετε, ανατρέξτε στο *note staticmethod(): 666. σε αυτήν την
     ενότητα.  Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες σχετικά με τις μεθόδους
     κλάσης, ανατρέξτε στο *note Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου: 2520.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Οι μέθοδοι κλάσης μπορούν πλέον να
     αναδιπλώσουν άλλους *note descriptors: 21f. όπως η *note
     property(): 6bb.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Οι μέθοδοι κλάσης κληρονομούν πλέον τα
     χαρακτηριστικά της μεθόδους (*note __module__: 253b, *note
     __name__: 1679, *note __qualname__: 253a, *note __doc__: 1582. and
     *note __annotations__: 1581.) και έχουν ένα νέο χαρακτηριστικό
     ‘__wrapped__’.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13: Οι
     μέθοδοι κλάσης δεν μπορούν πλέον να κάνουν wrap άλλους *note
     descriptors: 21f. όπως *note property(): 6bb.

 -- Συνάρτηση: compile (source, filename, mode, flags=0,
          dont_inherit=False, optimize=-1, *, module=None)

     Μεταγλωττίστε το 'source' σε έναν κώδικα ή αντικείμενο AST. Τα
     αντικείμενα κώδικα μπορούν να εκτελεστούν από *note exec(): 185. ή
     *note eval(): 184.  Η 'source' μπορεί να είναι είτε μια κανονική
     συμβολοσειρά, μια συμβολοσειρά byte ή μια συμβολοσειρά AST
     αντικείμενου.  Ανατρέξτε στην τεκμηρίωση του module *note ast: 9.
     για πληροφορίες σχετικά με τον τρόπο εργασίας με αντικείμενα AST.

     Το όρισμα 'filename' θα πρέπει να δίνει το αρχείο από το οποίο
     διαβάζεται ο κώδικας∙ να περάσει κάποια αναγνωρίσιμη τιμή εάν δεν
     διαβαστεί από ένα αρχείο (χρησιμοποιείται συνήθως ‘'<string>'’).

     Το όρισμα 'mode' καθορίζει το είδος του κώδικα που πρέπει να
     μεταγλωττιστεί∙ μπορεί να είναι ‘'exec'’ εάν η 'source' αποτελείται
     από μια ακολουθία δηλώσεων, ‘'eval'’ εάν αποτελείται από μία μόνο
     έκφραση, ή ‘'single'’ εάν αποτελείται από μία μόνο διαδραστική
     πρόταση (στην τελευταία περίπτωση, θα εκτυπωθούν δηλώσεις έκφρασης
     που αξιολογούνται σε κάτι διαφορετικό από ‘None’).

     Τα προαιρετικά ορίσματα 'flags' και 'dont_inherit' ελέγχουν ποιες
     *note compiler options: 27c0. θα πρέπει να ενεργοποιηθούν και ποιες
     *note future features: 670. θα πρέπει να επιτρέπονται.  Εάν δεν
     υπάρχει καμία (ή και οι δύο είναι μηδέν) ο κώδικας μεταγλωττίζεται
     με τα ίδια flags που επηρεάζουν τον κώδικα που καλεί *note
     compile(): 1c8.  Εάν το όρισμα 'flags' δίνεται και το
     'dont_inherit' δεν είναι (ή είναι μηδέν), τότε οι επιλογές του
     μεταγλωττιστή και οι μελλοντικές δηλώσεις που καθορίζονται από το
     όρισμα 'flags' χρησιμοποιούνται ανεξάρτητα από αυτές που θα
     χρησιμοποιούνταν ούτως ή άλλως.  Εάν το 'dont_inherit' είναι ένα μη
     μηδενικός ακέραιος, τότε το όρισμα 'flags' είναι αυτό – οι σημαίες
     (μελλοντικές δυνατότητες και επιλογές μεταγλωττιστή) στον
     περιβάλλοντα κώδικα αγνοούνται.

     Οι επιλογές του μεταγλωττιστή και οι μελλοντικές εντολές
     καθορίζονται από bits που μπορούν να συνδυαστούν κατά bit ORed μαζί
     για να καθορίσουν πολλές επιλογές.  Το πεδίο bit που απαιτείται για
     το καθορισμό ενός δεδομένου μελλοντικού χαρακτηριστικού μπορεί να
     βρεθεί ως το χαρακτηριστικό *note compiler_flag: 2587. στο *note
     _Feature: 27c1. instance του module *note __future__: 0.  *note
     Compiler flags: 27c0. μπορούν να βρεθούν στο module *note ast: 9,
     με το πρόθεμα ‘PyCF_’.

     Το όρισμα 'optimize' καθορίζει το επίπεδο βελτιστοποίησης του
     μεταγλωττιστή∙ η προεπιλεγμένη τιμή ‘-1’ επιλέγει το επίπεδο
     βελτιστοποίησης του διερμηνέα όπως δίνεται από τις επιλογές *note
     -O: 431.  Τα ρητά επίπεδα είναι ‘0’ (χωρίς βελτιστοποίηση∙ το
     ‘__debug__’ είναι αληθές), ‘1’ (οι ισχυρισμοί καταργήθηκαν, το
     ‘__debug__’ είναι ψευδές) ή ‘2’ (οι συμβολοσειρές εγγραφών
     καταργήθηκαν επίσης).

     The optional argument 'module' specifies the module name.  It is
     needed to unambiguous *note filter: 1cc. syntax warnings by module
     name.

     This function raises *note SyntaxError: 17e. or *note ValueError:
     277. if the compiled source is invalid.

     Εάν θέλετε να αναλύσετε τον κώδικα Python στην αναπαράσταση του
     AST, δείτε το *note ast.parse(): 1c9.

     Κάνει raise ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘compile’ με ορίσματα
     ‘source’ και ‘filename’.  Αυτό το συμβάν μπορεί επίσης να προκύψει
     από έμμεση μεταγλώττιση.

          Σημείωση: Κατά τη μεταγλώττιση μιας συμβολοσειράς με κωδικό
          πολλαπλών γραμμών στη λειτουργία ‘'single'’ ή ‘'eval'’, η
          είσοδος πρέπει να τερματίζεται με τουλάχιστον έναν χαρακτήρα
          νέας γραμμής.  Αυτό γίνεται για να διευκολυνθεί ο εντοπισμός
          μη ολοκληρωμένων και ολοκληρωμένων δηλώσεων στο module *note
          code: 1b.

          Προειδοποίηση: Είναι δυνατό να καταρρεύσει ο interpreter της
          Python με μια αρκετά μεγάλη/σύνθετη συμβολοσειρά κατά τη
          μεταγλώττιση σε ένα αντικείμενο AST λόγω περιορισμών βάθους
          στοίβας στον μεταγλωττιστή AST της Python.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Επιτρέπεται η χρήση νέων γραμμών Windows
     και Mac.  Επίσης, η εισαγωγή στη λειτουργία ‘'exec'’ δεν χρειάζεται
     πλέον να τελειώνει σε νέα γραμμή.  Προστέθηκε η παράμετρος
     'optimize'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Προηγουμένως, το *note TypeError: 291.
     έγινε raise όταν null bytes συναντήθηκαν στο 'source'.

     Added in version 3.8: ‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ μπορεί τώρα
     να μεταβιβαστεί σε σημαίες για να ενεργοποιηθεί η υποστήριξη για
     ‘await’, ‘async for’, και ‘async with’.

     Added in version 3.15: Added the 'module' parameter.

 -- Κλάση: complex (number=0, /)

 -- Κλάση: complex (string, /)

 -- Κλάση: complex (real=0, imag=0)

     Μετατρέπει μια συμβολοσειρά ή έναν αριθμό σε έναν μιγαδικό αριθμό ή
     δημιουργεί έναν μιγαδικό αριθμός από πραγματικά και φανταστικά
     μέρη.

     Παραδείγματα:

          >>> complex('+1.23')
          (1.23+0j)
          >>> complex('-4.5j')
          -4.5j
          >>> complex('-1.23+4.5j')
          (-1.23+4.5j)
          >>> complex('\t( -1.23+4.5J )\n')
          (-1.23+4.5j)
          >>> complex('-Infinity+NaNj')
          (-inf+nanj)
          >>> complex(1.23)
          (1.23+0j)
          >>> complex(imag=-4.5)
          -4.5j
          >>> complex(-1.23, 4.5)
          (-1.23+4.5j)

     Αν το όρισμα είναι συμβολοσειρά, πρέπει να περιέχει είτε ένα
     πραγματικό μέρος (στην ίδια μορφή όπως για το *note float(): 327.)
     είτε ένα φανταστικό μέρος (στην ίδια μορφή αλλά με επίθημα ‘'j'’ ή
     ‘'J'’) ή και πραγματικά και φανταστικά μέρη (το πρόσημο του
     φανταστικού τμήματος είναι υποχρεωτικό σε αυτήν την περίπτωση).  Η
     συμβολοσειρά μπορεί προαιρετικά να περιβάλλεται από κενά διαστήματα
     και τις στρογγυλές παρενθέσεις ‘'('’ και ‘')'’ οι οποίες
     αγνοούνται.  Η συμβολοσειρά δεν πρέπει να περιέχει κενό διάστημα
     μεταξύ των ‘'+'’, ‘'-'’ του επιθέματος ‘'j'’ ή ‘'J'’ και του
     δεκαδικού αριθμού.  Για παράδειγμα, το ‘complex('1+2j')’ είναι
     εντάξει, αλλά το ‘complex('1 + 2j')’ κάνει raise μια *note
     ValueError: 277.  Πιο συγκεκριμένα, η είσοδος πρέπει να
     συμμορφώνεται με τον κανόνας παραγωγής *note complexvalue: 27c2.
     στην ακόλουθη γραμματική, αφού αφαιρεθούν οι παρενθέσεις και οι
     χαρακτήρες του κενών διαστημάτων στο τέλος:

          complexvalue: *note floatvalue: 27c3. |
                        *note floatvalue: 27c3. ("j" | "J") |
                        *note floatvalue: 27c3. *note sign: 27c4. *note absfloatvalue: 27c5. ("j" | "J")

     Εάν το όρισμα είναι αριθμός, ο κατασκευαστής χρησιμεύει ως
     αριθμητική μετατροπή όπως *note int: 326. και *note float: 327.
     Για ένα γενικό αντικείμενο Python ‘x’, το ‘complex(x)’ εκχωρεί στο
     ‘x.__complex__()’.  Εάν το *note __complex__(): 9de. δεν έχει
     οριστεί, τότε επιστρέφει στο *note __float__(): d92.  Εάν το
     ‘__float__()’ δεν έχει οριστεί τότε επιστρέφει στο *note
     __index__(): 43d.

     Εάν παρέχονται δύο ορίσματα ή χρησιμοποιούνται ορίσματα
     λέξης-κλειδιού, κάθε όρισμα μπορεί να είναι οποιουδήποτε
     αριθμητικού τύπου (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των μιγαδικών).  Εάν και τα
     δύο ορίσματα είναι πραγματικοί αριθμοί, επιστρέψτε έναν μιγαδικό
     αριθμό με το πραγματικό στοιχείο 'real' και το φανταστικό στοιχείο
     'imag'.  Εάν και τα δύο ορίσματα είναι μιγαδικοί αριθμοί,
     επιστρέψτε έναν μιγαδικό αριθμό με το πραγματικό στοιχείο
     ‘real.real-imag.imag’ και ‘real.imag+imag.real’.  Αν ένα από τα
     ορίσματα είναι πραγματικός αριθμός, χρησιμοποιείται μόνο το
     πραγματικό στοιχείο στις παραπάνω εκφράσεις.

     Δείτε επίσης την *note complex.from_number(): 438. που δέχεται μόνο
     ένα αριθμητικό όρισμα.

     Εάν παραληφθούν όλα τα ορίσματα, επιστρέφει ‘0j’.

     Ο μιγαδικός τύπος περιγράφεται στο *note Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int,
     float, complex: 21c9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Επιτρέπεται η ομαδοποίηση ψηφίων με κάτω
     παύλες όπως στα literals του κώδικα.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Επιστρέφει πίσω στη *note __index__(): 43d.
     εάν η *note __complex__(): 9de. και η *note __float__(): d92. δεν
     ορίζονται.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: Η διαβίβαση ενός μιγαδικού αριθμού ως
     το 'real' ή 'imag' όρισμα έχει πλέον καταργηθεί∙ θα πρέπει να
     διαβιβάζεται μόνο ως ένα μοναδικό όρισμα θέσης.

 -- Συνάρτηση: delattr (object, name, /)

     Αυτό είναι σχετικό της *note setattr(): 27b7.  Τα ορίσματα είναι
     ένα αντικείμενο και μια συμβολοσειρά.  Η συμβολοσειρά πρέπει να
     είναι το όνομα ενός από τα χαρακτηριστικά του αντικειμένου.  Η
     συνάρτηση διαγράφει το επώνυμο χαρακτηριστικό, υπό την προϋπόθεση
     ότι το αντικείμενο το επιτρέπει.  Για παράδειγμα, το ‘delattr(x,
     'foobar')’ είναι ισοδύναμο με το ‘del x.foobar’.  Το 'name' δεν
     χρειάζεται να είναι αναγνωριστικό της Python (δείτε ‘setattr()’).

 -- Κλάση: dict (**kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: dict (mapping, /, **kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: dict (iterable, /, **kwargs)

     Δημιουργεί ένα νέο λεξικό.  Το αντικείμενο *note dict: 188. είναι η
     κλάση λεξικού.  Δείτε το ‘dict’ και το *note Mapping types — dict,
     frozendict: e8c. για τεκμηρίωση σχετικά με αυτή την κατηγορία.

     Για άλλα containers, δείτε τις ενσωματωμένες κλάσεις *note list:
     4d9, *note set: 42b, και *note tuple: 1ce, καθώς και το module
     *note collections: 1e.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dir ()

 -- Συνάρτηση: dir (object, /)

     Χωρίς ορίσματα, επιστρέφει τη λίστα ονομάτων στο τρέχον τοπικό
     πεδίο.  Με ένα όρισμα, προσπαθεί να επιστρέψει μια λίστα έγκυρων
     χαρακτηριστικών για αυτό το αντικείμενο.

     Εάν το αντικείμενο έχει μία μέθοδο με το όνομα *note __dir__():
     1935, αυτή η μέθοδος θα καλείται και πρέπει να επιστρέψει μια λίστα
     από χαρακτηριστικά.  Αυτό επιτρέπει τα αντικείμενα που υλοποιούν
     μια εξατομικευμένη συνάρτηση *note __getattr__(): 8e3. or *note
     __getattribute__(): f90. για την προσαρμογή του τρόπου με τον οποίο
     η *note dir(): a23. αναφέρει τα χαρακτηριστικά.

     Εάν το αντικείμενο δεν παρέχει την *note __dir__(): 1935, η
     συνάρτηση προσπαθεί να συλλέξει πληροφορίες από το χαρακτηριστικό
     *note __dict__: 1bf. του αντικειμένου, εάν έχει οριστεί, και από το
     αντικείμενο του τύπου του.  Η λίστα που παράγεται ως αποτέλεσμα δεν
     είναι απαραίτητα πλήρης και μπορεί να είναι ανακριβής όταν το
     αντικείμενο έχει εξατομικευμένη *note __getattr__(): 8e3.

     Ο προεπιλεγμένος μηχανισμός *note dir(): a23. συμπεριφέρεται
     διαφορετικά με διαφορετικούς τύπους αντικειμένων, καθώς προσπαθεί
     να παράγει τις πιο σχετικές και όχι τις πιο ολοκληρωμένες
     πληροφορίες:

        * Εάν το αντικείμενο είναι module τύπου αντικειμένου, η λίστα
          περιέχει τα ονόματα των χαρακτηριστικών του module.

        * Εάν το αντικείμενο είναι ένας τύπος ή κλάση αντικειμένου, η
          λίστα περιέχει τα ονόματα των χαρακτηριστικών του, και
          αναδρομικά τα χαρακτηριστικά της βάσεώς του.

        * Εναλλακτικά, η λίστα περιέχει τα ονόματα των χαρακτηριστικών
          του αντικειμένου, τα ονόματα των χαρακτηριστικών της κλάσης,
          και αναδρομικά τα χαρακτηριστικά της κλάσης βάσεως της κλάσης.

     Η παραγόμενη λίστα είναι ταξινομημένη αλφαβητικά.  Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> import struct
          >>> dir()   # show the names in the module namespace
          ['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']
          >>> dir(struct)   # show the names in the struct module
          ['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__doc__', '__file__',
           '__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',
           '_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',
           'unpack', 'unpack_from']
          >>> class Shape:
          ...     def __dir__(self):
          ...         return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']
          ...
          >>> s = Shape()
          >>> dir(s)
          ['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

          Σημείωση: Επειδή η *note dir(): a23. παρέχεται κυρίως ως
          ευκολία για χρήση σε μια διαδραστική γραμμή εντολών, προσπαθεί
          να παρέχει ένα ενδιαφέρον σύνολο ονομάτων περισσότερα από
          οτιδήποτε προσπαθεί να παρέχει ένα αυστηρό ή με συνέπεια,
          καθορισμένο σύνολο ονομάτων, και η λεπτομερής συμπεριφορά του
          μπορεί να αλλάξει μεταξύ των εκδόσεων.  Για παράδειγμα, τα
          χαρακτηριστικά μετακλάσης δεν βρίσκονται στη λίστα
          αποτελεσμάτων όταν το όρισμα είναι μια κλάση.

 -- Συνάρτηση: divmod (a, b, /)

     Λαμβάνει δύο (μη μιγαδικούς) αριθμούς ως ορίσματα και επιστρέφει
     ένα ζεύγος αριθμών που αποτελείται από το πηλίκο και το υπόλοιπο
     τους όταν χρησιμοποιείται σε διαίρεση ακεραίου αριθμού.  Με
     μεικτούς τύπους τελεστών, ισχύουν οι κανόνες για δυαδικούς τελεστές
     αριθμητικής.  Για ακέραιους αριθμούς, το αποτέλεσμα είναι το ίδιο
     με ‘(a // b, a % b)’.  Για αριθμούς κινητής υποδιαστολής το
     αποτέλεσμα είναι ‘(q, a % b)’, όπου το 'q' είναι συνήθως
     ‘math.floor(a / b)’ αλλά μπορεί να είναι μικρότερο κατά 1.  Σε κάθε
     περίπτωση, το ‘q * b + a % b’ είναι πολύ κοντά στο 'a', αν το ‘a %
     b’ δεν είναι μηδενικό, έχει το ίδιο πρόσημο όπως το 'b', και ‘0 <=
     abs(a % b) < abs(b)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: enumerate (iterable, start=0)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο απαρίθμησης.  Το 'iterable' πρέπει να
     είναι μια ακολουθία, ένα *note iterator: 6ce, ή κάποιο άλλο
     αντικείμενο που υποστηρίζει το iteration.  Η μέθοδος *note
     __next__(): 1672. του iterator που επιστρέφεται από το *note
     enumerate(): 1823. επιστρέφει μια πλειάδα (tuple) που περιέχει μια
     καταμέτρηση (από το 'start' που είναι με προεπιλογή στο 0) και τις
     τιμές που λαμβάνονται από την επανάληψη πάνω στο 'iterable'.

          >>> seasons = ['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']
          >>> list(enumerate(seasons))
          [(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')]
          >>> list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))
          [(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')]

     Ισοδύναμο με:

          def enumerate(iterable, start=0):
              n = start
              for elem in iterable:
                  yield n, elem
                  n += 1

 -- Συνάρτηση: eval (source, /, globals=None, locals=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘source’ (*note str: 1df. | *note code object: 6eb.) – Μια
          έκφραση Python.

        * ‘globals’ (*note dict: 188. | *note frozendict: 182. | ‘None’)
          – Το καθολικό namespace (προεπιλογή: ‘None’).

        * ‘locals’ (*note mapping: 1564. | ‘None’) – Το τοπικό namespace
          (προεπιλογή: ‘None’).


     Επιστρέφει: Το αποτέλεσμα της αξιολογούμενης έκφρασης.


     κάνει raise: Τα συντακτικά σφάλματα αναφέρονται ως εξαιρέσεις.

          Προειδοποίηση: This function executes arbitrary code.  Calling
          it with untrusted user-supplied input will lead to security
          vulnerabilities.

     The 'source' argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python
     expression (technically speaking, a condition list) using the
     'globals' and 'locals' mappings as global and local namespace.  If
     the 'globals' dictionary is present and does not contain a value
     for the key ‘__builtins__’, a reference to the dictionary of the
     built-in module *note builtins: 13. is inserted under that key
     before 'source' is parsed.  Overriding ‘__builtins__’ can be used
     to restrict or change the available names, but this is 'not' a
     security mechanism: the executed code can still access all
     builtins.  If the 'locals' mapping is omitted it defaults to the
     'globals' dictionary.  If both mappings are omitted, the source is
     executed with the 'globals' and 'locals' in the environment where
     ‘eval()’ is called.  Note, 'eval()' will only have access to the
     *note nested scopes: 2581. (non-locals) in the enclosing
     environment if they are already referenced in the scope that is
     calling ‘eval()’ (e.g.  via a *note nonlocal: 164c. statement).

     Παράδειγμα:

          >>> x = 1
          >>> eval('x+1')
          2

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση μπορεί επίσης να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την εκτέλεση
     αυθαίρετων αντικειμένων κώδικα (όπως αυτά που δημιουργούνται από
     την *note compile(): 1c8.).  Σε αυτή την περίπτωση, μεταβιβάζει ένα
     αντικείμενο κώδικα αντί για μια συμβολοσειρά.  Εάν το αντικείμενο
     κώδικα έχει μεταγλωττιστεί με ‘'exec'’ ως το όρισμα 'mode', η
     επιστρεφόμενη τιμή του *note eval(): 184.'s θα είναι ‘None’.

     Συμβουλές: η δυναμική εκτέλεση εντολών υποστηρίζεται από την
     συνάρτηση *note exec(): 185.  Οι συναρτήσεις *note globals(): 1e01.
     και *note locals(): 28b. επιστρέφουν το τρέχον global και local
     λεξικό, αντίστοιχα, το οποίο μπορεί να είναι χρήσιμο για μεταβίβαση
     γύρω από τη χρήση από τις *note eval(): 184. ή ‘exec()’.

     Εάν η δεδομένη πηγή είναι μια συμβολοσειρά, τότε αφαιρούνται τα
     κενά και τα tabs που προηγούνται ή έπονται.

     See *note ast.literal_eval(): fd7. for a function to evaluate
     strings with expressions containing only literals.

     Κάνει raise ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘exec’ με το
     αντικείμενο κώδικα ως όρισμα.  Μπορεί επίσης να εμφανιστούν
     συμβάντα μεταγλώττισης κώδικα.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Τα ορίσματα 'globals' και 'locals'
     υποστηρίζονται πλέον και ως ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Η σημασιολογία του προεπιλεγμένου ονόματος
     χώρου 'locals' έχει τροποποιηθεί, όπως περιγράφεται για την
     ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note locals(): 28b.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: 'globals' can now be a *note frozendict:
     182.

 -- Συνάρτηση: exec (source, /, globals=None, locals=None, *,
          closure=None)

          Προειδοποίηση: This function executes arbitrary code.  Calling
          it with untrusted user-supplied input will lead to security
          vulnerabilities.

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση υποστηρίζει δυναμική εκτέλεση κώδικα Python.  Το
     'source' πρέπει να είναι είτε μια συμβολοσειρά (string) είτε ένα
     αντικείμενο κώδικα.  Εάν είναι μια συμβολοσειρά, η συμβολοσειρά
     αναλύεται ως μια σουίτα δηλώσεων Python που στη συνέχεια εκτελείται
     (εκτός εάν παρουσιαστεί σφάλμα σύνταξης).  (1)  Εάν πρόκειται για
     ένα αντικείμενο κώδικα, απλά εκτελείται.  Σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις,
     ο κώδικας που εκτελείται αναμένεται να είναι έγκυρος ως είσοδος
     αρχείου (δείτε την ενότητα *note Είσοδος από αρχείο: 2798. στο
     Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς).  Λάβετε υπόψη ότι οι εντολές *note nonlocal:
     164c, *note yield: d93, και *note return: 44b. δεν μπορούν να
     χρησιμοποιηθούν εκτός των ορισμών συναρτήσεων, ακόμη και στο
     πλαίσιο του κώδικα που διαβιβάζεται στη *note exec(): 185.  Η
     επιστρεφόμενη τιμή είναι ‘None’.

     Σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις, εάν παραληφθούν τα προαιρετικά μέρη, ο
     κώδικας εκτελείται στο τρέχον εύρος.  Εάν παρέχεται μόνο 'globals',
     πρέπει να είναι ένα λεξικό (και όχι μια υποκατηγορία λεξικού), το
     οποίο θα χρησιμοποιείται και για τις δύο μεταβλητές αντίστοιχα.
     Εάν παρέχονται τα 'locals' μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε αντικείμενο
     αντιστοίχισης.  Να θυμάστε ότι σε επίπεδο module, τα globals και
     locals είναι το ίδιο λεξικό.

          Σημείωση: Όταν η ‘exec’ λαμβάνει δύο ξεχωριστά αντικείμενα ως
          'globals' και 'locals', ο κώδικας εκτελείται σαν να ήταν
          ενσωματωμένος σε ορισμό κλάσης.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι συναρτήσεις
          και κλάσεις που ορίζονται στον εκτελούμενο κώδικα δεν θα έχουν
          πρόσβαση σε μεταβλητές που έχουν οριστεί στο ανώτερο επίπεδο
          (καθώς αυτές οι «ανωτέρου επιπέδου» μεταβλητές θεωρούνται ως
          μεταβλητές κλάσης, όπως συμβαίνει μέσα σε έναν ορισμό κλάσης).

     If the 'globals' dictionary does not contain a value for the key
     ‘__builtins__’, a reference to the dictionary of the built-in
     module *note builtins: 13. is inserted under that key.  Overriding
     ‘__builtins__’ can be used to restrict or change the available
     names, but this is 'not' a security mechanism: the executed code
     can still access all builtins.

     Το όρισμα 'closure' καθορίζει ένα clossure–μια πλειάδα από
     cellvars.  Είναι έγκυρο μόνο όταν το 'object' είναι ένα αντικείμενο
     κώδικα που περιέχει *note free (closure) variables: 1ab7.  Το μήκος
     της πλειάδας πρέπει να ταιριάζει ακριβώς με το μήκος το
     χαρακτηριστικό *note co_freevars: 2538. του αντικειμένου κώδικα.

     Κάνει raise ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘exec’ με το
     αντικείμενο κώδικα ως όρισμα.  Μπορεί επίσης να εμφανιστούν
     συμβάντα μεταγλώττισης κώδικα.

          Σημείωση: Οι ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις *note globals(): 1e01.
          και *note locals(): 28b. επιστρέφουν το τρέχον χώρο ονομάτων
          global και local, αντίστοιχα, που μπορεί να είναι χρήσιμο για
          χρήση ως δεύτερο και τρίτο όρισμα στο *note exec(): 185.

          Σημείωση: Το προεπιλεγμένο 'locals' ενεργεί όπως περιγράφεται
          για τη συνάρτηση *note locals(): 28b. παρακάτω.  Δώστε ρητά
          ένα λεξικό 'locals' αν χρειάζεται να δείτε τις επιδράσεις του
          κώδικα 'locals' μετά την επιστροφή της συνάρτησης *note
          exec(): 185.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Προστέθηκε η παράμετρος 'closure'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Τα ορίσματα 'globals' και 'locals'
     υποστηρίζονται πλέον και ως ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Η σημασιολογία του προεπιλεγμένου ονόματος
     χώρου 'locals' έχει τροποποιηθεί, όπως περιγράφεται για την
     ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note locals(): 28b.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: 'globals' can now be a *note frozendict:
     182.

 -- Συνάρτηση: filter (function, iterable, /)

     Δημιουργεί έναν iterator από εκείνα τα στοιχεία του 'iterable' για
     τα οποία η 'function' είναι αληθής.  Το 'iterable' μπορεί να είναι
     είτε μια ακολουθία, ένα container που υποστηρίζει iteration, ή ένας
     iterator.  Εάν η 'function' είναι ‘None’, η συνάρτηση ταυτότητας
     υποτίθεται, δηλαδή, όλα τα στοιχεία του 'iterable' που είναι ψευδή
     αφαιρούνται.

     Λάβετε υπόψη ότι το ‘filter(function, iterable)’ είναι ισοδύναμο με
     την έκφραση της γεννήτριας ‘(item for item in iterable if
     function(item))’ εάν η συνάρτηση δεν είναι ‘None’ και ‘(item for
     item in iterable if item)’ εάν η συνάρτηση είναι ‘None’.

     Βλ.  *note itertools.filterfalse(): 27c7. για τη συμπληρωματική
     συνάρτηση που επιστρέφει στοιχεία του 'iterable' για τα οποία η
     'function' είναι ψευδής.

 -- Κλάση: float (number=0.0, /)

 -- Κλάση: float (string, /)

     Επιστέφει έναν αριθμό κινητής υποδιαστολής που κατασκευάστηκε από
     έναν αριθμό ή μια συμβολοσειρά.

     Παραδείγματα:

          >>> float('+1.23')
          1.23
          >>> float('   -12345\n')
          -12345.0
          >>> float('1e-003')
          0.001
          >>> float('+1E6')
          1000000.0
          >>> float('-Infinity')
          -inf

     Εάν το όρισμα είναι συμβολοσειρά (string), θα πρέπει να περιέχει
     έναν δεκαδικό αριθμό, προαιρετικά πριν από ένα σύμβολο και
     προαιρετικά ενσωματωμένο σε κενό διάστημα.  Το προαιρετικό πρόσημο
     μπορεί να είναι ‘'+'’ ή ‘'-'’ ∙ ένα σύμβολο ‘'+'’ δεν έχει καμία
     επίδραση στην τιμή που παράγεται.  Το όρισμα μπορεί επίσης να είναι
     μια συμβολοσειρά που αντιπροσωπεύει ένα NaN (not-a-number), ή
     θετικό η αρνητικό άπειρο.  Πιο συγκεκριμένα, η είσοδος πρέπει να
     συμμορφώνεται με τον κανόνα παραγωγής *note floatvalue: 27c3. στην
     ακόλουθη γραμματική, αφού αφαιρεθούν οι χαρακτήρες κενού
     διαστήματος που έπονται και προηγούνται:

          sign:          "+" | "-"
          infinity:      "Infinity" | "inf"
          nan:           "nan"
          digit:         <a Unicode decimal digit, i.e. characters in Unicode general category Nd>
          digitpart:     *note digit: 27ca. (["_"] *note digit: 27ca.)*
          number:        [*note digitpart: 27cb.] "." *note digitpart: 27cb. | *note digitpart: 27cb. ["."]
          exponent:      ("e" | "E") [*note sign: 27c4.] *note digitpart: 27cb.
          floatnumber:   *note number: 27cc. [*note exponent: 27cd.]
          absfloatvalue: *note floatnumber: 27ce. | *note infinity: 27c8. | *note nan: 27c9.
          floatvalue:    [*note sign: 27c4.] *note absfloatvalue: 27c5.

     Τα πεζά/κεφαλαία δεν είναι σημαντικά, επομένως, για παράδειγμα,
     «inf», «Inf», «INFINITY», και «iNfINity» είναι όλες αποδεκτές
     ορθογραφίες για το θετικό άπειρο.

     Διαφορετικά, εάν το όρισμα είναι ακέραιος ή αριθμός κινητής
     υποδιαστολής, επιστρέφεται ένας αριθμός κινητής υποδιαστολής με την
     ίδια τιμή (εντός της ακρίβειας κινητής υποδιαστολής της Python).
     Εάν το όρισμα βρίσκεται εκτός του εύρους ενός float της Python θα
     γίνει raise ένα *note OverflowError: c57.

     Για ένα γενικό αντικείμενο Python ‘x’, ‘float(x)’ εκχωρεί στο
     ‘x.__float__()’.  Εάν το *note __float__(): d92. δεν έχει οριστεί,
     τότε επιστρέφει στο *note __index__(): 43d.

     Δείτε επίσης τη *note float.from_number(): 437. που δέχεται μόνο
     αριθμητικό όρισμα.

     Εάν δεν δοθεί όρισμα, επιστρέφεται το ‘0.0’.

     Ο τύπος float περιγράφεται στο *note Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int,
     float, complex: 21c9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Επιτρέπεται η ομαδοποίηση ψηφίων με κάτω
     παύλες όπως στα literals του κώδικα.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Η παράμετρος είναι πλέον μόνο παράμετρος
     θέσης.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Επιστρέφει στο *note __index__(): 43d. εάν
     το *note __float__(): d92. δεν έχει οριστεί.

 -- Συνάρτηση: format (value, format_spec='', /)

     Μετατρέπει ένα 'value' σε μια αναπαράσταση «formatted», όπως
     ελέγχεται από το 'format_spec'.  Η ερμηνεία του 'format_spec' θα
     εξαρτηθεί από τον τύπο του ορίσματος 'value' ∙ ωστόσο υπάρχει μια
     τυπική σύνταξη μορφοποίησης που χρησιμοποιείται από τους
     περισσότερους ενσωματωμένους τύπους: *note Format specification
     mini-language: 6fe.

     Η προεπιλεγμένη 'format_spec' είναι μια κενή συμβολοσειρά που
     συνήθως δίνει το ίδιο αποτέλεσμα με την κλήση του *note str(value):
     1df.

     Μια κλήση στο ‘format(value, format_spec)’ μεταφράζεται σε
     ‘type(value).__format__(value, format_spec)’ το οποίο παρακάμπτει
     το instance του λεξικού κατά την αναζήτηση της τιμής της μεθόδου
     *note __format__(): a10.  Μια εξαίρεση *note TypeError: 291.
     γίνεται raise εάν η αναζήτηση της μεθόδου φτάσει στο *note object:
     e4d. και το 'format_spec' δεν είναι κενό ή εάν είτε το
     'format_spec' είτε η τιμή επιστροφής δεν είναι συμβολοσειρές.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Το ‘object().__format__(format_spec)’ κάνει
     raise το *note TypeError: 291. εάν το 'format_spec' δεν είναι κενή
     συμβολοσειρά.

 -- Κλάση: frozenset (iterable=(), /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα νέο αντικείμενο *note frozenset: 9d4, προαιρετικά με
     στοιχεία που λαμβάνονται από το 'iterable'.  Το ‘frozenset’ είναι
     μια ενσωματωμένη κλάση.  Δείτε το ‘frozenset’ και το *note Τύποι
     Συνόλου (Set) — set, frozenset: 2220. για τεκμηρίωση αυτής της
     κλάσης.

     Για άλλα containers, ανατρέξτε στις ενσωματωμένες κλάσεις *note
     set: 42b, *note list: 4d9, *note tuple: 1ce, και *note dict: 188,
     καθώς και το module *note collections: 1e.

 -- Συνάρτηση: getattr (object, name, /)

 -- Συνάρτηση: getattr (object, name, default, /)

     Επιστρέφει την τιμή του ονομασμένου χαρακτηριστικού του 'object' Το
     'name' πρέπει να είναι μια συμβολοσειρά.  Εάν η συμβολοσειρά είναι
     το όνομα ενός από τα χαρακτηριστικά του αντικειμένου, το αποτέλεσμα
     είναι η τιμή αυτού του χαρακτηριστικού.  Για παράδειγμα,
     ‘getattr(x, 'foobar')’ είναι ισοδύναμο με το ‘x.foobar’.  Εάν το
     χαρακτηριστικό γνώρισμα δεν υπάρχει, το 'default' επιστρέφεται εάν
     παρέχεται, διαφορετικά γίνεται raise το *note AttributeError: 1a9.
     Το 'name' δεν χρειάζεται να είναι αναγνωριστικό Python (δείτε *note
     setattr(): 27b7.).

          Σημείωση: Δεδομένου ότι το *note private name mangling: 2293.
          συμβαίνει κατά τη στιγμή της μεταγλώττισης, πρέπει κανείς να
          παραμορφώνει χειροκίνητα το όνομα ενός ιδιωτικού
          χαρακτηριστικού (χαρακτηριστικά με δύο κορυφαίες
          υπογραμμίσεις) για να ανακτήσει με *note getattr(): f8f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: globals ()

     Επιστρέφει το λεξικό που υλοποιεί τον τρέχοντα χώρο ονομάτων του
     module.  Για κώδικα εντός συναρτήσεων, αυτό ορίζεται όταν ορίζεται
     η συνάρτηση και παραμένει το ίδιο ανεξάρτητη από το που καλείται η
     συνάρτηση.

 -- Συνάρτηση: hasattr (object, name, /)

     Τα ορίσματα είναι ένα αντικείμενο και μια συμβολοσειρά (string).
     Το αποτέλεσμα είναι ‘True’ εάν η συμβολοσειρά είναι το όνομα ενός
     από τα χαρακτηριστικά του αντικειμένου, ‘False’ εάν όχι.  (Αυτό
     υλοποιείται καλώντας το ‘getattr(object, name)’ και να δούμε αν
     γίνεται raise ένα *note AttributeError: 1a9. ή όχι.)

 -- Συνάρτηση: hash (object, /)

     Επιστρέφει την τιμή κατακερματισμού του αντικειμένου (αν έχει).  Οι
     τιμές κατακερματισμού είναι ακέραιοι.  Χρησιμοποιούνται για τη
     γρήγορη σύγκριση των κλειδιών του λεξικού κατά τη διάρκεια μιας
     αναζήτησης λεξικού.  Οι αριθμητικές τιμές που συγκρίνονται ίσες
     έχουν την ίδια τιμή κατακερματισμού (ακόμα και αν είναι
     διαφορετικοί τύποι, όπως συμβαίνει για τα 1 και 1.0).

          Σημείωση: Για αντικείμενα με προσαρμοσμένες μεθόδους *note
          __hash__(): ec1, σημειώστε ότι το *note hash(): 9e2.
          περικόπτει την τιμή επιστροφής με βάση το πλάτος bit του
          υπολογιστή.

 -- Συνάρτηση: help ()

 -- Συνάρτηση: help (request)

     Καλείται το ενσωματωμένο (built-in) σύστημα βοήθειας.  (Αυτή η
     συνάρτηση προορίζεται για διαδραστική χρήση.)  Εάν δεν δοθεί
     όρισμα, το διαδραστικό σύστημα βοήθειας ξεκινά την κονσόλα του
     interpreter.  Εάν το όρισμα είναι μια συμβολοσειρά, τότε η
     συμβολοσειρά αναζητείται ως όνομα ενός module, μιας συνάρτησης, μια
     κλάσης μιας μεθόδου, μιας λέξης κλειδιού ή θέματος τεκμηρίωσης και
     μια σελίδα βοήθειας εκτυπώνεται στην κονσόλα.  Εάν το όρισμα είναι
     οποιοδήποτε άλλο είδος αντικειμένου, δημιουργείται μια σελίδα
     βοήθειας στο αντικείμενο.

     Λάβετε υπόψη ότι εάν εμφανίζεται μια κάθετος (/) στη λίστα
     παραμέτρων μιας συνάρτησης κατά την κλήση *note help(): ca9,
     σημαίνει ότι οι παράμετροι πριν από την κάθετο είναι μόνο θέσης.
     Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες, βλέπε *note the FAQ entry on
     positional-only parameters: 27cf.

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση προστίθεται στον ενσωματωμένο χώρο ονομάτων από το
     module *note site: cf.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Οι αλλαγές σε *note pydoc: bd. και *note
     inspect: 81. σημαίνουν ότι οι αναφερόμενες υπογραφές για callables
     είναι πλέον πιο ολοκληρωμένες και συνεπείς.

 -- Συνάρτηση: hex (integer, /)

     Μετατροπή ενός ακεραίου αριθμού σε μια πεζή δεκαεξαδική
     συμβολοσειρά (string) με πρόθεμα το «0x».  Εάν το 'integer' δεν
     είναι αντικείμενο Python *note int: 326, πρέπει να ορίσει μια
     μέθοδο *note __index__(): 43d. που επιστρέφει έναν ακέραιο αριθμό.
     Κάποια παραδείγματα:

          >>> hex(255)
          '0xff'
          >>> hex(-42)
          '-0x2a'

     Εάν θέλετε να μετατρέψετε έναν ακέραιο αριθμό σε μια κεφαλαία ή
     πεζή δεκαεξαδική συμβολοσειρά (string) με πρόθεμα ή όχι, μπορείτε
     να χρησιμοποιήσετε έναν από τους παρακάτω τρόπους:

          >>> '%#x' % 255, '%x' % 255, '%X' % 255
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
          >>> format(255, '#x'), format(255, 'x'), format(255, 'X')
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')
          >>> f'{255:#x}', f'{255:x}', f'{255:X}'
          ('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')

     Δείτε επίσης τη *note format(): 439. για περισσότερες πληροφορίες.

     Δείτε επίσης τη *note int(): 326. για τη μετατροπή μιας
     δεκαεξαδικής συμβολοσειράς σε ακέραιο χρησιμοποιώντας μια βάση του
     16.

          Σημείωση: Για να αποκτήσετε μια αναπαράσταση δεκαεξαδικής
          συμβολοσειράς για ένα float, χρησιμοποιήστε τη μέθοδο *note
          float.hex(): 22f2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: id (object, /)

     Επιστρέφει την «ταυτότητα» ενός αντικειμένου.  Αυτό είναι ένα
     ακέραιος αριθμός που εγγυάται ότι είναι μοναδικός και σταθερός για
     αυτό το αντικείμενο κατά τη διάρκεια της ζωής του.  Δύο αντικείμενα
     με μη επικαλυπτόμενες διάρκειες ζωής μπορεί να έχουν την ίδια τιμή
     *note id(): 17c5.

     Αυτό είναι η διεύθυνση του αντικειμένου στην μνήμη.

     Εγείρει ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘builtins.id’ με όρισμα
     ‘id’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: input ()

 -- Συνάρτηση: input (prompt, /)

     Εάν υπάρχει το όρισμα 'prompt', γράφεται στην τυπική έξοδο χωρίς
     μια νέα γραμμή μετάδοσης.  Στη συνέχεια, η συνάρτηση διαβάζει μια
     γραμμή από την είσοδο, τη μετατρέπει σε μια συμβολοσειρά (με την
     αφαίρεση μιας νέας γραμμής) και την επιστρέφει.  Όταν διαβάζεται το
     EOF, γίνεται raise η *note EOFError: 167e.  Παράδειγμα:

          >>> s = input('--> ')
          --> Monty Python's Flying Circus
          >>> s
          "Monty Python's Flying Circus"

     Εάν έχει φορτωθεί το module *note readline: c2, τότε η *note
     input(): 167d. θα το χρησιμοποιήσει για να παρέχει περίπλοκες
     λειτουργίες επεξεργασίας γραμμής και ιστορικού.

     Κάνει raise ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘builtins.input’ με
     όρισμα ‘prompt’ προτού διαβάσει την είσοδο

     Κάνει raise ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘builtins.input/result’
     με το αποτέλεσμα μετά την επιτυχή ανάγνωση των δεδομένων.

 -- Κλάση: int (number=0, /)

 -- Κλάση: int (string, /, base=10)

     Επιστέφει έναν αριθμό κινητής υποδιαστολής που κατασκευάστηκε από
     έναν αριθμό ή μια συμβολοσειρά, ή επιστρέφει ‘0’ εάν δεν δίνεται
     κάποιο όρισμα.

     Παραδείγματα:

          >>> int(123.45)
          123
          >>> int('123')
          123
          >>> int('   -12_345\n')
          -12345
          >>> int('FACE', 16)
          64206
          >>> int('0xface', 0)
          64206
          >>> int('01110011', base=2)
          115

     Εάν το όρισμα ορίζει *note __int__(): 43c, ‘int(x)’ επιστρέφει
     ‘x.__int__()’.  Εάν το όρισμα ορίζει *note __index__(): 43d,
     επιστρέφει ‘x.__index__()’.  Για αριθμούς κινητής υποδιαστολής,
     αυτό περικόπτεται προς το μηδέν.

     Εάν το όρισμα δεν είναι αριθμός ή εάν δίνεται 'base', τότε πρέπει
     να είναι μια συμβολοσειρά , *note bytes: 1c7, ή *note bytearray:
     1c6. που αντιπροσωπεύει έναν ακέραιο αριθμό στην ρίζα 'base'.
     Προαιρετικά, η συμβολοσειρά μπορεί να προηγείται από ‘+’ ή ‘-’
     (χωρίς κενό ενδιάμεσο), να έχει αρχικά μηδενικά, να περιβάλλεται
     από κενό διάστημα και να έχει μονές υπογραμμίσεις διάσπαρτες μεταξύ
     των ψηφίων.

     Μια συμβολοσειρά (string) ακέραιου αριθμού βάσης n περιέχει ψηφία,
     καθένα από τα οποία αντιπροσωπεύει μια τιμή από το 0 έως το n-1.
     Οι τιμές 0–9 μπορούν να αναπαρασταθούν με οποιοδήποτε δεκαδικό
     ψηφίο Unicode.  Οι τιμές 10–35 μπορούν να αναπαρασταθούν με ‘a’ ως
     το ‘z’ (ή ‘A’ ως το ‘Z’).  Η προεπιλεγμένη 'base' είναι 10.  Οι
     επιτρεπόμενες βάσεις είναι 0 και 2–36.  Οι συμβολοσειρές βάσης -2,
     -8 και -16 μπορούν προαιρετικά να έχουν το πρόθεμα ‘0b’/‘0B’,
     ‘0o’/‘0O’, ή ‘0x’/‘0X’, όπως και με ακέραιους αριθμούς στον κώδικα.
     Για την βάση 0, η συμβολοσειρά ερμηνεύεται με παρόμοιο τρόπο με
     έναν *note integer literal in code: 24fc, στο ότι η πραγματική βάση
     είναι 2, 8, 10 ή 16 όπως προσδιορίζεται από το πρόθεμα.  Η βάση 0
     δεν επιτρέπει επίσης τα μηδενικά στην αρχή : ‘int('010', 0)’ δεν
     είναι εφικτό, ενώ το ‘int('010')’ και ‘int('010', 8)’ είναι.

     Ο ακέραιος τύπος περιγράφεται στο *note Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int,
     float, complex: 21c9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Εάν το 'base' δεν είναι ένα instance της
     *note int: 326. και το 'base' αντικείμενο έχει μια μέθοδο *note
     base.__index__: 43d, αυτή η μέθοδος καλείται για να αποκτήσει τον
     ακέραιο της βάσης.  Προηγούμενες εκδόσεις χρησιμοποιούσαν την *note
     base.__int__: 43c. αντί της ‘base.__index__’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Επιτρέπεται η ομαδοποίηση ψηφίων με κάτω
     παύλες όπως στα literals του κώδικα.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Η πρώτη παράμετρος είναι πλέον μόνο θέσεως.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Επιστρέφει πίσω στη *note __index__(): 43d.
     αν η *note __int__(): 43c. δεν έχει οριστεί.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Οι είσοδοι συμβολοσειράς και οι
     αναπαραστάσεις συμβολοσειρών *note int: 326. μπορούν να
     περιοριστούν για να αποφευχθούν επιθέσεις άρνησης υπηρεσίας.  Μια
     *note ValueError: 277. γίνεται raise όταν γίνεται υπέρβαση του
     ορίου κατά τη μετατροπή μιας συμβολοσειράς σε μια ‘int’ ή κατά τη
     μετατροπή ενός ‘int’ σε μια συμβολοσειρά θα υπερβεί το όριο.  Δείτε
     την τεκμηρίωση *note integer string conversion length limitation:
     9ec.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Η *note int(): 326. δεν αναθέτει πλέον στη
     μέθοδο *note __trunc__(): 43b.

 -- Συνάρτηση: isinstance (object, classinfo, /)

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν το όρισμα 'object' είναι ένα instance του
     ορίσματος 'classinfo' , ή μιας (άμεσης, έμμεσης ή *note virtual:
     155f.) υποκλάσης αυτού.  Εάν το 'object' δεν είναι ένα αντικείμενο
     του δεδομένου τύπου, η συνάρτηση θα επιστρέφει πάντα ‘False’.  Εάν
     το 'classinfo' είναι μια πλειάδα τύπου αντικειμένων (ή αναδρομικά,
     άλλες τέτοιες πλειάδες) ή μια *note Τύπος Ένωσης: ba2. πολλαπλών
     τύπων, επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν το 'object' είναι ένα instance
     οποιουδήποτε από τους τύπους.  Εάν το 'classinfo' δεν είναι ένα
     τύπος ή μια πλειάδα τύπων και τέτοιες πλειάδες, γίνεται raise μια
     εξαίρεση *note TypeError: 291.  Η ‘TypeError’ δεν μπορεί να γίνει
     raise για μη έγκυρο τύπο, εάν ένας προηγούμενος έλεγχος είναι
     επιτυχής.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Το 'classinfo' μπορεί να είναι ένα *note
     Τύπος Ένωσης: ba2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: issubclass (cls, classinfo, /)

     Return ‘True’ if 'cls' is a subclass (direct, indirect, or *note
     virtual: 155f.) of 'classinfo'.  A class is considered a subclass
     of itself.  'classinfo' may be a tuple of class objects (or
     recursively, other such tuples) or a *note Τύπος Ένωσης: ba2, in
     which case return ‘True’ if 'cls' is a subclass of any entry in
     'classinfo'.  In any other case, a *note TypeError: 291. exception
     is raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Το 'classinfo' μπορεί να είναι ένα *note
     Τύπος Ένωσης: ba2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: iter (iterable, /)

 -- Συνάρτηση: iter (callable, sentinel, /)

     Επιστρέφετε ένα αντικείμενο *note iterator: 6ce.  Το πρώτο όρισμα
     ερμηνεύεται πολύ διαφορετικά ανάλογα με την παρουσία του δεύτερου
     ορίσματος.  Χωρίς δεύτερο όρισμα, το μόνο όρισμα πρέπει να είναι
     ένα αντικείμενο συλλογής που υποστηρίζει το πρωτόκολλο *note
     iterable: 15ce. (τη μέθοδο *note __iter__(): 102d.), ή πρέπει να
     υποστηρίζει το πρωτόκολλο ακολουθίας (τη μέθοδο *note
     __getitem__(): 787. με ακέραια ορίσματα που ξεκινούν από το ‘0’).
     Εάν δεν υποστηρίζει κανένα από αυτά τα πρωτόκολλα, γίνεται raise
     μια *note TypeError: 291.  Εάν το δεύτερο όρισμα, 'sentinel',
     δίνεται, τότε το πρώτο όρισμα πρέπει να είναι ένα callable
     αντικείμενο.  Ο iterator που δημιουργείται σε αυτή την περίπτωση θα
     καλεί το 'callable' χωρίς ορίσματα για κάθε κλήση της μεθόδου *note
     __next__(): 1672. του; εάν η τιμή που επιστρέφεται είναι ίση με το
     'sentinel', θα γίνει raise μια *note StopIteration: fba,
     διαφορετικά η τιμή θα επιστραφεί.

     Δείτε επίσης *note Τύποι Iterator: 27d0.

     Μια χρήσιμη εφαρμογή της δεύτερης μορφής του *note iter(): bb4.
     είναι η κατασκευή ενός block-reader.  Για παράδειγμα, η ανάγνωση
     μπλοκ σταθερού πλάτους από ένα δυαδικό αρχείο βάσης δεδομένων μέχρι
     να φτάσει στο τέλος του αρχείου:

          from functools import partial
          with open('mydata.db', 'rb') as f:
              for block in iter(partial(f.read, 64), b''):
                  process_block(block)

 -- Συνάρτηση: len (object, /)

     Επιστρέφει το μήκος (τον αριθμό των ειδών-περιεχομένων) ενός
     αντικειμένου.  Το όρισμα μπορεί να είναι μια ακολουθία (όπως μια
     συμβολοσειρά, bytes, πλειάδα, λίστα, ή εύρος) ή μια συλλογή (όπως
     ένα λεξικό, ένα σετ, ή ένα παγωμένο σετ).

     Το ‘len’ κάνει raise μια *note OverflowError: c57. σε μήκη τα οποία
     είναι μεγαλύτερα από *note sys.maxsize: 156e, όπως *note range(2 **
     100): d0f.

 -- Κλάση: list (iterable=(), /)

     Αντί να είναι συνάρτηση, το *note list: 4d9. είναι στην
     πραγματικότητα ένας μεταβλητός τύπος ακολουθίας, όπως τεκμηριώνεται
     στα *note Λίστες: 2210. και *note Τύποι Ακολουθίας (Sequence) —
     list, tuple, range: 221d.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locals ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο αντιστοίχισης που αναπαριστά τον
     τρέχοντα τοπικό πίνακα συμβόλων, με τα ονόματα μεταβλητών ως
     κλειδιά και τις αντίστοιχες τιμές στις οποίες είναι δεσμευμένες ως
     τιμές.

     Στο επίπεδο module, καθώς και όταν χρησιμοποιείται η *note exec():
     185. ή η *note eval(): 184. με έναν μόνο χώρο ονομάτων, αυτή η
     συνάρτηση επιστρέφει τον ίδιο χώρο ονομάτων με τη *note globals():
     1e01.

     Στο πεδίο ορισμού κλάσης, επιστρέφει τον χώρο ονομάτων που θα
     περαστεί στον κατασκευαστή της μετακλάσης.

     Όταν χρησιμοποιείται η ‘exec()’ ή η ‘eval()’ με ξεχωριστά local και
     global ορίσματα, επιστρέφει στον τοπικό χώρο ονομάτων που περάστηκε
     στην κλήση της συνάρτησης.

     Σε όλες τις παραπάνω περιπτώσεις, κάθε κλήση της ‘locals()’ σε ένα
     συγκεκριμένο πλαίσιο εκτέλεσης θα επιστρέφει το 'ίδιο' αντικείμενο
     αντιστοίχισης.  Οι αλλαγές που γίνονται μέσω του αντικειμένου
     αντιστοίχισης που επιστρέφεται από την ‘locals()’ θα είναι ορατές
     ως τοπικές μεταβλητές που ανατίθενται, επανακαθορίζονται ή
     διαγράφονται, και η ανάθεση, επανακαθορισμός ή διαγραφή τοπικών
     μεταβλητών θα επηρεάζει άμεσα τα περιεχόμενα του επιστρεφόμενου
     αντικειμένου αντιστοίχισης.

     Σε ένα *note optimized scope: 6ad. (όπως οι συναρτήσεις, οι
     γεννήτριες και οι συναρτήσεις συνεργασίας), κάθε κλήση της
     ‘locals()’ επιστρέφει ένα νέο λεξικό που περιέχει τις τρέχουσες
     δεσμεύσεις των τοπικών μεταβλητών της συνάρτησης καθώς και
     οποιεσδήποτε αναφορές σε μη τοπικά κελιά.  Σε αυτή την περίπτωση,
     οι αλλαγές στις δεσμεύσεις ονομάτων που γίνονται μέσω του
     επιστρεφόμενου λεξικού 'δεν' εγγράφονται πίσω στις αντίστοιχες
     τοπικές μεταβλητές ή μη τοπικές αναφορές, και η ανάθεση,
     επανακαθορισμός ή διαγραφή τοπικών ή μη τοπικών μεταβλητών 'δεν'
     επηρεάζει το περιεχόμενο των λεξικών που είχαν επιστραφεί
     προηγουμένως.

     Καλώντας την ‘locals()’ ως μέρος μιας σύμπτυξης (comprehension) που
     βρίσκεται σε μια συνάρτηση, γεννήτρια ή coroutine είναι ισοδύναμη
     με την κλήση της στο περιβάλλον που περικλείει την την σύμπτυξη, με
     τη διαφορά ότι οι αρχικοποιημένες μεταβλητές επανάληψης της
     σύμπτυξης θα περιλαμβάνονται στο αποτέλεσμα.  Σε άλλα πεδία
     ορατότητας, η συμπεριφορά είναι σαν η σύμπτυξη να εκτελείται ως μια
     εμφωλευμένη συνάρτηση.

     Καλώντας την ‘locals()’ ως μέρος μιας έκφρασης γεννήτριας είναι
     ισοδύναμη με την κλήση της μέσα σε μια εμφωλευμένη συνάρτηση
     γεννήτριας.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Η συμπεριφορά της ‘locals()’ μέσα σε μια
     έκφραση σύμπτυξης έχει ενημερωθεί όπως περιγράφεται στην PEP
     709(2).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Στο πλαίσιο της PEP 667(3), τα
     σημασιολογικά χαρακτηριστικά της τροποποίησης των αντικειμένων
     αντιστοιχίσεων που επιστρέφονται από αυτήν τη συνάρτηση έχουν πλέον
     οριστεί.  Η συμπεριφορά σε *note optimized scopes: 6ad. είναι πλέον
     όπως περιγράφεται παραπάνω.  Πέραν του ότι πλέον είναι ορισμένη, η
     συμπεριφορά σε άλλα πεδία παραμένει αμετάβλητη σε σχέση με
     προηγούμενες εκδόσεις.

 -- Συνάρτηση: map (function, iterable, /, *iterables, strict=False)

     Επιστρέφει έναν iterator που εφαρμόζει 'function' σε κάθε στοιχείο
     του 'iterable', δίνοντας τα αποτελέσματα.  Εάν περάσουν επιπλέον
     ορίσματα 'iterables', η 'function' πρέπει να λάβει τόσα ορίσματα
     και να εφαρμόζεται στα στοιχεία από όλα τα iterables παράλληλα.  Με
     πολλαπλούς iterables, ο iterator σταματά όταν εξαντληθεί ο
     συντομότερος iterable.  Εάν το 'strict' είναι ‘True’ και μία από τα
     iterables εξαντληθεί πριν από τις άλλες, γίνεται raise μια *note
     ValueError: 277.  Για περιπτώσεις όπου οι είσοδοι συνάρτησης είναι
     ήδη διατεταγμένες σε πλειάδες ορισμάτων, βλέπε *note
     itertools.starmap(): 1490.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Προστέθηκε η παράμετρος 'strict'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: max (iterable, /, *, key=None)

 -- Συνάρτηση: max (iterable, /, *, default, key=None)

 -- Συνάρτηση: max (arg1, arg2, /, *args, key=None)

     Επιστρέφει το μεγαλύτερο στοιχείο σε ένα iterable ή το μεγαλύτερο
     από δύο ή περισσότερα ορίσματα.

     Εάν παρέχεται ένα όρισμα θέσης, θα πρέπει να είναι ένα *note
     iterable: 15ce.  Επιστρέφεται το μεγαλύτερο στοιχείο στο iterable.
     Εάν παρέχονται δύο ή περισσότερα ορίσματα θέσης, επιστρέφεται το
     μεγαλύτερο από τα ορίσματα θέσης.

     Υπάρχουν δύο προαιρετικά ορίσματα τύπου λέξη-κλειδί.  Το όρισμα
     'key' καθορίζει μια συνάρτηση ταξινόμησης ενός ορίσματος όπως αυτή
     χρησιμοποιείται για το *note list.sort(): f8d.  Το όρισμα 'default'
     καθορίζει ένα αντικείμενο που θα επιστρέψει εάν το iterable που
     παρέχεται είναι κενό.  Εάν το iterable είναι κενό και το 'default'
     δεν παρέχεται, γίνεται raise μια *note ValueError: 277.

     Εάν πολλά στοιχεία είναι μέγιστα, η συνάρτηση επιστρέφει το πρώτο
     που συναντήθηκε.  Αυτό είναι σύμφωνο με άλλα εργαλεία διατήρησης
     σταθερότητας ταξινόμησης όπως ‘sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc,
     reverse=True)[0]’ και ‘heapq.nlargest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc)’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Προστέθηκε η παράμετρος μόνο λέξης-κλειδί
     'default'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Το 'key' μπορεί να είναι ‘None’.

 -- Κλάση: memoryview (object)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο «memory view» που δημιουργήθηκε από το
     συγκεκριμένο όρισμα.  Βλέπε *note Όψεις Μνήμης: 27d1. για
     περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.

 -- Συνάρτηση: min (iterable, /, *, key=None)

 -- Συνάρτηση: min (iterable, /, *, default, key=None)

 -- Συνάρτηση: min (arg1, arg2, /, *args, key=None)

     Επιστρέφει το μικρότερο στοιχείο σε έναν iterable ή το μικρότερο
     από δύο ή περισσότερα ορίσματα.

     Εάν παρέχεται ένα όρισμα θέσης, θα πρέπει να είναι ένα *note
     iterable: 15ce.  Επιστρέφει το μικρότερο στοιχείο στον iterable.
     Εάν παρέχονται δύο ή περισσότερα ορίσματα θέσης, επιστρέφεται το
     μικρότερο από τα ορίσματα θέσης.

     Υπάρχουν δύο προαιρετικά ορίσματα τύπου λέξη-κλειδί.  Το όρισμα
     'key' καθορίζει μια συνάρτηση ταξινόμησης ενός ορίσματος όπως αυτή
     χρησιμοποιείται για το *note list.sort(): f8d.  Το όρισμα 'default'
     καθορίζει ένα αντικείμενο που θα επιστρέψει εάν το iterable που
     παρέχεται είναι κενό.  Εάν το iterable είναι κενό και το 'default'
     δεν παρέχεται, γίνεται raise μια *note ValueError: 277.

     Εάν πολλά στοιχεία είναι ελάχιστα, η συνάρτηση επιστρέφει το πρώτο
     που συναντήθηκε.  Αυτό είναι σύμφωνο με άλλα εργαλεία διατήρησης
     σταθερότητας ταξινόμησης, όπως ‘sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc)[0]’
     και ‘heapq.nsmallest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc)’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Προστέθηκε η παράμετρος μόνο λέξης-κλειδί
     'default'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Το 'key' μπορεί να είναι ‘None’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: next (iterator, /)

 -- Συνάρτηση: next (iterator, default, /)

     Ανάκτηση του επόμενου στοιχείο από το *note iterator: 6ce. καλώντας
     τη μέθοδο *note __next__(): 1672.  Εάν δοθεί 'default',
     επιστρέφεται εάν ο iterator έχει εξαντληθεί, διαφορετικά γίνεται
     raise μια *note StopIteration: fba.

 -- Κλάση: object

     Αυτή είναι η τελική βασική κλάση όλων των άλλων κλάσεων.  Έχει
     μεθόδους που είναι κοινές σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις κλάσεων Python.
     Όταν καλείται ο κατασκευαστής, επιστρέφει ένα νέο αντικείμενο χωρίς
     χαρακτηριστικά.  Ο κατασκευαστής δεν δέχεται ορίσματα.

          Σημείωση: Τα στιγμιότυπα *note object: e4d. 'δεν' έχουν
          χαρακτηριστικά *note __dict__: 1bf, επομένως δεν μπορείτε να
          εκχωρήσετε αυθαίρετα χαρακτηριστικά σε ένα στιγμιότυπο του
          ‘object’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: oct (integer, /)

     Μετατρέπει έναν ακέραιο αριθμό σε μια οκταδική συμβολοσειρά με
     πρόθεμα «0o».  Το αποτέλεσμα είναι μια έγκυρη έκφραση Python.  Εάν
     το 'integer' δεν είναι ένα αντικείμενο Python *note int: 326,
     πρέπει να ορίσει μια μέθοδο *note __index__(): 43d. που επιστρέφει
     έναν ακέραιο αριθμό.  Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> oct(8)
          '0o10'
          >>> oct(-56)
          '-0o70'

     Εάν θέλετε να μετατρέψετε έναν ακέραιο αριθμό σε οκταδική
     συμβολοσειρά είτε με το πρόθεμα «0o» είτε όχι, μπορείτε να
     χρησιμοποιήσετε έναν από τους παρακάτω τρόπους.

          >>> '%#o' % 10, '%o' % 10
          ('0o12', '12')
          >>> format(10, '#o'), format(10, 'o')
          ('0o12', '12')
          >>> f'{10:#o}', f'{10:o}'
          ('0o12', '12')

     Δείτε επίσης τη *note format(): 439. για περισσότερες πληροφορίες.

 -- Συνάρτηση: open (file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)

     Ανοίγει το 'file' και επιστρέφει ένα αντίστοιχο *note file object:
     156c.  Εάν το αρχείο δεν μπορεί να ανοίξει, γίνεται raise μια *note
     OSError: 53c.  Δείτε το *note Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων: 2255.
     για περισσότερα παραδείγματα χρήσης αυτής της συνάρτησης.

     Το 'αρχείο' είναι ένα *note path-like object: 79f. που δίνει το
     όνομα διαδρομής (απόλυτο ή σε σχέση με τον τρέχοντα κατάλογο
     εργασίας) του αρχείου που θα ανοίξει ή ένας ακέραιος περιγραφέας
     αρχείου του αρχείου που πρόκειται να αναδιπλωθεί.  (Εάν δίνεται
     ένας περιγραφέας αρχείου, κλείνει όταν το επιστρεφόμενο αντικείμενο
     I/O είναι κλειστό εκτός εάν 'closefd' έχει οριστεί ως ‘False’.)

     Το 'mode' είναι μια προαιρετική συμβολοσειρά που καθορίζει τη
     λειτουργία στην οποία ανοίγει το αρχείο.  Από προεπιλογή είναι
     ‘'r'’ που σημαίνει ανοιχτό για ανάγνωση σε λειτουργία κειμένου.
     Άλλες κοινές τιμές είναι ‘'w'’ για εγγραφή (περικοπή του αρχείου
     εάν υπάρχει ήδη), ‘'x'’ για αποκλειστική δημιουργία και ‘'a'’ για
     προσθήκη (κάτι που σε 'μερικά' συστήματα Unix, σημαίνει ότι 'όλες'
     οι εγγραφές προσαρτώνται στο τέλος του αρχείου ανεξάρτητα από την
     τρέχουσα θέση αναζήτησης).  Στη λειτουργία κειμένου, εάν δεν έχει
     καθοριστεί το 'encoding', η κωδικοποίηση που χρησιμοποιείται
     εξαρτάται από την πλατφόρμα: *note locale.getencoding(): a45.
     καλείται για να ληφθεί η τρέχουσα κωδικοποίηση τοπικών ρυθμίσεων.
     (Για την ανάγνωση και την εγγραφή ακατέργαστων bytes
     χρησιμοποιείται δυαδική λειτουργία και αφήνουν το 'encoding'
     απροσδιόριστο.)  Οι διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες είναι:

     Χαρακτήρας    Έννοια
                   
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'r'’         άνοιγμα για ανάγνωση (default)
                   
                   
     ‘'w'’         άνοιγμα για εγγραφή, περικόπτοντας πρώτα το αρχείο
                   
                   
     ‘'x'’         άνοιγμα για αποκλειστική δημιουργία, αποτυγχάνοντας εάν το αρχείο
                   υπάρχει ήδη
                   
                   
     ‘'a'’         άνοιγμα για εγγραφή, προσαρτάται στο τέλος του αρχείου εάν
                   υπάρχει
                   
                   
     ‘'b'’         δυαδική (binary) λειτουργία
                   
                   
     ‘'t'’         λειτουργία κειμένου (default)
                   
                   
     ‘'+'’         άνοιγμα για ενημέρωση (ανάγνωση και εγγραφή)
                   

     Η προεπιλεγμένη λειτουργία είναι ‘'r'’ (ανοίγει για ανάγνωση
     κειμένου, συνώνυμο του ‘'rt'’).  Οι λειτουργίες ‘'w+'’ και ‘'w+b'’
     ανοίγει και περικόβει το αρχείο.  Οι λειτουργίες ‘'r+'’ and ‘'r+b'’
     ανοίγουν το αρχείο χωρίς περικοπή.

     Όπως αναφέρεται στο *note Overview: 27d3, η Python κάνει διάκριση
     μεταξύ δυαδικού και κειμένου I/O. Τα αρχεία που ανοίγουν σε δυαδική
     λειτουργία (συμπεριλαμβανομένου του ‘'b'’ στο όρισμα 'mode')
     επιστρέφουν τα περιεχόμενα ως *note bytes: 1c7. αντικείμενα χωρίς
     αποκωδικοποίηση.  Στη λειτουργία κειμένου (η προεπιλογή, ή όταν το
     ‘'t'’ περιλαμβάνεται στο όρισμα 'mode'), τα περιεχόμενα του αρχείου
     επιστρέφονται ως *note str: 1df, τα bytes έχουν πρώτα
     αποκωδικοποιηθεί χρησιμοποιώντας μια εξαρτώμενη από πλατφόρμα
     κωδικοποίηση ή χρήση της καθορισμένης 'κωδικοποίησης' εάν δίνεται.

          Σημείωση: Η Python δεν εξαρτάται από την έννοια των αρχείων
          κειμένου του υποκείμενου λειτουργικού συστήματος∙ όλη η
          επεξεργασία γίνεται από την ίδια την Python και επομένως είναι
          ανεξάρτητη από την πλατφόρμα.

     To 'buffering' είναι ένας προαιρετικός ακέραιος που χρησιμοποιείται
     για το ορισμό της πολιτικής αποθήκευσης στην προσωρινή μνήμη.
     Περνάει το 0 για να απενεργοποιήσετε την προσωρινή μνήμη
     (επιτρέπεται μόνο σε δυαδική λειτουργία), το 1 για να επιλέξετε
     προσωρινή αποθήκευση γραμμής (μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί μόνο όταν
     γράφετε σε λειτουργία κειμένου) και έναν ακέραιο > 1 για να
     υποδείξει το μέγεθος σε byte μιας προσωρινής μνήμης τμημάτων
     σταθερού μεγέθους.  Λάβετε υπόψη ότι ο καθορισμός ενός μεγέθους
     buffer με αυτόν τον τρόπο ισχύει για I/O με δυαδική προσωρινή
     μνήμη, αλλά το ‘TextIOWrapper’ (δηλαδή, τα αρχεία που ανοίγουν με
     ‘mode='r+'’) θα έχουνε άλλη αποθήκευση.  Για να απενεργοποιήσετε
     την προσωρινή αποθήκευση στο ‘TextIOWrapper’, εξετάστε το
     ενδεχόμενο να χρησιμοποιήσετε μια ‘write_through’ σημαία για *note
     io.TextIOWrapper.reconfigure(): f06.  Όταν δεν δίνεται όρισμα
     'buffering', η προεπιλεγμένη πολιτική προσωρινής αποθήκευσης
     λειτουργεί ως εξής:

        * Τα δυαδικά αρχεία αποθηκεύονται στην προσωρινή μνήμη σε
          κομμάτια σταθερού μεγέθους∙ το μέγεθος του buffer είναι
          ‘max(min(blocksize, 8 MiB), DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)’ όταν το
          μέγεθος μπλοκ της συσκευής είναι διαθέσιμο.  Στα περισσότερα
          συστήματα, το buffer θα έχει συνήθως μήκος 128 kilobytes.

        * «Interactive» αρχεία κειμένου (αρχεία για τα οποία το *note
          isatty(): 2258. επιστρέφει ‘True’) χρησιμοποιούν αποθήκευση
          γραμμής.  Άλλα αρχεία κειμένου χρησιμοποιούν την πολιτική που
          περιγράφεται παραπάνω για δυαδικά αρχεία.

     Το 'encoding' είναι το όνομα της κωδικοποίησης που χρησιμοποιείται
     για την αποκωδικοποίηση ή την κωδικοποίηση του αρχείου.  Θα πρέπει
     να χρησιμοποιείται μόνο σε λειτουργία κειμένου.  Η προεπιλεγμένη
     κωδικοποίηση εξαρτάται από την πλατφόρμα (οτιδήποτε επιστρέφει η
     *note locale.getencoding(): a45.), αλλά οποιοδήποτε *note text
     encoding: 27d4. που υποστηρίζεται από την Python.  Δείτε το module
     *note codecs: 1c. για τη λίστα των υποστηριζόμενων κωδικοποιήσεων.

     'errors' is an optional string that specifies how encoding and
     decoding errors are to be handled—this cannot be used in binary
     mode.  A variety of standard error handlers are available, though
     any error handling name that has been registered with *note
     codecs.register_error(): 183d. is also valid.  The standard names
     can be found in *note Error Handlers: 1d6c.

     Το 'newline' καθορίζει τον τρόπο ανάλυσης χαρακτήρων νέας γραμμής
     από τη ροή.  Μπορεί να είναι και ‘None’, ‘''’, ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’, και
     ‘'\r\n'’.  Λειτουργεί ως εξής:

        * Κατά την ανάγνωση εισόδου από την ροή, εάν το 'newline' είναι
          ‘None’, η καθολική λειτουργία νέων γραμμών είναι
          ενεργοποιημένη.  Οι γραμμές στην είσοδο μπορούν να τελειώνουν
          σε ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’, ή ‘'\r\n'’, και αυτά μεταφράζονται σε
          ‘'\n'’ πριν επιστραφούν στον καλούντα.  Εάν είναι ‘''’, η
          καθολική λειτουργία νέων γραμμών είναι ενεργοποιημένη, αλλά οι
          καταλήξεις γραμμών επιστρέφονται στον καλούντα αμετάφραστα.
          Εάν έχει κάποια από τις άλλες νόμιμες τιμές, οι γραμμές
          εισόδου τερματίζονται μόνο από τη δεδομένη συμβολοσειρά και η
          κατάληξη γραμμής επιστρέφεται στον καλούντα αμετάφραστη.

        * Κατά την εγγραφή εξόδου στη ροή, εάν το 'newline' είναι
          ‘None’, τυχόν χαρακτήρες ‘'\n'’ μεταφράζονται στο διαχωριστικό
          προεπιλεγμένων γραμμών του συστήματος, *note os.linesep: 27d5.
          Εάν το 'newline' είναι ‘''’ ή ‘'\n'’, δεν πραγματοποιείται
          μετάφραση εάν το 'newline' είναι οποιαδήποτε από τις άλλες
          νόμιμες τιμές, γράφονται οποιοιδήποτε χαρακτήρες ‘'\n'’
          μεταφράζονται στη δεδομένη συμβολοσειρά.

     Εάν το 'closefd' είναι ‘False’ και έχει δοθεί ένας περιγραφέας
     αρχείου αντί για ένα όνομα αρχείου, ο υποκειμενικός περιγραφέας
     αρχείου θα παραμείνει ανοιχτός όταν το αρχείο κλείσει.  Εάν δοθεί
     ένα όνομα αρχείου το 'closefd' πρέπει να είναι ‘True’ (η
     προεπιλογή)∙ διαφορετικά, θα προκύψει ένα σφάλμα.

     Ένα προσαρμοσμένο πρόγραμμα ανοίγματος μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί
     μεταβιβάζοντας ένα callable ως 'opener'.  Ο υποκείμενος περιγραφέας
     αρχείου για το αντικείμενο αρχείου λαμβάνεται στη συνέχεια καλώντας
     το 'opener' με ('file', 'flags').  Το 'opener' πρέπει να επιστρέψει
     ένα περιγραφέα ανοιχτού αρχείου (περνώντας *note os.open: 114b. ως
     'opener' έχει ως αποτέλεσμα λειτουργικότητας παρόμοια με το να
     περάσουμε το ‘None’).

     Το νέο δημιουργημένο αρχείο είναι *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     Το παρακάτω παράδειγμα χρησιμοποιεί την παράμετρο *note dir_fd:
     1496. της συνάρτησης *note os.open(): 114b. για να ανοίξει ένα
     αρχείο σε σχέση με έναν δεδομένο κατάλογο:

          >>> import os
          >>> dir_fd = os.open('somedir', os.O_RDONLY)
          >>> def opener(path, flags):
          ...     return os.open(path, flags, dir_fd=dir_fd)
          ...
          >>> with open('spamspam.txt', 'w', opener=opener) as f:
          ...     print('This will be written to somedir/spamspam.txt', file=f)
          ...
          >>> os.close(dir_fd)  # don't leak a file descriptor

     Ο τύπος του *note file object: 156c. που επιστρέφεται από τη
     συνάρτηση *note open(): 32b. εξαρτάται από τη λειτουργία.  Όταν το
     ‘open()’ χρησιμοποιείται για το άνοιγμα ενός αρχείου σε λειτουργία
     κειμένου (‘'w'’, ‘'r'’, ‘'wt'’, ‘'rt'’, κ.λπ.), επιστρέφει μια
     υποκλάση του *note io.TextIOBase: a84. (specifically *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: b9c.).  Όταν χρησιμοποιείται για το άνοιγμα ενός
     αρχείου σε δυαδική λειτουργία με προσωρινή αποθήκευση, η κλάση που
     επιστρέφεται είναι μια υποκλάση του *note io.BufferedIOBase: a83.
     Η ακριβής κλάση ποικίλλει: σε λειτουργία δυαδικής ανάγνωσης,
     επιστρέφει ένα *note io.BufferedReader: 15b5. ∙ σε δυαδικές
     καταστάσεις εγγραφής και δυαδικής προσθήκης, επιστρέφει ένα *note
     io.BufferedWriter: 1754, και στη λειτουργία ανάγνωσης/εγγραφής,
     επιστρέφει ένα *note io.BufferedRandom: 1755.  Όταν η προσωρινή
     αποθήκευση είναι απενεργοποιημένη, επιστρέφεται, η ακατέργαστη ροή
     , μια υποκλάση *note io.RawIOBase: 147c, *note io.FileIO: 16b4.

     Δείτε επίσης τις ενότητες διαχείρισης αρχείων, όπως *note
     fileinput: 5e, *note io: 82. (όπου ορίζεται η *note open(): 32b.),
     *note os: a5, *note os.path: a6, *note tempfile: e9, και *note
     shutil: cd.

     Κάνει raise ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘open’ με ορίσματα
     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘flags’.

     Τα ορίσματα ‘mode’ και ‘flags’ μπορεί να έχουν τροποποιηθεί ή να
     έχουν συναχθεί από την αρχική κλήση.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3:

        * Προστέθηκε η παράμετρος 'opener'.

        * Προστέθηκε η λειτουργία ‘'x'’.

        * Το *note IOError: 13fb. γινόταν raise παλιά, τώρα είναι
          ψευδώνυμο του *note OSError: 53c.

        * Το *note FileExistsError: 13c9. γίνεται raise τώρα εάν το
          αρχείο που ανοίγει σε λειτουργία αποκλειστικής δημιουργίας
          (‘'x'’) υπάρχει ήδη.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4:

        * Το αρχείο είναι πλέον μη κληρονομικό.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5:

        * Εάν η κλήση συστήματος διακοπεί και ο χειριστής σήματος δεν
          κάνει raise μια εξαίρεση, η συνάρτηση επαναλαμβάνει τώρα την
          κλήση συστήματος αντί να κάνει raise μια εξαίρεση *note
          InterruptedError: 1141. (δείτε το PEP 475(4) για το σκεπτικό).

        * Προστέθηκε το πρόγραμμα χειρισμού σφαλμάτων ‘'namereplace'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6:

        * Προστέθηκε υποστήριξη για την αποδοχή αντικειμένων που
          υλοποιούν *note os.PathLike: 100f.

        * Στα Windows, το άνοιγμα μιας προσωρινής μνήμης κονσόλας μπορεί
          να επιστρέψει μια υποκλάση του *note io.RawIOBase: 147c. εκτός
          από το *note io.FileIO: 16b4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Η λειτουργία ‘'U'’ έχει αφαιρεθεί.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ord (character, /)

     Επιστρέφει την αριθμητική τιμή (ordinal) ενός χαρακτήρα.

     Εάν το όρισμα είναι μια συμβολοσειρά ενός χαρακτήρα, επιστρέφει το
     σημείο κώδικα Unicode αυτού του χαρακτήρα.  Για παράδειγμα, το
     ‘ord('a')’ επιστρέφει τον ακέραιο ‘97’ και το ‘ord('€')’ (σημείο
     ευρώ) επιστρέφει το ‘8364’.  Αυτό είναι το αντίστροφο του *note
     chr(): 1bf8.

     Εάν το όρισμα είναι ένα αντικείμενο *note bytes: 1c7. ή *note
     bytearray: 1c6. μήκους 1, επιστρέφει την τιμή του μεμονωμένου byte.
     Για παράδειγμα, το ‘ord(b'a')’ επιστρέφει τον ακέραιο ‘97’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pow (base, exp, mod=None)

     Επιστρέφει 'base' στην δύναμη 'exp*∙ εάν υπάρχει το *mod',
     επιστρέφει 'base' στην δύναμη 'exp', modulo 'mod' (υπολογίζεται πιο
     αποτελεσματικά από το ‘pow(base, exp) % mod’).  Η φόρμα δύο
     ορισμάτων ‘pow(base, exp)’ ισοδυναμεί με τη χρήση του τελεστή
     δύναμης: ‘base**exp’.

     Όταν τα ορίσματα είναι ενσωματωμένοι αριθμητικοί τύποι με μεικτούς
     τύπους ισχύουν οι κανόνες εξαναγκασμού για δυαδικούς τελεστές
     αριθμητικής.  Για του τελεστές *note int: 326, το αποτέλεσμα έχει
     τον ίδιο τύπο με τους τελεστές (μετά τον εξαναγκασμό), εκτός εάν το
     δεύτερο όρισμα είναι αρνητικό∙ σε αυτή την περίπτωση, όλα τα
     ορίσματα μετατρέπονται σε float και επιστρέφεται ένα αποτέλεσμα
     τύπους float.  Για παράδειγμα, ‘pow(10, 2)’ επιστρέφει ‘100’, αλλά
     το ‘pow(10, -2)’ επιστρέφει ‘0.01’.  Για μια αρνητική βάση τύπου
     ‘int’ ή *note float: 327. και έναν μη αναπόσπαστο εκθέτη,
     παραδίδεται ένα μιγαδικό αποτέλεσμα.  Για παράδειγμα, ‘pow(-9,
     0.5)’ επιστρέφει μια τιμή κοντά στο ‘3j’.  Ενώ, για μια αρνητική
     βάση τύπου ‘int’ ή ‘float’ με αναπόσπαστο εκθέτη, παραδίδεται ένα
     αποτέλεσμα float.  Για παράδειγμα, το ‘pow(-9, 2.0)’ επιστρέφει το
     ‘81.0’.

     Για τους τελεστές της *note int: 326. 'base' και 'exp', εάν υπάρχει
     'mod', το 'mod' πρέπει επίσης να είναι ακεραίου τύπου και το 'mod'
     πρέπει να είναι μη μηδενικό.  Εάν υπάρχει 'mod' και το 'exp' είναι
     αρνητικό, το 'base' πρέπει να είναι σχετικά πρώτο στο 'mod'.  Σε
     αυτήν την περίπτωση , επιστρέφεται το ‘pow(inv_base, -exp, mod)’,
     όπου το 'inv_base' είναι αντίστροφο του 'base' modulo 'mod'.

     Ακολουθεί ένα παράδειγμα υπολογισμού ενός αντίστροφου για το ‘38’
     modulo ‘97’:

          >>> pow(38, -1, mod=97)
          23
          >>> 23 * 38 % 97 == 1
          True

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Για του τελεστές *note int: 326, η μορφή
     τριών ορισμών του ‘pow’ επιτρέπει τώρα το δεύτερο όρισμα να είναι
     αρνητικό, επιτρέποντας τον υπολογισμό των αρθρωτών αντίστροφων.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Επιτρέπονται ορίσματα keyword.  Παλαιότερα,
     υποστηρίζονταν μόνο ορίσματα θέσης.

 -- Συνάρτηση: print (*objects, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None,
          flush=False)

     Εκτυπώνει 'objects' στην ροή κειμένου 'file', χωρισμένα με 'sep'
     και ακολουθούμενα από 'end'.  Τα 'sep', 'end', 'file', και 'flush',
     εάν υπάρχουν, πρέπει να δίνονται ως ορίσματα keyword.

     Όλα τα μη keyword ορίσματα μετατρέπονται σε συμβολοσειρές όπως
     κάνει η *note str(): 1df. και γράφονται στη ροή, χωρισμένα με 'sep'
     και ακολουθούνται από 'end'.  Και τα δύο 'sep' και 'end' πρέπει να
     είναι συμβολοσειρές∙ μπορεί επίσης να είναι ‘None’, που σημαίνει
     ότι θα χρησιμοποιηθούν οι προεπιλεγμένες τιμές.  Εάν δεν δίνονται
     'αντικείμενα', η *note print(): 131f. θα γράψει απλά 'end'.

     Το όρισμα 'file' πρέπει να είναι αντικείμενο με μια μέθοδο
     ‘write(string)’ ∙ εάν δεν υπάρχει ή είναι ‘None’, θα χρησιμοποιηθεί
     το *note sys.stdout: e9c.  Επειδή τα τυπωμένα ορίσματα
     μετατρέπονται σε συμβολοσειρές κειμένου, η *note print(): 131f. δεν
     μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί με αντικείμενα αρχείου δυαδικής
     λειτουργίας.  Για αυτά, χρησιμοποιούμε το ‘file.write(...)’.

     Η προσωρινή αποθήκευση εξόδου καθορίζεται συνήθως από το 'αρχείο'.
     Ωστόσο, εάν το 'flush' είναι αληθές, η ροή ξεπλένεται αναγκαστικά.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Προστέθηκε το όρισμα keyword 'flush'.

 -- Κλάση: property (fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)

     Επιστρέφει ένα χαρακτηριστικό ιδιότητας.

     Το 'fget' είναι μια συνάρτηση για τη λήψη μιας τιμής
     χαρακτηριστικού.  Το 'fset' είναι μια συνάρτηση για τον ορισμό μιας
     τιμής χαρακτηριστικού.  Το 'fdel' είναι μια συνάρτηση για τη
     διαγραφή μιας τιμής χαρακτηριστικού.  Και το 'doc' δημιουργεί μια
     συμβολοσειρά εγγράφων για το χαρακτηριστικό.

     Μια τυπική χρήση είναι ο ορισμός ενός διαχειριζόμενου
     χαρακτηριστικού ‘x’:

          class C:
              def __init__(self):
                  self._x = None

              def getx(self):
                  return self._x

              def setx(self, value):
                  self._x = value

              def delx(self):
                  del self._x

              x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

     Εάν το 'c' είναι ένα instance του 'C', το ‘c.x’ θα καλέσει τον
     λήπτη, το ‘c.x = value’ θα καλέσει τον ρυθμιστή, και το ‘del c.x’
     τον διαγραφέα.

     Εάν δίνεται, το 'doc' θα είναι το docstring του χαρακτηριστικού
     ιδιότητας.  Διαφορετικά , η ιδιότητα θα αντιγράψει τη συμβολοσειρά
     του 'fget' (εάν υπάρχει).  Αυτό καθιστά δυνατή τη δημιουργία
     ιδιοτήτων μόνο για ανάγνωση, εύκολα χρησιμοποιώντας τη *note
     property(): 6bb. ως *note decorator: b18.:

          class Parrot:
              def __init__(self):
                  self._voltage = 100000

              @property
              def voltage(self):
                  """Get the current voltage."""
                  return self._voltage

     Ο decorator ‘@property’ μετατρέπει την μέθοδο ‘voltage()’ σε
     «getter» για ένα χαρακτηριστικό μόνο για ανάγνωση με το ίδιο όνομα,
     και ορίζει τη συμβολοσειρά εγγράφων για 'voltage' σε «Get the
     current voltage.»

      -- Συνάρτηση: @getter

      -- Συνάρτηση: @setter

      -- Συνάρτηση: @deleter

          Ένα αντικείμενο ιδιότητας έχει μεθόδους ‘getter’, ‘setter’,
          και ‘deleter’ που μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν ως διακοσμητές
          που δημιουργούν ένα αντίγραφο της ιδιότητας με την αντίστοιχη
          συνάρτηση accessor που έχει οριστεί στον decorator.  Αυτό
          εξηγείται καλύτερα με ένα παράδειγμα:

               class C:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self._x = None

                   @property
                   def x(self):
                       """I'm the 'x' property."""
                       return self._x

                   @x.setter
                   def x(self, value):
                       self._x = value

                   @x.deleter
                   def x(self):
                       del self._x

          Αυτός ο κώδικας είναι ακριβώς ισοδύναμος με το πρώτο
          παράδειγμα.  Φροντίστε να δώσετε στις πρόσθετες συναρτήσεις το
          ίδιο όνομα με την αρχική ιδιότητα (‘x’ σε αυτήν την
          περίπτωση.)

          Το επιστρεφόμενο αντικείμενο ιδιότητας έχει επίσης τα
          χαρακτηριστικά ‘fget’, ‘fset’, και ‘fdel’ που αντιστοιχούν στα
          ορίσματα του κατασκευαστή.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Τα 'docstrings' των αντικειμένων ιδιότητας
     είναι πλέον εγγράψιμες.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __name__

          Χαρακτηριστικό που περιέχει το όνομα της ιδιότητας.  Το όνομα
          της ιδιότητας μπορεί να αλλάξει κατά την εκτέλεση.

          Added in version 3.13.

 -- Κλάση: range (stop, /)

 -- Κλάση: range (start, stop, step=1, /)

     Αντί να είναι συνάρτηση, το *note range: d0f. είναι στην
     πραγματικότητα ένας αμετάβλητος τύπος ακολουθίας, όπως
     τεκμηριώνεται στα *note Εύρη (Ranges): 27d6. και *note Τύποι
     Ακολουθίας (Sequence) — list, tuple, range: 221d.

 -- Συνάρτηση: repr (object, /)

     Επιστρέφει μια συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει μια εκτυπώσιμη
     αναπαράσταση ενός αντικειμένου.  Για πολλούς τύπους, αυτή η
     συνάρτηση κάνει μια προσπάθεια να επιστρέψει μια συμβολοσειρά που
     θα απέδιδε ένα αντικείμενο με την ίδια τιμή όταν μεταβιβαζόταν στο
     *note eval(): 184. ∙ διαφορετικά, η αναπαράσταση είναι μια
     συμβολοσειρά που περικλείεται σε αγκύλες που περιέχει το όνομα του
     τύπου του αντικειμένου μαζί με πρόσθετες πληροφορίες που συχνά
     περιλαμβάνουν το όνομα και τη διεύθυνση του αντικειμένου.  Μια
     κλάση μπορεί να ελέγξει τι επιστρέφει αυτή η συνάρτηση για τις
     οντότητες της ορίζοντας μια μέθοδο *note __repr__(): 1bc.  Εάν η
     *note sys.displayhook(): 18c1. δεν είναι προσβάσιμη, αυτή η
     συνάρτηση θα κάνει raise το *note RuntimeError: 30d.

     Αυτή η κλάση έχει μια προσαρμοσμένη αναπαράσταση που μπορεί να
     αξιολογηθεί:

          class Person:
             def __init__(self, name, age):
                self.name = name
                self.age = age

             def __repr__(self):
                return f"Person({self.name!r}, {self.age!r})"

 -- Συνάρτηση: reversed (object, /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίστροφο *note iterator: 6ce.  Το όρισμα πρέπει να
     είναι ένα αντικείμενο το οποίο έχει μια μέθοδο *note
     __reversed__(): 1049. ή υποστηρίζει το πρωτόκολλο ακολουθίας (τη
     μέθοδο *note __len__(): 1989. και τη μέθοδο *note __getitem__():
     787. με ακέραια ορίσματα που ξεκινούν από το 0).

 -- Συνάρτηση: round (number, ndigits=None)

     Επιστρέφει τον 'number' στρογγυλοποιημένο σε 'ndigits' ακρίβεια
     μετά την υποδιαστολή.  Εάν το 'ndigits' παραληφθεί ή είναι ‘None’,
     επιστρέφει τον πλησιέστερο ακέραιο αριθμό στην είσοδό του.

     Για του ενσωματωμένους τύπους που υποστηρίζουν τη *note round():
     167f, οι τιμές στρογγυλοποιούνται στο πλησιέστερο πολλαπλάσιο του
     10 στην δύναμη μείον 'ndigits*∙ εάν δύο πολλαπλάσια είναι εξίσου
     κοντά, η στρογγυλοποίηση γίνεται προς την άρτια επιλογή (έτσι, για
     παράδειγμα, τόσο το ''round(0.5)'' και ''round(-0.5)'' είναι ''0'',
     και ''round(1.5)'' είναι ''2'').  Οποιαδήποτε ακέραια τιμή είναι
     έγκυρη για *ndigits' (θετική, μηδενική, ή αρνητική).  Η
     επιστρεφόμενη τιμή είναι ακέραιος εάν το 'ndigits' παραλειφθεί ή
     είναι ‘None’.  Διαφορετικά, η τιμή επιστροφής έχει τον ίδιο τύπο με
     το 'number'.

     Για ένα γενικό αντικείμενο Python ‘number’, ‘round’ εκχωρεί στο
     ‘number.__round__’.

          Σημείωση: Η συμπεριφορά του *note round(): 167f. για floats
          μπορεί να είναι εκπληκτική: για παράδειγμα, το ‘round(2.675,
          2)’ δίνει ‘2.67’ αντί για το αναμενόμενο ‘2.68’.  Αυτό δεν
          είναι bug: είναι αποτέλεσμα του γεγονότος ότι τα περισσότερα
          δεκαδικά κλάσματα δεν μπορούν να αναπαρασταθούν ακριβώς ως
          float.  Δείτε το *note Αριθμητική Κινητής Υποδιαστολής;
          Ζητήματα και Περιορισμοί: 22f0. για περισσότερες πληροφορίες.

 -- Κλάση: set (iterable=(), /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα νέο αντικείμενο *note set: 42b, προαιρετικά με
     στοιχεία που λαμβάνονται από το 'iterable'.  Το ‘set’ είναι μια
     ενσωματωμένη κλάση.  Δείτε ‘set’ και *note Τύποι Συνόλου (Set) —
     set, frozenset: 2220. για τεκμηρίωση αυτής της κλάσης.

     Για άλλα containers, δείτε τις ενσωματωμένες κλάσεις *note
     frozenset: 9d4, *note list: 4d9, *note tuple: 1ce, και *note dict:
     188, καθώς και το module *note collections: 1e.

 -- Συνάρτηση: setattr (object, name, value, /)

     Αυτό είναι το αντίστοιχο τους *note getattr(): f8f.  Τα ορίσματα
     είναι ένα αντικείμενο, μια συμβολοσειρά και μια αυθαίρετη τιμή.  Η
     συμβολοσειρά μπορεί να ονομάσει ένα υπάρχον χαρακτηριστικό ή ένα
     νέο χαρακτηριστικό.  Η συνάρτηση εκχωρεί την τιμή στο
     χαρακτηριστικό, με την προϋπόθεση ότι το αντικείμενο το επιτρέπει.
     Για παράδειγμα ‘setattr(x, 'foobar', 123)’ ισοδυναμεί με το
     ‘x.foobar = 123’.

     Το 'name' δεν χρειάζεται να είναι αναγνωριστικό Python όπως
     ορίζεται στο *note Ονόματα (αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά):
     2491. , εκτός εάν το αντικείμενο επιλέξει να το επιβάλει αυτό, για
     παράδειγμα σε ένα προσαρμοσμένο *note __getattribute__(): f90. ή
     μέσω *note __slots__: 188d.  Ένα χαρακτηριστικό του οποίου το όνομα
     δεν είναι αναγνωριστικό δεν θα είναι προσβάσιμο χρησιμοποιώντας τη
     σημειογραφία, αλλά είναι προσβάσιμο μέσω του *note getattr(): f8f.
     κ.λπ..

          Σημείωση: Δεδομένου ότι το *note private name mangling: 2293.
          συμβαίνει κατά τη στιγμή της μεταγλώττισης, πρέπει κανείς να
          παραμορφώσει με μη αυτόματο τρόπο το όνομα ενός ιδιωτικού
          χαρακτηριστικού (χαρακτηριστικά με δύο προπορευόμενες κάτω
          παύλες) για να το ορίσει με *note setattr(): 27b7.

 -- Κλάση: sentinel (name, /)

     Return a new unique sentinel object.  'name' must be a *note str:
     1df, and is used as the returned object’s representation:

          >>> MISSING = sentinel("MISSING")
          >>> MISSING
          MISSING

     Sentinel objects are truthy and compare equal only to themselves.
     They are intended to be compared with the *note is: 324. operator.

     ‘sentinel’ does not support subclassing.

     Shallow and deep copies of a sentinel object return the object
     itself.

     Sentinels are conventionally assigned to a variable with a matching
     name.  Sentinels defined in this way can be used in *note type
     hints: 25c1.:

          MISSING = sentinel("MISSING")

          def next_value(default: int | MISSING = MISSING):
              ...

     Sentinel objects support the *note |: 26c4. operator for use in
     type expressions.

     *note Pickling: ab. is supported for sentinel objects that are
     placed in the global scope of a module under a name matching the
     sentinel’s name, and for sentinels placed in class scopes with a
     name matching the *note qualified name: 1f19. of the sentinel.
     Other sentinels, such as those defined in a function scope, are not
     picklable.  The identity of the sentinel is preserved after
     pickling:

          import pickle

          PICKLABLE = sentinel("PICKLABLE")

          assert pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(PICKLABLE)) is PICKLABLE

          class Cls:
              PICKLABLE = sentinel("Cls.PICKLABLE")

          assert pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(Cls.PICKLABLE)) is Cls.PICKLABLE

     Sentinel objects have the following attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: __name__

          The sentinel’s name.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __module__

          The name of the module where the sentinel was created.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Κλάση: slice (stop, /)

 -- Κλάση: slice (start, stop, step=None, /)

     Επιστρέφετε ένα αντικείμενο *note slice: 26a5. που αντιπροσωπεύει
     το σύνολο των δεικτών που καθορίζονται από το ‘range(start, stop,
     step)’.  Τα ορίσματα 'start' και 'step' είναι από προεπιλογή
     ‘None’.

     Slice objects are also generated when *note slicing syntax: 26a4.
     is used.  For example: ‘a[start:stop:step]’ or ‘a[start:stop, i]’.

     See *note itertools.islice(): f09. for an alternate version that
     returns an *note iterator: 6ce.

      -- Ιδιότητα: start
      -- Ιδιότητα: stop
      -- Ιδιότητα: step

          These read-only attributes are set to the argument values (or
          their default).  They have no other explicit functionality;
          however, they are used by NumPy and other third-party
          packages.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Τα αντικείμενα slice είναι πλέον *note
     hashable: 183. (με την προϋπόθεση *note start: 259a, *note stop:
     259b, και *note step: 259c. μπορούν να κατακερματιστούν).

 -- Συνάρτηση: sorted (iterable, /, *, key=None, reverse=False)

     Επιστρέφει μια νέα ταξινομημένη λίστα από τα στοιχεία στο
     'iterable'.

     Έχει δύο προαιρετικά ορίσματα που πρέπει να καθοριστούν ως ορίσματα
     λέξεων-κλειδιών.

     Το 'key' καθορίζει μια συνάρτηση ενός ορίσματος που χρησιμοποιείται
     για την εξαγωγή ενός κλειδιού σύγκρισης από κάθε στοιχείο στο
     'iterable' (για παράδειγμα, ‘key=str.lower’).  Η προεπιλεγμένη τιμή
     είναι ‘None’ (συγκρίνει τα στοιχεία απευθείας).

     Το 'reverse' είναι μια δυαδική τιμή.  Εάν οριστεί σε ‘True’, τότε
     τα στοιχεία της λίστας ταξινομούνται σαν να είχε αντιστραφεί κάθε
     σύγκριση.

     Χρησιμοποιήστε το *note functools.cmp_to_key(): 1583. για να
     μετατρέψετε μια συνάρτηση 'cmp' παλιού τύπου σε συνάρτηση 'key'.

     Η ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note sorted(): f8c. είναι εγγυημένη ότι
     είναι σταθερή.  Μια ταξινόμηση είναι σταθερή εάν εγγυάται ότι δεν
     θα αλλάξει η σχετική σειρά των στοιχείων που συγκρίνονται ίσα —
     αυτό είναι χρήσιμο για ταξινόμηση σε πολλαπλά περάσματα (για
     παράδειγμα, ταξινόμηση ανά τμήμα, μετά ανά μισθολογικό βαθμό).

     Ο αλγόριθμος ταξινόμησης χρησιμοποιεί μόνο συγκρίσεις ‘<’ μεταξύ
     στοιχείων.  Ενώ ο ορισμός μιας μεθόδου *note __lt__(): 1645. αρκεί
     για την ταξινόμηση, το PEP 8(5) συνιστά και τις έξι *note rich
     comparisons: 26c7. που θα εφαρμοστούν.  Αυτό θα βοηθήσει στην
     αποφυγή σφαλμάτων κατά τη χρήση των ίδιων δεδομένων με άλλα
     εργαλεία διάταξης, όπως *note max(): 12ba. που βασίζονται σε
     διαφορετική υποκείμενη μέθοδο.  Η υλοποίηση και των έξι συγκρίσεων
     βοηθά επίσης στην αποφυγή σύγχυσης για συγκρίσεις μικτού τύπου που
     μπορούν να καλέσουν την ανακλώμενη μέθοδο *note __gt__(): 16b0.

     Για παραδείγματα ταξινόμησης και ένα σύντομο σεμινάριο ταξινόμησης,
     ανατρέξτε στο *note Sorting Techniques: 27d9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @staticmethod

     Μετατροπή μιας μεθόδου σε στατική μέθοδο.

     Μια στατική μέθοδος δεν λαμβάνει ένα σιωπηρό πρώτο όρισμα.  Για να
     δηλώσετε μια στατική μέθοδο, χρησιμοποιήστε αυτό το ιδίωμα:

          class C:
              @staticmethod
              def f(arg1, arg2, argN): ...

     Η φόρμα ‘@staticmethod’ είναι μια συνάρτηση *note decorator: b18. –
     δείτε *note Function definitions: 2206. για λεπτομέρειες.

     Μια στατική μέθοδος μπορεί να κληθεί είτε στην κλάση (όπως ‘C.f()’)
     είτε σε ένα instance (όπως ‘C().f()’).  Επιπλέον, η στατική μέθοδος
     *note descriptor: 21f. μπορεί επίσης να κληθεί, επομένως μπορεί να
     χρησιμοποιηθεί στον ορισμός της κλάσης (όπως ‘f()’).

     Οι στατικές μέθοδοι στην Python είναι παρόμοιες με αυτές που
     βρίσκονται στην Java ή στη C++.  Επίσης, ανατρέξτε στη *note
     classmethod(): 69a. για μια παραλλαγή που είναι χρήσιμη για τη
     δημιουργία εναλλακτικών κατασκευαστών κλάσεων.

     Όπως όλοι οι διακοσμητές, είναι επίσης δυνατό να καλέσετε την
     ‘staticmethod’ ως κανονική συνάρτηση και να κάνετε κάτι με το
     αποτέλεσμά της.  Αυτό είναι απαραίτητο σε ορισμένες περιπτώσεις
     όπου χρειάζεστε μια αναφορά σε μια συνάρτηση από ένα σώμα κλάσης
     και θέλετε να αποφύγετε την αυτόματη μετατροπή σε instance μέθοδο.
     Για αυτές τις περιπτώσεις, χρησιμοποιήστε αυτό το ιδίωμα:

          def regular_function():
              ...

          class C:
              method = staticmethod(regular_function)

     Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες σχετικά με τις στατικές μεθόδους,
     δείτε το *note Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου: 2520.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Οι στατικές μέθοδοι κληρονομούν πλέον τα
     χαρακτηριστικά της μεθόδου (*note __module__: 253b, *note __name__:
     1679, *note __qualname__: 253a, *note __doc__: 1582. και *note
     __annotations__: 1581.),, έχουν ένα νέο χαρακτηριστικό
     ‘__wrapped__’, και μπορούν πλέον να καλούνται ως κανονικές
     λειτουργίες.

 -- Κλάση: str (*, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

 -- Κλάση: str (object)

 -- Κλάση: str (object, encoding, errors='strict')

 -- Κλάση: str (object, *, errors)

     Επιστρέφει μια έκδοση *note str: 1df. του 'object'.  Δείτε *note
     str(): 1df. για λεπτομέρειες.

     Το ‘str’ είναι η ενσωματωμένη συμβολοσειρά *note class: 1ef2.  Για
     γενικές πληροφορίες σχετικά με τις συμβολοσειρές, ανατρέξτε *note
     Τύπος Ακολουθίας (Sequence) Κειμένου — str: 21cd.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sum (iterable, /, start=0)

     Αθροίζει το 'start' και τα στοιχεία ενός 'iterable' από αριστερά
     προς δεξιά και επιστρέφει το σύνολο.  Τα στοιχεία του 'iterable'
     είναι συνήθως αριθμοί και η τιμή έναρξης δεν επιτρέπεται να είναι
     συμβολοσειρά.

     Για ορισμένες περιπτώσεις χρήσης, υπάρχουν καλές εναλλακτικές
     λύσεις για το *note sum(): 881.  Ο προτιμώμενος, γρήγορος τρόπος
     για να συνδέσετε μια ακολουθία συμβολοσειρών είναι καλώντας
     ‘''.join(sequence)’.  Για να προσθέσετε τιμές κινητής υποδιαστολής
     με εκτεταμένη ακρίβεια, δείτε *note math.fsum(): 1777.  Για να
     συνδυάσετε μια σειρά iterable, σκεφτείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε το
     *note itertools.chain(): 190.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Η παράμετρος 'start' μπορεί να καθοριστεί
     ως όρισμα keyword.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Η άθροιση των floats άλλαξε σε έναν
     αλγόριθμο που δίνει μεγαλύτερη ακρίβεια και καλύτερη
     αντιμεταθετικότητα στις περισσότερες κατασκευές.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Προστέθηκε εξειδίκευση για άθροιση
     συμπλεγμάτων, χρησιμοποιώντας τον ίδιο αλγόριθμο όπως για την
     άθροιση των float.

 -- Κλάση: super

 -- Κλάση: super (type, object_or_type=None, /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο διακομιστή μεσολάβησης που εκχωρεί
     κλήσεις μεθόδου σε μια γονική ή αδερφή κλάση 'type'.  Αυτό είναι
     χρήσιμο για την πρόσβαση σε μεταβιβασμένες μεθόδους που έχουν
     παρακαμφθεί σε μια κλάση.

     Το 'object_or_type' καθορίζει το *note method resolution order:
     2784. που θα αναζητηθεί.  Η αναζήτηση ξεκινά από την κλάση αμέσως
     μετά τον 'type'.

     Για παράδειγμα, εάν *note __mro__: 2569. του 'object_or_type' είναι
     ‘D -> B -> C -> A -> object’ και η τιμή του 'type' είναι ‘B’, τότε
     η *note super(): 443. αναζητά ‘C -> A -> object’.

     Το χαρακτηριστικό *note __mro__: 2569. της κλάσης που αντιστοιχεί
     σε λίστες του 'object_or_type' παραθέτει τη σειρά αναζήτησης
     ανάλυσης μεθόδου που χρησιμοποιείται και από τις *note getattr():
     f8f. και *note super(): 443.  Το χαρακτηριστικό είναι δυναμικό και
     μπορεί να αλλάξει κάθε φορά που ενημερώνεται η ιεραρχία
     κληρονομικότητας.

     Εάν το δεύτερο όρισμα παραλειφθεί, το υπεραντικείμενο που
     επιστράφηκε δεν είναι δεσμευμένο.  Εάν το δεύτερο όρισμα είναι
     αντικείμενο, ‘isinstance(obj, type)’ πρέπει να είναι αληθές.  Εάν
     το δεύτερο όρισμα είναι ένας τύπος, το ‘issubclass(type2, type)’
     πρέπει να είναι αληθές (αυτό είναι χρήσιμο για μεθόδους κλάσης).

     Όταν καλείται απευθείας μέσα σε μια κανονική μέθοδο μιας κλάσης,
     και τα δύο ορίσματα μπορούν να παραλειφθούν («χωρίς ορίσματα
     ‘super()’»).  Σε αυτή την περίπτωση, το 'type' είναι η περιβάλλουσα
     κλάση και το 'obj' είναι το πρώτο όρισμα της αμέσως περιβάλλουσας
     συνάρτησης (συνήθως ‘self’).  (Αυτό σημαίνει ότι η ‘super()’ χωρίς
     ορίσματα δεν θα λειτουργήσει όπως αναμένεται μέσα σε φωλιασμένες
     συναρτήσεις, συμπεριλαμβανομένων και των γεννητριών εκφράσεων, οι
     οποίες δημιουργούν έμμεσα φωλιασμένες συναρτήσεις.)

     Υπάρχουν δύο τυπικές περιπτώσεις χρήσης για το 'super'.  Σε μια
     ιεραρχία κλάσεων με ενιαία κληρονομικότητα, το 'super' μπορεί να
     χρησιμοποιηθεί για να αναφέρεται σε γονικές κλάσεις χωρίς να τις
     ονομάζει ρητά, καθιστώντας έτσι τον κώδικα πιο διατηρήσιμο.  Αυτή η
     χρήση είναι πολύ παράλληλη με τη χρήση του 'super' σε άλλες γλώσσες
     προγραμματισμού.

     Η δεύτερη περίπτωση χρήσης είναι η υποστήριξη πολλαπλής
     κληρονομικότητας συνεργασίας σε ένα δυναμικό περιβάλλον εκτέλεσης.
     Αυτή η περίπτωση χρήσης είναι μοναδική για την Python και δεν
     βρίσκεται σε στατικά μεταγλωττισμένες γλώσσες ή γλώσσες που
     υποστηρίζουν μόνο μεμονωμένη κληρονομικότητα.  Αυτό καθιστά δυνατή
     την υλοποίηση «διαγραμμάτων διαμαντιών» όπου πολλές βασικές κλάσεις
     υλοποιούν την ίδια μέθοδο.  Ο καλός σχεδιασμός υπαγορεύει ότι
     τέτοιες υλοποιήσεις έχουν την ίδια υπογραφή κλήσης σε κάθε
     περίπτωση (επειδή η σειρά των κλήσεων καθορίζεται κατά τον χρόνο
     εκτέλεσης, επειδή αυτή η σειρά προσαρμόζεται στις αλλαγές στην
     ιεραρχία κλάσεων και επειδή αυτή η διάταξη μπορεί να περιλαμβάνει
     αδερφικές κλάσεις πριν από τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης).

     Και για τις δύο περιπτώσεις χρήσης, μια τυπική κλήση υπερκλάσης
     μοιάζει με αυτό:

          class C(B):
              def method(self, arg):
                  super().method(arg)    # This does the same thing as:
                                         # super(C, self).method(arg)

     Εκτός από τις αναζητήσεις μεθόδων, το *note super(): 443.
     λειτουργεί επίσης για αναζητήσεις χαρακτηριστικών.  Μια πιθανή
     περίπτωση χρήσης για αυτό είναι η κλήση *note descriptors: 21f. σε
     μια κλάση γονέα ή αδελφού.

     Λάβετε υπόψη ότι το *note super(): 443. υλοποιείται ως μέρος της
     διαδικασίας δέσμευσης για ρητές αναζητήσεις χαρακτηριστικών με
     κουκκίδες όπως ‘super().__getitem__(name)’.  Το κάνει εφαρμόζοντας
     τη δικιά του μέθοδο *note __getattribute__(): f90. για αναζήτηση
     κλάσεων με προβλέψιμη σειρά που υποστηρίζει πολλαπλή
     κληρονομικότητα.  Συνεπώς, η ‘super()’ δεν έχει οριστεί για
     σιωπηρές αναζητήσεις που χρησιμοποιούν δηλώσεις ή τελεστές όπως
     ‘super()[name]’.

     Λάβετε επίσης υπόψη ότι, εκτός από τη μορφή μηδενικού ορίσματος, η
     *note super(): 443. δεν περιορίζεται στη χρήση μεθόδων εντός.  Η
     φόρμα δύο ορισμάτων καθορίζει ακριβώς τα ορίσματα και κάνει τις
     κατάλληλες αναφορές.  Η φόρμα μηδενικού ορίσματος λειτουργεί μόνο
     μέσα σε έναν ορισμό κλάσης, καθώς ο μεταγλωττιστής συμπληρώνει τις
     απαραίτητες λεπτομέρειες για την σωστή ανάκτηση της κλάσης που
     ορίζεται, καθώς και για την πρόσβαση στην τρέχουσα παρουσία για
     συνηθισμένες μεθόδους.

     Για πρακτικές προτάσεις σχετικά με το πώς να σχεδιάσετε
     συνεργατικές τάξεις χρησιμοποιώντας το *note super(): 443,
     ανατρέξτε οδηγός χρήσης super()(6).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Τα αντικείμενα *note super: 443. είναι
     πλέον *note pickleable: ab. και *note copyable: 29.

 -- Κλάση: tuple (iterable=(), /)

     Αντί να είναι συνάρτηση, το *note tuple: 1ce. είναι στην
     πραγματικότητα ένα αμετάβλητος τύπος ακολουθίας, όπως τεκμηριώνεται
     στα *note Πλειάδες (Tuples): 2742. και *note Τύποι Ακολουθίας
     (Sequence) — list, tuple, range: 221d.

 -- Κλάση: type (object, /)

 -- Κλάση: type (name, bases, dict, /, **kwargs)

     Με ένα όρισμα, επιστρέψτε τον τύπο ενός 'object'.  Η τιμή που
     επιστρέφεται είναι ένα αντικείμενο τύπου και γενικά το ίδιο
     αντικείμενο με αυτό που επιστρέφεται από το *note object.__class__:
     184f.

     Η ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note isinstance(): 2ef. συνίσταται για τη
     δοκιμή του τύπου ενός αντικειμένου, επειδή λαμβάνει υπόψη τις
     υποκλάσεις.

     Με τρία ορίσματα, επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο νέου τύπου.  Αυτή
     είναι ουσιαστικά μια δυναμική μορφή της δήλωσης *note class: 167c.
     Η συμβολοσειρά 'name' είναι το όνομα της κλάσης και γίνεται το
     χαρακτηριστικό *note __name__: 184d.  Η πλειάδα 'bases' περιέχει
     τις βασικές κλάσεις και γίνεται το χαρακτηριστικό *note __bases__:
     184e. ∙ αν είναι κενό, προστίθεται το *note object: e4d, η τελική
     βάση όλων των κλάσεων.  Το λεξικό 'dict' περιέχει ορισμούς
     χαρακτηριστικών και μεθόδων για το σώμα της κλάσης∙ μπορεί να
     αντιγραφεί ή να προσαρμοστεί πριν γίνει το χαρακτηριστικό *note
     __dict__: 101b.  Οι ακόλουθες δύο προτάσεις δημιουργούν
     πανομοιότυπα αντικείμενα ‘type’:

          >>> class X:
          ...     a = 1
          ...
          >>> X = type('X', (), dict(a=1))

     Δείτε επίσης:

        * *note Τεκμηρίωση για χαρακτηριστικά και μεθόδους σε κλάσεις:
          2562.

        * *note Τύποι Αντικειμένων: 27da.

     Τα ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών που παρέχονται στη φόρμα τριών
     ορισμάτων μεταβιβάζονται στον κατάλληλο μηχανισμό μετακλάσης
     (συνήθως *note __init_subclass__(): a22.) με τον ίδιο τρόπο που θα
     έκαναν οι λέξεις-κλειδιά στον ορισμό μιας κλάσης (εκτός από το
     'metaclass').

     Δείτε επίσης *note Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης: 1009.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Οι υποκλάσης της ‘type’ που δεν
     αντικαθιστούν το ‘type.__new__’ δεν μπορούν πλέον να χρησιμοποιούν
     τη φόρμα ενός επιχειρήματος για να λάβουν τον τύπο ενός
     αντικειμένου.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: 'dict' can now be a *note frozendict: 182.

 -- Συνάρτηση: vars ()

 -- Συνάρτηση: vars (object, /)

     Επιστρέφει το χαρακτηριστικό *note __dict__: 1bf. για ένα module,
     κλάση, στιγμιότυπο, ή οποιοδήποτε άλλο αντικείμενο με ένα
     χαρακτηριστικό ‘__dict__’.

     Αντικείμενα όπως modules και instances έχουν ένα χαρακτηριστικό
     *note __dict__: 1bf. με δυνατότητα ενημέρωσης∙ ωστόσο, άλλα
     αντικείμενα μπορεί να έχουν περιορισμούς εγγραφής στα
     χαρακτηριστικά τους ‘__dict__’ (για παράδειγμα, οι κλάσεις
     χρησιμοποιούν ένα *note types.MappingProxyType: 189. για την
     αποτροπή άμεσων ενημερώσεων λεξικού).

     Χωρίς ένα όρισμα, *note vars(): 2011. συμπεριφέρεται όπως *note
     locals(): 28b.

     Μια εξαίρεση *note TypeError: 291. γίνεται raise εάν ένα
     αντικείμενο έχει καθοριστεί αλλά δεν έχει ένα χαρακτηριστικό *note
     __dict__: 1bf. (για παράδειγμα, εάν η κλάση του ορίζει το *note
     __slots__: 188d. χαρακτηριστικό).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Το αποτέλεσμα της κλήσης αυτής της
     συνάρτησης χωρίς ένα όρισμα έχει ενημερωθεί, όπως περιγράφεται για
     τη ενσωματωμένη *note locals(): 28b.

 -- Συνάρτηση: zip (*iterables, strict=False)

     Επανάληψη σε πολλούς iterables παράλληλα, δημιουργώντας πλειάδες με
     ένα αντικείμενο από το καθένα.

     Παράδειγμα:

          >>> for item in zip([1, 2, 3], ['sugar', 'spice', 'everything nice']):
          ...     print(item)
          ...
          (1, 'sugar')
          (2, 'spice')
          (3, 'everything nice')

     Πιο τυπικά: η *note zip(): 43f. επιστρέφει έναν iterator πλειάδων,
     όπου η 'i'-η πλειάδα περιέχει το 'i'-ο στοιχείο από κάθε ένα από
     τους επαναλήψιμους ορισμάτων.

     Ένας άλλος τρόπος για να σκεφτείτε τη *note zip(): 43f. είναι ότι
     μετατρέπει τις γραμμές σε στήλες, και τις στήλες σε γραμμές.  Αυτό
     είναι παρόμοιο με μεταφορά μιας μήτρας(7).

     Το *note zip(): 43f. είναι τεμπέλης: Τα στοιχεία δεν θα υποβληθούν
     σε επεξεργασία μέχρι να επαναληφθεί ο iterable, π.χ.  με έναν βρόχο
     ‘for’ ή με αναδίπλωση σε μια *note list: 4d9.

     Ένα πράγμα που πρέπει να λάβετε υπόψη είναι ότι τα iterables που
     μεταβιβάστηκαν στη *note zip(): 43f. θα μπορούσαν να έχουνε
     διαφορετικά μήκη∙ μερικές φορές από το σχεδιασμό και μερικές φορές
     λόγω ενός σφάλματος στον κώδικα που προετοίμασε αυτά τα iterables.
     Η Python προσφέρει τρεις διαφορετικές προσεγγίσεις για την
     αντιμετώπιση αυτού του ζητήματος:

        * Από default, η *note zip(): 43f. σταματά όταν εξαντληθεί ο
          συντομότερος iterable.  Αυτό θα αγνοήσει τα υπόλοιπα στοιχεία
          στους μεγαλύτερους iterables, κόβοντας το αποτέλεσμα στο μήκος
          του συντομότερου iterable:

               >>> list(zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum']))
               [(0, 'fee'), (1, 'fi'), (2, 'fo')]

        * Η *note zip(): 43f. χρησιμοποιείται συχνά σε περιπτώσεις όπου
          τα iterables υποτίθεται ότι έχουν ίσο μήκος.  Σε τέτοιες
          περιπτώσεις, συνίσταται η χρήση της επιλογής ‘strict=True’.  Η
          έξοδος είναι ίδια με την κανονική ‘zip()’:

               >>> list(zip(('a', 'b', 'c'), (1, 2, 3), strict=True))
               [('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)]

          Σε αντίθεση με την προεπιλεγμένη συμπεριφορά, γίνεται raise
          ένα *note ValueError: 277. εάν ένα iterable εξαντληθεί πριν
          από τα άλλα:

               >>> for item in zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum'], strict=True):
               ...     print(item)
               ...
               (0, 'fee')
               (1, 'fi')
               (2, 'fo')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               ValueError: zip() argument 2 is longer than argument 1

          Χωρίς το όρισμα ‘strict=True’, κάθε σφάλμα που οδηγεί σε
          επαναλαμβανόμενα μήκη διαφορετικού μήκους θα τεθεί σε σίγαση,
          πιθανώς να εμφανίζεται ως δυσεύρετο σφάλμα σε άλλο μέρος του
          προγράμματος.

        * Οι μικρότεροι iterables μπορούν να συμπληρωθούν σε μια σταθερή
          τιμή ώστε όλα τα iterables να έχουνε το ίδιο μήκος.  Αυτό
          γίνεται από το *note itertools.zip_longest(): 1643.

     Περιπτώσεις άκρων: Με ένα μόνο επαναληπτικό όρισμα, η *note zip():
     43f. επιστρέφει έναν iterator 1-πλειάδων.  Χωρίς ορίσματα,
     επιστρέφει έναν κενό iterator.

     Συμβουλές και κόλπα:

        * Η σειρά αξιολόγησης από αριστερά προς τα δεξιά των iterables
          είναι εγγυημένη.  Αυτό καθιστά δυνατό ένα ιδίωμα για την
          ομαδοποίηση μιας σειράς δεδομένων σε ομάδες n-μήκους
          χρησιμοποιώντας ‘zip(*[iter(s)]*n, strict=True)’.  Αυτό
          επαναλαμβάνει τις 'ίδιες' επαναλήψεις ‘n’ φορές έτσι ώστε κάθε
          πλειάδα εξόδου να έχει το αποτέλεσμα των κλήσεων ‘n’ προς τον
          επαναλήπτη.  Αυτό έχει ως αποτέλεσμα τη διαίρεση της εισόδου
          σε κομμάτια μήκους.

        * Η *note zip(): 43f. σε συνδυασμό με τον τελεστή ‘*’ μπορεί να
          χρησιμοποιηθεί για την αποσυμπίεση μιας λίστας:

               >>> x = [1, 2, 3]
               >>> y = [4, 5, 6]
               >>> list(zip(x, y))
               [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]
               >>> x2, y2 = zip(*zip(x, y))
               >>> x == list(x2) and y == list(y2)
               True

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Προστέθηκε το όρισμα ‘strict’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: __import__ (name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(),
          level=0)

          Σημείωση: Αυτή είναι μια προηγμένη συνάρτηση που δεν
          χρειάζεται στον καθημερινό προγραμματισμό της Python, σε
          αντίθεση με το *note importlib.import_module(): 927.

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση καλείται από τη δήλωση *note import: 9da.  Μπορεί
     να αντικατασταθεί (με εισαγωγή του module *note builtins: 13. και
     αντιστοίχιση σε ‘builtins.__import__’) προκειμένου να αλλάξει η
     σημασιολογία της δήλωσης ‘import’, αλλά αυτό αποθαρρύνεται
     'σθεναρά', καθώς είναι συνήθως απλούστερο να χρησιμοποιήσετε τα
     άγκιστρα εισαγωγής (δείτε PEP 302(8)) για την επίτευξη των ίδιων
     στόχων και δεν προκαλεί προβλήματα με τον κώδικα που προϋποθέτει
     την χρήση της προεπιλεγμένης υλοποίησης εισαγωγής.  Η άμεση χρήση
     του *note __import__(): ca6. επίσης αποθαρρύνεται υπέρ του *note
     importlib.import_module(): 927.

     Η συνάρτηση εισάγει το module 'name', χρησιμοποιώντας πιθανώς τα
     δεδομένα 'globals' και 'locals' για να καθορίσει τον τρόπο
     ερμηνείας του ονόματος σε ένα πλαίσιο πακέτου.  Η 'fromlist' δίνει
     τα ονόματα των αντικειμένων ή των υπομονάδων που θα πρέπει να
     εισαχθούν από το module που δίνεται από το 'name'.  Η τυπική
     υλοποίηση δεν χρησιμοποιεί καθόλου το όρισμα 'locals' και
     χρησιμοποιεί τα 'globals' της μόνο για να προσδιορίσει το πλαίσιο
     του πακέτου της δήλωσης *note import: 9da.

     Το 'level' καθορίζει εάν θα χρησιμοποιηθούν απόλυτες ή σχετικές
     εισαγωγές.  Το ‘0’ (η προεπιλογή) σημαίνει μόνο απόλυτες εισαγωγές.
     Οι θετικές τιμές για το 'level' υποδεικνύουν τον αριθμό των γονικών
     καταλόγων προς αναζήτηση σε σχέση με τον κατάλογο του module που
     καλεί την *note __import__(): ca6. (δείτε το PEP 328(9) για
     λεπτομέρειες).

     Όταν η μεταβλητή 'name' είναι της μορφής ‘package.module’,
     κανονικά, επιστρέφεται το πακέτο ανωτάτου επιπέδου (το όνομα μέχρι
     την πρώτη κουκκίδα), 'όχι' το module που ονομάζεται 'name'.
     Ωστόσο, όταν δίνεται ένα μη κενό όρισμα 'fromlist', επιστρέφεται το
     module με το όνομα 'name'.

     Για παράδειγμα, η δήλωση ‘import spam’ καταλήγει σε bytecode που
     μοιάζει με τον ακόλουθο κώδικα:

          spam = __import__('spam', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

     Η δήλωση ‘import spam.ham’ καταλήγει σε αυτήν την κλήση:

          spam = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

     Σημειώστε πως το *note __import__(): ca6. επιστρέφει το ανωτάτου
     επιπέδου module εδώ, επειδή αυτό είναι το αντικείμενο που συνδέεται
     με ένα όνομα με τη δήλωση *note import: 9da.

     Από την άλλη πλευρά, η δήλωση ‘from spam.ham import eggs, sausage
     as saus’ καταλήγει σε

          _temp = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), ['eggs', 'sausage'], 0)
          eggs = _temp.eggs
          saus = _temp.sausage

     Εδώ, το module ‘spam.ham’ επιστρέφεται από τη *note __import__():
     ca6.  Από αυτό το αντικείμενο, τα ονόματα προς εισαγωγή ανακτώνται
     και εκχωρούνται στα αντίστοιχα ονόματά τους.

     Εάν θέλετε απλώς να εισάγετε ένα module (ενδεχομένως μέσα σε ένα
     πακέτο) με το όνομα, χρησιμοποιήστε το *note
     importlib.import_module(): 927.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Αρνητικές τιμές για το 'level' δεν
     υποστηρίζονται πλέον (το οποίο επίσης αλλάζει την προεπιλεγμένη
     τιμή σε 0).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Όταν χρησιμοποιούνται επιλογές της γραμμής
     εντολών *note -E: d27. ή *note -I: d28, τότε η μεταβλητή
     περιβάλλοντος *note PYTHONCASEOK: d26. δεν λαμβάνεται υπόψιν.

Υποσημειώσεις
.............

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Λάβετε υπόψη ότι ο αναλυτής δέχεται μόνο τη σύμβαση τέλους
γραμμής τύπου Unix.  Εάν διαβάζετε τον κώδικα από ένα αρχείο βεβαιωθείτε
ότι χρησιμοποιείτε την λειτουργία μετατροπής νέας γραμμής για την
μετατροπή νέων γραμμών σε στυλ Windows ή Mac.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/

   (6) 
https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpose

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in Constants,  Next: Τύποι Built-in,  Prev: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.3 Built-in Constants
======================

A small number of constants live in the built-in namespace.  They are:

 -- Δεδομένα: False

     The false value of the *note bool: 5ef. type.  Assignments to
     ‘False’ are illegal and raise a *note SyntaxError: 17e.

 -- Δεδομένα: True

     The true value of the *note bool: 5ef. type.  Assignments to ‘True’
     are illegal and raise a *note SyntaxError: 17e.

 -- Δεδομένα: None

     An object frequently used to represent the absence of a value, as
     when default arguments are not passed to a function.  Assignments
     to ‘None’ are illegal and raise a *note SyntaxError: 17e.  ‘None’
     is the sole instance of the *note NoneType: c2a. type.

 -- Δεδομένα: NotImplemented

     A special value which should be returned by the binary special
     methods (e.g.  *note __eq__(): ec0, *note __lt__(): 1645, *note
     __add__(): 25d2, *note __rsub__(): 25e5, etc.)  to indicate that
     the operation is not implemented with respect to the other type;
     may be returned by the in-place binary special methods (e.g.  *note
     __imul__(): 25d7, *note __iand__(): 25f4, etc.)  for the same
     purpose.  It should not be evaluated in a boolean context.
     ‘NotImplemented’ is the sole instance of the *note
     types.NotImplementedType: c2b. type.

          Σημείωση: When a binary (or in-place) method returns
          ‘NotImplemented’ the interpreter will try the reflected
          operation on the other type (or some other fallback, depending
          on the operator).  If all attempts return ‘NotImplemented’,
          the interpreter will raise an appropriate exception.
          Incorrectly returning ‘NotImplemented’ will result in a
          misleading error message or the ‘NotImplemented’ value being
          returned to Python code.

          See *note Implementing the arithmetic operations: 2523. for
          examples.

          Προσοχή: ‘NotImplemented’ and ‘NotImplementedError’ are not
          interchangeable.  This constant should only be used as
          described above; see *note NotImplementedError: 59a. for
          details on correct usage of the exception.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Evaluating ‘NotImplemented’ in a boolean
     context was deprecated.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Evaluating ‘NotImplemented’ in a boolean
     context now raises a *note TypeError: 291.  It previously evaluated
     to *note True: fcc. and emitted a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.
     since Python 3.9.

 -- Δεδομένα: Ellipsis

     The same as the ellipsis literal «‘...’», an object frequently used
     to indicate that something is omitted.  Assignment to ‘Ellipsis’ is
     possible, but assignment to ‘...’ raises a *note SyntaxError: 17e.
     ‘Ellipsis’ is the sole instance of the *note types.EllipsisType:
     c29. type.

 -- Δεδομένα: __debug__

     This constant is true if Python was not started with an *note -O:
     431. option.  See also the *note assert: d31. statement.

     Σημείωση: The names *note None: a65, *note False: ef5, *note True:
     fcc. and *note __debug__: bb7. cannot be reassigned (assignments to
     them, even as an attribute name, raise *note SyntaxError: 17e.), so
     they can be considered «true» constants.

* Menu:

* Constants added by the site module::


File: python.info,  Node: Constants added by the site module,  Up: Built-in Constants

5.3.1 Constants added by the ‘site’ module
------------------------------------------

The *note site: cf. module (which is imported automatically during
startup, except if the *note -S: 1551. command-line option is given)
adds several constants to the built-in namespace.  They are useful for
the interactive interpreter shell and should not be used in programs.

 -- Δεδομένα: quit (code=None)
 -- Δεδομένα: exit (code=None)

     Objects that when printed, print a message like «Use quit() or
     Ctrl-D (i.e.  EOF) to exit», and when accessed directly in the
     interactive interpreter or called as functions, raise *note
     SystemExit: 10f7. with the specified exit code.

 -- Δεδομένα: help

     Object that when printed, prints the message «Type help() for
     interactive help, or help(object) for help about object.», and when
     accessed directly in the interactive interpreter, invokes the
     built-in help system (see *note help(): ca9.).

 -- Δεδομένα: copyright
 -- Δεδομένα: credits

     Objects that when printed or called, print the text of copyright or
     credits, respectively.

 -- Δεδομένα: license

     Object that when printed, prints the message «Type license() to see
     the full license text», and when called, displays the full license
     text in a pager-like fashion (one screen at a time).


File: python.info,  Node: Τύποι Built-in,  Next: Built-in Exceptions,  Prev: Built-in Constants,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.4 Τύποι Built-in
==================

Οι παρακάτω κατηγορίες περιγράφουν τους standard τύπους που είναι
ενσωματωμένοι (built) μέσα στον interpreter.

Οι κύριοι ενσωματωμένοι (built) τύποι είναι αριθμοί, ακολουθίες,
αντιστοιχίσεις (mappings), κλάσεις, instances και exceptions.

Ορισμένες collection κλάσεις είναι μεταβλητές (mutable).  Οι μέθοδοι που
προσθέτουν, αφαιρούν ή αναδιατάσσουν τα μέλη τους και δεν επιστρέφουν
ένα συγκεκριμένο αντικείμενο, ποτέ δεν επιστρέφουν το ίδιο collection
instance αλλά ‘None’.

Ορισμένες λειτουργίες υποστηρίζονται από διάφορους τύπους αντικειμένων·
ειδικότερα, σχεδόν όλα τα αντικείμενα μπορούν να συγκριθούν ως προς την
ισότητα, να ελεγχθούν για την έγκυρη τιμή και να μετατραπούν σε
συμβολοσειρά (string) (με τη συνάρτηση *note repr(): 45b. ή την ελαφρώς
διαφορετική συνάρτηση *note str(): 1df.).  Η τελευταία συνάρτηση
χρησιμοποιείται έμμεσα όταν ένα αντικείμενο γράφεται από τη συνάρτηση
*note print(): 131f.

* Menu:

* Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής::
* Λογικές (Boolean) Πράξεις — and, or, not: Λογικές Boolean Πράξεις — and or not.
* Συγκρίσεις::
* Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int, float, complex: Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
* Τύπος Boolean - bool::
* Τύποι Iterator::
* Τύποι Ακολουθίας (Sequence) — list, tuple, range: Τύποι Ακολουθίας Sequence — list tuple range.
* Σύνοψη μεθόδων τύπου κειμένου και δυαδική ακολουθίας::
* Τύπος Ακολουθίας (Sequence) Κειμένου — str: Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str.
* Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview.
* Τύποι Συνόλου (Set) — set, frozenset: Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
* Mapping types — dict, frozendict: Mapping types — dict frozendict.
* Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου::
* Τύποι Annotation τύπου — Generic Alias, Union: Τύποι Annotation τύπου — Generic Alias Union.
* Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι (built-in) Τύποι: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι.
* Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά::
* Περιορισμός μήκους μετατροπής συμβολοσειράς ακέραιου αριθμού::


File: python.info,  Node: Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής,  Next: Λογικές Boolean Πράξεις — and or not,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.1 Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής
---------------------------

Οποιοδήποτε αντικείμενο μπορεί να ελεγχθεί ως προς την εγκυρότητα της
τιμής του, για χρήση σε *note if: 322. ή *note while: 1b86. συνθήκη ή ως
τελεστής των λογικών πράξεων παρακάτω.

By default, an object is considered true unless its class defines either
a *note __bool__(): 167a. method that returns ‘False’ or a *note
__len__(): 1989. method that returns zero, when called with the object.
(1)  If one of the methods raises an exception when called, the
exception is propagated and the object does not have a truth value (for
example, *note NotImplemented: 440.).  Here are most of the built-in
objects considered false:

   * σταθερές που έχουν οριστεί ως false: ‘None’ και ‘False’

   * μηδέν οποιουδήποτε αριθμητικού τύπου: ‘0’, ‘0,0’, ‘0j’,
     ‘Decimanl(0)’, ‘Fraction(0, 1)’

   * κενές ακολουθίες και collections: ‘''’, ‘()’, ‘[]’, ‘{}’, ‘set()’,
     ‘range(0)’

Οι πράξεις και οι ενσωματωμένες (built-in) συναρτήσεις που έχουν
αποτέλεσμα Boolean πάντα επιστρέφουν ‘0’ ή ‘False’ για false και ‘1’ ή
‘True’ για true, εκτός εάν δηλώνεται διαφορετικά.  (Σημαντική εξαίρεση:
οι λογικές (Boolean) πράξεις ‘or’ και ‘and’ επιστρέφουν πάντα έναν από
τους τελεστές τους.)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Πρόσθετε πληροφορίες σχετικά με αυτές τις ειδικές μεθόδους
μπορείτε να βρείτε στο Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς Python (*note Βασική
προσαρμογή: 25a2.).


File: python.info,  Node: Λογικές Boolean Πράξεις — and or not,  Next: Συγκρίσεις,  Prev: Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.2 Λογικές (Boolean) Πράξεις — ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘not’
----------------------------------------------------

Αυτές είναι οι λογικές (Boolean) πράξεις, ταξινομημένες βάσει
προτεραιότητας:

Πράξη             Αποτέλεσμα                            Σημειώσεις
                                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
‘x or y’          αν το 'x' είναι true, τότε 'x',       (1)
                  αλλιώς 'y'                            
                  
                                                        
‘x and y’         αν το 'x' είναι false, τότε 'x',      (2)
                  αλλιώς 'y'                            
                  
                                                        
‘not x’           if 'x' είναι false, τότε ‘True’,      (3)
                  αλλιώς ‘False’                        
                  

Σημειώσεις:

  1. Αυτός είναι ένας τελεστής μικρού κυκλώματος, επομένως αξιολογεί
     μόνο το δεύτερο όρισμα αν το πρώτο είναι false.

  2. Αυτός είναι ένας τελεστής μικρού κυκλώματος, επομένως αξιολογεί
     μόνο το δεύτερο όρισμα αν το πρώτο είναι true.

  3. To ‘not’ έχει χαμηλότερη προτεραιότητα από τους μη λογικούς
     (non-Boolean) τελεστές, οπότε το ‘not a == b’ μεταφράζεται σαν ‘not
     (a==b)’, και το ‘a == not b’ είναι συντακτικό σφάλμα.


File: python.info,  Node: Συγκρίσεις,  Next: Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex,  Prev: Λογικές Boolean Πράξεις — and or not,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.3 Συγκρίσεις
----------------

Υπάρχουν οκτώ πράξεις σύγκρισης στην Python.  Όλες έχουν την ίδια
προτεραιότητα (η οποία είναι υψηλότερη από αυτή των λογικών (Boolean)
πράξεων).  Οι συγκρίσεις μπορεί να αλυσοδεθούν αυθαίρετα· για
παράδειγμα, το ‘x < y <= z’ ισοδυναμεί με ‘x < y και y <= z’, εκτός από
το ότι το 'y' αξιολογείται μόνο μία φορά (αλλά και στις δύο περιπτώσεις
το 'z' δεν αξιολογείται καθόλου όταν το ‘x < y’ είναι false).

Αυτός ο πίνακας συνοψίζει τις πράξεις σύγκρισης:

Πράξη            Έννοια
                 
-----------------------------------------------
                 
‘<’              αυστηρά μικρότερο από
                 
                 
‘<=’             μικρότερο από ή ίσο
                 
                 
‘>’              αυστηρά μεγαλύτερο από
                 
                 
‘>=’             μεγαλύτερο από ή ίσο
                 
                 
‘==’             ίσο
                 
                 
‘!=’             διάφορο
                 
                 
‘is’             ταυτότητα αντικειμένου
                 
                 
‘is not’         αρνητική ταυτότητα
                 αντικειμένου
                 

Unless stated otherwise, objects of different types never compare equal.
The ‘==’ operator is always defined but for some object types (for
example, class objects) is equivalent to *note is: 324.  The ‘<’, ‘<=’,
‘>’ and ‘>=’ operators are only defined where they make sense; for
example, they raise a *note TypeError: 291. exception when one of the
arguments is a complex number.

Μη πανομοιότυπα instances μιας κλάσης συνήθως συγκρίνονται ως μη ίσα
εκτός εάν το η κλάση ορίζει τη μέθοδο *note __eq__(): ec0.

Τα instances μιας κλάσης δεν μπορούν να ταξινομηθούν σε σχέση με άλλα
instances της ίδιας κλάσης, ή άλλους τύπους του αντικειμένου, εκτός εάν
η κλάση ορίζει αρκετές από τις μεθόδους *note __lt__(): 1645, *note
__le__(): 16af, *note __gt__(): 16b0, και *note __ge__(): 16b1. (γενικά,
‘__lt__()’ και *note __eq__(): ec0. είναι αρκετά, αν θέλετε τις
συμβατικές έννοιες των τελεστών σύγκρισης).

Η συμπεριφορά των τελεστών *note is: 324. και *note is not: 26ce. δεν
μπορεί να είναι προσαρμοσμένη· επίσης, μπορούν να εφαρμοστούν σε
οποιαδήποτε δύο αντικείμενα και ποτέ να μην δημιουργήσουν μία εξαίρεση.

Δύο ακόμη πράξεις με την ίδια συντακτική προτεραιότητα, *note in: 323.
και *note not in: a20, υποστηρίζονται από τύπους που είναι *note
iterable: 15ce. ή υλοποιούν τη μέθοδο *note __contains__(): 175c.


File: python.info,  Node: Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex,  Next: Τύπος Boolean - bool,  Prev: Συγκρίσεις,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.4 Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — ‘int’, ‘float’, ‘complex’
---------------------------------------------------

Υπάρχουν τρεις διαφορετικοί αριθμητικοί τύποι: 'integers', 'floating
point numbers' και 'complex numbers'.  Επιπλέον, τα Booleans είναι
υπό-τύπος ακεραίων (integers).  Οι ακέραιοι αριθμοί έχουν απεριόριστη
ακρίβεια.  Οι Αριθμοί κινητής υποδιαστολής (floating point numbers)
συνήθως υλοποιούνται χρησιμοποιώντας το double στη C· πληροφορίες
σχετικά με την ακρίβεια και την εσωτερική αναπαράσταση αριθμών κινητής
υποδιαστολής για το μηχάνημα στο οποίο εκτελείται το πρόγραμμά σας είναι
διαθέσιμο στο *note sys.float_info: 1fbf.  Οι μιγαδικοί αριθμοί (complex
numbers) έχουν ένα πραγματικό και φανταστικό μέρος, κάθε ένα από τα
οποία ένας αριθμός κινητής υποδιαστολής.  Για να εξαγάγετε αυτά τα μέρη
από έναν μιγαδικό αριθμό 'z', χρησιμοποιήστε ‘z.real’ και ‘z.imag’.  (Η
standard βιβλιοθήκη περιλαμβάνει τους πρόσθετους αριθμητικούς τύπους
*note fractions.Fraction: 1c3, για ορθολογικούς, και *note
decimal.Decimal: 1c2, για αριθμούς κινητής υποδιαστολής με ακρίβεια που
ορίζει ο χρήστης.)

Οι αριθμοί δημιουργούνται με αριθμητικά γράμματα ή ως αποτέλεσμα
ενσωματωμένων (built-in) συναρτήσεων και τελεστών.  Ακέραιοι αριθμοί
(συμπεριλαμβανομένων του εξαδικού, του οκταδικού και των δυαδικοί
αριθμών) αποδίδουν ακέραιους αριθμούς.  Αριθμητικά που περιέχουν
δεκαδικό ή εκθέτη παράγουν αριθμούς κινητής υποδιαστολής.  Η προσάρτηση
του ‘'j'’ ή του ‘'J'’ σε ένα αριθμητικό παράγει έναν φανταστικό αριθμό
(έναν μιγαδικό αριθμό με μηδενικό πραγματικό μέρος) το οποίο μπορείτε να
προσθέσετε σε έναν ακέραιο ή κινητής υποδιαστολής για να πάρετε έναν
μιγαδικό αριθμό με πραγματικό και φανταστικό μέρος.

Μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν οι κατασκευαστές *note int(): 326, *note
float(): 327. και *note complex(): 328. για να παράγουν αριθμούς
συγκεκριμένου τύπου.

Python fully supports mixed arithmetic: when a binary arithmetic
operator has operands of different built-in numeric types, the operand
with the «narrower» type is widened to that of the other:

   * If both arguments are complex numbers, no conversion is performed;

   * if either argument is a complex or a floating-point number, the
     other is converted to a floating-point number;

   * otherwise, both must be integers and no conversion is necessary.

Arithmetic with complex and real operands is defined by the usual
mathematical formula, for example:

     x + complex(u, v) = complex(x + u, v)
     x * complex(u, v) = complex(x * u, x * v)

Μια σύγκριση μεταξύ αριθμών διαφορετικών τύπων συμπεριφέρεται σαν να
συγκρίνονται οι ακριβείς τιμές αυτών των αριθμών.  (1)

Όλοι οι αριθμητικοί τύποι (εκτός των μιγαδικών) υποστηρίζουν τις
ακόλουθες πράξεις (για προτεραιότητες των πράξεων, βλέπε *note Operator
precedence: 26e1.):

Πράξη                     Αποτέλεσμα                            Σημειώσεις    Ολόκληρη τεκμηρίωση
                                                                              
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                              
‘x + y’                   άθροισμα του 'x' και 'y'
                          
                                                                              
‘x - y’                   διαφορά του 'x' και 'y'
                          
                                                                              
‘x * y’                   γινόμενο των 'x' και 'y'
                          
                                                                              
‘x / y’                   πηλίκο των 'x' και 'y'
                          
                                                                              
‘x // y’                  ακέραιο μέρος του πηλίκου των 'x'     (1)(2)
                          και 'y'                               
                          
                                                                              
‘x % y’                   υπόλοιπο του ‘x / y’                  (2)
                                                                
                                                                              
‘-x’                      'x' αρνητικό
                          
                                                                              
‘+x’                      'x' αμετάβλητο
                          
                                                                              
‘abs(x)’                  απόλυτη τιμή ή μέγεθος του 'x'                      *note abs(): 227c.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘int(x)’                  μετατροπή του 'x' σε ακέραιο          (3)(6)        *note int(): 326.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘float(x)’                μετατροπή του 'x' σε κινητής          (4)(6)        *note float(): 327.
                          υποδιαστολής                                        
                          
                                                                              
‘complex(re, im)’         ένας μιγαδικός αριθμός με             (6)           *note complex(): 328.
                          πραγματικό μέρος 're', φανταστικό                   
                          μέρος 'im'.  Το 'im' μετατρέπεται
                          αυτόματα σε μηδέν.
                          
                                                                              
‘c.conjugate()’           συζυγές του μιγαδικού αριθμού 'c'
                          
                                                                              
‘divmod(x, y)’            το ζευγάρι ‘(x // y, x % y)’          (2)           *note divmod(): d6a.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘pow(x, y)’               'x' σε δύναμη του 'y'                 (5)           *note pow(): 441.
                                                                              
                                                                              
‘x ** y’                  'x' σε δύναμη του 'y'                 (5)
                                                                

Σημειώσεις:

  1. Αναφέρεται επίσης ως διαίρεση ακέραιου αριθμού.  Για τελεστές τύπου
     *note int: 326, το αποτέλεσμα έχει τύπο ‘int’.  Για τελεστές τύπου
     *note float: 327, το αποτέλεσμα έχει τύπο ‘float’.  Γενικά, το
     αποτέλεσμα είναι ένας ολόκληρος ακέραιος αριθμός, αν και ο τύπος
     του αποτελέσματος δεν είναι απαραίτητα ‘int’.  Το αποτέλεσμα είναι
     πάντα στρογγυλεμένο προς το μείον άπειρο: ‘1//2’ είναι ‘0’,
     ‘(-1)//2’ είναι ‘-1’, ‘1//(-2)’ είναι ‘-1’, και ‘(-1)//(-2)’ είναι
     ‘0’.

  2. Όχι για μιγαδικούς αριθμούς.  Αντίθετα μετατρέψτε σε float
     χρησιμοποιώντας *note abs(): 227c. εάν είναι εφαρμόσιμο.

  3. 
     Η μετατροπή από *note float: 327. σε *note int: 326. περικόπτει,
     απορρίπτοντας το κλασματικό μέρος.  Δείτε τις συναρτήσεις *note
     math.floor(): 1760. και *note math.ceil(): 1761. για εναλλακτικές
     μετατροπές.

  4. το float δέχεται επίσης τις συμβολοσειρές (strings) «nan» και «inf»
     με ένα προαιρετικό πρόθεμα «+» ή «-» για το Not a Number (NaN - Όχι
     αριθμός) και θετικό ή αρνητικό άπειρο.

  5. Η Python ορίζει το ‘pow(0, 0)’ και το ‘0 ** 0’ ως ‘1’, όπως
     συνηθίζεται για τις γλώσσες προγραμματισμού.

  6. Τα αριθμητικά κυριολεκτικά (numeric literals) που γίνονται δεκτά
     περιλαμβάνουν τα ψηφία ‘0’ έως ‘9’ ή οποιοδήποτε ισοδύναμο Unicode
     (σημεία κώδικα με την ιδιότητα ‘Nd’).

     Δείτε το Thε Unicode Standard(2) για μια πλήρη λίστα σημείων κώδικα
     με το ‘Nd’ property.

Όλοι οι τύποι *note numbers.Real: 27ec. (*note int: 326. και *note
float: 327.) επίσης περιλαμβάνουν τις ακόλουθες λειτουργίες:

Πράξη                    Αποτέλεσμα
                         
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
*note math.trunc(x): 1762.'x' μετατρέπεται σε *note Integral: 25ff.
                         
                         
*note round(x[, n]): 167f.'x' στρογγυλοποιημένο σε 'n' ψηφία,
                         στρογγυλοποιώντας το μισό σε ζυγό.  Εάν το 'n'
                         παραλειφθεί, το default του είναι το 0.
                         
                         
*note math.floor(x): 1760.το μεγαλύτερο *note Integral: 25ff. <= 'x'
                         
                         
*note math.ceil(x): 1761.το μικρότερο *note Integral: 25ff. >= 'x'
                         

Για περαιτέρω αριθμητικές πράξεις δείτε τα modules *note math: 91. και
*note cmath: 19.

* Menu:

* Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους::
* Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι των Ακέραιων Τύπων::
* Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Float::
* Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Μιγαδικούς::
* Κατακερματισμός των αριθμητικών τύπων::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Σαν συνέπεια, η λίστα ‘[1, 2]’ θεωρείται ίση με ‘[1.0, 2.0]’, και
ομοίως για πλειάδες (tuples).

   (2) 
https://unicode.org/Public/UNIDATA/extracted/DerivedNumericType.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους,  Next: Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι των Ακέραιων Τύπων,  Up: Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex

5.4.4.1 Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους
...........................................

Οι πράξεις bitwise έχουν νόημα μόνο για ακέραιους αριθμούς.  Το
αποτέλεσμα των bitwise πράξεων υπολογίζεται σαν να εκτελείται σε
συμπλήρωμα ως προς δύο με άπειρο αριθμό bits πρόσημου.

Οι προτεραιότητες των δυαδικών πράξεων bitwise είναι όλες χαμηλότερες
από τις αριθμητικές πράξεις και υψηλότερες από τις συγκρίσεις· η
μοναδιαία πράξη ‘~’ έχει την ίδια προτεραιότητα με τις άλλες μοναδιαίες
αριθμητικές πράξεις (‘+’ και ‘-’).

Αυτός ο πίνακας παραθέτει όλες τις bitwise πράξεις ταξινομημένες σε
αύξουσα σειρά:

Πράξη            Αποτέλεσμα                           Σημειώσεις
                                                      
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
‘x | y’          bitwise 'or' των 'x' και 'y'         (4)
                                                      
                                                      
‘x ^ y’          bitwise 'exclusive or' των 'x' και   (4)
                 'y'                                  
                 
                                                      
‘x & y’          bitwise 'and' των 'x' και 'y'        (4)
                                                      
                                                      
‘x << n’         'x' ολισθημένο (shifted) αριστερά    (1)(2)
                 κατά 'n' bits                        
                 
                                                      
‘x >> n’         'x' ολισθημένο (shifted) δεξιά       (1)(3)
                 κατά 'n' bits                        
                 
                                                      
‘~x’             τα bits του 'x' αντιστραμμένα
                 

Σημειώσεις:

  1. Οι μετρήσεις αρνητικών ολισθήσεων (negative shift) είναι άκυρες και
     κάνουν raise *note ValueError: 277.

  2. Μια αριστερή ολίσθηση (shift) κατά 'n' bits ισοδυναμεί με
     πολλαπλασιασμό με ‘pow(2, n)’.

  3. Μια δεξιά ολίσθηση (shift) κατά 'n' bits ισοδυναμεί με διαίρεση
     πατώματος με ‘pow(2, n)’.

  4. Η εκτέλεση αυτών των υπολογισμών με τουλάχιστον ένα επιπλέον bit
     επέκτασης πρόσημου σε μια αναπαράσταση ενός πεπερασμένου
     συμπληρώματος ως προς δύο (ένα ωφέλιμο bit-width ‘1 +
     max(x.bit_length(), y.bit_length())’ ή περισσότερο) είναι αρκετό
     για να πάρει το ίδιο αποτέλεσμα σαν να υπήρχε ένας άπειρος αριθμός
     bits πρόσημου.


File: python.info,  Node: Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι των Ακέραιων Τύπων,  Next: Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Float,  Prev: Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους,  Up: Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex

5.4.4.2 Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι των Ακέραιων Τύπων
............................................

Ο τύπος int υλοποιεί την *note numbers.Integral: 25ff. *note abstract
base class: 155f.  Επιπλέον, παρέχει μερικές ακόμη μεθόδους:

 -- Μέθοδος: int.bit_length ()

     Επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των bits που είναι απαραίτητος για να
     αναπαραστήσει έναν ακέραιο σε δυαδικό, αποκλείοντας το πρόσημο και
     τα αρχικά μηδέν:

          >>> n = -37
          >>> bin(n)
          '-0b100101'
          >>> n.bit_length()
          6

     Πιο συγκεκριμένα, εάν το ‘x’ είναι μη μηδενικό, τότε το
     ‘x.bit_length()’ είναι μοναδικός θετικός αριθμός ‘k’ έτσι ώστε
     ‘2**(k-1) <= abs(x) < 2**k’.  Ισοδύναμα, όταν το ‘abs(x)’ είναι
     αρκετά μικρό για να έχει ένα σωστά στρογγυλοποιημένο λογάριθμο,
     τότε ‘k = 1 + int(log(abs(x), 2))’.  Εάν το ‘x’ είναι μηδέν, τότε
     το ‘x.bit_length()’ επιστρέφει ‘0’.

     Ισοδύναμο με:

          def bit_length(self):
              s = bin(self)       # binary representation:  bin(-37) --> '-0b100101'
              s = s.lstrip('-0b') # remove leading zeros and minus sign
              return len(s)       # len('100101') --> 6

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Μέθοδος: int.bit_count ()

     Επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των μονάδων στην δυαδική αναπαράσταση της
     απόλυτης τιμής του ακεραίου.  Αυτό είναι επίσης γνωστό ως το
     μέτρημα πληθυσμού (population count).  Παράδειγμα:

          >>> n = 19
          >>> bin(n)
          '0b10011'
          >>> n.bit_count()
          3
          >>> (-n).bit_count()
          3

     Ισοδύναμο με:

          def bit_count(self):
              return bin(self).count("1")

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Μέθοδος: int.to_bytes (length=1, byteorder='big', *, signed=False)

     Επιστρέφει ένα πίνακα από bytes που αναπαριστούν έναν ακέραιο.

          >>> (1024).to_bytes(2, byteorder='big')
          b'\x04\x00'
          >>> (1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big')
          b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04\x00'
          >>> (-1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big', signed=True)
          b'\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xfc\x00'
          >>> x = 1000
          >>> x.to_bytes((x.bit_length() + 7) // 8, byteorder='little')
          b'\xe8\x03'

     Ο ακέραιος αναπαρίσταται χρησιμοποιώντας 'length' bytes και η
     προεπιλεγμένη του τιμή (default) είναι 1.  Ένα *note OverflowError:
     c57. γίνεται raise αν ο ακέραιος αριθμός δεν δύναται να
     αναπαρασταθεί με τον αριθμό bytes που δόθηκε.

     Το όρισμα 'byteorder' καθορίζει τη σειρά των byte που
     χρησιμοποιούνται για την αναπαράσταση του ακέραιου αριθμού, και
     έχουν προεπιλεγμένη τιμή (default) ‘"big"’.  Εάν το 'byteorder'
     είναι ‘"big"’, το πιο σημαντικό byte βρίσκεται στην αρχή του πίνακα
     των bytes.  Εάν το 'byteorder' είναι ‘"little"’, το πιο σημαντικό
     byte βρίσκεται στο τέλος του πίνακα των bytes.

     Το όρισμα 'signed' καθορίζει εάν το συμπλήρωμα ως προς δύο
     χρησιμοποιείται για να αντιπροσωπεύσει τον ακέραιο.  Εάν το
     'signed' είναι ‘False’ και έχει δοθεί ένας αρνητικός ακέραιος,
     γίνεται raise ένα *note OverflowError: c57.  Η προεπιλεγμένη τιμή
     (default) για το 'signed' είναι ‘False’.

     Οι προεπιλεγμένες τιμές (defaults) μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για
     να μετατρέψουν βολικά έναν ακέραιο σε ένα μόνο byte αντικείμενο:

          >>> (65).to_bytes()
          b'A'

     Ωστόσο, όταν χρησιμοποιείτε προεπιλεγμένα ορίσματα, μην
     προσπαθήσετε να μετατρέψετε μια τιμή μεγαλύτερη από 255 ή
     διαφορετικά θα λάβετε ένα *note OverflowError: c57.

     Ισοδύναμο με:

          def to_bytes(n, length=1, byteorder='big', signed=False):
              if byteorder == 'little':
                  order = range(length)
              elif byteorder == 'big':
                  order = reversed(range(length))
              else:
                  raise ValueError("byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'")

              return bytes((n >> i*8) & 0xff for i in order)

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Προστιθέμενες προεπιλεγμένες τιμές
     (defaults) ορίσματος για ‘length’ και ‘byteorder’.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod int.from_bytes (bytes, byteorder='big', *,
          signed=False)

     Επιστρέφει έναν ακέραιο που αναπαρίσταται από τον δοσμένο πίνακα
     των bytes.

          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='big')
          16
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\x00\x10', byteorder='little')
          4096
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=True)
          -1024
          >>> int.from_bytes(b'\xfc\x00', byteorder='big', signed=False)
          64512
          >>> int.from_bytes([255, 0, 0], byteorder='big')
          16711680

     Το όρισμα 'bytes' πρέπει είτε να είναι ένα *note bytes-like object:
     436. είτε ένα iterable που παράγει bytes.

     Το όρισμα 'byteorder' καθορίζει τη σειρά byte που χρησιμοποιείται
     για την αναπαράσταση του ακέραιου αριθμού, και η προεπιλεγμένη τιμή
     (default) είναι ‘"big"’.  Εάν το 'byteorder' είναι ‘"big"’, το το
     πιο σημαντικό byte βρίσκεται στην αρχή του πίνακα των bytes.  Εάν
     το 'byteorder' είναι ‘"little"’, το πιο σημαντικό byte βρίσκεται
     στο τέλος του πίνακα των bytes.  Για να ζητήσετε την εγγενή σειρά
     των bytes του host συστήματος, χρησιμοποιήστε το *note
     sys.byteorder: 27f1. ως τιμή της σειράς byte.

     Το όρισμα 'signed' υποδεικνύει εάν το συμπλήρωμα ως προς δύο
     χρησιμοποιείται για να αντιπροσωπεύσει τον ακέραιο.

     Ισοδύναμο με:

          def from_bytes(bytes, byteorder='big', signed=False):
              if byteorder == 'little':
                  little_ordered = list(bytes)
              elif byteorder == 'big':
                  little_ordered = list(reversed(bytes))
              else:
                  raise ValueError("byteorder must be either 'little' or 'big'")

              n = sum(b << i*8 for i, b in enumerate(little_ordered))
              if signed and little_ordered and (little_ordered[-1] & 0x80):
                  n -= 1 << 8*len(little_ordered)

              return n

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Προστιθέμενη προεπιλεγμένη τιμή (default)
     ορίσματος για το ‘byteorder’.

 -- Μέθοδος: int.as_integer_ratio ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα ζεύγος ακεραίων των οποίων η αναλογία είναι ίση με
     τον αρχικό ακέραιο και έχει θετικό παρονομαστή.  Ο ακέραιος λόγος
     ακεραίων (ολόκληρων αριθμών) είναι πάντα ο ακέραιος αριθμός ως
     αριθμητής και το ‘1’ ως παρονομαστής.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Μέθοδος: int.is_integer ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’.  Υπάρχει για συμβατότητα τύπου duck με *note
     float.is_integer(): 27f2.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Float,  Next: Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Μιγαδικούς,  Prev: Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι των Ακέραιων Τύπων,  Up: Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex

5.4.4.3 Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Float
...................................

Ο τύπος float (κινητής υποδιαστολής) υλοποιεί την *note numbers.Real:
27ec. *note abstract base class: 155f.  Ο float έχει επίσης τις
ακόλουθες πρόσθετες μεθόδους.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod float.from_number (x)

     Μέθοδος κλάσης για την επιστροφή ενός αριθμού κινητής υποδιαστολής
     που κατασκευάζεται από έναν αριθμό 'x'.

     Εάν το όρισμα είναι ακέραιος ή αριθμός κινητής υποδιαστολής,
     επιστρέφεται ένας αριθμός κινητής υποδιαστολής με την ίδια τιμή
     (εντός της ακρίβειας κινητής υποδιαστολής της Python).  Εάν το
     όρισμα βρίσκεται εκτός του εύρους ενός Python float, θα κάνει raise
     μια *note OverflowError: c57.

     Για ένα γενικό αντικείμενο Python ‘x’, ‘float.from_number(x)’
     ανατίθεται στο ‘x.__float__()’.  Εάν η *note __float__(): d92. δεν
     έχει οριστεί, τότε επιστρέφει στη *note __index__(): 43d.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Μέθοδος: float.as_integer_ratio ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα ζεύγος ακεραίων των οποίων η αναλογία είναι ακριβώς
     ίση με το αρχικό float.  Ο λόγος είναι στο χαμηλότερο επίπεδο και
     έχει θετικό παρονομαστή.  Κάνει raise *note OverflowError: c57. στα
     άπειρα και ένα *note ValueError: 277. για NaNs.

 -- Μέθοδος: float.is_integer ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν το float instance είναι πεπερασμένο με
     ακέραια τιμή και ‘False’ διαφορετικά:

          >>> (-2.0).is_integer()
          True
          >>> (3.2).is_integer()
          False

Δύο μέθοδοι υποστηρίζουν τη μετατροπή από και προς δεκαεξαδικές
συμβολοσειρές (strings).  Αφού τα floats της Python αποθηκεύονται
εσωτερικά ως δυαδικοί αριθμοί, η μετατροπή ενός float προς ή από μια
'δεκαδική' συμβολοσειρά συνήθως περιλαμβάνει ένα μικρό σφάλμα
στρογγυλοποίησης.  Αντιθέτως, οι δεκαεξαδικές συμβολοσειρές επιτρέπουν
ακριβή αναπαράσταση και συγκεκριμενοποίηση των αριθμών κινητής
υποδιαστολής.  Αυτό μπορεί να είναι χρήσιμο κατά το debugging και στην
αριθμητική.

 -- Μέθοδος: float.hex ()

     Επιστρέφει μια αναπαράσταση ενός αριθμού κινητής υποδιαστολής ως
     δεκαεξαδική συμβολοσειρά (string).  Για πεπερασμένους αριθμούς
     κινητής υποδιαστολής, αυτή η αναπαράσταση θα περιλαμβάνει πάντα ένα
     προπορευόμενο ‘0x’ και ένα τελευταίο ‘p’ και εκθέτη.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod float.fromhex (s)

     Μέθοδος κλάσης για την επιστροφή του float που αντιπροσωπεύεται από
     μια δεκαεξαδική συμβολοσειρά (string) 's'.  Η συμβολοσειρά 's'
     μπορεί να έχει κενό διάστημα που στην αρχή ή το τέλος.

Σημειώστε ότι το *note float.hex(): 22f2. είναι ένα instance method, ενώ
το *note float.fromhex(): 27f4. είναι μια μέθοδος κλάσης.

Μια δεκαεξαδική συμβολοσειρά (string) έχει τη μορφή:

     [sign] ['0x'] integer ['.' fraction] ['p' exponent]

όπου το προαιρετικό ‘sign’ μπορεί να είναι είτε ‘+’ ή ‘-’, ‘integer’ και
‘fraction’ είναι συμβολοσειρές (strings) δεκαεξαδικών ψηφίων και ο
‘exponent’ (εκθέτης) είναι ένας δεκαδικός ακέραιος με προαιρετικό
πρόσημο.  Τα πεζά ή κεφαλαία δεν είναι σημαντικά και πρέπει να υπάρχει
τουλάχιστον ένα δεκαεξαδικό ψηφίο είτε στον ακέραιο είτε στο κλάσμα.
Αυτή η σύνταξη είναι παρόμοια με τη σύνταξη που καθορίζεται στην ενότητα
6.4.4.2 του προτύπου C99, καθώς και στη σύνταξη που χρησιμοποιείται στην
Java 1.5 και μετά.  Ιδιαίτερα, η έξοδος του *note float.hex(): 22f2.
μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ως δεκαεξαδικό Κυριολεκτική κινητής
υποδιαστολής σε κώδικα C ή Java, και παράχθηκαν δεκαεξαδικές
συμβολοσειρές με τον χαρακτήρα μορφής ‘%a’ της C ή το
‘Double.toHexString’ της Java είναι αποδεκτά από το *note
float.fromhex(): 27f4.

Σημειώστε ότι ο εκθέτης είναι γραμμένος με δεκαδικό και όχι δεκαεξαδικό
και ότι δίνει τη δύναμη του 2 με την οποία πολλαπλασιάζεται ο
συντελεστής.  Για παράδειγμα, η δεκαεξαδική συμβολοσειρά (string)
‘0x3.a7p10’ αντιπροσωπεύει τον αριθμό κινητής υποδιαστολής ‘(3 + 10./16
+ 7./16**2) * 2,0**10’, ή ‘3740,0’:

     >>> float.fromhex('0x3.a7p10')
     3740.0

Η εφαρμογή της αντίστροφης μετατροπής σε ‘3740.0’ δίνει μία διαφορετική
δεκαεξαδική συμβολοσειρά (string) που αντιπροσωπεύει τον ίδιο αριθμό:

     >>> float.hex(3740.0)
     '0x1.d380000000000p+11'


File: python.info,  Node: Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Μιγαδικούς,  Next: Κατακερματισμός των αριθμητικών τύπων,  Prev: Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Float,  Up: Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex

5.4.4.4 Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Μιγαδικούς
........................................

Ο τύπος ‘complex’ υλοποιεί την *note numbers.Complex: 27f6. *note
abstract base class: 155f.  Η ‘complex’ έχει επίσης τις ακόλουθες
πρόσθετε μεθόδους.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod complex.from_number (x)

     Μέθοδος κλάσης για τη μετατροπή ενός αριθμούς σε ένα μιγαδικό
     αριθμός.

     Για ένα γενικό αντικείμενο Python ‘x’, ‘complex.from_number(x)’
     ανατίθεται στο ‘x.__complex__()’.  Εάν η *note __complex__(): 9de.
     δεν έχει οριστεί, τότε επιστρέφει *note __float__(): d92.  Εάν η
     ‘__float__()’ δεν έχει οριστεί, τότε επιστρέφει στη *note
     __index__(): 43d.

     Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Κατακερματισμός των αριθμητικών τύπων,  Prev: Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Μιγαδικούς,  Up: Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex

5.4.4.5 Κατακερματισμός των αριθμητικών τύπων
.............................................

Για αριθμούς ‘x’ και ‘y’, πιθανώς διαφορετικών τύπων, είναι
προαπαιτούμενο ότι ‘hash(x) == hash(y)’ όποτε ‘x == y’ (δείτε την
τεκμηρίωση για την μέθοδο *note __hash__(): ec1. για περισσότερες
λεπτομέρειες).  Για την ευκολότερη εφαρμογή και αποτελεσματικότητα σε
ένα εύρος αριθμητικών τύπων (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των *note int: 326,
*note float: 327, *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2. και *note
fractions.Fraction: 1c3.) o κατακερματισμός της Python για αριθμητικούς
τύπους βασίζεται σε μία μόνο μαθηματική συνάρτηση που ορίζεται για
οποιονδήποτε ρητό αριθμό, και ως εκ τούτου ισχύει για όλα τα instances
‘int’ και ‘fractions.Fraction’ και όλα πεπερασμένα instances ‘float’ και
‘decimal.Decimal’.  Ουσιαστικά, αυτή η συνάρτηση δίνεται από το modulo
μείωσης ‘P’ για ένα σταθερό πρώτο ‘P’.  Η τιμή του ‘P’ διατίθεται στην
Python ως χαρακτηριστικό *note modulus: 27f9. του *note sys.hash_info:
13a8.

Αυτή τη στιγμή, ο πρώτος που χρησιμοποιείται είναι ‘P = 2**31 - 1’ σε
μηχανήματα με μήκους 32-bit C και ‘P = 2**61 - 1’ σε μηχανήματα με
μήκους 64-bit C.

Εδώ οι κανόνες λεπτομερώς:

   - Αν το ‘x = m / n’ είναι ένας μη αρνητικός ρητός αριθμός και το ‘n’
     δεν διαιρείται από ‘P’, ορίστε το ‘hash(x)’ ως ‘m * invmod(n, P) %
     P’, όπου το ‘invmod(n, P)’ μας δίνει το αντίστροφο του modulo ‘n’
     ‘P’.

   - Αν το ‘x = m / n’ είναι ένας μη αρνητικός ρητός αριθμός και το ‘n’
     διαιρείται με το ‘P’ (αλλά το ‘m’ όχι) τότε το ‘n’ δεν έχει
     αντίστροφο modulo ‘P’ και ο κανόνας παραπάνω δεν ισχύει.  Σε αυτήν
     την περίπτωση ορίστε το ‘hash(x)’ ως σταθερή τιμή
     ‘sys.hash_info.inf’.

   - Αν ‘x = m / n’ είναι ένας αρνητικός ρητός αριθμός τότε το ‘hash(x)’
     ορίζεται ως ‘-hash(-x)’.  Αν το hash που προκύπτει είναι ‘-1’,
     αντικαθίσταται με ‘-2’.

   - Οι συγκεκριμένες τιμές των ‘sys.hash_info.inf’ και
     ‘-sys.hash_info.inf’ χρησιμοποιούνται ως τιμές κατακερματισμού για
     το θετικό άπειρο ή το αρνητικό άπειρο (αντίστοιχα).

   - Για έναν *note complex: 328. αριθμό ‘z’, οι τιμές κατακερματισμού
     των πραγματικών και φανταστικών μερών συνδυάζονται με τον
     υπολογισμό ‘hash(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash(z.imag)’,
     μειωμένο modulo ‘2**sys.hash_info.width’ έτσι ώστε να βρίσκεται στο
     ‘range(-2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1), 2**(sys.hash_info.width -
     1))’.  Και πάλι, αν το αποτέλεσμα είναι ‘-1’, αντικαθίσταται με
     ‘-2’.

Για να αποσαφηνίσουμε τους παραπάνω κανόνες, εδώ είναι ένα παράδειγμα
κώδικα της Python, ισοδύναμο με το built-in hash, για τον υπολογισμό του
hash ενός ρητού αριθμού, *note float: 327, ή *note complex: 328.:

     import sys, math

     def hash_fraction(m, n):
         """Compute the hash of a rational number m / n.

         Assumes m and n are integers, with n positive.
         Equivalent to hash(fractions.Fraction(m, n)).

         """
         P = sys.hash_info.modulus
         # Remove common factors of P.  (Unnecessary if m and n already coprime.)
         while m % P == n % P == 0:
             m, n = m // P, n // P

         if n % P == 0:
             hash_value = sys.hash_info.inf
         else:
             # Fermat's Little Theorem: pow(n, P-1, P) is 1, so
             # pow(n, P-2, P) gives the inverse of n modulo P.
             hash_value = (abs(m) % P) * pow(n, P - 2, P) % P
         if m < 0:
             hash_value = -hash_value
         if hash_value == -1:
             hash_value = -2
         return hash_value

     def hash_float(x):
         """Compute the hash of a float x."""

         if math.isnan(x):
             return object.__hash__(x)
         elif math.isinf(x):
             return sys.hash_info.inf if x > 0 else -sys.hash_info.inf
         else:
             return hash_fraction(*x.as_integer_ratio())

     def hash_complex(z):
         """Compute the hash of a complex number z."""

         hash_value = hash_float(z.real) + sys.hash_info.imag * hash_float(z.imag)
         # do a signed reduction modulo 2**sys.hash_info.width
         M = 2**(sys.hash_info.width - 1)
         hash_value = (hash_value & (M - 1)) - (hash_value & M)
         if hash_value == -1:
             hash_value = -2
         return hash_value


File: python.info,  Node: Τύπος Boolean - bool,  Next: Τύποι Iterator,  Prev: Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.5 Τύπος Boolean - ‘bool’
----------------------------

Οι λογικές τιμές (Booleans) αντιπροσωπεύουν τιμές αλήθειας.  Ο τύπος
*note bool: 5ef. έχει ακριβώς δύο σταθερές τιμές: ‘True’ και ‘False’.

Η ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note bool(): 5ef. μετατρέπει οποιαδήποτε τιμή
σε λογική (boolean), αν η τιμή μπορεί να ερμηνευτεί ως τιμή αλήθειας
(βλέπε παραπάνω ενότητα *note Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής: 1a80.).

Για λογικές πράξεις, χρησιμοποιήστε τους τελεστές *note boolean: 27e7.
‘and’, ‘or’ και ‘not’.  Κατά την εφαρμογή των bitwise τελεστών ‘&’, ‘|’,
‘^’ σε δύο booleans, επιστρέφουν ένα bool ισοδύναμο με τις λογικές
πράξεις «and», «or», «xor».  Ωστόσο, οι λογικοί τελεστές ‘and’, ‘or’ και
‘!=’ θα πρέπει να προτιμώνται έναντι των ‘&’, ‘|’ και ‘^’.

Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12: Η χρήση του bitwise inversion τελεστή ‘~’
είναι ξεπερασμένη και κάνει raise ένα σφάλμα στην Python 3.16.

Η *note bool: 5ef. είναι υποκλάση της *note int: 326. (βλέπε *note
Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int, float, complex: 21c9.).  Σε πολλά αριθμητικά
περιβάλλοντα, τα ‘False’ και ‘True’ συμπεριφέρονται όπως οι ακέραιοι
αριθμοί 0 και 1, αντίστοιχα.  Ωστόσο, δεν συνιστάται να βασίζεστε σε
αυτό· πιο αναλυτικά κάντε μετατροπή χρησιμοποιώντας τη *note int(): 326.
αντ” αυτού.


File: python.info,  Node: Τύποι Iterator,  Next: Τύποι Ακολουθίας Sequence — list tuple range,  Prev: Τύπος Boolean - bool,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.6 Τύποι Iterator
--------------------

Η Python υποστηρίζει την έννοια της επανάληψης σε containers.  Αυτό
υλοποιείται χρησιμοποιώντας δύο διαφορετικές μεθόδους· αυτές
χρησιμοποιούνται για να επιτρέψουν σε κλάσεις που ορίζονται από το
χρήστη να να υποστηρίζουν την επανάληψη.  Οι ακολουθίες (sequences), που
περιγράφονται παρακάτω με περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες, πάντα υποστηρίζουν
τις μεθόδους επανάληψης.

Μια μέθοδος πρέπει να οριστεί για τα container αντικείμενα ώστε να
παρέχει *note iterable: 15ce. υποστήριξη:

 -- Μέθοδος: container.__iter__ ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο *note iterator: 6ce.  Το αντικείμενο
     απαιτείται να υποστηρίζει το πρωτόκολλο επαναλήψεων που
     περιγράφεται παρακάτω.  Εάν ένας container υποστηρίζει
     διαφορετικούς τύπους της επανάληψης, μπορούν να παρασχεθούν
     πρόσθετες μέθοδοι για να ζητηθούν συγκεκριμένοι iterators για
     αυτούς τους τύπους επανάληψης.  (Ένα παράδειγμα αντικειμένου που
     υποστηρίζει πολλαπλές μορφές επανάληψης θα ήταν μια δενδρική δομή
     που υποστηρίζει και αμφότερες τις breadth-first και depth-first
     μορφές).  Αυτή η μέθοδος αντιστοιχεί στη μέθοδο *note tp_iter:
     1891. της δομής τύπου για αντικείμενα Python στο API της Python/C.

Τα ίδια τα αντικείμενα επαναλήψεων απαιτείται να υποστηρίζουν τις
ακόλουθες δύο μεθόδους, οι οποίες από κοινού αποτελούν το 'iterator
protocol':

 -- Μέθοδος: iterator.__iter__ ()

     Επιστρέφει το ίδιο το αντικείμενο *note iterator: 6ce.  Αυτό
     απαιτείται ώστε να επιτραπεί η χρησιμοποίηση τόσο των containers,
     όσο και των iterators με τα statements *note for: 321. και *note
     in: 323.  Αυτή η μέθοδος αντιστοιχεί στη δομή *note tp_iter: 1891.
     των αντικειμένων της Python στο Python/C API.

 -- Μέθοδος: iterator.__next__ ()

     Επιστρέφει το επόμενο στοιχείο από τον *note iterator: 6ce.  Εάν
     δεν υπάρχουν άλλα στοιχεία, κάνει raise την εξαίρεση *note
     StopIteration: fba.  Αυτή η μέθοδος αντιστοιχεί στην δομή *note
     tp_iternext: 1892. των αντικειμένων της Python στο API της
     Python/C.

Η Python ορίζει διάφορα αντικείμενα iterator για την υποστήριξη της
επανάληψης πάνω σε γενικούς και συγκεκριμένους τύπους ακολουθιών
(sequences), λεξικά (dictionaries) και άλλες πιο εξειδικευμένες μορφές.
Οι συγκεκριμένοι τύποι δεν είναι σημαντικοί πέρα από την υλοποίησή του
iterator πρωτοκόλλου.

Μόλις η μέθοδος *note __next__(): 1672. ενός iterator κάνει raise ένα
*note StopIteration: fba, πρέπει να συνεχίσει να το κάνει σε επόμενες
κλήσεις.  Υλοποιήσεις που δεν υπακούν σε αυτή την ιδιότητα θεωρούνται
εσφαλμένες.

* Menu:

* Τύποι Generator::


File: python.info,  Node: Τύποι Generator,  Up: Τύποι Iterator

5.4.6.1 Τύποι Generator
.......................

Οι *note generator: 1409.s της Python παρέχουν έναν βολικό τρόπο για να
υλοποιήσετε το iterator πρωτόκολλο.  Εάν η μέθοδος *note __iter__():
102d. ενός container αντικειμένου είναι υλοποιημένη ως generator, θα
επιστρέψει αυτόματα ένα αντικείμενο iterator (τεχνικά, ένα αντικείμενο
generator) που παρέχει τις *note __iter__(): 229d. και *note __next__():
229e. μεθόδους.  Περισσότερες πληροφορίες σχετικά με τους generators
μπορείτε να βρείτε στην *note the documentation for the yield
expression: 268f.


File: python.info,  Node: Τύποι Ακολουθίας Sequence — list tuple range,  Next: Σύνοψη μεθόδων τύπου κειμένου και δυαδική ακολουθίας,  Prev: Τύποι Iterator,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.7 Τύποι Ακολουθίας (Sequence) — ‘list’, ‘tuple’, ‘range’
------------------------------------------------------------

Υπάρχουν τρεις βασικοί τύποι ακολουθιών: lists (λίστες), tuples
(πλειάδες) και range objects (αντικείμενα εύρους).  Πρόσθετοι τύποι
ακολουθίας προσαρμοσμένοι για την επεξεργασία *note binary data: 27bd.
και *note text strings: 21cd. περιγράφονται σε ειδικές ενότητες.

* Menu:

* Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών (Sequences): Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
* Τύποι Αμετάβλητων Ακολουθιών (Sequences): Τύποι Αμετάβλητων Ακολουθιών Sequences.
* Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών (Sequences): Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
* Λίστες: Λίστες<2>.
* Πλειάδες (Tuples): Πλειάδες Tuples.
* Εύρη (Ranges): Εύρη Ranges.


File: python.info,  Node: Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences,  Next: Τύποι Αμετάβλητων Ακολουθιών Sequences,  Up: Τύποι Ακολουθίας Sequence — list tuple range

5.4.7.1 Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών (Sequences)
.................................................

Οι λειτουργίες του παρακάτω πίνακα υποστηρίζονται από τους περισσότερους
τύπους ακολουθιών, τόσο μεταβλητών (mutable) όσο και αμετάβλητων
(immutable).  Η *note collections.abc.Sequence: 156d. ABC παρέχεται για
να διευκολύνει τη σωστή υλοποίηση αυτών των πράξεων σε προσαρμοσμένους
τύπους ακολουθίας.

Αυτός ο πίνακας απαριθμεί τις λειτουργίες ακολουθίας ταξινομημένες κατά
αύξουσα προτεραιότητα.  Στον πίνακα, τα 's' και 't' είναι ακολουθίες του
ίδιου τύπου, τα 'n', 'i', 'j' και 'k' είναι ακέραιοι αριθμοί και το 'x'
είναι ένα αυθαίρετο αντικείμενο που πληροί οποιονδήποτε τύπο και
περιορισμούς τιμής που επιβάλλονται από το 's'.

Οι πράξεις ‘in’ και ‘not in’ έχουν τις ίδιες προτεραιότητες με τις
πράξεις σύγκρισης.  Οι πράξεις ‘+’ (συνένωση) και ‘*’ (επανάληψη) έχουν
την ίδια προτεραιότητα με τις αντίστοιχες αριθμητικές πράξεις.  (1)

Πράξη                          Αποτέλεσμα                           Σημειώσεις
                                                                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
‘x in s’                       ‘True’ αν ένα στοιχείο του 's'       (1)
                               είναι ίσο με το 'x', αλλιώς          
                               ‘False’
                               
                                                                    
‘x not in s’                   ‘False’ αν ένα στοιχείο του 's'      (1)
                               είναι ίσο με το 'x', αλλιώς ‘True’   
                               
                                                                    
‘s + t’                        η συνένωση του 's' και 't'           (6)(7)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘s * n’ ή ‘n * s’              ίσο με την πρόσθεση του 's' στον     (2)(7)
                               εαυτό του 'n' φορές                  
                               
                                                                    
‘s[i]’                         'i'ο στοιχείο του 's', αρχή το 0     (3)(8)
                                                                    
                                                                    
‘s[i:j]’                       slice (υποσύνολο) του 's' από το     (3)(4)
                               'i' μέχρι το 'j'                     
                               
                                                                    
‘s[i:j:k]’                     slice (υποσύνολο) του 's' από το     (3)(5)
                               'i' μέχρι το 'j' με βήμα 'k'         
                               
                                                                    
‘len(s)’                       μήκος του 's'
                               
                                                                    
‘min(s)’                       μικρότερο αντικείμενο του 's'
                               
                                                                    
‘max(s)’                       μεγαλύτερο αντικείμενο του 's'
                               

Οι ακολουθίες (sequences) του ίδιου τύπου υποστηρίζουν επίσης
συγκρίσεις.  Ειδικότερα, τα tuples (πλειάδες) και οι λίστες συγκρίνονται
λεξικογραφικά συγκρίνοντας τα αντίστοιχα στοιχεία.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι
για να συγκρίνουμε ίσα, κάθε στοιχείο πρέπει να συγκρίνεται ως ίσο με το
αντίστοιχό του, οι δύο ακολουθίες πρέπει να είναι του ίδιου τύπου και να
έχουν το ίδιο μήκος.  (Για πλήρεις λεπτομέρειες δείτε την αναφορά *note
Comparisons: 26c7.)

Εμπρόσθιοι και αντίστροφοι iterators πάνω σε μεταβλητές ακολουθίες έχουν
πρόσβαση σε τιμές χρησιμοποιώντας ένα δείκτη.  Αυτός ο δείκτης θα
συνεχίσει να βαδίζει προς τα εμπρός (ή προς τα πίσω) ακόμα και αν η
υποκείμενη ακολουθία μεταλλάσσεται.  Ο iterator τερματίζει μόνο όταν ένα
*note IndexError: 18d7. ή ένα *note StopIteration: fba. γίνει raise (ή
όταν ο δείκτης πέσει κάτω από το μηδέν).

Σημειώσεις:

  1. Ενώ οι πράξεις ‘in’ και ‘not in’ χρησιμοποιούνται γενικά μόνο για
     απλό έλεγχο containment (αν στοιχείο περιέχεται σε μια δομή),
     ορισμένες εξειδικευμένες ακολουθίες (όπως όπως οι *note str: 1df,
     *note bytes: 1c7. και *note bytearray: 1c6.) τις χρησιμοποιούν
     επίσης για subsequence testing (έλεγχο υποακολουθίας):

          >>> "gg" in "eggs"
          True

  2. Τιμές του 'n' μικρότερες από το ‘0’ αντιμετωπίζονται ως ‘0’ (που
     δίνει μια κενή ακολουθία του ίδιου τύπου με 's').  Σημειώστε ότι τα
     στοιχεία της ακολουθίας 's' δεν αντιγράφονται· αναφέρονται πολλές
     φορές.  Αυτό συχνά στοιχειώνει τα άτομα που ξεκινούν με Python-
     σκεφτείτε:

          >>> lists = [[]] * 3
          >>> lists
          [[], [], []]
          >>> lists[0].append(3)
          >>> lists
          [[3], [3], [3]]

     Αυτό που συνέβη είναι ότι το ‘[[]]’ είναι μια λίστα ενός στοιχείου
     που περιέχει μία κενή λίστα, οπότε και τα τρία στοιχεία της ‘[[]] *
     3’ είναι αναφορές σε αυτή τη μία κενή λίστα.  Η τροποποίηση
     οποιουδήποτε από τα στοιχεία της ‘lists’ τροποποιεί αυτή τη
     μοναδική λίστα.  Μπορείτε να δημιουργήσετε μια λίστα από
     διαφορετικές λίστες με αυτόν τον τρόπο:

          >>> lists = [[] for i in range(3)]
          >>> lists[0].append(3)
          >>> lists[1].append(5)
          >>> lists[2].append(7)
          >>> lists
          [[3], [5], [7]]

     Περαιτέρω επεξήγηση είναι διαθέσιμη στο λήμμα FAQ *note Πως φτιάχνω
     μια πολυδιάστατη λίστα;: 2802.

  3. Εάν το 'i' ή το 'j' είναι αρνητικό, ο δείκτης είναι σχετικός με το
     τέλος της ακολουθίας 's': το ‘len(s) + i’ ή το ‘len(s) + j’
     αντικαθίσταται.  Σημειώστε όμως ότι το ‘-0’ εξακολουθεί να είναι
     ‘0’.

  4. The slice of 's' from 'i' to 'j' is defined as the sequence of
     items with index 'k' such that ‘i <= k < j’.

        * If 'i' is omitted or ‘None’, use ‘0’.

        * If 'j' is omitted or ‘None’, use ‘len(s)’.

        * If 'i' or 'j' is less than ‘-len(s)’, use ‘0’.

        * If 'i' or 'j' is greater than ‘len(s)’, use ‘len(s)’.

        * If 'i' is greater than or equal to 'j', the slice is empty.

  5. Το υποσύνολο (slice) του 's' από 'i' έως 'j' με βήμα 'k' ορίζεται
     ως η ακολουθία των στοιχείων με δείκτη ‘x = i + n*k’ τέτοια ώστε ‘0
     <= n < (j-i)/k’.  Με άλλα λόγια, οι δείκτες είναι ‘i’, ‘i+k’,
     ‘i+2*k’, ‘i+3*k’ και ούτω καθεξής, σταματώντας όταν φτάσουμε στο
     'j' (αλλά ποτέ δεν περιλαμβάνει το 'j').  Όταν το 'k' είναι θετικό,
     τα 'i' και 'j' μειώνονται σε ‘len(s)’ αν είναι μεγαλύτερα.  Όταν το
     'k' είναι αρνητικό, τα 'i' και 'j' μειώνονται σε ‘len(s) - 1’ αν
     είναι μεγαλύτερα.  Εάν τα 'i' ή 'j' παραλείπονται ή είναι ‘None’,
     γίνονται τιμές «end» (το τέλος εξαρτάται από το πρόσημο του 'k').
     Σημειώστε ότι το 'k' δεν μπορεί να είναι μηδέν.  Εάν το 'k' είναι
     ‘None’, αντιμετωπίζεται όπως το ‘1’.

  6. Η συνένωση αμετάβλητων ακολουθιών (immutable sequences) οδηγεί
     πάντα σε ένα νέο αντικείμενο.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι η δημιουργία μιας
     ακολουθίας με επαναλαμβανόμενη συνένωση θα έχει τετραγωνικό κόστος
     χρόνου εκτέλεσης (runtime cost) στο συνολικό μήκος της ακολουθίας.
     Για να πάρετε ένα γραμμικό κόστος χρόνου εκτέλεσης (runtime cost),
     πρέπει να μεταβείτε σε μία από τις παρακάτω εναλλακτικές λύσεις:

        * αν συνενώνεται αντικείμενα *note str: 1df, μπορείτε να
          δημιουργήσετε μια λίστα και να χρησιμοποιήσετε την *note
          str.join(): 2803. στο τέλος ή αλλιώς να γράψετε σε ένα *note
          io.StringIO: 12d4. instance και ανακτήσετε την τιμή της όταν
          ολοκληρωθεί

        * αν συνενώνεται αντικείμενα *note bytes: 1c7, μπορείτε να
          χρησιμοποιήσετε παρόμοια τη μέθοδο *note bytes.join(): 2804. ή
          *note io.BytesIO: 1255, ή μπορείτε να κάνετε in-place συνένωση
          (concatenation) με ένα *note bytearray: 1c6. αντικείμενο.  Τα
          αντικείμενα ‘bytearray’ είναι μεταβλητά και έχουν έναν
          αποτελεσματικό μηχανισμό συνολικής κατανομής (overallocation)

        * αν συνενώνεται αντικείμενα *note tuple: 1ce, επεκτείνετε μια
          *note list: 4d9. αντ” αυτού

        * για άλλους τύπους, ερευνήστε τη σχετική τεκμηρίωση των κλάσεων

  7. Ορισμένοι τύποι ακολουθιών (όπως *note range: d0f.) υποστηρίζουν
     μόνο ακολουθίες στοιχείων που ακολουθούν συγκεκριμένα μοτίβα, και
     ως εκ τούτου δεν υποστηρίζουν ακολουθία συνένωση ή επανάληψη.

  8. Μια *note IndexError: 18d7. γίνεται raise εάν το 'i' βρίσκεται
     εκτός του εύρους ακολουθίας.

Μέθοδοι Ακολουθίας
..................

Οι τύποι ακολουθίας υποστηρίζουν επίσης τις ακόλουθες μεθόδους:

 -- Μέθοδος: sequence.count (value, /)

     Επιστρέφει το συνολικό αριθμό των εμφανίσεων του 'value' μέσα στην
     'sequence'.

 -- Μέθοδος: sequence.index (value[, start[, stop]])

     Επιστρέφει το δείκτη της πρώτης εμφάνισης του 'value' μέσα στην
     'sequence'.

     Κάνει raise μια *note ValueError: 277. αν το 'value' δεν μπορεί να
     βρεθεί μέσα στην 'sequence'.

     Τα ορίσματα 'start' ή 'stop' επιτρέπουν αποδοτική αναζήτηση
     υποτμημάτων της ακολουθίας, ξεκινώντας από το 'start' και
     τελειώνοντας στο 'stop'.  Αυτό είναι περίπου ισοδύναμο με το ‘start
     + sequence[start:stop].index(value)’, μόνο που δεν αντιγράφονται
     δεδομένα.

          Προσοχή: Δεν υποστηρίζουν όλοι οι τύποι ακολουθιών τη χρήση
          των ορισμάτων 'start' και 'stop'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Πρέπει να έχουν, αφού ο parser δεν μπορεί να ξεχωρίσει τον τύπο
των τελεστών.


File: python.info,  Node: Τύποι Αμετάβλητων Ακολουθιών Sequences,  Next: Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences,  Prev: Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences,  Up: Τύποι Ακολουθίας Sequence — list tuple range

5.4.7.2 Τύποι Αμετάβλητων Ακολουθιών (Sequences)
................................................

Η μόνη λειτουργία που υλοποιούν οι αμετάβλητοι γενικοί τύποι ακολουθίας
που δεν είναι υλοποιημένοι από μεταβλητούς τύπους ακολουθίας, είναι η
υποστήριξη της *note hash(): 9e2. built-in.

Αυτή η υποστήριξη επιτρέπει αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες, όπως οι περιπτώσεις
των *note tuple: 1ce, να χρησιμοποιούνται ως κλειδιά *note dict: 188.
και να αποθηκεύονται σε *note set: 42b. και *note frozenset: 9d4.
instances.

Η προσπάθεια κατακερματισμού μιας αμετάβλητης ακολουθίας που περιέχει μη
κατακερματιστέες (unhashable) τιμές θα οδηγήσει σε *note TypeError: 291.


File: python.info,  Node: Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences,  Next: Λίστες<2>,  Prev: Τύποι Αμετάβλητων Ακολουθιών Sequences,  Up: Τύποι Ακολουθίας Sequence — list tuple range

5.4.7.3 Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών (Sequences)
...............................................

Οι λειτουργίες του ακόλουθου πίνακα ορίζονται σε μεταβλητούς τύπους
ακολουθίας.  Η *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: 6c6. ABC παρέχεται
για να κάνει ευκολότερη την σωστή υλοποίηση αυτών των λειτουργιών σε
προσαρμοσμένους τύπους ακολουθιών.

Στον πίνακα το 's' είναι ένα instance ενός μεταβλητού τύπου ακολουθίας,
το 't' είναι οποιοδήποτε iterable αντικείμενο και το 'x' είναι ένα
αυθαίρετο αντικείμενο που πληροί οποιονδήποτε τύπο και περιορισμούς
τιμής που επιβάλλονται από το 's' (για παράδειγμα, το *note bytearray:
1c6. δέχεται μόνο ακέραιους που πληρούν τον περιορισμό ‘0 <= x <= 255’).

Πράξη                              Αποτέλεσμα                           Σημειώσεις
                                                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                        
‘s[i] = x’                         το στοιχείο 'i' του 's'
                                   αντικαθίσταται από το 'x'
                                   
                                                                        
‘del s[i]’                         αφαιρεί το στοιχείο 'i' από το 's'
                                   
                                                                        
‘s[i:j] = t’                       το υποσύνολο (slice) του 's' από
                                   το 'i' έως το 'j' αντικαθίσταται
                                   από τα περιεχόμενα του iterable
                                   't'
                                   
                                                                        
‘del s[i:j]’                       αφαιρεί τα στοιχεία της ‘s[i:j]’
                                   από τη λίστα (παρόμοια όπως
                                   ‘s[i:j] = []’)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s[i:j:k] = t’                     τα στοιχεία του ‘s[i:j:k]’           (1)
                                   αντικαθίστανται από εκείνα του 't'   
                                   
                                                                        
‘del s[i:j:k]’                     αφαιρεί τα στοιχεία του ‘s[i:j:k]’
                                   από τη λίστα
                                   
                                                                        
‘s += t’                           επεκτείνει το 's' με τα
                                   περιεχόμενα του 't' (ως επί το
                                   πλείστον το ίδιο με το
                                   ‘s[len(s):len(s)] = t’)
                                   
                                                                        
‘s *= n’                           ενημερώνει το 's' με το              (2)
                                   περιεχόμενό του επαναλαμβανόμενο     
                                   'n' φορές
                                   

Σημειώσεις:

  1. Αν το 'k' δεν είναι ίσο με ‘1’, το 't' πρέπει να έχει το ίδιο μήκος
     με το τμήμα που αντικαθιστά.

  2. Η τιμή 'n' είναι ένας ακέραιος αριθμός ή ένα αντικείμενο που
     υλοποιεί την *note __index__(): 43d.  Οι μηδενικές και αρνητικές
     τιμές του 'n' καθαρίζουν την ακολουθία.  Τα στοιχεία της ακολουθίας
     δεν αντιγράφονται· αναφέρονται πολλές φορές, όπως εξηγείται για το
     ‘s * n`’ στο *note Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών (Sequences): 2801.

Μέθοδοι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών (Sequences)
.........................................

Οι τύποι μεταβλητών ακολουθιών υποστηρίζουν επίσης τις ακόλουθες
μεθόδους:

 -- Μέθοδος: sequence.append (value, /)

     Append 'value' to the end of the sequence.  This is equivalent to
     writing ‘seq[len(seq):len(seq)] = [value]’.

 -- Μέθοδος: sequence.clear ()

     Added in version 3.3.

     Αφαιρεί όλα τα στοιχεία από την 'sequence'.  Αυτό είναι ισοδύναμο
     με το να γράψουμε ‘del sequence[:]’.

 -- Μέθοδος: sequence.copy ()

     Added in version 3.3.

     Δημιουργεί ένα shallow αντίγραφο του 'sequence'.  Αυτό είναι
     ισοδύναμο με το να γράψουμε ‘sequence[:]’.

          Συμβουλή: Η μέθοδος ‘copy()’ δεν είναι μέρος της *note
          MutableSequence: 6c6. *note ABC: 12c8, αλλά οι περισσότερους
          συγκεκριμένοι μεταβλητοί τύποι ακολουθιών την παρέχουν.

 -- Μέθοδος: sequence.extend (iterable, /)

     Επεκτείνει το 'sequence' με τα περιεχόμενα του 'iterable'.  Για το
     μεγαλύτερο μέρος, αυτό είναι το ίδιο με το να γράψουμε
     ‘seq[len(seq):len(seq)] = iterable’.

 -- Μέθοδος: sequence.insert (index, value, /)

     Εισάγει το 'value' στην 'sequence' στη δοθείσα θέση 'index'.  Αυτό
     είναι ισοδύναμο με το να γράψουμε ‘sequence[index:index] =
     [value]’.

 -- Μέθοδος: sequence.pop (index=-1, /)

     Ανακτά το στοιχείο στη θέση 'index' και το αφαιρεί επίσης από την
     'sequence'.  Εξ ορισμού, το τελευταίο στοιχείο στην 'sequence'
     αφαιρείται και επιστρέφεται.

 -- Μέθοδος: sequence.remove (value, /)

     Αφαιρεί το πρώτο στοιχείο από την 'sequence' όπου ‘sequence[i] ==
     value’.

     Κάνει raise μια *note ValueError: 277. αν το 'value' δεν μπορεί να
     βρεθεί μέσα στην 'sequence'.

 -- Μέθοδος: sequence.reverse ()

     Αντιστρέφει τα στοιχεία της 'sequence' στη θέση της.  Αυτή η
     μέθοδος διατηρεί την οικονομία χώρου κατά την αντιστροφή μιας
     μεγάλης ακολουθίας.  Για να θυμίζει στους χρήστες ότι λειτουργεί με
     παρενέργεια, επιστρέφει το ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Λίστες<2>,  Next: Πλειάδες Tuples,  Prev: Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences,  Up: Τύποι Ακολουθίας Sequence — list tuple range

5.4.7.4 Λίστες
..............

Οι λίστες είναι μεταβλητές ακολουθίες, που συνήθως χρησιμοποιούνται για
την αποθήκευση συλλογών ομοιογενών στοιχείων (όπου ο ακριβής βαθμός
ομοιότητας ποικίλλει ανάλογα με εφαρμογή).

 -- Κλάση: list (iterable=(), /)

     Οι λίστες μπορούν να κατασκευαστούν με διάφορους τρόπους:

        * Χρησιμοποιείστε ένα ζεύγος αγκυλών για να δηλώσετε την κενή
          λίστα: ‘[]’

        * Χρησιμοποιώντας αγκύλες, διαχωρίζοντας τα στοιχεία με κόμματα:
          ‘[a]’, ‘[a, b, c]’

        * Χρήση ενός list comprehension: ‘[x for x in iterable]’

        * Χρήση του κατασκευαστή τύπου (type constructor): ‘list()’ ή
          ‘list(iterable)’

     Ο κατασκευαστής (constructor) δημιουργεί μια λίστα της οποίας τα
     στοιχεία είναι τα ίδια και με την ίδια σειρά όπως τα στοιχεία του
     'iterable'.  Το 'iterable' μπορεί να είναι είτε μια ακολουθία, είτε
     ένας container που υποστηρίζει την επανάληψη, ή ένα αντικείμενο
     iterator.  Εάν το 'iterable' είναι ήδη μια λίστα, δημιουργείται ένα
     αντίγραφο και επιστρέφεται, παρόμοια με την ‘iterable[:]’.  Για
     παράδειγμα, η ‘list('abc')’ επιστρέφει ‘['a', 'b', 'c']’ και η
     ‘list( (1, 2, 3) )’ επιστρέφει ‘[1, 2, 3]’.  Αν δεν δοθεί κανένα
     όρισμα, ο κατασκευαστής δημιουργεί μία νέα κενή λίστα, ‘[]’.

     Πολλές άλλες λειτουργίες παράγουν επίσης λίστες,
     συμπεριλαμβανομένης της built-in *note sorted(): f8c.

     Οι λίστες υλοποιούν όλες τις *note common: 2801. και *note mutable:
     27bb. λειτουργίες ακολουθίας.  Οι λίστες παρέχουν επίσης την
     ακόλουθη πρόσθετη μέθοδο:

      -- Μέθοδος: sort (*, key=None, reverse=False)

          Αυτή η μέθοδος ταξινομεί τη λίστα, χρησιμοποιώντας μόνο
          συγκρίσεις ‘<’ μεταξύ στοιχείων.  Οι εξαιρέσεις δεν
          καταστέλλονται - αν αποτύχει κάποια πράξη σύγκρισης, ολόκληρη
          η λειτουργία ταξινόμησης θα αποτύχει (και η λίστα θα
          παραμείνει πιθανότατα σε μια μερικώς τροποποιημένη κατάσταση).

          η *note sort(): f8d. δέχεται δύο ορίσματα που μπορούν να
          περάσουν μόνο με τη λέξη-κλειδί (*note keyword-only arguments:
          7a3.):

          το 'key' καθορίζει μια συνάρτηση ενός ορίσματος που
          χρησιμοποιείται για την εξαγωγή ενός κλειδιού σύγκρισης
          (comparison key) από κάθε στοιχείο της λίστας (για παράδειγμα,
          ‘key=str.lower’).  Το κλειδί που αντιστοιχεί σε κάθε στοιχείο
          της λίστας υπολογίζεται μία φορά και στη συνέχεια
          χρησιμοποιείται για ολόκληρη τη διαδικασία ταξινόμησης.  Η
          προεπιλεγμένη τιμή (default) ‘None’ σημαίνει ότι τα στοιχεία
          της λίστας ταξινομούνται απευθείας χωρίς να υπολογίζεται
          ξεχωριστή τιμή κλειδιού.

          Το utility *note functools.cmp_to_key(): 1583. είναι διαθέσιμο
          για τη μετατροπή μια συνάρτηση 'cmp' στυλ 2.x σε συνάρτηση
          'key'.

          η 'reverse' είναι μια λογική (boolean) τιμή.  Αν τεθεί σε
          ‘True’, τότε τα στοιχεία της λίστας ταξινομούνται σαν να ήταν
          αντίστροφη κάθε σύγκριση.

          Αυτή η μέθοδος τροποποιεί την ακολουθία για εξοικονόμηση χώρου
          κατά την ταξινόμηση μιας μεγάλης ακολουθίας.  Nα υπενθυμίσουμε
          στους χρήστες ότι λειτουργεί με παρενέργεια, δεν επιστρέφει
          την ταξινομημένη ακολουθία (χρησιμοποιήστε την *note sorted():
          f8c. για να ζητήσετε μια νέα περίπτωση ταξινομημένης λίστας).

          Η μέθοδος *note sort(): f8d. είναι εγγυημένα σταθερή.  Μια
          ταξινόμηση είναι σταθερή αν εγγυάται ότι δεν θα αλλάξει τη
          σχετική σειρά των στοιχείων που συγκρίνουν ίσα — αυτό είναι
          χρήσιμο για την ταξινόμηση σε πολλαπλά περάσματα (για
          παράδειγμα, ταξινόμηση κατά τμήμα, στη συνέχεια με βάση το
          μισθολογικό κλιμάκιο κτλ).

          Για παραδείγματα ταξινόμησης και ένα σύντομο tutorial, δείτε
          *note Sorting Techniques: 27d9.

          Ενώ μια λίστα ταξινομείται, το αποτέλεσμα της προσπάθειας
          μετάλλαξης, ή ακόμα και η επιθεώρηση, της λίστας είναι
          απροσδιόριστη.  Η υλοποίηση της Python στη C κάνει την λίστα
          να εμφανίζεται κενή για όλη τη διάρκεια, και κάνει raise *note
          ValueError: 277. αν ανιχνεύσει ότι η λίστα έχει μεταλλαχθεί
          κατά τη διάρκεια μιας ταξινόμησης.

Δείτε επίσης
............

For detailed information on thread-safety guarantees for *note list:
4d9. objects, see *note Thread safety for list objects: 280e.


File: python.info,  Node: Πλειάδες Tuples,  Next: Εύρη Ranges,  Prev: Λίστες<2>,  Up: Τύποι Ακολουθίας Sequence — list tuple range

5.4.7.5 Πλειάδες (Tuples)
.........................

Οι πλειάδες (tuples) είναι αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες, που συνήθως
χρησιμοποιούνται για την αποθήκευση συλλογών ετερογενών δεδομένων (όπως
οι 2-tuples που παράγονται από την built-in *note enumerate(): 1823.).
Τα tuples χρησιμοποιούνται επίσης για περιπτώσεις όπου μια αμετάβλητη
ακολουθία ομοιογενών δεδομένων (όπως για παράδειγμα για να επιτρέπεται η
αποθήκευση σε ένα *note set: 42b. ή σε ένα *note dict: 188. instance).

 -- Κλάση: tuple (iterable=(), /)

     Οι πλειάδες (tuples) μπορούν να κατασκευαστούν με διάφορους
     τρόπους:

        * Χρήση ενός ζεύγους παρενθέσεων για να δηλωθεί το κενό tuple
          (πλειάδα): ‘()’

        * Χρήση ενός κόμματος στο τέλος για ένα μοναδικό tuple
          (πλειάδα): ‘a,’ ή ‘(a,)’

        * Διαχωρισμός στοιχείων με κόμμα: ‘a, b, c’ ή ‘(a, b, c)’

        * Χρήση του ενσωματωμένου *note tuple(): 1ce.: ‘tuple()’ ή
          ‘tuple(iterable)’

     Ο κατασκευαστής (constructor) δημιουργεί μια πλειάδα (tuple) του
     οποίου τα στοιχεία είναι τα ίδια και στην ίδια σειρά με τα στοιχεία
     του 'iterable'.  Η 'iterable' μπορεί να είναι είτε μια ακολουθία,
     είτε έναν container που υποστηρίζει την επανάληψη, ή ένα
     αντικείμενο iterator.  Εάν το 'iterable' είναι ήδη ένα tuple,
     επιστρέφεται αμετάβλητο.  Για παράδειγμα, το ‘tuple('abc')’
     επιστρέφει ‘('a', 'b', 'c')’ και το ‘tuple( [1, 2, 3] )’ επιστρέφει
     ‘(1, 2, 3)’.  Αν δεν δοθεί κανένα όρισμα, ο κατασκευαστής
     δημιουργεί μια ένα κενό tuple, ‘()’.

     Σημειώστε ότι στην πραγματικότητα το κόμμα είναι αυτό που κάνει ένα
     tuple (πλειάδα), όχι οι παρενθέσεις.  Οι παρενθέσεις είναι
     προαιρετικές, εκτός από την περίπτωση κενού tuple ή όταν
     χρειάζονται για την αποφυγή συντακτικής ασάφειας.  Για παράδειγμα,
     η ‘f(a, b, c)’ είναι μια κλήση συνάρτησης με τρία ορίσματα, ενώ η
     ‘f((a, b, c))’ είναι μια συνάρτηση κλήση συνάρτησης με ένα 3-tuple
     ως μοναδικό όρισμα.

     Τα Tuples υλοποιούν όλες τις πράξεις ακολουθιών *note common: 2801.

Για ετερογενείς συλλογές δεδομένων όπου η πρόσβαση με βάση το όνομα
είναι σαφέστερη από την πρόσβαση με βάση το δείκτη, το *note
collections.namedtuple(): 1cf. μπορεί να είναι μια πιο κατάλληλη επιλογή
από ένα απλό αντικείμενο tuple (πλειάδα).


File: python.info,  Node: Εύρη Ranges,  Prev: Πλειάδες Tuples,  Up: Τύποι Ακολουθίας Sequence — list tuple range

5.4.7.6 Εύρη (Ranges)
.....................

Ο τύπος *note range: d0f. αναπαριστά μια αμετάβλητη ακολουθία αριθμών
και συνήθως χρησιμοποιείται για την επανάληψη ενός συγκεκριμένου αριθμού
επαναλήψεων σε βρόχους *note for: 321.

 -- Κλάση: range (stop, /)

 -- Κλάση: range (start, stop, step=1, /)

     Τα ορίσματα του κατασκευαστή εύρους (range constructor) πρέπει να
     είναι ακέραιοι αριθμοί (είτε της built-in *note int: 326. ή
     οποιοδήποτε αντικείμενο που υλοποιεί την ειδική μέθοδο *note
     __index__(): 43d.).  Εάν το όρισμα 'step' παραλείπεται, το
     προεπιλογή (default) είναι ‘1’.  Εάν το όρισμα 'start'
     παραλείπεται, το προεπιλογή (default) είναι ‘0’.  Εάν το 'step'
     είναι μηδέν, γίνεται raise ένα *note ValueError: 277.

     Για ένα θετικό 'βήμα', τα περιεχόμενα του range (εύρους) ‘r’
     καθορίζονται από τον τύπο ‘r[i] = start + step*i’ όπου ‘i >= 0’ και
     ‘r[i] < stop’.

     Για ένα αρνητικό 'βήμα', τα περιεχόμενα του εύρους (range)
     εξακολουθούν να καθορίζονται από τον τύπο ‘r[i] = start + step*i’,
     αλλά οι περιορισμοί είναι ‘i >= 0’ και ‘r[i] > stop’.

     Ένα αντικείμενο range θα είναι άδειο εάν το ‘r[0]’ δεν πληροί τον
     περιορισμό τιμής.  Τα ranges υποστηρίζουν αρνητικούς δείκτες, αλλά
     αυτοί ερμηνεύονται ως δείκτες από το τέλος της ακολουθίας που
     καθορίζεται από τους θετικούς δείκτες.

     Τα ranges που περιέχουν απόλυτες τιμές μεγαλύτερες από *note
     sys.maxsize: 156e. είναι επιτρεπτά, αλλά ορισμένα χαρακτηριστικά
     (όπως *note len(): a1f.) μπορεί να κάνουν raise *note
     OverflowError: c57.

     Παραδείγματα Range:

          >>> list(range(10))
          [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
          >>> list(range(1, 11))
          [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
          >>> list(range(0, 30, 5))
          [0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
          >>> list(range(0, 10, 3))
          [0, 3, 6, 9]
          >>> list(range(0, -10, -1))
          [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]
          >>> list(range(0))
          []
          >>> list(range(1, 0))
          []

     Τα ranges υλοποιούν όλες τις ακολουθίες *note common: 2801. εκτός
     από τη συνένωση και την επανάληψη (λόγω του γεγονότος ότι τα range
     αντικείμενα μπορούν να αναπαριστούν μόνο ακολουθίες που ακολουθούν
     ένα αυστηρό μοτίβο και η επανάληψη και η συνένωση συνήθως
     παραβιάζουν αυτό το πρότυπο).

      -- Ιδιότητα: start

          Η τιμή της παραμέτρου 'start' (ή ‘0’ αν η παράμετρος δεν
          παρέχεται)

      -- Ιδιότητα: stop

          Η τιμή της παραμέτρου 'stop'

      -- Ιδιότητα: step

          Η τιμή της παραμέτρου 'step' (ή ‘1’ αν η παράμετρος δεν
          παρέχεται)

Το πλεονέκτημα του τύπου *note range: d0f. έναντι ενός κανονικού τύπου
*note list: 4d9. ή *note tuple: 1ce. είναι ότι ένα αντικείμενο ‘range’
θα παίρνει πάντα το ίδιο (μικρό) ποσό μνήμης, ανεξάρτητα από το μέγεθος
του range που αντιπροσωπεύει (μιας και αποθηκεύει μόνο τις τιμές
‘start’, ‘stop’ και ‘step’, υπολογίζοντας τα μεμονωμένα στοιχεία και τις
υποπεριοχές όπως απαιτείται).

Τα αντικείμενα range υλοποιούν την *note collections.abc.Sequence: 156d.
ABC, και παρέχουν χαρακτηριστικά όπως δοκιμές περιορισμού, αναζήτηση
δείκτη στοιχείου, τεμαχισμό και υποστήριξη αρνητικών δεικτών (βλ.  *note
Τύποι Ακολουθίας (Sequence) — list, tuple, range: 221d.):

     >>> r = range(0, 20, 2)
     >>> r
     range(0, 20, 2)
     >>> 11 in r
     False
     >>> 10 in r
     True
     >>> r.index(10)
     5
     >>> r[5]
     10
     >>> r[:5]
     range(0, 10, 2)
     >>> r[-1]
     18

Ο έλεγχος των αντικειμένων range για ισότητα με ‘==’ και ‘!=’ τα
συγκρίνει ως ακολουθίες.  Δηλαδή, δύο αντικείμενα range θεωρούνται ίσα
αν αντιπροσωπεύουν την ίδια ακολουθία τιμών.  (Σημειώστε ότι δύο
αντικείμενα range που συγκρίνονται ως ίσα μπορεί να έχουν διαφορετικά
*note start: 2811, *note stop: 2812. και *note step: 2813.
χαρακτηριστικά, για παράδειγμα ‘range(0) == range(2, 1, 3)’ ή ‘range(0,
3, 2) == range(0, 4, 2)’.)

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Υλοποιείστε την ακολουθία ABC. Υποστηρίξτε την
τμηματοποίηση και τους αρνητικούς δείκτες.  Δοκιμάστε τα *note int: 326.
αντικείμενα για συμμετοχή σε σταθερό χρόνο αντί της επανάληψης σε όλα τα
αντικείμενα.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Ορίστε τα “==” και “!=” για να συγκρίνετε
αντικείμενα range με βάση την ακολουθία των τιμών που ορίζουν (αντί να
συγκρίνουν με βάση την ταυτότητα του αντικειμένου).

Προστέθηκαν τα *note start: 2811, *note stop: 2812. και *note step:
2813. attributes.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * Η συνταγή linspace(1) δείχνει πώς να υλοποιήσετε μια lazy έκδοση
     του range κατάλληλη για εφαρμογές κινητής υποδιαστολής.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/579000-equally-spaced-numbers-linspace/


File: python.info,  Node: Σύνοψη μεθόδων τύπου κειμένου και δυαδική ακολουθίας,  Next: Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str,  Prev: Τύποι Ακολουθίας Sequence — list tuple range,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.8 Σύνοψη μεθόδων τύπου κειμένου και δυαδική ακολουθίας
----------------------------------------------------------

Ο παρακάτω πίνακας συνοψίζει τις μεθόδους τύπων κειμένου και δυαδική
ακολουθίας ανά κατηγορία.

Κατηγορία                      *note str: 1df.                                             οι μέθοδοι
                               methods                                                     *note bytes: 1c7. και
                                                                                           *note bytearray: 1c6.
                                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                              
Μορφοποίηση                    *note str.format(): a12.
                               
                                                                                                                         
*note str.format_map(): 1190.

*note f-strings: 43a.

*note printf-style String Formatting: ab9.                      *note Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf: 113a.
                                                                
                                                                                                                              
Αναζήτηση και Αντικατάσταση    *note str.find(): 1259.*note str.rfind(): 125a.             *note bytes.find(): 1dcd.*note bytes.rfind(): 1dce.
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                         
*note str.index(): 1bc6.       *note str.rindex(): 15fc.        *note bytes.index(): 2816. *note bytes.rindex(): 2817.
                                                                                           
                                                                                                                         
*note str.startswith(): 1279.                                   *note bytes.startswith(): 2818.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.endswith(): 127a.                                     *note bytes.endswith(): 2819.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.count(): 1b93.                                        *note bytes.count(): 1b94.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.replace(): 6c0.                                       *note bytes.replace(): 1d3.
                                                                
                                                                                                                              
Διαχωρισμός και Ένωση          *note str.split(): 125b.    *note str.rsplit(): 15fa.       *note bytes.split(): 281a.    *note bytes.rsplit(): 281b.
                                                                                                                         
                                                                                                                         
*note str.splitlines(): 15fb.                                   *note bytes.splitlines(): 281c.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.partition(): 125c.                                    *note bytes.partition(): 281d.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.rpartition(): 15fd.                                   *note bytes.rpartition(): 281e.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.join(): 2803.                                         *note bytes.join(): 2804.
                                                                
                                                                                                                              
Ταξινόμηση Συμβολοσειρών       *note str.isalpha(): 281f.                                  *note bytes.isalpha(): 2820.
                                                                                           
                                                                                                                         
*note str.isdecimal(): 2821.

*note str.isdigit(): 2822.                                      *note bytes.isdigit(): 2823.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.isnumeric(): 2824.

*note str.isalnum(): 2825.                                      *note bytes.isalnum(): 2826.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.isidentifier(): 1f3a.

*note str.islower(): 2827.                                      *note bytes.islower(): 2828.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.isupper(): 2829.                                      *note bytes.isupper(): 282a.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.istitle(): 282b.                                      *note bytes.istitle(): 282c.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.isspace(): 282d.                                      *note bytes.isspace(): 282e.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.isprintable(): 1191.

Χειρισμός υποθέσεων            *note str.lower(): 1965.                                    *note bytes.lower(): 282f.
                                                                                           
                                                                                                                         
*note str.upper(): 2830.                                        *note bytes.upper(): 2831.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.casefold(): 118f.

*note str.capitalize(): 2832.                                   *note bytes.capitalize(): 2833.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.title(): 2834.                                        *note bytes.title(): 2835.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.swapcase(): 2836.                                     *note bytes.swapcase(): 2837.
                                                                
                                                                                                                              
Συμπλήρωση και Αφαίρεση        *note str.ljust(): 2251.    *note str.rjust(): 2250.        *note bytes.ljust(): 2838.    *note bytes.rjust(): 2839.
                                                                                                                         
                                                                                                                         
*note str.center(): 2252.                                       *note bytes.center(): 283a.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.expandtabs(): 283b.                                   *note bytes.expandtabs(): 283c.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.strip(): 1851.                                        *note bytes.strip(): 283d.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.lstrip(): 1852.                                  *note str.rstrip(): 1853.*note bytes.lstrip(): 283e.          *note bytes.rstrip(): 283f.
                                                                                                                         
                                                                                                                              
Μετάφραση και Κωδικοποίηση     *note str.translate(): 1979.                                *note bytes.translate(): 196d.
                                                                                           
                                                                                                                         
*note str.maketrans(): 187.                                     *note bytes.maketrans(): 1619.
                                                                
                                                                                                                         
*note str.encode(): ca7.

                                                                *note bytes.decode(): ca8.
                                                                


File: python.info,  Node: Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str,  Next: Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview,  Prev: Σύνοψη μεθόδων τύπου κειμένου και δυαδική ακολουθίας,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.9 Τύπος Ακολουθίας (Sequence) Κειμένου — ‘str’
--------------------------------------------------

Τα δεδομένα κειμένου στην Python αντιμετωπίζονται με αντικείμενα *note
str: 1df. ή 'strings'.  Τα αλφαριθμητικά (strings) είναι αμετάβλητες
*note sequences: 221d. των Unicode points.  Τα αλφαριθμητικά γράφονται
με διάφορους τρόπους:

   * Απλά εισαγωγικά: ‘'allows embedded "double" quotes'’

   * Διπλά εισαγωγικά: ‘'allows embedded "double" quotes'’

   * Τριπλά εισαγωγικά: ‘'''Three single quotes'''’, ‘"""Three double
     quotes"""’

Τα αλφαριθμητικά σε τριπλά εισαγωγικά μπορούν να καλύπτουν πολλές
γραμμές - όλα τα σχετικά κενά θα συμπεριληφθούν στο αλφαριθμητικό.

Τα Αλφαριθμητικά (strings) που αποτελούν μέρος μιας ενιαίας έκφρασης και
έχουν μόνο κενά μεταξύ τους, θα μετατραπούν σιωπηρά σε ένα ενιαίο
αλφαριθμητικό literal.  Δηλαδή, ‘("spam " "eggs") == "spam eggs"’.

Δείτε τα *note Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes: 2490. για περισσότερες
πληροφορίες σχετικά με τις διάφορες μορφές των αλφαριθμητικών,
συμπεριλαμβανομένων των υποστηριζόμενων ακολουθιών *note escape
sequences: 874, και του ‘r’ («raw») πρόθεμα που απενεργοποιεί την
επεξεργασία των περισσότερων ακολουθιών διαφυγής.

Τα αλφαριθμητικά (strings) μπορούν επίσης να δημιουργηθούν από άλλα
αντικείμενα χρησιμοποιώντας τον constructor *note str: 1df.

Εφόσον δεν υπάρχει ξεχωριστός τύπος «character», το indexing μιας
συμβολοσειράς (string) παράγει συμβολοσειρές μήκους 1.  Δηλαδή, για μια
μη κενή συμβολοσειρά 's', ‘s[0] == s[0:1]’.

Δεν υπάρχει επίσης μεταβλητός τύπος συμβολοσειράς (string), αλλά το
*note str.join(): 2803. ή το *note io.StringIO: 12d4. μπορεί να
χρησιμοποιηθεί για την αποτελεσματική κατασκευή συμβολοσειρών από
πολλαπλά μέρη.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Για συμβατότητα προς τα πίσω (backwards
compatibility) με τη σειρά Python 2, το πρόθεμα ‘u’ είναι επιτρεπτό και
πάλι σε αλφαριθμητικά.  Δεν έχει καμία επίδραση στη σημασία των
αλφαριθμητικών και δεν μπορεί να συνδυαστεί με το πρόθεμα ‘r’.

 -- Κλάση: str (*, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

 -- Κλάση: str (object)

 -- Κλάση: str (object, encoding, errors='strict')

 -- Κλάση: str (object, *, errors)

     Επιστρέφει μια έκδοση *note string: 21cd. του 'object'.  Αν το
     'object' δεν παρέχεται, επιστρέφει κενό αλφαριθμητικό.
     Διαφορετικά, η συμπεριφορά της ‘str()’ εξαρτάται από το αν δίνεται
     'encoding' ή 'errors', ως εξής.

     Αν δεν έχει δοθεί ούτε 'encoding' ούτε 'errors', το ‘str(object)’
     επιστρέφει *note type(object).__str__(object): a0f, το οποίο είναι
     το «informal» ή ωραία εκτυπώσιμη αναπαράσταση συμβολοσειράς
     (string) του 'object'.  Για αντικείμενα συμβολοσειράς, είναι η ίδια
     η συμβολοσειρά.  Εάν το 'object' δεν έχει την ‘__str__()’, τότε η
     *note str(): 1df. επιστρέφει τη μέθοδο *note repr(object): 45b.

     Εάν δίνεται τουλάχιστον ένα από τα 'encoding' ή 'errors', το
     'object' θα πρέπει να είναι ένα *note bytes-like object: 436. (π.χ.
     *note bytes: 1c7. ή *note bytearray: 1c6.).  Σε αυτή την περίπτωση,
     αν το 'object' είναι ένα αντικείμενο ‘bytes’ (ή ‘bytearray’), τότε
     το ‘str(bytes, encoding, errors)’ είναι ισοδύναμο με το *note
     bytes.decode(encoding, errors): ca8.  Διαφορετικά, το αντικείμενο
     bytes που υποκρύπτει το αντικείμενο buffer λαμβάνεται πριν από την
     κλήση του ‘bytes.decode()’.  Δείτε *note Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας
     — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: 27bd. και *note Buffer Protocol:
     311. για πληροφορίες σχετικά με τα αντικείμενα buffer.

     Πέρασμα ενός αντικειμένου *note bytes: 1c7. στο *note str(): 1df.
     χωρίς το 'encoding' ή το 'errors' ορίσματα εμπίπτει στην πρώτη
     περίπτωση επιστροφής της άτυπης αναπαράστασης συμβολοσειράς
     (string) (δείτε επίσης την επιλογή *note -b: 2ed. της γραμμής
     εντολών για Python).  Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> str(b'Zoot!')
          "b'Zoot!'"

     Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες σχετικά με την κλάση ‘str’ και τις
     μεθόδους της, δείτε *note Τύπος Ακολουθίας (Sequence) Κειμένου —
     str: 21cd. και την ενότητα *note Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς (String):
     21ce. παρακάτω.  Για την παραγωγή μορφοποιημένων συμβολοσειρών
     (string), ανατρέξτε στις ενότητες *note f-strings: 43a. και *note
     Format string syntax: 173f.  Επιπλέον, δείτε την ενότητα *note Text
     Processing Services: 2841.

* Menu:

* Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς (String): Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
* Διαμορφωμένες Κυριολεκτικές Συμβολοσειρές (f-strings): Διαμορφωμένες Κυριολεκτικές Συμβολοσειρές f-strings.
* Template String Literals (t-strings): Template String Literals t-strings.
* printf-style String Formatting::


File: python.info,  Node: Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String,  Next: Διαμορφωμένες Κυριολεκτικές Συμβολοσειρές f-strings,  Up: Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str

5.4.9.1 Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς (String)
......................................

Οι συμβολοσειρές (string) υλοποιούν όλες τις λειτουργίες των *note
common: 2801. ακολουθιών, μαζί με τις πρόσθετες μεθόδους που
περιγράφονται παρακάτω.

Οι συμβολοσειρές (string) υποστηρίζουν επίσης δύο στυλ μορφοποίησης
συμβολοσειρών, το ένα παρέχει ένα μεγάλο βαθμό ευελιξίας και προσαρμογής
(βλέπε *note str.format(): a12, *note Format string syntax: 173f. και
*note Custom string formatting: 2843.) και το άλλο βασίζεται στο στυλ
μορφοποίησης ‘printf’ της C που χειρίζεται ένα στενότερο εύρος τύπων και
είναι λίγο πιο δύσκολο να χρησιμοποιηθεί σωστά, αλλά είναι συχνά
ταχύτερο για τις περιπτώσεις που μπορεί να χειριστεί (*note printf-style
String Formatting: ab9.).

Το τμήμα *note Text Processing Services: 2844. της πρότυπης βιβλιοθήκης
καλύπτει έναν αριθμό από άλλες ενότητες που παρέχουν διάφορες βοηθητικές
υπηρεσίες που σχετίζονται με το κείμενο (συμπεριλαμβανομένης της
υποστήριξης των κανονικών εκφράσεων στην ενότητα *note re: c1.).

 -- Μέθοδος: str.capitalize ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της συμβολοσειράς (string) με τον πρώτο
     χαρακτήρα κεφαλαίο και τα υπόλοιπα με πεζά γράμματα.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Ο πρώτος χαρακτήρας τίθεται τώρα σε
     titlecase αντί για uppercase.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι χαρακτήρες όπως οι
     διγράφοι (digraphs) θα έχουν μόνο το πρώτο γράμμα τους με κεφαλαίο,
     αντί για όλους τους χαρακτήρες.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.casefold ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της συμβολοσειράς (string) σε casefolded
     μορφή.  Οι casefolded συμβολοσειρές μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για
     caseless matching.

     Casefolding is similar to lowercasing but more aggressive because
     it is intended to remove all case distinctions in a string.  For
     example, the German lowercase letter ‘'ß'’ is equivalent to ‘"ss"’.
     Since it is already lowercase, *note lower(): 1965. would do
     nothing to ‘'ß'’; ‘casefold()’ converts it to ‘"ss"’.  For example:

          >>> 'straße'.lower()
          'straße'
          >>> 'straße'.casefold()
          'strasse'

     The casefolding algorithm is described in section 3.13.3 'Default
     Case Folding' of the Unicode Standard(1).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.center (width, fillchar=' ', /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα κεντραρισμένο σε μια συμβολοσειρά (string) μήκους
     'width'.  Το padding γίνεται με τη χρήση του καθορισμένου
     'fillchar' (το default είναι ένα κενό ASCII). Η αρχική συμβολοσειρά
     επιστρέφεται εάν το 'width' είναι μικρότερο ή ίσο με το ‘len(s)’.
     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'Python'.center(10)
          '  Python  '
          >>> 'Python'.center(10, '-')
          '--Python--'
          >>> 'Python'.center(4)
          'Python'

 -- Μέθοδος: str.count (sub[, start[, end]])

     Επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των μη επικαλυπτόμενων (non-overalpping)
     εμφανίσεων της υποομάδας 'sub' στο εύρος ['start', 'end'].  Τα
     προαιρετικά ορίσματα 'start' και 'end' ερμηνεύονται όπως στο slice
     notation.

     Αν το 'sub' είναι κενό, επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των κενών
     συμβολοσειρών (strings) μεταξύ των χαρακτήρων που είναι το μήκος
     της συμβολοσειράς συν ένα.  Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('spam')
          3
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('spam', 5)
          2
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('spam', 5, 10)
          1
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('eggs')
          0
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.count('')
          17

 -- Μέθοδος: str.encode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Επιστρέφει την συμβολοσειρά (string) κωδικοποιημένη σε *note bytes:
     1c7.

     το 'encoding' έχει default σε ‘'utf-8'’- δείτε *note Standard
     Encodings: 1171. για πιθανές τιμές.

     το 'errors' ελέγχει τον τρόπο χειρισμού των σφαλμάτων
     κωδικοποίησης.  Εάν είναι ‘'strict'’ (το default), τότε γίνεται
     raise μια εξαίρεση *note UnicodeError: 675.  Άλλες πιθανές τιμές
     είναι τα ‘'ignore'’, ‘'replace'’, ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’,
     ‘'backslashreplace'’ και οποιοδήποτε άλλο όνομα που έχει
     καταχωρηθεί μέσω του *note codecs.register_error(): 183d.  Δείτε το
     *note Error Handlers: 1d6c. για λεπτομέρειες.

     Για λόγους απόδοσης, η τιμή των 'errors' δεν ελέγχεται ως προς την
     εγκυρότητα εκτός αν όντως προκύψει σφάλμα κωδικοποίησης, αν το
     *note Python Development Mode: 70d. είναι ενεργοποιημένο ή αν ένα
     *note debug build: 3dc. χρησιμοποιείται.  Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> encoded_str_to_bytes = 'Python'.encode()
          >>> type(encoded_str_to_bytes)
          <class 'bytes'>
          >>> encoded_str_to_bytes
          b'Python'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Επιπρόσθετη υποστήριξη για keyword
     ορίσματα.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Η τιμή του όρου 'errors' ελέγχεται τώρα στο
     *note Python Development Mode: 70d. και στο *note debug mode: 3dc.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν η συμβολοσειρά (string) τελειώνει με το
     καθορισμένο 'suffix', αλλιώς επιστρέφει ‘False’.  Το 'suffix'
     μπορεί επίσης να είναι ένα tuple (πλειάδα) από επιθέματα που πρέπει
     να αναζητηθούν.  Με το προαιρετικό 'start', το τεστ αρχίζει από
     αυτή τη θέση.  Με το προαιρετικό 'end', η σύγκριση σταματά σε αυτή
     τη θέση.  Χρησιμοποιώντας 'start' και 'end' είναι ισοδύναμο με την
     ‘str[start:end].endswith(suffix)’.  Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'Python'.endswith('on')
          True
          >>> 'a tuple of suffixes'.endswith(('at', 'in'))
          False
          >>> 'a tuple of suffixes'.endswith(('at', 'es'))
          True
          >>> 'Python is amazing'.endswith('is', 0, 9)
          True

     Δείτε επίσης *note startswith(): 1279. και *note removesuffix():
     ca2.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.expandtabs (tabsize=8)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της συμβολοσειράς (string) όπου όλοι οι
     χαρακτήρες tab αντικαθίστανται από έναν ή περισσότερα κενά, ανάλογα
     με την τρέχουσα στήλη και το δεδομένο μέγεθος των tabs.  Οι θέσεις
     tab εμφανίζονται κάθε 'tabsize' χαρακτήρες (το default είναι 8,
     δίνοντας tab θέσεις στις στήλες 0, 8, 16 κ.ο.κ.).  Για την επέκταση
     της συμβολοσειράς, η τρέχουσα στήλη μηδενίζεται και η συμβολοσειρά
     εξετάζεται χαρακτήρας προς χαρακτήρα.  Εάν ο χαρακτήρας είναι tab
     (‘\t’), εισάγονται ένας ή περισσότεροι χαρακτήρες κενών στο
     αποτέλεσμα μέχρι η τρέχουσα στήλη να είναι ίση με την επόμενη θέση
     tab.  (Ο ίδιος ο χαρακτήρας tab δεν αντιγράφεται.)  Εάν ο
     χαρακτήρας είναι νέα γραμμή (‘\n’) ή return (‘\r’), αντιγράφεται
     και η τρέχουσα στήλη επαναφέρεται στο μηδέν.  Οποιοσδήποτε άλλος
     χαρακτήρας αντιγράφεται αμετάβλητος και η τρέχουσα στήλη αυξάνεται
     κατά ένα, ανεξάρτητα από τον τρόπο αναπαράστασης του χαρακτήρα όταν
     τυπώνεται.  Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
          '01      012     0123    01234'
          >>> '01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
          '01  012 0123    01234'
          >>> print('01\t012\n0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4))
          01  012
          0123    01234

 -- Μέθοδος: str.find (sub[, start[, end]])

     Επιστρέφει τον χαμηλότερο δείκτη στη συμβολοσειρά (string) όπου η
     υπό-συμβολοσειρά 'sub' βρίσκεται μέσα στο υποσύνολο (slice)
     ‘s[start:end]’.  Τα προαιρετικά ορίσματα 'start' και 'end'
     ερμηνεύονται όπως στο notation του υποσυνόλου.  Επιστρέφει ‘-1’ αν
     δεν βρεθεί το 'sub'.  Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.find('sp')
          0
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.find('sp', 5)
          6

     Δείτε επίσης *note rfind(): 125a. και *note index(): 1bc6.

          Σημείωση: Η μέθοδος *note find(): 1259. θα πρέπει να
          χρησιμοποιείται μόνο αν πρέπει να γνωρίζετε τη θέση του 'sub'.
          Για να ελέγξετε αν το 'sub' είναι υποσύνολο ή όχι,
          χρησιμοποιήστε τον τελεστή *note in: 323.:

               >>> 'Py' in 'Python'
               True

 -- Μέθοδος: str.format (*args, **kwargs)

     Εκτέλεση μιας λειτουργίας μορφοποίησης συμβολοσειράς (string
     formatting).  Η συμβολοσειρά στην οποία αυτή η μέθοδος καλείται
     μπορεί να περιέχει κυριολεκτικό κείμενο ή πεδία αντικατάστασης που
     οριοθετούνται από αγκύλες ‘{}’.  Κάθε πεδίο αντικατάστασης περιέχει
     είτε τον αριθμητικό δείκτη ενός ορίσματος θέσης, είτε το όνομα ενός
     keyword ορίσματος.  Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της συμβολοσειράς όπου
     κάθε πεδίο αντικατάστασης αντικαθίσταται με την τιμή της
     συμβολοσειράς του αντίστοιχου ορίσματος.  Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> "The sum of 1 + 2 is {0}".format(1+2)
          'The sum of 1 + 2 is 3'
          >>> "The sum of {a} + {b} is {answer}".format(answer=1+2, a=1, b=2)
          'The sum of 1 + 2 is 3'
          >>> "{1} expects the {0} Inquisition!".format("Spanish", "Nobody")
          'Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!'

     Δείτε το *note Format string syntax: 173f. για μια περιγραφή των
     διαφόρων επιλογών μορφοποίησης που μπορούν να καθοριστούν στην
     μορφοποίηση συμβολοσειρών (format strings).

          Σημείωση: Κατά τη μορφοποίηση ενός αριθμού (*note int: 326,
          *note float: 327, *note complex: 328, *note decimal.Decimal:
          1c2. και υποκλάσεις) με τον τύπο ‘n’ (π.χ.:
          ‘'{:n}'.format(1234)’, η συνάρτηση θέτει προσωρινά την
          τοποθεσία ‘LC_CTYPE’ στην τοποθεσία ‘LC_NUMERIC’ για την
          αποκωδικοποίηση των ‘decimal_point’ και ‘thousands_sep’ πεδίων
          του ‘localeconv()’ αν είναι μη ASCII ή μεγαλύτερα από 1 byte,
          και το locale ‘LC_NUMERIC’ είναι διαφορετικό από το locale
          ‘LC_CTYPE’.  Αυτή η προσωρινή αλλαγή επηρεάζει και άλλα νήματα
          (threads).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Κατά τη μορφοποίηση ενός αριθμού με τον
     τύπο ‘n’, η συνάρτηση θέτει προσωρινά το locale ‘LC_CTYPE’ στο
     locale ‘LC_NUMERIC’ σε κάποιες περιπτώσεις.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.format_map (mapping, /)

     Παρόμοιο με το ‘str.format(**mapping)’, εκτός από το ότι
     χρησιμοποιείται το ‘mapping’ απευθείας και δεν αντιγράφεται σε μια
     *note dict: 188.  Αυτό είναι χρήσιμο αν για παράδειγμα το ‘mapping’
     είναι μια υποκλάση του dict:

          >>> class Default(dict):
          ...     def __missing__(self, key):
          ...         return key
          ...
          >>> '{name} was born in {country}'.format_map(Default(name='Guido'))
          'Guido was born in country'

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.index (sub[, start[, end]])

     Like *note find(): 1259, but raise *note ValueError: 277. when the
     substring is not found.  For example:

          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.index('spam')
          0
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.index('eggs')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<python-input-0>", line 1, in <module>
              'spam, spam, spam'.index('eggs')
              ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^
          ValueError: substring not found

     See also *note rindex(): 15fc.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.isalnum ()

     Return ‘True’ if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and
     there is at least one character, ‘False’ otherwise.  A character
     ‘c’ is alphanumeric if one of the following returns ‘True’:
     ‘c.isalpha()’, ‘c.isdecimal()’, ‘c.isdigit()’, or ‘c.isnumeric()’.
     For example:

          >>> 'abc123'.isalnum()
          True
          >>> 'abc123!@#'.isalnum()
          False
          >>> ''.isalnum()
          False
          >>> ' '.isalnum()
          False

 -- Μέθοδος: str.isalpha ()

     Return ‘True’ if all characters in the string are alphabetic and
     there is at least one character, ‘False’ otherwise.  Alphabetic
     characters are those characters defined in the Unicode character
     database as «Letter», i.e., those with general category property
     being one of «Lm», «Lt», «Lu», «Ll», or «Lo».  Note that this is
     different from the Alphabetic property defined in the section 4.10
     'Letters, Alphabetic, and Ideographic' of the Unicode Standard(2).
     For example:

          >>> 'Letters and spaces'.isalpha()
          False
          >>> 'LettersOnly'.isalpha()
          True
          >>> 'µ'.isalpha()  # non-ASCII characters can be considered alphabetical too
          True

     Δείτε *note Unicode Properties: 2845.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.isascii ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν η συμβολοσειρά (string) είναι κενή ή όλοι οι
     χαρακτήρες της συμβολοσειράς είναι ASCII, αλλιώς ‘False’.  Οι
     χαρακτήρες ASCII έχουν σημεία κωδικοποίησης στην περιοχή
     U+0000-U+007F. Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'ASCII characters'.isascii()
          True
          >>> 'µ'.isascii()
          False

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.isdecimal ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν όλοι οι χαρακτήρες στη συμβολοσειρά (string)
     είναι δεκαδικοί χαρακτήρες και υπάρχει τουλάχιστον ένας χαρακτήρας,
     διαφορετικά ‘False’.  Οι δεκαδικοί χαρακτήρες είναι αυτοί που
     μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για το σχηματισμό αριθμών στη βάση 10,
     π.χ.  U+0660, ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT ZERO. Επίσημα ένας δεκαδικός
     χαρακτήρας είναι ένας χαρακτήρας του Unicode General Category «Nd».
     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> '0123456789'.isdecimal()
          True
          >>> '٠١٢٣٤٥٦٧٨٩'.isdecimal()  # Arabic-Indic digits zero to nine
          True
          >>> 'alphabetic'.isdecimal()
          False

 -- Μέθοδος: str.isdigit ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν όλοι οι χαρακτήρες στη συμβολοσειρά είναι
     ψηφία και υπάρχει τουλάχιστον ένας χαρακτήρας, διαφορετικά ‘False’.
     Τα ψηφία περιλαμβάνουν δεκαδικούς χαρακτήρες και ψηφία που
     χρειάζονται ειδικό χειρισμό, όπως τα compatibility superscript
     ψηφία.  Αυτό καλύπτει τα ψηφία που δεν μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν
     για το σχηματισμό αριθμών στη βάση 10, όπως οι αριθμοί Kharosthi.
     Τυπικά, ένα ψηφίο είναι ένας χαρακτήρας που έχει την τιμή της
     ιδιότητας Numeric_Type=Digit ή Numeric_Type=Decimal.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.isidentifier ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν η συμβολοσειρά είναι έγκυρο αναγνωριστικό
     σύμφωνα με το ορισμό της γλώσσας, ενότητα *note Ονόματα
     (αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά): 2491.

     το *note keyword.iskeyword(): 2846. μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να
     ελέγξει αν η συμβολοσειρά ‘s’ είναι ένα δεσμευμένο αναγνωριστικό,
     όπως τα *note def: 17fc. και *note class: 167c.

     Παράδειγμα

          >>> from keyword import iskeyword

          >>> 'hello'.isidentifier(), iskeyword('hello')
          (True, False)
          >>> 'def'.isidentifier(), iskeyword('def')
          (True, True)

 -- Μέθοδος: str.islower ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν όλοι οι χαρακτήρες (3) στο αλφαριθμητικό
     (string) είναι πεζοί και υπάρχει τουλάχιστον ένας cased χαρακτήρας,
     αλλιώς ‘False’.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.isnumeric ()

     Return ‘True’ if all characters in the string are numeric
     characters, and there is at least one character, ‘False’ otherwise.
     Numeric characters include digit characters, and all characters
     that have the Unicode numeric value property, e.g.  U+2155, VULGAR
     FRACTION ONE FIFTH. Formally, numeric characters are those with the
     property value Numeric_Type=Digit, Numeric_Type=Decimal or
     Numeric_Type=Numeric.  For example:

          >>> '0123456789'.isnumeric()
          True
          >>> '٠١٢٣٤٥٦٧٨٩'.isnumeric()  # Arabic-indic digit zero to nine
          True
          >>> '⅕'.isnumeric()  # Vulgar fraction one fifth
          True
          >>> '²'.isdecimal(), '²'.isdigit(),  '²'.isnumeric()
          (False, True, True)

     See also *note isdecimal(): 2821. and *note isdigit(): 2822.
     Numeric characters are a superset of decimal numbers.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.isprintable ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν όλοι οι χαρακτήρες στη συμβολοσειρά μπορούν να
     εκτυπωθούν, ‘False’ εάν περιέχει τουλάχιστον έναν μη εκτυπώσιμο
     χαρακτήρα.

     Εδώ «εκτυπώσιμος» σημαίνει ότι ο χαρακτήρας είναι κατάλληλος για
     την *note repr(): 45b. για χρήση στην έξοδο του∙ το «μη
     εκτυπώσιμος» σημαίνει ότι ο χαρακτήρας στη ‘repr()’ στους
     ενσωματωμένους τύπους θα διαφεύγει εξαγωνικά από τον χαρακτήρα.
     Δεν έχει καμία σχέση με τον χειρισμό συμβολοσειρών που γράφονται σε
     *note sys.stdout: e9c. ή *note sys.stderr: d05.

     Οι εκτυπώσιμοι χαρακτήρες είναι αυτοί που στη βάση δεδομένων
     χαρακτήρων Unicode (βλ.  *note unicodedata: 10e.) έχουν μια γενική
     κατηγορία στην ομάδα Γράμμα, Σήμα, Αριθμός, Σημεία στίξης ή Σύμβολο
     (L, M, N, P ή S), συν το διάστημα ASCII 0x20.  Οι μη εκτυπώσιμοι
     χαρακτήρες είναι αυτοί που βρίσκονται στο χώρο Διαχωρισμού ομάδας ή
     Άλλο (Z ή CII).

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> ''.isprintable(), ' '.isprintable()
          (True, True)
          >>> '\t'.isprintable(), '\n'.isprintable()
          (False, False)

     See also *note isspace(): 282d.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.isspace ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν υπάρχουν μόνο χαρακτήρες κενού (whitespace)
     στο αλφαριθμητικό (string) και υπάρχει τουλάχιστον ένας χαρακτήρας,
     διαφορετικά ‘False’.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> ''.isspace()
          False
          >>> ' '.isspace()
          True
          >>> '\t\n'.isspace() # TAB and BREAK LINE
          True
          >>> '\u3000'.isspace() # IDEOGRAPHIC SPACE
          True

     Ένας χαρακτήρας είναι 'whitespace' εάν στη βάση δεδομένων
     χαρακτήρων Unicode (βλέπε *note unicodedata: 10e.), είτε η γενική
     κατηγορία του είναι ‘Zs’ («Separator, space»), είτε η αμφίδρομη
     κατηγορία του είναι μία από τις κατηγορίες ‘WS’, ‘B’, ή ‘S’.

     See also *note isprintable(): 1191.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.istitle ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν η συμβολοσειρά (string) είναι μια titlecased
     συμβολοσειρά και υπάρχει τουλάχιστον ένας χαρακτήρας, για
     παράδειγμα, οι κεφαλαίοι χαρακτήρες μπορούν να ακολουθούν μόνο τους
     uncased χαρακτήρες και οι πεζοί χαρακτήρες μόνο cased χαρακτήρες.
     Διαφορετικά, επιστρέφει ‘False’.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'Spam, Spam, Spam'.istitle()
          True
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.istitle()
          False
          >>> 'SPAM, SPAM, SPAM'.istitle()
          False

     Δείτε επίσης *note title(): 2834.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.isupper ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν όλοι οι χαρακτήρες (4) στο αλφαριθμητικό είναι
     κεφαλαίοι και υπάρχει τουλάχιστον ένας cased χαρακτήρας,
     διαφορετικά ‘False’.

          >>> 'BANANA'.isupper()
          True
          >>> 'banana'.isupper()
          False
          >>> 'baNana'.isupper()
          False
          >>> ' '.isupper()
          False

 -- Μέθοδος: str.join (iterable, /)

     Επιστρέφει μια συμβολοσειρά (string) που είναι η συνένωση των
     συμβολοσειρών στο 'iterable'.  Ένα *note TypeError: 291. θα γίνει
     raise αν υπάρχουν τιμές μη συμβολοσειράς (non-string) στο
     'iterable', συμπεριλαμβανομένων των αντικειμένων *note bytes: 1c7.
     Το διαχωριστικό μεταξύ των στοιχείων είναι η συμβολοσειρά που
     παρέχει αυτή η μέθοδος.  Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> ', '.join(['spam', 'spam', 'spam'])
          'spam, spam, spam'
          >>> '-'.join('Python')
          'P-y-t-h-o-n'

     Δείτε επίσης *note split(): 125b.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.ljust (width, fillchar=' ', /)

     Επιστρέφει τη συμβολοσειρά (string) με αριστερή ευθυγράμμιση σε μια
     συμβολοσειρά μήκους 'width'.  Το padding γίνεται με τη χρήση του
     καθορισμένου 'fillchar' (το default είναι ένα κενό ASCII). Η αρχική
     συμβολοσειρά επιστρέφεται εάν το 'width' είναι μικρότερο ή ίσο με
     το ‘len(s)’.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'Python'.ljust(10)
          'Python    '
          >>> 'Python'.ljust(10, '.')
          'Python....'
          >>> 'Monty Python'.ljust(10, '.')
          'Monty Python'

     See also *note rjust(): 2250.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.lower ()

     Return a copy of the string with all the cased characters (5)
     converted to lowercase.  For example:

          >>> 'Lower Method Example'.lower()
          'lower method example'

     The lowercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13.2
     'Default Case Conversion' of the Unicode Standard(6).

 -- Μέθοδος: str.lstrip (chars=None, /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της συμβολοσειράς (string) με την αφαίρεση
     των αρχικών χαρακτήρων.  Τα 'chars' είναι μια συμβολοσειρά που
     καθορίζει το σύνολο των χαρακτήρων που πρέπει να αφαιρεθούν.  Εάν
     παραλειφθεί ή είναι ‘None’, το όρισμα 'chars' έχει ως default την
     αφαίρεση των κενών χαρακτήρων.  Το όρισμα 'chars' δεν είναι ένα
     πρόθεμα· οπότε, όλοι οι συνδυασμοί των τιμών του αφαιρούνται:

          >>> '   spacious   '.lstrip()
          'spacious   '
          >>> 'www.example.com'.lstrip('cmowz.')
          'example.com'

     Δείτε την *note str.removeprefix(): ca1. για μια μέθοδο που θα
     αφαιρέσει ένα μόνο πρόθεμα συμβολοσειράς (string) αντί για όλο το
     σύνολο των χαρακτήρων.  Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'Arthur: three!'.lstrip('Arthur: ')
          'ee!'
          >>> 'Arthur: three!'.removeprefix('Arthur: ')
          'three!'

 -- Μέθοδος: static str.maketrans (dict, /)

 -- Μέθοδος: static str.maketrans (from, to, remove='', /)

     Αυτή η στατική μέθοδος επιστρέφει έναν πίνακα μεταφράσεων που
     μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για το *note str.translate(): 1979.

     Εάν υπάρχει μόνο ένα όρισμα, πρέπει να είναι ένα λεξικό
     αντιστοίχισης Unicode ordinals (ακέραιοι αριθμοί) ή χαρακτήρες
     (συμβολοσειρές - strings μήκους 1) σε ordinals Unicode,
     συμβολοσειρές (αυθαίρετου μήκους) ή ‘None’.  Τα κλειδιά χαρακτήρων
     τότε θα μετατραπούν σε κανονικούς αριθμούς.

     Εάν υπάρχουν δύο ορίσματα, πρέπει να είναι συμβολοσειρές (strings)
     ίσου μήκους και στο λεξικό (dictionary) που θα προκύψει, κάθε
     χαρακτήρας στο 'from' θα αντιστοιχιστεί στο χαρακτήρα στην ίδια
     θέση στο 'to'.  Αν υπάρχει τρίτο όρισμα, πρέπει να είναι
     συμβολοσειρά, του οποίου οι χαρακτήρες θα αντιστοιχιστούν στο
     αποτέλεσμα σε ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: 'dict' can now be a *note frozendict: 182.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.partition (sep, /)

     Διαχωρίστε τη συμβολοσειρά (string) στην πρώτη εμφάνιση του 'sep',
     και επιστρέφει ένα 3-tuple που περιέχει το μέρος πριν από το
     διαχωριστικό, το ίδιο το διαχωριστικό και το μέρος μετά το
     διαχωριστικό.  Αν ο διαχωριστής δεν βρεθεί, επιστρέφει ένα 3-σύνολο
     που περιέχει την ίδια τη συμβολοσειρά, ακολουθούμενη από δύο κενές
     συμβολοσειρές.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'Monty Python'.partition(' ')
          ('Monty', ' ', 'Python')
          >>> "Monty Python's Flying Circus".partition(' ')
          ('Monty', ' ', "Python's Flying Circus")
          >>> 'Monty Python'.partition('-')
          ('Monty Python', '', '')

     See also *note rpartition(): 15fd.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.removeprefix (prefix, /)

     If the string starts with the 'prefix' string, return
     ‘string[len(prefix):]’.  Otherwise, return a copy of the original
     string:

          >>> 'TestHook'.removeprefix('Test')
          'Hook'
          >>> 'BaseTestCase'.removeprefix('Test')
          'BaseTestCase'

     Added in version 3.9.

     See also *note removesuffix(): ca2. and *note startswith(): 1279.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.removesuffix (suffix, /)

     If the string ends with the 'suffix' string and that 'suffix' is
     not empty, return ‘string[:-len(suffix)]’.  Otherwise, return a
     copy of the original string:

          >>> 'MiscTests'.removesuffix('Tests')
          'Misc'
          >>> 'TmpDirMixin'.removesuffix('Tests')
          'TmpDirMixin'

     Added in version 3.9.

     See also *note removeprefix(): ca1. and *note endswith(): 127a.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.replace (old, new, /, count=-1)

     Return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring 'old'
     replaced by 'new'.  If 'count' is given, only the first 'count'
     occurrences are replaced.  If 'count' is not specified or ‘-1’,
     then all occurrences are replaced.  For example:

          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.replace('spam', 'eggs')
          'eggs, eggs, eggs'
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.replace('spam', 'eggs', 1)
          'eggs, spam, spam'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Το 'count' υποστηρίζεται πλέον ως όρισμα
     λέξης-κλειδιού.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

     Return the highest index in the string where substring 'sub' is
     found, such that 'sub' is contained within ‘s[start:end]’.
     Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are interpreted as in slice
     notation.  Return ‘-1’ on failure.  For example:

          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.rfind('sp')
          12
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.rfind('sp', 0, 10)
          6

     See also *note find(): 1259. and *note rindex(): 15fc.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])

     Like *note rfind(): 125a. but raises *note ValueError: 277. when
     the substring 'sub' is not found.  For example:

          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.rindex('spam')
          12
          >>> 'spam, spam, spam'.rindex('eggs')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin-0>", line 1, in <module>
              'spam, spam, spam'.rindex('eggs')
              ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^
          ValueError: substring not found

     See also *note index(): 1bc6. and *note find(): 1259.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.rjust (width, fillchar=' ', /)

     Επιστρέφει τη συμβολοσειρά (string) με δεξιό προσανατολισμό σε μια
     συμβολοσειρά μήκους 'width'.  Το padding γίνεται χρησιμοποιώντας το
     καθορισμένο 'fillchar' (η προεπιλογή είναι ένα διάστημα ASCII). Η
     αρχική συμβολοσειρά επιστρέφεται εάν το 'width' είναι μικρότερο ή
     ίσο με ‘len(s)’.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'Python'.rjust(10)
          '    Python'
          >>> 'Python'.rjust(10, '.')
          '....Python'
          >>> 'Monty Python'.rjust(10, '.')
          'Monty Python'

     See also *note ljust(): 2251. and *note zfill(): 1854.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.rpartition (sep, /)

     Διαχωρίζει τη συμβολοσειρά (string) στην τελευταία εμφάνιση του
     'sep' και επιστρέφει ένα 3-tuple που περιέχει το τμήμα πριν από το
     διαχωριστικό, το ίδιο το διαχωριστικό και το μέρος μετά το
     διαχωριστικό.  Εάν το διαχωριστικό δεν βρεθεί, επιστρέφει ένα
     3-tuple που περιέχει δύο κενές συμβολοσειρές, ακολουθούμενες από
     την ίδια τη συμβολοσειρά.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'Monty Python'.rpartition(' ')
          ('Monty', ' ', 'Python')
          >>> "Monty Python's Flying Circus".rpartition(' ')
          ("Monty Python's Flying", ' ', 'Circus')
          >>> 'Monty Python'.rpartition('-')
          ('', '', 'Monty Python')

     See also *note partition(): 125c.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Επιστρέφει μια λίστα με τις λέξεις στη συμβολοσειρά (string),
     χρησιμοποιώντας το 'sep' ως οριοθέτη.  Εάν δοθεί το 'maxsplit', θα
     γίνουν το πολύ 'maxsplit' διαχωρισμοί, ξεκινώντας από τα δεξιά.
     Εάν το 'sep' δεν έχει καθοριστεί ή είναι ‘None’, οποιοδήποτε κενό
     διάστημα γίνεται διαχωριστικό.  Εκτός από το διαχωρισμό από τα
     δεξιά, η *note rsplit(): 15fa. συμπεριφέρεται όπως η *note split():
     125b. που περιγράφεται λεπτομερώς παρακάτω.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.rstrip (chars=None, /)

     Return a copy of the string with trailing characters removed.  The
     'chars' argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be
     removed.  If omitted or ‘None’, the 'chars' argument defaults to
     removing whitespace.  The 'chars' argument is not a suffix; rather,
     all combinations of its values are stripped.  For example:

          >>> '   spacious   '.rstrip()
          '   spacious'
          >>> 'mississippi'.rstrip('ipz')
          'mississ'

     See *note removesuffix(): ca2. for a method that will remove a
     single suffix string rather than all of a set of characters.  For
     example:

          >>> 'Monty Python'.rstrip(' Python')
          'M'
          >>> 'Monty Python'.removesuffix(' Python')
          'Monty'

     See also *note strip(): 1851.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Επιστρέφει μια λίστα με τις λέξεις της συμβολοσειράς (string),
     χρησιμοποιώντας το 'sep' ως διαχωριστικό.  Αν δοθεί το 'maxsplit',
     γίνονται το πολύ 'maxsplit' διαχωρισμοί (έτσι, η λίστα θα έχει το
     πολύ ‘maxsplit+1’ στοιχεία).  Εάν το 'maxsplit' δεν καθοριστεί ή
     είναι ‘-1’, τότε δεν υπάρχει όριο στον αριθμό των διαχωρισμών
     (γίνονται όλες οι πιθανές διασπάσεις).

     Αν δοθεί το 'sep', οι διαδοχικά οριοθέτες δεν ομαδοποιούνται μαζί
     και θεωρείται ότι οριοθετούν κενές συμβολοσειρές (strings) (για
     παράδειγμα, το ‘'1,,2'.split(',')’ επιστρέφει ‘['1', '', '2']’).
     Το όρισμα 'sep' μπορεί να αποτελείται από πολλούς χαρακτήρες ως
     μεμονωμένο οριοθέτη (για διαχωρισμό με πολλαπλούς οριοθέτες,
     χρησιμοποιήστε την *note re.split(): 7a0.).  Ο διαχωρισμός μιας
     κενής συμβολοσειράς με ένα καθορισμένο διαχωριστικό επιστρέφει το
     ‘['']’.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> '1,2,3'.split(',')
          ['1', '2', '3']
          >>> '1,2,3'.split(',', maxsplit=1)
          ['1', '2,3']
          >>> '1,2,,3,'.split(',')
          ['1', '2', '', '3', '']
          >>> '1<>2<>3<4'.split('<>')
          ['1', '2', '3<4']

     Αν το 'sep' καθοριστεί ή είναι ‘None’, εφαρμόζεται ένας
     διαφορετικός αλγόριθμος διαχωρισμού: οι εμφανίσεις διαδοχικών κενών
     θεωρούνται ως ένα ενιαίο διαχωριστικό, και το αποτέλεσμα δεν θα
     περιέχει κενές συμβολοσειρές (strings) στην αρχή ή στο τέλος, αν η
     συμβολοσειρά έχει κενό διάστημα στην αρχή ή στο τέλος.  Κατά
     συνέπεια, η διάσπαση μιας κενής συμβολοσειράς ή μιας συμβολοσειράς
     που αποτελείται μόνο από κενά διαστήματα με ένα ‘None’ ως
     διαχωριστικό επιστρέφει ‘[]’.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> '1 2 3'.split()
          ['1', '2', '3']
          >>> '1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
          ['1', '2 3']
          >>> '   1   2   3   '.split()
          ['1', '2', '3']

     Εάν δεν καθοριστεί 'sep' ή είναι ‘None’ και το 'maxsplit' είναι
     ‘0’, λαμβάνοντας υπόψη μόνο οι πρώτες εκτελέσεις διαδοχικού κενού
     διαστήματος.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> "".split(None, 0)
          []
          >>> "   ".split(None, 0)
          []
          >>> "   foo   ".split(maxsplit=0)
          ['foo   ']

     Δείτε επίσης *note join(): 2803.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.splitlines (keepends=False)

     Επιστρέφει μια λίστα με τις γραμμές της συμβολοσειράς (string),
     διαχωρίζοντας στα όρια των γραμμών.  Τα διαχωριστικά των γραμμών
     δεν περιλαμβάνονται στην νέα λίστα, εκτός αν δοθεί το 'keepends'
     και είναι true.

     Αυτή η μέθοδος διαχωρίζει στα ακόλουθα όρια γραμμών.  Πιο
     συγκεκριμένα, τα όρια είναι ένα υπερσύνολο του *note universal
     newlines: 10f1.

     Αναπαράσταση                Περιγραφή
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
     ‘\n’                        Line Feed
                                 
                                 
     ‘\r’                        Carriage Return
                                 
                                 
     ‘\r\n’                      Carriage Return + Line Feed
                                 
                                 
     ‘\v’ or ‘\x0b’              Line Tabulation
                                 
                                 
     ‘\f’ or ‘\x0c’              Form Feed
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1c’                      Διαχωριστής Αρχείου
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1d’                      Διαχωριστής Group
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x1e’                      Διαχωριστής Εγγραφών
                                 
                                 
     ‘\x85’                      Επόμενη Γραμμή (C1 Control
                                 Code)
                                 
                                 
     ‘\u2028’                    Διαχωριστής Γραμμής
                                 
                                 
     ‘\u2029’                    Διαχωριστής Παραγράφου
                                 

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Τα ‘\v’ και ‘\f’ προστίθενται στην λίστα
     ορίων των γραμμών.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
          ['ab c', '', 'de fg', 'kl']
          >>> 'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
          ['ab c\n', '\n', 'de fg\r', 'kl\r\n']

     Σε αντίθεση με την *note split(): 125b. όταν δίνεται μια
     συμβολοσειρά (string) οριοθέτησης 'sep', αυτή η μέθοδος επιστρέφει
     μια κενή λίστα για το κενό αλφαριθμητικό, και μια τερματικό break
     γραμμής δεν οδηγεί σε μια επιπλέον γραμμή:

          >>> "".splitlines()
          []
          >>> "One line\n".splitlines()
          ['One line']

     Συγκριτικά, η ‘split('\n')’ δίνει:

          >>> ''.split('\n')
          ['']
          >>> 'Two lines\n'.split('\n')
          ['Two lines', '']

 -- Μέθοδος: str.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν η συμβολοσειρά (string) αρχίζει με το
     'prefix', αλλιώς επιστρέφει ‘False’.  Το 'prefix' μπορεί επίσης να
     είναι μια πλειάδα (tuple) prefix προς αναζήτηση.  Με το προαιρετικό
     'start', ελέγχεται το αλφαριθμητικό που αρχίζει από τη συγκεκριμένη
     θέση.  Με το προαιρετικό 'end', σταματά η σύγκριση της
     συμβολοσειράς σε αυτή τη θέση.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'Python'.startswith('Py')
          True
          >>> 'a tuple of prefixes'.startswith(('at', 'a'))
          True
          >>> 'Python is amazing'.startswith('is', 7)
          True

     See also *note endswith(): 127a. and *note removeprefix(): ca1.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.strip (chars=None, /)

     Return a copy of the string with the leading and trailing
     characters removed.  The 'chars' argument is a string specifying
     the set of characters to be removed.  If omitted or ‘None’, the
     'chars' argument defaults to removing whitespace.  The 'chars'
     argument is not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its
     values are stripped.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> '   spacious   '.strip()
          'spacious'
          >>> 'www.example.com'.strip('cmowz.')
          'example'

     The outermost leading and trailing 'chars' argument values are
     stripped from the string.  Characters are removed from the leading
     end until reaching a string character that is not contained in the
     set of characters in 'chars'.  A similar action takes place on the
     trailing end.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> comment_string = '#....... Section 3.2.1 Issue #32 .......'
          >>> comment_string.strip('.#! ')
          'Section 3.2.1 Issue #32'

     See also *note rstrip(): 1853.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.swapcase ()

     Return a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to
     lowercase and vice versa.  For example:

          >>> 'Hello World'.swapcase()
          'hELLO wORLD'

     Note that it is not necessarily true that ‘s.swapcase().swapcase()
     == s’.  For example:

          >>> 'straße'.swapcase().swapcase()
          'strasse'

     See also *note str.lower(): 1965. and *note str.upper(): 2830.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.title ()

     Επιστρέφει μια titlecased έκδοση της συμβολοσειράς, όπου οι λέξεις
     ξεκινούν με ένα κεφαλαίο χαρακτήρα και οι υπόλοιποι χαρακτήρες
     είναι πεζοί.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> 'Hello world'.title()
          'Hello World'

     Ο αλγόριθμος χρησιμοποιεί έναν απλό, ανεξάρτητο από τη γλώσσα,
     ορισμό μιας λέξης ως group διαδοχικών γραμμάτων.  Ο ορισμός
     λειτουργεί σε πολλά contexts, αλλά σημαίνει ότι οι απόστροφοι σε
     συναιρέσεις και κτητικές λέξεις αποτελούν όρια λέξεων, που μπορεί
     να μην είναι το επιθυμητό αποτέλεσμα:

          >>> "they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
          "They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"

     Η συνάρτηση *note string.capwords(): 2848. δεν έχει αυτό το
     πρόβλημα, καθώς χωρίζει τις λέξεις μόνο σε κενά.

     Εναλλακτικά, μπορεί να κατασκευαστεί μια λύση για τις αποστρόφους
     χρησιμοποιώντας κανονικές εκφράσεις:

          >>> import re
          >>> def titlecase(s):
          ...     return re.sub(r"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
          ...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0).capitalize(),
          ...                   s)
          ...
          >>> titlecase("they're bill's friends.")
          "They're Bill's Friends."

     Δείτε επίσης *note istitle(): 282b.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.translate (table, /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της συμβολοσειράς (string) στο οποίο κάθε
     χαρακτήρας έχει αντιστοιχιστεί μέσω του πίνακα μετάφρασης.  Ο
     πίνακας πρέπει να είναι ένα αντικείμενο που υλοποιεί
     ευρετηριοποίηση μέσω της *note __getitem__(): 787, συνήθως ένα
     *note mapping: 1564. ή ένα *note sequence: 8ff.  Όταν το indexing
     γίνεται με ένα Unicode ordinal (ένας ακέραιος), το αντικείμενο του
     πίνακα μπορεί να κάνει οποιοδήποτε από τα ακόλουθα: να επιστρέψει
     ένα Unicode ordinal ή μια συμβολοσειρά (string), να αντιστοιχίσει
     τον χαρακτήρα σε έναν ή περισσότερους άλλους χαρακτήρες· να
     επιστρέψει ‘None’, για να διαγράψει τον χαρακτήρα από τη
     συμβολοσειρά που επιστρέφεται· ή να κάνει raise ένα *note
     LookupError: 25da, για να αντιστοιχίσει τον χαρακτήρα στον εαυτό
     του.

     Μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε το *note str.maketrans(): 187. για να
     δημιουργήσετε ένα χάρτη μετάφρασης αντιστοίχισης από
     χαρακτήρα-σε-χαρακτήρα σε διαφορετικές μορφές.

     The following example uses a mapping to replace ‘'a'’ with ‘'X'’,
     ‘'b'’ with ‘'Y'’, and delete ‘'c'’:

          >>> 'abc123'.translate({ord('a'): 'X', ord('b'): 'Y', ord('c'): None})
          'XY123'

     Δείτε επίσης την ενότητα *note codecs: 1c. για μια πιο ευέλικτη
     προσέγγιση σε προσαρμοσμένα mappings χαρακτήρων.

 -- Μέθοδος: str.upper ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της συμβολοσειράς (string) με όλους τους
     χαρακτήρες (7) που έχουν μετατραπεί σε κεφαλαία.  Σημειώστε ότι το
     ‘s.upper().isupper()’ μπορεί να είναι ‘False’ αν το ‘s’ περιέχει
     χαρακτήρες χωρίς πεζά γράμματα ή αν η κατηγορία Unicode του
     προκύπτοντος χαρακτήρα(ων) δεν είναι «Lu» (Γράμμα, κεφαλαίο), αλλά
     π.χ.  «Lt» (Γράμμα, titlecase).

     The uppercasing algorithm used is described in section 3.13.2
     'Default Case Conversion' of the Unicode Standard(8).

 -- Μέθοδος: str.zfill (width, /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της συμβολοσειράς (string) που έμεινε
     γεμάτη με ψηφία ASCII ‘'0'`’ για να δημιουργήσει μία συμβολοσειρά
     μήκους 'width'.  Χειρίζεται ένα leading sign prefix (‘'+'’/‘'-'’)
     εισάγοντας την συμπλήρωση 'μετά' τον χαρακτήρα sign αντί για πριν.
     Η αρχική συμβολοσειρά επιστρέφεται εάν το 'width' είναι μικρότερο ή
     ίσο με ‘len(s)’.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> "42".zfill(5)
          '00042'
          >>> "-42".zfill(5)
          '-0042'

     See also *note rjust(): 2250.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode17.0.0/core-spec/chapter-3/#G53253

   (2) 
https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode17.0.0/core-spec/chapter-4/#G91002

   (3) Οι χαρακτήρες με πεζά είναι αυτοί με την ιδιότητα γενικής
κατηγορίας να είναι ένας από τους «Lu» (Γράμμα, κεφαλαίο), «Ll» (Γράμμα,
πεζά), ή «Lt» (Γράμμα, κεφαλαία).

   (4) Οι χαρακτήρες με πεζά είναι αυτοί με την ιδιότητα γενικής
κατηγορίας να είναι ένας από τους «Lu» (Γράμμα, κεφαλαίο), «Ll» (Γράμμα,
πεζά), ή «Lt» (Γράμμα, κεφαλαία).

   (5) Οι χαρακτήρες με πεζά είναι αυτοί με την ιδιότητα γενικής
κατηγορίας να είναι ένας από τους «Lu» (Γράμμα, κεφαλαίο), «Ll» (Γράμμα,
πεζά), ή «Lt» (Γράμμα, κεφαλαία).

   (6) 
https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode17.0.0/core-spec/chapter-3/#G34078

   (7) Οι χαρακτήρες με πεζά είναι αυτοί με την ιδιότητα γενικής
κατηγορίας να είναι ένας από τους «Lu» (Γράμμα, κεφαλαίο), «Ll» (Γράμμα,
πεζά), ή «Lt» (Γράμμα, κεφαλαία).

   (8) 
https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode17.0.0/core-spec/chapter-3/#G34078


File: python.info,  Node: Διαμορφωμένες Κυριολεκτικές Συμβολοσειρές f-strings,  Next: Template String Literals t-strings,  Prev: Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String,  Up: Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str

5.4.9.2 Διαμορφωμένες Κυριολεκτικές Συμβολοσειρές (f-strings)
.............................................................

Added in version 3.6.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Τα *note await: 432. και *note async for: e70.
μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν σε εκφράσεις μέσα σε f-strings.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the debug specifier (‘=’)

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Πολλοί περιορισμοί στις εκφράσεις μέσα σε
f-strings έχουν αφαιρεθεί.  Ιδιαίτερα, πλέον επιτρέπονται οι
εμφωλευμένες συμβολοσειρές, τα σχόλια και οι κάθετοι.

An 'f-string' (formally a 'formatted string literal') is a string
literal that is prefixed with ‘f’ or ‘F’.  This type of string literal
allows embedding the results of arbitrary Python expressions within
'replacement fields', which are delimited by curly brackets (‘{}’).
Each replacement field must contain an expression, optionally followed
by:

   * a 'debug specifier' – an equal sign (‘=’);

   * a 'conversion specifier' – ‘!s’, ‘!r’ or ‘!a’; and/or

   * a 'format specifier' prefixed with a colon (‘:’).

See the *note Lexical Analysis section on f-strings: 43a. for details on
the syntax of these fields.

* Menu:

* Debug specifier::
* Conversion specifier::
* Format specifier::


File: python.info,  Node: Debug specifier,  Next: Conversion specifier,  Up: Διαμορφωμένες Κυριολεκτικές Συμβολοσειρές f-strings

5.4.9.3 Debug specifier
.......................

Added in version 3.8.

If a debug specifier – an equal sign (‘=’) – appears after the
replacement field expression, the resulting f-string will contain the
expression’s source, the equal sign, and the value of the expression.
This is often useful for debugging:

     >>> number = 14.3
     >>> f'{number=}'
     'number=14.3'

Whitespace before, inside and after the expression, as well as
whitespace after the equal sign, is significant — it is retained in the
result:

     >>> f'{ number  -  4  = }'
     ' number  -  4  = 10.3'


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion specifier,  Next: Format specifier,  Prev: Debug specifier,  Up: Διαμορφωμένες Κυριολεκτικές Συμβολοσειρές f-strings

5.4.9.4 Conversion specifier
............................

By default, the value of a replacement field expression is converted to
a string using *note str(): 1df.:

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> one_third = Fraction(1, 3)
     >>> f'{one_third}'
     '1/3'

When a debug specifier but no format specifier is used, the default
conversion instead uses *note repr(): 45b.:

     >>> f'{one_third = }'
     'one_third = Fraction(1, 3)'

The conversion can be specified explicitly using one of these
specifiers:

   * ‘!s’ for *note str(): 1df.

   * ‘!r’ for *note repr(): 45b.

   * ‘!a’ for *note ascii(): 1789.

Για παράδειγμα:

     >>> str(one_third)
     '1/3'
     >>> repr(one_third)
     'Fraction(1, 3)'

     >>> f'{one_third!s} is {one_third!r}'
     '1/3 is Fraction(1, 3)'

     >>> string = "¡kočka 😸!"
     >>> ascii(string)
     "'\\xa1ko\\u010dka \\U0001f638!'"

     >>> f'{string = !a}'
     "string = '\\xa1ko\\u010dka \\U0001f638!'"


File: python.info,  Node: Format specifier,  Prev: Conversion specifier,  Up: Διαμορφωμένες Κυριολεκτικές Συμβολοσειρές f-strings

5.4.9.5 Format specifier
........................

After the expression has been evaluated, and possibly converted using an
explicit conversion specifier, it is formatted using the *note format():
439. function.  If the replacement field includes a 'format specifier'
introduced by a colon (‘:’), the specifier is passed to ‘format()’ as
the second argument.  The result of ‘format()’ is then used as the final
value for the replacement field.  For example:

     >>> from fractions import Fraction
     >>> one_third = Fraction(1, 3)
     >>> f'{one_third:.6f}'
     '0.333333'
     >>> f'{one_third:_^+10}'
     '___+1/3___'
     >>> >>> f'{one_third!r:_^20}'
     '___Fraction(1, 3)___'
     >>> f'{one_third = :~>10}~'
     'one_third = ~~~~~~~1/3~'


File: python.info,  Node: Template String Literals t-strings,  Next: printf-style String Formatting,  Prev: Διαμορφωμένες Κυριολεκτικές Συμβολοσειρές f-strings,  Up: Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str

5.4.9.6 Template String Literals (t-strings)
............................................

An 't-string' (formally a 'template string literal') is a string literal
that is prefixed with ‘t’ or ‘T’.

These strings follow the same syntax and evaluation rules as *note
formatted string literals: 24dc, with for the following differences:

   * Rather than evaluating to a ‘str’ object, template string literals
     evaluate to a *note string.templatelib.Template: 415. object.

   * The *note format(): 439. protocol is not used.  Instead, the format
     specifier and conversions (if any) are passed to a new *note
     Interpolation: 416. object that is created for each evaluated
     expression.  It is up to code that processes the resulting *note
     Template: 415. object to decide how to handle format specifiers and
     conversions.

   * Format specifiers containing nested replacement fields are
     evaluated eagerly, prior to being passed to the *note
     Interpolation: 416. object.  For instance, an interpolation of the
     form ‘{amount:.{precision}f}’ will evaluate the inner expression
     ‘{precision}’ to determine the value of the ‘format_spec’
     attribute.  If ‘precision’ were to be ‘2’, the resulting format
     specifier would be ‘'.2f'’.

   * When the equals sign ‘'='’ is provided in an interpolation
     expression, the text of the expression is appended to the literal
     string that precedes the relevant interpolation.  This includes the
     equals sign and any surrounding whitespace.  The ‘Interpolation’
     instance for the expression will be created as normal, except that
     *note conversion: 284e. will be set to “‘r’” (*note repr(): 45b.)
     by default.  If an explicit conversion or format specifier are
     provided, this will override the default behaviour.


File: python.info,  Node: printf-style String Formatting,  Prev: Template String Literals t-strings,  Up: Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str

5.4.9.7 ‘printf’-style String Formatting
........................................

     Σημείωση: Οι λειτουργίες μορφοποίησης που περιγράφονται εδώ
     παρουσιάζουν μια ποικιλία ιδιορρυθμιών που οδηγούν σε μια σειρά από
     κοινά σφάλματα (όπως η αποτυχία εμφάνισης των πλειάδων και των
     λεξικών σωστά).

     Η χρήση των *note formatted string literals: 43a, της διεπαφής
     *note str.format(): a12. ή της *note string.Template: a77. μπορεί
     να βοηθήσει στην αποφυγή αυτών των σφαλμάτων.  Καθεμία από αυτές
     τις εναλλακτικές προσφέρει τους δικούς της συμβιβασμούς και
     πλεονεκτήματα ως προς την απλότητα, την ευελιξία και/ή την
     επεκτασιμότητα.

Τα αντικείμενα string έχουν μια μοναδική ενσωματωμένη λειτουργία: τον
τελεστή ‘%’ (modulo).  Αυτός είναι επίσης γνωστός ως τελεστής
'formatting' ή * interpolation*.  Δεδομένων των ‘format % values’ (όπου
'format' είναι μία συμβολοσειρά), ‘%’ οι προδιαγραφές μετατροπής στο
'format' αντικαθίστανται από μηδέν ή περισσότερα στοιχεία των 'values'.
Το αποτέλεσμα είναι παρόμοιο με τη χρήση του ‘sprintf()’ στη γλώσσα C.
Για παράδειγμα:

     >>> print('%s has %d quote types.' % ('Python', 2))
     Python has 2 quote types.

Εάν το 'format' απαιτεί ένα μεμονωμένο όρισμα, το 'values' μπορεί να
είναι ένα μεμονωμένο non-tuple αντικείμενο.  (1)  Διαφορετικά, τα
'values' πρέπει να είναι ένα tuple με ακριβώς τον ίδιο αριθμό των
στοιχείων που καθορίζονται από το format string ή ένα μεμονωμένο
αντικείμενο αντιστοίχισης (για παράδειγμα, ένα λεξικό).

Ένας προσδιοριστής μετατροπής περιέχει δύο ή περισσότερους χαρακτήρες
και έχει τους εξής components, οι οποίοι πρέπει να εμφανίζονται με αυτή
τη σειρά:

  1. Ο χαρακτήρας ‘`%''’, που σηματοδοτεί την αρχή του προσδιοριστή.

  2. Κλειδί mapping (προαιρετικό), που αποτελείται από μια ακολουθία
     χαρακτήρων σε παρένθεση (για παράδειγμα, ‘(somename)’).

  3. Δείκτες μετατροπής (προαιρετικό), που επηρεάζουν το αποτέλεσμα
     κάποιων τύπων μετατροπής.

  4. Ελάχιστο πλάτος πεδίου (προαιρετικό).  Εάν ορίζεται ως ‘'*'’
     (αστερίσκος), το πραγματικό πλάτος διαβάζεται από το επόμενο
     στοιχείο του tuple στα 'values', και το αντικείμενο προς μετατροπή
     έρχεται μετά από το ελάχιστο πλάτος πεδίου και το προαιρετικό
     precision.

  5. Ακρίβεια (προαιρετικό), δίνεται ως ‘'.'’ (τελεία) ακολουθούμενη από
     το precision.Εάν ορίζεται ως ‘'*'’ (αστερίσκος), το πραγματικό
     precision διαβάζεται από το επόμενο στοιχείο του tuple στα
     'values', και η τιμή προς μετατροπή έρχεται μετά το precision.

  6. Μετατροπέας του length (προαιρετικό).

  7. Τύπος conversion.

Όταν το σωστό όρισμα είναι ένα λεξικό (ή άλλος τύπος αντιστοίχισης),
τότε οι μορφές στη συμβολοσειρά 'πρέπει' να περιλαμβάνουν ένα κλειδί
αντιστοίχισης σε παρένθεση σε αυτό το λεξικό που εισήχθη αμέσως μετά τον
χαρακτήρα ‘'%'’.  Το κλειδί αντιστοίχισης επιλέγει την τιμή που θα
μορφοποιηθεί από την αντιστοίχιση.  Για παράδειγμα:

     >>> print('%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
     ...       {'language': "Python", "number": 2})
     Python has 002 quote types.

Σε αυτήν την περίπτωση δεν μπορεί να υπάρχουν προσδιοριστές ‘*’ σε μια
μορφή (καθώς απαιτούν μια διαδοχική λίστα παραμέτρων).

Οι δείκτες μετατροπής είναι:

Flag          Έννοια
              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'#'’         Οι μετατροπή τιμής θα χρησιμοποιήσει την «εναλλακτική φόρμα» (όπου
              ορίζεται παρακάτω).
              
              
‘'0'’         Η μετατροπή θα έχει μηδενική συμπλήρωση για αριθμητικές τιμές.
              
              
‘'-'’         Η τιμή μετατροπής αφήνεται προσαρμοσμένη (παρακάμπτει τη μετατροπή
              ‘'0'’ εάν δίνονται και τα δύο).
              
              
‘' '’         (ένα κενό) Πρέπει να προστεθεί ένα κενό πριν από έναν θετικό αριθμό (ή
              κενή συμβολοσειρά) που παράγεται από μια υπογεγραμμένη μετατροπή.
              
              
‘'+'’         Ένα χαρακτήρας προσήμου (‘'+'’ ή ‘'-'’) θα προηγείται της μετατροπής
              (παρακάμπτει ένα «κενό» δείκτη).
              

Ένας τροποποιητής μήκους (‘h’, ‘l’, or ‘L’) μπορεί να υπάρχει, αλλά
αγνοείται καθώς δεν είναι απαραίτητος για την Python – οπότε π.χ.  ‘%ld’
είναι πανομοιότυπο σε ‘%d’.

Οι τύποι μετατροπής είναι:

Μετατροπή        Έννοια                                                    Σημειώσεις
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'d'’            Υπογεγραμμένος δεκαδικός ακέραιος.
                 
                                                                           
‘'i'’            Υπογεγραμμένος δεκαδικός ακέραιος.
                 
                                                                           
‘'o'’            Υπογεγραμμένη οκταδική τιμή.                              (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'u'’            Απαρχαιωμένος τύπος – είναι πανομοιότυπος με το ‘'d'’.    (6)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'x'’            Υπογεγραμμένο δεκαεξαδικό (πεζά).                         (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'X'’            Υπογεγραμμένο δεκαεξαδικό (κεφαλαίο).                     (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'e'’            Εκθετική μορφή κινητής υποδιαστολής (πεζά)                (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'E'’            Εκθετική μορφή κινητής υποδιαστολής (κεφαλαία)            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'f'’            Δεκαδική μορφή κινητής υποδιαστολής.                      (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'F'’            Δεκαδική μορφή κινητής υποδιαστολής.                      (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'g'’            Μορφή κινητής υποδιαστολής.  Χρησιμοποιεί εκθετική        (4)
                 μορφή πεζών αν ο εκθέτης είναι μικρότερος από -4 ή όχι    
                 μικρότερος από την ακρίβεια, διαφορετικά χρησιμοποιεί
                 δεκαδική μορφή.
                 
                                                                           
‘'G'’            Μορφή κινητής υποδιαστολής.  Χρησιμοποιεί εκθετική        (4)
                 μορφή κεφαλαίων εάν ο εκθέτης είναι μικρότερος από -4 ή   
                 όχι μικρότερος από την ακρίβεια, διαφορετικά
                 χρησιμοποιεί δεκαδική μορφή.
                 
                                                                           
‘'c'’            Μεμονωμένος χαρακτήρας (δέχεται ακέραιο ή μονό
                 χαρακτήρα συμβολοσειράς).
                 
                                                                           
‘'r'’            Συμβολοσειρά (μετατρέπει οποιοδήποτε αντικείμενο Python   (5)
                 χρησιμοποιώντας *note repr(): 45b.).                      
                 
                                                                           
‘'s'’            Συμβολοσειρά (μετατρέπει οποιοδήποτε αντικείμενο Python   (5)
                 χρησιμοποιώντας *note str(): 1df.).                       
                 
                                                                           
‘'a'’            Συμβολοσειρά (μετατρέπει οποιοδήποτε αντικείμενο Python   (5)
                 χρησιμοποιώντας *note ascii(): 1789.).                    
                 
                                                                           
‘'%'’            Κανένα όρισμα δεν μετατρέπεται, έχει ως αποτέλεσμα έναν
                 χαρακτήρα ‘'%'’ το αποτέλεσμα.
                 

For floating-point formats, the result should be correctly rounded to a
given precision ‘p’ of digits after the decimal point.  The rounding
mode matches that of the *note round(): 167f. builtin.

Σημειώσεις:

  1. Η εναλλακτική μορφή προκαλεί την εισαγωγή ενός πρώτου οκταδικού
     προσδιοριστή (‘'0o'’) πριν από το πρώτο ψηφίο.

  2. Η εναλλακτική φόρμα προκαλεί την εισαγωγή ενός αρχικού ‘'0x'’ ή
     ‘'0X'’ (ανάλογα με το εάν χρησιμοποιήθηκε η μορφή ‘'x'’ ή ‘'X'’)
     πριν το πρώτο ψηφίο.

  3. Η εναλλακτική μορφή κάνει το αποτέλεσμα να περιέχει πάντα μια
     υποδιαστολή, ακόμα κι αν δεν ακολουθούν ψηφία.

     Η ακρίβεια καθορίζει τον αριθμό των ψηφίων μετά την υποδιαστολή και
     ορίζεται από προεπιλογή ως 6.

  4. Η εναλλακτική μορφή κάνει το αποτέλεσμα να περιέχει πάντα μια
     υποδιαστολή και τα μηδενικά στο τέλος δεν αφαιρούνται όπως θα ήταν
     διαφορετικά.

     Η ακρίβεια καθορίζει τον αριθμό των σημαντικών ψηφίων πριν και μετά
     την υποδιαστολή και ορίζει το 6.

  5. Εάν η ακρίβεια είναι ‘N’, η έξοδος περικόπτεται σε ‘N’ χαρακτήρες.

  6. Βλέπε PEP 237(2).

Δεδομένου ότι οι συμβολοσειρές Python έχουν ρητό μήκος, οι ‘%s’
μετατροπές δεν υποθέτουν ότι το ‘'\0'’ είναι το τέλος της συμβολοσειράς.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Οι μετατροπείς ‘%f’ για αριθμούς των οποίων η
απόλυτη τιμή είναι μεγαλύτερη από 1e50 δεν αντικαθίστανται πλέον από
μετατροπές ‘%g’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Για να μορφοποιήσετε μόνο μια πλειάδα (tuple) θα πρέπει επομένως
να παρέχετε μια πλειάδα singleton της οποίας το μόνο στοιχείο είναι η
πλειάδα που πρόκειται να μορφοποιηθεί.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/


File: python.info,  Node: Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview,  Next: Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset,  Prev: Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.10 Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — ‘bytes’, ‘bytearray’, ‘memoryview’
---------------------------------------------------------------------

Οι βασικοί ενσωματωμένοι (built-in) τύποι για τον χειρισμό δυαδικών
δεδομένων είναι *note bytes: 1c7. και *note bytearray: 1c6.
Υποστηρίζονται από τη *note memoryview: 1d2. που χρησιμοποιεί το
πρωτόκολλο *note buffer protocol: 311. για την πρόσβαση στη μνήμη άλλων
δυαδικών αντικειμένων χωρίς να χρειάζεται η δημιουργία αντιγράφου.

Το module *note array: 8. υποστηρίζει αποδοτική αποθήκευση για βασικούς
τύπους δεδομένων όπως 32-bit ακέραιους και IEEE754 διπλής ακρίβειας
κινητής υποδιαστολής τιμές.

* Menu:

* Αντικείμενα Bytes::
* Αντικείμενα Bytearray::
* Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray::
* Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf::
* Όψεις Μνήμης::


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα Bytes,  Next: Αντικείμενα Bytearray,  Up: Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.10.1 Αντικείμενα Bytes
..........................

Τα αντικείμενα bytes είναι αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες μεμονωμένων bytes.
Δεδομένου ότι πολλά κύρια δυαδικά πρωτόκολλα βασίζονται στην
κωδικοποίηση κειμένου ASCII, τα αντικείμενα bytes προσφέρουν διάφορες
μεθόδους που ισχύουν μόνο όταν εργάζονται με δεδομένα συμβατά με ASCII
και σχετίζονται στενά με αντικείμενα συμβολοσειρών σε μια ποικιλία
διαφόρων τρόπων.

 -- Κλάση: bytes (source=b'')

 -- Κλάση: bytes (source, encoding, errors='strict')

     Πρώτον, η σύνταξη για τα bytes literals είναι σε μεγάλο βαθμό η
     ίδια με αυτή για τα literals συμβολοσειρών, με τη διαφορά ότι
     προστίθεται ένα πρόθεμα ‘b’:

        * Μονά εισαγωγικά: ‘b'ακόμα επιτρέπει ενσωματωμένα "διπλά"
          εισαγωγικά'’

        * Διπλά εισαγωγικά: ‘b"εξακολουθεί να επιτρέπει ενσωματωμένα
          'μονά' εισαγωγικά"’

        * Τριπλά εισαγωγικά: ‘b'''3 μονά εισαγωγικά'''’, ‘b"""3 διπλά
          εισαγωγικά"""’

     Επιτρέπονται μόνο χαρακτήρες ASCII σε bytes literals (ανεξάρτητα
     από τη δηλωμένη κωδικοποίηση του πηγαίου κώδικα).  Τυχόν δυαδικές
     τιμές, πάνω από 127, πρέπει να εισαχθούν σε bytes literals
     χρησιμοποιώντας την κατάλληλη ακολουθία διαφυγής χαρακτήρων.

     Όπως και με τα literals συμβολοσειρών, τα bytes literals μπορούν
     επίσης να χρησιμοποιήσουν ένα πρόθεμα ‘r’ για να απενεργοποιήσουν
     την επεξεργασία των ακολουθιών διαφυγής χαρακτήρων.  Βλέπε *note
     Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes: 2490. για περισσότερες πληροφορίες
     σχετικά με τις διάφορες μορφές bytes literal, συμπεριλαμβανομένων
     των υποστηριζόμενων ακολουθιών διαφυγής χαρακτήρων.

     Ενώ τα bytes literals και οι αναπαραστάσεις βασίζονται σε κείμενο
     ASCII, τα αντικείμενα bytes συμπεριφέρονται στην πραγματικότητα σαν
     αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες ακεραίων με κάθε τιμή στην ακολουθία
     περιορισμένη έτσι ώστε ‘0 <= x < 256’ (προσπάθειες παραβίασης αυτού
     του περιορισμού θα κάνουν raise την *note ValueError: 277.).  Αυτό
     γίνεται σκόπιμα για να τονιστεί ότι, ενώ πολλές δυαδικές μορφές
     περιλαμβάνουν στοιχεία που βασίζονται σε ASCII και μπορούν να
     χρησιμοποιηθούν χρήσιμα με ορισμένους αλγορίθμους
     προσανατολισμένους στο κείμενο, αυτό δεν ισχύει γενικά για
     αυθαίρετα δυαδικά δεδομένα (τυφλή εφαρμογή αλγορίθμων επεξεργασίας
     κειμένου σε δυαδικές μορφές δεδομένων που δεν είναι συμβατές με
     ASCII συνήθως οδηγεί σε καταστροφή δεδομένων).

     Εκτός από τις literal μορφές, τα αντικείμενα bytes μπορούν να
     δημιουργηθούν με πολλούς άλλους τρόπους:

        * Ένα μηδενικό αντικείμενο bytes με καθορισμένο μήκος:
          ‘bytes(10)’

        * Από ένα iterable ακεραίων αριθμών: ‘bytes(range(20))’

        * Αντιγραφή υπαρχόντων δυαδικών δεδομένων μέσω του πρωτοκόλλου
          buffer: ‘bytes(obj)’

     Δείτε επίσης το ενσωματωμένο *note bytes: 2087.

     Δεδομένου ότι 2 δεκαεξαδικά ψηφία αντιστοιχούν ακριβώς σε ένα μόνο
     byte, οι δεκαεξαδικοί αριθμοί είναι μια συνήθως χρησιμοποιούμενη
     μορφή για την περιγραφή δυαδικών δεδομένων.  Συνεπώς, ο τύπος bytes
     έχει μια πρόσθετη μέθοδο κλάσης για την ανάγνωση δεδομένων σε αυτήν
     την μορφή:

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod fromhex (string, /)

          Αυτή η μέθοδος κλάσης *note bytes: 1c7. επιστρέφει ένα
          αντικείμενο bytes, αποκωδικοποιώντας το δεδομένο αντικείμενο
          συμβολοσειράς.  Η συμβολοσειρά πρέπει να περιέχει δύο
          δεκαεξαδικά ψηφία ανά byte, με το κενό διάστημα ASCII να
          αγνοείται.

               >>> bytes.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
               b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2'

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Το *note bytes.fromhex(): 434.
          παρακάμπτει πλέον όλα τα κενά ASCII στη συμβολοσειρά, όχι μόνο
          τα κενά.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Η *note bytes.fromhex(): 434. δέχεται
          πλέον ASCII *note bytes: 1c7. και *note bytes-like objects:
          436. ως είσοδο.

     Υπάρχει μια συνάρτηση αντίστροφης μετατροπής για τη μετατροπή ενός
     αντικειμένου bytes στην δεκαεξαδική του αναπαράσταση.

      -- Μέθοδος: hex (*, bytes_per_sep=1)

      -- Μέθοδος: hex (sep, bytes_per_sep=1)

          Επιστρέφετε ένα αντικείμενο συμβολοσειράς που περιέχει δύο
          δεκαεξαδικά ψηφία για κάθε byte στο στιγμιότυπο.

               >>> b'\xf0\xf1\xf2'.hex()
               'f0f1f2'

          Εάν θέλετε να κάνετε τη δεκαεξαδική συμβολοσειρά πιο
          ευανάγνωστη, μπορείτε να καθορίσετε μια παράμετρο διαχωρισμού
          χαρακτήρων 'sep' που θα συμπεριληφθεί στην έξοδο.  Από
          προεπιλογή, αυτό το διαχωριστικό θα περιλαμβάνεται μεταξύ κάθε
          byte.  Μια δεύτερη προαιρετική παράμετρος 'bytes_per_sep'
          ελέγχει τα διαστήματα.  Οι θετικές τιμές υπολογίζουν τη θέση
          του διαχωριστή από τα δεξιά, οι αρνητικές τιμές από τα
          αριστερά.

               >>> value = b'\xf0\xf1\xf2'
               >>> value.hex('-')
               'f0-f1-f2'
               >>> value.hex('_', 2)
               'f0_f1f2'
               >>> b'UUDDLRLRAB'.hex(' ', -4)
               '55554444 4c524c52 4142'

          Added in version 3.5.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Η *note bytes.hex(): 111e. υποστηρίζει
          πλέον προαιρετικές παραμέτρους 'sep' και 'bytes_per_sep' για
          την εισαγωγή διαχωριστικών μεταξύ των byte στην έξοδο
          δεκαεξαδικού.

Δεδομένου ότι τα αντικείμενα bytes είναι ακολουθίες ακεραίων αριθμών
(όμοια με μια πλειάδα (tuple)), για ένα αντικείμενο bytes 'b', το ‘b[0]’
θα είναι ένας ακέραιος αριθμός, ενώ το ‘b[0:1]’ θα είναι ένα αντικείμενο
bytes μήκους 1.  (Αυτό έρχεται σε αντίθεση με τις συμβολοσειρές
κειμένου, όπου τόσο η λειτουργία πρόσβασης ως ευρετήριο όσο και η
λειτουργία τμηματοποίησης θα παράγουν μια συμβολοσειρά μήκους 1)

Η αναπαράσταση αντικειμένων bytes χρησιμοποιεί την literal μορφή
(‘b'...'’) , καθώς είναι συχνά πιο χρήσιμη από π.χ.  ‘bytes([46, 46,
46])’.  Μπορείτε πάντα να μετατρέψετε ένα αντικείμενο bytes σε μια λίστα
ακέραιων αριθμών που χρησιμοποιούν ‘list(b)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα Bytearray,  Next: Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray,  Prev: Αντικείμενα Bytes,  Up: Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.10.2 Αντικείμενα Bytearray
..............................

Τα αντικείμενα *note bytearray: 1c6. είναι ένα μεταβλητό, αντίστοιχο,
των αντικειμένων *note bytes: 1c7.

 -- Κλάση: bytearray (source=b'')

 -- Κλάση: bytearray (source, encoding, errors='strict')

     Δεν υπάρχει αποκλειστική literal σύνταξη για αντικείμενα bytearray,
     αντίθετα δημιουργούνται πάντα καλώντας τον constructor:

        * Δημιουργία ενός κενού στιγμιοτύπου: ‘bytearray()’

        * Δημιουργία μηδενικού στιγμιοτύπου με δεδομένο μήκος:
          ‘bytearray(10)’

        * Από έναν iterable αριθμό ακεραίων: ‘bytearray(range(20))’

        * Αντιγραφή υπαρχόντων δυαδικών δεδομένων μέσω του πρωτοκόλλου
          buffer: ‘bytearray(b'Hi!')’

     Καθώς τα αντικείμενα του bytearray είναι μεταβλητά, υποστηρίζουν
     τις λειτουργίες της ακολουθίας *note mutable: 27bb. επιπλέον των
     κοινών λειτουργιών bytes και bytearray που περιγράφονται στο *note
     Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray: 27bc.

     Δείτε επίσης το ενσωματωμένο *note bytearray: 2088.

     Δεδομένου ότι 2 δεκαεξαδικά ψηφία αντιστοιχούν ακριβώς σε ένα μόνο
     byte, οι δεκαεξαδικοί αριθμοί είναι συνήθως χρησιμοποιούμενη μορφή
     για την περιγραφή δυαδικών δεδομένων.  Συνεπώς, ο τύπος bytearray
     έχει μια πρόσθετη μέθοδο κλάσης για την ανάγνωση δεδομένων σε αυτήν
     την μορφή:

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod fromhex (string, /)

          Αυτή η μέθοδος κλάσης *note bytearray: 1c6. επιστρέφει
          αντικείμενο bytearray, αποκωδικοποιώντας το δεδομένο
          αντικείμενο συμβολοσειράς.  Η συμβολοσειρά πρέπει να περιέχει
          δύο δεκαεξαδικά ψηφία ανά byte, με το κενό διάστημα ASCII να
          αγνοείται.

               >>> bytearray.fromhex('2Ef0 F1f2  ')
               bytearray(b'.\xf0\xf1\xf2')

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Το *note bytearray.fromhex(): 435.
          παρακάμπτει τώρα όλα τα κενά ASCII στη συμβολοσειρά, όχι μόνο
          τα κενά.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Η *note bytearray.fromhex(): 435.
          δέχεται πλέον το ASCII *note bytes: 1c7. και *note bytes-like
          objects: 436. ως είσοδο.

     Υπάρχει μια συνάρτηση αντίστροφης μετατροπής για να μετατρέψει ένα
     αντικείμενο bytearray στη δεκαεξαδική αναπαράσταση του.

      -- Μέθοδος: hex (*, bytes_per_sep=1)

      -- Μέθοδος: hex (sep, bytes_per_sep=1)

          Επιστρέφετε ένα αντικείμενο συμβολοσειράς που περιέχει δύο
          δεκαεξαδικά ψηφία για κάθε byte στο στιγμιότυπο.

               >>> bytearray(b'\xf0\xf1\xf2').hex()
               'f0f1f2'

          Added in version 3.5.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Παρόμοια με το *note bytes.hex():
          111e, το *note bytearray.hex(): 111f. υποστηρίζει τώρα
          προαιρετικές παραμέτρους 'sep' και 'bytes_per_sep' για την
          εισαγωγή διαχωριστικών μεταξύ των byte στην δεκαεξαδική έξοδο.

      -- Μέθοδος: resize (size, /)

          Αλλάζει το μέγεθος του *note bytearray: 1c6. ώστε αν περιέχει
          'size' bytes.  Το 'size' πρέπει να είναι μεγαλύτερο ή ίσο με
          το 0.

          Εάν η *note bytearray: 1c6. χρειάζεται να συρρικνωθεί, τα
          bytes πέραν του 'size' περικόπτονται.

          Εάν η *note bytearray: 1c6. χρειάζεται να αυξηθεί, όλα τα νέα
          bytes, αυτά που είναι πέρα από το 'size', θα οριστούν σε null
          bytes.

          Ισοδύναμο με:

               >>> def resize(ba, size):
               ...     if len(ba) > size:
               ...         del ba[size:]
               ...     else:
               ...         ba += b'\0' * (size - len(ba))

          Παραδείγματα:

               >>> shrink = bytearray(b'abc')
               >>> shrink.resize(1)
               >>> (shrink, len(shrink))
               (bytearray(b'a'), 1)
               >>> grow = bytearray(b'abc')
               >>> grow.resize(5)
               >>> (grow, len(grow))
               (bytearray(b'abc\x00\x00'), 5)

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: take_bytes (n=None, /)

          Remove the first 'n' bytes from the bytearray and return them
          as an immutable *note bytes: 1c7.  By default (if 'n' is
          ‘None’), return all bytes and clear the bytearray.

          If 'n' is negative, index from the end and take the first
          *note len(): a1f. plus 'n' bytes.  If 'n' is out of bounds,
          raise *note IndexError: 18d7.

          Taking less than the full length will leave remaining bytes in
          the ‘bytearray’, which requires a copy.  If the remaining
          bytes should be discarded, use *note resize(): 1928. or *note
          del: 1d1d. to truncate then *note take_bytes(): 1c5. without a
          size.

          'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Taking all bytes is a
          zero-copy operation.

          Added in version 3.15: See the *note What’s New: 1c4. entry
          for common code patterns which can be optimized with
          ‘bytearray.take_bytes()’.

Δεδομένου ότι τα αντικείμενα bytearray είναι ακολουθίες ακεραίων αριθμών
(παρόμοια με μια λίστα), για ένα αντικείμενο bytearray 'b', το ‘b[0]’ θα
είναι ένας ακέραιος αριθμός, ενώ το ‘b[0:1]’ θα είναι ένα αντικείμενο
bytearray μήκους 1.  (Αυτό έρχεται σε αντίθεση με τις συμβολοσειρές
κειμένου, όπου τόσο το indexing και το slicing θα παράγουν μια
συμβολοσειρά μήκους 1)

Η αναπαράσταση αντικειμένων bytearray χρησιμοποιεί τη μορφή bytes
literal (‘bytearray(b'...')’), καθώς είναι συχνά πιο χρήσιμη από π.χ.
‘bytearray([46, 46, 46])’.  Μπορείτε πάντα να μετατρέψετε ένα
αντικείμενο bytearray σε λίστα ακεραίων χρησιμοποιώντας το ‘list(b)’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

For detailed information on thread-safety guarantees for *note
bytearray: 1c6. objects, see *note Thread safety for bytearray objects:
2853.


File: python.info,  Node: Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray,  Next: Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf,  Prev: Αντικείμενα Bytearray,  Up: Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.10.3 Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray
........................................

Τόσο τα byte όσο και τα αντικείμενα του πίνακα byte υποστηρίζουν τις
λειτουργίες της ακολουθίας *note common: 2801.  Αλληλεπιδρούν όχι μόνο
με τελεστές του ίδιου τύπου, αλλά και με οποιοδήποτε αντικείμενο *note
bytes-like object: 436.  Λόγω αυτής της ευελιξίας, μπορούν να
αναμειχθούν ελεύθερα σε λειτουργίες χωρίς να προκαλούνται σφάλματα.
Ωστόσο, ο τύπος επιστροφής του αποτελέσματος μπορεί να εξαρτάται από τη
σειρά των τελεστών.

     Σημείωση: Οι μέθοδοι στα bytes και τα αντικείμενα bytearray δεν
     δέχονται συμβολοσειρές ως ορίσματά τους, όπως και οι μέθοδοι σε
     συμβολοσειρές δεν δέχονται bytes ως ορίσματα.  Για παράδειγμα,
     πρέπει να γράψετε:

          a = "abc"
          b = a.replace("a", "f")

     και:

          a = b"abc"
          b = a.replace(b"a", b"f")

Ορισμένες λειτουργίες byte και bytearray προϋποθέτουν τη χρήση δυαδικών
μορφών συμβατών με ASCII και, ως εκ τούτου, θα πρέπει να αποφεύγονται
όταν εργάζεστε με αυθαίρετα δυαδικά δεδομένα.  Αυτοί οι περιορισμοί
καλύπτονται παρακάτω.

     Σημείωση: Η χρήση αυτών των λειτουργιών βασίζονται στο ASCII για
     τον χειρισμό δυαδικών δεδομένων που δεν είναι αποθηκευμένα σε μορφή
     που βασίζεται σε ASCII μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε καταστροφή δεδομένων.

Οι ακόλουθες μέθοδοι σε byte και αντικείμενα bytearray μπορούν να
χρησιμοποιηθούν με αυθαίρετα δυαδικά δεδομένα.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.count (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.count (sub[, start[, end]])

     Επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των μη επικαλυπτόμενων εμφανίσεων της
     δευτερεύουσας ακολουθίας 'sub' στο εύρος ['start', 'end'].  Τα
     προαιρετικά ορίσματα 'start' και 'end' ερμηνεύονται όπως στη
     σημειογραφία τμηματοποίησης.

     Η υποακολουθία για αναζήτηση μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε *note
     bytes-like object: 436. ή ένας ακέραιος αριθμός στην περιοχή από 0
     έως 255.

     Εάν το 'sub' είναι κενό, επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των κενών τμημάτων
     μεταξύ των χαρακτήρων που είναι το μήκος του αντικειμένου bytes συν
     ένα.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Επίσης αποδέχεται έναν ακέραιο αριθμό στο
     εύρος 0 έως 255 ως υποακολουθία.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.removeprefix (prefix, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.removeprefix (prefix, /)

     Εάν τα δυαδικά δεδομένα ξεκινούν με τη συμβολοσειρά 'prefix',
     επιστρέφει ‘bytes[len(prefix):]’.  Διαφορετικά επιστρέψτε ένα
     αντίγραφο των αρχικών δυαδικών δεδομένων:

          >>> b'TestHook'.removeprefix(b'Test')
          b'Hook'
          >>> b'BaseTestCase'.removeprefix(b'Test')
          b'BaseTestCase'

     Το 'prefix' μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε *note bytes-like object:
     436.

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.removesuffix (suffix, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.removesuffix (suffix, /)

     Εάν τα δυαδικά δεδομένα τελειώνουν με τη συμβολοσειρά 'suffix' και
     αυτό το 'suffix' δεν είναι κενό, επιστρέφει ‘bytes[:-len(suffix)]’.
     Διαφορετικά, επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο των αρχικών δυαδικών
     δεδομένων:

          >>> b'MiscTests'.removesuffix(b'Tests')
          b'Misc'
          >>> b'TmpDirMixin'.removesuffix(b'Tests')
          b'TmpDirMixin'

     Το 'suffix' μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε *note bytes-like object:
     436.

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.decode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.decode (encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Επιστρέφει τα bytes που έχουν αποκωδικοποιηθεί σε μια *note str:
     1df.

     το 'encoding' έχει default σε ‘'utf-8'’- δείτε *note Standard
     Encodings: 1171. για πιθανές τιμές.

     Το 'errors' ελέγχει τον τρόπο χειρισμού των σφαλμάτων
     αποκωδικοποίησης.  Εάν ‘'strict'’ (η προεπιλογή), γίνεται raise μια
     εξαίρεση *note UnicodeError: 675.  Άλλες πιθανές τιμές είναι το
     ‘'ignore'’, ‘'replace'’, και οποιοδήποτε άλλο όνομα που έχει
     καταχωρηθεί από την *note codecs.register_error(): 183d.  Βλέπε
     *note Error Handlers: 1d6c. για λεπτομέρειες.

     Για λόγους απόδοσης, η τιμή του 'errors' δεν ελέγχεται ως προς την
     εγκυρότητα του, εκτός εάν παρουσιαστεί ένα σφάλμα αποκωδικοποίησης,
     είναι ενεργοποιημένο το *note Python Development Mode: 70d. ή
     χρησιμοποιείται ένα *note debug build: 3dc.

          Σημείωση: Η μετάδοση του ορίσματος 'encoding' στην *note str:
          1df. επιτρέπει την αποκωδικοποίηση οποιουδήποτε *note
          bytes-like object: 436. απευθείας, χωρίς να χρειάζεται να
          δημιουργήσετε ένα προσωρινό αντικείμενο ‘bytes’ ή ‘bytearray’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Επιπρόσθετη υποστήριξη για keyword
     ορίσματα.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Η τιμή του όρου 'errors' ελέγχεται τώρα στο
     *note Python Development Mode: 70d. και στο *note debug mode: 3dc.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.endswith (suffix[, start[, end]])

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν τα δυαδικά δεδομένα τελειώνουν με το
     καθορισμένο 'suffix', διαφορετικά επιστρέφει ‘False’.  Το 'suffix'
     μπορεί επίσης να είναι μια πλειάδα από επιθέματα που πρέπει να
     αναζητήσετε.  Με το προαιρετικό 'start', η δοκιμή ξεκινά από αυτή
     τη θέση.  Με το προαιρετικό 'end', σταματήστε να συγκρίνετε σε αυτή
     τη θέση.

     Το(α) επίθεμα(τα) για αναζήτηση μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε *note
     bytes-like object: 436.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.find (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.find (sub[, start[, end]])

     Επιστρέφει το χαμηλότερο index στα δεδομένα όπου βρίσκεται η
     υποακολουθία 'sub', έτσι ώστε το 'sub' να περιέχεται στο slice
     ‘s[start:end]’.  Τα προαιρετικά ορίσματα 'start' και 'end'
     ερμηνεύονται ως συμβολισμό τμηματοποίησης.  Επιστρέφει ‘-1’ εάν το
     'sub' δεν βρεθεί.

     Η υποακολουθία για αναζήτηση μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε *note
     bytes-like object: 436. ή ένας ακέραιος αριθμός στην περιοχή από 0
     έως 255.

          Σημείωση: Η μέθοδος *note find(): 1dcd. θα πρέπει να
          χρησιμοποιείται μόνο εάν χρειάζεται να γνωρίζετε τη θέση του
          'sub'.  Για να ελέγξετε εάν το 'sub' είναι υποσυμβολοσειρά ή
          όχι, χρησιμοποιήστε τον τελεστή *note in: 323.:

               >>> b'Py' in b'Python'
               True

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Επίσης αποδέχεται έναν ακέραιο αριθμό στο
     εύρος 0 έως 255 ως υποακολουθία.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.index (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.index (sub[, start[, end]])

     Όπως η *note find(): 1dcd, αλλά κάνει raise μια *note ValueError:
     277. όταν δεν βρεθεί η δευτερεύουσα ακολουθία.

     Η υποακολουθία για αναζήτηση μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε *note
     bytes-like object: 436. ή ένας ακέραιος αριθμός στην περιοχή από 0
     έως 255.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Επίσης αποδέχεται έναν ακέραιο αριθμό στο
     εύρος 0 έως 255 ως υποακολουθία.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.join (iterable, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.join (iterable, /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο bytes ή bytearray που είναι η συνένωση
     των δυαδικών ακολουθιών δεδομένων στο 'iterable'.  Μια *note
     TypeError: 291. θα γίνει raise εάν υπάρχουν τιμές στο 'iterable'
     που δεν είναι σαν *note bytes-like objects: 436,
     συμπεριλαμβανομένων των αντικειμένων *note str: 1df.  Το
     διαχωριστικό μεταξύ των στοιχειών είναι τα περιεχόμενα των byte ή
     του αντικειμένου bytearray που παρέχει αυτή τη μέθοδο.

 -- Μέθοδος: static bytes.maketrans (from, to, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: static bytearray.maketrans (from, to, /)

     Αυτή η στατική μέθοδος επιστρέφει έναν πίνακα μετάφρασης που μπορεί
     να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την *note bytes.translate(): 196d. που θα
     αντιστοιχίσει κάθε χαρακτήρα στο 'from' στον χαρακτήρα στην ίδια
     θέση στο 'to'· τα 'from' και 'to' πρέπει να είναι και τα δύο *note
     bytes-like objects: 436. και να έχουν το ίδιο μήκος.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.partition (sep, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.partition (sep, /)

     Διαχωρίζει την ακολουθία κατά την πρώτη εμφάνιση του 'sep', και
     επιστρέφει μια 3-πλειάδα που περιέχει το τμήμα πριν από το
     διαχωριστικό ή το αντίγραφο του bytearray του και το τμήμα μετά το
     διαχωριστικό.  Εάν δεν βρεθεί το διαχωριστικό, επιστρέφει μια
     3-πλειάδα που περιέχει ένα αντίγραφο της αρχικής ακολουθίας,
     ακολουθούμενη από δύο κενά byte ή αντικείμενα bytearray.

     Το διαχωριστικό για αναζήτηση μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε *note
     bytes-like object: 436.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.replace (old, new, /, count=-1)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.replace (old, new, /, count=-1)

     Return a copy of the sequence with all occurrences of subsequence
     'old' replaced by 'new'.  If 'count' is given, only the first
     'count' occurrences are replaced.  If 'count' is not specified or
     ‘-1’, then all occurrences are replaced.

     Η ακολουθία για αναζήτηση και αντικατάσταση της μπορεί να είναι
     οποιοδήποτε *note bytes-like object: 436.

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Το 'count' υποστηρίζεται πλέον ως όρισμα
     λέξης-κλειδιού.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

     Επιστρέφει τον υψηλότερο δείκτη στην ακολουθία όπου βρίσκεται η
     υποακολουθία 'sub', έτσι ώστε το 'sub' να περιέχεται στο
     ‘s[start:end]’.  Τα προαιρετικά ορίσματα 'start' και 'end'
     ερμηνεύονται με συμβολισμό τμηματοποίησης.  Επιστρέφει ‘-1’ σε
     περίπτωση αποτυχίας.

     Η υποακολουθία για αναζήτηση μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε *note
     bytes-like object: 436. ή ένας ακέραιος αριθμός στην περιοχή από 0
     έως 255.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Επίσης αποδέχεται έναν ακέραιο αριθμό στο
     εύρος 0 έως 255 ως υποακολουθία.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.rindex (sub[, start[, end]])

     Όπως η *note rfind(): 1dce. αλλά κάνει raise μια *note ValueError:
     277. όταν δεν βρεθεί η υποακολουθία 'sub'.

     Η υποακολουθία για αναζήτηση μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε *note
     bytes-like object: 436. ή ένας ακέραιος αριθμός στην περιοχή από 0
     έως 255.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Επίσης αποδέχεται έναν ακέραιο αριθμό στο
     εύρος 0 έως 255 ως υποακολουθία.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.rpartition (sep, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.rpartition (sep, /)

     Διαχωρίζει την ακολουθία στην τελευταία εμφάνιση του 'sep', και
     επιστρέφει μια 3-πλειάδα που περιέχει το τμήμα πριν από το
     διαχωριστικό, το ίδιο το διαχωριστικό ή το αντίγραφο του bytearray
     και το τμήμα μετά το διαχωριστικό.  Εάν δεν βρεθεί το διαχωριστικό
     επιστρέφει μια 3-πλειάδα που περιέχει δύο κενά byte ή αντικείμενα
     bytearray, ακολουθούμενα από ένα αντίγραφο της αρχικής ακολουθίας.

     Το διαχωριστικό για αναζήτηση μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε *note
     bytes-like object: 436.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.startswith (prefix[, start[, end]])

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν τα δυαδικά δεδομένα ξεκινούν με το
     καθορισμένο 'prefix', διαφορετικά επιστρέφει ‘False’.  Το 'prefix'
     μπορεί επίσης να είναι μια πλειάδα από προθέματα προς αναζήτηση.
     Με το προαιρετικό 'start', η δοκιμή ξεκινά από αυτή τη θέση.  Με το
     προαιρετικό 'end', σταματάει να συγκρίνει σε αυτή τη θέση.

     Το(α) πρόθεμα(τα) για αναζήτηση μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε *note
     bytes-like object: 436.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.translate (table, /, delete=b'')
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.translate (table, /, delete=b'')

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο των bytes ή του αντικειμένου bytearray
     όπου αφαιρούνται όλα τα byte που εμφανίζονται στο προαιρετικό
     όρισμα 'delete' και τα υπόλοιπα byte έχουν αντιστοιχιστεί μέσω του
     δεδομένου πίνακα μετάφρασης, ο οποίος πρέπει να είναι ένα
     αντικείμενο bytes μήκους 256.

     Μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε τη μέθοδο *note bytes.maketrans():
     1619. για να δημιουργήσετε έναν πίνακα μετάφρασης.

     Ορίζει το όρισμα 'table' σε ‘None’ για μεταφράσεις που διαγράφουν
     μόνο χαρακτήρες:

          >>> b'read this short text'.translate(None, b'aeiou')
          b'rd ths shrt txt'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Το 'delete' υποστηρίζεται πλέον ως όρισμα
     λέξης-κλειδιού.

Οι ακόλουθες μέθοδοι σε byte και bytearray αντικείμενα έχουν
προεπιλεγμένες συμπεριφορές που προϋποθέτουν τη χρήση δυαδικών μορφών
συμβατών με ASCII, αλλά μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν με αυθαίρετα δυαδικά
δεδομένα περνώντας κατάλληλα ορίσματα.  Σημειώστε ότι όλες οι μέθοδοι
bytearray σε αυτήν την ενότητα 'δεν' λειτουργούν στη θέση τους και όμως
παράγουν νέα αντικείμενα.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.center (width, fillbyte=b' ', /)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.center (width, fillbyte=b' ', /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο του αντικειμένου με κέντρο σε μια
     ακολουθία μήκους 'width'.  Η συμπλήρωση πραγματοποιείται
     χρησιμοποιώντας το καθορισμένο 'fillbyte' (η προεπιλογή είναι ένα
     διάστημα ASCII). Για αντικείμενα *note bytes: 1c7, η αρχική
     ακολουθία επιστρέφεται εάν το 'width' είναι μικρότερο ή ίσο με
     ‘len(s)’.

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.ljust (width, fillbyte=b' ', /)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.ljust (width, fillbyte=b' ', /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο του αντικειμένου αριστερά ευθυγραμμισμένο
     σε μια ακολουθία μήκους 'width'.  Η συμπλήρωση πραγματοποιείται
     χρησιμοποιώντας το καθορισμένο 'fillbyte' (η προεπιλογή είναι ένα
     διάστημα ASCII). Για αντικείμενα *note bytes: 1c7, η αρχική
     ακολουθία επιστρέφεται εάν το 'width' είναι μικρότερο ή ίσο με
     ‘len(s)’.

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.lstrip (bytes=None, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.lstrip (bytes=None, /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της ακολουθίας με καθορισμένα βασικά byte
     που έχουν αφαιρεθεί.  Το όρισμα 'bytes' είναι μια δυαδική ακολουθία
     που καθορίζει το σύνολο των τιμών byte που πρέπει να αφαιρεθούν.
     Εάν παραληφθεί ή είναι ‘None’, το όρισμα 'bytes' έχει ως προεπιλογή
     την αφαίρεση του κενού διαστήματος ASCII. Το όρισμα 'bytes' δεν
     είναι πρόθεμα∙ αλλά οι συνδυασμοί των τιμών του αφαιρούνται:

          >>> b'   spacious   '.lstrip()
          b'spacious   '
          >>> b'www.example.com'.lstrip(b'cmowz.')
          b'example.com'

     Η δυαδική ακολουθία τιμών byte προς κατάργηση μπορεί να είναι
     οποιαδήποτε *note bytes-like object: 436.  Βλέπε *note
     removeprefix(): 2855. για μια μέθοδο που θα αφαιρέσει μια
     μεμονωμένη συμβολοσειρά προθέματος αντί όλο το σύνολο χαρακτήρων.
     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'Arthur: three!'.lstrip(b'Arthur: ')
          b'ee!'
          >>> b'Arthur: three!'.removeprefix(b'Arthur: ')
          b'three!'

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.rjust (width, fillbyte=b' ', /)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.rjust (width, fillbyte=b' ', /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο του αντικειμένου ευθυγραμμισμένο δεξιά που
     δικαιολογείται σε μια ακολουθία μήκους 'width'.  Η συμπλήρωση
     πραγματοποιείται χρησιμοποιώντας το καθορισμένο 'fillbyte' (η
     προεπιλογή είναι ένα διάστημα ASCII). Για αντικείμενα *note bytes:
     1c7, η αρχική ακολουθία επιστρέφεται εάν το 'width' είναι μικρότερο
     ή ίσο με ‘len(s)’.

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.rsplit (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Διαχωρίζει τη δυαδική ακολουθία σε υποακολουθίες του ίδιου τύπου,
     χρησιμοποιώντας το 'sep' ως συμβολοσειρά οριοθέτησης.  Εάν δοθεί
     'maxsplit', γίνονται το πολύ 'maxsplit' διαχωρισμοί, οι
     'rightmost'.  Εάν δεν καθορίζεται 'sep' ή ‘None’, οποιαδήποτε
     υποακολουθία που αποτελείται αποκλειστικά από κενό διάστημα ASCII
     είναι διαχωριστικό, εκτός από το διαχωρισμό από τα δεξιά, η *note
     rsplit(): 199a. συμπεριφέρεται όπως *note split(): 1999. που
     περιγράφεται λεπτομερώς παρακάτω.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.rstrip (bytes=None, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.rstrip (bytes=None, /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της ακολουθίας με τα καθορισμένα
     δευτερεύοντα bytes που έχουν αφαιρεθεί.  Το όρισμα 'bytes' είναι
     μια δυαδική ακολουθία που καθορίζει το σύνολο των τιμών byte που
     πρέπει να αφαιρεθούν.  Εάν παραληφθεί ή είναι ‘None’, το όρισμα
     'bytes' έχει ως προεπιλογή την αφαίρεση του κενού διαστήματος
     ASCII.  Το όρισμα 'bytes' δεν είναι επίθημα, αλλά αφαιρούνται όλοι
     οι συνδυασμοί των τιμών του:

          >>> b'   spacious   '.rstrip()
          b'   spacious'
          >>> b'mississippi'.rstrip(b'ipz')
          b'mississ'

     Η δυαδική ακολουθία τιμών byte προς κατάργηση μπορεί να είναι
     οποιοδήποτε *note bytes-like object: 436.  Βλέπε τη *note
     removesuffix(): 2857. για μια μέθοδο που θα αφαιρέσει μια
     συμβολοσειρά επιθέματος και όχι όλο το σύνολο χαρακτήρων.  Για
     παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'Monty Python'.rstrip(b' Python')
          b'M'
          >>> b'Monty Python'.removesuffix(b' Python')
          b'Monty'

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.split (sep=None, maxsplit=-1)

     Διαχωρίζει την δυαδική ακολουθία σε υποακολουθίες του ίδιου τύπου,
     χρησιμοποιώντας το 'sep' ως συμβολοσειρά οριοθέτησης Εάν δοθεί
     'maxsplit' και μη αρνητικό, γίνονται το πολύ 'maxsplit' διαχωρισμοί
     (άρα, η λίστα θα έχε το πολύ ‘maxsplit+1’ στοιχεία).  Εάν το
     'maxsplit' δεν έχει καθοριστεί ή είναι ‘-1’, τότε δεν υπάρχει όριο
     στον αριθμό των διαχωρισμών (όλες οι πιθανές διασπάσεις γίνονται).

     Αν δοθεί το 'sep', οι διαδοχικοί οριοθέτες δεν ομαδοποιούνται και
     θεωρείται ότι οριοθετούν κενές υποακολουθίες (για παράδειγμα,
     ‘b'1,,2'.split(b',')’ επιστρέφει το ‘[b'1', b'', b'2']’).  Το
     όρισμα 'sep' μπορεί να αποτελείται από μια ακολουθία πολλών byte ως
     μεμονωμένο οριοθέτη.  Ο διαχωρισμός μιας κενής ακολουθίας με ένα
     καθορισμένο διαχωριστικό επιστρέφει το ‘[b'']’ ή το
     ‘[bytearray(b'')]’ ανάλογα με τον τύπο του αντικειμένου που
     χωρίζεται.  Το όρισμα 'sep' μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε *note
     bytes-like object: 436.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',')
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']
          >>> b'1,2,3'.split(b',', maxsplit=1)
          [b'1', b'2,3']
          >>> b'1,2,,3,'.split(b',')
          [b'1', b'2', b'', b'3', b'']
          >>> b'1<>2<>3<4'.split(b'<>')
          [b'1', b'2', b'3<4']

     Εάν το 'sep' δεν έχει καθοριστεί ή είναι ‘None’, εφαρμόζεται ένας
     διαφορετικός αλγόριθμος διαχωρισμού: οι εκτελέσεις διαδοχικών κενών
     διαστημάτων ASCII θεωρούνται ως ένα ενιαίο διαχωριστικό, και το
     αποτέλεσμα δεν θα περιέχει κενές συμβολοσειρές στην αρχή ή στο
     τέλος, εάν η ακολουθία έχει κενό που έπεται ή προηγείται.  Κατά
     συνέπεια, ο διαχωρισμός μιας κενής ακολουθίας ή μιας ακολουθίας που
     αποτελείται αποκλειστικά από κενό διάστημα ASCII χωρίς καθορισμένο
     διαχωριστικό επιστρέφει το ‘[]’.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'1 2 3'.split()
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']
          >>> b'1 2 3'.split(maxsplit=1)
          [b'1', b'2 3']
          >>> b'   1   2   3   '.split()
          [b'1', b'2', b'3']

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.strip (bytes=None, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.strip (bytes=None, /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της ακολουθίας με τα καθορισμένα bytes που
     προηγούνται και τα bytes που έπονται.  Το όρισμα 'bytes' είναι μια
     δυαδική ακολουθία που καθορίζει το σύνολο των τιμών byte που πρέπει
     να αφαιρεθούν.  Εάν παραλείπεται ή είναι ‘None’, το όρισμα 'bytes'
     από προεπιλογή αφαιρεί το ASCII λευκό διάστημα.  To όρισμα 'bytes'
     δεν είναι πρόθεμα ή επίθημα, αλλά αφαιρούνται όλοι οι συνδυασμοί
     των τιμών του:

          >>> b'   spacious   '.strip()
          b'spacious'
          >>> b'www.example.com'.strip(b'cmowz.')
          b'example'

     Η δυαδική ακολουθία τιμών byte προς αφαίρεση μπορεί να είναι
     οποιοδήποτε *note bytes-like object: 436.

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

Οι ακόλουθες μέθοδοι σε byte και αντικείμενα bytearray προϋποθέτουν τη
χρήση δυαδικών μορφών συμβατών με ASCII και δεν πρέπει να εφαρμόζονται
σε αυθαίρετα δυαδικά δεδομένα.  Σημειώστε ότι όλες οι μέθοδοι bytearray
σε αυτήν την ενότητα 'δεν' λειτουργούν στη θέση τους και αντ” αυτού
παράγουν νέα αντικείμενα.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.capitalize ()
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.capitalize ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της ακολουθίας με κάθε byte να ερμηνεύεται
     ως ένας χαρακτήρας ASCII, και το πρώτο byte γραμμένο με κεφαλαία
     και το υπόλοιπο με πεζά.  Οι τιμές των byte που δεν είναι ASCII
     μεταβιβάζονται αμετάβλητες.

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.expandtabs (tabsize=8)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.expandtabs (tabsize=8)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της ακολουθίας όπου όλοι οι tab χαρακτήρες
     ASCII αντικαθίστανται από ένα ή περισσότερα κενά ASCII, ανάλογα με
     την τρέχουσα στήλη και το δεδομένο μέγεθος tab.  Οι θέσεις των tab
     εμφανίζονται κάθε 'tabsize' bytes (η προεπιλογή είναι 8, δίνοντας
     θέσεις καρτελών στις στήλες 0, 8, 16 και ούτω καθεξής).  Για την
     επέκταση της ακολουθίας, η τρέχουσα στήλη ορίζεται στο μηδέν και η
     ακολουθία εξετάζεται byte προς byte.  Εάν το byte είναι tab
     χαρακτήρας ASCII (‘b'\t'’), ένας ή περισσότεροι χαρακτήρες
     διαστήματος εισάγονται στο αποτέλεσμα έως ότου η τρέχουσα στήλη
     ισούται με την επόμενη θέση tab.  (Ο ίδιος tab χαρακτήρας δεν
     αντιγράφεται.)  Εάν το τρέχον byte είναι μια νέα γραμμή ASCII
     (‘b'\n'’), αντιγράφεται και η τρέχουσα στήλη επαναφέρεται στο
     μηδέν.  Οποιαδήποτε άλλη τιμή byte αντιγράφεται αμετάβλητη και η
     τρέχουσα στήλη προσαυξάνεται κατά ένα, ανεξάρτητα από το πώς
     αναπαρίσταται η τιμή byte όταν εκτυπώνεται:

          >>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs()
          b'01      012     0123    01234'
          >>> b'01\t012\t0123\t01234'.expandtabs(4)
          b'01  012 0123    01234'

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.isalnum ()
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.isalnum ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν όλα τα byte της ακολουθίας είναι αλφαβητικοί
     χαρακτήρες ASCII ή ASCII δεκαδικά ψηφία και η ακολουθία δεν είναι
     κενή, ‘False’ διαφορετικά.  Οι αλφαβητικοί χαρακτήρες ASCII είναι
     εκείνες οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.  Τα
     δεκαδικά ψηφία ASCII είναι αυτές οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'0123456789'’.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'ABCabc1'.isalnum()
          True
          >>> b'ABC abc1'.isalnum()
          False

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.isalpha ()
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.isalpha ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν όλα τα bytes της ακολουθίας είναι αλφαβητικοί
     χαρακτήρες ASCII και η ακολουθία δεν είναι κενή, ‘False’
     διαφορετικά.  Οι αλφαβητικοί χαρακτήρες ASCII είναι εκείνες οι
     τιμές bytes στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'ABCabc'.isalpha()
          True
          >>> b'ABCabc1'.isalpha()
          False

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.isascii ()
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.isascii ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν η ακολουθία είναι κενή ή όλα τα byte της
     ακολουθίας είναι ASCII, ‘False’ διαφορετικά.  Τα bytes ASCII
     βρίσκονται στο εύρος 0-0x7F.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.isdigit ()
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.isdigit ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν όλα τα bytes στην ακολουθία είναι δεκαδικά
     ψηφία ASCII και η ακολουθία δεν είναι κενή, ‘False’ διαφορετικά.
     Τα δεκαδικά ψηφία ASCII είναι αυτές οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'0123456789'’.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'1234'.isdigit()
          True
          >>> b'1.23'.isdigit()
          False

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.islower ()
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.islower ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν υπάρχει τουλάχιστον ένας πεζός χαρακτήρας
     ASCII στην ακολουθία και κανένας κεφαλαίος χαρακτήρας ASCII,
     ‘False’ διαφορετικά.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'hello world'.islower()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.islower()
          False

     Οι πεζοί χαρακτήρες ASCII είναι αυτές οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Οι κεφαλαίοι χαρακτήρες ASCII
     είναι αυτές οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.isspace ()
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.isspace ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν όλα τα byte στην ακολουθία είναι κενά ASCII
     και η ακολουθία δεν είναι κενή, ‘False’ διαφορετικά.  Οι χαρακτήρες
     κενού διαστήματος ASCII είναι αυτές οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b' \t\n\r\x0b\f'’ (κενό, tab, νέα γραμμή, επιστροφή μεταφοράς,
     κάθετο tab, μορφή ροής).

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.istitle ()
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.istitle ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν η ακολουθία είναι ASCII κεφαλαία τίτλου
     (δηλαδή τα πρώτα γράμματα των λέξεων κεφαλαία) και η ακολουθία δεν
     είναι κενή, ‘False’ διαφορετικά.  Δείτε *note bytes.title(): 2835.
     για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με τον ορισμό του
     «titlecase».

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'Hello World'.istitle()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.istitle()
          False

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.isupper ()
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.isupper ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν υπάρχει τουλάχιστον ένας κεφαλαίος
     αλφαβητικός χαρακτήρας ASCII στην ακολουθία και κανένας πεζός
     χαρακτήρας ASCII, διαφορετικά ‘False’.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'HELLO WORLD'.isupper()
          True
          >>> b'Hello world'.isupper()
          False

     Οι πεζοί χαρακτήρες ASCII είναι αυτές οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Οι κεφαλαίοι χαρακτήρες ASCII
     είναι αυτές οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.lower ()
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.lower ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της ακολουθίας με όλους τους κεφαλαίους
     χαρακτήρες ASCII να έχουν μετατραπεί στα ισοδύναμα πεζά.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'Hello World'.lower()
          b'hello world'

     Οι πεζοί χαρακτήρες ASCII είναι αυτές οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Οι κεφαλαίοι χαρακτήρες ASCII
     είναι αυτές οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.splitlines (keepends=False)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.splitlines (keepends=False)

     Επιστρέφει μια λίστα με τις γραμμές στη δυαδική ακολουθία,
     σπάζοντας τα όρια γραμμής του ASCII. Αυτή η μέθοδος χρησιμοποιεί
     την προσέγγιση *note universal newlines: 10f1. για τον διαχωρισμό
     των γραμμών.  Οι αλλαγές γραμμής δεν περιλαμβάνονται στη λίστα που
     προκύπτει εκτός εάν δοθεί 'keepends' και είναι αληθής.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines()
          [b'ab c', b'', b'de fg', b'kl']
          >>> b'ab c\n\nde fg\rkl\r\n'.splitlines(keepends=True)
          [b'ab c\n', b'\n', b'de fg\r', b'kl\r\n']

     Σε αντίθεση με το *note split(): 281a. όταν δίνεται μια
     οριοθετημένη συμβολοσειρά 'sep', αυτή η μέθοδος επιστρέφει μια κενή
     λίστα για την κενή συμβολοσειρά και μια αλλαγή γραμμής τερματικού
     δεν οδηγεί σε μια επιπλέον γραμμή:

          >>> b"".split(b'\n'), b"Two lines\n".split(b'\n')
          ([b''], [b'Two lines', b''])
          >>> b"".splitlines(), b"One line\n".splitlines()
          ([], [b'One line'])

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.swapcase ()
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.swapcase ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της ακολουθίας με όλους τους πεζούς
     χαρακτήρες ASCII να έχουν μετατραπεί στο αντίστοιχο ισοδύναμο
     κεφαλαίο και αντίστροφα.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'Hello World'.swapcase()
          b'hELLO wORLD'

     Οι πεζοί χαρακτήρες ASCII είναι αυτές οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Οι κεφαλαίοι χαρακτήρες ASCII
     είναι αυτές οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

     Σε αντίθεση με το *note str.swapcase(): 2836, συμβαίνει πάντα ότι
     ‘bin.swapcase().swapcase() == bin’ για τις δυαδικές εκδόσεις.  Οι
     μετατροπές κεφαλαίων είναι συμμετρικές στο ASCII, παρόλο που αυτό
     δεν ισχύει γενικά για αυθαίρετα σημεία Unicode κώδικα.

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.title ()
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.title ()

     Επιστρέφει μια έκδοση με κεφαλαία τίτλου (δηλαδή τα πρώτα γράμματα
     των λέξεων κεφαλαία) της δυαδικής ακολουθίας όπου οι λέξεις
     ξεκινούν με κεφαλαίο χαρακτήρα ASCII και οι υπόλοιποι χαρακτήρες
     είναι πεζοί.  Οι τιμές byte χωρίς κεφαλαία γράμματα παραμένουν
     χωρίς τροποποίηση.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'Hello world'.title()
          b'Hello World'

     Οι πεζοί χαρακτήρες ASCII είναι εκείνες οι τιμές byte στην
     ακολουθία ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Οι κεφαλαίο χαρακτήρες
     ASCII είναι εκείνες οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.  Όλες οι άλλες τιμές byte είναι
     χωρίς κεφαλαία.

     Ο αλγόριθμος χρησιμοποιεί έναν απλό, ανεξάρτητο από τη γλώσσα,
     ορισμό μιας λέξης ως group διαδοχικών γραμμάτων.  Ο ορισμός
     λειτουργεί σε πολλά contexts, αλλά σημαίνει ότι οι απόστροφοι σε
     συναιρέσεις και κτητικές λέξεις αποτελούν όρια λέξεων, που μπορεί
     να μην είναι το επιθυμητό αποτέλεσμα:

          >>> b"they're bill's friends from the UK".title()
          b"They'Re Bill'S Friends From The Uk"

     Μια λύση για αποστρόφους μπορεί να δημιουργηθεί χρησιμοποιώντας
     κανονικές εκφράσεις:

          >>> import re
          >>> def titlecase(s):
          ...     return re.sub(rb"[A-Za-z]+('[A-Za-z]+)?",
          ...                   lambda mo: mo.group(0)[0:1].upper() +
          ...                              mo.group(0)[1:].lower(),
          ...                   s)
          ...
          >>> titlecase(b"they're bill's friends.")
          b"They're Bill's Friends."

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.upper ()
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.upper ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της ακολουθίας με όλους τους πεζούς
     χαρακτήρες ASCII να έχουν μετατραπεί στο αντίστοιχο ισοδύναμο
     κεφαλαίο.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b'Hello World'.upper()
          b'HELLO WORLD'

     Οι πεζοί χαρακτήρες ASCII είναι αυτές οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  Οι κεφαλαίοι χαρακτήρες ASCII
     είναι αυτές οι τιμές byte στην ακολουθία
     ‘b'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.

 -- Μέθοδος: bytes.zfill (width, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: bytearray.zfill (width, /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντίγραφο της ακολουθίας που έχει απομείνει γεμάτο
     με ψηφία ASCII ‘b'0'’ για να δημιουργήσετε μια ακολουθία μήκους
     'width'.  Ένα πρόθεμα προπορευόμενου σήματος (‘b'+'’/ ‘b'-'’)
     αντιμετωπίζεται με την εισαγωγή της συμπλήρωσης του 'after'
     χαρακτήρα προσήμου και όχι πριν.  Για αντικείμενα *note bytes: 1c7,
     η αρχική ακολουθία επιστρέφεται εάν το 'width' είναι μικρότερο ή
     ίσο με ‘len(seq)’.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> b"42".zfill(5)
          b'00042'
          >>> b"-42".zfill(5)
          b'-0042'

          Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν'
          λειτουργεί στη θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο,
          ακόμα και αν δεν έγιναν αλλαγές.


File: python.info,  Node: Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf,  Next: Όψεις Μνήμης,  Prev: Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray,  Up: Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.10.4 Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου ‘printf’
.........................................

     Σημείωση: Οι λειτουργίες μορφοποίησης που περιγράφονται εδώ
     παρουσιάζουν μια ποικιλία ιδιορρυθμιών που οδηγούν σε μια σειρά από
     κοινά σφάλματα (όπως η αποτυχία εμφάνισης των πλειάδων και των
     λεξικών σωστά).  Εάν η τιμή που εκτυπώνεται μπορεί να είναι πλειάδα
     ή λεξικό, κάντε το wrap σε μια πλειάδα.

Τα αντικείμενα bytes (‘bytes’/‘bytearray’) έχουν μια μοναδική
ενσωματωμένη λειτουργία: τον τελεστή ‘%’ (modulo).  Αυτό είναι επίσης
γνωστό ως τελεστής bytes 'formatting' ή 'interpolation'.  Δεδομένων των
‘format % values’ (όπου το 'format' είναι αντικείμενο bytes), οι
προδιαγραφές μετατροπής ‘%’ σε 'format' αντικαθιστά με μηδέν ή
περισσότερα στοιχεία 'values'.  Το αποτέλεσμα είναι παρόμοιο με τη χρήση
του ‘sprintf()’ στη γλώσσας C.

Εάν το 'format' απαιτεί ένα μεμονωμένο όρισμα, το 'values' μπορεί να
είναι ένα μεμονωμένο μη πολλαπλό αντικείμενο.  (1)  Διαφορετικά, το
'values' πρέπει να είναι πλειάδα με ακριβώς τον αριθμό των στοιχείων που
καθορίζονται από το αντικείμενο μορφής bytes ή μεμονωμένο mapping
αντικείμενο (για παράδειγμα, ένα λεξικό).

Ένας προσδιοριστής μετατροπής περιέχει δύο ή περισσότερους χαρακτήρες
και έχει τους εξής components, οι οποίοι πρέπει να εμφανίζονται με αυτή
τη σειρά:

  1. Ο χαρακτήρας ‘`%''’, που σηματοδοτεί την αρχή του προσδιοριστή.

  2. Κλειδί mapping (προαιρετικό), που αποτελείται από μια ακολουθία
     χαρακτήρων σε παρένθεση (για παράδειγμα, ‘(somename)’).

  3. Δείκτες μετατροπής (προαιρετικό), που επηρεάζουν το αποτέλεσμα
     κάποιων τύπων μετατροπής.

  4. Ελάχιστο πλάτος πεδίου (προαιρετικό).  Εάν ορίζεται ως ‘'*'’
     (αστερίσκος), το πραγματικό πλάτος διαβάζεται από το επόμενο
     στοιχείο του tuple στα 'values', και το αντικείμενο προς μετατροπή
     έρχεται μετά από το ελάχιστο πλάτος πεδίου και το προαιρετικό
     precision.

  5. Ακρίβεια (προαιρετικό), δίνεται ως ‘'.'’ (τελεία) ακολουθούμενη από
     το precision.Εάν ορίζεται ως ‘'*'’ (αστερίσκος), το πραγματικό
     precision διαβάζεται από το επόμενο στοιχείο του tuple στα
     'values', και η τιμή προς μετατροπή έρχεται μετά το precision.

  6. Μετατροπέας του length (προαιρετικό).

  7. Τύπος conversion.

Όταν το σωστό όρισμα είναι ένα λεξικό (ή άλλος τύπος αντιστοίχισης),
τότε οι μορφές στο αντικείμενο bytes 'πρέπει' να περιλαμβάνουν ένα
κλειδί αντιστοίχισης σε παρένθεση σε αυτό το λεξικό που έχει εισαχθεί
αμέσως μετά τον χαρακτήρα ‘'%'’.  Το κλειδί αντιστοίχισης επιλέγει την
τιμή που θα μορφοποιηθεί από την αντιστοίχιση.  Για παράδειγμα:

     >>> print(b'%(language)s has %(number)03d quote types.' %
     ...       {b'language': b"Python", b"number": 2})
     b'Python has 002 quote types.'

Σε αυτήν την περίπτωση δεν μπορεί να υπάρχουν προσδιοριστές ‘*’ σε μια
μορφή (καθώς απαιτούν μια διαδοχική λίστα παραμέτρων).

Οι δείκτες μετατροπής είναι:

Flag          Έννοια
              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'#'’         Οι μετατροπή τιμής θα χρησιμοποιήσει την «εναλλακτική φόρμα» (όπου
              ορίζεται παρακάτω).
              
              
‘'0'’         Η μετατροπή θα έχει μηδενική συμπλήρωση για αριθμητικές τιμές.
              
              
‘'-'’         Η τιμή μετατροπής αφήνεται προσαρμοσμένη (παρακάμπτει τη μετατροπή
              ‘'0'’ εάν δίνονται και τα δύο).
              
              
‘' '’         (ένα κενό) Πρέπει να προστεθεί ένα κενό πριν από έναν θετικό αριθμό (ή
              κενή συμβολοσειρά) που παράγεται από μια υπογεγραμμένη μετατροπή.
              
              
‘'+'’         Ένα χαρακτήρας προσήμου (‘'+'’ ή ‘'-'’) θα προηγείται της μετατροπής
              (παρακάμπτει ένα «κενό» δείκτη).
              

Ένας τροποποιητής μήκους (‘h’, ‘l’, or ‘L’) μπορεί να υπάρχει, αλλά
αγνοείται καθώς δεν είναι απαραίτητος για την Python – οπότε π.χ.  ‘%ld’
είναι πανομοιότυπο σε ‘%d’.

Οι τύποι μετατροπής είναι:

Μετατροπή        Έννοια                                                    Σημειώσεις
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'d'’            Υπογεγραμμένος δεκαδικός ακέραιος.
                 
                                                                           
‘'i'’            Υπογεγραμμένος δεκαδικός ακέραιος.
                 
                                                                           
‘'o'’            Υπογεγραμμένη οκταδική τιμή.                              (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'u'’            Απαρχαιωμένος τύπος – είναι πανομοιότυπος με το ‘'d'’.    (8)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'x'’            Υπογεγραμμένο δεκαεξαδικό (πεζά).                         (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'X'’            Υπογεγραμμένο δεκαεξαδικό (κεφαλαίο).                     (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'e'’            Εκθετική μορφή κινητής υποδιαστολής (πεζά)                (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'E'’            Εκθετική μορφή κινητής υποδιαστολής (κεφαλαία)            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'f'’            Δεκαδική μορφή κινητής υποδιαστολής.                      (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'F'’            Δεκαδική μορφή κινητής υποδιαστολής.                      (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'g'’            Μορφή κινητής υποδιαστολής.  Χρησιμοποιεί εκθετική        (4)
                 μορφή πεζών αν ο εκθέτης είναι μικρότερος από -4 ή όχι    
                 μικρότερος από την ακρίβεια, διαφορετικά χρησιμοποιεί
                 δεκαδική μορφή.
                 
                                                                           
‘'G'’            Μορφή κινητής υποδιαστολής.  Χρησιμοποιεί εκθετική        (4)
                 μορφή κεφαλαίων εάν ο εκθέτης είναι μικρότερος από -4 ή   
                 όχι μικρότερος από την ακρίβεια, διαφορετικά
                 χρησιμοποιεί δεκαδική μορφή.
                 
                                                                           
‘'c'’            Μονό byte (δέχεται ακέραια ή μεμονωμένα byte
                 αντικείμενα).
                 
                                                                           
‘'b'’            Bytes (κάθε αντικείμενο που ακολουθεί το                  (5)
                 *note buffer protocol: 311. ή έχει                        
                 *note __bytes__(): 9df.).
                 
                                                                           
‘'s'’            Το ‘'s'’ είναι ένα ψευδώνυμο για το ‘'b'’ και θα πρέπει   (6)
                 να χρησιμοποιείται μόνο για κώδικα βάσει Python2/3.       
                 
                                                                           
‘'a'’            Bytes (μετατρέπει οποιοδήποτε αντικείμενο Python          (5)
                 χρησιμοποιώντας ‘repr(obj).encode('ascii',                
                 'backslashreplace')’).
                 
                                                                           
‘'r'’            Το ‘'r'’ είναι ένα ψευδώνυμο για ‘'a'’ και θα πρέπει να   (7)
                 χρησιμοποιείται μόνο για βάσεις κώδικα Python2/3.         
                 
                                                                           
‘'%'’            Κανένα όρισμα δεν μετατρέπεται, έχει ως αποτέλεσμα έναν
                 χαρακτήρα ‘'%'’ το αποτέλεσμα.
                 

Σημειώσεις:

  1. Η εναλλακτική μορφή προκαλεί την εισαγωγή ενός πρώτου οκταδικού
     προσδιοριστή (‘'0o'’) πριν από το πρώτο ψηφίο.

  2. Η εναλλακτική φόρμα προκαλεί την εισαγωγή ενός αρχικού ‘'0x'’ ή
     ‘'0X'’ (ανάλογα με το εάν χρησιμοποιήθηκε η μορφή ‘'x'’ ή ‘'X'’)
     πριν το πρώτο ψηφίο.

  3. Η εναλλακτική μορφή κάνει το αποτέλεσμα να περιέχει πάντα μια
     υποδιαστολή, ακόμα κι αν δεν ακολουθούν ψηφία.

     Η ακρίβεια καθορίζει τον αριθμό των ψηφίων μετά την υποδιαστολή και
     ορίζεται από προεπιλογή ως 6.

  4. Η εναλλακτική μορφή κάνει το αποτέλεσμα να περιέχει πάντα μια
     υποδιαστολή και τα μηδενικά στο τέλος δεν αφαιρούνται όπως θα ήταν
     διαφορετικά.

     Η ακρίβεια καθορίζει τον αριθμό των σημαντικών ψηφίων πριν και μετά
     την υποδιαστολή και ορίζει το 6.

  5. Εάν η ακρίβεια είναι ‘N’, η έξοδος περικόπτεται σε ‘N’ χαρακτήρες.

  6. Το ‘b'%s'’ έχει καταργηθεί, αλλά δεν θα αφαιρεθεί κατά τη διάρκεια
     της σειράς 3.x.

  7. Το ‘b'%r'’ έχει καταργηθεί, αλλά δεν θα αφαιρεθεί κατά τη διάρκεια
     της σειράς 3.x.

  8. Βλέπε PEP 237(2).

     Σημείωση: Η έκδοση bytearray αυτής της μεθόδου 'δεν' λειτουργεί στη
     θέση της - παράγει πάντα ένα νέο αντικείμενο, ακόμα και αν δεν
     έγιναν αλλαγές.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 461(3) - Προσθήκη % για μορφοποίηση σε bytes και bytearray

Added in version 3.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Για να μορφοποιήσετε μόνο μια πλειάδα (tuple) θα πρέπει επομένως
να παρέχετε μια πλειάδα singleton της οποίας το μόνο στοιχείο είναι η
πλειάδα που πρόκειται να μορφοποιηθεί.

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/


File: python.info,  Node: Όψεις Μνήμης,  Prev: Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf,  Up: Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview

5.4.10.5 Όψεις Μνήμης
.....................

Τα αντικείμενα *note memoryview: 1d2. επιτρέπουν στον κώδικα Python να
έχει πρόσβαση στα εσωτερικά δεδομένα ενός αντικειμένου που υποστηρίζει
το πρωτόκολλο *note buffer protocol: 311. χωρίς αντιγραφή.

 -- Κλάση: memoryview (object)

     Δημιουργεί μια *note memoryview: 1d2. που αναφέρεται στο 'object'.
     Το 'object' πρέπει να υποστηρίζει το πρωτόκολλο buffer.  Τα
     ενσωματωμένα αντικείμενα που υποστηρίζουν το πρωτόκολλο buffer
     περιλαμβάνουν *note bytes: 1c7. και *note bytearray: 1c6.

     Μια *note memoryview: 1d2. έχει την έννοια ενός 'στοιχείου', το
     οποίο είναι η μονάδα ατομικής μνήμης που χειρίζεται το αρχικό
     'object'.  Για πολλούς απλούς τύπους όπως *note bytes: 1c7. και
     *note bytearray: 1c6, ένα στοιχείο είναι ένα μεμονωμένο byte, αλλά
     άλλοι τύποι όπως *note array.array: 6c5. μπορεί να έχουν μεγαλύτερα
     στοιχεία.

     ‘len(view)’ is equal to the length of *note tolist(): 2878, which
     is the nested list representation of the view.  If ‘view.ndim = 1’,
     this is equal to the number of elements in the view.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Εάν ‘view.ndim == 0’, το ‘len(view)’ τώρα
     κάνει raise μια *note TypeError: 291. αντί να επιστρέψει 1.

     Το χαρακτηριστικό *note itemsize: 2879. θα σας δώσει τον αριθμό των
     byte σε ένα μόνο στοιχείο.

     Μια *note memoryview: 1d2. υποστηρίζει λειτουργίες τμηματοποίησης
     και πρόσβαση μέσω ευρετηρίου στα δεδομένα του.  Μια μονοδιάστατη
     τμηματοποίηση θα έχει ως αποτέλεσμα μια δευτερεύουσα προβολή:

          >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
          >>> v[1]
          98
          >>> v[-1]
          103
          >>> v[1:4]
          <memory at 0x7f3ddc9f4350>
          >>> bytes(v[1:4])
          b'bce'

     Εάν το *note format: 287a. είναι ένας από τους προσδιοριστές
     εγγενούς μορφής από το module *note struct: de, η πρόσβαση μέσω
     ευρετηρίου με έναν ακέραιο ή μια πλειάδα (tuple) ακεραίων
     υποστηρίζεται επίσης και επιστρέφει ένα μεμονωμένο 'στοιχείο' με το
     σωστό τύπο.  Τα μονοδιάστατα memoryviews μπορούν να γίνουν indexed
     με έναν ακέραιο ή έναν ακέραιο πλειάδα (tuple).  Τα πολυδιάστατα
     memoryviews μπορούν αν γίνουν indexed με πλειάδες (tuples) ακριβώς
     'ndim' ακεραίων όπου 'ndim' είναι ο αριθμός των διαστάσεων.  Τα
     μηδενικών διαστάσεων memoryviews μπορούν να γίνουν indexed με την
     κενή πλειάδα (tuple).

     Ακολουθεί ένα παράδειγμα με μη-byte μορφή:

          >>> import array
          >>> a = array.array('l', [-11111111, 22222222, -33333333, 44444444])
          >>> m = memoryview(a)
          >>> m[0]
          -11111111
          >>> m[-1]
          44444444
          >>> m[::2].tolist()
          [-11111111, -33333333]

     Εάν το βασικό αντικείμενο είναι εγγράψιμο, το memoryview
     υποστηρίζει μονοδιάστατη εκχώρηση τμηματοποίησης.  Δεν επιτρέπεται
     η αλλαγή μεγέθους:

          >>> data = bytearray(b'abcefg')
          >>> v = memoryview(data)
          >>> v.readonly
          False
          >>> v[0] = ord(b'z')
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'zbcefg')
          >>> v[1:4] = b'123'
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'z123fg')
          >>> v[2:3] = b'spam'
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
          ValueError: memoryview assignment: lvalue and rvalue have different structures
          >>> v[2:6] = b'spam'
          >>> data
          bytearray(b'z1spam')

     Τα μονοδιάστατα memoryviews των τύπων *note hashable: 183. (μόνο
     για ανάγνωση) με μορφές “B”, “b” ή “c” μπορούν επίσης να
     κατακερματιστούν.  Ο κατακερματισμός ορίζεται ως ‘hash(m) ==
     hash(m.tobytes())’:

          >>> v = memoryview(b'abcefg')
          >>> hash(v) == hash(b'abcefg')
          True
          >>> hash(v[2:4]) == hash(b'ce')
          True
          >>> hash(v[::-2]) == hash(b'abcefg'[::-2])
          True

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Τα μονοδιάστατα memoryviews μπορούν πλέον
     να τμηματοποιηθούν.  Τα μονοδιάστατα memoryviews με μορφές “B”, “b”
     ή “c” είναι πλέον *note hashable: 183.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: το memoryview εγγράφεται πλέον αυτόματα με
     *note collections.abc.Sequence: 156d.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: τα memoryviews μπορούν τώρα να γίνουν
     ευρετηριοποίηση με πλειάδα (tuple) ακεραίων.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: το memoryview είναι πλέον ένα *note
     generic type: 1d1.

     το *note memoryview: 1d2. έχει διάφορες μεθόδους:

      -- Μέθοδος: __eq__ (exporter)

          Ένα memoryview και ένας εξαγωγέας PEP 3118(1) είναι ίσοι εάν
          τα σχήματα τους είναι ισοδύναμα και εάν όλες οι αντίστοιχες
          τιμές είναι ίσες όταν οι αντίστοιχοι κωδικοί μορφής των
          τελεστών ερμηνεύονται χρησιμοποιώντας τη σύνταξη *note struct:
          de.

          Για το υποσύνολο του *note struct: de. οι συμβολοσειρές μορφής
          που υποστηρίζονται αυτή τη στιγμή από το *note tolist(): 2878,
          ‘v’ και ‘w’ είναι ίσες εάν ‘v.tolist() == w.tolist()’:

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('I', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
               >>> b = array.array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0])
               >>> c = array.array('b', [5, 3, 1])
               >>> x = memoryview(a)
               >>> y = memoryview(b)
               >>> x == a == y == b
               True
               >>> x.tolist() == a.tolist() == y.tolist() == b.tolist()
               True
               >>> z = y[::-2]
               >>> z == c
               True
               >>> z.tolist() == c.tolist()
               True

          Εάν καμία συμβολοσειρά μορφής δεν υποστηρίζεται από το module
          *note struct: de, τότε τα αντικείμενα θα συγκρίνονται πάντα ως
          άνισα (ακόμα και αν οι συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης και τα
          περιεχόμενα της προσωρινής μνήμης είναι πανομοιότυπα):

               >>> from ctypes import BigEndianStructure, c_long
               >>> class BEPoint(BigEndianStructure):
               ...     _fields_ = [("x", c_long), ("y", c_long)]
               ...
               >>> point = BEPoint(100, 200)
               >>> a = memoryview(point)
               >>> b = memoryview(point)
               >>> a == point
               False
               >>> a == b
               False

          Λάβετε υπόψη ότι, όπως και με τους αριθμούς κινητής
          υποδιαστολής, ‘v is w’ 'δεν' σημαίνει ‘v == w’ για αντικείμενα
          memoryview.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Οι προηγούμενες εκδόσεις συνέκριναν
          την ακατέργαστη μνήμη αγνοώντας τη μορφή του στοιχείου και τη
          δομή του λογικού πίνακα.

      -- Μέθοδος: tobytes (order='C')

          Επιστρέφει τα δεδομένα στο buffer ως ένα bytestring.  Αυτό
          ισοδυναμεί με την κλήση του κατασκευαστή *note bytes: 1c7. στο
          memoryview.

               >>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
               >>> m.tobytes()
               b'abc'
               >>> bytes(m)
               b'abc'

          Για μη συνεχόμενους πίνακες, το αποτέλεσμα είναι ίσο με την
          αναπαράσταση της ισοπεδωμένης λίστας με όλα τα στοιχεία να
          μετατρέπονται σε bytes.  Η *note tobytes(): 287c. υποστηρίζει
          όλες τις συμβολοσειρές μορφής, συμπεριλαμβανομένων εκείνων που
          δεν είναι στη σύνταξη του module *note struct: de.

          Added in version 3.8: Το 'order' μπορεί να είναι {“C”, “F”,
          “A”}.  Όταν το 'order' είναι “C” ή “F”, τα δεδομένα του
          αρχικού πίνακα μετατρέπονται σε C ή σε σειρά Fortran.  Για
          συνεχόμενες όψεις, το “A” επιστρέφει ένα ακριβές αντίγραφο της
          φυσικής μνήμης.  Συγκεκριμένα, διατηρείται σειρά Fortran στη
          μνήμη.  Για μη συνεχόμενες προβολές, τα δεδομένα μετατρέπονται
          πρώτα σε C. Το 'order=None' είναι το ίδιο με το 'order=”C”'.

      -- Μέθοδος: hex (*, bytes_per_sep=1)

      -- Μέθοδος: hex (sep, bytes_per_sep=1)

          Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο συμβολοσειράς που περιέχει δύο
          δεκαεξαδικά ψηφία για κάθε byte στο buffer.

               >>> m = memoryview(b"abc")
               >>> m.hex()
               '616263'

          Added in version 3.5.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Παρόμοιο με το *note bytes.hex():
          111e, το *note memoryview.hex(): 1120. τώρα υποστηρίζει
          προαιρετικές παραμέτρους 'sep' και 'bytes_per_sep' για να
          εισάγετε διαχωριστικά μεταξύ των byte στην εξαγωγή
          δεκαεξαδικού.

      -- Μέθοδος: tolist ()

          Επιστρέψτε τα δεδομένα στο buffer ως λίστα στοιχείων.

               >>> memoryview(b'abc').tolist()
               [97, 98, 99]
               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('d', [1.1, 2.2, 3.3])
               >>> m = memoryview(a)
               >>> m.tolist()
               [1.1, 2.2, 3.3]

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Η *note tolist(): 2878. υποστηρίζει
          πλέον όλες τις εγγενείς μορφές μεμονωμένων χαρακτήρων στη
          σύνταξη του *note struct: de, καθώς και πολυδιάστατες
          αναπαραστάσεις.

      -- Μέθοδος: toreadonly ()

          Επιστρέφει μια έκδοση μόνο για ανάγνωση του αντικειμένου
          memoryview.  Το αρχικό αντικείμενο memoryview είναι
          αμετάβλητο.

               >>> m = memoryview(bytearray(b'abc'))
               >>> mm = m.toreadonly()
               >>> mm.tolist()
               [97, 98, 99]
               >>> mm[0] = 42
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory
               >>> m[0] = 43
               >>> mm.tolist()
               [43, 98, 99]

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: release ()

          Απελευθερώνει το υποκείμενο buffer που εκτίθεται από το
          αντικείμενο memoryview.  Πολλά αντικείμενα πραγματοποιούν
          ειδικές ενέργειες όταν διατηρείται μια προβολή σε αυτά (για
          παράδειγμα, μια *note bytearray: 1c6. θα απαγόρευε προσωρινά
          την αλλαγή μεγέθους)· επομένως, η κλήση της release() είναι
          βολική για την κατάργηση αυτών των περιορισμών (και
          απελευθερώνει οποιουσδήποτε αιωρούμενους πόρους) το
          συντομότερο δυνατό.

          Μετά την κλήση αυτής της μεθόδου, οποιαδήποτε περαιτέρω
          λειτουργία στην προβολή δημιουργεί μια *note ValueError: 277.
          (εκτός από την ίδια την *note release(): 1567. που μπορεί να
          κληθεί πολλές φορές):

               >>> m = memoryview(b'abc')
               >>> m.release()
               >>> m[0]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object

          Το πρωτόκολλο διαχείρισης περιεχομένου μπορεί να
          χρησιμοποιηθεί για παρόμοιο αποτέλεσμα, χρησιμοποιώντας τη
          δήλωση ‘with’:

               >>> with memoryview(b'abc') as m:
               ...     m[0]
               ...
               97
               >>> m[0]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
               ValueError: operation forbidden on released memoryview object

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: cast (format, /)

      -- Μέθοδος: cast (format, shape, /)

          Μορφοποιεί ένα memoryview σε νέα μορφή ή σχήμα.  Το 'shape'
          είναι από προεπιλογή ‘[byte_length//new_itemsize]’, που
          σημαίνει ότι η προβολή αποτελέσματος θα είναι μονοδιάστατη.  Η
          επιστρεφόμενη τιμή είναι ένα νέο memoryview, αλλά το ίδιο το
          buffer δεν αντιγράφεται.  Οι υποστηριζόμενες μετατροπές είναι
          1D -> C-*note contiguous: 287e. και C-contiguous -> 1D.

          Η μορφή προορισμού περιορίζεται σε μια εγγενή μορφή
          μεμονωμένου στοιχείου στη σύνταξη *note struct: de.  Μία από
          τις μορφές πρέπει να είναι μορφή byte (“B”, “b” ή “c”).  Το
          μήκος byte του αποτελέσματος πρέπει να είναι το ίδιο με το
          αρχικό μήκος.  Σημειώστε ότι όλα τα μήκη byte μπορεί να
          εξαρτώνται από το λειτουργικό σύστημα.

          Μορφοποίηση από 1D/long σε 1D/unsigned bytes:

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('l', [1,2,3])
               >>> x = memoryview(a)
               >>> x.format
               'l'
               >>> x.itemsize
               8
               >>> len(x)
               3
               >>> x.nbytes
               24
               >>> y = x.cast('B')
               >>> y.format
               'B'
               >>> y.itemsize
               1
               >>> len(y)
               24
               >>> y.nbytes
               24

          Μορφοποίηση από 1D/unsigned bytes σε 1D/char:

               >>> b = bytearray(b'zyz')
               >>> x = memoryview(b)
               >>> x[0] = b'a'
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               TypeError: memoryview: invalid type for format 'B'
               >>> y = x.cast('c')
               >>> y[0] = b'a'
               >>> b
               bytearray(b'ayz')

          Μορφοποίηση από 1D/bytes σε 3D/ints σε 1D/signed char:

               >>> import struct
               >>> buf = struct.pack("i"*12, *list(range(12)))
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('i', shape=[2,2,3])
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]], [[6, 7, 8], [9, 10, 11]]]
               >>> y.format
               'i'
               >>> y.itemsize
               4
               >>> len(y)
               2
               >>> y.nbytes
               48
               >>> z = y.cast('b')
               >>> z.format
               'b'
               >>> z.itemsize
               1
               >>> len(z)
               48
               >>> z.nbytes
               48

          Μορφοποίηση από 1D/unsigned long σε 2D/unsigned long:

               >>> buf = struct.pack("L"*6, *list(range(6)))
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('L', shape=[2,3])
               >>> len(y)
               2
               >>> y.nbytes
               48
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]]

          Added in version 3.3.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Η πηγαία μορφή δεν είναι πλέον
          περιορισμένη κατά τη μορφοποίηση σε μια όψη byte.

      -- Μέθοδος: count (value, /)

          Μετράει τον αριθμό των εμφανίσεων του 'value'.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: index (value, start=0, stop=sys.maxsize, /)

          Επιστρέφει τον δείκτη της πρώτης εμφάνισης του 'value' (στην ή
          μετά τον δείκτη 'start' και πριν από τον δείκτη 'stop').

          Κάνει raise μια *note ValueError: 277. αν δεν μπορεί να βρεθεί
          η τιμή 'value'.

          Added in version 3.14.

     Υπάρχουν επίσης αρκετά διαθέσιμα χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση:

      -- Ιδιότητα: obj

          Το βασικό αντικείμενο του memoryview:

               >>> b  = bytearray(b'xyz')
               >>> m = memoryview(b)
               >>> m.obj is b
               True

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: nbytes

          ‘nbytes == product(shape) * itemsize == len(m.tobytes())’.
          Αυτή είναι η ποσότητα χώρου σε byte που θα χρησιμοποιούσε ο
          πίνακας σε μια συνεχόμενη αναπαράσταση.  Δεν ισούται
          απαραίτητα με ‘len(m)’:

               >>> import array
               >>> a = array.array('i', [1,2,3,4,5])
               >>> m = memoryview(a)
               >>> len(m)
               5
               >>> m.nbytes
               20
               >>> y = m[::2]
               >>> len(y)
               3
               >>> y.nbytes
               12
               >>> len(y.tobytes())
               12

          Πολυδιάστατοι πίνακες:

               >>> import struct
               >>> buf = struct.pack("d"*12, *[1.5*x for x in range(12)])
               >>> x = memoryview(buf)
               >>> y = x.cast('d', shape=[3,4])
               >>> y.tolist()
               [[0.0, 1.5, 3.0, 4.5], [6.0, 7.5, 9.0, 10.5], [12.0, 13.5, 15.0, 16.5]]
               >>> len(y)
               3
               >>> y.nbytes
               96

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: readonly

          Ένα bool που υποδεικνύει εάν η μνήμη είναι μόνο για ανάγνωση.

      -- Ιδιότητα: format

          Μια συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει τη μορφή (σε module style *note
          struct: de.) για κάθε στοιχείο σε μια όψη.  Μπορεί να
          δημιουργηθεί ένα memoryview από εξαγωγείς με συμβολοσειρές
          αυθαίρετης μορφής, αλλά ορισμένες μέθοδοι (π.χ.  *note
          tolist(): 2878.) είναι περιορισμένες σε εγγενείς μορφές ενός
          στοιχείου.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: η μορφή ‘'B'’ αντιμετωπίζεται πλέον
          σύμφωνα με τη σύνταξη ενός struct module.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι
          ‘memoryview(b'abc')[0] == b'abc'[0] == 97’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: itemsize

          Το μέγεθος σε bytes κάθε στοιχείου στο memoryview:

               >>> import array, struct
               >>> m = memoryview(array.array('H', [32000, 32001, 32002]))
               >>> m.itemsize
               2
               >>> m[0]
               32000
               >>> struct.calcsize('H') == m.itemsize
               True

      -- Ιδιότητα: ndim

          Ένα ακέραιος αριθμός που δείχνει πόσες διαστάσεις ενός
          πολυδιάστατου πίνακα αντιπροσωπεύει η μνήμη.

      -- Ιδιότητα: shape

          Μια πλειάδα (tuple) ακεραίων με μήκος *note ndim: 2882.
          δίνοντας το σχήμα της μνήμης ως πίνακα N-διαστάσεων.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Μια κενή πλειάδα (tuple) αντί για
          ‘None’ όταν ndim = 0.

      -- Ιδιότητα: strides

          Μια πλειάδα ακεραίων με μήκος *note ndim: 2882. που δίνει το
          μέγεθος σε bytes για την πρόσβαση σε κάθε στοιχείο για κάθε
          διάσταση του πίνακα.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Μια κενή πλειάδα (tuple) αντί για
          ‘None’ όταν ndim = 0.

      -- Ιδιότητα: suboffsets

          Χρησιμοποιείται εσωτερικά για συστοιχίες τύπου PIL. Η τιμή
          είναι μόνο ενημερωτική.

      -- Ιδιότητα: c_contiguous

          Ένα bool που υποδεικνύει εάν η μνήμη είναι C-*note contiguous:
          287e.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: f_contiguous

          Ένα bool που υποδεικνύει εάν η μνήμη είναι Fortran *note
          contiguous: 287e.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: contiguous

          Ένα bool που υποδεικνύει εάν η μνήμη είναι *note contiguous:
          287e.

          Added in version 3.3.

For information on the thread safety of *note memoryview: 1d2. objects
in the *note free-threaded build: 198, see *note Thread safety for
memoryview objects: 2606.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset,  Next: Mapping types — dict frozendict,  Prev: Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.11 Τύποι Συνόλου (Set) — ‘set’, ‘frozenset’
-----------------------------------------------

Ένα αντικείμενο 'set' είναι μια μη ταξινομημένη συλλογή από διακριτά
αντικείμενα *note hashable: 183.  Οι συνήθεις χρήσεις περιλαμβάνουν τη
δοκιμή ιδιότητας μέλους, την αφαίρεση διπλότυπων από μια ακολουθία και
τον υπολογισμό μαθηματικών πράξεων όπως τομή, ένωση, διαφορά, και
συμμετρική διαφορά.  (Για άλλα containers, δείτε τις ενσωματωμένες
κλάσεις *note dict: 188, *note list: 4d9, και *note tuple: 1ce. και το
module *note collections: 1e.).

Όπως και άλλες συλλογές, τα σύνολα (sets) υποστηρίζουν ‘x in set’,
‘len(set)’, και ‘for x in set’.  Όντως μια μη ταξινομημένη συλλογή, τα
σύνολα δεν καταγράφουν τη θέση του στοιχείου ή τη σειρά εισαγωγής.
Συνεπώς, τα σύνολα (sets) δεν υποστηρίζουν λειτουργίες ευρετηριοποίησης,
τμηματοποίησης ή άλλη συμπεριφορά ακολουθίας.

There are currently two built-in set types, *note set: 42b. and *note
frozenset: 9d4.  The ‘set’ type is mutable — the contents can be changed
using methods like *note add(): 252f. and *note remove(): 288a.  Since
it is mutable, it has no hash value and cannot be used as either a
dictionary key or as an element of another set.  The ‘frozenset’ type is
immutable and *note hashable: 183. — its contents cannot be altered
after it is created; it can therefore be used as a dictionary key or as
an element of another set.

Μπορούν να δημιουργηθούν μη κενά σύνολα (όχι παγωμένα σύνολα
(frozensets)) τοποθετώντας μια λίστα στοιχείων διαχωρισμένων με κόμμα
μέσα σε αγκύλες, για παράδειγμα: ‘{'jack', 'sjoerd'}’, επιπλέον με τη
χρήση του constructor του *note set: 42b.

Οι constructors και για τις δύο κλάσεις λειτουργούν το ίδιο:

 -- Κλάση: set (iterable=(), /)
 -- Κλάση: frozenset (iterable=(), /)

     Επιστρέφει ένα νέο σύνολο (set) ή ένα παγωμένο σύνολο (frozenset)
     των οποίων τα στοιχεία έχουν ληφθεί από το 'iterable'.  Τα στοιχεία
     ενός συνόλου πρέπει να είναι *note hashable: 183.  Για να
     αναπαραστήσουν σύνολα συνόλων, τα εσωτερικά σύνολα πρέπει να είναι
     *note frozenset: 9d4. αντικείμενα.  Εάν δεν έχει καθοριστεί το
     'iterable', επιστρέφεται ένα νέο κενό σύνολο.

Τα σύνολα μπορούν να δημιουργηθούν με διάφορους τρόπους:

   * Χρησιμοποιώντας μια λίστα στοιχείων διαχωρισμένη με κόμματα:
     ‘{'jack', 'sjoerd'}’

   * Χρησιμοποιώντας ένα set comprehension: ‘{c for c in 'abracadabra'
     if c not in 'abc'}’

   * Χρησιμοποιώντας τον τύπο constructor: ‘set()’, ‘set('foobar')’,
     ‘set(['a', 'b', 'foo'])’

Τα στιγμιότυπα των *note set: 42b. και *note frozenset: 9d4. παρέχουν
τις ακόλουθες λειτουργίες:

 -- Describe: len(s)

     Επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των στοιχείων στο σύνολο 's' (πληθικότητα του
     's').

 -- Describe: x in s

     Ελέγχει αν το 'x' είναι μέρος στο 's'.

 -- Describe: x not in s

     Ελέγχει αν το 'x' δεν είναι μέρος στο 's'.

 -- Μέθοδος: frozenset.isdisjoint (other, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: set.isdisjoint (other, /)

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν το σύνολο δεν έχει κοινά στοιχεία με το
     'other'.  Τα σύνολα είναι ασύνδετα εάν και μόνο εάν η τομή τους
     είναι το κενό σύνολο.

 -- Μέθοδος: frozenset.issubset (other, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: set.issubset (other, /)

 -- Describe: set <= other

     Ελέγχει εάν κάθε στοιχείο στο σύνολο βρίσκεται στο 'other'.

 -- Describe: set < other

     Ελέγχει εάν το σύνολο είναι σωστό υποσύνολο του 'other', δηλαδή,
     ‘set <= other and set != other’.

 -- Μέθοδος: frozenset.issuperset (other, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: set.issuperset (other, /)

 -- Describe: set >= other

     Ελέγχει αν κάθε στοιχείο του 'other' είναι στο σύνολο.

 -- Describe: set > other

     Ελέγχει αν το σύνολο είναι σωστό υπερσύνολο του 'other', δηλαδή,
     ‘set >= other and set != other’.

 -- Μέθοδος: frozenset.union (*others)
 -- Μέθοδος: set.union (*others)

 -- Describe: set | other | ...

     Επιστρέφει ένα νέο σύνολο με στοιχεία από το σύνολο και όλα τα
     άλλα.

 -- Μέθοδος: frozenset.intersection (*others)
 -- Μέθοδος: set.intersection (*others)

 -- Describe: set & other & ...

     Επιστρέφει ένα νέο σύνολο με στοιχεία κοινά στο σύνολο και σε όλα
     τα άλλα.

 -- Μέθοδος: frozenset.difference (*others)
 -- Μέθοδος: set.difference (*others)

 -- Describe: set - other - ...

     Επιστρέφει ένα νέο σύνολο με στοιχεία στο σύνολο που δεν υπάρχουν
     στα άλλα.

 -- Μέθοδος: frozenset.symmetric_difference (other, /)
 -- Μέθοδος: set.symmetric_difference (other, /)

 -- Describe: set ^ other

     Επιστρέφει ένα νέο σύνολο με στοιχεία είτε στο σύνολο είτε στο
     'other' αλλά όχι και στα δύο.

 -- Μέθοδος: frozenset.copy ()
 -- Μέθοδος: set.copy ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα ρηχό αντίγραφο του συνόλου.

Note, the non-operator versions of *note union(): 1825, *note
intersection(): 1826, *note difference(): 2891, *note
symmetric_difference(): 2893, *note issubset(): 288d, and *note
issuperset(): 288f. methods will accept any iterable as an argument.  In
contrast, their operator based counterparts require their arguments to
be sets.  This precludes error-prone constructions like ‘set('abc') &
'cbs'’ in favor of the more readable ‘set('abc').intersection('cbs')’.

Τόσο το *note set: 42b. και *note frozenset: 9d4. υποστηρίζουν τη
σύγκριση μεταξύ συνόλων.  Δύο σύνολα είναι ίσα εάν και μόνο εάν κάθε
στοιχείο κάθε συνόλου περιέχεται στο άλλο (το καθένα είναι υποσύνολο του
άλλου).  Ένα σύνολο είναι μικρότερο από ένα άλλο σύνολο εάν και μόνο αν
το πρώτο σύνολο είναι σωστό υποσύνολο του δεύτερου συνόλου (είναι
υποσύνολο, αλλά δεν είναι ίσο), ένα σύνολο είναι μεγαλύτερο από ένα άλλο
σύνολο, αν και μόνο αν το πρώτο σύνολο είναι σωστό υπερσύνολο του
δεύτερου συνόλου (είναι υπερσύνολο αλλά δεν είναι ίσο).

Τα στιγμιότυπα της *note set: 42b. συγκρίνονται με τα στιγμιότυπα της
*note frozenset: 9d4. με βάση τα μέλη τους.  Για παράδειγμα, το
‘set('abc') == frozenset('abc')’ επιστρέφει ‘True’ και το ίδιο συμβαίνει
και με το ‘set('abc') in set([frozenset('abc')])’.

Οι συγκρίσεις υποσυνόλου και ισότητας δεν γενικεύονται σε μια συνάρτηση
ολικής ταξινόμησης.  Για παράδειγμα, οποιαδήποτε δύο μη κενά συνεχή
σύνολα δεν είναι ίσα και δεν είναι υποσύνολα το ένα του άλλου, επομένως
'όλα' τα ακόλουθα επιστρέφουν ‘False’: ‘a<b’, ‘a==b’, or ‘a>b’.

Δεδομένου ότι τα σύνολα ορίζουν μόνο μερική σειρά (σχέσεις υποσυνόλων),
η έξοδος της μεθόδου *note list.sort(): f8d. δεν έχει οριστεί για λίστες
συνόλων.

Τα στοιχεία συνόλου, όπως τα κλειδιά λεξικού, πρέπει να είναι *note
hashable: 183.

Δυαδικές πράξεις που συνδυάζουν στιγμιότυπα *note set: 42b. με *note
frozenset: 9d4. επιστρέφουν τον τύπο του πρώτου τελεστή.  Για
παράδειγμα: ‘frozenset('ab') | set('bc')’ επιστρέφει ένα στιγμιότυπο του
‘frozenset’.

Ο παρακάτω πίνακας παραθέτει λειτουργίες που είναι διαθέσιμες για *note
set: 42b. που δεν ισχύουν για αμετάβλητα στιγμιότυπα της *note
frozenset: 9d4.:

 -- Μέθοδος: set.update (*others)

 -- Describe: set |= other | ...

     Ενημερώνει το σύνολο (set), προσθέτοντας στοιχεία από όλα τα άλλα.

 -- Μέθοδος: set.intersection_update (*others)

 -- Describe: set &= other & ...

     Ενημερώνει το σύνολο, διατηρώντας μόνο τα στοιχεία που βρίσκονται
     σε αυτό και όλα τα άλλα.

 -- Μέθοδος: set.difference_update (*others)

 -- Describe: set -= other | ...

     Ενημερώνει το σύνολο, αφαιρώντας στοιχεία που βρίσκονται σε άλλα.

 -- Μέθοδος: set.symmetric_difference_update (other, /)

 -- Describe: set ^= other

     Ενημερώνει το σύνολο, διατηρώντας μόνο τα στοιχεία που βρίσκονται
     σε κάθε σύνολο, αλλά όχι και στα δύο.

 -- Μέθοδος: set.add (elem, /)

     Προσθέτει το στοιχείο 'elem' στο σύνολο.

 -- Μέθοδος: set.remove (elem, /)

     Αφαιρεί το στοιχείο 'elem' από το σύνολο.  Κάνει raise τη *note
     KeyError: 7df. εάν το 'elem' δεν περιέχεται στο σύνολο.

 -- Μέθοδος: set.discard (elem, /)

     Αφαιρεί το στοιχείο 'elem' από το σύνολο εάν υπάρχει.

 -- Μέθοδος: set.pop ()

     Αφαιρεί και επιστρέφει ένα αυθαίρετο στοιχείο από το σύνολο.  Κάνει
     raise μια *note KeyError: 7df. εάν το σύνολο είναι κενό.

 -- Μέθοδος: set.clear ()

     Αφαιρεί όλα τα στοιχεία από το σύνολο (set).

Note, the non-operator versions of the *note update(): 2897, *note
intersection_update(): 1827, *note difference_update(): 2898, and *note
symmetric_difference_update(): 1828. methods will accept any iterable as
an argument.

Note, the 'elem' argument to the *note __contains__(): 175c, *note
remove(): 288a, and *note discard(): 2899. methods may be a set.  To
support searching for an equivalent frozenset, a temporary one is
created from 'elem'.

Δείτε επίσης
............

For detailed information on thread-safety guarantees for *note set: 42b.
objects, see *note Thread safety for set objects: 289c.


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping types — dict frozendict,  Next: Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου,  Prev: Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.12 Mapping types — ‘dict’, ‘frozendict’
-------------------------------------------

A *note mapping: 1564. object maps *note hashable: 183. values to
arbitrary objects.  There are currently two standard mapping types, the
'dictionary' and *note frozendict: 182.  (For other containers see the
built-in *note list: 4d9, *note set: 42b, and *note tuple: 1ce. classes,
and the *note collections: 1e. module.)

Τα κλειδιά ενός λεξικού είναι 'σχεδόν' αυθαίρετες τιμές.  Οι τιμές που
δεν είναι *note hashable: 183, δηλαδή, τιμές που περιέχουν λίστες,
λεξικά ή άλλους μεταβλητούς τύπους (που συγκρίνονται βάσει τιμής και όχι
βάσει ταυτότητας αντικειμένου) δεν μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν ως
κλειδιά.  Οι τιμές που συγκρίνονται ίσες (όπως ‘1’, ‘1.0’, και ‘True’)
μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν εναλλακτικά για το index της ίδιας
καταχώρισης λεξικού.

 -- Κλάση: dict (**kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: dict (mapping, /, **kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: dict (iterable, /, **kwargs)

     Επιστρέφει ένα νέο λεξικό που έχει αρχικοποιηθεί από ένα
     προαιρετικό όρισμα θέσης και ένα πιθανό κενό σύνολο ορισμάτων
     λέξεων-κλειδιών.

     Τα λεξικά μπορούν να δημιουργηθούν με διάφορους τρόπους:

        * Χρησιμοποιήστε μια λίστα διαχωρισμένων με κόμματα ζευγών ‘key:
          value’ μέσα σε αγκύλες: ‘{'jack': 4098, 'sjoerd': 4127}’ or
          ‘{4098: 'jack', 4127: 'sjoerd'}’

        * Χρησιμοποιήστε ένα comprehension λεξικού: ‘{}’, ‘{x: x ** 2
          for x in range(10)}’

        * Χρησιμοποιήστε τον κατασκευαστή τύπου: ‘dict()’,
          ‘dict([('foo', 100), ('bar', 200)])’, ‘dict(foo=100, bar=200)’

     Εάν δεν δοθεί όρισμα θέσης, δημιουργείται ένα κενό λεξικό.  Εάν
     δοθεί ένα όρισμα θέσης και ορίζει μια μέθοδο ‘keys()’,
     δημιουργείται ένα λεξικό καλώντας το *note __getitem__(): 787. στο
     όρισμα με κάθε κλειδί που επιστρέφεται από τη μέθοδο.  Διαφορετικά,
     το όρισμα θέσης πρέπει να είναι ένα αντικείμενο *note iterable:
     15ce.  Κάθε στοιχείο στο iterable πρέπει από μόνο του να είναι ένας
     iterable με ακριβώς δύο στοιχεία.  Το πρώτο στοιχείο κάθε στοιχείου
     γίνεται κλειδί στο νέο λεξικό και το δεύτερο στοιχείο η αντίστοιχη
     τιμή.  Εάν ένα κλειδί εμφανίζεται περισσότερες από μία φορές, η
     τελευταία τιμή για αυτό το κλειδί γίνεται η αντίστοιχη τιμή στο νέο
     λεξικό.

     Εάν δίνονται ορίσματα λέξης-κλειδιού, τα ορίσματα λέξης-κλειδιού
     και οι τιμές τους προστίθενται στο λεξικό που δημιουργήθηκε από το
     όρισμα θέσης.  Εάν υπάρχει ήδη ένα κλειδί που προστίθεται, η τιμή
     από το όρισμα λέξης-κλειδιού αντικαθιστά την τιμή από το όρισμα
     θέσης.

     Τα λεξικά συγκρίνονται ως ίσα εάν και μόνο εάν έχουν τα ίδια ζεύγη
     ‘(key, value)’ (ανεξάρτητα από τη σειρά).  Οι συγκρίσεις διάταξης
     (“<”, “<=”, “>=”, “>”) κάνουν raise την *note TypeError: 291.  Για
     να επεξηγηθεί η δημιουργία λεξικού και η ισότητα, τα ακόλουθα
     παραδείγματα επιστρέφουν όλα ένα λεξικό ίσο με ‘{"one": 1, "two":
     2, "three": 3}’:

          >>> a = dict(one=1, two=2, three=3)
          >>> b = {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3}
          >>> c = dict(zip(['one', 'two', 'three'], [1, 2, 3]))
          >>> d = dict([('two', 2), ('one', 1), ('three', 3)])
          >>> e = dict({'three': 3, 'one': 1, 'two': 2})
          >>> f = dict({'one': 1, 'three': 3}, two=2)
          >>> a == b == c == d == e == f
          True

     Η παροχή ορισμάτων λέξεων-κλειδιών όπως στο πρώτο παράδειγμα
     λειτουργεί μόνο για κλειδιά που είναι έγκυρα αναγνωριστικά Python.
     Διαφορετικά, μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν οποιαδήποτε έγκυρα κλειδιά.

     Τα λεξικά διατηρούν τη σειρά εισαγωγής.  Σημειώστε ότι η ενημέρωση
     ενός κλειδιού δεν επηρεάζει τη σειρά.  Τα κλειδιά που προστέθηκαν
     μετά τη διαγραφή εισάγονται στο τέλος.

          >>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
          >>> d
          {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> list(d)
          ['one', 'two', 'three', 'four']
          >>> list(d.values())
          [1, 2, 3, 4]
          >>> d["one"] = 42
          >>> d
          {'one': 42, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> del d["two"]
          >>> d["two"] = None
          >>> d
          {'one': 42, 'three': 3, 'four': 4, 'two': None}

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Η σειρά λεξικού είναι εγγυημένη ότι είναι η
     σειρά εισαγωγής.  Αυτή η συμπεριφορά ήταν μια λεπτομέρεια υλοποίηση
     της CPython από την έκδοση 3.6.

     Αυτές είναι οι λειτουργίες που υποστηρίζουν τα λεξικά (και
     επομένως, θα πρέπει να υποστηρίζουν και προσαρμοσμένους τύπους
     αντιστοίχισης επίσης):

      -- Describe: list(d)

          Επιστρέφει μια λίστα με όλα τα κλειδιά που χρησιμοποιούνται
          στο λεξικό 'd'.

      -- Describe: len(d)

          Επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των στοιχείων στο λεξικό 'd'.

      -- Describe: d[key]

          Επιστρέφει το στοιχείο του 'd' με το κλειδί 'key'.  Κάνει
          raise μια *note KeyError: 7df. εάν το 'key' δεν υπάρχει για να
          αντιστοιχηθεί.

          Εάν μια υποκλάση ενός λεξικού ορίζει μια μέθοδο *note
          __missing__(): 1566. και το 'key' δεν υπάρχει, η λειτουργία
          ‘d[key]’ καλεί αυτήν την μέθοδο με το κλειδί 'key' ως όρισμα.
          Στη συνέχεια, η λειτουργία ‘d[key]’ επιστρέφει ή κάνει raise
          ό, τι επιστρέφεται ή γίνεται raise από την κλήση
          ‘__missing__(key)’.  Καμία άλλη λειτουργία ή μέθοδος δεν
          επικαλεί την ‘__missing__()’.  Εάν το ‘__missing__()’ δεν έχει
          οριστεί, γίνεται raise *note KeyError: 7df.  To
          ‘__missing__()’ πρέπει να είναι μέθοδος∙ δεν μπορεί να είναι
          ένα στιγμιότυπο μεταβλητής:

               >>> class Counter(dict):
               ...     def __missing__(self, key):
               ...         return 0
               ...
               >>> c = Counter()
               >>> c['red']
               0
               >>> c['red'] += 1
               >>> c['red']
               1

          Το παραπάνω παράδειγμα δείχνει μέρος της υλοποίησης του *note
          collections.Counter: 204.  Μια διαφορετική μέθοδος
          ‘__missing__()’ χρησιμοποιείται από την *note
          collections.defaultdict: 1565.

      -- Describe: d[key] = value

          Ορίζει το ‘d[key]’ στο 'value'.

      -- Describe: del d[key]

          Αφαιρεί το ‘d[key]’ από το 'd'.  Κάνει raise ένα *note
          KeyError: 7df. εάν το 'key' δεν υπάρχει για αντιστοίχιση.

      -- Describe: key in d

          Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν το 'd' έχει ένα κλειδί 'key',
          διαφορετικά ‘False’.

      -- Describe: key not in d

          Ισοδυναμεί με ‘not key in d’.

      -- Describe: iter(d)

          Επιστρέφει έναν iterator πάνω από τα κλειδιά του λεξικού.
          Αυτή είναι μια συντόμευση για ‘iter(d.keys())’.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear ()

          Αφαιρεί όλα τα στοιχεία από το λεξικό.

      -- Μέθοδος: copy ()

          Επιστρέφει ένα ρηχό αντίγραφο του λεξικού.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod fromkeys (iterable, value=None, /)

          Δημιουργεί ένα νέο λεξικό με κλειδιά από το 'iterable' και
          τιμές ως 'value'.

          Το *note fromkeys(): 4da. είναι μια μέθοδος κλάσης που
          επιστρέφει ένα νέο λεξικό.  Η τιμή 'value' ορίζεται από
          προεπιλογή σε ‘None’.  Όλες οι τιμές αναφέρονται σε ένα μόνο
          στιγμιότυπο, επομένως γενικά δεν έχει νόημα για το 'value' να
          είναι μεταβλητό αντικείμενο, όπως μια κενή λίστα.  Για να
          λάβετε διαφορετικές τιμές, χρησιμοποιήστε αντ” αυτού ένα *note
          dict comprehension: 1138.

      -- Μέθοδος: get (key, default=None, /)

          Επιστρέφει την τιμή για το 'key' εάν το 'key' είναι στο
          λεξικό, αλλιώς 'default'.  Εάν το 'default' δεν δίνεται,
          ορίζεται από προεπιλογή σε ‘None’, έτσι ώστε αυτή η μέθοδος να
          μην κάνει raise μια *note KeyError: 7df.

      -- Μέθοδος: items ()

          Επιστρέφει μια νέα όψη των στοιχείων του λεξικού (‘(key,
          value)’ ζεύγη).  Δείτε την *note documentation of view
          objects: 289e.

      -- Μέθοδος: keys ()

          Επιστρέφει μια νέα όψη των κλειδιών του λεξικού.  Δείτε το
          *note documentation of view objects: 289e.

      -- Μέθοδος: pop (key, /)

      -- Μέθοδος: pop (key, default, /)

          Εάν το 'key' βρίσκεται στο λεξικό, αφαιρείται και επιστρέφει
          την τιμή του, διαφορετικά επιστρέφει 'default'.  Εάν 'default'
          δεν δίνεται και το 'key' δεν είναι στο λεξικό, γίνεται raise
          ένα *note KeyError: 7df.

      -- Μέθοδος: popitem ()

          Αφαιρεί και επιστρέφει ένα ζεύγος ‘(key, value)’ από το
          λεξικό.  Τα ζεύγη επιστρέφονται με τη σειρά LIFO (last-in,
          first-out).

          Η μέθοδος *note popitem(): 18c8. είναι χρήσιμη για
          καταστροφική επανάληψη σε ένα λεξικό, όπως χρησιμοποιείται
          συχνά σε αλγόριθμους συνόλου.  Εάν το λεξικό είναι κενό, η
          κλήση της ‘popitem()’ κάνει raise ένα *note KeyError: 7df.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Η σειρά LIFO είναι πλέον εγγυημένη.
          Σε προηγούμενες εκδόσεις, η *note popitem(): 18c8. επιστρέφει
          ένα αυθαίρετο ζεύγος κλειδιού/τιμής.

      -- Describe: reversed(d)

          Επιστρέφει έναν αντίστροφο iterator πάνω από τα κλειδιά του
          λεξικού.  Αυτή είναι μια συντόμευση για ‘reversed(d.keys())’.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: setdefault (key, default=None, /)

          Εάν το 'key' βρίσκεται στο λεξικό, επιστρέφει την τιμή του.
          Εάν όχι, εισάγετε το 'key' με τιμή 'default' και επιστρέφει
          'default'.  Το 'default' από προεπιλογή είναι ‘None’.

      -- Μέθοδος: update (**kwargs)

      -- Μέθοδος: update (mapping, /, **kwargs)

      -- Μέθοδος: update (iterable, /, **kwargs)

          Ενημερώνει το λεξικό με τα ζεύγη κλειδιών/τιμών από το
          'mapping' ή 'iterable' και 'kwargs', αντικαθιστώντας τα
          υπάρχοντα κλειδιά.  Επιστρέφει ‘None’.

          Η *note update(): 1807. δέχεται είτε ένα άλλο αντικείμενο με
          τη μέθοδο ‘keys()’ (στην περίπτωση αυτή το *note
          __getitem__(): 787. καλείται με κάθε κλειδί που επιστρέφεται
          από τη μέθοδο) είτε ένα iterable από ζεύγη κλειδιών/τιμών (ως
          πλειάδες ή άλλα iterables μήκους δύο).  Εάν καθορίζονται
          ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών, το λεξικό ενημερώνεται στη συνέχεια
          με αυτά τα ζεύγη κλειδιών/τιμών: ‘d.update(red=1, blue=2)’.

      -- Μέθοδος: values ()

          Επιστρέφει μια νέα όψη των τιμών του λεξικού.  Δείτε την *note
          documentation of view objects: 289e.

          Μια σύγκριση ισότητας μεταξύ μιας όψης ‘dict.values()’ και
          μιας άλλης θα επιστρέφει πάντα ‘False’.  Αυτό ισχύει επίσης
          όταν συγκρίνετε το ‘dict.values()’ με τον εαυτό της:

               >>> d = {'a': 1}
               >>> d.values() == d.values()
               False

      -- Describe: d | other

          Δημιουργεί ένα νέο λεξικό με τα συγχωνευμένα κλειδιά και τις
          τιμές των 'd' και 'other', τα οποία πρέπει να είναι και τα δύο
          λεξικά.  Οι τιμές του 'other' έχουν προτεραιότητα όταν τα
          κλειδιά των 'd' και 'other' είναι κοινά.

          Added in version 3.9.

      -- Describe: d |= other

          Ενημερώνει το λεξικό 'd' με κλειδιά και τιμές από το 'other',
          που μπορεί να είναι είτε *note mapping: 1564. είτε *note
          iterable: 15ce. ζευγάρι κλειδιών/τιμών.  Οι τιμές του 'other'
          έχουν προτεραιότητα όταν τα κλειδιά των το 'd' και 'other'
          είναι κοινά.

          Added in version 3.9.

     Τα λεξικά και οι όψεις λεξικών είναι αναστρέψιμες.

          >>> d = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3, "four": 4}
          >>> d
          {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3, 'four': 4}
          >>> list(reversed(d))
          ['four', 'three', 'two', 'one']
          >>> list(reversed(d.values()))
          [4, 3, 2, 1]
          >>> list(reversed(d.items()))
          [('four', 4), ('three', 3), ('two', 2), ('one', 1)]

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Τα λεξικά είναι πλέον αναστρέψιμα.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note frozendict: 182. and *note types.MappingProxyType: 189. can
     be used to create a read-only view of a ‘dict’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

For detailed information on thread-safety guarantees for *note dict:
188. objects, see *note Thread safety for dict objects: 289f.

* Menu:

* Αντικείμενα όψης λεξικού::
* Frozen dictionaries::


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα όψης λεξικού,  Next: Frozen dictionaries,  Up: Mapping types — dict frozendict

5.4.12.1 Αντικείμενα όψης λεξικού
.................................

Τα αντικείμενα που επιστρέφονται από τις *note dict.keys(): bad, *note
dict.values(): bae. and *note dict.items(): baf. είναι 'όψεις
αντικειμένων (view objects)'.  Παρέχουν μια δυναμική όψη στις εγγραφές
του λεξικού, που σημαίνει ότι όταν αλλάζει το λεξικό, η όψη
αντικατοπτρίζει αυτές τις αλλαγές.

Οι όψεις λεξικού μπορούν να γίνουν iterate για την απόδοση των
αντίστοιχων δεδομένων τους και την υποστήριξη ελέγχων για το αν είναι
μέρος του:

 -- Describe: len(dictview)

     Επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των καταχωρήσεων στο λεξικό.

 -- Describe: iter(dictview)

     Επιστρέφει έναν iterator πάνω στα κλειδιά, τις τιμές ή τα στοιχεία
     (που αντιπροσωπεύονται ως πλειάδες (tuples) του ‘(key, value)’ στο
     λεξικό.

     Τα κλειδιά και οι τιμές επαναλαμβάνονται με την σειρά εισαγωγής.
     Αυτό επιτρέπει τη δημιουργία ζευγών ‘(value, key)’ χρησιμοποιώντας
     τη *note zip(): 43f.: ‘pairs = zip(d.values(), d.keys())’.  Ένας
     άλλος τρόπος είναι να δημιουργήσετε την ίδια λίστα είναι ‘pairs =
     [(v, k) for (k, v) in d.items()]’.

     Το iterate όψεων κατά την προσθήκη ή τη διαγραφή καταχωρήσεων στο
     λεξικό μπορεί να κάνει raise μια *note RuntimeError: 30d. ή να
     αποτύχει το iterate σε όλες τις καταχωρήσεις.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Η σειρά λεξικού είναι εγγυημένη σειρά
     εισαγωγής.

 -- Describe: x in dictview

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ εάν το 'x' βρίσκεται στα κλειδιά του λεξικού, τις
     τιμές ή τα στοιχεία του υποκείμενου λεξικού (στην τελευταία
     περίπτωση, το 'x' θα πρέπει να είναι μια ‘(key, value)’ πλειάδα
     (tuple)).

 -- Describe: reversed(dictview)

     Επιστρέφει έναν αντίστροφο iterator πάνω στα κλειδιά, τις τιμές ή
     τα στοιχεία του λεξικού.  Η όψη θα γίνει iterate με την αντίστροφη
     σειρά από την εισαγωγή.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Οι όψεις λεξικού είναι πλέον αναστρέψιμες.

 -- Describe: dictview.mapping

     Επιστρέφει μια *note types.MappingProxyType: 189. που αναδιπλώνει
     το αρχικό λεξικό στο οποίο αναφέρεται η όψη.

     Added in version 3.10.

Οι όψεις κλειδιών μοιάζουν με σύνολο καθώς οι καταχωρίσεις τους είναι
μοναδικές και *note hashable: 183.  Οι όψεις στοιχείων έχουν επίσης
λειτουργίες που μοιάζουν με σύνολο, καθώς τα ζεύγη (κλειδί, τιμή) είναι
μοναδικά και τα κλειδιά μπορούν να κατακερματιστούν.  Εάν όλες οι τιμές
σε μία όψη στοιχείων μπορούν επίσης να κατακερματιστούν, τότε η όψη
στοιχείων μπορεί να διαλειτουργήσει με άλλα σύνολα.  (Οι όψεις τιμών δεν
αντιμετωπίζονται ως σύνολο, καθώς οι καταχωρίσεις δεν είναι γενικά
μοναδικές.)  Για όψεις που μοιάζουν με σύνολο, όλες οι λειτουργίες που
ορίζονται για την αφηρημένη βασική κλάση *note collections.abc.Set:
28a1. είναι διαθέσιμες (για παράδειγμα, ‘==’, ‘<’, ή ‘^’).  Κατά τη
χρήση τελεστών συνόλου, οι όψεις που μοιάζουν με σύνολο δέχονται
οποιοδήποτε iterable ως άλλο τελεστή, σε αντίθεση με τα σύνολα που
δέχονται μόνο σύνολα ως είσοδο.

Ένα παράδειγμα χρήσης όψης λεξικού:

     >>> dishes = {'eggs': 2, 'sausage': 1, 'bacon': 1, 'spam': 500}
     >>> keys = dishes.keys()
     >>> values = dishes.values()

     >>> # iteration
     >>> n = 0
     >>> for val in values:
     ...     n += val
     ...
     >>> print(n)
     504

     >>> # keys and values are iterated over in the same order (insertion order)
     >>> list(keys)
     ['eggs', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam']
     >>> list(values)
     [2, 1, 1, 500]

     >>> # view objects are dynamic and reflect dict changes
     >>> del dishes['eggs']
     >>> del dishes['sausage']
     >>> list(keys)
     ['bacon', 'spam']

     >>> # set operations
     >>> keys & {'eggs', 'bacon', 'salad'}
     {'bacon'}
     >>> keys ^ {'sausage', 'juice'} == {'juice', 'sausage', 'bacon', 'spam'}
     True
     >>> keys | ['juice', 'juice', 'juice'] == {'bacon', 'spam', 'juice'}
     True

     >>> # get back a read-only proxy for the original dictionary
     >>> values.mapping
     mappingproxy({'bacon': 1, 'spam': 500})
     >>> values.mapping['spam']
     500


File: python.info,  Node: Frozen dictionaries,  Prev: Αντικείμενα όψης λεξικού,  Up: Mapping types — dict frozendict

5.4.12.2 Frozen dictionaries
............................

 -- Κλάση: frozendict (**kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: frozendict (mapping, /, **kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: frozendict (iterable, /, **kwargs)

     Return a new frozen dictionary initialized from an optional
     positional argument and a possibly empty set of keyword arguments.

     A ‘frozendict’ has a similar API to the *note dict: 188. API, with
     the following differences:

        * ‘dict’ has more methods than ‘frozendict’:

                  * ‘__delitem__()’

                  * ‘__setitem__()’

                  * *note clear(): 1954.

                  * *note pop(): 7de.

                  * *note popitem(): 18c8.

                  * *note setdefault(): 1421.

                  * *note update(): 1807.

        * A ‘frozendict’ can be hashed with ‘hash(frozendict)’ if all
          keys and values can be hashed.

        * ‘frozendict |= other’ does not modify the ‘frozendict’
          in-place but creates a new frozen dictionary.

     ‘frozendict’ is not a ‘dict’ subclass but inherits directly from
     ‘object’.

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου,  Next: Τύποι Annotation τύπου — Generic Alias Union,  Prev: Mapping types — dict frozendict,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.13 Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου
-------------------------------------

Η δήλωση *note with: 20a. της Python υποστηρίζει την έννοια ενός
περιεχομένου χρόνου εκτέλεσης που ορίζεται από έναν διαχειριστή
περιεχομένου.  Αυτό υλοποιείται χρησιμοποιώντας ένα ζεύγος μεθόδων που
επιτρέπουν σε κλάσεις που ορίζονται από το χρήστη να ορίζουν περιεχόμενο
χρόνου εκτέλεσης που εισάγεται πριν από την εκτέλεση του σώματος της
δήλωσης και να κάνει έξοδο όταν τερματιστεί η δήλωση:

 -- Μέθοδος: contextmanager.__enter__ ()

     Εισάγει το περιεχόμενο εκτέλεσης και επιστρέφει είτε αυτό το
     αντικείμενο είτε ένα άλλο που σχετίζεται με το περιεχόμενο χρόνου
     εκτέλεσης.  Η τιμή που επιστρέφεται από αυτήν την μέθοδο είναι
     δεσμευμένη στο αναγνωριστικό στην πρόταση ‘as’ των δηλώσεων *note
     with: 20a. διαχείρισης περιεχομένου.

     Ένα παράδειγμα ενός διαχειριστή περιεχομένου που επιστρέφει ο ίδιος
     είναι ένα *note file object: 156c.  Τα αντικείμενα αρχείου
     επιστρέφουν μόνα τους από __enter__() για να επιτρέψουν στο *note
     open(): 32b. να χρησιμοποιηθεί ως έκφραση περιεχομένου σε μια
     δήλωση *note with: 20a.

     Ένα παράδειγμα διαχείρισης περιεχομένου που επιστρέφει ένα σχετικό
     αντικείμενο είναι αυτό που επιστρέφεται από το *note
     decimal.localcontext(): 172b.  Αυτοί οι διαχειριστές ορίζουν το
     ενεργό δεκαδικό περιεχόμενο σε ένα αντίγραφο του αρχικού δεκαδικού
     περιεχομένου και στη συνέχεια επιστρέφουν το αντίγραφο.  Αυτό
     επιτρέπει την πραγματοποίηση αλλαγών στο τρέχον δεκαδικό πλαίσιο
     στο σώμα της δήλωσης *note with: 20a, χωρίς να επηρεάζεται ο
     κώδικας εκτός της δήλωσης ‘with’.

 -- Μέθοδος: contextmanager.__exit__ (exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb)

     Τερματίζει από το περιεχόμενο χρόνου εκτέλεσης και επιστρέφει ένα
     Boolean δείκτη που υποδεικνύει εάν κάποια εξαίρεση που προέκυψε θα
     πρέπει να καταργηθεί.  Εάν προκύψει μια εξαίρεση κατά την εκτέλεση
     του σώματος της δήλωσης *note with: 20a, τα ορίσματα περιέχουν τον
     τύπο εξαίρεσης, την τιμή και τις πληροφορίες ανίχνευσης.
     Διαφορετικά, και τα τρία ορίσματα είναι ‘None’.

     Returning a true value from this method will cause the *note with:
     20a. statement to suppress the exception and continue execution
     with the statement immediately following the ‘with’ statement.
     Otherwise the exception continues propagating after this method has
     finished executing.

     If this method raises an exception while handling an earlier
     exception from the *note with: 20a. block, the new exception is
     raised, and the original exception is stored in its *note
     __context__: 166c. attribute.

     Η εξαίρεση που διαβιβάστηκε δεν θα πρέπει ποτέ να επανατοποθετηθεί
     ρητά - αντίθετα, αυτή η μέθοδος θα πρέπει να επιστρέψει μια ψευδή
     τιμή για να υποδείξει ότι η μέθοδος ολοκληρώθηκε με επιτυχία και
     δεν θέλει να αποκρύψει την εξαίρεση που έχει γίνει raise.  Αυτό
     επιτρέπει στον κώδικα διαχείρισης περιεχομένου να εντοπίζει εύκολα
     εάν μια μέθοδος *note __exit__(): 16a5. έχει πράγματι αποτύχει.

Η Python ορίζει αρκετούς διαχειριστές περιεχομένου για να υποστηρίζουν
τον εύκολο συγχρονισμό νημάτων, το άμεσο κλείσιμο αρχείων ή άλλων
αντικειμένων και τον απλούστερο χειρισμό του ενεργού δεκαδικού
αριθμητικού περιεχομένου.  Οι συγκεκριμένοι τύποι δεν αντιμετωπίζονται
ειδικά πέρα από την εφαρμογή τους πρωτοκόλλου διαχείρισης περιεχομένου.
Δείτε το module *note contextlib: 27. για μερικά παραδείγματα.

Οι decorators της Python *note generator: 1409.s και *note
contextlib.contextmanager: 20e. παρέχουν έναν βολικό τρόπο υλοποίησης
αυτών των πρωτοκόλλων.  Εάν μια συνάρτηση γεννήτριας είναι decorated με
τον ‘contextlib.contextmanager’ decorator, θα επιστρέψει έναν
διαχειριστή περιεχομένου που εφαρμόζει τις απαραίτητες μεθόδους *note
__enter__(): 28a4. και *note __exit__(): 28a5, αντί του iterator που
παράγεται από μια undecorated συνάρτηση γεννήτριας.

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι δεν υπάρχει συγκεκριμένη υποδοχή για καμία από αυτές
τις μεθόδους στη δομή τύπου για αντικείμενα Python στο Python/C API. Οι
τύποι επεκτάσεων που θέλουν να ορίσουν αυτές τις μεθόδους πρέπει να τις
παρέχουν ως μια κανονική μέθοδο προσβάσιμη στην Python.  Σε σύγκριση με
την επιβάρυνση της ρύθμισης στο πλαίσιο του χρόνου εκτέλεσης, η
επιβάρυνση μιας απλής αναζήτησης κλάσης λεξικού είναι αμελητέα.


File: python.info,  Node: Τύποι Annotation τύπου — Generic Alias Union,  Next: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι,  Prev: Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.14 Τύποι Annotation τύπου — Generic Alias, Union
----------------------------------------------------

Οι βασικοί ενσωματωμένοι τύποι για *note type annotations: 409. είναι
*note Generic Alias: a9f. και *note Union: ba2.

* Menu:

* Τύπος Generic Alias::
* Τύπος Ένωσης::


File: python.info,  Node: Τύπος Generic Alias,  Next: Τύπος Ένωσης,  Up: Τύποι Annotation τύπου — Generic Alias Union

5.4.14.1 Τύπος Generic Alias
............................

Τα αντικείμενα ‘GenericAlias’ δημιουργούνται γενικά με *note
subscripting: 2599. κλάση.  Χρησιμοποιούνται πιο συχνά με *note
container classes: 25c9, όπως *note list: 4d9. ή *note dict: 188.Για
παράδειγμα, το ‘list[int]’ είναι ένα αντικείμενο ‘GenericAlias’ που
δημιουργήθηκε με την εγγραφή της κλάσης ‘list’ με το όρισμα *note int:
326.  Τα αντικείμενα ‘GenericAlias’ προορίζονται κυρίως για χρήση με
*note type annotations: 409.

     Σημείωση: Γενικά είναι δυνατή η εγγραφή μιας κλάσης μόνο εάν η
     κλάση εφαρμόζει την ειδική μέθοδο *note __class_getitem__(): b21.

Ένα αντικείμενο ‘GenericAlias’ λειτουργεί ως διακομιστής μεσολάβησης
(proxy) για έναν *note generic type: 1d1, υλοποιώντας 'parameterized
generics'.

Για μια κλάση container, το(α) όρισμα(τα) που παρέχει σε μια *note
subscription: 2599. της κλάσης μπορεί να υποδεικνύει τον(ους) τύπο(ους)
των στοιχείων που περιέχει ένα αντικείμενο.  Για παράδειγμα, το
‘set[bytes]’ μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί σε annotations τύπου για να
υποδηλώσει ένα *note set: 42b. στο οποίο όλα τα στοιχεία είναι τύπου
*note bytes: 1c7.

Για μια κλάση που ορίζει *note __class_getitem__(): b21. αλλά δεν είναι
container, τα ορίσματα που παρέχονται σε μια συνδρομή της κλάσης θα
υποδεικνύουν συχνά τον τύπο ή τους τύπους επιστροφής μιας ή περισσότερων
μεθόδων που ορίζονται σε ένα αντικείμενο.  Για παράδειγμα, το *note
regular expressions: c1. μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν τόσο στον τύπο
δεδομένων *note str: 1df. όσο και στον τύπο δεδομένων *note bytes: 1c7.:

   * Εάν ‘x = re.search('foo', 'foo')’, το ‘x’ θα είναι ένα αντικείμενο
     *note re.Match: 1332. όπου επιστρέφονται οι τιμές του το
     ‘x.group(0)’ και το ‘x[0]’ θα είναι και τα δύο τύπου *note str:
     1df.  Μπορούμε να αναπαραστήσουμε αυτό το είδος αντικειμένου σε
     σχολιασμούς τύπου με το ‘GenericAlias’ ‘re.Match[str]’.

   * Εάν ‘y = re.search(b'bar', b'bar')’, (σημειώστε το ‘b’ για *note
     bytes: 1c7.), το ‘y’ θα είναι επίσης μια παρουσία του ‘re.Match’,
     αλλά οι επιστρεφόμενες τιμές των ‘y.group(0)’ και ‘y[0]’ θα είναι
     και οι δύο τύπου ‘bytes’.  Στους τύπους annotations, θα
     αντιπροσωπεύαμε αυτήν την ποικιλία αντικειμένων *note re.Match:
     1332. με το ‘re.Match[bytes]’.

Τα αντικείμενα ‘GenericAlias’ είναι στιγμιότυπα της κλάσης *note
types.GenericAlias: bc7, τα οποία μπορούν επίσης να χρησιμοποιηθούν για
την δημιουργία αντικειμένων ‘GenericAlias’ απευθείας.

 -- Describe: T[X, Y, ...]

     Δημιουργεί ένα ‘GenericAlias’ που αντιπροσωπεύει έναν τύπο ‘T’
     παραμετροποιημένο από τύπους 'X', 'Y', και άλλα ανάλογα με το ‘T’
     που χρησιμοποιείται.  Για παράδειγμα, μια συνάρτηση που αναμένει
     μια *note list: 4d9. που περιέχει στοιχεία της *note float: 327.:

          def average(values: list[float]) -> float:
              return sum(values) / len(values)

     Ένα άλλο παράδειγμα για αντικείμενα *note mapping: 1564,
     χρησιμοποιώντας ένα *note dict: 188,που είναι ένας generic τύπος
     που αναμένει δύο παραμέτρους τύπου που αντιπροσωπεύουν τον τύπο
     κλειδιού και τον τύπο τιμής.  Σε αυτό το παράδειγμα, η συνάρτηση
     αναμένει ένα ‘dict’ με κλειδιά τύπου *note str: 1df. και τιμές
     τύπου *note int: 326.:

          def send_post_request(url: str, body: dict[str, int]) -> None:
              ...

Οι ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις (built-in) *note isinstance(): 2ef. και
*note issubclass(): 2f0. δεν δέχονται τους τύπους ‘GenericAlias’ για το
δεύτερο όρισμά τους:

     >>> isinstance([1, 2], list[str])
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic

Ο χρόνος εκτέλεσης Python δεν επιβάλλει *note type annotations: 409.
Αυτό επεκτείνεται σε generic τύπους και στις παραμέτρους τύπου τους.
Κατά τη δημιουργία ενός αντικειμένου container από ένα ‘GenericAlias’,
τα στοιχεία στο container δεν ελέγχονται ως προς τον τύπο τους.  Για
παράδειγμα, ο ακόλουθος κώδικας αποθαρρύνεται, αλλά θα εκτελεστεί χωρίς
σφάλματα:

     >>> t = list[str]
     >>> t([1, 2, 3])
     [1, 2, 3]

Επιπλέον, τα παραμετροποιημένα generics διαγράφουν τις παραμέτρους τύπου
κατά τη δημιουργία αντικειμένου:

     >>> t = list[str]
     >>> type(t)
     <class 'types.GenericAlias'>

     >>> l = t()
     >>> type(l)
     <class 'list'>

Η κλήση *note repr(): 45b. ή *note str(): 1df. σε ένα generic δείχνει
τον παραμετροποιημένο τύπο:

     >>> repr(list[int])
     'list[int]'

     >>> str(list[int])
     'list[int]'

Η μέθοδος *note __getitem__(): 787. των generic containers θα κάνει
raise μια εξαίρεση για την απαγόρευση λαθών όπως ‘dict[str][str]’:

     >>> dict[str][str]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: dict[str] is not a generic class

Ωστόσο, τέτοιες εκφράσεις είναι έγκυρες όταν χρησιμοποιούνται μεταβλητές
τύπου *note type variables: 25bf.  Το ευρετήριο πρέπει να έχει τόσα
στοιχεία όσα και τα στοιχεία μεταβλητής τύπου στο αντικείμενο
‘GenericAlias’ *note __args__: 28a8.

     >>> from typing import TypeVar
     >>> Y = TypeVar('Y')
     >>> dict[str, Y][int]
     dict[str, int]

* Menu:

* Τυπικές Γενικές Κλάσεις::
* Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά αντικειμένων GenericAlias::


File: python.info,  Node: Τυπικές Γενικές Κλάσεις,  Next: Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά αντικειμένων GenericAlias,  Up: Τύπος Generic Alias

5.4.14.2 Τυπικές Γενικές Κλάσεις
................................

Οι ακόλουθες τυπικές κλάσεις βιβλιοθήκης υποστηρίζουν γενικά
παραμετροποιημένα.  Αυτή η λίστα δεν είναι εξαντλητική.

   * *note tuple: 1ce.

   * *note list: 4d9.

   * *note dict: 188.

   * *note set: 42b.

   * *note frozendict: 182.

   * *note frozenset: 9d4.

   * *note type: 186.

   * *note asyncio.Future: f8b.

   * *note asyncio.Task: 460.

   * *note collections.deque: 9d6.

   * *note collections.defaultdict: 1565.

   * *note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5.

   * *note collections.Counter: 204.

   * *note collections.ChainMap: fdb.

   * *note collections.abc.Awaitable: 1194.

   * *note collections.abc.Coroutine: 1195.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: 1197.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: 1196.

   * *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: 104a.

   * *note collections.abc.Iterable: 28aa.

   * *note collections.abc.Iterator: 28ab.

   * *note collections.abc.Generator: 1193.

   * *note collections.abc.Reversible: 1048.

   * *note collections.abc.Container: 28ac.

   * *note collections.abc.Collection: 1047.

   * *note collections.abc.Callable: bc6.

   * *note collections.abc.Set: 28a1.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 28ad.

   * *note collections.abc.Mapping: c9c.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 1459.

   * *note collections.abc.Sequence: 156d.

   * *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: 6c6.

   * *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2cb.

   * *note collections.abc.MappingView: 28ae.

   * *note collections.abc.KeysView: 28af.

   * *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 28b0.

   * *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 28b1.

   * *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: 104d.

   * *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager: eeb.

   * *note dataclasses.Field: 1b6e.

   * *note functools.cached_property: 94e.

   * *note functools.partialmethod: 4a7.

   * *note os.PathLike: 100f.

   * *note queue.LifoQueue: 28b2.

   * *note queue.Queue: 1738.

   * *note queue.PriorityQueue: 28b3.

   * *note queue.SimpleQueue: f27.

   * *note re.Pattern: 1331.

   * *note re.Match: 1332.

   * *note shelve.BsdDbShelf: 28b4.

   * *note shelve.DbfilenameShelf: 28b5.

   * *note shelve.Shelf: 1344.

   * *note types.MappingProxyType: 189.

   * *note weakref.WeakKeyDictionary: 1b44.

   * *note weakref.WeakMethod: 1398.

   * *note weakref.WeakSet: 9d7.

   * *note weakref.WeakValueDictionary: 1b45.


File: python.info,  Node: Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά αντικειμένων GenericAlias,  Prev: Τυπικές Γενικές Κλάσεις,  Up: Τύπος Generic Alias

5.4.14.3 Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά αντικειμένων ‘GenericAlias’
..........................................................

Όλα τα παραμετροποιημένα generics εφαρμόζουν ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο
για ανάγνωση.

 -- Ιδιότητα: genericalias.__origin__

     Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό δείχνει στη μη παραμετροποιημένη γενική
     κλάση:

          >>> list[int].__origin__
          <class 'list'>

 -- Ιδιότητα: genericalias.__args__

     Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό είναι μια *note tuple: 1ce. (πιθανώς μήκους
     1) generic τύπων που μεταβιβάστηκαν στο αρχικό *note
     __class_getitem__(): b21. της generic κλάσης:

          >>> dict[str, list[int]].__args__
          (<class 'str'>, list[int])

 -- Ιδιότητα: genericalias.__parameters__

     Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό είναι μία νωχελικά υπολογισμένη πλειάδα
     (tuple) (πιθανώς κενή) μεταβλητών μοναδικού τύπου που βρίσκονται
     στο ‘__args__’:

          >>> from typing import TypeVar

          >>> T = TypeVar('T')
          >>> list[T].__parameters__
          (~T,)

          Σημείωση: Ένα αντικείμενο ‘GenericAlias’ με παραμέτρους *note
          typing.ParamSpec: 295. ενδέχεται να μην έχει σωστές
          ‘__parameters__’ μετά την αντικατάσταση επειδή το
          ‘typing.ParamSpec’ προορίζεται κυρίως για έλεγχο στατικού
          τύπου.

 -- Ιδιότητα: genericalias.__unpacked__

     Ένα boolean που ισχύει αν το alias έχει αποσυμπιεστεί
     χρησιμοποιώντας τον τελεστή ‘*’ (δείτε το *note TypeVarTuple:
     293.).

     Added in version 3.11.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 484(1) - Type Hints

     Παρουσιάζοντας το framework της Python για τύπους annotations.

PEP 585(2) - Τύπος Generics Συμβουλών στις Τυπικές Συλλογές

     Εισαγωγή της δυνατότητας εγγενούς παραμετροποίησης κλάσεων τυπικής
     βιβλιοθήκης, υπό την προϋπόθεση ότι εφαρμόζουν τη μέθοδο ειδικής
     κλάσης *note __class_getitem__(): b21.

Τα *note Generics: 25bf, *note user-defined generics: 8df. και *note typing.Generic: 19f2.

     Τεκμηρίωση για τον τρόπο υλοποίησης generic κλάσεων που μπορούν να
     παραμετροποιηθούν κατά το χρόνο εκτέλεσης και να κατανοηθούν από
     στατικούς ελεγκτές τύπων.

Added in version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Τύπος Ένωσης,  Prev: Τύπος Generic Alias,  Up: Τύποι Annotation τύπου — Generic Alias Union

5.4.14.4 Τύπος Ένωσης
.....................

Ένα αντικείμενο ένωσης διατηρεί την τιμή της λειτουργίας ‘|’ (bitwise
or) σε πολλαπλά αντικείμενα *note type objects: 27da.  Αυτοί οι τύποι
προορίζονται κυρίως για *note type annotations: 409.  Η έκφραση τύπου
ένωσης επιτρέπει την καθαρότερη σύνταξη υποδείξεων σε σύγκριση με την
εγγραφή *note typing.Union: 341.

 -- Describe: X | Y | ...

     Ορίζει ένα αντικείμενο ένωσης που περιέχει τύπους 'X', 'Y', και
     ούτω καθεξής.  Το ‘X | Y’ σημαίνει είτε X είτε Y. Είναι ισοδύναμο
     με το ‘typing.Union[X, Y]’.  Για παράδειγμα, η ακόλουθη συνάρτηση
     αναμένει ένα όρισμα τύπου *note int: 326. or *note float: 327.:

          def square(number: int | float) -> int | float:
              return number ** 2

          Σημείωση: Ο τελεστής ‘|’ δεν μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί κατά το
          χρόνο εκτέλεσης για να ορίσει ενώσεις όπου ένα ή περισσότερα
          μέλη είναι μια μπροστινή αναφορά.  Για παράδειγμα το ‘int |
          "Foo"’, όπου το ‘"Foo"’ είναι μια αναφορά σε μια κλάση που δεν
          έχει ακόμη καθοριστεί, θα αποτύχει κατά το χρόνο εκτέλεσης.
          Για ενώσεις που περιλαμβάνουν μπροστινές αναφορές, παρουσιάζει
          ολόκληρη την έκφραση ως συμβολοσειρά, π.χ.  ‘"int | Foo"’.

 -- Describe: union_object == other

     Τα αντικείμενα ένωσης μπορούν να ελεγχθούν για ισότητα με άλλα
     αντικείμενα ένωσης.  Λεπτομέρειες:

        * Οι ενώσεις των ενώσεων ισοπεδώνονται:

               (int | str) | float == int | str | float

        * Οι περιττοί τύποι καταργούνται:

               int | str | int == int | str

        * Κατά τη σύγκριση των ενώσεων, η σειρά αγνοείται:

               int | str == str | int

        * Δημιουργεί στιγμιότυπα της *note typing.Union: 341.:

               int | str == typing.Union[int, str]
               type(int | str) is typing.Union

        * Οι προαιρετικοί τύποι μπορούν να γραφτούν ως ένωση με ‘None’:

               str | None == typing.Optional[str]

 -- Describe: isinstance(obj, union_object)

 -- Describe: issubclass(obj, union_object)

     Οι κλήσεις σε *note isinstance(): 2ef. και *note issubclass(): 2f0.
     υποστηρίζονται επίσης με ένα αντικείμενο ένωσης:

          >>> isinstance("", int | str)
          True

     Ωστόσο, το *note parameterized generics: a9f. σε αντικείμενα ένωσης
     δεν μπορούν να ελεγχθούν:

          >>> isinstance(1, int | list[int])  # short-circuit evaluation
          True
          >>> isinstance([1], int | list[int])
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          TypeError: isinstance() argument 2 cannot be a parameterized generic

Ο τύπος που εκτίθεται από τον χρήστη για το αντικείμενο ένωσης μπορεί να
προσπελαστεί από το *note typing.Union: 341. και να χρησιμοποιηθεί για
ελέγχους *note isinstance(): 2ef.:

     >>> import typing
     >>> isinstance(int | str, typing.Union)
     True
     >>> typing.Union()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: cannot create 'typing.Union' instances

     Σημείωση: Η μέθοδος ‘__or__()’ για αντικείμενα τύπου προστέθηκε για
     να υποστηρίξει τη σύνταξη ‘X | Y’.  Εάν μια μετακλάση υλοποιεί
     ‘__or__()’, η Ένωση μπορεί να την παρακάμψει:

          >>> class M(type):
          ...     def __or__(self, other):
          ...         return "Hello"
          ...
          >>> class C(metaclass=M):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> C | int
          'Hello'
          >>> int | C
          int | C

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 604(1) – Το PEP προτείνει τη σύνταξη ‘X | Y’ και τον τύπο Ένωση.

Added in version 3.10.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Τα αντικείμενα Union είναι πλέον στιγμιότυπα
του *note typing.Union: 341.  Προηγουμένως, ήταν στιγμιότυπα της *note
types.UnionType: 527, το οποίο παραμείνει ένα ψευδώνυμο για τη
‘typing.Union’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/


File: python.info,  Node: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι,  Next: Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά,  Prev: Τύποι Annotation τύπου — Generic Alias Union,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.15 Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι (built-in) Τύποι
-------------------------------------------

Ο διερμηνέας υποστηρίζει πολλά άλλα είδη αντικειμένων.  Τα περισσότερα
από αυτά υποστηρίζουν μόνο μία ή δύο λειτουργίες.

* Menu:

* Modules: Modules<4>.
* Κλάσεις και Στιγμιότυπα Κλάσης::
* Συναρτήσεις::
* Μέθοδοι::
* Αντικείμενα Κώδικα::
* Τύποι Αντικειμένων::
* Το Αντικείμενο Null::
* Το αντικείμενο Ellipsis::
* Το NotImplemented Αντικείμενο::
* Εσωτερικά Αντικείμενα::


File: python.info,  Node: Modules<4>,  Next: Κλάσεις και Στιγμιότυπα Κλάσης,  Up: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι

5.4.15.1 Modules
................

Η μόνη ειδική λειτουργία σε ένα module είναι η πρόσβαση χαρακτηριστικών:
‘m.name’, όπου το 'm' είναι ένα module και το 'name' έχει πρόσβαση σε
ένα όνομα που ορίζεται στον πίνακα συμβόλων του 'm'.  Τα χαρακτηριστικά
του module μπορούν να εκχωρηθούν.  (Σημειώστε ότι η δήλωση *note import:
9da. δεν είναι, αυστηρά, μια λειτουργία σε ένα αντικείμενο module· το
‘import foo’ δεν απαιτεί να υπάρχει ένα αντικείμενο module με το όνομα
'foo' αλλά απαιτεί έναν (εξωτερικό) 'definition' για ένα module που
ονομάζεται 'foo' κάπου.)

Ένα ειδικό χαρακτηριστικό κάθε module είναι *note __dict__: 1bf.  Αυτό
είναι το λεξικό που περιέχει τον πίνακα συμβόλων της ενότητας.  Η
τροποποίηση αυτού του λεξικού θα αλλάξει στην πραγματικότητα τον πίνακα
συμβόλων του module, αλλά η απευθείας εκχώρηση στο χαρακτηριστικό
‘__dict__’ δεν είναι δυνατή (μπορείτε να γράψετε ‘m.__dict__['a'] = 1’,
που ορίζει το ‘m.a’ να είναι ‘1’, αλλά δεν μπορείτε να γράψετε
‘m.__dict__ = {}’).  Δεν συνίσταται η απευθείας τροποποίηση του
‘__dict__’.

Τα modules που είναι ενσωματωμένες στον διερμηνέα γράφονται ως εξής:
‘<module 'sys' (built-in)>’.  Εάν φορτωθούν από ένα αρχείο, γράφονται ως
‘<module 'os' from '/usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/os.pyc'>’.


File: python.info,  Node: Κλάσεις και Στιγμιότυπα Κλάσης,  Next: Συναρτήσεις,  Prev: Modules<4>,  Up: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι

5.4.15.2 Κλάσεις και Στιγμιότυπα Κλάσης
.......................................

Δείτε *note Αντικείμενα, τιμές και τύποι: 251d. και *note Class
definitions: 167c. για αυτά.


File: python.info,  Node: Συναρτήσεις,  Next: Μέθοδοι,  Prev: Κλάσεις και Στιγμιότυπα Κλάσης,  Up: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι

5.4.15.3 Συναρτήσεις
....................

Τα αντικείμενα συναρτήσεων δημιουργούνται από ορισμούς συναρτήσεων.  Η
μόνη λειτουργία σε ένα αντικείμενο συνάρτησης είναι να το ονομάσουμε:
‘func(argument-list)’.

Υπάρχουν πραγματικά δύο είδη αντικειμένων συναρτήσεων: ενσωματωμένες
συναρτήσεις και συναρτήσεις που καθορίζονται από τον χρήστη.  Και οι δύο
υποστηρίζουν την ίδια λειτουργία (για να καλέσετε τη συνάρτηση), αλλά η
υλοποίηση είναι διαφορετική, εξ ου και οι διαφορετικοί τύποι
αντικειμένων.

Δείτε το *note Function definitions: 2206. για περισσότερες πληροφορίες.


File: python.info,  Node: Μέθοδοι,  Next: Αντικείμενα Κώδικα,  Prev: Συναρτήσεις,  Up: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι

5.4.15.4 Μέθοδοι
................

Οι μέθοδοι είναι συναρτήσεις που καλούνται χρησιμοποιώντας το notation
χαρακτηριστικών.  Υπάρχουν δύο είδη: *note built-in methods: 254b. (όπως
η *note append(): aba. στις λίστες) και *note class instance method:
2297.  Οι ενσωματωμένες μέθοδοι περιγράφονται με τους τύπους που τις
υποστηρίζουν.

Εάν αποκτήσετε πρόσβαση σε μια μέθοδο (μια συνάρτηση που ορίζεται μια
namespace κλάση) μέσω ενός στιγμιοτύπου, λαμβάνετε ένα ειδικό
αντικείμενο: ένα αντικείμενο 'bound method' (ονομάζεται επίσης *note
instance method: 2297.).  Όταν καλείται, θα προσθέσει το όρισμα ‘self’
στη λίστα ορισμάτων.  Οι δεσμευμένες μέθοδοι έχουν δύο ειδικά
χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση: *note m.__self__: 176b. είναι το
αντικείμενο στο οποίο λειτουργεί η μέθοδος και *note m.__func__: 16a1.
είναι η συνάρτηση που υλοποιεί την μέθοδο.  Η κλήση του ‘m(arg-1, arg-2,
..., arg-n)’ είναι απολύτως ισοδύναμη με την κλήση του
‘m.__func__(m.__self__, arg-1, arg-2, ..., arg-n)’.

Όπως τα *note function objects: 79b, τα αντικείμενα δεσμευμένης μεθόδου
υποστηρίζουν τη λήψη αυθαίρετων χαρακτηριστικών.  Ωστόσο, δεδομένου ότι
τα χαρακτηριστικά της μεθόδου αποθηκεύονται στην πραγματικότητα στο
υποκείμενο αντικείμενο συνάρτησης (*note method.__func__: 16a1.), ο
ορισμός χαρακτηριστικών μεθόδου σε δεσμευμένες μεθόδους δεν επιτρέπεται.
Η προσπάθεια ορισμού ενός χαρακτηριστικού σε μια μέθοδο έχει ως
αποτέλεσμα να γίνει raise η *note AttributeError: 1a9.  Για να ορίσετε
ένα χαρακτηριστικό μεθόδου πρέπει να το ορίσετε ρητά στο υποκείμενο
αντικείμενο συνάρτησης:

     >>> class C:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> c = C()
     >>> c.method.whoami = 'my name is method'  # can't set on the method
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     AttributeError: 'method' object has no attribute 'whoami'
     >>> c.method.__func__.whoami = 'my name is method'
     >>> c.method.whoami
     'my name is method'

Δείτε το *note Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου: 2297. για περισσότερες πληροφορίες.


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα Κώδικα,  Next: Τύποι Αντικειμένων,  Prev: Μέθοδοι,  Up: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι

5.4.15.5 Αντικείμενα Κώδικα
...........................

Τα αντικείμενα κώδικα χρησιμοποιούνται από την υλοποίηση για να
αναπαραστήσουν τον «ψευδο-μεταγλωττισμένο» εκτελέσιμο κώδικα Python,
όπως ένα σώμα συνάρτησης.  Διαφέρουν από τα αντικείμενα συνάρτησης
επειδή δεν περιέχουν αναφορά στο παγκόσμιο (global) περιβάλλον εκτέλεσης
τους.  Τα αντικείμενα κώδικα επιστρέφονται από την ενσωματωμένη
συνάρτηση *note compile(): 1c8. και μπορεί να εξαχθεί από τα αντικείμενα
συνάρτησης μέσω του χαρακτηριστικού τους *note __code__: 79c.  Δείτε
επίσης το module *note code: 1b.

Η πρόσβαση στη *note __code__: 79c. κάνει raise ένα *note auditing
event: 1e65. ‘object.__getattr__’ με ορίσματα ‘obj’ και ‘"__code__"’.

Ένα αντικείμενο κώδικα μπορεί να εκτελεστεί ή να αξιολογηθεί περνώντας
το (αντί για πηγαία συμβολοσειρά) στις ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις *note
exec(): 185. ή *note eval(): 184.

Δείτε *note Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου: 2520. για περισσότερες πληροφορίες.


File: python.info,  Node: Τύποι Αντικειμένων,  Next: Το Αντικείμενο Null,  Prev: Αντικείμενα Κώδικα,  Up: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι

5.4.15.6 Τύποι Αντικειμένων
...........................

Τα αντικείμενα τύπου αντιπροσωπεύουν τους διάφορους τύπους αντικειμένων.
Ο τύπος ενός αντικειμένου προσεγγίζεται από την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση
*note type(): 186.  Δεν υπάρχουν ειδικές λειτουργίες στους τύπους.  Το
τυπικό (standard) module *note types: 10c. ορίζει ονόματα για όλους τους
τυπικούς ενσωματωμένους τύπους.

Οι τύποι γράφονται ως εξής: ‘<class 'int'>’.


File: python.info,  Node: Το Αντικείμενο Null,  Next: Το αντικείμενο Ellipsis,  Prev: Τύποι Αντικειμένων,  Up: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι

5.4.15.7 Το Αντικείμενο Null
............................

Αυτό το αντικείμενο επιστρέφεται από συναρτήσεις που δεν επιστρέφουν
ρητά μια τιμή.  Δεν υποστηρίζει ειδικές λειτουργίες.  Υπάρχει ακριβώς
ένα μηδενικό αντικείμενο, που ονομάζεται ‘None’ (ένα ενσωματωμένο
όνομα).  Το ‘type(None)()’ παράγει το ίδιο singleton.

Γράφεται ως ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Το αντικείμενο Ellipsis,  Next: Το NotImplemented Αντικείμενο,  Prev: Το Αντικείμενο Null,  Up: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι

5.4.15.8 Το αντικείμενο Ellipsis
................................

Αυτό το αντικείμενο χρησιμοποιείται συχνά για να δηλωθεί ότι κάτι
παραλείπεται.  Δεν υποστηρίζει καμία ειδική λειτουργία.  Υπάρχει ακριβώς
ένα αντικείμενο ellipsis, με το όνομα *note Ellipsis: 2519. (ένα
ενσωματωμένο όνομα).  Το ‘type(Ellipsis)()’ παράγει το μοναδικό
αντικείμενο ‘Ellipsis’.

Γράφεται ως ‘Ellipsis’ ή ‘...’.

Στην τυπική χρήση, το ‘...’ ως αντικείμενο ‘Ellipsis’ εμφανίζεται σε
μερικές διαφορετικές θέσεις, για παράδειγμα:

   - Σε υποδείξεις τύπου, όπως *note callable arguments: 28cb. ή *note
     tuple elements: 28cc.

   - Ως το σώμα μιας συνάρτησης αντί για μια *note pass statement: 21e9.

   - Σε βιβλιοθήκες τρίτων, όπως το Numpy's slicing and striding(1).

Η Python χρησιμοποιεί επίσης τρεις τελείες με τρόπους που δεν είναι
αντικείμενα ‘Ellipsis’, για παράδειγμα:

   - Το *note ELLIPSIS: 1810. του doctest, ως ένα μοτίβο για ελλιπές
     περιεχόμενο.

   - Το προεπιλεγμένο προτρεπτικό της Python στο *note interactive: 451.
     κέλυφος όταν η μερική είσοδος είναι ανολοκλήρωτη.

Τέλος, η τεκμηρίωση της Python χρησιμοποιεί συχνά τρεις τελείες στην
παραδοσιακή αγγλική χρήση για να δηλώσει παραλειπόμενο περιεχόμενο,
ακόμα και σε παραδείγματα κώδικα που τις χρησιμοποιούν και ως
‘Ellipsis’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://numpy.org/doc/stable/user/basics.indexing.html#slicing-and-striding


File: python.info,  Node: Το NotImplemented Αντικείμενο,  Next: Εσωτερικά Αντικείμενα,  Prev: Το αντικείμενο Ellipsis,  Up: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι

5.4.15.9 Το NotImplemented Αντικείμενο
......................................

Αυτό το αντικείμενο επιστρέφεται από συγκρίσεις και δυαδικές λειτουργίες
όταν τους ζητείται να λειτουργήσουν σε τύπους που δεν υποστηρίζουν.
Δείτε το *note Comparisons: 26c7. για περισσότερες πληροφορίες.  Υπάρχει
ακριβώς ένα αντικείμενο *note NotImplemented: 440.  Το
‘type(NotImplemented)()’ παράγει το στιγμιότυπο singleton.

Είναι γραμμένο ως ‘NotImplemented’.


File: python.info,  Node: Εσωτερικά Αντικείμενα,  Prev: Το NotImplemented Αντικείμενο,  Up: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι

5.4.15.10 Εσωτερικά Αντικείμενα
...............................

Δείτε *note Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου: 2520. για αυτές τις πληροφορίες.
Περιγράφει *note stack frame objects: acd, *note traceback objects: eba,
και αντικείμενα τμηματοποίησης.


File: python.info,  Node: Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά,  Next: Περιορισμός μήκους μετατροπής συμβολοσειράς ακέραιου αριθμού,  Prev: Άλλοι Ενσωματωμένοι built-in Τύποι,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.16 Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά
----------------------------

Η υλοποίηση προσθέτει μερικά ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση σε
διάφορους τύπους αντικειμένων, όπου είναι σχετικά.  Ορισμένα από αυτά
δεν αναφέρονται από την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note dir(): a23.

 -- Ιδιότητα: definition.__name__

     Το όνομα της κλάσης, της συνάρτησης, της μεθόδου, του descriptor ή
     του στιγμιοτύπου generator.

 -- Ιδιότητα: definition.__qualname__

     Το *note qualified name: 1f19. της κλάσης, της συνάρτησης, της
     μεθόδου, του descriptor, ή του στιγμιοτύπου generator.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Ιδιότητα: definition.__module__

     Το όνομα του module στο οποίο ορίστηκε μια κλάση ή μια συνάρτηση.

 -- Ιδιότητα: definition.__doc__

     Η συμβολοσειρά τεκμηρίωσης μιας κλάσης ή συνάρτησης ή ‘None’ εάν
     δεν έχει οριστεί.

 -- Ιδιότητα: definition.__type_params__

     Οι παράμετροι *note type parameters: 7a5. των γενικών κλάσεων,
     συναρτήσεων και *note type aliases: 870.  Για κλάσεις και
     συναρτήσεις που δεν είναι γενικές, αυτή θα είναι μια κενή πλειάδα.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Περιορισμός μήκους μετατροπής συμβολοσειράς ακέραιου αριθμού,  Prev: Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά,  Up: Τύποι Built-in

5.4.17 Περιορισμός μήκους μετατροπής συμβολοσειράς ακέραιου αριθμού
-------------------------------------------------------------------

Η CPython έχει ένα παγκόσμιο όριο για τη μετατροπή μεταξύ *note int:
326. and *note str: 1df. για τον μετριασμό των επιθέσεων άρνησης
υπηρεσίας.  Αυτό το όριο ισχύει 'μόνο' για δεκαδικές ή άλλες βάσεις
αριθμών που δεν έχουν την δύναμη του δύο.  Οι δεξαεξαδικές, οκταδικές,
και δυαδικές μετατροπές είναι απεριόριστες.  Το όριο μπορεί να
διαμορφωθεί.

Ο τύπος *note int: 326. στην CPython είναι ένας αυθαίρετος αριθμός
μήκους που είναι αποθηκευμένος σε δυαδική μορφή (κοινώς γνωστός ως
«bignum»).  Δεν υπάρχει αλγόριθμος που να μπορεί να μετατρέψει μια
συμβολοσειρά σε δυαδικό ακέραιο ή δυαδικό ακέραιο σε μια συμβολοσειρά σε
γραμμικό χρόνο, 'εκτός' εάν η βάση είναι δύναμη του 2.  Ακόμη και οι πιο
γνωστοί αλγόριθμοι για τη βάση 10 έχουν υποτετραγωνική πολυπλοκότητα.  Η
μετατροπή μιας μεγάλης τιμής όπως ‘int('1' * 500_000)’ μπορεί να
διαρκέσει περισσότερο από ένα δευτερόλεπτο σε μια γρήγορη CPU.

Ο περιορισμός του μεγέθους μετατροπής προσφέρει έναν πρακτικό τρόπο
αποφυγής του CVE 2020-10735(1).

Το όριο εφαρμόζεται στον αριθμό των ψηφιακών χαρακτήρων στη συμβολοσειρά
εισόδου ή εξόδου όταν εμπλέκεται ένας μη γραμμικός αλγόριθμος
μετατροπής.  Τα underscores και το πρόσημο δεν υπολογίζονται στο όριο.

Όταν μια λειτουργία υπερβαίνει το όριο, γίνεται raise μια *note
ValueError: 277.:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.set_int_max_str_digits(4300)  # Illustrative, this is the default.
     >>> _ = int('2' * 5432)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion: value has 5432 digits; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
     >>> i = int('2' * 4300)
     >>> len(str(i))
     4300
     >>> i_squared = i*i
     >>> len(str(i_squared))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300 digits) for integer string conversion; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits() to increase the limit
     >>> len(hex(i_squared))
     7144
     >>> assert int(hex(i_squared), base=16) == i*i  # Hexadecimal is unlimited.

Το προεπιλεγμένο όριο είναι 4300 ψηφία όπως προβλέπεται στο *note
sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 1638.  Το κατώτατο όριο που μπορεί
να διαμορφωθεί είναι 640 ψηφία όπως προβλέπεται στο
‘sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold’.

Επαλήθευση:

     >>> import sys
     >>> assert sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits == 4300, sys.int_info
     >>> assert sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold == 640, sys.int_info
     >>> msg = int('578966293710682886880994035146873798396722250538762761564'
     ...           '9252925514383915483333812743580549779436104706260696366600'
     ...           '571186405732').to_bytes(53, 'big')
     ...

Added in version 3.11.

* Menu:

* Επηρεασμένα APIs::
* Διαμόρφωση ορίου::
* Προτεινόμενη διαμόρφωση::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735


File: python.info,  Node: Επηρεασμένα APIs,  Next: Διαμόρφωση ορίου,  Up: Περιορισμός μήκους μετατροπής συμβολοσειράς ακέραιου αριθμού

5.4.17.1 Επηρεασμένα APIs
.........................

Ο περιορισμός ισχύει μόνο για δυνητικά αργές μετατροπές μεταξύ *note
int: 326. και *note str: 1df. ή *note bytes: 1c7.:

   * ‘int(string)’ με default βάση το 10.

   * ‘int(string, base)’ για όλες τις βάσεις που δεν είναι δύναμη του 2.

   * ‘str(integer)’.

   * ‘repr(integer)’.

   * οποιαδήποτε άλλη μετατροπή συμβολοσειράς στη βάση 10, για
     παράδειγμα ‘f"{integer}"’, ‘"{}".format(integer)’, ή ‘b"%d" %
     integer’.

Οι περιορισμοί δεν ισχύουν για συναρτήσεις με γραμμικό αλγόριθμο:

   * ‘int(string, base)’ με βάση 2, 4, 8, 16, ή 32.

   * *note int.from_bytes(): 198e. και *note int.to_bytes(): 1e29.

   * *note hex(): 1674, *note oct(): 1673, *note bin(): 164d.

   * *note Format specification mini-language: 6fe. για δεκαεξαδικούς,
     οκταδικούς και δυαδικούς αριθμούς.

   * *note str: 1df. σε *note float: 327.

   * *note str: 1df. σε *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2.


File: python.info,  Node: Διαμόρφωση ορίου,  Next: Προτεινόμενη διαμόρφωση,  Prev: Επηρεασμένα APIs,  Up: Περιορισμός μήκους μετατροπής συμβολοσειράς ακέραιου αριθμού

5.4.17.2 Διαμόρφωση ορίου
.........................

Πριν από την εκκίνηση της Python, μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε μια
μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος ή ένα δείκτη γραμμής εντολών διερμηνέα για να
διαμορφώσετε το όριο:

   * *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1d38, π.χ.  ‘PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=640
     python3’ για να ορίσετε το όριο σε 640 ή ‘PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS=0
     python3’ για να απενεργοποιήσετε τον περιορισμό.

   * *note -X int_max_str_digits: 178, π.χ.  ‘python3 -X
     int_max_str_digits=640’

   * Το *note sys.flags.int_max_str_digits: 28d7. περιέχει την τιμή
     *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1d38. ή *note -X int_max_str_digits:
     178.  Εάν και η επιλογή env var και η επιλογή ‘-X’ είναι
     καθορισμένη, η επιλογή ‘-X’ έχει προτεραιότητα.  Μια τιμή '-1'
     υποδεικνύει ότι και τα δύο δεν ορίστηκαν, επομένως χρησιμοποιήθηκε
     μια τιμή *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 28d8. κατά την
     προετοιμασία.

Από τον κώδικα, μπορείτε να επιθεωρήσετε το τρέχον όριο και να ορίσετε
ένα νέο χρησιμοποιώντας αυτά τα *note sys: e2. APIs:

   * Οι *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits(): 1a12. και *note
     sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 1b11. είναι ένας getter και setter
     για το όριο σε όλο τον διερμηνέα.  Οι δευτερεύοντες διερμηνείς
     έχουν το δικό τους όριο.

Πληροφορίες σχετικά με την προεπιλογή και το ελάχιστο μπορούν να βρεθούν
στο *note sys.int_info: 1638.:

   * Το *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 1638. είναι το
     μεταγλωττισμένο προεπιλεγμένο όριο.

   * Το *note sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold: 1638. είναι η
     χαμηλότερη αποδεκτή τιμή για το όριο (εκτός από το 0 που το
     απενεργοποιεί).

Added in version 3.11.

     Προσοχή: Ο ορισμός ενός χαμηλού ορίου 'μπορεί' να οδηγήσει σε
     προβλήματα.  Αν και σπάνιος, υπάρχει κώδικας που περιέχει ακέραιες
     σταθερές σε δεκαδικό αριθμό στην πηγή τους που υπερβαίνουν το
     ελάχιστο όριο.  Συνέπεια της ρύθμισης του ορίου είναι ότι ο πηγαίος
     κώδικας Python που περιέχει δεκαδικούς ακέραιους αριθμούς
     μεγαλύτερους από το όριο θα αντιμετωπίσει σφάλμα κατά την ανάλυση,
     συνήθως κατά την εκκίνηση ή την ώρα της εισαγωγής ή ακόμα και κατά
     την εγκατάσταση - ανά πάσα στιγμή είναι ενημερωμένο ‘.pyc’ δεν
     υπάρχει ήδη για τον κώδικα.  Μια λύση για τον πηγαίο που περιέχει
     τόσο μεγάλες σταθερές είναι να τις μετατρέψετε σε δεκαεξαδική μορφή
     ‘0x’ καθώς δεν έχει όριο.

     Δοκιμάστε σχολαστικά την εφαρμογή σας εάν χρησιμοποιείτε χαμηλό
     όριο.  Βεβαιωθείτε ότι οι δοκιμές σας εκτελούνται με το όριο που
     έχει οριστεί νωρίς μέσω του περιβάλλοντος ή του δείκτη, ώστε να
     ισχύει κατά την εκκίνηση και ακόμη και κατά τη διάρκεια
     οποιουδήποτε βήματος εγκατάστασης που μπορεί να καλέσει την Python
     για να μεταγλωττίσει εκ των προτέρων το ‘.py’ πηγαίο σε αρχεία
     ‘.pyc’.


File: python.info,  Node: Προτεινόμενη διαμόρφωση,  Prev: Διαμόρφωση ορίου,  Up: Περιορισμός μήκους μετατροπής συμβολοσειράς ακέραιου αριθμού

5.4.17.3 Προτεινόμενη διαμόρφωση
................................

Το προεπιλεγμένο *note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 28d8.
αναμένεται να είναι λογικό για τις περισσότερες εφαρμογές.  Εάν η
εφαρμογή σας απαιτεί διαφορετικό όριο, ορίστε το από το κύριο σημείο
εισόδου σας χρησιμοποιώντας τον συμβατό με τον κώδικα της έκδοσης
Python, καθώς αυτά τα API προστέθηκαν στην ενημερωμένη έκδοση κώδικα
ασφαλείας σε εκδόσεις πριν από την 3.12.

Παράδειγμα:

     >>> import sys
     >>> if hasattr(sys, "set_int_max_str_digits"):
     ...     upper_bound = 68000
     ...     lower_bound = 4004
     ...     current_limit = sys.get_int_max_str_digits()
     ...     if current_limit == 0 or current_limit > upper_bound:
     ...         sys.set_int_max_str_digits(upper_bound)
     ...     elif current_limit < lower_bound:
     ...         sys.set_int_max_str_digits(lower_bound)

Εάν πρέπει να το απενεργοποιήσετε εντελώς, ορίστε το σε ‘0’.

Υποσημειώσεις
.............


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in Exceptions,  Next: Thread Safety Guarantees,  Prev: Τύποι Built-in,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.5 Built-in Exceptions
=======================

In Python, all exceptions must be instances of a class that derives from
*note BaseException: 9b9.  In a *note try: ad6. statement with an *note
except: 447. clause that mentions a particular class, that clause also
handles any exception classes derived from that class (but not exception
classes from which 'it' is derived).  Two exception classes that are not
related via subclassing are never equivalent, even if they have the same
name.

The built-in exceptions listed in this chapter can be generated by the
interpreter or built-in functions.  Except where mentioned, they have an
«associated value» indicating the detailed cause of the error.  This may
be a string or a tuple of several items of information (e.g., an error
code and a string explaining the code).  The associated value is usually
passed as arguments to the exception class’s constructor.

User code can raise built-in exceptions.  This can be used to test an
exception handler or to report an error condition «just like» the
situation in which the interpreter raises the same exception; but beware
that there is nothing to prevent user code from raising an inappropriate
error.

The built-in exception classes can be subclassed to define new
exceptions; programmers are encouraged to derive new exceptions from the
*note Exception: d9e. class or one of its subclasses, and not from *note
BaseException: 9b9.  More information on defining exceptions is
available in the Python Tutorial under *note Εξαιρέσεις που καθορίζονται
από το χρήστη: 226b.

* Menu:

* Exception context::
* Inheriting from built-in exceptions::
* Base classes::
* Concrete exceptions::
* Warnings::
* Exception groups::
* Exception hierarchy::


File: python.info,  Node: Exception context,  Next: Inheriting from built-in exceptions,  Up: Built-in Exceptions

5.5.1 Exception context
-----------------------

Three attributes on exception objects provide information about the
context in which the exception was raised:

 -- Ιδιότητα: BaseException.__context__
 -- Ιδιότητα: BaseException.__cause__
 -- Ιδιότητα: BaseException.__suppress_context__

     When raising a new exception while another exception is already
     being handled, the new exception’s ‘__context__’ attribute is
     automatically set to the handled exception.  An exception may be
     handled when an *note except: 447. or *note finally: 44c. clause,
     or a *note with: 20a. statement, is used.

     This implicit exception context can be supplemented with an
     explicit cause by using ‘from’ with *note raise: 9e4.:

          raise new_exc from original_exc

     The expression following *note from: 9e4. must be an exception or
     ‘None’.  It will be set as ‘__cause__’ on the raised exception.
     Setting ‘__cause__’ also implicitly sets the ‘__suppress_context__’
     attribute to ‘True’, so that using ‘raise new_exc from None’
     effectively replaces the old exception with the new one for display
     purposes (e.g.  converting *note KeyError: 7df. to *note
     AttributeError: 1a9.), while leaving the old exception available in
     ‘__context__’ for introspection when debugging.

     The default traceback display code shows these chained exceptions
     in addition to the traceback for the exception itself.  An
     explicitly chained exception in ‘__cause__’ is always shown when
     present.  An implicitly chained exception in ‘__context__’ is shown
     only if ‘__cause__’ is *note None: a65. and ‘__suppress_context__’
     is false.

     In either case, the exception itself is always shown after any
     chained exceptions so that the final line of the traceback always
     shows the last exception that was raised.


File: python.info,  Node: Inheriting from built-in exceptions,  Next: Base classes,  Prev: Exception context,  Up: Built-in Exceptions

5.5.2 Inheriting from built-in exceptions
-----------------------------------------

User code can create subclasses that inherit from an exception type.
It’s recommended to only subclass one exception type at a time to avoid
any possible conflicts between how the bases handle the ‘args’
attribute, as well as due to possible memory layout incompatibilities.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Most built-in exceptions are
implemented in C for efficiency, see: Objects/exceptions.c(1).  Some
have custom memory layouts which makes it impossible to create a
subclass that inherits from multiple exception types.  The memory layout
of a type is an implementation detail and might change between Python
versions, leading to new conflicts in the future.  Therefore, it’s
recommended to avoid subclassing multiple exception types altogether.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Objects/exceptions.c


File: python.info,  Node: Base classes,  Next: Concrete exceptions,  Prev: Inheriting from built-in exceptions,  Up: Built-in Exceptions

5.5.3 Base classes
------------------

The following exceptions are used mostly as base classes for other
exceptions.

 -- Εξαίρεση: BaseException

     The base class for all built-in exceptions.  It is not meant to be
     directly inherited by user-defined classes (for that, use *note
     Exception: d9e.).  If *note str(): 1df. is called on an instance of
     this class, the representation of the argument(s) to the instance
     are returned, or the empty string when there were no arguments.

      -- Ιδιότητα: args

          The tuple of arguments given to the exception constructor.
          Some built-in exceptions (like *note OSError: 53c.) expect a
          certain number of arguments and assign a special meaning to
          the elements of this tuple, while others are usually called
          only with a single string giving an error message.

      -- Μέθοδος: with_traceback (tb)

          This method sets 'tb' as the new traceback for the exception
          and returns the exception object.  It was more commonly used
          before the exception chaining features of PEP 3134(1) became
          available.  The following example shows how we can convert an
          instance of ‘SomeException’ into an instance of
          ‘OtherException’ while preserving the traceback.  Once raised,
          the current frame is pushed onto the traceback of the
          ‘OtherException’, as would have happened to the traceback of
          the original ‘SomeException’ had we allowed it to propagate to
          the caller.

               try:
                   ...
               except SomeException:
                   tb = sys.exception().__traceback__
                   raise OtherException(...).with_traceback(tb)

      -- Ιδιότητα: __traceback__

          A writable field that holds the *note traceback object: eba.
          associated with this exception.  See also: *note Η εντολή
          raise: 9e4.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_note (note)

          Add the string ‘note’ to the exception’s notes which appear in
          the standard traceback after the exception string.  A *note
          TypeError: 291. is raised if ‘note’ is not a string.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __notes__

          A list of the notes of this exception, which were added with
          *note add_note(): 9b8.  This attribute is created when
          ‘add_note()’ is called.

          Added in version 3.11.

 -- Εξαίρεση: Exception

     All built-in, non-system-exiting exceptions are derived from this
     class.  All user-defined exceptions should also be derived from
     this class.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ArithmeticError

     The base class for those built-in exceptions that are raised for
     various arithmetic errors: *note OverflowError: c57, *note
     ZeroDivisionError: d11, *note FloatingPointError: 28e2.

 -- Εξαίρεση: BufferError

     Raised when a *note buffer: 311. related operation cannot be
     performed.

 -- Εξαίρεση: LookupError

     The base class for the exceptions that are raised when a key or
     index used on a mapping or sequence is invalid: *note IndexError:
     18d7, *note KeyError: 7df.  This can be raised directly by *note
     codecs.lookup(): d2d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/


File: python.info,  Node: Concrete exceptions,  Next: Warnings,  Prev: Base classes,  Up: Built-in Exceptions

5.5.4 Concrete exceptions
-------------------------

The following exceptions are the exceptions that are usually raised.

 -- Εξαίρεση: AssertionError

     Raised when an *note assert: d31. statement fails.

 -- Εξαίρεση: AttributeError

     Raised when an attribute reference (see *note Attribute references:
     26a0.) or assignment fails.  (When an object does not support
     attribute references or attribute assignments at all, *note
     TypeError: 291. is raised.)

     The optional 'name' and 'obj' keyword-only arguments set the
     corresponding attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name of the attribute that was attempted to be accessed.

      -- Ιδιότητα: obj

          The object that was accessed for the named attribute.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the *note name: 28e4. and *note obj:
     28e5. attributes.

 -- Εξαίρεση: EOFError

     Raised when the *note input(): 167d. function hits an end-of-file
     condition (EOF) without reading any data.  (Note: the *note
     io.TextIOBase.read(): 225b. and *note io.IOBase.readline(): 16ce.
     methods return an empty string when they hit EOF.)

 -- Εξαίρεση: FloatingPointError

     Not currently used.

 -- Εξαίρεση: GeneratorExit

     Raised when a *note generator: 1409. or *note coroutine: 8a2. is
     closed; see *note generator.close(): 199e. and *note
     coroutine.close(): 2610.  It directly inherits from *note
     BaseException: 9b9. instead of *note Exception: d9e. since it is
     technically not an error.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ImportError

     Raised when the *note import: 9da. statement has troubles trying to
     load a module.  Also raised when the «from list» in ‘from ...
     import’ has a name that cannot be found.

     The optional 'name' and 'path' keyword-only arguments set the
     corresponding attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name of the module that was attempted to be imported.

      -- Ιδιότητα: path

          The path to any file which triggered the exception.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the *note name: 1902. and *note path:
     28e6. attributes.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ModuleNotFoundError

     A subclass of *note ImportError: 1bd. which is raised by *note
     import: 9da. when a module could not be located.  It is also raised
     when ‘None’ is found in *note sys.modules: 19ba.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ImportCycleError

     A subclass of *note ImportError: 1bd. which is raised when a lazy
     import fails because it (directly or indirectly) tries to import
     itself.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Εξαίρεση: IndexError

     Raised when a sequence subscript is out of range.  (Slice indices
     are silently truncated to fall in the allowed range; if an index is
     not an integer, *note TypeError: 291. is raised.)

 -- Εξαίρεση: KeyError

     Raised when a mapping (dictionary) key is not found in the set of
     existing keys.

 -- Εξαίρεση: KeyboardInterrupt

     Raised when the user hits the interrupt key (normally ‘Control’-‘C’
     or ‘Delete’).  During execution, a check for interrupts is made
     regularly.  The exception inherits from *note BaseException: 9b9.
     so as to not be accidentally caught by code that catches *note
     Exception: d9e. and thus prevent the interpreter from exiting.

          Σημείωση: Catching a ‘KeyboardInterrupt’ requires special
          consideration.  Because it can be raised at unpredictable
          points, it may, in some circumstances, leave the running
          program in an inconsistent state.  It is generally best to
          allow ‘KeyboardInterrupt’ to end the program as quickly as
          possible or avoid raising it entirely.  (See *note Note on
          Signal Handlers and Exceptions: 28e8.)

 -- Εξαίρεση: MemoryError

     Raised when an operation runs out of memory but the situation may
     still be rescued (by deleting some objects).  The associated value
     is a string indicating what kind of (internal) operation ran out of
     memory.  Note that because of the underlying memory management
     architecture (C’s ‘malloc()’ function), the interpreter may not
     always be able to completely recover from this situation; it
     nevertheless raises an exception so that a stack traceback can be
     printed, in case a run-away program was the cause.

 -- Εξαίρεση: NameError

     Raised when a local or global name is not found.  This applies only
     to unqualified names.  The associated value is an error message
     that includes the name that could not be found.

     The optional 'name' keyword-only argument sets the attribute:

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name of the variable that was attempted to be accessed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the *note name: 28e9. attribute.

 -- Εξαίρεση: NotImplementedError

     This exception is derived from *note RuntimeError: 30d.  In user
     defined base classes, abstract methods should raise this exception
     when they require derived classes to override the method, or while
     the class is being developed to indicate that the real
     implementation still needs to be added.

          Σημείωση: It should not be used to indicate that an operator
          or method is not meant to be supported at all – in that case
          either leave the operator / method undefined or, if a
          subclass, set it to *note None: a65.

          Προσοχή: ‘NotImplementedError’ and ‘NotImplemented’ are not
          interchangeable.  This exception should only be used as
          described above; see *note NotImplemented: 440. for details on
          correct usage of the built-in constant.

 -- Εξαίρεση: OSError ([arg])

 -- Εξαίρεση: OSError (errno, strerror[, filename[, winerror[,
          filename2]]])

     This exception is raised when a system function returns a
     system-related error, including I/O failures such as «file not
     found» or «disk full» (not for illegal argument types or other
     incidental errors).

     The second form of the constructor sets the corresponding
     attributes, described below.  The attributes default to *note None:
     a65. if not specified.  For backwards compatibility, if three
     arguments are passed, the *note args: 972. attribute contains only
     a 2-tuple of the first two constructor arguments.

     The constructor often actually returns a subclass of ‘OSError’, as
     described in *note OS exceptions: 28ea. below.  The particular
     subclass depends on the final *note errno: 19ca. value.  This
     behaviour only occurs when constructing ‘OSError’ directly or via
     an alias, and is not inherited when subclassing.

      -- Ιδιότητα: errno

          A numeric error code from the C variable ‘errno’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: winerror

          Under Windows, this gives you the native Windows error code.
          The *note errno: 19ca. attribute is then an approximate
          translation, in POSIX terms, of that native error code.

          Under Windows, if the 'winerror' constructor argument is an
          integer, the *note errno: 19ca. attribute is determined from
          the Windows error code, and the 'errno' argument is ignored.
          On other platforms, the 'winerror' argument is ignored, and
          the *note winerror: 28eb. attribute does not exist.

      -- Ιδιότητα: strerror

          The corresponding error message, as provided by the operating
          system.  It is formatted by the C functions ‘perror()’ under
          POSIX, and ‘FormatMessage()’ under Windows.

      -- Ιδιότητα: filename
      -- Ιδιότητα: filename2

          For exceptions that involve a file system path (such as *note
          open(): 32b. or *note os.unlink(): 14a1.), *note filename:
          28ed. is the file name passed to the function.  For functions
          that involve two file system paths (such as *note os.rename():
          149d.), *note filename2: 28ee. corresponds to the second file
          name passed to the function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: *note EnvironmentError: 13fc, *note
     IOError: 13fb, *note WindowsError: 13fd, *note socket.error: 13fe,
     *note select.error: 13ff. and ‘mmap.error’ have been merged into
     ‘OSError’, and the constructor may return a subclass.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The *note filename: 28ed. attribute is now
     the original file name passed to the function, instead of the name
     encoded to or decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 948.  Also, the 'filename2' constructor argument and
     attribute was added.

 -- Εξαίρεση: OverflowError

     Raised when the result of an arithmetic operation is too large to
     be represented.  This cannot occur for integers (which would rather
     raise *note MemoryError: 18fa. than give up).  However, for
     historical reasons, OverflowError is sometimes raised for integers
     that are outside a required range.  Because of the lack of
     standardization of floating-point exception handling in C, most
     floating-point operations are not checked.

 -- Εξαίρεση: PythonFinalizationError

     This exception is derived from *note RuntimeError: 30d.  It is
     raised when an operation is blocked during interpreter shutdown
     also known as *note Python finalization: 1a0.

     Examples of operations which can be blocked with a
     ‘PythonFinalizationError’ during the Python finalization:

        * Creating a new Python thread.

        * *note Joining: 158d. a running daemon thread.

        * *note os.fork(): 6bd,

        * acquiring a lock such as *note threading.Lock: 1a10, when it
          is known that the operation would otherwise deadlock.

     See also the *note sys.is_finalizing(): e4f. function.

     Added in version 3.13: Previously, a plain *note RuntimeError: 30d.
     was raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: *note threading.Thread.join(): 158d. can
     now raise this exception.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: This exception may be raised when
     acquiring *note threading.Lock(): 1a10. or *note threading.RLock():
     2df.

 -- Εξαίρεση: RecursionError

     This exception is derived from *note RuntimeError: 30d.  It is
     raised when the interpreter detects that the maximum recursion
     depth (see *note sys.getrecursionlimit(): 8d4.) is exceeded.

     Added in version 3.5: Previously, a plain *note RuntimeError: 30d.
     was raised.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ReferenceError

     This exception is raised when a weak reference proxy, created by
     the *note weakref.proxy(): e15. function, is used to access an
     attribute of the referent after it has been garbage collected.  For
     more information on weak references, see the *note weakref: 11d.
     module.

 -- Εξαίρεση: RuntimeError

     Raised when an error is detected that doesn’t fall in any of the
     other categories.  The associated value is a string indicating what
     precisely went wrong.

 -- Εξαίρεση: StopIteration

     Raised by built-in function *note next(): bb5. and an *note
     iterator: 6ce.'s *note __next__(): 1672. method to signal that
     there are no further items produced by the iterator.

      -- Ιδιότητα: value

          The exception object has a single attribute ‘value’, which is
          given as an argument when constructing the exception, and
          defaults to *note None: a65.

     When a *note generator: 1409. or *note coroutine: 8a2. function
     returns, a new ‘StopIteration’ instance is raised, and the value
     returned by the function is used as the *note value: 260c.
     parameter to the constructor of the exception.

     If a generator code directly or indirectly raises ‘StopIteration’,
     it is converted into a *note RuntimeError: 30d. (retaining the
     ‘StopIteration’ as the new exception’s cause).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added ‘value’ attribute and the ability for
     generator functions to use it to return a value.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Introduced the RuntimeError transformation
     via ‘from __future__ import generator_stop’, see PEP 479(1).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Enable PEP 479(2) for all code by default:
     a ‘StopIteration’ error raised in a generator is transformed into a
     *note RuntimeError: 30d.

 -- Εξαίρεση: StopAsyncIteration

     Must be raised by *note __anext__(): 1aa7. method of an *note
     asynchronous iterator: 6cd. object to stop the iteration.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Εξαίρεση: SyntaxError (message, details)

     Raised when the parser encounters a syntax error.  This may occur
     in an *note import: 9da. statement, in a call to the built-in
     functions *note compile(): 1c8, *note exec(): 185, or *note eval():
     184, or when reading the initial script or standard input (also
     interactively).

     The *note str(): 1df. of the exception instance returns only the
     error message.  Details is a tuple whose members are also available
     as separate attributes.

      -- Ιδιότητα: filename

          The name of the file the syntax error occurred in.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          Which line number in the file the error occurred in.  This is
          1-indexed: the first line in the file has a ‘lineno’ of 1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: offset

          The column in the line where the error occurred.  This is
          1-indexed: the first character in the line has an ‘offset’ of
          1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: text

          The source code text involved in the error.

      -- Ιδιότητα: end_lineno

          Which line number in the file the error occurred ends in.
          This is 1-indexed: the first line in the file has a ‘lineno’
          of 1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: end_offset

          The column in the end line where the error occurred finishes.
          This is 1-indexed: the first character in the line has an
          ‘offset’ of 1.

     For errors in f-string fields, the message is prefixed by
     «f-string: » and the offsets are offsets in a text constructed from
     the replacement expression.  For example, compiling f’Bad {a b}
     field” results in this args attribute: (“f-string: …”, (“”, 1, 2,
     “(a b)n”, 1, 5)).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the *note end_lineno: 28f3. and
     *note end_offset: 28f4. attributes.

 -- Εξαίρεση: IndentationError

     Base class for syntax errors related to incorrect indentation.
     This is a subclass of *note SyntaxError: 17e.

 -- Εξαίρεση: TabError

     Raised when indentation contains an inconsistent use of tabs and
     spaces.  This is a subclass of *note IndentationError: b89.

 -- Εξαίρεση: SystemError

     Raised when the interpreter finds an internal error, but the
     situation does not look so serious to cause it to abandon all hope.
     The associated value is a string indicating what went wrong (in
     low-level terms).  In *note CPython: ae3, this could be raised by
     incorrectly using Python’s C API, such as returning a ‘NULL’ value
     without an exception set.

     If you’re confident that this exception wasn’t your fault, or the
     fault of a package you’re using, you should report this to the
     author or maintainer of your Python interpreter.  Be sure to report
     the version of the Python interpreter (‘sys.version’; it is also
     printed at the start of an interactive Python session), the exact
     error message (the exception’s associated value) and if possible
     the source of the program that triggered the error.

 -- Εξαίρεση: SystemExit

     This exception is raised by the *note sys.exit(): 4ff. function.
     It inherits from *note BaseException: 9b9. instead of *note
     Exception: d9e. so that it is not accidentally caught by code that
     catches ‘Exception’.  This allows the exception to properly
     propagate up and cause the interpreter to exit.  When it is not
     handled, the Python interpreter exits; no stack traceback is
     printed.  The constructor accepts the same optional argument passed
     to ‘sys.exit()’.  If the value is an integer, it specifies the
     system exit status (passed to C’s ‘exit()’ function); if it is
     ‘None’, the exit status is zero; if it has another type (such as a
     string), the object’s value is printed and the exit status is one.

     A call to *note sys.exit(): 4ff. is translated into an exception so
     that clean-up handlers (*note finally: 44c. clauses of *note try:
     ad6. statements) can be executed, and so that a debugger can
     execute a script without running the risk of losing control.  The
     *note os._exit(): 28f5. function can be used if it is absolutely
     positively necessary to exit immediately (for example, in the child
     process after a call to *note os.fork(): 6bd.).

      -- Ιδιότητα: code

          The exit status or error message that is passed to the
          constructor.  (Defaults to ‘None’.)

 -- Εξαίρεση: TypeError

     Raised when an operation or function is applied to an object of
     inappropriate type.  The associated value is a string giving
     details about the type mismatch.

     This exception may be raised by user code to indicate that an
     attempted operation on an object is not supported, and is not meant
     to be.  If an object is meant to support a given operation but has
     not yet provided an implementation, *note NotImplementedError: 59a.
     is the proper exception to raise.

     Passing arguments of the wrong type (e.g.  passing a *note list:
     4d9. when an *note int: 326. is expected) should result in a
     ‘TypeError’, but passing arguments with the wrong value (e.g.  a
     number outside expected boundaries) should result in a *note
     ValueError: 277.

 -- Εξαίρεση: UnboundLocalError

     Raised when a reference is made to a local variable in a function
     or method, but no value has been bound to that variable.  This is a
     subclass of *note NameError: 665.

 -- Εξαίρεση: UnicodeError

     Raised when a Unicode-related encoding or decoding error occurs.
     It is a subclass of *note ValueError: 277.

     ‘UnicodeError’ has attributes that describe the encoding or
     decoding error.  For example, ‘err.object[err.start:err.end]’ gives
     the particular invalid input that the codec failed on.

      -- Ιδιότητα: encoding

          The name of the encoding that raised the error.

      -- Ιδιότητα: reason

          A string describing the specific codec error.

      -- Ιδιότητα: object

          The object the codec was attempting to encode or decode.

      -- Ιδιότητα: start

          The first index of invalid data in *note object: e4d.

          This value should not be negative as it is interpreted as an
          absolute offset but this constraint is not enforced at
          runtime.

      -- Ιδιότητα: end

          The index after the last invalid data in *note object: e4d.

          This value should not be negative as it is interpreted as an
          absolute offset but this constraint is not enforced at
          runtime.

 -- Εξαίρεση: UnicodeEncodeError

     Raised when a Unicode-related error occurs during encoding.  It is
     a subclass of *note UnicodeError: 675.

 -- Εξαίρεση: UnicodeDecodeError

     Raised when a Unicode-related error occurs during decoding.  It is
     a subclass of *note UnicodeError: 675.

 -- Εξαίρεση: UnicodeTranslateError

     Raised when a Unicode-related error occurs during translating.  It
     is a subclass of *note UnicodeError: 675.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ValueError

     Raised when an operation or function receives an argument that has
     the right type but an inappropriate value, and the situation is not
     described by a more precise exception such as *note IndexError:
     18d7.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ZeroDivisionError

     Raised when the second argument of a division or modulo operation
     is zero.  The associated value is a string indicating the type of
     the operands and the operation.

The following exceptions are kept for compatibility with previous
versions; starting from Python 3.3, they are aliases of *note OSError:
53c.

 -- Εξαίρεση: EnvironmentError

 -- Εξαίρεση: IOError

 -- Εξαίρεση: WindowsError

     Only available on Windows.

* Menu:

* OS exceptions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/


File: python.info,  Node: OS exceptions,  Up: Concrete exceptions

5.5.4.1 OS exceptions
.....................

The following exceptions are subclasses of *note OSError: 53c, they get
raised depending on the system error code.

 -- Εξαίρεση: BlockingIOError

     Raised when an operation would block on an object (e.g.  socket)
     set for non-blocking operation.  Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note
     EAGAIN: 28f9, *note EALREADY: 28fa, *note EWOULDBLOCK: 28fb. and
     *note EINPROGRESS: 28fc.

     In addition to those of *note OSError: 53c, ‘BlockingIOError’ can
     have one more attribute:

      -- Ιδιότητα: characters_written

          An integer containing the number of 'bytes' written to the
          stream before it blocked.  This attribute is available when
          using the buffered I/O classes from the *note io: 82. module.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ChildProcessError

     Raised when an operation on a child process failed.  Corresponds to
     ‘errno’ *note ECHILD: 28fe.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ConnectionError

     A base class for connection-related issues.

     Subclasses are *note BrokenPipeError: 1404, *note
     ConnectionAbortedError: 1405, *note ConnectionRefusedError: 1406.
     and *note ConnectionResetError: 1407.

 -- Εξαίρεση: BrokenPipeError

     A subclass of *note ConnectionError: 11bf, raised when trying to
     write on a pipe while the other end has been closed, or trying to
     write on a socket which has been shutdown for writing.  Corresponds
     to ‘errno’ *note EPIPE: 28ff. and *note ESHUTDOWN: 2900.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ConnectionAbortedError

     A subclass of *note ConnectionError: 11bf, raised when a connection
     attempt is aborted by the peer.  Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note
     ECONNABORTED: 2901.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ConnectionRefusedError

     A subclass of *note ConnectionError: 11bf, raised when a connection
     attempt is refused by the peer.  Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note
     ECONNREFUSED: 2902.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ConnectionResetError

     A subclass of *note ConnectionError: 11bf, raised when a connection
     is reset by the peer.  Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note ECONNRESET:
     2903.

 -- Εξαίρεση: FileExistsError

     Raised when trying to create a file or directory which already
     exists.  Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note EEXIST: 2904.

 -- Εξαίρεση: FileNotFoundError

     Raised when a file or directory is requested but doesn’t exist.
     Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note ENOENT: 2905.

 -- Εξαίρεση: InterruptedError

     Raised when a system call is interrupted by an incoming signal.
     Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note EINTR: 1140.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Python now retries system calls when a
     syscall is interrupted by a signal, except if the signal handler
     raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the rationale), instead of
     raising ‘InterruptedError’.

 -- Εξαίρεση: IsADirectoryError

     Raised when a file operation (such as *note os.remove(): 149c.) is
     requested on a directory.  Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note EISDIR:
     2906.

 -- Εξαίρεση: NotADirectoryError

     Raised when a directory operation (such as *note os.listdir():
     14a6.) is requested on something which is not a directory.  On most
     POSIX platforms, it may also be raised if an operation attempts to
     open or traverse a non-directory file as if it were a directory.
     Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note ENOTDIR: 2907.

 -- Εξαίρεση: PermissionError

     Raised when trying to run an operation without the adequate access
     rights - for example filesystem permissions.  Corresponds to
     ‘errno’ *note EACCES: 2908, *note EPERM: 1d54, and *note
     ENOTCAPABLE: 1d3d.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11.1: WASI’s *note ENOTCAPABLE: 1d3d. is now
     mapped to ‘PermissionError’.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ProcessLookupError

     Raised when a given process doesn’t exist.  Corresponds to ‘errno’
     *note ESRCH: 2909.

 -- Εξαίρεση: TimeoutError

     Raised when a system function timed out at the system level.
     Corresponds to ‘errno’ *note ETIMEDOUT: 290a.

Added in version 3.3: All the above *note OSError: 53c. subclasses were
added.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3151(2) - Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: Warnings,  Next: Exception groups,  Prev: Concrete exceptions,  Up: Built-in Exceptions

5.5.5 Warnings
--------------

The following exceptions are used as warning categories; see the *note
Κατηγορίες Προειδοποίησης: 290d. documentation for more details.

 -- Εξαίρεση: Warning

     Base class for warning categories.

 -- Εξαίρεση: UserWarning

     Base class for warnings generated by user code.

 -- Εξαίρεση: DeprecationWarning

     Base class for warnings about deprecated features when those
     warnings are intended for other Python developers.

     Ignored by the default warning filters, except in the ‘__main__’
     module ( PEP 565(1)).  Enabling the *note Python Development Mode:
     70d. shows this warning.

     The deprecation policy is described in PEP 387(2).

 -- Εξαίρεση: PendingDeprecationWarning

     Base class for warnings about features which are obsolete and
     expected to be deprecated in the future, but are not deprecated at
     the moment.

     This class is rarely used as emitting a warning about a possible
     upcoming deprecation is unusual, and *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.
     is preferred for already active deprecations.

     Ignored by the default warning filters.  Enabling the *note Python
     Development Mode: 70d. shows this warning.

     The deprecation policy is described in PEP 387(3).

 -- Εξαίρεση: SyntaxWarning

     Base class for warnings about dubious syntax.

     This warning is typically emitted when compiling Python source
     code, and usually won’t be reported when running already compiled
     code.

 -- Εξαίρεση: RuntimeWarning

     Base class for warnings about dubious runtime behavior.

 -- Εξαίρεση: FutureWarning

     Base class for warnings about deprecated features when those
     warnings are intended for end users of applications that are
     written in Python.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ImportWarning

     Base class for warnings about probable mistakes in module imports.

     Ignored by the default warning filters.  Enabling the *note Python
     Development Mode: 70d. shows this warning.

 -- Εξαίρεση: UnicodeWarning

     Base class for warnings related to Unicode.

 -- Εξαίρεση: EncodingWarning

     Base class for warnings related to encodings.

     See *note Opt-in EncodingWarning: 1ac. for details.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Εξαίρεση: BytesWarning

     Base class for warnings related to *note bytes: 1c7. and *note
     bytearray: 1c6.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ResourceWarning

     Base class for warnings related to resource usage.

     Ignored by the default warning filters.  Enabling the *note Python
     Development Mode: 70d. shows this warning.

     Added in version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0565/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/


File: python.info,  Node: Exception groups,  Next: Exception hierarchy,  Prev: Warnings,  Up: Built-in Exceptions

5.5.6 Exception groups
----------------------

The following are used when it is necessary to raise multiple unrelated
exceptions.  They are part of the exception hierarchy so they can be
handled with *note except: 447. like all other exceptions.  In addition,
they are recognised by *note except*: 448, which matches their subgroups
based on the types of the contained exceptions.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ExceptionGroup (msg, excs)

 -- Εξαίρεση: BaseExceptionGroup (msg, excs)

     Both of these exception types wrap the exceptions in the sequence
     ‘excs’.  The ‘msg’ parameter must be a string.  The difference
     between the two classes is that ‘BaseExceptionGroup’ extends *note
     BaseException: 9b9. and it can wrap any exception, while *note
     ExceptionGroup: 6d8. extends *note Exception: d9e. and it can only
     wrap subclasses of ‘Exception’.  This design is so that ‘except
     Exception’ catches an ‘ExceptionGroup’ but not
     ‘BaseExceptionGroup’.

     The ‘BaseExceptionGroup’ constructor returns an *note
     ExceptionGroup: 6d8. rather than a ‘BaseExceptionGroup’ if all
     contained exceptions are *note Exception: d9e. instances, so it can
     be used to make the selection automatic.  The ‘ExceptionGroup’
     constructor, on the other hand, raises a *note TypeError: 291. if
     any contained exception is not an ‘Exception’ subclass.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' The ‘excs’ parameter may be any
     sequence, but lists and tuples are specifically processed more
     efficiently here.  For optimal performance, pass a tuple as ‘excs’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: message

          The ‘msg’ argument to the constructor.  This is a read-only
          attribute.

      -- Ιδιότητα: exceptions

          A tuple of the exceptions in the ‘excs’ sequence given to the
          constructor.  This is a read-only attribute.

      -- Μέθοδος: subgroup (condition)

          Returns an exception group that contains only the exceptions
          from the current group that match 'condition', or ‘None’ if
          the result is empty.

          The condition can be an exception type or tuple of exception
          types, in which case each exception is checked for a match
          using the same check that is used in an ‘except’ clause.  The
          condition can also be a callable (other than a type object)
          that accepts an exception as its single argument and returns
          true for the exceptions that should be in the subgroup.

          The nesting structure of the current exception is preserved in
          the result, as are the values of its *note message: 2912,
          *note __traceback__: 166b, *note __cause__: 166d, *note
          __context__: 166c. and *note __notes__: 28e0. fields.  Empty
          nested groups are omitted from the result.

          The condition is checked for all exceptions in the nested
          exception group, including the top-level and any nested
          exception groups.  If the condition is true for such an
          exception group, it is included in the result in full.

          Added in version 3.13: ‘condition’ can be any callable which
          is not a type object.

      -- Μέθοδος: split (condition)

          Like *note subgroup(): 1c40, but returns the pair ‘(match,
          rest)’ where ‘match’ is ‘subgroup(condition)’ and ‘rest’ is
          the remaining non-matching part.

      -- Μέθοδος: derive (excs)

          Returns an exception group with the same *note message: 2912,
          but which wraps the exceptions in ‘excs’.

          This method is used by *note subgroup(): 1c40. and *note
          split(): 1af9, which are used in various contexts to break up
          an exception group.  A subclass needs to override it in order
          to make ‘subgroup()’ and ‘split()’ return instances of the
          subclass rather than *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8.

          *note subgroup(): 1c40. and *note split(): 1af9. copy the
          *note __traceback__: 166b, *note __cause__: 166d, *note
          __context__: 166c. and *note __notes__: 28e0. fields from the
          original exception group to the one returned by ‘derive()’, so
          these fields do not need to be updated by ‘derive()’.

               >>> class MyGroup(ExceptionGroup):
               ...     def derive(self, excs):
               ...         return MyGroup(self.message, excs)
               ...
               >>> e = MyGroup("eg", [ValueError(1), TypeError(2)])
               >>> e.add_note("a note")
               >>> e.__context__ = Exception("context")
               >>> e.__cause__ = Exception("cause")
               >>> try:
               ...    raise e
               ... except Exception as e:
               ...    exc = e
               ...
               >>> match, rest = exc.split(ValueError)
               >>> exc, exc.__context__, exc.__cause__, exc.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [ValueError(1), TypeError(2)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> match, match.__context__, match.__cause__, match.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [ValueError(1)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> rest, rest.__context__, rest.__cause__, rest.__notes__
               (MyGroup('eg', [TypeError(2)]), Exception('context'), Exception('cause'), ['a note'])
               >>> exc.__traceback__ is match.__traceback__ is rest.__traceback__
               True

     Note that ‘BaseExceptionGroup’ defines *note __new__(): 982, so
     subclasses that need a different constructor signature need to
     override that rather than *note __init__(): 2fa.  For example, the
     following defines an exception group subclass which accepts an
     exit_code and constructs the group’s message from it.

          class Errors(ExceptionGroup):
             def __new__(cls, errors, exit_code):
                self = super().__new__(Errors, f"exit code: {exit_code}", errors)
                self.exit_code = exit_code
                return self

             def derive(self, excs):
                return Errors(excs, self.exit_code)

     Like *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8, any subclass of
     ‘BaseExceptionGroup’ which is also a subclass of *note Exception:
     d9e. can only wrap instances of ‘Exception’.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Exception hierarchy,  Prev: Exception groups,  Up: Built-in Exceptions

5.5.7 Exception hierarchy
-------------------------

The class hierarchy for built-in exceptions is:

     BaseException
      ├── BaseExceptionGroup
      ├── GeneratorExit
      ├── KeyboardInterrupt
      ├── SystemExit
      └── Exception
           ├── ArithmeticError
           │    ├── FloatingPointError
           │    ├── OverflowError
           │    └── ZeroDivisionError
           ├── AssertionError
           ├── AttributeError
           ├── BufferError
           ├── EOFError
           ├── ExceptionGroup [BaseExceptionGroup]
           ├── ImportError
           │    └── ImportCycleError
           │    └── ModuleNotFoundError
           ├── LookupError
           │    ├── IndexError
           │    └── KeyError
           ├── MemoryError
           ├── NameError
           │    └── UnboundLocalError
           ├── OSError
           │    ├── BlockingIOError
           │    ├── ChildProcessError
           │    ├── ConnectionError
           │    │    ├── BrokenPipeError
           │    │    ├── ConnectionAbortedError
           │    │    ├── ConnectionRefusedError
           │    │    └── ConnectionResetError
           │    ├── FileExistsError
           │    ├── FileNotFoundError
           │    ├── InterruptedError
           │    ├── IsADirectoryError
           │    ├── NotADirectoryError
           │    ├── PermissionError
           │    ├── ProcessLookupError
           │    └── TimeoutError
           ├── ReferenceError
           ├── RuntimeError
           │    ├── NotImplementedError
           │    ├── PythonFinalizationError
           │    └── RecursionError
           ├── StopAsyncIteration
           ├── StopIteration
           ├── SyntaxError
           │    └── IndentationError
           │         └── TabError
           ├── SystemError
           ├── TypeError
           ├── ValueError
           │    └── UnicodeError
           │         ├── UnicodeDecodeError
           │         ├── UnicodeEncodeError
           │         └── UnicodeTranslateError
           └── Warning
                ├── BytesWarning
                ├── DeprecationWarning
                ├── EncodingWarning
                ├── FutureWarning
                ├── ImportWarning
                ├── PendingDeprecationWarning
                ├── ResourceWarning
                ├── RuntimeWarning
                ├── SyntaxWarning
                ├── UnicodeWarning
                └── UserWarning


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Safety Guarantees,  Next: Text Processing Services,  Prev: Built-in Exceptions,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.6 Thread Safety Guarantees
============================

This page documents thread-safety guarantees for built-in types in
Python’s free-threaded build.  The guarantees described here apply when
using Python with the *note GIL: 411. disabled (free-threaded mode).
When the GIL is enabled, most operations are implicitly serialized.

For general guidance on writing thread-safe code in free-threaded
Python, see *note Python support for free threading: 2919.

* Menu:

* Thread safety levels::
* Thread safety for list objects::
* Thread safety for dict objects::
* Thread safety for set objects::
* Thread safety for bytearray objects::
* Thread safety for memoryview objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Thread safety levels,  Next: Thread safety for list objects,  Up: Thread Safety Guarantees

5.6.1 Thread safety levels
--------------------------

The C API documentation uses the following levels to describe the thread
safety guarantees of each function.  The levels are listed from least to
most safe.

* Menu:

* Incompatible::
* Compatible::
* Safe on distinct objects::
* Safe on shared objects::
* Atomic::


File: python.info,  Node: Incompatible,  Next: Compatible,  Up: Thread safety levels

5.6.1.1 Incompatible
....................

A function or operation that cannot be made safe for concurrent use even
with external synchronization.  Incompatible code typically accesses
global state in an unsynchronized way and must only be called from a
single thread throughout the program’s lifetime.

Example: a function that modifies process-wide state such as signal
handlers or environment variables, where concurrent calls from any
threads, even with external locking, can conflict with the runtime or
other libraries.


File: python.info,  Node: Compatible,  Next: Safe on distinct objects,  Prev: Incompatible,  Up: Thread safety levels

5.6.1.2 Compatible
..................

A function or operation that is safe to call from multiple threads
'provided' the caller supplies appropriate external synchronization, for
example by holding a *note lock: 2920. for the duration of each call.
Without such synchronization, concurrent calls may produce *note race
conditions: 2921. or *note data races: 2922.

Example: a function that reads from or writes to an object whose
internal state is not protected by a lock.  Callers must ensure that no
two threads access the same object at the same time.


File: python.info,  Node: Safe on distinct objects,  Next: Safe on shared objects,  Prev: Compatible,  Up: Thread safety levels

5.6.1.3 Safe on distinct objects
................................

A function or operation that is safe to call from multiple threads
without external synchronization, as long as each thread operates on a
'different' object.  Two threads may call the function at the same time,
but they must not pass the same object (or objects that share underlying
state) as arguments.

Example: a function that modifies fields of a struct using non-atomic
writes.  Two threads can each call the function on their own struct
instance safely, but concurrent calls on the 'same' instance require
external synchronization.


File: python.info,  Node: Safe on shared objects,  Next: Atomic,  Prev: Safe on distinct objects,  Up: Thread safety levels

5.6.1.4 Safe on shared objects
..............................

A function or operation that is safe for concurrent use on the 'same'
object.  The implementation uses internal synchronization (such as *note
per-object locks: 2927. or *note critical sections: 2928.) to protect
shared mutable state, so callers do not need to supply their own
locking.

Example: *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 7f4. can be called from multiple
threads on the same *note PyListObject: 2929. - it uses internal
synchronization to serialize access.


File: python.info,  Node: Atomic,  Prev: Safe on shared objects,  Up: Thread safety levels

5.6.1.5 Atomic
..............

A function or operation that appears *note atomic: 292c. with respect to
other threads - it executes instantaneously from the perspective of
other threads.  This is the strongest form of thread safety.

Example: *note PyMutex_IsLocked(): 676. performs an atomic read of the
mutex state and can be called from any thread at any time.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread safety for list objects,  Next: Thread safety for dict objects,  Prev: Thread safety levels,  Up: Thread Safety Guarantees

5.6.2 Thread safety for list objects
------------------------------------

Reading a single element from a *note list: 4d9. is *note atomic: 292c.:

     lst[i]   # list.__getitem__

The following methods traverse the list and use *note atomic: 292c.
reads of each item to perform their function.  That means that they may
return results affected by concurrent modifications:

     item in lst
     lst.index(item)
     lst.count(item)

All of the above operations avoid acquiring *note per-object locks:
2927.  They do not block concurrent modifications.  Other operations
that hold a lock will not block these from observing intermediate
states.

All other operations from here on block using the *note per-object lock:
2927.

Writing a single item via ‘lst[i] = x’ is safe to call from multiple
threads and will not corrupt the list.

The following operations return new objects and appear *note atomic:
292c. to other threads:

     lst1 + lst2    # concatenates two lists into a new list
     x * lst        # repeats lst x times into a new list
     lst.copy()     # returns a shallow copy of the list

The following methods that only operate on a single element with no
shifting required are *note atomic: 292c.:

     lst.append(x)  # append to the end of the list, no shifting required
     lst.pop()      # pop element from the end of the list, no shifting required

The *note clear(): 7f9. method is also *note atomic: 292c.  Other
threads cannot observe elements being removed.

The *note sort(): f8d. method is not *note atomic: 292c.  Other threads
cannot observe intermediate states during sorting, but the list appears
empty for the duration of the sort.

The following operations may allow *note lock-free: 292e. operations to
observe intermediate states since they modify multiple elements in
place:

     lst.insert(idx, item)  # shifts elements
     lst.pop(idx)           # idx not at the end of the list, shifts elements
     lst *= x               # copies elements in place

The *note remove(): 1c61. method may allow concurrent modifications
since element comparison may execute arbitrary Python code (via *note
__eq__(): ec0.).

*note extend(): 7f8. is safe to call from multiple threads.  However,
its guarantees depend on the iterable passed to it.  If it is a *note
list: 4d9, a *note tuple: 1ce, a *note set: 42b, a *note frozenset: 9d4,
a *note dict: 188. or a *note dictionary view object: 289e. (but not
their subclasses), the ‘extend’ operation is safe from concurrent
modifications to the iterable.  Otherwise, an iterator is created which
can be concurrently modified by another thread.  The same applies to
inplace concatenation of a list with other iterables when using ‘lst +=
iterable’.

Similarly, assigning to a list slice with ‘lst[i:j] = iterable’ is safe
to call from multiple threads, but ‘iterable’ is only locked when it is
also a *note list: 4d9. (but not its subclasses).

Operations that involve multiple accesses, as well as iteration, are
never atomic.  For example:

     # NOT atomic: read-modify-write
     lst[i] = lst[i] + 1

     # NOT atomic: check-then-act
     if lst:
         item = lst.pop()

     # NOT thread-safe: iteration while modifying
     for item in lst:
         process(item)  # another thread may modify lst

Consider external synchronization when sharing *note list: 4d9.
instances across threads.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread safety for dict objects,  Next: Thread safety for set objects,  Prev: Thread safety for list objects,  Up: Thread Safety Guarantees

5.6.3 Thread safety for dict objects
------------------------------------

Creating a dictionary with the *note dict: 188. constructor is atomic
when the argument to it is a ‘dict’ or a *note tuple: 1ce.  When using
the *note dict.fromkeys(): 4da. method, dictionary creation is atomic
when the argument is a ‘dict’, ‘tuple’, *note set: 42b. or *note
frozenset: 9d4.

The following operations and functions are *note lock-free: 292e. and
*note atomic: 292c.

     d[key]       # dict.__getitem__
     d.get(key)   # dict.get
     key in d     # dict.__contains__
     len(d)       # dict.__len__

All other operations from here on hold the *note per-object lock: 2927.

Writing or removing a single item is safe to call from multiple threads
and will not corrupt the dictionary:

     d[key] = value        # write
     del d[key]            # delete
     d.pop(key)            # remove and return
     d.popitem()           # remove and return last item
     d.setdefault(key, v)  # insert if missing

These operations may compare keys using *note __eq__(): ec0, which can
execute arbitrary Python code.  During such comparisons, the dictionary
may be modified by another thread.  For built-in types like *note str:
1df, *note int: 326, and *note float: 327, that implement ‘__eq__()’ in
C, the underlying lock is not released during comparisons and this is
not a concern.

The following operations return new objects and hold the *note
per-object lock: 2927. for the duration of the operation:

     d.copy()      # returns a shallow copy of the dictionary
     d | other     # merges two dicts into a new dict
     d.keys()      # returns a new dict_keys view object
     d.values()    # returns a new dict_values view object
     d.items()     # returns a new dict_items view object

The *note clear(): 1954. method holds the lock for its duration.  Other
threads cannot observe elements being removed.

The following operations lock both dictionaries.  For *note update():
1807. and ‘|=’, this applies only when the other operand is a *note
dict: 188. that uses the standard dict iterator (but not subclasses that
override iteration).  For equality comparison, this applies to ‘dict’
and its subclasses:

     d.update(other_dict)  # both locked when other_dict is a dict
     d |= other_dict       # both locked when other_dict is a dict
     d == other_dict       # both locked for dict and subclasses

All comparison operations also compare values using *note __eq__(): ec0,
so for non-built-in types the lock may be released during comparison.

*note fromkeys(): 4da. locks both the new dictionary and the iterable
when the iterable is exactly a *note dict: 188, *note set: 42b, or *note
frozenset: 9d4. (not subclasses):

     dict.fromkeys(a_dict)      # locks both
     dict.fromkeys(a_set)       # locks both
     dict.fromkeys(a_frozenset) # locks both

When updating from a non-dict iterable, only the target dictionary is
locked.  The iterable may be concurrently modified by another thread:

     d.update(iterable)        # iterable is not a dict: only d locked
     d |= iterable             # iterable is not a dict: only d locked
     dict.fromkeys(iterable)   # iterable is not a dict/set/frozenset: only result locked

Operations that involve multiple accesses, as well as iteration, are
never atomic:

     # NOT atomic: read-modify-write
     d[key] = d[key] + 1

     # NOT atomic: check-then-act (TOCTOU)
     if key in d:
         del d[key]

     # NOT thread-safe: iteration while modifying
     for key, value in d.items():
         process(key)  # another thread may modify d

To avoid time-of-check to time-of-use (TOCTOU) issues, use atomic
operations or handle exceptions:

     # Use pop() with default instead of check-then-delete
     d.pop(key, None)

     # Or handle the exception
     try:
         del d[key]
     except KeyError:
         pass

To safely iterate over a dictionary that may be modified by another
thread, iterate over a copy:

     # Make a copy to iterate safely
     for key, value in d.copy().items():
         process(key)

Consider external synchronization when sharing *note dict: 188.
instances across threads.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread safety for set objects,  Next: Thread safety for bytearray objects,  Prev: Thread safety for dict objects,  Up: Thread Safety Guarantees

5.6.4 Thread safety for set objects
-----------------------------------

The *note len(): a1f. function is lock-free and *note atomic: 292c.

The following read operation is lock-free.  It does not block concurrent
modifications and may observe intermediate states from operations that
hold the per-object lock:

     elem in s    # set.__contains__

This operation may compare elements using *note __eq__(): ec0, which can
execute arbitrary Python code.  During such comparisons, the set may be
modified by another thread.  For built-in types like *note str: 1df,
*note int: 326, and *note float: 327, ‘__eq__()’ does not release the
underlying lock during comparisons and this is not a concern.

All other operations from here on hold the per-object lock.

Adding or removing a single element is safe to call from multiple
threads and will not corrupt the set:

     s.add(elem)      # add element
     s.remove(elem)   # remove element, raise if missing
     s.discard(elem)  # remove element if present
     s.pop()          # remove and return arbitrary element

These operations also compare elements, so the same *note __eq__(): ec0.
considerations as above apply.

The *note copy(): 2896. method returns a new object and holds the
per-object lock for the duration so that it is always atomic.

The *note clear(): 289b. method holds the lock for its duration.  Other
threads cannot observe elements being removed.

The following operations only accept *note set: 42b. or *note frozenset:
9d4. as operands and always lock both objects:

     s |= other                   # other must be set/frozenset
     s &= other                   # other must be set/frozenset
     s -= other                   # other must be set/frozenset
     s ^= other                   # other must be set/frozenset
     s & other                    # other must be set/frozenset
     s | other                    # other must be set/frozenset
     s - other                    # other must be set/frozenset
     s ^ other                    # other must be set/frozenset

*note set.update(): 2897, *note set.union(): 2890, *note
set.intersection(): 1d80. and *note set.difference(): 2892. can take
multiple iterables as arguments.  They all iterate through all the
passed iterables and do the following:

        * 
          *note set.update(): 2897. and *note set.union(): 2890. lock both objects only when

               the other operand is a *note set: 42b, *note frozenset:
               9d4, or *note dict: 188.

        * 
          *note set.intersection(): 1d80. and *note set.difference(): 2892. always try to lock

               all objects.

*note set.symmetric_difference(): 2894. tries to lock both objects.

The update variants of the above methods also have some differences
between them:

        * 
          *note set.difference_update(): 2898. and *note set.intersection_update(): 1827. try

               to lock all objects one-by-one.

        * 
          *note set.symmetric_difference_update(): 1828. only locks the arguments if it is

               of type *note set: 42b, *note frozenset: 9d4, or *note
               dict: 188.

The following methods always try to lock both objects:

     s.isdisjoint(other)          # both locked
     s.issubset(other)            # both locked
     s.issuperset(other)          # both locked

Operations that involve multiple accesses, as well as iteration, are
never atomic:

     # NOT atomic: check-then-act
     if elem in s:
           s.remove(elem)

     # NOT thread-safe: iteration while modifying
     for elem in s:
           process(elem)  # another thread may modify s

Consider external synchronization when sharing *note set: 42b. instances
across threads.  See *note Python support for free threading: 2919. for
more information.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread safety for bytearray objects,  Next: Thread safety for memoryview objects,  Prev: Thread safety for set objects,  Up: Thread Safety Guarantees

5.6.5 Thread safety for bytearray objects
-----------------------------------------

     The *note len(): a1f. function is lock-free and *note atomic: 292c.

     Concatenation and comparisons use the buffer protocol, which
     prevents resizing but does not hold the per-object lock.  These
     operations may observe intermediate states from concurrent
     modifications:

          ba + other    # may observe concurrent writes
          ba == other   # may observe concurrent writes
          ba < other    # may observe concurrent writes

     All other operations from here on hold the per-object lock.

     Reading a single element or slice is safe to call from multiple
     threads:

          ba[i]        # bytearray.__getitem__
          ba[i:j]      # slice

     The following operations are safe to call from multiple threads and
     will not corrupt the bytearray:

          ba[i] = x         # write single byte
          ba[i:j] = values  # write slice
          ba.append(x)      # append single byte
          ba.extend(other)  # extend with iterable
          ba.insert(i, x)   # insert single byte
          ba.pop()          # remove and return last byte
          ba.pop(i)         # remove and return byte at index
          ba.remove(x)      # remove first occurrence
          ba.reverse()      # reverse in place
          ba.clear()        # remove all bytes

     Slice assignment locks both objects when 'values' is a *note
     bytearray: 1c6.:

          ba[i:j] = other_bytearray  # both locked

     The following operations return new objects and hold the per-object
     lock for the duration:

          ba.copy()     # returns a shallow copy
          ba * n        # repeat into new bytearray

     The membership test holds the lock for its duration:

          x in ba       # bytearray.__contains__

     All other bytearray methods (such as *note find(): 1746, *note
     replace(): 285c, *note split(): 1999, *note decode(): 2859, etc.)
     hold the per-object lock for their duration.

     Operations that involve multiple accesses, as well as iteration,
     are never atomic:

          # NOT atomic: check-then-act
          if x in ba:
              ba.remove(x)

          # NOT thread-safe: iteration while modifying
          for byte in ba:
              process(byte)  # another thread may modify ba

     To safely iterate over a bytearray that may be modified by another
     thread, iterate over a copy:

          # Make a copy to iterate safely
          for byte in ba.copy():
              process(byte)

     Consider external synchronization when sharing *note bytearray:
     1c6. instances across threads.  See *note Python support for free
     threading: 2919. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread safety for memoryview objects,  Prev: Thread safety for bytearray objects,  Up: Thread Safety Guarantees

5.6.6 Thread safety for memoryview objects
------------------------------------------

*note memoryview: 1d2. objects provide access to the internal data of an
underlying object without copying.  Thread safety depends on both the
memoryview itself and the underlying buffer exporter.

The memoryview implementation uses atomic operations to track its own
exports in the *note free-threaded build: 198.  Creating and releasing a
memoryview are thread-safe.  Attribute access (e.g., *note shape: 2883,
*note format: 287a.) reads fields that are immutable for the lifetime of
the memoryview, so concurrent reads are safe as long as the memoryview
has not been released.

However, the actual data accessed through the memoryview is owned by the
underlying object.  Concurrent access to this data is only safe if the
underlying object supports it:

   * For immutable objects like *note bytes: 1c7, concurrent reads
     through multiple memoryviews are safe.

   * For mutable objects like *note bytearray: 1c6, reading and writing
     the same memory region from multiple threads without external
     synchronization is not safe and may result in data corruption.
     Note that even read-only memoryviews of mutable objects do not
     prevent data races if the underlying object is modified from
     another thread.

     # NOT safe: concurrent writes to the same buffer
     data = bytearray(1000)
     view = memoryview(data)
     # Thread 1: view[0:500] = b'x' * 500
     # Thread 2: view[0:500] = b'y' * 500

     # Safe: use a lock for concurrent access
     import threading
     lock = threading.Lock()
     data = bytearray(1000)
     view = memoryview(data)

     with lock:
         view[0:500] = b'x' * 500

Resizing or reallocating the underlying object (such as calling *note
bytearray.resize(): 1928.) while a memoryview is exported raises *note
BufferError: 1998.  This is enforced regardless of threading.


File: python.info,  Node: Text Processing Services,  Next: Υπηρεσίες Δυαδικών Δεδομένων,  Prev: Thread Safety Guarantees,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.7 Text Processing Services
============================

The modules described in this chapter provide a wide range of string
manipulation operations and other text processing services.

The *note codecs: 1c. module described under *note Υπηρεσίες Δυαδικών
Δεδομένων: 2936. is also highly relevant to text processing.  In
addition, see the documentation for Python’s built-in string type in
*note Τύπος Ακολουθίας (Sequence) Κειμένου — str: 21cd.

* Menu:

* string — Common string operations::
* string.templatelib — Support for template string literals: string templatelib — Support for template string literals.
* re — Regular expression operations::
* difflib — Helpers for computing deltas::
* textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου::
* unicodedata — Unicode Database::
* stringprep — Internet String Preparation::
* readline — GNU readline interface::
* rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline::


File: python.info,  Node: string — Common string operations,  Next: string templatelib — Support for template string literals,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.7.1 ‘string’ — Common string operations
-----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/string/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Τύπος Ακολουθίας (Sequence) Κειμένου — str: 21cd.

*note Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς (String): 21ce.

* Menu:

* String constants::
* Custom string formatting::
* Format string syntax::
* Template strings ($-strings): Template strings $-strings.
* Helper functions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/string/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: String constants,  Next: Custom string formatting,  Up: string — Common string operations

5.7.1.1 String constants
........................

The constants defined in this module are:

 -- Δεδομένα: string.ascii_letters

     The concatenation of the *note ascii_lowercase: 293a. and *note
     ascii_uppercase: 293b. constants described below.  This value is
     not locale-dependent.

 -- Δεδομένα: string.ascii_lowercase

     The lowercase letters ‘'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'’.  This value
     is not locale-dependent and will not change.

 -- Δεδομένα: string.ascii_uppercase

     The uppercase letters ‘'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'’.  This value
     is not locale-dependent and will not change.

 -- Δεδομένα: string.digits

     The string ‘'0123456789'’.

 -- Δεδομένα: string.hexdigits

     The string ‘'0123456789abcdefABCDEF'’.

 -- Δεδομένα: string.octdigits

     The string ‘'01234567'’.

 -- Δεδομένα: string.punctuation

     String of ASCII characters which are considered punctuation
     characters in the ‘C’ locale: ‘!"#$%&'()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\]^_`{|}~’.

 -- Δεδομένα: string.printable

     String of ASCII characters which are considered printable by
     Python.  This is a combination of *note digits: 293c, *note
     ascii_letters: 1668, *note punctuation: 293f, and *note whitespace:
     2940.

          Σημείωση: By design, *note string.printable.isprintable():
          1191. returns *note False: ef5.  In particular,
          ‘string.printable’ is not printable in the POSIX sense (see
          ‘LC_CTYPE(1)’).

 -- Δεδομένα: string.whitespace

     A string containing all ASCII characters that are considered
     whitespace.  This includes the characters space, tab, linefeed,
     return, formfeed, and vertical tab.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/locale(5)


File: python.info,  Node: Custom string formatting,  Next: Format string syntax,  Prev: String constants,  Up: string — Common string operations

5.7.1.2 Custom string formatting
................................

The built-in string class provides the ability to do complex variable
substitutions and value formatting via the *note format(): a12. method
described in PEP 3101(1).  The *note Formatter: 126b. class in the
‘string’ module allows you to create and customize your own string
formatting behaviors using the same implementation as the built-in
‘format()’ method.

 -- Κλάση: string.Formatter

     The ‘Formatter’ class has the following public methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: format (format_string, /, *args, **kwargs)

          The primary API method.  It takes a format string and an
          arbitrary set of positional and keyword arguments.  It is just
          a wrapper that calls *note vformat(): 2942.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: A format string argument is now *note
          positional-only: e47.

      -- Μέθοδος: vformat (format_string, args, kwargs)

          This function does the actual work of formatting.  It is
          exposed as a separate function for cases where you want to
          pass in a predefined dictionary of arguments, rather than
          unpacking and repacking the dictionary as individual arguments
          using the ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ syntax.  ‘vformat()’ does the
          work of breaking up the format string into character data and
          replacement fields.  It calls the various methods described
          below.

     In addition, the ‘Formatter’ defines a number of methods that are
     intended to be replaced by subclasses:

      -- Μέθοδος: parse (format_string)

          Loop over the format_string and return an iterable of tuples
          ('literal_text', 'field_name', 'format_spec', 'conversion').
          This is used by *note vformat(): 2942. to break the string
          into either literal text, or replacement fields.

          The values in the tuple conceptually represent a span of
          literal text followed by a single replacement field.  If there
          is no literal text (which can happen if two replacement fields
          occur consecutively), then 'literal_text' will be a
          zero-length string.  If there is no replacement field, then
          the values of 'field_name', 'format_spec' and 'conversion'
          will be ‘None’.  The value of 'field_name' is unmodified and
          auto-numbering of non-numbered positional fields is done by
          *note vformat(): 2942.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_field (field_name, args, kwargs)

          Given 'field_name', convert it to an object to be formatted.
          Auto-numbering of 'field_name' returned from *note parse():
          2943. is done by *note vformat(): 2942. before calling this
          method.  Returns a tuple (obj, used_key).  The default version
          takes strings of the form defined in PEP 3101(2), such as
          «0[name]» or «label.title».  'args' and 'kwargs' are as passed
          in to ‘vformat()’.  The return value 'used_key' has the same
          meaning as the 'key' parameter to *note get_value(): 2945.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_value (key, args, kwargs)

          Retrieve a given field value.  The 'key' argument will be
          either an integer or a string.  If it is an integer, it
          represents the index of the positional argument in 'args'; if
          it is a string, then it represents a named argument in
          'kwargs'.

          The 'args' parameter is set to the list of positional
          arguments to *note vformat(): 2942, and the 'kwargs' parameter
          is set to the dictionary of keyword arguments.

          For compound field names, these functions are only called for
          the first component of the field name; subsequent components
          are handled through normal attribute and indexing operations.

          So for example, the field expression “0.name” would cause
          ‘get_value()’ to be called with a 'key' argument of 0.  The
          ‘name’ attribute will be looked up after ‘get_value()’ returns
          by calling the built-in *note getattr(): f8f. function.

          If the index or keyword refers to an item that does not exist,
          then an *note IndexError: 18d7. or *note KeyError: 7df. should
          be raised.

      -- Μέθοδος: check_unused_args (used_args, args, kwargs)

          Implement checking for unused arguments if desired.  The
          arguments to this function is the set of all argument keys
          that were actually referred to in the format string (integers
          for positional arguments, and strings for named arguments),
          and a reference to the 'args' and 'kwargs' that was passed to
          vformat.  The set of unused args can be calculated from these
          parameters.  ‘check_unused_args()’ is assumed to raise an
          exception if the check fails.

      -- Μέθοδος: format_field (value, format_spec)

          ‘format_field()’ simply calls the global *note format(): 439.
          built-in.  The method is provided so that subclasses can
          override it.

      -- Μέθοδος: convert_field (value, conversion)

          Converts the value (returned by *note get_field(): 2944.)
          given a conversion type (as in the tuple returned by the *note
          parse(): 2943. method).  The default version understands “s”
          (str), “r” (repr) and “a” (ascii) conversion types.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/


File: python.info,  Node: Format string syntax,  Next: Template strings $-strings,  Prev: Custom string formatting,  Up: string — Common string operations

5.7.1.3 Format string syntax
............................

The *note str.format(): a12. method and the *note Formatter: 126b. class
share the same syntax for format strings (although in the case of
‘Formatter’, subclasses can define their own format string syntax).  The
syntax is related to that of *note formatted string literals: 43a. and
*note template string literals: 1a50, but it is less sophisticated and,
in particular, does not support arbitrary expressions in interpolations.

Format strings contain «replacement fields» surrounded by curly braces
‘{}’.  Anything that is not contained in braces is considered literal
text, which is copied unchanged to the output.  If you need to include a
brace character in the literal text, it can be escaped by doubling: ‘{{’
and ‘}}’.

The grammar for a replacement field is as follows:

     replacement_field: "{" [*note field_name: 294b.] ["!" *note conversion: 294c.] [":" *note format_spec: 294d.] "}"
     field_name:        *note arg_name: 294e. ("." *note attribute_name: 294f. | "[" *note element_index: 2950. "]")*
     arg_name:          [*note identifier: 24b2. | *note digit: 2503.+]
     attribute_name:    *note identifier: 24b2.
     element_index:     *note digit: 2503.+ | *note index_string: 2951.
     index_string:      <any source character except "]"> +
     conversion:        "r" | "s" | "a"
     format_spec:       *note format-spec;format_spec: 2952.

In less formal terms, the replacement field can start with a
'field_name' that specifies the object whose value is to be formatted
and inserted into the output instead of the replacement field.  The
'field_name' is optionally followed by a 'conversion' field, which is
preceded by an exclamation point ‘'!'’, and a 'format_spec', which is
preceded by a colon ‘':'’.  These specify a non-default format for the
replacement value.

See also the *note Format specification mini-language: 6fe. section.

The 'field_name' itself begins with an 'arg_name' that is either a
number or a keyword.  If it’s a number, it refers to a positional
argument, and if it’s a keyword, it refers to a named keyword argument.
An 'arg_name' is treated as a number if a call to *note str.isdecimal():
2821. on the string would return true.  If the numerical arg_names in a
format string are 0, 1, 2, … in sequence, they can all be omitted (not
just some) and the numbers 0, 1, 2, … will be automatically inserted in
that order.  Because 'arg_name' is not quote-delimited, it is not
possible to specify arbitrary dictionary keys (e.g., the strings ‘'10'’
or ‘':-]'’) within a format string.  The 'arg_name' can be followed by
any number of index or attribute expressions.  An expression of the form
‘'.name'’ selects the named attribute using *note getattr(): f8f, while
an expression of the form ‘'[index]'’ does an index lookup using *note
__getitem__(): 787.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: The positional argument specifiers can be
omitted for *note str.format(): a12, so ‘'{} {}'.format(a, b)’ is
equivalent to ‘'{0} {1}'.format(a, b)’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The positional argument specifiers can be
omitted for *note Formatter: 126b.

Some simple format string examples:

     "First, thou shalt count to {0}"  # References first positional argument
     "Bring me a {}"                   # Implicitly references the first positional argument
     "From {} to {}"                   # Same as "From {0} to {1}"
     "My quest is {name}"              # References keyword argument 'name'
     "Weight in tons {0.weight}"       # 'weight' attribute of first positional arg
     "Units destroyed: {players[0]}"   # First element of keyword argument 'players'.
The 'conversion' field causes a type coercion before formatting.
Normally, the job of formatting a value is done by the *note
__format__(): a10. method of the value itself.  However, in some cases
it is desirable to force a type to be formatted as a string, overriding
its own definition of formatting.  By converting the value to a string
before calling ‘__format__()’, the normal formatting logic is bypassed.

Three conversion flags are currently supported: ‘'!s'’ which calls *note
str(): 1df. on the value, ‘'!r'’ which calls *note repr(): 45b. and
‘'!a'’ which calls *note ascii(): 1789.

Some examples:

     "Harold's a clever {0!s}"        # Calls str() on the argument first
     "Bring out the holy {name!r}"    # Calls repr() on the argument first
     "More {!a}"                      # Calls ascii() on the argument first

The 'format_spec' field contains a specification of how the value should
be presented, including such details as field width, alignment, padding,
decimal precision and so on.  Each value type can define its own
«formatting mini-language» or interpretation of the 'format_spec'.

Most built-in types support a common formatting mini-language, which is
described in the next section.

A 'format_spec' field can also include nested replacement fields within
it.  These nested replacement fields may contain a field name,
conversion flag and format specification, but deeper nesting is not
allowed.  The replacement fields within the format_spec are substituted
before the 'format_spec' string is interpreted.  This allows the
formatting of a value to be dynamically specified.

See the *note Format examples: 2954. section for some examples.

* Menu:

* Format specification mini-language::
* Format examples::


File: python.info,  Node: Format specification mini-language,  Next: Format examples,  Up: Format string syntax

5.7.1.4 Format specification mini-language
..........................................

«Format specifications» are used within replacement fields contained
within a format string to define how individual values are presented
(see *note Format string syntax: 173f, *note f-strings: 43a, and *note
t-strings: 1a50.).  They can also be passed directly to the built-in
*note format(): 439. function.  Each formattable type may define how the
format specification is to be interpreted.

Most built-in types implement the following options for format
specifications, although some of the formatting options are only
supported by the numeric types.

A general convention is that an empty format specification produces the
same result as if you had called *note str(): 1df. on the value.  A
non-empty format specification typically modifies the result.

The general form of a 'standard format specifier' is:

     format_spec:             [*note options: 2956.][*note width_and_precision: 2957.][*note type: 2958.]
     options:                 [[*note fill: 2959.]*note align: 295a.][*note sign: 295b.]["z"]["#"]["0"]
     fill:                    <any character>
     align:                   "<" | ">" | "=" | "^"
     sign:                    "+" | "-" | " "
     width_and_precision:     [*note width_with_grouping: 295c.][*note precision_with_grouping: 295d.]
     width_with_grouping:     [*note width: 295e.][*note grouping: 295f.]
     precision_with_grouping: "." [*note precision: 2960.][*note grouping: 295f.] | "." *note grouping: 295f.
     width:                   *note digit: 2503.+
     precision:               *note digit: 2503.+
     grouping:                "," | "_"
     type:                    "b" | "c" | "d" | "e" | "E" | "f" | "F" | "g"
                              | "G" | "n" | "o" | "s" | "x" | "X" | "%"

If a valid 'align' value is specified, it can be preceded by a 'fill'
character that can be any character and defaults to a space if omitted.
It is not possible to use a literal curly brace (»‘{’» or «‘}’») as the
'fill' character in a *note formatted string literal: 43a. or when using
the *note str.format(): a12. method.  However, it is possible to insert
a curly brace with a nested replacement field.  This limitation doesn’t
affect the *note format(): 439. function.

The meaning of the various alignment options is as follows:

Option        Meaning
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'<'’         Forces the field to be left-aligned within the available
              space (this is the default for most objects).
              
              
‘'>'’         Forces the field to be right-aligned within the available
              space (this is the default for numbers).
              
              
‘'='’         Forces the padding to be placed after the sign (if any) but
              before the digits.  This is used for printing fields in the
              form “+000000120”.  This alignment option is only valid for
              numeric types, excluding *note complex: 328.  It becomes the
              default for numbers when “0” immediately precedes the field
              width.
              
              
‘'^'’         Forces the field to be centered within the available space.
              

Note that unless a minimum field width is defined, the field width will
always be the same size as the data to fill it, so that the alignment
option has no meaning in this case.

The 'sign' option is only valid for number types, and can be one of the
following:

Option        Meaning
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘'+'’         Indicates that a sign should be used for both positive as
              well as negative numbers.
              
              
‘'-'’         Indicates that a sign should be used only for negative
              numbers (this is the default behavior).
              
              
space         Indicates that a leading space should be used on positive
              numbers, and a minus sign on negative numbers.
              

The ‘'z'’ option coerces negative zero floating-point values to positive
zero after rounding to the format precision.  This option is only valid
for floating-point presentation types.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the ‘'z'’ option (see also PEP 682(1)).

The ‘'#'’ option causes the «alternate form» to be used for the
conversion.  The alternate form is defined differently for different
types.  This option is only valid for integer, float and complex types.
For integers, when binary, octal, or hexadecimal output is used, this
option adds the respective prefix ‘'0b'’, ‘'0o'’, ‘'0x'’, or ‘'0X'’ to
the output value.  For float and complex the alternate form causes the
result of the conversion to always contain a decimal-point character,
even if no digits follow it.  Normally, a decimal-point character
appears in the result of these conversions only if a digit follows it.
In addition, for ‘'g'’ and ‘'G'’ conversions, trailing zeros are not
removed from the result.

The 'width' is a decimal integer defining the minimum total field width,
including any prefixes, separators, and other formatting characters.  If
not specified, then the field width will be determined by the content.

When no explicit alignment is given, preceding the 'width' field by a
zero (‘'0'’) character enables sign-aware zero-padding for numeric
types, excluding *note complex: 328.  This is equivalent to a 'fill'
character of ‘'0'’ with an 'alignment' type of ‘'='’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Preceding the 'width' field by ‘'0'’ no longer
affects the default alignment for strings.

The 'precision' is a decimal integer indicating how many digits should
be displayed after the decimal point for presentation types ‘'f'’ and
‘'F'’, or before and after the decimal point for presentation types
‘'g'’ or ‘'G'’.  For string presentation types the field indicates the
maximum field size - in other words, how many characters will be used
from the field content.  The 'precision' is not allowed for integer
presentation types.

The 'grouping' option after 'width' and 'precision' fields specifies a
digit group separator for the integral and fractional parts of a number
respectively.  It can be one of the following:

Option        Meaning
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
‘','’         Inserts a comma every 3 digits for integer presentation type
              ‘'d'’ and floating-point presentation types, excluding
              ‘'n'’.  For other presentation types, this option is not
              supported.
              
              
‘'_'’         Inserts an underscore every 3 digits for integer
              presentation type ‘'d'’ and floating-point presentation
              types, excluding ‘'n'’.  For integer presentation types
              ‘'b'’, ‘'o'’, ‘'x'’, and ‘'X'’, underscores are inserted
              every 4 digits.  For other presentation types, this option
              is not supported.
              

For a locale aware separator, use the ‘'n'’ presentation type instead.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added the ‘','’ option (see also PEP 378(2)).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the ‘'_'’ option (see also PEP 515(3)).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Support the 'grouping' option for the
fractional part.

Finally, the 'type' determines how the data should be presented.

The available string presentation types are:

     Type          Meaning
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'s'’         String format.  This is the default type for strings and may
                   be omitted.
                   
                   
     None          The same as ‘'s'’.
                   

The available integer presentation types are:

     Type          Meaning
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'b'’         Binary format.  Outputs the number in base 2.
                   
                   
     ‘'c'’         Character.  Converts the integer to the corresponding
                   unicode character before printing.
                   
                   
     ‘'d'’         Decimal Integer.  Outputs the number in base 10.
                   
                   
     ‘'o'’         Octal format.  Outputs the number in base 8.
                   
                   
     ‘'x'’         Hex format.  Outputs the number in base 16, using lower-case
                   letters for the digits above 9.
                   
                   
     ‘'X'’         Hex format.  Outputs the number in base 16, using upper-case
                   letters for the digits above 9.  In case ‘'#'’ is specified,
                   the prefix ‘'0x'’ will be upper-cased to ‘'0X'’ as well.
                   
                   
     ‘'n'’         Number.  This is the same as ‘'d'’, except that it uses the
                   current locale setting to insert the appropriate digit group
                   separators.
                   
                   
     None          The same as ‘'d'’.
                   

In addition to the above presentation types, integers can be formatted
with the floating-point presentation types listed below (except ‘'n'’
and ‘None’).  When doing so, *note float(): 327. is used to convert the
integer to a floating-point number before formatting.

The available presentation types for *note float: 327. and *note
Decimal: 1c2. values are:

     Type          Meaning
                   
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
     ‘'e'’         Scientific notation.  For a given precision ‘p’, formats the
                   number in scientific notation with the letter “e” separating
                   the coefficient from the exponent.  The coefficient has one
                   digit before and ‘p’ digits after the decimal point, for a
                   total of ‘p + 1’ significant digits.  With no precision
                   given, uses a precision of ‘6’ digits after the decimal
                   point for *note float: 327, and shows all coefficient digits
                   for *note Decimal: 1c2.  If ‘p=0’, the decimal point is
                   omitted unless the ‘#’ option is used.
                   
                   For *note float: 327, the exponent always contains at least
                   two digits, and is zero if the value is zero.
                   
                   
     ‘'E'’         Scientific notation.  Same as ‘'e'’ except it uses an upper
                   case “E” as the separator character.
                   
                   
     ‘'f'’         Fixed-point notation.  For a given precision ‘p’, formats
                   the number as a decimal number with exactly ‘p’ digits
                   following the decimal point.  With no precision given, uses
                   a precision of ‘6’ digits after the decimal point for
                   *note float: 327, and uses a precision large enough to show
                   all coefficient digits for *note Decimal: 1c2.  If ‘p=0’,
                   the decimal point is omitted unless the ‘#’ option is used.
                   
                   
     ‘'F'’         Fixed-point notation.  Same as ‘'f'’, but converts ‘nan’ to
                   ‘NAN’ and ‘inf’ to ‘INF’.
                   
                   
     ‘'g'’         General format.  For a given precision ‘p >= 1’, this rounds
                   the number to ‘p’ significant digits and then formats the
                   result in either fixed-point format or in scientific
                   notation, depending on its magnitude.  A precision of ‘0’ is
                   treated as equivalent to a precision of ‘1’.
                   
                   The precise rules are as follows: suppose that the result
                   formatted with presentation type ‘'e'’ and precision ‘p-1’
                   would have exponent ‘exp’.  Then, if ‘m <= exp < p’, where
                   ‘m’ is -4 for floats and -6 for *note Decimals: 1c2, the
                   number is formatted with presentation type ‘'f'’ and
                   precision ‘p-1-exp’.  Otherwise, the number is formatted
                   with presentation type ‘'e'’ and precision ‘p-1’.  In both
                   cases insignificant trailing zeros are removed from the
                   significand, and the decimal point is also removed if there
                   are no remaining digits following it, unless the ‘'#'’
                   option is used.
                   
                   With no precision given, uses a precision of ‘6’ significant
                   digits for *note float: 327.  For *note Decimal: 1c2, the
                   coefficient of the result is formed from the coefficient
                   digits of the value; scientific notation is used for values
                   smaller than ‘1e-6’ in absolute value and values where the
                   place value of the least significant digit is larger than 1,
                   and fixed-point notation is used otherwise.
                   
                   Positive and negative infinity, positive and negative zero,
                   and nans, are formatted as ‘inf’, ‘-inf’, ‘0’, ‘-0’ and
                   ‘nan’ respectively, regardless of the precision.
                   
                   
     ‘'G'’         General format.  Same as ‘'g'’ except switches to ‘'E'’ if
                   the number gets too large.  The representations of infinity
                   and NaN are uppercased, too.
                   
                   
     ‘'n'’         Number.  This is the same as ‘'g'’, except that it uses the
                   current locale setting to insert the appropriate digit group
                   separators for the integral part of a number.
                   
                   
     ‘'%'’         Percentage.  Multiplies the number by 100 and displays in
                   fixed (‘'f'’) format, followed by a percent sign.
                   
                   
     None          For *note float: 327. this is like the ‘'g'’ type, except
                   that when fixed-point notation is used to format the result,
                   it always includes at least one digit past the decimal
                   point, and switches to the scientific notation when ‘exp >=
                   p - 1’.  When the precision is not specified, the latter
                   will be as large as needed to represent the given value
                   faithfully.
                   
                   For *note Decimal: 1c2, this is the same as either ‘'g'’ or
                   ‘'G'’ depending on the value of ‘context.capitals’ for the
                   current decimal context.
                   
                   The overall effect is to match the output of
                   *note str(): 1df. as altered by the other format modifiers.
                   

The result should be correctly rounded to a given precision ‘p’ of
digits after the decimal point.  The rounding mode for *note float: 327.
matches that of the *note round(): 167f. builtin.  For *note Decimal:
1c2, the rounding mode of the current *note context: 2961. will be used.

The available presentation types for *note complex: 328. are the same as
those for *note float: 327. (‘'%'’ is not allowed).  Both the real and
imaginary components of a complex number are formatted as floating-point
numbers, according to the specified presentation type.  They are
separated by the mandatory sign of the imaginary part, the latter being
terminated by a ‘j’ suffix.  If the presentation type is missing, the
result will match the output of *note str(): 1df. (complex numbers with
a non-zero real part are also surrounded by parentheses), possibly
altered by other format modifiers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0682/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: Format examples,  Prev: Format specification mini-language,  Up: Format string syntax

5.7.1.5 Format examples
.......................

This section contains examples of the *note str.format(): a12. syntax
and comparison with the old ‘%’-formatting.

In most of the cases the syntax is similar to the old ‘%’-formatting,
with the addition of the ‘{}’ and with ‘:’ used instead of ‘%’.  For
example, ‘'%03.2f'’ can be translated to ‘'{:03.2f}'’.

The new format syntax also supports new and different options, shown in
the following examples.

Accessing arguments by position:

     >>> '{0}, {1}, {2}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
     'a, b, c'
     >>> '{}, {}, {}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')  # 3.1+ only
     'a, b, c'
     >>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format('a', 'b', 'c')
     'c, b, a'
     >>> '{2}, {1}, {0}'.format(*'abc')      # unpacking argument sequence
     'c, b, a'
     >>> '{0}{1}{0}'.format('abra', 'cad')   # arguments' indices can be repeated
     'abracadabra'

Accessing arguments by name:

     >>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(latitude='37.24N', longitude='-115.81W')
     'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'
     >>> coord = {'latitude': '37.24N', 'longitude': '-115.81W'}
     >>> 'Coordinates: {latitude}, {longitude}'.format(**coord)
     'Coordinates: 37.24N, -115.81W'

Accessing arguments” attributes:

     >>> c = 3-5j
     >>> ('The complex number {0} is formed from the real part {0.real} '
     ...  'and the imaginary part {0.imag}.').format(c)
     'The complex number (3-5j) is formed from the real part 3.0 and the imaginary part -5.0.'
     >>> class Point:
     ...     def __init__(self, x, y):
     ...         self.x, self.y = x, y
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'Point({self.x}, {self.y})'.format(self=self)
     ...
     >>> str(Point(4, 2))
     'Point(4, 2)'

Accessing arguments” items:

     >>> coord = (3, 5)
     >>> 'X: {0[0]};  Y: {0[1]}'.format(coord)
     'X: 3;  Y: 5'

Replacing ‘%s’ and ‘%r’:

     >>> "repr() shows quotes: {!r}; str() doesn't: {!s}".format('test1', 'test2')
     "repr() shows quotes: 'test1'; str() doesn't: test2"

Aligning the text and specifying a width:

     >>> '{:<30}'.format('left aligned')
     'left aligned                  '
     >>> '{:>30}'.format('right aligned')
     '                 right aligned'
     >>> '{:^30}'.format('centered')
     '           centered           '
     >>> '{:*^30}'.format('centered')  # use '*' as a fill char
     '***********centered***********'

Replacing ‘%+f’, ‘%-f’, and ‘% f’ and specifying a sign:

     >>> '{:+f}; {:+f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show it always
     '+3.140000; -3.140000'
     >>> '{: f}; {: f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show a space for positive numbers
     ' 3.140000; -3.140000'
     >>> '{:-f}; {:-f}'.format(3.14, -3.14)  # show only the minus -- same as '{:f}; {:f}'
     '3.140000; -3.140000'

Replacing ‘%x’ and ‘%o’ and converting the value to different bases:

     >>> # format also supports binary numbers
     >>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:x};  oct: {0:o};  bin: {0:b}".format(42)
     'int: 42;  hex: 2a;  oct: 52;  bin: 101010'
     >>> # with 0x, 0o, or 0b as prefix:
     >>> "int: {0:d};  hex: {0:#x};  oct: {0:#o};  bin: {0:#b}".format(42)
     'int: 42;  hex: 0x2a;  oct: 0o52;  bin: 0b101010'

Using the comma or the underscore as a digit group separator:

     >>> '{:,}'.format(1234567890)
     '1,234,567,890'
     >>> '{:_}'.format(1234567890)
     '1_234_567_890'
     >>> '{:_b}'.format(1234567890)
     '100_1001_1001_0110_0000_0010_1101_0010'
     >>> '{:_x}'.format(1234567890)
     '4996_02d2'
     >>> '{:_}'.format(123456789.123456789)
     '123_456_789.12345679'
     >>> '{:.,}'.format(123456789.123456789)
     '123456789.123,456,79'
     >>> '{:,._}'.format(123456789.123456789)
     '123,456,789.123_456_79'

Expressing a percentage:

     >>> points = 19
     >>> total = 22
     >>> 'Correct answers: {:.2%}'.format(points/total)
     'Correct answers: 86.36%'

Using type-specific formatting:

     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> d = dt.datetime(2010, 7, 4, 12, 15, 58)
     >>> '{:%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S}'.format(d)
     '2010-07-04 12:15:58'

Nesting arguments and more complex examples:

     >>> for align, text in zip('<^>', ['left', 'center', 'right']):
     ...     '{0:{fill}{align}16}'.format(text, fill=align, align=align)
     ...
     'left<<<<<<<<<<<<'
     '^^^^^center^^^^^'
     '>>>>>>>>>>>right'
     >>>
     >>> octets = [192, 168, 0, 1]
     >>> '{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}{:02X}'.format(*octets)
     'C0A80001'
     >>> int(_, 16)
     3232235521
     >>>
     >>> width = 5
     >>> for num in range(5,12):
     ...     for base in 'dXob':
     ...         print('{0:{width}{base}}'.format(num, base=base, width=width), end=' ')
     ...     print()
     ...
         5     5     5   101
         6     6     6   110
         7     7     7   111
         8     8    10  1000
         9     9    11  1001
        10     A    12  1010
        11     B    13  1011


File: python.info,  Node: Template strings $-strings,  Next: Helper functions,  Prev: Format string syntax,  Up: string — Common string operations

5.7.1.6 Template strings ($-strings)
....................................

     Σημείωση: The feature described here was introduced in Python 2.4;
     a simple templating method based upon regular expressions.  It
     predates *note str.format(): a12, *note formatted string literals:
     43a, and *note template string literals: 2965.

     It is unrelated to template string literals (t-strings), which were
     introduced in Python 3.14.  These evaluate to *note
     string.templatelib.Template: 415. objects, found in the *note
     string.templatelib: dc. module.

Template strings provide simpler string substitutions as described in
PEP 292(1).  A primary use case for template strings is for
internationalization (i18n) since in that context, the simpler syntax
and functionality makes it easier to translate than other built-in
string formatting facilities in Python.  As an example of a library
built on template strings for i18n, see the flufl.i18n(2) package.

Template strings support ‘$’-based substitutions, using the following
rules:

   * ‘$$’ is an escape; it is replaced with a single ‘$’.

   * ‘$identifier’ names a substitution placeholder matching a mapping
     key of ‘"identifier"’.  By default, ‘"identifier"’ is restricted to
     any case-insensitive ASCII alphanumeric string (including
     underscores) that starts with an underscore or ASCII letter.  The
     first non-identifier character after the ‘$’ character terminates
     this placeholder specification.

   * ‘${identifier}’ is equivalent to ‘$identifier’.  It is required
     when valid identifier characters follow the placeholder but are not
     part of the placeholder, such as ‘"${noun}ification"’.

Any other appearance of ‘$’ in the string will result in a *note
ValueError: 277. being raised.

The ‘string’ module provides a *note Template: a77. class that
implements these rules.  The methods of ‘Template’ are:

 -- Κλάση: string.Template (template)

     The constructor takes a single argument which is the template
     string.

      -- Μέθοδος: substitute (mapping={}, /, **kwds)

          Performs the template substitution, returning a new string.
          'mapping' is any dictionary-like object with keys that match
          the placeholders in the template.  Alternatively, you can
          provide keyword arguments, where the keywords are the
          placeholders.  When both 'mapping' and 'kwds' are given and
          there are duplicates, the placeholders from 'kwds' take
          precedence.

      -- Μέθοδος: safe_substitute (mapping={}, /, **kwds)

          Like *note substitute(): 22c5, except that if placeholders are
          missing from 'mapping' and 'kwds', instead of raising a *note
          KeyError: 7df. exception, the original placeholder will appear
          in the resulting string intact.  Also, unlike with
          ‘substitute()’, any other appearances of the ‘$’ will simply
          return ‘$’ instead of raising *note ValueError: 277.

          While other exceptions may still occur, this method is called
          «safe» because it always tries to return a usable string
          instead of raising an exception.  In another sense,
          ‘safe_substitute()’ may be anything other than safe, since it
          will silently ignore malformed templates containing dangling
          delimiters, unmatched braces, or placeholders that are not
          valid Python identifiers.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_valid ()

          Returns ‘False’ if the template has invalid placeholders that
          will cause *note substitute(): 22c5. to raise *note
          ValueError: 277.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_identifiers ()

          Returns a list of the valid identifiers in the template, in
          the order they first appear, ignoring any invalid identifiers.

          Added in version 3.11.

     ‘Template’ instances also provide one public data attribute:

      -- Ιδιότητα: template

          This is the object passed to the constructor’s 'template'
          argument.  In general, you shouldn’t change it, but read-only
          access is not enforced.

Here is an example of how to use a Template:

     >>> from string import Template
     >>> s = Template('$who likes $what')
     >>> s.substitute(who='tim', what='kung pao')
     'tim likes kung pao'
     >>> d = dict(who='tim')
     >>> Template('Give $who $100').substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Invalid placeholder in string: line 1, col 11
     >>> Template('$who likes $what').substitute(d)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     KeyError: 'what'
     >>> Template('$who likes $what').safe_substitute(d)
     'tim likes $what'

Advanced usage: you can derive subclasses of *note Template: a77. to
customize the placeholder syntax, delimiter character, or the entire
regular expression used to parse template strings.  To do this, you can
override these class attributes:

   * 'delimiter' – This is the literal string describing a placeholder
     introducing delimiter.  The default value is ‘$’.  Note that this
     should 'not' be a regular expression, as the implementation will
     call *note re.escape(): fc8. on this string as needed.  Note
     further that you cannot change the delimiter after class creation
     (i.e.  a different delimiter must be set in the subclass’s class
     namespace).

   * 'idpattern' – This is the regular expression describing the pattern
     for non-braced placeholders.  The default value is the regular
     expression ‘(?a:[_a-z][_a-z0-9]*)’.  If this is given and
     'braceidpattern' is ‘None’ this pattern will also apply to braced
     placeholders.

          Σημείωση: Since default 'flags' is ‘re.IGNORECASE’, pattern
          ‘[a-z]’ can match with some non-ASCII characters.  That’s why
          we use the local ‘a’ flag here.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: 'braceidpattern' can be used to define
     separate patterns used inside and outside the braces.

   * 'braceidpattern' – This is like 'idpattern' but describes the
     pattern for braced placeholders.  Defaults to ‘None’ which means to
     fall back to 'idpattern' (i.e.  the same pattern is used both
     inside and outside braces).  If given, this allows you to define
     different patterns for braced and unbraced placeholders.

     Added in version 3.7.

   * 'flags' – The regular expression flags that will be applied when
     compiling the regular expression used for recognizing
     substitutions.  The default value is ‘re.IGNORECASE’.  Note that
     ‘re.VERBOSE’ will always be added to the flags, so custom
     'idpattern's must follow conventions for verbose regular
     expressions.

     Added in version 3.2.

Alternatively, you can provide the entire regular expression pattern by
overriding the class attribute 'pattern'.  If you do this, the value
must be a regular expression object with four named capturing groups.
The capturing groups correspond to the rules given above, along with the
invalid placeholder rule:

   * 'escaped' – This group matches the escape sequence, e.g.  ‘$$’, in
     the default pattern.

   * 'named' – This group matches the unbraced placeholder name; it
     should not include the delimiter in capturing group.

   * 'braced' – This group matches the brace enclosed placeholder name;
     it should not include either the delimiter or braces in the
     capturing group.

   * 'invalid' – This group matches any other delimiter pattern (usually
     a single delimiter), and it should appear last in the regular
     expression.

The methods on this class will raise *note ValueError: 277. if the
pattern matches the template without one of these named groups matching.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0292/

   (2) https://flufli18n.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Helper functions,  Prev: Template strings $-strings,  Up: string — Common string operations

5.7.1.7 Helper functions
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: string.capwords (s, sep=None)

     Split the argument into words using *note str.split(): 125b,
     capitalize each word using *note str.capitalize(): 2832, and join
     the capitalized words using *note str.join(): 2803.  If the
     optional second argument 'sep' is absent or ‘None’, runs of
     whitespace characters are replaced by a single space and leading
     and trailing whitespace are removed, otherwise 'sep' is used to
     split and join the words.


File: python.info,  Node: string templatelib — Support for template string literals,  Next: re — Regular expression operations,  Prev: string — Common string operations,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.7.2 ‘string.templatelib’ — Support for template string literals
-----------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/string/templatelib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * *note Format strings: 43a.

   * *note Template string literal (t-string) syntax: 1a50.

   * PEP 750(2)

* Menu:

* Template strings::
* Types::
* Helper functions: Helper functions<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/string/templatelib.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0750/


File: python.info,  Node: Template strings,  Next: Types,  Up: string templatelib — Support for template string literals

5.7.2.1 Template strings
........................

Added in version 3.14.

Template strings are a mechanism for custom string processing.  They
have the full flexibility of Python’s *note f-strings: 43a, but return a
*note Template: 415. instance that gives access to the static and
interpolated (in curly brackets) parts of a string 'before' they are
combined.

To write a t-string, use a ‘'t'’ prefix instead of an ‘'f'’, like so:

     >>> pi = 3.14
     >>> t't-strings are new in Python {pi!s}!'
     Template(
        strings=('t-strings are new in Python ', '!'),
        interpolations=(Interpolation(3.14, 'pi', 's', ''),)
     )


File: python.info,  Node: Types,  Next: Helper functions<2>,  Prev: Template strings,  Up: string templatelib — Support for template string literals

5.7.2.2 Types
.............

 -- Κλάση: string.templatelib.Template

     The ‘Template’ class describes the contents of a template string.
     It is immutable, meaning that attributes of a template cannot be
     reassigned.

     The most common way to create a ‘Template’ instance is to use the
     *note template string literal syntax: 1a50.  This syntax is
     identical to that of *note f-strings: 43a, except that it uses a
     ‘t’ prefix in place of an ‘f’:

          >>> cheese = 'Red Leicester'
          >>> template = t"We're fresh out of {cheese}, sir."
          >>> type(template)
          <class 'string.templatelib.Template'>

     Templates are stored as sequences of literal *note strings: 296d.
     and dynamic *note interpolations: 296e.  A *note values: 296f.
     attribute holds the values of the interpolations:

          >>> cheese = 'Camembert'
          >>> template = t'Ah! We do have {cheese}.'
          >>> template.strings
          ('Ah! We do have ', '.')
          >>> template.interpolations
          (Interpolation('Camembert', ...),)
          >>> template.values
          ('Camembert',)

     The ‘strings’ tuple has one more element than ‘interpolations’ and
     ‘values’; the interpolations “belong” between the strings.  This
     may be easier to understand when tuples are aligned

          template.strings:  ('Ah! We do have ',              '.')
          template.values:   (                   'Camembert',    )

     Attributes
     ..........

      -- Ιδιότητα: strings: *note tuple: 1ce.[*note str: 1df, ...]

          A *note tuple: 1ce. of the static strings in the template.

               >>> cheese = 'Camembert'
               >>> template = t'Ah! We do have {cheese}.'
               >>> template.strings
               ('Ah! We do have ', '.')

          Empty strings 'are' included in the tuple:

               >>> response = 'We do have '
               >>> cheese = 'Camembert'
               >>> template = t'Ah! {response}{cheese}.'
               >>> template.strings
               ('Ah! ', '', '.')

          The ‘strings’ tuple is never empty, and always contains one
          more string than the ‘interpolations’ and ‘values’ tuples:

               >>> t''.strings
               ('',)
               >>> t''.values
               ()
               >>> t'{'cheese'}'.strings
               ('', '')
               >>> t'{'cheese'}'.values
               ('cheese',)

      -- Ιδιότητα: interpolations: *note tuple: 1ce.[*note
               Interpolation: 416, ...]

          A *note tuple: 1ce. of the interpolations in the template.

               >>> cheese = 'Camembert'
               >>> template = t'Ah! We do have {cheese}.'
               >>> template.interpolations
               (Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese', None, ''),)

          The ‘interpolations’ tuple may be empty and always contains
          one fewer values than the ‘strings’ tuple:

               >>> t'Red Leicester'.interpolations
               ()

      -- Ιδιότητα: values: *note tuple: 1ce.[*note object: e4d, ...]

          A tuple of all interpolated values in the template.

               >>> cheese = 'Camembert'
               >>> template = t'Ah! We do have {cheese}.'
               >>> template.values
               ('Camembert',)

          The ‘values’ tuple always has the same length as the
          ‘interpolations’ tuple.  It is always equivalent to
          ‘tuple(i.value for i in template.interpolations)’.

     Methods
     .......

      -- Μέθοδος: __new__ (*args: str | Interpolation)

          While literal syntax is the most common way to create a
          ‘Template’, it is also possible to create them directly using
          the constructor:

               >>> from string.templatelib import Interpolation, Template
               >>> cheese = 'Camembert'
               >>> template = Template(
               ...     'Ah! We do have ', Interpolation(cheese, 'cheese'), '.'
               ... )
               >>> list(template)
               ['Ah! We do have ', Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese', None, ''), '.']

          If multiple strings are passed consecutively, they will be
          concatenated into a single value in the *note strings: 296d.
          attribute.  For example, the following code creates a
          ‘Template’ with a single final string:

               >>> from string.templatelib import Template
               >>> template = Template('Ah! We do have ', 'Camembert', '.')
               >>> template.strings
               ('Ah! We do have Camembert.',)

          If multiple interpolations are passed consecutively, they will
          be treated as separate interpolations and an empty string will
          be inserted between them.  For example, the following code
          creates a template with empty placeholders in the *note
          strings: 296d. attribute:

               >>> from string.templatelib import Interpolation, Template
               >>> template = Template(
               ...     Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese'),
               ...     Interpolation('.', 'punctuation'),
               ... )
               >>> template.strings
               ('', '', '')

      -- Describe: iter(template)

          Iterate over the template, yielding each non-empty string and
          *note Interpolation: 416. in the correct order:

               >>> cheese = 'Camembert'
               >>> list(t'Ah! We do have {cheese}.')
               ['Ah! We do have ', Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese', None, ''), '.']

               Προσοχή: Empty strings are 'not' included in the
               iteration:

                    >>> response = 'We do have '
                    >>> cheese = 'Camembert'
                    >>> list(t'Ah! {response}{cheese}.')
                    ['Ah! ',
                     Interpolation('We do have ', 'response', None, ''),
                     Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese', None, ''),
                     '.']

      -- Describe: template + other

      -- Describe: template += other

          Concatenate this template with another, returning a new
          ‘Template’ instance:

               >>> cheese = 'Camembert'
               >>> list(t'Ah! ' + t'We do have {cheese}.')
               ['Ah! We do have ', Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese', None, ''), '.']

          Concatenating a ‘Template’ and a ‘str’ is 'not' supported.
          This is because it is unclear whether the string should be
          treated as a static string or an interpolation.  If you want
          to concatenate a ‘Template’ with a string, you should either
          wrap the string directly in a ‘Template’ (to treat it as a
          static string) or use an ‘Interpolation’ (to treat it as
          dynamic):

               >>> from string.templatelib import Interpolation, Template
               >>> template = t'Ah! '
               >>> # Treat 'We do have ' as a static string
               >>> template += Template('We do have ')
               >>> # Treat cheese as an interpolation
               >>> cheese = 'Camembert'
               >>> template += Template(Interpolation(cheese, 'cheese'))
               >>> list(template)
               ['Ah! We do have ', Interpolation('Camembert', 'cheese', None, '')]

 -- Κλάση: string.templatelib.Interpolation

     The ‘Interpolation’ type represents an expression inside a template
     string.  It is immutable, meaning that attributes of an
     interpolation cannot be reassigned.

     Interpolations support pattern matching, allowing you to match
     against their attributes with the *note match statement: 1d4.:

          >>> from string.templatelib import Interpolation
          >>> interpolation = t'{1. + 2.:.2f}'.interpolations[0]
          >>> interpolation
          Interpolation(3.0, '1. + 2.', None, '.2f')
          >>> match interpolation:
          ...     case Interpolation(value, expression, conversion, format_spec):
          ...         print(value, expression, conversion, format_spec, sep=' | ')
          ...
          3.0 | 1. + 2. | None | .2f

     Attributes
     ..........

      -- Ιδιότητα: value: *note object: e4d.

          The evaluated value of the interpolation.

               >>> t'{1 + 2}'.interpolations[0].value
               3

      -- Ιδιότητα: expression: *note str: 1df.

          For interpolations created by t-string literals, ‘expression’
          is the expression text found inside the curly brackets (‘{’ &
          ‘}’), including any whitespace, excluding the curly brackets
          themselves, and ending before the first ‘!’, ‘:’, or ‘=’ if
          any is present.  For manually created interpolations,
          ‘expression’ is the arbitrary string provided when
          constructing the interpolation instance.

          We recommend using valid Python expressions or the empty
          string for the ‘expression’ field of manually created
          ‘Interpolation’ instances, although this is not enforced at
          runtime.

               >>> t'{1 + 2}'.interpolations[0].expression
               '1 + 2'

      -- Ιδιότητα: conversion: *note Literal: c2d.['a', 'r', 's'] |
               *note None: a65.

          The conversion to apply to the value, or ‘None’.

          The ‘conversion’ is the optional conversion to apply to the
          value:

               >>> t'{1 + 2!a}'.interpolations[0].conversion
               'a'

               Σημείωση: Unlike f-strings, where conversions are applied
               automatically, the expected behavior with t-strings is
               that code that 'processes' the ‘Template’ will decide how
               to interpret and whether to apply the ‘conversion’.  For
               convenience, the *note convert(): 2973. function can be
               used to mimic f-string conversion semantics.

      -- Ιδιότητα: format_spec: *note str: 1df.

          The format specification to apply to the value.

          The ‘format_spec’ is an optional, arbitrary string used as the
          format specification to present the value:

               >>> t'{1 + 2:.2f}'.interpolations[0].format_spec
               '.2f'

               Σημείωση: Unlike f-strings, where format specifications
               are applied automatically via the *note format(): 439.
               protocol, the expected behavior with t-strings is that
               code that 'processes' the interpolation will decide how
               to interpret and whether to apply the format
               specification.  As a result, ‘format_spec’ values in
               interpolations can be arbitrary strings, including those
               that do not conform to the ‘format()’ protocol.

     Methods
     .......

      -- Μέθοδος: __new__ (value: object, expression: str, conversion:
               Literal['a', 'r', 's'] | None = None, format_spec: str =
               '')

          Create a new ‘Interpolation’ object from component parts.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘value’ – The evaluated, in-scope result of the
               interpolation.

             * ‘expression’ – The text of a valid Python expression, or
               an empty string.

             * ‘conversion’ – The *note conversion: 173f. to be used,
               one of ‘None’, ‘'a'’, ‘'r'’, or ‘'s'’.

             * ‘format_spec’ – An optional, arbitrary string used as the
               *note format specification: 6fe. to present the value.


File: python.info,  Node: Helper functions<2>,  Prev: Types,  Up: string templatelib — Support for template string literals

5.7.2.3 Helper functions
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: string.templatelib.convert (obj, /, conversion)

     Applies formatted string literal *note conversion: 2953. semantics
     to the given object 'obj'.  This is frequently useful for custom
     template string processing logic.

     Three conversion flags are currently supported:

        * ‘'s'’ which calls *note str(): 1df. on the value (like ‘!s’),

        * ‘'r'’ which calls *note repr(): 45b. (like ‘!r’), and

        * ‘'a'’ which calls *note ascii(): 1789. (like ‘!a’).

     If the conversion flag is ‘None’, 'obj' is returned unchanged.


File: python.info,  Node: re — Regular expression operations,  Next: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas,  Prev: string templatelib — Support for template string literals,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.7.3 ‘re’ — Regular expression operations
------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/re/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides regular expression matching operations similar to
those found in Perl.

Both patterns and strings to be searched can be Unicode strings (*note
str: 1df.) as well as 8-bit strings (*note bytes: 1c7.).  However,
Unicode strings and 8-bit strings cannot be mixed: that is, you cannot
match a Unicode string with a bytes pattern or vice-versa; similarly,
when asking for a substitution, the replacement string must be of the
same type as both the pattern and the search string.

Regular expressions use the backslash character (‘'\'’) to indicate
special forms or to allow special characters to be used without invoking
their special meaning.  This collides with Python’s usage of the same
character for the same purpose in string literals; for example, to match
a literal backslash, one might have to write ‘'\\\\'’ as the pattern
string, because the regular expression must be ‘\\’, and each backslash
must be expressed as ‘\\’ inside a regular Python string literal.  Also,
please note that any invalid escape sequences in Python’s usage of the
backslash in string literals now generate a *note SyntaxWarning: 44a.
and in the future this will become a *note SyntaxError: 17e.  This
behaviour will happen even if it is a valid escape sequence for a
regular expression.

The solution is to use Python’s raw string notation for regular
expression patterns; backslashes are not handled in any special way in a
string literal prefixed with ‘'r'’.  So ‘r"\n"’ is a two-character
string containing ‘'\'’ and ‘'n'’, while ‘"\n"’ is a one-character
string containing a newline.  Usually patterns will be expressed in
Python code using this raw string notation.

It is important to note that most regular expression operations are
available as module-level functions and methods on *note compiled
regular expressions: 1331.  The functions are shortcuts that don’t
require you to compile a regex object first, but miss some fine-tuning
parameters.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The third-party regex(2) module, which has an API compatible with the
standard library ‘re’ module, but offers additional functionality and a
more thorough Unicode support.

* Menu:

* Regular expression syntax::
* Module contents::
* Regular expression objects::
* Match objects::
* Regular expression examples::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/re/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/regex/


File: python.info,  Node: Regular expression syntax,  Next: Module contents,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.7.3.1 Regular expression syntax
.................................

A regular expression (or RE) specifies a set of strings that matches it;
the functions in this module let you check if a particular string
matches a given regular expression (or if a given regular expression
matches a particular string, which comes down to the same thing).

Regular expressions can be concatenated to form new regular expressions;
if 'A' and 'B' are both regular expressions, then 'AB' is also a regular
expression.  In general, if a string 'p' matches 'A' and another string
'q' matches 'B', the string 'pq' will match AB. This holds unless 'A' or
'B' contain low precedence operations; boundary conditions between 'A'
and 'B'; or have numbered group references.  Thus, complex expressions
can easily be constructed from simpler primitive expressions like the
ones described here.  For details of the theory and implementation of
regular expressions, consult the Friedl book *note [Frie09]: 297b, or
almost any textbook about compiler construction.

A brief explanation of the format of regular expressions follows.  For
further information and a gentler presentation, consult the *note
Regular expression HOWTO: 297c.

Regular expressions can contain both special and ordinary characters.
Most ordinary characters, like ‘'A'’, ‘'a'’, or ‘'0'’, are the simplest
regular expressions; they simply match themselves.  You can concatenate
ordinary characters, so ‘last’ matches the string ‘'last'’.  (In the
rest of this section, we’ll write RE’s in ‘this special style’, usually
without quotes, and strings to be matched ‘'in single quotes'’.)

Some characters, like ‘'|'’ or ‘'('’, are special.  Special characters
either stand for classes of ordinary characters, or affect how the
regular expressions around them are interpreted.

Repetition operators or quantifiers (‘*’, ‘+’, ‘?’, ‘{m,n}’, etc) cannot
be directly nested.  This avoids ambiguity with the non-greedy modifier
suffix ‘?’, and with other modifiers in other implementations.  To apply
a second repetition to an inner repetition, parentheses may be used.
For example, the expression ‘(?:a{6})*’ matches any multiple of six
‘'a'’ characters.

The special characters are:

‘.’

     (Dot.)  In the default mode, this matches any character except a
     newline.  If the *note DOTALL: 297d. flag has been specified, this
     matches any character including a newline.  ‘(?s:.)’ matches any
     character regardless of flags.

‘^’

     (Caret.)  Matches the start of the string, and in *note MULTILINE:
     297e. mode also matches immediately after each newline.

‘$’

     Matches the end of the string or just before the newline at the end
     of the string, and in *note MULTILINE: 297e. mode also matches
     before a newline.  ‘foo’ matches both “foo” and “foobar”, while the
     regular expression ‘foo$’ matches only “foo”.  More interestingly,
     searching for ‘foo.$’ in ‘'foo1\nfoo2\n'’ matches “foo2” normally,
     but “foo1” in ‘MULTILINE’ mode; searching for a single ‘$’ in
     ‘'foo\n'’ will find two (empty) matches: one just before the
     newline, and one at the end of the string.

‘*’

     Causes the resulting RE to match 0 or more repetitions of the
     preceding RE, as many repetitions as are possible.  ‘ab*’ will
     match “a”, “ab”, or “a” followed by any number of “b’s.

‘+’

     Causes the resulting RE to match 1 or more repetitions of the
     preceding RE. ‘ab+’ will match “a” followed by any non-zero number
     of “b’s; it will not match just “a”.

‘?’

     Causes the resulting RE to match 0 or 1 repetitions of the
     preceding RE. ‘ab?’ will match either “a” or “ab”.

‘*?’, ‘+?’, ‘??’

     The ‘'*'’, ‘'+'’, and ‘'?'’ quantifiers are all 'greedy'; they
     match as much text as possible.  Sometimes this behaviour isn’t
     desired; if the RE ‘<.*>’ is matched against ‘'<a> b <c>'’, it will
     match the entire string, and not just ‘'<a>'’.  Adding ‘?’ after
     the quantifier makes it perform the match in 'non-greedy' or
     'minimal' fashion; as 'few' characters as possible will be matched.
     Using the RE ‘<.*?>’ will match only ‘'<a>'’.

‘*+’, ‘++’, ‘?+’

     Like the ‘'*'’, ‘'+'’, and ‘'?'’ quantifiers, those where ‘'+'’ is
     appended also match as many times as possible.  However, unlike the
     true greedy quantifiers, these do not allow back-tracking when the
     expression following it fails to match.  These are known as
     'possessive' quantifiers.  For example, ‘a*a’ will match ‘'aaaa'’
     because the ‘a*’ will match all 4 ‘'a'’s, but, when the final ‘'a'’
     is encountered, the expression is backtracked so that in the end
     the ‘a*’ ends up matching 3 ‘'a'’s total, and the fourth ‘'a'’ is
     matched by the final ‘'a'’.  However, when ‘a*+a’ is used to match
     ‘'aaaa'’, the ‘a*+’ will match all 4 ‘'a'’, but when the final
     ‘'a'’ fails to find any more characters to match, the expression
     cannot be backtracked and will thus fail to match.  ‘x*+’, ‘x++’
     and ‘x?+’ are equivalent to ‘(?>x*)’, ‘(?>x+)’ and ‘(?>x?)’
     correspondingly.

     Added in version 3.11.

‘{m}’

     Specifies that exactly 'm' copies of the previous RE should be
     matched; fewer matches cause the entire RE not to match.  For
     example, ‘a{6}’ will match exactly six ‘'a'’ characters, but not
     five.

‘{m,n}’

     Causes the resulting RE to match from 'm' to 'n' repetitions of the
     preceding RE, attempting to match as many repetitions as possible.
     For example, ‘a{3,5}’ will match from 3 to 5 ‘'a'’ characters.
     Omitting 'm' specifies a lower bound of zero, and omitting 'n'
     specifies an infinite upper bound.  As an example, ‘a{4,}b’ will
     match ‘'aaaab'’ or a thousand ‘'a'’ characters followed by a ‘'b'’,
     but not ‘'aaab'’.  The comma may not be omitted or the modifier
     would be confused with the previously described form.

‘{m,n}?’

     Causes the resulting RE to match from 'm' to 'n' repetitions of the
     preceding RE, attempting to match as 'few' repetitions as possible.
     This is the non-greedy version of the previous quantifier.  For
     example, on the 6-character string ‘'aaaaaa'’, ‘a{3,5}’ will match
     5 ‘'a'’ characters, while ‘a{3,5}?’ will only match 3 characters.

‘{m,n}+’

     Causes the resulting RE to match from 'm' to 'n' repetitions of the
     preceding RE, attempting to match as many repetitions as possible
     'without' establishing any backtracking points.  This is the
     possessive version of the quantifier above.  For example, on the
     6-character string ‘'aaaaaa'’, ‘a{3,5}+aa’ attempts to match 5
     ‘'a'’ characters, then, requiring 2 more ‘'a'’s, will need more
     characters than available and thus fail, while ‘a{3,5}aa’ will
     match with ‘a{3,5}’ capturing 5, then 4 ‘'a'’s by backtracking and
     then the final 2 ‘'a'’s are matched by the final ‘aa’ in the
     pattern.  ‘x{m,n}+’ is equivalent to ‘(?>x{m,n})’.

     Added in version 3.11.

‘\’

     Either escapes special characters (permitting you to match
     characters like ‘'*'’, ‘'?'’, and so forth), or signals a special
     sequence; special sequences are discussed below.

     If you’re not using a raw string to express the pattern, remember
     that Python also uses the backslash as an escape sequence in string
     literals; if the escape sequence isn’t recognized by Python’s
     parser, the backslash and subsequent character are included in the
     resulting string.  However, if Python would recognize the resulting
     sequence, the backslash should be repeated twice.  This is
     complicated and hard to understand, so it’s highly recommended that
     you use raw strings for all but the simplest expressions.

‘[]’

     Used to indicate a set of characters.  In a set:

        * Characters can be listed individually, e.g.  ‘[amk]’ will
          match ‘'a'’, ‘'m'’, or ‘'k'’.

        * Ranges of characters can be indicated by giving two characters
          and separating them by a ‘'-'’, for example ‘[a-z]’ will match
          any lowercase ASCII letter, ‘[0-5][0-9]’ will match all the
          two-digits numbers from ‘00’ to ‘59’, and ‘[0-9A-Fa-f]’ will
          match any hexadecimal digit.  If ‘-’ is escaped (e.g.
          ‘[a\-z]’) or if it’s placed as the first or last character
          (e.g.  ‘[-a]’ or ‘[a-]’), it will match a literal ‘'-'’.

        * Special characters except backslash lose their special meaning
          inside sets.  For example, ‘[(+*)]’ will match any of the
          literal characters ‘'('’, ‘'+'’, ‘'*'’, or ‘')'’.

        * Backslash either escapes characters which have special meaning
          in a set such as ‘'-'’, ‘']'’, ‘'^'’ and ‘'\\'’ itself or
          signals a special sequence which represents a single character
          such as ‘\xa0’ or ‘\n’ or a character class such as ‘\w’ or
          ‘\S’ (defined below).  Note that ‘\b’ represents a single
          «backspace» character, not a word boundary as outside a set,
          and numeric escapes such as ‘\1’ are always octal escapes, not
          group references.  Special sequences which do not match a
          single character such as ‘\A’ and ‘\z’ are not allowed.

        * Characters that are not within a range can be matched by
          'complementing' the set.  If the first character of the set is
          ‘'^'’, all the characters that are 'not' in the set will be
          matched.  For example, ‘[^5]’ will match any character except
          ‘'5'’, and ‘[^^]’ will match any character except ‘'^'’.  ‘^’
          has no special meaning if it’s not the first character in the
          set.

        * To match a literal ‘']'’ inside a set, precede it with a
          backslash, or place it at the beginning of the set.  For
          example, both ‘[()[\]{}]’ and ‘[]()[{}]’ will match a right
          bracket, as well as left bracket, braces, and parentheses.

        * Support of nested sets and set operations as in Unicode
          Technical Standard #18(1) might be added in the future.  This
          would change the syntax, so to facilitate this change a *note
          FutureWarning: 847. will be raised in ambiguous cases for the
          time being.  That includes sets starting with a literal ‘'['’
          or containing literal character sequences ‘'--'’, ‘'&&'’,
          ‘'~~'’, and ‘'||'’.  To avoid a warning escape them with a
          backslash.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: *note FutureWarning: 847. is raised if a
     character set contains constructs that will change semantically in
     the future.

‘|’

     ‘A|B’, where 'A' and 'B' can be arbitrary REs, creates a regular
     expression that will match either 'A' or 'B'. An arbitrary number
     of REs can be separated by the ‘'|'’ in this way.  This can be used
     inside groups (see below) as well.  As the target string is
     scanned, REs separated by ‘'|'’ are tried from left to right.  When
     one pattern completely matches, that branch is accepted.  This
     means that once 'A' matches, 'B' will not be tested further, even
     if it would produce a longer overall match.  In other words, the
     ‘'|'’ operator is never greedy.  To match a literal ‘'|'’, use
     ‘\|’, or enclose it inside a character class, as in ‘[|]’.

‘(...)’

     Matches whatever regular expression is inside the parentheses, and
     indicates the start and end of a group; the contents of a group can
     be retrieved after a match has been performed, and can be matched
     later in the string with the ‘\number’ special sequence, described
     below.  To match the literals ‘'('’ or ‘')'’, use ‘\(’ or ‘\)’, or
     enclose them inside a character class: ‘[(]’, ‘[)]’.

‘(?...)’

     This is an extension notation (a ‘'?'’ following a ‘'('’ is not
     meaningful otherwise).  The first character after the ‘'?'’
     determines what the meaning and further syntax of the construct is.
     Extensions usually do not create a new group; ‘(?P<name>...)’ is
     the only exception to this rule.  Following are the currently
     supported extensions.

‘(?aiLmsux)’

     (One or more letters from the set ‘'a'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'L'’, ‘'m'’,
     ‘'s'’, ‘'u'’, ‘'x'’.)  The group matches the empty string; the
     letters set the corresponding flags for the entire regular
     expression:

        * *note re.A: 297f. (ASCII-only matching)

        * *note re.I: 2980. (ignore case)

        * *note re.L: 2981. (locale dependent)

        * *note re.M: 2982. (multi-line)

        * *note re.S: 2983. (dot matches all)

        * *note re.U: 2984. (Unicode matching)

        * *note re.X: 2985. (verbose)

     (The flags are described in *note Module contents: 2986.)  This is
     useful if you wish to include the flags as part of the regular
     expression, instead of passing a 'flag' argument to the *note
     re.compile(): f93. function.  Flags should be used first in the
     expression string.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: This construction can only be used at the
     start of the expression.

‘(?:...)’

     A non-capturing version of regular parentheses.  Matches whatever
     regular expression is inside the parentheses, but the substring
     matched by the group 'cannot' be retrieved after performing a match
     or referenced later in the pattern.

‘(?aiLmsux-imsx:...)’

     (Zero or more letters from the set ‘'a'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'L'’, ‘'m'’,
     ‘'s'’, ‘'u'’, ‘'x'’, optionally followed by ‘'-'’ followed by one
     or more letters from the ‘'i'’, ‘'m'’, ‘'s'’, ‘'x'’.)  The letters
     set or remove the corresponding flags for the part of the
     expression:

        * *note re.A: 297f. (ASCII-only matching)

        * *note re.I: 2980. (ignore case)

        * *note re.L: 2981. (locale dependent)

        * *note re.M: 2982. (multi-line)

        * *note re.S: 2983. (dot matches all)

        * *note re.U: 2984. (Unicode matching)

        * *note re.X: 2985. (verbose)

     (The flags are described in *note Module contents: 2986.)

     The letters ‘'a'’, ‘'L'’ and ‘'u'’ are mutually exclusive when used
     as inline flags, so they can’t be combined or follow ‘'-'’.
     Instead, when one of them appears in an inline group, it overrides
     the matching mode in the enclosing group.  In Unicode patterns
     ‘(?a:...)’ switches to ASCII-only matching, and ‘(?u:...)’ switches
     to Unicode matching (default).  In bytes patterns ‘(?L:...)’
     switches to locale dependent matching, and ‘(?a:...)’ switches to
     ASCII-only matching (default).  This override is only in effect for
     the narrow inline group, and the original matching mode is restored
     outside of the group.

     Added in version 3.6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The letters ‘'a'’, ‘'L'’ and ‘'u'’ also can
     be used in a group.

‘(?>...)’

     Attempts to match ‘...’ as if it was a separate regular expression,
     and if successful, continues to match the rest of the pattern
     following it.  If the subsequent pattern fails to match, the stack
     can only be unwound to a point 'before' the ‘(?>...)’ because once
     exited, the expression, known as an 'atomic group', has thrown away
     all stack points within itself.  Thus, ‘(?>.*).’ would never match
     anything because first the ‘.*’ would match all characters
     possible, then, having nothing left to match, the final ‘.’ would
     fail to match.  Since there are no stack points saved in the Atomic
     Group, and there is no stack point before it, the entire expression
     would thus fail to match.

     Added in version 3.11.

‘(?P<name>...)’

     Similar to regular parentheses, but the substring matched by the
     group is accessible via the symbolic group name 'name'.  Group
     names must be valid Python identifiers, and in *note bytes: 1c7.
     patterns they can only contain bytes in the ASCII range.  Each
     group name must be defined only once within a regular expression.
     A symbolic group is also a numbered group, just as if the group
     were not named.

     Named groups can be referenced in three contexts.  If the pattern
     is ‘(?P<quote>['"]).*?(?P=quote)’ (i.e.  matching a string quoted
     with either single or double quotes):

     Context of reference to group «quote»       Ways to reference it
                                                 
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     in the same pattern itself                     * ‘(?P=quote)’ (as shown)
                                                 
                                                    * ‘\1’
                                                 
                                                 
     when processing match object 'm'               * ‘m.group('quote')’
                                                 
                                                    * ‘m.end('quote')’ (etc.)
                                                 
                                                 
     in a string passed to the 'repl' argument      * ‘\g<quote>’
     of ‘re.sub()’                               
                                                    * ‘\g<1>’
                                                 
                                                    * ‘\1’
                                                 

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: In *note bytes: 1c7. patterns, group
     'name' can only contain bytes in the ASCII range
     (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

‘(?P=name)’

     A backreference to a named group; it matches whatever text was
     matched by the earlier group named 'name'.

‘(?#...)’

     A comment; the contents of the parentheses are simply ignored.

‘(?=...)’

     Matches if ‘...’ matches next, but doesn’t consume any of the
     string.  This is called a 'lookahead assertion'.  For example,
     ‘Isaac (?=Asimov)’ will match ‘'Isaac '’ only if it’s followed by
     ‘'Asimov'’.

‘(?!...)’

     Matches if ‘...’ doesn’t match next.  This is a 'negative lookahead
     assertion'.  For example, ‘Isaac (?!Asimov)’ will match ‘'Isaac '’
     only if it’s 'not' followed by ‘'Asimov'’.

‘(?<=...)’

     Matches if the current position in the string is preceded by a
     match for ‘...’ that ends at the current position.  This is called
     a 'positive lookbehind assertion'.  ‘(?<=abc)def’ will find a match
     in ‘'abcdef'’, since the lookbehind will back up 3 characters and
     check if the contained pattern matches.  The contained pattern must
     only match strings of some fixed length, meaning that ‘abc’ or
     ‘a|b’ are allowed, but ‘a*’ and ‘a{3,4}’ are not.  Note that
     patterns which start with positive lookbehind assertions will not
     match at the beginning of the string being searched; you will most
     likely want to use the *note search(): 15d3. function rather than
     the *note match(): 24c. function:

          >>> import re
          >>> m = re.search('(?<=abc)def', 'abcdef')
          >>> m.group(0)
          'def'

     This example looks for a word following a hyphen:

          >>> m = re.search(r'(?<=-)\w+', 'spam-egg')
          >>> m.group(0)
          'egg'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support for group references of fixed
     length.

‘(?<!...)’

     Matches if the current position in the string is not preceded by a
     match for ‘...’.  This is called a 'negative lookbehind assertion'.
     Similar to positive lookbehind assertions, the contained pattern
     must only match strings of some fixed length.  Patterns which start
     with negative lookbehind assertions may match at the beginning of
     the string being searched.

‘(?(id/name)yes-pattern|no-pattern)’

     Will try to match with ‘yes-pattern’ if the group with given 'id'
     or 'name' exists, and with ‘no-pattern’ if it doesn’t.
     ‘no-pattern’ is optional and can be omitted.  For example,
     ‘(<)?(\w+@\w+(?:\.\w+)+)(?(1)>|$)’ is a poor email matching
     pattern, which will match with ‘'<user@host.com>'’ as well as
     ‘'user@host.com'’, but not with ‘'<user@host.com'’ nor
     ‘'user@host.com>'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Group 'id' can only contain ASCII digits.
     In *note bytes: 1c7. patterns, group 'name' can only contain bytes
     in the ASCII range (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

The special sequences consist of ‘'\'’ and a character from the list
below.  If the ordinary character is not an ASCII digit or an ASCII
letter, then the resulting RE will match the second character.  For
example, ‘\$’ matches the character ‘'$'’.

‘\number’

     Matches the contents of the group of the same number.  Groups are
     numbered starting from 1.  For example, ‘(.+) \1’ matches ‘'the
     the'’ or ‘'55 55'’, but not ‘'thethe'’ (note the space after the
     group).  This special sequence can only be used to match one of the
     first 99 groups.  If the first digit of 'number' is 0, or 'number'
     is 3 octal digits long, it will not be interpreted as a group
     match, but as the character with octal value 'number'.  Inside the
     ‘'['’ and ‘']'’ of a character class, all numeric escapes are
     treated as characters.

‘\A’

     Matches only at the start of the string.

‘\b’

     Matches the empty string, but only at the beginning or end of a
     word.  A word is defined as a sequence of word characters.  Note
     that formally, ‘\b’ is defined as the boundary between a ‘\w’ and a
     ‘\W’ character (or vice versa), or between ‘\w’ and the beginning
     or end of the string.  This means that ‘r'\bat\b'’ matches ‘'at'’,
     ‘'at.'’, ‘'(at)'’, and ‘'as at ay'’ but not ‘'attempt'’ or
     ‘'atlas'’.

     The default word characters in Unicode (str) patterns are Unicode
     alphanumerics and the underscore, but this can be changed by using
     the *note ASCII: a1d. flag.  Word boundaries are determined by the
     current locale if the *note LOCALE: f29. flag is used.

          Σημείωση: Inside a character range, ‘\b’ represents the
          backspace character, for compatibility with Python’s string
          literals.

‘\B’

     Matches the empty string, but only when it is 'not' at the
     beginning or end of a word.  This means that ‘r'at\B'’ matches
     ‘'athens'’, ‘'atom'’, ‘'attorney'’, but not ‘'at'’, ‘'at.'’, or
     ‘'at!'’.  ‘\B’ is the opposite of ‘\b’, so word characters in
     Unicode (str) patterns are Unicode alphanumerics or the underscore,
     although this can be changed by using the *note ASCII: a1d. flag.
     Word boundaries are determined by the current locale if the *note
     LOCALE: f29. flag is used.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: ‘\B’ now matches empty input string.

‘\d’

     For Unicode (str) patterns:

          Matches any Unicode decimal digit (that is, any character in
          Unicode character category [Nd](2)).  This includes ‘[0-9]’,
          and also many other digit characters.

          Matches ‘[0-9]’ if the *note ASCII: a1d. flag is used.

     For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:

          Matches any decimal digit in the ASCII character set; this is
          equivalent to ‘[0-9]’.

‘\D’

     Matches any character which is not a decimal digit.  This is the
     opposite of ‘\d’.

     Matches ‘[^0-9]’ if the *note ASCII: a1d. flag is used.

‘\s’

     For Unicode (str) patterns:

          Matches Unicode whitespace characters (as defined by *note
          str.isspace(): 282d.).  This includes ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’, and
          also many other characters, for example the non-breaking
          spaces mandated by typography rules in many languages.

          Matches ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’ if the *note ASCII: a1d. flag is used.

     For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:

          Matches characters considered whitespace in the ASCII
          character set; this is equivalent to ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’.

‘\S’

     Matches any character which is not a whitespace character.  This is
     the opposite of ‘\s’.

     Matches ‘[^ \t\n\r\f\v]’ if the *note ASCII: a1d. flag is used.

‘\w’

     For Unicode (str) patterns:

          Matches Unicode word characters; this includes all Unicode
          alphanumeric characters (as defined by *note str.isalnum():
          2825.), as well as the underscore (‘_’).

          Matches ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’ if the *note ASCII: a1d. flag is used.

     For 8-bit (bytes) patterns:

          Matches characters considered alphanumeric in the ASCII
          character set; this is equivalent to ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’.  If the
          *note LOCALE: f29. flag is used, matches characters considered
          alphanumeric in the current locale and the underscore.

‘\W’

     Matches any character which is not a word character.  This is the
     opposite of ‘\w’.  By default, matches non-underscore (‘_’)
     characters for which *note str.isalnum(): 2825. returns ‘False’.

     Matches ‘[^a-zA-Z0-9_]’ if the *note ASCII: a1d. flag is used.

     If the *note LOCALE: f29. flag is used, matches characters which
     are neither alphanumeric in the current locale nor the underscore.

‘\z’

     Matches only at the end of the string.

     Added in version 3.14.

‘\Z’

     The same as ‘\z’.  For compatibility with old Python versions.

Most of the *note escape sequences: 874. supported by Python string
literals are also accepted by the regular expression parser:

     \a      \b      \f      \n
     \N      \r      \t      \u
     \U      \v      \x      \\

(Note that ‘\b’ is used to represent word boundaries, and means
«backspace» only inside character classes.)

‘'\u'’, ‘'\U'’, and ‘'\N'’ escape sequences are only recognized in
Unicode (str) patterns.  In bytes patterns they are errors.  Unknown
escapes of ASCII letters are reserved for future use and treated as
errors.

Octal escapes are included in a limited form.  If the first digit is a
0, or if there are three octal digits, it is considered an octal escape.
Otherwise, it is a group reference.  As for string literals, octal
escapes are always at most three digits in length.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The ‘'\u'’ and ‘'\U'’ escape sequences have been
added.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII
letter now are errors.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘'\N{NAME}'’ escape sequence has been added.
As in string literals, it expands to the named Unicode character (e.g.
‘'\N{EM DASH}'’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.0.0/ch04.pdf#G134153


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents,  Next: Regular expression objects,  Prev: Regular expression syntax,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.7.3.2 Module contents
.......................

The module defines several functions, constants, and an exception.  Some
of the functions are simplified versions of the full featured methods
for compiled regular expressions.  Most non-trivial applications always
use the compiled form.

* Menu:

* Flags::
* Functions::
* Exceptions::


File: python.info,  Node: Flags,  Next: Functions,  Up: Module contents

5.7.3.3 Flags
.............

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Flag constants are now instances of *note
RegexFlag: a1e, which is a subclass of *note enum.IntFlag: 105d.

 -- Κλάση: re.RegexFlag

     An *note enum.IntFlag: 105d. class containing the regex options
     listed below.

     Added in version 3.11: - added to ‘__all__’

 -- Δεδομένα: re.A
 -- Δεδομένα: re.ASCII

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’, ‘\d’, ‘\D’, ‘\s’ and ‘\S’ perform
     ASCII-only matching instead of full Unicode matching.  This is only
     meaningful for Unicode (str) patterns, and is ignored for bytes
     patterns.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?a)’.

          Σημείωση: The *note U: 2984. flag still exists for backward
          compatibility, but is redundant in Python 3 since matches are
          Unicode by default for ‘str’ patterns, and Unicode matching
          isn’t allowed for bytes patterns.  *note UNICODE: f2a. and the
          inline flag ‘(?u)’ are similarly redundant.

 -- Δεδομένα: re.DEBUG

     Display debug information about compiled expression.

     No corresponding inline flag.

 -- Δεδομένα: re.I
 -- Δεδομένα: re.IGNORECASE

     Perform case-insensitive matching; expressions like ‘[A-Z]’ will
     also match lowercase letters.  Full Unicode matching (such as ‘Ü’
     matching ‘ü’) also works unless the *note ASCII: a1d. flag is used
     to disable non-ASCII matches.  The current locale does not change
     the effect of this flag unless the *note LOCALE: f29. flag is also
     used.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?i)’.

     Note that when the Unicode patterns ‘[a-z]’ or ‘[A-Z]’ are used in
     combination with the *note IGNORECASE: 1c9b. flag, they will match
     the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters: “İ”
     (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), “ı” (U+0131, Latin
     small letter dotless i), “ſ” (U+017F, Latin small letter long s)
     and “K” (U+212A, Kelvin sign).  If the *note ASCII: a1d. flag is
     used, only letters “a” to “z” and “A” to “Z” are matched.

 -- Δεδομένα: re.L
 -- Δεδομένα: re.LOCALE

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’ and case-insensitive matching dependent
     on the current locale.  This flag can be used only with bytes
     patterns.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?L)’.

          Προειδοποίηση: This flag is discouraged; consider Unicode
          matching instead.  The locale mechanism is very unreliable as
          it only handles one «culture» at a time and only works with
          8-bit locales.  Unicode matching is enabled by default for
          Unicode (str) patterns and it is able to handle different
          locales and languages.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: *note LOCALE: f29. can be used only with
     bytes patterns and is not compatible with *note ASCII: a1d.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Compiled regular expression objects with
     the *note LOCALE: f29. flag no longer depend on the locale at
     compile time.  Only the locale at matching time affects the result
     of matching.

 -- Δεδομένα: re.M
 -- Δεδομένα: re.MULTILINE

     When specified, the pattern character ‘'^'’ matches at the
     beginning of the string and at the beginning of each line
     (immediately following each newline); and the pattern character
     ‘'$'’ matches at the end of the string and at the end of each line
     (immediately preceding each newline).  By default, ‘'^'’ matches
     only at the beginning of the string, and ‘'$'’ only at the end of
     the string and immediately before the newline (if any) at the end
     of the string.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?m)’.

 -- Δεδομένα: re.NOFLAG

     Indicates no flag being applied, the value is ‘0’.  This flag may
     be used as a default value for a function keyword argument or as a
     base value that will be conditionally ORed with other flags.
     Example of use as a default value:

          def myfunc(pattern, text, flag=re.NOFLAG):
              return re.search(pattern, text, flag)

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Δεδομένα: re.S
 -- Δεδομένα: re.DOTALL

     Make the ‘'.'’ special character match any character at all,
     including a newline; without this flag, ‘'.'’ will match anything
     'except' a newline.

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?s)’.

 -- Δεδομένα: re.U
 -- Δεδομένα: re.UNICODE

     In Python 3, Unicode characters are matched by default for ‘str’
     patterns.  This flag is therefore redundant with 'no effect' and is
     only kept for backward compatibility.

     See *note ASCII: a1d. to restrict matching to ASCII characters
     instead.

 -- Δεδομένα: re.X
 -- Δεδομένα: re.VERBOSE

     This flag allows you to write regular expressions that look nicer
     and are more readable by allowing you to visually separate logical
     sections of the pattern and add comments.  Whitespace within the
     pattern is ignored, except when in a character class, or when
     preceded by an unescaped backslash, or within tokens like ‘*?’,
     ‘(?:’ or ‘(?P<...>’.  For example, ‘(? :’ and ‘* ?’ are not
     allowed.  When a line contains a ‘#’ that is not in a character
     class and is not preceded by an unescaped backslash, all characters
     from the leftmost such ‘#’ through the end of the line are ignored.

     This means that the two following regular expression objects that
     match a decimal number are functionally equal:

          a = re.compile(r"""\d +  # the integral part
                             \.    # the decimal point
                             \d *  # some fractional digits""", re.X)
          b = re.compile(r"\d+\.\d*")

     Corresponds to the inline flag ‘(?x)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions,  Next: Exceptions,  Prev: Flags,  Up: Module contents

5.7.3.4 Functions
.................

 -- Συνάρτηση: re.compile (pattern, flags=0)

     Compile a regular expression pattern into a *note regular
     expression object: 1331, which can be used for matching using its
     *note prefixmatch(): 24b, *note search(): 298e, and other methods,
     described below.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2989. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     The sequence

          prog = re.compile(pattern)
          result = prog.search(string)

     is equivalent to

          result = re.search(pattern, string)

     but using *note re.compile(): f93. and saving the resulting regular
     expression object for reuse is more efficient when the expression
     will be used several times in a single program.

          Σημείωση: The compiled versions of the most recent patterns
          passed to *note re.compile(): f93. and the module-level
          matching functions are cached, so programs that use only a few
          regular expressions at a time needn’t worry about compiling
          regular expressions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: re.search (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Scan through 'string' looking for the first location where the
     regular expression 'pattern' produces a match, and return a
     corresponding *note Match: 1085.  Return ‘None’ if no position in
     the string matches the pattern; note that this is different from
     finding a zero-length match at some point in the string.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2989. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- Συνάρτηση: re.prefixmatch (pattern, string, flags=0)

     If zero or more characters at the beginning of 'string' match the
     regular expression 'pattern', return a corresponding *note Match:
     1085.  Return ‘None’ if the string does not match the pattern; note
     that this is different from a zero-length match.

          Σημείωση: Even in *note MULTILINE: 297e. mode, this will only
          match at the beginning of the string and not at the beginning
          of each line.

     If you want to locate a match anywhere in 'string', use *note
     search(): 15d3. instead (see also *note search() vs.
     prefixmatch(): 298f.).

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2989. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     This function now has two names and has long been known as *note
     match(): 24c.  Use that name when you need to retain compatibility
     with older Python versions.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: re.match (pattern, string, flags=0)

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15: *note match(): 24c.
     has been soft deprecated in favor of the alternate *note
     prefixmatch(): 24a. name of this API which is more explicitly
     descriptive.  Use it to better express intent.  The norm in other
     languages and regular expression implementations is to use the term
     'match' to refer to the behavior of what Python has always called
     *note search(): 15d3.  See *note prefixmatch() vs.  match(): 2f9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: re.fullmatch (pattern, string, flags=0)

     If the whole 'string' matches the regular expression 'pattern',
     return a corresponding *note Match: 1085.  Return ‘None’ if the
     string does not match the pattern; note that this is different from
     a zero-length match.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2989. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: re.split (pattern, string, maxsplit=0, flags=0)

     Split 'string' by the occurrences of 'pattern'.  If capturing
     parentheses are used in 'pattern', then the text of all groups in
     the pattern are also returned as part of the resulting list.  If
     'maxsplit' is nonzero, at most 'maxsplit' splits occur, and the
     remainder of the string is returned as the final element of the
     list.

          >>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
          >>> re.split(r'(\W+)', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
          >>> re.split(r'\W+', 'Words, words, words.', maxsplit=1)
          ['Words', 'words, words.']
          >>> re.split('[a-f]+', '0a3B9', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
          ['0', '3', '9']

     If there are capturing groups in the separator and it matches at
     the start of the string, the result will start with an empty
     string.  The same holds for the end of the string:

          >>> re.split(r'(\W+)', '...words, words...')
          ['', '...', 'words', ', ', 'words', '...', '']

     That way, separator components are always found at the same
     relative indices within the result list.

     Adjacent empty matches are not possible, but an empty match can
     occur immediately after a non-empty match.

          >>> re.split(r'\b', 'Words, words, words.')
          ['', 'Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.']
          >>> re.split(r'\W*', '...words...')
          ['', '', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'd', 's', '', '']
          >>> re.split(r'(\W*)', '...words...')
          ['', '...', '', '', 'w', '', 'o', '', 'r', '', 'd', '', 's', '...', '', '', '']

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2989. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added the optional flags argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added support of splitting on a pattern
     that could match an empty string.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13: Passing 'maxsplit' and 'flags' as
     positional arguments is deprecated.  In future Python versions they
     will be *note keyword-only parameters: 7a3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: re.findall (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Return all non-overlapping matches of 'pattern' in 'string', as a
     list of strings or tuples.  The 'string' is scanned left-to-right,
     and matches are returned in the order found.  Empty matches are
     included in the result.

     The result depends on the number of capturing groups in the
     pattern.  If there are no groups, return a list of strings matching
     the whole pattern.  If there is exactly one group, return a list of
     strings matching that group.  If multiple groups are present,
     return a list of tuples of strings matching the groups.
     Non-capturing groups do not affect the form of the result.

          >>> re.findall(r'\bf[a-z]*', 'which foot or hand fell fastest')
          ['foot', 'fell', 'fastest']
          >>> re.findall(r'(\w+)=(\d+)', 'set width=20 and height=10')
          [('width', '20'), ('height', '10')]

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2989. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Non-empty matches can now start just after
     a previous empty match.

 -- Συνάρτηση: re.finditer (pattern, string, flags=0)

     Return an *note iterator: 6ce. yielding *note Match: 1085. objects
     over all non-overlapping matches for the RE 'pattern' in 'string'.
     The 'string' is scanned left-to-right, and matches are returned in
     the order found.  Empty matches are included in the result.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2989. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Non-empty matches can now start just after
     a previous empty match.

 -- Συνάρτηση: re.sub (pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)

     Return the string obtained by replacing the leftmost
     non-overlapping occurrences of 'pattern' in 'string' by the
     replacement 'repl'.  If the pattern isn’t found, 'string' is
     returned unchanged.  'repl' can be a string or a function; if it is
     a string, any backslash escapes in it are processed.  That is, ‘\n’
     is converted to a single newline character, ‘\r’ is converted to a
     carriage return, and so forth.  Unknown escapes of ASCII letters
     are reserved for future use and treated as errors.  Other unknown
     escapes such as ‘\&’ are left alone.  Backreferences, such as ‘\6’,
     are replaced with the substring matched by group 6 in the pattern.
     For example:

          >>> re.sub(r'def\s+([a-zA-Z_][a-zA-Z_0-9]*)\s*\(\s*\):',
          ...        r'static PyObject*\npy_\1(void)\n{',
          ...        'def myfunc():')
          'static PyObject*\npy_myfunc(void)\n{'

     If 'repl' is a function, it is called for every non-overlapping
     occurrence of 'pattern'.  The function takes a single *note Match:
     1085. argument, and returns the replacement string.  For example:

          >>> def dashrepl(matchobj):
          ...     if matchobj.group(0) == '-': return ' '
          ...     else: return '-'
          ...
          >>> re.sub('-{1,2}', dashrepl, 'pro----gram-files')
          'pro--gram files'
          >>> re.sub(r'\sAND\s', ' & ', 'Baked Beans And Spam', flags=re.IGNORECASE)
          'Baked Beans & Spam'

     The pattern may be a string or a *note Pattern: 194d.

     The optional argument 'count' is the maximum number of pattern
     occurrences to be replaced; 'count' must be a non-negative integer.
     If omitted or zero, all occurrences will be replaced.

     Adjacent empty matches are not possible, but an empty match can
     occur immediately after a non-empty match.  As a result, ‘sub('x*',
     '-', 'abxd')’ returns ‘'-a-b--d-'’ instead of ‘'-a-b-d-'’.

     In string-type 'repl' arguments, in addition to the character
     escapes and backreferences described above, ‘\g<name>’ will use the
     substring matched by the group named ‘name’, as defined by the
     ‘(?P<name>...)’ syntax.  ‘\g<number>’ uses the corresponding group
     number; ‘\g<2>’ is therefore equivalent to ‘\2’, but isn’t
     ambiguous in a replacement such as ‘\g<2>0’.  ‘\20’ would be
     interpreted as a reference to group 20, not a reference to group 2
     followed by the literal character ‘'0'’.  The backreference ‘\g<0>’
     substitutes in the entire substring matched by the RE.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2989. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added the optional flags argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty
     string.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Unknown escapes in 'pattern' consisting of
     ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter now are errors.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Unknown escapes in 'repl' consisting of
     ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter now are errors.  An empty match can occur
     immediately after a non-empty match.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Group 'id' can only contain ASCII digits.
     In *note bytes: 1c7. replacement strings, group 'name' can only
     contain bytes in the ASCII range (‘b'\x00'’-‘b'\x7f'’).

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13: Passing 'count' and 'flags' as
     positional arguments is deprecated.  In future Python versions they
     will be *note keyword-only parameters: 7a3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: re.subn (pattern, repl, string, count=0, flags=0)

     Perform the same operation as *note sub(): 7a1, but return a tuple
     ‘(new_string, number_of_subs_made)’.

     The expression’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Values can be any of the *note flags: 2989. variables,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator).

 -- Συνάρτηση: re.escape (pattern)

     Escape special characters in 'pattern'.  This is useful if you want
     to match an arbitrary literal string that may have regular
     expression metacharacters in it.  For example:

          >>> print(re.escape('https://www.python.org'))
          https://www\.python\.org

          >>> legal_chars = string.ascii_lowercase + string.digits + "!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:"
          >>> print('[%s]+' % re.escape(legal_chars))
          [abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789!\#\$%\&'\*\+\-\.\^_`\|\~:]+

          >>> operators = ['+', '-', '*', '/', '**']
          >>> print('|'.join(map(re.escape, sorted(operators, reverse=True))))
          /|\-|\+|\*\*|\*

     This function must not be used for the replacement string in *note
     sub(): 7a1. and *note subn(): 7a2, only backslashes should be
     escaped.  For example:

          >>> digits_re = r'\d+'
          >>> sample = '/usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 12 warnings'
          >>> print(re.sub(digits_re, digits_re.replace('\\', r'\\'), sample))
          /usr/sbin/sendmail - \d+ errors, \d+ warnings

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The ‘'_'’ character is no longer escaped.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Only characters that can have special
     meaning in a regular expression are escaped.  As a result, ‘'!'’,
     ‘'"'’, ‘'%'’, ‘"'"’, ‘','’, ‘'/'’, ‘':'’, ‘';'’, ‘'<'’, ‘'='’,
     ‘'>'’, ‘'@'’, and ‘"`"’ are no longer escaped.

 -- Συνάρτηση: re.purge ()

     Clear the regular expression cache.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions,  Prev: Functions,  Up: Module contents

5.7.3.5 Exceptions
..................

 -- Εξαίρεση: re.PatternError (msg, pattern=None, pos=None)

     Exception raised when a string passed to one of the functions here
     is not a valid regular expression (for example, it might contain
     unmatched parentheses) or when some other error occurs during
     compilation or matching.  It is never an error if a string contains
     no match for a pattern.  The ‘PatternError’ instance has the
     following additional attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: msg

          The unformatted error message.

      -- Ιδιότητα: pattern

          The regular expression pattern.

      -- Ιδιότητα: pos

          The index in 'pattern' where compilation failed (may be
          ‘None’).

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          The line corresponding to 'pos' (may be ‘None’).

      -- Ιδιότητα: colno

          The column corresponding to 'pos' (may be ‘None’).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added additional attributes.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: ‘PatternError’ was originally named
     ‘error’; the latter is kept as an alias for backward compatibility.


File: python.info,  Node: Regular expression objects,  Next: Match objects,  Prev: Module contents,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.7.3.6 Regular expression objects
..................................

 -- Κλάση: re.Pattern

     Compiled regular expression object returned by *note re.compile():
     f93.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note re.Pattern: 194d. supports ‘[]’ to
     indicate a Unicode (str) or bytes pattern.  See *note Τύπος Generic
     Alias: a9f.

 -- Μέθοδος: Pattern.search (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     Scan through 'string' looking for the first location where this
     regular expression produces a match, and return a corresponding
     *note Match: 1085.  Return ‘None’ if no position in the string
     matches the pattern; note that this is different from finding a
     zero-length match at some point in the string.

     The optional second parameter 'pos' gives an index in the string
     where the search is to start; it defaults to ‘0’.  This is not
     completely equivalent to slicing the string; the ‘'^'’ pattern
     character matches at the real beginning of the string and at
     positions just after a newline, but not necessarily at the index
     where the search is to start.

     The optional parameter 'endpos' limits how far the string will be
     searched; it will be as if the string is 'endpos' characters long,
     so only the characters from 'pos' to ‘endpos - 1’ will be searched
     for a match.  If 'endpos' is less than 'pos', no match will be
     found; otherwise, if 'rx' is a compiled regular expression object,
     ‘rx.search(string, 0, 50)’ is equivalent to ‘rx.search(string[:50],
     0)’.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("d")
          >>> pattern.search("dog")     # Match at index 0
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='d'>
          >>> pattern.search("dog", 1)  # No match; search doesn't include the "d"

 -- Μέθοδος: Pattern.prefixmatch (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     If zero or more characters at the 'beginning' of 'string' match
     this regular expression, return a corresponding *note Match: 1085.
     Return ‘None’ if the string does not match the pattern; note that
     this is different from a zero-length match.

     Note that even in *note MULTILINE: 297e. mode, this will only match
     at the beginning of the string and not at the beginning of each
     line.

     The optional 'pos' and 'endpos' parameters have the same meaning as
     for the *note search(): 298e. method.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("o")
          >>> pattern.prefixmatch("dog")     # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
          >>> pattern.prefixmatch("dog", 1)  # Match as "o" is the 2nd character of "dog".
          <re.Match object; span=(1, 2), match='o'>

     If you want to locate a match anywhere in 'string', use *note
     search(): 298e. instead (see also *note search() vs.
     prefixmatch(): 298f.).

     This method now has two names and has long been known as *note
     match(): 24d.  Use that name when you need to retain compatibility
     with older Python versions.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μέθοδος: Pattern.match (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15: ‘match()’ has been
     soft deprecated in favor of the alternate *note prefixmatch(): 24b.
     name of this API which is more explicitly descriptive.  Use it to
     better express intent.  The norm in other languages and regular
     expression implementations is to use the term 'match' to refer to
     the behavior of what Python has always called *note search(): 298e.
     See *note prefixmatch() vs.  match(): 2f9.

 -- Μέθοδος: Pattern.fullmatch (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     If the whole 'string' matches this regular expression, return a
     corresponding *note Match: 1085.  Return ‘None’ if the string does
     not match the pattern; note that this is different from a
     zero-length match.

     The optional 'pos' and 'endpos' parameters have the same meaning as
     for the *note search(): 298e. method.

          >>> pattern = re.compile("o[gh]")
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("dog")      # No match as "o" is not at the start of "dog".
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("ogre")     # No match as not the full string matches.
          >>> pattern.fullmatch("doggie", 1, 3)   # Matches within given limits.
          <re.Match object; span=(1, 3), match='og'>

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μέθοδος: Pattern.split (string, maxsplit=0)

     Identical to the *note split(): 7a0. function, using the compiled
     pattern.

 -- Μέθοδος: Pattern.findall (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     Similar to the *note findall(): 13d2. function, using the compiled
     pattern, but also accepts optional 'pos' and 'endpos' parameters
     that limit the search region like for *note search(): 15d3.

 -- Μέθοδος: Pattern.finditer (string[, pos[, endpos]])

     Similar to the *note finditer(): 189c. function, using the compiled
     pattern, but also accepts optional 'pos' and 'endpos' parameters
     that limit the search region like for *note search(): 15d3.

 -- Μέθοδος: Pattern.sub (repl, string, count=0)

     Identical to the *note sub(): 7a1. function, using the compiled
     pattern.

 -- Μέθοδος: Pattern.subn (repl, string, count=0)

     Identical to the *note subn(): 7a2. function, using the compiled
     pattern.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Pattern.flags

     The regex matching flags.  This is a combination of the flags given
     to *note compile(): f93, any ‘(?...)’ inline flags in the pattern,
     and implicit flags such as *note UNICODE: f2a. if the pattern is a
     Unicode string.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Pattern.groups

     The number of capturing groups in the pattern.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Pattern.groupindex

     A dictionary mapping any symbolic group names defined by ‘(?P<id>)’
     to group numbers.  The dictionary is empty if no symbolic groups
     were used in the pattern.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Pattern.pattern

     The pattern string from which the pattern object was compiled.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added support of *note copy.copy(): 942. and
*note copy.deepcopy(): f2b.  Compiled regular expression objects are
considered atomic.


File: python.info,  Node: Match objects,  Next: Regular expression examples,  Prev: Regular expression objects,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.7.3.7 Match objects
.....................

Match objects always have a boolean value of ‘True’.  Since *note
match(): 24d. and *note search(): 298e. return ‘None’ when there is no
match, you can test whether there was a match with a simple ‘if’
statement:

     if match := re.search(pattern, string):
         process(match)

 -- Κλάση: re.Match

     Match object returned by successful ‘match’es and ‘search’es.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note re.Match: 1085. supports ‘[]’ to
     indicate a Unicode (str) or bytes match.  See *note Τύπος Generic
     Alias: a9f.

 -- Μέθοδος: Match.expand (template)

     Return the string obtained by doing backslash substitution on the
     template string 'template', as done by the *note sub(): 2996.
     method.  Escapes such as ‘\n’ are converted to the appropriate
     characters, and numeric backreferences (‘\1’, ‘\2’) and named
     backreferences (‘\g<1>’, ‘\g<name>’) are replaced by the contents
     of the corresponding group.  The backreference ‘\g<0>’ will be
     replaced by the entire match.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Unmatched groups are replaced with an empty
     string.

 -- Μέθοδος: Match.group ([group1, ...])

     Returns one or more subgroups of the match.  If there is a single
     argument, the result is a single string; if there are multiple
     arguments, the result is a tuple with one item per argument.
     Without arguments, 'group1' defaults to zero (the whole match is
     returned).  If a 'groupN' argument is zero, the corresponding
     return value is the entire matching string; if it is a positive
     integer, it is the string matching the corresponding parenthesized
     group.  If a group number is negative or larger than the number of
     groups defined in the pattern, an *note IndexError: 18d7. exception
     is raised.  If a group is contained in a part of the pattern that
     did not match, the corresponding result is ‘None’.  If a group is
     contained in a part of the pattern that matched multiple times, the
     last match is returned.

          >>> m = re.search(r"\A(\w+) (\w+)", "Norwegian Blue, pining for the fjords")
          >>> m.group(0)       # The entire match
          'Norwegian Blue'
          >>> m.group(1)       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
          'Norwegian'
          >>> m.group(2)       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
          'Blue'
          >>> m.group(1, 2)    # Multiple arguments give us a tuple.
          ('Norwegian', 'Blue')

     If the regular expression uses the ‘(?P<name>...)’ syntax, the
     'groupN' arguments may also be strings identifying groups by their
     group name.  If a string argument is not used as a group name in
     the pattern, an *note IndexError: 18d7. exception is raised.

     A moderately complicated example:

          >>> m = re.search(r"(?P<adjective>\w+) (?P<animal>\w+)", "killer rabbit")
          >>> m.group('adjective')
          'killer'
          >>> m.group('animal')
          'rabbit'

     Named groups can also be referred to by their index:

          >>> m.group(1)
          'killer'
          >>> m.group(2)
          'rabbit'

     If a group matches multiple times, only the last match is
     accessible:

          >>> m = re.search(r"(..)+", "a1b2c3")  # Matches 3 times.
          >>> m.group(1)                         # Returns only the last match.
          'c3'

 -- Μέθοδος: Match.__getitem__ (g)

     This is identical to ‘m.group(g)’.  This allows easier access to an
     individual group from a match:

          >>> m = re.search(r"(\w+) (\w+)", "Norwegian Blue, pining for the fjords")
          >>> m[0]       # The entire match
          'Norwegian Blue'
          >>> m[1]       # The first parenthesized subgroup.
          'Norwegian'
          >>> m[2]       # The second parenthesized subgroup.
          'Blue'

     Named groups are supported as well:

          >>> m = re.search(r"(?P<adjective>\w+) (?P<animal>\w+)", "killer rabbit")
          >>> m['adjective']
          'killer'
          >>> m['animal']
          'rabbit'

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Μέθοδος: Match.groups (default=None)

     Return a tuple containing all the subgroups of the match, from 1 up
     to however many groups are in the pattern.  The 'default' argument
     is used for groups that did not participate in the match; it
     defaults to ‘None’.

     For example:

          >>> m = re.search(r"(\d+)\.(\d+)", "24.1632")
          >>> m.groups()
          ('24', '1632')

     If we make the decimal place and everything after it optional, not
     all groups might participate in the match.  These groups will
     default to ‘None’ unless the 'default' argument is given:

          >>> m = re.search(r"(\d+)\.?(\d+)?", "24")
          >>> m.groups()      # Second group defaults to None.
          ('24', None)
          >>> m.groups('0')   # Now, the second group defaults to '0'.
          ('24', '0')

 -- Μέθοδος: Match.groupdict (default=None)

     Return a dictionary containing all the 'named' subgroups of the
     match, keyed by the subgroup name.  The 'default' argument is used
     for groups that did not participate in the match; it defaults to
     ‘None’.  For example:

          >>> m = re.search(r"(?P<adjective>\w+) (?P<animal>\w+)", "killer rabbit")
          >>> m.groupdict()
          {'adjective': 'killer', 'animal': 'rabbit'}

 -- Μέθοδος: Match.start ([group])
 -- Μέθοδος: Match.end ([group])

     Return the indices of the start and end of the substring matched by
     'group'; 'group' defaults to zero (meaning the whole matched
     substring).  Return ‘-1’ if 'group' exists but did not contribute
     to the match.  For a match object 'm', and a group 'g' that did
     contribute to the match, the substring matched by group 'g'
     (equivalent to ‘m.group(g)’) is

          m.string[m.start(g):m.end(g)]

     Note that ‘m.start(group)’ will equal ‘m.end(group)’ if 'group'
     matched a null string.  For example, after ‘m = re.search('b(c?)',
     'cba')’, ‘m.start(0)’ is 1, ‘m.end(0)’ is 2, ‘m.start(1)’ and
     ‘m.end(1)’ are both 2, and ‘m.start(2)’ raises an *note IndexError:
     18d7. exception.

     An example that will remove 'remove_this' from email addresses:

          >>> email = "tony@tiremove_thisger.net"
          >>> m = re.search("remove_this", email)
          >>> email[:m.start()] + email[m.end():]
          'tony@tiger.net'

 -- Μέθοδος: Match.span ([group])

     For a match 'm', return the 2-tuple ‘(m.start(group),
     m.end(group))’.  Note that if 'group' did not contribute to the
     match, this is ‘(-1, -1)’.  'group' defaults to zero, the entire
     match.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Match.pos

     The value of 'pos' which was passed to the *note search(): 298e. or
     *note match(): 24d. method of a *note regex object: 1331.  This is
     the index into the string at which the RE engine started looking
     for a match.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Match.endpos

     The value of 'endpos' which was passed to the *note search(): 298e.
     or *note match(): 24d. method of a *note regex object: 1331.  This
     is the index into the string beyond which the RE engine will not
     go.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Match.lastindex

     The integer index of the last matched capturing group, or ‘None’ if
     no group was matched at all.  For example, the expressions ‘(a)b’,
     ‘((a)(b))’, and ‘((ab))’ will have ‘lastindex == 1’ if applied to
     the string ‘'ab'’, while the expression ‘(a)(b)’ will have
     ‘lastindex == 2’, if applied to the same string.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Match.lastgroup

     The name of the last matched capturing group, or ‘None’ if the
     group didn’t have a name, or if no group was matched at all.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Match.re

     The *note regular expression object: 1331. whose *note match():
     24d. or *note search(): 298e. method produced this match instance.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Match.string

     The string passed to *note match(): 24d. or *note search(): 298e.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added support of *note copy.copy(): 942. and
*note copy.deepcopy(): f2b.  Match objects are considered atomic.


File: python.info,  Node: Regular expression examples,  Prev: Match objects,  Up: re — Regular expression operations

5.7.3.8 Regular expression examples
...................................

* Menu:

* Checking for a pair::
* Simulating scanf(): Simulating scanf.
* search() vs. prefixmatch(): search vs prefixmatch.
* prefixmatch() vs. match(): prefixmatch vs match.
* Making a phonebook::
* Text munging::
* Finding all adverbs::
* Finding all adverbs and their positions::
* Raw string notation::
* Writing a tokenizer::


File: python.info,  Node: Checking for a pair,  Next: Simulating scanf,  Up: Regular expression examples

5.7.3.9 Checking for a pair
...........................

In this example, we’ll use the following helper function to display
match objects a little more gracefully:

     def displaymatch(match):
         if match is None:
             return None
         return '<Match: %r, groups=%r>' % (match.group(), match.groups())

Suppose you are writing a poker program where a player’s hand is
represented as a 5-character string with each character representing a
card, «a» for ace, «k» for king, «q» for queen, «j» for jack, «t» for
10, and «2» through «9» representing the card with that value.

To see if a given string is a valid hand, one could do the following:

     >>> valid_hand_re = re.compile(r"^[a2-9tjqk]{5}$")
     >>> displaymatch(valid_hand_re.search("akt5q"))  # Valid.
     "<Match: 'akt5q', groups=()>"
     >>> displaymatch(valid_hand_re.search("akt5e"))  # Invalid.
     >>> displaymatch(valid_hand_re.search("akt"))    # Invalid.
     >>> displaymatch(valid_hand_re.search("727ak"))  # Valid.
     "<Match: '727ak', groups=()>"

That last hand, ‘"727ak"’, contained a pair, or two of the same valued
cards.  To match this with a regular expression, one could use
backreferences as such:

     >>> pair_re = re.compile(r".*(.).*\1")
     >>> displaymatch(pair_re.prefixmatch("717ak"))     # Pair of 7s.
     "<Match: '717', groups=('7',)>"
     >>> displaymatch(pair_re.prefixmatch("718ak"))     # No pairs.
     >>> displaymatch(pair_re.prefixmatch("354aa"))     # Pair of aces.
     "<Match: '354aa', groups=('a',)>"

To find out what card the pair consists of, one could use the *note
group(): 13d3. method of the match object in the following manner:

     >>> pair_re = re.compile(r".*(.).*\1")
     >>> pair_re.prefixmatch("717ak").group(1)
     '7'

     # Error because prefixmatch() returns None, which doesn't have a group() method:
     >>> pair_re.prefixmatch("718ak").group(1)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#23>", line 1, in <module>
         pair_re.prefixmatch("718ak").group(1)
     AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'group'

     >>> pair_re.prefixmatch("354aa").group(1)
     'a'


File: python.info,  Node: Simulating scanf,  Next: search vs prefixmatch,  Prev: Checking for a pair,  Up: Regular expression examples

5.7.3.10 Simulating scanf()
...........................

Python does not currently have an equivalent to ‘scanf()’.  Regular
expressions are generally more powerful, though also more verbose, than
‘scanf()’ format strings.  The table below offers some more-or-less
equivalent mappings between ‘scanf()’ format tokens and regular
expressions.

‘scanf()’ Token                      Regular Expression
                                     
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
‘%c’                                 ‘.’
                                     
                                     
‘%5c’                                ‘.{5}’
                                     
                                     
‘%d’                                 ‘[-+]?\d+’
                                     
                                     
‘%e’, ‘%E’, ‘%f’, ‘%g’               ‘[-+]?(\d+(\.\d*)?|\.\d+)([eE][-+]?\d+)?’
                                     
                                     
‘%i’                                 ‘[-+]?(0[xX][\dA-Fa-f]+|0[0-7]*|\d+)’
                                     
                                     
‘%o’                                 ‘[-+]?[0-7]+’
                                     
                                     
‘%s’                                 ‘\S+’
                                     
                                     
‘%u’                                 ‘\d+’
                                     
                                     
‘%x’, ‘%X’                           ‘[-+]?(0[xX])?[\dA-Fa-f]+’
                                     

To extract the filename and numbers from a string like:

     /usr/sbin/sendmail - 0 errors, 4 warnings

you would use a ‘scanf()’ format like:

     %s - %d errors, %d warnings

The equivalent regular expression would be:

     (\S+) - (\d+) errors, (\d+) warnings


File: python.info,  Node: search vs prefixmatch,  Next: prefixmatch vs match,  Prev: Simulating scanf,  Up: Regular expression examples

5.7.3.11 search() vs. prefixmatch()
...................................

Python offers different primitive operations based on regular
expressions:

   + *note re.prefixmatch(): 24a. checks for a match only at the
     beginning of the string

   + *note re.search(): 15d3. checks for a match anywhere in the string
     (this is what Perl does by default)

   + *note re.fullmatch(): 132f. checks for entire string to be a match

For example:

     >>> re.prefixmatch("c", "abcdef")  # No match
     >>> re.search("c", "abcdef")       # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(2, 3), match='c'>
     >>> re.fullmatch("p.*n", "python") # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 6), match='python'>
     >>> re.fullmatch("r.*n", "python") # No match

Regular expressions beginning with ‘'^'’ can be used with *note
search(): 15d3. to restrict the match at the beginning of the string:

     >>> re.prefixmatch("c", "abcdef")  # No match
     >>> re.search("^c", "abcdef")      # No match
     >>> re.search("^a", "abcdef")      # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='a'>

Note however that in *note MULTILINE: 297e. mode *note prefixmatch():
24a. only matches at the beginning of the string, whereas using *note
search(): 15d3. with a regular expression beginning with ‘'^'’ will
match at the beginning of each line.

     >>> re.prefixmatch("X", "A\nB\nX", re.MULTILINE)  # No match
     >>> re.search("^X", "A\nB\nX", re.MULTILINE)  # Match
     <re.Match object; span=(4, 5), match='X'>


File: python.info,  Node: prefixmatch vs match,  Next: Making a phonebook,  Prev: search vs prefixmatch,  Up: Regular expression examples

5.7.3.12 prefixmatch() vs. match()
..................................

Why is the *note match(): 24c. function and method discouraged in favor
of the longer *note prefixmatch(): 24a. spelling?

Many other languages have gained regex support libraries since regular
expressions were added to Python.  However in the most popular of those,
they use the term 'match' in their APIs to mean the unanchored behavior
provided in Python by *note search(): 15d3.  Thus use of the plain term
'match' can be unclear to those used to other languages when reading or
writing code and not familiar with the Python API’s divergence from what
otherwise become the industry norm.

Quoting from the Zen Of Python (‘python3 -m this’): '«Explicit is better
than implicit»'.  Anyone reading the name ‘prefixmatch()’ is likely to
understand the intended semantics.  When reading ‘match()’ there remains
a seed of doubt about the intended behavior to anyone not already
familiar with this old Python gotcha.

We 'do not' plan to remove the older ‘match()’ name, as it has been used
in code for over 30 years.  It has been *note soft deprecated: 1a7.:
code supporting older versions of Python should continue to use
‘match()’, while new code should prefer ‘prefixmatch()’.

Added in version 3.15: ‘prefixmatch()’

*note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15: ‘match()’


File: python.info,  Node: Making a phonebook,  Next: Text munging,  Prev: prefixmatch vs match,  Up: Regular expression examples

5.7.3.13 Making a phonebook
...........................

*note split(): 7a0. splits a string into a list delimited by the passed
pattern.  The method is invaluable for converting textual data into data
structures that can be easily read and modified by Python as
demonstrated in the following example that creates a phonebook.

First, here is the input.  Normally it may come from a file, here we are
using triple-quoted string syntax

     >>> text = """Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street
     ...
     ... Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue
     ... Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way
     ...
     ...
     ... Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place"""

The entries are separated by one or more newlines.  Now we convert the
string into a list with each nonempty line having its own entry:

     >>> entries = re.split("\n+", text)
     >>> entries
     ['Ross McFluff: 834.345.1254 155 Elm Street',
     'Ronald Heathmore: 892.345.3428 436 Finley Avenue',
     'Frank Burger: 925.541.7625 662 South Dogwood Way',
     'Heather Albrecht: 548.326.4584 919 Park Place']

Finally, split each entry into a list with first name, last name,
telephone number, and address.  We use the ‘maxsplit’ parameter of *note
split(): 7a0. because the address has spaces, our splitting pattern, in
it:

     >>> [re.split(":? ", entry, maxsplit=3) for entry in entries]
     [['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155 Elm Street'],
     ['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436 Finley Avenue'],
     ['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662 South Dogwood Way'],
     ['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919 Park Place']]

The ‘:?’ pattern matches the colon after the last name, so that it does
not occur in the result list.  With a ‘maxsplit’ of ‘4’, we could
separate the house number from the street name:

     >>> [re.split(":? ", entry, maxsplit=4) for entry in entries]
     [['Ross', 'McFluff', '834.345.1254', '155', 'Elm Street'],
     ['Ronald', 'Heathmore', '892.345.3428', '436', 'Finley Avenue'],
     ['Frank', 'Burger', '925.541.7625', '662', 'South Dogwood Way'],
     ['Heather', 'Albrecht', '548.326.4584', '919', 'Park Place']]


File: python.info,  Node: Text munging,  Next: Finding all adverbs,  Prev: Making a phonebook,  Up: Regular expression examples

5.7.3.14 Text munging
.....................

*note sub(): 7a1. replaces every occurrence of a pattern with a string
or the result of a function.  This example demonstrates using ‘sub()’
with a function to «munge» text, or randomize the order of all the
characters in each word of a sentence except for the first and last
characters:

     >>> def repl(m):
     ...     inner_word = list(m.group(2))
     ...     random.shuffle(inner_word)
     ...     return m.group(1) + "".join(inner_word) + m.group(3)
     ...
     >>> text = "Professor Abdolmalek, please report your absences promptly."
     >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
     'Poefsrosr Aealmlobdk, pslaee reorpt your abnseces plmrptoy.'
     >>> re.sub(r"(\w)(\w+)(\w)", repl, text)
     'Pofsroser Aodlambelk, plasee reoprt yuor asnebces potlmrpy.'


File: python.info,  Node: Finding all adverbs,  Next: Finding all adverbs and their positions,  Prev: Text munging,  Up: Regular expression examples

5.7.3.15 Finding all adverbs
............................

*note findall(): 13d2. matches 'all' occurrences of a pattern, not just
the first one as *note search(): 15d3. does.  For example, if a writer
wanted to find all of the adverbs in some text, they might use
‘findall()’ in the following manner:

     >>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
     >>> re.findall(r"\w+ly\b", text)
     ['carefully', 'quickly']


File: python.info,  Node: Finding all adverbs and their positions,  Next: Raw string notation,  Prev: Finding all adverbs,  Up: Regular expression examples

5.7.3.16 Finding all adverbs and their positions
................................................

If one wants more information about all matches of a pattern than the
matched text, *note finditer(): 189c. is useful as it provides *note
Match: 1085. objects instead of strings.  Continuing with the previous
example, if a writer wanted to find all of the adverbs 'and their
positions' in some text, they would use ‘finditer()’ in the following
manner:

     >>> text = "He was carefully disguised but captured quickly by police."
     >>> for m in re.finditer(r"\w+ly\b", text):
     ...     print('%02d-%02d: %s' % (m.start(), m.end(), m.group(0)))
     07-16: carefully
     40-47: quickly


File: python.info,  Node: Raw string notation,  Next: Writing a tokenizer,  Prev: Finding all adverbs and their positions,  Up: Regular expression examples

5.7.3.17 Raw string notation
............................

Raw string notation (‘r"text"’) keeps regular expressions sane.  Without
it, every backslash (‘'\'’) in a regular expression would have to be
prefixed with another one to escape it.  For example, the two following
lines of code are functionally identical:

     >>> re.search(r"\W(.)\1\W", " ff ")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>
     >>> re.search("\\W(.)\\1\\W", " ff ")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match=' ff '>

When one wants to match a literal backslash, it must be escaped in the
regular expression.  With raw string notation, this means ‘r"\\"’.
Without raw string notation, one must use ‘"\\\\"’, making the following
lines of code functionally identical:

     >>> re.search(r"\\", r"\\")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>
     >>> re.search("\\\\", r"\\")
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 1), match='\\'>


File: python.info,  Node: Writing a tokenizer,  Prev: Raw string notation,  Up: Regular expression examples

5.7.3.18 Writing a tokenizer
............................

A tokenizer or scanner(1) analyzes a string to categorize groups of
characters.  This is a useful first step in writing a compiler or
interpreter.

The text categories are specified with regular expressions.  The
technique is to combine those into a single master regular expression
and to loop over successive matches:

     from typing import NamedTuple
     import re

     class Token(NamedTuple):
         type: str
         value: int | float | str
         line: int
         column: int

     def tokenize(code):
         keywords = {'IF', 'THEN', 'ENDIF', 'FOR', 'NEXT', 'GOSUB', 'RETURN'}
         token_specification = [
             ('NUMBER',   r'\d+(\.\d*)?'),  # Integer or decimal number
             ('ASSIGN',   r':='),           # Assignment operator
             ('END',      r';'),            # Statement terminator
             ('ID',       r'[A-Za-z]+'),    # Identifiers
             ('OP',       r'[+\-*/]'),      # Arithmetic operators
             ('NEWLINE',  r'\n'),           # Line endings
             ('SKIP',     r'[ \t]+'),       # Skip over spaces and tabs
             ('MISMATCH', r'.'),            # Any other character
         ]
         tok_regex = '|'.join('(?P<%s>%s)' % pair for pair in token_specification)
         line_num = 1
         line_start = 0
         for mo in re.finditer(tok_regex, code):
             kind = mo.lastgroup
             value = mo.group()
             column = mo.start() - line_start
             if kind == 'NUMBER':
                 value = float(value) if '.' in value else int(value)
             elif kind == 'ID' and value in keywords:
                 kind = value
             elif kind == 'NEWLINE':
                 line_start = mo.end()
                 line_num += 1
                 continue
             elif kind == 'SKIP':
                 continue
             elif kind == 'MISMATCH':
                 raise RuntimeError(f'{value!r} unexpected on line {line_num}')
             yield Token(kind, value, line_num, column)

     statements = '''
         IF quantity THEN
             total := total + price * quantity;
             tax := price * 0.05;
         ENDIF;
     '''

     for token in tokenize(statements):
         print(token)

The tokenizer produces the following output:

     Token(type='IF', value='IF', line=2, column=4)
     Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=2, column=7)
     Token(type='THEN', value='THEN', line=2, column=16)
     Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=8)
     Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=3, column=14)
     Token(type='ID', value='total', line=3, column=17)
     Token(type='OP', value='+', line=3, column=23)
     Token(type='ID', value='price', line=3, column=25)
     Token(type='OP', value='*', line=3, column=31)
     Token(type='ID', value='quantity', line=3, column=33)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=3, column=41)
     Token(type='ID', value='tax', line=4, column=8)
     Token(type='ASSIGN', value=':=', line=4, column=12)
     Token(type='ID', value='price', line=4, column=15)
     Token(type='OP', value='*', line=4, column=21)
     Token(type='NUMBER', value=0.05, line=4, column=23)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=4, column=27)
     Token(type='ENDIF', value='ENDIF', line=5, column=4)
     Token(type='END', value=';', line=5, column=9)

(Frie09) Friedl, Jeffrey.  Mastering Regular Expressions.  3rd ed.,
O’Reilly Media, 2009.  The third edition of the book no longer covers
Python at all, but the first edition covered writing good regular
expression patterns in great detail.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_analysis


File: python.info,  Node: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas,  Next: textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου,  Prev: re — Regular expression operations,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.7.4 ‘difflib’ — Helpers for computing deltas
----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/difflib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides classes and functions for comparing sequences.  It
can be used for example, for comparing files, and can produce
information about file differences in various formats, including HTML
and context and unified diffs.  For comparing directories and files, see
also, the *note filecmp: 5d. module.

 -- Κλάση: difflib.SequenceMatcher

     This is a flexible class for comparing pairs of sequences of any
     type, so long as the sequence elements are *note hashable: 183.
     The basic algorithm predates, and is a little fancier than, an
     algorithm published in the late 1980’s by Ratcliff and Obershelp
     under the hyperbolic name «gestalt pattern matching.» The idea is
     to find the longest contiguous matching subsequence that contains
     no «junk» elements; these «junk» elements are ones that are
     uninteresting in some sense, such as blank lines or whitespace.
     (Handling junk is an extension to the Ratcliff and Obershelp
     algorithm.)  The same idea is then applied recursively to the
     pieces of the sequences to the left and to the right of the
     matching subsequence.  This does not yield minimal edit sequences,
     but does tend to yield matches that «look right» to people.

     'Timing:' The basic Ratcliff-Obershelp algorithm is cubic time in
     the worst case and quadratic time in the expected case.  *note
     SequenceMatcher: 13c2. is quadratic time for the worst case and has
     expected-case behavior dependent in a complicated way on how many
     elements the sequences have in common; best case time is linear.

     'Automatic junk heuristic:' *note SequenceMatcher: 13c2. supports a
     heuristic that automatically treats certain sequence items as junk.
     The heuristic counts how many times each individual item appears in
     the sequence.  If an item’s duplicates (after the first one)
     account for more than 1% of the sequence and the sequence is at
     least 200 items long, this item is marked as «popular» and is
     treated as junk for the purpose of sequence matching.  This
     heuristic can be turned off by setting the ‘autojunk’ argument to
     ‘False’ when creating the ‘SequenceMatcher’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'autojunk' parameter.

 -- Κλάση: difflib.Differ

     This is a class for comparing sequences of lines of text, and
     producing human-readable differences or deltas.  Differ uses *note
     SequenceMatcher: 13c2. both to compare sequences of lines, and to
     compare sequences of characters within similar (near-matching)
     lines.

     Each line of a ‘Differ’ delta begins with a two-letter code:

     Code           Meaning
                    
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     ‘'- '’         line unique to sequence 1
                    
                    
     ‘'+ '’         line unique to sequence 2
                    
                    
     ‘' '’          line common to both sequences
                    
                    
     ‘'? '’         line not present in either input sequence
                    

     Lines beginning with “‘?’” attempt to guide the eye to intraline
     differences, and were not present in either input sequence.  These
     lines can be confusing if the sequences contain whitespace
     characters, such as spaces, tabs or line breaks.

 -- Κλάση: difflib.HtmlDiff

     This class can be used to create an HTML table (or a complete HTML
     file containing the table) showing a side by side, line by line
     comparison of text with inter-line and intra-line change
     highlights.  The table can be generated in either full or
     contextual difference mode.

     The constructor for this class is:

      -- Μέθοδος: __init__ (tabsize=8, wrapcolumn=None, linejunk=None,
               charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)

          Initializes instance of ‘HtmlDiff’.

          'tabsize' is an optional keyword argument to specify tab stop
          spacing and defaults to ‘8’.

          'wrapcolumn' is an optional keyword to specify column number
          where lines are broken and wrapped, defaults to ‘None’ where
          lines are not wrapped.

          'linejunk' and 'charjunk' are optional keyword arguments
          passed into *note ndiff(): 29b9. (used by ‘HtmlDiff’ to
          generate the side by side HTML differences).  See ‘ndiff()’
          documentation for argument default values and descriptions.

     The following methods are public:

      -- Μέθοδος: make_file (fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='', todesc='',
               context=False, numlines=5, *, charset='utf-8')

          Compares 'fromlines' and 'tolines' (lists of strings) and
          returns a string which is a complete HTML file containing a
          table showing line by line differences with inter-line and
          intra-line changes highlighted.

          'fromdesc' and 'todesc' are optional keyword arguments to
          specify from/to file column header strings (both default to an
          empty string).

          'context' and 'numlines' are both optional keyword arguments.
          Set 'context' to ‘True’ when contextual differences are to be
          shown, else the default is ‘False’ to show the full files.
          'numlines' defaults to ‘5’.  When 'context' is ‘True’
          'numlines' controls the number of context lines which surround
          the difference highlights.  When 'context' is ‘False’
          'numlines' controls the number of lines which are shown before
          a difference highlight when using the «next» hyperlinks
          (setting to zero would cause the «next» hyperlinks to place
          the next difference highlight at the top of the browser
          without any leading context).

               Σημείωση: 'fromdesc' and 'todesc' are interpreted as
               unescaped HTML and should be properly escaped while
               receiving input from untrusted sources.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: 'charset' keyword-only argument was
          added.  The default charset of HTML document changed from
          ‘'ISO-8859-1'’ to ‘'utf-8'’.

      -- Μέθοδος: make_table (fromlines, tolines, fromdesc='',
               todesc='', context=False, numlines=5)

          Compares 'fromlines' and 'tolines' (lists of strings) and
          returns a string which is a complete HTML table showing line
          by line differences with inter-line and intra-line changes
          highlighted.

          The arguments for this method are the same as those for the
          *note make_file(): 11a8. method.

 -- Συνάρτηση: difflib.context_diff (a, b, fromfile='', tofile='',
          fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\n')

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of strings); return a delta (a *note
     generator: 1409. generating the delta lines) in context diff
     format.

     Context diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have
     changed plus a few lines of context.  The changes are shown in a
     before/after style.  The number of context lines is set by 'n'
     which defaults to three.

     By default, the diff control lines (those with ‘***’ or ‘---’) are
     created with a trailing newline.  This is helpful so that inputs
     created from *note io.IOBase.readlines(): 29bb. result in diffs
     that are suitable for use with *note io.IOBase.writelines(): 197c.
     since both the inputs and outputs have trailing newlines.

     For inputs that do not have trailing newlines, set the 'lineterm'
     argument to ‘""’ so that the output will be uniformly newline free.

     The context diff format normally has a header for filenames and
     modification times.  Any or all of these may be specified using
     strings for 'fromfile', 'tofile', 'fromfiledate', and 'tofiledate'.
     The modification times are normally expressed in the ISO 8601
     format.  If not specified, the strings default to blanks.

          >>> import sys
          >>> from difflib import *
          >>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> sys.stdout.writelines(context_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py',
          ...                        tofile='after.py'))
          *** before.py
          --- after.py
          ***************
          *** 1,4 ****
          ! bacon
          ! eggs
          ! ham
            guido
          --- 1,4 ----
          ! python
          ! eggy
          ! hamster
            guido

     See *note A command-line interface to difflib: 29bc. for a more
     detailed example.

 -- Συνάρτηση: difflib.get_close_matches (word, possibilities, n=3,
          cutoff=0.6)

     Return a list of the best «good enough» matches.  'word' is a
     sequence for which close matches are desired (typically a string),
     and 'possibilities' is a list of sequences against which to match
     'word' (typically a list of strings).

     Optional argument 'n' (default ‘3’) is the maximum number of close
     matches to return; 'n' must be greater than ‘0’.

     Optional argument 'cutoff' (default ‘0.6’) is a float in the range
     [0, 1].  Possibilities that don’t score at least that similar to
     'word' are ignored.

     The best (no more than 'n') matches among the possibilities are
     returned in a list, sorted by similarity score, most similar first.

          >>> get_close_matches('appel', ['ape', 'apple', 'peach', 'puppy'])
          ['apple', 'ape']
          >>> import keyword
          >>> get_close_matches('wheel', keyword.kwlist)
          ['while']
          >>> get_close_matches('pineapple', keyword.kwlist)
          []
          >>> get_close_matches('accept', keyword.kwlist)
          ['except']

 -- Συνάρτηση: difflib.ndiff (a, b, linejunk=None,
          charjunk=IS_CHARACTER_JUNK)

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of strings); return a *note Differ:
     29b7.-style delta (a *note generator: 1409. generating the delta
     lines).

     Optional keyword parameters 'linejunk' and 'charjunk' are filtering
     functions (or ‘None’):

     'linejunk': A function that accepts a single string argument, and
     returns true if the string is junk, or false if not.  The default
     is ‘None’.  There is also a module-level function *note
     IS_LINE_JUNK(): 552, which filters out lines without visible
     characters, except for at most one hash character (‘'#'’) – however
     the underlying *note SequenceMatcher: 13c2. class does a dynamic
     analysis of which lines are so frequent as to constitute noise, and
     this usually works better than using this function.

     'charjunk': A function that accepts a character (a string of length
     1), and returns if the character is junk, or false if not.  The
     default is module-level function *note IS_CHARACTER_JUNK(): 29bd,
     which filters out whitespace characters (a blank or tab; it’s a bad
     idea to include newline in this!).

          >>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
          ...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
          >>> print(''.join(diff), end="")
          - one
          ?  ^
          + ore
          ?  ^
          - two
          - three
          ?  -
          + tree
          + emu

 -- Συνάρτηση: difflib.restore (sequence, which)

     Return one of the two sequences that generated a delta.

     Given a 'sequence' produced by *note Differ.compare(): 29bf. or
     *note ndiff(): 29b9, extract lines originating from file 1 or 2
     (parameter 'which'), stripping off line prefixes.

     Example:

          >>> diff = ndiff('one\ntwo\nthree\n'.splitlines(keepends=True),
          ...              'ore\ntree\nemu\n'.splitlines(keepends=True))
          >>> diff = list(diff) # materialize the generated delta into a list
          >>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 1)), end="")
          one
          two
          three
          >>> print(''.join(restore(diff, 2)), end="")
          ore
          tree
          emu

 -- Συνάρτηση: difflib.unified_diff (a, b, fromfile='', tofile='',
          fromfiledate='', tofiledate='', n=3, lineterm='\n', *,
          color=False)

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of strings); return a delta (a *note
     generator: 1409. generating the delta lines) in unified diff
     format.

     Unified diffs are a compact way of showing just the lines that have
     changed plus a few lines of context.  The changes are shown in an
     inline style (instead of separate before/after blocks).  The number
     of context lines is set by 'n' which defaults to three.

     By default, the diff control lines (those with ‘---’, ‘+++’, or
     ‘@@’) are created with a trailing newline.  This is helpful so that
     inputs created from *note io.IOBase.readlines(): 29bb. result in
     diffs that are suitable for use with *note io.IOBase.writelines():
     197c. since both the inputs and outputs have trailing newlines.

     For inputs that do not have trailing newlines, set the 'lineterm'
     argument to ‘""’ so that the output will be uniformly newline free.

     Set 'color' to ‘True’ to enable output in color, similar to ‘git
     diff --color’.  Even if enabled, it can be *note controlled using
     environment variables: 1af.

     The unified diff format normally has a header for filenames and
     modification times.  Any or all of these may be specified using
     strings for 'fromfile', 'tofile', 'fromfiledate', and 'tofiledate'.
     The modification times are normally expressed in the ISO 8601
     format.  If not specified, the strings default to blanks.

          >>> s1 = ['bacon\n', 'eggs\n', 'ham\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> s2 = ['python\n', 'eggy\n', 'hamster\n', 'guido\n']
          >>> sys.stdout.writelines(unified_diff(s1, s2, fromfile='before.py', tofile='after.py'))
          --- before.py
          +++ after.py
          @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
          -bacon
          -eggs
          -ham
          +python
          +eggy
          +hamster
           guido

     See *note A command-line interface to difflib: 29bc. for a more
     detailed example.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'color' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: difflib.diff_bytes (dfunc, a, b, fromfile=b'',
          tofile=b'', fromfiledate=b'', tofiledate=b'', n=3,
          lineterm=b'\n')

     Compare 'a' and 'b' (lists of bytes objects) using 'dfunc'; yield a
     sequence of delta lines (also bytes) in the format returned by
     'dfunc'.  'dfunc' must be a callable, typically either *note
     unified_diff(): 213. or *note context_diff(): 1b97.

     Allows you to compare data with unknown or inconsistent encoding.
     All inputs except 'n' must be bytes objects, not str.  Works by
     losslessly converting all inputs (except 'n') to str, and calling
     ‘dfunc(a, b, fromfile, tofile, fromfiledate, tofiledate, n,
     lineterm)’.  The output of 'dfunc' is then converted back to bytes,
     so the delta lines that you receive have the same
     unknown/inconsistent encodings as 'a' and 'b'.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: difflib.IS_LINE_JUNK (line)

     Return ‘True’ for ignorable lines.  The line 'line' is ignorable if
     'line' is blank or contains a single ‘'#'’, otherwise it is not
     ignorable.  Used as a default for parameter 'linejunk' in *note
     ndiff(): 29b9. in older versions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: difflib.IS_CHARACTER_JUNK (ch)

     Return ‘True’ for ignorable characters.  The character 'ch' is
     ignorable if 'ch' is a space or tab, otherwise it is not ignorable.
     Used as a default for parameter 'charjunk' in *note ndiff(): 29b9.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Pattern Matching: The Gestalt Approach(2)

     Discussion of a similar algorithm by John W. Ratcliff and D. E.
     Metzener.  This was published in Dr.  Dobb’s Journal in July, 1988.

* Menu:

* SequenceMatcher objects::
* SequenceMatcher examples::
* Differ objects::
* Differ example::
* A command-line interface to difflib::
* ndiff example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/difflib.py

   (2) 
https://jacobfilipp.com/DrDobbs/articles/DDJ/1988/8807/8807c/8807c.htm


File: python.info,  Node: SequenceMatcher objects,  Next: SequenceMatcher examples,  Up: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

5.7.4.1 SequenceMatcher objects
...............................

The *note SequenceMatcher: 13c2. class has this constructor:

 -- Κλάση: difflib.SequenceMatcher (isjunk=None, a='', b='',
          autojunk=True)

     Optional argument 'isjunk' must be ‘None’ (the default) or a
     one-argument function that takes a sequence element and returns
     true if and only if the element is «junk» and should be ignored.
     Passing ‘None’ for 'isjunk' is equivalent to passing ‘lambda x:
     False’; in other words, no elements are ignored.  For example,
     pass:

          lambda x: x in " \t"

     if you’re comparing lines as sequences of characters, and don’t
     want to synch up on blanks or hard tabs.

     The optional arguments 'a' and 'b' are sequences to be compared;
     both default to empty strings.  The elements of both sequences must
     be *note hashable: 183.

     The optional argument 'autojunk' can be used to disable the
     automatic junk heuristic.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'autojunk' parameter.

     SequenceMatcher objects get three data attributes: 'bjunk' is the
     set of elements of 'b' for which 'isjunk' is ‘True’; 'bpopular' is
     the set of non-junk elements considered popular by the heuristic
     (if it is not disabled); 'b2j' is a dict mapping the remaining
     elements of 'b' to a list of positions where they occur.  All three
     are reset whenever 'b' is reset with *note set_seqs(): 29c2. or
     *note set_seq2(): 29c3.

     Added in version 3.2: The 'bjunk' and 'bpopular' attributes.

     ‘SequenceMatcher’ objects have the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: set_seqs (a, b)

          Set the two sequences to be compared.

     ‘SequenceMatcher’ computes and caches detailed information about
     the second sequence, so if you want to compare one sequence against
     many sequences, use *note set_seq2(): 29c3. to set the commonly
     used sequence once and call *note set_seq1(): 29c4. repeatedly,
     once for each of the other sequences.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_seq1 (a)

          Set the first sequence to be compared.  The second sequence to
          be compared is not changed.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_seq2 (b)

          Set the second sequence to be compared.  The first sequence to
          be compared is not changed.

      -- Μέθοδος: find_longest_match (alo=0, ahi=None, blo=0, bhi=None)

          Find longest matching block in ‘a[alo:ahi]’ and ‘b[blo:bhi]’.

          If 'isjunk' was omitted or ‘None’, ‘find_longest_match()’
          returns ‘(i, j, k)’ such that ‘a[i:i+k]’ is equal to
          ‘b[j:j+k]’, where ‘alo <= i <= i+k <= ahi’ and ‘blo <= j <=
          j+k <= bhi’.  For all ‘(i', j', k')’ meeting those conditions,
          the additional conditions ‘k >= k'’, ‘i <= i'’, and if ‘i ==
          i'’, ‘j <= j'’ are also met.  In other words, of all maximal
          matching blocks, return one that starts earliest in 'a', and
          of all those maximal matching blocks that start earliest in
          'a', return the one that starts earliest in 'b'.

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, " abcd", "abcd abcd")
               >>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
               Match(a=0, b=4, size=5)

          If 'isjunk' was provided, first the longest matching block is
          determined as above, but with the additional restriction that
          no junk element appears in the block.  Then that block is
          extended as far as possible by matching (only) junk elements
          on both sides.  So the resulting block never matches on junk
          except as identical junk happens to be adjacent to an
          interesting match.

          Here’s the same example as before, but considering blanks to
          be junk.  That prevents ‘' abcd'’ from matching the ‘' abcd'’
          at the tail end of the second sequence directly.  Instead only
          the ‘'abcd'’ can match, and matches the leftmost ‘'abcd'’ in
          the second sequence:

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x==" ", " abcd", "abcd abcd")
               >>> s.find_longest_match(0, 5, 0, 9)
               Match(a=1, b=0, size=4)

          If no blocks match, this returns ‘(alo, blo, 0)’.

          This method returns a *note named tuple: a3d. ‘Match(a, b,
          size)’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added default arguments.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_matching_blocks ()

          Return list of triples describing non-overlapping matching
          subsequences.  Each triple is of the form ‘(i, j, n)’, and
          means that ‘a[i:i+n] == b[j:j+n]’.  The triples are
          monotonically increasing in 'i' and 'j'.

          The last triple is a dummy, and has the value ‘(len(a),
          len(b), 0)’.  It is the only triple with ‘n == 0’.  If ‘(i, j,
          n)’ and ‘(i', j', n')’ are adjacent triples in the list, and
          the second is not the last triple in the list, then ‘i+n < i'’
          or ‘j+n < j'’; in other words, adjacent triples always
          describe non-adjacent equal blocks.

               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abxcd", "abcd")
               >>> s.get_matching_blocks()
               [Match(a=0, b=0, size=2), Match(a=3, b=2, size=2), Match(a=5, b=4, size=0)]

      -- Μέθοδος: get_opcodes ()

          Return list of 5-tuples describing how to turn 'a' into 'b'.
          Each tuple is of the form ‘(tag, i1, i2, j1, j2)’.  The first
          tuple has ‘i1 == j1 == 0’, and remaining tuples have 'i1'
          equal to the 'i2' from the preceding tuple, and, likewise,
          'j1' equal to the previous 'j2'.

          The 'tag' values are strings, with these meanings:

          Value               Meaning
                              
          ----------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
          ‘'replace'’         ‘a[i1:i2]’ should be replaced by ‘b[j1:j2]’.
                              
                              
          ‘'delete'’          ‘a[i1:i2]’ should be deleted.  Note that ‘j1 ==
                              j2’ in this case.
                              
                              
          ‘'insert'’          ‘b[j1:j2]’ should be inserted at ‘a[i1:i1]’.
                              Note that ‘i1 == i2’ in this case.
                              
                              
          ‘'equal'’           ‘a[i1:i2] == b[j1:j2]’ (the sub-sequences are
                              equal).
                              

          For example:

               >>> a = "qabxcd"
               >>> b = "abycdf"
               >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, a, b)
               >>> for tag, i1, i2, j1, j2 in s.get_opcodes():
               ...     print('{:7}   a[{}:{}] --> b[{}:{}] {!r:>8} --> {!r}'.format(
               ...         tag, i1, i2, j1, j2, a[i1:i2], b[j1:j2]))
               delete    a[0:1] --> b[0:0]      'q' --> ''
               equal     a[1:3] --> b[0:2]     'ab' --> 'ab'
               replace   a[3:4] --> b[2:3]      'x' --> 'y'
               equal     a[4:6] --> b[3:5]     'cd' --> 'cd'
               insert    a[6:6] --> b[5:6]       '' --> 'f'

      -- Μέθοδος: get_grouped_opcodes (n=3)

          Return a *note generator: 1409. of groups with up to 'n' lines
          of context.

          Starting with the groups returned by *note get_opcodes():
          29c6, this method splits out smaller change clusters and
          eliminates intervening ranges which have no changes.

          The groups are returned in the same format as *note
          get_opcodes(): 29c6.

      -- Μέθοδος: ratio ()

          Return a measure of the sequences” similarity as a float in
          the range [0, 1].

          Where T is the total number of elements in both sequences, and
          M is the number of matches, this is 2.0*M / T. Note that this
          is ‘1.0’ if the sequences are identical, and ‘0.0’ if they
          have nothing in common.

          This is expensive to compute if *note get_matching_blocks():
          29c5. or *note get_opcodes(): 29c6. hasn’t already been
          called, in which case you may want to try *note quick_ratio():
          29c9. or *note real_quick_ratio(): 29ca. first to get an upper
          bound.

               Σημείωση: Caution: The result of a ‘ratio()’ call may
               depend on the order of the arguments.  For instance:

                    >>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'tide', 'diet').ratio()
                    0.25
                    >>> SequenceMatcher(None, 'diet', 'tide').ratio()
                    0.5

      -- Μέθοδος: quick_ratio ()

          Return an upper bound on *note ratio(): 29c8. relatively
          quickly.

      -- Μέθοδος: real_quick_ratio ()

          Return an upper bound on *note ratio(): 29c8. very quickly.

The three methods that return the ratio of matching to total characters
can give different results due to differing levels of approximation,
although *note quick_ratio(): 29c9. and *note real_quick_ratio(): 29ca.
are always at least as large as *note ratio(): 29c8.:

     >>> s = SequenceMatcher(None, "abcd", "bcde")
     >>> s.ratio()
     0.75
     >>> s.quick_ratio()
     0.75
     >>> s.real_quick_ratio()
     1.0


File: python.info,  Node: SequenceMatcher examples,  Next: Differ objects,  Prev: SequenceMatcher objects,  Up: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

5.7.4.2 SequenceMatcher examples
................................

This example compares two strings, considering blanks to be «junk»:

     >>> s = SequenceMatcher(lambda x: x == " ",
     ...                     "private Thread currentThread;",
     ...                     "private volatile Thread currentThread;")

*note ratio(): 29c8. returns a float in [0, 1], measuring the similarity
of the sequences.  As a rule of thumb, a ‘ratio()’ value over 0.6 means
the sequences are close matches:

     >>> print(round(s.ratio(), 3))
     0.866

If you’re only interested in where the sequences match, *note
get_matching_blocks(): 29c5. is handy:

     >>> for block in s.get_matching_blocks():
     ...     print("a[%d] and b[%d] match for %d elements" % block)
     a[0] and b[0] match for 8 elements
     a[8] and b[17] match for 21 elements
     a[29] and b[38] match for 0 elements

Note that the last tuple returned by *note get_matching_blocks(): 29c5.
is always a dummy, ‘(len(a), len(b), 0)’, and this is the only case in
which the last tuple element (number of elements matched) is ‘0’.

If you want to know how to change the first sequence into the second,
use *note get_opcodes(): 29c6.:

     >>> for opcode in s.get_opcodes():
     ...     print("%6s a[%d:%d] b[%d:%d]" % opcode)
      equal a[0:8] b[0:8]
     insert a[8:8] b[8:17]
      equal a[8:29] b[17:38]

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * The *note get_close_matches(): 197d. function in this module which
     shows how simple code building on *note SequenceMatcher: 13c2. can
     be used to do useful work.

   * Simple version control recipe(1) for a small application built with
     *note SequenceMatcher: 13c2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576729-simple-version-control/


File: python.info,  Node: Differ objects,  Next: Differ example,  Prev: SequenceMatcher examples,  Up: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

5.7.4.3 Differ objects
......................

Note that *note Differ: 29b7.-generated deltas make no claim to be
'minimal' diffs.  To the contrary, minimal diffs are often
counter-intuitive, because they synch up anywhere possible, sometimes
accidental matches 100 pages apart.  Restricting synch points to
contiguous matches preserves some notion of locality, at the occasional
cost of producing a longer diff.

The *note Differ: 29b7. class has this constructor:

 -- Κλάση: difflib.Differ (linejunk=None, charjunk=None)

     Optional keyword parameters 'linejunk' and 'charjunk' are for
     filter functions (or ‘None’):

     'linejunk': A function that accepts a single string argument, and
     returns true if the string is junk.  The default is ‘None’, meaning
     that no line is considered junk.

     'charjunk': A function that accepts a single character argument (a
     string of length 1), and returns true if the character is junk.
     The default is ‘None’, meaning that no character is considered
     junk.

     These junk-filtering functions speed up matching to find
     differences and do not cause any differing lines or characters to
     be ignored.  Read the description of the *note
     find_longest_match(): 1f3f. method’s 'isjunk' parameter for an
     explanation.

     *note Differ: 29b7. objects are used (deltas generated) via a
     single method:

      -- Μέθοδος: compare (a, b)

          Compare two sequences of lines, and generate the delta (a
          sequence of lines).

          Each sequence must contain individual single-line strings
          ending with newlines.  Such sequences can be obtained from the
          *note readlines(): 29bb. method of file-like objects.  The
          delta generated also consists of newline-terminated strings,
          ready to be printed as-is via the *note writelines(): 197c.
          method of a file-like object.


File: python.info,  Node: Differ example,  Next: A command-line interface to difflib,  Prev: Differ objects,  Up: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

5.7.4.4 Differ example
......................

This example compares two texts.  First we set up the texts, sequences
of individual single-line strings ending with newlines (such sequences
can also be obtained from the *note readlines(): 29bb. method of
file-like objects):

     >>> text1 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     ...   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
     ...   3. Simple is better than complex.
     ...   4. Complex is better than complicated.
     ... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)
     >>> len(text1)
     4
     >>> text1[0][-1]
     '\n'
     >>> text2 = '''  1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     ...   3.   Simple is better than complex.
     ...   4. Complicated is better than complex.
     ...   5. Flat is better than nested.
     ... '''.splitlines(keepends=True)

Next we instantiate a Differ object:

     >>> d = Differ()

Note that when instantiating a *note Differ: 29b7. object we may pass
functions to filter out line and character «junk.» See the *note
Differ(): 29b7. constructor for details.

Finally, we compare the two:

     >>> result = list(d.compare(text1, text2))

‘result’ is a list of strings, so let’s pretty-print it:

     >>> from pprint import pprint
     >>> pprint(result)
     [
         '    1. Beautiful is better than ugly.\n',
         '-   2. Explicit is better than implicit.\n',
         '-   3. Simple is better than complex.\n',
         '+   3.   Simple is better than complex.\n',
         '?     ++\n',
         '-   4. Complex is better than complicated.\n',
         '?            ^                     ---- ^\n',
         '+   4. Complicated is better than complex.\n',
         '?           ++++ ^                      ^\n',
         '+   5. Flat is better than nested.\n',
     ]

As a single multi-line string it looks like this:

     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.stdout.writelines(result)
         1. Beautiful is better than ugly.
     -   2. Explicit is better than implicit.
     -   3. Simple is better than complex.
     +   3.   Simple is better than complex.
     ?     ++
     -   4. Complex is better than complicated.
     ?            ^                     ---- ^
     +   4. Complicated is better than complex.
     ?           ++++ ^                      ^
     +   5. Flat is better than nested.


File: python.info,  Node: A command-line interface to difflib,  Next: ndiff example,  Prev: Differ example,  Up: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

5.7.4.5 A command-line interface to difflib
...........................................

This example shows how to use difflib to create a ‘diff’-like utility.

     """ Command-line interface to difflib.py providing diffs in four formats:

     * ndiff:    lists every line and highlights interline changes.
     * context:  highlights clusters of changes in a before/after format.
     * unified:  highlights clusters of changes in an inline format.
     * html:     generates side by side comparison with change highlights.

     """

     import sys, os, difflib, argparse
     import datetime as dt

     def file_mtime(path):
         t = dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(os.stat(path).st_mtime,
                                       dt.timezone.utc)
         return t.astimezone().isoformat()

     def main():

         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         parser.add_argument('-c', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a context format diff (default)')
         parser.add_argument('-u', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a unified format diff')
         parser.add_argument('-m', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce HTML side by side diff '
                                  '(can use -c and -l in conjunction)')
         parser.add_argument('-n', action='store_true', default=False,
                             help='Produce a ndiff format diff')
         parser.add_argument('-l', '--lines', type=int, default=3,
                             help='Set number of context lines (default 3)')
         parser.add_argument('fromfile')
         parser.add_argument('tofile')
         options = parser.parse_args()

         n = options.lines
         fromfile = options.fromfile
         tofile = options.tofile

         fromdate = file_mtime(fromfile)
         todate = file_mtime(tofile)
         with open(fromfile) as ff:
             fromlines = ff.readlines()
         with open(tofile) as tf:
             tolines = tf.readlines()

         if options.u:
             diff = difflib.unified_diff(fromlines, tolines, fromfile, tofile, fromdate, todate, n=n)
         elif options.n:
             diff = difflib.ndiff(fromlines, tolines)
         elif options.m:
             diff = difflib.HtmlDiff().make_file(fromlines,tolines,fromfile,tofile,context=options.c,numlines=n)
         else:
             diff = difflib.context_diff(fromlines, tolines, fromfile, tofile, fromdate, todate, n=n)

         sys.stdout.writelines(diff)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: ndiff example,  Prev: A command-line interface to difflib,  Up: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

5.7.4.6 ndiff example
.....................

This example shows how to use *note difflib.ndiff(): 29b9.

     """ndiff [-q] file1 file2
         or
     ndiff (-r1 | -r2) < ndiff_output > file1_or_file2

     Print a human-friendly file difference report to stdout.  Both inter-
     and intra-line differences are noted.  In the second form, recreate file1
     (-r1) or file2 (-r2) on stdout, from an ndiff report on stdin.

     In the first form, if -q ("quiet") is not specified, the first two lines
     of output are

     -: file1
     +: file2

     Each remaining line begins with a two-letter code:

         "- "    line unique to file1
         "+ "    line unique to file2
         "  "    line common to both files
         "? "    line not present in either input file

     Lines beginning with "? " attempt to guide the eye to intraline
     differences, and were not present in either input file.  These lines can be
     confusing if the source files contain tab characters.

     The first file can be recovered by retaining only lines that begin with
     "  " or "- ", and deleting those 2-character prefixes; use ndiff with -r1.

     The second file can be recovered similarly, but by retaining only "  " and
     "+ " lines; use ndiff with -r2; or, on Unix, the second file can be
     recovered by piping the output through

         sed -n '/^[+ ] /s/^..//p'
     """

     __version__ = 1, 7, 0

     import difflib, sys

     def fail(msg):
         out = sys.stderr.write
         out(msg + "\n\n")
         out(__doc__)
         return 0

     # open a file & return the file object; gripe and return 0 if it
     # couldn't be opened
     def fopen(fname):
         try:
             return open(fname)
         except IOError as detail:
             return fail("couldn't open " + fname + ": " + str(detail))

     # open two files & spray the diff to stdout; return false iff a problem
     def fcompare(f1name, f2name):
         f1 = fopen(f1name)
         f2 = fopen(f2name)
         if not f1 or not f2:
             return 0

         a = f1.readlines(); f1.close()
         b = f2.readlines(); f2.close()
         for line in difflib.ndiff(a, b):
             print(line, end=' ')

         return 1

     # crack args (sys.argv[1:] is normal) & compare;
     # return false iff a problem

     def main(args):
         import getopt
         try:
             opts, args = getopt.getopt(args, "qr:")
         except getopt.error as detail:
             return fail(str(detail))
         noisy = 1
         qseen = rseen = 0
         for opt, val in opts:
             if opt == "-q":
                 qseen = 1
                 noisy = 0
             elif opt == "-r":
                 rseen = 1
                 whichfile = val
         if qseen and rseen:
             return fail("can't specify both -q and -r")
         if rseen:
             if args:
                 return fail("no args allowed with -r option")
             if whichfile in ("1", "2"):
                 restore(whichfile)
                 return 1
             return fail("-r value must be 1 or 2")
         if len(args) != 2:
             return fail("need 2 filename args")
         f1name, f2name = args
         if noisy:
             print('-:', f1name)
             print('+:', f2name)
         return fcompare(f1name, f2name)

     # read ndiff output from stdin, and print file1 (which=='1') or
     # file2 (which=='2') to stdout

     def restore(which):
         restored = difflib.restore(sys.stdin.readlines(), which)
         sys.stdout.writelines(restored)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main(sys.argv[1:])


File: python.info,  Node: textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου,  Next: unicodedata — Unicode Database,  Prev: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.7.5 ‘textwrap’ — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου
---------------------------------------------------

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/textwrap.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘textwrap’ module provides some convenience functions, as well as
*note TextWrapper: 1376, the class that does all the work.  If you’re
just wrapping or filling one or two text strings, the convenience
functions should be good enough; otherwise, you should use an instance
of ‘TextWrapper’ for efficiency.

 -- Συνάρτηση: textwrap.wrap (text, width=70, *, initial_indent='',
          subsequent_indent='', expand_tabs=True,
          replace_whitespace=True, fix_sentence_endings=False,
          break_long_words=True, drop_whitespace=True,
          break_on_hyphens=True, tabsize=8, max_lines=None,
          placeholder=' [...]')

     Περιτυλίγει την ενιαία παράγραφο στο 'text' (μία συμβολοσειρά) έτσι
     ώστε κάθε γραμμή να έχει το πολύ 'width' αριθμό χαρακτήρες.
     Επιστρέφει μια λίστα με τις γραμμές εξόδου, χωρίς τελικούς
     χαρακτήρες νέας γραμμής.

     Προαιρετικά ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών αντιστοιχούν στις ιδιότητες
     στιγμιότυπου της *note TextWrapper: 1376, που τεκμηριώνονται
     παρακάτω.

     Δείτε τη μέθοδο *note TextWrapper.wrap(): 29d6. για πρόσθετες
     λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με το πώς συμπεριφέρεται η *note wrap(): 1869.

 -- Συνάρτηση: textwrap.fill (text, width=70, *, initial_indent='',
          subsequent_indent='', expand_tabs=True,
          replace_whitespace=True, fix_sentence_endings=False,
          break_long_words=True, drop_whitespace=True,
          break_on_hyphens=True, tabsize=8, max_lines=None,
          placeholder=' [...]')

     Γεμίζει την ενιαία παράγραφο στο 'text' και επιστρέφει μια μοναδική
     συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει την γεμισμένη παράγραφο.  Η *note fill():
     1868. είναι συντομογραφία για

          "\n".join(wrap(text, ...))

     Συγκεκριμένα, η *note fill(): 1868. δέχεται ακριβώς τα ίδια
     ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών με την *note wrap(): 1869.

 -- Συνάρτηση: textwrap.shorten (text, width, *,
          fix_sentence_endings=False, break_long_words=True,
          break_on_hyphens=True, placeholder=' [...]')

     Συμπτύξτε και περικόψτε το δοθέν 'text' ώστε να χωράει στο δοθέν
     'width'.

     Αρχικά, ο χώρος στο 'text' συμπτύσσεται (όλος ο χώρος
     αντικαθίσταται με μονά κενά).  Αν το αποτέλεσμα χωράει στο 'width',
     επιστρέφεται.  Διαφορετικά, αρκετές λέξεις απορρίπτονται από το
     τέλος ώστε οι υπόλοιπες λέξεις συν το 'placeholder' να χωρούν μέσα
     στο 'width':

          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=12)
          'Hello world!'
          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello  world!", width=11)
          'Hello [...]'
          >>> textwrap.shorten("Hello world", width=10, placeholder="...")
          'Hello...'

     Προαιρετικά ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών αντιστοιχούν στις ιδιότητες
     στιγμιότυπου της *note TextWrapper: 1376, που τεκμηριώνονται
     παρακάτω.  Σημειώστε ότι ο χώρος συμπτύσσεται πριν το κείμενο
     περαστεί στη συνάρτηση *note fill(): 1868. της ‘TextWrapper’, έτσι
     ώστε η αλλαγή της τιμής των *note tabsize: 29d7, *note expand_tabs:
     29d8, *note drop_whitespace: 29d9. και *note replace_whitespace:
     29da. να μην έχει καμία επίδραση.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: textwrap.dedent (text)

     Αφαιρεί οποιοδήποτε κοινό αρχικό κενό από κάθε γραμμή στο 'text'.

     Αυτό μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να ευθυγραμμίσετε τις τριπλές
     παραθέσεις με την αριστερή άκρη της οθόνης, ενώ παρουσιάζονται στον
     πηγαίο κώδικα σε μορφή εσοχής.

     Σημειώστε ότι τα tab και τα κενά θεωρούνται και τα δύο ως κενό,
     αλλά δεν είναι ίσα: οι γραμμές ‘" hello"’ και ‘"\thello"’
     θεωρούνται ότι δεν έχουν κοινό αρχικό κενό.

     Οι γραμμές που περιέχουν μόνο κενό αγνοούνται στην είσοδο και
     κανονικοποιούνται σε έναν μόνο χαρακτήρα νέας γραμμής στην έξοδο.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          def test():
              # end first line with \ to avoid the empty line!
              s = '''\
              hello
                world
              '''
              print(repr(s))          # prints '    hello\n      world\n    '
              print(repr(dedent(s)))  # prints 'hello\n  world\n'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The ‘dedent()’ function now correctly
     normalizes blank lines containing only whitespace characters.
     Previously, the implementation only normalized blank lines
     containing tabs and spaces.

 -- Συνάρτηση: textwrap.indent (text, prefix, predicate=None)

     Προσθέτει το 'prefix' στην αρχή των επιλεγμένων γραμμών στο 'text'.

     Οι γραμμές διαχωρίζονται καλώντας ‘text.splitlines(True)’.

     Από προεπιλογή, το 'prefix' προστίθεται σε όλες τις γραμμές που δεν
     αποτελούνται μόνο από κενό (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των χαρακτήρων
     τέλους γραμμής).

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> s = 'hello\n\n \nworld'
          >>> indent(s, '  ')
          '  hello\n\n \n  world'

     Το προαιρετικό όρισμα 'predicate' μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για
     έλεγχο του ποια γραμμή θα έχει εσοχή.  Για παράδειγμα, είναι εύκολο
     να προσθέσετε το 'prefix' ακόμη και σε κενές γραμμές και γραμμές
     που περιέχουν μόνο κενό:

          >>> print(indent(s, '+ ', lambda line: True))
          + hello
          +
          +
          + world

     Added in version 3.3.

Οι *note wrap(): 1869, *note fill(): 1868. και *note shorten(): 1379.
λειτουργούν δημιουργώντας ένα στιγμιότυπο της *note TextWrapper: 1376.
και καλώντας μια μόνο μέθοδο σε αυτό.  Αυτό το στιγμιότυπο δεν
επαναχρησιμοποιείται, οπότε για εφαρμογές που επεξεργάζονται πολλά
κείμενα χρησιμοποιώντας ‘wrap()’ και/ή ‘fill()’, μπορεί να είναι πιο
αποδοτικό να δημιουργήσετε το δικό σας αντικείμενο ‘TextWrapper’.

Το κείμενο προτιμάται να περιτυλίγεται σε κενά και αμέσως μετά τις
παύλες σε λέξεις με παύλες· μόνο τότε θα σπάσουν οι μακριές λέξεις αν
είναι αναγκαίο, εκτός εάν η *note TextWrapper.break_long_words: 29db.
οριστεί σε false.

 -- Κλάση: textwrap.TextWrapper (**kwargs)

     Ο κατασκευαστής της *note TextWrapper: 1376. δέχεται αρκετά
     προαιρετικά ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών.  Κάθε όρισμα λέξης-κλειδιού
     αντιστοιχεί σε μια ιδιότητα στιγμιότυπου, οπότε για παράδειγμα

          wrapper = TextWrapper(initial_indent="* ")

     είναι το ίδιο με

          wrapper = TextWrapper()
          wrapper.initial_indent = "* "

     Μπορείτε να επαναχρησιμοποιήσετε το ίδιο αντικείμενο *note
     TextWrapper: 1376. πολλές φορές, και μπορείτε να αλλάξετε
     οποιαδήποτε από τις επιλογές του μέσω άμεσης ανάθεσης σε ιδιότητες
     στιγμιότυπου μεταξύ των χρήσεων.

     Οι ιδιότητες στιγμιότυπου της *note TextWrapper: 1376. (και τα
     ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών στον κατασκευαστή) είναι οι εξής:

      -- Ιδιότητα: width

          (προεπιλογή: ‘70’) Το μέγιστο μήκος των περιτυλιγμένων
          γραμμών.  Εφόσον δεν υπάρχουν μεμονωμένες λέξεις στο
          εισαγόμενο κείμενο μεγαλύτερες από *note width: 29dc, η *note
          TextWrapper: 1376. εγγυάται ότι καμία γραμμή εξόδου δεν θα
          είναι μεγαλύτερη από ‘width’ χαρακτήρες.

      -- Ιδιότητα: expand_tabs

          (προεπιλογή: ‘True’) Αν είναι true, τότε όλοι οι χαρακτήρες
          tab στο 'text' θα επεκταθούν σε κενά χρησιμοποιώντας τη μέθοδο
          *note expandtabs(): 283b. του 'text'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: tabsize

          (προεπιλογή: ‘8’) Αν *note expand_tabs: 29d8. είναι true, τότε
          όλοι οι χαρακτήρες tab στο 'text' θα επεκταθούν σε μηδέν ή
          περισσότερα κενά, ανάλογα με την τρέχουσα στήλη και το
          δεδομένο μέγεθος tab.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: replace_whitespace

          (προεπιλογή: ‘True’) Αν είναι true, μετά την επέκταση των tab
          αλλά πριν το περιτύλιγμα, η μέθοδος *note wrap(): 1869. θα
          αντικαταστήσει κάθε χαρακτήρα κενών με ένα μόνο κενό.  Οι
          χαρακτήρες κενών που αντικαθίστανται είναι οι εξής: tab, νέα
          γραμμή, κάθετος, τροφοδότης μορφής και carriage return
          (‘'\t\n\v\f\r'’).

               Σημείωση: (προεπιλογή: ‘True’) Αν το *note expand_tabs:
               29d8. είναι false και το *note replace_whitespace: 29da.
               είναι true, κάθε χαρακτήρας tab θα αντικατασταθεί από ένα
               μόνο κενό, το οποίο 'δεν είναι' το ίδιο με την επέκταση
               των tab.

               Σημείωση: Αν το *note replace_whitespace: 29da. είναι
               false, οι νέες γραμμές μπορεί να εμφανιστούν στη μέση
               μιας γραμμής και να προκαλέσουν παράξενα αποτελέσματα.
               Για αυτόν τον λόγο, το κείμενο θα πρέπει να διαχωρίζεται
               σε παραγράφους (χρησιμοποιώντας *note str.splitlines():
               15fb. ή παρόμοια) οι οποίες περιτυλίγονται ξεχωριστά.

      -- Ιδιότητα: drop_whitespace

          (προεπιλογή: ‘True’) Αν είναι true, το κενό στην αρχή και στο
          τέλος κάθε γραμμής (μετά το περιτύλιγμα αλλά πριν την εσοχή)
          αφαιρείται.  Το κενό στην αρχή της παραγράφου, ωστόσο, δεν
          αφαιρείται αν ακολουθείται από μη κενό.  Αν το κενό που
          αφαιρείται καταλαμβάνει ολόκληρη τη γραμμή, ολόκληρη η γραμμή
          αφαιρείται.

      -- Ιδιότητα: initial_indent

          (προεπιλογή: ‘''’) Συμβολοσειρά που θα προστεθεί στην αρχή της
          πρώτης γραμμής της περιτυλιγμένης εξόδου.  Μετράει προς το
          μήκος της πρώτης γραμμής.  Η κενή συμβολοσειρά δεν έχει εσοχή.

      -- Ιδιότητα: subsequent_indent

          (προεπιλογή: ‘''’) Συμβολοσειρά που θα προστεθεί στην αρχή
          όλων των γραμμών της περιτυλιγμένης εξόδου εκτός από την
          πρώτη.  Μετράει προς το μήκος κάθε γραμμής εκτός από την
          πρώτη.

      -- Ιδιότητα: fix_sentence_endings

          (προεπιλογή: ‘False’) Αν είναι true, η *note TextWrapper:
          1376. προσπαθεί να ανιχνεύσει τα τέλη προτάσεων και να
          διασφαλίσει ότι οι προτάσεις διαχωρίζονται πάντα από ακριβώς
          δύο κενά.  Αυτό είναι γενικά επιθυμητό για κείμενα σε
          γραμματοσειρά μονού διαστήματος.  Ωστόσο, ο αλγόριθμος
          ανίχνευσης προτάσεων δεν είναι τέλειος: υποθέτει ότι ένα τέλος
          πρότασης αποτελείται από ένα πεζό γράμμα ακολουθούμενο από ένα
          από τα ‘'.'’, ‘'!'’ ή ‘'?'’, πιθανώς ακολουθούμενο από ένα από
          τα ‘'"'’ ή ‘"'"’, ακολουθούμενο από ένα κενό.  Ένα πρόβλημα με
          αυτόν τον αλγόριθμο είναι ότι δεν μπορεί να ανιχνεύσει τη
          διαφορά μεταξύ «Dr.» στο

               [...] Dr. Frankenstein's monster [...]

          and «Spot.» in

               [...] See Spot. See Spot run [...]

          *note fix_sentence_endings: 29df. είναι false από προεπιλογή.

          Δεδομένου ότι ο αλγόριθμος ανίχνευσης προτάσεων βασίζεται στο
          ‘string.lowercase’ για τον ορισμό του «πεζού γράμματος», και
          μια σύμβαση χρήσης δύο κενών μετά από μια τελεία για τον
          διαχωρισμό των προτάσεων στην ίδια γραμμή, είναι συγκεκριμένος
          για κείμενα στα αγγλικά.

      -- Ιδιότητα: break_long_words

          (προεπιλογή: ‘True’) Αν είναι true, τότε οι λέξεις μεγαλύτερες
          από *note width: 29dc. θα σπάσουν για να διασφαλιστεί ότι
          καμία γραμμή δεν θα είναι μεγαλύτερη από ‘width’.  Αν είναι
          false, οι μακριές λέξεις δεν θα σπάσουν, και μερικές γραμμές
          μπορεί να είναι μεγαλύτερες από ‘width’.  (Οι μακριές λέξεις
          θα τοποθετηθούν σε μια γραμμή από μόνες τους, για να
          ελαχιστοποιηθεί το ποσό κατά το οποίο ξεπερνάται το ‘width’).

      -- Ιδιότητα: break_on_hyphens

          (προεπιλογή: ‘True’) Αν είναι true, το περιτύλιγμα θα
          συμβαίνει προτιμότερα σε κενά και αμέσως μετά τις παύλες σε
          σύνθετες λέξεις, όπως είναι συνηθισμένο στα αγγλικά.  Αν είναι
          false, μόνο τα κενά θα θεωρούνται ως πιθανές καλές θέσεις για
          διακοπές γραμμής, αλλά πρέπει να ορίσετε το *note
          break_long_words: 29db. σε false αν θέλετε πραγματικά
          αδιάσπαστες λέξεις.  Η προεπιλεγμένη συμπεριφορά στις
          προηγούμενες εκδόσεις ήταν να επιτρέπεται πάντα η διάσπαση των
          λέξεων με παύλες.

      -- Ιδιότητα: max_lines

          (προεπιλογή: ‘None’) Αν δεν είναι ‘None’, τότε η έξοδος θα
          περιέχει το πολύ 'max_lines' γραμμές, με το 'placeholder' να
          εμφανίζεται στο τέλος της εξόδου.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Ιδιότητα: placeholder

          (προεπιλογή: ‘' [...]'’) Συμβολοσειρά που θα εμφανίζεται στο
          τέλος του κειμένου εξόδου αν έχει περικοπεί.

          Added in version 3.4.

     Η *note TextWrapper: 1376. παρέχει επίσης μερικές δημόσιες
     μεθόδους, παρόμοιες με τις συναρτήσεις ευκολίας σε επίπεδο module:

      -- Μέθοδος: wrap (text)

          Περιτυλίγει την ενιαία παράγραφο στο 'text' (μία συμβολοσειρά)
          έτσι ώστε κάθε γραμμή να έχει το πολύ *note width: 29dc.
          χαρακτήρες.  Όλες οι επιλογές περιτυλίγματος λαμβάνονται από
          τις ιδιότητες στιγμιότυπου της *note TextWrapper: 1376.
          κλάσης.  Επιστρέφει μια λίστα με τις γραμμές εξόδου, χωρίς
          τελικούς χαρακτήρες νέας γραμμής.  Αν η περιτυλιγμένη έξοδος
          δεν έχει περιεχόμενο, η επιστρεφόμενη λίστα είναι κενή.

      -- Μέθοδος: fill (text)

          Γεμίζει την ενιαία παράγραφο στο 'text' και επιστρέφει μια
          μοναδική συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει την γεμισμένη παράγραφο.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/textwrap.py


File: python.info,  Node: unicodedata — Unicode Database,  Next: stringprep — Internet String Preparation,  Prev: textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.7.6 ‘unicodedata’ — Unicode Database
--------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the Unicode Character Database (UCD)
which defines character properties for all Unicode characters.  The data
contained in this database is compiled from the UCD version 17.0.0(1).

The module uses the same names and symbols as defined by Unicode
Standard Annex #44, "Unicode Character Database"(2).  It defines the
following functions:

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note Unicode HOWTO: 1649. for more information about Unicode and
how to use this module.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.lookup (name, /)

     Look up character by name.  If a character with the given name is
     found, return the corresponding character.  If not found, *note
     KeyError: 7df. is raised.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.lookup('LEFT CURLY BRACKET')
          '{'

     The characters returned by this function are the same as those
     produced by ‘\N’ escape sequence in string literals.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.lookup('MIDDLE DOT') == '\N{MIDDLE DOT}'
          True

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Support for name aliases (3) and named
     sequences (4) has been added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.name (chr, default=None, /)

     Returns the name assigned to the character 'chr' as a string.  If
     no name is defined, 'default' is returned, or, if not given, *note
     ValueError: 277. is raised.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.name('½')
          'VULGAR FRACTION ONE HALF'
          >>> unicodedata.name('\uFFFF', 'fallback')
          'fallback'

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.decimal (chr, default=None, /)

     Returns the decimal value assigned to the character 'chr' as
     integer.  If no such value is defined, 'default' is returned, or,
     if not given, *note ValueError: 277. is raised.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.decimal('\N{ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT NINE}')
          9
          >>> unicodedata.decimal('\N{SUPERSCRIPT NINE}', -1)
          -1

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.digit (chr, default=None, /)

     Returns the digit value assigned to the character 'chr' as integer.
     If no such value is defined, 'default' is returned, or, if not
     given, *note ValueError: 277. is raised:

          >>> unicodedata.digit('\N{SUPERSCRIPT NINE}')
          9

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.numeric (chr, default=None, /)

     Returns the numeric value assigned to the character 'chr' as float.
     If no such value is defined, 'default' is returned, or, if not
     given, *note ValueError: 277. is raised:

          >>> unicodedata.numeric('½')
          0.5

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.category (chr, /)

     Returns the general category assigned to the character 'chr' as
     string.  General category names consist of two letters.  See the
     General Category Values section of the Unicode Character Database
     documentation(5) for a list of category codes.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.category('A')  # 'L'etter, 'u'ppercase
          'Lu'

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.bidirectional (chr, /)

     Returns the bidirectional class assigned to the character 'chr' as
     string.  If no such value is defined, an empty string is returned.
     See the Bidirectional Class Values section of the Unicode Character
     Database(6) documentation for a list of bidirectional codes.  For
     example:

          >>> unicodedata.bidirectional('\N{ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT SEVEN}') # 'A'rabic, 'N'umber
          'AN'

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.combining (chr, /)

     Returns the canonical combining class assigned to the character
     'chr' as integer.  Returns ‘0’ if no combining class is defined.
     See the Canonical Combining Class Values section of the Unicode
     Character Database(7) for more information.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.east_asian_width (chr, /)

     Returns the east asian width assigned to the character 'chr' as
     string.  For a list of widths and or more information, see the
     Unicode Standard Annex #11(8).

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.block (chr, /)

     Returns the block(9) assigned to the character 'chr'.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.block('S')
          'Basic Latin'

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.mirrored (chr, /)

     Returns the mirrored property assigned to the character 'chr' as
     integer.  Returns ‘1’ if the character has been identified as a
     «mirrored» character in bidirectional text, ‘0’ otherwise.  For
     example:

          >>> unicodedata.mirrored('>')
          1

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.isxidstart (chr, /)

     Return ‘True’ if 'chr' is a valid identifier start per the Unicode
     Standard Annex #31(10), that is, it has the ‘XID_Start’ property.
     Return ‘False’ otherwise.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.isxidstart('S')
          True
          >>> unicodedata.isxidstart('0')
          False

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.isxidcontinue (chr, /)

     Return ‘True’ if 'chr' is a valid identifier character per the
     Unicode Standard Annex #31(11), that is, it has the ‘XID_Continue’
     property.  Return ‘False’ otherwise.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.isxidcontinue('S')
          True
          >>> unicodedata.isxidcontinue(' ')
          False

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.decomposition (chr, /)

     Returns the character decomposition mapping assigned to the
     character 'chr' as string.  An empty string is returned in case no
     such mapping is defined.  For example:

          >>> unicodedata.decomposition('Ã')
          '0041 0303'

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.grapheme_cluster_break (chr, /)

     Returns the Grapheme_Cluster_Break property assigned to the
     character.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.indic_conjunct_break (chr, /)

     Returns the Indic_Conjunct_Break property assigned to the
     character.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.extended_pictographic (chr, /)

     Returns ‘True’ if the character has the Extended_Pictographic
     property, ‘False’ otherwise.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.normalize (form, unistr, /)

     Return the normal form 'form' for the Unicode string 'unistr'.
     Valid values for 'form' are “NFC”, “NFKC”, “NFD”, and “NFKD”.

     The Unicode standard defines various normalization forms of a
     Unicode string, based on the definition of canonical equivalence
     and compatibility equivalence.  In Unicode, several characters can
     be expressed in various way.  For example, the character U+00C7
     (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA) can also be expressed as the
     sequence U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C) U+0327 (COMBINING
     CEDILLA).

     For each character, there are two normal forms: normal form C and
     normal form D. Normal form D (NFD) is also known as canonical
     decomposition, and translates each character into its decomposed
     form.  Normal form C (NFC) first applies a canonical decomposition,
     then composes pre-combined characters again.

     In addition to these two forms, there are two additional normal
     forms based on compatibility equivalence.  In Unicode, certain
     characters are supported which normally would be unified with other
     characters.  For example, U+2160 (ROMAN NUMERAL ONE) is really the
     same thing as U+0049 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I). However, it is
     supported in Unicode for compatibility with existing character sets
     (for example, gb2312).

     The normal form KD (NFKD) will apply the compatibility
     decomposition, that is, replace all compatibility characters with
     their equivalents.  The normal form KC (NFKC) first applies the
     compatibility decomposition, followed by the canonical composition.

     Even if two unicode strings are normalized and look the same to a
     human reader, if one has combining characters and the other
     doesn’t, they may not compare equal.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.is_normalized (form, unistr, /)

     Return whether the Unicode string 'unistr' is in the normal form
     'form'.  Valid values for 'form' are “NFC”, “NFKC”, “NFD”, and
     “NFKD”.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unicodedata.iter_graphemes (unistr, start=0,
          end=sys.maxsize, /)

     Returns an iterator to iterate over grapheme clusters.  With
     optional 'start', iteration begins at that position.  With optional
     'end', iteration stops at that position.

     Converting an emitted item to string returns a substring
     corresponding to the grapheme cluster.  Its ‘start’ and ‘end’
     attributes denote the start and end of the grapheme cluster.

     It uses extended grapheme cluster rules defined by Unicode Standard
     Annex #29, "Unicode Text Segmentation"(12).

     Added in version 3.15.

In addition, the module exposes the following constant:

 -- Δεδομένα: unicodedata.unidata_version

     The version of the Unicode database used in this module.

 -- Δεδομένα: unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0

     This is an object that has most of the methods of the entire
     module, but uses the Unicode database version 3.2 instead, for
     applications that require this specific version of the Unicode
     database (such as IDNA).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/Public/17.0.0/ucd

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/

   (3) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/17.0.0/ucd/NameAliases.txt’

   (4) ‘https://www.unicode.org/Public/17.0.0/ucd/NamedSequences.txt’

   (5) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/#General_Category_Values

   (6) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/#Bidi_Class_Values

   (7) 
https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/#Canonical_Combining_Class_Values

   (8) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr11/

   (9) 
https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode17.0.0/core-spec/chapter-3/#G64189

   (10) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr31/

   (11) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr31/

   (12) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr29/


File: python.info,  Node: stringprep — Internet String Preparation,  Next: readline — GNU readline interface,  Prev: unicodedata — Unicode Database,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.7.7 ‘stringprep’ — Internet String Preparation
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/stringprep.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

When identifying things (such as host names) in the internet, it is
often necessary to compare such identifications for «equality».  Exactly
how this comparison is executed may depend on the application domain,
e.g.  whether it should be case-insensitive or not.  It may be also
necessary to restrict the possible identifications, to allow only
identifications consisting of «printable» characters.

RFC 3454(2) defines a procedure for «preparing» Unicode strings in
internet protocols.  Before passing strings onto the wire, they are
processed with the preparation procedure, after which they have a
certain normalized form.  The RFC defines a set of tables, which can be
combined into profiles.  Each profile must define which tables it uses,
and what other optional parts of the ‘stringprep’ procedure are part of
the profile.  One example of a ‘stringprep’ profile is ‘nameprep’, which
is used for internationalized domain names.

The module ‘stringprep’ only exposes the tables from RFC 3454(3).  As
these tables would be very large to represent as dictionaries or lists,
the module uses the Unicode character database internally.  The module
source code itself was generated using the ‘mkstringprep.py’ utility.

As a result, these tables are exposed as functions, not as data
structures.  There are two kinds of tables in the RFC: sets and
mappings.  For a set, ‘stringprep’ provides the «characteristic
function», i.e.  a function that returns ‘True’ if the parameter is part
of the set.  For mappings, it provides the mapping function: given the
key, it returns the associated value.  Below is a list of all functions
available in the module.

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_a1 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableA.1 (Unassigned code points in
     Unicode 3.2).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_b1 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableB.1 (Commonly mapped to
     nothing).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.map_table_b2 (code)

     Return the mapped value for 'code' according to tableB.2 (Mapping
     for case-folding used with NFKC).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.map_table_b3 (code)

     Return the mapped value for 'code' according to tableB.3 (Mapping
     for case-folding used with no normalization).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_c11 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.1.1 (ASCII space characters).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_c12 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.1.2 (Non-ASCII space
     characters).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_c11_c12 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.1 (Space characters, union of
     C.1.1 and C.1.2).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_c21 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.2.1 (ASCII control
     characters).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_c22 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.2.2 (Non-ASCII control
     characters).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_c21_c22 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.2 (Control characters, union
     of C.2.1 and C.2.2).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_c3 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.3 (Private use).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_c4 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.4 (Non-character code
     points).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_c5 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.5 (Surrogate codes).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_c6 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.6 (Inappropriate for plain
     text).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_c7 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.7 (Inappropriate for
     canonical representation).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_c8 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.8 (Change display properties
     or are deprecated).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_c9 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableC.9 (Tagging characters).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_d1 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableD.1 (Characters with
     bidirectional property «R» or «AL»).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stringprep.in_table_d2 (code)

     Determine whether 'code' is in tableD.2 (Characters with
     bidirectional property «L»).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/stringprep.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3454.html


File: python.info,  Node: readline — GNU readline interface,  Next: rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline,  Prev: stringprep — Internet String Preparation,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.7.8 ‘readline’ — GNU readline interface
-----------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘readline’ module defines a number of functions to facilitate
completion and reading/writing of history files from the Python
interpreter.  This module can be used directly, or via the *note
rlcompleter: c5. module, which supports completion of Python identifiers
at the interactive prompt.  Settings made using this module affect the
behaviour of both the interpreter’s interactive prompt and the prompts
offered by the built-in *note input(): 167d. function.

Readline keybindings may be configured via an initialization file,
typically ‘.inputrc’ in your home directory.  See Readline Init File(1)
in the GNU Readline manual for information about the format and
allowable constructs of that file, and the capabilities of the Readline
library in general.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 244d. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67.

This is an *note optional module: 2347.  If it is missing from your copy
of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is,
whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Σημείωση: The underlying Readline library API may be implemented by
     the ‘editline’ (‘libedit’) library instead of GNU readline.  On
     macOS the ‘readline’ module detects which library is being used at
     run time.

     The configuration file for ‘editline’ is different from that of GNU
     readline.  If you programmatically load configuration strings you
     can use *note backend: 1c2f. to determine which library is being
     used.

     If you use ‘editline’/‘libedit’ readline emulation on macOS, the
     initialization file located in your home directory is named
     ‘.editrc’.  For example, the following content in ‘~/.editrc’ will
     turn ON 'vi' keybindings and TAB completion:

          python:bind -v
          python:bind ^I rl_complete

     Also note that different libraries may use different history file
     formats.  When switching the underlying library, existing history
     files may become unusable.

 -- Δεδομένα: readline.backend

     The name of the underlying Readline library being used, either
     ‘"readline"’ or ‘"editline"’.

     Added in version 3.13.

* Menu:

* Init file::
* Line buffer::
* History file::
* History list::
* Startup hooks::
* Completion::
* Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://tiswww.cwru.edu/php/chet/readline/rluserman.html#Readline-Init-File


File: python.info,  Node: Init file,  Next: Line buffer,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.7.8.1 Init file
.................

The following functions relate to the init file and user configuration:

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.parse_and_bind (string)

     Execute the init line provided in the 'string' argument.  This
     calls ‘rl_parse_and_bind()’ in the underlying library.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.read_init_file ([filename])

     Execute a readline initialization file.  The default filename is
     the last filename used.  This calls ‘rl_read_init_file()’ in the
     underlying library.  It raises an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘open’ with the file name if given, and ‘"<readline_init_file>"’
     otherwise, regardless of which file the library resolves.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The auditing event was added.


File: python.info,  Node: Line buffer,  Next: History file,  Prev: Init file,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.7.8.2 Line buffer
...................

The following functions operate on the line buffer:

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.get_line_buffer ()

     Return the current contents of the line buffer (‘rl_line_buffer’ in
     the underlying library).

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.insert_text (string)

     Insert text into the line buffer at the cursor position.  This
     calls ‘rl_insert_text()’ in the underlying library, but ignores the
     return value.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.redisplay ()

     Change what’s displayed on the screen to reflect the current
     contents of the line buffer.  This calls ‘rl_redisplay()’ in the
     underlying library.


File: python.info,  Node: History file,  Next: History list,  Prev: Line buffer,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.7.8.3 History file
....................

The following functions operate on a history file:

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.read_history_file ([filename])

     Load a readline history file, and append it to the history list.
     The default filename is ‘~/.history’.  This calls ‘read_history()’
     in the underlying library and raises an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘open’ with the file name if given and ‘"~/.history"’ otherwise.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The auditing event was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.write_history_file ([filename])

     Save the history list to a readline history file, overwriting any
     existing file.  The default filename is ‘~/.history’.  This calls
     ‘write_history()’ in the underlying library and raises an *note
     auditing event: 1e65. ‘open’ with the file name if given and
     ‘"~/.history"’ otherwise.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The auditing event was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.append_history_file (nelements[, filename])

     Append the last 'nelements' items of history to a file.  The
     default filename is ‘~/.history’.  The file must already exist.
     This calls ‘append_history()’ in the underlying library.  This
     function only exists if Python was compiled for a version of the
     library that supports it.  It raises an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘open’ with the file name if given and ‘"~/.history"’ otherwise.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The auditing event was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.get_history_length ()
 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.set_history_length (length)

     Set or return the desired number of lines to save in the history
     file.  The *note write_history_file(): 19e2. function uses this
     value to truncate the history file, by calling
     ‘history_truncate_file()’ in the underlying library.  Negative
     values imply unlimited history file size.


File: python.info,  Node: History list,  Next: Startup hooks,  Prev: History file,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.7.8.4 History list
....................

The following functions operate on a global history list:

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.clear_history ()

     Clear the current history.  This calls ‘clear_history()’ in the
     underlying library.  The Python function only exists if Python was
     compiled for a version of the library that supports it.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.get_current_history_length ()

     Return the number of items currently in the history.  (This is
     different from *note get_history_length(): 2a0c, which returns the
     maximum number of lines that will be written to a history file.)

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.get_history_item (index)

     Return the current contents of history item at 'index'.  The item
     index is one-based.  This calls ‘history_get()’ in the underlying
     library.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.remove_history_item (pos)

     Remove history item specified by its position from the history.
     The position is zero-based.  This calls ‘remove_history()’ in the
     underlying library.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.replace_history_item (pos, line)

     Replace history item specified by its position with 'line'.  The
     position is zero-based.  This calls ‘replace_history_entry()’ in
     the underlying library.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.add_history (line)

     Append 'line' to the history buffer, as if it was the last line
     typed.  This calls ‘add_history()’ in the underlying library.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.set_auto_history (enabled)

     Enable or disable automatic calls to ‘add_history()’ when reading
     input via readline.  The 'enabled' argument should be a Boolean
     value that when true, enables auto history, and that when false,
     disables auto history.

     Added in version 3.6.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Auto history is enabled by
     default, and changes to this do not persist across multiple
     sessions.


File: python.info,  Node: Startup hooks,  Next: Completion,  Prev: History list,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.7.8.5 Startup hooks
.....................

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.set_startup_hook ([function])

     Set or remove the function invoked by the ‘rl_startup_hook’
     callback of the underlying library.  If 'function' is specified, it
     will be used as the new hook function; if omitted or ‘None’, any
     function already installed is removed.  The hook is called with no
     arguments just before readline prints the first prompt.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.set_pre_input_hook ([function])

     Set or remove the function invoked by the ‘rl_pre_input_hook’
     callback of the underlying library.  If 'function' is specified, it
     will be used as the new hook function; if omitted or ‘None’, any
     function already installed is removed.  The hook is called with no
     arguments after the first prompt has been printed and just before
     readline starts reading input characters.  This function only
     exists if Python was compiled for a version of the library that
     supports it.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.get_pre_input_hook ()

     Get the current pre-input hook function, or ‘None’ if no pre-input
     hook function has been set.  This function only exists if Python
     was compiled for a version of the library that supports it.

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Completion,  Next: Example,  Prev: Startup hooks,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.7.8.6 Completion
..................

The following functions relate to implementing a custom word completion
function.  This is typically operated by the Tab key, and can suggest
and automatically complete a word being typed.  By default, Readline is
set up to be used by *note rlcompleter: c5. to complete Python
identifiers for the interactive interpreter.  If the ‘readline’ module
is to be used with a custom completer, a different set of word
delimiters should be set.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.set_completer ([function])

     Set or remove the completer function.  If 'function' is specified,
     it will be used as the new completer function; if omitted or
     ‘None’, any completer function already installed is removed.  The
     completer function is called as ‘function(text, state)’, for
     'state' in ‘0’, ‘1’, ‘2’, …, until it returns a non-string value.
     It should return the next possible completion starting with 'text'.

     The installed completer function is invoked by the 'entry_func'
     callback passed to ‘rl_completion_matches()’ in the underlying
     library.  The 'text' string comes from the first parameter to the
     ‘rl_attempted_completion_function’ callback of the underlying
     library.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.get_completer ()

     Get the completer function, or ‘None’ if no completer function has
     been set.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.get_completion_type ()

     Get the type of completion being attempted.  This returns the
     ‘rl_completion_type’ variable in the underlying library as an
     integer.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.get_begidx ()
 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.get_endidx ()

     Get the beginning or ending index of the completion scope.  These
     indexes are the 'start' and 'end' arguments passed to the
     ‘rl_attempted_completion_function’ callback of the underlying
     library.  The values may be different in the same input editing
     scenario based on the underlying C readline implementation.  Ex:
     libedit is known to behave differently than libreadline.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.set_completer_delims (string)
 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.get_completer_delims ()

     Set or get the word delimiters for completion.  These determine the
     start of the word to be considered for completion (the completion
     scope).  These functions access the
     ‘rl_completer_word_break_characters’ variable in the underlying
     library.

 -- Συνάρτηση: readline.set_completion_display_matches_hook ([function])

     Set or remove the completion display function.  If 'function' is
     specified, it will be used as the new completion display function;
     if omitted or ‘None’, any completion display function already
     installed is removed.  This sets or clears the
     ‘rl_completion_display_matches_hook’ callback in the underlying
     library.  The completion display function is called as
     ‘function(substitution, [matches], longest_match_length)’ once each
     time matches need to be displayed.


File: python.info,  Node: Example,  Prev: Completion,  Up: readline — GNU readline interface

5.7.8.7 Example
...............

The following example demonstrates how to use the ‘readline’ module’s
history reading and writing functions to automatically load and save a
history file named ‘.python_history’ from the user’s home directory.
The code below would normally be executed automatically during
interactive sessions from the user’s *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453. file.

     import atexit
     import os
     import readline

     histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")
     try:
         readline.read_history_file(histfile)
         # default history len is -1 (infinite), which may grow unruly
         readline.set_history_length(1000)
     except FileNotFoundError:
         pass

     atexit.register(readline.write_history_file, histfile)

This code is actually automatically run when Python is run in *note
interactive mode: 656. (see *note Readline configuration: 1372.).

The following example achieves the same goal but supports concurrent
interactive sessions, by only appending the new history.

     import atexit
     import os
     import readline
     histfile = os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".python_history")

     try:
         readline.read_history_file(histfile)
         h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
     except FileNotFoundError:
         open(histfile, 'wb').close()
         h_len = 0

     def save(prev_h_len, histfile):
         new_h_len = readline.get_current_history_length()
         readline.set_history_length(1000)
         readline.append_history_file(new_h_len - prev_h_len, histfile)
     atexit.register(save, h_len, histfile)

The following example extends the *note code.InteractiveConsole: 2a1e.
class to support history save/restore.

     import atexit
     import code
     import os
     import readline

     class HistoryConsole(code.InteractiveConsole):
         def __init__(self, locals=None, filename="<console>",
                      histfile=os.path.expanduser("~/.console-history")):
             code.InteractiveConsole.__init__(self, locals, filename)
             self.init_history(histfile)

         def init_history(self, histfile):
             readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
             if hasattr(readline, "read_history_file"):
                 try:
                     readline.read_history_file(histfile)
                 except FileNotFoundError:
                     pass
                 atexit.register(self.save_history, histfile)

         def save_history(self, histfile):
             readline.set_history_length(1000)
             readline.write_history_file(histfile)

     Σημείωση: The new *note REPL: 69d. introduced in version 3.13
     doesn’t support readline.  However, readline can still be used by
     setting the *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 452. environment variable.


File: python.info,  Node: rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline,  Prev: readline — GNU readline interface,  Up: Text Processing Services

5.7.9 ‘rlcompleter’ — Completion function for GNU readline
----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/rlcompleter.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘rlcompleter’ module defines a completion function suitable to be
passed to *note set_completer(): 2a17. in the *note readline: c2.
module.

When this module is imported on a Unix platform with the *note readline:
c2. module available, an instance of the *note Completer: 1f20. class is
automatically created and its *note complete(): 2a22. method is set as
the *note readline completer: 2a16.  The method provides completion of
valid Python *note identifiers and keywords: 2491.

Example:

     >>> import rlcompleter
     >>> import readline
     >>> readline.parse_and_bind("tab: complete")
     >>> readline. <TAB PRESSED>
     readline.__doc__          readline.get_line_buffer(  readline.read_init_file(
     readline.__file__         readline.insert_text(      readline.set_completer(
     readline.__name__         readline.parse_and_bind(
     >>> readline.

The ‘rlcompleter’ module is designed for use with Python’s *note
interactive mode: 656.  Unless Python is run with the *note -S: 1551.
option, the module is automatically imported and configured (see *note
Readline configuration: 1372.).

On platforms without *note readline: c2, the *note Completer: 1f20.
class defined by this module can still be used for custom purposes.

 -- Κλάση: rlcompleter.Completer

     Completer objects have the following method:

      -- Μέθοδος: complete (text, state)

          Return the next possible completion for 'text'.

          When called by the *note readline: c2. module, this method is
          called successively with ‘state == 0, 1, 2, ...’ until the
          method returns ‘None’.

          If called for 'text' that doesn’t include a period character
          (‘'.'’), it will complete from names currently defined in
          *note __main__: 1, *note builtins: 13. and keywords (as
          defined by the *note keyword: 87. module).

          If called for a dotted name, it will try to evaluate anything
          without obvious side-effects (functions will not be evaluated,
          but it can generate calls to *note __getattr__(): 8e3.) up to
          the last part, and find matches for the rest via the *note
          dir(): a23. function.  Any exception raised during the
          evaluation of the expression is caught, silenced and *note
          None: a65. is returned.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/rlcompleter.py


File: python.info,  Node: Υπηρεσίες Δυαδικών Δεδομένων,  Next: Data Types,  Prev: Text Processing Services,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.8 Υπηρεσίες Δυαδικών Δεδομένων
================================

Τα modules που περιγράφονται σε αυτό το κεφάλαιο παρέχουν βασικές
λειτουργίες για τη διαχείριση δυαδικών δεδομένων.  Άλλες λειτουργίες σε
δυαδικά δεδομένα, ιδιαίτερα σε σχέση με μορφές αρχείων και δικτυακά
πρωτόκολλα, περιγράφονται στις αντίστοιχες ενότητες.

Ορισμένες βιβλιοθήκες που περιγράφονται στο *note Text Processing
Services: 2844. λειτουργούν επίσης με δυαδικές μορφές συμβατές με ASCII
(για παράδειγμα, *note re: c1.) ή με όλα τα δυαδικά δεδομένα (για
παράδειγμα, *note difflib: 3a.).

Επιπλέον, δείτε την τεκμηρίωση για τους ενσωματωμένους τύπους δυαδικών
δεδομένων της Python στο *note Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes,
bytearray, memoryview: 27bd.

* Menu:

* struct — Ερμηνεία bytes ως πακετοποιημένα δυαδικά δεδομένα::
* codecs — Codec registry and base classes::


File: python.info,  Node: struct — Ερμηνεία bytes ως πακετοποιημένα δυαδικά δεδομένα,  Next: codecs — Codec registry and base classes,  Up: Υπηρεσίες Δυαδικών Δεδομένων

5.8.1 ‘struct’ — Ερμηνεία bytes ως πακετοποιημένα δυαδικά δεδομένα
------------------------------------------------------------------

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/struct.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Αυτό το module μετατρέπει μεταξύ τιμών της Python και δομών της C που
αναπαρίστανται ως αντικείμενα *note bytes: 1c7. της Python.  Συμπαγείς
*note format strings: 2a29. περιγράφουν τις προβλεπόμενες μετατροπές
από/προς τιμές της Python.  Οι συναρτήσεις και τα αντικείμενα του module
μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για δύο κυρίως εφαρμογές: την ανταλλαγή
δεδομένων με εξωτερικές πηγές (αρχεία ή συνδέσεις δικτύου) ή τη μεταφορά
δεδομένων μεταξύ της εφαρμογής Python και του επιπέδου C.

     Σημείωση: Όταν δεν δίνεται χαρακτήρας προθέματος, η προεπιλεγμένη
     λειτουργία είναι η εγγενής (native mode).  Πακετάρει ή αποσυμπιέζει
     δεδομένα με βάση την πλατφόρμα και τον μεταγλωττιστή με τον οποίο
     κατασκευάστηκε ο διερμηνέας της Python.  Το αποτέλεσμα της
     συσκευασίας μιας δεδομένης δομής C περιλαμβάνει συμπληρωματικά
     bytes (pad bytes) που διατηρούν τη σωστή στοίχιση για τους
     εμπλεκόμενους τύπους C· παρομοίως, η στοίχιση λαμβάνεται υπόψη κατά
     την αποσυσκευασία.  Αντίθετα, κατά την επικοινωνία δεδομένων με
     εξωτερικές πηγές, ο προγραμματιστής είναι υπεύθυνος για τον
     καθορισμό της σειράς byte και του συμπληρώματος μεταξύ των
     στοιχείων.  Δείτε *note Διάταξη Byte, Μέγεθος και Στοίχιση: 2a2a.
     για λεπτομέρειες.

Several ‘struct’ functions (and methods of *note Struct: 2fb.) take a
'buffer' argument.  This refers to objects that implement the *note
Buffer Protocol: 311. and provide either a readable or read-writable
buffer.  The most common types used for that purpose are *note bytes:
1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6, but many other types that can be viewed
as an array of bytes implement the buffer protocol, so that they can be
read/filled without additional copying from a ‘bytes’ object.

* Menu:

* Συναρτήσεις και εξαιρέσεις::
* Συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης::
* Εφαρμογές::
* Κλάσεις: Κλάσεις<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/struct.py


File: python.info,  Node: Συναρτήσεις και εξαιρέσεις,  Next: Συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης,  Up: struct — Ερμηνεία bytes ως πακετοποιημένα δυαδικά δεδομένα

5.8.1.1 Συναρτήσεις και εξαιρέσεις
..................................

Το module ορίζει την ακόλουθη εξαίρεση και συναρτήσεις:

 -- Εξαίρεση: struct.error

     Εξαίρεση που γίνεται raise σε διάφορες περιπτώσεις· το όρισμα είναι
     μια συμβολοσειρά που περιγράφει το σφάλμα.

 -- Συνάρτηση: struct.pack (format, v1, v2, ...)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο τύπου bytes που περιέχει τις τιμές 'v1',
     'v2', … πακεταρισμένες σύμφωνα με τη συμβολοσειρά μορφοποίησης
     'format'.  Τα ορίσματα πρέπει να ταιριάζουν ακριβώς με τις
     απαιτούμενες τιμές της μορφοποίησης.

 -- Συνάρτηση: struct.pack_into (format, buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)

     Πακετάρει τις τιμές 'v1', 'v2', … σύμφωνα με τη συμβολοσειρά
     μορφοποίησης 'format' και γράφει τα πακεταρισμένα bytes στον
     εγγράψιμο buffer 'buffer' ξεκινώντας από τη θέση 'offset'.
     Σημειώστε ότι το 'offset' είναι υποχρεωτικό όρισμα.

 -- Συνάρτηση: struct.unpack (format, buffer)

     Αποσυμπιέζει από τον buffer 'buffer' (ο οποίος υποτίθεται έχει
     πακεταριστεί με τη μέθοδο ‘pack(format, ...)’) σύμφωνα με την
     συμβολοσειρά μορφοποίησης 'format'.  Το αποτέλεσμα είναι μια
     πλειάδα, ακόμα κι αν περιέχει μόνο ένα στοιχείο.  Το μέγεθος του
     buffer σε bytes πρέπει να ταιριάζει με το απαιτούμενο μέγεθος
     σύμφωνα με τη μορφή, όπως καθορίζεται από τη συνάρτηση *note
     calcsize(): 1f9a.

 -- Συνάρτηση: struct.unpack_from (format, /, buffer, offset=0)

     Αποσυμπιέζει από τον 'buffer' ξεκινώντας από τη θέση 'offset',
     σύμφωνα με τη συμβολοσειρά μορφοποίησης 'format'.  Το αποτέλεσμα
     είναι μια πλειάδα, ακόμα κι αν περιέχει μόνο ένα στοιχείο.  Το
     μέγεθος του buffer σε bytes, ξεκινώντας από τη θέση 'offset',
     πρέπει να είναι τουλάχιστον το μέγεθος που απαιτείται από τη μορφή,
     όπως καθορίζεται από τη συνάρτηση *note calcsize(): 1f9a.

 -- Συνάρτηση: struct.iter_unpack (format, buffer)

     Αποσυμπιέζει επαναληπτικά από τον buffer 'buffer' σύμφωνα με τη
     συμβολοσειρά μορφοποίησης 'format'.  Αυτή η συνάρτηση επιστρέφει
     έναν iterator ο οποίος θα διαβάσει κομμάτια ίδιου μεγέθους από τον
     buffer μέχρι να καταναλωθούν όλα τα περιεχόμενά του.  Το μέγεθος
     του buffer σε bytes πρέπει να είναι πολλαπλάσιο του μεγέθους που
     απαιτείται από τη μορφή, όπως καθορίζεται από τη συνάρτηση *note
     calcsize(): 1f9a.

     Κάθε επανάληψη επιστρέφει μια πλειάδα σύμφωνα με τη συμβολοσειρά
     μορφοποίησης.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: struct.calcsize (format)

     Επιστρέφει το μέγεθος της δομής (και κατά συνέπεια του αντικειμένου
     bytes που παράγεται από το ‘pack(format, ...)’) που αντιστοιχεί στη
     συμβολοσειρά μορφοποίησης 'format'.


File: python.info,  Node: Συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης,  Next: Εφαρμογές,  Prev: Συναρτήσεις και εξαιρέσεις,  Up: struct — Ερμηνεία bytes ως πακετοποιημένα δυαδικά δεδομένα

5.8.1.2 Συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης
..................................

Οι συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης περιγράφουν τη διάταξη των δεδομένων κατά
την συσκευασία και αποσυσκευασία των δεδομένων.  Δημιουργούνται από
*note format characters: 2a2e, οι οποίοι καθορίζουν τον τύπο των
δεδομένων που συσκευάζονται/αποσυσκευάζονται.  Επιπλέον, ειδικοί
χαρακτήρες ελέγχουν την *note byte order, size and alignment: 2a2a.
Κάθε συμβολοσειρά μορφοποίησης αποτελείται από έναν προαιρετικό
χαρακτήρα πρόθεμα που περιγράφει τις συνολικές ιδιότητες των δεδομένων
και έναν ή περισσότερους χαρακτήρες μορφοποίησης που περιγράφουν τις
πραγματικές τιμές δεδομένων και το συμπλήρωμα.

* Menu:

* Διάταξη Byte, Μέγεθος και Στοίχιση: Διάταξη Byte Μέγεθος και Στοίχιση.
* Χαρακτήρες μορφής::
* Παραδείγματα::


File: python.info,  Node: Διάταξη Byte Μέγεθος και Στοίχιση,  Next: Χαρακτήρες μορφής,  Up: Συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης

5.8.1.3 Διάταξη Byte, Μέγεθος και Στοίχιση
..........................................

Από προεπιλογή, οι τύποι της C αναπαρίστανται στη φυσική μορφή και
διάταξη byte της μηχανής και ευθυγραμμίζονται σωστά, παραλείποντας byte
γεμίσματος εάν είναι απαραίτητο (σύμφωνα με τους κανόνες που
χρησιμοποιεί ο μεταγλωττιστής C). Αυτή η συμπεριφορά επιλέγεται έτσι
ώστε τα byte μιας συσκευασμένης δομής να αντιστοιχούν ακριβώς στη
διάταξη μνήμης της αντίστοιχης δομής της C. Το αν θα χρησιμοποιηθεί
φυσική διάταξη byte και γέμισμα ή τυποποιημένες μορφές εξαρτάται από την
εφαρμογή.

Εναλλακτικά, ο πρώτος χαρακτήρας της συμβολοσειράς μορφοποίησης μπορεί
να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να υποδείξει τη σειρά byte, το μέγεθος και την
ευθυγράμμιση των συσκευασμένων δεδομένων, σύμφωνα με το παρακάτω πίνακα:

Χαρακτήρας      Σειρά bytes                  Μέγεθος        Στοίχιση
                                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
‘@’             native                       native         native
                                                            
                                                            
‘=’             native                       τυπικό         κανένα
                                                            
                                                            
‘<’             little-endian                τυπικό         κανένα
                                                            
                                                            
‘>’             big-endian                   τυπικό         κανένα
                                                            
                                                            
‘!’             δίκτυο (= big-endian)        τυπικό         κανένα
                                                            

Αν ο πρώτος χαρακτήρας δεν είναι ένας από αυτούς, υποτίθεται ‘'@'’.

     Σημείωση: Ο αριθμός 1023 (‘0x3ff’ σε δεκαεξαδική μορφή) έχει τις
     ακόλουθες αναπαραστάσεις σε byte:

        * ‘03 ff’ σε big-endian (‘>’)

        * ‘ff 03’ σε little-endian (‘<’)

     Παράδειγμα Python:

          >>> import struct
          >>> struct.pack('>h', 1023)
          b'\x03\xff'
          >>> struct.pack('<h', 1023)
          b'\xff\x03'

Η native σειρά byte είναι big-endian ή little-endian, ανάλογα με το
σύστημα υποδοχής.  Για παράδειγμα, οι Intel x86, AMD64 (x86-64) και
Apple M1 είναι little-endian, ενώ οι IBM z και πολλές παλαιότερες
αρχιτεκτονικές είναι big-endian.  Χρησιμοποιήστε τη μεταβλητή *note
sys.byteorder: 27f1. για να ελέγξετε το endianness του συστήματος σας.

Το native μέγεθος και η στοίχιση καθορίζονται χρησιμοποιώντας την
έκφραση ‘sizeof’ του μεταγλωττιστή C. Αυτό συνδυάζεται πάντα με την
native σειρά byte.

Το τυπικό μέγεθος εξαρτάται μόνο από τον χαρακτήρα μορφοποίησης· δείτε
τον πίνακα στην ενότητα *note Χαρακτήρες μορφής: 2a2e.

Σημειώστε τη διαφορά μεταξύ του ‘'@'’ και ‘'='’: και τα δύο
χρησιμοποιούν τη native σειρά byte, αλλά το μέγεθος και η στοίχιση του
τελευταίου είναι τυποποιημένα.

Η μορφή ‘'!'’ αντιπροσωπεύει τη σειρά byte του δικτύου, η οποία είναι
πάντα big-endian όπως ορίζεται στο IETF RFC 1700(1).

Δεν υπάρχει τρόπος να δηλωθεί non-native σειρά byte (να επιβληθεί
εναλλαγή byte).  Χρησιμοποιήστε την κατάλληλη επιλογή ‘'<'’ ή ‘'>'’.

Σημειώσεις:

  1. Το συμπλήρωμα (padding) προστίθεται αυτόματα μόνο μεταξύ διαδοχικών
     μελών της δομής.  Δεν προστίθεται συμπλήρωμα στην αρχή ή στο τέλος
     της κωδικοποιημένης δομής.

  2. Δεν προστίθεται συμπλήρωμα όταν χρησιμοποιείται non-native μέγεθος
     και στοίχιση, π.χ.  με “<”,”>”, “=”, και “!”.

  3. Για να ευθυγραμμίσετε το τέλος μιας δομής με την απαίτηση στοίχισης
     ενός συγκεκριμένου τύπου, τελειώστε τη μορφή με τον κωδικό για αυτό
     τον τύπο με πλήθος επαναλήψεων μηδέν.  Δείτε *note Παραδείγματα:
     2a30.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1700


File: python.info,  Node: Χαρακτήρες μορφής,  Next: Παραδείγματα,  Prev: Διάταξη Byte Μέγεθος και Στοίχιση,  Up: Συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης

5.8.1.4 Χαρακτήρες μορφής
.........................

Οι χαρακτήρες μορφής έχουν την ακόλουθη σημασία· η μετατροπή μεταξύ
τιμών C και Python είναι προφανής, δεδομένων των τύπων τους.  Η στήλη
“Τυπικό μέγεθος” αναφέρεται στο μέγεθος της συμπιεσμένης τιμής σε byte
όταν χρησιμοποιείται τυπικό μέγεθος· δηλαδή, όταν η συμβολοσειρά μορφής
ξεκινά με ένα από τα ‘'<'’, ‘'>'’, ‘'!'’ or ‘'='’.  Όταν χρησιμοποιείται
το native μέγεθος, το μέγεθος της συμπιεσμένης τιμής εξαρτάται από την
πλατφόρμα.

Μορφή        Τύπος C                        Τύπος Python             Τυπικό μέγεθος       Σημειώσεις
                                                                                          
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
‘x’          συμπληρωματικό byte            καμία τιμή                                    (7)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘c’          char                           bytes μήκους 1           1
                                                                     
                                                                                          
‘b’          signed char                    int                      1                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘B’          unsigned char                  int                      1                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘?’          _Bool                          bool                     1                    (1)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘h’          short                          int                      2                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘H’          unsigned short                 int                      2                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘i’          int                            int                      4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘I’          unsigned int                   int                      4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘l’          long                           int                      4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘L’          unsigned long                  int                      4                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘q’          long long                      int                      8                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘Q’          unsigned long long             int                      8                    (2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘n’          ‘ssize_t’                      int                                           (2), (3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘N’          ‘size_t’                       int                                           (2), (3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘e’          _Float16                       float                    2                    (4), (6)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘f’          float                          float                    4                    (4)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘d’          double                         float                    8                    (4)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘F’          float complex                  μιγαδικός                8                    (10)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘D’          double complex                 μιγαδικός                16                   (10)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘Zf’         float complex                  μιγαδικός                8                    (10)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘Zd’         double complex                 μιγαδικός                16                   (10)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘s’          char[]                         bytes                                         (9)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘p’          char[]                         bytes                                         (8)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘P’          void*                          int                                           (2), (5)
                                                                                          

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Προστέθηκε υποστήριξη για τις μορφές ‘'n'’ και
‘'N'’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Προστέθηκε υποστήριξη για τη μορφή ‘'e'’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Προστέθηκε υποστήριξη για τις μορφές ‘'F'’ και
‘'D'’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added support for the ‘'Zf'’ and ‘'Zd'’
formats.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note array: 8. and *note ctypes: 2a32. modules, as well as
third-party modules like numpy(1), use similar – but slightly different
– type codes.

Σημειώσεις:

  1. 
     Ο κωδικός μετατροπής ‘'?'’ αντιστοιχεί στον τύπο _Bool που ορίζεται
     από τα πρότυπα C από την έκδοση C99.  Σε τυπική λειτουργία,
     αναπαρίσταται από ένα byte.

  2. Όταν επιχειρείται η συσκευασία ενός μη ακέραιου αριθμού
     χρησιμοποιώντας οποιονδήποτε από τους κωδικούς μετατροπής ακεραίων,
     αν το αντικείμενο διαθέτει τη μέθοδο *note __index__(): 43d, τότε
     καλείται αυτή η μέθοδος για τη μετατροπή του ορίσματος σε ακέραιο
     πριν από τη συσκευασία.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Προστέθηκε η χρήση της μεθόδου *note
     __index__(): 43d. για μη ακέραιους αριθμούς.

  3. Οι κωδικοί μετατροπής ‘'n'’ και ‘'N'’ είναι διαθέσιμοι μόνο για το
     native μέγεθος (επιλεγμένο ως προεπιλογή ή με τον χαρακτήρα
     διάταξης byte ‘'@'’).  Για το τυπικό μέγεθος, μπορείτε να
     χρησιμοποιήσετε οποιαδήποτε από τις άλλες μορφές ακέραιων που
     ταιριάζουν στην εφαρμογή σας.

  4. Για τους κωδικούς μετατροπής ‘'f'’, ‘'d'’ και ‘'e'’, η συσκευασμένη
     αναπαράσταση χρησιμοποιεί τη μορφή IEEE 754 binary32, binary64 ή
     binary16 (αντίστοιχα για ‘'f'’, ‘'d'’ ή ‘'e'’), ανεξάρτητα από τη
     μορφή κινητής υποδιαστολής που χρησιμοποιεί η πλατφόρμα.

  5. Ο χαρακτήρας μορφοποίησης ‘'P'’ είναι διαθέσιμος μόνο για τη φυσική
     σειρά byte (επιλεγμένη ως προεπιλογή ή με τον χαρακτήρα σειράς byte
     ‘'@'’).  Ο χαρακτήρας σειράς byte ‘'='’ επιλέγει τη χρήση little- ή
     big-endian σειράς με βάση το σύστημα.  Το module struct δεν
     ερμηνεύει αυτό ως native σειρά, επομένως η μορφή ‘'P'’ δεν είναι
     διαθέσιμη.

  6. The IEEE 754 binary16 «half precision» type was introduced in the
     2008 revision of the IEEE 754 standard(2).  It has a sign bit, a
     5-bit exponent and 11-bit precision (with 10 bits explicitly
     stored), and can represent numbers between approximately ‘6.1e-05’
     and ‘6.5e+04’ at full precision.  This type is not widely supported
     by C compilers: it’s available as _Float16 type, if the compiler
     supports the Annex H of the C23 standard.  On a typical machine, an
     unsigned short can be used for storage, but not for math
     operations.  See the Wikipedia page on the half-precision
     floating-point format(3) for more information.

  7. Κατά τη συσκευασία, το ‘'x'’ εισάγει ένα NUL byte.

  8. The ‘'p'’ format character encodes a «Pascal string», meaning a
     short variable-length string stored in a 'fixed number of bytes',
     given by the count.  The first byte stored is the length of the
     string, or 255, whichever is smaller.  The bytes of the string
     follow.  If the byte string passed in to *note pack(): 161b. is too
     long (longer than the count minus 1), only the leading ‘count-1’
     bytes of the string are stored.  If the byte string is shorter than
     ‘count-1’, it is padded with null bytes so that exactly count bytes
     in all are used.  Note that for *note unpack(): 1a82, the ‘'p'’
     format character consumes ‘count’ bytes, but that the ‘bytes’
     object returned can never contain more than 255 bytes.  When
     packing, arguments of types *note bytes: 1c7. and *note bytearray:
     1c6. are accepted.

  9. For the ‘'s'’ format character, the count is interpreted as the
     length of the byte string, not a repeat count like for the other
     format characters; for example, ‘'10s'’ means a single 10-byte
     string mapping to or from a single Python byte string, while
     ‘'10c'’ means 10 separate one byte character elements (e.g.,
     ‘cccccccccc’) mapping to or from ten different Python byte objects.
     (See *note Παραδείγματα: 2a30. for a concrete demonstration of the
     difference.)  If a count is not given, it defaults to 1.  For
     packing, the byte string is truncated or padded with null bytes as
     appropriate to make it fit.  For unpacking, the resulting ‘bytes’
     object always has exactly the specified number of bytes.  As a
     special case, ‘'0s'’ means a single, empty byte string (while
     ‘'0c'’ means 0 characters).  When packing, arguments of types *note
     bytes: 1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6. are accepted.

  10. For the ‘'F'’ and ‘'D'’ format characters, the packed
     representation uses the IEEE 754 binary32 and binary64 format for
     components of the complex number, regardless of the floating-point
     format used by the platform.  Note that complex types (‘F’/‘Zf’ and
     ‘D’/‘Zd’) are available unconditionally, despite complex types
     being an optional feature in C. As specified in the C11 standard,
     each complex type is represented by a two-element C array
     containing, respectively, the real and imaginary parts.

Ένας χαρακτήρας μορφοποίησης μπορεί να προηγείται από έναν ακέραιο
αριθμό επαναλήψεων.  Για παράδειγμα, η συμβολοσειρά μορφοποίησης ‘'4h'’
σημαίνει ακριβώς το ίδιο με ‘'hhhh'’.

Οι χαρακτήρες κενού μεταξύ των μορφοποιήσεων αγνοούνται· ωστόσο, ένας
αριθμός και η μορφή του δεν πρέπει να περιέχουν κενά.

Κατά το πακετάρισμα μιας τιμής ‘x’ χρησιμοποιώντας μια από τις μορφές
ακεραίων (‘'b'’, ‘'B'’, ‘'h'’, ‘'H'’, ‘'i'’, ‘'I'’, ‘'l'’, ‘'L'’, ‘'q'’,
‘'Q'’), εάν το ‘x’ είναι εκτός του έγκυρου εύρους για αυτήν τη μορφή,
γίνεται raise μια εξαίρεση *note struct.error: 16c8.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Προηγουμένως, ορισμένες από τις μορφές ακεραίων
περιτύλιγαν τιμές εκτός εύρους και εμφάνιζαν *note DeprecationWarning:
2c9. αντί για *note struct.error: 16c8.

Για το χαρακτήρα μορφής ‘'?'’, η τιμή που επιστρέφεται είναι είτε *note
True: fcc. είτε *note False: ef5.  Κατά την συσκευασία, χρησιμοποιείται
η λογική τιμή του αντικειμένου-ορίσματος.  Είτε 0 είτε 1 στη native ή
τυπική αναπαράσταση του bool θα συσκευαστούν, και οποιαδήποτε μη
μηδενική τιμή θα είναι ‘True’ κατά την αποσυσκευασία.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/arrays.interface.html#object.__array_interface__

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754-2008_revision

   (3) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-precision_floating-point_format


File: python.info,  Node: Παραδείγματα,  Prev: Χαρακτήρες μορφής,  Up: Συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης

5.8.1.5 Παραδείγματα
....................

     Σημείωση: Τα παραδείγματα native σειράς byte (που καθορίζονται από
     το πρόθεμα μορφής ‘'@'’ ή την απουσία οποιουδήποτε χαρακτήρα
     προθέματος) ενδέχεται να μην αντιστοιχούν σε αυτά που παράγει η
     μηχανή του αναγνώστη, καθώς αυτό εξαρτάται από την πλατφόρμα και
     τον μεταγλωττιστή.

Συσκευασία και αποσυσκευασία ακεραίων τριών διαφορετικών μεγεθών,
χρησιμοποιώντας διάταξη big endian:

     >>> from struct import *
     >>> pack(">bhl", 1, 2, 3)
     b'\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03'
     >>> unpack('>bhl', b'\x01\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03')
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> calcsize('>bhl')
     7

Προσπάθεια συσκευασίας ενός ακεραίου που είναι πολύ μεγάλος για το
καθορισμένο πεδίο:

     >>> pack(">h", 99999)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     struct.error: 'h' format requires -32768 <= number <= 32767

Επιδεικνύει την διαφορά μεταξύ των χαρακτήρων μορφοποίησης ‘'s'’ και
‘'c'’:

     >>> pack("@ccc", b'1', b'2', b'3')
     b'123'
     >>> pack("@3s", b'123')
     b'123'

Τα αποσυσκευασμένα πεδία μπορούν να ονομαστούν είτε αναθέτοντάς τα σε
μεταβλητές είτε περιτυλίγοντάς τα σε μια ονομασμένη πλειάδα:

     >>> record = b'raymond   \x32\x12\x08\x01\x08'
     >>> name, serialnum, school, gradelevel = unpack('<10sHHb', record)

     >>> from collections import namedtuple
     >>> Student = namedtuple('Student', 'name serialnum school gradelevel')
     >>> Student._make(unpack('<10sHHb', record))
     Student(name=b'raymond   ', serialnum=4658, school=264, gradelevel=8)

Η σειρά των χαρακτήρων μορφοποίησης μπορεί να επηρεάσει το μέγεθος σε
κατάσταση native λειτουργίας, καθώς το συμπλήρωμα είναι έμμεσο.  Σε
τυπική λειτουργία, ο χρήστης είναι υπεύθυνος για την εισαγωγή
οποιασδήποτε επιθυμητού συμπληρώματος.  Σημειώστε στην πρώτη κλήση
‘pack’ παρακάτω ότι προστέθηκαν τρία μηδενικά (NUL) bytes μετά την
συσκευασμένη τιμή ‘'#'’ για να ευθυγραμμιστεί ο επόμενος ακέραιος σε
όριο τεσσάρων bytes.  Σε αυτό το παράδειγμα, η έξοδος παράχθηκε σε έναν
υπολογιστή με little endian αρχιτεκτονική:

     >>> pack('@ci', b'#', 0x12131415)
     b'#\x00\x00\x00\x15\x14\x13\x12'
     >>> pack('@ic', 0x12131415, b'#')
     b'\x15\x14\x13\x12#'
     >>> calcsize('@ci')
     8
     >>> calcsize('@ic')
     5

Η ακόλουθη μορφή ‘'llh0l'’ έχει ως αποτέλεσμα την προσθήκη δύο bytes
συμπλήρωσης στο τέλος, υποθέτοντας ότι οι μακροί ακέραιοι (longs) της
πλατφόρμας ευθυγραμμίζονται σε όρια 4-byte:

     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3)
     b'\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x03\x00\x00'

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note array: 8.

     Πακεταρισμένη δυαδική αποθήκευση ομοιογενών δεδομένων.

Module *note json: 85.

     Κωδικοποιητής και αποκωδικοποιητής JSON.

Module *note pickle: ab.

     Σειριοποίηση αντικειμένων Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Εφαρμογές,  Next: Κλάσεις<3>,  Prev: Συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης,  Up: struct — Ερμηνεία bytes ως πακετοποιημένα δυαδικά δεδομένα

5.8.1.6 Εφαρμογές
.................

Two main applications for the ‘struct’ module exist, data interchange
between Python and C code within an application or another application
compiled using the same compiler (*note native formats: 2a36.), and data
interchange between applications using agreed upon data layout (*note
standard formats: 2a37.).  Generally speaking, the format strings
constructed for these two domains are distinct.

* Menu:

* Native Μορφές::
* Τυπικές μορφές::


File: python.info,  Node: Native Μορφές,  Next: Τυπικές μορφές,  Up: Εφαρμογές

5.8.1.7 Native Μορφές
.....................

Όταν κατασκευάζετε συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης που μιμούνται native
διατάξεις, ο μεταγλωττιστής και η αρχιτεκτονική του μηχανήματος
καθορίζουν τη σειρά των byte και τη συμπλήρωση.  Σε τέτοιες περιπτώσεις,
ο χαρακτήρας μορφής ‘@’ θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιείται για να καθορίζει
την native σειρά byte και τα μεγέθη δεδομένων.  Τα εσωτερικά byte
συμπλήρωσης εισάγονται συνήθως αυτόματα.  Είναι πιθανό να χρειαστεί ένας
κωδικός μορφοποίησης με επανάληψη μηδέν στο τέλος μιας συμβολοσειράς
μορφοποίησης για να ευθυγραμμιστεί σωστά με τα όρια byte των διαδοχικών
τμημάτων δεδομένων.

Εξετάστε αυτά τα δύο απλά παραδείγματα (σε έναν 64-bit, little-endian
υπολογιστή):

     >>> calcsize('@lhl')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh')
     18

Τα δεδομένα δεν συμπληρώνονται σε όριο 8 byte στο τέλος της δεύτερης
συμβολοσειράς μορφοποίησης χωρίς τη χρήση επιπλέον συμπλήρωσης.  Ένας
κωδικός μορφοποίησης με επανάληψη μηδέν λύνει αυτό το πρόβλημα:

     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     24

Ο κωδικός μορφοποίησης ‘'x'’ μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να καθορίσει
την επανάληψη, αλλά για native μορφές είναι προτιμότερο να
χρησιμοποιείται ένας κωδικός μορφοποίησης με επανάληψη μηδέν, όπως
‘'0l'’.

Από προεπιλογή, χρησιμοποιείται η native σειρά byte και στοίχιση, αλλά
είναι καλύτερο να είμαστε σαφείς και να χρησιμοποιούμε τον χαρακτήρα
πρόθεμα ‘'@'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Τυπικές μορφές,  Prev: Native Μορφές,  Up: Εφαρμογές

5.8.1.8 Τυπικές μορφές
......................

Όταν ανταλλάσετε δεδομένα πέρα από τη διεργασία σας, όπως σε δικτύωση ή
αποθήκευση, να είστε ακριβείς.  Καθορίστε την ακριβή σειρά των byte, το
μέγεθος και την ευθυγράμμιση.  Μην υποθέτετε ότι ταιριάζουν με τη φυσική
σειρά μιας συγκεκριμένης μηχανής.  Για παράδειγμα, η σειρά byte του
δικτύου είναι big-endian, ενώ πολλοί δημοφιλείς επεξεργαστές είναι
little-endian.  Ορίζοντας αυτό ρητά, ο χρήστης δεν χρειάζεται να
ενδιαφέρεται για τις λεπτομέρειες της πλατφόρμας στην οποία εκτελείται ο
κώδικας.  Ο πρώτος χαρακτήρας πρέπει τυπικά να είναι ‘<’ ή ‘>’ (ή ‘!’).
Η ευθύνη για την προσθήκη συμπληρωματικών byte ανήκει στον
προγραμματιστή.  Ο χαρακτήρας μορφής με μηδενική επανάληψη δεν θα
λειτουργήσει.  Αντ” αυτού, ο χρήστης πρέπει να προσθέτει ρητά byte ‘'x'’
όπου απαιτείται.  Επανεξετάζοντας τα παραδείγματα από την προηγούμενη
ενότητα, έχουμε:

     >>> calcsize('<qh6xq')
     24
     >>> pack('<qh6xq', 1, 2, 3) == pack('@lhl', 1, 2, 3)
     True
     >>> calcsize('@llh')
     18
     >>> pack('@llh', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh', 1, 2, 3)
     True
     >>> calcsize('<qqh6x')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     24
     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh6x', 1, 2, 3)
     True

Τα παραπάνω αποτελέσματα (εκτελεσμένα σε 64-bit μηχανή) δεν είναι
εγγυημένο ότι θα ταιριάζουν όταν εκτελούνται σε διαφορετικές μηχανές.
Για παράδειγμα, τα παρακάτω παραδείγματα εκτελέστηκαν σε 32-bit μηχανή:

     >>> calcsize('<qqh6x')
     24
     >>> calcsize('@llh0l')
     12
     >>> pack('@llh0l', 1, 2, 3) == pack('<qqh6x', 1, 2, 3)
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Κλάσεις<3>,  Prev: Εφαρμογές,  Up: struct — Ερμηνεία bytes ως πακετοποιημένα δυαδικά δεδομένα

5.8.1.9 Κλάσεις
...............

The ‘struct’ module also defines the following type:

 -- Κλάση: struct.Struct (format)

     Επιστρέφει ένα νέο αντικείμενο Struct που γράφει και διαβάζει
     δυαδικά δεδομένα σύμφωνα με τη συμβολοσειρά μορφοποίησης 'format'.
     Η δημιουργία ενός αντικειμένου ‘Struct’ μια φορά και η κλήση των
     μεθόδων του είναι πιο αποδοτική από την κλήση συναρτήσεων σε
     επίπεδο module με την ίδια μορφή, καθώς η συμβολοσειρά μορφοποίησης
     μεταγλωττίζεται μόνο μία φορά.

          Σημείωση: Οι μεταγλωττισμένες εκδόσεις των πιο πρόσφατων
          συμβολοσειρών μορφοποίησης που περνούν στις συναρτήσεις του
          module αποθηκεύονται προσωρινά, επομένως τα προγράμματα που
          χρησιμοποιούν μόνο λίγες συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης δεν
          χρειάζεται να ανησυχούν για την επαναχρησιμοποίηση μιας
          μεμονωμένης περίπτωσης της κλάσης *note Struct: 2fb.

     Τα μεταγλωττισμένα αντικείμενα Struct υποστηρίζουν τις ακόλουθες
     μεθόδους και ιδιότητες:

      -- Μέθοδος: pack (v1, v2, ...)

          Ταυτόσημο με τη συνάρτηση *note pack(): 161b, χρησιμοποιώντας
          τη μεταγλωττισμένη μορφή.  (‘len(result)’ θα είναι ίσο με
          *note size: 2a3d.)

      -- Μέθοδος: pack_into (buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)

          Ταυτόσημο με τη συνάρτηση *note pack_into(): 1966,
          χρησιμοποιώντας τη μεταγλωττισμένη μορφή.

      -- Μέθοδος: unpack (buffer)

          Ταυτόσημο με τη συνάρτηση *note unpack(): 1a82,
          χρησιμοποιώντας τη μεταγλωττισμένη μορφή.  Το μέγεθος του
          buffer σε bytes πρέπει να είναι ίσο με *note size: 2a3d.

      -- Μέθοδος: unpack_from (buffer, offset=0)

          Ταυτόσημο με τη συνάρτηση *note unpack_from(): 2a2c,
          χρησιμοποιώντας τη μεταγλωττισμένη μορφή.  Το μέγεθος του
          buffer σε bytes, ξεκινώντας από τη θέση 'offset', πρέπει να
          είναι τουλάχιστον *note size: 2a3d.

      -- Μέθοδος: iter_unpack (buffer)

          Ταυτόσημο με τη συνάρτηση *note iter_unpack(): 1368,
          χρησιμοποιώντας τη μεταγλωττισμένη μορφή.  Το μέγεθος του
          buffer σε bytes πρέπει να είναι πολλαπλάσιο του *note size:
          2a3d.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Ιδιότητα: format

          Η συμβολοσειρά μορφής που χρησιμοποιήθηκε για τη δημιουργία
          αυτού του αντικειμένου Struct.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Ο τύπος της συμβολοσειράς μορφής είναι
          πλέον *note str: 1df. αντί για *note bytes: 1c7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: size

          Το υπολογισμένο μέγεθος της δομής (και κατά συνέπεια του
          αντικειμένου bytes που παράγεται από τη μέθοδο *note pack():
          161b.) που αντιστοιχεί στη *note format: 439.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Η 'repr()' αναπαράσταση των δομών έχει
     αλλάξει.  Είναι πλέον:

          >>> Struct('i')
          Struct('i')


File: python.info,  Node: codecs — Codec registry and base classes,  Prev: struct — Ερμηνεία bytes ως πακετοποιημένα δυαδικά δεδομένα,  Up: Υπηρεσίες Δυαδικών Δεδομένων

5.8.2 ‘codecs’ — Codec registry and base classes
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/codecs.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines base classes for standard Python codecs (encoders
and decoders) and provides access to the internal Python codec registry,
which manages the codec and error handling lookup process.  Most
standard codecs are *note text encodings: 27d4, which encode text to
bytes (and decode bytes to text), but there are also codecs provided
that encode text to text, and bytes to bytes.  Custom codecs may encode
and decode between arbitrary types, but some module features are
restricted to be used specifically with text encodings or with codecs
that encode to *note bytes: 1c7.

The module defines the following functions for encoding and decoding
with any codec:

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.encode (obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Encodes 'obj' using the codec registered for 'encoding'.

     'Errors' may be given to set the desired error handling scheme.
     The default error handler is ‘'strict'’ meaning that encoding
     errors raise *note ValueError: 277. (or a more codec specific
     subclass, such as *note UnicodeEncodeError: a67.).  Refer to *note
     Codec Base Classes: 2a44. for more information on codec error
     handling.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.decode (obj, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Decodes 'obj' using the codec registered for 'encoding'.

     'Errors' may be given to set the desired error handling scheme.
     The default error handler is ‘'strict'’ meaning that decoding
     errors raise *note ValueError: 277. (or a more codec specific
     subclass, such as *note UnicodeDecodeError: dd7.).  Refer to *note
     Codec Base Classes: 2a44. for more information on codec error
     handling.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.charmap_build (string)

     Return a mapping suitable for encoding with a custom single-byte
     encoding.  Given a *note str: 1df. 'string' of up to 256 characters
     representing a decoding table, returns either a compact internal
     mapping object ‘EncodingMap’ or a *note dictionary: 188. mapping
     character ordinals to byte values.  Raises a *note TypeError: 291.
     on invalid input.

The full details for each codec can also be looked up directly:

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.lookup (encoding, /)

     Looks up the codec info in the Python codec registry and returns a
     *note CodecInfo: 1c72. object as defined below.

     This function first normalizes the 'encoding': all ASCII letters
     are converted to lower case, spaces are replaced with hyphens.
     Then encoding is looked up in the registry’s cache.  If not found,
     the list of registered search functions is scanned.  If no *note
     CodecInfo: 1c72. object is found, a *note LookupError: 25da. is
     raised.  Otherwise, the ‘CodecInfo’ object is stored in the cache
     and returned to the caller.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Any characters except ASCII letters and
     digits and a dot are converted to underscore.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: No characters are converted to underscore
     anymore.  Spaces are converted to hyphens.

 -- Κλάση: codecs.CodecInfo (encode, decode, streamreader=None,
          streamwriter=None, incrementalencoder=None,
          incrementaldecoder=None, name=None)

     Codec details when looking up the codec registry.  The constructor
     arguments are stored in attributes of the same name:

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name of the encoding.

      -- Ιδιότητα: encode
      -- Ιδιότητα: decode

          The stateless encoding and decoding functions.  These must be
          functions or methods which have the same interface as the
          *note encode(): 19ad. and *note decode(): 2a49. methods of
          Codec instances (see *note Codec Interface: 2a4a.).  The
          functions or methods are expected to work in a stateless mode.

      -- Ιδιότητα: incrementalencoder
      -- Ιδιότητα: incrementaldecoder

          Incremental encoder and decoder classes or factory functions.
          These have to provide the interface defined by the base
          classes *note IncrementalEncoder: 2a4d. and *note
          IncrementalDecoder: 2a4e, respectively.  Incremental codecs
          can maintain state.

      -- Ιδιότητα: streamwriter
      -- Ιδιότητα: streamreader

          Stream writer and reader classes or factory functions.  These
          have to provide the interface defined by the base classes
          *note StreamWriter: 2a51. and *note StreamReader: 2a52,
          respectively.  Stream codecs can maintain state.

To simplify access to the various codec components, the module provides
these additional functions which use *note lookup(): d2d. for the codec
lookup:

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.getencoder (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its encoder
     function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 25da. in case the encoding cannot be
     found.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.getdecoder (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its decoder
     function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 25da. in case the encoding cannot be
     found.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.getincrementalencoder (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its incremental
     encoder class or factory function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 25da. in case the encoding cannot be
     found or the codec doesn’t support an incremental encoder.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.getincrementaldecoder (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its incremental
     decoder class or factory function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 25da. in case the encoding cannot be
     found or the codec doesn’t support an incremental decoder.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.getreader (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its *note
     StreamReader: 2a52. class or factory function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 25da. in case the encoding cannot be
     found.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.getwriter (encoding)

     Look up the codec for the given encoding and return its *note
     StreamWriter: 2a51. class or factory function.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 25da. in case the encoding cannot be
     found.

Custom codecs are made available by registering a suitable codec search
function:

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.register (search_function, /)

     Register a codec search function.  Search functions are expected to
     take one argument, being the encoding name in all lower case
     letters with spaces converted to hyphens, and return a *note
     CodecInfo: 1c72. object.  In case a search function cannot find a
     given encoding, it should return ‘None’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.unregister (search_function, /)

     Unregister a codec search function and clear the registry’s cache.
     If the search function is not registered, do nothing.

     Added in version 3.10.

While the builtin *note open(): 32b. and the associated *note io: 82.
module are the recommended approach for working with encoded text files,
this module provides additional utility functions and classes that allow
the use of a wider range of codecs when working with binary files:

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.open (filename, mode='r', encoding=None,
          errors='strict', buffering=-1)

     Open an encoded file using the given 'mode' and return an instance
     of *note StreamReaderWriter: 2a5a, providing transparent
     encoding/decoding.  The default file mode is ‘'r'’, meaning to open
     the file in read mode.

          Σημείωση: If 'encoding' is not ‘None’, then the underlying
          encoded files are always opened in binary mode.  No automatic
          conversion of ‘'\n'’ is done on reading and writing.  The
          'mode' argument may be any binary mode acceptable to the
          built-in ‘open()’ function; the ‘'b'’ is automatically added.

     'encoding' specifies the encoding which is to be used for the file.
     Any encoding that encodes to and decodes from bytes is allowed, and
     the data types supported by the file methods depend on the codec
     used.

     'errors' may be given to define the error handling.  It defaults to
     ‘'strict'’ which causes a *note ValueError: 277. to be raised in
     case an encoding error occurs.

     'buffering' has the same meaning as for the built-in ‘open()’
     function.  It defaults to -1 which means that the default buffer
     size will be used.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The ‘'U'’ mode has been removed.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: *note codecs.open(): 32c. has been
     superseded by ‘open()’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.EncodedFile (file, data_encoding,
          file_encoding=None, errors='strict')

     Return a *note StreamRecoder: 1fc3. instance, a wrapped version of
     'file' which provides transparent transcoding.  The original file
     is closed when the wrapped version is closed.

     Data written to the wrapped file is decoded according to the given
     'data_encoding' and then written to the original file as bytes
     using 'file_encoding'.  Bytes read from the original file are
     decoded according to 'file_encoding', and the result is encoded
     using 'data_encoding'.

     If 'file_encoding' is not given, it defaults to 'data_encoding'.

     'errors' may be given to define the error handling.  It defaults to
     ‘'strict'’, which causes *note ValueError: 277. to be raised in
     case an encoding error occurs.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.iterencode (iterator, encoding, errors='strict',
          **kwargs)

     Uses an incremental encoder to iteratively encode the input
     provided by 'iterator'.  'iterator' must yield *note str: 1df.
     objects.  This function is a *note generator: 1409.  The 'errors'
     argument (as well as any other keyword argument) is passed through
     to the incremental encoder.

     This function requires that the codec accept text *note str: 1df.
     objects to encode.  Therefore it does not support bytes-to-bytes
     encoders such as ‘base64_codec’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.iterdecode (iterator, encoding, errors='strict',
          **kwargs)

     Uses an incremental decoder to iteratively decode the input
     provided by 'iterator'.  'iterator' must yield *note bytes: 1c7.
     objects.  This function is a *note generator: 1409.  The 'errors'
     argument (as well as any other keyword argument) is passed through
     to the incremental decoder.

     This function requires that the codec accept *note bytes: 1c7.
     objects to decode.  Therefore it does not support text-to-text
     encoders such as ‘rot_13’, although ‘rot_13’ may be used
     equivalently with *note iterencode(): 2a5c.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.readbuffer_encode (buffer, errors=None, /)

     Return a *note tuple: 1ce. containing the raw bytes of 'buffer', a
     *note buffer-compatible object: 311. or *note str: 1df. (encoded to
     UTF-8 before processing), and their length in bytes.

     The 'errors' argument is ignored.

          >>> codecs.readbuffer_encode(b"Zito")
          (b'Zito', 4)

The module also provides the following constants which are useful for
reading and writing to platform dependent files:

 -- Δεδομένα: codecs.BOM
 -- Δεδομένα: codecs.BOM_BE
 -- Δεδομένα: codecs.BOM_LE
 -- Δεδομένα: codecs.BOM_UTF8
 -- Δεδομένα: codecs.BOM_UTF16
 -- Δεδομένα: codecs.BOM_UTF16_BE
 -- Δεδομένα: codecs.BOM_UTF16_LE
 -- Δεδομένα: codecs.BOM_UTF32
 -- Δεδομένα: codecs.BOM_UTF32_BE
 -- Δεδομένα: codecs.BOM_UTF32_LE

     These constants define various byte sequences, being Unicode byte
     order marks (BOMs) for several encodings.  They are used in UTF-16
     and UTF-32 data streams to indicate the byte order used, and in
     UTF-8 as a Unicode signature.  *note BOM_UTF16: 2a63. is either
     *note BOM_UTF16_BE: 2a64. or *note BOM_UTF16_LE: 2a65. depending on
     the platform’s native byte order, *note BOM: 2a5f. is an alias for
     ‘BOM_UTF16’, *note BOM_LE: 2a61. for ‘BOM_UTF16_LE’ and *note
     BOM_BE: 2a60. for ‘BOM_UTF16_BE’.  The others represent the BOM in
     UTF-8 and UTF-32 encodings.

* Menu:

* Codec Base Classes::
* Encodings and Unicode::
* Standard Encodings::
* Python Specific Encodings::
* encodings — Encodings package::
* encodings.idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
* encodings.mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage.
* encodings.utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature: encodings utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/codecs.py


File: python.info,  Node: Codec Base Classes,  Next: Encodings and Unicode,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.8.2.1 Codec Base Classes
..........................

The ‘codecs’ module defines a set of base classes which define the
interfaces for working with codec objects, and can also be used as the
basis for custom codec implementations.

Each codec has to define four interfaces to make it usable as codec in
Python: stateless encoder, stateless decoder, stream reader and stream
writer.  The stream reader and writers typically reuse the stateless
encoder/decoder to implement the file protocols.  Codec authors also
need to define how the codec will handle encoding and decoding errors.
* Menu:

* Error Handlers::
* Stateless Encoding and Decoding::
* Incremental Encoding and Decoding::
* Stream Encoding and Decoding::


File: python.info,  Node: Error Handlers,  Next: Stateless Encoding and Decoding,  Up: Codec Base Classes

5.8.2.2 Error Handlers
......................

To simplify and standardize error handling, codecs may implement
different error handling schemes by accepting the 'errors' string
argument:

     >>> 'German ß, ♬'.encode(encoding='ascii', errors='backslashreplace')
     b'German \\xdf, \\u266c'
     >>> 'German ß, ♬'.encode(encoding='ascii', errors='xmlcharrefreplace')
     b'German &#223;, &#9836;'

The following error handlers can be used with all Python *note Standard
Encodings: 1171. codecs:

Value                         Meaning
                              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘'strict'’                    Raise *note UnicodeError: 675. (or a subclass),
                              this is the default.  Implemented in
                              *note strict_errors(): 2a6c.
                              
                              
‘'ignore'’                    Ignore the malformed data and continue without
                              further notice.  Implemented in
                              *note ignore_errors(): 2a6d.
                              
                              
‘'replace'’                   Replace with a replacement marker.  On encoding,
                              use ‘?’ (ASCII character).  On decoding, use ‘�’
                              (U+FFFD, the official REPLACEMENT CHARACTER).
                              Implemented in *note replace_errors(): 1ae3.
                              
                              
‘'backslashreplace'’          Replace with backslashed escape sequences.  On
                              encoding, use hexadecimal form of Unicode code
                              point with formats ‘\xHH’ ‘\uXXXX’ ‘\UXXXXXXXX’.
                              On decoding, use hexadecimal form of byte value
                              with format ‘\xHH’.  Implemented in
                              *note backslashreplace_errors(): 1ae4.
                              
                              
‘'surrogateescape'’           On decoding, replace byte with individual
                              surrogate code ranging from ‘U+DC80’ to ‘U+DCFF’.
                              This code will then be turned back into the same
                              byte when the ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler
                              is used when encoding the data.  (See PEP 383(1)
                              for more.)
                              

The following error handlers are only applicable to encoding (within
*note text encodings: 27d4.):

Value                         Meaning
                              
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’         Replace with XML/HTML numeric character
                              reference, which is a decimal form of Unicode
                              code point with format ‘&#NUM;’.  Implemented in
                              *note xmlcharrefreplace_errors(): 1ae5.
                              
                              
‘'namereplace'’               Replace with ‘\N{...}’ escape sequences, what
                              appears in the braces is the Name property from
                              Unicode Character Database.  Implemented in
                              *note namereplace_errors(): 2a6e.
                              

In addition, the following error handler is specific to the given
codecs:

Value                   Codecs                       Meaning
                                                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                     
‘'surrogatepass'’       utf-8, utf-16, utf-32,       Allow encoding and decoding surrogate code
                        utf-16-be, utf-16-le,        point (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’) as normal code
                        utf-32-be, utf-32-le         point.  Otherwise these codecs treat the
                                                     presence of surrogate code point in
                                                     *note str: 1df. as an error.
                                                     

Added in version 3.1: The ‘'surrogateescape'’ and ‘'surrogatepass'’
error handlers.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The ‘'surrogatepass'’ error handler now works
with utf-16* and utf-32* codecs.

Added in version 3.5: The ‘'namereplace'’ error handler.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handler now works
with decoding and translating.

The set of allowed values can be extended by registering a new named
error handler:

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.register_error (name, error_handler, /)

     Register the error handling function 'error_handler' under the name
     'name'.  The 'error_handler' argument will be called during
     encoding and decoding in case of an error, when 'name' is specified
     as the errors parameter.

     For encoding, 'error_handler' will be called with a *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: a67. instance, which contains information about
     the location of the error.  The error handler must either raise
     this or a different exception, or return a tuple with a replacement
     for the unencodable part of the input and a position where encoding
     should continue.  The replacement may be either *note str: 1df. or
     *note bytes: 1c7.  If the replacement is bytes, the encoder will
     simply copy them into the output buffer.  If the replacement is a
     string, the encoder will encode the replacement.  Encoding
     continues on original input at the specified position.  Negative
     position values will be treated as being relative to the end of the
     input string.  If the resulting position is out of bound an *note
     IndexError: 18d7. will be raised.

     Decoding and translating works similarly, except *note
     UnicodeDecodeError: dd7. or *note UnicodeTranslateError: 1b1c. will
     be passed to the handler and that the replacement from the error
     handler will be put into the output directly.

Previously registered error handlers (including the standard error
handlers) can be looked up by name:

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.lookup_error (name, /)

     Return the error handler previously registered under the name
     'name'.

     Raises a *note LookupError: 25da. in case the handler cannot be
     found.

The following standard error handlers are also made available as module
level functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.strict_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'strict'’ error handling.

     Each encoding or decoding error raises a *note UnicodeError: 675.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.ignore_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'ignore'’ error handling.

     Malformed data is ignored; encoding or decoding is continued
     without further notice.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.replace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'replace'’ error handling.

     Substitutes ‘?’ (ASCII character) for encoding errors or ‘�’
     (U+FFFD, the official REPLACEMENT CHARACTER) for decoding errors.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.backslashreplace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handling.

     Malformed data is replaced by a backslashed escape sequence.  On
     encoding, use the hexadecimal form of Unicode code point with
     formats ‘\xHH’ ‘\uXXXX’ ‘\UXXXXXXXX’.  On decoding, use the
     hexadecimal form of byte value with format ‘\xHH’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Works with decoding and translating.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.xmlcharrefreplace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ error handling (for encoding
     within *note text encoding: 27d4. only).

     The unencodable character is replaced by an appropriate XML/HTML
     numeric character reference, which is a decimal form of Unicode
     code point with format ‘&#NUM;’ .

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.namereplace_errors (exception)

     Implements the ‘'namereplace'’ error handling (for encoding within
     *note text encoding: 27d4. only).

     The unencodable character is replaced by a ‘\N{...}’ escape
     sequence.  The set of characters that appear in the braces is the
     Name property from Unicode Character Database.  For example, the
     German lowercase letter ‘'ß'’ will be converted to byte sequence
     ‘\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER SHARP S}’ .

     Added in version 3.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/


File: python.info,  Node: Stateless Encoding and Decoding,  Next: Incremental Encoding and Decoding,  Prev: Error Handlers,  Up: Codec Base Classes

5.8.2.3 Stateless Encoding and Decoding
.......................................

The base *note Codec: 2a70. class defines these methods which also
define the function interfaces of the stateless encoder and decoder:

 -- Κλάση: codecs.Codec

      -- Μέθοδος: encode (input, errors='strict')

          Encodes the object 'input' and returns a tuple (output object,
          length consumed).  For instance, *note text encoding: 27d4.
          converts a string object to a bytes object using a particular
          character set encoding (e.g., ‘cp1252’ or ‘iso-8859-1’).

          The 'errors' argument defines the error handling to apply.  It
          defaults to ‘'strict'’ handling.

          The method may not store state in the ‘Codec’ instance.  Use
          *note StreamWriter: 2a51. for codecs which have to keep state
          in order to make encoding efficient.

          The encoder must be able to handle zero length input and
          return an empty object of the output object type in this
          situation.

      -- Μέθοδος: decode (input, errors='strict')

          Decodes the object 'input' and returns a tuple (output object,
          length consumed).  For instance, for a *note text encoding:
          27d4, decoding converts a bytes object encoded using a
          particular character set encoding to a string object.

          For text encodings and bytes-to-bytes codecs, 'input' must be
          a bytes object or one which provides the read-only buffer
          interface – for example, buffer objects and memory mapped
          files.

          The 'errors' argument defines the error handling to apply.  It
          defaults to ‘'strict'’ handling.

          The method may not store state in the ‘Codec’ instance.  Use
          *note StreamReader: 2a52. for codecs which have to keep state
          in order to make decoding efficient.

          The decoder must be able to handle zero length input and
          return an empty object of the output object type in this
          situation.


File: python.info,  Node: Incremental Encoding and Decoding,  Next: Stream Encoding and Decoding,  Prev: Stateless Encoding and Decoding,  Up: Codec Base Classes

5.8.2.4 Incremental Encoding and Decoding
.........................................

The *note IncrementalEncoder: 2a4d. and *note IncrementalDecoder: 2a4e.
classes provide the basic interface for incremental encoding and
decoding.  Encoding/decoding the input isn’t done with one call to the
stateless encoder/decoder function, but with multiple calls to the *note
encode(): 19ae./*note decode(): 2a72. method of the incremental
encoder/decoder.  The incremental encoder/decoder keeps track of the
encoding/decoding process during method calls.

The joined output of calls to the *note encode(): 19ae./*note decode():
2a72. method is the same as if all the single inputs were joined into
one, and this input was encoded/decoded with the stateless
encoder/decoder.

* Menu:

* IncrementalEncoder Objects::
* IncrementalDecoder Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalEncoder Objects,  Next: IncrementalDecoder Objects,  Up: Incremental Encoding and Decoding

5.8.2.5 IncrementalEncoder Objects
..................................

The *note IncrementalEncoder: 2a4d. class is used for encoding an input
in multiple steps.  It defines the following methods which every
incremental encoder must define in order to be compatible with the
Python codec registry.

 -- Κλάση: codecs.IncrementalEncoder (errors='strict')

     Constructor for an ‘IncrementalEncoder’ instance.

     All incremental encoders must provide this constructor interface.
     They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the
     ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The ‘IncrementalEncoder’ may implement different error handling
     schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See *note
     Error Handlers: 1d6c. for possible values.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the ‘IncrementalEncoder’ object.

      -- Μέθοδος: encode (object, final=False)

          Encodes 'object' (taking the current state of the encoder into
          account) and returns the resulting encoded object.  If this is
          the last call to ‘encode()’ 'final' must be true (the default
          is false).

      -- Μέθοδος: reset ()

          Reset the encoder to the initial state.  The output is
          discarded: call ‘.encode(object, final=True)’, passing an
          empty byte or text string if necessary, to reset the encoder
          and to get the output.

      -- Μέθοδος: getstate ()

          Return the current state of the encoder which must be an
          integer.  The implementation should make sure that ‘0’ is the
          most common state.  (States that are more complicated than
          integers can be converted into an integer by
          marshaling/pickling the state and encoding the bytes of the
          resulting string into an integer.)

      -- Μέθοδος: setstate (state)

          Set the state of the encoder to 'state'.  'state' must be an
          encoder state returned by *note getstate(): 2a76.


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalDecoder Objects,  Prev: IncrementalEncoder Objects,  Up: Incremental Encoding and Decoding

5.8.2.6 IncrementalDecoder Objects
..................................

The *note IncrementalDecoder: 2a4e. class is used for decoding an input
in multiple steps.  It defines the following methods which every
incremental decoder must define in order to be compatible with the
Python codec registry.

 -- Κλάση: codecs.IncrementalDecoder (errors='strict')

     Constructor for an ‘IncrementalDecoder’ instance.

     All incremental decoders must provide this constructor interface.
     They are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the
     ones defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The ‘IncrementalDecoder’ may implement different error handling
     schemes by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See *note
     Error Handlers: 1d6c. for possible values.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the ‘IncrementalDecoder’ object.

      -- Μέθοδος: decode (object, final=False)

          Decodes 'object' (taking the current state of the decoder into
          account) and returns the resulting decoded object.  If this is
          the last call to ‘decode()’ 'final' must be true (the default
          is false).  If 'final' is true the decoder must decode the
          input completely and must flush all buffers.  If this isn’t
          possible (e.g.  because of incomplete byte sequences at the
          end of the input) it must initiate error handling just like in
          the stateless case (which might raise an exception).

      -- Μέθοδος: reset ()

          Reset the decoder to the initial state.

      -- Μέθοδος: getstate ()

          Return the current state of the decoder.  This must be a tuple
          with two items, the first must be the buffer containing the
          still undecoded input.  The second must be an integer and can
          be additional state info.  (The implementation should make
          sure that ‘0’ is the most common additional state info.)  If
          this additional state info is ‘0’ it must be possible to set
          the decoder to the state which has no input buffered and ‘0’
          as the additional state info, so that feeding the previously
          buffered input to the decoder returns it to the previous state
          without producing any output.  (Additional state info that is
          more complicated than integers can be converted into an
          integer by marshaling/pickling the info and encoding the bytes
          of the resulting string into an integer.)

      -- Μέθοδος: setstate (state)

          Set the state of the decoder to 'state'.  'state' must be a
          decoder state returned by *note getstate(): 2a7b.


File: python.info,  Node: Stream Encoding and Decoding,  Prev: Incremental Encoding and Decoding,  Up: Codec Base Classes

5.8.2.7 Stream Encoding and Decoding
....................................

The *note StreamWriter: 2a51. and *note StreamReader: 2a52. classes
provide generic working interfaces which can be used to implement new
encoding submodules very easily.  See ‘encodings.utf_8’ for an example
of how this is done.

* Menu:

* StreamWriter Objects::
* StreamReader Objects::
* StreamReaderWriter Objects::
* StreamRecoder Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: StreamWriter Objects,  Next: StreamReader Objects,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.8.2.8 StreamWriter Objects
............................

The *note StreamWriter: 2a51. class is a subclass of *note Codec: 2a70.
and defines the following methods which every stream writer must define
in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.

 -- Κλάση: codecs.StreamWriter (stream, errors='strict')

     Constructor for a ‘StreamWriter’ instance.

     All stream writers must provide this constructor interface.  They
     are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones
     defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The 'stream' argument must be a file-like object open for writing
     text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.

     The ‘StreamWriter’ may implement different error handling schemes
     by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See *note Error
     Handlers: 1d6c. for the standard error handlers the underlying
     stream codec may support.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the ‘StreamWriter’ object.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (object)

          Writes the object’s contents encoded to the stream.

      -- Μέθοδος: writelines (list)

          Writes the concatenated iterable of strings to the stream
          (possibly by reusing the *note write(): 2a80. method).
          Infinite or very large iterables are not supported.  The
          standard bytes-to-bytes codecs do not support this method.

      -- Μέθοδος: reset ()

          Resets the codec buffers used for keeping internal state.

          Calling this method should ensure that the data on the output
          is put into a clean state that allows appending of new fresh
          data without having to rescan the whole stream to recover
          state.

In addition to the above methods, the *note StreamWriter: 2a51. must
also inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying
stream.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReader Objects,  Next: StreamReaderWriter Objects,  Prev: StreamWriter Objects,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.8.2.9 StreamReader Objects
............................

The *note StreamReader: 2a52. class is a subclass of *note Codec: 2a70.
and defines the following methods which every stream reader must define
in order to be compatible with the Python codec registry.

 -- Κλάση: codecs.StreamReader (stream, errors='strict')

     Constructor for a ‘StreamReader’ instance.

     All stream readers must provide this constructor interface.  They
     are free to add additional keyword arguments, but only the ones
     defined here are used by the Python codec registry.

     The 'stream' argument must be a file-like object open for reading
     text or binary data, as appropriate for the specific codec.

     The ‘StreamReader’ may implement different error handling schemes
     by providing the 'errors' keyword argument.  See *note Error
     Handlers: 1d6c. for the standard error handlers the underlying
     stream codec may support.

     The 'errors' argument will be assigned to an attribute of the same
     name.  Assigning to this attribute makes it possible to switch
     between different error handling strategies during the lifetime of
     the ‘StreamReader’ object.

     The set of allowed values for the 'errors' argument can be extended
     with *note register_error(): 183d.

      -- Μέθοδος: read (size=-1, chars=-1, firstline=False)

          Decodes data from the stream and returns the resulting object.

          The 'chars' argument indicates the number of decoded code
          points or bytes to return.  The *note read(): 2a85. method
          will never return more data than requested, but it might
          return less, if there is not enough available.

          The 'size' argument indicates the approximate maximum number
          of encoded bytes or code points to read for decoding.  The
          decoder can modify this setting as appropriate.  The default
          value -1 indicates to read and decode as much as possible.
          This parameter is intended to prevent having to decode huge
          files in one step.

          The 'firstline' flag indicates that it would be sufficient to
          only return the first line, if there are decoding errors on
          later lines.

          The method should use a greedy read strategy meaning that it
          should read as much data as is allowed within the definition
          of the encoding and the given size, e.g.  if optional encoding
          endings or state markers are available on the stream, these
          should be read too.

      -- Μέθοδος: readline (size=None, keepends=True)

          Read one line from the input stream and return the decoded
          data.

          'size', if given, is passed as size argument to the stream’s
          *note read(): 2a85. method.

          If 'keepends' is false line-endings will be stripped from the
          lines returned.

      -- Μέθοδος: readlines (sizehint=None, keepends=True)

          Read all lines available on the input stream and return them
          as a list of lines.

          Line-endings are implemented using the codec’s *note decode():
          12b3. method and are included in the list entries if
          'keepends' is true.

          'sizehint', if given, is passed as the 'size' argument to the
          stream’s *note read(): 2a85. method.

      -- Μέθοδος: reset ()

          Resets the codec buffers used for keeping internal state.

          Note that no stream repositioning should take place.  This
          method is primarily intended to be able to recover from
          decoding errors.

In addition to the above methods, the *note StreamReader: 2a52. must
also inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying
stream.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReaderWriter Objects,  Next: StreamRecoder Objects,  Prev: StreamReader Objects,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.8.2.10 StreamReaderWriter Objects
...................................

The *note StreamReaderWriter: 2a5a. is a convenience class that allows
wrapping streams which work in both read and write modes.

The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by
the *note lookup(): d2d. function to construct the instance.

 -- Κλάση: codecs.StreamReaderWriter (stream, Reader, Writer,
          errors='strict')

     Creates a ‘StreamReaderWriter’ instance.  'stream' must be a
     file-like object.  'Reader' and 'Writer' must be factory functions
     or classes providing the *note StreamReader: 2a52. and *note
     StreamWriter: 2a51. interface resp.  Error handling is done in the
     same way as defined for the stream readers and writers.

*note StreamReaderWriter: 2a5a. instances define the combined interfaces
of *note StreamReader: 2a52. and *note StreamWriter: 2a51. classes.
They inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying
stream.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamRecoder Objects,  Prev: StreamReaderWriter Objects,  Up: Stream Encoding and Decoding

5.8.2.11 StreamRecoder Objects
..............................

The *note StreamRecoder: 1fc3. translates data from one encoding to
another, which is sometimes useful when dealing with different encoding
environments.

The design is such that one can use the factory functions returned by
the *note lookup(): d2d. function to construct the instance.

 -- Κλάση: codecs.StreamRecoder (stream, encode, decode, Reader, Writer,
          errors='strict')

     Creates a ‘StreamRecoder’ instance which implements a two-way
     conversion: 'encode' and 'decode' work on the frontend — the data
     visible to code calling *note read(): 2a85. and *note write():
     2a80, while 'Reader' and 'Writer' work on the backend — the data in
     'stream'.

     You can use these objects to do transparent transcodings, e.g.,
     from Latin-1 to UTF-8 and back.

     The 'stream' argument must be a file-like object.

     The 'encode' and 'decode' arguments must adhere to the *note Codec:
     2a70. interface.  'Reader' and 'Writer' must be factory functions
     or classes providing objects of the *note StreamReader: 2a52. and
     *note StreamWriter: 2a51. interface respectively.

     Error handling is done in the same way as defined for the stream
     readers and writers.

*note StreamRecoder: 1fc3. instances define the combined interfaces of
*note StreamReader: 2a52. and *note StreamWriter: 2a51. classes.  They
inherit all other methods and attributes from the underlying stream.


File: python.info,  Node: Encodings and Unicode,  Next: Standard Encodings,  Prev: Codec Base Classes,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.8.2.12 Encodings and Unicode
..............................

Strings are stored internally as sequences of code points in range
‘U+0000’–‘U+10FFFF’.  (See PEP 393(1) for more details about the
implementation.)  Once a string object is used outside of CPU and
memory, endianness and how these arrays are stored as bytes become an
issue.  As with other codecs, serialising a string into a sequence of
bytes is known as 'encoding', and recreating the string from the
sequence of bytes is known as 'decoding'.  There are a variety of
different text serialisation codecs, which are collectivity referred to
as *note text encodings: 27d4.

The simplest text encoding (called ‘'latin-1'’ or ‘'iso-8859-1'’) maps
the code points 0–255 to the bytes ‘0x0’–‘0xff’, which means that a
string object that contains code points above ‘U+00FF’ can’t be encoded
with this codec.  Doing so will raise a *note UnicodeEncodeError: a67.
that looks like the following (although the details of the error message
may differ): ‘UnicodeEncodeError: 'latin-1' codec can't encode character
'\u1234' in position 3: ordinal not in range(256)’.

There’s another group of encodings (the so called charmap encodings)
that choose a different subset of all Unicode code points and how these
code points are mapped to the bytes ‘0x0’–‘0xff’.  To see how this is
done simply open e.g.  ‘encodings/cp1252.py’ (which is an encoding that
is used primarily on Windows).  There’s a string constant with 256
characters that shows you which character is mapped to which byte value.

All of these encodings can only encode 256 of the 1114112 code points
defined in Unicode.  A simple and straightforward way that can store
each Unicode code point, is to store each code point as four consecutive
bytes.  There are two possibilities: store the bytes in big endian or in
little endian order.  These two encodings are called ‘UTF-32-BE’ and
‘UTF-32-LE’ respectively.  Their disadvantage is that if, for example,
you use ‘UTF-32-BE’ on a little endian machine you will always have to
swap bytes on encoding and decoding.  Python’s ‘UTF-16’ and ‘UTF-32’
codecs avoid this problem by using the platform’s native byte order when
no BOM is present.  Python follows prevailing platform practice, so
native-endian data round-trips without redundant byte swapping, even
though the Unicode Standard defaults to big-endian when the byte order
is unspecified.  When these bytes are read by a CPU with a different
endianness, the bytes have to be swapped.  To be able to detect the
endianness of a ‘UTF-16’ or ‘UTF-32’ byte sequence, a BOM («Byte Order
Mark») is used.  This is the Unicode character ‘U+FEFF’.  This character
can be prepended to every ‘UTF-16’ or ‘UTF-32’ byte sequence.  The byte
swapped version of this character (‘0xFFFE’) is an illegal character
that may not appear in a Unicode text.  When the first character of a
‘UTF-16’ or ‘UTF-32’ byte sequence is ‘U+FFFE’, the bytes have to be
swapped on decoding.

Unfortunately the character ‘U+FEFF’ had a second purpose as a ‘ZERO
WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE’: a character that has no width and doesn’t allow a
word to be split.  It can e.g.  be used to give hints to a ligature
algorithm.  With Unicode 4.0 using ‘U+FEFF’ as a ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK
SPACE’ has been deprecated (with ‘U+2060’ (‘WORD JOINER’) assuming this
role).  Nevertheless Unicode software still must be able to handle
‘U+FEFF’ in both roles: as a BOM it’s a device to determine the storage
layout of the encoded bytes, and vanishes once the byte sequence has
been decoded into a string; as a ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE’ it’s a
normal character that will be decoded like any other.

There’s another encoding that is able to encode the full range of
Unicode characters: UTF-8.  UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding, which means
there are no issues with byte order in UTF-8.  Each byte in a UTF-8 byte
sequence consists of two parts: marker bits (the most significant bits)
and payload bits.  The marker bits are a sequence of zero to four ‘1’
bits followed by a ‘0’ bit.  Unicode characters are encoded like this
(with x being payload bits, which when concatenated give the Unicode
character):

Range                                   Encoding
                                        
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                        
‘U-00000000’ … ‘U-0000007F’             0xxxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00000080’ … ‘U-000007FF’             110xxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00000800’ … ‘U-0000FFFF’             1110xxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        
                                        
‘U-00010000’ … ‘U-0010FFFF’             11110xxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx 10xxxxxx
                                        

The least significant bit of the Unicode character is the rightmost x
bit.

As UTF-8 is an 8-bit encoding no BOM is required and any ‘U+FEFF’
character in the decoded string (even if it’s the first character) is
treated as a ‘ZERO WIDTH NO-BREAK SPACE’.

Without external information it’s impossible to reliably determine which
encoding was used for encoding a string.  Each charmap encoding can
decode any random byte sequence.  However that’s not possible with
UTF-8, as UTF-8 byte sequences have a structure that doesn’t allow
arbitrary byte sequences.  To increase the reliability with which a
UTF-8 encoding can be detected, Microsoft invented a variant of UTF-8
(that Python calls ‘"utf-8-sig"’) for its Notepad program: Before any of
the Unicode characters is written to the file, a UTF-8 encoded BOM
(which looks like this as a byte sequence: ‘0xef’, ‘0xbb’, ‘0xbf’) is
written.  As it’s rather improbable that any charmap encoded file starts
with these byte values (which would e.g.  map to

          LATIN SMALL LETTER I WITH DIAERESIS
          RIGHT-POINTING DOUBLE ANGLE QUOTATION MARK
          INVERTED QUESTION MARK

in iso-8859-1), this increases the probability that a ‘utf-8-sig’
encoding can be correctly guessed from the byte sequence.  So here the
BOM is not used to be able to determine the byte order used for
generating the byte sequence, but as a signature that helps in guessing
the encoding.  On encoding the utf-8-sig codec will write ‘0xef’,
‘0xbb’, ‘0xbf’ as the first three bytes to the file.  On decoding
‘utf-8-sig’ will skip those three bytes if they appear as the first
three bytes in the file.  In UTF-8, the use of the BOM is discouraged
and should generally be avoided.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Encodings,  Next: Python Specific Encodings,  Prev: Encodings and Unicode,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.8.2.13 Standard Encodings
...........................

Python comes with a number of codecs built-in, either implemented as C
functions or with dictionaries as mapping tables.  The following table
lists the codecs by name, together with a few common aliases, and the
languages for which the encoding is likely used.  Neither the list of
aliases nor the list of languages is meant to be exhaustive.  Notice
that spelling alternatives that only differ in case or use a space or a
hyphen instead of an underscore are also valid aliases because they are
equivalent when normalized by *note normalize_encoding(): 313.  For
example, ‘'utf-8'’ is a valid alias for the ‘'utf_8'’ codec.

     Σημείωση: The below table lists the most common aliases, for a
     complete list refer to the source aliases.py(1) file.

On Windows, ‘cpXXX’ codecs are available for all code pages.  But only
codecs listed in the following table are guaranteed to exist on other
platforms.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Some common encodings can bypass the
codecs lookup machinery to improve performance.  These optimization
opportunities are only recognized by CPython for a limited set of (case
insensitive) aliases: utf-8, utf8, latin-1, latin1, iso-8859-1,
iso8859-1, mbcs (Windows only), ascii, us-ascii, utf-16, utf16, utf-32,
utf32, and the same using underscores instead of dashes.  Using
alternative aliases for these encodings may result in slower execution.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Optimization opportunity recognized for
us-ascii.

Many of the character sets support the same languages.  They vary in
individual characters (e.g.  whether the EURO SIGN is supported or not),
and in the assignment of characters to code positions.  For the European
languages in particular, the following variants typically exist:

   * an ISO 8859 codeset

   * a Microsoft Windows code page, which is typically derived from an
     8859 codeset, but replaces control characters with additional
     graphic characters

   * an IBM EBCDIC code page

   * an IBM PC code page, which is ASCII compatible

Codec                 Aliases                              Languages
                                                           
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
ascii                 646, us-ascii                        English
                                                           
                                                           
big5                  big5-tw, csbig5                      Traditional Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
big5hkscs             big5-hkscs, hkscs                    Traditional Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
cp037                 IBM037, IBM039                       English
                                                           
                                                           
cp273                 273, IBM273, csIBM273                German
                                                           
                                                           Added in version 3.4.
                                                           
                                                           
cp424                 EBCDIC-CP-HE, IBM424                 Hebrew
                                                           
                                                           
cp437                 437, IBM437                          English
                                                           
                                                           
cp500                 EBCDIC-CP-BE, EBCDIC-CP-CH, IBM500   Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp720                                                      Arabic
                                                           
                                                           
cp737                                                      Greek
                                                           
                                                           
cp775                 IBM775                               Baltic languages
                                                           
                                                           
cp850                 850, IBM850                          Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp852                 852, IBM852                          Central and Eastern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp855                 855, IBM855                          Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian,
                                                           Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
cp856                                                      Hebrew
                                                           
                                                           
cp857                 857, IBM857                          Turkish
                                                           
                                                           
cp858                 858, IBM858                          Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp860                 860, IBM860                          Portuguese
                                                           
                                                           
cp861                 861, CP-IS, IBM861                   Icelandic
                                                           
                                                           
cp862                 862, IBM862                          Hebrew
                                                           
                                                           
cp863                 863, IBM863                          Canadian
                                                           
                                                           
cp864                 IBM864                               Arabic
                                                           
                                                           
cp865                 865, IBM865                          Danish, Norwegian
                                                           
                                                           
cp866                 866, IBM866                          Russian
                                                           
                                                           
cp869                 869, CP-GR, IBM869                   Greek
                                                           
                                                           
cp874                                                      Thai
                                                           
                                                           
cp875                                                      Greek
                                                           
                                                           
cp932                 932, ms932, mskanji, ms-kanji,       Japanese
                      windows-31j                          
                      
                                                           
cp949                 949, ms949, uhc                      Korean
                                                           
                                                           
cp950                 950, ms950                           Traditional Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
cp1006                                                     Urdu
                                                           
                                                           
cp1026                ibm1026                              Turkish
                                                           
                                                           
cp1125                1125, ibm1125, cp866u, ruscii        Ukrainian
                                                           
                                                           Added in version 3.4.
                                                           
                                                           
cp1140                ibm1140                              Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp1250                windows-1250                         Central and Eastern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp1251                windows-1251                         Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian,
                                                           Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
cp1252                windows-1252                         Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
cp1253                windows-1253                         Greek
                                                           
                                                           
cp1254                windows-1254                         Turkish
                                                           
                                                           
cp1255                windows-1255                         Hebrew
                                                           
                                                           
cp1256                windows-1256                         Arabic
                                                           
                                                           
cp1257                windows-1257                         Baltic languages
                                                           
                                                           
cp1258                windows-1258                         Vietnamese
                                                           
                                                           
euc_jp                eucjp, ujis, u-jis                   Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
euc_jis_2004          jisx0213, eucjis2004                 Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
euc_jisx0213          eucjisx0213                          Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
euc_kr                euckr, korean, ksc5601, ks_c-5601,   Korean
                      ks_c-5601-1987, ksx1001, ks_x-1001   
                      
                                                           
gb2312                chinese, csiso58gb231280, euc-cn,    Simplified Chinese
                      euccn, eucgb2312-cn, gb2312-1980,    
                      gb2312-80, iso-ir-58
                      
                                                           
gbk                   936, cp936, ms936                    Unified Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
gb18030               gb18030-2000                         Unified Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
hz                    hzgb, hz-gb, hz-gb-2312              Simplified Chinese
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp            csiso2022jp, iso2022jp,              Japanese
                      iso-2022-jp                          
                      
                                                           
iso2022_jp_1          iso2022jp-1, iso-2022-jp-1           Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_2          iso2022jp-2, iso-2022-jp-2           Japanese, Korean, Simplified
                                                           Chinese, Western Europe, Greek
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_2004       iso2022jp-2004, iso-2022-jp-2004     Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_3          iso2022jp-3, iso-2022-jp-3           Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_jp_ext        iso2022jp-ext, iso-2022-jp-ext       Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
iso2022_kr            csiso2022kr, iso2022kr,              Korean
                      iso-2022-kr                          
                      
                                                           
latin_1               iso-8859-1, iso8859-1, 8859,         Western Europe
                      cp819, latin, latin1, L1             
                      
                                                           
iso8859_2             iso-8859-2, latin2, L2               Central and Eastern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_3             iso-8859-3, latin3, L3               Esperanto, Maltese
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_4             iso-8859-4, latin4, L4               Northern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_5             iso-8859-5, cyrillic                 Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian,
                                                           Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_6             iso-8859-6, arabic                   Arabic
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_7             iso-8859-7, greek, greek8            Greek
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_8             iso-8859-8, hebrew                   Hebrew
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_9             iso-8859-9, latin5, L5               Turkish
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_10            iso-8859-10, latin6, L6              Nordic languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_11            iso-8859-11, thai                    Thai languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_13            iso-8859-13, latin7, L7              Baltic languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_14            iso-8859-14, latin8, L8              Celtic languages
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_15            iso-8859-15, latin9, L9              Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
iso8859_16            iso-8859-16, latin10, L10            South-Eastern Europe
                                                           
                                                           
johab                 cp1361, ms1361                       Korean
                                                           
                                                           
koi8_r                                                     Russian
                                                           
                                                           
koi8_t                                                     Tajik
                                                           
                                                           Added in version 3.5.
                                                           
                                                           
koi8_u                                                     Ukrainian
                                                           
                                                           
kz1048                kz_1048, strk1048_2002, rk1048       Kazakh
                                                           
                                                           Added in version 3.5.
                                                           
                                                           
mac_cyrillic          maccyrillic                          Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian,
                                                           Russian, Serbian
                                                           
                                                           
mac_greek             macgreek                             Greek
                                                           
                                                           
mac_iceland           maciceland                           Icelandic
                                                           
                                                           
mac_latin2            maclatin2, maccentraleurope,         Central and Eastern Europe
                      mac_centeuro                         
                      
                                                           
mac_roman             macroman, macintosh                  Western Europe
                                                           
                                                           
mac_turkish           macturkish                           Turkish
                                                           
                                                           
ptcp154               csptcp154, pt154, cp154,             Kazakh
                      cyrillic-asian                       
                      
                                                           
shift_jis             csshiftjis, shiftjis, sjis, s_jis    Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
shift_jis_2004        shiftjis2004, sjis_2004, sjis2004    Japanese
                                                           
                                                           
shift_jisx0213        shiftjisx0213, sjisx0213,            Japanese
                      s_jisx0213                           
                      
                                                           
utf_32                U32, utf32                           all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_32_be             UTF-32BE                             all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_32_le             UTF-32LE                             all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_16                U16, utf16                           all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_16_be             UTF-16BE                             all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_16_le             UTF-16LE                             all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_7                 U7, unicode-1-1-utf-7                all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_8                 U8, UTF, utf8, cp65001               all languages
                                                           
                                                           
utf_8_sig             utf8-sig                             all languages
                                                           

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The utf-16* and utf-32* encoders no longer allow
surrogate code points (‘U+D800’–‘U+DFFF’) to be encoded.  The utf-32*
decoders no longer decode byte sequences that correspond to surrogate
code points.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: ‘cp65001’ is now an alias to ‘utf_8’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: On Windows, ‘cpXXX’ codecs are now available
for all code pages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/encodings/aliases.py


File: python.info,  Node: Python Specific Encodings,  Next: encodings — Encodings package,  Prev: Standard Encodings,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.8.2.14 Python Specific Encodings
..................................

A number of predefined codecs are specific to Python, so their codec
names have no meaning outside Python.  These are listed in the tables
below based on the expected input and output types (note that while text
encodings are the most common use case for codecs, the underlying codec
infrastructure supports arbitrary data transforms rather than just text
encodings).  For asymmetric codecs, the stated meaning describes the
encoding direction.

* Menu:

* Text Encodings::
* Binary Transforms::
* Standalone Codec Functions::
* Text Transforms::


File: python.info,  Node: Text Encodings,  Next: Binary Transforms,  Up: Python Specific Encodings

5.8.2.15 Text Encodings
.......................

The following codecs provide *note str: 1df. to *note bytes: 1c7.
encoding and *note bytes-like object: 436. to ‘str’ decoding, similar to
the Unicode text encodings.

Codec                    Aliases       Meaning
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
idna                                   Implement RFC 3490(1), see
                                       also
                                       *note encodings.idna: 55.
                                       Only ‘errors='strict'’ is
                                       supported.
                                       
                                       
mbcs                     ansi, dbcs    Windows only: Encode the
                                       operand according to the ANSI
                                       codepage (CP_ACP).
                                       
                                       
oem                                    Windows only: Encode the
                                       operand according to the OEM
                                       codepage (CP_OEMCP).
                                       
                                       Added in version 3.6.
                                       
                                       
palmos                                 Encoding of PalmOS 3.5.
                                       
                                       
punycode                               Implement RFC 3492(2).
                                       Stateful codecs are not
                                       supported.
                                       
                                       
raw_unicode_escape                     Latin-1 encoding with
                                       ‘\uXXXX’ and ‘\UXXXXXXXX’ for
                                       other code points.  Existing
                                       backslashes are not escaped
                                       in any way.  It is used in
                                       the Python pickle protocol.
                                       
                                       
undefined                              This Codec should only be
                                       used for testing purposes.
                                       
                                       Raise an exception for all
                                       conversions, even empty
                                       strings.  The error handler
                                       is ignored.
                                       
                                       
unicode_escape                         Encoding suitable as the
                                       contents of a Unicode literal
                                       in ASCII-encoded Python
                                       source code, except that
                                       quotes are not escaped.
                                       Decode from Latin-1 source
                                       code.  Beware that Python
                                       source code actually uses
                                       UTF-8 by default.
                                       

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: «unicode_internal» codec is removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3492.html


File: python.info,  Node: Binary Transforms,  Next: Standalone Codec Functions,  Prev: Text Encodings,  Up: Python Specific Encodings

5.8.2.16 Binary Transforms
..........................

The following codecs provide binary transforms: *note bytes-like object:
436. to *note bytes: 1c7. mappings.  They are not supported by *note
bytes.decode(): ca8. (which only produces *note str: 1df. output).

Codec                      Aliases                Meaning                            Encoder / decoder
                                                                                     
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
base64_codec (1)           base64, base_64        Convert the operand to multiline   *note base64.encodebytes(): d1e.
                                                  MIME base64 (the result always     /
                                                  includes a trailing ‘'\n'’).       *note base64.decodebytes(): d1f.
                                                                                     
                                                  Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: accepts
                                                  any
                                                  *note bytes-like object: 436. as
                                                  input for encoding and decoding
                                                  
                                                                                     
bz2_codec                  bz2                    Compress the operand using bz2.    *note bz2.compress(): 2a93. /
                                                                                     *note bz2.decompress(): 143c.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
hex_codec                  hex                    Convert the operand to             *note binascii.b2a_hex(): 192b.
                                                  hexadecimal representation, with   / *note binascii.a2b_hex(): 1fe.
                                                  two digits per byte.               
                                                  
                                                                                     
quopri_codec               quopri,                Convert the operand to MIME        *note quopri.encode(): 2a94.
                           quotedprintable,       quoted printable.                  with ‘quotetabs=True’ /
                           quoted_printable                                          *note quopri.decode(): 2a95.
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
uu_codec                   uu                     Convert the operand using
                                                  uuencode.
                                                  
                                                                                     
zlib_codec                 zip, zlib              Compress the operand using gzip.   *note zlib.compress(): a2e. /
                                                                                     *note zlib.decompress(): 10c8.
                                                                                     

Added in version 3.2: Restoration of the binary transforms.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Restoration of the aliases for the binary
transforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In addition to *note bytes-like objects: 436, ‘'base64_codec'’
also accepts ASCII-only instances of *note str: 1df. for decoding


File: python.info,  Node: Standalone Codec Functions,  Next: Text Transforms,  Prev: Binary Transforms,  Up: Python Specific Encodings

5.8.2.17 Standalone Codec Functions
...................................

The following functions provide encoding and decoding functionality
similar to codecs, but are not available as named codecs through *note
codecs.encode(): 12b2. or *note codecs.decode(): 12b3.  They are used
internally (for example, by *note pickle: ab.) and behave similarly to
the ‘string_escape’ codec that was removed in Python 3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.escape_encode (input, errors=None)

     Encode 'input' using escape sequences.  Similar to how *note
     repr(): 45b. on bytes produces escaped byte values.

     'input' must be a *note bytes: 1c7. object.

     Returns a tuple ‘(output, length)’ where 'output' is a *note bytes:
     1c7. object and 'length' is the number of bytes consumed.

 -- Συνάρτηση: codecs.escape_decode (input, errors=None)

     Decode 'input' from escape sequences back to the original bytes.

     'input' must be a *note bytes-like object: 436.

     Returns a tuple ‘(output, length)’ where 'output' is a *note bytes:
     1c7. object and 'length' is the number of bytes consumed.


File: python.info,  Node: Text Transforms,  Prev: Standalone Codec Functions,  Up: Python Specific Encodings

5.8.2.18 Text Transforms
........................

The following codec provides a text transform: a *note str: 1df. to
‘str’ mapping.  It is not supported by *note str.encode(): ca7. (which
only produces *note bytes: 1c7. output).

Codec                    Aliases       Meaning
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
rot_13                   rot13         Return the Caesar-cypher
                                       encryption of the operand.
                                       

Added in version 3.2: Restoration of the ‘rot_13’ text transform.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Restoration of the ‘rot13’ alias.


File: python.info,  Node: encodings — Encodings package,  Next: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications,  Prev: Python Specific Encodings,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.8.2.19 ‘encodings’ — Encodings package
........................................

This module implements the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: encodings.normalize_encoding (encoding)

     Normalize encoding name 'encoding'.

     Normalization works as follows: all non-alphanumeric characters
     except the dot used for Python package names are collapsed and
     replaced with a single underscore, leading and trailing underscores
     are removed.  For example, ‘' -;#'’ becomes ‘'_'’.

     Note that 'encoding' should be ASCII only.

     Σημείωση: The following functions should not be used directly,
     except for testing purposes; *note codecs.lookup(): d2d. should be
     used instead.

 -- Συνάρτηση: encodings.search_function (encoding)

     Search for the codec module corresponding to the given encoding
     name 'encoding'.

     This function first normalizes the 'encoding' using *note
     normalize_encoding(): 313, then looks for a corresponding alias.
     It attempts to import a codec module from the encodings package
     using either the alias or the normalized name.  If the module is
     found and defines a valid ‘getregentry()’ function that returns a
     *note codecs.CodecInfo: 1c72. object, the codec is cached and
     returned.

     If the codec module defines a ‘getaliases()’ function any returned
     aliases are registered for future use.

 -- Συνάρτηση: encodings.win32_code_page_search_function (encoding)

     Search for a Windows code page encoding 'encoding' of the form
     ‘cpXXXX’.

     If the code page is valid and supported, return a *note
     codecs.CodecInfo: 1c72. object for it.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.14.

This module implements the following exception:

 -- Εξαίρεση: encodings.CodecRegistryError

     Raised when a codec is invalid or incompatible.


File: python.info,  Node: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications,  Next: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage,  Prev: encodings — Encodings package,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.8.2.20 ‘encodings.idna’ — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
..........................................................................

This module implements RFC 3490(1) (Internationalized Domain Names in
Applications) and RFC 3492(2) (Nameprep: A Stringprep Profile for
Internationalized Domain Names (IDN)). It builds upon the ‘punycode’
encoding and *note stringprep: dd.

If you need the IDNA 2008 standard from RFC 5891(3) and RFC 5895(4), use
the third-party idna(5) module.

These RFCs together define a protocol to support non-ASCII characters in
domain names.  A domain name containing non-ASCII characters (such as
‘www.Alliancefrançaise.nu’) is converted into an ASCII-compatible
encoding (ACE, such as ‘www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu’).  The ACE form
of the domain name is then used in all places where arbitrary characters
are not allowed by the protocol, such as DNS queries, HTTP ‘Host’
fields, and so on.  This conversion is carried out in the application;
if possible invisible to the user: The application should transparently
convert Unicode domain labels to IDNA on the wire, and convert back ACE
labels to Unicode before presenting them to the user.

Python supports this conversion in several ways: the ‘idna’ codec
performs conversion between Unicode and ACE, separating an input string
into labels based on the separator characters defined in section 3.1 of
RFC 3490(6) and converting each label to ACE as required, and conversely
separating an input byte string into labels based on the ‘.’ separator
and converting any ACE labels found into unicode.  Furthermore, the
*note socket: d4. module transparently converts Unicode host names to
ACE, so that applications need not be concerned about converting host
names themselves when they pass them to the socket module.  On top of
that, modules that have host names as function parameters, such as *note
http.client: 72. and *note ftplib: 61, accept Unicode host names
(‘http.client’ then also transparently sends an IDNA hostname in the
‘Host’ field if it sends that field at all).

When receiving host names from the wire (such as in reverse name
lookup), no automatic conversion to Unicode is performed: applications
wishing to present such host names to the user should decode them to
Unicode.

The module ‘encodings.idna’ also implements the nameprep procedure,
which performs certain normalizations on host names, to achieve
case-insensitivity of international domain names, and to unify similar
characters.  The nameprep functions can be used directly if desired.

 -- Συνάρτηση: encodings.idna.nameprep (label)

     Return the nameprepped version of 'label'.  The implementation
     currently assumes query strings, so ‘AllowUnassigned’ is true.

 -- Συνάρτηση: encodings.idna.ToASCII (label)

     Convert a label to ASCII, as specified in RFC 3490(7).
     ‘UseSTD3ASCIIRules’ is assumed to be false.

 -- Συνάρτηση: encodings.idna.ToUnicode (label)

     Convert a label to Unicode, as specified in RFC 3490(8).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3492.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5891.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5895.html

   (5) https://pypi.org/project/idna/

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html#section-3.1

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3490.html


File: python.info,  Node: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage,  Next: encodings utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature,  Prev: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.8.2.21 ‘encodings.mbcs’ — Windows ANSI codepage
.................................................

This module implements the ANSI codepage (CP_ACP).

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Before 3.2, the 'errors' argument was ignored;
‘'replace'’ was always used to encode, and ‘'ignore'’ to decode.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Support any error handler.


File: python.info,  Node: encodings utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature,  Prev: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage,  Up: codecs — Codec registry and base classes

5.8.2.22 ‘encodings.utf_8_sig’ — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
...............................................................

This module implements a variant of the UTF-8 codec.  On encoding, a
UTF-8 encoded BOM will be prepended to the UTF-8 encoded bytes.  For the
stateful encoder this is only done once (on the first write to the byte
stream).  On decoding, an optional UTF-8 encoded BOM at the start of the
data will be skipped.


File: python.info,  Node: Data Types,  Next: Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules,  Prev: Υπηρεσίες Δυαδικών Δεδομένων,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.9 Data Types
==============

The modules described in this chapter provide a variety of specialized
data types such as dates and times, fixed-type arrays, heap queues,
double-ended queues, and enumerations.

Python also provides some built-in data types, in particular, *note
dict: 188, *note list: 4d9, *note set: 42b. and *note frozenset: 9d4,
and *note tuple: 1ce.  The *note str: 1df. class is used to hold Unicode
strings, and the *note bytes: 1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6. classes are
used to hold binary data.

The following modules are documented in this chapter:

* Menu:

* datetime — Basic date and time types::
* zoneinfo — IANA time zone support::
* calendar — General calendar-related functions::
* collections — Container datatypes::
* collections.abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers: collections abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers.
* heapq — Heap queue algorithm::
* bisect — Array bisection algorithm::
* array — Efficient arrays of numeric values::
* weakref — Weak references::
* types — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους::
* copy — Shallow and deep copy operations::
* pprint — Data pretty printer::
* reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
* enum — Support for enumerations::
* graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures::


File: python.info,  Node: datetime — Basic date and time types,  Next: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support,  Up: Data Types

5.9.1 ‘datetime’ — Basic date and time types
--------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/datetime.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘datetime’ module supplies classes for manipulating dates and times.

While date and time arithmetic is supported, the focus of the
implementation is on efficient attribute extraction for output
formatting and manipulation.

     Πρακτική συμβουλή: Skip to *note the format codes: 2aaa.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note calendar: 15.

     General calendar related functions.

Module *note time: f7.

     Time access and conversions.

Module *note zoneinfo: 13d.

     Concrete time zones representing the IANA time zone database.

Package dateutil(2)

     Third-party library with expanded time zone and parsing support.

Package DateType(3)

     Third-party library that introduces distinct static types to for
     example, allow *note static type checkers: 775. to differentiate
     between naive and aware datetimes.

* Menu:

* Aware and naive objects::
* Constants::
* Available types::
* timedelta objects::
* date objects::
* datetime objects::
* time objects::
* tzinfo objects::
* timezone objects::
* strftime() and strptime() behavior: strftime and strptime behavior.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/datetime.py

   (2) https://dateutil.readthedocs.io/en/stable/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/DateType/


File: python.info,  Node: Aware and naive objects,  Next: Constants,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.9.1.1 Aware and naive objects
...............................

Date and time objects may be categorized as «aware» or «naive» depending
on whether or not they include time zone information.

With sufficient knowledge of applicable algorithmic and political time
adjustments, such as time zone and daylight saving time information, an
'aware' object can locate itself relative to other aware objects.  An
aware object represents a specific moment in time that is not open to
interpretation.  (1)

A 'naive' object does not contain enough information to unambiguously
locate itself relative to other date/time objects.  Whether a naive
object represents Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), local time, or time
in some other time zone is purely up to the program, just like it is up
to the program whether a particular number represents metres, miles, or
mass.  Naive objects are easy to understand and to work with, at the
cost of ignoring some aspects of reality.

For applications requiring aware objects, *note datetime: 6e7. and *note
time: 48e. objects have an optional time zone information attribute,
‘tzinfo’, that can be set to an instance of a subclass of the abstract
‘tzinfo’ class.  These *note tzinfo: 9d8. objects capture information
about the offset from UTC time, the time zone name, and whether daylight
saving time is in effect.

Only one concrete *note tzinfo: 9d8. class, the *note timezone: 146c.
class, is supplied by the ‘datetime’ module.  The ‘timezone’ class can
represent simple time zones with fixed offsets from UTC, such as UTC
itself or North American EST and EDT time zones.  Supporting time zones
at deeper levels of detail is up to the application.  The rules for time
adjustment across the world are more political than rational, change
frequently, and there is no standard suitable for every application
aside from UTC.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) If, that is, we ignore the effects of relativity.


File: python.info,  Node: Constants,  Next: Available types,  Prev: Aware and naive objects,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.9.1.2 Constants
.................

The ‘datetime’ module exports the following constants:

 -- Δεδομένα: datetime.MINYEAR

     The smallest year number allowed in a *note date: 48d. or *note
     datetime: 6e7. object.  *note MINYEAR: 2aae. is 1.

 -- Δεδομένα: datetime.MAXYEAR

     The largest year number allowed in a *note date: 48d. or *note
     datetime: 6e7. object.  *note MAXYEAR: 2aaf. is 9999.

 -- Δεδομένα: datetime.UTC

     Alias for the UTC time zone singleton *note datetime.timezone.utc:
     a07.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Available types,  Next: timedelta objects,  Prev: Constants,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.9.1.3 Available types
.......................

 -- Κλάση: datetime.date

     An idealized naive date, assuming the current Gregorian calendar
     always was, and always will be, in effect.  Attributes: *note year:
     2ab1, *note month: 2ab2, and *note day: 2ab3.

 -- Κλάση: datetime.time

     An idealized time, independent of any particular day, assuming that
     every day has exactly 24*60*60 seconds.  (There is no notion of
     «leap seconds» here.)  Attributes: *note hour: 2ab4, *note minute:
     2ab5, *note second: 2ab6, *note microsecond: 2ab7, and *note
     tzinfo: 2ab8.

 -- Κλάση: datetime.datetime

     A combination of a date and a time.  Attributes: *note year: 2ab9,
     *note month: 2aba, *note day: 2abb, *note hour: 2abc, *note minute:
     2abd, *note second: 2abe, *note microsecond: 2abf, and *note
     tzinfo: 2ac0.

 -- Κλάση: datetime.timedelta

     A duration expressing the difference between two *note datetime:
     6e7. or *note date: 48d. instances to microsecond resolution.

 -- Κλάση: datetime.tzinfo

     An abstract base class for time zone information objects.  These
     are used by the *note datetime: 6e7. and *note time: 48e. classes
     to provide a customizable notion of time adjustment (for example,
     to account for time zone and/or daylight saving time).

 -- Κλάση: datetime.timezone

     A class that implements the *note tzinfo: 9d8. abstract base class
     as a fixed offset from the UTC.

     Added in version 3.2.

Objects of these types are immutable.

Subclass relationships:

[image src="python-figures/datetime-inheritance.svg" alt="timedelta, tzinfo, time, and date inherit from object; timezone inherits from tzinfo; and datetime inherits from date."]


Figure
* Menu:

* Common properties::
* Determining if an object is aware or naive::


File: python.info,  Node: Common properties,  Next: Determining if an object is aware or naive,  Up: Available types

5.9.1.4 Common properties
.........................

The *note date: 48d, *note datetime: 6e7, *note time: 48e, and *note
timezone: 146c. types share these common features:

   - Objects of these types are immutable.

   - Objects of these types are *note hashable: 183, meaning that they
     can be used as dictionary keys.

   - Objects of these types support efficient pickling via the *note
     pickle: ab. module.


File: python.info,  Node: Determining if an object is aware or naive,  Prev: Common properties,  Up: Available types

5.9.1.5 Determining if an object is aware or naive
..................................................

Objects of the *note date: 48d. type are always naive.

An object of type *note time: 48e. or *note datetime: 6e7. may be aware
or naive.

A *note datetime: 6e7. object ‘d’ is aware if both of the following
hold:

  1. ‘d.tzinfo’ is not ‘None’

  2. ‘d.tzinfo.utcoffset(d)’ does not return ‘None’

Otherwise, ‘d’ is naive.

A *note time: 48e. object ‘t’ is aware if both of the following hold:

  1. ‘t.tzinfo’ is not ‘None’

  2. ‘t.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)’ does not return ‘None’.

Otherwise, ‘t’ is naive.

The distinction between aware and naive doesn’t apply to *note
timedelta: d94. objects.


File: python.info,  Node: timedelta objects,  Next: date objects,  Prev: Available types,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.9.1.6 ‘timedelta’ objects
...........................

A *note timedelta: d94. object represents a duration, the difference
between two *note datetime: 6e7. or *note date: 48d. instances.

 -- Κλάση: datetime.timedelta (days=0, seconds=0, microseconds=0,
          milliseconds=0, minutes=0, hours=0, weeks=0)

     All arguments are optional and default to 0.  Arguments may be
     integers or floats, and may be positive or negative.

     Only 'days', 'seconds' and 'microseconds' are stored internally.
     Arguments are converted to those units:

        * A millisecond is converted to 1000 microseconds.

        * A minute is converted to 60 seconds.

        * An hour is converted to 3600 seconds.

        * A week is converted to 7 days.

     and days, seconds and microseconds are then normalized so that the
     representation is unique, with

        * ‘0 <= microseconds < 1000000’

        * ‘0 <= seconds < 3600*24’ (the number of seconds in one day)

        * ‘-999999999 <= days <= 999999999’

     The following example illustrates how any arguments besides 'days',
     'seconds' and 'microseconds' are «merged» and normalized into those
     three resulting attributes:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> delta = dt.timedelta(
          ...     days=50,
          ...     seconds=27,
          ...     microseconds=10,
          ...     milliseconds=29000,
          ...     minutes=5,
          ...     hours=8,
          ...     weeks=2
          ... )
          >>> # Only days, seconds, and microseconds remain
          >>> delta
          datetime.timedelta(days=64, seconds=29156, microseconds=10)

          Πρακτική συμβουλή: ‘import datetime as dt’ instead of ‘import
          datetime’ or ‘from datetime import datetime’ to avoid
          confusion between the module and the class.  See How I Import
          Python’s datetime Module(1).

     If any argument is a float and there are fractional microseconds,
     the fractional microseconds left over from all arguments are
     combined and their sum is rounded to the nearest microsecond using
     round-half-to-even tiebreaker.  If no argument is a float, the
     conversion and normalization processes are exact (no information is
     lost).

     If the normalized value of days lies outside the indicated range,
     *note OverflowError: c57. is raised.

     Note that normalization of negative values may be surprising at
     first.  For example:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> d = dt.timedelta(microseconds=-1)
          >>> (d.days, d.seconds, d.microseconds)
          (-1, 86399, 999999)

     Since the string representation of ‘timedelta’ objects can be
     confusing, use the following recipe to produce a more readable
     format:

          >>> def pretty_timedelta(td):
          ...     if td.days >= 0:
          ...         return str(td)
          ...     return f'-({-td!s})'
          ...
          >>> d = timedelta(hours=-1)
          >>> str(d)  # not human-friendly
          '-1 day, 23:00:00'
          >>> pretty_timedelta(d)
          '-(1:00:00)'

Class attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: timedelta.min

     The most negative *note timedelta: d94. object,
     ‘timedelta(-999999999)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: timedelta.max

     The most positive *note timedelta: d94. object,
     ‘timedelta(days=999999999, hours=23, minutes=59, seconds=59,
     microseconds=999999)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: timedelta.resolution

     The smallest possible difference between non-equal *note timedelta:
     d94. objects, ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’.

Note that, because of normalization, ‘timedelta.max’ is greater than
‘-timedelta.min’.  ‘-timedelta.max’ is not representable as a *note
timedelta: d94. object.

Instance attributes (read-only):

 -- Ιδιότητα: timedelta.days

     Between -999,999,999 and 999,999,999 inclusive.

 -- Ιδιότητα: timedelta.seconds

     Between 0 and 86,399 inclusive.

          Προσοχή: It is a somewhat common bug for code to
          unintentionally use this attribute when it is actually
          intended to get a *note total_seconds(): 16aa. value instead:

               >>> import datetime as dt
               >>> duration = dt.timedelta(seconds=11235813)
               >>> duration.days, duration.seconds
               (130, 3813)
               >>> duration.total_seconds()
               11235813.0

 -- Ιδιότητα: timedelta.microseconds

     Between 0 and 999,999 inclusive.

Supported operations:

Operation                            Result
                                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
‘t1 = t2 + t3’                       Sum of ‘t2’ and ‘t3’.  Afterwards ‘t1 - t2 == t3’
                                     and ‘t1 - t3 == t2’ are true.  (1)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 - t3’                       Difference of ‘t2’ and ‘t3’.  Afterwards ‘t1 ==
                                     t2 - t3’ and ‘t2 == t1 + t3’ are true.  (1)(6)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 * i or t1 = i * t2’         Delta multiplied by an integer.  Afterwards ‘t1
                                     // i == t2’ is true, provided ‘i != 0’.
                                     
                                     
                                     In general, ‘t1 * i == t1 * (i-1) + t1’ is true.
                                     (1)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 * f or t1 = f * t2’         Delta multiplied by a float.  The result is
                                     rounded to the nearest multiple of
                                     timedelta.resolution using round-half-to-even.
                                     
                                     
‘f = t2 / t3’                        Division (3) of overall duration ‘t2’ by interval
                                     unit ‘t3’.  Returns a *note float: 327. object.
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 / f or t1 = t2 / i’         Delta divided by a float or an int.  The result
                                     is rounded to the nearest multiple of
                                     timedelta.resolution using round-half-to-even.
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 // i’ or ‘t1 = t2 // t3’    The floor is computed and the remainder (if any)
                                     is thrown away.  In the second case, an integer
                                     is returned.  (3)
                                     
                                     
‘t1 = t2 % t3’                       The remainder is computed as a
                                     *note timedelta: d94. object.  (3)
                                     
                                     
‘q, r = divmod(t1, t2)’              Computes the quotient and the remainder: ‘q = t1
                                     // t2’ (3) and ‘r = t1 % t2’.  ‘q’ is an integer
                                     and ‘r’ is a *note timedelta: d94. object.
                                     
                                     
‘+t1’                                Returns a *note timedelta: d94. object with the
                                     same value.  (2)
                                     
                                     
‘-t1’                                Equivalent to ‘timedelta(-t1.days, -t1.seconds,
                                     -t1.microseconds)’, and to ‘t1 * -1’.  (1)(4)
                                     
                                     
‘abs(t)’                             Equivalent to ‘+t’ when ‘t.days >= 0’, and to
                                     ‘-t’ when ‘t.days < 0’.  (2)
                                     
                                     
‘str(t)’                             Returns a string in the form ‘[D day[s],
                                     ][H]H:MM:SS[.UUUUUU]’, where D is negative for
                                     negative ‘t’.  (5)
                                     
                                     
‘repr(t)’                            Returns a string representation of the
                                     *note timedelta: d94. object as a constructor
                                     call with canonical attribute values.
                                     

Notes:

  1. This is exact but may overflow.

  2. This is exact and cannot overflow.

  3. Division by zero raises *note ZeroDivisionError: d11.

  4. ‘-timedelta.max’ is not representable as a *note timedelta: d94.
     object.

  5. String representations of *note timedelta: d94. objects are
     normalized similarly to their internal representation.  This leads
     to somewhat unusual results for negative timedeltas.  For example:

          >>> timedelta(hours=-5)
          datetime.timedelta(days=-1, seconds=68400)
          >>> print(_)
          -1 day, 19:00:00

  6. The expression ‘t2 - t3’ will always be equal to the expression ‘t2
     + (-t3)’ except when t3 is equal to ‘timedelta.max’; in that case
     the former will produce a result while the latter will overflow.

In addition to the operations listed above, *note timedelta: d94.
objects support certain additions and subtractions with *note date: 48d.
and *note datetime: 6e7. objects (see below).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Floor division and true division of a *note
timedelta: d94. object by another ‘timedelta’ object are now supported,
as are remainder operations and the *note divmod(): d6a. function.  True
division and multiplication of a ‘timedelta’ object by a *note float:
327. object are now supported.

*note timedelta: d94. objects support equality and order comparisons.

In Boolean contexts, a *note timedelta: d94. object is considered to be
true if and only if it isn’t equal to ‘timedelta(0)’.

Instance methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: timedelta.total_seconds ()

     Return the total number of seconds contained in the duration.
     Equivalent to ‘td / timedelta(seconds=1)’.  For interval units
     other than seconds, use the division form directly (for example,
     ‘td / timedelta(microseconds=1)’).

     Note that for very large time intervals (greater than 270 years on
     most platforms) this method will lose microsecond accuracy.

     Added in version 3.2.

* Menu:

* Examples of usage; timedelta: Examples of usage timedelta.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://adamj.eu/tech/2019/09/12/how-i-import-pythons-datetime-module/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of usage timedelta,  Up: timedelta objects

5.9.1.7 Examples of usage: ‘timedelta’
......................................

An additional example of normalization:

     >>> # Components of another_year add up to exactly 365 days
     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> year = dt.timedelta(days=365)
     >>> another_year = dt.timedelta(weeks=40, days=84, hours=23,
     ...                             minutes=50, seconds=600)
     >>> year == another_year
     True
     >>> year.total_seconds()
     31536000.0

Examples of *note timedelta: d94. arithmetic:

     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> year = dt.timedelta(days=365)
     >>> ten_years = 10 * year
     >>> ten_years
     datetime.timedelta(days=3650)
     >>> ten_years.days // 365
     10
     >>> nine_years = ten_years - year
     >>> nine_years
     datetime.timedelta(days=3285)
     >>> three_years = nine_years // 3
     >>> three_years, three_years.days // 365
     (datetime.timedelta(days=1095), 3)


File: python.info,  Node: date objects,  Next: datetime objects,  Prev: timedelta objects,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.9.1.8 ‘date’ objects
......................

A *note date: 48d. object represents a date (year, month and day) in an
idealized calendar, the current Gregorian calendar indefinitely extended
in both directions.

January 1 of year 1 is called day number 1, January 2 of year 1 is
called day number 2, and so on.  (1)

 -- Κλάση: datetime.date (year, month, day)

     All arguments are required.  Arguments must be integers, in the
     following ranges:

        * ‘MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR’

        * ‘1 <= month <= 12’

        * ‘1 <= day <= number of days in the given month and year’

     If an argument outside those ranges is given, *note ValueError:
     277. is raised.

Other constructors, all class methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod date.today ()

     Return the current local date.

     This is equivalent to ‘date.fromtimestamp(time.time())’.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod date.fromtimestamp (timestamp)

     Return the local date corresponding to the POSIX 'timestamp', such
     as is returned by *note time.time(): 75e.

     This may raise *note OverflowError: c57, if the timestamp is out of
     the range of values supported by the platform C ‘localtime()’
     function, and *note OSError: 53c. on ‘localtime()’ failure.  It’s
     common for this to be restricted to years from 1970 through 2038.
     Note that on non-POSIX systems that include leap seconds in their
     notion of a timestamp, leap seconds are ignored by
     ‘fromtimestamp()’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Raise *note OverflowError: c57. instead of
     *note ValueError: 277. if the timestamp is out of the range of
     values supported by the platform C ‘localtime()’ function.  Raise
     *note OSError: 53c. instead of ‘ValueError’ on ‘localtime()’
     failure.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'timestamp',
     not only integer or float.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod date.fromordinal (ordinal)

     Return the date corresponding to the proleptic Gregorian 'ordinal',
     where January 1 of year 1 has ordinal 1.

     *note ValueError: 277. is raised unless ‘1 <= ordinal <=
     date.max.toordinal()’.  For any date ‘d’,
     ‘date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d’.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod date.fromisoformat (date_string)

     Return a *note date: 48d. corresponding to a 'date_string' given in
     any valid ISO 8601 format, with the following exceptions:

       1. Reduced precision dates are not currently supported
          (‘YYYY-MM’, ‘YYYY’).

       2. Extended date representations are not currently supported
          (‘±YYYYYY-MM-DD’).

       3. Ordinal dates are not currently supported (‘YYYY-OOO’).

     Examples:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> dt.date.fromisoformat('2019-12-04')
          datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
          >>> dt.date.fromisoformat('20191204')
          datetime.date(2019, 12, 4)
          >>> dt.date.fromisoformat('2021-W01-1')
          datetime.date(2021, 1, 4)

     Added in version 3.7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Previously, this method only supported the
     format ‘YYYY-MM-DD’.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod date.fromisocalendar (year, week, day)

     Return a *note date: 48d. corresponding to the ISO calendar date
     specified by 'year', 'week' and 'day'.  This is the inverse of the
     function *note date.isocalendar(): cc5.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod date.strptime (date_string, format)

     Return a *note date: 48d. corresponding to 'date_string', parsed
     according to 'format'.  This is equivalent to:

          date(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:3]))

     *note ValueError: 277. is raised if the date_string and format
     can’t be parsed by *note time.strptime(): 17cf. or if it returns a
     value which isn’t a time tuple.  See also *note strftime() and
     strptime() behavior: 1d52. and *note date.fromisoformat(): a08.

          Σημείωση: If 'format' specifies a day of month (‘%d’) without
          a year, *note ValueError: 277. is raised.  This is to avoid a
          quadrennial leap year bug in code seeking to parse only a
          month and day as the default year used in absence of one in
          the format is not a leap year.  The workaround is to always
          include a year in your 'format'.  If parsing 'date_string'
          values that do not have a year, explicitly add a year that is
          a leap year before parsing:

               >>> import datetime as dt
               >>> date_string = "02/29"
               >>> when = dt.date.strptime(f"{date_string};1984", "%m/%d;%Y")  # Avoids leap year bug.
               >>> when.strftime("%B %d")
               'February 29'

     Added in version 3.14.

Class attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: date.min

     The earliest representable date, ‘date(MINYEAR, 1, 1)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: date.max

     The latest representable date, ‘date(MAXYEAR, 12, 31)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: date.resolution

     The smallest possible difference between non-equal date objects,
     ‘timedelta(days=1)’.

Instance attributes (read-only):

 -- Ιδιότητα: date.year

     Between *note MINYEAR: 2aae. and *note MAXYEAR: 2aaf. inclusive.

 -- Ιδιότητα: date.month

     Between 1 and 12 inclusive.

 -- Ιδιότητα: date.day

     Between 1 and the number of days in the given month of the given
     year.

Supported operations:

Operation                           Result
                                    
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘date2 = date1 + timedelta’         ‘date2’ will be ‘timedelta.days’ days after
                                    ‘date1’.  (1)
                                    
                                    
‘date2 = date1 - timedelta’         Computes ‘date2’ such that ‘date2 + timedelta ==
                                    date1’.  (2)
                                    
                                    
‘timedelta = date1 - date2’         (3)
                                    
                                    
     ‘date1 == date2’               Equality comparison.  (4)
     ‘date1 != date2’               

     ‘date1 < date2’                Order comparison.  (5)
     ‘date1 > date2’                
     ‘date1 <= date2’
     ‘date1 >= date2’

Notes:

  1. 'date2' is moved forward in time if ‘timedelta.days > 0’, or
     backward if ‘timedelta.days < 0’.  Afterward ‘date2 - date1 ==
     timedelta.days’.  ‘timedelta.seconds’ and ‘timedelta.microseconds’
     are ignored.  *note OverflowError: c57. is raised if ‘date2.year’
     would be smaller than *note MINYEAR: 2aae. or larger than *note
     MAXYEAR: 2aaf.

  2. ‘timedelta.seconds’ and ‘timedelta.microseconds’ are ignored.

  3. This is exact, and cannot overflow.  ‘timedelta.seconds’ and
     ‘timedelta.microseconds’ are 0, and ‘date2 + timedelta == date1’
     after.

  4. *note date: 48d. objects are equal if they represent the same date.

     ‘date’ objects that are not also *note datetime: 6e7. instances are
     never equal to ‘datetime’ objects, even if they represent the same
     date.

  5. 'date1' is considered less than 'date2' when 'date1' precedes
     'date2' in time.  In other words, ‘date1 < date2’ if and only if
     ‘date1.toordinal() < date2.toordinal()’.

     Order comparison between a *note date: 48d. object that is not also
     a *note datetime: 6e7. instance and a ‘datetime’ object raises
     *note TypeError: 291.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Comparison between *note datetime: 6e7. object
and an instance of the *note date: 48d. subclass that is not a
‘datetime’ subclass no longer converts the latter to ‘date’, ignoring
the time part and the time zone.  The default behavior can be changed by
overriding the special comparison methods in subclasses.

In Boolean contexts, all *note date: 48d. objects are considered to be
true.

Instance methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: date.replace (year=self.year, month=self.month,
          day=self.day)

     Return a new *note date: 48d. object with the same values, but with
     specified parameters updated.

     Example:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> d = dt.date(2002, 12, 31)
          >>> d.replace(day=26)
          datetime.date(2002, 12, 26)

     The generic function *note copy.replace(): 45a. also supports *note
     date: 48d. objects.

 -- Μέθοδος: date.timetuple ()

     Return a *note time.struct_time: 10a7. such as returned by *note
     time.localtime(): 189b.

     The hours, minutes and seconds are 0, and the DST flag is -1.

     ‘d.timetuple()’ is equivalent to:

          time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day, 0, 0, 0, d.weekday(), yday, -1))

     where ‘yday = d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1, 1).toordinal() + 1’
     is the day number within the current year starting with 1 for
     January 1st.

 -- Μέθοδος: date.toordinal ()

     Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date, where January 1
     of year 1 has ordinal 1.  For any *note date: 48d. object ‘d’,
     ‘date.fromordinal(d.toordinal()) == d’.

 -- Μέθοδος: date.weekday ()

     Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 0 and
     Sunday is 6.  For example, ‘date(2002, 12, 4).weekday() == 2’, a
     Wednesday.  See also *note isoweekday(): 2ad4.

 -- Μέθοδος: date.isoweekday ()

     Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 1 and
     Sunday is 7.  For example, ‘date(2002, 12, 4).isoweekday() == 3’, a
     Wednesday.  See also *note weekday(): 2ad3, *note isocalendar():
     cc5.

 -- Μέθοδος: date.isocalendar ()

     Return a *note named tuple: a3d. object with three components:
     ‘year’, ‘week’ and ‘weekday’.

     The ISO calendar is a widely used variant of the Gregorian
     calendar.  (2)

     The ISO year consists of 52 or 53 full weeks, and where a week
     starts on a Monday and ends on a Sunday.  The first week of an ISO
     year is the first (Gregorian) calendar week of a year containing a
     Thursday.  This is called week number 1, and the ISO year of that
     Thursday is the same as its Gregorian year.

     For example, 2004 begins on a Thursday, so the first week of ISO
     year 2004 begins on Monday, 29 Dec 2003 and ends on Sunday, 4 Jan
     2004:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> dt.date(2003, 12, 29).isocalendar()
          datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=1)
          >>> dt.date(2004, 1, 4).isocalendar()
          datetime.IsoCalendarDate(year=2004, week=1, weekday=7)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Result changed from a tuple to a *note
     named tuple: a3d.

 -- Μέθοδος: date.isoformat ()

     Return a string representing the date in ISO 8601 format,
     ‘YYYY-MM-DD’:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> dt.date(2002, 12, 4).isoformat()
          '2002-12-04'

 -- Μέθοδος: date.__str__ ()

     For a date ‘d’, ‘str(d)’ is equivalent to ‘d.isoformat()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: date.ctime ()

     Return a string representing the date:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> dt.date(2002, 12, 4).ctime()
          'Wed Dec  4 00:00:00 2002'

     ‘d.ctime()’ is equivalent to:

          time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))

     on platforms where the native C ‘ctime()’ function (which *note
     time.ctime(): 2ad8. invokes, but which ‘date.ctime()’ does not
     invoke) conforms to the C standard.

 -- Μέθοδος: date.strftime (format)

     Return a string representing the date, controlled by an explicit
     format string.  Format codes referring to hours, minutes or seconds
     will see 0 values.  See also *note strftime() and strptime()
     behavior: 1d52. and *note date.isoformat(): 2ad5.

 -- Μέθοδος: date.__format__ (format)

     Same as *note date.strftime(): 1052.  This makes it possible to
     specify a format string for a *note date: 48d. object in *note
     formatted string literals: 43a. and when using *note str.format():
     a12.  See also *note strftime() and strptime() behavior: 1d52. and
     *note date.isoformat(): 2ad5.

* Menu:

* Examples of usage; date: Examples of usage date.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This matches the definition of the «proleptic Gregorian» calendar
in Dershowitz and Reingold’s book 'Calendrical Calculations', where it’s
the base calendar for all computations.  See the book for algorithms for
converting between proleptic Gregorian ordinals and many other calendar
systems.

   (2) See R. H. van Gent’s guide to the mathematics of the ISO 8601
calendar
(https://web.archive.org/web/20220531051136/https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/calendar/isocalendar.htm)
for a good explanation.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of usage date,  Up: date objects

5.9.1.9 Examples of usage: ‘date’
.................................

Example of counting days to an event:

     >>> import time
     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> today = dt.date.today()
     >>> today
     datetime.date(2007, 12, 5)
     >>> today == dt.date.fromtimestamp(time.time())
     True
     >>> my_birthday = dt.date(today.year, 6, 24)
     >>> if my_birthday < today:
     ...     my_birthday = my_birthday.replace(year=today.year + 1)
     ...
     >>> my_birthday
     datetime.date(2008, 6, 24)
     >>> time_to_birthday = abs(my_birthday - today)
     >>> time_to_birthday.days
     202

More examples of working with *note date: 48d.:

     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> d = dt.date.fromordinal(730920) # 730920th day after 1. 1. 0001
     >>> d
     datetime.date(2002, 3, 11)

     >>> # Methods related to formatting string output
     >>> d.isoformat()
     '2002-03-11'
     >>> d.strftime("%d/%m/%y")
     '11/03/02'
     >>> d.strftime("%A %d. %B %Y")
     'Monday 11. March 2002'
     >>> d.ctime()
     'Mon Mar 11 00:00:00 2002'
     >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}.'.format(d, "day", "month")
     'The day is 11, the month is March.'

     >>> # Methods for extracting 'components' under different calendars
     >>> t = d.timetuple()
     >>> for i in t:
     ...     print(i)
     2002                # year
     3                   # month
     11                  # day
     0
     0
     0
     0                   # weekday (0 = Monday)
     70                  # 70th day in the year
     -1
     >>> ic = d.isocalendar()
     >>> for i in ic:
     ...     print(i)
     2002                # ISO year
     11                  # ISO week number
     1                   # ISO day number ( 1 = Monday )

     >>> # A date object is immutable; all operations produce a new object
     >>> d.replace(year=2005)
     datetime.date(2005, 3, 11)


File: python.info,  Node: datetime objects,  Next: time objects,  Prev: date objects,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.9.1.10 ‘datetime’ objects
...........................

A *note datetime: 6e7. object is a single object containing all the
information from a *note date: 48d. object and a *note time: 48e.
object.

Like a *note date: 48d. object, *note datetime: 6e7. assumes the current
Gregorian calendar extended in both directions; like a *note time: 48e.
object, ‘datetime’ assumes there are exactly 3600*24 seconds in every
day.

Constructor:

 -- Κλάση: datetime.datetime (year, month, day, hour=0, minute=0,
          second=0, microsecond=0, tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)

     The 'year', 'month' and 'day' arguments are required.  'tzinfo' may
     be ‘None’, or an instance of a *note tzinfo: 9d8. subclass.  The
     remaining arguments must be integers in the following ranges:

        * ‘MINYEAR <= year <= MAXYEAR’,

        * ‘1 <= month <= 12’,

        * ‘1 <= day <= number of days in the given month and year’,

        * ‘0 <= hour < 24’,

        * ‘0 <= minute < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= second < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= microsecond < 1000000’,

        * ‘fold in [0, 1]’.

     If an argument outside those ranges is given, *note ValueError:
     277. is raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the 'fold' parameter.

Other constructors, all class methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod datetime.today ()

     Return the current local date and time, with *note tzinfo: 2ac0.
     ‘None’.

     Equivalent to:

          datetime.fromtimestamp(time.time())

     See also *note now(): 8fa, *note fromtimestamp(): 8fb.

     This method is functionally equivalent to *note now(): 8fa, but
     without a ‘tz’ parameter.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod datetime.now (tz=None)

     Return the current local date and time.

     If optional argument 'tz' is ‘None’ or not specified, this is like
     *note today(): 2add, but, if possible, supplies more precision than
     can be gotten from going through a *note time.time(): 75e.
     timestamp (for example, this may be possible on platforms supplying
     the C ‘gettimeofday()’ function).

     If 'tz' is not ‘None’, it must be an instance of a *note tzinfo:
     9d8. subclass, and the current date and time are converted to
     'tz'’s time zone.

     This function is preferred over *note today(): 2add. and *note
     utcnow(): 32e.

          Σημείωση: Subsequent calls to ‘datetime.now()’ may return the
          same instant depending on the precision of the underlying
          clock.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod datetime.utcnow ()

     Return the current UTC date and time, with *note tzinfo: 2ac0.
     ‘None’.

     This is like *note now(): 8fa, but returns the current UTC date and
     time, as a naive *note datetime: 6e7. object.  An aware current UTC
     datetime can be obtained by calling ‘datetime.now(timezone.utc)’.
     See also ‘now()’.

          Προειδοποίηση: Because naive ‘datetime’ objects are treated by
          many ‘datetime’ methods as local times, it is preferred to use
          aware datetimes to represent times in UTC. As such, the
          recommended way to create an object representing the current
          time in UTC is by calling ‘datetime.now(timezone.utc)’.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12: Use *note datetime.now(): 8fa. with
     *note UTC: 8fc. instead.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod datetime.fromtimestamp (timestamp, tz=None)

     Return the local date and time corresponding to the POSIX
     timestamp, such as is returned by *note time.time(): 75e.  If
     optional argument 'tz' is ‘None’ or not specified, the timestamp is
     converted to the platform’s local date and time, and the returned
     *note datetime: 6e7. object is naive.

     If 'tz' is not ‘None’, it must be an instance of a *note tzinfo:
     9d8. subclass, and the timestamp is converted to 'tz'’s time zone.

     ‘fromtimestamp()’ may raise *note OverflowError: c57, if the
     timestamp is out of the range of values supported by the platform C
     ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ functions, and *note OSError: 53c. on
     ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ failure.  It’s common for this to be
     restricted to years in 1970 through 2038.  Note that on non-POSIX
     systems that include leap seconds in their notion of a timestamp,
     leap seconds are ignored by ‘fromtimestamp()’, and then it’s
     possible to have two timestamps differing by a second that yield
     identical *note datetime: 6e7. objects.  This method is preferred
     over *note utcfromtimestamp(): 32f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Raise *note OverflowError: c57. instead of
     *note ValueError: 277. if the timestamp is out of the range of
     values supported by the platform C ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’
     functions.  Raise *note OSError: 53c. instead of ‘ValueError’ on
     ‘localtime()’ or ‘gmtime()’ failure.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: ‘fromtimestamp()’ may return instances with
     *note fold: 1015. set to 1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'timestamp',
     not only integer or float.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod datetime.utcfromtimestamp (timestamp)

     Return the UTC *note datetime: 6e7. corresponding to the POSIX
     timestamp, with *note tzinfo: 2ac0. ‘None’.  (The resulting object
     is naive.)

     This may raise *note OverflowError: c57, if the timestamp is out of
     the range of values supported by the platform C ‘gmtime()’
     function, and *note OSError: 53c. on ‘gmtime()’ failure.  It’s
     common for this to be restricted to years in 1970 through 2038.

     To get an aware *note datetime: 6e7. object, call *note
     fromtimestamp(): 8fb.:

          datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, timezone.utc)

     On the POSIX compliant platforms, it is equivalent to the following
     expression:

          datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc) + timedelta(seconds=timestamp)

     except the latter formula always supports the full years range:
     between *note MINYEAR: 2aae. and *note MAXYEAR: 2aaf. inclusive.

          Προειδοποίηση: Because naive ‘datetime’ objects are treated by
          many ‘datetime’ methods as local times, it is preferred to use
          aware datetimes to represent times in UTC. As such, the
          recommended way to create an object representing a specific
          timestamp in UTC is by calling
          ‘datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=timezone.utc)’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Raise *note OverflowError: c57. instead of
     *note ValueError: 277. if the timestamp is out of the range of
     values supported by the platform C ‘gmtime()’ function.  Raise
     *note OSError: 53c. instead of ‘ValueError’ on ‘gmtime()’ failure.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'timestamp',
     not only integer or float.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12: Use *note datetime.fromtimestamp():
     8fb. with *note UTC: 8fc. instead.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod datetime.fromordinal (ordinal)

     Return the *note datetime: 6e7. corresponding to the proleptic
     Gregorian ordinal, where January 1 of year 1 has ordinal 1.  *note
     ValueError: 277. is raised unless ‘1 <= ordinal <=
     datetime.max.toordinal()’.  The hour, minute, second and
     microsecond of the result are all 0, and *note tzinfo: 2ac0. is
     ‘None’.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod datetime.combine (date, time,
          tzinfo=time.tzinfo)

     Return a new *note datetime: 6e7. object whose date components are
     equal to the given *note date: 48d. object’s, and whose time
     components are equal to the given *note time: 48e. object’s.  If
     the 'tzinfo' argument is provided, its value is used to set the
     *note tzinfo: 2ac0. attribute of the result, otherwise the *note
     tzinfo: 2ab8. attribute of the 'time' argument is used.  If the
     'date' argument is a ‘datetime’ object, its time components and
     ‘tzinfo’ attributes are ignored.

     For any *note datetime: 6e7. object ‘d’, ‘d ==
     datetime.combine(d.date(), d.time(), d.tzinfo)’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the 'tzinfo' argument.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod datetime.fromisoformat (date_string)

     Return a *note datetime: 6e7. corresponding to a 'date_string' in
     any valid ISO 8601 format, with the following exceptions:

       1. Time zone offsets may have fractional seconds.

       2. The ‘T’ separator may be replaced by any single unicode
          character.

       3. Fractional hours and minutes are not supported.

       4. Reduced precision dates are not currently supported
          (‘YYYY-MM’, ‘YYYY’).

       5. Extended date representations are not currently supported
          (‘±YYYYYY-MM-DD’).

       6. Ordinal dates are not currently supported (‘YYYY-OOO’).

     Examples:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
          >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('20111104')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 0)
          >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
          >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23Z')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('20111104T000523')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23)
          >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-W01-2T00:05:23.283')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 1, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
          >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000)
          >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04 00:05:23.283+00:00')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23, 283000, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> dt.datetime.fromisoformat('2011-11-04T00:05:23+04:00')
          datetime.datetime(2011, 11, 4, 0, 5, 23,
              tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))

     Added in version 3.7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Previously, this method only supported
     formats that could be emitted by *note date.isoformat(): 2ad5. or
     *note datetime.isoformat(): eef.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod datetime.fromisocalendar (year, week, day)

     Return a *note datetime: 6e7. corresponding to the ISO calendar
     date specified by 'year', 'week' and 'day'.  The non-date
     components of the datetime are populated with their normal default
     values.  This is the inverse of the function *note
     datetime.isocalendar(): cc6.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod datetime.strptime (date_string, format)

     Return a *note datetime: 6e7. corresponding to 'date_string',
     parsed according to 'format'.

     If 'format' does not contain microseconds or time zone information,
     this is equivalent to:

          datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))

     *note ValueError: 277. is raised if the date_string and format
     can’t be parsed by *note time.strptime(): 17cf. or if it returns a
     value which isn’t a time tuple.  See also *note strftime() and
     strptime() behavior: 1d52. and *note datetime.fromisoformat(): a0a.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: If 'format' specifies a day of month
     (‘%d’) without a year, *note ValueError: 277. is raised.  This is
     to avoid a quadrennial leap year bug in code seeking to parse only
     a month and day as the default year used in absence of one in the
     format is not a leap year.  The workaround is to always include a
     year in your 'format'.  If parsing 'date_string' values that do not
     have a year, explicitly add a year that is a leap year before
     parsing:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> date_string = "02/29"
          >>> when = dt.datetime.strptime(f"{date_string};1984", "%m/%d;%Y")  # Avoids leap year bug.
          >>> when.strftime("%B %d")
          'February 29'

Class attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: datetime.min

     The earliest representable *note datetime: 6e7, ‘datetime(MINYEAR,
     1, 1, tzinfo=None)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: datetime.max

     The latest representable *note datetime: 6e7, ‘datetime(MAXYEAR,
     12, 31, 23, 59, 59, 999999, tzinfo=None)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: datetime.resolution

     The smallest possible difference between non-equal *note datetime:
     6e7. objects, ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’.

Instance attributes (read-only):

 -- Ιδιότητα: datetime.year

     Between *note MINYEAR: 2aae. and *note MAXYEAR: 2aaf. inclusive.

 -- Ιδιότητα: datetime.month

     Between 1 and 12 inclusive.

 -- Ιδιότητα: datetime.day

     Between 1 and the number of days in the given month of the given
     year.

 -- Ιδιότητα: datetime.hour

     In ‘range(24)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: datetime.minute

     In ‘range(60)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: datetime.second

     In ‘range(60)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: datetime.microsecond

     In ‘range(1000000)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: datetime.tzinfo

     The object passed as the 'tzinfo' argument to the *note datetime:
     6e7. constructor, or ‘None’ if none was passed.

 -- Ιδιότητα: datetime.fold

     In ‘[0, 1]’.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated
     interval.  (A repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back
     at the end of daylight saving time or when the UTC offset for the
     current zone is decreased for political reasons.)  The values 0 and
     1 represent, respectively, the earlier and later of the two moments
     with the same wall time representation.

     Added in version 3.6.

Supported operations:

Operation                                   Result
                                            
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
‘datetime2 = datetime1 + timedelta’         (1)
                                            
                                            
‘datetime2 = datetime1 - timedelta’         (2)
                                            
                                            
‘timedelta = datetime1 - datetime2’         (3)
                                            
                                            
     ‘datetime1 == datetime2’               Equality comparison.  (4)
     ‘datetime1 != datetime2’               

     ‘datetime1 < datetime2’                Order comparison.  (5)
     ‘datetime1 > datetime2’                
     ‘datetime1 <= datetime2’
     ‘datetime1 >= datetime2’

  1. ‘datetime2’ is a duration of ‘timedelta’ removed from ‘datetime1’,
     moving forward in time if ‘timedelta.days > 0’, or backward if
     ‘timedelta.days < 0’.  The result has the same *note tzinfo: 2ac0.
     attribute as the input datetime, and ‘datetime2 - datetime1 ==
     timedelta’ after.  *note OverflowError: c57. is raised if
     ‘datetime2.year’ would be smaller than *note MINYEAR: 2aae. or
     larger than *note MAXYEAR: 2aaf.  Note that no time zone
     adjustments are done even if the input is an aware object.

  2. Computes the ‘datetime2’ such that ‘datetime2 + timedelta ==
     datetime1’.  As for addition, the result has the same *note tzinfo:
     2ac0. attribute as the input datetime, and no time zone adjustments
     are done even if the input is aware.

  3. Subtraction of a *note datetime: 6e7. from a ‘datetime’ is defined
     only if both operands are naive, or if both are aware.  If one is
     aware and the other is naive, *note TypeError: 291. is raised.

     If both are naive, or both are aware and have the same *note
     tzinfo: 2ac0. attribute, the ‘tzinfo’ attributes are ignored, and
     the result is a *note timedelta: d94. object ‘t’ such that
     ‘datetime2 + t == datetime1’.  No time zone adjustments are done in
     this case.

     If both are aware and have different *note tzinfo: 2ac0.
     attributes, ‘a-b’ acts as if ‘a’ and ‘b’ were first converted to
     naive UTC datetimes.  The result is ‘(a.replace(tzinfo=None) -
     a.utcoffset()) - (b.replace(tzinfo=None) - b.utcoffset())’ except
     that the implementation never overflows.

  4. *note datetime: 6e7. objects are equal if they represent the same
     date and time, taking into account the time zone.

     Naive and aware *note datetime: 6e7. objects are never equal.

     If both comparands are aware, and have the same ‘tzinfo’ attribute,
     the ‘tzinfo’ and *note fold: 1015. attributes are ignored and the
     base datetimes are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have
     different *note tzinfo: 2ac0. attributes, the comparison acts as
     comparands were first converted to UTC datetimes except that the
     implementation never overflows.  *note datetime: 6e7. instances in
     a repeated interval are never equal to ‘datetime’ instances in
     other time zone.

  5. 'datetime1' is considered less than 'datetime2' when 'datetime1'
     precedes 'datetime2' in time, taking into account the time zone.

     Order comparison between naive and aware *note datetime: 6e7.
     objects raises *note TypeError: 291.

     If both comparands are aware, and have the same ‘tzinfo’ attribute,
     the ‘tzinfo’ and *note fold: 1015. attributes are ignored and the
     base datetimes are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have
     different *note tzinfo: 2ac0. attributes, the comparison acts as
     comparands were first converted to UTC datetimes except that the
     implementation never overflows.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Equality comparisons between aware and naive
*note datetime: 6e7. instances don’t raise *note TypeError: 291.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Comparison between *note datetime: 6e7. object
and an instance of the *note date: 48d. subclass that is not a
‘datetime’ subclass no longer converts the latter to ‘date’, ignoring
the time part and the time zone.  The default behavior can be changed by
overriding the special comparison methods in subclasses.

Instance methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.date ()

     Return *note date: 48d. object with same year, month and day.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.time ()

     Return *note time: 48e. object with same hour, minute, second,
     microsecond and fold.  *note tzinfo: 2ac0. is ‘None’.  See also
     method *note timetz(): 2ae3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The fold value is copied to the returned
     *note time: 48e. object.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.timetz ()

     Return *note time: 48e. object with same hour, minute, second,
     microsecond, fold, and tzinfo attributes.  See also method *note
     time(): f7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The fold value is copied to the returned
     *note time: 48e. object.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.replace (year=self.year, month=self.month,
          day=self.day, hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute,
          second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond,
          tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)

     Return a new *note datetime: 33. object with the same attributes,
     but with specified parameters updated.  Note that ‘tzinfo=None’ can
     be specified to create a naive datetime from an aware datetime with
     no conversion of date and time data.

     *note datetime: 6e7. objects are also supported by generic function
     *note copy.replace(): 45a.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the 'fold' parameter.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.astimezone (tz=None)

     Return a *note datetime: 6e7. object with new *note tzinfo: 2ac0.
     attribute 'tz', adjusting the date and time data so the result is
     the same UTC time as 'self', but in 'tz'’s local time.

     If provided, 'tz' must be an instance of a *note tzinfo: 9d8.
     subclass, and its *note utcoffset(): 2ae4. and *note dst(): 2ae5.
     methods must not return ‘None’.  If 'self' is naive, it is presumed
     to represent time in the system time zone.

     If called without arguments (or with ‘tz=None’) the system local
     time zone is assumed for the target time zone.  The ‘.tzinfo’
     attribute of the converted datetime instance will be set to an
     instance of *note timezone: 146c. with the zone name and offset
     obtained from the OS.

     If ‘self.tzinfo’ is 'tz', ‘self.astimezone(tz)’ is equal to 'self':
     no adjustment of date or time data is performed.  Else the result
     is local time in the time zone 'tz', representing the same UTC time
     as 'self': after ‘astz = dt.astimezone(tz)’, ‘astz -
     astz.utcoffset()’ will have the same date and time data as ‘dt -
     dt.utcoffset()’.

     If you merely want to attach a *note timezone: 146c. object 'tz' to
     a datetime 'dt' without adjustment of date and time data, use
     ‘dt.replace(tzinfo=tz)’.  If you merely want to remove the
     ‘timezone’ object from an aware datetime 'dt' without conversion of
     date and time data, use ‘dt.replace(tzinfo=None)’.

     Note that the default *note tzinfo.fromutc(): 2ae6. method can be
     overridden in a *note tzinfo: 9d8. subclass to affect the result
     returned by ‘astimezone()’.  Ignoring error cases, ‘astimezone()’
     acts like:

          def astimezone(self, tz):
              if self.tzinfo is tz:
                  return self
              # Convert self to UTC, and attach the new timezone object.
              utc = (self - self.utcoffset()).replace(tzinfo=tz)
              # Convert from UTC to tz's local time.
              return tz.fromutc(utc)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'tz' now can be omitted.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The ‘astimezone()’ method can now be called
     on naive instances that are presumed to represent system local
     time.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.utcoffset ()

     If *note tzinfo: 2ac0. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.utcoffset(self)’, and raises an exception if the
     latter doesn’t return ‘None’ or a *note timedelta: d94. object with
     magnitude less than one day.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.dst ()

     If *note tzinfo: 2ac0. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.dst(self)’, and raises an exception if the latter
     doesn’t return ‘None’ or a *note timedelta: d94. object with
     magnitude less than one day.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The DST offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.tzname ()

     If *note tzinfo: 2ac0. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.tzname(self)’, raises an exception if the latter
     doesn’t return ‘None’ or a string object,

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.timetuple ()

     Return a *note time.struct_time: 10a7. such as returned by *note
     time.localtime(): 189b.

     ‘d.timetuple()’ is equivalent to:

          time.struct_time((d.year, d.month, d.day,
                            d.hour, d.minute, d.second,
                            d.weekday(), yday, dst))

     where ‘yday = d.toordinal() - date(d.year, 1, 1).toordinal() + 1’
     is the day number within the current year starting with 1 for
     January 1st.  The *note tm_isdst: 2ae9. flag of the result is set
     according to the *note dst(): 2ae5. method: *note tzinfo: 2ac0. is
     ‘None’ or ‘dst()’ returns ‘None’, ‘tm_isdst’ is set to ‘-1’; else
     if ‘dst()’ returns a non-zero value, ‘tm_isdst’ is set to 1; else
     ‘tm_isdst’ is set to 0.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.utctimetuple ()

     If *note datetime: 6e7. instance ‘d’ is naive, this is the same as
     ‘d.timetuple()’ except that *note tm_isdst: 2ae9. is forced to 0
     regardless of what ‘d.dst()’ returns.  DST is never in effect for a
     UTC time.

     If ‘d’ is aware, ‘d’ is normalized to UTC time, by subtracting
     ‘d.utcoffset()’, and a *note time.struct_time: 10a7. for the
     normalized time is returned.  ‘tm_isdst’ is forced to 0.  Note that
     an *note OverflowError: c57. may be raised if ‘d.year’ was
     ‘MINYEAR’ or ‘MAXYEAR’ and UTC adjustment spills over a year
     boundary.

          Προειδοποίηση: Because naive ‘datetime’ objects are treated by
          many ‘datetime’ methods as local times, it is preferred to use
          aware datetimes to represent times in UTC; as a result, using
          ‘datetime.utctimetuple()’ may give misleading results.  If you
          have a naive ‘datetime’ representing UTC, use
          ‘datetime.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc)’ to make it aware, at
          which point you can use *note datetime.timetuple(): 2ae8.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.toordinal ()

     Return the proleptic Gregorian ordinal of the date.  The same as
     ‘self.date().toordinal()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.timestamp ()

     Return POSIX timestamp corresponding to the *note datetime: 6e7.
     instance.  The return value is a *note float: 327. similar to that
     returned by *note time.time(): 75e.

     Naive *note datetime: 6e7. instances are assumed to represent local
     time and this method relies on platform C functions to perform the
     conversion.  Since ‘datetime’ supports a wider range of values than
     the platform C functions on many platforms, this method may raise
     *note OverflowError: c57. or *note OSError: 53c. for times far in
     the past or far in the future.

     For aware *note datetime: 6e7. instances, the return value is
     computed as:

          (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=timezone.utc)).total_seconds()

          Σημείωση: There is no method to obtain the POSIX timestamp
          directly from a naive *note datetime: 6e7. instance
          representing UTC time.  If your application uses this
          convention and your system time zone is not set to UTC, you
          can obtain the POSIX timestamp by supplying
          ‘tzinfo=timezone.utc’:

               timestamp = dt.replace(tzinfo=timezone.utc).timestamp()

          or by calculating the timestamp directly:

               timestamp = (dt - datetime(1970, 1, 1)) / timedelta(seconds=1)

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The ‘timestamp()’ method uses the *note
     fold: 1015. attribute to disambiguate the times during a repeated
     interval.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: This method no longer relies on the
     platform C ‘mktime()’ function to perform conversions.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.weekday ()

     Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 0 and
     Sunday is 6.  The same as ‘self.date().weekday()’.  See also *note
     isoweekday(): 2aed.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.isoweekday ()

     Return the day of the week as an integer, where Monday is 1 and
     Sunday is 7.  The same as ‘self.date().isoweekday()’.  See also
     *note weekday(): 2aec, *note isocalendar(): cc6.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.isocalendar ()

     Return a *note named tuple: a3d. with three components: ‘year’,
     ‘week’ and ‘weekday’.  The same as ‘self.date().isocalendar()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.isoformat (sep='T', timespec='auto')

     Return a string representing the date and time in ISO 8601 format:

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff’, if *note microsecond: 2abf. is
          not 0

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS’, if *note microsecond: 2abf. is 0

     If *note utcoffset(): 2ae4. does not return ‘None’, a string is
     appended, giving the UTC offset:

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, if *note
          microsecond: 2abf. is not 0

        - ‘YYYY-MM-DDTHH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, if *note
          microsecond: 2abf. is 0

     Examples:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> dt.datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, 8, 132263).isoformat()
          '2019-05-18T15:17:08.132263'
          >>> dt.datetime(2019, 5, 18, 15, 17, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc).isoformat()
          '2019-05-18T15:17:00+00:00'

     The optional argument 'sep' (default ‘'T'’) is a one-character
     separator, placed between the date and time portions of the result.
     For example:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> class TZ(dt.tzinfo):
          ...     """A time zone with an arbitrary, constant -06:39 offset."""
          ...     def utcoffset(self, when):
          ...         return dt.timedelta(hours=-6, minutes=-39)
          ...
          >>> dt.datetime(2002, 12, 25, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat(' ')
          '2002-12-25 00:00:00-06:39'
          >>> dt.datetime(2009, 11, 27, microsecond=100, tzinfo=TZ()).isoformat()
          '2009-11-27T00:00:00.000100-06:39'

     The optional argument 'timespec' specifies the number of additional
     components of the time to include (the default is ‘'auto'’).  It
     can be one of the following:

        - ‘'auto'’: Same as ‘'seconds'’ if *note microsecond: 2abf. is
          0, same as ‘'microseconds'’ otherwise.

        - ‘'hours'’: Include the *note hour: 2abc. in the two-digit ‘HH’
          format.

        - ‘'minutes'’: Include *note hour: 2abc. and *note minute: 2abd.
          in ‘HH:MM’ format.

        - ‘'seconds'’: Include *note hour: 2abc, *note minute: 2abd, and
          *note second: 2abe. in ‘HH:MM:SS’ format.

        - ‘'milliseconds'’: Include full time, but truncate fractional
          second part to milliseconds.  ‘HH:MM:SS.sss’ format.

        - ‘'microseconds'’: Include full time in ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’
          format.

          Σημείωση: Excluded time components are truncated, not rounded.

     *note ValueError: 277. will be raised on an invalid 'timespec'
     argument:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> dt.datetime.now().isoformat(timespec='minutes')
          '2002-12-25T00:00'
          >>> my_datetime = dt.datetime(2015, 1, 1, 12, 30, 59, 0)
          >>> my_datetime.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
          '2015-01-01T12:30:59.000000'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the 'timespec' parameter.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.__str__ ()

     For a *note datetime: 6e7. instance ‘d’, ‘str(d)’ is equivalent to
     ‘d.isoformat(' ')’.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.ctime ()

     Return a string representing the date and time:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> dt.datetime(2002, 12, 4, 20, 30, 40).ctime()
          'Wed Dec  4 20:30:40 2002'

     The output string will 'not' include time zone information,
     regardless of whether the input is aware or naive.

     ‘d.ctime()’ is equivalent to:

          time.ctime(time.mktime(d.timetuple()))

     on platforms where the native C ‘ctime()’ function (which *note
     time.ctime(): 2ad8. invokes, but which ‘datetime.ctime()’ does not
     invoke) conforms to the C standard.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.strftime (format)

     Return a string representing the date and time, controlled by an
     explicit format string.  See also *note strftime() and strptime()
     behavior: 1d52. and *note datetime.isoformat(): eef.

 -- Μέθοδος: datetime.__format__ (format)

     Same as *note datetime.strftime(): 1051.  This makes it possible to
     specify a format string for a *note datetime: 6e7. object in *note
     formatted string literals: 43a. and when using *note str.format():
     a12.  See also *note strftime() and strptime() behavior: 1d52. and
     *note datetime.isoformat(): eef.

* Menu:

* Examples of usage; datetime: Examples of usage datetime.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of usage datetime,  Up: datetime objects

5.9.1.11 Examples of usage: ‘datetime’
......................................

Examples of working with *note datetime: 6e7. objects:

     >>> import datetime as dt

     >>> # Using datetime.combine()
     >>> d = dt.date(2005, 7, 14)
     >>> t = dt.time(12, 30)
     >>> dt.datetime.combine(d, t)
     datetime.datetime(2005, 7, 14, 12, 30)

     >>> # Using datetime.now()
     >>> dt.datetime.now()
     datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 16, 29, 43, 79043)   # GMT +1
     >>> dt.datetime.now(dt.timezone.utc)
     datetime.datetime(2007, 12, 6, 15, 29, 43, 79060, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

     >>> # Using datetime.strptime()
     >>> my_datetime = dt.datetime.strptime("21/11/06 16:30", "%d/%m/%y %H:%M")
     >>> my_datetime
     datetime.datetime(2006, 11, 21, 16, 30)

     >>> # Using datetime.timetuple() to get tuple of all attributes
     >>> tt = my_datetime.timetuple()
     >>> for it in tt:
     ...     print(it)
     ...
     2006    # year
     11      # month
     21      # day
     16      # hour
     30      # minute
     0       # second
     1       # weekday (0 = Monday)
     325     # number of days since 1st January
     -1      # dst - method tzinfo.dst() returned None

     >>> # Date in ISO format
     >>> ic = my_datetime.isocalendar()
     >>> for it in ic:
     ...     print(it)
     ...
     2006    # ISO year
     47      # ISO week
     2       # ISO weekday

     >>> # Formatting a datetime
     >>> my_datetime.strftime("%A, %d. %B %Y %I:%M%p")
     'Tuesday, 21. November 2006 04:30PM'
     >>> 'The {1} is {0:%d}, the {2} is {0:%B}, the {3} is {0:%I:%M%p}.'.format(my_datetime, "day", "month", "time")
     'The day is 21, the month is November, the time is 04:30PM.'

The example below defines a *note tzinfo: 9d8. subclass capturing time
zone information for Kabul, Afghanistan, which used +4 UTC until 1945
and then +4:30 UTC thereafter:

     import datetime as dt

     class KabulTz(dt.tzinfo):
         # Kabul used +4 until 1945, when they moved to +4:30
         UTC_MOVE_DATE = dt.datetime(1944, 12, 31, 20, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc)

         def utcoffset(self, when):
             if when.year < 1945:
                 return dt.timedelta(hours=4)
             elif (1945, 1, 1, 0, 0) <= when.timetuple()[:5] < (1945, 1, 1, 0, 30):
                 # An ambiguous ("imaginary") half-hour range representing
                 # a 'fold' in time due to the shift from +4 to +4:30.
                 # If when falls in the imaginary range, use fold to decide how
                 # to resolve. See PEP 495.
                 return dt.timedelta(hours=4, minutes=(30 if when.fold else 0))
             else:
                 return dt.timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)

         def fromutc(self, when):
             # Follow same validations as in datetime.tzinfo
             if not isinstance(when, dt.datetime):
                 raise TypeError("fromutc() requires a datetime argument")
             if when.tzinfo is not self:
                 raise ValueError("when.tzinfo is not self")

             # A custom implementation is required for fromutc as
             # the input to this function is a datetime with utc values
             # but with a tzinfo set to self.
             # See datetime.astimezone or fromtimestamp.
             if when.replace(tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc) >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
                 return when + dt.timedelta(hours=4, minutes=30)
             else:
                 return when + dt.timedelta(hours=4)

         def dst(self, when):
             # Kabul does not observe daylight saving time.
             return dt.timedelta(0)

         def tzname(self, when):
             if when >= self.UTC_MOVE_DATE:
                 return "+04:30"
             return "+04"

Usage of ‘KabulTz’ from above:

     >>> tz1 = KabulTz()

     >>> # Datetime before the change
     >>> dt1 = dt.datetime(1900, 11, 21, 16, 30, tzinfo=tz1)
     >>> print(dt1.utcoffset())
     4:00:00

     >>> # Datetime after the change
     >>> dt2 = dt.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=tz1)
     >>> print(dt2.utcoffset())
     4:30:00

     >>> # Convert datetime to another time zone
     >>> dt3 = dt2.astimezone(dt.timezone.utc)
     >>> dt3
     datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 8, 30, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
     >>> dt2
     datetime.datetime(2006, 6, 14, 13, 0, tzinfo=KabulTz())
     >>> dt2 == dt3
     True


File: python.info,  Node: time objects,  Next: tzinfo objects,  Prev: datetime objects,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.9.1.12 ‘time’ objects
.......................

A *note time: 48e. object represents a (local) time of day, independent
of any particular day, and subject to adjustment via a *note tzinfo:
9d8. object.

 -- Κλάση: datetime.time (hour=0, minute=0, second=0, microsecond=0,
          tzinfo=None, *, fold=0)

     All arguments are optional.  'tzinfo' may be ‘None’, or an instance
     of a *note tzinfo: 9d8. subclass.  The remaining arguments must be
     integers in the following ranges:

        * ‘0 <= hour < 24’,

        * ‘0 <= minute < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= second < 60’,

        * ‘0 <= microsecond < 1000000’,

        * ‘fold in [0, 1]’.

     If an argument outside those ranges is given, *note ValueError:
     277. is raised.  All default to 0 except 'tzinfo', which defaults
     to ‘None’.

Class attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: time.min

     The earliest representable *note time: 48e, ‘time(0, 0, 0, 0)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: time.max

     The latest representable *note time: 48e, ‘time(23, 59, 59,
     999999)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: time.resolution

     The smallest possible difference between non-equal *note time: 48e.
     objects, ‘timedelta(microseconds=1)’, although note that arithmetic
     on ‘time’ objects is not supported.

Instance attributes (read-only):

 -- Ιδιότητα: time.hour

     In ‘range(24)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: time.minute

     In ‘range(60)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: time.second

     In ‘range(60)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: time.microsecond

     In ‘range(1000000)’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: time.tzinfo

     The object passed as the tzinfo argument to the *note time: 48e.
     constructor, or ‘None’ if none was passed.

 -- Ιδιότητα: time.fold

     In ‘[0, 1]’.  Used to disambiguate wall times during a repeated
     interval.  (A repeated interval occurs when clocks are rolled back
     at the end of daylight saving time or when the UTC offset for the
     current zone is decreased for political reasons.)  The values 0 and
     1 represent, respectively, the earlier and later of the two moments
     with the same wall time representation.

     Added in version 3.6.

*note time: 48e. objects support equality and order comparisons, where
‘a’ is considered less than ‘b’ when ‘a’ precedes ‘b’ in time.

Naive and aware ‘time’ objects are never equal.  Order comparison
between naive and aware ‘time’ objects raises *note TypeError: 291.

If both comparands are aware, and have the same *note tzinfo: 2ab8.
attribute, the ‘tzinfo’ and ‘fold’ attributes are ignored and the base
times are compared.  If both comparands are aware and have different
‘tzinfo’ attributes, the comparands are first adjusted by subtracting
their UTC offsets (obtained from ‘self.utcoffset()’).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Equality comparisons between aware and naive
*note time: 48e. instances don’t raise *note TypeError: 291.

In Boolean contexts, a *note time: 48e. object is always considered to
be true.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Before Python 3.5, a *note time: 48e. object was
considered to be false if it represented midnight in UTC. This behavior
was considered obscure and error-prone and has been removed in Python
3.5.  See bpo-13936(1) for more information.

Other constructors:

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod time.fromisoformat (time_string)

     Return a *note time: 48e. corresponding to a 'time_string' in any
     valid ISO 8601 format, with the following exceptions:

       1. Time zone offsets may have fractional seconds.

       2. The leading ‘T’, normally required in cases where there may be
          ambiguity between a date and a time, is not required.

       3. Fractional seconds may have any number of digits (anything
          beyond 6 will be truncated).

       4. Fractional hours and minutes are not supported.

     Examples:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('T04:23:01')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('T042301')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1)
          >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01.000384')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
          >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01,000384')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, 384)
          >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+04:00')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(seconds=14400)))
          >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01Z')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)
          >>> dt.time.fromisoformat('04:23:01+00:00')
          datetime.time(4, 23, 1, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

     Added in version 3.7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Previously, this method only supported
     formats that could be emitted by *note time.isoformat(): 2af7.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod time.strptime (date_string, format)

     Return a *note time: 48e. corresponding to 'date_string', parsed
     according to 'format'.

     If 'format' does not contain microseconds or timezone information,
     this is equivalent to:

          time(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[3:6]))

     *note ValueError: 277. is raised if the 'date_string' and 'format'
     cannot be parsed by *note time.strptime(): 17cf. or if it returns a
     value which is not a time tuple.  See also *note strftime() and
     strptime() behavior: 1d52. and *note time.fromisoformat(): a09.

     Added in version 3.14.

Instance methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: time.replace (hour=self.hour, minute=self.minute,
          second=self.second, microsecond=self.microsecond,
          tzinfo=self.tzinfo, *, fold=0)

     Return a new *note time: 48e. with the same values, but with
     specified parameters updated.  Note that ‘tzinfo=None’ can be
     specified to create a naive ‘time’ from an aware ‘time’, without
     conversion of the time data.

     *note time: 48e. objects are also supported by generic function
     *note copy.replace(): 45a.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the 'fold' parameter.

 -- Μέθοδος: time.isoformat (timespec='auto')

     Return a string representing the time in ISO 8601 format, one of:

        - ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’, if *note microsecond: 2ab7. is not 0

        - ‘HH:MM:SS’, if *note microsecond: 2ab7. is 0

        - ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, if *note utcoffset():
          2af8. does not return ‘None’

        - ‘HH:MM:SS+HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’, if *note microsecond: 2ab7. is
          0 and *note utcoffset(): 2af8. does not return ‘None’

     The optional argument 'timespec' specifies the number of additional
     components of the time to include (the default is ‘'auto'’).  It
     can be one of the following:

        - ‘'auto'’: Same as ‘'seconds'’ if *note microsecond: 2ab7. is
          0, same as ‘'microseconds'’ otherwise.

        - ‘'hours'’: Include the *note hour: 2ab4. in the two-digit ‘HH’
          format.

        - ‘'minutes'’: Include *note hour: 2ab4. and *note minute: 2ab5.
          in ‘HH:MM’ format.

        - ‘'seconds'’: Include *note hour: 2ab4, *note minute: 2ab5, and
          *note second: 2ab6. in ‘HH:MM:SS’ format.

        - ‘'milliseconds'’: Include full time, but truncate fractional
          second part to milliseconds.  ‘HH:MM:SS.sss’ format.

        - ‘'microseconds'’: Include full time in ‘HH:MM:SS.ffffff’
          format.

          Σημείωση: Excluded time components are truncated, not rounded.

     *note ValueError: 277. will be raised on an invalid 'timespec'
     argument.

     Example:

          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> dt.time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=123456).isoformat(timespec='minutes')
          '12:34'
          >>> my_time = dt.time(hour=12, minute=34, second=56, microsecond=0)
          >>> my_time.isoformat(timespec='microseconds')
          '12:34:56.000000'
          >>> my_time.isoformat(timespec='auto')
          '12:34:56'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the 'timespec' parameter.

 -- Μέθοδος: time.__str__ ()

     For a time ‘t’, ‘str(t)’ is equivalent to ‘t.isoformat()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: time.strftime (format)

     Return a string representing the time, controlled by an explicit
     format string.  See also *note strftime() and strptime() behavior:
     1d52. and *note time.isoformat(): 2af7.

 -- Μέθοδος: time.__format__ (format)

     Same as *note time.strftime(): 1cf7.  This makes it possible to
     specify a format string for a *note time: 48e. object in *note
     formatted string literals: 43a. and when using *note str.format():
     a12.  See also *note strftime() and strptime() behavior: 1d52. and
     *note time.isoformat(): 2af7.

 -- Μέθοδος: time.utcoffset ()

     If *note tzinfo: 2ab8. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.utcoffset(None)’, and raises an exception if the
     latter doesn’t return ‘None’ or a *note timedelta: d94. object with
     magnitude less than one day.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Μέθοδος: time.dst ()

     If *note tzinfo: 2ab8. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.dst(None)’, and raises an exception if the latter
     doesn’t return ‘None’, or a *note timedelta: d94. object with
     magnitude less than one day.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The DST offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Μέθοδος: time.tzname ()

     If *note tzinfo: 2ab8. is ‘None’, returns ‘None’, else returns
     ‘self.tzinfo.tzname(None)’, or raises an exception if the latter
     doesn’t return ‘None’ or a string object.

* Menu:

* Examples of usage; time: Examples of usage time.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of usage time,  Up: time objects

5.9.1.13 Examples of usage: ‘time’
..................................

Examples of working with a *note time: 48e. object:

     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> class TZ1(dt.tzinfo):
     ...     def utcoffset(self, when):
     ...         return dt.timedelta(hours=1)
     ...     def dst(self, when):
     ...         return dt.timedelta(0)
     ...     def tzname(self, when):
     ...         return "+01:00"
     ...     def  __repr__(self):
     ...         return f"{self.__class__.__name__}()"
     ...
     >>> t = dt.time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
     >>> t
     datetime.time(12, 10, 30, tzinfo=TZ1())
     >>> t.isoformat()
     '12:10:30+01:00'
     >>> t.dst()
     datetime.timedelta(0)
     >>> t.tzname()
     '+01:00'
     >>> t.strftime("%H:%M:%S %Z")
     '12:10:30 +01:00'
     >>> 'The {} is {:%H:%M}.'.format("time", t)
     'The time is 12:10.'


File: python.info,  Node: tzinfo objects,  Next: timezone objects,  Prev: time objects,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.9.1.14 ‘tzinfo’ objects
.........................

 -- Κλάση: datetime.tzinfo

     This is an *note abstract base class: 155f, meaning that this class
     should not be instantiated directly.  Define a subclass of ‘tzinfo’
     to capture information about a particular time zone.

     An instance of (a concrete subclass of) ‘tzinfo’ can be passed to
     the constructors for *note datetime: 6e7. and *note time: 48e.
     objects.  The latter objects view their attributes as being in
     local time, and the ‘tzinfo’ object supports methods revealing
     offset of local time from UTC, the name of the time zone, and DST
     offset, all relative to a date or time object passed to them.

     You need to derive a concrete subclass, and (at least) supply
     implementations of the standard ‘tzinfo’ methods needed by the
     *note datetime: 6e7. methods you use.  The ‘datetime’ module
     provides *note timezone: 146c, a simple concrete subclass of
     ‘tzinfo’ which can represent time zones with fixed offset from UTC
     such as UTC itself or North American EST and EDT.

     Special requirement for pickling: A ‘tzinfo’ subclass must have an
     *note __init__(): 2fa. method that can be called with no arguments,
     otherwise it can be pickled but possibly not unpickled again.  This
     is a technical requirement that may be relaxed in the future.

     A concrete subclass of ‘tzinfo’ may need to implement the following
     methods.  Exactly which methods are needed depends on the uses made
     of aware ‘datetime’ objects.  If in doubt, simply implement all of
     them.

 -- Μέθοδος: tzinfo.utcoffset (dt)

     Return offset of local time from UTC, as a *note timedelta: d94.
     object that is positive east of UTC. If local time is west of UTC,
     this should be negative.

     This represents the 'total' offset from UTC; for example, if a
     *note tzinfo: 9d8. object represents both time zone and DST
     adjustments, ‘utcoffset()’ should return their sum.  If the UTC
     offset isn’t known, return ‘None’.  Else the value returned must be
     a *note timedelta: d94. object strictly between
     ‘-timedelta(hours=24)’ and ‘timedelta(hours=24)’ (the magnitude of
     the offset must be less than one day).  Most implementations of
     ‘utcoffset()’ will probably look like one of these two:

          return CONSTANT                 # fixed-offset class
          return CONSTANT + self.dst(dt)  # daylight-aware class

     If ‘utcoffset()’ does not return ‘None’, *note dst(): 2b01. should
     not return ‘None’ either.

     The default implementation of ‘utcoffset()’ raises *note
     NotImplementedError: 59a.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Μέθοδος: tzinfo.dst (dt)

     Return the daylight saving time (DST) adjustment, as a *note
     timedelta: d94. object or ‘None’ if DST information isn’t known.

     Return ‘timedelta(0)’ if DST is not in effect.  If DST is in
     effect, return the offset as a *note timedelta: d94. object (see
     *note utcoffset(): 2b00. for details).  Note that DST offset, if
     applicable, has already been added to the UTC offset returned by
     ‘utcoffset()’, so there’s no need to consult ‘dst()’ unless you’re
     interested in obtaining DST info separately.  For example, *note
     datetime.timetuple(): 2ae8. calls its *note tzinfo: 2ac0.
     attribute’s ‘dst()’ method to determine how the *note tm_isdst:
     2ae9. flag should be set, and *note tzinfo.fromutc(): 2ae6. calls
     ‘dst()’ to account for DST changes when crossing time zones.

     An instance 'tz' of a *note tzinfo: 9d8. subclass that models both
     standard and daylight times must be consistent in this sense:

     ‘tz.utcoffset(dt) - tz.dst(dt)’

     must return the same result for every *note datetime: 6e7. 'dt'
     with ‘dt.tzinfo == tz’.  For sane ‘tzinfo’ subclasses, this
     expression yields the time zone’s «standard offset», which should
     not depend on the date or the time, but only on geographic
     location.  The implementation of *note datetime.astimezone(): d95.
     relies on this, but cannot detect violations; it’s the programmer’s
     responsibility to ensure it.  If a ‘tzinfo’ subclass cannot
     guarantee this, it may be able to override the default
     implementation of *note tzinfo.fromutc(): 2ae6. to work correctly
     with ‘astimezone()’ regardless.

     Most implementations of ‘dst()’ will probably look like one of
     these two:

          import datetime as dt

          def dst(self, when):
              # a fixed-offset class:  doesn't account for DST
              return dt.timedelta(0)

     or:

          import datetime as dt

          def dst(self, when):
              # Code to set dston and dstoff to the time zone's DST
              # transition times based on the input when.year, and expressed
              # in standard local time.

              if dston <= when.replace(tzinfo=None) < dstoff:
                  return dt.timedelta(hours=1)
              else:
                  return dt.timedelta(0)

     The default implementation of ‘dst()’ raises *note
     NotImplementedError: 59a.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The DST offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Μέθοδος: tzinfo.tzname (dt)

     Return the time zone name corresponding to the *note datetime: 6e7.
     object 'dt', as a string.  Nothing about string names is defined by
     the ‘datetime’ module, and there’s no requirement that it mean
     anything in particular.  For example, ‘"GMT"’, ‘"UTC"’, ‘"-500"’,
     ‘"-5:00"’, ‘"EDT"’, ‘"US/Eastern"’, ‘"America/New York"’ are all
     valid replies.  Return ‘None’ if a string name isn’t known.  Note
     that this is a method rather than a fixed string primarily because
     some *note tzinfo: 9d8. subclasses will wish to return different
     names depending on the specific value of 'dt' passed, especially if
     the ‘tzinfo’ class is accounting for daylight time.

     The default implementation of ‘tzname()’ raises *note
     NotImplementedError: 59a.

These methods are called by a *note datetime: 6e7. or *note time: 48e.
object, in response to their methods of the same names.  A ‘datetime’
object passes itself as the argument, and a ‘time’ object passes ‘None’
as the argument.  A *note tzinfo: 9d8. subclass’s methods should
therefore be prepared to accept a 'dt' argument of ‘None’, or of class
‘datetime’.

When ‘None’ is passed, it’s up to the class designer to decide the best
response.  For example, returning ‘None’ is appropriate if the class
wishes to say that time objects don’t participate in the *note tzinfo:
9d8. protocols.  It may be more useful for ‘utcoffset(None)’ to return
the standard UTC offset, as there is no other convention for discovering
the standard offset.

When a *note datetime: 6e7. object is passed in response to a ‘datetime’
method, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is the same object as 'self'.  *note tzinfo: 9d8.
methods can rely on this, unless user code calls ‘tzinfo’ methods
directly.  The intent is that the ‘tzinfo’ methods interpret 'dt' as
being in local time, and not need worry about objects in other time
zones.

There is one more *note tzinfo: 9d8. method that a subclass may wish to
override:

 -- Μέθοδος: tzinfo.fromutc (dt)

     This is called from the default *note datetime.astimezone(): d95.
     implementation.  When called from that, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is 'self', and
     'dt'’s date and time data are to be viewed as expressing a UTC
     time.  The purpose of ‘fromutc()’ is to adjust the date and time
     data, returning an equivalent datetime in 'self'’s local time.

     Most *note tzinfo: 9d8. subclasses should be able to inherit the
     default ‘fromutc()’ implementation without problems.  It’s strong
     enough to handle fixed-offset time zones, and time zones accounting
     for both standard and daylight time, and the latter even if the DST
     transition times differ in different years.  An example of a time
     zone the default ‘fromutc()’ implementation may not handle
     correctly in all cases is one where the standard offset (from UTC)
     depends on the specific date and time passed, which can happen for
     political reasons.  The default implementations of *note
     astimezone(): d95. and ‘fromutc()’ may not produce the result you
     want if the result is one of the hours straddling the moment the
     standard offset changes.

     Skipping code for error cases, the default ‘fromutc()’
     implementation acts like:

          import datetime as dt

          def fromutc(self, when):
              # raise ValueError error if when.tzinfo is not self
              dtoff = when.utcoffset()
              dtdst = when.dst()
              # raise ValueError if dtoff is None or dtdst is None
              delta = dtoff - dtdst  # this is self's standard offset
              if delta:
                  when += delta   # convert to standard local time
                  dtdst = when.dst()
                  # raise ValueError if dtdst is None
              if dtdst:
                  return when + dtdst
              else:
                  return when

In the following ‘tzinfo_examples.py’ file there are some examples of
*note tzinfo: 9d8. classes:

     import datetime as dt

     # A class capturing the platform's idea of local time.
     # (May result in wrong values on historical times in
     #  timezones where UTC offset and/or the DST rules had
     #  changed in the past.)
     import time

     ZERO = dt.timedelta(0)
     HOUR = dt.timedelta(hours=1)
     SECOND = dt.timedelta(seconds=1)

     STDOFFSET = dt.timedelta(seconds=-time.timezone)
     if time.daylight:
         DSTOFFSET = dt.timedelta(seconds=-time.altzone)
     else:
         DSTOFFSET = STDOFFSET

     DSTDIFF = DSTOFFSET - STDOFFSET


     class LocalTimezone(dt.tzinfo):

         def fromutc(self, when):
             assert when.tzinfo is self
             stamp = (when - dt.datetime(1970, 1, 1, tzinfo=self)) // SECOND
             args = time.localtime(stamp)[:6]
             dst_diff = DSTDIFF // SECOND
             # Detect fold
             fold = (args == time.localtime(stamp - dst_diff))
             return dt.datetime(*args, microsecond=when.microsecond,
                                tzinfo=self, fold=fold)

         def utcoffset(self, when):
             if self._isdst(when):
                 return DSTOFFSET
             else:
                 return STDOFFSET

         def dst(self, when):
             if self._isdst(when):
                 return DSTDIFF
             else:
                 return ZERO

         def tzname(self, when):
             return time.tzname[self._isdst(when)]

         def _isdst(self, when):
             tt = (when.year, when.month, when.day,
                   when.hour, when.minute, when.second,
                   when.weekday(), 0, 0)
             stamp = time.mktime(tt)
             tt = time.localtime(stamp)
             return tt.tm_isdst > 0


     Local = LocalTimezone()


     # A complete implementation of current DST rules for major US time zones.

     def first_sunday_on_or_after(when):
         days_to_go = 6 - when.weekday()
         if days_to_go:
             when += dt.timedelta(days_to_go)
         return when


     # US DST Rules
     #
     # This is a simplified (i.e., wrong for a few cases) set of rules for US
     # DST start and end times. For a complete and up-to-date set of DST rules
     # and timezone definitions, visit the Olson Database (or try pytz):
     # http://www.twinsun.com/tz/tz-link.htm
     # https://sourceforge.net/projects/pytz/ (might not be up-to-date)
     #
     # In the US, since 2007, DST starts at 2am (standard time) on the second
     # Sunday in March, which is the first Sunday on or after Mar 8.
     DSTSTART_2007 = dt.datetime(1, 3, 8, 2)
     # and ends at 2am (DST time) on the first Sunday of Nov.
     DSTEND_2007 = dt.datetime(1, 11, 1, 2)
     # From 1987 to 2006, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the first
     # Sunday in April and to end at 2am (DST time) on the last
     # Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday on or after Oct 25.
     DSTSTART_1987_2006 = dt.datetime(1, 4, 1, 2)
     DSTEND_1987_2006 = dt.datetime(1, 10, 25, 2)
     # From 1967 to 1986, DST used to start at 2am (standard time) on the last
     # Sunday in April (the one on or after April 24) and to end at 2am (DST time)
     # on the last Sunday of October, which is the first Sunday
     # on or after Oct 25.
     DSTSTART_1967_1986 = dt.datetime(1, 4, 24, 2)
     DSTEND_1967_1986 = DSTEND_1987_2006


     def us_dst_range(year):
         # Find start and end times for US DST. For years before 1967, return
         # start = end for no DST.
         if 2006 < year:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_2007, DSTEND_2007
         elif 1986 < year < 2007:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1987_2006, DSTEND_1987_2006
         elif 1966 < year < 1987:
             dststart, dstend = DSTSTART_1967_1986, DSTEND_1967_1986
         else:
             return (dt.datetime(year, 1, 1), ) * 2

         start = first_sunday_on_or_after(dststart.replace(year=year))
         end = first_sunday_on_or_after(dstend.replace(year=year))
         return start, end


     class USTimeZone(dt.tzinfo):

         def __init__(self, hours, reprname, stdname, dstname):
             self.stdoffset = dt.timedelta(hours=hours)
             self.reprname = reprname
             self.stdname = stdname
             self.dstname = dstname

         def __repr__(self):
             return self.reprname

         def tzname(self, when):
             if self.dst(when):
                 return self.dstname
             else:
                 return self.stdname

         def utcoffset(self, when):
             return self.stdoffset + self.dst(when)

         def dst(self, when):
             if when is None or when.tzinfo is None:
                 # An exception may be sensible here, in one or both cases.
                 # It depends on how you want to treat them.  The default
                 # fromutc() implementation (called by the default astimezone()
                 # implementation) passes a datetime with when.tzinfo is self.
                 return ZERO
             assert when.tzinfo is self
             start, end = us_dst_range(when.year)
             # Can't compare naive to aware objects, so strip the timezone from
             # when first.
             when = when.replace(tzinfo=None)
             if start + HOUR <= when < end - HOUR:
                 # DST is in effect.
                 return HOUR
             if end - HOUR <= when < end:
                 # Fold (an ambiguous hour): use when.fold to disambiguate.
                 return ZERO if when.fold else HOUR
             if start <= when < start + HOUR:
                 # Gap (a non-existent hour): reverse the fold rule.
                 return HOUR if when.fold else ZERO
             # DST is off.
             return ZERO

         def fromutc(self, when):
             assert when.tzinfo is self
             start, end = us_dst_range(when.year)
             start = start.replace(tzinfo=self)
             end = end.replace(tzinfo=self)
             std_time = when + self.stdoffset
             dst_time = std_time + HOUR
             if end <= dst_time < end + HOUR:
                 # Repeated hour
                 return std_time.replace(fold=1)
             if std_time < start or dst_time >= end:
                 # Standard time
                 return std_time
             if start <= std_time < end - HOUR:
                 # Daylight saving time
                 return dst_time


     Eastern  = USTimeZone(-5, "Eastern",  "EST", "EDT")
     Central  = USTimeZone(-6, "Central",  "CST", "CDT")
     Mountain = USTimeZone(-7, "Mountain", "MST", "MDT")
     Pacific  = USTimeZone(-8, "Pacific",  "PST", "PDT")

Note that there are unavoidable subtleties twice per year in a *note
tzinfo: 9d8. subclass accounting for both standard and daylight time, at
the DST transition points.  For concreteness, consider US Eastern (UTC
-0500), where EDT begins the minute after 1:59 (EST) on the second
Sunday in March, and ends the minute after 1:59 (EDT) on the first
Sunday in November:

       UTC   3:MM  4:MM  5:MM  6:MM  7:MM  8:MM
       EST  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM
       EDT  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM  4:MM

     start  22:MM 23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  3:MM  4:MM

       end  23:MM  0:MM  1:MM  1:MM  2:MM  3:MM

When DST starts (the «start» line), the local wall clock leaps from 1:59
to 3:00.  A wall time of the form 2:MM doesn’t really make sense on that
day, so ‘astimezone(Eastern)’ won’t deliver a result with ‘hour == 2’ on
the day DST begins.  For example, at the Spring forward transition of
2016, we get:

     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> from tzinfo_examples import HOUR, Eastern
     >>> u0 = dt.datetime(2016, 3, 13, 5, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname())
     ...
     05:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EST
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST
     07:00:00 UTC = 03:00:00 EDT
     08:00:00 UTC = 04:00:00 EDT

When DST ends (the «end» line), there’s a potentially worse problem:
there’s an hour that can’t be spelled unambiguously in local wall time:
the last hour of daylight time.  In Eastern, that’s times of the form
5:MM UTC on the day daylight time ends.  The local wall clock leaps from
1:59 (daylight time) back to 1:00 (standard time) again.  Local times of
the form 1:MM are ambiguous.  *note astimezone(): d95. mimics the local
clock’s behavior by mapping two adjacent UTC hours into the same local
hour then.  In the Eastern example, UTC times of the form 5:MM and 6:MM
both map to 1:MM when converted to Eastern, but earlier times have the
*note fold: 1015. attribute set to 0 and the later times have it set to
1.  For example, at the Fall back transition of 2016, we get:

     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> from tzinfo_examples import HOUR, Eastern
     >>> u0 = dt.datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc)
     >>> for i in range(4):
     ...     u = u0 + i*HOUR
     ...     t = u.astimezone(Eastern)
     ...     print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold)
     ...
     04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0
     05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0
     06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1
     07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0

Note that the *note datetime: 6e7. instances that differ only by the
value of the *note fold: 1015. attribute are considered equal in
comparisons.

Applications that can’t bear wall-time ambiguities should explicitly
check the value of the *note fold: 1015. attribute or avoid using hybrid
*note tzinfo: 9d8. subclasses; there are no ambiguities when using *note
timezone: 146c, or any other fixed-offset ‘tzinfo’ subclass (such as a
class representing only EST (fixed offset -5 hours), or only EDT (fixed
offset -4 hours)).

Δείτε επίσης
............

     *note zoneinfo: 13d.

          The ‘datetime’ module has a basic *note timezone: 146c. class
          (for handling arbitrary fixed offsets from UTC) and its *note
          timezone.utc: a07. attribute (a UTC ‘timezone’ instance).

          ‘zoneinfo’ brings the 'IANA time zone database' (also known as
          the Olson database) to Python, and its usage is recommended.

IANA time zone database(1)

     The Time Zone Database (often called tz, tzdata or zoneinfo)
     contains code and data that represent the history of local time for
     many representative locations around the globe.  It is updated
     periodically to reflect changes made by political bodies to time
     zone boundaries, UTC offsets, and daylight-saving rules.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.iana.org/time-zones


File: python.info,  Node: timezone objects,  Next: strftime and strptime behavior,  Prev: tzinfo objects,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.9.1.15 ‘timezone’ objects
...........................

The *note timezone: 146c. class is a subclass of *note tzinfo: 9d8, each
instance of which represents a time zone defined by a fixed offset from
UTC.

Objects of this class cannot be used to represent time zone information
in the locations where different offsets are used in different days of
the year or where historical changes have been made to civil time.

 -- Κλάση: datetime.timezone (offset[, name])

     The 'offset' argument must be specified as a *note timedelta: d94.
     object representing the difference between the local time and UTC.
     It must be strictly between ‘-timedelta(hours=24)’ and
     ‘timedelta(hours=24)’, otherwise *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

     The 'name' argument is optional.  If specified it must be a string
     that will be used as the value returned by the *note
     datetime.tzname(): 2ae7. method.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Μέθοδος: timezone.utcoffset (dt)

     Return the fixed value specified when the *note timezone: 146c.
     instance is constructed.

     The 'dt' argument is ignored.  The return value is a *note
     timedelta: d94. instance equal to the difference between the local
     time and UTC.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

 -- Μέθοδος: timezone.tzname (dt)

     Return the fixed value specified when the *note timezone: 146c.
     instance is constructed.

     If 'name' is not provided in the constructor, the name returned by
     ‘tzname(dt)’ is generated from the value of the ‘offset’ as
     follows.  If 'offset' is ‘timedelta(0)’, the name is «UTC»,
     otherwise it is a string in the format ‘UTC±HH:MM’, where ± is the
     sign of ‘offset’, HH and MM are two digits of ‘offset.hours’ and
     ‘offset.minutes’ respectively.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Name generated from ‘offset=timedelta(0)’
     is now plain ‘'UTC'’, not ‘'UTC+00:00'’.

 -- Μέθοδος: timezone.dst (dt)

     Always returns ‘None’.

 -- Μέθοδος: timezone.fromutc (dt)

     Return ‘dt + offset’.  The 'dt' argument must be an aware *note
     datetime: 6e7. instance, with ‘tzinfo’ set to ‘self’.

Class attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: timezone.utc

     The UTC time zone, ‘timezone(timedelta(0))’.


File: python.info,  Node: strftime and strptime behavior,  Prev: timezone objects,  Up: datetime — Basic date and time types

5.9.1.16 ‘strftime()’ and ‘strptime()’ behavior
...............................................

*note date: 48d, *note datetime: 6e7, and *note time: 48e. objects all
support a ‘strftime(format)’ method, to create a string representing the
time under the control of an explicit format string.

Conversely, the *note date.strptime(): 48c, *note datetime.strptime():
2d2. and *note time.strptime(): 17cf. class methods create an object
from a string representing the time and a corresponding format string.

The table below provides a high-level comparison of *note strftime():
1051. versus *note strptime(): 2d2.:

                     ‘strftime’                                                   ‘strptime’
                                                                                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
Usage                Convert object to a string according to a given format       Parse a string into an object given a corresponding format
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
Type of method       Instance method                                              Class method
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
Signature            ‘strftime(format)’                                           ‘strptime(date_string, format)’
                                                                                  

* Menu:

* strftime() and strptime() format codes: strftime and strptime format codes.
* Technical detail::


File: python.info,  Node: strftime and strptime format codes,  Next: Technical detail,  Up: strftime and strptime behavior

5.9.1.17 ‘strftime()’ and ‘strptime()’ format codes
...................................................

These methods accept format codes that can be used to parse and format
dates:

     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> dt.datetime.strptime('31/01/22 23:59:59.999999',
     ...                      '%d/%m/%y %H:%M:%S.%f')
     datetime.datetime(2022, 1, 31, 23, 59, 59, 999999)
     >>> _.strftime('%a %d %b %Y, %I:%M%p')
     'Mon 31 Jan 2022, 11:59PM'

The following is a list of all the format codes that the 2011 C standard
requires, and these work on all supported platforms.

Directive       Meaning                              Example                      Notes
                                                                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
‘%a’            Weekday as locale’s abbreviated           Sun, Mon, …, Sat (en_US);(1)
                name.                                     So, Mo, …, Sa (de_DE)   
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%A’            Weekday as locale’s full name.            Sunday, Monday, …, Saturday (en_US);(1)
                                                          Sonntag, Montag, …, Samstag (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%b’            Month as locale’s abbreviated             Jan, Feb, …, Dec (en_US);(1)
                name.                                     Jan, Feb, …, Dez (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%B’            Month as locale’s full name.              January, February, …, December (en_US);(1)
                                                          Januar, Februar, …, Dezember (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%c’            Locale’s appropriate date and time        Tue Aug 16 21:30:00 1988 (en_US);(1)
                representation.                           Di 16 Aug 21:30:00 1988 (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%C’            The year divided by 100 and          01, 02, …, 99                (0)
                truncated to an integer as a                                      
                zero-padded decimal number.
                
                                                                                  
‘%d’            Day of the month as a zero-padded    01, 02, …, 31                (9), (10)
                decimal number.                                                   
                
                                                                                  
‘%D’            Equivalent to ‘%m/%d/%y’.            11/28/25                     (9)
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
‘%e’            The day of the month as a            ␣1, ␣2, …, 31                (10)
                space-padded decimal number.                                      
                
                                                                                  
‘%F’            Equivalent to ‘%Y-%m-%d’, the ISO    2025-10-11, 1001-12-30
                8601 format.                         
                
                                                                                  
‘%g’            Last 2 digits of ISO 8601 year       00, 01, …, 99                (0)
                representing the year that                                        
                contains the greater part of the
                ISO week (‘%V’).
                
                                                                                  
‘%G’            ISO 8601 year with century           0001, 0002, …, 2013, 2014,   (8)
                representing the year that           …, 9998, 9999                
                contains the greater part of the     
                ISO week (‘%V’).
                
                                                                                  
‘%h’            Equivalent to ‘%b’.                  See ‘%b’.                    (0)
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
‘%H’            Hour (24-hour clock) as a            00, 01, …, 23                (9)
                zero-padded decimal number.                                       
                
                                                                                  
‘%I’            Hour (12-hour clock) as a            01, 02, …, 12                (9)
                zero-padded decimal number.                                       
                
                                                                                  
‘%j’            Day of the year as a zero-padded     001, 002, …, 366             (9)
                decimal number.                                                   
                
                                                                                  
‘%m’            Month as a zero-padded decimal       01, 02, …, 12                (9)
                number.                                                           
                
                                                                                  
‘%M’            Minute as a zero-padded decimal      00, 01, …, 59                (9)
                number.                                                           
                
                                                                                  
‘%n’            The newline character (‘'\n'’).      ‘\n’
                For ‘strptime()’, zero or more       
                whitespace.
                
                                                                                  
‘%p’            Locale’s equivalent of either AM          AM, PM (en_US);         (1), (3)
                or PM.                                    am, pm (de_DE)          
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%r’            Locale’s 12-hour clock time.         12:00:00 AM                  (1), (0)
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
‘%R’            Equivalent to ‘%H:%M’.               10:01
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%S’            Second as a zero-padded decimal      00, 01, …, 59                (4), (9)
                number.                                                           
                
                                                                                  
‘%t’            The tab character (‘'\t'’).  For     ‘\t’
                ‘strptime()’, zero or more           
                whitespace.
                
                                                                                  
‘%T’            ISO 8601 time format, equivalent     10:01:59
                to ‘%H:%M:%S’.                       
                
                                                                                  
‘%u’            ISO 8601 weekday as a decimal        1, 2, …, 7
                number where 1 is Monday.            
                
                                                                                  
‘%U’            Week number of the year (Sunday as   00, 01, …, 53                (7), (9)
                the first day of the week) as a                                   
                zero-padded decimal number.  All
                days in a new year preceding the
                first Sunday are considered to be
                in week 0.
                
                                                                                  
‘%V’            ISO 8601 week as a decimal number    01, 02, …, 53                (8), (9)
                with Monday as the first day of                                   
                the week.  Week 01 is the week
                containing Jan 4.
                
                                                                                  
‘%w’            Weekday as a decimal number, where   0, 1, …, 6
                0 is Sunday and 6 is Saturday.       
                
                                                                                  
‘%W’            Week number of the year (Monday as   00, 01, …, 53                (7), (9)
                the first day of the week) as a                                   
                zero-padded decimal number.  All
                days in a new year preceding the
                first Monday are considered to be
                in week 0.
                
                                                                                  
‘%x’            Locale’s appropriate date                 08/16/88 (None);        (1)
                representation.                           08/16/1988 (en_US);     
                                                          16.08.1988 (de_DE)
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%X’            Locale’s appropriate time                 21:30:00 (en_US);       (1)
                representation.                           21:30:00 (de_DE)        
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%y’            Year without century as a            00, 01, …, 99                (9)
                zero-padded decimal number.                                       
                
                                                                                  
‘%Y’            Year with century as a decimal       0001, 0002, …, 2013, 2014,   (2)
                number.                              …, 9998, 9999                
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%z’            UTC offset in the form               (empty), +0000, -0400,       (6)
                ‘±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]]’ (empty string   +1030, +063415,              
                if the object is naive).             -030712.345216
                                                     
                                                                                  
‘%Z’            Time zone name (empty string if      (empty), UTC, GMT            (6)
                the object is naive).                                             
                
                                                                                  
‘%%’            A literal ‘'%'’ character.           %
                                                     

The ISO 8601 year and ISO 8601 week directives are not interchangeable
with the year and week number directives above.  Calling *note
strptime(): 2d2. with incomplete or ambiguous ISO 8601 directives will
raise a *note ValueError: 277.

Several additional directives not required by the C11 standard are
included for convenience.

Directive       Meaning                              Example                      Notes
                                                                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
‘%f’            Microsecond as a decimal number,     000000, 000001, …, 999999    (5)
                zero-padded to 6 digits.                                          
                
                                                                                  
‘%:z’           UTC offset in the form               (empty), +00:00, -04:00,     (6)
                ‘±HH:MM[:SS[.ffffff]]’ (empty        +10:30, +06:34:15,           
                string if the object is naive).      -03:07:12.345216
                                                     

The full set of format codes supported varies across platforms, because
Python calls the platform C library’s ‘strftime()’ function, and
platform variations are common.  To see the full set of format codes
supported on your platform, consult the ‘strftime(3)(1)’ documentation.
There are also differences between platforms in handling of unsupported
format specifiers.

Added in version 3.6: ‘%G’, ‘%u’ and ‘%V’ were added.

Added in version 3.12: ‘%:z’ was added for *note strftime(): 1051.

Added in version 3.15: ‘%D’, ‘%F’, ‘%n’, ‘%t’, and ‘%:z’ were added for
*note strptime(): 2d2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Technical detail,  Prev: strftime and strptime format codes,  Up: strftime and strptime behavior

5.9.1.18 Technical detail
.........................

Broadly speaking, ‘d.strftime(fmt)’ acts like the *note time: f7.
module’s ‘time.strftime(fmt, d.timetuple())’ although not all objects
support a *note timetuple(): 2ad1. method.

For the *note datetime.strptime(): 2d2. and *note date.strptime(): 48c.
class methods, the default value is ‘1900-01-01T00:00:00.000’: any
components not specified in the format string will be pulled from the
default value.

     Σημείωση: Format strings without separators can be ambiguous for
     parsing.  For example, with ‘%Y%m%d’, the string ‘2026111’ may be
     parsed either as ‘2026-11-01’ or as ‘2026-01-11’.  Use separators
     to ensure the input is parsed as intended.

     Σημείωση: When used to parse partial dates lacking a year, *note
     datetime.strptime(): 2d2. and *note date.strptime(): 48c. will
     raise when encountering February 29 because the default year of
     1900 is 'not' a leap year.  Always add a default leap year to
     partial date strings before parsing.

     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> value = "2/29"
     >>> dt.datetime.strptime(value, "%m/%d")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: day 29 must be in range 1..28 for month 2 in year 1900
     >>> dt.datetime.strptime(f"1904 {value}", "%Y %m/%d")
     datetime.datetime(1904, 2, 29, 0, 0)

Using ‘datetime.strptime(date_string, format)’ is equivalent to:

     datetime(*(time.strptime(date_string, format)[0:6]))

except when the format includes sub-second components or time zone
offset information, which are supported in ‘datetime.strptime’ but are
discarded by ‘time.strptime’.

For *note time: 48e. objects, the format codes for year, month, and day
should not be used, as ‘time’ objects have no such values.  If they’re
used anyway, 1900 is substituted for the year, and 1 for the month and
day.

For *note date: 48d. objects, the format codes for hours, minutes,
seconds, and microseconds should not be used, as ‘date’ objects have no
such values.  If they’re used anyway, 0 is substituted for them.

For the same reason, handling of format strings containing Unicode code
points that can’t be represented in the charset of the current locale is
also platform-dependent.  On some platforms such code points are
preserved intact in the output, while on others ‘strftime’ may raise
*note UnicodeError: 675. or return an empty string instead.

Notes:

  0. This format code is currently unsupported by *note strptime(): 2d2.

  1. Because the format depends on the current locale, care should be
     taken when making assumptions about the output value.  Field
     orderings will vary (for example, «month/day/year» versus
     «day/month/year»), and the output may contain non-ASCII characters.

  2. The *note strptime(): 2d2. method can parse years in the full [1,
     9999] range, but years < 1000 must be zero-filled to 4-digit width.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: In previous versions, *note strftime():
     1051. method was restricted to years >= 1900.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: In version 3.2, *note strftime(): 1051.
     method was restricted to years >= 1000.

  3. When used with the *note strptime(): 2d2. method, the ‘%p’
     directive only affects the output hour field if the ‘%I’ directive
     is used to parse the hour.

  4. Unlike the *note time: f7. module, the ‘datetime’ module does not
     support leap seconds.

  5. When used with the *note strptime(): 2d2. method, the ‘%f’
     directive accepts from one to six digits and zero pads on the
     right.  ‘%f’ is an extension to the set of format characters in the
     C standard (but implemented separately in datetime objects, and
     therefore always available).

  6. For a naive object, the ‘%z’, ‘%:z’ and ‘%Z’ format codes are
     replaced by empty strings.

     For an aware object:

     ‘%z’

          *note utcoffset(): 2ae4. is transformed into a string of the
          form ‘±HHMM[SS[.ffffff]]’, where ‘HH’ is a 2-digit string
          giving the number of UTC offset hours, ‘MM’ is a 2-digit
          string giving the number of UTC offset minutes, ‘SS’ is a
          2-digit string giving the number of UTC offset seconds and
          ‘ffffff’ is a 6-digit string giving the number of UTC offset
          microseconds.  The ‘ffffff’ part is omitted when the offset is
          a whole number of seconds and both the ‘ffffff’ and the ‘SS’
          part is omitted when the offset is a whole number of minutes.
          For example, if ‘utcoffset()’ returns ‘timedelta(hours=-3,
          minutes=-30)’, ‘%z’ is replaced with the string ‘'-0330'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The UTC offset is not restricted to a whole
     number of minutes.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: When the ‘%z’ directive is provided to the
     *note strptime(): 2d2. method, the UTC offsets can have a colon as
     a separator between hours, minutes and seconds.  For example, both
     ‘'+010000'’ and ‘'+01:00:00'’ will be parsed as an offset of one
     hour.  In addition, providing ‘'Z'’ is identical to ‘'+00:00'’.

     ‘%:z’

          When used with *note strftime(): 1051, behaves exactly as
          ‘%z’, except that a colon separator is added between hours,
          minutes and seconds.

          When used with *note strptime(): 2d2, the UTC offset is
          'required' to have a colon as a separator between hours,
          minutes and seconds.  For example, ‘'+01:00:00'’ (but 'not'
          ‘'+010000'’) will be parsed as an offset of one hour.  In
          addition, providing ‘'Z'’ is identical to ‘'+00:00'’.

     ‘%Z’

          In *note strftime(): 1051, ‘%Z’ is replaced by an empty string
          if *note tzname(): 2ae7. returns ‘None’; otherwise ‘%Z’ is
          replaced by the returned value, which must be a string.

          *note strptime(): 2d2. only accepts certain values for ‘%Z’:

            1. any value in ‘time.tzname’ for your machine’s locale

            2. the hard-coded values ‘UTC’ and ‘GMT’

          So someone living in Japan may have ‘JST’, ‘UTC’, and ‘GMT’ as
          valid values, but probably not ‘EST’.  It will raise
          ‘ValueError’ for invalid values.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: When the ‘%z’ directive is provided to the
     *note strptime(): 2d2. method, an aware *note datetime: 6e7. object
     will be produced.  The ‘tzinfo’ of the result will be set to a
     *note timezone: 146c. instance.

  7. When used with the *note strptime(): 2d2. method, ‘%U’ and ‘%W’ are
     only used in calculations when the day of the week and the calendar
     year (‘%Y’) are specified.

  8. Similar to ‘%U’ and ‘%W’, ‘%V’ is only used in calculations when
     the day of the week and the ISO year (‘%G’) are specified in a
     *note strptime(): 2d2. format string.  Also note that ‘%G’ and ‘%Y’
     are not interchangeable.

  9. When used with the *note strptime(): 2d2. method, the leading zero
     is optional for formats ‘%d’, ‘%m’, ‘%H’, ‘%I’, ‘%M’, ‘%S’, ‘%j’,
     ‘%U’, ‘%W’, and ‘%V’.  Format ‘%y’ does require a leading zero.

  10. When parsing a month and day using *note strptime(): 2d2, always
     include a year in the format.  If the value you need to parse lacks
     a year, append an explicit dummy leap year.  Otherwise your code
     will raise an exception when it encounters leap day because the
     default year used by the parser (1900) is not a leap year.  Users
     run into that bug every leap year.

          >>> month_day = "02/29"
          >>> dt.datetime.strptime(f"{month_day};1984", "%m/%d;%Y")  # No leap year bug.
          datetime.datetime(1984, 2, 29, 0, 0)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Using ‘%d’ without a year now raises *note
     ValueError: 277.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.17:
     *note strptime(): 2d2. calls using a format string containing ‘%e’
     without a year now emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.


File: python.info,  Node: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support,  Next: calendar — General calendar-related functions,  Prev: datetime — Basic date and time types,  Up: Data Types

5.9.2 ‘zoneinfo’ — IANA time zone support
-----------------------------------------

Added in version 3.9.

'Source code:' Lib/zoneinfo(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘zoneinfo’ module provides a concrete time zone implementation to
support the IANA time zone database as originally specified in PEP
615(2).  By default, ‘zoneinfo’ uses the system’s time zone data if
available; if no system time zone data is available, the library will
fall back to using the first-party tzdata(3) package available on PyPI.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module: *note datetime: 33.

     Provides the *note time: 48e. and *note datetime: 6e7. types with
     which the *note ZoneInfo: cb1. class is designed to be used.

Package tzdata(4)

     First-party package maintained by the CPython core developers to
     supply time zone data via PyPI.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

* Menu:

* Using ZoneInfo::
* Data sources::
* The ZoneInfo class::
* Functions: Functions<2>.
* Globals::
* Exceptions and warnings::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/zoneinfo

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/


File: python.info,  Node: Using ZoneInfo,  Next: Data sources,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

5.9.2.1 Using ‘ZoneInfo’
........................

*note ZoneInfo: cb1. is a concrete implementation of the *note
datetime.tzinfo: 9d8. abstract base class, and is intended to be
attached to ‘tzinfo’, either via the constructor, the *note
datetime.replace: 186d. method or *note datetime.astimezone: d95.:

     >>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo
     >>> import datetime as dt

     >>> when = dt.datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(when)
     2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00

     >>> when.tzname()
     'PDT'

Datetimes constructed in this way are compatible with datetime
arithmetic and handle daylight saving time transitions with no further
intervention:

     >>> when_add = when + dt.timedelta(days=1)

     >>> print(when_add)
     2020-11-01 12:00:00-08:00

     >>> when_add.tzname()
     'PST'

These time zones also support the *note fold: 1015. attribute introduced
in PEP 495(1).  During offset transitions which induce ambiguous times
(such as a daylight saving time to standard time transition), the offset
from 'before' the transition is used when ‘fold=0’, and the offset
'after' the transition is used when ‘fold=1’, for example:

     >>> when = dt.datetime(2020, 11, 1, 1, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles"))
     >>> print(when)
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00

     >>> print(when.replace(fold=1))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00

When converting from another time zone, the fold will be set to the
correct value:

     >>> LOS_ANGELES = ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles")
     >>> when_utc = dt.datetime(2020, 11, 1, 8, tzinfo=dt.timezone.utc)

     >>> # Before the PDT -> PST transition
     >>> print(when_utc.astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-07:00

     >>> # After the PDT -> PST transition
     >>> print((when_utc + dt.timedelta(hours=1)).astimezone(LOS_ANGELES))
     2020-11-01 01:00:00-08:00

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/


File: python.info,  Node: Data sources,  Next: The ZoneInfo class,  Prev: Using ZoneInfo,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

5.9.2.2 Data sources
....................

The ‘zoneinfo’ module does not directly provide time zone data, and
instead pulls time zone information from the system time zone database
or the first-party PyPI package tzdata(1), if available.  Some systems,
including notably Windows systems, do not have an IANA database
available, and so for projects targeting cross-platform compatibility
that require time zone data, it is recommended to declare a dependency
on tzdata.  If neither system data nor tzdata are available, all calls
to *note ZoneInfo: cb1. will raise *note ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 1a0f.

* Menu:

* Configuring the data sources::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring the data sources,  Up: Data sources

5.9.2.3 Configuring the data sources
....................................

When ‘ZoneInfo(key)’ is called, the constructor first searches the
directories specified in *note TZPATH: 2353. for a file matching ‘key’,
and on failure looks for a match in the tzdata package.  This behavior
can be configured in three ways:

  1. The default *note TZPATH: 2353. when not otherwise specified can be
     configured at *note compile time: 2354.

  2. *note TZPATH: 2353. can be configured using *note an environment
     variable: 2b13.

  3. At *note runtime: 2b14, the search path can be manipulated using
     the *note reset_tzpath(): 19ff. function.

* Menu:

* Compile-time configuration::
* Environment configuration::
* Runtime configuration::


File: python.info,  Node: Compile-time configuration,  Next: Environment configuration,  Up: Configuring the data sources

5.9.2.4 Compile-time configuration
..................................

The default *note TZPATH: 2353. includes several common deployment
locations for the time zone database (except on Windows, where there are
no «well-known» locations for time zone data).  On POSIX systems,
downstream distributors and those building Python from source who know
where their system time zone data is deployed may change the default
time zone path by specifying the compile-time option ‘TZPATH’ (or, more
likely, the *note configure flag -with-tzpath: 2352.), which should be a
string delimited by *note os.pathsep: 2322.

On all platforms, the configured value is available as the ‘TZPATH’ key
in *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): 41e.


File: python.info,  Node: Environment configuration,  Next: Runtime configuration,  Prev: Compile-time configuration,  Up: Configuring the data sources

5.9.2.5 Environment configuration
.................................

When initializing *note TZPATH: 2353. (either at import time or whenever
*note reset_tzpath(): 19ff. is called with no arguments), the ‘zoneinfo’
module will use the environment variable ‘PYTHONTZPATH’, if it exists,
to set the search path.

 -- Μεταβλητή Περιβάλλοντος: PYTHONTZPATH

     This is an *note os.pathsep: 2322.-separated string containing the
     time zone search path to use.  It must consist of only absolute
     rather than relative paths.  Relative components specified in
     ‘PYTHONTZPATH’ will not be used, but otherwise the behavior when a
     relative path is specified is implementation-defined; CPython will
     raise *note InvalidTZPathWarning: 2b18, but other implementations
     are free to silently ignore the erroneous component or raise an
     exception.

To set the system to ignore the system data and use the tzdata package
instead, set ‘PYTHONTZPATH=""’.


File: python.info,  Node: Runtime configuration,  Prev: Environment configuration,  Up: Configuring the data sources

5.9.2.6 Runtime configuration
.............................

The TZ search path can also be configured at runtime using the *note
reset_tzpath(): 19ff. function.  This is generally not an advisable
operation, though it is reasonable to use it in test functions that
require the use of a specific time zone path (or require disabling
access to the system time zones).


File: python.info,  Node: The ZoneInfo class,  Next: Functions<2>,  Prev: Data sources,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

5.9.2.7 The ‘ZoneInfo’ class
............................

 -- Κλάση: zoneinfo.ZoneInfo (key)

     A concrete *note datetime.tzinfo: 9d8. subclass that represents an
     IANA time zone specified by the string ‘key’.  Calls to the primary
     constructor will always return objects that compare identically;
     put another way, barring cache invalidation via *note
     ZoneInfo.clear_cache(): 1934, for all values of ‘key’, the
     following assertion will always be true:

          a = ZoneInfo(key)
          b = ZoneInfo(key)
          assert a is b

     ‘key’ must be in the form of a relative, normalized POSIX path,
     with no up-level references.  The constructor will raise *note
     ValueError: 277. if a non-conforming key is passed.

     If no file matching ‘key’ is found, the constructor will raise
     *note ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 1a0f.

The ‘ZoneInfo’ class has two alternate constructors:

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod ZoneInfo.from_file (file_obj, /, key=None)

     Constructs a ‘ZoneInfo’ object from a file-like object returning
     bytes (e.g.  a file opened in binary mode or an *note io.BytesIO:
     1255. object).  Unlike the primary constructor, this always
     constructs a new object.

     The ‘key’ parameter sets the name of the zone for the purposes of
     *note __str__(): a0f. and *note __repr__(): 1bc.

     Objects created via this constructor cannot be pickled (see *note
     pickling: 2b1b.).

     *note ValueError: 277. is raised if the data read from 'file_obj'
     is not a valid TZif file.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod ZoneInfo.no_cache (key)

     An alternate constructor that bypasses the constructor’s cache.  It
     is identical to the primary constructor, but returns a new object
     on each call.  This is most likely to be useful for testing or
     demonstration purposes, but it can also be used to create a system
     with a different cache invalidation strategy.

     Objects created via this constructor will also bypass the cache of
     a deserializing process when unpickled.

          Προσοχή: Using this constructor may change the semantics of
          your datetimes in surprising ways, only use it if you know
          that you need to.

The following class methods are also available:

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod ZoneInfo.clear_cache (*, only_keys=None)

     A method for invalidating the cache on the ‘ZoneInfo’ class.  If no
     arguments are passed, all caches are invalidated and the next call
     to the primary constructor for each key will return a new instance.

     If an iterable of key names is passed to the ‘only_keys’ parameter,
     only the specified keys will be removed from the cache.  Keys
     passed to ‘only_keys’ but not found in the cache are ignored.

          Προειδοποίηση: Invoking this function may change the semantics
          of datetimes using ‘ZoneInfo’ in surprising ways; this
          modifies module state and thus may have wide-ranging effects.
          Only use it if you know that you need to.

The class has one attribute:

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZoneInfo.key

     This is a read-only *note attribute: 2b1e. that returns the value
     of ‘key’ passed to the constructor, which should be a lookup key in
     the IANA time zone database (e.g.  ‘America/New_York’,
     ‘Europe/Paris’ or ‘Asia/Tokyo’).

     For zones constructed from file without specifying a ‘key’
     parameter, this will be set to ‘None’.

          Σημείωση: Although it is a somewhat common practice to expose
          these to end users, these values are designed to be primary
          keys for representing the relevant zones and not necessarily
          user-facing elements.  Projects like CLDR (the Unicode Common
          Locale Data Repository) can be used to get more user-friendly
          strings from these keys.

* Menu:

* String representations::
* Pickle serialization::


File: python.info,  Node: String representations,  Next: Pickle serialization,  Up: The ZoneInfo class

5.9.2.8 String representations
..............................

The string representation returned when calling *note str: 1df. on a
*note ZoneInfo: cb1. object defaults to using the *note ZoneInfo.key:
2b1d. attribute (see the note on usage in the attribute documentation):

     >>> zone = ZoneInfo("Pacific/Kwajalein")
     >>> str(zone)
     'Pacific/Kwajalein'

     >>> when = dt.datetime(2020, 4, 1, 3, 15, tzinfo=zone)
     >>> f"{when.isoformat()} [{when.tzinfo}]"
     '2020-04-01T03:15:00+12:00 [Pacific/Kwajalein]'

For objects constructed from a file without specifying a ‘key’
parameter, ‘str’ falls back to calling *note repr(): 45b.  ‘ZoneInfo’’s
‘repr’ is implementation-defined and not necessarily stable between
versions, but it is guaranteed not to be a valid ‘ZoneInfo’ key.


File: python.info,  Node: Pickle serialization,  Prev: String representations,  Up: The ZoneInfo class

5.9.2.9 Pickle serialization
............................

Rather than serializing all transition data, ‘ZoneInfo’ objects are
serialized by key, and ‘ZoneInfo’ objects constructed from files (even
those with a value for ‘key’ specified) cannot be pickled.

The behavior of a ‘ZoneInfo’ file depends on how it was constructed:

  1. ‘ZoneInfo(key)’: When constructed with the primary constructor, a
     ‘ZoneInfo’ object is serialized by key, and when deserialized, the
     deserializing process uses the primary and thus it is expected that
     these are the same object as other references to the same time
     zone.  For example, if ‘europe_berlin_pkl’ is a string containing a
     pickle constructed from ‘ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")’, one would
     expect the following behavior:

          >>> a = ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")
          >>> b = pickle.loads(europe_berlin_pkl)
          >>> a is b
          True

  2. ‘ZoneInfo.no_cache(key)’: When constructed from the cache-bypassing
     constructor, the ‘ZoneInfo’ object is also serialized by key, but
     when deserialized, the deserializing process uses the cache
     bypassing constructor.  If ‘europe_berlin_pkl_nc’ is a string
     containing a pickle constructed from
     ‘ZoneInfo.no_cache("Europe/Berlin")’, one would expect the
     following behavior:

          >>> a = ZoneInfo("Europe/Berlin")
          >>> b = pickle.loads(europe_berlin_pkl_nc)
          >>> a is b
          False

  3. ‘ZoneInfo.from_file(file_obj, /, key=None)’: When constructed from
     a file, the ‘ZoneInfo’ object raises an exception on pickling.  If
     an end user wants to pickle a ‘ZoneInfo’ constructed from a file,
     it is recommended that they use a wrapper type or a custom
     serialization function: either serializing by key or storing the
     contents of the file object and serializing that.

This method of serialization requires that the time zone data for the
required key be available on both the serializing and deserializing
side, similar to the way that references to classes and functions are
expected to exist in both the serializing and deserializing
environments.  It also means that no guarantees are made about the
consistency of results when unpickling a ‘ZoneInfo’ pickled in an
environment with a different version of the time zone data.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<2>,  Next: Globals,  Prev: The ZoneInfo class,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

5.9.2.10 Functions
..................

 -- Συνάρτηση: zoneinfo.available_timezones ()

     Get a set containing all the valid keys for IANA time zones
     available anywhere on the time zone path.  This is recalculated on
     every call to the function.

     This function only includes canonical zone names and does not
     include «special» zones such as those under the ‘posix/’ and
     ‘right/’ directories, the ‘posixrules’ or the ‘localtime’ zone.

          Προσοχή: This function may open a large number of files, as
          the best way to determine if a file on the time zone path is a
          valid time zone is to read the «magic string» at the
          beginning.

          Σημείωση: These values are not designed to be exposed to
          end-users; for user facing elements, applications should use
          something like CLDR (the Unicode Common Locale Data
          Repository) to get more user-friendly strings.  See also the
          cautionary note on *note ZoneInfo.key: 2b1d.

 -- Συνάρτηση: zoneinfo.reset_tzpath (to=None)

     Sets or resets the time zone search path (*note TZPATH: 2353.) for
     the module.  When called with no arguments, ‘TZPATH’ is set to the
     default value.

     Calling ‘reset_tzpath’ will not invalidate the *note ZoneInfo: cb1.
     cache, and so calls to the primary ‘ZoneInfo’ constructor will only
     use the new ‘TZPATH’ in the case of a cache miss.

     The ‘to’ parameter must be a *note sequence: 8ff. of strings or
     *note os.PathLike: 100f. and not a string, all of which must be
     absolute paths.  *note ValueError: 277. will be raised if something
     other than an absolute path is passed.


File: python.info,  Node: Globals,  Next: Exceptions and warnings,  Prev: Functions<2>,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

5.9.2.11 Globals
................

 -- Δεδομένα: zoneinfo.TZPATH

     A read-only sequence representing the time zone search path – when
     constructing a ‘ZoneInfo’ from a key, the key is joined to each
     entry in the ‘TZPATH’, and the first file found is used.

     ‘TZPATH’ may contain only absolute paths, never relative paths,
     regardless of how it is configured.

     The object that ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’ points to may change in response
     to a call to *note reset_tzpath(): 19ff, so it is recommended to
     use ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’ rather than importing ‘TZPATH’ from
     ‘zoneinfo’ or assigning a long-lived variable to ‘zoneinfo.TZPATH’.

     For more information on configuring the time zone search path, see
     *note Configuring the data sources: 2b12.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions and warnings,  Prev: Globals,  Up: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support

5.9.2.12 Exceptions and warnings
................................

 -- Εξαίρεση: zoneinfo.ZoneInfoNotFoundError

     Raised when construction of a *note ZoneInfo: cb1. object fails
     because the specified key could not be found on the system.  This
     is a subclass of *note KeyError: 7df.

 -- Εξαίρεση: zoneinfo.InvalidTZPathWarning

     Raised when *note PYTHONTZPATH: 2b17. contains an invalid component
     that will be filtered out, such as a relative path.


File: python.info,  Node: calendar — General calendar-related functions,  Next: collections — Container datatypes,  Prev: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support,  Up: Data Types

5.9.3 ‘calendar’ — General calendar-related functions
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/calendar.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module allows you to output calendars like the Unix ‘cal’ program,
and provides additional useful functions related to the calendar.  By
default, these calendars have Monday as the first day of the week, and
Sunday as the last (the European convention).  Use *note
setfirstweekday(): 2b27. to set the first day of the week to Sunday (6)
or to any other weekday.  Parameters that specify dates are given as
integers.  For related functionality, see also the *note datetime: 33.
and *note time: f7. modules.

The functions and classes defined in this module use an idealized
calendar, the current Gregorian calendar extended indefinitely in both
directions.  This matches the definition of the «proleptic Gregorian»
calendar in Dershowitz and Reingold’s book «Calendrical Calculations»,
where it’s the base calendar for all computations.  Zero and negative
years are interpreted as prescribed by the ISO 8601 standard.  Year 0 is
1 BC, year -1 is 2 BC, and so on.

 -- Κλάση: calendar.Calendar (firstweekday=0)

     Creates a ‘Calendar’ object.  'firstweekday' is an integer
     specifying the first day of the week.  *note MONDAY: 2b29. is ‘0’
     (the default), *note SUNDAY: 2b2a. is ‘6’.

     A ‘Calendar’ object provides several methods that can be used for
     preparing the calendar data for formatting.  This class doesn’t do
     any formatting itself.  This is the job of subclasses.

     ‘Calendar’ instances have the following methods and attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: firstweekday

          The first weekday as an integer (0–6).

          This property can also be set and read using *note
          setfirstweekday(): 2b2c. and *note getfirstweekday(): 2b2d.
          respectively.

      -- Μέθοδος: getfirstweekday ()

          Return an *note int: 326. for the current first weekday (0–6).

          Identical to reading the *note firstweekday: 2b2b. property.

      -- Μέθοδος: setfirstweekday (firstweekday)

          Set the first weekday to 'firstweekday', passed as an *note
          int: 326. (0–6).

          Identical to setting the *note firstweekday: 2b2b. property.

      -- Μέθοδος: iterweekdays ()

          Return an iterator for the weekday numbers that will be used
          for one week.  The first value from the iterator will be the
          same as the value of the *note firstweekday: 2b2b. property.

      -- Μέθοδος: itermonthdates (year, month)

          Return an iterator for the month 'month' (1–12) in the year
          'year'.  This iterator will return all days (as *note
          datetime.date: 48d. objects) for the month and all days before
          the start of the month or after the end of the month that are
          required to get a complete week.

      -- Μέθοδος: itermonthdays (year, month)

          Return an iterator for the month 'month' in the year 'year'
          similar to *note itermonthdates(): fd8, but not restricted by
          the *note datetime.date: 48d. range.  Days returned will
          simply be day of the month numbers.  For the days outside of
          the specified month, the day number is ‘0’.

      -- Μέθοδος: itermonthdays2 (year, month)

          Return an iterator for the month 'month' in the year 'year'
          similar to *note itermonthdates(): fd8, but not restricted by
          the *note datetime.date: 48d. range.  Days returned will be
          tuples consisting of a day of the month number and a weekday
          number.

      -- Μέθοδος: itermonthdays3 (year, month)

          Return an iterator for the month 'month' in the year 'year'
          similar to *note itermonthdates(): fd8, but not restricted by
          the *note datetime.date: 48d. range.  Days returned will be
          tuples consisting of a year, a month and a day of the month
          numbers.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Μέθοδος: itermonthdays4 (year, month)

          Return an iterator for the month 'month' in the year 'year'
          similar to *note itermonthdates(): fd8, but not restricted by
          the *note datetime.date: 48d. range.  Days returned will be
          tuples consisting of a year, a month, a day of the month, and
          a day of the week numbers.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Μέθοδος: monthdatescalendar (year, month)

          Return a list of the weeks in the month 'month' of the 'year'
          as full weeks.  Weeks are lists of seven *note datetime.date:
          48d. objects.

      -- Μέθοδος: monthdays2calendar (year, month)

          Return a list of the weeks in the month 'month' of the 'year'
          as full weeks.  Weeks are lists of seven tuples of day numbers
          and weekday numbers.

      -- Μέθοδος: monthdayscalendar (year, month)

          Return a list of the weeks in the month 'month' of the 'year'
          as full weeks.  Weeks are lists of seven day numbers.

      -- Μέθοδος: yeardatescalendar (year, width=3)

          Return the data for the specified year ready for formatting.
          The return value is a list of month rows.  Each month row
          contains up to 'width' months (defaulting to 3).  Each month
          contains between 4 and 6 weeks and each week contains 1–7
          days.  Days are *note datetime.date: 48d. objects.

      -- Μέθοδος: yeardays2calendar (year, width=3)

          Return the data for the specified year ready for formatting
          (similar to *note yeardatescalendar(): 2b34.).  Entries in the
          week lists are tuples of day numbers and weekday numbers.  Day
          numbers outside this month are zero.

      -- Μέθοδος: yeardayscalendar (year, width=3)

          Return the data for the specified year ready for formatting
          (similar to *note yeardatescalendar(): 2b34.).  Entries in the
          week lists are day numbers.  Day numbers outside this month
          are zero.

 -- Κλάση: calendar.TextCalendar (firstweekday=0)

     This class can be used to generate plain text calendars.

     ‘TextCalendar’ instances have the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: prweek (theweek, width)

          Print a week’s calendar as returned by *note formatweek():
          2b38. and without a final newline.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatday (theday, weekday, width)

          Return a string representing a single day formatted with the
          given 'width'.  If 'theday' is ‘0’, return a string of spaces
          of the specified width, representing an empty day.  The
          'weekday' parameter is unused.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatweek (theweek, w=0)

          Return a single week in a string with no newline.  If 'w' is
          provided, it specifies the width of the date columns, which
          are centered.  Depends on the first weekday as specified in
          the constructor or set by the *note setfirstweekday(): 2b27.
          method.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatweekday (weekday, width)

          Return a string representing the name of a single weekday
          formatted to the specified 'width'.  The 'weekday' parameter
          is an integer representing the day of the week, where ‘0’ is
          Monday and ‘6’ is Sunday.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatweekheader (width)

          Return a string containing the header row of weekday names,
          formatted with the given 'width' for each column.  The names
          depend on the locale settings and are padded to the specified
          width.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

          Return a month’s calendar in a multi-line string.  If 'w' is
          provided, it specifies the width of the date columns, which
          are centered.  If 'l' is given, it specifies the number of
          lines that each week will use.  Depends on the first weekday
          as specified in the constructor or set by the *note
          setfirstweekday(): 2b27. method.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatmonthname (theyear, themonth, width=0,
               withyear=True)

          Return a string representing the month’s name centered within
          the specified 'width'.  If 'withyear' is ‘True’, include the
          year in the output.  The 'theyear' and 'themonth' parameters
          specify the year and month for the name to be formatted
          respectively.

      -- Μέθοδος: prmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

          Print a month’s calendar as returned by *note formatmonth():
          2b3c.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatyear (theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

          Return a 'm'-column calendar for an entire year as a
          multi-line string.  Optional parameters 'w', 'l', and 'c' are
          for date column width, lines per week, and number of spaces
          between month columns, respectively.  Depends on the first
          weekday as specified in the constructor or set by the *note
          setfirstweekday(): 2b27. method.  The earliest year for which
          a calendar can be generated is platform-dependent.

      -- Μέθοδος: pryear (theyear, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

          Print the calendar for an entire year as returned by *note
          formatyear(): 2b3f.

 -- Κλάση: calendar.HTMLCalendar (firstweekday=0)

     This class can be used to generate HTML calendars.

     ‘HTMLCalendar’ instances have the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: formatmonth (theyear, themonth, withyear=True)

          Return a month’s calendar as an HTML table.  If 'withyear' is
          true the year will be included in the header, otherwise just
          the month name will be used.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatyear (theyear, width=3)

          Return a year’s calendar as an HTML table.  'width'
          (defaulting to 3) specifies the number of months per row.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatyearpage (theyear, width=3, css='calendar.css',
               encoding=None)

          Return a year’s calendar as a complete HTML page.  'width'
          (defaulting to 3) specifies the number of months per row.
          'css' is the name for the cascading style sheet to be used.
          *note None: a65. can be passed if no style sheet should be
          used.  'encoding' specifies the encoding to be used for the
          output (defaulting to ‘'utf-8'’).

      -- Μέθοδος: formatmonthname (theyear, themonth, withyear=True)

          Return a month name as an HTML table row.  If 'withyear' is
          true the year will be included in the row, otherwise just the
          month name will be used.

     ‘HTMLCalendar’ has the following attributes you can override to
     customize the CSS classes used by the calendar:

      -- Ιδιότητα: cssclasses

          A list of CSS classes used for each weekday.  The default
          class list is:

               cssclasses = ["mon", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun"]

          more styles can be added for each day:

               cssclasses = ["mon text-bold", "tue", "wed", "thu", "fri", "sat", "sun red"]

          Note that the length of this list must be seven items.

      -- Ιδιότητα: cssclass_noday

          The CSS class for a weekday occurring in the previous or
          coming month.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: cssclasses_weekday_head

          A list of CSS classes used for weekday names in the header
          row.  The default is the same as *note cssclasses: 2b45.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: cssclass_month_head

          The month’s head CSS class (used by *note formatmonthname():
          2b44.).  The default value is ‘"month"’.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: cssclass_month

          The CSS class for the whole month’s table (used by *note
          formatmonth(): 2b41.).  The default value is ‘"month"’.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: cssclass_year

          The CSS class for the whole year’s table of tables (used by
          *note formatyear(): 2b42.).  The default value is ‘"year"’.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: cssclass_year_head

          The CSS class for the table head for the whole year (used by
          *note formatyear(): 2b42.).  The default value is ‘"year"’.

          Added in version 3.7.

     Note that although the naming for the above described class
     attributes is singular (e.g.  ‘cssclass_month’ ‘cssclass_noday’),
     one can replace the single CSS class with a space separated list of
     CSS classes, for example:

          "text-bold text-red"

     Here is an example how ‘HTMLCalendar’ can be customized:

          class CustomHTMLCal(calendar.HTMLCalendar):
              cssclasses = [style + " text-nowrap" for style in
                            calendar.HTMLCalendar.cssclasses]
              cssclass_month_head = "text-center month-head"
              cssclass_month = "text-center month"
              cssclass_year = "text-italic lead"

 -- Κλάση: calendar.LocaleTextCalendar (firstweekday=0, locale=None)

     This subclass of *note TextCalendar: 1a3e. can be passed a locale
     name in the constructor and will return month and weekday names in
     the specified locale.

 -- Κλάση: calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar (firstweekday=0, locale=None)

     This subclass of *note HTMLCalendar: 202. can be passed a locale
     name in the constructor and will return month and weekday names in
     the specified locale.

     Σημείωση: The constructor, ‘formatweekday()’ and
     ‘formatmonthname()’ methods of these two classes temporarily change
     the ‘LC_TIME’ locale to the given 'locale'.  Because the current
     locale is a process-wide setting, they are not thread-safe.

For simple text calendars this module provides the following functions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: calendar.setfirstweekday (weekday)

     Sets the weekday (‘0’ is Monday, ‘6’ is Sunday) to start each week.
     The values *note MONDAY: 2b29, *note TUESDAY: 2b4c, *note
     WEDNESDAY: 2b4d, *note THURSDAY: 2b4e, *note FRIDAY: 2b4f, *note
     SATURDAY: 2b50, and *note SUNDAY: 2b2a. are provided for
     convenience.  For example, to set the first weekday to Sunday:

          import calendar
          calendar.setfirstweekday(calendar.SUNDAY)

 -- Συνάρτηση: calendar.firstweekday ()

     Returns the current setting for the weekday to start each week.

 -- Συνάρτηση: calendar.isleap (year)

     Returns *note True: fcc. if 'year' is a leap year, otherwise *note
     False: ef5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: calendar.leapdays (y1, y2)

     Returns the number of leap years in the range from 'y1' to 'y2'
     (exclusive), where 'y1' and 'y2' are years.

     This function works for ranges spanning a century change.

 -- Συνάρτηση: calendar.weekday (year, month, day)

     Returns the day of the week (‘0’ is Monday) for 'year' (‘1970’–…),
     'month' (‘1’–‘12’), 'day' (‘1’–‘31’).

 -- Συνάρτηση: calendar.weekheader (n)

     Return a header containing abbreviated weekday names.  'n'
     specifies the width in characters for one weekday.

 -- Συνάρτηση: calendar.monthrange (year, month)

     Returns weekday of first day of the month and number of days in
     month, for the specified 'year' and 'month'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: calendar.monthcalendar (year, month)

     Returns a matrix representing a month’s calendar.  Each row
     represents a week; days outside of the month are represented by
     zeros.  Each week begins with Monday unless set by *note
     setfirstweekday(): 2b27.

 -- Συνάρτηση: calendar.prmonth (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

     Prints a month’s calendar as returned by *note month(): 1b27.

 -- Συνάρτηση: calendar.month (theyear, themonth, w=0, l=0)

     Returns a month’s calendar in a multi-line string using the *note
     formatmonth(): 2b3c. of the *note TextCalendar: 1a3e. class.

 -- Συνάρτηση: calendar.prcal (year, w=0, l=0, c=6, m=3)

     Prints the calendar for an entire year as returned by *note
     calendar(): 15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: calendar.calendar (year, w=2, l=1, c=6, m=3)

     Returns a 3-column calendar for an entire year as a multi-line
     string using the *note formatyear(): 2b3f. of the *note
     TextCalendar: 1a3e. class.

 -- Συνάρτηση: calendar.timegm (tuple)

     An unrelated but handy function that takes a time tuple such as
     returned by the *note gmtime(): 1569. function in the *note time:
     f7. module, and returns the corresponding Unix timestamp value,
     assuming an epoch of 1970, and the POSIX encoding.  In fact,
     ‘time.gmtime()’ and ‘timegm()’ are each other’s inverse.

The ‘calendar’ module exports the following data attributes:

 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.day_name

     A sequence that represents the days of the week in the current
     locale, where Monday is day number 0.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.day_name)
          ['Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Friday', 'Saturday', 'Sunday']

 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.day_abbr

     A sequence that represents the abbreviated days of the week in the
     current locale, where Mon is day number 0.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.day_abbr)
          ['Mon', 'Tue', 'Wed', 'Thu', 'Fri', 'Sat', 'Sun']

 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.MONDAY
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.TUESDAY
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.WEDNESDAY
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.THURSDAY
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.FRIDAY
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.SATURDAY
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.SUNDAY

     Aliases for the days of the week, where ‘MONDAY’ is ‘0’ and
     ‘SUNDAY’ is ‘6’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Κλάση: calendar.Day

     Enumeration defining days of the week as integer constants.  The
     members of this enumeration are exported to the module scope as
     *note MONDAY: 2b29. through *note SUNDAY: 2b2a.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.month_name

     A sequence that represents the months of the year in the current
     locale.  This follows normal convention of January being month
     number 1, so it has a length of 13 and ‘month_name[0]’ is the empty
     string.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.month_name)
          ['', 'January', 'February', 'March', 'April', 'May', 'June', 'July', 'August', 'September', 'October', 'November', 'December']

          Προσοχή: In locales with alternative month names forms, the
          ‘month_name’ sequence may not be suitable when a month name
          stands by itself and not as part of a date.  For instance, in
          Greek and in many Slavic and Baltic languages, ‘month_name’
          will produce the month in genitive case.  Use *note
          standalone_month_name: 1a3f. for a form suitable for
          standalone use.

 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.month_abbr

     A sequence that represents the abbreviated months of the year in
     the current locale.  This follows normal convention of January
     being month number 1, so it has a length of 13 and ‘month_abbr[0]’
     is the empty string.

          >>> import calendar
          >>> list(calendar.month_abbr)
          ['', 'Jan', 'Feb', 'Mar', 'Apr', 'May', 'Jun', 'Jul', 'Aug', 'Sep', 'Oct', 'Nov', 'Dec']

          Προσοχή: In locales with alternative month names forms, the
          ‘month_abbr’ sequence may not be suitable when a month name
          stands by itself and not as part of a date.  Use *note
          standalone_month_abbr: 1a40. for a form suitable for
          standalone use.

 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.standalone_month_name

     A sequence that represents the months of the year in the current
     locale in the standalone form if the locale provides one.  Else it
     is equivalent to *note month_name: 2b5e.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.standalone_month_abbr

     A sequence that represents the abbreviated months of the year in
     the current locale in the standalone form if the locale provides
     one.  Else it is equivalent to *note month_abbr: 2b5f.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.JANUARY
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.FEBRUARY
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.MARCH
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.APRIL
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.MAY
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.JUNE
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.JULY
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.AUGUST
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.SEPTEMBER
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.OCTOBER
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.NOVEMBER
 -- Δεδομένα: calendar.DECEMBER

     Aliases for the months of the year, where ‘JANUARY’ is ‘1’ and
     ‘DECEMBER’ is ‘12’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Κλάση: calendar.Month

     Enumeration defining months of the year as integer constants.  The
     members of this enumeration are exported to the module scope as
     *note JANUARY: 329. through *note DECEMBER: 2b69.

     Added in version 3.12.

The ‘calendar’ module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Εξαίρεση: calendar.IllegalMonthError (month)

     A subclass of *note ValueError: 277. and *note IndexError: 18d7,
     raised when the given month number is outside of the range 1-12
     (inclusive).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘IllegalMonthError’ is now also a subclass
     of *note ValueError: 277.  New code should avoid catching *note
     IndexError: 18d7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: month

          The invalid month number.

 -- Εξαίρεση: calendar.IllegalWeekdayError (weekday)

     A subclass of *note ValueError: 277, raised when the given weekday
     number is outside of the range 0-6 (inclusive).

      -- Ιδιότητα: weekday

          The invalid weekday number.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note datetime: 33.

     Object-oriented interface to dates and times with similar
     functionality to the *note time: f7. module.

Module *note time: f7.

     Low-level time related functions.

* Menu:

* Command-line usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/calendar.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line usage,  Up: calendar — General calendar-related functions

5.9.3.1 Command-line usage
..........................

Added in version 2.5.

The ‘calendar’ module can be executed as a script from the command line
to interactively print a calendar.

     python -m calendar [-h] [-L LOCALE] [-e ENCODING] [-t {text,html}]
                        [-w WIDTH] [-l LINES] [-s SPACING] [-m MONTHS] [-c CSS]
                        [-f FIRST_WEEKDAY] [year] [month]

For example, to print a calendar for the year 2000:

     $ python -m calendar 2000
                                       2000

           January                   February                   March
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2          1  2  3  4  5  6             1  2  3  4  5
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       7  8  9 10 11 12 13       6  7  8  9 10 11 12
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      14 15 16 17 18 19 20      13 14 15 16 17 18 19
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      21 22 23 24 25 26 27      20 21 22 23 24 25 26
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      28 29                     27 28 29 30 31
     31

            April                      May                       June
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2       1  2  3  4  5  6  7                1  2  3  4
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       8  9 10 11 12 13 14       5  6  7  8  9 10 11
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      15 16 17 18 19 20 21      12 13 14 15 16 17 18
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      22 23 24 25 26 27 28      19 20 21 22 23 24 25
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      29 30 31                  26 27 28 29 30

             July                     August                  September
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                     1  2          1  2  3  4  5  6                   1  2  3
      3  4  5  6  7  8  9       7  8  9 10 11 12 13       4  5  6  7  8  9 10
     10 11 12 13 14 15 16      14 15 16 17 18 19 20      11 12 13 14 15 16 17
     17 18 19 20 21 22 23      21 22 23 24 25 26 27      18 19 20 21 22 23 24
     24 25 26 27 28 29 30      28 29 30 31               25 26 27 28 29 30
     31

           October                   November                  December
     Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su      Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
                        1             1  2  3  4  5                   1  2  3
      2  3  4  5  6  7  8       6  7  8  9 10 11 12       4  5  6  7  8  9 10
      9 10 11 12 13 14 15      13 14 15 16 17 18 19      11 12 13 14 15 16 17
     16 17 18 19 20 21 22      20 21 22 23 24 25 26      18 19 20 21 22 23 24
     23 24 25 26 27 28 29      27 28 29 30               25 26 27 28 29 30 31
     30 31

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: --help, -h

     Show the help message and exit.

 -- Option: --locale LOCALE, -L LOCALE

     The locale to use for month and weekday names.  Defaults to
     English.

 -- Option: --encoding ENCODING, -e ENCODING

     The encoding to use for output.  *note -encoding: 2b72. is required
     if *note -locale: 2b70. is set.

 -- Option: --type {text,html}, -t {text,html}

     Print the calendar to the terminal as text, or as an HTML document.

 -- Option: --first-weekday FIRST_WEEKDAY, -f FIRST_WEEKDAY

     The weekday to start each week.  Must be a number between 0
     (Monday) and 6 (Sunday).  Defaults to 0.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Option: year

     The year to print the calendar for.  Defaults to the current year.

 -- Option: month

     The month of the specified *note year: 2b78. to print the calendar
     for.  Must be a number between 1 and 12.  Defaults to printing a
     calendar for the full year.

'Text-mode options:'

 -- Option: --width WIDTH, -w WIDTH

     The width of the date column in terminal columns.  The date is
     printed centred in the column.  Any value lower than 2 is ignored.
     Defaults to 2.

 -- Option: --lines LINES, -l LINES

     The number of lines for each week in terminal rows.  The date is
     printed top-aligned.  Any value lower than 1 is ignored.  Defaults
     to 1.

 -- Option: --spacing SPACING, -s SPACING

     The space between months in columns.  Any value lower than 2 is
     ignored.  Defaults to 6.

 -- Option: --months MONTHS, -m MONTHS

     The number of months printed per row.  Defaults to 3.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: By default, today’s date is highlighted in
color and can be *note controlled using environment variables: 1af.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: By default, the month is now also highlighted
in color, and the days of the week are also in color.  This behavior can
be *note controlled using environment variables: 1af.

'HTML-mode options:'

 -- Option: --css CSS, -c CSS

     The path of a CSS stylesheet to use for the calendar.  This must
     either be relative to the generated HTML, or an absolute HTTP or
     ‘file:///’ URL.


File: python.info,  Node: collections — Container datatypes,  Next: collections abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers,  Prev: calendar — General calendar-related functions,  Up: Data Types

5.9.4 ‘collections’ — Container datatypes
-----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/collections/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements specialized container datatypes providing
alternatives to Python’s general purpose built-in containers, *note
dict: 188, *note list: 4d9, *note set: 42b, and *note tuple: 1ce.

*note namedtuple(): 1cf.  factory function for creating tuple subclasses with named fields
                          
                          
*note deque: 9d6.         list-like container with fast appends and pops on either end
                          
                          
*note ChainMap: fdb.      dict-like class for creating a single view of multiple mappings
                          
                          
*note Counter: 204.       dict subclass for counting *note hashable: 183. objects
                          
                          
*note OrderedDict: 9d5.   dict subclass that remembers the order entries were added
                          
                          
*note defaultdict: 1565.  dict subclass that calls a factory function to supply missing values
                          
                          
*note UserDict: 192d.     wrapper around dictionary objects for easier dict subclassing
                          
                          
*note UserList: 1886.     wrapper around list objects for easier list subclassing
                          
                          
*note UserString: 118c.   wrapper around string objects for easier string subclassing
                          

* Menu:

* ChainMap objects::
* Counter objects::
* deque objects::
* defaultdict objects::
* namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
* OrderedDict objects::
* UserDict objects::
* UserList objects::
* UserString objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/collections/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: ChainMap objects,  Next: Counter objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.9.4.1 ‘ChainMap’ objects
..........................

Added in version 3.3.

A *note ChainMap: fdb. class is provided for quickly linking a number of
mappings so they can be treated as a single unit.  It is often much
faster than creating a new dictionary and running multiple *note
update(): 1807. calls.

The class can be used to simulate nested scopes and is useful in
templating.

 -- Κλάση: collections.ChainMap (*maps)

     A ‘ChainMap’ groups multiple dicts or other mappings together to
     create a single, updateable view.  If no 'maps' are specified, a
     single empty dictionary is provided so that a new chain always has
     at least one mapping.

     The underlying mappings are stored in a list.  That list is public
     and can be accessed or updated using the 'maps' attribute.  There
     is no other state.

     Lookups search the underlying mappings successively until a key is
     found.  In contrast, writes, updates, and deletions only operate on
     the first mapping.

     A ‘ChainMap’ incorporates the underlying mappings by reference.
     So, if one of the underlying mappings gets updated, those changes
     will be reflected in ‘ChainMap’.

     All of the usual dictionary methods are supported.  In addition,
     there is a 'maps' attribute, a method for creating new subcontexts,
     and a property for accessing all but the first mapping:

      -- Ιδιότητα: maps

          A user updateable list of mappings.  The list is ordered from
          first-searched to last-searched.  It is the only stored state
          and can be modified to change which mappings are searched.
          The list should always contain at least one mapping.

      -- Μέθοδος: new_child (m=None, **kwargs)

          Returns a new ‘ChainMap’ containing a new map followed by all
          of the maps in the current instance.  If ‘m’ is specified, it
          becomes the new map at the front of the list of mappings; if
          not specified, an empty dict is used, so that a call to
          ‘d.new_child()’ is equivalent to: ‘ChainMap({}, *d.maps)’.  If
          any keyword arguments are specified, they update passed map or
          new empty dict.  This method is used for creating subcontexts
          that can be updated without altering values in any of the
          parent mappings.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The optional ‘m’ parameter was added.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Keyword arguments support was added.

      -- Ιδιότητα: parents

          Property returning a new ‘ChainMap’ containing all of the maps
          in the current instance except the first one.  This is useful
          for skipping the first map in the search.  Use cases are
          similar to those for the *note nonlocal: 164c. keyword used in
          *note nested scopes: 2581.  The use cases also parallel those
          for the built-in *note super(): 443. function.  A reference to
          ‘d.parents’ is equivalent to: ‘ChainMap(*d.maps[1:])’.

     Note, the iteration order of a ‘ChainMap’ is determined by scanning
     the mappings last to first:

          >>> baseline = {'music': 'bach', 'art': 'rembrandt'}
          >>> adjustments = {'art': 'van gogh', 'opera': 'carmen'}
          >>> list(ChainMap(adjustments, baseline))
          ['music', 'art', 'opera']

     This gives the same ordering as a series of *note dict.update():
     1807. calls starting with the last mapping:

          >>> combined = baseline.copy()
          >>> combined.update(adjustments)
          >>> list(combined)
          ['music', 'art', 'opera']

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added support for ‘|’ and ‘|=’ operators,
     specified in PEP 584(1).

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * The MultiContext class(2) in the Enthought CodeTools package(3) has
     options to support writing to any mapping in the chain.

   * Django’s Context class(4) for templating is a read-only chain of
     mappings.  It also features pushing and popping of contexts similar
     to the *note new_child(): 12d0. method and the *note parents: 2b89.
     property.

   * The Nested Contexts recipe(5) has options to control whether writes
     and other mutations apply only to the first mapping or to any
     mapping in the chain.

   * A greatly simplified read-only version of Chainmap(6).

* Menu:

* ChainMap Examples and Recipes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) 
https://github.com/enthought/codetools/blob/4.0.0/codetools/contexts/multi_context.py

   (3) https://github.com/enthought/codetools

   (4) 
https://github.com/django/django/blob/main/django/template/context.py

   (5) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577434-nested-contexts-a-chain-of-mapping-objects/

   (6) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/305268/


File: python.info,  Node: ChainMap Examples and Recipes,  Up: ChainMap objects

5.9.4.2 ‘ChainMap’ Examples and Recipes
.......................................

This section shows various approaches to working with chained maps.

Example of simulating Python’s internal lookup chain:

     import builtins
     pylookup = ChainMap(locals(), globals(), vars(builtins))

Example of letting user specified command-line arguments take precedence
over environment variables which in turn take precedence over default
values:

     import os, argparse

     defaults = {'color': 'red', 'user': 'guest'}

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('-u', '--user')
     parser.add_argument('-c', '--color')
     namespace = parser.parse_args()
     command_line_args = {k: v for k, v in vars(namespace).items() if v is not None}

     combined = ChainMap(command_line_args, os.environ, defaults)
     print(combined['color'])
     print(combined['user'])

Example patterns for using the *note ChainMap: fdb. class to simulate
nested contexts:

     c = ChainMap()        # Create root context
     d = c.new_child()     # Create nested child context
     e = c.new_child()     # Child of c, independent from d
     e.maps[0]             # Current context dictionary -- like Python's locals()
     e.maps[-1]            # Root context -- like Python's globals()
     e.parents             # Enclosing context chain -- like Python's nonlocals

     d['x'] = 1            # Set value in current context
     d['x']                # Get first key in the chain of contexts
     del d['x']            # Delete from current context
     list(d)               # All nested values
     k in d                # Check all nested values
     len(d)                # Number of nested values
     d.items()             # All nested items
     dict(d)               # Flatten into a regular dictionary

The *note ChainMap: fdb. class only makes updates (writes and deletions)
to the first mapping in the chain while lookups will search the full
chain.  However, if deep writes and deletions are desired, it is easy to
make a subclass that updates keys found deeper in the chain:

     class DeepChainMap(ChainMap):
         'Variant of ChainMap that allows direct updates to inner scopes'

         def __setitem__(self, key, value):
             for mapping in self.maps:
                 if key in mapping:
                     mapping[key] = value
                     return
             self.maps[0][key] = value

         def __delitem__(self, key):
             for mapping in self.maps:
                 if key in mapping:
                     del mapping[key]
                     return
             raise KeyError(key)

     >>> d = DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black'}, {'elephant': 'blue'}, {'lion': 'yellow'})
     >>> d['lion'] = 'orange'         # update an existing key two levels down
     >>> d['snake'] = 'red'           # new keys get added to the topmost dict
     >>> del d['elephant']            # remove an existing key one level down
     >>> d                            # display result
     DeepChainMap({'zebra': 'black', 'snake': 'red'}, {}, {'lion': 'orange'})


File: python.info,  Node: Counter objects,  Next: deque objects,  Prev: ChainMap objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.9.4.3 ‘Counter’ objects
.........................

A counter tool is provided to support convenient and rapid tallies.  For
example:

     >>> # Tally occurrences of words in a list
     >>> cnt = Counter()
     >>> for word in ['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue']:
     ...     cnt[word] += 1
     ...
     >>> cnt
     Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1})

     >>> # Find the ten most common words in Hamlet
     >>> import re
     >>> words = re.findall(r'\w+', open('hamlet.txt').read().lower())
     >>> Counter(words).most_common(10)
     [('the', 1143), ('and', 966), ('to', 762), ('of', 669), ('i', 631),
      ('you', 554),  ('a', 546), ('my', 514), ('hamlet', 471), ('in', 451)]

 -- Κλάση: collections.Counter (**kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: collections.Counter (iterable, /, **kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: collections.Counter (mapping, /, **kwargs)

     A ‘Counter’ is a *note dict: 188. subclass for counting *note
     hashable: 183. objects.  It is a collection where elements are
     stored as dictionary keys and their counts are stored as dictionary
     values.  Counts are allowed to be any integer value including zero
     or negative counts.  The ‘Counter’ class is similar to bags or
     multisets in other languages.

     Elements are counted from an 'iterable' or initialized from another
     'mapping' (or counter):

          >>> c = Counter()                           # a new, empty counter
          >>> c = Counter('gallahad')                 # a new counter from an iterable
          >>> c = Counter({'red': 4, 'blue': 2})      # a new counter from a mapping
          >>> c = Counter(cats=4, dogs=8)             # a new counter from keyword args

     Counter objects have a dictionary interface except that they return
     a zero count for missing items instead of raising a *note KeyError:
     7df.:

          >>> c = Counter(['eggs', 'ham'])
          >>> c['bacon']                              # count of a missing element is zero
          0

     Setting a count to zero does not remove an element from a counter.
     Use ‘del’ to remove it entirely:

          >>> c['sausage'] = 0                        # counter entry with a zero count
          >>> del c['sausage']                        # del actually removes the entry

     Added in version 3.1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: As a *note dict: 188. subclass, ‘Counter’
     inherited the capability to remember insertion order.  Math
     operations on 'Counter' objects also preserve order.  Results are
     ordered according to when an element is first encountered in the
     left operand and then by the order encountered in the right
     operand.

     Counter objects support additional methods beyond those available
     for all dictionaries:

      -- Μέθοδος: elements ()

          Return an iterator over elements repeating each as many times
          as its count.  Elements are returned in the order first
          encountered.  If an element’s count is less than one,
          ‘elements()’ will ignore it.

               >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
               >>> sorted(c.elements())
               ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b']

      -- Μέθοδος: most_common (n=None)

          Return a list of the 'n' most common elements and their counts
          from the most common to the least.  If 'n' is omitted or
          ‘None’, ‘most_common()’ returns 'all' elements in the counter.
          Elements with equal counts are ordered in the order first
          encountered:

               >>> Counter('abracadabra').most_common(3)
               [('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('r', 2)]

      -- Μέθοδος: subtract (**kwargs)

      -- Μέθοδος: subtract (iterable, /, **kwargs)

      -- Μέθοδος: subtract (mapping, /, **kwargs)

          Elements are subtracted from an 'iterable' or from another
          'mapping' (or counter).  Like *note dict.update(): 1807. but
          subtracts counts instead of replacing them.  Both inputs and
          outputs may be zero or negative.

               >>> c = Counter(a=4, b=2, c=0, d=-2)
               >>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2, c=3, d=4)
               >>> c.subtract(d)
               >>> c
               Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 0, 'c': -3, 'd': -6})

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: total ()

          Compute the sum of the counts.

               >>> c = Counter(a=10, b=5, c=0)
               >>> c.total()
               15

          Added in version 3.10.

     The usual dictionary methods are available for ‘Counter’ objects
     except for these two which work differently for counters:

      -- Μέθοδος: fromkeys (iterable)

          This class method is not implemented for ‘Counter’ objects.

      -- Μέθοδος: update (**kwargs)

      -- Μέθοδος: update (iterable, /, **kwargs)

      -- Μέθοδος: update (mapping, /, **kwargs)

          Elements are counted from an 'iterable' or added-in from
          another 'mapping' (or counter).  Like *note dict.update():
          1807. but adds counts instead of replacing them.  Also, the
          'iterable' is expected to be a sequence of elements, not a
          sequence of ‘(key, value)’ pairs.

Counters support rich comparison operators for equality, subset, and
superset relationships: ‘==’, ‘!=’, ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’.  All of those
tests treat missing elements as having zero counts so that ‘Counter(a=1)
== Counter(a=1, b=0)’ returns true.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Rich comparison operations were added.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: In equality tests, missing elements are treated
as having zero counts.  Formerly, ‘Counter(a=3)’ and ‘Counter(a=3, b=0)’
were considered distinct.

Common patterns for working with *note Counter: 204. objects:

     c.total()                       # total of all counts
     c.clear()                       # reset all counts
     list(c)                         # list unique elements
     set(c)                          # convert to a set
     dict(c)                         # convert to a regular dictionary
     c.items()                       # access the (elem, cnt) pairs
     Counter(dict(list_of_pairs))    # convert from a list of (elem, cnt) pairs
     c.most_common()[:-n-1:-1]       # n least common elements
     +c                              # remove zero and negative counts

Several mathematical operations are provided for combining *note
Counter: 204. objects to produce multisets (counters that have counts
greater than zero).  Addition and subtraction combine counters by adding
or subtracting the counts of corresponding elements.  Intersection and
union return the minimum and maximum of corresponding counts.  Symmetric
difference returns the difference between the maximum and minimum of the
corresponding counts.  Equality and inclusion compare corresponding
counts.  Each operation can accept inputs with signed counts, but the
output will exclude results with counts of zero or below.

     >>> c = Counter(a=3, b=1)
     >>> d = Counter(a=1, b=2)
     >>> c + d                       # add two counters together:  c[x] + d[x]
     Counter({'a': 4, 'b': 3})
     >>> c - d                       # subtract (keeping only positive counts)
     Counter({'a': 2})
     >>> c & d                       # intersection:  min(c[x], d[x])
     Counter({'a': 1, 'b': 1})
     >>> c | d                       # union:  max(c[x], d[x])
     Counter({'a': 3, 'b': 2})
     >>> c ^ d                       # max(c[x], d[x]) - min(c[x], d[x])
     Counter({'a': 2, 'b': 1})
     >>> c == d                      # equality:  c[x] == d[x]
     False
     >>> c <= d                      # inclusion:  c[x] <= d[x]
     False

Unary addition and subtraction are shortcuts for adding an empty counter
or subtracting from an empty counter.

     >>> c = Counter(a=2, b=-4)
     >>> +c
     Counter({'a': 2})
     >>> -c
     Counter({'b': 4})

Added in version 3.3: Added support for unary plus, unary minus, and
in-place multiset operations.

Added in version 3.15: Added support for the symmetric difference
multiset operation, ‘c ^ d’.

     Σημείωση: Counters were primarily designed to work with positive
     integers to represent running counts; however, care was taken to
     not unnecessarily preclude use cases needing other types or
     negative values.  To help with those use cases, this section
     documents the minimum range and type restrictions.

        * The *note Counter: 204. class itself is a dictionary subclass
          with no restrictions on its keys and values.  The values are
          intended to be numbers representing counts, but you 'could'
          store anything in the value field.

        * The *note most_common(): 16a7. method requires only that the
          values be orderable.

        * For in-place operations such as ‘c[key] += 1’, the value type
          need only support addition and subtraction.  So fractions,
          floats, and decimals would work and negative values are
          supported.  The same is also true for *note update(): 197f.
          and *note subtract(): 1587. which allow negative and zero
          values for both inputs and outputs.

        * The multiset methods are designed only for use cases with
          positive values.  The inputs may be negative or zero, but only
          outputs with positive values are created.  There are no type
          restrictions, but the value type needs to support addition,
          subtraction, and comparison.

        * The *note elements(): 16a8. method requires integer counts.
          It ignores zero and negative counts.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * Bag class(1) in Smalltalk.

   * Wikipedia entry for Multisets(2).

   * C++ multisets(3) tutorial with examples.

   * For mathematical operations on multisets and their use cases, see
     'Knuth, Donald.  The Art of Computer Programming Volume II, Section
     4.6.3, Exercise 19'.

   * To enumerate all distinct multisets of a given size over a given
     set of elements, see *note
     itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 1626.:

          map(Counter, combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2)) # --> AA AB AC BB BC CC

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/manual-base/html_node/Bag.html

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset

   (3) 
http://www.java2s.com/Tutorial/Cpp/0380__set-multiset/Catalog0380__set-multiset.htm


File: python.info,  Node: deque objects,  Next: defaultdict objects,  Prev: Counter objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.9.4.4 ‘deque’ objects
.......................

 -- Κλάση: collections.deque ([iterable[, maxlen]])

     Returns a new deque object initialized left-to-right (using *note
     append(): 2b8f.) with data from 'iterable'.  If 'iterable' is not
     specified, the new deque is empty.

     Deques are a generalization of stacks and queues (the name is
     pronounced «deck» and is short for «double-ended queue»).  Deques
     support thread-safe, memory efficient appends and pops from either
     side of the deque with approximately the same 'O'(1) performance in
     either direction.

     Though *note list: 4d9. objects support similar operations, they
     are optimized for fast fixed-length operations and incur 'O'('n')
     memory movement costs for ‘pop(0)’ and ‘insert(0, v)’ operations
     which change both the size and position of the underlying data
     representation.

     If 'maxlen' is not specified or is ‘None’, deques may grow to an
     arbitrary length.  Otherwise, the deque is bounded to the specified
     maximum length.  Once a bounded length deque is full, when new
     items are added, a corresponding number of items are discarded from
     the opposite end.  Bounded length deques provide functionality
     similar to the ‘tail’ filter in Unix.  They are also useful for
     tracking transactions and other pools of data where only the most
     recent activity is of interest.

     Deque objects support the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: append (item, /)

          Add 'item' to the right side of the deque.

      -- Μέθοδος: appendleft (item, /)

          Add 'item' to the left side of the deque.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear ()

          Remove all elements from the deque leaving it with length 0.

      -- Μέθοδος: copy ()

          Create a shallow copy of the deque.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Μέθοδος: count (value, /)

          Count the number of deque elements equal to 'value'.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: extend (iterable, /)

          Extend the right side of the deque by appending elements from
          the iterable argument.

      -- Μέθοδος: extendleft (iterable, /)

          Extend the left side of the deque by appending elements from
          'iterable'.  Note, the series of left appends results in
          reversing the order of elements in the iterable argument.

      -- Μέθοδος: index (value[, start[, stop]])

          Return the position of 'value' in the deque (at or after index
          'start' and before index 'stop').  Returns the first match or
          raises *note ValueError: 277. if not found.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Μέθοδος: insert (index, value, /)

          Insert 'value' into the deque at position 'index'.

          If the insertion would cause a bounded deque to grow beyond
          'maxlen', an *note IndexError: 18d7. is raised.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Μέθοδος: pop ()

          Remove and return an element from the right side of the deque.
          If no elements are present, raises an *note IndexError: 18d7.

      -- Μέθοδος: popleft ()

          Remove and return an element from the left side of the deque.
          If no elements are present, raises an *note IndexError: 18d7.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove (value, /)

          Remove the first occurrence of 'value'.  If not found, raises
          a *note ValueError: 277.

      -- Μέθοδος: reverse ()

          Reverse the elements of the deque in-place and then return
          ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: rotate (n=1, /)

          Rotate the deque 'n' steps to the right.  If 'n' is negative,
          rotate to the left.

          When the deque is not empty, rotating one step to the right is
          equivalent to ‘d.appendleft(d.pop())’, and rotating one step
          to the left is equivalent to ‘d.append(d.popleft())’.

     Deque objects also provide one read-only attribute:

      -- Ιδιότητα: maxlen

          Maximum size of a deque or ‘None’ if unbounded.

          Added in version 3.1.

In addition to the above, deques support iteration, pickling, ‘len(d)’,
‘reversed(d)’, ‘copy.copy(d)’, ‘copy.deepcopy(d)’, membership testing
with the *note in: 323. operator, and subscript references such as
‘d[0]’ to access the first element.  Indexed access is 'O'(1) at both
ends but slows to 'O'('n') in the middle.  For fast random access, use
lists instead.

Starting in version 3.5, deques support ‘__add__()’, ‘__mul__()’, and
‘__imul__()’.

Example:

     >>> from collections import deque
     >>> d = deque('ghi')                 # make a new deque with three items
     >>> for elem in d:                   # iterate over the deque's elements
     ...     print(elem.upper())
     G
     H
     I

     >>> d.append('j')                    # add a new entry to the right side
     >>> d.appendleft('f')                # add a new entry to the left side
     >>> d                                # show the representation of the deque
     deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'])

     >>> d.pop()                          # return and remove the rightmost item
     'j'
     >>> d.popleft()                      # return and remove the leftmost item
     'f'
     >>> list(d)                          # list the contents of the deque
     ['g', 'h', 'i']
     >>> d[0]                             # peek at leftmost item
     'g'
     >>> d[-1]                            # peek at rightmost item
     'i'

     >>> list(reversed(d))                # list the contents of a deque in reverse
     ['i', 'h', 'g']
     >>> 'h' in d                         # search the deque
     True
     >>> d.extend('jkl')                  # add multiple elements at once
     >>> d
     deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])
     >>> d.rotate(1)                      # right rotation
     >>> d
     deque(['l', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k'])
     >>> d.rotate(-1)                     # left rotation
     >>> d
     deque(['g', 'h', 'i', 'j', 'k', 'l'])

     >>> deque(reversed(d))               # make a new deque in reverse order
     deque(['l', 'k', 'j', 'i', 'h', 'g'])
     >>> d.clear()                        # empty the deque
     >>> d.pop()                          # cannot pop from an empty deque
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         File "<pyshell#6>", line 1, in -toplevel-
             d.pop()
     IndexError: pop from an empty deque

     >>> d.extendleft('abc')              # extendleft() reverses the input order
     >>> d
     deque(['c', 'b', 'a'])

* Menu:

* deque Recipes::


File: python.info,  Node: deque Recipes,  Up: deque objects

5.9.4.5 ‘deque’ Recipes
.......................

This section shows various approaches to working with deques.

Bounded length deques provide functionality similar to the ‘tail’ filter
in Unix:

     def tail(filename, n=10):
         'Return the last n lines of a file'
         with open(filename) as f:
             return deque(f, n)

Another approach to using deques is to maintain a sequence of recently
added elements by appending to the right and popping to the left:

     def moving_average(iterable, n=3):
         # moving_average([40, 30, 50, 46, 39, 44]) --> 40.0 42.0 45.0 43.0
         # https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_average
         it = iter(iterable)
         d = deque(itertools.islice(it, n-1))
         d.appendleft(0)
         s = sum(d)
         for elem in it:
             s += elem - d.popleft()
             d.append(elem)
             yield s / n

A round-robin scheduler(1) can be implemented with input iterators
stored in a *note deque: 9d6.  Values are yielded from the active
iterator in position zero.  If that iterator is exhausted, it can be
removed with *note popleft(): 2b95.; otherwise, it can be cycled back to
the end with the *note rotate(): 1e86. method:

     def roundrobin(*iterables):
         "roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') --> A D E B F C"
         iterators = deque(map(iter, iterables))
         while iterators:
             try:
                 while True:
                     yield next(iterators[0])
                     iterators.rotate(-1)
             except StopIteration:
                 # Remove an exhausted iterator.
                 iterators.popleft()

The *note rotate(): 1e86. method provides a way to implement *note
deque: 9d6. slicing and deletion.  For example, a pure Python
implementation of ‘del d[n]’ relies on the ‘rotate()’ method to position
elements to be popped:

     def delete_nth(d, n):
         d.rotate(-n)
         d.popleft()
         d.rotate(n)

To implement *note deque: 9d6. slicing, use a similar approach applying
*note rotate(): 1e86. to bring a target element to the left side of the
deque.  Remove old entries with *note popleft(): 2b95, add new entries
with *note extend(): 2b92, and then reverse the rotation.  With minor
variations on that approach, it is easy to implement Forth style stack
manipulations such as ‘dup’, ‘drop’, ‘swap’, ‘over’, ‘pick’, ‘rot’, and
‘roll’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robin_scheduling


File: python.info,  Node: defaultdict objects,  Next: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields,  Prev: deque objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.9.4.6 ‘defaultdict’ objects
.............................

 -- Κλάση: collections.defaultdict (default_factory=None, /, **kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: collections.defaultdict (default_factory, mapping, /,
          **kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: collections.defaultdict (default_factory, iterable, /,
          **kwargs)

     Return a new dictionary-like object.  ‘defaultdict’ is a subclass
     of the built-in *note dict: 188. class.  It overrides one method
     and adds one writable instance variable.  The remaining
     functionality is the same as for the ‘dict’ class and is not
     documented here.

     The first argument provides the initial value for the *note
     default_factory: 2b98. attribute; it defaults to ‘None’.  All
     remaining arguments are treated the same as if they were passed to
     the *note dict: 188. constructor, including keyword arguments.

     ‘defaultdict’ objects support the following method in addition to
     the standard *note dict: 188. operations:

      -- Μέθοδος: __missing__ (key, /)

          If the *note default_factory: 2b98. attribute is ‘None’, this
          raises a *note KeyError: 7df. exception with the 'key' as
          argument.

          If *note default_factory: 2b98. is not ‘None’, it is called
          without arguments to provide a default value for the given
          'key', this value is inserted in the dictionary for the 'key',
          and returned.

          If calling *note default_factory: 2b98. raises an exception
          this exception is propagated unchanged.

          This method is called by the *note __getitem__(): 787. method
          of the *note dict: 188. class when the requested key is not
          found; whatever it returns or raises is then returned or
          raised by ‘__getitem__()’.

          Note that ‘__missing__()’ is 'not' called for any operations
          besides *note __getitem__(): 787.  This means that *note
          get(): 2223. will, like normal dictionaries, return ‘None’ as
          a default rather than using *note default_factory: 2b98.

     ‘defaultdict’ objects support the following instance variable:

      -- Ιδιότητα: default_factory

          This attribute is used by the *note __missing__(): 2b99.
          method; it is initialized from the first argument to the
          constructor, if present, or to ‘None’, if absent.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added merge (‘|’) and update (‘|=’)
     operators, specified in PEP 584(1).

* Menu:

* defaultdict Examples::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: defaultdict Examples,  Up: defaultdict objects

5.9.4.7 ‘defaultdict’ Examples
..............................

Using *note list: 4d9. as the *note default_factory: 2b98, it is easy to
group a sequence of key-value pairs into a dictionary of lists:

     >>> s = [('yellow', 1), ('blue', 2), ('yellow', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1)]
     >>> d = defaultdict(list)
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d[k].append(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

When each key is encountered for the first time, it is not already in
the mapping; so an entry is automatically created using the *note
default_factory: 2b98. function which returns an empty *note list: 4d9.
The *note list.append(): aba. operation then attaches the value to the
new list.  When keys are encountered again, the look-up proceeds
normally (returning the list for that key) and the ‘list.append()’
operation adds another value to the list.  This technique is simpler and
faster than an equivalent technique using *note dict.setdefault():
1421.:

     >>> d = {}
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d.setdefault(k, []).append(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', [2, 4]), ('red', [1]), ('yellow', [1, 3])]

Setting the *note default_factory: 2b98. to *note int: 326. makes the
*note defaultdict: 1565. useful for counting (like a bag or multiset in
other languages):

     >>> s = 'mississippi'
     >>> d = defaultdict(int)
     >>> for k in s:
     ...     d[k] += 1
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('i', 4), ('m', 1), ('p', 2), ('s', 4)]

When a letter is first encountered, it is missing from the mapping, so
the *note default_factory: 2b98. function calls *note int(): 326. to
supply a default count of zero.  The increment operation then builds up
the count for each letter.

The function *note int(): 326. which always returns zero is just a
special case of constant functions.  A faster and more flexible way to
create constant functions is to use a lambda function which can supply
any constant value (not just zero):

     >>> def constant_factory(value):
     ...     return lambda: value
     ...
     >>> d = defaultdict(constant_factory('<missing>'))
     >>> d.update(name='John', action='ran')
     >>> '%(name)s %(action)s to %(object)s' % d
     'John ran to <missing>'

Setting the *note default_factory: 2b98. to *note set: 42b. makes the
*note defaultdict: 1565. useful for building a dictionary of sets:

     >>> s = [('red', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 3), ('blue', 4), ('red', 1), ('blue', 4)]
     >>> d = defaultdict(set)
     >>> for k, v in s:
     ...     d[k].add(v)
     ...
     >>> sorted(d.items())
     [('blue', {2, 4}), ('red', {1, 3})]


File: python.info,  Node: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields,  Next: OrderedDict objects,  Prev: defaultdict objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.9.4.8 ‘namedtuple()’ Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields
....................................................................

Named tuples assign meaning to each position in a tuple and allow for
more readable, self-documenting code.  They can be used wherever regular
tuples are used, and they add the ability to access fields by name
instead of position index.

 -- Συνάρτηση: collections.namedtuple (typename, field_names, *,
          rename=False, defaults=None, module=None)

     Returns a new tuple subclass named 'typename'.  The new subclass is
     used to create tuple-like objects that have fields accessible by
     attribute lookup as well as being indexable and iterable.
     Instances of the subclass also have a helpful docstring (with
     'typename' and 'field_names') and a helpful *note __repr__(): 1bc.
     method which lists the tuple contents in a ‘name=value’ format.

     The 'field_names' are a sequence of strings such as ‘['x', 'y']’.
     Alternatively, 'field_names' can be a single string with each
     fieldname separated by whitespace and/or commas, for example ‘'x
     y'’ or ‘'x, y'’.

     Any valid Python identifier may be used for a fieldname except for
     names starting with an underscore.  Valid identifiers consist of
     letters, digits, and underscores but do not start with a digit or
     underscore and cannot be a *note keyword: 87. such as 'class',
     'for', 'return', 'global', 'pass', or 'raise'.

     If 'rename' is true, invalid fieldnames are automatically replaced
     with positional names.  For example, ‘['abc', 'def', 'ghi', 'abc']’
     is converted to ‘['abc', '_1', 'ghi', '_3']’, eliminating the
     keyword ‘def’ and the duplicate fieldname ‘abc’.

     'defaults' can be ‘None’ or an *note iterable: 15ce. of default
     values.  Since fields with a default value must come after any
     fields without a default, the 'defaults' are applied to the
     rightmost parameters.  For example, if the fieldnames are ‘['x',
     'y', 'z']’ and the defaults are ‘(1, 2)’, then ‘x’ will be a
     required argument, ‘y’ will default to ‘1’, and ‘z’ will default to
     ‘2’.

     If 'module' is defined, the *note __module__: 80b. attribute of the
     named tuple is set to that value.

     Named tuple instances do not have per-instance dictionaries, so
     they are lightweight and require no more memory than regular
     tuples.

     To support pickling, the named tuple class should be assigned to a
     variable that matches 'typename'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added support for 'rename'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The 'verbose' and 'rename' parameters
     became *note keyword-only arguments: 7a3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the 'module' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Removed the 'verbose' parameter and the
     ‘_source’ attribute.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'defaults' parameter and the
     *note _field_defaults: 2b9c. attribute.

     >>> # Basic example
     >>> Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])
     >>> p = Point(11, y=22)     # instantiate with positional or keyword arguments
     >>> p[0] + p[1]             # indexable like the plain tuple (11, 22)
     33
     >>> x, y = p                # unpack like a regular tuple
     >>> x, y
     (11, 22)
     >>> p.x + p.y               # fields also accessible by name
     33
     >>> p                       # readable __repr__ with a name=value style
     Point(x=11, y=22)

Named tuples are especially useful for assigning field names to result
tuples returned by the *note csv: 2c. or *note sqlite3: d7. modules:

     EmployeeRecord = namedtuple('EmployeeRecord', 'name, age, title, department, paygrade')

     import csv
     for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, csv.reader(open("employees.csv", "rb"))):
         print(emp.name, emp.title)

     import sqlite3
     conn = sqlite3.connect('/companydata')
     cursor = conn.cursor()
     cursor.execute('SELECT name, age, title, department, paygrade FROM employees')
     for emp in map(EmployeeRecord._make, cursor.fetchall()):
         print(emp.name, emp.title)

In addition to the methods inherited from tuples, named tuples support
three additional methods and two attributes.  To prevent conflicts with
field names, the method and attribute names start with an underscore.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod somenamedtuple._make (iterable, /)

     Class method that makes a new instance from an existing sequence or
     iterable.

          >>> t = [11, 22]
          >>> Point._make(t)
          Point(x=11, y=22)

 -- Μέθοδος: somenamedtuple._asdict ()

     Return a new *note dict: 188. which maps field names to their
     corresponding values:

          >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
          >>> p._asdict()
          {'x': 11, 'y': 22}

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Returns an *note OrderedDict: 9d5. instead
     of a regular *note dict: 188.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Returns a regular *note dict: 188. instead
     of an *note OrderedDict: 9d5.  As of Python 3.7, regular dicts are
     guaranteed to be ordered.  If the extra features of ‘OrderedDict’
     are required, the suggested remediation is to cast the result to
     the desired type: ‘OrderedDict(nt._asdict())’.

 -- Μέθοδος: somenamedtuple._replace (**kwargs)

     Return a new instance of the named tuple replacing specified fields
     with new values:

          >>> p = Point(x=11, y=22)
          >>> p._replace(x=33)
          Point(x=33, y=22)

          >>> for partnum, record in inventory.items():
          ...     inventory[partnum] = record._replace(price=newprices[partnum], timestamp=time.now())

     Named tuples are also supported by generic function *note
     copy.replace(): 45a.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Raise *note TypeError: 291. instead of
     *note ValueError: 277. for invalid keyword arguments.

 -- Ιδιότητα: somenamedtuple._fields

     Tuple of strings listing the field names.  Useful for introspection
     and for creating new named tuple types from existing named tuples.

          >>> p._fields            # view the field names
          ('x', 'y')

          >>> Color = namedtuple('Color', 'red green blue')
          >>> Pixel = namedtuple('Pixel', Point._fields + Color._fields)
          >>> Pixel(11, 22, 128, 255, 0)
          Pixel(x=11, y=22, red=128, green=255, blue=0)

 -- Ιδιότητα: somenamedtuple._field_defaults

     Dictionary mapping field names to default values.

          >>> Account = namedtuple('Account', ['type', 'balance'], defaults=[0])
          >>> Account._field_defaults
          {'balance': 0}
          >>> Account('premium')
          Account(type='premium', balance=0)

To retrieve a field whose name is stored in a string, use the *note
getattr(): f8f. function:

     >>> getattr(p, 'x')
     11

To convert a dictionary to a named tuple, use the double-star-operator
(as described in *note Unpacking Λίστες Ορισμάτων: 21ff.):

     >>> d = {'x': 11, 'y': 22}
     >>> Point(**d)
     Point(x=11, y=22)

Since a named tuple is a regular Python class, it is easy to add or
change functionality with a subclass.  Here is how to add a calculated
field and a fixed-width print format:

     >>> class Point(namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y'])):
     ...     __slots__ = ()
     ...     @property
     ...     def hypot(self):
     ...         return (self.x ** 2 + self.y ** 2) ** 0.5
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'Point: x=%6.3f  y=%6.3f  hypot=%6.3f' % (self.x, self.y, self.hypot)

     >>> for p in Point(3, 4), Point(14, 5/7):
     ...     print(p)
     Point: x= 3.000  y= 4.000  hypot= 5.000
     Point: x=14.000  y= 0.714  hypot=14.018

The subclass shown above sets ‘__slots__’ to an empty tuple.  This helps
keep memory requirements low by preventing the creation of instance
dictionaries.

Subclassing is not useful for adding new, stored fields.  Instead,
simply create a new named tuple type from the *note _fields: 2b9f.
attribute:

     >>> Point3D = namedtuple('Point3D', Point._fields + ('z',))

Docstrings can be customized by making direct assignments to the
‘__doc__’ fields:

     >>> Book = namedtuple('Book', ['id', 'title', 'authors'])
     >>> Book.__doc__ += ': Hardcover book in active collection'
     >>> Book.id.__doc__ = '13-digit ISBN'
     >>> Book.title.__doc__ = 'Title of first printing'
     >>> Book.authors.__doc__ = 'List of authors sorted by last name'

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Property docstrings became writeable.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * See *note typing.NamedTuple: 2e4. for a way to add type hints for
     named tuples.  It also provides an elegant notation using the *note
     class: 167c. keyword:

          class Component(NamedTuple):
              part_number: int
              weight: float
              description: Optional[str] = None

   * See *note types.SimpleNamespace(): 6ea. for a mutable namespace
     based on an underlying dictionary instead of a tuple.

   * The *note dataclasses: 32. module provides a decorator and
     functions for automatically adding generated special methods to
     user-defined classes.


File: python.info,  Node: OrderedDict objects,  Next: UserDict objects,  Prev: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.9.4.9 ‘OrderedDict’ objects
.............................

Ordered dictionaries are just like regular dictionaries but have some
extra capabilities relating to ordering operations.  They have become
less important now that the built-in *note dict: 188. class gained the
ability to remember insertion order (this new behavior became guaranteed
in Python 3.7).

Some differences from *note dict: 188. still remain:

   * The regular *note dict: 188. was designed to be very good at
     mapping operations.  Tracking insertion order was secondary.

   * The *note OrderedDict: 9d5. was designed to be good at reordering
     operations.  Space efficiency, iteration speed, and the performance
     of update operations were secondary.

   * The *note OrderedDict: 9d5. algorithm can handle frequent
     reordering operations better than *note dict: 188.  As shown in the
     recipes below, this makes it suitable for implementing various
     kinds of LRU caches.

   * The equality operation for *note OrderedDict: 9d5. checks for
     matching order.

     A regular *note dict: 188. can emulate the order sensitive equality
     test with ‘p == q and all(k1 == k2 for k1, k2 in zip(p, q))’.

   * The *note popitem(): 1692. method of *note OrderedDict: 9d5. has a
     different signature.  It accepts an optional argument to specify
     which item is popped.

     A regular *note dict: 188. can emulate OrderedDict’s
     ‘od.popitem(last=True)’ with ‘d.popitem()’ which is guaranteed to
     pop the rightmost (last) item.

     A regular *note dict: 188. can emulate OrderedDict’s
     ‘od.popitem(last=False)’ with ‘(k := next(iter(d)), d.pop(k))’
     which will return and remove the leftmost (first) item if it
     exists.

   * *note OrderedDict: 9d5. has a *note move_to_end(): 1588. method to
     efficiently reposition an element to an endpoint.

     A regular *note dict: 188. can emulate OrderedDict’s
     ‘od.move_to_end(k, last=True)’ with ‘d[k] = d.pop(k)’ which will
     move the key and its associated value to the rightmost (last)
     position.

     A regular *note dict: 188. does not have an efficient equivalent
     for OrderedDict’s ‘od.move_to_end(k, last=False)’ which moves the
     key and its associated value to the leftmost (first) position.

   * Until Python 3.8, *note dict: 188. lacked a *note __reversed__():
     1049. method.

 -- Κλάση: collections.OrderedDict (**kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: collections.OrderedDict (mapping, /, **kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: collections.OrderedDict (iterable, /, **kwargs)

     Return an instance of a *note dict: 188. subclass that has methods
     specialized for rearranging dictionary order.

     Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: popitem (last=True)

          The ‘popitem()’ method for ordered dictionaries returns and
          removes a (key, value) pair.  The pairs are returned in LIFO
          order if 'last' is true or FIFO (first-in, first-out) order if
          false.

      -- Μέθοδος: move_to_end (key, last=True)

          Move an existing 'key' to either end of an ordered dictionary.
          The item is moved to the right end if 'last' is true (the
          default) or to the beginning if 'last' is false.  Raises *note
          KeyError: 7df. if the 'key' does not exist:

               >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys('abcde')
               >>> d.move_to_end('b')
               >>> ''.join(d)
               'acdeb'
               >>> d.move_to_end('b', last=False)
               >>> ''.join(d)
               'bacde'

          Added in version 3.2.

In addition to the usual mapping methods, ordered dictionaries also
support reverse iteration using *note reversed(): c3c.  Equality tests
between *note OrderedDict: 9d5. objects are order-sensitive and are
roughly equivalent to ‘list(od1.items())==list(od2.items())’.

Equality tests between *note OrderedDict: 9d5. objects and other *note
Mapping: c9c. objects are order-insensitive like regular dictionaries.
This allows ‘OrderedDict’ objects to be substituted anywhere a regular
dictionary is used.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The items, keys, and values *note views: 2ba1.
of *note OrderedDict: 9d5. now support reverse iteration using *note
reversed(): c3c.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: With the acceptance of PEP 468(1), order is
retained for keyword arguments passed to the *note OrderedDict: 9d5.
constructor and its *note update(): 1807. method.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added merge (‘|’) and update (‘|=’) operators,
specified in PEP 584(2).

* Menu:

* OrderedDict Examples and Recipes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: OrderedDict Examples and Recipes,  Up: OrderedDict objects

5.9.4.10 ‘OrderedDict’ Examples and Recipes
...........................................

It is straightforward to create an ordered dictionary variant that
remembers the order the keys were 'last' inserted.  If a new entry
overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion position is changed
and moved to the end:

     class LastUpdatedOrderedDict(OrderedDict):
         'Store items in the order that the keys were last updated.'

         def __setitem__(self, key, value):
             super().__setitem__(key, value)
             self.move_to_end(key)

An *note OrderedDict: 9d5. would also be useful for implementing
variants of *note functools.lru_cache(): db3.:

     from collections import OrderedDict
     from time import time

     class TimeBoundedLRU:
         "LRU Cache that invalidates and refreshes old entries."

         def __init__(self, func, maxsize=128, maxage=30):
             self.cache = OrderedDict()      # { args : (timestamp, result)}
             self.func = func
             self.maxsize = maxsize
             self.maxage = maxage

         def __call__(self, *args):
             if args in self.cache:
                 self.cache.move_to_end(args)
                 timestamp, result = self.cache[args]
                 if time() - timestamp <= self.maxage:
                     return result
             result = self.func(*args)
             self.cache[args] = time(), result
             if len(self.cache) > self.maxsize:
                 self.cache.popitem(last=False)
             return result

     class MultiHitLRUCache:
         """ LRU cache that defers caching a result until
             it has been requested multiple times.

             To avoid flushing the LRU cache with one-time requests,
             we don't cache until a request has been made more than once.

         """

         def __init__(self, func, maxsize=128, maxrequests=4096, cache_after=1):
             self.requests = OrderedDict()   # { uncached_key : request_count }
             self.cache = OrderedDict()      # { cached_key : function_result }
             self.func = func
             self.maxrequests = maxrequests  # max number of uncached requests
             self.maxsize = maxsize          # max number of stored return values
             self.cache_after = cache_after

         def __call__(self, *args):
             if args in self.cache:
                 self.cache.move_to_end(args)
                 return self.cache[args]
             result = self.func(*args)
             self.requests[args] = self.requests.get(args, 0) + 1
             if self.requests[args] <= self.cache_after:
                 self.requests.move_to_end(args)
                 if len(self.requests) > self.maxrequests:
                     self.requests.popitem(last=False)
             else:
                 self.requests.pop(args, None)
                 self.cache[args] = result
                 if len(self.cache) > self.maxsize:
                     self.cache.popitem(last=False)
             return result


File: python.info,  Node: UserDict objects,  Next: UserList objects,  Prev: OrderedDict objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.9.4.11 ‘UserDict’ objects
...........................

The class, *note UserDict: 192d. acts as a wrapper around dictionary
objects.  The need for this class has been partially supplanted by the
ability to subclass directly from *note dict: 188.; however, this class
can be easier to work with because the underlying dictionary is
accessible as an attribute.

 -- Κλάση: collections.UserDict (**kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: collections.UserDict (mapping, /, **kwargs)

 -- Κλάση: collections.UserDict (iterable, /, **kwargs)

     Class that simulates a dictionary.  The instance’s contents are
     kept in a regular dictionary, which is accessible via the *note
     data: 2ba4. attribute of ‘UserDict’ instances.  If arguments are
     provided, they are used to initialize ‘data’, like a regular
     dictionary.

     In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mappings,
     ‘UserDict’ instances provide the following attribute:

      -- Ιδιότητα: data

          A real dictionary used to store the contents of the ‘UserDict’
          class.

     ‘UserDict’ instances also override the following method:

      -- Μέθοδος: popitem ()

          Remove and return a ‘(key, value)’ pair from the wrapped
          dictionary.  Pairs are returned in the same order as
          ‘data.popitem()’.  (For the default *note dict.popitem():
          18c8, this order is LIFO.)  If the dictionary is empty, raises
          a *note KeyError: 7df.


File: python.info,  Node: UserList objects,  Next: UserString objects,  Prev: UserDict objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.9.4.12 ‘UserList’ objects
...........................

This class acts as a wrapper around list objects.  It is a useful base
class for your own list-like classes which can inherit from them and
override existing methods or add new ones.  In this way, one can add new
behaviors to lists.

The need for this class has been partially supplanted by the ability to
subclass directly from *note list: 4d9.; however, this class can be
easier to work with because the underlying list is accessible as an
attribute.

 -- Κλάση: collections.UserList ([list])

     Class that simulates a list.  The instance’s contents are kept in a
     regular list, which is accessible via the *note data: 2ba6.
     attribute of ‘UserList’ instances.  The instance’s contents are
     initially set to a copy of 'list', defaulting to the empty list
     ‘[]’.  'list' can be any iterable, for example a real Python list
     or a ‘UserList’ object.

     In addition to supporting the methods and operations of mutable
     sequences, ‘UserList’ instances provide the following attribute:

      -- Ιδιότητα: data

          A real *note list: 4d9. object used to store the contents of
          the ‘UserList’ class.

'Subclassing requirements:' Subclasses of *note UserList: 1886. are
expected to offer a constructor which can be called with either no
arguments or one argument.  List operations which return a new sequence
attempt to create an instance of the actual implementation class.  To do
so, it assumes that the constructor can be called with a single
parameter, which is a sequence object used as a data source.

If a derived class does not wish to comply with this requirement, all of
the special methods supported by this class will need to be overridden;
please consult the sources for information about the methods which need
to be provided in that case.


File: python.info,  Node: UserString objects,  Prev: UserList objects,  Up: collections — Container datatypes

5.9.4.13 ‘UserString’ objects
.............................

The class, *note UserString: 118c. acts as a wrapper around string
objects.  The need for this class has been partially supplanted by the
ability to subclass directly from *note str: 1df.; however, this class
can be easier to work with because the underlying string is accessible
as an attribute.

 -- Κλάση: collections.UserString (seq)

     Class that simulates a string object.  The instance’s content is
     kept in a regular string object, which is accessible via the *note
     data: 2ba8. attribute of ‘UserString’ instances.  The instance’s
     contents are initially set to a copy of 'seq'.  The 'seq' argument
     can be any object which can be converted into a string using the
     built-in *note str(): 1df. function.

     In addition to supporting the methods and operations of strings,
     ‘UserString’ instances provide the following attribute:

      -- Ιδιότητα: data

          A real *note str: 1df. object used to store the contents of
          the ‘UserString’ class.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: New methods ‘__getnewargs__’, ‘__rmod__’,
     ‘casefold’, ‘format_map’, ‘isprintable’, and ‘maketrans’.


File: python.info,  Node: collections abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers,  Next: heapq — Heap queue algorithm,  Prev: collections — Container datatypes,  Up: Data Types

5.9.5 ‘collections.abc’ — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers
-------------------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3: Παλαιότερα, αυτό το module ήταν μέρος του *note
collections: 1e. module.

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/_collections_abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Αυτό το module παρέχει *note αφηρημένες βασικές κλάσεις: 155f. που
μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για να ελεγχθεί εάν μια κλάση παρέχει μια
συγκεκριμένη διεπαφή· για παράδειγμα, εάν είναι *note hashable: 183. ή
εάν είναι *note mapping: 1564.

Ένας έλεγχος *note issubclass(): 2f0. ή *note isinstance(): 2ef. για μια
διεπαφή λειτουργεί με έναν από τρεις τρόπους.

  1. Μια νέα γραμμένη κλάση μπορεί να κληρονομήσει άμεσα από τις
     αφηρημένες βασικές κλάσεις.  Η κλάση πρέπει να παρέχει τις
     απαιτούμενες αφηρημένες μεθόδους.  Οι υπόλοιπες μέθοδοι mixin
     προέρχονται από την κληρονομικότητα και μπορούν να παρακαμφθούν αν
     χρειάζεται.  Άλλες μέθοδοι μπορούν να προστεθούν όταν είναι
     αναγκαίο:

          class C(Sequence):                      # Direct inheritance
              def __init__(self): ...             # Extra method not required by the ABC
              def __getitem__(self, index):  ...  # Required abstract method
              def __len__(self):  ...             # Required abstract method
              def count(self, value): ...         # Optionally override a mixin method

          >>> issubclass(C, Sequence)
          True
          >>> isinstance(C(), Sequence)
          True

  2. Υπάρχουσες κλάσεις και ενσωματωμένες κλάσεις μπορούν να
     καταχωρηθούν ως «εικονικές υποκλάσεις» των ABCs.  Αυτές οι κλάσεις
     θα πρέπει να ορίζουν το πλήρες API, συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των
     αφηρημένων μεθόδων και όλων των μεθόδων mixin.  Αυτό επιτρέπει
     στους χρήστες να βασίζονται στους ελέγχους *note issubclass(): 2f0.
     ή *note isinstance(): 2ef. για να καθορίσουν εάν υποστηρίζεται η
     πλήρης διεπαφή.  Η εξαίρεση σε αυτό τον κανόνα είναι για τις
     μεθόδους που προσδιορίζονται αυτόματα από το υπόλοιπο API:

          class D:                                 # No inheritance
              def __init__(self): ...              # Extra method not required by the ABC
              def __getitem__(self, index):  ...   # Abstract method
              def __len__(self):  ...              # Abstract method
              def count(self, value): ...          # Mixin method
              def index(self, value): ...          # Mixin method

          Sequence.register(D)                     # Register instead of inherit

          >>> issubclass(D, Sequence)
          True
          >>> isinstance(D(), Sequence)
          True

     Σε αυτό το παράδειγμα, η κλάση ‘D’ δεν χρειάζεται να ορίσει τις
     μεθόδους ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’, και ‘__reversed__’ επειδή ο
     τελεστής *note in-operator: 26c7, η λογική *note iteration: 15ce,
     και η συνάρτηση *note reversed(): c3c. χρησιμοποιούν αυτόματα τις
     μεθόδους ‘__getitem__’ και ‘__len__’.

  3. Ορισμένες απλές διεπαφές είναι άμεσα αναγνωρίσιμες από την παρουσία
     των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων (εκτός αν αυτές οι μέθοδοι έχουν οριστεί
     σε *note None: a65.):

          class E:
              def __iter__(self): ...
              def __next__(self): ...

          >>> issubclass(E, Iterable)
          True
          >>> isinstance(E(), Iterable)
          True

     Οι σύνθετες διεπαφές δεν υποστηρίζουν αυτή την τελευταία τεχνική
     επειδή μια διεπαφή είναι κάτι περισσότερο από την παρουσία ονομάτων
     μεθόδων.  Οι διεπαφές καθορίζουν τη σημασιολογία και τις σχέσεις
     μεταξύ των μεθόδων που δεν μπορούν να συναχθούν αποκλειστικά από
     την παρουσία συγκεκριμένων ονομάτων μεθόδων.  Για παράδειγμα, η
     γνώση ότι μια κλάση παρέχει τις μεθόδους ‘__getitem__’, ‘__len__’
     και ‘__iter__’ δεν είναι επαρκής για να διακρίνει μια κλάση *note
     Sequence: 156d. από μια κλάση *note Mapping: c9c.

Added in version 3.9: Αυτές οι αφηρημένες κλάσεις υποστηρίζουν πλέον
‘[]’.  Δείτε *note Τύπος Generic Alias: a9f. και PEP 585(2).

* Menu:

* Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών::
* Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές::
* Παραδείγματα και Συνταγές::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/_collections_abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών,  Next: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές,  Up: collections abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers

5.9.5.1 Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών
...........................................

Το collections module προσφέρει τις εξής *note ABCs: 155f.:

ABC                                Κληρονομεί από             Αφηρημένες Μέθοδοι          Mixin Μέθοδοι
                                                                                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
*note Container: 28ac. (1)                                    ‘__contains__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Hashable: 902. (2)                                      ‘__hash__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Iterable: 28aa. (3) (4)                                 ‘__iter__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Iterator: 28ab. (5)          *note Iterable: 28aa.      ‘__next__’                  ‘__iter__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Reversible: 1048. (6)        *note Iterable: 28aa.      ‘__reversed__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Generator: 1193. (7)         *note Iterator: 28ab.      ‘send’, ‘throw’             ‘close’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__next__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Sized: 903. (8)                                         ‘__len__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Callable: bc6. (9)                                      ‘__call__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Collection: 1047. (10)       *note Sized: 903,          ‘__contains__’,
                                   *note Iterable: 28aa,      ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’
                                   *note Container: 28ac.     
                                   
                                                                                          
*note Sequence: 156d.              *note Reversible: 1048,    ‘__getitem__’, ‘__len__’    ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__reversed__’, ‘index’,
                                   *note Collection: 1047.                                and ‘count’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableSequence: 6c6.        *note Sequence: 156d.      ‘__getitem__’,              Κληρονομημένες *note Sequence: 156d. μέθοδοι και
                                                              ‘__setitem__’,              ‘append’, ‘clear’, ‘reverse’, ‘extend’, ‘pop’,
                                                              ‘__delitem__’, ‘__len__’,   ‘remove’, and ‘__iadd__’
                                                              ‘insert’                    
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note ByteString: 2cb.             *note Sequence: 156d.      ‘__getitem__’, ‘__len__’    Κληρονομημένες *note Sequence: 156d. μέθοδοι
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Set: 28a1.                   *note Collection: 1047.    ‘__contains__’,             ‘__le__’, ‘__lt__’, ‘__eq__’, ‘__ne__’, ‘__gt__’,
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’       ‘__ge__’, ‘__and__’, ‘__or__’, ‘__sub__’, ‘__rsub__’,
                                                                                          ‘__xor__’, ‘__rxor__’ και ‘isdisjoint’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableSet: 28ad.            *note Set: 28a1.           ‘__contains__’,             Κληρονομημένες *note Set: 28a1. μέθοδοι και ‘clear’,
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’,      ‘pop’, ‘remove’, ‘__ior__’, ‘__iand__’, ‘__ixor__’,
                                                              ‘add’, ‘discard’            και ‘__isub__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Mapping: c9c.                *note Collection: 1047.    ‘__getitem__’,              ‘__contains__’, ‘keys’, ‘items’, ‘values’, ‘get’,
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’       ‘__eq__’, και ‘__ne__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note MutableMapping: 1459.        *note Mapping: c9c.        ‘__getitem__’,              Κληρονομημένες *note Mapping: c9c. μέθοδοι και ‘pop’,
                                                              ‘__setitem__’,              ‘popitem’, ‘clear’, ‘update’, και ‘setdefault’
                                                              ‘__delitem__’,              
                                                              ‘__iter__’, ‘__len__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note MappingView: 28ae.           *note Sized: 903.                                      ‘__init__’, ‘__len__’ and ‘__repr__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note ItemsView: 28b0.             *note MappingView: 28ae,                               ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’
                                   *note Set: 28a1.                                       
                                   
                                                                                          
*note KeysView: 28af.              *note MappingView: 28ae,                               ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’
                                   *note Set: 28a1.                                       
                                   
                                                                                          
*note ValuesView: 28b1.            *note MappingView: 28ae,                               ‘__contains__’, ‘__iter__’
                                   *note Collection: 1047.                                
                                   
                                                                                          
*note Awaitable: 1194. (11)                                   ‘__await__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note Coroutine: 1195. (12)        *note Awaitable: 1194.     ‘send’, ‘throw’             ‘close’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note AsyncIterable: 1197. (13)                               ‘__aiter__’
                                                              
                                                                                          
*note AsyncIterator: 1196. (14)    *note AsyncIterable: 1197. ‘__anext__’                 ‘__aiter__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note AsyncGenerator: 104a. (15)   *note AsyncIterator: 1196. ‘asend’, ‘athrow’           ‘aclose’, ‘__aiter__’, ‘__anext__’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note Buffer: 312. (16)                                       ‘__buffer__’
                                                              

Υποσημειώσεις
.............

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (2) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (3) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (4) Ο έλεγχος ‘isinstance(obj, Iterable)’ εντοπίζει κλάσεις που είναι
καταχωρημένες ως *note Iterable: 28aa. ή που έχουν την μέθοδο *note
__iter__(): 229a, αλλά δεν εντοπίζει τις κλάσεις που πραγματοποιούν
επανάληψη με τη μέθοδο *note __getitem__(): 787.  Ο μόνος αξιόπιστος
τρόπος για να προσδιοριστεί αν ένα αντικείμενο είναι *note iterable:
15ce. είναι να καλέσετε ‘iter(obj)’.

   (5) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (6) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (7) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (8) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (9) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (10) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (11) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (12) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (13) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (14) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (15) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.

   (16) Αυτές οι ABCs παρακάμπτουν την μέθοδο *note __subclasshook__():
2bad. για να υποστηρίξουν τον έλεγχο μιας διεπαφής μέσω της επαλήθευσης
της παρουσίας των απαιτούμενων μεθόδων και του ότι δεν έχουν ρυθμιστεί
σε *note None: a65.  Αυτό λειτουργεί μόνο για απλές διεπαφές.  Πιο
σύνθετες διεπαφές απαιτούν εγγραφή ή άμεση υποκλάση.


File: python.info,  Node: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές,  Next: Παραδείγματα και Συνταγές,  Prev: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών,  Up: collections abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers

5.9.5.2 Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές
...................................................................

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Container

     ABC για κλάσεις που παρέχουν την μέθοδο *note __contains__(): 175c.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Hashable

     ABC για κλάσεις που παρέχουν την μέθοδο *note __hash__(): ec1.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Sized

     ABC για κλάσεις που παρέχουν την μέθοδο *note __len__(): 1989.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Callable

     ABC για κλάσεις που παρέχουν την μέθοδο *note __call__(): 961.

     Ανατρέξτε στο *note Annotating callable objects: 28cb. για
     λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με τον τρόπο χρήσης του ‘Callable’ σε τύπους
     annotations.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Iterable

     ABC για κλάσεις που παρέχουν την μέθοδο *note __iter__(): 229a.

     Ο έλεγχος ‘isinstance(obj, Iterable)’ εντοπίζει κλάσεις που είναι
     καταχωρημένες ως *note Iterable: 28aa. ή που διαθέτουν τη μέθοδο
     *note __iter__(): 229a, αλλά δεν εντοπίζει κλάσεις που
     πραγματοποιούν επανάληψη με τη μέθοδο *note __getitem__(): 787.  Ο
     μόνος αξιόπιστος τρόπος για να προσδιοριστεί αν ένα αντικείμενο
     είναι *note iterable: 15ce. είναι να κληθεί ‘iter(obj)’.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Collection

     ABC για τις κλάσεις επαναλαμβανόμενων container με μέγεθος.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Iterator

     ABC για κλάσεις που παρέχουν τις μεθόδους *note __iter__(): 229d.
     και *note __next__(): 1672.  Δείτε επίσης τον ορισμό του *note
     iterator: 6ce.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Reversible

     ABC για τις επαναλαμβανόμενες κλάσεις που παρέχουν επίσης τη μέθοδο
     *note __reversed__(): 1049.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Generator

     ABC για τις κλάσεις *note generator: 1409. που υλοποιούν το
     πρωτόκολλο που ορίζεται στο PEP 342(1) το οποίο επεκτείνει τους
     *note iterators: 6ce. με τις μεθόδους *note send(): 260f, *note
     throw(): 905. και *note close(): 199e.

     Δείτε.  *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 2baf. για
     λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με τη χρήση του ‘Generator’ σε τύπους
     annotations.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Sequence
 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.MutableSequence
 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.ByteString

     ABCs μόνο για ανάγνωση (read-only) και mutable *note sequences:
     8ff.

     Σημείωση υλοποίησης: Μερικές από τις μεθόδους mixin, όπως *note
     __iter__(): 229a, *note __reversed__(): 1049. και *note index():
     1b8b, κάνουν επανειλημμένες κλήσεις στην μέθοδο *note
     __getitem__(): 787.  Ως αποτέλεσμα, αν η ‘__getitem__()’ είναι
     υλοποιημένη με σταθερή ταχύτητα πρόσβασης, οι μέθοδοι mixin θα
     έχουν γραμμική απόδοση∙ ωστόσο, αν η υποκείμενη μέθοδος είναι
     γραμμική (όπως θα ήταν με μια συνδεδεμένη λίστα), οι mixins θα
     έχουν τετραγωνική απόδοση και πιθανώς θα χρειαστεί να
     αντικατασταθούν.

      -- Μέθοδος: index (value, start=0, stop=None)

          Επιστρέφει τον πρώτο δείκτη του 'value'.

          Κάνει raise μια *note ValueError: 277. αν η τιμή δεν είναι
          παρούσα.

          Η υποστήριξη των ορισμάτων 'start' και 'stop' είναι
          προαιρετική, αλλά συνιστάται.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Η μέθοδος *note index(): 1b8b.
          πρόσθεσε υποστήριξη για τα ορίσματα 'stop' και 'start'.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.17: Η
     ABC *note ByteString: 2cb. έχει αποσυρθεί.

     Χρησιμοποιήστε το ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)’ για να
     ελέγξετε αν το ‘obj’ υλοποιεί το *note buffer protocol: 311. κατά
     το runtime.  Για χρήση σε type annotations, είτε χρησιμοποιήστε την
     *note Buffer: 312. είτε μια ένωση που να καθορίζει ρητά τους τύπους
     που υποστηρίζει ο κώδικάς σας (π.χ., ‘bytes | bytearray |
     memoryview’).

     Η ‘ByteString’ προοριζόταν αρχικά να είναι μια αφηρημένη κλάση που
     θα λειτουργούσε ως υπερτύπος τόσο για την *note bytes: 1c7. όσο και
     για την *note bytearray: 1c6.  Ωστόσο, δεδομένου ότι η ABC δεν είχε
     καμία μέθοδο, η γνώση ότι ένα αντικείμενο ήταν στιγμιότυπο της
     ‘ByteString’ δεν σας έλεγε ποτέ κάτι χρήσιμο για το αντικείμενο.
     Άλλοι κοινοί τύποι buffer όπως η *note memoryview: 1d2. επίσης δεν
     θεωρούνταν ποτέ ως υποτύποι της ‘ByteString’ (ούτε κατά το runtime
     ούτε από στατικούς ελεγκτές τύπων).

     Δείτε PEP 688(2) για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Set
 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.MutableSet

     ABCs μόνο για ανάγνωση (read-only) και mutable *note sets: 2220.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Mapping
 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.MutableMapping

     ABCs μόνο για ανάγνωση (read-only) και mutable *note mappings:
     1564.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.MappingView
 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.ItemsView
 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.KeysView
 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.ValuesView

     ABCs για αντιστοιχήσεις, στοιχεία, κλειδιά και τιμές *note views:
     2ba1.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Awaitable

     ABC για αντικείμενα *note awaitable: 6cf, που μπορούν να
     χρησιμοποιηθούν σε εκφράσεις *note await: 432.  Οι προσαρμοσμένες
     υλοποιήσεις πρέπει να παρέχουν τη μέθοδο *note __await__(): 112e.

     Τα αντικείμενα *note Coroutine: 8a2. και τα στιγμιότυπα της κλάσης
     *note Coroutine: 1195. είναι όλα παραδείγματα αυτής της ABC.

          Σημείωση: Στην CPython, οι generator-based coroutines (*note
          generators: 1409. που είναι decorated με *note
          @types.coroutine: 1239.) είναι 'awaitables', αν και δεν
          διαθέτουν μέθοδο *note __await__(): 112e.  Η χρήση της
          ‘isinstance(gencoro, Awaitable)’ γι” αυτές θα επιστρέψει
          ‘False’.  Χρησιμοποιείτε τη συνάρτηση *note
          inspect.isawaitable(): 11cb. για να τις εντοπίσετε.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Coroutine

     ABC για κλάσεις συμβατές με το *note coroutine: 8a2.  Αυτές
     υλοποιούν τις εξής μεθόδους, οι οποίες ορίζονται στο *note
     Coroutine Αντικείμενα: 2547.: *note send(): 260e, *note throw():
     904, και *note close(): 2610.  Οι προσαρμοσμένες υλοποιήσεις πρέπει
     επίσης να υλοποιούν τη μέθοδο *note __await__(): 112e.  Όλα τα
     *note Coroutine: 1195. στιγμιότυπα είναι επίσης στιγμιότυπα της
     κλάσης *note Awaitable: 1194.

          Σημείωση: Στην CPython, οι generator-based coroutines (*note
          generators: 1409. που είναι διακοσμημένες με *note
          @types.coroutine: 1239.) είναι 'awaitables', αν και δεν έχουν
          τη μέθοδο *note __await__(): 112e.  Η χρήση της ‘isinstance
          (gencoro, Coroutine)’ γι” αυτές θα επιστρέψει ‘False’.
          Χρησιμοποιείται η συνάρτηση *note inspect.isawaitable(): 11cb.
          για να εντοπιστούν.

     Βλ.  *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 2baf. για
     λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με τη χρήση της ‘Coroutine’ σε σχολιασμούς
     τύπου.  Η διακύμανση και η σειρά των παραμέτρων τύπου αντιστοιχούν
     σε εκείνες της *note Generator: 1193.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.AsyncIterable

     ABC για κλάσεις που παρέχουν μια μέθοδο ‘__aiter__’.  Δείτε επίσης
     τον ορισμό του *note asynchronous iterable: 112d.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.AsyncIterator

     ABC για κλάσεις που παρέχουν τις μεθόδους ‘__aiter__’ και
     ‘__anext__’.  Δείτε επίσης τον ορισμό του *note asynchronous
     iterator: 6cd.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.AsyncGenerator

     ABC για κλάσεις *note asynchronous generator: 2692. που υλοποιούν
     το πρωτόκολλο που ορίζεται στο PEP 525(3) και PEP 492(4).

     Δείτε *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 2baf. για
     λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με τη χρήση του ‘AsyncGenerator’ σε
     σχολιασμούς τύπου.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Κλάση: collections.abc.Buffer

     ABC για κλάσεις που παρέχουν τη μέθοδο *note __buffer__(): 879,
     υλοποιώντας το *note buffer protocol: 311.  Δείτε το PEP 688(5).

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/


File: python.info,  Node: Παραδείγματα και Συνταγές,  Prev: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές,  Up: collections abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers

5.9.5.3 Παραδείγματα και Συνταγές
.................................

Οι ABCs επιτρέπουν να ρωτήσουμε τις κλάσεις ή τα αντικείμενα αν παρέχουν
συγκεκριμένη λειτουργικότητα, για παράδειγμα:

     size = None
     if isinstance(myvar, collections.abc.Sized):
         size = len(myvar)

Μερικές από τις ABCs είναι επίσης χρήσιμες ως mixins που διευκολύνουν
την ανάπτυξη κλάσεων που υποστηρίζουν τα APIs των container.  Για
παράδειγμα, για να γράψετε μια κλάση που υποστηρίζει το πλήρες API του
*note Set: 28a1, αρκεί να παρέχετε τις τρεις υποκείμενες αφηρημένες
μεθόδους: *note __contains__(): 175c, *note __iter__(): 229a, και *note
__len__(): 1989.  Η ABC παρέχει τις υπόλοιπες μεθόδους, όπως ‘__and__()’
και *note isdisjoint(): 288b.:

     class ListBasedSet(collections.abc.Set):
         ''' Alternate set implementation favoring space over speed
             and not requiring the set elements to be hashable. '''
         def __init__(self, iterable):
             self.elements = lst = []
             for value in iterable:
                 if value not in lst:
                     lst.append(value)

         def __iter__(self):
             return iter(self.elements)

         def __contains__(self, value):
             return value in self.elements

         def __len__(self):
             return len(self.elements)

     s1 = ListBasedSet('abcdef')
     s2 = ListBasedSet('defghi')
     overlap = s1 & s2            # The __and__() method is supported automatically

Σημειώσεις για τη χρήση των *note Set: 28a1. και *note MutableSet: 28ad.
ως mixin:

  1. Δεδομένου ότι ορισμένες λειτουργίες συνόλων δημιουργούν νέα σύνολα,
     οι προεπιλεγμένες μέθοδοι mixin χρειάζονται έναν τρόπο δημιουργίας
     νέων αντικειμένων από ένα *note iterable: 15ce.  Υποτίθεται ότι ο
     κατασκευαστής της κλάσης έχει μια υπογραφή της μορφής
     ‘ClassName(iterable)’.  Αυτή η υπόθεση είναι αποσυνδεδεμένη σε μια
     εσωτερική *note classmethod: 69a. που ονομάζεται
     ‘_from_iterable()’, η οποία καλεί το ‘cls(iterable)’ για να
     δημιουργήσει ένα νέο σύνολο.  Εάν το mixin *note Set: 28a1.
     χρησιμοποιείται σε μια κλάση με διαφορετική υπογραφή κατασκευαστή,
     θα χρειαστεί να αντικαταστήσετε την ‘_from_iterable()’ με μια
     μέθοδο κλάσης ή κανονική μέθοδο που μπορεί να δημιουργήσει νέα
     αντικείμενα από ένα όρισμα iterable.

  2. Για να παρακάμψετε τις συγκρίσεις (πιθανότατα για λόγους απόδοσης,
     καθώς η σημασιολογία είναι καθορισμένη), ορίστε ξανά τις μεθόδους
     *note __le__(): 16af, και *note __ge__(): 16b1, και οι άλλες
     λειτουργίες θα ακολουθήσουν αυτόματα.

  3. Το mixin *note Set: 28a1. παρέχει τη μέθοδο ‘_hash()’ για να
     υπολογίσει μια τιμή κατακερματισμού για το σύνολο.  Ωστόσο, η
     μέθοδος *note __hash__(): ec1. δεν είναι ορισμένη, επειδή δεν είναι
     όλα τα σύνολα *note hashable: 183. ή αμετάβλητα.  Για να προσθέσετε
     hashability σε ένα σύνολο χρησιμοποιώντας mixins, κληρονομήστε τόσο
     από τις κλάσεις *note Set(): 28a1. όσο και *note Hashable(): 902,
     και στη συνέχεια ορίστε ‘__hash__ = Set._hash’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * Συνταγή OrderedSet(1) για ένα παράδειγμα που βασίζεται στην κλάση
     *note MutableSet: 28ad.

   * Για περισσότερα σχετικά με τις ABCs, δείτε το *note abc: 4. module
     και το PEP 3119(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576694/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/


File: python.info,  Node: heapq — Heap queue algorithm,  Next: bisect — Array bisection algorithm,  Prev: collections abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers,  Up: Data Types

5.9.6 ‘heapq’ — Heap queue algorithm
------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/heapq.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an implementation of the heap queue algorithm, also
known as the priority queue algorithm.

Min-heaps are binary trees for which every parent node has a value less
than or equal to any of its children.  We refer to this condition as the
heap invariant.

For min-heaps, this implementation uses lists for which ‘heap[k] <=
heap[2*k+1]’ and ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]’ for all 'k' for which the
compared elements exist.  Elements are counted from zero.  The
interesting property of a min-heap is that its smallest element is
always the root, ‘heap[0]’.

Max-heaps satisfy the reverse invariant: every parent node has a value
'greater' than any of its children.  These are implemented as lists for
which ‘maxheap[2*k+1] <= maxheap[k]’ and ‘maxheap[2*k+2] <= maxheap[k]’
for all 'k' for which the compared elements exist.  The root,
‘maxheap[0]’, contains the 'largest' element; ‘heap.sort(reverse=True)’
maintains the max-heap invariant.

The ‘heapq’ API differs from textbook heap algorithms in two aspects:
(a) We use zero-based indexing.  This makes the relationship between the
index for a node and the indexes for its children slightly less obvious,
but is more suitable since Python uses zero-based indexing.  (b)
Textbooks often focus on max-heaps, due to their suitability for
in-place sorting.  Our implementation favors min-heaps as they better
correspond to Python *note lists: 4d9.

These two aspects make it possible to view the heap as a regular Python
list without surprises: ‘heap[0]’ is the smallest item, and
‘heap.sort()’ maintains the heap invariant!

Like *note list.sort(): f8d, this implementation uses only the ‘<’
operator for comparisons, for both min-heaps and max-heaps.

In the API below, and in this documentation, the unqualified term 'heap'
generally refers to a min-heap.  The API for max-heaps is named using a
‘_max’ suffix.

To create a heap, use a list initialized as ‘[]’, or transform an
existing list into a min-heap or max-heap using the *note heapify():
2bb5. or *note heapify_max(): 4af. functions, respectively.

The following functions are provided for min-heaps:

 -- Συνάρτηση: heapq.heapify (x)

     Transform list 'x' into a min-heap, in-place, in linear time.

 -- Συνάρτηση: heapq.heappush (heap, item)

     Push the value 'item' onto the 'heap', maintaining the min-heap
     invariant.

 -- Συνάρτηση: heapq.heappop (heap)

     Pop and return the smallest item from the 'heap', maintaining the
     min-heap invariant.  If the heap is empty, *note IndexError: 18d7.
     is raised.  To access the smallest item without popping it, use
     ‘heap[0]’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: heapq.heappushpop (heap, item)

     Push 'item' on the heap, then pop and return the smallest item from
     the 'heap'.  The combined action runs more efficiently than *note
     heappush(): 185e. followed by a separate call to *note heappop():
     185f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: heapq.heapreplace (heap, item)

     Pop and return the smallest item from the 'heap', and also push the
     new 'item'.  The heap size doesn’t change.  If the heap is empty,
     *note IndexError: 18d7. is raised.

     This one step operation is more efficient than a *note heappop():
     185f. followed by *note heappush(): 185e. and can be more
     appropriate when using a fixed-size heap.  The pop/push combination
     always returns an element from the heap and replaces it with
     'item'.

     The value returned may be larger than the 'item' added.  If that
     isn’t desired, consider using *note heappushpop(): 2bb6. instead.
     Its push/pop combination returns the smaller of the two values,
     leaving the larger value on the heap.

For max-heaps, the following functions are provided:

 -- Συνάρτηση: heapq.heapify_max (x)

     Transform list 'x' into a max-heap, in-place, in linear time.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: heapq.heappush_max (heap, item)

     Push the value 'item' onto the max-heap 'heap', maintaining the
     max-heap invariant.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: heapq.heappop_max (heap)

     Pop and return the largest item from the max-heap 'heap',
     maintaining the max-heap invariant.  If the max-heap is empty,
     *note IndexError: 18d7. is raised.  To access the largest item
     without popping it, use ‘maxheap[0]’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: heapq.heappushpop_max (heap, item)

     Push 'item' on the max-heap 'heap', then pop and return the largest
     item from 'heap'.  The combined action runs more efficiently than
     *note heappush_max(): 4b0. followed by a separate call to *note
     heappop_max(): 4b1.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: heapq.heapreplace_max (heap, item)

     Pop and return the largest item from the max-heap 'heap' and also
     push the new 'item'.  The max-heap size doesn’t change.  If the
     max-heap is empty, *note IndexError: 18d7. is raised.

     The value returned may be smaller than the 'item' added.  Refer to
     the analogous function *note heapreplace(): 2bb7. for detailed
     usage notes.

     Added in version 3.14.

The module also offers three general purpose functions based on heaps.

 -- Συνάρτηση: heapq.merge (*iterables, key=None, reverse=False)

     Merge multiple sorted inputs into a single sorted output (for
     example, merge timestamped entries from multiple log files).
     Returns an *note iterator: 6ce. over the sorted values.

     Similar to ‘sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables))’ but returns an
     iterable, does not pull the data into memory all at once, and
     assumes that each of the input streams is already sorted (smallest
     to largest).

     Has two optional arguments which must be specified as keyword
     arguments.

     'key' specifies a *note key function: 11ba. of one argument that is
     used to extract a comparison key from each input element.  The
     default value is ‘None’ (compare the elements directly).

     'reverse' is a boolean value.  If set to ‘True’, then the input
     elements are merged as if each comparison were reversed.  To
     achieve behavior similar to ‘sorted(itertools.chain(*iterables),
     reverse=True)’, all iterables must be sorted from largest to
     smallest.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the optional 'key' and 'reverse'
     parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: heapq.nlargest (n, iterable, key=None)

     Return a list with the 'n' largest elements from the dataset
     defined by 'iterable'.  'key', if provided, specifies a function of
     one argument that is used to extract a comparison key from each
     element in 'iterable' (for example, ‘key=str.lower’).  Equivalent
     to: ‘sorted(iterable, key=key, reverse=True)[:n]’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: heapq.nsmallest (n, iterable, key=None)

     Return a list with the 'n' smallest elements from the dataset
     defined by 'iterable'.  'key', if provided, specifies a function of
     one argument that is used to extract a comparison key from each
     element in 'iterable' (for example, ‘key=str.lower’).  Equivalent
     to: ‘sorted(iterable, key=key)[:n]’.

The latter two functions perform best for smaller values of 'n'.  For
larger values, it is more efficient to use the *note sorted(): f8c.
function.  Also, when ‘n==1’, it is more efficient to use the built-in
*note min(): 12b9. and *note max(): 12ba. functions.  If repeated usage
of these functions is required, consider turning the iterable into an
actual heap.

* Menu:

* Basic Examples::
* Other Applications::
* Priority Queue Implementation Notes::
* Theory::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/heapq.py


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Examples,  Next: Other Applications,  Up: heapq — Heap queue algorithm

5.9.6.1 Basic Examples
......................

A heapsort(1) can be implemented by pushing all values onto a heap and
then popping off the smallest values one at a time:

     >>> def heapsort(iterable):
     ...     h = []
     ...     for value in iterable:
     ...         heappush(h, value)
     ...     return [heappop(h) for i in range(len(h))]
     ...
     >>> heapsort([1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 0])
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

This is similar to ‘sorted(iterable)’, but unlike *note sorted(): f8c,
this implementation is not stable.

Heap elements can be tuples.  This is useful for assigning comparison
values (such as task priorities) alongside the main record being
tracked:

     >>> h = []
     >>> heappush(h, (5, 'write code'))
     >>> heappush(h, (7, 'release product'))
     >>> heappush(h, (1, 'write spec'))
     >>> heappush(h, (3, 'create tests'))
     >>> heappop(h)
     (1, 'write spec')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heapsort


File: python.info,  Node: Other Applications,  Next: Priority Queue Implementation Notes,  Prev: Basic Examples,  Up: heapq — Heap queue algorithm

5.9.6.2 Other Applications
..........................

Medians(1) are a measure of central tendency for a set of numbers.  In
distributions skewed by outliers, the median provides a more stable
estimate than an average (arithmetic mean).  A running median is an
online algorithm(2) that updates continuously as new data arrives.

A running median can be efficiently implemented by balancing two heaps,
a max-heap for values at or below the midpoint and a min-heap for values
above the midpoint.  When the two heaps have the same size, the new
median is the average of the tops of the two heaps; otherwise, the
median is at the top of the larger heap:

     def running_median(iterable):
         "Yields the cumulative median of values seen so far."

         lo = []  # max-heap
         hi = []  # min-heap (same size as or one smaller than lo)

         for x in iterable:
             if len(lo) == len(hi):
                 heappush_max(lo, heappushpop(hi, x))
                 yield lo[0]
             else:
                 heappush(hi, heappushpop_max(lo, x))
                 yield (lo[0] + hi[0]) / 2

For example:

     >>> list(running_median([5.0, 9.0, 4.0, 12.0, 8.0, 9.0]))
     [5.0, 7.0, 5.0, 7.0, 8.0, 8.5]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_algorithm


File: python.info,  Node: Priority Queue Implementation Notes,  Next: Theory,  Prev: Other Applications,  Up: heapq — Heap queue algorithm

5.9.6.3 Priority Queue Implementation Notes
...........................................

A priority queue(1) is common use for a heap, and it presents several
implementation challenges:

   * Sort stability: how do you get two tasks with equal priorities to
     be returned in the order they were originally added?

   * Tuple comparison breaks for (priority, task) pairs if the
     priorities are equal and the tasks do not have a default comparison
     order.

   * If the priority of a task changes, how do you move it to a new
     position in the heap?

   * Or if a pending task needs to be deleted, how do you find it and
     remove it from the queue?

A solution to the first two challenges is to store entries as 3-element
list including the priority, an entry count, and the task.  The entry
count serves as a tie-breaker so that two tasks with the same priority
are returned in the order they were added.  And since no two entry
counts are the same, the tuple comparison will never attempt to directly
compare two tasks.

Another solution to the problem of non-comparable tasks is to create a
wrapper class that ignores the task item and only compares the priority
field:

     from dataclasses import dataclass, field
     from typing import Any

     @dataclass(order=True)
     class PrioritizedItem:
         priority: int
         item: Any=field(compare=False)

The remaining challenges revolve around finding a pending task and
making changes to its priority or removing it entirely.  Finding a task
can be done with a dictionary pointing to an entry in the queue.

Removing the entry or changing its priority is more difficult because it
would break the heap structure invariants.  So, a possible solution is
to mark the entry as removed and add a new entry with the revised
priority:

     pq = []                         # list of entries arranged in a heap
     entry_finder = {}               # mapping of tasks to entries
     REMOVED = '<removed-task>'      # placeholder for a removed task
     counter = itertools.count()     # unique sequence count

     def add_task(task, priority=0):
         'Add a new task or update the priority of an existing task'
         if task in entry_finder:
             remove_task(task)
         count = next(counter)
         entry = [priority, count, task]
         entry_finder[task] = entry
         heappush(pq, entry)

     def remove_task(task):
         'Mark an existing task as REMOVED.  Raise KeyError if not found.'
         entry = entry_finder.pop(task)
         entry[-1] = REMOVED

     def pop_task():
         'Remove and return the lowest priority task. Raise KeyError if empty.'
         while pq:
             priority, count, task = heappop(pq)
             if task is not REMOVED:
                 del entry_finder[task]
                 return task
         raise KeyError('pop from an empty priority queue')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_queue


File: python.info,  Node: Theory,  Prev: Priority Queue Implementation Notes,  Up: heapq — Heap queue algorithm

5.9.6.4 Theory
..............

Heaps are arrays for which ‘a[k] <= a[2*k+1]’ and ‘a[k] <= a[2*k+2]’ for
all 'k', counting elements from 0.  For the sake of comparison,
non-existing elements are considered to be infinite.  The interesting
property of a heap is that ‘a[0]’ is always its smallest element.

The strange invariant above is meant to be an efficient memory
representation for a tournament.  The numbers below are 'k', not ‘a[k]’:

[image src="python-figures/heapq-binary-tree.svg" alt="Example (min-heap) binary tree."]


Figure
In the tree above, each cell 'k' is topping ‘2*k+1’ and ‘2*k+2’.  In a
usual binary tournament we see in sports, each cell is the winner over
the two cells it tops, and we can trace the winner down the tree to see
all opponents s/he had.  However, in many computer applications of such
tournaments, we do not need to trace the history of a winner.  To be
more memory efficient, when a winner is promoted, we try to replace it
by something else at a lower level, and the rule becomes that a cell and
the two cells it tops contain three different items, but the top cell
«wins» over the two topped cells.

If this heap invariant is protected at all time, index 0 is clearly the
overall winner.  The simplest algorithmic way to remove it and find the
«next» winner is to move some loser (let’s say cell 30 in the diagram
above) into the 0 position, and then percolate this new 0 down the tree,
exchanging values, until the invariant is re-established.  This is
clearly logarithmic on the total number of items in the tree.  By
iterating over all items, you get an 'O'('n' log 'n') sort.

A nice feature of this sort is that you can efficiently insert new items
while the sort is going on, provided that the inserted items are not
«better» than the last 0’th element you extracted.  This is especially
useful in simulation contexts, where the tree holds all incoming events,
and the «win» condition means the smallest scheduled time.  When an
event schedules other events for execution, they are scheduled into the
future, so they can easily go into the heap.  So, a heap is a good
structure for implementing schedulers (this is what I used for my MIDI
sequencer :-).

Various structures for implementing schedulers have been extensively
studied, and heaps are good for this, as they are reasonably speedy, the
speed is almost constant, and the worst case is not much different than
the average case.  However, there are other representations which are
more efficient overall, yet the worst cases might be terrible.

Heaps are also very useful in big disk sorts.  You most probably all
know that a big sort implies producing «runs» (which are pre-sorted
sequences, whose size is usually related to the amount of CPU memory),
followed by a merging passes for these runs, which merging is often very
cleverly organised (1).  It is very important that the initial sort
produces the longest runs possible.  Tournaments are a good way to
achieve that.  If, using all the memory available to hold a tournament,
you replace and percolate items that happen to fit the current run,
you’ll produce runs which are twice the size of the memory for random
input, and much better for input fuzzily ordered.

Moreover, if you output the 0’th item on disk and get an input which may
not fit in the current tournament (because the value «wins» over the
last output value), it cannot fit in the heap, so the size of the heap
decreases.  The freed memory could be cleverly reused immediately for
progressively building a second heap, which grows at exactly the same
rate the first heap is melting.  When the first heap completely
vanishes, you switch heaps and start a new run.  Clever and quite
effective!

In a word, heaps are useful memory structures to know.  I use them in a
few applications, and I think it is good to keep a “heap” module around.
:-)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The disk balancing algorithms which are current, nowadays, are
more annoying than clever, and this is a consequence of the seeking
capabilities of the disks.  On devices which cannot seek, like big tape
drives, the story was quite different, and one had to be very clever to
ensure (far in advance) that each tape movement will be the most
effective possible (that is, will best participate at «progressing» the
merge).  Some tapes were even able to read backwards, and this was also
used to avoid the rewinding time.  Believe me, real good tape sorts were
quite spectacular to watch!  From all times, sorting has always been a
Great Art!  :-)


File: python.info,  Node: bisect — Array bisection algorithm,  Next: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values,  Prev: heapq — Heap queue algorithm,  Up: Data Types

5.9.7 ‘bisect’ — Array bisection algorithm
------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/bisect.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides support for maintaining a list in sorted order
without having to sort the list after each insertion.  For long lists of
items with expensive comparison operations, this can be an improvement
over linear searches or frequent resorting.

The module is called ‘bisect’ because it uses a basic bisection
algorithm to do its work.  Unlike other bisection tools that search for
a specific value, the functions in this module are designed to locate an
insertion point.  Accordingly, the functions never call an *note
__eq__(): ec0. method to determine whether a value has been found.
Instead, the functions only call the *note __lt__(): 1645. method and
will return an insertion point between values in an array.

     Σημείωση: The functions in this module are not thread-safe.  If
     multiple threads concurrently use ‘bisect’ functions on the same
     sequence, this may result in undefined behaviour.  Likewise, if the
     provided sequence is mutated by a different thread while a ‘bisect’
     function is operating on it, the result is undefined.  For example,
     using *note insort_left(): 2bc1. on the same list from multiple
     threads may result in the list becoming unsorted.
The following functions are provided:

 -- Συνάρτηση: bisect.bisect_left (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     Locate the insertion point for 'x' in 'a' to maintain sorted order.
     The parameters 'lo' and 'hi' may be used to specify a subset of the
     list which should be considered; by default the entire list is
     used.  If 'x' is already present in 'a', the insertion point will
     be before (to the left of) any existing entries.  The return value
     is suitable for use as the first parameter to ‘list.insert()’
     assuming that 'a' is already sorted.

     The returned insertion point 'ip' partitions the array 'a' into two
     slices such that ‘all(elem < x for elem in a[lo : ip])’ is true for
     the left slice and ‘all(elem >= x for elem in a[ip : hi])’ is true
     for the right slice.

     'key' specifies a *note key function: 11ba. of one argument that is
     used to extract a comparison key from each element in the array.
     To support searching complex records, the key function is not
     applied to the 'x' value.

     If 'key' is ‘None’, the elements are compared directly and no key
     function is called.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the 'key' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: bisect.bisect_right (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)
 -- Συνάρτηση: bisect.bisect (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     Similar to *note bisect_left(): 2bc3, but returns an insertion
     point which comes after (to the right of) any existing entries of
     'x' in 'a'.

     The returned insertion point 'ip' partitions the array 'a' into two
     slices such that ‘all(elem <= x for elem in a[lo : ip])’ is true
     for the left slice and ‘all(elem > x for elem in a[ip : hi])’ is
     true for the right slice.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the 'key' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: bisect.insort_left (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     Insert 'x' in 'a' in sorted order.

     This function first runs *note bisect_left(): 2bc3. to locate an
     insertion point.  Next, it runs the *note insert(): 25cf. method on
     'a' to insert 'x' at the appropriate position to maintain sort
     order.

     To support inserting records in a table, the 'key' function (if
     any) is applied to 'x' for the search step but not for the
     insertion step.

     Keep in mind that the 'O'(log 'n') search is dominated by the slow
     'O'('n') insertion step.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the 'key' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: bisect.insort_right (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)
 -- Συνάρτηση: bisect.insort (a, x, lo=0, hi=len(a), *, key=None)

     Similar to *note insort_left(): 2bc1, but inserting 'x' in 'a'
     after any existing entries of 'x'.

     This function first runs *note bisect_right(): 2bc4. to locate an
     insertion point.  Next, it runs the *note insert(): 25cf. method on
     'a' to insert 'x' at the appropriate position to maintain sort
     order.

     To support inserting records in a table, the 'key' function (if
     any) is applied to 'x' for the search step but not for the
     insertion step.

     Keep in mind that the 'O'(log 'n') search is dominated by the slow
     'O'('n') insertion step.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the 'key' parameter.

* Menu:

* Performance Notes::
* Searching Sorted Lists::
* Examples: Examples<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/bisect.py


File: python.info,  Node: Performance Notes,  Next: Searching Sorted Lists,  Up: bisect — Array bisection algorithm

5.9.7.1 Performance Notes
.........................

When writing time sensitive code using 'bisect()' and 'insort()', keep
these thoughts in mind:

   * Bisection is effective for searching ranges of values.  For
     locating specific values, dictionaries are more performant.

   * The 'insort()' functions are 'O'('n') because the logarithmic
     search step is dominated by the linear time insertion step.

   * The search functions are stateless and discard key function results
     after they are used.  Consequently, if the search functions are
     used in a loop, the key function may be called again and again on
     the same array elements.  If the key function isn’t fast, consider
     wrapping it with *note functools.cache(): 1a08. to avoid duplicate
     computations.  Alternatively, consider searching an array of
     precomputed keys to locate the insertion point (as shown in the
     examples section below).

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * Sorted Collections(1) is a high performance module that uses
     'bisect' to managed sorted collections of data.

   * The SortedCollection recipe(2) uses bisect to build a full-featured
     collection class with straight-forward search methods and support
     for a key-function.  The keys are precomputed to save unnecessary
     calls to the key function during searches.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://grantjenks.com/docs/sortedcollections/

   (2) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577197-sortedcollection/


File: python.info,  Node: Searching Sorted Lists,  Next: Examples<2>,  Prev: Performance Notes,  Up: bisect — Array bisection algorithm

5.9.7.2 Searching Sorted Lists
..............................

The above *note bisect functions: 2bc2. are useful for finding insertion
points but can be tricky or awkward to use for common searching tasks.
The following five functions show how to transform them into the
standard lookups for sorted lists:

     def index(a, x):
         'Locate the leftmost value exactly equal to x'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i != len(a) and a[i] == x:
             return i
         raise ValueError

     def find_lt(a, x):
         'Find rightmost value less than x'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i:
             return a[i-1]
         raise ValueError

     def find_le(a, x):
         'Find rightmost value less than or equal to x'
         i = bisect_right(a, x)
         if i:
             return a[i-1]
         raise ValueError

     def find_gt(a, x):
         'Find leftmost value greater than x'
         i = bisect_right(a, x)
         if i != len(a):
             return a[i]
         raise ValueError

     def find_ge(a, x):
         'Find leftmost item greater than or equal to x'
         i = bisect_left(a, x)
         if i != len(a):
             return a[i]
         raise ValueError


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<2>,  Prev: Searching Sorted Lists,  Up: bisect — Array bisection algorithm

5.9.7.3 Examples
................

The *note bisect(): 2bc5. function can be useful for numeric table
lookups.  This example uses ‘bisect()’ to look up a letter grade for an
exam score (say) based on a set of ordered numeric breakpoints: 90 and
up is an “A”, 80 to 89 is a “B”, and so on:

     >>> def grade(score)
     ...     i = bisect([60, 70, 80, 90], score)
     ...     return "FDCBA"[i]
     ...
     >>> [grade(score) for score in [33, 99, 77, 70, 89, 90, 100]]
     ['F', 'A', 'C', 'C', 'B', 'A', 'A']

The *note bisect(): 2bc5. and *note insort(): 2bc7. functions also work
with lists of tuples.  The 'key' argument can serve to extract the field
used for ordering records in a table:

     >>> from collections import namedtuple
     >>> from operator import attrgetter
     >>> from bisect import bisect, insort
     >>> from pprint import pprint

     >>> Movie = namedtuple('Movie', ('name', 'released', 'director'))

     >>> movies = [
     ...     Movie('Jaws', 1975, 'Spielberg'),
     ...     Movie('Titanic', 1997, 'Cameron'),
     ...     Movie('The Birds', 1963, 'Hitchcock'),
     ...     Movie('Aliens', 1986, 'Cameron')
     ... ]

     >>> # Find the first movie released after 1960
     >>> by_year = attrgetter('released')
     >>> movies.sort(key=by_year)
     >>> movies[bisect(movies, 1960, key=by_year)]
     Movie(name='The Birds', released=1963, director='Hitchcock')

     >>> # Insert a movie while maintaining sort order
     >>> romance = Movie('Love Story', 1970, 'Hiller')
     >>> insort(movies, romance, key=by_year)
     >>> pprint(movies)
     [Movie(name='The Birds', released=1963, director='Hitchcock'),
      Movie(name='Love Story', released=1970, director='Hiller'),
      Movie(name='Jaws', released=1975, director='Spielberg'),
      Movie(name='Aliens', released=1986, director='Cameron'),
      Movie(name='Titanic', released=1997, director='Cameron')]

If the key function is expensive, it is possible to avoid repeated
function calls by searching a list of precomputed keys to find the index
of a record:

     >>> data = [('red', 5), ('blue', 1), ('yellow', 8), ('black', 0)]
     >>> data.sort(key=lambda r: r[1])       # Or use operator.itemgetter(1).
     >>> keys = [r[1] for r in data]         # Precompute a list of keys.
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 0)]
     ('black', 0)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 1)]
     ('blue', 1)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 5)]
     ('red', 5)
     >>> data[bisect_left(keys, 8)]
     ('yellow', 8)


File: python.info,  Node: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values,  Next: weakref — Weak references,  Prev: bisect — Array bisection algorithm,  Up: Data Types

5.9.8 ‘array’ — Efficient arrays of numeric values
--------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines an object type which can compactly represent an
array of basic values: characters, integers, floating-point numbers,
complex numbers.  Arrays are mutable *note sequence: 8ff. types and
behave very much like lists, except that the type of objects stored in
them is constrained.  The type is specified at object creation time by
using a 'type code', which is a single character.  The following type
codes are defined:

Type code       C Type                   Python Type             Minimum size in bytes       Notes
                                                                                             
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                             
‘'b'’           signed char              int                     1
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'B'’           unsigned char            int                     1
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'u'’           wchar_t                  Unicode character       2                           (1)
                                                                                             
                                                                                             
‘'w'’           Py_UCS4                  Unicode character       4                           (2)
                                                                                             
                                                                                             
‘'h'’           signed short             int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'H'’           unsigned short           int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'i'’           signed int               int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'I'’           unsigned int             int                     2
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'l'’           signed long              int                     4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'L'’           unsigned long            int                     4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'q'’           signed long long         int                     8
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'Q'’           unsigned long long       int                     8
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'e'’           _Float16                 float                   2                           (3)
                                                                                             
                                                                                             
‘'f'’           float                    float                   4
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'d'’           double                   float                   8
                                                                 
                                                                                             
‘'Zf'’          float complex            complex                 8                           (4)
                                                                                             
                                                                                             
‘'Zd'’          double complex           complex                 16                          (4)
                                                                                             

Notes:

  1. It can be 16 bits or 32 bits depending on the platform.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: ‘array('u')’ now uses ‘wchar_t’ as C type
     instead of deprecated ‘Py_UNICODE’.  This change doesn’t affect its
     behavior because ‘Py_UNICODE’ is alias of ‘wchar_t’ since Python
     3.3.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.3, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.16: Please
     migrate to ‘'w'’ typecode.

  2. 
     Added in version 3.13.

  3. The IEEE 754 binary16 «half precision» type was introduced in the
     2008 revision of the IEEE 754 standard(1).  This type is not widely
     supported by C compilers.  It’s available as _Float16 type, if the
     compiler supports the Annex H of the C23 standard.

     Added in version 3.15.

  4. Complex types (‘Zf’ and ‘Zd’) are available unconditionally,
     regardless on support for complex types (the Annex G of the C11
     standard) by the C compiler.  As specified in the C11 standard,
     each complex type is represented by a two-element C array
     containing, respectively, the real and imaginary parts.

     Added in version 3.15.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note ctypes: 2a32. and *note struct: 2a2e. modules, as well as
third-party modules like numpy(2), use similar – but slightly different
– type codes.

The actual representation of values is determined by the machine
architecture (strictly speaking, by the C implementation).  The actual
size can be accessed through the *note array.itemsize: 2bcf. attribute.

The module defines the following item:

 -- Δεδομένα: array.typecodes

     A tuple with all available type codes.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The type changed from *note str: 1df. to
     *note tuple: 1ce.

The module defines the following type:

 -- Κλάση: array.array (typecode[, initializer])

     A new array whose items are restricted by 'typecode', and
     initialized from the optional 'initializer' value, which must be a
     *note bytes: 1c7. or *note bytearray: 1c6. object, a Unicode
     string, or iterable over elements of the appropriate type.

     If given a *note bytes: 1c7. or *note bytearray: 1c6. object, the
     initializer is passed to the new array’s *note frombytes(): 1616.
     method; if given a Unicode string, the initializer is passed to the
     *note fromunicode(): 2bd0. method; otherwise, the initializer’s
     iterator is passed to the *note extend(): 2bd1. method to add
     initial items to the array.

     Array objects support the ordinary *note mutable: 27bb. *note
     sequence: 8ff. operations of indexing, slicing, concatenation, and
     multiplication.  When using slice assignment, the assigned value
     must be an array object with the same type code; in all other
     cases, *note TypeError: 291. is raised.  Array objects also
     implement the buffer interface, and may be used wherever *note
     bytes-like objects: 436. are supported.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘array.__new__’ with
     arguments ‘typecode’, ‘initializer’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: typecode

          The typecode character used to create the array.

      -- Ιδιότητα: itemsize

          The length in bytes of one array item in the internal
          representation.

      -- Μέθοδος: append (value, /)

          Append a new item with the specified value to the end of the
          array.

      -- Μέθοδος: buffer_info ()

          Return a tuple ‘(address, length)’ giving the current memory
          address and the length in elements of the buffer used to hold
          array’s contents.  The size of the memory buffer in bytes can
          be computed as ‘array.buffer_info()[1] * array.itemsize’.
          This is occasionally useful when working with low-level (and
          inherently unsafe) I/O interfaces that require memory
          addresses, such as certain ‘ioctl()’ operations.  The returned
          numbers are valid as long as the array exists and no
          length-changing operations are applied to it.

               Σημείωση: When using array objects from code written in C
               or C++ (the only way to effectively make use of this
               information), it makes more sense to use the buffer
               interface supported by array objects.  This method is
               maintained for backward compatibility and should be
               avoided in new code.  The buffer interface is documented
               in *note Buffer Protocol: 311.

      -- Μέθοδος: byteswap ()

          «Byteswap» all items of the array.  This is only supported for
          values which are 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 bytes in size; for other
          types of values, *note RuntimeError: 30d. is raised.  It is
          useful when reading data from a file written on a machine with
          a different byte order.  Note, that for complex types the
          order of components (the real part, followed by imaginary
          part) is preserved.

      -- Μέθοδος: count (value, /)

          Return the number of occurrences of 'value' in the array.

      -- Μέθοδος: extend (iterable, /)

          Append items from 'iterable' to the end of the array.  If
          'iterable' is another array, it must have 'exactly' the same
          type code; if not, *note TypeError: 291. will be raised.  If
          'iterable' is not an array, it must be iterable and its
          elements must be the right type to be appended to the array.

      -- Μέθοδος: frombytes (buffer, /)

          Appends items from the *note bytes-like object: 436,
          interpreting its content as an array of machine values (as if
          it had been read from a file using the *note fromfile(): 1665.
          method).

          Added in version 3.2: ‘fromstring()’ is renamed to
          ‘frombytes()’ for clarity.

      -- Μέθοδος: fromfile (f, n, /)

          Read 'n' items (as machine values) from the *note file object:
          156c. 'f' and append them to the end of the array.  If less
          than 'n' items are available, *note EOFError: 167e. is raised,
          but the items that were available are still inserted into the
          array.

      -- Μέθοδος: fromlist (list, /)

          Append items from the list.  This is equivalent to ‘for x in
          list: a.append(x)’ except that if there is a type error, the
          array is unchanged.

      -- Μέθοδος: fromunicode (ustr, /)

          Extends this array with data from the given Unicode string.
          The array must have type code ‘'u'’ or ‘'w'’; otherwise a
          *note ValueError: 277. is raised.  Use
          ‘array.frombytes(unicodestring.encode(enc))’ to append Unicode
          data to an array of some other type.

      -- Μέθοδος: index (value[, start[, stop]])

          Return the smallest 'i' such that 'i' is the index of the
          first occurrence of 'value' in the array.  The optional
          arguments 'start' and 'stop' can be specified to search for
          'value' within a subsection of the array.  Raise *note
          ValueError: 277. if 'value' is not found.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added optional 'start' and 'stop'
          parameters.

      -- Μέθοδος: insert (index, value, /)

          Insert a new item 'value' in the array before position
          'index'.  Negative values are treated as being relative to the
          end of the array.

      -- Μέθοδος: pop (index=-1, /)

          Removes the item with the index 'i' from the array and returns
          it.  The optional argument defaults to ‘-1’, so that by
          default the last item is removed and returned.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove (value, /)

          Remove the first occurrence of 'value' from the array.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear ()

          Remove all elements from the array.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: reverse ()

          Reverse the order of the items in the array.

      -- Μέθοδος: tobytes ()

          Convert the array to an array of machine values and return the
          bytes representation (the same sequence of bytes that would be
          written to a file by the *note tofile(): 1666. method.)

          Added in version 3.2: ‘tostring()’ is renamed to ‘tobytes()’
          for clarity.

      -- Μέθοδος: tofile (f, /)

          Write all items (as machine values) to the *note file object:
          156c. 'f'.

      -- Μέθοδος: tolist ()

          Convert the array to an ordinary list with the same items.

      -- Μέθοδος: tounicode ()

          Convert the array to a Unicode string.  The array must have a
          type ‘'u'’ or ‘'w'’; otherwise a *note ValueError: 277. is
          raised.  Use ‘array.tobytes().decode(enc)’ to obtain a Unicode
          string from an array of some other type.

The string representation of array objects has the form ‘array(typecode,
initializer)’.  The 'initializer' is omitted if the array is empty,
otherwise it is a Unicode string if the 'typecode' is ‘'u'’ or ‘'w'’,
otherwise it is a list of numbers.  The string representation is
guaranteed to be able to be converted back to an array with the same
type and value using *note eval(): 184, so long as the *note array: 6c5.
class has been imported using ‘from array import array’.  Variables
‘inf’ and ‘nan’ must also be defined if it contains corresponding
floating-point values.  Examples:

     array('l')
     array('w', 'hello \u2641')
     array('l', [1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
     array('d', [1.0, 2.0, 3.14, -inf, nan])

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note struct: de.

     Packing and unpacking of heterogeneous binary data.

NumPy(3)

     The NumPy package defines another array type.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754-2008_revision

   (2) 
https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/arrays.interface.html#object.__array_interface__

   (3) https://numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: weakref — Weak references,  Next: types — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους,  Prev: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values,  Up: Data Types

5.9.9 ‘weakref’ — Weak references
---------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/weakref.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘weakref’ module allows the Python programmer to create 'weak
references' to objects.

In the following, the term 'referent' means the object which is referred
to by a weak reference.

A weak reference to an object is not enough to keep the object alive:
when the only remaining references to a referent are weak references,
*note garbage collection: 19de. is free to destroy the referent and
reuse its memory for something else.  However, until the object is
actually destroyed the weak reference may return the object even if
there are no strong references to it.

A primary use for weak references is to implement caches or mappings
holding large objects, where it’s desired that a large object not be
kept alive solely because it appears in a cache or mapping.

For example, if you have a number of large binary image objects, you may
wish to associate a name with each.  If you used a Python dictionary to
map names to images, or images to names, the image objects would remain
alive just because they appeared as values or keys in the dictionaries.
The *note WeakKeyDictionary: 1b44. and *note WeakValueDictionary: 1b45.
classes supplied by the ‘weakref’ module are an alternative, using weak
references to construct mappings that don’t keep objects alive solely
because they appear in the mapping objects.  If, for example, an image
object is a value in a ‘WeakValueDictionary’, then when the last
remaining references to that image object are the weak references held
by weak mappings, garbage collection can reclaim the object, and its
corresponding entries in weak mappings are simply deleted.

*note WeakKeyDictionary: 1b44. and *note WeakValueDictionary: 1b45. use
weak references in their implementation, setting up callback functions
on the weak references that notify the weak dictionaries when a key or
value has been reclaimed by garbage collection.  *note WeakSet: 9d7.
implements the *note set: 42b. interface, but keeps weak references to
its elements, just like a ‘WeakKeyDictionary’ does.

*note finalize: e3e. provides a straight forward way to register a
cleanup function to be called when an object is garbage collected.  This
is simpler to use than setting up a callback function on a raw weak
reference, since the module automatically ensures that the finalizer
remains alive until the object is collected.

Most programs should find that using one of these weak container types
or *note finalize: e3e. is all they need – it’s not usually necessary to
create your own weak references directly.  The low-level machinery is
exposed by the ‘weakref’ module for the benefit of advanced uses.

Not all objects can be weakly referenced.  Objects which support weak
references include class instances, functions written in Python (but not
in C), instance methods, sets, frozensets, some *note file objects:
156c, *note generators: 1409, type objects, sockets, arrays, deques,
regular expression pattern objects, and code objects.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added support for thread.lock, threading.Lock,
and code objects.

Several built-in types such as *note list: 4d9. and *note dict: 188. do
not directly support weak references but can add support through
subclassing:

     class Dict(dict):
         pass

     obj = Dict(red=1, green=2, blue=3)   # this object is weak referenceable

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Other built-in types such as *note
tuple: 1ce. and *note int: 326. do not support weak references even when
subclassed.

Extension types can easily be made to support weak references; see *note
Weak Reference Support: 2be0.

When ‘__slots__’ are defined for a given type, weak reference support is
disabled unless a ‘'__weakref__'’ string is also present in the sequence
of strings in the ‘__slots__’ declaration.  See *note __slots__
documentation: 1cd. for details.

 -- Κλάση: weakref.ref (object[, callback])

     Return a weak reference to 'object'.  The original object can be
     retrieved by calling the reference object if the referent is still
     alive; if the referent is no longer alive, calling the reference
     object will cause *note None: a65. to be returned.  If 'callback'
     is provided and not ‘None’, and the returned weakref object is
     still alive, the callback will be called when the object is about
     to be finalized; the weak reference object will be passed as the
     only parameter to the callback; the referent will no longer be
     available.

     It is allowable for many weak references to be constructed for the
     same object.  Callbacks registered for each weak reference will be
     called from the most recently registered callback to the oldest
     registered callback.

     Exceptions raised by the callback will be noted on the standard
     error output, but cannot be propagated; they are handled in exactly
     the same way as exceptions raised from an object’s *note __del__():
     13a6. method.

     Weak references are *note hashable: 183. if the 'object' is
     hashable.  They will maintain their hash value even after the
     'object' was deleted.  If *note hash(): 9e2. is called the first
     time only after the 'object' was deleted, the call will raise *note
     TypeError: 291.

     Weak references support tests for equality, but not ordering.  If
     the referents are still alive, two references have the same
     equality relationship as their referents (regardless of the
     'callback').  If either referent has been deleted, the references
     are equal only if the reference objects are the same object.

     This is a subclassable type rather than a factory function.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __callback__

          This read-only attribute returns the callback currently
          associated to the weakref.  If there is no callback or if the
          referent of the weakref is no longer alive then this attribute
          will have value ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added the *note __callback__: 139a.
     attribute.

 -- Συνάρτηση: weakref.proxy (object[, callback])

     Return a proxy to 'object' which uses a weak reference.  This
     supports use of the proxy in most contexts instead of requiring the
     explicit dereferencing used with weak reference objects.  The
     returned object will have a type of either ‘ProxyType’ or
     ‘CallableProxyType’, depending on whether 'object' is callable.
     Proxy objects are not *note hashable: 183. regardless of the
     referent; this avoids a number of problems related to their
     fundamentally mutable nature, and prevents their use as dictionary
     keys.  'callback' is the same as the parameter of the same name to
     the *note ref(): 1399. function.

     Accessing an attribute of the proxy object after the referent is
     garbage collected raises *note ReferenceError: 18af.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Extended the operator support on proxy
     objects to include the matrix multiplication operators ‘@’ and
     ‘@=’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: weakref.getweakrefcount (object)

     Return the number of weak references and proxies which refer to
     'object'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: weakref.getweakrefs (object)

     Return a list of all weak reference and proxy objects which refer
     to 'object'.

 -- Κλάση: weakref.WeakKeyDictionary ([dict])

     Mapping class that references keys weakly.  Entries in the
     dictionary will be discarded when there is no longer a strong
     reference to the key.  This can be used to associate additional
     data with an object owned by other parts of an application without
     adding attributes to those objects.  This can be especially useful
     with objects that override attribute accesses.

     Note that when a key with equal value to an existing key (but not
     equal identity) is inserted into the dictionary, it replaces the
     value but does not replace the existing key.  Due to this, when the
     reference to the original key is deleted, it also deletes the entry
     in the dictionary:

          >>> class T(str): pass
          ...
          >>> k1, k2 = T(), T()
          >>> d = weakref.WeakKeyDictionary()
          >>> d[k1] = 1   # d = {k1: 1}
          >>> d[k2] = 2   # d = {k1: 2}
          >>> del k1      # d = {}

     A workaround would be to remove the key prior to reassignment:

          >>> class T(str): pass
          ...
          >>> k1, k2 = T(), T()
          >>> d = weakref.WeakKeyDictionary()
          >>> d[k1] = 1   # d = {k1: 1}
          >>> del d[k1]
          >>> d[k2] = 2   # d = {k2: 2}
          >>> del k1      # d = {k2: 2}

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added support for ‘|’ and ‘|=’ operators,
     as specified in PEP 584(2).

*note WeakKeyDictionary: 1b44. objects have an additional method that
exposes the internal references directly.  The references are not
guaranteed to be «live» at the time they are used, so the result of
calling the references needs to be checked before being used.  This can
be used to avoid creating references that will cause the garbage
collector to keep the keys around longer than needed.

 -- Μέθοδος: WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs ()

     Return an iterable of the weak references to the keys.

 -- Κλάση: weakref.WeakValueDictionary ([dict])

     Mapping class that references values weakly.  Entries in the
     dictionary will be discarded when no strong reference to the value
     exists any more.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added support for ‘|’ and ‘|=’ operators,
     as specified in PEP 584(3).

*note WeakValueDictionary: 1b45. objects have an additional method that
has the same issues as the *note WeakKeyDictionary.keyrefs(): 2be3.
method.

 -- Μέθοδος: WeakValueDictionary.valuerefs ()

     Return an iterable of the weak references to the values.

 -- Κλάση: weakref.WeakSet ([elements])

     Set class that keeps weak references to its elements.  An element
     will be discarded when no strong reference to it exists any more.

 -- Κλάση: weakref.WeakMethod (method[, callback])

     A custom *note ref: 1399. subclass which simulates a weak reference
     to a bound method (i.e., a method defined on a class and looked up
     on an instance).  Since a bound method is ephemeral, a standard
     weak reference cannot keep hold of it.  ‘WeakMethod’ has special
     code to recreate the bound method until either the object or the
     original function dies:

          >>> class C:
          ...     def method(self):
          ...         print("method called!")
          ...
          >>> c = C()
          >>> r = weakref.ref(c.method)
          >>> r()
          >>> r = weakref.WeakMethod(c.method)
          >>> r()
          <bound method C.method of <__main__.C object at 0x7fc859830220>>
          >>> r()()
          method called!
          >>> del c
          >>> gc.collect()
          0
          >>> r()
          >>>

     'callback' is the same as the parameter of the same name to the
     *note ref(): 1399. function.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Κλάση: weakref.finalize (obj, func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Return a callable finalizer object which will be called when 'obj'
     is garbage collected.  Unlike an ordinary weak reference, a
     finalizer will always survive until the reference object is
     collected, greatly simplifying lifecycle management.

     A finalizer is considered 'alive' until it is called (either
     explicitly or at garbage collection), and after that it is 'dead'.
     Calling a live finalizer returns the result of evaluating
     ‘func(*arg, **kwargs)’, whereas calling a dead finalizer returns
     *note None: a65.

     Exceptions raised by finalizer callbacks during garbage collection
     will be shown on the standard error output, but cannot be
     propagated.  They are handled in the same way as exceptions raised
     from an object’s *note __del__(): 13a6. method or a weak
     reference’s callback.

     When the program exits, each remaining live finalizer is called
     unless its *note atexit: d. attribute has been set to false.  They
     are called in reverse order of creation.

     A finalizer will never invoke its callback during the later part of
     the *note interpreter shutdown: 1a0. when module globals are liable
     to have been replaced by *note None: a65.

      -- Μέθοδος: __call__ ()

          If 'self' is alive then mark it as dead and return the result
          of calling ‘func(*args, **kwargs)’.  If 'self' is dead then
          return *note None: a65.

      -- Μέθοδος: detach ()

          If 'self' is alive then mark it as dead and return the tuple
          ‘(obj, func, args, kwargs)’.  If 'self' is dead then return
          *note None: a65.

      -- Μέθοδος: peek ()

          If 'self' is alive then return the tuple ‘(obj, func, args,
          kwargs)’.  If 'self' is dead then return *note None: a65.

      -- Ιδιότητα: alive

          Property which is true if the finalizer is alive, false
          otherwise.

      -- Ιδιότητα: atexit

          A writable boolean property which by default is true.  When
          the program exits, it calls all remaining live finalizers for
          which *note atexit: 2be9. is true.  They are called in reverse
          order of creation.

          Σημείωση: It is important to ensure that 'func', 'args' and
          'kwargs' do not own any references to 'obj', either directly
          or indirectly, since otherwise 'obj' will never be garbage
          collected.  In particular, 'func' should not be a bound method
          of 'obj'.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: weakref.ReferenceType

     The type object for weak references objects.

 -- Δεδομένα: weakref.ProxyType

     The type object for proxies of objects which are not callable.

 -- Δεδομένα: weakref.CallableProxyType

     The type object for proxies of callable objects.

 -- Δεδομένα: weakref.ProxyTypes

     Sequence containing all the type objects for proxies.  This can
     make it simpler to test if an object is a proxy without being
     dependent on naming both proxy types.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 205(4) - Weak References

     The proposal and rationale for this feature, including links to
     earlier implementations and information about similar features in
     other languages.

* Menu:

* Weak Reference Objects::
* Example: Example<2>.
* Finalizer Objects::
* Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/weakref.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0205/


File: python.info,  Node: Weak Reference Objects,  Next: Example<2>,  Up: weakref — Weak references

5.9.9.1 Weak Reference Objects
..............................

Weak reference objects have no methods and no attributes besides *note
ref.__callback__: 139a.  A weak reference object allows the referent to
be obtained, if it still exists, by calling it:

     >>> import weakref
     >>> class Object:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> o = Object()
     >>> r = weakref.ref(o)
     >>> o2 = r()
     >>> o is o2
     True

If the referent no longer exists, calling the reference object returns
*note None: a65.:

     >>> del o, o2
     >>> print(r())
     None

Testing that a weak reference object is still live should be done using
the expression ‘ref() is not None’.  Normally, application code that
needs to use a reference object should follow this pattern:

     # r is a weak reference object
     o = r()
     if o is None:
         # referent has been garbage collected
         print("Object has been deallocated; can't frobnicate.")
     else:
         print("Object is still live!")
         o.do_something_useful()

Using a separate test for «liveness» creates race conditions in threaded
applications; another thread can cause a weak reference to become
invalidated before the weak reference is called; the idiom shown above
is safe in threaded applications as well as single-threaded
applications.

Specialized versions of *note ref: 1399. objects can be created through
subclassing.  This is used in the implementation of the *note
WeakValueDictionary: 1b45. to reduce the memory overhead for each entry
in the mapping.  This may be most useful to associate additional
information with a reference, but could also be used to insert
additional processing on calls to retrieve the referent.

This example shows how a subclass of *note ref: 1399. can be used to
store additional information about an object and affect the value that’s
returned when the referent is accessed:

     import weakref

     class ExtendedRef(weakref.ref):
         def __init__(self, ob, callback=None, /, **annotations):
             super().__init__(ob, callback)
             self.__counter = 0
             for k, v in annotations.items():
                 setattr(self, k, v)

         def __call__(self):
             """Return a pair containing the referent and the number of
             times the reference has been called.
             """
             ob = super().__call__()
             if ob is not None:
                 self.__counter += 1
                 ob = (ob, self.__counter)
             return ob


File: python.info,  Node: Example<2>,  Next: Finalizer Objects,  Prev: Weak Reference Objects,  Up: weakref — Weak references

5.9.9.2 Example
...............

This simple example shows how an application can use object IDs to
retrieve objects that it has seen before.  The IDs of the objects can
then be used in other data structures without forcing the objects to
remain alive, but the objects can still be retrieved by ID if they do.

     import weakref

     _id2obj_dict = weakref.WeakValueDictionary()

     def remember(obj):
         oid = id(obj)
         _id2obj_dict[oid] = obj
         return oid

     def id2obj(oid):
         return _id2obj_dict[oid]


File: python.info,  Node: Finalizer Objects,  Next: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods,  Prev: Example<2>,  Up: weakref — Weak references

5.9.9.3 Finalizer Objects
.........................

The main benefit of using *note finalize: e3e. is that it makes it
simple to register a callback without needing to preserve the returned
finalizer object.  For instance

     >>> import weakref
     >>> class Object:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> kenny = Object()
     >>> weakref.finalize(kenny, print, "You killed Kenny!")
     <finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
     >>> del kenny
     You killed Kenny!

The finalizer can be called directly as well.  However the finalizer
will invoke the callback at most once.

     >>> def callback(x, y, z):
     ...     print("CALLBACK")
     ...     return x + y + z
     ...
     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
     >>> assert f.alive
     >>> assert f() == 6
     CALLBACK
     >>> assert not f.alive
     >>> f()                     # callback not called because finalizer dead
     >>> del obj                 # callback not called because finalizer dead

You can unregister a finalizer using its *note detach(): 2be6. method.
This kills the finalizer and returns the arguments passed to the
constructor when it was created.

     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> f = weakref.finalize(obj, callback, 1, 2, z=3)
     >>> f.detach()
     (<...Object object ...>, <function callback ...>, (1, 2), {'z': 3})
     >>> newobj, func, args, kwargs = _
     >>> assert not f.alive
     >>> assert newobj is obj
     >>> assert func(*args, **kwargs) == 6
     CALLBACK

Unless you set the *note atexit: 2be9. attribute to *note False: ef5, a
finalizer will be called when the program exits if it is still alive.
For instance

     >>> obj = Object()
     >>> weakref.finalize(obj, print, "obj dead or exiting")
     <finalize object at ...; for 'Object' at ...>
     >>> exit()
     obj dead or exiting


File: python.info,  Node: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods,  Prev: Finalizer Objects,  Up: weakref — Weak references

5.9.9.4 Comparing finalizers with ‘__del__()’ methods
.....................................................

Suppose we want to create a class whose instances represent temporary
directories.  The directories should be deleted with their contents when
the first of the following events occurs:

   * the object is garbage collected,

   * the object’s ‘remove()’ method is called, or

   * the program exits.

We might try to implement the class using a *note __del__(): 13a6.
method as follows:

     class TempDir:
         def __init__(self):
             self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()

         def remove(self):
             if self.name is not None:
                 shutil.rmtree(self.name)
                 self.name = None

         @property
         def removed(self):
             return self.name is None

         def __del__(self):
             self.remove()

Starting with Python 3.4, *note __del__(): 13a6. methods no longer
prevent reference cycles from being garbage collected, and module
globals are no longer forced to *note None: a65. during *note
interpreter shutdown: 1a0.  So this code should work without any issues
on CPython.

However, handling of *note __del__(): 13a6. methods is notoriously
implementation specific, since it depends on internal details of the
interpreter’s garbage collector implementation.

A more robust alternative can be to define a finalizer which only
references the specific functions and objects that it needs, rather than
having access to the full state of the object:

     class TempDir:
         def __init__(self):
             self.name = tempfile.mkdtemp()
             self._finalizer = weakref.finalize(self, shutil.rmtree, self.name)

         def remove(self):
             self._finalizer()

         @property
         def removed(self):
             return not self._finalizer.alive

Defined like this, our finalizer only receives a reference to the
details it needs to clean up the directory appropriately.  If the object
never gets garbage collected the finalizer will still be called at exit.

The other advantage of weakref based finalizers is that they can be used
to register finalizers for classes where the definition is controlled by
a third party, such as running code when a module is unloaded:

     import weakref, sys
     def unloading_module():
         # implicit reference to the module globals from the function body
     weakref.finalize(sys.modules[__name__], unloading_module)

     Σημείωση: If you create a finalizer object in a daemonic thread
     just as the program exits then there is the possibility that the
     finalizer does not get called at exit.  However, in a daemonic
     thread *note atexit.register(): c54, ‘try: ... finally: ...’ and
     ‘with: ...’ do not guarantee that cleanup occurs either.


File: python.info,  Node: types — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους,  Next: copy — Shallow and deep copy operations,  Prev: weakref — Weak references,  Up: Data Types

5.9.10 ‘types’ — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/types.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Αυτό το module ορίζει συναρτήσεις βοηθητικού προγράμματος για να
διευκολύνει τη δυναμική δημιουργία νέων τύπων.

Ορίζει επίσης ονόματα για κάποιους τύπους αντικειμένων που
χρησιμοποιούνται από τον τυπικό διερμηνέα Python, αλλά δεν εκτίθενται ως
ενσωματωμένα όπως οι *note int: 326. ή *note str: 1df.

Τέλος, παρέχει κάποιες πρόσθετες κλάσεις και συναρτήσεις σχετικές με
τους τύπους που δεν είναι αρκετά θεμελιώδεις ώστε να είναι
ενσωματωμένες.

* Menu:

* Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων::
* Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα::
* Πρόσθετες βοηθητικές κλάσεις και συναρτήσεις::
* Βοηθητικές Συναρτήσεις Coroutine::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/types.py


File: python.info,  Node: Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων,  Next: Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα,  Up: types — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους

5.9.10.1 Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων
...................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: types.new_class (name, bases=(), kwds=None,
          exec_body=None)

     Δημιουργεί ένα αντικείμενο κλάσης δυναμικά χρησιμοποιώντας την
     κατάλληλη μετακλάση.

     Τα τρία πρώτα ορίσματα είναι τα στοιχεία που αποτελούν την
     επικεφαλίδα του ορισμού κλάσης: το όνομα της κλάσης, οι βάσεις
     κλάσης (με τη σειρά), τα ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών (όπως
     ‘metaclass’).

     Το όρισμα 'exec_body' είναι μια συνάρτηση που χρησιμοποιείται για
     να γεμίσει το φρέσκο δημιουργημένο namespace κλάσης.  Πρέπει να
     δέχεται το namespace της κλάσης ως μοναδικό όρισμα και να
     ενημερώνει άμεσα το namespace με τα περιεχόμενα της κλάσης.  Αν δεν
     παρέχεται καμία συνάρτηση, έχει το ίδιο αποτέλεσμα με την παράδοση
     ‘lambda ns: None’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: types.prepare_class (name, bases=(), kwds=None)

     Υπολογίζει την κατάλληλη μετακλάση και δημιουργεί το namespace της
     κλάσης.

     Τα ορίσματα είναι τα στοιχεία που αποτελούν την επικεφαλίδα του
     ορισμού κλάσης: το όνομα της κλάσης, οι βάσεις κλάσης (με τη σειρά)
     και τα ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών (όπως ‘metaclass’).

     Η επιστρεφόμενη τιμή είναι μια 3-πλειάδα: ‘metaclass, namespace,
     kwds’

     'metaclass' είναι η κατάλληλη μετακλάση, 'namespace' είναι το
     προετοιμασμένο namespace κλάσης και 'kwds' είναι μια ενημερωμένη
     αντιγραφή του περασμένου ορίσματος 'kwds' με οποιαδήποτε είσοδο
     ‘'metaclass'’ αφαιρεθεί.  Αν δεν περαστεί κανένα όρισμα 'kwds',
     αυτό θα είναι ένα κενό dict.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Η προεπιλεγμένη τιμή για το στοιχείο
     ‘namespace’ της επιστρεφόμενης πλειάδας έχει αλλάξει.  Τώρα
     χρησιμοποιείται μια χαρτογράφηση που διατηρεί τη σειρά εισαγωγής
     όταν η μετακλάση δεν έχει μέθοδο ‘__prepare__’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Μετα-κλάσεις: 25b3.

     Πλήρεις λεπτομέρειες της διαδικασίας δημιουργίας κλάσης που
     υποστηρίζεται από αυτές τις συναρτήσεις

PEP 3115(1) - Μετακλάσεις στην Python 3000

     Εισήγαγε το hook namespace ‘__prepare__’

 -- Συνάρτηση: types.resolve_bases (bases)

     Επιλύει τις καταχωρήσεις MRO δυναμικά όπως καθορίζεται από την PEP
     560(2).

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση αναζητά στοιχεία στις 'bases' που δεν είναι
     στιγμιότυπα της *note type: 186, και επιστρέφει μια πλειάδα όπου
     κάθε τέτοιο αντικείμενο που έχει μια μέθοδο *note
     __mro_entries__(): eb1. αντικαθίσταται με ένα αποσυσκευασμένο
     αποτέλεσμα της κλήσης αυτής της μεθόδου.  Αν ένα στοιχείο 'bases'
     είναι στιγμιότυπο της ‘type’, ή δεν έχει μια μέθοδο
     ‘__mro_entries__()’, τότε περιλαμβάνεται στην επιστρεφόμενη πλειάδα
     χωρίς αλλαγές.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: types.get_original_bases (cls, /)

     Επιστρέφει την πλειάδα αντικειμένων που δόθηκαν αρχικά ως βάσεις
     του 'cls' πριν κληθεί η μέθοδος *note __mro_entries__(): eb1. σε
     οποιαδήποτε βάση (ακολουθώντας τους μηχανισμούς που καθορίζονται
     στην PEP 560(3)).  Αυτό είναι χρήσιμο για την ανάλυση των *note
     Generics: 8df.

     Για κλάσεις που έχουν ένα χαρακτηριστικό ‘__orig_bases__’, αυτή η
     συνάρτηση επιστρέφει την τιμή του ‘cls.__orig_bases__’.  Για
     κλάσεις χωρίς το χαρακτηριστικό ‘__orig_bases__’, επιστρέφεται
     *note cls.__bases__: 184e.

     Παραδείγματα:

          from typing import TypeVar, Generic, NamedTuple, TypedDict

          T = TypeVar("T")
          class Foo(Generic[T]): ...
          class Bar(Foo[int], float): ...
          class Baz(list[str]): ...
          Eggs = NamedTuple("Eggs", [("a", int), ("b", str)])
          Spam = TypedDict("Spam", {"a": int, "b": str})

          assert Bar.__bases__ == (Foo, float)
          assert get_original_bases(Bar) == (Foo[int], float)

          assert Baz.__bases__ == (list,)
          assert get_original_bases(Baz) == (list[str],)

          assert Eggs.__bases__ == (tuple,)
          assert get_original_bases(Eggs) == (NamedTuple,)

          assert Spam.__bases__ == (dict,)
          assert get_original_bases(Spam) == (TypedDict,)

          assert int.__bases__ == (object,)
          assert get_original_bases(int) == (object,)

     Added in version 3.12.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 560(4) - Βασική υποστήριξη για το module typing και γενικούς τύπους

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/


File: python.info,  Node: Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα,  Next: Πρόσθετες βοηθητικές κλάσεις και συναρτήσεις,  Prev: Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων,  Up: types — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους

5.9.10.2 Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα
................................

Αυτό το module παρέχει ονόματα για πολλούς από τους τύπους που
απαιτούνται για να υλοποιηθεί ένας διερμηνέας Python.  Αποφεύγει σκόπιμα
να συμπεριλάβει κάποιους από τους τύπους που προκύπτουν μόνο
παρεμπιπτόντως κατά τη διάρκεια της επεξεργασίας, όπως ο τύπος
‘listiterator’.

Τυπική χρήση αυτών των ονομάτων είναι για ελέγχους *note isinstance():
2ef. ή *note issubclass(): 2f0.

Αν δημιουργήσετε στιγμιότυπα από αυτούς τους τύπους, σημειώστε ότι οι
υπογραφές μπορεί να διαφέρουν μεταξύ εκδόσεων Python.

Τυπικά ονόματα ορίζονται για τους παρακάτω τύπους:

 -- Δεδομένα: types.NoneType

     Ο τύπος του *note None: a65.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.FunctionType
 -- Δεδομένα: types.LambdaType

     Ο τύπος των συναρτήσεων που ορίζονται από τον χρήστη και των
     συναρτήσεων που δημιουργούνται από εκφράσεις *note lambda: 1642.

     Κάνει raise ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘function.__new__’ με
     το όρισμα ‘code’.

     Το audit event συμβαίνει μόνο για άμεσες δημιουργίες αντικειμένων
     συναρτήσεων και δεν γίνεται raise κατά τη διάρκεια της κανονικής
     μεταγλώττισης.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.GeneratorType

     Ο τύπος των αντικειμένων *note generator: 1409.-iterator, που
     δημιουργούνται από συναρτήσεις γεννητριών.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.CoroutineType

     Ο τύπος των αντικειμένων *note coroutine: 8a2, που δημιουργούνται
     από συναρτήσεις *note async def: 9cf.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.AsyncGeneratorType

     Ο τύπος των αντικειμένων *note asynchronous generator:
     2692.-iterator, που δημιουργούνται από ασύγχρονες συναρτήσεις
     γεννητριών.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Κλάση: types.CodeType (**kwargs)

     Ο τύπος των *note code objects: 6eb. όπως επιστρέφεται από τη *note
     compile(): 1c8.

     Κάνει raise ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘code.__new__’ με τα
     ορίσματα ‘code’, ‘filename’, ‘name’, ‘argcount’, ‘posonlyargcount’,
     ‘kwonlyargcount’, ‘nlocals’, ‘stacksize’, ‘flags’.

     Σημειώστε ότι τα ελεγχόμενα ορίσματα μπορεί να μην ταιριάζουν με τα
     ονόματα ή τις θέσεις που απαιτούνται από τον αρχικοποιητή.  Το
     audit event συμβαίνει μόνο για άμεσες δημιουργίες αντικειμένων
     κώδικα και δεν γίνεται raise κατά τη διάρκεια της κανονικής
     μεταγλώττισης.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.CellType

     Ο τύπος για τα αντικείμενα κελιών: τέτοια αντικείμενα
     χρησιμοποιούνται ως δοχεία για τις *note closure variables: 1ab7.
     μιας συνάρτησης.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.MethodType

     Ο τύπος των μεθόδων των στιγμιοτύπων κλάσεων που ορίζονται από τον
     χρήστη.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.BuiltinFunctionType
 -- Δεδομένα: types.BuiltinMethodType

     Ο τύπος των ενσωματωμένων συναρτήσεων όπως *note len(): a1f. ή
     *note sys.exit(): 4ff, και μεθόδων ενσωματωμένων κλάσεων.  (Εδώ, ο
     όρος «built-in» σημαίνει «γραμμένος σε C».)

 -- Δεδομένα: types.WrapperDescriptorType

     Ο τύπος των μεθόδων κάποιων ενσωματωμένων τύπων δεδομένων και
     βάσεων κλάσεων όπως *note object.__init__(): 2fa. ή *note
     object.__lt__(): 1645.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.MethodWrapperType

     Ο τύπος των 'bound' μεθόδων κάποιων ενσωματωμένων τύπων δεδομένων
     και βάσεων κλάσεων.  Για παράδειγμα είναι ο τύπος του
     ‘object().__str__’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.NotImplementedType

     Ο τύπος του *note NotImplemented: 440.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.MethodDescriptorType

     Ο τύπος των μεθόδων κάποιων ενσωματωμένων τύπων δεδομένων όπως
     *note str.join(): 2803.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.ClassMethodDescriptorType

     Ο τύπος των 'unbound' μεθόδων κλάσης κάποιων ενσωματωμένων τύπων
     δεδομένων όπως ‘dict.__dict__['fromkeys']’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Κλάση: types.ModuleType (name, doc=None)

     Ο τύπος των *note modules: 1be7.  Ο κατασκευαστής δέχεται το όνομα
     του module που θα δημιουργηθεί και προαιρετικά την *note docstring:
     24dd. του.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note Documentation on module objects: 254f.

          Παρέχει λεπτομέρειες για τα ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά που μπορούν
          να βρεθούν σε στιγμιότυπα της ‘ModuleType’.

     *note importlib.util.module_from_spec(): 11c6.

          Τα modules που δημιουργούνται χρησιμοποιώντας τον κατασκευαστή
          ‘ModuleType’ δημιουργούνται με πολλά από τα ειδικά
          χαρακτηριστικά τους μη ρυθμισμένα ή ρυθμισμένα σε
          προεπιλεγμένες τιμές.  Η ‘module_from_spec()’ παρέχει έναν πιο
          ανθεκτικό τρόπο δημιουργίας στιγμιοτύπων ‘ModuleType’ που
          διασφαλίζει ότι τα διάφορα χαρακτηριστικά είναι ρυθμισμένα
          κατάλληλα.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.EllipsisType

     Ο τύπος του *note Ellipsis: 2519.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Κλάση: types.GenericAlias (t_origin, t_args)

     O τύπος των *note parameterized generics: a9f. όπως το ‘list[int]’.

     ‘t_origin’ θα πρέπει να είναι μια μη παραμετροποιημένη γενική
     κλάση, όπως ‘list’, ‘tuple’ ή ‘dict’.  ‘t_args’ θα πρέπει να είναι
     μια *note tuple: 1ce. (πιθανώς μήκους 1) τύπων που παραμετροποιούν
     το ‘t_origin’:

          >>> from types import GenericAlias

          >>> list[int] == GenericAlias(list, (int,))
          True
          >>> dict[str, int] == GenericAlias(dict, (str, int))
          True

     Added in version 3.9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9.2: Αυτός ο τύπος μπορεί πλέον να
     κληρονομείται.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note Generic Alias Types: a9f.

          Λεπτομερής τεκμηρίωση για τα στιγμιότυπα της
          ‘types.GenericAlias’

     PEP 585(1) - Υποδείξεις τύπου Generics σε τυπικές συλλογές

          Εισαγωγή στην κλάση ‘types.GenericAlias’

 -- Κλάση: types.UnionType

     Ο τύπος των *note union type expressions: ba2.

     Added in version 3.10.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Αυτό είναι τώρα ένα ψευδώνυμο για την
     κλάση *note typing.Union: 341.

 -- Κλάση: types.TracebackType (tb_next, tb_frame, tb_lasti, tb_lineno)

     Ο τύπος των αντικειμένων traceback όπως αυτά που βρίσκονται στο
     ‘sys.exception().__traceback__’.

     Δείτε *note the language reference: eba. για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά
     με τα διαθέσιμα χαρακτηριστικά και τις λειτουργίες, καθώς και
     οδηγίες για τη δυναμική δημιουργία tracebacks.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.FrameType

     Ο τύπος των *note frame objects: acd. όπως αυτά που βρίσκονται στο
     *note tb.tb_frame: 2595. αν το ‘tb’ είναι ένα αντικείμενο
     traceback.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.FrameLocalsProxyType

     The type of frame locals proxy objects, as found on the *note
     frame.f_locals: 28d. attribute.

     Added in version 3.15.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 667(2)

 -- Δεδομένα: types.LazyImportType

     The type of lazy import proxy objects.  These objects are created
     when a module is lazily imported and serve as placeholders until
     the module is actually accessed.  This type can be used to detect
     lazy imports programmatically.

     Added in version 3.15.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 810(3)

 -- Δεδομένα: types.GetSetDescriptorType

     Ο τύπος των αντικειμένων που ορίζονται σε επεκτάσιμα modules με
     ‘PyGetSetDef’, όπως *note FrameType.f_locals: 28d. ή
     ‘array.array.typecode’.  Αυτός ο τύπος χρησιμοποιείται ως
     περιγραφέας για τα χαρακτηριστικά του αντικειμένου.  Έχει τον ίδιο
     σκοπό με τον τύπο *note property: 6bb, αλλά για κλάσεις που
     ορίζονται σε επεκτάσιμα modules.

 -- Δεδομένα: types.MemberDescriptorType

     Ο τύπος των αντικειμένων που ορίζονται σε επεκτάσιμα modules με
     ‘PyMemberDef’, όπως το ‘datetime.timedelta.days’.  Αυτός ο τύπος
     χρησιμοποιείται ως περιγραφέας για απλά μέλη δεδομένων C που
     χρησιμοποιούν τυπικές συναρτήσεις μετατροπής.  Έχει τον ίδιο σκοπό
     με τον τύπο *note property: 6bb, αλλά για κλάσεις που ορίζονται σε
     επεκτάσιμα modules.

     Επιπλέον, όταν μια κλάση ορίζεται με ένα χαρακτηριστικό *note
     __slots__: 188d, τότε για κάθε slot, θα προστεθεί ένα στιγμιότυπο
     της ‘MemberDescriptorType’ ως χαρακτηριστικό στην κλάση.  Αυτό
     επιτρέπει στο slot να εμφανίζεται στο *note __dict__: 101b. της
     κλάσης.

     Σε άλλες υλοποιήσεις της Python, αυτός ο τύπος μπορεί να είναι
     ταυτόσημος με το ‘GetSetDescriptorType’.

 -- Κλάση: types.MappingProxyType (mapping)

     Read-only αναγνωριστικό για μια αντιστοίχιση.  Παρέχει μια δυναμική
     προβολή στις καταχωρήσεις της αντιστοίχισης, που σημαίνει ότι όταν
     η αντιστοίχιση αλλάζει, η προβολή αντικατοπτρίζει αυτές τις
     αλλαγές.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Ενημερώθηκε για να υποστηρίζει τον νέο
     τελεστή ένωσης (‘|’) από την PEP 584(4), ο οποίος απλά αναθέτει
     στην υποκείμενη αντιστοίχιση.

      -- Describe: key in proxy

          Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν η υποκείμενη αντιστοίχιση έχει το κλειδί
          'key', αλλιώς ‘False’.

      -- Describe: proxy[key]

          Επιστρέφει το στοιχείο της υποκείμενης αντιστοίχισης με το
          κλειδί 'key'.  Κάνει raise μια *note KeyError: 7df. αν το
          'key' δεν είναι στην υποκείμενη αντιστοίχιση.

      -- Describe: iter(proxy)

          Επιστρέφει έναν iterator πάνω από τα κλειδιά της υποκείμενης
          αντιστοίχισης.  Αυτό είναι μια συντόμευση για
          ‘iter(proxy.keys())’.

      -- Describe: len(proxy)

          Επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των στοιχείων στην υποκείμενη
          αντιστοίχιση.

      -- Μέθοδος: copy ()

          Επιστρέφει ένα ρηχό αντίγραφο της υποκείμενης αντιστοίχισης.

      -- Μέθοδος: get (key[, default])

          Επιστρέφει την τιμή για το 'key' αν το 'key' είναι στην
          υποκείμενη αντιστοίχιση, αλλιώς 'default'.  Αν το 'default'
          δεν δοθεί, προεπιλέγεται σε ‘None’, έτσι ώστε αυτή η μέθοδος
          να μην κάνει ποτέ raise μια *note KeyError: 7df.

      -- Μέθοδος: items ()

          Επιστρέφει μια νέα προβολή των στοιχείων της υποκείμενης
          αντιστοίχισης (ζεύγη ‘(key, value)’).

      -- Μέθοδος: keys ()

          Επιστρέφει μια νέα προβολή των κλειδιών της υποκείμενης
          αντιστοίχισης.

      -- Μέθοδος: values ()

          Επιστρέφει μια νέα προβολή των τιμών της υποκείμενης
          αντιστοίχισης.

      -- Describe: reversed(proxy)

          Επιστρέφει έναν αντίστροφο iterator πάνω από τα κλειδιά της
          υποκείμενης αντιστοίχισης.

          Added in version 3.9.

      -- Describe: hash(proxy)

          Επιστρέφει ένα hash της υποκείμενης αντιστοίχισης.

          Added in version 3.12.

 -- Κλάση: types.CapsuleType

     Ο τύπος των *note capsule objects: 2c04.

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0810/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/


File: python.info,  Node: Πρόσθετες βοηθητικές κλάσεις και συναρτήσεις,  Next: Βοηθητικές Συναρτήσεις Coroutine,  Prev: Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα,  Up: types — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους

5.9.10.3 Πρόσθετες βοηθητικές κλάσεις και συναρτήσεις
.....................................................

 -- Κλάση: types.SimpleNamespace

     Απλή υποκλάση *note object: e4d. που παρέχει πρόσβαση
     χαρακτηριστικών στο χώρο ονομάτων της, καθώς και μια σημαντική
     αναπαράσταση.

     Σε αντίθεση με την *note object: e4d, με την ‘SimpleNamespace’
     μπορείτε να προσθέσετε και να αφαιρέσετε χαρακτηριστικά.

     Τα αντικείμενα *note SimpleNamespace: 6ea. μπορούν να
     αρχικοποιηθούν με τον ίδιο τρόπο όπως η *note dict: 188.: είτε με
     ονόματα χαρακτηριστικών, είτε με ένα μόνο οριστικό όρισμα, είτε και
     με τα δύο.  Όταν αρχικοποιούνται με ονόματα χαρακτηριστικών, αυτά
     προστίθενται απευθείας στο υποκείμενο χώρο ονομάτων.  Εναλλακτικά,
     όταν αρχικοποιούνται με ένα οριστικό όρισμα, το υποκείμενο χώρο
     ονομάτων θα ενημερωθεί με ζεύγη κλειδιού-τιμής από αυτό το όρισμα
     (είτε ένα αντικείμενο αντιστοίχισης είτε ένα *note iterable: 15ce.
     αντικείμενο που παράγει ζεύγη κλειδιού-τιμής).  Όλα αυτά τα κλειδιά
     πρέπει να είναι συμβολοσειρές.

     Ο τύπος είναι περίπου ισοδύναμος με τον παρακάτω κώδικα:

          class SimpleNamespace:
              def __init__(self, mapping_or_iterable=(), /, **kwargs):
                  self.__dict__.update(mapping_or_iterable)
                  self.__dict__.update(kwargs)

              def __repr__(self):
                  items = (f"{k}={v!r}" for k, v in self.__dict__.items())
                  return "{}({})".format(type(self).__name__, ", ".join(items))

              def __eq__(self, other):
                  if isinstance(self, SimpleNamespace) and isinstance(other, SimpleNamespace):
                     return self.__dict__ == other.__dict__
                  return NotImplemented

     Το ‘SimpleNamespace’ μπορεί να είναι χρήσιμο ως αντικατάσταση για
     το ‘class NS: pass’.  Ωστόσο, για έναν δομημένο τύπο εγγραφής
     χρησιμοποιήστε *note namedtuple(): 1cf. αντί αυτού.

     ‘SimpleNamespace’ αντικείμενα υποστηρίζονται από την *note
     copy.replace(): 45a.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Η σειρά των χαρακτηριστικών στην
     αναπαράσταση άλλαξε από αλφαβητική σε εισαγωγή (όπως το ‘dict’).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Προστέθηκε υποστήριξη για ένα προαιρετικό
     οριστικό όρισμα.

 -- Συνάρτηση: types.DynamicClassAttribute (fget=None, fset=None,
          fdel=None, doc=None)

     Δρομολόγηση πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών σε μια κλάση στο __getattr__.

     Αυτός είναι ένας περιγραφέας, που χρησιμοποιείται για τον ορισμό
     χαρακτηριστικών που δρουν διαφορετικά όταν προσπελάζονται μέσω ενός
     στιγμιότυπου και μέσω μιας κλάσης.  Η πρόσβαση στο στιγμιότυπο
     παραμένει κανονική, αλλά η πρόσβαση σε ένα χαρακτηριστικό μέσω μιας
     κλάσης θα δρομολογηθεί στη μέθοδο __getattr__ της κλάσης.  Αυτό
     γίνεται κάνοντας raise ένα AttributeError.

     Αυτό επιτρέπει να έχετε ιδιότητες ενεργές σε ένα στιγμιότυπο και να
     έχετε εικονικά χαρακτηριστικά στην κλάση με το ίδιο όνομα (βλ.
     *note enum.Enum: a21. για παράδειγμα).

     Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Βοηθητικές Συναρτήσεις Coroutine,  Prev: Πρόσθετες βοηθητικές κλάσεις και συναρτήσεις,  Up: types — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους

5.9.10.4 Βοηθητικές Συναρτήσεις Coroutine
.........................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: types.coroutine (gen_func)

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση μετατρέπει μια *note generator: 1409. συνάρτηση σε
     μια *note coroutine function: 112c. που επιστρέφει μια coroutine
     βασισμένη σε γεννήτρια.  Η coroutine βασισμένη σε γεννήτρια είναι
     ακόμα ένας *note generator iterator: f9e, αλλά θεωρείται επίσης ότι
     είναι ένα αντικείμενο *note coroutine: 8a2. και είναι *note
     awaitable: 6cf.  Ωστόσο, δεν είναι απαραίτητο να υλοποιεί τη μέθοδο
     *note __await__(): 112e.

     Αν το 'gen_func' είναι μια γεννήτρια συνάρτηση, θα τροποποιηθεί
     επιτόπου.

     Αν το 'gen_func' δεν είναι μια γεννήτρια συνάρτηση, θα τυλιχθεί.
     Αν επιστρέφει μια παρουσία της *note collections.abc.Generator:
     1193, το στιγμιότυπο θα τυλιχθεί σε ένα 'awaitable' αντικείμενο
     proxy.  Όλοι οι άλλοι τύποι αντικειμένων θα επιστραφούν όπως είναι.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: copy — Shallow and deep copy operations,  Next: pprint — Data pretty printer,  Prev: types — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους,  Up: Data Types

5.9.11 ‘copy’ — Shallow and deep copy operations
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/copy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Assignment statements in Python do not copy objects, they create
bindings between a target and an object.  For collections that are
mutable or contain mutable items, a copy is sometimes needed so one can
change one copy without changing the other.  This module provides
generic shallow and deep copy operations (explained below).

Interface summary:

 -- Συνάρτηση: copy.copy (obj)

     Return a shallow copy of 'obj'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: copy.deepcopy (obj[, memo])

     Return a deep copy of 'obj'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: copy.replace (obj, /, **changes)

     Creates a new object of the same type as 'obj', replacing fields
     with values from 'changes'.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Εξαίρεση: copy.Error

     Raised for module specific errors.
The difference between shallow and deep copying is only relevant for
compound objects (objects that contain other objects, like lists or
class instances):

   * A 'shallow copy' constructs a new compound object and then (to the
     extent possible) inserts 'references' into it to the objects found
     in the original.

   * A 'deep copy' constructs a new compound object and then,
     recursively, inserts 'copies' into it of the objects found in the
     original.

Two problems often exist with deep copy operations that don’t exist with
shallow copy operations:

   * Recursive objects (compound objects that, directly or indirectly,
     contain a reference to themselves) may cause a recursive loop.

   * Because deep copy copies everything it may copy too much, such as
     data which is intended to be shared between copies.

The *note deepcopy(): f2b. function avoids these problems by:

   * keeping a ‘memo’ dictionary of objects already copied during the
     current copying pass; and

   * letting user-defined classes override the copying operation or the
     set of components copied.

This module does not copy types like module, method, stack trace, stack
frame, file, socket, window, or any similar types.  It does «copy»
functions and classes (shallow and deeply), by returning the original
object unchanged; this is compatible with the way these are treated by
the *note pickle: ab. module.

Shallow copies of dictionaries can be made using *note dict.copy(): f8e,
and of lists by assigning a slice of the entire list, for example,
‘copied_list = original_list[:]’.

Classes can use the same interfaces to control copying that they use to
control pickling.  See the description of module *note pickle: ab. for
information on these methods.  In fact, the ‘copy’ module uses the
registered pickle functions from the *note copyreg: 2a. module.

In order for a class to define its own copy implementation, it can
define special methods *note __copy__(): 1a4c. and *note __deepcopy__():
1909.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__copy__ (self)

     Called to implement the shallow copy operation; no additional
     arguments are passed.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__deepcopy__ (self, memo)

     Called to implement the deep copy operation; it is passed one
     argument, the 'memo' dictionary.  If the ‘__deepcopy__’
     implementation needs to make a deep copy of a component, it should
     call the *note deepcopy(): f2b. function with the component as
     first argument and the 'memo' dictionary as second argument.  The
     'memo' dictionary should be treated as an opaque object.

Function ‘copy.replace()’ is more limited than *note copy(): 942. and
*note deepcopy(): f2b, and only supports named tuples created by *note
namedtuple(): 1cf, *note dataclasses: 32, and other classes which define
method *note __replace__(): 68b.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__replace__ (self, /, **changes)

     This method should create a new object of the same type, replacing
     fields with values from 'changes'.

     Added in version 3.13.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note pickle: ab.

     Discussion of the special methods used to support object state
     retrieval and restoration.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/copy.py


File: python.info,  Node: pprint — Data pretty printer,  Next: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation,  Prev: copy — Shallow and deep copy operations,  Up: Data Types

5.9.12 ‘pprint’ — Data pretty printer
-------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pprint.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘pprint’ module provides a capability to «pretty-print» arbitrary
Python data structures in a form which can be used as input to the
interpreter.  If the formatted structures include objects which are not
fundamental Python types, the representation may not be loadable.  This
may be the case if objects such as files, sockets or classes are
included, as well as many other objects which are not representable as
Python literals.

The formatted representation keeps objects on a single line if it can,
and breaks them onto multiple lines if they don’t fit within the allowed
width, adjustable by the 'width' parameter defaulting to 88 characters.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added support for pretty-printing *note
types.SimpleNamespace: 6ea.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added support for pretty-printing *note
dataclasses.dataclass: 6e6.

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<3>.
* PrettyPrinter objects::
* Example: Example<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/pprint.py


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<3>,  Next: PrettyPrinter objects,  Up: pprint — Data pretty printer

5.9.12.1 Functions
..................

 -- Συνάρτηση: pprint.pp (object, stream=None, indent=4, width=88,
          depth=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=False,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     Prints the formatted representation of 'object', followed by a
     newline.  This function may be used in the interactive interpreter
     instead of the *note print(): 131f. function for inspecting values.
     Tip: you can reassign ‘print = pprint.pp’ for use within a scope.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘object’ – The object to be printed.

        * ‘stream’ (*note file-like object: 19b1. | None) – A file-like
          object to which the output will be written by calling its
          ‘write()’ method.  If ‘None’ (the default), *note sys.stdout:
          e9c. is used.

        * ‘indent’ (*note int: 326.) – The amount of indentation added
          for each nesting level.

        * ‘width’ (*note int: 326.) – The desired maximum number of
          characters per line in the output.  If a structure cannot be
          formatted within the width constraint, a best effort will be
          made.

        * ‘depth’ (*note int: 326.‘ | ’‘None’) – The number of nesting
          levels which may be printed.  If the data structure being
          printed is too deep, the next contained level is replaced by
          ‘...’.  If ‘None’ (the default), there is no constraint on the
          depth of the objects being formatted.

        * ‘compact’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – Control the way long *note
          sequences: 8ff. are formatted.  If ‘False’ (the default),
          opening parentheses and brackets will be followed by a newline
          and the following content will be indented by one level,
          similar to pretty-printed JSON. If ‘True’, as many items as
          will fit within the 'width' will be formatted on each output
          line.

        * ‘sort_dicts’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – If ‘True’, dictionaries will
          be formatted with their keys sorted, otherwise they will be
          displayed in insertion order (the default).

        * ‘underscore_numbers’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – If ‘True’, integers
          will be formatted with the ‘_’ character for a thousands
          separator, otherwise underscores are not displayed (the
          default).

          >>> import pprint
          >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
          >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff)
          >>> pprint.pp(stuff, width=100)
          [<Recursion on list with id=...>, 'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pprint.pprint (object, stream=None, indent=4, width=88,
          depth=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     Alias for *note pp(): de7. with 'sort_dicts' set to ‘True’ by
     default, which would automatically sort the dictionaries” keys, you
     might want to use ‘pp()’ instead where it is ‘False’ by default.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pprint.pformat (object, indent=4, width=88, depth=None,
          *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True, underscore_numbers=False)

     Return the formatted representation of 'object' as a string.
     'indent', 'width', 'depth', 'compact', 'sort_dicts' and
     'underscore_numbers' are passed to the *note PrettyPrinter: 1329.
     constructor as formatting parameters and their meanings are as
     described in the documentation above.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pprint.isreadable (object)

     Determine if the formatted representation of 'object' is
     «readable», or can be used to reconstruct the value using *note
     eval(): 184.  This always returns ‘False’ for recursive objects.

          >>> pprint.isreadable(stuff)
          False

 -- Συνάρτηση: pprint.isrecursive (object)

     Determine if 'object' requires a recursive representation.  This
     function is subject to the same limitations as noted in *note
     saferepr(): 2c12. below and may raise an *note RecursionError:
     1121. if it fails to detect a recursive object.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pprint.saferepr (object)

     Return a string representation of 'object', protected against
     recursion in some common data structures, namely instances of *note
     dict: 188, *note list: 4d9. and *note tuple: 1ce. or subclasses
     whose ‘__repr__’ has not been overridden.  If the representation of
     object exposes a recursive entry, the recursive reference will be
     represented as ‘<Recursion on typename with id=number>’.  The
     representation is not otherwise formatted.

          >>> pprint.saferepr(stuff)
          "[<Recursion on list with id=...>, 'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']"


File: python.info,  Node: PrettyPrinter objects,  Next: Example<3>,  Prev: Functions<3>,  Up: pprint — Data pretty printer

5.9.12.2 PrettyPrinter objects
..............................

 -- Κλάση: pprint.PrettyPrinter (indent=4, width=88, depth=None,
          stream=None, *, compact=False, sort_dicts=True,
          underscore_numbers=False)

     Construct a ‘PrettyPrinter’ instance.

     Arguments have the same meaning as for *note pp(): de7.  Note that
     they are in a different order, and that 'sort_dicts' defaults to
     ‘True’.

          >>> import pprint
          >>> stuff = ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni']
          >>> stuff.insert(0, stuff[:])
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter()
          >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
          [
              ['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights', 'ni'],
              'spam',
              'eggs',
              'lumberjack',
              'knights',
              'ni',
          ]
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(indent=1, width=41, compact=True)
          >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
          [['spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack',
            'knights', 'ni'],
           'spam', 'eggs', 'lumberjack', 'knights',
           'ni']
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(width=41, indent=3)
          >>> pp.pprint(stuff)
          [
             [
                'spam',
                'eggs',
                'lumberjack',
                'knights',
                'ni',
             ],
             'spam',
             'eggs',
             'lumberjack',
             'knights',
             'ni',
          ]
          >>> tup = ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead',
          ... ('parrot', ('fresh fruit',))))))))
          >>> pp = pprint.PrettyPrinter(depth=6)
          >>> pp.pprint(tup)
          ('spam', ('eggs', ('lumberjack', ('knights', ('ni', ('dead', (...)))))))

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added the 'compact' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the 'sort_dicts' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the 'underscore_numbers' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: No longer attempts to write to
     ‘sys.stdout’ if it is ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Changed default 'indent' from 1 to 4 and
     default 'width' from 80 to 88.  The default ‘compact=False’ layout
     is now similar to pretty-printed JSON, with opening parentheses and
     brackets followed by a newline and the contents indented by one
     level.

*note PrettyPrinter: 1329. instances have the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: PrettyPrinter.pformat (object)

     Return the formatted representation of 'object'.  This takes into
     account the options passed to the *note PrettyPrinter: 1329.
     constructor.

 -- Μέθοδος: PrettyPrinter.pprint (object)

     Print the formatted representation of 'object' on the configured
     stream, followed by a newline.

The following methods provide the implementations for the corresponding
functions of the same names.  Using these methods on an instance is
slightly more efficient since new *note PrettyPrinter: 1329. objects
don’t need to be created.

 -- Μέθοδος: PrettyPrinter.isreadable (object)

     Determine if the formatted representation of the object is
     «readable,» or can be used to reconstruct the value using *note
     eval(): 184.  Note that this returns ‘False’ for recursive objects.
     If the 'depth' parameter of the *note PrettyPrinter: 1329. is set
     and the object is deeper than allowed, this returns ‘False’.

 -- Μέθοδος: PrettyPrinter.isrecursive (object)

     Determine if the object requires a recursive representation.

This method is provided as a hook to allow subclasses to modify the way
objects are converted to strings.  The default implementation uses the
internals of the *note saferepr(): 2c12. implementation.

 -- Μέθοδος: PrettyPrinter.format (object, context, maxlevels, level)

     Returns three values: the formatted version of 'object' as a
     string, a flag indicating whether the result is readable, and a
     flag indicating whether recursion was detected.  The first argument
     is the object to be presented.  The second is a dictionary which
     contains the *note id(): 17c5. of objects that are part of the
     current presentation context (direct and indirect containers for
     'object' that are affecting the presentation) as the keys; if an
     object needs to be presented which is already represented in
     'context', the third return value should be ‘True’.  Recursive
     calls to the ‘format()’ method should add additional entries for
     containers to this dictionary.  The third argument, 'maxlevels',
     gives the requested limit to recursion; this will be ‘0’ if there
     is no requested limit.  This argument should be passed unmodified
     to recursive calls.  The fourth argument, 'level', gives the
     current level; recursive calls should be passed a value less than
     that of the current call.


File: python.info,  Node: Example<3>,  Prev: PrettyPrinter objects,  Up: pprint — Data pretty printer

5.9.12.3 Example
................

To demonstrate several uses of the *note pp(): de7. function and its
parameters, let’s fetch information about a project from PyPI(1):

     >>> import json
     >>> import pprint
     >>> from urllib.request import urlopen
     >>> with urlopen('https://pypi.org/pypi/sampleproject/1.2.0/json') as resp:
     ...     project_info = json.load(resp)['info']

In its basic form, *note pp(): de7. shows the whole object:

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info)
     {
         'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
         'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
         'bugtrack_url': None,
         'classifiers': [
             'Development Status :: 3 - Alpha',
             'Intended Audience :: Developers',
             'License :: OSI Approved :: MIT License',
             'Programming Language :: Python :: 2',
             'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.6',
             'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.7',
             'Programming Language :: Python :: 3',
             'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.2',
             'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.3',
             'Programming Language :: Python :: 3.4',
             'Topic :: Software Development :: Build Tools',
         ],
         'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
         '=======================\n'
         '\n'
         'This is the description file for the project.\n'
         '\n'
         'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using ReStructured Text. It\n'
         'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and should be written for\n'
         'that purpose.\n'
         '\n'
         'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of the project, basic\n'
         'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project changelog in here is not\n'
         'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the most recent version\n'
         'may be appropriate.',
         'description_content_type': None,
         'docs_url': None,
         'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
         'downloads': {'last_day': -1, 'last_month': -1, 'last_week': -1},
         'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
         'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
         'license': 'MIT',
         'maintainer': None,
         'maintainer_email': None,
         'name': 'sampleproject',
         'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
         'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
         'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
         'project_urls': {'Download': 'UNKNOWN', 'Homepage': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject'},
         'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
         'requires_dist': None,
         'requires_python': None,
         'summary': 'A sample Python project',
         'version': '1.2.0',
     }

The result can be limited to a certain 'depth' (ellipsis is used for
deeper contents):

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info, depth=1)
     {
         'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
         'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
         'bugtrack_url': None,
         'classifiers': [...],
         'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
         '=======================\n'
         '\n'
         'This is the description file for the project.\n'
         '\n'
         'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written using ReStructured Text. It\n'
         'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, and should be written for\n'
         'that purpose.\n'
         '\n'
         'Typical contents for this file would include an overview of the project, basic\n'
         'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project changelog in here is not\n'
         'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section for the most recent version\n'
         'may be appropriate.',
         'description_content_type': None,
         'docs_url': None,
         'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
         'downloads': {...},
         'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
         'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
         'license': 'MIT',
         'maintainer': None,
         'maintainer_email': None,
         'name': 'sampleproject',
         'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
         'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
         'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
         'project_urls': {...},
         'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
         'requires_dist': None,
         'requires_python': None,
         'summary': 'A sample Python project',
         'version': '1.2.0',
     }

Additionally, maximum character 'width' can be suggested.  If a long
object cannot be split, the specified width will be exceeded:

     >>> pprint.pp(project_info, depth=1, width=60)
     {
         'author': 'The Python Packaging Authority',
         'author_email': 'pypa-dev@googlegroups.com',
         'bugtrack_url': None,
         'classifiers': [...],
         'description': 'A sample Python project\n'
         '=======================\n'
         '\n'
         'This is the description file for the project.\n'
         '\n'
         'The file should use UTF-8 encoding and be written '
         'using ReStructured Text. It\n'
         'will be used to generate the project webpage on PyPI, '
         'and should be written for\n'
         'that purpose.\n'
         '\n'
         'Typical contents for this file would include an '
         'overview of the project, basic\n'
         'usage examples, etc. Generally, including the project '
         'changelog in here is not\n'
         'a good idea, although a simple "What\'s New" section '
         'for the most recent version\n'
         'may be appropriate.',
         'description_content_type': None,
         'docs_url': None,
         'download_url': 'UNKNOWN',
         'downloads': {...},
         'home_page': 'https://github.com/pypa/sampleproject',
         'keywords': 'sample setuptools development',
         'license': 'MIT',
         'maintainer': None,
         'maintainer_email': None,
         'name': 'sampleproject',
         'package_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
         'platform': 'UNKNOWN',
         'project_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/',
         'project_urls': {...},
         'release_url': 'https://pypi.org/project/sampleproject/1.2.0/',
         'requires_dist': None,
         'requires_python': None,
         'summary': 'A sample Python project',
         'version': '1.2.0',
     }

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation,  Next: enum — Support for enumerations,  Prev: pprint — Data pretty printer,  Up: Data Types

5.9.13 ‘reprlib’ — Alternate ‘repr()’ implementation
----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/reprlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘reprlib’ module provides a means for producing object
representations with limits on the size of the resulting strings.  This
is used in the Python debugger and may be useful in other contexts as
well.

This module provides a class, an instance, and a function:

 -- Κλάση: reprlib.Repr (*, maxlevel=6, maxtuple=6, maxlist=6,
          maxarray=5, maxdict=4, maxset=6, maxfrozenset=6, maxdeque=6,
          maxstring=30, maxlong=40, maxother=30, fillvalue='...',
          indent=None)

     Class which provides formatting services useful in implementing
     functions similar to the built-in *note repr(): 45b.; size limits
     for different object types are added to avoid the generation of
     representations which are excessively long.

     The keyword arguments of the constructor can be used as a shortcut
     to set the attributes of the ‘Repr’ instance.  Which means that the
     following initialization:

          aRepr = reprlib.Repr(maxlevel=3)

     Is equivalent to:

          aRepr = reprlib.Repr()
          aRepr.maxlevel = 3

     See section *note Repr Objects: 2c1f. for more information about
     ‘Repr’ attributes.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Allow attributes to be set via keyword
     arguments.

 -- Δεδομένα: reprlib.aRepr

     This is an instance of *note Repr: 2c1e. which is used to provide
     the *note repr(): 2c21. function described below.  Changing the
     attributes of this object will affect the size limits used by
     ‘repr()’ and the Python debugger.

 -- Συνάρτηση: reprlib.repr (obj)

     This is the *note repr(): 2c22. method of ‘aRepr’.  It returns a
     string similar to that returned by the built-in function of the
     same name, but with limits on most sizes.

In addition to size-limiting tools, the module also provides a decorator
for detecting recursive calls to *note __repr__(): 1bc. and substituting
a placeholder string instead.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @reprlib.recursive_repr (fillvalue='...')

     Decorator for *note __repr__(): 1bc. methods to detect recursive
     calls within the same thread.  If a recursive call is made, the
     'fillvalue' is returned, otherwise, the usual ‘__repr__()’ call is
     made.  For example:

          >>> from reprlib import recursive_repr
          >>> class MyList(list):
          ...     @recursive_repr()
          ...     def __repr__(self):
          ...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
          ...
          >>> m = MyList('abc')
          >>> m.append(m)
          >>> m.append('x')
          >>> print(m)
          <'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>

     Added in version 3.2.

* Menu:

* Repr Objects::
* Subclassing Repr Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/reprlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: Repr Objects,  Next: Subclassing Repr Objects,  Up: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation

5.9.13.1 Repr Objects
.....................

*note Repr: 2c1e. instances provide several attributes which can be used
to provide size limits for the representations of different object
types, and methods which format specific object types.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Repr.fillvalue

     This string is displayed for recursive references.  It defaults to
     ‘...’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Repr.maxlevel

     Depth limit on the creation of recursive representations.  The
     default is ‘6’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Repr.maxdict
 -- Ιδιότητα: Repr.maxlist
 -- Ιδιότητα: Repr.maxtuple
 -- Ιδιότητα: Repr.maxset
 -- Ιδιότητα: Repr.maxfrozenset
 -- Ιδιότητα: Repr.maxdeque
 -- Ιδιότητα: Repr.maxarray

     Limits on the number of entries represented for the named object
     type.  The default is ‘4’ for *note maxdict: 2c26, ‘5’ for *note
     maxarray: 2c2c, and ‘6’ for the others.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Repr.maxlong

     Maximum number of characters in the representation for an integer.
     Digits are dropped from the middle.  The default is ‘40’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Repr.maxstring

     Limit on the number of characters in the representation of the
     string.  Note that the «normal» representation of the string is
     used as the character source: if escape sequences are needed in the
     representation, these may be mangled when the representation is
     shortened.  The default is ‘30’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Repr.maxother

     This limit is used to control the size of object types for which no
     specific formatting method is available on the *note Repr: 2c1e.
     object.  It is applied in a similar manner as *note maxstring:
     2c2e.  The default is ‘20’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Repr.indent

     If this attribute is set to ‘None’ (the default), the output is
     formatted with no line breaks or indentation, like the standard
     *note repr(): 45b.  For example:

          >>> example = [
          ...     1, 'spam', {'a': 2, 'b': 'spam eggs', 'c': {3: 4.5, 6: []}}, 'ham']
          >>> import reprlib
          >>> aRepr = reprlib.Repr()
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [1, 'spam', {'a': 2, 'b': 'spam eggs', 'c': {3: 4.5, 6: []}}, 'ham']

     If ‘indent’ is set to a string, each recursion level is placed on
     its own line, indented by that string:

          >>> aRepr.indent = '-->'
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [
          -->1,
          -->'spam',
          -->{
          -->-->'a': 2,
          -->-->'b': 'spam eggs',
          -->-->'c': {
          -->-->-->3: 4.5,
          -->-->-->6: [],
          -->-->},
          -->},
          -->'ham',
          ]

     Setting ‘indent’ to a positive integer value behaves as if it was
     set to a string with that number of spaces:

          >>> aRepr.indent = 4
          >>> print(aRepr.repr(example))
          [
              1,
              'spam',
              {
                  'a': 2,
                  'b': 'spam eggs',
                  'c': {
                      3: 4.5,
                      6: [],
                  },
              },
              'ham',
          ]

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Μέθοδος: Repr.repr (obj)

     The equivalent to the built-in *note repr(): 45b. that uses the
     formatting imposed by the instance.

 -- Μέθοδος: Repr.repr1 (obj, level)

     Recursive implementation used by *note repr(): 2c22.  This uses the
     type of 'obj' to determine which formatting method to call, passing
     it 'obj' and 'level'.  The type-specific methods should call
     ‘repr1()’ to perform recursive formatting, with ‘level - 1’ for the
     value of 'level' in the recursive call.

 -- Μέθοδος: Repr.repr_TYPE (obj, level)

     Formatting methods for specific types are implemented as methods
     with a name based on the type name.  In the method name, 'TYPE' is
     replaced by ‘'_'.join(type(obj).__name__.split())’.  Dispatch to
     these methods is handled by *note repr1(): 2c31.  Type-specific
     methods which need to recursively format a value should call
     ‘self.repr1(subobj, level - 1)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing Repr Objects,  Prev: Repr Objects,  Up: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation

5.9.13.2 Subclassing Repr Objects
.................................

The use of dynamic dispatching by *note Repr.repr1(): 2c31. allows
subclasses of *note Repr: 2c1e. to add support for additional built-in
object types or to modify the handling of types already supported.  This
example shows how special support for file objects could be added:

     import reprlib
     import sys

     class MyRepr(reprlib.Repr):

         def repr_TextIOWrapper(self, obj, level):
             if obj.name in {'<stdin>', '<stdout>', '<stderr>'}:
                 return obj.name
             return repr(obj)

     aRepr = MyRepr()
     print(aRepr.repr(sys.stdin))         # prints '<stdin>'

     <stdin>


File: python.info,  Node: enum — Support for enumerations,  Next: graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures,  Prev: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation,  Up: Data Types

5.9.14 ‘enum’ — Support for enumerations
----------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/enum.py(1)

Important
.........

This page contains the API reference information.  For tutorial
information and discussion of more advanced topics, see

   * *note Basic Tutorial: 2c37.

   * *note Advanced Tutorial: 2c38.

   * *note Enum Cookbook: 2c39.

__________________________________________________________________

An enumeration:

   * is a set of symbolic names (members) bound to unique values

   * can be iterated over to return its canonical (i.e.  non-alias)
     members in definition order

   * uses 'call' syntax to return members by value

   * uses 'index' syntax to return members by name

Enumerations are created either by using *note class: 167c. syntax, or
by using function-call syntax:

     >>> from enum import Enum

     >>> # class syntax
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3

     >>> # functional syntax
     >>> Color = Enum('Color', [('RED', 1), ('GREEN', 2), ('BLUE', 3)])

Even though we can use *note class: 167c. syntax to create Enums, Enums
are not normal Python classes.  See *note How are Enums different?:
2c3a. for more details.

     Σημείωση: Nomenclature

        - The class ‘Color’ is an 'enumeration' (or 'enum')

        - The attributes ‘Color.RED’, ‘Color.GREEN’, etc., are
          'enumeration members' (or 'members') and are functionally
          constants.

        - The enum members have 'names' and 'values' (the name of
          ‘Color.RED’ is ‘RED’, the value of ‘Color.BLUE’ is ‘3’, etc.)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Module contents: Module contents<2>.
* Data types::
* Utilities and decorators::
* Notes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/enum.py


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents<2>,  Next: Data types,  Up: enum — Support for enumerations

5.9.14.1 Module contents
........................

     *note EnumType: 6fc.

          The ‘type’ for Enum and its subclasses.

     *note Enum: a21.

          Base class for creating enumerated constants.

     *note IntEnum: 109d.

          Base class for creating enumerated constants that are also
          subclasses of *note int: 326.  (*note Notes: 2c3c.)

     *note StrEnum: a0d.

          Base class for creating enumerated constants that are also
          subclasses of *note str: 1df.  (*note Notes: 2c3c.)

     *note Flag: a14.

          Base class for creating enumerated constants that can be
          combined using the bitwise operations without losing their
          *note Flag: a14. membership.

     *note IntFlag: 105d.

          Base class for creating enumerated constants that can be
          combined using the bitwise operators without losing their
          *note IntFlag: 105d. membership.  ‘IntFlag’ members are also
          subclasses of *note int: 326.  (*note Notes: 2c3c.)

     *note ReprEnum: a0e.

          Used by *note IntEnum: 109d, *note StrEnum: a0d, and *note
          IntFlag: 105d. to keep the *note str(): 1df. of the mixed-in
          type.

     *note EnumCheck: a17.

          An enumeration with the values ‘CONTINUOUS’, ‘NAMED_FLAGS’,
          and ‘UNIQUE’, for use with *note verify(): a16. to ensure
          various constraints are met by a given enumeration.

     *note FlagBoundary: a15.

          An enumeration with the values ‘STRICT’, ‘CONFORM’, ‘EJECT’,
          and ‘KEEP’ which allows for more fine-grained control over how
          invalid values are dealt with in an enumeration.

     *note EnumDict: 6fb.

          A subclass of *note dict: 188. for use when subclassing *note
          EnumType: 6fc.

     *note auto: 105e.

          Instances are replaced with an appropriate value for Enum
          members.  *note StrEnum: a0d. defaults to the lower-cased
          version of the member name, while other Enums default to 1 and
          increase from there.

     *note property(): a1a.

          Allows *note Enum: a21. members to have attributes without
          conflicting with member names.  The ‘value’ and ‘name’
          attributes are implemented this way.

     *note unique(): 2c3d.

          Enum class decorator that ensures only one name is bound to
          any one value.

     *note verify(): a16.

          Enum class decorator that checks user-selectable constraints
          on an enumeration.

     *note member(): a18.

          Make ‘obj’ a member.  Can be used as a decorator.

     *note nonmember(): a19.

          Do not make ‘obj’ a member.  Can be used as a decorator.

     *note global_enum(): a1c.

          Modify the *note str(): 1df. and *note repr(): 45b. of an enum
          to show its members as belonging to the module instead of its
          class, and export the enum members to the global namespace.

     *note show_flag_values(): 19cb.

          Return a list of all power-of-two integers contained in a
          flag.

     *note enum.bin(): 1987.

          Like built-in *note bin(): 164d, except negative values are
          represented in two’s complement, and the leading bit always
          indicates sign (‘0’ implies positive, ‘1’ implies negative).

Added in version 3.6: ‘Flag’, ‘IntFlag’, ‘auto’

Added in version 3.11: ‘StrEnum’, ‘EnumCheck’, ‘ReprEnum’,
‘FlagBoundary’, ‘property’, ‘member’, ‘nonmember’, ‘global_enum’,
‘show_flag_values’

Added in version 3.13: ‘EnumDict’

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: Data types,  Next: Utilities and decorators,  Prev: Module contents<2>,  Up: enum — Support for enumerations

5.9.14.2 Data types
...................

 -- Κλάση: enum.EnumType

     'EnumType' is the *note metaclass: 25c5. for 'enum' enumerations.
     It is possible to subclass 'EnumType' – see *note Subclassing
     EnumType: 2c3f. for details.

     ‘EnumType’ is responsible for setting the correct ‘__repr__()’,
     ‘__str__()’, ‘__format__()’, and ‘__reduce__()’ methods on the
     final 'enum', as well as creating the enum members, properly
     handling duplicates, providing iteration over the enum class, etc.

     Added in version 3.11: Before 3.11 ‘EnumType’ was called
     ‘EnumMeta’, which is still available as an alias.

      -- Μέθοδος: __call__ (cls, value, names=None, *, module=None,
               qualname=None, type=None, start=1, boundary=None)

          This method is called in two different ways:

             * to look up an existing member:


                    cls: The enum class being called.


                    value: The value to lookup.

             * to use the ‘cls’ enum to create a new enum (only if the
               existing enum does not have any members):


                    cls: The enum class being called.


                    value: The name of the new Enum to create.


                    names: The names/values of the members for the new
                    Enum.


                    module: The name of the module the new Enum is
                    created in.


                    qualname: The actual location in the module where
                    this Enum can be found.


                    type: A mix-in type for the new Enum.


                    start: The first integer value for the Enum (used by
                    *note auto: 105e.).


                    boundary: How to handle out-of-range values from bit
                    operations (*note Flag: a14. only).

      -- Μέθοδος: __contains__ (cls, member)

          Returns ‘True’ if member belongs to the ‘cls’:

               >>> some_var = Color.RED
               >>> some_var in Color
               True
               >>> Color.RED.value in Color
               True

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Before Python 3.12, a ‘TypeError’ is
          raised if a non-Enum-member is used in a containment check.

      -- Μέθοδος: __dir__ (cls)

          Returns ‘['__class__', '__doc__', '__members__',
          '__module__']’ and the names of the members in 'cls':

               >>> dir(Color)
               ['BLUE', 'GREEN', 'RED', '__class__', '__contains__', '__doc__', '__getitem__', '__init_subclass__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__members__', '__module__', '__name__', '__qualname__']

      -- Μέθοδος: __getitem__ (cls, name)

          Returns the Enum member in 'cls' matching 'name', or raises a
          *note KeyError: 7df.:

               >>> Color['BLUE']
               <Color.BLUE: 3>

      -- Μέθοδος: __iter__ (cls)

          Returns each member in 'cls' in definition order:

               >>> list(Color)
               [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 3>]

      -- Μέθοδος: __len__ (cls)

          Returns the number of members in 'cls':

               >>> len(Color)
               3

      -- Ιδιότητα: __members__

          Returns a mapping of every enum name to its member, including
          aliases

      -- Μέθοδος: __reversed__ (cls)

          Returns each member in 'cls' in reverse definition order:

               >>> list(reversed(Color))
               [<Color.BLUE: 3>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.RED: 1>]

 -- Κλάση: enum.Enum

     'Enum' is the base class for all 'enum' enumerations.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name used to define the ‘Enum’ member:

               >>> Color.BLUE.name
               'BLUE'

      -- Ιδιότητα: value

          The value given to the ‘Enum’ member:

               >>> Color.RED.value
               1

          Value of the member, can be set in *note __new__(): 2c4a.

               Σημείωση: Enum member values

               Member values can be anything: *note int: 326, *note str:
               1df, etc.  If the exact value is unimportant you may use
               *note auto: 105e. instances and an appropriate value will
               be chosen for you.  See ‘auto’ for the details.

               While mutable/unhashable values, such as *note dict: 188,
               *note list: 4d9. or a mutable *note dataclass: 6e6, can
               be used, they will have a quadratic performance impact
               during creation relative to the total number of
               mutable/unhashable values in the enum.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _name_

          Name of the member.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _value_

          Value of the member, can be set in *note __new__(): 2c4a.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _order_

          No longer used, kept for backward compatibility.  (class
          attribute, removed during class creation).

          The ‘_order_’ attribute can be provided to help keep Python 2
          / Python 3 code in sync.  It will be checked against the
          actual order of the enumeration and raise an error if the two
          do not match:

               >>> class Color(Enum):
               ...     _order_ = 'RED GREEN BLUE'
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     BLUE = 3
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               TypeError: member order does not match _order_:
                  ['RED', 'BLUE', 'GREEN']
                  ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']

               Σημείωση: In Python 2 code the ‘_order_’ attribute is
               necessary as definition order is lost before it can be
               recorded.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _ignore_

          ‘_ignore_’ is only used during creation and is removed from
          the enumeration once creation is complete.

          ‘_ignore_’ is a list of names that will not become members,
          and whose names will also be removed from the completed
          enumeration.  See *note TimePeriod: 2c4f. for an example.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Μέθοδος: __dir__ (self)

          Returns ‘['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'name',
          'value']’ and any public methods defined on 'self.__class__':

               >>> from enum import Enum
               >>> import datetime as dt
               >>> class Weekday(Enum):
               ...     MONDAY = 1
               ...     TUESDAY = 2
               ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
               ...     THURSDAY = 4
               ...     FRIDAY = 5
               ...     SATURDAY = 6
               ...     SUNDAY = 7
               ...     @classmethod
               ...     def today(cls):
               ...         print(f'today is {cls(dt.date.today().isoweekday()).name}')
               ...
               >>> dir(Weekday.SATURDAY)
               ['__class__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__hash__', '__module__', 'name', 'today', 'value']

      -- Μέθοδος: _generate_next_value_ (name, start, count,
               last_values)


               name: The name of the member being defined (e.g.  “RED”).


               start: The start value for the Enum; the default is 1.


               count: The number of members currently defined, not
               including this one.


               last_values: A list of the previous values.

          A 'staticmethod' that is used to determine the next value
          returned by *note auto: 105e.

               Σημείωση: For standard ‘Enum’ classes the next value
               chosen is the highest value seen incremented by one.

               For *note Flag: a14. classes the next value chosen will
               be the next highest power-of-two.

          This method may be overridden, e.g.:

               >>> from enum import auto, Enum
               >>> class PowersOfThree(Enum):
               ...     @staticmethod
               ...     def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
               ...         return 3 ** (count + 1)
               ...     FIRST = auto()
               ...     SECOND = auto()
               ...
               >>> PowersOfThree.SECOND.value
               9

          Added in version 3.6.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Prior versions would use the last
          seen value instead of the highest value.

      -- Μέθοδος: __init__ (self, *args, **kwds)

          By default, does nothing.  If multiple values are given in the
          member assignment, those values become separate arguments to
          ‘__init__’; e.g.

               >>> from enum import Enum
               >>> class Weekday(Enum):
               ...     MONDAY = 1, 'Mon'

          ‘Weekday.__init__()’ would be called as
          ‘Weekday.__init__(self, 1, 'Mon')’

      -- Μέθοδος: __init_subclass__ (cls, **kwds)

          A 'classmethod' that is used to further configure subsequent
          subclasses.  By default, does nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: _missing_ (cls, value)

          A 'classmethod' for looking up values not found in 'cls'.  By
          default it does nothing, but can be overridden to implement
          custom search behavior:

               >>> from enum import auto, StrEnum
               >>> class Build(StrEnum):
               ...     DEBUG = auto()
               ...     OPTIMIZED = auto()
               ...     @classmethod
               ...     def _missing_(cls, value):
               ...         value = value.lower()
               ...         for member in cls:
               ...             if member.value == value:
               ...                 return member
               ...         return None
               ...
               >>> Build.DEBUG.value
               'debug'
               >>> Build('deBUG')
               <Build.DEBUG: 'debug'>

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Μέθοδος: __new__ (cls, *args, **kwds)

          By default, doesn’t exist.  If specified, either in the enum
          class definition or in a mixin class (such as ‘int’), all
          values given in the member assignment will be passed; e.g.

               >>> from enum import Enum
               >>> class MyIntEnum(int, Enum):
               ...     TWENTYSIX = '1a', 16

          results in the call ‘int('1a', 16)’ and a value of ‘26’ for
          the member.

               Σημείωση: When writing a custom ‘__new__’, do not use
               ‘super().__new__’ – call the appropriate ‘__new__’
               instead.

      -- Μέθοδος: __repr__ (self)

          Returns the string used for 'repr()' calls.  By default,
          returns the 'Enum' name, member name, and value, but can be
          overridden:

               >>> from enum import auto, Enum
               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __repr__(self):
               ...         cls_name = self.__class__.__name__
               ...         return f'{cls_name}.{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE', 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE')

      -- Μέθοδος: __str__ (self)

          Returns the string used for 'str()' calls.  By default,
          returns the 'Enum' name and member name, but can be
          overridden:

               >>> from enum import auto, Enum
               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __str__(self):
               ...         return f'{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (<OtherStyle.ALTERNATE: 1>, 'ALTERNATE', 'ALTERNATE')

      -- Μέθοδος: __format__ (self)

          Returns the string used for 'format()' and 'f-string' calls.
          By default, returns *note __str__(): a13. return value, but
          can be overridden:

               >>> from enum import auto, Enum
               >>> class OtherStyle(Enum):
               ...     ALTERNATE = auto()
               ...     OTHER = auto()
               ...     SOMETHING_ELSE = auto()
               ...     def __format__(self, spec):
               ...         return f'{self.name}'
               ...
               >>> OtherStyle.ALTERNATE, str(OtherStyle.ALTERNATE), f"{OtherStyle.ALTERNATE}"
               (<OtherStyle.ALTERNATE: 1>, 'OtherStyle.ALTERNATE', 'ALTERNATE')

          Σημείωση: Using *note auto: 105e. with ‘Enum’ results in
          integers of increasing value, starting with ‘1’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added *note Dataclass support: 1cf8.

      -- Μέθοδος: _add_alias_ ()

          Adds a new name as an alias to an existing member:

               >>> Color.RED._add_alias_("ERROR")
               >>> Color.ERROR
               <Color.RED: 1>

          Raises a *note NameError: 665. if the name is already assigned
          to a different member.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: _add_value_alias_ ()

          Adds a new value as an alias to an existing member:

               >>> Color.RED._add_value_alias_(42)
               >>> Color(42)
               <Color.RED: 1>

               Raises a *note ValueError: 277. if the value is already linked with a different member.
               See *note MultiValueEnum: 2c56. for an example.

          Added in version 3.13.

 -- Κλάση: enum.IntEnum

     'IntEnum' is the same as *note Enum: a21, but its members are also
     integers and can be used anywhere that an integer can be used.  If
     any integer operation is performed with an 'IntEnum' member, the
     resulting value loses its enumeration status.

          >>> from enum import IntEnum
          >>> class Number(IntEnum):
          ...     ONE = 1
          ...     TWO = 2
          ...     THREE = 3
          ...
          >>> Number.THREE
          <Number.THREE: 3>
          >>> Number.ONE + Number.TWO
          3
          >>> Number.THREE + 5
          8
          >>> Number.THREE == 3
          True

          Σημείωση: Using *note auto: 105e. with ‘IntEnum’ results in
          integers of increasing value, starting with ‘1’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: *note __str__(): a0f. is now
     ‘int.__str__()’ to better support the 'replacement of existing
     constants' use-case.  *note __format__(): a10. was already
     ‘int.__format__()’ for that same reason.

 -- Κλάση: enum.StrEnum

     'StrEnum' is the same as *note Enum: a21, but its members are also
     strings and can be used in most of the same places that a string
     can be used.  The result of any string operation performed on or
     with a 'StrEnum' member is not part of the enumeration.

          >>> from enum import StrEnum, auto
          >>> class Color(StrEnum):
          ...     RED = 'r'
          ...     GREEN = 'g'
          ...     BLUE = 'b'
          ...     UNKNOWN = auto()
          ...
          >>> Color.RED
          <Color.RED: 'r'>
          >>> Color.UNKNOWN
          <Color.UNKNOWN: 'unknown'>
          >>> str(Color.UNKNOWN)
          'unknown'

          Σημείωση: There are places in the stdlib that check for an
          exact *note str: 1df. instead of a ‘str’ subclass (i.e.
          ‘type(unknown) == str’ instead of ‘isinstance(unknown, str)’),
          and in those locations you will need to use
          ‘str(MyStrEnum.MY_MEMBER)’.

          Σημείωση: Using *note auto: 105e. with ‘StrEnum’ results in
          the lower-cased member name as the value.

          Σημείωση: *note __str__(): a0f. is ‘str.__str__()’ to better
          support the 'replacement of existing constants' use-case.
          *note __format__(): a10. is likewise ‘str.__format__()’ for
          that same reason.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Κλάση: enum.Flag

     ‘Flag’ is the same as *note Enum: a21, but its members support the
     bitwise operators ‘&’ ('AND'), ‘|’ ('OR'), ‘^’ ('XOR'), and ‘~’
     ('INVERT'); the results of those operations are (aliases of)
     members of the enumeration.

      -- Μέθοδος: __contains__ (self, value)

          Returns 'True' if value is in self:

               >>> from enum import Flag, auto
               >>> class Color(Flag):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> purple = Color.RED | Color.BLUE
               >>> white = Color.RED | Color.GREEN | Color.BLUE
               >>> Color.GREEN in purple
               False
               >>> Color.GREEN in white
               True
               >>> purple in white
               True
               >>> white in purple
               False

      -- Μέθοδος: __iter__(self):

          Returns all contained non-alias members:

               >>> list(Color.RED)
               [<Color.RED: 1>]
               >>> list(purple)
               [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: __len__(self):

          Returns number of members in flag:

               >>> len(Color.GREEN)
               1
               >>> len(white)
               3

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: __bool__(self):

          Returns 'True' if any members in flag, 'False' otherwise:

               >>> bool(Color.GREEN)
               True
               >>> bool(white)
               True
               >>> black = Color(0)
               >>> bool(black)
               False

      -- Μέθοδος: __or__ (self, other)

          Returns current flag binary or’ed with other:

               >>> Color.RED | Color.GREEN
               <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

      -- Μέθοδος: __and__ (self, other)

          Returns current flag binary and’ed with other:

               >>> purple & white
               <Color.RED|BLUE: 5>
               >>> purple & Color.GREEN
               <Color: 0>

      -- Μέθοδος: __xor__ (self, other)

          Returns current flag binary xor’ed with other:

               >>> purple ^ white
               <Color.GREEN: 2>
               >>> purple ^ Color.GREEN
               <Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>

      -- Μέθοδος: __invert__(self):

          Returns all the flags in 'type(self)' that are not in 'self':

               >>> ~white
               <Color: 0>
               >>> ~purple
               <Color.GREEN: 2>
               >>> ~Color.RED
               <Color.GREEN|BLUE: 6>

      -- Μέθοδος: _numeric_repr_ ()

          Function used to format any remaining unnamed numeric values.
          Default is the value’s repr; common choices are *note hex():
          1674. and *note oct(): 1673.

          Σημείωση: Using *note auto: 105e. with ‘Flag’ results in
          integers that are powers of two, starting with ‘1’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The 'repr()' of zero-valued flags has
     changed.  It is now:

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color: 0>

 -- Κλάση: enum.IntFlag

     ‘IntFlag’ is the same as *note Flag: a14, but its members are also
     integers and can be used anywhere that an integer can be used.

          >>> from enum import IntFlag, auto
          >>> class Color(IntFlag):
          ...     RED = auto()
          ...     GREEN = auto()
          ...     BLUE = auto()
          ...
          >>> Color.RED & 2
          <Color: 0>
          >>> Color.RED | 2
          <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

     If any integer operation is performed with an 'IntFlag' member, the
     result is not an 'IntFlag':

          >>> Color.RED + 2
          3

     If a *note Flag: a14. operation is performed with an 'IntFlag'
     member and:

        * the result is a valid 'IntFlag': an 'IntFlag' is returned

        * the result is not a valid 'IntFlag': the result depends on the
          *note FlagBoundary: a15. setting

     The *note repr(): 45b. of unnamed zero-valued flags has changed.
     It is now:

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color: 0>

          Σημείωση: Using *note auto: 105e. with ‘IntFlag’ results in
          integers that are powers of two, starting with ‘1’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: *note __str__(): a0f. is now
     ‘int.__str__()’ to better support the 'replacement of existing
     constants' use-case.  *note __format__(): a10. was already
     ‘int.__format__()’ for that same reason.

     Inversion of an ‘IntFlag’ now returns a positive value that is the
     union of all flags not in the given flag, rather than a negative
     value.  This matches the existing *note Flag: a14. behavior.

 -- Κλάση: enum.ReprEnum

     ‘ReprEnum’ uses the *note repr(): 1cf9. of *note Enum: a21, but the
     *note str(): 1df. of the mixed-in data type:

        * ‘int.__str__()’ for *note IntEnum: 109d. and *note IntFlag:
          105d.

        * ‘str.__str__()’ for *note StrEnum: a0d.

     Inherit from ‘ReprEnum’ to keep the *note str(): 1df. / *note
     format(): 439. of the mixed-in data type instead of using the *note
     Enum: a21.-default *note str(): a13.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Κλάση: enum.EnumCheck

     'EnumCheck' contains the options used by the *note verify(): a16.
     decorator to ensure various constraints; failed constraints result
     in a *note ValueError: 277.

      -- Ιδιότητα: UNIQUE

          Ensure that each value has only one name:

               >>> from enum import Enum, verify, UNIQUE
               >>> @verify(UNIQUE)
               ... class Color(Enum):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 3
               ...     CRIMSON = 1
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: aliases found in <enum 'Color'>: CRIMSON -> RED

      -- Ιδιότητα: CONTINUOUS

          Ensure that there are no missing values between the
          lowest-valued member and the highest-valued member:

               >>> from enum import Enum, verify, CONTINUOUS
               >>> @verify(CONTINUOUS)
               ... class Color(Enum):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 5
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: invalid enum 'Color': missing values 3, 4

      -- Ιδιότητα: NAMED_FLAGS

          Ensure that any flag groups/masks contain only named flags –
          useful when values are specified instead of being generated by
          *note auto(): 105e.:

               >>> from enum import Flag, verify, NAMED_FLAGS
               >>> @verify(NAMED_FLAGS)
               ... class Color(Flag):
               ...     RED = 1
               ...     GREEN = 2
               ...     BLUE = 4
               ...     WHITE = 15
               ...     NEON = 31
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: invalid Flag 'Color': aliases WHITE and NEON are missing combined values of 0x18 [use enum.show_flag_values(value) for details]

          Σημείωση: CONTINUOUS and NAMED_FLAGS are designed to work with
          integer-valued members.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Κλάση: enum.FlagBoundary

     ‘FlagBoundary’ controls how out-of-range values are handled in
     *note Flag: a14. and its subclasses.

      -- Ιδιότητα: STRICT

          Out-of-range values cause a *note ValueError: 277. to be
          raised.  This is the default for *note Flag: a14.:

               >>> from enum import Flag, STRICT, auto
               >>> class StrictFlag(Flag, boundary=STRICT):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> StrictFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               ValueError: <flag 'StrictFlag'> invalid value 20
                   given 0b0 10100
                 allowed 0b0 00111

      -- Ιδιότητα: CONFORM

          Out-of-range values have invalid values removed, leaving a
          valid *note Flag: a14. value:

               >>> from enum import Flag, CONFORM, auto
               >>> class ConformFlag(Flag, boundary=CONFORM):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> ConformFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               <ConformFlag.BLUE: 4>

      -- Ιδιότητα: EJECT

          Out-of-range values lose their *note Flag: a14. membership and
          revert to *note int: 326.

               >>> from enum import Flag, EJECT, auto
               >>> class EjectFlag(Flag, boundary=EJECT):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> EjectFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               20

      -- Ιδιότητα: KEEP

          Out-of-range values are kept, and the *note Flag: a14.
          membership is kept.  This is the default for *note IntFlag:
          105d.:

               >>> from enum import Flag, KEEP, auto
               >>> class KeepFlag(Flag, boundary=KEEP):
               ...     RED = auto()
               ...     GREEN = auto()
               ...     BLUE = auto()
               ...
               >>> KeepFlag(2**2 + 2**4)
               <KeepFlag.BLUE|16: 20>

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Κλάση: enum.EnumDict

     'EnumDict' is a subclass of *note dict: 188. that is used as the
     namespace for defining enum classes (see *note Προετοιμασία του
     χώρου ονομάτων της κλάσης: 101c.).  It is exposed to allow
     subclasses of *note EnumType: 6fc. with advanced behavior like
     having multiple values per member.  It should be called with the
     name of the enum class being created, otherwise private names and
     internal classes will not be handled correctly.

     Note that only the *note MutableMapping: 1459. interface (*note
     __setitem__(): 1670. and *note update(): 1807.) is overridden.  It
     may be possible to bypass the checks using other ‘dict’ operations
     like *note |=: 25f6.

      -- Ιδιότητα: member_names

          A list of member names.

     Added in version 3.13.

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Supported __dunder__ names::
* Supported _sunder_ names::


File: python.info,  Node: Supported __dunder__ names,  Next: Supported _sunder_ names,  Up: Data types

5.9.14.3 Supported ‘__dunder__’ names
.....................................

*note __members__: 2c46. is a read-only ordered mapping of
‘member_name’:‘member’ items.  It is only available on the class.

*note __new__(): 2c4a, if specified, must create and return the enum
members; it is also a very good idea to set the member’s *note _value_:
2c4c. appropriately.  Once all the members are created it is no longer
used.


File: python.info,  Node: Supported _sunder_ names,  Prev: Supported __dunder__ names,  Up: Data types

5.9.14.4 Supported ‘_sunder_’ names
...................................

   - *note _name_: 2c4b. – name of the member

   - *note _value_: 2c4c. – value of the member; can be set in ‘__new__’

   - *note _missing_(): 2c53. – a lookup function used when a value is
     not found; may be overridden

   - *note _ignore_: 2c4e. – a list of names, either as a *note list:
     4d9. or a *note str: 1df, that will not be transformed into
     members, and will be removed from the final class

   - *note _order_: 2c4d. – no longer used, kept for backward
     compatibility (class attribute, removed during class creation)

   - *note _generate_next_value_(): 2c50. – used to get an appropriate
     value for an enum member; may be overridden

   - *note _add_alias_(): 2c54. – adds a new name as an alias to an
     existing member.

   - *note _add_value_alias_(): 2c55. – adds a new value as an alias to
     an existing member.

   - While ‘_sunder_’ names are generally reserved for the further
     development of the *note Enum: a21. class and can not be used, some
     are explicitly allowed:

        - ‘_repr_*’ (e.g.  ‘_repr_html_’), as used in IPython's rich
          display(1)

Added in version 3.6: ‘_missing_’, ‘_order_’, ‘_generate_next_value_’

Added in version 3.7: ‘_ignore_’

Added in version 3.13: ‘_add_alias_’, ‘_add_value_alias_’, ‘_repr_*’

__________________________________________________________________

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://ipython.readthedocs.io/en/stable/config/integrating.html#rich-display


File: python.info,  Node: Utilities and decorators,  Next: Notes,  Prev: Data types,  Up: enum — Support for enumerations

5.9.14.5 Utilities and decorators
.................................

 -- Κλάση: enum.auto

     'auto' can be used in place of a value.  If used, the 'Enum'
     machinery will call an *note Enum: a21.’s *note
     _generate_next_value_(): 2c50. to get an appropriate value.  For
     ‘Enum’ and *note IntEnum: 109d. that appropriate value will be the
     highest value seen plus one; for *note Flag: a14. and *note
     IntFlag: 105d. it will be the first power-of-two greater than the
     highest value seen; for *note StrEnum: a0d. it will be the
     lower-cased version of the member’s name.  Care must be taken if
     mixing 'auto()' with manually specified values.

     'auto' instances are only resolved when at the top level of an
     assignment, either by itself or as part of a tuple:

        * ‘FIRST = auto()’ will work (auto() is replaced with ‘1’);

        * ‘SECOND = auto(), -2’ will work (auto is replaced with ‘2’, so
          ‘2, -2’ is used to create the ‘SECOND’ enum member;

        * ‘THIRD = [auto(), -3]’ will 'not' work (‘[<auto instance>,
          -3]’ is used to create the ‘THIRD’ enum member)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11.1: In prior versions, ‘auto()’ had to be
     the only thing on the assignment line to work properly.

     ‘_generate_next_value_’ can be overridden to customize the values
     used by 'auto'.

          Σημείωση: In version 3.13 the default ‘_generate_next_value_’
          will always return the highest member value incremented by 1,
          and will fail if any member is an incompatible type.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @enum.property

     A decorator similar to the built-in 'property', but specifically
     for enumerations.  It allows member attributes to have the same
     names as members themselves.

          Σημείωση: The 'property' and the member must be defined in
          separate classes; for example, the 'value' and 'name'
          attributes are defined in the 'Enum' class, and 'Enum'
          subclasses can define members with the names ‘value’ and
          ‘name’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @enum.unique

     A *note class: 167c. decorator specifically for enumerations.  It
     searches an enumeration’s *note __members__: 2c46, gathering any
     aliases it finds; if any are found *note ValueError: 277. is raised
     with the details:

          >>> from enum import Enum, unique
          >>> @unique
          ... class Mistake(Enum):
          ...     ONE = 1
          ...     TWO = 2
          ...     THREE = 3
          ...     FOUR = 3
          ...
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE

 -- Συνάρτηση: @enum.verify

     A *note class: 167c. decorator specifically for enumerations.
     Members from *note EnumCheck: a17. are used to specify which
     constraints should be checked on the decorated enumeration.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @enum.member

     A decorator for use in enums: its target will become a member.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @enum.nonmember

     A decorator for use in enums: its target will not become a member.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @enum.global_enum

     A decorator to change the *note str(): 1df. and *note repr(): 45b.
     of an enum to show its members as belonging to the module instead
     of its class.  Should only be used when the enum members are
     exported to the module global namespace (see *note re.RegexFlag:
     a1e. for an example).

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: enum.show_flag_values (value)

     Return a list of all power-of-two integers contained in a flag
     'value'.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: enum.bin (num, max_bits=None)

     Like built-in ‘bin()’, except negative values are represented in
     two’s complement, and the leading bit always indicates sign (‘0’
     implies positive, ‘1’ implies negative).

          >>> import enum
          >>> enum.bin(10)
          '0b0 1010'
          >>> enum.bin(~10)   # ~10 is -11
          '0b1 0101'

     Added in version 3.11.

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: Notes,  Prev: Utilities and decorators,  Up: enum — Support for enumerations

5.9.14.6 Notes
..............

*note IntEnum: 109d, *note StrEnum: a0d, and *note IntFlag: 105d.

     These three enum types are designed to be drop-in replacements for
     existing integer- and string-based values; as such, they have extra
     limitations:

        - ‘__str__’ uses the value and not the name of the enum member

        - ‘__format__’, because it uses ‘__str__’, will also use the
          value of the enum member instead of its name

     If you do not need/want those limitations, you can either create
     your own base class by mixing in the ‘int’ or ‘str’ type yourself:

          >>> from enum import Enum
          >>> class MyIntEnum(int, Enum):
          ...     pass

     or you can reassign the appropriate *note str(): 1df, etc., in your
     enum:

          >>> from enum import Enum, IntEnum
          >>> class MyIntEnum(IntEnum):
          ...     __str__ = Enum.__str__


File: python.info,  Node: graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures,  Prev: enum — Support for enumerations,  Up: Data Types

5.9.15 ‘graphlib’ — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/graphlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- Κλάση: graphlib.TopologicalSorter (graph=None)

     Provides functionality to topologically sort a graph of *note
     hashable: 183. nodes.

     A topological order is a linear ordering of the vertices in a graph
     such that for every directed edge u -> v from vertex u to vertex v,
     vertex u comes before vertex v in the ordering.  For instance, the
     vertices of the graph may represent tasks to be performed, and the
     edges may represent constraints that one task must be performed
     before another; in this example, a topological ordering is just a
     valid sequence for the tasks.  A complete topological ordering is
     possible if and only if the graph has no directed cycles, that is,
     if it is a directed acyclic graph.

     If the optional 'graph' argument is provided it must be a
     dictionary representing a directed acyclic graph where the keys are
     nodes and the values are iterables of all predecessors of that node
     in the graph (the nodes that have edges that point to the value in
     the key).  Additional nodes can be added to the graph using the
     *note add(): 2c6c. method.

     In the general case, the steps required to perform the sorting of a
     given graph are as follows:

        * Create an instance of the ‘TopologicalSorter’ with an optional
          initial graph.

        * Add additional nodes to the graph.

        * Call *note prepare(): 4ad. on the graph.

        * While *note is_active(): 2c6d. is ‘True’, iterate over the
          nodes returned by *note get_ready(): 2c6e. and process them.
          Call *note done(): 2c6f. on each node as it finishes
          processing.

     In case just an immediate sorting of the nodes in the graph is
     required and no parallelism is involved, the convenience method
     *note TopologicalSorter.static_order(): 2c70. can be used directly:

          >>> graph = {"D": {"B", "C"}, "C": {"A"}, "B": {"A"}}
          >>> ts = TopologicalSorter(graph)
          >>> tuple(ts.static_order())
          ('A', 'C', 'B', 'D')

     The class is designed to easily support parallel processing of the
     nodes as they become ready.  For instance:

          topological_sorter = TopologicalSorter()

          # Add nodes to 'topological_sorter'...

          topological_sorter.prepare()
          while topological_sorter.is_active():
              for node in topological_sorter.get_ready():
                  # Worker threads or processes take nodes to work on off the
                  # 'task_queue' queue.
                  task_queue.put(node)

              # When the work for a node is done, workers put the node in
              # 'finalized_tasks_queue' so we can get more nodes to work on.
              # The definition of 'is_active()' guarantees that, at this point, at
              # least one node has been placed on 'task_queue' that hasn't yet
              # been passed to 'done()', so this blocking 'get()' must (eventually)
              # succeed.  After calling 'done()', we loop back to call 'get_ready()'
              # again, so put newly freed nodes on 'task_queue' as soon as
              # logically possible.
              node = finalized_tasks_queue.get()
              topological_sorter.done(node)

      -- Μέθοδος: add (node, *predecessors)

          Add a new node and its predecessors to the graph.  Both the
          'node' and all elements in 'predecessors' must be *note
          hashable: 183.

          If called multiple times with the same node argument, the set
          of dependencies will be the union of all dependencies passed
          in.

          It is possible to add a node with no dependencies
          ('predecessors' is not provided) or to provide a dependency
          twice.  If a node that has not been provided before is
          included among 'predecessors' it will be automatically added
          to the graph with no predecessors of its own.

          Raises *note ValueError: 277. if called after *note prepare():
          4ad.

      -- Μέθοδος: prepare ()

          Mark the graph as finished and check for cycles in the graph.
          If any cycle is detected, *note CycleError: 2c71. will be
          raised, but *note get_ready(): 2c6e. can still be used to
          obtain as many nodes as possible until cycles block more
          progress.  After a call to this function, the graph cannot be
          modified, and therefore no more nodes can be added using *note
          add(): 2c6c.

          A *note ValueError: 277. will be raised if the sort has been
          started by *note static_order(): 2c70. or *note get_ready():
          2c6e.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: ‘prepare()’ can now be called more
          than once as long as the sort has not started.  Previously
          this raised *note ValueError: 277.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_active ()

          Returns ‘True’ if more progress can be made and ‘False’
          otherwise.  Progress can be made if cycles do not block the
          resolution and either there are still nodes ready that haven’t
          yet been returned by *note TopologicalSorter.get_ready():
          2c6e. or the number of nodes marked *note
          TopologicalSorter.done(): 2c6f. is less than the number that
          have been returned by ‘TopologicalSorter.get_ready()’.

          The *note __bool__(): 167a. method of this class defers to
          this function, so instead of:

               if ts.is_active():
                   ...

          it is possible to simply do:

               if ts:
                   ...

          Raises *note ValueError: 277. if called without calling *note
          prepare(): 4ad. previously.

      -- Μέθοδος: done (*nodes)

          Marks a set of nodes returned by *note
          TopologicalSorter.get_ready(): 2c6e. as processed, unblocking
          any successor of each node in 'nodes' for being returned in
          the future by a call to ‘TopologicalSorter.get_ready()’.

          Raises *note ValueError: 277. if any node in 'nodes' has
          already been marked as processed by a previous call to this
          method or if a node was not added to the graph by using *note
          TopologicalSorter.add(): 2c6c, if called without calling *note
          prepare(): 4ad. or if node has not yet been returned by *note
          get_ready(): 2c6e.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_ready ()

          Returns a ‘tuple’ with all the nodes that are ready.
          Initially it returns all nodes with no predecessors, and once
          those are marked as processed by calling *note
          TopologicalSorter.done(): 2c6f, further calls will return all
          new nodes that have all their predecessors already processed.
          Once no more progress can be made, empty tuples are returned.

          Raises *note ValueError: 277. if called without calling *note
          prepare(): 4ad. previously.

      -- Μέθοδος: static_order ()

          Returns an iterator object which will iterate over nodes in a
          topological order.  When using this method, *note prepare():
          4ad. and *note done(): 2c6f. should not be called.  This
          method is equivalent to:

               def static_order(self):
                   self.prepare()
                   while self.is_active():
                       node_group = self.get_ready()
                       yield from node_group
                       self.done(*node_group)

          The particular order that is returned may depend on the
          specific order in which the items were inserted in the graph.
          For example:

               >>> ts = TopologicalSorter()
               >>> ts.add(3, 2, 1)
               >>> ts.add(1, 0)
               >>> print([*ts.static_order()])
               [2, 0, 1, 3]

               >>> ts2 = TopologicalSorter()
               >>> ts2.add(1, 0)
               >>> ts2.add(3, 2, 1)
               >>> print([*ts2.static_order()])
               [0, 2, 1, 3]

          This is due to the fact that «0» and «2» are in the same level
          in the graph (they would have been returned in the same call
          to *note get_ready(): 2c6e.) and the order between them is
          determined by the order of insertion.

          If any cycle is detected, *note CycleError: 2c71. will be
          raised.

     Added in version 3.9.

* Menu:

* Exceptions: Exceptions<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/graphlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<2>,  Up: graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures

5.9.15.1 Exceptions
...................

The ‘graphlib’ module defines the following exception classes:

 -- Εξαίρεση: graphlib.CycleError

     Subclass of *note ValueError: 277. raised by *note
     TopologicalSorter.prepare(): 4ad. if cycles exist in the working
     graph.  If multiple cycles exist, only one undefined choice among
     them will be reported and included in the exception.

     The detected cycle can be accessed via the second element in the
     *note args: 972. attribute of the exception instance and consists
     in a list of nodes, such that each node is, in the graph, an
     immediate predecessor of the next node in the list.  In the
     reported list, the first and the last node will be the same, to
     make it clear that it is cyclic.


File: python.info,  Node: Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules,  Next: Functional Programming Modules,  Prev: Data Types,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.10 Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules
======================================

Τα modules που περιγράφονται σε αυτό το κεφάλαιο παρέχουν αριθμητικές
και μαθηματικές συναρτήσεις και τύπους δεδομένων.  Το πακέτο *note
numbers: a2. ορίζει μια αφηρημένη ιεραρχία τύπων δεδομένων.  Τα modules
*note math: 91. και *note cmath: 19. περιέχουν διάφορες μαθηματικές
συναρτήσεις για αριθμούς κινητής υποδιαστολής και μιγαδικούς αριθμούς.
Το module *note decimal: 39. υποστηρίζει ακριβείς αναπαραστάσεις
δεκαδικών αριθμών χρησιμοποιώντας αριθμητική αυθαίρετης ακρίβειας.

Τα ακόλουθα modules αναλύονται σε αυτό το κεφάλαιο

* Menu:

* numbers — Numeric abstract base classes::
* math — Mathematical functions::
* math.integer — integer-specific mathematics functions: math integer — integer-specific mathematics functions.
* cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers::
* decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic::
* fractions — Rational numbers::
* random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών::
* statistics — Mathematical statistics functions::


File: python.info,  Node: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes,  Next: math — Mathematical functions,  Up: Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules

5.10.1 ‘numbers’ — Numeric abstract base classes
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/numbers.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘numbers’ module ( PEP 3141(2)) defines a hierarchy of numeric *note
abstract base classes: 155f. which progressively define more operations.
None of the types defined in this module are intended to be
instantiated.

 -- Κλάση: numbers.Number

     The root of the numeric hierarchy.  If you just want to check if an
     argument 'x' is a number, without caring what kind, use
     ‘isinstance(x, Number)’.

* Menu:

* The numeric tower::
* Notes for type implementers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/numbers.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/


File: python.info,  Node: The numeric tower,  Next: Notes for type implementers,  Up: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes

5.10.1.1 The numeric tower
..........................

 -- Κλάση: numbers.Complex

     Subclasses of this type describe complex numbers and include the
     operations that work on the built-in *note complex: 328. type.
     These are: conversions to ‘complex’ and *note bool: 5ef, *note
     real: 2c7b, *note imag: 2c7c, ‘+’, ‘-’, ‘*’, ‘/’, ‘**’, *note
     abs(): 227c, *note conjugate(): 2c7d, ‘==’, and ‘!=’.  All except
     ‘-’ and ‘!=’ are abstract.

      -- Ιδιότητα: real

          Abstract.  Retrieves the real component of this number.

      -- Ιδιότητα: imag

          Abstract.  Retrieves the imaginary component of this number.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod conjugate ()

          Abstract.  Returns the complex conjugate.  For example,
          ‘(1+3j).conjugate() == (1-3j)’.

 -- Κλάση: numbers.Real

     To *note Complex: 27f6, ‘Real’ adds the operations that work on
     real numbers.

     In short, those are: a conversion to *note float: 327, *note
     math.trunc(): 1762, *note round(): 167f, *note math.floor(): 1760,
     *note math.ceil(): 1761, *note divmod(): d6a, ‘//’, ‘%’, ‘<’, ‘<=’,
     ‘>’, and ‘>=’.

     Real also provides defaults for *note complex(): 328, *note real:
     2c7b, *note imag: 2c7c, and *note conjugate(): 2c7d.

 -- Κλάση: numbers.Rational

     Subtypes *note Real: 27ec. and adds *note numerator: 2c7e. and
     *note denominator: 2c7f. properties.  It also provides a default
     for *note float(): 327.

     The *note numerator: 2c7e. and *note denominator: 2c7f. values
     should be instances of *note Integral: 25ff. and should be in
     lowest terms with ‘denominator’ positive.

      -- Ιδιότητα: numerator

          Abstract.  The numerator of this rational number.

      -- Ιδιότητα: denominator

          Abstract.  The denominator of this rational number.

 -- Κλάση: numbers.Integral

     Subtypes *note Rational: 1663. and adds a conversion to *note int:
     326.  Provides defaults for *note float(): 327, *note numerator:
     2c7e, and *note denominator: 2c7f.  Adds abstract methods for *note
     pow(): 441. with modulus and bit-string operations: ‘<<’, ‘>>’,
     ‘&’, ‘^’, ‘|’, ‘~’.


File: python.info,  Node: Notes for type implementers,  Prev: The numeric tower,  Up: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes

5.10.1.2 Notes for type implementers
....................................

Implementers should be careful to make equal numbers equal and hash them
to the same values.  This may be subtle if there are two different
extensions of the real numbers.  For example, *note fractions.Fraction:
1c3. implements *note hash(): 9e2. as follows:

     def __hash__(self):
         if self.denominator == 1:
             # Get integers right.
             return hash(self.numerator)
         # Expensive check, but definitely correct.
         if self == float(self):
             return hash(float(self))
         else:
             # Use tuple's hash to avoid a high collision rate on
             # simple fractions.
             return hash((self.numerator, self.denominator))

* Menu:

* Adding More Numeric ABCs::
* Implementing the arithmetic operations::


File: python.info,  Node: Adding More Numeric ABCs,  Next: Implementing the arithmetic operations,  Up: Notes for type implementers

5.10.1.3 Adding More Numeric ABCs
.................................

There are, of course, more possible ABCs for numbers, and this would be
a poor hierarchy if it precluded the possibility of adding those.  You
can add ‘MyFoo’ between *note Complex: 27f6. and *note Real: 27ec. with:

     class MyFoo(Complex): ...
     MyFoo.register(Real)


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing the arithmetic operations,  Prev: Adding More Numeric ABCs,  Up: Notes for type implementers

5.10.1.4 Implementing the arithmetic operations
...............................................

We want to implement the arithmetic operations so that mixed-mode
operations either call an implementation whose author knew about the
types of both arguments, or convert both to the nearest built in type
and do the operation there.  For subtypes of *note Integral: 25ff, this
means that *note __add__(): 25d2. and *note __radd__(): 25d3. should be
defined as:

     class MyIntegral(Integral):

         def __add__(self, other):
             if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
                 return do_my_adding_stuff(self, other)
             elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
                 return do_my_other_adding_stuff(self, other)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented

         def __radd__(self, other):
             if isinstance(other, MyIntegral):
                 return do_my_adding_stuff(other, self)
             elif isinstance(other, OtherTypeIKnowAbout):
                 return do_my_other_adding_stuff(other, self)
             elif isinstance(other, Integral):
                 return int(other) + int(self)
             elif isinstance(other, Real):
                 return float(other) + float(self)
             elif isinstance(other, Complex):
                 return complex(other) + complex(self)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented

There are 5 different cases for a mixed-type operation on subclasses of
*note Complex: 27f6.  I’ll refer to all of the above code that doesn’t
refer to ‘MyIntegral’ and ‘OtherTypeIKnowAbout’ as «boilerplate».  ‘a’
will be an instance of ‘A’, which is a subtype of ‘Complex’ (‘a : A <:
Complex’), and ‘b : B <: Complex’.  I’ll consider ‘a + b’:

  1. If ‘A’ defines an *note __add__(): 25d2. which accepts ‘b’, all is
     well.

  2. If ‘A’ falls back to the boilerplate code, and it were to return a
     value from *note __add__(): 25d2, we’d miss the possibility that
     ‘B’ defines a more intelligent *note __radd__(): 25d3, so the
     boilerplate should return *note NotImplemented: 440. from
     ‘__add__()’.  (Or ‘A’ may not implement ‘__add__()’ at all.)

  3. Then ‘B’’s *note __radd__(): 25d3. gets a chance.  If it accepts
     ‘a’, all is well.

  4. If it falls back to the boilerplate, there are no more possible
     methods to try, so this is where the default implementation should
     live.

  5. If ‘B <: A’, Python tries ‘B.__radd__’ before ‘A.__add__’.  This is
     ok, because it was implemented with knowledge of ‘A’, so it can
     handle those instances before delegating to *note Complex: 27f6.

If ‘A <: Complex’ and ‘B <: Real’ without sharing any other knowledge,
then the appropriate shared operation is the one involving the built in
*note complex: 328, and both *note __radd__(): 25d3. s land there, so
‘a+b == b+a’.

Because most of the operations on any given type will be very similar,
it can be useful to define a helper function which generates the forward
and reverse instances of any given operator.  For example, *note
fractions.Fraction: 1c3. uses:

     def _operator_fallbacks(monomorphic_operator, fallback_operator):
         def forward(a, b):
             if isinstance(b, (int, Fraction)):
                 return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
             elif isinstance(b, float):
                 return fallback_operator(float(a), b)
             elif isinstance(b, complex):
                 return fallback_operator(complex(a), b)
             else:
                 return NotImplemented
         forward.__name__ = '__' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
         forward.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__

         def reverse(b, a):
             if isinstance(a, Rational):
                 # Includes ints.
                 return monomorphic_operator(a, b)
             elif isinstance(a, Real):
                 return fallback_operator(float(a), float(b))
             elif isinstance(a, Complex):
                 return fallback_operator(complex(a), complex(b))
             else:
                 return NotImplemented
         reverse.__name__ = '__r' + fallback_operator.__name__ + '__'
         reverse.__doc__ = monomorphic_operator.__doc__

         return forward, reverse

     def _add(a, b):
         """a + b"""
         return Fraction(a.numerator * b.denominator +
                         b.numerator * a.denominator,
                         a.denominator * b.denominator)

     __add__, __radd__ = _operator_fallbacks(_add, operator.add)

     # ...


File: python.info,  Node: math — Mathematical functions,  Next: math integer — integer-specific mathematics functions,  Prev: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes,  Up: Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules

5.10.2 ‘math’ — Mathematical functions
--------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to common mathematical functions and
constants, including those defined by the C standard.

These functions cannot be used with complex numbers; use the functions
of the same name from the *note cmath: 19. module if you require support
for complex numbers.  The distinction between functions which support
complex numbers and those which don’t is made since most users do not
want to learn quite as much mathematics as required to understand
complex numbers.  Receiving an exception instead of a complex result
allows earlier detection of the unexpected complex number used as a
parameter, so that the programmer can determine how and why it was
generated in the first place.

The following functions are provided by this module.  Except when
explicitly noted otherwise, all return values are floats.

'Floating point arithmetic'

*note ceil(x): 1761.                                     Ceiling of 'x', the smallest integer greater than or equal to 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note fabs(x): 2c86.                                     Absolute value of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note floor(x): 1760.                                    Floor of 'x', the largest integer less than or equal to 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note fma(x, y, z): 718.                                 Fused multiply-add operation: ‘(x * y) + z’
                                                         
                                                         
*note fmax(x, y): 237.                                   Maximum of two floating-point values
                                                         
                                                         
*note fmin(x, y): 238.                                   Minimum of two floating-point values
                                                         
                                                         
*note fmod(x, y): 26bf.                                  Remainder of division ‘x / y’
                                                         
                                                         
*note modf(x): 2c87.                                     Fractional and integer parts of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note remainder(x, y): f10.                              Remainder of 'x' with respect to 'y'
                                                         
                                                         
*note trunc(x): 1762.                                    Integer part of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
'Floating point manipulation functions'

*note copysign(x, y): 1776.                              Magnitude (absolute value) of 'x' with the sign of 'y'
                                                         
                                                         
*note frexp(x): 2c88.                                    Mantissa and exponent of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note isclose(a, b, rel_tol, abs_tol): 1169.             Check if the values 'a' and 'b' are close to each other
                                                         
                                                         
*note isfinite(x): 1594.                                 Check if 'x' is neither an infinity nor a NaN
                                                         
                                                         
*note isnormal(x): 235.                                  Check if 'x' is a normal number
                                                         
                                                         
*note issubnormal(x): 236.                               Check if 'x' is a subnormal number
                                                         
                                                         
*note isinf(x): 1774.                                    Check if 'x' is a positive or negative infinity
                                                         
                                                         
*note isnan(x): 1775.                                    Check if 'x' is a NaN (not a number)
                                                         
                                                         
*note ldexp(x, i): 1a3d.                                 ‘x * (2**i)’, inverse of function *note frexp(): 2c88.
                                                         
                                                         
*note nextafter(x, y, steps): 8a9.                       Floating-point value 'steps' steps after 'x' towards 'y'
                                                         
                                                         
*note signbit(x): 239.                                   Check if 'x' is a negative number
                                                         
                                                         
*note ulp(x): ce1.                                       Value of the least significant bit of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
'Power, exponential and logarithmic functions'

*note cbrt(x): a51.                                      Cube root of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note exp(x): 16b8.                                      'e' raised to the power 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note exp2(x): a50.                                      '2' raised to the power 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note expm1(x): 1595.                                    'e' raised to the power 'x', minus 1
                                                         
                                                         
*note log(x, base): 1862.                                Logarithm of 'x' to the given base ('e' by default)
                                                         
                                                         
*note log1p(x): 177b.                                    Natural logarithm of '1+x' (base 'e')
                                                         
                                                         
*note log2(x): 1487.                                     Base-2 logarithm of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note log10(x): 19dc.                                    Base-10 logarithm of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note pow(x, y): a52.                                    'x' raised to the power 'y'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sqrt(x): dc8.                                      Square root of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
'Summation and product functions'

*note dist(p, q): dc4.                                   Euclidean distance between two points 'p' and 'q' given as an iterable of coordinates
                                                         
                                                         
*note fsum(iterable): 1777.                              Sum of values in the input 'iterable'
                                                         
                                                         
*note hypot(*coordinates): dc5.                          Euclidean norm of an iterable of coordinates
                                                         
                                                         
*note prod(iterable, start): dc6.                        Product of elements in the input 'iterable' with a 'start' value
                                                         
                                                         
*note sumprod(p, q): 8a8.                                Sum of products from two iterables 'p' and 'q'
                                                         
                                                         
'Angular conversion'

*note degrees(x): 2c89.                                  Convert angle 'x' from radians to degrees
                                                         
                                                         
*note radians(x): 2c8a.                                  Convert angle 'x' from degrees to radians
                                                         
                                                         
'Trigonometric functions'

*note acos(x): 2c8b.                                     Arc cosine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note asin(x): 2c8c.                                     Arc sine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note atan(x): 2c8d.                                     Arc tangent of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note atan2(y, x): 2c8e.                                 ‘atan(y / x)’
                                                         
                                                         
*note cos(x): 1861.                                      Cosine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sin(x): 1860.                                      Sine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note tan(x): 2c8f.                                      Tangent of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
'Hyperbolic functions'

*note acosh(x): 1778.                                    Inverse hyperbolic cosine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note asinh(x): 1779.                                    Inverse hyperbolic sine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note atanh(x): 177a.                                    Inverse hyperbolic tangent of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note cosh(x): 2c90.                                     Hyperbolic cosine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sinh(x): 2c91.                                     Hyperbolic sine of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note tanh(x): 2c92.                                     Hyperbolic tangent of 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
'Special functions'

*note erf(x): f98.                                       Error function(1) at 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note erfc(x): f99.                                      Complementary error function(2) at 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note gamma(x): 1596.                                    Gamma function(3) at 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
*note lgamma(x): 1597.                                   Natural logarithm of the absolute value of the Gamma function(4) at 'x'
                                                         
                                                         
'Constants'

*note pi: 2c93.                                          'π' = 3.141592…
                                                         
                                                         
*note e: 2c94.                                           'e' = 2.718281…
                                                         
                                                         
*note tau: 2c95.                                         'τ' = 2'π' = 6.283185…
                                                         
                                                         
*note inf: 1043.                                         Positive infinity
                                                         
                                                         
*note nan: a53.                                          «Not a number» (NaN)
                                                         

* Menu:

* Floating point arithmetic::
* Floating point manipulation functions::
* Power, exponential and logarithmic functions: Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
* Summation and product functions::
* Angular conversion::
* Trigonometric functions::
* Hyperbolic functions::
* Special functions::
* Number-theoretic functions::
* Constants: Constants<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function


File: python.info,  Node: Floating point arithmetic,  Next: Floating point manipulation functions,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.10.2.1 Floating point arithmetic
..................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.ceil (x)

     Return the ceiling of 'x', the smallest integer greater than or
     equal to 'x'.  If 'x' is not a float, delegates to *note
     x.__ceil__: 25fe, which should return an *note Integral: 25ff.
     value.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.fabs (x)

     Return the absolute value of 'x'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.floor (x)

     Return the floor of 'x', the largest integer less than or equal to
     'x'.  If 'x' is not a float, delegates to *note x.__floor__: 25fd,
     which should return an *note Integral: 25ff. value.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.fma (x, y, z)

     Fused multiply-add operation.  Return ‘(x * y) + z’, computed as
     though with infinite precision and range followed by a single round
     to the ‘float’ format.  This operation often provides better
     accuracy than the direct expression ‘(x * y) + z’.

     This function follows the specification of the fusedMultiplyAdd
     operation described in the IEEE 754 standard.  The standard leaves
     one case implementation-defined, namely the result of ‘fma(0, inf,
     nan)’ and ‘fma(inf, 0, nan)’.  In these cases, ‘math.fma’ returns a
     NaN, and does not raise any exception.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.fmax (x, y)

     Get the larger of two floating-point values, treating NaNs as
     missing data.

     When both operands are (signed) NaNs or zeroes, return ‘nan’ and
     ‘0’ respectively and the sign of the result is
     implementation-defined, that is, ‘fmax()’ is not required to be
     sensitive to the sign of such operands (see Annex F of the C11
     standard, §F.10.0.3 and §F.10.9.2).

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.fmin (x, y)

     Get the smaller of two floating-point values, treating NaNs as
     missing data.

     When both operands are (signed) NaNs or zeroes, return ‘nan’ and
     ‘0’ respectively and the sign of the result is
     implementation-defined, that is, ‘fmin()’ is not required to be
     sensitive to the sign of such operands (see Annex F of the C11
     standard, §F.10.0.3 and §F.10.9.3).

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.fmod (x, y)

     Return the floating-point remainder of ‘x / y’, as defined by the
     platform C library function ‘fmod(x, y)’.  Note that the Python
     expression ‘x % y’ may not return the same result.  The intent of
     the C standard is that ‘fmod(x, y)’ be exactly (mathematically; to
     infinite precision) equal to ‘x - n*y’ for some integer 'n' such
     that the result has the same sign as 'x' and magnitude less than
     ‘abs(y)’.  Python’s ‘x % y’ returns a result with the sign of 'y'
     instead, and may not be exactly computable for float arguments.
     For example, ‘fmod(-1e-100, 1e100)’ is ‘-1e-100’, but the result of
     Python’s ‘-1e-100 % 1e100’ is ‘1e100-1e-100’, which cannot be
     represented exactly as a float, and rounds to the surprising
     ‘1e100’.  For this reason, function ‘fmod()’ is generally preferred
     when working with floats, while Python’s ‘x % y’ is preferred when
     working with integers.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.modf (x)

     Return the fractional and integer parts of 'x'.  Both results carry
     the sign of 'x' and are floats.

     Note that ‘modf()’ has a different call/return pattern than its C
     equivalents: it takes a single argument and return a pair of
     values, rather than returning its second return value through an
     “output parameter” (there is no such thing in Python).

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.remainder (x, y)

     Return the IEEE 754-style remainder of 'x' with respect to 'y'.
     For finite 'x' and finite nonzero 'y', this is the difference ‘x -
     n*y’, where ‘n’ is the closest integer to the exact value of the
     quotient ‘x / y’.  If ‘x / y’ is exactly halfway between two
     consecutive integers, the nearest 'even' integer is used for ‘n’.
     The remainder ‘r = remainder(x, y)’ thus always satisfies ‘abs(r)
     <= 0.5 * abs(y)’.

     Special cases follow IEEE 754: in particular, ‘remainder(x,
     math.inf)’ is 'x' for any finite 'x', and ‘remainder(x, 0)’ and
     ‘remainder(math.inf, x)’ raise *note ValueError: 277. for any
     non-NaN 'x'.  If the result of the remainder operation is zero,
     that zero will have the same sign as 'x'.

     On platforms using IEEE 754 binary floating point, the result of
     this operation is always exactly representable: no rounding error
     is introduced.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.trunc (x)

     Return 'x' with the fractional part removed, leaving the integer
     part.  This rounds toward 0: ‘trunc()’ is equivalent to *note
     floor(): 1760. for positive 'x', and equivalent to *note ceil():
     1761. for negative 'x'.  If 'x' is not a float, delegates to *note
     x.__trunc__: 43b, which should return an *note Integral: 25ff.
     value.

For the *note ceil(): 1761, *note floor(): 1760, and *note modf(): 2c87.
functions, note that 'all' floating-point numbers of sufficiently large
magnitude are exact integers.  Python floats typically carry no more
than 53 bits of precision (the same as the platform C double type), in
which case any float 'x' with ‘abs(x) >= 2**52’ necessarily has no
fractional bits.


File: python.info,  Node: Floating point manipulation functions,  Next: Power exponential and logarithmic functions,  Prev: Floating point arithmetic,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.10.2.2 Floating point manipulation functions
..............................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.copysign (x, y)

     Return a float with the magnitude (absolute value) of 'x' but the
     sign of 'y'.  On platforms that support signed zeros,
     ‘copysign(1.0, -0.0)’ returns '-1.0'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.frexp (x)

     Return the mantissa and exponent of 'x' as the pair ‘(m, e)’.  'm'
     is a float and 'e' is an integer such that ‘x == m * 2**e’ exactly.
     If 'x' is zero, returns ‘(0.0, 0)’, otherwise ‘0.5 <= abs(m) < 1’.
     This is used to «pick apart» the internal representation of a float
     in a portable way.

     Note that ‘frexp()’ has a different call/return pattern than its C
     equivalents: it takes a single argument and return a pair of
     values, rather than returning its second return value through an
     “output parameter” (there is no such thing in Python).

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.isclose (a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)

     Return ‘True’ if the values 'a' and 'b' are close to each other and
     ‘False’ otherwise.

     Whether or not two values are considered close is determined
     according to given absolute and relative tolerances.  If no errors
     occur, the result will be: ‘abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a),
     abs(b)), abs_tol)’.

     'rel_tol' is the relative tolerance – it is the maximum allowed
     difference between 'a' and 'b', relative to the larger absolute
     value of 'a' or 'b'.  For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass
     ‘rel_tol=0.05’.  The default tolerance is ‘1e-09’, which assures
     that the two values are the same within about 9 decimal digits.
     'rel_tol' must be nonnegative and less than ‘1.0’.

     'abs_tol' is the absolute tolerance; it defaults to ‘0.0’ and it
     must be nonnegative.  When comparing ‘x’ to ‘0.0’, ‘isclose(x, 0)’
     is computed as ‘abs(x) <= rel_tol * abs(x)’, which is ‘False’ for
     any nonzero ‘x’ and 'rel_tol' less than ‘1.0’.  So add an
     appropriate positive 'abs_tol' argument to the call.

     The IEEE 754 special values of ‘NaN’, ‘inf’, and ‘-inf’ will be
     handled according to IEEE rules.  Specifically, ‘NaN’ is not
     considered close to any other value, including ‘NaN’.  ‘inf’ and
     ‘-inf’ are only considered close to themselves.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 485(1) – A function for testing approximate equality

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.isfinite (x)

     Return ‘True’ if 'x' is neither an infinity nor a NaN, and ‘False’
     otherwise.  (Note that ‘0.0’ 'is' considered finite.)

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.isnormal (x)

     Return ‘True’ if 'x' is a normal number, that is a finite nonzero
     number that is not a subnormal (see *note issubnormal(): 236.).
     Return ‘False’ otherwise.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.issubnormal (x)

     Return ‘True’ if 'x' is a subnormal number, that is a finite
     nonzero number with a magnitude smaller than *note
     sys.float_info.min: 2c98.  Return ‘False’ otherwise.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.isinf (x)

     Return ‘True’ if 'x' is a positive or negative infinity, and
     ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.isnan (x)

     Return ‘True’ if 'x' is a NaN (not a number), and ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.ldexp (x, i)

     Return ‘x * (2**i)’.  This is essentially the inverse of function
     *note frexp(): 2c88.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.nextafter (x, y, steps=1)

     Return the floating-point value 'steps' steps after 'x' towards
     'y'.

     If 'x' is equal to 'y', return 'y', unless 'steps' is zero.

     Examples:

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, math.inf)’ goes up: towards positive
          infinity.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, -math.inf)’ goes down: towards minus
          infinity.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, 0.0)’ goes towards zero.

        * ‘math.nextafter(x, math.copysign(math.inf, x))’ goes away from
          zero.

     See also *note math.ulp(): ce1.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added the 'steps' argument.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.signbit (x)

     Return ‘True’ if the sign of 'x' is negative and ‘False’ otherwise.

     This is useful to detect the sign bit of zeroes, infinities and
     NaNs.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.ulp (x)

     Return the value of the least significant bit of the float 'x':

        * If 'x' is a NaN (not a number), return 'x'.

        * If 'x' is negative, return ‘ulp(-x)’.

        * If 'x' is a positive infinity, return 'x'.

        * If 'x' is equal to zero, return the smallest positive
          'denormalized' representable float (smaller than the minimum
          positive 'normalized' float, *note sys.float_info.min: 1fbf.).

        * If 'x' is equal to the largest positive representable float,
          return the value of the least significant bit of 'x', such
          that the first float smaller than 'x' is ‘x - ulp(x)’.

        * Otherwise ('x' is a positive finite number), return the value
          of the least significant bit of 'x', such that the first float
          bigger than 'x' is ‘x + ulp(x)’.

     ULP stands for «Unit in the Last Place».

     See also *note math.nextafter(): 8a9. and *note
     sys.float_info.epsilon: 1fbf.

     Added in version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: Power exponential and logarithmic functions,  Next: Summation and product functions,  Prev: Floating point manipulation functions,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.10.2.3 Power, exponential and logarithmic functions
.....................................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.cbrt (x)

     Return the cube root of 'x'.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.exp (x)

     Return 'e' raised to the power 'x', where 'e' = 2.718281… is the
     base of natural logarithms.  This is usually more accurate than
     ‘math.e ** x’ or ‘pow(math.e, x)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.exp2 (x)

     Return '2' raised to the power 'x'.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.expm1 (x)

     Return 'e' raised to the power 'x', minus 1.  Here 'e' is the base
     of natural logarithms.  For small floats 'x', the subtraction in
     ‘exp(x) - 1’ can result in a significant loss of precision(1); the
     ‘expm1()’ function provides a way to compute this quantity to full
     precision:

          >>> from math import exp, expm1
          >>> exp(1e-5) - 1  # gives result accurate to 11 places
          1.0000050000069649e-05
          >>> expm1(1e-5)    # result accurate to full precision
          1.0000050000166668e-05

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.log (x[, base])

     With one argument, return the natural logarithm of 'x' (to base
     'e').

     With two arguments, return the logarithm of 'x' to the given
     'base', calculated as ‘log(x)/log(base)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.log1p (x)

     Return the natural logarithm of '1+x' (base 'e').  The result is
     calculated in a way which is accurate for 'x' near zero.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.log2 (x)

     Return the base-2 logarithm of 'x'.  This is usually more accurate
     than ‘log(x, 2)’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note int.bit_length(): 27f0. returns the number of bits necessary
     to represent an integer in binary, excluding the sign and leading
     zeros.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.log10 (x)

     Return the base-10 logarithm of 'x'.  This is usually more accurate
     than ‘log(x, 10)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.pow (x, y)

     Return 'x' raised to the power 'y'.  Exceptional cases follow the
     IEEE 754 standard as far as possible.  In particular, ‘pow(1.0, x)’
     and ‘pow(x, 0.0)’ always return ‘1.0’, even when 'x' is a zero or a
     NaN. If both 'x' and 'y' are finite, 'x' is negative, and 'y' is
     not an integer then ‘pow(x, y)’ is undefined, and raises *note
     ValueError: 277.

     Unlike the built-in ‘**’ operator, *note math.pow(): a52. converts
     both its arguments to type *note float: 327.  Use ‘**’ or the
     built-in ‘pow()’ function for computing exact integer powers.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The special cases ‘pow(0.0, -inf)’ and
     ‘pow(-0.0, -inf)’ were changed to return ‘inf’ instead of raising
     *note ValueError: 277, for consistency with IEEE 754.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.sqrt (x)

     Return the square root of 'x'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance


File: python.info,  Node: Summation and product functions,  Next: Angular conversion,  Prev: Power exponential and logarithmic functions,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.10.2.4 Summation and product functions
........................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.dist (p, q)

     Return the Euclidean distance between two points 'p' and 'q', each
     given as a sequence (or iterable) of coordinates.  The two points
     must have the same dimension.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          sqrt(sum((px - qx) ** 2.0 for px, qx in zip(p, q, strict=True)))

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.fsum (iterable)

     Return an accurate floating-point sum of values in the iterable.
     Avoids loss of precision by tracking multiple intermediate partial
     sums.

     The algorithm’s accuracy depends on IEEE-754 arithmetic guarantees
     and the typical case where the rounding mode is half-even.  On some
     non-Windows builds, the underlying C library uses extended
     precision addition and may occasionally double-round an
     intermediate sum causing it to be off in its least significant bit.

     For further discussion and two alternative approaches, see the ASPN
     cookbook recipes for accurate floating-point summation(1).

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.hypot (*coordinates)

     Return the Euclidean norm, ‘sqrt(sum(x**2 for x in coordinates))’.
     This is the length of the vector from the origin to the point given
     by the coordinates.

     For a two dimensional point ‘(x, y)’, this is equivalent to
     computing the hypotenuse of a right triangle using the Pythagorean
     theorem, ‘sqrt(x*x + y*y)’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added support for n-dimensional points.
     Formerly, only the two dimensional case was supported.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Improved the algorithm’s accuracy so that
     the maximum error is under 1 ulp (unit in the last place).  More
     typically, the result is almost always correctly rounded to within
     1/2 ulp.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.prod (iterable, *, start=1)

     Calculate the product of all the elements in the input 'iterable'.
     The default 'start' value for the product is ‘1’.

     When the iterable is empty, return the start value.  This function
     is intended specifically for use with numeric values and may reject
     non-numeric types.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.sumprod (p, q)

     Return the sum of products of values from two iterables 'p' and
     'q'.

     Raises *note ValueError: 277. if the inputs do not have the same
     length.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          sum(map(operator.mul, p, q, strict=True))

     For float and mixed int/float inputs, the intermediate products and
     sums are computed with extended precision.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/393090-binary-floating-point-summation-accurate-to-full-p/


File: python.info,  Node: Angular conversion,  Next: Trigonometric functions,  Prev: Summation and product functions,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.10.2.5 Angular conversion
...........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.degrees (x)

     Convert angle 'x' from radians to degrees.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.radians (x)

     Convert angle 'x' from degrees to radians.


File: python.info,  Node: Trigonometric functions,  Next: Hyperbolic functions,  Prev: Angular conversion,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.10.2.6 Trigonometric functions
................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.acos (x)

     Return the arc cosine of 'x', in radians.  The result is between
     ‘0’ and ‘pi’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.asin (x)

     Return the arc sine of 'x', in radians.  The result is between
     ‘-pi/2’ and ‘pi/2’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.atan (x)

     Return the arc tangent of 'x', in radians.  The result is between
     ‘-pi/2’ and ‘pi/2’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.atan2 (y, x)

     Return ‘atan(y / x)’, in radians.  The result is between ‘-pi’ and
     ‘pi’.  The vector in the plane from the origin to point ‘(x, y)’
     makes this angle with the positive X axis.  The point of ‘atan2()’
     is that the signs of both inputs are known to it, so it can compute
     the correct quadrant for the angle.  For example, ‘atan(1)’ and
     ‘atan2(1, 1)’ are both ‘pi/4’, but ‘atan2(-1, -1)’ is ‘-3*pi/4’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.cos (x)

     Return the cosine of 'x' radians.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.sin (x)

     Return the sine of 'x' radians.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.tan (x)

     Return the tangent of 'x' radians.


File: python.info,  Node: Hyperbolic functions,  Next: Special functions,  Prev: Trigonometric functions,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.10.2.7 Hyperbolic functions
.............................

Hyperbolic functions(1) are analogs of trigonometric functions that are
based on hyperbolas instead of circles.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.acosh (x)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of 'x'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.asinh (x)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of 'x'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.atanh (x)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of 'x'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.cosh (x)

     Return the hyperbolic cosine of 'x'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.sinh (x)

     Return the hyperbolic sine of 'x'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.tanh (x)

     Return the hyperbolic tangent of 'x'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_functions


File: python.info,  Node: Special functions,  Next: Number-theoretic functions,  Prev: Hyperbolic functions,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.10.2.8 Special functions
..........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.erf (x)

     Return the error function(1) at 'x'.

     The ‘erf()’ function can be used to compute traditional statistical
     functions such as the cumulative standard normal distribution(2):

          def phi(x):
              'Cumulative distribution function for the standard normal distribution'
              return (1.0 + erf(x / sqrt(2.0))) / 2.0

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.erfc (x)

     Return the complementary error function at 'x'.  The complementary
     error function(3) is defined as ‘1.0 - erf(x)’.  It is used for
     large values of 'x' where a subtraction from one would cause a loss
     of significance(4).

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.gamma (x)

     Return the Gamma function(5) at 'x'.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.lgamma (x)

     Return the natural logarithm of the absolute value of the Gamma
     function at 'x'.

     Added in version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function


File: python.info,  Node: Number-theoretic functions,  Next: Constants<2>,  Prev: Special functions,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.10.2.9 Number-theoretic functions
...................................

For backward compatibility, the ‘math’ module provides also aliases of
the following functions from the *note math.integer: 92. module:

*note comb(n, k): 2ca0.                                Number of ways to choose 'k' items from 'n' items
                                                       without repetition and without order
                                                       
                                                       
*note factorial(n): 2ca1.                              'n' factorial
                                                       
                                                       
*note gcd(*integers): 2ca2.                            Greatest common divisor of the integer arguments
                                                       
                                                       
*note isqrt(n): 2ca3.                                  Integer square root of a nonnegative integer 'n'
                                                       
                                                       
*note lcm(*integers): 2ca4.                            Least common multiple of the integer arguments
                                                       
                                                       
*note perm(n, k): 2ca5.                                Number of ways to choose 'k' items from 'n' items
                                                       without repetition and with order
                                                       

Added in version 3.5: The *note gcd(): cdf. function.

Added in version 3.8: The *note comb(): abd, *note perm(): abe. and
*note isqrt(): dc7. functions.

Added in version 3.9: The *note lcm(): ce0. function.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added support for an arbitrary number of
arguments in the *note gcd(): cdf. function.  Formerly, only two
arguments were supported.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Floats with integral values (like ‘5.0’) are no
longer accepted in the *note factorial(): d13. function.

*note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15: Use the *note
math.integer: 92. functions instead of these aliases.


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<2>,  Prev: Number-theoretic functions,  Up: math — Mathematical functions

5.10.2.10 Constants
...................

 -- Δεδομένα: math.pi

     The mathematical constant 'π' = 3.141592…, to available precision.

 -- Δεδομένα: math.e

     The mathematical constant 'e' = 2.718281…, to available precision.

 -- Δεδομένα: math.tau

     The mathematical constant 'τ' = 6.283185…, to available precision.
     Tau is a circle constant equal to 2'π', the ratio of a circle’s
     circumference to its radius.  To learn more about Tau, check out Vi
     Hart’s video Pi is (still) Wrong(1), and start celebrating Tau
     day(2) by eating twice as much pie!

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: math.inf

     A floating-point positive infinity.  (For negative infinity, use
     ‘-math.inf’.)  Equivalent to the output of ‘float('inf')’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Δεδομένα: math.nan

     A floating-point «not a number» (NaN) value.  Equivalent to the
     output of ‘float('nan')’.  Due to the requirements of the IEEE-754
     standard(3), ‘math.nan’ and ‘float('nan')’ are not considered to
     equal to any other numeric value, including themselves.  To check
     whether a number is a NaN, use the *note isnan(): 1775. function to
     test for NaNs instead of ‘is’ or ‘==’.  Example:

          >>> import math
          >>> math.nan == math.nan
          False
          >>> float('nan') == float('nan')
          False
          >>> math.isnan(math.nan)
          True
          >>> math.isnan(float('nan'))
          True

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: It is now always available.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' The ‘math’ module consists mostly of
thin wrappers around the platform C math library functions.  Behavior in
exceptional cases follows Annex F of the C99 standard where appropriate.
The current implementation will raise *note ValueError: 277. for invalid
operations like ‘sqrt(-1.0)’ or ‘log(0.0)’ (where C99 Annex F recommends
signaling invalid operation or divide-by-zero), and *note OverflowError:
c57. for results that overflow (for example, ‘exp(1000.0)’).  A NaN will
not be returned from any of the functions above unless one or more of
the input arguments was a NaN; in that case, most functions will return
a NaN, but (again following C99 Annex F) there are some exceptions to
this rule, for example ‘pow(float('nan'), 0.0)’ or ‘hypot(float('nan'),
float('inf'))’.

Note that Python makes no effort to distinguish signaling NaNs from
quiet NaNs, and behavior for signaling NaNs remains unspecified.
Typical behavior is to treat all NaNs as though they were quiet.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note cmath: 19.

     Complex number versions of many of these functions.

Module *note math.integer: 92.

     Integer-specific mathematics functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://vimeo.com/147792667

   (2) https://tauday.com/

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754


File: python.info,  Node: math integer — integer-specific mathematics functions,  Next: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers,  Prev: math — Mathematical functions,  Up: Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules

5.10.3 ‘math.integer’ — integer-specific mathematics functions
--------------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.15.

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the mathematical functions defined for
integer arguments.  These functions accept integers and objects that
implement the *note __index__(): 43d. method which is used to convert
the object to an integer number.

The following functions are provided by this module.  All return values
are computed exactly and are integers.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.integer.comb (n, k, /)

     Return the number of ways to choose 'k' items from 'n' items
     without repetition and without order.

     Evaluates to ‘n! / (k! * (n - k)!)’ when ‘k <= n’ and evaluates to
     zero when ‘k > n’.

     Also called the binomial coefficient because it is equivalent to
     the coefficient of k-th term in polynomial expansion of ‘(1 + x)ⁿ’.

     Raises *note ValueError: 277. if either of the arguments are
     negative.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.integer.factorial (n, /)

     Return factorial of the nonnegative integer 'n'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.integer.gcd (*integers)

     Return the greatest common divisor of the specified integer
     arguments.  If any of the arguments is nonzero, then the returned
     value is the largest positive integer that is a divisor of all
     arguments.  If all arguments are zero, then the returned value is
     ‘0’.  ‘gcd()’ without arguments returns ‘0’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.integer.isqrt (n, /)

     Return the integer square root of the nonnegative integer 'n'.
     This is the floor of the exact square root of 'n', or equivalently
     the greatest integer 'a' such that 'a'² ≤ 'n'.

     For some applications, it may be more convenient to have the least
     integer 'a' such that 'n' ≤ 'a'², or in other words the ceiling of
     the exact square root of 'n'.  For positive 'n', this can be
     computed using ‘a = 1 + isqrt(n - 1)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.integer.lcm (*integers)

     Return the least common multiple of the specified integer
     arguments.  If all arguments are nonzero, then the returned value
     is the smallest positive integer that is a multiple of all
     arguments.  If any of the arguments is zero, then the returned
     value is ‘0’.  ‘lcm()’ without arguments returns ‘1’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: math.integer.perm (n, k=None, /)

     Return the number of ways to choose 'k' items from 'n' items
     without repetition and with order.

     Evaluates to ‘n! / (n - k)!’ when ‘k <= n’ and evaluates to zero
     when ‘k > n’.

     If 'k' is not specified or is ‘None’, then 'k' defaults to 'n' and
     the function returns ‘n!’.

     Raises *note ValueError: 277. if either of the arguments are
     negative.


File: python.info,  Node: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers,  Next: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic,  Prev: math integer — integer-specific mathematics functions,  Up: Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules

5.10.4 ‘cmath’ — Mathematical functions for complex numbers
-----------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to mathematical functions for complex
numbers.  The functions in this module accept integers, floating-point
numbers or complex numbers as arguments.  They will also accept any
Python object that has either a *note __complex__(): 9de. or a *note
__float__(): d92. method: these methods are used to convert the object
to a complex or floating-point number, respectively, and the function is
then applied to the result of the conversion.

     Σημείωση: For functions involving branch cuts, we have the problem
     of deciding how to define those functions on the cut itself.
     Following Kahan’s «Branch cuts for complex elementary functions»
     paper, as well as Annex G of C99 and later C standards, we use the
     sign of zero to distinguish one side of the branch cut from the
     other: for a branch cut along (a portion of) the real axis we look
     at the sign of the imaginary part, while for a branch cut along the
     imaginary axis we look at the sign of the real part.

     For example, the *note cmath.sqrt(): 2cad. function has a branch
     cut along the negative real axis.  An argument of ‘-2-0j’ is
     treated as though it lies 'below' the branch cut, and so gives a
     result on the negative imaginary axis:

          >>> cmath.sqrt(-2-0j)
          -1.4142135623730951j

     But an argument of ‘-2+0j’ is treated as though it lies above the
     branch cut:

          >>> cmath.sqrt(-2+0j)
          1.4142135623730951j

'Conversions to and from polar coordinates'

*note phase(z): 2cae.                                    Return the phase of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note polar(z): 2caf.                                    Return the representation of 'z' in polar coordinates
                                                         
                                                         
*note rect(r, phi): 2cb0.                                Return the complex number 'z' with polar coordinates 'r' and 'phi'
                                                         
                                                         
'Power and logarithmic functions'

*note exp(z): 2cb1.                                      Return 'e' raised to the power 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note log(z[, base]): 2cb2.                              Return the logarithm of 'z' to the given 'base' ('e' by default)
                                                         
                                                         
*note log10(z): 2cb3.                                    Return the base-10 logarithm of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sqrt(z): 2cad.                                     Return the square root of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
'Trigonometric functions'

*note acos(z): 2cb4.                                     Return the arc cosine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note asin(z): 2cb5.                                     Return the arc sine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note atan(z): 2cb6.                                     Return the arc tangent of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note cos(z): 2cb7.                                      Return the cosine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sin(z): 2cb8.                                      Return the sine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note tan(z): 2cb9.                                      Return the tangent of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
'Hyperbolic functions'

*note acosh(z): 2cba.                                    Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note asinh(z): 2cbb.                                    Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note atanh(z): 2cbc.                                    Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note cosh(z): 2cbd.                                     Return the hyperbolic cosine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note sinh(z): 2cbe.                                     Return the hyperbolic sine of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
*note tanh(z): 2cbf.                                     Return the hyperbolic tangent of 'z'
                                                         
                                                         
'Classification functions'

*note isfinite(z): 2cc0.                                 Check if all components of 'z' are finite
                                                         
                                                         
*note isinf(z): 2cc1.                                    Check if any component of 'z' is infinite
                                                         
                                                         
*note isnan(z): 2cc2.                                    Check if any component of 'z' is a NaN
                                                         
                                                         
*note isclose(a, b, *, rel_tol, abs_tol): 116a.          Check if the values 'a' and 'b' are close to each other
                                                         
                                                         
'Constants'

*note pi: 2cc3.                                          'π' = 3.141592…
                                                         
                                                         
*note e: 2cc4.                                           'e' = 2.718281…
                                                         
                                                         
*note tau: 1040.                                         'τ' = 2'π' = 6.283185…
                                                         
                                                         
*note inf: 1041.                                         Positive infinity
                                                         
                                                         
*note infj: 1044.                                        Pure imaginary infinity
                                                         
                                                         
*note nan: 1042.                                         «Not a number» (NaN)
                                                         
                                                         
*note nanj: 1045.                                        Pure imaginary NaN
                                                         

* Menu:

* Conversions to and from polar coordinates::
* Power and logarithmic functions::
* Trigonometric functions: Trigonometric functions<2>.
* Hyperbolic functions: Hyperbolic functions<2>.
* Classification functions::
* Constants: Constants<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Conversions to and from polar coordinates,  Next: Power and logarithmic functions,  Up: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.10.4.1 Conversions to and from polar coordinates
..................................................

A Python complex number ‘z’ is stored internally using 'rectangular' or
'Cartesian' coordinates.  It is completely determined by its 'real part'
‘z.real’ and its 'imaginary part' ‘z.imag’.

'Polar coordinates' give an alternative way to represent a complex
number.  In polar coordinates, a complex number 'z' is defined by the
modulus 'r' and the phase angle 'phi'.  The modulus 'r' is the distance
from 'z' to the origin, while the phase 'phi' is the counterclockwise
angle, measured in radians, from the positive x-axis to the line segment
that joins the origin to 'z'.

The following functions can be used to convert from the native
rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates and back.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.phase (z)

     Return the phase of 'z' (also known as the 'argument' of 'z'), as a
     float.  ‘phase(z)’ is equivalent to ‘math.atan2(z.imag, z.real)’.
     The result lies in the range [-'π', 'π'], and the branch cut for
     this operation lies along the negative real axis.  The sign of the
     result is the same as the sign of ‘z.imag’, even when ‘z.imag’ is
     zero:

          >>> phase(-1+0j)
          3.141592653589793
          >>> phase(-1-0j)
          -3.141592653589793

     Σημείωση: The modulus (absolute value) of a complex number 'z' can
     be computed using the built-in *note abs(): 227c. function.  There
     is no separate ‘cmath’ module function for this operation.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.polar (z)

     Return the representation of 'z' in polar coordinates.  Returns a
     pair ‘(r, phi)’ where 'r' is the modulus of 'z' and 'phi' is the
     phase of 'z'.  ‘polar(z)’ is equivalent to ‘(abs(z), phase(z))’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.rect (r, phi)

     Return the complex number 'z' with polar coordinates 'r' and 'phi'.
     Equivalent to ‘complex(r * math.cos(phi), r * math.sin(phi))’.


File: python.info,  Node: Power and logarithmic functions,  Next: Trigonometric functions<2>,  Prev: Conversions to and from polar coordinates,  Up: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.10.4.2 Power and logarithmic functions
........................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.exp (z)

     Return 'e' raised to the power 'z', where 'e' is the base of
     natural logarithms.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.log (z[, base])

     Return the logarithm of 'z' to the given 'base'.  If the 'base' is
     not specified, returns the natural logarithm of 'z'.  There is one
     branch cut, from 0 along the negative real axis to -∞.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.log10 (z)

     Return the base-10 logarithm of 'z'.  This has the same branch cut
     as *note log(): 2cb2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.sqrt (z)

     Return the square root of 'z'.  This has the same branch cut as
     *note log(): 2cb2.


File: python.info,  Node: Trigonometric functions<2>,  Next: Hyperbolic functions<2>,  Prev: Power and logarithmic functions,  Up: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.10.4.3 Trigonometric functions
................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.acos (z)

     Return the arc cosine of 'z'.  There are two branch cuts: One
     extends right from 1 along the real axis to ∞.  The other extends
     left from -1 along the real axis to -∞.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.asin (z)

     Return the arc sine of 'z'.  This has the same branch cuts as *note
     acos(): 2cb4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.atan (z)

     Return the arc tangent of 'z'.  There are two branch cuts: One
     extends from ‘1j’ along the imaginary axis to ‘∞j’.  The other
     extends from ‘-1j’ along the imaginary axis to ‘-∞j’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.cos (z)

     Return the cosine of 'z'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.sin (z)

     Return the sine of 'z'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.tan (z)

     Return the tangent of 'z'.


File: python.info,  Node: Hyperbolic functions<2>,  Next: Classification functions,  Prev: Trigonometric functions<2>,  Up: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.10.4.4 Hyperbolic functions
.............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.acosh (z)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of 'z'.  There is one branch
     cut, extending left from 1 along the real axis to -∞.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.asinh (z)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of 'z'.  There are two branch
     cuts: One extends from ‘1j’ along the imaginary axis to ‘∞j’.  The
     other extends from ‘-1j’ along the imaginary axis to ‘-∞j’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.atanh (z)

     Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of 'z'.  There are two branch
     cuts: One extends from ‘1’ along the real axis to ‘∞’.  The other
     extends from ‘-1’ along the real axis to ‘-∞’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.cosh (z)

     Return the hyperbolic cosine of 'z'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.sinh (z)

     Return the hyperbolic sine of 'z'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.tanh (z)

     Return the hyperbolic tangent of 'z'.


File: python.info,  Node: Classification functions,  Next: Constants<3>,  Prev: Hyperbolic functions<2>,  Up: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.10.4.5 Classification functions
.................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.isfinite (z)

     Return ‘True’ if both the real and imaginary parts of 'z' are
     finite, and ‘False’ otherwise.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.isinf (z)

     Return ‘True’ if either the real or the imaginary part of 'z' is an
     infinity, and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.isnan (z)

     Return ‘True’ if either the real or the imaginary part of 'z' is a
     NaN, and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: cmath.isclose (a, b, *, rel_tol=1e-09, abs_tol=0.0)

     Return ‘True’ if the values 'a' and 'b' are close to each other and
     ‘False’ otherwise.

     Whether or not two values are considered close is determined
     according to given absolute and relative tolerances.  If no errors
     occur, the result will be: ‘abs(a-b) <= max(rel_tol * max(abs(a),
     abs(b)), abs_tol)’.

     'rel_tol' is the relative tolerance – it is the maximum allowed
     difference between 'a' and 'b', relative to the larger absolute
     value of 'a' or 'b'.  For example, to set a tolerance of 5%, pass
     ‘rel_tol=0.05’.  The default tolerance is ‘1e-09’, which assures
     that the two values are the same within about 9 decimal digits.
     'rel_tol' must be nonnegative and less than ‘1.0’.

     'abs_tol' is the absolute tolerance; it defaults to ‘0.0’ and it
     must be nonnegative.  When comparing ‘x’ to ‘0.0’, ‘isclose(x, 0)’
     is computed as ‘abs(x) <= rel_tol * abs(x)’, which is ‘False’ for
     any ‘x’ and rel_tol less than ‘1.0’.  So add an appropriate
     positive abs_tol argument to the call.

     The IEEE 754 special values of ‘NaN’, ‘inf’, and ‘-inf’ will be
     handled according to IEEE rules.  Specifically, ‘NaN’ is not
     considered close to any other value, including ‘NaN’.  ‘inf’ and
     ‘-inf’ are only considered close to themselves.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 485(1) – A function for testing approximate equality

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<3>,  Prev: Classification functions,  Up: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

5.10.4.6 Constants
..................

 -- Δεδομένα: cmath.pi

     The mathematical constant 'π', as a float.

 -- Δεδομένα: cmath.e

     The mathematical constant 'e', as a float.

 -- Δεδομένα: cmath.tau

     The mathematical constant 'τ', as a float.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: cmath.inf

     Floating-point positive infinity.  Equivalent to ‘float('inf')’.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: cmath.infj

     Complex number with zero real part and positive infinity imaginary
     part.  Equivalent to ‘complex(0.0, float('inf'))’.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: cmath.nan

     A floating-point «not a number» (NaN) value.  Equivalent to
     ‘float('nan')’.  See also *note math.nan: a53.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: cmath.nanj

     Complex number with zero real part and NaN imaginary part.
     Equivalent to ‘complex(0.0, float('nan'))’.

     Added in version 3.6.

Note that the selection of functions is similar, but not identical, to
that in module *note math: 91.  The reason for having two modules is
that some users aren’t interested in complex numbers, and perhaps don’t
even know what they are.  They would rather have ‘math.sqrt(-1)’ raise
an exception than return a complex number.  Also note that the functions
defined in ‘cmath’ always return a complex number, even if the answer
can be expressed as a real number (in which case the complex number has
an imaginary part of zero).

A note on branch cuts: They are curves along which the given function
fails to be continuous.  They are a necessary feature of many complex
functions.  It is assumed that if you need to compute with complex
functions, you will understand about branch cuts.  Consult almost any
(not too elementary) book on complex variables for enlightenment.  For
information of the proper choice of branch cuts for numerical purposes,
a good reference should be the following:

Δείτε επίσης
............

Kahan, W: Branch cuts for complex elementary functions; or, Much ado
about nothing’s sign bit.  In Iserles, A., and Powell, M. (eds.), The
state of the art in numerical analysis.  Clarendon Press (1987)
pp165–211.


File: python.info,  Node: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic,  Next: fractions — Rational numbers,  Prev: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers,  Up: Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules

5.10.5 ‘decimal’ — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic
--------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/decimal.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘decimal’ module provides support for fast correctly rounded decimal
floating-point arithmetic.  It offers several advantages over the *note
float: 327. datatype:

   * Decimal «is based on a floating-point model(2) which was designed
     with people in mind, and necessarily has a paramount guiding
     principle – computers must provide an arithmetic that works in the
     same way as the arithmetic that people learn at school.» – excerpt
     from the decimal arithmetic specification.

   * Decimal numbers can be represented exactly.  In contrast, numbers
     like ‘1.1’ and ‘2.2’ do not have exact representations in binary
     floating point.  End users typically would not expect ‘1.1 + 2.2’
     to display as ‘3.3000000000000003’ as it does with binary floating
     point.

   * The exactness carries over into arithmetic.  In decimal floating
     point, ‘0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 - 0.3’ is exactly equal to zero.  In binary
     floating point, the result is ‘5.5511151231257827e-017’.  While
     near to zero, the differences prevent reliable equality testing and
     differences can accumulate.  For this reason, decimal is preferred
     in accounting applications which have strict equality invariants.

   * The decimal module incorporates a notion of significant places so
     that ‘1.30 + 1.20’ is ‘2.50’.  The trailing zero is kept to
     indicate significance.  This is the customary presentation for
     monetary applications.  For multiplication, the «schoolbook»
     approach uses all the figures in the multiplicands.  For instance,
     ‘1.3 * 1.2’ gives ‘1.56’ while ‘1.30 * 1.20’ gives ‘1.5600’.

   * Unlike hardware based binary floating point, the decimal module has
     a user alterable precision (defaulting to 28 places) which can be
     as large as needed for a given problem:

          >>> from decimal import *
          >>> getcontext().prec = 6
          >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
          Decimal('0.142857')
          >>> getcontext().prec = 28
          >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
          Decimal('0.1428571428571428571428571429')

   * Both binary and decimal floating point are implemented in terms of
     published standards.  While the built-in float type exposes only a
     modest portion of its capabilities, the decimal module exposes all
     required parts of the standard.  When needed, the programmer has
     full control over rounding and signal handling.  This includes an
     option to enforce exact arithmetic by using exceptions to block any
     inexact operations.

   * The decimal module was designed to support «without prejudice, both
     exact unrounded decimal arithmetic (sometimes called fixed-point
     arithmetic) and rounded floating-point arithmetic.» – excerpt from
     the decimal arithmetic specification.

The module design is centered around three concepts: the decimal number,
the context for arithmetic, and signals.

A decimal number is immutable.  It has a sign, coefficient digits, and
an exponent.  To preserve significance, the coefficient digits do not
truncate trailing zeros.  Decimals also include special values such as
‘Infinity’, ‘-Infinity’, and ‘NaN’.  The standard also differentiates
‘-0’ from ‘+0’.

The context for arithmetic is an environment specifying precision,
rounding rules, limits on exponents, flags indicating the results of
operations, and trap enablers which determine whether signals are
treated as exceptions.  Rounding options include *note ROUND_CEILING:
2cce, *note ROUND_DOWN: 2ccf, *note ROUND_FLOOR: 2cd0, *note
ROUND_HALF_DOWN: 2cd1, *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 2cd2, *note ROUND_HALF_UP:
2cd3, *note ROUND_UP: 2cd4, and *note ROUND_05UP: 2cd5.

Signals are groups of exceptional conditions arising during the course
of computation.  Depending on the needs of the application, signals may
be ignored, considered as informational, or treated as exceptions.  The
signals in the decimal module are: *note Clamped: 2cd6, *note
InvalidOperation: 1455, *note DivisionByZero: 2cd7, *note Inexact: 2cd8,
*note Rounded: 2cd9, *note Subnormal: 2cda, *note Overflow: 2cdb, *note
Underflow: 2cdc. and *note FloatOperation: 144a.

For each signal there is a flag and a trap enabler.  When a signal is
encountered, its flag is set to one, then, if the trap enabler is set to
one, an exception is raised.  Flags are sticky, so the user needs to
reset them before monitoring a calculation.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * IBM’s General Decimal Arithmetic Specification, The General Decimal
     Arithmetic Specification(3).

* Menu:

* Quick-start tutorial::
* Decimal objects::
* Context objects::
* Constants: Constants<4>.
* Rounding modes::
* Signals::
* Floating-point notes::
* Working with threads::
* Recipes::
* Decimal FAQ::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/decimal.py

   (2) https://speleotrove.com/decimal/damodel.html#refnumber

   (3) https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html


File: python.info,  Node: Quick-start tutorial,  Next: Decimal objects,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.10.5.1 Quick-start tutorial
.............................

The usual start to using decimals is importing the module, viewing the
current context with *note getcontext(): 1b51. and, if necessary,
setting new values for precision, rounding, or enabled traps:

     >>> from decimal import *
     >>> getcontext()
     Context(prec=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[Overflow, DivisionByZero,
             InvalidOperation])

     >>> getcontext().prec = 7       # Set a new precision

Decimal instances can be constructed from integers, strings, floats, or
tuples.  Construction from an integer or a float performs an exact
conversion of the value of that integer or float.  Decimal numbers
include special values such as ‘NaN’ which stands for «Not a number»,
positive and negative ‘Infinity’, and ‘-0’:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 28
     >>> Decimal(10)
     Decimal('10')
     >>> Decimal('3.14')
     Decimal('3.14')
     >>> Decimal(3.14)
     Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')
     >>> Decimal((0, (3, 1, 4), -2))
     Decimal('3.14')
     >>> Decimal(str(2.0 ** 0.5))
     Decimal('1.4142135623730951')
     >>> Decimal(2) ** Decimal('0.5')
     Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
     >>> Decimal('NaN')
     Decimal('NaN')
     >>> Decimal('-Infinity')
     Decimal('-Infinity')

If the *note FloatOperation: 144a. signal is trapped, accidental mixing
of decimals and floats in constructors or ordering comparisons raises an
exception:

     >>> c = getcontext()
     >>> c.traps[FloatOperation] = True
     >>> Decimal(3.14)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
     >>> Decimal('3.5') < 3.7
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]
     >>> Decimal('3.5') == 3.5
     True

Added in version 3.3.

The significance of a new Decimal is determined solely by the number of
digits input.  Context precision and rounding only come into play during
arithmetic operations.

     >>> getcontext().prec = 6
     >>> Decimal('3.0')
     Decimal('3.0')
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535')
     Decimal('3.1415926535')
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
     Decimal('5.85987')
     >>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_UP
     >>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')
     Decimal('5.85988')

If the internal limits of the C version are exceeded, constructing a
decimal raises *note InvalidOperation: 1455.:

     >>> Decimal("1e9999999999999999999")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     decimal.InvalidOperation: [<class 'decimal.InvalidOperation'>]

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3.

Decimals interact well with much of the rest of Python.  Here is a small
decimal floating-point flying circus:

     >>> data = list(map(Decimal, '1.34 1.87 3.45 2.35 1.00 0.03 9.25'.split()))
     >>> max(data)
     Decimal('9.25')
     >>> min(data)
     Decimal('0.03')
     >>> sorted(data)
     [Decimal('0.03'), Decimal('1.00'), Decimal('1.34'), Decimal('1.87'),
      Decimal('2.35'), Decimal('3.45'), Decimal('9.25')]
     >>> sum(data)
     Decimal('19.29')
     >>> a,b,c = data[:3]
     >>> str(a)
     '1.34'
     >>> float(a)
     1.34
     >>> round(a, 1)
     Decimal('1.3')
     >>> int(a)
     1
     >>> a * 5
     Decimal('6.70')
     >>> a * b
     Decimal('2.5058')
     >>> c % a
     Decimal('0.77')

Decimals can be formatted (with *note format(): 439. built-in or *note
f-strings: 43a.) in fixed-point or scientific notation, using the same
formatting syntax (see *note Format specification mini-language: 6fe.)
as builtin *note float: 327. type:

     >>> format(Decimal('2.675'), "f")
     '2.675'
     >>> format(Decimal('2.675'), ".2f")
     '2.68'
     >>> f"{Decimal('2.675'):.2f}"
     '2.68'
     >>> format(Decimal('2.675'), ".2e")
     '2.68e+0'
     >>> with localcontext() as ctx:
     ...     ctx.rounding = ROUND_DOWN
     ...     print(format(Decimal('2.675'), ".2f"))
     ...
     2.67

And some mathematical functions are also available to Decimal:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 28
     >>> Decimal(2).sqrt()
     Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')
     >>> Decimal(1).exp()
     Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
     >>> Decimal('10').ln()
     Decimal('2.302585092994045684017991455')
     >>> Decimal('10').log10()
     Decimal('1')

The *note quantize(): 145d. method rounds a number to a fixed exponent.
This method is useful for monetary applications that often round results
to a fixed number of places:

     >>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('.01'), rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
     Decimal('7.32')
     >>> Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('1.'), rounding=ROUND_UP)
     Decimal('8')

As shown above, the *note getcontext(): 1b51. function accesses the
current context and allows the settings to be changed.  This approach
meets the needs of most applications.

For more advanced work, it may be useful to create alternate contexts
using the *note Context(): 145c. constructor.  To make an alternate
active, use the *note setcontext(): 2cdf. function.

In accordance with the standard, the ‘decimal’ module provides two ready
to use standard contexts, *note BasicContext: 1451. and *note
ExtendedContext: 1452.  The former is especially useful for debugging
because many of the traps are enabled:

     >>> myothercontext = Context(prec=60, rounding=ROUND_HALF_DOWN)
     >>> setcontext(myothercontext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857')

     >>> ExtendedContext
     Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[])
     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)
     Decimal('0.142857143')
     >>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     Decimal('Infinity')

     >>> setcontext(BasicContext)
     >>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#143>", line 1, in -toplevel-
         Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)
     DivisionByZero: x / 0

Contexts also have signal flags for monitoring exceptional conditions
encountered during computations.  The flags remain set until explicitly
cleared, so it is best to clear the flags before each set of monitored
computations by using the *note clear_flags(): 2ce0. method.

     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> getcontext().clear_flags()
     >>> Decimal(355) / Decimal(113)
     Decimal('3.14159292')
     >>> getcontext()
     Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,
             capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[Inexact, Rounded], traps=[])

The 'flags' entry shows that the rational approximation to pi was
rounded (digits beyond the context precision were thrown away) and that
the result is inexact (some of the discarded digits were non-zero).

Individual traps are set using the dictionary in the *note traps: 145b.
attribute of a context:

     >>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     Decimal('Infinity')
     >>> getcontext().traps[DivisionByZero] = 1
     >>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<pyshell#112>", line 1, in -toplevel-
         Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)
     DivisionByZero: x / 0

Most programs adjust the current context only once, at the beginning of
the program.  And, in many applications, data is converted to *note
Decimal: 1c2. with a single cast inside a loop.  With context set and
decimals created, the bulk of the program manipulates the data no
differently than with other Python numeric types.


File: python.info,  Node: Decimal objects,  Next: Context objects,  Prev: Quick-start tutorial,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.10.5.2 Decimal objects
........................

 -- Κλάση: decimal.Decimal (value='0', context=None)

     Construct a new ‘Decimal’ object based from 'value'.

     'value' can be an integer, string, tuple, *note float: 327, or
     another ‘Decimal’ object.  If no 'value' is given, returns
     ‘Decimal('0')’.  If 'value' is a string, it should conform to the
     decimal numeric string syntax after leading and trailing whitespace
     characters, as well as underscores throughout, are removed:

          sign           ::=  '+' | '-'
          digit          ::=  '0' | '1' | '2' | '3' | '4' | '5' | '6' | '7' | '8' | '9'
          indicator      ::=  'e' | 'E'
          digits         ::=  digit [digit]...
          decimal-part   ::=  digits '.' [digits] | ['.'] digits
          exponent-part  ::=  indicator [sign] digits
          infinity       ::=  'Infinity' | 'Inf'
          nan            ::=  'NaN' [digits] | 'sNaN' [digits]
          numeric-value  ::=  decimal-part [exponent-part] | infinity
          numeric-string ::=  [sign] numeric-value | [sign] nan

     Other Unicode decimal digits are also permitted where ‘digit’
     appears above.  These include decimal digits from various other
     alphabets (for example, Arabic-Indic and Devanāgarī digits) along
     with the fullwidth digits ‘'\uff10'’ through ‘'\uff19'’.  Case is
     not significant, so, for example, ‘inf’, ‘Inf’, ‘INFINITY’, and
     ‘iNfINity’ are all acceptable spellings for positive infinity.

     If 'value' is a *note tuple: 1ce, it should have three components,
     a sign (‘0’ for positive or ‘1’ for negative), a ‘tuple’ of digits,
     and an integer exponent.  For example, ‘Decimal((0, (1, 4, 1, 4),
     -3))’ returns ‘Decimal('1.414')’.

     If 'value' is a *note float: 327, the binary floating-point value
     is losslessly converted to its exact decimal equivalent.  This
     conversion can often require 53 or more digits of precision.  For
     example, ‘Decimal(float('1.1'))’ converts to
     ‘Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')’.

     The 'context' precision does not affect how many digits are stored.
     That is determined exclusively by the number of digits in 'value'.
     For example, ‘Decimal('3.00000')’ records all five zeros even if
     the context precision is only three.

     The purpose of the 'context' argument is determining what to do if
     'value' is a malformed string.  If the context traps *note
     InvalidOperation: 1455, an exception is raised; otherwise, the
     constructor returns a new Decimal with the value of ‘NaN’.

     Once constructed, ‘Decimal’ objects are immutable.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The argument to the constructor is now
     permitted to be a *note float: 327. instance.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: *note float: 327. arguments raise an
     exception if the *note FloatOperation: 144a. trap is set.  By
     default the trap is off.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Underscores are allowed for grouping, as
     with integral and floating-point literals in code.

     Decimal floating-point objects share many properties with the other
     built-in numeric types such as *note float: 327. and *note int:
     326.  All of the usual math operations and special methods apply.
     Likewise, decimal objects can be copied, pickled, printed, used as
     dictionary keys, used as set elements, compared, sorted, and
     coerced to another type (such as ‘float’ or ‘int’).

     There are some small differences between arithmetic on Decimal
     objects and arithmetic on integers and floats.  When the remainder
     operator ‘%’ is applied to Decimal objects, the sign of the result
     is the sign of the 'dividend' rather than the sign of the divisor:

          >>> (-7) % 4
          1
          >>> Decimal(-7) % Decimal(4)
          Decimal('-3')

     The integer division operator ‘//’ behaves analogously, returning
     the integer part of the true quotient (truncating towards zero)
     rather than its floor, so as to preserve the usual identity ‘x ==
     (x // y) * y + x % y’:

          >>> -7 // 4
          -2
          >>> Decimal(-7) // Decimal(4)
          Decimal('-1')

     The ‘%’ and ‘//’ operators implement the ‘remainder’ and
     ‘divide-integer’ operations (respectively) as described in the
     specification.

     Decimal objects cannot generally be combined with floats or
     instances of *note fractions.Fraction: 1c3. in arithmetic
     operations: an attempt to add a ‘Decimal’ to a *note float: 327,
     for example, will raise a *note TypeError: 291.  However, it is
     possible to use Python’s comparison operators to compare a
     ‘Decimal’ instance ‘x’ with another number ‘y’.  This avoids
     confusing results when doing equality comparisons between numbers
     of different types.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Mixed-type comparisons between ‘Decimal’
     instances and other numeric types are now fully supported.

     In addition to the standard numeric properties, decimal
     floating-point objects also have a number of specialized methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: adjusted ()

          Return the adjusted exponent after shifting out the
          coefficient’s rightmost digits until only the lead digit
          remains: ‘Decimal('321e+5').adjusted()’ returns seven.  Used
          for determining the position of the most significant digit
          with respect to the decimal point.

      -- Μέθοδος: as_integer_ratio ()

          Return a pair ‘(n, d)’ of integers that represent the given
          ‘Decimal’ instance as a fraction, in lowest terms and with a
          positive denominator:

               >>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()
               (-157, 50)

          The conversion is exact.  Raise OverflowError on infinities
          and ValueError on NaNs.

     Added in version 3.6.

      -- Μέθοδος: as_tuple ()

          Return a *note named tuple: a3d. representation of the number:
          ‘DecimalTuple(sign, digits, exponent)’.

      -- Μέθοδος: canonical ()

          Return the canonical encoding of the argument.  Currently, the
          encoding of a ‘Decimal’ instance is always canonical, so this
          operation returns its argument unchanged.

      -- Μέθοδος: compare (other, context=None)

          Compare the values of two Decimal instances.  ‘compare()’
          returns a Decimal instance, and if either operand is a NaN
          then the result is a NaN:

               a or b is a NaN  ==> Decimal('NaN')
               a < b            ==> Decimal('-1')
               a == b           ==> Decimal('0')
               a > b            ==> Decimal('1')

      -- Μέθοδος: compare_signal (other, context=None)

          This operation is identical to the *note compare(): 2ce6.
          method, except that all NaNs signal.  That is, if neither
          operand is a signaling NaN then any quiet NaN operand is
          treated as though it were a signaling NaN.

      -- Μέθοδος: compare_total (other, context=None)

          Compare two operands using their abstract representation
          rather than their numerical value.  Similar to the *note
          compare(): 2ce6. method, but the result gives a total ordering
          on ‘Decimal’ instances.  Two ‘Decimal’ instances with the same
          numeric value but different representations compare unequal in
          this ordering:

               >>> Decimal('12.0').compare_total(Decimal('12'))
               Decimal('-1')

          Quiet and signaling NaNs are also included in the total
          ordering.  The result of this function is ‘Decimal('0')’ if
          both operands have the same representation, ‘Decimal('-1')’ if
          the first operand is lower in the total order than the second,
          and ‘Decimal('1')’ if the first operand is higher in the total
          order than the second operand.  See the specification for
          details of the total order.

          This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags
          are changed and no rounding is performed.  As an exception,
          the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand
          cannot be converted exactly.

      -- Μέθοδος: compare_total_mag (other, context=None)

          Compare two operands using their abstract representation
          rather than their value as in *note compare_total(): 2ce8, but
          ignoring the sign of each operand.  ‘x.compare_total_mag(y)’
          is equivalent to ‘x.copy_abs().compare_total(y.copy_abs())’.

          This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags
          are changed and no rounding is performed.  As an exception,
          the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand
          cannot be converted exactly.

      -- Μέθοδος: conjugate ()

          Just returns self, this method is only to comply with the
          Decimal Specification.

      -- Μέθοδος: copy_abs ()

          Return the absolute value of the argument.  This operation is
          unaffected by the context and is quiet: no flags are changed
          and no rounding is performed.

      -- Μέθοδος: copy_negate ()

          Return the negation of the argument.  This operation is
          unaffected by the context and is quiet: no flags are changed
          and no rounding is performed.

      -- Μέθοδος: copy_sign (other, context=None)

          Return a copy of the first operand with the sign set to be the
          same as the sign of the second operand.  For example:

               >>> Decimal('2.3').copy_sign(Decimal('-1.5'))
               Decimal('-2.3')

          This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags
          are changed and no rounding is performed.  As an exception,
          the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand
          cannot be converted exactly.

      -- Μέθοδος: exp (context=None)

          Return the value of the (natural) exponential function ‘e**x’
          at the given number.  The result is correctly rounded using
          the *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 2cd2. rounding mode.

               >>> Decimal(1).exp()
               Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')
               >>> Decimal(321).exp()
               Decimal('2.561702493119680037517373933E+139')

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod from_float (f, /)

          Alternative constructor that only accepts instances of *note
          float: 327. or *note int: 326.

          Note ‘Decimal.from_float(0.1)’ is not the same as
          ‘Decimal('0.1')’.  Since 0.1 is not exactly representable in
          binary floating point, the value is stored as the nearest
          representable value which is ‘0x1.999999999999ap-4’.  That
          equivalent value in decimal is
          ‘0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625’.

               Σημείωση: From Python 3.2 onwards, a ‘Decimal’ instance
               can also be constructed directly from a *note float: 327.

               >>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)
               Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('nan'))
               Decimal('NaN')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('inf'))
               Decimal('Infinity')
               >>> Decimal.from_float(float('-inf'))
               Decimal('-Infinity')

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod from_number (number, /)

          Alternative constructor that only accepts instances of *note
          float: 327, *note int: 326. or ‘Decimal’, but not strings or
          tuples.

               >>> Decimal.from_number(314)
               Decimal('314')
               >>> Decimal.from_number(0.1)
               Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')
               >>> Decimal.from_number(Decimal('3.14'))
               Decimal('3.14')

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: fma (other, third, context=None)

          Fused multiply-add.  Return self*other+third with no rounding
          of the intermediate product self*other.

               >>> Decimal(2).fma(3, 5)
               Decimal('11')

      -- Μέθοδος: is_canonical ()

          Return *note True: fcc. if the argument is canonical and *note
          False: ef5. otherwise.  Currently, a ‘Decimal’ instance is
          always canonical, so this operation always returns ‘True’.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_finite ()

          Return *note True: fcc. if the argument is a finite number,
          and *note False: ef5. if the argument is an infinity or a NaN.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_infinite ()

          Return *note True: fcc. if the argument is either positive or
          negative infinity and *note False: ef5. otherwise.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_nan ()

          Return *note True: fcc. if the argument is a (quiet or
          signaling) NaN and *note False: ef5. otherwise.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_normal (context=None)

          Return *note True: fcc. if the argument is a 'normal' finite
          number.  Return *note False: ef5. if the argument is zero,
          subnormal, infinite or a NaN.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_qnan ()

          Return *note True: fcc. if the argument is a quiet NaN, and
          *note False: ef5. otherwise.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_signed ()

          Return *note True: fcc. if the argument has a negative sign
          and *note False: ef5. otherwise.  Note that zeros and NaNs can
          both carry signs.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_snan ()

          Return *note True: fcc. if the argument is a signaling NaN and
          *note False: ef5. otherwise.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_subnormal (context=None)

          Return *note True: fcc. if the argument is subnormal, and
          *note False: ef5. otherwise.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_zero ()

          Return *note True: fcc. if the argument is a (positive or
          negative) zero and *note False: ef5. otherwise.

      -- Μέθοδος: ln (context=None)

          Return the natural (base e) logarithm of the operand.  The
          result is correctly rounded using the *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN:
          2cd2. rounding mode.

      -- Μέθοδος: log10 (context=None)

          Return the base ten logarithm of the operand.  The result is
          correctly rounded using the *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 2cd2.
          rounding mode.

      -- Μέθοδος: logb (context=None)

          For a nonzero number, return the adjusted exponent of its
          operand as a ‘Decimal’ instance.  If the operand is a zero
          then ‘Decimal('-Infinity')’ is returned and the *note
          DivisionByZero: 2cd7. flag is raised.  If the operand is an
          infinity then ‘Decimal('Infinity')’ is returned.

      -- Μέθοδος: logical_and (other, context=None)

          ‘logical_and()’ is a logical operation which takes two
          'logical operands' (see *note Logical operands: 2cfc.).  The
          result is the digit-wise ‘and’ of the two operands.

      -- Μέθοδος: logical_invert (context=None)

          ‘logical_invert()’ is a logical operation.  The result is the
          digit-wise inversion of the operand.

      -- Μέθοδος: logical_or (other, context=None)

          ‘logical_or()’ is a logical operation which takes two 'logical
          operands' (see *note Logical operands: 2cfc.).  The result is
          the digit-wise ‘or’ of the two operands.

      -- Μέθοδος: logical_xor (other, context=None)

          ‘logical_xor()’ is a logical operation which takes two
          'logical operands' (see *note Logical operands: 2cfc.).  The
          result is the digit-wise exclusive or of the two operands.

      -- Μέθοδος: max (other, context=None)

          Like ‘max(self, other)’ except that the context rounding rule
          is applied before returning and that ‘NaN’ values are either
          signaled or ignored (depending on the context and whether they
          are signaling or quiet).

      -- Μέθοδος: max_mag (other, context=None)

          Similar to the *note max(): 2d00. method, but the comparison
          is done using the absolute values of the operands.

      -- Μέθοδος: min (other, context=None)

          Like ‘min(self, other)’ except that the context rounding rule
          is applied before returning and that ‘NaN’ values are either
          signaled or ignored (depending on the context and whether they
          are signaling or quiet).

      -- Μέθοδος: min_mag (other, context=None)

          Similar to the *note min(): 2d02. method, but the comparison
          is done using the absolute values of the operands.

      -- Μέθοδος: next_minus (context=None)

          Return the largest number representable in the given context
          (or in the current thread’s context if no context is given)
          that is smaller than the given operand.

      -- Μέθοδος: next_plus (context=None)

          Return the smallest number representable in the given context
          (or in the current thread’s context if no context is given)
          that is larger than the given operand.

      -- Μέθοδος: next_toward (other, context=None)

          If the two operands are unequal, return the number closest to
          the first operand in the direction of the second operand.  If
          both operands are numerically equal, return a copy of the
          first operand with the sign set to be the same as the sign of
          the second operand.

      -- Μέθοδος: normalize (context=None)

          Used for producing canonical values of an equivalence class
          within either the current context or the specified context.

          This has the same semantics as the unary plus operation,
          except that if the final result is finite it is reduced to its
          simplest form, with all trailing zeros removed and its sign
          preserved.  That is, while the coefficient is non-zero and a
          multiple of ten the coefficient is divided by ten and the
          exponent is incremented by 1.  Otherwise (the coefficient is
          zero) the exponent is set to 0.  In all cases the sign is
          unchanged.

          For example, ‘Decimal('32.100')’ and ‘Decimal('0.321000e+2')’
          both normalize to the equivalent value ‘Decimal('32.1')’.

          Note that rounding is applied 'before' reducing to simplest
          form.

          In the latest versions of the specification, this operation is
          also known as ‘reduce’.

      -- Μέθοδος: number_class (context=None)

          Return a string describing the 'class' of the operand.  The
          returned value is one of the following ten strings.

             * ‘"-Infinity"’, indicating that the operand is negative
               infinity.

             * ‘"-Normal"’, indicating that the operand is a negative
               normal number.

             * ‘"-Subnormal"’, indicating that the operand is negative
               and subnormal.

             * ‘"-Zero"’, indicating that the operand is a negative
               zero.

             * ‘"+Zero"’, indicating that the operand is a positive
               zero.

             * ‘"+Subnormal"’, indicating that the operand is positive
               and subnormal.

             * ‘"+Normal"’, indicating that the operand is a positive
               normal number.

             * ‘"+Infinity"’, indicating that the operand is positive
               infinity.

             * ‘"NaN"’, indicating that the operand is a quiet NaN (Not
               a Number).

             * ‘"sNaN"’, indicating that the operand is a signaling NaN.

      -- Μέθοδος: quantize (exp, rounding=None, context=None)

          Return a value equal to the first operand after rounding and
          having the exponent of the second operand.

               >>> Decimal('1.41421356').quantize(Decimal('1.000'))
               Decimal('1.414')

          Unlike other operations, if the length of the coefficient
          after the quantize operation would be greater than precision,
          then an *note InvalidOperation: 1455. is signaled.  This
          guarantees that, unless there is an error condition, the
          quantized exponent is always equal to that of the right-hand
          operand.

          Also unlike other operations, quantize never signals
          Underflow, even if the result is subnormal and inexact.

          If the exponent of the second operand is larger than that of
          the first then rounding may be necessary.  In this case, the
          rounding mode is determined by the ‘rounding’ argument if
          given, else by the given ‘context’ argument; if neither
          argument is given the rounding mode of the current thread’s
          context is used.

          An error is returned whenever the resulting exponent is
          greater than *note Emax: 1453. or less than *note Etiny():
          2d09.

      -- Μέθοδος: radix ()

          Return ‘Decimal(10)’, the radix (base) in which the ‘Decimal’
          class does all its arithmetic.  Included for compatibility
          with the specification.

      -- Μέθοδος: remainder_near (other, context=None)

          Return the remainder from dividing 'self' by 'other'.  This
          differs from ‘self % other’ in that the sign of the remainder
          is chosen so as to minimize its absolute value.  More
          precisely, the return value is ‘self - n * other’ where ‘n’ is
          the integer nearest to the exact value of ‘self / other’, and
          if two integers are equally near then the even one is chosen.

          If the result is zero then its sign will be the sign of
          'self'.

               >>> Decimal(18).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('-2')
               >>> Decimal(25).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('5')
               >>> Decimal(35).remainder_near(Decimal(10))
               Decimal('-5')

      -- Μέθοδος: rotate (other, context=None)

          Return the result of rotating the digits of the first operand
          by an amount specified by the second operand.  The second
          operand must be an integer in the range -precision through
          precision.  The absolute value of the second operand gives the
          number of places to rotate.  If the second operand is positive
          then rotation is to the left; otherwise rotation is to the
          right.  The coefficient of the first operand is padded on the
          left with zeros to length precision if necessary.  The sign
          and exponent of the first operand are unchanged.

      -- Μέθοδος: same_quantum (other, context=None)

          Test whether self and other have the same exponent or whether
          both are ‘NaN’.

          This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags
          are changed and no rounding is performed.  As an exception,
          the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand
          cannot be converted exactly.

      -- Μέθοδος: scaleb (other, context=None)

          Return the first operand with exponent adjusted by the second.
          Equivalently, return the first operand multiplied by
          ‘10**other’.  The second operand must be an integer.

      -- Μέθοδος: shift (other, context=None)

          Return the result of shifting the digits of the first operand
          by an amount specified by the second operand.  The second
          operand must be an integer in the range -precision through
          precision.  The absolute value of the second operand gives the
          number of places to shift.  If the second operand is positive
          then the shift is to the left; otherwise the shift is to the
          right.  Digits shifted into the coefficient are zeros.  The
          sign and exponent of the first operand are unchanged.

      -- Μέθοδος: sqrt (context=None)

          Return the square root of the argument to full precision.

      -- Μέθοδος: to_eng_string (context=None)

          Convert to a string, using engineering notation if an exponent
          is needed.

          Engineering notation has an exponent which is a multiple of 3.
          This can leave up to 3 digits to the left of the decimal place
          and may require the addition of either one or two trailing
          zeros.

          For example, this converts ‘Decimal('123E+1')’ to
          ‘Decimal('1.23E+3')’.

      -- Μέθοδος: to_integral (rounding=None, context=None)

          Identical to the *note to_integral_value(): 2d13. method.  The
          ‘to_integral’ name has been kept for compatibility with older
          versions.

      -- Μέθοδος: to_integral_exact (rounding=None, context=None)

          Round to the nearest integer, signaling *note Inexact: 2cd8.
          or *note Rounded: 2cd9. as appropriate if rounding occurs.
          The rounding mode is determined by the ‘rounding’ parameter if
          given, else by the given ‘context’.  If neither parameter is
          given then the rounding mode of the current context is used.

      -- Μέθοδος: to_integral_value (rounding=None, context=None)

          Round to the nearest integer without signaling *note Inexact:
          2cd8. or *note Rounded: 2cd9.  If given, applies 'rounding';
          otherwise, uses the rounding method in either the supplied
          'context' or the current context.

     Decimal numbers can be rounded using the *note round(): 167f.
     function:

      -- Describe: round(number)

      -- Describe: round(number, ndigits)

          If 'ndigits' is not given or ‘None’, returns the nearest *note
          int: 326. to 'number', rounding ties to even, and ignoring the
          rounding mode of the ‘Decimal’ context.  Raises *note
          OverflowError: c57. if 'number' is an infinity or *note
          ValueError: 277. if it is a (quiet or signaling) NaN.

          If 'ndigits' is an *note int: 326, the context’s rounding mode
          is respected and a ‘Decimal’ representing 'number' rounded to
          the nearest multiple of ‘Decimal('1E-ndigits')’ is returned;
          in this case, ‘round(number, ndigits)’ is equivalent to
          ‘self.quantize(Decimal('1E-ndigits'))’.  Returns
          ‘Decimal('NaN')’ if 'number' is a quiet NaN. Raises *note
          InvalidOperation: 1455. if 'number' is an infinity, a
          signaling NaN, or if the length of the coefficient after the
          quantize operation would be greater than the current context’s
          precision.  In other words, for the non-corner cases:

             * if 'ndigits' is positive, return 'number' rounded to
               'ndigits' decimal places;

             * if 'ndigits' is zero, return 'number' rounded to the
               nearest integer;

             * if 'ndigits' is negative, return 'number' rounded to the
               nearest multiple of ‘10**abs(ndigits)’.

          For example:

               >>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext, ROUND_DOWN
               >>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_DOWN
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'))     # context rounding ignored
               4
               >>> round(Decimal('3.5'))      # round-ties-to-even
               4
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 0)  # uses the context rounding
               Decimal('3')
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), 1)
               Decimal('3.7')
               >>> round(Decimal('3.75'), -1)
               Decimal('0E+1')

* Menu:

* Logical operands::


File: python.info,  Node: Logical operands,  Up: Decimal objects

5.10.5.3 Logical operands
.........................

The *note logical_and(): 2cfb, *note logical_invert(): 2cfd, *note
logical_or(): 2cfe, and *note logical_xor(): 2cff. methods expect their
arguments to be 'logical operands'.  A 'logical operand' is a *note
Decimal: 1c2. instance whose exponent and sign are both zero, and whose
digits are all either ‘0’ or ‘1’.


File: python.info,  Node: Context objects,  Next: Constants<4>,  Prev: Decimal objects,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.10.5.4 Context objects
........................

Contexts are environments for arithmetic operations.  They govern
precision, set rules for rounding, determine which signals are treated
as exceptions, and limit the range for exponents.

Each thread has its own current context which is accessed or changed
using the *note getcontext(): 1b51. and *note setcontext(): 2cdf.
functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: decimal.getcontext ()

     Return the current context for the active thread.

 -- Συνάρτηση: decimal.setcontext (c, /)

     Set the current context for the active thread to 'c'.

You can also use the *note with: 20a. statement and the *note
localcontext(): 172b. function to temporarily change the active context.

 -- Συνάρτηση: decimal.localcontext (ctx=None, **kwargs)

     Return a context manager that will set the current context for the
     active thread to a copy of 'ctx' on entry to the with-statement and
     restore the previous context when exiting the with-statement.  If
     no context is specified, a copy of the current context is used.
     The 'kwargs' argument is used to set the attributes of the new
     context.

     For example, the following code sets the current decimal precision
     to 42 places, performs a calculation, and then automatically
     restores the previous context:

          from decimal import localcontext

          with localcontext() as ctx:
              ctx.prec = 42   # Perform a high precision calculation
              s = calculate_something()
          s = +s  # Round the final result back to the default precision

     Using keyword arguments, the code would be the following:

          from decimal import localcontext

          with localcontext(prec=42) as ctx:
              s = calculate_something()
          s = +s

     Raises *note TypeError: 291. if 'kwargs' supplies an attribute that
     *note Context: 145c. doesn’t support.  Raises either ‘TypeError’ or
     *note ValueError: 277. if 'kwargs' supplies an invalid value for an
     attribute.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: *note localcontext(): 172b. now supports
     setting context attributes through the use of keyword arguments.

 -- Συνάρτηση: decimal.IEEEContext (bits)

     Return a context object initialized to the proper values for one of
     the IEEE interchange formats.  The argument must be a multiple of
     32 and less than *note IEEE_CONTEXT_MAX_BITS: 2d17.

     Added in version 3.14.

New contexts can also be created using the *note Context: 145c.
constructor described below.  In addition, the module provides three
pre-made contexts:

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.BasicContext

     This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal
     Arithmetic Specification.  Precision is set to nine.  Rounding is
     set to *note ROUND_HALF_UP: 2cd3.  All flags are cleared.  All
     traps are enabled (treated as exceptions) except *note Inexact:
     2cd8, *note Rounded: 2cd9, and *note Subnormal: 2cda.

     Because many of the traps are enabled, this context is useful for
     debugging.

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.ExtendedContext

     This is a standard context defined by the General Decimal
     Arithmetic Specification.  Precision is set to nine.  Rounding is
     set to *note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 2cd2.  All flags are cleared.  No
     traps are enabled (so that exceptions are not raised during
     computations).

     Because the traps are disabled, this context is useful for
     applications that prefer to have result value of ‘NaN’ or
     ‘Infinity’ instead of raising exceptions.  This allows an
     application to complete a run in the presence of conditions that
     would otherwise halt the program.

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.DefaultContext

     This context is used by the *note Context: 145c. constructor as a
     prototype for new contexts.  Changing a field (such a precision)
     has the effect of changing the default for new contexts created by
     the ‘Context’ constructor.

     This context is most useful in multi-threaded environments.
     Changing one of the fields before threads are started has the
     effect of setting system-wide defaults.  Changing the fields after
     threads have started is not recommended as it would require thread
     synchronization to prevent race conditions.

     In single threaded environments, it is preferable to not use this
     context at all.  Instead, simply create contexts explicitly as
     described below.

     The default values are *note Context.prec: 2d18.=‘28’, *note
     Context.rounding: 2d19.=*note ROUND_HALF_EVEN: 2cd2, and enabled
     traps for *note Overflow: 2cdb, *note InvalidOperation: 1455, and
     *note DivisionByZero: 2cd7.

In addition to the three supplied contexts, new contexts can be created
with the *note Context: 145c. constructor.

 -- Κλάση: decimal.Context (prec=None, rounding=None, Emin=None,
          Emax=None, capitals=None, clamp=None, flags=None, traps=None)

     Creates a new context.  If a field is not specified or is *note
     None: a65, the default values are copied from the *note
     DefaultContext: 1450.  If the 'flags' field is not specified or is
     ‘None’, all flags are cleared.

      -- Ιδιότητα: prec

          An integer in the range [‘1’, *note MAX_PREC: 144d.] that sets
          the precision for arithmetic operations in the context.

      -- Ιδιότητα: rounding

          One of the constants listed in the section *note Rounding
          Modes: 2d1a.

      -- Ιδιότητα: traps
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags

          Lists of any signals to be set.  Generally, new contexts
          should only set traps and leave the flags clear.

      -- Ιδιότητα: Emin
      -- Ιδιότητα: Emax

          Integers specifying the outer limits allowable for exponents.
          'Emin' must be in the range [*note MIN_EMIN: 144f, ‘0’],
          'Emax' in the range [‘0’, *note MAX_EMAX: 144e.].

      -- Ιδιότητα: capitals

          Either ‘0’ or ‘1’ (the default).  If set to ‘1’, exponents are
          printed with a capital ‘E’; otherwise, a lowercase ‘e’ is
          used: ‘Decimal('6.02e+23')’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: clamp

          Either ‘0’ (the default) or ‘1’.  If set to ‘1’, the exponent
          ‘e’ of a *note Decimal: 1c2. instance representable in this
          context is strictly limited to the range ‘Emin - prec + 1 <= e
          <= Emax - prec + 1’.  If 'clamp' is ‘0’ then a weaker
          condition holds: the adjusted exponent of the ‘Decimal’
          instance is at most *note Emax: 1453.  When 'clamp' is ‘1’, a
          large normal number will, where possible, have its exponent
          reduced and a corresponding number of zeros added to its
          coefficient, in order to fit the exponent constraints; this
          preserves the value of the number but loses information about
          significant trailing zeros.  For example:

               >>> Context(prec=6, Emax=999, clamp=1).create_decimal('1.23e999')
               Decimal('1.23000E+999')

          A 'clamp' value of ‘1’ allows compatibility with the
          fixed-width decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE 754.

     The ‘Context’ class defines several general purpose methods as well
     as a large number of methods for doing arithmetic directly in a
     given context.  In addition, for each of the *note Decimal: 1c2.
     methods described above (with the exception of the *note
     adjusted(): 2ce3. and *note as_tuple(): 2ce4. methods) there is a
     corresponding ‘Context’ method.  For example, for a ‘Context’
     instance ‘C’ and ‘Decimal’ instance ‘x’, ‘C.exp(x)’ is equivalent
     to ‘x.exp(context=C)’.  Each ‘Context’ method accepts a Python
     integer (an instance of *note int: 326.) anywhere that a Decimal
     instance is accepted.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear_flags ()

          Resets all of the flags to ‘0’.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear_traps ()

          Resets all of the traps to ‘0’.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: copy ()

          Return a duplicate of the context.

      -- Μέθοδος: copy_decimal (num, /)

          Return a copy of the Decimal instance num.

      -- Μέθοδος: create_decimal (num='0', /)

          Creates a new Decimal instance from 'num' but using 'self' as
          context.  Unlike the *note Decimal: 1c2. constructor, the
          context precision, rounding method, flags, and traps are
          applied to the conversion.

          This is useful because constants are often given to a greater
          precision than is needed by the application.  Another benefit
          is that rounding immediately eliminates unintended effects
          from digits beyond the current precision.  In the following
          example, using unrounded inputs means that adding zero to a
          sum can change the result:

               >>> getcontext().prec = 3
               >>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal('1.0023')
               Decimal('4.45')
               >>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal(0) + Decimal('1.0023')
               Decimal('4.44')

          This method implements the to-number operation of the IBM
          specification.  If the argument is a string, no leading or
          trailing whitespace or underscores are permitted.

      -- Μέθοδος: create_decimal_from_float (f, /)

          Creates a new Decimal instance from a float 'f' but rounding
          using 'self' as the context.  Unlike the *note
          Decimal.from_float(): 15ab. class method, the context
          precision, rounding method, flags, and traps are applied to
          the conversion.

               >>> context = Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN)
               >>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
               Decimal('3.1415')
               >>> context = Context(prec=5, traps=[Inexact])
               >>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                   ...
               decimal.Inexact: None

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: Etiny ()

          Returns a value equal to ‘Emin - prec + 1’ which is the
          minimum exponent value for subnormal results.  When underflow
          occurs, the exponent is set to *note Etiny: 2d09.

      -- Μέθοδος: Etop ()

          Returns a value equal to ‘Emax - prec + 1’.

     The usual approach to working with decimals is to create *note
     Decimal: 1c2. instances and then apply arithmetic operations which
     take place within the current context for the active thread.  An
     alternative approach is to use context methods for calculating
     within a specific context.  The methods are similar to those for
     the ‘Decimal’ class and are only briefly recounted here.

      -- Μέθοδος: abs (x, /)

          Returns the absolute value of 'x'.

      -- Μέθοδος: add (x, y, /)

          Return the sum of 'x' and 'y'.

      -- Μέθοδος: canonical (x, /)

          Returns the same Decimal object 'x'.

      -- Μέθοδος: compare (x, y, /)

          Compares 'x' and 'y' numerically.

      -- Μέθοδος: compare_signal (x, y, /)

          Compares the values of the two operands numerically.

      -- Μέθοδος: compare_total (x, y, /)

          Compares two operands using their abstract representation.

      -- Μέθοδος: compare_total_mag (x, y, /)

          Compares two operands using their abstract representation,
          ignoring sign.

      -- Μέθοδος: copy_abs (x, /)

          Returns a copy of 'x' with the sign set to 0.

      -- Μέθοδος: copy_negate (x, /)

          Returns a copy of 'x' with the sign inverted.

      -- Μέθοδος: copy_sign (x, y, /)

          Copies the sign from 'y' to 'x'.

      -- Μέθοδος: divide (x, y, /)

          Return 'x' divided by 'y'.

      -- Μέθοδος: divide_int (x, y, /)

          Return 'x' divided by 'y', truncated to an integer.

      -- Μέθοδος: divmod (x, y, /)

          Divides two numbers and returns the integer part of the
          result.

      -- Μέθοδος: exp (x, /)

          Returns ‘e ** x’.

      -- Μέθοδος: fma (x, y, z, /)

          Returns 'x' multiplied by 'y', plus 'z'.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_canonical (x, /)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is canonical; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_finite (x, /)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is finite; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_infinite (x, /)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is infinite; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_nan (x, /)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a qNaN or sNaN; otherwise returns
          ‘False’.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_normal (x, /)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a normal number; otherwise returns
          ‘False’.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_qnan (x, /)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a quiet NaN; otherwise returns
          ‘False’.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_signed (x, /)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is negative; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_snan (x, /)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a signaling NaN; otherwise returns
          ‘False’.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_subnormal (x, /)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is subnormal; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_zero (x, /)

          Returns ‘True’ if 'x' is a zero; otherwise returns ‘False’.

      -- Μέθοδος: ln (x, /)

          Returns the natural (base e) logarithm of 'x'.

      -- Μέθοδος: log10 (x, /)

          Returns the base 10 logarithm of 'x'.

      -- Μέθοδος: logb (x, /)

          Returns the exponent of the magnitude of the operand’s MSD.

      -- Μέθοδος: logical_and (x, y, /)

          Applies the logical operation 'and' between each operand’s
          digits.

      -- Μέθοδος: logical_invert (x, /)

          Invert all the digits in 'x'.

      -- Μέθοδος: logical_or (x, y, /)

          Applies the logical operation 'or' between each operand’s
          digits.

      -- Μέθοδος: logical_xor (x, y, /)

          Applies the logical operation 'xor' between each operand’s
          digits.

      -- Μέθοδος: max (x, y, /)

          Compares two values numerically and returns the maximum.

      -- Μέθοδος: max_mag (x, y, /)

          Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.

      -- Μέθοδος: min (x, y, /)

          Compares two values numerically and returns the minimum.

      -- Μέθοδος: min_mag (x, y, /)

          Compares the values numerically with their sign ignored.

      -- Μέθοδος: minus (x, /)

          Minus corresponds to the unary prefix minus operator in
          Python.

      -- Μέθοδος: multiply (x, y, /)

          Return the product of 'x' and 'y'.

      -- Μέθοδος: next_minus (x, /)

          Returns the largest representable number smaller than 'x'.

      -- Μέθοδος: next_plus (x, /)

          Returns the smallest representable number larger than 'x'.

      -- Μέθοδος: next_toward (x, y, /)

          Returns the number closest to 'x', in direction towards 'y'.

      -- Μέθοδος: normalize (x, /)

          Reduces 'x' to its simplest form.

      -- Μέθοδος: number_class (x, /)

          Returns an indication of the class of 'x'.

      -- Μέθοδος: plus (x, /)

          Plus corresponds to the unary prefix plus operator in Python.
          This operation applies the context precision and rounding, so
          it is 'not' an identity operation.

      -- Μέθοδος: power (x, y, modulo=None)

          Return ‘x’ to the power of ‘y’, reduced modulo ‘modulo’ if
          given.

          With two arguments, compute ‘x**y’.  If ‘x’ is negative then
          ‘y’ must be integral.  The result will be inexact unless ‘y’
          is integral and the result is finite and can be expressed
          exactly in “precision” digits.  The rounding mode of the
          context is used.  Results are always correctly rounded in the
          Python version.

          ‘Decimal(0) ** Decimal(0)’ results in ‘InvalidOperation’, and
          if ‘InvalidOperation’ is not trapped, then results in
          ‘Decimal('NaN')’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The C module computes ‘power()’ in
          terms of the correctly rounded *note exp(): 2d2d. and *note
          ln(): 2d38. functions.  The result is well-defined but only
          «almost always correctly rounded».

          With three arguments, compute ‘(x**y) % modulo’.  For the
          three argument form, the following restrictions on the
          arguments hold:

             - all three arguments must be integral

             - ‘y’ must be nonnegative

             - at least one of ‘x’ or ‘y’ must be nonzero

             - ‘modulo’ must be nonzero and have at most “precision”
               digits

          The value resulting from ‘Context.power(x, y, modulo)’ is
          equal to the value that would be obtained by computing ‘(x**y)
          % modulo’ with unbounded precision, but is computed more
          efficiently.  The exponent of the result is zero, regardless
          of the exponents of ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘modulo’.  The result is
          always exact.

      -- Μέθοδος: quantize (x, y, /)

          Returns a value equal to 'x' (rounded), having the exponent of
          'y'.

      -- Μέθοδος: radix ()

          Just returns 10, as this is Decimal, :)

      -- Μέθοδος: remainder (x, y, /)

          Returns the remainder from integer division.

          The sign of the result, if non-zero, is the same as that of
          the original dividend.

      -- Μέθοδος: remainder_near (x, y, /)

          Returns ‘x - y * n’, where 'n' is the integer nearest the
          exact value of ‘x / y’ (if the result is 0 then its sign will
          be the sign of 'x').

      -- Μέθοδος: rotate (x, y, /)

          Returns a rotated copy of 'x', 'y' times.

      -- Μέθοδος: same_quantum (x, y, /)

          Returns ‘True’ if the two operands have the same exponent.

      -- Μέθοδος: scaleb (x, y, /)

          Returns the first operand after adding the second value its
          exp.

      -- Μέθοδος: shift (x, y, /)

          Returns a shifted copy of 'x', 'y' times.

      -- Μέθοδος: sqrt (x, /)

          Square root of a non-negative number to context precision.

      -- Μέθοδος: subtract (x, y, /)

          Return the difference between 'x' and 'y'.

      -- Μέθοδος: to_eng_string (x, /)

          Convert to a string, using engineering notation if an exponent
          is needed.

          Engineering notation has an exponent which is a multiple of 3.
          This can leave up to 3 digits to the left of the decimal place
          and may require the addition of either one or two trailing
          zeros.

      -- Μέθοδος: to_integral_exact (x, /)

          Rounds to an integer.

      -- Μέθοδος: to_sci_string (x, /)

          Converts a number to a string using scientific notation.


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<4>,  Next: Rounding modes,  Prev: Context objects,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.10.5.5 Constants
..................

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.SPEC_VERSION

     The highest version of the General Decimal Arithmetic Specification
     that this implementation complies with.  See
     ‘https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html’ for the
     specification.

     Added in version 3.15.

The following constants are only relevant for the C module.  They are
also included in the pure Python version for compatibility.

                                      32-bit                    64-bit
                                                                
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                
 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.MAX_PREC        ‘425000000’               ‘999999999999999999’
                                                                
                                                                
 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.MAX_EMAX        ‘425000000’               ‘999999999999999999’
                                                                
                                                                
 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.MIN_EMIN        ‘-425000000’              ‘-999999999999999999’
                                                                
                                                                
 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.MIN_ETINY       ‘-849999999’              ‘-1999999999999999997’
                                                                
                                                                
 -- Δεδομένα:                         ‘256’                     ‘512’
          decimal.IEEE_CONTEXT_MAX_BITS                         

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.HAVE_THREADS

     The value is ‘True’.  Deprecated, because Python now always has
     threads.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9.

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.HAVE_CONTEXTVAR

     The default value is ‘True’.  If Python is *note configured using
     the -without-decimal-contextvar option: 2355, the C version uses a
     thread-local rather than a coroutine-local context and the value is
     ‘False’.  This is slightly faster in some nested context scenarios.

     Added in version 3.8.3.


File: python.info,  Node: Rounding modes,  Next: Signals,  Prev: Constants<4>,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.10.5.6 Rounding modes
.......................

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.ROUND_CEILING

     Round towards ‘Infinity’.

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.ROUND_DOWN

     Round towards zero.

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.ROUND_FLOOR

     Round towards ‘-Infinity’.

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.ROUND_HALF_DOWN

     Round to nearest with ties going towards zero.

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.ROUND_HALF_EVEN

     Round to nearest with ties going to nearest even integer.

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.ROUND_HALF_UP

     Round to nearest with ties going away from zero.

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.ROUND_UP

     Round away from zero.

 -- Δεδομένα: decimal.ROUND_05UP

     Round away from zero if last digit after rounding towards zero
     would have been 0 or 5; otherwise round towards zero.


File: python.info,  Node: Signals,  Next: Floating-point notes,  Prev: Rounding modes,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.10.5.7 Signals
................

Signals represent conditions that arise during computation.  Each
corresponds to one context flag and one context trap enabler.

The context flag is set whenever the condition is encountered.  After
the computation, flags may be checked for informational purposes (for
instance, to determine whether a computation was exact).  After checking
the flags, be sure to clear all flags before starting the next
computation.

If the context’s trap enabler is set for the signal, then the condition
causes a Python exception to be raised.  For example, if the *note
DivisionByZero: 2cd7. trap is set, then a *note DivisionByZero: 2cd7.
exception is raised upon encountering the condition.

 -- Κλάση: decimal.Clamped

     Altered an exponent to fit representation constraints.

     Typically, clamping occurs when an exponent falls outside the
     context’s *note Emin: 1454. and *note Emax: 1453. limits.  If
     possible, the exponent is reduced to fit by adding zeros to the
     coefficient.

 -- Κλάση: decimal.DecimalException

     Base class for other signals and a subclass of *note
     ArithmeticError: 28e1.

 -- Κλάση: decimal.DivisionByZero

     Signals the division of a non-infinite number by zero.

     Can occur with division, modulo division, or when raising a number
     to a negative power.  If this signal is not trapped, returns
     ‘Infinity’ or ‘-Infinity’ with the sign determined by the inputs to
     the calculation.

 -- Κλάση: decimal.Inexact

     Indicates that rounding occurred and the result is not exact.

     Signals when non-zero digits were discarded during rounding.  The
     rounded result is returned.  The signal flag or trap is used to
     detect when results are inexact.

 -- Κλάση: decimal.InvalidOperation

     An invalid operation was performed.

     Indicates that an operation was requested that does not make sense.
     If not trapped, returns ‘NaN’.  Possible causes include:

          Infinity - Infinity
          0 * Infinity
          Infinity / Infinity
          x % 0
          Infinity % x
          sqrt(-x) and x > 0
          0 ** 0
          x ** (non-integer)
          x ** Infinity

 -- Κλάση: decimal.Overflow

     Numerical overflow.

     Indicates the exponent is larger than *note Context.Emax: 1453.
     after rounding has occurred.  If not trapped, the result depends on
     the rounding mode, either pulling inward to the largest
     representable finite number or rounding outward to ‘Infinity’.  In
     either case, *note Inexact: 2cd8. and *note Rounded: 2cd9. are also
     signaled.

 -- Κλάση: decimal.Rounded

     Rounding occurred though possibly no information was lost.

     Signaled whenever rounding discards digits; even if those digits
     are zero (such as rounding ‘5.00’ to ‘5.0’).  If not trapped,
     returns the result unchanged.  This signal is used to detect loss
     of significant digits.

 -- Κλάση: decimal.Subnormal

     Exponent was lower than *note Emin: 1454. prior to rounding.

     Occurs when an operation result is subnormal (the exponent is too
     small).  If not trapped, returns the result unchanged.

 -- Κλάση: decimal.Underflow

     Numerical underflow with result rounded to zero.

     Occurs when a subnormal result is pushed to zero by rounding.
     *note Inexact: 2cd8. and *note Subnormal: 2cda. are also signaled.

 -- Κλάση: decimal.FloatOperation

     Enable stricter semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.

     If the signal is not trapped (default), mixing floats and Decimals
     is permitted in the *note Decimal: 1c2. constructor, *note
     create_decimal(): 1456. and all comparison operators.  Both
     conversion and comparisons are exact.  Any occurrence of a mixed
     operation is silently recorded by setting ‘FloatOperation’ in the
     context flags.  Explicit conversions with *note from_float(): 15ab.
     or *note create_decimal_from_float(): 2d1f. do not set the flag.

     Otherwise (the signal is trapped), only equality comparisons and
     explicit conversions are silent.  All other mixed operations raise
     ‘FloatOperation’.

The following table summarizes the hierarchy of signals:

     exceptions.ArithmeticError(exceptions.Exception)
         DecimalException
             Clamped
             DivisionByZero(DecimalException, exceptions.ZeroDivisionError)
             Inexact
                 Overflow(Inexact, Rounded)
                 Underflow(Inexact, Rounded, Subnormal)
             InvalidOperation
             Rounded
             Subnormal
             FloatOperation(DecimalException, exceptions.TypeError)


File: python.info,  Node: Floating-point notes,  Next: Working with threads,  Prev: Signals,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.10.5.8 Floating-point notes
.............................

* Menu:

* Mitigating round-off error with increased precision::
* Special values::


File: python.info,  Node: Mitigating round-off error with increased precision,  Next: Special values,  Up: Floating-point notes

5.10.5.9 Mitigating round-off error with increased precision
............................................................

The use of decimal floating point eliminates decimal representation
error (making it possible to represent ‘0.1’ exactly); however, some
operations can still incur round-off error when non-zero digits exceed
the fixed precision.

The effects of round-off error can be amplified by the addition or
subtraction of nearly offsetting quantities resulting in loss of
significance.  Knuth provides two instructive examples where rounded
floating-point arithmetic with insufficient precision causes the
breakdown of the associative and distributive properties of addition:

     # Examples from Seminumerical Algorithms, Section 4.2.2.
     >>> from decimal import Decimal, getcontext
     >>> getcontext().prec = 8

     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
     >>> (u + v) + w
     Decimal('9.5111111')
     >>> u + (v + w)
     Decimal('10')

     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
     >>> (u*v) + (u*w)
     Decimal('0.01')
     >>> u * (v+w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')

The ‘decimal’ module makes it possible to restore the identities by
expanding the precision sufficiently to avoid loss of significance:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 20
     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(11111113), Decimal(-11111111), Decimal('7.51111111')
     >>> (u + v) + w
     Decimal('9.51111111')
     >>> u + (v + w)
     Decimal('9.51111111')
     >>>
     >>> u, v, w = Decimal(20000), Decimal(-6), Decimal('6.0000003')
     >>> (u*v) + (u*w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')
     >>> u * (v+w)
     Decimal('0.0060000')


File: python.info,  Node: Special values,  Prev: Mitigating round-off error with increased precision,  Up: Floating-point notes

5.10.5.10 Special values
........................

The number system for the ‘decimal’ module provides special values
including ‘NaN’, ‘sNaN’, ‘-Infinity’, ‘Infinity’, and two zeros, ‘+0’
and ‘-0’.

Infinities can be constructed directly with: ‘Decimal('Infinity')’.
Also, they can arise from dividing by zero when the *note
DivisionByZero: 2cd7. signal is not trapped.  Likewise, when the *note
Overflow: 2cdb. signal is not trapped, infinity can result from rounding
beyond the limits of the largest representable number.

The infinities are signed (affine) and can be used in arithmetic
operations where they get treated as very large, indeterminate numbers.
For instance, adding a constant to infinity gives another infinite
result.

Some operations are indeterminate and return ‘NaN’, or if the *note
InvalidOperation: 1455. signal is trapped, raise an exception.  For
example, ‘0/0’ returns ‘NaN’ which means «not a number».  This variety
of ‘NaN’ is quiet and, once created, will flow through other
computations always resulting in another ‘NaN’.  This behavior can be
useful for a series of computations that occasionally have missing
inputs — it allows the calculation to proceed while flagging specific
results as invalid.

A variant is ‘sNaN’ which signals rather than remaining quiet after
every operation.  This is a useful return value when an invalid result
needs to interrupt a calculation for special handling.

The behavior of Python’s comparison operators can be a little surprising
where a ‘NaN’ is involved.  A test for equality where one of the
operands is a quiet or signaling ‘NaN’ always returns *note False: ef5.
(even when doing ‘Decimal('NaN')==Decimal('NaN')’), while a test for
inequality always returns *note True: fcc.  An attempt to compare two
Decimals using any of the ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’ or ‘>=’ operators will raise
the *note InvalidOperation: 1455. signal if either operand is a ‘NaN’,
and return ‘False’ if this signal is not trapped.  Note that the General
Decimal Arithmetic specification does not specify the behavior of direct
comparisons; these rules for comparisons involving a ‘NaN’ were taken
from the IEEE 854 standard (see Table 3 in section 5.7).  To ensure
strict standards-compliance, use the *note compare(): 2ce6. and *note
compare_signal(): 2ce7. methods instead.

The signed zeros can result from calculations that underflow.  They keep
the sign that would have resulted if the calculation had been carried
out to greater precision.  Since their magnitude is zero, both positive
and negative zeros are treated as equal and their sign is informational.

In addition to the two signed zeros which are distinct yet equal, there
are various representations of zero with differing precisions yet
equivalent in value.  This takes a bit of getting used to.  For an eye
accustomed to normalized floating-point representations, it is not
immediately obvious that the following calculation returns a value equal
to zero:

     >>> 1 / Decimal('Infinity')
     Decimal('0E-1000026')


File: python.info,  Node: Working with threads,  Next: Recipes,  Prev: Floating-point notes,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.10.5.11 Working with threads
..............................

The *note getcontext(): 1b51. function accesses a different *note
Context: 145c. object for each thread.  Having separate thread contexts
means that threads may make changes (such as ‘getcontext().prec=10’)
without interfering with other threads.

Likewise, the *note setcontext(): 2cdf. function automatically assigns
its target to the current thread.

If *note setcontext(): 2cdf. has not been called before *note
getcontext(): 1b51, then ‘getcontext()’ will automatically create a new
context for use in the current thread.  New context objects have default
values set from the *note decimal.DefaultContext: 1450. object.

The *note sys.flags.thread_inherit_context: 41f. flag affects the
context for new threads.  If the flag is false, new threads will start
with an empty context.  In this case, *note getcontext(): 1b51. will
create a new context object when called and use the default values from
'DefaultContext'.  If the flag is true, new threads will start with a
copy of context from the caller of *note threading.Thread.start(): 422.

To control the defaults so that each thread will use the same values
throughout the application, directly modify the 'DefaultContext' object.
This should be done 'before' any threads are started so that there won’t
be a race condition between threads calling *note getcontext(): 1b51.
For example:

     # Set applicationwide defaults for all threads about to be launched
     DefaultContext.prec = 12
     DefaultContext.rounding = ROUND_DOWN
     DefaultContext.traps = ExtendedContext.traps.copy()
     DefaultContext.traps[InvalidOperation] = 1
     setcontext(DefaultContext)

     # Afterwards, the threads can be started
     t1.start()
     t2.start()
     t3.start()
      . . .


File: python.info,  Node: Recipes,  Next: Decimal FAQ,  Prev: Working with threads,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.10.5.12 Recipes
.................

Here are a few recipes that serve as utility functions and that
demonstrate ways to work with the *note Decimal: 1c2. class:

     def moneyfmt(value, places=2, curr='', sep=',', dp='.',
                  pos='', neg='-', trailneg=''):
         """Convert Decimal to a money formatted string.

         places:  required number of places after the decimal point
         curr:    optional currency symbol before the sign (may be blank)
         sep:     optional grouping separator (comma, period, space, or blank)
         dp:      decimal point indicator (comma or period)
                  only specify as blank when places is zero
         pos:     optional sign for positive numbers: '+', space or blank
         neg:     optional sign for negative numbers: '-', '(', space or blank
         trailneg:optional trailing minus indicator:  '-', ')', space or blank

         >>> d = Decimal('-1234567.8901')
         >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$')
         '-$1,234,567.89'
         >>> moneyfmt(d, places=0, sep='.', dp='', neg='', trailneg='-')
         '1.234.568-'
         >>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$', neg='(', trailneg=')')
         '($1,234,567.89)'
         >>> moneyfmt(Decimal(123456789), sep=' ')
         '123 456 789.00'
         >>> moneyfmt(Decimal('-0.02'), neg='<', trailneg='>')
         '<0.02>'

         """
         q = Decimal(10) ** -places      # 2 places --> '0.01'
         sign, digits, exp = value.quantize(q).as_tuple()
         result = []
         digits = list(map(str, digits))
         build, next = result.append, digits.pop
         if sign:
             build(trailneg)
         for i in range(places):
             build(next() if digits else '0')
         if places:
             build(dp)
         if not digits:
             build('0')
         i = 0
         while digits:
             build(next())
             i += 1
             if i == 3 and digits:
                 i = 0
                 build(sep)
         build(curr)
         build(neg if sign else pos)
         return ''.join(reversed(result))

     def pi():
         """Compute Pi to the current precision.

         >>> print(pi())
         3.141592653589793238462643383

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2  # extra digits for intermediate steps
         three = Decimal(3)      # substitute "three=3.0" for regular floats
         lasts, t, s, n, na, d, da = 0, three, 3, 1, 0, 0, 24
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             n, na = n+na, na+8
             d, da = d+da, da+32
             t = (t * n) / d
             s += t
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s               # unary plus applies the new precision

     def exp(x):
         """Return e raised to the power of x.  Result type matches input type.

         >>> print(exp(Decimal(1)))
         2.718281828459045235360287471
         >>> print(exp(Decimal(2)))
         7.389056098930650227230427461
         >>> print(exp(2.0))
         7.38905609893
         >>> print(exp(2+0j))
         (7.38905609893+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 1
             fact *= i
             num *= x
             s += num / fact
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s

     def cos(x):
         """Return the cosine of x as measured in radians.

         The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
         For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

         >>> print(cos(Decimal('0.5')))
         0.8775825618903727161162815826
         >>> print(cos(0.5))
         0.87758256189
         >>> print(cos(0.5+0j))
         (0.87758256189+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 2
             fact *= i * (i-1)
             num *= x * x
             sign *= -1
             s += num / fact * sign
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s

     def sin(x):
         """Return the sine of x as measured in radians.

         The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.
         For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

         >>> print(sin(Decimal('0.5')))
         0.4794255386042030002732879352
         >>> print(sin(0.5))
         0.479425538604
         >>> print(sin(0.5+0j))
         (0.479425538604+0j)

         """
         getcontext().prec += 2
         i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 1, 0, x, 1, x, 1
         while s != lasts:
             lasts = s
             i += 2
             fact *= i * (i-1)
             num *= x * x
             sign *= -1
             s += num / fact * sign
         getcontext().prec -= 2
         return +s


File: python.info,  Node: Decimal FAQ,  Prev: Recipes,  Up: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic

5.10.5.13 Decimal FAQ
.....................

Q: It is cumbersome to type ‘decimal.Decimal('1234.5')’.  Is there a way
to minimize typing when using the interactive interpreter?

A: Some users abbreviate the constructor to just a single letter:

     >>> D = decimal.Decimal
     >>> D('1.23') + D('3.45')
     Decimal('4.68')

Q: In a fixed-point application with two decimal places, some inputs
have many places and need to be rounded.  Others are not supposed to
have excess digits and need to be validated.  What methods should be
used?

A: The *note quantize(): 145d. method rounds to a fixed number of
decimal places.  If the *note Inexact: 2cd8. trap is set, it is also
useful for validation:

     >>> TWOPLACES = Decimal(10) ** -2       # same as Decimal('0.01')

     >>> # Round to two places
     >>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES)
     Decimal('3.21')

     >>> # Validate that a number does not exceed two places
     >>> Decimal('3.21').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
     Decimal('3.21')

     >>> Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     Inexact: None

Q: Once I have valid two place inputs, how do I maintain that invariant
throughout an application?

A: Some operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication by an
integer will automatically preserve fixed point.  Others operations,
like division and non-integer multiplication, will change the number of
decimal places and need to be followed-up with a *note quantize(): 145d.
step:

     >>> a = Decimal('102.72')           # Initial fixed-point values
     >>> b = Decimal('3.17')
     >>> a + b                           # Addition preserves fixed-point
     Decimal('105.89')
     >>> a - b
     Decimal('99.55')
     >>> a * 42                          # So does integer multiplication
     Decimal('4314.24')
     >>> (a * b).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # Must quantize non-integer multiplication
     Decimal('325.62')
     >>> (b / a).quantize(TWOPLACES)     # And quantize division
     Decimal('0.03')

In developing fixed-point applications, it is convenient to define
functions to handle the *note quantize(): 145d. step:

     >>> def mul(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
     ...     return (x * y).quantize(fp)
     ...
     >>> def div(x, y, fp=TWOPLACES):
     ...     return (x / y).quantize(fp)

     >>> mul(a, b)                       # Automatically preserve fixed-point
     Decimal('325.62')
     >>> div(b, a)
     Decimal('0.03')

Q: There are many ways to express the same value.  The numbers ‘200’,
‘200.000’, ‘2E2’, and ‘.02E+4’ all have the same value at various
precisions.  Is there a way to transform them to a single recognizable
canonical value?

A: The *note normalize(): 2d07. method maps all equivalent values to a
single representative:

     >>> values = map(Decimal, '200 200.000 2E2 .02E+4'.split())
     >>> [v.normalize() for v in values]
     [Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2'), Decimal('2E+2')]

Q: When does rounding occur in a computation?

A: It occurs 'after' the computation.  The philosophy of the decimal
specification is that numbers are considered exact and are created
independent of the current context.  They can even have greater
precision than current context.  Computations process with those exact
inputs and then rounding (or other context operations) is applied to the
'result' of the computation:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 5
     >>> pi = Decimal('3.1415926535')   # More than 5 digits
     >>> pi                             # All digits are retained
     Decimal('3.1415926535')
     >>> pi + 0                         # Rounded after an addition
     Decimal('3.1416')
     >>> pi - Decimal('0.00005')        # Subtract unrounded numbers, then round
     Decimal('3.1415')
     >>> pi + 0 - Decimal('0.00005').   # Intermediate values are rounded
     Decimal('3.1416')

Q: Some decimal values always print with exponential notation.  Is there
a way to get a non-exponential representation?

A: For some values, exponential notation is the only way to express the
number of significant places in the coefficient.  For example,
expressing ‘5.0E+3’ as ‘5000’ keeps the value constant but cannot show
the original’s two-place significance.

If an application does not care about tracking significance, it is easy
to remove the exponent and trailing zeroes, losing significance, but
keeping the value unchanged:

     >>> def remove_exponent(d):
     ...     return d.quantize(Decimal(1)) if d == d.to_integral() else d.normalize()

     >>> remove_exponent(Decimal('5E+3'))
     Decimal('5000')

Q: Is there a way to convert a regular float to a *note Decimal: 1c2.?

A: Yes, any binary floating-point number can be exactly expressed as a
Decimal though an exact conversion may take more precision than
intuition would suggest:

     >>> Decimal(math.pi)
     Decimal('3.141592653589793115997963468544185161590576171875')

Q: Within a complex calculation, how can I make sure that I haven’t
gotten a spurious result because of insufficient precision or rounding
anomalies.

A: The decimal module makes it easy to test results.  A best practice is
to re-run calculations using greater precision and with various rounding
modes.  Widely differing results indicate insufficient precision,
rounding mode issues, ill-conditioned inputs, or a numerically unstable
algorithm.

Q: I noticed that context precision is applied to the results of
operations but not to the inputs.  Is there anything to watch out for
when mixing values of different precisions?

A: Yes.  The principle is that all values are considered to be exact and
so is the arithmetic on those values.  Only the results are rounded.
The advantage for inputs is that «what you type is what you get».  A
disadvantage is that the results can look odd if you forget that the
inputs haven’t been rounded:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 3
     >>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('2.104')
     Decimal('5.21')
     >>> Decimal('3.104') + Decimal('0.000') + Decimal('2.104')
     Decimal('5.20')

The solution is either to increase precision or to force rounding of
inputs using the unary plus operation:

     >>> getcontext().prec = 3
     >>> +Decimal('1.23456789')      # unary plus triggers rounding
     Decimal('1.23')

Alternatively, inputs can be rounded upon creation using the *note
Context.create_decimal(): 1456. method:

     >>> Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN).create_decimal('1.2345678')
     Decimal('1.2345')

Q: Is the CPython implementation fast for large numbers?

A: Yes.  In the CPython and PyPy3 implementations, the C/CFFI versions
of the decimal module integrate the high speed libmpdec(1) library for
arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic
(2).  ‘libmpdec’ uses Karatsuba multiplication(3) for medium-sized
numbers and the Number Theoretic Transform(4) for very large numbers.

The context must be adapted for exact arbitrary precision arithmetic.
*note Emin: 1454. and *note Emax: 1453. should always be set to the
maximum values, *note clamp: 1547. should always be 0 (the default).
Setting *note prec: 2d18. requires some care.

The easiest approach for trying out bignum arithmetic is to use the
maximum value for *note prec: 2d18. as well (5):

     >>> setcontext(Context(prec=MAX_PREC, Emax=MAX_EMAX, Emin=MIN_EMIN))
     >>> x = Decimal(2) ** 256
     >>> x / 128
     Decimal('904625697166532776746648320380374280103671755200316906558262375061821325312')

For inexact results, *note MAX_PREC: 144d. is far too large on 64-bit
platforms and the available memory will be insufficient:

     >>> Decimal(1) / 3
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     MemoryError

On systems with overallocation (e.g.  Linux), a more sophisticated
approach is to adjust *note prec: 2d18. to the amount of available RAM.
Suppose that you have 8GB of RAM and expect 10 simultaneous operands
using a maximum of 500MB each:

     >>> import sys
     >>>
     >>> # Maximum number of digits for a single operand using 500MB in 8-byte words
     >>> # with 19 digits per word (4-byte and 9 digits for the 32-bit build):
     >>> maxdigits = 19 * ((500 * 1024**2) // 8)
     >>>
     >>> # Check that this works:
     >>> c = Context(prec=maxdigits, Emax=MAX_EMAX, Emin=MIN_EMIN)
     >>> c.traps[Inexact] = True
     >>> setcontext(c)
     >>>
     >>> # Fill the available precision with nines:
     >>> x = Decimal(0).logical_invert() * 9
     >>> sys.getsizeof(x)
     524288112
     >>> x + 2
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       decimal.Inexact: [<class 'decimal.Inexact'>]

In general (and especially on systems without overallocation), it is
recommended to estimate even tighter bounds and set the *note Inexact:
2cd8. trap if all calculations are expected to be exact.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/doc/libmpdec/index.html

   (2) 
Added in version 3.3.

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karatsuba_algorithm

   (4) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform_(general)#Number-theoretic_transform

   (5) 
Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: This approach now works for all exact results
except for non-integer powers.


File: python.info,  Node: fractions — Rational numbers,  Next: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών,  Prev: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic,  Up: Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules

5.10.6 ‘fractions’ — Rational numbers
-------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/fractions.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘fractions’ module provides support for rational number arithmetic.

A Fraction instance can be constructed from a pair of rational numbers,
from a single number, or from a string.

 -- Κλάση: fractions.Fraction (numerator=0, denominator=1)

 -- Κλάση: fractions.Fraction (number)

 -- Κλάση: fractions.Fraction (string)

     The first version requires that 'numerator' and 'denominator' are
     instances of *note numbers.Rational: 1663. and returns a new
     ‘Fraction’ instance with a value equal to ‘numerator/denominator’.
     If 'denominator' is zero, it raises a *note ZeroDivisionError: d11.

     The second version requires that 'number' is an instance of *note
     numbers.Rational: 1663. or has the ‘as_integer_ratio()’ method
     (this includes *note float: 327. and *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2.).
     It returns a ‘Fraction’ instance with exactly the same value.
     Assumed, that the ‘as_integer_ratio()’ method returns a pair of
     coprime integers and last one is positive.  Note that due to the
     usual issues with binary point (see *note Αριθμητική Κινητής
     Υποδιαστολής; Ζητήματα και Περιορισμοί: 22f0.), the argument to
     ‘Fraction(1.1)’ is not exactly equal to 11/10, and so
     ‘Fraction(1.1)’ does 'not' return ‘Fraction(11, 10)’ as one might
     expect.  (But see the documentation for the *note
     limit_denominator(): 2d6c. method below.)

     The last version of the constructor expects a string.  The usual
     form for this instance is:

          [sign] numerator ['/' denominator]

     where the optional ‘sign’ may be either “+” or “-” and ‘numerator’
     and ‘denominator’ (if present) are strings of decimal digits
     (underscores may be used to delimit digits as with integral
     literals in code).  In addition, any string that represents a
     finite value and is accepted by the *note float: 327. constructor
     is also accepted by the ‘Fraction’ constructor.  In either form the
     input string may also have leading and/or trailing whitespace.
     Here are some examples:

          >>> from fractions import Fraction
          >>> Fraction(16, -10)
          Fraction(-8, 5)
          >>> Fraction(123)
          Fraction(123, 1)
          >>> Fraction()
          Fraction(0, 1)
          >>> Fraction('3/7')
          Fraction(3, 7)
          >>> Fraction(' -3/7 ')
          Fraction(-3, 7)
          >>> Fraction('1.414213 \t\n')
          Fraction(1414213, 1000000)
          >>> Fraction('-.125')
          Fraction(-1, 8)
          >>> Fraction('7e-6')
          Fraction(7, 1000000)
          >>> Fraction(2.25)
          Fraction(9, 4)
          >>> Fraction(1.1)
          Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)
          >>> from decimal import Decimal
          >>> Fraction(Decimal('1.1'))
          Fraction(11, 10)

     The ‘Fraction’ class inherits from the abstract base class *note
     numbers.Rational: 1663, and implements all of the methods and
     operations from that class.  ‘Fraction’ instances are *note
     hashable: 183, and should be treated as immutable.  In addition,
     ‘Fraction’ has the following properties and methods:

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The ‘Fraction’ constructor now accepts
     *note float: 327. and *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2. instances.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The *note math.gcd(): cdf. function is now
     used to normalize the 'numerator' and 'denominator'.  ‘math.gcd()’
     always returns an *note int: 326. type.  Previously, the GCD type
     depended on 'numerator' and 'denominator'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Underscores are now permitted when
     creating a ‘Fraction’ instance from a string, following PEP 515(2)
     rules.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: ‘Fraction’ implements ‘__int__’ now to
     satisfy ‘typing.SupportsInt’ instance checks.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Space is allowed around the slash for
     string inputs: ‘Fraction('2 / 3')’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘Fraction’ instances now support
     float-style formatting, with presentation types ‘"e"’, ‘"E"’,
     ‘"f"’, ‘"F"’, ‘"g"’, ‘"G"’ and ‘"%""’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Formatting of ‘Fraction’ instances without
     a presentation type now supports fill, alignment, sign handling,
     minimum width and grouping.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The ‘Fraction’ constructor now accepts any
     objects with the ‘as_integer_ratio()’ method.

      -- Ιδιότητα: numerator

          Numerator of the Fraction in lowest term.

      -- Ιδιότητα: denominator

          Denominator of the Fraction in lowest terms.  Guaranteed to be
          positive.

      -- Μέθοδος: as_integer_ratio ()

          Return a tuple of two integers, whose ratio is equal to the
          original Fraction.  The ratio is in lowest terms and has a
          positive denominator.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_integer ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Fraction is an integer.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod from_float (f)

          Alternative constructor which only accepts instances of *note
          float: 327. or *note numbers.Integral: 25ff.  Beware that
          ‘Fraction.from_float(0.3)’ is not the same value as
          ‘Fraction(3, 10)’.

               Σημείωση: From Python 3.2 onwards, you can also construct
               a ‘Fraction’ instance directly from a *note float: 327.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod from_decimal (dec)

          Alternative constructor which only accepts instances of *note
          decimal.Decimal: 1c2. or *note numbers.Integral: 25ff.

               Σημείωση: From Python 3.2 onwards, you can also construct
               a ‘Fraction’ instance directly from a *note
               decimal.Decimal: 1c2. instance.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod from_number (number)

          Alternative constructor which only accepts instances of *note
          numbers.Integral: 25ff, *note numbers.Rational: 1663, *note
          float: 327. or *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2, and objects with
          the ‘as_integer_ratio()’ method, but not strings.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: limit_denominator (max_denominator=1000000)

          Finds and returns the closest ‘Fraction’ to ‘self’ that has
          denominator at most max_denominator.  This method is useful
          for finding rational approximations to a given floating-point
          number:

               >>> from fractions import Fraction
               >>> Fraction('3.1415926535897932').limit_denominator(1000)
               Fraction(355, 113)

          or for recovering a rational number that’s represented as a
          float:

               >>> from math import pi, cos
               >>> Fraction(cos(pi/3))
               Fraction(4503599627370497, 9007199254740992)
               >>> Fraction(cos(pi/3)).limit_denominator()
               Fraction(1, 2)
               >>> Fraction(1.1).limit_denominator()
               Fraction(11, 10)

      -- Μέθοδος: __floor__ ()

          Returns the greatest *note int: 326. ‘<= self’.  This method
          can also be accessed through the *note math.floor(): 1760.
          function:

               >>> from math import floor
               >>> floor(Fraction(355, 113))
               3

      -- Μέθοδος: __ceil__ ()

          Returns the least *note int: 326. ‘>= self’.  This method can
          also be accessed through the *note math.ceil(): 1761.
          function.

      -- Μέθοδος: __round__ ()

      -- Μέθοδος: __round__ (ndigits)

          The first version returns the nearest *note int: 326. to
          ‘self’, rounding half to even.  The second version rounds
          ‘self’ to the nearest multiple of ‘Fraction(1, 10**ndigits)’
          (logically, if ‘ndigits’ is negative), again rounding half
          toward even.  This method can also be accessed through the
          *note round(): 167f. function.

      -- Μέθοδος: __format__ (format_spec, /)

          Provides support for formatting of ‘Fraction’ instances via
          the *note str.format(): a12. method, the *note format(): 439.
          built-in function, or *note Formatted string literals: 43a.

          If the ‘format_spec’ format specification string does not end
          with one of the presentation types ‘'e'’, ‘'E'’, ‘'f'’, ‘'F'’,
          ‘'g'’, ‘'G'’ or ‘'%'’ then formatting follows the general
          rules for fill, alignment, sign handling, minimum width, and
          grouping as described in the *note format specification
          mini-language: 6fe.  The «alternate form» flag ‘'#'’ is
          supported: if present, it forces the output string to always
          include an explicit denominator, even when the value being
          formatted is an exact integer.  The zero-fill flag ‘'0'’ is
          not supported.

          If the ‘format_spec’ format specification string ends with one
          of the presentation types ‘'e'’, ‘'E'’, ‘'f'’, ‘'F'’, ‘'g'’,
          ‘'G'’ or ‘'%'’ then formatting follows the rules outlined for
          the *note float: 327. type in the *note Format specification
          mini-language: 6fe. section.

          Here are some examples:

               >>> from fractions import Fraction
               >>> format(Fraction(103993, 33102), '_')
               '103_993/33_102'
               >>> format(Fraction(1, 7), '.^+10')
               '...+1/7...'
               >>> format(Fraction(3, 1), '')
               '3'
               >>> format(Fraction(3, 1), '#')
               '3/1'
               >>> format(Fraction(1, 7), '.40g')
               '0.1428571428571428571428571428571428571429'
               >>> format(Fraction('1234567.855'), '_.2f')
               '1_234_567.86'
               >>> f"{Fraction(355, 113):*>20.6e}"
               '********3.141593e+00'
               >>> old_price, new_price = 499, 672
               >>> "{:.2%} price increase".format(Fraction(new_price, old_price) - 1)
               '34.67% price increase'

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note numbers: a2.

     The abstract base classes making up the numeric tower.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/fractions.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/


File: python.info,  Node: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών,  Next: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions,  Prev: fractions — Rational numbers,  Up: Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules

5.10.7 ‘random’ — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών
-------------------------------------------------

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/random.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Αυτό το module υλοποιεί ψευδοτυχαίες γεννήτριες αριθμών για διάφορες
κατανομές.

Για ακέραιους, υπάρχει ομοιόμορφη επιλογή από ένα εύρος.  Για
ακολουθίες, υπάρχει ομοιόμορφη επιλογή ενός τυχαίου στοιχείου, μια
συνάρτηση για την δημιουργία μιας τυχαίας παραλλαγής μιας λίστας στη
θέση της, και μια συνάρτηση για τυχαία δειγματοληψία χωρίς
αντικατάσταση.

Στην πραγματική γραμμή, υπάρχουν συναρτήσεις για τον υπολογισμό
ομοιόμορφων, κανονικών (Gaussian), lognormal, αρνητικών εκθετικών, gamma
και beta κατανομών.  Για τη δημιουργία κατανομών γωνιών, διατίθεται η
κατανομή von Mises.

Σχεδόν όλες οι συναρτήσεις του module εξαρτώνται από τη βασική συνάρτηση
*note random(): b2d, η οποία παράγει έναν τυχαίο float ομοιόμορφα στο
ημι-ανοιχτό εύρος ‘0.0 <= X < 1.0’.  Η Python χρησιμοποιεί το Mersenne
Twister ως βασική γεννήτρια.  Παράγει floats με ακρίβεια 53-bit και έχει
περίοδο 2**19937-1.  Η υποκείμενη υλοποίηση σε C είναι τόσο γρήγορη όσο
και ασφαλής για νήματα.  Το Mersenne Twister είναι μια από τις πιο
εκτενώς δοκιμασμένες γεννήτριες τυχαίων αριθμών που υπάρχουν.  Ωστόσο,
είναι εντελώς ντετερμινιστική, δεν είναι κατάλληλη για όλους τους
σκοπούς και είναι εντελώς ακατάλληλη για κρυπτογραφικούς σκοπούς.

Οι συναρτήσεις που παρέχονται από αυτό το module είναι στην
πραγματικότητα δεσμευμένες μέθοδοι ενός κρυφού στιγμιοτύπου της κλάσης
*note random.Random: 1e53.  Μπορείτε να δημιουργήσετε τα δικά σας
στιγμιότυπα της *note Random: 1e53. για να λάβετε γεννήτριες που δεν
μοιράζονται κατάσταση.

Η κλάση *note Random: 1e53. μπορεί επίσης να υποκλαστεί αν θέλετε να
χρησιμοποιήσετε μια διαφορετική βασική γεννήτρια της δικής σας
επινόησης: δείτε την τεκμηρίωση για αυτή την κλάση για περισσότερες
λεπτομέρειες.

The ‘random’ module also provides the *note SystemRandom: 2d75. class
which uses the system function *note os.urandom(): 931. to generate
random numbers from sources provided by the operating system.

     Προειδοποίηση: Οι ψευδοτυχαίες γεννήτριες αυτού του module δεν
     πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούνται για σκοπούς ασφαλείας.  Για ασφαλείς ή
     κρυπτογραφικούς σκοπούς, δείτε το module *note secrets: c8.

Δείτε επίσης
............

M. Matsumoto and T. Nishimura, «Mersenne Twister: A 623-dimensionally
equidistributed uniform pseudorandom number generator», ACM Transactions
on Modeling and Computer Simulation Vol.  8, No.  1, January pp.3–30
1998.

Complementary-Multiply-with-Carry recipe(2) για μια συμβατή εναλλακτική
γεννήτρια τυχαίων αριθμών με μεγάλη περίοδο και συγκριτικά απλές
λειτουργίες ενημέρωσης.

     Σημείωση: Η παγκόσμια γεννήτρια τυχαίων αριθμών και τα στιγμιότυπα
     της κλάσης *note Random: 1e53. είναι ασφαλή για νήματα.  Ωστόσο,
     στην ελεύθερη κατασκευή νημάτων, οι ταυτόχρονες κλήσεις στην
     παγκόσμια γεννήτρια ή στο ίδιο στιγμιότυπο της κλάσης ‘Random’
     μπορεί να συναντήσουν ανταγωνισμό και κακή απόδοση.  Σκεφτείτε να
     χρησιμοποιήσετε ξεχωριστά στιγμιότυπα της κλάσης ‘Random’ ανά νήμα
     αντίθετα.

* Menu:

* Συναρτήσεις καταγραφής::
* Συναρτήσεις για bytes::
* Συναρτήσεις για ακέραιους::
* Συναρτήσεις για ακολουθίες::
* Διακριτές κατανομές::
* Πραγματικές κατανομές::
* Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια::
* Σημειώσεις για την Αναπαραγωγιμότητα::
* Παραδείγματα: Παραδείγματα<2>.
* Συνταγές::
* Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών::
* Παράδειγμα από τη γραμμή εντολών::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/random.py

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576707-long-period-random-number-generator/


File: python.info,  Node: Συναρτήσεις καταγραφής,  Next: Συναρτήσεις για bytes,  Up: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών

5.10.7.1 Συναρτήσεις καταγραφής
...............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.seed (a=None, version=2)

     Αρχικοποίηση της γεννήτριας τυχαίων αριθμών.

     Αν το 'a' παραλειφθεί ή είναι ‘None’, χρησιμοποιείται η τρέχουσα
     ώρα του συστήματος.  Αν οι πηγές τυχαιότητας παρέχονται από το
     λειτουργικό σύστημα, χρησιμοποιούνται αντί της ώρας του συστήματος
     (δείτε τη λειτουργία *note os.urandom(): 931. για λεπτομέρειες
     σχετικά με τη διαθεσιμότητα).

     If 'a' is an int, its absolute value is used directly.

     Με την έκδοση 2 (η προεπιλεγμένη), ένα αντικείμενο *note str: 1df,
     *note bytes: 1c7, ή *note bytearray: 1c6. μετατρέπεται σε *note
     int: 326. και χρησιμοποιούνται όλα τα bits του.

     Με την έκδοση 1 (παρέχεται για την αναπαραγωγή τυχαίων ακολουθιών
     από παλαιότερες εκδόσεις της Python), ο αλγόριθμος για *note str:
     1df. και *note bytes: 1c7. παράγει ένα στενότερο εύρος seeds.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Μεταφέρθηκε στο σχήμα έκδοσης 2 που
     χρησιμοποιεί όλα τα bits σε ένα seed τύπου string.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Το 'seed' πρέπει να είναι ένας από τους
     ακόλουθους τύπους: ‘None’, *note int: 326, *note float: 327, *note
     str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7, ή *note bytearray: 1c6.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.getstate ()

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο που καταγράφει την τρέχουσα εσωτερική
     κατάσταση της γεννήτριας.  Αυτό το αντικείμενο μπορεί να περαστεί
     στη *note setstate(): 2d78. για να αποκαταστήσει την κατάσταση.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.setstate (state)

     Το 'state' θα πρέπει να έχει αποκτηθεί από μια προηγούμενη κλήση
     στη *note getstate(): 2d77, και η *note setstate(): 2d78.
     αποκαθιστά την εσωτερική κατάσταση της γεννήτριας σε αυτή που ήταν
     τη στιγμή που κλήθηκε η ‘getstate()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Συναρτήσεις για bytes,  Next: Συναρτήσεις για ακέραιους,  Prev: Συναρτήσεις καταγραφής,  Up: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών

5.10.7.2 Συναρτήσεις για bytes
..............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.randbytes (n)

     Δημιουργεί 'n' τυχαία bytes.

     Αυτή η μέθοδος δεν πρέπει να χρησιμοποιείται για τη δημιουργία
     ασφαλών tokens.  Χρησιμοποιήστε αντί αυτού τη *note
     secrets.token_bytes(): 2d7a.

     Added in version 3.9.


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5.10.7.3 Συναρτήσεις για ακέραιους
..................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.randrange (stop)

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.randrange (start, stop[, step])

     Επιστρέφει ένα τυχαία επιλεγμένο στοιχείο από ‘range(start, stop,
     step)’.

     Αυτό είναι περίπου ισοδύναμο με το ‘choice(range(start, stop,
     step))’ αλλά υποστηρίζει αυθαίρετα μεγάλα εύρη και είναι
     βελτιστοποιημένο για κοινές περιπτώσεις.

     Το μοτίβο των θέσεων παραμέτρων ταιριάζει με τη συνάρτηση *note
     range(): d0f.

     Οι παράμετροι λέξεων-κλειδιών δεν πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούνται επειδή
     μπορούν να ερμηνευτούν με απροσδόκητους τρόπους.  Για παράδειγμα,
     το ‘randrange(start=100)’ ερμηνεύεται ως ‘randrange(0, 100, 1)’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Η μέθοδος *note randrange(): c41. είναι πιο
     εξελιγμένη όσον αφορά την παραγωγή ομοιόμορφα κατανεμημένων τιμών.
     Προηγουμένως χρησιμοποιούσε ένα στυλ όπως ‘int(random()*n)’ το
     οποίο μπορούσε να παράγει ελαφρώς άνισες κατανομές.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Η αυτόματη μετατροπή μη ακέραιων τύπων δεν
     υποστηρίζεται πλέον.  Κλήσεις όπως ‘randrange(10.0)’ και
     ‘randrange(Fraction(10, 1))’ τώρα κάνουν raise μια *note TypeError:
     291.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.randint (a, b)

     Επιστρέφει έναν τυχαίο ακέραιο 'N' τέτοιο ώστε ‘a <= N <= b’.
     Ψευδώνυμο για ‘randrange(a, b+1)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.getrandbits (k)

     Επιστρέφει έναν μη αρνητικό ακέραιο Python με 'k' τυχαία bits.
     Αυτή η μέθοδος παρέχεται με την γεννήτρια Mersenne Twister και
     μερικές άλλες γεννήτριες μπορεί επίσης να την παρέχουν ως
     προαιρετικό μέρος του API. Όταν είναι διαθέσιμη, η *note
     getrandbits(): 13b6. επιτρέπει στην *note randrange(): c41. να
     χειρίζεται αυθαίρετα μεγάλα εύρη.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Αυτή η μέθοδος τώρα δέχεται το μηδέν για
     'k'.


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5.10.7.4 Συναρτήσεις για ακολουθίες
...................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.choice (seq)

     Επιστρέφει ένα τυχαίο στοιχείο από την μη κενή ακολουθία 'seq'.  Αν
     το 'seq' είναι κενό, κάνει raise μια *note IndexError: 18d7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.choices (population, weights=None, *,
          cum_weights=None, k=1)

     Επιστρέφει μια λίστα μεγέθους 'k' από στοιχεία επιλεγμένα από τον
     'πληθυσμό' με αντικατάσταση.  Αν το 'population' είναι κενό, κάνει
     raise μια *note IndexError: 18d7.

     Αν μια ακολουθία 'weights' καθοριστεί, οι επιλογές γίνονται σύμφωνα
     με τα σχετικά βάρη.  Εναλλακτικά, αν μια ακολουθία 'cum_weights'
     δοθεί, οι επιλογές γίνονται σύμφωνα με τα σωρευτικά βάρη (ίσως
     υπολογισμένα χρησιμοποιώντας *note itertools.accumulate(): dbf.).
     Για παράδειγμα, τα σχετικά βάρη ‘[10, 5, 30, 5]’ είναι ισοδύναμα με
     τα σωρευτικά βάρη ‘[10, 15, 45, 50]’.  Εσωτερικά, τα σχετικά βάρη
     μετατρέπονται σε σωρευτικά βάρη πριν από τις επιλογές, οπότε η
     παροχή των σωρευτικών βαρών εξοικονομεί εργασία.

     Αν ούτε τα 'weights' ούτε τα 'cum_weights' καθοριστούν, οι επιλογές
     γίνονται με ίση πιθανότητα.  Αν μια ακολουθία βαρών καθοριστεί,
     πρέπει να είναι του ίδιου μήκους με την ακολουθία του 'πληθυσμού'.
     Είναι μια *note TypeError: 291. να καθορίσετε και τα δύο 'weights'
     και 'cum_weights'.

     Τα 'weights' ή 'cum_weights' μπορούν να χρησιμοποιούν οποιονδήποτε
     αριθμητικό τύπο που συνεργάζεται με τις τιμές *note float: 327. που
     επιστρέφονται από τη *note random(): c0. (αυτό περιλαμβάνει
     ακέραιους, floats και κλάσματα αλλά εξαιρεί τα δεκαδικά).  Τα βάρη
     θεωρούνται μη αρνητικά και πεπερασμένα.  Μια *note ValueError: 277.
     γίνεται raise αν όλα τα βάρη είναι μηδενικά.

     Για ένα δεδομένο seed, η συνάρτηση *note choices(): 1083. με ίσα
     βάρη παράγει συνήθως μια διαφορετική ακολουθία από τις
     επαναλαμβανόμενες κλήσεις *note choice(): 15d6.  Ο αλγόριθμος που
     χρησιμοποιείται από τη ‘choices()’ χρησιμοποιεί αριθμητική κινητής
     υποδιαστολής για εσωτερική συνέπεια και ταχύτητα.  Ο αλγόριθμος που
     χρησιμοποιείται από τη ‘choice()’ προεπιλέγει την ακέραια
     αριθμητική με επαναλαμβανόμενες επιλογές για να αποφύγει μικρές
     προκαταλήψεις από σφάλματα στρογγυλοποίησης.

     Added in version 3.6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Κάνει raise μια *note ValueError: 277. αν
     όλα τα βάρη είναι μηδενικά.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.shuffle (x)

     Ανακατεύει την ακολουθία 'x' στη θέση της.

     Για να ανακατέψετε μια αμετάβλητη ακολουθία και να επιστρέψετε μια
     νέα ανακατεμένη λίστα, χρησιμοποιήστε ‘sample(x, k=len(x))’ αντί
     αυτού.

     Σημειώστε ότι ακόμη και για μικρό ‘len(x)’, ο συνολικός αριθμός
     επαναλήψεων του 'x' μπορεί να αυξηθεί γρήγορα μεγαλύτερα από την
     περίοδο των περισσότερων γεννητριών τυχαίων αριθμών.  Αυτό
     υποδηλώνει ότι οι περισσότερες επαναλήψεις μιας μεγάλης ακολουθίας
     δεν μπορούν ποτέ να παραχθούν.  Για παράδειγμα, μια ακολουθία
     μήκους 2080 είναι η μεγαλύτερη που μπορεί να χωρέσει εντός της
     περιόδου της γεννήτριας τυχαίων αριθμών του Mersenne Twister.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Αφαιρέθηκε η προαιρετική παράμετρος
     'random'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.sample (population, k, *, counts=None)

     Επιστρέφει μια λίστα μήκους 'k' από μοναδικά στοιχεία επιλεγμένα
     από την ακολουθία του πληθυσμού.  Χρησιμοποιείται για τυχαία
     δειγματοληψία χωρίς αντικατάσταση.

     Επιστρέφει μια νέα λίστα που περιέχει στοιχεία από τον πληθυσμό
     αφήνοντας την αρχική ακολουθία του πληθυσμού αμετάβλητη.  Η
     προκύπτουσα λίστα είναι σε σειρά επιλογής έτσι ώστε όλα τα
     υπο-κομμάτια να είναι επίσης έγκυρα τυχαία δείγματα.  Αυτό
     επιτρέπει στους νικητές της κλήρωσης (το δείγμα) να διαχωριστούν σε
     νικητές του μεγάλου βραβείου και δεύτερης θέσης (τα υπο-κομμάτια).

     Τα μέλη του πληθυσμού δεν χρειάζεται να είναι *note hashable: 183.
     ή μοναδικά.  Αν ο πληθυσμός περιέχει επαναλήψεις, τότε κάθε
     εμφάνιση είναι μια δυνατή επιλογή στο δείγμα.

     Τα επαναλαμβανόμενα στοιχεία μπορούν να καθοριστούν ένα-ένα ή με
     την προαιρετική παράμετρο μόνο-για-λέξεις-κλειδιά 'counts'.  Για
     παράδειγμα, ‘sample(['red', 'blue'], counts=[4, 2], k=5)’ είναι
     ισοδύναμο με ‘sample(['red', 'red', 'red', 'red', 'blue', 'blue'],
     k=5)’.

     Για να επιλέξετε ένα δείγμα από ένα εύρος ακέραιων, χρησιμοποιήστε
     ένα *note range(): d0f. αντικείμενο ως παράμετρο.  Αυτό είναι
     ιδιαίτερα γρήγορο και αποδοτικό σε χώρο για δειγματοληψία από έναν
     μεγάλο πληθυσμό: ‘sample(range(10000000), k=60)’.

     Αν το μέγεθος του δείγματος είναι μεγαλύτερο από το μέγεθος του
     πληθυσμού, γίνεται raise μια *note ValueError: 277.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Προστέθηκε η παράμετρος 'counts'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Ο 'πληθυσμός' πρέπει να είναι μια
     ακολουθία.  Η αυτόματη μετατροπή συνόλων σε λίστες δεν
     υποστηρίζεται πλέον.


File: python.info,  Node: Διακριτές κατανομές,  Next: Πραγματικές κατανομές,  Prev: Συναρτήσεις για ακολουθίες,  Up: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών

5.10.7.5 Διακριτές κατανομές
............................

Η ακόλουθη συνάρτηση δημιουργεί μια διακριτή κατανομή.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.binomialvariate (n=1, p=0.5)

     Binomial distribution(1).  Επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των επιτυχιών για
     'n' ανεξάρτητες δοκιμές με την πιθανότητα επιτυχίας σε κάθε δοκιμή
     να είναι 'p':

     Μαθηματικά ισοδύναμο με:

          sum(random() < p for i in range(n))

     Ο αριθμός των δοκιμών 'n' πρέπει να είναι ένας μη αρνητικός
     ακέραιος.  Η πιθανότητα επιτυχίας 'p' πρέπει να είναι μεταξύ ‘0.0
     <= p <= 1.0’.  Το αποτέλεσμα είναι ένας ακέραιος στο εύρος ‘0 <= X
     <= n’.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html


File: python.info,  Node: Πραγματικές κατανομές,  Next: Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια,  Prev: Διακριτές κατανομές,  Up: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών

5.10.7.6 Πραγματικές κατανομές
..............................

Οι ακόλουθες συναρτήσεις δημιουργούν συγκεκριμένες πραγματικές
κατανομές.  Οι παράμετροι των συναρτήσεων ονομάζονται όπως οι
αντίστοιχες μεταβλητές στην εξίσωση της κατανομής, όπως χρησιμοποιείται
στην κοινή μαθηματική πρακτική.  Οι περισσότερες από αυτές τις εξισώσεις
μπορούν να βρεθούν σε οποιοδήποτε εγχειρίδιο στατιστικής.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.random ()

     Επιστρέφει τον επόμενο τυχαίο αριθμό κινητής υποδιαστολής στο εύρος
     ‘0.0 <= X < 1.0’

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.uniform (a, b)

     Επιστρέφει έναν τυχαίο αριθμό κινητής υποδιαστολής 'N' τέτοιο ώστε
     ‘a <= N <= b’ για ‘a <= b’ και ‘b <= N <= a’ για ‘b < a’.

     Η τιμή του τελικού σημείου ‘b’ μπορεί να περιλαμβάνεται ή όχι στο
     εύρος ανάλογα με τη στρογγυλοποίηση κινητής υποδιαστολής στην
     έκφραση ‘a + (b-a) * random()’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.triangular (low, high, mode)

     Επιστρέφει έναν τυχαίο αριθμό κινητής υποδιαστολής 'N' τέτοιο ώστε
     ‘low <= N <= high’ και με το καθορισμένο 'mode' μεταξύ αυτών των
     ορίων.  Τα όρια 'low' και 'high' προεπιλέγονται στο μηδέν και το
     ένα.  Η παράμετρος 'mode' προεπιλέγεται στο μέσο όρο μεταξύ των
     ορίων, δίνοντας μια συμμετρική κατανομή.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.betavariate (alpha, beta)

     Κατανομή Beta.  Οι συνθήκες για τις παραμέτρους είναι ‘alpha > 0’
     και ‘beta > 0’.  Οι επιστρεφόμενες τιμές κυμαίνονται μεταξύ 0 και
     1.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.expovariate (lambd=1.0)

     Εκθετική κατανομή.  Το 'lambd' είναι 1.0 διαιρεμένο με τον
     επιθυμητό μέσο όρο.  Πρέπει να είναι μη μηδενικό.  (Η παράμετρος θα
     ονομαζόταν «lambda», αλλά αυτό είναι μια δεσμευμένη λέξη στην
     Python.)  Οι επιστρεφόμενες τιμές κυμαίνονται από 0 έως θετικό
     άπειρο αν το 'lambd' είναι θετικό, και από αρνητικό άπειρο έως 0 αν
     το 'lambd' είναι αρνητικό.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Προστέθηκε η προεπιλεγμένη τιμή για το
     ‘lambd’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.gammavariate (alpha, beta)

     Κατανομή Gamma.  ('Όχι' η συνάρτηση gamma!)  Οι παράμετροι σχήματος
     και κλίμακας, 'alpha' και 'beta', πρέπει να έχουν θετικές τιμές.
     (Οι συμβάσεις κλήσης διαφέρουν και μερικές πηγές ορίζουν το “beta”
     ως το αντίστροφο της κλίμακας).

     Η συνάρτηση κατανομής πιθανότητας είναι:

                    x ** (alpha - 1) * math.exp(-x / beta)
          pdf(x) =  --------------------------------------
                      math.gamma(alpha) * beta ** alpha

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.gauss (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     Κανονική κατανομή, επίσης γνωστή ως κατανομή Gaussian.  Το 'mu'
     είναι ο μέσος όρος, και το 'sigma' είναι η τυπική απόκλιση.  Αυτό
     είναι ελαφρώς ταχύτερο από τη συνάρτηση *note normalvariate():
     1dd2. που ορίζεται παρακάτω.

     Σημείωση πολυνημάτωσης: Όταν δύο νήματα καλούν αυτή τη συνάρτηση
     ταυτόχρονα, είναι πιθανό να λάβουν την ίδια τιμή επιστροφής.  Αυτό
     μπορεί να αποφευχθεί με τρεις τρόπους.  1) Κάθε νήμα να
     χρησιμοποιεί μια διαφορετική παρουσία της γεννήτριας τυχαίων
     αριθμών.  2) Να τοποθετήσετε κλειδώματα γύρω από όλες τις κλήσεις.
     3) Να χρησιμοποιήσετε τη πιο αργή, αλλά ασφαλή για νήματα,
     συνάρτηση *note normalvariate(): 1dd2. αντί αυτού.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Το 'mu' και το 'sigma' έχουν τώρα
     προεπιλεγμένες παραμέτρους.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.lognormvariate (mu, sigma)

     Κατανομή log normal.  Αν πάρετε τον φυσικό λογάριθμο αυτής της
     κατανομής, θα πάρετε μια κανονική κατανομή με μέσο όρο 'mu' και
     τυπική απόκλιση 'sigma'.  Το 'mu' μπορεί να έχει οποιαδήποτε τιμή,
     και το 'sigma' πρέπει να είναι μεγαλύτερο από το μηδέν.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.normalvariate (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     Κανονική κατανομή.  Το 'mu' είναι ο μέσος όρος, και το 'sigma'
     είναι η τυπική απόκλιση.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Το 'mu' και το 'sigma' έχουν τώρα
     προεπιλεγμένες παραμέτρους.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.vonmisesvariate (mu, kappa)

     Το 'mu' είναι η μέση γωνία, εκφρασμένη σε ακτίνια μεταξύ 0 και
     2*'pi', και 'kappa' είναι η παράμετρος συγκέντρωσης, η οποία πρέπει
     να είναι μεγαλύτερη ή ίση με το μηδέν.  Αν το 'kappa' είναι ίσο με
     το μηδέν, αυτή η κατανομή μειώνεται σε μια ομοιόμορφη τυχαία γωνία
     στο εύρος 0 έως 2*'pi'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.paretovariate (alpha)

     Κατανομή Pareto.  Το 'alpha' είναι η παράμετρος σχήματος.

 -- Συνάρτηση: random.weibullvariate (alpha, beta)

     Κατανομή Weibull.  Το 'alpha' είναι η παράμετρος κλίμακας και το
     'beta' είναι η παράμετρος σχήματος.


File: python.info,  Node: Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια,  Next: Σημειώσεις για την Αναπαραγωγιμότητα,  Prev: Πραγματικές κατανομές,  Up: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών

5.10.7.7 Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια
..............................

 -- Κλάση: random.Random ([seed])

     Class that implements the default pseudo-random number generator
     used by the ‘random’ module.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Προηγουμένως το 'seed' μπορούσε να είναι
     οποιοδήποτε hashable αντικείμενο.  Τώρα περιορίζεται σε: ‘None’,
     *note int: 326, *note float: 327, *note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7,
     ή *note bytearray: 1c6.

     Οι υποκλάσεις της ‘Random’ θα πρέπει να αντικαταστήσουν τις
     παρακάτω μεθόδους αν επιθυμούν να χρησιμοποιήσουν μια διαφορετική
     βασική γεννήτρια:

      -- Μέθοδος: seed (a=None, version=2)

          Αντικαταστήστε αυτή τη μέθοδο στις υποκλάσεις για να
          προσαρμόσετε τη *note seed(): 1618. συμπεριφορά των ‘Random’
          στιγμιότυπων.

      -- Μέθοδος: getstate ()

          Αντικαταστήστε αυτή τη μέθοδο στις υποκλάσεις για να
          προσαρμόσετε τη *note getstate(): 2d77. συμπεριφορά των
          ‘Random’ στιγμιότυπων.

      -- Μέθοδος: setstate (state)

          Αντικαταστήστε αυτή τη μέθοδο στις υποκλάσεις για να
          προσαρμόσετε τη *note setstate(): 2d78. συμπεριφορά των
          ‘Random’ στιγμιότυπων.

      -- Μέθοδος: random ()

          Αντικαταστήστε αυτή τη μέθοδο στις υποκλάσεις για να
          προσαρμόσετε τη *note random(): b2d. συμπεριφορά των ‘Random’
          στιγμιότυπων.

     Μια προαιρετική υποκλάση γεννήτριας μπορεί επίσης να παρέχει την
     ακόλουθη μέθοδο:

      -- Μέθοδος: getrandbits (k)

          Αντικαταστήστε αυτή τη μέθοδο στις υποκλάσεις για να
          προσαρμόσετε τη *note getrandbits(): 13b6. συμπεριφορά των
          ‘Random’ στιγμιότυπων.

      -- Μέθοδος: randbytes (n)

          Αντικαταστήστε αυτή τη μέθοδο στις υποκλάσεις για να
          προσαρμόσετε τη *note randbytes(): 1a36. συμπεριφορά των
          ‘Random’ στιγμιότυπων.

 -- Κλάση: random.SystemRandom ([seed])

     Κλάση που χρησιμοποιεί τη συνάρτηση *note os.urandom(): 931. για τη
     δημιουργία τυχαίων αριθμών από πηγές που παρέχονται από το
     λειτουργικό σύστημα.  Δεν είναι διαθέσιμη σε όλα τα συστήματα.  Δεν
     βασίζεται σε λογισμικό κατάσταση, και οι ακολουθίες δεν είναι
     αναπαραγωγίσιμες.  Σύμφωνα με αυτό, η μέθοδος *note seed(): 1618.
     δεν έχει καμία επίδραση και αγνοείται.  Οι μέθοδοι *note
     getstate(): 2d77. και *note setstate(): 2d78. προκαλούν *note
     NotImplementedError: 59a. αν κληθούν.


File: python.info,  Node: Σημειώσεις για την Αναπαραγωγιμότητα,  Next: Παραδείγματα<2>,  Prev: Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια,  Up: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών

5.10.7.8 Σημειώσεις για την Αναπαραγωγιμότητα
.............................................

Μερικές φορές είναι χρήσιμο να είναι δυνατή η αναπαραγωγή των ακολουθιών
που παρέχονται από μια ψευδοτυχαία γεννήτρια αριθμών.
Επαναχρησιμοποιώντας μια τιμή seed, η ίδια ακολουθία θα πρέπει να είναι
αναπαραγωγίσιμη από εκτέλεση σε εκτέλεση, εφόσον δεν τρέχουν πολλαπλά
νήματα ταυτόχρονα.

Οι περισσότεροι αλγόριθμοι και συναρτήσεις σποράς του module random
υπόκεινται σε αλλαγές μεταξύ εκδόσεων της Python, αλλά δύο πτυχές
εγγυώνται ότι δεν θα αλλάξουν:

   * Εάν προστεθεί μια νέα μέθοδος σποράς, τότε θα προσφέρεται ένας
     σπορέας συμβατός με παλαιότερες εκδόσεις.

   * Η μέθοδος *note random(): 2d8b. της γεννήτριας θα συνεχίσει να
     παράγει την ίδια ακολουθία όταν ο συμβατός σπορέας δίνεται την ίδια
     τιμή seed.


File: python.info,  Node: Παραδείγματα<2>,  Next: Συνταγές,  Prev: Σημειώσεις για την Αναπαραγωγιμότητα,  Up: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών

5.10.7.9 Παραδείγματα
.....................

Βασικά παραδείγματα:

     >>> random()                          # Random float:  0.0 <= x < 1.0
     0.37444887175646646

     >>> uniform(2.5, 10.0)                # Random float:  2.5 <= x <= 10.0
     3.1800146073117523

     >>> expovariate(1 / 5)                # Interval between arrivals averaging 5 seconds
     5.148957571865031

     >>> randrange(10)                     # Integer from 0 to 9 inclusive
     7

     >>> randrange(0, 101, 2)              # Even integer from 0 to 100 inclusive
     26

     >>> choice(['win', 'lose', 'draw'])   # Single random element from a sequence
     'draw'

     >>> deck = 'ace two three four'.split()
     >>> shuffle(deck)                     # Shuffle a list
     >>> deck
     ['four', 'two', 'ace', 'three']

     >>> sample([10, 20, 30, 40, 50], k=4) # Four samples without replacement
     [40, 10, 50, 30]

Προσομοιώσεις:

     >>> # Six roulette wheel spins (weighted sampling with replacement)
     >>> choices(['red', 'black', 'green'], [18, 18, 2], k=6)
     ['red', 'green', 'black', 'black', 'red', 'black']

     >>> # Deal 20 cards without replacement from a deck
     >>> # of 52 playing cards, and determine the proportion of cards
     >>> # with a ten-value:  ten, jack, queen, or king.
     >>> deal = sample(['tens', 'low cards'], counts=[16, 36], k=20)
     >>> deal.count('tens') / 20
     0.15

     >>> # Estimate the probability of getting 5 or more heads from 7 spins
     >>> # of a biased coin that settles on heads 60% of the time.
     >>> sum(binomialvariate(n=7, p=0.6) >= 5 for i in range(10_000)) / 10_000
     0.4169

     >>> # Probability of the median of 5 samples being in middle two quartiles
     >>> def trial():
     ...     return 2_500 <= sorted(choices(range(10_000), k=5))[2] < 7_500
     ...
     >>> sum(trial() for i in range(10_000)) / 10_000
     0.7958

Παράδειγμα του statistical bootstrapping(1) χρησιμοποιώντας
δειγματοληψία με αντικατάσταση για να εκτιμήσει ένα διάστημα
εμπιστοσύνης για τον μέσο όρο ενός δείγματος:

     # https://www.thoughtco.com/example-of-bootstrapping-3126155
     from statistics import fmean as mean
     from random import choices

     data = [41, 50, 29, 37, 81, 30, 73, 63, 20, 35, 68, 22, 60, 31, 95]
     means = sorted(mean(choices(data, k=len(data))) for i in range(100))
     print(f'The sample mean of {mean(data):.1f} has a 90% confidence '
           f'interval from {means[5]:.1f} to {means[94]:.1f}')

Παράδειγμα ενός resampling permutation test(2) για να προσδιορίσει τη
στατιστική σημασία ή την p-value(3) μιας παρατηρούμενης διαφοράς μεταξύ
των επιδράσεων ενός φαρμάκου σε σύγκριση με ένα εικονικό φάρμακο:

     # Example from "Statistics is Easy" by Dennis Shasha and Manda Wilson
     from statistics import fmean as mean
     from random import shuffle

     drug = [54, 73, 53, 70, 73, 68, 52, 65, 65]
     placebo = [54, 51, 58, 44, 55, 52, 42, 47, 58, 46]
     observed_diff = mean(drug) - mean(placebo)

     n = 10_000
     count = 0
     combined = drug + placebo
     for i in range(n):
         shuffle(combined)
         new_diff = mean(combined[:len(drug)]) - mean(combined[len(drug):])
         count += (new_diff >= observed_diff)

     print(f'{n} label reshufflings produced only {count} instances with a difference')
     print(f'at least as extreme as the observed difference of {observed_diff:.1f}.')
     print(f'The one-sided p-value of {count / n:.4f} leads us to reject the null')
     print(f'hypothesis that there is no difference between the drug and the placebo.')

Προσομοίωση χρόνων άφιξης και παραδόσεων υπηρεσιών για μια ουρά
πολλαπλών διακομιστών:

     from heapq import heapify, heapreplace
     from random import expovariate, gauss
     from statistics import mean, quantiles

     average_arrival_interval = 5.6
     average_service_time = 15.0
     stdev_service_time = 3.5
     num_servers = 3

     waits = []
     arrival_time = 0.0
     servers = [0.0] * num_servers  # time when each server becomes available
     heapify(servers)
     for i in range(1_000_000):
         arrival_time += expovariate(1.0 / average_arrival_interval)
         next_server_available = servers[0]
         wait = max(0.0, next_server_available - arrival_time)
         waits.append(wait)
         service_duration = max(0.0, gauss(average_service_time, stdev_service_time))
         service_completed = arrival_time + wait + service_duration
         heapreplace(servers, service_completed)

     print(f'Mean wait: {mean(waits):.1f}   Max wait: {max(waits):.1f}')
     print('Quartiles:', [round(q, 1) for q in quantiles(waits)])

Δείτε επίσης
............

Statistics for Hackers(4) ένα βίντεο σεμινάριο από τον Jake
Vanderplas(5) για στατιστική ανάλυση χρησιμοποιώντας μόνο μερικές
θεμελιώδεις έννοιες όπως η προσομοίωση, η δειγματοληψία, η αναδιάταξη
και η διασταύρωση επικύρωσης.

Economics Simulation(6) μια προσομοίωση μιας αγοράς από τον Peter
Norvig(7) που δείχνει αποτελεσματική χρήση πολλών από τα εργαλεία και
τις κατανομές που παρέχονται από αυτό το module (gauss, uniform, sample,
betavariate, choice, triangular, και randrange).

A Concrete Introduction to Probability (using Python)(8) ένα σεμινάριο
από τον Peter Norvig(9) που καλύπτει τα βασικά της θεωρίας πιθανοτήτων,
πώς να γράψετε προσομοιώσεις, και πώς να εκτελέσετε ανάλυση δεδομένων
χρησιμοποιώντας Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)

   (2) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)#Permutation_tests

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-value

   (4) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iq9DzN6mvYA

   (5) https://us.pycon.org/2016/speaker/profile/295/

   (6) https://nbviewer.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Economics.ipynb

   (7) https://norvig.com/bio.html

   (8) https://nbviewer.org/url/norvig.com/ipython/Probability.ipynb

   (9) https://norvig.com/bio.html


File: python.info,  Node: Συνταγές,  Next: Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών,  Prev: Παραδείγματα<2>,  Up: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών

5.10.7.10 Συνταγές
..................

These recipes show how to efficiently make random selections from the
combinatoric iterators in the *note itertools: 84. module or the
more-itertools(1) project:

     import random

     def random_product(*iterables, repeat=1):
         "Random selection from itertools.product(*iterables, repeat=repeat)"
         pools = tuple(map(tuple, iterables)) * repeat
         return tuple(map(random.choice, pools))

     def random_permutation(iterable, r=None):
         "Random selection from itertools.permutations(iterable, r)"
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         r = len(pool) if r is None else r
         return tuple(random.sample(pool, r))

     def random_combination(iterable, r):
         "Random selection from itertools.combinations(iterable, r)"
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         n = len(pool)
         indices = sorted(random.sample(range(n), r))
         return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

     def random_combination_with_replacement(iterable, r):
         "Choose r elements with replacement.  Order the result to match the iterable."
         # Result will be in set(itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r)).
         pool = tuple(iterable)
         n = len(pool)
         indices = sorted(random.choices(range(n), k=r))
         return tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

     def random_derangement(iterable):
         "Choose a permutation where no element stays in its original position."
         seq = tuple(iterable)
         if len(seq) < 2:
             if not seq:
                 return ()
             raise IndexError('No derangments to choose from')
         perm = list(range(len(seq)))
         start = tuple(perm)
         while True:
             random.shuffle(perm)
             if all(p != q for p, q in zip(start, perm)):
                 return tuple([seq[i] for i in perm])

Η προεπιλεγμένη *note random(): b2d. επιστρέφει πολλαπλάσια του 2⁻⁵³ στο
διάστημα '0.0 ≤ x < 1.0'.  Όλοι αυτοί οι αριθμοί είναι ομοιόμορφα
κατανεμημένοι και είναι ακριβώς αναπαραστάσιμοι ως Python floats.
Ωστόσο, πολλά άλλα αναπαραστάσιμα floats σε αυτό το διάστημα δεν είναι
δυνατές επιλογές.  Για παράδειγμα, ‘0.05954861408025609’ δεν είναι
πολλαπλάσιο του 2⁻⁵³.

Η παρακάτω συνταγή ακολουθεί μια διαφορετική προσέγγιση.  Όλα τα floats
στο διάστημα είναι δυνατές επιλογές.  Η mantissa προέρχεται από μια
ομοιόμορφη κατανομή ακεραίων στο διάστημα '2⁵² ≤ mantissa < 2⁵³'.  Ο
εκθέτης προέρχεται από μια γεωμετρική κατανομή όπου οι εκθέτες
μικρότεροι από '−53' εμφανίζονται μισή φορά συχνότερα από τον επόμενο
μεγαλύτερο εκθέτη.

     from random import Random
     from math import ldexp

     class FullRandom(Random):

         def random(self):
             mantissa = 0x10_0000_0000_0000 | self.getrandbits(52)
             exponent = -53
             x = 0
             while not x:
                 x = self.getrandbits(32)
                 exponent += x.bit_length() - 32
             return ldexp(mantissa, exponent)

Όλες οι *note πραγματικές κατανομές: 2d7f. στην κλάση θα χρησιμοποιούν
τη νέα μέθοδο:

     >>> fr = FullRandom()
     >>> fr.random()
     0.05954861408025609
     >>> fr.expovariate(0.25)
     8.87925541791544

Η συνταγή είναι εννοιολογικά ισοδύναμη με έναν αλγόριθμο που επιλέγει
από όλα τα πολλαπλάσια του 2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴ στο διάστημα '0.0 ≤ x < 1.0'.  Όλοι
αυτοί οι αριθμοί είναι ομοιόμορφα κατανεμημένοι, αλλά οι περισσότεροι
πρέπει να στρογγυλοποιηθούν προς τα κάτω στο πλησιέστερο αναπαραστάσιμο
Python float.  (Η τιμή 2⁻¹⁰⁷⁴ είναι το μικρότερο θετικό μη
κανονικοποιημένο float και ισούται με ‘math.ulp(0.0)’.)

Δείτε επίσης
............

Generating Pseudo-random Floating-Point Values(2) ένα άρθρο του Allen B.
Downey που περιγράφει τρόπους δημιουργίας πιο λεπτομερών floats από ό,τι
παράγονται συνήθως από *note random(): b2d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/more-itertools/

   (2) https://allendowney.com/research/rand/downey07randfloat.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών,  Next: Παράδειγμα από τη γραμμή εντολών,  Prev: Συνταγές,  Up: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών

5.10.7.11 Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών
.....................................

Added in version 3.13.

Το module ‘random’ μπορεί να εκτελεστεί από τη γραμμή εντολών.

     python -m random [-h] [-c CHOICE [CHOICE ...] | -i N | -f N] [input ...]

Αποδέχεται τις παρακάτω επιλογές:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Εμφανίζει το μήνυμα βοήθειας και εξέρχεται.

 -- Option: -c CHOICE [CHOICE ...]
 -- Option: --choice CHOICE [CHOICE ...]

     Εκτυπώνει μια τυχαία επιλογή, χρησιμοποιώντας τη *note choice():
     15d6.

 -- Option: -i <N>
 -- Option: --integer <N>

     Εκτυπώνει έναν τυχαίο ακέραιο μεταξύ 1 και N συμπεριλαμβανομένου,
     χρησιμοποιώντας τη *note randint(): 15d5.

 -- Option: -f <N>
 -- Option: --float <N>

     Εκτυπώνει έναν τυχαίο αριθμό κινητής υποδιαστολής μεταξύ 0 και N
     συμπεριλαμβανομένου, χρησιμοποιώντας τη *note uniform(): 2d80.

Εάν δεν δοθούν επιλογές, η έξοδος εξαρτάται από την είσοδο:

   * Συμβολοσειρά ή πολλαπλά: ίδια με την *note -choice: 2d94.

   * Ακέραιος: ίδια με την *note -integer: 2d96.

   * Αριθμός κινητής υποδιαστολής: ίδια με την *note -float: 2d98.


File: python.info,  Node: Παράδειγμα από τη γραμμή εντολών,  Prev: Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών,  Up: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών

5.10.7.12 Παράδειγμα από τη γραμμή εντολών
..........................................

Εδώ είναι μερικά παραδείγματα της διεπαφής γραμμής εντολών του ‘random’:

     $ # Choose one at random
     $ python -m random egg bacon sausage spam "Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce"
     Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce

     $ # Random integer
     $ python -m random 6
     6

     $ # Random floating-point number
     $ python -m random 1.8
     1.7080016272295635

     $ # With explicit arguments
     $ python  -m random --choice egg bacon sausage spam "Lobster Thermidor aux crevettes with a Mornay sauce"
     egg

     $ python -m random --integer 6
     3

     $ python -m random --float 1.8
     1.5666339105010318

     $ python -m random --integer 6
     5

     $ python -m random --float 6
     3.1942323316565915


File: python.info,  Node: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions,  Prev: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών,  Up: Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules

5.10.8 ‘statistics’ — Mathematical statistics functions
-------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/statistics.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides functions for calculating mathematical statistics
of numeric (*note Real: 27ec.-valued) data.

The module is not intended to be a competitor to third-party libraries
such as NumPy(2), SciPy(3), or proprietary full-featured statistics
packages aimed at professional statisticians such as Minitab, SAS and
Matlab.  It is aimed at the level of graphing and scientific
calculators.

Unless explicitly noted, these functions support *note int: 326, *note
float: 327, *note Decimal: 1c2. and *note Fraction: 1c3.  Behaviour with
other types (whether in the numeric tower or not) is currently
unsupported.  Collections with a mix of types are also undefined and
implementation-dependent.  If your input data consists of mixed types,
you may be able to use *note map(): 43e. to ensure a consistent result,
for example: ‘map(float, input_data)’.

Some datasets use ‘NaN’ (not a number) values to represent missing data.
Since NaNs have unusual comparison semantics, they cause surprising or
undefined behaviors in the statistics functions that sort data or that
count occurrences.  The functions affected are ‘median()’,
‘median_low()’, ‘median_high()’, ‘median_grouped()’, ‘mode()’,
‘multimode()’, and ‘quantiles()’.  The ‘NaN’ values should be stripped
before calling these functions:

     >>> from statistics import median
     >>> from math import isnan
     >>> from itertools import filterfalse

     >>> data = [20.7, float('NaN'),19.2, 18.3, float('NaN'), 14.4]
     >>> sorted(data)  # This has surprising behavior
     [20.7, nan, 14.4, 18.3, 19.2, nan]
     >>> median(data)  # This result is unexpected
     16.35

     >>> sum(map(isnan, data))    # Number of missing values
     2
     >>> clean = list(filterfalse(isnan, data))  # Strip NaN values
     >>> clean
     [20.7, 19.2, 18.3, 14.4]
     >>> sorted(clean)  # Sorting now works as expected
     [14.4, 18.3, 19.2, 20.7]
     >>> median(clean)       # This result is now well defined
     18.75

* Menu:

* Averages and measures of central location::
* Measures of spread::
* Statistics for relations between two inputs::
* Function details::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<3>.
* NormalDist objects::
* Examples and Recipes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/statistics.py

   (2) https://numpy.org

   (3) https://scipy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Averages and measures of central location,  Next: Measures of spread,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.10.8.1 Averages and measures of central location
..................................................

These functions calculate an average or typical value from a population
or sample.

*note mean(): abf.          Arithmetic mean («average») of data.
                            
                            
*note fmean(): df8.         Fast, floating-point arithmetic mean, with optional weighting.
                            
                            
*note geometric_mean(): df9.Geometric mean of data.
                            
                            
*note harmonic_mean(): 109f.Harmonic mean of data.
                            
                            
*note kde(): 754.           Estimate the probability density distribution of the data.
                            
                            
*note kde_random(): 755.    Random sampling from the PDF generated by kde().
                            
                            
*note median(): 2d9f.       Median (middle value) of data.
                            
                            
*note median_low(): 2da0.   Low median of data.
                            
                            
*note median_high(): 2da1.  High median of data.
                            
                            
*note median_grouped(): 2da2.Median (50th percentile) of grouped data.
                            
                            
*note mode(): e54.          Single mode (most common value) of discrete or nominal data.
                            
                            
*note multimode(): dfa.     List of modes (most common values) of discrete or nominal data.
                            
                            
*note quantiles(): dfb.     Divide data into intervals with equal probability.
                            


File: python.info,  Node: Measures of spread,  Next: Statistics for relations between two inputs,  Prev: Averages and measures of central location,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.10.8.2 Measures of spread
...........................

These functions calculate a measure of how much the population or sample
tends to deviate from the typical or average values.

*note pstdev(): 19c6.       Population standard deviation of data.
                            
                            
*note pvariance(): 2da4.    Population variance of data.
                            
                            
*note stdev(): ac1.         Sample standard deviation of data.
                            
                            
*note variance(): ac0.      Sample variance of data.
                            


File: python.info,  Node: Statistics for relations between two inputs,  Next: Function details,  Prev: Measures of spread,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.10.8.3 Statistics for relations between two inputs
....................................................

These functions calculate statistics regarding relations between two
inputs.

*note covariance(): c09.      Sample covariance for two variables.
                              
                              
*note correlation(): 8cc.     Pearson and Spearman’s correlation coefficients.
                              
                              
*note linear_regression(): c0a.Slope and intercept for simple linear regression.
                              


File: python.info,  Node: Function details,  Next: Exceptions<3>,  Prev: Statistics for relations between two inputs,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.10.8.4 Function details
.........................

Note: The functions do not require the data given to them to be sorted.
However, for reading convenience, most of the examples show sorted
sequences.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.mean (data)

     Return the sample arithmetic mean of 'data' which can be a sequence
     or iterable.

     The arithmetic mean is the sum of the data divided by the number of
     data points.  It is commonly called «the average», although it is
     only one of many different mathematical averages.  It is a measure
     of the central location of the data.

     If 'data' is empty, *note StatisticsError: 2da7. will be raised.

     Some examples of use:

          >>> mean([1, 2, 3, 4, 4])
          2.8
          >>> mean([-1.0, 2.5, 3.25, 5.75])
          2.625

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> mean([F(3, 7), F(1, 21), F(5, 3), F(1, 3)])
          Fraction(13, 21)

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> mean([D("0.5"), D("0.75"), D("0.625"), D("0.375")])
          Decimal('0.5625')

          Σημείωση: The mean is strongly affected by outliers(1) and is
          not necessarily a typical example of the data points.  For a
          more robust, although less efficient, measure of central
          tendency(2), see *note median(): 2d9f.

          The sample mean gives an unbiased estimate of the true
          population mean, so that when taken on average over all the
          possible samples, ‘mean(sample)’ converges on the true mean of
          the entire population.  If 'data' represents the entire
          population rather than a sample, then ‘mean(data)’ is
          equivalent to calculating the true population mean μ.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.fmean (data, weights=None)

     Convert 'data' to floats and compute the arithmetic mean.

     This runs faster than the *note mean(): abf. function and it always
     returns a *note float: 327.  The 'data' may be a sequence or
     iterable.  If the input dataset is empty, raises a *note
     StatisticsError: 2da7.

          >>> fmean([3.5, 4.0, 5.25])
          4.25

     Optional weighting is supported.  For example, a professor assigns
     a grade for a course by weighting quizzes at 20%, homework at 20%,
     a midterm exam at 30%, and a final exam at 30%:

          >>> grades = [85, 92, 83, 91]
          >>> weights = [0.20, 0.20, 0.30, 0.30]
          >>> fmean(grades, weights)
          87.6

     If 'weights' is supplied, it must be the same length as the 'data'
     or a *note ValueError: 277. will be raised.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added support for 'weights'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.geometric_mean (data)

     Convert 'data' to floats and compute the geometric mean.

     The geometric mean indicates the central tendency or typical value
     of the 'data' using the product of the values (as opposed to the
     arithmetic mean which uses their sum).

     Raises a *note StatisticsError: 2da7. if the input dataset is
     empty, if it contains a zero, or if it contains a negative value.
     The 'data' may be a sequence or iterable.

     No special efforts are made to achieve exact results.  (However,
     this may change in the future.)

          >>> round(geometric_mean([54, 24, 36]), 1)
          36.0

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.harmonic_mean (data, weights=None)

     Return the harmonic mean of 'data', a sequence or iterable of
     real-valued numbers.  If 'weights' is omitted or ‘None’, then equal
     weighting is assumed.

     The harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the arithmetic *note mean():
     abf. of the reciprocals of the data.  For example, the harmonic
     mean of three values 'a', 'b' and 'c' will be equivalent to ‘3/(1/a
     + 1/b + 1/c)’.  If one of the values is zero, the result will be
     zero.

     The harmonic mean is a type of average, a measure of the central
     location of the data.  It is often appropriate when averaging
     ratios or rates, for example speeds.

     Suppose a car travels 10 km at 40 km/hr, then another 10 km at 60
     km/hr.  What is the average speed?

          >>> harmonic_mean([40, 60])
          48.0

     Suppose a car travels 40 km/hr for 5 km, and when traffic clears,
     speeds-up to 60 km/hr for the remaining 30 km of the journey.  What
     is the average speed?

          >>> harmonic_mean([40, 60], weights=[5, 30])
          56.0

     *note StatisticsError: 2da7. is raised if 'data' is empty, any
     element is less than zero, or if the weighted sum isn’t positive.

     The current algorithm has an early-out when it encounters a zero in
     the input.  This means that the subsequent inputs are not tested
     for validity.  (This behavior may change in the future.)

     Added in version 3.6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added support for 'weights'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.kde (data, h, kernel='normal', *,
          cumulative=False)

     Kernel Density Estimation (KDE)(3): Create a continuous probability
     density function or cumulative distribution function from discrete
     samples.

     The basic idea is to smooth the data using a kernel function(4).
     to help draw inferences about a population from a sample.

     The degree of smoothing is controlled by the scaling parameter 'h'
     which is called the bandwidth.  Smaller values emphasize local
     features while larger values give smoother results.

     The 'kernel' determines the relative weights of the sample data
     points.  Generally, the choice of kernel shape does not matter as
     much as the more influential bandwidth smoothing parameter.

     Kernels that give some weight to every sample point include
     'normal' ('gauss'), 'logistic', and 'sigmoid'.

     Kernels that only give weight to sample points within the bandwidth
     include 'rectangular' ('uniform'), 'triangular', 'parabolic'
     ('epanechnikov'), 'quartic' ('biweight'), 'triweight', and
     'cosine'.

     If 'cumulative' is true, will return a cumulative distribution
     function.

     A *note StatisticsError: 2da7. will be raised if the 'data'
     sequence is empty.

     Wikipedia has an example(5) where we can use ‘kde()’ to generate
     and plot a probability density function estimated from a small
     sample:

          >>> sample = [-2.1, -1.3, -0.4, 1.9, 5.1, 6.2]
          >>> f_hat = kde(sample, h=1.5)
          >>> xarr = [i/100 for i in range(-750, 1100)]
          >>> yarr = [f_hat(x) for x in xarr]

     The points in ‘xarr’ and ‘yarr’ can be used to make a PDF plot:

[image src="python-figures/kde_example.png" alt="Scatter plot of the estimated probability density function."]


     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.kde_random (data, h, kernel='normal', *,
          seed=None)

     Return a function that makes a random selection from the estimated
     probability density function produced by ‘kde(data, h, kernel)’.

     Providing a 'seed' allows reproducible selections.  In the future,
     the values may change slightly as more accurate kernel inverse CDF
     estimates are implemented.  The seed may be an integer, float, str,
     or bytes.

     A *note StatisticsError: 2da7. will be raised if the 'data'
     sequence is empty.

     Continuing the example for *note kde(): 754, we can use
     ‘kde_random()’ to generate new random selections from an estimated
     probability density function:

          >>> data = [-2.1, -1.3, -0.4, 1.9, 5.1, 6.2]
          >>> rand = kde_random(data, h=1.5, seed=8675309)
          >>> new_selections = [rand() for i in range(10)]
          >>> [round(x, 1) for x in new_selections]
          [0.7, 6.2, 1.2, 6.9, 7.0, 1.8, 2.5, -0.5, -1.8, 5.6]

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.median (data)

     Return the median (middle value) of numeric data, using the common
     «mean of middle two» method.  If 'data' is empty, *note
     StatisticsError: 2da7. is raised.  'data' can be a sequence or
     iterable.

     The median is a robust measure of central location and is less
     affected by the presence of outliers.  When the number of data
     points is odd, the middle data point is returned:

          >>> median([1, 3, 5])
          3

     When the number of data points is even, the median is interpolated
     by taking the average of the two middle values:

          >>> median([1, 3, 5, 7])
          4.0

     This is suited for when your data is discrete, and you don’t mind
     that the median may not be an actual data point.

     If the data is ordinal (supports order operations) but not numeric
     (doesn’t support addition), consider using *note median_low():
     2da0. or *note median_high(): 2da1. instead.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.median_low (data)

     Return the low median of numeric data.  If 'data' is empty, *note
     StatisticsError: 2da7. is raised.  'data' can be a sequence or
     iterable.

     The low median is always a member of the data set.  When the number
     of data points is odd, the middle value is returned.  When it is
     even, the smaller of the two middle values is returned.

          >>> median_low([1, 3, 5])
          3
          >>> median_low([1, 3, 5, 7])
          3

     Use the low median when your data are discrete and you prefer the
     median to be an actual data point rather than interpolated.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.median_high (data)

     Return the high median of data.  If 'data' is empty, *note
     StatisticsError: 2da7. is raised.  'data' can be a sequence or
     iterable.

     The high median is always a member of the data set.  When the
     number of data points is odd, the middle value is returned.  When
     it is even, the larger of the two middle values is returned.

          >>> median_high([1, 3, 5])
          3
          >>> median_high([1, 3, 5, 7])
          5

     Use the high median when your data are discrete and you prefer the
     median to be an actual data point rather than interpolated.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.median_grouped (data, interval=1.0)

     Estimates the median for numeric data that has been grouped or
     binned(6) around the midpoints of consecutive, fixed-width
     intervals.

     The 'data' can be any iterable of numeric data with each value
     being exactly the midpoint of a bin.  At least one value must be
     present.

     The 'interval' is the width of each bin.

     For example, demographic information may have been summarized into
     consecutive ten-year age groups with each group being represented
     by the 5-year midpoints of the intervals:

          >>> from collections import Counter
          >>> demographics = Counter({
          ...    25: 172,   # 20 to 30 years old
          ...    35: 484,   # 30 to 40 years old
          ...    45: 387,   # 40 to 50 years old
          ...    55:  22,   # 50 to 60 years old
          ...    65:   6,   # 60 to 70 years old
          ... })
          ...

     The 50th percentile (median) is the 536th person out of the 1071
     member cohort.  That person is in the 30 to 40 year old age group.

     The regular *note median(): 2d9f. function would assume that
     everyone in the tricenarian age group was exactly 35 years old.  A
     more tenable assumption is that the 484 members of that age group
     are evenly distributed between 30 and 40.  For that, we use
     ‘median_grouped()’:

          >>> data = list(demographics.elements())
          >>> median(data)
          35
          >>> round(median_grouped(data, interval=10), 1)
          37.5

     The caller is responsible for making sure the data points are
     separated by exact multiples of 'interval'.  This is essential for
     getting a correct result.  The function does not check this
     precondition.

     Inputs may be any numeric type that can be coerced to a float
     during the interpolation step.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.mode (data)

     Return the single most common data point from discrete or nominal
     'data'.  The mode (when it exists) is the most typical value and
     serves as a measure of central location.

     If there are multiple modes with the same frequency, returns the
     first one encountered in the 'data'.  If the smallest or largest of
     those is desired instead, use ‘min(multimode(data))’ or
     ‘max(multimode(data))’.  If the input 'data' is empty, *note
     StatisticsError: 2da7. is raised.

     ‘mode’ assumes discrete data and returns a single value.  This is
     the standard treatment of the mode as commonly taught in schools:

          >>> mode([1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4])
          3

     The mode is unique in that it is the only statistic in this package
     that also applies to nominal (non-numeric) data:

          >>> mode(["red", "blue", "blue", "red", "green", "red", "red"])
          'red'

     Only hashable inputs are supported.  To handle type *note set: 42b,
     consider casting to *note frozenset: 9d4.  To handle type *note
     list: 4d9, consider casting to *note tuple: 1ce.  For mixed or
     nested inputs, consider using this slower quadratic algorithm that
     only depends on equality tests: ‘max(data, key=data.count)’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Now handles multimodal datasets by
     returning the first mode encountered.  Formerly, it raised *note
     StatisticsError: 2da7. when more than one mode was found.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.multimode (data)

     Return a list of the most frequently occurring values in the order
     they were first encountered in the 'data'.  Will return more than
     one result if there are multiple modes or an empty list if the
     'data' is empty:

          >>> multimode('aabbbbccddddeeffffgg')
          ['b', 'd', 'f']
          >>> multimode('')
          []

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.pstdev (data, mu=None)

     Return the population standard deviation (the square root of the
     population variance).  See *note pvariance(): 2da4. for arguments
     and other details.

          >>> pstdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
          0.986893273527251

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.pvariance (data, mu=None)

     Return the population variance of 'data', a non-empty sequence or
     iterable of real-valued numbers.  Variance, or second moment about
     the mean, is a measure of the variability (spread or dispersion) of
     data.  A large variance indicates that the data is spread out; a
     small variance indicates it is clustered closely around the mean.

     If the optional second argument 'mu' is given, it should be the
     'population' mean of the 'data'.  It can also be used to compute
     the second moment around a point that is not the mean.  If it is
     missing or ‘None’ (the default), the arithmetic mean is
     automatically calculated.

     Use this function to calculate the variance from the entire
     population.  To estimate the variance from a sample, the *note
     variance(): ac0. function is usually a better choice.

     Raises *note StatisticsError: 2da7. if 'data' is empty.

     Examples:

          >>> data = [0.0, 0.25, 0.25, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2.75, 3.25]
          >>> pvariance(data)
          1.25

     If you have already calculated the mean of your data, you can pass
     it as the optional second argument 'mu' to avoid recalculation:

          >>> mu = mean(data)
          >>> pvariance(data, mu)
          1.25

     Decimals and Fractions are supported:

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> pvariance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
          Decimal('24.815')

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> pvariance([F(1, 4), F(5, 4), F(1, 2)])
          Fraction(13, 72)

          Σημείωση: When called with the entire population, this gives
          the population variance σ².  When called on a sample instead,
          this is the biased sample variance s², also known as variance
          with N degrees of freedom.

          If you somehow know the true population mean μ, you may use
          this function to calculate the variance of a sample, giving
          the known population mean as the second argument.  Provided
          the data points are a random sample of the population, the
          result will be an unbiased estimate of the population
          variance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.stdev (data, xbar=None)

     Return the sample standard deviation (the square root of the sample
     variance).  See *note variance(): ac0. for arguments and other
     details.

          >>> stdev([1.5, 2.5, 2.5, 2.75, 3.25, 4.75])
          1.0810874155219827

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.variance (data, xbar=None)

     Return the sample variance of 'data', an iterable of at least two
     real-valued numbers.  Variance, or second moment about the mean, is
     a measure of the variability (spread or dispersion) of data.  A
     large variance indicates that the data is spread out; a small
     variance indicates it is clustered closely around the mean.

     If the optional second argument 'xbar' is given, it should be the
     'sample' mean of 'data'.  If it is missing or ‘None’ (the default),
     the mean is automatically calculated.

     Use this function when your data is a sample from a population.  To
     calculate the variance from the entire population, see *note
     pvariance(): 2da4.

     Raises *note StatisticsError: 2da7. if 'data' has fewer than two
     values.

     Examples:

          >>> data = [2.75, 1.75, 1.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1.25, 3.5]
          >>> variance(data)
          1.3720238095238095

     If you have already calculated the sample mean of your data, you
     can pass it as the optional second argument 'xbar' to avoid
     recalculation:

          >>> m = mean(data)
          >>> variance(data, m)
          1.3720238095238095

     This function does not attempt to verify that you have passed the
     actual mean as 'xbar'.  Using arbitrary values for 'xbar' can lead
     to invalid or impossible results.

     Decimal and Fraction values are supported:

          >>> from decimal import Decimal as D
          >>> variance([D("27.5"), D("30.25"), D("30.25"), D("34.5"), D("41.75")])
          Decimal('31.01875')

          >>> from fractions import Fraction as F
          >>> variance([F(1, 6), F(1, 2), F(5, 3)])
          Fraction(67, 108)

          Σημείωση: This is the sample variance s² with Bessel’s
          correction, also known as variance with N-1 degrees of
          freedom.  Provided that the data points are representative
          (e.g.  independent and identically distributed), the result
          should be an unbiased estimate of the true population
          variance.

          If you somehow know the actual population mean μ you should
          pass it to the *note pvariance(): 2da4. function as the 'mu'
          parameter to get the variance of a sample.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.quantiles (data, *, n=4, method='exclusive')

     Divide 'data' into 'n' continuous intervals with equal probability.
     Returns a list of ‘n - 1’ cut points separating the intervals.

     Set 'n' to 4 for quartiles (the default).  Set 'n' to 10 for
     deciles.  Set 'n' to 100 for percentiles which gives the 99 cuts
     points that separate 'data' into 100 equal sized groups.  Raises
     *note StatisticsError: 2da7. if 'n' is not least 1.

     The 'data' can be any iterable containing sample data.  For
     meaningful results, the number of data points in 'data' should be
     larger than 'n'.  Raises *note StatisticsError: 2da7. if there is
     not at least one data point.

     The cut points are linearly interpolated from the two nearest data
     points.  For example, if a cut point falls one-third of the
     distance between two sample values, ‘100’ and ‘112’, the cut-point
     will evaluate to ‘104’.

     The 'method' for computing quantiles can be varied depending on
     whether the 'data' includes or excludes the lowest and highest
     possible values from the population.

     The default 'method' is «exclusive» and is used for data sampled
     from a population that can have more extreme values than found in
     the samples.  The portion of the population falling below the
     'i-th' of 'm' sorted data points is computed as ‘i / (m + 1)’.
     Given nine sample values, the method sorts them and assigns the
     following percentiles: 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%.

     Setting the 'method' to «inclusive» is used for describing
     population data or for samples that are known to include the most
     extreme values from the population.  The minimum value in 'data' is
     treated as the 0th percentile and the maximum value is treated as
     the 100th percentile.  The portion of the population falling below
     the 'i-th' of 'm' sorted data points is computed as ‘(i - 1) / (m -
     1)’.  Given 11 sample values, the method sorts them and assigns the
     following percentiles: 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%,
     90%, 100%.

          # Decile cut points for empirically sampled data
          >>> data = [105, 129, 87, 86, 111, 111, 89, 81, 108, 92, 110,
          ...         100, 75, 105, 103, 109, 76, 119, 99, 91, 103, 129,
          ...         106, 101, 84, 111, 74, 87, 86, 103, 103, 106, 86,
          ...         111, 75, 87, 102, 121, 111, 88, 89, 101, 106, 95,
          ...         103, 107, 101, 81, 109, 104]
          >>> [round(q, 1) for q in quantiles(data, n=10)]
          [81.0, 86.2, 89.0, 99.4, 102.5, 103.6, 106.0, 109.8, 111.0]

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: No longer raises an exception for an input
     with only a single data point.  This allows quantile estimates to
     be built up one sample point at a time becoming gradually more
     refined with each new data point.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.covariance (x, y, /)

     Return the sample covariance of two sequence inputs 'x' and 'y'.
     Covariance is a measure of the joint variability of two inputs.

     Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two),
     otherwise *note StatisticsError: 2da7. is raised.

     Examples:

          >>> x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
          >>> y = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]
          >>> covariance(x, y)
          0.75
          >>> z = [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
          >>> covariance(x, z)
          -7.5
          >>> covariance(z, x)
          -7.5

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.correlation (x, y, /, *, method='linear')

     Return the Pearson's correlation coefficient(7) for two sequence
     inputs.  Pearson’s correlation coefficient 'r' takes values between
     -1 and +1.  It measures the strength and direction of a linear
     relationship.

     If 'method' is «ranked», computes Spearman's rank correlation
     coefficient(8) for two inputs.  The data is replaced by ranks.
     Ties are averaged so that equal values receive the same rank.  The
     resulting coefficient measures the strength of a monotonic
     relationship.

     Spearman’s correlation coefficient is appropriate for ordinal data
     or for continuous data that doesn’t meet the linear proportion
     requirement for Pearson’s correlation coefficient.

     Both inputs must be of the same length (no less than two), and need
     not to be constant, otherwise *note StatisticsError: 2da7. is
     raised.

     Example with Kepler's laws of planetary motion(9):

          >>> # Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and  Neptune
          >>> orbital_period = [88, 225, 365, 687, 4331, 10_756, 30_687, 60_190]    # days
          >>> dist_from_sun = [58, 108, 150, 228, 778, 1_400, 2_900, 4_500] # million km

          >>> # Show that a perfect monotonic relationship exists
          >>> correlation(orbital_period, dist_from_sun, method='ranked')
          1.0

          >>> # Observe that a linear relationship is imperfect
          >>> round(correlation(orbital_period, dist_from_sun), 4)
          0.9882

          >>> # Demonstrate Kepler's third law: There is a linear correlation
          >>> # between the square of the orbital period and the cube of the
          >>> # distance from the sun.
          >>> period_squared = [p * p for p in orbital_period]
          >>> dist_cubed = [d * d * d for d in dist_from_sun]
          >>> round(correlation(period_squared, dist_cubed), 4)
          1.0

     Added in version 3.10.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added support for Spearman’s rank
     correlation coefficient.

 -- Συνάρτηση: statistics.linear_regression (x, y, /, *,
          proportional=False)

     Return the slope and intercept of simple linear regression(10)
     parameters estimated using ordinary least squares.  Simple linear
     regression describes the relationship between an independent
     variable 'x' and a dependent variable 'y' in terms of this linear
     function:

          'y = slope * x + intercept + noise'

     where ‘slope’ and ‘intercept’ are the regression parameters that
     are estimated, and ‘noise’ represents the variability of the data
     that was not explained by the linear regression (it is equal to the
     difference between predicted and actual values of the dependent
     variable).

     Both inputs must be sequences of the same length (no less than
     two), and the independent variable 'x' cannot be constant;
     otherwise a *note StatisticsError: 2da7. is raised.

     For example, we can use the release dates of the Monty Python
     films(11) to predict the cumulative number of Monty Python films
     that would have been produced by 2019 assuming that they had kept
     the pace.

          >>> year = [1971, 1975, 1979, 1982, 1983]
          >>> films_total = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
          >>> slope, intercept = linear_regression(year, films_total)
          >>> round(slope * 2019 + intercept)
          16

     If 'proportional' is true, the independent variable 'x' and the
     dependent variable 'y' are assumed to be directly proportional.
     The data is fit to a line passing through the origin.  Since the
     'intercept' will always be 0.0, the underlying linear function
     simplifies to:

          'y = slope * x + noise'

     Continuing the example from *note correlation(): 8cc, we look to
     see how well a model based on major planets can predict the orbital
     distances for dwarf planets:

          >>> model = linear_regression(period_squared, dist_cubed, proportional=True)
          >>> slope = model.slope

          >>> # Dwarf planets:   Pluto,  Eris,    Makemake, Haumea, Ceres
          >>> orbital_periods = [90_560, 204_199, 111_845, 103_410, 1_680]  # days
          >>> predicted_dist = [math.cbrt(slope * (p * p)) for p in orbital_periods]
          >>> list(map(round, predicted_dist))
          [5912, 10166, 6806, 6459, 414]

          >>> [5_906, 10_152, 6_796, 6_450, 414]  # actual distance in million km
          [5906, 10152, 6796, 6450, 414]

     Added in version 3.10.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added support for 'proportional'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlier

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_tendency

   (3) 
https://www.itm-conferences.org/articles/itmconf/pdf/2018/08/itmconf_sam2018_00037.pdf

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(statistics)

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_density_estimation#Example

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_binning

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_correlation_coefficient

   (8) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient

   (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion

   (10) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_linear_regression

   (11) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python#Films


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<3>,  Next: NormalDist objects,  Prev: Function details,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.10.8.5 Exceptions
...................

A single exception is defined:

 -- Εξαίρεση: statistics.StatisticsError

     Subclass of *note ValueError: 277. for statistics-related
     exceptions.


File: python.info,  Node: NormalDist objects,  Next: Examples and Recipes,  Prev: Exceptions<3>,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.10.8.6 ‘NormalDist’ objects
.............................

*note NormalDist: dfc. is a tool for creating and manipulating normal
distributions of a random variable(1).  It is a class that treats the
mean and standard deviation of data measurements as a single entity.

Normal distributions arise from the Central Limit Theorem(2) and have a
wide range of applications in statistics.

 -- Κλάση: statistics.NormalDist (mu=0.0, sigma=1.0)

     Returns a new 'NormalDist' object where 'mu' represents the
     arithmetic mean(3) and 'sigma' represents the standard
     deviation(4).

     If 'sigma' is negative, raises *note StatisticsError: 2da7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: mean

          A read-only property for the arithmetic mean(5) of a normal
          distribution.

      -- Ιδιότητα: median

          A read-only property for the median(6) of a normal
          distribution.

      -- Ιδιότητα: mode

          A read-only property for the mode(7) of a normal distribution.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stdev

          A read-only property for the standard deviation(8) of a normal
          distribution.

      -- Ιδιότητα: variance

          A read-only property for the variance(9) of a normal
          distribution.  Equal to the square of the standard deviation.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod from_samples (data)

          Makes a normal distribution instance with 'mu' and 'sigma'
          parameters estimated from the 'data' using *note fmean(): df8.
          and *note stdev(): ac1.

          The 'data' can be any *note iterable: 15ce. and should consist
          of values that can be converted to type *note float: 327.  If
          'data' does not contain at least two elements, raises *note
          StatisticsError: 2da7. because it takes at least one point to
          estimate a central value and at least two points to estimate
          dispersion.

      -- Μέθοδος: samples (n, *, seed=None)

          Generates 'n' random samples for a given mean and standard
          deviation.  Returns a *note list: 4d9. of *note float: 327.
          values.

          If 'seed' is given, creates a new instance of the underlying
          random number generator.  This is useful for creating
          reproducible results, even in a multi-threading context.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13.

          Switched to a faster algorithm.  To reproduce samples from
          previous versions, use *note random.seed(): 1618. and *note
          random.gauss(): 1dd1.

      -- Μέθοδος: pdf (x)

          Using a probability density function (pdf)(10), compute the
          relative likelihood that a random variable 'X' will be near
          the given value 'x'.  Mathematically, it is the limit of the
          ratio ‘P(x <= X < x+dx) / dx’ as 'dx' approaches zero.

          The relative likelihood is computed as the probability of a
          sample occurring in a narrow range divided by the width of the
          range (hence the word «density»).  Since the likelihood is
          relative to other points, its value can be greater than ‘1.0’.

      -- Μέθοδος: cdf (x)

          Using a cumulative distribution function (cdf)(11), compute
          the probability that a random variable 'X' will be less than
          or equal to 'x'.  Mathematically, it is written ‘P(X <= x)’.

      -- Μέθοδος: inv_cdf (p)

          Compute the inverse cumulative distribution function, also
          known as the quantile function(12) or the percent-point(13)
          function.  Mathematically, it is written ‘x : P(X <= x) = p’.

          Finds the value 'x' of the random variable 'X' such that the
          probability of the variable being less than or equal to that
          value equals the given probability 'p'.

      -- Μέθοδος: overlap (other)

          Measures the agreement between two normal probability
          distributions.  Returns a value between 0.0 and 1.0 giving the
          overlapping area for the two probability density
          functions(14).

      -- Μέθοδος: quantiles (n=4)

          Divide the normal distribution into 'n' continuous intervals
          with equal probability.  Returns a list of (n - 1) cut points
          separating the intervals.

          Set 'n' to 4 for quartiles (the default).  Set 'n' to 10 for
          deciles.  Set 'n' to 100 for percentiles which gives the 99
          cuts points that separate the normal distribution into 100
          equal sized groups.

      -- Μέθοδος: zscore (x)

          Compute the Standard Score(15) describing 'x' in terms of the
          number of standard deviations above or below the mean of the
          normal distribution: ‘(x - mean) / stdev’.

          Added in version 3.9.

     Instances of ‘NormalDist’ support addition, subtraction,
     multiplication and division by a constant.  These operations are
     used for translation and scaling.  For example:

          >>> temperature_february = NormalDist(5, 2.5)             # Celsius
          >>> temperature_february * (9/5) + 32                     # Fahrenheit
          NormalDist(mu=41.0, sigma=4.5)

     Dividing a constant by an instance of ‘NormalDist’ is not supported
     because the result wouldn’t be normally distributed.

     Since normal distributions arise from additive effects of
     independent variables, it is possible to add and subtract two
     independent normally distributed random variables(16) represented
     as instances of ‘NormalDist’.  For example:

          >>> birth_weights = NormalDist.from_samples([2.5, 3.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.7, 3.5])
          >>> drug_effects = NormalDist(0.4, 0.15)
          >>> combined = birth_weights + drug_effects
          >>> round(combined.mean, 1)
          3.1
          >>> round(combined.stdev, 1)
          0.5

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.stat.yale.edu/Courses/1997-98/101/ranvar.htm

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_limit_theorem

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(statistics)

   (8) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation

   (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variance

   (10) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_density_function

   (11) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function

   (12) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantile_function

   (13) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20190203145224/https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencecentral.com/inverse-distribution-function/

   (14) https://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt101r.htm

   (15) 
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/z-score/

   (16) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum_of_normally_distributed_random_variables


File: python.info,  Node: Examples and Recipes,  Prev: NormalDist objects,  Up: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

5.10.8.7 Examples and Recipes
.............................

* Menu:

* Classic probability problems::
* Monte Carlo inputs for simulations::
* Approximating binomial distributions::
* Naive bayesian classifier::


File: python.info,  Node: Classic probability problems,  Next: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations,  Up: Examples and Recipes

5.10.8.8 Classic probability problems
.....................................

*note NormalDist: dfc. readily solves classic probability problems.

For example, given historical data for SAT exams(1) showing that scores
are normally distributed with a mean of 1060 and a standard deviation of
195, determine the percentage of students with test scores between 1100
and 1200, after rounding to the nearest whole number:

     >>> sat = NormalDist(1060, 195)
     >>> fraction = sat.cdf(1200 + 0.5) - sat.cdf(1100 - 0.5)
     >>> round(fraction * 100.0, 1)
     18.4

Find the quartiles(2) and deciles(3) for the SAT scores:

     >>> list(map(round, sat.quantiles()))
     [928, 1060, 1192]
     >>> list(map(round, sat.quantiles(n=10)))
     [810, 896, 958, 1011, 1060, 1109, 1162, 1224, 1310]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d17/tables/dt17_226.40.asp

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartile

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decile


File: python.info,  Node: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations,  Next: Approximating binomial distributions,  Prev: Classic probability problems,  Up: Examples and Recipes

5.10.8.9 Monte Carlo inputs for simulations
...........................................

To estimate the distribution for a model that isn’t easy to solve
analytically, *note NormalDist: dfc. can generate input samples for a
Monte Carlo simulation(1):

     >>> def model(x, y, z):
     ...     return (3*x + 7*x*y - 5*y) / (11 * z)
     ...
     >>> n = 100_000
     >>> X = NormalDist(10, 2.5).samples(n, seed=3652260728)
     >>> Y = NormalDist(15, 1.75).samples(n, seed=4582495471)
     >>> Z = NormalDist(50, 1.25).samples(n, seed=6582483453)
     >>> quantiles(map(model, X, Y, Z))
     [1.4591308524824727, 1.8035946855390597, 2.175091447274739]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method


File: python.info,  Node: Approximating binomial distributions,  Next: Naive bayesian classifier,  Prev: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations,  Up: Examples and Recipes

5.10.8.10 Approximating binomial distributions
..............................................

Normal distributions can be used to approximate Binomial
distributions(1) when the sample size is large and when the probability
of a successful trial is near 50%.

For example, an open source conference has 750 attendees and two rooms
with a 500 person capacity.  There is a talk about Python and another
about Ruby.  In previous conferences, 65% of the attendees preferred to
listen to Python talks.  Assuming the population preferences haven’t
changed, what is the probability that the Python room will stay within
its capacity limits?

     >>> n = 750             # Sample size
     >>> p = 0.65            # Preference for Python
     >>> q = 1.0 - p         # Preference for Ruby
     >>> k = 500             # Room capacity

     >>> # Approximation using the cumulative normal distribution
     >>> from math import sqrt
     >>> round(NormalDist(mu=n*p, sigma=sqrt(n*p*q)).cdf(k + 0.5), 4)
     0.8402

     >>> # Exact solution using the cumulative binomial distribution
     >>> from math import comb, fsum
     >>> round(fsum(comb(n, r) * p**r * q**(n-r) for r in range(k+1)), 4)
     0.8402

     >>> # Approximation using a simulation
     >>> from random import seed, binomialvariate
     >>> seed(8675309)
     >>> mean(binomialvariate(n, p) <= k for i in range(10_000))
     0.8406

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinomialDistribution.html


File: python.info,  Node: Naive bayesian classifier,  Prev: Approximating binomial distributions,  Up: Examples and Recipes

5.10.8.11 Naive bayesian classifier
...................................

Normal distributions commonly arise in machine learning problems.

Wikipedia has a nice example of a Naive Bayesian Classifier(1).  The
challenge is to predict a person’s gender from measurements of normally
distributed features including height, weight, and foot size.

We’re given a training dataset with measurements for eight people.  The
measurements are assumed to be normally distributed, so we summarize the
data with *note NormalDist: dfc.:

     >>> height_male = NormalDist.from_samples([6, 5.92, 5.58, 5.92])
     >>> height_female = NormalDist.from_samples([5, 5.5, 5.42, 5.75])
     >>> weight_male = NormalDist.from_samples([180, 190, 170, 165])
     >>> weight_female = NormalDist.from_samples([100, 150, 130, 150])
     >>> foot_size_male = NormalDist.from_samples([12, 11, 12, 10])
     >>> foot_size_female = NormalDist.from_samples([6, 8, 7, 9])

Next, we encounter a new person whose feature measurements are known but
whose gender is unknown:

     >>> ht = 6.0        # height
     >>> wt = 130        # weight
     >>> fs = 8          # foot size

Starting with a 50% prior probability(2) of being male or female, we
compute the posterior as the prior times the product of likelihoods for
the feature measurements given the gender:

     >>> prior_male = 0.5
     >>> prior_female = 0.5
     >>> posterior_male = (prior_male * height_male.pdf(ht) *
     ...                   weight_male.pdf(wt) * foot_size_male.pdf(fs))

     >>> posterior_female = (prior_female * height_female.pdf(ht) *
     ...                     weight_female.pdf(wt) * foot_size_female.pdf(fs))

The final prediction goes to the largest posterior.  This is known as
the maximum a posteriori(3) or MAP:

     >>> 'male' if posterior_male > posterior_female else 'female'
     'female'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naive_Bayes_classifier#Person_classification

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prior_probability

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_a_posteriori_estimation


File: python.info,  Node: Functional Programming Modules,  Next: File and Directory Access,  Prev: Αριθμητικά και Μαθηματικά Modules,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.11 Functional Programming Modules
===================================

The modules described in this chapter provide functions and classes that
support a functional programming style, and general operations on
callables.

The following modules are documented in this chapter:

* Menu:

* itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping::
* functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects::
* operator — Standard operators as functions::


File: python.info,  Node: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping,  Next: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects,  Up: Functional Programming Modules

5.11.1 ‘itertools’ — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements a number of *note iterator: 6ce. building blocks
inspired by constructs from APL, Haskell, and SML. Each has been recast
in a form suitable for Python.

The module standardizes a core set of fast, memory efficient tools that
are useful by themselves or in combination.  Together, they form an
«iterator algebra» making it possible to construct specialized tools
succinctly and efficiently in pure Python.

For instance, SML provides a tabulation tool: ‘tabulate(f)’ which
produces a sequence ‘f(0), f(1), ...’.  The same effect can be achieved
in Python by combining *note map(): 43e. and *note count(): 1628. to
form ‘map(f, count())’.

'General iterators:'

Iterator                         Arguments                        Results                                               Example
                                                                                                                        
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                        
*note accumulate(): dbf.         p [,func]                        p0, p0+p1, p0+p1+p2, …                                ‘accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note batched(): 715.            p, n                             (p0, p1, …, p_n-1), …                                 ‘batched('ABCDEFG', n=3) → ABC DEF G’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note chain(): 190.              p, q, …                          p0, p1, … plast, q0, q1, …                            ‘chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note chain.from_iterable(): 191.iterable                         p0, p1, … plast, q0, q1, …                            ‘chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note compress(): 1627.          data, selectors                  (d[0] if s[0]), (d[1] if s[1]), …                     ‘compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note count(): 1628.             [start[, step]]                  start, start+step, start+2*step, …                    ‘count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note cycle(): 1a41.             p                                p0, p1, … plast, p0, p1, …                            ‘cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D ...’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note dropwhile(): 2dc0.         predicate, seq                   seq[n], seq[n+1], starting when predicate fails       ‘dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note filterfalse(): 27c7.       predicate, seq                   elements of seq where predicate(elem) fails           ‘filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note groupby(): 192a.           iterable[, key]                  sub-iterators grouped by value of key(v)              ‘groupby(['A','B','DEF'], len) → (1, A B) (3, DEF)’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note islice(): f09.             seq, [start,] stop [, step]      elements from seq[start:stop:step]                    ‘islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note pairwise(): bee.           iterable                         (p[0], p[1]), (p[1], p[2])                            ‘pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note repeat(): 1a81.            elem [,n]                        elem, elem, elem, … endlessly or up to n times        ‘repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note starmap(): 1490.           func, seq                        func(*seq[0]), func(*seq[1]), …                       ‘starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note takewhile(): 2dc1.         predicate, seq                   seq[0], seq[1], until predicate fails                 ‘takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note tee(): 2dc2.               it, n                            it1, it2, … itn splits one iterator into n            ‘tee('ABC', 2) → A B C, A B C’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
*note zip_longest(): 1643.       p, q, …                          (p[0], q[0]), (p[1], q[1]), …                         ‘zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-’
                                                                                                                        

'Combinatoric iterators:'

Iterator                                           Arguments                Results
                                                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                            
*note product(): 16b7.                             p, q, … [repeat=1]       cartesian product, equivalent to a nested for-loop
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note permutations(): 1961.                        p[, r]                   r-length tuples, all possible orderings, no repeated elements
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note combinations(): 16b6.                        p, r                     r-length tuples, in sorted order, no repeated elements
                                                                            
                                                                            
*note combinations_with_replacement(): 1626.       p, r                     r-length tuples, in sorted order, with repeated elements
                                                                            

Examples                                           Results
                                                   
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                   
‘product('ABCD', repeat=2)’                        ‘AA AB AC AD BA BB BC BD CA CB CC CD DA DB DC DD’
                                                   
                                                   
‘permutations('ABCD', 2)’                          ‘AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC’
                                                   
                                                   
‘combinations('ABCD', 2)’                          ‘AB AC AD BC BD CD’
                                                   
                                                   
‘combinations_with_replacement('ABCD', 2)’         ‘AA AB AC AD BB BC BD CC CD DD’
                                                   

* Menu:

* Itertool Functions::
* Itertools Recipes::


File: python.info,  Node: Itertool Functions,  Next: Itertools Recipes,  Up: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

5.11.1.1 Itertool Functions
...........................

The following functions all construct and return iterators.  Some
provide streams of infinite length, so they should only be accessed by
functions or loops that truncate the stream.

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.accumulate (iterable[, function, *,
          initial=None])

     Make an iterator that returns accumulated sums or accumulated
     results from other binary functions.

     The 'function' defaults to addition.  The 'function' should accept
     two arguments, an accumulated total and a value from the
     'iterable'.

     If an 'initial' value is provided, the accumulation will start with
     that value and the output will have one more element than the input
     iterable.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def accumulate(iterable, function=operator.add, *, initial=None):
              'Return running totals'
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5]) → 1 3 6 10 15
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], initial=100) → 100 101 103 106 110 115
              # accumulate([1,2,3,4,5], operator.mul) → 1 2 6 24 120

              iterator = iter(iterable)
              total = initial
              if initial is None:
                  try:
                      total = next(iterator)
                  except StopIteration:
                      return

              yield total
              for element in iterator:
                  total = function(total, element)
                  yield total

     To compute a running minimum, set 'function' to *note min(): 12b9.
     For a running maximum, set 'function' to *note max(): 12ba.  Or for
     a running product, set 'function' to *note operator.mul(): 2dc5.
     To build an amortization table(1), accumulate the interest and
     apply payments:

          >>> data = [3, 4, 6, 2, 1, 9, 0, 7, 5, 8]
          >>> list(accumulate(data, max))              # running maximum
          [3, 4, 6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9]
          >>> list(accumulate(data, operator.mul))     # running product
          [3, 12, 72, 144, 144, 1296, 0, 0, 0, 0]

          # Amortize a 5% loan of 1000 with 10 annual payments of 90
          >>> update = lambda balance, payment: round(balance * 1.05) - payment
          >>> list(accumulate(repeat(90, 10), update, initial=1_000))
          [1000, 960, 918, 874, 828, 779, 728, 674, 618, 559, 497]

     See *note functools.reduce(): 153. for a similar function that
     returns only the final accumulated value.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the optional 'function' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the optional 'initial' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.batched (iterable, n, *, strict=False)

     Batch data from the 'iterable' into tuples of length 'n'.  The last
     batch may be shorter than 'n'.

     If 'strict' is true, will raise a *note ValueError: 277. if the
     final batch is shorter than 'n'.

     Loops over the input iterable and accumulates data into tuples up
     to size 'n'.  The input is consumed lazily, just enough to fill a
     batch.  The result is yielded as soon as the batch is full or when
     the input iterable is exhausted:

          >>> flattened_data = ['roses', 'red', 'violets', 'blue', 'sugar', 'sweet']
          >>> unflattened = list(batched(flattened_data, 2))
          >>> unflattened
          [('roses', 'red'), ('violets', 'blue'), ('sugar', 'sweet')]

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def batched(iterable, n, *, strict=False):
              # batched('ABCDEFG', 3) → ABC DEF G
              if n < 1:
                  raise ValueError('n must be at least one')
              iterator = iter(iterable)
              while batch := tuple(islice(iterator, n)):
                  if strict and len(batch) != n:
                      raise ValueError('batched(): incomplete batch')
                  yield batch

     Added in version 3.12.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'strict' option.

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.chain (*iterables)

     Make an iterator that returns elements from the first iterable
     until it is exhausted, then proceeds to the next iterable, until
     all of the iterables are exhausted.  This combines multiple data
     sources into a single iterator.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def chain(*iterables):
              # chain('ABC', 'DEF') → A B C D E F
              for iterable in iterables:
                  yield from iterable

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod chain.from_iterable (iterable)

     Alternate constructor for *note chain(): 190.  Gets chained inputs
     from a single iterable argument that is evaluated lazily.  Roughly
     equivalent to:

          def from_iterable(iterables):
              # chain.from_iterable(['ABC', 'DEF']) → A B C D E F
              for iterable in iterables:
                  yield from iterable

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.combinations (iterable, r)

     Return 'r' length subsequences of elements from the input
     'iterable'.

     The output is a subsequence of *note product(): 16b7. keeping only
     entries that are subsequences of the 'iterable'.  The length of the
     output is given by *note math.comb(): abd. which computes ‘n! / r!
     / (n - r)!’ when ‘0 ≤ r ≤ n’ or zero when ‘r > n’.

     The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
     to the order of the input 'iterable'.  If the input 'iterable' is
     sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

     Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
     their value.  If the input elements are unique, there will be no
     repeated values within each combination.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def combinations(iterable, r):
              # combinations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BC BD CD
              # combinations(range(4), 3) → 012 013 023 123

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              if r > n:
                  return
              indices = list(range(r))

              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
              while True:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      if indices[i] != i + n - r:
                          break
                  else:
                      return
                  indices[i] += 1
                  for j in range(i+1, r):
                      indices[j] = indices[j-1] + 1
                  yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.combinations_with_replacement (iterable, r)

     Return 'r' length subsequences of elements from the input
     'iterable' allowing individual elements to be repeated more than
     once.

     The output is a subsequence of *note product(): 16b7. that keeps
     only entries that are subsequences (with possible repeated
     elements) of the 'iterable'.  The number of subsequence returned is
     ‘(n + r - 1)! / r! / (n - 1)!’ when ‘n > 0’.

     The combination tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
     to the order of the input 'iterable'.  if the input 'iterable' is
     sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

     Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
     their value.  If the input elements are unique, the generated
     combinations will also be unique.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r):
              # combinations_with_replacement('ABC', 2) → AA AB AC BB BC CC

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              if not n and r:
                  return
              indices = [0] * r

              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)
              while True:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      if indices[i] != n - 1:
                          break
                  else:
                      return
                  indices[i:] = [indices[i] + 1] * (r - i)
                  yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices)

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.compress (data, selectors)

     Make an iterator that returns elements from 'data' where the
     corresponding element in 'selectors' is true.  Stops when either
     the 'data' or 'selectors' iterables have been exhausted.  Roughly
     equivalent to:

          def compress(data, selectors):
              # compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) → A C E F
              return (datum for datum, selector in zip(data, selectors) if selector)

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.count (start=0, step=1)

     Make an iterator that returns evenly spaced values beginning with
     'start'.  Can be used with *note map(): 43e. to generate
     consecutive data points or with *note zip(): 43f. to add sequence
     numbers.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def count(start=0, step=1):
              # count(10) → 10 11 12 13 14 ...
              # count(2.5, 0.5) → 2.5 3.0 3.5 ...
              n = start
              while True:
                  yield n
                  n += step

     When counting with floating-point numbers, better accuracy can
     sometimes be achieved by substituting multiplicative code such as:
     ‘(start + step * i for i in count())’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added 'step' argument and allowed
     non-integer arguments.

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.cycle (iterable)

     Make an iterator returning elements from the 'iterable' and saving
     a copy of each.  When the iterable is exhausted, return elements
     from the saved copy.  Repeats indefinitely.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def cycle(iterable):
              # cycle('ABCD') → A B C D A B C D A B C D ...

              saved = []
              for element in iterable:
                  yield element
                  saved.append(element)

              while saved:
                  for element in saved:
                      yield element

     This itertool may require significant auxiliary storage (depending
     on the length of the iterable).

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.dropwhile (predicate, iterable)

     Make an iterator that drops elements from the 'iterable' while the
     'predicate' is true and afterwards returns every element.  Roughly
     equivalent to:

          def dropwhile(predicate, iterable):
              # dropwhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 3 8

              iterator = iter(iterable)
              for x in iterator:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      yield x
                      break

              for x in iterator:
                  yield x

     Note this does not produce 'any' output until the predicate first
     becomes false, so this itertool may have a lengthy start-up time.

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.filterfalse (predicate, iterable)

     Make an iterator that filters elements from the 'iterable'
     returning only those for which the 'predicate' returns a false
     value.  If 'predicate' is ‘None’, returns the items that are false.
     Roughly equivalent to:

          def filterfalse(predicate, iterable):
              # filterfalse(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 6 8

              if predicate is None:
                  predicate = bool

              for x in iterable:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      yield x

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.groupby (iterable, key=None)

     Make an iterator that returns consecutive keys and groups from the
     'iterable'.  The 'key' is a function computing a key value for each
     element.  If not specified or is ‘None’, 'key' defaults to an
     identity function and returns the element unchanged.  Generally,
     the iterable needs to already be sorted on the same key function.

     The operation of ‘groupby()’ is similar to the ‘uniq’ filter in
     Unix.  It generates a break or new group every time the value of
     the key function changes (which is why it is usually necessary to
     have sorted the data using the same key function).  That behavior
     differs from SQL’s GROUP BY which aggregates common elements
     regardless of their input order.

     The returned group is itself an iterator that shares the underlying
     iterable with ‘groupby()’.  Because the source is shared, when the
     ‘groupby()’ object is advanced, the previous group is no longer
     visible.  So, if that data is needed later, it should be stored as
     a list:

          groups = []
          uniquekeys = []
          data = sorted(data, key=keyfunc)
          for k, g in groupby(data, keyfunc):
              groups.append(list(g))      # Store group iterator as a list
              uniquekeys.append(k)

     ‘groupby()’ is roughly equivalent to:

          def groupby(iterable, key=None):
              # [k for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCDAABBB')] → A B C D A B
              # [list(g) for k, g in groupby('AAAABBBCCD')] → AAAA BBB CC D

              keyfunc = (lambda x: x) if key is None else key
              iterator = iter(iterable)
              exhausted = False

              def _grouper(target_key):
                  nonlocal curr_value, curr_key, exhausted
                  yield curr_value
                  for curr_value in iterator:
                      curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)
                      if curr_key != target_key:
                          return
                      yield curr_value
                  exhausted = True

              try:
                  curr_value = next(iterator)
              except StopIteration:
                  return
              curr_key = keyfunc(curr_value)

              while not exhausted:
                  target_key = curr_key
                  curr_group = _grouper(target_key)
                  yield curr_key, curr_group
                  if curr_key == target_key:
                      for _ in curr_group:
                          pass

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.islice (iterable, stop)

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.islice (iterable, start, stop[, step])

     Make an iterator that returns selected elements from the iterable.
     Works like sequence slicing but does not support negative values
     for 'start', 'stop', or 'step'.

     If 'start' is zero or ‘None’, iteration starts at zero.  Otherwise,
     elements from the iterable are skipped until 'start' is reached.

     If 'stop' is ‘None’, iteration continues until the input is
     exhausted, if at all.  Otherwise, it stops at the specified
     position.

     If 'step' is ‘None’, the step defaults to one.  Elements are
     returned consecutively unless 'step' is set higher than one which
     results in items being skipped.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def islice(iterable, *args):
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2) → A B
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, 4) → C D
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 2, None) → C D E F G
              # islice('ABCDEFG', 0, None, 2) → A C E G

              s = slice(*args)
              start = 0 if s.start is None else s.start
              stop = s.stop
              step = 1 if s.step is None else s.step
              if start < 0 or (stop is not None and stop < 0) or step <= 0:
                  raise ValueError

              indices = count() if stop is None else range(max(start, stop))
              next_i = start
              for i, element in zip(indices, iterable):
                  if i == next_i:
                      yield element
                      next_i += step

     If the input is an iterator, then fully consuming the 'islice'
     advances the input iterator by ‘max(start, stop)’ steps regardless
     of the 'step' value.

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.pairwise (iterable)

     Return successive overlapping pairs taken from the input
     'iterable'.

     The number of 2-tuples in the output iterator will be one fewer
     than the number of inputs.  It will be empty if the input iterable
     has fewer than two values.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def pairwise(iterable):
              # pairwise('ABCDEFG') → AB BC CD DE EF FG

              iterator = iter(iterable)
              a = next(iterator, None)

              for b in iterator:
                  yield a, b
                  a = b

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.permutations (iterable, r=None)

     Return successive 'r' length permutations of elements(2) from the
     'iterable'.

     If 'r' is not specified or is ‘None’, then 'r' defaults to the
     length of the 'iterable' and all possible full-length permutations
     are generated.

     The output is a subsequence of *note product(): 16b7. where entries
     with repeated elements have been filtered out.  The length of the
     output is given by *note math.perm(): abe. which computes ‘n! / (n
     - r)!’ when ‘0 ≤ r ≤ n’ or zero when ‘r > n’.

     The permutation tuples are emitted in lexicographic order according
     to the order of the input 'iterable'.  If the input 'iterable' is
     sorted, the output tuples will be produced in sorted order.

     Elements are treated as unique based on their position, not on
     their value.  If the input elements are unique, there will be no
     repeated values within a permutation.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def permutations(iterable, r=None):
              # permutations('ABCD', 2) → AB AC AD BA BC BD CA CB CD DA DB DC
              # permutations(range(3)) → 012 021 102 120 201 210

              pool = tuple(iterable)
              n = len(pool)
              r = n if r is None else r
              if r > n:
                  return

              indices = list(range(n))
              cycles = list(range(n, n-r, -1))
              yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])

              while n:
                  for i in reversed(range(r)):
                      cycles[i] -= 1
                      if cycles[i] == 0:
                          indices[i:] = indices[i+1:] + indices[i:i+1]
                          cycles[i] = n - i
                      else:
                          j = cycles[i]
                          indices[i], indices[-j] = indices[-j], indices[i]
                          yield tuple(pool[i] for i in indices[:r])
                          break
                  else:
                      return

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.product (*iterables, repeat=1)

     Cartesian product(3) of the input iterables.

     Roughly equivalent to nested for-loops in a generator expression.
     For example, ‘product(A, B)’ returns the same as ‘((x,y) for x in A
     for y in B)’.

     The nested loops cycle like an odometer with the rightmost element
     advancing on every iteration.  This pattern creates a lexicographic
     ordering so that if the input’s iterables are sorted, the product
     tuples are emitted in sorted order.

     To compute the product of an iterable with itself, specify the
     number of repetitions with the optional 'repeat' keyword argument.
     For example, ‘product(A, repeat=4)’ means the same as ‘product(A,
     A, A, A)’.

     This function is roughly equivalent to the following code, except
     that the actual implementation does not build up intermediate
     results in memory:

          def product(*iterables, repeat=1):
              # product('ABCD', 'xy') → Ax Ay Bx By Cx Cy Dx Dy
              # product(range(2), repeat=3) → 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

              if repeat < 0:
                  raise ValueError('repeat argument cannot be negative')
              pools = [tuple(pool) for pool in iterables] * repeat

              result = [[]]
              for pool in pools:
                  result = [x+[y] for x in result for y in pool]

              for prod in result:
                  yield tuple(prod)

     Before ‘product()’ runs, it completely consumes the input
     iterables, keeping pools of values in memory to generate the
     products.  Accordingly, it is only useful with finite inputs.

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.repeat (object[, times])

     Make an iterator that returns 'object' over and over again.  Runs
     indefinitely unless the 'times' argument is specified.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def repeat(object, times=None):
              # repeat(10, 3) → 10 10 10
              if times is None:
                  while True:
                      yield object
              else:
                  for i in range(times):
                      yield object

     A common use for 'repeat' is to supply a stream of constant values
     to 'map' or 'zip':

          >>> list(map(pow, range(10), repeat(2)))
          [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.starmap (function, iterable)

     Make an iterator that computes the 'function' using arguments
     obtained from the 'iterable'.  Used instead of *note map(): 43e.
     when argument parameters have already been «pre-zipped» into
     tuples.

     The difference between *note map(): 43e. and ‘starmap()’ parallels
     the distinction between ‘function(a,b)’ and ‘function(*c)’.
     Roughly equivalent to:

          def starmap(function, iterable):
              # starmap(pow, [(2,5), (3,2), (10,3)]) → 32 9 1000
              for args in iterable:
                  yield function(*args)

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.takewhile (predicate, iterable)

     Make an iterator that returns elements from the 'iterable' as long
     as the 'predicate' is true.  Roughly equivalent to:

          def takewhile(predicate, iterable):
              # takewhile(lambda x: x<5, [1,4,6,3,8]) → 1 4
              for x in iterable:
                  if not predicate(x):
                      break
                  yield x

     Note, the element that first fails the predicate condition is
     consumed from the input iterator and there is no way to access it.
     This could be an issue if an application wants to further consume
     the input iterator after 'takewhile' has been run to exhaustion.
     To work around this problem, consider using more-itertools
     before_and_after()(4) instead.

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.tee (iterable, n=2)

     Return 'n' independent iterators from a single iterable.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def tee(iterable, n=2):
              if n < 0:
                  raise ValueError
              if n == 0:
                  return ()
              iterator = _tee(iterable)
              result = [iterator]
              for _ in range(n - 1):
                  result.append(_tee(iterator))
              return tuple(result)

          class _tee:

              def __init__(self, iterable):
                  it = iter(iterable)
                  if isinstance(it, _tee):
                      self.iterator = it.iterator
                      self.link = it.link
                  else:
                      self.iterator = it
                      self.link = [None, None]

              def __iter__(self):
                  return self

              def __next__(self):
                  link = self.link
                  if link[1] is None:
                      link[0] = next(self.iterator)
                      link[1] = [None, None]
                  value, self.link = link
                  return value

     When the input 'iterable' is already a tee iterator object, all
     members of the return tuple are constructed as if they had been
     produced by the upstream ‘tee()’ call.  This «flattening step»
     allows nested ‘tee()’ calls to share the same underlying data chain
     and to have a single update step rather than a chain of calls.

     The flattening property makes tee iterators efficiently peekable:

          def lookahead(tee_iterator):
               "Return the next value without moving the input forward"
               [forked_iterator] = tee(tee_iterator, 1)
               return next(forked_iterator)

          >>> iterator = iter('abcdef')
          >>> [iterator] = tee(iterator, 1)   # Make the input peekable
          >>> next(iterator)                  # Move the iterator forward
          'a'
          >>> lookahead(iterator)             # Check next value
          'b'
          >>> next(iterator)                  # Continue moving forward
          'b'

     ‘tee’ iterators are not threadsafe.  A *note RuntimeError: 30d. may
     be raised when simultaneously using iterators returned by the same
     ‘tee()’ call, even if the original 'iterable' is threadsafe.

     This itertool may require significant auxiliary storage (depending
     on how much temporary data needs to be stored).  In general, if one
     iterator uses most or all of the data before another iterator
     starts, it is faster to use *note list(): 4d9. instead of ‘tee()’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: itertools.zip_longest (*iterables, fillvalue=None)

     Make an iterator that aggregates elements from each of the
     'iterables'.

     If the iterables are of uneven length, missing values are filled-in
     with 'fillvalue'.  If not specified, 'fillvalue' defaults to
     ‘None’.

     Iteration continues until the longest iterable is exhausted.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          def zip_longest(*iterables, fillvalue=None):
              # zip_longest('ABCD', 'xy', fillvalue='-') → Ax By C- D-

              iterators = list(map(iter, iterables))
              num_active = len(iterators)
              if not num_active:
                  return

              while True:
                  values = []
                  for i, iterator in enumerate(iterators):
                      try:
                          value = next(iterator)
                      except StopIteration:
                          num_active -= 1
                          if not num_active:
                              return
                          iterators[i] = repeat(fillvalue)
                          value = fillvalue
                      values.append(value)
                  yield tuple(values)

     If one of the iterables is potentially infinite, then the
     ‘zip_longest()’ function should be wrapped with something that
     limits the number of calls (for example *note islice(): f09. or
     *note takewhile(): 2dc1.).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.ramseysolutions.com/real-estate/amortization-schedule

   (2) https://www.britannica.com/science/permutation

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_product

   (4) 
https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.before_and_after


File: python.info,  Node: Itertools Recipes,  Prev: Itertool Functions,  Up: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

5.11.1.2 Itertools Recipes
..........................

This section shows recipes for creating an extended toolset using the
existing itertools as building blocks.

The primary purpose of the itertools recipes is educational.  The
recipes show various ways of thinking about individual tools — for
example, that ‘chain.from_iterable’ is related to the concept of
flattening.  The recipes also give ideas about ways that the tools can
be combined — for example, how ‘starmap()’ and ‘repeat()’ can work
together.  The recipes also show patterns for using itertools with the
*note operator: a3. and *note collections: 1e. modules as well as with
the built-in itertools such as ‘map()’, ‘filter()’, ‘reversed()’, and
‘enumerate()’.

A secondary purpose of the recipes is to serve as an incubator.  The
‘accumulate()’, ‘compress()’, and ‘pairwise()’ itertools started out as
recipes.  Currently, the ‘sliding_window()’, ‘derangements()’, and
‘sieve()’ recipes are being tested to see whether they prove their
worth.

Substantially all of these recipes and many, many others can be
installed from the more-itertools(1) project found on the Python Package
Index:

     python -m pip install more-itertools

Many of the recipes offer the same high performance as the underlying
toolset.  Superior memory performance is kept by processing elements one
at a time rather than bringing the whole iterable into memory all at
once.  Code volume is kept small by linking the tools together in a
functional style(2).  High speed is retained by preferring «vectorized»
building blocks over the use of for-loops and *note generators: 1409.
which incur interpreter overhead.

     from itertools import (accumulate, batched, chain, combinations, compress,
          count, cycle, filterfalse, groupby, islice, permutations, product,
          repeat, starmap, tee, zip_longest)
     from collections import Counter, deque
     from contextlib import suppress
     from functools import reduce
     from heapq import heappush, heappushpop, heappush_max, heappushpop_max
     from math import comb, isqrt, prod, sumprod
     from operator import getitem, is_not, itemgetter, mul, neg, truediv


     # ==== Basic one liners ====

     def take(n, iterable):
         "Return first n items of the iterable as a list."
         return list(islice(iterable, n))

     def prepend(value, iterable):
         "Prepend a single value in front of an iterable."
         # prepend(1, [2, 3, 4]) → 1 2 3 4
         return chain([value], iterable)

     def repeatfunc(function, times=None, *args):
         "Repeat calls to a function with specified arguments."
         if times is None:
             return starmap(function, repeat(args))
         return starmap(function, repeat(args, times))

     def flatten(list_of_lists):
         "Flatten one level of nesting."
         return chain.from_iterable(list_of_lists)

     def ncycles(iterable, n):
         "Returns the sequence elements n times."
         return chain.from_iterable(repeat(tuple(iterable), n))

     def loops(n):
         "Loop n times. Like range(n) but without creating integers."
         # for _ in loops(100): ...
         return repeat(None, n)

     def tail(n, iterable):
         "Return an iterator over the last n items."
         # tail(3, 'ABCDEFG') → E F G
         return iter(deque(iterable, maxlen=n))

     def consume(iterator, n=None):
         "Advance the iterator n-steps ahead. If n is None, consume entirely."
         # Use functions that consume iterators at C speed.
         if n is None:
             deque(iterator, maxlen=0)
         else:
             next(islice(iterator, n, n), None)

     def nth(iterable, n, default=None):
         "Returns the nth item or a default value."
         return next(islice(iterable, n, None), default)

     def quantify(iterable, predicate=bool):
         "Given a predicate that returns True or False, count the True results."
         return sum(map(predicate, iterable))

     def first_true(iterable, default=False, predicate=None):
         "Returns the first true value or the *default* if there is no true value."
         # first_true([a, b, c], x) → a or b or c or x
         # first_true([a, b], x, f) → a if f(a) else b if f(b) else x
         return next(filter(predicate, iterable), default)

     def all_equal(iterable, key=None):
         "Returns True if all the elements are equal to each other."
         # all_equal('4٤௪౪໔', key=int) → True
         return len(take(2, groupby(iterable, key))) <= 1


     # ==== Data pipelines ====

     def unique_justseen(iterable, key=None):
         "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember only the element just seen."
         # unique_justseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D A B
         # unique_justseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c A D
         if key is None:
             return map(itemgetter(0), groupby(iterable))
         return map(next, map(itemgetter(1), groupby(iterable, key)))

     def unique_everseen(iterable, key=None):
         "Yield unique elements, preserving order. Remember all elements ever seen."
         # unique_everseen('AAAABBBCCDAABBB') → A B C D
         # unique_everseen('ABBcCAD', str.casefold) → A B c D
         seen = set()
         if key is None:
             for element in filterfalse(seen.__contains__, iterable):
                 seen.add(element)
                 yield element
         else:
             for element in iterable:
                 k = key(element)
                 if k not in seen:
                     seen.add(k)
                     yield element

     def unique(iterable, key=None, reverse=False):
         "Yield unique elements in sorted order. Supports unhashable inputs."
         # unique([[1, 2], [3, 4], [1, 2]]) → [1, 2] [3, 4]
         sequenced = sorted(iterable, key=key, reverse=reverse)
         return unique_justseen(sequenced, key=key)

     def sliding_window(iterable, n):
         "Collect data into overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
         # sliding_window('ABCDEFG', 3) → ABC BCD CDE DEF EFG
         iterator = iter(iterable)
         window = deque(islice(iterator, n - 1), maxlen=n)
         for x in iterator:
             window.append(x)
             yield tuple(window)

     def grouper(iterable, n, *, incomplete='fill', fillvalue=None):
         "Collect data into non-overlapping fixed-length chunks or blocks."
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, fillvalue='x')       → ABC DEF Gxx
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='strict') → ABC DEF ValueError
         # grouper('ABCDEFG', 3, incomplete='ignore') → ABC DEF
         iterators = [iter(iterable)] * n
         match incomplete:
             case 'fill':
                 return zip_longest(*iterators, fillvalue=fillvalue)
             case 'strict':
                 return zip(*iterators, strict=True)
             case 'ignore':
                 return zip(*iterators)
             case _:
                 raise ValueError('Expected fill, strict, or ignore')

     def roundrobin(*iterables):
         "Visit input iterables in a cycle until each is exhausted."
         # roundrobin('ABC', 'D', 'EF') → A D E B F C
         # Algorithm credited to George Sakkis
         iterators = map(iter, iterables)
         for num_active in range(len(iterables), 0, -1):
             iterators = cycle(islice(iterators, num_active))
             yield from map(next, iterators)

     def subslices(seq):
         "Return all contiguous non-empty subslices of a sequence."
         # subslices('ABCD') → A AB ABC ABCD B BC BCD C CD D
         slices = starmap(slice, combinations(range(len(seq) + 1), 2))
         return map(getitem, repeat(seq), slices)

     def derangements(iterable, r=None):
         "Produce r length permutations without fixed points."
         # derangements('ABCD') → BADC BCDA BDAC CADB CDAB CDBA DABC DCAB DCBA
         # Algorithm credited to Stefan Pochmann
         seq = tuple(iterable)
         pos = tuple(range(len(seq)))
         have_moved = map(map, repeat(is_not), repeat(pos), permutations(pos, r=r))
         valid_derangements = map(all, have_moved)
         return compress(permutations(seq, r=r), valid_derangements)

     def iter_index(iterable, value, start=0, stop=None):
         "Return indices where a value occurs in a sequence or iterable."
         # iter_index('AABCADEAF', 'A') → 0 1 4 7
         seq_index = getattr(iterable, 'index', None)
         if seq_index is None:
             iterator = islice(iterable, start, stop)
             for i, element in enumerate(iterator, start):
                 if element is value or element == value:
                     yield i
         else:
             stop = len(iterable) if stop is None else stop
             i = start
             with suppress(ValueError):
                 while True:
                     yield (i := seq_index(value, i, stop))
                     i += 1

     def iter_except(function, exception, first=None):
         "Convert a call-until-exception interface to an iterator interface."
         # iter_except(d.popitem, KeyError) → non-blocking dictionary iterator
         with suppress(exception):
             if first is not None:
                 yield first()
             while True:
                 yield function()


     # ==== Mathematical operations ====

     def multinomial(*counts):
         "Number of distinct arrangements of a multiset."
         # Counter('abracadabra').values() → 5 2 2 1 1
         # multinomial(5, 2, 2, 1, 1) → 83160
         return prod(map(comb, accumulate(counts), counts))

     def powerset(iterable):
         "Subsequences of the iterable from shortest to longest."
         # powerset([1,2,3]) → () (1,) (2,) (3,) (1,2) (1,3) (2,3) (1,2,3)
         s = list(iterable)
         return chain.from_iterable(combinations(s, r) for r in range(len(s)+1))

     def sum_of_squares(iterable):
         "Add up the squares of the input values."
         # sum_of_squares([10, 20, 30]) → 1400
         return sumprod(*tee(iterable))


     # ==== Matrix operations ====

     def reshape(matrix, columns):
         "Reshape a 2-D matrix to have a given number of columns."
         # reshape([(0, 1), (2, 3), (4, 5)], 3) →  (0, 1, 2) (3, 4, 5)
         return batched(chain.from_iterable(matrix), columns, strict=True)

     def transpose(matrix):
         "Swap the rows and columns of a 2-D matrix."
         # transpose([(1, 2, 3), (11, 22, 33)]) → (1, 11) (2, 22) (3, 33)
         return zip(*matrix, strict=True)

     def matmul(m1, m2):
         "Multiply two matrices."
         # matmul([(7, 5), (3, 5)], [(2, 5), (7, 9)]) → (49, 80) (41, 60)
         n = len(m2[0])
         return batched(starmap(sumprod, product(m1, transpose(m2))), n)


     # ==== Polynomial arithmetic ====

     def convolve(signal, kernel):
         """Discrete linear convolution of two iterables.
         Equivalent to polynomial multiplication.

         Convolutions are mathematically commutative; however, the inputs are
         evaluated differently.  The signal is consumed lazily and can be
         infinite. The kernel is fully consumed before the calculations begin.

         Article:  https://betterexplained.com/articles/intuitive-convolution/
         Video:    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KuXjwB4LzSA
         """
         # convolve([1, -1, -20], [1, -3]) → 1 -4 -17 60
         # convolve(data, [0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25]) → Moving average (blur)
         # convolve(data, [1/2, 0, -1/2]) → 1st derivative estimate
         # convolve(data, [1, -2, 1]) → 2nd derivative estimate
         kernel = tuple(kernel)[::-1]
         n = len(kernel)
         padded_signal = chain(repeat(0, n-1), signal, repeat(0, n-1))
         windowed_signal = sliding_window(padded_signal, n)
         return map(sumprod, repeat(kernel), windowed_signal)

     def polynomial_from_roots(roots):
         """Compute a polynomial's coefficients from its roots.

            (x - 5) (x + 4) (x - 3)  expands to:   x³ -4x² -17x + 60
         """
         # polynomial_from_roots([5, -4, 3]) → [1, -4, -17, 60]
         factors = zip(repeat(1), map(neg, roots))
         return list(reduce(convolve, factors, [1]))

     def polynomial_eval(coefficients, x):
         """Evaluate a polynomial at a specific value.

         Computes with better numeric stability than Horner's method.
         """
         # Evaluate x³ -4x² -17x + 60 at x = 5
         # polynomial_eval([1, -4, -17, 60], x=5) → 0
         n = len(coefficients)
         if not n:
             return type(x)(0)
         powers = map(pow, repeat(x), reversed(range(n)))
         return sumprod(coefficients, powers)

     def polynomial_derivative(coefficients):
         """Compute the first derivative of a polynomial.

            f(x)  =  x³ -4x² -17x + 60
            f'(x) = 3x² -8x  -17
         """
         # polynomial_derivative([1, -4, -17, 60]) → [3, -8, -17]
         n = len(coefficients)
         powers = reversed(range(1, n))
         return list(map(mul, coefficients, powers))


     # ==== Number theory ====

     def sieve(n):
         "Primes less than n."
         # sieve(30) → 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29
         if n > 2:
             yield 2
         data = bytearray((0, 1)) * (n // 2)
         for p in iter_index(data, 1, start=3, stop=isqrt(n) + 1):
             data[p*p : n : p+p] = bytes(len(range(p*p, n, p+p)))
         yield from iter_index(data, 1, start=3)

     def factor(n):
         "Prime factors of n."
         # factor(99) → 3 3 11
         # factor(1_000_000_000_000_007) → 47 59 360620266859
         # factor(1_000_000_000_000_403) → 1000000000000403
         for prime in sieve(isqrt(n) + 1):
             while not n % prime:
                 yield prime
                 n //= prime
                 if n == 1:
                     return
         if n > 1:
             yield n

     def is_prime(n):
         "Return True if n is prime."
         # is_prime(1_000_000_000_000_403) → True
         return n > 1 and next(factor(n)) == n

     def totient(n):
         "Count of natural numbers up to n that are coprime to n."
         # https://mathworld.wolfram.com/TotientFunction.html
         # totient(12) → 4 because len([1, 5, 7, 11]) == 4
         for prime in set(factor(n)):
             n -= n // prime
         return n


     # ==== Running statistics ====

     def running_mean(iterable):
         "Average of values seen so far."
         # running_mean([37, 33, 38, 28]) → 37 35 36 34
         return map(truediv, accumulate(iterable), count(1))

     def running_min(iterable):
         "Smallest of values seen so far."
         # running_min([37, 33, 38, 28]) → 37 33 33 28
         return accumulate(iterable, func=min)

     def running_max(iterable):
         "Largest of values seen so far."
         # running_max([37, 33, 38, 28]) → 37 37 38 38
         return accumulate(iterable, func=max)

     def running_median(iterable):
         "Median of values seen so far."
         # running_median([37, 33, 38, 28]) → 37 35 37 35
         read = iter(iterable).__next__
         lo = []  # max-heap
         hi = []  # min-heap the same size as or one smaller than lo
         with suppress(StopIteration):
             while True:
                 heappush_max(lo, heappushpop(hi, read()))
                 yield lo[0]
                 heappush(hi, heappushpop_max(lo, read()))
                 yield (lo[0] + hi[0]) / 2

     def running_statistics(iterable):
         "Aggregate statistics for values seen so far."
         # Generate tuples:  (size, minimum, median, maximum, mean)
         t0, t1, t2, t3 = tee(iterable, 4)
         return zip(
             count(1),
             running_min(t0),
             running_median(t1),
             running_max(t2),
             running_mean(t3),
         )

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/more-itertools/

   (2) https://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/people/staff/dat/miranda/whyfp90.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects,  Next: operator — Standard operators as functions,  Prev: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping,  Up: Functional Programming Modules

5.11.2 ‘functools’ — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/functools.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘functools’ module is for higher-order functions: functions that act
on or return other functions.  In general, any callable object can be
treated as a function for the purposes of this module.

The ‘functools’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: @functools.cache (user_function)

     Simple lightweight unbounded function cache.  Sometimes called
     "memoize"(2).

     Returns the same as ‘lru_cache(maxsize=None)’, creating a thin
     wrapper around a dictionary lookup for the function arguments.
     Because it never needs to evict old values, this is smaller and
     faster than *note lru_cache(): db3. with a size limit.

     For example:

          @cache
          def factorial(n):
              return n * factorial(n-1) if n else 1

          >>> factorial(10)   # no previously cached result, makes 11 recursive calls
          3628800
          >>> factorial(5)    # no new calls, just returns the cached result
          120
          >>> factorial(12)   # two new recursive calls, factorial(10) is cached
          479001600

     The cache is threadsafe so that the wrapped function can be used in
     multiple threads.  This means that the underlying data structure
     will remain coherent during concurrent updates.

     It is possible for the wrapped function to be called more than once
     if another thread makes an additional call before the initial call
     has been completed and cached.

     Call-once behavior is not guaranteed because locks are not held
     during the function call.  Potentially another call with the same
     arguments could occur while the first call is still running.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @functools.cached_property (func)

     Transform a method of a class into a property whose value is
     computed once and then cached as a normal attribute for the life of
     the instance.  Similar to *note property(): 6bb, with the addition
     of caching.  Useful for expensive computed properties of instances
     that are otherwise effectively immutable.

     Example:

          class DataSet:

              def __init__(self, sequence_of_numbers):
                  self._data = tuple(sequence_of_numbers)

              @cached_property
              def stdev(self):
                  return statistics.stdev(self._data)

     The mechanics of ‘cached_property()’ are somewhat different from
     *note property(): 6bb.  A regular property blocks attribute writes
     unless a setter is defined.  In contrast, a 'cached_property'
     allows writes.

     The 'cached_property' decorator only runs on lookups and only when
     an attribute of the same name doesn’t exist.  When it does run, the
     'cached_property' writes to the attribute with the same name.
     Subsequent attribute reads and writes take precedence over the
     'cached_property' method and it works like a normal attribute.

     The cached value can be cleared by deleting the attribute.  This
     allows the 'cached_property' method to run again.

     The 'cached_property' does not prevent a possible race condition in
     multi-threaded usage.  The getter function could run more than once
     on the same instance, with the latest run setting the cached value.
     If the cached property is idempotent or otherwise not harmful to
     run more than once on an instance, this is fine.  If
     synchronization is needed, implement the necessary locking inside
     the decorated getter function or around the cached property access.

     Note, this decorator interferes with the operation of PEP 412(3)
     key-sharing dictionaries.  This means that instance dictionaries
     can take more space than usual.

     Also, this decorator requires that the ‘__dict__’ attribute on each
     instance be a mutable mapping.  This means it will not work with
     some types, such as metaclasses (since the ‘__dict__’ attributes on
     type instances are read-only proxies for the class namespace), and
     those that specify ‘__slots__’ without including ‘__dict__’ as one
     of the defined slots (as such classes don’t provide a ‘__dict__’
     attribute at all).

     If a mutable mapping is not available or if space-efficient key
     sharing is desired, an effect similar to ‘cached_property()’ can
     also be achieved by stacking *note property(): 6bb. on top of *note
     lru_cache(): db3.  See *note Πώς μπορώ να αποθηκεύσω τις κλήσεις
     μεθόδου στην κρυφή μνήμη;: 2dca. for more details on how this
     differs from ‘cached_property()’.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Prior to Python 3.12, ‘cached_property’
     included an undocumented lock to ensure that in multi-threaded
     usage the getter function was guaranteed to run only once per
     instance.  However, the lock was per-property, not per-instance,
     which could result in unacceptably high lock contention.  In Python
     3.12+ this locking is removed.

 -- Συνάρτηση: functools.cmp_to_key (func)

     Transform an old-style comparison function to a *note key function:
     11ba.  Used with tools that accept key functions (such as *note
     sorted(): f8c, *note min(): 12b9, *note max(): 12ba, *note
     heapq.nlargest(): 2bb8, *note heapq.nsmallest(): 2bb9, *note
     itertools.groupby(): 192a.).  This function is primarily used as a
     transition tool for programs being converted from Python 2 which
     supported the use of comparison functions.

     A comparison function is any callable that accepts two arguments,
     compares them, and returns a negative number for less-than, zero
     for equality, or a positive number for greater-than.  A key
     function is a callable that accepts one argument and returns
     another value to be used as the sort key.

     Example:

          sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll))  # locale-aware sort order

     For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see *note
     Sorting Techniques: 27d9.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @functools.lru_cache (user_function)

 -- Συνάρτηση: @functools.lru_cache (maxsize=128, typed=False)

     Decorator to wrap a function with a memoizing callable that saves
     up to the 'maxsize' most recent calls.  It can save time when an
     expensive or I/O bound function is periodically called with the
     same arguments.

     The cache is threadsafe so that the wrapped function can be used in
     multiple threads.  This means that the underlying data structure
     will remain coherent during concurrent updates.

     It is possible for the wrapped function to be called more than once
     if another thread makes an additional call before the initial call
     has been completed and cached.

     Since a dictionary is used to cache results, the positional and
     keyword arguments to the function must be *note hashable: 183.

     Distinct argument patterns may be considered to be distinct calls
     with separate cache entries.  For example, ‘f(a=1, b=2)’ and
     ‘f(b=2, a=1)’ differ in their keyword argument order and may have
     two separate cache entries.

     If 'user_function' is specified, it must be a callable.  This
     allows the 'lru_cache' decorator to be applied directly to a user
     function, leaving the 'maxsize' at its default value of 128:

          @lru_cache
          def count_vowels(word):
              return sum(word.count(vowel) for vowel in 'AEIOUaeiou')

     If 'maxsize' is set to ‘None’, the LRU feature is disabled and the
     cache can grow without bound.

     If 'typed' is set to true, function arguments of different types
     will be cached separately.  If 'typed' is false, the implementation
     will usually regard them as equivalent calls and only cache a
     single result.  (Some types such as 'str' and 'int' may be cached
     separately even when 'typed' is false.)

     Note, type specificity applies only to the function’s immediate
     arguments rather than their contents.  The scalar arguments,
     ‘Decimal(42)’ and ‘Fraction(42)’ are treated as distinct calls with
     distinct results.  In contrast, the tuple arguments ‘('answer',
     Decimal(42))’ and ‘('answer', Fraction(42))’ are treated as
     equivalent.

     The wrapped function is instrumented with a ‘cache_parameters()’
     function that returns a new *note dict: 188. showing the values for
     'maxsize' and 'typed'.  This is for information purposes only.
     Mutating the values has no effect.

     To help measure the effectiveness of the cache and tune the
     'maxsize' parameter, the wrapped function is instrumented with a
     ‘cache_info()’ function that returns a *note named tuple: a3d.
     showing 'hits', 'misses', 'maxsize' and 'currsize'.

     The decorator also provides a ‘cache_clear()’ function for clearing
     or invalidating the cache.

     The original underlying function is accessible through the
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.  This is useful for introspection, for
     bypassing the cache, or for rewrapping the function with a
     different cache.

     The cache keeps references to the arguments and return values until
     they age out of the cache or until the cache is cleared.

     If a method is cached, the ‘self’ instance argument is included in
     the cache.  See *note Πώς μπορώ να αποθηκεύσω τις κλήσεις μεθόδου
     στην κρυφή μνήμη;: 2dca.

     An LRU (least recently used) cache(4) works best when the most
     recent calls are the best predictors of upcoming calls (for
     example, the most popular articles on a news server tend to change
     each day).  The cache’s size limit assures that the cache does not
     grow without bound on long-running processes such as web servers.

     In general, the LRU cache should only be used when you want to
     reuse previously computed values.  Accordingly, it doesn’t make
     sense to cache functions with side-effects, functions that need to
     create distinct mutable objects on each call (such as generators
     and async functions), or impure functions such as time() or
     random().

     Example of an LRU cache for static web content:

          @lru_cache(maxsize=32)
          def get_pep(num):
              'Retrieve text of a Python Enhancement Proposal'
              resource = f'https://peps.python.org/pep-{num:04d}'
              try:
                  with urllib.request.urlopen(resource) as s:
                      return s.read()
              except urllib.error.HTTPError:
                  return 'Not Found'

          >>> for n in 8, 290, 308, 320, 8, 218, 320, 279, 289, 320, 9991:
          ...     pep = get_pep(n)
          ...     print(n, len(pep))

          >>> get_pep.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=3, misses=8, maxsize=32, currsize=8)

     Example of efficiently computing Fibonacci numbers(5) using a cache
     to implement a dynamic programming(6) technique:

          @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
          def fib(n):
              if n < 2:
                  return n
              return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)

          >>> [fib(n) for n in range(16)]
          [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610]

          >>> fib.cache_info()
          CacheInfo(hits=28, misses=16, maxsize=None, currsize=16)

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'typed' option.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the 'user_function' option.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added the function ‘cache_parameters()’

 -- Συνάρτηση: @functools.total_ordering

     Given a class defining one or more rich comparison ordering
     methods, this class decorator supplies the rest.  This simplifies
     the effort involved in specifying all of the possible rich
     comparison operations:

     The class must define one of *note __lt__(): 1645, *note __le__():
     16af, *note __gt__(): 16b0, or *note __ge__(): 16b1.  In addition,
     the class should supply an *note __eq__(): ec0. method.

     For example:

          @total_ordering
          class Student:
              def _is_valid_operand(self, other):
                  return (hasattr(other, "lastname") and
                          hasattr(other, "firstname"))
              def __eq__(self, other):
                  if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
                      return NotImplemented
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))
              def __lt__(self, other):
                  if not self._is_valid_operand(other):
                      return NotImplemented
                  return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
                          (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

          Σημείωση: While this decorator makes it easy to create well
          behaved totally ordered types, it 'does' come at the cost of
          slower execution and more complex stack traces for the derived
          comparison methods.  If performance benchmarking indicates
          this is a bottleneck for a given application, implementing all
          six rich comparison methods instead is likely to provide an
          easy speed boost.

          Σημείωση: This decorator makes no attempt to override methods
          that have been declared in the class 'or its superclasses'.
          Meaning that if a superclass defines a comparison operator,
          'total_ordering' will not implement it again, even if the
          original method is abstract.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Returning ‘NotImplemented’ from the
     underlying comparison function for unrecognised types is now
     supported.

 -- Δεδομένα: functools.Placeholder

     A singleton object used as a sentinel to reserve a place for
     positional arguments when calling *note partial(): 4a6. and *note
     partialmethod(): 4a7.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: functools.partial (func, /, *args, **keywords)

     Return a new *note partial object: 4a8. which when called will
     behave like 'func' called with the positional arguments 'args' and
     keyword arguments 'keywords'.  If more arguments are supplied to
     the call, they are appended to 'args'.  If additional keyword
     arguments are supplied, they extend and override 'keywords'.
     Roughly equivalent to:

          def partial(func, /, *args, **keywords):
              def newfunc(*more_args, **more_keywords):
                  return func(*args, *more_args, **(keywords | more_keywords))
              newfunc.func = func
              newfunc.args = args
              newfunc.keywords = keywords
              return newfunc

     The ‘partial()’ function is used for partial function application
     which «freezes» some portion of a function’s arguments and/or
     keywords resulting in a new object with a simplified signature.
     For example, ‘partial()’ can be used to create a callable that
     behaves like the *note int(): 326. function where the 'base'
     argument defaults to ‘2’:

          >>> basetwo = partial(int, base=2)
          >>> basetwo.__doc__ = 'Convert base 2 string to an int.'
          >>> basetwo('10010')
          18

     If *note Placeholder: 4a5. sentinels are present in 'args', they
     will be filled first when ‘partial()’ is called.  This makes it
     possible to pre-fill any positional argument with a call to
     ‘partial()’; without ‘Placeholder’, only the chosen number of
     leading positional arguments can be pre-filled.

     If any ‘Placeholder’ sentinels are present, all must be filled at
     call time:

          >>> say_to_world = partial(print, Placeholder, Placeholder, "world!")
          >>> say_to_world('Hello', 'dear')
          Hello dear world!

     Calling ‘say_to_world('Hello')’ raises a *note TypeError: 291,
     because only one positional argument is provided, but there are two
     placeholders that must be filled in.

     If ‘partial()’ is applied to an existing ‘partial()’ object,
     ‘Placeholder’ sentinels of the input object are filled in with new
     positional arguments.  A placeholder can be retained by inserting a
     new ‘Placeholder’ sentinel to the place held by a previous
     ‘Placeholder’:

          >>> from functools import partial, Placeholder as _
          >>> remove = partial(str.replace, _, _, '')
          >>> message = 'Hello, dear dear world!'
          >>> remove(message, ' dear')
          'Hello, world!'
          >>> remove_dear = partial(remove, _, ' dear')
          >>> remove_dear(message)
          'Hello, world!'
          >>> remove_first_dear = partial(remove_dear, _, 1)
          >>> remove_first_dear(message)
          'Hello, dear world!'

     ‘Placeholder’ cannot be passed to ‘partial()’ as a keyword
     argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added support for *note Placeholder: 4a5.
     in positional arguments.

 -- Κλάση: functools.partialmethod (func, /, *args, **keywords)

     Return a new ‘partialmethod’ descriptor which behaves like *note
     partial: 4a6. except that it is designed to be used as a method
     definition rather than being directly callable.

     'func' must be a *note descriptor: 21f. or a callable (objects
     which are both, like normal functions, are handled as descriptors).

     When 'func' is a descriptor (such as a normal Python function,
     *note classmethod(): 69a, *note staticmethod(): 666, *note
     abstractmethod(): 1433. or another instance of ‘partialmethod’),
     calls to ‘__get__’ are delegated to the underlying descriptor, and
     an appropriate *note partial object: 4a8. returned as the result.

     When 'func' is a non-descriptor callable, an appropriate bound
     method is created dynamically.  This behaves like a normal Python
     function when used as a method: the 'self' argument will be
     inserted as the first positional argument, even before the 'args'
     and 'keywords' supplied to the ‘partialmethod’ constructor.

     Example:

          >>> class Cell:
          ...     def __init__(self):
          ...         self._alive = False
          ...     @property
          ...     def alive(self):
          ...         return self._alive
          ...     def set_state(self, state):
          ...         self._alive = bool(state)
          ...     set_alive = partialmethod(set_state, True)
          ...     set_dead = partialmethod(set_state, False)
          ...
          >>> c = Cell()
          >>> c.alive
          False
          >>> c.set_alive()
          >>> c.alive
          True

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: functools.reduce (function, iterable, /[, initial])

     Apply 'function' of two arguments cumulatively to the items of
     'iterable', from left to right, so as to reduce the iterable to a
     single value.  For example, ‘reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, [1, 2, 3, 4,
     5])’ calculates ‘((((1+2)+3)+4)+5)’.  The left argument, 'x', is
     the accumulated value and the right argument, 'y', is the update
     value from the 'iterable'.  If the optional 'initial' is present,
     it is placed before the items of the iterable in the calculation,
     and serves as a default when the iterable is empty.  If 'initial'
     is not given and 'iterable' contains only one item, the first item
     is returned.

     Roughly equivalent to:

          initial_missing = sentinel('initial_missing')

          def reduce(function, iterable, /, initial=initial_missing):
              it = iter(iterable)
              if initial is initial_missing:
                  value = next(it)
              else:
                  value = initial
              for element in it:
                  value = function(value, element)
              return value

     See *note itertools.accumulate(): dbf. for an iterator that yields
     all intermediate values.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: 'initial' is now supported as a keyword
     argument.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @functools.singledispatch

     Transform a function into a *note single-dispatch: db5. *note
     generic function: db4.

     To define a generic function, decorate it with the
     ‘@singledispatch’ decorator.  When defining a function using
     ‘@singledispatch’, note that the dispatch happens on the type of
     the first argument:

          >>> from functools import singledispatch
          >>> @singledispatch
          ... def fun(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Let me just say,", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)

     To add overloaded implementations to the function, use the
     ‘register()’ attribute of the generic function, which can be used
     as a decorator.  For functions annotated with types, the decorator
     will infer the type of the first argument automatically:

          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: list, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)

     *note typing.Union: 341. can also be used:

          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: int | float, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg)
          ...
          >>> from typing import Union
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Union[list, set], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)
          ...

     For code which doesn’t use type annotations, the appropriate type
     argument can be passed explicitly to the decorator itself:

          >>> @fun.register(complex)
          ... def _(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Better than complicated.", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg.real, arg.imag)
          ...

     For code that dispatches on a collections type (e.g., ‘list’), but
     wants to typehint the items of the collection (e.g., ‘list[int]’),
     the dispatch type should be passed explicitly to the decorator
     itself with the typehint going into the function definition:

          >>> @fun.register(list)
          ... def _(arg: list[int], verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Enumerate this:")
          ...     for i, elem in enumerate(arg):
          ...         print(i, elem)

          Σημείωση: At runtime the function will dispatch on an instance
          of a list regardless of the type contained within the list
          i.e.  ‘[1,2,3]’ will be dispatched the same as ‘["foo", "bar",
          "baz"]’.  The annotation provided in this example is for
          static type checkers only and has no runtime impact.

     To enable registering *note lambdas: 2dce. and pre-existing
     functions, the *note register(): 2dcd. attribute can also be used
     in a functional form:

          >>> def nothing(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     print("Nothing.")
          ...
          >>> fun.register(type(None), nothing)

     The *note register(): 2dcd. attribute returns the undecorated
     function.  This enables decorator stacking, *note pickling: ab, and
     the creation of unit tests for each variant independently:

          >>> @fun.register(float)
          ... @fun.register(Decimal)
          ... def fun_num(arg, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Half of your number:", end=" ")
          ...     print(arg / 2)
          ...
          >>> fun_num is fun
          False

     When called, the generic function dispatches on the type of the
     first argument:

          >>> fun("Hello, world.")
          Hello, world.
          >>> fun("test.", verbose=True)
          Let me just say, test.
          >>> fun(42, verbose=True)
          Strength in numbers, eh? 42
          >>> fun(['spam', 'spam', 'eggs', 'spam'], verbose=True)
          Enumerate this:
          0 spam
          1 spam
          2 eggs
          3 spam
          >>> fun(None)
          Nothing.
          >>> fun(1.23)
          0.615

     Where there is no registered implementation for a specific type,
     its method resolution order is used to find a more generic
     implementation.  The original function decorated with
     ‘@singledispatch’ is registered for the base *note object: e4d.
     type, which means it is used if no better implementation is found.

     If an implementation is registered to an *note abstract base class:
     155f, virtual subclasses of the base class will be dispatched to
     that implementation:

          >>> from collections.abc import Mapping
          >>> @fun.register
          ... def _(arg: Mapping, verbose=False):
          ...     if verbose:
          ...         print("Keys & Values")
          ...     for key, value in arg.items():
          ...         print(key, "=>", value)
          ...
          >>> fun({"a": "b"})
          a => b

     To check which implementation the generic function will choose for
     a given type, use the ‘dispatch()’ attribute:

          >>> fun.dispatch(float)
          <function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
          >>> fun.dispatch(dict)    # note: default implementation
          <function fun at 0x103fe0000>

     To access all registered implementations, use the read-only
     ‘registry’ attribute:

          >>> fun.registry.keys()
          dict_keys([<class 'NoneType'>, <class 'int'>, <class 'object'>,
                    <class 'decimal.Decimal'>, <class 'list'>,
                    <class 'float'>])
          >>> fun.registry[float]
          <function fun_num at 0x1035a2840>
          >>> fun.registry[object]
          <function fun at 0x103fe0000>

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The *note register(): 2dcd. attribute now
     supports using type annotations.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The *note register(): 2dcd. attribute now
     supports *note typing.Union: 341. as a type annotation.

 -- Κλάση: functools.singledispatchmethod (func)

     Transform a method into a *note single-dispatch: db5. *note generic
     function: db4.

     To define a generic method, decorate it with the
     ‘@singledispatchmethod’ decorator.  When defining a method using
     ‘@singledispatchmethod’, note that the dispatch happens on the type
     of the first non-'self' or non-'cls' argument:

          class Negator:
              @singledispatchmethod
              def neg(self, arg):
                  raise NotImplementedError("Cannot negate a")

              @neg.register
              def _(self, arg: int):
                  return -arg

              @neg.register
              def _(self, arg: bool):
                  return not arg

     ‘@singledispatchmethod’ supports nesting with other decorators such
     as *note @classmethod: 69a.  Note that to allow for
     ‘dispatcher.register’, ‘singledispatchmethod’ must be the 'outer
     most' decorator.  Here is the ‘Negator’ class with the ‘neg’
     methods bound to the class, rather than an instance of the class:

          class Negator:
              @singledispatchmethod
              @classmethod
              def neg(cls, arg):
                  raise NotImplementedError("Cannot negate a")

              @neg.register
              @classmethod
              def _(cls, arg: int):
                  return -arg

              @neg.register
              @classmethod
              def _(cls, arg: bool):
                  return not arg

     The same pattern can be used for other similar decorators: *note
     @staticmethod: 666, *note @~abc.abstractmethod: 1433, and others.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added support of non-*note descriptor:
     21f. callables.

 -- Συνάρτηση: functools.update_wrapper (wrapper, wrapped,
          assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS, updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

     Update a 'wrapper' function to look like the 'wrapped' function.
     The optional arguments are tuples to specify which attributes of
     the original function are assigned directly to the matching
     attributes on the wrapper function and which attributes of the
     wrapper function are updated with the corresponding attributes from
     the original function.  The default values for these arguments are
     the module level constants ‘WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS’ (which assigns to
     the wrapper function’s *note __module__: 253b, *note __name__:
     1679, *note __qualname__: 253a, *note __annotations__: 1581, *note
     __type_params__: 253e, and *note __doc__: 1582, the documentation
     string) and ‘WRAPPER_UPDATES’ (which updates the wrapper function’s
     *note __dict__: 1677, i.e.  the instance dictionary).

     To allow access to the original function for introspection and
     other purposes (e.g.  bypassing a caching decorator such as *note
     lru_cache(): db3.), this function automatically adds a
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute to the wrapper that refers to the function
     being wrapped.

     The main intended use for this function is in *note decorator: b18.
     functions which wrap the decorated function and return the wrapper.
     If the wrapper function is not updated, the metadata of the
     returned function will reflect the wrapper definition rather than
     the original function definition, which is typically less than
     helpful.

     ‘update_wrapper()’ may be used with callables other than functions.
     Any attributes named in 'assigned' or 'updated' that are missing
     from the object being wrapped are ignored (i.e.  this function will
     not attempt to set them on the wrapper function).  *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. is still raised if the wrapper function itself
     is missing any attributes named in 'updated'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The ‘__wrapped__’ attribute is now
     automatically added.  The *note __annotations__: 1581. attribute is
     now copied by default.  Missing attributes no longer trigger an
     *note AttributeError: 1a9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The ‘__wrapped__’ attribute now always
     refers to the wrapped function, even if that function defined a
     ‘__wrapped__’ attribute.  (see bpo-17482(7))

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The *note __type_params__: 253e. attribute
     is now copied by default.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @functools.wraps (wrapped, assigned=WRAPPER_ASSIGNMENTS,
          updated=WRAPPER_UPDATES)

     This is a convenience function for invoking *note update_wrapper():
     13cb. as a function decorator when defining a wrapper function.  It
     is equivalent to ‘partial(update_wrapper, wrapped=wrapped,
     assigned=assigned, updated=updated)’.  For example:

          >>> from functools import wraps
          >>> def my_decorator(f):
          ...     @wraps(f)
          ...     def wrapper(*args, **kwds):
          ...         print('Calling decorated function')
          ...         return f(*args, **kwds)
          ...     return wrapper
          ...
          >>> @my_decorator
          ... def example():
          ...     """Docstring"""
          ...     print('Called example function')
          ...
          >>> example()
          Calling decorated function
          Called example function
          >>> example.__name__
          'example'
          >>> example.__doc__
          'Docstring'

     Without the use of this decorator factory, the name of the example
     function would have been ‘'wrapper'’, and the docstring of the
     original ‘example()’ would have been lost.

* Menu:

* partial Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/functools.py

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoization

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0412/

   (4) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_replacement_policies#Least_Recently_Used_(LRU)

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_programming

   (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17482


File: python.info,  Node: partial Objects,  Up: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects

5.11.2.1 ‘partial’ Objects
..........................

*note partial: 4a6. objects are callable objects created by *note
partial(): 4a6.  They have three read-only attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: partial.func

     A callable object or function.  Calls to the *note partial: 4a6.
     object will be forwarded to *note func: 2dd0. with new arguments
     and keywords.

 -- Ιδιότητα: partial.args

     The leftmost positional arguments that will be prepended to the
     positional arguments provided to a *note partial: 4a6. object call.

 -- Ιδιότητα: partial.keywords

     The keyword arguments that will be supplied when the *note partial:
     4a6. object is called.

*note partial: 4a6. objects are like *note function objects: 79b. in
that they are callable, weak referenceable, and can have attributes.
There are some important differences.  For instance, the *note __name__:
140e. and *note __doc__: cf4. attributes are not created automatically.


File: python.info,  Node: operator — Standard operators as functions,  Prev: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects,  Up: Functional Programming Modules

5.11.3 ‘operator’ — Standard operators as functions
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/operator.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘operator’ module exports a set of efficient functions corresponding
to the intrinsic operators of Python.  For example, ‘operator.add(x, y)’
is equivalent to the expression ‘x+y’.  Many function names are those
used for special methods, without the double underscores.  For backward
compatibility, many of these have a variant with the double underscores
kept.  The variants without the double underscores are preferred for
clarity.

The functions fall into categories that perform object comparisons,
logical operations, mathematical operations and sequence operations.

The object comparison functions are useful for all objects, and are
named after the rich comparison operators they support:

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.lt (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.le (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.eq (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.ne (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.ge (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.gt (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__lt__ (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__le__ (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__eq__ (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__ne__ (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__ge__ (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__gt__ (a, b)

     Perform «rich comparisons» between 'a' and 'b'.  Specifically,
     ‘lt(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a < b’, ‘le(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a
     <= b’, ‘eq(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a == b’, ‘ne(a, b)’ is
     equivalent to ‘a != b’, ‘gt(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a > b’ and
     ‘ge(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a >= b’.  Note that these functions
     can return any value, which may or may not be interpretable as a
     Boolean value.  See *note Comparisons: 26c7. for more information
     about rich comparisons.

The logical operations are also generally applicable to all objects, and
support truth tests, identity tests, and boolean operations:

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.not_ (obj)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__not__ (obj)

     Return the outcome of *note not: 26d1. 'obj'.  (Note that there is
     no ‘__not__()’ method for object instances; only the interpreter
     core defines this operation.  The result is affected by the *note
     __bool__(): 167a. and *note __len__(): 1989. methods.)

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.truth (obj)

     Return *note True: fcc. if 'obj' is true, and *note False: ef5.
     otherwise.  This is equivalent to using the *note bool: 5ef.
     constructor.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.is_ (a, b)

     Return ‘a is b’.  Tests object identity.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.is_not (a, b)

     Return ‘a is not b’.  Tests object identity.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.is_none (a)

     Return ‘a is None’.  Tests object identity.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.is_not_none (a)

     Return ‘a is not None’.  Tests object identity.

     Added in version 3.14.

The mathematical and bitwise operations are the most numerous:

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.abs (obj)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__abs__ (obj)

     Return the absolute value of 'obj'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.add (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__add__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a + b’, for 'a' and 'b' numbers.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.and_ (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__and__ (a, b)

     Return the bitwise and of 'a' and 'b'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.floordiv (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__floordiv__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a // b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.index (a)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__index__ (a)

     Return 'a' converted to an integer.  Equivalent to ‘a.__index__()’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The result always has exact type *note
     int: 326.  Previously, the result could have been an instance of a
     subclass of ‘int’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.inv (obj)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.invert (obj)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__inv__ (obj)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__invert__ (obj)

     Return the bitwise inverse of the number 'obj'.  This is equivalent
     to ‘~obj’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.lshift (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__lshift__ (a, b)

     Return 'a' shifted left by 'b'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.mod (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__mod__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a % b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.mul (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__mul__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a * b’, for 'a' and 'b' numbers.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.matmul (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__matmul__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a @ b’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.neg (obj)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__neg__ (obj)

     Return 'obj' negated (‘-obj’).

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.or_ (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__or__ (a, b)

     Return the bitwise or of 'a' and 'b'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.pos (obj)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__pos__ (obj)

     Return 'obj' positive (‘+obj’).

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.pow (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__pow__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a ** b’, for 'a' and 'b' numbers.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.rshift (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__rshift__ (a, b)

     Return 'a' shifted right by 'b'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.sub (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__sub__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a - b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.truediv (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__truediv__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a / b’ where 2/3 is .66 rather than 0.  This is also known
     as «true» division.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.xor (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__xor__ (a, b)

     Return the bitwise exclusive or of 'a' and 'b'.

Operations which work with sequences (some of them with mappings too)
include:

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.concat (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__concat__ (a, b)

     Return ‘a + b’ for 'a' and 'b' sequences.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.contains (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__contains__ (a, b)

     Return the outcome of the test ‘b in a’.  Note the reversed
     operands.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.countOf (a, b)

     Return the number of occurrences of 'b' in 'a'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.delitem (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__delitem__ (a, b)

     Remove the value of 'a' at index 'b'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.getitem (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__getitem__ (a, b)

     Return the value of 'a' at index 'b'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.indexOf (a, b)

     Return the index of the first of occurrence of 'b' in 'a'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.setitem (a, b, c)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__setitem__ (a, b, c)

     Set the value of 'a' at index 'b' to 'c'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.length_hint (obj, default=0)

     Return an estimated length for the object 'obj'.  First try to
     return its actual length, then an estimate using *note
     object.__length_hint__(): 12bc, and finally return the default
     value.

     Added in version 3.4.

The following operation works with callables:

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.call (obj, /, *args, **kwargs)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__call__ (obj, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Return ‘obj(*args, **kwargs)’.

     Added in version 3.11.

The ‘operator’ module also defines tools for generalized attribute and
item lookups.  These are useful for making fast field extractors as
arguments for *note map(): 43e, *note sorted(): f8c, *note
itertools.groupby(): 192a, or other functions that expect a function
argument.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.attrgetter (attr)

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.attrgetter (*attrs)

     Return a callable object that fetches 'attr' from its operand.  If
     more than one attribute is requested, returns a tuple of
     attributes.  The attribute names can also contain dots.  For
     example:

        * After ‘f = attrgetter('name')’, the call ‘f(b)’ returns
          ‘b.name’.

        * After ‘f = attrgetter('name', 'date')’, the call ‘f(b)’
          returns ‘(b.name, b.date)’.

        * After ‘f = attrgetter('name.first', 'name.last')’, the call
          ‘f(b)’ returns ‘(b.name.first, b.name.last)’.

     Equivalent to:

          def attrgetter(*items):
              if any(not isinstance(item, str) for item in items):
                  raise TypeError('attribute name must be a string')
              if len(items) == 1:
                  attr = items[0]
                  def g(obj):
                      return resolve_attr(obj, attr)
              else:
                  def g(obj):
                      return tuple(resolve_attr(obj, attr) for attr in items)
              return g

          def resolve_attr(obj, attr):
              for name in attr.split("."):
                  obj = getattr(obj, name)
              return obj

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.itemgetter (item)

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.itemgetter (*items)

     Return a callable object that fetches 'item' from its operand using
     the operand’s *note __getitem__(): 787. method.  If multiple items
     are specified, returns a tuple of lookup values.  For example:

        * After ‘f = itemgetter(2)’, the call ‘f(r)’ returns ‘r[2]’.

        * After ‘g = itemgetter(2, 5, 3)’, the call ‘g(r)’ returns
          ‘(r[2], r[5], r[3])’.

     Equivalent to:

          def itemgetter(*items):
              if len(items) == 1:
                  item = items[0]
                  def g(obj):
                      return obj[item]
              else:
                  def g(obj):
                      return tuple(obj[item] for item in items)
              return g

     The items can be any type accepted by the operand’s *note
     __getitem__(): 787. method.  Dictionaries accept any *note
     hashable: 183. value.  Lists, tuples, and strings accept an index
     or a slice:

          >>> itemgetter(1)('ABCDEFG')
          'B'
          >>> itemgetter(1, 3, 5)('ABCDEFG')
          ('B', 'D', 'F')
          >>> itemgetter(slice(2, None))('ABCDEFG')
          'CDEFG'
          >>> soldier = dict(rank='captain', name='dotterbart')
          >>> itemgetter('rank')(soldier)
          'captain'

     Example of using ‘itemgetter()’ to retrieve specific fields from a
     tuple record:

          >>> inventory = [('apple', 3), ('banana', 2), ('pear', 5), ('orange', 1)]
          >>> getcount = itemgetter(1)
          >>> list(map(getcount, inventory))
          [3, 2, 5, 1]
          >>> sorted(inventory, key=getcount)
          [('orange', 1), ('banana', 2), ('apple', 3), ('pear', 5)]

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.methodcaller (name, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Return a callable object that calls the method 'name' on its
     operand.  If additional arguments and/or keyword arguments are
     given, they will be given to the method as well.  For example:

        * After ‘f = methodcaller('name')’, the call ‘f(b)’ returns
          ‘b.name()’.

        * After ‘f = methodcaller('name', 'foo', bar=1)’, the call
          ‘f(b)’ returns ‘b.name('foo', bar=1)’.

     Equivalent to:

          def methodcaller(name, /, *args, **kwargs):
              def caller(obj):
                  return getattr(obj, name)(*args, **kwargs)
              return caller

* Menu:

* Mapping Operators to Functions::
* In-place Operators::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/operator.py


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Operators to Functions,  Next: In-place Operators,  Up: operator — Standard operators as functions

5.11.3.1 Mapping Operators to Functions
.......................................

This table shows how abstract operations correspond to operator symbols
in the Python syntax and the functions in the ‘operator’ module.

Operation                   Syntax                        Function
                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                          
Addition                    ‘a + b’                       ‘add(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Concatenation               ‘seq1 + seq2’                 ‘concat(seq1, seq2)’
                                                          
                                                          
Containment Test            ‘obj in seq’                  ‘contains(seq, obj)’
                                                          
                                                          
Division                    ‘a / b’                       ‘truediv(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Division                    ‘a // b’                      ‘floordiv(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Bitwise And                 ‘a & b’                       ‘and_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Bitwise Exclusive Or        ‘a ^ b’                       ‘xor(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Bitwise Inversion           ‘~ a’                         ‘invert(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
Bitwise Or                  ‘a | b’                       ‘or_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Exponentiation              ‘a ** b’                      ‘pow(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Identity                    ‘a is b’                      ‘is_(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Identity                    ‘a is not b’                  ‘is_not(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Identity                    ‘a is None’                   ‘is_none(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
Identity                    ‘a is not None’               ‘is_not_none(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
Indexed Assignment          ‘obj[k] = v’                  ‘setitem(obj, k, v)’
                                                          
                                                          
Indexed Deletion            ‘del obj[k]’                  ‘delitem(obj, k)’
                                                          
                                                          
Indexing                    ‘obj[k]’                      ‘getitem(obj, k)’
                                                          
                                                          
Left Shift                  ‘a << b’                      ‘lshift(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Modulo                      ‘a % b’                       ‘mod(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Multiplication              ‘a * b’                       ‘mul(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Matrix Multiplication       ‘a @ b’                       ‘matmul(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Negation (Arithmetic)       ‘- a’                         ‘neg(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
Negation (Logical)          ‘not a’                       ‘not_(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
Positive                    ‘+ a’                         ‘pos(a)’
                                                          
                                                          
Right Shift                 ‘a >> b’                      ‘rshift(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Slice Assignment            ‘seq[i:j] = values’           ‘setitem(seq, slice(i, j), values)’
                                                          
                                                          
Slice Deletion              ‘del seq[i:j]’                ‘delitem(seq, slice(i, j))’
                                                          
                                                          
Slicing                     ‘seq[i:j]’                    ‘getitem(seq, slice(i, j))’
                                                          
                                                          
String Formatting           ‘s % obj’                     ‘mod(s, obj)’
                                                          
                                                          
Subtraction                 ‘a - b’                       ‘sub(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Truth Test                  ‘obj’                         ‘truth(obj)’
                                                          
                                                          
Ordering                    ‘a < b’                       ‘lt(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Ordering                    ‘a <= b’                      ‘le(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Equality                    ‘a == b’                      ‘eq(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Difference                  ‘a != b’                      ‘ne(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Ordering                    ‘a >= b’                      ‘ge(a, b)’
                                                          
                                                          
Ordering                    ‘a > b’                       ‘gt(a, b)’
                                                          


File: python.info,  Node: In-place Operators,  Prev: Mapping Operators to Functions,  Up: operator — Standard operators as functions

5.11.3.2 In-place Operators
...........................

Many operations have an «in-place» version.  Listed below are functions
providing a more primitive access to in-place operators than the usual
syntax does; for example, the *note statement: 2e17. ‘x += y’ is
equivalent to ‘x = operator.iadd(x, y)’.  Another way to put it is to
say that ‘z = operator.iadd(x, y)’ is equivalent to the compound
statement ‘z = x; z += y’.

In those examples, note that when an in-place method is called, the
computation and assignment are performed in two separate steps.  The
in-place functions listed below only do the first step, calling the
in-place method.  The second step, assignment, is not handled.

For immutable targets such as strings, numbers, and tuples, the updated
value is computed, but not assigned back to the input variable:

     >>> a = 'hello'
     >>> iadd(a, ' world')
     'hello world'
     >>> a
     'hello'

For mutable targets such as lists and dictionaries, the in-place method
will perform the update, so no subsequent assignment is necessary:

     >>> s = ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
     >>> iadd(s, [' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd'])
     ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']
     >>> s
     ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', ' ', 'w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd']

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.iadd (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__iadd__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iadd(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a += b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.iand (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__iand__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iand(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a &= b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.iconcat (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__iconcat__ (a, b)

     ‘a = iconcat(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a += b’ for 'a' and 'b'
     sequences.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.ifloordiv (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__ifloordiv__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ifloordiv(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a //= b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.ilshift (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__ilshift__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ilshift(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a <<= b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.imod (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__imod__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imod(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a %= b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.imul (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__imul__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imul(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a *= b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.imatmul (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__imatmul__ (a, b)

     ‘a = imatmul(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a @= b’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.ior (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__ior__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ior(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a |= b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.ipow (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__ipow__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ipow(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a **= b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.irshift (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__irshift__ (a, b)

     ‘a = irshift(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a >>= b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.isub (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__isub__ (a, b)

     ‘a = isub(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a -= b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.itruediv (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__itruediv__ (a, b)

     ‘a = itruediv(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a /= b’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.ixor (a, b)
 -- Συνάρτηση: operator.__ixor__ (a, b)

     ‘a = ixor(a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘a ^= b’.


File: python.info,  Node: File and Directory Access,  Next: Data Persistence,  Prev: Functional Programming Modules,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.12 File and Directory Access
==============================

The modules described in this chapter deal with disk files and
directories.  For example, there are modules for reading the properties
of files, manipulating paths in a portable way, and creating temporary
files.  The full list of modules in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths::
* os.path — Common pathname manipulations: os path — Common pathname manipulations.
* stat — Interpreting stat() results: stat — Interpreting stat results.
* filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons::
* tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories::
* glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion::
* fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching::
* linecache — Random access to text lines::
* shutil — High-level file operations::


File: python.info,  Node: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths,  Next: os path — Common pathname manipulations,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.12.1 ‘pathlib’ — Object-oriented filesystem paths
---------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/pathlib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module offers classes representing filesystem paths with semantics
appropriate for different operating systems.  Path classes are divided
between *note pure paths: 2e39, which provide purely computational
operations without I/O, and *note concrete paths: 2e3a, which inherit
from pure paths but also provide I/O operations.

[image src="python-figures/pathlib-inheritance.png" alt="Inheritance diagram showing the classes available in pathlib. The most basic class is PurePath, which has three direct subclasses: PurePosixPath, PureWindowsPath, and Path. Further to these four classes, there are two classes that use multiple inheritance: PosixPath subclasses PurePosixPath and Path, and WindowsPath subclasses PureWindowsPath and Path."]


If you’ve never used this module before or just aren’t sure which class
is right for your task, *note Path: 4ee. is most likely what you need.
It instantiates a *note concrete path: 2e3a. for the platform the code
is running on.

Pure paths are useful in some special cases; for example:

  1. If you want to manipulate Windows paths on a Unix machine (or vice
     versa).  You cannot instantiate a *note WindowsPath: 2e3b. when
     running on Unix, but you can instantiate *note PureWindowsPath:
     1c7b.

  2. You want to make sure that your code only manipulates paths without
     actually accessing the OS. In this case, instantiating one of the
     pure classes may be useful since those simply don’t have any
     OS-accessing operations.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 428(2): The pathlib module – object-oriented filesystem paths.

Δείτε επίσης
............

For low-level path manipulation on strings, you can also use the *note
os.path: a6. module.

* Menu:

* Basic use::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<4>.
* Pure paths::
* Concrete paths::
* Pattern language::
* Comparison to the glob module::
* Comparison to the os and os.path modules: Comparison to the os and os path modules.
* Protocols::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/pathlib/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/


File: python.info,  Node: Basic use,  Next: Exceptions<4>,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.12.1.1 Basic use
..................

Importing the main class:

     >>> from pathlib import Path

Listing subdirectories:

     >>> p = Path('.')
     >>> [x for x in p.iterdir() if x.is_dir()]
     [PosixPath('.hg'), PosixPath('docs'), PosixPath('dist'),
      PosixPath('__pycache__'), PosixPath('build')]

Listing Python source files in this directory tree:

     >>> list(p.glob('**/*.py'))
     [PosixPath('test_pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'),
      PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
      PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py')]

Navigating inside a directory tree:

     >>> p = Path('/etc')
     >>> q = p / 'init.d' / 'reboot'
     >>> q
     PosixPath('/etc/init.d/reboot')
     >>> q.resolve()
     PosixPath('/etc/rc.d/init.d/halt')

Querying path properties:

     >>> q.exists()
     True
     >>> q.is_dir()
     False

Opening a file:

     >>> with q.open() as f: f.readline()
     ...
     '#!/bin/bash\n'


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<4>,  Next: Pure paths,  Prev: Basic use,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.12.1.2 Exceptions
...................

 -- Εξαίρεση: pathlib.UnsupportedOperation

     An exception inheriting *note NotImplementedError: 59a. that is
     raised when an unsupported operation is called on a path object.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Pure paths,  Next: Concrete paths,  Prev: Exceptions<4>,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.12.1.3 Pure paths
...................

Pure path objects provide path-handling operations which don’t actually
access a filesystem.  There are three ways to access these classes,
which we also call 'flavours':

 -- Κλάση: pathlib.PurePath (*pathsegments)

     A generic class that represents the system’s path flavour
     (instantiating it creates either a *note PurePosixPath: 2e3f. or a
     *note PureWindowsPath: 1c7b.):

          >>> PurePath('setup.py')      # Running on a Unix machine
          PurePosixPath('setup.py')

     Each element of 'pathsegments' can be either a string representing
     a path segment, or an object implementing the *note os.PathLike:
     100f. interface where the *note __fspath__(): 1010. method returns
     a string, such as another path object:

          >>> PurePath('foo', 'some/path', 'bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/some/path/bar')
          >>> PurePath(Path('foo'), Path('bar'))
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')

     When 'pathsegments' is empty, the current directory is assumed:

          >>> PurePath()
          PurePosixPath('.')

     If a segment is an absolute path, all previous segments are ignored
     (like *note os.path.join(): 1a42.):

          >>> PurePath('/etc', '/usr', 'lib64')
          PurePosixPath('/usr/lib64')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', 'd:bar')
          PureWindowsPath('d:bar')

     On Windows, the drive is not reset when a rooted relative path
     segment (e.g., ‘r'\foo'’) is encountered:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', '/Program Files')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

     Spurious slashes and single dots are collapsed, but double dots
     (‘'..'’) and leading double slashes (‘'//'’) are not, since this
     would change the meaning of a path for various reasons (e.g.
     symbolic links, UNC paths):

          >>> PurePath('foo//bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('//foo/bar')
          PurePosixPath('//foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('foo/./bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/bar')
          >>> PurePath('foo/../bar')
          PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')

     (a naïve approach would make ‘PurePosixPath('foo/../bar')’
     equivalent to ‘PurePosixPath('bar')’, which is wrong if ‘foo’ is a
     symbolic link to another directory)

     Pure path objects implement the *note os.PathLike: 100f. interface,
     allowing them to be used anywhere the interface is accepted.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added support for the *note os.PathLike:
     100f. interface.

 -- Κλάση: pathlib.PurePosixPath (*pathsegments)

     A subclass of *note PurePath: 8b6, this path flavour represents
     non-Windows filesystem paths:

          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/hosts')

     'pathsegments' is specified similarly to *note PurePath: 8b6.

 -- Κλάση: pathlib.PureWindowsPath (*pathsegments)

     A subclass of *note PurePath: 8b6, this path flavour represents
     Windows filesystem paths, including UNC paths(1):

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')
          PureWindowsPath('//server/share/file')

     'pathsegments' is specified similarly to *note PurePath: 8b6.

Regardless of the system you’re running on, you can instantiate all of
these classes, since they don’t provide any operation that does system
calls.

* Menu:

* General properties::
* Operators::
* Accessing individual parts::
* Methods and properties::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(computing)#UNC


File: python.info,  Node: General properties,  Next: Operators,  Up: Pure paths

5.12.1.4 General properties
...........................

Paths are immutable and *note hashable: 183.  Paths of a same flavour
are comparable and orderable.  These properties respect the flavour’s
case-folding semantics:

     >>> PurePosixPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('FOO')
     False
     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PureWindowsPath('FOO')
     True
     >>> PureWindowsPath('FOO') in { PureWindowsPath('foo') }
     True
     >>> PureWindowsPath('C:') < PureWindowsPath('d:')
     True

Paths of a different flavour compare unequal and cannot be ordered:

     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') == PurePosixPath('foo')
     False
     >>> PureWindowsPath('foo') < PurePosixPath('foo')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'PureWindowsPath' and 'PurePosixPath'


File: python.info,  Node: Operators,  Next: Accessing individual parts,  Prev: General properties,  Up: Pure paths

5.12.1.5 Operators
..................

The slash operator helps create child paths, like *note os.path.join():
1a42.  If the argument is an absolute path, the previous path is
ignored.  On Windows, the drive is not reset when the argument is a
rooted relative path (e.g., ‘r'\foo'’):

     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> p
     PurePosixPath('/etc')
     >>> p / 'init.d' / 'apache2'
     PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
     >>> q = PurePath('bin')
     >>> '/usr' / q
     PurePosixPath('/usr/bin')
     >>> p / '/an_absolute_path'
     PurePosixPath('/an_absolute_path')
     >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Windows', '/Program Files')
     PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

A path object can be used anywhere an object implementing *note
os.PathLike: 100f. is accepted:

     >>> import os
     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> os.fspath(p)
     '/etc'

The string representation of a path is the raw filesystem path itself
(in native form, e.g.  with backslashes under Windows), which you can
pass to any function taking a file path as a string:

     >>> p = PurePath('/etc')
     >>> str(p)
     '/etc'
     >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')
     >>> str(p)
     'c:\\Program Files'

Similarly, calling *note bytes: 1c7. on a path gives the raw filesystem
path as a bytes object, as encoded by *note os.fsencode(): 1013.:

     >>> bytes(p)
     b'/etc'

     Σημείωση: Calling *note bytes: 1c7. is only recommended under Unix.
     Under Windows, the unicode form is the canonical representation of
     filesystem paths.


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing individual parts,  Next: Methods and properties,  Prev: Operators,  Up: Pure paths

5.12.1.6 Accessing individual parts
...................................

To access the individual «parts» (components) of a path, use the
following property:

 -- Ιδιότητα: PurePath.parts

     A tuple giving access to the path’s various components:

          >>> p = PurePath('/usr/bin/python3')
          >>> p.parts
          ('/', 'usr', 'bin', 'python3')

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/PSF')
          >>> p.parts
          ('c:\\', 'Program Files', 'PSF')

     (note how the drive and local root are regrouped in a single part)


File: python.info,  Node: Methods and properties,  Prev: Accessing individual parts,  Up: Pure paths

5.12.1.7 Methods and properties
...............................

Pure paths provide the following methods and properties:

 -- Ιδιότητα: PurePath.parser

     The implementation of the *note os.path: a6. module used for
     low-level path parsing and joining: either ‘posixpath’ or ‘ntpath’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Ιδιότητα: PurePath.drive

     A string representing the drive letter or name, if any:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').drive
          'c:'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('/Program Files/').drive
          ''
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').drive
          ''

     UNC shares are also considered drives:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share/foo.txt').drive
          '\\\\host\\share'

 -- Ιδιότητα: PurePath.root

     A string representing the (local or global) root, if any:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').root
          '\\'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').root
          ''
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').root
          '/'

     UNC shares always have a root:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').root
          '\\'

     If the path starts with more than two successive slashes, *note
     PurePosixPath: 2e3f. collapses them:

          >>> PurePosixPath('//etc').root
          '//'
          >>> PurePosixPath('///etc').root
          '/'
          >>> PurePosixPath('////etc').root
          '/'

          Σημείωση: This behavior conforms to 'The Open Group Base
          Specifications Issue 6', paragraph 4.11 Pathname
          Resolution(1):

          '«A pathname that begins with two successive slashes may be
          interpreted in an implementation-defined manner, although more
          than two leading slashes shall be treated as a single slash.»'

 -- Ιδιότητα: PurePath.anchor

     The concatenation of the drive and root:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files/').anchor
          'c:\\'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:Program Files/').anchor
          'c:'
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').anchor
          '/'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//host/share').anchor
          '\\\\host\\share\\'

 -- Ιδιότητα: PurePath.parents

     An immutable sequence providing access to the logical ancestors of
     the path:

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar/setup.py')
          >>> p.parents[0]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/foo/bar')
          >>> p.parents[1]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/foo')
          >>> p.parents[2]
          PureWindowsPath('c:/')

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The parents sequence now supports *note
     slices: 26a5. and negative index values.

 -- Ιδιότητα: PurePath.parent

     The logical parent of the path:

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/a/b/c/d')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('/a/b/c')

     You cannot go past an anchor, or empty path:

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('/')
          >>> p = PurePosixPath('.')
          >>> p.parent
          PurePosixPath('.')

          Σημείωση: This is a purely lexical operation, hence the
          following behaviour:

               >>> p = PurePosixPath('foo/..')
               >>> p.parent
               PurePosixPath('foo')

          If you want to walk an arbitrary filesystem path upwards, it
          is recommended to first call *note Path.resolve(): 1c73. so as
          to resolve symlinks and eliminate ‘".."’ components.

 -- Ιδιότητα: PurePath.name

     A string representing the final path component, excluding the drive
     and root, if any:

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').name
          'setup.py'

     UNC drive names are not considered:

          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share/setup.py').name
          'setup.py'
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').name
          ''

 -- Ιδιότητα: PurePath.suffix

     The last dot-separated portion of the final component, if any:

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library/setup.py').suffix
          '.py'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffix
          '.gz'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffix
          ''

     This is commonly called the file extension.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: A single dot (»‘.’») is considered a valid
     suffix.

 -- Ιδιότητα: PurePath.suffixes

     A list of the path’s suffixes, often called file extensions:

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gar').suffixes
          ['.tar', '.gar']
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').suffixes
          ['.tar', '.gz']
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').suffixes
          []

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: A single dot (»‘.’») is considered a valid
     suffix.

 -- Ιδιότητα: PurePath.stem

     The final path component, without its suffix:

          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar.gz').stem
          'library.tar'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library.tar').stem
          'library'
          >>> PurePosixPath('my/library').stem
          'library'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: A single dot (»‘.’») is considered a valid
     suffix.

 -- Μέθοδος: PurePath.as_posix ()

     Return a string representation of the path with forward slashes
     (‘/’):

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:\\windows')
          >>> str(p)
          'c:\\windows'
          >>> p.as_posix()
          'c:/windows'

 -- Μέθοδος: PurePath.is_absolute ()

     Return whether the path is absolute or not.  A path is considered
     absolute if it has both a root and (if the flavour allows) a drive:

          >>> PurePosixPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
          True
          >>> PurePosixPath('a/b').is_absolute()
          False

          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:/a/b').is_absolute()
          True
          >>> PureWindowsPath('/a/b').is_absolute()
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:').is_absolute()
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('//some/share').is_absolute()
          True

 -- Μέθοδος: PurePath.is_relative_to (other)

     Return whether or not this path is relative to the 'other' path.

          >>> p = PurePath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.is_relative_to('/etc')
          True
          >>> p.is_relative_to('/usr')
          False

     This method is string-based; it neither accesses the filesystem nor
     treats «‘..’» segments specially.  The following code is
     equivalent:

          >>> u = PurePath('/usr')
          >>> u == p or u in p.parents
          False

     Added in version 3.9.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14:
     Passing additional arguments is deprecated; if supplied, they are
     joined with 'other'.

 -- Μέθοδος: PurePath.joinpath (*pathsegments)

     Calling this method is equivalent to combining the path with each
     of the given 'pathsegments' in turn:

          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('passwd')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath(PurePosixPath('passwd'))
          PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> PurePosixPath('/etc').joinpath('init.d', 'apache2')
          PurePosixPath('/etc/init.d/apache2')
          >>> PureWindowsPath('c:').joinpath('/Program Files')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Program Files')

 -- Μέθοδος: PurePath.full_match (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

     Match this path against the provided glob-style pattern.  Return
     ‘True’ if matching is successful, ‘False’ otherwise.  For example:

          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').full_match('a/*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').full_match('*.py')
          False
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').full_match('/a/**')
          True
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').full_match('**/*.py')
          True

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note Pattern language: 2e4c. documentation.

     As with other methods, case-sensitivity follows platform defaults:

          >>> PurePosixPath('b.py').full_match('*.PY')
          False
          >>> PureWindowsPath('b.py').full_match('*.PY')
          True

     Set 'case_sensitive' to ‘True’ or ‘False’ to override this
     behaviour.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μέθοδος: PurePath.match (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None)

     Match this path against the provided non-recursive glob-style
     pattern.  Return ‘True’ if matching is successful, ‘False’
     otherwise.

     This method is similar to *note full_match(): 738, but empty
     patterns aren’t allowed (*note ValueError: 277. is raised), the
     recursive wildcard «‘**’» isn’t supported (it acts like
     non-recursive «‘*’»), and if a relative pattern is provided, then
     matching is done from the right:

          >>> PurePath('a/b.py').match('*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('b/*.py')
          True
          >>> PurePath('/a/b/c.py').match('a/*.py')
          False

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The 'pattern' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The 'case_sensitive' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: PurePath.relative_to (other, walk_up=False)

     Compute a version of this path relative to the path represented by
     'other'.  If it’s impossible, *note ValueError: 277. is raised:

          >>> p = PurePosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/')
          PurePosixPath('etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/etc')
          PurePosixPath('passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('/usr')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "pathlib.py", line 941, in relative_to
              raise ValueError(error_message.format(str(self), str(formatted)))
          ValueError: '/etc/passwd' is not in the subpath of '/usr' OR one path is relative and the other is absolute.

     When 'walk_up' is false (the default), the path must start with
     'other'.  When the argument is true, ‘..’ entries may be added to
     form the relative path.  In all other cases, such as the paths
     referencing different drives, *note ValueError: 277. is raised.:

          >>> p.relative_to('/usr', walk_up=True)
          PurePosixPath('../etc/passwd')
          >>> p.relative_to('foo', walk_up=True)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "pathlib.py", line 941, in relative_to
              raise ValueError(error_message.format(str(self), str(formatted)))
          ValueError: '/etc/passwd' is not on the same drive as 'foo' OR one path is relative and the other is absolute.

          Προειδοποίηση: This function is part of *note PurePath: 8b6.
          and works with strings.  It does not check or access the
          underlying file structure.  This can impact the 'walk_up'
          option as it assumes that no symlinks are present in the path;
          call *note resolve(): 1c73. first if necessary to resolve
          symlinks.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The 'walk_up' parameter was added (old
     behavior is the same as ‘walk_up=False’).

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14:
     Passing additional positional arguments is deprecated; if supplied,
     they are joined with 'other'.

 -- Μέθοδος: PurePath.with_name (name)

     Return a new path with the *note name: 2e48. changed.  If the
     original path doesn’t have a name, ValueError is raised:

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_name('setup.py')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/setup.py')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/')
          >>> p.with_name('setup.py')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 751, in with_name
              raise ValueError("%r has an empty name" % (self,))
          ValueError: PureWindowsPath('c:/') has an empty name

 -- Μέθοδος: PurePath.with_stem (stem)

     Return a new path with the *note stem: 2e49. changed.  If the
     original path doesn’t have a name, ValueError is raised:

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/draft.txt')
          >>> p.with_stem('final')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/final.txt')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_stem('lib')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/lib.gz')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/')
          >>> p.with_stem('')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 861, in with_stem
              return self.with_name(stem + self.suffix)
            File "/home/antoine/cpython/default/Lib/pathlib.py", line 851, in with_name
              raise ValueError("%r has an empty name" % (self,))
          ValueError: PureWindowsPath('c:/') has an empty name

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Μέθοδος: PurePath.with_suffix (suffix)

     Return a new path with the *note suffix: 1b6b. changed.  If the
     original path doesn’t have a suffix, the new 'suffix' is appended
     instead.  If the 'suffix' is an empty string, the original suffix
     is removed:

          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.gz')
          >>> p.with_suffix('.bz2')
          PureWindowsPath('c:/Downloads/pathlib.tar.bz2')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('README')
          >>> p.with_suffix('.txt')
          PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
          >>> p = PureWindowsPath('README.txt')
          >>> p.with_suffix('')
          PureWindowsPath('README')

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: A single dot (»‘.’») is considered a valid
     suffix.  In previous versions, *note ValueError: 277. is raised if
     a single dot is supplied.

 -- Μέθοδος: PurePath.with_segments (*pathsegments)

     Create a new path object of the same type by combining the given
     'pathsegments'.  This method is called whenever a derivative path
     is created, such as from *note parent: 1ca1. and *note
     relative_to(): 575.  Subclasses may override this method to pass
     information to derivative paths, for example:

          from pathlib import PurePosixPath

          class MyPath(PurePosixPath):
              def __init__(self, *pathsegments, session_id):
                  super().__init__(*pathsegments)
                  self.session_id = session_id

              def with_segments(self, *pathsegments):
                  return type(self)(*pathsegments, session_id=self.session_id)

          etc = MyPath('/etc', session_id=42)
          hosts = etc / 'hosts'
          print(hosts.session_id)  # 42

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/basedefs/xbd_chap04.html#tag_04_11


File: python.info,  Node: Concrete paths,  Next: Pattern language,  Prev: Pure paths,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.12.1.8 Concrete paths
.......................

Concrete paths are subclasses of the pure path classes.  In addition to
operations provided by the latter, they also provide methods to do
system calls on path objects.  There are three ways to instantiate
concrete paths:

 -- Κλάση: pathlib.Path (*pathsegments)

     A subclass of *note PurePath: 8b6, this class represents concrete
     paths of the system’s path flavour (instantiating it creates either
     a *note PosixPath: 2e4e. or a *note WindowsPath: 2e3b.):

          >>> Path('setup.py')
          PosixPath('setup.py')

     'pathsegments' is specified similarly to *note PurePath: 8b6.

 -- Κλάση: pathlib.PosixPath (*pathsegments)

     A subclass of *note Path: 4ee. and *note PurePosixPath: 2e3f, this
     class represents concrete non-Windows filesystem paths:

          >>> PosixPath('/etc/hosts')
          PosixPath('/etc/hosts')

     'pathsegments' is specified similarly to *note PurePath: 8b6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 736. on
     Windows.  In previous versions, *note NotImplementedError: 59a. was
     raised instead.

 -- Κλάση: pathlib.WindowsPath (*pathsegments)

     A subclass of *note Path: 4ee. and *note PureWindowsPath: 1c7b,
     this class represents concrete Windows filesystem paths:

          >>> WindowsPath('c:/', 'Users', 'Ximénez')
          WindowsPath('c:/Users/Ximénez')

     'pathsegments' is specified similarly to *note PurePath: 8b6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 736. on
     non-Windows platforms.  In previous versions, *note
     NotImplementedError: 59a. was raised instead.

You can only instantiate the class flavour that corresponds to your
system (allowing system calls on non-compatible path flavours could lead
to bugs or failures in your application):

     >>> import os
     >>> os.name
     'posix'
     >>> Path('setup.py')
     PosixPath('setup.py')
     >>> PosixPath('setup.py')
     PosixPath('setup.py')
     >>> WindowsPath('setup.py')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "pathlib.py", line 798, in __new__
         % (cls.__name__,))
     UnsupportedOperation: cannot instantiate 'WindowsPath' on your system

Some concrete path methods can raise an *note OSError: 53c. if a system
call fails (for example because the path doesn’t exist).

* Menu:

* Parsing and generating URIs::
* Expanding and resolving paths::
* Querying file type and status::
* Reading and writing files::
* Reading directories::
* Creating files and directories::
* Copying, moving and deleting: Copying moving and deleting.
* Permissions and ownership::


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing and generating URIs,  Next: Expanding and resolving paths,  Up: Concrete paths

5.12.1.9 Parsing and generating URIs
....................................

Concrete path objects can be created from, and represented as, “file”
URIs conforming to RFC 8089(1).

     Σημείωση: File URIs are not portable across machines with different
     *note filesystem encodings: 2e50.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod Path.from_uri (uri)

     Return a new path object from parsing a “file” URI. For example:

          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:///etc/hosts')
          PosixPath('/etc/hosts')

     On Windows, DOS device and UNC paths may be parsed from URIs:

          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:///c:/windows')
          WindowsPath('c:/windows')
          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file://server/share')
          WindowsPath('//server/share')

     Several variant forms are supported:

          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:////server/share')
          WindowsPath('//server/share')
          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file://///server/share')
          WindowsPath('//server/share')
          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:c:/windows')
          WindowsPath('c:/windows')
          >>> p = Path.from_uri('file:/c|/windows')
          WindowsPath('c:/windows')

     *note ValueError: 277. is raised if the URI does not start with
     ‘file:’, or the parsed path isn’t absolute.

     Added in version 3.13.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The URL authority is discarded if it
     matches the local hostname.  Otherwise, if the authority isn’t
     empty or ‘localhost’, then on Windows a UNC path is returned (as
     before), and on other platforms a *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.as_uri ()

     Represent the path as a “file” URI. *note ValueError: 277. is
     raised if the path isn’t absolute.

          >>> p = PosixPath('/etc/passwd')
          >>> p.as_uri()
          'file:///etc/passwd'
          >>> p = WindowsPath('c:/Windows')
          >>> p.as_uri()
          'file:///c:/Windows'

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.14, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.19:
     Calling this method from *note PurePath: 8b6. rather than *note
     Path: 4ee. is possible but deprecated.  The method’s use of *note
     os.fsencode(): 1013. makes it strictly impure.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8089.html


File: python.info,  Node: Expanding and resolving paths,  Next: Querying file type and status,  Prev: Parsing and generating URIs,  Up: Concrete paths

5.12.1.10 Expanding and resolving paths
.......................................

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod Path.home ()

     Return a new path object representing the user’s home directory (as
     returned by *note os.path.expanduser(): dd8. with ‘~’ construct).
     If the home directory can’t be resolved, *note RuntimeError: 30d.
     is raised.

          >>> Path.home()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine')

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.expanduser ()

     Return a new path with expanded ‘~’ and ‘~user’ constructs, as
     returned by *note os.path.expanduser(): dd8.  If a home directory
     can’t be resolved, *note RuntimeError: 30d. is raised.

          >>> p = PosixPath('~/films/Monty Python')
          >>> p.expanduser()
          PosixPath('/home/eric/films/Monty Python')

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod Path.cwd ()

     Return a new path object representing the current directory (as
     returned by *note os.getcwd(): 1b26.):

          >>> Path.cwd()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.absolute ()

     Make the path absolute, without normalization or resolving
     symlinks.  Returns a new path object:

          >>> p = Path('tests')
          >>> p
          PosixPath('tests')
          >>> p.absolute()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/tests')

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.resolve (strict=False)

     Make the path absolute, resolving any symlinks.  A new path object
     is returned:

          >>> p = Path()
          >>> p
          PosixPath('.')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib')

     «‘..’» components are also eliminated (this is the only method to
     do so):

          >>> p = Path('docs/../setup.py')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')

     If a path doesn’t exist or a symlink loop is encountered, and
     'strict' is ‘True’, *note OSError: 53c. is raised.  If 'strict' is
     ‘False’, the path is resolved as far as possible and any remainder
     is appended without checking whether it exists.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The 'strict' parameter was added (pre-3.6
     behavior is strict).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Symlink loops are treated like other
     errors: *note OSError: 53c. is raised in strict mode, and no
     exception is raised in non-strict mode.  In previous versions,
     *note RuntimeError: 30d. is raised no matter the value of 'strict'.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.readlink ()

     Return the path to which the symbolic link points (as returned by
     *note os.readlink(): ced.):

          >>> p = Path('mylink')
          >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
          >>> p.readlink()
          PosixPath('setup.py')

     Added in version 3.9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 736. if
     *note os.readlink(): ced. is not available.  In previous versions,
     *note NotImplementedError: 59a. was raised.


File: python.info,  Node: Querying file type and status,  Next: Reading and writing files,  Prev: Expanding and resolving paths,  Up: Concrete paths

5.12.1.11 Querying file type and status
.......................................

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: *note exists(): dda, *note is_dir(): 73d, *note
is_file(): 73c, *note is_mount(): ddb, *note is_symlink(): ddc, *note
is_block_device(): ddd, *note is_char_device(): dde, *note is_fifo():
ddf, *note is_socket(): de0. now return ‘False’ instead of raising an
exception for paths that contain characters unrepresentable at the OS
level.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The methods given above now return ‘False’
instead of raising any *note OSError: 53c. exception from the operating
system.  In previous versions, some kinds of ‘OSError’ exception are
raised, and others suppressed.  The new behaviour is consistent with
*note os.path.exists(): dd2, *note os.path.isdir(): dd4, etc.  Use *note
stat(): bfc. to retrieve the file status without suppressing exceptions.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.stat (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return an *note os.stat_result: 1863. object containing information
     about this path, like *note os.stat(): 4f5.  The result is looked
     up at each call to this method.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to stat a symlink add the
     argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’, or use *note lstat(): 2e53.

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_size
          956
          >>> p.stat().st_mtime
          1327883547.852554

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.lstat ()

     Like *note Path.stat(): bfc. but, if the path points to a symbolic
     link, return the symbolic link’s information rather than its
     target’s.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.exists (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to an existing file or directory.
     ‘False’ will be returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or
     missing.  Use *note Path.stat(): bfc. to distinguish between these
     cases.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to check if a symlink
     exists, add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

          >>> Path('.').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('setup.py').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('/etc').exists()
          True
          >>> Path('nonexistentfile').exists()
          False

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.is_file (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a regular file.  ‘False’ will
     be returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing, or if
     it points to something other than a regular file.  Use *note
     Path.stat(): bfc. to distinguish between these cases.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to exclude symlinks, add the
     argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.is_dir (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a directory.  ‘False’ will be
     returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing, or if it
     points to something other than a directory.  Use *note Path.stat():
     bfc. to distinguish between these cases.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to exclude symlinks to
     directories, add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.is_symlink ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a symbolic link, even if that
     symlink is broken.  ‘False’ will be returned if the path is
     invalid, inaccessible or missing, or if it points to something
     other than a symbolic link.  Use *note Path.stat(): bfc. to
     distinguish between these cases.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.is_junction ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a junction, and ‘False’ for any
     other type of file.  Currently only Windows supports junctions.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.is_mount ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path is a 'mount point': a point in a file
     system where a different file system has been mounted.  On POSIX,
     the function checks whether 'path'’s parent, ‘path/..’, is on a
     different device than 'path', or whether ‘path/..’ and 'path' point
     to the same i-node on the same device — this should detect mount
     points for all Unix and POSIX variants.  On Windows, a mount point
     is considered to be a drive letter root (e.g.  ‘c:\’), a UNC share
     (e.g.  ‘\\server\share’), or a mounted filesystem directory.

     Added in version 3.7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Windows support was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.is_socket ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a Unix socket.  ‘False’ will be
     returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing, or if it
     points to something other than a Unix socket.  Use *note
     Path.stat(): bfc. to distinguish between these cases.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.is_fifo ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a FIFO. ‘False’ will be
     returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing, or if it
     points to something other than a FIFO. Use *note Path.stat(): bfc.
     to distinguish between these cases.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.is_block_device ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a block device.  ‘False’ will
     be returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing, or if
     it points to something other than a block device.  Use *note
     Path.stat(): bfc. to distinguish between these cases.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.is_char_device ()

     Return ‘True’ if the path points to a character device.  ‘False’
     will be returned if the path is invalid, inaccessible or missing,
     or if it points to something other than a character device.  Use
     *note Path.stat(): bfc. to distinguish between these cases.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.samefile (other_path)

     Return whether this path points to the same file as 'other_path',
     which can be either a Path object, or a string.  The semantics are
     similar to *note os.path.samefile(): 131b. and *note
     os.path.samestat(): 131a.

     An *note OSError: 53c. can be raised if either file cannot be
     accessed for some reason.

          >>> p = Path('spam')
          >>> q = Path('eggs')
          >>> p.samefile(q)
          False
          >>> p.samefile('spam')
          True

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Path.info

     A *note PathInfo: 4f4. object that supports querying file type
     information.  The object exposes methods that cache their results,
     which can help reduce the number of system calls needed when
     switching on file type.  For example:

          >>> p = Path('src')
          >>> if p.info.is_symlink():
          ...     print('symlink')
          ... elif p.info.is_dir():
          ...     print('directory')
          ... elif p.info.exists():
          ...     print('something else')
          ... else:
          ...     print('not found')
          ...
          directory

     If the path was generated from *note Path.iterdir(): 4f6. then this
     attribute is initialized with some information about the file type
     gleaned from scanning the parent directory.  Merely accessing
     ‘Path.info’ does not perform any filesystem queries.

     To fetch up-to-date information, it’s best to call *note
     Path.is_dir(): 73d, *note is_file(): 73c. and *note is_symlink():
     ddc. rather than methods of this attribute.  There is no way to
     reset the cache; instead you can create a new path object with an
     empty info cache via ‘p = Path(p)’.

     Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Reading and writing files,  Next: Reading directories,  Prev: Querying file type and status,  Up: Concrete paths

5.12.1.12 Reading and writing files
...................................

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.open (mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None)

     Open the file pointed to by the path, like the built-in *note
     open(): 32b. function does:

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> with p.open() as f:
          ...     f.readline()
          ...
          '#!/usr/bin/env python3\n'

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.read_text (encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     Return the decoded contents of the pointed-to file as a string:

          >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
          >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
          18
          >>> p.read_text()
          'Text file contents'

     The file is opened and then closed.  The optional parameters have
     the same meaning as in *note open(): 32b.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'newline' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.read_bytes ()

     Return the binary contents of the pointed-to file as a bytes
     object:

          >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
          >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
          20
          >>> p.read_bytes()
          b'Binary file contents'

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.write_text (data, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None)

     Open the file pointed to in text mode, write 'data' to it, and
     close the file:

          >>> p = Path('my_text_file')
          >>> p.write_text('Text file contents')
          18
          >>> p.read_text()
          'Text file contents'

     An existing file of the same name is overwritten.  The optional
     parameters have the same meaning as in *note open(): 32b.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The 'newline' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.write_bytes (data)

     Open the file pointed to in bytes mode, write 'data' to it, and
     close the file:

          >>> p = Path('my_binary_file')
          >>> p.write_bytes(b'Binary file contents')
          20
          >>> p.read_bytes()
          b'Binary file contents'

     An existing file of the same name is overwritten.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Reading directories,  Next: Creating files and directories,  Prev: Reading and writing files,  Up: Concrete paths

5.12.1.13 Reading directories
.............................

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.iterdir ()

     When the path points to a directory, yield path objects of the
     directory contents:

          >>> p = Path('docs')
          >>> for child in p.iterdir(): child
          ...
          PosixPath('docs/conf.py')
          PosixPath('docs/_templates')
          PosixPath('docs/make.bat')
          PosixPath('docs/index.rst')
          PosixPath('docs/_build')
          PosixPath('docs/_static')
          PosixPath('docs/Makefile')

     The children are yielded in arbitrary order, and the special
     entries ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’ are not included.  If a file is removed
     from or added to the directory after creating the iterator, it is
     unspecified whether a path object for that file is included.

     If the path is not a directory or otherwise inaccessible, *note
     OSError: 53c. is raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.glob (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None,
          recurse_symlinks=False)

     Glob the given relative 'pattern' in the directory represented by
     this path, yielding all matching files (of any kind):

          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*.py'))
          [PosixPath('pathlib.py'), PosixPath('setup.py'), PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]
          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('*/*.py'))
          [PosixPath('docs/conf.py')]
          >>> sorted(Path('.').glob('**/*.py'))
          [PosixPath('build/lib/pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('docs/conf.py'),
           PosixPath('pathlib.py'),
           PosixPath('setup.py'),
           PosixPath('test_pathlib.py')]

          Σημείωση: The paths are returned in no particular order.  If
          you need a specific order, sort the results.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note Pattern language: 2e4c. documentation.

     By default, or when the 'case_sensitive' keyword-only argument is
     set to ‘None’, this method matches paths using platform-specific
     casing rules: typically, case-sensitive on POSIX, and
     case-insensitive on Windows.  Set 'case_sensitive' to ‘True’ or
     ‘False’ to override this behaviour.

     By default, or when the 'recurse_symlinks' keyword-only argument is
     set to ‘False’, this method follows symlinks except when expanding
     «‘**’» wildcards.  Set 'recurse_symlinks' to ‘True’ to always
     follow symlinks.

          Σημείωση: Any *note OSError: 53c. exceptions raised from
          scanning the filesystem are suppressed.  This includes *note
          PermissionError: 10f9. when accessing directories without read
          permission.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘pathlib.Path.glob’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘pattern’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The 'case_sensitive' parameter was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'recurse_symlinks' parameter was
     added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'pattern' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Any *note OSError: 53c. exceptions raised
     from scanning the filesystem are suppressed.  In previous versions,
     such exceptions are suppressed in many cases, but not all.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.rglob (pattern, *, case_sensitive=None,
          recurse_symlinks=False)

     Glob the given relative 'pattern' recursively.  This is like
     calling *note Path.glob(): 73a. with «‘**/’» added in front of the
     'pattern'.

          Σημείωση: The paths are returned in no particular order.  If
          you need a specific order, sort the results.

          Σημείωση: Any *note OSError: 53c. exceptions raised from
          scanning the filesystem are suppressed.  This includes *note
          PermissionError: 10f9. when accessing directories without read
          permission.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note Pattern language: 2e4c. and *note Path.glob(): 73a.
     documentation.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘pathlib.Path.rglob’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘pattern’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The 'case_sensitive' parameter was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'recurse_symlinks' parameter was
     added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'pattern' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.walk (top_down=True, on_error=None,
          follow_symlinks=False)

     Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree
     either top-down or bottom-up.

     For each directory in the directory tree rooted at 'self'
     (including 'self' but excluding “.” and “..”), the method yields a
     3-tuple of ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames)’.

     'dirpath' is a *note Path: 4ee. to the directory currently being
     walked, 'dirnames' is a list of strings for the names of
     subdirectories in 'dirpath' (excluding ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’), and
     'filenames' is a list of strings for the names of the non-directory
     files in 'dirpath'.  To get a full path (which begins with 'self')
     to a file or directory in 'dirpath', do ‘dirpath / name’.  Whether
     or not the lists are sorted is file system-dependent.

     If the optional argument 'top_down' is true (which is the default),
     the triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any
     of its subdirectories (directories are walked top-down).  If
     'top_down' is false, the triple for a directory is generated after
     the triples for all of its subdirectories (directories are walked
     bottom-up).  No matter the value of 'top_down', the list of
     subdirectories is retrieved before the triples for the directory
     and its subdirectories are walked.

     When 'top_down' is true, the caller can modify the 'dirnames' list
     in-place (for example, using *note del: 1d1d. or slice assignment),
     and ‘Path.walk()’ will only recurse into the subdirectories whose
     names remain in 'dirnames'.  This can be used to prune the search,
     or to impose a specific order of visiting, or even to inform
     ‘Path.walk()’ about directories the caller creates or renames
     before it resumes ‘Path.walk()’ again.  Modifying 'dirnames' when
     'top_down' is false has no effect on the behavior of ‘Path.walk()’
     since the directories in 'dirnames' have already been generated by
     the time 'dirnames' is yielded to the caller.

     By default, errors from *note os.scandir(): e23. are ignored.  If
     the optional argument 'on_error' is specified, it should be a
     callable; it will be called with one argument, an *note OSError:
     53c. instance.  The callable can handle the error to continue the
     walk or re-raise it to stop the walk.  Note that the filename is
     available as the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception object.

     By default, ‘Path.walk()’ does not follow symbolic links, and
     instead adds them to the 'filenames' list.  Set 'follow_symlinks'
     to true to resolve symlinks and place them in 'dirnames' and
     'filenames' as appropriate for their targets, and consequently
     visit directories pointed to by symlinks (where supported).

          Σημείωση: Be aware that setting 'follow_symlinks' to true can
          lead to infinite recursion if a link points to a parent
          directory of itself.  ‘Path.walk()’ does not keep track of the
          directories it has already visited.

          Σημείωση: ‘Path.walk()’ assumes the directories it walks are
          not modified during execution.  For example, if a directory
          from 'dirnames' has been replaced with a symlink and
          'follow_symlinks' is false, ‘Path.walk()’ will still try to
          descend into it.  To prevent such behavior, remove directories
          from 'dirnames' as appropriate.

          Σημείωση: Unlike *note os.walk(): 8b9, ‘Path.walk()’ lists
          symlinks to directories in 'filenames' if 'follow_symlinks' is
          false.

     This example displays the number of bytes used by all files in each
     directory, while ignoring ‘__pycache__’ directories:

          from pathlib import Path
          for root, dirs, files in Path("cpython/Lib/concurrent").walk(on_error=print):
            print(
                root,
                "consumes",
                sum((root / file).stat().st_size for file in files),
                "bytes in",
                len(files),
                "non-directory files"
            )
            if '__pycache__' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('__pycache__')

     This next example is a simple implementation of *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 335.  Walking the tree bottom-up is essential as
     *note rmdir(): 2e57. doesn’t allow deleting a directory before it
     is empty:

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory "top".
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous! For example, if top == Path('/'),
          # it could delete all of your files.
          for root, dirs, files in top.walk(top_down=False):
              for name in files:
                  (root / name).unlink()
              for name in dirs:
                  (root / name).rmdir()

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating files and directories,  Next: Copying moving and deleting,  Prev: Reading directories,  Up: Concrete paths

5.12.1.14 Creating files and directories
........................................

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.touch (mode=0o666, exist_ok=True)

     Create a file at this given path.  If 'mode' is given, it is
     combined with the process’s ‘umask’ value to determine the file
     mode and access flags.  If the file already exists, the function
     succeeds when 'exist_ok' is true (and its modification time is
     updated to the current time), otherwise *note FileExistsError:
     13c9. is raised.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note open(): 2e55, *note write_text(): 11f5. and *note
     write_bytes(): 11f7. methods are often used to create files.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.mkdir (mode=0o777, parents=False, exist_ok=False)

     Create a new directory at this given path.  If 'mode' is given, it
     is combined with the process’s ‘umask’ value to determine the file
     mode and access flags.  If the path already exists, *note
     FileExistsError: 13c9. is raised.

     If 'parents' is true, any missing parents of this path are created
     as needed; they are created with the default permissions without
     taking 'mode' into account (mimicking the POSIX ‘mkdir -p’
     command).

     If 'parents' is false (the default), a missing parent raises *note
     FileNotFoundError: 243.

     If 'exist_ok' is false (the default), *note FileExistsError: 13c9.
     is raised if the target directory already exists.

     If 'exist_ok' is true, *note FileExistsError: 13c9. will not be
     raised unless the given path already exists in the file system and
     is not a directory (same behavior as the POSIX ‘mkdir -p’ command).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'exist_ok' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.symlink_to (target, target_is_directory=False)

     Make this path a symbolic link pointing to 'target'.

     On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and
     does not morph to the target dynamically.  If the target is
     present, the type of the symlink will be created to match.
     Otherwise, the symlink will be created as a directory if
     'target_is_directory' is true or a file symlink (the default)
     otherwise.  On non-Windows platforms, 'target_is_directory' is
     ignored.

          >>> p = Path('mylink')
          >>> p.symlink_to('setup.py')
          >>> p.resolve()
          PosixPath('/home/antoine/pathlib/setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_size
          956
          >>> p.lstat().st_size
          8

          Σημείωση: The order of arguments (link, target) is the reverse
          of *note os.symlink(): 14a0.”s.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 736. if
     *note os.symlink(): 14a0. is not available.  In previous versions,
     *note NotImplementedError: 59a. was raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.hardlink_to (target)

     Make this path a hard link to the same file as 'target'.

          Σημείωση: The order of arguments (link, target) is the reverse
          of *note os.link(): 149b.”s.

     Added in version 3.10.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 736. if
     *note os.link(): 149b. is not available.  In previous versions,
     *note NotImplementedError: 59a. was raised.


File: python.info,  Node: Copying moving and deleting,  Next: Permissions and ownership,  Prev: Creating files and directories,  Up: Concrete paths

5.12.1.15 Copying, moving and deleting
......................................

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.copy (target, *, follow_symlinks=True,
          preserve_metadata=False)

     Copy this file or directory tree to the given 'target', and return
     a new ‘Path’ instance pointing to 'target'.

     If the source is a file, the target will be replaced if it is an
     existing file.  If the source is a symlink and 'follow_symlinks' is
     true (the default), the symlink’s target is copied.  Otherwise, the
     symlink is recreated at the destination.

     If 'preserve_metadata' is false (the default), only directory
     structures and file data are guaranteed to be copied.  Set
     'preserve_metadata' to true to ensure that file and directory
     permissions, flags, last access and modification times, and
     extended attributes are copied where supported.  This argument has
     no effect when copying files on Windows (where metadata is always
     preserved).

          Σημείωση: Where supported by the operating system and file
          system, this method performs a lightweight copy, where data
          blocks are only copied when modified.  This is known as
          copy-on-write.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.copy_into (target_dir, *, follow_symlinks=True,
          preserve_metadata=False)

     Copy this file or directory tree into the given 'target_dir', which
     should be an existing directory.  Other arguments are handled
     identically to *note Path.copy(): 4ef.  Returns a new ‘Path’
     instance pointing to the copy.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.rename (target)

     Rename this file or directory to the given 'target', and return a
     new ‘Path’ instance pointing to 'target'.  On Unix, if 'target'
     exists and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user has
     permission.  On Windows, if 'target' exists, *note FileExistsError:
     13c9. will be raised.  'target' can be either a string or another
     path object:

          >>> p = Path('foo')
          >>> p.open('w').write('some text')
          9
          >>> target = Path('bar')
          >>> p.rename(target)
          PosixPath('bar')
          >>> target.open().read()
          'some text'

     The target path may be absolute or relative.  Relative paths are
     interpreted relative to the current working directory, 'not' the
     directory of the ‘Path’ object.

     It is implemented in terms of *note os.rename(): 149d. and gives
     the same guarantees.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added return value, return the new ‘Path’
     instance.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.replace (target)

     Rename this file or directory to the given 'target', and return a
     new ‘Path’ instance pointing to 'target'.  If 'target' points to an
     existing file or empty directory, it will be unconditionally
     replaced.

     The target path may be absolute or relative.  Relative paths are
     interpreted relative to the current working directory, 'not' the
     directory of the ‘Path’ object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added return value, return the new ‘Path’
     instance.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.move (target)

     Move this file or directory tree to the given 'target', and return
     a new ‘Path’ instance pointing to 'target'.

     If the 'target' doesn’t exist it will be created.  If both this
     path and the 'target' are existing files, then the target is
     overwritten.  If both paths point to the same file or directory, or
     the 'target' is a non-empty directory, then *note OSError: 53c. is
     raised.

     If both paths are on the same filesystem, the move is performed
     with *note os.replace(): 149e.  Otherwise, this path is copied
     (preserving metadata and symlinks) and then deleted.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.move_into (target_dir)

     Move this file or directory tree into the given 'target_dir', which
     should be an existing directory.  Returns a new ‘Path’ instance
     pointing to the moved path.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.unlink (missing_ok=False)

     Remove this file or symbolic link.  If the path points to a
     directory, use *note Path.rmdir(): 2e57. instead.

     If 'missing_ok' is false (the default), *note FileNotFoundError:
     243. is raised if the path does not exist.

     If 'missing_ok' is true, *note FileNotFoundError: 243. exceptions
     will be ignored (same behavior as the POSIX ‘rm -f’ command).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'missing_ok' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.rmdir ()

     Remove this directory.  The directory must be empty.


File: python.info,  Node: Permissions and ownership,  Prev: Copying moving and deleting,  Up: Concrete paths

5.12.1.16 Permissions and ownership
...................................

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.owner (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return the name of the user owning the file.  *note KeyError: 7df.
     is raised if the file’s user identifier (UID) isn’t found in the
     system database.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to get the owner of the
     symlink, add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 736. if
     the *note pwd: ba. module is not available.  In earlier versions,
     *note NotImplementedError: 59a. was raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.group (*, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return the name of the group owning the file.  *note KeyError: 7df.
     is raised if the file’s group identifier (GID) isn’t found in the
     system database.

     This method normally follows symlinks; to get the group of the
     symlink, add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Raises *note UnsupportedOperation: 736. if
     the *note grp: 69. module is not available.  In earlier versions,
     *note NotImplementedError: 59a. was raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.chmod (mode, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Change the file mode and permissions, like *note os.chmod(): 72c.

     This method normally follows symlinks.  Some Unix flavours support
     changing permissions on the symlink itself; on these platforms you
     may add the argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’, or use *note
     lchmod(): 2e5d.

          >>> p = Path('setup.py')
          >>> p.stat().st_mode
          33277
          >>> p.chmod(0o444)
          >>> p.stat().st_mode
          33060

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The 'follow_symlinks' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.lchmod (mode)

     Like *note Path.chmod(): bfd. but, if the path points to a symbolic
     link, the symbolic link’s mode is changed rather than its target’s.


File: python.info,  Node: Pattern language,  Next: Comparison to the glob module,  Prev: Concrete paths,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.12.1.17 Pattern language
..........................

The following wildcards are supported in patterns for *note
full_match(): 738, *note glob(): 73a. and *note rglob(): 73b.:

‘**’ (entire segment)

     Matches any number of file or directory segments, including zero.

‘*’ (entire segment)

     Matches one file or directory segment.

‘*’ (part of a segment)

     Matches any number of non-separator characters, including zero.

‘?’

     Matches one non-separator character.

‘[seq]’

     Matches one character in 'seq', where 'seq' is a sequence of
     characters.  Range expressions are supported; for example, ‘[a-z]’
     matches any lowercase ASCII letter.  Multiple ranges can be
     combined: ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’ matches any ASCII letter, digit, or
     underscore.

‘[!seq]’

     Matches one character not in 'seq', where 'seq' follows the same
     rules as above.

For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets.  For example,
‘"[?]"’ matches the character ‘"?"’.

The «‘**’» wildcard enables recursive globbing.  A few examples:

Pattern                       Meaning
                              
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
«‘**/*’»                      Any path with at least one segment.
                              
                              
«‘**/*.py’»                   Any path with a final segment ending «‘.py’».
                              
                              
«‘assets/**’»                 Any path starting with «‘assets/’».
                              
                              
«‘assets/**/*’»               Any path starting with «‘assets/’», excluding «‘assets/’» itself.
                              

     Σημείωση: Globbing with the «‘**’» wildcard visits every directory
     in the tree.  Large directory trees may take a long time to search.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Globbing with a pattern that ends with «‘**’»
returns both files and directories.  In previous versions, only
directories were returned.

In *note Path.glob(): 73a. and *note rglob(): 73b, a trailing slash may
be added to the pattern to match only directories.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Globbing with a pattern that ends with a
pathname components separator (*note sep: a5a. or *note altsep: a5b.)
returns only directories.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparison to the glob module,  Next: Comparison to the os and os path modules,  Prev: Pattern language,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.12.1.18 Comparison to the ‘glob’ module
.........................................

The patterns accepted and results generated by *note Path.glob(): 73a.
and *note Path.rglob(): 73b. differ slightly from those by the *note
glob: 67. module:

  1. Files beginning with a dot are not special in pathlib.  This is
     like passing ‘include_hidden=True’ to *note glob.glob(): 2d4.

  2. «‘**’» pattern components are always recursive in pathlib.  This is
     like passing ‘recursive=True’ to *note glob.glob(): 2d4.

  3. «‘**’» pattern components do not follow symlinks by default in
     pathlib.  This behaviour has no equivalent in *note glob.glob():
     2d4, but you can pass ‘recurse_symlinks=True’ to *note Path.glob():
     73a. for compatible behaviour.

  4. Like all *note PurePath: 8b6. and *note Path: 4ee. objects, the
     values returned from *note Path.glob(): 73a. and *note
     Path.rglob(): 73b. don’t include trailing slashes.

  5. The values returned from pathlib’s ‘path.glob()’ and ‘path.rglob()’
     include the 'path' as a prefix, unlike the results of
     ‘glob.glob(root_dir=path)’.

  6. The values returned from pathlib’s ‘path.glob()’ and ‘path.rglob()’
     may include 'path' itself, for example when globbing «‘**’»,
     whereas the results of ‘glob.glob(root_dir=path)’ never include an
     empty string that would correspond to 'path'.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparison to the os and os path modules,  Next: Protocols,  Prev: Comparison to the glob module,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.12.1.19 Comparison to the ‘os’ and ‘os.path’ modules
......................................................

pathlib implements path operations using *note PurePath: 8b6. and *note
Path: 4ee. objects, and so it’s said to be 'object-oriented'.  On the
other hand, the *note os: a5. and *note os.path: a6. modules supply
functions that work with low-level ‘str’ and ‘bytes’ objects, which is a
more 'procedural' approach.  Some users consider the object-oriented
style to be more readable.

Many functions in *note os: a5. and *note os.path: a6. support ‘bytes’
paths and *note paths relative to directory descriptors: 1496.  These
features aren’t available in pathlib.

Python’s ‘str’ and ‘bytes’ types, and portions of the *note os: a5. and
*note os.path: a6. modules, are written in C and are very speedy.
pathlib is written in pure Python and is often slower, but rarely slow
enough to matter.

pathlib’s path normalization is slightly more opinionated and consistent
than *note os.path: a6.  For example, whereas *note os.path.abspath():
16bf. eliminates «‘..’» segments from a path, which may change its
meaning if symlinks are involved, *note Path.absolute(): 1c2e. preserves
these segments for greater safety.

pathlib’s path normalization may render it unsuitable for some
applications:

  1. pathlib normalizes ‘Path("my_folder/")’ to ‘Path("my_folder")’,
     which changes a path’s meaning when supplied to various operating
     system APIs and command-line utilities.  Specifically, the absence
     of a trailing separator may allow the path to be resolved as either
     a file or directory, rather than a directory only.

  2. pathlib normalizes ‘Path("./my_program")’ to ‘Path("my_program")’,
     which changes a path’s meaning when used as an executable search
     path, such as in a shell or when spawning a child process.
     Specifically, the absence of a separator in the path may force it
     to be looked up in ‘PATH’ rather than the current directory.

As a consequence of these differences, pathlib is not a drop-in
replacement for *note os.path: a6.

* Menu:

* Corresponding tools::


File: python.info,  Node: Corresponding tools,  Up: Comparison to the os and os path modules

5.12.1.20 Corresponding tools
.............................

Below is a table mapping various *note os: a5. functions to their
corresponding *note PurePath: 8b6./*note Path: 4ee. equivalent.

*note os: a5. and *note os.path: a6.      ‘pathlib’
                                          
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                          
*note os.path.dirname(): 2e62.            *note PurePath.parent: 1ca1.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.basename(): 2e63.           *note PurePath.name: 2e48.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.splitext(): 1b6d.           *note PurePath.stem: 2e49,
                                          *note PurePath.suffix: 1b6b.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.join(): 1a42.               *note PurePath.joinpath(): 2e4b.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isabs(): 734.               *note PurePath.is_absolute(): 1ca0.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.relpath(): 8ba.             *note PurePath.relative_to(): 575. (1)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.expanduser(): dd8.          *note Path.expanduser(): 11f3. (2)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.realpath(): 241.            *note Path.resolve(): 1c73.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.abspath(): 16bf.            *note Path.absolute(): 1c2e. (3)
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.exists(): dd2.              *note Path.exists(): dda.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isfile(): dd5.              *note Path.is_file(): 73c.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isdir(): dd4.               *note Path.is_dir(): 73d.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.islink(): dd0.              *note Path.is_symlink(): ddc.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.isjunction(): 8b3.          *note Path.is_junction(): 8bb.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.ismount(): dd6.             *note Path.is_mount(): ddb.
                                          
                                          
*note os.path.samefile(): 131b.           *note Path.samefile(): 11f1.
                                          
                                          
*note os.getcwd(): 1b26.                  *note Path.cwd(): 1c9f.
                                          
                                          
*note os.stat(): 4f5.                     *note Path.stat(): bfc.
                                          
                                          
*note os.lstat(): 8b1.                    *note Path.lstat(): 2e53.
                                          
                                          
*note os.listdir(): 14a6.                 *note Path.iterdir(): 4f6.
                                          
                                          
*note os.walk(): 8b9.                     *note Path.walk(): 8b8. (4)
                                          
                                          
*note os.mkdir(): 72e,                    *note Path.mkdir(): 11f2.
*note os.makedirs(): 72f.                 

*note os.link(): 149b.                    *note Path.hardlink_to(): bfa.
                                          
                                          
*note os.symlink(): 14a0.                 *note Path.symlink_to(): bfb.
                                          
                                          
*note os.readlink(): ced.                 *note Path.readlink(): cec.
                                          
                                          
*note os.rename(): 149d.                  *note Path.rename(): 1ab5.
                                          
                                          
*note os.replace(): 149e.                 *note Path.replace(): 2e5b.
                                          
                                          
*note os.remove(): 149c,                  *note Path.unlink(): 1fc4.
*note os.unlink(): 14a1.                  

*note os.rmdir(): 149f.                   *note Path.rmdir(): 2e57.
                                          
                                          
*note os.chmod(): 72c.                    *note Path.chmod(): bfd.
                                          
                                          
*note os.lchmod(): 72b.                   *note Path.lchmod(): 2e5d.
                                          

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) *note os.path.relpath(): 8ba. calls *note abspath(): 16bf. to
make paths absolute and remove «‘..’» parts, whereas *note
PurePath.relative_to(): 575. is a lexical operation that raises *note
ValueError: 277. when its inputs” anchors differ (e.g.  if one path is
absolute and the other relative.)

   (2) *note os.path.expanduser(): dd8. returns the path unchanged if
the home directory can’t be resolved, whereas *note Path.expanduser():
11f3. raises *note RuntimeError: 30d.

   (3) *note os.path.abspath(): 16bf. removes «‘..’» components without
resolving symlinks, which may change the meaning of the path, whereas
*note Path.absolute(): 1c2e. leaves any «‘..’» components in the path.

   (4) *note os.walk(): 8b9. always follows symlinks when categorizing
paths into 'dirnames' and 'filenames', whereas *note Path.walk(): 8b8.
categorizes all symlinks into 'filenames' when 'follow_symlinks' is
false (the default.)


File: python.info,  Node: Protocols,  Prev: Comparison to the os and os path modules,  Up: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

5.12.1.21 Protocols
...................

The ‘pathlib.types’ module provides types for static type checking.

Added in version 3.14.

 -- Κλάση: pathlib.types.PathInfo

     A *note typing.Protocol: 76c. describing the *note Path.info: 4f3.
     attribute.  Implementations may return cached results from their
     methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: exists (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Return ‘True’ if the path is an existing file or directory, or
          any other kind of file; return ‘False’ if the path doesn’t
          exist.

          If 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’, return ‘True’ for symlinks
          without checking if their targets exist.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_dir (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Return ‘True’ if the path is a directory, or a symbolic link
          pointing to a directory; return ‘False’ if the path is (or
          points to) any other kind of file, or if it doesn’t exist.

          If 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’, return ‘True’ only if the
          path is a directory (without following symlinks); return
          ‘False’ if the path is any other kind of file, or if it
          doesn’t exist.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_file (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Return ‘True’ if the path is a file, or a symbolic link
          pointing to a file; return ‘False’ if the path is (or points
          to) a directory or other non-file, or if it doesn’t exist.

          If 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’, return ‘True’ only if the
          path is a file (without following symlinks); return ‘False’ if
          the path is a directory or other non-file, or if it doesn’t
          exist.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_symlink ()

          Return ‘True’ if the path is a symbolic link (even if broken);
          return ‘False’ if the path is a directory or any kind of file,
          or if it doesn’t exist.


File: python.info,  Node: os path — Common pathname manipulations,  Next: stat — Interpreting stat results,  Prev: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.12.2 ‘os.path’ — Common pathname manipulations
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/genericpath.py(1), Lib/posixpath.py(2) (for POSIX)
and Lib/ntpath.py(3) (for Windows).

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements some useful functions on pathnames.  To read or
write files see *note open(): 32b, and for accessing the filesystem see
the *note os: a5. module.  The path parameters can be passed as strings,
or bytes, or any object implementing the *note os.PathLike: 100f.
protocol.

Unlike a Unix shell, Python does not do any 'automatic' path expansions.
Functions such as *note expanduser(): dd8. and *note expandvars(): 177c.
can be invoked explicitly when an application desires shell-like path
expansion.  (See also the *note glob: 67. module.)

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note pathlib: a8. module offers high-level path objects.

     Σημείωση: All of these functions accept either only bytes or only
     string objects as their parameters.  The result is an object of the
     same type, if a path or file name is returned.

     Σημείωση: Since different operating systems have different path
     name conventions, there are several versions of this module in the
     standard library.  The ‘os.path’ module is always the path module
     suitable for the operating system Python is running on, and
     therefore usable for local paths.  However, you can also import and
     use the individual modules if you want to manipulate a path that is
     'always' in one of the different formats.  They all have the same
     interface:

        * ‘posixpath’ for UNIX-style paths

        * ‘ntpath’ for Windows paths

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: *note exists(): dd2, *note lexists(): dd3, *note
isdir(): dd4, *note isfile(): dd5, *note islink(): dd0, and *note
ismount(): dd6. now return ‘False’ instead of raising an exception for
paths that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS level.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.abspath (path)

     Return a normalized absolutized version of the pathname 'path'.  On
     most platforms, this is equivalent to calling
     ‘normpath(join(os.getcwd(), path))’.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note os.path.join(): 1a42. and *note os.path.normpath(): 16be.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.basename (path, /)

     Return the base name of pathname 'path'.  This is the second
     element of the pair returned by passing 'path' to the function
     *note split(): 2e6c.  Note that the result of this function is
     different from the Unix ‘basename’ program; where ‘basename’ for
     ‘'/foo/bar/'’ returns ‘'bar'’, the ‘basename()’ function returns an
     empty string (‘''’).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.commonpath (paths)

     Return the longest common sub-path of each pathname in the iterable
     'paths'.  Raise *note ValueError: 277. if 'paths' contain both
     absolute and relative pathnames, if 'paths' are on different
     drives, or if 'paths' is empty.  Unlike *note commonprefix(): 333,
     this returns a valid path.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a sequence of *note path-like
     objects: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Any iterable can now be passed, rather
     than just sequences.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.commonprefix (list, /)

     Return the longest string prefix (taken character-by-character)
     that is a prefix of all strings in 'list'.  If 'list' is empty,
     return the empty string (‘''’).

          Προειδοποίηση: This function may return invalid paths because
          it works a character at a time.  If you need a 'common path
          prefix', then the algorithm implemented in this function is
          not secure.  Use *note commonpath(): 334. for finding a common
          path prefix.

               >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
               '/usr/l'

               >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib'])
               '/usr'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15: Deprecated in favor of *note
     os.path.commonpath(): 334. for path prefixes.  The *note
     os.path.commonprefix(): 333. function is being deprecated due to
     having a misleading name and module.  The function is not safe to
     use for path prefixes despite being included in a module about path
     manipulation, meaning it is easy to accidentally introduce path
     traversal vulnerabilities into Python programs by using this
     function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.dirname (path, /)

     Return the directory name of pathname 'path'.  This is the first
     element of the pair returned by passing 'path' to the function
     *note split(): 2e6c.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.exists (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' refers to an existing path or an open file
     descriptor.  Returns ‘False’ for broken symbolic links.  On some
     platforms, this function may return ‘False’ if permission is not
     granted to execute *note os.stat(): 4f5. on the requested file,
     even if the 'path' physically exists.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'path' can now be an integer: ‘True’ is
     returned if it is an open file descriptor, ‘False’ otherwise.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.lexists (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' refers to an existing path, including
     broken symbolic links.  Equivalent to *note exists(): dd2. on
     platforms lacking *note os.lstat(): 8b1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.expanduser (path)

     On Unix and Windows, return the argument with an initial component
     of ‘~’ or ‘~user’ replaced by that 'user'’s home directory.

     On Unix, an initial ‘~’ is replaced by the environment variable
     ‘HOME’ if it is set; otherwise the current user’s home directory is
     looked up in the password directory through the built-in module
     *note pwd: ba.  An initial ‘~user’ is looked up directly in the
     password directory.

     On Windows, ‘USERPROFILE’ will be used if set, otherwise a
     combination of ‘HOMEPATH’ and ‘HOMEDRIVE’ will be used.  An initial
     ‘~user’ is handled by checking that the last directory component of
     the current user’s home directory matches ‘USERNAME’, and replacing
     it if so.

     If the expansion fails or if the path does not begin with a tilde,
     the path is returned unchanged.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: No longer uses ‘HOME’ on Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.expandvars (path)

     Return the argument with environment variables expanded.
     Substrings of the form ‘$name’ or ‘${name}’ are replaced by the
     value of environment variable 'name'.  Malformed variable names and
     references to non-existing variables are left unchanged.

     On Windows, ‘%name%’ expansions are supported in addition to
     ‘$name’ and ‘${name}’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.getatime (path, /)

     Return the time of last access of 'path'.  The return value is a
     floating-point number giving the number of seconds since the epoch
     (see the *note time: f7. module).  Raise *note OSError: 53c. if the
     file does not exist or is inaccessible.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.getmtime (path, /)

     Return the time of last modification of 'path'.  The return value
     is a floating-point number giving the number of seconds since the
     epoch (see the *note time: f7. module).  Raise *note OSError: 53c.
     if the file does not exist or is inaccessible.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.getctime (path, /)

     Return the system’s ctime which, on some systems (like Unix) is the
     time of the last metadata change, and, on others (like Windows), is
     the creation time for 'path'.  The return value is a number giving
     the number of seconds since the epoch (see the *note time: f7.
     module).  Raise *note OSError: 53c. if the file does not exist or
     is inaccessible.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.getsize (path, /)

     Return the size, in bytes, of 'path'.  Raise *note OSError: 53c. if
     the file does not exist or is inaccessible.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.isabs (path, /)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' is an absolute pathname.  On Unix, that
     means it begins with a slash, on Windows that it begins with two
     (back)slashes, or a drive letter, colon, and (back)slash together.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note abspath(): 16bf.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: On Windows, returns ‘False’ if the given
     path starts with exactly one (back)slash.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.isfile (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' is an *note existing: dd2. regular file.
     This follows symbolic links, so both *note islink(): dd0. and
     ‘isfile()’ can be true for the same path.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.isdir (path, /)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' is an *note existing: dd2. directory.  This
     follows symbolic links, so both *note islink(): dd0. and ‘isdir()’
     can be true for the same path.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.isjunction (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' refers to an *note existing: dd3. directory
     entry that is a junction.  Always return ‘False’ if junctions are
     not supported on the current platform.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.islink (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' refers to an *note existing: dd2. directory
     entry that is a symbolic link.  Always ‘False’ if symbolic links
     are not supported by the Python runtime.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.ismount (path)

     Return ‘True’ if pathname 'path' is a 'mount point': a point in a
     file system where a different file system has been mounted.  On
     POSIX, the function checks whether 'path'’s parent, ‘`path'/..’, is
     on a different device than 'path', or whether ‘`path'/..’ and
     'path' point to the same i-node on the same device — this should
     detect mount points for all Unix and POSIX variants.  It is not
     able to reliably detect bind mounts on the same filesystem.  On
     Linux systems, it will always return ‘True’ for btrfs subvolumes,
     even if they aren’t mount points.  On Windows, a drive letter root
     and a share UNC are always mount points, and for any other path
     ‘GetVolumePathName’ is called to see if it is different from the
     input path.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added support for detecting non-root mount
     points on Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.isdevdrive (path)

     Return ‘True’ if pathname 'path' is located on a Windows Dev Drive.
     A Dev Drive is optimized for developer scenarios, and offers faster
     performance for reading and writing files.  It is recommended for
     use for source code, temporary build directories, package caches,
     and other IO-intensive operations.

     May raise an error for an invalid path, for example, one without a
     recognizable drive, but returns ‘False’ on platforms that do not
     support Dev Drives.  See the Windows documentation(4) for
     information on enabling and creating Dev Drives.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The function is now available on all
     platforms, and will always return ‘False’ on those that have no
     support for Dev Drives

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.isreserved (path)

     Return ‘True’ if 'path' is a reserved pathname on the current
     system.

     On Windows, reserved filenames include those that end with a space
     or dot; those that contain colons (i.e.  file streams such as
     «name:stream»), wildcard characters (i.e.  ‘'*?"<>'’), pipe, or
     ASCII control characters; as well as DOS device names such as
     «NUL», «CON», «CONIN$», «CONOUT$», «AUX», «PRN», «COM1», and
     «LPT1».

          Σημείωση: This function approximates rules for reserved paths
          on most Windows systems.  These rules change over time in
          various Windows releases.  This function may be updated in
          future Python releases as changes to the rules become broadly
          available.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.join (path, /, *paths)

     Join one or more path segments intelligently.  The return value is
     the concatenation of 'path' and all members of '*paths', with
     exactly one directory separator following each non-empty part,
     except the last.  That is, the result will only end in a separator
     if the last part is either empty or ends in a separator.

     If a segment is an absolute path (which on Windows requires both a
     drive and a root), then all previous segments are ignored and
     joining continues from the absolute path segment.  On Linux, for
     example:

          >>> os.path.join('/home/foo', 'bar')
          '/home/foo/bar'
          >>> os.path.join('/home/foo', '/home/bar')
          '/home/bar'

     On Windows, the drive is not reset when a rooted path segment
     (e.g., ‘r'\foo'’) is encountered.  If a segment is on a different
     drive or is an absolute path, all previous segments are ignored and
     the drive is reset.  For example:

          >>> os.path.join('c:\\', 'foo')
          'c:\\foo'
          >>> os.path.join('c:\\foo', 'd:\\bar')
          'd:\\bar'

     Note that since there is a current directory for each drive,
     ‘os.path.join("c:", "foo")’ represents a path relative to the
     current directory on drive ‘C:’ (‘c:foo’), not ‘c:\foo’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. for
     'path' and 'paths'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.normcase (path, /)

     Normalize the case of a pathname.  On Windows, convert all
     characters in the pathname to lowercase, and also convert forward
     slashes to backward slashes.  On other operating systems, return
     the path unchanged.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.normpath (path)

     Normalize a pathname by collapsing redundant separators and
     up-level references so that ‘A//B’, ‘A/B/’, ‘A/./B’ and
     ‘A/foo/../B’ all become ‘A/B’.  This string manipulation may change
     the meaning of a path that contains symbolic links.  On Windows, it
     converts forward slashes to backward slashes.  To normalize case,
     use *note normcase(): 2e71.

          Σημείωση: On POSIX systems, in accordance with IEEE Std 1003.1
          2013 Edition; 4.13 Pathname Resolution(5), if a pathname
          begins with exactly two slashes, the first component following
          the leading characters may be interpreted in an
          implementation-defined manner, although more than two leading
          characters shall be treated as a single character.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.realpath (path, /, *, strict=False)

     Return the canonical path of the specified filename, eliminating
     any symbolic links encountered in the path (if they are supported
     by the operating system).  On Windows, this function will also
     resolve MS-DOS (also called 8.3) style names such as ‘C:\\PROGRA~1’
     to ‘C:\\Program Files’.

     By default, the path is evaluated up to the first component that
     does not exist, is a symlink loop, or whose evaluation raises *note
     OSError: 53c.  All such components are appended unchanged to the
     existing part of the path.

     Some errors that are handled this way include «access denied», «not
     a directory», or «bad argument to internal function».  Thus, the
     resulting path may be missing or inaccessible, may still contain
     links or loops, and may traverse non-directories.

     This behavior can be modified by keyword arguments:

     If 'strict' is ‘True’, the first error encountered when evaluating
     the path is re-raised.  In particular, *note FileNotFoundError:
     243. is raised if 'path' does not exist, or another *note OSError:
     53c. if it is otherwise inaccessible.  If 'strict' is *note
     ALL_BUT_LAST: 2e72, the last component of the path is allowed to be
     missing, but all other errors are raised.

     If 'strict' is *note os.path.ALLOW_MISSING: 242, errors other than
     *note FileNotFoundError: 243. are re-raised (as with
     ‘strict=True’).  Thus, the returned path will not contain any
     symbolic links, but the named file and some of its parent
     directories may be missing.

          Σημείωση: This function emulates the operating system’s
          procedure for making a path canonical, which differs slightly
          between Windows and UNIX with respect to how links and
          subsequent path components interact.

          Operating system APIs make paths canonical as needed, so it’s
          not normally necessary to call this function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Symbolic links and junctions are now
     resolved on Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The 'strict' parameter was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The *note ALL_BUT_LAST: 2e72. and *note
     ALLOW_MISSING: 242. values for the 'strict' parameter was added.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.path.ALL_BUT_LAST

     Special value used for the 'strict' argument in *note realpath():
     241.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.path.ALLOW_MISSING

     Special value used for the 'strict' argument in *note realpath():
     241.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.relpath (path, start=os.curdir)

     Return a relative filepath to 'path' either from the current
     directory or from an optional 'start' directory.  This is a path
     computation: the filesystem is not accessed to confirm the
     existence or nature of 'path' or 'start'.  On Windows, *note
     ValueError: 277. is raised when 'path' and 'start' are on different
     drives.

     'start' defaults to *note os.curdir: 2e73.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.samefile (path1, path2, /)

     Return ‘True’ if both pathname arguments refer to the same file or
     directory.  This is determined by the device number and i-node
     number and raises an exception if an *note os.stat(): 4f5. call on
     either pathname fails.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added Windows support.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Windows now uses the same implementation as
     all other platforms.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.sameopenfile (fp1, fp2)

     Return ‘True’ if the file descriptors 'fp1' and 'fp2' refer to the
     same file.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added Windows support.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.samestat (stat1, stat2, /)

     Return ‘True’ if the stat tuples 'stat1' and 'stat2' refer to the
     same file.  These structures may have been returned by *note
     os.fstat(): 1145, *note os.lstat(): 8b1, or *note os.stat(): 4f5.
     This function implements the underlying comparison used by *note
     samefile(): 131b. and *note sameopenfile(): 2e74.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added Windows support.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.split (path, /)

     Split the pathname 'path' into a pair, ‘(head, tail)’ where 'tail'
     is the last pathname component and 'head' is everything leading up
     to that.  The 'tail' part will never contain a slash; if 'path'
     ends in a slash, 'tail' will be empty.  If there is no slash in
     'path', 'head' will be empty.  If 'path' is empty, both 'head' and
     'tail' are empty.  Trailing slashes are stripped from 'head' unless
     it is the root (one or more slashes only).  In all cases,
     ‘join(head, tail)’ returns a path to the same location as 'path'
     (but the strings may differ).  Also see the functions *note join():
     1a42, *note dirname(): 2e62. and *note basename(): 2e63.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.splitdrive (path, /)

     Split the pathname 'path' into a pair ‘(drive, tail)’ where 'drive'
     is either a mount point or the empty string.  On systems which do
     not use drive specifications, 'drive' will always be the empty
     string.  In all cases, ‘drive + tail’ will be the same as 'path'.

     On Windows, splits a pathname into drive/UNC sharepoint and
     relative path.

     If the path contains a drive letter, drive will contain everything
     up to and including the colon:

          >>> splitdrive("c:/dir")
          ("c:", "/dir")

     If the path contains a UNC path, drive will contain the host name
     and share:

          >>> splitdrive("//host/computer/dir")
          ("//host/computer", "/dir")

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.splitroot (path, /)

     Split the pathname 'path' into a 3-item tuple ‘(drive, root, tail)’
     where 'drive' is a device name or mount point, 'root' is a string
     of separators after the drive, and 'tail' is everything after the
     root.  Any of these items may be the empty string.  In all cases,
     ‘drive + root + tail’ will be the same as 'path'.

     On POSIX systems, 'drive' is always empty.  The 'root' may be empty
     (if 'path' is relative), a single forward slash (if 'path' is
     absolute), or two forward slashes (implementation-defined per IEEE
     Std 1003.1-2017; 4.13 Pathname Resolution(6).)  For example:

          >>> splitroot('/home/sam')
          ('', '/', 'home/sam')
          >>> splitroot('//home/sam')
          ('', '//', 'home/sam')
          >>> splitroot('///home/sam')
          ('', '/', '//home/sam')

     On Windows, 'drive' may be empty, a drive-letter name, a UNC share,
     or a device name.  The 'root' may be empty, a forward slash, or a
     backward slash.  For example:

          >>> splitroot('C:/Users/Sam')
          ('C:', '/', 'Users/Sam')
          >>> splitroot('//Server/Share/Users/Sam')
          ('//Server/Share', '/', 'Users/Sam')

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.path.splitext (path, /)

     Split the pathname 'path' into a pair ‘(root, ext)’ such that ‘root
     + ext == path’, and the extension, 'ext', is empty or begins with a
     period and contains at most one period.

     If the path contains no extension, 'ext' will be ‘''’:

          >>> splitext('bar')
          ('bar', '')

     If the path contains an extension, then 'ext' will be set to this
     extension, including the leading period.  Note that previous
     periods will be ignored:

          >>> splitext('foo.bar.exe')
          ('foo.bar', '.exe')
          >>> splitext('/foo/bar.exe')
          ('/foo/bar', '.exe')

     Leading periods of the last component of the path are considered to
     be part of the root:

          >>> splitext('.cshrc')
          ('.cshrc', '')
          >>> splitext('/foo/....jpg')
          ('/foo/....jpg', '')

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.path.supports_unicode_filenames

     ‘True’ if arbitrary Unicode strings can be used as file names
     (within limitations imposed by the file system).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/genericpath.py

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/posixpath.py

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/ntpath.py

   (4) https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/dev-drive/

   (5) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_13

   (6) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_13


File: python.info,  Node: stat — Interpreting stat results,  Next: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons,  Prev: os path — Common pathname manipulations,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.12.3 ‘stat’ — Interpreting ‘stat()’ results
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/stat.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘stat’ module defines constants and functions for interpreting the
results of *note os.stat(): 4f5, *note os.fstat(): 1145. and *note
os.lstat(): 8b1. (if they exist).  For complete details about the
‘stat()’, ‘fstat()’ and ‘lstat()’ calls, consult the documentation for
your system.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The stat module is backed by a C implementation.

The ‘stat’ module defines the following functions to test for specific
file types:

 -- Συνάρτηση: stat.S_ISDIR (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a directory.

 -- Συνάρτηση: stat.S_ISCHR (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a character special device
     file.

 -- Συνάρτηση: stat.S_ISBLK (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a block special device file.

 -- Συνάρτηση: stat.S_ISREG (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a regular file.

 -- Συνάρτηση: stat.S_ISFIFO (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a FIFO (named pipe).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stat.S_ISLNK (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a symbolic link.

 -- Συνάρτηση: stat.S_ISSOCK (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a socket.

 -- Συνάρτηση: stat.S_ISDOOR (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a door.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: stat.S_ISPORT (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from an event port.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: stat.S_ISWHT (mode)

     Return non-zero if the mode is from a whiteout.

     Added in version 3.4.

Two additional functions are defined for more general manipulation of
the file’s mode:

 -- Συνάρτηση: stat.S_IMODE (mode)

     Return the portion of the file’s mode that can be set by *note
     os.chmod(): 72c.—that is, the file’s permission bits, plus the
     sticky bit, set-group-id, and set-user-id bits (on systems that
     support them).

 -- Συνάρτηση: stat.S_IFMT (mode)

     Return the portion of the file’s mode that describes the file type
     (used by the ‘S_IS*()’ functions above).

Normally, you would use the ‘os.path.is*()’ functions for testing the
type of a file; the functions here are useful when you are doing
multiple tests of the same file and wish to avoid the overhead of the
‘stat()’ system call for each test.  These are also useful when checking
for information about a file that isn’t handled by *note os.path: a6,
like the tests for block and character devices.

Example:

     import os, sys
     from stat import *

     def walktree(top, callback):
         '''recursively descend the directory tree rooted at top,
            calling the callback function for each regular file'''

         for f in os.listdir(top):
             pathname = os.path.join(top, f)
             mode = os.lstat(pathname).st_mode
             if S_ISDIR(mode):
                 # It's a directory, recurse into it
                 walktree(pathname, callback)
             elif S_ISREG(mode):
                 # It's a file, call the callback function
                 callback(pathname)
             else:
                 # Unknown file type, print a message
                 print('Skipping %s' % pathname)

     def visitfile(file):
         print('visiting', file)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         walktree(sys.argv[1], visitfile)

An additional utility function is provided to convert a file’s mode in a
human readable string:

 -- Συνάρτηση: stat.filemode (mode)

     Convert a file’s mode to a string of the form “-rwxrwxrwx”.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The function supports *note S_IFDOOR: 1364,
     *note S_IFPORT: 1365. and *note S_IFWHT: 1366.

All the variables below are simply symbolic indexes into the 10-tuple
returned by *note os.stat(): 4f5, *note os.fstat(): 1145. or *note
os.lstat(): 8b1.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.ST_MODE

     Inode protection mode.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.ST_INO

     Inode number.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.ST_DEV

     Device inode resides on.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.ST_NLINK

     Number of links to the inode.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.ST_UID

     User id of the owner.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.ST_GID

     Group id of the owner.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.ST_SIZE

     Size in bytes of a plain file; amount of data waiting on some
     special files.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.ST_ATIME

     Time of last access.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.ST_MTIME

     Time of last modification.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.ST_CTIME

     The «ctime» as reported by the operating system.  On some systems
     (like Unix) is the time of the last metadata change, and, on others
     (like Windows), is the creation time (see platform documentation
     for details).

The interpretation of «file size» changes according to the file type.
For plain files this is the size of the file in bytes.  For FIFOs and
sockets under most flavors of Unix (including Linux in particular), the
«size» is the number of bytes waiting to be read at the time of the call
to *note os.stat(): 4f5, *note os.fstat(): 1145, or *note os.lstat():
8b1.; this can sometimes be useful, especially for polling one of these
special files after a non-blocking open.  The meaning of the size field
for other character and block devices varies more, depending on the
implementation of the underlying system call.

The variables below define the flags used in the *note ST_MODE: 1363.
field.

Use of the functions above is more portable than use of the first set of
flags:

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IFSOCK

     Socket.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IFLNK

     Symbolic link.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IFREG

     Regular file.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IFBLK

     Block device.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IFDIR

     Directory.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IFCHR

     Character device.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IFIFO

     FIFO.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IFDOOR

     Door.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IFPORT

     Event port.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IFWHT

     Whiteout.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Σημείωση: *note S_IFDOOR: 1364, *note S_IFPORT: 1365. or *note
     S_IFWHT: 1366. are defined as 0 when the platform does not have
     support for the file types.

The following flags can also be used in the 'mode' argument of *note
os.chmod(): 72c.:

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_ISUID

     Set UID bit.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_ISGID

     Set-group-ID bit.  This bit has several special uses.  For a
     directory it indicates that BSD semantics is to be used for that
     directory: files created there inherit their group ID from the
     directory, not from the effective group ID of the creating process,
     and directories created there will also get the ‘S_ISGID’ bit set.
     For a file that does not have the group execution bit (*note
     S_IXGRP: 2e93.) set, the set-group-ID bit indicates mandatory
     file/record locking (see also *note S_ENFMT: 2e94.).

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_ISVTX

     Sticky bit.  When this bit is set on a directory it means that a
     file in that directory can be renamed or deleted only by the owner
     of the file, by the owner of the directory, or by a privileged
     process.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IRWXU

     Mask for file owner permissions.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IRUSR

     Owner has read permission.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IWUSR

     Owner has write permission.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IXUSR

     Owner has execute permission.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IRWXG

     Mask for group permissions.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IRGRP

     Group has read permission.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IWGRP

     Group has write permission.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IXGRP

     Group has execute permission.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IRWXO

     Mask for permissions for others (not in group).

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IROTH

     Others have read permission.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IWOTH

     Others have write permission.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IXOTH

     Others have execute permission.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_ENFMT

     System V file locking enforcement.  This flag is shared with *note
     S_ISGID: 2e92.: file/record locking is enforced on files that do
     not have the group execution bit (*note S_IXGRP: 2e93.) set.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IREAD

     Unix V7 synonym for *note S_IRUSR: 2e97.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IWRITE

     Unix V7 synonym for *note S_IWUSR: 2e98.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.S_IEXEC

     Unix V7 synonym for *note S_IXUSR: 2e99.

The following flags can be used in the 'flags' argument of *note
os.chflags(): 1499.:

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.UF_SETTABLE

     All user settable flags.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.UF_NODUMP

     Do not dump the file.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.UF_IMMUTABLE

     The file may not be changed.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.UF_APPEND

     The file may only be appended to.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.UF_OPAQUE

     The directory is opaque when viewed through a union stack.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.UF_NOUNLINK

     The file may not be renamed or deleted.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.UF_COMPRESSED

     The file is stored compressed (macOS 10.6+).

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.UF_TRACKED

     Used for handling document IDs (macOS)

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.UF_DATAVAULT

     The file needs an entitlement for reading or writing (macOS 10.13+)

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.UF_HIDDEN

     The file should not be displayed in a GUI (macOS 10.5+).

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.SF_SETTABLE

     All super-user changeable flags

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.SF_SUPPORTED

     All super-user supported flags

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: macOS

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.SF_SYNTHETIC

     All super-user read-only synthetic flags

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: macOS

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.SF_ARCHIVED

     The file may be archived.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.SF_IMMUTABLE

     The file may not be changed.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.SF_APPEND

     The file may only be appended to.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.SF_RESTRICTED

     The file needs an entitlement to write to (macOS 10.13+)

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.SF_NOUNLINK

     The file may not be renamed or deleted.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.SF_SNAPSHOT

     The file is a snapshot file.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.SF_FIRMLINK

     The file is a firmlink (macOS 10.15+)

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.SF_DATALESS

     The file is a dataless object (macOS 10.15+)

     Added in version 3.13.

See the *BSD or macOS systems man page ‘chflags(2)(2)’ for more
information.

On Windows, the following file attribute constants are available for use
when testing bits in the ‘st_file_attributes’ member returned by *note
os.stat(): 4f5.  See the Windows API documentation(3) for more detail on
the meaning of these constants.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL

     Added in version 3.5.

On Windows, the following constants are available for comparing against
the ‘st_reparse_tag’ member returned by *note os.lstat(): 8b1.  These
are well-known constants, but are not an exhaustive list.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK

     Added in version 3.8.

On Linux, the following file attribute constants are available for use
when testing bits in the *note stx_attributes: 2ecd. and *note
stx_attributes_mask: 2ece. members returned by *note os.statx(): 23f.
See the ‘statx(2)(4)’ man page for more detail on the meaning of these
constants.

 -- Δεδομένα: stat.STATX_ATTR_COMPRESSED
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.STATX_ATTR_IMMUTABLE
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.STATX_ATTR_APPEND
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.STATX_ATTR_NODUMP
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.STATX_ATTR_ENCRYPTED
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.STATX_ATTR_AUTOMOUNT
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.STATX_ATTR_MOUNT_ROOT
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.STATX_ATTR_VERITY
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.STATX_ATTR_DAX
 -- Δεδομένα: stat.STATX_ATTR_WRITE_ATOMIC

     Added in version 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/stat.py

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/chflags(2)

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/gg258117.aspx

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/statx(2)


File: python.info,  Node: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons,  Next: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories,  Prev: stat — Interpreting stat results,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.12.4 ‘filecmp’ — File and Directory Comparisons
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/filecmp.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘filecmp’ module defines functions to compare files and directories,
with various optional time/correctness trade-offs.  For comparing files,
see also the *note difflib: 3a. module.

The ‘filecmp’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: filecmp.cmp (f1, f2, shallow=True)

     Compare the files named 'f1' and 'f2', returning ‘True’ if they
     seem equal, ‘False’ otherwise.

     If 'shallow' is true and the *note os.stat(): 4f5. signatures (file
     type, size, and modification time) of both files are identical, the
     files are taken to be equal.

     Otherwise, the files are treated as different if their sizes or
     contents differ.

     Note that no external programs are called from this function,
     giving it portability and efficiency.

     This function uses a cache for past comparisons and the results,
     with cache entries invalidated if the *note os.stat(): 4f5.
     information for the file changes.  The entire cache may be cleared
     using *note clear_cache(): 12e9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: filecmp.cmpfiles (dir1, dir2, common, shallow=True)

     Compare the files in the two directories 'dir1' and 'dir2' whose
     names are given by 'common'.

     Returns three lists of file names: 'match', 'mismatch', 'errors'.
     'match' contains the list of files that match, 'mismatch' contains
     the names of those that don’t, and 'errors' lists the names of
     files which could not be compared.  Files are listed in 'errors' if
     they don’t exist in one of the directories, the user lacks
     permission to read them or if the comparison could not be done for
     some other reason.

     The 'shallow' parameter has the same meaning and default value as
     for *note filecmp.cmp(): 1be6.

     For example, ‘cmpfiles('a', 'b', ['c', 'd/e'])’ will compare ‘a/c’
     with ‘b/c’ and ‘a/d/e’ with ‘b/d/e’.  ‘'c'’ and ‘'d/e'’ will each
     be in one of the three returned lists.

 -- Συνάρτηση: filecmp.clear_cache ()

     Clear the filecmp cache.  This may be useful if a file is compared
     so quickly after it is modified that it is within the mtime
     resolution of the underlying filesystem.

     Added in version 3.4.

* Menu:

* The dircmp class::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/filecmp.py


File: python.info,  Node: The dircmp class,  Up: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons

5.12.4.1 The ‘dircmp’ class
...........................

 -- Κλάση: filecmp.dircmp (a, b, ignore=None, hide=None, *,
          shallow=True)

     Construct a new directory comparison object, to compare the
     directories 'a' and 'b'.  'ignore' is a list of names to ignore,
     and defaults to *note filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES: 12ea.  'hide' is a
     list of names to hide, and defaults to ‘[os.curdir, os.pardir]’.

     The ‘dircmp’ class compares files by doing 'shallow' comparisons as
     described for *note filecmp.cmp(): 1be6. by default using the
     'shallow' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'shallow' parameter.

     The ‘dircmp’ class provides the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: report ()

          Print (to *note sys.stdout: e9c.) a comparison between 'a' and
          'b'.

      -- Μέθοδος: report_partial_closure ()

          Print a comparison between 'a' and 'b' and common immediate
          subdirectories.

      -- Μέθοδος: report_full_closure ()

          Print a comparison between 'a' and 'b' and common
          subdirectories (recursively).

     The ‘dircmp’ class offers a number of interesting attributes that
     may be used to get various bits of information about the directory
     trees being compared.

     Note that via *note __getattr__(): 8e3. hooks, all attributes are
     computed lazily, so there is no speed penalty if only those
     attributes which are lightweight to compute are used.

      -- Ιδιότητα: left

          The directory 'a'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: right

          The directory 'b'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: left_list

          Files and subdirectories in 'a', filtered by 'hide' and
          'ignore'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: right_list

          Files and subdirectories in 'b', filtered by 'hide' and
          'ignore'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: common

          Files and subdirectories in both 'a' and 'b'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: left_only

          Files and subdirectories only in 'a'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: right_only

          Files and subdirectories only in 'b'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: common_dirs

          Subdirectories in both 'a' and 'b'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: common_files

          Files in both 'a' and 'b'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: common_funny

          Names in both 'a' and 'b', such that the type differs between
          the directories, or names for which *note os.stat(): 4f5.
          reports an error.

      -- Ιδιότητα: same_files

          Files which are identical in both 'a' and 'b', using the
          class’s file comparison operator.

      -- Ιδιότητα: diff_files

          Files which are in both 'a' and 'b', whose contents differ
          according to the class’s file comparison operator.

      -- Ιδιότητα: funny_files

          Files which are in both 'a' and 'b', but could not be
          compared.

      -- Ιδιότητα: subdirs

          A dictionary mapping names in *note common_dirs: 2ee8. to
          ‘dircmp’ instances (or MyDirCmp instances if this instance is
          of type MyDirCmp, a subclass of ‘dircmp’).

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Previously entries were always
          ‘dircmp’ instances.  Now entries are the same type as 'self',
          if 'self' is a subclass of ‘dircmp’.

 -- Δεδομένα: filecmp.DEFAULT_IGNORES

     Added in version 3.4.

     List of directories ignored by *note dircmp: 12eb. by default.

Here is a simplified example of using the ‘subdirs’ attribute to search
recursively through two directories to show common different files:

     >>> from filecmp import dircmp
     >>> def print_diff_files(dcmp):
     ...     for name in dcmp.diff_files:
     ...         print("diff_file %s found in %s and %s" % (name, dcmp.left,
     ...               dcmp.right))
     ...     for sub_dcmp in dcmp.subdirs.values():
     ...         print_diff_files(sub_dcmp)
     ...
     >>> dcmp = dircmp('dir1', 'dir2')
     >>> print_diff_files(dcmp)


File: python.info,  Node: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories,  Next: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion,  Prev: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.12.5 ‘tempfile’ — Generate temporary files and directories
------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tempfile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module creates temporary files and directories.  It works on all
supported platforms.  *note TemporaryFile: 1a0d, *note
NamedTemporaryFile: 8d6, *note TemporaryDirectory: 15da, and *note
SpooledTemporaryFile: a82. are high-level interfaces which provide
automatic cleanup and can be used as *note context managers: 478.  *note
mkstemp(): 2ef1. and *note mkdtemp(): 730. are lower-level functions
which require manual cleanup.

All the user-callable functions and constructors take additional
arguments which allow direct control over the location and name of
temporary files and directories.  Files names used by this module
include a string of random characters which allows those files to be
securely created in shared temporary directories.  To maintain backward
compatibility, the argument order is somewhat odd; it is recommended to
use keyword arguments for clarity.

The module defines the following user-callable items:

 -- Συνάρτηση: tempfile.TemporaryFile (mode='w+b', buffering=-1,
          encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, *, errors=None)

     Return a *note file-like object: 19b1. that can be used as a
     temporary storage area.  The file is created securely, using the
     same rules as *note mkstemp(): 2ef1.  It will be destroyed as soon
     as it is closed (including an implicit close when the object is
     garbage collected).  Under Unix, the directory entry for the file
     is either not created at all or is removed immediately after the
     file is created.  Other platforms do not support this; your code
     should not rely on a temporary file created using this function
     having or not having a visible name in the file system.

     The resulting object can be used as a *note context manager: 478.
     (see *note Examples: 2ef2.).  On completion of the context or
     destruction of the file object the temporary file will be removed
     from the filesystem.

     The 'mode' parameter defaults to ‘'w+b'’ so that the file created
     can be read and written without being closed.  Binary mode is used
     so that it behaves consistently on all platforms without regard for
     the data that is stored.  'buffering', 'encoding', 'errors' and
     'newline' are interpreted as for *note open(): 32b.

     The 'dir', 'prefix' and 'suffix' parameters have the same meaning
     and defaults as with *note mkstemp(): 2ef1.

     The returned object is a true file object on POSIX platforms.  On
     other platforms, it is a file-like object whose ‘file’ attribute is
     the underlying true file object.

     The *note os.O_TMPFILE: 131d. flag is used if it is available and
     works (Linux-specific, requires Linux kernel 3.11 or later).

     On platforms that are neither Posix nor Cygwin, TemporaryFile is an
     alias for NamedTemporaryFile.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘tempfile.mkstemp’ with
     argument ‘fullpath’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The *note os.O_TMPFILE: 131d. flag is now
     used if available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added 'errors' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile (mode='w+b', buffering=-1,
          encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, delete=True, *, errors=None, delete_on_close=True)

     This function operates exactly as *note TemporaryFile(): 1a0d.
     does, except the following differences:

        * This function returns a file that is guaranteed to have a
          visible name in the file system.

        * To manage the named file, it extends the parameters of *note
          TemporaryFile(): 1a0d. with 'delete' and 'delete_on_close'
          parameters that determine whether and how the named file
          should be automatically deleted.

     The returned object is always a *note file-like object: 19b1. whose
     ‘file’ attribute is the underlying true file object.  This
     file-like object can be used in a *note with: 20a. statement, just
     like a normal file.  The name of the temporary file can be
     retrieved from the ‘name’ attribute of the returned file-like
     object.  On Unix, unlike with the *note TemporaryFile(): 1a0d, the
     directory entry does not get unlinked immediately after the file
     creation.

     If 'delete' is true (the default) and 'delete_on_close' is true
     (the default), the file is deleted as soon as it is closed.  If
     'delete' is true and 'delete_on_close' is false, the file is
     deleted on context manager exit only, or else when the *note
     file-like object: 19b1. is finalized.  Deletion is not always
     guaranteed in this case (see *note object.__del__(): 13a6.).  If
     'delete' is false, the value of 'delete_on_close' is ignored.

     Therefore to use the name of the temporary file to reopen the file
     after closing it, either make sure not to delete the file upon
     closure (set the 'delete' parameter to be false) or, in case the
     temporary file is created in a *note with: 20a. statement, set the
     'delete_on_close' parameter to be false.  The latter approach is
     recommended as it provides assistance in automatic cleaning of the
     temporary file upon the context manager exit.

     Opening the temporary file again by its name while it is still open
     works as follows:

        * On POSIX the file can always be opened again.

        * On Windows, make sure that at least one of the following
          conditions are fulfilled:

             * 'delete' is false

             * additional open shares delete access (e.g.  by calling
               *note os.open(): 114b. with the flag ‘O_TEMPORARY’)

             * 'delete' is true but 'delete_on_close' is false.  Note,
               that in this case the additional opens that do not share
               delete access (e.g.  created via builtin *note open():
               32b.) must be closed before exiting the context manager,
               else the *note os.unlink(): 14a1. call on context manager
               exit will fail with a *note PermissionError: 10f9.

     On Windows, if 'delete_on_close' is false, and the file is created
     in a directory for which the user lacks delete access, then the
     *note os.unlink(): 14a1. call on exit of the context manager will
     fail with a *note PermissionError: 10f9.  This cannot happen when
     'delete_on_close' is true because delete access is requested by the
     open, which fails immediately if the requested access is not
     granted.

     On POSIX (only), a process that is terminated abruptly with SIGKILL
     cannot automatically delete any NamedTemporaryFiles it created.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘tempfile.mkstemp’ with
     argument ‘fullpath’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added 'errors' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added 'delete_on_close' parameter.

 -- Κλάση: tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile (max_size=0, mode='w+b',
          buffering=-1, encoding=None, newline=None, suffix=None,
          prefix=None, dir=None, *, errors=None)

     This class operates exactly as *note TemporaryFile(): 1a0d. does,
     except that data is spooled in memory until the file size exceeds
     'max_size', or until the file’s *note fileno(): 19b2. method is
     called, at which point the contents are written to disk and
     operation proceeds as with ‘TemporaryFile()’.

      -- Μέθοδος: rollover ()

          The resulting file has one additional method, ‘rollover()’,
          which causes the file to roll over to an on-disk file
          regardless of its size.

     The returned object is a file-like object whose ‘_file’ attribute
     is either an *note io.BytesIO: 1255. or *note io.TextIOWrapper:
     b9c. object (depending on whether binary or text 'mode' was
     specified) or a true file object, depending on whether *note
     rollover(): 2ef3. has been called.  This file-like object can be
     used in a *note with: 20a. statement, just like a normal file.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: the truncate method now accepts a 'size'
     argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added 'errors' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Fully implements the *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: a83. and *note io.TextIOBase: a84. abstract base
     classes (depending on whether binary or text 'mode' was specified).

 -- Κλάση: tempfile.TemporaryDirectory (suffix=None, prefix=None,
          dir=None, ignore_cleanup_errors=False, *, delete=True)

     This class securely creates a temporary directory using the same
     rules as *note mkdtemp(): 730.  The resulting object can be used as
     a *note context manager: 478. (see *note Examples: 2ef2.).  On
     completion of the context or destruction of the temporary directory
     object, the newly created temporary directory and all its contents
     are removed from the filesystem.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The directory name can be retrieved from the ‘name’ attribute
          of the returned object.  When the returned object is used as a
          *note context manager: 478, the ‘name’ will be assigned to the
          target of the ‘as’ clause in the *note with: 20a. statement,
          if there is one.

      -- Μέθοδος: cleanup ()

          The directory can be explicitly cleaned up by calling the
          ‘cleanup()’ method.  If 'ignore_cleanup_errors' is true, any
          unhandled exceptions during explicit or implicit cleanup (such
          as a *note PermissionError: 10f9. removing open files on
          Windows) will be ignored, and the remaining removable items
          deleted on a «best-effort» basis.  Otherwise, errors will be
          raised in whatever context cleanup occurs (the ‘cleanup()’
          call, exiting the context manager, when the object is
          garbage-collected or during interpreter shutdown).

     The 'delete' parameter can be used to disable cleanup of the
     directory tree upon exiting the context.  While it may seem unusual
     for a context manager to disable the action taken when exiting the
     context, it can be useful during debugging or when you need your
     cleanup behavior to be conditional based on other logic.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘tempfile.mkdtemp’ with
     argument ‘fullpath’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added 'ignore_cleanup_errors' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added the 'delete' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tempfile.mkstemp (suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None,
          text=False)

     Creates a temporary file in the most secure manner possible.  There
     are no race conditions in the file’s creation, assuming that the
     platform properly implements the *note os.O_EXCL: 1a0e. flag for
     *note os.open(): 114b.  The file is readable and writable only by
     the creating user ID. If the platform uses permission bits to
     indicate whether a file is executable, the file is executable by no
     one.

     The file descriptor is *note not inherited by child processes:
     12aa.

     Unlike *note TemporaryFile(): 1a0d, the user of ‘mkstemp()’ is
     responsible for deleting the temporary file when done with it.

     If 'suffix' is not ‘None’, the file name will end with that suffix,
     otherwise there will be no suffix.  ‘mkstemp()’ does not put a dot
     between the file name and the suffix; if you need one, put it at
     the beginning of 'suffix'.

     If 'prefix' is not ‘None’, the file name will begin with that
     prefix; otherwise, a default prefix is used.  The default is the
     return value of *note gettempprefix(): 2ef6. or *note
     gettempprefixb(): 2ef7, as appropriate.

     If 'dir' is not ‘None’, the file will be created in that directory;
     otherwise, a default directory is used.  The default directory is
     chosen from a platform-dependent list, but the user of the
     application can control the directory location by setting the
     'TMPDIR', 'TEMP' or 'TMP' environment variables.  There is thus no
     guarantee that the generated filename will have any nice
     properties, such as not requiring quoting when passed to external
     commands via ‘os.popen()’.

     If any of 'suffix', 'prefix', and 'dir' are not ‘None’, they must
     be the same type.  If they are bytes, the returned name will be
     bytes instead of str.  If you want to force a bytes return value
     with otherwise default behavior, pass ‘suffix=b''’.

     If 'text' is specified and true, the file is opened in text mode.
     Otherwise, (the default) the file is opened in binary mode.

     ‘mkstemp()’ returns a tuple containing an OS-level handle to an
     open file (as would be returned by *note os.open(): 114b.) and the
     absolute pathname of that file, in that order.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘tempfile.mkstemp’ with
     argument ‘fullpath’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: 'suffix', 'prefix', and 'dir' may now be
     supplied in bytes in order to obtain a bytes return value.  Prior
     to this, only str was allowed.  'suffix' and 'prefix' now accept
     and default to ‘None’ to cause an appropriate default value to be
     used.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The 'dir' parameter now accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tempfile.mkdtemp (suffix=None, prefix=None, dir=None)

     Creates a temporary directory in the most secure manner possible.
     There are no race conditions in the directory’s creation.  The
     directory is readable, writable, and searchable only by the
     creating user ID.

     The user of ‘mkdtemp()’ is responsible for deleting the temporary
     directory and its contents when done with it.

     The 'prefix', 'suffix', and 'dir' arguments are the same as for
     *note mkstemp(): 2ef1.

     ‘mkdtemp()’ returns the absolute pathname of the new directory.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘tempfile.mkdtemp’ with
     argument ‘fullpath’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: 'suffix', 'prefix', and 'dir' may now be
     supplied in bytes in order to obtain a bytes return value.  Prior
     to this, only str was allowed.  'suffix' and 'prefix' now accept
     and default to ‘None’ to cause an appropriate default value to be
     used.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The 'dir' parameter now accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘mkdtemp()’ now always returns an absolute
     path, even if 'dir' is relative.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tempfile.gettempdir ()

     Return the name of the directory used for temporary files.  This
     defines the default value for the 'dir' argument to all functions
     in this module.

     Python searches a standard list of directories to find one which
     the calling user can create files in.  The list is:

       1. The directory named by the ‘TMPDIR’ environment variable.

       2. The directory named by the ‘TEMP’ environment variable.

       3. The directory named by the ‘TMP’ environment variable.

       4. A platform-specific location:

             * On Windows, the directories ‘C:\TEMP’, ‘C:\TMP’, ‘\TEMP’,
               and ‘\TMP’, in that order.

             * On all other platforms, the directories ‘/tmp’,
               ‘/var/tmp’, and ‘/usr/tmp’, in that order.

       5. As a last resort, the current working directory.

     The result of this search is cached, see the description of *note
     tempdir: 1e88. below.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Always returns a str.  Previously it would
     return any *note tempdir: 1e88. value regardless of type so long as
     it was not ‘None’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tempfile.gettempdirb ()

     Same as *note gettempdir(): 1e89. but the return value is in bytes.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tempfile.gettempprefix ()

     Return the filename prefix used to create temporary files.  This
     does not contain the directory component.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tempfile.gettempprefixb ()

     Same as *note gettempprefix(): 2ef6. but the return value is in
     bytes.

     Added in version 3.5.

The module uses a global variable to store the name of the directory
used for temporary files returned by *note gettempdir(): 1e89.  It can
be set directly to override the selection process, but this is
discouraged.  All functions in this module take a 'dir' argument which
can be used to specify the directory.  This is the recommended approach
that does not surprise other unsuspecting code by changing global API
behavior.

 -- Δεδομένα: tempfile.tempdir

     When set to a value other than ‘None’, this variable defines the
     default value for the 'dir' argument to the functions defined in
     this module, including its type, bytes or str.  It cannot be a
     *note path-like object: 79f.

     If ‘tempdir’ is ‘None’ (the default) at any call to any of the
     above functions except *note gettempprefix(): 2ef6. it is
     initialized following the algorithm described in *note
     gettempdir(): 1e89.

          Σημείωση: Beware that if you set ‘tempdir’ to a bytes value,
          there is a nasty side effect: The global default return type
          of *note mkstemp(): 2ef1. and *note mkdtemp(): 730. changes to
          bytes when no explicit ‘prefix’, ‘suffix’, or ‘dir’ arguments
          of type str are supplied.  Please do not write code expecting
          or depending on this.  This awkward behavior is maintained for
          compatibility with the historical implementation.

* Menu:

* Examples: Examples<3>.
* Deprecated functions and variables::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tempfile.py


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<3>,  Next: Deprecated functions and variables,  Up: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories

5.12.5.1 Examples
.................

Here are some examples of typical usage of the ‘tempfile’ module:

     >>> import tempfile

     # create a temporary file and write some data to it
     >>> fp = tempfile.TemporaryFile()
     >>> fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     # read data from file
     >>> fp.seek(0)
     >>> fp.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     # close the file, it will be removed
     >>> fp.close()

     # create a temporary file using a context manager
     >>> with tempfile.TemporaryFile() as fp:
     ...     fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     ...     fp.seek(0)
     ...     fp.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     >>>
     # file is now closed and removed

     # create a temporary file using a context manager
     # close the file, use the name to open the file again
     >>> with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete_on_close=False) as fp:
     ...     fp.write(b'Hello world!')
     ...     fp.close()
     ... # the file is closed, but not removed
     ... # open the file again by using its name
     ...     with open(fp.name, mode='rb') as f:
     ...         f.read()
     b'Hello world!'
     >>>
     # file is now removed

     # create a temporary directory using the context manager
     >>> with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
     ...     print('created temporary directory', tmpdirname)
     >>>
     # directory and contents have been removed


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated functions and variables,  Prev: Examples<3>,  Up: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories

5.12.5.2 Deprecated functions and variables
...........................................

A historical way to create temporary files was to first generate a file
name with the *note mktemp(): 1e27. function and then create a file
using this name.  Unfortunately this is not secure, because a different
process may create a file with this name in the time between the call to
‘mktemp()’ and the subsequent attempt to create the file by the first
process.  The solution is to combine the two steps and create the file
immediately.  This approach is used by *note mkstemp(): 2ef1. and the
other functions described above.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tempfile.mktemp (suffix='', prefix='tmp', dir=None)

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 2.3: Use *note mkstemp(): 2ef1. instead.

     Return an absolute pathname of a file that did not exist at the
     time the call is made.  The 'prefix', 'suffix', and 'dir' arguments
     are similar to those of *note mkstemp(): 2ef1, except that bytes
     file names, ‘suffix=None’ and ‘prefix=None’ are not supported.

          Προειδοποίηση: Use of this function may introduce a security
          hole in your program.  By the time you get around to doing
          anything with the file name it returns, someone else may have
          beaten you to the punch.  ‘mktemp()’ usage can be replaced
          easily with *note NamedTemporaryFile(): 8d6, passing it the
          ‘delete=False’ parameter:

               >>> f = NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False)
               >>> f.name
               '/tmp/tmptjujjt'
               >>> f.write(b"Hello World!\n")
               13
               >>> f.close()
               >>> os.unlink(f.name)
               >>> os.path.exists(f.name)
               False


File: python.info,  Node: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion,  Next: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching,  Prev: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.12.6 ‘glob’ — Unix style pathname pattern expansion
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/glob.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘glob’ module finds pathnames using pattern matching rules similar
to the Unix shell.  No tilde expansion is done, but ‘*’, ‘?’, and
character ranges expressed with ‘[]’ will be correctly matched.  This is
done by using the *note os.scandir(): e23. and *note fnmatch.fnmatch():
1e4b. functions in concert, and not by actually invoking a subshell.

     Σημείωση: The pathnames are returned in no particular order.  If
     you need a specific order, sort the results.

Files beginning with a dot (‘.’) can only be matched by patterns that
also start with a dot, unlike *note fnmatch.fnmatch(): 1e4b. or *note
pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a.  For tilde and shell variable expansion, use
*note os.path.expanduser(): dd8. and *note os.path.expandvars(): 177c.

For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets.  For example,
‘'[?]'’ matches the character ‘'?'’.

The ‘glob’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: glob.glob (pathname, *, root_dir=None, dir_fd=None,
          recursive=False, include_hidden=False)

     Return a possibly empty list of path names that match 'pathname',
     which must be a string containing a path specification.  'pathname'
     can be either absolute (like ‘/usr/src/Python-1.5/Makefile’) or
     relative (like ‘../../Tools/*/*.gif’), and can contain shell-style
     wildcards.  Broken symlinks are included in the results (as in the
     shell).  Whether or not the results are sorted depends on the file
     system.  If a file that satisfies conditions is removed or added
     during the call of this function, whether a path name for that file
     will be included is unspecified.

     If 'root_dir' is not ‘None’, it should be a *note path-like object:
     79f. specifying the root directory for searching.  It has the same
     effect on ‘glob()’ as changing the current directory before calling
     it.  If 'pathname' is relative, the result will contain paths
     relative to 'root_dir'.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496. with the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     If 'recursive' is true, the pattern «‘**’» will match any files and
     zero or more directories, subdirectories and symbolic links to
     directories.  If the pattern is followed by an *note os.sep: a5a.
     or *note os.altsep: a5b. then files will not match.

     If 'include_hidden' is true, «‘**’» pattern will match hidden
     directories.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘glob.glob’ with arguments
     ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘glob.glob/2’ with arguments
     ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’, ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’.

          Σημείωση: Using the «‘**’» pattern in large directory trees
          may consume an inordinate amount of time.

          Σημείωση: This function may return duplicate path names if
          'pathname' contains multiple «‘**’» patterns and 'recursive'
          is true.

          Σημείωση: Any *note OSError: 53c. exceptions raised from
          scanning the filesystem are suppressed.  This includes *note
          PermissionError: 10f9. when accessing directories without read
          permission.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Support for recursive globs using «‘**’».

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd'
     parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'include_hidden' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: glob.iglob (pathname, *, root_dir=None, dir_fd=None,
          recursive=False, include_hidden=False)

     Return an *note iterator: 6ce. which yields the same values as
     *note glob(): 67. without actually storing them all simultaneously.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘glob.glob’ with arguments
     ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘glob.glob/2’ with arguments
     ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’, ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’.

          Σημείωση: This function may return duplicate path names if
          'pathname' contains multiple «‘**’» patterns and 'recursive'
          is true.

          Σημείωση: Any *note OSError: 53c. exceptions raised from
          scanning the filesystem are suppressed.  This includes *note
          PermissionError: 10f9. when accessing directories without read
          permission.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Support for recursive globs using «‘**’».

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd'
     parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'include_hidden' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: glob.escape (pathname)

     Escape all special characters (‘'?'’, ‘'*'’ and ‘'['’).  This is
     useful if you want to match an arbitrary literal string that may
     have special characters in it.  Special characters in drive/UNC
     sharepoints are not escaped, e.g.  on Windows ‘escape('//?/c:/Quo
     vadis?.txt')’ returns ‘'//?/c:/Quo vadis[?].txt'’.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: glob.translate (pathname, *, recursive=False,
          include_hidden=False, seps=None)

     Convert the given path specification to a regular expression for
     use with *note re.prefixmatch(): 24a.  The path specification can
     contain shell-style wildcards.

     For example:

          >>> import glob, re
          >>>
          >>> regex = glob.translate('**/*.txt', recursive=True, include_hidden=True)
          >>> regex
          '(?s:(?:.+/)?[^/]*\\.txt)\\z'
          >>> reobj = re.compile(regex)
          >>> reobj.prefixmatch('foo/bar/baz.txt')
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 15), match='foo/bar/baz.txt'>

     Path separators and segments are meaningful to this function,
     unlike *note fnmatch.translate(): 1a79.  By default wildcards do
     not match path separators, and ‘*’ pattern segments match precisely
     one path segment.

     If 'recursive' is true, the pattern segment «‘**’» will match any
     number of path segments.

     If 'include_hidden' is true, wildcards can match path segments that
     start with a dot (‘.’).

     A sequence of path separators may be supplied to the 'seps'
     argument.  If not given, *note os.sep: a5a. and *note altsep: a5b.
     (if available) are used.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note pathlib.PurePath.full_match(): 738. and *note
     pathlib.Path.glob(): 73a. methods, which call this function to
     implement pattern matching and globbing.

     Added in version 3.13.

* Menu:

* Examples: Examples<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/glob.py


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<4>,  Up: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion

5.12.6.1 Examples
.................

Consider a directory containing the following files: ‘1.gif’, ‘2.txt’,
‘card.gif’ and a subdirectory ‘sub’ which contains only the file
‘3.txt’.  *note glob(): 67. will produce the following results.  Notice
how any leading components of the path are preserved.

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('./[0-9].*')
     ['./1.gif', './2.txt']
     >>> glob.glob('*.gif')
     ['1.gif', 'card.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('?.gif')
     ['1.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('**/*.txt', recursive=True)
     ['2.txt', 'sub/3.txt']
     >>> glob.glob('./**/', recursive=True)
     ['./', './sub/']

If the directory contains files starting with ‘.’ they won’t be matched
by default.  For example, consider a directory containing ‘card.gif’ and
‘.card.gif’:

     >>> import glob
     >>> glob.glob('*.gif')
     ['card.gif']
     >>> glob.glob('.c*')
     ['.card.gif']

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note fnmatch: 5f. module offers shell-style filename (not path)
expansion.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note pathlib: a8. module offers high-level path objects.


File: python.info,  Node: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching,  Next: linecache — Random access to text lines,  Prev: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.12.7 ‘fnmatch’ — Unix filename pattern matching
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/fnmatch.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides support for Unix shell-style wildcards, which are
'not' the same as regular expressions (which are documented in the *note
re: c1. module).  The special characters used in shell-style wildcards
are:

Pattern          Meaning
                 
----------------------------------------------------------
                 
‘*’              matches everything
                 
                 
‘?’              matches any single character
                 
                 
‘[seq]’          matches any character in 'seq'
                 
                 
‘[!seq]’         matches any character not in 'seq'
                 

For a literal match, wrap the meta-characters in brackets.  For example,
‘'[?]'’ matches the character ‘'?'’.

Note that the filename separator (‘'/'’ on Unix) is 'not' special to
this module.  See module *note glob: 67. for pathname expansion (‘glob’
uses *note filter(): 1e4d. to match pathname segments).  Similarly,
filenames starting with a period are not special for this module, and
are matched by the ‘*’ and ‘?’ patterns.

Unless stated otherwise, «filename string» and «pattern string» either
refer to *note str: 1df. or ‘ISO-8859-1’ encoded *note bytes: 1c7.
objects.  Note that the functions documented below do not allow to mix a
‘bytes’ pattern with a ‘str’ filename, and vice-versa.

Finally, note that *note functools.lru_cache(): db3. with a 'maxsize' of
32768 is used to cache the (typed) compiled regex patterns in the
following functions: *note fnmatch(): 5f, *note fnmatchcase(): 1e4c,
*note filter(): 1e4d, *note filterfalse(): 4a1.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fnmatch.fnmatch (name, pat)

     Test whether the filename string 'name' matches the pattern string
     'pat', returning ‘True’ or ‘False’.  Both parameters are
     case-normalized using *note os.path.normcase(): 2e71.  *note
     fnmatchcase(): 1e4c. can be used to perform a case-sensitive
     comparison, regardless of whether that’s standard for the operating
     system.

     This example will print all file names in the current directory
     with the extension ‘.txt’:

          import fnmatch
          import os

          for file in os.listdir('.'):
              if fnmatch.fnmatch(file, '*.txt'):
                  print(file)

 -- Συνάρτηση: fnmatch.fnmatchcase (name, pat)

     Test whether the filename string 'name' matches the pattern string
     'pat', returning ‘True’ or ‘False’; the comparison is
     case-sensitive and does not apply *note os.path.normcase(): 2e71.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fnmatch.filter (names, pat)

     Construct a list from those elements of the *note iterable: 15ce.
     of filename strings 'names' that match the pattern string 'pat'.
     It is the same as ‘[n for n in names if fnmatch(n, pat)]’, but
     implemented more efficiently.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fnmatch.filterfalse (names, pat)

     Construct a list from those elements of the *note iterable: 15ce.
     of filename strings 'names' that do not match the pattern string
     'pat'.  It is the same as ‘[n for n in names if not fnmatch(n,
     pat)]’, but implemented more efficiently.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fnmatch.translate (pat)

     Return the shell-style pattern 'pat' converted to a regular
     expression for using with *note re.prefixmatch(): 24a.  The pattern
     is expected to be a *note str: 1df.

     Example:

          >>> import fnmatch, re
          >>>
          >>> regex = fnmatch.translate('*.txt')
          >>> regex
          '(?s:.*\\.txt)\\z'
          >>> reobj = re.compile(regex)
          >>> reobj.prefixmatch('foobar.txt')
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 10), match='foobar.txt'>

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note glob: 67.

     Unix shell-style path expansion.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/fnmatch.py


File: python.info,  Node: linecache — Random access to text lines,  Next: shutil — High-level file operations,  Prev: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.12.8 ‘linecache’ — Random access to text lines
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/linecache.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘linecache’ module allows one to get any line from a Python source
file, while attempting to optimize internally, using a cache, the common
case where many lines are read from a single file.  This is used by the
*note traceback: 107. module to retrieve source lines for inclusion in
the formatted traceback.

The *note tokenize.open(): 2f05. function is used to open files.  This
function uses *note tokenize.detect_encoding(): 19ce. to get the
encoding of the file; in the absence of an encoding token, the file
encoding defaults to UTF-8.

The ‘linecache’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: linecache.getline (filename, lineno, module_globals=None)

     Get line 'lineno' from file named 'filename'.  This function will
     never raise an exception — it will return ‘''’ on errors (the
     terminating newline character will be included for lines that are
     found).

     If 'filename' indicates a frozen module (starting with ‘'<frozen
     '’), the function will attempt to get the real file name from
     ‘module_globals['__file__']’ if 'module_globals' is not ‘None’.

     If a file named 'filename' is not found, the function first checks
     for a PEP 302(2) ‘__loader__’ in 'module_globals'.  If there is
     such a loader and it defines a ‘get_source’ method, then that
     determines the source lines (if ‘get_source()’ returns ‘None’, then
     ‘''’ is returned).  Finally, if 'filename' is a relative filename,
     it is looked up relative to the entries in the module search path,
     ‘sys.path’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Support 'filename' of frozen modules.

 -- Συνάρτηση: linecache.clearcache ()

     Clear the cache.  Use this function if you no longer need lines
     from files previously read using *note getline(): 4cd.

 -- Συνάρτηση: linecache.checkcache (filename=None)

     Check the cache for validity.  Use this function if files in the
     cache may have changed on disk, and you require the updated
     version.  If 'filename' is omitted, it will check all the entries
     in the cache.

 -- Συνάρτηση: linecache.lazycache (filename, module_globals)

     Capture enough detail about a non-file-based module to permit
     getting its lines later via *note getline(): 4cd. even if
     'module_globals' is ‘None’ in the later call.  This avoids doing
     I/O until a line is actually needed, without having to carry the
     module globals around indefinitely.

     Added in version 3.5.

Example:

     >>> import linecache
     >>> linecache.getline(linecache.__file__, 8)
     'import sys\n'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/linecache.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: shutil — High-level file operations,  Prev: linecache — Random access to text lines,  Up: File and Directory Access

5.12.9 ‘shutil’ — High-level file operations
--------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/shutil.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘shutil’ module offers a number of high-level operations on files
and collections of files.  In particular, functions are provided which
support file copying and removal.  For operations on individual files,
see also the *note os: a5. module.

     Προειδοποίηση: Even the higher-level file copying functions (*note
     shutil.copy(): e1e, *note shutil.copy2(): e1f.) cannot copy all
     file metadata.

     On POSIX platforms, this means that file owner and group are lost
     as well as ACLs.  On Mac OS, the resource fork and other metadata
     are not used.  This means that resources will be lost and file type
     and creator codes will not be correct.  On Windows, file owners,
     ACLs and alternate data streams are not copied.

* Menu:

* Directory and files operations::
* Archiving operations::
* Querying the size of the output terminal::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/shutil.py


File: python.info,  Node: Directory and files operations,  Next: Archiving operations,  Up: shutil — High-level file operations

5.12.9.1 Directory and files operations
.......................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.copyfileobj (fsrc, fdst[, length])

     Copy the contents of the *note file-like object: 156c. 'fsrc' to
     the file-like object 'fdst'.  The integer 'length', if given, is
     the buffer size.  In particular, a negative 'length' value means to
     copy the data without looping over the source data in chunks; by
     default the data is read in chunks to avoid uncontrolled memory
     consumption.  Note that if the current file position of the 'fsrc'
     object is not 0, only the contents from the current file position
     to the end of the file will be copied.

     ‘copyfileobj()’ will 'not' guarantee that the destination stream
     has been flushed on completion of the copy.  If you want to read
     from the destination at the completion of the copy operation (for
     example, reading the contents of a temporary file that has been
     copied from a HTTP stream), you must ensure that you have called
     *note flush(): 19fa. or *note close(): 70b. on the file-like object
     before attempting to read the destination file.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.copyfile (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copy the contents (no metadata) of the file named 'src' to a file
     named 'dst' and return 'dst' in the most efficient way possible.
     'src' and 'dst' are *note path-like objects: 79f. or path names
     given as strings.

     'dst' must be the complete target file name; look at *note copy():
     e1e. for a copy that accepts a target directory path.  If 'src' and
     'dst' specify the same file, *note SameFileError: 1347. is raised.

     The destination location must be writable; otherwise, an *note
     OSError: 53c. exception will be raised.  If 'dst' already exists,
     it will be replaced.  Special files such as character or block
     devices and pipes cannot be copied with this function.

     If 'follow_symlinks' is false and 'src' is a symbolic link, a new
     symbolic link will be created instead of copying the file 'src'
     points to.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘shutil.copyfile’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: *note IOError: 13fb. used to be raised
     instead of *note OSError: 53c.  Added 'follow_symlinks' argument.
     Now returns 'dst'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Raise *note SameFileError: 1347. instead of
     *note Error: 1346.  Since the former is a subclass of the latter,
     this change is backward compatible.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be
     used internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See
     *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: e22. section.

 -- Εξαίρεση: shutil.SpecialFileError

     This exception is raised when *note copyfile(): e1d. or *note
     copytree(): ded. attempt to copy a named pipe.

     Added in version 2.7.

 -- Εξαίρεση: shutil.SameFileError

     This exception is raised if source and destination in *note
     copyfile(): e1d. are the same file.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.copymode (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copy the permission bits from 'src' to 'dst'.  The file contents,
     owner, and group are unaffected.  'src' and 'dst' are *note
     path-like objects: 79f. or path names given as strings.  If
     'follow_symlinks' is false, and both 'src' and 'dst' are symbolic
     links, ‘copymode()’ will attempt to modify the mode of 'dst' itself
     (rather than the file it points to).  This functionality is not
     available on every platform; please see *note copystat(): 14da. for
     more information.  If ‘copymode()’ cannot modify symbolic links on
     the local platform, and it is asked to do so, it will do nothing
     and return.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘shutil.copymode’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.copystat (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copy the permission bits, last access time, last modification time,
     and flags from 'src' to 'dst'.  On Linux, ‘copystat()’ also copies
     the «extended attributes» where possible.  The file contents,
     owner, and group are unaffected.  'src' and 'dst' are *note
     path-like objects: 79f. or path names given as strings.

     If 'follow_symlinks' is false, and 'src' and 'dst' both refer to
     symbolic links, ‘copystat()’ will operate on the symbolic links
     themselves rather than the files the symbolic links refer
     to—reading the information from the 'src' symbolic link, and
     writing the information to the 'dst' symbolic link.

          Σημείωση: Not all platforms provide the ability to examine and
          modify symbolic links.  Python itself can tell you what
          functionality is locally available.

             * If ‘os.chmod in os.supports_follow_symlinks’ is ‘True’,
               ‘copystat()’ can modify the permission bits of a symbolic
               link.

             * If ‘os.utime in os.supports_follow_symlinks’ is ‘True’,
               ‘copystat()’ can modify the last access and modification
               times of a symbolic link.

             * If ‘os.chflags in os.supports_follow_symlinks’ is ‘True’,
               ‘copystat()’ can modify the flags of a symbolic link.
               (‘os.chflags’ is not available on all platforms.)

          On platforms where some or all of this functionality is
          unavailable, when asked to modify a symbolic link,
          ‘copystat()’ will copy everything it can.  ‘copystat()’ never
          returns failure.

          Please see *note os.supports_follow_symlinks: 14a4. for more
          information.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘shutil.copystat’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument and
     support for Linux extended attributes.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.copy (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Copies the file 'src' to the file or directory 'dst'.  'src' and
     'dst' should be *note path-like objects: 79f. or strings.  If 'dst'
     specifies a directory, the file will be copied into 'dst' using the
     base filename from 'src'.  If 'dst' specifies a file that already
     exists, it will be replaced.  Returns the path to the newly created
     file.

     If 'follow_symlinks' is false, and 'src' is a symbolic link, 'dst'
     will be created as a symbolic link.  If 'follow_symlinks' is true
     and 'src' is a symbolic link, 'dst' will be a copy of the file
     'src' refers to.

     *note copy(): e1e. copies the file data and the file’s permission
     mode (see *note os.chmod(): 72c.).  Other metadata, like the file’s
     creation and modification times, is not preserved.  To preserve all
     file metadata from the original, use *note copy2(): e1f. instead.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘shutil.copyfile’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘shutil.copymode’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument.  Now
     returns path to the newly created file.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be
     used internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See
     *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: e22. section.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.copy2 (src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Identical to *note copy(): e1e. except that ‘copy2()’ also attempts
     to preserve file metadata.

     When 'follow_symlinks' is false, and 'src' is a symbolic link,
     ‘copy2()’ attempts to copy all metadata from the 'src' symbolic
     link to the newly created 'dst' symbolic link.  However, this
     functionality is not available on all platforms.  On platforms
     where some or all of this functionality is unavailable, ‘copy2()’
     will preserve all the metadata it can; ‘copy2()’ never raises an
     exception because it cannot preserve file metadata.

     ‘copy2()’ uses *note copystat(): 14da. to copy the file metadata.
     Please see ‘copystat()’ for more information about platform support
     for modifying symbolic link metadata.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘shutil.copyfile’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘shutil.copystat’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added 'follow_symlinks' argument, try to
     copy extended file system attributes too (currently Linux only).
     Now returns path to the newly created file.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be
     used internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See
     *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: e22. section.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.ignore_patterns (*patterns)

     This factory function creates a function that can be used as a
     callable for *note copytree(): ded.'s 'ignore' argument, ignoring
     files and directories that match one of the glob-style 'patterns'
     provided.  See the example below.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.copytree (src, dst, symlinks=False, ignore=None,
          copy_function=copy2, ignore_dangling_symlinks=False,
          dirs_exist_ok=False)

     Recursively copy an entire directory tree rooted at 'src' to a
     directory named 'dst' and return the destination directory.  All
     intermediate directories needed to contain 'dst' will also be
     created by default.

     Permissions and times of directories are copied with *note
     copystat(): 14da, individual files are copied using *note copy2():
     e1f.

     If 'symlinks' is true, symbolic links in the source tree are
     represented as symbolic links in the new tree and the metadata of
     the original links will be copied as far as the platform allows; if
     false or omitted, the contents and metadata of the linked files are
     copied to the new tree.

     When 'symlinks' is false, if the file pointed to by the symlink
     doesn’t exist, an exception will be added in the list of errors
     raised in an *note Error: 1346. exception at the end of the copy
     process.  You can set the optional 'ignore_dangling_symlinks' flag
     to true if you want to silence this exception.  Notice that this
     option has no effect on platforms that don’t support *note
     os.symlink(): 14a0.

     If 'ignore' is given, it must be a callable that will receive as
     its arguments the directory being visited by ‘copytree()’, and a
     list of its contents, as returned by *note os.listdir(): 14a6.
     Since ‘copytree()’ is called recursively, the 'ignore' callable
     will be called once for each directory that is copied.  The
     callable must return a sequence of directory and file names
     relative to the current directory (i.e.  a subset of the items in
     its second argument); these names will then be ignored in the copy
     process.  *note ignore_patterns(): 2f0c. can be used to create such
     a callable that ignores names based on glob-style patterns.

     If exception(s) occur, an *note Error: 1346. is raised with a list
     of reasons.

     If 'copy_function' is given, it must be a callable that will be
     used to copy each file.  It will be called with the source path and
     the destination path as arguments.  By default, *note copy2(): e1f.
     is used, but any function that supports the same signature (like
     *note copy(): e1e.) can be used.

     If 'dirs_exist_ok' is false (the default) and 'dst' already exists,
     a *note FileExistsError: 13c9. is raised.  If 'dirs_exist_ok' is
     true, the copying operation will continue if it encounters existing
     directories, and files within the 'dst' tree will be overwritten by
     corresponding files from the 'src' tree.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘shutil.copytree’ with
     arguments ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'copy_function' argument to be
     able to provide a custom copy function.  Added the
     'ignore_dangling_symlinks' argument to silence dangling symlinks
     errors when 'symlinks' is false.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Copy metadata when 'symlinks' is false.
     Now returns 'dst'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be
     used internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See
     *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: e22. section.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the 'dirs_exist_ok' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.rmtree (path, ignore_errors=False, onerror=None,
          *, onexc=None, dir_fd=None)

     Delete an entire directory tree; 'path' must point to a directory
     (but not a symbolic link to a directory).  If 'ignore_errors' is
     true, errors resulting from failed removals will be ignored; if
     false or omitted, such errors are handled by calling a handler
     specified by 'onexc' or 'onerror' or, if both are omitted,
     exceptions are propagated to the caller.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496.

          Σημείωση: On platforms that support the necessary fd-based
          functions a symlink attack resistant version of ‘rmtree()’ is
          used by default.  On other platforms, the ‘rmtree()’
          implementation is susceptible to a symlink attack: given
          proper timing and circumstances, attackers can manipulate
          symlinks on the filesystem to delete files they wouldn’t be
          able to access otherwise.  Applications can use the *note
          rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks: 2f0d. function attribute to
          determine which case applies.

     If 'onexc' is provided, it must be a callable that accepts three
     parameters: 'function', 'path', and 'excinfo'.

     The first parameter, 'function', is the function which raised the
     exception; it depends on the platform and implementation.  The
     second parameter, 'path', will be the path name passed to
     'function'.  The third parameter, 'excinfo', is the exception that
     was raised.  Exceptions raised by 'onexc' will not be caught.

     The deprecated 'onerror' is similar to 'onexc', except that the
     third parameter it receives is the tuple returned from *note
     sys.exc_info(): a7a.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note rmtree example: 2f0e. for an example of handling the removal
     of a directory tree that contains read-only files.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘shutil.rmtree’ with
     arguments ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added a symlink attack resistant version
     that is used automatically if platform supports fd-based functions.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: On Windows, will no longer delete the
     contents of a directory junction before removing the junction.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added the 'onexc' parameter, deprecated
     'onerror'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: ‘rmtree()’ now ignores *note
     FileNotFoundError: 243. exceptions for all but the top-level path.
     Exceptions other than *note OSError: 53c. and subclasses of
     ‘OSError’ are now always propagated to the caller.

      -- Ιδιότητα: rmtree.avoids_symlink_attacks

          Indicates whether the current platform and implementation
          provides a symlink attack resistant version of ‘rmtree()’.
          Currently this is only true for platforms supporting fd-based
          directory access functions.

          Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.move (src, dst, copy_function=copy2)

     Recursively move a file or directory ('src') to another location
     and return the destination.

     If 'dst' is an existing directory or a symlink to a directory, then
     'src' is moved inside that directory.  The destination path in that
     directory must not already exist.

     If 'dst' already exists but is not a directory, it may be
     overwritten depending on *note os.rename(): 149d. semantics.

     If the destination is on the current filesystem, then *note
     os.rename(): 149d. is used.  Otherwise, 'src' is copied to the
     destination using 'copy_function' and then removed.  In case of
     symlinks, a new symlink pointing to the target of 'src' will be
     created as the destination and 'src' will be removed.

     If 'copy_function' is given, it must be a callable that takes two
     arguments, 'src' and the destination, and will be used to copy
     'src' to the destination if *note os.rename(): 149d. cannot be
     used.  If the source is a directory, *note copytree(): ded. is
     called, passing it the 'copy_function'.  The default
     'copy_function' is *note copy2(): e1f.  Using *note copy(): e1e. as
     the 'copy_function' allows the move to succeed when it is not
     possible to also copy the metadata, at the expense of not copying
     any of the metadata.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘shutil.move’ with arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added explicit symlink handling for foreign
     filesystems, thus adapting it to the behavior of GNU’s ‘mv’.  Now
     returns 'dst'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the 'copy_function' keyword argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Platform-specific fast-copy syscalls may be
     used internally in order to copy the file more efficiently.  See
     *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: e22. section.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. for
     both 'src' and 'dst'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.disk_usage (path)

     Return disk usage statistics about the given path as a *note named
     tuple: a3d. with the attributes 'total', 'used' and 'free', which
     are the amount of total, used and free space, in bytes.  'path' may
     be a file or a directory.

          Σημείωση: On Unix filesystems, 'path' must point to a path
          within a 'mounted' filesystem partition.  On those platforms,
          CPython doesn’t attempt to retrieve disk usage information
          from non-mounted filesystems.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: On Windows, 'path' can now be a file or
     directory.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.chown (path, user=None, group=None, *,
          dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

     Change owner 'user' and/or 'group' of the given 'path'.

     'user' can be a system user name or a uid; the same applies to
     'group'.  At least one argument is required.

     See also *note os.chown(): 149a, the underlying function.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘shutil.chown’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘user’, ‘group’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks'
     parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.which (cmd, mode=os.F_OK | os.X_OK, path=None)

     Return the path to an executable which would be run if the given
     'cmd' was called.  If no 'cmd' would be called, return ‘None’.

     'mode' is a permission mask passed to *note os.access(): 1498, by
     default determining if the file exists and is executable.

     'path' is a «‘PATH’ string» specifying the directories to look in,
     delimited by *note os.pathsep: 2322.  When no 'path' is specified,
     the ‘PATH’ environment variable is read from *note os.environ: 4e5,
     falling back to *note os.defpath: 1fd3. if it is not set.

     If 'cmd' contains a directory component, ‘which()’ only checks the
     specified path directly and does not search the directories listed
     in 'path' or in the system’s ‘PATH’ environment variable.

     On Windows, the current directory is prepended to the 'path' if
     'mode' does not include ‘os.X_OK’.  When the 'mode' does include
     ‘os.X_OK’, the Windows API ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW’ will
     be consulted to determine if the current directory should be
     prepended to 'path'.  To avoid consulting the current working
     directory for executables: set the environment variable
     ‘NoDefaultCurrentDirectoryInExePath’.

     Also on Windows, the ‘PATHEXT’ environment variable is used to
     resolve commands that may not already include an extension.  For
     example, if you call ‘shutil.which("python")’, ‘which()’ will
     search ‘PATHEXT’ to know that it should look for ‘python.exe’
     within the 'path' directories.  For example, on Windows:

          >>> shutil.which("python")
          'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'

     This is also applied when 'cmd' is a path that contains a directory
     component:

          >>> shutil.which("C:\\Python33\\python")
          'C:\\Python33\\python.EXE'

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The *note bytes: 1c7. type is now accepted.
     If 'cmd' type is ‘bytes’, the result type is also ‘bytes’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: On Windows, the current directory is no
     longer prepended to the search path if 'mode' includes ‘os.X_OK’
     and WinAPI ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW(cmd)’ is false, else
     the current directory is prepended even if it is already in the
     search path; ‘PATHEXT’ is used now even when 'cmd' includes a
     directory component or ends with an extension that is in ‘PATHEXT’;
     and filenames that have no extension can now be found.

 -- Εξαίρεση: shutil.Error

     Subclass of *note OSError: 53c. collecting exceptions raised during
     a multi-file operation.  For *note copytree(): ded, the exception
     argument is a list of 3-tuples ('srcname', 'dstname', 'exception').

* Menu:

* Platform-dependent efficient copy operations::
* copytree example::
* rmtree example::


File: python.info,  Node: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations,  Next: copytree example,  Up: Directory and files operations

5.12.9.2 Platform-dependent efficient copy operations
.....................................................

Starting from Python 3.8, all functions involving a file copy (*note
copyfile(): e1d, *note copy(): e1e, *note copy2(): e1f, *note
copytree(): ded, and *note move(): e20.) may use platform-specific
«fast-copy» syscalls in order to copy the file more efficiently (see
bpo-33671(1)).  «fast-copy» means that the copying operation occurs
within the kernel, avoiding the use of userspace buffers in Python as in
«‘outfd.write(infd.read())’».

On macOS fcopyfile(2) is used to copy the file content (not metadata).

On Linux *note os.copy_file_range(): 1ad5. or *note os.sendfile(): ed3.
is used.

On Solaris *note os.sendfile(): ed3. is used.

On Windows *note shutil.copyfile(): e1d. uses a bigger default buffer
size (1 MiB instead of 64 KiB) and a *note memoryview(): 1d2.-based
variant of *note shutil.copyfileobj(): e21. is used, which still reads
and writes in a loop.  *note shutil.copy2(): e1f. uses the native
‘CopyFile2’ call on Windows, which is the most efficient method,
supports copy-on-write, and preserves metadata.

If the fast-copy operation fails and no data was written in the
destination file then shutil will silently fall back to less efficient
*note copyfileobj(): e21. function internally.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Solaris now uses *note os.sendfile(): ed3.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Copy-on-write or server-side copy may be used
internally via *note os.copy_file_range(): 1ad5. on supported Linux
filesystems.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671

   (2) http://www.manpagez.com/man/3/copyfile/


File: python.info,  Node: copytree example,  Next: rmtree example,  Prev: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations,  Up: Directory and files operations

5.12.9.3 copytree example
.........................

An example that uses the *note ignore_patterns(): 2f0c. helper:

     from shutil import copytree, ignore_patterns

     copytree(source, destination, ignore=ignore_patterns('*.pyc', 'tmp*'))

This will copy everything except ‘.pyc’ files and files or directories
whose name starts with ‘tmp’.

Another example that uses the 'ignore' argument to add a logging call:

     from shutil import copytree
     import logging

     def _logpath(path, names):
         logging.info('Working in %s', path)
         return []   # nothing will be ignored

     copytree(source, destination, ignore=_logpath)


File: python.info,  Node: rmtree example,  Prev: copytree example,  Up: Directory and files operations

5.12.9.4 rmtree example
.......................

This example shows how to remove a directory tree on Windows where some
of the files have their read-only bit set.  It uses the onexc callback
to clear the readonly bit and reattempt the remove.  Any subsequent
failure will propagate.

     import os, stat
     import shutil

     def remove_readonly(func, path, _):
         "Clear the readonly bit and reattempt the removal"
         os.chmod(path, stat.S_IWRITE)
         func(path)

     shutil.rmtree(directory, onexc=remove_readonly)


File: python.info,  Node: Archiving operations,  Next: Querying the size of the output terminal,  Prev: Directory and files operations,  Up: shutil — High-level file operations

5.12.9.5 Archiving operations
.............................

Added in version 3.2.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support for the 'xztar' format.

High-level utilities to create and read compressed and archived files
are also provided.  They rely on the *note zipfile: 13a. and *note
tarfile: e7. modules.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.make_archive (base_name, format[, root_dir[,
          base_dir[, verbose[, dry_run[, owner[, group[, logger]]]]]]])

     Create an archive file (such as zip or tar) and return its name.

     'base_name' is a string or *note path-like object: 79f. specifying
     the name of the file to create, including the path, minus any
     format-specific extension.

     'format' is the archive format: one of «zip» (if the *note zlib:
     13c. module is available), «tar», «gztar» (if the ‘zlib’ module is
     available), «bztar» (if the *note bz2: 14. module is available),
     «xztar» (if the *note lzma: 8d. module is available), or «zstdtar»
     (if the *note compression.zstd: 23. module is available).

     'root_dir' is a string or *note path-like object: 79f. specifying a
     directory that will be the root directory of the archive, all paths
     in the archive will be relative to it; for example, we typically
     chdir into 'root_dir' before creating the archive.

     'base_dir' is a string or *note path-like object: 79f. specifying a
     directory where we start archiving from; i.e.  'base_dir' will be
     the common prefix of all files and directories in the archive.
     'base_dir' must be given relative to 'root_dir'.  See *note
     Archiving example with base_dir: 2f14. for how to use 'base_dir'
     and 'root_dir' together.

     'root_dir' and 'base_dir' both default to the current directory.

     If 'dry_run' is true, no archive is created, but the operations
     that would be executed are logged to 'logger'.

     'owner' and 'group' are used when creating a tar archive.  By
     default, uses the current owner and group.

     'logger' must be an object compatible with PEP 282(1), usually an
     instance of *note logging.Logger: f0c.

     The 'verbose' argument is unused and deprecated.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘shutil.make_archive’ with
     arguments ‘base_name’, ‘format’, ‘root_dir’, ‘base_dir’.

          Σημείωση: This function is not thread-safe when custom
          archivers registered with *note register_archive_format():
          2f15. do not support the 'root_dir' argument.  In this case it
          temporarily changes the current working directory of the
          process to 'root_dir' to perform archiving.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The modern pax (POSIX.1-2001) format is now
     used instead of the legacy GNU format for archives created with
     ‘format="tar"’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10.6: This function is now made thread-safe
     during creation of standard ‘.zip’ and tar archives.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. for
     'base_name', 'root_dir' and 'base_dir'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.get_archive_formats ()

     Return a list of supported formats for archiving.  Each element of
     the returned sequence is a tuple ‘(name, description)’.

     By default ‘shutil’ provides these formats:

        - 'zip': ZIP file (if the *note zlib: 13c. module is available).

        - 'tar': Uncompressed tar file.  Uses POSIX.1-2001 pax format
          for new archives.

        - 'gztar': gzip’ed tar-file (if the *note zlib: 13c. module is
          available).

        - 'bztar': bzip2’ed tar-file (if the *note bz2: 14. module is
          available).

        - 'xztar': xz’ed tar-file (if the *note lzma: 8d. module is
          available).

        - 'zstdtar': Zstandard compressed tar-file (if the *note
          compression.zstd: 23. module is available).

     You can register new formats or provide your own archiver for any
     existing formats, by using *note register_archive_format(): 2f15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.register_archive_format (name, function[,
          extra_args[, description]])

     Register an archiver for the format 'name'.

     'function' is the callable that will be used to unpack archives.
     The callable will receive the 'base_name' of the file to create,
     followed by the 'base_dir' (which defaults to *note os.curdir:
     2e73.) to start archiving from.  Further arguments are passed as
     keyword arguments: 'owner', 'group', 'dry_run' and 'logger' (as
     passed in *note make_archive(): 8c3.).

     If 'function' has the custom attribute ‘function.supports_root_dir’
     set to ‘True’, the 'root_dir' argument is passed as a keyword
     argument.  Otherwise the current working directory of the process
     is temporarily changed to 'root_dir' before calling 'function'.  In
     this case *note make_archive(): 8c3. is not thread-safe.

     If given, 'extra_args' is a sequence of ‘(name, value)’ pairs that
     will be used as extra keywords arguments when the archiver callable
     is used.

     'description' is used by *note get_archive_formats(): 2f16. which
     returns the list of archivers.  Defaults to an empty string.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added support for functions supporting the
     'root_dir' argument.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.unregister_archive_format (name)

     Remove the archive format 'name' from the list of supported
     formats.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.unpack_archive (filename[, extract_dir[, format[,
          filter]]])

     Unpack an archive.  'filename' is the full path of the archive.

     'extract_dir' is the name of the target directory where the archive
     is unpacked.  If not provided, the current working directory is
     used.

     'format' is the archive format: one of «zip», «tar», «gztar»,
     «bztar», «xztar», or «zstdtar».  Or any other format registered
     with *note register_unpack_format(): 2f18.  If not provided,
     ‘unpack_archive()’ will use the archive file name extension and see
     if an unpacker was registered for that extension.  In case none is
     found, a *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

     The keyword-only 'filter' argument is passed to the underlying
     unpacking function.  For zip files, 'filter' is not accepted.  For
     tar files, it is recommended to use ‘'data'’ (default since Python
     3.14), unless using features specific to tar and UNIX-like
     filesystems.  (See *note Extraction filters: 883. for details.)

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘shutil.unpack_archive’ with
     arguments ‘filename’, ‘extract_dir’, ‘format’.

          Προειδοποίηση: Never extract archives from untrusted sources
          without prior inspection.  It is possible that files are
          created outside of the path specified in the 'extract_dir'
          argument, e.g.  members that have absolute filenames starting
          with «/» or filenames with two dots «..».

          Since Python 3.14, the defaults for both built-in formats (zip
          and tar files) will prevent the most dangerous of such
          security issues, but will not prevent 'all' unintended
          behavior.  Read the *note Hints for further verification:
          2f19. section for tar-specific details.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. for
     'filename' and 'extract_dir'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added the 'filter' argument.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.register_unpack_format (name, extensions,
          function[, extra_args[, description]])

     Registers an unpack format.  'name' is the name of the format and
     'extensions' is a list of extensions corresponding to the format,
     like ‘.zip’ for Zip files.

     'function' is the callable that will be used to unpack archives.
     The callable will receive:

        - the path of the archive, as a positional argument;

        - the directory the archive must be extracted to, as a
          positional argument;

        - possibly a 'filter' keyword argument, if it was given to *note
          unpack_archive(): 882.;

        - additional keyword arguments, specified by 'extra_args' as a
          sequence of ‘(name, value)’ tuples.

     'description' can be provided to describe the format, and will be
     returned by the *note get_unpack_formats(): 2f1a. function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.unregister_unpack_format (name)

     Unregister an unpack format.  'name' is the name of the format.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.get_unpack_formats ()

     Return a list of all registered formats for unpacking.  Each
     element of the returned sequence is a tuple ‘(name, extensions,
     description)’.

     By default ‘shutil’ provides these formats:

        - 'zip': ZIP file (unpacking compressed files works only if the
          corresponding module is available).

        - 'tar': uncompressed tar file.

        - 'gztar': gzip’ed tar-file (if the *note zlib: 13c. module is
          available).

        - 'bztar': bzip2’ed tar-file (if the *note bz2: 14. module is
          available).

        - 'xztar': xz’ed tar-file (if the *note lzma: 8d. module is
          available).

        - 'zstdtar': Zstandard compressed tar-file (if the *note
          compression.zstd: 23. module is available).

     You can register new formats or provide your own unpacker for any
     existing formats, by using *note register_unpack_format(): 2f18.

* Menu:

* Archiving example::
* Archiving example with base_dir::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/


File: python.info,  Node: Archiving example,  Next: Archiving example with base_dir,  Up: Archiving operations

5.12.9.6 Archiving example
..........................

In this example, we create a gzip’ed tar-file archive containing all
files found in the ‘.ssh’ directory of the user:

     >>> from shutil import make_archive
     >>> import os
     >>> archive_name = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', 'myarchive'))
     >>> root_dir = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', '.ssh'))
     >>> make_archive(archive_name, 'gztar', root_dir)
     '/Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz'

The resulting archive contains:

     $ tar -tzvf /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar.gz
     drwx------ tarek/staff       0 2010-02-01 16:23:40 ./
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./authorized_keys
     -rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff      65 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./config
     -rwx------ tarek/staff     668 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa
     -rwxr-xr-x tarek/staff     609 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_dsa.pub
     -rw------- tarek/staff    1675 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff     397 2008-06-09 13:26:54 ./id_rsa.pub
     -rw-r--r-- tarek/staff   37192 2010-02-06 18:23:10 ./known_hosts


File: python.info,  Node: Archiving example with base_dir,  Prev: Archiving example,  Up: Archiving operations

5.12.9.7 Archiving example with 'base_dir'
..........................................

In this example, similar to the *note one above: 2f1d, we show how to
use *note make_archive(): 8c3, but this time with the usage of
'base_dir'.  We now have the following directory structure:

     $ tree tmp
     tmp
     └── root
         └── structure
             ├── content
                 └── please_add.txt
             └── do_not_add.txt

In the final archive, ‘please_add.txt’ should be included, but
‘do_not_add.txt’ should not.  Therefore we use the following:

     >>> from shutil import make_archive
     >>> import os
     >>> archive_name = os.path.expanduser(os.path.join('~', 'myarchive'))
     >>> make_archive(
     ...     archive_name,
     ...     'tar',
     ...     root_dir='tmp/root',
     ...     base_dir='structure/content',
     ... )
     '/Users/tarek/myarchive.tar'

Listing the files in the resulting archive gives us:

     $ python -m tarfile -l /Users/tarek/myarchive.tar
     structure/content/
     structure/content/please_add.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Querying the size of the output terminal,  Prev: Archiving operations,  Up: shutil — High-level file operations

5.12.9.8 Querying the size of the output terminal
.................................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: shutil.get_terminal_size (fallback=(columns, lines))

     Get the size of the terminal window.

     For each of the two dimensions, the environment variable, ‘COLUMNS’
     and ‘LINES’ respectively, is checked.  If the variable is defined
     and the value is a positive integer, it is used.

     When ‘COLUMNS’ or ‘LINES’ is not defined, which is the common case,
     the terminal connected to *note sys.__stdout__: 2f20. is queried by
     invoking *note os.get_terminal_size(): 14ae.

     If the terminal size cannot be successfully queried, either because
     the system doesn’t support querying, or because we are not
     connected to a terminal, the value given in ‘fallback’ parameter is
     used.  ‘fallback’ defaults to ‘(80, 24)’ which is the default size
     used by many terminal emulators.

     The value returned is a named tuple of type *note os.terminal_size:
     2f21.

     See also: The Single UNIX Specification, Version 2, Other
     Environment Variables(1).

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The ‘fallback’ values are also used if
     *note os.get_terminal_size(): 14ae. returns zeroes.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note os: a5.

     Operating system interfaces, including functions to work with files
     at a lower level than Python *note file objects: 156c.

Module *note io: 82.

     Python’s built-in I/O library, including both abstract classes and
     some concrete classes such as file I/O.

Built-in function *note open(): 32b.

     The standard way to open files for reading and writing with Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/7908799/xbd/envvar.html#tag_002_003


File: python.info,  Node: Data Persistence,  Next: Data Compression and Archiving,  Prev: File and Directory Access,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.13 Data Persistence
=====================

The modules described in this chapter support storing Python data in a
persistent form on disk.  The *note pickle: ab. and *note marshal: 90.
modules can turn many Python data types into a stream of bytes and then
recreate the objects from the bytes.  The various DBM-related modules
support a family of hash-based file formats that store a mapping of
strings to other strings.

The list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* pickle — Python object serialization::
* copyreg — Register pickle support functions::
* shelve — Python object persistence::
* marshal — Internal Python object serialization::
* dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases»::
* sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.


File: python.info,  Node: pickle — Python object serialization,  Next: copyreg — Register pickle support functions,  Up: Data Persistence

5.13.1 ‘pickle’ — Python object serialization
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pickle.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘pickle’ module implements binary protocols for serializing and
de-serializing a Python object structure.  '«Pickling»' is the process
whereby a Python object hierarchy is converted into a byte stream, and
'«unpickling»' is the inverse operation, whereby a byte stream (from a
*note binary file: 225d. or *note bytes-like object: 436.) is converted
back into an object hierarchy.  Pickling (and unpickling) is
alternatively known as «serialization», «marshalling,» (2) or
«flattening»; however, to avoid confusion, the terms used here are
«pickling» and «unpickling».

     Προειδοποίηση: The ‘pickle’ module 'is not secure'.  Only unpickle
     data you trust.

     It is possible to construct malicious pickle data which will
     'execute arbitrary code during unpickling'.  Never unpickle data
     that could have come from an untrusted source, or that could have
     been tampered with.

     Consider signing data with *note hmac: 6d. if you need to ensure
     that it has not been tampered with.

     Safer serialization formats such as *note json: 85. may be more
     appropriate if you are processing untrusted data.  See *note
     Comparison with json: 2f28.

* Menu:

* Relationship to other Python modules::
* Data stream format::
* Module Interface::
* What can be pickled and unpickled?::
* Pickling Class Instances::
* Custom Reduction for Types, Functions, and Other Objects: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects.
* Out-of-band Buffers::
* Restricting Globals::
* Performance: Performance<2>.
* Examples: Examples<5>.
* Command-line interface::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/pickle.py

   (2) Don’t confuse this with the *note marshal: 90. module


File: python.info,  Node: Relationship to other Python modules,  Next: Data stream format,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.13.1.1 Relationship to other Python modules
.............................................

* Menu:

* Comparison with marshal::
* Comparison with json::


File: python.info,  Node: Comparison with marshal,  Next: Comparison with json,  Up: Relationship to other Python modules

5.13.1.2 Comparison with ‘marshal’
..................................

Python has a more primitive serialization module called *note marshal:
90, but in general ‘pickle’ should always be the preferred way to
serialize Python objects.  ‘marshal’ exists primarily to support
Python’s ‘.pyc’ files.

The ‘pickle’ module differs from *note marshal: 90. in several
significant ways:

   * *note marshal: 90. cannot be used to serialize user-defined classes
     and their instances.  ‘pickle’ can save and restore class instances
     transparently, however the class definition must be importable and
     live in the same module as when the object was stored.

   * The *note marshal: 90. serialization format is not guaranteed to be
     portable across Python versions.  Because its primary job in life
     is to support ‘.pyc’ files, the Python implementers reserve the
     right to change the serialization format in non-backwards
     compatible ways should the need arise.  The ‘pickle’ serialization
     format is guaranteed to be backwards compatible across Python
     releases provided a compatible pickle protocol is chosen and
     pickling and unpickling code deals with Python 2 to Python 3 type
     differences if your data is crossing that unique breaking change
     language boundary.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparison with json,  Prev: Comparison with marshal,  Up: Relationship to other Python modules

5.13.1.3 Comparison with ‘json’
...............................

There are fundamental differences between the pickle protocols and JSON
(JavaScript Object Notation)(1):

   * JSON is a text serialization format (it outputs unicode text,
     although most of the time it is then encoded to ‘utf-8’), while
     pickle is a binary serialization format;

   * JSON is human-readable, while pickle is not;

   * JSON is interoperable and widely used outside of the Python
     ecosystem, while pickle is Python-specific;

   * JSON, by default, can only represent a subset of the Python
     built-in types, and no custom classes; pickle can represent an
     extremely large number of Python types (many of them automatically,
     by clever usage of Python’s introspection facilities; complex cases
     can be tackled by implementing *note specific object APIs: 2f2c.);

   * Unlike pickle, deserializing untrusted JSON does not in itself
     create an arbitrary code execution vulnerability.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note json: 85. module: a standard library module allowing JSON
serialization and deserialization.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://json.org


File: python.info,  Node: Data stream format,  Next: Module Interface,  Prev: Relationship to other Python modules,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.13.1.4 Data stream format
...........................

The data format used by ‘pickle’ is Python-specific.  This has the
advantage that there are no restrictions imposed by external standards
such as JSON (which can’t represent pointer sharing); however it means
that non-Python programs may not be able to reconstruct pickled Python
objects.

By default, the ‘pickle’ data format uses a relatively compact binary
representation.  If you need optimal size characteristics, you can
efficiently *note compress: 2f2e. pickled data.

The module *note pickletools: ac. contains tools for analyzing data
streams generated by ‘pickle’.  ‘pickletools’ source code has extensive
comments about opcodes used by pickle protocols.

There are currently 6 different protocols which can be used for
pickling.  The higher the protocol used, the more recent the version of
Python needed to read the pickle produced.

   * Protocol version 0 is the original «human-readable» protocol and is
     backwards compatible with earlier versions of Python.

   * Protocol version 1 is an old binary format which is also compatible
     with earlier versions of Python.

   * Protocol version 2 was introduced in Python 2.3.  It provides much
     more efficient pickling of *note new-style classes: 2f2f.  Refer to
     PEP 307(1) for information about improvements brought by protocol
     2.

   * Protocol version 3 was added in Python 3.0.  It has explicit
     support for *note bytes: 1c7. objects and cannot be unpickled by
     Python 2.x.  This was the default protocol in Python 3.0–3.7.

   * Protocol version 4 was added in Python 3.4.  It adds support for
     very large objects, pickling more kinds of objects, and some data
     format optimizations.  This was the default protocol in Python
     3.8–3.13.  Refer to PEP 3154(2) for information about improvements
     brought by protocol 4.

   * Protocol version 5 was added in Python 3.8.  It adds support for
     out-of-band data and speedup for in-band data.  It is the default
     protocol starting with Python 3.14.  Refer to PEP 574(3) for
     information about improvements brought by protocol 5.

     Σημείωση: Serialization is a more primitive notion than
     persistence; although ‘pickle’ reads and writes file objects, it
     does not handle the issue of naming persistent objects, nor the
     (even more complicated) issue of concurrent access to persistent
     objects.  The ‘pickle’ module can transform a complex object into a
     byte stream and it can transform the byte stream into an object
     with the same internal structure.  Perhaps the most obvious thing
     to do with these byte streams is to write them onto a file, but it
     is also conceivable to send them across a network or store them in
     a database.  The *note shelve: cb. module provides a simple
     interface to pickle and unpickle objects on DBM-style database
     files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/


File: python.info,  Node: Module Interface,  Next: What can be pickled and unpickled?,  Prev: Data stream format,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.13.1.5 Module Interface
.........................

To serialize an object hierarchy, you simply call the *note dumps():
1846. function.  Similarly, to de-serialize a data stream, you call the
*note loads(): 10cb. function.  However, if you want more control over
serialization and de-serialization, you can create a *note Pickler: de2.
or an *note Unpickler: 1978. object, respectively.

The ‘pickle’ module provides the following constants:

 -- Δεδομένα: pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL

     An integer, the highest *note protocol version: 503. available.
     This value can be passed as a 'protocol' value to functions *note
     dump(): 2f31. and *note dumps(): 1846. as well as the *note
     Pickler: de2. constructor.

 -- Δεδομένα: pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL

     An integer, the default *note protocol version: 503. used for
     pickling.  May be less than *note HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 1847.
     Currently the default protocol is 5, introduced in Python 3.8 and
     incompatible with previous versions.  This version introduces
     support for out-of-band buffers, where PEP 3118(1)-compatible data
     can be transmitted separately from the main pickle stream.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.0: The default protocol is 3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The default protocol is 4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The default protocol is 5.

The ‘pickle’ module provides the following functions to make the
pickling process more convenient:

 -- Συνάρτηση: pickle.dump (obj, file, protocol=None, *,
          fix_imports=True, buffer_callback=None)

     Write the pickled representation of the object 'obj' to the open
     *note file object: 156c. 'file'.  This is equivalent to
     ‘Pickler(file, protocol).dump(obj)’.

     Arguments 'file', 'protocol', 'fix_imports' and 'buffer_callback'
     have the same meaning as in the *note Pickler: de2. constructor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'buffer_callback' argument was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pickle.dumps (obj, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True,
          buffer_callback=None)

     Return the pickled representation of the object 'obj' as a *note
     bytes: 1c7. object, instead of writing it to a file.

     Arguments 'protocol', 'fix_imports' and 'buffer_callback' have the
     same meaning as in the *note Pickler: de2. constructor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'buffer_callback' argument was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pickle.load (file, *, fix_imports=True, encoding='ASCII',
          errors='strict', buffers=None)

     Read the pickled representation of an object from the open *note
     file object: 156c. 'file' and return the reconstituted object
     hierarchy specified therein.  This is equivalent to
     ‘Unpickler(file).load()’.

     The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
     protocol argument is needed.  Bytes past the pickled representation
     of the object are ignored.

     Arguments 'file', 'fix_imports', 'encoding', 'errors', 'strict' and
     'buffers' have the same meaning as in the *note Unpickler: 1978.
     constructor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'buffers' argument was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pickle.loads (data, /, *, fix_imports=True,
          encoding='ASCII', errors='strict', buffers=None)

     Return the reconstituted object hierarchy of the pickled
     representation 'data' of an object.  'data' must be a *note
     bytes-like object: 436.

     The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
     protocol argument is needed.  Bytes past the pickled representation
     of the object are ignored.

     Arguments 'fix_imports', 'encoding', 'errors', 'strict' and
     'buffers' have the same meaning as in the *note Unpickler: 1978.
     constructor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'buffers' argument was added.

The ‘pickle’ module defines three exceptions:

 -- Εξαίρεση: pickle.PickleError

     Common base class for the other pickling exceptions.  It inherits
     from *note Exception: d9e.

 -- Εξαίρεση: pickle.PicklingError

     Error raised when an unpicklable object is encountered by *note
     Pickler: de2.  It inherits from *note PickleError: 2f32.

     Refer to *note What can be pickled and unpickled?: 2f33. to learn
     what kinds of objects can be pickled.

 -- Εξαίρεση: pickle.UnpicklingError

     Error raised when there is a problem unpickling an object, such as
     a data corruption or a security violation.  It inherits from *note
     PickleError: 2f32.

     Note that other exceptions may also be raised during unpickling,
     including (but not necessarily limited to) AttributeError,
     EOFError, ImportError, and IndexError.

The ‘pickle’ module exports three classes, *note Pickler: de2, *note
Unpickler: 1978. and *note PickleBuffer: 1908.:

 -- Κλάση: pickle.Pickler (file, protocol=None, *, fix_imports=True,
          buffer_callback=None)

     This takes a binary file for writing a pickle data stream.

     The optional 'protocol' argument, an integer, tells the pickler to
     use the given protocol; supported protocols are 0 to *note
     HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 1847.  If not specified, the default is *note
     DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: c07.  If a negative number is specified,
     ‘HIGHEST_PROTOCOL’ is selected.

     The 'file' argument must have a write() method that accepts a
     single bytes argument.  It can thus be an on-disk file opened for
     binary writing, an *note io.BytesIO: 1255. instance, or any other
     custom object that meets this interface.

     If 'fix_imports' is true and 'protocol' is less than 3, pickle will
     try to map the new Python 3 names to the old module names used in
     Python 2, so that the pickle data stream is readable with Python 2.

     If 'buffer_callback' is ‘None’ (the default), buffer views are
     serialized into 'file' as part of the pickle stream.

     If 'buffer_callback' is not ‘None’, then it can be called any
     number of times with a buffer view.  If the callback returns a
     false value (such as ‘None’), the given buffer is *note
     out-of-band: 2f35.; otherwise the buffer is serialized in-band,
     i.e.  inside the pickle stream.

     It is an error if 'buffer_callback' is not ‘None’ and 'protocol' is
     ‘None’ or smaller than 5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'buffer_callback' argument was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: dump (obj)

          Write the pickled representation of 'obj' to the open file
          object given in the constructor.

      -- Μέθοδος: persistent_id (obj)

          Do nothing by default.  This exists so a subclass can override
          it.

          If ‘persistent_id()’ returns ‘None’, 'obj' is pickled as
          usual.  Any other value causes ‘Pickler’ to emit the returned
          value as a persistent ID for 'obj'.  The meaning of this
          persistent ID should be defined by *note
          Unpickler.persistent_load(): 1b2f.  Note that the value
          returned by ‘persistent_id()’ cannot itself have a persistent
          ID.

          See *note Persistence of External Objects: 2f36. for details
          and examples of uses.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Add the default implementation of
          this method in the C implementation of ‘Pickler’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: dispatch_table

          A pickler object’s dispatch table is a registry of 'reduction
          functions' of the kind which can be declared using *note
          copyreg.pickle(): 2f37.  It is a mapping whose keys are
          classes and whose values are reduction functions.  A reduction
          function takes a single argument of the associated class and
          should conform to the same interface as a *note __reduce__():
          d97. method.

          By default, a pickler object will not have a *note
          dispatch_table: 14ce. attribute, and it will instead use the
          global dispatch table managed by the *note copyreg: 2a.
          module.  However, to customize the pickling for a specific
          pickler object one can set the ‘dispatch_table’ attribute to a
          dict-like object.  Alternatively, if a subclass of ‘Pickler’
          has a ‘dispatch_table’ attribute then this will be used as the
          default dispatch table for instances of that class.

          See *note Dispatch Tables: 2f38. for usage examples.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: reducer_override (obj)

          Special reducer that can be defined in ‘Pickler’ subclasses.
          This method has priority over any reducer in the *note
          dispatch_table: 14ce.  It should conform to the same interface
          as a *note __reduce__(): d97. method, and can optionally
          return *note NotImplemented: 440. to fallback on
          ‘dispatch_table’-registered reducers to pickle ‘obj’.

          For a detailed example, see *note Custom Reduction for Types,
          Functions, and Other Objects: 2f39.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Ιδιότητα: fast

          Deprecated.  Enable fast mode if set to a true value.  The
          fast mode disables the usage of memo, therefore speeding the
          pickling process by not generating superfluous PUT opcodes.
          It should not be used with self-referential objects, doing
          otherwise will cause ‘Pickler’ to recurse infinitely.

          Use *note pickletools.optimize(): 2f3b. if you need more
          compact pickles.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear_memo ()

          Clears the pickler’s «memo».

          The memo is the data structure that remembers which objects
          the pickler has already seen, so that shared or recursive
          objects are pickled by reference and not by value.  This
          method is useful when re-using picklers.

 -- Κλάση: pickle.Unpickler (file, *, fix_imports=True,
          encoding='ASCII', errors='strict', buffers=None)

     This takes a binary file for reading a pickle data stream.

     The protocol version of the pickle is detected automatically, so no
     protocol argument is needed.

     The argument 'file' must have three methods, a read() method that
     takes an integer argument, a readinto() method that takes a buffer
     argument and a readline() method that requires no arguments, as in
     the *note io.BufferedIOBase: a83. interface.  Thus 'file' can be an
     on-disk file opened for binary reading, an *note io.BytesIO: 1255.
     object, or any other custom object that meets this interface.

     The optional arguments 'fix_imports', 'encoding' and 'errors' are
     used to control compatibility support for pickle stream generated
     by Python 2.  If 'fix_imports' is true, pickle will try to map the
     old Python 2 names to the new names used in Python 3.  The
     'encoding' and 'errors' tell pickle how to decode 8-bit string
     instances pickled by Python 2; these default to “ASCII” and
     “strict”, respectively.  The 'encoding' can be “bytes” to read
     these 8-bit string instances as bytes objects.  Using
     ‘encoding='latin1'’ is required for unpickling NumPy arrays and
     instances of *note datetime: 6e7, *note date: 48d. and *note time:
     48e. pickled by Python 2.

     If 'buffers' is ‘None’ (the default), then all data necessary for
     deserialization must be contained in the pickle stream.  This means
     that the 'buffer_callback' argument was ‘None’ when a *note
     Pickler: de2. was instantiated (or when *note dump(): 2f31. or
     *note dumps(): 1846. was called).

     If 'buffers' is not ‘None’, it should be an iterable of
     buffer-enabled objects that is consumed each time the pickle stream
     references an *note out-of-band: 2f35. buffer view.  Such buffers
     have been given in order to the 'buffer_callback' of a Pickler
     object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'buffers' argument was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: load ()

          Read the pickled representation of an object from the open
          file object given in the constructor, and return the
          reconstituted object hierarchy specified therein.  Bytes past
          the pickled representation of the object are ignored.

      -- Μέθοδος: persistent_load (pid)

          Raise an *note UnpicklingError: 2f34. by default.

          If defined, ‘persistent_load()’ should return the object
          specified by the persistent ID 'pid'.  If an invalid
          persistent ID is encountered, an *note UnpicklingError: 2f34.
          should be raised.

          See *note Persistence of External Objects: 2f36. for details
          and examples of uses.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Add the default implementation of
          this method in the C implementation of ‘Unpickler’.

      -- Μέθοδος: find_class (module, name)

          Import 'module' if necessary and return the object called
          'name' from it, where the 'module' and 'name' arguments are
          *note str: 1df. objects.  Note, unlike its name suggests,
          ‘find_class()’ is also used for finding functions.

          Subclasses may override this to gain control over what type of
          objects and how they can be loaded, potentially reducing
          security risks.  Refer to *note Restricting Globals: 2f3e. for
          details.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘pickle.find_class’ with
          arguments ‘module’, ‘name’.

 -- Κλάση: pickle.PickleBuffer (buffer)

     A wrapper for a buffer representing picklable data.  'buffer' must
     be a *note buffer-providing: 311. object, such as a *note
     bytes-like object: 436. or a N-dimensional array.

     ‘PickleBuffer’ is itself a buffer provider, therefore it is
     possible to pass it to other APIs expecting a buffer-providing
     object, such as *note memoryview: 1d2.

     ‘PickleBuffer’ objects can only be serialized using pickle protocol
     5 or higher.  They are eligible for *note out-of-band
     serialization: 2f35.

     Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: raw ()

          Return a *note memoryview: 1d2. of the memory area underlying
          this buffer.  The returned object is a one-dimensional,
          C-contiguous memoryview with format ‘B’ (unsigned bytes).
          *note BufferError: 1998. is raised if the buffer is neither C-
          nor Fortran-contiguous.

      -- Μέθοδος: release ()

          Release the underlying buffer exposed by the PickleBuffer
          object.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/


File: python.info,  Node: What can be pickled and unpickled?,  Next: Pickling Class Instances,  Prev: Module Interface,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.13.1.6 What can be pickled and unpickled?
...........................................

The following types can be pickled:

   * built-in constants (‘None’, ‘True’, ‘False’, ‘Ellipsis’, and *note
     NotImplemented: 440.);

   * integers, floating-point numbers, complex numbers;

   * strings, bytes, bytearrays;

   * tuples, lists, sets, and dictionaries containing only picklable
     objects;

   * functions (built-in and user-defined) accessible from the top level
     of a module (using *note def: 17fc, not *note lambda: 1642.);

   * classes accessible from the top level of a module;

   * instances of such classes for which the result of calling *note
     __getstate__(): 9d3. is picklable (see section *note Pickling Class
     Instances: 2f2c. for details).

Attempts to pickle unpicklable objects will raise the *note
PicklingError: 1b5a. exception; when this happens, an unspecified number
of bytes may have already been written to the underlying file.  Trying
to pickle a highly recursive data structure may exceed the maximum
recursion depth, a *note RecursionError: 1121. will be raised in this
case.  You can carefully raise this limit with *note
sys.setrecursionlimit(): 8d3.

Note that functions (built-in and user-defined) are pickled by fully
*note qualified name: 1f19, not by value.  (1)  This means that only the
function name is pickled, along with the name of the containing module
and classes.  Neither the function’s code, nor any of its function
attributes are pickled.  Thus the defining module must be importable in
the unpickling environment, and the module must contain the named
object, otherwise an exception will be raised.  (2)

Similarly, classes are pickled by fully qualified name, so the same
restrictions in the unpickling environment apply.  Note that none of the
class’s code or data is pickled, so in the following example the class
attribute ‘attr’ is not restored in the unpickling environment:

     class Foo:
         attr = 'A class attribute'

     picklestring = pickle.dumps(Foo)

These restrictions are why picklable functions and classes must be
defined at the top level of a module.

Similarly, when class instances are pickled, their class’s code and data
are not pickled along with them.  Only the instance data are pickled.
This is done on purpose, so you can fix bugs in a class or add methods
to the class and still load objects that were created with an earlier
version of the class.  If you plan to have long-lived objects that will
see many versions of a class, it may be worthwhile to put a version
number in the objects so that suitable conversions can be made by the
class’s *note __setstate__(): d98. method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This is why *note lambda: 1642. functions cannot be pickled: all
‘lambda’ functions share the same name: ‘<lambda>’.

   (2) The exception raised will likely be an *note ImportError: 1bd. or
an *note AttributeError: 1a9. but it could be something else.


File: python.info,  Node: Pickling Class Instances,  Next: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects,  Prev: What can be pickled and unpickled?,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.13.1.7 Pickling Class Instances
.................................

In this section, we describe the general mechanisms available to you to
define, customize, and control how class instances are pickled and
unpickled.

In most cases, no additional code is needed to make instances picklable.
By default, pickle will retrieve the class and the attributes of an
instance via introspection.  When a class instance is unpickled, its
*note __init__(): 2fa. method is usually 'not' invoked.  The default
behaviour first creates an uninitialized instance and then restores the
saved attributes.  The following code shows an implementation of this
behaviour:

     def save(obj):
         return (obj.__class__, obj.__dict__)

     def restore(cls, attributes):
         obj = cls.__new__(cls)
         obj.__dict__.update(attributes)
         return obj

Classes can alter the default behaviour by providing one or several
special methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__getnewargs_ex__ ()

     In protocols 2 and newer, classes that implement the
     ‘__getnewargs_ex__()’ method can dictate the values passed to the
     *note __new__(): 982. method upon unpickling.  The method must
     return a pair ‘(args, kwargs)’ where 'args' is a tuple of
     positional arguments and 'kwargs' a dictionary of named arguments
     for constructing the object.  Those will be passed to the
     ‘__new__()’ method upon unpickling.

     You should implement this method if the *note __new__(): 982.
     method of your class requires keyword-only arguments.  Otherwise,
     it is recommended for compatibility to implement *note
     __getnewargs__(): 118d.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: ‘__getnewargs_ex__()’ is now used in
     protocols 2 and 3.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__getnewargs__ ()

     This method serves a similar purpose as *note __getnewargs_ex__():
     2f43, but supports only positional arguments.  It must return a
     tuple of arguments ‘args’ which will be passed to the *note
     __new__(): 982. method upon unpickling.

     ‘__getnewargs__()’ will not be called if *note __getnewargs_ex__():
     2f43. is defined.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Before Python 3.6, ‘__getnewargs__()’ was
     called instead of *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 2f43. in protocols 2
     and 3.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__getstate__ ()

     Classes can further influence how their instances are pickled by
     overriding the method ‘__getstate__()’.  It is called and the
     returned object is pickled as the contents for the instance,
     instead of a default state.  There are several cases:

        * For a class that has no instance *note __dict__: 1bf. and no
          *note __slots__: 188d, the default state is ‘None’.

        * For a class that has an instance *note __dict__: 1bf. and no
          *note __slots__: 188d, the default state is ‘self.__dict__’.

        * For a class that has an instance *note __dict__: 1bf. and
          *note __slots__: 188d, the default state is a tuple consisting
          of two dictionaries: ‘self.__dict__’, and a dictionary mapping
          slot names to slot values.  Only slots that have a value are
          included in the latter.

        * For a class that has *note __slots__: 188d. and no instance
          *note __dict__: 1bf, the default state is a tuple whose first
          item is ‘None’ and whose second item is a dictionary mapping
          slot names to slot values described in the previous bullet.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the default implementation of the
     ‘__getstate__()’ method in the *note object: e4d. class.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__setstate__ (state)

     Upon unpickling, if the class defines ‘__setstate__()’, it is
     called with the unpickled state.  In that case, there is no
     requirement for the state object to be a dictionary.  Otherwise,
     the pickled state must be a dictionary and its items are assigned
     to the new instance’s dictionary.

          Σημείωση: If *note __reduce__(): d97. returns a state with
          value ‘None’ at pickling, the ‘__setstate__()’ method will not
          be called upon unpickling.

Refer to the section *note Handling Stateful Objects: 2f44. for more
information about how to use the methods *note __getstate__(): 9d3. and
*note __setstate__(): d98.

     Σημείωση: At unpickling time, some methods like *note
     __getattr__(): 8e3, *note __getattribute__(): f90, or *note
     __setattr__(): 256d. may be called upon the instance.  In case
     those methods rely on some internal invariant being true, the type
     should implement *note __new__(): 982. to establish such an
     invariant, as *note __init__(): 2fa. is not called when unpickling
     an instance.

As we shall see, pickle does not use directly the methods described
above.  In fact, these methods are part of the copy protocol which
implements the *note __reduce__(): d97. special method.  The copy
protocol provides a unified interface for retrieving the data necessary
for pickling and copying objects.  (1)

Although powerful, implementing *note __reduce__(): d97. directly in
your classes is error prone.  For this reason, class designers should
use the high-level interface (i.e., *note __getnewargs_ex__(): 2f43,
*note __getstate__(): 9d3. and *note __setstate__(): d98.) whenever
possible.  We will show, however, cases where using ‘__reduce__()’ is
the only option or leads to more efficient pickling or both.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__reduce__ ()

     The interface is currently defined as follows.  The ‘__reduce__()’
     method takes no argument and shall return either a string or
     preferably a tuple (the returned object is often referred to as the
     «reduce value»).

     If a string is returned, the string should be interpreted as the
     name of a global variable.  It should be the object’s local name
     relative to its module; the pickle module searches the module
     namespace to determine the object’s module.  This behaviour is
     typically useful for singletons.

     When a tuple is returned, it must be between two and six items
     long.  Optional items can either be omitted, or ‘None’ can be
     provided as their value.  The semantics of each item are in order:

        * A callable object that will be called to create the initial
          version of the object.

        * A tuple of arguments for the callable object.  An empty tuple
          must be given if the callable does not accept any argument.

        * Optionally, the object’s state, which will be passed to the
          object’s *note __setstate__(): d98. method as previously
          described.  If the object has no such method then, the value
          must be a dictionary and it will be added to the object’s
          *note __dict__: 1bf. attribute.

        * Optionally, an iterator (and not a sequence) yielding
          successive items.  These items will be appended to the object
          either using ‘obj.append(item)’ or, in batch, using
          ‘obj.extend(list_of_items)’.  This is primarily used for list
          subclasses, but may be used by other classes as long as they
          have *note append(): 25cb. and *note extend(): 25ce. methods
          with the appropriate signature.  (Whether ‘append()’ or
          ‘extend()’ is used depends on which pickle protocol version is
          used as well as the number of items to append, so both must be
          supported.)

        * Optionally, an iterator (not a sequence) yielding successive
          key-value pairs.  These items will be stored to the object
          using ‘obj[key] = value’.  This is primarily used for
          dictionary subclasses, but may be used by other classes as
          long as they implement *note __setitem__(): 1670.

        * Optionally, a callable with a ‘(obj, state)’ signature.  This
          callable allows the user to programmatically control the
          state-updating behavior of a specific object, instead of using
          ‘obj’’s static *note __setstate__(): d98. method.  If not
          ‘None’, this callable will have priority over ‘obj’’s
          ‘__setstate__()’.

          Added in version 3.8: The optional sixth tuple item, ‘(obj,
          state)’, was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: object.__reduce_ex__ (protocol)

     Alternatively, a ‘__reduce_ex__()’ method may be defined.  The only
     difference is this method should take a single integer argument,
     the protocol version.  When defined, pickle will prefer it over the
     *note __reduce__(): d97. method.  In addition, ‘__reduce__()’
     automatically becomes a synonym for the extended version.  The main
     use for this method is to provide backwards-compatible reduce
     values for older Python releases.

* Menu:

* Persistence of External Objects::
* Dispatch Tables::
* Handling Stateful Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The *note copy: 29. module uses this protocol for shallow and
deep copying operations.


File: python.info,  Node: Persistence of External Objects,  Next: Dispatch Tables,  Up: Pickling Class Instances

5.13.1.8 Persistence of External Objects
........................................

For the benefit of object persistence, the ‘pickle’ module supports the
notion of a reference to an object outside the pickled data stream.
Such objects are referenced by a persistent ID, which should be either a
string of alphanumeric characters (for protocol 0) (1) or just an
arbitrary object (for any newer protocol).

The resolution of such persistent IDs is not defined by the ‘pickle’
module; it will delegate this resolution to the user-defined methods on
the pickler and unpickler, *note persistent_id(): 1b28. and *note
persistent_load(): 1b2f. respectively.

To pickle objects that have an external persistent ID, the pickler must
have a custom *note persistent_id(): 1b28. method that takes an object
as an argument and returns either ‘None’ or the persistent ID for that
object.  When ‘None’ is returned, the pickler simply pickles the object
as normal.  When a persistent ID string is returned, the pickler will
pickle that object, along with a marker so that the unpickler will
recognize it as a persistent ID.

To unpickle external objects, the unpickler must have a custom *note
persistent_load(): 1b2f. method that takes a persistent ID object and
returns the referenced object.

Here is a comprehensive example presenting how persistent ID can be used
to pickle external objects by reference.

     # Simple example presenting how persistent ID can be used to pickle
     # external objects by reference.

     import pickle
     import sqlite3
     from collections import namedtuple

     # Simple class representing a record in our database.
     MemoRecord = namedtuple("MemoRecord", "key, task")

     class DBPickler(pickle.Pickler):

         def persistent_id(self, obj):
             # Instead of pickling MemoRecord as a regular class instance, we emit a
             # persistent ID.
             if isinstance(obj, MemoRecord):
                 # Here, our persistent ID is simply a tuple, containing a tag and a
                 # key, which refers to a specific record in the database.
                 return ("MemoRecord", obj.key)
             else:
                 # If obj does not have a persistent ID, return None. This means obj
                 # needs to be pickled as usual.
                 return None


     class DBUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):

         def __init__(self, file, connection):
             super().__init__(file)
             self.connection = connection

         def persistent_load(self, pid):
             # This method is invoked whenever a persistent ID is encountered.
             # Here, pid is the tuple returned by DBPickler.
             cursor = self.connection.cursor()
             type_tag, key_id = pid
             if type_tag == "MemoRecord":
                 # Fetch the referenced record from the database and return it.
                 cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM memos WHERE key=?", (str(key_id),))
                 key, task = cursor.fetchone()
                 return MemoRecord(key, task)
             else:
                 # Always raises an error if you cannot return the correct object.
                 # Otherwise, the unpickler will think None is the object referenced
                 # by the persistent ID.
                 raise pickle.UnpicklingError("unsupported persistent object")


     def main():
         import io
         import pprint

         # Initialize and populate our database.
         conn = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
         cursor = conn.cursor()
         cursor.execute("CREATE TABLE memos(key INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, task TEXT)")
         tasks = (
             'give food to fish',
             'prepare group meeting',
             'fight with a zebra',
             )
         for task in tasks:
             cursor.execute("INSERT INTO memos VALUES(NULL, ?)", (task,))

         # Fetch the records to be pickled.
         cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM memos")
         memos = [MemoRecord(key, task) for key, task in cursor]
         # Save the records using our custom DBPickler.
         file = io.BytesIO()
         DBPickler(file).dump(memos)

         print("Pickled records:")
         pprint.pprint(memos)

         # Update a record, just for good measure.
         cursor.execute("UPDATE memos SET task='learn italian' WHERE key=1")

         # Load the records from the pickle data stream.
         file.seek(0)
         memos = DBUnpickler(file, conn).load()

         print("Unpickled records:")
         pprint.pprint(memos)


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The limitation on alphanumeric characters is due to the fact that
persistent IDs in protocol 0 are delimited by the newline character.
Therefore if any kind of newline characters occurs in persistent IDs,
the resulting pickled data will become unreadable.


File: python.info,  Node: Dispatch Tables,  Next: Handling Stateful Objects,  Prev: Persistence of External Objects,  Up: Pickling Class Instances

5.13.1.9 Dispatch Tables
........................

If one wants to customize pickling of some classes without disturbing
any other code which depends on pickling, then one can create a pickler
with a private dispatch table.

The global dispatch table managed by the *note copyreg: 2a. module is
available as ‘copyreg.dispatch_table’.  Therefore, one may choose to use
a modified copy of ‘copyreg.dispatch_table’ as a private dispatch table.

For example

     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = pickle.Pickler(f)
     p.dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
     p.dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass

creates an instance of *note pickle.Pickler: de2. with a private
dispatch table which handles the ‘SomeClass’ class specially.
Alternatively, the code

     class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler):
         dispatch_table = copyreg.dispatch_table.copy()
         dispatch_table[SomeClass] = reduce_SomeClass
     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = MyPickler(f)

does the same but all instances of ‘MyPickler’ will by default share the
private dispatch table.  On the other hand, the code

     copyreg.pickle(SomeClass, reduce_SomeClass)
     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = pickle.Pickler(f)

modifies the global dispatch table shared by all users of the *note
copyreg: 2a. module.


File: python.info,  Node: Handling Stateful Objects,  Prev: Dispatch Tables,  Up: Pickling Class Instances

5.13.1.10 Handling Stateful Objects
...................................

Here’s an example that shows how to modify pickling behavior for a
class.  The ‘TextReader’ class below opens a text file, and returns the
line number and line contents each time its ‘readline()’ method is
called.  If a ‘TextReader’ instance is pickled, all attributes 'except'
the file object member are saved.  When the instance is unpickled, the
file is reopened, and reading resumes from the last location.  The
‘__setstate__()’ and ‘__getstate__()’ methods are used to implement this
behavior.

     class TextReader:
         """Print and number lines in a text file."""

         def __init__(self, filename):
             self.filename = filename
             self.file = open(filename)
             self.lineno = 0

         def readline(self):
             self.lineno += 1
             line = self.file.readline()
             if not line:
                 return None
             if line.endswith('\n'):
                 line = line[:-1]
             return "%i: %s" % (self.lineno, line)

         def __getstate__(self):
             # Copy the object's state from self.__dict__ which contains
             # all our instance attributes. Always use the dict.copy()
             # method to avoid modifying the original state.
             state = self.__dict__.copy()
             # Remove the unpicklable entries.
             del state['file']
             return state

         def __setstate__(self, state):
             # Restore instance attributes (i.e., filename and lineno).
             self.__dict__.update(state)
             # Restore the previously opened file's state. To do so, we need to
             # reopen it and read from it until the line count is restored.
             file = open(self.filename)
             for _ in range(self.lineno):
                 file.readline()
             # Finally, save the file.
             self.file = file

A sample usage might be something like this:

     >>> reader = TextReader("hello.txt")
     >>> reader.readline()
     '1: Hello world!'
     >>> reader.readline()
     '2: I am line number two.'
     >>> new_reader = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(reader))
     >>> new_reader.readline()
     '3: Goodbye!'


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects,  Next: Out-of-band Buffers,  Prev: Pickling Class Instances,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.13.1.11 Custom Reduction for Types, Functions, and Other Objects
..................................................................

Added in version 3.8.

Sometimes, *note dispatch_table: 14ce. may not be flexible enough.  In
particular we may want to customize pickling based on another criterion
than the object’s type, or we may want to customize the pickling of
functions and classes.

For those cases, it is possible to subclass from the *note Pickler: de2.
class and implement a *note reducer_override(): de3. method.  This
method can return an arbitrary reduction tuple (see *note __reduce__():
d97.).  It can alternatively return *note NotImplemented: 440. to
fallback to the traditional behavior.

If both the *note dispatch_table: 14ce. and *note reducer_override():
de3. are defined, then ‘reducer_override()’ method takes priority.

     Σημείωση: For performance reasons, *note reducer_override(): de3.
     may not be called for the following objects: ‘None’, ‘True’,
     ‘False’, and exact instances of *note int: 326, *note float: 327,
     *note bytes: 1c7, *note str: 1df, *note dict: 188, *note set: 42b,
     *note frozenset: 9d4, *note list: 4d9. and *note tuple: 1ce.

Here is a simple example where we allow pickling and reconstructing a
given class:

     import io
     import pickle

     class MyClass:
         my_attribute = 1

     class MyPickler(pickle.Pickler):
         def reducer_override(self, obj):
             """Custom reducer for MyClass."""
             if getattr(obj, "__name__", None) == "MyClass":
                 return type, (obj.__name__, obj.__bases__,
                               {'my_attribute': obj.my_attribute})
             else:
                 # For any other object, fallback to usual reduction
                 return NotImplemented

     f = io.BytesIO()
     p = MyPickler(f)
     p.dump(MyClass)

     del MyClass

     unpickled_class = pickle.loads(f.getvalue())

     assert isinstance(unpickled_class, type)
     assert unpickled_class.__name__ == "MyClass"
     assert unpickled_class.my_attribute == 1


File: python.info,  Node: Out-of-band Buffers,  Next: Restricting Globals,  Prev: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.13.1.12 Out-of-band Buffers
.............................

Added in version 3.8.

In some contexts, the ‘pickle’ module is used to transfer massive
amounts of data.  Therefore, it can be important to minimize the number
of memory copies, to preserve performance and resource consumption.
However, normal operation of the ‘pickle’ module, as it transforms a
graph-like structure of objects into a sequential stream of bytes,
intrinsically involves copying data to and from the pickle stream.

This constraint can be eschewed if both the 'provider' (the
implementation of the object types to be transferred) and the 'consumer'
(the implementation of the communications system) support the
out-of-band transfer facilities provided by pickle protocol 5 and
higher.

* Menu:

* Provider API::
* Consumer API::
* Example: Example<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Provider API,  Next: Consumer API,  Up: Out-of-band Buffers

5.13.1.13 Provider API
......................

The large data objects to be pickled must implement a *note
__reduce_ex__(): 1b7e. method specialized for protocol 5 and higher,
which returns a *note PickleBuffer: 1908. instance (instead of e.g.  a
*note bytes: 1c7. object) for any large data.

A *note PickleBuffer: 1908. object 'signals' that the underlying buffer
is eligible for out-of-band data transfer.  Those objects remain
compatible with normal usage of the ‘pickle’ module.  However, consumers
can also opt-in to tell ‘pickle’ that they will handle those buffers by
themselves.


File: python.info,  Node: Consumer API,  Next: Example<4>,  Prev: Provider API,  Up: Out-of-band Buffers

5.13.1.14 Consumer API
......................

A communications system can enable custom handling of the *note
PickleBuffer: 1908. objects generated when serializing an object graph.

On the sending side, it needs to pass a 'buffer_callback' argument to
*note Pickler: de2. (or to the *note dump(): 2f31. or *note dumps():
1846. function), which will be called with each *note PickleBuffer:
1908. generated while pickling the object graph.  Buffers accumulated by
the 'buffer_callback' will not see their data copied into the pickle
stream, only a cheap marker will be inserted.

On the receiving side, it needs to pass a 'buffers' argument to *note
Unpickler: 1978. (or to the *note load(): 10ca. or *note loads(): 10cb.
function), which is an iterable of the buffers which were passed to
'buffer_callback'.  That iterable should produce buffers in the same
order as they were passed to 'buffer_callback'.  Those buffers will
provide the data expected by the reconstructors of the objects whose
pickling produced the original *note PickleBuffer: 1908. objects.

Between the sending side and the receiving side, the communications
system is free to implement its own transfer mechanism for out-of-band
buffers.  Potential optimizations include the use of shared memory or
datatype-dependent compression.


File: python.info,  Node: Example<4>,  Prev: Consumer API,  Up: Out-of-band Buffers

5.13.1.15 Example
.................

Here is a trivial example where we implement a *note bytearray: 1c6.
subclass able to participate in out-of-band buffer pickling:

     class ZeroCopyByteArray(bytearray):

         def __reduce_ex__(self, protocol):
             if protocol >= 5:
                 return type(self)._reconstruct, (PickleBuffer(self),), None
             else:
                 # PickleBuffer is forbidden with pickle protocols <= 4.
                 return type(self)._reconstruct, (bytearray(self),)

         @classmethod
         def _reconstruct(cls, obj):
             with memoryview(obj) as m:
                 # Get a handle over the original buffer object
                 obj = m.obj
                 if type(obj) is cls:
                     # Original buffer object is a ZeroCopyByteArray, return it
                     # as-is.
                     return obj
                 else:
                     return cls(obj)

The reconstructor (the ‘_reconstruct’ class method) returns the buffer’s
providing object if it has the right type.  This is an easy way to
simulate zero-copy behaviour on this toy example.

On the consumer side, we can pickle those objects the usual way, which
when unserialized will give us a copy of the original object:

     b = ZeroCopyByteArray(b"abc")
     data = pickle.dumps(b, protocol=5)
     new_b = pickle.loads(data)
     print(b == new_b)  # True
     print(b is new_b)  # False: a copy was made

But if we pass a 'buffer_callback' and then give back the accumulated
buffers when unserializing, we are able to get back the original object:

     b = ZeroCopyByteArray(b"abc")
     buffers = []
     data = pickle.dumps(b, protocol=5, buffer_callback=buffers.append)
     new_b = pickle.loads(data, buffers=buffers)
     print(b == new_b)  # True
     print(b is new_b)  # True: no copy was made

This example is limited by the fact that *note bytearray: 1c6. allocates
its own memory: you cannot create a ‘bytearray’ instance that is backed
by another object’s memory.  However, third-party datatypes such as
NumPy arrays do not have this limitation, and allow use of zero-copy
pickling (or making as few copies as possible) when transferring between
distinct processes or systems.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 574(1) – Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/


File: python.info,  Node: Restricting Globals,  Next: Performance<2>,  Prev: Out-of-band Buffers,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.13.1.16 Restricting Globals
.............................

By default, unpickling will import any class or function that it finds
in the pickle data.  For many applications, this behaviour is
unacceptable as it permits the unpickler to import and invoke arbitrary
code.  Just consider what this hand-crafted pickle data stream does when
loaded:

     >>> import pickle
     >>> pickle.loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
     hello world
     0

In this example, the unpickler imports the *note os.system(): 17ff.
function and then apply the string argument «echo hello world».
Although this example is inoffensive, it is not difficult to imagine one
that could damage your system.

For this reason, you may want to control what gets unpickled by
customizing *note Unpickler.find_class(): 19b5.  Unlike its name
suggests, ‘Unpickler.find_class()’ is called whenever a global (i.e., a
class or a function) is requested.  Thus it is possible to either
completely forbid globals or restrict them to a safe subset.

Here is an example of an unpickler allowing only few safe classes from
the *note builtins: 13. module to be loaded:

     import builtins
     import io
     import pickle

     safe_builtins = {
         'range',
         'complex',
         'set',
         'frozenset',
         'slice',
     }

     class RestrictedUnpickler(pickle.Unpickler):

         def find_class(self, module, name):
             # Only allow safe classes from builtins.
             if module == "builtins" and name in safe_builtins:
                 return getattr(builtins, name)
             # Forbid everything else.
             raise pickle.UnpicklingError("global '%s.%s' is forbidden" %
                                          (module, name))

     def restricted_loads(s):
         """Helper function analogous to pickle.loads()."""
         return RestrictedUnpickler(io.BytesIO(s)).load()

A sample usage of our unpickler working as intended:

     >>> restricted_loads(pickle.dumps([1, 2, range(15)]))
     [1, 2, range(0, 15)]
     >>> restricted_loads(b"cos\nsystem\n(S'echo hello world'\ntR.")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'os.system' is forbidden
     >>> restricted_loads(b'cbuiltins\neval\n'
     ...                  b'(S\'getattr(__import__("os"), "system")'
     ...                  b'("echo hello world")\'\ntR.')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     pickle.UnpicklingError: global 'builtins.eval' is forbidden

As our examples shows, you have to be careful with what you allow to be
unpickled.  Therefore if security is a concern, you may want to consider
alternatives such as the marshalling API in *note xmlrpc.client: 137. or
third-party solutions.


File: python.info,  Node: Performance<2>,  Next: Examples<5>,  Prev: Restricting Globals,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.13.1.17 Performance
.....................

Recent versions of the pickle protocol (from protocol 2 and upwards)
feature efficient binary encodings for several common features and
built-in types.  Also, the ‘pickle’ module has a transparent optimizer
written in C.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<5>,  Next: Command-line interface,  Prev: Performance<2>,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.13.1.18 Examples
..................

For the simplest code, use the *note dump(): 2f31. and *note load():
10ca. functions.

     import pickle

     # An arbitrary collection of objects supported by pickle.
     data = {
         'a': [1, 2.0, 3+4j],
         'b': ("character string", b"byte string"),
         'c': {None, True, False}
     }

     with open('data.pickle', 'wb') as f:
         # Pickle the 'data' dictionary using the highest protocol available.
         pickle.dump(data, f, pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL)

The following example reads the resulting pickled data.

     import pickle

     with open('data.pickle', 'rb') as f:
         # The protocol version used is detected automatically, so we do not
         # have to specify it.
         data = pickle.load(f)


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface,  Prev: Examples<5>,  Up: pickle — Python object serialization

5.13.1.19 Command-line interface
................................

The ‘pickle’ module can be invoked as a script from the command line, it
will display contents of the pickle files.  However, when the pickle
file that you want to examine comes from an untrusted source, ‘-m
pickletools’ is a safer option because it does not execute pickle
bytecode, see *note pickletools CLI usage: 2f53.

     python -m pickle pickle_file [pickle_file ...]

The following option is accepted:

 -- Option: pickle_file

     A pickle file to read, or ‘-’ to indicate reading from standard
     input.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note copyreg: 2a.

     Pickle interface constructor registration for extension types.

Module *note pickletools: ac.

     Tools for working with and analyzing pickled data.

Module *note shelve: cb.

     Indexed databases of objects; uses ‘pickle’.

Module *note copy: 29.

     Shallow and deep object copying.

Module *note marshal: 90.

     High-performance serialization of built-in types.


File: python.info,  Node: copyreg — Register pickle support functions,  Next: shelve — Python object persistence,  Prev: pickle — Python object serialization,  Up: Data Persistence

5.13.2 ‘copyreg’ — Register ‘pickle’ support functions
------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/copyreg.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘copyreg’ module offers a way to define functions used while
pickling specific objects.  The *note pickle: ab. and *note copy: 29.
modules use those functions when pickling/copying those objects.  The
module provides configuration information about object constructors
which are not classes.  Such constructors may be factory functions or
class instances.

 -- Συνάρτηση: copyreg.constructor (object)

     Declares 'object' to be a valid constructor.  If 'object' is not
     callable (and hence not valid as a constructor), raises *note
     TypeError: 291.

 -- Συνάρτηση: copyreg.pickle (type, function, constructor_ob=None)

     Declares that 'function' should be used as a «reduction» function
     for objects of type 'type'.  'function' must return either a string
     or a tuple containing between two and six elements.  See the *note
     dispatch_table: 14ce. for more details on the interface of
     'function'.

     The 'constructor_ob' parameter is a legacy feature and is now
     ignored, but if passed it must be a callable.

     Note that the *note dispatch_table: 14ce. attribute of a pickler
     object or subclass of *note pickle.Pickler: de2. can also be used
     for declaring reduction functions.

* Menu:

* Example: Example<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/copyreg.py


File: python.info,  Node: Example<5>,  Up: copyreg — Register pickle support functions

5.13.2.1 Example
................

The example below would like to show how to register a pickle function
and how it will be used:

     >>> import copyreg, copy, pickle
     >>> class C:
     ...     def __init__(self, a):
     ...         self.a = a
     ...
     >>> def pickle_c(c):
     ...     print("pickling a C instance...")
     ...     return C, (c.a,)
     ...
     >>> copyreg.pickle(C, pickle_c)
     >>> c = C(1)
     >>> d = copy.copy(c)
     pickling a C instance...
     >>> p = pickle.dumps(c)
     pickling a C instance...


File: python.info,  Node: shelve — Python object persistence,  Next: marshal — Internal Python object serialization,  Prev: copyreg — Register pickle support functions,  Up: Data Persistence

5.13.3 ‘shelve’ — Python object persistence
-------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/shelve.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

A «shelf» is a persistent, dictionary-like object.  The difference with
«dbm» databases is that the values (not the keys!)  in a shelf can be
essentially arbitrary Python objects — anything that the *note pickle:
ab. module can handle.  This includes most class instances, recursive
data types, and objects containing lots of shared sub-objects.  The keys
are ordinary strings.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shelve.open (filename, flag='c', protocol=None,
          writeback=False, *, serializer=None, deserializer=None)

     Open a persistent dictionary.  The filename specified is the base
     filename for the underlying database.  As a side-effect, an
     extension may be added to the filename and more than one file may
     be created.  By default, the underlying database file is opened for
     reading and writing.  The optional 'flag' parameter has the same
     interpretation as the 'flag' parameter of *note dbm.open(): 12d7.

     By default, pickles created with *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
     c07. are used to serialize values.  The version of the pickle
     protocol can be specified with the 'protocol' parameter.

     Because of Python semantics, a shelf cannot know when a mutable
     persistent-dictionary entry is modified.  By default modified
     objects are written 'only' when assigned to the shelf (see *note
     Example: 2f5d.).  If the optional 'writeback' parameter is set to
     ‘True’, all entries accessed are also cached in memory, and written
     back on *note sync(): 2f5e. and *note close(): 2f5f.; this can make
     it handier to mutate mutable entries in the persistent dictionary,
     but, if many entries are accessed, it can consume vast amounts of
     memory for the cache, and it can make the close operation very slow
     since all accessed entries are written back (there is no way to
     determine which accessed entries are mutable, nor which ones were
     actually mutated).

     By default, ‘shelve’ uses *note pickle.dumps(): 1846. and *note
     pickle.loads(): 10cb. for serializing and deserializing.  This can
     be changed by supplying 'serializer' and 'deserializer',
     respectively.

     The 'serializer' argument must be a callable which takes an object
     ‘obj’ and the 'protocol' as inputs and returns the representation
     ‘obj’ as a *note bytes-like object: 436.; the 'protocol' value may
     be ignored by the serializer.

     The 'deserializer' argument must be a callable which takes a
     serialized object given as a *note bytes: 1c7. object and returns
     the corresponding object.

     A *note ShelveError: 2f60. is raised if 'serializer' is given but
     'deserializer' is not, or vice-versa.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: c07. is now
     used as the default pickle protocol.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Accepts *note path-like object: 79f. for
     filename.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts custom 'serializer' and
     'deserializer' functions in place of *note pickle.dumps(): 1846.
     and *note pickle.loads(): 10cb.

          Σημείωση: Do not rely on the shelf being closed automatically;
          always call *note close(): 2f5f. explicitly when you don’t
          need it any more, or use *note shelve.open(): 1c77. as a
          context manager:

               with shelve.open('spam') as db:
                   db['eggs'] = 'eggs'
     Προειδοποίηση: Because the ‘shelve’ module is backed by *note
     pickle: ab, it is insecure to load a shelf from an untrusted
     source.  Like with pickle, loading a shelf can execute arbitrary
     code.

Shelf objects support most of the methods and operations supported by
dictionaries (except copying, constructors and operators ‘|’ and ‘|=’).
This eases the transition from dictionary based scripts to those
requiring persistent storage.

Two additional methods are supported:

 -- Μέθοδος: Shelf.sync ()

     Write back all entries in the cache if the shelf was opened with
     'writeback' set to *note True: fcc.  Also empty the cache and
     synchronize the persistent dictionary on disk, if feasible.  This
     is called automatically when *note reorganize(): 2f62. is called or
     the shelf is closed with *note close(): 2f5f.

 -- Μέθοδος: Shelf.reorganize ()

     Calls *note sync(): 2f5e. and attempts to shrink space used on disk
     by removing empty space resulting from deletions.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μέθοδος: Shelf.close ()

     Synchronize and close the persistent 'dict' object.  Operations on
     a closed shelf will fail with a *note ValueError: 277.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Persistent dictionary recipe(2) with widely supported storage formats
and having the speed of native dictionaries.

* Menu:

* Restrictions::
* Example: Example<6>.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/shelve.py

   (2) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576642-persistent-dict-with-multiple-standard-file-format/


File: python.info,  Node: Restrictions,  Next: Example<6>,  Up: shelve — Python object persistence

5.13.3.1 Restrictions
.....................

   * The choice of which database package will be used (such as *note
     dbm.ndbm: 37. or *note dbm.gnu: 36.) depends on which interface is
     available.  Therefore it is not safe to open the database directly
     using *note dbm: 34.  The database is also (unfortunately) subject
     to the limitations of ‘dbm’, if it is used — this means that (the
     pickled representation of) the objects stored in the database
     should be fairly small, and in rare cases key collisions may cause
     the database to refuse updates.

   * The ‘shelve’ module does not support 'concurrent' read/write access
     to shelved objects.  (Multiple simultaneous read accesses are
     safe.)  When a program has a shelf open for writing, no other
     program should have it open for reading or writing.  Unix file
     locking can be used to solve this, but this differs across Unix
     versions and requires knowledge about the database implementation
     used.

   * On macOS *note dbm.ndbm: 37. can silently corrupt the database file
     on updates, which can cause hard crashes when trying to read from
     the database.

   * *note Shelf.reorganize(): 2f62. may not be available for all
     database packages and may temporarily increase resource usage
     (especially disk space) when called.  Additionally, it will never
     run automatically and instead needs to be called explicitly.

 -- Κλάση: shelve.Shelf (dict, protocol=None, writeback=False,
          keyencoding='utf-8', *, serializer=None, deserializer=None)

     A subclass of *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 1459. which
     stores pickled values in the 'dict' object.

     By default, pickles created with *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL:
     c07. are used to serialize values.  The version of the pickle
     protocol can be specified with the 'protocol' parameter.  See the
     *note pickle: ab. documentation for a discussion of the pickle
     protocols.

     If the 'writeback' parameter is ‘True’, the object will hold a
     cache of all entries accessed and write them back to the 'dict' at
     sync and close times.  This allows natural operations on mutable
     entries, but can consume much more memory and make sync and close
     take a long time.

     The 'keyencoding' parameter is the encoding used to encode keys
     before they are used with the underlying dict.

     The 'serializer' and 'deserializer' parameters have the same
     interpretation as in *note open(): 1c77.

     A ‘Shelf’ object can also be used as a context manager, in which
     case it will be automatically closed when the *note with: 20a.
     block ends.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'keyencoding' parameter;
     previously, keys were always encoded in UTF-8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added context manager support.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: c07. is now
     used as the default pickle protocol.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'serializer' and 'deserializer'
     parameters.

 -- Κλάση: shelve.BsdDbShelf (dict, protocol=None, writeback=False,
          keyencoding='utf-8', *, serializer=None, deserializer=None)

     A subclass of *note Shelf: 1344. which exposes ‘first()’, ‘next()’,
     ‘previous()’, ‘last()’ and ‘set_location()’ methods.  These are
     available in the third-party ‘bsddb’ module from pybsddb(1) but not
     in other database modules.  The 'dict' object passed to the
     constructor must support those methods.  This is generally
     accomplished by calling one of ‘bsddb.hashopen()’, ‘bsddb.btopen()’
     or ‘bsddb.rnopen()’.  The optional 'protocol', 'writeback',
     'keyencoding', 'serializer' and 'deserializer' parameters have the
     same interpretation as in *note open(): 1c77.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'serializer' and 'deserializer'
     parameters.

 -- Κλάση: shelve.DbfilenameShelf (filename, flag='c', protocol=None,
          writeback=False, *, serializer=None, deserializer=None)

     A subclass of *note Shelf: 1344. which accepts a 'filename' instead
     of a dict-like object.  The underlying file will be opened using
     *note dbm.open(): 12d7.  By default, the file will be created and
     opened for both read and write.  The optional 'flag' parameter has
     the same interpretation as for the *note open(): 1c77. function.
     The optional 'protocol', 'writeback', 'serializer' and
     'deserializer' parameters have the same interpretation as in *note
     open(): 1c77.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'serializer' and 'deserializer'
     parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Example<6>,  Next: Exceptions<5>,  Prev: Restrictions,  Up: shelve — Python object persistence

5.13.3.2 Example
................

To summarize the interface (‘key’ is a string, ‘data’ is an arbitrary
object):

     import shelve

     d = shelve.open(filename)  # open -- file may get suffix added by low-level
                                # library

     d[key] = data              # store data at key (overwrites old data if
                                # using an existing key)
     data = d[key]              # retrieve a COPY of data at key (raise KeyError
                                # if no such key)
     del d[key]                 # delete data stored at key (raises KeyError
                                # if no such key)

     flag = key in d            # true if the key exists
     klist = list(d.keys())     # a list of all existing keys (slow!)

     # as d was opened WITHOUT writeback=True, beware:
     d['xx'] = [0, 1, 2]        # this works as expected, but...
     d['xx'].append(3)          # *this doesn't!* -- d['xx'] is STILL [0, 1, 2]!

     # having opened d without writeback=True, you need to code carefully:
     temp = d['xx']             # extracts the copy
     temp.append(5)             # mutates the copy
     d['xx'] = temp             # stores the copy right back, to persist it

     # or, d=shelve.open(filename,writeback=True) would let you just code
     # d['xx'].append(5) and have it work as expected, BUT it would also
     # consume more memory and make the d.close() operation slower.

     d.close()                  # close it


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<5>,  Prev: Example<6>,  Up: shelve — Python object persistence

5.13.3.3 Exceptions
...................

 -- Εξαίρεση: shelve.ShelveError

     Exception raised when one of the arguments 'deserializer' and
     'serializer' is missing in the *note open(): 1c77, *note Shelf:
     1344, *note BsdDbShelf: 28b4. and *note DbfilenameShelf: 28b5.

     The 'deserializer' and 'serializer' arguments must be given
     together.

     Added in version 3.15.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note dbm: 34.

     Generic interface to ‘dbm’-style databases.

Module *note pickle: ab.

     Object serialization used by ‘shelve’.


File: python.info,  Node: marshal — Internal Python object serialization,  Next: dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases»,  Prev: shelve — Python object persistence,  Up: Data Persistence

5.13.4 ‘marshal’ — Internal Python object serialization
-------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains functions that can read and write Python values in
a binary format.  The format is specific to Python, but independent of
machine architecture issues (e.g., you can write a Python value to a
file on a PC, transport the file to a Mac, and read it back there).
Details of the format are undocumented on purpose; it may change between
Python versions (although it rarely does).  (1)

This is not a general «persistence» module.  For general persistence and
transfer of Python objects through RPC calls, see the modules *note
pickle: ab. and *note shelve: cb.  The ‘marshal’ module exists mainly to
support reading and writing the «pseudo-compiled» code for Python
modules of ‘.pyc’ files.  Therefore, the Python maintainers reserve the
right to modify the marshal format in backward incompatible ways should
the need arise.  The format of code objects is not compatible between
Python versions, even if the version of the format is the same.
De-serializing a code object in the incorrect Python version has
undefined behavior.  If you’re serializing and de-serializing Python
objects, use the ‘pickle’ module instead – the performance is
comparable, version independence is guaranteed, and pickle supports a
substantially wider range of objects than marshal.

     Προειδοποίηση: The ‘marshal’ module is not intended to be secure
     against erroneous or maliciously constructed data.  Never unmarshal
     data received from an untrusted or unauthenticated source.

There are functions that read/write files as well as functions operating
on bytes-like objects.

Not all Python object types are supported; in general, only objects
whose value is independent from a particular invocation of Python can be
written and read by this module.  The following types are supported:

   * Numeric types: *note int: 326, *note bool: 5ef, *note float: 327,
     *note complex: 328.

   * Strings (*note str: 1df.) and *note bytes: 1c7.  *note Bytes-like
     objects: 436. like *note bytearray: 1c6. are marshalled as ‘bytes’.

   * Containers: *note tuple: 1ce, *note list: 4d9, *note dict: 188,
     *note frozendict: 182. (since *note version: 2f69. 6), *note set:
     42b, *note frozenset: 9d4, and *note slice: 1d0. (since ‘version’
     5).  It should be understood that these are supported only if the
     values contained therein are themselves supported.  Recursive
     containers are supported since ‘version’ 3.

   * The singletons *note None: a65, *note Ellipsis: 2519. and *note
     StopIteration: fba.

   * *note code: 1b. objects, if 'allow_code' is true.  See note above
     about version dependence.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4:

   * Added format version 3, which supports marshalling recursive lists,
     sets and dictionaries.

   * Added format version 4, which supports efficient representations of
     short strings.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added format version 5, which allows
marshalling slices.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added format version 6, which allows
marshalling *note frozendict: 182.

The module defines these functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: marshal.dump (value, file, version=version, /, *,
          allow_code=True)

     Write the value on the open file.  The value must be a supported
     type.  The file must be a writeable *note binary file: 225d.

     If the value has (or contains an object that has) an unsupported
     type, a *note ValueError: 277. exception is raised — but garbage
     data will also be written to the file.  The object will not be
     properly read back by *note load(): 1fe5.  *note Code objects: 6eb.
     are only supported if 'allow_code' is true.

     The 'version' argument indicates the data format that ‘dump’ should
     use (see below).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘marshal.dumps’ with
     arguments ‘value’, ‘version’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'allow_code' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: marshal.load (file, /, *, allow_code=True)

     Read one value from the open file and return it.  If no valid value
     is read (e.g.  because the data has a different Python version’s
     incompatible marshal format), raise *note EOFError: 167e, *note
     ValueError: 277. or *note TypeError: 291.  *note Code objects: 6eb.
     are only supported if 'allow_code' is true.  The file must be a
     readable *note binary file: 225d.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘marshal.load’ with no
     arguments.

          Σημείωση: If an object containing an unsupported type was
          marshalled with *note dump(): 2f6a, ‘load()’ will substitute
          ‘None’ for the unmarshallable type.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This call used to raise a ‘code.__new__’
     audit event for each code object.  Now it raises a single
     ‘marshal.load’ event for the entire load operation.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'allow_code' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: marshal.dumps (value, version=version, /, *,
          allow_code=True)

     Return the bytes object that would be written to a file by
     ‘dump(value, file)’.  The value must be a supported type.  Raise a
     *note ValueError: 277. exception if value has (or contains an
     object that has) an unsupported type.  *note Code objects: 6eb. are
     only supported if 'allow_code' is true.

     The 'version' argument indicates the data format that ‘dumps’
     should use (see below).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘marshal.dumps’ with
     arguments ‘value’, ‘version’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'allow_code' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: marshal.loads (bytes, /, *, allow_code=True)

     Convert the *note bytes-like object: 436. to a value.  If no valid
     value is found, raise *note EOFError: 167e, *note ValueError: 277.
     or *note TypeError: 291.  *note Code objects: 6eb. are only
     supported if 'allow_code' is true.  Extra bytes in the input are
     ignored.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘marshal.loads’ with argument
     ‘bytes’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This call used to raise a ‘code.__new__’
     audit event for each code object.  Now it raises a single
     ‘marshal.loads’ event for the entire load operation.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'allow_code' parameter.

In addition, the following constants are defined:

 -- Δεδομένα: marshal.version

     Indicates the format that the module uses.  Version 0 is the
     historical first version; subsequent versions add new features.
     Generally, a new version becomes the default when it is introduced.

     Version     Available since     New features
                                     
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
     1           Python 2.4          Sharing interned strings
                                     
                                     
     2           Python 2.5          Binary representation of floats
                                     
                                     
     3           Python 3.4          Support for object instancing and recursion
                                     
                                     
     4           Python 3.4          Efficient representation of short strings
                                     
                                     
     5           Python 3.14         Support for *note slice: 1d0. objects
                                     
                                     
     6           Python 3.15         Support for *note frozendict: 182. objects
                                     

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The name of this module stems from a bit of terminology used by
the designers of Modula-3 (amongst others), who use the term
«marshalling» for shipping of data around in a self-contained form.
Strictly speaking, «to marshal» means to convert some data from internal
to external form (in an RPC buffer for instance) and «unmarshalling» for
the reverse process.


File: python.info,  Node: dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases»,  Next: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases,  Prev: marshal — Internal Python object serialization,  Up: Data Persistence

5.13.5 ‘dbm’ — Interfaces to Unix «databases»
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘dbm’ is a generic interface to variants of the DBM database:

   * *note dbm.sqlite3: 38.

   * *note dbm.gnu: 36.

   * *note dbm.ndbm: 37.

If none of these modules are installed, the slow-but-simple
implementation in module *note dbm.dumb: 35. will be used.  There is a
third party interface(2) to the Oracle Berkeley DB.

     Σημείωση: None of the underlying modules will automatically shrink
     the disk space used by the database file.  However, *note
     dbm.sqlite3: 38, *note dbm.gnu: 36. and *note dbm.dumb: 35. provide
     a ‘reorganize()’ method that can be used for this purpose.

 -- Εξαίρεση: dbm.error

     A tuple containing the exceptions that can be raised by each of the
     supported modules, with a unique exception also named *note
     dbm.error: 2f6f. as the first item — the latter is used when
     ‘dbm.error’ is raised.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dbm.whichdb (filename)

     This function attempts to guess which of the several simple
     database modules available — *note dbm.sqlite3: 38, *note dbm.gnu:
     36, *note dbm.ndbm: 37, or *note dbm.dumb: 35. — should be used to
     open a given file.

     Return one of the following values:

        * ‘None’ if the file can’t be opened because it’s unreadable or
          doesn’t exist

        * the empty string (‘''’) if the file’s format can’t be guessed

        * a string containing the required module name, such as
          ‘'dbm.ndbm'’ or ‘'dbm.gnu'’

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like
     object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dbm.open (file, flag='r', mode=0o666)

     Open a database and return the corresponding database object.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘file’ (*note path-like object: 79f.) – The database file to
          open.

          If the database file already exists, the *note whichdb():
          2f70. function is used to determine its type and the
          appropriate module is used; if it does not exist, the first
          submodule listed above that can be imported is used.

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 1df.) –

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 326.) – The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: 'file' accepts a *note path-like object:
     79f.

The object returned by *note open(): 12d7. supports the basic
functionality of mutable *note mappings: 1564.; keys and their
corresponding values can be stored, retrieved, and deleted, and
iteration, the *note in: 323. operator and methods ‘keys()’, ‘get()’,
‘setdefault()’ and ‘clear()’ are available.  The ‘keys()’ method returns
a list instead of a view object.  The ‘setdefault()’ method requires two
arguments.

Key and values are always stored as *note bytes: 1c7.  This means that
when strings are used they are implicitly converted to the default
encoding before being stored.

These objects also support being used in a *note with: 20a. statement,
which will automatically close them when done.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’ methods are now
available for all ‘dbm’ backends.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added native support for the context management
protocol to the objects returned by *note open(): 12d7.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Deleting a key from a read-only database raises
a database module specific exception instead of *note KeyError: 7df.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: ‘clear()’ methods are now available for all
‘dbm’ backends.

The following example records some hostnames and a corresponding title,
and then prints out the contents of the database:

     import dbm

     # Open database, creating it if necessary.
     with dbm.open('cache', 'c') as db:

         # Record some values
         db[b'hello'] = b'there'
         db['www.python.org'] = 'Python Website'
         db['www.cnn.com'] = 'Cable News Network'

         # Note that the keys are considered bytes now.
         assert db[b'www.python.org'] == b'Python Website'
         # Notice how the value is now in bytes.
         assert db['www.cnn.com'] == b'Cable News Network'

         # Often-used methods of the dict interface work too.
         print(db.get('python.org', b'not present'))

         # Storing a non-string key or value will raise an exception (most
         # likely a TypeError).
         db['www.yahoo.com'] = 4

     # db is automatically closed when leaving the with statement.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note shelve: cb.

     Persistence module which stores non-string data.

The individual submodules are described in the following sections.

* Menu:

* dbm.sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm: dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm.
* dbm.gnu — GNU database manager: dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
* dbm.ndbm — New Database Manager: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
* dbm.dumb — Portable DBM implementation: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/dbm/__init__.py

   (2) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm


File: python.info,  Node: dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm,  Next: dbm gnu — GNU database manager,  Up: dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases»

5.13.5.1 ‘dbm.sqlite3’ — SQLite backend for dbm
...............................................

Added in version 3.13.

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/sqlite3.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module uses the standard library *note sqlite3: d7. module to
provide an SQLite backend for the ‘dbm’ module.  The files created by
‘dbm.sqlite3’ can thus be opened by ‘sqlite3’, or any other SQLite
browser, including the SQLite CLI.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dbm.sqlite3.open (filename, /, flag='r', mode=0o666)

     Open an SQLite database.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘filename’ (*note path-like object: 79f.) – The path to the
          database to be opened.

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 1df.) –

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ – The Unix file access mode of the file (default: octal
          ‘0o666’), used only when the database has to be created.

     The returned database object behaves similar to a mutable *note
     mapping: 1564, but the ‘keys()’ method returns a list, and the
     ‘setdefault()’ method requires two arguments.  It also supports a
     «closing» context manager via the *note with: 20a. keyword.

     The following methods are also provided:

      -- Μέθοδος: sqlite3.close ()

          Close the SQLite database.

      -- Μέθοδος: sqlite3.reorganize ()

          If you have carried out a lot of deletions and would like to
          shrink the space used on disk, this method will reorganize the
          database; otherwise, deleted file space will be kept and
          reused as new (key, value) pairs are added.

               Σημείωση: While reorganizing, as much as two times the
               size of the original database is required in free disk
               space.  However, be aware that this factor changes for
               each ‘dbm’ submodule.

          Added in version 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/dbm/sqlite3.py


File: python.info,  Node: dbm gnu — GNU database manager,  Next: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager,  Prev: dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm,  Up: dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases»

5.13.5.2 ‘dbm.gnu’ — GNU database manager
.........................................

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/gnu.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘dbm.gnu’ module provides an interface to the GDBM (GNU dbm)
library, similar to the *note dbm.ndbm: 37. module, but with additional
functionality like crash tolerance.

     Σημείωση: The file formats created by ‘dbm.gnu’ and *note dbm.ndbm:
     37. are incompatible and can not be used interchangeably.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 244d. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Εξαίρεση: dbm.gnu.error

     Raised on ‘dbm.gnu’-specific errors, such as I/O errors.  *note
     KeyError: 7df. is raised for general mapping errors like specifying
     an incorrect key.

 -- Δεδομένα: dbm.gnu.open_flags

     A string of characters the 'flag' parameter of *note open(): 200e.
     supports.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dbm.gnu.open (filename, flag='r', mode=0o666, /)

     Open a GDBM database and return a ‘gdbm’ object.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘filename’ (*note path-like object: 79f.) – The database file
          to open.

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 1df.) –

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

          The following additional characters may be appended to control
          how the database is opened:

             * ‘'f'’: Open the database in fast mode.  Writes to the
               database will not be synchronized.

             * ‘'s'’: Synchronized mode.  Changes to the database will
               be written immediately to the file.

             * ‘'u'’: Do not lock database.

          Not all flags are valid for all versions of GDBM. See the
          *note open_flags: 2f76. member for a list of supported flag
          characters.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 326.) – The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.


     Προκαλεί: *note error: e60. – If an invalid 'flag' argument is
     passed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like
     object: 79f.

     ‘gdbm’ objects behave similar to mutable *note mappings: 1564, but
     methods ‘items()’, ‘values()’, ‘pop()’, ‘popitem()’, and ‘update()’
     are not supported, the ‘keys()’ method returns a list, and the
     ‘setdefault()’ method requires two arguments.  It also supports a
     «closing» context manager via the *note with: 20a. keyword.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’
     methods.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the ‘clear()’ method.

     The following methods are also provided:

      -- Μέθοδος: gdbm.close ()

          Close the GDBM database.

      -- Μέθοδος: gdbm.firstkey ()

          It’s possible to loop over every key in the database using
          this method and the *note nextkey(): 2f79. method.  The
          traversal is ordered by GDBM’s internal hash values, and won’t
          be sorted by the key values.  This method returns the starting
          key.

      -- Μέθοδος: gdbm.nextkey (key)

          Returns the key that follows 'key' in the traversal.  The
          following code prints every key in the database ‘db’, without
          having to create a list in memory that contains them all:

               k = db.firstkey()
               while k is not None:
                   print(k)
                   k = db.nextkey(k)

      -- Μέθοδος: gdbm.reorganize ()

          If you have carried out a lot of deletions and would like to
          shrink the space used by the GDBM file, this routine will
          reorganize the database.  ‘gdbm’ objects will not shorten the
          length of a database file except by using this reorganization;
          otherwise, deleted file space will be kept and reused as new
          (key, value) pairs are added.

               Σημείωση: While reorganizing, as much as one time the
               size of the original database is required in free disk
               space.  However, be aware that this factor changes for
               each ‘dbm’ submodule.

      -- Μέθοδος: gdbm.sync ()

          When the database has been opened in fast mode, this method
          forces any unwritten data to be written to the disk.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/dbm/gnu.py


File: python.info,  Node: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager,  Next: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation,  Prev: dbm gnu — GNU database manager,  Up: dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases»

5.13.5.3 ‘dbm.ndbm’ — New Database Manager
..........................................

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/ndbm.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘dbm.ndbm’ module provides an interface to the NDBM (New Database
Manager) library.  This module can be used with the «classic» NDBM
interface or the GDBM compatibility interface.

     Σημείωση: The file formats created by *note dbm.gnu: 36. and
     ‘dbm.ndbm’ are incompatible and can not be used interchangeably.

     Προειδοποίηση: The NDBM library shipped as part of macOS has an
     undocumented limitation on the size of values, which can result in
     corrupted database files when storing values larger than this
     limit.  Reading such corrupted files can result in a hard crash
     (segmentation fault).

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 244d. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Εξαίρεση: dbm.ndbm.error

     Raised on ‘dbm.ndbm’-specific errors, such as I/O errors.  *note
     KeyError: 7df. is raised for general mapping errors like specifying
     an incorrect key.

 -- Δεδομένα: dbm.ndbm.library

     Name of the NDBM implementation library used.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dbm.ndbm.open (filename, flag='r', mode=0o666, /)

     Open an NDBM database and return an ‘ndbm’ object.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘filename’ (*note path-like object: 79f.) – The basename of
          the database file (without the ‘.dir’ or ‘.pag’ extensions).

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 1df.) –

             * ‘'r'’ (default): Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’: Open database for reading and writing, creating it
               if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 326.) – The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Accepts *note path-like object: 79f. for
     filename.

     ‘ndbm’ objects behave similar to mutable *note mappings: 1564, but
     methods ‘items()’, ‘values()’, ‘pop()’, ‘popitem()’, and ‘update()’
     are not supported, the ‘keys()’ method returns a list, and the
     ‘setdefault()’ method requires two arguments.  It also supports a
     «closing» context manager via the *note with: 20a. keyword.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’
     methods.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the ‘clear()’ method.

     The following method is also provided:

      -- Μέθοδος: ndbm.close ()

          Close the NDBM database.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/dbm/ndbm.py


File: python.info,  Node: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation,  Prev: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager,  Up: dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases»

5.13.5.4 ‘dbm.dumb’ — Portable DBM implementation
.................................................

'Source code:' Lib/dbm/dumb.py(1)

     Σημείωση: The ‘dbm.dumb’ module is intended as a last resort
     fallback for the ‘dbm’ module when a more robust module is not
     available.  The ‘dbm.dumb’ module is not written for speed and is
     not nearly as heavily used as the other database modules.

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘dbm.dumb’ module provides a persistent *note dict: 188.-like
interface which is written entirely in Python.  Unlike other ‘dbm’
backends, such as *note dbm.gnu: 36, no external library is required.

The ‘dbm.dumb’ module defines the following:

 -- Εξαίρεση: dbm.dumb.error

     Raised on ‘dbm.dumb’-specific errors, such as I/O errors.  *note
     KeyError: 7df. is raised for general mapping errors like specifying
     an incorrect key.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dbm.dumb.open (filename, flag='c', mode=0o666)

     Open a ‘dbm.dumb’ database.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘filename’ – The basename of the database file (without
          extensions).  A new database creates the following files:

             - ‘`filename'.dat’

             - ‘`filename'.dir’

        * ‘flag’ (*note str: 1df.) –

             * ‘'r'’: Open existing database for reading only.

             * ‘'w'’: Open existing database for reading and writing.

             * ‘'c'’ (default): Open database for reading and writing,
               creating it if it doesn’t exist.

             * ‘'n'’: Always create a new, empty database, open for
               reading and writing.

        * ‘mode’ (*note int: 326.) – The Unix file access mode of the
          file (default: octal ‘0o666’), used only when the database has
          to be created.

          Προειδοποίηση: It is possible to crash the Python interpreter
          when loading a database with a sufficiently large/complex
          entry due to stack depth limitations in Python’s AST compiler.

          Προειδοποίηση: ‘dbm.dumb’ does not support concurrent
          read/write access.  (Multiple simultaneous read accesses are
          safe.)  When a program has the database open for writing, no
          other program should have it open for reading or writing.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: *note open(): e5c. always creates a new
     database when 'flag' is ‘'n'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: A database opened read-only if 'flag' is
     ‘'r'’.  A database is not created if it does not exist if 'flag' is
     ‘'r'’ or ‘'w'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: 'filename' accepts a *note path-like
     object: 79f.

     The returned database object behaves similar to a mutable *note
     mapping: 1564, but the ‘keys()’ and ‘items()’ methods return lists,
     and the ‘setdefault()’ method requires two arguments.  It also
     supports a «closing» context manager via the *note with: 20a.
     keyword.

     The following methods are also provided:

      -- Μέθοδος: dumbdbm.close ()

          Close the database.

      -- Μέθοδος: dumbdbm.reorganize ()

          If you have carried out a lot of deletions and would like to
          shrink the space used on disk, this method will reorganize the
          database; otherwise, deleted file space will not be reused.

               Σημείωση: While reorganizing, no additional free disk
               space is required.  However, be aware that this factor
               changes for each ‘dbm’ submodule.

          Added in version 3.15.

      -- Μέθοδος: dumbdbm.sync ()

          Synchronize the on-disk directory and data files.  This method
          is called by the *note shelve.Shelf.sync(): 2f5e. method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/dbm/dumb.py


File: python.info,  Node: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases,  Prev: dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases»,  Up: Data Persistence

5.13.6 ‘sqlite3’ — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/sqlite3/(1)

SQLite is a C library that provides a lightweight disk-based database
that doesn’t require a separate server process and allows accessing the
database using a nonstandard variant of the SQL query language.  Some
applications can use SQLite for internal data storage.  It’s also
possible to prototype an application using SQLite and then port the code
to a larger database such as PostgreSQL or Oracle.

The ‘sqlite3’ module was written by Gerhard Häring.  It provides an SQL
interface compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by PEP
249(2), and requires the third-party SQLite(3) library.

This is an *note optional module: 2347.  If it is missing from your copy
of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is,
whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

This document includes four main sections:

   * *note Tutorial: 2f87. teaches how to use the ‘sqlite3’ module.

   * *note Reference: 2f88. describes the classes and functions this
     module defines.

   * *note How-to guides: 2f89. details how to handle specific tasks.

   * *note Explanation: 2f8a. provides in-depth background on
     transaction control.

Δείτε επίσης
............

‘https://www.sqlite.org’

     The SQLite web page; the documentation describes the syntax and the
     available data types for the supported SQL dialect.

‘https://www.w3schools.com/sql/’

     Tutorial, reference and examples for learning SQL syntax.

PEP 249(4) - Database API Specification 2.0

     PEP written by Marc-André Lemburg.

* Menu:

* Tutorial::
* Reference::
* How-to guides::
* Explanation::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/sqlite3/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) https://sqlite.org/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: Tutorial,  Next: Reference,  Up: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.13.6.1 Tutorial
.................

In this tutorial, you will create a database of Monty Python movies
using basic ‘sqlite3’ functionality.  It assumes a fundamental
understanding of database concepts, including cursors(1) and
transactions(2).

First, we need to create a new database and open a database connection
to allow ‘sqlite3’ to work with it.  Call *note sqlite3.connect(): 3e0.
to create a connection to the database ‘tutorial.db’ in the current
working directory, implicitly creating it if it does not exist:

     import sqlite3
     con = sqlite3.connect("tutorial.db")

The returned *note Connection: 3df. object ‘con’ represents the
connection to the on-disk database.

In order to execute SQL statements and fetch results from SQL queries,
we will need to use a database cursor.  Call *note con.cursor(): 2f8c.
to create the *note Cursor: 2f8d.:

     cur = con.cursor()

Now that we’ve got a database connection and a cursor, we can create a
database table ‘movie’ with columns for title, release year, and review
score.  For simplicity, we can just use column names in the table
declaration – thanks to the flexible typing(3) feature of SQLite,
specifying the data types is optional.  Execute the ‘CREATE TABLE’
statement by calling *note cur.execute(...): 7a8.:

     cur.execute("CREATE TABLE movie(title, year, score)")

We can verify that the new table has been created by querying the
‘sqlite_master’ table built-in to SQLite, which should now contain an
entry for the ‘movie’ table definition (see The Schema Table(4) for
details).  Execute that query by calling *note cur.execute(...): 7a8,
assign the result to ‘res’, and call *note res.fetchone(): 2f8e. to
fetch the resulting row:

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT name FROM sqlite_master")
     >>> res.fetchone()
     ('movie',)

We can see that the table has been created, as the query returns a *note
tuple: 1ce. containing the table’s name.  If we query ‘sqlite_master’
for a non-existent table ‘spam’, ‘res.fetchone()’ will return ‘None’:

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT name FROM sqlite_master WHERE name='spam'")
     >>> res.fetchone() is None
     True

Now, add two rows of data supplied as SQL literals by executing an
‘INSERT’ statement, once again by calling *note cur.execute(...): 7a8.:

     cur.execute("""
         INSERT INTO movie VALUES
             ('Monty Python and the Holy Grail', 1975, 8.2),
             ('And Now for Something Completely Different', 1971, 7.5)
     """)

The ‘INSERT’ statement implicitly opens a transaction, which needs to be
committed before changes are saved in the database (see *note
Transaction control: 2f8f. for details).  Call *note con.commit(): 2f90.
on the connection object to commit the transaction:

     con.commit()

We can verify that the data was inserted correctly by executing a
‘SELECT’ query.  Use the now-familiar *note cur.execute(...): 7a8. to
assign the result to ‘res’, and call *note res.fetchall(): 2f91. to
return all resulting rows:

     >>> res = cur.execute("SELECT score FROM movie")
     >>> res.fetchall()
     [(8.2,), (7.5,)]

The result is a *note list: 4d9. of two ‘tuple’s, one per row, each
containing that row’s ‘score’ value.

Now, insert three more rows by calling *note cur.executemany(...): 7a9.:

     data = [
         ("Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl", 1982, 7.9),
         ("Monty Python's The Meaning of Life", 1983, 7.5),
         ("Monty Python's Life of Brian", 1979, 8.0),
     ]
     cur.executemany("INSERT INTO movie VALUES(?, ?, ?)", data)
     con.commit()  # Remember to commit the transaction after executing INSERT.

Notice that ‘?’ placeholders are used to bind ‘data’ to the query.
Always use placeholders instead of *note string formatting: 2249. to
bind Python values to SQL statements, to avoid SQL injection attacks(5)
(see *note How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries: 7aa.
for more details).

We can verify that the new rows were inserted by executing a ‘SELECT’
query, this time iterating over the results of the query:

     >>> for row in cur.execute("SELECT year, title FROM movie ORDER BY year"):
     ...     print(row)
     (1971, 'And Now for Something Completely Different')
     (1975, 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail')
     (1979, "Monty Python's Life of Brian")
     (1982, 'Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl')
     (1983, "Monty Python's The Meaning of Life")

Each row is a two-item *note tuple: 1ce. of ‘(year, title)’, matching
the columns selected in the query.

Finally, verify that the database has been written to disk by calling
*note con.close(): 750. to close the existing connection, opening a new
one, creating a new cursor, then querying the database:

     >>> con.close()
     >>> new_con = sqlite3.connect("tutorial.db")
     >>> new_cur = new_con.cursor()
     >>> res = new_cur.execute("SELECT title, year FROM movie ORDER BY score DESC")
     >>> title, year = res.fetchone()
     >>> print(f'The highest scoring Monty Python movie is {title!r}, released in {year}')
     The highest scoring Monty Python movie is 'Monty Python and the Holy Grail', released in 1975
     >>> new_con.close()

You’ve now created an SQLite database using the ‘sqlite3’ module,
inserted data and retrieved values from it in multiple ways.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * *note How-to guides: 2f89. for further reading:

        * *note How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries:
          7aa.

        * *note How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values: 2f92.

        * *note How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types:
          2f93.

        * *note How to use the connection context manager: 1d69.

        * *note How to create and use row factories: 2f94.

   * *note Explanation: 2f8a. for in-depth background on transaction
     control.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(databases)

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_transaction

   (3) https://www.sqlite.org/flextypegood.html

   (4) https://www.sqlite.org/schematab.html

   (5) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection


File: python.info,  Node: Reference,  Next: How-to guides,  Prev: Tutorial,  Up: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.13.6.2 Reference
..................

* Menu:

* Module functions::
* Module constants::
* Connection objects::
* Cursor objects::
* Row objects::
* Blob objects::
* PrepareProtocol objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<6>.
* SQLite and Python types::
* Default adapters and converters (deprecated): Default adapters and converters deprecated.
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Module functions,  Next: Module constants,  Up: Reference

5.13.6.3 Module functions
.........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: sqlite3.connect (database, *, timeout=5.0,
          detect_types=0, isolation_level='DEFERRED',
          check_same_thread=True, factory=sqlite3.Connection,
          cached_statements=128, uri=False,
          autocommit=sqlite3.LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL)

     Open a connection to an SQLite database.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘database’ (*note path-like object: 79f.) – The path to the
          database file to be opened.  You can pass ‘":memory:"’ to
          create an SQLite database existing only in memory(1), and open
          a connection to it.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 327.) – How many seconds the
          connection should wait before raising an *note
          OperationalError: 1e49. when a table is locked.  If another
          connection opens a transaction to modify a table, that table
          will be locked until the transaction is committed.  Default
          five seconds.

        * ‘detect_types’ (*note int: 326.) – Control whether and how
          data types not *note natively supported by SQLite: 2f99. are
          looked up to be converted to Python types, using the
          converters registered with *note register_converter(): 2f9a.
          Set it to any combination (using ‘|’, bitwise or) of *note
          PARSE_DECLTYPES: 2f9b. and *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 2f9c. to
          enable this.  Column names take precedence over declared types
          if both flags are set.  By default (‘0’), type detection is
          disabled.

        * ‘isolation_level’ (*note str: 1df.‘ | ’‘None’) – Control
          legacy transaction handling behaviour.  See *note
          Connection.isolation_level: 2f9d. and *note Transaction
          control via the isolation_level attribute: 2f9e. for more
          information.  Can be ‘"DEFERRED"’ (default), ‘"EXCLUSIVE"’ or
          ‘"IMMEDIATE"’; or ‘None’ to disable opening transactions
          implicitly.  Has no effect unless *note Connection.autocommit:
          8c6. is set to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2f9f. (the
          default).

        * ‘check_same_thread’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – If ‘True’ (default),
          *note ProgrammingError: 57d. will be raised if the database
          connection is used by a thread other than the one that created
          it.  If ‘False’, the connection may be accessed in multiple
          threads; write operations may need to be serialized by the
          user to avoid data corruption.  See *note threadsafety: a6c.
          for more information.

        * ‘factory’ (*note Connection: 3df.) – A custom subclass of
          *note Connection: 3df. to create the connection with, if not
          the default ‘Connection’ class.

        * ‘cached_statements’ (*note int: 326.) – The number of
          statements that ‘sqlite3’ should internally cache for this
          connection, to avoid parsing overhead.  By default, 128
          statements.

        * ‘uri’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – If set to ‘True’, 'database' is
          interpreted as a URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) with a file
          path and an optional query string.  The scheme part 'must' be
          ‘"file:"’, and the path can be relative or absolute.  The
          query string allows passing parameters to SQLite, enabling
          various *note How to work with SQLite URIs: 2fa0.

        * ‘autocommit’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – Control PEP 249(2)
          transaction handling behaviour.  See *note
          Connection.autocommit: 8c6. and *note Transaction control via
          the autocommit attribute: 8c7. for more information.
          'autocommit' currently defaults to *note
          LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2f9f.  The default will change to
          ‘False’ in a future Python release.


     Επιστρεφόμενος τύπος: *note Connection: 3df.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘sqlite3.connect’ with
     argument ‘database’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’ with
     argument ‘connection_handle’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added the 'uri' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: 'database' can now also be a *note
     path-like object: 79f, not only a string.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the ‘sqlite3.connect/handle’
     auditing event.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added the 'autocommit' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: All parameters except 'database' are now
     keyword-only.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sqlite3.complete_statement (statement)

     Return ‘True’ if the string 'statement' appears to contain one or
     more complete SQL statements.  No syntactic verification or parsing
     of any kind is performed, other than checking that there are no
     unclosed string literals and the statement is terminated by a
     semicolon.

     For example:

          >>> sqlite3.complete_statement("SELECT foo FROM bar;")
          True
          >>> sqlite3.complete_statement("SELECT foo")
          False

     This function may be useful during command-line input to determine
     if the entered text seems to form a complete SQL statement, or if
     additional input is needed before calling *note execute(): 7a8.

     See ‘runsource()’ in Lib/sqlite3/__main__.py(3) for real-world use.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sqlite3.enable_callback_tracebacks (flag, /)

     Enable or disable callback tracebacks.  By default you will not get
     any tracebacks in user-defined functions, aggregates, converters,
     authorizer callbacks etc.  If you want to debug them, you can call
     this function with 'flag' set to ‘True’.  Afterwards, you will get
     tracebacks from callbacks on *note sys.stderr: d05.  Use ‘False’ to
     disable the feature again.

          Σημείωση: Errors in user-defined function callbacks are logged
          as unraisable exceptions.  Use an *note unraisable hook
          handler: 70c. for introspection of the failed callback.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sqlite3.register_adapter (type, adapter, /)

     Register an 'adapter' *note callable: 2fa4. to adapt the Python
     type 'type' into an SQLite type.  The adapter is called with a
     Python object of type 'type' as its sole argument, and must return
     a value of a *note type that SQLite natively understands: 2f99.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sqlite3.register_converter (typename, converter, /)

     Register the 'converter' *note callable: 2fa4. to convert SQLite
     objects of type 'typename' into a Python object of a specific type.
     The converter is invoked for all SQLite values of type 'typename';
     it is passed a *note bytes: 1c7. object and should return an object
     of the desired Python type.  Consult the parameter 'detect_types'
     of *note connect(): 3e0. for information regarding how type
     detection works.

     Note: 'typename' and the name of the type in your query are matched
     case-insensitively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/inmemorydb.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/sqlite3/__main__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Module constants,  Next: Connection objects,  Prev: Module functions,  Up: Reference

5.13.6.4 Module constants
.........................

 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL

     Set *note autocommit: 8c6. to this constant to select old style
     (pre-Python 3.12) transaction control behaviour.  See *note
     Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute: 2f9e. for
     more information.

 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES

     Pass this flag value to the 'detect_types' parameter of *note
     connect(): 3e0. to look up a converter function using the declared
     types for each column.  The types are declared when the database
     table is created.  ‘sqlite3’ will look up a converter function
     using the first word of the declared type as the converter
     dictionary key.  For example:

          CREATE TABLE test(
             i integer primary key,  ! will look up a converter named "integer"
             p point,                ! will look up a converter named "point"
             n number(10)            ! will look up a converter named "number"
           )

     This flag may be combined with *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 2f9c. using
     the ‘|’ (bitwise or) operator.

          Σημείωση: Generated fields (for example ‘MAX(p)’) are returned
          as *note str: 1df.  Use ‘PARSE_COLNAMES’ to enforce types for
          such queries.

 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES

     Pass this flag value to the 'detect_types' parameter of *note
     connect(): 3e0. to look up a converter function by using the type
     name, parsed from the query column name, as the converter
     dictionary key.  The query column name must be wrapped in double
     quotes (‘"’) and the type name must be wrapped in square brackets
     (‘[]’).

          SELECT MAX(p) as "p [point]" FROM test;  ! will look up converter "point"

     This flag may be combined with *note PARSE_DECLTYPES: 2f9b. using
     the ‘|’ (bitwise or) operator.

 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_OK
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DENY
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_IGNORE

     Flags that should be returned by the 'authorizer_callback' *note
     callable: 2fa4. passed to *note Connection.set_authorizer(): 3e3,
     to indicate whether:

        * Access is allowed (‘SQLITE_OK’),

        * The SQL statement should be aborted with an error
          (‘SQLITE_DENY’)

        * The column should be treated as a ‘NULL’ value
          (‘SQLITE_IGNORE’)

 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.apilevel

     String constant stating the supported DB-API level.  Required by
     the DB-API. Hard-coded to ‘"2.0"’.

 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.paramstyle

     String constant stating the type of parameter marker formatting
     expected by the ‘sqlite3’ module.  Required by the DB-API.
     Hard-coded to ‘"qmark"’.

          Σημείωση: The ‘named’ DB-API parameter style is also
          supported.

 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.sqlite_version

     Version number of the runtime SQLite library as a *note string:
     1df.

 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.sqlite_version_info

     Version number of the runtime SQLite library as a *note tuple: 1ce.
     of *note integers: 326.

 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_KEYWORDS

     A *note tuple: 1ce. containing all SQLite keywords.

     This constant is only available if Python was compiled with SQLite
     3.24.0 or greater.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.threadsafety

     Integer constant required by the DB-API 2.0, stating the level of
     thread safety the ‘sqlite3’ module supports.  This attribute is set
     based on the default threading mode(1) the underlying SQLite
     library is compiled with.  The SQLite threading modes are:

       1. 'Single-thread': In this mode, all mutexes are disabled and
          SQLite is unsafe to use in more than a single thread at once.

       2. 'Multi-thread': In this mode, SQLite can be safely used by
          multiple threads provided that no single database connection
          is used simultaneously in two or more threads.

       3. 'Serialized': In serialized mode, SQLite can be safely used by
          multiple threads with no restriction.

     The mappings from SQLite threading modes to DB-API 2.0 threadsafety
     levels are as follows:

     SQLite threading       threadsafety(2)            SQLITE_THREADSAFE(3)       DB-API 2.0 meaning
     mode                                                                         

     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
     single-thread          0                          0                          Threads may not share the module
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     multi-thread           1                          2                          Threads may share the module, but
                                                                                  not connections
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
     serialized             3                          1                          Threads may share the module,
                                                                                  connections and cursors
                                                                                  

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Set 'threadsafety' dynamically instead of
     hard-coding it to ‘1’.

 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA
 -- Δεδομένα: sqlite3.SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA

     These constants are used for the *note Connection.setconfig(): 8ca.
     and *note getconfig(): 8c9. methods.

     The availability of these constants varies depending on the version
     of SQLite Python was compiled with.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     ‘https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_dbconfig_defensive.html’

          SQLite docs: Database Connection Configuration Options

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: The
‘version’ and ‘version_info’ constants.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/threadsafe.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/#threadsafety

   (3) https://sqlite.org/compile.html#threadsafe


File: python.info,  Node: Connection objects,  Next: Cursor objects,  Prev: Module constants,  Up: Reference

5.13.6.5 Connection objects
...........................

 -- Κλάση: sqlite3.Connection

     Each open SQLite database is represented by a ‘Connection’ object,
     which is created using *note sqlite3.connect(): 3e0.  Their main
     purpose is creating *note Cursor: 2f8d. objects, and *note
     Transaction control: 2f8f.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * *note How to use connection shortcut methods: 2fbf.

        * *note How to use the connection context manager: 1d69.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: A *note ResourceWarning: 74f. is emitted
     if *note close(): 750. is not called before a ‘Connection’ object
     is deleted.

     An SQLite database connection has the following attributes and
     methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: cursor (factory=Cursor)

          Create and return a *note Cursor: 2f8d. object.  The cursor
          method accepts a single optional parameter 'factory'.  If
          supplied, this must be a *note callable: 2fa4. returning an
          instance of ‘Cursor’ or its subclasses.

      -- Μέθοδος: blobopen (table, column, rowid, /, *, readonly=False,
               name='main')

          Open a *note Blob: a72. handle to an existing BLOB (Binary
          Large OBject).


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘table’ (*note str: 1df.) – The name of the table where
               the blob is located.

             * ‘column’ (*note str: 1df.) – The name of the column where
               the blob is located.

             * ‘rowid’ (*note int: 326.) – The row id where the blob is
               located.

             * ‘readonly’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – Set to ‘True’ if the blob
               should be opened without write permissions.  Defaults to
               ‘False’.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 1df.) – The name of the database where
               the blob is located.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          Προκαλεί: *note OperationalError: 1e49. – When trying to open
          a blob in a ‘WITHOUT ROWID’ table.


          Επιστρεφόμενος τύπος: *note Blob: a72.

               Σημείωση: The blob size cannot be changed using the *note
               Blob: a72. class.  Use the SQL function ‘zeroblob’ to
               create a blob with a fixed size.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: commit ()

          Commit any pending transaction to the database.  If *note
          autocommit: 8c6. is ‘True’, or there is no open transaction,
          this method does nothing.  If ‘autocommit’ is ‘False’, a new
          transaction is implicitly opened if a pending transaction was
          committed by this method.

      -- Μέθοδος: rollback ()

          Roll back to the start of any pending transaction.  If *note
          autocommit: 8c6. is ‘True’, or there is no open transaction,
          this method does nothing.  If ‘autocommit’ is ‘False’, a new
          transaction is implicitly opened if a pending transaction was
          rolled back by this method.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Close the database connection.  If *note autocommit: 8c6. is
          ‘False’, any pending transaction is implicitly rolled back.
          If ‘autocommit’ is ‘True’ or *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL:
          2f9f, no implicit transaction control is executed.  Make sure
          to *note commit(): 2f90. before closing to avoid losing
          pending changes.

      -- Μέθοδος: execute (sql, parameters=(), /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 2f8d. object and call *note
          execute(): 7a8. on it with the given 'sql' and 'parameters'.
          Return the new cursor object.

      -- Μέθοδος: executemany (sql, parameters, /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 2f8d. object and call *note
          executemany(): 7a9. on it with the given 'sql' and
          'parameters'.  Return the new cursor object.

      -- Μέθοδος: executescript (sql_script, /)

          Create a new *note Cursor: 2f8d. object and call *note
          executescript(): 2fc4. on it with the given 'sql_script'.
          Return the new cursor object.

      -- Μέθοδος: create_function (name, narg, func, /, *,
               deterministic=False)

          Create or remove a user-defined SQL function.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 1df.) – The name of the SQL function.

             * ‘narg’ (*note int: 326.) – The number of arguments the
               SQL function can accept.  If ‘-1’, it may take any number
               of arguments.

             * ‘func’ (*note callback: 2fc5. | None) – A *note callable:
               2fa4. that is called when the SQL function is invoked.
               The callable must return *note a type natively supported
               by SQLite: 2f99.  Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL
               function.

             * ‘deterministic’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – If ‘True’, the
               created SQL function is marked as deterministic(1), which
               allows SQLite to perform additional optimizations.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the 'deterministic' parameter.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The first three parameters are now
          positional-only.

          Example:

               >>> import hashlib
               >>> def md5sum(t):
               ...     return hashlib.md5(t).hexdigest()
               >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               >>> con.create_function("md5", 1, md5sum)
               >>> for row in con.execute("SELECT md5(?)", (b"foo",)):
               ...     print(row)
               ('acbd18db4cc2f85cedef654fccc4a4d8',)
               >>> con.close()

      -- Μέθοδος: create_aggregate (name, n_arg, aggregate_class, /)

          Create or remove a user-defined SQL aggregate function.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 1df.) – The name of the SQL aggregate
               function.

             * ‘n_arg’ (*note int: 326.) – The number of arguments the
               SQL aggregate function can accept.  If ‘-1’, it may take
               any number of arguments.

             * ‘aggregate_class’ (*note class: 1ef2. | None) – A class
               must implement the following methods:

                  * ‘step()’: Add a row to the aggregate.

                  * ‘finalize()’: Return the final result of the
                    aggregate as *note a type natively supported by
                    SQLite: 2f99.

               The number of arguments that the ‘step()’ method must
               accept is controlled by 'n_arg'.

               Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL aggregate
               function.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: All three parameters are now
          positional-only.

          Example:

               class MySum:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self.count = 0

                   def step(self, value):
                       self.count += value

                   def finalize(self):
                       return self.count

               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               con.create_aggregate("mysum", 1, MySum)
               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(i)")
               cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(i) VALUES(1)")
               cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(i) VALUES(2)")
               cur.execute("SELECT mysum(i) FROM test")
               print(cur.fetchone()[0])

               con.close()

      -- Μέθοδος: create_window_function (name, num_params,
               aggregate_class, /)

          Create or remove a user-defined aggregate window function.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 1df.) – The name of the SQL aggregate
               window function to create or remove.

             * ‘num_params’ (*note int: 326.) – The number of arguments
               the SQL aggregate window function can accept.  If ‘-1’,
               it may take any number of arguments.

             * ‘aggregate_class’ (*note class: 1ef2. | None) – A class
               that must implement the following methods:

                  * ‘step()’: Add a row to the current window.

                  * ‘value()’: Return the current value of the
                    aggregate.

                  * ‘inverse()’: Remove a row from the current window.

                  * ‘finalize()’: Return the final result of the
                    aggregate as *note a type natively supported by
                    SQLite: 2f99.

               The number of arguments that the ‘step()’ and ‘value()’
               methods must accept is controlled by 'num_params'.

               Set to ‘None’ to remove an existing SQL aggregate window
               function.


          Προκαλεί: *note NotSupportedError: 2fc6. – If used with a
          version of SQLite older than 3.25.0, which does not support
          aggregate window functions.

          Added in version 3.11.

          Example:

               # Example taken from https://www.sqlite.org/windowfunctions.html#udfwinfunc
               class WindowSumInt:
                   def __init__(self):
                       self.count = 0

                   def step(self, value):
                       """Add a row to the current window."""
                       self.count += value

                   def value(self):
                       """Return the current value of the aggregate."""
                       return self.count

                   def inverse(self, value):
                       """Remove a row from the current window."""
                       self.count -= value

                   def finalize(self):
                       """Return the final value of the aggregate.

                       Any clean-up actions should be placed here.
                       """
                       return self.count


               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(x, y)")
               values = [
                   ("a", 4),
                   ("b", 5),
                   ("c", 3),
                   ("d", 8),
                   ("e", 1),
               ]
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO test VALUES(?, ?)", values)
               con.create_window_function("sumint", 1, WindowSumInt)
               cur.execute("""
                   SELECT x, sumint(y) OVER (
                       ORDER BY x ROWS BETWEEN 1 PRECEDING AND 1 FOLLOWING
                   ) AS sum_y
                   FROM test ORDER BY x
               """)
               print(cur.fetchall())
               con.close()

      -- Μέθοδος: create_collation (name, callable, /)

          Create a collation named 'name' using the collating function
          'callable'.  'callable' is passed two *note string: 1df.
          arguments, and it should return an *note integer: 326.:

             * ‘1’ if the first is ordered higher than the second

             * ‘-1’ if the first is ordered lower than the second

             * ‘0’ if they are ordered equal

          The following example shows a reverse sorting collation:

               def collate_reverse(string1, string2):
                   if string1 == string2:
                       return 0
                   elif string1 < string2:
                       return 1
                   else:
                       return -1

               con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               con.create_collation("reverse", collate_reverse)

               cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(x)")
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO test(x) VALUES(?)", [("a",), ("b",)])
               cur.execute("SELECT x FROM test ORDER BY x COLLATE reverse")
               for row in cur:
                   print(row)
               con.close()

          Remove a collation function by setting 'callable' to ‘None’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The collation name can contain any
          Unicode character.  Earlier, only ASCII characters were
          allowed.

      -- Μέθοδος: interrupt ()

          Call this method from a different thread to abort any queries
          that might be executing on the connection.  Aborted queries
          will raise an *note OperationalError: 1e49.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_authorizer (authorizer_callback, /)

          Register *note callable: 2fa4. 'authorizer_callback' to be
          invoked for each attempt to access a column of a table in the
          database.  The callback should return one of *note SQLITE_OK:
          2fa7, *note SQLITE_DENY: 2fa8, or *note SQLITE_IGNORE: 2fa9.
          to signal how access to the column should be handled by the
          underlying SQLite library.

          The first argument to the callback signifies what kind of
          operation is to be authorized.  The second and third argument
          will be arguments or ‘None’ depending on the first argument.
          The 4th argument is the name of the database («main», «temp»,
          etc.)  if applicable.  The 5th argument is the name of the
          inner-most trigger or view that is responsible for the access
          attempt or ‘None’ if this access attempt is directly from
          input SQL code.

          Please consult the SQLite documentation about the possible
          values for the first argument and the meaning of the second
          and third argument depending on the first one.  All necessary
          constants are available in the ‘sqlite3’ module.

          Passing ‘None’ as 'authorizer_callback' will disable the
          authorizer.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added support for disabling the
          authorizer using ‘None’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The only parameter is now
          positional-only.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_progress_handler (progress_handler, /, n)

          Register *note callable: 2fa4. 'progress_handler' to be
          invoked for every 'n' instructions of the SQLite virtual
          machine.  This is useful if you want to get called from SQLite
          during long-running operations, for example to update a GUI.

          If you want to clear any previously installed progress
          handler, call the method with ‘None’ for 'progress_handler'.

          Returning a non-zero value from the handler function will
          terminate the currently executing query and cause it to raise
          a *note DatabaseError: 2fc8. exception.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The first parameter is now
          positional-only.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_trace_callback (trace_callback, /)

          Register *note callable: 2fa4. 'trace_callback' to be invoked
          for each SQL statement that is actually executed by the SQLite
          backend.

          The only argument passed to the callback is the statement (as
          *note str: 1df.) that is being executed.  The return value of
          the callback is ignored.  Note that the backend does not only
          run statements passed to the *note Cursor.execute(): 7a8.
          methods.  Other sources include the *note transaction
          management: 2f8f. of the ‘sqlite3’ module and the execution of
          triggers defined in the current database.

          Passing ‘None’ as 'trace_callback' will disable the trace
          callback.

               Σημείωση: Exceptions raised in the trace callback are not
               propagated.  As a development and debugging aid, use
               *note enable_callback_tracebacks(): 2fa2. to enable
               printing tracebacks from exceptions raised in the trace
               callback.

          Added in version 3.3.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The first parameter is now
          positional-only.

      -- Μέθοδος: enable_load_extension (enabled, /)

          Enable the SQLite engine to load SQLite extensions from shared
          libraries if 'enabled' is ‘True’; else, disallow loading
          SQLite extensions.  SQLite extensions can define new
          functions, aggregates or whole new virtual table
          implementations.  One well-known extension is the
          fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.

               Σημείωση: The ‘sqlite3’ module is not built with loadable
               extension support by default, because some platforms
               (notably macOS) have SQLite libraries which are compiled
               without this feature.  To get loadable extension support,
               you must pass the *note
               -enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions: 234f. option to
               ‘configure’.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65.
          ‘sqlite3.enable_load_extension’ with arguments ‘connection’,
          ‘enabled’.

          Added in version 3.2.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the
          ‘sqlite3.enable_load_extension’ auditing event.

               con.enable_load_extension(True)

               # Load the fulltext search extension
               con.execute("select load_extension('./fts3.so')")

               # alternatively you can load the extension using an API call:
               # con.load_extension("./fts3.so")

               # disable extension loading again
               con.enable_load_extension(False)

               # example from SQLite wiki
               con.execute("CREATE VIRTUAL TABLE recipe USING fts3(name, ingredients)")
               con.executescript("""
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('broccoli stew', 'broccoli peppers cheese tomatoes');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('pumpkin stew', 'pumpkin onions garlic celery');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('broccoli pie', 'broccoli cheese onions flour');
                   INSERT INTO recipe (name, ingredients) VALUES('pumpkin pie', 'pumpkin sugar flour butter');
                   """)
               for row in con.execute("SELECT rowid, name, ingredients FROM recipe WHERE name MATCH 'pie'"):
                   print(row)

      -- Μέθοδος: load_extension (path, /, *, entrypoint=None)

          Load an SQLite extension from a shared library.  Enable
          extension loading with *note enable_load_extension(): c17.
          before calling this method.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘path’ (*note str: 1df.) – The path to the SQLite
               extension.

             * ‘entrypoint’ (*note str: 1df.‘ | ’‘None’) – Entry point
               name.  If ‘None’ (the default), SQLite will come up with
               an entry point name of its own; see the SQLite docs
               Loading an Extension(2) for details.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘sqlite3.load_extension’
          with arguments ‘connection’, ‘path’.

          Added in version 3.2.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the ‘sqlite3.load_extension’
          auditing event.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added the 'entrypoint' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: iterdump (*, filter=None)

          Return an *note iterator: 6ce. to dump the database as SQL
          source code.  Useful when saving an in-memory database for
          later restoration.  Similar to the ‘.dump’ command in the
          ‘sqlite3’ shell.


          Παράμετροι: ‘filter’ (*note str: 1df.‘ | ’‘None’) – An
          optional ‘LIKE’ pattern for database objects to dump, e.g.
          ‘prefix_%’.  If ‘None’ (the default), all database objects
          will be included.

          Example:

               # Convert file example.db to SQL dump file dump.sql
               con = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               with open('dump.sql', 'w') as f:
                   for line in con.iterdump():
                       f.write('%s\n' % line)
               con.close()

          Δείτε επίσης
          ............

          *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 2fc9.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'filter' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: backup (target, *, pages=-1, progress=None,
               name='main', sleep=0.250)

          Create a backup of an SQLite database.

          Works even if the database is being accessed by other clients
          or concurrently by the same connection.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘target’ (*note Connection: 3df.) – The database
               connection to save the backup to.

             * ‘pages’ (*note int: 326.) – The number of pages to copy
               at a time.  If equal to or less than ‘0’, the entire
               database is copied in a single step.  Defaults to ‘-1’.

             * ‘progress’ (*note callback: 2fc5. | None) – If set to a
               *note callable: 2fa4, it is invoked with three integer
               arguments for every backup iteration: the 'status' of the
               last iteration, the 'remaining' number of pages still to
               be copied, and the 'total' number of pages.  Defaults to
               ‘None’.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 1df.) – The name of the database to
               back up.  Either ‘"main"’ (the default) for the main
               database, ‘"temp"’ for the temporary database, or the
               name of a custom database as attached using the ‘ATTACH
               DATABASE’ SQL statement.

             * ‘sleep’ (*note float: 327.) – The number of seconds to
               sleep between successive attempts to back up remaining
               pages.

          Example 1, copy an existing database into another:

               def progress(status, remaining, total):
                   print(f'Copied {total-remaining} of {total} pages...')

               src = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               dst = sqlite3.connect('backup.db')
               with dst:
                   src.backup(dst, pages=1, progress=progress)
               dst.close()
               src.close()

          Example 2, copy an existing database into a transient copy:

               src = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
               dst = sqlite3.connect(':memory:')
               src.backup(dst)
               dst.close()
               src.close()

          Added in version 3.7.

          Δείτε επίσης
          ............

          *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 2fc9.

      -- Μέθοδος: getlimit (category, /)

          Get a connection runtime limit.


          Παράμετροι: ‘category’ (*note int: 326.) – The SQLite limit
          category(3) to be queried.


          Επιστρεφόμενος τύπος: *note int: 326.


          Προκαλεί: *note ProgrammingError: 57d. – If 'category' is not
          recognised by the underlying SQLite library.

          Example, query the maximum length of an SQL statement for
          ‘Connection’ ‘con’ (the default is 1000000000):

               >>> con.getlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_SQL_LENGTH)
               1000000000

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: setlimit (category, limit, /)

          Set a connection runtime limit.  Attempts to increase a limit
          above its hard upper bound are silently truncated to the hard
          upper bound.  Regardless of whether or not the limit was
          changed, the prior value of the limit is returned.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘category’ (*note int: 326.) – The SQLite limit
               category(4) to be set.

             * ‘limit’ (*note int: 326.) – The value of the new limit.
               If negative, the current limit is unchanged.


          Επιστρεφόμενος τύπος: *note int: 326.


          Προκαλεί: *note ProgrammingError: 57d. – If 'category' is not
          recognised by the underlying SQLite library.

          Example, limit the number of attached databases to 1 for
          ‘Connection’ ‘con’ (the default limit is 10):

               >>> con.setlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED, 1)
               10
               >>> con.getlimit(sqlite3.SQLITE_LIMIT_ATTACHED)
               1

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: getconfig (op, /)

          Query a boolean connection configuration option.


          Παράμετροι: ‘op’ (*note int: 326.) – A *note SQLITE_DBCONFIG
          code: 2fac.


          Επιστρεφόμενος τύπος: *note bool: 5ef.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Μέθοδος: setconfig (op, enable=True, /)

          Set a boolean connection configuration option.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘op’ (*note int: 326.) – A *note SQLITE_DBCONFIG code:
               2fac.

             * ‘enable’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – ‘True’ if the configuration
               option should be enabled (default); ‘False’ if it should
               be disabled.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Μέθοδος: serialize (*, name='main')

          Serialize a database into a *note bytes: 1c7. object.  For an
          ordinary on-disk database file, the serialization is just a
          copy of the disk file.  For an in-memory database or a «temp»
          database, the serialization is the same sequence of bytes
          which would be written to disk if that database were backed up
          to disk.


          Παράμετροι: ‘name’ (*note str: 1df.) – The database name to be
          serialized.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          Επιστρεφόμενος τύπος: *note bytes: 1c7.

               Σημείωση: This method is only available if the underlying
               SQLite library has the serialize API.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: deserialize (data, /, *, name='main')

          Deserialize a *note serialized: a6e. database into a
          ‘Connection’.  This method causes the database connection to
          disconnect from database 'name', and reopen 'name' as an
          in-memory database based on the serialization contained in
          'data'.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘data’ (*note bytes: 1c7.) – A serialized database.

             * ‘name’ (*note str: 1df.) – The database name to
               deserialize into.  Defaults to ‘"main"’.


          Προκαλεί:

             * *note OperationalError: 1e49. – If the database
               connection is currently involved in a read transaction or
               a backup operation.

             * *note DatabaseError: 2fc8. – If 'data' does not contain a
               valid SQLite database.

             * *note OverflowError: c57. – If *note len(data): a1f. is
               larger than ‘2**63 - 1’.

               Σημείωση: This method is only available if the underlying
               SQLite library has the deserialize API.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Ιδιότητα: autocommit

          This attribute controls PEP 249(5)-compliant transaction
          behaviour.  ‘autocommit’ has three allowed values:

             * ‘False’: Select PEP 249(6)-compliant transaction
               behaviour, implying that ‘sqlite3’ ensures a transaction
               is always open.  Use *note commit(): 2f90. and *note
               rollback(): 2fc0. to close transactions.

               This is the recommended value of ‘autocommit’.

             * ‘True’: Use SQLite’s autocommit mode(7).  *note commit():
               2f90. and *note rollback(): 2fc0. have no effect in this
               mode.

             * *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2f9f.: Pre-Python 3.12
               (non- PEP 249(8)-compliant) transaction control.  See
               *note isolation_level: 2f9d. for more details.

               This is currently the default value of ‘autocommit’.

          Changing ‘autocommit’ to ‘False’ will open a new transaction,
          and changing it to ‘True’ will commit any pending transaction.

          See *note Transaction control via the autocommit attribute:
          8c7. for more details.

               Σημείωση: The *note isolation_level: 2f9d. attribute has
               no effect unless *note autocommit: 8c6. is *note
               LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2f9f.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Ιδιότητα: in_transaction

          This read-only attribute corresponds to the low-level SQLite
          autocommit mode(9).

          ‘True’ if a transaction is active (there are uncommitted
          changes), ‘False’ otherwise.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Ιδιότητα: isolation_level

          Controls the *note legacy transaction handling mode: 2f9e. of
          ‘sqlite3’.  If set to ‘None’, transactions are never
          implicitly opened.  If set to one of ‘"DEFERRED"’,
          ‘"IMMEDIATE"’, or ‘"EXCLUSIVE"’, corresponding to the
          underlying SQLite transaction behaviour(10), *note implicit
          transaction management: 2f9e. is performed.

          If not overridden by the 'isolation_level' parameter of *note
          connect(): 3e0, the default is ‘""’, which is an alias for
          ‘"DEFERRED"’.

               Σημείωση: Using *note autocommit: 8c6. to control
               transaction handling is recommended over using
               ‘isolation_level’.  ‘isolation_level’ has no effect
               unless ‘autocommit’ is set to *note
               LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2f9f. (the default).

      -- Ιδιότητα: row_factory

          The initial *note row_factory: 2fcb. for *note Cursor: 2f8d.
          objects created from this connection.  Assigning to this
          attribute does not affect the ‘row_factory’ of existing
          cursors belonging to this connection, only new ones.  Is
          ‘None’ by default, meaning each row is returned as a *note
          tuple: 1ce.

          See *note How to create and use row factories: 2f94. for more
          details.

      -- Ιδιότητα: text_factory

          A *note callable: 2fa4. that accepts a *note bytes: 1c7.
          parameter and returns a text representation of it.  The
          callable is invoked for SQLite values with the ‘TEXT’ data
          type.  By default, this attribute is set to *note str: 1df.

          See *note How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings: 2fc9. for
          more details.

      -- Ιδιότητα: total_changes

          Return the total number of database rows that have been
          modified, inserted, or deleted since the database connection
          was opened.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://sqlite.org/deterministic.html

   (2) https://www.sqlite.org/loadext.html#loading_an_extension

   (3) https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_limit_attached.html

   (4) https://www.sqlite.org/c3ref/c_limit_attached.html

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (7) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (9) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (10) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#deferred_immediate_and_exclusive_transactions


File: python.info,  Node: Cursor objects,  Next: Row objects,  Prev: Connection objects,  Up: Reference

5.13.6.6 Cursor objects
.......................

     A ‘Cursor’ object represents a database cursor(1) which is used to
     execute SQL statements, and manage the context of a fetch
     operation.  Cursors are created using *note Connection.cursor():
     2f8c, or by using any of the *note connection shortcut methods:
     2fbf.

     Cursor objects are *note iterators: 6ce, meaning that if you *note
     execute(): 7a8. a ‘SELECT’ query, you can simply iterate over the
     cursor to fetch the resulting rows:

          for row in cur.execute("SELECT t FROM data"):
              print(row)

 -- Κλάση: sqlite3.Cursor

     A ‘Cursor’ instance has the following attributes and methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: execute (sql, parameters=(), /)

          Execute a single SQL statement, optionally binding Python
          values using *note placeholders: 7aa.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘sql’ (*note str: 1df.) – A single SQL statement.

             * ‘parameters’ (*note dict: 188. | *note sequence: 8ff.) –
               Python values to bind to placeholders in 'sql'.  A ‘dict’
               if named placeholders are used.  A sequence if unnamed
               placeholders are used.  See *note How to use placeholders
               to bind values in SQL queries: 7aa.


          Προκαλεί: *note ProgrammingError: 57d. – When 'sql' contains
          more than one SQL statement.  When *note named placeholders:
          7aa. are used and 'parameters' is a sequence instead of a
          *note dict: 188.

          If *note autocommit: 8c6. is *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL:
          2f9f, *note isolation_level: 2f9d. is not ‘None’, 'sql' is an
          ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, or ‘REPLACE’ statement, and
          there is no open transaction, a transaction is implicitly
          opened before executing 'sql'.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: *note ProgrammingError: 57d. is
          emitted if *note named placeholders: 7aa. are used and
          'parameters' is a sequence instead of a *note dict: 188.

          Use *note executescript(): 2fc4. to execute multiple SQL
          statements.

      -- Μέθοδος: executemany (sql, parameters, /)

          For every item in 'parameters', repeatedly execute the *note
          parameterized: 7aa. DML (Data Manipulation Language) SQL
          statement 'sql'.

          Uses the same implicit transaction handling as *note
          execute(): 7a8.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘sql’ (*note str: 1df.) – A single SQL DML statement.

             * ‘parameters’ (*note iterable: 15ce.) – An iterable of
               parameters to bind with the placeholders in 'sql'.  See
               *note How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL
               queries: 7aa.


          Προκαλεί: *note ProgrammingError: 57d. – When 'sql' contains
          more than one SQL statement or is not a DML statement, When
          *note named placeholders: 7aa. are used and the items in
          'parameters' are sequences instead of *note dict: 188.s.

          Example:

               rows = [
                   ("row1",),
                   ("row2",),
               ]
               # cur is an sqlite3.Cursor object
               cur.executemany("INSERT INTO data VALUES(?)", rows)

               Σημείωση: Any resulting rows are discarded, including DML
               statements with RETURNING clauses(2).

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: *note ProgrammingError: 57d. is
          emitted if *note named placeholders: 7aa. are used and the
          items in 'parameters' are sequences instead of *note dict:
          188.s.

      -- Μέθοδος: executescript (sql_script, /)

          Execute the SQL statements in 'sql_script'.  If the *note
          autocommit: 8c6. is *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2f9f.
          and there is a pending transaction, an implicit ‘COMMIT’
          statement is executed first.  No other implicit transaction
          control is performed; any transaction control must be added to
          'sql_script'.

          'sql_script' must be a *note string: 1df.

          Example:

               # cur is an sqlite3.Cursor object
               cur.executescript("""
                   BEGIN;
                   CREATE TABLE person(firstname, lastname, age);
                   CREATE TABLE book(title, author, published);
                   CREATE TABLE publisher(name, address);
                   COMMIT;
               """)

      -- Μέθοδος: fetchone ()

          If *note row_factory: 2fcb. is ‘None’, return the next row
          query result set as a *note tuple: 1ce.  Else, pass it to the
          row factory and return its result.  Return ‘None’ if no more
          data is available.

      -- Μέθοδος: fetchmany (size=cursor.arraysize)

          Return the next set of rows of a query result as a *note list:
          4d9.  Return an empty list if no more rows are available.

          The number of rows to fetch per call is specified by the
          'size' parameter.  If 'size' is not given, *note arraysize:
          19f0. determines the number of rows to be fetched.  If fewer
          than 'size' rows are available, as many rows as are available
          are returned.

          Note there are performance considerations involved with the
          'size' parameter.  For optimal performance, it is usually best
          to use the arraysize attribute.  If the 'size' parameter is
          used, then it is best for it to retain the same value from one
          ‘fetchmany()’ call to the next.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Negative 'size' values are rejected
          by raising *note ValueError: 277.

      -- Μέθοδος: fetchall ()

          Return all (remaining) rows of a query result as a *note list:
          4d9.  Return an empty list if no rows are available.  Note
          that the *note arraysize: 19f0. attribute can affect the
          performance of this operation.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Close the cursor now (rather than whenever ‘__del__’ is
          called).

          The cursor will be unusable from this point forward; a *note
          ProgrammingError: 57d. exception will be raised if any
          operation is attempted with the cursor.

      -- Μέθοδος: setinputsizes (sizes, /)

          Required by the DB-API. Does nothing in ‘sqlite3’.

      -- Μέθοδος: setoutputsize (size, column=None, /)

          Required by the DB-API. Does nothing in ‘sqlite3’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: arraysize

          Read/write attribute that controls the number of rows returned
          by *note fetchmany(): 19ef.  The default value is 1 which
          means a single row would be fetched per call.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Negative values are rejected by
          raising *note ValueError: 277.

      -- Ιδιότητα: connection

          Read-only attribute that provides the SQLite database *note
          Connection: 3df. belonging to the cursor.  A ‘Cursor’ object
          created by calling *note con.cursor(): 2f8c. will have a *note
          connection: 2fd3. attribute that refers to 'con':

               >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
               >>> cur = con.cursor()
               >>> cur.connection == con
               True
               >>> con.close()

      -- Ιδιότητα: description

          Read-only attribute that provides the column names of the last
          query.  To remain compatible with the Python DB API, it
          returns a 7-tuple for each column where the last six items of
          each tuple are ‘None’.

          It is set for ‘SELECT’ statements without any matching rows as
          well.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lastrowid

          Read-only attribute that provides the row id of the last
          inserted row.  It is only updated after successful ‘INSERT’ or
          ‘REPLACE’ statements using the *note execute(): 7a8. method.
          For other statements, after *note executemany(): 7a9. or *note
          executescript(): 2fc4, or if the insertion failed, the value
          of ‘lastrowid’ is left unchanged.  The initial value of
          ‘lastrowid’ is ‘None’.

               Σημείωση: Inserts into ‘WITHOUT ROWID’ tables are not
               recorded.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added support for the ‘REPLACE’
          statement.

      -- Ιδιότητα: rowcount

          Read-only attribute that provides the number of modified rows
          for ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, and ‘REPLACE’ statements; is
          ‘-1’ for other statements, including CTE (Common Table
          Expression) queries.  It is only updated by the *note
          execute(): 7a8. and *note executemany(): 7a9. methods, after
          the statement has run to completion.  This means that any
          resulting rows must be fetched in order for ‘rowcount’ to be
          updated.

      -- Ιδιότητα: row_factory

          Control how a row fetched from this ‘Cursor’ is represented.
          If ‘None’, a row is represented as a *note tuple: 1ce.  Can be
          set to the included *note sqlite3.Row: 1222.; or a *note
          callable: 2fa4. that accepts two arguments, a ‘Cursor’ object
          and the ‘tuple’ of row values, and returns a custom object
          representing an SQLite row.

          Defaults to what *note Connection.row_factory: 1bb0. was set
          to when the ‘Cursor’ was created.  Assigning to this attribute
          does not affect ‘Connection.row_factory’ of the parent
          connection.

          See *note How to create and use row factories: 2f94. for more
          details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursor_(databases)

   (2) https://www.sqlite.org/lang_returning.html


File: python.info,  Node: Row objects,  Next: Blob objects,  Prev: Cursor objects,  Up: Reference

5.13.6.7 Row objects
....................

 -- Κλάση: sqlite3.Row

     A ‘Row’ instance serves as a highly optimized *note row_factory:
     1bb0. for *note Connection: 3df. objects.  It supports iteration,
     equality testing, *note len(): a1f, and *note mapping: 1564. access
     by column name and index.

     Two ‘Row’ objects compare equal if they have identical column names
     and values.

     See *note How to create and use row factories: 2f94. for more
     details.

      -- Μέθοδος: keys ()

          Return a *note list: 4d9. of column names as *note strings:
          1df.  Immediately after a query, it is the first member of
          each tuple in *note Cursor.description: 1ace.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support of slicing.


File: python.info,  Node: Blob objects,  Next: PrepareProtocol objects,  Prev: Row objects,  Up: Reference

5.13.6.8 Blob objects
.....................

 -- Κλάση: sqlite3.Blob

     Added in version 3.11.

     A ‘Blob’ instance is a *note file-like object: 19b1. that can read
     and write data in an SQLite BLOB.  Call *note len(blob): a1f. to
     get the size (number of bytes) of the blob.  Use indices and *note
     slices: 26a5. for direct access to the blob data.

     Use the ‘Blob’ as a *note context manager: 478. to ensure that the
     blob handle is closed after use.

          con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
          con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(blob_col blob)")
          con.execute("INSERT INTO test(blob_col) VALUES(zeroblob(13))")

          # Write to our blob, using two write operations:
          with con.blobopen("test", "blob_col", 1) as blob:
              blob.write(b"hello, ")
              blob.write(b"world.")
              # Modify the first and last bytes of our blob
              blob[0] = ord("H")
              blob[-1] = ord("!")

          # Read the contents of our blob
          with con.blobopen("test", "blob_col", 1) as blob:
              greeting = blob.read()

          print(greeting)  # outputs "b'Hello, world!'"
          con.close()

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Close the blob.

          The blob will be unusable from this point onward.  An *note
          Error: 1e1c. (or subclass) exception will be raised if any
          further operation is attempted with the blob.

      -- Μέθοδος: read (length=-1, /)

          Read 'length' bytes of data from the blob at the current
          offset position.  If the end of the blob is reached, the data
          up to EOF (End of File) will be returned.  When 'length' is
          not specified, or is negative, ‘read()’ will read until the
          end of the blob.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (data, /)

          Write 'data' to the blob at the current offset.  This function
          cannot change the blob length.  Writing beyond the end of the
          blob will raise *note ValueError: 277.

      -- Μέθοδος: tell ()

          Return the current access position of the blob.

      -- Μέθοδος: seek (offset, origin=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          Set the current access position of the blob to 'offset'.  The
          'origin' argument defaults to *note os.SEEK_SET: 1632.
          (absolute blob positioning).  Other values for 'origin' are
          *note os.SEEK_CUR: 1633. (seek relative to the current
          position) and *note os.SEEK_END: 1634. (seek relative to the
          blob’s end).


File: python.info,  Node: PrepareProtocol objects,  Next: Exceptions<6>,  Prev: Blob objects,  Up: Reference

5.13.6.9 PrepareProtocol objects
................................

 -- Κλάση: sqlite3.PrepareProtocol

     The PrepareProtocol type’s single purpose is to act as a PEP 246(1)
     style adaption protocol for objects that can *note adapt
     themselves: 2fe0. to *note native SQLite types: 2f99.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0246/


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<6>,  Next: SQLite and Python types,  Prev: PrepareProtocol objects,  Up: Reference

5.13.6.10 Exceptions
....................

The exception hierarchy is defined by the DB-API 2.0 ( PEP 249(1)).

 -- Εξαίρεση: sqlite3.Warning

     This exception is not currently raised by the ‘sqlite3’ module, but
     may be raised by applications using ‘sqlite3’, for example if a
     user-defined function truncates data while inserting.  ‘Warning’ is
     a subclass of *note Exception: d9e.

 -- Εξαίρεση: sqlite3.Error

     The base class of the other exceptions in this module.  Use this to
     catch all errors with one single *note except: 447. statement.
     ‘Error’ is a subclass of *note Exception: d9e.

     If the exception originated from within the SQLite library, the
     following two attributes are added to the exception:

      -- Ιδιότητα: sqlite_errorcode

          The numeric error code from the SQLite API(2)

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Ιδιότητα: sqlite_errorname

          The symbolic name of the numeric error code from the SQLite
          API(3)

          Added in version 3.11.

 -- Εξαίρεση: sqlite3.InterfaceError

     Exception raised for misuse of the low-level SQLite C API. In other
     words, if this exception is raised, it probably indicates a bug in
     the ‘sqlite3’ module.  ‘InterfaceError’ is a subclass of *note
     Error: 1e1c.

 -- Εξαίρεση: sqlite3.DatabaseError

     Exception raised for errors that are related to the database.  This
     serves as the base exception for several types of database errors.
     It is only raised implicitly through the specialised subclasses.
     ‘DatabaseError’ is a subclass of *note Error: 1e1c.

 -- Εξαίρεση: sqlite3.DataError

     Exception raised for errors caused by problems with the processed
     data, like numeric values out of range, and strings which are too
     long.  ‘DataError’ is a subclass of *note DatabaseError: 2fc8.

 -- Εξαίρεση: sqlite3.OperationalError

     Exception raised for errors that are related to the database’s
     operation, and not necessarily under the control of the programmer.
     For example, the database path is not found, or a transaction could
     not be processed.  ‘OperationalError’ is a subclass of *note
     DatabaseError: 2fc8.

 -- Εξαίρεση: sqlite3.IntegrityError

     Exception raised when the relational integrity of the database is
     affected, e.g.  a foreign key check fails.  It is a subclass of
     *note DatabaseError: 2fc8.

 -- Εξαίρεση: sqlite3.InternalError

     Exception raised when SQLite encounters an internal error.  If this
     is raised, it may indicate that there is a problem with the runtime
     SQLite library.  ‘InternalError’ is a subclass of *note
     DatabaseError: 2fc8.

 -- Εξαίρεση: sqlite3.ProgrammingError

     Exception raised for ‘sqlite3’ API programming errors, for example
     supplying the wrong number of bindings to a query, or trying to
     operate on a closed *note Connection: 3df.  ‘ProgrammingError’ is a
     subclass of *note DatabaseError: 2fc8.

 -- Εξαίρεση: sqlite3.NotSupportedError

     Exception raised in case a method or database API is not supported
     by the underlying SQLite library.  For example, setting
     'deterministic' to ‘True’ in *note create_function(): 3e1, if the
     underlying SQLite library does not support deterministic functions.
     ‘NotSupportedError’ is a subclass of *note DatabaseError: 2fc8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) https://sqlite.org/rescode.html

   (3) https://sqlite.org/rescode.html


File: python.info,  Node: SQLite and Python types,  Next: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Prev: Exceptions<6>,  Up: Reference

5.13.6.11 SQLite and Python types
.................................

SQLite natively supports the following types: ‘NULL’, ‘INTEGER’, ‘REAL’,
‘TEXT’, ‘BLOB’.

The following Python types can thus be sent to SQLite without any
problem:

Python type                         SQLite type
                                    
------------------------------------------------------
                                    
‘None’                              ‘NULL’
                                    
                                    
*note int: 326.                     ‘INTEGER’
                                    
                                    
*note float: 327.                   ‘REAL’
                                    
                                    
*note str: 1df.                     ‘TEXT’
                                    
                                    
*note bytes: 1c7.                   ‘BLOB’
                                    

This is how SQLite types are converted to Python types by default:

SQLite type       Python type
                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                  
‘NULL’            ‘None’
                  
                  
‘INTEGER’         *note int: 326.
                  
                  
‘REAL’            *note float: 327.
                  
                  
‘TEXT’            depends on *note text_factory: 2fcc,
                  *note str: 1df. by default
                  
                  
‘BLOB’            *note bytes: 1c7.
                  

The type system of the ‘sqlite3’ module is extensible in two ways: you
can store additional Python types in an SQLite database via *note object
adapters: 2f92, and you can let the ‘sqlite3’ module convert SQLite
types to Python types via *note converters: 2f93.


File: python.info,  Node: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Next: Command-line interface<2>,  Prev: SQLite and Python types,  Up: Reference

5.13.6.12 Default adapters and converters (deprecated)
......................................................

     Σημείωση: The default adapters and converters are deprecated as of
     Python 3.12.  Instead, use the *note Adapter and converter recipes:
     8fe. and tailor them to your needs.

The deprecated default adapters and converters consist of:

   * An adapter for *note datetime.date: 48d. objects to *note strings:
     1df. in ISO 8601(1) format.

   * An adapter for *note datetime.datetime: 6e7. objects to strings in
     ISO 8601 format.

   * A converter for *note declared: 2f93. «date» types to *note
     datetime.date: 48d. objects.

   * A converter for declared «timestamp» types to *note
     datetime.datetime: 6e7. objects.  Fractional parts will be
     truncated to 6 digits (microsecond precision).

     Σημείωση: The default «timestamp» converter ignores UTC offsets in
     the database and always returns a naive *note datetime.datetime:
     6e7. object.  To preserve UTC offsets in timestamps, either leave
     converters disabled, or register an offset-aware converter with
     *note register_converter(): 2f9a.

Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_8601


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<2>,  Prev: Default adapters and converters deprecated,  Up: Reference

5.13.6.13 Command-line interface
................................

The ‘sqlite3’ module can be invoked as a script, using the interpreter’s
*note -m: 4ca. switch, in order to provide a simple SQLite shell.  The
argument signature is as follows:

     python -m sqlite3 [-h] [-v] [filename] [sql]

Type ‘.quit’ or CTRL-D to exit the shell.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Print CLI help.

 -- Option: -v, --version

     Print underlying SQLite library version.

Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: How-to guides,  Next: Explanation,  Prev: Reference,  Up: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.13.6.14 How-to guides
.......................

* Menu:

* How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries::
* How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values::
* How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types::
* Adapter and converter recipes::
* How to use connection shortcut methods::
* How to use the connection context manager::
* How to work with SQLite URIs::
* How to create and use row factories::
* How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings::


File: python.info,  Node: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries,  Next: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Up: How-to guides

5.13.6.15 How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries
...............................................................

SQL operations usually need to use values from Python variables.
However, beware of using Python’s string operations to assemble queries,
as they are vulnerable to SQL injection attacks(1).  For example, an
attacker can simply close the single quote and inject ‘OR TRUE’ to
select all rows:

     >>> # Never do this -- insecure!
     >>> symbol = input()
     ' OR TRUE; --
     >>> sql = "SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = '%s'" % symbol
     >>> print(sql)
     SELECT * FROM stocks WHERE symbol = '' OR TRUE; --'
     >>> cur.execute(sql)

Instead, use the DB-API’s parameter substitution.  To insert a variable
into a query string, use a placeholder in the string, and substitute the
actual values into the query by providing them as a *note tuple: 1ce. of
values to the second argument of the cursor’s *note execute(): 7a8.
method.

An SQL statement may use one of two kinds of placeholders: question
marks (qmark style) or named placeholders (named style).  For the qmark
style, 'parameters' must be a *note sequence: 8ff. whose length must
match the number of placeholders, or a *note ProgrammingError: 57d. is
raised.  For the named style, 'parameters' must be an instance of a
*note dict: 188. (or a subclass), which must contain keys for all named
parameters; any extra items are ignored.  Here’s an example of both
styles:

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(name, first_appeared)")

     # This is the named style used with executemany():
     data = (
         {"name": "C", "year": 1972},
         {"name": "Fortran", "year": 1957},
         {"name": "Python", "year": 1991},
         {"name": "Go", "year": 2009},
     )
     cur.executemany("INSERT INTO lang VALUES(:name, :year)", data)

     # This is the qmark style used in a SELECT query:
     params = (1972,)
     cur.execute("SELECT * FROM lang WHERE first_appeared = ?", params)
     print(cur.fetchall())
     con.close()

     Σημείωση: PEP 249(2) numeric placeholders are 'not' supported.  If
     used, they will be interpreted as named placeholders.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Next: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Prev: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries,  Up: How-to guides

5.13.6.16 How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values
...........................................................

SQLite supports only a limited set of data types natively.  To store
custom Python types in SQLite databases, 'adapt' them to one of the
*note Python types SQLite natively understands: 2f99.

There are two ways to adapt Python objects to SQLite types: letting your
object adapt itself, or using an 'adapter callable'.  The latter will
take precedence above the former.  For a library that exports a custom
type, it may make sense to enable that type to adapt itself.  As an
application developer, it may make more sense to take direct control by
registering custom adapter functions.

* Menu:

* How to write adaptable objects::
* How to register adapter callables::


File: python.info,  Node: How to write adaptable objects,  Next: How to register adapter callables,  Up: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

5.13.6.17 How to write adaptable objects
........................................

Suppose we have a ‘Point’ class that represents a pair of coordinates,
‘x’ and ‘y’, in a Cartesian coordinate system.  The coordinate pair will
be stored as a text string in the database, using a semicolon to
separate the coordinates.  This can be implemented by adding a
‘__conform__(self, protocol)’ method which returns the adapted value.
The object passed to 'protocol' will be of type *note PrepareProtocol:
1d68.

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

         def __conform__(self, protocol):
             if protocol is sqlite3.PrepareProtocol:
                 return f"{self.x};{self.y}"

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.cursor()

     cur.execute("SELECT ?", (Point(4.0, -3.2),))
     print(cur.fetchone()[0])
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to register adapter callables,  Prev: How to write adaptable objects,  Up: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values

5.13.6.18 How to register adapter callables
...........................................

The other possibility is to create a function that converts the Python
object to an SQLite-compatible type.  This function can then be
registered using *note register_adapter(): 2fa3.

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

     def adapt_point(point):
         return f"{point.x};{point.y}"

     sqlite3.register_adapter(Point, adapt_point)

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     cur = con.cursor()

     cur.execute("SELECT ?", (Point(1.0, 2.5),))
     print(cur.fetchone()[0])
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Next: Adapter and converter recipes,  Prev: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values,  Up: How-to guides

5.13.6.19 How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types
.............................................................

Writing an adapter lets you convert 'from' custom Python types 'to'
SQLite values.  To be able to convert 'from' SQLite values 'to' custom
Python types, we use 'converters'.

Let’s go back to the ‘Point’ class.  We stored the x and y coordinates
separated via semicolons as strings in SQLite.

First, we’ll define a converter function that accepts the string as a
parameter and constructs a ‘Point’ object from it.

     Σημείωση: Converter functions are 'always' passed a *note bytes:
     1c7. object, no matter the underlying SQLite data type.

     def convert_point(s):
         x, y = map(float, s.split(b";"))
         return Point(x, y)

We now need to tell ‘sqlite3’ when it should convert a given SQLite
value.  This is done when connecting to a database, using the
'detect_types' parameter of *note connect(): 3e0.  There are three
options:

   * Implicit: set 'detect_types' to *note PARSE_DECLTYPES: 2f9b.

   * Explicit: set 'detect_types' to *note PARSE_COLNAMES: 2f9c.

   * Both: set 'detect_types' to ‘sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES |
     sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES’.  Column names take precedence over
     declared types.

The following example illustrates the implicit and explicit approaches:

     class Point:
         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x, self.y = x, y

         def __repr__(self):
             return f"Point({self.x}, {self.y})"

     def adapt_point(point):
         return f"{point.x};{point.y}"

     def convert_point(s):
         x, y = list(map(float, s.split(b";")))
         return Point(x, y)

     # Register the adapter and converter
     sqlite3.register_adapter(Point, adapt_point)
     sqlite3.register_converter("point", convert_point)

     # 1) Parse using declared types
     p = Point(4.0, -3.2)
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:", detect_types=sqlite3.PARSE_DECLTYPES)
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(p point)")

     cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(p) VALUES(?)", (p,))
     cur.execute("SELECT p FROM test")
     print("with declared types:", cur.fetchone()[0])
     cur.close()
     con.close()

     # 2) Parse using column names
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:", detect_types=sqlite3.PARSE_COLNAMES)
     cur = con.execute("CREATE TABLE test(p)")

     cur.execute("INSERT INTO test(p) VALUES(?)", (p,))
     cur.execute('SELECT p AS "p [point]" FROM test')
     print("with column names:", cur.fetchone()[0])
     cur.close()
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Adapter and converter recipes,  Next: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Prev: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types,  Up: How-to guides

5.13.6.20 Adapter and converter recipes
.......................................

This section shows recipes for common adapters and converters.

     import datetime as dt
     import sqlite3

     def adapt_date_iso(val):
         """Adapt datetime.date to ISO 8601 date."""
         return val.isoformat()

     def adapt_datetime_iso(val):
         """Adapt datetime.datetime to timezone-naive ISO 8601 date."""
         return val.replace(tzinfo=None).isoformat()

     def adapt_datetime_epoch(val):
         """Adapt datetime.datetime to Unix timestamp."""
         return int(val.timestamp())

     sqlite3.register_adapter(dt.date, adapt_date_iso)
     sqlite3.register_adapter(dt.datetime, adapt_datetime_iso)
     sqlite3.register_adapter(dt.datetime, adapt_datetime_epoch)

     def convert_date(val):
         """Convert ISO 8601 date to datetime.date object."""
         return dt.date.fromisoformat(val.decode())

     def convert_datetime(val):
         """Convert ISO 8601 datetime to datetime.datetime object."""
         return dt.datetime.fromisoformat(val.decode())

     def convert_timestamp(val):
         """Convert Unix epoch timestamp to datetime.datetime object."""
         return dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(int(val))

     sqlite3.register_converter("date", convert_date)
     sqlite3.register_converter("datetime", convert_datetime)
     sqlite3.register_converter("timestamp", convert_timestamp)


File: python.info,  Node: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Next: How to use the connection context manager,  Prev: Adapter and converter recipes,  Up: How-to guides

5.13.6.21 How to use connection shortcut methods
................................................

Using the *note execute(): 2fc1, *note executemany(): 2fc2, and *note
executescript(): 2fc3. methods of the *note Connection: 3df. class, your
code can be written more concisely because you don’t have to create the
(often superfluous) *note Cursor: 2f8d. objects explicitly.  Instead,
the ‘Cursor’ objects are created implicitly and these shortcut methods
return the cursor objects.  This way, you can execute a ‘SELECT’
statement and iterate over it directly using only a single call on the
‘Connection’ object.

     # Create and fill the table.
     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(name, first_appeared)")
     data = [
         ("C++", 1985),
         ("Objective-C", 1984),
     ]
     con.executemany("INSERT INTO lang(name, first_appeared) VALUES(?, ?)", data)

     # Print the table contents
     for row in con.execute("SELECT name, first_appeared FROM lang"):
         print(row)

     print("I just deleted", con.execute("DELETE FROM lang").rowcount, "rows")

     # close() is not a shortcut method and it's not called automatically;
     # the connection object should be closed manually
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to use the connection context manager,  Next: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Prev: How to use connection shortcut methods,  Up: How-to guides

5.13.6.22 How to use the connection context manager
...................................................

A *note Connection: 3df. object can be used as a context manager that
automatically commits or rolls back open transactions when leaving the
body of the context manager.  If the body of the *note with: 20a.
statement finishes without exceptions, the transaction is committed.  If
this commit fails, or if the body of the ‘with’ statement raises an
uncaught exception, the transaction is rolled back.  If *note
autocommit: 8c6. is ‘False’, a new transaction is implicitly opened
after committing or rolling back.

If there is no open transaction upon leaving the body of the ‘with’
statement, or if *note autocommit: 8c6. is ‘True’, the context manager
does nothing.

     Σημείωση: The context manager neither implicitly opens a new
     transaction nor closes the connection.  If you need a closing
     context manager, consider using *note contextlib.closing(): 3ec.

     con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     con.execute("CREATE TABLE lang(id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR UNIQUE)")

     # Successful, con.commit() is called automatically afterwards
     with con:
         con.execute("INSERT INTO lang(name) VALUES(?)", ("Python",))

     # con.rollback() is called after the with block finishes with an exception,
     # the exception is still raised and must be caught
     try:
         with con:
             con.execute("INSERT INTO lang(name) VALUES(?)", ("Python",))
     except sqlite3.IntegrityError:
         print("couldn't add Python twice")

     # Connection object used as context manager only commits or rollbacks transactions,
     # so the connection object should be closed manually
     con.close()


File: python.info,  Node: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Next: How to create and use row factories,  Prev: How to use the connection context manager,  Up: How-to guides

5.13.6.23 How to work with SQLite URIs
......................................

Some useful URI tricks include:

   * Open a database in read-only mode:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect("file:tutorial.db?mode=ro", uri=True)
     >>> con.execute("CREATE TABLE readonly(data)")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     OperationalError: attempt to write a readonly database
     >>> con.close()

   * Do not implicitly create a new database file if it does not already
     exist; will raise *note OperationalError: 1e49. if unable to create
     a new file:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect("file:nosuchdb.db?mode=rw", uri=True)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     OperationalError: unable to open database file

   * Create a shared named in-memory database:

     db = "file:mem1?mode=memory&cache=shared"
     con1 = sqlite3.connect(db, uri=True)
     con2 = sqlite3.connect(db, uri=True)
     with con1:
         con1.execute("CREATE TABLE shared(data)")
         con1.execute("INSERT INTO shared VALUES(28)")
     res = con2.execute("SELECT data FROM shared")
     assert res.fetchone() == (28,)

     con1.close()
     con2.close()

More information about this feature, including a list of parameters, can
be found in the SQLite URI documentation(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html


File: python.info,  Node: How to create and use row factories,  Next: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings,  Prev: How to work with SQLite URIs,  Up: How-to guides

5.13.6.24 How to create and use row factories
.............................................

By default, ‘sqlite3’ represents each row as a *note tuple: 1ce.  If a
‘tuple’ does not suit your needs, you can use the *note sqlite3.Row:
1222. class or a custom *note row_factory: 2fcb.

While ‘row_factory’ exists as an attribute both on the *note Cursor:
2f8d. and the *note Connection: 3df, it is recommended to set *note
Connection.row_factory: 1bb0, so all cursors created from the connection
will use the same row factory.

‘Row’ provides indexed and case-insensitive named access to columns,
with minimal memory overhead and performance impact over a ‘tuple’.  To
use ‘Row’ as a row factory, assign it to the ‘row_factory’ attribute:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = sqlite3.Row

Queries now return ‘Row’ objects:

     >>> res = con.execute("SELECT 'Earth' AS name, 6378 AS radius")
     >>> row = res.fetchone()
     >>> row.keys()
     ['name', 'radius']
     >>> row[0]         # Access by index.
     'Earth'
     >>> row["name"]    # Access by name.
     'Earth'
     >>> row["RADIUS"]  # Column names are case-insensitive.
     6378
     >>> con.close()

     Σημείωση: The ‘FROM’ clause can be omitted in the ‘SELECT’
     statement, as in the above example.  In such cases, SQLite returns
     a single row with columns defined by expressions, e.g.  literals,
     with the given aliases ‘expr AS alias’.

You can create a custom *note row_factory: 2fcb. that returns each row
as a *note dict: 188, with column names mapped to values:

     def dict_factory(cursor, row):
         fields = [column[0] for column in cursor.description]
         return {key: value for key, value in zip(fields, row)}

Using it, queries now return a ‘dict’ instead of a ‘tuple’:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = dict_factory
     >>> for row in con.execute("SELECT 1 AS a, 2 AS b"):
     ...     print(row)
     {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
     >>> con.close()

The following row factory returns a *note named tuple: a3d.:

     from collections import namedtuple

     def namedtuple_factory(cursor, row):
         fields = [column[0] for column in cursor.description]
         cls = namedtuple("Row", fields)
         return cls._make(row)

‘namedtuple_factory()’ can be used as follows:

     >>> con = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
     >>> con.row_factory = namedtuple_factory
     >>> cur = con.execute("SELECT 1 AS a, 2 AS b")
     >>> row = cur.fetchone()
     >>> row
     Row(a=1, b=2)
     >>> row[0]  # Indexed access.
     1
     >>> row.b   # Attribute access.
     2
     >>> con.close()

With some adjustments, the above recipe can be adapted to use a *note
dataclass: 6e6, or any other custom class, instead of a *note
namedtuple: 1cf.


File: python.info,  Node: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings,  Prev: How to create and use row factories,  Up: How-to guides

5.13.6.25 How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings
................................................

By default, ‘sqlite3’ uses *note str: 1df. to adapt SQLite values with
the ‘TEXT’ data type.  This works well for UTF-8 encoded text, but it
might fail for other encodings and invalid UTF-8.  You can use a custom
*note text_factory: 2fcc. to handle such cases.

Because of SQLite’s flexible typing(1), it is not uncommon to encounter
table columns with the ‘TEXT’ data type containing non-UTF-8 encodings,
or even arbitrary data.  To demonstrate, let’s assume we have a database
with ISO-8859-2 (Latin-2) encoded text, for example a table of
Czech-English dictionary entries.  Assuming we now have a *note
Connection: 3df. instance ‘con’ connected to this database, we can
decode the Latin-2 encoded text using this *note text_factory: 2fcc.:

     con.text_factory = lambda data: str(data, encoding="latin2")

For invalid UTF-8 or arbitrary data in stored in ‘TEXT’ table columns,
you can use the following technique, borrowed from the *note Unicode
HOWTO: 1649.:

     con.text_factory = lambda data: str(data, errors="surrogateescape")

     Σημείωση: The ‘sqlite3’ module API does not support strings
     containing surrogates.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Unicode HOWTO: 1649.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sqlite.org/flextypegood.html


File: python.info,  Node: Explanation,  Prev: How-to guides,  Up: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases

5.13.6.26 Explanation
.....................

* Menu:

* Transaction control::


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control,  Up: Explanation

5.13.6.27 Transaction control
.............................

‘sqlite3’ offers multiple methods of controlling whether, when and how
database transactions are opened and closed.  *note Transaction control
via the autocommit attribute: 8c7. is recommended, while *note
Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute: 2f9e. retains the
pre-Python 3.12 behaviour.

* Menu:

* Transaction control via the autocommit attribute::
* Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute::


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute,  Next: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute,  Up: Transaction control

5.13.6.28 Transaction control via the ‘autocommit’ attribute
............................................................

The recommended way of controlling transaction behaviour is through the
*note Connection.autocommit: 8c6. attribute, which should preferably be
set using the 'autocommit' parameter of *note connect(): 3e0.

It is suggested to set 'autocommit' to ‘False’, which implies PEP
249(1)-compliant transaction control.  This means:

   * ‘sqlite3’ ensures that a transaction is always open, so *note
     connect(): 3e0, *note Connection.commit(): 2f90, and *note
     Connection.rollback(): 2fc0. will implicitly open a new transaction
     (immediately after closing the pending one, for the latter two).
     ‘sqlite3’ uses ‘BEGIN DEFERRED’ statements when opening
     transactions.

   * Transactions should be committed explicitly using ‘commit()’.

   * Transactions should be rolled back explicitly using ‘rollback()’.

   * An implicit rollback is performed if the database is *note close():
     750.-ed with pending changes.

Set 'autocommit' to ‘True’ to enable SQLite’s autocommit mode(2).  In
this mode, *note Connection.commit(): 2f90. and *note
Connection.rollback(): 2fc0. have no effect.  Note that SQLite’s
autocommit mode is distinct from the PEP 249(3)-compliant *note
Connection.autocommit: 8c6. attribute; use *note
Connection.in_transaction: 2fca. to query the low-level SQLite
autocommit mode.

Set 'autocommit' to *note LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2f9f. to leave
transaction control behaviour to the *note Connection.isolation_level:
2f9d. attribute.  See *note Transaction control via the isolation_level
attribute: 2f9e. for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/

   (2) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/


File: python.info,  Node: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute,  Prev: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute,  Up: Transaction control

5.13.6.29 Transaction control via the ‘isolation_level’ attribute
.................................................................

     Σημείωση: The recommended way of controlling transactions is via
     the *note autocommit: 8c6. attribute.  See *note Transaction
     control via the autocommit attribute: 8c7.

If *note Connection.autocommit: 8c6. is set to *note
LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL: 2f9f. (the default), transaction behaviour
is controlled using the *note Connection.isolation_level: 2f9d.
attribute.  Otherwise, ‘isolation_level’ has no effect.

If the connection attribute *note isolation_level: 2f9d. is not ‘None’,
new transactions are implicitly opened before *note execute(): 7a8. and
*note executemany(): 7a9. executes ‘INSERT’, ‘UPDATE’, ‘DELETE’, or
‘REPLACE’ statements; for other statements, no implicit transaction
handling is performed.  Use the *note commit(): 2f90. and *note
rollback(): 2fc0. methods to respectively commit and roll back pending
transactions.  You can choose the underlying SQLite transaction
behaviour(1) — that is, whether and what type of ‘BEGIN’ statements
‘sqlite3’ implicitly executes – via the ‘isolation_level’ attribute.

If *note isolation_level: 2f9d. is set to ‘None’, no transactions are
implicitly opened at all.  This leaves the underlying SQLite library in
autocommit mode(2), but also allows the user to perform their own
transaction handling using explicit SQL statements.  The underlying
SQLite library autocommit mode can be queried using the *note
in_transaction: 2fca. attribute.

The *note executescript(): 2fc4. method implicitly commits any pending
transaction before execution of the given SQL script, regardless of the
value of *note isolation_level: 2f9d.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: ‘sqlite3’ used to implicitly commit an open
transaction before DDL statements.  This is no longer the case.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The recommended way of controlling transactions
is now via the *note autocommit: 8c6. attribute.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#deferred_immediate_and_exclusive_transactions

   (2) 
https://www.sqlite.org/lang_transaction.html#implicit_versus_explicit_transactions


File: python.info,  Node: Data Compression and Archiving,  Next: File Formats,  Prev: Data Persistence,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.14 Data Compression and Archiving
===================================

The modules described in this chapter support data compression with the
zlib, gzip, bzip2, lzma, and zstd algorithms, and the creation of ZIP-
and tar-format archives.  See also *note Archiving operations: 15bf.
provided by the *note shutil: cd. module.

* Menu:

* The compression package::
* compression.zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format.
* zlib — Compression compatible with gzip::
* gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip::
* bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression::
* lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm::
* zipfile — Work with ZIP archives::
* tarfile — Read and write tar archive files::


File: python.info,  Node: The compression package,  Next: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.14.1 The ‘compression’ package
--------------------------------

Added in version 3.14.

The ‘compression’ package contains the canonical compression modules
containing interfaces to several different compression algorithms.  Some
of these modules have historically been available as separate modules;
those will continue to be available under their original names for
compatibility reasons, and will not be removed without a deprecation
cycle.  The use of modules in ‘compression’ is encouraged where
practical.

   * ‘compression.bz2’ – Re-exports *note bz2: 14.

   * ‘compression.gzip’ – Re-exports *note gzip: 6a.

   * ‘compression.lzma’ – Re-exports *note lzma: 8d.

   * ‘compression.zlib’ – Re-exports *note zlib: 13c.

   * *note compression.zstd: 23. – Wrapper for the Zstandard compression
     library


File: python.info,  Node: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format,  Next: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip,  Prev: The compression package,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.14.2 ‘compression.zstd’ — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format
----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.14.

'Source code:' Lib/compression/zstd/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides classes and functions for compressing and
decompressing data using the Zstandard (or 'zstd') compression
algorithm.  The zstd manual(2) describes Zstandard as «a fast lossless
compression algorithm, targeting real-time compression scenarios at
zlib-level and better compression ratios.» Also included is a file
interface that supports reading and writing the contents of ‘.zst’ files
created by the ‘zstd’ utility, as well as raw zstd compressed streams.

The ‘compression.zstd’ module contains:

   * The *note open(): 3005. function and *note ZstdFile: 3006. class
     for reading and writing compressed files.

   * The *note ZstdCompressor: 3007. and *note ZstdDecompressor: 190b.
     classes for incremental (de)compression.

   * The *note compress(): 3008. and *note decompress(): 3009. functions
     for one-shot (de)compression.

   * The *note train_dict(): 300a. and *note finalize_dict(): 300b.
     functions and the *note ZstdDict: 300c. class to train and manage
     Zstandard dictionaries.

   * The *note CompressionParameter: 300d, *note DecompressionParameter:
     300e, and *note Strategy: 300f. classes for setting advanced
     (de)compression parameters.

This is an *note optional module: 2347.  If it is missing from your copy
of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is,
whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

* Menu:

* Exceptions: Exceptions<7>.
* Reading and writing compressed files::
* Compressing and decompressing data in memory::
* Zstandard dictionaries::
* Advanced parameter control::
* Miscellaneous::
* Examples: Examples<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/compression/zstd/__init__.py

   (2) https://facebook.github.io/zstd/doc/api_manual_latest.html


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<7>,  Next: Reading and writing compressed files,  Up: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format

5.14.2.1 Exceptions
...................

 -- Εξαίρεση: compression.zstd.ZstdError

     This exception is raised when an error occurs during compression or
     decompression, or while initializing the (de)compressor state.


File: python.info,  Node: Reading and writing compressed files,  Next: Compressing and decompressing data in memory,  Prev: Exceptions<7>,  Up: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format

5.14.2.2 Reading and writing compressed files
.............................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: compression.zstd.open (file, /, mode='rb', *, level=None,
          options=None, zstd_dict=None, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None)

     Open a Zstandard-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning
     a *note file object: 156c.

     The 'file' argument can be either a file name (given as a *note
     str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7. or *note path-like: 79f. object), in
     which case the named file is opened, or it can be an existing file
     object to read from or write to.

     The mode argument can be either ‘'rb'’ for reading (default),
     ‘'wb'’ for overwriting, ‘'ab'’ for appending, or ‘'xb'’ for
     exclusive creation.  These can equivalently be given as ‘'r'’,
     ‘'w'’, ‘'a'’, and ‘'x'’ respectively.  You may also open in text
     mode with ‘'rt'’, ‘'wt'’, ‘'at'’, and ‘'xt'’ respectively.

     When reading, the 'options' argument can be a dictionary providing
     advanced decompression parameters; see *note
     DecompressionParameter: 300e. for detailed information about
     supported parameters.  The 'zstd_dict' argument is a *note
     ZstdDict: 300c. instance to be used during decompression.  When
     reading, if the 'level' argument is not None, a ‘TypeError’ will be
     raised.

     When writing, the 'options' argument can be a dictionary providing
     advanced compression parameters; see *note CompressionParameter:
     300d. for detailed information about supported parameters.  The
     'level' argument is the compression level to use when writing
     compressed data.  Only one of 'level' or 'options' may be non-None.
     The 'zstd_dict' argument is a *note ZstdDict: 300c. instance to be
     used during compression.

     In binary mode, this function is equivalent to the *note ZstdFile:
     3006. constructor: ‘ZstdFile(file, mode, ...)’.  In this case, the
     'encoding', 'errors', and 'newline' parameters must not be
     provided.

     In text mode, a *note ZstdFile: 3006. object is created, and
     wrapped in an *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. instance with the
     specified encoding, error handling behavior, and line endings.

 -- Κλάση: compression.zstd.ZstdFile (file, /, mode='rb', *, level=None,
          options=None, zstd_dict=None)

     Open a Zstandard-compressed file in binary mode.

     A ‘ZstdFile’ can wrap an already-open *note file object: 156c, or
     operate directly on a named file.  The 'file' argument specifies
     either the file object to wrap, or the name of the file to open (as
     a *note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7. or *note path-like: 79f.
     object).  If wrapping an existing file object, the wrapped file
     will not be closed when the ‘ZstdFile’ is closed.

     The 'mode' argument can be either ‘'rb'’ for reading (default),
     ‘'wb'’ for overwriting, ‘'xb'’ for exclusive creation, or ‘'ab'’
     for appending.  These can equivalently be given as ‘'r'’, ‘'w'’,
     ‘'x'’ and ‘'a'’ respectively.

     If 'file' is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a
     mode of ‘'w'’ does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent
     to ‘'a'’.

     When reading, the 'options' argument can be a dictionary providing
     advanced decompression parameters; see *note
     DecompressionParameter: 300e. for detailed information about
     supported parameters.  The 'zstd_dict' argument is a *note
     ZstdDict: 300c. instance to be used during decompression.  When
     reading, if the 'level' argument is not None, a ‘TypeError’ will be
     raised.

     When writing, the 'options' argument can be a dictionary providing
     advanced compression parameters; see *note CompressionParameter:
     300d. for detailed information about supported parameters.  The
     'level' argument is the compression level to use when writing
     compressed data.  Only one of 'level' or 'options' may be passed.
     The 'zstd_dict' argument is a *note ZstdDict: 300c. instance to be
     used during compression.

     ‘ZstdFile’ supports all the members specified by *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: a83, except for *note detach(): 3013. and *note
     truncate(): 16b5.  Iteration and the *note with: 20a. statement are
     supported.

     The following method and attributes are also provided:

      -- Μέθοδος: peek (size=-1)

          Return buffered data without advancing the file position.  At
          least one byte of data will be returned, unless EOF has been
          reached.  The exact number of bytes returned is unspecified
          (the 'size' argument is ignored).

               Σημείωση: While calling ‘peek()’ does not change the file
               position of the ‘ZstdFile’, it may change the position of
               the underlying file object (for example, if the
               ‘ZstdFile’ was constructed by passing a file object for
               'file').

      -- Ιδιότητα: mode

          ‘'rb'’ for reading and ‘'wb'’ for writing.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name of the Zstandard file.  Equivalent to the *note name:
          3017. attribute of the underlying *note file object: 156c.


File: python.info,  Node: Compressing and decompressing data in memory,  Next: Zstandard dictionaries,  Prev: Reading and writing compressed files,  Up: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format

5.14.2.3 Compressing and decompressing data in memory
.....................................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: compression.zstd.compress (data, level=None,
          options=None, zstd_dict=None)

     Compress 'data' (a *note bytes-like object: 436.), returning the
     compressed data as a *note bytes: 1c7. object.

     The 'level' argument is an integer controlling the level of
     compression.  'level' is an alternative to setting *note
     CompressionParameter.compression_level: 3019. in 'options'.  Use
     *note bounds(): 301a. on ‘compression_level’ to get the values that
     can be passed for 'level'.  If advanced compression options are
     needed, the 'level' argument must be omitted and in the 'options'
     dictionary the ‘CompressionParameter.compression_level’ parameter
     should be set.

     The 'options' argument is a Python dictionary containing advanced
     compression parameters.  The valid keys and values for compression
     parameters are documented as part of the *note
     CompressionParameter: 300d. documentation.

     The 'zstd_dict' argument is an instance of *note ZstdDict: 300c.
     containing trained data to improve compression efficiency.  The
     function *note train_dict(): 300a. can be used to generate a
     Zstandard dictionary.

 -- Συνάρτηση: compression.zstd.decompress (data, zstd_dict=None,
          options=None)

     Decompress 'data' (a *note bytes-like object: 436.), returning the
     uncompressed data as a *note bytes: 1c7. object.

     The 'options' argument is a Python dictionary containing advanced
     decompression parameters.  The valid keys and values for
     compression parameters are documented as part of the *note
     DecompressionParameter: 300e. documentation.

     The 'zstd_dict' argument is an instance of *note ZstdDict: 300c.
     containing trained data used during compression.  This must be the
     same Zstandard dictionary used during compression.

     If 'data' is the concatenation of multiple distinct compressed
     frames, decompress all of these frames, and return the
     concatenation of the results.

 -- Κλάση: compression.zstd.ZstdCompressor (level=None, options=None,
          zstd_dict=None)

     Create a compressor object, which can be used to compress data
     incrementally.

     For a more convenient way of compressing a single chunk of data,
     see the module-level function *note compress(): 3008.

     The 'level' argument is an integer controlling the level of
     compression.  'level' is an alternative to setting *note
     CompressionParameter.compression_level: 3019. in 'options'.  Use
     *note bounds(): 301a. on ‘compression_level’ to get the values that
     can be passed for 'level'.  If advanced compression options are
     needed, the 'level' argument must be omitted and in the 'options'
     dictionary the ‘CompressionParameter.compression_level’ parameter
     should be set.

     The 'options' argument is a Python dictionary containing advanced
     compression parameters.  The valid keys and values for compression
     parameters are documented as part of the *note
     CompressionParameter: 300d. documentation.

     The 'zstd_dict' argument is an optional instance of *note ZstdDict:
     300c. containing trained data to improve compression efficiency.
     The function *note train_dict(): 300a. can be used to generate a
     Zstandard dictionary.

      -- Μέθοδος: compress (data, mode=ZstdCompressor.CONTINUE)

          Compress 'data' (a *note bytes-like object: 436.), returning a
          *note bytes: 1c7. object with compressed data if possible, or
          otherwise an empty ‘bytes’ object.  Some of 'data' may be
          buffered internally, for use in later calls to ‘compress()’
          and *note flush(): 301c.  The returned data should be
          concatenated with the output of any previous calls to
          ‘compress()’.

          The 'mode' argument is a ‘ZstdCompressor’ attribute, either
          *note CONTINUE: 301d, *note FLUSH_BLOCK: 301e, or *note
          FLUSH_FRAME: 301f.

          When all data has been provided to the compressor, call the
          *note flush(): 301c. method to finish the compression process.
          If ‘compress()’ is called with 'mode' set to *note
          FLUSH_FRAME: 301f, ‘flush()’ should not be called, as it would
          write out a new empty frame.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush (mode=ZstdCompressor.FLUSH_FRAME)

          Finish the compression process, returning a *note bytes: 1c7.
          object containing any data stored in the compressor’s internal
          buffers.

          The 'mode' argument is a ‘ZstdCompressor’ attribute, either
          *note FLUSH_BLOCK: 301e, or *note FLUSH_FRAME: 301f.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_pledged_input_size (size)

          Specify the amount of uncompressed data 'size' that will be
          provided for the next frame.  'size' will be written into the
          frame header of the next frame unless *note
          CompressionParameter.content_size_flag: 3021. is ‘False’ or
          ‘0’.  A size of ‘0’ means that the frame is empty.  If 'size'
          is ‘None’, the frame header will omit the frame size.  Frames
          that include the uncompressed data size require less memory to
          decompress, especially at higher compression levels.

          If *note last_mode: 3022. is not *note FLUSH_FRAME: 301f, a
          *note ValueError: 277. is raised as the compressor is not at
          the start of a frame.  If the pledged size does not match the
          actual size of data provided to *note compress(): 301b, future
          calls to ‘compress()’ or *note flush(): 301c. may raise *note
          ZstdError: 3011. and the last chunk of data may be lost.

          After *note flush(): 301c. or *note compress(): 301b. are
          called with mode *note FLUSH_FRAME: 301f, the next frame will
          not include the frame size into the header unless
          ‘set_pledged_input_size()’ is called again.

      -- Ιδιότητα: CONTINUE

          Collect more data for compression, which may or may not
          generate output immediately.  This mode optimizes the
          compression ratio by maximizing the amount of data per block
          and frame.

      -- Ιδιότητα: FLUSH_BLOCK

          Complete and write a block to the data stream.  The data
          returned so far can be immediately decompressed.  Past data
          can still be referenced in future blocks generated by calls to
          *note compress(): 301b, improving compression.

      -- Ιδιότητα: FLUSH_FRAME

          Complete and write out a frame.  Future data provided to *note
          compress(): 301b. will be written into a new frame and
          'cannot' reference past data.

      -- Ιδιότητα: last_mode

          The last mode passed to either *note compress(): 301b. or
          *note flush(): 301c.  The value can be one of *note CONTINUE:
          301d, *note FLUSH_BLOCK: 301e, or *note FLUSH_FRAME: 301f.
          The initial value is ‘FLUSH_FRAME’, signifying that the
          compressor is at the start of a new frame.

 -- Κλάση: compression.zstd.ZstdDecompressor (zstd_dict=None,
          options=None)

     Create a decompressor object, which can be used to decompress data
     incrementally.

     For a more convenient way of decompressing an entire compressed
     stream at once, see the module-level function *note decompress():
     3009.

     The 'options' argument is a Python dictionary containing advanced
     decompression parameters.  The valid keys and values for
     compression parameters are documented as part of the *note
     DecompressionParameter: 300e. documentation.

     The 'zstd_dict' argument is an instance of *note ZstdDict: 300c.
     containing trained data used during compression.  This must be the
     same Zstandard dictionary used during compression.

          Σημείωση: This class does not transparently handle inputs
          containing multiple compressed frames, unlike the *note
          decompress(): 3009. function and *note ZstdFile: 3006. class.
          To decompress a multi-frame input, you should use
          ‘decompress()’, ‘ZstdFile’ if working with a *note file
          object: 156c, or multiple ‘ZstdDecompressor’ instances.

      -- Μέθοδος: decompress (data, max_length=-1)

          Decompress 'data' (a *note bytes-like object: 436.), returning
          uncompressed data as bytes.  Some of 'data' may be buffered
          internally, for use in later calls to ‘decompress()’.  The
          returned data should be concatenated with the output of any
          previous calls to ‘decompress()’.

          If 'max_length' is non-negative, the method returns at most
          'max_length' bytes of decompressed data.  If this limit is
          reached and further output can be produced (or EOF is
          reached), the *note needs_input: 3024. attribute will be set
          to ‘False’.  In this case, the next call to ‘decompress()’ may
          provide 'data' as ‘b''’ to obtain more of the output.  The
          full content can thus be read like:

               process_output(d.decompress(data, max_length))
               while not d.eof and not d.needs_input:
                   process_output(d.decompress(b"", max_length))

          If all of the input data was decompressed and returned (either
          because this was less than 'max_length' bytes, or because
          'max_length' was negative), the *note needs_input: 3024.
          attribute will be set to ‘True’.

          Attempting to decompress data after the end of a frame will
          raise a *note ZstdError: 3011.  Any data found after the end
          of the frame is ignored and saved in the *note unused_data:
          3025. attribute.

      -- Ιδιότητα: eof

          ‘True’ if the end-of-stream marker has been reached.

      -- Ιδιότητα: unused_data

          Data found after the end of the compressed stream.

          Before the end of the stream is reached, this will be ‘b''’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: needs_input

          ‘False’ if the *note decompress(): 3023. method can provide
          more decompressed data before requiring new compressed input.


File: python.info,  Node: Zstandard dictionaries,  Next: Advanced parameter control,  Prev: Compressing and decompressing data in memory,  Up: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format

5.14.2.4 Zstandard dictionaries
...............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: compression.zstd.train_dict (samples, dict_size)

     Train a Zstandard dictionary, returning a *note ZstdDict: 300c.
     instance.  Zstandard dictionaries enable more efficient compression
     of smaller sizes of data, which is traditionally difficult to
     compress due to less repetition.  If you are compressing multiple
     similar groups of data (such as similar files), Zstandard
     dictionaries can improve compression ratios and speed
     significantly.

     The 'samples' argument (an iterable of *note bytes: 1c7. objects),
     is the population of samples used to train the Zstandard
     dictionary.

     The 'dict_size' argument, an integer, is the maximum size (in
     bytes) the Zstandard dictionary should be.  The Zstandard
     documentation suggests an absolute maximum of no more than 100 KB,
     but the maximum can often be smaller depending on the data.  Larger
     dictionaries generally slow down compression, but improve
     compression ratios.  Smaller dictionaries lead to faster
     compression, but reduce the compression ratio.

 -- Συνάρτηση: compression.zstd.finalize_dict (zstd_dict, /, samples,
          dict_size, level)

     An advanced function for converting a «raw content» Zstandard
     dictionary into a regular Zstandard dictionary.  «Raw content»
     dictionaries are a sequence of bytes that do not need to follow the
     structure of a normal Zstandard dictionary.

     The 'zstd_dict' argument is a *note ZstdDict: 300c. instance with
     the *note dict_content: 3028. containing the raw dictionary
     contents.

     The 'samples' argument (an iterable of *note bytes: 1c7. objects),
     contains sample data for generating the Zstandard dictionary.

     The 'dict_size' argument, an integer, is the maximum size (in
     bytes) the Zstandard dictionary should be.  See *note train_dict():
     300a. for suggestions on the maximum dictionary size.

     The 'level' argument (an integer) is the compression level expected
     to be passed to the compressors using this dictionary.  The
     dictionary information varies for each compression level, so tuning
     for the proper compression level can make compression more
     efficient.

 -- Κλάση: compression.zstd.ZstdDict (dict_content, /, *, is_raw=False)

     A wrapper around Zstandard dictionaries.  Dictionaries can be used
     to improve the compression of many small chunks of data.  Use *note
     train_dict(): 300a. if you need to train a new dictionary from
     sample data.

     The 'dict_content' argument (a *note bytes-like object: 436.), is
     the already trained dictionary information.

     The 'is_raw' argument, a boolean, is an advanced parameter
     controlling the meaning of 'dict_content'.  ‘True’ means
     'dict_content' is a «raw content» dictionary, without any format
     restrictions.  ‘False’ means 'dict_content' is an ordinary
     Zstandard dictionary, created from Zstandard functions, for
     example, *note train_dict(): 300a. or the external ‘zstd’ CLI.

     When passing a ‘ZstdDict’ to a function, the ‘as_digested_dict’ and
     ‘as_undigested_dict’ attributes can control how the dictionary is
     loaded by passing them as the ‘zstd_dict’ argument, for example,
     ‘compress(data, zstd_dict=zd.as_digested_dict)’.  Digesting a
     dictionary is a costly operation that occurs when loading a
     Zstandard dictionary.  When making multiple calls to compression or
     decompression, passing a digested dictionary will reduce the
     overhead of loading the dictionary.

          Difference for compression

                         Digested           Undigested
                         dictionary         dictionary
                                            
          -------------------------------------------------
                                            
          Advanced       ‘window_log’,      None
          parameters     ‘hash_log’,        
          of the         ‘chain_log’,
          compressor     ‘search_log’,
          which may be   ‘min_match’,
          overridden     ‘target_length’,
          by the         ‘strategy’,
          dictionary’s   ‘enable_long_distance_matching’,
          parameters     ‘ldm_hash_log’,
                         ‘ldm_min_match’,
                         ‘ldm_bucket_size_log’,
                         ‘ldm_hash_rate_log’,
                         and some
                         non-public
                         parameters.
                         
                                            
          ‘ZstdDict’     Yes.  It’s         No.  If you
          internally     faster when        wish to load
          caches the     loading a          an
          dictionary     digested           undigested
                         dictionary again   dictionary
                         with the same      multiple
                         compression        times,
                         level.             consider
                                            reusing a
                                            compressor
                                            object.
                                            

     If passing a ‘ZstdDict’ without any attribute, an undigested
     dictionary is passed by default when compressing and a digested
     dictionary is generated if necessary and passed by default when
     decompressing.

           -- Ιδιότητα: dict_content

               The content of the Zstandard dictionary, a ‘bytes’
               object.  It’s the same as the 'dict_content' argument in
               the ‘__init__’ method.  It can be used with other
               programs, such as the ‘zstd’ CLI program.

           -- Ιδιότητα: dict_id

               Identifier of the Zstandard dictionary, a non-negative
               int value.

               Non-zero means the dictionary is ordinary, created by
               Zstandard functions and following the Zstandard format.

               ‘0’ means a «raw content» dictionary, free of any format
               restriction, used for advanced users.

                    Σημείωση: The meaning of ‘0’ for ‘ZstdDict.dict_id’
                    is different from the ‘dictionary_id’ attribute to
                    the *note get_frame_info(): 302a. function.

           -- Ιδιότητα: as_digested_dict

               Load as a digested dictionary.

           -- Ιδιότητα: as_undigested_dict

               Load as an undigested dictionary.


File: python.info,  Node: Advanced parameter control,  Next: Miscellaneous,  Prev: Zstandard dictionaries,  Up: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format

5.14.2.5 Advanced parameter control
...................................

 -- Κλάση: compression.zstd.CompressionParameter

     An *note IntEnum: 109d. containing the advanced compression
     parameter keys that can be used when compressing data.

     The *note bounds(): 301a. method can be used on any attribute to
     get the valid values for that parameter.

     Parameters are optional; any omitted parameter will have it’s value
     selected automatically.

     Example getting the lower and upper bound of *note
     compression_level: 3019.:

          lower, upper = CompressionParameter.compression_level.bounds()

     Example setting the *note window_log: 302e. to the maximum size:

          _lower, upper = CompressionParameter.window_log.bounds()
          options = {CompressionParameter.window_log: upper}
          compress(b'venezuelan beaver cheese', options=options)

      -- Μέθοδος: bounds ()

          Return the tuple of int bounds, ‘(lower, upper)’, of a
          compression parameter.  This method should be called on the
          attribute you wish to retrieve the bounds of.  For example, to
          get the valid values for *note compression_level: 3019, one
          may check the result of
          ‘CompressionParameter.compression_level.bounds()’.

          Both the lower and upper bounds are inclusive.

      -- Ιδιότητα: compression_level

          A high-level means of setting other compression parameters
          that affect the speed and ratio of compressing data.

          Regular compression levels are greater than ‘0’.  Values
          greater than ‘20’ are considered «ultra» compression and
          require more memory than other levels.  Negative values can be
          used to trade off faster compression for worse compression
          ratios.

          Setting the level to zero uses *note
          COMPRESSION_LEVEL_DEFAULT: 302f.

      -- Ιδιότητα: window_log

          Maximum allowed back-reference distance the compressor can use
          when compressing data, expressed as power of two, ‘1 <<
          window_log’ bytes.  This parameter greatly influences the
          memory usage of compression.  Higher values require more
          memory but gain better compression values.

          A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

      -- Ιδιότητα: hash_log

          Size of the initial probe table, as a power of two.  The
          resulting memory usage is ‘1 << (hash_log+2)’ bytes.  Larger
          tables improve compression ratio of strategies <= *note dfast:
          3031, and improve compression speed of strategies > ‘dfast’.

          A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

      -- Ιδιότητα: chain_log

          Size of the multi-probe search table, as a power of two.  The
          resulting memory usage is ‘1 << (chain_log+2)’ bytes.  Larger
          tables result in better and slower compression.  This
          parameter has no effect for the *note fast: 3033. strategy.
          It’s still useful when using *note dfast: 3031. strategy, in
          which case it defines a secondary probe table.

          A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

      -- Ιδιότητα: search_log

          Number of search attempts, as a power of two.  More attempts
          result in better and slower compression.  This parameter is
          useless for *note fast: 3033. and *note dfast: 3031.
          strategies.

          A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

      -- Ιδιότητα: min_match

          Minimum size of searched matches.  Larger values increase
          compression and decompression speed, but decrease ratio.  Note
          that Zstandard can still find matches of smaller size, it just
          tweaks its search algorithm to look for this size and larger.
          For all strategies < *note btopt: 3036, the effective minimum
          is ‘4’; for all strategies > *note fast: 3033, the effective
          maximum is ‘6’.

          A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

      -- Ιδιότητα: target_length

          The impact of this field depends on the selected *note
          Strategy: 300f.

          For strategies *note btopt: 3036, *note btultra: 3038. and
          *note btultra2: 3039, the value is the length of a match
          considered «good enough» to stop searching.  Larger values
          make compression ratios better, but compresses slower.

          For strategy *note fast: 3033, it is the distance between
          match sampling.  Larger values make compression faster, but
          with a worse compression ratio.

          A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

      -- Ιδιότητα: strategy

          The higher the value of selected strategy, the more complex
          the compression technique used by zstd, resulting in higher
          compression ratios but slower compression.

          Δείτε επίσης
          ............

          *note Strategy: 300f.

      -- Ιδιότητα: enable_long_distance_matching

          Long distance matching can be used to improve compression for
          large inputs by finding large matches at greater distances.
          It increases memory usage and window size.

          ‘True’ or ‘1’ enable long distance matching while ‘False’ or
          ‘0’ disable it.

          Enabling this parameter increases default *note window_log:
          302e. to 128 MiB except when expressly set to a different
          value.  This setting is enabled by default if ‘window_log’ >=
          128 MiB and the compression strategy >= *note btopt: 3036.
          (compression level 16+).

      -- Ιδιότητα: ldm_hash_log

          Size of the table for long distance matching, as a power of
          two.  Larger values increase memory usage and compression
          ratio, but decrease compression speed.

          A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

      -- Ιδιότητα: ldm_min_match

          Minimum match size for long distance matcher.  Larger or too
          small values can often decrease the compression ratio.

          A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

      -- Ιδιότητα: ldm_bucket_size_log

          Log size of each bucket in the long distance matcher hash
          table for collision resolution.  Larger values improve
          collision resolution but decrease compression speed.

          A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

      -- Ιδιότητα: ldm_hash_rate_log

          Frequency of inserting/looking up entries into the long
          distance matcher hash table.  Larger values improve
          compression speed.  Deviating far from the default value will
          likely result in a compression ratio decrease.

          A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

      -- Ιδιότητα: content_size_flag

          Write the size of the data to be compressed into the Zstandard
          frame header when known prior to compressing.

          This flag only takes effect under the following scenarios:

             * Calling *note compress(): 3008. for one-shot compression

             * Providing all of the data to be compressed in the frame
               in a single *note ZstdCompressor.compress(): 301b. call,
               with the *note ZstdCompressor.FLUSH_FRAME: 301f. mode.

             * Calling *note ZstdCompressor.set_pledged_input_size():
               3020. with the exact amount of data that will be provided
               to the compressor prior to any calls to *note
               ZstdCompressor.compress(): 301b. for the current frame.
               ‘ZstdCompressor.set_pledged_input_size()’ must be called
               for each new frame.

          All other compression calls may not write the size information
          into the frame header.

          ‘True’ or ‘1’ enable the content size flag while ‘False’ or
          ‘0’ disable it.

      -- Ιδιότητα: checksum_flag

          A four-byte checksum using XXHash64 of the uncompressed
          content is written at the end of each frame.  Zstandard’s
          decompression code verifies the checksum.  If there is a
          mismatch a *note ZstdError: 3011. exception is raised.

          ‘True’ or ‘1’ enable checksum generation while ‘False’ or ‘0’
          disable it.

      -- Ιδιότητα: dict_id_flag

          When compressing with a *note ZstdDict: 300c, the dictionary’s
          ID is written into the frame header.

          ‘True’ or ‘1’ enable storing the dictionary ID while ‘False’
          or ‘0’ disable it.

      -- Ιδιότητα: nb_workers

          Select how many threads will be spawned to compress in
          parallel.  When ‘nb_workers’ > 0, enables multi-threaded
          compression, a value of ‘1’ means «one-thread multi-threaded
          mode».  More workers improve speed, but also increase memory
          usage and slightly reduce compression ratio.

          A value of zero disables multi-threading.

      -- Ιδιότητα: job_size

          Size of a compression job, in bytes.  This value is enforced
          only when *note nb_workers: 3042. >= 1.  Each compression job
          is completed in parallel, so this value can indirectly impact
          the number of active threads.

          A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

      -- Ιδιότητα: overlap_log

          Sets how much data is reloaded from previous jobs (threads)
          for new jobs to be used by the look behind window during
          compression.  This value is only used when *note nb_workers:
          3042. >= 1.  Acceptable values vary from 0 to 9.

                  * 0 means dynamically set the overlap amount

                  * 1 means no overlap

                  * 9 means use a full window size from the previous job

          Each increment halves/doubles the overlap size.  «8» means an
          overlap of ‘window_size/2’, «7» means an overlap of
          ‘window_size/4’, etc.

 -- Κλάση: compression.zstd.DecompressionParameter

     An *note IntEnum: 109d. containing the advanced decompression
     parameter keys that can be used when decompressing data.
     Parameters are optional; any omitted parameter will have it’s value
     selected automatically.

     The *note bounds(): 3045. method can be used on any attribute to
     get the valid values for that parameter.

     Example setting the *note window_log_max: 3046. to the maximum
     size:

          data = compress(b'Some very long buffer of bytes...')

          _lower, upper = DecompressionParameter.window_log_max.bounds()

          options = {DecompressionParameter.window_log_max: upper}
          decompress(data, options=options)

      -- Μέθοδος: bounds ()

          Return the tuple of int bounds, ‘(lower, upper)’, of a
          decompression parameter.  This method should be called on the
          attribute you wish to retrieve the bounds of.

          Both the lower and upper bounds are inclusive.

      -- Ιδιότητα: window_log_max

          The base-two logarithm of the maximum size of the window used
          during decompression.  This can be useful to limit the amount
          of memory used when decompressing data.  A larger maximum
          window size leads to faster decompression.

          A value of zero causes the value to be selected automatically.

 -- Κλάση: compression.zstd.Strategy

     An *note IntEnum: 109d. containing strategies for compression.
     Higher-numbered strategies correspond to more complex and slower
     compression.

          Σημείωση: The values of attributes of ‘Strategy’ are not
          necessarily stable across zstd versions.  Only the ordering of
          the attributes may be relied upon.  The attributes are listed
          below in order.

     The following strategies are available:

      -- Ιδιότητα: fast

      -- Ιδιότητα: dfast

      -- Ιδιότητα: greedy

      -- Ιδιότητα: lazy

      -- Ιδιότητα: lazy2

      -- Ιδιότητα: btlazy2

      -- Ιδιότητα: btopt

      -- Ιδιότητα: btultra

      -- Ιδιότητα: btultra2


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous,  Next: Examples<6>,  Prev: Advanced parameter control,  Up: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format

5.14.2.6 Miscellaneous
......................

 -- Συνάρτηση: compression.zstd.get_frame_info (frame_buffer)

     Retrieve a *note FrameInfo: 304c. object containing metadata about
     a Zstandard frame.  Frames contain metadata related to the
     compressed data they hold.

 -- Κλάση: compression.zstd.FrameInfo

     Metadata related to a Zstandard frame.

      -- Ιδιότητα: decompressed_size

          The size of the decompressed contents of the frame.

      -- Ιδιότητα: dictionary_id

          An integer representing the Zstandard dictionary ID needed for
          decompressing the frame.  ‘0’ means the dictionary ID was not
          recorded in the frame header.  This may mean that a Zstandard
          dictionary is not needed, or that the ID of a required
          dictionary was not recorded.

 -- Ιδιότητα: compression.zstd.COMPRESSION_LEVEL_DEFAULT

     The default compression level for Zstandard: ‘3’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: compression.zstd.zstd_version_info

     Version number of the runtime zstd library as a tuple of integers
     (major, minor, release).


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<6>,  Prev: Miscellaneous,  Up: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format

5.14.2.7 Examples
.................

Reading in a compressed file:

     from compression import zstd

     with zstd.open("file.zst") as f:
         file_content = f.read()

Creating a compressed file:

     from compression import zstd

     data = b"Insert Data Here"
     with zstd.open("file.zst", "w") as f:
         f.write(data)

Compressing data in memory:

     from compression import zstd

     data_in = b"Insert Data Here"
     data_out = zstd.compress(data_in)

Incremental compression:

     from compression import zstd

     comp = zstd.ZstdCompressor()
     out1 = comp.compress(b"Some data\n")
     out2 = comp.compress(b"Another piece of data\n")
     out3 = comp.compress(b"Even more data\n")
     out4 = comp.flush()
     # Concatenate all the partial results:
     result = b"".join([out1, out2, out3, out4])

Writing compressed data to an already-open file:

     from compression import zstd

     with open("myfile", "wb") as f:
         f.write(b"This data will not be compressed\n")
         with zstd.open(f, "w") as zstf:
             zstf.write(b"This *will* be compressed\n")
         f.write(b"Not compressed\n")

Creating a compressed file using compression parameters:

     from compression import zstd

     options = {
        zstd.CompressionParameter.checksum_flag: 1
     }
     with zstd.open("file.zst", "w", options=options) as f:
         f.write(b"Mind if I squeeze in?")


File: python.info,  Node: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip,  Next: gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip,  Prev: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.14.3 ‘zlib’ — Compression compatible with ‘gzip’
--------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

For applications that require data compression, the functions in this
module allow compression and decompression, using the zlib library(1).

This is an *note optional module: 2347.  If it is missing from your copy
of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is,
whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

zlib’s functions have many options and often need to be used in a
particular order.  This documentation doesn’t attempt to cover all of
the permutations; consult the zlib manual(2) for authoritative
information.

For reading and writing ‘.gz’ files see the *note gzip: 6a. module.

The available exception and functions in this module are:

 -- Εξαίρεση: zlib.error

     Exception raised on compression and decompression errors.

 -- Συνάρτηση: zlib.adler32 (data[, value])

     Computes an Adler-32 checksum of 'data'.  (An Adler-32 checksum is
     almost as reliable as a CRC32 but can be computed much more
     quickly.)  The result is an unsigned 32-bit integer.  If 'value' is
     present, it is used as the starting value of the checksum;
     otherwise, a default value of 1 is used.  Passing in 'value' allows
     computing a running checksum over the concatenation of several
     inputs.  The algorithm is not cryptographically strong, and should
     not be used for authentication or digital signatures.  Since the
     algorithm is designed for use as a checksum algorithm, it is not
     suitable for use as a general hash algorithm.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.0: The result is always unsigned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: zlib.adler32_combine (adler1, adler2, len2, /)

     Combine two Adler-32 checksums into one.

     Given the Adler-32 checksum 'adler1' of a sequence ‘A’ and the
     Adler-32 checksum 'adler2' of a sequence ‘B’ of length 'len2',
     return the Adler-32 checksum of ‘A’ and ‘B’ concatenated.

     This function is typically useful to combine Adler-32 checksums
     that were concurrently computed.  To compute checksums
     sequentially, use *note adler32(): 1db4. with the running checksum
     as the ‘value’ argument.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: zlib.compress (data, /, level=Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION,
          wbits=MAX_WBITS)

     Compresses the bytes in 'data', returning a bytes object containing
     compressed data.  'level' is an integer from ‘0’ to ‘9’ or ‘-1’
     controlling the level of compression; See *note Z_BEST_SPEED: 3055.
     (‘1’), *note Z_BEST_COMPRESSION: 3056. (‘9’), *note
     Z_NO_COMPRESSION: 3057. (‘0’), and the default, *note
     Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION: 3058. (‘-1’) for more information about
     these values.  The 'wbits' argument controls the size of the
     history buffer (or the «window size») used when compressing data,
     and whether a header and trailer is included in the output.  It can
     take several ranges of values, defaulting to ‘15’ (*note MAX_WBITS:
     305a.):

        * +9 to +15: The base-two logarithm of the window size, which
          therefore ranges between 512 and 32768.  Larger values produce
          better compression at the expense of greater memory usage.
          The resulting output will include a zlib-specific header and
          trailer.

        * −9 to −15: Uses the absolute value of 'wbits' as the window
          size logarithm, while producing a raw output stream with no
          header or trailing checksum.

        * +25 to +31 = 16 + (9 to 15): Uses the low 4 bits of the value
          as the window size logarithm, while including a basic ‘gzip’
          header and trailing checksum in the output.

     Raises the *note error: 3054. exception if any error occurs.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 'level' can now be used as a keyword
     parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The 'wbits' parameter is now available to
     set window bits and compression type.

 -- Συνάρτηση: zlib.compressobj (level=Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION,
          method=DEFLATED, wbits=MAX_WBITS, memLevel=DEF_MEM_LEVEL,
          strategy=Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY[, zdict])

     Returns a compression object, to be used for compressing data
     streams that won’t fit into memory at once.

     'level' is the compression level – an integer from ‘0’ to ‘9’ or
     ‘-1’.  See *note Z_BEST_SPEED: 3055. (‘1’), *note
     Z_BEST_COMPRESSION: 3056. (‘9’), *note Z_NO_COMPRESSION: 3057.
     (‘0’), and the default, *note Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION: 3058. (‘-1’)
     for more information about these values.

     'method' is the compression algorithm.  Currently, the only
     supported value is *note DEFLATED: 305b.

     The 'wbits' parameter controls the size of the history buffer (or
     the «window size»), and what header and trailer format will be
     used.  It has the same meaning as *note described for compress():
     3059.

     The 'memLevel' argument controls the amount of memory used for the
     internal compression state.  Valid values range from ‘1’ to ‘9’.
     Higher values use more memory, but are faster and produce smaller
     output.

     'strategy' is used to tune the compression algorithm.  Possible
     values are *note Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY: 305c, *note Z_FILTERED: 305d,
     *note Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY: 305e, *note Z_RLE: 305f. and *note Z_FIXED:
     3060.

     'zdict' is a predefined compression dictionary.  This is a sequence
     of bytes (such as a *note bytes: 1c7. object) containing
     subsequences that are expected to occur frequently in the data that
     is to be compressed.  Those subsequences that are expected to be
     most common should come at the end of the dictionary.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'zdict' parameter and keyword
     argument support.

 -- Συνάρτηση: zlib.crc32 (data[, value])

     Computes a CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) checksum of 'data'.  The
     result is an unsigned 32-bit integer.  If 'value' is present, it is
     used as the starting value of the checksum; otherwise, a default
     value of 0 is used.  Passing in 'value' allows computing a running
     checksum over the concatenation of several inputs.  The algorithm
     is not cryptographically strong, and should not be used for
     authentication or digital signatures.  Since the algorithm is
     designed for use as a checksum algorithm, it is not suitable for
     use as a general hash algorithm.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.0: The result is always unsigned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: zlib.crc32_combine (crc1, crc2, len2, /)

     Combine two CRC-32 checksums into one.

     Given the CRC-32 checksum 'crc1' of a sequence ‘A’ and the CRC-32
     checksum 'crc2' of a sequence ‘B’ of length 'len2', return the
     CRC-32 checksum of ‘A’ and ‘B’ concatenated.

     This function is typically useful to combine CRC-32 checksums that
     were concurrently computed.  To compute checksums sequentially, use
     *note crc32(): 1c18. with the running checksum as the ‘value’
     argument.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: zlib.decompress (data, /, wbits=MAX_WBITS,
          bufsize=DEF_BUF_SIZE)

     Decompresses the bytes in 'data', returning a bytes object
     containing the uncompressed data.  The 'wbits' parameter depends on
     the format of 'data', and is discussed further below.  If 'bufsize'
     is given, it is used as the initial size of the output buffer.
     Raises the *note error: 3054. exception if any error occurs.  The
     'wbits' parameter controls the size of the history buffer (or
     «window size»), and what header and trailer format is expected.  It
     is similar to the parameter for *note compressobj(): 19fc, but
     accepts more ranges of values:

        * +8 to +15: The base-two logarithm of the window size.  The
          input must include a zlib header and trailer.

        * 0: Automatically determine the window size from the zlib
          header.  Only supported since zlib 1.2.3.5.

        * −8 to −15: Uses the absolute value of 'wbits' as the window
          size logarithm.  The input must be a raw stream with no header
          or trailer.

        * +24 to +31 = 16 + (8 to 15): Uses the low 4 bits of the value
          as the window size logarithm.  The input must include a gzip
          header and trailer.

        * +40 to +47 = 32 + (8 to 15): Uses the low 4 bits of the value
          as the window size logarithm, and automatically accepts either
          the zlib or gzip format.

     When decompressing a stream, the window size must not be smaller
     than the size originally used to compress the stream; using a
     too-small value may result in an *note error: 3054. exception.  The
     default 'wbits' value corresponds to the largest window size and
     requires a zlib header and trailer to be included.

     'bufsize' is the initial size of the buffer used to hold
     decompressed data.  If more space is required, the buffer size will
     be increased as needed, so you don’t have to get this value exactly
     right; tuning it will only save a few calls to ‘malloc()’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 'wbits' and 'bufsize' can be used as
     keyword arguments.

 -- Συνάρτηση: zlib.decompressobj (wbits=MAX_WBITS[, zdict])

     Returns a decompression object, to be used for decompressing data
     streams that won’t fit into memory at once.

     The 'wbits' parameter controls the size of the history buffer (or
     the «window size»), and what header and trailer format is expected.
     It has the same meaning as *note described for decompress(): 3061.

     The 'zdict' parameter specifies a predefined compression
     dictionary.  If provided, this must be the same dictionary as was
     used by the compressor that produced the data that is to be
     decompressed.

          Σημείωση: If 'zdict' is a mutable object (such as a *note
          bytearray: 1c6.), you must not modify its contents between the
          call to ‘decompressobj()’ and the first call to the
          decompressor’s ‘decompress()’ method.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'zdict' parameter.

Compression objects support the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: Compress.compress (data)

     Compress 'data', returning a bytes object containing compressed
     data for at least part of the data in 'data'.  This data should be
     concatenated to the output produced by any preceding calls to the
     ‘compress()’ method.  Some input may be kept in internal buffers
     for later processing.

 -- Μέθοδος: Compress.flush ([mode])

     All pending input is processed, and a bytes object containing the
     remaining compressed output is returned.  'mode' can be selected
     from the constants *note Z_NO_FLUSH: 3064, *note Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH:
     3065, *note Z_SYNC_FLUSH: 3066, *note Z_FULL_FLUSH: 3067, *note
     Z_BLOCK: 3068, or *note Z_FINISH: 3069, defaulting to ‘Z_FINISH’.
     Except ‘Z_FINISH’, all constants allow compressing further
     bytestrings of data, while ‘Z_FINISH’ finishes the compressed
     stream and prevents compressing any more data.  After calling
     ‘flush()’ with 'mode' set to ‘Z_FINISH’, the *note compress(): a2e.
     method cannot be called again; the only realistic action is to
     delete the object.

 -- Μέθοδος: Compress.copy ()

     Returns a copy of the compression object.  This can be used to
     efficiently compress a set of data that share a common initial
     prefix.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added *note copy.copy(): 942. and *note
copy.deepcopy(): f2b. support to compression objects.

Decompression objects support the following methods and attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: Decompress.unused_data

     A bytes object which contains any bytes past the end of the
     compressed data.  That is, this remains ‘b""’ until the last byte
     that contains compression data is available.  If the whole
     bytestring turned out to contain compressed data, this is ‘b""’, an
     empty bytes object.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Decompress.unconsumed_tail

     A bytes object that contains any data that was not consumed by the
     last *note decompress(): 10c8. call because it exceeded the limit
     for the uncompressed data buffer.  This data has not yet been seen
     by the zlib machinery, so you must feed it (possibly with further
     data concatenated to it) back to a subsequent ‘decompress()’ method
     call in order to get correct output.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Decompress.eof

     A boolean indicating whether the end of the compressed data stream
     has been reached.

     This makes it possible to distinguish between a properly formed
     compressed stream, and an incomplete or truncated one.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Μέθοδος: Decompress.decompress (data, max_length=0)

     Decompress 'data', returning a bytes object containing the
     uncompressed data corresponding to at least part of the data in
     'string'.  This data should be concatenated to the output produced
     by any preceding calls to the ‘decompress()’ method.  Some of the
     input data may be preserved in internal buffers for later
     processing.

     If the optional parameter 'max_length' is non-zero then the return
     value will be no longer than 'max_length'.  This may mean that not
     all of the compressed input can be processed; and unconsumed data
     will be stored in the attribute *note unconsumed_tail: 306c.  This
     bytestring must be passed to a subsequent call to ‘decompress()’ if
     decompression is to continue.  If 'max_length' is zero then the
     whole input is decompressed, and ‘unconsumed_tail’ is empty.  For
     example, the full content could be read like:

          process_output(d.decompress(data, max_length))
          while chunk := d.decompress(d.unconsumed_tail, max_length):
              process_output(chunk)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 'max_length' can be used as a keyword
     argument.

 -- Μέθοδος: Decompress.flush ([length])

     All pending input is processed, and a bytes object containing the
     remaining uncompressed output is returned.  After calling
     ‘flush()’, the *note decompress(): 10c8. method cannot be called
     again; the only realistic action is to delete the object.

     The optional parameter 'length' sets the initial size of the output
     buffer.

 -- Μέθοδος: Decompress.copy ()

     Returns a copy of the decompression object.  This can be used to
     save the state of the decompressor midway through the data stream
     in order to speed up random seeks into the stream at a future
     point.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added *note copy.copy(): 942. and *note
copy.deepcopy(): f2b. support to decompression objects.

The following constants are available to configure compression and
decompression behavior:

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.DEFLATED

     The deflate compression method.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.MAX_WBITS

     The maximum window size, expressed as a power of 2.  For example,
     if ‘MAX_WBITS’ is ‘15’ it results in a window size of ‘32 KiB’.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.DEF_MEM_LEVEL

     The default memory level for compression objects.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.DEF_BUF_SIZE

     The default buffer size for decompression operations.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_NO_COMPRESSION

     Compression level ‘0’; no compression.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_BEST_SPEED

     Compression level ‘1’; fastest and produces the least compression.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_BEST_COMPRESSION

     Compression level ‘9’; slowest and produces the most compression.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION

     Default compression level (‘-1’); a compromise between speed and
     compression.  Currently equivalent to compression level ‘6’.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY

     Default compression strategy, for normal data.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_FILTERED

     Compression strategy for data produced by a filter (or predictor).

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY

     Compression strategy that forces Huffman coding only.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_RLE

     Compression strategy that limits match distances to one (run-length
     encoding).

     This constant is only available if Python was compiled with zlib
     1.2.0.1 or greater.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_FIXED

     Compression strategy that prevents the use of dynamic Huffman
     codes.

     This constant is only available if Python was compiled with zlib
     1.2.2.2 or greater.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_NO_FLUSH

     Flush mode ‘0’.  No special flushing behavior.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH

     Flush mode ‘1’.  Flush as much output as possible.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_SYNC_FLUSH

     Flush mode ‘2’.  All output is flushed and the output is aligned to
     a byte boundary.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_FULL_FLUSH

     Flush mode ‘3’.  All output is flushed and the compression state is
     reset.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_FINISH

     Flush mode ‘4’.  All pending input is processed, no more input is
     expected.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_BLOCK

     Flush mode ‘5’.  A deflate block is completed and emitted.

     This constant is only available if Python was compiled with zlib
     1.2.2.2 or greater.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.Z_TREES

     Flush mode ‘6’, for inflate operations.  Instructs inflate to
     return when it gets to the next deflate block boundary.

     This constant is only available if Python was compiled with zlib
     1.2.3.4 or greater.

     Added in version 3.6.

Information about the version of the zlib library in use is available
through the following constants:

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.ZLIB_VERSION

     The version string of the zlib library that was used for building
     the module.  This may be different from the zlib library actually
     used at runtime, which is available as *note ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION:
     1517.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION

     The version string of the zlib library actually loaded by the
     interpreter.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: zlib.ZLIBNG_VERSION

     The version string of the zlib-ng library that was used for
     building the module if zlib-ng was used.  When present, the *note
     ZLIB_VERSION: 3073. and *note ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 1517. constants
     reflect the version of the zlib API provided by zlib-ng.

     If zlib-ng was not used to build the module, this constant will be
     absent.

     Added in version 3.14.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note gzip: 6a.

     Reading and writing ‘gzip’-format files.

‘https://www.zlib.net’

     The zlib library home page.

‘https://www.zlib.net/manual.html’

     The zlib manual explains the semantics and usage of the library’s
     many functions.

In case gzip (de)compression is a bottleneck, the python-isal(3) package
speeds up (de)compression with a mostly compatible API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.zlib.net

   (2) https://www.zlib.net/manual.html

   (3) https://github.com/pycompression/python-isal


File: python.info,  Node: gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip,  Next: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression,  Prev: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.14.4 ‘gzip’ — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία ‘gzip’
--------------------------------------------

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/gzip.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Αυτό το module παρέχει μια απλή διεπαφή για τη συμπίεση και αποσυμπίεση
αρχείων όπως ακριβώς θα έκαναν τα προγράμματα της GNU ‘gzip’ και
‘gunzip’.

Αυτό είναι ένα *note optional module: 2347.  Εάν λείπει από το αντίγραφο
του CPython σας, αναζητήστε την τεκμηρίωση από τον διανομέα σας (δηλαδή,
όποιος σας παρείχε την Python).  Εάν είστε ο διανομέας, δείτε *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

Η συμπίεση δεδομένων παρέχεται από το *note zlib: 13c. module.

The ‘gzip’ module provides the *note GzipFile: 849. class, as well as
the *note open(): 3078, *note compress(): a2d. and *note decompress():
15b4. convenience functions.  The ‘GzipFile’ class reads and writes
‘gzip’-format files, automatically compressing or decompressing the data
so that it looks like an ordinary *note file object: 156c.

Σημειώστε ότι πρόσθετες μορφές αρχείων που μπορούν να αποσυμπιεστούν από
τα προγράμματα ‘gzip’ και ‘gunzip’, όπως αυτές που παράγονται από τα
‘compress’ και ‘pack’, δεν υποστηρίζονται από αυτό το module.

Το module ορίζει τα ακόλουθα στοιχεία:

 -- Συνάρτηση: gzip.open (filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=6,
          encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     Ανοίγει ένα gzip-συμπιεσμένο αρχείο σε δυαδική ή σε λειτουργία
     κειμένου, επιστρέφοντας ένα *note file object: 156c.

     Η παράμετρος 'filename' μπορεί να είναι ένα πραγματικό όνομα
     αρχείου (ένα αντικείμενο *note str: 1df. ή *note bytes: 1c7.), ή
     ένα υπάρχον αντικείμενο αρχείου για ανάγνωση και εγγραφή.

     Η παράμετρος 'mode' μπορεί να είναι οποιαδήποτε από τις ‘'r'’.
     ‘'rb'’, ‘'a'’, ‘'ab'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’, ‘'x'’ ή ‘'xb'’ για δυαδική
     λειτουργία, ή ‘'rt'’, ‘'at'’, ‘'wt'’ ή ‘'xt'’ για λειτουργία
     κειμένου.  Η προεπιλογή είναι το ‘'rb'’.

     Η παράμετρος 'compresslevel' είναι ένας ακέραιος από 0 έως 9, όπως
     και για τον constructor της κλάσης *note GzipFile: 849.

     Για δυαδική λειτουργία, αυτή η συνάρτηση είναι ισοδύναμη με τον
     constructor της κλάσης *note GzipFile: 849.: ‘GzipFile(filename,
     mode, compresslevel)’.  Σε αυτή την περίπτωση, οι παράμετροι
     'encoding', 'errors' και 'newline' δεν πρέπει να παρέχονται.

     Για τη λειτουργία κειμένου, δημιουργείται ένα αντικείμενο *note
     GzipFile: 849. και γίνεται wrap σε ένα στιγμιότυπο της κλάσης *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. με την καθορισμένη κωδικοποίηση, τη
     συμπεριφορά διαχείρισης σφαλμάτων και το(α) τέλος(η) γραμμής.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Προστέθηκε υποστήριξη για την παράμετρο
     'filename' ως αντικείμενο αρχείου, υποστήριξη για τη λειτουργία
     κειμένου, καθώς και οι παράμετροι 'encoding', 'errors' και
     'newline'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Προστέθηκε υποστήριξη για τις λειτουργίες
     ‘'x'’, ‘'xb'’ και ‘'xt'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Δέχεται ένα *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The default compression level was reduced
     to 6 (down from 9).  It is the default level used by most
     compression tools and a better tradeoff between speed and
     performance.

 -- Εξαίρεση: gzip.BadGzipFile

     Μια εξαίρεση γίνεται raise για μη έγκυρα αρχεία gzip.  Κληρονομεί
     από την *note OSError: 53c.  Οι εξαιρέσεις *note EOFError: 167e.
     και *note zlib.error: 3054. μπορούν επίσης να γίνουν raise για μη
     έγκυρα αρχεία gzip.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Κλάση: gzip.GzipFile (filename=None, mode=None, compresslevel=6,
          fileobj=None, mtime=None)

     Ο constructor της κλάσης *note GzipFile: 849, η οποία προσομοιώνει
     τις περισσότερες μεθόδους ενός *note file object: 156c, με εξαίρεση
     τη μέθοδο *note truncate(): 16b5.  Τουλάχιστον μια από τις
     παραμέτρους 'fileobj' και 'filename' πρέπει να έχει μια μη
     τετριμμένη τιμή.

     Το νέο στιγμιότυπο της κλάσης βασίζεται στο 'fileobj', το οποίο
     μπορεί να είναι ένα κανονικό αρχείο, ένα αντικείμενο *note
     io.BytesIO: 1255, ή οποιοδήποτε άλλο αντικείμενο που προσομοιώνει
     αρχείο.  Η προεπιλογή είναι ‘None’, οπότε στην περίπτωση αυτή το
     'filename' ανοίγεται για να παρέχει ένα αντικείμενο αρχείου.

     Όταν το 'fileobj' δεν είναι ‘None’, η παράμετρος 'filename'
     χρησιμοποιείται μόνο για να συμπεριληφθεί στην επικεφαλίδα του
     αρχείου ‘gzip’, η οποία μπορεί να περιέχει το αρχικό όνομα του μη
     συμπιεσμένου αρχείου.  Η προεπιλογή είναι το όνομα αρχείου του
     'fileobj', αν αυτό μπορεί να προσδιοριστεί· διαφορετικά, η
     προεπιλογή είναι η κενή συμβολοσειρά, και σε αυτή την περίπτωση το
     αρχικό όνομα αρχείου δεν περιλαμβάνεται στην επικεφαλίδα.

     Η παράμετρος 'mode' μπορεί να είναι οποιαδήποτε από τις ‘'r'’,
     ‘'rb'’, ‘'a'’, ‘'ab'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’, ‘'x'’ ή ‘'xb'’, ανάλογα με το
     αν το αρχείο θα διαβαστεί ή θα γραφτεί.  Η προεπιλογή είναι η
     λειτουργία του 'fileobj', αν αυτό μπορεί να προσδιοριστεί·
     διαφορετικά, η προεπιλογή είναι ‘'rb'’.  Σε μελλοντικές εκδόσεις
     της Python, η λειτουργία του 'fileobj' δεν θα χρησιμοποιείται.
     Είναι καλύτερο να καθορίζεται πάντα η παράμετρος 'mode' κατά την
     εγγραφή.

     Σημειώστε ότι το αρχείο ανοίγει πάντα σε δυαδική λειτουργία.  Για
     να ανοίξετε ένα συμπιεσμένο αρχείο σε λειτουργία κειμένου,
     χρησιμοποιήστε τη συνάρτηση *note open(): 3078. (ή κάντε wrap το
     *note GzipFile: 849. με ένα *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c.).

     Η παράμετρος 'compresslevel' είναι ένας ακέραιος από ‘0’ έως ‘9’
     που ελέγχει το επίπεδο συμπίεσης· το ‘1’ είναι το ταχύτερο και
     παράγει τη μικρότερη συμπίεση, ενώ το ‘9’ είναι το πιο αργό και
     παράγει τη μεγαλύτερη συμπίεση.  Το ‘0’ σημαίνει καθόλου συμπίεση.
     Η προεπιλογή είναι το ‘9’.

     Το προαιρετικό όρισμα 'mtime' είναι η χρονική σήμανση που ζητείται
     από το gzip.  Η ώρα είναι σε μορφή Unix, δηλαδή δευτερόλεπτα από
     τις 00:00:00 UTC, 1η Ιανουαρίου 1970.  Εάν παραληφθεί το 'mtime' ή
     ‘None’, χρησιμοποιείται η τρέχουσα ώρα.  Χρησιμοποιήστε 'mtime' = 0
     για να δημιουργήσετε μια συμπιεσμένη ροή που δεν εξαρτάται από το
     χρόνο δημιουργίας.

     Δείτε παρακάτω για το χαρακτηριστικό *note mtime: 3079. που
     ορίζεται κατά την αποσυμπίεση.

     Η κλήση της μεθόδου ‘close()’ ενός αντικειμένου *note GzipFile:
     849. δεν κλείνει το 'fileobj', καθώς μπορεί να θέλετε να προσθέσετε
     επιπλέον δεδομένα μετά τη συμπιεσμένη πληροφορία.  Αυτό επιτρέπει
     επίσης να περάσετε ένα αντικείμενο *note io.BytesIO: 1255.
     ανοιγμένο για εγγραφή ως 'fileobj' και να ανακτήσετε τον τελικό
     buffer μνήμης χρησιμοποιώντας τη μέθοδο *note getvalue(): 307a. του
     αντικειμένου ‘io.BytesIO’.

     Η κλάση *note GzipFile: 849. υποστηρίζει τη διεπαφή *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: a83, συμπεριλαμβανομένης της δυνατότητας
     επανάληψης και της χρήσης με τη δήλωση *note with: 20a.  Μόνο η
     μέθοδος *note truncate(): 16b5. δεν είναι υλοποιημένη.

     Η *note GzipFile: 849. παρέχει επίσης την ακόλουθη μέθοδο και
     ιδιότητα:

      -- Μέθοδος: peek (n)

          Διαβάζει 'n' μη συμπιεσμένα bytes χωρίς να μετακινεί τη θέση
          του αρχείου.  Ο αριθμός των bytes που επιστρέφονται μπορεί να
          είναι περισσότερα ή λιγότερα από τα ζητούμενα.

               Σημείωση: Αν και η κλήση της μεθόδου *note peek(): 15b3.
               δεν αλλάζει τη θέση του αρχείου του αντικειμένου *note
               GzipFile: 849, μπορεί να αλλάξει τη θέση του υποκείμενου
               αντικειμένου αρχείου (π.χ.  αν το ‘GzipFile’
               δημιουργήθηκε με την παράμετρο 'fileobj').

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Ιδιότητα: mode

          ‘'rb'’ για ανάγνωση και ‘'wb'’ για εγγραφή.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Σε προηγούμενες εκδόσεις αυτό ήταν
          ένα ακέραιος ‘1’ ή ‘2’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: mtime

          Κατά την αποσυμπίεση, αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό ορίζεται στην
          τελευταία σήμανση στην πιο πρόσφατα αναγνωσμένη κεφαλίδα.
          Είναι ένας ακέραιος αριθμός, που κρατά τον αριθμό των
          δευτερολέπτων από την εποχή του Unix (00:00:00 UTC, 1
          Ιανουαρίου, 1970).  Η αρχική τιμή πριν από την ανάγνωση
          οποιωνδήποτε κεφαλίδων είναι ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          Η διαδρομή προς το αρχείο gzip στο δίσκο, ως *note str: 1df. ή
          *note bytes: 1c7.  Ισοδυναμεί με την έξοδο της συνάρτησης
          *note os.fspath(): 1011. για την αρχική διαδρομή εισόδου,
          χωρίς καμία άλλη κανονικοποίηση, επίλυση ή επέκταση.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Προστέθηκε η υποστήριξη για τη δήλωση *note
     with: 20a, μαζί με την παράμετρο 'mtime' στον κατασκευαστή και την
     ιδιότητα *note mtime: 3079.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Προστέθηκε υποστήριξη για αρχεία με
     μηδενική συμπλήρωση και μη αναζητήσιμα αρχεία.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Η μέθοδος *note io.BufferedIOBase.read1():
     307c. έχει πλέον υλοποιηθεί.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Προστέθηκε υποστήριξη για τις λειτουργίες
     ‘'x'’ και ‘'xb'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Προστέθηκε υποστήριξη για εγγραφή
     αυθαίρετων *note bytes-like objects: 436.  Η μέθοδος *note read():
     16cd. δέχεται πλέον ένα όρισμα ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Δέχεται ένα *note path-like object: 79f.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: Το άνοιγμα ενός *note GzipFile: 849.
     για εγγραφή χωρίς να καθοριστεί η παράμετρος 'mode' έχει
     καταργηθεί.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Καταργήθηκε το χαρακτηριστικό ‘filename’,
     χρησιμοποιήστε το χαρακτηριστικό *note name: 91c. αντ” αυτού.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The default compression level was reduced
     to 6 (down from 9).  It is the default level used by most
     compression tools and a better tradeoff between speed and
     performance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gzip.compress (data, compresslevel=6, *, mtime=0)

     Συμπιέζει τα 'data' και επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο *note bytes:
     1c7. που περιέχει τα συμπιεσμένα δεδομένα.  Οι παράμετροι
     'compresslevel' και 'mtime' έχουν την ίδια σημασία όπως στον
     κατασκευαστή της κλάσης *note GzipFile: 849, αλλά το 'mtime' έχει
     προεπιλεγμένη τιμή 0 για αναπαραγώγιμη έξοδο.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Προστέθηκε η παράμετρος 'mtime' για
     αναπαραγώγιμη έξοδο.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Η ταχύτητα βελτιώνεται με τη συμπίεση όλων
     των δεδομένων ταυτόχρονα αντί για ροή.  Κλήσεις με 'mtime'
     ρυθμισμένο σε ‘0’ ανακατευθύνονται στη συνάρτηση *note
     zlib.compress(): a2e. για καλύτερη απόδοση.  Σε αυτή την περίπτωση,
     η έξοδος μπορεί να περιέχει μια τιμή byte «OS» στην κεφαλίδα gzip
     διαφορετική από 255 «unknown», όπως καθορίζεται από την υποκείμενη
     υλοποίηση της zlib.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Το byte του λειτουργικού συστήματος
     κεφαλίδα gzip είναι εγγυημένο ότι θα ρυθμιστεί στο 255 όταν
     χρησιμοποιείται αυτή η συνάρτηση, όπως συνέβαινε στην έκδοση 3.10
     και παλαιότερα.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Η παράμετρος 'mtime' έχει πλέον την
     προεπιλεγμένη τιμή 0 για αναπαραγώγιμη έξοδο.  Για την προηγούμενη
     συμπεριφορά χρήστης της τρέχουσας ώρας, μεταβιβάστε στην παράμετρο
     'mtime' την τιμή ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The default compression level was reduced
     to 6 (down from 9).  It is the default level used by most
     compression tools and a better tradeoff between speed and
     performance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gzip.decompress (data)

     Αποσυμπιέζει τα 'data' και επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο *note bytes:
     1c7. που περιέχει τα αποσυμπιεσμένα δεδομένα.  Αυτή η συνάρτηση
     μπορεί να αποσυμπιέσει δεδομένα gzip πολλαπλών μελών (πολλαπλά
     μπλοκ gzip που έχουν ενωθεί μεταξύ τους).  Όταν τα δεδομένα είναι
     βέβαιο ότι περιέχουν μόνο ένα μέλος, η συνάρτηση *note
     zlib.decompress(): 10c8. με 'wbits' ρυθμισμένο σε 31 είναι
     ταχύτερη.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Η ταχύτητα βελτιώνεται αποσυμπιέζοντας τα
     μέλη απευθείας στην μνήμη αντί να γίνεται αποσυμπίεση σε ροή.

* Menu:

* Παραδείγματα χρήσης::
* Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/gzip.py


File: python.info,  Node: Παραδείγματα χρήσης,  Next: Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών,  Up: gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip

5.14.4.1 Παραδείγματα χρήσης
............................

Παράδειγμα ανάγνωσης ενός συμπιεσμένου αρχείου:

     import gzip
     with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'rb') as f:
         file_content = f.read()

Παράδειγμα δημιουργίας ενός συμπιεσμένου αρχείου GZIP:

     import gzip
     content = b"Lots of content here"
     with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f:
         f.write(content)

Παράδειγμα συμπίεσης ενός υπάρχοντος αρχείου σε μορφή GZIP:

     import gzip
     import shutil
     with open('/home/joe/file.txt', 'rb') as f_in:
         with gzip.open('/home/joe/file.txt.gz', 'wb') as f_out:
             shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out)

Παράδειγμα συμπίεσης μιας δυαδικής συμβολοσειράς σε μορφή GZIP:

     import gzip
     s_in = b"Lots of content here"
     s_out = gzip.compress(s_in)

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note zlib: 13c.

     Το βασικό module συμπίεσης δεδομένων που απαιτείται για την
     υποστήριξη της μορφής αρχείου ‘gzip’.

Σε περίπτωση που η (από)συμπίεση gzip είναι ένα σημείο συμφόρησης, το
πακέτο python-isal(1) επιταχύνει την (από)συμπίεση με ένα ως επί το
πλείστον συμβατό API.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/pycompression/python-isal


File: python.info,  Node: Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών,  Prev: Παραδείγματα χρήσης,  Up: gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip

5.14.4.2 Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών
................................

The ‘gzip’ module provides a simple command line interface to compress
or decompress files.

Once executed the ‘gzip’ module keeps the input file(s).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Προστέθηκε νέα διεπαφή γραμμής εντολών με
οδηγίες χρήσης.  Από προεπιλογή, όταν εκτελείτε την CLI, το
προεπιλεγμένο επίπεδο συμπίεσης είναι 6.

* Menu:

* Επιλογές γραμμής εντολών::


File: python.info,  Node: Επιλογές γραμμής εντολών,  Up: Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών

5.14.4.3 Επιλογές γραμμής εντολών
.................................

 -- Option: file

     Εάν δεν καθοριστεί το 'file', η ανάγνωση γίνεται από το *note
     sys.stdin: 94a.

 -- Option: --fast

     Δηλώνει τη γρηγορότερη μέθοδο συμπίεσης (λιγότερη συμπίεση).

 -- Option: --best

     Δηλώνει την βραδύτερη μέθοδο συμπίεσης (καλύτερη συμπίεση).

 -- Option: -d, --decompress

     Αποσυμπιέζει το δοσμένο αρχείο.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Εμφανίζει το μήνυμα βοήθειας.


File: python.info,  Node: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression,  Next: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm,  Prev: gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.14.5 ‘bz2’ — Support for ‘bzip2’ compression
----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/bz2.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a comprehensive interface for compressing and
decompressing data using the bzip2 compression algorithm.

The ‘bz2’ module contains:

   * The *note open(): 143b. function and *note BZ2File: c3d. class for
     reading and writing compressed files.

   * The *note BZ2Compressor: 1ccd. and *note BZ2Decompressor: 18f9.
     classes for incremental (de)compression.

   * The *note compress(): 2a93. and *note decompress(): 143c. functions
     for one-shot (de)compression.

This is an *note optional module: 2347.  If it is missing from your copy
of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is,
whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

* Menu:

* (De)compression of files: De compression of files.
* Incremental (de)compression: Incremental de compression.
* One-shot (de)compression: One-shot de compression.
* Examples of usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/bz2.py


File: python.info,  Node: De compression of files,  Next: Incremental de compression,  Up: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression

5.14.5.1 (De)compression of files
.................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: bz2.open (filename, mode='rb', compresslevel=9,
          encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     Open a bzip2-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a
     *note file object: 156c.

     As with the constructor for *note BZ2File: c3d, the 'filename'
     argument can be an actual filename (a *note str: 1df. or *note
     bytes: 1c7. object), or an existing file object to read from or
     write to.

     The 'mode' argument can be any of ‘'r'’, ‘'rb'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'wb'’,
     ‘'x'’, ‘'xb'’, ‘'a'’ or ‘'ab'’ for binary mode, or ‘'rt'’, ‘'wt'’,
     ‘'xt'’, or ‘'at'’ for text mode.  The default is ‘'rb'’.

     The 'compresslevel' argument is an integer from 1 to 9, as for the
     *note BZ2File: c3d. constructor.

     For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the *note BZ2File:
     c3d. constructor: ‘BZ2File(filename, mode,
     compresslevel=compresslevel)’.  In this case, the 'encoding',
     'errors' and 'newline' arguments must not be provided.

     For text mode, a *note BZ2File: c3d. object is created, and wrapped
     in an *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. instance with the specified
     encoding, error handling behavior, and line ending(s).

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The ‘'x'’ (exclusive creation) mode was
     added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Κλάση: bz2.BZ2File (filename, mode='r', *, compresslevel=9)

     Open a bzip2-compressed file in binary mode.

     If 'filename' is a *note str: 1df. or *note bytes: 1c7. object,
     open the named file directly.  Otherwise, 'filename' should be a
     *note file object: 156c, which will be used to read or write the
     compressed data.

     The 'mode' argument can be either ‘'r'’ for reading (default),
     ‘'w'’ for overwriting, ‘'x'’ for exclusive creation, or ‘'a'’ for
     appending.  These can equivalently be given as ‘'rb'’, ‘'wb'’,
     ‘'xb'’ and ‘'ab'’ respectively.

     If 'filename' is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a
     mode of ‘'w'’ does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent
     to ‘'a'’.

     If 'mode' is ‘'w'’ or ‘'a'’, 'compresslevel' can be an integer
     between ‘1’ and ‘9’ specifying the level of compression: ‘1’
     produces the least compression, and ‘9’ (default) produces the most
     compression.

     If 'mode' is ‘'r'’, the input file may be the concatenation of
     multiple compressed streams.

     ‘BZ2File’ provides all of the members specified by the *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: a83, except for *note detach(): 3013. and *note
     truncate(): 16b5.  Iteration and the *note with: 20a. statement are
     supported.

     ‘BZ2File’ also provides the following methods and attributes:

      -- Μέθοδος: peek ([n])

          Return buffered data without advancing the file position.  At
          least one byte of data will be returned (unless at EOF). The
          exact number of bytes returned is unspecified.

               Σημείωση: While calling ‘peek()’ does not change the file
               position of the ‘BZ2File’, it may change the position of
               the underlying file object (e.g.  if the ‘BZ2File’ was
               constructed by passing a file object for 'filename').

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: fileno ()

          Return the file descriptor for the underlying file.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: readable ()

          Return whether the file was opened for reading.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: seekable ()

          Return whether the file supports seeking.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: writable ()

          Return whether the file was opened for writing.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: read1 (size=-1)

          Read up to 'size' uncompressed bytes, while trying to avoid
          making multiple reads from the underlying stream.  Reads up to
          a buffer’s worth of data if size is negative.

          Returns ‘b''’ if the file is at EOF.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: readinto (b)

          Read bytes into 'b'.

          Returns the number of bytes read (0 for EOF).

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: mode

          ‘'rb'’ for reading and ‘'wb'’ for writing.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The bzip2 file name.  Equivalent to the *note name: 3017.
          attribute of the underlying *note file object: 156c.

          Added in version 3.13.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Support for the *note with: 20a. statement
     was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Support was added for 'filename' being a
     *note file object: 156c. instead of an actual filename.

     The ‘'a'’ (append) mode was added, along with support for reading
     multi-stream files.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The ‘'x'’ (exclusive creation) mode was
     added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The *note read(): 16cd. method now accepts
     an argument of ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The 'buffering' parameter has been removed.
     It was ignored and deprecated since Python 3.0.  Pass an open file
     object to control how the file is opened.

     The 'compresslevel' parameter became keyword-only.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This class is thread unsafe in the face of
     multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its equivalent
     classes in *note gzip: 6a. and *note lzma: 8d. have always been.


File: python.info,  Node: Incremental de compression,  Next: One-shot de compression,  Prev: De compression of files,  Up: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression

5.14.5.2 Incremental (de)compression
....................................

 -- Κλάση: bz2.BZ2Compressor (compresslevel=9)

     Create a new compressor object.  This object may be used to
     compress data incrementally.  For one-shot compression, use the
     *note compress(): 2a93. function instead.

     'compresslevel', if given, must be an integer between ‘1’ and ‘9’.
     The default is ‘9’.

      -- Μέθοδος: compress (data)

          Provide data to the compressor object.  Returns a chunk of
          compressed data if possible, or an empty byte string
          otherwise.

          When you have finished providing data to the compressor, call
          the *note flush(): 3098. method to finish the compression
          process.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ()

          Finish the compression process.  Returns the compressed data
          left in internal buffers.

          The compressor object may not be used after this method has
          been called.

 -- Κλάση: bz2.BZ2Decompressor

     Create a new decompressor object.  This object may be used to
     decompress data incrementally.  For one-shot compression, use the
     *note decompress(): 143c. function instead.

          Σημείωση: This class does not transparently handle inputs
          containing multiple compressed streams, unlike *note
          decompress(): 143c. and *note BZ2File: c3d.  If you need to
          decompress a multi-stream input with ‘BZ2Decompressor’, you
          must use a new decompressor for each stream.

      -- Μέθοδος: decompress (data, max_length=-1)

          Decompress 'data' (a *note bytes-like object: 436.), returning
          uncompressed data as bytes.  Some of 'data' may be buffered
          internally, for use in later calls to ‘decompress()’.  The
          returned data should be concatenated with the output of any
          previous calls to ‘decompress()’.

          If 'max_length' is nonnegative, returns at most 'max_length'
          bytes of decompressed data.  If this limit is reached and
          further output can be produced, the *note needs_input: 3099.
          attribute will be set to ‘False’.  In this case, the next call
          to ‘decompress()’ may provide 'data' as ‘b''’ to obtain more
          of the output.

          If all of the input data was decompressed and returned (either
          because this was less than 'max_length' bytes, or because
          'max_length' was negative), the *note needs_input: 3099.
          attribute will be set to ‘True’.

          Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is
          reached raises an *note EOFError: 167e.  Any data found after
          the end of the stream is ignored and saved in the *note
          unused_data: 309a. attribute.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the 'max_length' parameter.

      -- Ιδιότητα: eof

          ‘True’ if the end-of-stream marker has been reached.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: unused_data

          Data found after the end of the compressed stream.

          If this attribute is accessed before the end of the stream has
          been reached, its value will be ‘b''’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: needs_input

          ‘False’ if the *note decompress(): 1183. method can provide
          more decompressed data before requiring new uncompressed
          input.

          Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: One-shot de compression,  Next: Examples of usage,  Prev: Incremental de compression,  Up: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression

5.14.5.3 One-shot (de)compression
.................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: bz2.compress (data, compresslevel=9)

     Compress 'data', a *note bytes-like object: 436.

     'compresslevel', if given, must be an integer between ‘1’ and ‘9’.
     The default is ‘9’.

     For incremental compression, use a *note BZ2Compressor: 1ccd.
     instead.

 -- Συνάρτηση: bz2.decompress (data)

     Decompress 'data', a *note bytes-like object: 436.

     If 'data' is the concatenation of multiple compressed streams,
     decompress all of the streams.

     For incremental decompression, use a *note BZ2Decompressor: 18f9.
     instead.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Support for multi-stream inputs was added.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of usage,  Prev: One-shot de compression,  Up: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression

5.14.5.4 Examples of usage
..........................

Below are some examples of typical usage of the ‘bz2’ module.

Using *note compress(): 2a93. and *note decompress(): 143c. to
demonstrate round-trip compression:

     >>> import bz2
     >>> data = b"""\
     ... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
     ... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
     ... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
     ... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
     ... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
     ... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
     ... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
     >>> c = bz2.compress(data)
     >>> len(data) / len(c)  # Data compression ratio
     1.513595166163142
     >>> d = bz2.decompress(c)
     >>> data == d  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
     True

Using *note BZ2Compressor: 1ccd. for incremental compression:

     >>> import bz2
     >>> def gen_data(chunks=10, chunksize=1000):
     ...     """Yield incremental blocks of chunksize bytes."""
     ...     for _ in range(chunks):
     ...         yield b"z" * chunksize
     ...
     >>> comp = bz2.BZ2Compressor()
     >>> out = b""
     >>> for chunk in gen_data():
     ...     # Provide data to the compressor object
     ...     out = out + comp.compress(chunk)
     ...
     >>> # Finish the compression process.  Call this once you have
     >>> # finished providing data to the compressor.
     >>> out = out + comp.flush()

The example above uses a very «nonrandom» stream of data (a stream of
‘b"z"’ chunks).  Random data tends to compress poorly, while ordered,
repetitive data usually yields a high compression ratio.

Writing and reading a bzip2-compressed file in binary mode:

     >>> import bz2
     >>> data = b"""\
     ... Donec rhoncus quis sapien sit amet molestie. Fusce scelerisque vel augue
     ... nec ullamcorper. Nam rutrum pretium placerat. Aliquam vel tristique lorem,
     ... sit amet cursus ante. In interdum laoreet mi, sit amet ultrices purus
     ... pulvinar a. Nam gravida euismod magna, non varius justo tincidunt feugiat.
     ... Aliquam pharetra lacus non risus vehicula rutrum. Maecenas aliquam leo
     ... felis. Pellentesque semper nunc sit amet nibh ullamcorper, ac elementum
     ... dolor luctus. Curabitur lacinia mi ornare consectetur vestibulum."""
     >>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "wb") as f:
     ...     # Write compressed data to file
     ...     unused = f.write(data)
     ...
     >>> with bz2.open("myfile.bz2", "rb") as f:
     ...     # Decompress data from file
     ...     content = f.read()
     ...
     >>> content == data  # Check equality to original object after round-trip
     True


File: python.info,  Node: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm,  Next: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives,  Prev: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.14.6 ‘lzma’ — Compression using the LZMA algorithm
----------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

'Source code:' Lib/lzma.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides classes and convenience functions for compressing
and decompressing data using the LZMA compression algorithm.  Also
included is a file interface supporting the ‘.xz’ and legacy ‘.lzma’
file formats used by the ‘xz’ utility, as well as raw compressed
streams.

The interface provided by this module is very similar to that of the
*note bz2: 14. module.  Note that *note LZMAFile: 13b5. and *note
bz2.BZ2File: c3d. are 'not' thread-safe, so if you need to use a single
‘LZMAFile’ instance from multiple threads, it is necessary to protect it
with a lock.

This is an *note optional module: 2347.  If it is missing from your copy
of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is,
whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

 -- Εξαίρεση: lzma.LZMAError

     This exception is raised when an error occurs during compression or
     decompression, or while initializing the compressor/decompressor
     state.

* Menu:

* Reading and writing compressed files: Reading and writing compressed files<2>.
* Compressing and decompressing data in memory: Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>.
* Miscellaneous: Miscellaneous<2>.
* Specifying custom filter chains::
* Examples: Examples<7>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/lzma.py


File: python.info,  Node: Reading and writing compressed files<2>,  Next: Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>,  Up: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.14.6.1 Reading and writing compressed files
.............................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: lzma.open (filename, mode='rb', *, format=None, check=-1,
          preset=None, filters=None, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None)

     Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary or text mode, returning a
     *note file object: 156c.

     The 'filename' argument can be either an actual file name (given as
     a *note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7. or *note path-like: 79f.
     object), in which case the named file is opened, or it can be an
     existing file object to read from or write to.

     The 'mode' argument can be any of ‘"r"’, ‘"rb"’, ‘"w"’, ‘"wb"’,
     ‘"x"’, ‘"xb"’, ‘"a"’ or ‘"ab"’ for binary mode, or ‘"rt"’, ‘"wt"’,
     ‘"xt"’, or ‘"at"’ for text mode.  The default is ‘"rb"’.

     When opening a file for reading, the 'format' and 'filters'
     arguments have the same meanings as for *note LZMADecompressor:
     18f8.  In this case, the 'check' and 'preset' arguments should not
     be used.

     When opening a file for writing, the 'format', 'check', 'preset'
     and 'filters' arguments have the same meanings as for *note
     LZMACompressor: 1ccc.

     For binary mode, this function is equivalent to the *note LZMAFile:
     13b5. constructor: ‘LZMAFile(filename, mode, ...)’.  In this case,
     the 'encoding', 'errors' and 'newline' arguments must not be
     provided.

     For text mode, a *note LZMAFile: 13b5. object is created, and
     wrapped in an *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. instance with the
     specified encoding, error handling behavior, and line ending(s).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added support for the ‘"x"’, ‘"xb"’ and
     ‘"xt"’ modes.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Κλάση: lzma.LZMAFile (filename=None, mode='r', *, format=None,
          check=-1, preset=None, filters=None)

     Open an LZMA-compressed file in binary mode.

     An ‘LZMAFile’ can wrap an already-open *note file object: 156c, or
     operate directly on a named file.  The 'filename' argument
     specifies either the file object to wrap, or the name of the file
     to open (as a *note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7. or *note path-like:
     79f. object).  When wrapping an existing file object, the wrapped
     file will not be closed when the ‘LZMAFile’ is closed.

     The 'mode' argument can be either ‘"r"’ for reading (default),
     ‘"w"’ for overwriting, ‘"x"’ for exclusive creation, or ‘"a"’ for
     appending.  These can equivalently be given as ‘"rb"’, ‘"wb"’,
     ‘"xb"’ and ‘"ab"’ respectively.

     If 'filename' is a file object (rather than an actual file name), a
     mode of ‘"w"’ does not truncate the file, and is instead equivalent
     to ‘"a"’.

     When opening a file for reading, the input file may be the
     concatenation of multiple separate compressed streams.  These are
     transparently decoded as a single logical stream.

     When opening a file for reading, the 'format' and 'filters'
     arguments have the same meanings as for *note LZMADecompressor:
     18f8.  In this case, the 'check' and 'preset' arguments should not
     be used.

     When opening a file for writing, the 'format', 'check', 'preset'
     and 'filters' arguments have the same meanings as for *note
     LZMACompressor: 1ccc.

     ‘LZMAFile’ supports all the members specified by *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: a83, except for *note detach(): 3013. and *note
     truncate(): 16b5.  Iteration and the *note with: 20a. statement are
     supported.

     The following method and attributes are also provided:

      -- Μέθοδος: peek (size=-1)

          Return buffered data without advancing the file position.  At
          least one byte of data will be returned, unless EOF has been
          reached.  The exact number of bytes returned is unspecified
          (the 'size' argument is ignored).

               Σημείωση: While calling ‘peek()’ does not change the file
               position of the ‘LZMAFile’, it may change the position of
               the underlying file object (e.g.  if the ‘LZMAFile’ was
               constructed by passing a file object for 'filename').

      -- Ιδιότητα: mode

          ‘'rb'’ for reading and ‘'wb'’ for writing.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The lzma file name.  Equivalent to the *note name: 3017.
          attribute of the underlying *note file object: 156c.

          Added in version 3.13.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added support for the ‘"x"’ and ‘"xb"’
     modes.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The *note read(): 16cd. method now accepts
     an argument of ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.


File: python.info,  Node: Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>,  Next: Miscellaneous<2>,  Prev: Reading and writing compressed files<2>,  Up: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.14.6.2 Compressing and decompressing data in memory
.....................................................

 -- Κλάση: lzma.LZMACompressor (format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1, preset=None,
          filters=None)

     Create a compressor object, which can be used to compress data
     incrementally.

     For a more convenient way of compressing a single chunk of data,
     see *note compress(): 30a9.

     The 'format' argument specifies what container format should be
     used.  Possible values are:

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_XZ’: The ‘.xz’ container format.

               This is the default format.

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_ALONE’: The legacy ‘.lzma’ container format.

               This format is more limited than ‘.xz’ – it does not
               support integrity checks or multiple filters.

        * 
          ‘FORMAT_RAW’: A raw data stream, not using any container format.

               This format specifier does not support integrity checks,
               and requires that you always specify a custom filter
               chain (for both compression and decompression).
               Additionally, data compressed in this manner cannot be
               decompressed using ‘FORMAT_AUTO’ (see *note
               LZMADecompressor: 18f8.).

     The 'check' argument specifies the type of integrity check to
     include in the compressed data.  This check is used when
     decompressing, to ensure that the data has not been corrupted.
     Possible values are:

        * ‘CHECK_NONE’: No integrity check.  This is the default (and
          the only acceptable value) for ‘FORMAT_ALONE’ and
          ‘FORMAT_RAW’.

        * ‘CHECK_CRC32’: 32-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check.

        * ‘CHECK_CRC64’: 64-bit Cyclic Redundancy Check.  This is the
          default for ‘FORMAT_XZ’.

        * ‘CHECK_SHA256’: 256-bit Secure Hash Algorithm.

     If the specified check is not supported, an *note LZMAError: 30a2.
     is raised.

     The compression settings can be specified either as a preset
     compression level (with the 'preset' argument), or in detail as a
     custom filter chain (with the 'filters' argument).

     The 'preset' argument (if provided) should be an integer between
     ‘0’ and ‘9’ (inclusive), optionally OR-ed with the constant
     ‘PRESET_EXTREME’.  If neither 'preset' nor 'filters' are given, the
     default behavior is to use ‘PRESET_DEFAULT’ (preset level ‘6’).
     Higher presets produce smaller output, but make the compression
     process slower.

          Σημείωση: In addition to being more CPU-intensive, compression
          with higher presets also requires much more memory (and
          produces output that needs more memory to decompress).  With
          preset ‘9’ for example, the overhead for an ‘LZMACompressor’
          object can be as high as 800 MiB. For this reason, it is
          generally best to stick with the default preset.

     The 'filters' argument (if provided) should be a filter chain
     specifier.  See *note Specifying custom filter chains: 30aa. for
     details.

      -- Μέθοδος: compress (data)

          Compress 'data' (a *note bytes: 1c7. object), returning a
          ‘bytes’ object containing compressed data for at least part of
          the input.  Some of 'data' may be buffered internally, for use
          in later calls to ‘compress()’ and *note flush(): 30ac.  The
          returned data should be concatenated with the output of any
          previous calls to ‘compress()’.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ()

          Finish the compression process, returning a *note bytes: 1c7.
          object containing any data stored in the compressor’s internal
          buffers.

          The compressor cannot be used after this method has been
          called.

 -- Κλάση: lzma.LZMADecompressor (format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None,
          filters=None)

     Create a decompressor object, which can be used to decompress data
     incrementally.

     For a more convenient way of decompressing an entire compressed
     stream at once, see *note decompress(): 30ad.

     The 'format' argument specifies the container format that should be
     used.  The default is ‘FORMAT_AUTO’, which can decompress both
     ‘.xz’ and ‘.lzma’ files.  Other possible values are ‘FORMAT_XZ’,
     ‘FORMAT_ALONE’, and ‘FORMAT_RAW’.

     The 'memlimit' argument specifies a limit (in bytes) on the amount
     of memory that the decompressor can use.  When this argument is
     used, decompression will fail with an *note LZMAError: 30a2. if it
     is not possible to decompress the input within the given memory
     limit.

     The 'filters' argument specifies the filter chain that was used to
     create the stream being decompressed.  This argument is required if
     'format' is ‘FORMAT_RAW’, but should not be used for other formats.
     See *note Specifying custom filter chains: 30aa. for more
     information about filter chains.

          Σημείωση: This class does not transparently handle inputs
          containing multiple compressed streams, unlike *note
          decompress(): 30ad. and *note LZMAFile: 13b5.  To decompress a
          multi-stream input with ‘LZMADecompressor’, you must create a
          new decompressor for each stream.

      -- Μέθοδος: decompress (data, max_length=-1)

          Decompress 'data' (a *note bytes-like object: 436.), returning
          uncompressed data as bytes.  Some of 'data' may be buffered
          internally, for use in later calls to ‘decompress()’.  The
          returned data should be concatenated with the output of any
          previous calls to ‘decompress()’.

          If 'max_length' is nonnegative, returns at most 'max_length'
          bytes of decompressed data.  If this limit is reached and
          further output can be produced, the *note needs_input: 30ae.
          attribute will be set to ‘False’.  In this case, the next call
          to ‘decompress()’ may provide 'data' as ‘b''’ to obtain more
          of the output.

          If all of the input data was decompressed and returned (either
          because this was less than 'max_length' bytes, or because
          'max_length' was negative), the *note needs_input: 30ae.
          attribute will be set to ‘True’.

          Attempting to decompress data after the end of stream is
          reached raises an *note EOFError: 167e.  Any data found after
          the end of the stream is ignored and saved in the *note
          unused_data: 30af. attribute.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the 'max_length' parameter.

      -- Ιδιότητα: check

          The ID of the integrity check used by the input stream.  This
          may be ‘CHECK_UNKNOWN’ until enough of the input has been
          decoded to determine what integrity check it uses.

      -- Ιδιότητα: eof

          ‘True’ if the end-of-stream marker has been reached.

      -- Ιδιότητα: unused_data

          Data found after the end of the compressed stream.

          Before the end of the stream is reached, this will be ‘b""’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: needs_input

          ‘False’ if the *note decompress(): 11e1. method can provide
          more decompressed data before requiring new uncompressed
          input.

          Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: lzma.compress (data, format=FORMAT_XZ, check=-1,
          preset=None, filters=None)

     Compress 'data' (a *note bytes: 1c7. object), returning the
     compressed data as a ‘bytes’ object.

     See *note LZMACompressor: 1ccc. above for a description of the
     'format', 'check', 'preset' and 'filters' arguments.

 -- Συνάρτηση: lzma.decompress (data, format=FORMAT_AUTO, memlimit=None,
          filters=None)

     Decompress 'data' (a *note bytes: 1c7. object), returning the
     uncompressed data as a ‘bytes’ object.

     If 'data' is the concatenation of multiple distinct compressed
     streams, decompress all of these streams, and return the
     concatenation of the results.

     See *note LZMADecompressor: 18f8. above for a description of the
     'format', 'memlimit' and 'filters' arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous<2>,  Next: Specifying custom filter chains,  Prev: Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>,  Up: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.14.6.3 Miscellaneous
......................

 -- Συνάρτηση: lzma.is_check_supported (check)

     Return ‘True’ if the given integrity check is supported on this
     system.

     ‘CHECK_NONE’ and ‘CHECK_CRC32’ are always supported.  ‘CHECK_CRC64’
     and ‘CHECK_SHA256’ may be unavailable if you are using a version of
     ‘liblzma’ that was compiled with a limited feature set.


File: python.info,  Node: Specifying custom filter chains,  Next: Examples<7>,  Prev: Miscellaneous<2>,  Up: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.14.6.4 Specifying custom filter chains
........................................

A filter chain specifier is a sequence of dictionaries, where each
dictionary contains the ID and options for a single filter.  Each
dictionary must contain the key ‘"id"’, and may contain additional keys
to specify filter-dependent options.  Valid filter IDs are as follows:

   * Compression filters:

        * ‘FILTER_LZMA1’ (for use with ‘FORMAT_ALONE’)

        * ‘FILTER_LZMA2’ (for use with ‘FORMAT_XZ’ and ‘FORMAT_RAW’)

   * Delta filter:

        * ‘FILTER_DELTA’

   * Branch-Call-Jump (BCJ) filters:

        * ‘FILTER_X86’

        * ‘FILTER_IA64’

        * ‘FILTER_ARM’

        * ‘FILTER_ARMTHUMB’

        * ‘FILTER_POWERPC’

        * ‘FILTER_SPARC’

A filter chain can consist of up to 4 filters, and cannot be empty.  The
last filter in the chain must be a compression filter, and any other
filters must be delta or BCJ filters.

Compression filters support the following options (specified as
additional entries in the dictionary representing the filter):

   * ‘preset’: A compression preset to use as a source of default values
     for options that are not specified explicitly.

   * ‘dict_size’: Dictionary size in bytes.  This should be between 4
     KiB and 1.5 GiB (inclusive).

   * ‘lc’: Number of literal context bits.

   * ‘lp’: Number of literal position bits.  The sum ‘lc + lp’ must be
     at most 4.

   * ‘pb’: Number of position bits; must be at most 4.

   * ‘mode’: ‘MODE_FAST’ or ‘MODE_NORMAL’.

   * ‘nice_len’: What should be considered a «nice length» for a match.
     This should be 273 or less.

   * ‘mf’: What match finder to use – ‘MF_HC3’, ‘MF_HC4’, ‘MF_BT2’,
     ‘MF_BT3’, or ‘MF_BT4’.

   * ‘depth’: Maximum search depth used by match finder.  0 (default)
     means to select automatically based on other filter options.

The delta filter stores the differences between bytes, producing more
repetitive input for the compressor in certain circumstances.  It
supports one option, ‘dist’.  This indicates the distance between bytes
to be subtracted.  The default is 1, i.e.  take the differences between
adjacent bytes.

The BCJ filters are intended to be applied to machine code.  They
convert relative branches, calls and jumps in the code to use absolute
addressing, with the aim of increasing the redundancy that can be
exploited by the compressor.  These filters support one option,
‘start_offset’.  This specifies the address that should be mapped to the
beginning of the input data.  The default is 0.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<7>,  Prev: Specifying custom filter chains,  Up: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

5.14.6.5 Examples
.................

Reading in a compressed file:

     import lzma
     with lzma.open("file.xz") as f:
         file_content = f.read()

Creating a compressed file:

     import lzma
     data = b"Insert Data Here"
     with lzma.open("file.xz", "w") as f:
         f.write(data)

Compressing data in memory:

     import lzma
     data_in = b"Insert Data Here"
     data_out = lzma.compress(data_in)

Incremental compression:

     import lzma
     lzc = lzma.LZMACompressor()
     out1 = lzc.compress(b"Some data\n")
     out2 = lzc.compress(b"Another piece of data\n")
     out3 = lzc.compress(b"Even more data\n")
     out4 = lzc.flush()
     # Concatenate all the partial results:
     result = b"".join([out1, out2, out3, out4])

Writing compressed data to an already-open file:

     import lzma
     with open("file.xz", "wb") as f:
         f.write(b"This data will not be compressed\n")
         with lzma.open(f, "w") as lzf:
             lzf.write(b"This *will* be compressed\n")
         f.write(b"Not compressed\n")

Creating a compressed file using a custom filter chain:

     import lzma
     my_filters = [
         {"id": lzma.FILTER_DELTA, "dist": 5},
         {"id": lzma.FILTER_LZMA2, "preset": 7 | lzma.PRESET_EXTREME},
     ]
     with lzma.open("file.xz", "w", filters=my_filters) as f:
         f.write(b"blah blah blah")


File: python.info,  Node: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives,  Next: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files,  Prev: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.14.7 ‘zipfile’ — Work with ZIP archives
-----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/zipfile/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ZIP file format is a common archive and compression standard.  This
module provides tools to create, read, write, append, and list a ZIP
file.  Any advanced use of this module will require an understanding of
the format, as defined in PKZIP Application Note(2).

This module does not handle multipart ZIP files.  It can handle ZIP
files that use the ZIP64 extensions (that is ZIP files that are more
than 4 GiB in size).  It supports decryption of encrypted files in ZIP
archives, but it cannot create an encrypted file.  Decryption is
extremely slow as it is implemented in native Python rather than C.

Handling compressed archives requires *note optional modules: 2347. such
as *note zlib: 13c, *note bz2: 14, *note lzma: 8d, and *note
compression.zstd: 23.  If any of them are missing from your copy of
CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is, whoever
provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

The module defines the following items:

 -- Εξαίρεση: zipfile.BadZipFile

     The error raised for bad ZIP files.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Εξαίρεση: zipfile.BadZipfile

     Alias of *note BadZipFile: 1d65, for compatibility with older
     Python versions.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.2.

 -- Εξαίρεση: zipfile.LargeZipFile

     The error raised when a ZIP file would require ZIP64 functionality
     but that has not been enabled.

 -- Κλάση: zipfile.ZipFile

     The class for reading and writing ZIP files.  See section *note
     ZipFile objects: 30bb. for constructor details.

 -- Κλάση: zipfile.Path

     Class that implements a subset of the interface provided by *note
     pathlib.Path: 4ee, including the full *note
     importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 572. interface.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Κλάση: zipfile.PyZipFile

     Class for creating ZIP archives containing Python libraries.

 -- Κλάση: zipfile.ZipInfo (filename='NoName', date_time=(1980, 1, 1, 0,
          0, 0))

     Class used to represent information about a member of an archive.
     Instances of this class are returned by the *note getinfo(): 30bc.
     and *note infolist(): 30bd. methods of *note ZipFile: ab1. objects.
     Most users of the ‘zipfile’ module will not need to create these,
     but only use those created by this module.  'filename' should be
     the full name of the archive member, and 'date_time' should be a
     tuple containing six fields which describe the time of the last
     modification to the file; the fields are described in section *note
     ZipInfo objects: 30be.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: A public ‘compress_level’ attribute has
     been added to expose the formerly protected ‘_compresslevel’.  The
     older protected name continues to work as a property for backwards
     compatibility.

      -- Μέθοδος: _for_archive (archive)

          Resolve the date_time, compression attributes, and external
          attributes to suitable defaults as used by *note
          ZipFile.writestr(): 548.

          Returns self for chaining.

          Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: zipfile.is_zipfile (filename)

     Returns ‘True’ if 'filename' is a valid ZIP file based on its magic
     number, otherwise returns ‘False’.  'filename' may be a file or
     file-like object too.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Support for file and file-like objects.

 -- Δεδομένα: zipfile.ZIP_STORED

     The numeric constant for an uncompressed archive member.

 -- Δεδομένα: zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED

     The numeric constant for the usual ZIP compression method.  This
     requires the *note zlib: 13c. module.

 -- Δεδομένα: zipfile.ZIP_BZIP2

     The numeric constant for the BZIP2 compression method.  This
     requires the *note bz2: 14. module.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: zipfile.ZIP_LZMA

     The numeric constant for the LZMA compression method.  This
     requires the *note lzma: 8d. module.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: zipfile.ZIP_ZSTANDARD

     The numeric constant for Zstandard compression.  This requires the
     *note compression.zstd: 23. module.

          Σημείωση: In APPNOTE 6.3.7, the method ID ‘20’ was assigned to
          Zstandard compression.  This was changed in APPNOTE 6.3.8 to
          method ID ‘93’ to avoid conflicts, with method ID ‘20’ being
          deprecated.  For compatibility, the ‘zipfile’ module reads
          both method IDs but will only write data with method ID ‘93’.

     Added in version 3.14.

     Σημείωση: The ZIP file format specification has included support
     for bzip2 compression since 2001, for LZMA compression since 2006,
     and Zstandard compression since 2020.  However, some tools
     (including older Python releases) do not support these compression
     methods, and may either refuse to process the ZIP file altogether,
     or fail to extract individual files.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PKZIP Application Note(3)

     Documentation on the ZIP file format by Phil Katz, the creator of
     the format and algorithms used.

Info-ZIP Home Page(4)

     Information about the Info-ZIP project’s ZIP archive programs and
     development libraries.

* Menu:

* ZipFile objects::
* Path objects::
* PyZipFile objects::
* ZipInfo objects::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<3>.
* Decompression pitfalls::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/zipfile/

   (2) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (3) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (4) https://infozip.sourceforge.net/


File: python.info,  Node: ZipFile objects,  Next: Path objects,  Up: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

5.14.7.1 ZipFile objects
........................

 -- Κλάση: zipfile.ZipFile (file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED,
          allowZip64=True, compresslevel=None, *,
          strict_timestamps=True, metadata_encoding=None)

     Open a ZIP file, where 'file' can be a path to a file (a string), a
     file-like object or a *note path-like object: 79f.

     The 'mode' parameter should be ‘'r'’ to read an existing file,
     ‘'w'’ to truncate and write a new file, ‘'a'’ to append to an
     existing file, or ‘'x'’ to exclusively create and write a new file.
     If 'mode' is ‘'x'’ and 'file' refers to an existing file, a *note
     FileExistsError: 13c9. will be raised.  If 'mode' is ‘'a'’ and
     'file' refers to an existing ZIP file, then additional files are
     added to it.  If 'file' does not refer to a ZIP file, then a new
     ZIP archive is appended to the file.  This is meant for adding a
     ZIP archive to another file (such as ‘python.exe’).  If 'mode' is
     ‘'a'’ and the file does not exist at all, it is created.  If 'mode'
     is ‘'r'’ or ‘'a'’, the file should be seekable.

     'compression' is the ZIP compression method to use when writing the
     archive, and should be *note ZIP_STORED: 30bf, *note ZIP_DEFLATED:
     30c0, *note ZIP_BZIP2: 30c1, *note ZIP_LZMA: 30c2, or *note
     ZIP_ZSTANDARD: 30c3.; unrecognized values will cause *note
     NotImplementedError: 59a. to be raised.  If ‘ZIP_DEFLATED’,
     ‘ZIP_BZIP2’, ‘ZIP_LZMA’, or ‘ZIP_ZSTANDARD’ is specified but the
     corresponding module (*note zlib: 13c, *note bz2: 14, *note lzma:
     8d, or *note compression.zstd: 23.) is not available, *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. is raised.  The default is ‘ZIP_STORED’.

     If 'allowZip64' is ‘True’ (the default) zipfile will create ZIP
     files that use the ZIP64 extensions when the zipfile is larger than
     4 GiB. If it is ‘false’ ‘zipfile’ will raise an exception when the
     ZIP file would require ZIP64 extensions.

     The 'compresslevel' parameter controls the compression level to use
     when writing files to the archive.  When using *note ZIP_STORED:
     30bf. or *note ZIP_LZMA: 30c2. it has no effect.  When using *note
     ZIP_DEFLATED: 30c0. integers ‘0’ through ‘9’ are accepted (see
     *note zlib: 19fc. for more information).  When using *note
     ZIP_BZIP2: 30c1. integers ‘1’ through ‘9’ are accepted (see *note
     bz2: c3d. for more information).  When using *note ZIP_ZSTANDARD:
     30c3. integers ‘-131072’ through ‘22’ are commonly accepted (see
     *note CompressionParameter.compression_level: 3019. for more on
     retrieving valid values and their meaning).

     The 'strict_timestamps' argument, when set to ‘False’, allows to
     zip files older than 1980-01-01 at the cost of setting the
     timestamp to 1980-01-01.  Similar behavior occurs with files newer
     than 2107-12-31, the timestamp is also set to the limit.

     When mode is ‘'r'’, 'metadata_encoding' may be set to the name of a
     codec, which will be used to decode metadata such as the names of
     members and ZIP comments.

     If the file is created with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’ and then
     *note closed: 30c5. without adding any files to the archive, the
     appropriate ZIP structures for an empty archive will be written to
     the file.

     ZipFile is also a context manager and therefore supports the *note
     with: 20a. statement.  In the example, 'myzip' is closed after the
     ‘with’ statement’s suite is finished—even if an exception occurs:

          with ZipFile('spam.zip', 'w') as myzip:
              myzip.write('eggs.txt')

          Σημείωση: 'metadata_encoding' is an instance-wide setting for
          the ZipFile.  It is not possible to set this on a per-member
          basis.

          This attribute is a workaround for legacy implementations
          which produce archives with names in the current locale
          encoding or code page (mostly on Windows).  According to the
          .ZIP standard, the encoding of metadata may be specified to be
          either IBM code page (default) or UTF-8 by a flag in the
          archive header.  That flag takes precedence over
          'metadata_encoding', which is a Python-specific extension.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the ability to use ‘ZipFile’ as a
     context manager.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added support for *note bzip2: 14. and
     *note lzma: 8d. compression.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: ZIP64 extensions are enabled by default.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support for writing to unseekable
     streams.  Added support for the ‘'x'’ mode.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Previously, a plain *note RuntimeError:
     30d. was raised for unrecognized compression values.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6.2: The 'file' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Add the 'compresslevel' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'strict_timestamps' keyword-only
     parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added support for specifying member name
     encoding for reading metadata in the zipfile’s directory and file
     headers.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.close ()

     Close the archive file.  You must call ‘close()’ before exiting
     your program or essential records will not be written.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.getinfo (name)

     Return a *note ZipInfo: 547. object with information about the
     archive member 'name'.  Calling ‘getinfo()’ for a name not
     currently contained in the archive will raise a *note KeyError:
     7df.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.infolist ()

     Return a list containing a *note ZipInfo: 547. object for each
     member of the archive.  The objects are in the same order as their
     entries in the actual ZIP file on disk if an existing archive was
     opened.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.namelist ()

     Return a list of archive members by name.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.open (name, mode='r', pwd=None, *,
          force_zip64=False)

     Access a member of the archive as a binary file-like object.
     'name' can be either the name of a file within the archive or a
     *note ZipInfo: 547. object.  The 'mode' parameter, if included,
     must be ‘'r'’ (the default) or ‘'w'’.  'pwd' is the password used
     to decrypt encrypted ZIP files as a *note bytes: 1c7. object.

     ‘open()’ is also a context manager and therefore supports the *note
     with: 20a. statement:

          with ZipFile('spam.zip') as myzip:
              with myzip.open('eggs.txt') as myfile:
                  print(myfile.read())

     With 'mode' ‘'r'’ the file-like object (‘ZipExtFile’) is read-only
     and provides the following methods: *note read(): 16cd, *note
     readline(): 16ce, *note readlines(): 29bb, *note seek(): 1631,
     *note tell(): 174f, *note __iter__(): 229a, *note __next__(): 1672.
     These objects can operate independently of the ZipFile.

     With ‘mode='w'’, a writable file handle is returned, which supports
     the *note write(): 1099. method.  While a writable file handle is
     open, attempting to read or write other files in the ZIP file will
     raise a *note ValueError: 277.

     In both cases the file-like object has also attributes ‘name’,
     which is equivalent to the name of a file within the archive, and
     ‘mode’, which is ‘'rb'’ or ‘'wb'’ depending on the input mode.

     When writing a file, if the file size is not known in advance but
     may exceed 2 GiB, pass ‘force_zip64=True’ to ensure that the header
     format is capable of supporting large files.  If the file size is
     known in advance, construct a *note ZipInfo: 547. object with *note
     file_size: 30c7. set, and use that as the 'name' parameter.

          Σημείωση: The ‘open()’, *note read(): 30c8. and *note
          extract(): 30c9. methods can take a filename or a *note
          ZipInfo: 547. object.  You will appreciate this when trying to
          read a ZIP file that contains members with duplicate names.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Removed support of ‘mode='U'’.  Use *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. for reading compressed text files in *note
     universal newlines: 10f1. mode.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: ‘ZipFile.open()’ can now be used to write
     files into the archive with the ‘mode='w'’ option.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Calling ‘open()’ on a closed ZipFile will
     raise a *note ValueError: 277.  Previously, a *note RuntimeError:
     30d. was raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added attributes ‘name’ and ‘mode’ for the
     writeable file-like object.  The value of the ‘mode’ attribute for
     the readable file-like object was changed from ‘'r'’ to ‘'rb'’.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.extract (member, path=None, pwd=None)

     Extract a member from the archive to the current working directory;
     'member' must be its full name or a *note ZipInfo: 547. object.
     Its file information is extracted as accurately as possible.
     'path' specifies a different directory to extract to.  'member' can
     be a filename or a ‘ZipInfo’ object.  'pwd' is the password used
     for encrypted files as a *note bytes: 1c7. object.

     Returns the normalized path created (a directory or new file).

          Σημείωση: If a member filename is an absolute path, a
          drive/UNC sharepoint and leading (back)slashes will be
          stripped, e.g.: ‘///foo/bar’ becomes ‘foo/bar’ on Unix, and
          ‘C:\foo\bar’ becomes ‘foo\bar’ on Windows.  And all ‘".."’
          components in a member filename will be removed, e.g.:
          ‘../../foo../../ba..r’ becomes ‘foo../ba..r’.  On Windows
          illegal characters (‘:’, ‘<’, ‘>’, ‘|’, ‘"’, ‘?’, and ‘*’)
          replaced by underscore (‘_’).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Calling ‘extract()’ on a closed ZipFile
     will raise a *note ValueError: 277.  Previously, a *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. was raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6.2: The 'path' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.extractall (path=None, members=None, pwd=None)

     Extract all members from the archive to the current working
     directory.  'path' specifies a different directory to extract to.
     'members' is optional and must be a subset of the list returned by
     *note namelist(): 30c6.  'pwd' is the password used for encrypted
     files as a *note bytes: 1c7. object.

          Προειδοποίηση: Never extract archives from untrusted sources
          without prior inspection.  It is possible that files are
          created outside of 'path', e.g.  members that have absolute
          filenames starting with ‘"/"’ or filenames with two dots
          ‘".."’.  This module attempts to prevent that.  See *note
          extract(): 30c9. note.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Calling ‘extractall()’ on a closed ZipFile
     will raise a *note ValueError: 277.  Previously, a *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. was raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6.2: The 'path' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.printdir ()

     Print a table of contents for the archive to ‘sys.stdout’.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.setpassword (pwd)

     Set 'pwd' (a *note bytes: 1c7. object) as default password to
     extract encrypted files.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.read (name, pwd=None)

     Return the bytes of the file 'name' in the archive.  'name' is the
     name of the file in the archive, or a *note ZipInfo: 547. object.
     The archive must be open for read or append.  'pwd' is the password
     used for encrypted files as a *note bytes: 1c7. object and, if
     specified, overrides the default password set with *note
     setpassword(): 30cc.  Calling ‘read()’ on a ZipFile that uses a
     compression method other than *note ZIP_STORED: 30bf, *note
     ZIP_DEFLATED: 30c0, *note ZIP_BZIP2: 30c1, *note ZIP_LZMA: 30c2, or
     *note ZIP_ZSTANDARD: 30c3. will raise a *note NotImplementedError:
     59a.  An error will also be raised if the corresponding compression
     module is not available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Calling ‘read()’ on a closed ZipFile will
     raise a *note ValueError: 277.  Previously, a *note RuntimeError:
     30d. was raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.testzip ()

     Read all the files in the archive and check their CRC’s and file
     headers.  Return the name of the first bad file, or else return
     ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Calling ‘testzip()’ on a closed ZipFile
     will raise a *note ValueError: 277.  Previously, a *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. was raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.write (filename, arcname=None, compress_type=None,
          compresslevel=None)

     Write the file named 'filename' to the archive, giving it the
     archive name 'arcname' (by default, this will be the same as
     'filename', but without a drive letter and with leading path
     separators removed).  If given, 'compress_type' overrides the value
     given for the 'compression' parameter to the constructor for the
     new entry.  Similarly, 'compresslevel' will override the
     constructor if given.  The archive must be open with mode ‘'w'’,
     ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’.

          Σημείωση: The ZIP file standard historically did not specify a
          metadata encoding, but strongly recommended CP437 (the
          original IBM PC encoding) for interoperability.  Recent
          versions allow use of UTF-8 (only).  In this module, UTF-8
          will automatically be used to write the member names if they
          contain any non-ASCII characters.  It is not possible to write
          member names in any encoding other than ASCII or UTF-8.

          Σημείωση: Archive names should be relative to the archive
          root, that is, they should not start with a path separator.

          Σημείωση: If ‘arcname’ (or ‘filename’, if ‘arcname’ is not
          given) contains a null byte, the name of the file in the
          archive will be truncated at the null byte.

          Σημείωση: A leading slash in the filename may lead to the
          archive being impossible to open in some zip programs on
          Windows systems.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Calling ‘write()’ on a ZipFile created with
     mode ‘'r'’ or a closed ZipFile will raise a *note ValueError: 277.
     Previously, a *note RuntimeError: 30d. was raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.writestr (zinfo_or_arcname, data,
          compress_type=None, compresslevel=None)

     Write a file into the archive.  The contents is 'data', which may
     be either a *note str: 1df. or a *note bytes: 1c7. instance; if it
     is a ‘str’, it is encoded as UTF-8 first.  'zinfo_or_arcname' is
     either the file name it will be given in the archive, or a *note
     ZipInfo: 547. instance.  If it’s an instance, at least the
     filename, date, and time must be given.  If it’s a name, the date
     and time is set to the current date and time.  The archive must be
     opened with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’.

     If given, 'compress_type' overrides the value given for the
     'compression' parameter to the constructor for the new entry, or in
     the 'zinfo_or_arcname' (if that is a *note ZipInfo: 547. instance).
     Similarly, 'compresslevel' will override the constructor if given.

          Σημείωση: When passing a *note ZipInfo: 547. instance as the
          'zinfo_or_arcname' parameter, the compression method used will
          be that specified in the 'compress_type' member of the given
          ‘ZipInfo’ instance.  By default, the ‘ZipInfo’ constructor
          sets this member to *note ZIP_STORED: 30bf.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The 'compress_type' argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Calling ‘writestr()’ on a ZipFile created
     with mode ‘'r'’ or a closed ZipFile will raise a *note ValueError:
     277.  Previously, a *note RuntimeError: 30d. was raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Now respects the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’
     environment variable.  If set, it uses this value as the
     modification timestamp for the file written into the ZIP archive,
     instead of using the current time.

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipFile.mkdir (zinfo_or_directory, mode=511)

     Create a directory inside the archive.  If 'zinfo_or_directory' is
     a string, a directory is created inside the archive with the mode
     that is specified in the 'mode' argument.  If, however,
     'zinfo_or_directory' is a *note ZipInfo: 547. instance then the
     'mode' argument is ignored.

     The archive must be opened with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’.

     Added in version 3.11.

The following data attributes are also available:

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipFile.filename

     Name of the ZIP file.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipFile.debug

     The level of debug output to use.  This may be set from ‘0’ (the
     default, no output) to ‘3’ (the most output).  Debugging
     information is written to ‘sys.stdout’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipFile.comment

     The comment associated with the ZIP file as a *note bytes: 1c7.
     object.  If assigning a comment to a *note ZipFile: ab1. instance
     created with mode ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’, it should be no longer
     than 65535 bytes.  Comments longer than this will be truncated.


File: python.info,  Node: Path objects,  Next: PyZipFile objects,  Prev: ZipFile objects,  Up: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

5.14.7.2 Path objects
.....................

 -- Κλάση: zipfile.Path (root, at='')

     Construct a Path object from a ‘root’ zipfile (which may be a *note
     ZipFile: ab1. instance or ‘file’ suitable for passing to the
     ‘ZipFile’ constructor).

     ‘at’ specifies the location of this Path within the zipfile, e.g.
     “dir/file.txt”, “dir/”, or “”.  Defaults to the empty string,
     indicating the root.

          Σημείωση: The ‘Path’ class does not sanitize filenames within
          the ZIP archive.  Unlike the *note ZipFile.extract(): 30c9.
          and *note ZipFile.extractall(): 30ca. methods, it is the
          caller’s responsibility to validate or sanitize filenames to
          prevent path traversal vulnerabilities (e.g., filenames
          containing «..» or absolute paths).  When handling untrusted
          archives, consider resolving filenames using *note
          os.path.abspath(): 16bf. and checking against the target
          directory with *note os.path.commonpath(): 334.

Path objects expose the following features of *note pathlib.Path: 4ee.
objects:

Path objects are traversable using the ‘/’ operator or ‘joinpath’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Path.name

     The final path component.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.open (mode='r', *, pwd, **)

     Invoke *note ZipFile.open(): 84a. on the current path.  Allows
     opening for read or write, text or binary through supported modes:
     “r”, “w”, “rb”, “wb”.  Positional and keyword arguments are passed
     through to *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. when opened as text and
     ignored otherwise.  ‘pwd’ is the ‘pwd’ parameter to
     ‘ZipFile.open()’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added support for text and binary modes for
     open.  Default mode is now text.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11.2: The ‘encoding’ parameter can be supplied
     as a positional argument without causing a *note TypeError: 291.
     As it could in 3.9.  Code needing to be compatible with unpatched
     3.10 and 3.11 versions must pass all *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c.
     arguments, ‘encoding’ included, as keywords.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.iterdir ()

     Enumerate the children of the current directory.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.is_dir ()

     Return ‘True’ if the current context references a directory.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.is_file ()

     Return ‘True’ if the current context references a file.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.is_symlink ()

     Return ‘True’ if the current context references a symbolic link.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Previously, ‘is_symlink’ would
     unconditionally return ‘False’.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.exists ()

     Return ‘True’ if the current context references a file or directory
     in the zip file.

 -- Δεδομένα: Path.suffix

     The last dot-separated portion of the final component, if any.
     This is commonly called the file extension.

     Added in version 3.11: Added ‘Path.suffix’ property.

 -- Δεδομένα: Path.stem

     The final path component, without its suffix.

     Added in version 3.11: Added ‘Path.stem’ property.

 -- Δεδομένα: Path.suffixes

     A list of the path’s suffixes, commonly called file extensions.

     Added in version 3.11: Added ‘Path.suffixes’ property.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.read_text (*, **)

     Read the current file as unicode text.  Positional and keyword
     arguments are passed through to *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c.
     (except ‘buffer’, which is implied by the context).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11.2: The ‘encoding’ parameter can be supplied
     as a positional argument without causing a *note TypeError: 291.
     As it could in 3.9.  Code needing to be compatible with unpatched
     3.10 and 3.11 versions must pass all *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c.
     arguments, ‘encoding’ included, as keywords.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.read_bytes ()

     Read the current file as bytes.

 -- Μέθοδος: Path.joinpath (*other)

     Return a new Path object with each of the 'other' arguments joined.
     The following are equivalent:

          >>> Path(...).joinpath('child').joinpath('grandchild')
          >>> Path(...).joinpath('child', 'grandchild')
          >>> Path(...) / 'child' / 'grandchild'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Prior to 3.10, ‘joinpath’ was undocumented
     and accepted exactly one parameter.

The zipp(1) project provides backports of the latest path object
functionality to older Pythons.  Use ‘zipp.Path’ in place of
‘zipfile.Path’ for early access to changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/zipp/


File: python.info,  Node: PyZipFile objects,  Next: ZipInfo objects,  Prev: Path objects,  Up: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

5.14.7.3 PyZipFile objects
..........................

The *note PyZipFile: 13a2. constructor takes the same parameters as the
*note ZipFile: ab1. constructor, and one additional parameter,
'optimize'.

 -- Κλάση: zipfile.PyZipFile (file, mode='r', compression=ZIP_STORED,
          allowZip64=True, optimize=-1)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'optimize' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: ZIP64 extensions are enabled by default.

     Instances have one method in addition to those of *note ZipFile:
     ab1. objects:

      -- Μέθοδος: writepy (pathname, basename='', filterfunc=None)

          Search for files ‘*.py’ and add the corresponding file to the
          archive.

          If the 'optimize' parameter to ‘PyZipFile’ was not given or
          ‘-1’, the corresponding file is a ‘*.pyc’ file, compiling if
          necessary.

          If the 'optimize' parameter to ‘PyZipFile’ was ‘0’, ‘1’ or
          ‘2’, only files with that optimization level (see *note
          compile(): 1c8.) are added to the archive, compiling if
          necessary.

          If 'pathname' is a file, the filename must end with ‘.py’, and
          just the (corresponding ‘*.pyc’) file is added at the top
          level (no path information).  If 'pathname' is a file that
          does not end with ‘.py’, a *note RuntimeError: 30d. will be
          raised.  If it is a directory, and the directory is not a
          package directory, then all the files ‘*.pyc’ are added at the
          top level.  If the directory is a package directory, then all
          ‘*.pyc’ are added under the package name as a file path, and
          if any subdirectories are package directories, all of these
          are added recursively in sorted order.

          'basename' is intended for internal use only.

          'filterfunc', if given, must be a function taking a single
          string argument.  It will be passed each path (including each
          individual full file path) before it is added to the archive.
          If 'filterfunc' returns a false value, the path will not be
          added, and if it is a directory its contents will be ignored.
          For example, if our test files are all either in ‘test’
          directories or start with the string ‘test_’, we can use a
          'filterfunc' to exclude them:

               >>> zf = PyZipFile('myprog.zip')
               >>> def notests(s):
               ...     fn = os.path.basename(s)
               ...     return (not (fn == 'test' or fn.startswith('test_')))
               ...
               >>> zf.writepy('myprog', filterfunc=notests)

          The ‘writepy()’ method makes archives with file names like
          this:

               string.pyc                   # Top level name
               test/__init__.pyc            # Package directory
               test/testall.pyc             # Module test.testall
               test/bogus/__init__.pyc      # Subpackage directory
               test/bogus/myfile.pyc        # Submodule test.bogus.myfile

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added the 'filterfunc' parameter.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6.2: The 'pathname' parameter accepts a
          *note path-like object: 79f.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Recursion sorts directory entries.


File: python.info,  Node: ZipInfo objects,  Next: Command-line interface<3>,  Prev: PyZipFile objects,  Up: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

5.14.7.4 ZipInfo objects
........................

Instances of the *note ZipInfo: 547. class are returned by the *note
getinfo(): 30bc. and *note infolist(): 30bd. methods of *note ZipFile:
ab1. objects.  Each object stores information about a single member of
the ZIP archive.

There is one classmethod to make a *note ZipInfo: 547. instance for a
filesystem file:

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod ZipInfo.from_file (filename, arcname=None, *,
          strict_timestamps=True)

     Construct a *note ZipInfo: 547. instance for a file on the
     filesystem, in preparation for adding it to a zip file.

     'filename' should be the path to a file or directory on the
     filesystem.

     If 'arcname' is specified, it is used as the name within the
     archive.  If 'arcname' is not specified, the name will be the same
     as 'filename', but with any drive letter and leading path
     separators removed.

     The 'strict_timestamps' argument, when set to ‘False’, allows to
     zip files older than 1980-01-01 at the cost of setting the
     timestamp to 1980-01-01.  Similar behavior occurs with files newer
     than 2107-12-31, the timestamp is also set to the limit.

     Added in version 3.6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6.2: The 'filename' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the 'strict_timestamps' keyword-only
     parameter.

Instances have the following methods and attributes:

 -- Μέθοδος: ZipInfo.is_dir ()

     Return ‘True’ if this archive member is a directory.

     This uses the entry’s name: directories should always end with ‘/’.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.filename

     Name of the file in the archive.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.date_time

     The time and date of the last modification to the archive member.
     This is a tuple of six values representing the «last [modified]
     file time» and «last [modified] file date» fields from the ZIP
     file’s central directory.

     The tuple contains:

     Index       Value
                 
     -------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         Year (>= 1980)
                 
                 
     ‘1’         Month (one-based)
                 
                 
     ‘2’         Day of month (one-based)
                 
                 
     ‘3’         Hours (zero-based)
                 
                 
     ‘4’         Minutes (zero-based)
                 
                 
     ‘5’         Seconds (zero-based)
                 

          Σημείωση: The ZIP format supports multiple timestamp fields in
          different locations (central directory, extra fields for
          NTFS/UNIX systems, etc.).  This attribute specifically returns
          the timestamp from the central directory.  The central
          directory timestamp format in ZIP files does not support
          timestamps before 1980.  While some extra field formats (such
          as UNIX timestamps) can represent earlier dates, this
          attribute only returns the central directory timestamp.

          The central directory timestamp is interpreted as representing
          local time, rather than UTC time, to match the behavior of
          other zip tools.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.compress_type

     Type of compression for the archive member.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.comment

     Comment for the individual archive member as a *note bytes: 1c7.
     object.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.extra

     Expansion field data.  The PKZIP Application Note(1) contains some
     comments on the internal structure of the data contained in this
     *note bytes: 1c7. object.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.create_system

     System which created ZIP archive.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.create_version

     PKZIP version which created ZIP archive.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.extract_version

     PKZIP version needed to extract archive.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.reserved

     Must be zero.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.flag_bits

     ZIP flag bits.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.volume

     Volume number of file header.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.internal_attr

     Internal attributes.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.external_attr

     External file attributes.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.header_offset

     Byte offset to the file header.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.CRC

     CRC-32 of the uncompressed file.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.compress_size

     Size of the compressed data.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ZipInfo.file_size

     Size of the uncompressed file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<3>,  Next: Decompression pitfalls,  Prev: ZipInfo objects,  Up: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

5.14.7.5 Command-line interface
...............................

The ‘zipfile’ module provides a simple command-line interface to
interact with ZIP archives.

If you want to create a new ZIP archive, specify its name after the
*note -c: 30f0. option and then list the filename(s) that should be
included:

     $ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip spam.txt eggs.txt

Passing a directory is also acceptable:

     $ python -m zipfile -c monty.zip life-of-brian_1979/

If you want to extract a ZIP archive into the specified directory, use
the *note -e: 30f1. option:

     $ python -m zipfile -e monty.zip target-dir/

For a list of the files in a ZIP archive, use the *note -l: 30f2.
option:

     $ python -m zipfile -l monty.zip

* Menu:

* Command-line options::


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line options,  Up: Command-line interface<3>

5.14.7.6 Command-line options
.............................

 -- Option: -l <zipfile>
 -- Option: --list <zipfile>

     List files in a zipfile.

 -- Option: -c <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
 -- Option: --create <zipfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

     Create zipfile from source files.

 -- Option: -e <zipfile> <output_dir>
 -- Option: --extract <zipfile> <output_dir>

     Extract zipfile into target directory.

 -- Option: -t <zipfile>
 -- Option: --test <zipfile>

     Test whether the zipfile is valid or not.

 -- Option: --metadata-encoding <encoding>

     Specify encoding of member names for *note -l: 30f2, *note -e:
     30f1. and *note -t: 30f7.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Decompression pitfalls,  Prev: Command-line interface<3>,  Up: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

5.14.7.7 Decompression pitfalls
...............................

The extraction in zipfile module might fail due to some pitfalls listed
below.

* Menu:

* From file itself::
* File system limitations::
* Resources limitations::
* Interruption::
* Default behaviors of extraction::


File: python.info,  Node: From file itself,  Next: File system limitations,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.14.7.8 From file itself
.........................

Decompression may fail due to incorrect password / CRC checksum / ZIP
format or unsupported compression method / decryption.


File: python.info,  Node: File system limitations,  Next: Resources limitations,  Prev: From file itself,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.14.7.9 File system limitations
................................

Exceeding limitations on different file systems can cause decompression
failed.  Such as allowable characters in the directory entries, length
of the file name, length of the pathname, size of a single file, and
number of files, etc.


File: python.info,  Node: Resources limitations,  Next: Interruption,  Prev: File system limitations,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.14.7.10 Resources limitations
...............................

The lack of memory or disk volume would lead to decompression failed.
For example, decompression bombs (aka ZIP bomb(1)) apply to zipfile
library that can cause disk volume exhaustion.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb


File: python.info,  Node: Interruption,  Next: Default behaviors of extraction,  Prev: Resources limitations,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.14.7.11 Interruption
......................

Interruption during the decompression, such as pressing control-C or
killing the decompression process may result in incomplete decompression
of the archive.


File: python.info,  Node: Default behaviors of extraction,  Prev: Interruption,  Up: Decompression pitfalls

5.14.7.12 Default behaviors of extraction
.........................................

Not knowing the default extraction behaviors can cause unexpected
decompression results.  For example, when extracting the same archive
twice, it overwrites files without asking.


File: python.info,  Node: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files,  Prev: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives,  Up: Data Compression and Archiving

5.14.8 ‘tarfile’ — Read and write tar archive files
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tarfile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘tarfile’ module makes it possible to read and write tar archives,
including those using gzip, bz2 and lzma compression.  Use the *note
zipfile: 13a. module to read or write ‘.zip’ files, or the higher-level
functions in *note shutil: 15bf.

Some facts and figures:

   * reads and writes *note gzip: 6a, *note bz2: 14, *note
     compression.zstd: 23, and *note lzma: 8d. compressed archives if
     the respective modules are available.

     If any of these *note optional modules: 2347. are missing from your
     copy of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that
     is, whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor,
     see *note Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

   * read/write support for the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) format.

   * read/write support for the GNU tar format including 'longname' and
     'longlink' extensions, read-only support for all variants of the
     'sparse' extension including restoration of sparse files.

   * read/write support for the POSIX.1-2001 (pax) format.

   * handles directories, regular files, hardlinks, symbolic links,
     fifos, character devices and block devices and is able to acquire
     and restore file information like timestamp, access permissions and
     owner.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added support for *note lzma: 8d. compression.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Archives are extracted using a *note filter:
883, which makes it possible to either limit surprising/dangerous
features, or to acknowledge that they are expected and the archive is
fully trusted.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Set the default extraction filter to *note
data: 279, which disallows some dangerous features such as links to
absolute paths or paths outside of the destination.  Previously, the
filter strategy was equivalent to *note fully_trusted: 3104.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added support for Zstandard compression using
*note compression.zstd: 23.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tarfile.open (name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None,
          bufsize=10240, **kwargs)

     Return a *note TarFile: 15b7. object for the pathname 'name'.  For
     detailed information on ‘TarFile’ objects and the keyword arguments
     that are allowed, see *note TarFile Objects: 3105.

     'mode' has to be a string of the form ‘'filemode[:compression]'’,
     it defaults to ‘'r'’.  Here is a full list of mode combinations:

     mode                   action
                            
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
     ‘'r'’ or ‘'r:*'’       Open for reading with transparent compression
                            (recommended).
                            
                            
     ‘'r:'’                 Open for reading exclusively without
                            compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:gz'’               Open for reading with gzip compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:bz2'’              Open for reading with bzip2 compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:xz'’               Open for reading with lzma compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'r:zst'’              Open for reading with Zstandard compression.
                            
                            
     ‘'x'’ or ‘'x:'’        Create a tarfile exclusively without
                            compression.  Raise a
                            *note FileExistsError: 13c9. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:gz'’               Create a tarfile with gzip compression.  Raise
                            a *note FileExistsError: 13c9. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:bz2'’              Create a tarfile with bzip2 compression.  Raise
                            a *note FileExistsError: 13c9. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:xz'’               Create a tarfile with lzma compression.  Raise
                            a *note FileExistsError: 13c9. exception if it
                            already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'x:zst'’              Create a tarfile with Zstandard compression.
                            Raise a *note FileExistsError: 13c9. exception
                            if it already exists.
                            
                            
     ‘'a'’ or ‘'a:'’        Open for appending with no compression.  The
                            file is created if it does not exist.
                            
                            
     ‘'w'’ or ‘'w:'’        Open for uncompressed writing.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:gz'’               Open for gzip compressed writing.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:bz2'’              Open for bzip2 compressed writing.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:xz'’               Open for lzma compressed writing.
                            
                            
     ‘'w:zst'’              Open for Zstandard compressed writing.
                            

     Note that ‘'a:gz'’, ‘'a:bz2'’ or ‘'a:xz'’ is not possible.  If
     'mode' is not suitable to open a certain (compressed) file for
     reading, *note ReadError: 1e46. is raised.  Use 'mode' ‘'r'’ to
     avoid this.  If a compression method is not supported, *note
     CompressionError: 3106. is raised.

     If 'fileobj' is specified, it is used as an alternative to a *note
     file object: 156c. opened in binary mode for 'name'.  It is
     supposed to be at position 0.

     For modes ‘'w:gz'’, ‘'x:gz'’, ‘'w|gz'’, ‘'w:bz2'’, ‘'x:bz2'’,
     ‘'w|bz2'’, *note tarfile.open(): 1228. accepts the keyword argument
     'compresslevel' (default ‘6’) to specify the compression level of
     the file.

     For modes ‘'w:xz'’, ‘'x:xz'’ and ‘'w|xz'’, *note tarfile.open():
     1228. accepts the keyword argument 'preset' to specify the
     compression level of the file.

     For modes ‘'w:zst'’, ‘'x:zst'’ and ‘'w|zst'’, *note tarfile.open():
     1228. accepts the keyword argument 'level' to specify the
     compression level of the file.  The keyword argument 'options' may
     also be passed, providing advanced Zstandard compression parameters
     described by *note CompressionParameter: 300d.  The keyword
     argument 'zstd_dict' can be passed to provide a *note ZstdDict:
     300c, a Zstandard dictionary used to improve compression of smaller
     amounts of data.

     For modes ‘'w:gz'’ and ‘'w|gz'’, *note tarfile.open(): 1228.
     accepts the keyword argument 'mtime' to create a gzip archive
     header with that mtime.  By default, the mtime is set to the time
     of creation of the archive.

     For special purposes, there is a second format for 'mode':
     ‘'filemode|[compression]'’.  *note tarfile.open(): 1228. will
     return a *note TarFile: 15b7. object that processes its data as a
     stream of blocks.  No random seeking will be done on the file.  If
     given, 'fileobj' may be any object that has a *note read(): 11d0.
     or *note write(): 174e. method (depending on the 'mode') that works
     with bytes.  'bufsize' specifies the blocksize and defaults to ‘20
     * 512’ bytes.  Use this variant in combination with e.g.
     ‘sys.stdin.buffer’, a socket *note file object: 156c. or a tape
     device.  However, such a ‘TarFile’ object is limited in that it
     does not allow random access, see *note Examples: 3107.  The
     currently possible modes:

     Mode              Action
                       
     -------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
     ‘'r|*'’           Open a 'stream' of tar blocks for reading with
                       transparent compression.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|'’            Open a 'stream' of uncompressed tar blocks for
                       reading.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|gz'’          Open a gzip compressed 'stream' for reading.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|bz2'’         Open a bzip2 compressed 'stream' for reading.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|xz'’          Open an lzma compressed 'stream' for reading.
                       
                       
     ‘'r|zst'’         Open a Zstandard compressed 'stream' for
                       reading.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|'’            Open an uncompressed 'stream' for writing.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|gz'’          Open a gzip compressed 'stream' for writing.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|bz2'’         Open a bzip2 compressed 'stream' for writing.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|xz'’          Open an lzma compressed 'stream' for writing.
                       
                       
     ‘'w|zst'’         Open a Zstandard compressed 'stream' for
                       writing.
                       

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The ‘'x'’ (exclusive creation) mode was
     added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The 'name' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The 'compresslevel' keyword argument also
     works for streams.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The 'preset' keyword argument also works
     for streams.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The default compression level was reduced
     to 6 (down from 9).  It is the default level used by most
     compression tools and a better tradeoff between speed and
     performance.

 -- Κλάση: tarfile.TarFile

     Class for reading and writing tar archives.  Do not use this class
     directly: use *note tarfile.open(): 1228. instead.  See *note
     TarFile Objects: 3105.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tarfile.is_tarfile (name)

     Return *note True: fcc. if 'name' is a tar archive file, that the
     ‘tarfile’ module can read.  'name' may be a *note str: 1df, file,
     or file-like object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Support for file and file-like objects.

The ‘tarfile’ module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Εξαίρεση: tarfile.TarError

     Base class for all ‘tarfile’ exceptions.

 -- Εξαίρεση: tarfile.ReadError

     Is raised when a tar archive is opened, that either cannot be
     handled by the ‘tarfile’ module or is somehow invalid.

 -- Εξαίρεση: tarfile.CompressionError

     Is raised when a compression method is not supported or when the
     data cannot be decoded properly.

 -- Εξαίρεση: tarfile.StreamError

     Is raised for the limitations that are typical for stream-like
     *note TarFile: 15b7. objects.

 -- Εξαίρεση: tarfile.ExtractError

     Is raised for 'non-fatal' errors when using *note
     TarFile.extract(): 27b, but only if *note TarFile.errorlevel:
     27d.‘== 2’.

 -- Εξαίρεση: tarfile.HeaderError

     Is raised by *note TarInfo.frombuf(): 310c. if the buffer it gets
     is invalid.

 -- Εξαίρεση: tarfile.FilterError

     Base class for members *note refused: 310e. by filters.

      -- Ιδιότητα: tarinfo

          Information about the member that the filter refused to
          extract, as *note TarInfo: 3110.

 -- Εξαίρεση: tarfile.AbsolutePathError

     Raised to refuse extracting a member with an absolute path.

 -- Εξαίρεση: tarfile.OutsideDestinationError

     Raised to refuse extracting a member outside the destination
     directory.

 -- Εξαίρεση: tarfile.SpecialFileError

     Raised to refuse extracting a special file (e.g.  a device or
     pipe).

 -- Εξαίρεση: tarfile.AbsoluteLinkError

     Raised to refuse extracting a symbolic link with an absolute path.

 -- Εξαίρεση: tarfile.LinkOutsideDestinationError

     Raised to refuse extracting a symbolic link pointing outside the
     destination directory.

 -- Εξαίρεση: tarfile.LinkFallbackError

     Raised to refuse emulating a link (hard or symbolic) by extracting
     another archive member, when that member would be rejected by the
     filter location.  The exception that was raised to reject the
     replacement member is available as ‘BaseException.__context__’.

     Added in version 3.15.

The following constants are available at the module level:

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.ENCODING

     The default character encoding: ‘'utf-8'’ on Windows, the value
     returned by *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): 1017. otherwise.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.REGTYPE
 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.AREGTYPE

     A regular file *note type: 3119.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.LNKTYPE

     A link (inside tarfile) *note type: 3119.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.SYMTYPE

     A symbolic link *note type: 3119.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.CHRTYPE

     A character special device *note type: 3119.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.BLKTYPE

     A block special device *note type: 3119.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.DIRTYPE

     A directory *note type: 3119.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.FIFOTYPE

     A FIFO special device *note type: 3119.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.CONTTYPE

     A contiguous file *note type: 3119.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.GNUTYPE_LONGNAME

     A GNU tar longname *note type: 3119.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.GNUTYPE_LONGLINK

     A GNU tar longlink *note type: 3119.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.GNUTYPE_SPARSE

     A GNU tar sparse file *note type: 3119.

Each of the following constants defines a tar archive format that the
‘tarfile’ module is able to create.  See section *note Supported tar
formats: 3124. for details.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.USTAR_FORMAT

     POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) format.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.GNU_FORMAT

     GNU tar format.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.PAX_FORMAT

     POSIX.1-2001 (pax) format.

 -- Δεδομένα: tarfile.DEFAULT_FORMAT

     The default format for creating archives.  This is currently *note
     PAX_FORMAT: 3127.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The default format for new archives was
     changed to *note PAX_FORMAT: 3127. from *note GNU_FORMAT: 3126.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note zipfile: 13a.

     Documentation of the *note zipfile: 13a. standard module.

*note Archiving operations: 15bf.

     Documentation of the higher-level archiving facilities provided by
     the standard *note shutil: cd. module.

GNU tar manual, Basic Tar Format(2)

     Documentation for tar archive files, including GNU tar extensions.

* Menu:

* TarFile Objects::
* TarInfo Objects::
* Extraction filters::
* Command-Line Interface::
* Examples: Examples<8>.
* Supported tar formats::
* Unicode issues::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tarfile.py

   (2) https://www.gnu.org/software/tar/manual/html_node/Standard.html


File: python.info,  Node: TarFile Objects,  Next: TarInfo Objects,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.14.8.1 TarFile Objects
........................

The *note TarFile: 15b7. object provides an interface to a tar archive.
A tar archive is a sequence of blocks.  An archive member (a stored
file) is made up of a header block followed by data blocks.  It is
possible to store a file in a tar archive several times.  Each archive
member is represented by a *note TarInfo: 15b8. object, see *note
TarInfo Objects: 3110. for details.

A *note TarFile: 15b7. object can be used as a context manager in a
*note with: 20a. statement.  It will automatically be closed when the
block is completed.  Please note that in the event of an exception an
archive opened for writing will not be finalized; only the internally
used file object will be closed.  See the *note Examples: 3107. section
for a use case.

Added in version 3.2: Added support for the context management protocol.

 -- Κλάση: tarfile.TarFile (name=None, mode='r', fileobj=None,
          format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, tarinfo=TarInfo, dereference=False,
          ignore_zeros=False, encoding=ENCODING,
          errors='surrogateescape', pax_headers=None, debug=0,
          errorlevel=1, stream=False)

     All following arguments are optional and can be accessed as
     instance attributes as well.

     'name' is the pathname of the archive.  'name' may be a *note
     path-like object: 79f.  It can be omitted if 'fileobj' is given.
     In this case, the file object’s ‘name’ attribute is used if it
     exists.

     'mode' is either ‘'r'’ to read from an existing archive, ‘'a'’ to
     append data to an existing file, ‘'w'’ to create a new file
     overwriting an existing one, or ‘'x'’ to create a new file only if
     it does not already exist.

     If 'fileobj' is given, it is used for reading or writing data.  If
     it can be determined, 'mode' is overridden by 'fileobj'’s mode.
     'fileobj' will be used from position 0.

          Σημείωση: 'fileobj' is not closed, when ‘TarFile’ is closed.

     'format' controls the archive format for writing.  It must be one
     of the constants *note USTAR_FORMAT: 3125, *note GNU_FORMAT: 3126.
     or *note PAX_FORMAT: 3127. that are defined at module level.  When
     reading, format will be automatically detected, even if different
     formats are present in a single archive.

     The 'tarinfo' argument can be used to replace the default *note
     TarInfo: 15b8. class with a different one.

     If 'dereference' is *note False: ef5, add symbolic and hard links
     to the archive.  If it is *note True: fcc, add the content of the
     target files to the archive.  This has no effect on systems that do
     not support symbolic links.

     If 'ignore_zeros' is *note False: ef5, treat an empty block as the
     end of the archive.  If it is *note True: fcc, skip empty (and
     invalid) blocks and try to get as many members as possible.  This
     is only useful for reading concatenated or damaged archives.

     'debug' can be set from ‘0’ (no debug messages) up to ‘3’ (all
     debug messages).  The messages are written to ‘sys.stderr’.

     'errorlevel' controls how extraction errors are handled, see *note
     the corresponding attribute: 27d.

     The 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments define the character encoding
     to be used for reading or writing the archive and how conversion
     errors are going to be handled.  The default settings will work for
     most users.  See section *note Unicode issues: 312a. for in-depth
     information.

     The 'pax_headers' argument is an optional dictionary of strings
     which will be added as a pax global header if 'format' is *note
     PAX_FORMAT: 3127.

     If 'stream' is set to *note True: fcc. then while reading the
     archive info about files in the archive are not cached, saving
     memory.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Use ‘'surrogateescape'’ as the default for
     the 'errors' argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The ‘'x'’ (exclusive creation) mode was
     added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The 'name' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Add the 'stream' parameter.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod TarFile.open (...)

     Alternative constructor.  The *note tarfile.open(): 1228. function
     is actually a shortcut to this classmethod.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarFile.getmember (name)

     Return a *note TarInfo: 15b8. object for member 'name'.  If 'name'
     can not be found in the archive, *note KeyError: 7df. is raised.

          Σημείωση: If a member occurs more than once in the archive,
          its last occurrence is assumed to be the most up-to-date
          version.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarFile.getmembers ()

     Return the members of the archive as a list of *note TarInfo: 15b8.
     objects.  The list has the same order as the members in the
     archive.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarFile.getnames ()

     Return the members as a list of their names.  It has the same order
     as the list returned by *note getmembers(): 122a.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarFile.list (verbose=True, *, members=None)

     Print a table of contents to ‘sys.stdout’.  If 'verbose' is *note
     False: ef5, only the names of the members are printed.  If it is
     *note True: fcc, output similar to that of ‘ls -l’ is produced.  If
     optional 'members' is given, it must be a subset of the list
     returned by *note getmembers(): 122a.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the 'members' parameter.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarFile.next ()

     Return the next member of the archive as a *note TarInfo: 15b8.
     object, when *note TarFile: 15b7. is opened for reading.  Return
     *note None: a65. if there is no more available.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarFile.extractall (path='.', members=None, *,
          numeric_owner=False, filter=None)

     Extract all members from the archive to the current working
     directory or directory 'path'.  If optional 'members' is given, it
     must be a subset of the list returned by *note getmembers(): 122a.
     Directory information like owner, modification time and permissions
     are set after all members have been extracted.  This is done to
     work around two problems: A directory’s modification time is reset
     each time a file is created in it.  And, if a directory’s
     permissions do not allow writing, extracting files to it will fail.

     If 'numeric_owner' is *note True: fcc, the uid and gid numbers from
     the tarfile are used to set the owner/group for the extracted
     files.  Otherwise, the named values from the tarfile are used.

     The 'filter' argument specifies how ‘members’ are modified or
     rejected before extraction.  See *note Extraction filters: 883. for
     details.  It is recommended to set this explicitly only if specific
     'tar' features are required, or as ‘filter='data'’ to support
     Python versions with a less secure default (3.13 and lower).

          Προειδοποίηση: Never extract archives from untrusted sources
          without prior inspection.

          Since Python 3.14, the default (*note data: 279.) will prevent
          the most dangerous security issues.  However, it will not
          prevent 'all' unintended or insecure behavior.  Read the *note
          Extraction filters: 883. section for details.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the 'numeric_owner' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The 'path' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added the 'filter' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The 'filter' parameter now defaults to
     ‘'data'’.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarFile.extract (member, path='', set_attrs=True, *,
          numeric_owner=False, filter=None)

     Extract a member from the archive to the current working directory,
     using its full name.  Its file information is extracted as
     accurately as possible.  'member' may be a filename or a *note
     TarInfo: 15b8. object.  You can specify a different directory using
     'path'.  'path' may be a *note path-like object: 79f.  File
     attributes (owner, mtime, mode) are set unless 'set_attrs' is
     false.

     The 'numeric_owner' and 'filter' arguments are the same as for
     *note extractall(): 27a.

          Σημείωση: The ‘extract()’ method does not take care of several
          extraction issues.  In most cases you should consider using
          the *note extractall(): 27a. method.

          Προειδοποίηση: Never extract archives from untrusted sources
          without prior inspection.  See the warning for *note
          extractall(): 27a. for details.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'set_attrs' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the 'numeric_owner' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The 'path' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added the 'filter' parameter.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarFile.extractfile (member)

     Extract a member from the archive as a file object.  'member' may
     be a filename or a *note TarInfo: 15b8. object.  If 'member' is a
     regular file or a link, an *note io.BufferedReader: 15b5. object is
     returned.  For all other existing members, *note None: a65. is
     returned.  If 'member' does not appear in the archive, *note
     KeyError: 7df. is raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Return an *note io.BufferedReader: 15b5.
     object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The returned *note io.BufferedReader:
     15b5. object has the ‘mode’ attribute which is always equal to
     ‘'rb'’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarFile.errorlevel: *note int: 326.

     If 'errorlevel' is ‘0’, errors are ignored when using *note
     TarFile.extract(): 27b. and *note TarFile.extractall(): 27a.
     Nevertheless, they appear as error messages in the debug output
     when 'debug' is greater than 0.  If ‘1’ (the default), all 'fatal'
     errors are raised as *note OSError: 53c. or *note FilterError:
     310d. exceptions.  If ‘2’, all 'non-fatal' errors are raised as
     *note TarError: 3108. exceptions as well.

     Some exceptions, e.g.  ones caused by wrong argument types or data
     corruption, are always raised.

     Custom *note extraction filters: 883. should raise *note
     FilterError: 310d. for 'fatal' errors and *note ExtractError: 310a.
     for 'non-fatal' ones.

     Note that when an exception is raised, the archive may be partially
     extracted.  It is the user’s responsibility to clean up.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarFile.extraction_filter

     Added in version 3.12.

     The *note extraction filter: 883. used as a default for the
     'filter' argument of *note extract(): 27b. and *note extractall():
     27a.

     The attribute may be ‘None’ or a callable.  String names are not
     allowed for this attribute, unlike the 'filter' argument to *note
     extract(): 27b.

     If ‘extraction_filter’ is ‘None’ (the default), extraction methods
     will use the *note data: 279. filter by default.

     The attribute may be set on instances or overridden in subclasses.
     It also is possible to set it on the ‘TarFile’ class itself to set
     a global default, although, since it affects all uses of 'tarfile',
     it is best practice to only do so in top-level applications or
     *note site configuration: cf.  To set a global default this way, a
     filter function needs to be wrapped in *note staticmethod(): 666.
     to prevent injection of a ‘self’ argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The default filter is set to *note data:
     279, which disallows some dangerous features such as links to
     absolute paths or paths outside of the destination.  Previously,
     the default was equivalent to *note fully_trusted: 3104.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarFile.add (name, arcname=None, recursive=True, *,
          filter=None)

     Add the file 'name' to the archive.  'name' may be any type of file
     (directory, fifo, symbolic link, etc.).  If given, 'arcname'
     specifies an alternative name for the file in the archive.
     Directories are added recursively by default.  This can be avoided
     by setting 'recursive' to *note False: ef5.  Recursion adds entries
     in sorted order.  If 'filter' is given, it should be a function
     that takes a *note TarInfo: 15b8. object argument and returns the
     changed ‘TarInfo’ object.  If it instead returns *note None: a65.
     the ‘TarInfo’ object will be excluded from the archive.  See *note
     Examples: 3107. for an example.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'filter' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Recursion adds entries in sorted order.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarFile.addfile (tarinfo, fileobj=None)

     Add the *note TarInfo: 15b8. object 'tarinfo' to the archive.  If
     'tarinfo' represents a non zero-size regular file, the 'fileobj'
     argument should be a *note binary file: 225d, and ‘tarinfo.size’
     bytes are read from it and added to the archive.  You can create
     ‘TarInfo’ objects directly, or by using *note gettarinfo(): 312f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: 'fileobj' must be given for non-zero-sized
     regular files.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarFile.gettarinfo (name=None, arcname=None, fileobj=None)

     Create a *note TarInfo: 15b8. object from the result of *note
     os.stat(): 4f5. or equivalent on an existing file.  The file is
     either named by 'name', or specified as a *note file object: 156c.
     'fileobj' with a file descriptor.  'name' may be a *note path-like
     object: 79f.  If given, 'arcname' specifies an alternative name for
     the file in the archive, otherwise, the name is taken from
     'fileobj'’s *note name: 3017. attribute, or the 'name' argument.
     The name should be a text string.

     You can modify some of the *note TarInfo: 15b8.’s attributes before
     you add it using *note addfile(): 1bb2.  If the file object is not
     an ordinary file object positioned at the beginning of the file,
     attributes such as *note size: 3130. may need modifying.  This is
     the case for objects such as *note GzipFile: 849.  The *note name:
     3131. may also be modified, in which case 'arcname' could be a
     dummy string.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The 'name' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarFile.close ()

     Close the *note TarFile: 15b7.  In write mode, two finishing zero
     blocks are appended to the archive.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarFile.pax_headers: *note dict: 188.

     A dictionary containing key-value pairs of pax global headers.


File: python.info,  Node: TarInfo Objects,  Next: Extraction filters,  Prev: TarFile Objects,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.14.8.2 TarInfo Objects
........................

A *note TarInfo: 15b8. object represents one member in a *note TarFile:
15b7.  Aside from storing all required attributes of a file (like file
type, size, time, permissions, owner etc.), it provides some useful
methods to determine its type.  It does 'not' contain the file’s data
itself.

*note TarInfo: 15b8. objects are returned by *note TarFile: 15b7.’s
methods *note getmember(): 1de8, *note getmembers(): 122a. and *note
gettarinfo(): 312f.

Modifying the objects returned by *note getmember(): 1de8. or *note
getmembers(): 122a. will affect all subsequent operations on the
archive.  For cases where this is unwanted, you can use *note
copy.copy(): 29. or call the *note replace(): 3135. method to create a
modified copy in one step.

Several attributes can be set to ‘None’ to indicate that a piece of
metadata is unused or unknown.  Different *note TarInfo: 15b8. methods
handle ‘None’ differently:

   - The *note extract(): 27b. or *note extractall(): 27a. methods will
     ignore the corresponding metadata, leaving it set to a default.

   - *note addfile(): 1bb2. will fail.

   - *note list(): 1229. will print a placeholder string.

 -- Κλάση: tarfile.TarInfo (name='')

     Create a ‘TarInfo’ object.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod TarInfo.frombuf (buf, encoding, errors)

     Create and return a *note TarInfo: 15b8. object from string buffer
     'buf'.

     Raises *note HeaderError: 310b. if the buffer is invalid.

 -- Μέθοδος: classmethod TarInfo.fromtarfile (tarfile)

     Read the next member from the *note TarFile: 15b7. object 'tarfile'
     and return it as a *note TarInfo: 15b8. object.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarInfo.tobuf (format=DEFAULT_FORMAT, encoding=ENCODING,
          errors='surrogateescape')

     Create a string buffer from a *note TarInfo: 15b8. object.  For
     information on the arguments see the constructor of the *note
     TarFile: 15b7. class.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Use ‘'surrogateescape'’ as the default for
     the 'errors' argument.

A ‘TarInfo’ object has the following public data attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.name: *note str: 1df.

     Name of the archive member.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.size: *note int: 326.

     Size in bytes.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.mtime: *note int: 326. | *note float: 327.

     Time of last modification in seconds since the *note epoch: 3139,
     as in *note os.stat_result.st_mtime: 313a.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract():
     27b. and *note extractall(): 27a, causing extraction to skip
     applying this attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.mode: *note int: 326.

     Permission bits, as for *note os.chmod(): 72c.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract():
     27b. and *note extractall(): 27a, causing extraction to skip
     applying this attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.type

     File type.  'type' is usually one of these constants: *note
     REGTYPE: 3117, *note AREGTYPE: 3118, *note LNKTYPE: 311a, *note
     SYMTYPE: 311b, *note DIRTYPE: 311e, *note FIFOTYPE: 311f, *note
     CONTTYPE: 3120, *note CHRTYPE: 311c, *note BLKTYPE: 311d, *note
     GNUTYPE_SPARSE: 3123.  To determine the type of a *note TarInfo:
     15b8. object more conveniently, use the ‘is*()’ methods below.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.linkname: *note str: 1df.

     Name of the target file name, which is only present in *note
     TarInfo: 15b8. objects of type *note LNKTYPE: 311a. and *note
     SYMTYPE: 311b.

     For symbolic links (‘SYMTYPE’), the 'linkname' is relative to the
     directory that contains the link.  For hard links (‘LNKTYPE’), the
     'linkname' is relative to the root of the archive.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.uid: *note int: 326.

     User ID of the user who originally stored this member.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract():
     27b. and *note extractall(): 27a, causing extraction to skip
     applying this attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.gid: *note int: 326.

     Group ID of the user who originally stored this member.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract():
     27b. and *note extractall(): 27a, causing extraction to skip
     applying this attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.uname: *note str: 1df.

     User name.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract():
     27b. and *note extractall(): 27a, causing extraction to skip
     applying this attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.gname: *note str: 1df.

     Group name.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Can be set to ‘None’ for *note extract():
     27b. and *note extractall(): 27a, causing extraction to skip
     applying this attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.chksum: *note int: 326.

     Header checksum.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.devmajor: *note int: 326.

     Device major number.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.devminor: *note int: 326.

     Device minor number.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.offset: *note int: 326.

     The tar header starts here.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.offset_data: *note int: 326.

     The file’s data starts here.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.sparse

     Sparse member information.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TarInfo.pax_headers: *note dict: 188.

     A dictionary containing key-value pairs of an associated pax
     extended header.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarInfo.replace (name=..., mtime=..., mode=...,
          linkname=..., uid=..., gid=..., uname=..., gname=...,
          deep=True)

     Added in version 3.12.

     Return a 'new' copy of the ‘TarInfo’ object with the given
     attributes changed.  For example, to return a ‘TarInfo’ with the
     group name set to ‘'staff'’, use:

          new_tarinfo = old_tarinfo.replace(gname='staff')

     By default, a deep copy is made.  If 'deep' is false, the copy is
     shallow, i.e.  ‘pax_headers’ and any custom attributes are shared
     with the original ‘TarInfo’ object.

A *note TarInfo: 15b8. object also provides some convenient query
methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: TarInfo.isfile ()

     Return *note True: fcc. if the *note TarInfo: 15b8. object is a
     regular file.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarInfo.isreg ()

     Same as *note isfile(): 3148.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarInfo.isdir ()

     Return *note True: fcc. if it is a directory.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarInfo.issym ()

     Return *note True: fcc. if it is a symbolic link.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarInfo.islnk ()

     Return *note True: fcc. if it is a hard link.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarInfo.ischr ()

     Return *note True: fcc. if it is a character device.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarInfo.isblk ()

     Return *note True: fcc. if it is a block device.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarInfo.isfifo ()

     Return *note True: fcc. if it is a FIFO.

 -- Μέθοδος: TarInfo.isdev ()

     Return *note True: fcc. if it is one of character device, block
     device or FIFO.


File: python.info,  Node: Extraction filters,  Next: Command-Line Interface,  Prev: TarInfo Objects,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.14.8.3 Extraction filters
...........................

Added in version 3.12.

The 'tar' format is designed to capture all details of a UNIX-like
filesystem, which makes it very powerful.  Unfortunately, the features
make it easy to create tar files that have unintended – and possibly
malicious – effects when extracted.  For example, extracting a tar file
can overwrite arbitrary files in various ways (e.g.  by using absolute
paths, ‘..’ path components, or symlinks that affect later members).

In most cases, the full functionality is not needed.  Therefore,
'tarfile' supports extraction filters: a mechanism to limit
functionality, and thus mitigate some of the security issues.

     Προειδοποίηση: None of the available filters blocks 'all' dangerous
     archive features.  Never extract archives from untrusted sources
     without prior inspection.  See also *note Hints for further
     verification: 2f19.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 706(1)

     Contains further motivation and rationale behind the design.

The 'filter' argument to *note TarFile.extract(): 27b. or *note
extractall(): 27a. can be:

   * the string ‘'fully_trusted'’: Honor all metadata as specified in
     the archive.  Should be used if the user trusts the archive
     completely, or implements their own complex verification.

   * the string ‘'tar'’: Honor most 'tar'-specific features (i.e.
     features of UNIX-like filesystems), but block features that are
     very likely to be surprising or malicious.  See *note tar_filter():
     3152. for details.

   * the string ‘'data'’: Ignore or block most features specific to
     UNIX-like filesystems.  Intended for extracting cross-platform data
     archives.  See *note data_filter(): 279. for details.

   * ‘None’ (default): Use *note TarFile.extraction_filter: 312e.

     If that is also ‘None’ (the default), the ‘'data'’ filter will be
     used.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The default filter is set to *note
          data: 279.  Previously, the default was equivalent to *note
          fully_trusted: 3104.

   * A callable which will be called for each extracted member with a
     *note TarInfo: 3110. describing the member and the destination path
     to where the archive is extracted (i.e.  the same path is used for
     all members):

          filter(member: TarInfo, path: str, /) -> TarInfo | None

     The callable is called just before each member is extracted, so it
     can take the current state of the disk into account.  It can:

        - return a *note TarInfo: 15b8. object which will be used
          instead of the metadata in the archive, or

        - return ‘None’, in which case the member will be skipped, or

        - raise an exception to abort the operation or skip the member,
          depending on *note errorlevel: 27d.  Note that when extraction
          is aborted, *note extractall(): 27a. may leave the archive
          partially extracted.  It does not attempt to clean up.

* Menu:

* Default named filters::
* Filter errors::
* Hints for further verification::
* Supporting older Python versions::
* Stateful extraction filter example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/


File: python.info,  Node: Default named filters,  Next: Filter errors,  Up: Extraction filters

5.14.8.4 Default named filters
..............................

The pre-defined, named filters are available as functions, so they can
be reused in custom filters:

 -- Συνάρτηση: tarfile.fully_trusted_filter (member, path)

     Return 'member' unchanged.

     This implements the ‘'fully_trusted'’ filter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tarfile.tar_filter (member, path)

     Implements the ‘'tar'’ filter.

        - Strip leading slashes (‘/’ and *note os.sep: a5a.) from
          filenames.

        - *note Refuse: 310e. to extract files with absolute paths (in
          case the name is absolute even after stripping slashes, e.g.
          ‘C:/foo’ on Windows).  This raises *note AbsolutePathError:
          3111.

        - *note Refuse: 310e. to extract files whose absolute path
          (after following symlinks) would end up outside the
          destination.  This raises *note OutsideDestinationError: 3112.

        - Clear high mode bits (setuid, setgid, sticky) and group/other
          write bits (*note S_IWGRP: 2e9c. | *note S_IWOTH: 2e9f.).

     Return the modified ‘TarInfo’ member.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tarfile.data_filter (member, path)

     Implements the ‘'data'’ filter.  In addition to what ‘tar_filter’
     does:

        - Normalize link targets (*note TarInfo.linkname: 313c.) using
          *note os.path.normpath(): 16be.  Note that this removes
          internal ‘..’ components, which may change the meaning of the
          link if the path in ‘TarInfo.linkname’ traverses symbolic
          links.

        - *note Refuse: 310e. to extract links (hard or soft) that link
          to absolute paths, or ones that link outside the destination.

          This raises *note AbsoluteLinkError: 3114. or *note
          LinkOutsideDestinationError: 3115.

          Note that such files are refused even on platforms that do not
          support symbolic links.

        - *note Refuse: 310e. to extract device files (including pipes).
          This raises *note SpecialFileError: 3113.

        - For regular files, including hard links:

             - Set the owner read and write permissions (*note S_IRUSR:
               2e97. | *note S_IWUSR: 2e98.).

             - Remove the group & other executable permission (*note
               S_IXGRP: 2e93. | *note S_IXOTH: 2ea0.) if the owner
               doesn’t have it (*note S_IXUSR: 2e99.).

        - For other files (directories), set ‘mode’ to ‘None’, so that
          extraction methods skip applying permission bits.

        - Set user and group info (‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘uname’, ‘gname’) to
          ‘None’, so that extraction methods skip setting it.

     Return the modified ‘TarInfo’ member.

     Note that this filter does not block 'all' dangerous archive
     features.  See *note Hints for further verification: 2f19. for
     details.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Link targets are now normalized.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter errors,  Next: Hints for further verification,  Prev: Default named filters,  Up: Extraction filters

5.14.8.5 Filter errors
......................

When a filter refuses to extract a file, it will raise an appropriate
exception, a subclass of *note FilterError: 310d.  This will abort the
extraction if *note TarFile.errorlevel: 27d. is 1 or more.  With
‘errorlevel=0’ the error will be logged and the member will be skipped,
but extraction will continue.


File: python.info,  Node: Hints for further verification,  Next: Supporting older Python versions,  Prev: Filter errors,  Up: Extraction filters

5.14.8.6 Hints for further verification
.......................................

Even with ‘filter='data'’, 'tarfile' is not suited for extracting
untrusted files without prior inspection.  Among other issues, the
pre-defined filters do not prevent denial-of-service attacks.  Users
should do additional checks.

Here is an incomplete list of things to consider:

   * Extract to a *note new temporary directory: 730. to prevent e.g.
     exploiting pre-existing links, and to make it easier to clean up
     after a failed extraction.

   * Disallow symbolic links if you do not need the functionality.

   * When working with untrusted data, use external (e.g.  OS-level)
     limits on disk, memory and CPU usage.

   * Check filenames against an allow-list of characters (to filter out
     control characters, confusables, foreign path separators, and so
     on).

   * Check that filenames have expected extensions (discouraging files
     that execute when you “click on them”, or extension-less files like
     Windows special device names).

   * Limit the number of extracted files, total size of extracted data,
     filename length (including symlink length), and size of individual
     files.

   * Check for files that would be shadowed on case-insensitive
     filesystems.

Also note that:

   * Tar files may contain multiple versions of the same file.  Later
     ones are expected to overwrite any earlier ones.  This feature is
     crucial to allow updating tape archives, but can be abused
     maliciously.

   * 'tarfile' does not protect against issues with “live” data, e.g.
     an attacker tinkering with the destination (or source) directory
     while extraction (or archiving) is in progress.


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting older Python versions,  Next: Stateful extraction filter example,  Prev: Hints for further verification,  Up: Extraction filters

5.14.8.7 Supporting older Python versions
.........................................

Extraction filters were added to Python 3.12, but may be backported to
older versions as security updates.  To check whether the feature is
available, use e.g.  ‘hasattr(tarfile, 'data_filter')’ rather than
checking the Python version.

The following examples show how to support Python versions with and
without the feature.  Note that setting ‘extraction_filter’ will affect
any subsequent operations.

   * Fully trusted archive:

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = (lambda member, path: member)
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter if available, but revert to Python 3.11
     behavior (‘'fully_trusted'’) if this feature is not available:

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = getattr(tarfile, 'data_filter',
                                                 (lambda member, path: member))
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter; 'fail' if it is not available:

          my_tarfile.extractall(filter=tarfile.data_filter)

     or:

          my_tarfile.extraction_filter = tarfile.data_filter
          my_tarfile.extractall()

   * Use the ‘'data'’ filter; 'warn' if it is not available:

          if hasattr(tarfile, 'data_filter'):
              my_tarfile.extractall(filter='data')
          else:
              # remove this when no longer needed
              warn_the_user('Extracting may be unsafe; consider updating Python')
              my_tarfile.extractall()


File: python.info,  Node: Stateful extraction filter example,  Prev: Supporting older Python versions,  Up: Extraction filters

5.14.8.8 Stateful extraction filter example
...........................................

While 'tarfile'’s extraction methods take a simple 'filter' callable,
custom filters may be more complex objects with an internal state.  It
may be useful to write these as context managers, to be used like this:

     with StatefulFilter() as filter_func:
         tar.extractall(path, filter=filter_func)

Such a filter can be written as, for example:

     class StatefulFilter:
         def __init__(self):
             self.file_count = 0

         def __enter__(self):
             return self

         def __call__(self, member, path):
             self.file_count += 1
             return member

         def __exit__(self, *exc_info):
             print(f'{self.file_count} files extracted')


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Interface,  Next: Examples<8>,  Prev: Extraction filters,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.14.8.9 Command-Line Interface
...............................

Added in version 3.4.

The ‘tarfile’ module provides a simple command-line interface to
interact with tar archives.

If you want to create a new tar archive, specify its name after the
*note -c: 3159. option and then list the filename(s) that should be
included:

     $ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar  spam.txt eggs.txt

Passing a directory is also acceptable:

     $ python -m tarfile -c monty.tar life-of-brian_1979/

If you want to extract a tar archive into the current directory, use the
*note -e: 315a. option:

     $ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar

You can also extract a tar archive into a different directory by passing
the directory’s name:

     $ python -m tarfile -e monty.tar  other-dir/

For a list of the files in a tar archive, use the *note -l: 315b.
option:

     $ python -m tarfile -l monty.tar

* Menu:

* Command-line options: Command-line options<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line options<2>,  Up: Command-Line Interface

5.14.8.10 Command-line options
..............................

 -- Option: -l <tarfile>
 -- Option: --list <tarfile>

     List files in a tarfile.

 -- Option: -c <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>
 -- Option: --create <tarfile> <source1> ... <sourceN>

     Create tarfile from source files.

 -- Option: -e <tarfile> [<output_dir>]
 -- Option: --extract <tarfile> [<output_dir>]

     Extract tarfile into the current directory if 'output_dir' is not
     specified.

 -- Option: -t <tarfile>
 -- Option: --test <tarfile>

     Test whether the tarfile is valid or not.

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     Verbose output.

 -- Option: --filter <filtername>

     Specifies the 'filter' for ‘--extract’.  See *note Extraction
     filters: 883. for details.  Only string names are accepted (that
     is, ‘fully_trusted’, ‘tar’, and ‘data’).


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<8>,  Next: Supported tar formats,  Prev: Command-Line Interface,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.14.8.11 Examples
..................

* Menu:

* Reading examples::
* Writing examples::


File: python.info,  Node: Reading examples,  Next: Writing examples,  Up: Examples<8>

5.14.8.12 Reading examples
..........................

How to extract an entire tar archive to the current working directory:

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
     tar.extractall(filter='data')
     tar.close()

How to extract a subset of a tar archive with *note
TarFile.extractall(): 27a. using a generator function instead of a list:

     import os
     import tarfile

     def py_files(members):
         for tarinfo in members:
             if os.path.splitext(tarinfo.name)[1] == ".py":
                 yield tarinfo

     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz")
     tar.extractall(members=py_files(tar))
     tar.close()

How to read a gzip compressed tar archive and display some member
information:

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "r:gz")
     for tarinfo in tar:
         print(tarinfo.name, "is", tarinfo.size, "bytes in size and is ", end="")
         if tarinfo.isreg():
             print("a regular file.")
         elif tarinfo.isdir():
             print("a directory.")
         else:
             print("something else.")
     tar.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Writing examples,  Prev: Reading examples,  Up: Examples<8>

5.14.8.13 Writing examples
..........................

How to create an uncompressed tar archive from a list of filenames:

     import tarfile
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w")
     for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
         tar.add(name)
     tar.close()

The same example using the *note with: 20a. statement:

     import tarfile
     with tarfile.open("sample.tar", "w") as tar:
         for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
             tar.add(name)

How to create and write an archive to stdout using *note
sys.stdout.buffer: e9c. in the 'fileobj' parameter in *note
TarFile.add(): fb3.:

     import sys
     import tarfile
     with tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "w|gz", fileobj=sys.stdout.buffer) as tar:
         for name in ["foo", "bar", "quux"]:
             tar.add(name)

How to create an archive and reset the user information using the
'filter' parameter in *note TarFile.add(): fb3.:

     import tarfile
     def reset(tarinfo):
         tarinfo.uid = tarinfo.gid = 0
         tarinfo.uname = tarinfo.gname = "root"
         return tarinfo
     tar = tarfile.open("sample.tar.gz", "w:gz")
     tar.add("foo", filter=reset)
     tar.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Supported tar formats,  Next: Unicode issues,  Prev: Examples<8>,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.14.8.14 Supported tar formats
...............................

There are three tar formats that can be created with the ‘tarfile’
module:

   * The POSIX.1-1988 ustar format (*note USTAR_FORMAT: 3125.).  It
     supports filenames up to a length of at best 256 characters and
     linknames up to 100 characters.  The maximum file size is 8 GiB.
     This is an old and limited but widely supported format.

   * The GNU tar format (*note GNU_FORMAT: 3126.).  It supports long
     filenames and linknames, files bigger than 8 GiB and sparse files.
     It is the de facto standard on GNU/Linux systems.  ‘tarfile’ fully
     supports the GNU tar extensions for long names, sparse file support
     is read-only.

   * The POSIX.1-2001 pax format (*note PAX_FORMAT: 3127.).  It is the
     most flexible format with virtually no limits.  It supports long
     filenames and linknames, large files and stores pathnames in a
     portable way.  Modern tar implementations, including GNU tar,
     bsdtar/libarchive and star, fully support extended 'pax' features;
     some old or unmaintained libraries may not, but should treat 'pax'
     archives as if they were in the universally supported 'ustar'
     format.  It is the current default format for new archives.

     It extends the existing 'ustar' format with extra headers for
     information that cannot be stored otherwise.  There are two
     flavours of pax headers: Extended headers only affect the
     subsequent file header, global headers are valid for the complete
     archive and affect all following files.  All the data in a pax
     header is encoded in 'UTF-8' for portability reasons.

There are some more variants of the tar format which can be read, but
not created:

   * The ancient V7 format.  This is the first tar format from Unix
     Seventh Edition, storing only regular files and directories.  Names
     must not be longer than 100 characters, there is no user/group name
     information.  Some archives have miscalculated header checksums in
     case of fields with non-ASCII characters.

   * The SunOS tar extended format.  This format is a variant of the
     POSIX.1-2001 pax format, but is not compatible.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode issues,  Prev: Supported tar formats,  Up: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

5.14.8.15 Unicode issues
........................

The tar format was originally conceived to make backups on tape drives
with the main focus on preserving file system information.  Nowadays tar
archives are commonly used for file distribution and exchanging archives
over networks.  One problem of the original format (which is the basis
of all other formats) is that there is no concept of supporting
different character encodings.  For example, an ordinary tar archive
created on a 'UTF-8' system cannot be read correctly on a 'Latin-1'
system if it contains non-'ASCII' characters.  Textual metadata (like
filenames, linknames, user/group names) will appear damaged.
Unfortunately, there is no way to autodetect the encoding of an archive.
The pax format was designed to solve this problem.  It stores non-ASCII
metadata using the universal character encoding 'UTF-8'.

The details of character conversion in ‘tarfile’ are controlled by the
'encoding' and 'errors' keyword arguments of the *note TarFile: 15b7.
class.

'encoding' defines the character encoding to use for the metadata in the
archive.  The default value is *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): 1017.
or ‘'ascii'’ as a fallback.  Depending on whether the archive is read or
written, the metadata must be either decoded or encoded.  If 'encoding'
is not set appropriately, this conversion may fail.

The 'errors' argument defines how characters are treated that cannot be
converted.  Possible values are listed in section *note Error Handlers:
1d6c.  The default scheme is ‘'surrogateescape'’ which Python also uses
for its file system calls, see *note File Names, Command Line Arguments,
and Environment Variables: 316a.

For *note PAX_FORMAT: 3127. archives (the default), 'encoding' is
generally not needed because all the metadata is stored using 'UTF-8'.
'encoding' is only used in the rare cases when binary pax headers are
decoded or when strings with surrogate characters are stored.


File: python.info,  Node: File Formats,  Next: Cryptographic Services,  Prev: Data Compression and Archiving,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.15 File Formats
=================

The modules described in this chapter parse various miscellaneous file
formats that aren’t markup languages and are not related to e-mail.

* Menu:

* csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV::
* configparser — Configuration file parser::
* tomllib — Parse TOML files::
* netrc — netrc file processing::
* plistlib — Generate and parse Apple .plist files: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.


File: python.info,  Node: csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV,  Next: configparser — Configuration file parser,  Up: File Formats

5.15.1 ‘csv’ — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV
-----------------------------------------------

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/csv.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Το λεγόμενο CSV (Comma Separated Values) είναι η πιο κοινή μορφή
εισαγωγής και εξαγωγής για υπολογιστικά φύλλα και βάσεις δεδομένων.  Η
μορφή CSV χρησιμοποιήθηκε για πολλά χρόνια πριν από τις προσπάθειες
περιγραφής της μορφής με έναν τυποποιημένο τρόπο στο RFC 4180(2).  Η
έλλειψη ενός καλά καθορισμένου προτύπου σημαίνει ότι συχνά υπάρχουν
λεπτές διαφορές στα δεδομένα που παράγονται και καταναλώνονται από
διαφορετικές εφαρμογές.  Αυτές οι διαφορές μπορούν να κάνουν ενοχλητική
την επεξεργασία αρχείων CSV από πολλαπλές πηγές.  Ωστόσο, ενώ οι
διαχωριστές και οι χαρακτήρες παράθεσης ποικίλλουν, η συνολική μορφή
είναι αρκετά παρόμοια ώστε να είναι δυνατό να γραφτεί ένα ενιαίο module
που μπορεί να χειριστεί αποτελεσματικά αυτά τα δεδομένα, κρύβοντας τις
λεπτομέρειες της ανάγνωσης και εγγραφής των δεδομένων από τον
προγραμματιστή.

The ‘csv’ module implements classes to read and write tabular data in
CSV format.  It allows programmers to say, «write this data in the
format preferred by Excel,» or «read data from this file which was
generated by Excel,» without knowing the precise details of the CSV
format used by Excel.  Programmers can also describe the CSV formats
understood by other applications or define their own special-purpose CSV
formats.

The ‘csv’ module’s *note reader: 898. and *note writer: 899. objects
read and write sequences.  Programmers can also read and write data in
dictionary form using the *note DictReader: da9. and *note DictWriter:
15a7. classes.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 305(3) - API Αρχείων CSV

     Η Πρόταση Βελτίωσης της Python που πρότεινε αυτή την προσθήκη στην
     Python.

* Menu:

* Περιεχόμενα του Module::
* Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης::
* Αντικείμενα Αναγνώστη::
* Αντικείμενα Εγγραφέα::
* Παραδείγματα: Παραδείγματα<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/csv.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4180.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0305/


File: python.info,  Node: Περιεχόμενα του Module,  Next: Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης,  Up: csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV

5.15.1.1 Περιεχόμενα του Module
...............................

The ‘csv’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: csv.reader (csvfile, /, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο *note reader: 3173. που θα επεξεργάζεται
     γραμμές από το δεδομένο 'csvfile'.  Ένα csvfile πρέπει να είναι μια
     ακολουθία από συμβολοσειρές, κάθε μια στη μορφή CSV που ορίζει ο
     αναγνώστης.  Ένα csvfile είναι πιο συχνά ένα αντικείμενο παρόμοιο
     με αρχείο ή μια λίστα.  Αν το 'csvfile' είναι ένα αντικείμενο
     αρχείου, θα πρέπει να ανοιχτεί με ‘newline=''’.  (1)  Μια
     προαιρετική παράμετρος 'dialect' μπορεί να δοθεί η οποία
     χρησιμοποιείται για τον ορισμό ενός συνόλου παραμέτρων ειδικών για
     μια συγκεκριμένη διάλεκτο CSV. Μπορεί να είναι ένα στιγμιότυπο μιας
     υποκλάσης της κλάσης *note Dialect: 1a3c. ή μια από τις
     συμβολοσειρές που επιστρέφει η συνάρτηση *note list_dialects():
     1d90.  Οι άλλες προαιρετικές παράμετροι 'fmtparams' μπορούν να
     δοθούν για να αντικαταστήσουν μεμονωμένες παραμέτρους μορφοποίησης
     στην τρέχουσα διάλεκτο.  Για πλήρεις λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με τις
     διαλέκτους και τις παραμέτρους μορφοποίησης, δείτε την ενότητα
     *note Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης: 3174.

     Κάθε γραμμή που διαβάζεται από το αρχείο csv επιστρέφεται ως μια
     λίστα συμβολοσειρών.  Δεν γίνεται αυτόματη μετατροπή τύπων
     δεδομένων εκτός αν οριστεί η επιλογή μορφοποίησης *note
     QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 1b5f. (στην οποία περίπτωση τα μη παρατεθειμένα
     πεδία μετατρέπονται σε float).

     Ένα σύντομο παράδειγμα χρήσης:

          >>> import csv
          >>> with open('eggs.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
          ...     spamreader = csv.reader(csvfile, delimiter=' ', quotechar='|')
          ...     for row in spamreader:
          ...         print(', '.join(row))
          Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Spam, Baked Beans
          Spam, Lovely Spam, Wonderful Spam

 -- Συνάρτηση: csv.writer (csvfile, /, dialect='excel', **fmtparams)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο writer υπεύθυνο για τη μετατροπή των
     δεδομένων του χρήστη σε διαχωρισμένες συμβολοσειρές στο δεδομένο
     αντικείμενο παρόμοιο με αρχείο.  Το 'csvfile' μπορεί να είναι
     οποιοδήποτε αντικείμενο με μια μέθοδο *note write(): 224a.  Αν το
     'csvfile' είναι ένα αντικείμενο αρχείου, θα πρέπει να ανοιχτεί με
     ‘newline=''’ (2).  Μια προαιρετική παράμετρος 'dialect' μπορεί να
     δοθεί η οποία χρησιμοποιείται για τον ορισμό ενός συνόλου
     παραμέτρων ειδικών για μια συγκεκριμένη διάλεκτο CSV. Μπορεί να
     είναι ένα στιγμιότυπο μιας υποκλάσης της κλάσης *note Dialect:
     1a3c. ή μια από τις συμβολοσειρές που επιστρέφει η συνάρτηση *note
     list_dialects(): 1d90.  Οι άλλες προαιρετικές παράμετροι
     'fmtparams' μπορούν να δοθούν για να αντικαταστήσουν μεμονωμένες
     παραμέτρους μορφοποίησης στην τρέχουσα διάλεκτο.  Για πλήρεις
     λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με τις διαλέκτους και τις παραμέτρους
     μορφοποίησης, δείτε την ενότητα *note Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι
     Μορφοποίησης: 3174.  Για να διευκολυνθεί όσο το δυνατόν περισσότερο
     η διασύνδεση με modules που υλοποιούν το DB API, η τιμή *note None:
     a65. γράφεται ως η κενή συμβολοσειρά.  Ενώ αυτή δεν είναι μια
     αντιστρέψιμη μετατροπή, διευκολύνει την εξαγωγή τιμών NULL SQL σε
     αρχεία CSV χωρίς προεπεξεργασία των δεδομένων που επιστρέφονται από
     μια κλήση ‘cursor.fetch*’.  Όλα τα άλλα μη-συμβολοσειριακά δεδομένα
     μετατρέπονται σε συμβολοσειρές με τη χρήση της *note str(): 1df.
     πριν γραφούν.

     Ένα σύντομο παράδειγμα χρήσης:

          import csv
          with open('eggs.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              spamwriter = csv.writer(csvfile, delimiter=' ',
                                      quotechar='|', quoting=csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL)
              spamwriter.writerow(['Spam'] * 5 + ['Baked Beans'])
              spamwriter.writerow(['Spam', 'Lovely Spam', 'Wonderful Spam'])

 -- Συνάρτηση: csv.register_dialect (name, /, dialect='excel',
          **fmtparams)

     Συσχετίζει το 'dialect' με το 'name'.  Το 'name' πρέπει να είναι
     μια συμβολοσειρά.  Η διάλεκτος μπορεί να καθοριστεί είτε περνώντας
     μια υποκλάση της *note Dialect: 1a3c, είτε με παραμέτρους
     'fmtparams' ως ορίσματα, είτε και τα δύο, με τις παραμέτρους
     'fmtparams' να αντικαθιστούν τις παραμέτρους της διαλέκτου.  Για
     πλήρεις λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με τις διαλέκτους και τις παραμέτρους
     μορφοποίησης, δείτε την ενότητα *note Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι
     Μορφοποίησης: 3174.

 -- Συνάρτηση: csv.unregister_dialect (name)

     Διαγράφει τη διάλεκτο που συσχετίζεται με το 'name' από το μητρώο
     διαλέκτων.  Μια *note Error: 3175. γίνεται raise αν το 'name' δεν
     είναι ένα καταχωρημένο όνομα διαλέκτου.

 -- Συνάρτηση: csv.get_dialect (name)

     Επιστρέφει τη διάλεκτο που συσχετίζεται με το 'name'.  Μια *note
     Error: 3175. γίνεται raise αν το 'name' δεν είναι ένα καταχωρημένο
     όνομα διαλέκτου.  Αυτή η συνάρτηση επιστρέφει μια αμετάβλητη *note
     Dialect: 1a3c.

 -- Συνάρτηση: csv.list_dialects ()

     Επιστρέφει τα ονόματα όλων των καταχωρημένων διαλέκτων.

 -- Συνάρτηση: csv.field_size_limit ()

 -- Συνάρτηση: csv.field_size_limit (new_limit)

     Επιστρέφει το τρέχον μέγιστο μέγεθος πεδίου που επιτρέπεται από τον
     αναλυτή.  Αν δοθεί 'new_limit', αυτό γίνεται το νέο όριο.

The ‘csv’ module defines the following classes:

 -- Κλάση: csv.DictReader (f, fieldnames=None, restkey=None,
          restval=None, dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)

     Δημιουργεί ένα αντικείμενο που λειτουργεί όπως ένας κανονικός
     αναγνώστης αλλά χαρτογραφεί τις πληροφορίες σε κάθε γραμμή σε ένα
     *note dict: 188. των οποίων τα κλειδιά δίνονται από την προαιρετική
     παράμετρο 'fieldnames'.

     Η παράμετρος 'fieldnames' είναι μια *note sequence: 8ff.  Αν το
     'fieldnames' έχει παραληφθεί, οι τιμές στην πρώτη γραμμή του
     αρχείου 'f' θα χρησιμοποιηθούν ως τα ονόματα πεδίων και θα
     παραλειφθούν από τα αποτελέσματα.  Αν το 'fieldnames' παρέχεται, θα
     χρησιμοποιηθούν και η πρώτη γραμμή θα περιληφθεί στα αποτελέσματα.
     Ανεξάρτητα από το πώς καθορίζονται τα ονόματα πεδίων, το λεξικό
     διατηρεί την αρχική τους σειρά.

     Αν μια γραμμή έχει περισσότερα πεδία από τα ονόματα πεδίων, τα
     υπόλοιπα δεδομένα τοποθετούνται σε μια λίστα και αποθηκεύονται με
     το όνομα πεδίου που καθορίζεται από το 'restkey' (το οποίο
     προεπιλέγεται σε ‘None’).  Αν μια μη-κενή γραμμή έχει λιγότερα
     πεδία από τα ονόματα πεδίων, οι ελλείπουσες τιμές συμπληρώνονται με
     την τιμή του 'restval' (το οποίο προεπιλέγεται σε ‘None’).

     Όλες οι άλλες προαιρετικές ή παράμετροι λέξεων-κλειδιών
     μεταβιβάζονται στο υποκείμενο αντικείμενο *note reader: 898.

     Αν το όρισμα που δίνεται στο 'fieldnames' είναι ένας iterator, θα
     μετατραπεί σε μια *note list: 4d9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Οι επιστρεφόμενες γραμμές είναι τώρα τύπου
     ‘OrderedDict’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Οι επιστρεφόμενες γραμμές είναι τώρα τύπου
     *note dict: 188.

     Ένα σύντομο παράδειγμα χρήσης:

          >>> import csv
          >>> with open('names.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
          ...     reader = csv.DictReader(csvfile)
          ...     for row in reader:
          ...         print(row['first_name'], row['last_name'])
          ...
          Eric Idle
          John Cleese

          >>> print(row)
          {'first_name': 'John', 'last_name': 'Cleese'}

 -- Κλάση: csv.DictWriter (f, fieldnames, restval='',
          extrasaction='raise', dialect='excel', *args, **kwds)

     Δημιουργεί ένα αντικείμενο που λειτουργεί όπως ένας κανονικός
     εγγραφέας αλλά χαρτογραφεί λεξικά σε εξαγόμενες γραμμές.  Η
     παράμετρος 'fieldnames' είναι μια *note sequence: 1f. κλειδιών που
     προσδιορίζουν τη σειρά στην οποία οι τιμές στο λεξικό που
     περνιούνται στη μέθοδο *note writerow(): 11a1. γράφονται στο αρχείο
     'f'.  Η προαιρετική παράμετρος 'restval' καθορίζει την τιμή που θα
     γραφτεί αν από το λεξικό λείπει ένα κλειδί στα 'fieldnames'.  Αν το
     λεξικό που περνιέται στη μέθοδο ‘writerow()’ περιέχει ένα κλειδί
     που δεν βρίσκεται στα 'fieldnames', η προαιρετική παράμετρος
     'extrasaction' υποδεικνύει ποια ενέργεια να ληφθεί.  Αν οριστεί σε
     ‘'raise'’, η προεπιλεγμένη τιμή, γίνεται raise μια *note
     ValueError: 277.  Αν οριστεί σε ‘'ignore'’, οι επιπλέον τιμές στο
     λεξικό αγνοούνται.  Οποιεσδήποτε άλλες προαιρετικές ή παράμετροι
     λέξεων-κλειδιών μεταβιβάζονται στο υποκείμενο αντικείμενο *note
     writer: 899.

     Σημειώστε ότι σε αντίθεση με την κλάση *note DictReader: da9, η
     παράμετρος ‘*fieldnames*’ της κλάσης *note DictWriter: 15a7. δεν
     είναι προαιρετική.

     Αν το όρισμα που δίνεται στο 'fieldnames' είναι ένας iterator, θα
     μετατραπεί σε μια *note list: 4d9.

     Ένα σύντομο παράδειγμα χρήσης:

          import csv

          with open('names.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              fieldnames = ['first_name', 'last_name']
              writer = csv.DictWriter(csvfile, fieldnames=fieldnames)

              writer.writeheader()
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Baked', 'last_name': 'Beans'})
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Lovely', 'last_name': 'Spam'})
              writer.writerow({'first_name': 'Wonderful', 'last_name': 'Spam'})

 -- Κλάση: csv.Dialect

     Η κλάση *note Dialect: 1a3c. είναι μια κλάση κοντέινερ των οποίων
     τα χαρακτηριστικά περιέχουν πληροφορίες για το πώς να χειριστούν τα
     διπλά εισαγωγικά, τα κενά, τους διαχωριστές κ.λπ.  Λόγω της
     έλλειψης αυστηρής προδιαγραφής CSV, διαφορετικές εφαρμογές παράγουν
     λεπτές διαφορές στα δεδομένα CSV. Τα στιγμιότυπα της ‘Dialect’
     καθορίζουν πώς συμπεριφέρονται τα αντικείμενα *note reader: 898.
     και *note writer: 899.

     Όλα τα διαθέσιμα ονόματα *note Dialect: 1a3c. επιστρέφονται από τη
     *note list_dialects(): 1d90, και μπορούν να καταχωρηθούν με
     συγκεκριμένες κλάσεις *note reader: 898. και *note writer: 899.
     μέσω των συναρτήσεων αρχικοποίησης (‘__init__’) τους όπως αυτό:

          import csv

          with open('students.csv', 'w', newline='') as csvfile:
              writer = csv.writer(csvfile, dialect='unix')

 -- Κλάση: csv.excel

     Η κλάση *note excel: 3176. ορίζει τις συνήθεις ιδιότητες ενός
     αρχείου CSV που δημιουργείται από το Excel.  Είναι καταχωρημένη με
     το όνομα διαλέκτου ‘'excel'’.

 -- Κλάση: csv.excel_tab

     Η κλάση *note excel_tab: 3177. ορίζει τις συνήθεις ιδιότητες ενός
     αρχείου CSV που δημιουργείται από το Excel με διαχωριστικό TAB.
     Είναι καταχωρημένη με το όνομα διαλέκτου ‘'excel-tab'’.

 -- Κλάση: csv.unix_dialect

     Η κλάση *note unix_dialect: 15a6. ορίζει τις συνήθεις ιδιότητες
     ενός αρχείου CSV που δημιουργείται σε συστήματα UNIX, δηλαδή
     χρησιμοποιεί ‘'\n'’ ως τερματιστή γραμμής και παραθέτει όλα τα
     πεδία.  Είναι καταχωρημένη με το όνομα διαλέκτου ‘'unix'’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Κλάση: csv.Sniffer

     Η κλάση *note Sniffer: 3178. χρησιμοποιείται για να προσδιορίσει τη
     μορφή ενός αρχείου CSV.

     Η κλάση *note Sniffer: 3178. παρέχει δύο μεθόδους:

      -- Μέθοδος: sniff (sample, delimiters=None)

          Αναλύει το δεδομένο 'sample' και επιστρέφει μια υποκλάση της
          *note Dialect: 1a3c. που αντικατοπτρίζει τις παραμέτρους που
          βρέθηκαν.  Αν η προαιρετική παράμετρος 'delimiters' δοθεί,
          ερμηνεύεται ως μια συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει πιθανά έγκυρους
          χαρακτήρες διαχωρισμού.

      -- Μέθοδος: has_header (sample)

          Αναλύει το δείγμα κειμένου (που θεωρείται ότι είναι σε μορφή
          CSV) και επιστρέφει *note True: fcc. αν η πρώτη γραμμή
          φαίνεται να είναι μια σειρά κεφαλίδων στηλών.  Εξετάζοντας
          κάθε στήλη, ένα από τα δύο βασικά κριτήρια θα εξεταστεί για να
          εκτιμηθεί αν το δείγμα περιέχει κεφαλίδα:

             - η δεύτερη έως την n-οστή γραμμή περιέχει αριθμητικές
               τιμές

             - η δεύτερη έως την n-οστή γραμμή περιέχει συμβολοσειρές
               όπου τουλάχιστον μία τιμή έχει μήκος διαφορετικό από αυτό
               της υποτιθέμενης κεφαλίδας αυτής της στήλης.

          Είκοσι μία γραμμές μετά την κεφαλίδα δειγματοληπτούνται· αν
          περισσότερες από τις μισές στήλες + γραμμές πληρούν τα
          κριτήρια, επιστρέφεται *note True: fcc.

          Σημείωση: Αυτή η μέθοδος είναι μια χονδροειδής ευρετική και
          μπορεί να παράγει τόσο ψευδώς θετικά όσο και ψευδώς αρνητικά
          αποτελέσματα.

Ένα παράδειγμα χρήσης της *note Sniffer: 3178.:

     with open('example.csv', newline='') as csvfile:
         dialect = csv.Sniffer().sniff(csvfile.read(1024))
         csvfile.seek(0)
         reader = csv.reader(csvfile, dialect)
         # ... process CSV file contents here ...
The ‘csv’ module defines the following constants:

 -- Δεδομένα: csv.QUOTE_ALL

     Οδηγεί τα αντικείμενα *note writer: 899. να παραθέτουν όλα τα
     πεδία.

 -- Δεδομένα: csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL

     Οδηγεί τα αντικείμενα *note writer: 899. να παραθέτουν μόνο εκείνα
     τα πεδία που περιέχουν ειδικούς χαρακτήρες όπως το 'delimiter',
     'quotechar', ‘'\r'’, ‘'\n'’ ή οποιονδήποτε από τους χαρακτήρες στο
     'lineterminator'.

 -- Δεδομένα: csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC

     Οδηγεί τα αντικείμενα *note writer: 899. να παραθέτουν όλα τα
     μη-αριθμητικά πεδία.

     Οδηγεί τα αντικείμενα *note reader: 898. να μετατρέπουν όλα τα
     μη-παρατεθειμένα πεδία σε τύπο *note float: 327.

          Σημείωση: Ορισμένοι αριθμητικοί τύποι, όπως *note bool: 5ef,
          *note Fraction: 1c3, ή *note IntEnum: 109d, έχουν μια
          αναπαράσταση συμβολοσειράς που δεν μπορεί να μετατραπεί σε
          *note float: 327.  Δεν μπορούν να διαβαστούν σε λειτουργίες
          *note QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 1b5f. και *note QUOTE_STRINGS: 897.

 -- Δεδομένα: csv.QUOTE_NONE

     Οδηγεί τα αντικείμενα *note writer: 899. να μην παραθέτουν ποτέ
     πεδία.  Όταν ο τρέχων 'delimiter', 'quotechar', 'escapechar',
     ‘'\r'’, ‘'\n'’ ή οποιοσδήποτε από τους χαρακτήρες στο
     'lineterminator' εμφανίζεται στα δεδομένα εξόδου, προηγείται από
     τον τρέχοντα χαρακτήρα 'escapechar'.  Αν το 'escapechar' δεν έχει
     οριστεί, ο εγγραφέας θα κάνει raise μια *note Error: 3175. αν
     συναντηθούν χαρακτήρες που απαιτούν απόδραση.  Ορίστε το
     'quotechar' σε ‘None’ για να αποτρέψετε την απόδρασή του.

     Οδηγεί τα αντικείμενα *note reader: 898. να μην εκτελούν ειδική
     επεξεργασία των χαρακτήρων παράθεσης.

 -- Δεδομένα: csv.QUOTE_NOTNULL

     Οδηγεί τα αντικείμενα *note writer: 899. να παραθέτουν όλα τα πεδία
     που δεν είναι ‘None’.  Αυτό είναι παρόμοιο με *note QUOTE_ALL:
     317a, εκτός από το ότι αν μια τιμή πεδίου είναι ‘None’, γράφεται
     μια κενή (μη-παρατεθειμένη) συμβολοσειρά.

     Οδηγεί τα αντικείμενα *note reader: 898. να ερμηνεύουν ένα κενό
     (μη-παρατεθειμένο) πεδίο ως ‘None’ και να συμπεριφέρονται
     διαφορετικά ως *note QUOTE_ALL: 317a.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Δεδομένα: csv.QUOTE_STRINGS

     Οδηγεί τα αντικείμενα *note writer: 899. να τοποθετούν πάντα
     εισαγωγικά γύρω από πεδία που είναι συμβολοσειρές.  Αυτό είναι
     παρόμοιο με *note QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 1b5f, εκτός από το ότι αν μια
     τιμή πεδίου είναι ‘None’, γράφεται μια κενή (μη-παρατεθειμένη)
     συμβολοσειρά.

     Οδηγεί τα αντικείμενα *note reader: 898. να ερμηνεύουν μια κενή
     (μη-παρατεθειμένη) συμβολοσειρά ως ‘None’ και να συμπεριφέρονται
     διαφορετικά ως *note QUOTE_NONNUMERIC: 1b5f.

     Added in version 3.12.

The ‘csv’ module defines the following exception:

 -- Εξαίρεση: csv.Error

     Γίνεται raise από οποιαδήποτε από τις συναρτήσεις όταν ανιχνεύεται
     ένα σφάλμα.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Αν δεν καθοριστεί ‘newline=''’, οι νέες γραμμές που
ενσωματώνονται μέσα σε παρατεθειμένα πεδία δεν θα ερμηνευτούν σωστά, και
σε πλατφόρμες που χρησιμοποιούν ‘\r\n’ ως τερματισμούς γραμμών κατά την
εγγραφή, θα προστίθεται ένα επιπλέον ‘\r’.  Πρέπει πάντα να είναι
ασφαλές να καθορίσετε ‘newline=''’, καθώς το module csv χειρίζεται μόνο
του (*note universal: 10f1.) τη διαχείριση νέων γραμμών.

   (2) Αν δεν καθοριστεί ‘newline=''’, οι νέες γραμμές που
ενσωματώνονται μέσα σε παρατεθειμένα πεδία δεν θα ερμηνευτούν σωστά, και
σε πλατφόρμες που χρησιμοποιούν ‘\r\n’ ως τερματισμούς γραμμών κατά την
εγγραφή, θα προστίθεται ένα επιπλέον ‘\r’.  Πρέπει πάντα να είναι
ασφαλές να καθορίσετε ‘newline=''’, καθώς το module csv χειρίζεται μόνο
του (*note universal: 10f1.) τη διαχείριση νέων γραμμών.


File: python.info,  Node: Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης,  Next: Αντικείμενα Αναγνώστη,  Prev: Περιεχόμενα του Module,  Up: csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV

5.15.1.2 Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης
..............................................

Για να διευκολυνθεί ο καθορισμός της μορφής των εγγραφών εισόδου και
εξόδου, οι συγκεκριμένες παράμετροι μορφοποίησης ομαδοποιούνται σε
διαλέκτους.  Μια διάλεκτος είναι μια υποκλάση της κλάσης *note Dialect:
1a3c. που περιέχει διάφορα χαρακτηριστικά που περιγράφουν τη μορφή του
αρχείου CSV. Κατά τη δημιουργία αντικειμένων *note reader: 898. ή *note
writer: 899, ο προγραμματιστής μπορεί να καθορίσει μια συμβολοσειρά ή
μια υποκλάση της κλάσης ‘Dialect’ ως παράμετρο διαλέκτου.  Επιπλέον,
αντί για ή εκτός από την παράμετρο 'dialect', ο προγραμματιστής μπορεί
επίσης να καθορίσει μεμονωμένες παραμέτρους μορφοποίησης, οι οποίες
έχουν τα ίδια ονόματα με τα χαρακτηριστικά που ορίζονται παρακάτω για
την κλάση ‘Dialect’.

Οι διάλεκτοι υποστηρίζουν τα παρακάτω χαρακτηριστικά:

 -- Ιδιότητα: Dialect.delimiter

     Μια συμβολοσειρά ενός χαρακτήρα που χρησιμοποιείται για να
     διαχωρίζει τα πεδία.  Προεπιλογή είναι το ‘','’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Dialect.doublequote

     Ελέγχει πώς οι περιπτώσεις του 'quotechar' που εμφανίζονται μέσα σε
     ένα πεδίο θα παρατίθενται.  Όταν είναι *note True: fcc, ο
     χαρακτήρας διπλασιάζεται.  Όταν είναι *note False: ef5, το
     'escapechar' χρησιμοποιείται ως πρόθεμα στο 'quotechar'.
     Προεπιλογή είναι το ‘True’.

     Στην έξοδο, αν το 'doublequote' είναι *note False: ef5. και δεν
     έχει οριστεί 'escapechar', γίνεται raise *note Error: 3175. αν
     βρεθεί ένα 'quotechar' σε ένα πεδίο.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Dialect.escapechar

     Μια συμβολοσειρά ενός χαρακτήρα που χρησιμοποιείται από τον
     εγγραφέα για να διαφύγει χαρακτήρες που απαιτούν escape:

             * το 'delimiter', το 'quotechar', ‘'\r'’, ‘'\n'’ και
               οποιοσδήποτε από τους χαρακτήρες στο 'lineterminator'
               διαφεύγουν αν το 'quoting' έχει οριστεί σε *note
               QUOTE_NONE: 317c. ∙

             * το 'quotechar' διαφεύγει αν το 'doublequote' είναι *note
               False: ef5. ∙

             * το ίδιο το 'escapechar'.

     Κατά την ανάγνωση, το 'escapechar' αφαιρεί οποιαδήποτε ειδική
     σημασία από τον επόμενο χαρακτήρα.  Προεπιλογή είναι το *note None:
     a65, που απενεργοποιεί το escaping.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Ένα κενό 'escapechar' δεν επιτρέπεται.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Dialect.lineterminator

     Η συμβολοσειρά που χρησιμοποιείται για να τερματίσει τις γραμμές
     που παράγονται από τον *note writer: 899.  Προεπιλογή είναι το
     ‘'\r\n'’.

          Σημείωση: Ο *note reader: 898. είναι σκληρά κωδικοποιημένος
          για να αναγνωρίζει είτε ‘'\r'’ είτε ‘'\n'’ ως τερματισμό
          γραμμής, και αγνοεί το 'lineterminator'.  Αυτή η συμπεριφορά
          μπορεί να αλλάξει στο μέλλον.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Dialect.quotechar

     Μια συμβολοσειρά ενός χαρακτήρα που χρησιμοποιείται για να
     παραθέτει πεδία που περιέχουν ειδικούς χαρακτήρες, όπως το
     'delimiter' ή το 'quotechar', ή που περιέχουν χαρακτήρες νέας
     γραμμής (‘'\r'’, ‘'\n'’ ή οποιοσδήποτε από τους χαρακτήρες στο
     'lineterminator').  Προεπιλογή είναι το ‘'"'’.  Μπορεί να οριστεί
     σε ‘None’ για να αποτραπεί το escaping του ‘'"'’ αν το 'quoting'
     έχει οριστεί σε *note QUOTE_NONE: 317c.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Ένα κενό 'quotechar' δεν επιτρέπεται.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Dialect.quoting

     Ελέγχει πότε θα δημιουργούνται εισαγωγικά από τον εγγραφέα και θα
     αναγνωρίζονται από τον αναγνώστη.  Μπορεί να πάρει οποιαδήποτε από
     τις σταθερές *note QUOTE_* constants: 3179. και προεπιλογή είναι το
     *note QUOTE_MINIMAL: 317b. αν το 'quotechar' δεν είναι ‘None’, και
     το *note QUOTE_NONE: 317c. διαφορετικά.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Dialect.skipinitialspace

     Όταν είναι *note True: fcc, τα κενά που ακολουθούν άμεσα τον
     'delimiter' αγνοούνται.  Η προεπιλογή είναι *note False: ef5.  Όταν
     συνδυάζεται το ‘delimiter=' '’ με το ‘skipinitialspace=True’, δεν
     επιτρέπονται μη παραθερισμένα κενά πεδία.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Dialect.strict

     Όταν είναι ‘True’, γίνεται raise η εξαίρεση *note Error: 3175. σε
     κακή είσοδο CSV. Η προεπιλογή είναι ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα Αναγνώστη,  Next: Αντικείμενα Εγγραφέα,  Prev: Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης,  Up: csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV

5.15.1.3 Αντικείμενα Αναγνώστη
..............................

Τα αντικείμενα αναγνώστη (στιγμιότυπα της *note DictReader: da9. και
αντικείμενα που επιστρέφονται από τη συνάρτηση *note reader(): 898.)
έχουν τις παρακάτω δημόσιες μεθόδους:

 -- Μέθοδος: csvreader.__next__ ()

     Επιστρέφει την επόμενη γραμμή του αντικειμένου iterable του
     αναγνώστη ως λίστα (αν το αντικείμενο επιστράφηκε από τη *note
     reader(): 898.) ή ως λεξικό (αν είναι ένα στιγμιότυπο *note
     DictReader: da9.), αναλυμένο σύμφωνα με την τρέχουσα *note Dialect:
     1a3c.  Συνήθως θα πρέπει να το καλέσετε ως ‘next(reader)’.

Τα αντικείμενα αναγνώστη έχουν τα παρακάτω δημόσια χαρακτηριστικά:

 -- Ιδιότητα: csvreader.dialect

     Ένα μόνο για ανάγνωση περιγραφικό χαρακτηριστικό της διαλέκτου που
     χρησιμοποιείται από τον αναλυτή.

 -- Ιδιότητα: csvreader.line_num

     Ο αριθμός των γραμμών που διαβάστηκαν από τον πηγαίο επαναληπτή.
     Αυτό δεν είναι το ίδιο με τον αριθμό των εγγραφών που επιστράφηκαν,
     καθώς οι εγγραφές μπορούν να εκτείνονται σε πολλές γραμμές.

Τα αντικείμενα DictReader έχουν το παρακάτω δημόσιο χαρακτηριστικό:

 -- Ιδιότητα: DictReader.fieldnames

     Αν δεν περαστεί ως παράμετρος κατά τη δημιουργία του αντικειμένου,
     αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό αρχικοποιείται κατά την πρώτη πρόσβαση ή
     όταν διαβαστεί η πρώτη εγγραφή από το αρχείο.


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα Εγγραφέα,  Next: Παραδείγματα<3>,  Prev: Αντικείμενα Αναγνώστη,  Up: csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV

5.15.1.4 Αντικείμενα Εγγραφέα
.............................

Τα αντικείμενα *note writer: 899. (στιγμιότυπα της *note DictWriter:
15a7. και αντικείμενα που επιστρέφονται από τη συνάρτηση *note writer():
899.) έχουν τις παρακάτω δημόσιες μεθόδους.  Ένα 'row' πρέπει να είναι
ένα επαναληπτικό αντικείμενο συμβολοσειρών ή αριθμών για τα αντικείμενα
‘writer’ και ένα λεξικό που αντιστοιχεί τα ονόματα πεδίων σε
συμβολοσειρές ή αριθμούς (με πέρασμα μέσω της συνάρτησης *note str():
1df. πρώτα) για τα αντικείμενα ‘DictWriter’.  Σημειώστε ότι οι σύνθετοι
αριθμοί γράφονται περιβαλλόμενοι από παρενθέσεις.  Αυτό μπορεί να
προκαλέσει κάποια προβλήματα σε άλλα προγράμματα που διαβάζουν αρχεία
CSV (υποθέτοντας ότι υποστηρίζουν σύνθετους αριθμούς καθόλου).

 -- Μέθοδος: csvwriter.writerow (row, /)

     Γράφει την παράμετρο 'row' στο αντικείμενο αρχείου του εγγραφέα,
     μορφοποιημένο σύμφωνα με την τρέχουσα *note Dialect: 1a3c.
     Επιστρέφει την τιμή επιστροφής της κλήσης στη μέθοδο 'write' του
     υποκείμενου αντικειμένου αρχείου.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Προστέθηκε υποστήριξη για αυθαίρετα
     επαναληπτικά αντικείμενα.

 -- Μέθοδος: csvwriter.writerows (rows, /)

     Γράφει όλα τα στοιχεία στο 'rows' (ένα επαναληπτικό αντικείμενο των
     'row' αντικειμένων όπως περιγράφεται παραπάνω) στο αντικείμενο
     αρχείου του εγγραφέα, μορφοποιημένο σύμφωνα με την τρέχουσα
     διάλεκτο.

Τα αντικείμενα εγγραφέα έχουν το παρακάτω δημόσιο χαρακτηριστικό:

 -- Ιδιότητα: csvwriter.dialect

     Ένα μόνο για ανάγνωση περιγραφικό χαρακτηριστικό της διαλέκτου που
     χρησιμοποιείται από τον εγγραφέα.

Τα αντικείμενα DictWriter έχουν την παρακάτω δημόσια μέθοδο:

 -- Μέθοδος: DictWriter.writeheader ()

     Γράφει μια γραμμή με τα ονόματα πεδίων (όπως καθορίζονται στον
     κατασκευαστή) στο αντικείμενο αρχείου του εγγραφέα, μορφοποιημένο
     σύμφωνα με την τρέχουσα διάλεκτο.  Επιστρέφει την τιμή επιστροφής
     της κλήσης *note csvwriter.writerow(): 11a1. που χρησιμοποιείται
     εσωτερικά.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Η *note writeheader(): 15a8. τώρα
     επιστρέφει επίσης την τιμή που επιστρέφεται από τη μέθοδο *note
     csvwriter.writerow(): 11a1. που χρησιμοποιεί εσωτερικά.


File: python.info,  Node: Παραδείγματα<3>,  Prev: Αντικείμενα Εγγραφέα,  Up: csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV

5.15.1.5 Παραδείγματα
.....................

Το πιο απλό παράδειγμα ανάγνωσης ενός αρχείου CSV:

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

Ανάγνωση ενός αρχείου με εναλλακτική μορφή:

     import csv
     with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f, delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

Το αντίστοιχο απλούστερο παράδειγμα εγγραφής είναι:

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', 'w', newline='') as f:
         writer = csv.writer(f)
         writer.writerows(someiterable)

Αφού η *note open(): 32b. χρησιμοποιείται για να ανοίξει ένα αρχείο CSV
για ανάγνωση, το αρχείο θα αποκωδικοποιηθεί κατά προεπιλογή σε unicode
χρησιμοποιώντας την προεπιλεγμένη κωδικοποίηση του συστήματος (βλ.
*note locale.getencoding(): a45.).  Για να αποκωδικοποιήσετε ένα αρχείο
χρησιμοποιώντας μια διαφορετική κωδικοποίηση, χρησιμοποιήστε το όρισμα
‘encoding’ της open:

     import csv
     with open('some.csv', newline='', encoding='utf-8') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         for row in reader:
             print(row)

Το ίδιο ισχύει και για την εγγραφή σε κάτι άλλο εκτός από την
προεπιλεγμένη κωδικοποίηση του συστήματος: καθορίστε το όρισμα
κωδικοποίησης κατά το άνοιγμα του αρχείου εξόδου.

Καταχώρηση μιας νέας διαλέκτου:

     import csv
     csv.register_dialect('unixpwd', delimiter=':', quoting=csv.QUOTE_NONE)
     with open('passwd', newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f, 'unixpwd')

Μια ελαφρώς πιο προηγμένη χρήση του αναγνώστη — σύλληψη και αναφορά
σφαλμάτων:

     import csv, sys
     filename = 'some.csv'
     with open(filename, newline='') as f:
         reader = csv.reader(f)
         try:
             for row in reader:
                 print(row)
         except csv.Error as e:
             sys.exit(f'file {filename}, line {reader.line_num}: {e}')

Και ενώ το module δεν υποστηρίζει άμεσα την ανάλυση συμβολοσειρών,
μπορεί εύκολα να γίνει:

     import csv
     for row in csv.reader(['one,two,three']):
         print(row)

Υποσημειώσεις
.............


File: python.info,  Node: configparser — Configuration file parser,  Next: tomllib — Parse TOML files,  Prev: csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV,  Up: File Formats

5.15.2 ‘configparser’ — Configuration file parser
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/configparser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides the *note ConfigParser: 6e4. class which implements
a basic configuration language which provides a structure similar to
what’s found in Microsoft Windows INI files.  You can use this to write
Python programs which can be customized by end users easily.

     Σημείωση: This library does 'not' interpret or write the value-type
     prefixes used in the Windows Registry extended version of INI
     syntax.

     Προειδοποίηση: Be cautious when parsing data from untrusted
     sources.  A malicious INI file may cause the decoder to consume
     considerable CPU and memory resources.  Limiting the size of data
     to be parsed is recommended.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note tomllib: 105.

     TOML is a well-specified format for application configuration
     files.  It is specifically designed to be an improved version of
     INI.

Module *note shlex: cc.

     Support for creating Unix shell-like mini-languages which can also
     be used for application configuration files.

Module *note json: 85.

     The ‘json’ module implements a subset of JavaScript syntax which is
     sometimes used for configuration, but does not support comments.

* Menu:

* Quick Start::
* Supported Datatypes::
* Fallback Values::
* Supported INI File Structure::
* Unnamed Sections::
* Interpolation of values::
* Mapping Protocol Access::
* Customizing Parser Behaviour::
* Legacy API Examples::
* ConfigParser Objects::
* RawConfigParser Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<8>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/configparser.py


File: python.info,  Node: Quick Start,  Next: Supported Datatypes,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.15.2.1 Quick Start
....................

Let’s take a very basic configuration file that looks like this:

     [DEFAULT]
     ServerAliveInterval = 45
     Compression = yes
     CompressionLevel = 9
     ForwardX11 = yes

     [forge.example]
     User = hg

     [topsecret.server.example]
     Port = 50022
     ForwardX11 = no

The structure of INI files is described *note in the following section:
3194.  Essentially, the file consists of sections, each of which
contains keys with values.  ‘configparser’ classes can read and write
such files.  Let’s start by creating the above configuration file
programmatically.

     >>> import configparser
     >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '45',
     ...                      'Compression': 'yes',
     ...                      'CompressionLevel': '9'}
     >>> config['forge.example'] = {}
     >>> config['forge.example']['User'] = 'hg'
     >>> config['topsecret.server.example'] = {}
     >>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.example']
     >>> topsecret['Port'] = '50022'     # mutates the parser
     >>> topsecret['ForwardX11'] = 'no'  # same here
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['ForwardX11'] = 'yes'
     >>> with open('example.ini', 'w') as configfile:
     ...   config.write(configfile)
     ...

As you can see, we can treat a config parser much like a dictionary.
There are differences, *note outlined later: 3195, but the behavior is
very close to what you would expect from a dictionary.

Now that we have created and saved a configuration file, let’s read it
back and explore the data it holds.

     >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config.sections()
     []
     >>> config.read('example.ini')
     ['example.ini']
     >>> config.sections()
     ['forge.example', 'topsecret.server.example']
     >>> 'forge.example' in config
     True
     >>> 'python.org' in config
     False
     >>> config['forge.example']['User']
     'hg'
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['Compression']
     'yes'
     >>> topsecret = config['topsecret.server.example']
     >>> topsecret['ForwardX11']
     'no'
     >>> topsecret['Port']
     '50022'
     >>> for key in config['forge.example']:
     ...     print(key)
     user
     compressionlevel
     serveraliveinterval
     compression
     forwardx11
     >>> config['forge.example']['ForwardX11']
     'yes'

As we can see above, the API is pretty straightforward.  The only bit of
magic involves the ‘DEFAULT’ section which provides default values for
all other sections (1).  Note also that keys in sections are
case-insensitive and stored in lowercase (2).

It is possible to read several configurations into a single *note
ConfigParser: 6e4, where the most recently added configuration has the
highest priority.  Any conflicting keys are taken from the more recent
configuration while the previously existing keys are retained.  The
example below reads in an ‘override.ini’ file, which will override any
conflicting keys from the ‘example.ini’ file.

     [DEFAULT]
     ServerAliveInterval = -1

     >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
     >>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
     ...     config_override.write(configfile)
     ...
     >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
     >>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
     ['example.ini', 'override.ini']
     >>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
     -1

This behaviour is equivalent to a *note ConfigParser.read(): 180a. call
with several files passed to the 'filenames' parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 3196. section.

   (2) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 3196. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Supported Datatypes,  Next: Fallback Values,  Prev: Quick Start,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.15.2.2 Supported Datatypes
............................

Config parsers do not guess datatypes of values in configuration files,
always storing them internally as strings.  This means that if you need
other datatypes, you should convert on your own:

     >>> int(topsecret['Port'])
     50022
     >>> float(topsecret['CompressionLevel'])
     9.0

Since this task is so common, config parsers provide a range of handy
getter methods to handle integers, floats and booleans.  The last one is
the most interesting because simply passing the value to ‘bool()’ would
do no good since ‘bool('False')’ is still ‘True’.  This is why config
parsers also provide *note getboolean(): 3198.  This method is
case-insensitive and recognizes Boolean values from ‘'yes'’/‘'no'’,
‘'on'’/‘'off'’, ‘'true'’/‘'false'’ and ‘'1'’/‘'0'’ (1).  For example:

     >>> topsecret.getboolean('ForwardX11')
     False
     >>> config['forge.example'].getboolean('ForwardX11')
     True
     >>> config.getboolean('forge.example', 'Compression')
     True

Apart from *note getboolean(): 3198, config parsers also provide
equivalent *note getint(): 3199. and *note getfloat(): 319a. methods.
You can register your own converters and customize the provided ones.
(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 3196. section.

   (2) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 3196. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Fallback Values,  Next: Supported INI File Structure,  Prev: Supported Datatypes,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.15.2.3 Fallback Values
........................

As with a dictionary, you can use a section’s *note get(): 1610. method
to provide fallback values:

     >>> topsecret.get('Port')
     '50022'
     >>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel')
     '9'
     >>> topsecret.get('Cipher')
     >>> topsecret.get('Cipher', '3des-cbc')
     '3des-cbc'

Please note that default values have precedence over fallback values.
For instance, in our example the ‘'CompressionLevel'’ key was specified
only in the ‘'DEFAULT'’ section.  If we try to get it from the section
‘'topsecret.server.example'’, we will always get the default, even if we
specify a fallback:

     >>> topsecret.get('CompressionLevel', '3')
     '9'

One more thing to be aware of is that the parser-level *note get():
1610. method provides a custom, more complex interface, maintained for
backwards compatibility.  When using this method, a fallback value can
be provided via the ‘fallback’ keyword-only argument:

     >>> config.get('forge.example', 'monster',
     ...            fallback='No such things as monsters')
     'No such things as monsters'

The same ‘fallback’ argument can be used with the *note getint(): 3199,
*note getfloat(): 319a. and *note getboolean(): 3198. methods, for
example:

     >>> 'BatchMode' in topsecret
     False
     >>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
     True
     >>> config['DEFAULT']['BatchMode'] = 'no'
     >>> topsecret.getboolean('BatchMode', fallback=True)
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Supported INI File Structure,  Next: Unnamed Sections,  Prev: Fallback Values,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.15.2.4 Supported INI File Structure
.....................................

A configuration file consists of sections, each led by a ‘[section]’
header, followed by key/value entries separated by a specific string
(‘=’ or ‘:’ by default (1)).  By default, section names are case
sensitive but keys are not (2).  Leading and trailing whitespace is
removed from keys and values.  Values can be omitted if the parser is
configured to allow it (3), in which case the key/value delimiter may
also be left out.  Values can also span multiple lines, as long as they
are indented deeper than the first line of the value.  Depending on the
parser’s mode, blank lines may be treated as parts of multiline values
or ignored.

By default, a valid section name can be any string that does not contain
“\n”.  To change this, see *note ConfigParser.SECTCRE: 319c.

The first section name may be omitted if the parser is configured to
allow an unnamed top level section with ‘allow_unnamed_section=True’.
In this case, the keys/values may be retrieved by *note UNNAMED_SECTION:
199c. as in ‘config[UNNAMED_SECTION]’.

Configuration files may include comments, prefixed by specific
characters (‘#’ and ‘;’ by default (4)).  Comments may appear on their
own on an otherwise empty line, possibly indented.  (5)

For example:

     [Simple Values]
     key=value
     spaces in keys=allowed
     spaces in values=allowed as well
     spaces around the delimiter = obviously
     you can also use : to delimit keys from values

     [All Values Are Strings]
     values like this: 1000000
     or this: 3.14159265359
     are they treated as numbers? : no
     integers, floats and booleans are held as: strings
     can use the API to get converted values directly: true

     [Multiline Values]
     chorus: I'm a lumberjack, and I'm okay
         I sleep all night and I work all day

     [No Values]
     key_without_value
     empty string value here =

     [You can use comments]
     # like this
     ; or this

     # By default only in an empty line.
     # Inline comments can be harmful because they prevent users
     # from using the delimiting characters as parts of values.
     # That being said, this can be customized.

         [Sections Can Be Indented]
             can_values_be_as_well = True
             does_that_mean_anything_special = False
             purpose = formatting for readability
             multiline_values = are
                 handled just fine as
                 long as they are indented
                 deeper than the first line
                 of a value
             # Did I mention we can indent comments, too?

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 3196. section.

   (2) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 3196. section.

   (3) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 3196. section.

   (4) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 3196. section.

   (5) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 3196. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Unnamed Sections,  Next: Interpolation of values,  Prev: Supported INI File Structure,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.15.2.5 Unnamed Sections
.........................

The name of the first section (or unique) may be omitted and values
retrieved by the *note UNNAMED_SECTION: 199c. attribute.

     >>> config = """
     ... option = value
     ...
     ... [  Section 2  ]
     ... another = val
     ... """
     >>> unnamed = configparser.ConfigParser(allow_unnamed_section=True)
     >>> unnamed.read_string(config)
     >>> unnamed.get(configparser.UNNAMED_SECTION, 'option')
     'value'


File: python.info,  Node: Interpolation of values,  Next: Mapping Protocol Access,  Prev: Unnamed Sections,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.15.2.6 Interpolation of values
................................

On top of the core functionality, *note ConfigParser: 6e4. supports
interpolation.  This means values can be preprocessed before returning
them from ‘get()’ calls.

 -- Κλάση: configparser.BasicInterpolation

     The default implementation used by *note ConfigParser: 6e4.  It
     enables values to contain format strings which refer to other
     values in the same section, or values in the special default
     section (1).  Additional default values can be provided on
     initialization.

     For example:

          [Paths]
          home_dir: /Users
          my_dir: %(home_dir)s/lumberjack
          my_pictures: %(my_dir)s/Pictures

          [Escape]
          # use a %% to escape the % sign (% is the only character that needs to be escaped):
          gain: 80%%

     In the example above, *note ConfigParser: 6e4. with 'interpolation'
     set to ‘BasicInterpolation()’ would resolve ‘%(home_dir)s’ to the
     value of ‘home_dir’ (‘/Users’ in this case).  ‘%(my_dir)s’ in
     effect would resolve to ‘/Users/lumberjack’.  All interpolations
     are done on demand so keys used in the chain of references do not
     have to be specified in any specific order in the configuration
     file.

     With ‘interpolation’ set to ‘None’, the parser would simply return
     ‘%(my_dir)s/Pictures’ as the value of ‘my_pictures’ and
     ‘%(home_dir)s/lumberjack’ as the value of ‘my_dir’.

 -- Κλάση: configparser.ExtendedInterpolation

     An alternative handler for interpolation which implements a more
     advanced syntax, used for instance in ‘zc.buildout’.  Extended
     interpolation is using ‘${section:option}’ to denote a value from a
     foreign section.  Interpolation can span multiple levels.  For
     convenience, if the ‘section:’ part is omitted, interpolation
     defaults to the current section (and possibly the default values
     from the special section).

     For example, the configuration specified above with basic
     interpolation, would look like this with extended interpolation:

          [Paths]
          home_dir: /Users
          my_dir: ${home_dir}/lumberjack
          my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures

          [Escape]
          # use a $$ to escape the $ sign ($ is the only character that needs to be escaped):
          cost: $$80

     Values from other sections can be fetched as well:

          [Common]
          home_dir: /Users
          library_dir: /Library
          system_dir: /System
          macports_dir: /opt/local

          [Frameworks]
          Python: 3.2
          path: ${Common:system_dir}/Library/Frameworks/

          [Arthur]
          nickname: Two Sheds
          last_name: Jackson
          my_dir: ${Common:home_dir}/twosheds
          my_pictures: ${my_dir}/Pictures
          python_dir: ${Frameworks:path}/Python/Versions/${Frameworks:Python}

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 3196. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Protocol Access,  Next: Customizing Parser Behaviour,  Prev: Interpolation of values,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.15.2.7 Mapping Protocol Access
................................

Added in version 3.2.

Mapping protocol access is a generic name for functionality that enables
using custom objects as if they were dictionaries.  In case of
‘configparser’, the mapping interface implementation is using the
‘parser['section']['option']’ notation.

‘parser['section']’ in particular returns a proxy for the section’s data
in the parser.  This means that the values are not copied but they are
taken from the original parser on demand.  What’s even more important is
that when values are changed on a section proxy, they are actually
mutated in the original parser.

‘configparser’ objects behave as close to actual dictionaries as
possible.  The mapping interface is complete and adheres to the *note
MutableMapping: 1459. ABC. However, there are a few differences that
should be taken into account:

   * By default, all keys in sections are accessible in a
     case-insensitive manner (1).  E.g.  ‘for option in
     parser["section"]’ yields only ‘optionxform’’ed option key names.
     This means lowercased keys by default.  At the same time, for a
     section that holds the key ‘'a'’, both expressions return ‘True’:

          "a" in parser["section"]
          "A" in parser["section"]

   * All sections include ‘DEFAULTSECT’ values as well which means that
     ‘.clear()’ on a section may not leave the section visibly empty.
     This is because default values cannot be deleted from the section
     (because technically they are not there).  If they are overridden
     in the section, deleting causes the default value to be visible
     again.  Trying to delete a default value causes a *note KeyError:
     7df.

   * ‘DEFAULTSECT’ cannot be removed from the parser:

        * trying to delete it raises *note ValueError: 277,

        * ‘parser.clear()’ leaves it intact,

        * ‘parser.popitem()’ never returns it.

   * ‘parser.get(section, option, **kwargs)’ - the second argument is
     'not' a fallback value.  Note however that the section-level
     ‘get()’ methods are compatible both with the mapping protocol and
     the classic configparser API.

   * ‘parser.items()’ is compatible with the mapping protocol (returns a
     list of 'section_name', 'section_proxy' pairs including the
     DEFAULTSECT). However, this method can also be invoked with
     arguments: ‘parser.items(section, raw, vars)’.  The latter call
     returns a list of 'option', 'value' pairs for a specified
     ‘section’, with all interpolations expanded (unless ‘raw=True’ is
     provided).

The mapping protocol is implemented on top of the existing legacy API so
that subclasses overriding the original interface still should have
mappings working as expected.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Config parsers allow for heavy customization.  If you are
interested in changing the behaviour outlined by the footnote reference,
consult the *note Customizing Parser Behaviour: 3196. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing Parser Behaviour,  Next: Legacy API Examples,  Prev: Mapping Protocol Access,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.15.2.8 Customizing Parser Behaviour
.....................................

There are nearly as many INI format variants as there are applications
using it.  ‘configparser’ goes a long way to provide support for the
largest sensible set of INI styles available.  The default functionality
is mainly dictated by historical background and it’s very likely that
you will want to customize some of the features.

The most common way to change the way a specific config parser works is
to use the ‘__init__()’ options:

   * 'defaults', default value: ‘None’

     This option accepts a dictionary of key-value pairs which will be
     initially put in the ‘DEFAULT’ section.  This makes for an elegant
     way to support concise configuration files that don’t specify
     values which are the same as the documented default.

     Hint: if you want to specify default values for a specific section,
     use *note read_dict(): 31a0. before you read the actual file.

   * 'dict_type', default value: *note dict: 188.

     This option has a major impact on how the mapping protocol will
     behave and how the written configuration files look.  With the
     standard dictionary, every section is stored in the order they were
     added to the parser.  Same goes for options within sections.

     An alternative dictionary type can be used for example to sort
     sections and options on write-back.

     Please note: there are ways to add a set of key-value pairs in a
     single operation.  When you use a regular dictionary in those
     operations, the order of the keys will be ordered.  For example:

          >>> parser = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> parser.read_dict({'section1': {'key1': 'value1',
          ...                                'key2': 'value2',
          ...                                'key3': 'value3'},
          ...                   'section2': {'keyA': 'valueA',
          ...                                'keyB': 'valueB',
          ...                                'keyC': 'valueC'},
          ...                   'section3': {'foo': 'x',
          ...                                'bar': 'y',
          ...                                'baz': 'z'}
          ... })
          >>> parser.sections()
          ['section1', 'section2', 'section3']
          >>> [option for option in parser['section3']]
          ['foo', 'bar', 'baz']

   * 'allow_no_value', default value: ‘False’

     Some configuration files are known to include settings without
     values, but which otherwise conform to the syntax supported by
     ‘configparser’.  The 'allow_no_value' parameter to the constructor
     can be used to indicate that such values should be accepted:

          >>> import configparser

          >>> sample_config = """
          ... [mysqld]
          ...   user = mysql
          ...   pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid
          ...   skip-external-locking
          ...   old_passwords = 1
          ...   skip-bdb
          ...   # we don't need ACID today
          ...   skip-innodb
          ... """
          >>> config = configparser.ConfigParser(allow_no_value=True)
          >>> config.read_string(sample_config)

          >>> # Settings with values are treated as before:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["user"]
          'mysql'

          >>> # Settings without values provide None:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["skip-bdb"]

          >>> # Settings which aren't specified still raise an error:
          >>> config["mysqld"]["does-not-exist"]
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          KeyError: 'does-not-exist'

   * 'delimiters', default value: ‘('=', ':')’

     Delimiters are substrings that delimit keys from values within a
     section.  The first occurrence of a delimiting substring on a line
     is considered a delimiter.  This means values (but not keys) can
     contain the delimiters.

     See also the 'space_around_delimiters' argument to *note
     ConfigParser.write(): 475.

   * 'comment_prefixes', default value: ‘('#', ';')’

   * 'inline_comment_prefixes', default value: ‘None’

     Comment prefixes are strings that indicate the start of a valid
     comment within a config file.  'comment_prefixes' are used only on
     otherwise empty lines (optionally indented) whereas
     'inline_comment_prefixes' can be used after every valid value (e.g.
     section names, options and empty lines as well).  By default inline
     comments are disabled and ‘'#'’ and ‘';'’ are used as prefixes for
     whole line comments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: In previous versions of ‘configparser’
     behaviour matched ‘comment_prefixes=('#',';')’ and
     ‘inline_comment_prefixes=(';',)’.

     Please note that config parsers don’t support escaping of comment
     prefixes so using 'inline_comment_prefixes' may prevent users from
     specifying option values with characters used as comment prefixes.
     When in doubt, avoid setting 'inline_comment_prefixes'.  In any
     circumstances, the only way of storing comment prefix characters at
     the beginning of a line in multiline values is to interpolate the
     prefix, for example:

          >>> from configparser import ConfigParser, ExtendedInterpolation
          >>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation())
          >>> # the default BasicInterpolation could be used as well
          >>> parser.read_string("""
          ... [DEFAULT]
          ... hash = #
          ...
          ... [hashes]
          ... shebang =
          ...   ${hash}!/usr/bin/env python
          ...   ${hash} -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
          ...
          ... extensions =
          ...   enabled_extension
          ...   another_extension
          ...   #disabled_by_comment
          ...   yet_another_extension
          ...
          ... interpolation not necessary = if # is not at line start
          ... even in multiline values = line #1
          ...   line #2
          ...   line #3
          ... """)
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['shebang'])

          #!/usr/bin/env python
          # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['extensions'])

          enabled_extension
          another_extension
          yet_another_extension
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['interpolation not necessary'])
          if # is not at line start
          >>> print(parser['hashes']['even in multiline values'])
          line #1
          line #2
          line #3

   * 'strict', default value: ‘True’

     When set to ‘True’, the parser will not allow for any section or
     option duplicates while reading from a single source (using *note
     read_file(): 915, *note read_string(): 31a1. or *note read_dict():
     31a0.).  It is recommended to use strict parsers in new
     applications.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: In previous versions of ‘configparser’
     behaviour matched ‘strict=False’.

   * 'empty_lines_in_values', default value: ‘True’

     In config parsers, values can span multiple lines as long as they
     are indented more than the key that holds them.  By default parsers
     also let empty lines to be parts of values.  At the same time, keys
     can be arbitrarily indented themselves to improve readability.  In
     consequence, when configuration files get big and complex, it is
     easy for the user to lose track of the file structure.  Take for
     instance:

          [Section]
          key = multiline
            value with a gotcha

           this = is still a part of the multiline value of 'key'

     This can be especially problematic for the user to see if she’s
     using a proportional font to edit the file.  That is why when your
     application does not need values with empty lines, you should
     consider disallowing them.  This will make empty lines split keys
     every time.  In the example above, it would produce two keys, ‘key’
     and ‘this’.

   * 'default_section', default value: ‘configparser.DEFAULTSECT’ (that
     is: ‘"DEFAULT"’)

     The convention of allowing a special section of default values for
     other sections or interpolation purposes is a powerful concept of
     this library, letting users create complex declarative
     configurations.  This section is normally called ‘"DEFAULT"’ but
     this can be customized to point to any other valid section name.
     Some typical values include: ‘"general"’ or ‘"common"’.  The name
     provided is used for recognizing default sections when reading from
     any source and is used when writing configuration back to a file.
     Its current value can be retrieved using the
     ‘parser_instance.default_section’ attribute and may be modified at
     runtime (i.e.  to convert files from one format to another).

   * 'interpolation', default value: ‘configparser.BasicInterpolation’

     Interpolation behaviour may be customized by providing a custom
     handler through the 'interpolation' argument.  ‘None’ can be used
     to turn off interpolation completely, ‘ExtendedInterpolation()’
     provides a more advanced variant inspired by ‘zc.buildout’.  More
     on the subject in the *note dedicated documentation section: 319f.
     *note RawConfigParser: 130e. has a default value of ‘None’.

   * 'converters', default value: not set

     Config parsers provide option value getters that perform type
     conversion.  By default *note getint(): 3199, *note getfloat():
     319a, and *note getboolean(): 3198. are implemented.  Should other
     getters be desirable, users may define them in a subclass or pass a
     dictionary where each key is a name of the converter and each value
     is a callable implementing said conversion.  For instance, passing
     ‘{'decimal': decimal.Decimal}’ would add ‘getdecimal()’ on both the
     parser object and all section proxies.  In other words, it will be
     possible to write both ‘parser_instance.getdecimal('section',
     'key', fallback=0)’ and
     ‘parser_instance['section'].getdecimal('key', 0)’.

     If the converter needs to access the state of the parser, it can be
     implemented as a method on a config parser subclass.  If the name
     of this method starts with ‘get’, it will be available on all
     section proxies, in the dict-compatible form (see the
     ‘getdecimal()’ example above).

More advanced customization may be achieved by overriding default values
of these parser attributes.  The defaults are defined on the classes, so
they may be overridden by subclasses or by attribute assignment.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ConfigParser.BOOLEAN_STATES

     By default when using *note getboolean(): 3198, config parsers
     consider the following values ‘True’: ‘'1'’, ‘'yes'’, ‘'true'’,
     ‘'on'’ and the following values ‘False’: ‘'0'’, ‘'no'’, ‘'false'’,
     ‘'off'’.  You can override this by specifying a custom dictionary
     of strings and their Boolean outcomes.  For example:

          >>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> custom['section1'] = {'funky': 'nope'}
          >>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          ValueError: Not a boolean: nope
          >>> custom.BOOLEAN_STATES = {'sure': True, 'nope': False}
          >>> custom['section1'].getboolean('funky')
          False

     Other typical Boolean pairs include ‘accept’/‘reject’ or
     ‘enabled’/‘disabled’.

 -- Μέθοδος: ConfigParser.optionxform (option)

     This method transforms option names on every read, get, or set
     operation.  The default converts the name to lowercase.  This also
     means that when a configuration file gets written, all keys will be
     lowercase.  Override this method if that’s unsuitable.  For
     example:

          >>> config = """
          ... [Section1]
          ... Key = Value
          ...
          ... [Section2]
          ... AnotherKey = Value
          ... """
          >>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> typical.read_string(config)
          >>> list(typical['Section1'].keys())
          ['key']
          >>> list(typical['Section2'].keys())
          ['anotherkey']
          >>> custom = configparser.RawConfigParser()
          >>> custom.optionxform = lambda option: option
          >>> custom.read_string(config)
          >>> list(custom['Section1'].keys())
          ['Key']
          >>> list(custom['Section2'].keys())
          ['AnotherKey']

          Σημείωση: The optionxform function transforms option names to
          a canonical form.  This should be an idempotent function: if
          the name is already in canonical form, it should be returned
          unchanged.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ConfigParser.SECTCRE

     A compiled regular expression used to parse section headers.  The
     default matches ‘[section]’ to the name ‘"section"’.  Whitespace is
     considered part of the section name, thus ‘[ larch ]’ will be read
     as a section of name ‘" larch "’.  Override this attribute if
     that’s unsuitable.  For example:

          >>> import re
          >>> config = """
          ... [Section 1]
          ... option = value
          ...
          ... [  Section 2  ]
          ... another = val
          ... """
          >>> typical = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> typical.read_string(config)
          >>> typical.sections()
          ['Section 1', '  Section 2  ']
          >>> custom = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> custom.SECTCRE = re.compile(r"\[ *(?P<header>[^]]+?) *\]")
          >>> custom.read_string(config)
          >>> custom.sections()
          ['Section 1', 'Section 2']

          Σημείωση: While ConfigParser objects also use an ‘OPTCRE’
          attribute for recognizing option lines, it’s not recommended
          to override it because that would interfere with constructor
          options 'allow_no_value' and 'delimiters'.


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy API Examples,  Next: ConfigParser Objects,  Prev: Customizing Parser Behaviour,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.15.2.9 Legacy API Examples
............................

Mainly because of backwards compatibility concerns, ‘configparser’
provides also a legacy API with explicit ‘get’/‘set’ methods.  While
there are valid use cases for the methods outlined below, mapping
protocol access is preferred for new projects.  The legacy API is at
times more advanced, low-level and downright counterintuitive.

An example of writing to a configuration file:

     import configparser

     config = configparser.RawConfigParser()

     # Please note that using RawConfigParser's set functions, you can assign
     # non-string values to keys internally, but will receive an error when
     # attempting to write to a file or when you get it in non-raw mode. Setting
     # values using the mapping protocol or ConfigParser's set() does not allow
     # such assignments to take place.
     config.add_section('Section1')
     config.set('Section1', 'an_int', '15')
     config.set('Section1', 'a_bool', 'true')
     config.set('Section1', 'a_float', '3.1415')
     config.set('Section1', 'baz', 'fun')
     config.set('Section1', 'bar', 'Python')
     config.set('Section1', 'foo', '%(bar)s is %(baz)s!')

     # Writing our configuration file to 'example.cfg'
     with open('example.cfg', 'w') as configfile:
         config.write(configfile)

An example of reading the configuration file again:

     import configparser

     config = configparser.RawConfigParser()
     config.read('example.cfg')

     # getfloat() raises an exception if the value is not a float
     # getint() and getboolean() also do this for their respective types
     a_float = config.getfloat('Section1', 'a_float')
     an_int = config.getint('Section1', 'an_int')
     print(a_float + an_int)

     # Notice that the next output does not interpolate '%(bar)s' or '%(baz)s'.
     # This is because we are using a RawConfigParser().
     if config.getboolean('Section1', 'a_bool'):
         print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))

To get interpolation, use *note ConfigParser: 6e4.:

     import configparser

     cfg = configparser.ConfigParser()
     cfg.read('example.cfg')

     # Set the optional *raw* argument of get() to True if you wish to disable
     # interpolation in a single get operation.
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=False))  # -> "Python is fun!"
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', raw=True))   # -> "%(bar)s is %(baz)s!"

     # The optional *vars* argument is a dict with members that will take
     # precedence in interpolation.
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', vars={'bar': 'Documentation',
                                            'baz': 'evil'}))

     # The optional *fallback* argument can be used to provide a fallback value
     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo'))
           # -> "Python is fun!"

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'foo', fallback='Monty is not.'))
           # -> "Python is fun!"

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback='No such things as monsters.'))
           # -> "No such things as monsters."

     # A bare print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster')) would raise NoOptionError
     # but we can also use:

     print(cfg.get('Section1', 'monster', fallback=None))
           # -> None

Default values are available in both types of ConfigParsers.  They are
used in interpolation if an option used is not defined elsewhere.

     import configparser

     # New instance with 'bar' and 'baz' defaulting to 'Life' and 'hard' each
     config = configparser.ConfigParser({'bar': 'Life', 'baz': 'hard'})
     config.read('example.cfg')

     print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Python is fun!"
     config.remove_option('Section1', 'bar')
     config.remove_option('Section1', 'baz')
     print(config.get('Section1', 'foo'))     # -> "Life is hard!"


File: python.info,  Node: ConfigParser Objects,  Next: RawConfigParser Objects,  Prev: Legacy API Examples,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.15.2.10 ConfigParser Objects
..............................

 -- Κλάση: configparser.ConfigParser (defaults=None, dict_type=dict,
          allow_no_value=False, *, delimiters=('=', ':'),
          comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None,
          strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True,
          default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT,
          interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={},
          allow_unnamed_section=False)

     The main configuration parser.  When 'defaults' is given, it is
     initialized into the dictionary of intrinsic defaults.  When
     'dict_type' is given, it will be used to create the dictionary
     objects for the list of sections, for the options within a section,
     and for the default values.

     When 'delimiters' is given, it is used as the set of substrings
     that divide keys from values.  When 'comment_prefixes' is given, it
     will be used as the set of substrings that prefix comments in
     otherwise empty lines.  Comments can be indented.  When
     'inline_comment_prefixes' is given, it will be used as the set of
     substrings that prefix comments in non-empty lines.

     When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default), the parser won’t allow for
     any section or option duplicates while reading from a single source
     (file, string or dictionary), raising *note DuplicateSectionError:
     1613. or *note DuplicateOptionError: 1614.  When
     'empty_lines_in_values' is ‘False’ (default: ‘True’), each empty
     line marks the end of an option.  Otherwise, internal empty lines
     of a multiline option are kept as part of the value.  When
     'allow_no_value' is ‘True’ (default: ‘False’), options without
     values are accepted; the value held for these is ‘None’ and they
     are serialized without the trailing delimiter.

     When 'default_section' is given, it specifies the name for the
     special section holding default values for other sections and
     interpolation purposes (normally named ‘"DEFAULT"’).  This value
     can be retrieved and changed at runtime using the ‘default_section’
     instance attribute.  This won’t re-evaluate an already parsed
     config file, but will be used when writing parsed settings to a new
     config file.

     Interpolation behaviour may be customized by providing a custom
     handler through the 'interpolation' argument.  ‘None’ can be used
     to turn off interpolation completely, ‘ExtendedInterpolation()’
     provides a more advanced variant inspired by ‘zc.buildout’.  More
     on the subject in the *note dedicated documentation section: 319f.

     All option names used in interpolation will be passed through the
     *note optionxform(): 31a6. method just like any other option name
     reference.  For example, using the default implementation of
     ‘optionxform()’ (which converts option names to lower case), the
     values ‘foo %(bar)s’ and ‘foo %(BAR)s’ are equivalent.

     When 'converters' is given, it should be a dictionary where each
     key represents the name of a type converter and each value is a
     callable implementing the conversion from string to the desired
     datatype.  Every converter gets its own corresponding ‘get*()’
     method on the parser object and section proxies.

     When 'allow_unnamed_section' is ‘True’ (default: ‘False’), the
     first section name can be omitted.  See the *note "Unnamed
     Sections" section: 319e.

     It is possible to read several configurations into a single
     ‘ConfigParser’, where the most recently added configuration has the
     highest priority.  Any conflicting keys are taken from the more
     recent configuration while the previously existing keys are
     retained.  The example below reads in an ‘override.ini’ file, which
     will override any conflicting keys from the ‘example.ini’ file.

          [DEFAULT]
          ServerAliveInterval = -1

          >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> config_override['DEFAULT'] = {'ServerAliveInterval': '-1'}
          >>> with open('override.ini', 'w') as configfile:
          ...     config_override.write(configfile)
          ...
          >>> config_override = configparser.ConfigParser()
          >>> config_override.read(['example.ini', 'override.ini'])
          ['example.ini', 'override.ini']
          >>> print(config_override.get('DEFAULT', 'ServerAliveInterval'))
          -1

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: The default 'dict_type' is *note
     collections.OrderedDict: 9d5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'allow_no_value', 'delimiters',
     'comment_prefixes', 'strict', 'empty_lines_in_values',
     'default_section' and 'interpolation' were added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'converters' argument was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'defaults' argument is read with *note
     read_dict(): 31a0, providing consistent behavior across the parser:
     non-string keys and values are implicitly converted to strings.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The default 'dict_type' is *note dict: 188,
     since it now preserves insertion order.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Raise a *note MultilineContinuationError:
     31a7. when 'allow_no_value' is ‘True’, and a key without a value is
     continued with an indented line.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'allow_unnamed_section' argument was
     added.

      -- Μέθοδος: defaults ()

          Return a dictionary containing the instance-wide defaults.

      -- Μέθοδος: sections ()

          Return a list of the sections available; the 'default section'
          is not included in the list.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_section (section)

          Add a section named 'section' to the instance.  If a section
          by the given name already exists, *note DuplicateSectionError:
          1613. is raised.  If the 'default section' name is passed,
          *note ValueError: 277. is raised.  The name of the section
          must be a string; if not, *note TypeError: 291. is raised.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Non-string section names raise *note
          TypeError: 291.

      -- Μέθοδος: has_section (section)

          Indicates whether the named 'section' is present in the
          configuration.  The 'default section' is not acknowledged.

      -- Μέθοδος: options (section)

          Return a list of options available in the specified 'section'.

      -- Μέθοδος: has_option (section, option)

          If the given 'section' exists, and contains the given
          'option', return *note True: fcc.; otherwise return *note
          False: ef5.  If the specified 'section' is *note None: a65. or
          an empty string, DEFAULT is assumed.

      -- Μέθοδος: read (filenames, encoding=None)

          Attempt to read and parse an iterable of filenames, returning
          a list of filenames which were successfully parsed.

          If 'filenames' is a string, a *note bytes: 1c7. object or a
          *note path-like object: 79f, it is treated as a single
          filename.  If a file named in 'filenames' cannot be opened,
          that file will be ignored.  This is designed so that you can
          specify an iterable of potential configuration file locations
          (for example, the current directory, the user’s home
          directory, and some system-wide directory), and all existing
          configuration files in the iterable will be read.

          If none of the named files exist, the ‘ConfigParser’ instance
          will contain an empty dataset.  An application which requires
          initial values to be loaded from a file should load the
          required file or files using *note read_file(): 915. before
          calling ‘read()’ for any optional files:

               import configparser, os

               config = configparser.ConfigParser()
               config.read_file(open('defaults.cfg'))
               config.read(['site.cfg', os.path.expanduser('~/.myapp.cfg')],
                           encoding='cp1250')

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'encoding' parameter.
          Previously, all files were read using the default encoding for
          *note open(): 32b.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6.1: The 'filenames' parameter accepts a
          *note path-like object: 79f.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'filenames' parameter accepts a
          *note bytes: 1c7. object.

      -- Μέθοδος: read_file (f, source=None)

          Read and parse configuration data from 'f' which must be an
          iterable yielding Unicode strings (for example files opened in
          text mode).

          Optional argument 'source' specifies the name of the file
          being read.  If not given and 'f' has a ‘name’ attribute, that
          is used for 'source'; the default is ‘'<???>'’.

          Added in version 3.2: Replaces ‘readfp()’.

      -- Μέθοδος: read_string (string, source='<string>')

          Parse configuration data from a string.

          Optional argument 'source' specifies a context-specific name
          of the string passed.  If not given, ‘'<string>'’ is used.
          This should commonly be a filesystem path or a URL.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: read_dict (dictionary, source='<dict>')

          Load configuration from any object that provides a dict-like
          ‘items()’ method.  Keys are section names, values are
          dictionaries with keys and values that should be present in
          the section.  If the used dictionary type preserves order,
          sections and their keys will be added in order.  Values are
          automatically converted to strings.

          Optional argument 'source' specifies a context-specific name
          of the dictionary passed.  If not given, ‘<dict>’ is used.

          This method can be used to copy state between parsers.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: get (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          Get an 'option' value for the named 'section'.  If 'vars' is
          provided, it must be a dictionary.  The 'option' is looked up
          in 'vars' (if provided), 'section', and in 'DEFAULTSECT' in
          that order.  If the key is not found and 'fallback' is
          provided, it is used as a fallback value.  ‘None’ can be
          provided as a 'fallback' value.

          All the ‘'%'’ interpolations are expanded in the return
          values, unless the 'raw' argument is true.  Values for
          interpolation keys are looked up in the same manner as the
          option.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Arguments 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'
          are keyword only to protect users from trying to use the third
          argument as the 'fallback' fallback (especially when using the
          mapping protocol).

      -- Μέθοδος: getint (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          A convenience method which coerces the 'option' in the
          specified 'section' to an integer.  See *note get(): 1610. for
          explanation of 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'.

      -- Μέθοδος: getfloat (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          A convenience method which coerces the 'option' in the
          specified 'section' to a floating-point number.  See *note
          get(): 1610. for explanation of 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'.

      -- Μέθοδος: getboolean (section, option, *, raw=False, vars=None[,
               fallback])

          A convenience method which coerces the 'option' in the
          specified 'section' to a Boolean value.  Note that the
          accepted values for the option are ‘'1'’, ‘'yes'’, ‘'true'’,
          and ‘'on'’, which cause this method to return ‘True’, and
          ‘'0'’, ‘'no'’, ‘'false'’, and ‘'off'’, which cause it to
          return ‘False’.  These string values are checked in a
          case-insensitive manner.  Any other value will cause it to
          raise *note ValueError: 277.  See *note get(): 1610. for
          explanation of 'raw', 'vars' and 'fallback'.

      -- Μέθοδος: items (raw=False, vars=None)

      -- Μέθοδος: items (section, raw=False, vars=None)

          When 'section' is not given, return a list of 'section_name',
          'section_proxy' pairs, including DEFAULTSECT.

          Otherwise, return a list of 'name', 'value' pairs for the
          options in the given 'section'.  Optional arguments have the
          same meaning as for the *note get(): 1610. method.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Items present in 'vars' no longer
          appear in the result.  The previous behaviour mixed actual
          parser options with variables provided for interpolation.

      -- Μέθοδος: set (section, option, value)

          If the given section exists, set the given option to the
          specified value; otherwise raise *note NoSectionError: 31ae.
          'option' and 'value' must be strings; if not, *note TypeError:
          291. is raised.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (fileobject, space_around_delimiters=True)

          Write a representation of the configuration to the specified
          *note file object: 156c, which must be opened in text mode
          (accepting strings).  This representation can be parsed by a
          future *note read(): 180a. call.  If 'space_around_delimiters'
          is true, delimiters between keys and values are surrounded by
          spaces.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Raises InvalidWriteError if this
          would write a representation which cannot be accurately parsed
          by a future *note read(): 180a. call from this parser.

          Σημείωση: Comments in the original configuration file are not
          preserved when writing the configuration back.  What is
          considered a comment, depends on the given values for
          'comment_prefix' and 'inline_comment_prefix'.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove_option (section, option)

          Remove the specified 'option' from the specified 'section'.
          If the section does not exist, raise *note NoSectionError:
          31ae.  If the option existed to be removed, return *note True:
          fcc.; otherwise return *note False: ef5.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove_section (section)

          Remove the specified 'section' from the configuration.  If the
          section in fact existed, return ‘True’.  Otherwise return
          ‘False’.

      -- Μέθοδος: optionxform (option)

          Transforms the option name 'option' as found in an input file
          or as passed in by client code to the form that should be used
          in the internal structures.  The default implementation
          returns a lower-case version of 'option'; subclasses may
          override this or client code can set an attribute of this name
          on instances to affect this behavior.

          You don’t need to subclass the parser to use this method, you
          can also set it on an instance, to a function that takes a
          string argument and returns a string.  Setting it to ‘str’,
          for example, would make option names case sensitive:

               cfgparser = ConfigParser()
               cfgparser.optionxform = str

          Note that when reading configuration files, whitespace around
          the option names is stripped before ‘optionxform()’ is called.

 -- Δεδομένα: configparser.UNNAMED_SECTION

     A special object representing a section name used to reference the
     unnamed section (see *note Unnamed Sections: 319e.).

 -- Δεδομένα: configparser.MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH

     The maximum depth for recursive interpolation for *note get():
     1610. when the 'raw' parameter is false.  This is relevant only
     when the default 'interpolation' is used.


File: python.info,  Node: RawConfigParser Objects,  Next: Exceptions<8>,  Prev: ConfigParser Objects,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.15.2.11 RawConfigParser Objects
.................................

 -- Κλάση: configparser.RawConfigParser (defaults=None, dict_type=dict,
          allow_no_value=False, *, delimiters=('=', ':'),
          comment_prefixes=('#', ';'), inline_comment_prefixes=None,
          strict=True, empty_lines_in_values=True,
          default_section=configparser.DEFAULTSECT,
          interpolation=BasicInterpolation(), converters={},
          allow_unnamed_section=False)

     Legacy variant of the *note ConfigParser: 6e4.  It has
     interpolation disabled by default and allows for non-string section
     names, option names, and values via its unsafe ‘add_section’ and
     ‘set’ methods, as well as the legacy ‘defaults=’ keyword argument
     handling.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'allow_no_value', 'delimiters',
     'comment_prefixes', 'strict', 'empty_lines_in_values',
     'default_section' and 'interpolation' were added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'converters' argument was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The default 'dict_type' is *note dict: 188,
     since it now preserves insertion order.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'allow_unnamed_section' argument was
     added.

          Σημείωση: Consider using *note ConfigParser: 6e4. instead
          which checks types of the values to be stored internally.  If
          you don’t want interpolation, you can use
          ‘ConfigParser(interpolation=None)’.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_section (section)

          Add a section named 'section' or *note UNNAMED_SECTION: 199c.
          to the instance.

          If the given section already exists, *note
          DuplicateSectionError: 1613. is raised.  If the 'default
          section' name is passed, *note ValueError: 277. is raised.  If
          *note UNNAMED_SECTION: 199c. is passed and support is
          disabled, *note UnnamedSectionDisabledError: 31b5. is raised.

          Type of 'section' is not checked which lets users create
          non-string named sections.  This behaviour is unsupported and
          may cause internal errors.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added support for *note UNNAMED_SECTION:
     199c.

      -- Μέθοδος: set (section, option, value)

          If the given section exists, set the given option to the
          specified value; otherwise raise *note NoSectionError: 31ae.
          While it is possible to use ‘RawConfigParser’ (or *note
          ConfigParser: 6e4. with 'raw' parameters set to true) for
          'internal' storage of non-string values, full functionality
          (including interpolation and output to files) can only be
          achieved using string values.

          This method lets users assign non-string values to keys
          internally.  This behaviour is unsupported and will cause
          errors when attempting to write to a file or get it in non-raw
          mode.  'Use the mapping protocol API' which does not allow
          such assignments to take place.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<8>,  Prev: RawConfigParser Objects,  Up: configparser — Configuration file parser

5.15.2.12 Exceptions
....................

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.Error

     Base class for all other ‘configparser’ exceptions.

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.NoSectionError

     Exception raised when a specified section is not found.

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.DuplicateSectionError

     Exception raised if *note add_section(): 1612. is called with the
     name of a section that is already present or in strict parsers when
     a section if found more than once in a single input file, string or
     dictionary.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the optional 'source' and 'lineno'
     attributes and parameters to ‘__init__()’.

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.DuplicateOptionError

     Exception raised by strict parsers if a single option appears twice
     during reading from a single file, string or dictionary.  This
     catches misspellings and case sensitivity-related errors, e.g.  a
     dictionary may have two keys representing the same case-insensitive
     configuration key.

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.NoOptionError

     Exception raised when a specified option is not found in the
     specified section.

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.InterpolationError

     Base class for exceptions raised when problems occur performing
     string interpolation.

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.InterpolationDepthError

     Exception raised when string interpolation cannot be completed
     because the number of iterations exceeds *note
     MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH: 31b1.  Subclass of *note
     InterpolationError: 31ba.

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.InterpolationMissingOptionError

     Exception raised when an option referenced from a value does not
     exist.  Subclass of *note InterpolationError: 31ba.

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.InterpolationSyntaxError

     Exception raised when the source text into which substitutions are
     made does not conform to the required syntax.  Subclass of *note
     InterpolationError: 31ba.

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.MissingSectionHeaderError

     Exception raised when attempting to parse a file which has no
     section headers.

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.ParsingError

     Exception raised when errors occur attempting to parse a file.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The ‘filename’ attribute and ‘__init__()’
     constructor argument were removed.  They have been available using
     the name ‘source’ since 3.2.

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.MultilineContinuationError

     Exception raised when a key without a corresponding value is
     continued with an indented line.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.UnnamedSectionDisabledError

     Exception raised when attempting to use the *note UNNAMED_SECTION:
     199c. without enabling it.

          Added in version 3.14.

 -- Εξαίρεση: configparser.InvalidWriteError

     Exception raised when an attempted *note ConfigParser.write(): 475.
     would not be parsed accurately with a future *note
     ConfigParser.read(): 180a. call.

     Ex: Writing a key beginning with the *note ConfigParser.SECTCRE:
     319c. pattern would parse as a section header when read.
     Attempting to write this will raise this exception.

     Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: tomllib — Parse TOML files,  Next: netrc — netrc file processing,  Prev: configparser — Configuration file parser,  Up: File Formats

5.15.3 ‘tomllib’ — Parse TOML files
-----------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tomllib(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface for parsing TOML 1.1.0 (Tom’s Obvious
Minimal Language, https://toml.io(2)).  This module does not support
writing TOML.

Added in version 3.11: The module was added with support for TOML 1.0.0.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added TOML 1.1.0 support.  See the *note What’s
New: 288. for details.

     Προειδοποίηση: Be cautious when parsing data from untrusted
     sources.  A malicious TOML string may cause the decoder to consume
     considerable CPU and memory resources.  Limiting the size of data
     to be parsed is recommended.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The Tomli-W package(3) is a TOML writer that can be used in conjunction
with this module, providing a write API familiar to users of the
standard library *note marshal: 90. and *note pickle: ab. modules.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The TOML Kit package(4) is a style-preserving TOML library with both
read and write capability.  It is a recommended replacement for this
module for editing already existing TOML files.

This module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: tomllib.load (fp, /, *, parse_float=float)

     Read a TOML file.  The first argument should be a readable and
     binary file object.  Return a *note dict: 188.  Convert TOML types
     to Python using this *note conversion table: 31c3.

     'parse_float' will be called with the string of every TOML float to
     be decoded.  By default, this is equivalent to ‘float(num_str)’.
     This can be used to use another datatype or parser for TOML floats
     (e.g.  *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2.).  The callable must not return
     a *note dict: 188. or a *note list: 4d9, else a *note ValueError:
     277. is raised.

     A *note TOMLDecodeError: 1b29. will be raised on an invalid TOML
     document.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tomllib.loads (s, /, *, parse_float=float)

     Load TOML from a *note str: 1df. object.  Return a *note dict: 188.
     Convert TOML types to Python using this *note conversion table:
     31c3.  The 'parse_float' argument has the same meaning as in *note
     load(): 31c2.

     A *note TOMLDecodeError: 1b29. will be raised on an invalid TOML
     document.

The following exceptions are available:

 -- Εξαίρεση: tomllib.TOMLDecodeError (msg, doc, pos)

     Subclass of *note ValueError: 277. with the following additional
     attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: msg

          The unformatted error message.

      -- Ιδιότητα: doc

          The TOML document being parsed.

      -- Ιδιότητα: pos

          The index of 'doc' where parsing failed.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          The line corresponding to 'pos'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: colno

          The column corresponding to 'pos'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added the 'msg', 'doc' and 'pos'
     parameters.  Added the *note msg: 31c4, *note doc: 31c5, *note pos:
     31c6, *note lineno: 31c7. and *note colno: 31c8. attributes.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: Passing free-form positional arguments
     is deprecated.

* Menu:

* Examples: Examples<9>.
* Conversion Table::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tomllib

   (2) https://toml.io/en/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/tomli-w/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/tomlkit/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<9>,  Next: Conversion Table,  Up: tomllib — Parse TOML files

5.15.3.1 Examples
.................

Parsing a TOML file:

     import tomllib

     with open("pyproject.toml", "rb") as f:
         data = tomllib.load(f)

Parsing a TOML string:

     import tomllib

     toml_str = """
     python-version = "3.11.0"
     python-implementation = "CPython"
     """

     data = tomllib.loads(toml_str)


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion Table,  Prev: Examples<9>,  Up: tomllib — Parse TOML files

5.15.3.2 Conversion Table
.........................

TOML                   Python
                       
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
TOML document          dict
                       
                       
string                 str
                       
                       
integer                int
                       
                       
float                  float (configurable with 'parse_float')
                       
                       
boolean                bool
                       
                       
offset date-time       datetime.datetime (‘tzinfo’ attribute set to an instance of ‘datetime.timezone’)
                       
                       
local date-time        datetime.datetime (‘tzinfo’ attribute set to ‘None’)
                       
                       
local date             datetime.date
                       
                       
local time             datetime.time
                       
                       
array                  list
                       
                       
table                  dict
                       
                       
inline table           dict
                       
                       
array of tables        list of dicts
                       


File: python.info,  Node: netrc — netrc file processing,  Next: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files,  Prev: tomllib — Parse TOML files,  Up: File Formats

5.15.4 ‘netrc’ — netrc file processing
--------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/netrc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note netrc: 1e70. class parses and encapsulates the netrc file
format used by the Unix ‘ftp’ program and other FTP clients.

 -- Κλάση: netrc.netrc ([file])

     A *note netrc: 1e70. instance or subclass instance encapsulates
     data from a netrc file.  The initialization argument, if present,
     specifies the file to parse.  If no argument is given, the file
     ‘.netrc’ in the user’s home directory – as determined by *note
     os.path.expanduser(): dd8. – will be read.  Otherwise, a *note
     FileNotFoundError: 243. exception will be raised.  Parse errors
     will raise *note NetrcParseError: 31ce. with diagnostic information
     including the file name, line number, and terminating token.

     If no argument is specified on a POSIX system, the presence of
     passwords in the ‘.netrc’ file will raise a *note NetrcParseError:
     31ce. if the file ownership or permissions are insecure (owned by a
     user other than the user running the process, or accessible for
     read or write by any other user).  This implements security
     behavior equivalent to that of ftp and other programs that use
     ‘.netrc’.  Such security checks are not available on platforms that
     do not support *note os.getuid(): 1a11.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added the POSIX permission check.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: *note os.path.expanduser(): dd8. is used to
     find the location of the ‘.netrc’ file when 'file' is not passed as
     argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: ‘netrc’ try UTF-8 encoding before using
     locale specific encoding.  The entry in the netrc file no longer
     needs to contain all tokens.  The missing tokens” value default to
     an empty string.  All the tokens and their values now can contain
     arbitrary characters, like whitespace and non-ASCII characters.  If
     the login name is anonymous, it won’t trigger the security check.

 -- Εξαίρεση: netrc.NetrcParseError

     Exception raised by the *note netrc: 1e70. class when syntactical
     errors are encountered in source text.  Instances of this exception
     provide three interesting attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: msg

          Textual explanation of the error.

      -- Ιδιότητα: filename

          The name of the source file.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          The line number on which the error was found.

* Menu:

* netrc Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/netrc.py


File: python.info,  Node: netrc Objects,  Up: netrc — netrc file processing

5.15.4.1 netrc Objects
......................

A *note netrc: 1e70. instance has the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: netrc.authenticators (host)

     Return a 3-tuple ‘(login, account, password)’ of authenticators for
     'host'.  If the netrc file did not contain an entry for the given
     host, return the tuple associated with the “default” entry.  If
     neither matching host nor default entry is available, return
     ‘None’.

 -- Μέθοδος: netrc.__repr__ ()

     Dump the class data as a string in the format of a netrc file.
     (This discards comments and may reorder the entries.)

Instances of *note netrc: 1e70. have public instance variables:

 -- Ιδιότητα: netrc.hosts

     Dictionary mapping host names to ‘(login, account, password)’
     tuples.  The “default” entry, if any, is represented as a
     pseudo-host by that name.

 -- Ιδιότητα: netrc.macros

     Dictionary mapping macro names to string lists.


File: python.info,  Node: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files,  Prev: netrc — netrc file processing,  Up: File Formats

5.15.5 ‘plistlib’ — Generate and parse Apple ‘.plist’ files
-----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/plistlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface for reading and writing the «property
list» files used by Apple, primarily on macOS and iOS. This module
supports both binary and XML plist files.

The property list (‘.plist’) file format is a simple serialization
supporting basic object types, like dictionaries, lists, numbers and
strings.  Usually the top level object is a dictionary or a frozen
dictionary.

To write out and to parse a plist file, use the *note dump(): d1c. and
*note load(): d1a. functions.

To work with plist data in bytes or string objects, use *note dumps():
d1d. and *note loads(): d1b.

Values can be strings, integers, floats, booleans, tuples, lists,
dictionaries (but only with string keys), *note bytes: 1c7, *note
bytearray: 1c6. or *note datetime.datetime: 6e7. objects.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: New API, old API deprecated.  Support for binary
format plists added.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Support added for reading and writing *note UID:
de5. tokens in binary plists as used by NSKeyedArchiver and
NSKeyedUnarchiver.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Old API removed.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PList manual page(2)

     Apple’s documentation of the file format.

This module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: plistlib.load (fp, *, fmt=None, dict_type=dict,
          aware_datetime=False)

     Read a plist file.  'fp' should be a readable and binary file
     object.  Return the unpacked root object (which usually is a
     dictionary).

     The 'fmt' is the format of the file and the following values are
     valid:

        * *note None: a65.: Autodetect the file format

        * *note FMT_XML: 1323.: XML file format

        * *note FMT_BINARY: 1324.: Binary plist format

     The 'dict_type' is the type used for dictionaries that are read
     from the plist file.

     When 'aware_datetime' is true, fields with type ‘datetime.datetime’
     will be created as *note aware object: 2aac, with ‘tzinfo’ as *note
     datetime.UTC: 8fc.

     XML data for the *note FMT_XML: 1323. format is parsed using the
     Expat parser from *note xml.parsers.expat: 12f. – see its
     documentation for possible exceptions on ill-formed XML. Unknown
     elements will simply be ignored by the plist parser.

     The parser raises *note InvalidFileException: 1eef. when the file
     cannot be parsed.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The keyword-only parameter
     'aware_datetime' has been added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: plistlib.loads (data, *, fmt=None, dict_type=dict,
          aware_datetime=False)

     Load a plist from a bytes or string object.  See *note load(): d1a.
     for an explanation of the keyword arguments.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: 'data' can be a string when 'fmt' equals
     *note FMT_XML: 1323.

 -- Συνάρτηση: plistlib.dump (value, fp, *, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True,
          skipkeys=False, aware_datetime=False)

     Write 'value' to a plist file.  'fp' should be a writable, binary
     file object.

     The 'fmt' argument specifies the format of the plist file and can
     be one of the following values:

        * *note FMT_XML: 1323.: XML formatted plist file

        * *note FMT_BINARY: 1324.: Binary formatted plist file

     When 'sort_keys' is true (the default) the keys for dictionaries
     will be written to the plist in sorted order, otherwise they will
     be written in the iteration order of the dictionary.

     When 'skipkeys' is false (the default) the function raises *note
     TypeError: 291. when a key of a dictionary is not a string,
     otherwise such keys are skipped.

     When 'aware_datetime' is true and any field with type
     ‘datetime.datetime’ is set as an *note aware object: 2aac, it will
     convert to UTC timezone before writing it.

     A *note TypeError: 291. will be raised if the object is of an
     unsupported type or a container that contains objects of
     unsupported types.

     An *note OverflowError: c57. will be raised for integer values that
     cannot be represented in (binary) plist files.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The keyword-only parameter
     'aware_datetime' has been added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: plistlib.dumps (value, *, fmt=FMT_XML, sort_keys=True,
          skipkeys=False, aware_datetime=False)

     Return 'value' as a plist-formatted bytes object.  See the
     documentation for *note dump(): d1c. for an explanation of the
     keyword arguments of this function.

     Added in version 3.4.

The following classes are available:

 -- Κλάση: plistlib.UID (data)

     Wraps an *note int: 326.  This is used when reading or writing
     NSKeyedArchiver encoded data, which contains UID (see PList
     manual).

      -- Ιδιότητα: data

          Int value of the UID. It must be in the range ‘0 <= data <
          2**64’.

     Added in version 3.8.

The following constants are available:

 -- Δεδομένα: plistlib.FMT_XML

     The XML format for plist files.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: plistlib.FMT_BINARY

     The binary format for plist files

     Added in version 3.4.

The module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Εξαίρεση: plistlib.InvalidFileException

     Raised when a file cannot be parsed.

     Added in version 3.4.

* Menu:

* Examples: Examples<10>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/plistlib.py

   (2) 
https://developer.apple.com/library/archive/documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/PropertyLists/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<10>,  Up: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files

5.15.5.1 Examples
.................

Generating a plist:

     import datetime as dt
     import plistlib

     pl = dict(
         aString = "Doodah",
         aList = ["A", "B", 12, 32.1, [1, 2, 3]],
         aFloat = 0.1,
         anInt = 728,
         aDict = dict(
             anotherString = "<hello & hi there!>",
             aThirdString = "M\xe4ssig, Ma\xdf",
             aTrueValue = True,
             aFalseValue = False,
         ),
         someData = b"<binary gunk>",
         someMoreData = b"<lots of binary gunk>" * 10,
         aDate = dt.datetime.now()
     )
     print(plistlib.dumps(pl).decode())

Parsing a plist:

     import plistlib

     plist = b"""<plist version="1.0">
     <dict>
         <key>foo</key>
         <string>bar</string>
     </dict>
     </plist>"""
     pl = plistlib.loads(plist)
     print(pl["foo"])


File: python.info,  Node: Cryptographic Services,  Next: Generic Operating System Services,  Prev: File Formats,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.16 Cryptographic Services
===========================

The modules described in this chapter implement various algorithms of a
cryptographic nature.  They are available at the discretion of the
installation.  Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests::
* hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication::
* secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets::


File: python.info,  Node: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests,  Next: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication,  Up: Cryptographic Services

5.16.1 ‘hashlib’ — Secure hashes and message digests
----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/hashlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements a common interface to many different hash
algorithms.  Included are the FIPS secure hash algorithms SHA224,
SHA256, SHA384, SHA512, (defined in the FIPS 180-4 standard(2)), the
SHA-3 series (defined in the FIPS 202 standard(3)) as well as the legacy
algorithms SHA1 (formerly part of FIPS(4)) and the MD5 algorithm
(defined in internet RFC 1321(5)).

     Σημείωση: If you want the adler32 or crc32 hash functions, they are
     available in the *note zlib: 13c. module.

* Menu:

* Hash algorithms::
* Usage::
* Constructors::
* Attributes::
* Hash Objects::
* SHAKE variable length digests::
* File hashing::
* Key derivation::
* BLAKE2::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/hashlib.py

   (2) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/180-4/upd1/final

   (3) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final

   (4) https://csrc.nist.gov/news/2023/decision-to-revise-fips-180-4

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1321.html


File: python.info,  Node: Hash algorithms,  Next: Usage,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.16.1.1 Hash algorithms
........................

There is one constructor method named for each type of 'hash'.  All
return a hash object with the same simple interface.  For example: use
*note sha256(): 2f3. to create a SHA-256 hash object.  You can now feed
this object with *note bytes-like objects: 436. (normally *note bytes:
1c7.) using the *note update: 31e5. method.  At any point you can ask it
for the 'digest' of the concatenation of the data fed to it so far using
the *note digest(): 31e6. or *note hexdigest(): 31e7. methods.

To allow multithreading, the Python *note GIL: 411. is released while
computing a hash supplied more than 2047 bytes of data at once in its
constructor or *note .update: 31e5. method.

Constructors for hash algorithms that are always present in this module
are *note sha1(): 31e8, *note sha224(): 31e9, *note sha256(): 2f3, *note
sha384(): 31ea, *note sha512(): 31eb, *note sha3_224(): 1063, *note
sha3_256(): 1064, *note sha3_384(): 1065, *note sha3_512(): 1066, *note
shake_128(): 1067, *note shake_256(): 1068, *note blake2b(): a31, and
*note blake2s(): a32.  *note md5(): 2f2. is normally available as well,
though it may be missing or blocked if you are using a rare «FIPS
compliant» build of Python.  These correspond to *note
algorithms_guaranteed: 1718.

Additional algorithms may also be available if your Python
distribution’s ‘hashlib’ was linked against a build of OpenSSL that
provides others.  Others 'are not guaranteed available' on all
installations and will only be accessible by name via *note new(): 2f1.
See *note algorithms_available: 1719.

     Προειδοποίηση: Some algorithms have known hash collision weaknesses
     (including MD5 and SHA1).  Refer to Attacks on cryptographic hash
     algorithms(1) and the *note hashlib-seealso: 31ec. section at the
     end of this document.

Added in version 3.6: SHA3 (Keccak) and SHAKE constructors *note
sha3_224(): 1063, *note sha3_256(): 1064, *note sha3_384(): 1065, *note
sha3_512(): 1066, *note shake_128(): 1067, *note shake_256(): 1068. were
added.  *note blake2b(): a31. and *note blake2s(): a32. were added.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: All hashlib constructors take a keyword-only
argument 'usedforsecurity' with default value ‘True’.  A false value
allows the use of insecure and blocked hashing algorithms in restricted
environments.  ‘False’ indicates that the hashing algorithm is not used
in a security context, e.g.  as a non-cryptographic one-way compression
function.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Hashlib now uses SHA3 and SHAKE from OpenSSL if
it provides it.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: For any of the MD5, SHA1, SHA2, or SHA3
algorithms that the linked OpenSSL does not provide we fall back to a
verified implementation from the HACL* project(2).

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.19: The
undocumented ‘string’ keyword parameter in ‘_hashlib.new()’ and
hash-named constructors such as ‘_md5.md5()’ is deprecated.  Prefer
passing the initial data as a positional argument for maximum backwards
compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function#Attacks_on_cryptographic_hash_algorithms

   (2) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star


File: python.info,  Node: Usage,  Next: Constructors,  Prev: Hash algorithms,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.16.1.2 Usage
..............

To obtain the digest of the byte string ‘b"Nobody inspects the spammish
repetition"’:

     >>> import hashlib
     >>> m = hashlib.sha256()
     >>> m.update(b"Nobody inspects")
     >>> m.update(b" the spammish repetition")
     >>> m.digest()
     b'\x03\x1e\xdd}Ae\x15\x93\xc5\xfe\\\x00o\xa5u+7\xfd\xdf\xf7\xbcN\x84:\xa6\xaf\x0c\x95\x0fK\x94\x06'
     >>> m.hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'

More condensed:

     >>> hashlib.sha256(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition").hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'


File: python.info,  Node: Constructors,  Next: Attributes,  Prev: Usage,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.16.1.3 Constructors
.....................

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.new (name[, data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

     Is a generic constructor that takes the string 'name' of the
     desired algorithm as its first parameter.  It also exists to allow
     access to the above listed hashes as well as any other algorithms
     that your OpenSSL library may offer.

Using *note new(): 2f1. with an algorithm name:

     >>> h = hashlib.new('sha256')
     >>> h.update(b"Nobody inspects the spammish repetition")
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '031edd7d41651593c5fe5c006fa5752b37fddff7bc4e843aa6af0c950f4b9406'

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.md5 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.sha1 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.sha224 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.sha256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.sha384 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.sha512 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.sha3_224 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.sha3_256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.sha3_384 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.sha3_512 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

Named constructors such as these are faster than passing an algorithm
name to *note new(): 2f1.


File: python.info,  Node: Attributes,  Next: Hash Objects,  Prev: Constructors,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.16.1.4 Attributes
...................

Hashlib provides the following constant module attributes:

 -- Δεδομένα: hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed

     A set containing the names of the hash algorithms guaranteed to be
     supported by this module on all platforms.  Note that “md5” is in
     this list despite some upstream vendors offering an odd «FIPS
     compliant» Python build that excludes it.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: hashlib.algorithms_available

     A set containing the names of the hash algorithms that are
     available in the running Python interpreter.  These names will be
     recognized when passed to *note new(): 2f1.  *note
     algorithms_guaranteed: 1718. will always be a subset.  The same
     algorithm may appear multiple times in this set under different
     names (thanks to OpenSSL).

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Hash Objects,  Next: SHAKE variable length digests,  Prev: Attributes,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.16.1.5 Hash Objects
.....................

The following values are provided as constant attributes of the hash
objects returned by the constructors:

 -- Δεδομένα: hash.digest_size

     The size of the resulting hash in bytes.

 -- Δεδομένα: hash.block_size

     The internal block size of the hash algorithm in bytes.

A hash object has the following attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: hash.name

     The canonical name of this hash, always lowercase and always
     suitable as a parameter to *note new(): 2f1. to create another hash
     of this type.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The name attribute has been present in
     CPython since its inception, but until Python 3.4 was not formally
     specified, so may not exist on some platforms.

A hash object has the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: hash.update (data)

     Update the hash object with the *note bytes-like object: 436.
     Repeated calls are equivalent to a single call with the
     concatenation of all the arguments: ‘m.update(a); m.update(b)’ is
     equivalent to ‘m.update(a+b)’.

 -- Μέθοδος: hash.digest ()

     Return the digest of the data passed to the *note update(): 31e5.
     method so far.  This is a bytes object of size *note digest_size:
     31f2. which may contain bytes in the whole range from 0 to 255.

 -- Μέθοδος: hash.hexdigest ()

     Like *note digest(): 31e6. except the digest is returned as a
     string object of double length, containing only hexadecimal digits.
     This may be used to exchange the value safely in email or other
     non-binary environments.

 -- Μέθοδος: hash.copy ()

     Return a copy («clone») of the hash object.  This can be used to
     efficiently compute the digests of data sharing a common initial
     substring.


File: python.info,  Node: SHAKE variable length digests,  Next: File hashing,  Prev: Hash Objects,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.16.1.6 SHAKE variable length digests
......................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.shake_128 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.shake_256 ([data], *, usedforsecurity=True)

The *note shake_128(): 1067. and *note shake_256(): 1068. algorithms
provide variable length digests with length_in_bits//2 up to 128 or 256
bits of security.  As such, their digest methods require a length.
Maximum length is not limited by the SHAKE algorithm.

 -- Μέθοδος: shake.digest (length)

     Return the digest of the data passed to the *note update(): 31e5.
     method so far.  This is a bytes object of size 'length' which may
     contain bytes in the whole range from 0 to 255.

 -- Μέθοδος: shake.hexdigest (length)

     Like *note digest(): 2008. except the digest is returned as a
     string object of double length, containing only hexadecimal digits.
     This may be used to exchange the value in email or other non-binary
     environments.

Example use:

     >>> h = hashlib.shake_256(b'Nobody inspects the spammish repetition')
     >>> h.hexdigest(20)
     '44709d6fcb83d92a76dcb0b668c98e1b1d3dafe7'


File: python.info,  Node: File hashing,  Next: Key derivation,  Prev: SHAKE variable length digests,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.16.1.7 File hashing
.....................

The hashlib module provides a helper function for efficient hashing of a
file or file-like object.

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.file_digest (fileobj, digest, /)

     Return a digest object that has been updated with contents of file
     object.

     'fileobj' must be a file-like object opened for reading in binary
     mode.  It accepts file objects from builtin *note open(): 32b,
     *note BytesIO: 1255. instances, SocketIO objects from *note
     socket.socket.makefile(): 1548, and similar.  'fileobj' must be
     opened in blocking mode, otherwise a *note BlockingIOError: 4c3.
     may be raised.

     The function may bypass Python’s I/O and use the file descriptor
     from *note fileno(): 19b2. directly.  'fileobj' must be assumed to
     be in an unknown state after this function returns or raises.  It
     is up to the caller to close 'fileobj'.

     'digest' must either be a hash algorithm name as a 'str', a hash
     constructor, or a callable that returns a hash object.

     Example:

          >>> import io, hashlib, hmac
          >>> with open("library/hashlib.rst", "rb") as f:
          ...     digest = hashlib.file_digest(f, "sha256")
          ...
          >>> digest.hexdigest()
          '...'

          >>> buf = io.BytesIO(b"somedata")
          >>> mac1 = hmac.HMAC(b"key", digestmod=hashlib.sha512)
          >>> digest = hashlib.file_digest(buf, lambda: mac1)

          >>> digest is mac1
          True
          >>> mac2 = hmac.HMAC(b"key", b"somedata", digestmod=hashlib.sha512)
          >>> mac1.digest() == mac2.digest()
          True

     Added in version 3.11.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Now raises a *note BlockingIOError: 4c3.
     if the file is opened in non-blocking mode.  Previously, spurious
     null bytes were added to the digest.


File: python.info,  Node: Key derivation,  Next: BLAKE2,  Prev: File hashing,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.16.1.8 Key derivation
.......................

Key derivation and key stretching algorithms are designed for secure
password hashing.  Naive algorithms such as ‘sha1(password)’ are not
resistant against brute-force attacks.  A good password hashing function
must be tunable, slow, and include a salt(1).

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac (hash_name, password, salt,
          iterations, dklen=None)

     The function provides PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function
     2.  It uses HMAC as pseudorandom function.

     The string 'hash_name' is the desired name of the hash digest
     algorithm for HMAC, e.g.  “sha1” or “sha256”.  'password' and
     'salt' are interpreted as buffers of bytes.  Applications and
     libraries should limit 'password' to a sensible length (e.g.
     1024).  'salt' should be about 16 or more bytes from a proper
     source, e.g.  *note os.urandom(): 931.

     The number of 'iterations' should be chosen based on the hash
     algorithm and computing power.  As of 2022, hundreds of thousands
     of iterations of SHA-256 are suggested.  For rationale as to why
     and how to choose what is best for your application, read 'Appendix
     A.2.2' of NIST-SP-800-132(2).  The answers on the stackexchange
     pbkdf2 iterations question(3) explain in detail.

     'dklen' is the length of the derived key in bytes.  If 'dklen' is
     ‘None’ then the digest size of the hash algorithm 'hash_name' is
     used, e.g.  64 for SHA-512.

          >>> from hashlib import pbkdf2_hmac
          >>> our_app_iters = 500_000  # Application specific, read above.
          >>> dk = pbkdf2_hmac('sha256', b'password', b'bad salt' * 2, our_app_iters)
          >>> dk.hex()
          '15530bba69924174860db778f2c6f8104d3aaf9d26241840c8c4a641c8d000a9'

     Function only available when Python is compiled with OpenSSL.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Function now only available when Python is
     built with OpenSSL. The slow pure Python implementation has been
     removed.

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.scrypt (password, *, salt, n, r, p, maxmem=0,
          dklen=64)

     The function provides scrypt password-based key derivation function
     as defined in RFC 7914(4).

     'password' and 'salt' must be *note bytes-like objects: 436.
     Applications and libraries should limit 'password' to a sensible
     length (e.g.  1024).  'salt' should be about 16 or more bytes from
     a proper source, e.g.  *note os.urandom(): 931.

     'n' is the CPU/Memory cost factor, 'r' the block size, 'p'
     parallelization factor and 'maxmem' limits memory (OpenSSL 1.1.0
     defaults to 32 MiB). 'dklen' is the length of the derived key in
     bytes.

     Added in version 3.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_%28cryptography%29

   (2) 
https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf

   (3) 
https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/3959/recommended-of-iterations-when-using-pbkdf2-sha256/

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7914.html


File: python.info,  Node: BLAKE2,  Prev: Key derivation,  Up: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

5.16.1.9 BLAKE2
...............

BLAKE2(1) is a cryptographic hash function defined in RFC 7693(2) that
comes in two flavors:

   * 'BLAKE2b', optimized for 64-bit platforms and produces digests of
     any size between 1 and 64 bytes,

   * 'BLAKE2s', optimized for 8- to 32-bit platforms and produces
     digests of any size between 1 and 32 bytes.

BLAKE2 supports 'keyed mode' (a faster and simpler replacement for
HMAC(3)), 'salted hashing', 'personalization', and 'tree hashing'.

Hash objects from this module follow the API of standard library’s
‘hashlib’ objects.

* Menu:

* Creating hash objects::
* Constants: Constants<5>.
* Examples: Examples<11>.
* Credits::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7693.html

   (3) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash-based_message_authentication_code


File: python.info,  Node: Creating hash objects,  Next: Constants<5>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.16.1.10 Creating hash objects
...............................

New hash objects are created by calling constructor functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.blake2b (data=b'', *, digest_size=64, key=b'',
          salt=b'', person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0,
          node_offset=0, node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False,
          usedforsecurity=True)

 -- Συνάρτηση: hashlib.blake2s (data=b'', *, digest_size=32, key=b'',
          salt=b'', person=b'', fanout=1, depth=1, leaf_size=0,
          node_offset=0, node_depth=0, inner_size=0, last_node=False,
          usedforsecurity=True)

These functions return the corresponding hash objects for calculating
BLAKE2b or BLAKE2s.  They optionally take these general parameters:

   * 'data': initial chunk of data to hash, which must be *note
     bytes-like object: 436.  It can be passed only as positional
     argument.

   * 'digest_size': size of output digest in bytes.

   * 'key': key for keyed hashing (up to 64 bytes for BLAKE2b, up to 32
     bytes for BLAKE2s).

   * 'salt': salt for randomized hashing (up to 16 bytes for BLAKE2b, up
     to 8 bytes for BLAKE2s).

   * 'person': personalization string (up to 16 bytes for BLAKE2b, up to
     8 bytes for BLAKE2s).

The following table shows limits for general parameters (in bytes):

Hash        digest_size     len(key)     len(salt)     len(person)
                                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
BLAKE2b     64              64           16            16
                                                       
                                                       
BLAKE2s     32              32           8             8
                                                       

     Σημείωση: BLAKE2 specification defines constant lengths for salt
     and personalization parameters, however, for convenience, this
     implementation accepts byte strings of any size up to the specified
     length.  If the length of the parameter is less than specified, it
     is padded with zeros, thus, for example, ‘b'salt'’ and
     ‘b'salt\x00'’ is the same value.  (This is not the case for 'key'.)

These sizes are available as module *note constants: 31fb. described
below.

Constructor functions also accept the following tree hashing parameters:

   * 'fanout': fanout (0 to 255, 0 if unlimited, 1 in sequential mode).

   * 'depth': maximal depth of tree (1 to 255, 255 if unlimited, 1 in
     sequential mode).

   * 'leaf_size': maximal byte length of leaf (0 to ‘2**32-1’, 0 if
     unlimited or in sequential mode).

   * 'node_offset': node offset (0 to ‘2**64-1’ for BLAKE2b, 0 to
     ‘2**48-1’ for BLAKE2s, 0 for the first, leftmost, leaf, or in
     sequential mode).

   * 'node_depth': node depth (0 to 255, 0 for leaves, or in sequential
     mode).

   * 'inner_size': inner digest size (0 to 64 for BLAKE2b, 0 to 32 for
     BLAKE2s, 0 in sequential mode).

   * 'last_node': boolean indicating whether the processed node is the
     last one (‘False’ for sequential mode).

[image src="python-figures/hashlib-blake2-tree.png" alt="Explanation of tree mode parameters."]


Figure
See section 2.10 in BLAKE2 specification(1) for comprehensive review of
tree hashing.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net/blake2_20130129.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<5>,  Next: Examples<11>,  Prev: Creating hash objects,  Up: BLAKE2

5.16.1.11 Constants
...................

 -- Δεδομένα: blake2b.SALT_SIZE

 -- Δεδομένα: blake2s.SALT_SIZE

Salt length (maximum length accepted by constructors).

 -- Δεδομένα: blake2b.PERSON_SIZE

 -- Δεδομένα: blake2s.PERSON_SIZE

Personalization string length (maximum length accepted by constructors).

 -- Δεδομένα: blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE

 -- Δεδομένα: blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE

Maximum key size.

 -- Δεδομένα: blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE

 -- Δεδομένα: blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE

Maximum digest size that the hash function can output.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<11>,  Next: Credits,  Prev: Constants<5>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.16.1.12 Examples
..................

* Menu:

* Simple hashing::
* Using different digest sizes::
* Keyed hashing::
* Randomized hashing::
* Personalization::
* Tree mode::


File: python.info,  Node: Simple hashing,  Next: Using different digest sizes,  Up: Examples<11>

5.16.1.13 Simple hashing
........................

To calculate hash of some data, you should first construct a hash object
by calling the appropriate constructor function (*note blake2b(): a31.
or *note blake2s(): a32.), then update it with the data by calling *note
update(): 31e5. on the object, and, finally, get the digest out of the
object by calling *note digest(): 31e6. (or *note hexdigest(): 31e7. for
hex-encoded string).

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b()
     >>> h.update(b'Hello world')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'

As a shortcut, you can pass the first chunk of data to update directly
to the constructor as the positional argument:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> blake2b(b'Hello world').hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'

You can call *note hash.update(): 31e5. as many times as you need to
iteratively update the hash:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> items = [b'Hello', b' ', b'world']
     >>> h = blake2b()
     >>> for item in items:
     ...     h.update(item)
     ...
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '6ff843ba685842aa82031d3f53c48b66326df7639a63d128974c5c14f31a0f33343a8c65551134ed1ae0f2b0dd2bb495dc81039e3eeb0aa1bb0388bbeac29183'


File: python.info,  Node: Using different digest sizes,  Next: Keyed hashing,  Prev: Simple hashing,  Up: Examples<11>

5.16.1.14 Using different digest sizes
......................................

BLAKE2 has configurable size of digests up to 64 bytes for BLAKE2b and
up to 32 bytes for BLAKE2s.  For example, to replace SHA-1 with BLAKE2b
without changing the size of output, we can tell BLAKE2b to produce
20-byte digests:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=20)
     >>> h.update(b'Replacing SHA1 with the more secure function')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     'd24f26cf8de66472d58d4e1b1774b4c9158b1f4c'
     >>> h.digest_size
     20
     >>> len(h.digest())
     20

Hash objects with different digest sizes have completely different
outputs (shorter hashes are 'not' prefixes of longer hashes); BLAKE2b
and BLAKE2s produce different outputs even if the output length is the
same:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b, blake2s
     >>> blake2b(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
     '6fa1d8fcfd719046d762'
     >>> blake2b(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
     'eb6ec15daf9546254f0809'
     >>> blake2s(digest_size=10).hexdigest()
     '1bf21a98c78a1c376ae9'
     >>> blake2s(digest_size=11).hexdigest()
     '567004bf96e4a25773ebf4'


File: python.info,  Node: Keyed hashing,  Next: Randomized hashing,  Prev: Using different digest sizes,  Up: Examples<11>

5.16.1.15 Keyed hashing
.......................

Keyed hashing can be used for authentication as a faster and simpler
replacement for Hash-based message authentication code(1) (HMAC). BLAKE2
can be securely used in prefix-MAC mode thanks to the
indifferentiability property inherited from BLAKE.

This example shows how to get a (hex-encoded) 128-bit authentication
code for message ‘b'message data'’ with key ‘b'pseudorandom key'’:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> h = blake2b(key=b'pseudorandom key', digest_size=16)
     >>> h.update(b'message data')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '3d363ff7401e02026f4a4687d4863ced'

As a practical example, a web application can symmetrically sign cookies
sent to users and later verify them to make sure they weren’t tampered
with:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> from hmac import compare_digest
     >>>
     >>> SECRET_KEY = b'pseudorandomly generated server secret key'
     >>> AUTH_SIZE = 16
     >>>
     >>> def sign(cookie):
     ...     h = blake2b(digest_size=AUTH_SIZE, key=SECRET_KEY)
     ...     h.update(cookie)
     ...     return h.hexdigest().encode('utf-8')
     >>>
     >>> def verify(cookie, sig):
     ...     good_sig = sign(cookie)
     ...     return compare_digest(good_sig, sig)
     >>>
     >>> cookie = b'user-alice'
     >>> sig = sign(cookie)
     >>> print("{0},{1}".format(cookie.decode('utf-8'), sig))
     user-alice,b'43b3c982cf697e0c5ab22172d1ca7421'
     >>> verify(cookie, sig)
     True
     >>> verify(b'user-bob', sig)
     False
     >>> verify(cookie, b'0102030405060708090a0b0c0d0e0f00')
     False

Even though there’s a native keyed hashing mode, BLAKE2 can, of course,
be used in HMAC construction with *note hmac: 6d. module:

     >>> import hmac, hashlib
     >>> m = hmac.new(b'secret key', digestmod=hashlib.blake2s)
     >>> m.update(b'message')
     >>> m.hexdigest()
     'e3c8102868d28b5ff85fc35dda07329970d1a01e273c37481326fe0c861c8142'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMAC


File: python.info,  Node: Randomized hashing,  Next: Personalization,  Prev: Keyed hashing,  Up: Examples<11>

5.16.1.16 Randomized hashing
............................

By setting 'salt' parameter users can introduce randomization to the
hash function.  Randomized hashing is useful for protecting against
collision attacks on the hash function used in digital signatures.

     Randomized hashing is designed for situations where one party, the
     message preparer, generates all or part of a message to be signed
     by a second party, the message signer.  If the message preparer is
     able to find cryptographic hash function collisions (i.e., two
     messages producing the same hash value), then they might prepare
     meaningful versions of the message that would produce the same hash
     value and digital signature, but with different results (e.g.,
     transferring $1,000,000 to an account, rather than $10).
     Cryptographic hash functions have been designed with collision
     resistance as a major goal, but the current concentration on
     attacking cryptographic hash functions may result in a given
     cryptographic hash function providing less collision resistance
     than expected.  Randomized hashing offers the signer additional
     protection by reducing the likelihood that a preparer can generate
     two or more messages that ultimately yield the same hash value
     during the digital signature generation process — even if it is
     practical to find collisions for the hash function.  However, the
     use of randomized hashing may reduce the amount of security
     provided by a digital signature when all portions of the message
     are prepared by the signer.

     (NIST SP-800-106 "Randomized Hashing for Digital Signatures"(1))

In BLAKE2 the salt is processed as a one-time input to the hash function
during initialization, rather than as an input to each compression
function.

     Προειδοποίηση: 'Salted hashing' (or just hashing) with BLAKE2 or
     any other general-purpose cryptographic hash function, such as
     SHA-256, is not suitable for hashing passwords.  See BLAKE2 FAQ(2)
     for more information.

     >>> import os
     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> msg = b'some message'
     >>> # Calculate the first hash with a random salt.
     >>> salt1 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
     >>> h1 = blake2b(salt=salt1)
     >>> h1.update(msg)
     >>> # Calculate the second hash with a different random salt.
     >>> salt2 = os.urandom(blake2b.SALT_SIZE)
     >>> h2 = blake2b(salt=salt2)
     >>> h2.update(msg)
     >>> # The digests are different.
     >>> h1.digest() != h2.digest()
     True

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/sp/800/106/final

   (2) https://www.blake2.net/#qa


File: python.info,  Node: Personalization,  Next: Tree mode,  Prev: Randomized hashing,  Up: Examples<11>

5.16.1.17 Personalization
.........................

Sometimes it is useful to force hash function to produce different
digests for the same input for different purposes.  Quoting the authors
of the Skein hash function:

     We recommend that all application designers seriously consider
     doing this; we have seen many protocols where a hash that is
     computed in one part of the protocol can be used in an entirely
     different part because two hash computations were done on similar
     or related data, and the attacker can force the application to make
     the hash inputs the same.  Personalizing each hash function used in
     the protocol summarily stops this type of attack.

     (The Skein Hash Function Family(1), p.  21)

BLAKE2 can be personalized by passing bytes to the 'person' argument:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>> FILES_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Files Hash'
     >>> BLOCK_HASH_PERSON = b'MyApp Block Hash'
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=FILES_HASH_PERSON)
     >>> h.update(b'the same content')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     '20d9cd024d4fb086aae819a1432dd2466de12947831b75c5a30cf2676095d3b4'
     >>> h = blake2b(digest_size=32, person=BLOCK_HASH_PERSON)
     >>> h.update(b'the same content')
     >>> h.hexdigest()
     'cf68fb5761b9c44e7878bfb2c4c9aea52264a80b75005e65619778de59f383a3'

Personalization together with the keyed mode can also be used to derive
different keys from a single one.

     >>> from hashlib import blake2s
     >>> from base64 import b64decode, b64encode
     >>> orig_key = b64decode(b'Rm5EPJai72qcK3RGBpW3vPNfZy5OZothY+kHY6h21KM=')
     >>> enc_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kEncrypt').digest()
     >>> mac_key = blake2s(key=orig_key, person=b'kMAC').digest()
     >>> print(b64encode(enc_key).decode('utf-8'))
     rbPb15S/Z9t+agffno5wuhB77VbRi6F9Iv2qIxU7WHw=
     >>> print(b64encode(mac_key).decode('utf-8'))
     G9GtHFE1YluXY1zWPlYk1e/nWfu0WSEb0KRcjhDeP/o=

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.schneier.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/skein.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Tree mode,  Prev: Personalization,  Up: Examples<11>

5.16.1.18 Tree mode
...................

Here’s an example of hashing a minimal tree with two leaf nodes:

       10
      /  \
     00  01

This example uses 64-byte internal digests, and returns the 32-byte
final digest:

     >>> from hashlib import blake2b
     >>>
     >>> FANOUT = 2
     >>> DEPTH = 2
     >>> LEAF_SIZE = 4096
     >>> INNER_SIZE = 64
     >>>
     >>> buf = bytearray(6000)
     >>>
     >>> # Left leaf
     ... h00 = blake2b(buf[0:LEAF_SIZE], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=0, node_depth=0, last_node=False)
     >>> # Right leaf
     ... h01 = blake2b(buf[LEAF_SIZE:], fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=1, node_depth=0, last_node=True)
     >>> # Root node
     ... h10 = blake2b(digest_size=32, fanout=FANOUT, depth=DEPTH,
     ...               leaf_size=LEAF_SIZE, inner_size=INNER_SIZE,
     ...               node_offset=0, node_depth=1, last_node=True)
     >>> h10.update(h00.digest())
     >>> h10.update(h01.digest())
     >>> h10.hexdigest()
     '3ad2a9b37c6070e374c7a8c508fe20ca86b6ed54e286e93a0318e95e881db5aa'


File: python.info,  Node: Credits,  Prev: Examples<11>,  Up: BLAKE2

5.16.1.19 Credits
.................

BLAKE2(1) was designed by 'Jean-Philippe Aumasson', 'Samuel Neves',
'Zooko Wilcox-O’Hearn', and 'Christian Winnerlein' based on SHA-3(2)
finalist BLAKE(3) created by 'Jean-Philippe Aumasson', 'Luca Henzen',
'Willi Meier', and 'Raphael C.-W. Phan'.

It uses core algorithm from ChaCha(4) cipher designed by 'Daniel J.
Bernstein'.

The stdlib implementation is based on pyblake2(5) module.  It was
written by 'Dmitry Chestnykh' based on C implementation written by
'Samuel Neves'.  The documentation was copied from pyblake2(6) and
written by 'Dmitry Chestnykh'.

The C code was partly rewritten for Python by 'Christian Heimes'.

The following public domain dedication applies for both C hash function
implementation, extension code, and this documentation:

     To the extent possible under law, the author(s) have dedicated all
     copyright and related and neighboring rights to this software to
     the public domain worldwide.  This software is distributed without
     any warranty.

     You should have received a copy of the CC0 Public Domain Dedication
     along with this software.  If not, see
     ‘https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/’.

The following people have helped with development or contributed their
changes to the project and the public domain according to the Creative
Commons Public Domain Dedication 1.0 Universal:

   * 'Alexandr Sokolovskiy'

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note hmac: 6d.

     A module to generate message authentication codes using hashes.

Module *note base64: f.

     Another way to encode binary hashes for non-binary environments.

‘https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/fips/nist.fips.180-4.pdf’

     The FIPS 180-4 publication on Secure Hash Algorithms.

‘https://csrc.nist.gov/pubs/fips/202/final’

     The FIPS 202 publication on the SHA-3 Standard.

‘https://www.blake2.net/’

     Official BLAKE2 website.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function’

     Wikipedia article with information on which algorithms have known
     issues and what that means regarding their use.

‘https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc8018.txt’

     PKCS #5: Password-Based Cryptography Specification Version 2.1

‘https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/SP/nistspecialpublication800-132.pdf’

     NIST Recommendation for Password-Based Key Derivation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.blake2.net

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Hash_Algorithms

   (3) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200918190133/https://131002.net/blake/

   (4) https://cr.yp.to/chacha.html

   (5) https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/

   (6) https://pythonhosted.org/pyblake2/


File: python.info,  Node: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication,  Next: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets,  Prev: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests,  Up: Cryptographic Services

5.16.2 ‘hmac’ — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication
--------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/hmac.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements the HMAC algorithm as described by RFC 2104(2).
The interface allows to use any hash function with a 'fixed' digest
size.  In particular, extendable output functions such as SHAKE-128 or
SHAKE-256 cannot be used with HMAC.

 -- Συνάρτηση: hmac.new (key, msg=None, digestmod)

     Return a new hmac object.  'key' is a bytes or bytearray object
     giving the secret key.  If 'msg' is present, the method call
     ‘update(msg)’ is made.  'digestmod' is the digest name, digest
     constructor or module for the HMAC object to use.  It may be any
     name suitable to *note hashlib.new(): 2f1.  Despite its argument
     position, it is required.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Parameter 'key' can be a bytes or bytearray
     object.  Parameter 'msg' can be of any type supported by *note
     hashlib: 6b.  Parameter 'digestmod' can be the name of a hash
     algorithm.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'digestmod' argument is now required.
     Pass it as a keyword argument to avoid awkwardness when you do not
     have an initial 'msg'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: hmac.digest (key, msg, digest)

     Return digest of 'msg' for given secret 'key' and 'digest'.  The
     function is equivalent to ‘HMAC(key, msg, digest).digest()’, but
     uses an optimized C or inline implementation, which is faster for
     messages that fit into memory.  The parameters 'key', 'msg', and
     'digest' have the same meaning as in *note new(): e65.

     CPython implementation detail, the optimized C implementation is
     only used when 'digest' is a string and name of a digest algorithm,
     which is supported by OpenSSL.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Κλάση: hmac.HMAC

     An HMAC object has the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: HMAC.update (msg)

     Update the hmac object with 'msg'.  Repeated calls are equivalent
     to a single call with the concatenation of all the arguments:
     ‘m.update(a); m.update(b)’ is equivalent to ‘m.update(a + b)’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Parameter 'msg' can be of any type
     supported by *note hashlib: 6b.

 -- Μέθοδος: HMAC.digest ()

     Return the digest of the bytes passed to the *note update(): 12f4.
     method so far.  This bytes object will be the same length as the
     'digest_size' of the digest given to the constructor.  It may
     contain non-ASCII bytes, including NUL bytes.

          Προειδοποίηση: When comparing the output of ‘digest()’ to an
          externally supplied digest during a verification routine, it
          is recommended to use the *note compare_digest(): 1476.
          function instead of the ‘==’ operator to reduce the
          vulnerability to timing attacks.

 -- Μέθοδος: HMAC.hexdigest ()

     Like *note digest(): efc. except the digest is returned as a string
     twice the length containing only hexadecimal digits.  This may be
     used to exchange the value safely in email or other non-binary
     environments.

          Προειδοποίηση: When comparing the output of ‘hexdigest()’ to
          an externally supplied digest during a verification routine,
          it is recommended to use the *note compare_digest(): 1476.
          function instead of the ‘==’ operator to reduce the
          vulnerability to timing attacks.

 -- Μέθοδος: HMAC.copy ()

     Return a copy («clone») of the hmac object.  This can be used to
     efficiently compute the digests of strings that share a common
     initial substring.

A hash object has the following attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: HMAC.digest_size

     The size of the resulting HMAC digest in bytes.

 -- Ιδιότητα: HMAC.block_size

     The internal block size of the hash algorithm in bytes.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Ιδιότητα: HMAC.name

     The canonical name of this HMAC, always lowercase, e.g.
     ‘hmac-md5’.

     Added in version 3.4.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the undocumented attributes
‘HMAC.digest_cons’, ‘HMAC.inner’, and ‘HMAC.outer’.

This module also provides the following helper function:

 -- Συνάρτηση: hmac.compare_digest (a, b)

     Return ‘a == b’.  This function uses an approach designed to
     prevent timing analysis by avoiding content-based short circuiting
     behaviour, making it appropriate for cryptography.  'a' and 'b'
     must both be of the same type: either *note str: 1df. (ASCII only,
     as e.g.  returned by *note HMAC.hexdigest(): 3210.), or a *note
     bytes-like object: 436.

          Σημείωση: If 'a' and 'b' are of different lengths, or if an
          error occurs, a timing attack could theoretically reveal
          information about the types and lengths of 'a' and 'b'—but not
          their values.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The function uses OpenSSL’s
     ‘CRYPTO_memcmp()’ internally when available.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note hashlib: 6b.

     The Python module providing secure hash functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/hmac.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html


File: python.info,  Node: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets,  Prev: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication,  Up: Cryptographic Services

5.16.3 ‘secrets’ — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets
----------------------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.6.

'Source code:' Lib/secrets.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘secrets’ module is used for generating cryptographically strong
random numbers suitable for managing data such as passwords, account
authentication, security tokens, and related secrets.

In particular, ‘secrets’ should be used in preference to the default
pseudo-random number generator in the *note random: c0. module, which is
designed for modelling and simulation, not security or cryptography.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 506(2)

* Menu:

* Random numbers::
* Generating tokens::
* Other functions::
* Recipes and best practices::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/secrets.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/


File: python.info,  Node: Random numbers,  Next: Generating tokens,  Up: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

5.16.3.1 Random numbers
.......................

The ‘secrets’ module provides access to the most secure source of
randomness that your operating system provides.

 -- Κλάση: secrets.SystemRandom

     A class for generating random numbers using the highest-quality
     sources provided by the operating system.  See *note
     random.SystemRandom: 2d75. for additional details.

 -- Συνάρτηση: secrets.choice (seq)

     Return a randomly chosen element from a non-empty sequence.

 -- Συνάρτηση: secrets.randbelow (exclusive_upper_bound)

     Return a random int in the range [0, 'exclusive_upper_bound').

 -- Συνάρτηση: secrets.randbits (k)

     Return a non-negative int with 'k' random bits.


File: python.info,  Node: Generating tokens,  Next: Other functions,  Prev: Random numbers,  Up: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

5.16.3.2 Generating tokens
..........................

The ‘secrets’ module provides functions for generating secure tokens,
suitable for applications such as password resets, hard-to-guess URLs,
and similar.

 -- Συνάρτηση: secrets.token_bytes (nbytes=None)

     Return a random byte string containing 'nbytes' number of bytes.

     If 'nbytes' is not specified or ‘None’, *note DEFAULT_ENTROPY:
     321a. is used instead.

          >>> token_bytes(16)
          b'\xebr\x17D*t\xae\xd4\xe3S\xb6\xe2\xebP1\x8b'

 -- Συνάρτηση: secrets.token_hex (nbytes=None)

     Return a random text string, in hexadecimal.  The string has
     'nbytes' random bytes, each byte converted to two hex digits.

     If 'nbytes' is not specified or ‘None’, *note DEFAULT_ENTROPY:
     321a. is used instead.

          >>> token_hex(16)
          'f9bf78b9a18ce6d46a0cd2b0b86df9da'

 -- Συνάρτηση: secrets.token_urlsafe (nbytes=None)

     Return a random URL-safe text string, containing 'nbytes' random
     bytes.  The text is Base64 encoded, so on average each byte results
     in approximately 1.3 characters.

     If 'nbytes' is not specified or ‘None’, *note DEFAULT_ENTROPY:
     321a. is used instead.

          >>> token_urlsafe(16)
          'Drmhze6EPcv0fN_81Bj-nA'

* Menu:

* How many bytes should tokens use?::


File: python.info,  Node: How many bytes should tokens use?,  Up: Generating tokens

5.16.3.3 How many bytes should tokens use?
..........................................

To be secure against brute-force attacks(1), tokens need to have
sufficient randomness.  Unfortunately, what is considered sufficient
will necessarily increase as computers get more powerful and able to
make more guesses in a shorter period.  As of 2015, it is believed that
32 bytes (256 bits) of randomness is sufficient for the typical use-case
expected for the ‘secrets’ module.

For those who want to manage their own token length, you can explicitly
specify how much randomness is used for tokens by giving an *note int:
326. argument to the various ‘token_*’ functions.  That argument is
taken as the number of bytes of randomness to use.

Otherwise, if no argument is provided, or if the argument is ‘None’, the
‘token_*’ functions use *note DEFAULT_ENTROPY: 321a. instead.

 -- Δεδομένα: secrets.DEFAULT_ENTROPY

     Default number of bytes of randomness used by the ‘token_*’
     functions.

     The exact value is subject to change at any time, including during
     maintenance releases.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_attack


File: python.info,  Node: Other functions,  Next: Recipes and best practices,  Prev: Generating tokens,  Up: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

5.16.3.4 Other functions
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: secrets.compare_digest (a, b)

     Return ‘True’ if strings or *note bytes-like objects: 436. 'a' and
     'b' are equal, otherwise ‘False’, using a «constant-time compare»
     to reduce the risk of timing attacks(1).  See *note
     hmac.compare_digest(): 1476. for additional details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://codahale.com/a-lesson-in-timing-attacks/


File: python.info,  Node: Recipes and best practices,  Prev: Other functions,  Up: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets

5.16.3.5 Recipes and best practices
...................................

This section shows recipes and best practices for using ‘secrets’ to
manage a basic level of security.

Generate an eight-character alphanumeric password:

     import string
     import secrets
     alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
     password = ''.join(secrets.choice(alphabet) for i in range(8))

     Σημείωση: Applications should not store passwords in a recoverable
     format(1), whether plain text or encrypted.  They should be salted
     and hashed using a cryptographically strong one-way (irreversible)
     hash function.

Generate a ten-character alphanumeric password with at least one
lowercase character, at least one uppercase character, and at least
three digits:

     import string
     import secrets
     alphabet = string.ascii_letters + string.digits
     while True:
         password = ''.join(secrets.choice(alphabet) for i in range(10))
         if (any(c.islower() for c in password)
                 and any(c.isupper() for c in password)
                 and sum(c.isdigit() for c in password) >= 3):
             break

Generate an XKCD-style passphrase(2):

     import secrets
     # On standard Linux systems, use a convenient dictionary file.
     # Other platforms may need to provide their own word-list.
     with open('/usr/share/dict/words') as f:
         words = [word.strip() for word in f]
         password = ' '.join(secrets.choice(words) for i in range(4))

Generate a hard-to-guess temporary URL containing a security token
suitable for password recovery applications:

     import secrets
     url = 'https://example.com/reset=' + secrets.token_urlsafe()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/257.html

   (2) https://xkcd.com/936/


File: python.info,  Node: Generic Operating System Services,  Next: Command-line interface libraries,  Prev: Cryptographic Services,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.17 Generic Operating System Services
======================================

The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to operating
system features that are available on (almost) all operating systems,
such as files and a clock.  The interfaces are generally modeled after
the Unix or C interfaces, but they are available on most other systems
as well.  Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces::
* io — Core tools for working with streams::
* time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου::
* logging — Logging facility for Python::
* logging.config — Logging configuration: logging config — Logging configuration.
* logging.handlers — Logging handlers: logging handlers — Logging handlers.
* platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας::
* errno — Standard errno system symbols::
* ctypes — A foreign function library for Python::


File: python.info,  Node: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces,  Next: io — Core tools for working with streams,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.17.1 ‘os’ — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
-------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/os.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a portable way of using operating system dependent
functionality.  If you just want to read or write a file see *note
open(): 32b, if you want to manipulate paths, see the *note os.path: a6.
module, and if you want to read all the lines in all the files on the
command line see the *note fileinput: 5e. module.  For creating
temporary files and directories see the *note tempfile: e9. module, and
for high-level file and directory handling see the *note shutil: cd.
module.

Notes on the availability of these functions:

   * The design of all built-in operating system dependent modules of
     Python is such that as long as the same functionality is available,
     it uses the same interface; for example, the function
     ‘os.stat(path)’ returns stat information about 'path' in the same
     format (which happens to have originated with the POSIX interface).

   * Extensions peculiar to a particular operating system are also
     available through the ‘os’ module, but using them is of course a
     threat to portability.

   * All functions accepting path or file names accept both bytes and
     string objects, and result in an object of the same type, if a path
     or file name is returned.

   * On VxWorks, os.popen, os.fork, os.execv and os.spawn*p* are not
     supported.

   * On WebAssembly platforms, Android and iOS, large parts of the ‘os’
     module are not available or behave differently.  APIs related to
     processes (e.g.  *note fork(): 6bd, *note execve(): 14a5.) and
     resources (e.g.  *note nice(): 14ad.) are not available.  Others
     like *note getuid(): 1a11. and *note getpid(): 3226. are emulated
     or stubs.  WebAssembly platforms also lack support for signals
     (e.g.  *note kill(): 170c, *note wait(): 1151.).

     Σημείωση: All functions in this module raise *note OSError: 53c.
     (or subclasses thereof) in the case of invalid or inaccessible file
     names and paths, or other arguments that have the correct type, but
     are not accepted by the operating system.

 -- Εξαίρεση: os.error

     An alias for the built-in *note OSError: 53c. exception.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.name

     The name of the operating system dependent module imported.  The
     following names have currently been registered: ‘'posix'’, ‘'nt'’,
     ‘'java'’.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note sys.platform: 518. has a finer granularity.  *note
     os.uname(): 14c2. gives system-dependent version information.

     The *note platform: af. module provides detailed checks for the
     system’s identity.

* Menu:

* File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables.
* Python UTF-8 Mode::
* Process Parameters::
* File Object Creation::
* File Descriptor Operations::
* Files and Directories::
* Process Management::
* Interface to the scheduler::
* Miscellaneous System Information::
* Random numbers: Random numbers<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/os.py


File: python.info,  Node: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables,  Next: Python UTF-8 Mode,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.17.1.1 File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables
......................................................................

In Python, file names, command line arguments, and environment variables
are represented using the string type.  On some systems, decoding these
strings to and from bytes is necessary before passing them to the
operating system.  Python uses the *note filesystem encoding and error
handler: 948. to perform this conversion (see *note
sys.getfilesystemencoding(): 1017.).

The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948. are configured at
Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): b6f. function: see *note
filesystem_encoding: 62e. and *note filesystem_errors: 62f. members of
*note PyConfig: 60b.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: On some systems, conversion using the file
system encoding may fail.  In this case, Python uses the *note
surrogateescape encoding error handler: 2a6a, which means that
undecodable bytes are replaced by a Unicode character U+DC'xx' on
decoding, and these are again translated to the original byte on
encoding.

The *note file system encoding: 948. must guarantee to successfully
decode all bytes below 128.  If the file system encoding fails to
provide this guarantee, API functions can raise *note UnicodeError: 675.

See also the *note locale encoding: 74d.


File: python.info,  Node: Python UTF-8 Mode,  Next: Process Parameters,  Prev: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.17.1.2 Python UTF-8 Mode
..........................

Added in version 3.7: See PEP 540(1) for more details.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Python UTF-8 mode is now enabled by default (
PEP 686(2)).  It may be disabled by setting *note PYTHONUTF8=0: 1ad. as
an environment variable or by using the *note -X utf8=0: 178. command
line option.

The Python UTF-8 Mode ignores the *note locale encoding: 74d. and forces
the usage of the UTF-8 encoding:

   * Use UTF-8 as the *note filesystem encoding: 948.

   * *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): 1017. returns ‘'utf-8'’.

   * *note locale.getpreferredencoding(): 947. returns ‘'utf-8'’ (the
     'do_setlocale' argument has no effect).

   * *note sys.stdin: 94a, *note sys.stdout: e9c, and *note sys.stderr:
     d05. all use UTF-8 as their text encoding, with the
     ‘surrogateescape’ *note error handler: 1d6c. being enabled for
     ‘sys.stdin’ and ‘sys.stdout’ (‘sys.stderr’ continues to use
     ‘backslashreplace’ as it does in the default locale-aware mode)

   * On Unix, *note os.device_encoding(): 1e2c. returns ‘'utf-8'’ rather
     than the device encoding.

Note that the standard stream settings in UTF-8 mode can be overridden
by *note PYTHONIOENCODING: 13b3. (just as they can be in the default
locale-aware mode).

As a consequence of the changes in those lower level APIs, other higher
level APIs also exhibit different default behaviours:

   * Command line arguments, environment variables and filenames are
     decoded to text using the UTF-8 encoding.

   * *note os.fsdecode(): 1012. and *note os.fsencode(): 1013. use the
     UTF-8 encoding.

   * *note open(): 32b, *note io.open(): 92b, and *note codecs.open():
     32c. use the UTF-8 encoding by default.  However, they still use
     the strict error handler by default so that attempting to open a
     binary file in text mode is likely to raise an exception rather
     than producing nonsense data.

The *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46. is enabled by default.  It can be
disabled using the *note -X utf8=0: 178. command line option or the
*note PYTHONUTF8=0: 1ad. environment variable.  The Python UTF-8 Mode
can only be disabled at Python startup.  Its value can be read from
*note sys.flags.utf8_mode: a7c.

If the UTF-8 mode is disabled, the interpreter defaults to using the
current locale settings, 'unless' the current locale is identified as a
legacy ASCII-based locale (as described for *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE:
e9b.), and locale coercion is either disabled or fails.  In such legacy
locales, the interpreter will default to enabling UTF-8 mode unless
explicitly instructed not to do so.

See also the *note UTF-8 mode on Windows: 240e. and the *note filesystem
encoding and error handler: 948.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/


File: python.info,  Node: Process Parameters,  Next: File Object Creation,  Prev: Python UTF-8 Mode,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.17.1.3 Process Parameters
...........................

These functions and data items provide information and operate on the
current process and user.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.ctermid ()

     Return the filename corresponding to the controlling terminal of
     the process.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.environ

     A *note mapping: 1564. object where keys and values are strings
     that represent the process environment.  For example,
     ‘environ['HOME']’ is the pathname of your home directory (on some
     platforms), and is equivalent to ‘getenv("HOME")’ in C.

     This mapping is captured the first time the ‘os’ module is
     imported, typically during Python startup as part of processing
     ‘site.py’.  Changes to the environment made after this time are not
     reflected in *note os.environ: 4e5, except for changes made by
     modifying ‘os.environ’ directly.

     This mapping may be used to modify the environment as well as query
     the environment.  *note putenv(): 4e7. will be called automatically
     when the mapping is modified.

     On Unix, keys and values use *note sys.getfilesystemencoding():
     1017. and ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler.  Use *note environb:
     4e6. if you would like to use a different encoding.

     On Windows, the keys are converted to uppercase.  This also applies
     when getting, setting, or deleting an item.  For example,
     ‘environ['monty'] = 'python'’ maps the key ‘'MONTY'’ to the value
     ‘'python'’.

          Σημείωση: Calling *note putenv(): 4e7. directly does not
          change *note os.environ: 4e5, so it’s better to modify
          ‘os.environ’.

          Σημείωση: On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS,
          setting ‘environ’ may cause memory leaks.  Refer to the system
          documentation for ‘putenv()’.

     You can delete items in this mapping to unset environment
     variables.  *note unsetenv(): 4e8. will be called automatically
     when an item is deleted from *note os.environ: 4e5, and when one of
     the *note pop(): 7de. or *note clear(): 1954. methods is called.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note os.reload_environ(): 4e4. function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Updated to support PEP 584(1)’s merge (‘|’)
     and update (‘|=’) operators.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.environb

     Bytes version of *note environ: 4e5.: a *note mapping: 1564. object
     where both keys and values are *note bytes: 1c7. objects
     representing the process environment.  ‘environ’ and ‘environb’ are
     synchronized (modifying ‘environb’ updates ‘environ’, and vice
     versa).

     ‘environb’ is only available if *note supports_bytes_environ: 15bc.
     is ‘True’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Updated to support PEP 584(2)’s merge (‘|’)
     and update (‘|=’) operators.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.reload_environ ()

     The *note os.environ: 4e5. and *note os.environb: 4e6. mappings are
     a cache of environment variables at the time that Python started.
     As such, changes to the current process environment are not
     reflected if made outside Python, or by *note os.putenv(): 4e7. or
     *note os.unsetenv(): 4e8.  Use ‘os.reload_environ()’ to update
     ‘os.environ’ and ‘os.environb’ with any such changes to the current
     process environment.

          Προειδοποίηση: This function is not thread-safe.  Calling it
          while the environment is being modified in another thread is
          an undefined behavior.  Reading from *note os.environ: 4e5. or
          *note os.environb: 4e6, or calling *note os.getenv(): 322e.
          while reloading, may return an empty result.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.chdir (path)

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fchdir (fd)

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getcwd ()

     These functions are described in *note Files and Directories: 322f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fsencode (filename)

     Encode *note path-like: 79f. 'filename' to the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 948.; return *note bytes: 1c7.
     unchanged.

     *note fsdecode(): 1012. is the reverse function.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Support added to accept objects
     implementing the *note os.PathLike: 100f. interface.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fsdecode (filename)

     Decode the *note path-like: 79f. 'filename' from the *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 948.; return *note str: 1df.
     unchanged.

     *note fsencode(): 1013. is the reverse function.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Support added to accept objects
     implementing the *note os.PathLike: 100f. interface.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fspath (path)

     Return the file system representation of the path.

     If *note str: 1df. or *note bytes: 1c7. is passed in, it is
     returned unchanged.  Otherwise *note __fspath__(): 1010. is called
     and its value is returned as long as it is a ‘str’ or ‘bytes’
     object.  In all other cases, *note TypeError: 291. is raised.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Κλάση: os.PathLike

     An *note abstract base class: 155f. for objects representing a file
     system path, e.g.  *note pathlib.PurePath: 8b6.

     Added in version 3.6.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod __fspath__ ()

          Return the file system path representation of the object.

          The method should only return a *note str: 1df. or *note
          bytes: 1c7. object, with the preference being for ‘str’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getenv (key, default=None)

     Return the value of the environment variable 'key' as a string if
     it exists, or 'default' if it doesn’t.  'key' is a string.  Note
     that since ‘getenv()’ uses *note os.environ: 4e5, the mapping of
     ‘getenv()’ is similarly also captured on import, and the function
     may not reflect future environment changes.

     On Unix, keys and values are decoded with *note
     sys.getfilesystemencoding(): 1017. and ‘'surrogateescape'’ error
     handler.  Use *note os.getenvb(): 15bd. if you would like to use a
     different encoding.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getenvb (key, default=None)

     Return the value of the environment variable 'key' as bytes if it
     exists, or 'default' if it doesn’t.  'key' must be bytes.  Note
     that since ‘getenvb()’ uses *note os.environb: 4e6, the mapping of
     ‘getenvb()’ is similarly also captured on import, and the function
     may not reflect future environment changes.

     ‘getenvb()’ is only available if *note supports_bytes_environ:
     15bc. is ‘True’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.get_exec_path (env=None)

     Returns the list of directories that will be searched for a named
     executable, similar to a shell, when launching a process.  'env',
     when specified, should be an environment variable dictionary to
     lookup the PATH in.  By default, when 'env' is ‘None’, *note
     environ: 4e5. is used.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getegid ()

     Return the effective group id of the current process.  This
     corresponds to the «set id» bit on the file being executed in the
     current process.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.geteuid ()

     Return the current process’s effective user id.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getgid ()

     Return the real group id of the current process.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     The function is a stub on WASI, see *note WebAssembly platforms:
     1d67. for more information.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getgrouplist (user, group, /)

     Return list of group ids that 'user' belongs to.  If 'group' is not
     in the list, it is included; typically, 'group' is specified as the
     group ID field from the password record for 'user', because that
     group ID will otherwise be potentially omitted.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getgroups ()

     Return list of supplemental group ids associated with the current
     process.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

          Σημείωση: On macOS, ‘getgroups()’ behavior differs somewhat
          from other Unix platforms.  If the Python interpreter was
          built with a deployment target of ‘10.5’ or earlier,
          ‘getgroups()’ returns the list of effective group ids
          associated with the current user process; this list is limited
          to a system-defined number of entries, typically 16, and may
          be modified by calls to *note setgroups(): 3234. if suitably
          privileged.  If built with a deployment target greater than
          ‘10.5’, ‘getgroups()’ returns the current group access list
          for the user associated with the effective user id of the
          process; the group access list may change over the lifetime of
          the process, it is not affected by calls to ‘setgroups()’, and
          its length is not limited to 16.  The deployment target value
          can be obtained with *note
          sysconfig.get_config_var('MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET'): 41e.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getlogin ()

     Return the name of the user logged in on the controlling terminal
     of the process.  For most purposes, it is more useful to use *note
     getpass.getuser(): 848. since the latter checks the environment
     variables ‘LOGNAME’ or ‘USERNAME’ to find out who the user is, and
     falls back to ‘pwd.getpwuid(os.getuid())[0]’ to get the login name
     of the current real user id.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getpgid (pid)

     Return the process group id of the process with process id 'pid'.
     If 'pid' is 0, the process group id of the current process is
     returned.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getpgrp ()

     Return the id of the current process group.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getpid ()

     Return the current process id.

     The function is a stub on WASI, see *note WebAssembly platforms:
     1d67. for more information.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getppid ()

     Return the parent’s process id.  When the parent process has
     exited, on Unix the id returned is the one of the init process (1),
     on Windows it is still the same id, which may be already reused by
     another process.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added support for Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getpriority (which, who)

     Get program scheduling priority.  The value 'which' is one of *note
     PRIO_PROCESS: 3237, *note PRIO_PGRP: 3238, or *note PRIO_USER:
     3239, and 'who' is interpreted relative to 'which' (a process
     identifier for ‘PRIO_PROCESS’, process group identifier for
     ‘PRIO_PGRP’, and a user ID for ‘PRIO_USER’).  A zero value for
     'who' denotes (respectively) the calling process, the process group
     of the calling process, or the real user ID of the calling process.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.PRIO_PROCESS
 -- Δεδομένα: os.PRIO_PGRP
 -- Δεδομένα: os.PRIO_USER

     Parameters for the *note getpriority(): 14ab. and *note
     setpriority(): 14ac. functions.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD
 -- Δεδομένα: os.PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS
 -- Δεδομένα: os.PRIO_DARWIN_BG
 -- Δεδομένα: os.PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI

     Parameters for the *note getpriority(): 14ab. and *note
     setpriority(): 14ac. functions.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: macOS

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getresuid ()

     Return a tuple (ruid, euid, suid) denoting the current process’s
     real, effective, and saved user ids.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getresgid ()

     Return a tuple (rgid, egid, sgid) denoting the current process’s
     real, effective, and saved group ids.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getuid ()

     Return the current process’s real user id.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     The function is a stub on WASI, see *note WebAssembly platforms:
     1d67. for more information.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.initgroups (username, gid, /)

     Call the system ‘initgroups()’ to initialize the group access list
     with all of the groups of which the specified username is a member,
     plus the specified group id.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.putenv (key, value, /)

     Set the environment variable named 'key' to the string 'value'.
     Such changes to the environment affect subprocesses started with
     *note os.system(): 17ff, *note popen(): 585. or *note fork(): 6bd.
     and *note execv(): 323e.

     Assignments to items in *note os.environ: 4e5. are automatically
     translated into corresponding calls to ‘putenv()’; however, calls
     to ‘putenv()’ don’t update ‘os.environ’, so it is actually
     preferable to assign to items of ‘os.environ’.  This also applies
     to *note getenv(): 322e. and *note getenvb(): 15bd, which
     respectively use ‘os.environ’ and *note os.environb: 4e6. in their
     implementations.

     See also the *note os.reload_environ(): 4e4. function.

          Σημείωση: On some platforms, including FreeBSD and macOS,
          setting ‘environ’ may cause memory leaks.  Refer to the system
          documentation for ‘putenv()’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.putenv’ with arguments
     ‘key’, ‘value’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The function is now always available.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setegid (egid, /)

     Set the current process’s effective group id.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.seteuid (euid, /)

     Set the current process’s effective user id.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setgid (gid, /)

     Set the current process” group id.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setgroups (groups, /)

     Set the list of supplemental group ids associated with the current
     process to 'groups'.  'groups' must be a sequence, and each element
     must be an integer identifying a group.  This operation is
     typically available only to the superuser.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

          Σημείωση: On macOS, the length of 'groups' may not exceed the
          system-defined maximum number of effective group ids,
          typically 16.  See the documentation for *note getgroups():
          3233. for cases where it may not return the same group list
          set by calling setgroups().

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setns (fd, nstype=0)

     Reassociate the current thread with a Linux namespace.  See the
     ‘setns(2)(3)’ and ‘namespaces(7)(4)’ man pages for more details.

     If 'fd' refers to a ‘/proc/`pid'/ns/’ link, ‘setns()’ reassociates
     the calling thread with the namespace associated with that link,
     and 'nstype' may be set to one of the *note CLONE_NEW* constants:
     3242. to impose constraints on the operation (‘0’ means no
     constraints).

     Since Linux 5.8, 'fd' may refer to a PID file descriptor obtained
     from *note pidfd_open(): 267.  In this case, ‘setns()’ reassociates
     the calling thread into one or more of the same namespaces as the
     thread referred to by 'fd'.  This is subject to any constraints
     imposed by 'nstype', which is a bit mask combining one or more of
     the *note CLONE_NEW* constants: 3242, e.g.  ‘setns(fd,
     os.CLONE_NEWUTS | os.CLONE_NEWPID)’.  The caller’s memberships in
     unspecified namespaces are left unchanged.

     'fd' can be any object with a *note fileno(): 19b2. method, or a
     raw file descriptor.

     This example reassociates the thread with the ‘init’ process’s
     network namespace:

          fd = os.open("/proc/1/ns/net", os.O_RDONLY)
          os.setns(fd, os.CLONE_NEWNET)
          os.close(fd)

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 3.0 with glibc >= 2.14.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note unshare(): 1d40. function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setpgrp ()

     Call the system call ‘setpgrp()’ or ‘setpgrp(0, 0)’ depending on
     which version is implemented (if any).  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setpgid (pid, pgrp, /)

     Call the system call ‘setpgid()’ to set the process group id of the
     process with id 'pid' to the process group with id 'pgrp'.  See the
     Unix manual for the semantics.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setpriority (which, who, priority)

     Set program scheduling priority.  The value 'which' is one of *note
     PRIO_PROCESS: 3237, *note PRIO_PGRP: 3238, or *note PRIO_USER:
     3239, and 'who' is interpreted relative to 'which' (a process
     identifier for ‘PRIO_PROCESS’, process group identifier for
     ‘PRIO_PGRP’, and a user ID for ‘PRIO_USER’).  A zero value for
     'who' denotes (respectively) the calling process, the process group
     of the calling process, or the real user ID of the calling process.
     'priority' is a value in the range -20 to 19.  The default priority
     is 0; lower priorities cause more favorable scheduling.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setregid (rgid, egid, /)

     Set the current process’s real and effective group ids.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setresgid (rgid, egid, sgid, /)

     Set the current process’s real, effective, and saved group ids.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setresuid (ruid, euid, suid, /)

     Set the current process’s real, effective, and saved user ids.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setreuid (ruid, euid, /)

     Set the current process’s real and effective user ids.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getsid (pid, /)

     Call the system call ‘getsid()’.  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setsid ()

     Call the system call ‘setsid()’.  See the Unix manual for the
     semantics.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setuid (uid, /)

     Set the current process’s user id.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.strerror (code, /)

     Return the error message corresponding to the error code in 'code'.
     On platforms where ‘strerror()’ returns ‘NULL’ when given an
     unknown error number, *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.supports_bytes_environ

     ‘True’ if the native OS type of the environment is bytes (eg.
     ‘False’ on Windows).

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.umask (mask, /)

     Set the current numeric umask and return the previous umask.

     The function is a stub on WASI, see *note WebAssembly platforms:
     1d67. for more information.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.uname ()

     Returns information identifying the current operating system.  The
     return value is an object with five attributes:

        * ‘sysname’ - operating system name

        * ‘nodename’ - name of machine on network
          (implementation-defined)

        * ‘release’ - operating system release

        * ‘version’ - operating system version

        * ‘machine’ - hardware identifier

     For backwards compatibility, this object is also iterable, behaving
     like a five-tuple containing ‘sysname’, ‘nodename’, ‘release’,
     ‘version’, and ‘machine’ in that order.

     Some systems truncate ‘nodename’ to 8 characters or to the leading
     component; a better way to get the hostname is *note
     socket.gethostname(): 324b. or even
     ‘socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname())’.

     On macOS, iOS and Android, this returns the 'kernel' name and
     version (i.e., ‘'Darwin'’ on macOS and iOS; ‘'Linux'’ on Android).
     *note platform.uname(): 2001. can be used to get the user-facing
     operating system name and version on iOS and Android.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Return type changed from a tuple to a
     tuple-like object with named attributes.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.unsetenv (key, /)

     Unset (delete) the environment variable named 'key'.  Such changes
     to the environment affect subprocesses started with *note
     os.system(): 17ff, *note popen(): 585. or *note fork(): 6bd. and
     *note execv(): 323e.

     Deletion of items in *note os.environ: 4e5. is automatically
     translated into a corresponding call to ‘unsetenv()’; however,
     calls to ‘unsetenv()’ don’t update ‘os.environ’, so it is actually
     preferable to delete items of ‘os.environ’.

     See also the *note os.reload_environ(): 4e4. function.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.unsetenv’ with argument
     ‘key’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The function is now always available and is
     also available on Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.unshare (flags)

     Disassociate parts of the process execution context, and move them
     into a newly created namespace.  See the ‘unshare(2)(5)’ man page
     for more details.  The 'flags' argument is a bit mask, combining
     zero or more of the *note CLONE_* constants: 3242, that specifies
     which parts of the execution context should be unshared from their
     existing associations and moved to a new namespace.  If the 'flags'
     argument is ‘0’, no changes are made to the calling process’s
     execution context.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.16.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note setns(): 1d3f. function.

Flags to the *note unshare(): 1d40. function, if the implementation
supports them.  See ‘unshare(2)(6)’ in the Linux manual for their exact
effect and availability.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_FILES
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_FS
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_NEWCGROUP
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_NEWIPC
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_NEWNET
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_NEWNS
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_NEWPID
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_NEWTIME
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_NEWUSER
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_NEWUTS
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_SIGHAND
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_SYSVSEM
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_THREAD
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLONE_VM

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/setns(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/namespaces(7)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/unshare(2)

   (6) https://manpages.debian.org/unshare(2)


File: python.info,  Node: File Object Creation,  Next: File Descriptor Operations,  Prev: Process Parameters,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.17.1.4 File Object Creation
.............................

These functions create new *note file objects: 156c.  (See also *note
open(): 114b. for opening file descriptors.)

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fdopen (fd, *args, **kwargs)

     Return an open file object connected to the file descriptor 'fd'.
     This is an alias of the *note open(): 32b. built-in function and
     accepts the same arguments.  The only difference is that the first
     argument of ‘fdopen()’ must always be an integer.


File: python.info,  Node: File Descriptor Operations,  Next: Files and Directories,  Prev: File Object Creation,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.17.1.5 File Descriptor Operations
...................................

These functions operate on I/O streams referenced using file
descriptors.

File descriptors are small integers corresponding to a file that has
been opened by the current process.  For example, standard input is
usually file descriptor 0, standard output is 1, and standard error is
2.  Further files opened by a process will then be assigned 3, 4, 5, and
so forth.  The name «file descriptor» is slightly deceptive; on Unix
platforms, sockets and pipes are also referenced by file descriptors.

The *note fileno(): 19b2. method can be used to obtain the file
descriptor associated with a *note file object: 156c. when required.
Note that using the file descriptor directly will bypass the file object
methods, ignoring aspects such as internal buffering of data.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.close (fd)

     Close file descriptor 'fd'.

          Σημείωση: This function is intended for low-level I/O and must
          be applied to a file descriptor as returned by *note
          os.open(): 114b. or *note pipe(): 1d62.  To close a «file
          object» returned by the built-in function *note open(): 32b.
          or by *note popen(): 585. or *note fdopen(): 2571, use its
          *note close(): 70b. method.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.closerange (fd_low, fd_high, /)

     Close all file descriptors from 'fd_low' (inclusive) to 'fd_high'
     (exclusive), ignoring errors.  Equivalent to (but much faster
     than):

          for fd in range(fd_low, fd_high):
              try:
                  os.close(fd)
              except OSError:
                  pass

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.copy_file_range (src, dst, count, offset_src=None,
          offset_dst=None)

     Copy 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'src', starting from offset
     'offset_src', to file descriptor 'dst', starting from offset
     'offset_dst'.  If 'offset_src' is ‘None’, then 'src' is read from
     the current position; respectively for 'offset_dst'.

     In Linux kernel older than 5.3, the files pointed to by 'src' and
     'dst' must reside in the same filesystem, otherwise an *note
     OSError: 53c. is raised with *note errno: 19ca. set to *note
     errno.EXDEV: 325f.

     This copy is done without the additional cost of transferring data
     from the kernel to user space and then back into the kernel.
     Additionally, some filesystems could implement extra optimizations,
     such as the use of reflinks (i.e., two or more inodes that share
     pointers to the same copy-on-write disk blocks; supported file
     systems include btrfs and XFS) and server-side copy (in the case of
     NFS).

     The function copies bytes between two file descriptors.  Text
     options, like the encoding and the line ending, are ignored.

     The return value is the amount of bytes copied.  This could be less
     than the amount requested.

          Σημείωση: On Linux, *note os.copy_file_range(): 1ad5. should
          not be used for copying a range of a pseudo file from a
          special filesystem like procfs and sysfs.  It will always copy
          no bytes and return 0 as if the file was empty because of a
          known Linux kernel issue.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.5 with glibc >= 2.27.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.device_encoding (fd)

     Return a string describing the encoding of the device associated
     with 'fd' if it is connected to a terminal; else return *note None:
     a65.

     On Unix, if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46. is enabled, return
     ‘'UTF-8'’ rather than the device encoding.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: On Unix, the function now implements the
     Python UTF-8 Mode.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.dup (fd, /)

     Return a duplicate of file descriptor 'fd'.  The new file
     descriptor is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     On Windows, when duplicating a standard stream (0: stdin, 1:
     stdout, 2: stderr), the new file descriptor is *note inheritable:
     12aa.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The new file descriptor is now
     non-inheritable.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.dup2 (fd, fd2, inheritable=True)

     Duplicate file descriptor 'fd' to 'fd2', closing the latter first
     if necessary.  Return 'fd2'.  The new file descriptor is *note
     inheritable: 12aa. by default or non-inheritable if 'inheritable'
     is ‘False’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Add the optional 'inheritable' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Return 'fd2' on success.  Previously,
     ‘None’ was always returned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fchmod (fd, mode)

     Change the mode of the file given by 'fd' to the numeric 'mode'.
     See the docs for *note chmod(): 72c. for possible values of 'mode'.
     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.chmod(fd, mode)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.chmod’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note WebAssembly platforms:
     1d67. for more information.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added support on Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fchown (fd, uid, gid)

     Change the owner and group id of the file given by 'fd' to the
     numeric 'uid' and 'gid'.  To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it
     to -1.  See *note chown(): 149a.  As of Python 3.3, this is
     equivalent to ‘os.chown(fd, uid, gid)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.chown’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note WebAssembly platforms:
     1d67. for more information.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fdatasync (fd)

     Force write of file with filedescriptor 'fd' to disk.  Does not
     force update of metadata.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

          Σημείωση: This function is not available on MacOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fpathconf (fd, name, /)

     Return system configuration information relevant to an open file.
     'name' specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a
     string which is the name of a defined system value; these names are
     specified in a number of standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and
     others).  Some platforms define additional names as well.  The
     names known to the host operating system are given in the
     ‘pathconf_names’ dictionary.  For configuration variables not
     included in that mapping, passing an integer for 'name' is also
     accepted.

     If 'name' is a string and is not known, *note ValueError: 277. is
     raised.  If a specific value for 'name' is not supported by the
     host system, even if it is included in ‘pathconf_names’, an *note
     OSError: 53c. is raised with *note errno.EINVAL: 1fc1. for the
     error number.

     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.pathconf(fd, name)’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fstat (fd)

     Get the status of the file descriptor 'fd'.  Return a *note
     stat_result: 1863. object.

     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.stat(fd)’.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note stat(): 4f5. function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fstatvfs (fd, /)

     Return information about the filesystem containing the file
     associated with file descriptor 'fd', like *note statvfs(): 14a8.
     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.statvfs(fd)’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fsync (fd)

     Force write of file with filedescriptor 'fd' to disk.  On Unix,
     this calls the native ‘fsync()’ function; on Windows, the MS
     ‘_commit()’ function.

     If you’re starting with a buffered Python *note file object: 156c.
     'f', first do ‘f.flush()’, and then do ‘os.fsync(f.fileno())’, to
     ensure that all internal buffers associated with 'f' are written to
     disk.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.ftruncate (fd, length, /)

     Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor 'fd', so that it
     is at most 'length' bytes in size.  As of Python 3.3, this is
     equivalent to ‘os.truncate(fd, length)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.truncate’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘length’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support for Windows

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.get_blocking (fd, /)

     Get the blocking mode of the file descriptor: ‘False’ if the *note
     O_NONBLOCK: 11ee. flag is set, ‘True’ if the flag is cleared.

     See also *note set_blocking(): 11ed. and *note
     socket.socket.setblocking(): 3261.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note WebAssembly platforms:
     1d67. for more information.

     On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added support for pipes on Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.grantpt (fd, /)

     Grant access to the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with
     the master pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor 'fd'
     refers.  The file descriptor 'fd' is not closed upon failure.

     Calls the C standard library function ‘grantpt()’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.isatty (fd, /)

     Return ‘True’ if the file descriptor 'fd' is open and connected to
     a tty(-like) device, else ‘False’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.lockf (fd, cmd, len, /)

     Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an open file descriptor.
     'fd' is an open file descriptor.  'cmd' specifies the command to
     use - one of *note F_LOCK: 3262, *note F_TLOCK: 3263, *note
     F_ULOCK: 3264. or *note F_TEST: 3265.  'len' specifies the section
     of the file to lock.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.lockf’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.F_LOCK
 -- Δεδομένα: os.F_TLOCK
 -- Δεδομένα: os.F_ULOCK
 -- Δεδομένα: os.F_TEST

     Flags that specify what action *note lockf(): 14bf. will take.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.login_tty (fd, /)

     Prepare the tty of which fd is a file descriptor for a new login
     session.  Make the calling process a session leader; make the tty
     the controlling tty, the stdin, the stdout, and the stderr of the
     calling process; close fd.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.lseek (fd, pos, whence, /)

     Set the current position of file descriptor 'fd' to position 'pos',
     modified by 'whence', and return the new position in bytes relative
     to the start of the file.  Valid values for 'whence' are:

        * *note SEEK_SET: 1632. or ‘0’ – set 'pos' relative to the
          beginning of the file

        * *note SEEK_CUR: 1633. or ‘1’ – set 'pos' relative to the
          current file position

        * *note SEEK_END: 1634. or ‘2’ – set 'pos' relative to the end
          of the file

        * *note SEEK_HOLE: 3266. – set 'pos' to the next data location,
          relative to 'pos'

        * *note SEEK_DATA: 3267. – set 'pos' to the next data hole,
          relative to 'pos'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Add support for ‘SEEK_HOLE’ and
     ‘SEEK_DATA’.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SEEK_SET
 -- Δεδομένα: os.SEEK_CUR
 -- Δεδομένα: os.SEEK_END

     Parameters to the *note lseek(): 14c3. function and the *note
     seek(): 1631. method on *note file-like objects: 156c, for whence
     to adjust the file position indicator.

     *note SEEK_SET: 1632.

          Adjust the file position relative to the beginning of the
          file.

     *note SEEK_CUR: 1633.

          Adjust the file position relative to the current file
          position.

     *note SEEK_END: 1634.

          Adjust the file position relative to the end of the file.

     Their values are 0, 1, and 2, respectively.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SEEK_HOLE
 -- Δεδομένα: os.SEEK_DATA

     Parameters to the *note lseek(): 14c3. function and the *note
     seek(): 1631. method on *note file-like objects: 156c, for seeking
     file data and holes on sparsely allocated files.

     ‘SEEK_DATA’

          Adjust the file offset to the next location containing data,
          relative to the seek position.

     ‘SEEK_HOLE’

          Adjust the file offset to the next location containing a hole,
          relative to the seek position.  A hole is defined as a
          sequence of zeros.

          Σημείωση: These operations only make sense for filesystems
          that support them.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 3.1, macOS, Unix

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.open (path, flags, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)

     Open the file 'path' and set various flags according to 'flags' and
     possibly its mode according to 'mode'.  When computing 'mode', the
     current umask value is first masked out.  Return the file
     descriptor for the newly opened file.  The new file descriptor is
     *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     For a description of the flag and mode values, see the C run-time
     documentation; flag constants (like *note O_RDONLY: 3268. and *note
     O_WRONLY: 3269.) are defined in the ‘os’ module.  In particular, on
     Windows adding *note O_BINARY: 326a. is needed to open files in
     binary mode.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496. with the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘open’ with arguments ‘path’,
     ‘mode’, ‘flags’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The new file descriptor is now
     non-inheritable.

          Σημείωση: This function is intended for low-level I/O. For
          normal usage, use the built-in function ‘open()’, which
          returns a *note file object: 156c. with *note read(): 16cd.
          and *note write(): 1099. methods.  To wrap a file descriptor
          in a file object, use *note fdopen(): 2571.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the function now
     retries the system call instead of raising an *note
     InterruptedError: 1141. exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

The following constants are options for the 'flags' parameter to the
*note open(): 114b. function.  They can be combined using the bitwise OR
operator ‘|’.  Some of them are not available on all platforms.  For
descriptions of their availability and use, consult the ‘open(2)(2)’
manual page on Unix or the MSDN(3) on Windows.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_RDONLY
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_WRONLY
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_RDWR
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_APPEND
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_CREAT
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_EXCL
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_TRUNC

     The above constants are available on Unix and Windows.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_DSYNC
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_RSYNC
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_SYNC
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_NDELAY
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_NONBLOCK
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_NOCTTY
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_CLOEXEC

     The above constants are only available on Unix.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Add ‘O_CLOEXEC’ constant.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_BINARY
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_NOINHERIT
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_SHORT_LIVED
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_TEMPORARY
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_RANDOM
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_SEQUENTIAL
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_TEXT

     The above constants are only available on Windows.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_EVTONLY
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_FSYNC
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_SYMLINK
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_NOFOLLOW_ANY

     The above constants are only available on macOS.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Add ‘O_EVTONLY’, ‘O_FSYNC’, ‘O_SYMLINK’
     and ‘O_NOFOLLOW_ANY’ constants.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_ASYNC
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_DIRECT
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_DIRECTORY
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_NOFOLLOW
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_NOATIME
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_PATH
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_TMPFILE
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_SHLOCK
 -- Δεδομένα: os.O_EXLOCK

     The above constants are extensions and not present if they are not
     defined by the C library.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Add ‘O_PATH’ on systems that support it.
     Add ‘O_TMPFILE’, only available on Linux Kernel 3.11 or newer.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.openpty ()

     Open a new pseudo-terminal pair.  Return a pair of file descriptors
     ‘(master, slave)’ for the pty and the tty, respectively.  The new
     file descriptors are *note non-inheritable: 12aa.  For a (slightly)
     more portable approach, use the *note pty: b9. module.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The new file descriptors are now
     non-inheritable.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.pipe ()

     Create a pipe.  Return a pair of file descriptors ‘(r, w)’ usable
     for reading and writing, respectively.  The new file descriptor is
     *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The new file descriptors are now
     non-inheritable.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.pipe2 (flags, /)

     Create a pipe with 'flags' set atomically.  'flags' can be
     constructed by ORing together one or more of these values: *note
     O_NONBLOCK: 11ee, *note O_CLOEXEC: 1424.  Return a pair of file
     descriptors ‘(r, w)’ usable for reading and writing, respectively.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.posix_fallocate (fd, offset, len, /)

     Ensures that enough disk space is allocated for the file specified
     by 'fd' starting from 'offset' and continuing for 'len' bytes.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.posix_fadvise (fd, offset, len, advice, /)

     Announces an intention to access data in a specific pattern thus
     allowing the kernel to make optimizations.  The advice applies to
     the region of the file specified by 'fd' starting at 'offset' and
     continuing for 'len' bytes.  'advice' is one of *note
     POSIX_FADV_NORMAL: 3280, *note POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL: 3281, *note
     POSIX_FADV_RANDOM: 3282, *note POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE: 3283, *note
     POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED: 3284. or *note POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED: 3285.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.POSIX_FADV_NORMAL
 -- Δεδομένα: os.POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL
 -- Δεδομένα: os.POSIX_FADV_RANDOM
 -- Δεδομένα: os.POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE
 -- Δεδομένα: os.POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED
 -- Δεδομένα: os.POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED

     Flags that can be used in 'advice' in *note posix_fadvise(): 114c.
     that specify the access pattern that is likely to be used.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.pread (fd, n, offset, /)

     Read at most 'n' bytes from file descriptor 'fd' at a position of
     'offset', leaving the file offset unchanged.

     Return a bytestring containing the bytes read.  If the end of the
     file referred to by 'fd' has been reached, an empty bytes object is
     returned.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.posix_openpt (oflag, /)

     Open and return a file descriptor for a master pseudo-terminal
     device.

     Calls the C standard library function ‘posix_openpt()’.  The
     'oflag' argument is used to set file status flags and file access
     modes as specified in the manual page of ‘posix_openpt()’ of your
     system.

     The returned file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.  If
     the value *note O_CLOEXEC: 1424. is available on the system, it is
     added to 'oflag'.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.preadv (fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)

     Read from a file descriptor 'fd' at a position of 'offset' into
     mutable *note bytes-like objects: 436. 'buffers', leaving the file
     offset unchanged.  Transfer data into each buffer until it is full
     and then move on to the next buffer in the sequence to hold the
     rest of the data.

     The flags argument contains a bitwise OR of zero or more of the
     following flags:

        - *note RWF_HIPRI: 3286.

        - *note RWF_NOWAIT: 3287.

        - *note RWF_DONTCACHE: 19f6.

     Return the total number of bytes actually read which can be less
     than the total capacity of all the objects.

     The operating system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 1b0d. value
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) on the number of buffers that can be used.

     Combine the functionality of *note os.readv(): f1b. and *note
     os.pread(): f1c.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0,
     OpenBSD >= 2.7, AIX >= 7.1.

     Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.RWF_NOWAIT

     Do not wait for data which is not immediately available.  If this
     flag is specified, the system call will return instantly if it
     would have to read data from the backing storage or wait for a
     lock.

     If some data was successfully read, it will return the number of
     bytes read.  If no bytes were read, it will return ‘-1’ and set
     errno to *note errno.EAGAIN: 28f9.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.14.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.RWF_HIPRI

     High priority read/write.  Allows block-based filesystems to use
     polling of the device, which provides lower latency, but may use
     additional resources.

     Currently, on Linux, this feature is usable only on a file
     descriptor opened using the *note O_DIRECT: 327b. flag.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.6.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.RWF_DONTCACHE

     Use uncached buffered IO.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 6.14

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.RWF_ATOMIC

     Write data atomically.  Requires alignment to the device’s atomic
     write unit.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 6.11

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.ptsname (fd, /)

     Return the name of the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with
     the master pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor 'fd'
     refers.  The file descriptor 'fd' is not closed upon failure.

     Calls the reentrant C standard library function ‘ptsname_r()’ if it
     is available; otherwise, the C standard library function
     ‘ptsname()’, which is not guaranteed to be thread-safe, is called.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.pwrite (fd, str, offset, /)

     Write the bytestring in 'str' to file descriptor 'fd' at position
     of 'offset', leaving the file offset unchanged.

     Return the number of bytes actually written.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.pwritev (fd, buffers, offset, flags=0, /)

     Write the 'buffers' contents to file descriptor 'fd' at an offset
     'offset', leaving the file offset unchanged.  'buffers' must be a
     sequence of *note bytes-like objects: 436.  Buffers are processed
     in array order.  Entire contents of the first buffer is written
     before proceeding to the second, and so on.

     The flags argument contains a bitwise OR of zero or more of the
     following flags:

        - *note RWF_DSYNC: 3288.

        - *note RWF_SYNC: 3289.

        - *note RWF_APPEND: 1f22.

        - *note RWF_DONTCACHE: 19f6.

        - *note RWF_ATOMIC: 197b.

     Return the total number of bytes actually written.

     The operating system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 1b0d. value
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) on the number of buffers that can be used.

     Combine the functionality of *note os.writev(): f1e. and *note
     os.pwrite(): f1f.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.30, FreeBSD >= 6.0,
     OpenBSD >= 2.7, AIX >= 7.1.

     Using flags requires Linux >= 4.6.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.RWF_DSYNC

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_DSYNC: 326f. *note
     os.open(): 114b. flag.  This flag effect applies only to the data
     range written by the system call.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.7.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.RWF_SYNC

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_SYNC: 3271. *note
     os.open(): 114b. flag.  This flag effect applies only to the data
     range written by the system call.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.7.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.RWF_APPEND

     Provide a per-write equivalent of the *note O_APPEND: 326c. *note
     os.open(): 114b. flag.  This flag is meaningful only for *note
     os.pwritev(): f1d, and its effect applies only to the data range
     written by the system call.  The 'offset' argument does not affect
     the write operation; the data is always appended to the end of the
     file.  However, if the 'offset' argument is ‘-1’, the current file
     'offset' is updated.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.16.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.read (fd, n, /)

     Read at most 'n' bytes from file descriptor 'fd'.

     Return a bytestring containing the bytes read.  If the end of the
     file referred to by 'fd' has been reached, an empty bytes object is
     returned.

          Σημείωση: This function is intended for low-level I/O and must
          be applied to a file descriptor as returned by *note
          os.open(): 114b. or *note pipe(): 1d62.  To read a «file
          object» returned by the built-in function *note open(): 32b.
          or by *note popen(): 585. or *note fdopen(): 2571, or *note
          sys.stdin: 94a, use its *note read(): 225b. or *note
          readline(): 16ce. methods.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the function now
     retries the system call instead of raising an *note
     InterruptedError: 1141. exception (see PEP 475(4) for the
     rationale).

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.readinto (fd, buffer, /)

     Read from a file descriptor 'fd' into a mutable *note buffer
     object: 311. 'buffer'.

     The 'buffer' should be mutable and *note bytes-like: 436.  On
     success, returns the number of bytes read.  Less bytes may be read
     than the size of the buffer.  The underlying system call will be
     retried when interrupted by a signal, unless the signal handler
     raises an exception.  Other errors will not be retried and an error
     will be raised.

     Returns 0 if 'fd' is at end of file or if the provided 'buffer' has
     length 0 (which can be used to check for errors without reading
     data).  Never returns negative.

          Σημείωση: This function is intended for low-level I/O and must
          be applied to a file descriptor as returned by *note
          os.open(): 114b. or *note os.pipe(): 1d62.  To read a «file
          object» returned by the built-in function *note open(): 32b,
          or *note sys.stdin: 94a, use its member functions, for example
          *note io.BufferedIOBase.readinto(): 1ab9, *note
          io.BufferedIOBase.read(): 16cd, or *note io.TextIOBase.read():
          225b.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sendfile (out_fd, in_fd, offset, count)

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sendfile (out_fd, in_fd, offset, count, headers=(),
          trailers=(), flags=0)

     Copy 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'in_fd' to file descriptor
     'out_fd' starting at 'offset'.  Return the number of bytes sent.
     When EOF is reached return ‘0’.

     The first function notation is supported by all platforms that
     define ‘sendfile()’.

     On Linux, if 'offset' is given as ‘None’, the bytes are read from
     the current position of 'in_fd' and the position of 'in_fd' is
     updated.

     The second case may be used on macOS and FreeBSD where 'headers'
     and 'trailers' are arbitrary sequences of buffers that are written
     before and after the data from 'in_fd' is written.  It returns the
     same as the first case.

     On macOS and FreeBSD, a value of ‘0’ for 'count' specifies to send
     until the end of 'in_fd' is reached.

     All platforms support sockets as 'out_fd' file descriptor, and some
     platforms allow other types (e.g.  regular file, pipe) as well.

     Cross-platform applications should not use 'headers', 'trailers'
     and 'flags' arguments.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

          Σημείωση: For a higher-level wrapper of ‘sendfile()’, see
          *note socket.socket.sendfile(): 120e.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Parameters 'out' and 'in' was renamed to
     'out_fd' and 'in_fd'.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SF_NODISKIO
 -- Δεδομένα: os.SF_MNOWAIT
 -- Δεδομένα: os.SF_SYNC

     Parameters to the *note sendfile(): ed3. function, if the
     implementation supports them.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SF_NOCACHE

     Parameter to the *note sendfile(): ed3. function, if the
     implementation supports it.  The data won’t be cached in the
     virtual memory and will be freed afterwards.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.set_blocking (fd, blocking, /)

     Set the blocking mode of the specified file descriptor.  Set the
     *note O_NONBLOCK: 11ee. flag if blocking is ‘False’, clear the flag
     otherwise.

     See also *note get_blocking(): 11ec. and *note
     socket.socket.setblocking(): 3261.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note WebAssembly platforms:
     1d67. for more information.

     On Windows, this function is limited to pipes.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added support for pipes on Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.splice (src, dst, count, offset_src=None,
          offset_dst=None, flags=0)

     Transfer 'count' bytes from file descriptor 'src', starting from
     offset 'offset_src', to file descriptor 'dst', starting from offset
     'offset_dst'.

     The splicing behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Any of the following variables may used, combined using
     bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator):

        * If *note SPLICE_F_MOVE: 328e. is specified, the kernel is
          asked to move pages instead of copying, but pages may still be
          copied if the kernel cannot move the pages from the pipe.

        * If *note SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK: 328f. is specified, the kernel is
          asked to not block on I/O. This makes the splice pipe
          operations nonblocking, but splice may nevertheless block
          because the spliced file descriptors may block.

        * If *note SPLICE_F_MORE: 3290. is specified, it hints to the
          kernel that more data will be coming in a subsequent splice.

     At least one of the file descriptors must refer to a pipe.  If
     'offset_src' is ‘None’, then 'src' is read from the current
     position; respectively for 'offset_dst'.  The offset associated to
     the file descriptor that refers to a pipe must be ‘None’.  The
     files pointed to by 'src' and 'dst' must reside in the same
     filesystem, otherwise an *note OSError: 53c. is raised with *note
     errno: 19ca. set to *note errno.EXDEV: 325f.

     This copy is done without the additional cost of transferring data
     from the kernel to user space and then back into the kernel.
     Additionally, some filesystems could implement extra optimizations.
     The copy is done as if both files are opened as binary.

     Upon successful completion, returns the number of bytes spliced to
     or from the pipe.  A return value of 0 means end of input.  If
     'src' refers to a pipe, then this means that there was no data to
     transfer, and it would not make sense to block because there are no
     writers connected to the write end of the pipe.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The ‘splice(2)(5)’ man page.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.17 with glibc >= 2.5

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SPLICE_F_MOVE
 -- Δεδομένα: os.SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK
 -- Δεδομένα: os.SPLICE_F_MORE

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.readv (fd, buffers, /)

     Read from a file descriptor 'fd' into a number of mutable *note
     bytes-like objects: 436. 'buffers'.  Transfer data into each buffer
     until it is full and then move on to the next buffer in the
     sequence to hold the rest of the data.

     Return the total number of bytes actually read which can be less
     than the total capacity of all the objects.

     The operating system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 1b0d. value
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) on the number of buffers that can be used.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.tcgetpgrp (fd, /)

     Return the process group associated with the terminal given by 'fd'
     (an open file descriptor as returned by *note os.open(): 114b.).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.tcsetpgrp (fd, pg, /)

     Set the process group associated with the terminal given by 'fd'
     (an open file descriptor as returned by *note os.open(): 114b.) to
     'pg'.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.ttyname (fd, /)

     Return a string which specifies the terminal device associated with
     file descriptor 'fd'.  If 'fd' is not associated with a terminal
     device, an exception is raised.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.unlockpt (fd, /)

     Unlock the slave pseudo-terminal device associated with the master
     pseudo-terminal device to which the file descriptor 'fd' refers.
     The file descriptor 'fd' is not closed upon failure.

     Calls the C standard library function ‘unlockpt()’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.write (fd, str, /)

     Write the bytestring in 'str' to file descriptor 'fd'.

     Return the number of bytes actually written.

          Σημείωση: This function is intended for low-level I/O and must
          be applied to a file descriptor as returned by *note
          os.open(): 114b. or *note pipe(): 1d62.  To write a «file
          object» returned by the built-in function *note open(): 32b.
          or by *note popen(): 585. or *note fdopen(): 2571, or *note
          sys.stdout: e9c. or *note sys.stderr: d05, use its *note
          write(): 224a. method.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the function now
     retries the system call instead of raising an *note
     InterruptedError: 1141. exception (see PEP 475(6) for the
     rationale).

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.writev (fd, buffers, /)

     Write the contents of 'buffers' to file descriptor 'fd'.  'buffers'
     must be a sequence of *note bytes-like objects: 436.  Buffers are
     processed in array order.  Entire contents of the first buffer is
     written before proceeding to the second, and so on.

     Returns the total number of bytes actually written.

     The operating system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 1b0d. value
     ‘'SC_IOV_MAX'’) on the number of buffers that can be used.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

* Menu:

* Querying the size of a terminal::
* Inheritance of File Descriptors::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/open(2)

   (3) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/splice(2)

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Querying the size of a terminal,  Next: Inheritance of File Descriptors,  Up: File Descriptor Operations

5.17.1.6 Querying the size of a terminal
........................................

Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.get_terminal_size (fd=STDOUT_FILENO, /)

     Return the size of the terminal window as ‘(columns, lines)’, tuple
     of type *note terminal_size: 2f21.

     The optional argument ‘fd’ (default ‘STDOUT_FILENO’, or standard
     output) specifies which file descriptor should be queried.

     If the file descriptor is not connected to a terminal, an *note
     OSError: 53c. is raised.

     *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 14af. is the high-level function
     which should normally be used, ‘os.get_terminal_size’ is the
     low-level implementation.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Κλάση: os.terminal_size

     A subclass of tuple, holding ‘(columns, lines)’ of the terminal
     window size.

      -- Ιδιότητα: columns

          Width of the terminal window in characters.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lines

          Height of the terminal window in characters.


File: python.info,  Node: Inheritance of File Descriptors,  Prev: Querying the size of a terminal,  Up: File Descriptor Operations

5.17.1.7 Inheritance of File Descriptors
........................................

Added in version 3.4.

A file descriptor has an «inheritable» flag which indicates if the file
descriptor can be inherited by child processes.  Since Python 3.4, file
descriptors created by Python are non-inheritable by default.

On UNIX, non-inheritable file descriptors are closed in child processes
at the execution of a new program, other file descriptors are inherited.
Note that non-inheritable file descriptors are still 'inherited' by
child processes on *note os.fork(): 6bd.

On Windows, non-inheritable handles and file descriptors are closed in
child processes, except for standard streams (file descriptors 0, 1 and
2: stdin, stdout and stderr), which are always inherited.  Using *note
spawn*: 586. functions, all inheritable handles and all inheritable file
descriptors are inherited.  Using the *note subprocess: df. module, all
file descriptors except standard streams are closed, and inheritable
handles are only inherited if the 'close_fds' parameter is ‘False’.

On WebAssembly platforms, the file descriptor cannot be modified.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.get_inheritable (fd, /)

     Get the «inheritable» flag of the specified file descriptor (a
     boolean).

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.set_inheritable (fd, inheritable, /)

     Set the «inheritable» flag of the specified file descriptor.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.get_handle_inheritable (handle, /)

     Get the «inheritable» flag of the specified handle (a boolean).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.set_handle_inheritable (handle, inheritable, /)

     Set the «inheritable» flag of the specified handle.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: Files and Directories,  Next: Process Management,  Prev: File Descriptor Operations,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.17.1.8 Files and Directories
..............................

On some Unix platforms, many of these functions support one or more of
these features:

   * 'specifying a file descriptor:' Normally the 'path' argument
     provided to functions in the ‘os’ module must be a string
     specifying a file path.  However, some functions now alternatively
     accept an open file descriptor for their 'path' argument.  The
     function will then operate on the file referred to by the
     descriptor.  For POSIX systems, Python will call the variant of the
     function prefixed with ‘f’ (e.g.  call ‘fchdir’ instead of
     ‘chdir’).

     You can check whether or not 'path' can be specified as a file
     descriptor for a particular function on your platform using *note
     os.supports_fd: 14a9.  If this functionality is unavailable, using
     it will raise a *note NotImplementedError: 59a.

     If the function also supports 'dir_fd' or 'follow_symlinks'
     arguments, it’s an error to specify one of those when supplying
     'path' as a file descriptor.

   * 'paths relative to directory descriptors:' If 'dir_fd' is not
     ‘None’, it should be a file descriptor referring to a directory,
     and the path to operate on should be relative; path will then be
     relative to that directory.  If the path is absolute, 'dir_fd' is
     ignored.  For POSIX systems, Python will call the variant of the
     function with an ‘at’ suffix and possibly prefixed with ‘f’ (e.g.
     call ‘faccessat’ instead of ‘access’).

     You can check whether or not 'dir_fd' is supported for a particular
     function on your platform using *note os.supports_dir_fd: 14a3.  If
     it’s unavailable, using it will raise a *note NotImplementedError:
     59a.

   * 'not following symlinks:' If 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’, and the
     last element of the path to operate on is a symbolic link, the
     function will operate on the symbolic link itself rather than the
     file pointed to by the link.  For POSIX systems, Python will call
     the ‘l...’ variant of the function.

     You can check whether or not 'follow_symlinks' is supported for a
     particular function on your platform using *note
     os.supports_follow_symlinks: 14a4.  If it’s unavailable, using it
     will raise a *note NotImplementedError: 59a.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.access (path, mode, *, dir_fd=None,
          effective_ids=False, follow_symlinks=True)

     Use the real uid/gid to test for access to 'path'.  Note that most
     operations will use the effective uid/gid, therefore this routine
     can be used in a suid/sgid environment to test if the invoking user
     has the specified access to 'path'.  'mode' should be *note F_OK:
     329a. to test the existence of 'path', or it can be the inclusive
     OR of one or more of *note R_OK: 329b, *note W_OK: 329c, and *note
     X_OK: 329d. to test permissions.  Return *note True: fcc. if access
     is allowed, *note False: ef5. if not.  See the Unix man page
     ‘access(2)(1)’ for more information.

     This function can support specifying *note paths relative to
     directory descriptors: 1496. and *note not following symlinks:
     1497.

     If 'effective_ids' is ‘True’, ‘access()’ will perform its access
     checks using the effective uid/gid instead of the real uid/gid.
     'effective_ids' may not be supported on your platform; you can
     check whether or not it is available using *note
     os.supports_effective_ids: 14aa.  If it is unavailable, using it
     will raise a *note NotImplementedError: 59a.

          Σημείωση: Using ‘access()’ to check if a user is authorized to
          e.g.  open a file before actually doing so using *note open():
          32b. creates a security hole, because the user might exploit
          the short time interval between checking and opening the file
          to manipulate it.  It’s preferable to use *note EAFP: 329e.
          techniques.  For example:

               if os.access("myfile", os.R_OK):
                   with open("myfile") as fp:
                       return fp.read()
               return "some default data"

          is better written as:

               try:
                   fp = open("myfile")
               except PermissionError:
                   return "some default data"
               else:
                   with fp:
                       return fp.read()

          Σημείωση: I/O operations may fail even when ‘access()’
          indicates that they would succeed, particularly for operations
          on network filesystems which may have permissions semantics
          beyond the usual POSIX permission-bit model.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd', 'effective_ids', and
     'follow_symlinks' parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.F_OK
 -- Δεδομένα: os.R_OK
 -- Δεδομένα: os.W_OK
 -- Δεδομένα: os.X_OK

     Values to pass as the 'mode' parameter of *note access(): 1498. to
     test the existence, readability, writability and executability of
     'path', respectively.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.chdir (path)

     Change the current working directory to 'path'.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: f19.
     The descriptor must refer to an opened directory, not an open file.

     This function can raise *note OSError: 53c. and subclasses such as
     *note FileNotFoundError: 243, *note PermissionError: 10f9, and
     *note NotADirectoryError: 1402.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.chdir’ with argument
     ‘path’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added support for specifying 'path' as a
     file descriptor on some platforms.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.chflags (path, flags, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Set the flags of 'path' to the numeric 'flags'.  'flags' may take a
     combination (bitwise OR) of the following values (as defined in the
     *note stat: d9. module):

        * *note stat.UF_NODUMP: 2ea5.

        * *note stat.UF_IMMUTABLE: 2ea6.

        * *note stat.UF_APPEND: 2ea7.

        * *note stat.UF_OPAQUE: 2ea8.

        * *note stat.UF_NOUNLINK: 2ea9.

        * *note stat.UF_COMPRESSED: 2eaa.

        * *note stat.UF_HIDDEN: 2ead.

        * *note stat.SF_ARCHIVED: 2eb1.

        * *note stat.SF_IMMUTABLE: 2eb2.

        * *note stat.SF_APPEND: 2eb3.

        * *note stat.SF_NOUNLINK: 2eb5.

        * *note stat.SF_SNAPSHOT: 2eb6.

     This function can support *note not following symlinks: 1497.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.chflags’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘flags’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'follow_symlinks' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.chmod (path, mode, *, dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Change the mode of 'path' to the numeric 'mode'.  'mode' may take
     one of the following values (as defined in the *note stat: d9.
     module) or bitwise ORed combinations of them:

        * *note stat.S_ISUID: 2e91.

        * *note stat.S_ISGID: 2e92.

        * *note stat.S_ENFMT: 2e94.

        * *note stat.S_ISVTX: 2e95.

        * *note stat.S_IREAD: 2ea1.

        * *note stat.S_IWRITE: 2ea2.

        * *note stat.S_IEXEC: 2ea3.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXU: 2e96.

        * *note stat.S_IRUSR: 2e97.

        * *note stat.S_IWUSR: 2e98.

        * *note stat.S_IXUSR: 2e99.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXG: 2e9a.

        * *note stat.S_IRGRP: 2e9b.

        * *note stat.S_IWGRP: 2e9c.

        * *note stat.S_IXGRP: 2e93.

        * *note stat.S_IRWXO: 2e9d.

        * *note stat.S_IROTH: 2e9e.

        * *note stat.S_IWOTH: 2e9f.

        * *note stat.S_IXOTH: 2ea0.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: f19,
     *note paths relative to directory descriptors: 1496. and *note not
     following symlinks: 1497.

          Σημείωση: Although Windows supports ‘chmod()’, you can only
          set the file’s read-only flag with it (via the ‘stat.S_IWRITE’
          and ‘stat.S_IREAD’ constants or a corresponding integer
          value).  All other bits are ignored.  The default value of
          'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’ on Windows.

          The function is limited on WASI, see *note WebAssembly
          platforms: 1d67. for more information.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.chmod’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added support for specifying 'path' as an
     open file descriptor, and the 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks'
     arguments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added support for a file descriptor and
     the 'follow_symlinks' argument on Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.chown (path, uid, gid, *, dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Change the owner and group id of 'path' to the numeric 'uid' and
     'gid'.  To leave one of the ids unchanged, set it to -1.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: f19,
     *note paths relative to directory descriptors: 1496. and *note not
     following symlinks: 1497.

     See *note shutil.chown(): 74b. for a higher-level function that
     accepts names in addition to numeric ids.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.chown’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note WebAssembly platforms:
     1d67. for more information.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added support for specifying 'path' as an
     open file descriptor, and the 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks'
     arguments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Supports a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.chroot (path)

     Change the root directory of the current process to 'path'.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fchdir (fd)

     Change the current working directory to the directory represented
     by the file descriptor 'fd'.  The descriptor must refer to an
     opened directory, not an open file.  As of Python 3.3, this is
     equivalent to ‘os.chdir(fd)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.chdir’ with argument
     ‘path’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getcwd ()

     Return a string representing the current working directory.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getcwdb ()

     Return a bytestring representing the current working directory.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on
     Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP 529(2) for the
     rationale.  The function is no longer deprecated on Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.lchflags (path, flags)

     Set the flags of 'path' to the numeric 'flags', like *note
     chflags(): 1499, but do not follow symbolic links.  As of Python
     3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.chflags(path, flags,
     follow_symlinks=False)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.chflags’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘flags’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.lchmod (path, mode)

     Change the mode of 'path' to the numeric 'mode'.  If path is a
     symlink, this affects the symlink rather than the target.  See the
     docs for *note chmod(): 72c. for possible values of 'mode'.  As of
     Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.chmod(path, mode,
     follow_symlinks=False)’.

     ‘lchmod()’ is not part of POSIX, but Unix implementations may have
     it if changing the mode of symbolic links is supported.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.chmod’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows, not Linux, FreeBSD >=
     1.3, NetBSD >= 1.3, not OpenBSD

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added support on Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.lchown (path, uid, gid)

     Change the owner and group id of 'path' to the numeric 'uid' and
     'gid'.  This function will not follow symbolic links.  As of Python
     3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.chown(path, uid, gid,
     follow_symlinks=False)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.chown’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.link (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Create a hard link pointing to 'src' named 'dst'.

     This function can support specifying 'src_dir_fd' and/or
     'dst_dir_fd' to supply *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496, and *note not following symlinks: 1497.  The
     default value of 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’ on Windows.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.link’ with arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added Windows support.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'src_dir_fd', 'dst_dir_fd', and
     'follow_symlinks' parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. for
     'src' and 'dst'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.listdir (path='.')

     Return a list containing the names of the entries in the directory
     given by 'path'.  The list is in arbitrary order, and does not
     include the special entries ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’ even if they are
     present in the directory.  If a file is removed from or added to
     the directory during the call of this function, whether a name for
     that file be included is unspecified.

     'path' may be a *note path-like object: 79f.  If 'path' is of type
     ‘bytes’ (directly or indirectly through the *note PathLike: 100f.
     interface), the filenames returned will also be of type ‘bytes’; in
     all other circumstances, they will be of type ‘str’.

     This function can also support *note specifying a file descriptor:
     f19.; the file descriptor must refer to a directory.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.listdir’ with argument
     ‘path’.

          Σημείωση: To encode ‘str’ filenames to ‘bytes’, use *note
          fsencode(): 1013.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note scandir(): e23. function returns directory entries along
     with file attribute information, giving better performance for many
     common use cases.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The 'path' parameter became optional.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added support for specifying 'path' as an
     open file descriptor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: ‘os.listdir(-1)’ now fails with
     ‘OSError(errno.EBADF)’ rather than listing the current directory.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.listdrives ()

     Return a list containing the names of drives on a Windows system.

     A drive name typically looks like ‘'C:\\'’.  Not every drive name
     will be associated with a volume, and some may be inaccessible for
     a variety of reasons, including permissions, network connectivity
     or missing media.  This function does not test for access.

     May raise *note OSError: 53c. if an error occurs collecting the
     drive names.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.listdrives’ with no
     arguments.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.listmounts (volume)

     Return a list containing the mount points for a volume on a Windows
     system.

     'volume' must be represented as a GUID path, like those returned by
     *note os.listvolumes(): 8af.  Volumes may be mounted in multiple
     locations or not at all.  In the latter case, the list will be
     empty.  Mount points that are not associated with a volume will not
     be returned by this function.

     The mount points return by this function will be absolute paths,
     and may be longer than the drive name.

     Raises *note OSError: 53c. if the volume is not recognized or if an
     error occurs collecting the paths.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.listmounts’ with argument
     ‘volume’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.listvolumes ()

     Return a list containing the volumes in the system.

     Volumes are typically represented as a GUID path that looks like
     ‘\\?\Volume{xxxxxxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxx-xxxxxxxxxxxx}\’.  Files can
     usually be accessed through a GUID path, permissions allowing.
     However, users are generally not familiar with them, and so the
     recommended use of this function is to retrieve mount points using
     *note os.listmounts(): 8b0.

     May raise *note OSError: 53c. if an error occurs collecting the
     volumes.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.listvolumes’ with no
     arguments.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.lstat (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Perform the equivalent of an ‘lstat()’ system call on the given
     path.  Similar to *note stat(): 4f5, but does not follow symbolic
     links.  Return a *note stat_result: 1863. object.

     On platforms that do not support symbolic links, this is an alias
     for *note stat(): 4f5.

     As of Python 3.3, this is equivalent to ‘os.stat(path,
     dir_fd=dir_fd, follow_symlinks=False)’.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note stat(): 4f5. function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista)
     symbolic links.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: On Windows, now opens reparse points that
     represent another path (name surrogates), including symbolic links
     and directory junctions.  Other kinds of reparse points are
     resolved by the operating system as for *note stat(): 4f5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.mkdir (path, mode=0o777, *, dir_fd=None)

     Create a directory named 'path' with numeric mode 'mode'.

     If the directory already exists, *note FileExistsError: 13c9. is
     raised.  If a parent directory in the path does not exist, *note
     FileNotFoundError: 243. is raised.  On some systems, 'mode' is
     ignored.  Where it is used, the current umask value is first masked
     out.  If bits other than the last 9 (i.e.  the last 3 digits of the
     octal representation of the 'mode') are set, their meaning is
     platform-dependent.  On some platforms, they are ignored and you
     should call *note chmod(): 72c. explicitly to set them.

     On Windows, a 'mode' of ‘0o700’ is specifically handled to apply
     access control to the new directory such that only the current user
     and administrators have access.  Other values of 'mode' are
     ignored.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496.

     It is also possible to create temporary directories; see the *note
     tempfile: e9. module’s *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 730. function.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.mkdir’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Windows now handles a 'mode' of ‘0o700’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.makedirs (name, mode=0o777, exist_ok=False)

     Recursive directory creation function.  Like *note mkdir(): 72e,
     but makes all intermediate-level directories needed to contain the
     leaf directory.

     The 'mode' parameter is passed to *note mkdir(): 72e. for creating
     the leaf directory; see *note the mkdir() description: 32a1. for
     how it is interpreted.  To set the file permission bits of any
     newly created parent directories you can set the umask before
     invoking ‘makedirs()’.  The file permission bits of existing parent
     directories are not changed.

     If 'exist_ok' is ‘False’ (the default), a *note FileExistsError:
     13c9. is raised if the target directory already exists.

          Σημείωση: ‘makedirs()’ will become confused if the path
          elements to create include *note pardir: 32a2. (eg.  «..» on
          UNIX systems).

     This function handles UNC paths correctly.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.mkdir’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'exist_ok' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4.1: Before Python 3.4.1, if 'exist_ok' was
     ‘True’ and the directory existed, ‘makedirs()’ would still raise an
     error if 'mode' did not match the mode of the existing directory.
     Since this behavior was impossible to implement safely, it was
     removed in Python 3.4.1.  See bpo-21082(3).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'mode' argument no longer affects the
     file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level
     directories.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.mkfifo (path, mode=0o666, *, dir_fd=None)

     Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named 'path' with numeric mode 'mode'.
     The current umask value is first masked out from the mode.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496.

     FIFOs are pipes that can be accessed like regular files.  FIFOs
     exist until they are deleted (for example with *note os.unlink():
     14a1.).  Generally, FIFOs are used as rendezvous between «client»
     and «server» type processes: the server opens the FIFO for reading,
     and the client opens it for writing.  Note that ‘mkfifo()’ doesn’t
     open the FIFO — it just creates the rendezvous point.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.mknod (path, mode=0o600, device=0, *, dir_fd=None)

     Create a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe)
     named 'path'.  'mode' specifies both the permissions to use and the
     type of node to be created, being combined (bitwise OR) with one of
     *note stat.S_IFREG: 2e8c, *note stat.S_IFCHR: 2e8f, *note
     stat.S_IFBLK: 2e8d, and *note stat.S_IFIFO: 2e90.  For
     ‘stat.S_IFCHR’ and ‘stat.S_IFBLK’, 'device' defines the newly
     created device special file (probably using *note os.makedev():
     1b73.), otherwise it is ignored.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.major (device, /)

     Extract the device major number from a raw device number (usually
     the *note st_dev: 32a3. or *note st_rdev: 19f8. field from ‘stat’).

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.minor (device, /)

     Extract the device minor number from a raw device number (usually
     the *note st_dev: 32a3. or *note st_rdev: 19f8. field from ‘stat’).

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.makedev (major, minor, /)

     Compose a raw device number from the major and minor device
     numbers.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.NODEV

     Non-existent device.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.pathconf (path, name)

     Return system configuration information relevant to a named file.
     'name' specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a
     string which is the name of a defined system value; these names are
     specified in a number of standards (POSIX.1, Unix 95, Unix 98, and
     others).  Some platforms define additional names as well.  The
     names known to the host operating system are given in the
     ‘pathconf_names’ dictionary.  For configuration variables not
     included in that mapping, passing an integer for 'name' is also
     accepted.

     If 'name' is a string and is not known, *note ValueError: 277. is
     raised.  If a specific value for 'name' is not supported by the
     host system, even if it is included in ‘pathconf_names’, an *note
     OSError: 53c. is raised with *note errno.EINVAL: 1fc1. for the
     error number.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: f19.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.pathconf_names

     Dictionary mapping names accepted by *note pathconf(): 14a7. and
     *note fpathconf(): 3260. to the integer values defined for those
     names by the host operating system.  This can be used to determine
     the set of names known to the system.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.readlink (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link
     points.  The result may be either an absolute or relative pathname;
     if it is relative, it may be converted to an absolute pathname
     using ‘os.path.join(os.path.dirname(path), result)’.

     If the 'path' is a string object (directly or indirectly through a
     *note PathLike: 100f. interface), the result will also be a string
     object, and the call may raise a UnicodeDecodeError.  If the 'path'
     is a bytes object (direct or indirectly), the result will be a
     bytes object.

     This function can also support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496.

     When trying to resolve a path that may contain links, use *note
     realpath(): 241. to properly handle recursion and platform
     differences.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista)
     symbolic links.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. on
     Unix.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. and
     a bytes object on Windows.

     Added support for directory junctions, and changed to return the
     substitution path (which typically includes ‘\\?\’ prefix) rather
     than the optional «print name» field that was previously returned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.remove (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Remove (delete) the file 'path'.  If 'path' is a directory, an
     *note OSError: 53c. is raised.  Use *note rmdir(): 149f. to remove
     directories.  If the file does not exist, a *note
     FileNotFoundError: 243. is raised.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496.

     On Windows, attempting to remove a file that is in use causes an
     exception to be raised; on Unix, the directory entry is removed but
     the storage allocated to the file is not made available until the
     original file is no longer in use.

     This function is semantically identical to *note unlink(): 14a1.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.remove’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.removedirs (name)

     Remove directories recursively.  Works like *note rmdir(): 149f.
     except that, if the leaf directory is successfully removed,
     ‘removedirs()’ tries to successively remove every parent directory
     mentioned in 'path' until an error is raised (which is ignored,
     because it generally means that a parent directory is not empty).
     For example, ‘os.removedirs('foo/bar/baz')’ will first remove the
     directory ‘'foo/bar/baz'’, and then remove ‘'foo/bar'’ and ‘'foo'’
     if they are empty.  Raises *note OSError: 53c. if the leaf
     directory could not be successfully removed.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.remove’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.rename (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None, dst_dir_fd=None)

     Rename the file or directory 'src' to 'dst'.  If 'dst' exists, the
     operation will fail with an *note OSError: 53c. subclass in a
     number of cases:

     On Windows, if 'dst' exists a *note FileExistsError: 13c9. is
     always raised.  The operation may fail if 'src' and 'dst' are on
     different filesystems.  Use *note shutil.move(): e20. to support
     moves to a different filesystem.

     On Unix, if 'src' is a file and 'dst' is a directory or vice-versa,
     an *note IsADirectoryError: 1401. or a *note NotADirectoryError:
     1402. will be raised respectively.  If both are directories and
     'dst' is empty, 'dst' will be silently replaced.  If 'dst' is a
     non-empty directory, an *note OSError: 53c. is raised.  If both are
     files, 'dst' will be replaced silently if the user has permission.
     The operation may fail on some Unix flavors if 'src' and 'dst' are
     on different filesystems.  If successful, the renaming will be an
     atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).

     This function can support specifying 'src_dir_fd' and/or
     'dst_dir_fd' to supply *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496.

     If you want cross-platform overwriting of the destination, use
     *note replace(): 149e.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.rename’ with arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'src_dir_fd' and 'dst_dir_fd'
     parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. for
     'src' and 'dst'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.renames (old, new)

     Recursive directory or file renaming function.  Works like *note
     rename(): 149d, except creation of any intermediate directories
     needed to make the new pathname good is attempted first.  After the
     rename, directories corresponding to rightmost path segments of the
     old name will be pruned away using *note removedirs(): 32a5.

          Σημείωση: This function can fail with the new directory
          structure made if you lack permissions needed to remove the
          leaf directory or file.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.rename’ with arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. for
     'old' and 'new'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.replace (src, dst, *, src_dir_fd=None,
          dst_dir_fd=None)

     Rename the file or directory 'src' to 'dst'.  If 'dst' is a
     non-empty directory, *note OSError: 53c. will be raised.  If 'dst'
     exists and is a file, it will be replaced silently if the user has
     permission.  The operation may fail if 'src' and 'dst' are on
     different filesystems.  If successful, the renaming will be an
     atomic operation (this is a POSIX requirement).

     This function can support specifying 'src_dir_fd' and/or
     'dst_dir_fd' to supply *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.rename’ with arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. for
     'src' and 'dst'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.rmdir (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Remove (delete) the directory 'path'.  If the directory does not
     exist or is not empty, a *note FileNotFoundError: 243. or an *note
     OSError: 53c. is raised respectively.  In order to remove whole
     directory trees, *note shutil.rmtree(): 335. can be used.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.rmdir’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.scandir (path='.')

     Return an iterator of *note os.DirEntry: 8ac. objects corresponding
     to the entries in the directory given by 'path'.  The entries are
     yielded in arbitrary order, and the special entries ‘'.'’ and
     ‘'..'’ are not included.  If a file is removed from or added to the
     directory after creating the iterator, whether an entry for that
     file be included is unspecified.

     Using ‘scandir()’ instead of *note listdir(): 14a6. can
     significantly increase the performance of code that also needs file
     type or file attribute information, because *note os.DirEntry: 8ac.
     objects expose this information if the operating system provides it
     when scanning a directory.  All ‘os.DirEntry’ methods may perform a
     system call, but *note is_dir(): 32a7. and *note is_file(): 113d.
     usually only require a system call for symbolic links; *note
     os.DirEntry.stat(): 1c71. always requires a system call on Unix but
     only requires one for symbolic links on Windows.

     'path' may be a *note path-like object: 79f.  If 'path' is of type
     ‘bytes’ (directly or indirectly through the *note PathLike: 100f.
     interface), the type of the *note name: 32a8. and *note path: 1c00.
     attributes of each *note os.DirEntry: 8ac. will be ‘bytes’; in all
     other circumstances, they will be of type ‘str’.

     This function can also support *note specifying a file descriptor:
     f19.; the file descriptor must refer to a directory.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.scandir’ with argument
     ‘path’.

     The ‘scandir()’ iterator supports the *note context manager: 478.
     protocol and has the following method:

      -- Μέθοδος: scandir.close ()

          Close the iterator and free acquired resources.

          This is called automatically when the iterator is exhausted or
          garbage collected, or when an error happens during iterating.
          However it is advisable to call it explicitly or use the *note
          with: 20a. statement.

          Added in version 3.6.

     The following example shows a simple use of ‘scandir()’ to display
     all the files (excluding directories) in the given 'path' that
     don’t start with ‘'.'’.  The ‘entry.is_file()’ call will generally
     not make an additional system call:

          with os.scandir(path) as it:
              for entry in it:
                  if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file():
                      print(entry.name)

          Σημείωση: On Unix-based systems, ‘scandir()’ uses the system’s
          opendir()(4) and readdir()(5) functions.  On Windows, it uses
          the Win32 FindFirstFileW(6) and FindNextFileW(7) functions.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added support for the *note context
     manager: 478. protocol and the *note close(): 107a. method.  If a
     ‘scandir()’ iterator is neither exhausted nor explicitly closed a
     *note ResourceWarning: 74f. will be emitted in its destructor.

     The function accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added support for *note file descriptors:
     f19. on Unix.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: ‘os.scandir(-1)’ now fails with
     ‘OSError(errno.EBADF)’ rather than listing the current directory.

 -- Κλάση: os.DirEntry

     Object yielded by *note scandir(): e23. to expose the file path and
     other file attributes of a directory entry.

     *note scandir(): e23. will provide as much of this information as
     possible without making additional system calls.  When a ‘stat()’
     or ‘lstat()’ system call is made, the ‘os.DirEntry’ object will
     cache the result.

     ‘os.DirEntry’ instances are not intended to be stored in long-lived
     data structures; if you know the file metadata has changed or if a
     long time has elapsed since calling *note scandir(): e23, call
     ‘os.stat(entry.path)’ to fetch up-to-date information.

     Because the ‘os.DirEntry’ methods can make operating system calls,
     they may also raise *note OSError: 53c.  If you need very
     fine-grained control over errors, you can catch ‘OSError’ when
     calling one of the ‘os.DirEntry’ methods and handle as appropriate.

     To be directly usable as a *note path-like object: 79f,
     ‘os.DirEntry’ implements the *note PathLike: 100f. interface.

     Attributes and methods on a ‘os.DirEntry’ instance are as follows:

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The entry’s base filename, relative to the *note scandir():
          e23. 'path' argument.

          The *note name: 3228. attribute will be ‘bytes’ if the *note
          scandir(): e23. 'path' argument is of type ‘bytes’ and ‘str’
          otherwise.  Use *note fsdecode(): 1012. to decode byte
          filenames.

      -- Ιδιότητα: path

          The entry’s full path name: equivalent to
          ‘os.path.join(scandir_path, entry.name)’ where 'scandir_path'
          is the *note scandir(): e23. 'path' argument.  The path is
          only absolute if the ‘scandir()’ 'path' argument was absolute.
          If the ‘scandir()’ 'path' argument was a *note file
          descriptor: f19, the *note path: a6. attribute is the same as
          the *note name: 3228. attribute.

          The *note path: a6. attribute will be ‘bytes’ if the *note
          scandir(): e23. 'path' argument is of type ‘bytes’ and ‘str’
          otherwise.  Use *note fsdecode(): 1012. to decode byte
          filenames.

      -- Μέθοδος: inode ()

          Return the inode number of the entry.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Use
          ‘os.stat(entry.path, follow_symlinks=False).st_ino’ to fetch
          up-to-date information.

          On the first, uncached call, a system call is required on
          Windows but not on Unix.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_dir (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a directory or a symbolic link
          pointing to a directory; return ‘False’ if the entry is or
          points to any other kind of file, or if it doesn’t exist
          anymore.

          If 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’, return ‘True’ only if this
          entry is a directory (without following symlinks); return
          ‘False’ if the entry is any other kind of file or if it
          doesn’t exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object, with a
          separate cache for 'follow_symlinks' ‘True’ and ‘False’.  Call
          *note os.stat(): 4f5. along with *note stat.S_ISDIR(): 2e78.
          to fetch up-to-date information.

          On the first, uncached call, no system call is required in
          most cases.  Specifically, for non-symlinks, neither Windows
          or Unix require a system call, except on certain Unix file
          systems, such as network file systems, that return
          ‘dirent.d_type == DT_UNKNOWN’.  If the entry is a symlink, a
          system call will be required to follow the symlink unless
          'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’.

          This method can raise *note OSError: 53c, such as *note
          PermissionError: 10f9, but *note FileNotFoundError: 243. is
          caught and not raised.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_file (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a file or a symbolic link
          pointing to a file; return ‘False’ if the entry is or points
          to a directory or other non-file entry, or if it doesn’t exist
          anymore.

          If 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’, return ‘True’ only if this
          entry is a file (without following symlinks); return ‘False’
          if the entry is a directory or other non-file entry, or if it
          doesn’t exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Caching,
          system calls made, and exceptions raised are as per *note
          is_dir(): 32a7.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_symlink ()

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a symbolic link (even if
          broken); return ‘False’ if the entry points to a directory or
          any kind of file, or if it doesn’t exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Call *note
          os.path.islink(): dd0. to fetch up-to-date information.

          On the first, uncached call, no system call is required in
          most cases.  Specifically, neither Windows or Unix require a
          system call, except on certain Unix file systems, such as
          network file systems, that return ‘dirent.d_type ==
          DT_UNKNOWN’.

          This method can raise *note OSError: 53c, such as *note
          PermissionError: 10f9, but *note FileNotFoundError: 243. is
          caught and not raised.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_junction ()

          Return ‘True’ if this entry is a junction (even if broken);
          return ‘False’ if the entry points to a regular directory, any
          kind of file, a symlink, or if it doesn’t exist anymore.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object.  Call *note
          os.path.isjunction(): 8b3. to fetch up-to-date information.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Μέθοδος: stat (*, follow_symlinks=True)

          Return a *note stat_result: 1863. object for this entry.  This
          method follows symbolic links by default; to stat a symbolic
          link add the ‘follow_symlinks=False’ argument.

          On Unix, this method always requires a system call.  On
          Windows, it only requires a system call if 'follow_symlinks'
          is ‘True’ and the entry is a reparse point (for example, a
          symbolic link or directory junction).

          On Windows, the ‘st_ino’, ‘st_dev’ and ‘st_nlink’ attributes
          of the *note stat_result: 1863. are always set to zero.  Call
          *note os.stat(): 4f5. to get these attributes.

          The result is cached on the ‘os.DirEntry’ object, with a
          separate cache for 'follow_symlinks' ‘True’ and ‘False’.  Call
          *note os.stat(): 4f5. to fetch up-to-date information.

     Note that there is a nice correspondence between several attributes
     and methods of ‘os.DirEntry’ and of *note pathlib.Path: 4ee.  In
     particular, the ‘name’ attribute has the same meaning, as do the
     ‘is_dir()’, ‘is_file()’, ‘is_symlink()’, ‘is_junction()’, and
     ‘stat()’ methods.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added support for the *note PathLike: 100f.
     interface.  Added support for *note bytes: 1c7. paths on Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The ‘st_ctime’ attribute of a stat result
     is deprecated on Windows.  The file creation time is properly
     available as ‘st_birthtime’, and in the future ‘st_ctime’ may be
     changed to return zero or the metadata change time, if available.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.stat (path, *, dir_fd=None, follow_symlinks=True)

     Get the status of a file or a file descriptor.  Perform the
     equivalent of a ‘stat()’ system call on the given path.  'path' may
     be specified as either a string or bytes – directly or indirectly
     through the *note PathLike: 100f. interface – or as an open file
     descriptor.  Return a *note stat_result: 1863. object.

     This function normally follows symlinks; to stat a symlink add the
     argument ‘follow_symlinks=False’, or use *note lstat(): 8b1.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: f19.
     and *note not following symlinks: 1497.

     On Windows, passing ‘follow_symlinks=False’ will disable following
     all name-surrogate reparse points, which includes symlinks and
     directory junctions.  Other types of reparse points that do not
     resemble links or that the operating system is unable to follow
     will be opened directly.  When following a chain of multiple links,
     this may result in the original link being returned instead of the
     non-link that prevented full traversal.  To obtain stat results for
     the final path in this case, use the *note os.path.realpath(): 241.
     function to resolve the path name as far as possible and call *note
     lstat(): 8b1. on the result.  This does not apply to dangling
     symlinks or junction points, which will raise the usual exceptions.

     Example:

          >>> import os
          >>> statinfo = os.stat('somefile.txt')
          >>> statinfo
          os.stat_result(st_mode=33188, st_ino=7876932, st_dev=234881026,
          st_nlink=1, st_uid=501, st_gid=501, st_size=264, st_atime=1297230295,
          st_mtime=1297230027, st_ctime=1297230027)
          >>> statinfo.st_size
          264

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note fstat(): 1145. and *note lstat(): 8b1. functions.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks'
     parameters, specifying a file descriptor instead of a path.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: On Windows, all reparse points that can be
     resolved by the operating system are now followed, and passing
     ‘follow_symlinks=False’ disables following all name surrogate
     reparse points.  If the operating system reaches a reparse point
     that it is not able to follow, 'stat' now returns the information
     for the original path as if ‘follow_symlinks=False’ had been
     specified instead of raising an error.

 -- Κλάση: os.stat_result

     Object whose attributes correspond roughly to the members of the
     ‘stat’ structure.  It is used for the result of *note os.stat():
     4f5, *note os.fstat(): 1145. and *note os.lstat(): 8b1.

     Attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_mode

          File mode: file type and file mode bits (permissions).

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_ino

          Platform dependent, but if non-zero, uniquely identifies the
          file for a given value of ‘st_dev’.  Typically:

             * the inode number on Unix,

             * the file index(8) on Windows

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_dev

          Identifier of the device on which this file resides.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_nlink

          Number of hard links.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_uid

          User identifier of the file owner.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_gid

          Group identifier of the file owner.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_size

          Size of the file in bytes, if it is a regular file or a
          symbolic link.  The size of a symbolic link is the length of
          the pathname it contains, without a terminating null byte.

     Timestamps:

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_atime

          Time of most recent access expressed in seconds.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_mtime

          Time of most recent content modification expressed in seconds.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_ctime

          Time of most recent metadata change expressed in seconds.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘st_ctime’ is deprecated on Windows.
          Use ‘st_birthtime’ for the file creation time.  In the future,
          ‘st_ctime’ will contain the time of the most recent metadata
          change, as for other platforms.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_atime_ns

          Time of most recent access expressed in nanoseconds as an
          integer.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_mtime_ns

          Time of most recent content modification expressed in
          nanoseconds as an integer.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_ctime_ns

          Time of most recent metadata change expressed in nanoseconds
          as an integer.

          Added in version 3.3.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘st_ctime_ns’ is deprecated on
          Windows.  Use ‘st_birthtime_ns’ for the file creation time.
          In the future, ‘st_ctime’ will contain the time of the most
          recent metadata change, as for other platforms.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_birthtime

          Time of file creation expressed in seconds.  This attribute is
          not always available, and may raise *note AttributeError: 1a9.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘st_birthtime’ is now available on
          Windows.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_birthtime_ns

          Time of file creation expressed in nanoseconds as an integer.
          This attribute is not always available, and may raise *note
          AttributeError: 1a9.

          Added in version 3.12.

          Σημείωση: The exact meaning and resolution of the *note
          st_atime: 32af, *note st_mtime: 313a, *note st_ctime: 32b0.
          and *note st_birthtime: 32b4. attributes depend on the
          operating system and the file system.  For example, on Windows
          systems using the FAT32 file systems, ‘st_mtime’ has 2-second
          resolution, and ‘st_atime’ has only 1-day resolution.  See
          your operating system documentation for details.

          Similarly, although *note st_atime_ns: 32b1, *note
          st_mtime_ns: 32b2, *note st_ctime_ns: 32b3. and *note
          st_birthtime_ns: 32b5. are always expressed in nanoseconds,
          many systems do not provide nanosecond precision.  On systems
          that do provide nanosecond precision, the floating-point
          object used to store *note st_atime: 32af, *note st_mtime:
          313a, *note st_ctime: 32b0. and *note st_birthtime: 32b4.
          cannot preserve all of it, and as such will be slightly
          inexact.  If you need the exact timestamps you should always
          use ‘st_atime_ns’, ‘st_mtime_ns’, ‘st_ctime_ns’ and
          ‘st_birthtime_ns’.

     On some Unix systems (such as Linux), the following attributes may
     also be available:

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_blocks

          Number of 512-byte blocks allocated for file.  This may be
          smaller than *note st_size: 32ae./512 when the file has holes.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_blksize

          «Preferred» blocksize for efficient file system I/O. Writing
          to a file in smaller chunks may cause an inefficient
          read-modify-rewrite.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_rdev

          Type of device if an inode device.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_flags

          User defined flags for file.

     On other Unix systems (such as FreeBSD), the following attributes
     may be available (but may be only filled out if root tries to use
     them):

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_gen

          File generation number.

     On Solaris and derivatives, the following attributes may also be
     available:

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_fstype

          String that uniquely identifies the type of the filesystem
          that contains the file.

     On macOS systems, the following attributes may also be available:

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_rsize

          Real size of the file.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_creator

          Creator of the file.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_type

          File type.

     On Windows systems, the following attributes are also available:

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_file_attributes

          Windows file attributes: ‘dwFileAttributes’ member of the
          ‘BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION’ structure returned by
          ‘GetFileInformationByHandle()’.  See the ‘FILE_ATTRIBUTE_*
          <stat.FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE>’ constants in the *note stat:
          d9. module.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Ιδιότητα: st_reparse_tag

          When *note st_file_attributes: 11eb. has the *note
          FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT: 2ec5. set, this field contains
          the tag identifying the type of reparse point.  See the *note
          IO_REPARSE_TAG_*: 2eca. constants in the *note stat: d9.
          module.

     The standard module *note stat: d9. defines functions and constants
     that are useful for extracting information from a ‘stat’ structure.
     (On Windows, some items are filled with dummy values.)

     For backward compatibility, a ‘stat_result’ instance is also
     accessible as a tuple of at least 10 integers giving the most
     important (and portable) members of the ‘stat’ structure, in the
     order *note st_mode: dce, *note st_ino: 32aa, *note st_dev: 32a3,
     *note st_nlink: 32ab, *note st_uid: 32ac, *note st_gid: 32ad, *note
     st_size: 32ae, *note st_atime: 32af, *note st_mtime: 313a, *note
     st_ctime: 32b0.  More items may be added at the end by some
     implementations.  For compatibility with older Python versions,
     accessing ‘stat_result’ as a tuple always returns integers.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Windows now returns the file index as *note
     st_ino: 32aa. when available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the *note st_fstype: f21. member to
     Solaris/derivatives.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the *note st_reparse_tag: dcf. member
     on Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: On Windows, the *note st_mode: dce. member
     now identifies special files as *note S_IFCHR: 2e8f, *note S_IFIFO:
     2e90. or *note S_IFBLK: 2e8d. as appropriate.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: On Windows, *note st_ctime: 32b0. is
     deprecated.  Eventually, it will contain the last metadata change
     time, for consistency with other platforms, but for now still
     contains creation time.  Use *note st_birthtime: 32b4. for the
     creation time.

     On Windows, *note st_ino: 32aa. may now be up to 128 bits,
     depending on the file system.  Previously it would not be above 64
     bits, and larger file identifiers would be arbitrarily packed.

     On Windows, *note st_rdev: 19f8. no longer returns a value.
     Previously it would contain the same as *note st_dev: 32a3, which
     was incorrect.

     Added the *note st_birthtime: 32b4. member on Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.statx (path, mask, *, flags=0, dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Get the status of a file or file descriptor by performing a
     ‘statx()’ system call on the given path.

     'path' is a *note path-like object: 79f. or an open file
     descriptor.  'mask' is a combination of the module-level *note
     STATX_*: 32bd. constants specifying the information to retrieve.
     'flags' is a combination of the module-level *note AT_STATX_*:
     32be. constants and/or *note AT_NO_AUTOMOUNT: 32bf.  Returns a
     *note statx_result: 32c0. object whose *note stx_mask: 32c1.
     attribute specifies the information actually retrieved (which may
     differ from 'mask').

     This function supports *note specifying a file descriptor: f19,
     *note paths relative to directory descriptors: 1496, and *note not
     following symlinks: 1497.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The ‘statx(2)(9)’ man page.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Κλάση: os.statx_result

     Information about a file returned by *note os.statx(): 23f.

     ‘statx_result’ has the following attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_atime

          Time of most recent access expressed in seconds.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_ATIME: 32c3. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_atime_ns

          Time of most recent access expressed in nanoseconds as an
          integer.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_ATIME: 32c3. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_atomic_write_segments_max

          Maximum iovecs for direct I/O with torn-write protection.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_WRITE_ATOMIC: 32c6. is missing
          from *note stx_mask: 32c1.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28
          and build-time kernel userspace API headers >= 6.11.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_atomic_write_unit_max

          Maximum size for direct I/O with torn-write protection.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_WRITE_ATOMIC: 32c6. is missing
          from *note stx_mask: 32c1.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28
          and build-time kernel userspace API headers >= 6.11.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_atomic_write_unit_max_opt

          Maximum optimized size for direct I/O with torn-write
          protection.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_WRITE_ATOMIC: 32c6. is missing
          from *note stx_mask: 32c1.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28
          and build-time kernel userspace API headers >= 6.16.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_atomic_write_unit_min

          Minimum size for direct I/O with torn-write protection.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_WRITE_ATOMIC: 32c6. is missing
          from *note stx_mask: 32c1.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28
          and build-time kernel userspace API headers >= 6.11.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_attributes

          Bitmask of *note STATX_ATTR_*: 2ecf. constants specifying the
          attributes of this file.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_attributes_mask

          A mask indicating which bits in *note stx_attributes: 2ecd.
          are supported by the VFS and the filesystem.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_blksize

          «Preferred» blocksize for efficient file system I/O. Writing
          to a file in smaller chunks may cause an inefficient
          read-modify-rewrite.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_blocks

          Number of 512-byte blocks allocated for file.  This may be
          smaller than *note stx_size: 32cc./512 when the file has
          holes.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_BLOCKS: 32cd. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_btime

          Time of file creation expressed in seconds.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_BTIME: 32cf. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_btime_ns

          Time of file creation expressed in nanoseconds as an integer.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_BTIME: 32cf. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_ctime

          Time of most recent metadata change expressed in seconds.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_CTIME: 32d2. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_ctime_ns

          Time of most recent metadata change expressed in nanoseconds
          as an integer.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_CTIME: 32d2. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_dev

          Identifier of the device on which this file resides.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_dev_major

          Major number of the device on which this file resides.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_dev_minor

          Minor number of the device on which this file resides.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_dio_mem_align

          Direct I/O memory buffer alignment requirement.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_DIOALIGN: 32d8. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28
          and build-time kernel userspace API headers >= 6.1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_dio_offset_align

          Direct I/O file offset alignment requirement.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_DIOALIGN: 32d8. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28
          and build-time kernel userspace API headers >= 6.1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_dio_read_offset_align

          Direct I/O file offset alignment requirement for reads.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_DIO_READ_ALIGN: 32db. is
          missing from *note stx_mask: 32c1.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28
          and build-time kernel userspace API headers >= 6.14.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_gid

          Group identifier of the file owner.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_GID: 32dd. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_ino

          Inode number.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_INO: 32df. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_mask

          Bitmask of *note STATX_*: 32bd. constants specifying the
          information retrieved, which may differ from what was
          requested.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_mnt_id

          Mount identifier.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_MNT_ID: 32e1. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28
          and build-time kernel userspace API headers >= 5.8.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_mode

          File mode: file type and file mode bits (permissions).

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_TYPE | STATX_MODE: 32bd. is
          missing from *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_mtime

          Time of most recent content modification expressed in seconds.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_MTIME: 32e4. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_mtime_ns

          Time of most recent content modification expressed in
          nanoseconds as an integer.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_MTIME: 32e4. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_nlink

          Number of hard links.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_NLINK: 32e7. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_rdev

          Type of device if an inode device.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_rdev_major

          Major number of the device this file represents.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_rdev_minor

          Minor number of the device this file represents.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_size

          Size of the file in bytes, if it is a regular file or a
          symbolic link.  The size of a symbolic link is the length of
          the pathname it contains, without a terminating null byte.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_SIZE: 32eb. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_subvol

          Subvolume identifier.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_SUBVOL: 32ed. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28
          and build-time kernel userspace API headers >= 6.10.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stx_uid

          User identifier of the file owner.

          Equal to ‘None’ if *note STATX_UID: 32ef. is missing from
          *note stx_mask: 32c1.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The ‘statx(2)(10)’ man page.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_TYPE
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_MODE
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_NLINK
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_UID
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_GID
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_ATIME
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_MTIME
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_CTIME
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_INO
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_SIZE
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_BLOCKS
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_BASIC_STATS
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_BTIME
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_MNT_ID
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_DIOALIGN
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_MNT_ID_UNIQUE
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_SUBVOL
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_WRITE_ATOMIC
 -- Δεδομένα: os.STATX_DIO_READ_ALIGN

     Bitflags for use in the 'mask' parameter to *note os.statx(): 23f.
     Some of these flags may be available even when their corresponding
     members in *note statx_result: 32c0. are not available.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.AT_STATX_FORCE_SYNC

     A flag for the *note os.statx(): 23f. function.  Requests that the
     kernel return up-to-date information even when doing so is
     expensive (for example, requiring a round trip to the server for a
     file on a network filesystem).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.AT_STATX_DONT_SYNC

     A flag for the *note os.statx(): 23f. function.  Requests that the
     kernel return cached information if possible.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.AT_STATX_SYNC_AS_STAT

     A flag for the *note os.statx(): 23f. function.  This flag is
     defined as ‘0’, so it has no effect, but it can be used to
     explicitly indicate neither *note AT_STATX_FORCE_SYNC: 32be. nor
     *note AT_STATX_DONT_SYNC: 32f3. is being passed.  In the absence of
     the other two flags, the kernel will generally return information
     as fresh as *note os.stat(): 4f5. would return.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.11 with glibc >= 2.28.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.AT_NO_AUTOMOUNT

     If the final component of a path is an automount point, operate on
     the automount point instead of performing the automount.  On Linux,
     *note os.stat(): 4f5, *note os.fstat(): 1145. and *note os.lstat():
     8b1. always behave this way.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.statvfs (path)

     Perform a ‘statvfs()’ system call on the given path.  The return
     value is an object whose attributes describe the filesystem on the
     given path, and correspond to the members of the ‘statvfs’
     structure, namely: ‘f_bsize’, ‘f_frsize’, ‘f_blocks’, ‘f_bfree’,
     ‘f_bavail’, ‘f_files’, ‘f_ffree’, ‘f_favail’, ‘f_flag’,
     ‘f_namemax’, ‘f_fsid’.

     Two module-level constants are defined for the ‘f_flag’ attribute’s
     bit-flags: if ‘ST_RDONLY’ is set, the filesystem is mounted
     read-only, and if ‘ST_NOSUID’ is set, the semantics of
     setuid/setgid bits are disabled or not supported.

     Additional module-level constants are defined for GNU/glibc based
     systems.  These are ‘ST_NODEV’ (disallow access to device special
     files), ‘ST_NOEXEC’ (disallow program execution), ‘ST_SYNCHRONOUS’
     (writes are synced at once), ‘ST_MANDLOCK’ (allow mandatory locks
     on an FS), ‘ST_WRITE’ (write on file/directory/symlink),
     ‘ST_APPEND’ (append-only file), ‘ST_IMMUTABLE’ (immutable file),
     ‘ST_NOATIME’ (do not update access times), ‘ST_NODIRATIME’ (do not
     update directory access times), ‘ST_RELATIME’ (update atime
     relative to mtime/ctime).

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: f19.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The ‘ST_RDONLY’ and ‘ST_NOSUID’ constants
     were added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added support for specifying 'path' as an
     open file descriptor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The ‘ST_NODEV’, ‘ST_NOEXEC’,
     ‘ST_SYNCHRONOUS’, ‘ST_MANDLOCK’, ‘ST_WRITE’, ‘ST_APPEND’,
     ‘ST_IMMUTABLE’, ‘ST_NOATIME’, ‘ST_NODIRATIME’, and ‘ST_RELATIME’
     constants were added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the ‘f_fsid’ attribute.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.supports_dir_fd

     A *note set: 42b. object indicating which functions in the ‘os’
     module accept an open file descriptor for their 'dir_fd' parameter.
     Different platforms provide different features, and the underlying
     functionality Python uses to implement the 'dir_fd' parameter is
     not available on all platforms Python supports.  For consistency’s
     sake, functions that may support 'dir_fd' always allow specifying
     the parameter, but will throw an exception if the functionality is
     used when it’s not locally available.  (Specifying ‘None’ for
     'dir_fd' is always supported on all platforms.)

     To check whether a particular function accepts an open file
     descriptor for its 'dir_fd' parameter, use the ‘in’ operator on
     ‘supports_dir_fd’.  As an example, this expression evaluates to
     ‘True’ if *note os.stat(): 4f5. accepts open file descriptors for
     'dir_fd' on the local platform:

          os.stat in os.supports_dir_fd

     Currently 'dir_fd' parameters only work on Unix platforms; none of
     them work on Windows.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.supports_effective_ids

     A *note set: 42b. object indicating whether *note os.access():
     1498. permits specifying ‘True’ for its 'effective_ids' parameter
     on the local platform.  (Specifying ‘False’ for 'effective_ids' is
     always supported on all platforms.)  If the local platform supports
     it, the collection will contain ‘os.access()’; otherwise it will be
     empty.

     This expression evaluates to ‘True’ if *note os.access(): 1498.
     supports ‘effective_ids=True’ on the local platform:

          os.access in os.supports_effective_ids

     Currently 'effective_ids' is only supported on Unix platforms; it
     does not work on Windows.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.supports_fd

     A *note set: 42b. object indicating which functions in the ‘os’
     module permit specifying their 'path' parameter as an open file
     descriptor on the local platform.  Different platforms provide
     different features, and the underlying functionality Python uses to
     accept open file descriptors as 'path' arguments is not available
     on all platforms Python supports.

     To determine whether a particular function permits specifying an
     open file descriptor for its 'path' parameter, use the ‘in’
     operator on ‘supports_fd’.  As an example, this expression
     evaluates to ‘True’ if *note os.chdir(): a02. accepts open file
     descriptors for 'path' on your local platform:

          os.chdir in os.supports_fd

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.supports_follow_symlinks

     A *note set: 42b. object indicating which functions in the ‘os’
     module accept ‘False’ for their 'follow_symlinks' parameter on the
     local platform.  Different platforms provide different features,
     and the underlying functionality Python uses to implement
     'follow_symlinks' is not available on all platforms Python
     supports.  For consistency’s sake, functions that may support
     'follow_symlinks' always allow specifying the parameter, but will
     throw an exception if the functionality is used when it’s not
     locally available.  (Specifying ‘True’ for 'follow_symlinks' is
     always supported on all platforms.)

     To check whether a particular function accepts ‘False’ for its
     'follow_symlinks' parameter, use the ‘in’ operator on
     ‘supports_follow_symlinks’.  As an example, this expression
     evaluates to ‘True’ if you may specify ‘follow_symlinks=False’ when
     calling *note os.stat(): 4f5. on the local platform:

          os.stat in os.supports_follow_symlinks

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.symlink (src, dst, target_is_directory=False, *,
          dir_fd=None)

     Create a symbolic link pointing to 'src' named 'dst'.

     The 'src' parameter refers to the target of the link (the file or
     directory being linked to), and 'dst' is the name of the link being
     created.

     On Windows, a symlink represents either a file or a directory, and
     does not morph to the target dynamically.  If the target is
     present, the type of the symlink will be created to match.
     Otherwise, the symlink will be created as a directory if
     'target_is_directory' is ‘True’ or a file symlink (the default)
     otherwise.  On non-Windows platforms, 'target_is_directory' is
     ignored.

     This function can support *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496.

          Σημείωση: On newer versions of Windows 10, unprivileged
          accounts can create symlinks if Developer Mode is enabled.
          When Developer Mode is not available/enabled, the
          'SeCreateSymbolicLinkPrivilege' privilege is required, or the
          process must be run as an administrator.

          *note OSError: 53c. is raised when the function is called by
          an unprivileged user.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.symlink’ with arguments
     ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     The function is limited on WASI, see *note WebAssembly platforms:
     1d67. for more information.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added support for Windows 6.0 (Vista)
     symbolic links.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter, and now allow
     'target_is_directory' on non-Windows platforms.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. for
     'src' and 'dst'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added support for unelevated symlinks on
     Windows with Developer Mode.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sync ()

     Force write of everything to disk.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.truncate (path, length)

     Truncate the file corresponding to 'path', so that it is at most
     'length' bytes in size.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: f19.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.truncate’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘length’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support for Windows

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.unlink (path, *, dir_fd=None)

     Remove (delete) the file 'path'.  This function is semantically
     identical to *note remove(): 149c.; the ‘unlink’ name is its
     traditional Unix name.  Please see the documentation for ‘remove()’
     for further information.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.remove’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'dir_fd' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.utime (path, times=None, *[, ns], dir_fd=None,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Set the access and modified times of the file specified by 'path'.

     ‘utime()’ takes two optional parameters, 'times' and 'ns'.  These
     specify the times set on 'path' and are used as follows:

        - If 'ns' is specified, it must be a 2-tuple of the form
          ‘(atime_ns, mtime_ns)’ where each member is an int expressing
          nanoseconds.

        - If 'times' is not ‘None’, it must be a 2-tuple of the form
          ‘(atime, mtime)’ where each member is a real number expressing
          seconds, rounded down to nanoseconds.

        - If 'times' is ‘None’ and 'ns' is unspecified, this is
          equivalent to specifying ‘ns=(atime_ns, mtime_ns)’ where both
          times are the current time.

     It is an error to specify tuples for both 'times' and 'ns'.

     Note that the exact times you set here may not be returned by a
     subsequent *note stat(): 4f5. call, depending on the resolution
     with which your operating system records access and modification
     times; see ‘stat()’.  The best way to preserve exact times is to
     use the 'st_atime_ns' and 'st_mtime_ns' fields from the ‘os.stat()’
     result object with the 'ns' parameter to ‘utime()’.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: f19,
     *note paths relative to directory descriptors: 1496. and *note not
     following symlinks: 1497.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.utime’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘times’, ‘ns’, ‘dir_fd’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added support for specifying 'path' as an
     open file descriptor, and the 'dir_fd', 'follow_symlinks', and 'ns'
     parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real numbers as 'times', not
     only integers or floats.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.walk (top, topdown=True, onerror=None,
          followlinks=False)

     Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree
     either top-down or bottom-up.  For each directory in the tree
     rooted at directory 'top' (including 'top' itself), it yields a
     3-tuple ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames)’.

     'dirpath' is a string, the path to the directory.  'dirnames' is a
     list of the names of the subdirectories in 'dirpath' (including
     symlinks to directories, and excluding ‘'.'’ and ‘'..'’).
     'filenames' is a list of the names of the non-directory files in
     'dirpath'.  Note that the names in the lists contain no path
     components.  To get a full path (which begins with 'top') to a file
     or directory in 'dirpath', do ‘os.path.join(dirpath, name)’.
     Whether or not the lists are sorted depends on the file system.  If
     a file is removed from or added to the 'dirpath' directory during
     generating the lists, whether a name for that file be included is
     unspecified.

     If optional argument 'topdown' is ‘True’ or not specified, the
     triple for a directory is generated before the triples for any of
     its subdirectories (directories are generated top-down).  If
     'topdown' is ‘False’, the triple for a directory is generated after
     the triples for all of its subdirectories (directories are
     generated bottom-up).  No matter the value of 'topdown', the list
     of subdirectories is retrieved before the tuples for the directory
     and its subdirectories are generated.

     When 'topdown' is ‘True’, the caller can modify the 'dirnames' list
     in-place (perhaps using *note del: 1d1d. or slice assignment), and
     ‘walk()’ will only recurse into the subdirectories whose names
     remain in 'dirnames'; this can be used to prune the search, impose
     a specific order of visiting, or even to inform ‘walk()’ about
     directories the caller creates or renames before it resumes
     ‘walk()’ again.  Modifying 'dirnames' when 'topdown' is ‘False’ has
     no effect on the behavior of the walk, because in bottom-up mode
     the directories in 'dirnames' are generated before 'dirpath' itself
     is generated.

     By default, errors from the *note scandir(): e23. call are ignored.
     If optional argument 'onerror' is specified, it should be a
     function; it will be called with one argument, an *note OSError:
     53c. instance.  It can report the error to continue with the walk,
     or raise the exception to abort the walk.  Note that the filename
     is available as the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception object.

     By default, ‘walk()’ will not walk down into symbolic links that
     resolve to directories.  Set 'followlinks' to ‘True’ to visit
     directories pointed to by symlinks, on systems that support them.

          Σημείωση: Be aware that setting 'followlinks' to ‘True’ can
          lead to infinite recursion if a link points to a parent
          directory of itself.  ‘walk()’ does not keep track of the
          directories it visited already.

          Σημείωση: If you pass a relative pathname, don’t change the
          current working directory between resumptions of ‘walk()’.
          ‘walk()’ never changes the current directory, and assumes that
          its caller doesn’t either.

     This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory
     files in each directory under the starting directory, except that
     it doesn’t look under any ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory:

          import os
          from os.path import join, getsize
          for root, dirs, files in os.walk('python/Lib/xml'):
              print(root, "consumes", end=" ")
              print(sum(getsize(join(root, name)) for name in files), end=" ")
              print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
              if '__pycache__' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('__pycache__')  # don't visit __pycache__ directories

     In the next example (simple implementation of *note
     shutil.rmtree(): 335.), walking the tree bottom-up is essential,
     *note rmdir(): 149f. doesn’t allow deleting a directory before the
     directory is empty:

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
          # assuming there are no symbolic links.
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
          # could delete all your disk files.
          import os
          for root, dirs, files in os.walk(top, topdown=False):
              for name in files:
                  os.remove(os.path.join(root, name))
              for name in dirs:
                  os.rmdir(os.path.join(root, name))
          os.rmdir(top)

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.walk’ with arguments
     ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘followlinks’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: This function now calls *note os.scandir():
     e23. instead of *note os.listdir(): 14a6, making it faster by
     reducing the number of calls to *note os.stat(): 4f5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fwalk (top='.', topdown=True, onerror=None, *,
          follow_symlinks=False, dir_fd=None)

     This behaves exactly like *note walk(): 8b9, except that it yields
     a 4-tuple ‘(dirpath, dirnames, filenames, dirfd)’, and it supports
     ‘dir_fd’.

     'dirpath', 'dirnames' and 'filenames' are identical to *note
     walk(): 8b9. output, and 'dirfd' is a file descriptor referring to
     the directory 'dirpath'.

     This function always supports *note paths relative to directory
     descriptors: 1496. and *note not following symlinks: 1497.  Note
     however that, unlike other functions, the ‘fwalk()’ default value
     for 'follow_symlinks' is ‘False’.

          Σημείωση: Since ‘fwalk()’ yields file descriptors, those are
          only valid until the next iteration step, so you should
          duplicate them (e.g.  with *note dup(): 1fb2.) if you want to
          keep them longer.

     This example displays the number of bytes taken by non-directory
     files in each directory under the starting directory, except that
     it doesn’t look under any ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory:

          import os
          for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk('python/Lib/xml'):
              print(root, "consumes", end=" ")
              print(sum([os.stat(name, dir_fd=rootfd).st_size for name in files]),
                    end=" ")
              print("bytes in", len(files), "non-directory files")
              if '__pycache__' in dirs:
                  dirs.remove('__pycache__')  # don't visit __pycache__ directories

     In the next example, walking the tree bottom-up is essential: *note
     rmdir(): 149f. doesn’t allow deleting a directory before the
     directory is empty:

          # Delete everything reachable from the directory named in "top",
          # assuming there are no symbolic links.
          # CAUTION:  This is dangerous!  For example, if top == '/', it
          # could delete all your disk files.
          import os
          for root, dirs, files, rootfd in os.fwalk(top, topdown=False):
              for name in files:
                  os.unlink(name, dir_fd=rootfd)
              for name in dirs:
                  os.rmdir(name, dir_fd=rootfd)

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.fwalk’ with arguments
     ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘follow_symlinks’, ‘dir_fd’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added support for *note bytes: 1c7. paths.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.memfd_create (name[, flags=os.MFD_CLOEXEC])

     Create an anonymous file and return a file descriptor that refers
     to it.  'flags' must be one of the ‘os.MFD_*’ constants available
     on the system (or a bitwise ORed combination of them).  By default,
     the new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     The name supplied in 'name' is used as a filename and will be
     displayed as the target of the corresponding symbolic link in the
     directory ‘/proc/self/fd/’.  The displayed name is always prefixed
     with ‘memfd:’ and serves only for debugging purposes.  Names do not
     affect the behavior of the file descriptor, and as such multiple
     files can have the same name without any side effects.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_CLOEXEC
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_ALLOW_SEALING
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGETLB
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_SHIFT
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_MASK
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_64KB
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_512KB
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_1MB
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_2MB
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_8MB
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_16MB
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_32MB
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_256MB
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_512MB
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_1GB
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_2GB
 -- Δεδομένα: os.MFD_HUGE_16GB

     These flags can be passed to *note memfd_create(): dcd.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 3.17 with glibc >= 2.27

     The ‘MFD_HUGE*’ flags are only available since Linux 4.14.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.eventfd (initval[, flags=os.EFD_CLOEXEC])

     Create and return an event file descriptor.  The file descriptors
     supports raw *note read(): 114e. and *note write(): 1154. with a
     buffer size of 8, *note select(): 1159, *note poll(): 268. and
     similar.  See man page ‘eventfd(2)(11)’ for more information.  By
     default, the new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     'initval' is the initial value of the event counter.  The initial
     value must be a 32 bit unsigned integer.  Please note that the
     initial value is limited to a 32 bit unsigned int although the
     event counter is an unsigned 64 bit integer with a maximum value of
     2^64-2.

     'flags' can be constructed from *note EFD_CLOEXEC: 1d56, *note
     EFD_NONBLOCK: 1d57, and *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 1d58.

     If *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 1d58. is specified and the event counter is
     non-zero, *note eventfd_read(): 3306. returns 1 and decrements the
     counter by one.

     If *note EFD_SEMAPHORE: 1d58. is not specified and the event
     counter is non-zero, *note eventfd_read(): 3306. returns the
     current event counter value and resets the counter to zero.

     If the event counter is zero and *note EFD_NONBLOCK: 1d57. is not
     specified, *note eventfd_read(): 3306. blocks.

     *note eventfd_write(): 3307. increments the event counter.  Write
     blocks if the write operation would increment the counter to a
     value larger than 2^64-2.

     Example:

          import os

          # semaphore with start value '1'
          fd = os.eventfd(1, os.EFD_SEMAPHORE | os.EFD_CLOEXEC)
          try:
              # acquire semaphore
              v = os.eventfd_read(fd)
              try:
                  do_work()
              finally:
                  # release semaphore
                  os.eventfd_write(fd, v)
          finally:
              os.close(fd)

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.eventfd_read (fd)

     Read value from an *note eventfd(): bf1. file descriptor and return
     a 64 bit unsigned int.  The function does not verify that 'fd' is
     an ‘eventfd()’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.eventfd_write (fd, value)

     Add value to an *note eventfd(): bf1. file descriptor.  'value'
     must be a 64 bit unsigned int.  The function does not verify that
     'fd' is an ‘eventfd()’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EFD_CLOEXEC

     Set close-on-exec flag for new *note eventfd(): bf1. file
     descriptor.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EFD_NONBLOCK

     Set *note O_NONBLOCK: 11ee. status flag for new *note eventfd():
     bf1. file descriptor.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EFD_SEMAPHORE

     Provide semaphore-like semantics for reads from an *note eventfd():
     bf1. file descriptor.  On read the internal counter is decremented
     by one.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.30

     Added in version 3.10.

* Menu:

* Timer File Descriptors::
* Linux extended attributes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/access(2)

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21082

   (4) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/opendir.html

   (5) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/readdir_r.html

   (6) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364418(v=vs.85).aspx

   (7) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364428(v=vs.85).aspx

   (8) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa363788

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/statx(2)

   (10) https://manpages.debian.org/statx(2)

   (11) https://manpages.debian.org/eventfd(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Timer File Descriptors,  Next: Linux extended attributes,  Up: Files and Directories

5.17.1.9 Timer File Descriptors
...............................

Added in version 3.13.

These functions provide support for Linux’s 'timer file descriptor' API.
Naturally, they are all only available on Linux.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.timerfd_create (clockid, /, *, flags=0)

     Create and return a timer file descriptor ('timerfd').

     The file descriptor returned by ‘timerfd_create()’ supports:

        - *note read(): 114e.

        - *note select(): 1159.

        - *note poll(): 268.

     The file descriptor’s *note read(): 114e. method can be called with
     a buffer size of 8.  If the timer has already expired one or more
     times, ‘read()’ returns the number of expirations with the host’s
     endianness, which may be converted to an *note int: 326. by
     ‘int.from_bytes(x, byteorder=sys.byteorder)’.

     *note select(): 1159. and *note poll(): 268. can be used to wait
     until timer expires and the file descriptor is readable.

     'clockid' must be a valid *note clock ID: 3309, as defined in the
     *note time: f7. module:

        - *note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: a89.

        - *note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: a88.

        - *note time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: f4d. (Since Linux 3.15 for
          timerfd_create)

     If 'clockid' is *note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: a89, a settable
     system-wide real-time clock is used.  If system clock is changed,
     timer setting need to be updated.  To cancel timer when system
     clock is changed, see *note TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET: 72a.

     If 'clockid' is *note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: a88, a non-settable
     monotonically increasing clock is used.  Even if the system clock
     is changed, the timer setting will not be affected.

     If 'clockid' is *note time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: f4d, same as *note
     time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: a88. except it includes any time that the
     system is suspended.

     The file descriptor’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a
     'flags' value.  Any of the following variables may be used,
     combined using bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator):

        - *note TFD_NONBLOCK: 727.

        - *note TFD_CLOEXEC: 728.

     If *note TFD_NONBLOCK: 727. is not set as a flag, *note read():
     114e. blocks until the timer expires.  If it is set as a flag,
     ‘read()’ doesn’t block, but If there hasn’t been an expiration
     since the last call to read, ‘read()’ raises *note OSError: 53c.
     with ‘errno’ is set to *note errno.EAGAIN: 28f9.

     *note TFD_CLOEXEC: 728. is always set by Python automatically.

     The file descriptor must be closed with *note os.close(): f31. when
     it is no longer needed, or else the file descriptor will be leaked.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The ‘timerfd_create(2)(1)’ man page.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.timerfd_settime (fd, /, *, flags=flags, initial=0.0,
          interval=0.0)

     Alter a timer file descriptor’s internal timer.  This function
     operates the same interval timer as *note timerfd_settime_ns():
     724.

     'fd' must be a valid timer file descriptor.

     The timer’s behaviour can be modified by specifying a 'flags'
     value.  Any of the following variables may be used, combined using
     bitwise OR (the ‘|’ operator):

        - *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 729.

        - *note TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET: 72a.

     The timer is disabled by setting 'initial' to zero (‘0’).  If
     'initial' is equal to or greater than zero, the timer is enabled.
     If 'initial' is less than zero, it raises an *note OSError: 53c.
     exception with ‘errno’ set to *note errno.EINVAL: 1fc1.

     By default the timer will fire when 'initial' seconds have elapsed.
     (If 'initial' is zero, timer will fire immediately.)

     However, if the *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 729. flag is set, the
     timer will fire when the timer’s clock (set by 'clockid' in *note
     timerfd_create(): 722.) reaches 'initial' seconds.

     The timer’s interval is set by the 'interval' real number.  If
     'interval' is zero, the timer only fires once, on the initial
     expiration.  If 'interval' is greater than zero, the timer fires
     every time 'interval' seconds have elapsed since the previous
     expiration.  If 'interval' is less than zero, it raises *note
     OSError: 53c. with ‘errno’ set to *note errno.EINVAL: 1fc1.

     If the *note TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET: 72a. flag is set along with
     *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 729. and the clock for this timer is *note
     time.CLOCK_REALTIME: a89, the timer is marked as cancelable if the
     real-time clock is changed discontinuously.  Reading the descriptor
     is aborted with the error ECANCELED.

     Linux manages system clock as UTC. A daylight-savings time
     transition is done by changing time offset only and doesn’t cause
     discontinuous system clock change.

     Discontinuous system clock change will be caused by the following
     events:

        - ‘settimeofday’

        - ‘clock_settime’

        - set the system date and time by ‘date’ command

     Return a two-item tuple of (‘next_expiration’, ‘interval’) from the
     previous timer state, before this function executed.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     ‘timerfd_create(2)(2)’, ‘timerfd_settime(2)(3)’,
     ‘settimeofday(2)(4)’, ‘clock_settime(2)(5)’, and ‘date(1)(6)’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.timerfd_settime_ns (fd, /, *, flags=0, initial=0,
          interval=0)

     Similar to *note timerfd_settime(): 723, but use time as
     nanoseconds.  This function operates the same interval timer as
     ‘timerfd_settime()’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.timerfd_gettime (fd, /)

     Return a two-item tuple of floats (‘next_expiration’, ‘interval’).

     ‘next_expiration’ denotes the relative time until the timer next
     fires, regardless of if the *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 729. flag is
     set.

     ‘interval’ denotes the timer’s interval.  If zero, the timer will
     only fire once, after ‘next_expiration’ seconds have elapsed.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     ‘timerfd_gettime(2)(7)’

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.timerfd_gettime_ns (fd, /)

     Similar to *note timerfd_gettime(): 725, but return time as
     nanoseconds.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.TFD_NONBLOCK

     A flag for the *note timerfd_create(): 722. function, which sets
     the *note O_NONBLOCK: 11ee. status flag for the new timer file
     descriptor.  If *note TFD_NONBLOCK: 727. is not set as a flag,
     *note read(): 114e. blocks.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.TFD_CLOEXEC

     A flag for the *note timerfd_create(): 722. function, If *note
     TFD_CLOEXEC: 728. is set as a flag, set close-on-exec flag for new
     file descriptor.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME

     A flag for the *note timerfd_settime(): 723. and *note
     timerfd_settime_ns(): 724. functions.  If this flag is set,
     'initial' is interpreted as an absolute value on the timer’s clock
     (in UTC seconds or nanoseconds since the Unix Epoch).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET

     A flag for the *note timerfd_settime(): 723. and *note
     timerfd_settime_ns(): 724. functions along with *note
     TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 729.  The timer is cancelled when the time of
     the underlying clock changes discontinuously.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27 with glibc >= 2.8

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_create(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_create(2)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_settime(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/settimeofday(2)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/clock_settime(2)

   (6) https://manpages.debian.org/date(1)

   (7) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_gettime(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Linux extended attributes,  Prev: Timer File Descriptors,  Up: Files and Directories

5.17.1.10 Linux extended attributes
...................................

Added in version 3.3.

These functions are all available on Linux only.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getxattr (path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return the value of the extended filesystem attribute 'attribute'
     for 'path'.  'attribute' can be bytes or str (directly or
     indirectly through the *note PathLike: 100f. interface).  If it is
     str, it is encoded with the filesystem encoding.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: f19.
     and *note not following symlinks: 1497.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.getxattr’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘attribute’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. for
     'path' and 'attribute'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.listxattr (path=None, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Return a list of the extended filesystem attributes on 'path'.  The
     attributes in the list are represented as strings decoded with the
     filesystem encoding.  If 'path' is ‘None’, ‘listxattr()’ will
     examine the current directory.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: f19.
     and *note not following symlinks: 1497.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.listxattr’ with argument
     ‘path’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: ‘os.listxattr(-1)’ now fails with
     ‘OSError(errno.EBADF)’ rather than listing extended attributes of
     the current directory.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.removexattr (path, attribute, *, follow_symlinks=True)

     Removes the extended filesystem attribute 'attribute' from 'path'.
     'attribute' should be bytes or str (directly or indirectly through
     the *note PathLike: 100f. interface).  If it is a string, it is
     encoded with the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: f19.
     and *note not following symlinks: 1497.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.removexattr’ with
     arguments ‘path’, ‘attribute’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. for
     'path' and 'attribute'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.setxattr (path, attribute, value, flags=0, *,
          follow_symlinks=True)

     Set the extended filesystem attribute 'attribute' on 'path' to
     'value'.  'attribute' must be a bytes or str with no embedded NULs
     (directly or indirectly through the *note PathLike: 100f.
     interface).  If it is a str, it is encoded with the *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 948.  'flags' may be *note
     XATTR_REPLACE: 330b. or *note XATTR_CREATE: 330c.  If
     ‘XATTR_REPLACE’ is given and the attribute does not exist,
     ‘ENODATA’ will be raised.  If ‘XATTR_CREATE’ is given and the
     attribute already exists, the attribute will not be created and
     ‘EEXISTS’ will be raised.

     This function can support *note specifying a file descriptor: f19.
     and *note not following symlinks: 1497.

          Σημείωση: A bug in Linux kernel versions less than 2.6.39
          caused the flags argument to be ignored on some filesystems.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.setxattr’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘attribute’, ‘value’, ‘flags’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f. for
     'path' and 'attribute'.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.XATTR_SIZE_MAX

     The maximum size the value of an extended attribute can be.
     Currently, this is 64 KiB on Linux.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.XATTR_CREATE

     This is a possible value for the flags argument in *note
     setxattr(): 14b3.  It indicates the operation must create an
     attribute.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.XATTR_REPLACE

     This is a possible value for the flags argument in *note
     setxattr(): 14b3.  It indicates the operation must replace an
     existing attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: Process Management,  Next: Interface to the scheduler,  Prev: Files and Directories,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.17.1.11 Process Management
............................

These functions may be used to create and manage processes.

The various *note exec*: 3310. functions take a list of arguments for
the new program loaded into the process.  In each case, the first of
these arguments is passed to the new program as its own name rather than
as an argument a user may have typed on a command line.  For the C
programmer, this is the ‘argv[0]’ passed to a program’s ‘main()’.  For
example, ‘os.execv('/bin/echo', ['foo', 'bar'])’ will only print ‘bar’
on standard output; ‘foo’ will seem to be ignored.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.abort ()

     Generate a *note SIGABRT: 142a. signal to the current process.  On
     Unix, the default behavior is to produce a core dump; on Windows,
     the process immediately returns an exit code of ‘3’.  Be aware that
     calling this function will not call the Python signal handler
     registered for ‘SIGABRT’ with *note signal.signal(): 14e0.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.add_dll_directory (path)

     Add a path to the DLL search path.

     This search path is used when resolving dependencies for imported
     extension modules (the module itself is resolved through *note
     sys.path: 194.), and also by *note ctypes: 2d.

     Remove the directory by calling 'close()' on the returned object or
     using it in a *note with: 20a. statement.

     See the Microsoft documentation(1) for more information about how
     DLLs are loaded.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.add_dll_directory’ with
     argument ‘path’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.8: Previous versions of CPython would resolve
     DLLs using the default behavior for the current process.  This led
     to inconsistencies, such as only sometimes searching ‘PATH’ or the
     current working directory, and OS functions such as
     ‘AddDllDirectory’ having no effect.

     In 3.8, the two primary ways DLLs are loaded now explicitly
     override the process-wide behavior to ensure consistency.  See the
     *note porting notes: e64. for information on updating libraries.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.execl (path, arg0, arg1, ...)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.execle (path, arg0, arg1, ..., env)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.execlp (file, arg0, arg1, ...)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.execlpe (file, arg0, arg1, ..., env)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.execv (path, args)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.execve (path, args, env)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.execvp (file, args)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.execvpe (file, args, env)

     These functions all execute a new program, replacing the current
     process; they do not return.  On Unix, the new executable is loaded
     into the current process, and will have the same process id as the
     caller.  Errors will be reported as *note OSError: 53c. exceptions.

     The current process is replaced immediately.  Open file objects and
     descriptors are not flushed, so if there may be data buffered on
     these open files, you should flush them using *note flush(): 19fa.
     or *note os.fsync(): 1147. before calling an ‘exec*’ function.

     The «l» and «v» variants of the ‘exec*’ functions differ in how
     command-line arguments are passed.  The «l» variants are perhaps
     the easiest to work with if the number of parameters is fixed when
     the code is written; the individual parameters simply become
     additional parameters to the ‘execl*()’ functions.  The «v»
     variants are good when the number of parameters is variable, with
     the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the 'args'
     parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process
     should start with the name of the command being run, but this is
     not enforced.

     The variants which include a «p» near the end (‘execlp()’,
     ‘execlpe()’, ‘execvp()’, and ‘execvpe()’) will use the ‘PATH’
     environment variable to locate the program 'file'.  When the
     environment is being replaced (using one of the ‘exec*e’ variants,
     discussed in the next paragraph), the new environment is used as
     the source of the ‘PATH’ variable.  The other variants, ‘execl()’,
     ‘execle()’, ‘execv()’, and ‘execve()’, will not use the ‘PATH’
     variable to locate the executable; 'path' must contain an
     appropriate absolute or relative path.  Relative paths must include
     at least one slash, even on Windows, as plain names will not be
     resolved.

     For ‘execle()’, ‘execlpe()’, ‘execve()’, and ‘execvpe()’ (note that
     these all end in «e»), the 'env' parameter must be a mapping which
     is used to define the environment variables for the new process
     (these are used instead of the current process” environment); the
     functions ‘execl()’, ‘execlp()’, ‘execv()’, and ‘execvp()’ all
     cause the new process to inherit the environment of the current
     process.

     For ‘execve()’ on some platforms, 'path' may also be specified as
     an open file descriptor.  This functionality may not be supported
     on your platform; you can check whether or not it is available
     using *note os.supports_fd: 14a9.  If it is unavailable, using it
     will raise a *note NotImplementedError: 59a.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.exec’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android,
     not iOS.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added support for specifying 'path' as an
     open file descriptor for ‘execve()’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os._exit (n)

     Exit the process with status 'n', without calling cleanup handlers,
     flushing stdio buffers, etc.

          Σημείωση: The standard way to exit is *note sys.exit(n): 4ff.
          ‘_exit()’ should normally only be used in the child process
          after a *note fork(): 6bd.

The following exit codes are defined and can be used with *note _exit():
28f5, although they are not required.  These are typically used for
system programs written in Python, such as a mail server’s external
command delivery program.

     Σημείωση: Some of these may not be available on all Unix platforms,
     since there is some variation.  These constants are defined where
     they are defined by the underlying platform.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_OK

     Exit code that means no error occurred.  May be taken from the
     defined value of ‘EXIT_SUCCESS’ on some platforms.  Generally has a
     value of zero.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_USAGE

     Exit code that means the command was used incorrectly, such as when
     the wrong number of arguments are given.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_DATAERR

     Exit code that means the input data was incorrect.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_NOINPUT

     Exit code that means an input file did not exist or was not
     readable.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_NOUSER

     Exit code that means a specified user did not exist.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_NOHOST

     Exit code that means a specified host did not exist.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_UNAVAILABLE

     Exit code that means that a required service is unavailable.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_SOFTWARE

     Exit code that means an internal software error was detected.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_OSERR

     Exit code that means an operating system error was detected, such
     as the inability to fork or create a pipe.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_OSFILE

     Exit code that means some system file did not exist, could not be
     opened, or had some other kind of error.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_CANTCREAT

     Exit code that means a user specified output file could not be
     created.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_IOERR

     Exit code that means that an error occurred while doing I/O on some
     file.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_TEMPFAIL

     Exit code that means a temporary failure occurred.  This indicates
     something that may not really be an error, such as a network
     connection that couldn’t be made during a retryable operation.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_PROTOCOL

     Exit code that means that a protocol exchange was illegal, invalid,
     or not understood.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_NOPERM

     Exit code that means that there were insufficient permissions to
     perform the operation (but not intended for file system problems).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_CONFIG

     Exit code that means that some kind of configuration error
     occurred.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.EX_NOTFOUND

     Exit code that means something like «an entry was not found».

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.fork ()

     Fork a child process.  Return ‘0’ in the child and the child’s
     process id in the parent.  If an error occurs *note OSError: 53c.
     is raised.

     Note that some platforms including FreeBSD <= 6.3 and Cygwin have
     known issues when using ‘fork()’ from a thread.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.fork’ with no arguments.

          Προειδοποίηση: If you use TLS sockets in an application
          calling ‘fork()’, see the warning in the *note ssl: d8.
          documentation.

          Προειδοποίηση: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe
          when mixed with using higher-level system APIs, and that
          includes using *note urllib.request: 114.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Calling ‘fork()’ in a subinterpreter is no
     longer supported (*note RuntimeError: 30d. is raised).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: If Python is able to detect that your
     process has multiple threads, *note os.fork(): 6bd. now raises a
     *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.

     We chose to surface this as a warning, when detectable, to better
     inform developers of a design problem that the POSIX platform
     specifically notes as not supported.  Even in code that 'appears'
     to work, it has never been safe to mix threading with *note
     os.fork(): 6bd. on POSIX platforms.  The CPython runtime itself has
     always made API calls that are not safe for use in the child
     process when threads existed in the parent (such as ‘malloc’ and
     ‘free’).

     Users of macOS or users of libc or malloc implementations other
     than those typically found in glibc to date are among those already
     more likely to experience deadlocks running such code.

     See this discussion on fork being incompatible with threads(2) for
     technical details of why we’re surfacing this longstanding platform
     compatibility problem to developers.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: POSIX, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.forkpty ()

     Fork a child process, using a new pseudo-terminal as the child’s
     controlling terminal.  Return a pair of ‘(pid, fd)’, where 'pid' is
     ‘0’ in the child, the new child’s process id in the parent, and
     'fd' is the file descriptor of the master end of the
     pseudo-terminal.  For a more portable approach, use the *note pty:
     b9. module.  If an error occurs *note OSError: 53c. is raised.

     The returned file descriptor 'fd' is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.forkpty’ with no
     arguments.

          Προειδοποίηση: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe
          when mixed with using higher-level system APIs, and that
          includes using *note urllib.request: 114.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Calling ‘forkpty()’ in a subinterpreter is
     no longer supported (*note RuntimeError: 30d. is raised).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: If Python is able to detect that your
     process has multiple threads, this now raises a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  See the longer explanation on *note
     os.fork(): 6bd.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The returned file descriptor is now made
     non-inheritable.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.kill (pid, sig, /)

     Send signal 'sig' to the process 'pid'.  Constants for the specific
     signals available on the host platform are defined in the *note
     signal: ce. module.

     Windows: The *note signal.CTRL_C_EVENT: 170d. and *note
     signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT: 170e. signals are special signals which
     can only be sent to console processes which share a common console
     window, e.g., some subprocesses.  Any other value for 'sig' will
     cause the process to be unconditionally killed by the
     TerminateProcess API, and the exit code will be set to 'sig'.

     See also *note signal.pthread_kill(): 14dd.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.kill’ with arguments
     ‘pid’, ‘sig’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not iOS.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added Windows support.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.killpg (pgid, sig, /)

     Send the signal 'sig' to the process group 'pgid'.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.killpg’ with arguments
     ‘pgid’, ‘sig’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.nice (increment, /)

     Add 'increment' to the process’s «niceness».  Return the new
     niceness.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.pidfd_open (pid, flags=0)

     Return a file descriptor referring to the process 'pid' with
     'flags' set.  This descriptor can be used to perform process
     management without races and signals.

     See the ‘pidfd_open(2)(3)’ man page for more details.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 5.3, Android >= *note
     build-time: f49. API level 31

     Added in version 3.9.

      -- Δεδομένα: os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK

          This flag indicates that the file descriptor will be
          non-blocking.  If the process referred to by the file
          descriptor has not yet terminated, then an attempt to wait on
          the file descriptor using ‘waitid(2)(4)’ will immediately
          return the error *note EAGAIN: 28f9. rather than blocking.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 5.10

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.plock (op, /)

     Lock program segments into memory.  The value of 'op' (defined in
     ‘<sys/lock.h>’) determines which segments are locked.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.popen (cmd, mode='r', buffering=-1)

     Open a pipe to or from command 'cmd'.  The return value is an open
     file object connected to the pipe, which can be read or written
     depending on whether 'mode' is ‘'r'’ (default) or ‘'w'’.  The
     'buffering' argument have the same meaning as the corresponding
     argument to the built-in *note open(): 32b. function.  The returned
     file object reads or writes text strings rather than bytes.

     The ‘close’ method returns *note None: a65. if the subprocess
     exited successfully, or the subprocess’s return code if there was
     an error.  On POSIX systems, if the return code is positive it
     represents the return value of the process left-shifted by one
     byte.  If the return code is negative, the process was terminated
     by the signal given by the negated value of the return code.  (For
     example, the return value might be ‘- signal.SIGKILL’ if the
     subprocess was killed.)  On Windows systems, the return value
     contains the signed integer return code from the child process.

     On Unix, *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): cea. can be used to
     convert the ‘close’ method result (exit status) into an exit code
     if it is not ‘None’.  On Windows, the ‘close’ method result is
     directly the exit code (or ‘None’).

     This is implemented using *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf.; see that
     class’s documentation for more powerful ways to manage and
     communicate with subprocesses.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

          Σημείωση: The *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46. affects encodings
          used for 'cmd' and pipe contents.

          ‘popen()’ is a simple wrapper around *note subprocess.Popen:
          6bf.  Use ‘subprocess.Popen’ or *note subprocess.run(): f45.
          to control options like encodings.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.14: The *note
     subprocess: df. module is recommended instead.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.posix_spawn (path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None,
          setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(),
          setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)

     Wraps the ‘posix_spawn()’ C library API for use from Python.

     Most users should use *note subprocess.run(): f45. instead of
     ‘posix_spawn()’.

     The positional-only arguments 'path', 'args', and 'env' are similar
     to *note execve(): 14a5.  'env' is allowed to be ‘None’, in which
     case current process” environment is used.

     The 'path' parameter is the path to the executable file.  The
     'path' should contain a directory.  Use *note posix_spawnp(): 1949.
     to pass an executable file without directory.

     The 'file_actions' argument may be a sequence of tuples describing
     actions to take on specific file descriptors in the child process
     between the C library implementation’s ‘fork()’ and ‘exec()’ steps.
     The first item in each tuple must be one of the three type
     indicator listed below describing the remaining tuple elements:

      -- Δεδομένα: os.POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN’, 'fd', 'path', 'flags', 'mode')

          Performs ‘os.dup2(os.open(path, flags, mode), fd)’.

      -- Δεδομένα: os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE’, 'fd')

          Performs ‘os.close(fd)’.

      -- Δεδομένα: os.POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2’, 'fd', 'new_fd')

          Performs ‘os.dup2(fd, new_fd)’.

      -- Δεδομένα: os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM

          (‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM’, 'fd')

          Performs ‘os.closerange(fd, INF)’.

     These tuples correspond to the C library
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addopen()’,
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclose()’,
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_adddup2()’, and
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’ API calls used to
     prepare for the ‘posix_spawn()’ call itself.

     The 'setpgroup' argument will set the process group of the child to
     the value specified.  If the value specified is 0, the child’s
     process group ID will be made the same as its process ID. If the
     value of 'setpgroup' is not set, the child will inherit the
     parent’s process group ID. This argument corresponds to the C
     library ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETPGROUP’ flag.

     If the 'resetids' argument is ‘True’ it will reset the effective
     UID and GID of the child to the real UID and GID of the parent
     process.  If the argument is ‘False’, then the child retains the
     effective UID and GID of the parent.  In either case, if the
     set-user-ID and set-group-ID permission bits are enabled on the
     executable file, their effect will override the setting of the
     effective UID and GID. This argument corresponds to the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_RESETIDS’ flag.

     If the 'setsid' argument is ‘True’, it will create a new session ID
     for ‘posix_spawn’.  'setsid' requires ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID’ or
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSID_NP’ flag.  Otherwise, *note
     NotImplementedError: 59a. is raised.

     The 'setsigmask' argument will set the signal mask to the signal
     set specified.  If the parameter is not used, then the child
     inherits the parent’s signal mask.  This argument corresponds to
     the C library ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGMASK’ flag.

     The 'sigdef' argument will reset the disposition of all signals in
     the set specified.  This argument corresponds to the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSIGDEF’ flag.

     The 'scheduler' argument must be a tuple containing the (optional)
     scheduler policy and an instance of *note sched_param: 1b2b. with
     the scheduler parameters.  A value of ‘None’ in the place of the
     scheduler policy indicates that is not being provided.  This
     argument is a combination of the C library
     ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDPARAM’ and ‘POSIX_SPAWN_SETSCHEDULER’ flags.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.posix_spawn’ with
     arguments ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: 'env' parameter accepts ‘None’.
     ‘os.POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM’ is available on platforms where
     ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’ exists.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.posix_spawnp (path, argv, env, *, file_actions=None,
          setpgroup=None, resetids=False, setsid=False, setsigmask=(),
          setsigdef=(), scheduler=None)

     Wraps the ‘posix_spawnp()’ C library API for use from Python.

     Similar to *note posix_spawn(): 731. except that the system
     searches for the 'executable' file in the list of directories
     specified by the ‘PATH’ environment variable (in the same way as
     for ‘execvp(3)’).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.posix_spawn’ with
     arguments ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’.

     Added in version 3.8.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: POSIX, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     See *note posix_spawn(): 731. documentation.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.register_at_fork (*, before=None,
          after_in_parent=None, after_in_child=None)

     Register callables to be executed when a new child process is
     forked using *note os.fork(): 6bd. or similar process cloning APIs.
     The parameters are optional and keyword-only.  Each specifies a
     different call point.

        * 'before' is a function called before forking a child process.

        * 'after_in_parent' is a function called from the parent process
          after forking a child process.

        * 'after_in_child' is a function called from the child process.

     These calls are only made if control is expected to return to the
     Python interpreter.  A typical *note subprocess: df. launch will
     not trigger them as the child is not going to re-enter the
     interpreter.

     Functions registered for execution before forking are called in
     reverse registration order.  Functions registered for execution
     after forking (either in the parent or in the child) are called in
     registration order.

     Note that ‘fork()’ calls made by third-party C code may not call
     those functions, unless it explicitly calls *note
     PyOS_BeforeFork(): f7d, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): f7e. and
     *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 643.

     There is no way to unregister a function.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.spawnl (mode, path, ...)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.spawnle (mode, path, ..., env)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.spawnlp (mode, file, ...)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.spawnlpe (mode, file, ..., env)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.spawnv (mode, path, args)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.spawnve (mode, path, args, env)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.spawnvp (mode, file, args)
 -- Συνάρτηση: os.spawnvpe (mode, file, args, env)

     Execute the program 'path' in a new process.

     (Note that the *note subprocess: df. module provides more powerful
     facilities for spawning new processes and retrieving their results;
     using that module is preferable to using these functions.  Check
     especially the *note Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess
     Module: 1531. section.)

     If 'mode' is *note P_NOWAIT: 3333, this function returns the
     process id of the new process; if 'mode' is *note P_WAIT: 3334,
     returns the process’s exit code if it exits normally, or ‘-signal’,
     where 'signal' is the signal that killed the process.  On Windows,
     the process id will actually be the process handle, so can be used
     with the *note waitpid(): 1153. function.

     Note on VxWorks, this function doesn’t return ‘-signal’ when the
     new process is killed.  Instead it raises OSError exception.

     The «l» and «v» variants of the ‘spawn*’ functions differ in how
     command-line arguments are passed.  The «l» variants are perhaps
     the easiest to work with if the number of parameters is fixed when
     the code is written; the individual parameters simply become
     additional parameters to the ‘spawnl*()’ functions.  The «v»
     variants are good when the number of parameters is variable, with
     the arguments being passed in a list or tuple as the 'args'
     parameter.  In either case, the arguments to the child process must
     start with the name of the command being run.

     The variants which include a second «p» near the end (‘spawnlp()’,
     ‘spawnlpe()’, ‘spawnvp()’, and ‘spawnvpe()’) will use the ‘PATH’
     environment variable to locate the program 'file'.  When the
     environment is being replaced (using one of the ‘spawn*e’ variants,
     discussed in the next paragraph), the new environment is used as
     the source of the ‘PATH’ variable.  The other variants, ‘spawnl()’,
     ‘spawnle()’, ‘spawnv()’, and ‘spawnve()’, will not use the ‘PATH’
     variable to locate the executable; 'path' must contain an
     appropriate absolute or relative path.

     For ‘spawnle()’, ‘spawnlpe()’, ‘spawnve()’, and ‘spawnvpe()’ (note
     that these all end in «e»), the 'env' parameter must be a mapping
     which is used to define the environment variables for the new
     process (they are used instead of the current process”
     environment); the functions ‘spawnl()’, ‘spawnlp()’, ‘spawnv()’,
     and ‘spawnvp()’ all cause the new process to inherit the
     environment of the current process.  Note that keys and values in
     the 'env' dictionary must be strings; invalid keys or values will
     cause the function to fail, with a return value of ‘127’.

     As an example, the following calls to ‘spawnlp()’ and ‘spawnvpe()’
     are equivalent:

          import os
          os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', 'cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null')

          L = ['cp', 'index.html', '/dev/null']
          os.spawnvpe(os.P_WAIT, 'cp', L, os.environ)

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.spawn’ with arguments
     ‘mode’, ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android,
     not iOS.

     ‘spawnlp()’, ‘spawnlpe()’, ‘spawnvp()’ and ‘spawnvpe()’ are not
     available on Windows.  ‘spawnle()’ and ‘spawnve()’ are not
     thread-safe on Windows; we advise you to use the *note subprocess:
     df. module instead.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.14: The *note
     subprocess: df. module is recommended instead.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.P_NOWAIT
 -- Δεδομένα: os.P_NOWAITO

     Possible values for the 'mode' parameter to the *note spawn*: 586.
     family of functions.  If either of these values is given, the
     ‘spawn*’ functions will return as soon as the new process has been
     created, with the process id as the return value.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.P_WAIT

     Possible value for the 'mode' parameter to the *note spawn*: 586.
     family of functions.  If this is given as 'mode', the ‘spawn*’
     functions will not return until the new process has run to
     completion and will return the exit code of the process the run is
     successful, or ‘-signal’ if a signal kills the process.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.P_DETACH
 -- Δεδομένα: os.P_OVERLAY

     Possible values for the 'mode' parameter to the *note spawn*: 586.
     family of functions.  These are less portable than those listed
     above.  *note P_DETACH: 3336. is similar to *note P_NOWAIT: 3333,
     but the new process is detached from the console of the calling
     process.  If *note P_OVERLAY: 3337. is used, the current process
     will be replaced; the ‘spawn*’ function will not return.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.startfile (path[, operation][, arguments][, cwd][,
          show_cmd])

     Start a file with its associated application.

     When 'operation' is not specified, this acts like double-clicking
     the file in Windows Explorer, or giving the file name as an
     argument to the ‘start’ command from the interactive command shell:
     the file is opened with whatever application (if any) its extension
     is associated.

     When another 'operation' is given, it must be a «command verb» that
     specifies what should be done with the file.  Common verbs
     documented by Microsoft are ‘'open'’, ‘'print'’ and ‘'edit'’ (to be
     used on files) as well as ‘'explore'’ and ‘'find'’ (to be used on
     directories).

     When launching an application, specify 'arguments' to be passed as
     a single string.  This argument may have no effect when using this
     function to launch a document.

     The default working directory is inherited, but may be overridden
     by the 'cwd' argument.  This should be an absolute path.  A
     relative 'path' will be resolved against this argument.

     Use 'show_cmd' to override the default window style.  Whether this
     has any effect will depend on the application being launched.
     Values are integers as supported by the Win32 ‘ShellExecute()’
     function.

     ‘startfile()’ returns as soon as the associated application is
     launched.  There is no option to wait for the application to close,
     and no way to retrieve the application’s exit status.  The 'path'
     parameter is relative to the current directory or 'cwd'.  If you
     want to use an absolute path, make sure the first character is not
     a slash (‘'/'’) Use *note pathlib: a8. or the *note
     os.path.normpath(): 16be. function to ensure that paths are
     properly encoded for Win32.

     To reduce interpreter startup overhead, the Win32 ‘ShellExecute()’
     function is not resolved until this function is first called.  If
     the function cannot be resolved, *note NotImplementedError: 59a.
     will be raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.startfile’ with arguments
     ‘path’, ‘operation’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.startfile/2’ with
     arguments ‘path’, ‘operation’, ‘arguments’, ‘cwd’, ‘show_cmd’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the 'arguments', 'cwd' and
     'show_cmd' arguments, and the ‘os.startfile/2’ audit event.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.system (command)

     Execute the command (a string) in a subshell.  This is implemented
     by calling the Standard C function ‘system()’, and has the same
     limitations.  Changes to *note sys.stdin: 94a, etc.  are not
     reflected in the environment of the executed command.  If 'command'
     generates any output, it will be sent to the interpreter standard
     output stream.  The C standard does not specify the meaning of the
     return value of the C function, so the return value of the Python
     function is system-dependent.

     On Unix, the return value is the exit status of the process encoded
     in the format specified for *note wait(): 1151.

     On Windows, the return value is that returned by the system shell
     after running 'command'.  The shell is given by the Windows
     environment variable ‘COMSPEC’: it is usually ‘cmd.exe’, which
     returns the exit status of the command run; on systems using a
     non-native shell, consult your shell documentation.

     The *note subprocess: df. module provides more powerful facilities
     for spawning new processes and retrieving their results; using that
     module is recommended to using this function.  See the *note
     Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module: 1531. section
     in the ‘subprocess’ documentation for some helpful recipes.

     On Unix, *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): cea. can be used to
     convert the result (exit status) into an exit code.  On Windows,
     the result is directly the exit code.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘os.system’ with argument
     ‘command’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android,
     not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.times ()

     Returns the current global process times.  The return value is an
     object with five attributes:

        * ‘user’ - user time

        * ‘system’ - system time

        * ‘children_user’ - user time of all child processes

        * ‘children_system’ - system time of all child processes

        * ‘elapsed’ - elapsed real time since a fixed point in the past

     For backwards compatibility, this object also behaves like a
     five-tuple containing ‘user’, ‘system’, ‘children_user’,
     ‘children_system’, and ‘elapsed’ in that order.

     See the Unix manual page ‘times(2)(5)’ and times(3)(6) manual page
     on Unix or the GetProcessTimes MSDN(7) on Windows.  On Windows,
     only ‘user’ and ‘system’ are known; the other attributes are zero.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Return type changed from a tuple to a
     tuple-like object with named attributes.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.wait ()

     Wait for completion of a child process, and return a tuple
     containing its pid and exit status indication: a 16-bit number,
     whose low byte is the signal number that killed the process, and
     whose high byte is the exit status (if the signal number is zero);
     the high bit of the low byte is set if a core file was produced.

     If there are no children that could be waited for, *note
     ChildProcessError: 1400. is raised.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): cea. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exit code.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The other ‘wait*()’ functions documented below can be used to wait
     for the completion of a specific child process and have more
     options.  *note waitpid(): 1153. is the only one also available on
     Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.waitid (idtype, id, options, /)

     Wait for the completion of a child process.

     'idtype' can be *note P_PID: 3338, *note P_PGID: 3339, *note P_ALL:
     333a, or (on Linux) *note P_PIDFD: ce9.  The interpretation of 'id'
     depends on it; see their individual descriptions.

     'options' is an OR combination of flags.  At least one of *note
     WEXITED: 333b, *note WSTOPPED: 333c. or *note WCONTINUED: 333d. is
     required; *note WNOHANG: 333e. and *note WNOWAIT: 333f. are
     additional optional flags.

     The return value is an object representing the data contained in
     the ‘siginfo_t’ structure with the following attributes:

        * ‘si_pid’ (process ID)

        * ‘si_uid’ (real user ID of the child)

        * ‘si_signo’ (always *note SIGCHLD: 3340.)

        * ‘si_status’ (the exit status or signal number, depending on
          ‘si_code’)

        * ‘si_code’ (see *note CLD_EXITED: 3341. for possible values)

     If *note WNOHANG: 333e. is specified and there are no matching
     children in the requested state, ‘None’ is returned.  Otherwise, if
     there are no matching children that could be waited for, *note
     ChildProcessError: 1400. is raised.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: This function is now available on macOS as
     well.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.waitpid (pid, options, /)

     The details of this function differ on Unix and Windows.

     On Unix: Wait for completion of a child process given by process id
     'pid', and return a tuple containing its process id and exit status
     indication (encoded as for *note wait(): 1151.).  The semantics of
     the call are affected by the value of the integer 'options', which
     should be ‘0’ for normal operation.

     If 'pid' is greater than ‘0’, ‘waitpid()’ requests status
     information for that specific process.  If 'pid' is ‘0’, the
     request is for the status of any child in the process group of the
     current process.  If 'pid' is ‘-1’, the request pertains to any
     child of the current process.  If 'pid' is less than ‘-1’, status
     is requested for any process in the process group ‘-pid’ (the
     absolute value of 'pid').

     'options' is an OR combination of flags.  If it contains *note
     WNOHANG: 333e. and there are no matching children in the requested
     state, ‘(0, 0)’ is returned.  Otherwise, if there are no matching
     children that could be waited for, *note ChildProcessError: 1400.
     is raised.  Other options that can be used are *note WUNTRACED:
     3342. and *note WCONTINUED: 333d.

     On Windows: Wait for completion of a process given by process
     handle 'pid', and return a tuple containing 'pid', and its exit
     status shifted left by 8 bits (shifting makes cross-platform use of
     the function easier).  A 'pid' less than or equal to ‘0’ has no
     special meaning on Windows, and raises an exception.  The value of
     integer 'options' has no effect.  'pid' can refer to any process
     whose id is known, not necessarily a child process.  The *note
     spawn*: 586. functions called with *note P_NOWAIT: 3333. return
     suitable process handles.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): cea. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exit code.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android,
     not iOS.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the function now
     retries the system call instead of raising an *note
     InterruptedError: 1141. exception (see PEP 475(8) for the
     rationale).

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.wait3 (options)

     Similar to *note waitpid(): 1153, except no process id argument is
     given and a 3-element tuple containing the child’s process id, exit
     status indication, and resource usage information is returned.
     Refer to *note resource.getrusage(): 17d3. for details on resource
     usage information.  The 'options' argument is the same as that
     provided to ‘waitpid()’ and *note wait4(): 1150.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): cea. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exitcode.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.wait4 (pid, options)

     Similar to *note waitpid(): 1153, except a 3-element tuple,
     containing the child’s process id, exit status indication, and
     resource usage information is returned.  Refer to *note
     resource.getrusage(): 17d3. for details on resource usage
     information.  The arguments to ‘wait4()’ are the same as those
     provided to ‘waitpid()’.

     *note waitstatus_to_exitcode(): cea. can be used to convert the
     exit status into an exitcode.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.P_PID
 -- Δεδομένα: os.P_PGID
 -- Δεδομένα: os.P_ALL
 -- Δεδομένα: os.P_PIDFD

     These are the possible values for 'idtype' in *note waitid(): 1152.
     They affect how 'id' is interpreted:

        * ‘P_PID’ - wait for the child whose PID is 'id'.

        * ‘P_PGID’ - wait for any child whose progress group ID is 'id'.

        * ‘P_ALL’ - wait for any child; 'id' is ignored.

        * ‘P_PIDFD’ - wait for the child identified by the file
          descriptor 'id' (a process file descriptor created with *note
          pidfd_open(): 267.).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

          Σημείωση: ‘P_PIDFD’ is only available on Linux >= 5.4.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Added in version 3.9: The ‘P_PIDFD’ constant.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.WCONTINUED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitpid(): 1153, *note wait3(): 114f,
     *note wait4(): 1150, and *note waitid(): 1152. causes child
     processes to be reported if they have been continued from a job
     control stop since they were last reported.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.WEXITED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitid(): 1152. causes child
     processes that have terminated to be reported.

     The other ‘wait*’ functions always report children that have
     terminated, so this option is not available for them.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.WSTOPPED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitid(): 1152. causes child
     processes that have been stopped by the delivery of a signal to be
     reported.

     This option is not available for the other ‘wait*’ functions.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.WUNTRACED

     This 'options' flag for *note waitpid(): 1153, *note wait3(): 114f,
     and *note wait4(): 1150. causes child processes to also be reported
     if they have been stopped but their current state has not been
     reported since they were stopped.

     This option is not available for *note waitid(): 1152.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.WNOHANG

     This 'options' flag causes *note waitpid(): 1153, *note wait3():
     114f, *note wait4(): 1150, and *note waitid(): 1152. to return
     right away if no child process status is available immediately.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.WNOWAIT

     This 'options' flag causes *note waitid(): 1152. to leave the child
     in a waitable state, so that a later ‘wait*()’ call can be used to
     retrieve the child status information again.

     This option is not available for the other ‘wait*’ functions.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLD_EXITED
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLD_KILLED
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLD_DUMPED
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLD_TRAPPED
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLD_STOPPED
 -- Δεδομένα: os.CLD_CONTINUED

     These are the possible values for ‘si_code’ in the result returned
     by *note waitid(): 1152.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added ‘CLD_KILLED’ and ‘CLD_STOPPED’
     values.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.waitstatus_to_exitcode (status)

     Convert a wait status to an exit code.

     On Unix:

        * If the process exited normally (if ‘WIFEXITED(status)’ is
          true), return the process exit status (return
          ‘WEXITSTATUS(status)’): result greater than or equal to 0.

        * If the process was terminated by a signal (if
          ‘WIFSIGNALED(status)’ is true), return ‘-signum’ where
          'signum' is the number of the signal that caused the process
          to terminate (return ‘-WTERMSIG(status)’): result less than 0.

        * Otherwise, raise a *note ValueError: 277.

     On Windows, return 'status' shifted right by 8 bits.

     On Unix, if the process is being traced or if *note waitpid():
     1153. was called with *note WUNTRACED: 3342. option, the caller
     must first check if ‘WIFSTOPPED(status)’ is true.  This function
     must not be called if ‘WIFSTOPPED(status)’ is true.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note WIFEXITED(): 3346, *note WEXITSTATUS(): 3347, *note
     WIFSIGNALED(): 3348, *note WTERMSIG(): 3349, *note WIFSTOPPED():
     334a, *note WSTOPSIG(): 334b. functions.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows, not WASI, not Android,
     not iOS.

     Added in version 3.9.

The following functions take a process status code as returned by *note
system(): 17ff, *note wait(): 1151, or *note waitpid(): 1153. as a
parameter.  They may be used to determine the disposition of a process.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.WCOREDUMP (status, /)

     Return ‘True’ if a core dump was generated for the process,
     otherwise return ‘False’.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFSIGNALED(): 3348.
     is true.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.WIFCONTINUED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if a stopped child has been resumed by delivery of
     *note SIGCONT: 334e. (if the process has been continued from a job
     control stop), otherwise return ‘False’.

     See *note WCONTINUED: 333d. option.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.WIFSTOPPED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if the process was stopped by delivery of a signal,
     otherwise return ‘False’.

     ‘WIFSTOPPED()’ only returns ‘True’ if the *note waitpid(): 1153.
     call was done using *note WUNTRACED: 3342. option or when the
     process is being traced (see ‘ptrace(2)(9)’).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.WIFSIGNALED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if the process was terminated by a signal, otherwise
     return ‘False’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.WIFEXITED (status)

     Return ‘True’ if the process exited terminated normally, that is,
     by calling ‘exit()’ or ‘_exit()’, or by returning from ‘main()’;
     otherwise return ‘False’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.WEXITSTATUS (status)

     Return the process exit status.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFEXITED(): 3346.
     is true.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.WSTOPSIG (status)

     Return the signal which caused the process to stop.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFSTOPPED(): 334a.
     is true.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.WTERMSIG (status)

     Return the number of the signal that caused the process to
     terminate.

     This function should be employed only if *note WIFSIGNALED(): 3348.
     is true.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/44228cf2-6306-466c-8f16-f513cd3ba8b5

   (2) https://discuss.python.org/t/33555

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/pidfd_open(2)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/waitid(2)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/times(2)

   (6) https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?time(3)

   (7) 
https://docs.microsoft.com/windows/win32/api/processthreadsapi/nf-processthreadsapi-getprocesstimes

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/ptrace(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Interface to the scheduler,  Next: Miscellaneous System Information,  Prev: Process Management,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.17.1.12 Interface to the scheduler
....................................

These functions control how a process is allocated CPU time by the
operating system.  They are only available on some Unix platforms.  For
more detailed information, consult your Unix manpages.

Added in version 3.3.

The following scheduling policies are exposed if they are supported by
the operating system.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SCHED_OTHER

     The default scheduling policy.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SCHED_BATCH

     Scheduling policy for CPU-intensive processes that tries to
     preserve interactivity on the rest of the computer.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SCHED_DEADLINE

     Scheduling policy for tasks with deadline constraints.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SCHED_IDLE

     Scheduling policy for extremely low priority background tasks.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SCHED_NORMAL

     Alias for *note SCHED_OTHER: 3351.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SCHED_SPORADIC

     Scheduling policy for sporadic server programs.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SCHED_FIFO

     A First In First Out scheduling policy.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SCHED_RR

     A round-robin scheduling policy.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK

     This flag can be OR’ed with any other scheduling policy.  When a
     process with this flag set forks, its child’s scheduling policy and
     priority are reset to the default.

 -- Κλάση: os.sched_param (sched_priority)

     This class represents tunable scheduling parameters used in *note
     sched_setparam(): 14bb, *note sched_setscheduler(): 14bc, and *note
     sched_getparam(): 14b7.  It is immutable.

     At the moment, there is only one possible parameter:

      -- Ιδιότητα: sched_priority

          The scheduling priority for a scheduling policy.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sched_get_priority_min (policy)

     Get the minimum priority value for 'policy'.  'policy' is one of
     the scheduling policy constants above.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sched_get_priority_max (policy)

     Get the maximum priority value for 'policy'.  'policy' is one of
     the scheduling policy constants above.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sched_setscheduler (pid, policy, param, /)

     Set the scheduling policy for the process with PID 'pid'.  A 'pid'
     of 0 means the calling process.  'policy' is one of the scheduling
     policy constants above.  'param' is a *note sched_param: 1b2b.
     instance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sched_getscheduler (pid, /)

     Return the scheduling policy for the process with PID 'pid'.  A
     'pid' of 0 means the calling process.  The result is one of the
     scheduling policy constants above.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sched_setparam (pid, param, /)

     Set the scheduling parameters for the process with PID 'pid'.  A
     'pid' of 0 means the calling process.  'param' is a *note
     sched_param: 1b2b. instance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sched_getparam (pid, /)

     Return the scheduling parameters as a *note sched_param: 1b2b.
     instance for the process with PID 'pid'.  A 'pid' of 0 means the
     calling process.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sched_rr_get_interval (pid, /)

     Return the round-robin quantum in seconds for the process with PID
     'pid'.  A 'pid' of 0 means the calling process.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sched_yield ()

     Voluntarily relinquish the CPU. See ‘sched_yield(2)(1)’ for
     details.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sched_setaffinity (pid, mask, /)

     Restrict the process with PID 'pid' (or the current process if
     zero) to a set of CPUs.  'mask' is an iterable of integers
     representing the set of CPUs to which the process should be
     restricted.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sched_getaffinity (pid, /)

     Return the set of CPUs the process with PID 'pid' is restricted to.

     If 'pid' is zero, return the set of CPUs the calling thread of the
     current process is restricted to.

     See also the *note process_cpu_count(): 6e0. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/sched_yield(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous System Information,  Next: Random numbers<2>,  Prev: Interface to the scheduler,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.17.1.13 Miscellaneous System Information
..........................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.confstr (name, /)

     Return string-valued system configuration values.  'name' specifies
     the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a string which is
     the name of a defined system value; these names are specified in a
     number of standards (POSIX, Unix 95, Unix 98, and others).  Some
     platforms define additional names as well.  The names known to the
     host operating system are given as the keys of the ‘confstr_names’
     dictionary.  For configuration variables not included in that
     mapping, passing an integer for 'name' is also accepted.

     If the configuration value specified by 'name' isn’t defined,
     ‘None’ is returned.

     If 'name' is a string and is not known, *note ValueError: 277. is
     raised.  If a specific value for 'name' is not supported by the
     host system, even if it is included in ‘confstr_names’, an *note
     OSError: 53c. is raised with *note errno.EINVAL: 1fc1. for the
     error number.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.confstr_names

     Dictionary mapping names accepted by *note confstr(): 1b0c. to the
     integer values defined for those names by the host operating
     system.  This can be used to determine the set of names known to
     the system.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.cpu_count ()

     Return the number of logical CPUs in the 'system'.  Returns ‘None’
     if undetermined.

     The *note process_cpu_count(): 6e0. function can be used to get the
     number of logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the 'current
     process'.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: If *note -X cpu_count: 178. is given or
     *note PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 721. is set, ‘cpu_count()’ returns the
     override value 'n'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getloadavg ()

     Return the number of processes in the system run queue averaged
     over the last 1, 5, and 15 minutes or raises *note OSError: 53c. if
     the load average was unobtainable.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.process_cpu_count ()

     Get the number of logical CPUs usable by the calling thread of the
     'current process'.  Returns ‘None’ if undetermined.  It can be less
     than *note cpu_count(): 6e1. depending on the CPU affinity.

     The *note cpu_count(): 6e1. function can be used to get the number
     of logical CPUs in the 'system'.

     If *note -X cpu_count: 178. is given or *note PYTHON_CPU_COUNT:
     721. is set, ‘process_cpu_count()’ returns the override value 'n'.

     See also the *note sched_getaffinity(): 14b6. function.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.sysconf (name, /)

     Return integer-valued system configuration values.  If the
     configuration value specified by 'name' isn’t defined, ‘-1’ is
     returned.  The comments regarding the 'name' parameter for *note
     confstr(): 1b0c. apply here as well; the dictionary that provides
     information on the known names is given by ‘sysconf_names’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.sysconf_names

     Dictionary mapping names accepted by *note sysconf(): 1b0d. to the
     integer values defined for those names by the host operating
     system.  This can be used to determine the set of names known to
     the system.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Add ‘'SC_MINSIGSTKSZ'’ name.

The following data values are used to support path manipulation
operations.  These are defined for all platforms.

Higher-level operations on pathnames are defined in the *note os.path:
a6. module.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.curdir

     The constant string used by the operating system to refer to the
     current directory.  This is ‘'.'’ for Windows and POSIX. Also
     available via *note os.path: a6.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.pardir

     The constant string used by the operating system to refer to the
     parent directory.  This is ‘'..'’ for Windows and POSIX. Also
     available via *note os.path: a6.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.sep

     The character used by the operating system to separate pathname
     components.  This is ‘'/'’ for POSIX and ‘'\\'’ for Windows.  Note
     that knowing this is not sufficient to be able to parse or
     concatenate pathnames — use *note os.path.split(): 2e6c. and *note
     os.path.join(): 1a42. — but it is occasionally useful.  Also
     available via *note os.path: a6.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.altsep

     An alternative character used by the operating system to separate
     pathname components, or ‘None’ if only one separator character
     exists.  This is set to ‘'/'’ on Windows systems where ‘sep’ is a
     backslash.  Also available via *note os.path: a6.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.extsep

     The character which separates the base filename from the extension;
     for example, the ‘'.'’ in ‘os.py’.  Also available via *note
     os.path: a6.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.pathsep

     The character conventionally used by the operating system to
     separate search path components (as in ‘PATH’), such as ‘':'’ for
     POSIX or ‘';'’ for Windows.  Also available via *note os.path: a6.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.defpath

     The default search path used by *note exec*p*: 3310. and *note
     spawn*p*: 586. if the environment doesn’t have a ‘'PATH'’ key.
     Also available via *note os.path: a6.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.linesep

     The string used to separate (or, rather, terminate) lines on the
     current platform.  This may be a single character, such as ‘'\n'’
     for POSIX, or multiple characters, for example, ‘'\r\n'’ for
     Windows.  Do not use 'os.linesep' as a line terminator when writing
     files opened in text mode (the default); use a single ‘'\n'’
     instead, on all platforms.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.devnull

     The file path of the null device.  For example: ‘'/dev/null'’ for
     POSIX, ‘'nul'’ for Windows.  Also available via *note os.path: a6.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.RTLD_LAZY
 -- Δεδομένα: os.RTLD_NOW
 -- Δεδομένα: os.RTLD_GLOBAL
 -- Δεδομένα: os.RTLD_LOCAL
 -- Δεδομένα: os.RTLD_NODELETE
 -- Δεδομένα: os.RTLD_NOLOAD
 -- Δεδομένα: os.RTLD_DEEPBIND

     Flags for use with the *note setdlopenflags(): 14cb. and *note
     getdlopenflags(): 18b0. functions.  See the Unix manual page
     ‘dlopen(3)(1)’ for what the different flags mean.

     Added in version 3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Random numbers<2>,  Prev: Miscellaneous System Information,  Up: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

5.17.1.14 Random numbers
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.getrandom (size, flags=0)

     Get up to 'size' random bytes.  The function can return less bytes
     than requested.

     These bytes can be used to seed user-space random number generators
     or for cryptographic purposes.

     ‘getrandom()’ relies on entropy gathered from device drivers and
     other sources of environmental noise.  Unnecessarily reading large
     quantities of data will have a negative impact on other users of
     the ‘/dev/random’ and ‘/dev/urandom’ devices.

     The flags argument is a bit mask that can contain zero or more of
     the following values ORed together: *note os.GRND_RANDOM: 335f. and
     *note GRND_NONBLOCK: 3360.

     See also the Linux getrandom() manual page(1).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 3.17.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Συνάρτηση: os.urandom (size, /)

     Return a bytestring of 'size' random bytes suitable for
     cryptographic use.

     This function returns random bytes from an OS-specific randomness
     source.  The returned data should be unpredictable enough for
     cryptographic applications, though its exact quality depends on the
     OS implementation.

     On Linux, if the ‘getrandom()’ syscall is available, it is used in
     blocking mode: block until the system urandom entropy pool is
     initialized (128 bits of entropy are collected by the kernel).  See
     the PEP 524(2) for the rationale.  On Linux, the *note getrandom():
     107b. function can be used to get random bytes in non-blocking mode
     (using the *note GRND_NONBLOCK: 3360. flag) or to poll until the
     system urandom entropy pool is initialized.

     On a Unix-like system, random bytes are read from the
     ‘/dev/urandom’ device.  If the ‘/dev/urandom’ device is not
     available or not readable, the *note NotImplementedError: 59a.
     exception is raised.

     On Windows, it will use ‘BCryptGenRandom()’.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note secrets: c8. module provides higher level functions.  For
     an easy-to-use interface to the random number generator provided by
     your platform, please see *note random.SystemRandom: 2d75.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: On Linux 3.17 and newer, the ‘getrandom()’
     syscall is now used when available.  On OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, the
     C ‘getentropy()’ function is now used.  These functions avoid the
     usage of an internal file descriptor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5.2: On Linux, if the ‘getrandom()’ syscall
     blocks (the urandom entropy pool is not initialized yet), fall back
     on reading ‘/dev/urandom’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: On Linux, ‘getrandom()’ is now used in
     blocking mode to increase the security.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: On Windows, ‘BCryptGenRandom()’ is used
     instead of ‘CryptGenRandom()’ which is deprecated.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.GRND_NONBLOCK

     By default, when reading from ‘/dev/random’, *note getrandom():
     107b. blocks if no random bytes are available, and when reading
     from ‘/dev/urandom’, it blocks if the entropy pool has not yet been
     initialized.

     If the ‘GRND_NONBLOCK’ flag is set, then *note getrandom(): 107b.
     does not block in these cases, but instead immediately raises *note
     BlockingIOError: 4c3.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: os.GRND_RANDOM

     If this bit is set, then random bytes are drawn from the
     ‘/dev/random’ pool instead of the ‘/dev/urandom’ pool.

     Added in version 3.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/getrandom.2.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/


File: python.info,  Node: io — Core tools for working with streams,  Next: time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου,  Prev: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.17.2 ‘io’ — Core tools for working with streams
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/io.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Overview: Overview<2>.
* Text Encoding::
* High-level Module Interface::
* Class hierarchy::
* Static Typing::
* Performance: Performance<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/io.py


File: python.info,  Node: Overview<2>,  Next: Text Encoding,  Up: io — Core tools for working with streams

5.17.2.1 Overview
.................

The ‘io’ module provides Python’s main facilities for dealing with
various types of I/O. There are three main types of I/O: 'text I/O',
'binary I/O' and 'raw I/O'. These are generic categories, and various
backing stores can be used for each of them.  A concrete object
belonging to any of these categories is called a *note file object:
156c.  Other common terms are 'stream' and 'file-like object'.

Independent of its category, each concrete stream object will also have
various capabilities: it can be read-only, write-only, or read-write.
It can also allow arbitrary random access (seeking forwards or backwards
to any location), or only sequential access (for example in the case of
a socket or pipe).

All streams are careful about the type of data you give to them.  For
example giving a *note str: 1df. object to the ‘write()’ method of a
binary stream will raise a *note TypeError: 291.  So will giving a *note
bytes: 1c7. object to the ‘write()’ method of a text stream.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Operations that used to raise *note IOError:
13fb. now raise *note OSError: 53c, since ‘IOError’ is now an alias of
‘OSError’.

* Menu:

* Text I/O::
* Binary I/O::
* Raw I/O::


File: python.info,  Node: Text I/O,  Next: Binary I/O,  Up: Overview<2>

5.17.2.2 Text I/O
.................

Text I/O expects and produces *note str: 1df. objects.  This means that
whenever the backing store is natively made of bytes (such as in the
case of a file), encoding and decoding of data is made transparently as
well as optional translation of platform-specific newline characters.

The easiest way to create a text stream is with *note open(): 32b,
optionally specifying an encoding:

     f = open("myfile.txt", "r", encoding="utf-8")

In-memory text streams are also available as *note StringIO: 12d4.
objects:

     f = io.StringIO("some initial text data")

     Σημείωση: When working with a non-blocking stream, be aware that
     read operations on text I/O objects might raise a *note
     BlockingIOError: 4c3. if the stream cannot perform the operation
     immediately.

The text stream API is described in detail in the documentation of *note
TextIOBase: a84.


File: python.info,  Node: Binary I/O,  Next: Raw I/O,  Prev: Text I/O,  Up: Overview<2>

5.17.2.3 Binary I/O
...................

Binary I/O (also called 'buffered I/O') expects *note bytes-like
objects: 436. and produces *note bytes: 1c7. objects.  No encoding,
decoding, or newline translation is performed.  This category of streams
can be used for all kinds of non-text data, and also when manual control
over the handling of text data is desired.

The easiest way to create a binary stream is with *note open(): 32b.
with ‘'b'’ in the mode string:

     f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb")

In-memory binary streams are also available as *note BytesIO: 1255.
objects:

     f = io.BytesIO(b"some initial binary data: \x00\x01")

The binary stream API is described in detail in the docs of *note
BufferedIOBase: a83.

Other library modules may provide additional ways to create text or
binary streams.  See *note socket.socket.makefile(): 1548. for example.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw I/O,  Prev: Binary I/O,  Up: Overview<2>

5.17.2.4 Raw I/O
................

Raw I/O (also called 'unbuffered I/O') is generally used as a low-level
building-block for binary and text streams; it is rarely useful to
directly manipulate a raw stream from user code.  Nevertheless, you can
create a raw stream by opening a file in binary mode with buffering
disabled:

     f = open("myfile.jpg", "rb", buffering=0)

The raw stream API is described in detail in the docs of *note
RawIOBase: 147c.


File: python.info,  Node: Text Encoding,  Next: High-level Module Interface,  Prev: Overview<2>,  Up: io — Core tools for working with streams

5.17.2.5 Text Encoding
......................

The default encoding of *note TextIOWrapper: b9c. and *note open(): 32b.
is locale-specific (*note locale.getencoding(): a45.).

However, many developers forget to specify the encoding when opening
text files encoded in UTF-8 (e.g.  JSON, TOML, Markdown, etc…) since
most Unix platforms use UTF-8 locale by default.  This causes bugs
because the locale encoding is not UTF-8 for most Windows users.  For
example:

     # May not work on Windows when non-ASCII characters in the file.
     with open("README.md") as f:
         long_description = f.read()

Accordingly, it is highly recommended that you specify the encoding
explicitly when opening text files.  If you want to use UTF-8, pass
‘encoding="utf-8"’.  To use the current locale encoding,
‘encoding="locale"’ is supported since Python 3.10.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46.

     Python UTF-8 Mode can be used to change the default encoding to
     UTF-8 from locale-specific encoding.

PEP 686(1)

     Python 3.15 will make *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46. default.

* Menu:

* Opt-in EncodingWarning::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0686/


File: python.info,  Node: Opt-in EncodingWarning,  Up: Text Encoding

5.17.2.6 Opt-in EncodingWarning
...............................

Added in version 3.10: See PEP 597(1) for more details.

To find where the default locale encoding is used, you can enable the
*note -X warn_default_encoding: 178. command line option or set the
*note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: b9d. environment variable, which will
emit an *note EncodingWarning: 231d. when the default encoding is used.

If you are providing an API that uses *note open(): 32b. or *note
TextIOWrapper: b9c. and passes ‘encoding=None’ as a parameter, you can
use *note text_encoding(): 1c44. so that callers of the API will emit an
*note EncodingWarning: 231d. if they don’t pass an ‘encoding’.  However,
please consider using UTF-8 by default (i.e.  ‘encoding="utf-8"’) for
new APIs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/


File: python.info,  Node: High-level Module Interface,  Next: Class hierarchy,  Prev: Text Encoding,  Up: io — Core tools for working with streams

5.17.2.7 High-level Module Interface
....................................

 -- Δεδομένα: io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE

     An int containing the default buffer size used by the module’s
     buffered I/O classes.  *note open(): 32b. uses the file’s blksize
     (as obtained by *note os.stat(): 4f5.) if possible.

 -- Συνάρτηση: io.open (file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None, newline=None, closefd=True, opener=None)

     This is an alias for the builtin ‘open()’ function.

     This function raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘open’ with
     arguments 'path', 'mode' and 'flags'.  The 'mode' and 'flags'
     arguments may have been modified or inferred from the original
     call.

 -- Συνάρτηση: io.open_code (path)

     Opens the provided file with mode ‘'rb'’.  This function should be
     used when the intent is to treat the contents as executable code.

     'path' should be a *note str: 1df. and an absolute path.

     The behavior of this function may be overridden by an earlier call
     to the *note PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 1c9e.  However, assuming
     that 'path' is a *note str: 1df. and an absolute path,
     ‘open_code(path)’ should always behave the same as ‘open(path,
     'rb')’.  Overriding the behavior is intended for additional
     validation or preprocessing of the file.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: io.text_encoding (encoding, stacklevel=2, /)

     This is a helper function for callables that use *note open(): 32b.
     or *note TextIOWrapper: b9c. and have an ‘encoding=None’ parameter.

     This function returns 'encoding' if it is not ‘None’.  Otherwise,
     it returns ‘"locale"’ or ‘"utf-8"’ depending on *note UTF-8 Mode:
     a46.

     This function emits an *note EncodingWarning: 231d. if *note
     sys.flags.warn_default_encoding: a7c. is true and 'encoding' is
     ‘None’.  'stacklevel' specifies where the warning is emitted.  For
     example:

          def read_text(path, encoding=None):
              encoding = io.text_encoding(encoding)  # stacklevel=2
              with open(path, encoding) as f:
                  return f.read()

     In this example, an *note EncodingWarning: 231d. is emitted for the
     caller of ‘read_text()’.

     See *note Text Encoding: b9e. for more information.

     Added in version 3.10.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: ‘text_encoding()’ returns «utf-8» when
     UTF-8 mode is enabled and 'encoding' is ‘None’.

 -- Εξαίρεση: io.BlockingIOError

     This is a compatibility alias for the builtin ‘BlockingIOError’
     exception.

 -- Εξαίρεση: io.UnsupportedOperation

     An exception inheriting *note OSError: 53c. and *note ValueError:
     277. that is raised when an unsupported operation is called on a
     stream.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note sys: e2.

     contains the standard IO streams: *note sys.stdin: 94a, *note
     sys.stdout: e9c, and *note sys.stderr: d05.


File: python.info,  Node: Class hierarchy,  Next: Static Typing,  Prev: High-level Module Interface,  Up: io — Core tools for working with streams

5.17.2.8 Class hierarchy
........................

The implementation of I/O streams is organized as a hierarchy of
classes.  First *note abstract base classes: 155f. (ABCs), which are
used to specify the various categories of streams, then concrete classes
providing the standard stream implementations.

     Σημείωση: The abstract base classes also provide default
     implementations of some methods in order to help implementation of
     concrete stream classes.  For example, *note BufferedIOBase: a83.
     provides unoptimized implementations of ‘readinto()’ and
     ‘readline()’.

At the top of the I/O hierarchy is the abstract base class *note IOBase:
70a.  It defines the basic interface to a stream.  Note, however, that
there is no separation between reading and writing to streams;
implementations are allowed to raise *note UnsupportedOperation: 19c9.
if they do not support a given operation.

The *note RawIOBase: 147c. ABC extends *note IOBase: 70a.  It deals with
the reading and writing of bytes to a stream.  *note FileIO: 16b4.
subclasses ‘RawIOBase’ to provide an interface to files in the machine’s
file system.

The *note BufferedIOBase: a83. ABC extends *note IOBase: 70a.  It deals
with buffering on a raw binary stream (*note RawIOBase: 147c.).  Its
subclasses, *note BufferedWriter: 1754, *note BufferedReader: 15b5, and
*note BufferedRWPair: 1756. buffer raw binary streams that are writable,
readable, and both readable and writable, respectively.  *note
BufferedRandom: 1755. provides a buffered interface to seekable streams.
Another ‘BufferedIOBase’ subclass, *note BytesIO: 1255, is a stream of
in-memory bytes.

The *note TextIOBase: a84. ABC extends *note IOBase: 70a.  It deals with
streams whose bytes represent text, and handles encoding and decoding to
and from strings.  *note TextIOWrapper: b9c, which extends ‘TextIOBase’,
is a buffered text interface to a buffered raw stream (*note
BufferedIOBase: a83.).  Finally, *note StringIO: 12d4. is an in-memory
stream for text.

Argument names are not part of the specification, and only the arguments
of *note open(): 32b. are intended to be used as keyword arguments.

The following table summarizes the ABCs provided by the ‘io’ module:

ABC                           Inherits               Stub Methods                 Mixin Methods and Properties
                                                                                  
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                  
*note IOBase: 70a.                                   ‘fileno’, ‘seek’, and        ‘close’, ‘closed’, ‘__enter__’, ‘__exit__’, ‘flush’,
                                                     ‘truncate’                   ‘isatty’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__next__’, ‘readable’,
                                                                                  ‘readline’, ‘readlines’, ‘seekable’, ‘tell’,
                                                                                  ‘writable’, and ‘writelines’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note RawIOBase: 147c.        *note IOBase: 70a.     ‘readinto’ and ‘write’       Inherited *note IOBase: 70a. methods, ‘read’, and
                                                                                  ‘readall’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note BufferedIOBase: a83.    *note IOBase: 70a.     ‘detach’, ‘read’, ‘read1’,   Inherited *note IOBase: 70a. methods, ‘readinto’,
                                                     and ‘write’                  and ‘readinto1’
                                                                                  
                                                                                  
*note TextIOBase: a84.        *note IOBase: 70a.     ‘detach’, ‘read’,            Inherited *note IOBase: 70a. methods, ‘encoding’,
                                                     ‘readline’, and ‘write’      ‘errors’, and ‘newlines’
                                                                                  

* Menu:

* I/O Base Classes::
* Raw File I/O::
* Buffered Streams::
* Text I/O: Text I/O<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: I/O Base Classes,  Next: Raw File I/O,  Up: Class hierarchy

5.17.2.9 I/O Base Classes
.........................

 -- Κλάση: io.IOBase

     The abstract base class for all I/O classes.

     This class provides empty abstract implementations for many methods
     that derived classes can override selectively; the default
     implementations represent a file that cannot be read, written or
     seeked.

     Even though ‘IOBase’ does not declare ‘read()’ or ‘write()’ because
     their signatures will vary, implementations and clients should
     consider those methods part of the interface.  Also,
     implementations may raise a *note ValueError: 277. (or *note
     UnsupportedOperation: 19c9.) when operations they do not support
     are called.

     The basic type used for binary data read from or written to a file
     is *note bytes: 1c7.  Other *note bytes-like objects: 436. are
     accepted as method arguments too.  Text I/O classes work with *note
     str: 1df. data.

     Note that calling any method (even inquiries) on a closed stream is
     undefined.  Implementations may raise *note ValueError: 277. in
     this case.

     ‘IOBase’ (and its subclasses) supports the iterator protocol,
     meaning that an ‘IOBase’ object can be iterated over yielding the
     lines in a stream.  Lines are defined slightly differently
     depending on whether the stream is a binary stream (yielding
     bytes), or a text stream (yielding character strings).  See *note
     readline(): 16ce. below.

     ‘IOBase’ is also a context manager and therefore supports the *note
     with: 20a. statement.  In this example, 'file' is closed after the
     ‘with’ statement’s suite is finished—even if an exception occurs:

          with open('spam.txt', 'w') as file:
              file.write('Spam and eggs!')

     ‘IOBase’ provides these data attributes and methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Flush and close this stream.  This method has no effect if the
          file is already closed.  Once the file is closed, any
          operation on the file (e.g.  reading or writing) will raise a
          *note ValueError: 277.

          As a convenience, it is allowed to call this method more than
          once; only the first call, however, will have an effect.

      -- Ιδιότητα: closed

          ‘True’ if the stream is closed.

      -- Μέθοδος: fileno ()

          Return the underlying file descriptor (an integer) of the
          stream if it exists.  An *note OSError: 53c. is raised if the
          IO object does not use a file descriptor.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ()

          Flush the write buffers of the stream if applicable.  This
          does nothing for read-only and non-blocking streams.

      -- Μέθοδος: isatty ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream is interactive (i.e., connected to
          a terminal/tty device).

      -- Μέθοδος: readable ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream can be read from.  If ‘False’,
          ‘read()’ will raise *note OSError: 53c.

      -- Μέθοδος: readline (size=-1, /)

          Read and return one line from the stream.  If 'size' is
          specified, at most 'size' bytes will be read.

          The line terminator is always ‘b'\n'’ for binary files; for
          text files, the 'newline' argument to *note open(): 32b. can
          be used to select the line terminator(s) recognized.

      -- Μέθοδος: readlines (hint=-1, /)

          Read and return a list of lines from the stream.  'hint' can
          be specified to control the number of lines read: no more
          lines will be read if the total size (in bytes/characters) of
          all lines so far exceeds 'hint'.

          'hint' values of ‘0’ or less, as well as ‘None’, are treated
          as no hint.

          Note that it’s already possible to iterate on file objects
          using ‘for line in file: ...’ without calling
          ‘file.readlines()’.

      -- Μέθοδος: seek (offset, whence=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          Change the stream position to the given byte 'offset',
          interpreted relative to the position indicated by 'whence',
          and return the new absolute position.  Values for 'whence'
          are:

             * *note os.SEEK_SET: 1632. or ‘0’ – start of the stream
               (the default); 'offset' should be zero or positive

             * *note os.SEEK_CUR: 1633. or ‘1’ – current stream
               position; 'offset' may be negative

             * *note os.SEEK_END: 1634. or ‘2’ – end of the stream;
               'offset' is usually negative

          Added in version 3.1: The ‘SEEK_*’ constants.

          Added in version 3.3: Some operating systems could support
          additional values, like *note os.SEEK_HOLE: 3266. or *note
          os.SEEK_DATA: 3267.  The valid values for a file could depend
          on it being open in text or binary mode.

      -- Μέθοδος: seekable ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream supports random access.  If
          ‘False’, *note seek(): 1631, *note tell(): 174f. and *note
          truncate(): 16b5. will raise *note OSError: 53c.

      -- Μέθοδος: tell ()

          Return the current stream position.

      -- Μέθοδος: truncate (size=None, /)

          Resize the stream to the given 'size' in bytes (or the current
          position if 'size' is not specified).  The current stream
          position isn’t changed.  This resizing can extend or reduce
          the current file size.  In case of extension, the contents of
          the new file area depend on the platform (on most systems,
          additional bytes are zero-filled).  The new file size is
          returned.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Windows will now zero-fill files when
          extending.

      -- Μέθοδος: writable ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream supports writing.  If ‘False’,
          ‘write()’ and *note truncate(): 16b5. will raise *note
          OSError: 53c.

      -- Μέθοδος: writelines (lines, /)

          Write a list of lines to the stream.  Line separators are not
          added, so it is usual for each of the lines provided to have a
          line separator at the end.

      -- Μέθοδος: __del__ ()

          Prepare for object destruction.  ‘IOBase’ provides a default
          implementation of this method that calls the instance’s *note
          close(): 70b. method.

 -- Κλάση: io.RawIOBase

     Base class for raw binary streams.  It inherits from *note IOBase:
     70a.

     Raw binary streams typically provide low-level access to an
     underlying OS device or API, and do not try to encapsulate it in
     high-level primitives (this functionality is done at a higher-level
     in buffered binary streams and text streams, described later in
     this page).

     ‘RawIOBase’ provides these methods in addition to those from *note
     IOBase: 70a.:

      -- Μέθοδος: read (size=-1, /)

          Read up to 'size' bytes from the object and return them.  As a
          convenience, if 'size' is unspecified or -1, all bytes until
          EOF are returned.  Otherwise, only one system call is ever
          made.  Fewer than 'size' bytes may be returned if the
          operating system call returns fewer than 'size' bytes.

          If 0 bytes are returned, and 'size' was not 0, this indicates
          end of file.  If the object is in non-blocking mode and no
          bytes are available, ‘None’ is returned.

          The default implementation defers to *note readall(): 19c8.
          and *note readinto(): 11d1.

      -- Μέθοδος: readall ()

          Read and return all the bytes from the stream until EOF, using
          multiple calls to the stream if necessary.

      -- Μέθοδος: readinto (b, /)

          Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable *note bytes-like
          object: 436. 'b', and return the number of bytes read.  For
          example, 'b' might be a *note bytearray: 1c6.  If the object
          is in non-blocking mode and no bytes are available, ‘None’ is
          returned.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (b, /)

          Write the given *note bytes-like object: 436, 'b', to the
          underlying raw stream, and return the number of bytes written.
          This can be less than the length of 'b' in bytes, depending on
          specifics of the underlying raw stream, and especially if it
          is in non-blocking mode.  ‘None’ is returned if the raw stream
          is set not to block and no single byte could be readily
          written to it.  The caller may release or mutate 'b' after
          this method returns, so the implementation should only access
          'b' during the method call.

 -- Κλάση: io.BufferedIOBase

     Base class for binary streams that support some kind of buffering.
     It inherits from *note IOBase: 70a.

     The main difference with *note RawIOBase: 147c. is that methods
     *note read(): 16cd, *note readinto(): 1ab9. and *note write():
     1099. will try (respectively) to read as much input as requested or
     to emit all provided data.

     In addition, if the underlying raw stream is in non-blocking mode,
     when the system returns would block *note write(): 1099. will raise
     *note BlockingIOError: 4c3. with *note
     BlockingIOError.characters_written: 28fd. and *note read(): 16cd.
     will return data read so far or ‘None’ if no data is available.

     Besides, the *note read(): 16cd. method does not have a default
     implementation that defers to *note readinto(): 1ab9.

     A typical ‘BufferedIOBase’ implementation should not inherit from a
     *note RawIOBase: 147c. implementation, but wrap one, like *note
     BufferedWriter: 1754. and *note BufferedReader: 15b5. do.

     ‘BufferedIOBase’ provides or overrides these data attributes and
     methods in addition to those from *note IOBase: 70a.:

      -- Ιδιότητα: raw

          The underlying raw stream (a *note RawIOBase: 147c. instance)
          that ‘BufferedIOBase’ deals with.  This is not part of the
          ‘BufferedIOBase’ API and may not exist on some
          implementations.

      -- Μέθοδος: detach ()

          Separate the underlying raw stream from the buffer and return
          it.

          After the raw stream has been detached, the buffer is in an
          unusable state.

          Some buffers, like *note BytesIO: 1255, do not have the
          concept of a single raw stream to return from this method.
          They raise *note UnsupportedOperation: 19c9.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: read (size=-1, /)

          Read and return up to 'size' bytes.  If the argument is
          omitted, ‘None’, or negative read as much as possible.

          Fewer bytes may be returned than requested.  An empty *note
          bytes: 1c7. object is returned if the stream is already at
          EOF.  More than one read may be made and calls may be retried
          if specific errors are encountered, see *note os.read(): 114e.
          and PEP 475(1) for more details.  Less than size bytes being
          returned does not imply that EOF is imminent.

          When reading as much as possible the default implementation
          will use ‘raw.readall’ if available (which should implement
          *note RawIOBase.readall(): 19c8.), otherwise will read in a
          loop until read returns ‘None’, an empty *note bytes: 1c7, or
          a non-retryable error.  For most streams this is to EOF, but
          for non-blocking streams more data may become available.

               Σημείωση: When the underlying raw stream is non-blocking,
               implementations may either raise *note BlockingIOError:
               4c3. or return ‘None’ if no data is available.  ‘io’
               implementations return ‘None’.

      -- Μέθοδος: read1 (size=-1, /)

          Read and return up to 'size' bytes, calling *note readinto():
          11d1. which may retry if *note EINTR: 1140. is encountered per
          PEP 475(2).  If 'size' is ‘-1’ or not provided, the
          implementation will choose an arbitrary value for 'size'.

               Σημείωση: When the underlying raw stream is non-blocking,
               implementations may either raise *note BlockingIOError:
               4c3. or return ‘None’ if no data is available.  ‘io’
               implementations return ‘None’.

      -- Μέθοδος: readinto (b, /)

          Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable *note bytes-like
          object: 436. 'b' and return the number of bytes read.  For
          example, 'b' might be a *note bytearray: 1c6.

          Like *note read(): 16cd, multiple reads may be issued to the
          underlying raw stream, unless the latter is interactive.

          A *note BlockingIOError: 4c3. is raised if the underlying raw
          stream is in non blocking-mode, and has no data available at
          the moment.

      -- Μέθοδος: readinto1 (b, /)

          Read bytes into a pre-allocated, writable *note bytes-like
          object: 436. 'b', using at most one call to the underlying raw
          stream’s *note read(): 11d0. (or *note readinto(): 11d1.)
          method.  Return the number of bytes read.

          A *note BlockingIOError: 4c3. is raised if the underlying raw
          stream is in non blocking-mode, and has no data available at
          the moment.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (b, /)

          Write the given *note bytes-like object: 436, 'b', and return
          the number of bytes written (always equal to the length of 'b'
          in bytes, since if the write fails an *note OSError: 53c. will
          be raised).  Depending on the actual implementation, these
          bytes may be readily written to the underlying stream, or held
          in a buffer for performance and latency reasons.

          When in non-blocking mode, a *note BlockingIOError: 4c3. is
          raised if the data needed to be written to the raw stream but
          it couldn’t accept all the data without blocking.

          The caller may release or mutate 'b' after this method
          returns, so the implementation should only access 'b' during
          the method call.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Raw File I/O,  Next: Buffered Streams,  Prev: I/O Base Classes,  Up: Class hierarchy

5.17.2.10 Raw File I/O
......................

 -- Κλάση: io.FileIO (name, mode='r', closefd=True, opener=None)

     A raw binary stream representing an OS-level file containing bytes
     data.  It inherits from *note RawIOBase: 147c.

     The 'name' can be one of two things:

        * a character string or *note bytes: 1c7. object representing
          the path to the file which will be opened.  In this case
          closefd must be ‘True’ (the default) otherwise an error will
          be raised.

        * an integer representing the number of an existing OS-level
          file descriptor to which the resulting ‘FileIO’ object will
          give access.  When the FileIO object is closed this fd will be
          closed as well, unless 'closefd' is set to ‘False’.

     The 'mode' can be ‘'r'’, ‘'w'’, ‘'x'’ or ‘'a'’ for reading
     (default), writing, exclusive creation or appending.  The file will
     be created if it doesn’t exist when opened for writing or
     appending; it will be truncated when opened for writing.  *note
     FileExistsError: 13c9. will be raised if it already exists when
     opened for creating.  Opening a file for creating implies writing,
     so this mode behaves in a similar way to ‘'w'’.  Add a ‘'+'’ to the
     mode to allow simultaneous reading and writing.

     The *note read(): 11d0. (when called with a positive argument),
     *note readinto(): 11d1. and *note write(): 174e. methods on this
     class will only make one system call.

     A custom opener can be used by passing a callable as 'opener'.  The
     underlying file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by
     calling 'opener' with ('name', 'flags').  'opener' must return an
     open file descriptor (passing *note os.open: 114b. as 'opener'
     results in functionality similar to passing ‘None’).

     The newly created file is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     See the *note open(): 32b. built-in function for examples on using
     the 'opener' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The 'opener' parameter was added.  The
     ‘'x'’ mode was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The file is now non-inheritable.

     ‘FileIO’ provides these data attributes in addition to those from
     *note RawIOBase: 147c. and *note IOBase: 70a.:

      -- Ιδιότητα: mode

          The mode as given in the constructor.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The file name.  This is the file descriptor of the file when
          no name is given in the constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffered Streams,  Next: Text I/O<2>,  Prev: Raw File I/O,  Up: Class hierarchy

5.17.2.11 Buffered Streams
..........................

Buffered I/O streams provide a higher-level interface to an I/O device
than raw I/O does.

 -- Κλάση: io.BytesIO (initial_bytes=b'')

     A binary stream using an in-memory bytes buffer.  It inherits from
     *note BufferedIOBase: a83.  The buffer is discarded when the *note
     close(): 70b. method is called.

     The optional argument 'initial_bytes' is a *note bytes-like object:
     436. that contains initial data.

     Methods may be used from multiple threads without external locking
     in *note free-threaded builds: 198.

     ‘BytesIO’ provides or overrides these methods in addition to those
     from *note BufferedIOBase: a83. and *note IOBase: 70a.:

      -- Μέθοδος: getbuffer ()

          Return a readable and writable view over the contents of the
          buffer without copying them.  Also, mutating the view will
          transparently update the contents of the buffer:

               >>> b = io.BytesIO(b"abcdef")
               >>> view = b.getbuffer()
               >>> view[2:4] = b"56"
               >>> b.getvalue()
               b'ab56ef'

               Σημείωση: As long as the view exists, the ‘BytesIO’
               object cannot be resized or closed.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: getvalue ()

          Return *note bytes: 1c7. containing the entire contents of the
          buffer.

      -- Μέθοδος: read1 (size=-1, /)

          In ‘BytesIO’, this is the same as *note read(): 16cd.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'size' argument is now optional.

      -- Μέθοδος: readinto1 (b, /)

          In ‘BytesIO’, this is the same as *note readinto(): 1ab9.

          Added in version 3.5.

 -- Κλάση: io.BufferedReader (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a
     readable, non seekable *note RawIOBase: 147c. raw binary stream.
     It inherits from *note BufferedIOBase: a83.

     When reading data from this object, a larger amount of data may be
     requested from the underlying raw stream, and kept in an internal
     buffer.  The buffered data can then be returned directly on
     subsequent reads.

     The constructor creates a ‘BufferedReader’ for the given readable
     'raw' stream and 'buffer_size'.  If 'buffer_size' is omitted, *note
     DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1c45. is used.

     ‘BufferedReader’ provides or overrides these methods in addition to
     those from *note BufferedIOBase: a83. and *note IOBase: 70a.:

      -- Μέθοδος: peek (size=0, /)

          Return bytes from the stream without advancing the position.
          The number of bytes returned may be less or more than
          requested.  If the underlying raw stream is non-blocking and
          the operation would block, returns empty bytes.

      -- Μέθοδος: read (size=-1, /)

          In ‘BufferedReader’ this is the same as *note
          io.BufferedIOBase.read(): 16cd.

      -- Μέθοδος: read1 (size=-1, /)

          In ‘BufferedReader’ this is the same as *note
          io.BufferedIOBase.read1(): 307c.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'size' argument is now optional.

 -- Κλάση: io.BufferedWriter (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a
     writeable, non seekable *note RawIOBase: 147c. raw binary stream.
     It inherits from *note BufferedIOBase: a83.

     When writing to this object, data is normally placed into an
     internal buffer.  The buffer will be written out to the underlying
     *note RawIOBase: 147c. object under various conditions, including:

        * when the buffer gets too small for all pending data;

        * when *note flush(): 3375. is called;

        * when a *note seek(): 1631. is requested (for *note
          BufferedRandom: 1755. objects);

        * when the ‘BufferedWriter’ object is closed or destroyed.

     The constructor creates a ‘BufferedWriter’ for the given writeable
     'raw' stream.  If the 'buffer_size' is not given, it defaults to
     *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1c45.

     ‘BufferedWriter’ provides or overrides these methods in addition to
     those from *note BufferedIOBase: a83. and *note IOBase: 70a.:

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ()

          Force bytes held in the buffer into the raw stream.  A *note
          BlockingIOError: 4c3. should be raised if the raw stream
          blocks.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (b, /)

          Write the *note bytes-like object: 436, 'b', and return the
          number of bytes written.  When in non-blocking mode, a *note
          BlockingIOError: 4c3. with *note
          BlockingIOError.characters_written: 28fd. set is raised if the
          buffer needs to be written out but the raw stream blocks.

 -- Κλάση: io.BufferedRandom (raw, buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to a
     seekable *note RawIOBase: 147c. raw binary stream.  It inherits
     from *note BufferedReader: 15b5. and *note BufferedWriter: 1754.

     The constructor creates a reader and writer for a seekable raw
     stream, given in the first argument.  If the 'buffer_size' is
     omitted it defaults to *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1c45.

     ‘BufferedRandom’ is capable of anything *note BufferedReader: 15b5.
     or *note BufferedWriter: 1754. can do.  In addition, *note seek():
     1631. and *note tell(): 174f. are guaranteed to be implemented.

 -- Κλάση: io.BufferedRWPair (reader, writer,
          buffer_size=DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE, /)

     A buffered binary stream providing higher-level access to two non
     seekable *note RawIOBase: 147c. raw binary streams—one readable,
     the other writeable.  It inherits from *note BufferedIOBase: a83.

     'reader' and 'writer' are *note RawIOBase: 147c. objects that are
     readable and writeable respectively.  If the 'buffer_size' is
     omitted it defaults to *note DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE: 1c45.

     ‘BufferedRWPair’ implements all of *note BufferedIOBase: a83.'s
     methods except for *note detach(): 3013, which raises *note
     UnsupportedOperation: 19c9.

          Προειδοποίηση: ‘BufferedRWPair’ does not attempt to
          synchronize accesses to its underlying raw streams.  You
          should not pass it the same object as reader and writer; use
          *note BufferedRandom: 1755. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Text I/O<2>,  Prev: Buffered Streams,  Up: Class hierarchy

5.17.2.12 Text I/O
..................

 -- Κλάση: io.TextIOBase

     Base class for text streams.  This class provides a character and
     line based interface to stream I/O. It inherits from *note IOBase:
     70a.

     ‘TextIOBase’ provides or overrides these data attributes and
     methods in addition to those from *note IOBase: 70a.:

      -- Ιδιότητα: encoding

          The name of the encoding used to decode the stream’s bytes
          into strings, and to encode strings into bytes.

      -- Ιδιότητα: errors

          The error setting of the decoder or encoder.

      -- Ιδιότητα: newlines

          A string, a tuple of strings, or ‘None’, indicating the
          newlines translated so far.  Depending on the implementation
          and the initial constructor flags, this may not be available.

      -- Ιδιότητα: buffer

          The underlying binary buffer (a *note BufferedIOBase: a83. or
          *note RawIOBase: 147c. instance) that ‘TextIOBase’ deals with.
          This is not part of the ‘TextIOBase’ API and may not exist in
          some implementations.

      -- Μέθοδος: detach ()

          Separate the underlying binary buffer from the ‘TextIOBase’
          and return it.

          After the underlying buffer has been detached, the
          ‘TextIOBase’ is in an unusable state.

          Some ‘TextIOBase’ implementations, like *note StringIO: 12d4,
          may not have the concept of an underlying buffer and calling
          this method will raise *note UnsupportedOperation: 19c9.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: read (size=-1, /)

          Read and return at most 'size' characters from the stream as a
          single *note str: 1df.  If 'size' is negative or ‘None’, reads
          until EOF.

      -- Μέθοδος: readline (size=-1, /)

          Read until newline or EOF and return a single *note str: 1df.
          If the stream is already at EOF, an empty string is returned.

          If 'size' is specified, at most 'size' characters will be
          read.

      -- Μέθοδος: seek (offset, whence=SEEK_SET, /)

          Change the stream position to the given 'offset'.  Behaviour
          depends on the 'whence' parameter.  The default value for
          'whence' is ‘SEEK_SET’.

             * ‘SEEK_SET’ or ‘0’: seek from the start of the stream (the
               default); 'offset' must either be a number returned by
               *note TextIOBase.tell(): 337b, or zero.  Any other
               'offset' value produces undefined behaviour.

             * ‘SEEK_CUR’ or ‘1’: «seek» to the current position;
               'offset' must be zero, which is a no-operation (all other
               values are unsupported).

             * ‘SEEK_END’ or ‘2’: seek to the end of the stream;
               'offset' must be zero (all other values are unsupported).

          Return the new absolute position as an opaque number.

          Added in version 3.1: The ‘SEEK_*’ constants.

      -- Μέθοδος: tell ()

          Return the current stream position as an opaque number.  The
          number does not usually represent a number of bytes in the
          underlying binary storage.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (s, /)

          Write the string 's' to the stream and return the number of
          characters written.

 -- Κλάση: io.TextIOWrapper (buffer, encoding=None, errors=None,
          newline=None, line_buffering=False, write_through=False)

     A buffered text stream providing higher-level access to a *note
     BufferedIOBase: a83. buffered binary stream.  It inherits from
     *note TextIOBase: a84.

     'encoding' gives the name of the encoding that the stream will be
     decoded or encoded with.  In *note UTF-8 Mode: a46, this defaults
     to UTF-8.  Otherwise, it defaults to *note locale.getencoding():
     a45.  ‘encoding="locale"’ can be used to specify the current
     locale’s encoding explicitly.  See *note Text Encoding: b9e. for
     more information.

     'errors' is an optional string that specifies how encoding and
     decoding errors are to be handled.  Pass ‘'strict'’ to raise a
     *note ValueError: 277. exception if there is an encoding error (the
     default of ‘None’ has the same effect), or pass ‘'ignore'’ to
     ignore errors.  (Note that ignoring encoding errors can lead to
     data loss.)  ‘'replace'’ causes a replacement marker (such as
     ‘'?'’) to be inserted where there is malformed data.
     ‘'backslashreplace'’ causes malformed data to be replaced by a
     backslashed escape sequence.  When writing, ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’
     (replace with the appropriate XML character reference) or
     ‘'namereplace'’ (replace with ‘\N{...}’ escape sequences) can be
     used.  Any other error handling name that has been registered with
     *note codecs.register_error(): 183d. is also valid.

     'newline' controls how line endings are handled.  It can be ‘None’,
     ‘''’, ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’, and ‘'\r\n'’.  It works as follows:

        * When reading input from the stream, if 'newline' is ‘None’,
          *note universal newlines: 10f1. mode is enabled.  Lines in the
          input can end in ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’, or ‘'\r\n'’, and these are
          translated into ‘'\n'’ before being returned to the caller.
          If 'newline' is ‘''’, universal newlines mode is enabled, but
          line endings are returned to the caller untranslated.  If
          'newline' has any of the other legal values, input lines are
          only terminated by the given string, and the line ending is
          returned to the caller untranslated.

        * When writing output to the stream, if 'newline' is ‘None’, any
          ‘'\n'’ characters written are translated to the system default
          line separator, *note os.linesep: 27d5.  If 'newline' is ‘''’
          or ‘'\n'’, no translation takes place.  If 'newline' is any of
          the other legal values, any ‘'\n'’ characters written are
          translated to the given string.

     If 'line_buffering' is ‘True’, *note flush(): 19fa. is implied when
     a call to write contains a newline character or a carriage return.

     If 'write_through' is ‘True’, calls to *note write(): 1099. are
     guaranteed not to be buffered: any data written on the
     ‘TextIOWrapper’ object is immediately handled to its underlying
     binary 'buffer'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The 'write_through' argument has been
     added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The default 'encoding' is now
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ instead of
     ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’.  Don’t change temporary the locale
     encoding using *note locale.setlocale(): 231, use the current
     locale encoding instead of the user preferred encoding.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The 'encoding' argument now supports the
     ‘"locale"’ dummy encoding name.

          Σημείωση: When the underlying raw stream is non-blocking, a
          *note BlockingIOError: 4c3. may be raised if a read operation
          cannot be completed immediately.

     ‘TextIOWrapper’ provides these data attributes and methods in
     addition to those from *note TextIOBase: a84. and *note IOBase:
     70a.:

      -- Ιδιότητα: line_buffering

          Whether line buffering is enabled.

      -- Ιδιότητα: write_through

          Whether writes are passed immediately to the underlying binary
          buffer.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Μέθοδος: reconfigure (*, encoding=None, errors=None,
               newline=None, line_buffering=None, write_through=None)

          Reconfigure this text stream using new settings for
          'encoding', 'errors', 'newline', 'line_buffering' and
          'write_through'.

          Parameters not specified keep current settings, except
          ‘errors='strict'’ is used when 'encoding' is specified but
          'errors' is not specified.

          It is not possible to change the encoding or newline if some
          data has already been read from the stream.  On the other
          hand, changing encoding after write is possible.

          This method does an implicit stream flush before setting the
          new parameters.

          Added in version 3.7.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The method supports
          ‘encoding="locale"’ option.

      -- Μέθοδος: seek (cookie, whence=os.SEEK_SET, /)

          Set the stream position.  Return the new stream position as an
          *note int: 326.

          Four operations are supported, given by the following argument
          combinations:

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_SET)’: Rewind to the start of the stream.

             * ‘seek(cookie, SEEK_SET)’: Restore a previous position;
               'cookie' 'must be' a number returned by *note tell():
               19c7.

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_END)’: Fast-forward to the end of the
               stream.

             * ‘seek(0, SEEK_CUR)’: Leave the current stream position
               unchanged.

          Any other argument combinations are invalid, and may raise
          exceptions.

          Δείτε επίσης
          ............

          *note os.SEEK_SET: 1632, *note os.SEEK_CUR: 1633, and *note
          os.SEEK_END: 1634.

      -- Μέθοδος: tell ()

          Return the stream position as an opaque number.  The return
          value of ‘tell()’ can be given as input to *note seek(): 337e,
          to restore a previous stream position.

 -- Κλάση: io.StringIO (initial_value='', newline='\n')

     A text stream using an in-memory text buffer.  It inherits from
     *note TextIOBase: a84.

     The text buffer is discarded when the *note close(): 70b. method is
     called.

     The initial value of the buffer can be set by providing
     'initial_value'.  If newline translation is enabled, newlines will
     be encoded as if by *note write(): 224a.  The stream is positioned
     at the start of the buffer which emulates opening an existing file
     in a ‘w+’ mode, making it ready for an immediate write from the
     beginning or for a write that would overwrite the initial value.
     To emulate opening a file in an ‘a+’ mode ready for appending, use
     ‘f.seek(0, io.SEEK_END)’ to reposition the stream at the end of the
     buffer.

     The 'newline' argument works like that of *note TextIOWrapper: b9c,
     except that when writing output to the stream, if 'newline' is
     ‘None’, newlines are written as ‘\n’ on all platforms.

     ‘StringIO’ provides this method in addition to those from *note
     TextIOBase: a84. and *note IOBase: 70a.:

      -- Μέθοδος: getvalue ()

          Return a *note str: 1df. containing the entire contents of the
          buffer.  Newlines are decoded as if by *note read(): 225b,
          although the stream position is not changed.

     Example usage:

          import io

          output = io.StringIO()
          output.write('First line.\n')
          print('Second line.', file=output)

          # Retrieve file contents -- this will be
          # 'First line.\nSecond line.\n'
          contents = output.getvalue()

          # Close object and discard memory buffer --
          # .getvalue() will now raise an exception.
          output.close()

 -- Κλάση: io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder

     A helper codec that decodes newlines for *note universal newlines:
     10f1. mode.  It inherits from *note codecs.IncrementalDecoder:
     2a4e.


File: python.info,  Node: Static Typing,  Next: Performance<3>,  Prev: Class hierarchy,  Up: io — Core tools for working with streams

5.17.2.13 Static Typing
.......................

The following protocols can be used for annotating function and method
arguments for simple stream reading or writing operations.  They are
decorated with *note @typing.runtime_checkable: 861.

 -- Κλάση: io.Reader [T]

     Generic protocol for reading from a file or other input stream.
     ‘T’ will usually be *note str: 1df. or *note bytes: 1c7, but can be
     any type that is read from the stream.

     Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: read ()

      -- Μέθοδος: read (size, /)

          Read data from the input stream and return it.  If 'size' is
          specified, it should be an integer, and at most 'size' items
          (bytes/characters) will be read.

     For example:

          def read_it(reader: Reader[str]):
              data = reader.read(11)
              assert isinstance(data, str)

 -- Κλάση: io.Writer [T]

     Generic protocol for writing to a file or other output stream.  ‘T’
     will usually be *note str: 1df. or *note bytes: 1c7, but can be any
     type that can be written to the stream.

     Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (data, /)

          Write 'data' to the output stream and return the number of
          items (bytes/characters) written.

     For example:

          def write_binary(writer: Writer[bytes]):
              writer.write(b"Hello world!\n")

See *note ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O: 3383. for other I/O
related protocols and classes that can be used for static type checking.


File: python.info,  Node: Performance<3>,  Prev: Static Typing,  Up: io — Core tools for working with streams

5.17.2.14 Performance
.....................

This section discusses the performance of the provided concrete I/O
implementations.

* Menu:

* Binary I/O: Binary I/O<2>.
* Text I/O: Text I/O<3>.
* Multi-threading: Multi-threading<3>.
* Reentrancy::


File: python.info,  Node: Binary I/O<2>,  Next: Text I/O<3>,  Up: Performance<3>

5.17.2.15 Binary I/O
....................

By reading and writing only large chunks of data even when the user asks
for a single byte, buffered I/O hides any inefficiency in calling and
executing the operating system’s unbuffered I/O routines.  The gain
depends on the OS and the kind of I/O which is performed.  For example,
on some modern OSes such as Linux, unbuffered disk I/O can be as fast as
buffered I/O. The bottom line, however, is that buffered I/O offers
predictable performance regardless of the platform and the backing
device.  Therefore, it is almost always preferable to use buffered I/O
rather than unbuffered I/O for binary data.


File: python.info,  Node: Text I/O<3>,  Next: Multi-threading<3>,  Prev: Binary I/O<2>,  Up: Performance<3>

5.17.2.16 Text I/O
..................

Text I/O over a binary storage (such as a file) is significantly slower
than binary I/O over the same storage, because it requires conversions
between unicode and binary data using a character codec.  This can
become noticeable handling huge amounts of text data like large log
files.  Also, *note tell(): 337b. and *note seek(): 337a. are both quite
slow due to the reconstruction algorithm used.

*note StringIO: 12d4, however, is a native in-memory unicode container
and will exhibit similar speed to *note BytesIO: 1255.


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-threading<3>,  Next: Reentrancy,  Prev: Text I/O<3>,  Up: Performance<3>

5.17.2.17 Multi-threading
.........................

*note FileIO: 16b4. objects are thread-safe to the extent that the
operating system calls (such as ‘read(2)(1)’ under Unix) they wrap are
thread-safe too.

Binary buffered objects (instances of *note BufferedReader: 15b5, *note
BufferedWriter: 1754, *note BufferedRandom: 1755. and *note
BufferedRWPair: 1756.) protect their internal structures using a lock;
it is therefore safe to call them from multiple threads at once.

*note TextIOWrapper: b9c. objects are not thread-safe.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/read(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Reentrancy,  Prev: Multi-threading<3>,  Up: Performance<3>

5.17.2.18 Reentrancy
....................

Binary buffered objects (instances of *note BufferedReader: 15b5, *note
BufferedWriter: 1754, *note BufferedRandom: 1755. and *note
BufferedRWPair: 1756.) are not reentrant.  While reentrant calls will
not happen in normal situations, they can arise from doing I/O in a
*note signal: ce. handler.  If a thread tries to re-enter a buffered
object which it is already accessing, a *note RuntimeError: 30d. is
raised.  Note this doesn’t prohibit a different thread from entering the
buffered object.

The above implicitly extends to text files, since the *note open(): 32b.
function will wrap a buffered object inside a *note TextIOWrapper: b9c.
This includes standard streams and therefore affects the built-in *note
print(): 131f. function as well.


File: python.info,  Node: time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου,  Next: logging — Logging facility for Python,  Prev: io — Core tools for working with streams,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.17.3 ‘time’ — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου
----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Αυτό το module παρέχει διάφορες συναρτήσεις σχετικές με τον χρόνο.  Για
σχετική λειτουργικότητα, δείτε επίσης τα modules *note datetime: 33. και
*note calendar: 15.

Αν και αυτό το module είναι πάντα διαθέσιμο, δεν είναι όλες οι
συναρτήσεις διαθέσιμες σε όλες τις πλατφόρμες.  Οι περισσότερες από τις
συναρτήσεις που ορίζονται σε αυτό το module καλούν συναρτήσεις της
πλατφόρμας C με το ίδιο όνομα.  Μπορεί μερικές φορές να είναι χρήσιμο να
συμβουλευτείτε την τεκμηρίωση της πλατφόρμας, επειδή η σημασιολογία
αυτών των συναρτήσεων διαφέρει μεταξύ των πλατφορμών.

Απαιτείται μια εξήγηση ορισμένης ορολογίας και συμβάσεων.

   * Το 'epoch' είναι το σημείο όπου ξεκινά ο χρόνος, η τιμή που
     επιστρέφει το ‘time.gmtime(0)’.  Είναι η 1η Ιανουαρίου 1970,
     00:00:00 (UTC) σε όλες τις πλατφόρμες.

   * Ο όρος 'seconds since the epoch' αναφέρεται στον συνολικό αριθμό
     των δευτερολέπτων που έχουν παρέλθει από το epoch, συνήθως
     εξαιρώντας τα leap seconds(1).  Τα δίσεκτα δευτερόλεπτα (leap
     seconds) εξαιρούνται από αυτό το σύνολο σε όλες τις πλατφόρμες που
     συμμορφώνονται με το POSIX.

   * Οι συναρτήσεις σε αυτό το module μπορεί να μην χειρίζονται
     ημερομηνίες και ώρες πριν από το *note epoch: 3139. ή πολύ μακριά
     στο μέλλον.  Το σημείο κοπής στο μέλλον καθορίζεται από τη
     βιβλιοθήκη C· για συστήματα 32-bit, είναι τυπικά το 2038.

   * Η συνάρτηση *note strptime(): 17cf. μπορεί να αναλύσει 2-ψήφια έτη
     όταν δοθεί κωδικός μορφής ‘%y’.  Όταν αναλύονται 2-ψήφια έτη,
     μετατρέπονται σύμφωνα με τα πρότυπα POSIX και ISO C: οι τιμές 69–99
     αντιστοιχίζονται σε 1969–1999, και οι τιμές 0–68 αντιστοιχίζονται
     σε2000–2068.

   * Το UTC είναι το Coordinated Universal Time(2) και έχει
     αντικαταστήσει το Greenwich Mean Time(3) ή GMT ως τη βάση της
     διεθνούς τήρησης χρόνου.  Το ακρωνύμιο UTC δεν είναι λάθος αλλά
     συμμορφώνεται με ένα προηγούμενο, ουδέτερο ως προς τη γλώσσα, σχήμα
     ονομασίας για πρότυπα χρόνου όπως τα UT0, UT1, και UT2.

   * Το DST είναι το Daylight Saving Time, μια προσαρμογή της ζώνης ώρας
     κατά (συνήθως) μία ώρα κατά τη διάρκεια μέρους του έτους.  Οι
     κανόνες DST είναι μαγικοί (καθορίζονται από τοπικό νόμο) και μπορεί
     να αλλάζουν από έτος σε έτος.  Η βιβλιοθήκη C έχει έναν πίνακα που
     περιέχει τους τοπικούς κανόνες (συχνά διαβάζεται από ένα σύστημα
     αρχείων για ευελιξία) και είναι η μόνη πηγή Αληθινής Σοφίας σε αυτό
     το θέμα.

   * Η ακρίβεια των διαφόρων συναρτήσεων πραγματικού χρόνου μπορεί να
     είναι λιγότερη από αυτή που υποδηλώνεται από τις μονάδες στις
     οποίες εκφράζεται η τιμή ή το όρισμά τους.  Π.χ.  στα περισσότερα
     συστήματα Unix, το ρολόι «χτυπάει» μόνο 50 ή 100 φορές το
     δευτερόλεπτο.

   * Από την άλλη πλευρά, η ακρίβεια της *note time(): 75e. και της
     *note sleep(): a8c. είναι πιο καλή από τις αντίστοιχες Unix: οι
     χρόνοι εκφράζονται ως αριθμοί κινητής υποδιαστολής, η ‘time()’
     επιστρέφει τον πιο ακριβή διαθέσιμο χρόνο (χρησιμοποιώντας το Unix
     ‘gettimeofday()’ όπου είναι διαθέσιμο), και ‘sleep()’ θα δεχτεί
     έναν χρόνο με μη μηδενικό κλάσμα (το Unix :c:‘select()’
     χρησιμοποιείται για αυτόν τον λόγο, όπου είναι διαθέσιμο).

   * Η τιμή χρόνου όπως επιστρέφεται από τις *note gmtime(): 1569, *note
     localtime(): 189b, και *note strptime(): 17cf, και γίνεται αποδεκτή
     από τις *note asctime(): 1590, *note mktime(): 1591. και *note
     strftime(): 1592, είναι μια ακολουθία από 9 ακέραιους.  Οι τιμές
     επιστροφής των ‘gmtime()’, ‘localtime()’, και ‘strptime()’
     προσφέρουν επίσης ονόματα χαρακτηριστικών για μεμονωμένα πεδία.

     Δείτε την *note struct_time: 10a7. για μια περιγραφή αυτών των
     αντικειμένων.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Ο τύπος *note struct_time: 10a7. επεκτάθηκε
     για να παρέχει τα *note tm_gmtoff: 338c. και *note tm_zone: 338d.
     χαρακτηριστικά όταν η πλατφόρμα υποστηρίζει τα αντίστοιχα μέλη
     ‘struct tm’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Τα *note struct_time: 10a7. χαρακτηριστικά
     *note tm_gmtoff: 338c. και *note tm_zone: 338d. είναι τώρα
     διαθέσιμα σε όλες τις πλατφόρμες.

   * Χρησιμοποιήστε τις ακόλουθες συναρτήσεις για να μετατρέψετε μεταξύ
     αναπαραστάσεων χρόνου:

     Από                           Προς                          Χρήση
                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                 
     δευτερόλεπτα από το epoch     *note struct_time: 10a7. σε   *note gmtime(): 1569.
                                   UTC                           
                                   
                                                                 
     δευτερόλεπτα από το epoch     *note struct_time: 10a7. σε   *note localtime(): 189b.
                                   τοπική ώρα                    
                                   
                                                                 
     *note struct_time: 10a7. σε   δευτερόλεπτα από το epoch     *note calendar.timegm(): 2b5b.
     UTC                                                         

     *note struct_time: 10a7. σε   δευτερόλεπτα από το epoch     *note mktime(): 1591.
     τοπική ώρα                                                  

* Menu:

* Συναρτήσεις: Συναρτήσεις<2>.
* Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού::
* Σταθερές ζώνης ώρας::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich_Mean_Time


File: python.info,  Node: Συναρτήσεις<2>,  Next: Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού,  Up: time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου

5.17.3.1 Συναρτήσεις
....................

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.asctime ([t])

     Μετατρέπει μια πλειάδα ή *note struct_time: 10a7. που αναπαριστά
     έναν χρόνο όπως επιστρέφεται από τις *note gmtime(): 1569. ή *note
     localtime(): 189b. σε μια συμβολοσειρά της ακόλουθης μορφής: ‘'Sun
     Jun 20 23:21:05 1993'’.  Το πεδίο της ημέρας είναι δύο χαρακτήρων
     και γεμίζεται με κενό αν η ημέρα είναι μονοψήφια, π.χ.: ‘'Wed Jun 9
     04:26:40 1993'’.

     Αν το 't' δεν παρέχεται, χρησιμοποιείται ο τρέχων χρόνος όπως
     επιστρέφεται από την *note localtime(): 189b.  Οι πληροφορίες
     τοπικής ρύθμισης δεν χρησιμοποιούνται από την *note asctime():
     1590.

          Σημείωση: Σε αντίθεση με τη συνάρτηση C με το ίδιο όνομα, η
          *note asctime(): 1590. δεν προσθέτει μια νέα γραμμή στο τέλος.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.pthread_getcpuclockid (thread_id)

     Επιστρέφει το 'clk_id' του ρολογιού χρόνου CPU που είναι
     συγκεκριμένο για το νήμα, για το καθορισμένο 'thread_id'.

     Χρησιμοποιήστε το *note threading.get_ident(): 1505. ή το *note
     ident: 3390. χαρακτηριστικό των αντικειμένων *note
     threading.Thread: 420. για να λάβετε μια κατάλληλη τιμή για το
     'thread_id'.

          Προειδοποίηση: Η μετάδοση ενός μη έγκυρου ή ληγμένου
          'thread_id' μπορεί να έχει ως αποτέλεσμα μη ορισμένη
          συμπεριφορά, όπως σφάλμα τμηματοποίησης.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix

     Δείτε τη σελίδα του εγχειριδίου για το
     ‘pthread_getcpuclockid(3)(1)’ για περαιτέρω πληροφορίες.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.clock_getres (clk_id)

     Επιστρέφει την ανάλυση (ακρίβεια) του συγκεκριμένου ρολογιού
     'clk_id'.  Ανατρέξτε στο *note Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού:
     3309. για μια λίστα αποδεκτών τιμών για 'clk_id'.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.clock_gettime (clk_id) -> float

     Επιστρέφει τον χρόνο του συγκεκριμένου ρολογιού 'clk_id'.
     Ανατρέξτε στο *note Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού: 3309. για μια
     λίστα αποδεκτών τιμών για 'clk_id'.

     Χρησιμοποιήστε την *note clock_gettime_ns(): ea9. για να αποφύγετε
     την απώλεια ακρίβειας που προκαλείται από τον τύπο *note float:
     327.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.clock_gettime_ns (clk_id) -> int

     Παρόμοιο με την *note clock_gettime(): 1509. αλλά επιστρέφει τον
     χρόνο σε νανοδευτερόλεπτα.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.clock_settime (clk_id, time)

     Ορίζει τον χρόνο του συγκεκριμένου ρολογιού 'clk_id'.  Επί του
     παρόντος, το *note CLOCK_REALTIME: a89. είναι η μόνη αποδεκτή τιμή
     για το 'clk_id'.

     Χρησιμοποιήστε την *note clock_settime_ns(): eaa. για να αποφύγετε
     την απώλεια ακρίβειας που προκαλείται από τον τύπο *note float:
     327.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'time', not
     only integer or float.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.clock_settime_ns (clk_id, time: int)

     Παρόμοιο με την *note clock_settime(): 150a. αλλά ορίζει τον χρόνο
     με νανοδευτερόλεπτα.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not Android, not iOS.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.ctime ([secs])

     Μετατρέπει έναν χρόνο εκφρασμένο σε δευτερόλεπτα από το *note
     epoch: 3139. σε μια συμβολοσειρά της μορφής: ‘'Sun Jun 20 23:21:05
     1993'’ που αναπαριστά την τοπική ώρα.  Το πεδίο της ημέρας είναι
     δύο χαρακτήρων και γεμίζεται με κενό αν η ημέρα είναι μονοψήφια,
     π.χ.: ‘'Wed Jun 9 04:26:40 1993'’.

     Αν το 'secs' δεν παρέχεται ή είναι *note None: a65, χρησιμοποιείται
     ο τρέχων χρόνος όπως επιστρέφεται από την *note time(): 75e.  Το
     ‘ctime(secs)’ είναι ισοδύναμο με το ‘asctime(localtime(secs))’.  Οι
     πληροφορίες τοπικής ρύθμισης δεν χρησιμοποιούνται από την *note
     ctime(): 2ad8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number, not only integer
     or float.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.get_clock_info (name)

     Λάβετε πληροφορίες για το συγκεκριμένο ρολόι ως αντικείμενο χώρου
     ονομάτων.  Τα υποστηριζόμενα ονόματα ρολογιών και οι αντίστοιχες
     συναρτήσεις για την ανάγνωση της τιμής τους είναι:

        * ‘'monotonic'’: *note time.monotonic(): 75d.

        * ‘'perf_counter'’: *note time.perf_counter(): e49.

        * ‘'process_time'’: *note time.process_time(): e4a.

        * ‘'thread_time'’: *note time.thread_time(): d03.

        * ‘'time'’: *note time.time(): 75e.

     Το αποτέλεσμα έχει τα ακόλουθα χαρακτηριστικά:

        - 'adjustable': ‘True’ αν το ρολόι μπορεί να ρυθμιστεί να
          πηδήξει μπροστά ή πίσω στον χρόνο, διαφορετικά ‘False’.  Δεν
          αναφέρεται σε σταδιακές NTP ρυθμίσεις ρυθμού.

        - 'implementation': Το όνομα της υποκείμενης συνάρτησης C που
          χρησιμοποιείται για να λάβει την τιμή του ρολογιού.  Ανατρέξτε
          στο *note Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού: 3309. για πιθανές
          τιμές.

        - 'monotonic': ‘True’ αν το ρολόι δεν μπορεί να πάει πίσω,
          διαφορετικά ‘False’

        - 'resolution': Η ανάλυση του ρολογιού σε δευτερόλεπτα (*note
          float: 327.)

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.gmtime ([secs])

     Μετατρέπει έναν χρόνο εκφρασμένο σε δευτερόλεπτα από το *note
     epoch: 3139. σε μια *note struct_time: 10a7. σε UTC στην οποία η
     σημαία dst είναι πάντα μηδέν.  Αν το 'secs' δεν παρέχεται ή είναι
     *note None: a65, χρησιμοποιείται ο τρέχων χρόνος όπως επιστρέφεται
     από την *note time(): 75e.  Τα κλάσματα του δευτερολέπτου
     αγνοούνται.  Δείτε παραπάνω για μια περιγραφή του αντικειμένου
     ‘struct_time’.  Δείτε την *note calendar.timegm(): 2b5b. για την
     αντίστροφη αυτής της συνάρτησης.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number, not only integer
     or float.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.localtime ([secs])

     Όπως η *note gmtime(): 1569. αλλά μετατρέπει σε τοπική ώρα.  Αν το
     'secs' δεν παρέχεται ή είναι *note None: a65, χρησιμοποιείται ο
     τρέχων χρόνος όπως επιστρέφεται από την *note time(): 75e.  Η
     σημαία dst ορίζεται σε ‘1’ όταν το DST ισχύει για τον δεδομένο
     χρόνο.

     *note localtime(): 189b. μπορεί να κάνει raise *note OverflowError:
     c57, αν η χρονική σφραγίδα είναι εκτός του εύρους τιμών που
     υποστηρίζονται από τις πλατφόρμες C ‘localtime()’ ή ‘gmtime()’
     συναρτήσεις, και *note OSError: 53c. σε ‘localtime()’ ή ‘gmtime()’
     αποτυχία.  Είναι κοινό αυτό να περιορίζεται σε έτη μεταξύ 1970 και
     2038.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number, not only integer
     or float.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.mktime (t)

     Αυτή είναι η αντίστροφη συνάρτηση της *note localtime(): 189b.  Το
     όρισμά της είναι η *note struct_time: 10a7. ή πλήρης 9-πλειάδα
     (καθώς η σημαία dst είναι απαραίτητη· χρησιμοποιήστε ‘-1’ ως σημαία
     dst αν είναι άγνωστη) που εκφράζει τον χρόνο σε 'τοπική' ώρα, όχι
     σε UTC. Επιστρέφει έναν αριθμό κινητής υποδιαστολής, για
     συμβατότητα με την *note time(): 75e.  Αν η τιμή εισόδου δεν μπορεί
     να αναπαρασταθεί ως έγκυρος χρόνος, είτε *note OverflowError: c57.
     είτε *note ValueError: 277. θα γίνει raise (που εξαρτάται από το αν
     η μη έγκυρη τιμή πιαστεί από την Python ή τις υποκείμενες C
     βιβλιοθήκες).  Η πιο πρώιμη ημερομηνία για την οποία μπορεί να
     δημιουργήσει έναν χρόνο εξαρτάται από την πλατφόρμα.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.monotonic () -> float

     Επιστρέφει την τιμή (σε κλασματικά δευτερόλεπτα) ενός μονότονου
     ρολογιού, δηλαδή ενός ρολογιού που δεν μπορεί να πάει πίσω.  Το
     ρολόι δεν επηρεάζεται από ενημερώσεις του συστήματος ρολογιού.  Το
     σημείο αναφοράς της επιστρεφόμενης τιμής είναι απροσδιόριστο, έτσι
     ώστε μόνο η διαφορά μεταξύ των αποτελεσμάτων δύο κλήσεων να είναι
     έγκυρη.

     Ρολόι:

        * Στα Windows, καλέστε τα ‘QueryPerformanceCounter()’ και
          ‘QueryPerformanceFrequency()’.

        * Στο macOS, καλέστε τα ‘mach_absolute_time()’ και
          ‘mach_timebase_info()’.

        * Στο HP-UX, καλέστε το ‘gethrtime()’.

        * Καλέστε το ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_HIGHRES)’ αν είναι διαθέσιμο.

        * Αλλιώς, καλέστε το ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC)’.

     Χρησιμοποιήστε την *note monotonic_ns(): eab. για να αποφύγετε την
     απώλεια ακρίβειας που προκαλείται από τον τύπο *note float: 327.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Η συνάρτηση είναι τώρα πάντα διαθέσιμη και
     το ρολόι είναι τώρα ίδιο για όλες τις διαδικασίες.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Στο macOS, το ρολόι είναι τώρα ίδιο για
     όλες τις διαδικασίες.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.monotonic_ns () -> int

     Παρόμοιο με την *note monotonic(): 75d, αλλά επιστρέφει τον χρόνο
     σε νανοδευτερόλεπτα.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.perf_counter () -> float

     Επιστρέφει την τιμή (σε κλασματικά δευτερόλεπτα) ενός μετρητή
     απόδοσης, δηλαδή ενός ρολογιού με την υψηλότερη διαθέσιμη ανάλυση
     για τη μέτρηση μιας σύντομης διάρκειας.  Περιλαμβάνει τον χρόνο που
     πέρασε κατά τη διάρκεια του ύπνου.  Το ρολόι είναι το ίδιο για όλες
     τις διαδικασίες.  Το σημείο αναφοράς της επιστρεφόμενης τιμής είναι
     απροσδιόριστο, έτσι ώστε μόνο η διαφορά μεταξύ των αποτελεσμάτων
     δύο κλήσεων να είναι έγκυρη.

     Στο CPython, χρησιμοποιεί το ίδιο ρολόι με την *note
     time.monotonic(): 75d. και είναι ένα μονότονο ρολόι, δηλαδή ένα
     ρολόι που δεν μπορεί να πάει πίσω.

     Χρησιμοποιήστε την *note perf_counter_ns(): eac. για να αποφύγετε
     την απώλεια ακρίβειας που προκαλείται από τον τύπο *note float:
     327.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Στα Windows, το ρολόι είναι τώρα ίδιο για
     όλες τις διαδικασίες.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Χρησιμοποιεί το ίδιο ρολόι με την *note
     time.monotonic(): 75d.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.perf_counter_ns () -> int

     Παρόμοιο με την *note perf_counter(): e49, αλλά επιστρέφει τον
     χρόνο σε νανοδευτερόλεπτα.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.process_time () -> float

     Επιστρέφει την τιμή (σε κλασματικά δευτερόλεπτα) του αθροίσματος
     του συστήματος και του χρήστη CPU χρόνου της τρέχουσας διαδικασίας.
     Δεν περιλαμβάνει τον χρόνο που πέρασε κατά τη διάρκεια του ύπνου.
     Είναι σε επίπεδο διαδικασίας από τον ορισμό.  Το σημείο αναφοράς
     της επιστρεφόμενης τιμής είναι απροσδιόριστο, έτσι ώστε μόνο η
     διαφορά μεταξύ των αποτελεσμάτων δύο κλήσεων να είναι έγκυρη.

     Χρησιμοποιήστε την *note process_time_ns(): ead. για να αποφύγετε
     την απώλεια ακρίβειας που προκαλείται από τον τύπο *note float:
     327.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.process_time_ns () -> int

     Παρόμοιο με την *note process_time(): e4a. αλλά επιστρέφει τον
     χρόνο σε νανοδευτερόλεπτα.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.sleep (secs)

     Suspend execution of the calling thread for the given number of
     seconds.  The argument may be a non-integer to indicate a more
     precise sleep time.

     Αν ο ύπνος διακοπεί από ένα σήμα και δεν γίνει raise καμία εξαίρεση
     από τον χειριστή σήματος, ο ύπνος επανεκκινείται με έναν
     επανυπολογισμένο χρόνο λήξης.

     Ο χρόνος αναστολής μπορεί να είναι μεγαλύτερος από τον ζητούμενο
     κατά αυθαίρετο ποσό, λόγω του προγραμματισμού άλλων δραστηριοτήτων
     στο σύστημα.

     Υλοποίηση Windows
     .................

     Στα Windows, αν το 'secs' είναι μηδέν, το νήμα παραχωρεί το
     υπόλοιπο του χρόνου του σε οποιοδήποτε άλλο νήμα είναι έτοιμο να
     εκτελεστεί.  Αν δεν υπάρχουν άλλα νήματα έτοιμα να εκτελεστούν, η
     συνάρτηση επιστρέφει αμέσως και το νήμα συνεχίζει την εκτέλεση.
     Στα Windows 10 και νεότερα, η υλοποίηση χρησιμοποιεί έναν χρονιστή
     υψηλής ακρίβειας(2) που παρέχει ανάλυση των 100 νανοδευτερολέπτων.
     Αν το 'secs' είναι μηδέν, χρησιμοποιείται το ‘Sleep(0)’.

     Υλοποίηση Unix
     ..............

        * Χρησιμοποιήστε το ‘clock_nanosleep()’ αν είναι διαθέσιμο
          (ανάλυση: 1 nanosecond).

        * Ή χρησιμοποιήστε το ‘nanosleep()’ αν είναι διαθέσιμο (ανάλυση:
          1 nanosecond);

        * Ή χρησιμοποιήστε το ‘select()’ (ανάλυση: 1 microsecond).

          Σημείωση: Για να μιμηθείτε μια «no-op», χρησιμοποιήστε το
          *note pass: 427. αντί για ‘time.sleep(0)’.

          Για να παραχωρήσετε εκούσια την CPU, καθορίστε μια πολιτική
          *note scheduling policy: 3350. σε πραγματικό χρόνο και
          χρησιμοποιήστε την *note os.sched_yield(): 14bd. αντί.

     Κάνει raise ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘time.sleep’ με όρισμα
     ‘secs’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Η συνάρτηση τώρα κοιμάται τουλάχιστον
     'secs' ακόμα και αν ο ύπνος διακοπεί από ένα σήμα, εκτός αν ο
     χειριστής σήματος κάνει raise μια εξαίρεση (δείτε το PEP 475(3) για
     την αιτιολόγηση).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Στο Unix, οι συναρτήσεις
     ‘clock_nanosleep()’ και ‘nanosleep()’ τώρα χρησιμοποιούνται αν
     είναι διαθέσιμες.  Στα Windows, τώρα χρησιμοποιείται ένας χρονιστής
     που μπορεί να αναμένει.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Κάνει raise ένα auditing event.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number, not only integer
     or float.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.strftime (format[, t])

     Μετατρέπει μια πλειάδα ή *note struct_time: 10a7. που αναπαριστά
     έναν χρόνο όπως επιστρέφεται από την *note gmtime(): 1569. ή *note
     localtime(): 189b. σε μια συμβολοσειρά όπως καθορίζεται από το
     όρισμα 'format'.  Αν το 't' δεν παρέχεται, χρησιμοποιείται ο τρέχων
     χρόνος όπως επιστρέφεται από την ‘localtime()’.  Το 'format' πρέπει
     να είναι μια συμβολοσειρά.  Η *note ValueError: 277. γίνεται raise
     αν οποιοδήποτε πεδίο στο 't' είναι εκτός του επιτρεπτού εύρους.

     0 είναι ένα νόμιμο όρισμα για οποιαδήποτε θέση στην πλειάδα χρόνου·
     αν είναι κανονικά παράνομο, η τιμή αναγκάζεται σε μια σωστή.

     Οι ακόλουθες οδηγίες μπορούν να ενσωματωθούν στη συμβολοσειρά
     'format'.  Εμφανίζονται χωρίς την προαιρετική προδιαγραφή πλάτους
     πεδίου και ακρίβειας, και αντικαθίστανται από τους υποδεικνυόμενους
     χαρακτήρες στο αποτέλεσμα της *note strftime(): 1592.:

     Οδηγία          Σημασία                                              Σημειώσεις
                                                                          
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
     ‘%a’            Τοπικό συντομογραφημένο όνομα ημέρας της
                     εβδομάδας.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%A’            Τοπικό πλήρες όνομα ημέρας της εβδομάδας.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%b’            Τοπικό συντομογραφημένο όνομα μήνα.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%B’            Τοπικό πλήρες όνομα μήνα.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%c’            Τοπική κατάλληλη αναπαράσταση ημερομηνίας και
                     ώρας.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%d’            Ημέρα του μήνα ως δεκαδικός αριθμός [01,31].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%f’            Μικροδευτερόλεπτα ως δεκαδικός αριθμός               (1)
                                                                          
                          [000000,999999].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%H’            Ώρα (ρολόι 24 ωρών) ως δεκαδικός αριθμός [00,23].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%I’            Ώρα (ρολόι 12 ωρών) ως δεκαδικός αριθμός [01,12].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%j’            Ημέρα του έτους ως δεκαδικός αριθμός [001,366].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%m’            Μήνας ως δεκαδικός αριθμός [01,12].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%M’            Λεπτό ως δεκαδικός αριθμός [00,59].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%p’            Τοπικό ισοδύναμο είτε του AM είτε του PM.            (2)
                                                                          
                                                                          
     ‘%S’            Δευτερόλεπτο ως δεκαδικός αριθμός [00,61].           (3)
                                                                          
                                                                          
     ‘%U’            Αριθμός εβδομάδας του έτους (η Κυριακή ως πρώτη      (4)
                     ημέρα της εβδομάδας) ως δεκαδικός αριθμός [00,53].   
                     Όλες οι ημέρες σε ένα νέο έτος που προηγούνται της
                     πρώτης Κυριακής θεωρούνται ότι είναι στην εβδομάδα
                     0.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%u’            Ημέρα της εβδομάδας (η Δευτέρα είναι 1· η Κυριακή
                     είναι 7) ως δεκαδικός αριθμός [1, 7].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%w’            Ημέρα της εβδομάδας ως δεκαδικός αριθμός
                     [0(Κυριακή),6].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%W’            Αριθμός εβδομάδας του έτους (η Δευτέρα ως πρώτη      (4)
                     ημέρα της εβδομάδας) ως δεκαδικός αριθμός [00,53].   
                     Όλες οι ημέρες σε ένα νέο έτος που προηγούνται της
                     πρώτης Δευτέρας θεωρούνται ότι είναι στην εβδομάδα
                     0.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%x’            Τοπική κατάλληλη αναπαράσταση ημερομηνίας.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%X’            Τοπική κατάλληλη αναπαράσταση ώρας.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%y’            Έτος χωρίς αιώνα ως δεκαδικός αριθμός [00,99].
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%Y’            Έτος με αιώνα ως δεκαδικός αριθμός.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%z’            Μετατόπιση ζώνης ώρας που υποδεικνύει μια θετική ή
                     αρνητική χρονική διαφορά από το UTC/GMT της μορφής
                     +HHMM ή -HHMM, όπου το H αντιπροσωπεύει δεκαδικά
                     ψηφία ώρας και το M αντιπροσωπεύει δεκαδικά ψηφία
                     λεπτών [-23:59, +23:59].  (4)
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%Z’            Όνομα ζώνης ώρας (κανένας χαρακτήρας αν δεν
                     υπάρχει ζώνη ώρας).  Απαρχαιωμένο.  (5)
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%G’            ISO 8601 έτος (παρόμοιο με το ‘%Y’ αλλά ακολουθεί
                     τους κανόνες για το ISO 8601 ημερολογιακό έτος).
                     Το έτος ξεκινά με την εβδομάδα που περιέχει την
                     πρώτη Πέμπτη του ημερολογιακού έτους.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%V’            ISO 8601 αριθμός εβδομάδας (ως δεκαδικός αριθμός
                     [01,53]).  Η πρώτη εβδομάδα του έτους είναι αυτή
                     που περιέχει την πρώτη Πέμπτη του έτους.  Οι
                     εβδομάδες ξεκινούν τη Δευτέρα.
                     
                                                                          
     ‘%%’            Ένας κυριολεκτικός χαρακτήρας ‘'%'’.
                     

     Σημειώσεις:

       1. Η οδηγία μορφοποίησης ‘%f’ εφαρμόζεται μόνο στην *note
          strptime(): 17cf, όχι στην *note strftime(): 1592.  Ωστόσο,
          δείτε επίσης την *note datetime.datetime.strptime(): 2d2. και
          την *note datetime.datetime.strftime(): 1051. όπου η οδηγία
          μορφοποίησης ‘%f’ *note εφαρμόζεται στα μικροδευτερόλεπτα:
          2aaa.

       2. Όταν χρησιμοποιείται με τη συνάρτηση *note strptime(): 17cf, η
          οδηγία ‘%p’ επηρεάζει μόνο το πεδίο ώρας εξόδου αν η οδηγία
          ‘%I’ χρησιμοποιείται για την ανάλυση της ώρας.

       3. Το εύρος είναι πραγματικά από ‘0’ έως ‘61’· η τιμή ‘60’ είναι
          έγκυρη σε χρονικές σφραγίδες που αναπαριστούν leap seconds(6)
          και η τιμή ‘61’ υποστηρίζεται για ιστορικούς λόγους.

       4. Όταν χρησιμοποιείται με τη συνάρτηση *note strptime(): 17cf,
          τα ‘%U’ και ‘%W’ χρησιμοποιούνται μόνο σε υπολογισμούς όταν η
          ημέρα της εβδομάδας και το έτος καθορίζονται.

     Εδώ είναι ένα παράδειγμα, μια μορφή για ημερομηνίες συμβατή με αυτή
     που καθορίζεται στο RFC 5322(7) πρότυπο ηλεκτρονικού ταχυδρομείου
     Internet.  (8)

          >>> from time import gmtime, strftime
          >>> strftime("%a, %d %b %Y %H:%M:%S +0000", gmtime())
          'Thu, 28 Jun 2001 14:17:15 +0000'

     Πρόσθετες οδηγίες μπορεί να υποστηρίζονται σε ορισμένες πλατφόρμες,
     αλλά μόνο αυτές που αναφέρονται εδώ έχουν μια σημασία που
     τυποποιείται από την ANSI C. Για να δείτε το πλήρες σύνολο κωδικών
     μορφοποίησης που υποστηρίζονται στην πλατφόρμα σας, συμβουλευτείτε
     την τεκμηρίωση ‘strftime(3)(9)’.

     Σε ορισμένες πλατφόρμες, μια προαιρετική προδιαγραφή πλάτους πεδίου
     και ακρίβειας μπορεί να ακολουθεί αμέσως το αρχικό ‘'%’ μιας
     οδηγίας με την εξής σειρά· αυτό επίσης δεν είναι φορητό.  Το πλάτος
     πεδίου είναι κανονικά 2 εκτός από το ‘%j’ όπου είναι 3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.strptime (string[, format])

     Ανάλυση μιας συμβολοσειράς που αναπαριστά έναν χρόνο σύμφωνα με μια
     μορφή.  Η επιστρεφόμενη τιμή είναι μια *note struct_time: 10a7.
     όπως επιστρέφεται από την *note gmtime(): 1569. ή την *note
     localtime(): 189b.

     Η παράμετρος 'format' χρησιμοποιεί τις ίδιες οδηγίες με αυτές που
     χρησιμοποιούνται από την *note strftime(): 1592.; προεπιλέγεται σε
     ‘"%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y"’ που ταιριάζει με τη μορφοποίηση που
     επιστρέφεται από την *note ctime(): 2ad8.  Αν το 'string' δεν
     μπορεί να αναλυθεί σύμφωνα με το 'format', ή αν έχει πλεονάζοντα
     δεδομένα μετά την ανάλυση, γίνεται raise η *note ValueError: 277.
     Οι προεπιλεγμένες τιμές που χρησιμοποιούνται για να συμπληρώσουν
     τυχόν ελλείποντα δεδομένα όταν δεν μπορούν να εξαχθούν πιο ακριβείς
     τιμές είναι ‘(1900, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, -1)’.  Τόσο το 'string'
     όσο και το 'format' πρέπει να είναι συμβολοσειρές.

     Για παράδειγμα:

          >>> import time
          >>> time.strptime("30 Nov 00", "%d %b %y")
          time.struct_time(tm_year=2000, tm_mon=11, tm_mday=30, tm_hour=0, tm_min=0,
                           tm_sec=0, tm_wday=3, tm_yday=335, tm_isdst=-1)

     Η υποστήριξη για την οδηγία ‘%Z’ βασίζεται στις τιμές που
     περιέχονται στο ‘tzname’ και στο αν το ‘daylight’ είναι αληθές.
     Εξαιτίας αυτού, είναι ειδική για την πλατφόρμα εκτός από την
     αναγνώριση των UTC και GMT που είναι πάντα γνωστά (και θεωρούνται
     ότι δεν είναι ζώνες ώρας θερινής ώρας).

     Μόνο οι οδηγίες που καθορίζονται στην τεκμηρίωση υποστηρίζονται.
     Επειδή η ‘strftime()’ υλοποιείται ανά πλατφόρμα, μπορεί μερικές
     φορές να προσφέρει περισσότερες οδηγίες από αυτές που αναφέρονται.
     Αλλά η ‘strptime()’ είναι ανεξάρτητη από οποιαδήποτε πλατφόρμα και
     ως εκ τούτου δεν υποστηρίζει απαραίτητα όλες τις διαθέσιμες οδηγίες
     που δεν τεκμηριώνονται ως υποστηριζόμενες.

 -- Κλάση: time.struct_time

     Ο τύπος της ακολουθίας τιμών χρόνου που επιστρέφεται από την *note
     gmtime(): 1569, *note localtime(): 189b, και *note strptime():
     17cf.  Είναι ένα αντικείμενο με μια *note named tuple: a3d.
     διεπαφή: οι τιμές μπορούν να προσπελαστεί με δείκτη και με όνομα
     χαρακτηριστικού.  Παρουσιάζονται οι ακόλουθες τιμές:

     Δείκτης                               Χαρακτηριστικό                        Τιμές
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     0                                      -- Ιδιότητα: tm_year                 (για παράδειγμα, 1993)
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     1                                      -- Ιδιότητα: tm_mon                  εύρος [1, 12]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     2                                      -- Ιδιότητα: tm_mday                 εύρος [1, 31]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     3                                      -- Ιδιότητα: tm_hour                 εύρος [0, 23]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     4                                      -- Ιδιότητα: tm_min                  εύρος [0, 59]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     5                                      -- Ιδιότητα: tm_sec                  range [0, 61]; see
                                                                                 *note Note (2): 3391. in
                                                                                 *note strftime(): 1592.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     6                                      -- Ιδιότητα: tm_wday                 εύρος [0, 6]; η Δευτέρα είναι 0
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     7                                      -- Ιδιότητα: tm_yday                 εύρος [1, 366]
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     8                                      -- Ιδιότητα: tm_isdst                0, 1 ή -1; δείτε παρακάτω
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     N/A                                    -- Ιδιότητα: tm_zone                 συντομογραφία ονόματος ζώνης ώρας
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     N/A                                    -- Ιδιότητα: tm_gmtoff               μετατόπιση ανατολικά του UTC σε
                                                                                 δευτερόλεπτα
                                                                                 

     Σημειώστε ότι σε αντίθεση με τη δομή C, η τιμή του μήνα είναι σε
     εύρος [1, 12], όχι [0, 11].

     Σε κλήσεις στην *note mktime(): 1591, το *note tm_isdst: 2ae9.
     μπορεί να οριστεί σε 1 όταν ισχύει η θερινή ώρα, και σε 0 όταν δεν
     ισχύει.  Μια τιμή -1 υποδεικνύει ότι αυτό δεν είναι γνωστό, και
     συνήθως θα έχει ως αποτέλεσμα τη συμπλήρωση της σωστής κατάστασης.

     Όταν μια πλειάδα με λανθασμένο μήκος περνά σε μια συνάρτηση που
     αναμένει μια *note struct_time: 10a7, ή έχει στοιχεία λάθος τύπου,
     γίνεται raise μια *note TypeError: 291.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.time () -> float

     Επιστρέφει τον χρόνο σε δευτερόλεπτα από την *note epoch: 3139. ως
     αριθμό κινητής υποδιαστολής.  Η διαχείριση των leap seconds(10)
     εξαρτάται από την πλατφόρμα.  Στα Windows και στα περισσότερα
     συστήματα Unix, τα leap seconds δεν υπολογίζονται στον χρόνο σε
     δευτερόλεπτα από την *note epoch: 3139.  Αυτό αναφέρεται συνήθως ως
     Unix time(11).

     Σημειώστε ότι παρόλο που ο χρόνος επιστρέφεται πάντα ως αριθμός
     κινητής υποδιαστολής, όχι όλα τα συστήματα παρέχουν χρόνο με
     καλύτερη ακρίβεια από 1 δευτερόλεπτο.  Ενώ αυτή η συνάρτηση
     κανονικά επιστρέφει μη φθίνουσες τιμές, μπορεί να επιστρέψει μια
     χαμηλότερη τιμή από μια προηγούμενη κλήση αν το ρολόι του
     συστήματος έχει οριστεί πίσω μεταξύ των δύο κλήσεων.

     Ο αριθμός που επιστρέφεται από την *note time(): 75e. μπορεί να
     μετατραπεί σε μια πιο συνηθισμένη μορφή χρόνου (δηλαδή έτος, μήνας,
     ημέρα, ώρα, κ.λπ…) σε UTC περνώντας τον στην *note gmtime(): 1569.
     συνάρτηση ή σε τοπική ώρα περνώντας τον στην *note localtime():
     189b. συνάρτηση.  Σε και τις δύο περιπτώσεις επιστρέφεται ένα
     αντικείμενο *note struct_time: 10a7, από το οποίο τα στοιχεία της
     ημερολογιακής ημερομηνίας μπορούν να προσπελαστούν ως
     χαρακτηριστικά.

     Ρολόι:

        * Στα Windows, καλέστε την ‘GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime()’.

        * Καλέστε την ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_REALTIME)’ αν είναι
          διαθέσιμη.

        * Διαφορετικά, καλέστε την ‘gettimeofday()’.

     Χρησιμοποιήστε την *note time_ns(): eae. για να αποφύγετε την
     απώλεια ακρίβειας που προκαλείται από τον τύπο *note float: 327.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Στα Windows, καλέστε την
‘GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime()’ αντί για την
‘GetSystemTimeAsFileTime()’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.time_ns () -> int

     Παρόμοιο με την *note time(): 75e. αλλά επιστρέφει τον χρόνο ως
     ακέραιο αριθμό νανοδευτερολέπτων από την *note epoch: 3139.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.thread_time () -> float

     Επιστρέφει την τιμή (σε κλάσματα δευτερολέπτου) του αθροίσματος του
     συστήματος και του χρόνου CPU χρήστη του τρέχοντος νήματος.  Δεν
     περιλαμβάνει τον χρόνο που πέρασε κατά τη διάρκεια ύπνου.  Είναι
     ειδικό για το νήμα από τον ορισμό του.  Το σημείο αναφοράς της
     επιστρεφόμενης τιμής είναι απροσδιόριστο, έτσι ώστε μόνο η διαφορά
     μεταξύ των αποτελεσμάτων δύο κλήσεων στο ίδιο νήμα να είναι έγκυρη.

     Χρησιμοποιήστε την *note thread_time_ns(): f50. για να αποφύγετε
     την απώλεια ακρίβειας που προκαλείται από τον τύπο *note float:
     327.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux, Unix, Windows.

     Συστήματα Unix που υποστηρίζουν το ‘CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.thread_time_ns () -> int

     Παρόμοιο με την *note thread_time(): d03. αλλά επιστρέφει τον χρόνο
     ως νανοδευτερόλεπτα.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: time.tzset ()

     Επαναφέρει τους κανόνες μετατροπής χρόνου που χρησιμοποιούνται από
     τις βιβλιοθήκες ρουτίνες.  Η μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος ‘TZ’ καθορίζει
     πώς γίνεται αυτό.  Θα ορίσει επίσης τις μεταβλητές ‘tzname’ (από τη
     μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος ‘TZ’), ‘timezone’ (μη DST δευτερόλεπτα Δύση
     του UTC), ‘altzone’ (DST δευτερόλεπτα δυτικά του UTC) και
     ‘daylight’ (σε 0 αν αυτή η ζώνη ώρας δεν έχει κανόνες θερινής ώρας,
     ή σε μη μηδενικό αν υπάρχει μια ώρα, παρελθούσα, παρούσα ή
     μελλοντική όταν ισχύει η θερινή ώρα).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

          Σημείωση: Αν και σε πολλές περιπτώσεις, η αλλαγή της
          μεταβλητής περιβάλλοντος ‘TZ’ μπορεί να επηρεάσει την έξοδο
          συναρτήσεων όπως η *note localtime(): 189b. χωρίς να καλέσει
          την *note tzset(): 3399, αυτή η συμπεριφορά δεν πρέπει να
          βασίζεται.

          Η μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος ‘TZ’ δεν πρέπει να περιέχει κενά.

     Η τυπική μορφή της μεταβλητής περιβάλλοντος ‘TZ’ είναι (προστέθηκε
     κενό για σαφήνεια):

          std offset [dst [offset [,start[/time], end[/time]]]]

     Όπου τα συστατικά είναι:

     ‘std’ και ‘dst’

          Τρεις ή περισσότερες αλφαριθμητικές που δίνουν τις
          συντομογραφίες ζώνης ώρας.  Αυτές θα προωθηθούν στο
          time.tzname

     ‘offset’

          Η μετατόπιση έχει τη μορφή: ‘± hh[:mm[:ss]]’.  Αυτό
          υποδεικνύει την τιμή που προστίθεται στην τοπική ώρα για να
          φτάσει στο UTC. Εάν προηγείται από “-”, η ζώνη ώρας είναι
          ανατολικά του Πρώτου Μεσημβρινού· διαφορετικά, είναι δυτικά.
          Αν δεν ακολουθεί μετατόπιση μετά το dst, η θερινή ώρα
          θεωρείται ότι είναι μία ώρα μπροστά από την κανονική ώρα.

     ‘start[/time], end[/time]’

          Υποδεικνύει πότε να αλλάξει σε και από το DST. Η μορφή των
          ημερομηνιών έναρξης και λήξης είναι μία από τις ακόλουθες:

          ‘JN’

               Η Ιουλιανή ημέρα 'n' (1 <= 'n' <= 365).  Οι δίσεκτες
               ημέρες δεν μετριούνται, οπότε σε όλα τα έτη η 28η
               Φεβρουαρίου είναι η ημέρα 59 και η 1η Μαρτίου είναι η
               ημέρα 60.

          ‘N’

               Η Ιουλιανή ημέρα με βάση το μηδέν (0 <= 'n' <= 365).  Οι
               δίσεκτες ημέρες μετριούνται, και είναι δυνατόν να
               αναφερθεί η 29η Φεβρουαρίου.

          ‘MM.N.D’

               Η 'd'’η ημέρα (0 <= 'd' <= 6) της εβδομάδας 'n' του μήνα
               'm' του έτους (1 <= 'n' <= 5, 1 <= 'm' <= 12, όπου η
               εβδομάδα 5 σημαίνει «η τελευταία 'd' ημέρα στο μήνα 'm'»
               που μπορεί να συμβεί είτε στην τέταρτη είτε στην πέμπτη
               εβδομάδα).  Η εβδομάδα 1 είναι η πρώτη εβδομάδα στην
               οποία συμβαίνει η 'd'’η ημέρα.  Η ημέρα μηδέν είναι η
               Κυριακή.

          Το ‘time’ έχει την ίδια μορφή με την ‘offset’ εκτός από το ότι
          δεν επιτρέπεται προθετικός χαρακτήρας (“-” ή “+”).  Η
          προεπιλογή, αν δεν δοθεί χρόνος, είναι 02:00:00.

          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'EST+05EDT,M4.1.0,M10.5.0'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
          '02:07:36 05/08/03 EDT'
          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'AEST-10AEDT-11,M10.5.0,M3.5.0'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.strftime('%X %x %Z')
          '16:08:12 05/08/03 AEST'

     Σε πολλά συστήματα Unix (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των *BSD, Linux,
     Solaris, και Darwin), είναι πιο βολικό να χρησιμοποιήσετε τη βάση
     δεδομένων zoneinfo (‘tzfile(5)(12)’) του συστήματος για να
     καθορίσετε τους κανόνες ζώνης ώρας.  Για να το κάνετε αυτό, ορίστε
     τη μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος ‘TZ’ στη διαδρομή του απαιτούμενου
     αρχείου δεδομένων ζώνης ώρας, σε σχέση με τη ρίζα της βάσης
     δεδομένων ζώνης ώρας “zoneinfo” του συστήματος, που συνήθως
     βρίσκεται στο ‘/usr/share/zoneinfo’.  Για παράδειγμα,
     ‘'US/Eastern'’, ‘'Australia/Melbourne'’, ‘'Egypt'’ ή
     ‘'Europe/Amsterdam'’.

          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'US/Eastern'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.tzname
          ('EST', 'EDT')
          >>> os.environ['TZ'] = 'Egypt'
          >>> time.tzset()
          >>> time.tzname
          ('EET', 'EEST')

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_getcpuclockid(3)

   (2) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/api/synchapi/nf-synchapi-createwaitabletimerexw

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (4) Η χρήση του ‘%Z’ είναι πλέον αποσυρμένη, αλλά η διαφυγή ‘%z’ που
επεκτείνεται σε την προτιμώμενη μετατόπιση ώρας/λεπτού δεν υποστηρίζεται
από όλες τις βιβλιοθήκες ANSI C. Επίσης, μια αυστηρή ανάγνωση του
αρχικού προτύπου RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) του 1982 απαιτεί ένα
διψήφιο έτος (‘%y’ αντί για ‘%Y’), αλλά η πρακτική μετακινήθηκε σε έτη
με 4 ψηφία πολύ πριν από το έτος 2000.  Μετά από αυτό, το RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) έγινε παρωχημένο και
το έτος με 4 ψηφία έχει προταθεί πρώτα από το RFC 1123
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html) και στη συνέχεια
επιβλήθηκε από το RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html), με το RFC 5322
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html) να συνεχίζει αυτή
την απαίτηση.

   (5) Η χρήση του ‘%Z’ είναι πλέον αποσυρμένη, αλλά η διαφυγή ‘%z’ που
επεκτείνεται σε την προτιμώμενη μετατόπιση ώρας/λεπτού δεν υποστηρίζεται
από όλες τις βιβλιοθήκες ANSI C. Επίσης, μια αυστηρή ανάγνωση του
αρχικού προτύπου RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) του 1982 απαιτεί ένα
διψήφιο έτος (‘%y’ αντί για ‘%Y’), αλλά η πρακτική μετακινήθηκε σε έτη
με 4 ψηφία πολύ πριν από το έτος 2000.  Μετά από αυτό, το RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) έγινε παρωχημένο και
το έτος με 4 ψηφία έχει προταθεί πρώτα από το RFC 1123
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html) και στη συνέχεια
επιβλήθηκε από το RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html), με το RFC 5322
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html) να συνεχίζει αυτή
την απαίτηση.

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (8) Η χρήση του ‘%Z’ είναι πλέον αποσυρμένη, αλλά η διαφυγή ‘%z’ που
επεκτείνεται σε την προτιμώμενη μετατόπιση ώρας/λεπτού δεν υποστηρίζεται
από όλες τις βιβλιοθήκες ANSI C. Επίσης, μια αυστηρή ανάγνωση του
αρχικού προτύπου RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) του 1982 απαιτεί ένα
διψήφιο έτος (‘%y’ αντί για ‘%Y’), αλλά η πρακτική μετακινήθηκε σε έτη
με 4 ψηφία πολύ πριν από το έτος 2000.  Μετά από αυτό, το RFC 822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html) έγινε παρωχημένο και
το έτος με 4 ψηφία έχει προταθεί πρώτα από το RFC 1123
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1123.html) και στη συνέχεια
επιβλήθηκε από το RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html), με το RFC 5322
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html) να συνεχίζει αυτή
την απαίτηση.

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/strftime(3)

   (10) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second

   (11) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time

   (12) https://manpages.debian.org/tzfile(5)


File: python.info,  Node: Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού,  Next: Σταθερές ζώνης ώρας,  Prev: Συναρτήσεις<2>,  Up: time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου

5.17.3.2 Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού
.........................................

Αυτές οι σταθερές χρησιμοποιούνται ως παράμετροι για την *note
clock_getres(): 1508. και την *note clock_gettime(): 1509.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME

     Ταυτόσημο με το *note CLOCK_MONOTONIC: a88, εκτός από το ότι
     περιλαμβάνει επίσης οποιονδήποτε χρόνο που το σύστημα είναι σε
     αναστολή.

     Αυτό επιτρέπει στις εφαρμογές να λαμβάνουν ένα ρολόι μονότονο με
     επίγνωση αναστολής χωρίς να χρειάζεται να αντιμετωπίσουν τις
     επιπλοκές του *note CLOCK_REALTIME: a89, το οποίο μπορεί να έχει
     ασυνέχειες εάν ο χρόνος αλλάξει χρησιμοποιώντας την
     ‘settimeofday()’ ή παρόμοια.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.39.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.CLOCK_HIGHRES

     Το λειτουργικό σύστημα Solaris διαθέτει ένα χρονόμετρο
     ‘CLOCK_HIGHRES’ που προσπαθεί να χρησιμοποιήσει μια βέλτιστη πηγή
     υλικού και μπορεί να δώσει σχεδόν ανάλυση νανοδευτερολέπτων.  Το
     ‘CLOCK_HIGHRES’ είναι το μη ρυθμιζόμενο, ρολόι υψηλής ανάλυσης.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Solaris.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC

     Ρολόι που δεν μπορεί να ρυθμιστεί και αντιπροσωπεύει τον μονότονο
     χρόνο από ένα απροσδιόριστο σημείο εκκίνησης.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW

     Παρόμοιο με το *note CLOCK_MONOTONIC: a88, αλλά παρέχει πρόσβαση σε
     έναν ακατέργαστο χρόνο βασισμένο σε υλικό που δεν υπόκειται σε
     ρυθμίσεις NTP.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.28, macOS >= 10.12.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW_APPROX

     Παρόμοιο με το *note CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW: 339c, αλλά διαβάζει μια
     τιμή που έχει αποθηκευτεί στην κρυφή μνήμη από το σύστημα κατά την
     αλλαγή πλαισίου και επομένως έχει λιγότερη ακρίβεια.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: macOS >= 10.12.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID

     Υψηλής ανάλυσης χρονομετρητής ανά διεργασία από την CPU.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.CLOCK_PROF

     Υψηλής ανάλυσης χρονομετρητής ανά διεργασία από την CPU.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: FreeBSD, NetBSD >= 7, OpenBSD.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.CLOCK_TAI

     International Atomic Time(1)

     Το σύστημα πρέπει να έχει έναν τρέχοντα πίνακα leap second για να
     δώσει τη σωστή απάντηση.  Το λογισμικό PTP ή NTP μπορεί να
     διατηρήσει έναν πίνακα leap second.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID

     Ρολόι χρόνου CPU ειδικό για νήμα.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.CLOCK_UPTIME

     Χρόνος της απόλυτης τιμής του οποίου είναι ο χρόνος που το σύστημα
     λειτουργεί και δεν έχει ανασταλεί, παρέχοντας ακριβή μέτρηση χρόνου
     λειτουργίας, τόσο απόλυτη όσο και διαστήματος.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: FreeBSD, OpenBSD >= 5.5.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW

     Ρολόι που αυξάνεται μονότονα, παρακολουθώντας τον χρόνο από ένα
     αυθαίρετο σημείο, ανεπηρέαστο από ρυθμίσεις συχνότητας ή χρόνου και
     δεν αυξάνεται ενώ το σύστημα είναι σε κατάσταση ύπνου.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: macOS >= 10.12.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW_APPROX

     Όπως το *note CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: e06, αλλά η τιμή αποθηκεύεται στην
     κρυφή μνήμη από το σύστημα κατά τις αλλαγές πλαισίου και επομένως
     έχει λιγότερη ακρίβεια.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: macOS >= 10.12.

     Added in version 3.13.

The following constant is the only parameter that can be sent to *note
clock_settime(): 150a.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.CLOCK_REALTIME

     Ρολόι πραγματικού χρόνου.  Η ρύθμιση αυτού του ρολογιού απαιτεί
     κατάλληλα προνόμια.  Το ρολόι είναι το ίδιο για όλες τις
     διεργασίες.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Added in version 3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/how-utcnist-related-coordinated-universal-time-utc-international


File: python.info,  Node: Σταθερές ζώνης ώρας,  Prev: Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού,  Up: time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου

5.17.3.3 Σταθερές ζώνης ώρας
............................

 -- Δεδομένα: time.altzone

     Η μετατόπιση της τοπικής ζώνης ώρας DST, σε δευτερόλεπτα δυτικά του
     UTC, αν είναι ορισμένη.  Αυτό είναι αρνητικό αν η τοπική ζώνη ώρας
     DST είναι ανατολικά του UTC (όπως στη Δυτική Ευρώπη,
     συμπεριλαμβανομένου του Ηνωμένου Βασιλείου).  Χρησιμοποιήστε αυτό
     μόνο αν το ‘daylight’ είναι μη μηδενικό.  Δείτε την σημείωση
     παρακάτω.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.daylight

     Μη μηδενικό αν οριστεί μια ζώνη ώρας DST. Δείτε την σημείωση
     παρακάτω.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.timezone

     Η μετατόπιση της τοπικής (μη DST) ζώνης ώρας, σε δευτερόλεπτα
     δυτικά του UTC (αρνητικό στο μεγαλύτερο μέρος της Δυτικής Ευρώπης,
     θετικό στις ΗΠΑ, μηδέν στο Ηνωμένο Βασίλειο).  Δείτε την σημείωση
     παρακάτω.

 -- Δεδομένα: time.tzname

     Μια πλειάδα από δύο συμβολοσειρές: η πρώτη είναι το όνομα της
     τοπικής μη DST ζώνης ώρας, η δεύτερη είναι το όνομα της τοπικής
     ζώνης ώρας DST. Αν δεν οριστεί ζώνη ώρας DST, η δεύτερη
     συμβολοσειρά δεν πρέπει να χρησιμοποιηθεί.  Δείτε την σημείωση
     παρακάτω.

     Σημείωση: Για τις παραπάνω σταθερές ζώνες ώρας (*note altzone:
     33a3, *note daylight: 33a4, *note timezone: 33a5, και *note tzname:
     33a6.), η τιμή καθορίζεται από τους κανόνες ζώνης ώρας που ισχύουν
     κατά το χρόνο φόρτωσης της μονάδας ή την τελευταία φορά που
     καλείται η *note tzset(): 3399. και μπορεί να είναι λανθασμένη για
     χρόνους στο παρελθόν.  Συνιστάται να χρησιμοποιείτε τα *note
     tm_gmtoff: 338c. και *note tm_zone: 338d. αποτελέσματα από την
     *note localtime(): 189b. για να λάβετε πληροφορίες ζώνης ώρας.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note datetime: 33.

     Πιο αντικειμενοστραφής διεπαφή για ημερομηνίες και ώρες.

Module *note locale: 89.

     Υπηρεσίες διεθνοποίησης.  Η ρύθμιση τοπικής ρυθμίσεως επηρεάζει την
     ερμηνεία πολλών προδιαγραφών μορφοποίησης στην *note strftime():
     1592. και την *note strptime(): 17cf.

Module *note calendar: 15.

     Γενικές συναρτήσεις σχετικές με το ημερολόγιο.  Η *note timegm():
     2b5b. είναι η αντίστροφη της *note gmtime(): 1569. από αυτή τη
     μονάδα.

Υποσημειώσεις
.............


File: python.info,  Node: logging — Logging facility for Python,  Next: logging config — Logging configuration,  Prev: time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.17.4 ‘logging’ — Logging facility for Python
----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/logging/__init__.py(1)

Important
.........

This page contains the API reference information.  For tutorial
information and discussion of more advanced topics, see

   * *note Basic Tutorial: 159e.

   * *note Advanced Tutorial: 159f.

   * *note Logging Cookbook: 15a0.

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines functions and classes which implement a flexible
event logging system for applications and libraries.

The key benefit of having the logging API provided by a standard library
module is that all Python modules can participate in logging, so your
application log can include your own messages integrated with messages
from third-party modules.

Here’s a simple example of idiomatic usage:

     # myapp.py
     import logging
     import mylib
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(filename='myapp.log', level=logging.INFO)
         logger.info('Started')
         mylib.do_something()
         logger.info('Finished')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

     # mylib.py
     import logging
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def do_something():
         logger.info('Doing something')

If you run 'myapp.py', you should see this in 'myapp.log':

     INFO:__main__:Started
     INFO:mylib:Doing something
     INFO:__main__:Finished

The key feature of this idiomatic usage is that the majority of code is
simply creating a module level logger with ‘getLogger(__name__)’, and
using that logger to do any needed logging.  This is concise, while
allowing downstream code fine-grained control if needed.  Logged
messages to the module-level logger get forwarded to handlers of loggers
in higher-level modules, all the way up to the highest-level logger
known as the root logger; this approach is known as hierarchical
logging.

For logging to be useful, it needs to be configured: setting the levels
and destinations for each logger, potentially changing how specific
modules log, often based on command-line arguments or application
configuration.  In most cases, like the one above, only the root logger
needs to be so configured, since all the lower level loggers at module
level eventually forward their messages to its handlers.  *note
basicConfig(): dc2. provides a quick way to configure the root logger
that handles many use cases.

The module provides a lot of functionality and flexibility.  If you are
unfamiliar with logging, the best way to get to grips with it is to view
the tutorials ('see the links above and on the right').

The basic classes defined by the module, together with their attributes
and methods, are listed in the sections below.

   * Loggers expose the interface that application code directly uses.

   * Handlers send the log records (created by loggers) to the
     appropriate destination.

   * Filters provide a finer grained facility for determining which log
     records to output.

   * Formatters specify the layout of log records in the final output.

* Menu:

* Logger Objects::
* Logging Levels::
* Handler Objects::
* Formatter Objects::
* Filter Objects::
* LogRecord Objects::
* LogRecord attributes::
* LoggerAdapter Objects::
* Thread Safety::
* Module-Level Functions::
* Module-Level Attributes::
* Integration with the warnings module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/logging/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Logger Objects,  Next: Logging Levels,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.17.4.1 Logger Objects
.......................

Loggers have the following attributes and methods.  Note that Loggers
should 'NEVER' be instantiated directly, but always through the
module-level function ‘logging.getLogger(name)’.  Multiple calls to
*note getLogger(): d2a. with the same name will always return a
reference to the same Logger object.

The ‘name’ is potentially a period-separated hierarchical value, like
‘foo.bar.baz’ (though it could also be just plain ‘foo’, for example).
Loggers that are further down in the hierarchical list are children of
loggers higher up in the list.  For example, given a logger with a name
of ‘foo’, loggers with names of ‘foo.bar’, ‘foo.bar.baz’, and ‘foo.bam’
are all descendants of ‘foo’.  In addition, all loggers are descendants
of the root logger.  The logger name hierarchy is analogous to the
Python package hierarchy, and identical to it if you organise your
loggers on a per-module basis using the recommended construction
‘logging.getLogger(__name__)’.  That’s because in a module, ‘__name__’
is the module’s name in the Python package namespace.

 -- Κλάση: logging.Logger

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          This is the logger’s name, and is the value that was passed to
          *note getLogger(): d2a. to obtain the logger.

               Σημείωση: This attribute should be treated as read-only.

      -- Ιδιότητα: level

          The threshold of this logger, as set by the *note setLevel():
          1835. method.

               Σημείωση: Do not set this attribute directly - always use
               *note setLevel(): 1835, which has checks for the level
               passed to it.

      -- Ιδιότητα: parent

          The parent logger of this logger.  It may change based on
          later instantiation of loggers which are higher up in the
          namespace hierarchy.

               Σημείωση: This value should be treated as read-only.

      -- Ιδιότητα: propagate

          If this attribute evaluates to true, events logged to this
          logger will be passed to the handlers of higher level
          (ancestor) loggers, in addition to any handlers attached to
          this logger.  Messages are passed directly to the ancestor
          loggers” handlers - neither the level nor filters of the
          ancestor loggers in question are considered.

          If this evaluates to false, logging messages are not passed to
          the handlers of ancestor loggers.

          Spelling it out with an example: If the propagate attribute of
          the logger named ‘A.B.C’ evaluates to true, any event logged
          to ‘A.B.C’ via a method call such as
          ‘logging.getLogger('A.B.C').error(...)’ will [subject to
          passing that logger’s level and filter settings] be passed in
          turn to any handlers attached to loggers named ‘A.B’, ‘A’ and
          the root logger, after first being passed to any handlers
          attached to ‘A.B.C’.  If any logger in the chain ‘A.B.C’,
          ‘A.B’, ‘A’ has its ‘propagate’ attribute set to false, then
          that is the last logger whose handlers are offered the event
          to handle, and propagation stops at that point.

          The constructor sets this attribute to ‘True’.

               Σημείωση: If you attach a handler to a logger 'and' one
               or more of its ancestors, it may emit the same record
               multiple times.  In general, you should not need to
               attach a handler to more than one logger - if you just
               attach it to the appropriate logger which is highest in
               the logger hierarchy, then it will see all events logged
               by all descendant loggers, provided that their propagate
               setting is left set to ‘True’.  A common scenario is to
               attach handlers only to the root logger, and to let
               propagation take care of the rest.

      -- Ιδιότητα: handlers

          The list of handlers directly attached to this logger
          instance.

               Σημείωση: This attribute should be treated as read-only;
               it is normally changed via the *note addHandler(): 33b0.
               and *note removeHandler(): 33b1. methods, which use locks
               to ensure thread-safe operation.

      -- Ιδιότητα: disabled

          This attribute disables handling of any events.  It is set to
          ‘False’ in the initializer, and only changed by logging
          configuration code.

               Σημείωση: This attribute should be treated as read-only.

      -- Μέθοδος: setLevel (level)

          Sets the threshold for this logger to 'level'.  Logging
          messages which are less severe than 'level' will be ignored;
          logging messages which have severity 'level' or higher will be
          emitted by whichever handler or handlers service this logger,
          unless a handler’s level has been set to a higher severity
          level than 'level'.

          When a logger is created, the level is set to *note NOTSET:
          33b3. (which causes all messages to be processed when the
          logger is the root logger, or delegation to the parent when
          the logger is a non-root logger).  Note that the root logger
          is created with level *note WARNING: 22cf.

          The term “delegation to the parent” means that if a logger has
          a level of NOTSET, its chain of ancestor loggers is traversed
          until either an ancestor with a level other than NOTSET is
          found, or the root is reached.

          If an ancestor is found with a level other than NOTSET, then
          that ancestor’s level is treated as the effective level of the
          logger where the ancestor search began, and is used to
          determine how a logging event is handled.

          If the root is reached, and it has a level of NOTSET, then all
          messages will be processed.  Otherwise, the root’s level will
          be used as the effective level.

          See *note Logging Levels: a4a. for a list of levels.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The 'level' parameter now accepts a
          string representation of the level such as “INFO” as an
          alternative to the integer constants such as *note INFO: 22ce.
          Note, however, that levels are internally stored as integers,
          and methods such as e.g.  *note getEffectiveLevel(): 33b4. and
          *note isEnabledFor(): 169b. will return/expect to be passed
          integers.

      -- Μέθοδος: isEnabledFor (level)

          Indicates if a message of severity 'level' would be processed
          by this logger.  This method checks first the module-level
          level set by ‘logging.disable(level)’ and then the logger’s
          effective level as determined by *note getEffectiveLevel():
          33b4.

      -- Μέθοδος: getEffectiveLevel ()

          Indicates the effective level for this logger.  If a value
          other than *note NOTSET: 33b3. has been set using *note
          setLevel(): 1835, it is returned.  Otherwise, the hierarchy is
          traversed towards the root until a value other than ‘NOTSET’
          is found, and that value is returned.  The value returned is
          an integer, typically one of *note logging.DEBUG: 22cd, *note
          logging.INFO: 22ce. etc.

      -- Μέθοδος: getChild (suffix)

          Returns a logger which is a descendant to this logger, as
          determined by the suffix.  Thus,
          ‘logging.getLogger('abc').getChild('def.ghi')’ would return
          the same logger as would be returned by
          ‘logging.getLogger('abc.def.ghi')’.  This is a convenience
          method, useful when the parent logger is named using e.g.
          ‘__name__’ rather than a literal string.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: getChildren ()

          Returns a set of loggers which are immediate children of this
          logger.  So for example ‘logging.getLogger().getChildren()’
          might return a set containing loggers named ‘foo’ and ‘bar’,
          but a logger named ‘foo.bar’ wouldn’t be included in the set.
          Likewise, ‘logging.getLogger('foo').getChildren()’ might
          return a set including a logger named ‘foo.bar’, but it
          wouldn’t include one named ‘foo.bar.baz’.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Μέθοδος: debug (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note DEBUG: 22cd. on this logger.
          The 'msg' is the message format string, and the 'args' are the
          arguments which are merged into 'msg' using the string
          formatting operator.  (Note that this means that you can use
          keywords in the format string, together with a single
          dictionary argument.)  No % formatting operation is performed
          on 'msg' when no 'args' are supplied.

          There are four keyword arguments in 'kwargs' which are
          inspected: 'exc_info', 'stack_info', 'stacklevel' and 'extra'.

          If 'exc_info' does not evaluate as false, it causes exception
          information to be added to the logging message.  If an
          exception tuple (in the format returned by *note
          sys.exc_info(): a7a.) or an exception instance is provided, it
          is used; otherwise, ‘sys.exc_info()’ is called to get the
          exception information.

          The second optional keyword argument is 'stack_info', which
          defaults to ‘False’.  If true, stack information is added to
          the logging message, including the actual logging call.  Note
          that this is not the same stack information as that displayed
          through specifying 'exc_info': The former is stack frames from
          the bottom of the stack up to the logging call in the current
          thread, whereas the latter is information about stack frames
          which have been unwound, following an exception, while
          searching for exception handlers.

          You can specify 'stack_info' independently of 'exc_info', e.g.
          to just show how you got to a certain point in your code, even
          when no exceptions were raised.  The stack frames are printed
          following a header line which says:

               Stack (most recent call last):

          This mimics the ‘Traceback (most recent call last):’ which is
          used when displaying exception frames.

          The third optional keyword argument is 'stacklevel', which
          defaults to ‘1’.  If greater than 1, the corresponding number
          of stack frames are skipped when computing the line number and
          function name set in the *note LogRecord: 138f. created for
          the logging event.  This can be used in logging helpers so
          that the function name, filename and line number recorded are
          not the information for the helper function/method, but rather
          its caller.  The name of this parameter mirrors the equivalent
          one in the *note warnings: 11b. module.

          The fourth keyword argument is 'extra' which can be used to
          pass a dictionary which is used to populate the *note
          __dict__: 1bf. of the *note LogRecord: 138f. created for the
          logging event with user-defined attributes.  These custom
          attributes can then be used as you like.  For example, they
          could be incorporated into logged messages.  For example:

               FORMAT = '%(asctime)s %(clientip)-15s %(user)-8s %(message)s'
               logging.basicConfig(format=FORMAT)
               d = {'clientip': '192.168.0.1', 'user': 'fbloggs'}
               logger = logging.getLogger('tcpserver')
               logger.warning('Protocol problem: %s', 'connection reset', extra=d)

          would print something like

               2006-02-08 22:20:02,165 192.168.0.1 fbloggs  Protocol problem: connection reset

          The keys in the dictionary passed in 'extra' should not clash
          with the keys used by the logging system.  (See the section on
          *note LogRecord attributes: 33b5. for more information on
          which keys are used by the logging system.)

          If you choose to use these attributes in logged messages, you
          need to exercise some care.  In the above example, for
          instance, the *note Formatter: 1839. has been set up with a
          format string which expects “clientip” and “user” in the
          attribute dictionary of the *note LogRecord: 138f.  If these
          are missing, the message will not be logged because a string
          formatting exception will occur.  So in this case, you always
          need to pass the 'extra' dictionary with these keys.

          While this might be annoying, this feature is intended for use
          in specialized circumstances, such as multi-threaded servers
          where the same code executes in many contexts, and interesting
          conditions which arise are dependent on this context (such as
          remote client IP address and authenticated user name, in the
          above example).  In such circumstances, it is likely that
          specialized *note Formatter: 1839.s would be used with
          particular *note Handler: 1838.s.

          If no handler is attached to this logger (or any of its
          ancestors, taking into account the relevant *note
          Logger.propagate: 1837. attributes), the message will be sent
          to the handler set on *note lastResort: 15a3.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The 'stack_info' parameter was added.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'exc_info' parameter can now
          accept exception instances.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'stacklevel' parameter was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: info (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note INFO: 22ce. on this logger.
          The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 33b7.

      -- Μέθοδος: warning (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note WARNING: 22cf. on this logger.
          The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 33b7.

               Σημείωση: There is an obsolete method ‘warn’ which is
               functionally identical to ‘warning’.  As ‘warn’ is
               deprecated, please do not use it - use ‘warning’ instead.

      -- Μέθοδος: error (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 22d0. on this logger.
          The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 33b7.

      -- Μέθοδος: critical (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note CRITICAL: 22d1. on this
          logger.  The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug():
          33b7.

      -- Μέθοδος: log (level, msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with integer level 'level' on this logger.  The
          other arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 33b7.

      -- Μέθοδος: exception (msg, *args, **kwargs)

          Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 22d0. on this logger.
          The arguments are interpreted as for *note debug(): 33b7.
          Exception info is added to the logging message.  This method
          should only be called from an exception handler.

      -- Μέθοδος: addFilter (filter)

          Adds the specified filter 'filter' to this logger.

      -- Μέθοδος: removeFilter (filter)

          Removes the specified filter 'filter' from this logger.

      -- Μέθοδος: filter (record)

          Apply this logger’s filters to the record and return ‘True’ if
          the record is to be processed.  The filters are consulted in
          turn, until one of them returns a false value.  If none of
          them return a false value, the record will be processed
          (passed to handlers).  If one returns a false value, no
          further processing of the record occurs.

      -- Μέθοδος: addHandler (hdlr)

          Adds the specified handler 'hdlr' to this logger.

      -- Μέθοδος: removeHandler (hdlr)

          Removes the specified handler 'hdlr' from this logger.

      -- Μέθοδος: findCaller (stack_info=False, stacklevel=1)

          Finds the caller’s source filename and line number.  Returns
          the filename, line number, function name and stack information
          as a 4-element tuple.  The stack information is returned as
          ‘None’ unless 'stack_info' is ‘True’.

          The 'stacklevel' parameter is passed from code calling the
          *note debug(): 33b7. and other APIs.  If greater than 1, the
          excess is used to skip stack frames before determining the
          values to be returned.  This will generally be useful when
          calling logging APIs from helper/wrapper code, so that the
          information in the event log refers not to the helper/wrapper
          code, but to the code that calls it.

      -- Μέθοδος: handle (record)

          Handles a record by passing it to all handlers associated with
          this logger and its ancestors (until a false value of
          'propagate' is found).  This method is used for unpickled
          records received from a socket, as well as those created
          locally.  Logger-level filtering is applied using *note
          filter(): 33bb.

      -- Μέθοδος: makeRecord (name, level, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info,
               func=None, extra=None, sinfo=None)

          This is a factory method which can be overridden in subclasses
          to create specialized *note LogRecord: 138f. instances.

      -- Μέθοδος: hasHandlers ()

          Checks to see if this logger has any handlers configured.
          This is done by looking for handlers in this logger and its
          parents in the logger hierarchy.  Returns ‘True’ if a handler
          was found, else ‘False’.  The method stops searching up the
          hierarchy whenever a logger with the “propagate” attribute set
          to false is found - that will be the last logger which is
          checked for the existence of handlers.

          Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Loggers can now be pickled and unpickled.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging Levels,  Next: Handler Objects,  Prev: Logger Objects,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.17.4.2 Logging Levels
.......................

The numeric values of logging levels are given in the following table.
These are primarily of interest if you want to define your own levels,
and need them to have specific values relative to the predefined levels.
If you define a level with the same numeric value, it overwrites the
predefined value; the predefined name is lost.

Level                       Numeric value       What it means / When to use it
                                                
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                
 -- Δεδομένα:               0                   When set on a logger, indicates that
          logging.NOTSET                        ancestor loggers are to be consulted to
                                                determine the effective level.  If that
                                                still resolves to ‘NOTSET’, then all
                                                events are logged.  When set on a
                                                handler, all events are handled.
                                                
                                                
 -- Δεδομένα:               10                  Detailed information, typically only of
          logging.DEBUG                         interest to a developer trying to
                                                diagnose a problem.
                                                
                                                
 -- Δεδομένα:               20                  Confirmation that things are working as
          logging.INFO                          expected.
                                                
                                                
 -- Δεδομένα:               30                  An indication that something unexpected
          logging.WARNING                       happened, or that a problem might occur
                                                in the near future (e.g.  “disk space
                                                low”).  The software is still working
                                                as expected.
                                                
                                                
 -- Δεδομένα:               40                  Due to a more serious problem, the
          logging.ERROR                         software has not been able to perform
                                                some function.
                                                
                                                
 -- Δεδομένα:               50                  A serious error, indicating that the
          logging.CRITICAL                      program itself may be unable to
                                                continue running.
                                                


File: python.info,  Node: Handler Objects,  Next: Formatter Objects,  Prev: Logging Levels,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.17.4.3 Handler Objects
........................

Handlers have the following attributes and methods.  Note that *note
Handler: 1838. is never instantiated directly; this class acts as a base
for more useful subclasses.  However, the ‘__init__()’ method in
subclasses needs to call *note Handler.__init__(): 33c3.

 -- Κλάση: logging.Handler

      -- Μέθοδος: __init__ (level=NOTSET)

          Initializes the ‘Handler’ instance by setting its level,
          setting the list of filters to the empty list and creating a
          lock (using *note createLock(): 33c4.) for serializing access
          to an I/O mechanism.

      -- Μέθοδος: createLock ()

          Initializes a thread lock which can be used to serialize
          access to underlying I/O functionality which may not be
          threadsafe.

      -- Μέθοδος: acquire ()

          Acquires the thread lock created with *note createLock():
          33c4.

      -- Μέθοδος: release ()

          Releases the thread lock acquired with *note acquire(): 33c5.

      -- Μέθοδος: setLevel (level)

          Sets the threshold for this handler to 'level'.  Logging
          messages which are less severe than 'level' will be ignored.
          When a handler is created, the level is set to *note NOTSET:
          33b3. (which causes all messages to be processed).

          See *note Logging Levels: a4a. for a list of levels.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The 'level' parameter now accepts a
          string representation of the level such as “INFO” as an
          alternative to the integer constants such as *note INFO: 22ce.

      -- Μέθοδος: setFormatter (fmt)

          Sets the formatter for this handler to 'fmt'.  The 'fmt'
          argument must be a *note Formatter: 1839. instance or ‘None’.

      -- Μέθοδος: addFilter (filter)

          Adds the specified filter 'filter' to this handler.

      -- Μέθοδος: removeFilter (filter)

          Removes the specified filter 'filter' from this handler.

      -- Μέθοδος: filter (record)

          Apply this handler’s filters to the record and return ‘True’
          if the record is to be processed.  The filters are consulted
          in turn, until one of them returns a false value.  If none of
          them return a false value, the record will be emitted.  If one
          returns a false value, the handler will not emit the record.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ()

          Ensure all logging output has been flushed.  This version does
          nothing and is intended to be implemented by subclasses.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Tidy up any resources used by the handler.  This version does
          no output but removes the handler from an internal map of
          handlers, which is used for handler lookup by name.

          Subclasses should ensure that this gets called from overridden
          ‘close()’ methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: handle (record)

          Conditionally emits the specified logging record, depending on
          filters which may have been added to the handler.  Wraps the
          actual emission of the record with acquisition/release of the
          I/O thread lock.

      -- Μέθοδος: handleError (record)

          This method should be called from handlers when an exception
          is encountered during an *note emit(): 33d0. call.  If the
          module-level attribute *note raiseExceptions: 15a2. is
          ‘False’, exceptions get silently ignored.  This is what is
          mostly wanted for a logging system - most users will not care
          about errors in the logging system, they are more interested
          in application errors.  You could, however, replace this with
          a custom handler if you wish.  The specified record is the one
          which was being processed when the exception occurred.  (The
          default value of ‘raiseExceptions’ is ‘True’, as that is more
          useful during development).

      -- Μέθοδος: format (record)

          Do formatting for a record - if a formatter is set, use it.
          Otherwise, use the default formatter for the module.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit (record)

          Do whatever it takes to actually log the specified logging
          record.  This version is intended to be implemented by
          subclasses and so raises a *note NotImplementedError: 59a.

               Προειδοποίηση: This method is called after a
               handler-level lock is acquired, which is released after
               this method returns.  When you override this method, note
               that you should be careful when calling anything that
               invokes other parts of the logging API which might do
               locking, because that might result in a deadlock.
               Specifically:

                  * Logging configuration APIs acquire the module-level
                    lock, and then individual handler-level locks as
                    those handlers are configured.

                  * Many logging APIs lock the module-level lock.  If
                    such an API is called from this method, it could
                    cause a deadlock if a configuration call is made on
                    another thread, because that thread will try to
                    acquire the module-level lock 'before' the
                    handler-level lock, whereas this thread tries to
                    acquire the module-level lock 'after' the
                    handler-level lock (because in this method, the
                    handler-level lock has already been acquired).

For a list of handlers included as standard, see *note logging.handlers:
8c.


File: python.info,  Node: Formatter Objects,  Next: Filter Objects,  Prev: Handler Objects,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.17.4.4 Formatter Objects
..........................

 -- Κλάση: logging.Formatter (fmt=None, datefmt=None, style='%',
          validate=True, *, defaults=None)

     Responsible for converting a *note LogRecord: 138f. to an output
     string to be interpreted by a human or external system.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘fmt’ (*note str: 1df.) – A format string in the given 'style'
          for the logged output as a whole.  The possible mapping keys
          are drawn from the *note LogRecord: 138f. object’s *note
          LogRecord attributes: 33b5.  If not specified, ‘'%(message)s'’
          is used, which is just the logged message.

        * ‘datefmt’ (*note str: 1df.) – A format string for the
          date/time portion of the logged output.  If not specified, the
          default described in *note formatTime(): 33d4. is used.

        * ‘style’ (*note str: 1df.) – Can be one of ‘'%'’, ‘'{'’ or
          ‘'$'’ and determines how the format string will be merged with
          its data: using one of *note printf-style String Formatting:
          ab9. (‘%’), *note str.format(): a12. (‘{’) or *note
          string.Template: a77. (‘$’).  This only applies to 'fmt' (e.g.
          ‘'%(message)s'’ versus ‘'{message}'’), not to the actual log
          messages passed to the logging methods.  However, there are
          *note other ways: 33d5. to use ‘{’- and ‘$’-formatting for log
          messages.

        * ‘validate’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – If ‘True’ (the default),
          incorrect or mismatched 'fmt' and 'style' will raise a *note
          ValueError: 277.; for example, ‘logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s
          - %(message)s', style='{')’.

        * ‘defaults’ (*note dict: 188.‘[’*note str: 1df.‘, ’‘Any’‘]’) –
          A dictionary with default values to use in custom fields.  For
          example, ‘logging.Formatter('%(ip)s %(message)s',
          defaults={"ip": None})’

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'style' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the 'validate' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the 'defaults' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: format (record)

          The record’s attribute dictionary is used as the operand to a
          string formatting operation.  Returns the resulting string.
          Before formatting the dictionary, a couple of preparatory
          steps are carried out.  The 'message' attribute of the record
          is computed using 'msg' % 'args'.  If the formatting string
          contains ‘'(asctime)'’, *note formatTime(): 33d4. is called to
          format the event time.  If there is exception information, it
          is formatted using *note formatException(): 33d7. and appended
          to the message.  Note that the formatted exception information
          is cached in attribute 'exc_text'.  This is useful because the
          exception information can be pickled and sent across the wire,
          but you should be careful if you have more than one
          ‘Formatter’ subclass which customizes the formatting of
          exception information.  In this case, you will have to clear
          the cached value (by setting the 'exc_text' attribute to
          ‘None’) after a formatter has done its formatting, so that the
          next formatter to handle the event doesn’t use the cached
          value, but recalculates it afresh.

          If stack information is available, it’s appended after the
          exception information, using *note formatStack(): 33d8. to
          transform it if necessary.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatTime (record, datefmt=None)

          This method should be called from *note format(): 439. by a
          formatter which wants to make use of a formatted time.  This
          method can be overridden in formatters to provide for any
          specific requirement, but the basic behavior is as follows: if
          'datefmt' (a string) is specified, it is used with *note
          time.strftime(): 1592. to format the creation time of the
          record.  Otherwise, the format “%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S,uuu” is
          used, where the uuu part is a millisecond value and the other
          letters are as per the ‘time.strftime()’ documentation.  An
          example time in this format is ‘2003-01-23 00:29:50,411’.  The
          resulting string is returned.

          This function uses a user-configurable function to convert the
          creation time to a tuple.  By default, *note time.localtime():
          189b. is used; to change this for a particular formatter
          instance, set the ‘converter’ attribute to a function with the
          same signature as ‘time.localtime()’ or *note time.gmtime():
          1569.  To change it for all formatters, for example if you
          want all logging times to be shown in GMT, set the ‘converter’
          attribute in the ‘Formatter’ class.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Previously, the default format was
          hard-coded as in this example: ‘2010-09-06 22:38:15,292’ where
          the part before the comma is handled by a strptime format
          string (‘'%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'’), and the part after the comma
          is a millisecond value.  Because strptime does not have a
          format placeholder for milliseconds, the millisecond value is
          appended using another format string, ‘'%s,%03d'’ — and both
          of these format strings have been hardcoded into this method.
          With the change, these strings are defined as class-level
          attributes which can be overridden at the instance level when
          desired.  The names of the attributes are
          ‘default_time_format’ (for the strptime format string) and
          ‘default_msec_format’ (for appending the millisecond value).

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The ‘default_msec_format’ can be
          ‘None’.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatException (exc_info)

          Formats the specified exception information (a standard
          exception tuple as returned by *note sys.exc_info(): a7a.) as
          a string.  This default implementation just uses *note
          traceback.print_exception(): c27.  The resulting string is
          returned.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatStack (stack_info)

          Formats the specified stack information (a string as returned
          by *note traceback.print_stack(): 1237, but with the last
          newline removed) as a string.  This default implementation
          just returns the input value.

 -- Κλάση: logging.BufferingFormatter (linefmt=None)

     A base formatter class suitable for subclassing when you want to
     format a number of records.  You can pass a *note Formatter: 1839.
     instance which you want to use to format each line (that
     corresponds to a single record).  If not specified, the default
     formatter (which just outputs the event message) is used as the
     line formatter.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatHeader (records)

          Return a header for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string.  You will need
          to override this method if you want specific behaviour, e.g.
          to show the count of records, a title or a separator line.

      -- Μέθοδος: formatFooter (records)

          Return a footer for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string.  You will need
          to override this method if you want specific behaviour, e.g.
          to show the count of records or a separator line.

      -- Μέθοδος: format (records)

          Return formatted text for a list of 'records'.  The base
          implementation just returns the empty string if there are no
          records; otherwise, it returns the concatenation of the
          header, each record formatted with the line formatter, and the
          footer.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter Objects,  Next: LogRecord Objects,  Prev: Formatter Objects,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.17.4.5 Filter Objects
.......................

‘Filters’ can be used by ‘Handlers’ and ‘Loggers’ for more sophisticated
filtering than is provided by levels.  The base filter class only allows
events which are below a certain point in the logger hierarchy.  For
example, a filter initialized with “A.B” will allow events logged by
loggers “A.B”, “A.B.C”, “A.B.C.D”, “A.B.D” etc.  but not “A.BB”, “B.A.B”
etc.  If initialized with the empty string, all events are passed.

 -- Κλάση: logging.Filter (name='')

     Returns an instance of the ‘Filter’ class.  If 'name' is specified,
     it names a logger which, together with its children, will have its
     events allowed through the filter.  If 'name' is the empty string,
     allows every event.

      -- Μέθοδος: filter (record)

          Is the specified record to be logged?  Returns false for no,
          true for yes.  Filters can either modify log records in-place
          or return a completely different record instance which will
          replace the original log record in any future processing of
          the event.

Note that filters attached to handlers are consulted before an event is
emitted by the handler, whereas filters attached to loggers are
consulted whenever an event is logged (using *note debug(): 33b7, *note
info(): 33e0, etc.), before sending an event to handlers.  This means
that events which have been generated by descendant loggers will not be
filtered by a logger’s filter setting, unless the filter has also been
applied to those descendant loggers.

You don’t actually need to subclass ‘Filter’: you can pass any instance
which has a ‘filter’ method with the same semantics.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: You don’t need to create specialized ‘Filter’
classes, or use other classes with a ‘filter’ method: you can use a
function (or other callable) as a filter.  The filtering logic will
check to see if the filter object has a ‘filter’ attribute: if it does,
it’s assumed to be a ‘Filter’ and its *note filter(): 33df. method is
called.  Otherwise, it’s assumed to be a callable and called with the
record as the single parameter.  The returned value should conform to
that returned by ‘filter()’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: You can now return a *note LogRecord: 138f.
instance from filters to replace the log record rather than modifying it
in place.  This allows filters attached to a *note Handler: 1838. to
modify the log record before it is emitted, without having side effects
on other handlers.

Although filters are used primarily to filter records based on more
sophisticated criteria than levels, they get to see every record which
is processed by the handler or logger they’re attached to: this can be
useful if you want to do things like counting how many records were
processed by a particular logger or handler, or adding, changing or
removing attributes in the *note LogRecord: 138f. being processed.
Obviously changing the LogRecord needs to be done with some care, but it
does allow the injection of contextual information into logs (see *note
Using Filters to impart contextual information: 33e1.).


File: python.info,  Node: LogRecord Objects,  Next: LogRecord attributes,  Prev: Filter Objects,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.17.4.6 LogRecord Objects
..........................

*note LogRecord: 138f. instances are created automatically by the *note
Logger: f0c. every time something is logged, and can be created manually
via *note makeLogRecord(): 33e4. (for example, from a pickled event
received over the wire).

 -- Κλάση: logging.LogRecord (name, level, pathname, lineno, msg, args,
          exc_info, func=None, sinfo=None)

     Contains all the information pertinent to the event being logged.

     The primary information is passed in 'msg' and 'args', which are
     combined using ‘msg % args’ to create the ‘message’ attribute of
     the record.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘name’ (*note str: 1df.) – The name of the logger used to log
          the event represented by this ‘LogRecord’.  Note that the
          logger name in the ‘LogRecord’ will always have this value,
          even though it may be emitted by a handler attached to a
          different (ancestor) logger.

        * ‘level’ (*note int: 326.) – The *note numeric level: a4a. of
          the logging event (such as ‘10’ for ‘DEBUG’, ‘20’ for ‘INFO’,
          etc).  Note that this is converted to 'two' attributes of the
          LogRecord: ‘levelno’ for the numeric value and ‘levelname’ for
          the corresponding level name.

        * ‘pathname’ (*note str: 1df.) – The full string path of the
          source file where the logging call was made.

        * ‘lineno’ (*note int: 326.) – The line number in the source
          file where the logging call was made.

        * ‘msg’ (*note Any: a9a.) – The event description message, which
          can be a %-format string with placeholders for variable data,
          or an arbitrary object (see *note Using arbitrary objects as
          messages: 33e5.).

        * ‘args’ (*note tuple: 1ce.‘ | ’*note dict: 188.‘[’*note str:
          1df.‘, ’*note Any: a9a.‘]’) – Variable data to merge into the
          'msg' argument to obtain the event description.

        * ‘exc_info’ (*note tuple: 1ce.‘[’*note type: 186.‘[’*note
          BaseException: 9b9.‘]’‘, ’‘BaseException’‘, ’*note
          types.TracebackType: eb8.‘] ’‘| ’‘None’) – An exception tuple
          with the current exception information, as returned by *note
          sys.exc_info(): a7a, or ‘None’ if no exception information is
          available.

        * ‘func’ (*note str: 1df.‘ | ’‘None’) – The name of the function
          or method from which the logging call was invoked.

        * ‘sinfo’ (*note str: 1df.‘ | ’‘None’) – A text string
          representing stack information from the base of the stack in
          the current thread, up to the logging call.

      -- Μέθοδος: getMessage ()

          Returns the message for this ‘LogRecord’ instance after
          merging any user-supplied arguments with the message.  If the
          user-supplied message argument to the logging call is not a
          string, *note str(): 1df. is called on it to convert it to a
          string.  This allows use of user-defined classes as messages,
          whose ‘__str__’ method can return the actual format string to
          be used.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The creation of a ‘LogRecord’ has been made
     more configurable by providing a factory which is used to create
     the record.  The factory can be set using *note
     getLogRecordFactory(): 33e7. and *note setLogRecordFactory(): 33e8.
     (see this for the factory’s signature).

     This functionality can be used to inject your own values into a
     ‘LogRecord’ at creation time.  You can use the following pattern:

          old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()

          def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
              record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
              record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
              return record

          logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)

     With this pattern, multiple factories could be chained, and as long
     as they don’t overwrite each other’s attributes or unintentionally
     overwrite the standard attributes listed above, there should be no
     surprises.


File: python.info,  Node: LogRecord attributes,  Next: LoggerAdapter Objects,  Prev: LogRecord Objects,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.17.4.7 LogRecord attributes
.............................

The LogRecord has a number of attributes, most of which are derived from
the parameters to the constructor.  (Note that the names do not always
correspond exactly between the LogRecord constructor parameters and the
LogRecord attributes.)  These attributes can be used to merge data from
the record into the format string.  The following table lists (in
alphabetical order) the attribute names, their meanings and the
corresponding placeholder in a %-style format string.

If you are using {}-formatting (*note str.format(): a12.), you can use
‘{attrname}’ as the placeholder in the format string.  If you are using
$-formatting (*note string.Template: a77.), use the form ‘${attrname}’.
In both cases, of course, replace ‘attrname’ with the actual attribute
name you want to use.

In the case of {}-formatting, you can specify formatting flags by
placing them after the attribute name, separated from it with a colon.
For example: a placeholder of ‘{msecs:03.0f}’ would format a millisecond
value of ‘4’ as ‘004’.  Refer to the *note str.format(): a12.
documentation for full details on the options available to you.

Attribute name       Format                        Description
                                                   
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                   
args                 You shouldn’t need to         The tuple of arguments merged into ‘msg’ to
                     format this yourself.         produce ‘message’, or a dict whose values are
                                                   used for the merge (when there is only one
                                                   argument, and it is a dictionary).
                                                   
                                                   
asctime              ‘%(asctime)s’                 Human-readable time when the
                                                   *note LogRecord: 138f. was created.  By default
                                                   this is of the form “2003-07-08 16:49:45,896”
                                                   (the numbers after the comma are millisecond
                                                   portion of the time).
                                                   
                                                   
created              ‘%(created)f’                 Time when the *note LogRecord: 138f. was created
                                                   (as returned by *note time.time_ns(): eae. /
                                                   1e9).
                                                   
                                                   
exc_info             You shouldn’t need to         Exception tuple (à la ‘sys.exc_info’) or, if no
                     format this yourself.         exception has occurred, ‘None’.
                                                   
                                                   
exc_text             You shouldn’t need to         Exception information formatted as a string.
                     format this yourself.         This is set when *note Formatter.format(): 33d6.
                                                   is invoked, or ‘None’ if no exception has
                                                   occurred.
                                                   
                                                   
filename             ‘%(filename)s’                Filename portion of ‘pathname’.
                                                   
                                                   
funcName             ‘%(funcName)s’                Name of function containing the logging call.
                                                   
                                                   
levelname            ‘%(levelname)s’               Text logging level for the message (‘'DEBUG'’,
                                                   ‘'INFO'’, ‘'WARNING'’, ‘'ERROR'’, ‘'CRITICAL'’).
                                                   
                                                   
levelno              ‘%(levelno)s’                 Numeric logging level for the message
                                                   (*note DEBUG: 22cd, *note INFO: 22ce,
                                                   *note WARNING: 22cf, *note ERROR: 22d0,
                                                   *note CRITICAL: 22d1.).
                                                   
                                                   
lineno               ‘%(lineno)d’                  Source line number where the logging call was
                                                   issued (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
message              ‘%(message)s’                 The logged message, computed as ‘msg % args’.
                                                   This is set when *note Formatter.format(): 33d6.
                                                   is invoked.
                                                   
                                                   
module               ‘%(module)s’                  Module (name portion of ‘filename’).
                                                   
                                                   
msecs                ‘%(msecs)d’                   Millisecond portion of the time when the
                                                   *note LogRecord: 138f. was created.
                                                   
                                                   
msg                  You shouldn’t need to         The format string passed in the original logging
                     format this yourself.         call.  Merged with ‘args’ to produce ‘message’,
                                                   or an arbitrary object (see
                                                   *note Using arbitrary objects as messages: 33e5.).
                                                   
                                                   
name                 ‘%(name)s’                    Name of the logger used to log the call.
                                                   
                                                   
pathname             ‘%(pathname)s’                Full pathname of the source file where the
                                                   logging call was issued (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
process              ‘%(process)d’                 Process ID (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
processName          ‘%(processName)s’             Process name (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
relativeCreated      ‘%(relativeCreated)d’         Time in milliseconds when the LogRecord was
                                                   created, relative to the time the logging module
                                                   was loaded.
                                                   
                                                   
stack_info           You shouldn’t need to         Stack frame information (where available) from
                     format this yourself.         the bottom of the stack in the current thread, up
                                                   to and including the stack frame of the logging
                                                   call which resulted in the creation of this
                                                   record.
                                                   
                                                   
thread               ‘%(thread)d’                  Thread ID (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
threadName           ‘%(threadName)s’              Thread name (if available).
                                                   
                                                   
taskName             ‘%(taskName)s’                *note asyncio.Task: 460. name (if available).
                                                   

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: 'processName' was added.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: 'taskName' was added.


File: python.info,  Node: LoggerAdapter Objects,  Next: Thread Safety,  Prev: LogRecord attributes,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.17.4.8 LoggerAdapter Objects
..............................

*note LoggerAdapter: 169a. instances are used to conveniently pass
contextual information into logging calls.  For a usage example, see the
section on *note adding contextual information to your logging output:
33ec.

 -- Κλάση: logging.LoggerAdapter (logger, extra=None, merge_extra=False)

     Returns an instance of ‘LoggerAdapter’ initialized with an
     underlying *note Logger: f0c. instance, an optional dict-like
     object ('extra'), and an optional boolean ('merge_extra')
     indicating whether or not the 'extra' argument of individual log
     calls should be merged with the ‘LoggerAdapter’ extra.  The default
     behavior is to ignore the 'extra' argument of individual log calls
     and only use the one of the ‘LoggerAdapter’ instance

      -- Μέθοδος: process (msg, kwargs)

          Modifies the message and/or keyword arguments passed to a
          logging call in order to insert contextual information.  This
          implementation takes the object passed as 'extra' to the
          constructor and adds it to 'kwargs' using key “extra”.  The
          return value is a ('msg', 'kwargs') tuple which has the
          (possibly modified) versions of the arguments passed in.

      -- Ιδιότητα: manager

          Delegates to the underlying ‘manager’ on 'logger'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _log

          Delegates to the underlying ‘_log()’ method on 'logger'.

     In addition to the above, ‘LoggerAdapter’ supports the following
     methods of *note Logger: f0c.: *note debug(): 11de, *note info():
     33b6, *note warning(): 1c7a, *note error(): 33b8, *note
     exception(): 11dc, *note critical(): 11dd, *note log(): 11db, *note
     isEnabledFor(): 169b, *note getEffectiveLevel(): 33b4, *note
     setLevel(): 1835. and *note hasHandlers(): 33bf.  These methods
     have the same signatures as their counterparts in ‘Logger’, so you
     can use the two types of instances interchangeably.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The *note isEnabledFor(): 169b, *note
     getEffectiveLevel(): 33b4, *note setLevel(): 1835. and *note
     hasHandlers(): 33bf. methods were added to ‘LoggerAdapter’.  These
     methods delegate to the underlying logger.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Attribute ‘manager’ and method ‘_log()’
     were added, which delegate to the underlying logger and allow
     adapters to be nested.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The 'extra' argument is now optional.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'merge_extra' parameter was added.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread Safety,  Next: Module-Level Functions,  Prev: LoggerAdapter Objects,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.17.4.9 Thread Safety
......................

The logging module is intended to be thread-safe without any special
work needing to be done by its clients.  It achieves this through using
threading locks; there is one lock to serialize access to the module’s
shared data, and each handler also creates a lock to serialize access to
its underlying I/O.

If you are implementing asynchronous signal handlers using the *note
signal: ce. module, you may not be able to use logging from within such
handlers.  This is because lock implementations in the *note threading:
f6. module are not always re-entrant, and so cannot be invoked from such
signal handlers.


File: python.info,  Node: Module-Level Functions,  Next: Module-Level Attributes,  Prev: Thread Safety,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.17.4.10 Module-Level Functions
................................

In addition to the classes described above, there are a number of
module-level functions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.getLogger (name=None)

     Return a logger with the specified name or, if name is ‘None’,
     return the root logger of the hierarchy.  If specified, the name is
     typically a dot-separated hierarchical name like '“a”', '“a.b”' or
     '“a.b.c.d”'.  Choice of these names is entirely up to the developer
     who is using logging, though it is recommended that ‘__name__’ be
     used unless you have a specific reason for not doing that, as
     mentioned in *note Logger Objects: 33aa.

     All calls to this function with a given name return the same logger
     instance.  This means that logger instances never need to be passed
     between different parts of an application.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.getLoggerClass ()

     Return either the standard *note Logger: f0c. class, or the last
     class passed to *note setLoggerClass(): 33f3.  This function may be
     called from within a new class definition, to ensure that
     installing a customized ‘Logger’ class will not undo customizations
     already applied by other code.  For example:

          class MyLogger(logging.getLoggerClass()):
              # ... override behaviour here

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.getLogRecordFactory ()

     Return a callable which is used to create a *note LogRecord: 138f.

     Added in version 3.2: This function has been provided, along with
     *note setLogRecordFactory(): 33e8, to allow developers more control
     over how the *note LogRecord: 138f. representing a logging event is
     constructed.

     See *note setLogRecordFactory(): 33e8. for more information about
     the how the factory is called.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.debug (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     This is a convenience function that calls *note Logger.debug():
     11de, on the root logger.  The handling of the arguments is in
     every way identical to what is described in that method.

     The only difference is that if the root logger has no handlers,
     then *note basicConfig(): dc2. is called, prior to calling ‘debug’
     on the root logger.

     For very short scripts or quick demonstrations of ‘logging’
     facilities, ‘debug’ and the other module-level functions may be
     convenient.  However, most programs will want to carefully and
     explicitly control the logging configuration, and should therefore
     prefer creating a module-level logger and calling *note
     Logger.debug(): 11de. (or other level-specific methods) on it, as
     described at the beginning of this documentation.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.info (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note INFO: 22ce. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 33b7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.warning (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note WARNING: 22cf. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 33b7.

          Σημείωση: There is an obsolete function ‘warn’ which is
          functionally identical to ‘warning’.  As ‘warn’ is deprecated,
          please do not use it - use ‘warning’ instead.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.error (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 22d0. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 33b7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.critical (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note CRITICAL: 22d1. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 33b7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.exception (msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level *note ERROR: 22d0. on the root logger.
     The arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note
     debug(): 33b7.  Exception info is added to the logging message.
     This function should only be called from an exception handler.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.log (level, msg, *args, **kwargs)

     Logs a message with level 'level' on the root logger.  The
     arguments and behavior are otherwise the same as for *note debug():
     33b7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.disable (level=CRITICAL)

     Provides an overriding level 'level' for all loggers which takes
     precedence over the logger’s own level.  When the need arises to
     temporarily throttle logging output down across the whole
     application, this function can be useful.  Its effect is to disable
     all logging calls of severity 'level' and below, so that if you
     call it with a value of INFO, then all INFO and DEBUG events would
     be discarded, whereas those of severity WARNING and above would be
     processed according to the logger’s effective level.  If
     ‘logging.disable(logging.NOTSET)’ is called, it effectively removes
     this overriding level, so that logging output again depends on the
     effective levels of individual loggers.

     Note that if you have defined any custom logging level higher than
     ‘CRITICAL’ (this is not recommended), you won’t be able to rely on
     the default value for the 'level' parameter, but will have to
     explicitly supply a suitable value.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'level' parameter was defaulted to
     level ‘CRITICAL’.  See bpo-28524(1) for more information about this
     change.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.addLevelName (level, levelName)

     Associates level 'level' with text 'levelName' in an internal
     dictionary, which is used to map numeric levels to a textual
     representation, for example when a *note Formatter: 1839. formats a
     message.  This function can also be used to define your own levels.
     The only constraints are that all levels used must be registered
     using this function, levels should be positive integers and they
     should increase in increasing order of severity.

          Σημείωση: If you are thinking of defining your own levels,
          please see the section on *note Custom Levels: 33f9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.getLevelNamesMapping ()

     Returns a mapping from level names to their corresponding logging
     levels.  For example, the string «CRITICAL» maps to *note CRITICAL:
     22d1.  The returned mapping is copied from an internal mapping on
     each call to this function.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.getLevelName (level)

     Returns the textual or numeric representation of logging level
     'level'.

     If 'level' is one of the predefined levels *note CRITICAL: 22d1,
     *note ERROR: 22d0, *note WARNING: 22cf, *note INFO: 22ce. or *note
     DEBUG: 22cd. then you get the corresponding string.  If you have
     associated levels with names using *note addLevelName(): 33f8. then
     the name you have associated with 'level' is returned.  If a
     numeric value corresponding to one of the defined levels is passed
     in, the corresponding string representation is returned.

     The 'level' parameter also accepts a string representation of the
     level such as “INFO”.  In such cases, this functions returns the
     corresponding numeric value of the level.

     If no matching numeric or string value is passed in, the string
     “Level %s” % level is returned.

          Σημείωση: Levels are internally integers (as they need to be
          compared in the logging logic).  This function is used to
          convert between an integer level and the level name displayed
          in the formatted log output by means of the ‘%(levelname)s’
          format specifier (see *note LogRecord attributes: 33b5.), and
          vice versa.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: In Python versions earlier than 3.4, this
     function could also be passed a text level, and would return the
     corresponding numeric value of the level.  This undocumented
     behaviour was considered a mistake, and was removed in Python 3.4,
     but reinstated in 3.4.2 in order to retain backward compatibility.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.getHandlerByName (name)

     Returns a handler with the specified 'name', or ‘None’ if there is
     no handler with that name.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.getHandlerNames ()

     Returns an immutable set of all known handler names.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.makeLogRecord (attrdict)

     Creates and returns a new *note LogRecord: 138f. instance whose
     attributes are defined by 'attrdict'.  This function is useful for
     taking a pickled ‘LogRecord’ attribute dictionary, sent over a
     socket, and reconstituting it as a ‘LogRecord’ instance at the
     receiving end.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.basicConfig (**kwargs)

     Does basic configuration for the logging system by either creating
     a *note StreamHandler: 15a1. with a default *note Formatter: 1839.
     or using the given 'formatter' instance, and adding it to the root
     logger.  The functions *note debug(): 33b7, *note info(): 33e0,
     *note warning(): 331, *note error(): 33f4. and *note critical():
     33f5. will call ‘basicConfig()’ automatically if no handlers are
     defined for the root logger.

     This function does nothing if the root logger already has handlers
     configured, unless the keyword argument 'force' is set to ‘True’.

          Σημείωση: This function should be called from the main thread
          before other threads are started.  In versions of Python prior
          to 2.7.1 and 3.2, if this function is called from multiple
          threads, it is possible (in rare circumstances) that a handler
          will be added to the root logger more than once, leading to
          unexpected results such as messages being duplicated in the
          log.

     The following keyword arguments are supported.

     Format             Description
                        
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------
                        
     'filename'         Specifies that a *note FileHandler: 1e4a. be
                        created, using the specified filename, rather
                        than a *note StreamHandler: 15a1.
                        
                        
     'filemode'         If 'filename' is specified, open the file in
                        this *note mode: 27d2.  Defaults to ‘'a'’.
                        
                        
     'format'           Use the specified format string for the
                        handler.  Defaults to attributes ‘levelname’,
                        ‘name’ and ‘message’ separated by colons.
                        
                        
     'datefmt'          Use the specified date/time format, as accepted
                        by *note time.strftime(): 1592.
                        
                        
     'style'            If 'format' is specified, use this style for
                        the format string.  One of ‘'%'’, ‘'{'’ or
                        ‘'$'’ for *note printf-style: ab9,
                        *note str.format(): a12. or
                        *note string.Template: a77. respectively.
                        Defaults to ‘'%'’.
                        
                        
     'level'            Set the root logger level to the specified
                        *note level: a4a.
                        
                        
     'stream'           Use the specified stream to initialize the
                        *note StreamHandler: 15a1.  Note that this
                        argument is incompatible with 'filename' - if
                        both are present, a ‘ValueError’ is raised.
                        
                        
     'handlers'         If specified, this should be an iterable of
                        already created handlers to add to the root
                        logger.  Any handlers which don’t already have
                        a formatter set will be assigned the default
                        formatter created in this function.  Note that
                        this argument is incompatible with 'filename'
                        or 'stream' - if both are present, a
                        ‘ValueError’ is raised.
                        
                        
     'force'            If this keyword argument is specified as true,
                        any existing handlers attached to the root
                        logger are removed and closed, before carrying
                        out the configuration as specified by the other
                        arguments.
                        
                        
     'encoding'         If this keyword argument is specified along
                        with 'filename', its value is used when the
                        *note FileHandler: 1e4a. is created, and thus
                        used when opening the output file.
                        
                        
     'errors'           If this keyword argument is specified along
                        with 'filename', its value is used when the
                        *note FileHandler: 1e4a. is created, and thus
                        used when opening the output file.  If not
                        specified, the value “backslashreplace” is
                        used.  Note that if ‘None’ is specified, it
                        will be passed as such to *note open(): 32b,
                        which means that it will be treated the same as
                        passing “errors”.
                        
                        
     'formatter'        If specified, set this formatter instance (see
                        *note Formatter Objects: 33d2.) for all
                        involved handlers.  If not specified, the
                        default is to create and use an instance of
                        *note logging.Formatter: 1839. based on
                        arguments 'format', 'datefmt' and 'style'.
                        When 'formatter' is specified together with any
                        of the three arguments 'format', 'datefmt' and
                        'style', a ‘ValueError’ is raised to signal
                        that these arguments would lose meaning
                        otherwise.
                        

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The 'style' argument was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The 'handlers' argument was added.
     Additional checks were added to catch situations where incompatible
     arguments are specified (e.g.  'handlers' together with 'stream' or
     'filename', or 'stream' together with 'filename').

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'force' argument was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments were
     added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The 'formatter' argument was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.shutdown ()

     Informs the logging system to perform an orderly shutdown by
     flushing and closing all handlers.  This should be called at
     application exit and no further use of the logging system should be
     made after this call.

     When the logging module is imported, it registers this function as
     an exit handler (see *note atexit: d.), so normally there’s no need
     to do that manually.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.setLoggerClass (klass)

     Tells the logging system to use the class 'klass' when
     instantiating a logger.  The class should define ‘__init__()’ such
     that only a name argument is required, and the ‘__init__()’ should
     call ‘Logger.__init__()’.  This function is typically called before
     any loggers are instantiated by applications which need to use
     custom logger behavior.  After this call, as at any other time, do
     not instantiate loggers directly using the subclass: continue to
     use the *note logging.getLogger(): d2a. API to get your loggers.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.setLogRecordFactory (factory)

     Set a callable which is used to create a *note LogRecord: 138f.


     Παράμετροι: ‘factory’ – The factory callable to be used to
     instantiate a log record.

     Added in version 3.2: This function has been provided, along with
     *note getLogRecordFactory(): 33e7, to allow developers more control
     over how the *note LogRecord: 138f. representing a logging event is
     constructed.

     The factory has the following signature:

     ‘factory(name, level, fn, lno, msg, args, exc_info, func=None,
     sinfo=None, **kwargs)’


          name: The logger name.


          level: The logging level (numeric).


          fn: The full pathname of the file where the logging call was
          made.


          lno: The line number in the file where the logging call was
          made.


          msg: The logging message.


          args: The arguments for the logging message.


          exc_info: An exception tuple, or ‘None’.


          func: The name of the function or method which invoked the
          logging call.


          sinfo: A stack traceback such as is provided by *note
          traceback.print_stack(): 1237, showing the call hierarchy.


          kwargs: Additional keyword arguments.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28524


File: python.info,  Node: Module-Level Attributes,  Next: Integration with the warnings module,  Prev: Module-Level Functions,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.17.4.11 Module-Level Attributes
.................................

 -- Δεδομένα: logging.lastResort

     A «handler of last resort» is available through this attribute.
     This is a *note StreamHandler: 15a1. writing to ‘sys.stderr’ with a
     level of ‘WARNING’, and is used to handle logging events in the
     absence of any logging configuration.  The end result is to just
     print the message to ‘sys.stderr’.  This replaces the earlier error
     message saying that «no handlers could be found for logger XYZ».
     If you need the earlier behaviour for some reason, ‘lastResort’ can
     be set to ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: logging.raiseExceptions

     Used to see if exceptions during handling should be propagated.

     Default: ‘True’.

     If ‘raiseExceptions’ is ‘False’, exceptions get silently ignored.
     This is what is mostly wanted for a logging system - most users
     will not care about errors in the logging system, they are more
     interested in application errors.


File: python.info,  Node: Integration with the warnings module,  Prev: Module-Level Attributes,  Up: logging — Logging facility for Python

5.17.4.12 Integration with the warnings module
..............................................

The *note captureWarnings(): 33fe. function can be used to integrate
‘logging’ with the *note warnings: 11b. module.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.captureWarnings (capture)

     This function is used to turn the capture of warnings by logging on
     and off.

     If 'capture' is ‘True’, warnings issued by the *note warnings: 11b.
     module will be redirected to the logging system.  Specifically, a
     warning will be formatted using *note warnings.formatwarning():
     1fe7. and the resulting string logged to a logger named
     ‘'py.warnings'’ with a severity of *note WARNING: 22cf.

     If 'capture' is ‘False’, the redirection of warnings to the logging
     system will stop, and warnings will be redirected to their original
     destinations (i.e.  those in effect before ‘captureWarnings(True)’
     was called).

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note logging.config: 8b.

     Configuration API for the logging module.

Module *note logging.handlers: 8c.

     Useful handlers included with the logging module.

PEP 282(1) - A Logging System

     The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the
     Python standard library.

Original Python logging package(2)

     This is the original source for the ‘logging’ package.  The version
     of the package available from this site is suitable for use with
     Python 1.5.2, 2.1.x and 2.2.x, which do not include the ‘logging’
     package in the standard library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/

   (2) https://old.red-dove.com/python_logging.html


File: python.info,  Node: logging config — Logging configuration,  Next: logging handlers — Logging handlers,  Prev: logging — Logging facility for Python,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.17.5 ‘logging.config’ — Logging configuration
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/logging/config.py(1)

Important
.........

This page contains only reference information.  For tutorials, please
see

   * *note Basic Tutorial: 159e.

   * *note Advanced Tutorial: 159f.

   * *note Logging Cookbook: 15a0.

__________________________________________________________________

This section describes the API for configuring the logging module.

* Menu:

* Configuration functions::
* Security considerations::
* Configuration dictionary schema::
* Configuration file format::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/logging/config.py


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration functions,  Next: Security considerations,  Up: logging config — Logging configuration

5.17.5.1 Configuration functions
................................

The following functions configure the logging module.  They are located
in the ‘logging.config’ module.  Their use is optional — you can
configure the logging module using these functions or by making calls to
the main API (defined in *note logging: 8a. itself) and defining
handlers which are declared either in ‘logging’ or *note
logging.handlers: 8c.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.config.dictConfig (config)

     Takes the logging configuration from a dictionary.  The contents of
     this dictionary are described in *note Configuration dictionary
     schema: 3403. below.

     If an error is encountered during configuration, this function will
     raise a *note ValueError: 277, *note TypeError: 291, *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. or *note ImportError: 1bd. with a suitably
     descriptive message.  The following is a (possibly incomplete) list
     of conditions which will raise an error:

        * A ‘level’ which is not a string or which is a string not
          corresponding to an actual logging level.

        * A ‘propagate’ value which is not a boolean.

        * An id which does not have a corresponding destination.

        * A non-existent handler id found during an incremental call.

        * An invalid logger name.

        * Inability to resolve to an internal or external object.

     Parsing is performed by the ‘DictConfigurator’ class, whose
     constructor is passed the dictionary used for configuration, and
     has a ‘configure()’ method.  The ‘logging.config’ module has a
     callable attribute ‘dictConfigClass’ which is initially set to
     ‘DictConfigurator’.  You can replace the value of ‘dictConfigClass’
     with a suitable implementation of your own.

     ‘dictConfig()’ calls ‘dictConfigClass’ passing the specified
     dictionary, and then calls the ‘configure()’ method on the returned
     object to put the configuration into effect:

          def dictConfig(config):
              dictConfigClass(config).configure()

     For example, a subclass of ‘DictConfigurator’ could call
     ‘DictConfigurator.__init__()’ in its own ‘__init__()’, then set up
     custom prefixes which would be usable in the subsequent
     ‘configure()’ call.  ‘dictConfigClass’ would be bound to this new
     subclass, and then ‘dictConfig()’ could be called exactly as in the
     default, uncustomized state.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.config.fileConfig (fname, defaults=None,
          disable_existing_loggers=True, encoding=None)

     Reads the logging configuration from a *note configparser:
     26.-format file.  The format of the file should be as described in
     *note Configuration file format: 3404.  This function can be called
     several times from an application, allowing an end user to select
     from various pre-canned configurations (if the developer provides a
     mechanism to present the choices and load the chosen
     configuration).

     It will raise *note FileNotFoundError: 243. if the file doesn’t
     exist and *note RuntimeError: 30d. if the file is invalid or empty.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘fname’ – A filename, or a file-like object, or an instance
          derived from *note RawConfigParser: 130e.  If a
          ‘RawConfigParser’-derived instance is passed, it is used as
          is.  Otherwise, a *note ConfigParser: 6e4. is instantiated,
          and the configuration read by it from the object passed in
          ‘fname’.  If that has a *note readline(): c2. method, it is
          assumed to be a file-like object and read using *note
          read_file(): 915.; otherwise, it is assumed to be a filename
          and passed to *note read(): 180a.

        * ‘defaults’ – Defaults to be passed to the ‘ConfigParser’ can
          be specified in this argument.

        * ‘disable_existing_loggers’ – If specified as ‘False’, loggers
          which exist when this call is made are left enabled.  The
          default is ‘True’ because this enables old behaviour in a
          backward-compatible way.  This behaviour is to disable any
          existing non-root loggers unless they or their ancestors are
          explicitly named in the logging configuration.

        * ‘encoding’ – The encoding used to open file when 'fname' is
          filename.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: An instance of a subclass of *note
     RawConfigParser: 130e. is now accepted as a value for ‘fname’.
     This facilitates:

             * Use of a configuration file where logging configuration
               is just part of the overall application configuration.

             * Use of a configuration read from a file, and then
               modified by the using application (e.g.  based on
               command-line parameters or other aspects of the runtime
               environment) before being passed to ‘fileConfig’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the 'encoding' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: An exception will be thrown if the
     provided file doesn’t exist or is invalid or empty.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.config.listen (port=DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT,
          verify=None)

     Starts up a socket server on the specified port, and listens for
     new configurations.  If no port is specified, the module’s default
     ‘DEFAULT_LOGGING_CONFIG_PORT’ is used.  Logging configurations will
     be sent as a file suitable for processing by *note dictConfig():
     1559. or *note fileConfig(): f0e.  Returns a *note Thread: 420.
     instance on which you can call *note start(): 422. to start the
     server, and which you can *note join(): 158d. when appropriate.  To
     stop the server, call *note stopListening(): 3405.

     The ‘verify’ argument, if specified, should be a callable which
     should verify whether bytes received across the socket are valid
     and should be processed.  This could be done by encrypting and/or
     signing what is sent across the socket, such that the ‘verify’
     callable can perform signature verification and/or decryption.  The
     ‘verify’ callable is called with a single argument - the bytes
     received across the socket - and should return the bytes to be
     processed, or ‘None’ to indicate that the bytes should be
     discarded.  The returned bytes could be the same as the passed in
     bytes (e.g.  when only verification is done), or they could be
     completely different (perhaps if decryption were performed).

     To send a configuration to the socket, read in the configuration
     file and send it to the socket as a sequence of bytes preceded by a
     four-byte length string packed in binary using ‘struct.pack('>L',
     n)’.
          Σημείωση: Because portions of the configuration are passed
          through *note eval(): 184, use of this function may open its
          users to a security risk.  While the function only binds to a
          socket on ‘localhost’, and so does not accept connections from
          remote machines, there are scenarios where untrusted code
          could be run under the account of the process which calls
          ‘listen()’.  Specifically, if the process calling ‘listen()’
          runs on a multi-user machine where users cannot trust each
          other, then a malicious user could arrange to run essentially
          arbitrary code in a victim user’s process, simply by
          connecting to the victim’s ‘listen()’ socket and sending a
          configuration which runs whatever code the attacker wants to
          have executed in the victim’s process.  This is especially
          easy to do if the default port is used, but not hard even if a
          different port is used.  To avoid the risk of this happening,
          use the ‘verify’ argument to ‘listen()’ to prevent
          unrecognised configurations from being applied.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The ‘verify’ argument was added.

          Σημείωση: If you want to send configurations to the listener
          which don’t disable existing loggers, you will need to use a
          JSON format for the configuration, which will use *note
          dictConfig(): 1559. for configuration.  This method allows you
          to specify ‘disable_existing_loggers’ as ‘False’ in the
          configuration you send.

 -- Συνάρτηση: logging.config.stopListening ()

     Stops the listening server which was created with a call to *note
     listen(): 130f.  This is typically called before calling ‘join()’
     on the return value from ‘listen()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Security considerations,  Next: Configuration dictionary schema,  Prev: Configuration functions,  Up: logging config — Logging configuration

5.17.5.2 Security considerations
................................

The logging configuration functionality tries to offer convenience, and
in part this is done by offering the ability to convert text in
configuration files into Python objects used in logging configuration -
for example, as described in *note User-defined objects: 3408.  However,
these same mechanisms (importing callables from user-defined modules and
calling them with parameters from the configuration) could be used to
invoke any code you like, and for this reason you should treat
configuration files from untrusted sources with 'extreme caution' and
satisfy yourself that nothing bad can happen if you load them, before
actually loading them.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration dictionary schema,  Next: Configuration file format,  Prev: Security considerations,  Up: logging config — Logging configuration

5.17.5.3 Configuration dictionary schema
........................................

Describing a logging configuration requires listing the various objects
to create and the connections between them; for example, you may create
a handler named “console” and then say that the logger named “startup”
will send its messages to the “console” handler.  These objects aren’t
limited to those provided by the *note logging: 8a. module because you
might write your own formatter or handler class.  The parameters to
these classes may also need to include external objects such as
‘sys.stderr’.  The syntax for describing these objects and connections
is defined in *note Object connections: 340a. below.

* Menu:

* Dictionary Schema Details::
* Incremental Configuration::
* Object connections::
* User-defined objects::
* Handler configuration order::
* Access to external objects::
* Access to internal objects::
* Import resolution and custom importers::
* Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener::


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionary Schema Details,  Next: Incremental Configuration,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.17.5.4 Dictionary Schema Details
..................................

The dictionary passed to *note dictConfig(): 1559. must contain the
following keys:

   * 'version' - to be set to an integer value representing the schema
     version.  The only valid value at present is 1, but having this key
     allows the schema to evolve while still preserving backwards
     compatibility.

All other keys are optional, but if present they will be interpreted as
described below.  In all cases below where a “configuring dict” is
mentioned, it will be checked for the special ‘'()'’ key to see if a
custom instantiation is required.  If so, the mechanism described in
*note User-defined objects: 3408. below is used to create an instance;
otherwise, the context is used to determine what to instantiate.

   * 'formatters' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a formatter id and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding *note Formatter: 1839. instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the following optional keys
     which correspond to the arguments passed to create a *note
     Formatter: 1839. object:

        * ‘format’

        * ‘datefmt’

        * ‘style’

        * ‘validate’ (since version >=3.8)

        * ‘defaults’ (since version >=3.12)

     An optional ‘class’ key indicates the name of the formatter’s class
     (as a dotted module and class name).  The instantiation arguments
     are as for *note Formatter: 1839, thus this key is most useful for
     instantiating a customised subclass of ‘Formatter’.  For example,
     the alternative class might present exception tracebacks in an
     expanded or condensed format.  If your formatter requires different
     or extra configuration keys, you should use *note User-defined
     objects: 3408.

   * 'filters' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a filter id and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding Filter instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the key ‘name’ (defaulting to
     the empty string) and this is used to construct a *note
     logging.Filter: 15a4. instance.

   * 'handlers' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a handler id and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding Handler instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:

        * ‘class’ (mandatory).  This is the fully qualified name of the
          handler class.

        * ‘level’ (optional).  The level of the handler.

        * ‘formatter’ (optional).  The id of the formatter for this
          handler.

        * ‘filters’ (optional).  A list of ids of the filters for this
          handler.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: ‘filters’ can take filter instances
          in addition to ids.

     All 'other' keys are passed through as keyword arguments to the
     handler’s constructor.  For example, given the snippet:

          handlers:
            console:
              class : logging.StreamHandler
              formatter: brief
              level   : INFO
              filters: [allow_foo]
              stream  : ext://sys.stdout
            file:
              class : logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler
              formatter: precise
              filename: logconfig.log
              maxBytes: 1024
              backupCount: 3

     the handler with id ‘console’ is instantiated as a *note
     logging.StreamHandler: 15a1, using ‘sys.stdout’ as the underlying
     stream.  The handler with id ‘file’ is instantiated as a *note
     logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler: 1b59. with the keyword
     arguments ‘filename='logconfig.log', maxBytes=1024, backupCount=3’.

   * 'loggers' - the corresponding value will be a dict in which each
     key is a logger name and each value is a dict describing how to
     configure the corresponding Logger instance.

     The configuring dict is searched for the following keys:

        * ‘level’ (optional).  The level of the logger.

        * ‘propagate’ (optional).  The propagation setting of the
          logger.

        * ‘filters’ (optional).  A list of ids of the filters for this
          logger.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: ‘filters’ can take filter instances
          in addition to ids.

        * ‘handlers’ (optional).  A list of ids of the handlers for this
          logger.

     The specified loggers will be configured according to the level,
     propagation, filters and handlers specified.

   * 'root' - this will be the configuration for the root logger.
     Processing of the configuration will be as for any logger, except
     that the ‘propagate’ setting will not be applicable.

   * 'incremental' - whether the configuration is to be interpreted as
     incremental to the existing configuration.  This value defaults to
     ‘False’, which means that the specified configuration replaces the
     existing configuration with the same semantics as used by the
     existing *note fileConfig(): f0e. API.

     If the specified value is ‘True’, the configuration is processed as
     described in the section on *note Incremental Configuration: 340d.

   * 'disable_existing_loggers' - whether any existing non-root loggers
     are to be disabled.  This setting mirrors the parameter of the same
     name in *note fileConfig(): f0e.  If absent, this parameter
     defaults to ‘True’.  This value is ignored if 'incremental' is
     ‘True’.


File: python.info,  Node: Incremental Configuration,  Next: Object connections,  Prev: Dictionary Schema Details,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.17.5.5 Incremental Configuration
..................................

It is difficult to provide complete flexibility for incremental
configuration.  For example, because objects such as filters and
formatters are anonymous, once a configuration is set up, it is not
possible to refer to such anonymous objects when augmenting a
configuration.

Furthermore, there is not a compelling case for arbitrarily altering the
object graph of loggers, handlers, filters, formatters at run-time, once
a configuration is set up; the verbosity of loggers and handlers can be
controlled just by setting levels (and, in the case of loggers,
propagation flags).  Changing the object graph arbitrarily in a safe way
is problematic in a multi-threaded environment; while not impossible,
the benefits are not worth the complexity it adds to the implementation.

Thus, when the ‘incremental’ key of a configuration dict is present and
is ‘True’, the system will completely ignore any ‘formatters’ and
‘filters’ entries, and process only the ‘level’ settings in the
‘handlers’ entries, and the ‘level’ and ‘propagate’ settings in the
‘loggers’ and ‘root’ entries.

Using a value in the configuration dict lets configurations to be sent
over the wire as pickled dicts to a socket listener.  Thus, the logging
verbosity of a long-running application can be altered over time with no
need to stop and restart the application.


File: python.info,  Node: Object connections,  Next: User-defined objects,  Prev: Incremental Configuration,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.17.5.6 Object connections
...........................

The schema describes a set of logging objects - loggers, handlers,
formatters, filters - which are connected to each other in an object
graph.  Thus, the schema needs to represent connections between the
objects.  For example, say that, once configured, a particular logger
has attached to it a particular handler.  For the purposes of this
discussion, we can say that the logger represents the source, and the
handler the destination, of a connection between the two.  Of course in
the configured objects this is represented by the logger holding a
reference to the handler.  In the configuration dict, this is done by
giving each destination object an id which identifies it unambiguously,
and then using the id in the source object’s configuration to indicate
that a connection exists between the source and the destination object
with that id.

So, for example, consider the following YAML snippet:

     formatters:
       brief:
         # configuration for formatter with id 'brief' goes here
       precise:
         # configuration for formatter with id 'precise' goes here
     handlers:
       h1: #This is an id
        # configuration of handler with id 'h1' goes here
        formatter: brief
       h2: #This is another id
        # configuration of handler with id 'h2' goes here
        formatter: precise
     loggers:
       foo.bar.baz:
         # other configuration for logger 'foo.bar.baz'
         handlers: [h1, h2]

(Note: YAML used here because it’s a little more readable than the
equivalent Python source form for the dictionary.)

The ids for loggers are the logger names which would be used
programmatically to obtain a reference to those loggers, e.g.
‘foo.bar.baz’.  The ids for Formatters and Filters can be any string
value (such as ‘brief’, ‘precise’ above) and they are transient, in that
they are only meaningful for processing the configuration dictionary and
used to determine connections between objects, and are not persisted
anywhere when the configuration call is complete.

The above snippet indicates that logger named ‘foo.bar.baz’ should have
two handlers attached to it, which are described by the handler ids ‘h1’
and ‘h2’.  The formatter for ‘h1’ is that described by id ‘brief’, and
the formatter for ‘h2’ is that described by id ‘precise’.


File: python.info,  Node: User-defined objects,  Next: Handler configuration order,  Prev: Object connections,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.17.5.7 User-defined objects
.............................

The schema supports user-defined objects for handlers, filters and
formatters.  (Loggers do not need to have different types for different
instances, so there is no support in this configuration schema for
user-defined logger classes.)

Objects to be configured are described by dictionaries which detail
their configuration.  In some places, the logging system will be able to
infer from the context how an object is to be instantiated, but when a
user-defined object is to be instantiated, the system will not know how
to do this.  In order to provide complete flexibility for user-defined
object instantiation, the user needs to provide a “factory” - a callable
which is called with a configuration dictionary and which returns the
instantiated object.  This is signalled by an absolute import path to
the factory being made available under the special key ‘'()'’.  Here’s a
concrete example:

     formatters:
       brief:
         format: '%(message)s'
       default:
         format: '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s'
         datefmt: '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
       custom:
           (): my.package.customFormatterFactory
           bar: baz
           spam: 99.9
           answer: 42

The above YAML snippet defines three formatters.  The first, with id
‘brief’, is a standard *note logging.Formatter: 1839. instance with the
specified format string.  The second, with id ‘default’, has a longer
format and also defines the time format explicitly, and will result in a
‘logging.Formatter’ initialized with those two format strings.  Shown in
Python source form, the ‘brief’ and ‘default’ formatters have
configuration sub-dictionaries:

     {
       'format' : '%(message)s'
     }

and:

     {
       'format' : '%(asctime)s %(levelname)-8s %(name)-15s %(message)s',
       'datefmt' : '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'
     }

respectively, and as these dictionaries do not contain the special key
‘'()'’, the instantiation is inferred from the context: as a result,
standard *note logging.Formatter: 1839. instances are created.  The
configuration sub-dictionary for the third formatter, with id ‘custom’,
is:

     {
       '()' : 'my.package.customFormatterFactory',
       'bar' : 'baz',
       'spam' : 99.9,
       'answer' : 42
     }

and this contains the special key ‘'()'’, which means that user-defined
instantiation is wanted.  In this case, the specified factory callable
will be used.  If it is an actual callable it will be used directly -
otherwise, if you specify a string (as in the example) the actual
callable will be located using normal import mechanisms.  The callable
will be called with the 'remaining' items in the configuration
sub-dictionary as keyword arguments.  In the above example, the
formatter with id ‘custom’ will be assumed to be returned by the call:

     my.package.customFormatterFactory(bar='baz', spam=99.9, answer=42)

     Προειδοποίηση: The values for keys such as ‘bar’, ‘spam’ and
     ‘answer’ in the above example should not be configuration
     dictionaries or references such as ‘cfg://foo’ or ‘ext://bar’,
     because they will not be processed by the configuration machinery,
     but passed to the callable as-is.

The key ‘'()'’ has been used as the special key because it is not a
valid keyword parameter name, and so will not clash with the names of
the keyword arguments used in the call.  The ‘'()'’ also serves as a
mnemonic that the corresponding value is a callable.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The ‘filters’ member of ‘handlers’ and
‘loggers’ can take filter instances in addition to ids.

You can also specify a special key ‘'.'’ whose value is a mapping of
attribute names to values.  If found, the specified attributes will be
set on the user-defined object before it is returned.  Thus, with the
following configuration:

     {
       '()' : 'my.package.customFormatterFactory',
       'bar' : 'baz',
       'spam' : 99.9,
       'answer' : 42,
       '.' {
         'foo': 'bar',
         'baz': 'bozz'
       }
     }

the returned formatter will have attribute ‘foo’ set to ‘'bar'’ and
attribute ‘baz’ set to ‘'bozz'’.

     Προειδοποίηση: The values for attributes such as ‘foo’ and ‘baz’ in
     the above example should not be configuration dictionaries or
     references such as ‘cfg://foo’ or ‘ext://bar’, because they will
     not be processed by the configuration machinery, but set as
     attribute values as-is.


File: python.info,  Node: Handler configuration order,  Next: Access to external objects,  Prev: User-defined objects,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.17.5.8 Handler configuration order
....................................

Handlers are configured in alphabetical order of their keys, and a
configured handler replaces the configuration dictionary in (a working
copy of) the ‘handlers’ dictionary in the schema.  If you use a
construct such as ‘cfg://handlers.foo’, then initially ‘handlers['foo']’
points to the configuration dictionary for the handler named ‘foo’, and
later (once that handler has been configured) it points to the
configured handler instance.  Thus, ‘cfg://handlers.foo’ could resolve
to either a dictionary or a handler instance.  In general, it is wise to
name handlers in a way such that dependent handlers are configured
'after' any handlers they depend on; that allows something like
‘cfg://handlers.foo’ to be used in configuring a handler that depends on
handler ‘foo’.  If that dependent handler were named ‘bar’, problems
would result, because the configuration of ‘bar’ would be attempted
before that of ‘foo’, and ‘foo’ would not yet have been configured.
However, if the dependent handler were named ‘foobar’, it would be
configured after ‘foo’, with the result that ‘cfg://handlers.foo’ would
resolve to configured handler ‘foo’, and not its configuration
dictionary.


File: python.info,  Node: Access to external objects,  Next: Access to internal objects,  Prev: Handler configuration order,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.17.5.9 Access to external objects
...................................

There are times where a configuration needs to refer to objects external
to the configuration, for example ‘sys.stderr’.  If the configuration
dict is constructed using Python code, this is straightforward, but a
problem arises when the configuration is provided via a text file (e.g.
JSON, YAML). In a text file, there is no standard way to distinguish
‘sys.stderr’ from the literal string ‘'sys.stderr'’.  To facilitate this
distinction, the configuration system looks for certain special prefixes
in string values and treat them specially.  For example, if the literal
string ‘'ext://sys.stderr'’ is provided as a value in the configuration,
then the ‘ext://’ will be stripped off and the remainder of the value
processed using normal import mechanisms.

The handling of such prefixes is done in a way analogous to protocol
handling: there is a generic mechanism to look for prefixes which match
the regular expression ‘^(?P<prefix>[a-z]+)://(?P<suffix>.*)$’ whereby,
if the ‘prefix’ is recognised, the ‘suffix’ is processed in a
prefix-dependent manner and the result of the processing replaces the
string value.  If the prefix is not recognised, then the string value
will be left as-is.


File: python.info,  Node: Access to internal objects,  Next: Import resolution and custom importers,  Prev: Access to external objects,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.17.5.10 Access to internal objects
....................................

As well as external objects, there is sometimes also a need to refer to
objects in the configuration.  This will be done implicitly by the
configuration system for things that it knows about.  For example, the
string value ‘'DEBUG'’ for a ‘level’ in a logger or handler will
automatically be converted to the value ‘logging.DEBUG’, and the
‘handlers’, ‘filters’ and ‘formatter’ entries will take an object id and
resolve to the appropriate destination object.

However, a more generic mechanism is needed for user-defined objects
which are not known to the *note logging: 8a. module.  For example,
consider *note logging.handlers.MemoryHandler: 3417, which takes a
‘target’ argument which is another handler to delegate to.  Since the
system already knows about this class, then in the configuration, the
given ‘target’ just needs to be the object id of the relevant target
handler, and the system will resolve to the handler from the id.  If,
however, a user defines a ‘my.package.MyHandler’ which has an
‘alternate’ handler, the configuration system would not know that the
‘alternate’ referred to a handler.  To cater for this, a generic
resolution system allows the user to specify:

     handlers:
       file:
         # configuration of file handler goes here

       custom:
         (): my.package.MyHandler
         alternate: cfg://handlers.file

The literal string ‘'cfg://handlers.file'’ will be resolved in an
analogous way to strings with the ‘ext://’ prefix, but looking in the
configuration itself rather than the import namespace.  The mechanism
allows access by dot or by index, in a similar way to that provided by
‘str.format’.  Thus, given the following snippet:

     handlers:
       email:
         class: logging.handlers.SMTPHandler
         mailhost: localhost
         fromaddr: my_app@domain.tld
         toaddrs:
           - support_team@domain.tld
           - dev_team@domain.tld
         subject: Houston, we have a problem.

in the configuration, the string ‘'cfg://handlers'’ would resolve to the
dict with key ‘handlers’, the string ‘'cfg://handlers.email’ would
resolve to the dict with key ‘email’ in the ‘handlers’ dict, and so on.
The string ‘'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[1]’ would resolve to
‘'dev_team@domain.tld'’ and the string
‘'cfg://handlers.email.toaddrs[0]'’ would resolve to the value
‘'support_team@domain.tld'’.  The ‘subject’ value could be accessed
using either ‘'cfg://handlers.email.subject'’ or, equivalently,
‘'cfg://handlers.email[subject]'’.  The latter form only needs to be
used if the key contains spaces or non-alphanumeric characters.  Please
note that the characters ‘[’ and ‘]’ are not allowed in the keys.  If an
index value consists only of decimal digits, access will be attempted
using the corresponding integer value, falling back to the string value
if needed.

Given a string ‘cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey.123’, this will resolve
to ‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']’.  If the
string is specified as ‘cfg://handlers.myhandler.mykey[123]’, the system
will attempt to retrieve the value from
‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey'][123]’, and fall back to
‘config_dict['handlers']['myhandler']['mykey']['123']’ if that fails.


File: python.info,  Node: Import resolution and custom importers,  Next: Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener,  Prev: Access to internal objects,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.17.5.11 Import resolution and custom importers
................................................

Import resolution, by default, uses the builtin *note __import__(): ca6.
function to do its importing.  You may want to replace this with your
own importing mechanism: if so, you can replace the ‘importer’ attribute
of the ‘DictConfigurator’ or its superclass, the ‘BaseConfigurator’
class.  However, you need to be careful because of the way functions are
accessed from classes via descriptors.  If you are using a Python
callable to do your imports, and you want to define it at class level
rather than instance level, you need to wrap it with *note
staticmethod(): 666.  For example:

     from importlib import import_module
     from logging.config import BaseConfigurator

     BaseConfigurator.importer = staticmethod(import_module)

You don’t need to wrap with *note staticmethod(): 666. if you’re setting
the import callable on a configurator 'instance'.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener,  Prev: Import resolution and custom importers,  Up: Configuration dictionary schema

5.17.5.12 Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener
....................................................

If you want to configure a *note QueueHandler: 1d5f, noting that this is
normally used in conjunction with a *note QueueListener: 4cf, you can
configure both together.  After the configuration, the ‘QueueListener’
instance will be available as the *note listener: 341b. attribute of the
created handler, and that in turn will be available to you using *note
getHandlerByName(): 1d60. and passing the name you have used for the
‘QueueHandler’ in your configuration.  The dictionary schema for
configuring the pair is shown in the example YAML snippet below.

     handlers:
       qhand:
         class: logging.handlers.QueueHandler
         queue: my.module.queue_factory
         listener: my.package.CustomListener
         handlers:
           - hand_name_1
           - hand_name_2
           ...

The ‘queue’ and ‘listener’ keys are optional.

If the ‘queue’ key is present, the corresponding value can be one of the
following:

   * An object implementing the *note Queue.put_nowait: 341c. and *note
     Queue.get: 341d. public API. For instance, this may be an actual
     instance of *note queue.Queue: 1738. or a subclass thereof, or a
     proxy obtained by *note
     multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager.Queue(): 341e.

     This is of course only possible if you are constructing or
     modifying the configuration dictionary in code.

   * A string that resolves to a callable which, when called with no
     arguments, returns the queue instance to use.  That callable could
     be a *note queue.Queue: 1738. subclass or a function which returns
     a suitable queue instance, such as ‘my.module.queue_factory()’.

   * A dict with a ‘'()'’ key which is constructed in the usual way as
     discussed in *note User-defined objects: 3408.  The result of this
     construction should be a *note queue.Queue: 1738. instance.

If the ‘queue’ key is absent, a standard unbounded *note queue.Queue:
1738. instance is created and used.

If the ‘listener’ key is present, the corresponding value can be one of
the following:

   * A subclass of *note logging.handlers.QueueListener: 4cf.  This is
     of course only possible if you are constructing or modifying the
     configuration dictionary in code.

   * A string which resolves to a class which is a subclass of
     ‘QueueListener’, such as ‘'my.package.CustomListener'’.

   * A dict with a ‘'()'’ key which is constructed in the usual way as
     discussed in *note User-defined objects: 3408.  The result of this
     construction should be a callable with the same signature as the
     ‘QueueListener’ initializer.

If the ‘listener’ key is absent, *note logging.handlers.QueueListener:
4cf. is used.

The values under the ‘handlers’ key are the names of other handlers in
the configuration (not shown in the above snippet) which will be passed
to the queue listener.

Any custom queue handler and listener classes will need to be defined
with the same initialization signatures as *note QueueHandler: 1d5f. and
*note QueueListener: 4cf.

Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration file format,  Prev: Configuration dictionary schema,  Up: logging config — Logging configuration

5.17.5.13 Configuration file format
...................................

The configuration file format understood by *note fileConfig(): f0e. is
based on *note configparser: 26. functionality.  The file must contain
sections called ‘[loggers]’, ‘[handlers]’ and ‘[formatters]’ which
identify by name the entities of each type which are defined in the
file.  For each such entity, there is a separate section which
identifies how that entity is configured.  Thus, for a logger named
‘log01’ in the ‘[loggers]’ section, the relevant configuration details
are held in a section ‘[logger_log01]’.  Similarly, a handler called
‘hand01’ in the ‘[handlers]’ section will have its configuration held in
a section called ‘[handler_hand01]’, while a formatter called ‘form01’
in the ‘[formatters]’ section will have its configuration specified in a
section called ‘[formatter_form01]’.  The root logger configuration must
be specified in a section called ‘[logger_root]’.

     Σημείωση: The *note fileConfig(): f0e. API is older than the *note
     dictConfig(): 1559. API and does not provide functionality to cover
     certain aspects of logging.  For example, you cannot configure
     *note Filter: 15a4. objects, which provide for filtering of
     messages beyond simple integer levels, using ‘fileConfig()’.  If
     you need to have instances of ‘Filter’ in your logging
     configuration, you will need to use ‘dictConfig()’.  Note that
     future enhancements to configuration functionality will be added to
     ‘dictConfig()’, so it’s worth considering transitioning to this
     newer API when it’s convenient to do so.

Examples of these sections in the file are given below.

     [loggers]
     keys=root,log02,log03,log04,log05,log06,log07

     [handlers]
     keys=hand01,hand02,hand03,hand04,hand05,hand06,hand07,hand08,hand09

     [formatters]
     keys=form01,form02,form03,form04,form05,form06,form07,form08,form09

The root logger must specify a level and a list of handlers.  An example
of a root logger section is given below.

     [logger_root]
     level=NOTSET
     handlers=hand01

The ‘level’ entry can be one of ‘DEBUG, INFO, WARNING, ERROR, CRITICAL’
or ‘NOTSET’.  For the root logger only, ‘NOTSET’ means that all messages
will be logged.  Level values are *note evaluated: 27c6. in the context
of the ‘logging’ package’s namespace.

The ‘handlers’ entry is a comma-separated list of handler names, which
must appear in the ‘[handlers]’ section.  These names must appear in the
‘[handlers]’ section and have corresponding sections in the
configuration file.

For loggers other than the root logger, some additional information is
required.  This is illustrated by the following example.

     [logger_parser]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=hand01
     propagate=1
     qualname=compiler.parser

The ‘level’ and ‘handlers’ entries are interpreted as for the root
logger, except that if a non-root logger’s level is specified as
‘NOTSET’, the system consults loggers higher up the hierarchy to
determine the effective level of the logger.  The ‘propagate’ entry is
set to 1 to indicate that messages must propagate to handlers higher up
the logger hierarchy from this logger, or 0 to indicate that messages
are 'not' propagated to handlers up the hierarchy.  The ‘qualname’ entry
is the hierarchical channel name of the logger, that is to say the name
used by the application to get the logger.

Sections which specify handler configuration are exemplified by the
following.

     [handler_hand01]
     class=StreamHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form01
     args=(sys.stdout,)

The ‘class’ entry indicates the handler’s class (as determined by *note
eval(): 184. in the ‘logging’ package’s namespace).  The ‘level’ is
interpreted as for loggers, and ‘NOTSET’ is taken to mean “log
everything”.

The ‘formatter’ entry indicates the key name of the formatter for this
handler.  If blank, a default formatter (‘logging._defaultFormatter’) is
used.  If a name is specified, it must appear in the ‘[formatters]’
section and have a corresponding section in the configuration file.

The ‘args’ entry, when *note evaluated: 27c6. in the context of the
‘logging’ package’s namespace, is the list of arguments to the
constructor for the handler class.  Refer to the constructors for the
relevant handlers, or to the examples below, to see how typical entries
are constructed.  If not provided, it defaults to ‘()’.

The optional ‘kwargs’ entry, when *note evaluated: 27c6. in the context
of the ‘logging’ package’s namespace, is the keyword argument dict to
the constructor for the handler class.  If not provided, it defaults to
‘{}’.

     [handler_hand02]
     class=FileHandler
     level=DEBUG
     formatter=form02
     args=('python.log', 'w')

     [handler_hand03]
     class=handlers.SocketHandler
     level=INFO
     formatter=form03
     args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)

     [handler_hand04]
     class=handlers.DatagramHandler
     level=WARN
     formatter=form04
     args=('localhost', handlers.DEFAULT_UDP_LOGGING_PORT)

     [handler_hand05]
     class=handlers.SysLogHandler
     level=ERROR
     formatter=form05
     args=(('localhost', handlers.SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), handlers.SysLogHandler.LOG_USER)

     [handler_hand06]
     class=handlers.NTEventLogHandler
     level=CRITICAL
     formatter=form06
     args=('Python Application', '', 'Application')

     [handler_hand07]
     class=handlers.SMTPHandler
     level=WARN
     formatter=form07
     args=('localhost', 'from@abc', ['user1@abc', 'user2@xyz'], 'Logger Subject')
     kwargs={'timeout': 10.0}

     [handler_hand08]
     class=handlers.MemoryHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form08
     target=
     args=(10, ERROR)

     [handler_hand09]
     class=handlers.HTTPHandler
     level=NOTSET
     formatter=form09
     args=('localhost:9022', '/log', 'GET')
     kwargs={'secure': True}

Sections which specify formatter configuration are typified by the
following.

     [formatter_form01]
     format=F1 %(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(message)s %(customfield)s
     datefmt=
     style=%
     validate=True
     defaults={'customfield': 'defaultvalue'}
     class=logging.Formatter

The arguments for the formatter configuration are the same as the keys
in the dictionary schema *note formatters section: 340c.

The ‘defaults’ entry, when *note evaluated: 27c6. in the context of the
‘logging’ package’s namespace, is a dictionary of default values for
custom formatting fields.  If not provided, it defaults to ‘None’.

     Σημείωση: Due to the use of *note eval(): 184. as described above,
     there are potential security risks which result from using the
     *note listen(): 130f. to send and receive configurations via
     sockets.  The risks are limited to where multiple users with no
     mutual trust run code on the same machine; see the ‘listen()’
     documentation for more information.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note logging: 8a.

     API reference for the logging module.

Module *note logging.handlers: 8c.

     Useful handlers included with the logging module.


File: python.info,  Node: logging handlers — Logging handlers,  Next: platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας,  Prev: logging config — Logging configuration,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.17.6 ‘logging.handlers’ — Logging handlers
--------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/logging/handlers.py(1)

Important
.........

This page contains only reference information.  For tutorials, please
see

   * *note Basic Tutorial: 159e.

   * *note Advanced Tutorial: 159f.

   * *note Logging Cookbook: 15a0.

__________________________________________________________________

The following useful handlers are provided in the package.  Note that
three of the handlers (*note StreamHandler: 15a1, *note FileHandler:
1e4a. and *note NullHandler: 1629.) are actually defined in the *note
logging: 8a. module itself, but have been documented here along with the
other handlers.

* Menu:

* StreamHandler::
* FileHandler::
* NullHandler::
* WatchedFileHandler::
* BaseRotatingHandler::
* RotatingFileHandler::
* TimedRotatingFileHandler::
* SocketHandler::
* DatagramHandler::
* SysLogHandler::
* NTEventLogHandler::
* SMTPHandler::
* MemoryHandler::
* HTTPHandler::
* QueueHandler::
* QueueListener::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/logging/handlers.py


File: python.info,  Node: StreamHandler,  Next: FileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.1 StreamHandler
......................

The *note StreamHandler: 15a1. class, located in the core *note logging:
8a. package, sends logging output to streams such as 'sys.stdout',
'sys.stderr' or any file-like object (or, more precisely, any object
which supports ‘write()’ and ‘flush()’ methods).

 -- Κλάση: logging.StreamHandler (stream=None)

     Returns a new instance of the ‘StreamHandler’ class.  If 'stream'
     is specified, the instance will use it for logging output;
     otherwise, 'sys.stderr' will be used.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit (record)

          If a formatter is specified, it is used to format the record.
          The record is then written to the stream followed by *note
          terminator: 3426.  If exception information is present, it is
          formatted using *note traceback.print_exception(): c27. and
          appended to the stream.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ()

          Flushes the stream by calling its ‘flush()’ method.  Note that
          the ‘close()’ method is inherited from *note Handler: 1838.
          and so does no output, so an explicit ‘flush()’ call may be
          needed at times.

      -- Μέθοδος: setStream (stream)

          Sets the instance’s stream to the specified value, if it is
          different.  The old stream is flushed before the new stream is
          set.


          Παράμετροι: ‘stream’ – The stream that the handler should use.


          Επιστρέφει: the old stream, if the stream was changed, or
          ‘None’ if it wasn’t.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: terminator

          String used as the terminator when writing a formatted record
          to a stream.  Default value is ‘'\n'’.

          If you don’t want a newline termination, you can set the
          handler instance’s ‘terminator’ attribute to the empty string.

          In earlier versions, the terminator was hardcoded as ‘'\n'’.

          Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: FileHandler,  Next: NullHandler,  Prev: StreamHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.2 FileHandler
....................

The *note FileHandler: 1e4a. class, located in the core *note logging:
8a. package, sends logging output to a disk file.  It inherits the
output functionality from *note StreamHandler: 15a1.

 -- Κλάση: logging.FileHandler (filename, mode='a', encoding=None,
          delay=False, errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the ‘FileHandler’ class.  The specified
     file is opened and used as the stream for logging.  If 'mode' is
     not specified, ‘'a'’ is used.  If 'encoding' is not ‘None’, it is
     used to open the file with that encoding.  If 'delay' is true, then
     file opening is deferred until the first call to *note emit():
     342a.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.  If 'errors' is
     specified, it’s used to determine how encoding errors are handled.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: As well as string values, *note Path: 4ee.
     objects are also accepted for the 'filename' argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The 'errors' parameter was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Closes the file.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit (record)

          Outputs the record to the file.

          Note that if the file was closed due to logging shutdown at
          exit and the file mode is “w”, the record will not be emitted
          (see bpo-42378(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42378


File: python.info,  Node: NullHandler,  Next: WatchedFileHandler,  Prev: FileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.3 NullHandler
....................

Added in version 3.1.

The *note NullHandler: 1629. class, located in the core *note logging:
8a. package, does not do any formatting or output.  It is essentially a
“no-op” handler for use by library developers.

 -- Κλάση: logging.NullHandler

     Returns a new instance of the ‘NullHandler’ class.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit (record)

          This method does nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: handle (record)

          This method does nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: createLock ()

          This method returns ‘None’ for the lock, since there is no
          underlying I/O to which access needs to be serialized.

See *note Configuring Logging for a Library: 3431. for more information
on how to use *note NullHandler: 1629.


File: python.info,  Node: WatchedFileHandler,  Next: BaseRotatingHandler,  Prev: NullHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.4 WatchedFileHandler
...........................

The *note WatchedFileHandler: 3434. class, located in the
‘logging.handlers’ module, is a ‘FileHandler’ which watches the file it
is logging to.  If the file changes, it is closed and reopened using the
file name.

A file change can happen because of usage of programs such as
'newsyslog' and 'logrotate' which perform log file rotation.  This
handler, intended for use under Unix/Linux, watches the file to see if
it has changed since the last emit.  (A file is deemed to have changed
if its device or inode have changed.)  If the file has changed, the old
file stream is closed, and the file opened to get a new stream.

This handler is not appropriate for use under Windows, because under
Windows open log files cannot be moved or renamed - logging opens the
files with exclusive locks - and so there is no need for such a handler.
Furthermore, 'ST_INO' is not supported under Windows; *note stat(): 4f5.
always returns zero for this value.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler (filename, mode='a',
          encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the ‘WatchedFileHandler’ class.  The
     specified file is opened and used as the stream for logging.  If
     'mode' is not specified, ‘'a'’ is used.  If 'encoding' is not
     ‘None’, it is used to open the file with that encoding.  If 'delay'
     is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call to
     *note emit(): 3435.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.  If
     'errors' is provided, it determines how encoding errors are
     handled.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: As well as string values, *note Path: 4ee.
     objects are also accepted for the 'filename' argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The 'errors' parameter was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: reopenIfNeeded ()

          Checks to see if the file has changed.  If it has, the
          existing stream is flushed and closed and the file opened
          again, typically as a precursor to outputting the record to
          the file.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit (record)

          Outputs the record to the file, but first calls *note
          reopenIfNeeded(): 1076. to reopen the file if it has changed.


File: python.info,  Node: BaseRotatingHandler,  Next: RotatingFileHandler,  Prev: WatchedFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.5 BaseRotatingHandler
............................

The *note BaseRotatingHandler: 3438. class, located in the
‘logging.handlers’ module, is the base class for the rotating file
handlers, *note RotatingFileHandler: 1b59. and *note
TimedRotatingFileHandler: 130b.  You should not need to instantiate this
class, but it has attributes and methods you may need to override.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler (filename, mode,
          encoding=None, delay=False, errors=None)

     The parameters are as for ‘FileHandler’.  The attributes are:

      -- Ιδιότητα: namer

          If this attribute is set to a callable, the *note
          rotation_filename(): 343a. method delegates to this callable.
          The parameters passed to the callable are those passed to
          ‘rotation_filename()’.

               Σημείωση: The namer function is called quite a few times
               during rollover, so it should be as simple and as fast as
               possible.  It should also return the same output every
               time for a given input, otherwise the rollover behaviour
               may not work as expected.

               It’s also worth noting that care should be taken when
               using a namer to preserve certain attributes in the
               filename which are used during rotation.  For example,
               *note RotatingFileHandler: 1b59. expects to have a set of
               log files whose names contain successive integers, so
               that rotation works as expected, and *note
               TimedRotatingFileHandler: 130b. deletes old log files
               (based on the ‘backupCount’ parameter passed to the
               handler’s initializer) by determining the oldest files to
               delete.  For this to happen, the filenames should be
               sortable using the date/time portion of the filename, and
               a namer needs to respect this.  (If a namer is wanted
               that doesn’t respect this scheme, it will need to be used
               in a subclass of ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ which
               overrides the *note getFilesToDelete(): 343b. method to
               fit in with the custom naming scheme.)

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: rotator

          If this attribute is set to a callable, the *note rotate():
          343d. method delegates to this callable.  The parameters
          passed to the callable are those passed to ‘rotate()’.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: rotation_filename (default_name)

          Modify the filename of a log file when rotating.

          This is provided so that a custom filename can be provided.

          The default implementation calls the “namer” attribute of the
          handler, if it’s callable, passing the default name to it.  If
          the attribute isn’t callable (the default is ‘None’), the name
          is returned unchanged.


          Παράμετροι: ‘default_name’ – The default name for the log
          file.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: rotate (source, dest)

          When rotating, rotate the current log.

          The default implementation calls the “rotator” attribute of
          the handler, if it’s callable, passing the source and dest
          arguments to it.  If the attribute isn’t callable (the default
          is ‘None’), the source is simply renamed to the destination.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘source’ – The source filename.  This is normally the
               base filename, e.g.  “test.log”.

             * ‘dest’ – The destination filename.  This is normally what
               the source is rotated to, e.g.  “test.log.1”.

          Added in version 3.3.

The reason the attributes exist is to save you having to subclass - you
can use the same callables for instances of *note RotatingFileHandler:
1b59. and *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: 130b.  If either the namer or
rotator callable raises an exception, this will be handled in the same
way as any other exception during an ‘emit()’ call, i.e.  via the
‘handleError()’ method of the handler.

If you need to make more significant changes to rotation processing, you
can override the methods.

For an example, see *note Using a rotator and namer to customize log
rotation processing: 343e.


File: python.info,  Node: RotatingFileHandler,  Next: TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Prev: BaseRotatingHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.6 RotatingFileHandler
............................

The *note RotatingFileHandler: 1b59. class, located in the
‘logging.handlers’ module, supports rotation of disk log files.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler (filename, mode='a',
          maxBytes=0, backupCount=0, encoding=None, delay=False,
          errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the ‘RotatingFileHandler’ class.  The
     specified file is opened and used as the stream for logging.  If
     'mode' is not specified, ‘'a'’ is used.  If 'encoding' is not
     ‘None’, it is used to open the file with that encoding.  If 'delay'
     is true, then file opening is deferred until the first call to
     *note emit(): 3441.  By default, the file grows indefinitely.  If
     'errors' is provided, it determines how encoding errors are
     handled.

     You can use the 'maxBytes' and 'backupCount' values to allow the
     file to 'rollover' at a predetermined size.  When the size is about
     to be exceeded, the file is closed and a new file is silently
     opened for output.  Rollover occurs whenever the current log file
     is nearly 'maxBytes' in length; but if either of 'maxBytes' or
     'backupCount' is zero, rollover never occurs, so you generally want
     to set 'backupCount' to at least 1, and have a non-zero 'maxBytes'.
     When 'backupCount' is non-zero, the system will save old log files
     by appending the extensions “.1”, “.2” etc., to the filename.  For
     example, with a 'backupCount' of 5 and a base file name of
     ‘app.log’, you would get ‘app.log’, ‘app.log.1’, ‘app.log.2’, up to
     ‘app.log.5’.  The file being written to is always ‘app.log’.  When
     this file is filled, it is closed and renamed to ‘app.log.1’, and
     if files ‘app.log.1’, ‘app.log.2’, etc.  exist, then they are
     renamed to ‘app.log.2’, ‘app.log.3’ etc.  respectively.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: As well as string values, *note Path: 4ee.
     objects are also accepted for the 'filename' argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The 'errors' parameter was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: doRollover ()

          Does a rollover, as described above.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit (record)

          Outputs the record to the file, catering for rollover as
          described previously.

      -- Μέθοδος: shouldRollover (record)

          See if the supplied record would cause the file to exceed the
          configured size limit.


File: python.info,  Node: TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Next: SocketHandler,  Prev: RotatingFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.7 TimedRotatingFileHandler
.................................

The *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: 130b. class, located in the
‘logging.handlers’ module, supports rotation of disk log files at
certain timed intervals.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler (filename,
          when='h', interval=1, backupCount=0, encoding=None,
          delay=False, utc=False, atTime=None, errors=None)

     Returns a new instance of the ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ class.
     The specified file is opened and used as the stream for logging.
     On rotating it also sets the filename suffix.  Rotating happens
     based on the product of 'when' and 'interval'.

     You can use the 'when' to specify the type of 'interval'.  The list
     of possible values is below.  Note that they are not case
     sensitive.

     Value                Type of interval                 If/how 'atTime' is used
                                                           
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                           
     ‘'S'’                Seconds                          Ignored
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'M'’                Minutes                          Ignored
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'H'’                Hours                            Ignored
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'D'’                Days                             Ignored
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'W0'-'W6'’          Weekday (0=Monday)               Used to compute initial
                                                           rollover time
                                                           
                                                           
     ‘'midnight'’         Roll over at midnight, if        Used to compute initial
                          'atTime' not specified, else     rollover time
                          at time 'atTime'                 
                          

     When using weekday-based rotation, specify “W0” for Monday, “W1”
     for Tuesday, and so on up to “W6” for Sunday.  In this case, the
     value passed for 'interval' isn’t used.

     The system will save old log files by appending extensions to the
     filename.  The extensions are date-and-time based, using the
     strftime format ‘%Y-%m-%d_%H-%M-%S’ or a leading portion thereof,
     depending on the rollover interval.

     When computing the next rollover time for the first time (when the
     handler is created), the last modification time of an existing log
     file, or else the current time, is used to compute when the next
     rotation will occur.

     If the 'utc' argument is true, times in UTC will be used; otherwise
     local time is used.

     If 'backupCount' is nonzero, at most 'backupCount' files will be
     kept, and if more would be created when rollover occurs, the oldest
     one is deleted.  The deletion logic uses the interval to determine
     which files to delete, so changing the interval may leave old files
     lying around.

     If 'delay' is true, then file opening is deferred until the first
     call to *note emit(): 3446.

     If 'atTime' is not ‘None’, it must be a ‘datetime.time’ instance
     which specifies the time of day when rollover occurs, for the cases
     where rollover is set to happen «at midnight» or «on a particular
     weekday».  Note that in these cases, the 'atTime' value is
     effectively used to compute the 'initial' rollover, and subsequent
     rollovers would be calculated via the normal interval calculation.

     If 'errors' is specified, it’s used to determine how encoding
     errors are handled.

          Σημείωση: Calculation of the initial rollover time is done
          when the handler is initialised.  Calculation of subsequent
          rollover times is done only when rollover occurs, and rollover
          occurs only when emitting output.  If this is not kept in
          mind, it might lead to some confusion.  For example, if an
          interval of «every minute» is set, that does not mean you will
          always see log files with times (in the filename) separated by
          a minute; if, during application execution, logging output is
          generated more frequently than once a minute, 'then' you can
          expect to see log files with times separated by a minute.  If,
          on the other hand, logging messages are only output once every
          five minutes (say), then there will be gaps in the file times
          corresponding to the minutes where no output (and hence no
          rollover) occurred.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: 'atTime' parameter was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: As well as string values, *note Path: 4ee.
     objects are also accepted for the 'filename' argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The 'errors' parameter was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: doRollover ()

          Does a rollover, as described above.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit (record)

          Outputs the record to the file, catering for rollover as
          described above.

      -- Μέθοδος: getFilesToDelete ()

          Returns a list of filenames which should be deleted as part of
          rollover.  These are the absolute paths of the oldest backup
          log files written by the handler.

      -- Μέθοδος: shouldRollover (record)

          See if enough time has passed for a rollover to occur and if
          it has, compute the next rollover time.


File: python.info,  Node: SocketHandler,  Next: DatagramHandler,  Prev: TimedRotatingFileHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.8 SocketHandler
......................

The *note SocketHandler: 130c. class, located in the ‘logging.handlers’
module, sends logging output to a network socket.  The base class uses a
TCP socket.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.SocketHandler (host, port)

     Returns a new instance of the ‘SocketHandler’ class intended to
     communicate with a remote machine whose address is given by 'host'
     and 'port'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: If ‘port’ is specified as ‘None’, a Unix
     domain socket is created using the value in ‘host’ - otherwise, a
     TCP socket is created.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Closes the socket.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit ()

          Pickles the record’s attribute dictionary and writes it to the
          socket in binary format.  If there is an error with the
          socket, silently drops the packet.  If the connection was
          previously lost, re-establishes the connection.  To unpickle
          the record at the receiving end into a *note LogRecord: 138f,
          use the *note makeLogRecord(): 33e4. function.

      -- Μέθοδος: handleError ()

          Handles an error which has occurred during *note emit(): 344c.
          The most likely cause is a lost connection.  Closes the socket
          so that we can retry on the next event.

      -- Μέθοδος: makeSocket ()

          This is a factory method which allows subclasses to define the
          precise type of socket they want.  The default implementation
          creates a TCP socket (*note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 1698.).

      -- Μέθοδος: makePickle (record)

          Pickles the record’s attribute dictionary in binary format
          with a length prefix, and returns it ready for transmission
          across the socket.  The details of this operation are
          equivalent to:

               data = pickle.dumps(record_attr_dict, 1)
               datalen = struct.pack('>L', len(data))
               return datalen + data

          Note that pickles aren’t completely secure.  If you are
          concerned about security, you may want to override this method
          to implement a more secure mechanism.  For example, you can
          sign pickles using HMAC and then verify them on the receiving
          end, or alternatively you can disable unpickling of global
          objects on the receiving end.

      -- Μέθοδος: send (packet)

          Send a pickled byte-string 'packet' to the socket.  The format
          of the sent byte-string is as described in the documentation
          for *note makePickle(): 344f.

          This function allows for partial sends, which can happen when
          the network is busy.

      -- Μέθοδος: createSocket ()

          Tries to create a socket; on failure, uses an exponential
          back-off algorithm.  On initial failure, the handler will drop
          the message it was trying to send.  When subsequent messages
          are handled by the same instance, it will not try connecting
          until some time has passed.  The default parameters are such
          that the initial delay is one second, and if after that delay
          the connection still can’t be made, the handler will double
          the delay each time up to a maximum of 30 seconds.

          This behaviour is controlled by the following handler
          attributes:

             * ‘retryStart’ (initial delay, defaulting to 1.0 seconds).

             * ‘retryFactor’ (multiplier, defaulting to 2.0).

             * ‘retryMax’ (maximum delay, defaulting to 30.0 seconds).

          This means that if the remote listener starts up 'after' the
          handler has been used, you could lose messages (since the
          handler won’t even attempt a connection until the delay has
          elapsed, but just silently drop messages during the delay
          period).


File: python.info,  Node: DatagramHandler,  Next: SysLogHandler,  Prev: SocketHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.9 DatagramHandler
........................

The *note DatagramHandler: 130d. class, located in the
‘logging.handlers’ module, inherits from *note SocketHandler: 130c. to
support sending logging messages over UDP sockets.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.DatagramHandler (host, port)

     Returns a new instance of the ‘DatagramHandler’ class intended to
     communicate with a remote machine whose address is given by 'host'
     and 'port'.

          Σημείωση: As UDP is not a streaming protocol, there is no
          persistent connection between an instance of this handler and
          'host'.  For this reason, when using a network socket, a DNS
          lookup might have to be made each time an event is logged,
          which can introduce some latency into the system.  If this
          affects you, you can do a lookup yourself and initialize this
          handler using the looked-up IP address rather than the
          hostname.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: If ‘port’ is specified as ‘None’, a Unix
     domain socket is created using the value in ‘host’ - otherwise, a
     UDP socket is created.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit ()

          Pickles the record’s attribute dictionary and writes it to the
          socket in binary format.  If there is an error with the
          socket, silently drops the packet.  To unpickle the record at
          the receiving end into a *note LogRecord: 138f, use the *note
          makeLogRecord(): 33e4. function.

      -- Μέθοδος: makeSocket ()

          The factory method of *note SocketHandler: 130c. is here
          overridden to create a UDP socket (*note socket.SOCK_DGRAM:
          1697.).

      -- Μέθοδος: send (s)

          Send a pickled byte-string to a socket.  The format of the
          sent byte-string is as described in the documentation for
          *note SocketHandler.makePickle(): 344f.


File: python.info,  Node: SysLogHandler,  Next: NTEventLogHandler,  Prev: DatagramHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.10 SysLogHandler
.......................

The *note SysLogHandler: a4c. class, located in the ‘logging.handlers’
module, supports sending logging messages to a remote or local Unix
syslog.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.SysLogHandler (address=('localhost',
          SYSLOG_UDP_PORT), facility=LOG_USER,
          socktype=socket.SOCK_DGRAM, timeout=None)

     Returns a new instance of the ‘SysLogHandler’ class intended to
     communicate with a remote Unix machine whose address is given by
     'address' in the form of a ‘(host, port)’ tuple.  If 'address' is
     not specified, ‘('localhost', 514)’ is used.  The address is used
     to open a socket.  An alternative to providing a ‘(host, port)’
     tuple is providing an address as a string, for example “/dev/log”.
     In this case, a Unix domain socket is used to send the message to
     the syslog.  If 'facility' is not specified, ‘LOG_USER’ is used.
     The type of socket opened depends on the 'socktype' argument, which
     defaults to *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 1697. and thus opens a UDP
     socket.  To open a TCP socket (for use with the newer syslog
     daemons such as rsyslog), specify a value of *note
     socket.SOCK_STREAM: 1698.  If 'timeout' is specified, it sets a
     timeout (in seconds) for the socket operations.  This can help
     prevent the program from hanging indefinitely if the syslog server
     is unreachable.  By default, 'timeout' is ‘None’, meaning no
     timeout is applied.

     Note that if your server is not listening on UDP port 514,
     ‘SysLogHandler’ may appear not to work.  In that case, check what
     address you should be using for a domain socket - it’s system
     dependent.  For example, on Linux it’s usually “/dev/log” but on
     OS/X it’s “/var/run/syslog”.  You’ll need to check your platform
     and use the appropriate address (you may need to do this check at
     runtime if your application needs to run on several platforms).  On
     Windows, you pretty much have to use the UDP option.

          Σημείωση: On macOS 12.x (Monterey), Apple has changed the
          behaviour of their syslog daemon - it no longer listens on a
          domain socket.  Therefore, you cannot expect ‘SysLogHandler’
          to work on this system.

          See gh-91070(1) for more information.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'socktype' was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: 'timeout' was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Closes the socket to the remote host.

      -- Μέθοδος: createSocket ()

          Tries to create a socket and, if it’s not a datagram socket,
          connect it to the other end.  This method is called during
          handler initialization, but it’s not regarded as an error if
          the other end isn’t listening at this point - the method will
          be called again when emitting an event, if there is no socket
          at that point.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit (record)

          The record is formatted, and then sent to the syslog server.
          If exception information is present, it is 'not' sent to the
          server.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2.1: (See: bpo-12168(2).)  In earlier
          versions, the message sent to the syslog daemons was always
          terminated with a NUL byte, because early versions of these
          daemons expected a NUL terminated message - even though it’s
          not in the relevant specification ( RFC 5424(3)).  More recent
          versions of these daemons don’t expect the NUL byte but strip
          it off if it’s there, and even more recent daemons (which
          adhere more closely to RFC 5424) pass the NUL byte on as part
          of the message.

          To enable easier handling of syslog messages in the face of
          all these differing daemon behaviours, the appending of the
          NUL byte has been made configurable, through the use of a
          class-level attribute, ‘append_nul’.  This defaults to ‘True’
          (preserving the existing behaviour) but can be set to ‘False’
          on a ‘SysLogHandler’ instance in order for that instance to
          'not' append the NUL terminator.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: (See: bpo-12419(4).)  In earlier
          versions, there was no facility for an «ident» or «tag» prefix
          to identify the source of the message.  This can now be
          specified using a class-level attribute, defaulting to ‘""’ to
          preserve existing behaviour, but which can be overridden on a
          ‘SysLogHandler’ instance in order for that instance to prepend
          the ident to every message handled.  Note that the provided
          ident must be text, not bytes, and is prepended to the message
          exactly as is.

      -- Μέθοδος: encodePriority (facility, priority)

          Encodes the facility and priority into an integer.  You can
          pass in strings or integers - if strings are passed, internal
          mapping dictionaries are used to convert them to integers.

          The symbolic ‘LOG_’ values are defined in ‘SysLogHandler’ and
          mirror the values defined in the ‘sys/syslog.h’ header file.

          'Priorities'

          Name (string)                  Symbolic value
                                         
          ---------------------------------------------------
                                         
          ‘alert’                        LOG_ALERT
                                         
                                         
          ‘crit’ or ‘critical’           LOG_CRIT
                                         
                                         
          ‘debug’                        LOG_DEBUG
                                         
                                         
          ‘emerg’ or ‘panic’             LOG_EMERG
                                         
                                         
          ‘err’ or ‘error’               LOG_ERR
                                         
                                         
          ‘info’                         LOG_INFO
                                         
                                         
          ‘notice’                       LOG_NOTICE
                                         
                                         
          ‘warn’ or ‘warning’            LOG_WARNING
                                         

          'Facilities'

          Name (string)       Symbolic value
                              
          ----------------------------------------
                              
          ‘auth’              LOG_AUTH
                              
                              
          ‘authpriv’          LOG_AUTHPRIV
                              
                              
          ‘cron’              LOG_CRON
                              
                              
          ‘daemon’            LOG_DAEMON
                              
                              
          ‘ftp’               LOG_FTP
                              
                              
          ‘kern’              LOG_KERN
                              
                              
          ‘lpr’               LOG_LPR
                              
                              
          ‘mail’              LOG_MAIL
                              
                              
          ‘news’              LOG_NEWS
                              
                              
          ‘syslog’            LOG_SYSLOG
                              
                              
          ‘user’              LOG_USER
                              
                              
          ‘uucp’              LOG_UUCP
                              
                              
          ‘local0’            LOG_LOCAL0
                              
                              
          ‘local1’            LOG_LOCAL1
                              
                              
          ‘local2’            LOG_LOCAL2
                              
                              
          ‘local3’            LOG_LOCAL3
                              
                              
          ‘local4’            LOG_LOCAL4
                              
                              
          ‘local5’            LOG_LOCAL5
                              
                              
          ‘local6’            LOG_LOCAL6
                              
                              
          ‘local7’            LOG_LOCAL7
                              

      -- Μέθοδος: mapPriority (levelname)

          Maps a logging level name to a syslog priority name.  You may
          need to override this if you are using custom levels, or if
          the default algorithm is not suitable for your needs.  The
          default algorithm maps ‘DEBUG’, ‘INFO’, ‘WARNING’, ‘ERROR’ and
          ‘CRITICAL’ to the equivalent syslog names, and all other level
          names to “warning”.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91070

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12168

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12419


File: python.info,  Node: NTEventLogHandler,  Next: SMTPHandler,  Prev: SysLogHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.11 NTEventLogHandler
...........................

The *note NTEventLogHandler: 1985. class, located in the
‘logging.handlers’ module, supports sending logging messages to a local
Windows NT, Windows 2000 or Windows XP event log.  Before you can use
it, you need Mark Hammond’s Win32 extensions for Python installed.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler (appname, dllname=None,
          logtype='Application')

     Returns a new instance of the ‘NTEventLogHandler’ class.  The
     'appname' is used to define the application name as it appears in
     the event log.  An appropriate registry entry is created using this
     name.  The 'dllname' should give the fully qualified pathname of a
     .dll or .exe which contains message definitions to hold in the log
     (if not specified, ‘'win32service.pyd'’ is used - this is installed
     with the Win32 extensions and contains some basic placeholder
     message definitions.  Note that use of these placeholders will make
     your event logs big, as the entire message source is held in the
     log.  If you want slimmer logs, you have to pass in the name of
     your own .dll or .exe which contains the message definitions you
     want to use in the event log).  The 'logtype' is one of
     ‘'Application'’, ‘'System'’ or ‘'Security'’, and defaults to
     ‘'Application'’.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          At this point, you can remove the application name from the
          registry as a source of event log entries.  However, if you do
          this, you will not be able to see the events as you intended
          in the Event Log Viewer - it needs to be able to access the
          registry to get the .dll name.  The current version does not
          do this.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit (record)

          Determines the message ID, event category and event type, and
          then logs the message in the NT event log.

      -- Μέθοδος: getEventCategory (record)

          Returns the event category for the record.  Override this if
          you want to specify your own categories.  This version returns
          0.

      -- Μέθοδος: getEventType (record)

          Returns the event type for the record.  Override this if you
          want to specify your own types.  This version does a mapping
          using the handler’s typemap attribute, which is set up in
          ‘__init__()’ to a dictionary which contains mappings for
          ‘DEBUG’, ‘INFO’, ‘WARNING’, ‘ERROR’ and ‘CRITICAL’.  If you
          are using your own levels, you will either need to override
          this method or place a suitable dictionary in the handler’s
          'typemap' attribute.

      -- Μέθοδος: getMessageID (record)

          Returns the message ID for the record.  If you are using your
          own messages, you could do this by having the 'msg' passed to
          the logger being an ID rather than a format string.  Then, in
          here, you could use a dictionary lookup to get the message ID.
          This version returns 1, which is the base message ID in
          ‘win32service.pyd’.


File: python.info,  Node: SMTPHandler,  Next: MemoryHandler,  Prev: NTEventLogHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.12 SMTPHandler
.....................

The *note SMTPHandler: 1ad3. class, located in the ‘logging.handlers’
module, supports sending logging messages to an email address via SMTP.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.SMTPHandler (mailhost, fromaddr, toaddrs,
          subject, credentials=None, secure=None, timeout=1.0)

     Returns a new instance of the ‘SMTPHandler’ class.  The instance is
     initialized with the from and to addresses and subject line of the
     email.  The 'toaddrs' should be a list of strings.  To specify a
     non-standard SMTP port, use the (host, port) tuple format for the
     'mailhost' argument.  If you use a string, the standard SMTP port
     is used.  If your SMTP server requires authentication, you can
     specify a (username, password) tuple for the 'credentials'
     argument.

     To specify the use of a secure protocol (TLS), pass in a tuple to
     the 'secure' argument.  This will only be used when authentication
     credentials are supplied.  The tuple should be either an empty
     tuple, or a single-value tuple with the name of a keyfile, or a
     2-value tuple with the names of the keyfile and certificate file.
     (This tuple is passed to the *note smtplib.SMTP.starttls(): 14e4.
     method.)

     A timeout can be specified for communication with the SMTP server
     using the 'timeout' argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'timeout' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit (record)

          Formats the record and sends it to the specified addressees.

      -- Μέθοδος: getSubject (record)

          If you want to specify a subject line which is
          record-dependent, override this method.


File: python.info,  Node: MemoryHandler,  Next: HTTPHandler,  Prev: SMTPHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.13 MemoryHandler
.......................

The *note MemoryHandler: 3417. class, located in the ‘logging.handlers’
module, supports buffering of logging records in memory, periodically
flushing them to a 'target' handler.  Flushing occurs whenever the
buffer is full, or when an event of a certain severity or greater is
seen.

*note MemoryHandler: 3417. is a subclass of the more general *note
BufferingHandler: 3469, which is an abstract class.  This buffers
logging records in memory.  Whenever each record is added to the buffer,
a check is made by calling ‘shouldFlush()’ to see if the buffer should
be flushed.  If it should, then ‘flush()’ is expected to do the
flushing.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.BufferingHandler (capacity)

     Initializes the handler with a buffer of the specified capacity.
     Here, 'capacity' means the number of logging records buffered.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit (record)

          Append the record to the buffer.  If *note shouldFlush():
          346b. returns true, call *note flush(): 346c. to process the
          buffer.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ()

          For a ‘BufferingHandler’ instance, flushing means that it sets
          the buffer to an empty list.  This method can be overwritten
          to implement more useful flushing behavior.

      -- Μέθοδος: shouldFlush (record)

          Return ‘True’ if the buffer is up to capacity.  This method
          can be overridden to implement custom flushing strategies.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.MemoryHandler (capacity, flushLevel=ERROR,
          target=None, flushOnClose=True)

     Returns a new instance of the ‘MemoryHandler’ class.  The instance
     is initialized with a buffer size of 'capacity' (number of records
     buffered).  If 'flushLevel' is not specified, ‘ERROR’ is used.  If
     no 'target' is specified, the target will need to be set using
     *note setTarget(): 346d. before this handler does anything useful.
     If 'flushOnClose' is specified as ‘False’, then the buffer is 'not'
     flushed when the handler is closed.  If not specified or specified
     as ‘True’, the previous behaviour of flushing the buffer will occur
     when the handler is closed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The 'flushOnClose' parameter was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Calls *note flush(): 346f, sets the target to ‘None’ and
          clears the buffer.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ()

          For a ‘MemoryHandler’ instance, flushing means just sending
          the buffered records to the target, if there is one.  The
          buffer is also cleared when buffered records are sent to the
          target.  Override if you want different behavior.

      -- Μέθοδος: setTarget (target)

          Sets the target handler for this handler.

      -- Μέθοδος: shouldFlush (record)

          Checks for buffer full or a record at the 'flushLevel' or
          higher.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPHandler,  Next: QueueHandler,  Prev: MemoryHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.14 HTTPHandler
.....................

The *note HTTPHandler: 11df. class, located in the ‘logging.handlers’
module, supports sending logging messages to a web server, using either
‘GET’ or ‘POST’ semantics.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.HTTPHandler (host, url, method='GET',
          secure=False, credentials=None, context=None)

     Returns a new instance of the ‘HTTPHandler’ class.  The 'host' can
     be of the form ‘host:port’, should you need to use a specific port
     number.  If no 'method' is specified, ‘GET’ is used.  If 'secure'
     is true, a HTTPS connection will be used.  The 'context' parameter
     may be set to a *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. instance to configure
     the SSL settings used for the HTTPS connection.  If 'credentials'
     is specified, it should be a 2-tuple consisting of userid and
     password, which will be placed in a HTTP “Authorization” header
     using Basic authentication.  If you specify credentials, you should
     also specify secure=True so that your userid and password are not
     passed in cleartext across the wire.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'context' parameter was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: mapLogRecord (record)

          Provides a dictionary, based on ‘record’, which is to be
          URL-encoded and sent to the web server.  The default
          implementation just returns ‘record.__dict__’.  This method
          can be overridden if e.g.  only a subset of *note LogRecord:
          138f. is to be sent to the web server, or if more specific
          customization of what’s sent to the server is required.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit (record)

          Sends the record to the web server as a URL-encoded
          dictionary.  The *note mapLogRecord(): 3473. method is used to
          convert the record to the dictionary to be sent.

          Σημείωση: Since preparing a record for sending it to a web
          server is not the same as a generic formatting operation,
          using *note setFormatter(): 33c8. to specify a *note
          Formatter: 1839. for a ‘HTTPHandler’ has no effect.  Instead
          of calling *note format(): 33d1, this handler calls *note
          mapLogRecord(): 3473. and then *note urllib.parse.urlencode():
          1246. to encode the dictionary in a form suitable for sending
          to a web server.


File: python.info,  Node: QueueHandler,  Next: QueueListener,  Prev: HTTPHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.15 QueueHandler
......................

Added in version 3.2.

The *note QueueHandler: 1d5f. class, located in the ‘logging.handlers’
module, supports sending logging messages to a queue, such as those
implemented in the *note queue: be. or *note multiprocessing: 98.
modules.

Along with the *note QueueListener: 4cf. class, *note QueueHandler:
1d5f. can be used to let handlers do their work on a separate thread
from the one which does the logging.  This is important in web
applications and also other service applications where threads servicing
clients need to respond as quickly as possible, while any potentially
slow operations (such as sending an email via *note SMTPHandler: 1ad3.)
are done on a separate thread.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.QueueHandler (queue)

     Returns a new instance of the ‘QueueHandler’ class.  The instance
     is initialized with the queue to send messages to.  The 'queue' can
     be any queue-like object; it’s used as-is by the *note enqueue():
     3477. method, which needs to know how to send messages to it.  The
     queue is not 'required' to have the task tracking API, which means
     that you can use *note SimpleQueue: f27. instances for 'queue'.

          Σημείωση: If you are using *note multiprocessing: 98, you
          should avoid using *note SimpleQueue: f27. and instead use
          *note multiprocessing.Queue: 1d85.

          Προειδοποίηση: The *note multiprocessing: 98. module uses an
          internal logger created and accessed via *note get_logger():
          3478.  *note multiprocessing.Queue: 1d85. will log ‘DEBUG’
          level messages upon items being queued.  If those log messages
          are processed by a ‘QueueHandler’ using the same
          ‘multiprocessing.Queue’ instance, it will cause a deadlock or
          infinite recursion.

      -- Μέθοδος: emit (record)

          Enqueues the result of preparing the LogRecord.  Should an
          exception occur (e.g.  because a bounded queue has filled up),
          the *note handleError(): 33cf. method is called to handle the
          error.  This can result in the record silently being dropped
          (if *note logging.raiseExceptions: 15a2. is ‘False’) or a
          message printed to ‘sys.stderr’ (if ‘logging.raiseExceptions’
          is ‘True’).

      -- Μέθοδος: prepare (record)

          Prepares a record for queuing.  The object returned by this
          method is enqueued.

          The base implementation formats the record to merge the
          message, arguments, exception and stack information, if
          present.  It also removes unpickleable items from the record
          in-place.  Specifically, it overwrites the record’s ‘msg’ and
          ‘message’ attributes with the merged message (obtained by
          calling the handler’s *note format(): 439. method), and sets
          the ‘args’, ‘exc_info’ and ‘exc_text’ attributes to ‘None’.

          You might want to override this method if you want to convert
          the record to a dict or JSON string, or send a modified copy
          of the record while leaving the original intact.

               Σημείωση: The base implementation formats the message
               with arguments, sets the ‘message’ and ‘msg’ attributes
               to the formatted message and sets the ‘args’ and
               ‘exc_text’ attributes to ‘None’ to allow pickling and to
               prevent further attempts at formatting.  This means that
               a handler on the *note QueueListener: 4cf. side won’t
               have the information to do custom formatting, e.g.  of
               exceptions.  You may wish to subclass ‘QueueHandler’ and
               override this method to e.g.  avoid setting ‘exc_text’ to
               ‘None’.  Note that the ‘message’ / ‘msg’ / ‘args’ changes
               are related to ensuring the record is pickleable, and you
               might or might not be able to avoid doing that depending
               on whether your ‘args’ are pickleable.  (Note that you
               may have to consider not only your own code but also code
               in any libraries that you use.)

      -- Μέθοδος: enqueue (record)

          Enqueues the record on the queue using ‘put_nowait()’; you may
          want to override this if you want to use blocking behaviour,
          or a timeout, or a customized queue implementation.

      -- Ιδιότητα: listener

          When created via configuration using *note dictConfig(): 1559,
          this attribute will contain a *note QueueListener: 4cf.
          instance for use with this handler.  Otherwise, it will be
          ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: QueueListener,  Prev: QueueHandler,  Up: logging handlers — Logging handlers

5.17.6.16 QueueListener
.......................

Added in version 3.2.

The *note QueueListener: 4cf. class, located in the ‘logging.handlers’
module, supports receiving logging messages from a queue, such as those
implemented in the *note queue: be. or *note multiprocessing: 98.
modules.  The messages are received from a queue in an internal thread
and passed, on the same thread, to one or more handlers for processing.
While ‘QueueListener’ is not itself a handler, it is documented here
because it works hand-in-hand with *note QueueHandler: 1d5f.

Along with the *note QueueHandler: 1d5f. class, *note QueueListener:
4cf. can be used to let handlers do their work on a separate thread from
the one which does the logging.  This is important in web applications
and also other service applications where threads servicing clients need
to respond as quickly as possible, while any potentially slow operations
(such as sending an email via *note SMTPHandler: 1ad3.) are done on a
separate thread.

 -- Κλάση: logging.handlers.QueueListener (queue, *handlers,
          respect_handler_level=False)

     Returns a new instance of the ‘QueueListener’ class.  The instance
     is initialized with the queue to send messages to and a list of
     handlers which will handle entries placed on the queue.  The queue
     can be any queue-like object; it’s passed as-is to the *note
     dequeue(): 347d. method, which needs to know how to get messages
     from it.  The queue is not 'required' to have the task tracking API
     (though it’s used if available), which means that you can use *note
     SimpleQueue: f27. instances for 'queue'.

          Σημείωση: If you are using *note multiprocessing: 98, you
          should avoid using *note SimpleQueue: f27. and instead use
          *note multiprocessing.Queue: 1d85.

     If ‘respect_handler_level’ is ‘True’, a handler’s level is
     respected (compared with the level for the message) when deciding
     whether to pass messages to that handler; otherwise, the behaviour
     is as in previous Python versions - to always pass each message to
     each handler.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The ‘respect_handler_level’ argument was
     added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: ‘QueueListener’ can now be used as a
     context manager via *note with: 20a.  When entering the context,
     the listener is started.  When exiting the context, the listener is
     stopped.  *note __enter__(): 28a4. returns the ‘QueueListener’
     object.

      -- Μέθοδος: dequeue (block)

          Dequeues a record and return it, optionally blocking.

          The base implementation uses ‘get()’.  You may want to
          override this method if you want to use timeouts or work with
          custom queue implementations.

      -- Μέθοδος: prepare (record)

          Prepare a record for handling.

          This implementation just returns the passed-in record.  You
          may want to override this method if you need to do any custom
          marshalling or manipulation of the record before passing it to
          the handlers.

      -- Μέθοδος: handle (record)

          Handle a record.

          This just loops through the handlers offering them the record
          to handle.  The actual object passed to the handlers is that
          which is returned from *note prepare(): 347e.

      -- Μέθοδος: start ()

          Starts the listener.

          This starts up a background thread to monitor the queue for
          LogRecords to process.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Raises *note RuntimeError: 30d. if
          called and the listener is already running.

      -- Μέθοδος: stop ()

          Stops the listener.

          This asks the thread to terminate, and then waits for it to do
          so.  Note that if you don’t call this before your application
          exits, there may be some records still left on the queue,
          which won’t be processed.

      -- Μέθοδος: enqueue_sentinel ()

          Writes a sentinel to the queue to tell the listener to quit.
          This implementation uses ‘put_nowait()’.  You may want to
          override this method if you want to use timeouts or work with
          custom queue implementations.

          Added in version 3.3.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note logging: 8a.

     API reference for the logging module.

Module *note logging.config: 8b.

     Configuration API for the logging module.


File: python.info,  Node: platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας,  Next: errno — Standard errno system symbols,  Prev: logging handlers — Logging handlers,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.17.7 ‘platform’ — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/platform.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

     Σημείωση: Συγκεκριμένες πλατφόρμες καταγεγραμμένες αλφαβητικά, με
     το Linux να περιλαμβάνεται στην ενότητα Unix.

* Menu:

* Cross Platform::
* Πλατφόρμα Windows::
* Πλατφόρμα macOS::
* Πλατφόρμα iOS::
* Πλατφόρμες Unix::
* Πλατφόρμες Linux::
* Πλατφόρμα Android::
* Χρήση από γραμμή εντολών::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/platform.py


File: python.info,  Node: Cross Platform,  Next: Πλατφόρμα Windows,  Up: platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας

5.17.7.1 Cross Platform
.......................

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.architecture (executable=sys.executable,
          bits='', linkage='')

     Υποβάλλει ερώτημα στο δεδομένο εκτελέσιμο αρχείο (προεπιλογή είναι
     το εκτελέσιμο του δυαδικού διερμηνέα Python) για διάφορες
     πληροφορίες αρχιτεκτονικής.

     Επιστρέφει μια πλειάδα ‘(bits, linkage)’ που περιέχει πληροφορίες
     για την αρχιτεκτονική των bit και την μορφή σύνδεσης που
     χρησιμοποιείται για το εκτελέσιμο αρχείο.  Και οι δύο τιμές
     επιστρέφονται ως συμβολοσειρές.

     Οι τιμές που δεν μπορούν να προσδιοριστούν επιστρέφονται όπως
     δίνονται από τις προκαθορισμένες παραμέτρους.  Αν η τιμή του bits
     δοθεί ως ‘''’, τότε χρησιμοποιείται το ‘sizeof(pointer)’ (ή το
     ‘sizeof(long)’ στην έκδοση Python < 1.5.2) ως δείκτης για το
     υποστηριζόμενο μέγεθος δεικτών.

     Η συνάρτηση βασίζεται στην εντολή του συστήματος ‘file’ για την
     εκτέλεση της πραγματικής εργασίας.  Αυτή είναι διαθέσιμη στα
     περισσότερα αν όχι σε όλα τα συστήματα Unix και σε ορισμένα μη-Unix
     συστήματα, και μόνο αν το εκτελέσιμο δείχνει στον διερμηνέα της
     Python.  Χρησιμοποιούνται εύλογες προεπιλεγμένες τιμές όταν οι
     παραπάνω προϋποθέσεις δεν πληρούνται.

          Σημείωση: Στο macOS (και ίσως και σε άλλες πλατφόρμες), τα
          εκτελέσιμα αρχεία μπορεί να είναι καθολικά αρχεία που
          περιέχουν μέσα πολλαπλές αρχιτεκτονικές.

          Για να προσδιορίσετε αν ο τρέχων διερμηνέας είναι 64-bit,
          είναι πιο αξιόπιστο να ελέγξετε το χαρακτηριστικό *note
          sys.maxsize: 156e.:

               is_64bits = sys.maxsize > 2**32

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.machine ()

     Επιστρέφει τον τύπο του μηχανήματος, π.χ.  ‘'AMD64'’.  Επιστρέφει
     μια κενή συμβολοσειρά αν η τιμή δεν μπορεί να προσδιοριστεί.

     Η έξοδος εξαρτάται από την πλατφόρμα και μπορεί να διαφέρει ως προς
     τα κεφαλαία/πεζά και τις συμβάσεις ονοματοδοσίας.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.node ()

     Επιστρέφει το όνομα δικτύου του υπολογιστή (ενδέχεται να μην είναι
     πλήρως καθορισμένο!).  Επιστρέφει μια κενή συμβολοσειρά, αν η τιμή
     δεν μπορεί να προσδιοριστεί.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.platform (aliased=False, terse=False)

     Επιστρέφει μια συμβολοσειρά που προσδιορίζει την υποκείμενη
     πλατφόρμα με όσο το δυνατόν περισσότερες χρήσιμες πληροφορίες.

     Η έξοδος προορίζεται να είναι 'φιλική - ευανάγνωστη από τον
     άνθρωπο' και όχι αναγνώσιμη από μηχανή.  Μπορεί να φαίνεται
     διαφορετική σε διαφορετικές πλατφόρμες και αυτό είναι σκόπιμο.

     Αν το 'aliased' είναι αληθές, η συνάρτηση θα χρησιμοποιήσει
     ψευδώνυμα για διάφορες πλατφόρμες που αναφέρουν ονόματα συστημάτων
     διαφορετικά από τα κοινά τους ονόματα, για παράδειγμα το SunOS θα
     αναφέρεται ως Solaris.  Η συνάρτηση *note system_alias(): 3488.
     χρησιμοποιείται για την υλοποίηση αυτού.

     Αν το 'terse' οριστεί σε αληθές, η συνάρτηση επιστρέφει μόνο τις
     απολύτως απαραίτητες πληροφορίες για την αναγνώριση της πλατφόρμας.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Στο macOS, η συνάρτηση χρησιμοποιεί τώρα
     την *note mac_ver(): 2003, αν αυτή επιστρέψει μη κενή συμβολοσειρά
     έκδοσης, για να λάβει την έκδοση του macOS αντί για την έκδοση
     Darwin.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.processor ()

     Επιστρέφει το (πραγματικό) όνομα του επεξεργαστή, π.χ.  ‘'amdk6'’.

     Επιστρέφεται μια κενή συμβολοσειρά εάν η τιμή δεν μπορεί να
     προσδιοριστεί.  Σημειώστε ότι πολλές πλατφόρμες δεν παρέχουν αυτή
     την πληροφορία ή απλώς επιστρέφουν την ίδια τιμή με αυτή της *note
     machine(): 3486.  Το NetBSD το κάνει αυτό.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.python_build ()

     Επιστρέφει μια πλειάδα ‘(buildno, builddate)’ που δηλώνει τον
     αριθμό κατασκευής και την ημερομηνία κατασκευής της Python ως
     συμβολοσειρές.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.python_compiler ()

     Επιστρέφει μια συμβολοσειρά που προσδιορίζει τον μεταγλωττιστή που
     χρησιμοποιήθηκε για την μεταγλώττιση της Python.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.python_branch ()

     Επιστρέφει μια συμβολοσειρά που προσδιορίζει το branch του
     συστήματος ελέγχου εκδόσεων (SCM) της υλοποίησης της Python.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.python_implementation ()

     Επιστρέφει μια συμβολοσειρά που προσδιορίζει την υλοποίηση της
     Python.  Πιθανές τιμές είναι: “CPython”, “IronPython”, “Jython”,
     “PyPy”.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.python_revision ()

     Επιστρέφει μια συμβολοσειρά που προσδιορίζει την αναθεώρηση SCM της
     υλοποίησης της Python.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.python_version ()

     Επιστρέφει την έκδοση της Python ως συμβολοσειρά
     ‘'major.minor.patchlevel'’.

     Σημειώστε ότι σε αντίθεση με το ‘sys.version’ της Python, η
     επιστρεφόμενη τιμή θα περιλαμβάνει πάντα το επίπεδο διόρθωσης (το
     οποίο προεπιλεγμένα είναι 0).

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.python_version_tuple ()

     Επιστρέφει την έκδοση της Python ως πλειάδα ‘(major, minor,
     patchlevel)’ από συμβολοσειρές.

     Σημειώστε ότι, σε αντίθεση με την ‘sys.version’ της Python, η
     επιστρεφόμενη τιμή θα περιλαμβάνει πάντα το επίπεδο ενημέρωσης (με
     προεπιλογή το ‘'0'’).

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.release ()

     Επιστρέφει την έκδοση του συστήματος, π.χ.  ‘'2.2.0'’ ή ‘'NT'’.
     Επιστρέφεται μια κενή συμβολοσειρά αν η τιμή δεν μπορεί να
     καθοριστεί.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.system ()

     Επιστρέφει το όνομα του συστήματος/λειτουργικού, όπως ‘'Linux'’,
     ‘'Darwin'’, ‘'Java'’, ‘'Windows'’.  Επιστρέφεται μια κενή
     συμβολοσειρά αν η τιμή δεν μπορεί να καθοριστεί.

     Στο iOS και το Android, αυτό επιστρέφει το όνομα του λειτουργικό
     συστήματος που βλέπει ο χρήστης δηλαδή, ‘'iOS’, ‘'iPadOS'’ ή
     ‘'Android'’).  Για να λάβετε το όνομα του πυρήνα (‘'Darwin'’ ή
     ‘'Linux'’), χρησιμοποιήστε τη *note os.uname(): 14c2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.system_alias (system, release, version)

     Επιστρέφει μια πλειάδα ‘(system, release, version)’ με ονόματα
     εμπορικής χρήσης που χρησιμοποιούνται για ορισμένα συστήματα.
     Επίσης, αναδιατάσσει ορισμένες πληροφορίες σε περιπτώσεις που
     διαφορετικά θα προκαλούσαν σύγχυση.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.version ()

     Επιστρέφει την έκδοση κυκλοφορίας του συστήματος, π.χ.  ‘'#3 on
     degas'’.  Επιστρέφεται μια κενή συμβολοσειρά εάν η τιμή δεν μπορεί
     να προσδιοριστεί.

     Στο iOS και το Android, αυτή είναι η έκδοση του λειτουργικό
     συστήματος που βλέπει ο χρήστης.  Για να λάβετε την έκδοση του
     πυρήνα Darwin ή Linux, χρησιμοποιήστε τη *note os.uname(): 14c2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.uname ()

     Αρκετά φορητή διεπαφή uname.  Επιστρέφει ένα *note namedtuple():
     1cf. που περιέχει έξι ιδιότητες: *note system: 2458, *note node:
     3487, *note release: 3491, *note version: 3492, *note machine:
     3486. και *note processor: 3489.

     Το *note processor: 3489. επιλύεται αργά, κατόπιν αιτήματος.

     Σημείωση: τα ονόματα των πρώτων δύο ιδιοτήτων διαφέρουν από αυτά
     που παρουσιάζονται από την συνάρτηση *note os.uname(): 14c2, όπου
     ονομάζονται ‘sysname’ και ‘nodename’.

     Οι τιμές που δεν μπορούν να προσδιοριστούν ορίζονται σε ‘''’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Το αποτέλεσμα άλλαξε από μια πλειάδα σε
     *note namedtuple(): 1cf.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Το *note processor: 3489. αναλύεται
     καθυστερημένα αντί άμεσα.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.invalidate_caches ()

     Καθαρίστε την εσωτερική μνήμη από πληροφορίες όπως τη *note
     uname(): 2001.  Αυτό είναι συνήθως χρήσιμο όταν η *note node():
     3487. της πλατφόρμας αλλάζει από μια εξωτερική διεργασία και
     κάποιος πρέπει να ανακτήσει την ενημερωμένη τιμή.

     Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Πλατφόρμα Windows,  Next: Πλατφόρμα macOS,  Prev: Cross Platform,  Up: platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας

5.17.7.2 Πλατφόρμα Windows
..........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.win32_ver (release='', version='', csd='',
          ptype='')

     Λαμβάνει επιπλέον πληροφορίες έκδοσης από το Μητρώο των Windows και
     επιστρέφει μια πλειάδα ‘(release, version, csd, ptype)’ που
     αναφέρεται στην έκδοση του λειτουργικού συστήματος, τον αριθμό
     έκδοσης, το επίπεδο CSD (service pack) και τον τύπο λειτουργικού
     συστήματος (πολυεπεξεργαστικό/μονοεπεξεργαστικό).  Τιμές που δεν
     μπορούν να προσδιοριστούν ορίζονται στα προεπιλεγμένα που δίνονται
     ως παράμετροι (όλα προεπιλέγονται σε κενές συμβολοσειρές).

     Ως υπόδειξη: το 'ptype' είναι ‘'Uniprocessor Free'’ σε μηχανές NT
     με έναν επεξεργαστή και ‘'Multiprocessor Free'’ σε μηχανές με
     πολλαπλούς επεξεργαστές.  Ο όρος '“Free”' αναφέρεται σε έκδοση του
     λειτουργικού συστήματος χωρίς κώδικα αποσφαλμάτωσης.  Θα μπορούσε
     επίσης να αναφέρει '“Checked”' που σημαίνει ότι η έκδοση του
     λειτουργικού συστήματος χρησιμοποιεί κώδικα αποσφαλμάτωσης, δηλαδή
     κώδικα που ελέγχει ορίσματα, εύρη κ.λπ.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.win32_edition ()

     Επιστρέφει μια συμβολοσειρά που αναπαριστά την τρέχουσα έκδοση των
     Windows ή ‘None’ αν δεν μπορεί να καθοριστεί η τιμή.  Πιθανές τιμές
     περιλαμβάνουν, αλλά δεν περιορίζονται σε ‘'Enterprise'’,
     ‘'IoTUAP'’, ‘'ServerStandard'’ και ‘'nanoserver'’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.win32_is_iot ()

     Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν η έκδοση των Windows που επιστρέφεται από την
     *note win32_edition(): 3494. αναγνωρίζεται ως έκδοση IoT.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: Πλατφόρμα macOS,  Next: Πλατφόρμα iOS,  Prev: Πλατφόρμα Windows,  Up: platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας

5.17.7.3 Πλατφόρμα macOS
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.mac_ver (release='', versioninfo=('', '', ''),
          machine='')

     Λαμβάνει πληροφορίες έκδοσης macOS και τις επιστρέφει ως πλειάδα
     ‘(release, versioninfo, machine)’ όπου το 'versioninfo' είναι μια
     πλειάδα ‘(version, dev_stage, non_release_version)’.

     Οι τιμές που δεν μπορούν να προσδιοριστούν ορίζονται ως ‘''’.  Όλα
     τα στοιχεία της πλειάδας είναι συμβολοσειρές.


File: python.info,  Node: Πλατφόρμα iOS,  Next: Πλατφόρμες Unix,  Prev: Πλατφόρμα macOS,  Up: platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας

5.17.7.4 Πλατφόρμα iOS
......................

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.ios_ver (system='', release='', model='',
          is_simulator=False)

     Λάβετε πληροφορίες για την έκδοση του iOS και επιστρέψτε τις ως μια
     *note namedtuple(): 1cf. με τα εξής χαρακτηριστικά:

        * ‘system’ είναι το όνομα του λειτουργικού συστήματος; είτε
          ‘'iOS'’ ή ‘'iPadOS'’.

        * ‘release’ είναι ο αριθμός έκδοσης iOS ως μια συμβολοσειρά
          (π.χ., ‘'17.2'’).

        * Το ‘model’ είναι ο αναγνωριστικό αριθμός μοντέλου της
          συσκευής.  Αυτό θα είναι μια συμβολοσειρά όπως ‘'iPhone13,2'’
          για μια φυσική συσκευή, ή ‘'iPhone'’ για έναν εξομοιωτή.

        * Το ‘is_simulator’ είναι μια δυαδική τιμή που περιγράφει αν η
          εφαρμογή εκτελείται σε εξομοιωτή ή σε φυσική συσκευή.

     Οι καταχωρήσεις που δεν μπορούν να προσδιοριστούν ορίζονται στις
     προεπιλεγμένες τιμές που δίνονται ως παράμετροι.


File: python.info,  Node: Πλατφόρμες Unix,  Next: Πλατφόρμες Linux,  Prev: Πλατφόρμα iOS,  Up: platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας

5.17.7.5 Πλατφόρμες Unix
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.libc_ver (executable=sys.executable, lib='',
          version='', chunksize=16384)

     Προσπαθεί να προσδιορίσει την έκδοση της libc με την οποία είναι
     συνδεδεμένο το εκτελέσιμο αρχείο (προεπιλογή είναι ο διερμηνέας της
     Python).  Επιστρέφει μια πλειάδα συμβολοσειρών ‘(lib, version)’, η
     οποία ορίζεται στις δοθείσες παραμέτρους σε περίπτωση αποτυχίας της
     αναζήτησης.

     Σημειώστε ότι αυτή η συνάρτηση έχει λεπτομερή γνώση του τρόπου με
     τον οποίο οι διάφορες εκδόσεις της libc προσθέτουν σύμβολα στο
     εκτελέσιμο και πιθανώς μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί μόνο για εκτελέσιμα
     που έχουν μεταγλωττιστεί με το ‘gcc’.

     Το αρχείο διαβάζεται και σαρώνονται τμήματά του μεγέθους
     'chunksize' bytes.


File: python.info,  Node: Πλατφόρμες Linux,  Next: Πλατφόρμα Android,  Prev: Πλατφόρμες Unix,  Up: platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας

5.17.7.6 Πλατφόρμες Linux
.........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.freedesktop_os_release ()

     Λαμβάνει την ταυτότητα του λειτουργικού συστήματος από το αρχείο
     ‘os-release’ και την επιστρέφει ως λεξικό.  Το αρχείο ‘os-release’
     είναι ένα πρότυπο του freedesktop.org(1) και είναι διαθέσιμο στις
     περισσότερες διανομές Linux.  Μια αξιοσημείωτη εξαίρεση είναι το
     Android και οι διανομές που βασίζονται σε Android.

     Κάνει raise εξαίρεση *note OSError: 53c. ή την υποκλάση όταν δεν
     είναι δυνατή η ανάγνωση ούτε του ‘/etc/os-release’ ούτε του
     ‘/usr/lib/os-release’.

     Σε περίπτωση επιτυχίας, η συνάρτηση επιστρέφει ένα λεξικό όπου τα
     κλειδιά και οι τιμές είναι συμβολοσειρές.  Οι τιμές έχουν τους
     ειδικούς χαρακτήρες του, όπως ‘"’ και ‘$’, χωρίς εισαγωγικά.  Τα
     πεδία ‘NAME’, ‘ID’ και ‘PRETTY_NAME’ ορίζονται πάντα σύμφωνα με το
     πρότυπο.  Όλα τα άλλα πεδία είναι προαιρετικά.  Οι προμηθευτές
     μπορεί να περιλαμβάνουν πρόσθετα πεδία.

     Σημειώστε ότι πεδία όπως τα ‘NAME’, ‘VERSION’ και ‘VARIANT’ είναι
     συμβολοσειρές κατάλληλες για παρουσίαση στους χρήστες.  Τα
     προγράμματα θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούν πεδία όπως τα ‘ID’,
     ‘ID_LIKE’, ‘VERSION_ID’ ή ‘VARIANT_ID’ για την αναγνώριση διανομών
     Linux.

     Παράδειγμα:

          def get_like_distro():
              info = platform.freedesktop_os_release()
              ids = [info["ID"]]
              if "ID_LIKE" in info:
                  # ids are space separated and ordered by precedence
                  ids.extend(info["ID_LIKE"].split())
              return ids

     Added in version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html


File: python.info,  Node: Πλατφόρμα Android,  Next: Χρήση από γραμμή εντολών,  Prev: Πλατφόρμες Linux,  Up: platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας

5.17.7.7 Πλατφόρμα Android
..........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: platform.android_ver (release='', api_level=0,
          manufacturer='', model='', device='', is_emulator=False)

     Λάβετε πληροφορίες για τη συσκευή Android.  Επιστρέφει μια *note
     namedtuple(): 1cf. με τα εξής χαρακτηριστικά.  Οι τιμές που δεν
     μπορούν να προσδιοριστούν ορίζονται στις προεπιλεγμένες τιμές που
     δίνονται ως παράμετροι.

        * ‘release’ - Η έκδοση του Android, ως συμβολοσειρά (π.χ.
          ‘"14"’).

        * ‘api_level’ - Το επίπεδο API της εκτελούμενης συσκευής, ως
          ακέραιος αριθμός (π.χ.  ‘34’ για Android 14).  Για να λάβετε
          το επίπεδο API με το οποίο έχει κατασκευαστεί η Python, δείτε
          τη *note sys.getandroidapilevel(): f49.

        * ‘manufacturer’ - Το όνομα του κατασκευαστή(1).

        * ‘model’ - Το όνομα του μοντέλου(2) – συνήθως το εμπορικό όνομα
          ή ο αριθμός μοντέλου.

        * ‘device’ - Το όνομα της συσκευής(3) – συνήθως ο αριθμός
          μοντέλου ή ένα κωδικό όνομα.

        * ‘is_emulator’ - ‘True’ αν η συσκευή είναι εξομοιωτής; ‘False’
          αν είναι φυσική συσκευή.

     Η Google διατηρεί μια λίστα με γνωστά ονόματα μοντέλων συσκευών(4).

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#MANUFACTURER

   (2) https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#MODEL

   (3) https://developer.android.com/reference/android/os/Build#DEVICE

   (4) https://storage.googleapis.com/play_public/supported_devices.html


File: python.info,  Node: Χρήση από γραμμή εντολών,  Prev: Πλατφόρμα Android,  Up: platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας

5.17.7.8 Χρήση από γραμμή εντολών
.................................

‘platform’ can also be invoked directly using the *note -m: 4ca. switch
of the interpreter:

     python -m platform [--terse] [--nonaliased] [{nonaliased,terse} ...]

Οι εξής επιλογές γίνονται αποδεκτές:

 -- Option: --terse

     Εκτυπώνει συνοπτικές πληροφορίες για την πλατφόρμα.  Αυτό είναι
     ισοδύναμο με την κλήση *note platform.platform(): 1cc7. με το
     όρισμα 'terse' ορισμένο σε ‘True’.

 -- Option: --nonaliased

     Εκτυπώνει πληροφορίες για την πλατφόρμα χωρίς την αντικατάσταση του
     ονόματος του συστήματος/ λειτουργικού.  Αυτό είναι ισοδύναμο με την
     κλήση της *note platform.platform(): 1cc7. με το όρισμα 'aliased'
     ορισμένο σε ‘True’.

Μπορείτε επίσης να περάσετε ένα ή περισσότερα ορίσματα θέσης (‘terse’,
‘nonaliased’) για να ελέγξετε ρητά τη μορφή της εξόδου.  Αυτά
συμπεριφέρονται όπως οι αντίστοιχες επιλογές τους.


File: python.info,  Node: errno — Standard errno system symbols,  Next: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python,  Prev: platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.17.8 ‘errno’ — Standard errno system symbols
----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module makes available standard ‘errno’ system symbols.  The value
of each symbol is the corresponding integer value.  The names and
descriptions are borrowed from ‘linux/include/errno.h’, which should be
all-inclusive.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.errorcode

     Dictionary providing a mapping from the errno value to the string
     name in the underlying system.  For instance,
     ‘errno.errorcode[errno.EPERM]’ maps to ‘'EPERM'’.

To translate a numeric error code to an error message, use *note
os.strerror(): 3249.

Of the following list, symbols that are not used on the current platform
are not defined by the module.  The specific list of defined symbols is
available as ‘errno.errorcode.keys()’.  Symbols available can include:

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EPERM

     Operation not permitted.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note PermissionError: 10f9.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOENT

     No such file or directory.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note FileNotFoundError: 243.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ESRCH

     No such process.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     ProcessLookupError: 1403.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EINTR

     Interrupted system call.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note InterruptedError: 1141.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EIO

     I/O error

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENXIO

     No such device or address

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.E2BIG

     Arg list too long

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOEXEC

     Exec format error

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EBADF

     Bad file number

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ECHILD

     No child processes.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     ChildProcessError: 1400.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EAGAIN

     Try again.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     BlockingIOError: 4c3.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOMEM

     Out of memory

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EACCES

     Permission denied.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     PermissionError: 10f9.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EFAULT

     Bad address

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOTBLK

     Block device required

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EBUSY

     Device or resource busy

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EEXIST

     File exists.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     FileExistsError: 13c9.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EXDEV

     Cross-device link

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENODEV

     No such device

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOTDIR

     Not a directory.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     NotADirectoryError: 1402.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EISDIR

     Is a directory.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     IsADirectoryError: 1401.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EINVAL

     Invalid argument

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENFILE

     File table overflow

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EMFILE

     Too many open files

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOTTY

     Not a typewriter

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ETXTBSY

     Text file busy

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EFBIG

     File too large

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOSPC

     No space left on device

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ESPIPE

     Illegal seek

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EROFS

     Read-only file system

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EMLINK

     Too many links

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EPIPE

     Broken pipe.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     BrokenPipeError: 1404.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EDOM

     Math argument out of domain of func

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ERANGE

     Math result not representable

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EDEADLK

     Resource deadlock would occur

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENAMETOOLONG

     File name too long

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOLCK

     No record locks available

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOSYS

     Function not implemented

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOTEMPTY

     Directory not empty

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ELOOP

     Too many symbolic links encountered

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EWOULDBLOCK

     Operation would block.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     BlockingIOError: 4c3.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOMSG

     No message of desired type

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EIDRM

     Identifier removed

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ECHRNG

     Channel number out of range

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EL2NSYNC

     Level 2 not synchronized

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EL3HLT

     Level 3 halted

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EL3RST

     Level 3 reset

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ELNRNG

     Link number out of range

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EUNATCH

     Protocol driver not attached

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOCSI

     No CSI structure available

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EL2HLT

     Level 2 halted

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EBADE

     Invalid exchange

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EBADR

     Invalid request descriptor

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EXFULL

     Exchange full

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOANO

     No anode

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EBADRQC

     Invalid request code

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EBADSLT

     Invalid slot

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EDEADLOCK

     File locking deadlock error

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EBFONT

     Bad font file format

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOSTR

     Device not a stream

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENODATA

     No data available

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ETIME

     Timer expired

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOSR

     Out of streams resources

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENONET

     Machine is not on the network

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOPKG

     Package not installed

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EREMOTE

     Object is remote

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOLINK

     Link has been severed

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EADV

     Advertise error

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ESRMNT

     Srmount error

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ECOMM

     Communication error on send

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EPROTO

     Protocol error

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EMULTIHOP

     Multihop attempted

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EDOTDOT

     RFS specific error

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EBADMSG

     Not a data message

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EOVERFLOW

     Value too large for defined data type

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOTUNIQ

     Name not unique on network

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EBADFD

     File descriptor in bad state

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EREMCHG

     Remote address changed

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ELIBACC

     Can not access a needed shared library

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ELIBBAD

     Accessing a corrupted shared library

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ELIBSCN

     .lib section in a.out corrupted

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ELIBMAX

     Attempting to link in too many shared libraries

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ELIBEXEC

     Cannot exec a shared library directly

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EILSEQ

     Illegal byte sequence

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ERESTART

     Interrupted system call should be restarted

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ESTRPIPE

     Streams pipe error

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EUSERS

     Too many users

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOTSOCK

     Socket operation on non-socket

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EDESTADDRREQ

     Destination address required

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EMSGSIZE

     Message too long

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EPROTOTYPE

     Protocol wrong type for socket

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOPROTOOPT

     Protocol not available

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EPROTONOSUPPORT

     Protocol not supported

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ESOCKTNOSUPPORT

     Socket type not supported

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EOPNOTSUPP

     Operation not supported on transport endpoint

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOTSUP

     Operation not supported

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EPFNOSUPPORT

     Protocol family not supported

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EAFNOSUPPORT

     Address family not supported by protocol

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EADDRINUSE

     Address already in use

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EADDRNOTAVAIL

     Cannot assign requested address

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENETDOWN

     Network is down

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENETUNREACH

     Network is unreachable

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENETRESET

     Network dropped connection because of reset

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ECONNABORTED

     Software caused connection abort.  This error is mapped to the
     exception *note ConnectionAbortedError: 1405.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ECONNRESET

     Connection reset by peer.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note ConnectionResetError: 1407.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOBUFS

     No buffer space available

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EISCONN

     Transport endpoint is already connected

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOTCONN

     Transport endpoint is not connected

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ESHUTDOWN

     Cannot send after transport endpoint shutdown.  This error is
     mapped to the exception *note BrokenPipeError: 1404.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ETOOMANYREFS

     Too many references: cannot splice

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ETIMEDOUT

     Connection timed out.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     TimeoutError: c0e.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ECONNREFUSED

     Connection refused.  This error is mapped to the exception *note
     ConnectionRefusedError: 1406.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EHOSTDOWN

     Host is down

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EHOSTUNREACH

     No route to host

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EHWPOISON

     Memory page has hardware error.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EALREADY

     Operation already in progress.  This error is mapped to the
     exception *note BlockingIOError: 4c3.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EINPROGRESS

     Operation now in progress.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note BlockingIOError: 4c3.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ESTALE

     Stale NFS file handle

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EUCLEAN

     Structure needs cleaning

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOTNAM

     Not a XENIX named type file

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENAVAIL

     No XENIX semaphores available

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EISNAM

     Is a named type file

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EREMOTEIO

     Remote I/O error

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EDQUOT

     Quota exceeded

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EQFULL

     Interface output queue is full

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOMEDIUM

     No medium found

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EMEDIUMTYPE

     Wrong medium type

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOKEY

     Required key not available

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EKEYEXPIRED

     Key has expired

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EKEYREVOKED

     Key has been revoked

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EKEYREJECTED

     Key was rejected by service

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ERFKILL

     Operation not possible due to RF-kill

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ELOCKUNMAPPED

     Locked lock was unmapped

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOTACTIVE

     Facility is not active

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EAUTH

     Authentication error

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EBADARCH

     Bad CPU type in executable

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EBADEXEC

     Bad executable (or shared library)

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EBADMACHO

     Malformed Mach-o file

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EDEVERR

     Device error

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EFTYPE

     Inappropriate file type or format

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENEEDAUTH

     Need authenticator

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOATTR

     Attribute not found

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOPOLICY

     Policy not found

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EPROCLIM

     Too many processes

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EPROCUNAVAIL

     Bad procedure for program

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EPROGMISMATCH

     Program version wrong

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EPROGUNAVAIL

     RPC prog.  not avail

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EPWROFF

     Device power is off

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EBADRPC

     RPC struct is bad

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ERPCMISMATCH

     RPC version wrong

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ESHLIBVERS

     Shared library version mismatch

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOTCAPABLE

     Capabilities insufficient.  This error is mapped to the exception
     *note PermissionError: 10f9.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: WASI, FreeBSD

     Added in version 3.11.1.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ECANCELED

     Operation canceled

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.EOWNERDEAD

     Owner died

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: errno.ENOTRECOVERABLE

     State not recoverable

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python,  Prev: errno — Standard errno system symbols,  Up: Generic Operating System Services

5.17.9 ‘ctypes’ — A foreign function library for Python
-------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/ctypes(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘ctypes’ is a foreign function library for Python.  It provides C
compatible data types, and allows calling functions in DLLs or shared
libraries.  It can be used to wrap these libraries in pure Python.

This is an *note optional module: 2347.  If it is missing from your copy
of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is,
whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

* Menu:

* ctypes tutorial::
* ctypes reference::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/ctypes


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes tutorial,  Next: ctypes reference,  Up: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python

5.17.9.1 ctypes tutorial
........................

Note: Some code samples reference the ctypes *note c_int: 3527. type.
On platforms where ‘sizeof(long) == sizeof(int)’ it is an alias to *note
c_long: 3528.  So, you should not be confused if ‘c_long’ is printed if
you would expect ‘c_int’ — they are actually the same type.

* Menu:

* Loading dynamic link libraries::
* Accessing functions from loaded dlls::
* Calling functions::
* Fundamental data types::
* Calling functions, continued: Calling functions continued.
* Calling variadic functions::
* Calling functions with your own custom data types::
* Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes): Specifying the required argument types function prototypes.
* Return types::
* Passing pointers (or; passing parameters by reference): Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference.
* Structures and unions::
* Structure/union layout, alignment and byte order: Structure/union layout alignment and byte order.
* Bit fields in structures and unions::
* Arrays::
* Pointers::
* Thread safety without the GIL::
* Type conversions::
* Incomplete Types::
* Callback functions::
* Accessing values exported from dlls::
* Surprises::
* Variable-sized data types::


File: python.info,  Node: Loading dynamic link libraries,  Next: Accessing functions from loaded dlls,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.2 Loading dynamic link libraries
.......................................

‘ctypes’ exports the *note cdll: 352b, and on Windows *note windll:
352c. and *note oledll: 352d. objects, for loading dynamic link
libraries.

You load libraries by accessing them as attributes of these objects.
‘cdll’ loads libraries which export functions using the standard ‘cdecl’
calling convention, while ‘windll’ libraries call functions using the
‘stdcall’ calling convention.  *note oledll: 352d. also uses the
‘stdcall’ calling convention, and assumes the functions return a Windows
‘HRESULT’ error code.  The error code is used to automatically raise an
*note OSError: 53c. exception when the function call fails.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Windows errors used to raise *note WindowsError:
13fd, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

Here are some examples for Windows.  Note that ‘msvcrt’ is the MS
standard C library containing most standard C functions, and uses the
‘cdecl’ calling convention:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> print(windll.kernel32)
     <WinDLL 'kernel32', handle ... at ...>
     >>> print(cdll.msvcrt)
     <CDLL 'msvcrt', handle ... at ...>
     >>> libc = cdll.msvcrt
     >>>

Windows appends the usual ‘.dll’ file suffix automatically.

     Σημείωση: Accessing the standard C library through ‘cdll.msvcrt’
     will use an outdated version of the library that may be
     incompatible with the one being used by Python.  Where possible,
     use native Python functionality, or else import and use the
     ‘msvcrt’ module.

Other systems require the filename 'including' the extension to load a
library, so attribute access can not be used to load libraries.  Either
the *note LoadLibrary(): 352e. method of the dll loaders should be used,
or you should load the library by creating an instance of *note CDLL:
dad. by calling the constructor.

For example, on Linux:

     >>> cdll.LoadLibrary("libc.so.6")
     <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
     >>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")
     >>> libc
     <CDLL 'libc.so.6', handle ... at ...>
     >>>

On macOS:

     >>> cdll.LoadLibrary("libc.dylib")
     <CDLL 'libc.dylib', handle ... at ...>
     >>> libc = CDLL("libc.dylib")
     >>> libc
     <CDLL 'libc.dylib', handle ... at ...>


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing functions from loaded dlls,  Next: Calling functions,  Prev: Loading dynamic link libraries,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.3 Accessing functions from loaded dlls
.............................................

Functions are accessed as attributes of dll objects:

     >>> libc.printf
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> print(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA)
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> print(windll.kernel32.MyOwnFunction)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "ctypes.py", line 239, in __getattr__
         func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
     AttributeError: function 'MyOwnFunction' not found
     >>>

Note that win32 system dlls like ‘kernel32’ and ‘user32’ often export
ANSI as well as UNICODE versions of a function.  The UNICODE version is
exported with a ‘W’ appended to the name, while the ANSI version is
exported with an ‘A’ appended to the name.  The win32 ‘GetModuleHandle’
function, which returns a 'module handle' for a given module name, has
the following C prototype, and a macro is used to expose one of them as
‘GetModuleHandle’ depending on whether UNICODE is defined or not:

     /* ANSI version */
     HMODULE GetModuleHandleA(LPCSTR lpModuleName);
     /* UNICODE version */
     HMODULE GetModuleHandleW(LPCWSTR lpModuleName);

'windll' does not try to select one of them by magic, you must access
the version you need by specifying ‘GetModuleHandleA’ or
‘GetModuleHandleW’ explicitly, and then call it with bytes or string
objects respectively.

Sometimes, dlls export functions with names which aren’t valid Python
identifiers, like ‘"??2@YAPAXI@Z"’.  In this case you have to use *note
getattr(): f8f. to retrieve the function:

     >>> getattr(cdll.msvcrt, "??2@YAPAXI@Z")
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>>

On Windows, some dlls export functions not by name but by ordinal.
These functions can be accessed by indexing the dll object with the
ordinal number:

     >>> cdll.kernel32[1]
     <_FuncPtr object at 0x...>
     >>> cdll.kernel32[0]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "ctypes.py", line 310, in __getitem__
         func = _StdcallFuncPtr(name, self)
     AttributeError: function ordinal 0 not found
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Calling functions,  Next: Fundamental data types,  Prev: Accessing functions from loaded dlls,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.4 Calling functions
..........................

You can call these functions like any other Python callable.  This
example uses the ‘rand()’ function, which takes no arguments and returns
a pseudo-random integer:

     >>> print(libc.rand())
     1804289383

On Windows, you can call the ‘GetModuleHandleA()’ function, which
returns a win32 module handle (passing ‘None’ as single argument to call
it with a ‘NULL’ pointer):

     >>> print(hex(windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)))
     0x1d000000
     >>>

*note ValueError: 277. is raised when you call an ‘stdcall’ function
with the ‘cdecl’ calling convention, or vice versa:

     >>> cdll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(None)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: Procedure probably called with not enough arguments (4 bytes missing)
     >>>

     >>> windll.msvcrt.printf(b"spam")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: Procedure probably called with too many arguments (4 bytes in excess)
     >>>

To find out the correct calling convention you have to look into the C
header file or the documentation for the function you want to call.

On Windows, ‘ctypes’ uses win32 structured exception handling to prevent
crashes from general protection faults when functions are called with
invalid argument values:

     >>> windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA(32)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     OSError: exception: access violation reading 0x00000020
     >>>

There are, however, enough ways to crash Python with ‘ctypes’, so you
should be careful anyway.  The *note faulthandler: 5b. module can be
helpful in debugging crashes (e.g.  from segmentation faults produced by
erroneous C library calls).

‘None’, integers, bytes objects and (unicode) strings are the only
native Python objects that can directly be used as parameters in these
function calls.  ‘None’ is passed as a C ‘NULL’ pointer, bytes objects
and strings are passed as pointer to the memory block that contains
their data (char* or wchar_t*).  Python integers are passed as the
platform’s default C int type, their value is masked to fit into the C
type.

Before we move on calling functions with other parameter types, we have
to learn more about ‘ctypes’ data types.


File: python.info,  Node: Fundamental data types,  Next: Calling functions continued,  Prev: Calling functions,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.5 Fundamental data types
...............................

‘ctypes’ defines a number of primitive C compatible data types:

ctypes type                   C type                        Python type                   *note _type_: 2cd.
                                                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
*note c_bool: 3534.           _Bool                         *note bool: 5ef.              ‘'?'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_char: 3535.           char                          1-character                   ‘'c'’
                                                            *note bytes: 1c7.             
                                                            
                                                                                          
*note c_wchar: 3536.          ‘wchar_t’                     1-character *note str: 1df.   ‘'u'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_byte: 1cdf.           char                          *note int: 326.               ‘'b'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_ubyte: 1ce0.          unsigned char                 *note int: 326.               ‘'B'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_short: 3537.          short                         *note int: 326.               ‘'h'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_ushort: 3538.         unsigned short                *note int: 326.               ‘'H'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_int: 3527.            int                           *note int: 326.               ‘'i'’ *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_int8: 3539.           ‘int8_t’                      *note int: 326.               *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_int16: 353a.          ‘int16_t’                     *note int: 326.               *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_int32: 353b.          ‘int32_t’                     *note int: 326.               *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_int64: 353c.          ‘int64_t’                     *note int: 326.               *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_uint: 353d.           unsigned int                  *note int: 326.               ‘'I'’ *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_uint8: 353e.          ‘uint8_t’                     *note int: 326.               *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_uint16: 353f.         ‘uint16_t’                    *note int: 326.               *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_uint32: 3540.         ‘uint32_t’                    *note int: 326.               *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_uint64: 3541.         ‘uint64_t’                    *note int: 326.               *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_long: 3528.           long                          *note int: 326.               ‘'l'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_ulong: 3542.          unsigned long                 *note int: 326.               ‘'L'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_longlong: 3543.       long long                     *note int: 326.               ‘'q'’ *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_ulonglong: 3544.      unsigned long long            *note int: 326.               ‘'Q'’ *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_size_t: 3545.         ‘size_t’                      *note int: 326.               *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_ssize_t: 15e2.        *note Py_ssize_t: e24.        *note int: 326.               *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_time_t: 1d61.         ‘time_t’                      *note int: 326.               *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_float: 3546.          float                         *note float: 327.             ‘'f'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_double: 1eae.         double                        *note float: 327.             ‘'d'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_longdouble: 1eaf.     long double                   *note float: 327.             ‘'g'’ *
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_char_p: 1c5d.         char* (NUL terminated)        *note bytes: 1c7. or ‘None’   ‘'z'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_wchar_p: 1c5e.        wchar_t* (NUL terminated)     *note str: 1df. or ‘None’     ‘'Z'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_void_p: 1c5f.         void*                         *note int: 326. or ‘None’     ‘'P'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note py_object: 486.         *note PyObject: 19b.*         *note object: e4d.            ‘'O'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note VARIANT_BOOL: 3547.     short int                     *note bool: 5ef.              ‘'v'’
                                                                                          

Additionally, if IEC 60559 compatible complex arithmetic (Annex G) is
supported in both C and ‘libffi’, the following complex types are
available:

ctypes type                   C type                        Python type                   *note _type_: 2cd.
                                                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
*note c_float_complex: 2ce.   float complex                 *note complex: 328.           ‘'Zf'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_double_complex: 2cf.  double complex                *note complex: 328.           ‘'Zd'’
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note c_longdouble_complex: 2d0.long double complex         *note complex: 328.           ‘'Zg'’
                                                                                          

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The *note _type_: 2cd. types ‘F’, ‘D’ and ‘G’
have been replaced with ‘Zf’, ‘Zd’ and ‘Zg’.

All these types can be created by calling them with an optional
initializer of the correct type and value:

     >>> c_int()
     c_long(0)
     >>> c_wchar_p("Hello, World")
     c_wchar_p(140018365411392)
     >>> c_ushort(-3)
     c_ushort(65533)
     >>>

The constructors for numeric types will convert input using *note
__bool__(): 167a, *note __index__(): 43d. (for ‘int’), *note
__float__(): d92. or *note __complex__(): 9de.  This means *note c_bool:
3534. accepts any object with a truth value:

     >>> empty_list = []
     >>> c_bool(empty_list)
     c_bool(False)

Since these types are mutable, their value can also be changed
afterwards:

     >>> i = c_int(42)
     >>> print(i)
     c_long(42)
     >>> print(i.value)
     42
     >>> i.value = -99
     >>> print(i.value)
     -99
     >>>

Assigning a new value to instances of the pointer types *note c_char_p:
1c5d, *note c_wchar_p: 1c5e, and *note c_void_p: 1c5f. changes the
'memory location' they point to, 'not the contents' of the memory block
(of course not, because Python string objects are immutable):

     >>> s = "Hello, World"
     >>> c_s = c_wchar_p(s)
     >>> print(c_s)
     c_wchar_p(139966785747344)
     >>> print(c_s.value)
     Hello World
     >>> c_s.value = "Hi, there"
     >>> print(c_s)              # the memory location has changed
     c_wchar_p(139966783348904)
     >>> print(c_s.value)
     Hi, there
     >>> print(s)                # first object is unchanged
     Hello, World
     >>>

You should be careful, however, not to pass them to functions expecting
pointers to mutable memory.  If you need mutable memory blocks, ctypes
has a *note create_string_buffer(): 3548. function which creates these
in various ways.  The current memory block contents can be accessed (or
changed) with the ‘raw’ property; if you want to access it as NUL
terminated string, use the ‘value’ property:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(3)            # create a 3 byte buffer, initialized to NUL bytes
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     3 b'\x00\x00\x00'
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello")     # create a buffer containing a NUL terminated string
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     6 b'Hello\x00'
     >>> print(repr(p.value))
     b'Hello'
     >>> p = create_string_buffer(b"Hello", 10) # create a 10 byte buffer
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     10 b'Hello\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
     >>> p.value = b"Hi"
     >>> print(sizeof(p), repr(p.raw))
     10 b'Hi\x00lo\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00'
     >>>

The *note create_string_buffer(): 3548. function replaces the old
‘c_buffer()’ function (which is still available as an alias).  To create
a mutable memory block containing unicode characters of the C type
‘wchar_t’, use the *note create_unicode_buffer(): 1fa4. function.


File: python.info,  Node: Calling functions continued,  Next: Calling variadic functions,  Prev: Fundamental data types,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.6 Calling functions, continued
.....................................

Note that printf prints to the real standard output channel, 'not' to
*note sys.stdout: e9c, so these examples will only work at the console
prompt, not from within 'IDLE' or 'PythonWin':

     >>> printf = libc.printf
     >>> printf(b"Hello, %s\n", b"World!")
     Hello, World!
     14
     >>> printf(b"Hello, %S\n", "World!")
     Hello, World!
     14
     >>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", 42)
     42 bottles of beer
     19
     >>> printf(b"%f bottles of beer\n", 42.5)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: Don't know how to convert parameter 2
     >>>

As has been mentioned before, all Python types except integers, strings,
and bytes objects have to be wrapped in their corresponding ‘ctypes’
type, so that they can be converted to the required C data type:

     >>> printf(b"An int %d, a double %f\n", 1234, c_double(3.14))
     An int 1234, a double 3.140000
     31
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Calling variadic functions,  Next: Calling functions with your own custom data types,  Prev: Calling functions continued,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.7 Calling variadic functions
...................................

On a lot of platforms calling variadic functions through ctypes is
exactly the same as calling functions with a fixed number of parameters.
On some platforms, and in particular ARM64 for Apple Platforms, the
calling convention for variadic functions is different than that for
regular functions.

On those platforms it is required to specify the *note argtypes: 1a00.
attribute for the regular, non-variadic, function arguments:

     libc.printf.argtypes = [ctypes.c_char_p]

Because specifying the attribute does not inhibit portability it is
advised to always specify *note argtypes: 1a00. for all variadic
functions.


File: python.info,  Node: Calling functions with your own custom data types,  Next: Specifying the required argument types function prototypes,  Prev: Calling variadic functions,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.8 Calling functions with your own custom data types
..........................................................

You can also customize ‘ctypes’ argument conversion to allow instances
of your own classes be used as function arguments.  ‘ctypes’ looks for
an ‘_as_parameter_’ attribute and uses this as the function argument.
The attribute must be an integer, string, bytes, a ‘ctypes’ instance, or
an object with an ‘_as_parameter_’ attribute:

     >>> class Bottles:
     ...     def __init__(self, number):
     ...         self._as_parameter_ = number
     ...
     >>> bottles = Bottles(42)
     >>> printf(b"%d bottles of beer\n", bottles)
     42 bottles of beer
     19
     >>>

If you don’t want to store the instance’s data in the ‘_as_parameter_’
instance variable, you could define a *note property: 6bb. which makes
the attribute available on request.


File: python.info,  Node: Specifying the required argument types function prototypes,  Next: Return types,  Prev: Calling functions with your own custom data types,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.9 Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
.....................................................................

It is possible to specify the required argument types of functions
exported from DLLs by setting the *note argtypes: 1a00. attribute.

*note argtypes: 1a00. must be a sequence of C data types (the ‘printf()’
function is probably not a good example here, because it takes a
variable number and different types of parameters depending on the
format string, on the other hand this is quite handy to experiment with
this feature):

     >>> printf.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char_p, c_int, c_double]
     >>> printf(b"String '%s', Int %d, Double %f\n", b"Hi", 10, 2.2)
     String 'Hi', Int 10, Double 2.200000
     37
     >>>

Specifying a format protects against incompatible argument types (just
as a prototype for a C function), and tries to convert the arguments to
valid types:

     >>> printf(b"%d %d %d", 1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: 'int' object cannot be interpreted as ctypes.c_char_p
     >>> printf(b"%s %d %f\n", b"X", 2, 3)
     X 2 3.000000
     13
     >>>

If you have defined your own classes which you pass to function calls,
you have to implement a *note from_param(): 3551. class method for them
to be able to use them in the *note argtypes: 1a00. sequence.  The
‘from_param()’ class method receives the Python object passed to the
function call, it should do a typecheck or whatever is needed to make
sure this object is acceptable, and then return the object itself, its
‘_as_parameter_’ attribute, or whatever you want to pass as the C
function argument in this case.  Again, the result should be an integer,
string, bytes, a ‘ctypes’ instance, or an object with an
‘_as_parameter_’ attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: Return types,  Next: Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference,  Prev: Specifying the required argument types function prototypes,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.10 Return types
......................

By default functions are assumed to return the C int type.  Other return
types can be specified by setting the *note restype: 3554. attribute of
the function object.

The C prototype of ‘time()’ is ‘time_t time(time_t *)’.  Because
‘time_t’ might be of a different type than the default return type int,
you should specify the ‘restype’ attribute:

     >>> libc.time.restype = c_time_t

The argument types can be specified using *note argtypes: 1a00.:

     >>> libc.time.argtypes = (POINTER(c_time_t),)

To call the function with a ‘NULL’ pointer as first argument, use
‘None’:

     >>> print(libc.time(None))
     1150640792

Here is a more advanced example, it uses the ‘strchr()’ function, which
expects a string pointer and a char, and returns a pointer to a string:

     >>> strchr = libc.strchr
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))
     8059983
     >>> strchr.restype = c_char_p    # c_char_p is a pointer to a string
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", ord("d"))
     b'def'
     >>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", ord("x")))
     None
     >>>

If you want to avoid the *note ord("x"): 252c. calls above, you can set
the *note argtypes: 1a00. attribute, and the second argument will be
converted from a single character Python bytes object into a C char:

     >>> strchr.restype = c_char_p
     >>> strchr.argtypes = [c_char_p, c_char]
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
     b'def'
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"def")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ctypes.ArgumentError: argument 2: TypeError: one character bytes, bytearray or integer expected
     >>> print(strchr(b"abcdef", b"x"))
     None
     >>> strchr(b"abcdef", b"d")
     b'def'
     >>>

You can also use a callable Python object (a function or a class for
example) as the *note restype: 3554. attribute, if the foreign function
returns an integer.  The callable will be called with the 'integer' the
C function returns, and the result of this call will be used as the
result of your function call.  This is useful to check for error return
values and automatically raise an exception:

     >>> GetModuleHandle = windll.kernel32.GetModuleHandleA
     >>> def ValidHandle(value):
     ...     if value == 0:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     return value
     ...
     >>>
     >>> GetModuleHandle.restype = ValidHandle
     >>> GetModuleHandle(None)
     486539264
     >>> GetModuleHandle("something silly")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 3, in ValidHandle
     OSError: [Errno 126] The specified module could not be found.
     >>>

‘WinError’ is a function which will call Windows ‘FormatMessage()’ api
to get the string representation of an error code, and 'returns' an
exception.  ‘WinError’ takes an optional error code parameter, if no one
is used, it calls *note GetLastError(): 1963. to retrieve it.

Please note that a much more powerful error checking mechanism is
available through the *note errcheck: 3555. attribute; see the reference
manual for details.


File: python.info,  Node: Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference,  Next: Structures and unions,  Prev: Return types,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.11 Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)
................................................................

Sometimes a C api function expects a 'pointer' to a data type as
parameter, probably to write into the corresponding location, or if the
data is too large to be passed by value.  This is also known as 'passing
parameters by reference'.

‘ctypes’ exports the *note byref(): 3558. function which is used to pass
parameters by reference.  The same effect can be achieved with the *note
pointer(): 1c5c. function, although ‘pointer()’ does a lot more work
since it constructs a real pointer object, so it is faster to use
‘byref()’ if you don’t need the pointer object in Python itself:

     >>> i = c_int()
     >>> f = c_float()
     >>> s = create_string_buffer(b'\000' * 32)
     >>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
     0 0.0 b''
     >>> libc.sscanf(b"1 3.14 Hello", b"%d %f %s",
     ...             byref(i), byref(f), s)
     3
     >>> print(i.value, f.value, repr(s.value))
     1 3.1400001049 b'Hello'
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Structures and unions,  Next: Structure/union layout alignment and byte order,  Prev: Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.12 Structures and unions
...............................

Structures and unions must derive from the *note Structure: 47c. and
*note Union: 47d. base classes which are defined in the ‘ctypes’ module.
Each subclass must define a *note _fields_: 1b50. attribute.  ‘_fields_’
must be a list of '2-tuples', containing a 'field name' and a 'field
type'.

The field type must be a ‘ctypes’ type like *note c_int: 3527, or any
other derived ‘ctypes’ type: structure, union, array, pointer.

Here is a simple example of a POINT structure, which contains two
integers named 'x' and 'y', and also shows how to initialize a structure
in the constructor:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("x", c_int),
     ...                 ("y", c_int)]
     ...
     >>> point = POINT(10, 20)
     >>> print(point.x, point.y)
     10 20
     >>> point = POINT(y=5)
     >>> print(point.x, point.y)
     0 5
     >>> POINT(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: too many initializers
     >>>

You can, however, build much more complicated structures.  A structure
can itself contain other structures by using a structure as a field
type.

Here is a RECT structure which contains two POINTs named 'upperleft' and
'lowerright':

     >>> class RECT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("upperleft", POINT),
     ...                 ("lowerright", POINT)]
     ...
     >>> rc = RECT(point)
     >>> print(rc.upperleft.x, rc.upperleft.y)
     0 5
     >>> print(rc.lowerright.x, rc.lowerright.y)
     0 0
     >>>

Nested structures can also be initialized in the constructor in several
ways:

     >>> r = RECT(POINT(1, 2), POINT(3, 4))
     >>> r = RECT((1, 2), (3, 4))

Field *note descriptor: 21f.s can be retrieved from the 'class', they
are useful for debugging because they can provide useful information.
See *note CField: 47e.:

     >>> POINT.x
     <ctypes.CField 'x' type=c_int, ofs=0, size=4>
     >>> POINT.y
     <ctypes.CField 'y' type=c_int, ofs=4, size=4>
     >>>
     Προειδοποίηση: ‘ctypes’ does not support passing unions or
     structures with bit-fields to functions by value.  While this may
     work on 32-bit x86, it’s not guaranteed by the library to work in
     the general case.  Unions and structures with bit-fields should
     always be passed to functions by pointer.


File: python.info,  Node: Structure/union layout alignment and byte order,  Next: Bit fields in structures and unions,  Prev: Structures and unions,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.13 Structure/union layout, alignment and byte order
..........................................................

By default, Structure and Union fields are laid out in the same way the
C compiler does it.  It is possible to override this behavior entirely
by specifying a *note _layout_: 319. class attribute in the subclass
definition; see the attribute documentation for details.

It is possible to specify the maximum alignment for the fields and/or
for the structure itself by setting the class attributes *note _pack_:
318. and/or *note _align_: 6ed, respectively.  See the attribute
documentation for details.

‘ctypes’ uses the native byte order for Structures and Unions.  To build
structures with non-native byte order, you can use one of the *note
BigEndianStructure: 355d, *note LittleEndianStructure: 355e, *note
BigEndianUnion: 1db1, and *note LittleEndianUnion: 1db2. base classes.
These classes cannot contain pointer fields.


File: python.info,  Node: Bit fields in structures and unions,  Next: Arrays,  Prev: Structure/union layout alignment and byte order,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.14 Bit fields in structures and unions
.............................................

It is possible to create structures and unions containing bit fields.
Bit fields are only possible for integer fields, the bit width is
specified as the third item in the *note _fields_: 1b50. tuples:

     >>> class Int(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("first_16", c_int, 16),
     ...                 ("second_16", c_int, 16)]
     ...
     >>> print(Int.first_16)
     <ctypes.CField 'first_16' type=c_int, ofs=0, bit_size=16, bit_offset=0>
     >>> print(Int.second_16)
     <ctypes.CField 'second_16' type=c_int, ofs=0, bit_size=16, bit_offset=16>

It is important to note that bit field allocation and layout in memory
are not defined as a C standard; their implementation is
compiler-specific.  By default, Python will attempt to match the
behavior of a «native» compiler for the current platform.  See the *note
_layout_: 319. attribute for details on the default behavior and how to
change it.


File: python.info,  Node: Arrays,  Next: Pointers,  Prev: Bit fields in structures and unions,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.15 Arrays
................

Arrays are sequences, containing a fixed number of instances of the same
type.

The recommended way to create array types is by multiplying a data type
with a positive integer:

     TenPointsArrayType = POINT * 10

Here is an example of a somewhat artificial data type, a structure
containing 4 POINTs among other stuff:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
     ...
     >>> class MyStruct(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("a", c_int),
     ...                 ("b", c_float),
     ...                 ("point_array", POINT * 4)]
     >>>
     >>> print(len(MyStruct().point_array))
     4
     >>>

Instances are created in the usual way, by calling the class:

     arr = TenPointsArrayType()
     for pt in arr:
         print(pt.x, pt.y)

The above code print a series of ‘0 0’ lines, because the array contents
is initialized to zeros.

Initializers of the correct type can also be specified:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> TenIntegers = c_int * 10
     >>> ii = TenIntegers(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)
     >>> print(ii)
     <c_long_Array_10 object at 0x...>
     >>> for i in ii: print(i, end=" ")
     ...
     1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Pointers,  Next: Thread safety without the GIL,  Prev: Arrays,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.16 Pointers
..................

Pointer instances are created by calling the *note pointer(): 1c5c.
function on a ‘ctypes’ type:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> i = c_int(42)
     >>> pi = pointer(i)
     >>>

Pointer instances have a *note contents: 3564. attribute which returns
the object to which the pointer points, the ‘i’ object above:

     >>> pi.contents
     c_long(42)
     >>>

Note that ‘ctypes’ does not have OOR (original object return), it
constructs a new, equivalent object each time you retrieve an attribute:

     >>> pi.contents is i
     False
     >>> pi.contents is pi.contents
     False
     >>>

Assigning another *note c_int: 3527. instance to the pointer’s contents
attribute would cause the pointer to point to the memory location where
this is stored:

     >>> i = c_int(99)
     >>> pi.contents = i
     >>> pi.contents
     c_long(99)
     >>>

Pointer instances can also be indexed with integers:

     >>> pi[0]
     99
     >>>

Assigning to an integer index changes the pointed to value:

     >>> print(i)
     c_long(99)
     >>> pi[0] = 22
     >>> print(i)
     c_long(22)
     >>>

It is also possible to use indexes different from 0, but you must know
what you’re doing, just as in C: You can access or change arbitrary
memory locations.  Generally you only use this feature if you receive a
pointer from a C function, and you 'know' that the pointer actually
points to an array instead of a single item.

Behind the scenes, the *note pointer(): 1c5c. function does more than
simply create pointer instances, it has to create pointer 'types' first.
This is done with the *note POINTER(): 484. function, which accepts any
‘ctypes’ type, and returns a new type:

     >>> PI = POINTER(c_int)
     >>> PI
     <class 'ctypes.LP_c_long'>
     >>> PI(42)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: expected c_long instead of int
     >>> PI(c_int(42))
     <ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x...>
     >>>

Calling the pointer type without an argument creates a ‘NULL’ pointer.
‘NULL’ pointers have a ‘False’ boolean value:

     >>> null_ptr = POINTER(c_int)()
     >>> print(bool(null_ptr))
     False
     >>>

‘ctypes’ checks for ‘NULL’ when dereferencing pointers (but
dereferencing invalid non-‘NULL’ pointers would crash Python):

     >>> null_ptr[0]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ....
     ValueError: NULL pointer access
     >>>

     >>> null_ptr[0] = 1234
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ....
     ValueError: NULL pointer access
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Thread safety without the GIL,  Next: Type conversions,  Prev: Pointers,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.17 Thread safety without the GIL
.......................................

From Python 3.13 onward, the *note GIL: 411. can be disabled on the
*note free-threaded build: 198.  In ctypes, reads and writes to a single
object concurrently is safe, but not across multiple objects:

          >>> number = c_int(42)
          >>> pointer_a = pointer(number)
          >>> pointer_b = pointer(number)

In the above, it’s only safe for one object to read and write to the
address at once if the GIL is disabled.  So, ‘pointer_a’ can be shared
and written to across multiple threads, but only if ‘pointer_b’ is not
also attempting to do the same.  If this is an issue, consider using a
*note threading.Lock: 1a10. to synchronize access to memory:

          >>> import threading
          >>> lock = threading.Lock()
          >>> # Thread 1
          >>> with lock:
          ...    pointer_a.contents = 24
          >>> # Thread 2
          >>> with lock:
          ...    pointer_b.contents = 42


File: python.info,  Node: Type conversions,  Next: Incomplete Types,  Prev: Thread safety without the GIL,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.18 Type conversions
..........................

Usually, ctypes does strict type checking.  This means, if you have
‘POINTER(c_int)’ in the *note argtypes: 1a00. list of a function or as
the type of a member field in a structure definition, only instances of
exactly the same type are accepted.  There are some exceptions to this
rule, where ctypes accepts other objects.  For example, you can pass
compatible array instances instead of pointer types.  So, for
‘POINTER(c_int)’, ctypes accepts an array of c_int:

     >>> class Bar(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("count", c_int), ("values", POINTER(c_int))]
     ...
     >>> bar = Bar()
     >>> bar.values = (c_int * 3)(1, 2, 3)
     >>> bar.count = 3
     >>> for i in range(bar.count):
     ...     print(bar.values[i])
     ...
     1
     2
     3
     >>>

In addition, if a function argument is explicitly declared to be a
pointer type (such as ‘POINTER(c_int)’) in *note argtypes: 1a00, an
object of the pointed type (‘c_int’ in this case) can be passed to the
function.  ctypes will apply the required *note byref(): 3558.
conversion in this case automatically.

To set a POINTER type field to ‘NULL’, you can assign ‘None’:

     >>> bar.values = None
     >>>

Sometimes you have instances of incompatible types.  In C, you can cast
one type into another type.  ‘ctypes’ provides a *note cast(): 3569.
function which can be used in the same way.  The ‘Bar’ structure defined
above accepts ‘POINTER(c_int)’ pointers or *note c_int: 3527. arrays for
its ‘values’ field, but not instances of other types:

     >>> bar.values = (c_byte * 4)()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: incompatible types, c_byte_Array_4 instance instead of LP_c_long instance
     >>>

For these cases, the *note cast(): 3569. function is handy.

The *note cast(): 3569. function can be used to cast a ctypes instance
into a pointer to a different ctypes data type.  ‘cast()’ takes two
parameters, a ctypes object that is or can be converted to a pointer of
some kind, and a ctypes pointer type.  It returns an instance of the
second argument, which references the same memory block as the first
argument:

     >>> a = (c_byte * 4)()
     >>> cast(a, POINTER(c_int))
     <ctypes.LP_c_long object at ...>
     >>>

So, *note cast(): 3569. can be used to assign to the ‘values’ field of
‘Bar’ the structure:

     >>> bar = Bar()
     >>> bar.values = cast((c_byte * 4)(), POINTER(c_int))
     >>> print(bar.values[0])
     0
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Incomplete Types,  Next: Callback functions,  Prev: Type conversions,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.19 Incomplete Types
..........................

'Incomplete Types' are structures, unions or arrays whose members are
not yet specified.  In C, they are specified by forward declarations,
which are defined later:

     struct cell; /* forward declaration */

     struct cell {
         char *name;
         struct cell *next;
     };

The straightforward translation into ctypes code would be this, but it
does not work:

     >>> class cell(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                 ("next", POINTER(cell))]
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in cell
     NameError: name 'cell' is not defined
     >>>

because the new ‘class cell’ is not available in the class statement
itself.  In ‘ctypes’, we can define the ‘cell’ class and set the *note
_fields_: 1b50. attribute later, after the class statement:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class cell(Structure):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> cell._fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                  ("next", POINTER(cell))]
     >>>

Let’s try it.  We create two instances of ‘cell’, and let them point to
each other, and finally follow the pointer chain a few times:

     >>> c1 = cell()
     >>> c1.name = b"foo"
     >>> c2 = cell()
     >>> c2.name = b"bar"
     >>> c1.next = pointer(c2)
     >>> c2.next = pointer(c1)
     >>> p = c1
     >>> for i in range(8):
     ...     print(p.name, end=" ")
     ...     p = p.next[0]
     ...
     foo bar foo bar foo bar foo bar
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Callback functions,  Next: Accessing values exported from dlls,  Prev: Incomplete Types,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.20 Callback functions
............................

‘ctypes’ allows creating C callable function pointers from Python
callables.  These are sometimes called 'callback functions'.

First, you must create a class for the callback function.  The class
knows the calling convention, the return type, and the number and types
of arguments this function will receive.

The *note CFUNCTYPE(): 356d. factory function creates types for callback
functions using the ‘cdecl’ calling convention.  On Windows, the *note
WINFUNCTYPE(): 356e. factory function creates types for callback
functions using the ‘stdcall’ calling convention.

Both of these factory functions are called with the result type as first
argument, and the callback functions expected argument types as the
remaining arguments.

I will present an example here which uses the standard C library’s
‘qsort()’ function, that is used to sort items with the help of a
callback function.  ‘qsort()’ will be used to sort an array of integers:

     >>> IntArray5 = c_int * 5
     >>> ia = IntArray5(5, 1, 7, 33, 99)
     >>> qsort = libc.qsort
     >>> qsort.restype = None
     >>>

‘qsort()’ must be called with a pointer to the data to sort, the number
of items in the data array, the size of one item, and a pointer to the
comparison function, the callback.  The callback will then be called
with two pointers to items, and it must return a negative integer if the
first item is smaller than the second, a zero if they are equal, and a
positive integer otherwise.

So our callback function receives pointers to integers, and must return
an integer.  First we create the ‘type’ for the callback function:

     >>> CMPFUNC = CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
     >>>

To get started, here is a simple callback that shows the values it gets
passed:

     >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return 0
     ...
     >>> cmp_func = CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func)
     >>>

The result:

     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), cmp_func)
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     >>>

Now we can actually compare the two items and return a useful result:

     >>> def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return a[0] - b[0]
     ...
     >>>
     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), CMPFUNC(py_cmp_func))
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     >>>

As we can easily check, our array is sorted now:

     >>> for i in ia: print(i, end=" ")
     ...
     1 5 7 33 99
     >>>

The function factories can be used as decorator factories, so we may as
well write:

     >>> @CFUNCTYPE(c_int, POINTER(c_int), POINTER(c_int))
     ... def py_cmp_func(a, b):
     ...     print("py_cmp_func", a[0], b[0])
     ...     return a[0] - b[0]
     ...
     >>> qsort(ia, len(ia), sizeof(c_int), py_cmp_func)
     py_cmp_func 5 1
     py_cmp_func 33 99
     py_cmp_func 7 33
     py_cmp_func 1 7
     py_cmp_func 5 7
     >>>

     Σημείωση: Make sure you keep references to *note CFUNCTYPE(): 356d.
     objects as long as they are used from C code.  ‘ctypes’ doesn’t,
     and if you don’t, they may be garbage collected, crashing your
     program when a callback is made.

     Also, note that if the callback function is called in a thread
     created outside of Python’s control (e.g.  by the foreign code that
     calls the callback), ctypes creates a new dummy Python thread on
     every invocation.  This behavior is correct for most purposes, but
     it means that values stored with *note threading.local: 1a87. will
     'not' survive across different callbacks, even when those calls are
     made from the same C thread.


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing values exported from dlls,  Next: Surprises,  Prev: Callback functions,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.21 Accessing values exported from dlls
.............................................

Some shared libraries not only export functions, they also export
variables.  An example in the Python library itself is the *note
Py_Version: 5ae, Python runtime version number encoded in a single
constant integer.

‘ctypes’ can access values like this with the *note in_dll(): 3571.
class methods of the type.  'pythonapi' is a predefined symbol giving
access to the Python C api:

     >>> version = ctypes.c_int.in_dll(ctypes.pythonapi, "Py_Version")
     >>> print(hex(version.value))
     0x30c00a0

An extended example which also demonstrates the use of pointers accesses
the *note PyImport_FrozenModules: 3572. pointer exported by Python.

Quoting the docs for that value:

     This pointer is initialized to point to an array of *note _frozen:
     b57. records, terminated by one whose members are all ‘NULL’ or
     zero.  When a frozen module is imported, it is searched in this
     table.  Third-party code could play tricks with this to provide a
     dynamically created collection of frozen modules.

So manipulating this pointer could even prove useful.  To restrict the
example size, we show only how this table can be read with ‘ctypes’:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>>
     >>> class struct_frozen(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = [("name", c_char_p),
     ...                 ("code", POINTER(c_ubyte)),
     ...                 ("size", c_int),
     ...                 ("get_code", POINTER(c_ubyte)),  # Function pointer
     ...                ]
     ...
     >>>

We have defined the *note _frozen: b57. data type, so we can get the
pointer to the table:

     >>> FrozenTable = POINTER(struct_frozen)
     >>> table = FrozenTable.in_dll(pythonapi, "_PyImport_FrozenBootstrap")
     >>>

Since ‘table’ is a ‘pointer’ to the array of ‘struct_frozen’ records, we
can iterate over it, but we just have to make sure that our loop
terminates, because pointers have no size.  Sooner or later it would
probably crash with an access violation or whatever, so it’s better to
break out of the loop when we hit the ‘NULL’ entry:

     >>> for item in table:
     ...     if item.name is None:
     ...         break
     ...     print(item.name.decode("ascii"), item.size)
     ...
     _frozen_importlib 31764
     _frozen_importlib_external 41499
     zipimport 12345
     >>>

The fact that standard Python has a frozen module and a frozen package
(indicated by the negative ‘size’ member) is not well known, it is only
used for testing.  Try it out with ‘import __hello__’ for example.


File: python.info,  Node: Surprises,  Next: Variable-sized data types,  Prev: Accessing values exported from dlls,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.22 Surprises
...................

There are some edges in ‘ctypes’ where you might expect something other
than what actually happens.

Consider the following example:

     >>> from ctypes import *
     >>> class POINT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("x", c_int), ("y", c_int)
     ...
     >>> class RECT(Structure):
     ...     _fields_ = ("a", POINT), ("b", POINT)
     ...
     >>> p1 = POINT(1, 2)
     >>> p2 = POINT(3, 4)
     >>> rc = RECT(p1, p2)
     >>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
     1 2 3 4
     >>> # now swap the two points
     >>> rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a
     >>> print(rc.a.x, rc.a.y, rc.b.x, rc.b.y)
     3 4 3 4
     >>>

Hm.  We certainly expected the last statement to print ‘3 4 1 2’.  What
happened?  Here are the steps of the ‘rc.a, rc.b = rc.b, rc.a’ line
above:

     >>> temp0, temp1 = rc.b, rc.a
     >>> rc.a = temp0
     >>> rc.b = temp1
     >>>

Note that ‘temp0’ and ‘temp1’ are objects still using the internal
buffer of the ‘rc’ object above.  So executing ‘rc.a = temp0’ copies the
buffer contents of ‘temp0’ into ‘rc’ “s buffer.  This, in turn, changes
the contents of ‘temp1’.  So, the last assignment ‘rc.b = temp1’,
doesn’t have the expected effect.

Keep in mind that retrieving sub-objects from Structure, Unions, and
Arrays doesn’t 'copy' the sub-object, instead it retrieves a wrapper
object accessing the root-object’s underlying buffer.

Another example that may behave differently from what one would expect
is this:

     >>> s = c_char_p()
     >>> s.value = b"abc def ghi"
     >>> s.value
     b'abc def ghi'
     >>> s.value is s.value
     False
     >>>

     Σημείωση: Objects instantiated from *note c_char_p: 1c5d. can only
     have their value set to bytes or integers.

Why is it printing ‘False’?  ctypes instances are objects containing a
memory block plus some *note descriptor: 21f.s accessing the contents of
the memory.  Storing a Python object in the memory block does not store
the object itself, instead the ‘contents’ of the object is stored.
Accessing the contents again constructs a new Python object each time!


File: python.info,  Node: Variable-sized data types,  Prev: Surprises,  Up: ctypes tutorial

5.17.9.23 Variable-sized data types
...................................

‘ctypes’ provides some support for variable-sized arrays and structures.

The *note resize(): 3577. function can be used to resize the memory
buffer of an existing ctypes object.  The function takes the object as
first argument, and the requested size in bytes as the second argument.
The memory block cannot be made smaller than the natural memory block
specified by the objects type, a *note ValueError: 277. is raised if
this is tried:

     >>> short_array = (c_short * 4)()
     >>> print(sizeof(short_array))
     8
     >>> resize(short_array, 4)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: minimum size is 8
     >>> resize(short_array, 32)
     >>> sizeof(short_array)
     32
     >>> sizeof(type(short_array))
     8
     >>>

This is nice and fine, but how would one access the additional elements
contained in this array?  Since the type still only knows about 4
elements, we get errors accessing other elements:

     >>> short_array[:]
     [0, 0, 0, 0]
     >>> short_array[7]
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     IndexError: invalid index
     >>>

Another way to use variable-sized data types with ‘ctypes’ is to use the
dynamic nature of Python, and (re-)define the data type after the
required size is already known, on a case by case basis.


File: python.info,  Node: ctypes reference,  Prev: ctypes tutorial,  Up: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python

5.17.9.24 ctypes reference
..........................

* Menu:

* Loading shared libraries::
* Finding shared libraries::
* Listing loaded shared libraries::
* Foreign functions::
* Function prototypes::
* Utility functions::
* Data types: Data types<2>.
* Fundamental data types: Fundamental data types<2>.
* Structured data types::
* Arrays and pointers::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: Loading shared libraries,  Next: Finding shared libraries,  Up: ctypes reference

5.17.9.25 Loading shared libraries
..................................

There are several ways to load shared libraries into the Python process.
One way is to instantiate *note CDLL: dad. or one of its subclasses:

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.CDLL (name, mode=DEFAULT_MODE, handle=None,
          use_errno=False, use_last_error=False, winmode=None)

     Represents a loaded shared library.

     Functions in this library use the standard C calling convention,
     and are assumed to return int.  The Python *note global interpreter
     lock: 685. is released before calling any function exported by
     these libraries, and reacquired afterwards.  For different function
     behavior, use a subclass: *note OleDLL: 1ce1, *note WinDLL: 1ce2,
     or *note PyDLL: 1ce3.

     If you have an existing *note handle: 357c. to an already loaded
     shared library, it can be passed as the 'handle' argument to wrap
     the opened library in a new ‘CDLL’ object.  In this case, 'name' is
     only used to set the *note _name: 357d. attribute, but it may be
     adjusted and/or validated.

     If 'handle' is ‘None’, the underlying platform’s ‘dlopen(3)(1)’ or
     LoadLibraryExW(2) function is used to load the library into the
     process, and to get a handle to it.

     'name' is the pathname of the shared library to open.  If 'name'
     does not contain a path separator, the library is found in a
     platform-specific way.

     On Windows, the ‘.DLL’ suffix may be missing.  (For details, see
     LoadLibraryExW(3) documentation.)  Other platform-specific prefixes
     and suffixes (for example, ‘lib’, ‘.so’, ‘.dylib’, or version
     numbers) must be present in 'name'; they are not added
     automatically.  See *note Finding shared libraries: 357e. for more
     information.

     On non-Windows systems, 'name' can be ‘None’.  In this case,
     ‘dlopen()’ is called with ‘NULL’, which opens the main program as a
     «library».  (Some systems do the same is 'name' is empty;
     ‘None’/‘NULL’ is more portable.)

          CPython implementation detail: Since CPython is linked to
          ‘libc’, a ‘None’ 'name' is often used to access the C standard
          library:

               >>> printf = ctypes.CDLL(None).printf
               >>> printf.argtypes = [ctypes.c_char_p]
               >>> printf(b"hello\n")
               hello
               6

          To access the Python C API, prefer *note ctypes.pythonapi:
          357f. which works across platforms.

     The 'mode' parameter can be used to specify how the library is
     loaded.  For details, consult the ‘dlopen(3)(4)’ manpage.  On
     Windows, 'mode' is ignored.  On posix systems, RTLD_NOW is always
     added, and is not configurable.

     The 'use_errno' parameter, when set to true, enables a ctypes
     mechanism that allows accessing the system *note errno: 5a. error
     number in a safe way.  ‘ctypes’ maintains a thread-local copy of
     the system’s ‘errno’ variable; if you call foreign functions
     created with ‘use_errno=True’ then the ‘errno’ value before the
     function call is swapped with the ctypes private copy, the same
     happens immediately after the function call.

     The function *note ctypes.get_errno(): 3580. returns the value of
     the ctypes private copy, and the function *note ctypes.set_errno():
     3581. changes the ctypes private copy to a new value and returns
     the former value.

     The 'use_last_error' parameter, when set to true, enables the same
     mechanism for the Windows error code which is managed by the *note
     GetLastError(): 1963. and ‘SetLastError()’ Windows API functions;
     *note ctypes.get_last_error(): 3582. and *note
     ctypes.set_last_error(): 3583. are used to request and change the
     ctypes private copy of the windows error code.

     The 'winmode' parameter is used on Windows to specify how the
     library is loaded (since 'mode' is ignored).  It takes any value
     that is valid for the Win32 API LoadLibraryExW(5) flags parameter.
     When omitted, the default is to use the flags that result in the
     most secure DLL load, which avoids issues such as DLL hijacking.
     Passing the full path to the DLL is the safest way to ensure the
     correct library and dependencies are loaded.

     On Windows creating a ‘CDLL’ instance may fail even if the DLL name
     exists.  When a dependent DLL of the loaded DLL is not found, a
     *note OSError: 53c. error is raised with the message '«[WinError
     126] The specified module could not be found».'  This error message
     does not contain the name of the missing DLL because the Windows
     API does not return this information making this error hard to
     diagnose.  To resolve this error and determine which DLL is not
     found, you need to find the list of dependent DLLs and determine
     which one is not found using Windows debugging and tracing tools.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     Microsoft DUMPBIN tool(6) – A tool to find DLL dependents.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added 'winmode' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The 'name' parameter can now be a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

     Instances of this class have no public methods.  Functions exported
     by the shared library can be accessed as attributes or by index.
     Please note that accessing the function through an attribute caches
     the result and therefore accessing it repeatedly returns the same
     object each time.  On the other hand, accessing it through an index
     returns a new object each time:

          >>> from ctypes import CDLL
          >>> libc = CDLL("libc.so.6")  # On Linux
          >>> libc.time == libc.time
          True
          >>> libc['time'] == libc['time']
          False

     The following public attributes are available.  Their name starts
     with an underscore to not clash with exported function names:

      -- Ιδιότητα: _handle

          The system handle used to access the library.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _name

          The name of the library passed in the constructor.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.OleDLL

     See *note CDLL: dad, the superclass, for common information.

     Functions in this library use the ‘stdcall’ calling convention, and
     are assumed to return the windows specific *note HRESULT: 3584.
     code.  ‘HRESULT’ values contain information specifying whether the
     function call failed or succeeded, together with additional error
     code.  If the return value signals a failure, an *note OSError:
     53c. is automatically raised.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: *note WindowsError: 13fd. used to be
     raised, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.WinDLL

     See *note CDLL: dad, the superclass, for common information.

     Functions in these libraries use the ‘stdcall’ calling convention,
     and are assumed to return int by default.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.PyDLL

     See *note CDLL: dad, the superclass, for common information.

     When functions in this library are called, the Python GIL is 'not'
     released during the function call, and after the function execution
     the Python error flag is checked.  If the error flag is set, a
     Python exception is raised.

     Thus, this is only useful to call Python C API functions directly.

 -- Δεδομένα: ctypes.RTLD_GLOBAL

     Flag to use as 'mode' parameter.  On platforms where this flag is
     not available, it is defined as the integer zero.

 -- Δεδομένα: ctypes.RTLD_LOCAL

     Flag to use as 'mode' parameter.  On platforms where this is not
     available, it is the same as 'RTLD_GLOBAL'.

 -- Δεδομένα: ctypes.DEFAULT_MODE

     The default mode which is used to load shared libraries.  On OSX
     10.3, this is 'RTLD_GLOBAL', otherwise it is the same as
     'RTLD_LOCAL'.

Shared libraries can also be loaded by using one of the prefabricated
objects, which are instances of the *note LibraryLoader: 3588. class,
either by calling the *note LoadLibrary(): 352e. method, or by
retrieving the library as attribute of the loader instance.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.LibraryLoader (dlltype)

     Class which loads shared libraries.  'dlltype' should be one of the
     *note CDLL: dad, *note PyDLL: 1ce3, *note WinDLL: 1ce2, or *note
     OleDLL: 1ce1. types.

     ‘__getattr__()’ has special behavior: It allows loading a shared
     library by accessing it as attribute of a library loader instance.
     The result is cached, so repeated attribute accesses return the
     same library each time.

      -- Μέθοδος: LoadLibrary (name)

          Load a shared library into the process and return it.  This
          method always returns a new instance of the library.

These prefabricated library loaders are available:

      -- Δεδομένα: ctypes.cdll

          Creates *note CDLL: dad. instances.

      -- Δεδομένα: ctypes.windll

          Creates *note WinDLL: 1ce2. instances.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

      -- Δεδομένα: ctypes.oledll

          Creates *note OleDLL: 1ce1. instances.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

      -- Δεδομένα: ctypes.pydll

          Creates *note PyDLL: 1ce3. instances.

      -- Δεδομένα: ctypes.pythonapi

          An instance of *note PyDLL: 1ce3. that exposes Python C API
          functions as attributes.  Note that all these functions are
          assumed to return C int, which is of course not always the
          truth, so you have to assign the correct ‘restype’ attribute
          to use these functions.

Loading a library through any of these objects raises an *note auditing
event: 1e65. ‘ctypes.dlopen’ with string argument ‘name’, the name used
to load the library.

Accessing a function on a loaded library raises an auditing event
‘ctypes.dlsym’ with arguments ‘library’ (the library object) and ‘name’
(the symbol’s name as a string or integer).

In cases when only the library handle is available rather than the
object, accessing a function raises an auditing event
‘ctypes.dlsym/handle’ with arguments ‘handle’ (the raw library handle)
and ‘name’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)

   (2) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/api/libloaderapi/nf-libloaderapi-loadlibraryexw

   (3) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/api/libloaderapi/nf-libloaderapi-loadlibraryexw

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/dlopen(3)

   (5) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/api/libloaderapi/nf-libloaderapi-loadlibraryexw

   (6) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/build/reference/dumpbin-reference?view=msvc-170


File: python.info,  Node: Finding shared libraries,  Next: Listing loaded shared libraries,  Prev: Loading shared libraries,  Up: ctypes reference

5.17.9.26 Finding shared libraries
..................................

When programming in a compiled language, shared libraries are accessed
when compiling/linking a program, and when the program is run.  The
programmer specifies a short name; the C compiler, linker, and runtime
dynamic library loader then interact in system-specific ways to find the
filename of the library to load.

While the mapping from short names to filenames is not consistently
exposed by platforms, the ‘ctypes.util’ module provides a function,
‘find_library()’, that attempts to match it.  However, as backwards
compatibility concerns make it difficult to adjust its behavior for new
platforms and configurations, the function is *note soft deprecated:
1a7.

If wrapping a shared library with ‘ctypes’, consider determining the
shared library name at development time, and hardcoding it into the
wrapper module instead of using ‘find_library()’ to locate the library
at runtime.  Also consider adding a configuration option or environment
variable to let users select a library to use, and then perhaps use
‘find_library()’ as a default or fallback.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.util.find_library (name)

     Try to find a library and return a pathname.

     'name' is the «short» library name without any prefix like ‘lib’,
     suffix like ‘.so’, ‘.dylib’ or version number.  (This is the form
     used for the posix linker option ‘-l’.)  The result is in a format
     suitable for passing to *note CDLL: dad.

     If no library can be found, return ‘None’.

     The exact functionality is system dependent, and is 'not
     guaranteed' to match the behavior of the compiler, linker, and
     loader used for (or by) Python.  It is recommended to only use this
     function as a default or fallback,

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15: This function is
     kept for use in cases where it works, but not expected to be
     updated for additional platforms and configurations.

On Linux, ‘find_library()’ tries to run external programs
(‘/sbin/ldconfig’, ‘gcc’, ‘objdump’ and ‘ld’) to find the library file.
If the output of these programs does not correspond to the dynamic
linker used by Python, the result of this function may be misleading.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: On Linux, the value of the environment variable
‘LD_LIBRARY_PATH’ is used when searching for libraries, if a library
cannot be found by any other means.

Here are some examples:

     >>> from ctypes.util import find_library
     >>> find_library("m")
     'libm.so.6'
     >>> find_library("c")
     'libc.so.6'
     >>> find_library("bz2")
     'libbz2.so.1.0'
     >>>

On macOS and Android, ‘find_library()’ uses the system’s standard naming
schemes and paths to locate the library, and returns a full pathname if
successful:

     >>> from ctypes.util import find_library
     >>> find_library("c")
     '/usr/lib/libc.dylib'
     >>> find_library("m")
     '/usr/lib/libm.dylib'
     >>> find_library("bz2")
     '/usr/lib/libbz2.dylib'
     >>> find_library("AGL")
     '/System/Library/Frameworks/AGL.framework/AGL'
     >>>

On Windows, ‘find_library()’ searches along the system search path, and
returns the full pathname, but since there is no predefined naming
scheme a call like ‘find_library("c")’ will fail and return ‘None’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.util.find_msvcrt ()

     Returns the filename of the VC runtime library used by Python, and
     by the extension modules.

     If the name of the library cannot be determined, ‘None’ is
     returned.  Notably, this will happen for recent versions of the VC
     runtime library, which are not directly loadable.

     If you need to free memory, for example, allocated by an extension
     module with a call to the ‘free(void *)’, it is important that you
     use the function in the same library that allocated the memory.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows


File: python.info,  Node: Listing loaded shared libraries,  Next: Foreign functions,  Prev: Finding shared libraries,  Up: ctypes reference

5.17.9.27 Listing loaded shared libraries
.........................................

When writing code that relies on code loaded from shared libraries, it
can be useful to know which shared libraries have already been loaded
into the current process.

The ‘ctypes.util’ module provides the *note dllist(): 483. function,
which calls the different APIs provided by the various platforms to help
determine which shared libraries have already been loaded into the
current process.

The exact output of this function will be system dependent.  On most
platforms, the first entry of this list represents the current process
itself, which may be an empty string.  For example, on glibc-based
Linux, the return may look like:

     >>> from ctypes.util import dllist
     >>> dllist()
     ['', 'linux-vdso.so.1', '/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libm.so.6', '/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libc.so.6', ... ]


File: python.info,  Node: Foreign functions,  Next: Function prototypes,  Prev: Listing loaded shared libraries,  Up: ctypes reference

5.17.9.28 Foreign functions
...........................

As explained in the previous section, foreign functions can be accessed
as attributes of loaded shared libraries.  The function objects created
in this way by default accept any number of arguments, accept any ctypes
data instances as arguments, and return the default result type
specified by the library loader.

They are instances of a private local class ‘_FuncPtr’ (not exposed in
‘ctypes’) which inherits from the private *note _CFuncPtr: 1af3. class:

     >>> import ctypes
     >>> lib = ctypes.CDLL(None)
     >>> issubclass(lib._FuncPtr, ctypes._CFuncPtr)
     True
     >>> lib._FuncPtr is ctypes._CFuncPtr
     False

 -- Κλάση: ctypes._CFuncPtr

     Base class for C callable foreign functions.

     Instances of foreign functions are also C compatible data types;
     they represent C function pointers.

     This behavior can be customized by assigning to special attributes
     of the foreign function object.

      -- Ιδιότητα: restype

          Assign a ctypes type to specify the result type of the foreign
          function.  Use ‘None’ for void, a function not returning
          anything.

          It is possible to assign a callable Python object that is not
          a ctypes type, in this case the function is assumed to return
          a C int, and the callable will be called with this integer,
          allowing further processing or error checking.  Using this is
          deprecated, for more flexible post processing or error
          checking use a ctypes data type as ‘restype’ and assign a
          callable to the *note errcheck: 3555. attribute.

      -- Ιδιότητα: argtypes

          Assign a tuple of ctypes types to specify the argument types
          that the function accepts.  Functions using the ‘stdcall’
          calling convention can only be called with the same number of
          arguments as the length of this tuple; functions using the C
          calling convention accept additional, unspecified arguments as
          well.

          When a foreign function is called, each actual argument is
          passed to the *note from_param(): 3551. class method of the
          items in the *note argtypes: 1a00. tuple, this method allows
          adapting the actual argument to an object that the foreign
          function accepts.  For example, a *note c_char_p: 1c5d. item
          in the ‘argtypes’ tuple will convert a string passed as
          argument into a bytes object using ctypes conversion rules.

          New: It is now possible to put items in argtypes which are not
          ctypes types, but each item must have a *note from_param():
          3551. method which returns a value usable as argument
          (integer, string, ctypes instance).  This allows defining
          adapters that can adapt custom objects as function parameters.

      -- Ιδιότητα: errcheck

          Assign a Python function or another callable to this
          attribute.  The callable will be called with three or more
          arguments:

           -- Συνάρτηση: callable (result, func, arguments)

               'result' is what the foreign function returns, as
               specified by the ‘restype’ attribute.

               'func' is the foreign function object itself, this allows
               reusing the same callable object to check or post process
               the results of several functions.

               'arguments' is a tuple containing the parameters
               originally passed to the function call, this allows
               specializing the behavior on the arguments used.

          The object that this function returns will be returned from
          the foreign function call, but it can also check the result
          value and raise an exception if the foreign function call
          failed.

On Windows, when a foreign function call raises a system exception (for
example, due to an access violation), it will be captured and replaced
with a suitable Python exception.  Further, an auditing event
‘ctypes.set_exception’ with argument ‘code’ will be raised, allowing an
audit hook to replace the exception with its own.

Some ways to invoke foreign function calls as well as some of the
functions in this module may raise an auditing event
‘ctypes.call_function’ with arguments ‘function pointer’ and
‘arguments’.


File: python.info,  Node: Function prototypes,  Next: Utility functions,  Prev: Foreign functions,  Up: ctypes reference

5.17.9.29 Function prototypes
.............................

Foreign functions can also be created by instantiating function
prototypes.  Function prototypes are similar to function prototypes in
C; they describe a function (return type, argument types, calling
convention) without defining an implementation.  The factory functions
must be called with the desired result type and the argument types of
the function, and can be used as decorator factories, and as such, be
applied to functions through the ‘@wrapper’ syntax.  See *note Callback
functions: 356c. for examples.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.CFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False,
          use_last_error=False)

     The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
     standard C calling convention.  The function will release the GIL
     during the call.  If 'use_errno' is set to true, the ctypes private
     copy of the system *note errno: 5a. variable is exchanged with the
     real ‘errno’ value before and after the call; 'use_last_error' does
     the same for the Windows error code.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.WINFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes, use_errno=False,
          use_last_error=False)

     The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
     ‘stdcall’ calling convention.  The function will release the GIL
     during the call.  'use_errno' and 'use_last_error' have the same
     meaning as above.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.PYFUNCTYPE (restype, *argtypes)

     The returned function prototype creates functions that use the
     Python calling convention.  The function will 'not' release the GIL
     during the call.

Function prototypes created by these factory functions can be
instantiated in different ways, depending on the type and number of the
parameters in the call:

 -- Συνάρτηση: prototype (address)

     Returns a foreign function at the specified address which must be
     an integer.

 -- Συνάρτηση: prototype (callable)

     Create a C callable function (a callback function) from a Python
     'callable'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: prototype (func_spec[, paramflags])

     Returns a foreign function exported by a shared library.
     'func_spec' must be a 2-tuple ‘(name_or_ordinal, library)’.  The
     first item is the name of the exported function as string, or the
     ordinal of the exported function as small integer.  The second item
     is the shared library instance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: prototype (vtbl_index, name[, paramflags[, iid]])

     Returns a foreign function that will call a COM method.
     'vtbl_index' is the index into the virtual function table, a small
     non-negative integer.  'name' is name of the COM method.  'iid' is
     an optional pointer to the interface identifier which is used in
     extended error reporting.

     If 'iid' is not specified, an *note OSError: 53c. is raised if the
     COM method call fails.  If 'iid' is specified, a *note COMError:
     47f. is raised instead.

     COM methods use a special calling convention: They require a
     pointer to the COM interface as first argument, in addition to
     those parameters that are specified in the ‘argtypes’ tuple.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

The optional 'paramflags' parameter creates foreign function wrappers
with much more functionality than the features described above.

'paramflags' must be a tuple of the same length as *note argtypes: 1a00.

Each item in this tuple contains further information about a parameter,
it must be a tuple containing one, two, or three items.

The first item is an integer containing a combination of direction flags
for the parameter:

     1

          Specifies an input parameter to the function.

     2

          Output parameter.  The foreign function fills in a value.

     4

          Input parameter which defaults to the integer zero.

The optional second item is the parameter name as string.  If this is
specified, the foreign function can be called with named parameters.

The optional third item is the default value for this parameter.

The following example demonstrates how to wrap the Windows ‘MessageBoxW’
function so that it supports default parameters and named arguments.
The C declaration from the windows header file is this:

     WINUSERAPI int WINAPI
     MessageBoxW(
         HWND hWnd,
         LPCWSTR lpText,
         LPCWSTR lpCaption,
         UINT uType);

Here is the wrapping with ‘ctypes’:

     >>> from ctypes import c_int, WINFUNCTYPE, windll
     >>> from ctypes.wintypes import HWND, LPCWSTR, UINT
     >>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(c_int, HWND, LPCWSTR, LPCWSTR, UINT)
     >>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd", 0), (1, "text", "Hi"), (1, "caption", "Hello from ctypes"), (1, "flags", 0)
     >>> MessageBox = prototype(("MessageBoxW", windll.user32), paramflags)

The ‘MessageBox’ foreign function can now be called in these ways:

     >>> MessageBox()
     >>> MessageBox(text="Spam, spam, spam")
     >>> MessageBox(flags=2, text="foo bar")

A second example demonstrates output parameters.  The win32
‘GetWindowRect’ function retrieves the dimensions of a specified window
by copying them into ‘RECT’ structure that the caller has to supply.
Here is the C declaration:

     WINUSERAPI BOOL WINAPI
     GetWindowRect(
          HWND hWnd,
          LPRECT lpRect);

Here is the wrapping with ‘ctypes’:

     >>> from ctypes import POINTER, WINFUNCTYPE, windll, WinError
     >>> from ctypes.wintypes import BOOL, HWND, RECT
     >>> prototype = WINFUNCTYPE(BOOL, HWND, POINTER(RECT))
     >>> paramflags = (1, "hwnd"), (2, "lprect")
     >>> GetWindowRect = prototype(("GetWindowRect", windll.user32), paramflags)
     >>>

Functions with output parameters will automatically return the output
parameter value if there is a single one, or a tuple containing the
output parameter values when there are more than one, so the
GetWindowRect function now returns a RECT instance, when called.

Output parameters can be combined with the *note errcheck: 3555.
protocol to do further output processing and error checking.  The win32
‘GetWindowRect’ api function returns a ‘BOOL’ to signal success or
failure, so this function could do the error checking, and raises an
exception when the api call failed:

     >>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
     ...     if not result:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     return args
     ...
     >>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
     >>>

If the *note errcheck: 3555. function returns the argument tuple it
receives unchanged, ‘ctypes’ continues the normal processing it does on
the output parameters.  If you want to return a tuple of window
coordinates instead of a ‘RECT’ instance, you can retrieve the fields in
the function and return them instead, the normal processing will no
longer take place:

     >>> def errcheck(result, func, args):
     ...     if not result:
     ...         raise WinError()
     ...     rc = args[1]
     ...     return rc.left, rc.top, rc.bottom, rc.right
     ...
     >>> GetWindowRect.errcheck = errcheck
     >>>


File: python.info,  Node: Utility functions,  Next: Data types<2>,  Prev: Function prototypes,  Up: ctypes reference

5.17.9.30 Utility functions
...........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.addressof (obj)

     Returns the address of the memory buffer as integer.  'obj' must be
     an instance of a ctypes type.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ctypes.addressof’ with
     argument ‘obj’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.alignment (obj_or_type)

     Returns the alignment requirements of a ctypes type.  'obj_or_type'
     must be a ctypes type or instance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.byref (obj[, offset])

     Returns a light-weight pointer to 'obj', which must be an instance
     of a ctypes type.  'offset' defaults to zero, and must be an
     integer that will be added to the internal pointer value.

     ‘byref(obj, offset)’ corresponds to this C code:

          (((char *)&obj) + offset)

     The returned object can only be used as a foreign function call
     parameter.  It behaves similar to ‘pointer(obj)’, but the
     construction is a lot faster.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.CopyComPointer (src, dst)

     Copies a COM pointer from 'src' to 'dst' and returns the Windows
     specific ‘HRESULT’ value.

     If 'src' is not ‘NULL’, its ‘AddRef’ method is called, incrementing
     the reference count.

     In contrast, the reference count of 'dst' will not be decremented
     before assigning the new value.  Unless 'dst' is ‘NULL’, the caller
     is responsible for decrementing the reference count by calling its
     ‘Release’ method when necessary.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.cast (obj, type)

     This function is similar to the cast operator in C. It returns a
     new instance of 'type' which points to the same memory block as
     'obj'.  'type' must be a pointer type, and 'obj' must be an object
     that can be interpreted as a pointer.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.create_string_buffer (init, size=None)

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.create_string_buffer (size)

     This function creates a mutable character buffer.  The returned
     object is a ctypes array of *note c_char: 3535.

     If 'size' is given (and not ‘None’), it must be an *note int: 326.
     It specifies the size of the returned array.

     If the 'init' argument is given, it must be *note bytes: 1c7.  It
     is used to initialize the array items.  Bytes not initialized this
     way are set to zero (NUL).

     If 'size' is not given (or if it is ‘None’), the buffer is made one
     element larger than 'init', effectively adding a NUL terminator.

     If both arguments are given, 'size' must not be less than
     ‘len(init)’.

          Προειδοποίηση: If 'size' is equal to ‘len(init)’, a NUL
          terminator is not added.  Do not treat such a buffer as a C
          string.

     For example:

          >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(2))
          b'\x00\x00'
          >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'ab'))
          b'ab\x00'
          >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'ab', 2))
          b'ab'
          >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'ab', 4))
          b'ab\x00\x00'
          >>> bytes(create_string_buffer(b'abcdef', 2))
          Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
          ValueError: byte string too long

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ctypes.create_string_buffer’
     with arguments ‘init’, ‘size’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.create_unicode_buffer (init, size=None)

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.create_unicode_buffer (size)

     This function creates a mutable unicode character buffer.  The
     returned object is a ctypes array of *note c_wchar: 3536.

     The function takes the same arguments as *note
     create_string_buffer(): 3548. except 'init' must be a string and
     'size' counts *note c_wchar: 3536.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘ctypes.create_unicode_buffer’ with arguments ‘init’, ‘size’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.DllCanUnloadNow ()

     This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process COM
     servers with ctypes.  It is called from the DllCanUnloadNow
     function that the _ctypes extension dll exports.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.DllGetClassObject ()

     This function is a hook which allows implementing in-process COM
     servers with ctypes.  It is called from the DllGetClassObject
     function that the ‘_ctypes’ extension dll exports.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.util.dllist ()

     Try to provide a list of paths of the shared libraries loaded into
     the current process.  These paths are not normalized or processed
     in any way.  The function can raise *note OSError: 53c. if the
     underlying platform APIs fail.  The exact functionality is system
     dependent.

     On most platforms, the first element of the list represents the
     current executable file.  It may be an empty string.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows, macOS, iOS, glibc, BSD libc,
     musl

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.FormatError ([code])

     Returns a textual description of the error code 'code'.  If no
     error code is specified, the last error code is used by calling the
     Windows API function *note GetLastError(): 1963.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.GetLastError ()

     Returns the last error code set by Windows in the calling thread.
     This function calls the Windows ‘GetLastError()’ function directly,
     it does not return the ctypes-private copy of the error code.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.get_errno ()

     Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     *note errno: 5a. variable in the calling thread.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ctypes.get_errno’ with no
     arguments.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.get_last_error ()

     Returns the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     ‘LastError’ variable in the calling thread.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ctypes.get_last_error’ with
     no arguments.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.memmove (dst, src, count)

     Same as the standard C memmove library function: copies 'count'
     bytes from 'src' to 'dst'.  'dst' and 'src' must be integers or
     ctypes instances that can be converted to pointers.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.memset (dst, c, count)

     Same as the standard C memset library function: fills the memory
     block at address 'dst' with 'count' bytes of value 'c'.  'dst' must
     be an integer specifying an address, or a ctypes instance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.POINTER (type, /)

     Create or return a ctypes pointer type.  Pointer types are cached
     and reused internally, so calling this function repeatedly is
     cheap.  'type' must be a ctypes type.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' The resulting pointer type is
     cached in the ‘__pointer_type__’ attribute of 'type'.  It is
     possible to set this attribute before the first call to ‘POINTER’
     in order to set a custom pointer type.  However, doing this is
     discouraged: manually creating a suitable pointer type is difficult
     without relying on implementation details that may change in future
     Python versions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.pointer (obj, /)

     Create a new pointer instance, pointing to 'obj'.  The returned
     object is of the type ‘POINTER(type(obj))’.

     Note: If you just want to pass a pointer to an object to a foreign
     function call, you should use ‘byref(obj)’ which is much faster.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.resize (obj, size)

     This function resizes the internal memory buffer of 'obj', which
     must be an instance of a ctypes type.  It is not possible to make
     the buffer smaller than the native size of the objects type, as
     given by ‘sizeof(type(obj))’, but it is possible to enlarge the
     buffer.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.set_errno (value)

     Set the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     *note errno: 5a. variable in the calling thread to 'value' and
     return the previous value.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ctypes.set_errno’ with
     argument ‘errno’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.set_last_error (value)

     Sets the current value of the ctypes-private copy of the system
     ‘LastError’ variable in the calling thread to 'value' and return
     the previous value.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ctypes.set_last_error’ with
     argument ‘error’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.sizeof (obj_or_type)

     Returns the size in bytes of a ctypes type or instance memory
     buffer.  Does the same as the C ‘sizeof’ operator.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.string_at (ptr, size=-1)

     Return the byte string at 'void *ptr'.  If 'size' is specified, it
     is used as size, otherwise the string is assumed to be
     zero-terminated.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ctypes.string_at’ with
     arguments ‘ptr’, ‘size’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.WinError (code=None, descr=None)

     Creates an instance of *note OSError: 53c.  If 'code' is not
     specified, *note GetLastError(): 1963. is called to determine the
     error code.  If 'descr' is not specified, *note FormatError():
     3599. is called to get a textual description of the error.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: An instance of *note WindowsError: 13fd.
     used to be created, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.wstring_at (ptr, size=-1)

     Return the wide-character string at 'void *ptr'.  If 'size' is
     specified, it is used as the number of characters of the string,
     otherwise the string is assumed to be zero-terminated.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ctypes.wstring_at’ with
     arguments ‘ptr’, ‘size’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.memoryview_at (ptr, size, readonly=False)

     Return a *note memoryview: 1d2. object of length 'size' that
     references memory starting at 'void *ptr'.

     If 'readonly' is true, the returned ‘memoryview’ object can not be
     used to modify the underlying memory.  (Changes made by other means
     will still be reflected in the returned object.)

     This function is similar to *note string_at(): 482. with the key
     difference of not making a copy of the specified memory.  It is a
     semantically equivalent (but more efficient) alternative to
     ‘memoryview((c_byte * size).from_address(ptr))’.  (While *note
     from_address(): 359f. only takes integers, 'ptr' can also be given
     as a *note ctypes.POINTER: 484. or a *note byref(): 3558. object.)

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ctypes.memoryview_at’ with
     arguments ‘address’, ‘size’, ‘readonly’.

     Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Data types<2>,  Next: Fundamental data types<2>,  Prev: Utility functions,  Up: ctypes reference

5.17.9.31 Data types
....................

 -- Κλάση: ctypes._CData

     This non-public class is the common base class of all ctypes data
     types.  Among other things, all ctypes type instances contain a
     memory block that hold C compatible data; the address of the memory
     block is returned by the *note addressof(): 3595. helper function.
     Another instance variable is exposed as *note _objects: 35a3.; this
     contains other Python objects that need to be kept alive in case
     the memory block contains pointers.

     Common methods of ctypes data types, these are all class methods
     (to be exact, they are methods of the *note metaclass: 25c5.):

      -- Μέθοδος: from_buffer (source[, offset])

          This method returns a ctypes instance that shares the buffer
          of the 'source' object.  The 'source' object must support the
          writeable buffer interface.  The optional 'offset' parameter
          specifies an offset into the source buffer in bytes; the
          default is zero.  If the source buffer is not large enough a
          *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ctypes.cdata/buffer’
          with arguments ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’.

      -- Μέθοδος: from_buffer_copy (source[, offset])

          This method creates a ctypes instance, copying the buffer from
          the 'source' object buffer which must be readable.  The
          optional 'offset' parameter specifies an offset into the
          source buffer in bytes; the default is zero.  If the source
          buffer is not large enough a *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ctypes.cdata/buffer’
          with arguments ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’.

      -- Μέθοδος: from_address (address)

          This method returns a ctypes type instance using the memory
          specified by 'address' which must be an integer.

          This method, and others that indirectly call this method,
          raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ctypes.cdata’ with
          argument ‘address’.

      -- Μέθοδος: from_param (obj)

          This method adapts 'obj' to a ctypes type.  It is called with
          the actual object used in a foreign function call when the
          type is present in the foreign function’s *note argtypes:
          1a00. tuple; it must return an object that can be used as a
          function call parameter.

          All ctypes data types have a default implementation of this
          classmethod that normally returns 'obj' if that is an instance
          of the type.  Some types accept other objects as well.

      -- Μέθοδος: in_dll (library, name)

          This method returns a ctypes type instance exported by a
          shared library.  'name' is the name of the symbol that exports
          the data, 'library' is the loaded shared library.

     Common class variables of ctypes data types:

      -- Ιδιότητα: __pointer_type__

          The pointer type that was created by calling *note POINTER():
          484. for corresponding ctypes data type.  If a pointer type
          was not yet created, the attribute is missing.

          Added in version 3.14.

     Common instance variables of ctypes data types:

      -- Ιδιότητα: _b_base_

          Sometimes ctypes data instances do not own the memory block
          they contain, instead they share part of the memory block of a
          base object.  The *note _b_base_: 35a6. read-only member is
          the root ctypes object that owns the memory block.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _b_needsfree_

          This read-only variable is true when the ctypes data instance
          has allocated the memory block itself, false otherwise.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _objects

          This member is either ‘None’ or a dictionary containing Python
          objects that need to be kept alive so that the memory block
          contents is kept valid.  This object is only exposed for
          debugging; never modify the contents of this dictionary.


File: python.info,  Node: Fundamental data types<2>,  Next: Structured data types,  Prev: Data types<2>,  Up: ctypes reference

5.17.9.32 Fundamental data types
................................

 -- Κλάση: ctypes._SimpleCData

     This non-public class is the base class of all fundamental ctypes
     data types.  It is mentioned here because it contains the common
     attributes of the fundamental ctypes data types.  ‘_SimpleCData’ is
     a subclass of *note _CData: 35a2, so it inherits their methods and
     attributes.  ctypes data types that are not and do not contain
     pointers can now be pickled.

     Instances have a single attribute:

      -- Ιδιότητα: value

          This attribute contains the actual value of the instance.  For
          integer and pointer types, it is an integer, for character
          types, it is a single character bytes object or string, for
          character pointer types it is a Python bytes object or string.

          When the ‘value’ attribute is retrieved from a ctypes
          instance, usually a new object is returned each time.
          ‘ctypes’ does 'not' implement original object return, always a
          new object is constructed.  The same is true for all other
          ctypes object instances.

     Each subclass has a class attribute:

      -- Ιδιότητα: _type_

          Class attribute that contains an internal type code, as a
          single-character string.  See *note Fundamental data types:
          2a32. for a summary.

          Types marked * in the summary may be (or always are) aliases
          of a different ‘_SimpleCData’ subclass, and will not
          necessarily use the listed type code.  For example, if the
          platform’s long, long long and time_t C types are the same,
          then *note c_long: 3528, *note c_longlong: 3543. and *note
          c_time_t: 1d61. all refer to a single class, ‘c_long’, whose
          *note _type_: 2cd. code is ‘'l'’.  The ‘'L'’ code will be
          unused.

          Δείτε επίσης
          ............

          The *note array: 8. and *note struct: 2a2e. modules, as well
          as third-party modules like numpy(1), use similar – but
          slightly different – type codes.

Fundamental data types, when returned as foreign function call results,
or, for example, by retrieving structure field members or array items,
are transparently converted to native Python types.  In other words, if
a foreign function has a *note restype: 3554. of *note c_char_p: 1c5d,
you will always receive a Python bytes object, 'not' a ‘c_char_p’
instance.

Subclasses of fundamental data types do 'not' inherit this behavior.
So, if a foreign functions ‘restype’ is a subclass of *note c_void_p:
1c5f, you will receive an instance of this subclass from the function
call.  Of course, you can get the value of the pointer by accessing the
‘value’ attribute.

These are the fundamental ctypes data types:

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_byte

     Represents the C signed char datatype, and interprets the value as
     small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer
     initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_char

     Represents the C char datatype, and interprets the value as a
     single character.  The constructor accepts an optional string
     initializer, the length of the string must be exactly one
     character.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_char_p

     Represents the C char* datatype when it points to a zero-terminated
     string.  For a general character pointer that may also point to
     binary data, ‘POINTER(c_char)’ must be used.  The constructor
     accepts an integer address, or a bytes object.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_double

     Represents the C double datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_longdouble

     Represents the C long double datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.  On platforms where ‘sizeof(long
     double) == sizeof(double)’ it is an alias to *note c_double: 1eae.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_float

     Represents the C float datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional float initializer.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_double_complex

     Represents the C double complex datatype, if available.  The
     constructor accepts an optional *note complex: 328. initializer.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_float_complex

     Represents the C float complex datatype, if available.  The
     constructor accepts an optional *note complex: 328. initializer.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_longdouble_complex

     Represents the C long double complex datatype, if available.  The
     constructor accepts an optional *note complex: 328. initializer.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_int

     Represents the C signed int datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On
     platforms where ‘sizeof(int) == sizeof(long)’ it is an alias to
     *note c_long: 3528.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_int8

     Represents the C 8-bit signed int datatype.  It is an alias for
     *note c_byte: 1cdf.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_int16

     Represents the C 16-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_short: 3537.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_int32

     Represents the C 32-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_int: 3527.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_int64

     Represents the C 64-bit signed int datatype.  Usually an alias for
     *note c_longlong: 3543.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_long

     Represents the C signed long datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_longlong

     Represents the C signed long long datatype.  The constructor
     accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is
     done.  On platforms where ‘sizeof(long long) == sizeof(long)’ it is
     an alias to *note c_long: 3528.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_short

     Represents the C signed short datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_size_t

     Represents the C ‘size_t’ datatype.  Usually an alias for another
     unsigned integer type.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_ssize_t

     Represents the *note Py_ssize_t: e24. datatype.  This is a signed
     version of ‘size_t’; that is, the POSIX ‘ssize_t’ type.  Usually an
     alias for another integer type.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_time_t

     Represents the C ‘time_t’ datatype.  Usually an alias for another
     integer type.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_ubyte

     Represents the C unsigned char datatype, it interprets the value as
     small integer.  The constructor accepts an optional integer
     initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_uint

     Represents the C unsigned int datatype.  The constructor accepts an
     optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.  On
     platforms where ‘sizeof(int) == sizeof(long)’ it is an alias for
     *note c_ulong: 3542.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_uint8

     Represents the C 8-bit unsigned int datatype.  It is an alias for
     *note c_ubyte: 1ce0.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_uint16

     Represents the C 16-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_ushort: 3538.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_uint32

     Represents the C 32-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_uint: 353d.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_uint64

     Represents the C 64-bit unsigned int datatype.  Usually an alias
     for *note c_ulonglong: 3544.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_ulong

     Represents the C unsigned long datatype.  The constructor accepts
     an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_ulonglong

     Represents the C unsigned long long datatype.  The constructor
     accepts an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is
     done.  On platforms where ‘sizeof(long long) == sizeof(long)’ it is
     an alias to *note c_long: 3528.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_ushort

     Represents the C unsigned short datatype.  The constructor accepts
     an optional integer initializer; no overflow checking is done.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_void_p

     Represents the C void* type.  The value is represented as integer.
     The constructor accepts an optional integer initializer.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_wchar

     Represents the C ‘wchar_t’ datatype, and interprets the value as a
     single character unicode string.  The constructor accepts an
     optional string initializer, the length of the string must be
     exactly one character.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_wchar_p

     Represents the C wchar_t* datatype, which must be a pointer to a
     zero-terminated wide character string.  The constructor accepts an
     integer address, or a string.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.c_bool

     Represent the C bool datatype (more accurately, _Bool from C99).
     Its value can be ‘True’ or ‘False’, and the constructor accepts any
     object that has a truth value.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.HRESULT

     Represents a ‘HRESULT’ value, which contains success or error
     information for a function or method call.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.py_object

     Represents the C *note PyObject: 19b.* datatype.  Calling this
     without an argument creates a ‘NULL’ PyObject* pointer.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: ‘py_object’ is now a *note generic type:
     1d1.

The ‘ctypes.wintypes’ module provides quite some other Windows specific
data types, for example ‘HWND’, ‘WPARAM’, ‘VARIANT_BOOL’ or ‘DWORD’.
Some useful structures like ‘MSG’ or ‘RECT’ are also defined.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/arrays.interface.html#object.__array_interface__


File: python.info,  Node: Structured data types,  Next: Arrays and pointers,  Prev: Fundamental data types<2>,  Up: ctypes reference

5.17.9.33 Structured data types
...............................

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.Union (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in native byte order.

     Unions share common attributes and behavior with structures; see
     *note Structure: 47c. documentation for details.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.BigEndianUnion (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in 'big endian' byte order.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.LittleEndianUnion (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for unions in 'little endian' byte order.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.BigEndianStructure (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for structures in 'big endian' byte order.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.LittleEndianStructure (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for structures in 'little endian' byte order.

Structures and unions with non-native byte order cannot contain pointer
type fields, or any other data types containing pointer type fields.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.Structure (*args, **kw)

     Abstract base class for structures in 'native' byte order.

     Concrete structure and union types must be created by subclassing
     one of these types, and at least define a *note _fields_: 1b50.
     class variable.  ‘ctypes’ will create *note descriptor: 21f.s which
     allow reading and writing the fields by direct attribute accesses.
     These are the

      -- Ιδιότητα: _fields_

          A sequence defining the structure fields.  The items must be
          2-tuples or 3-tuples.  The first item is the name of the
          field, the second item specifies the type of the field; it can
          be any ctypes data type.

          For integer type fields like *note c_int: 3527, a third
          optional item can be given.  It must be a small positive
          integer defining the bit width of the field.

          Field names must be unique within one structure or union.
          This is not checked, only one field can be accessed when names
          are repeated.

          It is possible to define the *note _fields_: 1b50. class
          variable 'after' the class statement that defines the
          Structure subclass, this allows creating data types that
          directly or indirectly reference themselves:

               class List(Structure):
                   pass
               List._fields_ = [("pnext", POINTER(List)),
                                ...
                               ]

          The ‘_fields_’ class variable can only be set once.  Later
          assignments will raise an *note AttributeError: 1a9.

          Additionally, the ‘_fields_’ class variable must be defined
          before the structure or union type is first used: an instance
          or subclass is created, *note sizeof(): 359c. is called on it,
          and so on.  Later assignments to ‘_fields_’ will raise an
          *note AttributeError: 1a9.  If ‘_fields_’ has not been set
          before such use, the structure or union will have no own
          fields, as if ‘_fields_’ was empty.

          Sub-subclasses of structure types inherit the fields of the
          base class plus the *note _fields_: 1b50. defined in the
          sub-subclass, if any.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _pack_

          An optional small integer that allows overriding the alignment
          of structure fields in the instance.

          This is only implemented for the MSVC-compatible memory layout
          (see *note _layout_: 319.).

          Setting ‘_pack_’ to 0 is the same as not setting it at all.
          Otherwise, the value must be a positive power of two.  The
          effect is equivalent to ‘#pragma pack(N)’ in C, except
          ‘ctypes’ may allow larger 'n' than what the compiler accepts.

          ‘_pack_’ must already be defined when *note _fields_: 1b50. is
          assigned, otherwise it will have no effect.

          Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.14, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση
          3.19: For historical reasons, if ‘_pack_’ is non-zero, the
          MSVC-compatible layout will be used by default.  On
          non-Windows platforms, this default is deprecated and is
          slated to become an error in Python 3.19.  If it is intended,
          set *note _layout_: 319. to ‘'ms'’ explicitly.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _align_

          An optional small integer that allows increasing the alignment
          of the structure when being packed or unpacked to/from memory.

          The value must not be negative.  The effect is equivalent to
          ‘__attribute__((aligned(N)))’ on GCC or ‘#pragma align(N)’ on
          MSVC, except ‘ctypes’ may allow values that the compiler would
          reject.

          ‘_align_’ can only 'increase' a structure’s alignment
          requirements.  Setting it to 0 or 1 has no effect.

          Using values that are not powers of two is discouraged and may
          lead to surprising behavior.

          ‘_align_’ must already be defined when *note _fields_: 1b50.
          is assigned, otherwise it will have no effect.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _layout_

          An optional string naming the struct/union layout.  It can
          currently be set to:

             - ‘"ms"’: the layout used by the Microsoft compiler (MSVC).
               On GCC and Clang, this layout can be selected with
               ‘__attribute__((ms_struct))’.

             - ‘"gcc-sysv"’: the layout used by GCC with the System V or
               “SysV-like” data model, as used on Linux and macOS. With
               this layout, *note _pack_: 318. must be unset or zero.

          If not set explicitly, ‘ctypes’ will use a default that
          matches the platform conventions.  This default may change in
          future Python releases (for example, when a new platform gains
          official support, or when a difference between similar
          platforms is found).  Currently the default will be:

             - On Windows: ‘"ms"’

             - When *note _pack_: 318. is specified: ‘"ms"’.  (This is
               deprecated; see ‘_pack_’ documentation.)

             - Otherwise: ‘"gcc-sysv"’

          ‘_layout_’ must already be defined when *note _fields_: 1b50.
          is assigned, otherwise it will have no effect.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _anonymous_

          An optional sequence that lists the names of unnamed
          (anonymous) fields.  *note _anonymous_: 35ae. must be already
          defined when *note _fields_: 1b50. is assigned, otherwise it
          will have no effect.

          The fields listed in this variable must be structure or union
          type fields.  ‘ctypes’ will create descriptors in the
          structure type that allows accessing the nested fields
          directly, without the need to create the structure or union
          field.

          Here is an example type (Windows):

               class _U(Union):
                   _fields_ = [("lptdesc", POINTER(TYPEDESC)),
                               ("lpadesc", POINTER(ARRAYDESC)),
                               ("hreftype", HREFTYPE)]

               class TYPEDESC(Structure):
                   _anonymous_ = ("u",)
                   _fields_ = [("u", _U),
                               ("vt", VARTYPE)]

          The ‘TYPEDESC’ structure describes a COM data type, the ‘vt’
          field specifies which one of the union fields is valid.  Since
          the ‘u’ field is defined as anonymous field, it is now
          possible to access the members directly off the TYPEDESC
          instance.  ‘td.lptdesc’ and ‘td.u.lptdesc’ are equivalent, but
          the former is faster since it does not need to create a
          temporary union instance:

               td = TYPEDESC()
               td.vt = VT_PTR
               td.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)
               td.u.lptdesc = POINTER(some_type)

     It is possible to define sub-subclasses of structures, they inherit
     the fields of the base class.  If the subclass definition has a
     separate *note _fields_: 1b50. variable, the fields specified in
     this are appended to the fields of the base class.

     Structure and union constructors accept both positional and keyword
     arguments.  Positional arguments are used to initialize member
     fields in the same order as they are appear in *note _fields_:
     1b50.  Keyword arguments in the constructor are interpreted as
     attribute assignments, so they will initialize ‘_fields_’ with the
     same name, or create new attributes for names not present in
     ‘_fields_’.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.CField (*args, **kw)

     Descriptor for fields of a *note Structure: 47c. and *note Union:
     47d.  For example:

          >>> class Color(Structure):
          ...     _fields_ = (
          ...         ('red', c_uint8),
          ...         ('green', c_uint8),
          ...         ('blue', c_uint8),
          ...         ('intense', c_bool, 1),
          ...         ('blinking', c_bool, 1),
          ...    )
          ...
          >>> Color.red
          <ctypes.CField 'red' type=c_ubyte, ofs=0, size=1>
          >>> Color.green.type
          <class 'ctypes.c_ubyte'>
          >>> Color.blue.byte_offset
          2
          >>> Color.intense
          <ctypes.CField 'intense' type=c_bool, ofs=3, bit_size=1, bit_offset=0>
          >>> Color.blinking.bit_offset
          1

     All attributes are read-only.

     ‘CField’ objects are created via *note _fields_: 1b50.; do not
     instantiate the class directly.

     Added in version 3.14: Previously, descriptors only had ‘offset’
     and ‘size’ attributes and a readable string representation; the
     ‘CField’ class was not available directly.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          Name of the field, as a string.

      -- Ιδιότητα: type

          Type of the field, as a *note ctypes class: 35a0.

      -- Ιδιότητα: offset
      -- Ιδιότητα: byte_offset

          Offset of the field, in bytes.

          For bitfields, this is the offset of the underlying
          byte-aligned 'storage unit'; see *note bit_offset: 35b3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: byte_size

          Size of the field, in bytes.

          For bitfields, this is the size of the underlying 'storage
          unit'.  Typically, it has the same size as the bitfield’s
          type.

      -- Ιδιότητα: size

          For non-bitfields, equivalent to *note byte_size: 35b4.

          For bitfields, this contains a backwards-compatible bit-packed
          value that combines *note bit_size: 35b6. and *note
          bit_offset: 35b3.  Prefer using the explicit attributes
          instead.

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_bitfield

          True if this is a bitfield.

      -- Ιδιότητα: bit_offset
      -- Ιδιότητα: bit_size

          The location of a bitfield within its 'storage unit', that is,
          within *note byte_size: 35b4. bytes of memory starting at
          *note byte_offset: 35b2.

          To get the field’s value, read the storage unit as an integer,
          *note shift left: 26c0. by ‘bit_offset’ and take the
          ‘bit_size’ least significant bits.

          For non-bitfields, ‘bit_offset’ is zero and ‘bit_size’ is
          equal to ‘byte_size * 8’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_anonymous

          True if this field is anonymous, that is, it contains nested
          sub-fields that should be merged into a containing structure
          or union.


File: python.info,  Node: Arrays and pointers,  Next: Exceptions<9>,  Prev: Structured data types,  Up: ctypes reference

5.17.9.34 Arrays and pointers
.............................

 -- Κλάση: ctypes.Array (*args)

     Abstract base class for arrays.

     The recommended way to create concrete array types is by
     multiplying any ‘ctypes’ data type with a non-negative integer.
     Alternatively, you can subclass this type and define *note
     _length_: 35bb. and *note _type_: 35bc. class variables.  Array
     elements can be read and written using standard subscript and slice
     accesses; for slice reads, the resulting object is 'not' itself an
     ‘Array’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _length_

          A positive integer specifying the number of elements in the
          array.  Out-of-range subscripts result in an *note IndexError:
          18d7.  Will be returned by *note len(): a1f.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _type_

          Specifies the type of each element in the array.

     Array subclass constructors accept positional arguments, used to
     initialize the elements in order.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ctypes.ARRAY (type, length)

     Create an array.  Equivalent to ‘type * length’, where 'type' is a
     ‘ctypes’ data type and 'length' an integer.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.14: In favor of
     multiplication.

 -- Κλάση: ctypes._Pointer

     Private, abstract base class for pointers.

     Concrete pointer types are created by calling *note POINTER(): 484.
     with the type that will be pointed to; this is done automatically
     by *note pointer(): 1c5c.

     If a pointer points to an array, its elements can be read and
     written using standard subscript and slice accesses.  Pointer
     objects have no size, so *note len(): a1f. will raise *note
     TypeError: 291.  Negative subscripts will read from the memory
     'before' the pointer (as in C), and out-of-range subscripts will
     probably crash with an access violation (if you’re lucky).

      -- Ιδιότητα: _type_

          Specifies the type pointed to.

      -- Ιδιότητα: contents

          Returns the object to which to pointer points.  Assigning to
          this attribute changes the pointer to point to the assigned
          object.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<9>,  Prev: Arrays and pointers,  Up: ctypes reference

5.17.9.35 Exceptions
....................

 -- Εξαίρεση: ctypes.ArgumentError

     This exception is raised when a foreign function call cannot
     convert one of the passed arguments.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ctypes.COMError (hresult, text, details)

     This exception is raised when a COM method call failed.

      -- Ιδιότητα: hresult

          The integer value representing the error code.

      -- Ιδιότητα: text

          The error message.

      -- Ιδιότητα: details

          The 5-tuple ‘(descr, source, helpfile, helpcontext, progid)’.

          'descr' is the textual description.  'source' is the
          language-dependent ‘ProgID’ for the class or application that
          raised the error.  'helpfile' is the path of the help file.
          'helpcontext' is the help context identifier.  'progid' is the
          ‘ProgID’ of the interface that defined the error.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

     Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface libraries,  Next: Concurrent Execution,  Prev: Generic Operating System Services,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.18 Command-line interface libraries
=====================================

The modules described in this chapter assist with implementing command
line and terminal interfaces for applications.

Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands.
* optparse — Parser for command line options::
* getpass — Portable password input::
* fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams::
* curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays::
* curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs.
* curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
* curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses.
* cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters::


File: python.info,  Node: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands,  Next: optparse — Parser for command line options,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.18.1 ‘argparse’ — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.2.

'Source code:' Lib/argparse.py(1)

     Σημείωση: While ‘argparse’ is the default recommended standard
     library module for implementing basic command line applications,
     authors with more exacting requirements for exactly how their
     command line applications behave may find it doesn’t provide the
     necessary level of control.  Refer to *note Choosing an argument
     parsing library: 35ca. for alternatives to consider when ‘argparse’
     doesn’t support behaviors that the application requires (such as
     entirely disabling support for interspersed options and positional
     arguments, or accepting option parameter values that start with ‘-’
     even when they correspond to another defined option).

__________________________________________________________________

Tutorial
........

This page contains the API reference information.  For a more gentle
introduction to Python command-line parsing, have a look at the *note
argparse tutorial: 35cb.

The ‘argparse’ module makes it easy to write user-friendly command-line
interfaces.  The program defines what arguments it requires, and
‘argparse’ will figure out how to parse those out of *note sys.argv:
1609.  The ‘argparse’ module also automatically generates help and usage
messages.  The module will also issue errors when users give the program
invalid arguments.

The ‘argparse’ module’s support for command-line interfaces is built
around an instance of *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc.  It is a
container for argument specifications and has options that apply to the
parser as whole:

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
                         prog='ProgramName',
                         description='What the program does',
                         epilog='Text at the bottom of help')

The *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 3ed. method attaches individual
argument specifications to the parser.  It supports positional
arguments, options that accept values, and on/off flags:

     parser.add_argument('filename')           # positional argument
     parser.add_argument('-c', '--count')      # option that takes a value
     parser.add_argument('-v', '--verbose',
                         action='store_true')  # on/off flag

The *note ArgumentParser.parse_args(): 35cc. method runs the parser and
places the extracted data in a *note argparse.Namespace: 35cd. object:

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.filename, args.count, args.verbose)

     Σημείωση: If you’re looking for a guide about how to upgrade *note
     optparse: a4. code to ‘argparse’, see *note Upgrading Optparse
     Code: 1557.

* Menu:

* ArgumentParser objects::
* The add_argument() method: The add_argument method.
* The parse_args() method: The parse_args method.
* Other utilities::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<10>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/argparse.py


File: python.info,  Node: ArgumentParser objects,  Next: The add_argument method,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.18.1.1 ArgumentParser objects
...............................

 -- Κλάση: argparse.ArgumentParser (prog=None, usage=None,
          description=None, epilog=None, parents=[],
          formatter_class=argparse.HelpFormatter, prefix_chars='-',
          fromfile_prefix_chars=None, argument_default=None,
          conflict_handler='error', add_help=True, allow_abbrev=True,
          exit_on_error=True, *, suggest_on_error=True, color=True)

     Create a new ‘ArgumentParser’ object.  All parameters should be
     passed as keyword arguments.  Each parameter has its own more
     detailed description below, but in short they are:

        * *note prog: 457. - The name of the program (default: generated
          from the ‘__main__’ module attributes and ‘sys.argv[0]’)

        * *note usage: 35cf. - The string describing the program usage
          (default: generated from arguments added to parser)

        * *note description: 35d0. - Text to display before the argument
          help (by default, no text)

        * *note epilog: 35d1. - Text to display after the argument help
          (by default, no text)

        * *note parents: 35d2. - A list of ‘ArgumentParser’ objects
          whose arguments should also be included

        * *note formatter_class: 35d3. - A class for customizing the
          help output

        * *note prefix_chars: 35d4. - The set of characters that prefix
          optional arguments (default: “-“)

        * *note fromfile_prefix_chars: 35d5. - The set of characters
          that prefix files from which additional arguments should be
          read (default: ‘None’)

        * *note argument_default: 35d6. - The global default value for
          arguments (default: ‘None’)

        * *note conflict_handler: 35d7. - The strategy for resolving
          conflicting optionals (usually unnecessary)

        * *note add_help: 35d8. - Add a ‘-h/--help’ option to the parser
          (default: ‘True’)

        * *note allow_abbrev: 1178. - Allows long options to be
          abbreviated if the abbreviation is unambiguous (default:
          ‘True’)

        * *note exit_on_error: 35d9. - Determines whether or not
          ‘ArgumentParser’ exits with error info when an error occurs.
          (default: ‘True’)

        * *note suggest_on_error: 35da. - Enables suggestions for
          mistyped argument choices and subparser names (default:
          ‘True’)

        * *note color: 35db. - Allow color output (default: ‘True’)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: 'allow_abbrev' parameter was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: In previous versions, 'allow_abbrev' also
     disabled grouping of short flags such as ‘-vv’ to mean ‘-v -v’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: 'exit_on_error' parameter was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: 'suggest_on_error' and 'color' parameters
     were added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: 'suggest_on_error' default changed to
     ‘True’.

The following sections describe how each of these are used.

* Menu:

* prog::
* usage::
* description::
* epilog::
* parents::
* formatter_class::
* prefix_chars::
* fromfile_prefix_chars::
* argument_default::
* allow_abbrev::
* conflict_handler::
* add_help::
* exit_on_error::
* suggest_on_error::
* color::


File: python.info,  Node: prog,  Next: usage,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.2 prog
.............

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. calculates the name of the
program to display in help messages depending on the way the Python
interpreter was run:

   * The *note base name: 2e63. of ‘sys.argv[0]’ if a file was passed as
     argument.

   * The Python interpreter name followed by ‘sys.argv[0]’ if a
     directory or a zipfile was passed as argument.

   * The Python interpreter name followed by ‘-m’ followed by the module
     or package name if the *note -m: 4ca. option was used.

This default is almost always desirable because it will make the help
messages match the string that was used to invoke the program on the
command line.  However, to change this default behavior, another value
can be supplied using the ‘prog=’ argument to *note ArgumentParser:
1dc.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: myprogram [-h]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

Note that the program name, whether determined from ‘sys.argv[0]’, from
the ‘__main__’ module attributes or from the ‘prog=’ argument, is
available to help messages using the ‘%(prog)s’ format specifier.

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='myprogram')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo of the %(prog)s program')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: myprogram [-h] [--foo FOO]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO   foo of the myprogram program

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The default ‘prog’ value now reflects how
‘__main__’ was actually executed, rather than always being
‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’.


File: python.info,  Node: usage,  Next: description,  Prev: prog,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.3 usage
..............

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. calculates the usage message from
the arguments it contains.  The default message can be overridden with
the ‘usage=’ keyword argument:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', usage='%(prog)s [options]')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', help='foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='+', help='bar help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [options]

     positional arguments:
      bar          bar help

     options:
      -h, --help   show this help message and exit
      --foo [FOO]  foo help

The ‘%(prog)s’ format specifier is available to fill in the program name
in your usage messages.

When a custom usage message is specified for the main parser, you may
also want to consider passing the ‘prog’ argument to *note
add_subparsers(): fd6. or the ‘prog’ and the ‘usage’ arguments to *note
add_parser(): 35dd, to ensure consistent command prefixes and usage
information across subparsers.


File: python.info,  Node: description,  Next: epilog,  Prev: usage,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.4 description
....................

Most calls to the *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. constructor will use the
‘description=’ keyword argument.  This argument gives a brief
description of what the program does and how it works.  In help
messages, the description is displayed between the command-line usage
string and the help messages for the various arguments.

By default, the description will be line-wrapped so that it fits within
the given space.  To change this behavior, see the *note
formatter_class: 35d3. argument.


File: python.info,  Node: epilog,  Next: parents,  Prev: description,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.5 epilog
...............

Some programs like to display additional description of the program
after the description of the arguments.  Such text can be specified
using the ‘epilog=’ argument to *note ArgumentParser: 1dc.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     description='A foo that bars',
     ...     epilog="And that's how you'd foo a bar")
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: argparse.py [-h]

     A foo that bars

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

     And that's how you'd foo a bar

As with the *note description: 35d0. argument, the ‘epilog=’ text is by
default line-wrapped, but this behavior can be adjusted with the *note
formatter_class: 35d3. argument to *note ArgumentParser: 1dc.


File: python.info,  Node: parents,  Next: formatter_class,  Prev: epilog,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.6 parents
................

Sometimes, several parsers share a common set of arguments.  Rather than
repeating the definitions of these arguments, a single parser with all
the shared arguments and passed to ‘parents=’ argument to *note
ArgumentParser: 1dc. can be used.  The ‘parents=’ argument takes a list
of ‘ArgumentParser’ objects, collects all the positional and optional
actions from them, and adds these actions to the ‘ArgumentParser’ object
being constructed:

     >>> parent_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(add_help=False)
     >>> parent_parser.add_argument('--parent', type=int)

     >>> foo_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
     >>> foo_parser.add_argument('foo')
     >>> foo_parser.parse_args(['--parent', '2', 'XXX'])
     Namespace(foo='XXX', parent=2)

     >>> bar_parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(parents=[parent_parser])
     >>> bar_parser.add_argument('--bar')
     >>> bar_parser.parse_args(['--bar', 'YYY'])
     Namespace(bar='YYY', parent=None)

Note that most parent parsers will specify ‘add_help=False’.  Otherwise,
the *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. will see two ‘-h/--help’ options (one in
the parent and one in the child) and raise an error.

     Σημείωση: You must fully initialize the parsers before passing them
     via ‘parents=’.  If you change the parent parsers after the child
     parser, those changes will not be reflected in the child.


File: python.info,  Node: formatter_class,  Next: prefix_chars,  Prev: parents,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.7 formatter_class
........................

*note ArgumentParser: 1dc. objects allow the help formatting to be
customized by specifying an alternate formatting class.  Currently,
there are four such classes:

 -- Κλάση: argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter
 -- Κλάση: argparse.RawTextHelpFormatter
 -- Κλάση: argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
 -- Κλάση: argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter

*note RawDescriptionHelpFormatter: 35e0. and *note RawTextHelpFormatter:
35e1. give more control over how textual descriptions are displayed.  By
default, *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. objects line-wrap the *note
description: 35d0. and *note epilog: 35d1. texts in command-line help
messages:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     description='''this description
     ...         was indented weird
     ...             but that is okay''',
     ...     epilog='''
     ...             likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will
     ...         be cleaned up and whose words will be wrapped
     ...         across a couple lines''')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h]

     this description was indented weird but that is okay

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

     likewise for this epilog whose whitespace will be cleaned up and whose words
     will be wrapped across a couple lines

Passing *note RawDescriptionHelpFormatter: 35e0. as ‘formatter_class=’
indicates that *note description: 35d0. and *note epilog: 35d1. are
already correctly formatted and should not be line-wrapped:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter,
     ...     description=textwrap.dedent('''\
     ...         Please do not mess up this text!
     ...         --------------------------------
     ...             I have indented it
     ...             exactly the way
     ...             I want it
     ...         '''))
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h]

     Please do not mess up this text!
     --------------------------------
        I have indented it
        exactly the way
        I want it

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

*note RawTextHelpFormatter: 35e1. maintains whitespace for all sorts of
help text, including argument descriptions.  However, multiple newlines
are replaced with one.  If you wish to preserve multiple blank lines,
add spaces between the newlines.

*note ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter: 1e47. automatically adds
information about default values to each of the argument help messages:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int, default=42, help='FOO!')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='*', default=[1, 2, 3], help='BAR!')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar ...]

     positional arguments:
      bar         BAR! (default: [1, 2, 3])

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO   FOO! (default: 42)

*note MetavarTypeHelpFormatter: 35e2. uses the name of the *note type:
35e3. argument for each argument as the display name for its values
(rather than using the *note dest: 35e4. as the regular formatter does):

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     prog='PROG',
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.MetavarTypeHelpFormatter)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', type=float)
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo int] float

     positional arguments:
       float

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       --foo int


File: python.info,  Node: prefix_chars,  Next: fromfile_prefix_chars,  Prev: formatter_class,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.8 prefix_chars
.....................

Most command-line options will use ‘-’ as the prefix, e.g.  ‘-f/--foo’.
Parsers that need to support different or additional prefix characters,
e.g.  for options like ‘+f’ or ‘/foo’, may specify them using the
‘prefix_chars=’ argument to the *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. constructor:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='-+')
     >>> parser.add_argument('+f')
     >>> parser.add_argument('++bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('+f X ++bar Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='Y', f='X')

The ‘prefix_chars=’ argument defaults to ‘'-'’.  Supplying a set of
characters that does not include ‘-’ will cause ‘-f/--foo’ options to be
disallowed.


File: python.info,  Node: fromfile_prefix_chars,  Next: argument_default,  Prev: prefix_chars,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.9 fromfile_prefix_chars
..............................

Sometimes, when dealing with a particularly long argument list, it may
make sense to keep the list of arguments in a file rather than typing it
out at the command line.  If the ‘fromfile_prefix_chars=’ argument is
given to the *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. constructor, then arguments that
start with any of the specified characters will be treated as files, and
will be replaced by the arguments they contain.  For example:

     >>> with open('args.txt', 'w', encoding=sys.getfilesystemencoding()) as fp:
     ...     fp.write('-f\nbar')
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(fromfile_prefix_chars='@')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-f', 'foo', '@args.txt'])
     Namespace(f='bar')

Arguments read from a file must be one per line by default (but see also
*note convert_arg_line_to_args(): 35e5.) and are treated as if they were
in the same place as the original file referencing argument on the
command line.  So in the example above, the expression ‘['-f', 'foo',
'@args.txt']’ is considered equivalent to the expression ‘['-f', 'foo',
'-f', 'bar']’.

     Σημείωση: Empty lines are treated as empty strings (‘''’), which
     are allowed as values but not as arguments.  Empty lines that are
     read as arguments will result in an «unrecognized arguments» error.

*note ArgumentParser: 1dc. uses *note filesystem encoding and error
handler: 948. to read the file containing arguments.

The ‘fromfile_prefix_chars=’ argument defaults to ‘None’, meaning that
arguments will never be treated as file references.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. changed encoding and
errors to read arguments files from default (e.g.  *note
locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 947. and ‘"strict"’) to the *note
filesystem encoding and error handler: 948.  Arguments file should be
encoded in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: argument_default,  Next: allow_abbrev,  Prev: fromfile_prefix_chars,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.10 argument_default
..........................

Generally, argument defaults are specified either by passing a default
to *note add_argument(): 3ed. or by calling the *note set_defaults():
35e6. methods with a specific set of name-value pairs.  Sometimes
however, it may be useful to specify a single parser-wide default for
arguments.  This can be accomplished by passing the ‘argument_default=’
keyword argument to *note ArgumentParser: 1dc.  For example, to globally
suppress attribute creation on *note parse_args(): 35cc. calls, we
supply ‘argument_default=SUPPRESS’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(argument_default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1', 'BAR'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='1')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace()


File: python.info,  Node: allow_abbrev,  Next: conflict_handler,  Prev: argument_default,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.11 allow_abbrev
......................

Normally, when you pass an argument list to the *note parse_args():
35cc. method of an *note ArgumentParser: 1dc, it *note recognizes
abbreviations: 1177. of long options.

This feature can be disabled by setting ‘allow_abbrev’ to ‘False’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', allow_abbrev=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foobar', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foonley', action='store_false')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foon'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foobar] [--foonley]
     PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: --foon

Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: conflict_handler,  Next: add_help,  Prev: allow_abbrev,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.12 conflict_handler
..........................

*note ArgumentParser: 1dc. objects do not allow two actions with the
same option string.  By default, ‘ArgumentParser’ objects raise an
exception if an attempt is made to create an argument with an option
string that is already in use:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ..
     ArgumentError: argument --foo: conflicting option string(s): --foo

Sometimes (e.g.  when using *note parents: 35d2.) it may be useful to
simply override any older arguments with the same option string.  To get
this behavior, the value ‘'resolve'’ can be supplied to the
‘conflict_handler=’ argument of *note ArgumentParser: 1dc.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', conflict_handler='resolve')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo', help='old foo help')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='new foo help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] [--foo FOO]

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      -f FOO      old foo help
      --foo FOO   new foo help

Note that *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. objects only remove an action if
all of its option strings are overridden.  So, in the example above, the
old ‘-f/--foo’ action is retained as the ‘-f’ action, because only the
‘--foo’ option string was overridden.


File: python.info,  Node: add_help,  Next: exit_on_error,  Prev: conflict_handler,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.13 add_help
..................

By default, *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. objects add an option which
simply displays the parser’s help message.  If ‘-h’ or ‘--help’ is
supplied at the command line, the ‘ArgumentParser’ help will be printed.

Occasionally, it may be useful to disable the addition of this help
option.  This can be achieved by passing ‘False’ as the ‘add_help=’
argument to *note ArgumentParser: 1dc.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [--foo FOO]

     options:
      --foo FOO  foo help

The help option is typically ‘-h/--help’.  The exception to this is if
the ‘prefix_chars=’ is specified and does not include ‘-’, in which case
‘-h’ and ‘--help’ are not valid options.  In this case, the first
character in ‘prefix_chars’ is used to prefix the help options:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', prefix_chars='+/')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [+h]

     options:
       +h, ++help  show this help message and exit


File: python.info,  Node: exit_on_error,  Next: suggest_on_error,  Prev: add_help,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.14 exit_on_error
.......................

Normally, when you pass an invalid argument list to the *note
parse_args(): 35cc. method of an *note ArgumentParser: 1dc, it will
print a 'message' to *note sys.stderr: d05. and exit with a status code
of 2.

If the user would like to catch errors manually, the feature can be
enabled by setting ‘exit_on_error’ to ‘False’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(exit_on_error=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--integers', type=int)
     _StoreAction(option_strings=['--integers'], dest='integers', nargs=None, const=None, default=None, type=<class 'int'>, choices=None, help=None, metavar=None)
     >>> try:
     ...     parser.parse_args('--integers a'.split())
     ... except argparse.ArgumentError:
     ...     print('Catching an argumentError')
     ...
     Catching an argumentError

Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: suggest_on_error,  Next: color,  Prev: exit_on_error,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.15 suggest_on_error
..........................

By default, when a user passes an invalid argument choice or subparser
name, *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. will exit with error info and provide
suggestions for mistyped arguments.  The error message will list the
permissible argument choices (if specified) or subparser names, along
with a «maybe you meant» suggestion if a close match is found.  Note
that this only applies for arguments when the choices specified are
strings:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(suggest_on_error=True)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--action', choices=['debug', 'dryrun'])
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--action', 'debugg'])
     usage: tester.py [-h] [--action {debug,dryrun}]
     tester.py: error: argument --action: invalid choice: 'debugg', maybe you meant 'debug'? (choose from debug, dryrun)

You can disable suggestions by setting ‘suggest_on_error’ to ‘False’.

Added in version 3.14.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Changed default value of ‘suggest_on_error’
from ‘False’ to ‘True’.


File: python.info,  Node: color,  Prev: suggest_on_error,  Up: ArgumentParser objects

5.18.1.16 color
...............

By default, the help message is printed in color using ANSI escape
sequences(1).  If you want plain text help messages, you can disable
this *note in your local environment: 1af, or in the argument parser
itself by setting ‘color’ to ‘False’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Process some integers.',
     ...                                  color=False)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--action', choices=['sum', 'max'])
     >>> parser.add_argument('integers', metavar='N', type=int, nargs='+',
     ...                     help='an integer for the accumulator')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--help'])

Note that when ‘color=True’, colored output depends on both environment
variables and terminal capabilities.  However, if ‘color=False’, colored
output is always disabled, even if environment variables like
‘FORCE_COLOR’ are set.

Added in version 3.14.

To highlight inline code in your description, epilog, or argument ‘help’
text, you can use single or double backticks:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
     ...     formatter_class=argparse.RawDescriptionHelpFormatter,
     ...     description='Run ``python -m myapp`` to start.',
     ...     epilog='''Examples:
     ...   `python -m myapp --verbose`
     ...   ``python -m myapp --config settings.json``
     ... ''')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help='set the `foo` value')

When colors are enabled, the text inside backticks will be displayed in
a distinct color to help examples stand out.  When colors are disabled,
backticks are preserved as-is, which is readable in plain text.

Added in version 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANSI_escape_code


File: python.info,  Node: The add_argument method,  Next: The parse_args method,  Prev: ArgumentParser objects,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.18.1.17 The add_argument() method
...................................

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.add_argument (name or flags..., *[,
          action][, nargs][, const][, default][, type][, choices][,
          required][, help][, metavar][, dest][, deprecated])

     Define how a single command-line argument should be parsed.  Each
     parameter has its own more detailed description below, but in short
     they are:

        * *note name or flags: 35e9. - Either a name or a list of option
          strings, e.g.  ‘'foo'’ or ‘'-f', '--foo'’.

        * *note action: 1b46. - The basic type of action to be taken
          when this argument is encountered at the command line.

        * *note nargs: 1936. - The number of command-line arguments that
          should be consumed.

        * *note const: 1b4d. - A constant value required by some *note
          action: 1b46. and *note nargs: 1936. selections.

        * *note default: 1b4c. - The value produced if the argument is
          absent from the command line and if it is absent from the
          namespace object.

        * *note type: 35e3. - The type to which the command-line
          argument should be converted.

        * *note choices: 1b48. - A sequence of the allowable values for
          the argument.

        * *note required: 35ea. - Whether or not the command-line option
          may be omitted (optionals only).

        * *note help: 35eb. - A brief description of what the argument
          does.

        * *note metavar: 35ec. - A name for the argument in usage
          messages.

        * *note dest: 35e4. - The name of the attribute to be added to
          the object returned by *note parse_args(): 35cc.

        * *note deprecated: 35ed. - Whether or not use of the argument
          is deprecated.

     The method returns an *note Action: 1d88. object representing the
     argument.

The following sections describe how each of these are used.

* Menu:

* name or flags::
* action::
* nargs::
* const::
* default::
* type::
* choices::
* required::
* help::
* metavar::
* dest::
* deprecated::
* Action classes::


File: python.info,  Node: name or flags,  Next: action,  Up: The add_argument method

5.18.1.18 name or flags
.......................

The *note add_argument(): 3ed. method must know whether an optional
argument, like ‘-f’ or ‘--foo’, or a positional argument, like a list of
filenames, is expected.  The first arguments passed to ‘add_argument()’
must therefore be either a series of flags, or a simple argument name.

For example, an optional argument could be created like:

     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')

while a positional argument could be created like:

     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')

When *note parse_args(): 35cc. is called, optional arguments will be
identified by the ‘-’ prefix, and the remaining arguments will be
assumed to be positional:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['BAR'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=None)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['BAR', '--foo', 'FOO'])
     Namespace(bar='BAR', foo='FOO')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-f FOO] bar
     PROG: error: the following arguments are required: bar

By default, ‘argparse’ automatically handles the internal naming and
display names of arguments, simplifying the process without requiring
additional configuration.  As such, you do not need to specify the *note
dest: 35e4. and *note metavar: 35ec. parameters.  For optional
arguments, the *note dest: 35e4. parameter defaults to the argument
name, with underscores ‘_’ replacing hyphens ‘-’.  The *note metavar:
35ec. parameter defaults to the upper-cased name.  For example:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo-bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo-bar', 'FOO-BAR'])
     Namespace(foo_bar='FOO-BAR')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage:  [-h] [--foo-bar FOO-BAR]

     optional arguments:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo-bar FOO-BAR


File: python.info,  Node: action,  Next: nargs,  Prev: name or flags,  Up: The add_argument method

5.18.1.19 action
................

*note ArgumentParser: 1dc. objects associate command-line arguments with
actions.  These actions can do just about anything with the command-line
arguments associated with them, though most actions simply add an
attribute to the object returned by *note parse_args(): 35cc.  The
‘action’ keyword argument specifies how the command-line arguments
should be handled.  The supplied actions are:

   * ‘'store'’ - This just stores the argument’s value.  This is the
     default action.

   * ‘'store_const'’ - This stores the value specified by the *note
     const: 1b4d. keyword argument; note that the *note const: 1b4d.
     keyword argument defaults to ‘None’.  The ‘'store_const'’ action is
     most commonly used with optional arguments that specify some sort
     of flag.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_const', const=42)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
          Namespace(foo=42)

   * ‘'store_true'’ and ‘'store_false'’ - These are special cases of
     ‘'store_const'’ that respectively store the values ‘True’ and
     ‘False’ with default values of ‘False’ and ‘True’:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--baz', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args('--foo --bar'.split())
          Namespace(foo=True, bar=False, baz=True)

   * ‘'append'’ - This appends each argument value to a list.  It is
     useful for allowing an option to be specified multiple times.  If
     the default value is a non-empty list, the parsed value will start
     with the default list’s elements and any values from the command
     line will be appended after those default values.  Example usage:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='append', default=['0'])
          >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 --foo 2'.split())
          Namespace(foo=['0', '1', '2'])

   * ‘'append_const'’ - This appends the value specified by the *note
     const: 1b4d. keyword argument to a list; note that the *note const:
     1b4d. keyword argument defaults to ‘None’.  The ‘'append_const'’
     action is typically useful when multiple arguments need to store
     constants to the same list.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--str', dest='types', action='append_const', const=str)
          >>> parser.add_argument('--int', dest='types', action='append_const', const=int)
          >>> parser.parse_args('--str --int'.split())
          Namespace(types=[<class 'str'>, <class 'int'>])

   * ‘'extend'’ - This appends each item from a multi-value argument to
     a list.  The ‘'extend'’ action is typically used with the *note
     nargs: 1936. keyword argument value ‘'+'’ or ‘'*'’.  Note that when
     *note nargs: 1936. is ‘None’ (the default) or ‘'?'’, each character
     of the argument string will be appended to the list.  Example
     usage:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument("--foo", action="extend", nargs="+", type=str)
          >>> parser.parse_args(["--foo", "f1", "--foo", "f2", "f3", "f4"])
          Namespace(foo=['f1', 'f2', 'f3', 'f4'])

     Added in version 3.8.

   * ‘'count'’ - This counts the number of times an argument occurs.
     For example, this is useful for increasing verbosity levels:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--verbose', '-v', action='count', default=0)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-vvv'])
          Namespace(verbose=3)

     Note, the 'default' will be ‘None’ unless explicitly set to '0'.

   * ‘'help'’ - This prints a complete help message for all the options
     in the current parser and then exits.  By default a help action is
     automatically added to the parser.  See *note ArgumentParser: 1dc.
     for details of how the output is created.

   * ‘'version'’ - This expects a ‘version=’ keyword argument in the
     *note add_argument(): 3ed. call, and prints version information and
     exits when invoked:

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--version', action='version', version='%(prog)s 2.0')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--version'])
          PROG 2.0

You may also specify an arbitrary action by passing an *note Action:
1d88. subclass (e.g.  *note BooleanOptionalAction: 1db.) or other object
that implements the same interface.  Only actions that consume
command-line arguments (e.g.  ‘'store'’, ‘'append'’, ‘'extend'’, or
custom actions with non-zero ‘nargs’) can be used with positional
arguments.

The recommended way to create a custom action is to extend *note Action:
1d88, overriding the ‘__call__()’ method and optionally the ‘__init__()’
and ‘format_usage()’ methods.  You can also register custom actions
using the *note register(): 35f0. method and reference them by their
registered name.

An example of a custom action:

     >>> class FooAction(argparse.Action):
     ...     def __init__(self, option_strings, dest, nargs=None, **kwargs):
     ...         if nargs is not None:
     ...             raise ValueError("nargs not allowed")
     ...         super().__init__(option_strings, dest, **kwargs)
     ...     def __call__(self, parser, namespace, values, option_string=None):
     ...         print('%r %r %r' % (namespace, values, option_string))
     ...         setattr(namespace, self.dest, values)
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=FooAction)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', action=FooAction)
     >>> args = parser.parse_args('1 --foo 2'.split())
     Namespace(bar=None, foo=None) '1' None
     Namespace(bar='1', foo=None) '2' '--foo'
     >>> args
     Namespace(bar='1', foo='2')

For more details, see *note Action: 1d88.


File: python.info,  Node: nargs,  Next: const,  Prev: action,  Up: The add_argument method

5.18.1.20 nargs
...............

*note ArgumentParser: 1dc. objects usually associate a single
command-line argument with a single action to be taken.  The ‘nargs’
keyword argument associates a different number of command-line arguments
with a single action.  See also *note Specifying ambiguous arguments:
35f2.  The supported values are:

   * ‘N’ (an integer).  ‘N’ arguments from the command line will be
     gathered together into a list.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2)
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs=1)
          >>> parser.parse_args('c --foo a b'.split())
          Namespace(bar=['c'], foo=['a', 'b'])

     Note that ‘nargs=1’ produces a list of one item.  This is different
     from the default, in which the item is produced by itself.

   * ‘'?'’.  One argument will be consumed from the command line if
     possible, and produced as a single item.  If no command-line
     argument is present, the value from *note default: 1b4c. will be
     produced.  Note that for optional arguments, there is an additional
     case - the option string is present but not followed by a
     command-line argument.  In this case the value from *note const:
     1b4d. will be produced.  Some examples to illustrate this:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='?', const='c', default='d')
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', default='d')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo', 'YY'])
          Namespace(bar='XX', foo='YY')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['XX', '--foo'])
          Namespace(bar='XX', foo='c')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(bar='d', foo='d')

     One of the more common uses of ‘nargs='?'’ is to allow optional
     input and output files:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('infile', nargs='?')
          >>> parser.add_argument('outfile', nargs='?')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['input.txt', 'output.txt'])
          Namespace(infile='input.txt', outfile='output.txt')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['input.txt'])
          Namespace(infile='input.txt', outfile=None)
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(infile=None, outfile=None)

   * ‘'*'’.  All command-line arguments present are gathered into a
     list.  Note that it generally doesn’t make much sense to have more
     than one positional argument with ‘nargs='*'’, but multiple
     optional arguments with ‘nargs='*'’ is possible.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--bar', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.add_argument('baz', nargs='*')
          >>> parser.parse_args('a b --foo x y --bar 1 2'.split())
          Namespace(bar=['1', '2'], baz=['a', 'b'], foo=['x', 'y'])

   * ‘'+'’.  Just like ‘'*'’, all command-line arguments present are
     gathered into a list.  Additionally, an error message will be
     generated if there wasn’t at least one command-line argument
     present.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='+')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', 'b'])
          Namespace(foo=['a', 'b'])
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          usage: PROG [-h] foo [foo ...]
          PROG: error: the following arguments are required: foo

If the ‘nargs’ keyword argument is not provided, the number of arguments
consumed is determined by the *note action: 1b46.  Generally this means
a single command-line argument will be consumed and a single item (not a
list) will be produced.  Actions that do not consume command-line
arguments (e.g.  ‘'store_const'’) set ‘nargs=0’.


File: python.info,  Node: const,  Next: default,  Prev: nargs,  Up: The add_argument method

5.18.1.21 const
...............

The ‘const’ argument of *note add_argument(): 3ed. is used to hold
constant values that are not read from the command line but are required
for the various *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. actions.  The two most common
uses of it are:

   * When *note add_argument(): 3ed. is called with
     ‘action='store_const'’ or ‘action='append_const'’.  These actions
     add the ‘const’ value to one of the attributes of the object
     returned by *note parse_args(): 35cc.  See the *note action: 1b46.
     description for examples.  If ‘const’ is not provided to
     ‘add_argument()’, it will receive a default value of ‘None’.

   * When *note add_argument(): 3ed. is called with option strings (like
     ‘-f’ or ‘--foo’) and ‘nargs='?'’.  This creates an optional
     argument that can be followed by zero or one command-line
     arguments.  When parsing the command line, if the option string is
     encountered with no command-line argument following it, the value
     from ‘const’ will be used.  See the *note nargs: 1936. description
     for examples.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: ‘const=None’ by default, including when
‘action='append_const'’ or ‘action='store_const'’.


File: python.info,  Node: default,  Next: type,  Prev: const,  Up: The add_argument method

5.18.1.22 default
.................

All optional arguments and some positional arguments may be omitted at
the command line.  The ‘default’ keyword argument of *note
add_argument(): 3ed, whose value defaults to ‘None’, specifies what
value should be used if the command-line argument is not present.  For
optional arguments, the ‘default’ value is used when the option string
was not present at the command line:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '2'])
     Namespace(foo='2')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace(foo=42)

If the target namespace already has an attribute set, the action
'default' will not overwrite it:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args([], namespace=argparse.Namespace(foo=101))
     Namespace(foo=101)

If the ‘default’ value is a string, the parser parses the value as if it
were a command-line argument.  In particular, the parser applies any
*note type: 35e3. conversion argument, if provided, before setting the
attribute on the *note Namespace: 35cd. return value.  Otherwise, the
parser uses the value as is:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--length', default='10', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--width', default=10.5, type=int)
     >>> parser.parse_args()
     Namespace(length=10, width=10.5)

For positional arguments with *note nargs: 1936. equal to ‘?’ or ‘*’,
the ‘default’ value is used when no command-line argument was present:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?', default=42)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['a'])
     Namespace(foo='a')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace(foo=42)

For *note required: 35ea. arguments, the ‘default’ value is ignored.
For example, this applies to positional arguments with *note nargs:
1936. values other than ‘?’ or ‘*’, or optional arguments marked as
‘required=True’.

Providing ‘default=argparse.SUPPRESS’ causes no attribute to be added if
the command-line argument was not present:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace()
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1'])
     Namespace(foo='1')


File: python.info,  Node: type,  Next: choices,  Prev: default,  Up: The add_argument method

5.18.1.23 type
..............

By default, the parser reads command-line arguments in as simple
strings.  However, quite often the command-line string should instead be
interpreted as another type, such as a *note float: 327. or *note int:
326.  The ‘type’ keyword for *note add_argument(): 3ed. allows any
necessary type-checking and type conversions to be performed.

If the *note type: 35e3. keyword is used with the *note default: 1b4c.
keyword, the type converter is only applied if the default is a string.

The argument to ‘type’ can be a callable that accepts a single string or
the name of a registered type (see *note register(): 35f0.) If the
function raises *note ArgumentTypeError: 35f6, *note TypeError: 291, or
*note ValueError: 277, the exception is caught and a nicely formatted
error message is displayed.  Other exception types are not handled.

Common built-in types and functions can be used as type converters:

     import argparse
     import pathlib

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('count', type=int)
     parser.add_argument('distance', type=float)
     parser.add_argument('street', type=ascii)
     parser.add_argument('code_point', type=ord)
     parser.add_argument('datapath', type=pathlib.Path)

User defined functions can be used as well:

     >>> def hyphenated(string):
     ...     return '-'.join([word[:4] for word in string.casefold().split()])
     ...
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> _ = parser.add_argument('short_title', type=hyphenated)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['"The Tale of Two Cities"'])
     Namespace(short_title='"the-tale-of-two-citi')

The *note bool(): 5ef. function is not recommended as a type converter.
All it does is convert empty strings to ‘False’ and non-empty strings to
‘True’.  This is usually not what is desired:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> _ = parser.add_argument('--verbose', type=bool)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--verbose', 'False'])
     Namespace(verbose=True)

See *note BooleanOptionalAction: 1db. or ‘action='store_true'’ for
common alternatives.

In general, the ‘type’ keyword is a convenience that should only be used
for simple conversions that can only raise one of the three supported
exceptions.  Anything with more interesting error-handling or resource
management should be done downstream after the arguments are parsed.

For example, JSON or YAML conversions have complex error cases that
require better reporting than can be given by the ‘type’ keyword.  A
*note JSONDecodeError: 11d5. would not be well formatted and a *note
FileNotFoundError: 243. exception would not be handled at all.

Even *note FileType: 31e. has its limitations for use with the ‘type’
keyword.  If one argument uses ‘FileType’ and then a subsequent argument
fails, an error is reported but the file is not automatically closed.
In this case, it would be better to wait until after the parser has run
and then use the *note with: 20a.-statement to manage the files.

For type checkers that simply check against a fixed set of values,
consider using the *note choices: 1b48. keyword instead.


File: python.info,  Node: choices,  Next: required,  Prev: type,  Up: The add_argument method

5.18.1.24 choices
.................

Some command-line arguments should be selected from a restricted set of
values.  These can be handled by passing a sequence object as the
'choices' keyword argument to *note add_argument(): 3ed.  When the
command line is parsed, argument values will be checked, and an error
message will be displayed if the argument was not one of the acceptable
values:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='game.py')
     >>> parser.add_argument('move', choices=['rock', 'paper', 'scissors'])
     >>> parser.parse_args(['rock'])
     Namespace(move='rock')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['fire'])
     usage: game.py [-h] {rock,paper,scissors}
     game.py: error: argument move: invalid choice: 'fire' (choose from 'rock',
     'paper', 'scissors')

Any sequence can be passed as the 'choices' value, so *note list: 4d9.
objects, *note tuple: 1ce. objects, and custom sequences are all
supported.

Use of *note enum.Enum: a21. is not recommended because it is difficult
to control its appearance in usage, help, and error messages.

Note that 'choices' are checked after any *note type: 35e3. conversions
have been performed, so objects in 'choices' should match the *note
type: 35e3. specified.  This can make 'choices' appear unfamiliar in
usage, help, or error messages.

To keep 'choices' user-friendly, consider a custom type wrapper that
converts and formats values, or omit *note type: 35e3. and handle
conversion in your application code.

Formatted choices override the default 'metavar' which is normally
derived from 'dest'.  This is usually what you want because the user
never sees the 'dest' parameter.  If this display isn’t desirable
(perhaps because there are many choices), just specify an explicit *note
metavar: 35ec.


File: python.info,  Node: required,  Next: help,  Prev: choices,  Up: The add_argument method

5.18.1.25 required
..................

In general, the ‘argparse’ module assumes that flags like ‘-f’ and
‘--bar’ indicate 'optional' arguments, which can always be omitted at
the command line.  To make an option 'required', ‘True’ can be specified
for the ‘required=’ keyword argument to *note add_argument(): 3ed.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', required=True)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
     Namespace(foo='BAR')
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     usage: [-h] --foo FOO
     : error: the following arguments are required: --foo

As the example shows, if an option is marked as ‘required’, *note
parse_args(): 35cc. will report an error if that option is not present
at the command line.

     Σημείωση: Required options are generally considered bad form
     because users expect 'options' to be 'optional', and thus they
     should be avoided when possible.


File: python.info,  Node: help,  Next: metavar,  Prev: required,  Up: The add_argument method

5.18.1.26 help
..............

The ‘help’ value is a string containing a brief description of the
argument.  When a user requests help (usually by using ‘-h’ or ‘--help’
at the command line), these ‘help’ descriptions will be displayed with
each argument.

The ‘help’ strings can include various format specifiers to avoid
repetition of things like the program name or the argument *note
default: 1b4c.  The available specifiers include the program name,
‘%(prog)s’ and most keyword arguments to *note add_argument(): 3ed, e.g.
‘%(default)s’, ‘%(type)s’, etc.:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?', type=int, default=42,
     ...                     help='the bar to %(prog)s (default: %(default)s)')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: frobble [-h] [bar]

     positional arguments:
      bar     the bar to frobble (default: 42)

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit

As the help string supports %-formatting, if you want a literal ‘%’ to
appear in the help string, you must escape it as ‘%%’.

‘argparse’ supports silencing the help entry for certain options, by
setting the ‘help’ value to ‘argparse.SUPPRESS’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='frobble')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', help=argparse.SUPPRESS)
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: frobble [-h]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit


File: python.info,  Node: metavar,  Next: dest,  Prev: help,  Up: The add_argument method

5.18.1.27 metavar
.................

When *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. generates help messages, it needs some
way to refer to each expected argument.  By default, ‘ArgumentParser’
objects use the *note dest: 35e4. value as the «name» of each object.
By default, for positional argument actions, the *note dest: 35e4. value
is used directly, and for optional argument actions, the *note dest:
35e4. value is uppercased.  So, a single positional argument with
‘dest='bar'’ will be referred to as ‘bar’.  A single optional argument
‘--foo’ that should be followed by a single command-line argument will
be referred to as ‘FOO’.  An example:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage:  [-h] [--foo FOO] bar

     positional arguments:
      bar

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo FOO

An alternative name can be specified with ‘metavar’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', metavar='YYY')
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', metavar='XXX')
     >>> parser.parse_args('X --foo Y'.split())
     Namespace(bar='X', foo='Y')
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage:  [-h] [--foo YYY] XXX

     positional arguments:
      XXX

     options:
      -h, --help  show this help message and exit
      --foo YYY

Note that ‘metavar’ only changes the 'displayed' name - the name of the
attribute on the *note parse_args(): 35cc. object is still determined by
the *note dest: 35e4. value.

Different values of ‘nargs’ may cause the metavar to be used multiple
times.  Providing a tuple to ‘metavar’ specifies a different display for
each of the arguments:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', nargs=2)
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', nargs=2, metavar=('bar', 'baz'))
     >>> parser.print_help()
     usage: PROG [-h] [-x X X] [--foo bar baz]

     options:
      -h, --help     show this help message and exit
      -x X X
      --foo bar baz


File: python.info,  Node: dest,  Next: deprecated,  Prev: metavar,  Up: The add_argument method

5.18.1.28 dest
..............

Most *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. actions add some value as an attribute
of the object returned by *note parse_args(): 35cc.  The name of this
attribute is determined by the ‘dest’ keyword argument of *note
add_argument(): 3ed.  For positional argument actions, ‘dest’ is
normally supplied as the first argument to ‘add_argument()’:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['XXX'])
     Namespace(bar='XXX')

For optional argument actions, the value of ‘dest’ is normally inferred
from the option strings.  *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. generates the value
of ‘dest’ by taking the first double-dash long option string and
stripping away the initial ‘-’ characters.  If no double-dash long
option strings were supplied, ‘dest’ will be derived from the first
single-dash long option string by stripping the initial ‘-’ character.
If no long option strings were supplied, ‘dest’ will be derived from the
first short option string by stripping the initial ‘-’ character.  Any
internal ‘-’ characters will be converted to ‘_’ characters to make sure
the string is a valid attribute name.  The examples below illustrate
this behavior:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('-f', '--foo-bar', '--foo')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-q', '-quz')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', '-y')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-f 1 -q 2 -x 3'.split())
     Namespace(foo_bar='1', quz='2', x='3')
     >>> parser.parse_args('--foo 1 -quz 2 -y 3'.split())
     Namespace(foo_bar='1', quz='2', x='2')

‘dest’ allows a custom attribute name to be provided:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', dest='bar')
     >>> parser.parse_args('--foo XXX'.split())
     Namespace(bar='XXX')

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Single-dash long option now takes precedence
over short options.


File: python.info,  Node: deprecated,  Next: Action classes,  Prev: dest,  Up: The add_argument method

5.18.1.29 deprecated
....................

During a project’s lifetime, some arguments may need to be removed from
the command line.  Before removing them, you should inform your users
that the arguments are deprecated and will be removed.  The ‘deprecated’
keyword argument of *note add_argument(): 3ed, which defaults to
‘False’, specifies if the argument is deprecated and will be removed in
the future.  For arguments, if ‘deprecated’ is ‘True’, then a warning
will be printed to *note sys.stderr: d05. when the argument is used:

     >>> import argparse
     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='snake.py')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--legs', default=0, type=int, deprecated=True)
     >>> parser.parse_args([])
     Namespace(legs=0)
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--legs', '4'])
     snake.py: warning: option '--legs' is deprecated
     Namespace(legs=4)

Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Action classes,  Prev: deprecated,  Up: The add_argument method

5.18.1.30 Action classes
........................

‘Action’ classes implement the Action API, a callable which returns a
callable which processes arguments from the command-line.  Any object
which follows this API may be passed as the ‘action’ parameter to *note
add_argument(): 3ed.

 -- Κλάση: argparse.Action (option_strings, dest, nargs=None,
          const=None, default=None, type=None, choices=None,
          required=False, help=None, metavar=None)

     ‘Action’ objects are used by an *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. to
     represent the information needed to parse a single argument from
     one or more strings from the command line.  The ‘Action’ class must
     accept the two positional arguments plus any keyword arguments
     passed to *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 3ed. except for the
     ‘action’ itself.

     Instances of ‘Action’ (or return value of any callable to the
     ‘action’ parameter) should have attributes ‘dest’,
     ‘option_strings’, ‘default’, ‘type’, ‘required’, ‘help’, etc.
     defined.  The easiest way to ensure these attributes are defined is
     to call ‘Action.__init__()’.

      -- Μέθοδος: __call__ (parser, namespace, values,
               option_string=None)

          ‘Action’ instances should be callable, so subclasses must
          override the ‘__call__()’ method, which should accept four
          parameters:

             * 'parser' - The *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. object which
               contains this action.

             * 'namespace' - The *note Namespace: 35cd. object that will
               be returned by *note parse_args(): 35cc.  Most actions
               add an attribute to this object using *note setattr():
               27b7.

             * 'values' - The associated command-line arguments, with
               any type conversions applied.  Type conversions are
               specified with the *note type: 35e3. keyword argument to
               *note add_argument(): 3ed.

             * 'option_string' - The option string that was used to
               invoke this action.  The ‘option_string’ argument is
               optional, and will be absent if the action is associated
               with a positional argument.

          The ‘__call__()’ method may perform arbitrary actions, but
          will typically set attributes on the ‘namespace’ based on
          ‘dest’ and ‘values’.

      -- Μέθοδος: format_usage ()

          ‘Action’ subclasses can define a ‘format_usage()’ method that
          takes no argument and return a string which will be used when
          printing the usage of the program.  If such method is not
          provided, a sensible default will be used.

 -- Κλάση: argparse.BooleanOptionalAction

     A subclass of *note Action: 1d88. for handling boolean flags with
     positive and negative options.  Adding a single argument such as
     ‘--foo’ automatically creates both ‘--foo’ and ‘--no-foo’ options,
     storing ‘True’ and ‘False’ respectively:

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action=argparse.BooleanOptionalAction)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--no-foo'])
          Namespace(foo=False)

     Single-dash long options are also supported.  For example, negative
     option ‘-nofoo’ is automatically added for positive option ‘-foo’.
     But no additional options are added for short options such as ‘-f’.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added support for single-dash options.

     Added support for alternate *note prefix_chars: 35d4.


File: python.info,  Node: The parse_args method,  Next: Other utilities,  Prev: The add_argument method,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.18.1.31 The parse_args() method
.................................

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.parse_args (args=None, namespace=None)

     Convert argument strings to objects and assign them as attributes
     of the namespace.  Return the populated namespace.

     Previous calls to *note add_argument(): 3ed. determine exactly what
     objects are created and how they are assigned.  See the
     documentation for ‘add_argument()’ for details.

        * *note args: 3601. - List of strings to parse.  The default is
          taken from *note sys.argv: 1609.

        * *note namespace: 3602. - An object to take the attributes.
          The default is a new empty *note Namespace: 35cd. object.

* Menu:

* Option value syntax::
* Invalid arguments::
* Arguments containing -::
* Argument abbreviations (prefix matching): Argument abbreviations prefix matching.
* Beyond sys.argv: Beyond sys argv.
* The Namespace object::


File: python.info,  Node: Option value syntax,  Next: Invalid arguments,  Up: The parse_args method

5.18.1.32 Option value syntax
.............................

The *note parse_args(): 35cc. method supports several ways of specifying
the value of an option (if it takes one).  In the simplest case, the
option and its value are passed as two separate arguments:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', 'X'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='X')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'FOO'])
     Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)

For long options (options with names longer than a single character),
the option and value can also be passed as a single command-line
argument, using ‘=’ to separate them:

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo=FOO'])
     Namespace(foo='FOO', x=None)

For short options (options only one character long), the option and its
value can be concatenated:

     >>> parser.parse_args(['-xX'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='X')

Several short options can be joined together, using only a single ‘-’
prefix, as long as only the last option (or none of them) requires a
value:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-y', action='store_true')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-z')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-xyzZ'])
     Namespace(x=True, y=True, z='Z')


File: python.info,  Node: Invalid arguments,  Next: Arguments containing -,  Prev: Option value syntax,  Up: The parse_args method

5.18.1.33 Invalid arguments
...........................

While parsing the command line, *note parse_args(): 35cc. checks for a
variety of errors, including ambiguous options, invalid types, invalid
options, wrong number of positional arguments, etc.  When it encounters
such an error, it exits and prints the error along with a usage message:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type=int)
     >>> parser.add_argument('bar', nargs='?')

     >>> # invalid type
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'spam'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid int value: 'spam'

     >>> # invalid option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: no such option: --bar

     >>> # wrong number of arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['spam', 'badger'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO] [bar]
     PROG: error: extra arguments found: badger


File: python.info,  Node: Arguments containing -,  Next: Argument abbreviations prefix matching,  Prev: Invalid arguments,  Up: The parse_args method

5.18.1.34 Arguments containing ‘-’
..................................

The *note parse_args(): 35cc. method attempts to give errors whenever
the user has clearly made a mistake, but some situations are inherently
ambiguous.  For example, the command-line argument ‘-1’ could either be
an attempt to specify an option or an attempt to provide a positional
argument.  The ‘parse_args()’ method is cautious here: positional
arguments may only begin with ‘-’ if they look like negative numbers and
there are no options in the parser that look like negative numbers:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-x')
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')

     >>> # no negative number options, so -1 is a positional argument
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1'])
     Namespace(foo=None, x='-1')

     >>> # no negative number options, so -1 and -5 are positional arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-x', '-1', '-5'])
     Namespace(foo='-5', x='-1')

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-1', dest='one')
     >>> parser.add_argument('foo', nargs='?')

     >>> # negative number options present, so -1 is an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-1', 'X'])
     Namespace(foo=None, one='X')

     >>> # negative number options present, so -2 is an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-2'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
     PROG: error: no such option: -2

     >>> # negative number options present, so both -1s are options
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-1', '-1'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-1 ONE] [foo]
     PROG: error: argument -1: expected one argument

If you have positional arguments that must begin with ‘-’ and don’t look
like negative numbers, you can insert the pseudo-argument ‘'--'’ which
tells *note parse_args(): 35cc. that everything after that is a
positional argument:

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--', '-f'])
     Namespace(foo='-f', one=None)

See also *note the argparse howto on ambiguous arguments: 35f2. for more
details.


File: python.info,  Node: Argument abbreviations prefix matching,  Next: Beyond sys argv,  Prev: Arguments containing -,  Up: The parse_args method

5.18.1.35 Argument abbreviations (prefix matching)
..................................................

The *note parse_args(): 35cc. method *note by default: 1178. allows long
options to be abbreviated to a prefix, if the abbreviation is
unambiguous (the prefix matches a unique option):

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-bacon')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-badger')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-bac MMM'.split())
     Namespace(bacon='MMM', badger=None)
     >>> parser.parse_args('-bad WOOD'.split())
     Namespace(bacon=None, badger='WOOD')
     >>> parser.parse_args('-ba BA'.split())
     usage: PROG [-h] [-bacon BACON] [-badger BADGER]
     PROG: error: ambiguous option: -ba could match -badger, -bacon

An error is produced for arguments that could produce more than one
options.  This feature can be disabled by setting *note allow_abbrev:
1178. to ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: Beyond sys argv,  Next: The Namespace object,  Prev: Argument abbreviations prefix matching,  Up: The parse_args method

5.18.1.36 Beyond ‘sys.argv’
...........................

Sometimes it may be useful to have an *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. parse
arguments other than those of *note sys.argv: 1609.  This can be
accomplished by passing a list of strings to *note parse_args(): 35cc.
This is useful for testing at the interactive prompt:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     >>> parser.add_argument(
     ...     'integers', metavar='int', type=int, choices=range(10),
     ...     nargs='+', help='an integer in the range 0..9')
     >>> parser.add_argument(
     ...     '--sum', dest='accumulate', action='store_const', const=sum,
     ...     default=max, help='sum the integers (default: find the max)')
     >>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4'])
     Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function max>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])
     >>> parser.parse_args(['1', '2', '3', '4', '--sum'])
     Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function sum>, integers=[1, 2, 3, 4])


File: python.info,  Node: The Namespace object,  Prev: Beyond sys argv,  Up: The parse_args method

5.18.1.37 The Namespace object
..............................

 -- Κλάση: argparse.Namespace

     Simple class used by default by *note parse_args(): 35cc. to create
     an object holding attributes and return it.

     This class is deliberately simple, just an *note object: e4d.
     subclass with a readable string representation.  If you prefer to
     have dict-like view of the attributes, you can use the standard
     Python idiom, *note vars(): 2011.:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> args = parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'BAR'])
          >>> vars(args)
          {'foo': 'BAR'}

     It may also be useful to have an *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. assign
     attributes to an already existing object, rather than a new
     ‘Namespace’ object.  This can be achieved by specifying the
     ‘namespace=’ keyword argument:

          >>> class C:
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> c = C()
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> parser.parse_args(args=['--foo', 'BAR'], namespace=c)
          >>> c.foo
          'BAR'


File: python.info,  Node: Other utilities,  Next: Exceptions<10>,  Prev: The parse_args method,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.18.1.38 Other utilities
.........................

* Menu:

* Subcommands::
* FileType objects::
* Argument groups::
* Mutual exclusion::
* Parser defaults::
* Printing help::
* Partial parsing::
* Customizing file parsing::
* Exiting methods::
* Intermixed parsing::
* Registering custom types or actions::


File: python.info,  Node: Subcommands,  Next: FileType objects,  Up: Other utilities

5.18.1.39 Subcommands
.....................

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.add_subparsers (*[, title][, description][,
          prog][, parser_class][, action][, dest][, required][, help][,
          metavar])

     Many programs split up their functionality into a number of
     subcommands, for example, the ‘svn’ program can invoke subcommands
     like ‘svn checkout’, ‘svn update’, and ‘svn commit’.  Splitting up
     functionality this way can be a particularly good idea when a
     program performs several different functions which require
     different kinds of command-line arguments.  *note ArgumentParser:
     1dc. supports the creation of such subcommands with the
     ‘add_subparsers()’ method.  The ‘add_subparsers()’ method is
     normally called with no arguments and returns a special action
     object.  This object has a single method, *note add_parser(): 35dd,
     which takes a command name and any ‘ArgumentParser’ constructor
     arguments, and returns an ‘ArgumentParser’ object that can be
     modified as usual.

     Description of parameters:

        * 'title' - title for the sub-parser group in help output; by
          default «subcommands» if description is provided, otherwise
          uses title for positional arguments

        * 'description' - description for the sub-parser group in help
          output, by default ‘None’

        * 'prog' - usage information that will be displayed with
          subcommand help, by default the name of the program and any
          positional arguments before the subparser argument

        * 'parser_class' - class which will be used to create sub-parser
          instances, by default the class of the current parser (e.g.
          *note ArgumentParser: 1dc.)

        * *note action: 1b46. - the basic type of action to be taken
          when this argument is encountered at the command line

        * *note dest: 35e4. - name of the attribute under which
          subcommand name will be stored; by default ‘None’ and no value
          is stored

        * *note required: 35ea. - Whether or not a subcommand must be
          provided, by default ‘False’ (added in 3.7)

        * *note help: 35eb. - help for sub-parser group in help output,
          by default ‘None’

        * *note metavar: 35ec. - string presenting available subcommands
          in help; by default it is ‘None’ and presents subcommands in
          form {cmd1, cmd2, ..}

     Some example usage:

          >>> # create the top-level parser
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true', help='foo help')
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(help='subcommand help')
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "a" command
          >>> parser_a = subparsers.add_parser('a', help='a help')
          >>> parser_a.add_argument('bar', type=int, help='bar help')
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "b" command
          >>> parser_b = subparsers.add_parser('b', help='b help')
          >>> parser_b.add_argument('--baz', choices=('X', 'Y', 'Z'), help='baz help')
          >>>
          >>> # parse some argument lists
          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', '12'])
          Namespace(bar=12, foo=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', 'b', '--baz', 'Z'])
          Namespace(baz='Z', foo=True)

     Note that the object returned by *note parse_args(): 35cc. will
     only contain attributes for the main parser and the subparser that
     was selected by the command line (and not any other subparsers).
     So in the example above, when the ‘a’ command is specified, only
     the ‘foo’ and ‘bar’ attributes are present, and when the ‘b’
     command is specified, only the ‘foo’ and ‘baz’ attributes are
     present.

     Similarly, when a help message is requested from a subparser, only
     the help for that particular parser will be printed.  The help
     message will not include parent parser or sibling parser messages.
     (A help message for each subparser command, however, can be given
     by supplying the ‘help=’ argument to *note add_parser(): 35dd. as
     above.)

          >>> parser.parse_args(['--help'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo] {a,b} ...

          positional arguments:
            {a,b}   subcommand help
              a     a help
              b     b help

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit
            --foo   foo help

          >>> parser.parse_args(['a', '--help'])
          usage: PROG a [-h] bar

          positional arguments:
            bar     bar help

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          >>> parser.parse_args(['b', '--help'])
          usage: PROG b [-h] [--baz {X,Y,Z}]

          options:
            -h, --help     show this help message and exit
            --baz {X,Y,Z}  baz help

     The ‘add_subparsers()’ method also supports ‘title’ and
     ‘description’ keyword arguments.  When either is present, the
     subparser’s commands will appear in their own group in the help
     output.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(title='subcommands',
          ...                                    description='valid subcommands',
          ...                                    help='additional help')
          >>> subparsers.add_parser('foo')
          >>> subparsers.add_parser('bar')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-h'])
          usage:  [-h] {foo,bar} ...

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          subcommands:
            valid subcommands

            {foo,bar}   additional help

     One particularly effective way of handling subcommands is to
     combine the use of the ‘add_subparsers()’ method with calls to
     *note set_defaults(): 35e6. so that each subparser knows which
     Python function it should execute.  For example:

          >>> # subcommand functions
          >>> def foo(args):
          ...     print(args.x * args.y)
          ...
          >>> def bar(args):
          ...     print('((%s))' % args.z)
          ...
          >>> # create the top-level parser
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(required=True)
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "foo" command
          >>> parser_foo = subparsers.add_parser('foo')
          >>> parser_foo.add_argument('-x', type=int, default=1)
          >>> parser_foo.add_argument('y', type=float)
          >>> parser_foo.set_defaults(func=foo)
          >>>
          >>> # create the parser for the "bar" command
          >>> parser_bar = subparsers.add_parser('bar')
          >>> parser_bar.add_argument('z')
          >>> parser_bar.set_defaults(func=bar)
          >>>
          >>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
          >>> args = parser.parse_args('foo 1 -x 2'.split())
          >>> args.func(args)
          2.0
          >>>
          >>> # parse the args and call whatever function was selected
          >>> args = parser.parse_args('bar XYZYX'.split())
          >>> args.func(args)
          ((XYZYX))

     This way, you can let *note parse_args(): 35cc. do the job of
     calling the appropriate function after argument parsing is
     complete.  Associating functions with actions like this is
     typically the easiest way to handle the different actions for each
     of your subparsers.  However, if it is necessary to check the name
     of the subparser that was invoked, the ‘dest’ keyword argument to
     the ‘add_subparsers()’ call will work:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='subparser_name')
          >>> subparser1 = subparsers.add_parser('1')
          >>> subparser1.add_argument('-x')
          >>> subparser2 = subparsers.add_parser('2')
          >>> subparser2.add_argument('y')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['2', 'frobble'])
          Namespace(subparser_name='2', y='frobble')

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: New 'required' keyword-only parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Subparser’s 'prog' is no longer affected
     by a custom usage message in the main parser.

 -- Μέθοδος: _SubParsersAction.add_parser (name, *, help=None,
          aliases=None, deprecated=False, **kwargs)

     Create and return a new *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. object for the
     subcommand 'name'.

     The 'name' argument is the name of the sub-command.

     The 'help' argument provides a short description for this
     sub-command.

     The 'aliases' argument allows providing alternative names for this
     sub-command.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()
          >>> checkout = subparsers.add_parser('checkout', aliases=['co'])
          >>> checkout.add_argument('foo')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['co', 'bar'])
          Namespace(foo='bar')

     The 'deprecated' argument, if ‘True’, marks the sub-command as
     deprecated and will issue a warning when used.  For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='chicken.py')
          >>> subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()
          >>> fly = subparsers.add_parser('fly', deprecated=True)
          >>> args = parser.parse_args(['fly'])
          chicken.py: warning: command 'fly' is deprecated
          Namespace()

     All other keyword arguments are passed directly to the
     ‘ArgumentParser’ constructor.

     Added in version 3.13: Added the 'deprecated' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: FileType objects,  Next: Argument groups,  Prev: Subcommands,  Up: Other utilities

5.18.1.40 FileType objects
..........................

 -- Κλάση: argparse.FileType (mode='r', bufsize=-1, encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     The ‘FileType’ factory creates objects that can be passed to the
     type argument of *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 3ed.
     Arguments that have ‘FileType’ objects as their type will open
     command-line arguments as files with the requested modes, buffer
     sizes, encodings and error handling (see the *note open(): 32b.
     function for more details):

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--raw', type=argparse.FileType('wb', 0))
          >>> parser.add_argument('out', type=argparse.FileType('w', encoding='UTF-8'))
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--raw', 'raw.dat', 'file.txt'])
          Namespace(out=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='file.txt' mode='w' encoding='UTF-8'>, raw=<_io.FileIO name='raw.dat' mode='wb'>)

     FileType objects understand the pseudo-argument ‘'-'’ and
     automatically convert this into *note sys.stdin: 94a. for readable
     ‘FileType’ objects and *note sys.stdout: e9c. for writable
     ‘FileType’ objects:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('infile', type=argparse.FileType('r'))
          >>> parser.parse_args(['-'])
          Namespace(infile=<_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stdin>' encoding='UTF-8'>)

          Σημείωση: If one argument uses 'FileType' and then a
          subsequent argument fails, an error is reported but the file
          is not automatically closed.  This can also clobber the output
          files.  In this case, it would be better to wait until after
          the parser has run and then use the *note with: 20a.-statement
          to manage the files.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added the 'encoding' and 'errors'
     parameters.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Argument groups,  Next: Mutual exclusion,  Prev: FileType objects,  Up: Other utilities

5.18.1.41 Argument groups
.........................

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.add_argument_group (title=None,
          description=None, *[, argument_default][, conflict_handler])

     By default, *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. groups command-line
     arguments into «positional arguments» and «options» when displaying
     help messages.  When there is a better conceptual grouping of
     arguments than this default one, appropriate groups can be created
     using the ‘add_argument_group()’ method:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
          >>> group = parser.add_argument_group('group')
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
          >>> group.add_argument('bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [--foo FOO] bar

          group:
            bar    bar help
            --foo FOO  foo help

     The ‘add_argument_group()’ method returns an argument group object
     which has an *note add_argument(): 3ed. method just like a regular
     *note ArgumentParser: 1dc.  When an argument is added to the group,
     the parser treats it just like a normal argument, but displays the
     argument in a separate group for help messages.  The
     ‘add_argument_group()’ method accepts 'title' and 'description'
     arguments which can be used to customize this display:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG', add_help=False)
          >>> group1 = parser.add_argument_group('group1', 'group1 description')
          >>> group1.add_argument('foo', help='foo help')
          >>> group2 = parser.add_argument_group('group2', 'group2 description')
          >>> group2.add_argument('--bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [--bar BAR] foo

          group1:
            group1 description

            foo    foo help

          group2:
            group2 description

            --bar BAR  bar help

     The optional, keyword-only parameters *note argument_default: 35d6.
     and *note conflict_handler: 35d7. allow for finer-grained control
     of the behavior of the argument group.  These parameters have the
     same meaning as in the *note ArgumentParser: 1dc. constructor, but
     apply specifically to the argument group rather than the entire
     parser.

     Note that any arguments not in your user-defined groups will end up
     back in the usual «positional arguments» and «optional arguments»
     sections.

     Within each argument group, arguments are displayed in help output
     in the order in which they are added.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14:
     Calling ‘add_argument_group()’ on an argument group now raises an
     exception.  This nesting was never supported, often failed to work
     correctly, and was unintentionally exposed through inheritance.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: Passing *note prefix_chars: 35d4. to
     ‘add_argument_group()’ is now deprecated.


File: python.info,  Node: Mutual exclusion,  Next: Parser defaults,  Prev: Argument groups,  Up: Other utilities

5.18.1.42 Mutual exclusion
..........................

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.add_mutually_exclusive_group
          (required=False)

     Create a mutually exclusive group.  ‘argparse’ will make sure that
     only one of the arguments in the mutually exclusive group was
     present on the command line:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo'])
          Namespace(bar=True, foo=True)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--bar'])
          Namespace(bar=False, foo=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '--bar'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo | --bar]
          PROG: error: argument --bar: not allowed with argument --foo

     The ‘add_mutually_exclusive_group()’ method also accepts a
     'required' argument, to indicate that at least one of the mutually
     exclusive arguments is required:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
          >>> group.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> group.add_argument('--bar', action='store_false')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          usage: PROG [-h] (--foo | --bar)
          PROG: error: one of the arguments --foo --bar is required

     Note that currently mutually exclusive argument groups do not
     support the 'title' and 'description' arguments of *note
     add_argument_group(): 31d.  However, a mutually exclusive group can
     be added to an argument group that has a title and description.
     For example:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
          >>> group = parser.add_argument_group('Group title', 'Group description')
          >>> exclusive_group = group.add_mutually_exclusive_group(required=True)
          >>> exclusive_group.add_argument('--foo', help='foo help')
          >>> exclusive_group.add_argument('--bar', help='bar help')
          >>> parser.print_help()
          usage: PROG [-h] (--foo FOO | --bar BAR)

          options:
            -h, --help  show this help message and exit

          Group title:
            Group description

            --foo FOO   foo help
            --bar BAR   bar help

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14:
     Calling *note add_argument_group(): 31d. or
     ‘add_mutually_exclusive_group()’ on a mutually exclusive group now
     raises an exception.  This nesting was never supported, often
     failed to work correctly, and was unintentionally exposed through
     inheritance.


File: python.info,  Node: Parser defaults,  Next: Printing help,  Prev: Mutual exclusion,  Up: Other utilities

5.18.1.43 Parser defaults
.........................

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.set_defaults (**kwargs)

     Most of the time, the attributes of the object returned by *note
     parse_args(): 35cc. will be fully determined by inspecting the
     command-line arguments and the argument actions.  ‘set_defaults()’
     allows some additional attributes that are determined without any
     inspection of the command line to be added:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('foo', type=int)
          >>> parser.set_defaults(bar=42, baz='badger')
          >>> parser.parse_args(['736'])
          Namespace(bar=42, baz='badger', foo=736)

     Note that defaults can be set at both the parser level using
     ‘set_defaults()’ and at the argument level using *note
     add_argument(): 3ed.  If both are called for the same argument, the
     last default set for an argument is used:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='bar')
          >>> parser.set_defaults(foo='spam')
          >>> parser.parse_args([])
          Namespace(foo='spam')

     Parser-level defaults can be particularly useful when working with
     multiple parsers.  See the *note add_subparsers(): fd6. method for
     an example of this type.

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.get_default (dest)

     Get the default value for a namespace attribute, as set by either
     *note add_argument(): 3ed. or by *note set_defaults(): 35e6.:

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', default='badger')
          >>> parser.get_default('foo')
          'badger'


File: python.info,  Node: Printing help,  Next: Partial parsing,  Prev: Parser defaults,  Up: Other utilities

5.18.1.44 Printing help
.......................

In most typical applications, *note parse_args(): 35cc. will take care
of formatting and printing any usage or error messages.  However,
several formatting methods are available:

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.print_usage (file=None)

     Print a brief description of how the *note ArgumentParser: 1dc.
     should be invoked on the command line.  If 'file' is ‘None’, *note
     sys.stdout: e9c. is assumed.

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.print_help (file=None)

     Print a help message, including the program usage and information
     about the arguments registered with the *note ArgumentParser: 1dc.
     If 'file' is ‘None’, *note sys.stdout: e9c. is assumed.

There are also variants of these methods that simply return a string
instead of printing it:

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.format_usage ()

     Return a string containing a brief description of how the *note
     ArgumentParser: 1dc. should be invoked on the command line.

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.format_help ()

     Return a string containing a help message, including the program
     usage and information about the arguments registered with the *note
     ArgumentParser: 1dc.


File: python.info,  Node: Partial parsing,  Next: Customizing file parsing,  Prev: Printing help,  Up: Other utilities

5.18.1.45 Partial parsing
.........................

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.parse_known_args (args=None, namespace=None)

     Sometimes a script only needs to handle a specific set of
     command-line arguments, leaving any unrecognized arguments for
     another script or program.  In these cases, the
     ‘parse_known_args()’ method can be useful.

     This method works similarly to *note parse_args(): 35cc, but it
     does not raise an error for extra, unrecognized arguments.
     Instead, it parses the known arguments and returns a two item tuple
     that contains the populated namespace and the list of any
     unrecognized arguments.

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', action='store_true')
          >>> parser.add_argument('bar')
          >>> parser.parse_known_args(['--foo', '--badger', 'BAR', 'spam'])
          (Namespace(bar='BAR', foo=True), ['--badger', 'spam'])

     Προειδοποίηση: *note Prefix matching: 1177. rules apply to *note
     parse_known_args(): 3615.  The parser may consume an option even if
     it’s just a prefix of one of its known options, instead of leaving
     it in the remaining arguments list.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing file parsing,  Next: Exiting methods,  Prev: Partial parsing,  Up: Other utilities

5.18.1.46 Customizing file parsing
..................................

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.convert_arg_line_to_args (arg_line)

     Arguments that are read from a file (see the
     'fromfile_prefix_chars' keyword argument to the *note
     ArgumentParser: 1dc. constructor) are read one argument per line.
     ‘convert_arg_line_to_args()’ can be overridden for fancier reading.

     This method takes a single argument 'arg_line' which is a string
     read from the argument file.  It returns a list of arguments parsed
     from this string.  The method is called once per line read from the
     argument file, in order.

     A useful override of this method is one that treats each
     space-separated word as an argument.  The following example
     demonstrates how to do this:

          class MyArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
              def convert_arg_line_to_args(self, arg_line):
                  return arg_line.split()


File: python.info,  Node: Exiting methods,  Next: Intermixed parsing,  Prev: Customizing file parsing,  Up: Other utilities

5.18.1.47 Exiting methods
.........................

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.exit (status=0, message=None)

     This method terminates the program, exiting with the specified
     'status' and, if given, it prints a 'message' to *note sys.stderr:
     d05. before that.  The user can override this method to handle
     these steps differently:

          class ErrorCatchingArgumentParser(argparse.ArgumentParser):
              def exit(self, status=0, message=None):
                  if status:
                      raise Exception(f'Exiting because of an error: {message}')
                  exit(status)

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.error (message)

     This method prints a usage message, including the 'message', to
     *note sys.stderr: d05. and terminates the program with a status
     code of 2.


File: python.info,  Node: Intermixed parsing,  Next: Registering custom types or actions,  Prev: Exiting methods,  Up: Other utilities

5.18.1.48 Intermixed parsing
............................

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args (args=None,
          namespace=None)

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.parse_known_intermixed_args (args=None,
          namespace=None)

     A number of Unix commands allow the user to intermix optional
     arguments with positional arguments.  The *note
     parse_intermixed_args(): ec5. and ‘parse_known_intermixed_args()’
     methods support this parsing style.

     These parsers do not support all the ‘argparse’ features, and will
     raise exceptions if unsupported features are used.  In particular,
     subparsers, and mutually exclusive groups that include both
     optionals and positionals are not supported.

     The following example shows the difference between *note
     parse_known_args(): 3615. and *note parse_intermixed_args(): ec5.:
     the former returns ‘['2', '3']’ as unparsed arguments, while the
     latter collects all the positionals into ‘rest’.

          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo')
          >>> parser.add_argument('cmd')
          >>> parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*', type=int)
          >>> parser.parse_known_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
          (Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1]), ['2', '3'])
          >>> parser.parse_intermixed_args('doit 1 --foo bar 2 3'.split())
          Namespace(cmd='doit', foo='bar', rest=[1, 2, 3])

     ‘parse_known_intermixed_args()’ returns a two item tuple containing
     the populated namespace and the list of remaining argument strings.
     *note parse_intermixed_args(): ec5. raises an error if there are
     any remaining unparsed argument strings.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Registering custom types or actions,  Prev: Intermixed parsing,  Up: Other utilities

5.18.1.49 Registering custom types or actions
.............................................

 -- Μέθοδος: ArgumentParser.register (registry_name, value, object)

     Sometimes it’s desirable to use a custom string in error messages
     to provide more user-friendly output.  In these cases, ‘register()’
     can be used to register custom actions or types with a parser and
     allow you to reference the type by their registered name instead of
     their callable name.

     The ‘register()’ method accepts three arguments - a
     'registry_name', specifying the internal registry where the object
     will be stored (e.g., ‘action’, ‘type’), 'value', which is the key
     under which the object will be registered, and object, the callable
     to be registered.

     The following example shows how to register a custom type with a
     parser:

          >>> import argparse
          >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
          >>> parser.register('type', 'hexadecimal integer', lambda s: int(s, 16))
          >>> parser.add_argument('--foo', type='hexadecimal integer')
          _StoreAction(option_strings=['--foo'], dest='foo', nargs=None, const=None, default=None, type='hexadecimal integer', choices=None, required=False, help=None, metavar=None, deprecated=False)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '0xFA'])
          Namespace(foo=250)
          >>> parser.parse_args(['--foo', '1.2'])
          usage: PROG [-h] [--foo FOO]
          PROG: error: argument --foo: invalid 'hexadecimal integer' value: '1.2'


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<10>,  Prev: Other utilities,  Up: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands

5.18.1.50 Exceptions
....................

 -- Εξαίρεση: argparse.ArgumentError

     An error from creating or using an argument (optional or
     positional).

     The string value of this exception is the message, augmented with
     information about the argument that caused it.

 -- Εξαίρεση: argparse.ArgumentTypeError

     Raised when something goes wrong converting a command line string
     to a type.

Guides and Tutorials
....................

* Menu:

* Argparse Tutorial::
* Migrating optparse code to argparse::


File: python.info,  Node: Argparse Tutorial,  Next: Migrating optparse code to argparse,  Up: Exceptions<10>

5.18.1.51 Argparse Tutorial
...........................


author: Tshepang Mbambo

This tutorial is intended to be a gentle introduction to *note argparse:
7, the recommended command-line parsing module in the Python standard
library.

     Σημείωση: The standard library includes two other libraries
     directly related to command-line parameter processing: the lower
     level *note optparse: a4. module (which may require more code to
     configure for a given application, but also allows an application
     to request behaviors that ‘argparse’ doesn’t support), and the very
     low level *note getopt: 64. (which specifically serves as an
     equivalent to the ‘getopt()’ family of functions available to C
     programmers).  While neither of those modules is covered directly
     in this guide, many of the core concepts in ‘argparse’ first
     originated in ‘optparse’, so some aspects of this tutorial will
     also be relevant to ‘optparse’ users.

* Menu:

* Concepts::
* The basics::
* Introducing Positional arguments::
* Introducing Optional arguments::
* Combining Positional and Optional arguments::
* Getting a little more advanced::
* How to translate the argparse output::
* Custom type converters::
* Conclusion::


File: python.info,  Node: Concepts,  Next: The basics,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.18.1.52 Concepts
..................

Let’s show the sort of functionality that we are going to explore in
this introductory tutorial by making use of the ‘ls’ command:

     $ ls
     cpython  devguide  prog.py  pypy  rm-unused-function.patch
     $ ls pypy
     ctypes_configure  demo  dotviewer  include  lib_pypy  lib-python ...
     $ ls -l
     total 20
     drwxr-xr-x 19 wena wena 4096 Feb 18 18:51 cpython
     drwxr-xr-x  4 wena wena 4096 Feb  8 12:04 devguide
     -rwxr-xr-x  1 wena wena  535 Feb 19 00:05 prog.py
     drwxr-xr-x 14 wena wena 4096 Feb  7 00:59 pypy
     -rw-r--r--  1 wena wena  741 Feb 18 01:01 rm-unused-function.patch
     $ ls --help
     Usage: ls [OPTION]... [FILE]...
     List information about the FILEs (the current directory by default).
     Sort entries alphabetically if none of -cftuvSUX nor --sort is specified.
     ...

A few concepts we can learn from the four commands:

   * The ‘ls’ command is useful when run without any options at all.  It
     defaults to displaying the contents of the current directory.

   * If we want beyond what it provides by default, we tell it a bit
     more.  In this case, we want it to display a different directory,
     ‘pypy’.  What we did is specify what is known as a positional
     argument.  It’s named so because the program should know what to do
     with the value, solely based on where it appears on the command
     line.  This concept is more relevant to a command like ‘cp’, whose
     most basic usage is ‘cp SRC DEST’.  The first position is 'what you
     want copied,' and the second position is 'where you want it copied
     to'.

   * Now, say we want to change behaviour of the program.  In our
     example, we display more info for each file instead of just showing
     the file names.  The ‘-l’ in that case is known as an optional
     argument.

   * That’s a snippet of the help text.  It’s very useful in that you
     can come across a program you have never used before, and can
     figure out how it works simply by reading its help text.


File: python.info,  Node: The basics,  Next: Introducing Positional arguments,  Prev: Concepts,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.18.1.53 The basics
....................

Let us start with a very simple example which does (almost) nothing:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.parse_args()

Following is a result of running the code:

     $ python prog.py
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
     $ python prog.py --verbose
     usage: prog.py [-h]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: --verbose
     $ python prog.py foo
     usage: prog.py [-h]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: foo

Here is what is happening:

   * Running the script without any options results in nothing displayed
     to stdout.  Not so useful.

   * The second one starts to display the usefulness of the *note
     argparse: 7. module.  We have done almost nothing, but already we
     get a nice help message.

   * The ‘--help’ option, which can also be shortened to ‘-h’, is the
     only option we get for free (i.e.  no need to specify it).
     Specifying anything else results in an error.  But even then, we do
     get a useful usage message, also for free.


File: python.info,  Node: Introducing Positional arguments,  Next: Introducing Optional arguments,  Prev: The basics,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.18.1.54 Introducing Positional arguments
..........................................

An example:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("echo")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.echo)

And running the code:

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: echo
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo

     positional arguments:
       echo

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
     $ python prog.py foo
     foo

Here is what’s happening:

   * We’ve added the *note add_argument(): 3ed. method, which is what we
     use to specify which command-line options the program is willing to
     accept.  In this case, I’ve named it ‘echo’ so that it’s in line
     with its function.

   * Calling our program now requires us to specify an option.

   * The *note parse_args(): 35cc. method actually returns some data
     from the options specified, in this case, ‘echo’.

   * The variable is some form of “magic” that *note argparse: 7.
     performs for free (i.e.  no need to specify which variable that
     value is stored in).  You will also notice that its name matches
     the string argument given to the method, ‘echo’.

Note however that, although the help display looks nice and all, it
currently is not as helpful as it can be.  For example we see that we
got ‘echo’ as a positional argument, but we don’t know what it does,
other than by guessing or by reading the source code.  So, let’s make it
a bit more useful:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("echo", help="echo the string you use here")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.echo)

And we get:

     $ python prog.py -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] echo

     positional arguments:
       echo        echo the string you use here

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit

Now, how about doing something even more useful:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.square**2)

Following is a result of running the code:

     $ python prog.py 4
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "prog.py", line 5, in <module>
         print(args.square**2)
     TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for ** or pow(): 'str' and 'int'

That didn’t go so well.  That’s because *note argparse: 7. treats the
options we give it as strings, unless we tell it otherwise.  So, let’s
tell ‘argparse’ to treat that input as an integer:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", help="display a square of a given number",
                         type=int)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args.square**2)

Following is a result of running the code:

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py four
     usage: prog.py [-h] square
     prog.py: error: argument square: invalid int value: 'four'

That went well.  The program now even helpfully quits on bad illegal
input before proceeding.


File: python.info,  Node: Introducing Optional arguments,  Next: Combining Positional and Optional arguments,  Prev: Introducing Positional arguments,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.18.1.55 Introducing Optional arguments
........................................

So far we have been playing with positional arguments.  Let us have a
look on how to add optional ones:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("--verbosity", help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbosity:
         print("verbosity turned on")

And the output:

     $ python prog.py --verbosity 1
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       --verbosity VERBOSITY
                             increase output verbosity
     $ python prog.py --verbosity
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbosity VERBOSITY]
     prog.py: error: argument --verbosity: expected one argument

Here is what is happening:

   * The program is written so as to display something when
     ‘--verbosity’ is specified and display nothing when not.

   * To show that the option is actually optional, there is no error
     when running the program without it.  Note that by default, if an
     optional argument isn’t used, the relevant variable, in this case
     ‘args.verbosity’, is given ‘None’ as a value, which is the reason
     it fails the truth test of the *note if: 322. statement.

   * The help message is a bit different.

   * When using the ‘--verbosity’ option, one must also specify some
     value, any value.

The above example accepts arbitrary integer values for ‘--verbosity’,
but for our simple program, only two values are actually useful, ‘True’
or ‘False’.  Let’s modify the code accordingly:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
                         action="store_true")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbose:
         print("verbosity turned on")

And the output:

     $ python prog.py --verbose
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py --verbose 1
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [--verbose]

     options:
       -h, --help  show this help message and exit
       --verbose   increase output verbosity

Here is what is happening:

   * The option is now more of a flag than something that requires a
     value.  We even changed the name of the option to match that idea.
     Note that we now specify a new keyword, ‘action’, and give it the
     value ‘"store_true"’.  This means that, if the option is specified,
     assign the value ‘True’ to ‘args.verbose’.  Not specifying it
     implies ‘False’.

   * It complains when you specify a value, in true spirit of what flags
     actually are.

   * Notice the different help text.

* Menu:

* Short options::


File: python.info,  Node: Short options,  Up: Introducing Optional arguments

5.18.1.56 Short options
.......................

If you are familiar with command line usage, you will notice that I
haven’t yet touched on the topic of short versions of the options.  It’s
quite simple:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", help="increase output verbosity",
                         action="store_true")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     if args.verbose:
         print("verbosity turned on")

And here goes:

     $ python prog.py -v
     verbosity turned on
     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v]

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose  increase output verbosity

Note that the new ability is also reflected in the help text.


File: python.info,  Node: Combining Positional and Optional arguments,  Next: Getting a little more advanced,  Prev: Introducing Optional arguments,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.18.1.57 Combining Positional and Optional arguments
.....................................................

Our program keeps growing in complexity:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbose:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

And now the output:

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: square
     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 --verbose
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py --verbose 4
     the square of 4 equals 16

   * We’ve brought back a positional argument, hence the complaint.

   * Note that the order does not matter.

How about we give this program of ours back the ability to have multiple
verbosity values, and actually get to use them:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int,
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

And the output:

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v VERBOSITY] square
     prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: expected one argument
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 1
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 2
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 3
     16

These all look good except the last one, which exposes a bug in our
program.  Let’s fix it by restricting the values the ‘--verbosity’
option can accept:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", type=int, choices=[0, 1, 2],
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

And the output:

     $ python prog.py 4 -v 3
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square
     prog.py: error: argument -v/--verbosity: invalid choice: 3 (choose from 0, 1, 2)
     $ python prog.py 4 -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v {0,1,2}] square

     positional arguments:
       square                display a square of a given number

     options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbosity {0,1,2}
                             increase output verbosity

Note that the change also reflects both in the error message as well as
the help string.

Now, let’s use a different approach of playing with verbosity, which is
pretty common.  It also matches the way the CPython executable handles
its own verbosity argument (check the output of ‘python --help’):

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display the square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity == 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity == 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

We have introduced another action, «count», to count the number of
occurrences of specific options.

     $ python prog.py 4
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -vv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 --verbosity --verbosity
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -v 1
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square
     prog.py: error: unrecognized arguments: 1
     $ python prog.py 4 -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] square

     positional arguments:
       square           display a square of a given number

     options:
       -h, --help       show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbosity  increase output verbosity
     $ python prog.py 4 -vvv
     16

   * Yes, it’s now more of a flag (similar to ‘action="store_true"’) in
     the previous version of our script.  That should explain the
     complaint.

   * It also behaves similar to «store_true» action.

   * Now here’s a demonstration of what the «count» action gives.
     You’ve probably seen this sort of usage before.

   * And if you don’t specify the ‘-v’ flag, that flag is considered to
     have ‘None’ value.

   * As should be expected, specifying the long form of the flag, we
     should get the same output.

   * Sadly, our help output isn’t very informative on the new ability
     our script has acquired, but that can always be fixed by improving
     the documentation for our script (e.g.  via the ‘help’ keyword
     argument).

   * That last output exposes a bug in our program.

Let’s fix:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count",
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2

     # bugfix: replace == with >=
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

And this is what it gives:

     $ python prog.py 4 -vvv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 -vvvv
     the square of 4 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "prog.py", line 11, in <module>
         if args.verbosity >= 2:
     TypeError: '>=' not supported between instances of 'NoneType' and 'int'

   * First output went well, and fixes the bug we had before.  That is,
     we want any value >= 2 to be as verbose as possible.

   * Third output not so good.

Let’s fix that bug:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("square", type=int,
                         help="display a square of a given number")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0,
                         help="increase output verbosity")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.square**2
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"the square of {args.square} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.square}^2 == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

We’ve just introduced yet another keyword, ‘default’.  We’ve set it to
‘0’ in order to make it comparable to the other int values.  Remember
that by default, if an optional argument isn’t specified, it gets the
‘None’ value, and that cannot be compared to an int value (hence the
*note TypeError: 291. exception).

And:

     $ python prog.py 4
     16

You can go quite far just with what we’ve learned so far, and we have
only scratched the surface.  The *note argparse: 7. module is very
powerful, and we’ll explore a bit more of it before we end this
tutorial.


File: python.info,  Node: Getting a little more advanced,  Next: How to translate the argparse output,  Prev: Combining Positional and Optional arguments,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.18.1.58 Getting a little more advanced
........................................

What if we wanted to expand our tiny program to perform other powers,
not just squares:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     elif args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")
     else:
         print(answer)

Output:

     $ python prog.py
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y
     prog.py: error: the following arguments are required: x, y
     $ python prog.py -h
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v] x y

     positional arguments:
       x                the base
       y                the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help       show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbosity
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4^2 == 16

Notice that so far we’ve been using verbosity level to 'change' the text
that gets displayed.  The following example instead uses verbosity level
to display 'more' text instead:

     import argparse
     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     parser.add_argument("-v", "--verbosity", action="count", default=0)
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y
     if args.verbosity >= 2:
         print(f"Running '{__file__}'")
     if args.verbosity >= 1:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == ", end="")
     print(answer)

Output:

     $ python prog.py 4 2
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -vv
     Running 'prog.py'
     4^2 == 16

* Menu:

* Specifying ambiguous arguments::
* Conflicting options::


File: python.info,  Node: Specifying ambiguous arguments,  Next: Conflicting options,  Up: Getting a little more advanced

5.18.1.59 Specifying ambiguous arguments
........................................

When there is ambiguity in deciding whether an argument is positional or
for an argument, ‘--’ can be used to tell *note parse_args(): 35cc. that
everything after that is a positional argument:

     >>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='PROG')
     >>> parser.add_argument('-n', nargs='+')
     >>> parser.add_argument('args', nargs='*')

     >>> # ambiguous, so parse_args assumes it's an option
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-f'])
     usage: PROG [-h] [-n N [N ...]] [args ...]
     PROG: error: unrecognized arguments: -f

     >>> parser.parse_args(['--', '-f'])
     Namespace(args=['-f'], n=None)

     >>> # ambiguous, so the -n option greedily accepts arguments
     >>> parser.parse_args(['-n', '1', '2', '3'])
     Namespace(args=[], n=['1', '2', '3'])

     >>> parser.parse_args(['-n', '1', '--', '2', '3'])
     Namespace(args=['2', '3'], n=['1'])


File: python.info,  Node: Conflicting options,  Prev: Specifying ambiguous arguments,  Up: Getting a little more advanced

5.18.1.60 Conflicting options
.............................

So far, we have been working with two methods of an *note
argparse.ArgumentParser: 1dc. instance.  Let’s introduce a third one,
*note add_mutually_exclusive_group(): 567.  It allows for us to specify
options that conflict with each other.  Let’s also change the rest of
the program so that the new functionality makes more sense: we’ll
introduce the ‘--quiet’ option, which will be the opposite of the
‘--verbose’ one:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
     group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
     group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y

     if args.quiet:
         print(answer)
     elif args.verbose:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")

Our program is now simpler, and we’ve lost some functionality for the
sake of demonstration.  Anyways, here’s the output:

     $ python prog.py 4 2
     4^2 == 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -q
     16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v
     4 to the power 2 equals 16
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -vq
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
     prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose
     $ python prog.py 4 2 -v --quiet
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y
     prog.py: error: argument -q/--quiet: not allowed with argument -v/--verbose

That should be easy to follow.  I’ve added that last output so you can
see the sort of flexibility you get, i.e.  mixing long form options with
short form ones.

Before we conclude, you probably want to tell your users the main
purpose of your program, just in case they don’t know:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description="calculate X to the power of Y")
     group = parser.add_mutually_exclusive_group()
     group.add_argument("-v", "--verbose", action="store_true")
     group.add_argument("-q", "--quiet", action="store_true")
     parser.add_argument("x", type=int, help="the base")
     parser.add_argument("y", type=int, help="the exponent")
     args = parser.parse_args()
     answer = args.x**args.y

     if args.quiet:
         print(answer)
     elif args.verbose:
         print(f"{args.x} to the power {args.y} equals {answer}")
     else:
         print(f"{args.x}^{args.y} == {answer}")

Note that slight difference in the usage text.  Note the ‘[-v | -q]’,
which tells us that we can either use ‘-v’ or ‘-q’, but not both at the
same time:

     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y

     calculate X to the power of Y

     positional arguments:
       x              the base
       y              the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose
       -q, --quiet


File: python.info,  Node: How to translate the argparse output,  Next: Custom type converters,  Prev: Getting a little more advanced,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.18.1.61 How to translate the argparse output
..............................................

The output of the *note argparse: 7. module such as its help text and
error messages are all made translatable using the *note gettext: 66.
module.  This allows applications to easily localize messages produced
by ‘argparse’.  See also *note Internationalizing your programs and
modules: 362b.

For instance, in this *note argparse: 7. output:

     $ python prog.py --help
     usage: prog.py [-h] [-v | -q] x y

     calculate X to the power of Y

     positional arguments:
       x              the base
       y              the exponent

     options:
       -h, --help     show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose
       -q, --quiet

The strings ‘usage:’, ‘positional arguments:’, ‘options:’ and ‘show this
help message and exit’ are all translatable.

In order to translate these strings, they must first be extracted into a
‘.po’ file.  For example, using Babel(1), run this command:

     $ pybabel extract -o messages.po /usr/lib/python3.12/argparse.py

This command will extract all translatable strings from the *note
argparse: 7. module and output them into a file named ‘messages.po’.
This command assumes that your Python installation is in ‘/usr/lib’.

You can find out the location of the *note argparse: 7. module on your
system using this script:

     import argparse
     print(argparse.__file__)

Once the messages in the ‘.po’ file are translated and the translations
are installed using *note gettext: 66, *note argparse: 7. will be able
to display the translated messages.

To translate your own strings in the *note argparse: 7. output, use
*note gettext: 66.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://babel.pocoo.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Custom type converters,  Next: Conclusion,  Prev: How to translate the argparse output,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.18.1.62 Custom type converters
................................

The *note argparse: 7. module allows you to specify custom type
converters for your command-line arguments.  This allows you to modify
user input before it’s stored in the *note argparse.Namespace: 35cd.
This can be useful when you need to pre-process the input before it is
used in your program.

When using a custom type converter, you can use any callable that takes
a single string argument (the argument value) and returns the converted
value.  However, if you need to handle more complex scenarios, you can
use a custom action class with the 'action' parameter instead.

For example, let’s say you want to handle arguments with different
prefixes and process them accordingly:

     import argparse

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prefix_chars='-+')

     parser.add_argument('-a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
                         type=lambda x: ('-', x))
     parser.add_argument('+a', metavar='<value>', action='append',
                         type=lambda x: ('+', x))

     args = parser.parse_args()
     print(args)

Output:

     $ python prog.py -a value1 +a value2
     Namespace(a=[('-', 'value1'), ('+', 'value2')])

In this example, we:

   * Created a parser with custom prefix characters using the
     ‘prefix_chars’ parameter.

   * Defined two arguments, ‘-a’ and ‘+a’, which used the ‘type’
     parameter to create custom type converters to store the value in a
     tuple with the prefix.

Without the custom type converters, the arguments would have treated the
‘-a’ and ‘+a’ as the same argument, which would have been undesirable.
By using custom type converters, we were able to differentiate between
the two arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Conclusion,  Prev: Custom type converters,  Up: Argparse Tutorial

5.18.1.63 Conclusion
....................

The *note argparse: 7. module offers a lot more than shown here.  Its
docs are quite detailed and thorough, and full of examples.  Having gone
through this tutorial, you should easily digest them without feeling
overwhelmed.


File: python.info,  Node: Migrating optparse code to argparse,  Prev: Argparse Tutorial,  Up: Exceptions<10>

5.18.1.64 Migrating ‘optparse’ code to ‘argparse’
.................................................

The *note argparse: 7. module offers several higher level features not
natively provided by the *note optparse: a4. module, including:

   * Handling positional arguments.

   * Supporting subcommands.

   * Allowing alternative option prefixes like ‘+’ and ‘/’.

   * Handling zero-or-more and one-or-more style arguments.

   * Producing more informative usage messages.

   * Providing a much simpler interface for custom ‘type’ and ‘action’.

Originally, the *note argparse: 7. module attempted to maintain
compatibility with *note optparse: a4.  However, the fundamental design
differences between supporting declarative command line option
processing (while leaving positional argument processing to application
code), and supporting both named options and positional arguments in the
declarative interface mean that the API has diverged from that of
‘optparse’ over time.

As described in *note Choosing an argument parsing library: 35ca,
applications that are currently using *note optparse: a4. and are happy
with the way it works can just continue to use ‘optparse’.

Application developers that are considering migrating should also review
the list of intrinsic behavioural differences described in that section
before deciding whether or not migration is desirable.

For applications that do choose to migrate from *note optparse: a4. to
*note argparse: 7, the following suggestions should be helpful:

   * Replace all *note optparse.OptionParser.add_option(): 3632. calls
     with *note ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 3ed. calls.

   * Replace ‘(options, args) = parser.parse_args()’ with ‘args =
     parser.parse_args()’ and add additional *note
     ArgumentParser.add_argument(): 3ed. calls for the positional
     arguments.  Keep in mind that what was previously called ‘options’,
     now in the *note argparse: 7. context is called ‘args’.

   * Replace *note optparse.OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args():
     3633. by using *note parse_intermixed_args(): ec5. instead of *note
     parse_args(): 35cc.

   * Replace callback actions and the ‘callback_*’ keyword arguments
     with ‘type’ or ‘action’ arguments.

   * Replace string names for ‘type’ keyword arguments with the
     corresponding type objects (e.g.  int, float, complex, etc).

   * Replace *note optparse.Values: 3634. with *note Namespace: 35cd.
     and *note optparse.OptionError: 3635. and *note
     optparse.OptionValueError: 3636. with *note ArgumentError: 361e.

   * Replace strings with implicit arguments such as ‘%default’ or
     ‘%prog’ with the standard Python syntax to use dictionaries to
     format strings, that is, ‘%(default)s’ and ‘%(prog)s’.

   * Replace the OptionParser constructor ‘version’ argument with a call
     to ‘parser.add_argument('--version', action='version',
     version='<the version>')’.


File: python.info,  Node: optparse — Parser for command line options,  Next: getpass — Portable password input,  Prev: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.18.2 ‘optparse’ — Parser for command line options
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/optparse.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Choosing an argument parsing library::
* Introduction: Introduction<5>.
* Background::
* Tutorial: Tutorial<2>.
* Reference Guide::
* Option Callbacks::
* Extending optparse::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<11>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/optparse.py


File: python.info,  Node: Choosing an argument parsing library,  Next: Introduction<5>,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.18.2.1 Choosing an argument parsing library
.............................................

The standard library includes three argument parsing libraries:

   * *note getopt: 64.: a module that closely mirrors the procedural C
     ‘getopt’ API. Included in the standard library since before the
     initial Python 1.0 release.

   * ‘optparse’: a declarative replacement for ‘getopt’ that provides
     equivalent functionality without requiring each application to
     implement its own procedural option parsing logic.  Included in the
     standard library since the Python 2.3 release.

   * *note argparse: 7.: a more opinionated alternative to ‘optparse’
     that provides more functionality by default, at the expense of
     reduced application flexibility in controlling exactly how
     arguments are processed.  Included in the standard library since
     the Python 2.7 and Python 3.2 releases.

In the absence of more specific argument parsing design constraints,
*note argparse: 7. is the recommended choice for implementing command
line applications, as it offers the highest level of baseline
functionality with the least application level code.

*note getopt: 64. is retained almost entirely for backwards
compatibility reasons.  However, it also serves a niche use case as a
tool for prototyping and testing command line argument handling in
‘getopt’-based C applications.

‘optparse’ should be considered as an alternative to *note argparse: 7.
in the following cases:

   * an application is already using ‘optparse’ and doesn’t want to risk
     the subtle behavioural changes that may arise when migrating to
     *note argparse: 7.

   * the application requires additional control over the way options
     and positional parameters are interleaved on the command line
     (including the ability to disable the interleaving feature
     completely)

   * the application requires additional control over the incremental
     parsing of command line elements (while ‘argparse’ does support
     this, the exact way it works in practice is undesirable for some
     use cases)

   * the application requires additional control over the handling of
     options which accept parameter values that may start with ‘-’ (such
     as delegated options to be passed to invoked subprocesses)

   * the application requires some other command line parameter
     processing behavior which ‘argparse’ does not support, but which
     can be implemented in terms of the lower level interface offered by
     ‘optparse’

These considerations also mean that ‘optparse’ is likely to provide a
better foundation for library authors writing third party command line
argument processing libraries.

As a concrete example, consider the following two command line argument
parsing configurations, the first using ‘optparse’, and the second using
‘argparse’:

     import optparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = optparse.OptionParser()
         parser.add_option('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_option('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         opts, args = parser.parse_args()
         process(args, output=opts.output, verbose=opts.verbose)

     import argparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         parser.add_argument('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*')
         args = parser.parse_args()
         process(args.rest, output=args.output, verbose=args.verbose)

The most obvious difference is that in the ‘optparse’ version, the
non-option arguments are processed separately by the application after
the option processing is complete.  In the ‘argparse’ version,
positional arguments are declared and processed in the same way as the
named options.

However, the ‘argparse’ version will also handle some parameter
combination differently from the way the ‘optparse’ version would handle
them.  For example (amongst other differences):

   * supplying ‘-o -v’ gives ‘output="-v"’ and ‘verbose=False’ when
     using ‘optparse’, but a usage error with ‘argparse’ (complaining
     that no value has been supplied for ‘-o/--output’, since ‘-v’ is
     interpreted as meaning the verbosity flag)

   * similarly, supplying ‘-o --’ gives ‘output="--"’ and ‘args=()’ when
     using ‘optparse’, but a usage error with ‘argparse’ (also
     complaining that no value has been supplied for ‘-o/--output’,
     since ‘--’ is interpreted as terminating the option processing and
     treating all remaining values as positional arguments)

   * supplying ‘-o=foo’ gives ‘output="=foo"’ when using ‘optparse’, but
     gives ‘output="foo"’ with ‘argparse’ (since ‘=’ is special cased as
     an alternative separator for option parameter values)

Whether these differing behaviors in the ‘argparse’ version are
considered desirable or a problem will depend on the specific command
line application use case.

Δείτε επίσης
............

click(1) is a third party argument processing library (originally based
on ‘optparse’), which allows command line applications to be developed
as a set of decorated command implementation functions.

Other third party libraries, such as typer(2) or msgspec-click(3), allow
command line interfaces to be specified in ways that more effectively
integrate with static checking of Python type annotations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/click/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/typer/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/msgspec-click/


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<5>,  Next: Background,  Prev: Choosing an argument parsing library,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.18.2.2 Introduction
.....................

‘optparse’ is a more convenient, flexible, and powerful library for
parsing command-line options than the minimalist *note getopt: 64.
module.  ‘optparse’ uses a more declarative style of command-line
parsing: you create an instance of *note OptionParser: 186f, populate it
with options, and parse the command line.  ‘optparse’ allows users to
specify options in the conventional GNU/POSIX syntax, and additionally
generates usage and help messages for you.

Here’s an example of using ‘optparse’ in a simple script:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     parser = OptionParser()
     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
                       help="write report to FILE", metavar="FILE")
     parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                       action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True,
                       help="don't print status messages to stdout")

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

With these few lines of code, users of your script can now do the «usual
thing» on the command-line, for example:

     <yourscript> --file=outfile -q

As it parses the command line, ‘optparse’ sets attributes of the
‘options’ object returned by *note parse_args(): 1870. based on
user-supplied command-line values.  When ‘parse_args()’ returns from
parsing this command line, ‘options.filename’ will be ‘"outfile"’ and
‘options.verbose’ will be ‘False’.  ‘optparse’ supports both long and
short options, allows short options to be merged together, and allows
options to be associated with their arguments in a variety of ways.
Thus, the following command lines are all equivalent to the above
example:

     <yourscript> -f outfile --quiet
     <yourscript> --quiet --file outfile
     <yourscript> -q -foutfile
     <yourscript> -qfoutfile

Additionally, users can run one of the following

     <yourscript> -h
     <yourscript> --help

and ‘optparse’ will print out a brief summary of your script’s options:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options]

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -f FILE, --file=FILE  write report to FILE
       -q, --quiet           don't print status messages to stdout

where the value of 'yourscript' is determined at runtime (normally from
‘sys.argv[0]’).


File: python.info,  Node: Background,  Next: Tutorial<2>,  Prev: Introduction<5>,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.18.2.3 Background
...................

‘optparse’ was explicitly designed to encourage the creation of programs
with straightforward command-line interfaces that follow the conventions
established by the ‘getopt()’ family of functions available to C
developers.  To that end, it supports only the most common command-line
syntax and semantics conventionally used under Unix.  If you are
unfamiliar with these conventions, reading this section will allow you
to acquaint yourself with them.

* Menu:

* Terminology::
* What are options for?::
* What are positional arguments for?::


File: python.info,  Node: Terminology,  Next: What are options for?,  Up: Background

5.18.2.4 Terminology
....................

argument

     a string entered on the command-line, and passed by the shell to
     ‘execl()’ or ‘execv()’.  In Python, arguments are elements of
     ‘sys.argv[1:]’ (‘sys.argv[0]’ is the name of the program being
     executed).  Unix shells also use the term «word».

     It is occasionally desirable to substitute an argument list other
     than ‘sys.argv[1:]’, so you should read «argument» as «an element
     of ‘sys.argv[1:]’, or of some other list provided as a substitute
     for ‘sys.argv[1:]’».

option

     an argument used to supply extra information to guide or customize
     the execution of a program.  There are many different syntaxes for
     options; the traditional Unix syntax is a hyphen («-») followed by
     a single letter, e.g.  ‘-x’ or ‘-F’.  Also, traditional Unix syntax
     allows multiple options to be merged into a single argument, e.g.
     ‘-x -F’ is equivalent to ‘-xF’.  The GNU project introduced ‘--’
     followed by a series of hyphen-separated words, e.g.  ‘--file’ or
     ‘--dry-run’.  These are the only two option syntaxes provided by
     ‘optparse’.

     Some other option syntaxes that the world has seen include:

        * a hyphen followed by a few letters, e.g.  ‘-pf’ (this is 'not'
          the same as multiple options merged into a single argument)

        * a hyphen followed by a whole word, e.g.  ‘-file’ (this is
          technically equivalent to the previous syntax, but they aren’t
          usually seen in the same program)

        * a plus sign followed by a single letter, or a few letters, or
          a word, e.g.  ‘+f’, ‘+rgb’

        * a slash followed by a letter, or a few letters, or a word,
          e.g.  ‘/f’, ‘/file’

     These option syntaxes are not supported by ‘optparse’, and they
     never will be.  This is deliberate: the first three are
     non-standard on any environment, and the last only makes sense if
     you’re exclusively targeting Windows or certain legacy platforms
     (e.g.  VMS, MS-DOS).

option argument

     an argument that follows an option, is closely associated with that
     option, and is consumed from the argument list when that option is.
     With ‘optparse’, option arguments may either be in a separate
     argument from their option:

          -f foo
          --file foo

     or included in the same argument:

          -ffoo
          --file=foo

     Typically, a given option either takes an argument or it doesn’t.
     Lots of people want an «optional option arguments» feature, meaning
     that some options will take an argument if they see it, and won’t
     if they don’t.  This is somewhat controversial, because it makes
     parsing ambiguous: if ‘-a’ takes an optional argument and ‘-b’ is
     another option entirely, how do we interpret ‘-ab’?  Because of
     this ambiguity, ‘optparse’ does not support this feature.

positional argument

     something leftover in the argument list after options have been
     parsed, i.e.  after options and their arguments have been parsed
     and removed from the argument list.

required option

     an option that must be supplied on the command-line; note that the
     phrase «required option» is self-contradictory in English.
     ‘optparse’ doesn’t prevent you from implementing required options,
     but doesn’t give you much help at it either.

For example, consider this hypothetical command-line:

     prog -v --report report.txt foo bar

‘-v’ and ‘--report’ are both options.  Assuming that ‘--report’ takes
one argument, ‘report.txt’ is an option argument.  ‘foo’ and ‘bar’ are
positional arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: What are options for?,  Next: What are positional arguments for?,  Prev: Terminology,  Up: Background

5.18.2.5 What are options for?
..............................

Options are used to provide extra information to tune or customize the
execution of a program.  In case it wasn’t clear, options are usually
'optional'.  A program should be able to run just fine with no options
whatsoever.  (Pick a random program from the Unix or GNU toolsets.  Can
it run without any options at all and still make sense?  The main
exceptions are ‘find’, ‘tar’, and ‘dd’—all of which are mutant oddballs
that have been rightly criticized for their non-standard syntax and
confusing interfaces.)

Lots of people want their programs to have «required options».  Think
about it.  If it’s required, then it’s 'not optional'!  If there is a
piece of information that your program absolutely requires in order to
run successfully, that’s what positional arguments are for.

As an example of good command-line interface design, consider the humble
‘cp’ utility, for copying files.  It doesn’t make much sense to try to
copy files without supplying a destination and at least one source.
Hence, ‘cp’ fails if you run it with no arguments.  However, it has a
flexible, useful syntax that does not require any options at all:

     cp SOURCE DEST
     cp SOURCE ... DEST-DIR

You can get pretty far with just that.  Most ‘cp’ implementations
provide a bunch of options to tweak exactly how the files are copied:
you can preserve mode and modification time, avoid following symlinks,
ask before clobbering existing files, etc.  But none of this distracts
from the core mission of ‘cp’, which is to copy either one file to
another, or several files to another directory.


File: python.info,  Node: What are positional arguments for?,  Prev: What are options for?,  Up: Background

5.18.2.6 What are positional arguments for?
...........................................

Positional arguments are for those pieces of information that your
program absolutely, positively requires to run.

A good user interface should have as few absolute requirements as
possible.  If your program requires 17 distinct pieces of information in
order to run successfully, it doesn’t much matter 'how' you get that
information from the user—most people will give up and walk away before
they successfully run the program.  This applies whether the user
interface is a command-line, a configuration file, or a GUI: if you make
that many demands on your users, most of them will simply give up.

In short, try to minimize the amount of information that users are
absolutely required to supply—use sensible defaults whenever possible.
Of course, you also want to make your programs reasonably flexible.
That’s what options are for.  Again, it doesn’t matter if they are
entries in a config file, widgets in the «Preferences» dialog of a GUI,
or command-line options—the more options you implement, the more
flexible your program is, and the more complicated its implementation
becomes.  Too much flexibility has drawbacks as well, of course; too
many options can overwhelm users and make your code much harder to
maintain.


File: python.info,  Node: Tutorial<2>,  Next: Reference Guide,  Prev: Background,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.18.2.7 Tutorial
.................

While ‘optparse’ is quite flexible and powerful, it’s also
straightforward to use in most cases.  This section covers the code
patterns that are common to any ‘optparse’-based program.

First, you need to import the OptionParser class; then, early in the
main program, create an OptionParser instance:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     parser = OptionParser()

Then you can start defining options.  The basic syntax is:

     parser.add_option(opt_str, ...,
                       attr=value, ...)

Each option has one or more option strings, such as ‘-f’ or ‘--file’,
and several option attributes that tell ‘optparse’ what to expect and
what to do when it encounters that option on the command line.

Typically, each option will have one short option string and one long
option string, e.g.:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", ...)

You’re free to define as many short option strings and as many long
option strings as you like (including zero), as long as there is at
least one option string overall.

The option strings passed to *note OptionParser.add_option(): 3632. are
effectively labels for the option defined by that call.  For brevity, we
will frequently refer to 'encountering an option' on the command line;
in reality, ‘optparse’ encounters 'option strings' and looks up options
from them.

Once all of your options are defined, instruct ‘optparse’ to parse your
program’s command line:

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

(If you like, you can pass a custom argument list to *note parse_args():
1870, but that’s rarely necessary: by default it uses ‘sys.argv[1:]’.)

*note parse_args(): 1870. returns two values:

   * ‘options’, an object containing values for all of your options—e.g.
     if ‘--file’ takes a single string argument, then ‘options.file’
     will be the filename supplied by the user, or ‘None’ if the user
     did not supply that option

   * ‘args’, the list of positional arguments leftover after parsing
     options

This tutorial section only covers the four most important option
attributes: *note action: 3646, *note type: 3647, *note dest: 3648.
(destination), and *note help: 3649.  Of these, ‘action’ is the most
fundamental.

* Menu:

* Understanding option actions::
* The store action::
* Handling boolean (flag) options: Handling boolean flag options.
* Other actions::
* Default values::
* Generating help::
* Printing a version string::
* How optparse handles errors::
* Putting it all together::


File: python.info,  Node: Understanding option actions,  Next: The store action,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.18.2.8 Understanding option actions
.....................................

Actions tell ‘optparse’ what to do when it encounters an option on the
command line.  There is a fixed set of actions hard-coded into
‘optparse’; adding new actions is an advanced topic covered in section
*note Extending optparse: 364c.  Most actions tell ‘optparse’ to store a
value in some variable—for example, take a string from the command line
and store it in an attribute of ‘options’.

If you don’t specify an option action, ‘optparse’ defaults to ‘store’.


File: python.info,  Node: The store action,  Next: Handling boolean flag options,  Prev: Understanding option actions,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.18.2.9 The store action
.........................

The most common option action is ‘store’, which tells ‘optparse’ to take
the next argument (or the remainder of the current argument), ensure
that it is of the correct type, and store it to your chosen destination.

For example:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file",
                       action="store", type="string", dest="filename")

Now let’s make up a fake command line and ask ‘optparse’ to parse it:

     args = ["-f", "foo.txt"]
     (options, args) = parser.parse_args(args)

When ‘optparse’ sees the option string ‘-f’, it consumes the next
argument, ‘foo.txt’, and stores it in ‘options.filename’.  So, after
this call to *note parse_args(): 1870, ‘options.filename’ is
‘"foo.txt"’.

Some other option types supported by ‘optparse’ are ‘int’ and ‘float’.
Here’s an option that expects an integer argument:

     parser.add_option("-n", type="int", dest="num")

Note that this option has no long option string, which is perfectly
acceptable.  Also, there’s no explicit action, since the default is
‘store’.

Let’s parse another fake command-line.  This time, we’ll jam the option
argument right up against the option: since ‘-n42’ (one argument) is
equivalent to ‘-n 42’ (two arguments), the code

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args(["-n42"])
     print(options.num)

will print ‘42’.

If you don’t specify a type, ‘optparse’ assumes ‘string’.  Combined with
the fact that the default action is ‘store’, that means our first
example can be a lot shorter:

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename")

If you don’t supply a destination, ‘optparse’ figures out a sensible
default from the option strings: if the first long option string is
‘--foo-bar’, then the default destination is ‘foo_bar’.  If there are no
long option strings, ‘optparse’ looks at the first short option string:
the default destination for ‘-f’ is ‘f’.

‘optparse’ also includes the built-in ‘complex’ type.  Adding types is
covered in section *note Extending optparse: 364c.


File: python.info,  Node: Handling boolean flag options,  Next: Other actions,  Prev: The store action,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.18.2.10 Handling boolean (flag) options
.........................................

Flag options—set a variable to true or false when a particular option is
seen—are quite common.  ‘optparse’ supports them with two separate
actions, ‘store_true’ and ‘store_false’.  For example, you might have a
‘verbose’ flag that is turned on with ‘-v’ and off with ‘-q’:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")

Here we have two different options with the same destination, which is
perfectly OK. (It just means you have to be a bit careful when setting
default values—see below.)

When ‘optparse’ encounters ‘-v’ on the command line, it sets
‘options.verbose’ to ‘True’; when it encounters ‘-q’, ‘options.verbose’
is set to ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: Other actions,  Next: Default values,  Prev: Handling boolean flag options,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.18.2.11 Other actions
.......................

Some other actions supported by ‘optparse’ are:

‘"store_const"’

     store a constant value, pre-set via *note Option.const: 3653.

‘"append"’

     append this option’s argument to a list

‘"count"’

     increment a counter by one

‘"callback"’

     call a specified function

These are covered in section *note Reference Guide: 3654, and section
*note Option Callbacks: 3655.


File: python.info,  Node: Default values,  Next: Generating help,  Prev: Other actions,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.18.2.12 Default values
........................

All of the above examples involve setting some variable (the
«destination») when certain command-line options are seen.  What happens
if those options are never seen?  Since we didn’t supply any defaults,
they are all set to ‘None’.  This is usually fine, but sometimes you
want more control.  ‘optparse’ lets you supply a default value for each
destination, which is assigned before the command line is parsed.

First, consider the verbose/quiet example.  If we want ‘optparse’ to set
‘verbose’ to ‘True’ unless ‘-q’ is seen, then we can do this:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True)
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose")

Since default values apply to the 'destination' rather than to any
particular option, and these two options happen to have the same
destination, this is exactly equivalent:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose")
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)

Consider this:

     parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=False)
     parser.add_option("-q", action="store_false", dest="verbose", default=True)

Again, the default value for ‘verbose’ will be ‘True’: the last default
value supplied for any particular destination is the one that counts.

A clearer way to specify default values is the ‘set_defaults()’ method
of OptionParser, which you can call at any time before calling *note
parse_args(): 1870.:

     parser.set_defaults(verbose=True)
     parser.add_option(...)
     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()

As before, the last value specified for a given option destination is
the one that counts.  For clarity, try to use one method or the other of
setting default values, not both.


File: python.info,  Node: Generating help,  Next: Printing a version string,  Prev: Default values,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.18.2.13 Generating help
.........................

‘optparse’’s ability to generate help and usage text automatically is
useful for creating user-friendly command-line interfaces.  All you have
to do is supply a *note help: 3649. value for each option, and
optionally a short usage message for your whole program.  Here’s an
OptionParser populated with user-friendly (documented) options:

     usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"
     parser = OptionParser(usage=usage)
     parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                       action="store_true", dest="verbose", default=True,
                       help="make lots of noise [default]")
     parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                       action="store_false", dest="verbose",
                       help="be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)")
     parser.add_option("-f", "--filename",
                       metavar="FILE", help="write output to FILE")
     parser.add_option("-m", "--mode",
                       default="intermediate",
                       help="interaction mode: novice, intermediate, "
                            "or expert [default: %default]")

If ‘optparse’ encounters either ‘-h’ or ‘--help’ on the command-line, or
if you just call ‘parser.print_help()’, it prints the following to
standard output:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
                             expert [default: intermediate]

(If the help output is triggered by a help option, ‘optparse’ exits
after printing the help text.)

There’s a lot going on here to help ‘optparse’ generate the best
possible help message:

   * the script defines its own usage message:

          usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg1 arg2"

     ‘optparse’ expands ‘%prog’ in the usage string to the name of the
     current program, i.e.  ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’.  The
     expanded string is then printed before the detailed option help.

     If you don’t supply a usage string, ‘optparse’ uses a bland but
     sensible default: ‘"Usage: %prog [options]"’, which is fine if your
     script doesn’t take any positional arguments.

   * every option defines a help string, and doesn’t worry about
     line-wrapping—‘optparse’ takes care of wrapping lines and making
     the help output look good.

   * options that take a value indicate this fact in their automatically
     generated help message, e.g.  for the «mode» option:

          -m MODE, --mode=MODE

     Here, «MODE» is called the meta-variable: it stands for the
     argument that the user is expected to supply to ‘-m’/‘--mode’.  By
     default, ‘optparse’ converts the destination variable name to
     uppercase and uses that for the meta-variable.  Sometimes, that’s
     not what you want—for example, the ‘--filename’ option explicitly
     sets ‘metavar="FILE"’, resulting in this automatically generated
     option description:

          -f FILE, --filename=FILE

     This is important for more than just saving space, though: the
     manually written help text uses the meta-variable ‘FILE’ to clue
     the user in that there’s a connection between the semi-formal
     syntax ‘-f FILE’ and the informal semantic description «write
     output to FILE».  This is a simple but effective way to make your
     help text a lot clearer and more useful for end users.

   * options that have a default value can include ‘%default’ in the
     help string—‘optparse’ will replace it with *note str(): 1df. of
     the option’s default value.  If an option has no default value (or
     the default value is ‘None’), ‘%default’ expands to ‘none’.

* Menu:

* Grouping Options::


File: python.info,  Node: Grouping Options,  Up: Generating help

5.18.2.14 Grouping Options
..........................

When dealing with many options, it is convenient to group these options
for better help output.  An *note OptionParser: 186f. can contain
several option groups, each of which can contain several options.

An option group is obtained using the class *note OptionGroup: 365b.:

 -- Κλάση: optparse.OptionGroup (parser, title, description=None)

     where

        * parser is the *note OptionParser: 186f. instance the group
          will be inserted in to

        * title is the group title

        * description, optional, is a long description of the group

*note OptionGroup: 365b. inherits from ‘OptionContainer’ (like *note
OptionParser: 186f.) and so the ‘add_option()’ method can be used to add
an option to the group.

Once all the options are declared, using the *note OptionParser: 186f.
method ‘add_option_group()’ the group is added to the previously defined
parser.

Continuing with the parser defined in the previous section, adding an
*note OptionGroup: 365b. to a parser is easy:

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
                         "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
                         "It is believed that some of them bite.")
     group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

This would result in the following help output:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or
                             expert [default: intermediate]

       Dangerous Options:
         Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
         of them bite.

         -g                  Group option.

A bit more complete example might involve using more than one group:
still extending the previous example:

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Dangerous Options",
                         "Caution: use these options at your own risk.  "
                         "It is believed that some of them bite.")
     group.add_option("-g", action="store_true", help="Group option.")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

     group = OptionGroup(parser, "Debug Options")
     group.add_option("-d", "--debug", action="store_true",
                      help="Print debug information")
     group.add_option("-s", "--sql", action="store_true",
                      help="Print all SQL statements executed")
     group.add_option("-e", action="store_true", help="Print every action done")
     parser.add_option_group(group)

that results in the following output:

     Usage: <yourscript> [options] arg1 arg2

     Options:
       -h, --help            show this help message and exit
       -v, --verbose         make lots of noise [default]
       -q, --quiet           be vewwy quiet (I'm hunting wabbits)
       -f FILE, --filename=FILE
                             write output to FILE
       -m MODE, --mode=MODE  interaction mode: novice, intermediate, or expert
                             [default: intermediate]

       Dangerous Options:
         Caution: use these options at your own risk.  It is believed that some
         of them bite.

         -g                  Group option.

       Debug Options:
         -d, --debug         Print debug information
         -s, --sql           Print all SQL statements executed
         -e                  Print every action done

Another interesting method, in particular when working programmatically
with option groups is:

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.get_option_group (opt_str)

     Return the *note OptionGroup: 365b. to which the short or long
     option string 'opt_str' (e.g.  ‘'-o'’ or ‘'--option'’) belongs.  If
     there’s no such ‘OptionGroup’, return ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Printing a version string,  Next: How optparse handles errors,  Prev: Generating help,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.18.2.15 Printing a version string
...................................

Similar to the brief usage string, ‘optparse’ can also print a version
string for your program.  You have to supply the string as the ‘version’
argument to OptionParser:

     parser = OptionParser(usage="%prog [-f] [-q]", version="%prog 1.0")

‘%prog’ is expanded just like it is in ‘usage’.  Apart from that,
‘version’ can contain anything you like.  When you supply it, ‘optparse’
automatically adds a ‘--version’ option to your parser.  If it
encounters this option on the command line, it expands your ‘version’
string (by replacing ‘%prog’), prints it to stdout, and exits.

For example, if your script is called ‘/usr/bin/foo’:

     $ /usr/bin/foo --version
     foo 1.0

The following two methods can be used to print and get the ‘version’
string:

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.print_version (file=None)

     Print the version message for the current program (‘self.version’)
     to 'file' (default stdout).  As with *note print_usage(): 3660, any
     occurrence of ‘%prog’ in ‘self.version’ is replaced with the name
     of the current program.  Does nothing if ‘self.version’ is empty or
     undefined.

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.get_version ()

     Same as *note print_version(): 365f. but returns the version string
     instead of printing it.


File: python.info,  Node: How optparse handles errors,  Next: Putting it all together,  Prev: Printing a version string,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.18.2.16 How ‘optparse’ handles errors
.......................................

There are two broad classes of errors that ‘optparse’ has to worry
about: programmer errors and user errors.  Programmer errors are usually
erroneous calls to *note OptionParser.add_option(): 3632, e.g.  invalid
option strings, unknown option attributes, missing option attributes,
etc.  These are dealt with in the usual way: raise an exception (either
*note optparse.OptionError: 3635. or *note TypeError: 291.) and let the
program crash.

Handling user errors is much more important, since they are guaranteed
to happen no matter how stable your code is.  ‘optparse’ can
automatically detect some user errors, such as bad option arguments
(passing ‘-n 4x’ where ‘-n’ takes an integer argument), missing
arguments (‘-n’ at the end of the command line, where ‘-n’ takes an
argument of any type).  Also, you can call ‘OptionParser.error()’ to
signal an application-defined error condition:

     (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
     ...
     if options.a and options.b:
         parser.error("options -a and -b are mutually exclusive")

In either case, ‘optparse’ handles the error the same way: it prints the
program’s usage message and an error message to standard error and exits
with error status 2.

Consider the first example above, where the user passes ‘4x’ to an
option that takes an integer:

     $ /usr/bin/foo -n 4x
     Usage: foo [options]

     foo: error: option -n: invalid integer value: '4x'

Or, where the user fails to pass a value at all:

     $ /usr/bin/foo -n
     Usage: foo [options]

     foo: error: -n option requires an argument

‘optparse’-generated error messages take care always to mention the
option involved in the error; be sure to do the same when calling
‘OptionParser.error()’ from your application code.

If ‘optparse’’s default error-handling behaviour does not suit your
needs, you’ll need to subclass OptionParser and override its ‘exit()’
and/or ‘error()’ methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Putting it all together,  Prev: How optparse handles errors,  Up: Tutorial<2>

5.18.2.17 Putting it all together
.................................

Here’s what ‘optparse’-based scripts usually look like:

     from optparse import OptionParser
     ...
     def main():
         usage = "usage: %prog [options] arg"
         parser = OptionParser(usage)
         parser.add_option("-f", "--file", dest="filename",
                           help="read data from FILENAME")
         parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                           action="store_true", dest="verbose")
         parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                           action="store_false", dest="verbose")
         ...
         (options, args) = parser.parse_args()
         if len(args) != 1:
             parser.error("incorrect number of arguments")
         if options.verbose:
             print("reading %s..." % options.filename)
         ...

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Guide,  Next: Option Callbacks,  Prev: Tutorial<2>,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.18.2.18 Reference Guide
.........................

* Menu:

* Creating the parser::
* Populating the parser::
* Defining options::
* Option attributes::
* Standard option actions::
* Standard option types::
* Parsing arguments::
* Querying and manipulating your option parser::
* Conflicts between options::
* Cleanup::
* Other methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Creating the parser,  Next: Populating the parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.18.2.19 Creating the parser
.............................

The first step in using ‘optparse’ is to create an OptionParser
instance.

 -- Κλάση: optparse.OptionParser (...)

     The OptionParser constructor has no required arguments, but a
     number of optional keyword arguments.  You should always pass them
     as keyword arguments, i.e.  do not rely on the order in which the
     arguments are declared.

     ‘usage’ (default: ‘"%prog [options]"’)

          The usage summary to print when your program is run
          incorrectly or with a help option.  When ‘optparse’ prints the
          usage string, it expands ‘%prog’ to
          ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’ (or to ‘prog’ if you passed
          that keyword argument).  To suppress a usage message, pass the
          special value ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE’.

     ‘option_list’ (default: ‘[]’)

          A list of Option objects to populate the parser with.  The
          options in ‘option_list’ are added after any options in
          ‘standard_option_list’ (a class attribute that may be set by
          OptionParser subclasses), but before any version or help
          options.  Deprecated; use *note add_option(): 3632. after
          creating the parser instead.

     ‘option_class’ (default: optparse.Option)

          Class to use when adding options to the parser in *note
          add_option(): 3632.

     ‘version’ (default: ‘None’)

          A version string to print when the user supplies a version
          option.  If you supply a true value for ‘version’, ‘optparse’
          automatically adds a version option with the single option
          string ‘--version’.  The substring ‘%prog’ is expanded the
          same as for ‘usage’.

     ‘conflict_handler’ (default: ‘"error"’)

          Specifies what to do when options with conflicting option
          strings are added to the parser; see section *note Conflicts
          between options: 3669.

     ‘description’ (default: ‘None’)

          A paragraph of text giving a brief overview of your program.
          ‘optparse’ reformats this paragraph to fit the current
          terminal width and prints it when the user requests help
          (after ‘usage’, but before the list of options).

     ‘formatter’ (default: a new ‘IndentedHelpFormatter’)

          An instance of optparse.HelpFormatter that will be used for
          printing help text.  ‘optparse’ provides two concrete classes
          for this purpose: IndentedHelpFormatter and
          TitledHelpFormatter.

     ‘add_help_option’ (default: ‘True’)

          If true, ‘optparse’ will add a help option (with option
          strings ‘-h’ and ‘--help’) to the parser.

     ‘prog’

          The string to use when expanding ‘%prog’ in ‘usage’ and
          ‘version’ instead of ‘os.path.basename(sys.argv[0])’.

     ‘epilog’ (default: ‘None’)

          A paragraph of help text to print after the option help.


File: python.info,  Node: Populating the parser,  Next: Defining options,  Prev: Creating the parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.18.2.20 Populating the parser
...............................

There are several ways to populate the parser with options.  The
preferred way is by using *note OptionParser.add_option(): 3632, as
shown in section *note Tutorial: 3644.  ‘add_option()’ can be called in
one of two ways:

   * pass it an Option instance (as returned by ‘make_option()’)

   * pass it any combination of positional and keyword arguments that
     are acceptable to ‘make_option()’ (i.e., to the Option
     constructor), and it will create the Option instance for you

The other alternative is to pass a list of pre-constructed Option
instances to the OptionParser constructor, as in:

     option_list = [
         make_option("-f", "--filename",
                     action="store", type="string", dest="filename"),
         make_option("-q", "--quiet",
                     action="store_false", dest="verbose"),
         ]
     parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)

(‘make_option()’ is a factory function for creating Option instances;
currently it is an alias for the Option constructor.  A future version
of ‘optparse’ may split Option into several classes, and ‘make_option()’
will pick the right class to instantiate.  Do not instantiate Option
directly.)


File: python.info,  Node: Defining options,  Next: Option attributes,  Prev: Populating the parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.18.2.21 Defining options
..........................

Each Option instance represents a set of synonymous command-line option
strings, e.g.  ‘-f’ and ‘--file’.  You can specify any number of short
or long option strings, but you must specify at least one overall option
string.

The canonical way to create an *note Option: 366e. instance is with the
‘add_option()’ method of *note OptionParser: 186f.

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.add_option (option)

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.add_option (*opt_str, attr=value, ...)

     To define an option with only a short option string:

          parser.add_option("-f", attr=value, ...)

     And to define an option with only a long option string:

          parser.add_option("--foo", attr=value, ...)

     The keyword arguments define attributes of the new Option object.
     The most important option attribute is *note action: 3646, and it
     largely determines which other attributes are relevant or required.
     If you pass irrelevant option attributes, or fail to pass required
     ones, ‘optparse’ raises an *note OptionError: 3635. exception
     explaining your mistake.

     An option’s 'action' determines what ‘optparse’ does when it
     encounters this option on the command-line.  The standard option
     actions hard-coded into ‘optparse’ are:

     ‘"store"’

          store this option’s argument (default)

     ‘"store_const"’

          store a constant value, pre-set via *note Option.const: 3653.

     ‘"store_true"’

          store ‘True’

     ‘"store_false"’

          store ‘False’

     ‘"append"’

          append this option’s argument to a list

     ‘"append_const"’

          append a constant value to a list, pre-set via *note
          Option.const: 3653.

     ‘"count"’

          increment a counter by one

     ‘"callback"’

          call a specified function

     ‘"help"’

          print a usage message including all options and the
          documentation for them

     (If you don’t supply an action, the default is ‘"store"’.  For this
     action, you may also supply *note type: 3647. and *note dest: 3648.
     option attributes; see *note Standard option actions: 366f.)

As you can see, most actions involve storing or updating a value
somewhere.  ‘optparse’ always creates a special object for this,
conventionally called ‘options’, which is an instance of *note
optparse.Values: 3634.

 -- Κλάση: optparse.Values

     An object holding parsed argument names and values as attributes.
     Normally created by calling when calling *note
     OptionParser.parse_args(): 1870, and can be overridden by a custom
     subclass passed to the 'values' argument of
     ‘OptionParser.parse_args()’ (as described in *note Parsing
     arguments: 3670.).

Option arguments (and various other values) are stored as attributes of
this object, according to the *note dest: 3648. (destination) option
attribute.

For example, when you call

     parser.parse_args()

one of the first things ‘optparse’ does is create the ‘options’ object:

     options = Values()

If one of the options in this parser is defined with

     parser.add_option("-f", "--file", action="store", type="string", dest="filename")

and the command-line being parsed includes any of the following:

     -ffoo
     -f foo
     --file=foo
     --file foo

then ‘optparse’, on seeing this option, will do the equivalent of

     options.filename = "foo"

The *note type: 3647. and *note dest: 3648. option attributes are almost
as important as *note action: 3646, but ‘action’ is the only one that
makes sense for 'all' options.


File: python.info,  Node: Option attributes,  Next: Standard option actions,  Prev: Defining options,  Up: Reference Guide

5.18.2.22 Option attributes
...........................

 -- Κλάση: optparse.Option

     A single command line argument, with various attributes passed by
     keyword to the constructor.  Normally created with *note
     OptionParser.add_option(): 3632. rather than directly, and can be
     overridden by a custom class via the 'option_class' argument to
     *note OptionParser: 186f.

The following option attributes may be passed as keyword arguments to
*note OptionParser.add_option(): 3632.  If you pass an option attribute
that is not relevant to a particular option, or fail to pass a required
option attribute, ‘optparse’ raises *note OptionError: 3635.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.action

     (default: ‘"store"’)

     Determines ‘optparse’’s behaviour when this option is seen on the
     command line; the available options are documented *note here:
     366f.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.type

     (default: ‘"string"’)

     The argument type expected by this option (e.g., ‘"string"’ or
     ‘"int"’); the available option types are documented *note here:
     3673.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.dest

     (default: derived from option strings)

     If the option’s action implies writing or modifying a value
     somewhere, this tells ‘optparse’ where to write it: ‘dest’ names an
     attribute of the ‘options’ object that ‘optparse’ builds as it
     parses the command line.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.default

     The value to use for this option’s destination if the option is not
     seen on the command line.  See also *note
     OptionParser.set_defaults(): 3675.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.nargs

     (default: 1)

     How many arguments of type *note type: 3647. should be consumed
     when this option is seen.  If > 1, ‘optparse’ will store a tuple of
     values to *note dest: 3648.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.const

     For actions that store a constant value, the constant value to
     store.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.choices

     For options of type ‘"choice"’, the list of strings the user may
     choose from.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.callback

     For options with action ‘"callback"’, the callable to call when
     this option is seen.  See section *note Option Callbacks: 3655. for
     detail on the arguments passed to the callable.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.callback_args
 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.callback_kwargs

     Additional positional and keyword arguments to pass to ‘callback’
     after the four standard callback arguments.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.help

     Help text to print for this option when listing all available
     options after the user supplies a ‘help’ option (such as ‘--help’).
     If no help text is supplied, the option will be listed without help
     text.  To hide this option, use the special value
     ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.metavar

     (default: derived from option strings)

     Stand-in for the option argument(s) to use when printing help text.
     See section *note Tutorial: 3644. for an example.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard option actions,  Next: Standard option types,  Prev: Option attributes,  Up: Reference Guide

5.18.2.23 Standard option actions
.................................

The various option actions all have slightly different requirements and
effects.  Most actions have several relevant option attributes which you
may specify to guide ‘optparse’’s behaviour; a few have required
attributes, which you must specify for any option using that action.

   * ‘"store"’ [relevant: *note type: 3647, *note dest: 3648, *note
     nargs: 3676, *note choices: 3677.]

     The option must be followed by an argument, which is converted to a
     value according to *note type: 3647. and stored in *note dest:
     3648.  If *note nargs: 3676. > 1, multiple arguments will be
     consumed from the command line; all will be converted according to
     ‘type’ and stored to ‘dest’ as a tuple.  See the *note Standard
     option types: 3673. section.

     If *note choices: 3677. is supplied (a list or tuple of strings),
     the type defaults to ‘"choice"’.

     If *note type: 3647. is not supplied, it defaults to ‘"string"’.

     If *note dest: 3648. is not supplied, ‘optparse’ derives a
     destination from the first long option string (e.g., ‘--foo-bar’
     implies ‘foo_bar’).  If there are no long option strings,
     ‘optparse’ derives a destination from the first short option string
     (e.g., ‘-f’ implies ‘f’).

     Example:

          parser.add_option("-f")
          parser.add_option("-p", type="float", nargs=3, dest="point")

     As it parses the command line

          -f foo.txt -p 1 -3.5 4 -fbar.txt

     ‘optparse’ will set

          options.f = "foo.txt"
          options.point = (1.0, -3.5, 4.0)
          options.f = "bar.txt"

   * ‘"store_const"’ [required: *note const: 3653.; relevant: *note
     dest: 3648.]

     The value *note const: 3653. is stored in *note dest: 3648.

     Example:

          parser.add_option("-q", "--quiet",
                            action="store_const", const=0, dest="verbose")
          parser.add_option("-v", "--verbose",
                            action="store_const", const=1, dest="verbose")
          parser.add_option("--noisy",
                            action="store_const", const=2, dest="verbose")

     If ‘--noisy’ is seen, ‘optparse’ will set

          options.verbose = 2

   * ‘"store_true"’ [relevant: *note dest: 3648.]

     A special case of ‘"store_const"’ that stores ‘True’ to *note dest:
     3648.

   * ‘"store_false"’ [relevant: *note dest: 3648.]

     Like ‘"store_true"’, but stores ‘False’.

     Example:

          parser.add_option("--clobber", action="store_true", dest="clobber")
          parser.add_option("--no-clobber", action="store_false", dest="clobber")

   * ‘"append"’ [relevant: *note type: 3647, *note dest: 3648, *note
     nargs: 3676, *note choices: 3677.]

     The option must be followed by an argument, which is appended to
     the list in *note dest: 3648.  If no default value for ‘dest’ is
     supplied, an empty list is automatically created when ‘optparse’
     first encounters this option on the command-line.  If *note nargs:
     3676. > 1, multiple arguments are consumed, and a tuple of length
     ‘nargs’ is appended to ‘dest’.

     The defaults for *note type: 3647. and *note dest: 3648. are the
     same as for the ‘"store"’ action.

     Example:

          parser.add_option("-t", "--tracks", action="append", type="int")

     If ‘-t3’ is seen on the command-line, ‘optparse’ does the
     equivalent of:

          options.tracks = []
          options.tracks.append(int("3"))

     If, a little later on, ‘--tracks=4’ is seen, it does:

          options.tracks.append(int("4"))

     The ‘append’ action calls the ‘append’ method on the current value
     of the option.  This means that any default value specified must
     have an ‘append’ method.  It also means that if the default value
     is non-empty, the default elements will be present in the parsed
     value for the option, with any values from the command line
     appended after those default values:

          >>> parser.add_option("--files", action="append", default=['~/.mypkg/defaults'])
          >>> opts, args = parser.parse_args(['--files', 'overrides.mypkg'])
          >>> opts.files
          ['~/.mypkg/defaults', 'overrides.mypkg']

   * ‘"append_const"’ [required: *note const: 3653.; relevant: *note
     dest: 3648.]

     Like ‘"store_const"’, but the value *note const: 3653. is appended
     to *note dest: 3648.; as with ‘"append"’, ‘dest’ defaults to
     ‘None’, and an empty list is automatically created the first time
     the option is encountered.

   * ‘"count"’ [relevant: *note dest: 3648.]

     Increment the integer stored at *note dest: 3648.  If no default
     value is supplied, ‘dest’ is set to zero before being incremented
     the first time.

     Example:

          parser.add_option("-v", action="count", dest="verbosity")

     The first time ‘-v’ is seen on the command line, ‘optparse’ does
     the equivalent of:

          options.verbosity = 0
          options.verbosity += 1

     Every subsequent occurrence of ‘-v’ results in

          options.verbosity += 1

   * ‘"callback"’ [required: *note callback: 3678.; relevant: *note
     type: 3647, *note nargs: 3676, *note callback_args: 3679, *note
     callback_kwargs: 367a.]

     Call the function specified by *note callback: 3678, which is
     called as

          func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)

     See section *note Option Callbacks: 3655. for more detail.

   * ‘"help"’

     Prints a complete help message for all the options in the current
     option parser.  The help message is constructed from the ‘usage’
     string passed to OptionParser’s constructor and the *note help:
     3649. string passed to every option.

     If no *note help: 3649. string is supplied for an option, it will
     still be listed in the help message.  To omit an option entirely,
     use the special value ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_HELP’.

     ‘optparse’ automatically adds a *note help: 3649. option to all
     OptionParsers, so you do not normally need to create one.

     Example:

          from optparse import OptionParser, SUPPRESS_HELP

          # usually, a help option is added automatically, but that can
          # be suppressed using the add_help_option argument
          parser = OptionParser(add_help_option=False)

          parser.add_option("-h", "--help", action="help")
          parser.add_option("-v", action="store_true", dest="verbose",
                            help="Be moderately verbose")
          parser.add_option("--file", dest="filename",
                            help="Input file to read data from")
          parser.add_option("--secret", help=SUPPRESS_HELP)

     If ‘optparse’ sees either ‘-h’ or ‘--help’ on the command line, it
     will print something like the following help message to stdout
     (assuming ‘sys.argv[0]’ is ‘"foo.py"’):

          Usage: foo.py [options]

          Options:
            -h, --help        Show this help message and exit
            -v                Be moderately verbose
            --file=FILENAME   Input file to read data from

     After printing the help message, ‘optparse’ terminates your process
     with ‘sys.exit(0)’.

   * ‘"version"’

     Prints the version number supplied to the OptionParser to stdout
     and exits.  The version number is actually formatted and printed by
     the ‘print_version()’ method of OptionParser.  Generally only
     relevant if the ‘version’ argument is supplied to the OptionParser
     constructor.  As with *note help: 3649. options, you will rarely
     create ‘version’ options, since ‘optparse’ automatically adds them
     when needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard option types,  Next: Parsing arguments,  Prev: Standard option actions,  Up: Reference Guide

5.18.2.24 Standard option types
...............................

‘optparse’ has five built-in option types: ‘"string"’, ‘"int"’,
‘"choice"’, ‘"float"’ and ‘"complex"’.  If you need to add new option
types, see section *note Extending optparse: 364c.

Arguments to string options are not checked or converted in any way: the
text on the command line is stored in the destination (or passed to the
callback) as-is.

Integer arguments (type ‘"int"’) are parsed as follows:

   * if the number starts with ‘0x’, it is parsed as a hexadecimal
     number

   * if the number starts with ‘0’, it is parsed as an octal number

   * if the number starts with ‘0b’, it is parsed as a binary number

   * otherwise, the number is parsed as a decimal number

The conversion is done by calling *note int(): 326. with the appropriate
base (2, 8, 10, or 16).  If this fails, so will ‘optparse’, although
with a more useful error message.

‘"float"’ and ‘"complex"’ option arguments are converted directly with
*note float(): 327. and *note complex(): 328, with similar
error-handling.

‘"choice"’ options are a subtype of ‘"string"’ options.  The *note
choices: 3677. option attribute (a sequence of strings) defines the set
of allowed option arguments.  ‘optparse.check_choice()’ compares
user-supplied option arguments against this master list and raises *note
OptionValueError: 3636. if an invalid string is given.


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing arguments,  Next: Querying and manipulating your option parser,  Prev: Standard option types,  Up: Reference Guide

5.18.2.25 Parsing arguments
...........................

The whole point of creating and populating an OptionParser is to call
its *note parse_args(): 1870. method.

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.parse_args (args=None, values=None)

     Parse the command-line options found in 'args'.

     The input parameters are

     ‘args’

          the list of arguments to process (default: ‘sys.argv[1:]’)

     ‘values’

          a *note Values: 3634. object to store option arguments in
          (default: a new instance of ‘Values’) – if you give an
          existing object, the option defaults will not be initialized
          on it

     and the return value is a pair ‘(options, args)’ where

     ‘options’

          the same object that was passed in as 'values', or the
          ‘optparse.Values’ instance created by ‘optparse’

     ‘args’

          the leftover positional arguments after all options have been
          processed

The most common usage is to supply neither keyword argument.  If you
supply ‘values’, it will be modified with repeated *note setattr():
27b7. calls (roughly one for every option argument stored to an option
destination) and returned by *note parse_args(): 1870.

If *note parse_args(): 1870. encounters any errors in the argument list,
it calls the OptionParser’s ‘error()’ method with an appropriate
end-user error message.  This ultimately terminates your process with an
exit status of 2 (the traditional Unix exit status for command-line
errors).


File: python.info,  Node: Querying and manipulating your option parser,  Next: Conflicts between options,  Prev: Parsing arguments,  Up: Reference Guide

5.18.2.26 Querying and manipulating your option parser
......................................................

The default behavior of the option parser can be customized slightly,
and you can also poke around your option parser and see what’s there.
OptionParser provides several methods to help you out:

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.disable_interspersed_args ()

     Set parsing to stop on the first non-option.  For example, if ‘-a’
     and ‘-b’ are both simple options that take no arguments, ‘optparse’
     normally accepts this syntax:

          prog -a arg1 -b arg2

     and treats it as equivalent to

          prog -a -b arg1 arg2

     To disable this feature, call ‘disable_interspersed_args()’.  This
     restores traditional Unix syntax, where option parsing stops with
     the first non-option argument.

     Use this if you have a command processor which runs another command
     which has options of its own and you want to make sure these
     options don’t get confused.  For example, each command might have a
     different set of options.

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.enable_interspersed_args ()

     Set parsing to not stop on the first non-option, allowing
     interspersing switches with command arguments.  This is the default
     behavior.

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.get_option (opt_str)

     Returns the Option instance with the option string 'opt_str', or
     ‘None’ if no options have that option string.

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.has_option (opt_str)

     Return ‘True’ if the OptionParser has an option with option string
     'opt_str' (e.g., ‘-q’ or ‘--verbose’).

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.remove_option (opt_str)

     If the *note OptionParser: 186f. has an option corresponding to
     'opt_str', that option is removed.  If that option provided any
     other option strings, all of those option strings become invalid.
     If 'opt_str' does not occur in any option belonging to this
     ‘OptionParser’, raises *note ValueError: 277.


File: python.info,  Node: Conflicts between options,  Next: Cleanup,  Prev: Querying and manipulating your option parser,  Up: Reference Guide

5.18.2.27 Conflicts between options
...................................

If you’re not careful, it’s easy to define options with conflicting
option strings:

     parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ...)
     ...
     parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ...)

(This is particularly true if you’ve defined your own OptionParser
subclass with some standard options.)

Every time you add an option, ‘optparse’ checks for conflicts with
existing options.  If it finds any, it invokes the current
conflict-handling mechanism.  You can set the conflict-handling
mechanism either in the constructor:

     parser = OptionParser(..., conflict_handler=handler)

or with a separate call:

     parser.set_conflict_handler(handler)

The available conflict handlers are:

     ‘"error"’ (default)

          assume option conflicts are a programming error and raise
          *note OptionConflictError: 3686.

     ‘"resolve"’

          resolve option conflicts intelligently (see below)

As an example, let’s define an *note OptionParser: 186f. that resolves
conflicts intelligently and add conflicting options to it:

     parser = OptionParser(conflict_handler="resolve")
     parser.add_option("-n", "--dry-run", ..., help="do no harm")
     parser.add_option("-n", "--noisy", ..., help="be noisy")

At this point, ‘optparse’ detects that a previously added option is
already using the ‘-n’ option string.  Since ‘conflict_handler’ is
‘"resolve"’, it resolves the situation by removing ‘-n’ from the earlier
option’s list of option strings.  Now ‘--dry-run’ is the only way for
the user to activate that option.  If the user asks for help, the help
message will reflect that:

     Options:
       --dry-run     do no harm
       ...
       -n, --noisy   be noisy

It’s possible to whittle away the option strings for a previously added
option until there are none left, and the user has no way of invoking
that option from the command-line.  In that case, ‘optparse’ removes
that option completely, so it doesn’t show up in help text or anywhere
else.  Carrying on with our existing OptionParser:

     parser.add_option("--dry-run", ..., help="new dry-run option")

At this point, the original ‘-n’/‘--dry-run’ option is no longer
accessible, so ‘optparse’ removes it, leaving this help text:

     Options:
       ...
       -n, --noisy   be noisy
       --dry-run     new dry-run option


File: python.info,  Node: Cleanup,  Next: Other methods,  Prev: Conflicts between options,  Up: Reference Guide

5.18.2.28 Cleanup
.................

OptionParser instances have several cyclic references.  This should not
be a problem for Python’s garbage collector, but you may wish to break
the cyclic references explicitly by calling ‘destroy()’ on your
OptionParser once you are done with it.  This is particularly useful in
long-running applications where large object graphs are reachable from
your OptionParser.


File: python.info,  Node: Other methods,  Prev: Cleanup,  Up: Reference Guide

5.18.2.29 Other methods
.......................

OptionParser supports several other public methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.set_usage (usage)

     Set the usage string according to the rules described above for the
     ‘usage’ constructor keyword argument.  Passing ‘None’ sets the
     default usage string; use ‘optparse.SUPPRESS_USAGE’ to suppress a
     usage message.

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.print_usage (file=None)

     Print the usage message for the current program (‘self.usage’) to
     'file' (default stdout).  Any occurrence of the string ‘%prog’ in
     ‘self.usage’ is replaced with the name of the current program.
     Does nothing if ‘self.usage’ is empty or not defined.

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.get_usage ()

     Same as *note print_usage(): 3660. but returns the usage string
     instead of printing it.

 -- Μέθοδος: OptionParser.set_defaults (dest=value, ...)

     Set default values for several option destinations at once.  Using
     ‘set_defaults()’ is the preferred way to set default values for
     options, since multiple options can share the same destination.
     For example, if several «mode» options all set the same
     destination, any one of them can set the default, and the last one
     wins:

          parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="advanced",
                            default="novice")    # overridden below
          parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="novice",
                            default="advanced")  # overrides above setting

     To avoid this confusion, use ‘set_defaults()’:

          parser.set_defaults(mode="advanced")
          parser.add_option("--advanced", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="advanced")
          parser.add_option("--novice", action="store_const",
                            dest="mode", const="novice")


File: python.info,  Node: Option Callbacks,  Next: Extending optparse,  Prev: Reference Guide,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.18.2.30 Option Callbacks
..........................

When ‘optparse’’s built-in actions and types aren’t quite enough for
your needs, you have two choices: extend ‘optparse’ or define a callback
option.  Extending ‘optparse’ is more general, but overkill for a lot of
simple cases.  Quite often a simple callback is all you need.

There are two steps to defining a callback option:

   * define the option itself using the ‘"callback"’ action

   * write the callback; this is a function (or method) that takes at
     least four arguments, as described below

* Menu:

* Defining a callback option::
* How callbacks are called::
* Raising errors in a callback::
* Callback example 1; trivial callback: Callback example 1 trivial callback.
* Callback example 2; check option order: Callback example 2 check option order.
* Callback example 3; check option order (generalized): Callback example 3 check option order generalized.
* Callback example 4; check arbitrary condition: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition.
* Callback example 5; fixed arguments: Callback example 5 fixed arguments.
* Callback example 6; variable arguments: Callback example 6 variable arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining a callback option,  Next: How callbacks are called,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.18.2.31 Defining a callback option
....................................

As always, the easiest way to define a callback option is by using the
*note OptionParser.add_option(): 3632. method.  Apart from *note action:
3646, the only option attribute you must specify is ‘callback’, the
function to call:

     parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=my_callback)

‘callback’ is a function (or other callable object), so you must have
already defined ‘my_callback()’ when you create this callback option.
In this simple case, ‘optparse’ doesn’t even know if ‘-c’ takes any
arguments, which usually means that the option takes no arguments—the
mere presence of ‘-c’ on the command-line is all it needs to know.  In
some circumstances, though, you might want your callback to consume an
arbitrary number of command-line arguments.  This is where writing
callbacks gets tricky; it’s covered later in this section.

‘optparse’ always passes four particular arguments to your callback, and
it will only pass additional arguments if you specify them via *note
callback_args: 3679. and *note callback_kwargs: 367a.  Thus, the minimal
callback function signature is:

     def my_callback(option, opt, value, parser):

The four arguments to a callback are described below.

There are several other option attributes that you can supply when you
define a callback option:

*note type: 3647.

     has its usual meaning: as with the ‘"store"’ or ‘"append"’ actions,
     it instructs ‘optparse’ to consume one argument and convert it to
     *note type: 3647.  Rather than storing the converted value(s)
     anywhere, though, ‘optparse’ passes it to your callback function.

*note nargs: 3676.

     also has its usual meaning: if it is supplied and > 1, ‘optparse’
     will consume *note nargs: 3676. arguments, each of which must be
     convertible to *note type: 3647.  It then passes a tuple of
     converted values to your callback.

*note callback_args: 3679.

     a tuple of extra positional arguments to pass to the callback

*note callback_kwargs: 367a.

     a dictionary of extra keyword arguments to pass to the callback


File: python.info,  Node: How callbacks are called,  Next: Raising errors in a callback,  Prev: Defining a callback option,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.18.2.32 How callbacks are called
..................................

All callbacks are called as follows:

     func(option, opt_str, value, parser, *args, **kwargs)

where

‘option’

     is the Option instance that’s calling the callback

‘opt_str’

     is the option string seen on the command-line that’s triggering the
     callback.  (If an abbreviated long option was used, ‘opt_str’ will
     be the full, canonical option string—e.g.  if the user puts ‘--foo’
     on the command-line as an abbreviation for ‘--foobar’, then
     ‘opt_str’ will be ‘"--foobar"’.)

‘value’

     is the argument to this option seen on the command-line.
     ‘optparse’ will only expect an argument if *note type: 3647. is
     set; the type of ‘value’ will be the type implied by the option’s
     type.  If ‘type’ for this option is ‘None’ (no argument expected),
     then ‘value’ will be ‘None’.  If *note nargs: 3676. > 1, ‘value’
     will be a tuple of values of the appropriate type.

‘parser’

     is the OptionParser instance driving the whole thing, mainly useful
     because you can access some other interesting data through its
     instance attributes:

     ‘parser.largs’

          the current list of leftover arguments, ie.  arguments that
          have been consumed but are neither options nor option
          arguments.  Feel free to modify ‘parser.largs’, e.g.  by
          adding more arguments to it.  (This list will become ‘args’,
          the second return value of *note parse_args(): 1870.)

     ‘parser.rargs’

          the current list of remaining arguments, ie.  with ‘opt_str’
          and ‘value’ (if applicable) removed, and only the arguments
          following them still there.  Feel free to modify
          ‘parser.rargs’, e.g.  by consuming more arguments.

     ‘parser.values’

          the object where option values are by default stored (an
          instance of optparse.OptionValues).  This lets callbacks use
          the same mechanism as the rest of ‘optparse’ for storing
          option values; you don’t need to mess around with globals or
          closures.  You can also access or modify the value(s) of any
          options already encountered on the command-line.

‘args’

     is a tuple of arbitrary positional arguments supplied via the *note
     callback_args: 3679. option attribute.

‘kwargs’

     is a dictionary of arbitrary keyword arguments supplied via *note
     callback_kwargs: 367a.


File: python.info,  Node: Raising errors in a callback,  Next: Callback example 1 trivial callback,  Prev: How callbacks are called,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.18.2.33 Raising errors in a callback
......................................

The callback function should raise *note OptionValueError: 3636. if
there are any problems with the option or its argument(s).  ‘optparse’
catches this and terminates the program, printing the error message you
supply to stderr.  Your message should be clear, concise, accurate, and
mention the option at fault.  Otherwise, the user will have a hard time
figuring out what they did wrong.


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 1 trivial callback,  Next: Callback example 2 check option order,  Prev: Raising errors in a callback,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.18.2.34 Callback example 1: trivial callback
..............................................

Here’s an example of a callback option that takes no arguments, and
simply records that the option was seen:

     def record_foo_seen(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         parser.values.saw_foo = True

     parser.add_option("--foo", action="callback", callback=record_foo_seen)

Of course, you could do that with the ‘"store_true"’ action.


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 2 check option order,  Next: Callback example 3 check option order generalized,  Prev: Callback example 1 trivial callback,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.18.2.35 Callback example 2: check option order
................................................

Here’s a slightly more interesting example: record the fact that ‘-a’ is
seen, but blow up if it comes after ‘-b’ in the command-line.

     def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if parser.values.b:
             raise OptionValueError("can't use -a after -b")
         parser.values.a = 1
     ...
     parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order)
     parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 3 check option order generalized,  Next: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition,  Prev: Callback example 2 check option order,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.18.2.36 Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
..............................................................

If you want to reuse this callback for several similar options (set a
flag, but blow up if ‘-b’ has already been seen), it needs a bit of
work: the error message and the flag that it sets must be generalized.

     def check_order(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if parser.values.b:
             raise OptionValueError("can't use %s after -b" % opt_str)
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
     ...
     parser.add_option("-a", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='a')
     parser.add_option("-b", action="store_true", dest="b")
     parser.add_option("-c", action="callback", callback=check_order, dest='c')


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition,  Next: Callback example 5 fixed arguments,  Prev: Callback example 3 check option order generalized,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.18.2.37 Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
.......................................................

Of course, you could put any condition in there—you’re not limited to
checking the values of already-defined options.  For example, if you
have options that should not be called when the moon is full, all you
have to do is this:

     def check_moon(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         if is_moon_full():
             raise OptionValueError("%s option invalid when moon is full"
                                    % opt_str)
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, 1)
     ...
     parser.add_option("--foo",
                       action="callback", callback=check_moon, dest="foo")

(The definition of ‘is_moon_full()’ is left as an exercise for the
reader.)


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 5 fixed arguments,  Next: Callback example 6 variable arguments,  Prev: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.18.2.38 Callback example 5: fixed arguments
.............................................

Things get slightly more interesting when you define callback options
that take a fixed number of arguments.  Specifying that a callback
option takes arguments is similar to defining a ‘"store"’ or ‘"append"’
option: if you define *note type: 3647, then the option takes one
argument that must be convertible to that type; if you further define
*note nargs: 3676, then the option takes ‘nargs’ arguments.

Here’s an example that just emulates the standard ‘"store"’ action:

     def store_value(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)
     ...
     parser.add_option("--foo",
                       action="callback", callback=store_value,
                       type="int", nargs=3, dest="foo")

Note that ‘optparse’ takes care of consuming 3 arguments and converting
them to integers for you; all you have to do is store them.  (Or
whatever; obviously you don’t need a callback for this example.)


File: python.info,  Node: Callback example 6 variable arguments,  Prev: Callback example 5 fixed arguments,  Up: Option Callbacks

5.18.2.39 Callback example 6: variable arguments
................................................

Things get hairy when you want an option to take a variable number of
arguments.  For this case, you must write a callback, as ‘optparse’
doesn’t provide any built-in capabilities for it.  And you have to deal
with certain intricacies of conventional Unix command-line parsing that
‘optparse’ normally handles for you.  In particular, callbacks should
implement the conventional rules for bare ‘--’ and ‘-’ arguments:

   * either ‘--’ or ‘-’ can be option arguments

   * bare ‘--’ (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line
     processing and discard the ‘--’

   * bare ‘-’ (if not the argument to some option): halt command-line
     processing but keep the ‘-’ (append it to ‘parser.largs’)

If you want an option that takes a variable number of arguments, there
are several subtle, tricky issues to worry about.  The exact
implementation you choose will be based on which trade-offs you’re
willing to make for your application (which is why ‘optparse’ doesn’t
support this sort of thing directly).

Nevertheless, here’s a stab at a callback for an option with variable
arguments:

     def vararg_callback(option, opt_str, value, parser):
         assert value is None
         value = []

         def floatable(str):
             try:
                 float(str)
                 return True
             except ValueError:
                 return False

         for arg in parser.rargs:
             # stop on --foo like options
             if arg[:2] == "--" and len(arg) > 2:
                 break
             # stop on -a, but not on -3 or -3.0
             if arg[:1] == "-" and len(arg) > 1 and not floatable(arg):
                 break
             value.append(arg)

         del parser.rargs[:len(value)]
         setattr(parser.values, option.dest, value)

     ...
     parser.add_option("-c", "--callback", dest="vararg_attr",
                       action="callback", callback=vararg_callback)


File: python.info,  Node: Extending optparse,  Next: Exceptions<11>,  Prev: Option Callbacks,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.18.2.40 Extending ‘optparse’
..............................

Since the two major controlling factors in how ‘optparse’ interprets
command-line options are the action and type of each option, the most
likely direction of extension is to add new actions and new types.

* Menu:

* Adding new types::
* Adding new actions::


File: python.info,  Node: Adding new types,  Next: Adding new actions,  Up: Extending optparse

5.18.2.41 Adding new types
..........................

To add new types, you need to define your own subclass of ‘optparse’’s
*note Option: 366e. class.  This class has a couple of attributes that
define ‘optparse’’s types: *note TYPES: 36a3. and *note TYPE_CHECKER:
36a4.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.TYPES

     A tuple of type names; in your subclass, simply define a new tuple
     *note TYPES: 36a3. that builds on the standard one.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.TYPE_CHECKER

     A dictionary mapping type names to type-checking functions.  A
     type-checking function has the following signature:

          def check_mytype(option, opt, value)

     where ‘option’ is an *note Option: 366e. instance, ‘opt’ is an
     option string (e.g., ‘-f’), and ‘value’ is the string from the
     command line that must be checked and converted to your desired
     type.  ‘check_mytype()’ should return an object of the hypothetical
     type ‘mytype’.  The value returned by a type-checking function will
     wind up in the OptionValues instance returned by *note
     OptionParser.parse_args(): 1870, or be passed to a callback as the
     ‘value’ parameter.

     Your type-checking function should raise *note OptionValueError:
     3636. if it encounters any problems.  ‘OptionValueError’ takes a
     single string argument, which is passed as-is to *note
     OptionParser: 186f.’s ‘error()’ method, which in turn prepends the
     program name and the string ‘"error:"’ and prints everything to
     stderr before terminating the process.

Here’s a silly example that demonstrates adding a ‘"complex"’ option
type to parse Python-style complex numbers on the command line.  (This
is even sillier than it used to be, because ‘optparse’ 1.3 added
built-in support for complex numbers, but never mind.)

First, the necessary imports:

     from copy import copy
     from optparse import Option, OptionValueError

You need to define your type-checker first, since it’s referred to later
(in the *note TYPE_CHECKER: 36a4. class attribute of your Option
subclass):

     def check_complex(option, opt, value):
         try:
             return complex(value)
         except ValueError:
             raise OptionValueError(
                 "option %s: invalid complex value: %r" % (opt, value))

Finally, the Option subclass:

     class MyOption (Option):
         TYPES = Option.TYPES + ("complex",)
         TYPE_CHECKER = copy(Option.TYPE_CHECKER)
         TYPE_CHECKER["complex"] = check_complex

(If we didn’t make a *note copy(): 29. of *note Option.TYPE_CHECKER:
36a4, we would end up modifying the ‘TYPE_CHECKER’ attribute of
‘optparse’’s Option class.  This being Python, nothing stops you from
doing that except good manners and common sense.)

That’s it!  Now you can write a script that uses the new option type
just like any other ‘optparse’-based script, except you have to instruct
your OptionParser to use MyOption instead of Option:

     parser = OptionParser(option_class=MyOption)
     parser.add_option("-c", type="complex")

Alternately, you can build your own option list and pass it to
OptionParser; if you don’t use ‘add_option()’ in the above way, you
don’t need to tell OptionParser which option class to use:

     option_list = [MyOption("-c", action="store", type="complex", dest="c")]
     parser = OptionParser(option_list=option_list)


File: python.info,  Node: Adding new actions,  Prev: Adding new types,  Up: Extending optparse

5.18.2.42 Adding new actions
............................

Adding new actions is a bit trickier, because you have to understand
that ‘optparse’ has a couple of classifications for actions:

«store» actions

     actions that result in ‘optparse’ storing a value to an attribute
     of the current OptionValues instance; these options require a *note
     dest: 3648. attribute to be supplied to the Option constructor.

«typed» actions

     actions that take a value from the command line and expect it to be
     of a certain type; or rather, a string that can be converted to a
     certain type.  These options require a *note type: 3647. attribute
     to the Option constructor.

These are overlapping sets: some default «store» actions are ‘"store"’,
‘"store_const"’, ‘"append"’, and ‘"count"’, while the default «typed»
actions are ‘"store"’, ‘"append"’, and ‘"callback"’.

When you add an action, you need to categorize it by listing it in at
least one of the following class attributes of Option (all are lists of
strings):

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.ACTIONS

     All actions must be listed in ACTIONS.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.STORE_ACTIONS

     «store» actions are additionally listed here.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.TYPED_ACTIONS

     «typed» actions are additionally listed here.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS

     Actions that always take a type (i.e.  whose options always take a
     value) are additionally listed here.  The only effect of this is
     that ‘optparse’ assigns the default type, ‘"string"’, to options
     with no explicit type whose action is listed in *note
     ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS: 36aa.

In order to actually implement your new action, you must override
Option’s ‘take_action()’ method and add a case that recognizes your
action.

For example, let’s add an ‘"extend"’ action.  This is similar to the
standard ‘"append"’ action, but instead of taking a single value from
the command-line and appending it to an existing list, ‘"extend"’ will
take multiple values in a single comma-delimited string, and extend an
existing list with them.  That is, if ‘--names’ is an ‘"extend"’ option
of type ‘"string"’, the command line

     --names=foo,bar --names blah --names ding,dong

would result in a list

     ["foo", "bar", "blah", "ding", "dong"]

Again we define a subclass of Option:

     class MyOption(Option):

         ACTIONS = Option.ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         STORE_ACTIONS = Option.STORE_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)
         ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS = Option.ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS + ("extend",)

         def take_action(self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser):
             if action == "extend":
                 lvalue = value.split(",")
                 values.ensure_value(dest, []).extend(lvalue)
             else:
                 Option.take_action(
                     self, action, dest, opt, value, values, parser)

Features of note:

   * ‘"extend"’ both expects a value on the command-line and stores that
     value somewhere, so it goes in both *note STORE_ACTIONS: 36a8. and
     *note TYPED_ACTIONS: 36a9.

   * to ensure that ‘optparse’ assigns the default type of ‘"string"’ to
     ‘"extend"’ actions, we put the ‘"extend"’ action in *note
     ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS: 36aa. as well.

   * ‘MyOption.take_action()’ implements just this one new action, and
     passes control back to ‘Option.take_action()’ for the standard
     ‘optparse’ actions.

   * ‘values’ is an instance of the optparse_parser.Values class, which
     provides the very useful ‘ensure_value()’ method.  ‘ensure_value()’
     is essentially *note getattr(): f8f. with a safety valve; it is
     called as

          values.ensure_value(attr, value)

     If the ‘attr’ attribute of ‘values’ doesn’t exist or is ‘None’,
     then ensure_value() first sets it to ‘value’, and then returns
     ‘value’.  This is very handy for actions like ‘"extend"’,
     ‘"append"’, and ‘"count"’, all of which accumulate data in a
     variable and expect that variable to be of a certain type (a list
     for the first two, an integer for the latter).  Using
     ‘ensure_value()’ means that scripts using your action don’t have to
     worry about setting a default value for the option destinations in
     question; they can just leave the default as ‘None’ and
     ‘ensure_value()’ will take care of getting it right when it’s
     needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<11>,  Prev: Extending optparse,  Up: optparse — Parser for command line options

5.18.2.43 Exceptions
....................

 -- Εξαίρεση: optparse.OptionError

     Raised if an *note Option: 366e. instance is created with invalid
     or inconsistent arguments.

 -- Εξαίρεση: optparse.OptionConflictError

     Raised if conflicting options are added to an *note OptionParser:
     186f.

 -- Εξαίρεση: optparse.OptionValueError

     Raised if an invalid option value is encountered on the command
     line.

 -- Εξαίρεση: optparse.BadOptionError

     Raised if an invalid option is passed on the command line.

 -- Εξαίρεση: optparse.AmbiguousOptionError

     Raised if an ambiguous option is passed on the command line.


File: python.info,  Node: getpass — Portable password input,  Next: fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams,  Prev: optparse — Parser for command line options,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.18.3 ‘getpass’ — Portable password input
------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/getpass.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

The ‘getpass’ module provides two functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: getpass.getpass (prompt='Password: ', stream=None, *,
          echo_char=None)

     Prompt the user for a password without echoing.  The user is
     prompted using the string 'prompt', which defaults to ‘'Password:
     '’.  On Unix, the prompt is written to the file-like object
     'stream' using the replace error handler if needed.  'stream'
     defaults to the controlling terminal (‘/dev/tty’) or if that is
     unavailable to ‘sys.stderr’ (this argument is ignored on Windows).

     The 'echo_char' argument controls how user input is displayed while
     typing.  If 'echo_char' is ‘None’ (default), input remains hidden.
     Otherwise, 'echo_char' must be a single printable ASCII character
     and each typed character is replaced by it.  For example,
     ‘echo_char='*'’ will display asterisks instead of the actual input.

     If echo free input is unavailable getpass() falls back to printing
     a warning message to 'stream' and reading from ‘sys.stdin’ and
     issuing a *note GetPassWarning: 36b1.

          Σημείωση: If you call getpass from within IDLE, the input may
          be done in the terminal you launched IDLE from rather than the
          idle window itself.

          Σημείωση: On Unix systems, when 'echo_char' is set, the
          terminal will be configured to operate in ‘noncanonical
          mode(2)’.  Common terminal control characters are supported:

             * ‘Ctrl’+‘A’ - Move cursor to beginning of line

             * ‘Ctrl’+‘E’ - Move cursor to end of line

             * ‘Ctrl’+‘K’ - Kill (delete) from cursor to end of line

             * ‘Ctrl’+‘U’ - Kill (delete) entire line

             * ‘Ctrl’+‘W’ - Erase previous word

             * ‘Ctrl’+‘V’ - Insert next character literally (quote)

             * ‘Backspace’/‘DEL’ - Delete character before cursor

          These shortcuts work by reading the terminal’s configured
          control character mappings from termios settings.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added the 'echo_char' parameter for
     keyboard feedback.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: When using non-empty 'echo_char' on Unix,
     keyboard shortcuts (including cursor movement and line editing) are
     now properly handled using the terminal’s control character
     configuration.

 -- Εξαίρεση: getpass.GetPassWarning

     A *note UserWarning: 290f. subclass issued when password input may
     be echoed.

 -- Συνάρτηση: getpass.getuser ()

     Return the «login name» of the user.

     This function checks the environment variables ‘LOGNAME’, ‘USER’,
     ‘LNAME’ and ‘USERNAME’, in order, and returns the value of the
     first one which is set to a non-empty string.  If none are set, the
     login name from the password database is returned on systems which
     support the *note pwd: ba. module, otherwise, an *note OSError:
     53c. is raised.

     In general, this function should be preferred over *note
     os.getlogin(): 19f4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Previously, various exceptions beyond just
     *note OSError: 53c. were raised.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/getpass.py

   (2) 
https://manpages.debian.org/termios(3)#Canonical_and_noncanonical_mode


File: python.info,  Node: fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams,  Next: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays,  Prev: getpass — Portable password input,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.18.4 ‘fileinput’ — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
-------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/fileinput.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module implements a helper class and functions to quickly write a
loop over standard input or a list of files.  If you just want to read
or write one file see *note open(): 32b.

The typical use is:

     import fileinput
     for line in fileinput.input(encoding="utf-8"):
         process(line)

This iterates over the lines of all files listed in ‘sys.argv[1:]’,
defaulting to ‘sys.stdin’ if the list is empty.  If a filename is ‘'-'’,
it is also replaced by ‘sys.stdin’ and the optional arguments 'mode' and
'openhook' are ignored.  To specify an alternative list of filenames,
pass it as the first argument to *note input(): bd9.  A single file name
is also allowed.

All files are opened in text mode by default, but you can override this
by specifying the 'mode' parameter in the call to *note input(): bd9. or
*note FileInput: b1e.  If an I/O error occurs during opening or reading
a file, *note OSError: 53c. is raised.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: *note IOError: 13fb. used to be raised; it is
now an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

If ‘sys.stdin’ is used more than once, the second and further use will
return no lines, except perhaps for interactive use, or if it has been
explicitly reset (e.g.  using ‘sys.stdin.seek(0)’).

Empty files are opened and immediately closed; the only time their
presence in the list of filenames is noticeable at all is when the last
file opened is empty.

Lines are returned with any newlines intact, which means that the last
line in a file may not have one.

You can control how files are opened by providing an opening hook via
the 'openhook' parameter to *note fileinput.input(): bd9. or *note
FileInput(): b1e.  The hook must be a function that takes two arguments,
'filename' and 'mode', and returns an accordingly opened file-like
object.  If 'encoding' and/or 'errors' are specified, they will be
passed to the hook as additional keyword arguments.  This module
provides a *note hook_compressed(): bda. to support compressed files.

The following function is the primary interface of this module:

 -- Συνάρτηση: fileinput.input (files=None, inplace=False, backup='', *,
          mode='r', openhook=None, encoding=None, errors=None)

     Create an instance of the *note FileInput: b1e. class.  The
     instance will be used as global state for the functions of this
     module, and is also returned to use during iteration.  The
     parameters to this function will be passed along to the constructor
     of the ‘FileInput’ class.

     The *note FileInput: b1e. instance can be used as a context manager
     in the *note with: 20a. statement.  In this example, 'input' is
     closed after the ‘with’ statement is exited, even if an exception
     occurs:

          with fileinput.input(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt'), encoding="utf-8") as f:
              for line in f:
                  process(line)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Can be used as a context manager.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The keyword parameters 'mode' and
     'openhook' are now keyword-only.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The keyword-only parameter 'encoding' and
     'errors' are added.

The following functions use the global state created by *note
fileinput.input(): bd9.; if there is no active state, *note
RuntimeError: 30d. is raised.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fileinput.filename ()

     Return the name of the file currently being read.  Before the first
     line has been read, returns ‘None’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fileinput.fileno ()

     Return the integer «file descriptor» for the current file.  When no
     file is opened (before the first line and between files), returns
     ‘-1’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fileinput.lineno ()

     Return the cumulative line number of the line that has just been
     read.  Before the first line has been read, returns ‘0’.  After the
     last line of the last file has been read, returns the line number
     of that line.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fileinput.filelineno ()

     Return the line number in the current file.  Before the first line
     has been read, returns ‘0’.  After the last line of the last file
     has been read, returns the line number of that line within the
     file.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fileinput.isfirstline ()

     Return ‘True’ if the line just read is the first line of its file,
     otherwise return ‘False’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fileinput.isstdin ()

     Return ‘True’ if the last line was read from ‘sys.stdin’, otherwise
     return ‘False’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fileinput.nextfile ()

     Close the current file so that the next iteration will read the
     first line from the next file (if any); lines not read from the
     file will not count towards the cumulative line count.  The
     filename is not changed until after the first line of the next file
     has been read.  Before the first line has been read, this function
     has no effect; it cannot be used to skip the first file.  After the
     last line of the last file has been read, this function has no
     effect.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fileinput.close ()

     Close the sequence.

The class which implements the sequence behavior provided by the module
is available for subclassing as well:

 -- Κλάση: fileinput.FileInput (files=None, inplace=False, backup='', *,
          mode='r', openhook=None, encoding=None, errors=None)

     Class ‘FileInput’ is the implementation; its methods *note
     filename(): 36b5, *note fileno(): 17d0, *note lineno(): 36b6, *note
     filelineno(): 36b7, *note isfirstline(): 36b8, *note isstdin():
     36b9, *note nextfile(): 36ba. and *note close(): 36bb. correspond
     to the functions of the same name in the module.  In addition it is
     *note iterable: 15ce. and has a *note readline(): 2296. method
     which returns the next input line.  The sequence must be accessed
     in strictly sequential order; random access and ‘readline()’ cannot
     be mixed.

     With 'mode' you can specify which file mode will be passed to *note
     open(): 32b.  It must be one of ‘'r'’ and ‘'rb'’.

     The 'openhook', when given, must be a function that takes two
     arguments, 'filename' and 'mode', and returns an accordingly opened
     file-like object.  You cannot use 'inplace' and 'openhook'
     together.

     You can specify 'encoding' and 'errors' that is passed to *note
     open(): 32b. or 'openhook'.

     A ‘FileInput’ instance can be used as a context manager in the
     *note with: 20a. statement.  In this example, 'input' is closed
     after the ‘with’ statement is exited, even if an exception occurs:

          with FileInput(files=('spam.txt', 'eggs.txt')) as input:
              process(input)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Can be used as a context manager.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The keyword parameter 'mode' and 'openhook'
     are now keyword-only.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The keyword-only parameter 'encoding' and
     'errors' are added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The ‘'rU'’ and ‘'U'’ modes and the
     ‘__getitem__()’ method have been removed.

'Optional in-place filtering:' if the keyword argument ‘inplace=True’ is
passed to *note fileinput.input(): bd9. or to the *note FileInput: b1e.
constructor, the file is moved to a backup file and standard output is
directed to the input file (if a file of the same name as the backup
file already exists, it will be replaced silently).  This makes it
possible to write a filter that rewrites its input file in place.  If
the 'backup' parameter is given (typically as ‘backup='.<some
extension>'’), it specifies the extension for the backup file, and the
backup file remains around; by default, the extension is ‘'.bak'’ and it
is deleted when the output file is closed.  In-place filtering is
disabled when standard input is read.

The two following opening hooks are provided by this module:

 -- Συνάρτηση: fileinput.hook_compressed (filename, mode, *,
          encoding=None, errors=None)

     Transparently opens files compressed with gzip and bzip2
     (recognized by the extensions ‘'.gz'’ and ‘'.bz2'’) using the *note
     gzip: 6a. and *note bz2: 14. modules.  If the filename extension is
     not ‘'.gz'’ or ‘'.bz2'’, the file is opened normally (ie, using
     *note open(): 32b. without any decompression).

     The 'encoding' and 'errors' values are passed to *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. for compressed files and open for normal
     files.

     Usage example: ‘fi =
     fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_compressed,
     encoding="utf-8")’

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The keyword-only parameter 'encoding' and
     'errors' are added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fileinput.hook_encoded (encoding, errors=None)

     Returns a hook which opens each file with *note open(): 32b, using
     the given 'encoding' and 'errors' to read the file.

     Usage example: ‘fi =
     fileinput.FileInput(openhook=fileinput.hook_encoded("utf-8",
     "surrogateescape"))’

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the optional 'errors' parameter.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: This function is deprecated since
     *note fileinput.input(): bd9. and *note FileInput: b1e. now have
     'encoding' and 'errors' parameters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/fileinput.py


File: python.info,  Node: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays,  Next: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs,  Prev: fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.18.5 ‘curses’ — Terminal handling for character-cell displays
---------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/curses(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘curses’ module provides an interface to the curses library, the
de-facto standard for portable advanced terminal handling.

While curses is most widely used in the Unix environment, versions are
available for Windows, DOS, and possibly other systems as well.  This
extension module is designed to match the API of ncurses, an open-source
curses library hosted on Linux and the BSD variants of Unix.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 244d. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67.

This is an *note optional module: 2347.  If it is missing from your copy
of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is,
whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Σημείωση: Whenever the documentation mentions a 'character' it can
     be specified as an integer, a one-character Unicode string or a
     one-byte byte string.

     Whenever the documentation mentions a 'character string' it can be
     specified as a Unicode string or a byte string.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note curses.ascii: 2f.

     Utilities for working with ASCII characters, regardless of your
     locale settings.

Module *note curses.panel: 30.

     A panel stack extension that adds depth to curses windows.

Module *note curses.textpad: 31.

     Editable text widget for curses supporting ‘Emacs’-like bindings.

*note Curses Programming with Python: 36bf.

     Tutorial material on using curses with Python, by Andrew Kuchling
     and Eric Raymond.

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<4>.
* Window Objects::
* Constants: Constants<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/curses


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<4>,  Next: Window Objects,  Up: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays

5.18.5.1 Functions
..................

The module ‘curses’ defines the following exception:

 -- Εξαίρεση: curses.error

     Exception raised when a curses library function returns an error.

     Σημείωση: Whenever 'x' or 'y' arguments to a function or a method
     are optional, they default to the current cursor location.
     Whenever 'attr' is optional, it defaults to *note A_NORMAL: 36c2.

The module ‘curses’ defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.assume_default_colors (fg, bg, /)

     Allow use of default values for colors on terminals supporting this
     feature.  Use this to support transparency in your application.

        * Assign terminal default foreground/background colors to color
          number ‘-1’.  So ‘init_pair(x, COLOR_RED, -1)’ will initialize
          pair 'x' as red on default background and ‘init_pair(x, -1,
          COLOR_BLUE)’ will initialize pair 'x' as default foreground on
          blue.

        * Change the definition of the color-pair ‘0’ to ‘(fg, bg)’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.baudrate ()

     Return the output speed of the terminal in bits per second.  On
     software terminal emulators it will have a fixed high value.
     Included for historical reasons; in former times, it was used to
     write output loops for time delays and occasionally to change
     interfaces depending on the line speed.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.beep ()

     Emit a short attention sound.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.can_change_color ()

     Return ‘True’ or ‘False’, depending on whether the programmer can
     change the colors displayed by the terminal.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.cbreak ()

     Enter cbreak mode.  In cbreak mode (sometimes called «rare» mode)
     normal tty line buffering is turned off and characters are
     available to be read one by one.  However, unlike raw mode, special
     characters (interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow control) retain
     their effects on the tty driver and calling program.  Calling first
     *note raw(): 1a1d. then ‘cbreak()’ leaves the terminal in cbreak
     mode.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.color_content (color_number)

     Return the intensity of the red, green, and blue (RGB) components
     in the color 'color_number', which must be between ‘0’ and ‘COLORS
     - 1’.  Return a 3-tuple, containing the R,G,B values for the given
     color, which will be between ‘0’ (no component) and ‘1000’ (maximum
     amount of component).

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.color_pair (pair_number)

     Return the attribute value for displaying text in the specified
     color pair.  Only the first 256 color pairs are supported.  This
     attribute value can be combined with *note A_STANDOUT: 36c6, *note
     A_REVERSE: 36c7, and the other ‘A_*’ attributes.  *note
     pair_number(): 36c8. is the counterpart to this function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.curs_set (visibility)

     Set the cursor state.  'visibility' can be set to ‘0’, ‘1’, or ‘2’,
     for invisible, normal, or very visible.  If the terminal supports
     the visibility requested, return the previous cursor state;
     otherwise raise an exception.  On many terminals, the «visible»
     mode is an underline cursor and the «very visible» mode is a block
     cursor.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.def_prog_mode ()

     Save the current terminal mode as the «program» mode, the mode when
     the running program is using curses.  (Its counterpart is the
     «shell» mode, for when the program is not in curses.)  Subsequent
     calls to *note reset_prog_mode(): 36cb. will restore this mode.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.def_shell_mode ()

     Save the current terminal mode as the «shell» mode, the mode when
     the running program is not using curses.  (Its counterpart is the
     «program» mode, when the program is using curses capabilities.)
     Subsequent calls to *note reset_shell_mode(): 36cd. will restore
     this mode.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.delay_output (ms)

     Insert an 'ms' millisecond pause in output.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.doupdate ()

     Update the physical screen.  The curses library keeps two data
     structures, one representing the current physical screen contents
     and a virtual screen representing the desired next state.  The
     ‘doupdate()’ ground updates the physical screen to match the
     virtual screen.

     The virtual screen may be updated by a *note noutrefresh(): 1a22.
     call after write operations such as *note addstr(): 1a27. have been
     performed on a window.  The normal *note refresh(): 1a21. call is
     simply ‘noutrefresh()’ followed by ‘doupdate()’; if you have to
     update multiple windows, you can speed performance and perhaps
     reduce screen flicker by issuing ‘noutrefresh()’ calls on all
     windows, followed by a single ‘doupdate()’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.echo ()

     Enter echo mode.  In echo mode, each character input is echoed to
     the screen as it is entered.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.endwin ()

     De-initialize the library, and return terminal to normal status.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.erasechar ()

     Return the user’s current erase character as a one-byte bytes
     object.  Under Unix operating systems this is a property of the
     controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set by the curses
     library itself.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.filter ()

     The ‘filter()’ routine, if used, must be called before *note
     initscr(): 1a1b. is called.  The effect is that, during those
     calls, ‘LINES’ is set to ‘1’; the capabilities ‘clear’, ‘cup’,
     ‘cud’, ‘cud1’, ‘cuu1’, ‘cuu’, ‘vpa’ are disabled; and the ‘home’
     string is set to the value of ‘cr’.  The effect is that the cursor
     is confined to the current line, and so are screen updates.  This
     may be used for enabling character-at-a-time line editing without
     touching the rest of the screen.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.flash ()

     Flash the screen.  That is, change it to reverse-video and then
     change it back in a short interval.  Some people prefer such as
     “visible bell” to the audible attention signal produced by *note
     beep(): 36c3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.flushinp ()

     Flush all input buffers.  This throws away any typeahead that has
     been typed by the user and has not yet been processed by the
     program.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.getmouse ()

     After *note getch(): 1a30. returns *note KEY_MOUSE: 36d6. to signal
     a mouse event, this method should be called to retrieve the queued
     mouse event, represented as a 5-tuple ‘(id, x, y, z, bstate)’.
     'id' is an ID value used to distinguish multiple devices, and 'x',
     'y', 'z' are the event’s coordinates.  ('z' is currently unused.)
     'bstate' is an integer value whose bits will be set to indicate the
     type of event, and will be the bitwise OR of one or more of the
     following constants, where 'n' is the button number from 1 to 5:
     *note BUTTONn_PRESSED: 36d7, *note BUTTONn_RELEASED: 36d8, *note
     BUTTONn_CLICKED: 36d9, *note BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED: 36da, *note
     BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED: 36db, *note BUTTON_SHIFT: 36dc, *note
     BUTTON_CTRL: 36dd, *note BUTTON_ALT: 36de.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed
     if they are provided by the underlying curses library.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.getsyx ()

     Return the current coordinates of the virtual screen cursor as a
     tuple ‘(y, x)’.  If *note leaveok: 36e0. is currently ‘True’, then
     return ‘(-1, -1)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.getwin (file)

     Read window related data stored in the file by an earlier *note
     window.putwin(): 36e2. call.  The routine then creates and
     initializes a new window using that data, returning the new window
     object.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.has_colors ()

     Return ‘True’ if the terminal can display colors; otherwise, return
     ‘False’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.has_extended_color_support ()

     Return ‘True’ if the module supports extended colors; otherwise,
     return ‘False’.  Extended color support allows more than 256 color
     pairs for terminals that support more than 16 colors (e.g.
     xterm-256color).

     Extended color support requires ncurses version 6.1 or later.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.has_ic ()

     Return ‘True’ if the terminal has insert- and delete-character
     capabilities.  This function is included for historical reasons
     only, as all modern software terminal emulators have such
     capabilities.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.has_il ()

     Return ‘True’ if the terminal has insert- and delete-line
     capabilities, or can simulate them using scrolling regions.  This
     function is included for historical reasons only, as all modern
     software terminal emulators have such capabilities.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.has_key (ch)

     Take a key value 'ch', and return ‘True’ if the current terminal
     type recognizes a key with that value.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.halfdelay (tenths)

     Used for half-delay mode, which is similar to cbreak mode in that
     characters typed by the user are immediately available to the
     program.  However, after blocking for 'tenths' tenths of seconds,
     raise an exception if nothing has been typed.  The value of
     'tenths' must be a number between ‘1’ and ‘255’.  Use *note
     nocbreak(): 36e8. to leave half-delay mode.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.init_color (color_number, r, g, b)

     Change the definition of a color, taking the number of the color to
     be changed followed by three RGB values (for the amounts of red,
     green, and blue components).  The value of 'color_number' must be
     between ‘0’ and ‘COLORS - 1’.  Each of 'r', 'g', 'b', must be a
     value between ‘0’ and ‘1000’.  When ‘init_color()’ is used, all
     occurrences of that color on the screen immediately change to the
     new definition.  This function is a no-op on most terminals; it is
     active only if *note can_change_color(): 36c4. returns ‘True’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.init_pair (pair_number, fg, bg)

     Change the definition of a color-pair.  It takes three arguments:
     the number of the color-pair to be changed, the foreground color
     number, and the background color number.  The value of
     'pair_number' must be between ‘1’ and ‘COLOR_PAIRS - 1’ (the ‘0’
     color pair can only be changed by *note use_default_colors(): 48a.
     and *note assume_default_colors(): 489.).  The value of 'fg' and
     'bg' arguments must be between ‘0’ and ‘COLORS - 1’, or, after
     calling ‘use_default_colors()’ or ‘assume_default_colors()’, ‘-1’.
     If the color-pair was previously initialized, the screen is
     refreshed and all occurrences of that color-pair are changed to the
     new definition.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.initscr ()

     Initialize the library.  Return a *note window: 1a24. object which
     represents the whole screen.

          Σημείωση: If there is an error opening the terminal, the
          underlying curses library may cause the interpreter to exit.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.is_term_resized (nlines, ncols)

     Return ‘True’ if *note resize_term(): 1b4b. would modify the window
     structure, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.isendwin ()

     Return ‘True’ if *note endwin(): 36d0. has been called (that is,
     the curses library has been deinitialized).

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.keyname (k)

     Return the name of the key numbered 'k' as a bytes object.  The
     name of a key generating printable ASCII character is the key’s
     character.  The name of a control-key combination is a two-byte
     bytes object consisting of a caret (‘b'^'’) followed by the
     corresponding printable ASCII character.  The name of an alt-key
     combination (128–255) is a bytes object consisting of the prefix
     ‘b'M-'’ followed by the name of the corresponding ASCII character.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.killchar ()

     Return the user’s current line kill character as a one-byte bytes
     object.  Under Unix operating systems this is a property of the
     controlling tty of the curses program, and is not set by the curses
     library itself.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.longname ()

     Return a bytes object containing the terminfo long name field
     describing the current terminal.  The maximum length of a verbose
     description is 128 characters.  It is defined only after the call
     to *note initscr(): 1a1b.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.meta (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, allow 8-bit characters to be input.  If 'flag'
     is ‘False’, allow only 7-bit chars.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.mouseinterval (interval)

     Set the maximum time in milliseconds that can elapse between press
     and release events in order for them to be recognized as a click,
     and return the previous interval value.  The default value is 200
     milliseconds, or one fifth of a second.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.mousemask (mousemask)

     Set the mouse events to be reported, and return a tuple
     ‘(availmask, oldmask)’.  'availmask' indicates which of the
     specified mouse events can be reported; on complete failure it
     returns ‘0’.  'oldmask' is the previous value of the given window’s
     mouse event mask.  If this function is never called, no mouse
     events are ever reported.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.napms (ms)

     Sleep for 'ms' milliseconds.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.newpad (nlines, ncols)

     Create and return a pointer to a new pad data structure with the
     given number of lines and columns.  Return a pad as a window
     object.

     A pad is like a window, except that it is not restricted by the
     screen size, and is not necessarily associated with a particular
     part of the screen.  Pads can be used when a large window is
     needed, and only a part of the window will be on the screen at one
     time.  Automatic refreshes of pads (such as from scrolling or
     echoing of input) do not occur.  The *note refresh(): 1a21. and
     *note noutrefresh(): 1a22. methods of a pad require 6 arguments to
     specify the part of the pad to be displayed and the location on the
     screen to be used for the display.  The arguments are 'pminrow',
     'pmincol', 'sminrow', 'smincol', 'smaxrow', 'smaxcol'; the 'p'
     arguments refer to the upper left corner of the pad region to be
     displayed and the 's' arguments define a clipping box on the screen
     within which the pad region is to be displayed.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.newwin (nlines, ncols)

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.newwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     Return a new *note window: 1a24, whose left-upper corner is at
     ‘(begin_y, begin_x)’, and whose height/width is 'nlines'/'ncols'.

     By default, the window will extend from the specified position to
     the lower right corner of the screen.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.nl ()

     Enter newline mode.  This mode translates the return key into
     newline on input, and translates newline into return and line-feed
     on output.  Newline mode is initially on.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.nocbreak ()

     Leave cbreak mode.  Return to normal «cooked» mode with line
     buffering.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.noecho ()

     Leave echo mode.  Echoing of input characters is turned off.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.nonl ()

     Leave newline mode.  Disable translation of return into newline on
     input, and disable low-level translation of newline into
     newline/return on output (but this does not change the behavior of
     ‘addch('\n')’, which always does the equivalent of return and line
     feed on the virtual screen).  With translation off, curses can
     sometimes speed up vertical motion a little; also, it will be able
     to detect the return key on input.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.noqiflush ()

     When the ‘noqiflush()’ routine is used, normal flush of input and
     output queues associated with the ‘INTR’, ‘QUIT’ and ‘SUSP’
     characters will not be done.  You may want to call ‘noqiflush()’ in
     a signal handler if you want output to continue as though the
     interrupt had not occurred, after the handler exits.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.noraw ()

     Leave raw mode.  Return to normal «cooked» mode with line
     buffering.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.pair_content (pair_number)

     Return a tuple ‘(fg, bg)’ containing the colors for the requested
     color pair.  The value of 'pair_number' must be between ‘0’ and
     ‘COLOR_PAIRS - 1’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.pair_number (attr)

     Return the number of the color-pair set by the attribute value
     'attr'.  *note color_pair(): 36c5. is the counterpart to this
     function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.putp (str)

     Equivalent to ‘tputs(str, 1, putchar)’; emit the value of a
     specified terminfo capability for the current terminal.  Note that
     the output of ‘putp()’ always goes to standard output.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.qiflush ([flag])

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, the effect is the same as calling *note
     noqiflush(): 36f4.  If 'flag' is ‘True’, or no argument is
     provided, the queues will be flushed when these control characters
     are read.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.raw ()

     Enter raw mode.  In raw mode, normal line buffering and processing
     of interrupt, quit, suspend, and flow control keys are turned off;
     characters are presented to curses input functions one by one.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.reset_prog_mode ()

     Restore the terminal to «program» mode, as previously saved by
     *note def_prog_mode(): 36ca.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.reset_shell_mode ()

     Restore the terminal to «shell» mode, as previously saved by *note
     def_shell_mode(): 36cc.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.resetty ()

     Restore the state of the terminal modes to what it was at the last
     call to *note savetty(): 36f9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.resize_term (nlines, ncols)

     Backend function used by *note resizeterm(): 1b4a, performing most
     of the work; when resizing the windows, ‘resize_term()’ blank-fills
     the areas that are extended.  The calling application should fill
     in these areas with appropriate data.  The ‘resize_term()’ function
     attempts to resize all windows.  However, due to the calling
     convention of pads, it is not possible to resize these without
     additional interaction with the application.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.resizeterm (nlines, ncols)

     Resize the standard and current windows to the specified
     dimensions, and adjusts other bookkeeping data used by the curses
     library that record the window dimensions (in particular the
     SIGWINCH handler).

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.savetty ()

     Save the current state of the terminal modes in a buffer, usable by
     *note resetty(): 36f8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.get_escdelay ()

     Retrieves the value set by *note set_escdelay(): cc1.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.set_escdelay (ms)

     Sets the number of milliseconds to wait after reading an escape
     character, to distinguish between an individual escape character
     entered on the keyboard from escape sequences sent by cursor and
     function keys.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.get_tabsize ()

     Retrieves the value set by *note set_tabsize(): cc3.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.set_tabsize (size)

     Sets the number of columns used by the curses library when
     converting a tab character to spaces as it adds the tab to a
     window.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.setsyx (y, x)

     Set the virtual screen cursor to 'y', 'x'.  If 'y' and 'x' are both
     ‘-1’, then *note leaveok: 36e0. is set ‘True’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.setupterm (term=None, fd=-1)

     Initialize the terminal.  'term' is a string giving the terminal
     name, or ‘None’; if omitted or ‘None’, the value of the ‘TERM’
     environment variable will be used.  'fd' is the file descriptor to
     which any initialization sequences will be sent; if not supplied or
     ‘-1’, the file descriptor for ‘sys.stdout’ will be used.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.start_color ()

     Must be called if the programmer wants to use colors, and before
     any other color manipulation routine is called.  It is good
     practice to call this routine right after *note initscr(): 1a1b.

     ‘start_color()’ initializes eight basic colors (black, red, green,
     yellow, blue, magenta, cyan, and white), and two global variables
     in the ‘curses’ module, *note COLORS: 36fd. and *note COLOR_PAIRS:
     36fe, containing the maximum number of colors and color-pairs the
     terminal can support.  It also restores the colors on the terminal
     to the values they had when the terminal was just turned on.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.termattrs ()

     Return a logical OR of all video attributes supported by the
     terminal.  This information is useful when a curses program needs
     complete control over the appearance of the screen.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.termname ()

     Return the value of the environment variable ‘TERM’, as a bytes
     object, truncated to 14 characters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.tigetflag (capname)

     Return the value of the Boolean capability corresponding to the
     terminfo capability name 'capname' as an integer.  Return the value
     ‘-1’ if 'capname' is not a Boolean capability, or ‘0’ if it is
     canceled or absent from the terminal description.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.tigetnum (capname)

     Return the value of the numeric capability corresponding to the
     terminfo capability name 'capname' as an integer.  Return the value
     ‘-2’ if 'capname' is not a numeric capability, or ‘-1’ if it is
     canceled or absent from the terminal description.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.tigetstr (capname)

     Return the value of the string capability corresponding to the
     terminfo capability name 'capname' as a bytes object.  Return
     ‘None’ if 'capname' is not a terminfo «string capability», or is
     canceled or absent from the terminal description.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.tparm (str[, ...])

     Instantiate the bytes object 'str' with the supplied parameters,
     where 'str' should be a parameterized string obtained from the
     terminfo database.  E.g.  ‘tparm(tigetstr("cup"), 5, 3)’ could
     result in ‘b'\033[6;4H'’, the exact result depending on terminal
     type.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.typeahead (fd)

     Specify that the file descriptor 'fd' be used for typeahead
     checking.  If 'fd' is ‘-1’, then no typeahead checking is done.

     The curses library does «line-breakout optimization» by looking for
     typeahead periodically while updating the screen.  If input is
     found, and it is coming from a tty, the current update is postponed
     until refresh or doupdate is called again, allowing faster response
     to commands typed in advance.  This function allows specifying a
     different file descriptor for typeahead checking.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.unctrl (ch)

     Return a bytes object which is a printable representation of the
     character 'ch'.  Control characters are represented as a caret
     followed by the character, for example as ‘b'^C'’.  Printing
     characters are left as they are.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ungetch (ch)

     Push 'ch' so the next *note getch(): 1a30. will return it.

          Σημείωση: Only one 'ch' can be pushed before ‘getch()’ is
          called.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.update_lines_cols ()

     Update the *note LINES: 11a4. and *note COLS: 11a5. module
     variables.  Useful for detecting manual screen resize.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.unget_wch (ch)

     Push 'ch' so the next *note get_wch(): 1444. will return it.

          Σημείωση: Only one 'ch' can be pushed before ‘get_wch()’ is
          called.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ungetmouse (id, x, y, z, bstate)

     Push a *note KEY_MOUSE: 36d6. event onto the input queue,
     associating the given state data with it.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.use_env (flag)

     If used, this function should be called before *note initscr():
     1a1b. or newterm are called.  When 'flag' is ‘False’, the values of
     lines and columns specified in the terminfo database will be used,
     even if environment variables ‘LINES’ and ‘COLUMNS’ (used by
     default) are set, or if curses is running in a window (in which
     case default behavior would be to use the window size if ‘LINES’
     and ‘COLUMNS’ are not set).

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.use_default_colors ()

     Equivalent to ‘assume_default_colors(-1, -1)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.wrapper (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Initialize curses and call another callable object, 'func', which
     should be the rest of your curses-using application.  If the
     application raises an exception, this function will restore the
     terminal to a sane state before re-raising the exception and
     generating a traceback.  The callable object 'func' is then passed
     the main window “stdscr” as its first argument, followed by any
     other arguments passed to ‘wrapper()’.  Before calling 'func',
     ‘wrapper()’ turns on cbreak mode, turns off echo, enables the
     terminal keypad, and initializes colors if the terminal has color
     support.  On exit (whether normally or by exception) it restores
     cooked mode, turns on echo, and disables the terminal keypad.


File: python.info,  Node: Window Objects,  Next: Constants<6>,  Prev: Functions<4>,  Up: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays

5.18.5.2 Window Objects
.......................

 -- Κλάση: curses.window

     Window objects, as returned by *note initscr(): 1a1b. and *note
     newwin(): 36f1. above, have the following methods and attributes:

 -- Μέθοδος: window.addch (ch[, attr])

 -- Μέθοδος: window.addch (y, x, ch[, attr])

     Paint character 'ch' at ‘(y, x)’ with attributes 'attr',
     overwriting any character previously painted at that location.  By
     default, the character position and attributes are the current
     settings for the window object.

          Σημείωση: Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises
          a *note curses.error: 1a16.  Attempting to write to the lower
          right corner of a window, subwindow, or pad will cause an
          exception to be raised after the character is printed.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.addnstr (str, n[, attr])

 -- Μέθοδος: window.addnstr (y, x, str, n[, attr])

     Paint at most 'n' characters of the character string 'str' at ‘(y,
     x)’ with attributes 'attr', overwriting anything previously on the
     display.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.addstr (str[, attr])

 -- Μέθοδος: window.addstr (y, x, str[, attr])

     Paint the character string 'str' at ‘(y, x)’ with attributes
     'attr', overwriting anything previously on the display.

          Σημείωση: 
             * Writing outside the window, subwindow, or pad raises
               *note curses.error: 1a16.  Attempting to write to the
               lower right corner of a window, subwindow, or pad will
               cause an exception to be raised after the string is
               printed.

             * A bug in ncurses(1), the backend for this Python module,
               can cause SegFaults when resizing windows.  This is fixed
               in ncurses-6.1-20190511.  If you are stuck with an
               earlier ncurses, you can avoid triggering this if you do
               not call *note addstr(): 1a27. with a 'str' that has
               embedded newlines.  Instead, call ‘addstr()’ separately
               for each line.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.attroff (attr)

     Remove attribute 'attr' from the «background» set applied to all
     writes to the current window.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.attron (attr)

     Add attribute 'attr' to the «background» set applied to all writes
     to the current window.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.attrset (attr)

     Set the «background» set of attributes to 'attr'.  This set is
     initially ‘0’ (no attributes).

 -- Μέθοδος: window.bkgd (ch[, attr])

     Set the background property of the window to the character 'ch',
     with attributes 'attr'.  The change is then applied to every
     character position in that window:

        * The attribute of every character in the window is changed to
          the new background attribute.

        * Wherever the former background character appears, it is
          changed to the new background character.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.bkgdset (ch[, attr])

     Set the window’s background.  A window’s background consists of a
     character and any combination of attributes.  The attribute part of
     the background is combined (OR’ed) with all non-blank characters
     that are written into the window.  Both the character and attribute
     parts of the background are combined with the blank characters.
     The background becomes a property of the character and moves with
     the character through any scrolling and insert/delete
     line/character operations.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.border ([ls[, rs[, ts[, bs[, tl[, tr[, bl[,
          br]]]]]]]])

     Draw a border around the edges of the window.  Each parameter
     specifies the character to use for a specific part of the border;
     see the table below for more details.

          Σημείωση: A ‘0’ value for any parameter will cause the default
          character to be used for that parameter.  Keyword parameters
          can 'not' be used.  The defaults are listed in this table:

     Parameter       Description               Default value
                                               
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                               
     'ls'            Left side                 *note ACS_VLINE: 370d.
                                               
                                               
     'rs'            Right side                *note ACS_VLINE: 370d.
                                               
                                               
     'ts'            Top                       *note ACS_HLINE: 370e.
                                               
                                               
     'bs'            Bottom                    *note ACS_HLINE: 370e.
                                               
                                               
     'tl'            Upper-left corner         *note ACS_ULCORNER: 370f.
                                               
                                               
     'tr'            Upper-right corner        *note ACS_URCORNER: 3710.
                                               
                                               
     'bl'            Bottom-left corner        *note ACS_LLCORNER: 3711.
                                               
                                               
     'br'            Bottom-right corner       *note ACS_LRCORNER: 3712.
                                               

 -- Μέθοδος: window.box ([vertch, horch])

     Similar to *note border(): 1a28, but both 'ls' and 'rs' are
     'vertch' and both 'ts' and 'bs' are 'horch'.  The default corner
     characters are always used by this function.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.chgat (attr)

 -- Μέθοδος: window.chgat (num, attr)

 -- Μέθοδος: window.chgat (y, x, attr)

 -- Μέθοδος: window.chgat (y, x, num, attr)

     Set the attributes of 'num' characters at the current cursor
     position, or at position ‘(y, x)’ if supplied.  If 'num' is not
     given or is ‘-1’, the attribute will be set on all the characters
     to the end of the line.  This function moves cursor to position
     ‘(y, x)’ if supplied.  The changed line will be touched using the
     *note touchline(): 3713. method so that the contents will be
     redisplayed by the next window refresh.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.clear ()

     Like *note erase(): 3715, but also cause the whole window to be
     repainted upon next call to *note refresh(): 1a21.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.clearok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, the next call to *note refresh(): 1a21. will
     clear the window completely.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.clrtobot ()

     Erase from cursor to the end of the window: all lines below the
     cursor are deleted, and then the equivalent of *note clrtoeol():
     3718. is performed.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.clrtoeol ()

     Erase from cursor to the end of the line.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.cursyncup ()

     Update the current cursor position of all the ancestors of the
     window to reflect the current cursor position of the window.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.delch ([y, x])

     Delete any character at ‘(y, x)’.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.deleteln ()

     Delete the line under the cursor.  All following lines are moved up
     by one line.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.derwin (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- Μέθοδος: window.derwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     An abbreviation for «derive window», ‘derwin()’ is the same as
     calling *note subwin(): 371d, except that 'begin_y' and 'begin_x'
     are relative to the origin of the window, rather than relative to
     the entire screen.  Return a window object for the derived window.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.echochar (ch[, attr])

     Add character 'ch' with attribute 'attr', and immediately call
     *note refresh(): 1a21. on the window.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.enclose (y, x)

     Test whether the given pair of screen-relative character-cell
     coordinates are enclosed by the given window, returning ‘True’ or
     ‘False’.  It is useful for determining what subset of the screen
     windows enclose the location of a mouse event.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Previously it returned ‘1’ or ‘0’ instead
     of ‘True’ or ‘False’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: window.encoding

     Encoding used to encode method arguments (Unicode strings and
     characters).  The encoding attribute is inherited from the parent
     window when a subwindow is created, for example with *note
     window.subwin(): 371d.  By default, current locale encoding is used
     (see *note locale.getencoding(): a45.).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.erase ()

     Clear the window.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.getbegyx ()

     Return a tuple ‘(y, x)’ of coordinates of upper-left corner.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.getbkgd ()

     Return the given window’s current background character/attribute
     pair.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.getch ([y, x])

     Get a character.  Note that the integer returned does 'not' have to
     be in ASCII range: function keys, keypad keys and so on are
     represented by numbers higher than 255.  In no-delay mode, return
     ‘-1’ if there is no input, otherwise wait until a key is pressed.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.get_wch ([y, x])

     Get a wide character.  Return a character for most keys, or an
     integer for function keys, keypad keys, and other special keys.  In
     no-delay mode, raise an exception if there is no input.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.getkey ([y, x])

     Get a character, returning a string instead of an integer, as *note
     getch(): 1a30. does.  Function keys, keypad keys and other special
     keys return a multibyte string containing the key name.  In
     no-delay mode, raise an exception if there is no input.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.getmaxyx ()

     Return a tuple ‘(y, x)’ of the height and width of the window.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.getparyx ()

     Return the beginning coordinates of this window relative to its
     parent window as a tuple ‘(y, x)’.  Return ‘(-1, -1)’ if this
     window has no parent.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.getstr ()

 -- Μέθοδος: window.getstr (n)

 -- Μέθοδος: window.getstr (y, x)

 -- Μέθοδος: window.getstr (y, x, n)

     Read a bytes object from the user, with primitive line editing
     capacity.  The maximum value for 'n' is 2047.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The maximum value for 'n' was increased
     from 1023 to 2047.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.getyx ()

     Return a tuple ‘(y, x)’ of current cursor position relative to the
     window’s upper-left corner.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.hline (ch, n)

 -- Μέθοδος: window.hline (y, x, ch, n)

     Display a horizontal line starting at ‘(y, x)’ with length 'n'
     consisting of the character 'ch'.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.idcok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, curses no longer considers using the hardware
     insert/delete character feature of the terminal; if 'flag' is
     ‘True’, use of character insertion and deletion is enabled.  When
     curses is first initialized, use of character insert/delete is
     enabled by default.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.idlok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, ‘curses’ will try and use hardware line
     editing facilities.  Otherwise, line insertion/deletion are
     disabled.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.immedok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, any change in the window image automatically
     causes the window to be refreshed; you no longer have to call *note
     refresh(): 1a21. yourself.  However, it may degrade performance
     considerably, due to repeated calls to wrefresh.  This option is
     disabled by default.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.inch ([y, x])

     Return the character at the given position in the window.  The
     bottom 8 bits are the character proper, and upper bits are the
     attributes.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.insch (ch[, attr])

 -- Μέθοδος: window.insch (y, x, ch[, attr])

     Paint character 'ch' at ‘(y, x)’ with attributes 'attr', moving the
     line from position 'x' right by one character.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.insdelln (nlines)

     Insert 'nlines' lines into the specified window above the current
     line.  The 'nlines' bottom lines are lost.  For negative 'nlines',
     delete 'nlines' lines starting with the one under the cursor, and
     move the remaining lines up.  The bottom 'nlines' lines are
     cleared.  The current cursor position remains the same.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.insertln ()

     Insert a blank line under the cursor.  All following lines are
     moved down by one line.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.insnstr (str, n[, attr])

 -- Μέθοδος: window.insnstr (y, x, str, n[, attr])

     Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the
     line) before the character under the cursor, up to 'n' characters.
     If 'n' is zero or negative, the entire string is inserted.  All
     characters to the right of the cursor are shifted right, with the
     rightmost characters on the line being lost.  The cursor position
     does not change (after moving to 'y', 'x', if specified).

 -- Μέθοδος: window.insstr (str[, attr])

 -- Μέθοδος: window.insstr (y, x, str[, attr])

     Insert a character string (as many characters as will fit on the
     line) before the character under the cursor.  All characters to the
     right of the cursor are shifted right, with the rightmost
     characters on the line being lost.  The cursor position does not
     change (after moving to 'y', 'x', if specified).

 -- Μέθοδος: window.instr ([n])

 -- Μέθοδος: window.instr (y, x[, n])

     Return a bytes object of characters, extracted from the window
     starting at the current cursor position, or at 'y', 'x' if
     specified.  Attributes are stripped from the characters.  If 'n' is
     specified, ‘instr()’ returns a string at most 'n' characters long
     (exclusive of the trailing NUL). The maximum value for 'n' is 2047.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The maximum value for 'n' was increased
     from 1023 to 2047.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.is_linetouched (line)

     Return ‘True’ if the specified line was modified since the last
     call to *note refresh(): 1a21.; otherwise return ‘False’.  Raise a
     *note curses.error: 1a16. exception if 'line' is not valid for the
     given window.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.is_wintouched ()

     Return ‘True’ if the specified window was modified since the last
     call to *note refresh(): 1a21.; otherwise return ‘False’.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.keypad (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, escape sequences generated by some keys
     (keypad, function keys) will be interpreted by ‘curses’.  If 'flag'
     is ‘False’, escape sequences will be left as is in the input
     stream.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.leaveok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, cursor is left where it is on update, instead
     of being at «cursor position.» This reduces cursor movement where
     possible.  If possible the cursor will be made invisible.

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, cursor will always be at «cursor position»
     after an update.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.move (new_y, new_x)

     Move cursor to ‘(new_y, new_x)’.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.mvderwin (y, x)

     Move the window inside its parent window.  The screen-relative
     parameters of the window are not changed.  This routine is used to
     display different parts of the parent window at the same physical
     position on the screen.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.mvwin (new_y, new_x)

     Move the window so its upper-left corner is at ‘(new_y, new_x)’.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.nodelay (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, *note getch(): 1a30. will be non-blocking.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.notimeout (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, escape sequences will not be timed out.

     If 'flag' is ‘False’, after a few milliseconds, an escape sequence
     will not be interpreted, and will be left in the input stream as
     is.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.noutrefresh ()

     Mark for refresh but wait.  This function updates the data
     structure representing the desired state of the window, but does
     not force an update of the physical screen.  To accomplish that,
     call *note doupdate(): 36cf.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.overlay (destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow,
          dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])

     Overlay the window on top of 'destwin'.  The windows need not be
     the same size, only the overlapping region is copied.  This copy is
     non-destructive, which means that the current background character
     does not overwrite the old contents of 'destwin'.

     To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form
     of ‘overlay()’ can be used.  'sminrow' and 'smincol' are the
     upper-left coordinates of the source window, and the other
     variables mark a rectangle in the destination window.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.overwrite (destwin[, sminrow, smincol, dminrow,
          dmincol, dmaxrow, dmaxcol])

     Overwrite the window on top of 'destwin'.  The windows need not be
     the same size, in which case only the overlapping region is copied.
     This copy is destructive, which means that the current background
     character overwrites the old contents of 'destwin'.

     To get fine-grained control over the copied region, the second form
     of ‘overwrite()’ can be used.  'sminrow' and 'smincol' are the
     upper-left coordinates of the source window, the other variables
     mark a rectangle in the destination window.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.putwin (file)

     Write all data associated with the window into the provided file
     object.  This information can be later retrieved using the *note
     getwin(): 36e1. function.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.redrawln (beg, num)

     Indicate that the 'num' screen lines, starting at line 'beg', are
     corrupted and should be completely redrawn on the next *note
     refresh(): 1a21. call.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.redrawwin ()

     Touch the entire window, causing it to be completely redrawn on the
     next *note refresh(): 1a21. call.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.refresh ([pminrow, pmincol, sminrow, smincol,
          smaxrow, smaxcol])

     Update the display immediately (sync actual screen with previous
     drawing/deleting methods).

     The 6 optional arguments can only be specified when the window is a
     pad created with *note newpad(): 36f0.  The additional parameters
     are needed to indicate what part of the pad and screen are
     involved.  'pminrow' and 'pmincol' specify the upper left-hand
     corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad.  'sminrow',
     'smincol', 'smaxrow', and 'smaxcol' specify the edges of the
     rectangle to be displayed on the screen.  The lower right-hand
     corner of the rectangle to be displayed in the pad is calculated
     from the screen coordinates, since the rectangles must be the same
     size.  Both rectangles must be entirely contained within their
     respective structures.  Negative values of 'pminrow', 'pmincol',
     'sminrow', or 'smincol' are treated as if they were zero.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.resize (nlines, ncols)

     Reallocate storage for a curses window to adjust its dimensions to
     the specified values.  If either dimension is larger than the
     current values, the window’s data is filled with blanks that have
     the current background rendition (as set by *note bkgdset(): 370c.)
     merged into them.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.scroll ([lines=1])

     Scroll the screen or scrolling region upward by 'lines' lines.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.scrollok (flag)

     Control what happens when the cursor of a window is moved off the
     edge of the window or scrolling region, either as a result of a
     newline action on the bottom line, or typing the last character of
     the last line.  If 'flag' is ‘False’, the cursor is left on the
     bottom line.  If 'flag' is ‘True’, the window is scrolled up one
     line.  Note that in order to get the physical scrolling effect on
     the terminal, it is also necessary to call *note idlok(): 3726.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.setscrreg (top, bottom)

     Set the scrolling region from line 'top' to line 'bottom'.  All
     scrolling actions will take place in this region.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.standend ()

     Turn off the standout attribute.  On some terminals this has the
     side effect of turning off all attributes.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.standout ()

     Turn on attribute 'A_STANDOUT'.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.subpad (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- Μέθοδος: window.subpad (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at ‘(begin_y,
     begin_x)’, and whose width/height is 'ncols'/'nlines'.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.subwin (begin_y, begin_x)

 -- Μέθοδος: window.subwin (nlines, ncols, begin_y, begin_x)

     Return a sub-window, whose upper-left corner is at ‘(begin_y,
     begin_x)’, and whose width/height is 'ncols'/'nlines'.

     By default, the sub-window will extend from the specified position
     to the lower right corner of the window.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.syncdown ()

     Touch each location in the window that has been touched in any of
     its ancestor windows.  This routine is called by *note refresh():
     1a21, so it should almost never be necessary to call it manually.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.syncok (flag)

     If 'flag' is ‘True’, then *note syncup(): 3740. is called
     automatically whenever there is a change in the window.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.syncup ()

     Touch all locations in ancestors of the window that have been
     changed in the window.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.timeout (delay)

     Set blocking or non-blocking read behavior for the window.  If
     'delay' is negative, blocking read is used (which will wait
     indefinitely for input).  If 'delay' is zero, then non-blocking
     read is used, and *note getch(): 1a30. will return ‘-1’ if no input
     is waiting.  If 'delay' is positive, then ‘getch()’ will block for
     'delay' milliseconds, and return ‘-1’ if there is still no input at
     the end of that time.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.touchline (start, count[, changed])

     Pretend 'count' lines have been changed, starting with line
     'start'.  If 'changed' is supplied, it specifies whether the
     affected lines are marked as having been changed ('changed'‘=True’)
     or unchanged ('changed'‘=False’).

 -- Μέθοδος: window.touchwin ()

     Pretend the whole window has been changed, for purposes of drawing
     optimizations.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.untouchwin ()

     Mark all lines in the window as unchanged since the last call to
     *note refresh(): 1a21.

 -- Μέθοδος: window.vline (ch, n[, attr])

 -- Μέθοδος: window.vline (y, x, ch, n[, attr])

     Display a vertical line starting at ‘(y, x)’ with length 'n'
     consisting of the character 'ch' with attributes 'attr'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue35924


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<6>,  Prev: Window Objects,  Up: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays

5.18.5.3 Constants
..................

The ‘curses’ module defines the following data members:

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.ERR

     Some curses routines that return an integer, such as *note getch():
     1a30, return *note ERR: 3745. upon failure.

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.OK

     Some curses routines that return an integer, such as *note napms():
     1b2a, return *note OK: 3746. upon success.

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.version

     A bytes object representing the current version of the module.

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.ncurses_version

     A named tuple containing the three components of the ncurses
     library version: 'major', 'minor', and 'patch'.  All values are
     integers.  The components can also be accessed by name, so
     ‘curses.ncurses_version[0]’ is equivalent to
     ‘curses.ncurses_version.major’ and so on.

     Availability: if the ncurses library is used.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.COLORS

     The maximum number of colors the terminal can support.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note start_color(): 36fc.

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.COLOR_PAIRS

     The maximum number of color pairs the terminal can support.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note start_color(): 36fc.

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.COLS

     The width of the screen, i.e., the number of columns.  It is
     defined only after the call to *note initscr(): 1a1b.  Updated by
     *note update_lines_cols(): 11a3, *note resizeterm(): 1b4a. and
     *note resize_term(): 1b4b.

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.LINES

     The height of the screen, i.e., the number of lines.  It is defined
     only after the call to *note initscr(): 1a1b.  Updated by *note
     update_lines_cols(): 11a3, *note resizeterm(): 1b4a. and *note
     resize_term(): 1b4b.

Some constants are available to specify character cell attributes.  The
exact constants available are system dependent.

Attribute                    Meaning
                             
-----------------------------------------------------------------
                             
 -- Δεδομένα:                Alternate character set mode
          curses.A_ALTCHARSET

 -- Δεδομένα:                Blink mode
          curses.A_BLINK     

 -- Δεδομένα:                Bold mode
          curses.A_BOLD      

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.A_DIM   Dim mode
                             
                             
 -- Δεδομένα:                Invisible or blank mode
          curses.A_INVIS     

 -- Δεδομένα:                Italic mode
          curses.A_ITALIC    

 -- Δεδομένα:                Normal attribute
          curses.A_NORMAL    

 -- Δεδομένα:                Protected mode
          curses.A_PROTECT   

 -- Δεδομένα:                Reverse background and foreground
          curses.A_REVERSE   colors
                             
                             
 -- Δεδομένα:                Standout mode
          curses.A_STANDOUT  

 -- Δεδομένα:                Underline mode
          curses.A_UNDERLINE 

 -- Δεδομένα:                Horizontal highlight
          curses.A_HORIZONTAL

 -- Δεδομένα:                Left highlight
          curses.A_LEFT      

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.A_LOW   Low highlight
                             
                             
 -- Δεδομένα:                Right highlight
          curses.A_RIGHT     

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.A_TOP   Top highlight
                             
                             
 -- Δεδομένα:                Vertical highlight
          curses.A_VERTICAL  

Added in version 3.7: ‘A_ITALIC’ was added.

Several constants are available to extract corresponding attributes
returned by some methods.

Bit-mask                      Meaning
                              
------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- Δεδομένα:                 Bit-mask to extract attributes
          curses.A_ATTRIBUTES 

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Bit-mask to extract a character
          curses.A_CHARTEXT   

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Bit-mask to extract color-pair
          curses.A_COLOR      field information
                              

Keys are referred to by integer constants with names starting with
‘KEY_’.  The exact keycaps available are system dependent.

Key constant                  Key
                              
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- Δεδομένα:                 Minimum key value
          curses.KEY_MIN      

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Break key (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_BREAK    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Down-arrow
          curses.KEY_DOWN     

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_UP   Up-arrow
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα:                 Left-arrow
          curses.KEY_LEFT     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Right-arrow
          curses.KEY_RIGHT    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Home key (upward+left arrow)
          curses.KEY_HOME     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Backspace (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_BACKSPACE

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_F0   Function keys.  Up to 64 function keys are
                              supported.
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_Fn   Value of function key 'n'
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_DL   Delete line
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_IL   Insert line
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_DC   Delete character
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_IC   Insert char or enter insert mode
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα:                 Exit insert char mode
          curses.KEY_EIC      

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Clear screen
          curses.KEY_CLEAR    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Clear to end of screen
          curses.KEY_EOS      

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Clear to end of line
          curses.KEY_EOL      

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_SF   Scroll 1 line forward
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_SR   Scroll 1 line backward (reverse)
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα:                 Next page
          curses.KEY_NPAGE    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Previous page
          curses.KEY_PPAGE    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Set tab
          curses.KEY_STAB     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Clear tab
          curses.KEY_CTAB     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Clear all tabs
          curses.KEY_CATAB    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Enter or send (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_ENTER    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Soft (partial) reset (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_SRESET   

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Reset or hard reset (unreliable)
          curses.KEY_RESET    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Print
          curses.KEY_PRINT    

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_LL   Home down or bottom (lower left)
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_A1   Upper left of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_A3   Upper right of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_B2   Center of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_C1   Lower left of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.KEY_C3   Lower right of keypad
                              
                              
 -- Δεδομένα:                 Back tab
          curses.KEY_BTAB     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Beg (beginning)
          curses.KEY_BEG      

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Cancel
          curses.KEY_CANCEL   

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Close
          curses.KEY_CLOSE    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Cmd (command)
          curses.KEY_COMMAND  

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Copy
          curses.KEY_COPY     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Create
          curses.KEY_CREATE   

 -- Δεδομένα:                 End
          curses.KEY_END      

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Exit
          curses.KEY_EXIT     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Find
          curses.KEY_FIND     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Help
          curses.KEY_HELP     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Mark
          curses.KEY_MARK     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Message
          curses.KEY_MESSAGE  

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Move
          curses.KEY_MOVE     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Next
          curses.KEY_NEXT     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Open
          curses.KEY_OPEN     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Options
          curses.KEY_OPTIONS  

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Prev (previous)
          curses.KEY_PREVIOUS 

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Redo
          curses.KEY_REDO     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Ref (reference)
          curses.KEY_REFERENCE

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Refresh
          curses.KEY_REFRESH  

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Replace
          curses.KEY_REPLACE  

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Restart
          curses.KEY_RESTART  

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Resume
          curses.KEY_RESUME   

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Save
          curses.KEY_SAVE     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Beg (beginning)
          curses.KEY_SBEG     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Cancel
          curses.KEY_SCANCEL  

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Command
          curses.KEY_SCOMMAND 

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Copy
          curses.KEY_SCOPY    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Create
          curses.KEY_SCREATE  

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Delete char
          curses.KEY_SDC      

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Delete line
          curses.KEY_SDL      

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Select
          curses.KEY_SELECT   

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted End
          curses.KEY_SEND     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Clear line
          curses.KEY_SEOL     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Exit
          curses.KEY_SEXIT    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Find
          curses.KEY_SFIND    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Help
          curses.KEY_SHELP    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Home
          curses.KEY_SHOME    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Input
          curses.KEY_SIC      

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Left arrow
          curses.KEY_SLEFT    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Message
          curses.KEY_SMESSAGE 

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Move
          curses.KEY_SMOVE    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Next
          curses.KEY_SNEXT    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Options
          curses.KEY_SOPTIONS 

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Prev
          curses.KEY_SPREVIOUS

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Print
          curses.KEY_SPRINT   

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Redo
          curses.KEY_SREDO    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Replace
          curses.KEY_SREPLACE 

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Right arrow
          curses.KEY_SRIGHT   

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Resume
          curses.KEY_SRSUME   

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Save
          curses.KEY_SSAVE    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Suspend
          curses.KEY_SSUSPEND 

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Shifted Undo
          curses.KEY_SUNDO    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Suspend
          curses.KEY_SUSPEND  

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Undo
          curses.KEY_UNDO     

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Mouse event has occurred
          curses.KEY_MOUSE    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Terminal resize event
          curses.KEY_RESIZE   

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Maximum key value
          curses.KEY_MAX      

On VT100s and their software emulations, such as X terminal emulators,
there are normally at least four function keys (*note KEY_F1: 3762,
‘KEY_F2’, ‘KEY_F3’, ‘KEY_F4’) available, and the arrow keys mapped to
*note KEY_UP: 375c, *note KEY_DOWN: 375b, *note KEY_LEFT: 375d. and
*note KEY_RIGHT: 375e. in the obvious way.  If your machine has a PC
keyboard, it is safe to expect arrow keys and twelve function keys
(older PC keyboards may have only ten function keys); also, the
following keypad mappings are standard:

Keycap                 Constant
                       
---------------------------------------
                       
‘Insert’               KEY_IC
                       
                       
‘Delete’               KEY_DC
                       
                       
‘Home’                 KEY_HOME
                       
                       
‘End’                  KEY_END
                       
                       
‘Page Up’              KEY_PPAGE
                       
                       
‘Page Down’            KEY_NPAGE
                       

The following table lists characters from the alternate character set.
These are inherited from the VT100 terminal, and will generally be
available on software emulations such as X terminals.  When there is no
graphic available, curses falls back on a crude printable ASCII
approximation.

     Σημείωση: These are available only after *note initscr(): 1a1b. has
     been called.

ACS code                     Meaning
                             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                             
 -- Δεδομένα:                alternate name for upper right corner
          curses.ACS_BBSS    

 -- Δεδομένα:                solid square block
          curses.ACS_BLOCK   

 -- Δεδομένα:                board of squares
          curses.ACS_BOARD   

 -- Δεδομένα:                alternate name for horizontal line
          curses.ACS_BSBS    

 -- Δεδομένα:                alternate name for upper left corner
          curses.ACS_BSSB    

 -- Δεδομένα:                alternate name for top tee
          curses.ACS_BSSS    

 -- Δεδομένα:                bottom tee
          curses.ACS_BTEE    

 -- Δεδομένα:                bullet
          curses.ACS_BULLET  

 -- Δεδομένα:                checker board (stipple)
          curses.ACS_CKBOARD 

 -- Δεδομένα:                arrow pointing down
          curses.ACS_DARROW  

 -- Δεδομένα:                degree symbol
          curses.ACS_DEGREE  

 -- Δεδομένα:                diamond
          curses.ACS_DIAMOND 

 -- Δεδομένα:                greater-than-or-equal-to
          curses.ACS_GEQUAL  

 -- Δεδομένα:                horizontal line
          curses.ACS_HLINE   

 -- Δεδομένα:                lantern symbol
          curses.ACS_LANTERN 

 -- Δεδομένα:                left arrow
          curses.ACS_LARROW  

 -- Δεδομένα:                less-than-or-equal-to
          curses.ACS_LEQUAL  

 -- Δεδομένα:                lower left-hand corner
          curses.ACS_LLCORNER

 -- Δεδομένα:                lower right-hand corner
          curses.ACS_LRCORNER

 -- Δεδομένα:                left tee
          curses.ACS_LTEE    

 -- Δεδομένα:                not-equal sign
          curses.ACS_NEQUAL  

 -- Δεδομένα:                letter pi
          curses.ACS_PI      

 -- Δεδομένα:                plus-or-minus sign
          curses.ACS_PLMINUS 

 -- Δεδομένα:                big plus sign
          curses.ACS_PLUS    

 -- Δεδομένα:                right arrow
          curses.ACS_RARROW  

 -- Δεδομένα:                right tee
          curses.ACS_RTEE    

 -- Δεδομένα:                scan line 1
          curses.ACS_S1      

 -- Δεδομένα:                scan line 3
          curses.ACS_S3      

 -- Δεδομένα:                scan line 7
          curses.ACS_S7      

 -- Δεδομένα:                scan line 9
          curses.ACS_S9      

 -- Δεδομένα:                alternate name for lower right corner
          curses.ACS_SBBS    

 -- Δεδομένα:                alternate name for vertical line
          curses.ACS_SBSB    

 -- Δεδομένα:                alternate name for right tee
          curses.ACS_SBSS    

 -- Δεδομένα:                alternate name for lower left corner
          curses.ACS_SSBB    

 -- Δεδομένα:                alternate name for bottom tee
          curses.ACS_SSBS    

 -- Δεδομένα:                alternate name for left tee
          curses.ACS_SSSB    

 -- Δεδομένα:                alternate name for crossover or big plus
          curses.ACS_SSSS    

 -- Δεδομένα:                pound sterling
          curses.ACS_STERLING

 -- Δεδομένα:                top tee
          curses.ACS_TTEE    

 -- Δεδομένα:                up arrow
          curses.ACS_UARROW  

 -- Δεδομένα:                upper left corner
          curses.ACS_ULCORNER

 -- Δεδομένα:                upper right corner
          curses.ACS_URCORNER

 -- Δεδομένα:                vertical line
          curses.ACS_VLINE   

The following table lists mouse button constants used by *note
getmouse(): 36d5.:

Mouse button constant                  Meaning
                                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.BUTTONn_PRESSED   Mouse button 'n' pressed
                                       
                                       
 -- Δεδομένα:                          Mouse button 'n' released
          curses.BUTTONn_RELEASED      

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.BUTTONn_CLICKED   Mouse button 'n' clicked
                                       
                                       
 -- Δεδομένα:                          Mouse button 'n' double clicked
          curses.BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED

 -- Δεδομένα:                          Mouse button 'n' triple clicked
          curses.BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.BUTTON_SHIFT      Shift was down during button state change
                                       
                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.BUTTON_CTRL       Control was down during button state change
                                       
                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: curses.BUTTON_ALT        Control was down during button state change
                                       

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed if
they are provided by the underlying curses library.

The following table lists the predefined colors:

Constant                      Color
                              
---------------------------------------------------------------
                              
 -- Δεδομένα:                 Black
          curses.COLOR_BLACK  

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Blue
          curses.COLOR_BLUE   

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Cyan (light greenish blue)
          curses.COLOR_CYAN   

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Green
          curses.COLOR_GREEN  

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Magenta (purplish red)
          curses.COLOR_MAGENTA

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Red
          curses.COLOR_RED    

 -- Δεδομένα:                 White
          curses.COLOR_WHITE  

 -- Δεδομένα:                 Yellow
          curses.COLOR_YELLOW 


File: python.info,  Node: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs,  Next: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters,  Prev: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.18.6 ‘curses.textpad’ — Text input widget for curses programs
---------------------------------------------------------------

The ‘curses.textpad’ module provides a *note Textbox: 37e5. class that
handles elementary text editing in a curses window, supporting a set of
keybindings resembling those of Emacs (thus, also of Netscape Navigator,
BBedit 6.x, FrameMaker, and many other programs).  The module also
provides a rectangle-drawing function useful for framing text boxes or
for other purposes.

The module ‘curses.textpad’ defines the following function:

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.textpad.rectangle (win, uly, ulx, lry, lrx)

     Draw a rectangle.  The first argument must be a window object; the
     remaining arguments are coordinates relative to that window.  The
     second and third arguments are the y and x coordinates of the upper
     left hand corner of the rectangle to be drawn; the fourth and fifth
     arguments are the y and x coordinates of the lower right hand
     corner.  The rectangle will be drawn using VT100/IBM PC forms
     characters on terminals that make this possible (including xterm
     and most other software terminal emulators).  Otherwise it will be
     drawn with ASCII dashes, vertical bars, and plus signs.

* Menu:

* Textbox objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Textbox objects,  Up: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs

5.18.6.1 Textbox objects
........................

You can instantiate a *note Textbox: 37e5. object as follows:

 -- Κλάση: curses.textpad.Textbox (win)

     Return a textbox widget object.  The 'win' argument should be a
     curses *note window: 1a24. object in which the textbox is to be
     contained.  The edit cursor of the textbox is initially located at
     the upper left hand corner of the containing window, with
     coordinates ‘(0, 0)’.  The instance’s *note stripspaces: 37e9. flag
     is initially on.

     ‘Textbox’ objects have the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: edit ([validator])

          This is the entry point you will normally use.  It accepts
          editing keystrokes until one of the termination keystrokes is
          entered.  If 'validator' is supplied, it must be a function.
          It will be called for each keystroke entered with the
          keystroke as a parameter; command dispatch is done on the
          result.  This method returns the window contents as a string;
          whether blanks in the window are included is affected by the
          *note stripspaces: 37e9. attribute.

      -- Μέθοδος: do_command (ch)

          Process a single command keystroke.  Here are the supported
          special keystrokes:

          Keystroke              Action
                                 
          -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘A’          Go to left edge of window.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘B’          Cursor left, wrapping to previous line if
                                 appropriate.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘D’          Delete character under cursor.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘E’          Go to right edge (stripspaces off) or end of
                                 line (stripspaces on).
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘F’          Cursor right, wrapping to next line when
                                 appropriate.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘G’          Terminate, returning the window contents.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘H’          Delete character backward.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘J’          Terminate if the window is 1 line, otherwise
                                 insert newline.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘K’          If line is blank, delete it, otherwise clear
                                 to end of line.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘L’          Refresh screen.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘N’          Cursor down; move down one line.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘O’          Insert a blank line at cursor location.
                                 
                                 
          ‘Control’-‘P’          Cursor up; move up one line.
                                 

          Move operations do nothing if the cursor is at an edge where
          the movement is not possible.  The following synonyms are
          supported where possible:

          Constant                             Keystroke
                                               
          ------------------------------------------------------------
                                               
          *note KEY_LEFT: 375d.                ‘Control’-‘B’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_RIGHT: 375e.               ‘Control’-‘F’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_UP: 375c.                  ‘Control’-‘P’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_DOWN: 375b.                ‘Control’-‘N’
                                               
                                               
          *note KEY_BACKSPACE: 3760.           ‘Control’-‘h’
                                               

          All other keystrokes are treated as a command to insert the
          given character and move right (with line wrapping).

      -- Μέθοδος: gather ()

          Return the window contents as a string; whether blanks in the
          window are included is affected by the *note stripspaces:
          37e9. member.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stripspaces

          This attribute is a flag which controls the interpretation of
          blanks in the window.  When it is on, trailing blanks on each
          line are ignored; any cursor motion that would land the cursor
          on a trailing blank goes to the end of that line instead, and
          trailing blanks are stripped when the window contents are
          gathered.


File: python.info,  Node: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters,  Next: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses,  Prev: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.18.7 ‘curses.ascii’ — Utilities for ASCII characters
------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/curses/ascii.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘curses.ascii’ module supplies name constants for ASCII characters
and functions to test membership in various ASCII character classes.
The constants supplied are names for control characters as follows:

Name                Meaning
                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                    
 -- Δεδομένα:
          curses.ascii.NUL

 -- Δεδομένα:       Start of heading, console interrupt
          curses.ascii.SOH

 -- Δεδομένα:       Start of text
          curses.ascii.STX

 -- Δεδομένα:       End of text
          curses.ascii.ETX

 -- Δεδομένα:       End of transmission
          curses.ascii.EOT

 -- Δεδομένα:       Enquiry, goes with *note ACK: 37f6. flow control
          curses.ascii.ENQ

 -- Δεδομένα:       Acknowledgement
          curses.ascii.ACK

 -- Δεδομένα:       Bell
          curses.ascii.BEL

 -- Δεδομένα:       Backspace
          curses.ascii.BS

 -- Δεδομένα:       Tab
          curses.ascii.TAB

 -- Δεδομένα:       Alias for *note TAB: 37f9.: «Horizontal tab»
          curses.ascii.HT

 -- Δεδομένα:       Line feed
          curses.ascii.LF

 -- Δεδομένα:       Alias for *note LF: 37fb.: «New line»
          curses.ascii.NL

 -- Δεδομένα:       Vertical tab
          curses.ascii.VT

 -- Δεδομένα:       Form feed
          curses.ascii.FF

 -- Δεδομένα:       Carriage return
          curses.ascii.CR

 -- Δεδομένα:       Shift-out, begin alternate character set
          curses.ascii.SO

 -- Δεδομένα:       Shift-in, resume default character set
          curses.ascii.SI

 -- Δεδομένα:       Data-link escape
          curses.ascii.DLE

 -- Δεδομένα:       XON, for flow control
          curses.ascii.DC1

 -- Δεδομένα:       Device control 2, block-mode flow control
          curses.ascii.DC2

 -- Δεδομένα:       XOFF, for flow control
          curses.ascii.DC3

 -- Δεδομένα:       Device control 4
          curses.ascii.DC4

 -- Δεδομένα:       Negative acknowledgement
          curses.ascii.NAK

 -- Δεδομένα:       Synchronous idle
          curses.ascii.SYN

 -- Δεδομένα:       End transmission block
          curses.ascii.ETB

 -- Δεδομένα:       Cancel
          curses.ascii.CAN

 -- Δεδομένα:       End of medium
          curses.ascii.EM

 -- Δεδομένα:       Substitute
          curses.ascii.SUB

 -- Δεδομένα:       Escape
          curses.ascii.ESC

 -- Δεδομένα:       File separator
          curses.ascii.FS

 -- Δεδομένα:       Group separator
          curses.ascii.GS

 -- Δεδομένα:       Record separator, block-mode terminator
          curses.ascii.RS

 -- Δεδομένα:       Unit separator
          curses.ascii.US

 -- Δεδομένα:       Space
          curses.ascii.SP

 -- Δεδομένα:       Delete
          curses.ascii.DEL

Note that many of these have little practical significance in modern
usage.  The mnemonics derive from teleprinter conventions that predate
digital computers.

The module supplies the following functions, patterned on those in the
standard C library:

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.isalnum (c)

     Checks for an ASCII alphanumeric character; it is equivalent to
     ‘isalpha(c) or isdigit(c)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.isalpha (c)

     Checks for an ASCII alphabetic character; it is equivalent to
     ‘isupper(c) or islower(c)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.isascii (c)

     Checks for a character value that fits in the 7-bit ASCII set.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.isblank (c)

     Checks for an ASCII whitespace character; space or horizontal tab.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.iscntrl (c)

     Checks for an ASCII control character (in the range 0x00 to 0x1f or
     0x7f).

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.isdigit (c)

     Checks for an ASCII decimal digit, ‘'0'’ through ‘'9'’.  This is
     equivalent to ‘c in string.digits’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.isgraph (c)

     Checks for ASCII any printable character except space.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.islower (c)

     Checks for an ASCII lower-case character.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.isprint (c)

     Checks for any ASCII printable character including space.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.ispunct (c)

     Checks for any printable ASCII character which is not a space or an
     alphanumeric character.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.isspace (c)

     Checks for ASCII white-space characters; space, line feed, carriage
     return, form feed, horizontal tab, vertical tab.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.isupper (c)

     Checks for an ASCII uppercase letter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.isxdigit (c)

     Checks for an ASCII hexadecimal digit.  This is equivalent to ‘c in
     string.hexdigits’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.isctrl (c)

     Checks for an ASCII control character (ordinal values 0 to 31).

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.ismeta (c)

     Checks for a non-ASCII character (ordinal values 0x80 and above).

These functions accept either integers or single-character strings; when
the argument is a string, it is first converted using the built-in
function *note ord(): 252c.

Note that all these functions check ordinal bit values derived from the
character of the string you pass in; they do not actually know anything
about the host machine’s character encoding.

The following two functions take either a single-character string or
integer byte value; they return a value of the same type.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.ascii (c)

     Return the ASCII value corresponding to the low 7 bits of 'c'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.ctrl (c)

     Return the control character corresponding to the given character
     (the character bit value is bitwise-anded with 0x1f).

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.alt (c)

     Return the 8-bit character corresponding to the given ASCII
     character (the character bit value is bitwise-ored with 0x80).

The following function takes either a single-character string or integer
value; it returns a string.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.ascii.unctrl (c)

     Return a string representation of the ASCII character 'c'.  If 'c'
     is printable, this string is the character itself.  If the
     character is a control character (0x00–0x1f) the string consists of
     a caret (‘'^'’) followed by the corresponding uppercase letter.  If
     the character is an ASCII delete (0x7f) the string is ‘'^?'’.  If
     the character has its meta bit (0x80) set, the meta bit is
     stripped, the preceding rules applied, and ‘'!'’ prepended to the
     result.

 -- Δεδομένα: curses.ascii.controlnames

     A 33-element string array that contains the ASCII mnemonics for the
     thirty-two ASCII control characters from 0 (NUL) to 0x1f (US), in
     order, plus the mnemonic ‘SP’ for the space character.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/curses/ascii.py


File: python.info,  Node: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses,  Next: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters,  Prev: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.18.8 ‘curses.panel’ — A panel stack extension for curses
----------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Panels are windows with the added feature of depth, so they can be
stacked on top of each other, and only the visible portions of each
window will be displayed.  Panels can be added, moved up or down in the
stack, and removed.

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<5>.
* Panel Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<5>,  Next: Panel Objects,  Up: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses

5.18.8.1 Functions
..................

The module ‘curses.panel’ defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.panel.bottom_panel ()

     Returns the bottom panel in the panel stack.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.panel.new_panel (win)

     Returns a panel object, associating it with the given window 'win'.
     Be aware that you need to keep the returned panel object referenced
     explicitly.  If you don’t, the panel object is garbage collected
     and removed from the panel stack.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.panel.top_panel ()

     Returns the top panel in the panel stack.

 -- Συνάρτηση: curses.panel.update_panels ()

     Updates the virtual screen after changes in the panel stack.  This
     does not call *note curses.doupdate(): 36cf, so you’ll have to do
     this yourself.


File: python.info,  Node: Panel Objects,  Prev: Functions<5>,  Up: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses

5.18.8.2 Panel Objects
......................

Panel objects, as returned by *note new_panel(): 19fb. above, are
windows with a stacking order.  There’s always a window associated with
a panel which determines the content, while the panel methods are
responsible for the window’s depth in the panel stack.

Panel objects have the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: Panel.above ()

     Returns the panel above the current panel.

 -- Μέθοδος: Panel.below ()

     Returns the panel below the current panel.

 -- Μέθοδος: Panel.bottom ()

     Push the panel to the bottom of the stack.

 -- Μέθοδος: Panel.hidden ()

     Returns ‘True’ if the panel is hidden (not visible), ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Μέθοδος: Panel.hide ()

     Hide the panel.  This does not delete the object, it just makes the
     window on screen invisible.

 -- Μέθοδος: Panel.move (y, x)

     Move the panel to the screen coordinates ‘(y, x)’.

 -- Μέθοδος: Panel.replace (win)

     Change the window associated with the panel to the window 'win'.

 -- Μέθοδος: Panel.set_userptr (obj)

     Set the panel’s user pointer to 'obj'.  This is used to associate
     an arbitrary piece of data with the panel, and can be any Python
     object.

 -- Μέθοδος: Panel.show ()

     Display the panel (which might have been hidden).

 -- Μέθοδος: Panel.top ()

     Push panel to the top of the stack.

 -- Μέθοδος: Panel.userptr ()

     Returns the user pointer for the panel.  This might be any Python
     object.

 -- Μέθοδος: Panel.window ()

     Returns the window object associated with the panel.


File: python.info,  Node: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters,  Prev: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses,  Up: Command-line interface libraries

5.18.9 ‘cmd’ — Support for line-oriented command interpreters
-------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/cmd.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note Cmd: 1a78. class provides a simple framework for writing
line-oriented command interpreters.  These are often useful for test
harnesses, administrative tools, and prototypes that will later be
wrapped in a more sophisticated interface.

 -- Κλάση: cmd.Cmd (completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None)

     A ‘Cmd’ instance or subclass instance is a line-oriented
     interpreter framework.  There is no good reason to instantiate
     ‘Cmd’ itself; rather, it’s useful as a superclass of an interpreter
     class you define yourself in order to inherit ‘Cmd’’s methods and
     encapsulate action methods.

     The optional argument 'completekey' is the *note readline: c2. name
     of a completion key; it defaults to ‘Tab’.  If 'completekey' is not
     *note None: a65. and ‘readline’ is available, command completion is
     done automatically.

     The default, ‘'tab'’, is treated specially, so that it refers to
     the ‘Tab’ key on every *note readline.backend: 1c2f.  Specifically,
     if ‘readline.backend’ is ‘editline’, ‘Cmd’ will use ‘'^I'’ instead
     of ‘'tab'’.  Note that other values are not treated this way, and
     might only work with a specific backend.

     The optional arguments 'stdin' and 'stdout' specify the input and
     output file objects that the Cmd instance or subclass instance will
     use for input and output.  If not specified, they will default to
     *note sys.stdin: 94a. and *note sys.stdout: e9c.

     If you want a given 'stdin' to be used, make sure to set the
     instance’s *note use_rawinput: 3841. attribute to ‘False’,
     otherwise 'stdin' will be ignored.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: ‘completekey='tab'’ is replaced by ‘'^I'’
     for ‘editline’.

* Menu:

* Cmd Objects::
* Cmd Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/cmd.py


File: python.info,  Node: Cmd Objects,  Next: Cmd Example,  Up: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters

5.18.9.1 Cmd Objects
....................

A *note Cmd: 1a78. instance has the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: Cmd.cmdloop (intro=None)

     Repeatedly issue a prompt, accept input, parse an initial prefix
     off the received input, and dispatch to action methods, passing
     them the remainder of the line as argument.

     The optional argument is a banner or intro string to be issued
     before the first prompt (this overrides the *note intro: 3845.
     class attribute).

     If the *note readline: c2. module is loaded, input will
     automatically inherit ‘bash’-like history-list editing (e.g.
     ‘Control’-‘P’ scrolls back to the last command, ‘Control’-‘N’
     forward to the next one, ‘Control’-‘F’ moves the cursor to the
     right non-destructively, ‘Control’-‘B’ moves the cursor to the left
     non-destructively, etc.).

     An end-of-file on input is passed back as the string ‘'EOF'’.

     An interpreter instance will recognize a command name ‘foo’ if and
     only if it has a method ‘do_foo()’.  As a special case, a line
     beginning with the character ‘'?'’ is dispatched to the method
     *note do_help(): 1c33.  As another special case, a line beginning
     with the character ‘'!'’ is dispatched to the method ‘do_shell()’
     (if such a method is defined).

     This method will return when the *note postcmd(): 3846. method
     returns a true value.  The 'stop' argument to ‘postcmd()’ is the
     return value from the command’s corresponding ‘do_*()’ method.

     If completion is enabled, completing commands will be done
     automatically, and completing of commands args is done by calling
     ‘complete_foo()’ with arguments 'text', 'line', 'begidx', and
     'endidx'.  'text' is the string prefix we are attempting to match:
     all returned matches must begin with it.  'line' is the current
     input line with leading whitespace removed, 'begidx' and 'endidx'
     are the beginning and ending indexes of the prefix text, which
     could be used to provide different completion depending upon which
     position the argument is in.

 -- Μέθοδος: Cmd.do_help (arg)

     All subclasses of *note Cmd: 1a78. inherit a predefined
     ‘do_help()’.  This method, called with an argument ‘'bar'’, invokes
     the corresponding method ‘help_bar()’, and if that is not present,
     prints the docstring of ‘do_bar()’, if available.  With no
     argument, ‘do_help()’ lists all available help topics (that is, all
     commands with corresponding ‘help_*()’ methods or commands that
     have docstrings), and also lists any undocumented commands.

 -- Μέθοδος: Cmd.onecmd (str)

     Interpret the argument as though it had been typed in response to
     the prompt.  This may be overridden, but should not normally need
     to be; see the *note precmd(): 3848. and *note postcmd(): 3846.
     methods for useful execution hooks.  The return value is a flag
     indicating whether interpretation of commands by the interpreter
     should stop.  If there is a ‘do_*()’ method for the command 'str',
     the return value of that method is returned, otherwise the return
     value from the *note default(): 3849. method is returned.

 -- Μέθοδος: Cmd.emptyline ()

     Method called when an empty line is entered in response to the
     prompt.  If this method is not overridden, it repeats the last
     nonempty command entered.

 -- Μέθοδος: Cmd.default (line)

     Method called on an input line when the command prefix is not
     recognized.  If this method is not overridden, it prints an error
     message and returns.

 -- Μέθοδος: Cmd.completedefault (text, line, begidx, endidx)

     Method called to complete an input line when no command-specific
     ‘complete_*()’ method is available.  By default, it returns an
     empty list.

 -- Μέθοδος: Cmd.columnize (list, displaywidth=80)

     Method called to display a list of strings as a compact set of
     columns.  Each column is only as wide as necessary.  Columns are
     separated by two spaces for readability.

 -- Μέθοδος: Cmd.precmd (line)

     Hook method executed just before the command line 'line' is
     interpreted, but after the input prompt is generated and issued.
     This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 1a78.; it exists to be
     overridden by subclasses.  The return value is used as the command
     which will be executed by the *note onecmd(): 3847. method; the
     ‘precmd()’ implementation may re-write the command or simply return
     'line' unchanged.

 -- Μέθοδος: Cmd.postcmd (stop, line)

     Hook method executed just after a command dispatch is finished.
     This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 1a78.; it exists to be
     overridden by subclasses.  'line' is the command line which was
     executed, and 'stop' is a flag which indicates whether execution
     will be terminated after the call to ‘postcmd()’; this will be the
     return value of the *note onecmd(): 3847. method.  The return value
     of this method will be used as the new value for the internal flag
     which corresponds to 'stop'; returning false will cause
     interpretation to continue.

 -- Μέθοδος: Cmd.preloop ()

     Hook method executed once when *note cmdloop(): 3844. is called.
     This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 1a78.; it exists to be
     overridden by subclasses.

 -- Μέθοδος: Cmd.postloop ()

     Hook method executed once when *note cmdloop(): 3844. is about to
     return.  This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 1a78.; it exists to be
     overridden by subclasses.

Instances of *note Cmd: 1a78. subclasses have some public instance
variables:

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cmd.prompt

     The prompt issued to solicit input.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cmd.identchars

     The string of characters accepted for the command prefix.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cmd.lastcmd

     The last nonempty command prefix seen.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cmd.cmdqueue

     A list of queued input lines.  The cmdqueue list is checked in
     *note cmdloop(): 3844. when new input is needed; if it is nonempty,
     its elements will be processed in order, as if entered at the
     prompt.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cmd.intro

     A string to issue as an intro or banner.  May be overridden by
     giving the *note cmdloop(): 3844. method an argument.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cmd.doc_header

     The header to issue if the help output has a section for documented
     commands.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cmd.misc_header

     The header to issue if the help output has a section for
     miscellaneous help topics (that is, there are ‘help_*()’ methods
     without corresponding ‘do_*()’ methods).

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cmd.undoc_header

     The header to issue if the help output has a section for
     undocumented commands (that is, there are ‘do_*()’ methods without
     corresponding ‘help_*()’ methods).

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cmd.ruler

     The character used to draw separator lines under the help-message
     headers.  If empty, no ruler line is drawn.  It defaults to ‘'='’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cmd.use_rawinput

     A flag, defaulting to true.  If true, *note cmdloop(): 3844. uses
     *note input(): 167d. to display a prompt and read the next command;
     if false, *note sys.stdout.write(): e9c. and *note
     sys.stdin.readline(): 94a. are used.  (This means that by importing
     *note readline: c2, on systems that support it, the interpreter
     will automatically support ‘Emacs’-like line editing and
     command-history keystrokes.)


File: python.info,  Node: Cmd Example,  Prev: Cmd Objects,  Up: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters

5.18.9.2 Cmd Example
....................

The ‘cmd’ module is mainly useful for building custom shells that let a
user work with a program interactively.

This section presents a simple example of how to build a shell around a
few of the commands in the *note turtle: 10a. module.

Basic turtle commands such as *note forward(): 3858. are added to a
*note Cmd: 1a78. subclass with method named ‘do_forward()’.  The
argument is converted to a number and dispatched to the turtle module.
The docstring is used in the help utility provided by the shell.

The example also includes a basic record and playback facility
implemented with the *note precmd(): 3848. method which is responsible
for converting the input to lowercase and writing the commands to a
file.  The ‘do_playback()’ method reads the file and adds the recorded
commands to the *note cmdqueue: 3851. for immediate playback:

     import cmd, sys
     from turtle import *

     class TurtleShell(cmd.Cmd):
         intro = 'Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.\n'
         prompt = '(turtle) '
         file = None

         # ----- basic turtle commands -----
         def do_forward(self, arg):
             'Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10'
             forward(*parse(arg))
         def do_right(self, arg):
             'Turn turtle right by given number of degrees:  RIGHT 20'
             right(*parse(arg))
         def do_left(self, arg):
             'Turn turtle left by given number of degrees:  LEFT 90'
             left(*parse(arg))
         def do_goto(self, arg):
             'Move turtle to an absolute position with changing orientation.  GOTO 100 200'
             goto(*parse(arg))
         def do_home(self, arg):
             'Return turtle to the home position:  HOME'
             home()
         def do_circle(self, arg):
             'Draw circle with given radius an options extent and steps:  CIRCLE 50'
             circle(*parse(arg))
         def do_position(self, arg):
             'Print the current turtle position:  POSITION'
             print('Current position is %d %d\n' % position())
         def do_heading(self, arg):
             'Print the current turtle heading in degrees:  HEADING'
             print('Current heading is %d\n' % (heading(),))
         def do_color(self, arg):
             'Set the color:  COLOR BLUE'
             color(arg.lower())
         def do_undo(self, arg):
             'Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s):  UNDO'
         def do_reset(self, arg):
             'Clear the screen and return turtle to center:  RESET'
             reset()
         def do_bye(self, arg):
             'Stop recording, close the turtle window, and exit:  BYE'
             print('Thank you for using Turtle')
             self.close()
             bye()
             return True

         # ----- record and playback -----
         def do_record(self, arg):
             'Save future commands to filename:  RECORD rose.cmd'
             self.file = open(arg, 'w')
         def do_playback(self, arg):
             'Playback commands from a file:  PLAYBACK rose.cmd'
             self.close()
             with open(arg) as f:
                 self.cmdqueue.extend(f.read().splitlines())
         def precmd(self, line):
             line = line.lower()
             if self.file and 'playback' not in line:
                 print(line, file=self.file)
             return line
         def close(self):
             if self.file:
                 self.file.close()
                 self.file = None

     def parse(arg):
         'Convert a series of zero or more numbers to an argument tuple'
         return tuple(map(int, arg.split()))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         TurtleShell().cmdloop()

Here is a sample session with the turtle shell showing the help
functions, using blank lines to repeat commands, and the simple record
and playback facility:

     Welcome to the turtle shell.   Type help or ? to list commands.

     (turtle) ?

     Documented commands (type help <topic>):
     ========================================
     bye     color    goto     home  playback  record  right
     circle  forward  heading  left  position  reset   undo

     (turtle) help forward
     Move the turtle forward by the specified distance:  FORWARD 10
     (turtle) record spiral.cmd
     (turtle) position
     Current position is 0 0

     (turtle) heading
     Current heading is 0

     (turtle) reset
     (turtle) circle 20
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 40
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 60
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 80
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 100
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 120
     (turtle) right 30
     (turtle) circle 120
     (turtle) heading
     Current heading is 180

     (turtle) forward 100
     (turtle)
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 100
     (turtle)
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 400
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 500
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 400
     (turtle) right 90
     (turtle) forward 300
     (turtle) playback spiral.cmd
     Current position is 0 0

     Current heading is 0

     Current heading is 180

     (turtle) bye
     Thank you for using Turtle


File: python.info,  Node: Concurrent Execution,  Next: Networking and Interprocess Communication,  Prev: Command-line interface libraries,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.19 Concurrent Execution
=========================

The modules described in this chapter provide support for concurrent
execution of code.  The appropriate choice of tool will depend on the
task to be executed (CPU bound vs IO bound) and preferred style of
development (event driven cooperative multitasking vs preemptive
multitasking).  Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* threading — Thread-based parallelism::
* multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism::
* multiprocessing.shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
* The concurrent package::
* concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks.
* concurrent.interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process.
* subprocess — Subprocess management::
* sched — Event scheduler::
* queue — A synchronized queue class::
* contextvars — Context Variables::
* _thread — Low-level threading API::


File: python.info,  Node: threading — Thread-based parallelism,  Next: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.19.1 ‘threading’ — Thread-based parallelism
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/threading.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module constructs higher-level threading interfaces on top of the
lower level *note _thread: 2. module.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<6>.
* GIL and performance considerations::
* Reference: Reference<2>.
* Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement.
* Iterator synchronization::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/threading.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<6>,  Next: GIL and performance considerations,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.19.1.1 Introduction
.....................

The ‘threading’ module provides a way to run multiple threads(1)
(smaller units of a process) concurrently within a single process.  It
allows for the creation and management of threads, making it possible to
execute tasks in parallel, sharing memory space.  Threads are
particularly useful when tasks are I/O bound, such as file operations or
making network requests, where much of the time is spent waiting for
external resources.

A typical use case for ‘threading’ includes managing a pool of worker
threads that can process multiple tasks concurrently.  Here’s a basic
example of creating and starting threads using *note Thread: 420.:

     import threading
     import time

     def crawl(link, delay=3):
         print(f"crawl started for {link}")
         time.sleep(delay)  # Blocking I/O (simulating a network request)
         print(f"crawl ended for {link}")

     links = [
         "https://python.org",
         "https://docs.python.org",
         "https://peps.python.org",
     ]

     # Start threads for each link
     threads = []
     for link in links:
         # Using `args` to pass positional arguments and `kwargs` for keyword arguments
         t = threading.Thread(target=crawl, args=(link,), kwargs={"delay": 2})
         threads.append(t)

     # Start each thread
     for t in threads:
         t.start()

     # Wait for all threads to finish
     for t in threads:
         t.join()

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: This module used to be optional, it is now
always available.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. offers a higher level
interface to push tasks to a background thread without blocking
execution of the calling thread, while still being able to retrieve
their results when needed.

*note queue: be. provides a thread-safe interface for exchanging data
between running threads.

*note asyncio: b. offers an alternative approach to achieving task level
concurrency without requiring the use of multiple operating system
threads.

     Σημείωση: In the Python 2.x series, this module contained
     ‘camelCase’ names for some methods and functions.  These are
     deprecated as of Python 3.10, but they are still supported for
     compatibility with Python 2.5 and lower.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' In CPython, due to the *note Global
Interpreter Lock: 685, only one thread can execute Python code at once
(even though certain performance-oriented libraries might overcome this
limitation).  If you want your application to make better use of the
computational resources of multi-core machines, you are advised to use
*note multiprocessing: 98. or *note
concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206.  However, threading is
still an appropriate model if you want to run multiple I/O-bound tasks
simultaneously.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thread_(computing)


File: python.info,  Node: GIL and performance considerations,  Next: Reference<2>,  Prev: Introduction<6>,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.19.1.2 GIL and performance considerations
...........................................

Unlike the *note multiprocessing: 98. module, which uses separate
processes to bypass the *note global interpreter lock: 685. (GIL), the
threading module operates within a single process, meaning that all
threads share the same memory space.  However, the GIL limits the
performance gains of threading when it comes to CPU-bound tasks, as only
one thread can execute Python bytecode at a time.  Despite this, threads
remain a useful tool for achieving concurrency in many scenarios.

As of Python 3.13, *note free-threaded: 487. builds can disable the GIL,
enabling true parallel execution of threads, but this feature is not
available by default (see PEP 703(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<2>,  Next: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement,  Prev: GIL and performance considerations,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.19.1.3 Reference
..................

This module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.active_count ()

     Return the number of *note Thread: 420. objects currently alive.
     The returned count is equal to the length of the list returned by
     *note enumerate(): 1e51.

     The function ‘activeCount’ is a deprecated alias for this function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.current_thread ()

     Return the current *note Thread: 420. object, corresponding to the
     caller’s thread of control.  If the caller’s thread of control was
     not created through the ‘threading’ module, a dummy thread object
     with limited functionality is returned.

     The function ‘currentThread’ is a deprecated alias for this
     function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.excepthook (args, /)

     Handle uncaught exception raised by *note Thread.run(): e00.

     The 'args' argument has the following attributes:

        * 'exc_type': Exception type.

        * 'exc_value': Exception value, can be ‘None’.

        * 'exc_traceback': Exception traceback, can be ‘None’.

        * 'thread': Thread which raised the exception, can be ‘None’.

     If 'exc_type' is *note SystemExit: 10f7, the exception is silently
     ignored.  Otherwise, the exception is printed out on *note
     sys.stderr: d05.

     If this function raises an exception, *note sys.excepthook(): be5.
     is called to handle it.

     *note threading.excepthook(): c23. can be overridden to control how
     uncaught exceptions raised by *note Thread.run(): e00. are handled.

     Storing 'exc_value' using a custom hook can create a reference
     cycle.  It should be cleared explicitly to break the reference
     cycle when the exception is no longer needed.

     Storing 'thread' using a custom hook can resurrect it if it is set
     to an object which is being finalized.  Avoid storing 'thread'
     after the custom hook completes to avoid resurrecting objects.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note sys.excepthook(): be5. handles uncaught exceptions.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Δεδομένα: threading.__excepthook__

     Holds the original value of *note threading.excepthook(): c23.  It
     is saved so that the original value can be restored in case they
     happen to get replaced with broken or alternative objects.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.get_ident ()

     Return the “thread identifier” of the current thread.  This is a
     nonzero integer.  Its value has no direct meaning; it is intended
     as a magic cookie to be used e.g.  to index a dictionary of
     thread-specific data.  Thread identifiers may be recycled when a
     thread exits and another thread is created.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.get_native_id ()

     Return the native integral Thread ID of the current thread assigned
     by the kernel.  This is a non-negative integer.  Its value may be
     used to uniquely identify this particular thread system-wide (until
     the thread terminates, after which the value may be recycled by the
     OS).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS,
     OpenBSD, NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD, GNU/kFreeBSD, Solaris.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added support for GNU/kFreeBSD.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added support for Solaris.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.enumerate ()

     Return a list of all *note Thread: 420. objects currently active.
     The list includes daemonic threads and dummy thread objects created
     by *note current_thread(): 33e.  It excludes terminated threads and
     threads that have not yet been started.  However, the main thread
     is always part of the result, even when terminated.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.main_thread ()

     Return the main *note Thread: 420. object.  In normal conditions,
     the main thread is the thread from which the Python interpreter was
     started.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.settrace (func)

     Set a trace function for all threads started from the ‘threading’
     module.  The 'func' will be passed to *note sys.settrace(): 55c.
     for each thread, before its *note run(): e00. method is called.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.settrace_all_threads (func)

     Set a trace function for all threads started from the ‘threading’
     module and all Python threads that are currently executing.

     The 'func' will be passed to *note sys.settrace(): 55c. for each
     thread, before its *note run(): e00. method is called.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.gettrace ()

     Get the trace function as set by *note settrace(): c20.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.setprofile (func)

     Set a profile function for all threads started from the ‘threading’
     module.  The 'func' will be passed to *note sys.setprofile(): 18a0.
     for each thread, before its *note run(): e00. method is called.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.setprofile_all_threads (func)

     Set a profile function for all threads started from the ‘threading’
     module and all Python threads that are currently executing.

     The 'func' will be passed to *note sys.setprofile(): 18a0. for each
     thread, before its *note run(): e00. method is called.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.getprofile ()

     Get the profiler function as set by *note setprofile(): c21.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.stack_size ([size])

     Return the thread stack size used when creating new threads.  The
     optional 'size' argument specifies the stack size to be used for
     subsequently created threads, and must be 0 (use platform or
     configured default) or a positive integer value of at least 32,768
     (32 KiB). If 'size' is not specified, 0 is used.  If changing the
     thread stack size is unsupported, a *note RuntimeError: 30d. is
     raised.  If the specified stack size is invalid, a *note
     ValueError: 277. is raised and the stack size is unmodified.  32
     KiB is currently the minimum supported stack size value to
     guarantee sufficient stack space for the interpreter itself.  Note
     that some platforms may have particular restrictions on values for
     the stack size, such as requiring a minimum stack size > 32 KiB or
     requiring allocation in multiples of the system memory page size -
     platform documentation should be referred to for more information
     (4 KiB pages are common; using multiples of 4096 for the stack size
     is the suggested approach in the absence of more specific
     information).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows, pthreads.

     Unix platforms with POSIX threads support.

This module also defines the following constant:

 -- Δεδομένα: threading.TIMEOUT_MAX

     The maximum value allowed for the 'timeout' parameter of blocking
     functions (*note Lock.acquire(): a87, *note RLock.acquire(): 122c,
     *note Condition.wait(): 1e5d, etc.).  Specifying a timeout greater
     than this value will raise an *note OverflowError: c57.

     Added in version 3.2.

This module defines a number of classes, which are detailed in the
sections below.

The design of this module is loosely based on Java’s threading model.
However, where Java makes locks and condition variables basic behavior
of every object, they are separate objects in Python.  Python’s *note
Thread: 420. class supports a subset of the behavior of Java’s Thread
class; currently, there are no priorities, no thread groups, and threads
cannot be destroyed, stopped, suspended, resumed, or interrupted.  The
static methods of Java’s Thread class, when implemented, are mapped to
module-level functions.

All of the methods described below are executed atomically.

* Menu:

* Thread-local data::
* Thread objects::
* Lock objects::
* RLock objects::
* Condition objects::
* Semaphore objects::
* Semaphore example::
* Event objects::
* Timer objects::
* Barrier objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Thread-local data,  Next: Thread objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.19.1.4 Thread-local data
..........................

Thread-local data is data whose values are thread specific.  If you have
data that you want to be local to a thread, create a *note local: 1a87.
object and use its attributes:

     >>> mydata = local()
     >>> mydata.number = 42
     >>> mydata.number
     42

You can also access the *note local: 1a87.-object’s dictionary:

     >>> mydata.__dict__
     {'number': 42}
     >>> mydata.__dict__.setdefault('widgets', [])
     []
     >>> mydata.widgets
     []

If we access the data in a different thread:

     >>> log = []
     >>> def f():
     ...     items = sorted(mydata.__dict__.items())
     ...     log.append(items)
     ...     mydata.number = 11
     ...     log.append(mydata.number)

     >>> import threading
     >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=f)
     >>> thread.start()
     >>> thread.join()
     >>> log
     [[], 11]

we get different data.  Furthermore, changes made in the other thread
don’t affect data seen in this thread:

     >>> mydata.number
     42

Of course, values you get from a *note local: 1a87. object, including
their *note __dict__: 1bf. attribute, are for whatever thread was
current at the time the attribute was read.  For that reason, you
generally don’t want to save these values across threads, as they apply
only to the thread they came from.

You can create custom *note local: 1a87. objects by subclassing the
‘local’ class:

     >>> class MyLocal(local):
     ...     number = 2
     ...     def __init__(self, /, **kw):
     ...         self.__dict__.update(kw)
     ...     def squared(self):
     ...         return self.number ** 2

This can be useful to support default values, methods and
initialization.  Note that if you define an *note __init__(): 2fa.
method, it will be called each time the *note local: 1a87. object is
used in a separate thread.  This is necessary to initialize each
thread’s dictionary.

Now if we create a *note local: 1a87. object:

     >>> mydata = MyLocal(color='red')

we have a default number:

     >>> mydata.number
     2

an initial color:

     >>> mydata.color
     'red'
     >>> del mydata.color

And a method that operates on the data:

     >>> mydata.squared()
     4

As before, we can access the data in a separate thread:

     >>> log = []
     >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=f)
     >>> thread.start()
     >>> thread.join()
     >>> log
     [[('color', 'red')], 11]

without affecting this thread’s data:

     >>> mydata.number
     2
     >>> mydata.color
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     AttributeError: 'MyLocal' object has no attribute 'color'

Note that subclasses can define *note __slots__: 9d9, but they are not
thread local.  They are shared across threads:

     >>> class MyLocal(local):
     ...     __slots__ = 'number'

     >>> mydata = MyLocal()
     >>> mydata.number = 42
     >>> mydata.color = 'red'

So, the separate thread:

     >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=f)
     >>> thread.start()
     >>> thread.join()

affects what we see:

     >>> mydata.number
     11

 -- Κλάση: threading.local

     A class that represents thread-local data.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread objects,  Next: Lock objects,  Prev: Thread-local data,  Up: Reference<2>

5.19.1.5 Thread objects
.......................

The *note Thread: 420. class represents an activity that is run in a
separate thread of control.  There are two ways to specify the activity:
by passing a callable object to the constructor, or by overriding the
*note run(): e00. method in a subclass.  No other methods (except for
the constructor) should be overridden in a subclass.  In other words,
'only' override the ‘__init__()’ and ‘run()’ methods of this class.

Once a thread object is created, its activity must be started by calling
the thread’s *note start(): 422. method.  This invokes the *note run():
e00. method in a separate thread of control.

Once the thread’s activity is started, the thread is considered “alive”.
It stops being alive when its *note run(): e00. method terminates –
either normally, or by raising an unhandled exception.  The *note
is_alive(): d18. method tests whether the thread is alive.

Other threads can call a thread’s *note join(): 158d. method.  This
blocks the calling thread until the thread whose ‘join()’ method is
called is terminated.

A thread has a name.  The name can be passed to the constructor, and
read or changed through the *note name: 33d. attribute.

If the *note run(): e00. method raises an exception, *note
threading.excepthook(): c23. is called to handle it.  By default,
‘threading.excepthook()’ ignores silently *note SystemExit: 10f7.

A thread can be flagged as a «daemon thread».  The significance of this
flag is that the entire Python program exits when only daemon threads
are left.  The initial value is inherited from the creating thread.  The
flag can be set through the *note daemon: 33b. property or the 'daemon'
constructor argument.

     Σημείωση: Daemon threads are abruptly stopped at shutdown.  Their
     resources (such as open files, database transactions, etc.)  may
     not be released properly.  If you want your threads to stop
     gracefully, make them non-daemonic and use a suitable signalling
     mechanism such as an *note Event: 1503.

There is a «main thread» object; this corresponds to the initial thread
of control in the Python program.  It is not a daemon thread.

There is the possibility that «dummy thread objects» are created.  These
are thread objects corresponding to «alien threads», which are threads
of control started outside the threading module, such as directly from C
code.  Dummy thread objects have limited functionality; they are always
considered alive and daemonic, and cannot be *note joined: 3867.  They
are never deleted, since it is impossible to detect the termination of
alien threads.

 -- Κλάση: threading.Thread (group=None, target=None, name=None,
          args=(), kwargs={}, *, daemon=None, context=None)

     This constructor should always be called with keyword arguments.
     Arguments are:

     'group' should be ‘None’; reserved for future extension when a
     ‘ThreadGroup’ class is implemented.

     'target' is the callable object to be invoked by the *note run():
     e00. method.  Defaults to ‘None’, meaning nothing is called.

     'name' is the thread name.  By default, a unique name is
     constructed of the form «Thread-'N'» where 'N' is a small decimal
     number, or «Thread-'N' (target)» where «target» is
     ‘target.__name__’ if the 'target' argument is specified.

     'args' is a list or tuple of arguments for the target invocation.
     Defaults to ‘()’.

     'kwargs' is a dictionary of keyword arguments for the target
     invocation.  Defaults to ‘{}’.

     If not ‘None’, 'daemon' explicitly sets whether the thread is
     daemonic.  If ‘None’ (the default), the daemonic property is
     inherited from the current thread.

     'context' is the *note Context: 421. value to use when starting the
     thread.  The default value is ‘None’ which indicates that the *note
     sys.flags.thread_inherit_context: 41f. flag controls the behaviour.
     If the flag is true, threads will start with a copy of the context
     of the caller of *note start(): 422.  If false, they will start
     with an empty context.  To explicitly start with an empty context,
     pass a new instance of *note Context(): 421.  To explicitly start
     with a copy of the current context, pass the value from *note
     copy_context(): 3868.  The flag defaults true on free-threaded
     builds and false otherwise.

     If the subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure to
     invoke the base class constructor (‘Thread.__init__()’) before
     doing anything else to the thread.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'daemon' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Use the 'target' name if 'name' argument
     is omitted.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added the 'context' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: start ()

          Start the thread’s activity.

          It must be called at most once per thread object.  It arranges
          for the object’s *note run(): e00. method to be invoked in a
          separate thread of control.

          This method will raise a *note RuntimeError: 30d. if called
          more than once on the same thread object.

          If supported, set the operating system thread name to *note
          threading.Thread.name: 33d.  The name can be truncated
          depending on the operating system thread name limits.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Set the operating system thread name.

      -- Μέθοδος: run ()

          Method representing the thread’s activity.

          You may override this method in a subclass.  The standard
          ‘run()’ method invokes the callable object passed to the
          object’s constructor as the 'target' argument, if any, with
          positional and keyword arguments taken from the 'args' and
          'kwargs' arguments, respectively.

          Using list or tuple as the 'args' argument which passed to the
          ‘Thread’ could achieve the same effect.

          Example:

               >>> from threading import Thread
               >>> t = Thread(target=print, args=[1])
               >>> t.run()
               1
               >>> t = Thread(target=print, args=(1,))
               >>> t.run()
               1

      -- Μέθοδος: join (timeout=None)

          Wait until the thread terminates.  This blocks the calling
          thread until the thread whose ‘join()’ method is called
          terminates – either normally or through an unhandled exception
          – or until the optional timeout occurs.

          When the 'timeout' argument is present and not ‘None’, it
          should be a real number specifying a timeout for the operation
          in seconds (or fractions thereof).  As ‘join()’ always returns
          ‘None’, you must call *note is_alive(): d18. after ‘join()’ to
          decide whether a timeout happened – if the thread is still
          alive, the ‘join()’ call timed out.

          When the 'timeout' argument is not present or ‘None’, the
          operation will block until the thread terminates.

          A thread can be joined many times.

          ‘join()’ raises a *note RuntimeError: 30d. if an attempt is
          made to join the current thread as that would cause a
          deadlock.  It is also an error to ‘join()’ a thread before it
          has been started and attempts to do so raise the same
          exception.

          If an attempt is made to join a running daemonic thread in
          late stages of *note Python finalization: 1a0. ‘join()’ raises
          a *note PythonFinalizationError: 68a.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: May raise *note
          PythonFinalizationError: 68a.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'timeout',
          not only integer or float.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          A string used for identification purposes only.  It has no
          semantics.  Multiple threads may be given the same name.  The
          initial name is set by the constructor.

          On some platforms, the thread name is set at the operating
          system level when the thread starts, so that it is visible in
          task managers.  This name may be truncated to fit in a
          system-specific limit (for example, 15 bytes on Linux or 63
          bytes on macOS).

          Changes to 'name' are only reflected at the OS level when the
          currently running thread is renamed.  (Setting the 'name'
          attribute of a different thread only updates the Python Thread
          object.)

      -- Μέθοδος: getName ()
      -- Μέθοδος: setName ()

          Deprecated getter/setter API for *note name: 33d.; use it
          directly as a property instead.

          Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10.

      -- Ιδιότητα: ident

          The “thread identifier” of this thread or ‘None’ if the thread
          has not been started.  This is a nonzero integer.  See the
          *note get_ident(): 1505. function.  Thread identifiers may be
          recycled when a thread exits and another thread is created.
          The identifier is available even after the thread has exited.

      -- Ιδιότητα: native_id

          The Thread ID (‘TID’) of this thread, as assigned by the OS
          (kernel).  This is a non-negative integer, or ‘None’ if the
          thread has not been started.  See the *note get_native_id():
          e01. function.  This value may be used to uniquely identify
          this particular thread system-wide (until the thread
          terminates, after which the value may be recycled by the OS).

               Σημείωση: Similar to Process IDs, Thread IDs are only
               valid (guaranteed unique system-wide) from the time the
               thread is created until the thread has been terminated.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS,
          OpenBSD, NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_alive ()

          Return whether the thread is alive.

          This method returns ‘True’ just before the *note run(): e00.
          method starts until just after the ‘run()’ method terminates.
          The module function *note enumerate(): 1e51. returns a list of
          all alive threads.

      -- Ιδιότητα: daemon

          A boolean value indicating whether this thread is a daemon
          thread (‘True’) or not (‘False’).  This must be set before
          *note start(): 422. is called, otherwise *note RuntimeError:
          30d. is raised.  Its initial value is inherited from the
          creating thread; the main thread is not a daemon thread and
          therefore all threads created in the main thread default to
          ‘daemon’ = ‘False’.

          The entire Python program exits when no alive non-daemon
          threads are left.

      -- Μέθοδος: isDaemon ()
      -- Μέθοδος: setDaemon ()

          Deprecated getter/setter API for *note daemon: 33b.; use it
          directly as a property instead.

          Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Lock objects,  Next: RLock objects,  Prev: Thread objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.19.1.6 Lock objects
.....................

A primitive lock is a synchronization primitive that is not owned by a
particular thread when locked.  In Python, it is currently the lowest
level synchronization primitive available, implemented directly by the
*note _thread: 2. extension module.

A primitive lock is in one of two states, «locked» or «unlocked».  It is
created in the unlocked state.  It has two basic methods, *note
acquire(): a87. and *note release(): 1667.  When the state is unlocked,
‘acquire()’ changes the state to locked and returns immediately.  When
the state is locked, ‘acquire()’ blocks until a call to ‘release()’ in
another thread changes it to unlocked, then the ‘acquire()’ call resets
it to locked and returns.  The ‘release()’ method should only be called
in the locked state; it changes the state to unlocked and returns
immediately.  If an attempt is made to release an unlocked lock, a *note
RuntimeError: 30d. will be raised.

Locks also support the *note context management protocol: 386d.

When more than one thread is blocked in *note acquire(): a87. waiting
for the state to turn to unlocked, only one thread proceeds when a *note
release(): 1667. call resets the state to unlocked; which one of the
waiting threads proceeds is not defined, and may vary across
implementations.

All methods are executed atomically.

 -- Κλάση: threading.Lock

     The class implementing primitive lock objects.  Once a thread has
     acquired a lock, subsequent attempts to acquire it block, until it
     is released; any thread may release it.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: ‘Lock’ is now a class.  In earlier
     Pythons, ‘Lock’ was a factory function which returned an instance
     of the underlying private lock type.

      -- Μέθοδος: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

          Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘True’ (the
          default), block until the lock is unlocked, then set it to
          locked and return ‘True’.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘False’, do
          not block.  If a call with 'blocking' set to ‘True’ would
          block, return ‘False’ immediately; otherwise, set the lock to
          locked and return ‘True’.

          When invoked with the 'timeout' argument set to a positive
          value, block for at most the number of seconds specified by
          'timeout' and as long as the lock cannot be acquired.  A
          'timeout' argument of ‘-1’ specifies an unbounded wait.  It is
          forbidden to specify a 'timeout' when 'blocking' is ‘False’.

          The return value is ‘True’ if the lock is acquired
          successfully, ‘False’ if not (for example if the 'timeout'
          expired).

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The 'timeout' parameter is new.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Lock acquisition can now be
          interrupted by signals on POSIX if the underlying threading
          implementation supports it.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Lock acquisition can now be
          interrupted by signals on Windows.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'timeout',
          not only integer or float.

      -- Μέθοδος: release ()

          Release a lock.  This can be called from any thread, not only
          the thread which has acquired the lock.

          When the lock is locked, reset it to unlocked, and return.  If
          any other threads are blocked waiting for the lock to become
          unlocked, allow exactly one of them to proceed.

          When invoked on an unlocked lock, a *note RuntimeError: 30d.
          is raised.

          There is no return value.

      -- Μέθοδος: locked ()

          Return ‘True’ if the lock is acquired.


File: python.info,  Node: RLock objects,  Next: Condition objects,  Prev: Lock objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.19.1.7 RLock objects
......................

A reentrant lock is a synchronization primitive that may be acquired
multiple times by the same thread.  Internally, it uses the concepts of
«owning thread» and «recursion level» in addition to the locked/unlocked
state used by primitive locks.  In the locked state, some thread owns
the lock; in the unlocked state, no thread owns it.

Threads call a lock’s *note acquire(): 122c. method to lock it, and its
*note release(): 1667. method to unlock it.

     Σημείωση: Reentrant locks support the *note context management
     protocol: 386d, so it is recommended to use *note with: 20a.
     instead of manually calling *note acquire(): 122c. and *note
     release(): 3871. to handle acquiring and releasing the lock for a
     block of code.

RLock’s *note acquire(): 122c./*note release(): 3871. call pairs may be
nested, unlike Lock’s *note acquire(): a87./*note release(): 1667.  Only
the final ‘release()’ (the ‘release()’ of the outermost pair) resets the
lock to an unlocked state and allows another thread blocked in
‘acquire()’ to proceed.

*note acquire(): 122c./*note release(): 3871. must be used in pairs:
each acquire must have a release in the thread that has acquired the
lock.  Failing to call release as many times the lock has been acquired
can lead to deadlock.

 -- Κλάση: threading.RLock

     This class implements reentrant lock objects.  A reentrant lock
     must be released by the thread that acquired it.  Once a thread has
     acquired a reentrant lock, the same thread may acquire it again
     without blocking; the thread must release it once for each time it
     has acquired it.

     Note that ‘RLock’ is actually a factory function which returns an
     instance of the most efficient version of the concrete RLock class
     that is supported by the platform.

      -- Μέθοδος: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

          Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

          Δείτε επίσης
          ............

          *note Using RLock as a context manager: 386d.

               Recommended over manual ‘acquire()’ and *note release():
               3871. calls whenever practical.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘True’ (the
          default):

                  * If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and
                    return immediately.

                  * If another thread owns the lock, block until we are
                    able to acquire lock, or 'timeout', if set to a
                    positive value.

                  * If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock
                    again, and return immediately.  This is the
                    difference between *note Lock: 1a10. and ‘RLock’;
                    ‘Lock’ handles this case the same as the previous,
                    blocking until the lock can be acquired.

          When invoked with the 'blocking' argument set to ‘False’:

                  * If no thread owns the lock, acquire the lock and
                    return immediately.

                  * If another thread owns the lock, return immediately.

                  * If the same thread owns the lock, acquire the lock
                    again and return immediately.

          In all cases, if the thread was able to acquire the lock,
          return ‘True’.  If the thread was unable to acquire the lock
          (i.e.  if not blocking or the timeout was reached) return
          ‘False’.

          If called multiple times, failing to call *note release():
          3871. as many times may lead to deadlock.  Consider using
          ‘RLock’ as a context manager rather than calling
          acquire/release directly.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The 'timeout' parameter is new.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'timeout',
          not only integer or float.

      -- Μέθοδος: release ()

          Release a lock, decrementing the recursion level.  If after
          the decrement it is zero, reset the lock to unlocked (not
          owned by any thread), and if any other threads are blocked
          waiting for the lock to become unlocked, allow exactly one of
          them to proceed.  If after the decrement the recursion level
          is still nonzero, the lock remains locked and owned by the
          calling thread.

          Only call this method when the calling thread owns the lock.
          A *note RuntimeError: 30d. is raised if this method is called
          when the lock is not acquired.

          There is no return value.

      -- Μέθοδος: locked ()

          Return a boolean indicating whether this object is locked
          right now.

          Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Condition objects,  Next: Semaphore objects,  Prev: RLock objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.19.1.8 Condition objects
..........................

A condition variable is always associated with some kind of lock; this
can be passed in or one will be created by default.  Passing one in is
useful when several condition variables must share the same lock.  The
lock is part of the condition object: you don’t have to track it
separately.

A condition variable obeys the *note context management protocol: 386d.:
using the ‘with’ statement acquires the associated lock for the duration
of the enclosed block.  The *note acquire(): 3874. and *note release():
3875. methods also call the corresponding methods of the associated
lock.

Other methods must be called with the associated lock held.  The *note
wait(): 1e5d. method releases the lock, and then blocks until another
thread awakens it by calling *note notify(): 1d64. or *note
notify_all(): 338.  Once awakened, ‘wait()’ re-acquires the lock and
returns.  It is also possible to specify a timeout.

The *note notify(): 1d64. method wakes up one of the threads waiting for
the condition variable, if any are waiting.  The *note notify_all():
338. method wakes up all threads waiting for the condition variable.

Note: the *note notify(): 1d64. and *note notify_all(): 338. methods
don’t release the lock; this means that the thread or threads awakened
will not return from their *note wait(): 1e5d. call immediately, but
only when the thread that called ‘notify()’ or ‘notify_all()’ finally
relinquishes ownership of the lock.

The typical programming style using condition variables uses the lock to
synchronize access to some shared state; threads that are interested in
a particular change of state call *note wait(): 1e5d. repeatedly until
they see the desired state, while threads that modify the state call
*note notify(): 1d64. or *note notify_all(): 338. when they change the
state in such a way that it could possibly be a desired state for one of
the waiters.  For example, the following code is a generic
producer-consumer situation with unlimited buffer capacity:

     # Consume one item
     with cv:
         while not an_item_is_available():
             cv.wait()
         get_an_available_item()

     # Produce one item
     with cv:
         make_an_item_available()
         cv.notify()

The ‘while’ loop checking for the application’s condition is necessary
because *note wait(): 1e5d. can return after an arbitrary long time, and
the condition which prompted the *note notify(): 1d64. call may no
longer hold true.  This is inherent to multi-threaded programming.  The
*note wait_for(): 3876. method can be used to automate the condition
checking, and eases the computation of timeouts:

     # Consume an item
     with cv:
         cv.wait_for(an_item_is_available)
         get_an_available_item()

To choose between *note notify(): 1d64. and *note notify_all(): 338,
consider whether one state change can be interesting for only one or
several waiting threads.  E.g.  in a typical producer-consumer
situation, adding one item to the buffer only needs to wake up one
consumer thread.

 -- Κλάση: threading.Condition (lock=None)

     This class implements condition variable objects.  A condition
     variable allows one or more threads to wait until they are notified
     by another thread.

     If the 'lock' argument is given and not ‘None’, it must be a *note
     Lock: 1a10. or *note RLock: 2df. object, and it is used as the
     underlying lock.  Otherwise, a new ‘RLock’ object is created and
     used as the underlying lock.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: changed from a factory function to a class.

      -- Μέθοδος: acquire (*args)

          Acquire the underlying lock.  This method calls the
          corresponding method on the underlying lock; the return value
          is whatever that method returns.

      -- Μέθοδος: release ()

          Release the underlying lock.  This method calls the
          corresponding method on the underlying lock; there is no
          return value.

      -- Μέθοδος: locked ()

          Return a boolean indicating whether this object is locked
          right now.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: wait (timeout=None)

          Wait until notified or until a timeout occurs.  If the calling
          thread has not acquired the lock when this method is called, a
          *note RuntimeError: 30d. is raised.

          This method releases the underlying lock, and then blocks
          until it is awakened by a *note notify(): 1d64. or *note
          notify_all(): 338. call for the same condition variable in
          another thread, or until the optional timeout occurs.  Once
          awakened or timed out, it re-acquires the lock and returns.

          When the 'timeout' argument is present and not ‘None’, it
          should be a real number specifying a timeout for the operation
          in seconds (or fractions thereof).

          When the underlying lock is an *note RLock: 2df, it is not
          released using its *note release(): 3875. method, since this
          may not actually unlock the lock when it was acquired multiple
          times recursively.  Instead, an internal interface of the
          ‘RLock’ class is used, which really unlocks it even when it
          has been recursively acquired several times.  Another internal
          interface is then used to restore the recursion level when the
          lock is reacquired.

          The return value is ‘True’ unless a given 'timeout' expired,
          in which case it is ‘False’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Previously, the method always returned
          ‘None’.

      -- Μέθοδος: wait_for (predicate, timeout=None)

          Wait until a condition evaluates to true.  'predicate' should
          be a callable which result will be interpreted as a boolean
          value.  A 'timeout' may be provided giving the maximum time to
          wait.

          This utility method may call *note wait(): 1e5d. repeatedly
          until the predicate is satisfied, or until a timeout occurs.
          The return value is the last return value of the predicate and
          will evaluate to ‘False’ if the method timed out.

          Ignoring the timeout feature, calling this method is roughly
          equivalent to writing:

               while not predicate():
                   cv.wait()

          Therefore, the same rules apply as with *note wait(): 1e5d.:
          The lock must be held when called and is re-acquired on
          return.  The predicate is evaluated with the lock held.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: notify (n=1)

          By default, wake up one thread waiting on this condition, if
          any.  If the calling thread has not acquired the lock when
          this method is called, a *note RuntimeError: 30d. is raised.

          This method wakes up at most 'n' of the threads waiting for
          the condition variable; it is a no-op if no threads are
          waiting.

          The current implementation wakes up exactly 'n' threads, if at
          least 'n' threads are waiting.  However, it’s not safe to rely
          on this behavior.  A future, optimized implementation may
          occasionally wake up more than 'n' threads.

          Note: an awakened thread does not actually return from its
          *note wait(): 1e5d. call until it can reacquire the lock.
          Since ‘notify()’ does not release the lock, its caller should.

      -- Μέθοδος: notify_all ()

          Wake up all threads waiting on this condition.  This method
          acts like *note notify(): 1d64, but wakes up all waiting
          threads instead of one.  If the calling thread has not
          acquired the lock when this method is called, a *note
          RuntimeError: 30d. is raised.

          The method ‘notifyAll’ is a deprecated alias for this method.


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore objects,  Next: Semaphore example,  Prev: Condition objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.19.1.9 Semaphore objects
..........................

This is one of the oldest synchronization primitives in the history of
computer science, invented by the early Dutch computer scientist Edsger
W. Dijkstra (he used the names ‘P()’ and ‘V()’ instead of *note
acquire(): 15f8. and *note release(): 387a.).

A semaphore manages an internal counter which is decremented by each
*note acquire(): 15f8. call and incremented by each *note release():
387a. call.  The counter can never go below zero; when ‘acquire()’ finds
that it is zero, it blocks, waiting until some other thread calls
‘release()’.

Semaphores also support the *note context management protocol: 386d.

 -- Κλάση: threading.Semaphore (value=1)

     This class implements semaphore objects.  A semaphore manages an
     atomic counter representing the number of *note release(): 387a.
     calls minus the number of *note acquire(): 15f8. calls, plus an
     initial value.  The ‘acquire()’ method blocks if necessary until it
     can return without making the counter negative.  If not given,
     'value' defaults to 1.

     The optional argument gives the initial 'value' for the internal
     counter; it defaults to ‘1’.  If the 'value' given is less than 0,
     *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: changed from a factory function to a class.

      -- Μέθοδος: acquire (blocking=True, timeout=None)

          Acquire a semaphore.

          When invoked without arguments:

             * If the internal counter is larger than zero on entry,
               decrement it by one and return ‘True’ immediately.

             * If the internal counter is zero on entry, block until
               awoken by a call to *note release(): 387a.  Once awoken
               (and the counter is greater than 0), decrement the
               counter by 1 and return ‘True’.  Exactly one thread will
               be awoken by each call to ‘release()’.  The order in
               which threads are awoken should not be relied on.

          When invoked with 'blocking' set to ‘False’, do not block.  If
          a call without an argument would block, return ‘False’
          immediately; otherwise, do the same thing as when called
          without arguments, and return ‘True’.

          When invoked with a 'timeout' other than ‘None’, it will block
          for at most 'timeout' seconds.  If acquire does not complete
          successfully in that interval, return ‘False’.  Return ‘True’
          otherwise.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The 'timeout' parameter is new.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'timeout',
          not only integer or float.

      -- Μέθοδος: release (n=1)

          Release a semaphore, incrementing the internal counter by 'n'.
          When it was zero on entry and other threads are waiting for it
          to become larger than zero again, wake up 'n' of those
          threads.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added the 'n' parameter to release
          multiple waiting threads at once.

 -- Κλάση: threading.BoundedSemaphore (value=1)

     Class implementing bounded semaphore objects.  A bounded semaphore
     checks to make sure its current value doesn’t exceed its initial
     value.  If it does, *note ValueError: 277. is raised.  In most
     situations semaphores are used to guard resources with limited
     capacity.  If the semaphore is released too many times it’s a sign
     of a bug.  If not given, 'value' defaults to 1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: changed from a factory function to a class.


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore example,  Next: Event objects,  Prev: Semaphore objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.19.1.10 ‘Semaphore’ example
.............................

Semaphores are often used to guard resources with limited capacity, for
example, a database server.  In any situation where the size of the
resource is fixed, you should use a bounded semaphore.  Before spawning
any worker threads, your main thread would initialize the semaphore:

     maxconnections = 5
     # ...
     pool_sema = BoundedSemaphore(value=maxconnections)

Once spawned, worker threads call the semaphore’s acquire and release
methods when they need to connect to the server:

     with pool_sema:
         conn = connectdb()
         try:
             # ... use connection ...
         finally:
             conn.close()

The use of a bounded semaphore reduces the chance that a programming
error which causes the semaphore to be released more than it’s acquired
will go undetected.


File: python.info,  Node: Event objects,  Next: Timer objects,  Prev: Semaphore example,  Up: Reference<2>

5.19.1.11 Event objects
.......................

This is one of the simplest mechanisms for communication between
threads: one thread signals an event and other threads wait for it.

An event object manages an internal flag that can be set to true with
the *note set(): 387f. method and reset to false with the *note clear():
3880. method.  The *note wait(): 16cb. method blocks until the flag is
true.

 -- Κλάση: threading.Event

     Class implementing event objects.  An event manages a flag that can
     be set to true with the *note set(): 387f. method and reset to
     false with the *note clear(): 3880. method.  The *note wait():
     16cb. method blocks until the flag is true.  The flag is initially
     false.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: changed from a factory function to a class.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_set ()

          Return ‘True’ if and only if the internal flag is true.

          The method ‘isSet’ is a deprecated alias for this method.

      -- Μέθοδος: set ()

          Set the internal flag to true.  All threads waiting for it to
          become true are awakened.  Threads that call *note wait():
          16cb. once the flag is true will not block at all.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear ()

          Reset the internal flag to false.  Subsequently, threads
          calling *note wait(): 16cb. will block until *note set():
          387f. is called to set the internal flag to true again.

      -- Μέθοδος: wait (timeout=None)

          Block as long as the internal flag is false and the timeout,
          if given, has not expired.  The return value represents the
          reason that this blocking method returned; ‘True’ if returning
          because the internal flag is set to true, or ‘False’ if a
          timeout is given and the internal flag did not become true
          within the given wait time.

          When the timeout argument is present and not ‘None’, it should
          be a real number specifying a timeout for the operation in
          seconds, or fractions thereof.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Previously, the method always returned
          ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Timer objects,  Next: Barrier objects,  Prev: Event objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.19.1.12 Timer objects
.......................

This class represents an action that should be run only after a certain
amount of time has passed — a timer.  *note Timer: 1504. is a subclass
of *note Thread: 420. and as such also functions as an example of
creating custom threads.

Timers are started, as with threads, by calling their *note Timer.start:
422. method.  The timer can be stopped (before its action has begun) by
calling the *note cancel(): 3883. method.  The interval the timer will
wait before executing its action may not be exactly the same as the
interval specified by the user.

For example:

     def hello():
         print("hello, world")

     t = Timer(30.0, hello)
     t.start()  # after 30 seconds, "hello, world" will be printed

 -- Κλάση: threading.Timer (interval, function, args=None, kwargs=None)

     Create a timer that will run 'function' with arguments 'args' and
     keyword arguments 'kwargs', after 'interval' seconds have passed.
     If 'args' is ‘None’ (the default) then an empty list will be used.
     If 'kwargs' is ‘None’ (the default) then an empty dict will be
     used.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: changed from a factory function to a class.

      -- Μέθοδος: cancel ()

          Stop the timer, and cancel the execution of the timer’s
          action.  This will only work if the timer is still in its
          waiting stage.


File: python.info,  Node: Barrier objects,  Prev: Timer objects,  Up: Reference<2>

5.19.1.13 Barrier objects
.........................

Added in version 3.2.

This class provides a simple synchronization primitive for use by a
fixed number of threads that need to wait for each other.  Each of the
threads tries to pass the barrier by calling the *note wait(): 3885.
method and will block until all of the threads have made their ‘wait()’
calls.  At this point, the threads are released simultaneously.

The barrier can be reused any number of times for the same number of
threads.

As an example, here is a simple way to synchronize a client and server
thread:

     b = Barrier(2, timeout=5)

     def server():
         start_server()
         b.wait()
         while True:
             connection = accept_connection()
             process_server_connection(connection)

     def client():
         b.wait()
         while True:
             connection = make_connection()
             process_client_connection(connection)

 -- Κλάση: threading.Barrier (parties, action=None, timeout=None)

     Create a barrier object for 'parties' number of threads.  An
     'action', when provided, is a callable to be called by one of the
     threads when they are released.  'timeout' is the default timeout
     value if none is specified for the *note wait(): 3885. method.

      -- Μέθοδος: wait (timeout=None)

          Pass the barrier.  When all the threads party to the barrier
          have called this function, they are all released
          simultaneously.  If a 'timeout' is provided, it is used in
          preference to any that was supplied to the class constructor.

          The return value is an integer in the range 0 to 'parties' –
          1, different for each thread.  This can be used to select a
          thread to do some special housekeeping, e.g.:

               i = barrier.wait()
               if i == 0:
                   # Only one thread needs to print this
                   print("passed the barrier")

          If an 'action' was provided to the constructor, one of the
          threads will have called it prior to being released.  Should
          this call raise an error, the barrier is put into the broken
          state.

          If the call times out, the barrier is put into the broken
          state.

          This method may raise a *note BrokenBarrierError: 158e.
          exception if the barrier is broken or reset while a thread is
          waiting.

      -- Μέθοδος: reset ()

          Return the barrier to the default, empty state.  Any threads
          waiting on it will receive the *note BrokenBarrierError: 158e.
          exception.

          Note that using this function may require some external
          synchronization if there are other threads whose state is
          unknown.  If a barrier is broken it may be better to just
          leave it and create a new one.

      -- Μέθοδος: abort ()

          Put the barrier into a broken state.  This causes any active
          or future calls to *note wait(): 3885. to fail with the *note
          BrokenBarrierError: 158e.  Use this for example if one of the
          threads needs to abort, to avoid deadlocking the application.

          It may be preferable to simply create the barrier with a
          sensible 'timeout' value to automatically guard against one of
          the threads going awry.

      -- Ιδιότητα: parties

          The number of threads required to pass the barrier.

      -- Ιδιότητα: n_waiting

          The number of threads currently waiting in the barrier.

      -- Ιδιότητα: broken

          A boolean that is ‘True’ if the barrier is in the broken
          state.

 -- Εξαίρεση: threading.BrokenBarrierError

     This exception, a subclass of *note RuntimeError: 30d, is raised
     when the *note Barrier: 158c. object is reset or broken.


File: python.info,  Node: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement,  Next: Iterator synchronization,  Prev: Reference<2>,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.19.1.14 Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the ‘with’ statement
.........................................................................

All of the objects provided by this module that have ‘acquire’ and
‘release’ methods can be used as context managers for a *note with: 20a.
statement.  The ‘acquire’ method will be called when the block is
entered, and ‘release’ will be called when the block is exited.  Hence,
the following snippet:

     with some_lock:
         # do something...

is equivalent to:

     some_lock.acquire()
     try:
         # do something...
     finally:
         some_lock.release()

Currently, *note Lock: 1a10, *note RLock: 2df, *note Condition: 1500,
*note Semaphore: 1501, and *note BoundedSemaphore: 1502. objects may be
used as *note with: 20a. statement context managers.


File: python.info,  Node: Iterator synchronization,  Prev: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement,  Up: threading — Thread-based parallelism

5.19.1.15 Iterator synchronization
..................................

By default, Python iterators do not support concurrent access.  Most
iterators make no guarantees when accessed simultaneously from multiple
threads.  Generator iterators, for example, raise *note ValueError: 277.
if one of their iterator methods is called while the generator is
already executing.  The tools in this section allow reliable concurrency
support to be added to ordinary iterators and iterator-producing
callables.

The *note serialize_iterator: 27f. wrapper lets multiple threads share a
single iterator and take turns consuming from it.  While one thread is
running ‘__next__()’, the others block until the iterator becomes
available.  Each value produced by the underlying iterator is delivered
to exactly one caller.

The *note concurrent_tee(): 281. function lets multiple threads each
receive the full stream of values from one underlying iterator.  It
creates independent iterators that all draw from the same source.
Values are buffered until consumed by all of the derived iterators.

 -- Κλάση: threading.serialize_iterator (iterable)

     Return an iterator wrapper that serializes concurrent calls to
     *note __next__(): 1672. using a lock.

     If the wrapped iterator also defines *note send(): 260f, *note
     throw(): 905, or *note close(): 199e, those calls are serialized as
     well.

     This makes it possible to share a single iterator, including a
     generator iterator, between multiple threads.  A lock ensures that
     calls are handled one at a time.  No values are duplicated or
     skipped by the wrapper itself.  Each item from the underlying
     iterator is given to exactly one caller.

     This wrapper does not copy or buffer values.  Threads that call
     *note next(): bb5. while another thread is already advancing the
     iterator will block until the active call completes.

     Example:

          import threading

          def squares(n):
              for x in range(n):
                  yield x * x

          def consume(name, iterable):
              for item in iterable:
                  print(name, item)

          source = threading.serialize_iterator(squares(5))

          t1 = threading.Thread(target=consume, args=("left", source))
          t2 = threading.Thread(target=consume, args=("right", source))
          t1.start()
          t2.start()
          t1.join()
          t2.join()

     In this example, each number is printed exactly once, but the work
     is shared between the two threads.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.synchronized_iterator (func)

     Wrap an iterator-producing callable so that each iterator it
     returns is automatically passed through *note serialize_iterator:
     27f.

     This is especially useful as a *note decorator: b18. for generator
     functions, allowing their generator-iterators to be consumed from
     multiple threads.

     Example:

          import threading

          @threading.synchronized_iterator
          def squares(n):
              for x in range(n):
                  yield x * x

          def consume(name, iterable):
              for item in iterable:
                  print(name, item)

          source = squares(5)

          t1 = threading.Thread(target=consume, args=("left", source))
          t2 = threading.Thread(target=consume, args=("right", source))
          t1.start()
          t2.start()
          t1.join()
          t2.join()

     The returned wrapper preserves the metadata of 'func', such as its
     name and wrapped function reference.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: threading.concurrent_tee (iterable, n=2)

     Return 'n' independent iterators from a single input 'iterable',
     with guaranteed behavior when the derived iterators are consumed
     concurrently.

     This function is similar to *note itertools.tee(): 2dc2, but is
     intended for cases where the source iterator may feed consumers
     running in different threads.  Each returned iterator yields every
     value from the underlying iterable, in the same order.

     Internally, values are buffered until every derived iterator has
     consumed them.

     The returned iterators share the same underlying synchronization
     lock.  Each individual derived iterator is intended to be consumed
     by one thread at a time.  If a single derived iterator must itself
     be shared by multiple threads, wrap it with *note
     serialize_iterator: 27f.

     If 'n' is ‘0’, return an empty tuple.  If 'n' is negative, raise
     *note ValueError: 277.

     Example:

          import threading

          def squares(n):
              for x in range(n):
                  yield x * x

          def consume(name, iterable):
              for item in iterable:
                  print(name, item)

          source = squares(5)
          left, right = threading.concurrent_tee(source)

          t1 = threading.Thread(target=consume, args=("left", left))
          t2 = threading.Thread(target=consume, args=("right", right))
          t1.start()
          t2.start()
          t1.join()
          t2.join()

     In this example, both consumer threads see the full sequence of
     squares from a single generator expression.

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism,  Next: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes,  Prev: threading — Thread-based parallelism,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.19.2 ‘multiprocessing’ — Process-based parallelism
----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/multiprocessing/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 244d. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<7>.
* Reference: Reference<3>.
* Programming guidelines::
* Examples: Examples<12>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/multiprocessing/


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<7>,  Next: Reference<3>,  Up: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

5.19.2.1 Introduction
.....................

‘multiprocessing’ is a package that supports spawning processes using an
API similar to the *note threading: f6. module.  The ‘multiprocessing’
package offers both local and remote concurrency, effectively
side-stepping the *note Global Interpreter Lock: 685. by using
subprocesses instead of threads.  Due to this, the ‘multiprocessing’
module allows the programmer to fully leverage multiple processors on a
given machine.  It runs on both POSIX and Windows.

The ‘multiprocessing’ module also introduces the *note Pool: 1315.
object which offers a convenient means of parallelizing the execution of
a function across multiple input values, distributing the input data
across processes (data parallelism).  The following example demonstrates
the common practice of defining such functions in a module so that child
processes can successfully import that module.  This basic example of
data parallelism using ‘Pool’,

     from multiprocessing import Pool

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with Pool(5) as p:
             print(p.map(f, [1, 2, 3]))

will print to standard output

     [1, 4, 9]

The ‘multiprocessing’ module also introduces APIs which do not have
analogs in the *note threading: f6. module, like the ability to *note
terminate: 1a7f, *note interrupt: 4dd. or *note kill: f15. a running
process.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. offers a higher level
interface to push tasks to a background process without blocking
execution of the calling process.  Compared to using the *note Pool:
1315. interface directly, the *note concurrent.futures: 24. API more
readily allows the submission of work to the underlying process pool to
be separated from waiting for the results.

* Menu:

* The Process class::
* Contexts and start methods::
* Exchanging objects between processes::
* Synchronization between processes::
* Sharing state between processes::
* Using a pool of workers::


File: python.info,  Node: The Process class,  Next: Contexts and start methods,  Up: Introduction<7>

5.19.2.2 The ‘Process’ class
............................

In ‘multiprocessing’, processes are spawned by creating a *note Process:
4de. object and then calling its *note start(): 1735. method.  ‘Process’
follows the API of *note threading.Thread: 420.  A trivial example of a
multiprocess program is

     from multiprocessing import Process

     def f(name):
         print('hello', name)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
         p.start()
         p.join()

To show the individual process IDs involved, here is an expanded
example:

     from multiprocessing import Process
     import os

     def info(title):
         print(title)
         print('module name:', __name__)
         print('parent process:', os.getppid())
         print('process id:', os.getpid())

     def f(name):
         info('function f')
         print('hello', name)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         info('main line')
         p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
         p.start()
         p.join()

For an explanation of why the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ part is
necessary, see *note Programming guidelines: 3892.

The arguments to *note Process: 4de. usually need to be unpickleable
from within the child process.  If you tried typing the above example
directly into a REPL it could lead to an *note AttributeError: 1a9. in
the child process trying to locate the 'f' function in the ‘__main__’
module.


File: python.info,  Node: Contexts and start methods,  Next: Exchanging objects between processes,  Prev: The Process class,  Up: Introduction<7>

5.19.2.3 Contexts and start methods
...................................

Depending on the platform, ‘multiprocessing’ supports three ways to
start a process.  These 'start methods' are

     'spawn'

          The parent process starts a fresh Python interpreter process.
          The child process will only inherit those resources necessary
          to run the process object’s *note run(): 3894. method.  In
          particular, unnecessary file descriptors and handles from the
          parent process will not be inherited.  Starting a process
          using this method is rather slow compared to using 'fork' or
          'forkserver'.

          Available on POSIX and Windows platforms.  The default on
          Windows and macOS.

     'fork'

          The parent process uses *note os.fork(): 6bd. to fork the
          Python interpreter.  The child process, when it begins, is
          effectively identical to the parent process.  All resources of
          the parent are inherited by the child process.  Note that
          safely forking a multithreaded process is problematic.

          Available on POSIX systems.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: This is no longer the default start
          method on any platform.  Code that requires 'fork' must
          explicitly specify that via *note get_context(): 4d6. or *note
          set_start_method(): 4d7.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: If Python is able to detect that your
          process has multiple threads, the *note os.fork(): 6bd.
          function that this start method calls internally will raise a
          *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  Use a different start method.
          See the ‘os.fork()’ documentation for further explanation.

     'forkserver'

          When the program starts and selects the 'forkserver' start
          method, a server process is spawned.  From then on, whenever a
          new process is needed, the parent process connects to the
          server and requests that it fork a new process.  The fork
          server process is single threaded unless system libraries or
          preloaded imports spawn threads as a side-effect so it is
          generally safe for it to use *note os.fork(): 6bd.  No
          unnecessary resources are inherited.

          Available on POSIX platforms which support passing file
          descriptors over Unix pipes such as Linux.  The default on
          those.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: This became the default start method
          on POSIX platforms.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: 'spawn' added on all POSIX platforms, and
'forkserver' added for some POSIX platforms.  Child processes no longer
inherit all of the parents inheritable handles on Windows.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: On macOS, the 'spawn' start method is now the
default.  The 'fork' start method should be considered unsafe as it can
lead to crashes of the subprocess as macOS system libraries may start
threads.  See bpo-33725(1).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: On POSIX platforms the default start method was
changed from 'fork' to 'forkserver' to retain the performance but avoid
common multithreaded process incompatibilities.  See gh-84559(2).

On POSIX using the 'spawn' or 'forkserver' start methods will also start
a 'resource tracker' process which tracks the unlinked named system
resources (such as named semaphores or *note SharedMemory: 1be1.
objects) created by processes of the program.  When all processes have
exited the resource tracker unlinks any remaining tracked object.
Usually there should be none, but if a process was killed by a signal
there may be some «leaked» resources.  (Neither leaked semaphores nor
shared memory segments will be automatically unlinked until the next
reboot.  This is problematic for both objects because the system allows
only a limited number of named semaphores, and shared memory segments
occupy some space in the main memory.)

To select a start method you use the *note set_start_method(): 4d7. in
the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ clause of the main module.  For example:

     import multiprocessing as mp

     def foo(q):
         q.put('hello')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         mp.set_start_method('spawn')
         q = mp.Queue()
         p = mp.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
         p.start()
         print(q.get())
         p.join()

*note set_start_method(): 4d7. should not be used more than once in the
program.

Alternatively, you can use *note get_context(): 4d6. to obtain a context
object.  Context objects have the same API as the multiprocessing
module, and allow one to use multiple start methods in the same program.

     import multiprocessing as mp

     def foo(q):
         q.put('hello')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         ctx = mp.get_context('spawn')
         q = ctx.Queue()
         p = ctx.Process(target=foo, args=(q,))
         p.start()
         print(q.get())
         p.join()

Note that objects related to one context may not be compatible with
processes for a different context.  In particular, locks created using
the 'fork' context cannot be passed to processes started using the
'spawn' or 'forkserver' start methods.

Libraries using ‘multiprocessing’ or *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206.
should be designed to allow their users to provide their own
multiprocessing context.  Using a specific context of your own within a
library can lead to incompatibilities with the rest of the library
user’s application.  Always document if your library requires a specific
start method.

     Προειδοποίηση: The ‘'spawn'’ and ‘'forkserver'’ start methods
     generally cannot be used with «frozen» executables (i.e., binaries
     produced by packages like 'PyInstaller' and 'cx_Freeze') on POSIX
     systems.  The ‘'fork'’ start method may work if code does not use
     threads.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559


File: python.info,  Node: Exchanging objects between processes,  Next: Synchronization between processes,  Prev: Contexts and start methods,  Up: Introduction<7>

5.19.2.4 Exchanging objects between processes
.............................................

‘multiprocessing’ supports two types of communication channel between
processes:

'Queues'

     The *note Queue: 1d85. class is a near clone of *note queue.Queue:
     1738.  For example:

          from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

          def f(q):
              q.put([42, None, 'hello'])

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              q = Queue()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(q,))
              p.start()
              print(q.get())    # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
              p.join()

     Queues are thread and process safe.  Any object put into a
     ‘multiprocessing’ queue will be serialized.

'Pipes'

     The *note Pipe(): 3896. function returns a pair of connection
     objects connected by a pipe which by default is duplex (two-way).
     For example:

          from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe

          def f(conn):
              conn.send([42, None, 'hello'])
              conn.close()

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              parent_conn, child_conn = Pipe()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(child_conn,))
              p.start()
              print(parent_conn.recv())   # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
              p.join()

     The two connection objects returned by *note Pipe(): 3896.
     represent the two ends of the pipe.  Each connection object has
     ‘send()’ and ‘recv()’ methods (among others).  Note that data in a
     pipe may become corrupted if two processes (or threads) try to read
     from or write to the 'same' end of the pipe at the same time.  Of
     course there is no risk of corruption from processes using
     different ends of the pipe at the same time.

     The ‘send()’ method serializes the object and ‘recv()’ re-creates
     the object.


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronization between processes,  Next: Sharing state between processes,  Prev: Exchanging objects between processes,  Up: Introduction<7>

5.19.2.5 Synchronization between processes
..........................................

‘multiprocessing’ contains equivalents of all the synchronization
primitives from *note threading: f6.  For instance one can use a lock to
ensure that only one process prints to standard output at a time:

     from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

     def f(l, i):
         l.acquire()
         try:
             print('hello world', i)
         finally:
             l.release()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         lock = Lock()

         for num in range(10):
             Process(target=f, args=(lock, num)).start()

Without using the lock output from the different processes is liable to
get all mixed up.


File: python.info,  Node: Sharing state between processes,  Next: Using a pool of workers,  Prev: Synchronization between processes,  Up: Introduction<7>

5.19.2.6 Sharing state between processes
........................................

As mentioned above, when doing concurrent programming it is usually best
to avoid using shared state as far as possible.  This is particularly
true when using multiple processes.

However, if you really do need to use some shared data then
‘multiprocessing’ provides a couple of ways of doing so.

'Shared memory'

     Data can be stored in a shared memory map using *note Value: 3899.
     or *note Array: 389a.  For example, the following code

          from multiprocessing import Process, Value, Array

          def f(n, a):
              n.value = 3.1415927
              for i in range(len(a)):
                  a[i] = -a[i]

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              num = Value('d', 0.0)
              arr = Array('i', range(10))

              p = Process(target=f, args=(num, arr))
              p.start()
              p.join()

              print(num.value)
              print(arr[:])

     will print

          3.1415927
          [0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]

     The ‘'d'’ and ‘'i'’ arguments used when creating ‘num’ and ‘arr’
     are typecodes of the kind used by the *note array: 8. module: ‘'d'’
     indicates a double precision float and ‘'i'’ indicates a signed
     integer.  These shared objects will be process and thread-safe.

     For more flexibility in using shared memory one can use the *note
     multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 9e. module which supports the
     creation of arbitrary ctypes objects allocated from shared memory.

'Server process'

     A manager object returned by *note Manager(): 4dc. controls a
     server process which holds Python objects and allows other
     processes to manipulate them using proxies.

     A manager returned by *note Manager(): 4dc. will support types
     *note list: 4d9, *note dict: 188, *note set: 42b, *note Namespace:
     389b, *note Lock: 1a7c, *note RLock: 1a7d, *note Semaphore: 389c,
     *note BoundedSemaphore: 389d, *note Condition: 389e, *note Event:
     1dfd, *note Barrier: 389f, *note Queue: 1d85, *note Value: 3899.
     and *note Array: 389a.  For example,

          from multiprocessing import Process, Manager

          def f(d, l, s):
              d[1] = '1'
              d['2'] = 2
              d[0.25] = None
              l.reverse()
              s.add('a')
              s.add('b')

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              with Manager() as manager:
                  d = manager.dict()
                  l = manager.list(range(10))
                  s = manager.set()

                  p = Process(target=f, args=(d, l, s))
                  p.start()
                  p.join()

                  print(d)
                  print(l)
                  print(s)

     will print

          {0.25: None, 1: '1', '2': 2}
          [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]
          {'a', 'b'}

     Server process managers are more flexible than using shared memory
     objects because they can be made to support arbitrary object types.
     Also, a single manager can be shared by processes on different
     computers over a network.  They are, however, slower than using
     shared memory.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a pool of workers,  Prev: Sharing state between processes,  Up: Introduction<7>

5.19.2.7 Using a pool of workers
................................

The *note Pool: 1315. class represents a pool of worker processes.  It
has methods which allows tasks to be offloaded to the worker processes
in a few different ways.

For example:

     from multiprocessing import Pool, TimeoutError
     import time
     import os

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         # start 4 worker processes
         with Pool(processes=4) as pool:

             # print "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"
             print(pool.map(f, range(10)))

             # print same numbers in arbitrary order
             for i in pool.imap_unordered(f, range(10)):
                 print(i)

             # evaluate "f(20)" asynchronously
             res = pool.apply_async(f, (20,))      # runs in *only* one process
             print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints "400"

             # evaluate "os.getpid()" asynchronously
             res = pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) # runs in *only* one process
             print(res.get(timeout=1))             # prints the PID of that process

             # launching multiple evaluations asynchronously *may* use more processes
             multiple_results = [pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) for i in range(4)]
             print([res.get(timeout=1) for res in multiple_results])

             # make a single worker sleep for 10 seconds
             res = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
             try:
                 print(res.get(timeout=1))
             except TimeoutError:
                 print("We lacked patience and got a multiprocessing.TimeoutError")

             print("For the moment, the pool remains available for more work")

         # exiting the 'with'-block has stopped the pool
         print("Now the pool is closed and no longer available")

Note that the methods of a pool should only ever be used by the process
which created it.

     Σημείωση: Functionality within this package requires that the
     ‘__main__’ module be importable by the children.  This is covered
     in *note Programming guidelines: 3892. however it is worth pointing
     out here.  This means that some examples, such as the *note
     multiprocessing.pool.Pool: 1315. examples will not work in the
     interactive interpreter.  For example:

          >>> from multiprocessing import Pool
          >>> p = Pool(5)
          >>> def f(x):
          ...     return x*x
          ...
          >>> with p:
          ...     p.map(f, [1,2,3])
          Process PoolWorker-1:
          Process PoolWorker-2:
          Process PoolWorker-3:
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>
          AttributeError: Can't get attribute 'f' on <module '__main__' (<class '_frozen_importlib.BuiltinImporter'>)>

     (If you try this it will actually output three full tracebacks
     interleaved in a semi-random fashion, and then you may have to stop
     the parent process somehow.)


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<3>,  Next: Programming guidelines,  Prev: Introduction<7>,  Up: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

5.19.2.8 Reference
..................

The ‘multiprocessing’ package mostly replicates the API of the *note
threading: f6. module.

* Menu:

* Global start method::
* Process and exceptions::
* Pipes and Queues::
* Miscellaneous: Miscellaneous<3>.
* Connection Objects::
* Synchronization primitives::
* Shared ctypes Objects::
* Managers::
* Proxy Objects::
* Process Pools::
* Listeners and Clients::
* Authentication keys::
* Logging: Logging<2>.
* The multiprocessing.dummy module: The multiprocessing dummy module.


File: python.info,  Node: Global start method,  Next: Process and exceptions,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.9 Global start method
............................

Python supports several ways to create and initialize a process.  The
global start method sets the default mechanism for creating a process.

Several multiprocessing functions and methods that may also instantiate
certain objects will implicitly set the global start method to the
system’s default, if it hasn’t been set already.  The global start
method can only be set once.  If you need to change the start method
from the system default, you must proactively set the global start
method before calling functions or methods, or creating these objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Process and exceptions,  Next: Pipes and Queues,  Prev: Global start method,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.10 ‘Process’ and exceptions
..................................

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.Process (group=None, target=None, name=None,
          args=(), kwargs={}, *, daemon=None)

     Process objects represent activity that is run in a separate
     process.  The ‘Process’ class has equivalents of all the methods of
     *note threading.Thread: 420.

     The constructor should always be called with keyword arguments.
     'group' should always be ‘None’; it exists solely for compatibility
     with *note threading.Thread: 420.  'target' is the callable object
     to be invoked by the *note run(): 3894. method.  It defaults to
     ‘None’, meaning nothing is called.  'name' is the process name (see
     *note name: 38a5. for more details).  'args' is the argument tuple
     for the target invocation.  'kwargs' is a dictionary of keyword
     arguments for the target invocation.  If provided, the keyword-only
     'daemon' argument sets the process *note daemon: 38a6. flag to
     ‘True’ or ‘False’.  If ‘None’ (the default), this flag will be
     inherited from the creating process.

     By default, no arguments are passed to 'target'.  The 'args'
     argument, which defaults to ‘()’, can be used to specify a list or
     tuple of the arguments to pass to 'target'.

     If a subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure it
     invokes the base class constructor (‘super().__init__()’) before
     doing anything else to the process.

          Σημείωση: In general, all arguments to ‘Process’ must be
          picklable.  This is frequently observed when trying to create
          a ‘Process’ or use a *note
          concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. from a REPL with
          a locally defined 'target' function.

          Passing a callable object defined in the current REPL session
          causes the child process to die via an uncaught *note
          AttributeError: 1a9. exception when starting as 'target' must
          have been defined within an importable module in order to be
          loaded during unpickling.

          Example of this uncatchable error from the child:

               >>> import multiprocessing as mp
               >>> def knigit():
               ...     print("Ni!")
               ...
               >>> process = mp.Process(target=knigit)
               >>> process.start()
               >>> Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File ".../multiprocessing/spawn.py", line ..., in spawn_main
                 File ".../multiprocessing/spawn.py", line ..., in _main
               AttributeError: module '__main__' has no attribute 'knigit'
               >>> process
               <SpawnProcess name='SpawnProcess-1' pid=379473 parent=378707 stopped exitcode=1>

          See *note The spawn and forkserver start methods: 38a7.  While
          this restriction is not true if using the ‘"fork"’ start
          method, as of Python ‘3.14’ that is no longer the default on
          any platform.  See *note Contexts and start methods: 46d.  See
          also gh-132898(1).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'daemon' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: run ()

          Method representing the process’s activity.

          You may override this method in a subclass.  The standard
          ‘run()’ method invokes the callable object passed to the
          object’s constructor as the target argument, if any, with
          sequential and keyword arguments taken from the 'args' and
          'kwargs' arguments, respectively.

          Using a list or tuple as the 'args' argument passed to
          ‘Process’ achieves the same effect.

          Example:

               >>> from multiprocessing import Process
               >>> p = Process(target=print, args=[1])
               >>> p.run()
               1
               >>> p = Process(target=print, args=(1,))
               >>> p.run()
               1

      -- Μέθοδος: start ()

          Start the process’s activity.

          This must be called at most once per process object.  It
          arranges for the object’s *note run(): 3894. method to be
          invoked in a separate process.

      -- Μέθοδος: join ([timeout])

          If the optional argument 'timeout' is ‘None’ (the default),
          the method blocks until the process whose ‘join()’ method is
          called terminates.  If 'timeout' is a positive number, it
          blocks at most 'timeout' seconds.  Note that the method
          returns ‘None’ if its process terminates or if the method
          times out.  Check the process’s *note exitcode: 38a8. to
          determine if it terminated.

          A process can be joined many times.

          A process cannot join itself because this would cause a
          deadlock.  It is an error to attempt to join a process before
          it has been started.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The process’s name.  The name is a string used for
          identification purposes only.  It has no semantics.  Multiple
          processes may be given the same name.

          The initial name is set by the constructor.  If no explicit
          name is provided to the constructor, a name of the form
          “Process-N[1]:N[2]:…:N[k]” is constructed, where each N[k] is
          the N-th child of its parent.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_alive ()

          Return whether the process is alive.

          Roughly, a process object is alive from the moment the *note
          start(): 1735. method returns until the child process
          terminates.

      -- Ιδιότητα: daemon

          The process’s daemon flag, a Boolean value.  This must be set
          before *note start(): 1735. is called.

          The initial value is inherited from the creating process.

          When a process exits, it attempts to terminate all of its
          daemonic child processes.

          Note that a daemonic process is not allowed to create child
          processes.  Otherwise a daemonic process would leave its
          children orphaned if it gets terminated when its parent
          process exits.  Additionally, these are 'not' Unix daemons or
          services, they are normal processes that will be terminated
          (and not joined) if non-daemonic processes have exited.

     In addition to the *note threading.Thread: 420. API, ‘Process’
     objects also support the following attributes and methods:

      -- Ιδιότητα: pid

          Return the process ID. Before the process is spawned, this
          will be ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: exitcode

          The child’s exit code.  This will be ‘None’ if the process has
          not yet terminated.

          If the child’s *note run(): 3894. method returned normally,
          the exit code will be 0.  If it terminated via *note
          sys.exit(): 4ff. with an integer argument 'N', the exit code
          will be 'N'.

          If the child terminated due to an exception not caught within
          *note run(): 3894, the exit code will be 1.  If it was
          terminated by signal 'N', the exit code will be the negative
          value '-N'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: authkey

          The process’s authentication key (a byte string).

          When ‘multiprocessing’ is initialized the main process is
          assigned a random string using *note os.urandom(): 931.

          When a ‘Process’ object is created, it will inherit the
          authentication key of its parent process, although this may be
          changed by setting *note authkey: 38aa. to another byte
          string.

          See *note Authentication keys: 38ab.

      -- Ιδιότητα: sentinel

          A numeric handle of a system object which will become «ready»
          when the process ends.

          You can use this value if you want to wait on several events
          at once using *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): 148b.
          Otherwise calling *note join(): 1737. is simpler.

          On Windows, this is an OS handle usable with the
          ‘WaitForSingleObject’ and ‘WaitForMultipleObjects’ family of
          API calls.  On POSIX, this is a file descriptor usable with
          primitives from the *note select: c9. module.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: interrupt ()

          Terminate the process.  Works on POSIX using the *note SIGINT:
          4df. signal.  Behavior on Windows is undefined.

          By default, this terminates the child process by raising *note
          KeyboardInterrupt: d96.  This behavior can be altered by
          setting the respective signal handler in the child process
          *note signal.signal(): 14e0. for *note SIGINT: 4df.

          Note: if the child process catches and discards *note
          KeyboardInterrupt: d96, the process will not be terminated.

          Note: the default behavior will also set *note exitcode: 38a8.
          to ‘1’ as if an uncaught exception was raised in the child
          process.  To have a different ‘exitcode’ you may simply catch
          *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96. and call ‘exit(your_code)’.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: terminate ()

          Terminate the process.  On POSIX this is done using the *note
          SIGTERM: 1782. signal; on Windows ‘TerminateProcess()’ is
          used.  Note that exit handlers and finally clauses, etc., will
          not be executed.

          Note that descendant processes of the process will 'not' be
          terminated – they will simply become orphaned.

               Προειδοποίηση: If this method is used when the associated
               process is using a pipe or queue then the pipe or queue
               is liable to become corrupted and may become unusable by
               other process.  Similarly, if the process has acquired a
               lock or semaphore etc.  then terminating it is liable to
               cause other processes to deadlock.

      -- Μέθοδος: kill ()

          Same as *note terminate(): 1a7f. but using the ‘SIGKILL’
          signal on POSIX.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Close the ‘Process’ object, releasing all resources associated
          with it.  *note ValueError: 277. is raised if the underlying
          process is still running.  Once ‘close()’ returns
          successfully, most other methods and attributes of the
          ‘Process’ object will raise ‘ValueError’.

          Added in version 3.7.

     Note that the *note start(): 1735, *note join(): 1737, *note
     is_alive(): 1736, *note terminate(): 1a7f. and *note exitcode:
     38a8. methods should only be called by the process that created the
     process object.

     Example usage of some of the methods of ‘Process’:

          >>> import multiprocessing, time, signal
          >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
          >>> p = mp_context.Process(target=time.sleep, args=(1000,))
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... initial> False
          >>> p.start()
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... started> True
          >>> p.terminate()
          >>> time.sleep(0.1)
          >>> print(p, p.is_alive())
          <...Process ... stopped exitcode=-SIGTERM> False
          >>> p.exitcode == -signal.SIGTERM
          True

 -- Εξαίρεση: multiprocessing.ProcessError

     The base class of all ‘multiprocessing’ exceptions.

 -- Εξαίρεση: multiprocessing.BufferTooShort

     Exception raised by ‘Connection.recv_bytes_into()’ when the
     supplied buffer object is too small for the message read.

     If ‘e’ is an instance of ‘BufferTooShort’ then ‘e.args[0]’ will
     give the message as a byte string.

 -- Εξαίρεση: multiprocessing.AuthenticationError

     Raised when there is an authentication error.

 -- Εξαίρεση: multiprocessing.TimeoutError

     Raised by methods with a timeout when the timeout expires.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132898


File: python.info,  Node: Pipes and Queues,  Next: Miscellaneous<3>,  Prev: Process and exceptions,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.11 Pipes and Queues
..........................

When using multiple processes, one generally uses message passing for
communication between processes and avoids having to use any
synchronization primitives like locks.

For passing messages one can use *note Pipe(): 3896. (for a connection
between two processes) or a queue (which allows multiple producers and
consumers).

The *note Queue: 1d85, *note SimpleQueue: ce3. and *note JoinableQueue:
38b1. types are multi-producer, multi-consumer FIFO queues modelled on
the *note queue.Queue: 1738. class in the standard library.  They differ
in that ‘Queue’ lacks the *note task_done(): 38b2. and *note join():
38b3. methods introduced into Python 2.5’s ‘queue.Queue’ class.

If you use *note JoinableQueue: 38b1. then you 'must' call *note
JoinableQueue.task_done(): 38b4. for each task removed from the queue or
else the semaphore used to count the number of unfinished tasks may
eventually overflow, raising an exception.

One difference from other Python queue implementations, is that
‘multiprocessing’ queues serializes all objects that are put into them
using *note pickle: ab.  The object returned by the get method is a
re-created object that does not share memory with the original object.

Note that one can also create a shared queue by using a manager object –
see *note Managers: 38b5.

     Σημείωση: ‘multiprocessing’ uses the usual *note queue.Empty: 38b6.
     and *note queue.Full: 38b7. exceptions to signal a timeout.  They
     are not available in the ‘multiprocessing’ namespace so you need to
     import them from *note queue: be.

     Σημείωση: When an object is put on a queue, the object is pickled
     and a background thread later flushes the pickled data to an
     underlying pipe.  This has some consequences which are a little
     surprising, but should not cause any practical difficulties – if
     they really bother you then you can instead use a queue created
     with a *note manager: 38b5.

       1. After putting an object on an empty queue there may be an
          infinitesimal delay before the queue’s *note empty(): 1b7b.
          method returns *note False: ef5. and *note get_nowait(): 38b8.
          can return without raising *note queue.Empty: 38b6.

       2. If multiple processes are enqueuing objects, it is possible
          for the objects to be received at the other end out-of-order.
          However, objects enqueued by the same process will always be
          in the expected order with respect to each other.

     Προειδοποίηση: If a process is killed using *note
     Process.terminate(): 1a7f. or *note os.kill(): 170c. while it is
     trying to use a *note Queue: 1d85, then the data in the queue is
     likely to become corrupted.  This may cause any other process to
     get an exception when it tries to use the queue later on.

     Προειδοποίηση: As mentioned above, if a child process has put items
     on a queue (and it has not used *note
     JoinableQueue.cancel_join_thread: 38b9.), then that process will
     not terminate until all buffered items have been flushed to the
     pipe.

     This means that if you try joining that process you may get a
     deadlock unless you are sure that all items which have been put on
     the queue have been consumed.  Similarly, if the child process is
     non-daemonic then the parent process may hang on exit when it tries
     to join all its non-daemonic children.

     Note that a queue created using a manager does not have this issue.
     See *note Programming guidelines: 3892.

For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see
*note Examples: 38ba.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.Pipe (duplex=True)

     Returns a pair ‘(conn1, conn2)’ of *note Connection: 148c. objects
     representing the ends of a pipe.

     If 'duplex' is ‘True’ (the default) then the pipe is bidirectional.
     If 'duplex' is ‘False’ then the pipe is unidirectional: ‘conn1’ can
     only be used for receiving messages and ‘conn2’ can only be used
     for sending messages.

     The ‘send()’ method serializes the object using *note pickle: ab.
     and the ‘recv()’ re-creates the object.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.Queue ([maxsize])

     Returns a process shared queue implemented using a pipe and a few
     locks/semaphores.  When a process first puts an item on the queue a
     feeder thread is started which transfers objects from a buffer into
     the pipe.

     Instantiating this class may set the global start method.  See
     *note Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

     The usual *note queue.Empty: 38b6. and *note queue.Full: 38b7.
     exceptions from the standard library’s *note queue: be. module are
     raised to signal timeouts.

     ‘Queue’ implements all the methods of *note queue.Queue: 1738.
     except for *note task_done(): 38b2, *note join(): 38b3, and *note
     shutdown(): 745.

      -- Μέθοδος: qsize ()

          Return the approximate size of the queue.  Because of
          multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this number is not
          reliable.

          Note that this may raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a. on
          platforms like macOS where ‘sem_getvalue()’ is not
          implemented.

      -- Μέθοδος: empty ()

          Return ‘True’ if the queue is empty, ‘False’ otherwise.
          Because of multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this is
          not reliable.

          May raise an *note OSError: 53c. on closed queues.  (not
          guaranteed)

      -- Μέθοδος: full ()

          Return ‘True’ if the queue is full, ‘False’ otherwise.
          Because of multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this is
          not reliable.

      -- Μέθοδος: put (obj[, block[, timeout]])

          Put obj into the queue.  If the optional argument 'block' is
          ‘True’ (the default) and 'timeout' is ‘None’ (the default),
          block if necessary until a free slot is available.  If
          'timeout' is a positive number, it blocks at most 'timeout'
          seconds and raises the *note queue.Full: 38b7. exception if no
          free slot was available within that time.  Otherwise ('block'
          is ‘False’), put an item on the queue if a free slot is
          immediately available, else raise the ‘queue.Full’ exception
          ('timeout' is ignored in that case).

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: If the queue is closed, *note
          ValueError: 277. is raised instead of *note AssertionError:
          a97.

      -- Μέθοδος: put_nowait (obj)

          Equivalent to ‘put(obj, False)’.

      -- Μέθοδος: get ([block[, timeout]])

          Remove and return an item from the queue.  If optional args
          'block' is ‘True’ (the default) and 'timeout' is ‘None’ (the
          default), block if necessary until an item is available.  If
          'timeout' is a positive number, it blocks at most 'timeout'
          seconds and raises the *note queue.Empty: 38b6. exception if
          no item was available within that time.  Otherwise (block is
          ‘False’), return an item if one is immediately available, else
          raise the ‘queue.Empty’ exception ('timeout' is ignored in
          that case).

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: If the queue is closed, *note
          ValueError: 277. is raised instead of *note OSError: 53c.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_nowait ()

          Equivalent to ‘get(False)’.

     *note multiprocessing.Queue: 1d85. has a few additional methods not
     found in *note queue.Queue: 1738.  These methods are usually
     unnecessary for most code:

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Close the queue: release internal resources.

          A queue must not be used anymore after it is closed.  For
          example, *note get(): 200c, *note put(): 200b. and *note
          empty(): 1b7b. methods must no longer be called.

          The background thread will quit once it has flushed all
          buffered data to the pipe.  This is called automatically when
          the queue is garbage collected.

      -- Μέθοδος: join_thread ()

          Join the background thread.  This can only be used after *note
          close(): 1d86. has been called.  It blocks until the
          background thread exits, ensuring that all data in the buffer
          has been flushed to the pipe.

          By default if a process is not the creator of the queue then
          on exit it will attempt to join the queue’s background thread.
          The process can call *note cancel_join_thread(): 38b9. to make
          ‘join_thread()’ do nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: cancel_join_thread ()

          Prevent *note join_thread(): 38be. from blocking.  In
          particular, this prevents the background thread from being
          joined automatically when the process exits – see
          ‘join_thread()’.

          A better name for this method might be
          ‘allow_exit_without_flush()’.  It is likely to cause enqueued
          data to be lost, and you almost certainly will not need to use
          it.  It is really only there if you need the current process
          to exit immediately without waiting to flush enqueued data to
          the underlying pipe, and you don’t care about lost data.

          Σημείωση: This class’s functionality requires a functioning
          shared semaphore implementation on the host operating system.
          Without one, the functionality in this class will be disabled,
          and attempts to instantiate a ‘Queue’ will result in an *note
          ImportError: 1bd.  See bpo-3770(1) for additional information.
          The same holds true for any of the specialized queue types
          listed below.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.SimpleQueue

     It is a simplified *note Queue: 1d85. type, very close to a locked
     *note Pipe: 3896.

     Instantiating this class may set the global start method.  See
     *note Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Close the queue: release internal resources.

          A queue must not be used anymore after it is closed.  For
          example, *note get(): 38bf, *note put(): 38c0. and *note
          empty(): 1b7c. methods must no longer be called.

          Added in version 3.9.

      -- Μέθοδος: empty ()

          Return ‘True’ if the queue is empty, ‘False’ otherwise.

          Always raises an *note OSError: 53c. if the SimpleQueue is
          closed.

      -- Μέθοδος: get ()

          Remove and return an item from the queue.

      -- Μέθοδος: put (item)

          Put 'item' into the queue.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.JoinableQueue ([maxsize])

     ‘JoinableQueue’, a *note Queue: 1d85. subclass, is a queue which
     additionally has *note task_done(): 38b4. and *note join(): 38c1.
     methods.

     Instantiating this class may set the global start method.  See
     *note Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

      -- Μέθοδος: task_done ()

          Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete.  Used by
          queue consumers.  For each *note get(): 200c. used to fetch a
          task, a subsequent call to ‘task_done()’ tells the queue that
          the processing on the task is complete.

          If a *note join(): 38b3. is currently blocking, it will resume
          when all items have been processed (meaning that a
          ‘task_done()’ call was received for every item that had been
          *note put(): 200b. into the queue).

          Raises a *note ValueError: 277. if called more times than
          there were items placed in the queue.

      -- Μέθοδος: join ()

          Block until all items in the queue have been gotten and
          processed.

          The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is
          added to the queue.  The count goes down whenever a consumer
          calls *note task_done(): 38b4. to indicate that the item was
          retrieved and all work on it is complete.  When the count of
          unfinished tasks drops to zero, *note join(): 38b3. unblocks.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3770


File: python.info,  Node: Miscellaneous<3>,  Next: Connection Objects,  Prev: Pipes and Queues,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.12 Miscellaneous
.......................

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.active_children ()

     Return list of all live children of the current process.

     Calling this has the side effect of «joining» any processes which
     have already finished.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.cpu_count ()

     Return the number of CPUs in the system.

     This number is not equivalent to the number of CPUs the current
     process can use.  The number of usable CPUs can be obtained with
     *note os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0. (or
     ‘len(os.sched_getaffinity(0))’).

     When the number of CPUs cannot be determined a *note
     NotImplementedError: 59a. is raised.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note os.cpu_count(): 6e1. *note os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The return value can also be overridden
     using the *note -X cpu_count: 178. flag or *note PYTHON_CPU_COUNT:
     721. as this is merely a wrapper around the *note os: a5. cpu count
     APIs.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.current_process ()

     Return the *note Process: 4de. object corresponding to the current
     process.

     An analogue of *note threading.current_thread(): 33e.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.parent_process ()

     Return the *note Process: 4de. object corresponding to the parent
     process of the *note current_process(): 38c4.  For the main
     process, ‘parent_process’ will be ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.freeze_support ()

     Add support for when a program which uses ‘multiprocessing’ has
     been frozen to produce an executable.  (Has been tested with
     'py2exe', 'PyInstaller' and 'cx_Freeze'.)

     One needs to call this function straight after the ‘if __name__ ==
     '__main__'’ line of the main module.  For example:

          from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support

          def f():
              print('hello world!')

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              freeze_support()
              Process(target=f).start()

     If the ‘freeze_support()’ line is omitted then trying to run the
     frozen executable will raise *note RuntimeError: 30d.

     Calling ‘freeze_support()’ has no effect when the start method is
     not 'spawn'.  In addition, if the module is being run normally by
     the Python interpreter (the program has not been frozen), then
     ‘freeze_support()’ has no effect.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.get_all_start_methods ()

     Returns a list of the supported start methods, the first of which
     is the default.  The possible start methods are ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’
     and ‘'forkserver'’.  Not all platforms support all methods.  See
     *note Contexts and start methods: 46d.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.get_context (method=None)

     Return a context object which has the same attributes as the
     ‘multiprocessing’ module.

     If 'method' is ‘None’ then the default context is returned.  Note
     that if the global start method has not been set, this will set it
     to the system default See *note Global start method: 38a2. for more
     details.  Otherwise 'method' should be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’,
     ‘'forkserver'’.  *note ValueError: 277. is raised if the specified
     start method is not available.  See *note Contexts and start
     methods: 46d.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.get_start_method (allow_none=False)

     Return the name of start method used for starting processes.

     If the global start method is not set and 'allow_none' is ‘False’,
     the global start method is set to the default, and its name is
     returned.  See *note Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

     The return value can be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’, ‘'forkserver'’ or
     ‘None’.  See *note Contexts and start methods: 46d.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: On macOS, the 'spawn' start method is now
     the default.  The 'fork' start method should be considered unsafe
     as it can lead to crashes of the subprocess.  See bpo-33725(1).

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.set_executable (executable)

     Set the path of the Python interpreter to use when starting a child
     process.  (By default *note sys.executable: 3ac. is used).
     Embedders will probably need to do something like

          set_executable(os.path.join(sys.exec_prefix, 'pythonw.exe'))

     before they can create child processes.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Now supported on POSIX when the ‘'spawn'’
     start method is used.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.set_forkserver_preload (module_names, *,
          on_error='ignore')

     Set a list of module names for the forkserver main process to
     attempt to import so that their already imported state is inherited
     by forked processes.  This can be used as a performance enhancement
     to avoid repeated work in every process.

     For this to work, it must be called before the forkserver process
     has been launched (before creating a ‘Pool’ or starting a *note
     Process: 4de.).

     The 'on_error' parameter controls how *note ImportError: 1bd.
     exceptions during module preloading are handled: ‘"ignore"’
     (default) silently ignores failures, ‘"warn"’ causes the forkserver
     subprocess to emit an *note ImportWarning: 907. to stderr, and
     ‘"fail"’ causes the forkserver subprocess to exit with the
     exception traceback on stderr, making subsequent process creation
     fail with *note EOFError: 167e. or *note ConnectionError: 11bf.

     Only meaningful when using the ‘'forkserver'’ start method.  See
     *note Contexts and start methods: 46d.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'on_error' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.set_start_method (method, force=False)

     Set the method which should be used to start child processes.  The
     'method' argument can be ‘'fork'’, ‘'spawn'’ or ‘'forkserver'’.
     Raises *note RuntimeError: 30d. if the start method has already
     been set and 'force' is not ‘True’.  If 'method' is ‘None’ and
     'force' is ‘True’ then the start method is set to ‘None’.  If
     'method' is ‘None’ and 'force' is ‘False’ then the context is set
     to the default context.

     Note that this should be called at most once, and it should be
     protected inside the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ clause of the main
     module.

     See *note Contexts and start methods: 46d.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Σημείωση: ‘multiprocessing’ contains no analogues of *note
     threading.active_count(): 33f, *note threading.enumerate(): 1e51,
     *note threading.settrace(): c20, *note threading.setprofile(): c21,
     *note threading.Timer: 1504, or *note threading.local: 1a87.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725


File: python.info,  Node: Connection Objects,  Next: Synchronization primitives,  Prev: Miscellaneous<3>,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.13 Connection Objects
............................

Connection objects allow the sending and receiving of picklable objects
or strings.  They can be thought of as message oriented connected
sockets.

Connection objects are usually created using *note Pipe: 3896. – see
also *note Listeners and Clients: 38c7.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.connection.Connection

      -- Μέθοδος: send (obj)

          Send an object to the other end of the connection which should
          be read using *note recv(): 38c9.

          The object must be picklable.  Very large pickles
          (approximately 32 MiB+, though it depends on the OS) may raise
          a *note ValueError: 277. exception.

      -- Μέθοδος: recv ()

          Return an object sent from the other end of the connection
          using *note send(): 38c8.  Blocks until there is something to
          receive.  Raises *note EOFError: 167e. if there is nothing
          left to receive and the other end was closed.

      -- Μέθοδος: fileno ()

          Return the file descriptor or handle used by the connection.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Close the connection.

          This is called automatically when the connection is garbage
          collected.

      -- Μέθοδος: poll ([timeout])

          Return whether there is any data available to be read.

          If 'timeout' is not specified then it will return immediately.
          If 'timeout' is a number then this specifies the maximum time
          in seconds to block.  If 'timeout' is ‘None’ then an infinite
          timeout is used.

          Note that multiple connection objects may be polled at once by
          using *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): 148b.

      -- Μέθοδος: send_bytes (buf[, offset[, size]])

          Send byte data from a *note bytes-like object: 436. as a
          complete message.

          If 'offset' is given then data is read from that position in
          'buf'.  If 'size' is given then that many bytes will be read
          from 'buf'.  Very large buffers (approximately 32 MiB+, though
          it depends on the OS) may raise a *note ValueError: 277.
          exception

      -- Μέθοδος: recv_bytes ([maxlength])

          Return a complete message of byte data sent from the other end
          of the connection as a string.  Blocks until there is
          something to receive.  Raises *note EOFError: 167e. if there
          is nothing left to receive and the other end has closed.

          If 'maxlength' is specified and the message is longer than
          'maxlength' then *note OSError: 53c. is raised and the
          connection will no longer be readable.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: This function used to raise *note
          IOError: 13fb, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

      -- Μέθοδος: recv_bytes_into (buf[, offset])

          Read into 'buf' a complete message of byte data sent from the
          other end of the connection and return the number of bytes in
          the message.  Blocks until there is something to receive.
          Raises *note EOFError: 167e. if there is nothing left to
          receive and the other end was closed.

          'buf' must be a writable *note bytes-like object: 436.  If
          'offset' is given then the message will be written into the
          buffer from that position.  Offset must be a non-negative
          integer less than the length of 'buf' (in bytes).

          If the buffer is too short then a ‘BufferTooShort’ exception
          is raised and the complete message is available as ‘e.args[0]’
          where ‘e’ is the exception instance.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Connection objects themselves can now be
     transferred between processes using *note Connection.send(): 38c8.
     and *note Connection.recv(): 38c9.

     Connection objects also now support the context management protocol
     – see *note Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου: 2601.  *note
     __enter__(): 28a4. returns the connection object, and *note
     __exit__(): 28a5. calls *note close(): 38cb.

For example:

     >>> from multiprocessing import Pipe
     >>> a, b = Pipe()
     >>> a.send([1, 'hello', None])
     >>> b.recv()
     [1, 'hello', None]
     >>> b.send_bytes(b'thank you')
     >>> a.recv_bytes()
     b'thank you'
     >>> import array
     >>> arr1 = array.array('i', range(5))
     >>> arr2 = array.array('i', [0] * 10)
     >>> a.send_bytes(arr1)
     >>> count = b.recv_bytes_into(arr2)
     >>> assert count == len(arr1) * arr1.itemsize
     >>> arr2
     array('i', [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
     Προειδοποίηση: The *note Connection.recv(): 38c9. method
     automatically unpickles the data it receives, which can be a
     security risk unless you can trust the process which sent the
     message.

     Therefore, unless the connection object was produced using ‘Pipe()’
     you should only use the *note recv(): 38c9. and *note send(): 38c8.
     methods after performing some sort of authentication.  See *note
     Authentication keys: 38ab.

     Προειδοποίηση: If a process is killed while it is trying to read or
     write to a pipe then the data in the pipe is likely to become
     corrupted, because it may become impossible to be sure where the
     message boundaries lie.


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronization primitives,  Next: Shared ctypes Objects,  Prev: Connection Objects,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.14 Synchronization primitives
....................................

Generally synchronization primitives are not as necessary in a
multiprocess program as they are in a multithreaded program.  See the
documentation for *note threading: f6. module.

Note that one can also create synchronization primitives by using a
manager object – see *note Managers: 38b5.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.Barrier (parties[, action[, timeout]])

     A barrier object: a clone of *note threading.Barrier: 158c.

     Instantiating this class may set the global start method.  See
     *note Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.BoundedSemaphore ([value])

     A bounded semaphore object: a close analog of *note
     threading.BoundedSemaphore: 1502.

     Instantiating this class may set the global start method.  See
     *note Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

     A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its ‘acquire’
     method’s first argument is named 'block', as is consistent with
     *note Lock.acquire(): 38d2.

      -- Μέθοδος: locked ()

          Return a boolean indicating whether this object is locked
          right now.

          Added in version 3.14.

          Σημείωση: On macOS, this is indistinguishable from *note
          Semaphore: 389c. because ‘sem_getvalue()’ is not implemented
          on that platform.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.Condition ([lock])

     A condition variable: an alias for *note threading.Condition: 1500.

     If 'lock' is specified then it should be a *note Lock: 1a7c. or
     *note RLock: 1a7d. object from ‘multiprocessing’.

     Instantiating this class may set the global start method.  See
     *note Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The *note wait_for(): 3876. method was
     added.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.Event

     A clone of *note threading.Event: 1503.

     Instantiating this class may set the global start method.  See
     *note Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.Lock

     A non-recursive lock object: a close analog of *note
     threading.Lock: 1a10.  Once a process or thread has acquired a
     lock, subsequent attempts to acquire it from any process or thread
     will block until it is released; any process or thread may release
     it.  The concepts and behaviors of ‘threading.Lock’ as it applies
     to threads are replicated here in *note multiprocessing.Lock: 1a7c.
     as it applies to either processes or threads, except as noted.

     Note that ‘Lock’ is actually a factory function which returns an
     instance of ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.Lock’ initialized with a
     default context.

     Instantiating this class may set the global start method.  See
     *note Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

     ‘Lock’ supports the *note context manager: 478. protocol and thus
     may be used in *note with: 20a. statements.

      -- Μέθοδος: acquire (block=True, timeout=None)

          Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

          With the 'block' argument set to ‘True’ (the default), the
          method call will block until the lock is in an unlocked state,
          then set it to locked and return ‘True’.  Note that the name
          of this first argument differs from that in *note
          threading.Lock.acquire(): a87.

          With the 'block' argument set to ‘False’, the method call does
          not block.  If the lock is currently in a locked state, return
          ‘False’; otherwise set the lock to a locked state and return
          ‘True’.

          When invoked with a positive, floating-point value for
          'timeout', block for at most the number of seconds specified
          by 'timeout' as long as the lock can not be acquired.
          Invocations with a negative value for 'timeout' are equivalent
          to a 'timeout' of zero.  Invocations with a 'timeout' value of
          ‘None’ (the default) set the timeout period to infinite.  Note
          that the treatment of negative or ‘None’ values for 'timeout'
          differs from the implemented behavior in *note
          threading.Lock.acquire(): a87.  The 'timeout' argument has no
          practical implications if the 'block' argument is set to
          ‘False’ and is thus ignored.  Returns ‘True’ if the lock has
          been acquired or ‘False’ if the timeout period has elapsed.

      -- Μέθοδος: release ()

          Release a lock.  This can be called from any process or
          thread, not only the process or thread which originally
          acquired the lock.

          Behavior is the same as in *note threading.Lock.release():
          1667. except that when invoked on an unlocked lock, a *note
          ValueError: 277. is raised.

      -- Μέθοδος: locked ()

          Return a boolean indicating whether this object is locked
          right now.

          Added in version 3.14.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.RLock

     A recursive lock object: a close analog of *note threading.RLock:
     2df.  A recursive lock must be released by the process or thread
     that acquired it.  Once a process or thread has acquired a
     recursive lock, the same process or thread may acquire it again
     without blocking; that process or thread must release it once for
     each time it has been acquired.

     Note that ‘RLock’ is actually a factory function which returns an
     instance of ‘multiprocessing.synchronize.RLock’ initialized with a
     default context.

     Instantiating this class may set the global start method.  See
     *note Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

     ‘RLock’ supports the *note context manager: 478. protocol and thus
     may be used in *note with: 20a. statements.

      -- Μέθοδος: acquire (block=True, timeout=None)

          Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

          When invoked with the 'block' argument set to ‘True’, block
          until the lock is in an unlocked state (not owned by any
          process or thread) unless the lock is already owned by the
          current process or thread.  The current process or thread then
          takes ownership of the lock (if it does not already have
          ownership) and the recursion level inside the lock increments
          by one, resulting in a return value of ‘True’.  Note that
          there are several differences in this first argument’s
          behavior compared to the implementation of *note
          threading.RLock.acquire(): 122c, starting with the name of the
          argument itself.

          When invoked with the 'block' argument set to ‘False’, do not
          block.  If the lock has already been acquired (and thus is
          owned) by another process or thread, the current process or
          thread does not take ownership and the recursion level within
          the lock is not changed, resulting in a return value of
          ‘False’.  If the lock is in an unlocked state, the current
          process or thread takes ownership and the recursion level is
          incremented, resulting in a return value of ‘True’.

          Use and behaviors of the 'timeout' argument are the same as in
          *note Lock.acquire(): 38d2.  Note that some of these behaviors
          of 'timeout' differ from the implemented behaviors in *note
          threading.RLock.acquire(): 122c.

      -- Μέθοδος: release ()

          Release a lock, decrementing the recursion level.  If after
          the decrement the recursion level is zero, reset the lock to
          unlocked (not owned by any process or thread) and if any other
          processes or threads are blocked waiting for the lock to
          become unlocked, allow exactly one of them to proceed.  If
          after the decrement the recursion level is still nonzero, the
          lock remains locked and owned by the calling process or
          thread.

          Only call this method when the calling process or thread owns
          the lock.  An *note AssertionError: a97. is raised if this
          method is called by a process or thread other than the owner
          or if the lock is in an unlocked (unowned) state.  Note that
          the type of exception raised in this situation differs from
          the implemented behavior in *note threading.RLock.release():
          3871.

      -- Μέθοδος: locked ()

          Return a boolean indicating whether this object is locked
          right now.

          Added in version 3.14.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.Semaphore ([value])

     A semaphore object: a close analog of *note threading.Semaphore:
     1501.

     Instantiating this class may set the global start method.  See
     *note Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

     A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its ‘acquire’
     method’s first argument is named 'block', as is consistent with
     *note Lock.acquire(): 38d2.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_value ()

          Return the current value of semaphore.

          Note that this may raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a. on
          platforms like macOS where ‘sem_getvalue()’ is not
          implemented.

      -- Μέθοδος: locked ()

          Return a boolean indicating whether this object is locked
          right now.

          Added in version 3.14.

     Σημείωση: On macOS, ‘sem_timedwait’ is unsupported, so calling
     ‘acquire()’ with a timeout will emulate that function’s behavior
     using a sleeping loop.

     Σημείωση: Some of this package’s functionality requires a
     functioning shared semaphore implementation on the host operating
     system.  Without one, the ‘multiprocessing.synchronize’ module will
     be disabled, and attempts to import it will result in an *note
     ImportError: 1bd.  See bpo-3770(1) for additional information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3770


File: python.info,  Node: Shared ctypes Objects,  Next: Managers,  Prev: Synchronization primitives,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.15 Shared ‘ctypes’ Objects
.................................

It is possible to create shared objects using shared memory which can be
inherited by child processes.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.Value (typecode_or_type, *args,
          lock=True)

     Return a *note ctypes: 2d. object allocated from shared memory.  By
     default the return value is actually a synchronized wrapper for the
     object.  The object itself can be accessed via the 'value'
     attribute of a *note Value: 3899.

     'typecode_or_type' determines the type of the returned object: it
     is either a ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind
     used by the *note array: 8. module.  '*args' is passed on to the
     constructor for the type.

     If 'lock' is ‘True’ (the default) then a new recursive lock object
     is created to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is a
     *note Lock: 1a7c. or *note RLock: 1a7d. object then that will be
     used to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is ‘False’ then
     access to the returned object will not be automatically protected
     by a lock, so it will not necessarily be «process-safe».

     Operations like ‘+=’ which involve a read and write are not atomic.
     So if, for instance, you want to atomically increment a shared
     value it is insufficient to just do

          counter.value += 1

     Assuming the associated lock is recursive (which it is by default)
     you can instead do

          with counter.get_lock():
              counter.value += 1

     Note that 'lock' is a keyword-only argument.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.Array (typecode_or_type,
          size_or_initializer, *, lock=True)

     Return a ctypes array allocated from shared memory.  By default the
     return value is actually a synchronized wrapper for the array.

     'typecode_or_type' determines the type of the elements of the
     returned array: it is either a *note ctypes type: 2a32. or a one
     character typecode of the kind used by the *note array: 8. module
     with the exception of ‘'w'’, which is not supported.  In addition,
     the ‘'c'’ typecode is an alias for *note ctypes.c_char: 3535.  If
     'size_or_initializer' is an integer, then it determines the length
     of the array, and the array will be initially zeroed.  Otherwise,
     'size_or_initializer' is a sequence which is used to initialize the
     array and whose length determines the length of the array.

     If 'lock' is ‘True’ (the default) then a new lock object is created
     to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is a *note Lock:
     1a7c. or *note RLock: 1a7d. object then that will be used to
     synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is ‘False’ then access
     to the returned object will not be automatically protected by a
     lock, so it will not necessarily be «process-safe».

     Note that 'lock' is a keyword only argument.

     Note that an array of *note ctypes.c_char: 3535. has 'value' and
     'raw' attributes which allow one to use it to store and retrieve
     strings.

* Menu:

* The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module: The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.


File: python.info,  Node: The multiprocessing sharedctypes module,  Up: Shared ctypes Objects

5.19.2.16 The ‘multiprocessing.sharedctypes’ module
...................................................

The ‘multiprocessing.sharedctypes’ module provides functions for
allocating *note ctypes: 2d. objects from shared memory which can be
inherited by child processes.

     Σημείωση: Although it is possible to store a pointer in shared
     memory remember that this will refer to a location in the address
     space of a specific process.  However, the pointer is quite likely
     to be invalid in the context of a second process and trying to
     dereference the pointer from the second process may cause a crash.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawArray (typecode_or_type,
          size_or_initializer)

     Return a ctypes array allocated from shared memory.

     'typecode_or_type' determines the type of the elements of the
     returned array: it is either a ctypes type or a one character
     typecode of the kind used by the *note array: 8. module.  If
     'size_or_initializer' is an integer then it determines the length
     of the array, and the array will be initially zeroed.  Otherwise
     'size_or_initializer' is a sequence which is used to initialize the
     array and whose length determines the length of the array.

     Note that setting and getting an element is potentially non-atomic
     – use *note Array(): 1a38. instead to make sure that access is
     automatically synchronized using a lock.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.RawValue (typecode_or_type,
          *args)

     Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory.

     'typecode_or_type' determines the type of the returned object: it
     is either a ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind
     used by the *note array: 8. module.  '*args' is passed on to the
     constructor for the type.

     Note that setting and getting the value is potentially non-atomic –
     use *note Value(): 1a3a. instead to make sure that access is
     automatically synchronized using a lock.

     Note that an array of *note ctypes.c_char: 3535. has ‘value’ and
     ‘raw’ attributes which allow one to use it to store and retrieve
     strings – see documentation for *note ctypes: 2d.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Array (typecode_or_type,
          size_or_initializer, *, lock=True, ctx=None)

     The same as *note RawArray(): 1a39. except that depending on the
     value of 'lock' a process-safe synchronization wrapper may be
     returned instead of a raw ctypes array.

     If 'lock' is ‘True’ (the default) then a new lock object is created
     to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is a *note Lock:
     1a7c. or *note RLock: 1a7d. object then that will be used to
     synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is ‘False’ then access
     to the returned object will not be automatically protected by a
     lock, so it will not necessarily be «process-safe».

     'ctx' is a context object, or ‘None’ (use the current context).  If
     ‘None’, calling this may set the global start method.  See *note
     Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

     Note that 'lock' and 'ctx' are keyword-only parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.Value (typecode_or_type,
          *args, lock=True, ctx=None)

     The same as *note RawValue(): 1a3b. except that depending on the
     value of 'lock' a process-safe synchronization wrapper may be
     returned instead of a raw ctypes object.

     If 'lock' is ‘True’ (the default) then a new lock object is created
     to synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is a *note Lock:
     1a7c. or *note RLock: 1a7d. object then that will be used to
     synchronize access to the value.  If 'lock' is ‘False’ then access
     to the returned object will not be automatically protected by a
     lock, so it will not necessarily be «process-safe».

     'ctx' is a context object, or ‘None’ (use the current context).  If
     ‘None’, calling this may set the global start method.  See *note
     Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

     Note that 'lock' and 'ctx' are keyword-only parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.copy (obj)

     Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory which is a copy
     of the ctypes object 'obj'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.sharedctypes.synchronized (obj,
          lock=None, ctx=None)

     Return a process-safe wrapper object for a ctypes object which uses
     'lock' to synchronize access.  If 'lock' is ‘None’ (the default)
     then a *note multiprocessing.RLock: 1a7d. object is created
     automatically.

     'ctx' is a context object, or ‘None’ (use the current context).  If
     ‘None’, calling this may set the global start method.  See *note
     Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

     A synchronized wrapper will have two methods in addition to those
     of the object it wraps: ‘get_obj()’ returns the wrapped object and
     ‘get_lock()’ returns the lock object used for synchronization.

     Note that accessing the ctypes object through the wrapper can be a
     lot slower than accessing the raw ctypes object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Synchronized objects support the *note
     context manager: 478. protocol.

The table below compares the syntax for creating shared ctypes objects
from shared memory with the normal ctypes syntax.  (In the table
‘MyStruct’ is some subclass of *note ctypes.Structure: 47c.)

ctypes                   sharedctypes using type        sharedctypes using typecode
                                                        
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
c_double(2.4)            RawValue(c_double, 2.4)        RawValue(“d”, 2.4)
                                                        
                                                        
MyStruct(4, 6)           RawValue(MyStruct, 4, 6)
                         
                                                        
(c_short * 7)()          RawArray(c_short, 7)           RawArray(“h”, 7)
                                                        
                                                        
(c_int * 3)(9, 2, 8)     RawArray(c_int, (9, 2, 8))     RawArray(“i”, (9, 2, 8))
                                                        

Below is an example where a number of ctypes objects are modified by a
child process:

     from multiprocessing import Process, Lock
     from multiprocessing.sharedctypes import Value, Array
     from ctypes import Structure, c_double

     class Point(Structure):
         _fields_ = [('x', c_double), ('y', c_double)]

     def modify(n, x, s, A):
         n.value **= 2
         x.value **= 2
         s.value = s.value.upper()
         for a in A:
             a.x **= 2
             a.y **= 2

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         lock = Lock()

         n = Value('i', 7)
         x = Value(c_double, 1.0/3.0, lock=False)
         s = Array('c', b'hello world', lock=lock)
         A = Array(Point, [(1.875,-6.25), (-5.75,2.0), (2.375,9.5)], lock=lock)

         p = Process(target=modify, args=(n, x, s, A))
         p.start()
         p.join()

         print(n.value)
         print(x.value)
         print(s.value)
         print([(a.x, a.y) for a in A])

The results printed are

     49
     0.1111111111111111
     HELLO WORLD
     [(3.515625, 39.0625), (33.0625, 4.0), (5.640625, 90.25)]


File: python.info,  Node: Managers,  Next: Proxy Objects,  Prev: Shared ctypes Objects,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.17 Managers
..................

Managers provide a way to create data which can be shared between
different processes, including sharing over a network between processes
running on different machines.  A manager object controls a server
process which manages 'shared objects'.  Other processes can access the
shared objects by using proxies.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.Manager ()

     Returns a started *note SyncManager: 1ab8. object which can be used
     for sharing objects between processes.  The returned manager object
     corresponds to a spawned child process and has methods which will
     create shared objects and return corresponding proxies.

Manager processes will be shutdown as soon as they are garbage collected
or their parent process exits.  The manager classes are defined in the
*note multiprocessing.managers: 9b. module:

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager (address=None,
          authkey=None, serializer='pickle', ctx=None, *,
          shutdown_timeout=1.0)

     Create a BaseManager object.

     Once created one should call *note start(): 38de. or
     ‘get_server().serve_forever()’ to ensure that the manager object
     refers to a started manager process.

     'address' is the address on which the manager process listens for
     new connections.  If 'address' is ‘None’ then an arbitrary one is
     chosen.

     'authkey' is the authentication key which will be used to check the
     validity of incoming connections to the server process.  If
     'authkey' is ‘None’ then ‘current_process().authkey’ is used.
     Otherwise 'authkey' is used and it must be a byte string.

     'serializer' must be ‘'pickle'’ (use *note pickle: ab.
     serialization) or ‘'xmlrpclib'’ (use *note xmlrpc.client: 137.
     serialization).

     'ctx' is a context object, or ‘None’ (use the current context).  If
     ‘None’, calling this may set the global start method.  See *note
     Global start method: 38a2. for more details.

     'shutdown_timeout' is a timeout in seconds used to wait until the
     process used by the manager completes in the *note shutdown():
     38df. method.  If the shutdown times out, the process is
     terminated.  If terminating the process also times out, the process
     is killed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'shutdown_timeout' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: start ([initializer[, initargs]])

          Start a subprocess to start the manager.  If 'initializer' is
          not ‘None’ then the subprocess will call
          ‘initializer(*initargs)’ when it starts.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_server ()

          Returns a ‘Server’ object which represents the actual server
          under the control of the Manager.  The ‘Server’ object
          supports the ‘serve_forever()’ method:

               >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
               >>> manager = BaseManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
               >>> server = manager.get_server()
               >>> server.serve_forever()

          ‘Server’ additionally has an *note address: 38e1. attribute.

      -- Μέθοδος: connect ()

          Connect a local manager object to a remote manager process:

               >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
               >>> m = BaseManager(address=('127.0.0.1', 50000), authkey=b'abc')
               >>> m.connect()

      -- Μέθοδος: shutdown ()

          Stop the process used by the manager.  This is only available
          if *note start(): 38de. has been used to start the server
          process.

          This can be called multiple times.

      -- Μέθοδος: register (typeid[, callable[, proxytype[, exposed[,
               method_to_typeid[, create_method]]]]])

          A classmethod which can be used for registering a type or
          callable with the manager class.

          'typeid' is a «type identifier» which is used to identify a
          particular type of shared object.  This must be a string.

          'callable' is a callable used for creating objects for this
          type identifier.  If a manager instance will be connected to
          the server using the *note connect(): 38e2. method, or if the
          'create_method' argument is ‘False’ then this can be left as
          ‘None’.

          'proxytype' is a subclass of *note BaseProxy: 38e4. which is
          used to create proxies for shared objects with this 'typeid'.
          If ‘None’ then a proxy class is created automatically.

          'exposed' is used to specify a sequence of method names which
          proxies for this typeid should be allowed to access using
          *note BaseProxy._callmethod(): 38e5.  (If 'exposed' is ‘None’
          then ‘proxytype._exposed_’ is used instead if it exists.)  In
          the case where no exposed list is specified, all «public
          methods» of the shared object will be accessible.  (Here a
          «public method» means any attribute which has a *note
          __call__(): 961. method and whose name does not begin with
          ‘'_'’.)

          'method_to_typeid' is a mapping used to specify the return
          type of those exposed methods which should return a proxy.  It
          maps method names to typeid strings.  (If 'method_to_typeid'
          is ‘None’ then ‘proxytype._method_to_typeid_’ is used instead
          if it exists.)  If a method’s name is not a key of this
          mapping or if the mapping is ‘None’ then the object returned
          by the method will be copied by value.

          'create_method' determines whether a method should be created
          with name 'typeid' which can be used to tell the server
          process to create a new shared object and return a proxy for
          it.  By default it is ‘True’.

     ‘BaseManager’ instances also have one read-only property:

      -- Ιδιότητα: address

          The address used by the manager.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Manager objects support the context
     management protocol – see *note Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου:
     2601.  *note __enter__(): 28a4. starts the server process (if it
     has not already started) and then returns the manager object.
     *note __exit__(): 28a5. calls *note shutdown(): 38df.

     In previous versions *note __enter__(): 28a4. did not start the
     manager’s server process if it was not already started.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager

     A subclass of *note BaseManager: 38dd. which can be used for the
     synchronization of processes.  Objects of this type are returned by
     *note multiprocessing.Manager(): 4dc.

     Its methods create and return *note Proxy Objects: 4d8. for a
     number of commonly used data types to be synchronized across
     processes.  This notably includes shared lists and dictionaries.

      -- Μέθοδος: Barrier (parties[, action[, timeout]])

          Create a shared *note threading.Barrier: 158c. object and
          return a proxy for it.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: BoundedSemaphore ([value])

          Create a shared *note threading.BoundedSemaphore: 1502. object
          and return a proxy for it.

      -- Μέθοδος: Condition ([lock])

          Create a shared *note threading.Condition: 1500. object and
          return a proxy for it.

          If 'lock' is supplied then it should be a proxy for a *note
          threading.Lock: 1a10. or *note threading.RLock: 2df. object.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The *note wait_for(): 3876. method was
          added.

      -- Μέθοδος: Event ()

          Create a shared *note threading.Event: 1503. object and return
          a proxy for it.

      -- Μέθοδος: Lock ()

          Create a shared *note threading.Lock: 1a10. object and return
          a proxy for it.

      -- Μέθοδος: Namespace ()

          Create a shared *note Namespace: 389b. object and return a
          proxy for it.

      -- Μέθοδος: Queue ([maxsize])

          Create a shared *note queue.Queue: 1738. object and return a
          proxy for it.

      -- Μέθοδος: RLock ()

          Create a shared *note threading.RLock: 2df. object and return
          a proxy for it.

      -- Μέθοδος: Semaphore ([value])

          Create a shared *note threading.Semaphore: 1501. object and
          return a proxy for it.

      -- Μέθοδος: Array (typecode, sequence)

          Create an array and return a proxy for it.

      -- Μέθοδος: Value (typecode, value)

          Create an object with a writable ‘value’ attribute and return
          a proxy for it.

      -- Μέθοδος: dict ()

      -- Μέθοδος: dict (mapping)

      -- Μέθοδος: dict (sequence)

          Create a shared *note dict: 188. object and return a proxy for
          it.

      -- Μέθοδος: list ()

      -- Μέθοδος: list (sequence)

          Create a shared *note list: 4d9. object and return a proxy for
          it.

      -- Μέθοδος: set ()

      -- Μέθοδος: set (sequence)

      -- Μέθοδος: set (mapping)

          Create a shared *note set: 42b. object and return a proxy for
          it.

          Added in version 3.14: *note set: 42b. support was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Shared objects are capable of being nested.
     For example, a shared container object such as a shared list can
     contain other shared objects which will all be managed and
     synchronized by the ‘SyncManager’.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.managers.Namespace

     A type that can register with *note SyncManager: 1ab8.

     A namespace object has no public methods, but does have writable
     attributes.  Its representation shows the values of its attributes.

     However, when using a proxy for a namespace object, an attribute
     beginning with ‘'_'’ will be an attribute of the proxy and not an
     attribute of the referent:

          >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
          >>> manager = mp_context.Manager()
          >>> Global = manager.Namespace()
          >>> Global.x = 10
          >>> Global.y = 'hello'
          >>> Global._z = 12.3    # this is an attribute of the proxy
          >>> print(Global)
          Namespace(x=10, y='hello')

* Menu:

* Customized managers::
* Using a remote manager::


File: python.info,  Node: Customized managers,  Next: Using a remote manager,  Up: Managers

5.19.2.18 Customized managers
.............................

To create one’s own manager, one creates a subclass of *note
BaseManager: 38dd. and uses the *note register(): 38e3. classmethod to
register new types or callables with the manager class.  For example:

     from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager

     class MathsClass:
         def add(self, x, y):
             return x + y
         def mul(self, x, y):
             return x * y

     class MyManager(BaseManager):
         pass

     MyManager.register('Maths', MathsClass)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with MyManager() as manager:
             maths = manager.Maths()
             print(maths.add(4, 3))         # prints 7
             print(maths.mul(7, 8))         # prints 56


File: python.info,  Node: Using a remote manager,  Prev: Customized managers,  Up: Managers

5.19.2.19 Using a remote manager
................................

It is possible to run a manager server on one machine and have clients
use it from other machines (assuming that the firewalls involved allow
it).

Running the following commands creates a server for a single shared
queue which remote clients can access:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> from queue import Queue
     >>> queue = Queue()
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda:queue)
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> s = m.get_server()
     >>> s.serve_forever()

One client can access the server as follows:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> m.connect()
     >>> queue = m.get_queue()
     >>> queue.put('hello')

Another client can also use it:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> m.connect()
     >>> queue = m.get_queue()
     >>> queue.get()
     'hello'

Local processes can also access that queue, using the code from above on
the client to access it remotely:

     >>> from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
     >>> class Worker(Process):
     ...     def __init__(self, q):
     ...         self.q = q
     ...         super().__init__()
     ...     def run(self):
     ...         self.q.put('local hello')
     ...
     >>> queue = Queue()
     >>> w = Worker(queue)
     >>> w.start()
     >>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
     ...
     >>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda: queue)
     >>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey=b'abracadabra')
     >>> s = m.get_server()
     >>> s.serve_forever()


File: python.info,  Node: Proxy Objects,  Next: Process Pools,  Prev: Managers,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.20 Proxy Objects
.......................

A proxy is an object which 'refers' to a shared object which lives
(presumably) in a different process.  The shared object is said to be
the 'referent' of the proxy.  Multiple proxy objects may have the same
referent.

A proxy object has methods which invoke corresponding methods of its
referent (although not every method of the referent will necessarily be
available through the proxy).  In this way, a proxy can be used just
like its referent can:

     >>> mp_context = multiprocessing.get_context('spawn')
     >>> manager = mp_context.Manager()
     >>> l = manager.list([i*i for i in range(10)])
     >>> print(l)
     [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
     >>> print(repr(l))
     <ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at 0x...>
     >>> l[4]
     16
     >>> l[2:5]
     [4, 9, 16]

Notice that applying *note str(): 1df. to a proxy will return the
representation of the referent, whereas applying *note repr(): 45b. will
return the representation of the proxy.

An important feature of proxy objects is that they are picklable so they
can be passed between processes.  As such, a referent can contain *note
Proxy Objects: 4d8.  This permits nesting of these managed lists, dicts,
and other *note Proxy Objects: 4d8.:

     >>> a = manager.list()
     >>> b = manager.list()
     >>> a.append(b)         # referent of a now contains referent of b
     >>> print(a, b)
     [<ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at ...>] []
     >>> b.append('hello')
     >>> print(a[0], b)
     ['hello'] ['hello']

Similarly, dict and list proxies may be nested inside one another:

     >>> l_outer = manager.list([ manager.dict() for i in range(2) ])
     >>> d_first_inner = l_outer[0]
     >>> d_first_inner['a'] = 1
     >>> d_first_inner['b'] = 2
     >>> l_outer[1]['c'] = 3
     >>> l_outer[1]['z'] = 26
     >>> print(l_outer[0])
     {'a': 1, 'b': 2}
     >>> print(l_outer[1])
     {'c': 3, 'z': 26}

If standard (non-proxy) *note list: 4d9. or *note dict: 188. objects are
contained in a referent, modifications to those mutable values will not
be propagated through the manager because the proxy has no way of
knowing when the values contained within are modified.  However, storing
a value in a container proxy (which triggers a ‘__setitem__’ on the
proxy object) does propagate through the manager and so to effectively
modify such an item, one could re-assign the modified value to the
container proxy:

     # create a list proxy and append a mutable object (a dictionary)
     lproxy = manager.list()
     lproxy.append({})
     # now mutate the dictionary
     d = lproxy[0]
     d['a'] = 1
     d['b'] = 2
     # at this point, the changes to d are not yet synced, but by
     # updating the dictionary, the proxy is notified of the change
     lproxy[0] = d

This approach is perhaps less convenient than employing nested *note
Proxy Objects: 4d8. for most use cases but also demonstrates a level of
control over the synchronization.

     Σημείωση: The proxy types in ‘multiprocessing’ do nothing to
     support comparisons by value.  So, for instance, we have:

          >>> manager.list([1,2,3]) == [1,2,3]
          False

     One should just use a copy of the referent instead when making
     comparisons.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy

     Proxy objects are instances of subclasses of ‘BaseProxy’.

      -- Μέθοδος: _callmethod (methodname[, args[, kwds]])

          Call and return the result of a method of the proxy’s
          referent.

          If ‘proxy’ is a proxy whose referent is ‘obj’ then the
          expression

               proxy._callmethod(methodname, args, kwds)

          will evaluate the expression

               getattr(obj, methodname)(*args, **kwds)

          in the manager’s process.

          The returned value will be a copy of the result of the call or
          a proxy to a new shared object – see documentation for the
          'method_to_typeid' argument of *note BaseManager.register():
          38e3.

          If an exception is raised by the call, then is re-raised by
          ‘_callmethod()’.  If some other exception is raised in the
          manager’s process then this is converted into a ‘RemoteError’
          exception and is raised by ‘_callmethod()’.

          Note in particular that an exception will be raised if
          'methodname' has not been 'exposed'.

          An example of the usage of ‘_callmethod()’:

               >>> l = manager.list(range(10))
               >>> l._callmethod('__len__')
               10
               >>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (slice(2, 7),)) # equivalent to l[2:7]
               [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
               >>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (20,))          # equivalent to l[20]
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               IndexError: list index out of range

      -- Μέθοδος: _getvalue ()

          Return a copy of the referent.

          If the referent is unpicklable then this will raise an
          exception.

      -- Μέθοδος: __repr__ ()

          Return a representation of the proxy object.

      -- Μέθοδος: __str__ ()

          Return the representation of the referent.

* Menu:

* Cleanup: Cleanup<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Cleanup<2>,  Up: Proxy Objects

5.19.2.21 Cleanup
.................

A proxy object uses a weakref callback so that when it gets garbage
collected it deregisters itself from the manager which owns its
referent.

A shared object gets deleted from the manager process when there are no
longer any proxies referring to it.


File: python.info,  Node: Process Pools,  Next: Listeners and Clients,  Prev: Proxy Objects,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.22 Process Pools
.......................

One can create a pool of processes which will carry out tasks submitted
to it with the *note Pool: 1315. class.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.pool.Pool ([processes[, initializer[,
          initargs[, maxtasksperchild[, context]]]]])

     A process pool object which controls a pool of worker processes to
     which jobs can be submitted.  It supports asynchronous results with
     timeouts and callbacks and has a parallel map implementation.

     'processes' is the number of worker processes to use.  If
     'processes' is ‘None’ then the number returned by *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0. is used.

     If 'initializer' is not ‘None’ then each worker process will call
     ‘initializer(*initargs)’ when it starts.

     'maxtasksperchild' is the number of tasks a worker process can
     complete before it will exit and be replaced with a fresh worker
     process, to enable unused resources to be freed.  The default
     'maxtasksperchild' is ‘None’, which means worker processes will
     live as long as the pool.

     'context' can be used to specify the context used for starting the
     worker processes.  Usually a pool is created using the function
     ‘multiprocessing.Pool()’ or the *note Pool(): 1315. method of a
     context object.  In both cases 'context' is set appropriately.  If
     ‘None’, calling this function will have the side effect of setting
     the current global start method if it has not been set already.
     See the ‘get_context()’ function.

     Note that the methods of the pool object should only be called by
     the process which created the pool.

          Προειδοποίηση: *note multiprocessing.pool: 9c. objects have
          internal resources that need to be properly managed (like any
          other resource) by using the pool as a context manager or by
          calling *note close(): 38f7. and *note terminate(): 38f8.
          manually.  Failure to do this can lead to the process hanging
          on finalization.

          Note that it is 'not correct' to rely on the garbage collector
          to destroy the pool as CPython does not assure that the
          finalizer of the pool will be called (see *note
          object.__del__(): 13a6. for more information).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'maxtasksperchild' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added the 'context' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: 'processes' uses *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0. by default, instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 6e1.

          Σημείωση: Worker processes within a ‘Pool’ typically live for
          the complete duration of the Pool’s work queue.  A frequent
          pattern found in other systems (such as Apache, mod_wsgi, etc)
          to free resources held by workers is to allow a worker within
          a pool to complete only a set amount of work before exiting,
          being cleaned up and a new process spawned to replace the old
          one.  The 'maxtasksperchild' argument to the ‘Pool’ exposes
          this ability to the end user.

      -- Μέθοδος: apply (func[, args[, kwds]])

          Call 'func' with arguments 'args' and keyword arguments
          'kwds'.  It blocks until the result is ready.  Given this
          blocks, *note apply_async(): 173a. is better suited for
          performing work in parallel.  Additionally, 'func' is only
          executed in one of the workers of the pool.

      -- Μέθοδος: apply_async (func[, args[, kwds[, callback[,
               error_callback]]]])

          A variant of the *note apply(): 1739. method which returns a
          *note AsyncResult: 38f9. object.

          If 'callback' is specified then it should be a callable which
          accepts a single argument.  When the result becomes ready
          'callback' is applied to it, that is unless the call failed,
          in which case the 'error_callback' is applied instead.

          If 'error_callback' is specified then it should be a callable
          which accepts a single argument.  If the target function
          fails, then the 'error_callback' is called with the exception
          instance.

          Callbacks should complete immediately since otherwise the
          thread which handles the results will get blocked.

      -- Μέθοδος: map (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          A parallel equivalent of the *note map(): 43e. built-in
          function (it supports only one 'iterable' argument though, for
          multiple iterables see *note starmap(): 148e.).  It blocks
          until the result is ready.

          This method chops the iterable into a number of chunks which
          it submits to the process pool as separate tasks.  The
          (approximate) size of these chunks can be specified by setting
          'chunksize' to a positive integer.

          Note that it may cause high memory usage for very long
          iterables.  Consider using *note imap(): 38fa. or *note
          imap_unordered(): 38fb. with explicit 'chunksize' option for
          better efficiency.

      -- Μέθοδος: map_async (func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[,
               error_callback]]])

          A variant of the *note map(): 1491. method which returns a
          *note AsyncResult: 38f9. object.

          If 'callback' is specified then it should be a callable which
          accepts a single argument.  When the result becomes ready
          'callback' is applied to it, that is unless the call failed,
          in which case the 'error_callback' is applied instead.

          If 'error_callback' is specified then it should be a callable
          which accepts a single argument.  If the target function
          fails, then the 'error_callback' is called with the exception
          instance.

          Callbacks should complete immediately since otherwise the
          thread which handles the results will get blocked.

      -- Μέθοδος: imap (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          A lazier version of *note map(): 1491.

          The 'chunksize' argument is the same as the one used by the
          *note map(): 1491. method.  For very long iterables using a
          large value for 'chunksize' can make the job complete 'much'
          faster than using the default value of ‘1’.

          Also if 'chunksize' is ‘1’ then the ‘next()’ method of the
          iterator returned by the ‘imap()’ method has an optional
          'timeout' parameter: ‘next(timeout)’ will raise *note
          multiprocessing.TimeoutError: 38af. if the result cannot be
          returned within 'timeout' seconds.

      -- Μέθοδος: imap_unordered (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          The same as *note imap(): 38fa. except that the ordering of
          the results from the returned iterator should be considered
          arbitrary.  (Only when there is only one worker process is the
          order guaranteed to be «correct».)

      -- Μέθοδος: starmap (func, iterable[, chunksize])

          Like *note map(): 1491. except that the elements of the
          'iterable' are expected to be iterables that are unpacked as
          arguments.

          Hence an 'iterable' of ‘[(1,2), (3, 4)]’ results in
          ‘[func(1,2), func(3,4)]’.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: starmap_async (func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback[,
               error_callback]]])

          A combination of *note starmap(): 148e. and *note map_async():
          1492. that iterates over 'iterable' of iterables and calls
          'func' with the iterables unpacked.  Returns a result object.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Prevents any more tasks from being submitted to the pool.
          Once all the tasks have been completed the worker processes
          will exit.

      -- Μέθοδος: terminate ()

          Stops the worker processes immediately without completing
          outstanding work.  When the pool object is garbage collected
          ‘terminate()’ will be called immediately.

      -- Μέθοδος: join ()

          Wait for the worker processes to exit.  One must call *note
          close(): 38f7. or *note terminate(): 38f8. before using
          ‘join()’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Pool objects now support the context
     management protocol – see *note Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου:
     2601.  *note __enter__(): 28a4. returns the pool object, and *note
     __exit__(): 28a5. calls *note terminate(): 38f8.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult

     The class of the result returned by *note Pool.apply_async(): 173a.
     and *note Pool.map_async(): 1492.

      -- Μέθοδος: get ([timeout])

          Return the result when it arrives.  If 'timeout' is not ‘None’
          and the result does not arrive within 'timeout' seconds then
          *note multiprocessing.TimeoutError: 38af. is raised.  If the
          remote call raised an exception then that exception will be
          reraised by ‘get()’.

      -- Μέθοδος: wait ([timeout])

          Wait until the result is available or until 'timeout' seconds
          pass.

      -- Μέθοδος: ready ()

          Return whether the call has completed.

      -- Μέθοδος: successful ()

          Return whether the call completed without raising an
          exception.  Will raise *note ValueError: 277. if the result is
          not ready.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: If the result is not ready, *note
          ValueError: 277. is raised instead of *note AssertionError:
          a97.

The following example demonstrates the use of a pool:

     from multiprocessing import Pool
     import time

     def f(x):
         return x*x

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         with Pool(processes=4) as pool:         # start 4 worker processes
             result = pool.apply_async(f, (10,)) # evaluate "f(10)" asynchronously in a single process
             print(result.get(timeout=1))        # prints "100" unless your computer is *very* slow

             print(pool.map(f, range(10)))       # prints "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"

             it = pool.imap(f, range(10))
             print(next(it))                     # prints "0"
             print(next(it))                     # prints "1"
             print(it.next(timeout=1))           # prints "4" unless your computer is *very* slow

             result = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
             print(result.get(timeout=1))        # raises multiprocessing.TimeoutError


File: python.info,  Node: Listeners and Clients,  Next: Authentication keys,  Prev: Process Pools,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.23 Listeners and Clients
...............................

Usually message passing between processes is done using queues or by
using *note Connection: 148c. objects returned by *note Pipe(): 3896.

However, the ‘multiprocessing.connection’ module allows some extra
flexibility.  It basically gives a high level message oriented API for
dealing with sockets or Windows named pipes.  It also has support for
'digest authentication' using the *note hmac: 6d. module, and for
polling multiple connections at the same time.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.connection.deliver_challenge (connection,
          authkey)

     Send a randomly generated message to the other end of the
     connection and wait for a reply.

     If the reply matches the digest of the message using 'authkey' as
     the key then a welcome message is sent to the other end of the
     connection.  Otherwise *note AuthenticationError: 38ae. is raised.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.connection.answer_challenge (connection,
          authkey)

     Receive a message, calculate the digest of the message using
     'authkey' as the key, and then send the digest back.

     If a welcome message is not received, then *note
     AuthenticationError: 38ae. is raised.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.connection.Client (address[, family[,
          authkey]])

     Attempt to set up a connection to the listener which is using
     address 'address', returning a *note Connection: 148c.

     The type of the connection is determined by 'family' argument, but
     this can generally be omitted since it can usually be inferred from
     the format of 'address'.  (See *note Address Formats: 3905.)

     If 'authkey' is given and not ‘None’, it should be a byte string
     and will be used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication
     challenge.  No authentication is done if 'authkey' is ‘None’.
     *note AuthenticationError: 38ae. is raised if authentication fails.
     See *note Authentication keys: 38ab.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.connection.Listener ([address[, family[,
          backlog[, authkey]]]])

     A wrapper for a bound socket or Windows named pipe which is
     “listening” for connections.

     'address' is the address to be used by the bound socket or named
     pipe of the listener object.

          Σημείωση: If an address of “0.0.0.0” is used, the address will
          not be a connectable end point on Windows.  If you require a
          connectable end-point, you should use “127.0.0.1”.

     'family' is the type of socket (or named pipe) to use.  This can be
     one of the strings ‘'AF_INET'’ (for a TCP socket), ‘'AF_UNIX'’ (for
     a Unix domain socket) or ‘'AF_PIPE'’ (for a Windows named pipe).
     Of these only the first is guaranteed to be available.  If 'family'
     is ‘None’ then the family is inferred from the format of 'address'.
     If 'address' is also ‘None’ then a default is chosen.  This default
     is the family which is assumed to be the fastest available.  See
     *note Address Formats: 3905.  Note that if 'family' is ‘'AF_UNIX'’
     and address is ‘None’ then the socket will be created in a private
     temporary directory created using *note tempfile.mkstemp(): 2ef1.

     If the listener object uses a socket then 'backlog' (1 by default)
     is passed to the *note listen(): 120f. method of the socket once it
     has been bound.

     If 'authkey' is given and not ‘None’, it should be a byte string
     and will be used as the secret key for an HMAC-based authentication
     challenge.  No authentication is done if 'authkey' is ‘None’.
     *note AuthenticationError: 38ae. is raised if authentication fails.
     See *note Authentication keys: 38ab.

      -- Μέθοδος: accept ()

          Accept a connection on the bound socket or named pipe of the
          listener object and return a *note Connection: 148c. object.
          If authentication is attempted and fails, then *note
          AuthenticationError: 38ae. is raised.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Close the bound socket or named pipe of the listener object.
          This is called automatically when the listener is garbage
          collected.  However it is advisable to call it explicitly.

     Listener objects have the following read-only properties:

      -- Ιδιότητα: address

          The address which is being used by the Listener object.

      -- Ιδιότητα: last_accepted

          The address from which the last accepted connection came.  If
          this is unavailable then it is ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Listener objects now support the context
     management protocol – see *note Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου:
     2601.  *note __enter__(): 28a4. returns the listener object, and
     *note __exit__(): 28a5. calls *note close(): 3906.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.connection.wait (object_list,
          timeout=None)

     Wait till an object in 'object_list' is ready.  Returns the list of
     those objects in 'object_list' which are ready.  If 'timeout' is a
     float then the call blocks for at most that many seconds.  If
     'timeout' is ‘None’ then it will block for an unlimited period.  A
     negative timeout is equivalent to a zero timeout.

     For both POSIX and Windows, an object can appear in 'object_list'
     if it is

        * a readable *note Connection: 148c. object;

        * a connected and readable *note socket.socket: 115a. object; or

        * the *note sentinel: 148d. attribute of a *note Process: 4de.
          object.

     A connection or socket object is ready when there is data available
     to be read from it, or the other end has been closed.

     'POSIX': ‘wait(object_list, timeout)’ almost equivalent
     ‘select.select(object_list, [], [], timeout)’.  The difference is
     that, if *note select.select(): 1159. is interrupted by a signal,
     it can raise *note OSError: 53c. with an error number of ‘EINTR’,
     whereas ‘wait()’ will not.

     'Windows': An item in 'object_list' must either be an integer
     handle which is waitable (according to the definition used by the
     documentation of the Win32 function ‘WaitForMultipleObjects()’) or
     it can be an object with a *note fileno(): 19b2. method which
     returns a socket handle or pipe handle.  (Note that pipe handles
     and socket handles are 'not' waitable handles.)

     Added in version 3.3.

'Examples'

The following server code creates a listener which uses ‘'secret
password'’ as an authentication key.  It then waits for a connection and
sends some data to the client:

     from multiprocessing.connection import Listener
     from array import array

     address = ('localhost', 6000)     # family is deduced to be 'AF_INET'

     with Listener(address, authkey=b'secret password') as listener:
         with listener.accept() as conn:
             print('connection accepted from', listener.last_accepted)

             conn.send([2.25, None, 'junk', float])

             conn.send_bytes(b'hello')

             conn.send_bytes(array('i', [42, 1729]))

The following code connects to the server and receives some data from
the server:

     from multiprocessing.connection import Client
     from array import array

     address = ('localhost', 6000)

     with Client(address, authkey=b'secret password') as conn:
         print(conn.recv())                  # => [2.25, None, 'junk', float]

         print(conn.recv_bytes())            # => 'hello'

         arr = array('i', [0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
         print(conn.recv_bytes_into(arr))    # => 8
         print(arr)                          # => array('i', [42, 1729, 0, 0, 0])

The following code uses *note wait(): 148b. to wait for messages from
multiple processes at once:

     from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe, current_process
     from multiprocessing.connection import wait

     def foo(w):
         for i in range(10):
             w.send((i, current_process().name))
         w.close()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         readers = []

         for i in range(4):
             r, w = Pipe(duplex=False)
             readers.append(r)
             p = Process(target=foo, args=(w,))
             p.start()
             # We close the writable end of the pipe now to be sure that
             # p is the only process which owns a handle for it.  This
             # ensures that when p closes its handle for the writable end,
             # wait() will promptly report the readable end as being ready.
             w.close()

         while readers:
             for r in wait(readers):
                 try:
                     msg = r.recv()
                 except EOFError:
                     readers.remove(r)
                 else:
                     print(msg)

* Menu:

* Address Formats::


File: python.info,  Node: Address Formats,  Up: Listeners and Clients

5.19.2.24 Address Formats
.........................

   * An ‘'AF_INET'’ address is a tuple of the form ‘(hostname, port)’
     where 'hostname' is a string and 'port' is an integer.

   * An ‘'AF_UNIX'’ address is a string representing a filename on the
     filesystem.

   * An ‘'AF_PIPE'’ address is a string of the form
     ‘r'\\.\pipe\PIPENAME'’.  To use *note Client(): 3904. to connect to
     a named pipe on a remote computer called 'ServerName' one should
     use an address of the form ‘r'\\SERVERNAME\pipe\PIPENAME'’ instead.

Note that any string beginning with two backslashes is assumed by
default to be an ‘'AF_PIPE'’ address rather than an ‘'AF_UNIX'’ address.


File: python.info,  Node: Authentication keys,  Next: Logging<2>,  Prev: Listeners and Clients,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.25 Authentication keys
.............................

When one uses *note Connection.recv: 38c9, the data received is
automatically unpickled.  Unfortunately unpickling data from an
untrusted source is a security risk.  Therefore *note Listener: 1c2b.
and *note Client(): 3904. use the *note hmac: 6d. module to provide
digest authentication.

An authentication key is a byte string which can be thought of as a
password: once a connection is established both ends will demand proof
that the other knows the authentication key.  (Demonstrating that both
ends are using the same key does 'not' involve sending the key over the
connection.)

If authentication is requested but no authentication key is specified
then the return value of ‘current_process().authkey’ is used (see *note
Process: 4de.).  This value will be automatically inherited by any
‘Process’ object that the current process creates.  This means that (by
default) all processes of a multi-process program will share a single
authentication key which can be used when setting up connections between
themselves.

Suitable authentication keys can also be generated by using *note
os.urandom(): 931.

This authentication protects *note Listener: 1c2b. and *note Client():
3904. connections, which are reachable by address.  It is not applied to
the anonymous pipes created by *note Pipe(): 3896. or used internally by
*note Queue: 1d85.  ‘multiprocessing’ treats all local processes running
as the same user as trusted; on most operating systems such processes
can access each other’s pipe file descriptors regardless.  Applications
that require isolation between processes of the same user must arrange
it at the operating-system level – for example, by running workers under
a different user account or in a sandbox.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging<2>,  Next: The multiprocessing dummy module,  Prev: Authentication keys,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.26 Logging
.................

Some support for logging is available.  Note, however, that the *note
logging: 8a. package does not use process shared locks so it is possible
(depending on the handler type) for messages from different processes to
get mixed up.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.get_logger ()

     Returns the logger used by ‘multiprocessing’.  If necessary, a new
     one will be created.

     When first created the logger has level *note logging.NOTSET: 33b3.
     and no default handler.  Messages sent to this logger will not by
     default propagate to the root logger.

     Note that on Windows child processes will only inherit the level of
     the parent process’s logger – any other customization of the logger
     will not be inherited.

 -- Συνάρτηση: multiprocessing.log_to_stderr (level=None)

     This function performs a call to *note get_logger(): 3478. but in
     addition to returning the logger created by get_logger, it adds a
     handler which sends output to *note sys.stderr: d05. using format
     ‘'[%(levelname)s/%(processName)s] %(message)s'’.  You can modify
     ‘levelname’ of the logger by passing a ‘level’ argument.

Below is an example session with logging turned on:

     >>> import multiprocessing, logging
     >>> logger = multiprocessing.log_to_stderr()
     >>> logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     >>> logger.warning('doomed')
     [WARNING/MainProcess] doomed
     >>> m = multiprocessing.Manager()
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] child process calling self.run()
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] created temp directory /.../pymp-...
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] manager serving at '/.../listener-...'
     >>> del m
     [INFO/MainProcess] sending shutdown message to manager
     [INFO/SyncManager-...] manager exiting with exitcode 0

For a full table of logging levels, see the *note logging: 8a. module.


File: python.info,  Node: The multiprocessing dummy module,  Prev: Logging<2>,  Up: Reference<3>

5.19.2.27 The ‘multiprocessing.dummy’ module
............................................

‘multiprocessing.dummy’ replicates the API of ‘multiprocessing’ but is
no more than a wrapper around the *note threading: f6. module.

In particular, the ‘Pool’ function provided by ‘multiprocessing.dummy’
returns an instance of *note ThreadPool: 1eca, which is a subclass of
*note Pool: 1315. that supports all the same method calls but uses a
pool of worker threads rather than worker processes.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.pool.ThreadPool ([processes[, initializer[,
          initargs]]])

     A thread pool object which controls a pool of worker threads to
     which jobs can be submitted.  ‘ThreadPool’ instances are fully
     interface compatible with *note Pool: 1315. instances, and their
     resources must also be properly managed, either by using the pool
     as a context manager or by calling *note close(): 38f7. and *note
     terminate(): 38f8. manually.

     'processes' is the number of worker threads to use.  If 'processes'
     is ‘None’ then the number returned by *note os.process_cpu_count():
     6e0. is used.

     If 'initializer' is not ‘None’ then each worker process will call
     ‘initializer(*initargs)’ when it starts.

     Unlike *note Pool: 1315, 'maxtasksperchild' and 'context' cannot be
     provided.

          Σημείωση: A ‘ThreadPool’ shares the same interface as *note
          Pool: 1315, which is designed around a pool of processes and
          predates the introduction of the *note concurrent.futures: 24.
          module.  As such, it inherits some operations that don’t make
          sense for a pool backed by threads, and it has its own type
          for representing the status of asynchronous jobs, *note
          AsyncResult: 38f9, that is not understood by any other
          libraries.

          Users should generally prefer to use *note
          concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: b27, which has a
          simpler interface that was designed around threads from the
          start, and which returns *note concurrent.futures.Future:
          155b. instances that are compatible with many other libraries,
          including *note asyncio: b.


File: python.info,  Node: Programming guidelines,  Next: Examples<12>,  Prev: Reference<3>,  Up: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

5.19.2.28 Programming guidelines
................................

There are certain guidelines and idioms which should be adhered to when
using ‘multiprocessing’.

* Menu:

* All start methods::
* The spawn and forkserver start methods::


File: python.info,  Node: All start methods,  Next: The spawn and forkserver start methods,  Up: Programming guidelines

5.19.2.29 All start methods
...........................

The following applies to all start methods.

Avoid shared state

     As far as possible one should try to avoid shifting large amounts
     of data between processes.

     It is probably best to stick to using queues or pipes for
     communication between processes rather than using the lower level
     synchronization primitives.

Picklability

     Ensure that the arguments to the methods of proxies are picklable.

Thread safety of proxies

     Do not use a proxy object from more than one thread unless you
     protect it with a lock.

     (There is never a problem with different processes using the 'same'
     proxy.)

Joining zombie processes

     On POSIX when a process finishes but has not been joined it becomes
     a zombie.  There should never be very many because each time a new
     process starts (or *note active_children(): 38c3. is called) all
     completed processes which have not yet been joined will be joined.
     Also calling a finished process’s *note Process.is_alive: 1736.
     will join the process.  Even so it is probably good practice to
     explicitly join all the processes that you start.

Better to inherit than pickle/unpickle

     When using the 'spawn' or 'forkserver' start methods many types
     from ‘multiprocessing’ need to be picklable so that child processes
     can use them.  However, one should generally avoid sending shared
     objects to other processes using pipes or queues.  Instead you
     should arrange the program so that a process which needs access to
     a shared resource created elsewhere can inherit it from an ancestor
     process.

Avoid terminating processes

     Using the *note Process.terminate: 1a7f. method to stop a process
     is liable to cause any shared resources (such as locks, semaphores,
     pipes and queues) currently being used by the process to become
     broken or unavailable to other processes.

     Therefore it is probably best to only consider using *note
     Process.terminate: 1a7f. on processes which never use any shared
     resources.

Joining processes that use queues

     Bear in mind that a process that has put items in a queue will wait
     before terminating until all the buffered items are fed by the
     «feeder» thread to the underlying pipe.  (The child process can
     call the *note Queue.cancel_join_thread: 38b9. method of the queue
     to avoid this behaviour.)

     This means that whenever you use a queue you need to make sure that
     all items which have been put on the queue will eventually be
     removed before the process is joined.  Otherwise you cannot be sure
     that processes which have put items on the queue will terminate.
     Remember also that non-daemonic processes will be joined
     automatically.

     An example which will deadlock is the following:

          from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

          def f(q):
              q.put('X' * 1000000)

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              queue = Queue()
              p = Process(target=f, args=(queue,))
              p.start()
              p.join()                    # this deadlocks
              obj = queue.get()

     A fix here would be to swap the last two lines (or simply remove
     the ‘p.join()’ line).

Explicitly pass resources to child processes

     On POSIX using the 'fork' start method, a child process can make
     use of a shared resource created in a parent process using a global
     resource.  However, it is better to pass the object as an argument
     to the constructor for the child process.

     Apart from making the code (potentially) compatible with Windows
     and the other start methods this also ensures that as long as the
     child process is still alive the object will not be garbage
     collected in the parent process.  This might be important if some
     resource is freed when the object is garbage collected in the
     parent process.

     So for instance

          from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

          def f():
              ... do something using "lock" ...

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              lock = Lock()
              for i in range(10):
                  Process(target=f).start()

     should be rewritten as

          from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

          def f(l):
              ... do something using "l" ...

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              lock = Lock()
              for i in range(10):
                  Process(target=f, args=(lock,)).start()

Beware of replacing *note sys.stdin: 94a. with a «file like object»

     ‘multiprocessing’ originally unconditionally called:

          os.close(sys.stdin.fileno())

     in the ‘multiprocessing.Process._bootstrap()’ method — this
     resulted in issues with processes-in-processes.  This has been
     changed to:

          sys.stdin.close()
          sys.stdin = open(os.open(os.devnull, os.O_RDONLY), closefd=False)

     Which solves the fundamental issue of processes colliding with each
     other resulting in a bad file descriptor error, but introduces a
     potential danger to applications which replace *note sys.stdin():
     94a. with a «file-like object» with output buffering.  This danger
     is that if multiple processes call *note close(): 70b. on this
     file-like object, it could result in the same data being flushed to
     the object multiple times, resulting in corruption.

     If you write a file-like object and implement your own caching, you
     can make it fork-safe by storing the pid whenever you append to the
     cache, and discarding the cache when the pid changes.  For example:

          @property
          def cache(self):
              pid = os.getpid()
              if pid != self._pid:
                  self._pid = pid
                  self._cache = []
              return self._cache

     For more information, see bpo-5155(1), bpo-5313(2) and bpo-5331(3)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5155

   (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5313

   (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5331


File: python.info,  Node: The spawn and forkserver start methods,  Prev: All start methods,  Up: Programming guidelines

5.19.2.30 The 'spawn' and 'forkserver' start methods
....................................................

There are a few extra restrictions which don’t apply to the 'fork' start
method.

More picklability

     Ensure that all arguments to *note Process: 4de. are picklable.
     Also, if you subclass ‘Process.__init__’, you must make sure that
     instances will be picklable when the *note Process.start: 1735.
     method is called.

Global variables

     Bear in mind that if code run in a child process tries to access a
     global variable, then the value it sees (if any) may not be the
     same as the value in the parent process at the time that *note
     Process.start: 1735. was called.

     However, global variables which are just module level constants
     cause no problems.
Safe importing of main module

     Make sure that the main module can be safely imported by a new
     Python interpreter without causing unintended side effects (such as
     starting a new process).

     For example, using the 'spawn' or 'forkserver' start method running
     the following module would fail with a *note RuntimeError: 30d.:

          from multiprocessing import Process

          def foo():
              print('hello')

          p = Process(target=foo)
          p.start()

     Instead one should protect the «entry point» of the program by
     using ‘if __name__ == '__main__':’ as follows:

          from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support, set_start_method

          def foo():
              print('hello')

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              freeze_support()
              set_start_method('spawn')
              p = Process(target=foo)
              p.start()

     (The ‘freeze_support()’ line can be omitted if the program will be
     run normally instead of frozen.)

     This allows the newly spawned Python interpreter to safely import
     the module and then run the module’s ‘foo()’ function.

     Similar restrictions apply if a pool or manager is created in the
     main module.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<12>,  Prev: Programming guidelines,  Up: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

5.19.2.31 Examples
..................

Demonstration of how to create and use customized managers and proxies:

     from multiprocessing import freeze_support
     from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager, BaseProxy
     import operator

     ##

     class Foo:
         def f(self):
             print('you called Foo.f()')
         def g(self):
             print('you called Foo.g()')
         def _h(self):
             print('you called Foo._h()')

     # A simple generator function
     def baz():
         for i in range(10):
             yield i*i

     # Proxy type for generator objects
     class GeneratorProxy(BaseProxy):
         _exposed_ = ['__next__']
         def __iter__(self):
             return self
         def __next__(self):
             return self._callmethod('__next__')

     # Function to return the operator module
     def get_operator_module():
         return operator

     ##

     class MyManager(BaseManager):
         pass

     # register the Foo class; make `f()` and `g()` accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('Foo1', Foo)

     # register the Foo class; make `g()` and `_h()` accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('Foo2', Foo, exposed=('g', '_h'))

     # register the generator function baz; use `GeneratorProxy` to make proxies
     MyManager.register('baz', baz, proxytype=GeneratorProxy)

     # register get_operator_module(); make public functions accessible via proxy
     MyManager.register('operator', get_operator_module)

     ##

     def test():
         manager = MyManager()
         manager.start()

         print('-' * 20)

         f1 = manager.Foo1()
         f1.f()
         f1.g()
         assert not hasattr(f1, '_h')
         assert sorted(f1._exposed_) == sorted(['f', 'g'])

         print('-' * 20)

         f2 = manager.Foo2()
         f2.g()
         f2._h()
         assert not hasattr(f2, 'f')
         assert sorted(f2._exposed_) == sorted(['g', '_h'])

         print('-' * 20)

         it = manager.baz()
         for i in it:
             print('<%d>' % i, end=' ')
         print()

         print('-' * 20)

         op = manager.operator()
         print('op.add(23, 45) =', op.add(23, 45))
         print('op.pow(2, 94) =', op.pow(2, 94))
         print('op._exposed_ =', op._exposed_)

     ##

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         freeze_support()
         test()

Using *note Pool: 1315.:

     import multiprocessing
     import time
     import random
     import sys

     #
     # Functions used by test code
     #

     def calculate(func, args):
         result = func(*args)
         return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % (
             multiprocessing.current_process().name,
             func.__name__, args, result
             )

     def calculatestar(args):
         return calculate(*args)

     def mul(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5 * random.random())
         return a * b

     def plus(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5 * random.random())
         return a + b

     def f(x):
         return 1.0 / (x - 5.0)

     def pow3(x):
         return x ** 3

     def noop(x):
         pass

     #
     # Test code
     #

     def test():
         PROCESSES = 4
         print('Creating pool with %d processes\n' % PROCESSES)

         with multiprocessing.Pool(PROCESSES) as pool:
             #
             # Tests
             #

             TASKS = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(10)] + \
                     [(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

             results = [pool.apply_async(calculate, t) for t in TASKS]
             imap_it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
             imap_unordered_it = pool.imap_unordered(calculatestar, TASKS)

             print('Ordered results using pool.apply_async():')
             for r in results:
                 print('\t', r.get())
             print()

             print('Ordered results using pool.imap():')
             for x in imap_it:
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             print('Unordered results using pool.imap_unordered():')
             for x in imap_unordered_it:
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             print('Ordered results using pool.map() --- will block till complete:')
             for x in pool.map(calculatestar, TASKS):
                 print('\t', x)
             print()

             #
             # Test error handling
             #

             print('Testing error handling:')

             try:
                 print(pool.apply(f, (5,)))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.apply()')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             try:
                 print(pool.map(f, list(range(10))))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.map()')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             try:
                 print(list(pool.imap(f, list(range(10)))))
             except ZeroDivisionError:
                 print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from list(pool.imap())')
             else:
                 raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             it = pool.imap(f, list(range(10)))
             for i in range(10):
                 try:
                     x = next(it)
                 except ZeroDivisionError:
                     if i == 5:
                         pass
                 except StopIteration:
                     break
                 else:
                     if i == 5:
                         raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

             assert i == 9
             print('\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from IMapIterator.next()')
             print()

             #
             # Testing timeouts
             #

             print('Testing ApplyResult.get() with timeout:', end=' ')
             res = pool.apply_async(calculate, TASKS[0])
             while 1:
                 sys.stdout.flush()
                 try:
                     sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % res.get(0.02))
                     break
                 except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
                     sys.stdout.write('.')
             print()
             print()

             print('Testing IMapIterator.next() with timeout:', end=' ')
             it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
             while 1:
                 sys.stdout.flush()
                 try:
                     sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % it.next(0.02))
                 except StopIteration:
                     break
                 except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
                     sys.stdout.write('.')
             print()
             print()


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         multiprocessing.freeze_support()
         test()

An example showing how to use queues to feed tasks to a collection of
worker processes and collect the results:

     import time
     import random

     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, current_process, freeze_support

     #
     # Function run by worker processes
     #

     def worker(input, output):
         for func, args in iter(input.get, 'STOP'):
             result = calculate(func, args)
             output.put(result)

     #
     # Function used to calculate result
     #

     def calculate(func, args):
         result = func(*args)
         return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % \
             (current_process().name, func.__name__, args, result)

     #
     # Functions referenced by tasks
     #

     def mul(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
         return a * b

     def plus(a, b):
         time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
         return a + b

     #
     #
     #

     def test():
         NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES = 4
         TASKS1 = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(20)]
         TASKS2 = [(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

         # Create queues
         task_queue = Queue()
         done_queue = Queue()

         # Submit tasks
         for task in TASKS1:
             task_queue.put(task)

         # Start worker processes
         for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
             Process(target=worker, args=(task_queue, done_queue)).start()

         # Get and print results
         print('Unordered results:')
         for i in range(len(TASKS1)):
             print('\t', done_queue.get())

         # Add more tasks using `put()`
         for task in TASKS2:
             task_queue.put(task)

         # Get and print some more results
         for i in range(len(TASKS2)):
             print('\t', done_queue.get())

         # Tell child processes to stop
         for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
             task_queue.put('STOP')


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         freeze_support()
         test()


File: python.info,  Node: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes,  Next: The concurrent package,  Prev: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.19.3 ‘multiprocessing.shared_memory’ — Shared memory for direct access across processes
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/multiprocessing/shared_memory.py(1)

Added in version 3.8.

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a class, *note SharedMemory: 1be1, for the
allocation and management of shared memory to be accessed by one or more
processes on a multicore or symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) machine.  To
assist with the life-cycle management of shared memory especially across
distinct processes, a *note BaseManager: 38dd. subclass, *note
SharedMemoryManager: 3916, is also provided in the *note
multiprocessing.managers: 9b. module.

In this module, shared memory refers to «POSIX style» shared memory
blocks (though is not necessarily implemented explicitly as such) and
does not refer to «distributed shared memory».  This style of shared
memory permits distinct processes to potentially read and write to a
common (or shared) region of volatile memory.  Processes are
conventionally limited to only have access to their own process memory
space but shared memory permits the sharing of data between processes,
avoiding the need to instead send messages between processes containing
that data.  Sharing data directly via memory can provide significant
performance benefits compared to sharing data via disk or socket or
other communications requiring the serialization/deserialization and
copying of data.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory (name=None,
          create=False, size=0, *, track=True)

     Create an instance of the ‘SharedMemory’ class for either creating
     a new shared memory block or attaching to an existing shared memory
     block.  Each shared memory block is assigned a unique name.  In
     this way, one process can create a shared memory block with a
     particular name and a different process can attach to that same
     shared memory block using that same name.

     As a resource for sharing data across processes, shared memory
     blocks may outlive the original process that created them.  When
     one process no longer needs access to a shared memory block that
     might still be needed by other processes, the *note close(): 3917.
     method should be called.  When a shared memory block is no longer
     needed by any process, the *note unlink(): 3918. method should be
     called to ensure proper cleanup.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘name’ (*note str: 1df.‘ | ’‘None’) – The unique name for the
          requested shared memory, specified as a string.  When creating
          a new shared memory block, if ‘None’ (the default) is supplied
          for the name, a novel name will be generated.

        * ‘create’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – Control whether a new shared
          memory block is created (‘True’) or an existing shared memory
          block is attached (‘False’).

        * ‘size’ (*note int: 326.) – The requested number of bytes when
          creating a new shared memory block.  Because some platforms
          choose to allocate chunks of memory based upon that platform’s
          memory page size, the exact size of the shared memory block
          may be larger or equal to the size requested.  When attaching
          to an existing shared memory block, the 'size' parameter is
          ignored.

        * ‘track’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – When ‘True’, register the shared
          memory block with a resource tracker process on platforms
          where the OS does not do this automatically.  The resource
          tracker ensures proper cleanup of the shared memory even if
          all other processes with access to the memory exit without
          doing so.  Python processes created from a common ancestor
          using *note multiprocessing: 98. facilities share a single
          resource tracker process, and the lifetime of shared memory
          segments is handled automatically among these processes.
          Python processes created in any other way will receive their
          own resource tracker when accessing shared memory with 'track'
          enabled.  This will cause the shared memory to be deleted by
          the resource tracker of the first process that terminates.  To
          avoid this issue, users of *note subprocess: df. or standalone
          Python processes should set 'track' to ‘False’ when there is
          already another process in place that does the bookkeeping.
          'track' is ignored on Windows, which has its own tracking and
          automatically deletes shared memory when all handles to it
          have been closed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'track' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Close the file descriptor/handle to the shared memory from
          this instance.  ‘close()’ should be called once access to the
          shared memory block from this instance is no longer needed.
          Depending on operating system, the underlying memory may or
          may not be freed even if all handles to it have been closed.
          To ensure proper cleanup, use the *note unlink(): 3918.
          method.

      -- Μέθοδος: unlink ()

          Delete the underlying shared memory block.  This should be
          called only once per shared memory block regardless of the
          number of handles to it, even in other processes.  ‘unlink()’
          and *note close(): 3917. can be called in any order, but
          trying to access data inside a shared memory block after
          ‘unlink()’ may result in memory access errors, depending on
          platform.

          This method has no effect on Windows, where the only way to
          delete a shared memory block is to close all handles.

      -- Ιδιότητα: buf

          A memoryview of contents of the shared memory block.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          Read-only access to the unique name of the shared memory
          block.

      -- Ιδιότητα: size

          Read-only access to size in bytes of the shared memory block.

The following example demonstrates low-level use of *note SharedMemory:
1be1. instances:

     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> shm_a = shared_memory.SharedMemory(create=True, size=10)
     >>> type(shm_a.buf)
     <class 'memoryview'>
     >>> buffer = shm_a.buf
     >>> len(buffer)
     10
     >>> buffer[:4] = bytearray([22, 33, 44, 55])  # Modify multiple at once
     >>> buffer[4] = 100                           # Modify single byte at a time
     >>> # Attach to an existing shared memory block
     >>> shm_b = shared_memory.SharedMemory(shm_a.name)
     >>> import array
     >>> array.array('b', shm_b.buf[:5])  # Copy the data into a new array.array
     array('b', [22, 33, 44, 55, 100])
     >>> shm_b.buf[:5] = b'howdy'  # Modify via shm_b using bytes
     >>> bytes(shm_a.buf[:5])      # Access via shm_a
     b'howdy'
     >>> shm_b.close()   # Close each SharedMemory instance
     >>> shm_a.close()
     >>> shm_a.unlink()  # Call unlink only once to release the shared memory

The following example demonstrates a practical use of the *note
SharedMemory: 1be1. class with NumPy arrays(2), accessing the same
‘numpy.ndarray’ from two distinct Python shells:

     >>> # In the first Python interactive shell
     >>> import numpy as np
     >>> a = np.array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])  # Start with an existing NumPy array
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> shm = shared_memory.SharedMemory(create=True, size=a.nbytes)
     >>> # Now create a NumPy array backed by shared memory
     >>> b = np.ndarray(a.shape, dtype=a.dtype, buffer=shm.buf)
     >>> b[:] = a[:]  # Copy the original data into shared memory
     >>> b
     array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])
     >>> type(b)
     <class 'numpy.ndarray'>
     >>> type(a)
     <class 'numpy.ndarray'>
     >>> shm.name  # We did not specify a name so one was chosen for us
     'psm_21467_46075'

     >>> # In either the same shell or a new Python shell on the same machine
     >>> import numpy as np
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> # Attach to the existing shared memory block
     >>> existing_shm = shared_memory.SharedMemory(name='psm_21467_46075')
     >>> # Note that a.shape is (6,) and a.dtype is np.int64 in this example
     >>> c = np.ndarray((6,), dtype=np.int64, buffer=existing_shm.buf)
     >>> c
     array([1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8])
     >>> c[-1] = 888
     >>> c
     array([  1,   1,   2,   3,   5, 888])

     >>> # Back in the first Python interactive shell, b reflects this change
     >>> b
     array([  1,   1,   2,   3,   5, 888])

     >>> # Clean up from within the second Python shell
     >>> del c  # Unnecessary; merely emphasizing the array is no longer used
     >>> existing_shm.close()

     >>> # Clean up from within the first Python shell
     >>> del b  # Unnecessary; merely emphasizing the array is no longer used
     >>> shm.close()
     >>> shm.unlink()  # Free and release the shared memory block at the very end

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager ([address[,
          authkey]])

     A subclass of *note multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager: 38dd.
     which can be used for the management of shared memory blocks across
     processes.

     A call to *note start(): 38de. on a ‘SharedMemoryManager’ instance
     causes a new process to be started.  This new process’s sole
     purpose is to manage the life cycle of all shared memory blocks
     created through it.  To trigger the release of all shared memory
     blocks managed by that process, call *note shutdown(): 38df. on the
     instance.  This triggers a *note unlink(): 3918. call on all of the
     *note SharedMemory: 391c. objects managed by that process and then
     stops the process itself.  By creating ‘SharedMemory’ instances
     through a ‘SharedMemoryManager’, we avoid the need to manually
     track and trigger the freeing of shared memory resources.

     This class provides methods for creating and returning *note
     SharedMemory: 391c. instances and for creating a list-like object
     (*note ShareableList: 391d.) backed by shared memory.

     Refer to *note BaseManager: 38dd. for a description of the
     inherited 'address' and 'authkey' optional input arguments and how
     they may be used to connect to an existing ‘SharedMemoryManager’
     service from other processes.

      -- Μέθοδος: SharedMemory (size)

          Create and return a new *note SharedMemory: 391c. object with
          the specified 'size' in bytes.

      -- Μέθοδος: ShareableList (sequence)

          Create and return a new *note ShareableList: 391d. object,
          initialized by the values from the input 'sequence'.

The following example demonstrates the basic mechanisms of a *note
SharedMemoryManager: 3916.:

     >>> from multiprocessing.managers import SharedMemoryManager
     >>> smm = SharedMemoryManager()
     >>> smm.start()  # Start the process that manages the shared memory blocks
     >>> sl = smm.ShareableList(range(4))
     >>> sl
     ShareableList([0, 1, 2, 3], name='psm_6572_7512')
     >>> raw_shm = smm.SharedMemory(size=128)
     >>> another_sl = smm.ShareableList('alpha')
     >>> another_sl
     ShareableList(['a', 'l', 'p', 'h', 'a'], name='psm_6572_12221')
     >>> smm.shutdown()  # Calls unlink() on sl, raw_shm, and another_sl

The following example depicts a potentially more convenient pattern for
using *note SharedMemoryManager: 3916. objects via the *note with: 20a.
statement to ensure that all shared memory blocks are released after
they are no longer needed:

     >>> with SharedMemoryManager() as smm:
     ...     sl = smm.ShareableList(range(2000))
     ...     # Divide the work among two processes, storing partial results in sl
     ...     p1 = Process(target=do_work, args=(sl, 0, 1000))
     ...     p2 = Process(target=do_work, args=(sl, 1000, 2000))
     ...     p1.start()
     ...     p2.start()  # A multiprocessing.Pool might be more efficient
     ...     p1.join()
     ...     p2.join()   # Wait for all work to complete in both processes
     ...     total_result = sum(sl)  # Consolidate the partial results now in sl

When using a *note SharedMemoryManager: 3916. in a *note with: 20a.
statement, the shared memory blocks created using that manager are all
released when the ‘with’ statement’s code block finishes execution.

 -- Κλάση: multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList (sequence=None,
          *, name=None)

     Provide a mutable list-like object where all values stored within
     are stored in a shared memory block.  This constrains storable
     values to the following built-in data types:

        * *note int: 326. (signed 64-bit)

        * *note float: 327.

        * *note bool: 5ef.

        * *note str: 1df. (less than 10M bytes each when encoded as
          UTF-8)

        * *note bytes: 1c7. (less than 10M bytes each)

        * ‘None’

     It also notably differs from the built-in *note list: 4d9. type in
     that these lists can not change their overall length (i.e.  no
     ‘append()’, ‘insert()’, etc.)  and do not support the dynamic
     creation of new ‘ShareableList’ instances via slicing.

     'sequence' is used in populating a new ‘ShareableList’ full of
     values.  Set to ‘None’ to instead attach to an already existing
     ‘ShareableList’ by its unique shared memory name.

     'name' is the unique name for the requested shared memory, as
     described in the definition for *note SharedMemory: 1be1.  When
     attaching to an existing ‘ShareableList’, specify its shared memory
     block’s unique name while leaving 'sequence' set to ‘None’.

          Σημείωση: A known issue exists for *note bytes: 1c7. and *note
          str: 1df. values.  If they end with ‘\x00’ nul bytes or
          characters, those may be 'silently stripped' when fetching
          them by index from the ‘ShareableList’.  This
          ‘.rstrip(b'\x00')’ behavior is considered a bug and may go
          away in the future.  See gh-106939(3).

     For applications where rstripping of trailing nulls is a problem,
     work around it by always unconditionally appending an extra non-0
     byte to the end of such values when storing and unconditionally
     removing it when fetching:

          >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
          >>> nul_bug_demo = shared_memory.ShareableList(['?\x00', b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00'])
          >>> nul_bug_demo[0]
          '?'
          >>> nul_bug_demo[1]
          b'\x03\x02\x01'
          >>> nul_bug_demo.shm.unlink()
          >>> padded = shared_memory.ShareableList(['?\x00\x07', b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00\x07'])
          >>> padded[0][:-1]
          '?\x00'
          >>> padded[1][:-1]
          b'\x03\x02\x01\x00\x00\x00'
          >>> padded.shm.unlink()

      -- Μέθοδος: count (value)

          Return the number of occurrences of 'value'.

      -- Μέθοδος: index (value)

          Return first index position of 'value'.  Raise *note
          ValueError: 277. if 'value' is not present.

      -- Ιδιότητα: format

          Read-only attribute containing the *note struct: de. packing
          format used by all currently stored values.

      -- Ιδιότητα: shm

          The *note SharedMemory: 1be1. instance where the values are
          stored.

The following example demonstrates basic use of a *note ShareableList:
1f4c. instance:

     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> a = shared_memory.ShareableList(['howdy', b'HoWdY', -273.154, 100, None, True, 42])
     >>> [ type(entry) for entry in a ]
     [<class 'str'>, <class 'bytes'>, <class 'float'>, <class 'int'>, <class 'NoneType'>, <class 'bool'>, <class 'int'>]
     >>> a[2]
     -273.154
     >>> a[2] = -78.5
     >>> a[2]
     -78.5
     >>> a[2] = 'dry ice'  # Changing data types is supported as well
     >>> a[2]
     'dry ice'
     >>> a[2] = 'larger than previously allocated storage space'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: exceeds available storage for existing str
     >>> a[2]
     'dry ice'
     >>> len(a)
     7
     >>> a.index(42)
     6
     >>> a.count(b'howdy')
     0
     >>> a.count(b'HoWdY')
     1
     >>> a.shm.close()
     >>> a.shm.unlink()
     >>> del a  # Use of a ShareableList after call to unlink() is unsupported

The following example depicts how one, two, or many processes may access
the same *note ShareableList: 1f4c. by supplying the name of the shared
memory block behind it:

     >>> b = shared_memory.ShareableList(range(5))         # In a first process
     >>> c = shared_memory.ShareableList(name=b.shm.name)  # In a second process
     >>> c
     ShareableList([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], name='...')
     >>> c[-1] = -999
     >>> b[-1]
     -999
     >>> b.shm.close()
     >>> c.shm.close()
     >>> c.shm.unlink()

The following examples demonstrates that *note ShareableList: 1f4c. (and
underlying *note SharedMemory: 1be1.) objects can be pickled and
unpickled if needed.  Note, that it will still be the same shared
object.  This happens, because the deserialized object has the same
unique name and is just attached to an existing object with the same
name (if the object is still alive):

     >>> import pickle
     >>> from multiprocessing import shared_memory
     >>> sl = shared_memory.ShareableList(range(10))
     >>> list(sl)
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> deserialized_sl = pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(sl))
     >>> list(deserialized_sl)
     [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> sl[0] = -1
     >>> deserialized_sl[1] = -2
     >>> list(sl)
     [-1, -2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
     >>> list(deserialized_sl)
     [-1, -2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

     >>> sl.shm.close()
     >>> sl.shm.unlink()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/multiprocessing/shared_memory.py

   (2) https://numpy.org/

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106939


File: python.info,  Node: The concurrent package,  Next: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks,  Prev: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.19.4 The ‘concurrent’ package
-------------------------------

This package contains the following modules:

   * *note concurrent.futures: 24. – Launching parallel tasks

   * *note concurrent.interpreters: 25. – Multiple interpreters in the
     same process


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks,  Next: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process,  Prev: The concurrent package,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.19.5 ‘concurrent.futures’ — Launching parallel tasks
------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.2.

'Source code:' Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py(1),
Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py(2), and
Lib/concurrent/futures/interpreter.py(3)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘concurrent.futures’ module provides a high-level interface for
asynchronously executing callables.

The asynchronous execution can be performed with threads, using *note
ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. or *note InterpreterPoolExecutor: 46a, or
separate processes, using *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206.  Each
implements the same interface, which is defined by the abstract *note
Executor: 3928. class.

*note concurrent.futures.Future: 155b. must not be confused with *note
asyncio.Future: f8b, which is designed for use with *note asyncio: b.
tasks and coroutines.  See the *note asyncio’s Future: 3929.
documentation for a detailed comparison of the two.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

* Menu:

* Executor Objects::
* ThreadPoolExecutor::
* InterpreterPoolExecutor::
* ProcessPoolExecutor::
* Future Objects::
* Module Functions::
* Exception classes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/concurrent/futures/thread.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/concurrent/futures/process.py

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/concurrent/futures/interpreter.py


File: python.info,  Node: Executor Objects,  Next: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks

5.19.5.1 Executor Objects
.........................

 -- Κλάση: concurrent.futures.Executor

     An abstract class that provides methods to execute calls
     asynchronously.  It should not be used directly, but through its
     concrete subclasses.

      -- Μέθοδος: submit (fn, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Schedules the callable, 'fn', to be executed as ‘fn(*args,
          **kwargs)’ and returns a *note Future: 155b. object
          representing the execution of the callable.

               with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1) as executor:
                   future = executor.submit(pow, 323, 1235)
                   print(future.result())

      -- Μέθοδος: map (fn, *iterables, timeout=None, chunksize=1,
               buffersize=None)

          Similar to *note map(fn, *iterables): 43e. except:

             * The 'iterables' are collected immediately rather than
               lazily, unless a 'buffersize' is specified to limit the
               number of submitted tasks whose results have not yet been
               yielded.  If the buffer is full, iteration over the
               'iterables' pauses until a result is yielded from the
               buffer.

             * 'fn' is executed asynchronously and several calls to 'fn'
               may be made concurrently.

          The returned iterator raises a *note TimeoutError: c0e. if
          *note __next__(): 1672. is called and the result isn’t
          available after 'timeout' seconds from the original call to
          ‘Executor.map()’.  'timeout' can be an int or a float.  If
          'timeout' is not specified or ‘None’, there is no limit to the
          wait time.

          If a 'fn' call raises an exception, then that exception will
          be raised when its value is retrieved from the iterator.

          When using *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206, this method chops
          'iterables' into a number of chunks which it submits to the
          pool as separate tasks.  The (approximate) size of these
          chunks can be specified by setting 'chunksize' to a positive
          integer.  For very long iterables, using a large value for
          'chunksize' can significantly improve performance compared to
          the default size of 1.  With *note ThreadPoolExecutor: b27.
          and *note InterpreterPoolExecutor: 46a, 'chunksize' has no
          effect.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the 'chunksize' parameter.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added the 'buffersize' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: shutdown (wait=True, *, cancel_futures=False)

          Signal the executor that it should free any resources that it
          is using when the currently pending futures are done
          executing.  Calls to *note Executor.submit(): e44. and *note
          Executor.map(): 473. made after shutdown will raise *note
          RuntimeError: 30d.

          If 'wait' is ‘True’ then this method will not return until all
          the pending futures are done executing and the resources
          associated with the executor have been freed.  If 'wait' is
          ‘False’ then this method will return immediately and the
          resources associated with the executor will be freed when all
          pending futures are done executing.  Regardless of the value
          of 'wait', the entire Python program will not exit until all
          pending futures are done executing.

          If 'cancel_futures' is ‘True’, this method will cancel all
          pending futures that the executor has not started running.
          Any futures that are completed or running won’t be cancelled,
          regardless of the value of 'cancel_futures'.

          If both 'cancel_futures' and 'wait' are ‘True’, all futures
          that the executor has started running will be completed prior
          to this method returning.  The remaining futures are
          cancelled.

          You can avoid having to call this method explicitly if you use
          the executor as a *note context manager: 478. via the *note
          with: 20a. statement, which will shutdown the ‘Executor’
          (waiting as if ‘Executor.shutdown()’ were called with 'wait'
          set to ‘True’):

               import shutil
               with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
                   e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src4.txt', 'dest4.txt')

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added 'cancel_futures'.


File: python.info,  Node: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Next: InterpreterPoolExecutor,  Prev: Executor Objects,  Up: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks

5.19.5.2 ThreadPoolExecutor
...........................

*note ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. is an *note Executor: 3928. subclass that
uses a pool of threads to execute calls asynchronously.

Deadlocks can occur when the callable associated with a *note Future:
155b. waits on the results of another ‘Future’.  For example:

     import time
     def wait_on_b():
         time.sleep(5)
         print(b.result())  # b will never complete because it is waiting on a.
         return 5

     def wait_on_a():
         time.sleep(5)
         print(a.result())  # a will never complete because it is waiting on b.
         return 6


     executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=2)
     a = executor.submit(wait_on_b)
     b = executor.submit(wait_on_a)

And:

     def wait_on_future():
         f = executor.submit(pow, 5, 2)
         # This will never complete because there is only one worker thread and
         # it is executing this function.
         print(f.result())

     executor = ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=1)
     future = executor.submit(wait_on_future)
     # Note: calling future.result() would also cause a deadlock because
     # the single worker thread is already waiting for wait_on_future().

 -- Κλάση: concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor (max_workers=None,
          thread_name_prefix='', initializer=None, initargs=())

     An *note Executor: 3928. subclass that uses a pool of at most
     'max_workers' threads to execute calls asynchronously.

     All threads enqueued to ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ will be joined before
     the interpreter can exit.  Note that the exit handler which does
     this is executed 'before' any exit handlers added using ‘atexit’.
     This means exceptions in the main thread must be caught and handled
     in order to signal threads to exit gracefully.  For this reason, it
     is recommended that ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ not be used for
     long-running tasks.

     'initializer' is an optional callable that is called at the start
     of each worker thread; 'initargs' is a tuple of arguments passed to
     the initializer.  Should 'initializer' raise an exception, all
     currently pending jobs will raise a *note BrokenThreadPool: 392c,
     as well as any attempt to submit more jobs to the pool.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If 'max_workers' is ‘None’ or not given, it
     will default to the number of processors on the machine, multiplied
     by ‘5’, assuming that ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’ is often used to overlap
     I/O instead of CPU work and the number of workers should be higher
     than the number of workers for *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the 'thread_name_prefix' parameter to
     allow users to control the *note threading.Thread: 420. names for
     worker threads created by the pool for easier debugging.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'initializer' and 'initargs'
     arguments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Default value of 'max_workers' is changed
     to ‘min(32, os.cpu_count() + 4)’.  This default value preserves at
     least 5 workers for I/O bound tasks.  It utilizes at most 32 CPU
     cores for CPU bound tasks which release the GIL. And it avoids
     using very large resources implicitly on many-core machines.

     ThreadPoolExecutor now reuses idle worker threads before starting
     'max_workers' worker threads too.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Default value of 'max_workers' is changed
     to ‘min(32, (os.process_cpu_count() or 1) + 4)’.

* Menu:

* ThreadPoolExecutor Example::


File: python.info,  Node: ThreadPoolExecutor Example,  Up: ThreadPoolExecutor

5.19.5.3 ThreadPoolExecutor Example
...................................

     import concurrent.futures
     import urllib.request

     URLS = ['http://www.foxnews.com/',
             'http://www.cnn.com/',
             'http://europe.wsj.com/',
             'http://www.bbc.co.uk/',
             'http://nonexistent-subdomain.python.org/']

     # Retrieve a single page and report the URL and contents
     def load_url(url, timeout):
         with urllib.request.urlopen(url, timeout=timeout) as conn:
             return conn.read()

     # We can use a with statement to ensure threads are cleaned up promptly
     with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=5) as executor:
         # Start the load operations and mark each future with its URL
         future_to_url = {executor.submit(load_url, url, 60): url for url in URLS}
         for future in concurrent.futures.as_completed(future_to_url):
             url = future_to_url[future]
             try:
                 data = future.result()
             except Exception as exc:
                 print('%r generated an exception: %s' % (url, exc))
             else:
                 print('%r page is %d bytes' % (url, len(data)))


File: python.info,  Node: InterpreterPoolExecutor,  Next: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Prev: ThreadPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks

5.19.5.4 InterpreterPoolExecutor
................................

Added in version 3.14.

The *note InterpreterPoolExecutor: 46a. class uses a pool of
interpreters to execute calls asynchronously.  It is a *note
ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. subclass, which means each worker is running in
its own thread.  The difference here is that each worker has its own
interpreter, and runs each task using that interpreter.

The biggest benefit to using interpreters instead of only threads is
true multi-core parallelism.  Each interpreter has its own *note Global
Interpreter Lock: 685, so code running in one interpreter can run on one
CPU core, while code in another interpreter runs unblocked on a
different core.

The tradeoff is that writing concurrent code for use with multiple
interpreters can take extra effort.  However, this is because it forces
you to be deliberate about how and when interpreters interact, and to be
explicit about what data is shared between interpreters.  This results
in several benefits that help balance the extra effort, including true
multi-core parallelism, For example, code written this way can make it
easier to reason about concurrency.  Another major benefit is that you
don’t have to deal with several of the big pain points of using threads,
like race conditions.

Each worker’s interpreter is isolated from all the other interpreters.
«Isolated» means each interpreter has its own runtime state and operates
completely independently.  For example, if you redirect *note
sys.stdout: e9c. in one interpreter, it will not be automatically
redirected to any other interpreter.  If you import a module in one
interpreter, it is not automatically imported in any other.  You would
need to import the module separately in interpreter where you need it.
In fact, each module imported in an interpreter is a completely separate
object from the same module in a different interpreter, including *note
sys: e2, *note builtins: 13, and even ‘__main__’.

Isolation means a mutable object, or other data, cannot be used by more
than one interpreter at the same time.  That effectively means
interpreters cannot actually share such objects or data.  Instead, each
interpreter must have its own copy, and you will have to synchronize any
changes between the copies manually.  Immutable objects and data, like
the builtin singletons, strings, and tuples of immutable objects, don’t
have these limitations.

Communicating and synchronizing between interpreters is most effectively
done using dedicated tools, like those proposed in PEP 734(1).  One less
efficient alternative is to serialize with *note pickle: ab. and then
send the bytes over a shared *note socket: d4. or *note pipe: 1d62.

 -- Κλάση: concurrent.futures.InterpreterPoolExecutor (max_workers=None,
          thread_name_prefix='', initializer=None, initargs=())

     A *note ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. subclass that executes calls
     asynchronously using a pool of at most 'max_workers' threads.  Each
     thread runs tasks in its own interpreter.  The worker interpreters
     are isolated from each other, which means each has its own runtime
     state and that they can’t share any mutable objects or other data.
     Each interpreter has its own *note Global Interpreter Lock: 685,
     which means code run with this executor has true multi-core
     parallelism.

     The optional 'initializer' and 'initargs' arguments have the same
     meaning as for ‘ThreadPoolExecutor’: the initializer is run when
     each worker is created, though in this case it is run in the
     worker’s interpreter.  The executor serializes the 'initializer'
     and 'initargs' using *note pickle: ab. when sending them to the
     worker’s interpreter.

          Σημείωση: The executor may replace uncaught exceptions from
          'initializer' with *note ExecutionFailed: 392f.

     Other caveats from parent *note ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. apply
     here.

*note submit(): e44. and *note map(): 473. work like normal, except the
worker serializes the callable and arguments using *note pickle: ab.
when sending them to its interpreter.  The worker likewise serializes
the return value when sending it back.

When a worker’s current task raises an uncaught exception, the worker
always tries to preserve the exception as-is.  If that is successful
then it also sets the ‘__cause__’ to a corresponding *note
ExecutionFailed: 392f. instance, which contains a summary of the
original exception.  In the uncommon case that the worker is not able to
preserve the original as-is then it directly preserves the corresponding
‘ExecutionFailed’ instance instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Next: Future Objects,  Prev: InterpreterPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks

5.19.5.5 ProcessPoolExecutor
............................

The *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. class is an *note Executor: 3928.
subclass that uses a pool of processes to execute calls asynchronously.
‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ uses the *note multiprocessing: 98. module, which
allows it to side-step the *note Global Interpreter Lock: 685. but also
means that only picklable objects can be executed and returned.

The ‘__main__’ module must be importable by worker subprocesses.  This
means that *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. will not work in the
interactive interpreter.

Calling *note Executor: 3928. or *note Future: 155b. methods from a
callable submitted to a *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. will result in
deadlock.

Note that the restrictions on functions and arguments needing to
picklable as per *note multiprocessing.Process: 4de. apply when using
*note submit(): e44. and *note map(): 473. on a *note
ProcessPoolExecutor: 206.  A function defined in a REPL or a lambda
should not be expected to work.

 -- Κλάση: concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor (max_workers=None,
          mp_context=None, initializer=None, initargs=(),
          max_tasks_per_child=None)

     An *note Executor: 3928. subclass that executes calls
     asynchronously using a pool of at most 'max_workers' processes.  If
     'max_workers' is ‘None’ or not given, it will default to *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0.  If 'max_workers' is less than or
     equal to ‘0’, then a *note ValueError: 277. will be raised.  On
     Windows, 'max_workers' must be less than or equal to ‘61’.  If it
     is not then ‘ValueError’ will be raised.  If 'max_workers' is
     ‘None’, then the default chosen will be at most ‘61’, even if more
     processors are available.  'mp_context' can be a *note
     multiprocessing: 98. context or ‘None’.  It will be used to launch
     the workers.  If 'mp_context' is ‘None’ or not given, the default
     ‘multiprocessing’ context is used.  See *note Contexts and start
     methods: 46d.

     'initializer' is an optional callable that is called at the start
     of each worker process; 'initargs' is a tuple of arguments passed
     to the initializer.  Should 'initializer' raise an exception, all
     currently pending jobs will raise a *note BrokenProcessPool: 3931,
     as well as any attempt to submit more jobs to the pool.

     'max_tasks_per_child' is an optional argument that specifies the
     maximum number of tasks a single process can execute before it will
     exit and be replaced with a fresh worker process.  By default
     'max_tasks_per_child' is ‘None’ which means worker processes will
     live as long as the pool.  When a max is specified, the «spawn»
     multiprocessing start method will be used by default in absence of
     a 'mp_context' parameter.  This feature is incompatible with the
     «fork» start method.

          Σημείωση: Bugs have been reported when using the
          'max_tasks_per_child' feature that can result in the
          ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’ hanging in some circumstances.  Follow
          its eventual resolution in gh-115634(1).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: When one of the worker processes terminates
     abruptly, a *note BrokenProcessPool: 3931. error is now raised.
     Previously, behaviour was undefined but operations on the executor
     or its futures would often freeze or deadlock.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'mp_context' argument was added to
     allow users to control the start_method for worker processes
     created by the pool.

     Added the 'initializer' and 'initargs' arguments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The 'max_tasks_per_child' argument was
     added to allow users to control the lifetime of workers in the
     pool.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: On POSIX systems, if your application has
     multiple threads and the *note multiprocessing: 98. context uses
     the ‘"fork"’ start method: The *note os.fork(): 6bd. function
     called internally to spawn workers may raise a *note
     DeprecationWarning: 2c9.  Pass a 'mp_context' configured to use a
     different start method.  See the ‘os.fork()’ documentation for
     further explanation.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: 'max_workers' uses *note
     os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0. by default, instead of *note
     os.cpu_count(): 6e1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The default process start method (see
     *note Contexts and start methods: 46d.) changed away from 'fork'.
     If you require the 'fork' start method for ‘ProcessPoolExecutor’
     you must explicitly pass
     ‘mp_context=multiprocessing.get_context("fork")’.

      -- Μέθοδος: terminate_workers ()

          Attempt to terminate all living worker processes immediately
          by calling *note Process.terminate: 1a7f. on each of them.
          Internally, it will also call *note Executor.shutdown(): cbe.
          to ensure that all other resources associated with the
          executor are freed.

          After calling this method the caller should no longer submit
          tasks to the executor.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: kill_workers ()

          Attempt to kill all living worker processes immediately by
          calling *note Process.kill: f15. on each of them.  Internally,
          it will also call *note Executor.shutdown(): cbe. to ensure
          that all other resources associated with the executor are
          freed.

          After calling this method the caller should no longer submit
          tasks to the executor.

          Added in version 3.14.

* Menu:

* ProcessPoolExecutor Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115634


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessPoolExecutor Example,  Up: ProcessPoolExecutor

5.19.5.6 ProcessPoolExecutor Example
....................................

     import concurrent.futures
     import math

     PRIMES = [
         112272535095293,
         112582705942171,
         112272535095293,
         115280095190773,
         115797848077099,
         1099726899285419]

     def is_prime(n):
         if n < 2:
             return False
         if n == 2:
             return True
         if n % 2 == 0:
             return False

         sqrt_n = int(math.floor(math.sqrt(n)))
         for i in range(3, sqrt_n + 1, 2):
             if n % i == 0:
                 return False
         return True

     def main():
         with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as executor:
             for number, prime in zip(PRIMES, executor.map(is_prime, PRIMES)):
                 print('%d is prime: %s' % (number, prime))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Future Objects,  Next: Module Functions,  Prev: ProcessPoolExecutor,  Up: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks

5.19.5.7 Future Objects
.......................

The *note Future: 155b. class encapsulates the asynchronous execution of
a callable.  ‘Future’ instances are created by *note Executor.submit():
e44.

 -- Κλάση: concurrent.futures.Future

     Encapsulates the asynchronous execution of a callable.  ‘Future’
     instances are created by *note Executor.submit(): e44. and should
     not be created directly except for testing.

      -- Μέθοδος: cancel ()

          Attempt to cancel the call.  If the call is currently being
          executed or finished running and cannot be cancelled then the
          method will return ‘False’, otherwise the call will be
          cancelled and the method will return ‘True’.

      -- Μέθοδος: cancelled ()

          Return ‘True’ if the call was successfully cancelled.

      -- Μέθοδος: running ()

          Return ‘True’ if the call is currently being executed and
          cannot be cancelled.

      -- Μέθοδος: done ()

          Return ‘True’ if the call was successfully cancelled or
          finished running.

      -- Μέθοδος: result (timeout=None)

          Return the value returned by the call.  If the call hasn’t yet
          completed then this method will wait up to 'timeout' seconds.
          If the call hasn’t completed in 'timeout' seconds, then a
          *note TimeoutError: c0e. will be raised.  'timeout' can be an
          int or float.  If 'timeout' is not specified or ‘None’, there
          is no limit to the wait time.

          If the future is cancelled before completing then *note
          CancelledError: d9f. will be raised.

          If the call raised an exception, this method will raise the
          same exception.

      -- Μέθοδος: exception (timeout=None)

          Return the exception raised by the call.  If the call hasn’t
          yet completed then this method will wait up to 'timeout'
          seconds.  If the call hasn’t completed in 'timeout' seconds,
          then a *note TimeoutError: c0e. will be raised.  'timeout' can
          be an int or float.  If 'timeout' is not specified or ‘None’,
          there is no limit to the wait time.

          If the future is cancelled before completing then *note
          CancelledError: d9f. will be raised.

          If the call completed without raising, ‘None’ is returned.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_done_callback (fn)

          Attaches the callable 'fn' to the future.  'fn' will be
          called, with the future as its only argument, when the future
          is cancelled or finishes running.

          Added callables are called in the order that they were added
          and are always called in a thread belonging to the process
          that added them.  If the callable raises an *note Exception:
          d9e. subclass, it will be logged and ignored.  If the callable
          raises a *note BaseException: 9b9. subclass, the behavior is
          undefined.

          If the future has already completed or been cancelled, 'fn'
          will be called immediately.

     The following ‘Future’ methods are meant for use in unit tests and
     *note Executor: 3928. implementations.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_running_or_notify_cancel ()

          This method should only be called by *note Executor: 3928.
          implementations before executing the work associated with the
          ‘Future’ and by unit tests.

          If the method returns ‘False’ then the ‘Future’ was cancelled,
          i.e.  *note Future.cancel(): 3934. was called and returned
          ‘True’.  Any threads waiting on the ‘Future’ completing (i.e.
          through *note as_completed(): 1bd1. or *note wait(): 1dfc.)
          will be woken up.

          If the method returns ‘True’ then the ‘Future’ was not
          cancelled and has been put in the running state, i.e.  calls
          to *note Future.running(): 3936. will return ‘True’.

          This method can only be called once and cannot be called after
          *note Future.set_result(): 393c. or *note
          Future.set_exception(): 393d. have been called.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_result (result)

          Sets the result of the work associated with the ‘Future’ to
          'result'.

          This method should only be used by *note Executor: 3928.
          implementations and unit tests.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: This method raises *note
          concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError: 1b65. if the ‘Future’ is
          already done.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_exception (exception)

          Sets the result of the work associated with the ‘Future’ to
          the *note Exception: d9e. 'exception'.

          This method should only be used by *note Executor: 3928.
          implementations and unit tests.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: This method raises *note
          concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError: 1b65. if the ‘Future’ is
          already done.


File: python.info,  Node: Module Functions,  Next: Exception classes,  Prev: Future Objects,  Up: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks

5.19.5.8 Module Functions
.........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: concurrent.futures.wait (fs, timeout=None,
          return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)

     Wait for the *note Future: 155b. instances (possibly created by
     different *note Executor: 3928. instances) given by 'fs' to
     complete.  Duplicate futures given to 'fs' are removed and will be
     returned only once.  Returns a named 2-tuple of sets.  The first
     set, named ‘done’, contains the futures that completed (finished or
     cancelled futures) before the wait completed.  The second set,
     named ‘not_done’, contains the futures that did not complete
     (pending or running futures).

     'timeout' can be used to control the maximum number of seconds to
     wait before returning.  'timeout' can be an int or float.  If
     'timeout' is not specified or ‘None’, there is no limit to the wait
     time.

     'return_when' indicates when this function should return.  It must
     be one of the following constants:

     Constant                                               Description
                                                            
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- Δεδομένα: concurrent.futures.FIRST_COMPLETED       The function will return when any future finishes or
                                                            is cancelled.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Δεδομένα: concurrent.futures.FIRST_EXCEPTION       The function will return when any future finishes by
                                                            raising an exception.  If no future raises an
                                                            exception then it is equivalent to
                                                            *note ALL_COMPLETED: 3941.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Δεδομένα: concurrent.futures.ALL_COMPLETED         The function will return when all futures finish or
                                                            are cancelled.
                                                            

 -- Συνάρτηση: concurrent.futures.as_completed (fs, timeout=None)

     Returns an iterator over the *note Future: 155b. instances
     (possibly created by different *note Executor: 3928. instances)
     given by 'fs' that yields futures as they complete (finished or
     cancelled futures).  Any futures given by 'fs' that are duplicated
     will be returned once.  Any futures that completed before
     ‘as_completed()’ is called will be yielded first.  The returned
     iterator raises a *note TimeoutError: c0e. if *note __next__():
     1672. is called and the result isn’t available after 'timeout'
     seconds from the original call to ‘as_completed()’.  'timeout' can
     be an int or float.  If 'timeout' is not specified or ‘None’, there
     is no limit to the wait time.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 3148(1) – futures - execute computations asynchronously

     The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the
     Python standard library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3148/


File: python.info,  Node: Exception classes,  Prev: Module Functions,  Up: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks

5.19.5.9 Exception classes
..........................

 -- Εξαίρεση: concurrent.futures.CancelledError

     Raised when a future is cancelled.

 -- Εξαίρεση: concurrent.futures.TimeoutError

     A deprecated alias of ‘TimeoutError’, raised when a future
     operation exceeds the given timeout.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: This class was made an alias of
     ‘TimeoutError’.

 -- Εξαίρεση: concurrent.futures.BrokenExecutor

     Derived from *note RuntimeError: 30d, this exception class is
     raised when an executor is broken for some reason, and cannot be
     used to submit or execute new tasks.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Εξαίρεση: concurrent.futures.InvalidStateError

     Raised when an operation is performed on a future that is not
     allowed in the current state.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Εξαίρεση: concurrent.futures.thread.BrokenThreadPool

     Derived from *note BrokenExecutor: 3944, this exception class is
     raised when one of the workers of a *note ThreadPoolExecutor: b27.
     has failed initializing.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Εξαίρεση: concurrent.futures.interpreter.BrokenInterpreterPool

     Derived from *note BrokenThreadPool: 392c, this exception class is
     raised when one of the workers of a *note InterpreterPoolExecutor:
     46a. has failed initializing.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Εξαίρεση: concurrent.futures.process.BrokenProcessPool

     Derived from *note BrokenExecutor: 3944. (formerly *note
     RuntimeError: 30d.), this exception class is raised when one of the
     workers of a *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. has terminated in a
     non-clean fashion (for example, if it was killed from the outside).

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process,  Next: subprocess — Subprocess management,  Prev: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.19.6 ‘concurrent.interpreters’ — Multiple interpreters in the same process
----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.14.

'Source code:' Lib/concurrent/interpreters(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘concurrent.interpreters’ module constructs higher-level interfaces
on top of the lower level ‘_interpreters’ module.

The module is primarily meant to provide a basic API for managing
interpreters (AKA «subinterpreters») and running things in them.
Running mostly involves switching to an interpreter (in the current
thread) and calling a function in that execution context.

For concurrency, interpreters themselves (and this module) don’t provide
much more than isolation, which on its own isn’t useful.  Actual
concurrency is available separately through *note threads: f6. See *note
below: 3949.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note InterpreterPoolExecutor: 46a.

     Combines threads with interpreters in a familiar interface.

*note Isolating Extension Modules: 412.

     How to update an extension module to support multiple interpreters.

PEP 554(2)

PEP 734(3)

PEP 684(4)

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

* Menu:

* Key details::
* Introduction: Introduction<8>.
* Reference: Reference<4>.
* Basic usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/concurrent/interpreters

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/


File: python.info,  Node: Key details,  Next: Introduction<8>,  Up: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process

5.19.6.1 Key details
....................

Before we dive in further, there are a small number of details to keep
in mind about using multiple interpreters:

   * *note isolated: 394b., by default

   * no implicit threads

   * not all PyPI packages support use in multiple interpreters yet


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<8>,  Next: Reference<4>,  Prev: Key details,  Up: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process

5.19.6.2 Introduction
.....................

An «interpreter» is effectively the execution context of the Python
runtime.  It contains all of the state the runtime needs to execute a
program.  This includes things like the import state and builtins.
(Each thread, even if there’s only the main thread, has some extra
runtime state, in addition to the current interpreter, related to the
current exception and the bytecode eval loop.)

The concept and functionality of the interpreter have been a part of
Python since version 2.2, but the feature was only available through the
C-API and not well known, and the *note isolation: 394b. was relatively
incomplete until version 3.12.

* Menu:

* Multiple Interpreters and Isolation::
* Running in an Interpreter::
* Concurrency and Parallelism::
* Communication Between Interpreters::
* «Sharing» Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Multiple Interpreters and Isolation,  Next: Running in an Interpreter,  Up: Introduction<8>

5.19.6.3 Multiple Interpreters and Isolation
............................................

A Python implementation may support using multiple interpreters in the
same process.  CPython has this support.  Each interpreter is
effectively isolated from the others (with a limited number of carefully
managed process-global exceptions to the rule).

That isolation is primarily useful as a strong separation between
distinct logical components of a program, where you want to have careful
control of how those components interact.

     Σημείωση: Interpreters in the same process can technically never be
     strictly isolated from one another since there are few restrictions
     on memory access within the same process.  The Python runtime makes
     a best effort at isolation but extension modules may easily violate
     that.  Therefore, do not use multiple interpreters in
     security-sensitive situations, where they shouldn’t have access to
     each other’s data.


File: python.info,  Node: Running in an Interpreter,  Next: Concurrency and Parallelism,  Prev: Multiple Interpreters and Isolation,  Up: Introduction<8>

5.19.6.4 Running in an Interpreter
..................................

Running in a different interpreter involves switching to it in the
current thread and then calling some function.  The runtime will execute
the function using the current interpreter’s state.  The
‘concurrent.interpreters’ module provides a basic API for creating and
managing interpreters, as well as the switch-and-call operation.

No other threads are automatically started for the operation.  There is
*note a helper: 3950.for that though.  There is another dedicated helper
for calling the builtin *note exec(): 185. in an interpreter.

When *note exec(): 185. (or *note eval(): 184.) are called in an
interpreter, they run using the interpreter’s ‘__main__’ module as the
«globals» namespace.  The same is true for functions that aren’t
associated with any module.  This is the same as how scripts invoked
from the command-line run in the ‘__main__’ module.


File: python.info,  Node: Concurrency and Parallelism,  Next: Communication Between Interpreters,  Prev: Running in an Interpreter,  Up: Introduction<8>

5.19.6.5 Concurrency and Parallelism
....................................

As noted earlier, interpreters do not provide any concurrency on their
own.  They strictly represent the isolated execution context the runtime
will use 'in the current thread'.  That isolation makes them similar to
processes, but they still enjoy in-process efficiency, like threads.

All that said, interpreters do naturally support certain flavors of
concurrency.  There’s a powerful side effect of that isolation.  It
enables a different approach to concurrency than you can take with async
or threads.  It’s a similar concurrency model to CSP or the actor model,
a model which is relatively easy to reason about.

You can take advantage of that concurrency model in a single thread,
switching back and forth between interpreters, Stackless-style.
However, this model is more useful when you combine interpreters with
multiple threads.  This mostly involves starting a new thread, where you
switch to another interpreter and run what you want there.

Each actual thread in Python, even if you’re only running in the main
thread, has its own 'current' execution context.  Multiple threads can
use the same interpreter or different ones.

At a high level, you can think of the combination of threads and
interpreters as threads with opt-in sharing.

As a significant bonus, interpreters are sufficiently isolated that they
do not share the *note GIL: 411, which means combining threads with
multiple interpreters enables full multi-core parallelism.  (This has
been the case since Python 3.12.)


File: python.info,  Node: Communication Between Interpreters,  Next: «Sharing» Objects,  Prev: Concurrency and Parallelism,  Up: Introduction<8>

5.19.6.6 Communication Between Interpreters
...........................................

In practice, multiple interpreters are useful only if we have a way to
communicate between them.  This usually involves some form of message
passing, but can even mean sharing data in some carefully managed way.

With this in mind, the ‘concurrent.interpreters’ module provides a *note
queue.Queue: 1738. implementation, available through *note
create_queue(): 3953.


File: python.info,  Node: «Sharing» Objects,  Prev: Communication Between Interpreters,  Up: Introduction<8>

5.19.6.7 «Sharing» Objects
..........................

Any data actually shared between interpreters loses the thread-safety
provided by the *note GIL: 411.  There are various options for dealing
with this in extension modules.  However, from Python code the lack of
thread-safety means objects can’t actually be shared, with a few
exceptions.  Instead, a copy must be created, which means mutable
objects won’t stay in sync.

By default, most objects are copied with *note pickle: ab. when they are
passed to another interpreter.  Nearly all of the immutable builtin
objects are either directly shared or copied efficiently.  For example:

   * *note None: a65.

   * *note bool: 5ef. (*note True: fcc. and *note False: ef5.)

   * *note bytes: 1c7.

   * *note str: 1df.

   * *note int: 326.

   * *note float: 327.

   * *note tuple: 1ce. (of similarly supported objects)

There is a small number of Python types that actually share mutable data
between interpreters:

   * *note memoryview: 1d2.

   * *note Queue: 3956.


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<4>,  Next: Basic usage,  Prev: Introduction<8>,  Up: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process

5.19.6.8 Reference
..................

This module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: concurrent.interpreters.list_all ()

     Return a *note list: 4d9. of *note Interpreter: 3959. objects, one
     for each existing interpreter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: concurrent.interpreters.get_current ()

     Return an *note Interpreter: 3959. object for the currently running
     interpreter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: concurrent.interpreters.get_main ()

     Return an *note Interpreter: 3959. object for the main interpreter.
     This is the interpreter the runtime created to run the *note REPL:
     69d. or the script given at the command-line.  It is usually the
     only one.

 -- Συνάρτηση: concurrent.interpreters.create ()

     Initialize a new (idle) Python interpreter and return a *note
     Interpreter: 3959. object for it.

 -- Συνάρτηση: concurrent.interpreters.create_queue ()

     Initialize a new cross-interpreter queue and return a *note Queue:
     3956. object for it.

* Menu:

* Interpreter objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<12>.
* Communicating Between Interpreters::


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter objects,  Next: Exceptions<12>,  Up: Reference<4>

5.19.6.9 Interpreter objects
............................

 -- Κλάση: concurrent.interpreters.Interpreter (id)

     A single interpreter in the current process.

     Generally, ‘Interpreter’ shouldn’t be called directly.  Instead,
     use *note create(): 19f5. or one of the other module functions.

      -- Ιδιότητα: id

          (read-only)

          The underlying interpreter’s ID.

      -- Ιδιότητα: whence

          (read-only)

          A string describing where the interpreter came from.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_running ()

          Return ‘True’ if the interpreter is currently executing code
          in its ‘__main__’ module and ‘False’ otherwise.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Finalize and destroy the interpreter.

      -- Μέθοδος: prepare_main (ns=None, **kwargs)

          Bind objects in the interpreter’s ‘__main__’ module.

          Some objects are actually shared and some are copied
          efficiently, but most are copied via *note pickle: ab.  See
          *note «Sharing» Objects: 3954.

      -- Μέθοδος: exec (code, /, dedent=True)

          Run the given source code in the interpreter (in the current
          thread).

      -- Μέθοδος: call (callable, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Return the result of calling running the given function in the
          interpreter (in the current thread).

      -- Μέθοδος: call_in_thread (callable, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Run the given function in the interpreter (in a new thread).


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<12>,  Next: Communicating Between Interpreters,  Prev: Interpreter objects,  Up: Reference<4>

5.19.6.10 Exceptions
....................

 -- Εξαίρεση: concurrent.interpreters.InterpreterError

     This exception, a subclass of *note Exception: d9e, is raised when
     an interpreter-related error happens.

 -- Εξαίρεση: concurrent.interpreters.InterpreterNotFoundError

     This exception, a subclass of *note InterpreterError: 3965, is
     raised when the targeted interpreter no longer exists.

 -- Εξαίρεση: concurrent.interpreters.ExecutionFailed

     This exception, a subclass of *note InterpreterError: 3965, is
     raised when the running code raised an uncaught exception.

      -- Ιδιότητα: excinfo

          A basic snapshot of the exception raised in the other
          interpreter.

 -- Εξαίρεση: concurrent.interpreters.NotShareableError

     This exception, a subclass of *note TypeError: 291, is raised when
     an object cannot be sent to another interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: Communicating Between Interpreters,  Prev: Exceptions<12>,  Up: Reference<4>

5.19.6.11 Communicating Between Interpreters
............................................

 -- Κλάση: concurrent.interpreters.Queue (id)

     A wrapper around a low-level, cross-interpreter queue, which
     implements the *note queue.Queue: 1738. interface.  The underlying
     queue can only be created through *note create_queue(): 3953.

     Some objects are actually shared and some are copied efficiently,
     but most are copied via *note pickle: ab.  See *note «Sharing»
     Objects: 3954.

      -- Ιδιότητα: id

          (read-only)

          The queue’s ID.

 -- Εξαίρεση: concurrent.interpreters.QueueEmptyError

     This exception, a subclass of *note queue.Empty: 38b6, is raised
     from ‘Queue.get()’ and ‘Queue.get_nowait()’ when the queue is
     empty.

 -- Εξαίρεση: concurrent.interpreters.QueueFullError

     This exception, a subclass of *note queue.Full: 38b7, is raised
     from ‘Queue.put()’ and ‘Queue.put_nowait()’ when the queue is full.


File: python.info,  Node: Basic usage,  Prev: Reference<4>,  Up: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process

5.19.6.12 Basic usage
.....................

Creating an interpreter and running code in it:

     from concurrent import interpreters

     interp = interpreters.create()

     # Run in the current OS thread.

     interp.exec('print("spam!")')

     interp.exec("""if True:
         print('spam!')
         """)

     from textwrap import dedent
     interp.exec(dedent("""
         print('spam!')
         """))

     def run(arg):
         return arg

     res = interp.call(run, 'spam!')
     print(res)

     def run():
         print('spam!')

     interp.call(run)

     # Run in new OS thread.

     t = interp.call_in_thread(run)
     t.join()


File: python.info,  Node: subprocess — Subprocess management,  Next: sched — Event scheduler,  Prev: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.19.7 ‘subprocess’ — Subprocess management
-------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/subprocess.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘subprocess’ module allows you to spawn new processes, connect to
their input/output/error pipes, and obtain their return codes.  This
module intends to replace several older modules and functions:

     os.system
     os.spawn*

Information about how the ‘subprocess’ module can be used to replace
these modules and functions can be found in the following sections.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 324(2) – PEP proposing the subprocess module

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 244d. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67.

* Menu:

* Using the subprocess Module::
* Security Considerations::
* Popen Objects::
* Windows Popen Helpers::
* Older high-level API::
* Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module::
* Legacy Shell Invocation Functions::
* Notes: Notes<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/subprocess.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0324/


File: python.info,  Node: Using the subprocess Module,  Next: Security Considerations,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.19.7.1 Using the ‘subprocess’ Module
......................................

The recommended approach to invoking subprocesses is to use the *note
run(): f45. function for all use cases it can handle.  For more advanced
use cases, the underlying *note Popen: 6bf. interface can be used
directly.

 -- Συνάρτηση: subprocess.run (args, *, stdin=None, input=None,
          stdout=None, stderr=None, capture_output=False, shell=False,
          cwd=None, timeout=None, check=False, encoding=None,
          errors=None, text=None, env=None, universal_newlines=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Run the command described by 'args'.  Wait for command to complete,
     then return a *note CompletedProcess: 1224. instance.

     The arguments shown above are merely the most common ones,
     described below in *note Frequently Used Arguments: 3972. (hence
     the use of keyword-only notation in the abbreviated signature).
     The full function signature is largely the same as that of the
     *note Popen: 6bf. constructor - most of the arguments to this
     function are passed through to that interface.  ('timeout',
     'input', 'check', and 'capture_output' are not.)

     If 'capture_output' is true, stdout and stderr will be captured.
     When used, the internal *note Popen: 6bf. object is automatically
     created with 'stdout' and 'stderr' both set to *note PIPE: f46.
     The 'stdout' and 'stderr' arguments may not be supplied at the same
     time as 'capture_output'.  If you wish to capture and combine both
     streams into one, set 'stdout' to ‘PIPE’ and 'stderr' to *note
     STDOUT: 3973, instead of using 'capture_output'.

     A 'timeout' may be specified in seconds, it is internally passed on
     to *note Popen.communicate(): 19aa.  If the timeout expires, the
     child process will be killed and waited for.  The *note
     TimeoutExpired: 19ab. exception will be re-raised after the child
     process has terminated.  The initial process creation itself cannot
     be interrupted on many platform APIs so you are not guaranteed to
     see a timeout exception until at least after however long process
     creation takes.

     The 'input' argument is passed to *note Popen.communicate(): 19aa.
     and thus to the subprocess’s stdin.  If used it must be a byte
     sequence, or a string if 'encoding' or 'errors' is specified or
     'text' is true.  When used, the internal *note Popen: 6bf. object
     is automatically created with 'stdin' set to *note PIPE: f46, and
     the 'stdin' argument may not be used as well.

     If 'check' is true, and the process exits with a non-zero exit
     code, a *note CalledProcessError: 16c9. exception will be raised.
     Attributes of that exception hold the arguments, the exit code, and
     stdout and stderr if they were captured.

     If 'encoding' or 'errors' are specified, or 'text' is true, file
     objects for stdin, stdout and stderr are opened in text mode using
     the specified 'encoding' and 'errors' or the *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. default.  The 'universal_newlines' argument
     is equivalent to 'text' and is provided for backwards
     compatibility.  By default, file objects are opened in binary mode.

     If 'env' is not ‘None’, it must be a mapping that defines the
     environment variables for the new process; these are used instead
     of the default behavior of inheriting the current process”
     environment.  It is passed directly to *note Popen: 6bf.  This
     mapping can be str to str on any platform or bytes to bytes on
     POSIX platforms much like *note os.environ: 4e5. or *note
     os.environb: 4e6.

     Examples:

          >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"])  # doesn't capture output
          CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0)

          >>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
            ...
          subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1

          >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], capture_output=True)
          CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0,
          stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n', stderr=b'')

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'text' parameter, as a more
     understandable alias of 'universal_newlines'.  Added the
     'capture_output' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- Κλάση: subprocess.CompletedProcess

     The return value from *note run(): f45, representing a process that
     has finished.

      -- Ιδιότητα: args

          The arguments used to launch the process.  This may be a list
          or a string.

      -- Ιδιότητα: returncode

          Exit status of the child process.  Typically, an exit status
          of 0 indicates that it ran successfully.

          A negative value ‘-N’ indicates that the child was terminated
          by signal ‘N’ (POSIX only).

      -- Ιδιότητα: stdout

          Captured stdout from the child process.  A bytes sequence, or
          a string if *note run(): f45. was called with an encoding,
          errors, or text=True.  ‘None’ if stdout was not captured.

          If you ran the process with ‘stderr=subprocess.STDOUT’, stdout
          and stderr will be combined in this attribute, and *note
          stderr: 3977. will be ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stderr

          Captured stderr from the child process.  A bytes sequence, or
          a string if *note run(): f45. was called with an encoding,
          errors, or text=True.  ‘None’ if stderr was not captured.

      -- Μέθοδος: check_returncode ()

          If *note returncode: 3975. is non-zero, raise a *note
          CalledProcessError: 16c9.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.DEVNULL

     Special value that can be used as the 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'
     argument to *note Popen: 6bf. and indicates that the special file
     *note os.devnull: 2002. will be used.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.PIPE

     Special value that can be used as the 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'
     argument to *note Popen: 6bf. and indicates that a pipe to the
     standard stream should be opened.  Most useful with *note
     Popen.communicate(): 19aa.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.STDOUT

     Special value that can be used as the 'stderr' argument to *note
     Popen: 6bf. and indicates that standard error should go into the
     same handle as standard output.

 -- Εξαίρεση: subprocess.SubprocessError

     Base class for all other exceptions from this module.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Εξαίρεση: subprocess.TimeoutExpired

     Subclass of *note SubprocessError: 3979, raised when a timeout
     expires while waiting for a child process.

      -- Ιδιότητα: cmd

          Command that was used to spawn the child process.

      -- Ιδιότητα: timeout

          Timeout in seconds.

      -- Ιδιότητα: output

          Output of the child process if it was captured by *note run():
          f45. or *note check_output(): 136b.  Otherwise, ‘None’.  This
          is always *note bytes: 1c7. when any output was captured
          regardless of the ‘text=True’ setting.  It may remain ‘None’
          instead of ‘b''’ when no output was observed.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stdout

          Alias for output, for symmetry with *note stderr: 397e.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stderr

          Stderr output of the child process if it was captured by *note
          run(): f45.  Otherwise, ‘None’.  This is always *note bytes:
          1c7. when stderr output was captured regardless of the
          ‘text=True’ setting.  It may remain ‘None’ instead of ‘b''’
          when no stderr output was observed.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: 'stdout' and 'stderr' attributes added

 -- Εξαίρεση: subprocess.CalledProcessError

     Subclass of *note SubprocessError: 3979, raised when a process run
     by *note check_call(): 397f, *note check_output(): 136b, or *note
     run(): f45. (with ‘check=True’) returns a non-zero exit status.

      -- Ιδιότητα: returncode

          Exit status of the child process.  If the process exited due
          to a signal, this will be the negative signal number.

      -- Ιδιότητα: cmd

          Command that was used to spawn the child process.

      -- Ιδιότητα: output

          Output of the child process if it was captured by *note run():
          f45. or *note check_output(): 136b.  Otherwise, ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stdout

          Alias for output, for symmetry with *note stderr: 3984.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stderr

          Stderr output of the child process if it was captured by *note
          run(): f45.  Otherwise, ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: 'stdout' and 'stderr' attributes added

* Menu:

* Frequently Used Arguments::
* Popen Constructor::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<13>.


File: python.info,  Node: Frequently Used Arguments,  Next: Popen Constructor,  Up: Using the subprocess Module

5.19.7.2 Frequently Used Arguments
..................................

To support a wide variety of use cases, the *note Popen: 6bf.
constructor (and the convenience functions) accept a large number of
optional arguments.  For most typical use cases, many of these arguments
can be safely left at their default values.  The arguments that are most
commonly needed are:

     'args' is required for all calls and should be a string, or a
     sequence of program arguments.  Providing a sequence of arguments
     is generally preferred, as it allows the module to take care of any
     required escaping and quoting of arguments (e.g.  to permit spaces
     in file names).  If passing a single string, either 'shell' must be
     *note True: fcc. (see below) or else the string must simply name
     the program to be executed without specifying any arguments.

     'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' specify the executed program’s
     standard input, standard output and standard error file handles,
     respectively.  Valid values are ‘None’, *note PIPE: f46, *note
     DEVNULL: 14f9, an existing file descriptor (a positive integer),
     and an existing *note file object: 156c. with a valid file
     descriptor.  With the default settings of ‘None’, no redirection
     will occur.  ‘PIPE’ indicates that a new pipe to the child should
     be created.  ‘DEVNULL’ indicates that the special file *note
     os.devnull: 2002. will be used.  Additionally, 'stderr' can be
     *note STDOUT: 3973, which indicates that the stderr data from the
     child process should be captured into the same file handle as for
     'stdout'.

     If 'encoding' or 'errors' are specified, or 'text' (also known as
     'universal_newlines') is true, the file objects 'stdin', 'stdout'
     and 'stderr' will be opened in text mode using the 'encoding' and
     'errors' specified in the call or the defaults for *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: b9c.

     For 'stdin', line ending characters ‘'\n'’ in the input will be
     converted to the default line separator *note os.linesep: 27d5.
     For 'stdout' and 'stderr', all line endings in the output will be
     converted to ‘'\n'’.  For more information see the documentation of
     the *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. class when the 'newline' argument
     to its constructor is ‘None’.

     If text mode is not used, 'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' will be
     opened as binary streams.  No encoding or line ending conversion is
     performed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the 'encoding' and 'errors'
     parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'text' parameter as an alias for
     'universal_newlines'.

          Σημείωση: The newlines attribute of the file objects *note
          Popen.stdin: 3986, *note Popen.stdout: 3987. and *note
          Popen.stderr: 3988. are not updated by the *note
          Popen.communicate(): 19aa. method.

     If 'shell' is ‘True’, the specified command will be executed
     through the shell.  This can be useful if you are using Python
     primarily for the enhanced control flow it offers over most system
     shells and still want convenient access to other shell features
     such as shell pipes, filename wildcards, environment variable
     expansion, and expansion of ‘~’ to a user’s home directory.
     However, note that Python itself offers implementations of many
     shell-like features (in particular, *note glob: 67, *note fnmatch:
     5f, *note os.walk(): 8b9, *note os.path.expandvars(): 177c, *note
     os.path.expanduser(): dd8, and *note shutil: cd.).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: When 'universal_newlines' is ‘True’, the
     class uses the encoding *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False):
     947. instead of ‘locale.getpreferredencoding()’.  See the *note
     io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. class for more information on this change.

          Σημείωση: Read the *note Security Considerations: 3989.
          section before using ‘shell=True’.

These options, along with all of the other options, are described in
more detail in the *note Popen: 6bf. constructor documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Popen Constructor,  Next: Exceptions<13>,  Prev: Frequently Used Arguments,  Up: Using the subprocess Module

5.19.7.3 Popen Constructor
..........................

The underlying process creation and management in this module is handled
by the *note Popen: 6bf. class.  It offers a lot of flexibility so that
developers are able to handle the less common cases not covered by the
convenience functions.

 -- Κλάση: subprocess.Popen (args, bufsize=-1, executable=None,
          stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, preexec_fn=None,
          close_fds=True, shell=False, cwd=None, env=None,
          universal_newlines=None, startupinfo=None, creationflags=0,
          restore_signals=True, start_new_session=False, pass_fds=(), *,
          group=None, extra_groups=None, user=None, umask=-1,
          encoding=None, errors=None, text=None, pipesize=-1,
          process_group=None)

     Execute a child program in a new process.  On POSIX, the class uses
     *note os.execvpe(): 3316.-like behavior to execute the child
     program.  On Windows, the class uses the Windows ‘CreateProcess()’
     function.  The arguments to ‘Popen’ are as follows.

     'args' should be a sequence of program arguments or else a single
     string or *note path-like object: 79f.  By default, the program to
     execute is the first item in 'args' if 'args' is a sequence.  If
     'args' is a string, the interpretation is platform-dependent and
     described below.  See the 'shell' and 'executable' arguments for
     additional differences from the default behavior.  Unless otherwise
     stated, it is recommended to pass 'args' as a sequence.

          Προειδοποίηση: For maximum reliability, use a fully qualified
          path for the executable.  To search for an unqualified name on
          ‘PATH’, use *note shutil.which(): 8c4.  On all platforms,
          passing *note sys.executable: 3ac. is the recommended way to
          launch the current Python interpreter again, and use the ‘-m’
          command-line format to launch an installed module.

          Resolving the path of 'executable' (or the first item of
          'args') is platform dependent.  For POSIX, see *note
          os.execvpe(): 3316, and note that when resolving or searching
          for the executable path, 'cwd' overrides the current working
          directory and 'env' can override the ‘PATH’ environment
          variable.  For Windows, see the documentation of the
          ‘lpApplicationName’ and ‘lpCommandLine’ parameters of WinAPI
          ‘CreateProcess’, and note that when resolving or searching for
          the executable path with ‘shell=False’, 'cwd' does not
          override the current working directory and 'env' cannot
          override the ‘PATH’ environment variable.  Using a full path
          avoids all of these variations.

     An example of passing some arguments to an external program as a
     sequence is:

          Popen(["/usr/bin/git", "commit", "-m", "Fixes a bug."])

     On POSIX, if 'args' is a string, the string is interpreted as the
     name or path of the program to execute.  However, this can only be
     done if not passing arguments to the program.

          Σημείωση: It may not be obvious how to break a shell command
          into a sequence of arguments, especially in complex cases.
          *note shlex.split(): 949. can illustrate how to determine the
          correct tokenization for 'args':

               >>> import shlex, subprocess
               >>> command_line = input()
               /bin/vikings -input eggs.txt -output "spam spam.txt" -cmd "echo '$MONEY'"
               >>> args = shlex.split(command_line)
               >>> print(args)
               ['/bin/vikings', '-input', 'eggs.txt', '-output', 'spam spam.txt', '-cmd', "echo '$MONEY'"]
               >>> p = subprocess.Popen(args) # Success!

          Note in particular that options (such as '-input') and
          arguments (such as 'eggs.txt') that are separated by
          whitespace in the shell go in separate list elements, while
          arguments that need quoting or backslash escaping when used in
          the shell (such as filenames containing spaces or the 'echo'
          command shown above) are single list elements.

     On Windows, if 'args' is a sequence, it will be converted to a
     string in a manner described in *note Converting an argument
     sequence to a string on Windows: 398b.  This is because the
     underlying ‘CreateProcess()’ operates on strings.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 'args' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 79f. if 'shell' is ‘False’ and a sequence containing
     path-like objects on POSIX.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: 'args' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 79f. if 'shell' is ‘False’ and a sequence containing bytes
     and path-like objects on Windows.

     The 'shell' argument (which defaults to ‘False’) specifies whether
     to use the shell as the program to execute.  If 'shell' is ‘True’,
     it is recommended to pass 'args' as a string rather than as a
     sequence.

     On POSIX with ‘shell=True’, the shell defaults to ‘/bin/sh’.  If
     'args' is a string, the string specifies the command to execute
     through the shell.  This means that the string must be formatted
     exactly as it would be when typed at the shell prompt.  This
     includes, for example, quoting or backslash escaping filenames with
     spaces in them.  If 'args' is a sequence, the first item specifies
     the command string, and any additional items will be treated as
     additional arguments to the shell itself.  That is to say, ‘Popen’
     does the equivalent of:

          Popen(['/bin/sh', '-c', args[0], args[1], ...])

     On Windows with ‘shell=True’, the ‘COMSPEC’ environment variable
     specifies the default shell.  The only time you need to specify
     ‘shell=True’ on Windows is when the command you wish to execute is
     built into the shell (e.g.  ‘dir’ or ‘copy’).  You do not need
     ‘shell=True’ to run a batch file or console-based executable.

          Σημείωση: Read the *note Security Considerations: 3989.
          section before using ‘shell=True’.

     'bufsize' will be supplied as the corresponding argument to the
     *note open(): 32b. function when creating the stdin/stdout/stderr
     pipe file objects:

        - ‘0’ means unbuffered (read and write are one system call and
          can return short)

        - ‘1’ means line buffered (only usable if ‘text=True’ or
          ‘universal_newlines=True’)

        - any other positive value means use a buffer of approximately
          that size

        - negative bufsize (the default) means the system default of
          io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE will be used.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3.1: 'bufsize' now defaults to -1 to enable
     buffering by default to match the behavior that most code expects.
     In versions prior to Python 3.2.4 and 3.3.1 it incorrectly
     defaulted to ‘0’ which was unbuffered and allowed short reads.
     This was unintentional and did not match the behavior of Python 2
     as most code expected.

     The 'executable' argument specifies a replacement program to
     execute.  It is very seldom needed.  When ‘shell=False’,
     'executable' replaces the program to execute specified by 'args'.
     However, the original 'args' is still passed to the program.  Most
     programs treat the program specified by 'args' as the command name,
     which can then be different from the program actually executed.  On
     POSIX, the 'args' name becomes the display name for the executable
     in utilities such as ‘ps’.  If ‘shell=True’, on POSIX the
     'executable' argument specifies a replacement shell for the default
     ‘/bin/sh’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 'executable' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f. on POSIX.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: 'executable' parameter accepts a bytes and
     *note path-like object: 79f. on Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

     'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' specify the executed program’s
     standard input, standard output and standard error file handles,
     respectively.  Valid values are ‘None’, *note PIPE: f46, *note
     DEVNULL: 14f9, an existing file descriptor (a positive integer),
     and an existing *note file object: 156c. with a valid file
     descriptor.  With the default settings of ‘None’, no redirection
     will occur.  ‘PIPE’ indicates that a new pipe to the child should
     be created.  ‘DEVNULL’ indicates that the special file *note
     os.devnull: 2002. will be used.  Additionally, 'stderr' can be
     *note STDOUT: 3973, which indicates that the stderr data from the
     applications should be captured into the same file handle as for
     'stdout'.

     If 'preexec_fn' is set to a callable object, this object will be
     called in the child process just before the child is executed.
     (POSIX only)

          Προειδοποίηση: The 'preexec_fn' parameter is NOT SAFE to use
          in the presence of threads in your application.  The child
          process could deadlock before exec is called.

          Σημείωση: If you need to modify the environment for the child
          use the 'env' parameter rather than doing it in a
          'preexec_fn'.  The 'start_new_session' and 'process_group'
          parameters should take the place of code using 'preexec_fn' to
          call *note os.setsid(): 1faa. or *note os.setpgid(): 3244. in
          the child.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'preexec_fn' parameter is no longer
     supported in subinterpreters.  The use of the parameter in a
     subinterpreter raises *note RuntimeError: 30d.  The new restriction
     may affect applications that are deployed in mod_wsgi, uWSGI, and
     other embedded environments.

     If 'close_fds' is true, all file descriptors except ‘0’, ‘1’ and
     ‘2’ will be closed before the child process is executed.  Otherwise
     when 'close_fds' is false, file descriptors obey their inheritable
     flag as described in *note Inheritance of File Descriptors: 12aa.

     On Windows, if 'close_fds' is true then no handles will be
     inherited by the child process unless explicitly passed in the
     ‘handle_list’ element of *note STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList: fcd, or
     by standard handle redirection.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The default for 'close_fds' was changed
     from *note False: ef5. to what is described above.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: On Windows the default for 'close_fds' was
     changed from *note False: ef5. to *note True: fcc. when redirecting
     the standard handles.  It’s now possible to set 'close_fds' to
     ‘True’ when redirecting the standard handles.

     'pass_fds' is an optional sequence of file descriptors to keep open
     between the parent and child.  Providing any 'pass_fds' forces
     'close_fds' to be *note True: fcc.  (POSIX only)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The 'pass_fds' parameter was added.

     If 'cwd' is not ‘None’, the function changes the working directory
     to 'cwd' before executing the child.  'cwd' can be a string, bytes
     or *note path-like: 79f. object.  On POSIX, the function looks for
     'executable' (or for the first item in 'args') relative to 'cwd' if
     the executable path is a relative path.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 'cwd' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 79f. on POSIX.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: 'cwd' parameter accepts a *note path-like
     object: 79f. on Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: 'cwd' parameter accepts a bytes object on
     Windows.

     If 'restore_signals' is true (the default) all signals that Python
     has set to SIG_IGN are restored to SIG_DFL in the child process
     before the exec.  Currently this includes the SIGPIPE, SIGXFZ and
     SIGXFSZ signals.  (POSIX only)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'restore_signals' was added.

     If 'start_new_session' is true the ‘setsid()’ system call will be
     made in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: POSIX

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'start_new_session' was added.

     If 'process_group' is a non-negative integer, the ‘setpgid(0,
     value)’ system call will be made in the child process prior to the
     execution of the subprocess.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: POSIX

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: 'process_group' was added.

     If 'group' is not ‘None’, the setregid() system call will be made
     in the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.  If
     the provided value is a string, it will be looked up via *note
     grp.getgrnam(): 398c. and the value in ‘gr_gid’ will be used.  If
     the value is an integer, it will be passed verbatim.  (POSIX only)

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: POSIX

     Added in version 3.9.

     If 'extra_groups' is not ‘None’, the setgroups() system call will
     be made in the child process prior to the execution of the
     subprocess.  Strings provided in 'extra_groups' will be looked up
     via *note grp.getgrnam(): 398c. and the values in ‘gr_gid’ will be
     used.  Integer values will be passed verbatim.  (POSIX only)

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: POSIX

     Added in version 3.9.

     If 'user' is not ‘None’, the setreuid() system call will be made in
     the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.  If the
     provided value is a string, it will be looked up via *note
     pwd.getpwnam(): 398d. and the value in ‘pw_uid’ will be used.  If
     the value is an integer, it will be passed verbatim.  (POSIX only)

          Σημείωση: Specifying 'user' will not drop existing
          supplementary group memberships!  The caller must also pass
          ‘extra_groups=()’ to reduce the group membership of the child
          process for security purposes.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: POSIX

     Added in version 3.9.

     If 'umask' is not negative, the umask() system call will be made in
     the child process prior to the execution of the subprocess.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: POSIX

     Added in version 3.9.

     If 'env' is not ‘None’, it must be a mapping that defines the
     environment variables for the new process; these are used instead
     of the default behavior of inheriting the current process”
     environment.  This mapping can be str to str on any platform or
     bytes to bytes on POSIX platforms much like *note os.environ: 4e5.
     or *note os.environb: 4e6.

          Σημείωση: If specified, 'env' must provide any variables
          required for the program to execute.  On Windows, in order to
          run a side-by-side assembly(1) the specified 'env' 'must'
          include a valid ‘%SystemRoot%’.

     If 'encoding' or 'errors' are specified, or 'text' is true, the
     file objects 'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' are opened in text mode
     with the specified 'encoding' and 'errors', as described above in
     *note Frequently Used Arguments: 3972.  The 'universal_newlines'
     argument is equivalent to 'text' and is provided for backwards
     compatibility.  By default, file objects are opened in binary mode.

     Added in version 3.6: 'encoding' and 'errors' were added.

     Added in version 3.7: 'text' was added as a more readable alias for
     'universal_newlines'.

     If given, 'startupinfo' will be a *note STARTUPINFO: 398e. object,
     which is passed to the underlying ‘CreateProcess’ function.

     If given, 'creationflags', can be one or more of the following
     flags:

        * *note CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE: 398f.

        * *note CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP: 3990.

        * *note ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 3991.

        * *note BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 3992.

        * *note HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS: 3993.

        * *note IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS: 3994.

        * *note NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS: 3995.

        * *note REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS: 3996.

        * *note CREATE_NO_WINDOW: 3997.

        * *note DETACHED_PROCESS: 3998.

        * *note CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE: 3999.

        * *note CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB: 399a.

     'pipesize' can be used to change the size of the pipe when *note
     PIPE: f46. is used for 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'.  The size of
     the pipe is only changed on platforms that support this (only Linux
     at this time of writing).  Other platforms will ignore this
     parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the 'pipesize' parameter.

     Popen objects are supported as context managers via the *note with:
     20a. statement: on exit, standard file descriptors are closed, and
     the process is waited for.

          with Popen(["ifconfig"], stdout=PIPE) as proc:
              log.write(proc.stdout.read())

     Popen and the other functions in this module that use it raise an
     *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘subprocess.Popen’ with arguments
     ‘executable’, ‘args’, ‘cwd’, and ‘env’.  The value for ‘args’ may
     be a single string or a list of strings, depending on platform.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added context manager support.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Popen destructor now emits a *note
     ResourceWarning: 74f. warning if the child process is still
     running.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Popen can use *note os.posix_spawn(): 731.
     in some cases for better performance.  On Windows Subsystem for
     Linux and QEMU User Emulation, Popen constructor using
     ‘os.posix_spawn()’ no longer raise an exception on errors like
     missing program, but the child process fails with a non-zero *note
     returncode: e52.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-by-Side_Assembly


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<13>,  Prev: Popen Constructor,  Up: Using the subprocess Module

5.19.7.4 Exceptions
...................

Exceptions raised in the child process, before the new program has
started to execute, will be re-raised in the parent.

The most common exception raised is *note OSError: 53c.  This occurs,
for example, when trying to execute a non-existent file.  Applications
should prepare for ‘OSError’ exceptions.  Note that, when ‘shell=True’,
‘OSError’ will be raised by the child only if the selected shell itself
was not found.  To determine if the shell failed to find the requested
application, it is necessary to check the return code or output from the
subprocess.

A *note ValueError: 277. will be raised if *note Popen: 6bf. is called
with invalid arguments.

*note check_call(): 397f. and *note check_output(): 136b. will raise
*note CalledProcessError: 16c9. if the called process returns a non-zero
return code.

All of the functions and methods that accept a 'timeout' parameter, such
as *note run(): f45. and *note Popen.communicate(): 19aa. will raise
*note TimeoutExpired: 19ab. if the timeout expires before the process
exits.

Exceptions defined in this module all inherit from *note
SubprocessError: 3979.

Added in version 3.3: The *note SubprocessError: 3979. base class was
added.


File: python.info,  Node: Security Considerations,  Next: Popen Objects,  Prev: Using the subprocess Module,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.19.7.5 Security Considerations
................................

Unlike some other popen functions, this library will not implicitly
choose to call a system shell.  This means that all characters,
including shell metacharacters, can safely be passed to child processes.
If the shell is invoked explicitly, via ‘shell=True’, it is the
application’s responsibility to ensure that all whitespace and
metacharacters are quoted appropriately to avoid shell injection(1)
vulnerabilities.  On *note some platforms: 399d, it is possible to use
*note shlex.quote(): 781. for this escaping.

On Windows, batch files (‘*.bat’ or ‘*.cmd’) may be launched by the
operating system in a system shell regardless of the arguments passed to
this library.  This could result in arguments being parsed according to
shell rules, but without any escaping added by Python.  If you are
intentionally launching a batch file with arguments from untrusted
sources, consider passing ‘shell=True’ to allow Python to escape special
characters.  See gh-114539(2) for additional discussion.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114539


File: python.info,  Node: Popen Objects,  Next: Windows Popen Helpers,  Prev: Security Considerations,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.19.7.6 Popen Objects
......................

Instances of the *note Popen: 6bf. class have the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: Popen.poll ()

     Check if child process has terminated.  Set and return *note
     returncode: e52. attribute.  Otherwise, returns ‘None’.

 -- Μέθοδος: Popen.wait (timeout=None)

     Wait for child process to terminate.  Set and return *note
     returncode: e52. attribute.

     If the process does not terminate after 'timeout' seconds, raise a
     *note TimeoutExpired: 19ab. exception.  It is safe to catch this
     exception and retry the wait.

          Σημείωση: This will deadlock when using ‘stdout=PIPE’ or
          ‘stderr=PIPE’ and the child process generates enough output to
          a pipe such that it blocks waiting for the OS pipe buffer to
          accept more data.  Use *note Popen.communicate(): 19aa. when
          using pipes to avoid that.

          Σημείωση: When ‘timeout’ is not ‘None’ and the platform
          supports it, an efficient event-driven mechanism is used to
          wait for process termination:

             - Linux >= 5.3 uses *note os.pidfd_open(): 267. + *note
               select.poll(): 268.

             - macOS and other BSD variants use *note select.kqueue():
               269. + ‘KQ_FILTER_PROC’ + ‘KQ_NOTE_EXIT’

             - Windows uses ‘WaitForSingleObject’

          If none of these mechanisms are available, the function falls
          back to a busy loop (non-blocking call and short sleeps).

          Σημείωση: Use the *note asyncio: b. module for an asynchronous
          wait: see *note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec: e3a.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'timeout' was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: if 'timeout' is not ‘None’, use efficient
     event-driven implementation on Linux >= 5.3 and macOS / BSD.

 -- Μέθοδος: Popen.communicate (input=None, timeout=None)

     Interact with process: Send data to stdin.  Read data from stdout
     and stderr, until end-of-file is reached.  Wait for process to
     terminate and set the *note returncode: e52. attribute.  The
     optional 'input' argument should be data to be sent to the child
     process, or ‘None’, if no data should be sent to the child.  If
     streams were opened in text mode, 'input' must be a string.
     Otherwise, it must be bytes.

     ‘communicate()’ returns a tuple ‘(stdout_data, stderr_data)’.  The
     data will be strings if streams were opened in text mode;
     otherwise, bytes.

     Note that if you want to send data to the process’s stdin, you need
     to create the Popen object with ‘stdin=PIPE’.  Similarly, to get
     anything other than ‘None’ in the result tuple, you need to give
     ‘stdout=PIPE’ and/or ‘stderr=PIPE’ too.

     If the process does not terminate after 'timeout' seconds, a *note
     TimeoutExpired: 19ab. exception will be raised.  Catching this
     exception and retrying communication will not lose any output.
     Supplying 'input' to a subsequent post-timeout ‘communicate()’ call
     is in undefined behavior and may become an error in the future.

     The child process is not killed if the timeout expires, so in order
     to cleanup properly a well-behaved application should kill the
     child process and finish communication:

          proc = subprocess.Popen(...)
          try:
              outs, errs = proc.communicate(timeout=15)
          except TimeoutExpired:
              proc.kill()
              outs, errs = proc.communicate()

     After a call to ‘communicate()’ raises *note TimeoutExpired: 19ab,
     do not call *note wait(): 266.  Use an additional ‘communicate()’
     call to finish handling pipes and populate the *note returncode:
     e52. attribute.

          Σημείωση: The data read is buffered in memory, so do not use
          this method if the data size is large or unlimited.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'timeout' was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Popen.send_signal (signal)

     Sends the signal 'signal' to the child.

     Do nothing if the process completed.

          Σημείωση: On Windows, SIGTERM is an alias for *note
          terminate(): 177f.  CTRL_C_EVENT and CTRL_BREAK_EVENT can be
          sent to processes started with a 'creationflags' parameter
          which includes ‘CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP’.

 -- Μέθοδος: Popen.terminate ()

     Stop the child.  On POSIX OSs the method sends *note SIGTERM: 1782.
     to the child.  On Windows the Win32 API function
     ‘TerminateProcess()’ is called to stop the child.

 -- Μέθοδος: Popen.kill ()

     Kills the child.  On POSIX OSs the function sends SIGKILL to the
     child.  On Windows ‘kill()’ is an alias for *note terminate():
     177f.

The following attributes are also set by the class for you to access.
Reassigning them to new values is unsupported:

 -- Ιδιότητα: Popen.args

     The 'args' argument as it was passed to *note Popen: 6bf. – a
     sequence of program arguments or else a single string.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Popen.stdin

     If the 'stdin' argument was *note PIPE: f46, this attribute is a
     writeable stream object as returned by *note open(): 32b.  If the
     'encoding' or 'errors' arguments were specified or the 'text' or
     'universal_newlines' argument was ‘True’, the stream is a text
     stream, otherwise it is a byte stream.  If the 'stdin' argument was
     not ‘PIPE’, this attribute is ‘None’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Popen.stdout

     If the 'stdout' argument was *note PIPE: f46, this attribute is a
     readable stream object as returned by *note open(): 32b.  Reading
     from the stream provides output from the child process.  If the
     'encoding' or 'errors' arguments were specified or the 'text' or
     'universal_newlines' argument was ‘True’, the stream is a text
     stream, otherwise it is a byte stream.  If the 'stdout' argument
     was not ‘PIPE’, this attribute is ‘None’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Popen.stderr

     If the 'stderr' argument was *note PIPE: f46, this attribute is a
     readable stream object as returned by *note open(): 32b.  Reading
     from the stream provides error output from the child process.  If
     the 'encoding' or 'errors' arguments were specified or the 'text'
     or 'universal_newlines' argument was ‘True’, the stream is a text
     stream, otherwise it is a byte stream.  If the 'stderr' argument
     was not ‘PIPE’, this attribute is ‘None’.

     Προειδοποίηση: Use *note communicate(): 19aa. rather than *note
     .stdin.write: 3986, *note .stdout.read: 3987. or *note
     .stderr.read: 3988. to avoid deadlocks due to any of the other OS
     pipe buffers filling up and blocking the child process.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Popen.pid

     The process ID of the child process.

     Note that if you set the 'shell' argument to ‘True’, this is the
     process ID of the spawned shell.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Popen.returncode

     The child return code.  Initially ‘None’, *note returncode: e52. is
     set by a call to the *note poll(): 399f, *note wait(): 266, or
     *note communicate(): 19aa. methods if they detect that the process
     has terminated.

     A ‘None’ value indicates that the process hadn’t yet terminated at
     the time of the last method call.

     A negative value ‘-N’ indicates that the child was terminated by
     signal ‘N’ (POSIX only).

     When ‘shell=True’, the return code reflects the exit status of the
     shell itself (e.g.  ‘/bin/sh’), which may map signals to codes such
     as ‘128+N’.  See the documentation of the shell (for example, the
     Bash manual’s Exit Status) for details.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows Popen Helpers,  Next: Older high-level API,  Prev: Popen Objects,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.19.7.7 Windows Popen Helpers
..............................

The *note STARTUPINFO: 398e. class and following constants are only
available on Windows.

 -- Κλάση: subprocess.STARTUPINFO (*, dwFlags=0, hStdInput=None,
          hStdOutput=None, hStdError=None, wShowWindow=0,
          lpAttributeList=None)

     Partial support of the Windows STARTUPINFO(1) structure is used for
     *note Popen: 6bf. creation.  The following attributes can be set by
     passing them as keyword-only arguments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Keyword-only argument support was added.

      -- Ιδιότητα: dwFlags

          A bit field that determines whether certain ‘STARTUPINFO’
          attributes are used when the process creates a window.

               si = subprocess.STARTUPINFO()
               si.dwFlags = subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES | subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW

      -- Ιδιότητα: hStdInput

          If *note dwFlags: 39a3. specifies *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES:
          39a5, this attribute is the standard input handle for the
          process.  If ‘STARTF_USESTDHANDLES’ is not specified, the
          default for standard input is the keyboard buffer.

      -- Ιδιότητα: hStdOutput

          If *note dwFlags: 39a3. specifies *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES:
          39a5, this attribute is the standard output handle for the
          process.  Otherwise, this attribute is ignored and the default
          for standard output is the console window’s buffer.

      -- Ιδιότητα: hStdError

          If *note dwFlags: 39a3. specifies *note STARTF_USESTDHANDLES:
          39a5, this attribute is the standard error handle for the
          process.  Otherwise, this attribute is ignored and the default
          for standard error is the console window’s buffer.

      -- Ιδιότητα: wShowWindow

          If *note dwFlags: 39a3. specifies *note STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW:
          39a9, this attribute can be any of the values that can be
          specified in the ‘nCmdShow’ parameter for the ShowWindow(2)
          function, except for ‘SW_SHOWDEFAULT’.  Otherwise, this
          attribute is ignored.

          *note SW_HIDE: 39aa. is provided for this attribute.  It is
          used when *note Popen: 6bf. is called with ‘shell=True’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lpAttributeList

          A dictionary of additional attributes for process creation as
          given in ‘STARTUPINFOEX’, see UpdateProcThreadAttribute(3).

          Supported attributes:

          'handle_list'

               Sequence of handles that will be inherited.  'close_fds'
               must be true if non-empty.

               The handles must be temporarily made inheritable by *note
               os.set_handle_inheritable(): 12ae. when passed to the
               *note Popen: 6bf. constructor, else *note OSError: 53c.
               will be raised with Windows error
               ‘ERROR_INVALID_PARAMETER’ (87).

                    Προειδοποίηση: In a multithreaded process, use
                    caution to avoid leaking handles that are marked
                    inheritable when combining this feature with
                    concurrent calls to other process creation functions
                    that inherit all handles such as *note os.system():
                    17ff.  This also applies to standard handle
                    redirection, which temporarily creates inheritable
                    handles.

          Added in version 3.7.

* Menu:

* Windows Constants::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms686331(v=vs.85).aspx

   (2) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms633548(v=vs.85).aspx

   (3) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms686880(v=vs.85).aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Windows Constants,  Up: Windows Popen Helpers

5.19.7.8 Windows Constants
..........................

The ‘subprocess’ module exposes the following constants.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.STD_INPUT_HANDLE

     The standard input device.  Initially, this is the console input
     buffer, ‘CONIN$’.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE

     The standard output device.  Initially, this is the active console
     screen buffer, ‘CONOUT$’.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.STD_ERROR_HANDLE

     The standard error device.  Initially, this is the active console
     screen buffer, ‘CONOUT$’.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.SW_HIDE

     Hides the window.  Another window will be activated.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.STARTF_USESTDHANDLES

     Specifies that the *note STARTUPINFO.hStdInput: 39a4, *note
     STARTUPINFO.hStdOutput: 39a6, and *note STARTUPINFO.hStdError:
     39a7. attributes contain additional information.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW

     Specifies that the *note STARTUPINFO.wShowWindow: 39a8. attribute
     contains additional information.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.STARTF_FORCEONFEEDBACK

     A *note STARTUPINFO.dwFlags: 39a3. parameter to specify that the
     'Working in Background' mouse cursor will be displayed while a
     process is launching.  This is the default behavior for GUI
     processes.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK

     A *note STARTUPINFO.dwFlags: 39a3. parameter to specify that the
     mouse cursor will not be changed when launching a process.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE

     The new process has a new console, instead of inheriting its
     parent’s console (the default).

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP

     A *note Popen: 6bf. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process group will be created.  This flag is necessary for using
     *note os.kill(): 170c. on the subprocess.

     This flag is ignored if *note CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE: 398f. is
     specified.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 6bf. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have an above average priority.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 6bf. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have a below average priority.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 6bf. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have a high priority.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 6bf. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have an idle (lowest) priority.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 6bf. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have a normal priority.  (default)

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS

     A *note Popen: 6bf. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will have realtime priority.  You should almost never use
     REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS, because this interrupts system threads
     that manage mouse input, keyboard input, and background disk
     flushing.  This class can be appropriate for applications that
     «talk» directly to hardware or that perform brief tasks that should
     have limited interruptions.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.CREATE_NO_WINDOW

     A *note Popen: 6bf. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will not create a window.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.DETACHED_PROCESS

     A *note Popen: 6bf. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process will not inherit its parent’s console.  This value cannot
     be used with CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE

     A *note Popen: 6bf. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process does not inherit the error mode of the calling process.
     Instead, the new process gets the default error mode.  This feature
     is particularly useful for multithreaded shell applications that
     run with hard errors disabled.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: subprocess.CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB

     A *note Popen: 6bf. ‘creationflags’ parameter to specify that a new
     process is not associated with the job.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Older high-level API,  Next: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module,  Prev: Windows Popen Helpers,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.19.7.9 Older high-level API
.............................

Prior to Python 3.5, these three functions comprised the high level API
to subprocess.  You can now use *note run(): f45. in many cases, but
lots of existing code calls these functions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: subprocess.call (args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None,
          stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Run the command described by 'args'.  Wait for command to complete,
     then return the *note returncode: e52. attribute.

     Code needing to capture stdout or stderr should use *note run():
     f45. instead:

          run(...).returncode

     To suppress stdout or stderr, supply a value of *note DEVNULL:
     14f9.

     The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.  The full
     function signature is the same as that of the *note Popen: 6bf.
     constructor - this function passes all supplied arguments other
     than 'timeout' directly through to that interface.

          Σημείωση: Do not use ‘stdout=PIPE’ or ‘stderr=PIPE’ with this
          function.  The child process will block if it generates enough
          output to a pipe to fill up the OS pipe buffer as the pipes
          are not being read from.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'timeout' was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- Συνάρτηση: subprocess.check_call (args, *, stdin=None, stdout=None,
          stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, timeout=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Run command with arguments.  Wait for command to complete.  If the
     return code was zero then return, otherwise raise *note
     CalledProcessError: 16c9.  The ‘CalledProcessError’ object will
     have the return code in the *note returncode: 3980. attribute.  If
     ‘check_call()’ was unable to start the process it will propagate
     the exception that was raised.

     Code needing to capture stdout or stderr should use *note run():
     f45. instead:

          run(..., check=True)

     To suppress stdout or stderr, supply a value of *note DEVNULL:
     14f9.

     The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.  The full
     function signature is the same as that of the *note Popen: 6bf.
     constructor - this function passes all supplied arguments other
     than 'timeout' directly through to that interface.

          Σημείωση: Do not use ‘stdout=PIPE’ or ‘stderr=PIPE’ with this
          function.  The child process will block if it generates enough
          output to a pipe to fill up the OS pipe buffer as the pipes
          are not being read from.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'timeout' was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.

 -- Συνάρτηση: subprocess.check_output (args, *, stdin=None,
          stderr=None, shell=False, cwd=None, encoding=None,
          errors=None, universal_newlines=None, timeout=None, text=None,
          **other_popen_kwargs)

     Run command with arguments and return its output.

     If the return code was non-zero it raises a *note
     CalledProcessError: 16c9.  The ‘CalledProcessError’ object will
     have the return code in the *note returncode: 3980. attribute and
     any output in the *note output: 3982. attribute.

     This is equivalent to:

          run(..., check=True, stdout=PIPE).stdout

     The arguments shown above are merely some common ones.  The full
     function signature is largely the same as that of *note run(): f45.
     - most arguments are passed directly through to that interface.
     One API deviation from ‘run()’ behavior exists: passing
     ‘input=None’ will behave the same as ‘input=b''’ (or ‘input=''’,
     depending on other arguments) rather than using the parent’s
     standard input file handle.

     By default, this function will return the data as encoded bytes.
     The actual encoding of the output data may depend on the command
     being invoked, so the decoding to text will often need to be
     handled at the application level.

     This behaviour may be overridden by setting 'text', 'encoding',
     'errors', or 'universal_newlines' to ‘True’ as described in *note
     Frequently Used Arguments: 3972. and *note run(): f45.

     To also capture standard error in the result, use
     ‘stderr=subprocess.STDOUT’:

          >>> subprocess.check_output(
          ...     "ls non_existent_file; exit 0",
          ...     stderr=subprocess.STDOUT,
          ...     shell=True)
          'ls: non_existent_file: No such file or directory\n'

     Added in version 3.1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'timeout' was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Support for the 'input' keyword argument
     was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 'encoding' and 'errors' were added.  See
     *note run(): f45. for details.

     Added in version 3.7: 'text' was added as a more readable alias for
     'universal_newlines'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Changed Windows shell search order for
     ‘shell=True’.  The current directory and ‘%PATH%’ are replaced with
     ‘%COMSPEC%’ and ‘%SystemRoot%\System32\cmd.exe’.  As a result,
     dropping a malicious program named ‘cmd.exe’ into a current
     directory no longer works.


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module,  Next: Legacy Shell Invocation Functions,  Prev: Older high-level API,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.19.7.10 Replacing Older Functions with the ‘subprocess’ Module
................................................................

In this section, «a becomes b» means that b can be used as a replacement
for a.

     Σημείωση: All «a» functions in this section fail (more or less)
     silently if the executed program cannot be found; the «b»
     replacements raise *note OSError: 53c. instead.

     In addition, the replacements using *note check_output(): 136b.
     will fail with a *note CalledProcessError: 16c9. if the requested
     operation produces a non-zero return code.  The output is still
     available as the *note output: 3982. attribute of the raised
     exception.

In the following examples, we assume that the relevant functions have
already been imported from the ‘subprocess’ module.

* Menu:

* Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution::
* Replacing shell pipeline::
* Replacing os.system(): Replacing os system.
* Replacing the os.spawn family: Replacing the os spawn family.
* Replacing os.popen(): Replacing os popen.


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution,  Next: Replacing shell pipeline,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.19.7.11 Replacing ‘/bin/sh’ shell command substitution
........................................................

     output=$(mycmd myarg)

becomes:

     output = check_output(["mycmd", "myarg"])


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing shell pipeline,  Next: Replacing os system,  Prev: Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.19.7.12 Replacing shell pipeline
..................................

     output=$(dmesg | grep hda)

becomes:

     p1 = Popen(["dmesg"], stdout=PIPE)
     p2 = Popen(["grep", "hda"], stdin=p1.stdout, stdout=PIPE)
     p1.stdout.close()  # Allow p1 to receive a SIGPIPE if p2 exits.
     output = p2.communicate()[0]

The ‘p1.stdout.close()’ call after starting the p2 is important in order
for p1 to receive a SIGPIPE if p2 exits before p1.

Alternatively, for trusted input, the shell’s own pipeline support may
still be used directly:

     output=$(dmesg | grep hda)

becomes:

     output = check_output("dmesg | grep hda", shell=True)


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing os system,  Next: Replacing the os spawn family,  Prev: Replacing shell pipeline,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.19.7.13 Replacing ‘os.system()’
.................................

     sts = os.system("mycmd" + " myarg")
     # becomes
     retcode = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)

Notes:

   * Calling the program through the shell is usually not required.

   * The *note call(): f47. return value is encoded differently to that
     of *note os.system(): 17ff.

   * The *note os.system(): 17ff. function ignores SIGINT and SIGQUIT
     signals while the command is running, but the caller must do this
     separately when using the ‘subprocess’ module.

A more realistic example would look like this:

     try:
         retcode = call("mycmd" + " myarg", shell=True)
         if retcode < 0:
             print("Child was terminated by signal", -retcode, file=sys.stderr)
         else:
             print("Child returned", retcode, file=sys.stderr)
     except OSError as e:
         print("Execution failed:", e, file=sys.stderr)


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing the os spawn family,  Next: Replacing os popen,  Prev: Replacing os system,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.19.7.14 Replacing the ‘os.spawn’ family
.........................................

P_NOWAIT example:

     pid = os.spawnlp(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
     ==>
     pid = Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"]).pid

P_WAIT example:

     retcode = os.spawnlp(os.P_WAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg")
     ==>
     retcode = call(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"])

Vector example:

     os.spawnvp(os.P_NOWAIT, path, args)
     ==>
     Popen([path] + args[1:])

Environment example:

     os.spawnlpe(os.P_NOWAIT, "/bin/mycmd", "mycmd", "myarg", env)
     ==>
     Popen(["/bin/mycmd", "myarg"], env={"PATH": "/usr/bin"})


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing os popen,  Prev: Replacing the os spawn family,  Up: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module

5.19.7.15 Replacing ‘os.popen()’
................................

Return code handling translates as follows:

     pipe = os.popen(cmd, 'w')
     ...
     rc = pipe.close()
     if rc is not None and rc >> 8:
         print("There were some errors")
     ==>
     process = Popen(cmd, stdin=PIPE)
     ...
     process.stdin.close()
     if process.wait() != 0:
         print("There were some errors")


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy Shell Invocation Functions,  Next: Notes<2>,  Prev: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.19.7.16 Legacy Shell Invocation Functions
...........................................

This module also provides the following legacy functions from the 2.x
‘commands’ module.  These operations implicitly invoke the system shell
and none of the guarantees described above regarding security and
exception handling consistency are valid for these functions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: subprocess.getstatusoutput (cmd, *, encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Return ‘(exitcode, output)’ of executing 'cmd' in a shell.

     Execute the string 'cmd' in a shell with *note check_output():
     136b. and return a 2-tuple ‘(exitcode, output)’.  'encoding' and
     'errors' are used to decode output; see the notes on *note
     Frequently Used Arguments: 3972. for more details.

     A trailing newline is stripped from the output.  The exit code for
     the command can be interpreted as the return code of subprocess.
     Example:

          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('ls /bin/ls')
          (0, '/bin/ls')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('cat /bin/junk')
          (1, 'cat: /bin/junk: No such file or directory')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/junk')
          (127, 'sh: /bin/junk: not found')
          >>> subprocess.getstatusoutput('/bin/kill $$')
          (-15, '')

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3.4: Windows support was added.

     The function now returns (exitcode, output) instead of (status,
     output) as it did in Python 3.3.3 and earlier.  exitcode has the
     same value as *note returncode: e52.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'encoding' and 'errors'
     parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: subprocess.getoutput (cmd, *, encoding=None, errors=None)

     Return output (stdout and stderr) of executing 'cmd' in a shell.

     Like *note getstatusoutput(): 136d, except the exit code is ignored
     and the return value is a string containing the command’s output.
     Example:

          >>> subprocess.getoutput('ls /bin/ls')
          '/bin/ls'

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3.4: Windows support added

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'encoding' and 'errors'
     parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: Notes<2>,  Prev: Legacy Shell Invocation Functions,  Up: subprocess — Subprocess management

5.19.7.17 Notes
...............

* Menu:

* Timeout Behavior::
* Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows::
* Disable use of posix_spawn(): Disable use of posix_spawn.


File: python.info,  Node: Timeout Behavior,  Next: Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows,  Up: Notes<2>

5.19.7.18 Timeout Behavior
..........................

When using the ‘timeout’ parameter in functions like *note run(): f45,
*note Popen.wait(): 266, or *note Popen.communicate(): 19aa, users
should be aware of the following behaviors:

  1. 'Process Creation Delay': The initial process creation itself
     cannot be interrupted on many platform APIs.  This means that even
     when specifying a timeout, you are not guaranteed to see a timeout
     exception until at least after however long process creation takes.

  2. 'Extremely Small Timeout Values': Setting very small timeout values
     (such as a few milliseconds) may result in almost immediate *note
     TimeoutExpired: 19ab. exceptions because process creation and
     system scheduling inherently require time.


File: python.info,  Node: Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows,  Next: Disable use of posix_spawn,  Prev: Timeout Behavior,  Up: Notes<2>

5.19.7.19 Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows
................................................................

On Windows, an 'args' sequence is converted to a string that can be
parsed using the following rules (which correspond to the rules used by
the MS C runtime):

  1. Arguments are delimited by white space, which is either a space or
     a tab.

  2. A string surrounded by double quotation marks is interpreted as a
     single argument, regardless of white space contained within.  A
     quoted string can be embedded in an argument.

  3. A double quotation mark preceded by a backslash is interpreted as a
     literal double quotation mark.

  4. Backslashes are interpreted literally, unless they immediately
     precede a double quotation mark.

  5. If backslashes immediately precede a double quotation mark, every
     pair of backslashes is interpreted as a literal backslash.  If the
     number of backslashes is odd, the last backslash escapes the next
     double quotation mark as described in rule 3.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note shlex: cc.

     Module which provides function to parse and escape command lines.


File: python.info,  Node: Disable use of posix_spawn,  Prev: Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows,  Up: Notes<2>

5.19.7.20 Disable use of ‘posix_spawn()’
........................................

On Linux, ‘subprocess’ defaults to using the ‘vfork()’ system call
internally when it is safe to do so rather than ‘fork()’.  This greatly
improves performance.

     subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN = False  # See CPython issue gh-NNNNNN.

It is safe to set this to false on any Python version.  It will have no
effect on older or newer versions where unsupported.  Do not assume the
attribute is available to read.  Despite the name, a true value does not
indicate the corresponding function will be used, only that it may be.

Please file issues any time you have to use these private knobs with a
way to reproduce the issue you were seeing.  Link to that issue from a
comment in your code.

Added in version 3.8: ‘_USE_POSIX_SPAWN’


File: python.info,  Node: sched — Event scheduler,  Next: queue — A synchronized queue class,  Prev: subprocess — Subprocess management,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.19.8 ‘sched’ — Event scheduler
--------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/sched.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘sched’ module defines a class which implements a general purpose
event scheduler:

 -- Κλάση: sched.scheduler (timefunc=time.monotonic,
          delayfunc=time.sleep)

     The ‘scheduler’ class defines a generic interface to scheduling
     events.  It needs two functions to actually deal with the «outside
     world» — 'timefunc' should be callable without arguments, and
     return a number (the «time», in any units whatsoever).  The
     'delayfunc' function should be callable with one argument,
     compatible with the output of 'timefunc', and should delay that
     many time units.  'delayfunc' will also be called with the argument
     ‘0’ after each event is run to allow other threads an opportunity
     to run in multi-threaded applications.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'timefunc' and 'delayfunc' parameters are
     optional.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: ‘scheduler’ class can be safely used in
     multi-threaded environments.

Example:

     >>> import sched, time
     >>> s = sched.scheduler(time.time, time.sleep)
     >>> def print_time(a='default'):
     ...     print("From print_time", time.time(), a)
     ...
     >>> def print_some_times():
     ...     print(time.time())
     ...     s.enter(10, 1, print_time)
     ...     s.enter(5, 2, print_time, argument=('positional',))
     ...     # despite having higher priority, 'keyword' runs after 'positional' as enter() is relative
     ...     s.enter(5, 1, print_time, kwargs={'a': 'keyword'})
     ...     s.enterabs(1_650_000_000, 10, print_time, argument=("first enterabs",))
     ...     s.enterabs(1_650_000_000, 5, print_time, argument=("second enterabs",))
     ...     s.run()
     ...     print(time.time())
     ...
     >>> print_some_times()
     1652342830.3640375
     From print_time 1652342830.3642538 second enterabs
     From print_time 1652342830.3643398 first enterabs
     From print_time 1652342835.3694863 positional
     From print_time 1652342835.3696074 keyword
     From print_time 1652342840.369612 default
     1652342840.3697174

* Menu:

* Scheduler Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/sched.py


File: python.info,  Node: Scheduler Objects,  Up: sched — Event scheduler

5.19.8.1 Scheduler Objects
..........................

*note scheduler: 14d3. instances have the following methods and
attributes:

 -- Μέθοδος: scheduler.enterabs (time, priority, action, argument=(),
          kwargs={})

     Schedule a new event.  The 'time' argument should be a numeric type
     compatible with the return value of the 'timefunc' function passed
     to the constructor.  Events scheduled for the same 'time' will be
     executed in the order of their 'priority'.  A lower number
     represents a higher priority.

     Executing the event means executing ‘action(*argument, **kwargs)’.
     'argument' is a sequence holding the positional arguments for
     'action'.  'kwargs' is a dictionary holding the keyword arguments
     for 'action'.

     Return value is an event which may be used for later cancellation
     of the event (see *note cancel(): 1ef0.).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'argument' parameter is optional.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'kwargs' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: scheduler.enter (delay, priority, action, argument=(),
          kwargs={})

     Schedule an event for 'delay' more time units.  Other than the
     relative time, the other arguments, the effect and the return value
     are the same as those for *note enterabs(): 14d5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'argument' parameter is optional.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'kwargs' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: scheduler.cancel (event)

     Remove the event from the queue.  If 'event' is not an event
     currently in the queue, this method will raise a *note ValueError:
     277.

 -- Μέθοδος: scheduler.empty ()

     Return ‘True’ if the event queue is empty.

 -- Μέθοδος: scheduler.run (blocking=True)

     Run all scheduled events.  This method will wait (using the
     'delayfunc' function passed to the constructor) for the next event,
     then execute it and so on until there are no more scheduled events.

     If 'blocking' is false executes the scheduled events due to expire
     soonest (if any) and then return the deadline of the next scheduled
     call in the scheduler (if any).

     Either 'action' or 'delayfunc' can raise an exception.  In either
     case, the scheduler will maintain a consistent state and propagate
     the exception.  If an exception is raised by 'action', the event
     will not be attempted in future calls to ‘run()’.

     If a sequence of events takes longer to run than the time available
     before the next event, the scheduler will simply fall behind.  No
     events will be dropped; the calling code is responsible for
     canceling events which are no longer pertinent.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'blocking' parameter was added.

 -- Ιδιότητα: scheduler.queue

     Read-only attribute returning a list of upcoming events in the
     order they will be run.  Each event is shown as a *note named
     tuple: a3d. with the following fields: time, priority, action,
     argument, kwargs.


File: python.info,  Node: queue — A synchronized queue class,  Next: contextvars — Context Variables,  Prev: sched — Event scheduler,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.19.9 ‘queue’ — A synchronized queue class
-------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/queue.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘queue’ module implements multi-producer, multi-consumer queues.  It
is especially useful in threaded programming when information must be
exchanged safely between multiple threads.  The *note Queue: 1738. class
in this module implements all the required locking semantics.

The module implements three types of queue, which differ only in the
order in which the entries are retrieved.  In a FIFO queue, the first
tasks added are the first retrieved.  In a LIFO queue, the most recently
added entry is the first retrieved (operating like a stack).  With a
priority queue, the entries are kept sorted (using the *note heapq: 6c.
module) and the lowest valued entry is retrieved first.

Internally, those three types of queues use locks to temporarily block
competing threads; however, they are not designed to handle reentrancy
within a thread.

In addition, the module implements a «simple» FIFO queue type, *note
SimpleQueue: f27, whose specific implementation provides additional
guarantees in exchange for the smaller functionality.

The ‘queue’ module defines the following classes and exceptions:

 -- Κλάση: queue.Queue (maxsize=0)

     Constructor for a FIFO queue.  'maxsize' is an integer that sets
     the upperbound limit on the number of items that can be placed in
     the queue.  Insertion will block once this size has been reached,
     until queue items are consumed.  If 'maxsize' is less than or equal
     to zero, the queue size is infinite.

 -- Κλάση: queue.LifoQueue (maxsize=0)

     Constructor for a LIFO queue.  'maxsize' is an integer that sets
     the upperbound limit on the number of items that can be placed in
     the queue.  Insertion will block once this size has been reached,
     until queue items are consumed.  If 'maxsize' is less than or equal
     to zero, the queue size is infinite.

 -- Κλάση: queue.PriorityQueue (maxsize=0)

     Constructor for a priority queue.  'maxsize' is an integer that
     sets the upperbound limit on the number of items that can be placed
     in the queue.  Insertion will block once this size has been
     reached, until queue items are consumed.  If 'maxsize' is less than
     or equal to zero, the queue size is infinite.

     The lowest valued entries are retrieved first (the lowest valued
     entry is the one that would be returned by ‘min(entries)’).  A
     typical pattern for entries is a tuple in the form:
     ‘(priority_number, data)’.

     If the 'data' elements are not comparable, the data can be wrapped
     in a class that ignores the data item and only compares the
     priority number:

          from dataclasses import dataclass, field
          from typing import Any

          @dataclass(order=True)
          class PrioritizedItem:
              priority: int
              item: Any=field(compare=False)

 -- Κλάση: queue.SimpleQueue

     Constructor for an unbounded FIFO queue.  Simple queues lack
     advanced functionality such as task tracking.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Εξαίρεση: queue.Empty

     Exception raised when non-blocking *note get(): 341d. (or *note
     get_nowait(): 39ca.) is called on a *note Queue: 1738. object which
     is empty.

 -- Εξαίρεση: queue.Full

     Exception raised when non-blocking *note put(): 39cb. (or *note
     put_nowait(): 341c.) is called on a *note Queue: 1738. object which
     is full.

 -- Εξαίρεση: queue.ShutDown

     Exception raised when *note put(): 39cb. or *note get(): 341d. is
     called on a *note Queue: 1738. object which has been shut down.

     Added in version 3.13.

* Menu:

* Queue Objects::
* SimpleQueue Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/queue.py


File: python.info,  Node: Queue Objects,  Next: SimpleQueue Objects,  Up: queue — A synchronized queue class

5.19.9.1 Queue Objects
......................

Queue objects (*note Queue: 1738, *note LifoQueue: 28b2, or *note
PriorityQueue: 28b3.) provide the public methods described below.

 -- Μέθοδος: Queue.qsize ()

     Return the approximate size of the queue.  Note, qsize() > 0
     doesn’t guarantee that a subsequent get() will not block, nor will
     qsize() < maxsize guarantee that put() will not block.

 -- Μέθοδος: Queue.empty ()

     Return ‘True’ if the queue is empty, ‘False’ otherwise.  If empty()
     returns ‘True’ it doesn’t guarantee that a subsequent call to put()
     will not block.  Similarly, if empty() returns ‘False’ it doesn’t
     guarantee that a subsequent call to get() will not block.

 -- Μέθοδος: Queue.full ()

     Return ‘True’ if the queue is full, ‘False’ otherwise.  If full()
     returns ‘True’ it doesn’t guarantee that a subsequent call to get()
     will not block.  Similarly, if full() returns ‘False’ it doesn’t
     guarantee that a subsequent call to put() will not block.

 -- Μέθοδος: Queue.put (item, block=True, timeout=None)

     Put 'item' into the queue.  If optional args 'block' is true and
     'timeout' is ‘None’ (the default), block if necessary until a free
     slot is available.  If 'timeout' is a positive number, it blocks at
     most 'timeout' seconds and raises the *note Full: 38b7. exception
     if no free slot was available within that time.  Otherwise ('block'
     is false), put an item on the queue if a free slot is immediately
     available, else raise the ‘Full’ exception ('timeout' is ignored in
     that case).

     Raises *note ShutDown: 746. if the queue has been shut down.

 -- Μέθοδος: Queue.put_nowait (item)

     Equivalent to ‘put(item, block=False)’.

 -- Μέθοδος: Queue.get (block=True, timeout=None)

     Remove and return an item from the queue.  If optional args 'block'
     is true and 'timeout' is ‘None’ (the default), block if necessary
     until an item is available.  If 'timeout' is a positive number, it
     blocks at most 'timeout' seconds and raises the *note Empty: 38b6.
     exception if no item was available within that time.  Otherwise
     ('block' is false), return an item if one is immediately available,
     else raise the ‘Empty’ exception ('timeout' is ignored in that
     case).

     Prior to 3.0 on POSIX systems, and for all versions on Windows, if
     'block' is true and 'timeout' is ‘None’, this operation goes into
     an uninterruptible wait on an underlying lock.  This means that no
     exceptions can occur, and in particular a SIGINT will not trigger a
     *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96.

     Raises *note ShutDown: 746. if the queue has been shut down and is
     empty, or if the queue has been shut down immediately.

 -- Μέθοδος: Queue.get_nowait ()

     Equivalent to ‘get(False)’.

Two methods are offered to support tracking whether enqueued tasks have
been fully processed by daemon consumer threads.

 -- Μέθοδος: Queue.task_done ()

     Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete.  Used by queue
     consumer threads.  For each *note get(): 341d. used to fetch a
     task, a subsequent call to ‘task_done()’ tells the queue that the
     processing on the task is complete.

     If a *note join(): 38b3. is currently blocking, it will resume when
     all items have been processed (meaning that a ‘task_done()’ call
     was received for every item that had been *note put(): 39cb. into
     the queue).

     Raises a *note ValueError: 277. if called more times than there
     were items placed in the queue.

 -- Μέθοδος: Queue.join ()

     Blocks until all items in the queue have been gotten and processed.

     The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added to
     the queue.  The count goes down whenever a consumer thread calls
     *note task_done(): 38b2. to indicate that the item was retrieved
     and all work on it is complete.  When the count of unfinished tasks
     drops to zero, ‘join()’ unblocks.

* Menu:

* Waiting for task completion::
* Terminating queues::


File: python.info,  Node: Waiting for task completion,  Next: Terminating queues,  Up: Queue Objects

5.19.9.2 Waiting for task completion
....................................

Example of how to wait for enqueued tasks to be completed:

     import threading
     import queue

     q = queue.Queue()

     def worker():
         while True:
             item = q.get()
             print(f'Working on {item}')
             print(f'Finished {item}')
             q.task_done()

     # Turn-on the worker thread.
     threading.Thread(target=worker, daemon=True).start()

     # Send thirty task requests to the worker.
     for item in range(30):
         q.put(item)

     # Block until all tasks are done.
     q.join()
     print('All work completed')


File: python.info,  Node: Terminating queues,  Prev: Waiting for task completion,  Up: Queue Objects

5.19.9.3 Terminating queues
...........................

When no longer needed, *note Queue: 1738. objects can be wound down
until empty or terminated immediately with a hard shutdown.

 -- Μέθοδος: Queue.shutdown (immediate=False)

     Put a *note Queue: 1738. instance into a shutdown mode.

     The queue can no longer grow.  Future calls to *note put(): 39cb.
     raise *note ShutDown: 746.  Currently blocked callers of ‘put()’
     will be unblocked and will raise ‘ShutDown’ in the formerly blocked
     thread.

     If 'immediate' is false (the default), the queue can be wound down
     normally with *note get(): 341d. calls to extract tasks that have
     already been loaded.

     And if *note task_done(): 38b2. is called for each remaining task,
     a pending *note join(): 38b3. will be unblocked normally.

     Once the queue is empty, future calls to *note get(): 341d. will
     raise *note ShutDown: 746.

     If 'immediate' is true, the queue is terminated immediately.  The
     queue is drained to be completely empty and the count of unfinished
     tasks is reduced by the number of tasks drained.  If unfinished
     tasks is zero, callers of *note join(): 38b3. are unblocked.  Also,
     blocked callers of *note get(): 341d. are unblocked and will raise
     *note ShutDown: 746. because the queue is empty.

     Use caution when using *note join(): 38b3. with 'immediate' set to
     true.  This unblocks the join even when no work has been done on
     the tasks, violating the usual invariant for joining a queue.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleQueue Objects,  Prev: Queue Objects,  Up: queue — A synchronized queue class

5.19.9.4 SimpleQueue Objects
............................

*note SimpleQueue: f27. objects provide the public methods described
below.

 -- Μέθοδος: SimpleQueue.qsize ()

     Return the approximate size of the queue.  Note, qsize() > 0
     doesn’t guarantee that a subsequent get() will not block.

 -- Μέθοδος: SimpleQueue.empty ()

     Return ‘True’ if the queue is empty, ‘False’ otherwise.  If empty()
     returns ‘False’ it doesn’t guarantee that a subsequent call to
     get() will not block.

 -- Μέθοδος: SimpleQueue.put (item, block=True, timeout=None)

     Put 'item' into the queue.  The method never blocks and always
     succeeds (except for potential low-level errors such as failure to
     allocate memory).  The optional args 'block' and 'timeout' are
     ignored and only provided for compatibility with *note Queue.put():
     39cb.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This method has a C
     implementation which is reentrant.  That is, a ‘put()’ or ‘get()’
     call can be interrupted by another ‘put()’ call in the same thread
     without deadlocking or corrupting internal state inside the queue.
     This makes it appropriate for use in destructors such as ‘__del__’
     methods or *note weakref: 11d. callbacks.

 -- Μέθοδος: SimpleQueue.put_nowait (item)

     Equivalent to ‘put(item, block=False)’, provided for compatibility
     with *note Queue.put_nowait(): 341c.

 -- Μέθοδος: SimpleQueue.get (block=True, timeout=None)

     Remove and return an item from the queue.  If optional args 'block'
     is true and 'timeout' is ‘None’ (the default), block if necessary
     until an item is available.  If 'timeout' is a positive number, it
     blocks at most 'timeout' seconds and raises the *note Empty: 38b6.
     exception if no item was available within that time.  Otherwise
     ('block' is false), return an item if one is immediately available,
     else raise the ‘Empty’ exception ('timeout' is ignored in that
     case).

 -- Μέθοδος: SimpleQueue.get_nowait ()

     Equivalent to ‘get(False)’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Class *note multiprocessing.Queue: 1d85.

     A queue class for use in a multi-processing (rather than
     multi-threading) context.

*note collections.deque: 9d6. is an alternative implementation of
unbounded queues with fast atomic *note append(): 2b8f. and *note
popleft(): 2b95. operations that do not require locking and also support
indexing.


File: python.info,  Node: contextvars — Context Variables,  Next: _thread — Low-level threading API,  Prev: queue — A synchronized queue class,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.19.10 ‘contextvars’ — Context Variables
-----------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides APIs to manage, store, and access context-local
state.  The *note ContextVar: 1a9d. class is used to declare and work
with 'Context Variables'.  The *note copy_context(): 3868. function and
the *note Context: 421. class should be used to manage the current
context in asynchronous frameworks.

Context managers that have state should use Context Variables instead of
*note threading.local(): 1a87. to prevent their state from bleeding to
other code unexpectedly, when used in concurrent code.

See also PEP 567(1) for additional details.

Added in version 3.7.

* Menu:

* Context Variables::
* Manual Context Management::
* asyncio support::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: Context Variables,  Next: Manual Context Management,  Up: contextvars — Context Variables

5.19.10.1 Context Variables
...........................

 -- Κλάση: contextvars.ContextVar (name[, *, default])

     This class is used to declare a new Context Variable, e.g.:

          var: ContextVar[int] = ContextVar('var', default=42)

     The required 'name' parameter is used for introspection and debug
     purposes.

     The optional keyword-only 'default' parameter is returned by *note
     ContextVar.get(): 39de. when no value for the variable is found in
     the current context.

     'Important:' Context Variables should be created at the top module
     level and never in closures.  *note Context: 421. objects hold
     strong references to context variables which prevents context
     variables from being properly garbage collected.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name of the variable.  This is a read-only property.

          Added in version 3.7.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: get ([default])

          Return a value for the context variable for the current
          context.

          If there is no value for the variable in the current context,
          the method will:

             * return the value of the 'default' argument of the method,
               if provided; or

             * return the default value for the context variable, if it
               was created with one; or

             * raise a *note LookupError: 25da.

      -- Μέθοδος: set (value)

          Call to set a new value for the context variable in the
          current context.

          The required 'value' argument is the new value for the context
          variable.

          Returns a *note Token: 479. object that can be used to restore
          the variable to its previous value via the *note
          ContextVar.reset(): 39e0. method.

          For convenience, the token object can be used as a context
          manager to avoid calling *note ContextVar.reset(): 39e0.
          manually:

               var = ContextVar('var', default='default value')

               with var.set('new value'):
                   assert var.get() == 'new value'

               assert var.get() == 'default value'

          It is a shorthand for:

               var = ContextVar('var', default='default value')

               token = var.set('new value')
               try:
                   assert var.get() == 'new value'
               finally:
                   var.reset(token)

               assert var.get() == 'default value'

          Added in version 3.14: Added support for using tokens as
          context managers.

      -- Μέθοδος: reset (token)

          Reset the context variable to the value it had before the
          *note ContextVar.set(): 198d. that created the 'token' was
          used.

          For example:

               var = ContextVar('var')

               token = var.set('new value')
               # code that uses 'var'; var.get() returns 'new value'.
               var.reset(token)

               # After the reset call the var has no value again, so
               # var.get() would raise a LookupError.

          The same 'token' cannot be used twice.

 -- Κλάση: contextvars.Token

     'Token' objects are returned by the *note ContextVar.set(): 198d.
     method.  They can be passed to the *note ContextVar.reset(): 39e0.
     method to revert the value of the variable to what it was before
     the corresponding 'set'.  A single token cannot reset a context
     variable more than once.

     Tokens support the *note context manager protocol: 2572. to
     automatically reset context variables.  See *note ContextVar.set():
     198d.

     Added in version 3.14: Added support for usage as a context
     manager.

      -- Ιδιότητα: var

          A read-only property.  Points to the *note ContextVar: 1a9d.
          object that created the token.

      -- Ιδιότητα: old_value

          A read-only property.  Set to the value the variable had
          before the *note ContextVar.set(): 198d. method call that
          created the token.  It points to *note Token.MISSING: 1a4d. if
          the variable was not set before the call.

      -- Ιδιότητα: MISSING

          A marker object used by *note Token.old_value: 39e2.


File: python.info,  Node: Manual Context Management,  Next: asyncio support,  Prev: Context Variables,  Up: contextvars — Context Variables

5.19.10.2 Manual Context Management
...................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: contextvars.copy_context ()

     Returns a copy of the current *note Context: 421. object.

     The following snippet gets a copy of the current context and prints
     all variables and their values that are set in it:

          ctx: Context = copy_context()
          print(list(ctx.items()))

     The function has an 'O'(1) complexity, i.e.  works equally fast for
     contexts with a few context variables and for contexts that have a
     lot of them.

 -- Κλάση: contextvars.Context

     A mapping of *note ContextVars: 1a9d. to their values.

     ‘Context()’ creates an empty context with no values in it.  To get
     a copy of the current context use the *note copy_context(): 3868.
     function.

     Each thread has its own effective stack of ‘Context’ objects.  The
     *note current context: 1b77. is the ‘Context’ object at the top of
     the current thread’s stack.  All ‘Context’ objects in the stacks
     are considered to be 'entered'.

     'Entering' a context, which can be done by calling its *note run():
     198c. method, makes the context the current context by pushing it
     onto the top of the current thread’s context stack.

     'Exiting' from the current context, which can be done by returning
     from the callback passed to the *note run(): 198c. method, restores
     the current context to what it was before the context was entered
     by popping the context off the top of the context stack.

     Since each thread has its own context stack, *note ContextVar:
     1a9d. objects behave in a similar fashion to *note
     threading.local(): 1a87. when values are assigned in different
     threads.

     Attempting to enter an already entered context, including contexts
     entered in other threads, raises a *note RuntimeError: 30d.

     After exiting a context, it can later be re-entered (from any
     thread).

     Any changes to *note ContextVar: 1a9d. values via the *note
     ContextVar.set(): 198d. method are recorded in the current context.
     The *note ContextVar.get(): 39de. method returns the value
     associated with the current context.  Exiting a context effectively
     reverts any changes made to context variables while the context was
     entered (if needed, the values can be restored by re-entering the
     context).

     Context implements the *note collections.abc.Mapping: c9c.
     interface.

      -- Μέθοδος: run (callable, *args, **kwargs)

          Enters the Context, executes ‘callable(*args, **kwargs)’, then
          exits the Context.  Returns 'callable'’s return value, or
          propagates an exception if one occurred.

          Example:

               import contextvars

               var = contextvars.ContextVar('var')
               var.set('spam')
               print(var.get())  # 'spam'

               ctx = contextvars.copy_context()

               def main():
                   # 'var' was set to 'spam' before
                   # calling 'copy_context()' and 'ctx.run(main)', so:
                   print(var.get())  # 'spam'
                   print(ctx[var])  # 'spam'

                   var.set('ham')

                   # Now, after setting 'var' to 'ham':
                   print(var.get())  # 'ham'
                   print(ctx[var])  # 'ham'

               # Any changes that the 'main' function makes to 'var'
               # will be contained in 'ctx'.
               ctx.run(main)

               # The 'main()' function was run in the 'ctx' context,
               # so changes to 'var' are contained in it:
               print(ctx[var])  # 'ham'

               # However, outside of 'ctx', 'var' is still set to 'spam':
               print(var.get())  # 'spam'

      -- Μέθοδος: copy ()

          Return a shallow copy of the context object.

      -- Describe: var in context

          Return ‘True’ if the 'context' has a value for 'var' set;
          return ‘False’ otherwise.

      -- Describe: context[var]

          Return the value of the 'var' *note ContextVar: 1a9d.
          variable.  If the variable is not set in the context object, a
          *note KeyError: 7df. is raised.

      -- Μέθοδος: get (var[, default])

          Return the value for 'var' if 'var' has the value in the
          context object.  Return 'default' otherwise.  If 'default' is
          not given, return ‘None’.

      -- Describe: iter(context)

          Return an iterator over the variables stored in the context
          object.

      -- Describe: len(proxy)

          Return the number of variables set in the context object.

      -- Μέθοδος: keys ()

          Return a list of all variables in the context object.

      -- Μέθοδος: values ()

          Return a list of all variables” values in the context object.

      -- Μέθοδος: items ()

          Return a list of 2-tuples containing all variables and their
          values in the context object.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio support,  Prev: Manual Context Management,  Up: contextvars — Context Variables

5.19.10.3 asyncio support
.........................

Context variables are natively supported in *note asyncio: b. and are
ready to be used without any extra configuration.  For example, here is
a simple echo server, that uses a context variable to make the address
of a remote client available in the Task that handles that client:

     import asyncio
     import contextvars

     client_addr_var = contextvars.ContextVar('client_addr')

     def render_goodbye():
         # The address of the currently handled client can be accessed
         # without passing it explicitly to this function.

         client_addr = client_addr_var.get()
         return f'Good bye, client @ {client_addr}\r\n'.encode()

     async def handle_request(reader, writer):
         addr = writer.transport.get_extra_info('socket').getpeername()
         client_addr_var.set(addr)

         # In any code that we call, it is now possible to get the
         # client's address by calling 'client_addr_var.get()'.

         while True:
             line = await reader.readline()
             print(line)
             if not line.strip():
                 break

         writer.write(b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK\r\n')  # status line
         writer.write(b'\r\n')  # headers
         writer.write(render_goodbye())  # body
         writer.close()

     async def main():
         srv = await asyncio.start_server(
             handle_request, '127.0.0.1', 8081)

         async with srv:
             await srv.serve_forever()

     asyncio.run(main())

     # To test it you can use telnet or curl:
     #     telnet 127.0.0.1 8081
     #     curl 127.0.0.1:8081

The following are support modules for some of the above services:


File: python.info,  Node: _thread — Low-level threading API,  Prev: contextvars — Context Variables,  Up: Concurrent Execution

5.19.11 ‘_thread’ — Low-level threading API
-------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides low-level primitives for working with multiple
threads (also called 'light-weight processes' or 'tasks') — multiple
threads of control sharing their global data space.  For
synchronization, simple locks (also called 'mutexes' or 'binary
semaphores') are provided.  The *note threading: f6. module provides an
easier to use and higher-level threading API built on top of this
module.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: This module used to be optional, it is now
always available.

This module defines the following constants and functions:

 -- Εξαίρεση: _thread.error

     Raised on thread-specific errors.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: This is now a synonym of the built-in *note
     RuntimeError: 30d.

 -- Δεδομένα: _thread.LockType

     This is the type of lock objects.

 -- Συνάρτηση: _thread.start_new_thread (function, args[, kwargs])

     Start a new thread and return its identifier.  The thread executes
     the function 'function' with the argument list 'args' (which must
     be a tuple).  The optional 'kwargs' argument specifies a dictionary
     of keyword arguments.

     When the function returns, the thread silently exits.

     When the function terminates with an unhandled exception, *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 70c. is called to handle the exception.  The
     'object' attribute of the hook argument is 'function'.  By default,
     a stack trace is printed and then the thread exits (but other
     threads continue to run).

     When the function raises a *note SystemExit: 10f7. exception, it is
     silently ignored.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘_thread.start_new_thread’
     with arguments ‘function’, ‘args’, ‘kwargs’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: *note sys.unraisablehook(): 70c. is now
     used to handle unhandled exceptions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: _thread.interrupt_main (signum=signal.SIGINT, /)

     Simulate the effect of a signal arriving in the main thread.  A
     thread can use this function to interrupt the main thread, though
     there is no guarantee that the interruption will happen
     immediately.

     If given, 'signum' is the number of the signal to simulate.  If
     'signum' is not given, *note signal.SIGINT: 4df. is simulated.

     If the given signal isn’t handled by Python (it was set to *note
     signal.SIG_DFL: 1dac. or *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1dab.), this
     function does nothing.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The 'signum' argument is added to
     customize the signal number.

          Σημείωση: This does not emit the corresponding signal but
          schedules a call to the associated handler (if it exists).  If
          you want to truly emit the signal, use *note
          signal.raise_signal(): 1d8b.

 -- Συνάρτηση: _thread.exit ()

     Raise the *note SystemExit: 10f7. exception.  When not caught, this
     will cause the thread to exit silently.

 -- Συνάρτηση: _thread.allocate_lock ()

     Return a new lock object.  Methods of locks are described below.
     The lock is initially unlocked.

 -- Συνάρτηση: _thread.get_ident ()

     Return the “thread identifier” of the current thread.  This is a
     nonzero integer.  Its value has no direct meaning; it is intended
     as a magic cookie to be used e.g.  to index a dictionary of
     thread-specific data.  Thread identifiers may be recycled when a
     thread exits and another thread is created.

 -- Συνάρτηση: _thread.get_native_id ()

     Return the native integral Thread ID of the current thread assigned
     by the kernel.  This is a non-negative integer.  Its value may be
     used to uniquely identify this particular thread system-wide (until
     the thread terminates, after which the value may be recycled by the
     OS).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS,
     OpenBSD, NetBSD, AIX, DragonFlyBSD, GNU/kFreeBSD, Solaris.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added support for GNU/kFreeBSD.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added support for Solaris.

 -- Συνάρτηση: _thread.stack_size ([size])

     Return the thread stack size used when creating new threads.  The
     optional 'size' argument specifies the stack size to be used for
     subsequently created threads, and must be 0 (use platform or
     configured default) or a positive integer value of at least 32,768
     (32 KiB). If 'size' is not specified, 0 is used.  If changing the
     thread stack size is unsupported, a *note RuntimeError: 30d. is
     raised.  If the specified stack size is invalid, a *note
     ValueError: 277. is raised and the stack size is unmodified.  32
     KiB is currently the minimum supported stack size value to
     guarantee sufficient stack space for the interpreter itself.  Note
     that some platforms may have particular restrictions on values for
     the stack size, such as requiring a minimum stack size > 32 KiB or
     requiring allocation in multiples of the system memory page size -
     platform documentation should be referred to for more information
     (4 KiB pages are common; using multiples of 4096 for the stack size
     is the suggested approach in the absence of more specific
     information).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows, pthreads.

     Unix platforms with POSIX threads support.

 -- Δεδομένα: _thread.TIMEOUT_MAX

     The maximum value allowed for the 'timeout' parameter of *note
     Lock.acquire: a87.  Specifying a timeout greater than this value
     will raise an *note OverflowError: c57.

     Added in version 3.2.

Lock objects have the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: lock.acquire (blocking=True, timeout=-1)

     Without any optional argument, this method acquires the lock
     unconditionally, if necessary waiting until it is released by
     another thread (only one thread at a time can acquire a lock —
     that’s their reason for existence).

     If the 'blocking' argument is present, the action depends on its
     value: if it is false, the lock is only acquired if it can be
     acquired immediately without waiting, while if it is true, the lock
     is acquired unconditionally as above.

     If the floating-point 'timeout' argument is present and positive,
     it specifies the maximum wait time in seconds before returning.  A
     negative 'timeout' argument specifies an unbounded wait.  You
     cannot specify a 'timeout' if 'blocking' is false.

     The return value is ‘True’ if the lock is acquired successfully,
     ‘False’ if not.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The 'timeout' parameter is new.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Lock acquires can now be interrupted by
     signals on POSIX.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Lock acquires can now be interrupted by
     signals on Windows.

 -- Μέθοδος: lock.release ()

     Releases the lock.  The lock must have been acquired earlier, but
     not necessarily by the same thread.

 -- Μέθοδος: lock.locked ()

     Return the status of the lock: ‘True’ if it has been acquired by
     some thread, ‘False’ if not.

In addition to these methods, lock objects can also be used via the
*note with: 20a. statement, e.g.:

     import _thread

     a_lock = _thread.allocate_lock()

     with a_lock:
         print("a_lock is locked while this executes")

'Caveats:'

   * Interrupts always go to the main thread (the *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: d96. exception will be received by that thread.)

   * Calling *note sys.exit(): 4ff. or raising the *note SystemExit:
     10f7. exception is equivalent to calling *note _thread.exit():
     39ef.

   * When the main thread exits, it is system defined whether the other
     threads survive.  On most systems, they are killed without
     executing *note try: ad6. … *note finally: 44c. clauses or
     executing object destructors.


File: python.info,  Node: Networking and Interprocess Communication,  Next: Internet Data Handling,  Prev: Concurrent Execution,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.20 Networking and Interprocess Communication
==============================================

The modules described in this chapter provide mechanisms for networking
and inter-processes communication.

Some modules only work for two processes that are on the same machine,
e.g.  *note signal: ce. and *note mmap: 94.  Other modules support
networking protocols that two or more processes can use to communicate
across machines.

The list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* asyncio — Asynchronous I/O::
* socket — Low-level networking interface::
* ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects::
* select — Waiting for I/O completion::
* selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing::
* signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events::
* mmap — Memory-mapped file support::


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O,  Next: socket — Low-level networking interface,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.20.1 ‘asyncio’ — Asynchronous I/O
-----------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Hello World!
............

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         print('Hello ...')
         await asyncio.sleep(1)
         print('... World!')

     asyncio.run(main())

asyncio is a library to write 'concurrent' code using the 'async/await'
syntax.

asyncio is used as a foundation for multiple Python asynchronous
frameworks that provide high-performance network and web-servers,
database connection libraries, distributed task queues, etc.

asyncio is often a perfect fit for IO-bound and high-level 'structured'
network code.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note A conceptual overview of asyncio: 39fd.

     Explanation of the fundamentals of asyncio.

asyncio provides a set of 'high-level' APIs to:

   * *note run Python coroutines: 39fe. concurrently and have full
     control over their execution;

   * perform *note network IO and IPC: 19b0.;

   * control *note subprocesses: 39ff.;

   * distribute tasks via *note queues: 3a00.;

   * *note synchronize: 3a01. concurrent code;

Additionally, there are 'low-level' APIs for 'library and framework
developers' to:

   * create and manage *note event loops: 112f, which provide
     asynchronous APIs for *note networking: 3a02, running *note
     subprocesses: 3a03, handling *note OS signals: 3a04, etc;

   * implement efficient protocols using *note transports: 3a05.;

   * *note bridge: 3a06. callback-based libraries and code with
     async/await syntax.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

asyncio REPL
............

You can experiment with an ‘asyncio’ concurrent context in the *note
REPL: 69d.:

     $ python -m asyncio
     asyncio REPL ...
     Use "await" directly instead of "asyncio.run()".
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>> import asyncio
     >>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello')
     'hello'

This REPL provides limited compatibility with *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL:
452.  It is recommended that the default REPL is used for full
functionality and the latest features.

Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘cpython.run_stdin’ with no
arguments.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12.5: (also 3.11.10, 3.10.15, 3.9.20, and 3.8.20)
Emits audit events.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Uses PyREPL if possible, in which case *note
PYTHONSTARTUP: 453. is also executed.  Emits audit events.

Reference
.........

* Menu:

* Runners::
* Coroutines and tasks::
* Streams::
* Synchronization Primitives::
* Subprocesses::
* Ουρές::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<14>.
* Call Graph Introspection::
* Event loop::
* Futures::
* Transports and Protocols::
* Policies::
* Platform Support::
* Extending::
* High-level API Index::
* Low-level API Index::
* Developing with asyncio::


File: python.info,  Node: Runners,  Next: Coroutines and tasks,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.1 Runners
................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/runners.py(1)

This section outlines high-level asyncio primitives to run asyncio code.

They are built on top of an *note event loop: 112f. with the aim to
simplify async code usage for common wide-spread scenarios.

* Menu:

* Running an asyncio Program::
* Runner context manager::
* Handling Keyboard Interruption::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/runners.py


File: python.info,  Node: Running an asyncio Program,  Next: Runner context manager,  Up: Runners

5.20.1.2 Running an asyncio Program
...................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.run (coro, *, debug=None, loop_factory=None)

     Execute 'coro' in an asyncio event loop and return the result.

     The argument can be any awaitable object.

     This function runs the awaitable, taking care of managing the
     asyncio event loop, 'finalizing asynchronous generators', and
     closing the executor.

     This function cannot be called when another asyncio event loop is
     running in the same thread.

     If 'debug' is ‘True’, the event loop will be run in debug mode.
     ‘False’ disables debug mode explicitly.  ‘None’ is used to respect
     the global *note Debug Mode: 2328. settings.

     If 'loop_factory' is not ‘None’, it is used to create a new event
     loop; otherwise *note asyncio.new_event_loop(): 3a0b. is used.  The
     loop is closed at the end.  This function should be used as a main
     entry point for asyncio programs, and should ideally only be called
     once.  It is recommended to use 'loop_factory' to configure the
     event loop instead of policies.  Passing *note asyncio.EventLoop:
     1c6d. allows running asyncio without the policy system.

     The executor is given a timeout duration of 5 minutes to shutdown.
     If the executor hasn’t finished within that duration, a warning is
     emitted and the executor is closed.

     Example:

          async def main():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              print('hello')

          asyncio.run(main())

     Added in version 3.7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Updated to use *note
     loop.shutdown_default_executor(): cb8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: 'debug' is ‘None’ by default to respect
     the global debug mode settings.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added 'loop_factory' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: 'coro' can be any awaitable object.

          Σημείωση: The ‘asyncio’ policy system is deprecated and will
          be removed in Python 3.16; from there on, an explicit
          'loop_factory' is needed to configure the event loop.


File: python.info,  Node: Runner context manager,  Next: Handling Keyboard Interruption,  Prev: Running an asyncio Program,  Up: Runners

5.20.1.3 Runner context manager
...............................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.Runner (*, debug=None, loop_factory=None)

     A context manager that simplifies 'multiple' async function calls
     in the same context.

     Sometimes several top-level async functions should be called in the
     same *note event loop: 112f. and *note contextvars.Context: 421.

     If 'debug' is ‘True’, the event loop will be run in debug mode.
     ‘False’ disables debug mode explicitly.  ‘None’ is used to respect
     the global *note Debug Mode: 2328. settings.

     'loop_factory' could be used for overriding the loop creation.  It
     is the responsibility of the 'loop_factory' to set the created loop
     as the current one.  By default *note asyncio.new_event_loop():
     3a0b. is used and set as current event loop with *note
     asyncio.set_event_loop(): 1d53. if 'loop_factory' is ‘None’.

     Basically, *note asyncio.run(): 309. example can be rewritten with
     the runner usage:

          async def main():
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              print('hello')

          with asyncio.Runner() as runner:
              runner.run(main())

     Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: run (coro, *, context=None)

          Execute 'coro' in the embedded event loop.

          The argument can be any awaitable object.

          If the argument is a coroutine, it is wrapped in a Task.

          An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying
          a custom *note contextvars.Context: 421. for the code to run
          in.  The runner’s default context is used if context is
          ‘None’.

          Returns the awaitable’s result or raises an exception.

          This function cannot be called when another asyncio event loop
          is running in the same thread.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: 'coro' can be any awaitable object.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Close the runner.

          Finalize asynchronous generators, shutdown default executor,
          close the event loop and release embedded *note
          contextvars.Context: 421.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_loop ()

          Return the event loop associated with the runner instance.

          Σημείωση: ‘Runner’ uses the lazy initialization strategy, its
          constructor doesn’t initialize underlying low-level
          structures.

          Embedded 'loop' and 'context' are created at the *note with:
          20a. body entering or the first call of *note run(): 309. or
          *note get_loop(): 3a0e.


File: python.info,  Node: Handling Keyboard Interruption,  Prev: Runner context manager,  Up: Runners

5.20.1.4 Handling Keyboard Interruption
.......................................

Added in version 3.11.

When *note signal.SIGINT: 4df. is raised by ‘Ctrl’-‘C’, *note
KeyboardInterrupt: d96. exception is raised in the main thread by
default.  However this doesn’t work with *note asyncio: b. because it
can interrupt asyncio internals and can hang the program from exiting.

To mitigate this issue, *note asyncio: b. handles *note signal.SIGINT:
4df. as follows:

  1. *note asyncio.Runner.run(): 1b62. installs a custom *note
     signal.SIGINT: 4df. handler before any user code is executed and
     removes it when exiting from the function.

  2. The *note Runner: 30a. creates the main task for the passed
     coroutine for its execution.

  3. When *note signal.SIGINT: 4df. is raised by ‘Ctrl’-‘C’, the custom
     signal handler cancels the main task by calling *note
     asyncio.Task.cancel(): 6d9. which raises *note
     asyncio.CancelledError: 6da. inside the main task.  This causes the
     Python stack to unwind, ‘try/except’ and ‘try/finally’ blocks can
     be used for resource cleanup.  After the main task is cancelled,
     *note asyncio.Runner.run(): 1b62. raises *note KeyboardInterrupt:
     d96.

  4. A user could write a tight loop which cannot be interrupted by
     *note asyncio.Task.cancel(): 6d9, in which case the second
     following ‘Ctrl’-‘C’ immediately raises the *note
     KeyboardInterrupt: d96. without cancelling the main task.


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutines and tasks,  Next: Streams,  Prev: Runners,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.5 Coroutines and tasks
.............................

This section outlines high-level asyncio APIs to work with coroutines
and Tasks.

* Menu:

* Coroutines: Coroutines<3>.
* Awaitables::
* Creating tasks::
* Task cancellation::
* Task groups::
* Sleeping::
* Running tasks concurrently::
* Eager task factory::
* Shielding from cancellation::
* Timeouts::
* Waiting primitives::
* Running in threads::
* Scheduling from other threads::
* Introspection::
* Task object::


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutines<3>,  Next: Awaitables,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.6 Coroutines
...................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/coroutines.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

*note Coroutines: 8a2. declared with the async/await syntax is the
preferred way of writing asyncio applications.  For example, the
following snippet of code prints «hello», waits 1 second, and then
prints «world»:

     >>> import asyncio

     >>> async def main():
     ...     print('hello')
     ...     await asyncio.sleep(1)
     ...     print('world')

     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     hello
     world

Note that simply calling a coroutine will not schedule it to be
executed:

     >>> main()
     <coroutine object main at 0x1053bb7c8>

To actually run a coroutine, asyncio provides the following mechanisms:

   * The *note asyncio.run(): 309. function to run the top-level entry
     point «main()» function (see the above example.)

   * Awaiting on a coroutine.  The following snippet of code will print
     «hello» after waiting for 1 second, and then print «world» after
     waiting for 'another' 2 seconds:

          import asyncio
          import time

          async def say_after(delay, what):
              await asyncio.sleep(delay)
              print(what)

          async def main():
              print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              await say_after(1, 'hello')
              await say_after(2, 'world')

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

          asyncio.run(main())

     Expected output:

          started at 17:13:52
          hello
          world
          finished at 17:13:55

   * The *note asyncio.create_task(): 462. function to run coroutines
     concurrently as asyncio *note Tasks: 460.

     Let’s modify the above example and run two ‘say_after’ coroutines
     'concurrently':

          async def main():
              task1 = asyncio.create_task(
                  say_after(1, 'hello'))

              task2 = asyncio.create_task(
                  say_after(2, 'world'))

              print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              # Wait until both tasks are completed (should take
              # around 2 seconds.)
              await task1
              await task2

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

     Note that expected output now shows that the snippet runs 1 second
     faster than before:

          started at 17:14:32
          hello
          world
          finished at 17:14:34

   * The *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 6d7. class provides a more modern
     alternative to *note create_task(): 462.  Using this API, the last
     example becomes:

          async def main():
              async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
                  task1 = tg.create_task(
                      say_after(1, 'hello'))

                  task2 = tg.create_task(
                      say_after(2, 'world'))

                  print(f"started at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              # The await is implicit when the context manager exits.

              print(f"finished at {time.strftime('%X')}")

     The timing and output should be the same as for the previous
     version.

     Added in version 3.11: *note asyncio.TaskGroup: 6d7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/coroutines.py


File: python.info,  Node: Awaitables,  Next: Creating tasks,  Prev: Coroutines<3>,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.7 Awaitables
...................

We say that an object is an 'awaitable' object if it can be used in an
*note await: 432. expression.  Many asyncio APIs are designed to accept
awaitables.

There are three main types of 'awaitable' objects: 'coroutines',
'Tasks', and 'Futures'.

Coroutines
..........

Python coroutines are 'awaitables' and therefore can be awaited from
other coroutines:

     import asyncio

     async def nested():
         return 42

     async def main():
         # Nothing happens if we just call "nested()".
         # A coroutine object is created but not awaited,
         # so it *won't run at all*.
         nested()  # will raise a "RuntimeWarning".

         # Let's do it differently now and await it:
         print(await nested())  # will print "42".

     asyncio.run(main())

     Σημαντικό: In this documentation the term «coroutine» can be used
     for two closely related concepts:

        * a 'coroutine function': an *note async def: 9cf. function;

        * a 'coroutine object': an object returned by calling a
          'coroutine function'.

Tasks
.....

'Tasks' are used to schedule coroutines 'concurrently'.

When a coroutine is wrapped into a 'Task' with functions like *note
asyncio.create_task(): 462. the coroutine is automatically scheduled to
run soon:

     import asyncio

     async def nested():
         return 42

     async def main():
         # Schedule nested() to run soon concurrently
         # with "main()".
         task = asyncio.create_task(nested())

         # "task" can now be used to cancel "nested()", or
         # can simply be awaited to wait until it is complete:
         await task

     asyncio.run(main())

Futures
.......

A *note Future: f8b. is a special 'low-level' awaitable object that
represents an 'eventual result' of an asynchronous operation.

When a Future object is 'awaited' it means that the coroutine will wait
until the Future is resolved in some other place.

Future objects in asyncio are needed to allow callback-based code to be
used with async/await.

Normally 'there is no need' to create Future objects at the application
level code.

Future objects, sometimes exposed by libraries and some asyncio APIs,
can be awaited:

     async def main():
         await function_that_returns_a_future_object()

         # this is also valid:
         await asyncio.gather(
             function_that_returns_a_future_object(),
             some_python_coroutine()
         )

A good example of a low-level function that returns a Future object is
*note loop.run_in_executor(): cba.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating tasks,  Next: Task cancellation,  Prev: Awaitables,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.8 Creating tasks
.......................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/tasks.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None,
          eager_start=None, **kwargs)

     Wrap the 'coro' *note coroutine: 39fe. into a *note Task: 460. and
     schedule its execution.  Return the Task object.

     The full function signature is largely the same as that of the
     *note Task: 460. constructor (or factory) - all of the keyword
     arguments to this function are passed through to that interface.

     An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying a
     custom *note contextvars.Context: 421. for the 'coro' to run in.
     The current context copy is created when no 'context' is provided.

     An optional keyword-only 'eager_start' argument allows specifying
     if the task should execute eagerly during the call to create_task,
     or be scheduled later.  If 'eager_start' is not passed the mode set
     by *note loop.set_task_factory(): 461. will be used.

     The task is executed in the loop returned by *note
     get_running_loop(): ecf, *note RuntimeError: 30d. is raised if
     there is no running loop in current thread.

          Σημείωση: *note asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 464. is a new
          alternative leveraging structural concurrency; it allows for
          waiting for a group of related tasks with strong safety
          guarantees.

          Σημαντικό: Save a reference to the result of this function, to
          avoid a task disappearing mid-execution.  The event loop only
          keeps weak references to tasks.  A task that isn’t referenced
          elsewhere may get garbage collected at any time, even before
          it’s done.  For reliable «fire-and-forget» background tasks,
          gather them in a collection:

               background_tasks = set()

               for i in range(10):
                   task = asyncio.create_task(some_coro(param=i))

                   # Add task to the set. This creates a strong reference.
                   background_tasks.add(task)

                   # To prevent keeping references to finished tasks forever,
                   # make each task remove its own reference from the set after
                   # completion:
                   task.add_done_callback(background_tasks.discard)

     Added in version 3.7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the 'name' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'context' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added the 'eager_start' parameter by
     passing on all 'kwargs'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/tasks.py


File: python.info,  Node: Task cancellation,  Next: Task groups,  Prev: Creating tasks,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.9 Task cancellation
..........................

Tasks can easily and safely be cancelled.  When a task is cancelled,
*note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da. will be raised in the task at the
next opportunity.

It is recommended that coroutines use ‘try/finally’ blocks to robustly
perform clean-up logic.  In case *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da. is
explicitly caught, it should generally be propagated when clean-up is
complete.  ‘asyncio.CancelledError’ directly subclasses *note
BaseException: 9b9. so most code will not need to be aware of it.

The asyncio components that enable structured concurrency, like *note
asyncio.TaskGroup: 6d7. and *note asyncio.timeout(): 9f5, are
implemented using cancellation internally and might misbehave if a
coroutine swallows *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da.  Similarly, user
code should not generally call *note uncancel: 6dc.  However, in cases
when suppressing ‘asyncio.CancelledError’ is truly desired, it is
necessary to also call ‘uncancel()’ to completely remove the
cancellation state.


File: python.info,  Node: Task groups,  Next: Sleeping,  Prev: Task cancellation,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.10 Task groups
.....................

Task groups combine a task creation API with a convenient and reliable
way to wait for all tasks in the group to finish.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.TaskGroup

     An *note asynchronous context manager: 9f3. holding a group of
     tasks.  Tasks can be added to the group using *note create_task():
     462.  All tasks are awaited when the context manager exits.

     Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None,
               eager_start=None, **kwargs)

          Create a task in this task group.  The signature matches that
          of *note asyncio.create_task(): 462.  If the task group is
          inactive (e.g.  not yet entered, already finished, or in the
          process of shutting down), we will close the given ‘coro’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Close the given coroutine if the task
          group is not active.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Passes on all 'kwargs' to *note
          loop.create_task(): 463.

      -- Μέθοδος: cancel ()

          Cancel the task group.  This is a non-exceptional, early exit
          of the task group’s lifetime – useful once the group’s goal
          has been met or its services no longer needed.

          *note cancel(): 6d9. will be called on any tasks in the group
          that aren’t yet done, as well as the parent (body) of the
          group.  The task group context manager will exit 'without'
          *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da. being raised.

          If ‘cancel()’ is called before entering the task group, the
          group will be cancelled upon entry.  This is useful for
          patterns where one piece of code passes an unused *note
          asyncio.TaskGroup: 6d7. instance to another in order to have
          the ability to cancel anything run within the group.

          ‘cancel()’ is idempotent and may be called after the task
          group has already exited.

          Some ways to use ‘cancel()’:

             * call it from the task group body based on some condition
               or event

             * pass the task group instance to child tasks via *note
               create_task(): 462, allowing a child task to
               conditionally cancel the entire entire group

             * pass the task group instance or bound ‘cancel()’ method
               to some other task 'before' opening the task group,
               allowing remote cancellation

          Added in version 3.15.

Example:

     async def main():
         async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as tg:
             task1 = tg.create_task(some_coro(...))
             task2 = tg.create_task(another_coro(...))
         print(f"Both tasks have completed now: {task1.result()}, {task2.result()}")

The ‘async with’ statement will wait for all tasks in the group to
finish.  While waiting, new tasks may still be added to the group (for
example, by passing ‘tg’ into one of the coroutines and calling
‘tg.create_task()’ in that coroutine).  There is also opportunity to
request termination of the entire task group with ‘tg.cancel()’, based
on some condition.  Once the last task has finished and the ‘async with’
block is exited, no new tasks may be added to the group.

The first time any of the tasks belonging to the group fails with an
exception other than *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da, the remaining
tasks in the group are cancelled.  No further tasks can then be added to
the group.  At this point, if the body of the ‘async with’ statement is
still active (i.e., *note __aexit__(): 1bad. hasn’t been called yet),
the task directly containing the ‘async with’ statement is also
cancelled.  The resulting ‘asyncio.CancelledError’ will interrupt an
‘await’, but it will not bubble out of the containing ‘async with’
statement.

Once all tasks have finished, if any tasks have failed with an exception
other than *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da, those exceptions are
combined in an *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8. or *note BaseExceptionGroup:
767. (as appropriate; see their documentation) which is then raised.

Two base exceptions are treated specially: If any task fails with *note
KeyboardInterrupt: d96. or *note SystemExit: 10f7, the task group still
cancels the remaining tasks and waits for them, but then the initial
‘KeyboardInterrupt’ or ‘SystemExit’ is re-raised instead of *note
ExceptionGroup: 6d8. or *note BaseExceptionGroup: 767.

If the body of the ‘async with’ statement exits with an exception (so
*note __aexit__(): 1bad. is called with an exception set), this is
treated the same as if one of the tasks failed: the remaining tasks are
cancelled and then waited for, and non-cancellation exceptions are
grouped into an exception group and raised.  The exception passed into
‘__aexit__()’, unless it is *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da, is also
included in the exception group.  The same special case is made for
*note KeyboardInterrupt: d96. and *note SystemExit: 10f7. as in the
previous paragraph.

Task groups are careful not to mix up the internal cancellation used to
«wake up» their *note __aexit__(): 1bad. with cancellation requests for
the task in which they are running made by other parties.  In
particular, when one task group is syntactically nested in another, and
both experience an exception in one of their child tasks simultaneously,
the inner task group will process its exceptions, and then the outer
task group will receive another cancellation and process its own
exceptions.

In the case where a task group is cancelled externally and also must
raise an *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8, it will call the parent task’s *note
cancel(): 6d9. method.  This ensures that a *note
asyncio.CancelledError: 6da. will be raised at the next *note await:
432, so the cancellation is not lost.

Task groups preserve the cancellation count reported by *note
asyncio.Task.cancelling(): 6db.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Improved handling of simultaneous internal and
external cancellations and correct preservation of cancellation counts.


File: python.info,  Node: Sleeping,  Next: Running tasks concurrently,  Prev: Task groups,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.11 Sleeping
..................

 -- Συνάρτηση: async asyncio.sleep (delay, result=None)

     Block for 'delay' seconds.

     If 'result' is provided, it is returned to the caller when the
     coroutine completes.

     ‘sleep()’ always suspends the current task, allowing other tasks to
     run.

     Setting the delay to 0 provides an optimized path to allow other
     tasks to run.  This can be used by long-running functions to avoid
     blocking the event loop for the full duration of the function call.
     Example of coroutine displaying the current date every second for 5
     seconds:

          import asyncio
          import datetime as dt

          async def display_date():
              loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
              end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
              while True:
                  print(dt.datetime.now())
                  if (loop.time() + 1.0) >= end_time:
                      break
                  await asyncio.sleep(1)

          asyncio.run(display_date())

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Raises *note ValueError: 277. if 'delay'
     is *note nan: a53.


File: python.info,  Node: Running tasks concurrently,  Next: Eager task factory,  Prev: Sleeping,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.12 Running tasks concurrently
....................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: awaitable asyncio.gather (*aws, return_exceptions=False)

     Run *note awaitable objects: 3a14. in the 'aws' sequence
     'concurrently'.

     If any awaitable in 'aws' is a coroutine, it is automatically
     scheduled as a Task.

     If all awaitables are completed successfully, the result is an
     aggregate list of returned values.  The order of result values
     corresponds to the order of awaitables in 'aws'.

     If 'return_exceptions' is ‘False’ (default), the first raised
     exception is immediately propagated to the task that awaits on
     ‘gather()’.  Other awaitables in the 'aws' sequence 'won’t be
     cancelled' and will continue to run.

     If 'return_exceptions' is ‘True’, exceptions are treated the same
     as successful results, and aggregated in the result list.

     If ‘gather()’ is 'cancelled', all submitted awaitables (that have
     not completed yet) are also 'cancelled'.

     If any Task or Future from the 'aws' sequence is 'cancelled', it is
     treated as if it raised *note CancelledError: 6da. – the ‘gather()’
     call is 'not' cancelled in this case.  This is to prevent the
     cancellation of one submitted Task/Future to cause other
     Tasks/Futures to be cancelled.

          Σημείωση: A new alternative to create and run tasks
          concurrently and wait for their completion is *note
          asyncio.TaskGroup: 6d7.  'TaskGroup' provides stronger safety
          guarantees than 'gather' for scheduling a nesting of subtasks:
          if a task (or a subtask, a task scheduled by a task) raises an
          exception, 'TaskGroup' will, while 'gather' will not, cancel
          the remaining scheduled tasks.
     Example:

          import asyncio

          async def factorial(name, number):
              f = 1
              for i in range(2, number + 1):
                  print(f"Task {name}: Compute factorial({number}), currently i={i}...")
                  await asyncio.sleep(1)
                  f *= i
              print(f"Task {name}: factorial({number}) = {f}")
              return f

          async def main():
              # Schedule three calls *concurrently*:
              L = await asyncio.gather(
                  factorial("A", 2),
                  factorial("B", 3),
                  factorial("C", 4),
              )
              print(L)

          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          #     Task A: Compute factorial(2), currently i=2...
          #     Task B: Compute factorial(3), currently i=2...
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=2...
          #     Task A: factorial(2) = 2
          #     Task B: Compute factorial(3), currently i=3...
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=3...
          #     Task B: factorial(3) = 6
          #     Task C: Compute factorial(4), currently i=4...
          #     Task C: factorial(4) = 24
          #     [2, 6, 24]

          Σημείωση: If 'return_exceptions' is false, cancelling gather()
          after it has been marked done won’t cancel any submitted
          awaitables.  For instance, gather can be marked done after
          propagating an exception to the caller, therefore, calling
          ‘gather.cancel()’ after catching an exception (raised by one
          of the awaitables) from gather won’t cancel any other
          awaitables.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: If the 'gather' itself is cancelled, the
     cancellation is propagated regardless of 'return_exceptions'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: Deprecation warning is emitted if no
     positional arguments are provided or not all positional arguments
     are Future-like objects and there is no running event loop.


File: python.info,  Node: Eager task factory,  Next: Shielding from cancellation,  Prev: Running tasks concurrently,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.13 Eager task factory
............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.eager_task_factory (loop, coro, *, name=None,
          context=None)

     A task factory for eager task execution.

     When using this factory (via *note
     loop.set_task_factory(asyncio.eager_task_factory): 461.),
     coroutines begin execution synchronously during *note Task: 460.
     construction.  Tasks are only scheduled on the event loop if they
     block.  This can be a performance improvement as the overhead of
     loop scheduling is avoided for coroutines that complete
     synchronously.

     A common example where this is beneficial is coroutines which
     employ caching or memoization to avoid actual I/O when possible.

          Σημείωση: Immediate execution of the coroutine is a semantic
          change.  If the coroutine returns or raises, the task is never
          scheduled to the event loop.  If the coroutine execution
          blocks, the task is scheduled to the event loop.  This change
          may introduce behavior changes to existing applications.  For
          example, the application’s task execution order is likely to
          change.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.create_eager_task_factory
          (custom_task_constructor)

     Create an eager task factory, similar to *note
     eager_task_factory(): 88d, using the provided
     'custom_task_constructor' when creating a new task instead of the
     default *note Task: 460.

     'custom_task_constructor' must be a 'callable' with the signature
     matching the signature of *note Task.__init__: 460.  The callable
     must return a *note asyncio.Task: 460.-compatible object.

     This function returns a 'callable' intended to be used as a task
     factory of an event loop via *note loop.set_task_factory(factory):
     461.).

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Shielding from cancellation,  Next: Timeouts,  Prev: Eager task factory,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.14 Shielding from cancellation
.....................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: awaitable asyncio.shield (aw)

     Protect an *note awaitable object: 3a14. from being *note
     cancelled: 6d9.

     If 'aw' is a coroutine it is automatically scheduled as a Task.

     The statement:

          task = asyncio.create_task(something())
          res = await shield(task)

     is equivalent to:

          res = await something()

     'except' that if the coroutine containing it is cancelled, the Task
     running in ‘something()’ is not cancelled.  From the point of view
     of ‘something()’, the cancellation did not happen.  Although its
     caller is still cancelled, so the «await» expression still raises a
     *note CancelledError: 6da.

     If ‘something()’ is cancelled by other means (i.e.  from within
     itself) that would also cancel ‘shield()’.

     If it is desired to completely ignore cancellation (not
     recommended) the ‘shield()’ function should be combined with a
     try/except clause, as follows:

          task = asyncio.create_task(something())
          try:
              res = await shield(task)
          except CancelledError:
              res = None

          Σημαντικό: Save a reference to tasks passed to this function,
          to avoid a task disappearing mid-execution.  The event loop
          only keeps weak references to tasks.  A task that isn’t
          referenced elsewhere may get garbage collected at any time,
          even before it’s done.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: Deprecation warning is emitted if 'aw'
     is not Future-like object and there is no running event loop.


File: python.info,  Node: Timeouts,  Next: Waiting primitives,  Prev: Shielding from cancellation,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.15 Timeouts
..................

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.timeout (delay)

     Return an *note asynchronous context manager: 9f3. that can be used
     to limit the amount of time spent waiting on something.

     'delay' can either be ‘None’, or a float/int number of seconds to
     wait.  If 'delay' is ‘None’, no time limit will be applied; this
     can be useful if the delay is unknown when the context manager is
     created.

     In either case, the context manager can be rescheduled after
     creation using *note Timeout.reschedule(): 3a22.

     Example:

          async def main():
              async with asyncio.timeout(10):
                  await long_running_task()

     If ‘long_running_task’ takes more than 10 seconds to complete, the
     context manager will cancel the current task and handle the
     resulting *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da. internally,
     transforming it into a *note TimeoutError: c0e. which can be caught
     and handled.

          Σημείωση: The *note asyncio.timeout(): 9f5. context manager is
          what transforms the *note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da. into a
          *note TimeoutError: c0e, which means the ‘TimeoutError’ can
          only be caught 'outside' of the context manager.

     Example of catching *note TimeoutError: c0e.:

          async def main():
              try:
                  async with asyncio.timeout(10):
                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  print("The long operation timed out, but we've handled it.")

              print("This statement will run regardless.")

     The context manager produced by *note asyncio.timeout(): 9f5. can
     be rescheduled to a different deadline and inspected.

      -- Κλάση: asyncio.Timeout (when)

          An *note asynchronous context manager: 9f3. for cancelling
          overdue coroutines.

          Prefer using *note asyncio.timeout(): 9f5. or *note
          asyncio.timeout_at(): 1dad. rather than instantiating
          ‘Timeout’ directly.

          ‘when’ should be an absolute time at which the context should
          time out, as measured by the event loop’s clock:

             - If ‘when’ is ‘None’, the timeout will never trigger.

             - If ‘when < loop.time()’, the timeout will trigger on the
               next iteration of the event loop.

                -- Μέθοδος: when () -> float | None

                    Return the current deadline, or ‘None’ if the
                    current deadline is not set.

                -- Μέθοδος: reschedule (when: float | None)

                    Reschedule the timeout.

                -- Μέθοδος: expired () -> bool

                    Return whether the context manager has exceeded its
                    deadline (expired).

     Example:

          async def main():
              try:
                  # We do not know the timeout when starting, so we pass ``None``.
                  async with asyncio.timeout(None) as cm:
                      # We know the timeout now, so we reschedule it.
                      new_deadline = get_running_loop().time() + 10
                      cm.reschedule(new_deadline)

                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  pass

              if cm.expired():
                  print("Looks like we haven't finished on time.")

     Timeout context managers can be safely nested.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.timeout_at (when)

     Similar to *note asyncio.timeout(): 9f5, except 'when' is the
     absolute time to stop waiting, or ‘None’.

     Example:

          async def main():
              loop = get_running_loop()
              deadline = loop.time() + 20
              try:
                  async with asyncio.timeout_at(deadline):
                      await long_running_task()
              except TimeoutError:
                  print("The long operation timed out, but we've handled it.")

              print("This statement will run regardless.")

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: async asyncio.wait_for (aw, timeout)

     Wait for the 'aw' *note awaitable: 3a14. to complete with a
     timeout.

     If 'aw' is a coroutine it is automatically scheduled as a Task.

     'timeout' can either be ‘None’ or a float or int number of seconds
     to wait for.  If 'timeout' is ‘None’, block until the future
     completes.

     If a timeout occurs, it cancels the task and raises *note
     TimeoutError: c0e.

     To avoid the task *note cancellation: 6d9, wrap it in *note
     shield(): e34.

     The function will wait until the future is actually cancelled, so
     the total wait time may exceed the 'timeout'.  If an exception
     happens during cancellation, it is propagated.

     If the wait is cancelled, the future 'aw' is also cancelled.
     Example:

          async def eternity():
              # Sleep for one hour
              await asyncio.sleep(3600)
              print('yay!')

          async def main():
              # Wait for at most 1 second
              try:
                  await asyncio.wait_for(eternity(), timeout=1.0)
              except TimeoutError:
                  print('timeout!')

          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          #     timeout!

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: When 'aw' is cancelled due to a timeout,
     ‘wait_for’ waits for 'aw' to be cancelled.  Previously, it raised
     *note TimeoutError: c0e. immediately.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Raises *note TimeoutError: c0e. instead of
     *note asyncio.TimeoutError: 1cb8.


File: python.info,  Node: Waiting primitives,  Next: Running in threads,  Prev: Timeouts,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.16 Waiting primitives
............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: async asyncio.wait (aws, *, timeout=None,
          return_when=ALL_COMPLETED)

     Run *note Future: f8b. and *note Task: 460. instances in the 'aws'
     iterable concurrently and block until the condition specified by
     'return_when'.

     The 'aws' iterable must not be empty.

     Returns two sets of Tasks/Futures: ‘(done, pending)’.

     Usage:

          done, pending = await asyncio.wait(aws)

     'timeout' (a float or int), if specified, can be used to control
     the maximum number of seconds to wait before returning.

     Note that this function does not raise *note TimeoutError: c0e.
     Futures or Tasks that aren’t done when the timeout occurs are
     simply returned in the second set.

     'return_when' indicates when this function should return.  It must
     be one of the following constants:

     Constant                                               Description
                                                            
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- Δεδομένα: asyncio.FIRST_COMPLETED                  The function will return when any future finishes or
                                                            is cancelled.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Δεδομένα: asyncio.FIRST_EXCEPTION                  The function will return when any future finishes by
                                                            raising an exception.  If no future raises an
                                                            exception then it is equivalent to
                                                            *note ALL_COMPLETED: 3a29.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Δεδομένα: asyncio.ALL_COMPLETED                    The function will return when all futures finish or
                                                            are cancelled.
                                                            

     Unlike *note wait_for(): 9f6, ‘wait()’ does not cancel the futures
     when a timeout occurs.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Passing coroutine objects to ‘wait()’
     directly is forbidden.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added support for generators yielding
     tasks.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.as_completed (aws, *, timeout=None)

     Run *note awaitable objects: 3a14. in the 'aws' iterable
     concurrently.  The returned object can be iterated to obtain the
     results of the awaitables as they finish.

     The object returned by ‘as_completed()’ can be iterated as an *note
     asynchronous iterator: 6cd. or a plain *note iterator: 6ce.  When
     asynchronous iteration is used, the originally-supplied awaitables
     are yielded if they are tasks or futures.  This makes it easy to
     correlate previously-scheduled tasks with their results.  Example:

          ipv4_connect = create_task(open_connection("127.0.0.1", 80))
          ipv6_connect = create_task(open_connection("::1", 80))
          tasks = [ipv4_connect, ipv6_connect]

          async for earliest_connect in as_completed(tasks):
              # earliest_connect is done. The result can be obtained by
              # awaiting it or calling earliest_connect.result()
              reader, writer = await earliest_connect

              if earliest_connect is ipv6_connect:
                  print("IPv6 connection established.")
              else:
                  print("IPv4 connection established.")

     During asynchronous iteration, implicitly-created tasks will be
     yielded for supplied awaitables that aren’t tasks or futures.

     When used as a plain iterator, each iteration yields a new
     coroutine that returns the result or raises the exception of the
     next completed awaitable.  This pattern is compatible with Python
     versions older than 3.13:

          ipv4_connect = create_task(open_connection("127.0.0.1", 80))
          ipv6_connect = create_task(open_connection("::1", 80))
          tasks = [ipv4_connect, ipv6_connect]

          for next_connect in as_completed(tasks):
              # next_connect is not one of the original task objects. It must be
              # awaited to obtain the result value or raise the exception of the
              # awaitable that finishes next.
              reader, writer = await next_connect

     A *note TimeoutError: c0e. is raised if the timeout occurs before
     all awaitables are done.  This is raised by the ‘async for’ loop
     during asynchronous iteration or by the coroutines yielded during
     plain iteration.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: Deprecation warning is emitted if not
     all awaitable objects in the 'aws' iterable are Future-like objects
     and there is no running event loop.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added support for generators yielding
     tasks.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The result can now be used as either an
     *note asynchronous iterator: 6cd. or as a plain *note iterator:
     6ce. (previously it was only a plain iterator).


File: python.info,  Node: Running in threads,  Next: Scheduling from other threads,  Prev: Waiting primitives,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.17 Running in threads
............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: async asyncio.to_thread (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Asynchronously run function 'func' in a separate thread.

     Any *args and **kwargs supplied for this function are directly
     passed to 'func'.  Also, the current *note contextvars.Context:
     421. is propagated, allowing context variables from the event loop
     thread to be accessed in the separate thread.

     Return a coroutine that can be awaited to get the eventual result
     of 'func'.

     This coroutine function is primarily intended to be used for
     executing IO-bound functions/methods that would otherwise block the
     event loop if they were run in the main thread.  For example:

          def blocking_io():
              print(f"start blocking_io at {time.strftime('%X')}")
              # Note that time.sleep() can be replaced with any blocking
              # IO-bound operation, such as file operations.
              time.sleep(1)
              print(f"blocking_io complete at {time.strftime('%X')}")

          async def main():
              print(f"started main at {time.strftime('%X')}")

              await asyncio.gather(
                  asyncio.to_thread(blocking_io),
                  asyncio.sleep(1))

              print(f"finished main at {time.strftime('%X')}")


          asyncio.run(main())

          # Expected output:
          #
          # started main at 19:50:53
          # start blocking_io at 19:50:53
          # blocking_io complete at 19:50:54
          # finished main at 19:50:54

     Directly calling ‘blocking_io()’ in any coroutine would block the
     event loop for its duration, resulting in an additional 1 second of
     run time.  Instead, by using ‘asyncio.to_thread()’, we can run it
     in a separate thread without blocking the event loop.

          Σημείωση: Due to the *note GIL: 411, ‘asyncio.to_thread()’ can
          typically only be used to make IO-bound functions
          non-blocking.  However, for extension modules that release the
          GIL or alternative Python implementations that don’t have one,
          ‘asyncio.to_thread()’ can also be used for CPU-bound
          functions.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Scheduling from other threads,  Next: Introspection,  Prev: Running in threads,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.18 Scheduling from other threads
.......................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe (coro, loop)

     Submit a coroutine to the given event loop.  Thread-safe.

     Return a *note concurrent.futures.Future: 155b. to wait for the
     result from another OS thread.

     This function is meant to be called from a different OS thread than
     the one where the event loop is running.  Example:

          def in_thread(loop: asyncio.AbstractEventLoop) -> None:
              # Run some blocking IO
              pathlib.Path("example.txt").write_text("hello world", encoding="utf8")

              # Create a coroutine
              coro = asyncio.sleep(1, result=3)

              # Submit the coroutine to a given loop
              future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro, loop)

              # Wait for the result with an optional timeout argument
              assert future.result(timeout=2) == 3

          async def amain() -> None:
              # Get the running loop
              loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

              # Run something in a thread
              await asyncio.to_thread(in_thread, loop)

     It’s also possible to run the other way around.  Example:

          @contextlib.contextmanager
          def loop_in_thread() -> Generator[asyncio.AbstractEventLoop]:
              loop_fut = concurrent.futures.Future[asyncio.AbstractEventLoop]()
              stop_event = asyncio.Event()

              async def main() -> None:
                  loop_fut.set_result(asyncio.get_running_loop())
                  await stop_event.wait()

              with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(1) as tpe:
                  complete_fut = tpe.submit(asyncio.run, main())
                  for fut in concurrent.futures.as_completed((loop_fut, complete_fut)):
                      if fut is loop_fut:
                          loop = loop_fut.result()
                          try:
                              yield loop
                          finally:
                              loop.call_soon_threadsafe(stop_event.set)
                      else:
                          fut.result()

          # Create a loop in another thread
          with loop_in_thread() as loop:
              # Create a coroutine
              coro = asyncio.sleep(1, result=3)

              # Submit the coroutine to a given loop
              future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro, loop)

              # Wait for the result with an optional timeout argument
              assert future.result(timeout=2) == 3

     If an exception is raised in the coroutine, the returned Future
     will be notified.  It can also be used to cancel the task in the
     event loop:

          try:
              result = future.result(timeout)
          except TimeoutError:
              print('The coroutine took too long, cancelling the task...')
              future.cancel()
          except Exception as exc:
              print(f'The coroutine raised an exception: {exc!r}')
          else:
              print(f'The coroutine returned: {result!r}')

     See the *note concurrency and multithreading: 3a2c. section of the
     documentation.

     Unlike other asyncio functions this function requires the 'loop'
     argument to be passed explicitly.

     Added in version 3.5.1.


File: python.info,  Node: Introspection,  Next: Task object,  Prev: Scheduling from other threads,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.19 Introspection
.......................

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.current_task (loop=None)

     Return the currently running *note Task: 460. instance, or ‘None’
     if no task is running.

     If 'loop' is ‘None’ *note get_running_loop(): ecf. is used to get
     the current loop.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.all_tasks (loop=None)

     Return a set of not yet finished *note Task: 460. objects run by
     the loop.

     If 'loop' is ‘None’, *note get_running_loop(): ecf. is used for
     getting current loop.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.iscoroutine (obj)

     Return ‘True’ if 'obj' is a coroutine object.

     Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Task object,  Prev: Introspection,  Up: Coroutines and tasks

5.20.1.20 Task object
.....................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.Task (coro, *, loop=None, name=None, context=None,
          eager_start=False)

     A *note Future-like: f8b. object that runs a Python *note
     coroutine: 39fe.  Not thread-safe.

     Tasks are used to run coroutines in event loops.  If a coroutine
     awaits on a Future, the Task suspends the execution of the
     coroutine and waits for the completion of the Future.  When the
     Future is 'done', the execution of the wrapped coroutine resumes.

     Event loops use cooperative scheduling: an event loop runs one Task
     at a time.  While a Task awaits for the completion of a Future, the
     event loop runs other Tasks, callbacks, or performs IO operations.

     Use the high-level *note asyncio.create_task(): 462. function to
     create Tasks, or the low-level *note loop.create_task(): 463. or
     *note ensure_future(): 1035. functions.  Manual instantiation of
     Tasks is discouraged.

     To cancel a running Task use the *note cancel(): 6d9. method.
     Calling it will cause the Task to throw a *note CancelledError:
     6da. exception into the wrapped coroutine.  If a coroutine is
     awaiting on a future-like object during cancellation, the awaited
     object will be cancelled.

     *note cancelled(): 3a30. can be used to check if the Task was
     cancelled.  The method returns ‘True’ if the wrapped coroutine did
     not suppress the *note CancelledError: 6da. exception and was
     actually cancelled.

     *note asyncio.Task: 460. inherits from *note Future: f8b. all of
     its APIs except *note Future.set_result(): 3a31. and *note
     Future.set_exception(): 103c.

     An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying a
     custom *note contextvars.Context: 421. for the 'coro' to run in.
     If no 'context' is provided, the Task copies the current context
     and later runs its coroutine in the copied context.

     An optional keyword-only 'eager_start' argument allows eagerly
     starting the execution of the *note asyncio.Task: 460. at task
     creation time.  If set to ‘True’ and the event loop is running, the
     task will start executing the coroutine immediately, until the
     first time the coroutine blocks.  If the coroutine returns or
     raises without blocking, the task will be finished eagerly and will
     skip scheduling to the event loop.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added support for the *note contextvars:
     28. module.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the 'name' parameter.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: Deprecation warning is emitted if
     'loop' is not specified and there is no running event loop.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'context' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added the 'eager_start' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: done ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Task is 'done'.

          A Task is 'done' when the wrapped coroutine either returned a
          value, raised an exception, or the Task was cancelled.

      -- Μέθοδος: result ()

          Return the result of the Task.

          If the Task is 'done', the result of the wrapped coroutine is
          returned (or if the coroutine raised an exception, that
          exception is re-raised.)

          If the Task has been 'cancelled', this method raises a *note
          CancelledError: 6da. exception.

          If the Task’s result isn’t yet available, this method raises
          an *note InvalidStateError: 3a34. exception.

      -- Μέθοδος: exception ()

          Return the exception of the Task.

          If the wrapped coroutine raised an exception that exception is
          returned.  If the wrapped coroutine returned normally this
          method returns ‘None’.

          If the Task has been 'cancelled', this method raises a *note
          CancelledError: 6da. exception.

          If the Task isn’t 'done' yet, this method raises an *note
          InvalidStateError: 3a34. exception.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_done_callback (callback, *, context=None)

          Add a callback to be run when the Task is 'done'.

          This method should only be used in low-level callback-based
          code.

          See the documentation of *note Future.add_done_callback():
          ecc. for more details.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove_done_callback (callback)

          Remove 'callback' from the callbacks list.

          This method should only be used in low-level callback-based
          code.

          See the documentation of *note Future.remove_done_callback():
          1b2c. for more details.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_stack (*, limit=None)

          Return the list of stack frames for this Task.

          If the wrapped coroutine is not done, this returns the stack
          where it is suspended.  If the coroutine has completed
          successfully or was cancelled, this returns an empty list.  If
          the coroutine was terminated by an exception, this returns the
          list of traceback frames.

          The frames are always ordered from oldest to newest.

          Only one stack frame is returned for a suspended coroutine.

          The optional 'limit' argument sets the maximum number of
          frames to return; by default all available frames are
          returned.  The ordering of the returned list differs depending
          on whether a stack or a traceback is returned: the newest
          frames of a stack are returned, but the oldest frames of a
          traceback are returned.  (This matches the behavior of the
          traceback module.)

      -- Μέθοδος: print_stack (*, limit=None, file=None)

          Print the stack or traceback for this Task.

          This produces output similar to that of the traceback module
          for the frames retrieved by *note get_stack(): 3a38.

          The 'limit' argument is passed to *note get_stack(): 3a38.
          directly.

          The 'file' argument is an I/O stream to which the output is
          written; by default output is written to *note sys.stdout:
          e9c.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_coro ()

          Return the coroutine object wrapped by the ‘Task’.

               Σημείωση: This will return ‘None’ for Tasks which have
               already completed eagerly.  See the *note Eager Task
               Factory: 3a1e.

          Added in version 3.8.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Newly added eager task execution
          means result may be ‘None’.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_context ()

          Return the *note contextvars.Context: 421. object associated
          with the task.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_name ()

          Return the name of the Task.

          If no name has been explicitly assigned to the Task, the
          default asyncio Task implementation generates a default name
          during instantiation.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_name (value)

          Set the name of the Task.

          The 'value' argument can be any object, which is then
          converted to a string.

          In the default Task implementation, the name will be visible
          in the *note repr(): 45b. output of a task object.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: cancel (msg=None)

          Request the Task to be cancelled.

          If the Task is already 'done' or 'cancelled', return ‘False’,
          otherwise, return ‘True’.

          The method arranges for a *note CancelledError: 6da. exception
          to be thrown into the wrapped coroutine on the next cycle of
          the event loop.

          The coroutine then has a chance to clean up or even deny the
          request by suppressing the exception with a *note try: ad6. …
          … ‘except CancelledError’ … *note finally: 44c. block.
          Therefore, unlike *note Future.cancel(): 1da3, ‘Task.cancel()’
          does not guarantee that the Task will be cancelled, although
          suppressing cancellation completely is not common and is
          actively discouraged.  Should the coroutine nevertheless
          decide to suppress the cancellation, it needs to call *note
          Task.uncancel(): 6dc. in addition to catching the exception.

          If the Task being cancelled is currently awaiting on a
          future-like object, that awaited object will also be
          cancelled.  This cancellation propagates down the entire chain
          of awaited objects.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added the 'msg' parameter.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The ‘msg’ parameter is propagated
          from cancelled task to its awaiter.

          The following example illustrates how coroutines can intercept
          the cancellation request:

               async def cancel_me():
                   print('cancel_me(): before sleep')

                   try:
                       # Wait for 1 hour
                       await asyncio.sleep(3600)
                   except asyncio.CancelledError:
                       print('cancel_me(): cancel sleep')
                       raise
                   finally:
                       print('cancel_me(): after sleep')

               async def main():
                   # Create a "cancel_me" Task
                   task = asyncio.create_task(cancel_me())

                   # Wait for 1 second
                   await asyncio.sleep(1)

                   task.cancel()
                   try:
                       await task
                   except asyncio.CancelledError:
                       print("main(): cancel_me is cancelled now")

               asyncio.run(main())

               # Expected output:
               #
               #     cancel_me(): before sleep
               #     cancel_me(): cancel sleep
               #     cancel_me(): after sleep
               #     main(): cancel_me is cancelled now

      -- Μέθοδος: cancelled ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Task is 'cancelled'.

          The Task is 'cancelled' when the cancellation was requested
          with *note cancel(): 6d9. and the wrapped coroutine propagated
          the *note CancelledError: 6da. exception thrown into it.

      -- Μέθοδος: uncancel ()

          Decrement the count of cancellation requests to this Task.

          Returns the remaining number of cancellation requests.

          Note that once execution of a cancelled task completed,
          further calls to ‘uncancel()’ are ineffective.

          Added in version 3.11.

          This method is used by asyncio’s internals and isn’t expected
          to be used by end-user code.  In particular, if a Task gets
          successfully uncancelled, this allows for elements of
          structured concurrency like *note Task groups: 3a19. and *note
          asyncio.timeout(): 9f5. to continue running, isolating
          cancellation to the respective structured block.  For example:

               async def make_request_with_timeout():
                   try:
                       async with asyncio.timeout(1):
                           # Structured block affected by the timeout:
                           await make_request()
                           await make_another_request()
                   except TimeoutError:
                       log("There was a timeout")
                   # Outer code not affected by the timeout:
                   await unrelated_code()

          While the block with ‘make_request()’ and
          ‘make_another_request()’ might get cancelled due to the
          timeout, ‘unrelated_code()’ should continue running even in
          case of the timeout.  This is implemented with ‘uncancel()’.
          *note TaskGroup: 6d7. context managers use *note uncancel():
          6dc. in a similar fashion.

          If end-user code is, for some reason, suppressing cancellation
          by catching *note CancelledError: 6da, it needs to call this
          method to remove the cancellation state.

          When this method decrements the cancellation count to zero,
          the method checks if a previous *note cancel(): 6d9. call had
          arranged for *note CancelledError: 6da. to be thrown into the
          task.  If it hasn’t been thrown yet, that arrangement will be
          rescinded (by resetting the internal ‘_must_cancel’ flag).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Changed to rescind pending cancellation
     requests upon reaching zero.

      -- Μέθοδος: cancelling ()

          Return the number of pending cancellation requests to this
          Task, i.e., the number of calls to *note cancel(): 6d9. less
          the number of *note uncancel(): 6dc. calls.

          Note that if this number is greater than zero but the Task is
          still executing, *note cancelled(): 3a30. will still return
          ‘False’.  This is because this number can be lowered by
          calling *note uncancel(): 6dc, which can lead to the task not
          being cancelled after all if the cancellation requests go down
          to zero.

          This method is used by asyncio’s internals and isn’t expected
          to be used by end-user code.  See *note uncancel(): 6dc. for
          more details.

          Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Streams,  Next: Synchronization Primitives,  Prev: Coroutines and tasks,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.21 Streams
.................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/streams.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Streams are high-level async/await-ready primitives to work with network
connections.  Streams allow sending and receiving data without using
callbacks or low-level protocols and transports.  Here is an example of
a TCP echo client written using asyncio streams:

     import asyncio

     async def tcp_echo_client(message):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         print(f'Send: {message!r}')
         writer.write(message.encode())
         await writer.drain()

         data = await reader.read(100)
         print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')

         print('Close the connection')
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))

See also the *note Examples: 3a3f. section below.

Stream Functions
................

The following top-level asyncio functions can be used to create and work
with streams:

 -- Συνάρτηση: async asyncio.open_connection (host=None, port=None, *,
          limit=None, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None,
          local_addr=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None)

     Establish a network connection and return a pair of ‘(reader,
     writer)’ objects.

     The returned 'reader' and 'writer' objects are instances of *note
     StreamReader: 194a. and *note StreamWriter: 1c76. classes.

     'limit' determines the buffer size limit used by the returned *note
     StreamReader: 194a. instance.  By default the 'limit' is set to 64
     KiB.

     The rest of the arguments are passed directly to *note
     loop.create_connection(): 9f9.

          Σημείωση: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
          socket to the *note StreamWriter: 1c76. created.  To close the
          socket, call its *note close(): 3a40. method.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout'
     parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the 'happy_eyeballs_delay' and
     'interleave' parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout'
     parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: async asyncio.start_server (client_connected_cb,
          host=None, port=None, *, limit=None, family=socket.AF_UNSPEC,
          flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None, keep_alive=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     Start a socket server.

     The 'client_connected_cb' callback is called whenever a new client
     connection is established.  It receives a ‘(reader, writer)’ pair
     as two arguments, instances of the *note StreamReader: 194a. and
     *note StreamWriter: 1c76. classes.

     'client_connected_cb' can be a plain callable or a *note coroutine
     function: 39fe.; if it is a coroutine function, it will be
     automatically scheduled as a *note Task: 460.

     'limit' determines the buffer size limit used by the returned *note
     StreamReader: 194a. instance.  By default the 'limit' is set to 64
     KiB.

     The rest of the arguments are passed directly to *note
     loop.create_server(): ed7.

          Σημείωση: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
          socket to the server created.  To close the socket, call the
          server’s *note close(): 3a41. method.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout' and
     'start_serving' parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout'
     parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'keep_alive' parameter.

Unix Sockets
............

 -- Συνάρτηση: async asyncio.open_unix_connection (path=None, *,
          limit=None, ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     Establish a Unix socket connection and return a pair of ‘(reader,
     writer)’.

     Similar to *note open_connection(): edc. but operates on Unix
     sockets.

     See also the documentation of *note loop.create_unix_connection():
     3a43.

          Σημείωση: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
          socket to the *note StreamWriter: 1c76. created.  To close the
          socket, call its *note close(): 3a40. method.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout'
     parameter.  The 'path' parameter can now be a *note path-like
     object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout'
     parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: async asyncio.start_unix_server (client_connected_cb,
          path=None, *, limit=None, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True, cleanup_socket=True)

     Start a Unix socket server.

     Similar to *note start_server(): edd. but works with Unix sockets.

     If 'cleanup_socket' is true then the Unix socket will automatically
     be removed from the filesystem when the server is closed, unless
     the socket has been replaced after the server has been created.

     See also the documentation of *note loop.create_unix_server(): 6d0.

          Σημείωση: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
          socket to the server created.  To close the socket, call the
          server’s *note close(): 3a41. method.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout' and
     'start_serving' parameters.  The 'path' parameter can now be a
     *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout'
     parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'cleanup_socket' parameter.

* Menu:

* StreamReader::
* StreamWriter::
* Examples: Examples<13>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/streams.py


File: python.info,  Node: StreamReader,  Next: StreamWriter,  Up: Streams

5.20.1.22 StreamReader
......................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.StreamReader

     Represents a reader object that provides APIs to read data from the
     IO stream.  As an *note asynchronous iterable: 112d, the object
     supports the *note async for: e70. statement.

     It is not recommended to instantiate 'StreamReader' objects
     directly; use *note open_connection(): edc. and *note
     start_server(): edd. instead.

      -- Μέθοδος: feed_eof ()

          Acknowledge the EOF.

      -- Μέθοδος: async read (n=-1)

          Read up to 'n' bytes from the stream.

          If 'n' is not provided or set to ‘-1’, read until EOF, then
          return all read *note bytes: 1c7.  If EOF was received and the
          internal buffer is empty, return an empty ‘bytes’ object.

          If 'n' is ‘0’, return an empty ‘bytes’ object immediately.

          If 'n' is positive, return at most 'n' available ‘bytes’ as
          soon as at least 1 byte is available in the internal buffer.
          If EOF is received before any byte is read, return an empty
          ‘bytes’ object.

      -- Μέθοδος: async readline ()

          Read one line, where «line» is a sequence of bytes ending with
          ‘\n’.

          If EOF is received and ‘\n’ was not found, the method returns
          partially read data.

          If EOF is received and the internal buffer is empty, return an
          empty ‘bytes’ object.

      -- Μέθοδος: async readexactly (n)

          Read exactly 'n' bytes.

          Raise an *note IncompleteReadError: 1edd. if EOF is reached
          before 'n' can be read.  Use the *note
          IncompleteReadError.partial: 3a49. attribute to get the
          partially read data.

      -- Μέθοδος: async readuntil (separator=b'\n')

          Read data from the stream until 'separator' is found.

          On success, the data and separator will be removed from the
          internal buffer (consumed).  Returned data will include the
          separator at the end.

          If the amount of data read exceeds the configured stream
          limit, a *note LimitOverrunError: 3a4a. exception is raised,
          and the data is left in the internal buffer and can be read
          again.

          If EOF is reached before the complete separator is found, an
          *note IncompleteReadError: 1edd. exception is raised, and the
          internal buffer is reset.  The *note
          IncompleteReadError.partial: 3a49. attribute may contain a
          portion of the separator.

          The 'separator' may also be a tuple of separators.  In this
          case the return value will be the shortest possible that has
          any separator as the suffix.  For the purposes of *note
          LimitOverrunError: 3a4a, the shortest possible separator is
          considered to be the one that matched.

          Added in version 3.5.2.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'separator' parameter may now be
          a *note tuple: 1ce. of separators.

      -- Μέθοδος: at_eof ()

          Return ‘True’ if the buffer is empty and *note feed_eof():
          3a46. was called.


File: python.info,  Node: StreamWriter,  Next: Examples<13>,  Prev: StreamReader,  Up: Streams

5.20.1.23 StreamWriter
......................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.StreamWriter

     Represents a writer object that provides APIs to write data to the
     IO stream.

     It is not recommended to instantiate 'StreamWriter' objects
     directly; use *note open_connection(): edc. and *note
     start_server(): edd. instead.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (data)

          The method attempts to write the 'data' to the underlying
          socket immediately.  If that fails, the data is queued in an
          internal write buffer until it can be sent.

          The 'data' buffer should be a bytes, bytearray, or
          C-contiguous one-dimensional memoryview object.

          The method should be used along with the ‘drain()’ method:

               stream.write(data)
               await stream.drain()

      -- Μέθοδος: writelines (data)

          The method writes a list (or any iterable) of bytes to the
          underlying socket immediately.  If that fails, the data is
          queued in an internal write buffer until it can be sent.

          The method should be used along with the ‘drain()’ method:

               stream.writelines(lines)
               await stream.drain()

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          The method closes the stream and the underlying socket.

          The method should be used, though not mandatory, along with
          the ‘wait_closed()’ method:

               stream.close()
               await stream.wait_closed()

      -- Μέθοδος: can_write_eof ()

          Return ‘True’ if the underlying transport supports the *note
          write_eof(): 3a50. method, ‘False’ otherwise.

      -- Μέθοδος: write_eof ()

          Close the write end of the stream after the buffered write
          data is flushed.

      -- Ιδιότητα: transport

          Return the underlying asyncio transport.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_extra_info (name, default=None)

          Access optional transport information; see *note
          BaseTransport.get_extra_info(): e62. for details.

      -- Μέθοδος: async drain ()

          Wait until it is appropriate to resume writing to the stream.
          Example:

               writer.write(data)
               await writer.drain()

          This is a flow control method that interacts with the
          underlying IO write buffer.  When the size of the buffer
          reaches the high watermark, 'drain()' blocks until the size of
          the buffer is drained down to the low watermark and writing
          can be resumed.  When there is nothing to wait for, the
          ‘drain()’ returns immediately.

      -- Μέθοδος: async start_tls (sslcontext, *, server_hostname=None,
               ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

          Upgrade an existing stream-based connection to TLS.

          Parameters:

             * 'sslcontext': a configured instance of *note SSLContext:
               336.

             * 'server_hostname': sets or overrides the host name that
               the target server’s certificate will be matched against.

             * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait
               for the TLS handshake to complete before aborting the
               connection.  ‘60.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

             * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait for
               the SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the
               connection.  ‘30.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

          Added in version 3.11.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout'
          parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_closing ()

          Return ‘True’ if the stream is closed or in the process of
          being closed.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Μέθοδος: async wait_closed ()

          Wait until the stream is closed.

          Should be called after *note close(): 3a40. to wait until the
          underlying connection is closed, ensuring that all data has
          been flushed before e.g.  exiting the program.

          Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<13>,  Prev: StreamWriter,  Up: Streams

5.20.1.24 Examples
..................

* Menu:

* TCP echo client using streams::
* TCP echo server using streams::
* Get HTTP headers::
* Register an open socket to wait for data using streams::


File: python.info,  Node: TCP echo client using streams,  Next: TCP echo server using streams,  Up: Examples<13>

5.20.1.25 TCP echo client using streams
.......................................

TCP echo client using the *note asyncio.open_connection(): edc.
function:

     import asyncio

     async def tcp_echo_client(message):
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         print(f'Send: {message!r}')
         writer.write(message.encode())
         await writer.drain()

         data = await reader.read(100)
         print(f'Received: {data.decode()!r}')

         print('Close the connection')
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     asyncio.run(tcp_echo_client('Hello World!'))

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note TCP echo client protocol: 3a55. example uses the low-level
*note loop.create_connection(): 9f9. method.


File: python.info,  Node: TCP echo server using streams,  Next: Get HTTP headers,  Prev: TCP echo client using streams,  Up: Examples<13>

5.20.1.26 TCP echo server using streams
.......................................

TCP echo server using the *note asyncio.start_server(): edd. function:

     import asyncio

     async def handle_echo(reader, writer):
         data = await reader.read(100)
         message = data.decode()
         addr = writer.get_extra_info('peername')

         print(f"Received {message!r} from {addr!r}")

         print(f"Send: {message!r}")
         writer.write(data)
         await writer.drain()

         print("Close the connection")
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     async def main():
         server = await asyncio.start_server(
             handle_echo, '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         addrs = ', '.join(str(sock.getsockname()) for sock in server.sockets)
         print(f'Serving on {addrs}')

         async with server:
             await server.serve_forever()

     asyncio.run(main())

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note TCP echo server protocol: 3a58. example uses the *note
loop.create_server(): ed7. method.


File: python.info,  Node: Get HTTP headers,  Next: Register an open socket to wait for data using streams,  Prev: TCP echo server using streams,  Up: Examples<13>

5.20.1.27 Get HTTP headers
..........................

Simple example querying HTTP headers of the URL passed on the command
line:

     import asyncio
     import urllib.parse
     import sys

     async def print_http_headers(url):
         url = urllib.parse.urlsplit(url)
         if url.scheme == 'https':
             reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
                 url.hostname, 443, ssl=True)
         else:
             reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(
                 url.hostname, 80)

         query = (
             f"HEAD {url.path or '/'} HTTP/1.0\r\n"
             f"Host: {url.hostname}\r\n"
             f"\r\n"
         )

         writer.write(query.encode('latin-1'))
         while True:
             line = await reader.readline()
             if not line:
                 break

             line = line.decode('latin1').rstrip()
             if line:
                 print(f'HTTP header> {line}')

         # Ignore the body, close the socket
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

     url = sys.argv[1]
     asyncio.run(print_http_headers(url))

Usage:

     python example.py http://example.com/path/page.html

or with HTTPS:

     python example.py https://example.com/path/page.html


File: python.info,  Node: Register an open socket to wait for data using streams,  Prev: Get HTTP headers,  Up: Examples<13>

5.20.1.28 Register an open socket to wait for data using streams
................................................................

Coroutine waiting until a socket receives data using the *note
open_connection(): edc. function:

     import asyncio
     import socket

     async def wait_for_data():
         # Get a reference to the current event loop because
         # we want to access low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # Create a pair of connected sockets.
         rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()

         # Register the open socket to wait for data.
         reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(sock=rsock)

         # Simulate the reception of data from the network
         loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

         # Wait for data
         data = await reader.read(100)

         # Got data, we are done: close the socket
         print("Received:", data.decode())
         writer.close()
         await writer.wait_closed()

         # Close the second socket
         wsock.close()

     asyncio.run(wait_for_data())

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note register an open socket to wait for data using a protocol:
3a5c. example uses a low-level protocol and the *note
loop.create_connection(): 9f9. method.

The *note watch a file descriptor for read events: 3a5d. example uses
the low-level *note loop.add_reader(): 3a5e. method to watch a file
descriptor.


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronization Primitives,  Next: Subprocesses,  Prev: Streams,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.29 Synchronization Primitives
....................................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/locks.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

asyncio synchronization primitives are designed to be similar to those
of the *note threading: f6. module with two important caveats:

   * asyncio primitives are not thread-safe, therefore they should not
     be used for OS thread synchronization (use *note threading: f6. for
     that);

   * methods of these synchronization primitives do not accept the
     'timeout' argument; use the *note asyncio.wait_for(): 9f6. function
     to perform operations with timeouts.

asyncio has the following basic synchronization primitives:

   * *note Lock: e35.

   * *note Event: 56d.

   * *note Condition: e36.

   * *note Semaphore: e37.

   * *note BoundedSemaphore: e38.

   * *note Barrier: 9f7.

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Lock::
* Event::
* Condition::
* Semaphore::
* BoundedSemaphore::
* Barrier::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/locks.py


File: python.info,  Node: Lock,  Next: Event,  Up: Synchronization Primitives

5.20.1.30 Lock
..............

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.Lock

     Implements a mutex lock for asyncio tasks.  Not thread-safe.

     An asyncio lock can be used to guarantee exclusive access to a
     shared resource.

     The preferred way to use a Lock is an *note async with: 20b.
     statement:

          lock = asyncio.Lock()

          # ... later
          async with lock:
              # access shared state

     which is equivalent to:

          lock = asyncio.Lock()

          # ... later
          await lock.acquire()
          try:
              # access shared state
          finally:
              lock.release()

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: async acquire ()

          Acquire the lock.

          This method waits until the lock is 'unlocked', sets it to
          'locked' and returns ‘True’.

          When more than one coroutine is blocked in ‘acquire()’ waiting
          for the lock to be unlocked, only one coroutine eventually
          proceeds.

          Acquiring a lock is 'fair': the coroutine that proceeds will
          be the first coroutine that started waiting on the lock.

      -- Μέθοδος: release ()

          Release the lock.

          When the lock is 'locked', reset it to 'unlocked' and return.

          If the lock is 'unlocked', a *note RuntimeError: 30d. is
          raised.

      -- Μέθοδος: locked ()

          Return ‘True’ if the lock is 'locked'.


File: python.info,  Node: Event,  Next: Condition,  Prev: Lock,  Up: Synchronization Primitives

5.20.1.31 Event
...............

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.Event

     An event object.  Not thread-safe.

     An asyncio event can be used to notify multiple asyncio tasks that
     some event has happened.

     An Event object manages an internal flag that can be set to 'true'
     with the *note set(): 3a67. method and reset to 'false' with the
     *note clear(): 3a68. method.  The *note wait(): 3a69. method blocks
     until the flag is set to 'true'.  The flag is set to 'false'
     initially.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Example:

          async def waiter(event):
              print('waiting for it ...')
              await event.wait()
              print('... got it!')

          async def main():
              # Create an Event object.
              event = asyncio.Event()

              # Spawn a Task to wait until 'event' is set.
              waiter_task = asyncio.create_task(waiter(event))

              # Sleep for 1 second and set the event.
              await asyncio.sleep(1)
              event.set()

              # Wait until the waiter task is finished.
              await waiter_task

          asyncio.run(main())

      -- Μέθοδος: async wait ()

          Wait until the event is set.

          If the event is set, return ‘True’ immediately.  Otherwise
          block until another task calls *note set(): 3a67.

      -- Μέθοδος: set ()

          Set the event.

          All tasks waiting for event to be set will be immediately
          awakened.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear ()

          Clear (unset) the event.

          Subsequent tasks awaiting on *note wait(): 3a69. will now
          block until the *note set(): 3a67. method is called again.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_set ()

          Return ‘True’ if the event is set.


File: python.info,  Node: Condition,  Next: Semaphore,  Prev: Event,  Up: Synchronization Primitives

5.20.1.32 Condition
...................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.Condition (lock=None)

     A Condition object.  Not thread-safe.

     An asyncio condition primitive can be used by a task to wait for
     some event to happen and then get exclusive access to a shared
     resource.

     In essence, a Condition object combines the functionality of an
     *note Event: 56d. and a *note Lock: e35.  It is possible to have
     multiple Condition objects share one Lock, which allows
     coordinating exclusive access to a shared resource between
     different tasks interested in particular states of that shared
     resource.

     The optional 'lock' argument must be a *note Lock: e35. object or
     ‘None’.  In the latter case a new Lock object is created
     automatically.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     The preferred way to use a Condition is an *note async with: 20b.
     statement:

          cond = asyncio.Condition()

          # ... later
          async with cond:
              await cond.wait()

     which is equivalent to:

          cond = asyncio.Condition()

          # ... later
          await cond.acquire()
          try:
              await cond.wait()
          finally:
              cond.release()

      -- Μέθοδος: async acquire ()

          Acquire the underlying lock.

          This method waits until the underlying lock is 'unlocked',
          sets it to 'locked' and returns ‘True’.

      -- Μέθοδος: notify (n=1)

          Wake up 'n' tasks (1 by default) waiting on this condition.
          If fewer than 'n' tasks are waiting they are all awakened.

          The lock must be acquired before this method is called and
          released shortly after.  If called with an 'unlocked' lock a
          *note RuntimeError: 30d. error is raised.

      -- Μέθοδος: locked ()

          Return ‘True’ if the underlying lock is acquired.

      -- Μέθοδος: notify_all ()

          Wake up all tasks waiting on this condition.

          This method acts like *note notify(): 1bff, but wakes up all
          waiting tasks.

          The lock must be acquired before this method is called and
          released shortly after.  If called with an 'unlocked' lock a
          *note RuntimeError: 30d. error is raised.

      -- Μέθοδος: release ()

          Release the underlying lock.

          When invoked on an unlocked lock, a *note RuntimeError: 30d.
          is raised.

      -- Μέθοδος: async wait ()

          Wait until notified.

          If the calling task has not acquired the lock when this method
          is called, a *note RuntimeError: 30d. is raised.

          This method releases the underlying lock, and then blocks
          until it is awakened by a *note notify(): 1bff. or *note
          notify_all(): 3a6f. call.  Once awakened, the Condition
          re-acquires its lock and this method returns ‘True’.

          Note that a task 'may' return from this call spuriously, which
          is why the caller should always re-check the state and be
          prepared to ‘wait()’ again.  For this reason, you may prefer
          to use *note wait_for(): 3a71. instead.

      -- Μέθοδος: async wait_for (predicate)

          Wait until a predicate becomes 'true'.

          The predicate must be a callable which result will be
          interpreted as a boolean value.  The method will repeatedly
          *note wait(): 1c28. until the predicate evaluates to 'true'.
          The final value is the return value.


File: python.info,  Node: Semaphore,  Next: BoundedSemaphore,  Prev: Condition,  Up: Synchronization Primitives

5.20.1.33 Semaphore
...................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.Semaphore (value=1)

     A Semaphore object.  Not thread-safe.

     A semaphore manages an internal counter which is decremented by
     each *note acquire(): 1c29. call and incremented by each *note
     release(): 3a73. call.  The counter can never go below zero; when
     ‘acquire()’ finds that it is zero, it blocks, waiting until some
     task calls ‘release()’.

     The optional 'value' argument gives the initial value for the
     internal counter (‘1’ by default).  If the given value is less than
     ‘0’ a *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     The preferred way to use a Semaphore is an *note async with: 20b.
     statement:

          sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)

          # ... later
          async with sem:
              # work with shared resource

     which is equivalent to:

          sem = asyncio.Semaphore(10)

          # ... later
          await sem.acquire()
          try:
              # work with shared resource
          finally:
              sem.release()

      -- Μέθοδος: async acquire ()

          Acquire a semaphore.

          If the internal counter is greater than zero, decrement it by
          one and return ‘True’ immediately.  If it is zero, wait until
          a *note release(): 3a73. is called and return ‘True’.

      -- Μέθοδος: locked ()

          Returns ‘True’ if semaphore can not be acquired immediately.

      -- Μέθοδος: release ()

          Release a semaphore, incrementing the internal counter by one.
          Can wake up a task waiting to acquire the semaphore.

          Unlike *note BoundedSemaphore: e38, ‘Semaphore’ allows making
          more ‘release()’ calls than ‘acquire()’ calls.


File: python.info,  Node: BoundedSemaphore,  Next: Barrier,  Prev: Semaphore,  Up: Synchronization Primitives

5.20.1.34 BoundedSemaphore
..........................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.BoundedSemaphore (value=1)

     A bounded semaphore object.  Not thread-safe.

     Bounded Semaphore is a version of *note Semaphore: e37. that raises
     a *note ValueError: 277. in *note release(): 3a73. if it increases
     the internal counter above the initial 'value'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Barrier,  Prev: BoundedSemaphore,  Up: Synchronization Primitives

5.20.1.35 Barrier
.................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.Barrier (parties)

     A barrier object.  Not thread-safe.

     A barrier is a simple synchronization primitive that allows to
     block until 'parties' number of tasks are waiting on it.  Tasks can
     wait on the *note wait(): 3a77. method and would be blocked until
     the specified number of tasks end up waiting on ‘wait()’.  At that
     point all of the waiting tasks would unblock simultaneously.

     *note async with: 20b. can be used as an alternative to awaiting on
     *note wait(): 3a77.

     The barrier can be reused any number of times.  Example:

          async def example_barrier():
             # barrier with 3 parties
             b = asyncio.Barrier(3)

             # create 2 new waiting tasks
             asyncio.create_task(b.wait())
             asyncio.create_task(b.wait())

             await asyncio.sleep(0)
             print(b)

             # The third .wait() call passes the barrier
             await b.wait()
             print(b)
             print("barrier passed")

             await asyncio.sleep(0)
             print(b)

          asyncio.run(example_barrier())

     Result of this example is:

          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [filling, waiters:2/3]>
          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [draining, waiters:0/3]>
          barrier passed
          <asyncio.locks.Barrier object at 0x... [filling, waiters:0/3]>

     Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: async wait ()

          Pass the barrier.  When all the tasks party to the barrier
          have called this function, they are all unblocked
          simultaneously.

          When a waiting or blocked task in the barrier is cancelled,
          this task exits the barrier which stays in the same state.  If
          the state of the barrier is «filling», the number of waiting
          task decreases by 1.

          The return value is an integer in the range of 0 to
          ‘parties-1’, different for each task.  This can be used to
          select a task to do some special housekeeping, e.g.:

               ...
               async with barrier as position:
                  if position == 0:
                     # Only one task prints this
                     print('End of *draining phase*')

          This method may raise a *note BrokenBarrierError: 9f8.
          exception if the barrier is broken or reset while a task is
          waiting.  It could raise a *note CancelledError: 6da. if a
          task is cancelled.

      -- Μέθοδος: async reset ()

          Return the barrier to the default, empty state.  Any tasks
          waiting on it will receive the *note BrokenBarrierError: 9f8.
          exception.

          If a barrier is broken it may be better to just leave it and
          create a new one.

      -- Μέθοδος: async abort ()

          Put the barrier into a broken state.  This causes any active
          or future calls to *note wait(): 3a77. to fail with the *note
          BrokenBarrierError: 9f8.  Use this for example if one of the
          tasks needs to abort, to avoid infinite waiting tasks.

      -- Ιδιότητα: parties

          The number of tasks required to pass the barrier.

      -- Ιδιότητα: n_waiting

          The number of tasks currently waiting in the barrier while
          filling.

      -- Ιδιότητα: broken

          A boolean that is ‘True’ if the barrier is in the broken
          state.

 -- Εξαίρεση: asyncio.BrokenBarrierError

     This exception, a subclass of *note RuntimeError: 30d, is raised
     when the *note Barrier: 9f7. object is reset or broken.

__________________________________________________________________

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Acquiring a lock using ‘await lock’ or ‘yield
from lock’ and/or *note with: 20a. statement (‘with await lock’, ‘with
(yield from lock)’) was removed.  Use ‘async with lock’ instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocesses,  Next: Ουρές,  Prev: Synchronization Primitives,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.36 Subprocesses
......................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/subprocess.py(1),
Lib/asyncio/base_subprocess.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

This section describes high-level async/await asyncio APIs to create and
manage subprocesses.  Here’s an example of how asyncio can run a shell
command and obtain its result:

     import asyncio

     async def run(cmd):
         proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(
             cmd,
             stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE,
             stderr=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)

         stdout, stderr = await proc.communicate()

         print(f'[{cmd!r} exited with {proc.returncode}]')
         if stdout:
             print(f'[stdout]\n{stdout.decode()}')
         if stderr:
             print(f'[stderr]\n{stderr.decode()}')

     asyncio.run(run('ls /zzz'))

will print:

     ['ls /zzz' exited with 1]
     [stderr]
     ls: /zzz: No such file or directory

Because all asyncio subprocess functions are asynchronous and asyncio
provides many tools to work with such functions, it is easy to execute
and monitor multiple subprocesses in parallel.  It is indeed trivial to
modify the above example to run several commands simultaneously:

     async def main():
         await asyncio.gather(
             run('ls /zzz'),
             run('sleep 1; echo "hello"'))

     asyncio.run(main())

See also the *note Examples: 3a82. subsection.

* Menu:

* Creating Subprocesses::
* Constants: Constants<7>.
* Interacting with Subprocesses::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/subprocess.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/base_subprocess.py


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Subprocesses,  Next: Constants<7>,  Up: Subprocesses

5.20.1.37 Creating Subprocesses
...............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: async asyncio.create_subprocess_exec (program, *args,
          stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)

     Create a subprocess.

     The 'limit' argument sets the buffer limit for *note StreamReader:
     194a. wrappers for *note stdout: 3a84. and *note stderr: 3a85. (if
     *note subprocess.PIPE: f46. is passed to 'stdout' and 'stderr'
     arguments).

     Return a *note Process: 3a86. instance.

     See the documentation of *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3a87. for
     other parameters.

     If the process object is garbage collected while the process is
     still running, the child process will be killed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: async asyncio.create_subprocess_shell (cmd, stdin=None,
          stdout=None, stderr=None, limit=None, **kwds)

     Run the 'cmd' shell command.

     The 'limit' argument sets the buffer limit for *note StreamReader:
     194a. wrappers for *note stdout: 3a84. and *note stderr: 3a85. (if
     *note subprocess.PIPE: f46. is passed to 'stdout' and 'stderr'
     arguments).

     Return a *note Process: 3a86. instance.

     See the documentation of *note loop.subprocess_shell(): 3a88. for
     other parameters.

     If the process object is garbage collected while the process is
     still running, the child process will be killed.

          Σημαντικό: It is the application’s responsibility to ensure
          that all whitespace and special characters are quoted
          appropriately to avoid shell injection(1) vulnerabilities.
          The *note shlex.quote(): 781. function can be used to properly
          escape whitespace and special shell characters in strings that
          are going to be used to construct shell commands.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Removed the 'loop' parameter.

     Σημείωση: Subprocesses are available for Windows if a *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 9fe. is used.  See *note Subprocess Support on
     Windows: 3a89. for details.

Δείτε επίσης
............

asyncio also has the following 'low-level' APIs to work with
subprocesses: *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3a87, *note
loop.subprocess_shell(): 3a88, *note loop.connect_read_pipe(): 3a8a,
*note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 3a8b, as well as the *note Subprocess
Transports: 3a8c. and *note Subprocess Protocols: 3a8d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<7>,  Next: Interacting with Subprocesses,  Prev: Creating Subprocesses,  Up: Subprocesses

5.20.1.38 Constants
...................

 -- Δεδομένα: asyncio.subprocess.PIPE

     Can be passed to the 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr' parameters.

     If 'PIPE' is passed to 'stdin' argument, the *note Process.stdin:
     3a90. attribute will point to a *note StreamWriter: 1c76. instance.

     If 'PIPE' is passed to 'stdout' or 'stderr' arguments, the *note
     Process.stdout: 3a84. and *note Process.stderr: 3a85. attributes
     will point to *note StreamReader: 194a. instances.

 -- Δεδομένα: asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT

     Special value that can be used as the 'stderr' argument and
     indicates that standard error should be redirected into standard
     output.

 -- Δεδομένα: asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL

     Special value that can be used as the 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'
     argument to process creation functions.  It indicates that the
     special file *note os.devnull: 2002. will be used for the
     corresponding subprocess stream.


File: python.info,  Node: Interacting with Subprocesses,  Prev: Constants<7>,  Up: Subprocesses

5.20.1.39 Interacting with Subprocesses
.......................................

Both *note create_subprocess_exec(): e3a. and *note
create_subprocess_shell(): e3b. functions return instances of the
'Process' class.  'Process' is a high-level wrapper that allows
communicating with subprocesses and watching for their completion.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.subprocess.Process

     An object that wraps OS processes created by the *note
     create_subprocess_exec(): e3a. and *note create_subprocess_shell():
     e3b. functions.

     This class is designed to have a similar API to the *note
     subprocess.Popen: 6bf. class, but there are some notable
     differences:

        * unlike Popen, Process instances do not have an equivalent to
          the *note poll(): 399f. method;

        * the *note communicate(): 1ca2. and *note wait(): 3a94. methods
          don’t have a 'timeout' parameter: use the *note wait_for():
          9f6. function;

        * the *note Process.wait(): 3a94. method is asynchronous,
          whereas *note subprocess.Popen.wait(): 266. method is
          implemented as a blocking busy loop;

        * the 'universal_newlines' parameter is not supported.

     This class is *note not thread safe: 3a2c.

     See also the *note Subprocess and Threads: 3a95. section.

      -- Μέθοδος: async wait ()

          Wait for the child process to terminate.

          Set and return the *note returncode: 3a96. attribute.

               Σημείωση: This method can deadlock when using
               ‘stdout=PIPE’ or ‘stderr=PIPE’ and the child process
               generates so much output that it blocks waiting for the
               OS pipe buffer to accept more data.  Use the *note
               communicate(): 1ca2. method when using pipes to avoid
               this condition.

      -- Μέθοδος: async communicate (input=None)

          Interact with process:

            1. send data to 'stdin' (if 'input' is not ‘None’);

            2. closes 'stdin';

            3. read data from 'stdout' and 'stderr', until EOF is
               reached;

            4. wait for process to terminate.

          The optional 'input' argument is the data (*note bytes: 1c7.
          object) that will be sent to the child process.

          Return a tuple ‘(stdout_data, stderr_data)’.

          If either *note BrokenPipeError: 1404. or *note
          ConnectionResetError: 1407. exception is raised when writing
          'input' into 'stdin', the exception is ignored.  This
          condition occurs when the process exits before all data are
          written into 'stdin'.

          If it is desired to send data to the process” 'stdin', the
          process needs to be created with ‘stdin=PIPE’.  Similarly, to
          get anything other than ‘None’ in the result tuple, the
          process has to be created with ‘stdout=PIPE’ and/or
          ‘stderr=PIPE’ arguments.

          Note, that the data read is buffered in memory, so do not use
          this method if the data size is large or unlimited.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: 'stdin' gets closed when ‘input=None’
          too.

      -- Μέθοδος: send_signal (signal)

          Sends the signal 'signal' to the child process.

               Σημείωση: On Windows, *note SIGTERM: 1782. is an alias
               for *note terminate(): 3a97.  ‘CTRL_C_EVENT’ and
               ‘CTRL_BREAK_EVENT’ can be sent to processes started with
               a 'creationflags' parameter which includes
               ‘CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP’.

      -- Μέθοδος: terminate ()

          Stop the child process.

          On POSIX systems this method sends *note SIGTERM: 1782. to the
          child process.

          On Windows the Win32 API function ‘TerminateProcess()’ is
          called to stop the child process.

      -- Μέθοδος: kill ()

          Kill the child process.

          On POSIX systems this method sends *note SIGKILL: f16. to the
          child process.

          On Windows this method is an alias for *note terminate():
          3a97.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stdin

          Standard input stream (*note StreamWriter: 1c76.) or ‘None’ if
          the process was created with ‘stdin=None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stdout

          Standard output stream (*note StreamReader: 194a.) or ‘None’
          if the process was created with ‘stdout=None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stderr

          Standard error stream (*note StreamReader: 194a.) or ‘None’ if
          the process was created with ‘stderr=None’.

          Προειδοποίηση: Use the *note communicate(): 1ca2. method
          rather than *note process.stdin.write(): 3a90, *note await
          process.stdout.read(): 3a84. or *note await
          process.stderr.read(): 3a85.  This avoids deadlocks due to
          streams pausing reading or writing and blocking the child
          process.

      -- Ιδιότητα: pid

          Process identification number (PID).

          Note that for processes created by the *note
          create_subprocess_shell(): e3b. function, this attribute is
          the PID of the spawned shell.

      -- Ιδιότητα: returncode

          Return code of the process when it exits.

          A ‘None’ value indicates that the process has not terminated
          yet.

          For processes created with *note create_subprocess_exec():
          e3a, a negative value ‘-N’ indicates that the child was
          terminated by signal ‘N’ (POSIX only).

          For processes created with *note create_subprocess_shell():
          e3b, the return code reflects the exit status of the shell
          itself (e.g.  ‘/bin/sh’), which may map signals to codes such
          as ‘128+N’.  See the documentation of the shell (for example,
          the Bash manual’s Exit Status) for details.

* Menu:

* Subprocess and Threads::
* Examples: Examples<14>.


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocess and Threads,  Next: Examples<14>,  Up: Interacting with Subprocesses

5.20.1.40 Subprocess and Threads
................................

Standard asyncio event loop supports running subprocesses from different
threads by default.

On Windows subprocesses are provided by *note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe.
only (default), *note SelectorEventLoop: 30b. has no subprocess support.

Note that alternative event loop implementations might have own
limitations; please refer to their documentation.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note Concurrency and multithreading in asyncio: 3a2c. section.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<14>,  Prev: Subprocess and Threads,  Up: Interacting with Subprocesses

5.20.1.41 Examples
..................

An example using the *note Process: 3a86. class to control a subprocess
and the *note StreamReader: 194a. class to read from its standard
output.  The subprocess is created by the *note
create_subprocess_exec(): e3a. function:

     import asyncio
     import sys

     async def get_date():
         code = 'import datetime as dt; print(dt.datetime.now())'

         # Create the subprocess; redirect the standard output
         # into a pipe.
         proc = await asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(
             sys.executable, '-c', code,
             stdout=asyncio.subprocess.PIPE)

         # Read one line of output.
         data = await proc.stdout.readline()
         line = data.decode('ascii').rstrip()

         # Wait for the subprocess exit.
         await proc.wait()
         return line

     date = asyncio.run(get_date())
     print(f"Current date: {date}")

See also the *note same example: 3a9c. written using low-level APIs.


File: python.info,  Node: Ουρές,  Next: Exceptions<14>,  Prev: Subprocesses,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.42 Ουρές
...............

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/asyncio/queues.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Οι ουρές asyncio έχουν σχεδιαστεί ώστε να μοιάζουν με τις κλάσεις του
module *note queue: be.  Αν και οι ουρές asyncio δεν είναι ασφαλείς για
χρήση με νήματα (thread-safe), έχουν σχεδιαστεί για να χρησιμοποιούνται
συγκεκριμένα σε κώδικα async/await.

Σημειώστε ότι οι μέθοδοι των ουρών asyncio δεν διαθέτουν παράμετρο
'timeout'.  Χρησιμοποιήστε την συνάρτηση *note asyncio.wait_for(): 9f6.
για να εκτελέσετε λειτουργίες ουράς με χρονικό όριο.

Δείτε επίσης την ενότητα *note Examples: 3aa0. παρακάτω.

* Menu:

* Ουρά::
* Σειρά Προτεραιότητας::
* Ουρά LIFO::
* Εξαιρέσεις: Εξαιρέσεις<2>.
* Παραδείγματα: Παραδείγματα<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/queues.py


File: python.info,  Node: Ουρά,  Next: Σειρά Προτεραιότητας,  Up: Ουρές

5.20.1.43 Ουρά
..............

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.Queue (maxsize=0)

     Μια ουρά τύπου πρώτος που εισέρχεται, πρώτος που εξέρχεται (FIFO).

     Αν η τιμή του 'maxsize' είναι λιγότερη ή ίση με το μηδέν, το
     μέγεθος της ουράς είναι άπειρο.  Αν είναι ένας ακέραιος μεγαλύτερος
     από το ‘0’, τότε η εντολή ‘await put()’ μπλοκάρει, όταν η ουρά
     φτάσει το 'maxsize' μέχρι να αφαιρεθεί ένα στοιχείο μέσω της
     μεθόδου *note get(): 3aa2.

     Σε αντίθεση με την ουρά του *note queue: be. στην βιβλιοθήκη
     threading, το μέγεθος της ουράς είναι πάντα γνωστό και μπορεί να
     επιστραφεί καλώντας τη μέθοδο *note qsize(): 3aa3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Αφαιρέθηκε η παράμετρος 'loop'.

     Αυτή η κλάση είναι *note not thread safe: 3a2c.

      -- Ιδιότητα: maxsize

          Αριθμός στοιχείων που επιτρέπονται στην ουρά.

      -- Μέθοδος: empty ()

          Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν η ουρά είναι άδεια, διαφορετικά ‘False’.

      -- Μέθοδος: full ()

          Επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν υπάρχουν *note maxsize: 3aa4. αντικείμενα
          στην ουρά.

          Αν η ουρά αρχικοποιήθηκε με ‘maxsize=0’ (προεπιλογή), τότε η
          *note full(): 3aa6. δεν επιστρέφει ποτέ ‘True’.

      -- Μέθοδος: async get ()

          Αφαίρεση και επιστροφή ενός αντικειμένου από την ουρά.  Αν η
          ουρά είναι κενή, περιμένετε μέχρι να είναι διαθέσιμο ένα
          αντικείμενο.

          Κάνει raise μια *note QueueShutDown: 6d3. αν η ουρά έχει
          τερματιστεί και είναι κενή, ή αν η ουρά έχει τερματιστεί
          άμεσα.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_nowait ()

          Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο, αν είναι άμεσα διαθέσιμο, αλλιώς
          κάνε raise την *note QueueEmpty: 3aa8.

      -- Μέθοδος: async join ()

          Αποκλείει μέχρι να ληφθούν και να υποβληθούν σε επεξεργασία
          όλα τα στοιχεία στην ουρά.

          Ο αριθμός των ημιτελών εργασιών αυξάνεται κάθε φορά που
          προστίθεται ένα αντικείμενο στην ουρά.  Ο αριθμός μειώνεται
          όταν μια καταναλωτική coroutine καλεί τη μέθοδο *note
          task_done(): 1180. για να υποδείξει ότι το αντικείμενο λήφθηκε
          και η εργασία πάνω του έχει ολοκληρωθεί.  Όταν ο αριθμός των
          ατελείωτων εργασιών μειωθεί στο μηδέν, η μέθοδος *note join():
          117f. αποδεσμεύεται.

      -- Μέθοδος: async put (item)

          Τοποθετεί ένα αντικείμενο στην ουρά.  Αν η ουρά είναι γεμάτη,
          περιμένετε μέχρι να είναι διαθέσιμη μια ελεύθερη θέση, πριν
          προσθέσετε το αντικείμενο.

          Κάνει raise μια *note QueueShutDown: 6d3. αν η ουρά έχει
          τερματιστεί.

      -- Μέθοδος: put_nowait (item)

          Τοποθετεί ένα αντικείμενο στην ουρά χωρίς να μπλοκάρει.

          Αν δεν είναι διαθέσιμη μια ελεύθερη θέση αμέσως, γίνεται raise
          η *note QueueFull: 3aab.

      -- Μέθοδος: qsize ()

          Επιστρέφει τον αριθμό των αντικειμένων στην ουρά.

      -- Μέθοδος: shutdown (immediate=False)

          Βάζει ένα στιγμιότυπο της *note Queue: e39. σε λειτουργία
          τερματισμού.

          The queue can no longer grow.  Future calls to *note put():
          3aa9. raise *note QueueShutDown: 6d3.  Currently blocked
          callers of ‘put()’ will be unblocked and will raise
          ‘QueueShutDown’ in the formerly awaiting task.

          Αν το 'immediate' είναι false (η προεπιλογή), η ουρά μπορεί να
          τερματιστεί κανονικά με κλήσεις της *note get(): 3aa2. για να
          εξαχθούν εργασίες που έχουν ήδη φορτωθεί.

          Και αν η *note task_done(): 1180. κληθεί για κάθε υπόλοιπη
          εργασία, μια εκκρεμής *note join(): 117f. θα αποδεσμευτεί
          κανονικά.

          Μόλις η ουρά είναι κενή, μελλοντικές κλήσεις της *note get():
          3aa2. θα κάνουν raise την *note QueueShutDown: 6d3.

          Αν το 'immediate' είναι true, η ουρά τερματίζεται αμέσως.  Η
          ουρά αδειάζει για να είναι εντελώς κενή και ο αριθμός των
          ημιτελών εργασιών μειώνεται κατά τον αριθμό των εργασιών που
          αδειάστηκαν.  Αν οι ημιτελείς εργασίες είναι μηδέν, οι
          καλούντες της *note join(): 117f. αποδεσμεύονται.  Επίσης, οι
          αποκλεισμένοι καλούντες της *note get(): 3aa2. αποδεσμεύονται
          και θα κάνουν raise την *note QueueShutDown: 6d3. επειδή η
          ουρά είναι κενή.

          Χρησιμοποιήστε προσοχή όταν χρησιμοποιείτε την *note join():
          117f. με το 'immediate' ορισμένο σε αληθές.  Αυτό αποδεσμεύει
          την ένωση ακόμη και όταν δεν έχει γίνει καμία εργασία στις
          εργασίες, παραβιάζοντας το συνηθισμένο αμετάβλητο για την
          ένωση μιας ουράς.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: task_done ()

          Υποδεικνύει ότι μια εργασία που είχε προστεθεί στην ουρά έχει
          ολοκληρωθεί.

          Χρησιμοποιείται από τους καταναλωτές της ουράς.  Για κάθε
          κλήση της *note get(): 3aa2. για να ανακτηθεί μια εργασία, μια
          επακόλουθη κλήση της *note task_done(): 1180. ενημερώνει την
          ουρά ότι η επεξεργασία της εργασίας έχει ολοκληρωθεί.

          Εάν μια κλήση της *note join(): 117f. μπλοκάρει αυτή την
          στιγμή, θα συνεχιστεί όταν όλα τα αντικείμενα έχουν
          επεξεργαστεί (σημαίνει ότι λήφθηκε μια κλήση της *note
          task_done(): 1180. για κάθε αντικείμενο που είχε προστεθεί με
          *note put(): 3aa9. στην ουρά).

          Κάνει raise την *note ValueError: 277. εάν κληθεί περισσότερες
          φορές από όσες τα αντικείμενα που είχαν τοποθετηθεί στην ουρά.


File: python.info,  Node: Σειρά Προτεραιότητας,  Next: Ουρά LIFO,  Prev: Ουρά,  Up: Ουρές

5.20.1.44 Σειρά Προτεραιότητας
..............................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.PriorityQueue

     Μια παραλλαγή της *note Queue: e39.; η οποία ανακτά τις
     καταχωρήσεις με σειρά προτεραιότητας (οι χαμηλότερες πρώτες).

     Οι καταχωρήσεις είναι συνήθως της μορφής ‘(priority_number, data)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Ουρά LIFO,  Next: Εξαιρέσεις<2>,  Prev: Σειρά Προτεραιότητας,  Up: Ουρές

5.20.1.45 Ουρά LIFO
...................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.LifoQueue

     Μια παραλλαγή της κλάσης *note Queue: e39. που ανακτά τις πιο
     πρόσφατα προστιθέμενες καταχωρίσεις πρώτες (με τη λογική τελευταίος
     μέσα, πρώτος έξω).


File: python.info,  Node: Εξαιρέσεις<2>,  Next: Παραδείγματα<4>,  Prev: Ουρά LIFO,  Up: Ουρές

5.20.1.46 Εξαιρέσεις
....................

 -- Εξαίρεση: asyncio.QueueEmpty

     Αυτή η εξαίρεση γίνεται raise όταν η μέθοδος *note get_nowait():
     3aa7. καλείται σε μια άδεια ουρά.

 -- Εξαίρεση: asyncio.QueueFull

     Εξαίρεση που γίνεται raise όταν η μέθοδος *note put_nowait(): 3aaa.
     καλείται σε μια ουρά που έχει φτάσει στο 'maxsize' της.

 -- Εξαίρεση: asyncio.QueueShutDown

     Εξαίρεση που γίνεται raise όταν η μέθοδος *note put(): 3aa9. ή
     *note get(): 3aa2. καλείται σε μια ουρά που έχει τερματιστεί.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Παραδείγματα<4>,  Prev: Εξαιρέσεις<2>,  Up: Ουρές

5.20.1.47 Παραδείγματα
......................

Οι ουρές μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για τη διανομή εργασίας μεταξύ
αρκετών παράλληλων εργασιών:

     import asyncio
     import random
     import time


     async def worker(name, queue):
         while True:
             # Get a "work item" out of the queue.
             sleep_for = await queue.get()

             # Sleep for the "sleep_for" seconds.
             await asyncio.sleep(sleep_for)

             # Notify the queue that the "work item" has been processed.
             queue.task_done()

             print(f'{name} has slept for {sleep_for:.2f} seconds')


     async def main():
         # Create a queue that we will use to store our "workload".
         queue = asyncio.Queue()

         # Generate random timings and put them into the queue.
         total_sleep_time = 0
         for _ in range(20):
             sleep_for = random.uniform(0.05, 1.0)
             total_sleep_time += sleep_for
             queue.put_nowait(sleep_for)

         # Create three worker tasks to process the queue concurrently.
         tasks = []
         for i in range(3):
             task = asyncio.create_task(worker(f'worker-{i}', queue))
             tasks.append(task)

         # Wait until the queue is fully processed.
         started_at = time.monotonic()
         await queue.join()
         total_slept_for = time.monotonic() - started_at

         # Cancel our worker tasks.
         for task in tasks:
             task.cancel()
         # Wait until all worker tasks are cancelled.
         await asyncio.gather(*tasks, return_exceptions=True)

         print('====')
         print(f'3 workers slept in parallel for {total_slept_for:.2f} seconds')
         print(f'total expected sleep time: {total_sleep_time:.2f} seconds')


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<14>,  Next: Call Graph Introspection,  Prev: Ουρές,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.48 Exceptions
....................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/exceptions.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

 -- Εξαίρεση: asyncio.TimeoutError

     A deprecated alias of ‘TimeoutError’, raised when the operation has
     exceeded the given deadline.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: This class was made an alias of
     ‘TimeoutError’.

 -- Εξαίρεση: asyncio.CancelledError

     The operation has been cancelled.

     This exception can be caught to perform custom operations when
     asyncio Tasks are cancelled.  In almost all situations the
     exception must be re-raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: ‘CancelledError’ is now a subclass of *note
     BaseException: 9b9. rather than *note Exception: d9e.

 -- Εξαίρεση: asyncio.InvalidStateError

     Invalid internal state of *note Task: 460. or *note Future: f8b.

     Can be raised in situations like setting a result value for a
     'Future' object that already has a result value set.

 -- Εξαίρεση: asyncio.SendfileNotAvailableError

     The «sendfile» syscall is not available for the given socket or
     file type.

     A subclass of *note RuntimeError: 30d.

 -- Εξαίρεση: asyncio.IncompleteReadError

     The requested read operation did not complete fully.

     Raised by the *note asyncio stream APIs: 19b0.

     This exception is a subclass of *note EOFError: 167e.

      -- Ιδιότητα: expected

          The total number (*note int: 326.) of expected bytes.

      -- Ιδιότητα: partial

          A string of *note bytes: 1c7. read before the end of stream
          was reached.

 -- Εξαίρεση: asyncio.LimitOverrunError

     Reached the buffer size limit while looking for a separator.

     Raised by the *note asyncio stream APIs: 19b0.

      -- Ιδιότητα: consumed

          The total number of to be consumed bytes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/exceptions.py


File: python.info,  Node: Call Graph Introspection,  Next: Event loop,  Prev: Exceptions<14>,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.49 Call Graph Introspection
..................................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/graph.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

asyncio has powerful runtime call graph introspection utilities to trace
the entire call graph of a running 'coroutine' or 'task', or a suspended
'future'.  These utilities and the underlying machinery can be used from
within a Python program or by external profilers and debuggers.

Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.print_call_graph (future=None, /, *, file=None,
          depth=1, limit=None)

     Print the async call graph for the current task or the provided
     *note Task: 460. or *note Future: f8b.

     This function prints entries starting from the top frame and going
     down towards the invocation point.

     The function receives an optional 'future' argument.  If not
     passed, the current running task will be used.

     If the function is called on 'the current task', the optional
     keyword-only 'depth' argument can be used to skip the specified
     number of frames from top of the stack.

     If the optional keyword-only 'limit' argument is provided, each
     call stack in the resulting graph is truncated to include at most
     ‘abs(limit)’ entries.  If 'limit' is positive, the entries left are
     the closest to the invocation point.  If 'limit' is negative, the
     topmost entries are left.  If 'limit' is omitted or ‘None’, all
     entries are present.  If 'limit' is ‘0’, the call stack is not
     printed at all, only «awaited by» information is printed.

     If 'file' is omitted or ‘None’, the function will print to *note
     sys.stdout: e9c.

     'Example:'

     The following Python code:

          import asyncio

          async def test():
              asyncio.print_call_graph()

          async def main():
              async with asyncio.TaskGroup() as g:
                  g.create_task(test(), name='test')

          asyncio.run(main())

     will print:

          * Task(name='test', id=0x1039f0fe0)
          + Call stack:
          |   File 't2.py', line 4, in async test()
          + Awaited by:
             * Task(name='Task-1', id=0x103a5e060)
                + Call stack:
                |   File 'taskgroups.py', line 107, in async TaskGroup.__aexit__()
                |   File 't2.py', line 7, in async main()

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.format_call_graph (future=None, /, *, depth=1,
          limit=None)

     Like *note print_call_graph(): 466, but returns a string.  If
     'future' is ‘None’ and there’s no current task, the function
     returns an empty string.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.capture_call_graph (future=None, /, *, depth=1,
          limit=None)

     Capture the async call graph for the current task or the provided
     *note Task: 460. or *note Future: f8b.

     The function receives an optional 'future' argument.  If not
     passed, the current running task will be used.  If there’s no
     current task, the function returns ‘None’.

     If the function is called on 'the current task', the optional
     keyword-only 'depth' argument can be used to skip the specified
     number of frames from top of the stack.

     Returns a ‘FutureCallGraph’ data class object:

        * ‘FutureCallGraph(future, call_stack, awaited_by)’

               Where 'future' is a reference to a *note Future: f8b. or
               a *note Task: 460. (or their subclasses.)

               ‘call_stack’ is a tuple of ‘FrameCallGraphEntry’ objects.

               ‘awaited_by’ is a tuple of ‘FutureCallGraph’ objects.

        * ‘FrameCallGraphEntry(frame)’

               Where 'frame' is a frame object of a regular Python
               function in the call stack.

* Menu:

* Low level utility functions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/graph.py


File: python.info,  Node: Low level utility functions,  Up: Call Graph Introspection

5.20.1.50 Low level utility functions
.....................................

To introspect an async call graph asyncio requires cooperation from
control flow structures, such as *note shield(): e34. or *note
TaskGroup: 6d7.  Any time an intermediate *note Future: f8b. object with
low-level APIs like *note Future.add_done_callback(): ecc. is involved,
the following two functions should be used to inform asyncio about how
exactly such intermediate future objects are connected with the tasks
they wrap or control.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.future_add_to_awaited_by (future, waiter, /)

     Record that 'future' is awaited on by 'waiter'.

     Both 'future' and 'waiter' must be instances of *note Future: f8b.
     or *note Task: 460. or their subclasses, otherwise the call would
     have no effect.

     A call to ‘future_add_to_awaited_by()’ must be followed by an
     eventual call to the *note future_discard_from_awaited_by(): 3ac0.
     function with the same arguments.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.future_discard_from_awaited_by (future, waiter,
          /)

     Record that 'future' is no longer awaited on by 'waiter'.

     Both 'future' and 'waiter' must be instances of *note Future: f8b.
     or *note Task: 460. or their subclasses, otherwise the call would
     have no effect.


File: python.info,  Node: Event loop,  Next: Futures,  Prev: Call Graph Introspection,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.51 Event loop
....................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/events.py(1), Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

Preface
.......

The event loop is the core of every asyncio application.  Event loops
run asynchronous tasks and callbacks, perform network IO operations, and
run subprocesses.

Application developers should typically use the high-level asyncio
functions, such as *note asyncio.run(): 309, and should rarely need to
reference the loop object or call its methods.  This section is intended
mostly for authors of lower-level code, libraries, and frameworks, who
need finer control over the event loop behavior.

Obtaining the Event Loop
........................

The following low-level functions can be used to get, set, or create an
event loop:

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.get_running_loop ()

     Return the running event loop in the current OS thread.

     Raise a *note RuntimeError: 30d. if there is no running event loop.

     This function can only be called from a coroutine or a callback.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.get_event_loop ()

     Get the current event loop.

     When called from a coroutine or a callback (e.g.  scheduled with
     call_soon or similar API), this function will always return the
     running event loop.

     If there is no running event loop set, the function will return the
     result of the ‘get_event_loop_policy().get_event_loop()’ call.

     Because this function has rather complex behavior (especially when
     custom event loop policies are in use), using the *note
     get_running_loop(): ecf. function is preferred to
     ‘get_event_loop()’ in coroutines and callbacks.

     As noted above, consider using the higher-level *note
     asyncio.run(): 309. function, instead of using these lower level
     functions to manually create and close an event loop.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Raises a *note RuntimeError: 30d. if there
     is no current event loop.

          Σημείωση: The ‘asyncio’ policy system is deprecated and will
          be removed in Python 3.16; from there on, this function will
          return the current running event loop if present else it will
          return the loop set by *note set_event_loop(): 1d53.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.set_event_loop (loop)

     Set 'loop' as the current event loop for the current OS thread.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.new_event_loop ()

     Create and return a new event loop object.

Note that the behaviour of *note get_event_loop(): 56c, *note
set_event_loop(): 1d53, and *note new_event_loop(): 3a0b. functions can
be altered by *note setting a custom event loop policy: 3ac4.

Contents
........

This documentation page contains the following sections:

   * The *note Event Loop Methods: 3ac5. section is the reference
     documentation of the event loop APIs;

   * The *note Callback Handles: 3ac6. section documents the *note
     Handle: 2071. and *note TimerHandle: 1cdc. instances which are
     returned from scheduling methods such as *note loop.call_soon():
     ec8. and *note loop.call_later(): eca.;

   * The *note Server Objects: 3ac7. section documents types returned
     from event loop methods like *note loop.create_server(): ed7.;

   * The *note Event Loop Implementations: 3ac8. section documents the
     *note SelectorEventLoop: 30b. and *note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe.
     classes;

   * The *note Examples: 3ac9. section showcases how to work with some
     event loop APIs.

* Menu:

* Event loop methods::
* Callback handles::
* Server objects::
* Event loop implementations::
* Examples: Examples<15>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/events.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py


File: python.info,  Node: Event loop methods,  Next: Callback handles,  Up: Event loop

5.20.1.52 Event loop methods
............................

Event loops have 'low-level' APIs for the following:

* Menu:

* Running and stopping the loop::
* Scheduling callbacks::
* Scheduling delayed callbacks::
* Creating futures and tasks::
* Opening network connections::
* Creating network servers::
* Transferring files::
* TLS upgrade::
* Watching file descriptors::
* Working with socket objects directly::
* DNS::
* Working with pipes::
* Unix signals::
* Executing code in thread or process pools::
* Error handling API::
* Enabling debug mode::
* Running subprocesses::


File: python.info,  Node: Running and stopping the loop,  Next: Scheduling callbacks,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.53 Running and stopping the loop
.......................................

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.run_until_complete (future)

     Run until the 'future' (an instance of *note Future: f8b.) has
     completed.

     If the argument is a *note coroutine object: 39fe. it is implicitly
     scheduled to run as a *note asyncio.Task: 460.

     Return the Future’s result or raise its exception.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.run_forever ()

     Run the event loop until *note stop(): 103b. is called.

     If *note stop(): 103b. is called before ‘run_forever()’ is called,
     the loop will poll the I/O selector once with a timeout of zero,
     run all callbacks scheduled in response to I/O events (and those
     that were already scheduled), and then exit.

     If *note stop(): 103b. is called while ‘run_forever()’ is running,
     the loop will run the current batch of callbacks and then exit.
     Note that new callbacks scheduled by callbacks will not run in this
     case; instead, they will run the next time ‘run_forever()’ or *note
     run_until_complete(): 1036. is called.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.stop ()

     Stop the event loop.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.is_running ()

     Return ‘True’ if the event loop is currently running.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.is_closed ()

     Return ‘True’ if the event loop was closed.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.close ()

     Close the event loop.

     The loop must not be running when this function is called.  Any
     pending callbacks will be discarded.

     This method clears all queues and shuts down the executor, but does
     not wait for the executor to finish.

     This method is idempotent and irreversible.  No other methods
     should be called after the event loop is closed.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.shutdown_asyncgens ()

     Schedule all currently open *note asynchronous generator: 2692.
     objects to close with an *note aclose(): caa. call.  After calling
     this method, the event loop will issue a warning if a new
     asynchronous generator is iterated.  This should be used to
     reliably finalize all scheduled asynchronous generators.

     Note that there is no need to call this function when *note
     asyncio.run(): 309. is used.

     Example:

          try:
              loop.run_forever()
          finally:
              loop.run_until_complete(loop.shutdown_asyncgens())
              loop.close()

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.shutdown_default_executor (timeout=None)

     Schedule the closure of the default executor and wait for it to
     join all of the threads in the *note ThreadPoolExecutor: b27.  Once
     this method has been called, using the default executor with *note
     loop.run_in_executor(): cba. will raise a *note RuntimeError: 30d.

     The 'timeout' parameter specifies the amount of time (in *note
     float: 327. seconds) the executor will be given to finish joining.
     With the default, ‘None’, the executor is allowed an unlimited
     amount of time.

     If the 'timeout' is reached, a *note RuntimeWarning: 6dd. is
     emitted and the default executor is terminated without waiting for
     its threads to finish joining.

          Σημείωση: Do not call this method when using *note
          asyncio.run(): 309, as the latter handles default executor
          shutdown automatically.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added the 'timeout' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Scheduling callbacks,  Next: Scheduling delayed callbacks,  Prev: Running and stopping the loop,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.54 Scheduling callbacks
..............................

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.call_soon (callback, *args, context=None)

     Schedule the 'callback' *note callback: 2fc5. to be called with
     'args' arguments at the next iteration of the event loop.

     Return an instance of *note asyncio.Handle: 2071, which can be used
     later to cancel the callback.

     Callbacks are called in the order in which they are registered.
     Each callback will be called exactly once.

     The optional keyword-only 'context' argument specifies a custom
     *note contextvars.Context: 421. for the 'callback' to run in.
     Callbacks use the current context when no 'context' is provided.

     Unlike *note call_soon_threadsafe(): ec9, this method is not
     thread-safe.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.call_soon_threadsafe (callback, *args, context=None)

     A thread-safe variant of *note call_soon(): ec8.  When scheduling
     callbacks from another thread, this function 'must' be used, since
     ‘call_soon()’ is not thread-safe.

     This function is safe to be called from a reentrant context or
     signal handler, however, it is not safe or fruitful to use the
     returned handle in such contexts.

     Raises *note RuntimeError: 30d. if called on a loop that’s been
     closed.  This can happen on a secondary thread when the main
     application is shutting down.

     See the *note concurrency and multithreading: 3a2c. section of the
     documentation.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'context' keyword-only parameter was
     added.  See PEP 567(1) for more details.

     Σημείωση: Most *note asyncio: b. scheduling functions don’t allow
     passing keyword arguments.  To do that, use *note
     functools.partial(): 4a6.:

          # will schedule "print("Hello", flush=True)"
          loop.call_soon(
              functools.partial(print, "Hello", flush=True))

     Using partial objects is usually more convenient than using
     lambdas, as asyncio can render partial objects better in debug and
     error messages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: Scheduling delayed callbacks,  Next: Creating futures and tasks,  Prev: Scheduling callbacks,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.55 Scheduling delayed callbacks
......................................

Event loop provides mechanisms to schedule callback functions to be
called at some point in the future.  Event loop uses monotonic clocks to
track time.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.call_later (delay, callback, *args, context=None)

     Schedule 'callback' to be called after the given 'delay' number of
     seconds (can be either an int or a float).

     An instance of *note asyncio.TimerHandle: 1cdc. is returned which
     can be used to cancel the callback.

     'callback' will be called exactly once.  If two callbacks are
     scheduled for exactly the same time, the order in which they are
     called is undefined.

     The optional positional 'args' will be passed to the callback when
     it is called.  Use *note functools.partial(): 4a6. *note to pass
     keyword arguments: 3ad0. to 'callback'.

     An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying a
     custom *note contextvars.Context: 421. for the 'callback' to run
     in.  The current context is used when no 'context' is provided.

          Σημείωση: For performance, callbacks scheduled with
          ‘loop.call_later()’ may run up to one clock-resolution early
          (see ‘time.get_clock_info('monotonic').resolution’).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'context' keyword-only parameter was
     added.  See PEP 567(1) for more details.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: In Python 3.7 and earlier with the default
     event loop implementation, the 'delay' could not exceed one day.
     This has been fixed in Python 3.8.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.call_at (when, callback, *args, context=None)

     Schedule 'callback' to be called at the given absolute timestamp
     'when' (an int or a float), using the same time reference as *note
     loop.time(): 3ad3.

     This method’s behavior is the same as *note call_later(): eca.

     An instance of *note asyncio.TimerHandle: 1cdc. is returned which
     can be used to cancel the callback.

          Σημείωση: For performance, callbacks scheduled with
          ‘loop.call_at()’ may run up to one clock-resolution early (see
          ‘time.get_clock_info('monotonic').resolution’).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'context' keyword-only parameter was
     added.  See PEP 567(2) for more details.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: In Python 3.7 and earlier with the default
     event loop implementation, the difference between 'when' and the
     current time could not exceed one day.  This has been fixed in
     Python 3.8.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.time ()

     Return the current time, as a *note float: 327. value, according to
     the event loop’s internal monotonic clock.

     Σημείωση: 
     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: In Python 3.7 and earlier timeouts
     (relative 'delay' or absolute 'when') should not exceed one day.
     This has been fixed in Python 3.8.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note asyncio.sleep(): e33. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: Creating futures and tasks,  Next: Opening network connections,  Prev: Scheduling delayed callbacks,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.56 Creating futures and tasks
....................................

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.create_future ()

     Create an *note asyncio.Future: f8b. object attached to the event
     loop.

     This is the preferred way to create Futures in asyncio.  This lets
     third-party event loops provide alternative implementations of the
     Future object (with better performance or instrumentation).

     Added in version 3.5.2.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.create_task (coro, *, name=None, context=None,
          eager_start=None, **kwargs)

     Schedule the execution of *note coroutine: 39fe. 'coro'.  Return a
     *note Task: 460. object.

     Third-party event loops can use their own subclass of *note Task:
     460. for interoperability.  In this case, the result type is a
     subclass of ‘Task’.

     The full function signature is largely the same as that of the
     *note Task: 460. constructor (or factory) - all of the keyword
     arguments to this function are passed through to that interface.

     If the 'name' argument is provided and not ‘None’, it is set as the
     name of the task using *note Task.set_name(): da1.

     An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying a
     custom *note contextvars.Context: 421. for the 'coro' to run in.
     The current context copy is created when no 'context' is provided.

     An optional keyword-only 'eager_start' argument allows specifying
     if the task should execute eagerly during the call to create_task,
     or be scheduled later.  If 'eager_start' is not passed the mode set
     by *note loop.set_task_factory(): 461. will be used.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the 'name' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'context' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13.3: Added ‘kwargs’ which passes on arbitrary
     extra parameters, including ‘name’ and ‘context’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13.4: Rolled back the change that passes on
     'name' and 'context' (if it is None), while still passing on other
     arbitrary keyword arguments (to avoid breaking backwards
     compatibility with 3.13.3).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: All 'kwargs' are now passed on.  The
     'eager_start' parameter works with eager task factories.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.set_task_factory (factory)

     Set a task factory that will be used by *note loop.create_task():
     463.

     If 'factory' is ‘None’ the default task factory will be set.
     Otherwise, 'factory' must be a 'callable' with the signature
     matching ‘(loop, coro, **kwargs)’, where 'loop' is a reference to
     the active event loop, and 'coro' is a coroutine object.  The
     callable must pass on all 'kwargs', and return a *note
     asyncio.Task: 460.-compatible object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13.3: Required that all 'kwargs' are passed on
     to *note asyncio.Task: 460.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13.4: 'name' is no longer passed to task
     factories.  'context' is no longer passed to task factories if it
     is ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: 'name' and 'context' are now
     unconditionally passed on to task factories again.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.get_task_factory ()

     Return a task factory or ‘None’ if the default one is in use.


File: python.info,  Node: Opening network connections,  Next: Creating network servers,  Prev: Creating futures and tasks,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.57 Opening network connections
.....................................

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.create_connection (protocol_factory, host=None,
          port=None, *, ssl=None, family=0, proto=0, flags=0, sock=None,
          local_addr=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          happy_eyeballs_delay=None, interleave=None, all_errors=False)

     Open a streaming transport connection to a given address specified
     by 'host' and 'port'.

     The socket family can be either *note AF_INET: 1da7. or *note
     AF_INET6: 1da8. depending on 'host' (or the 'family' argument, if
     provided).

     The socket type will be *note SOCK_STREAM: 1698.

     'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning an *note asyncio
     protocol: 3ad6. implementation.

     This method will try to establish the connection in the background.
     When successful, it returns a ‘(transport, protocol)’ pair.

     The chronological synopsis of the underlying operation is as
     follows:

       1. The connection is established and a *note transport: 3ad7. is
          created for it.

       2. 'protocol_factory' is called without arguments and is expected
          to return a *note protocol: 3ad6. instance.

       3. The protocol instance is coupled with the transport by calling
          its *note connection_made(): 3ad8. method.

       4. A ‘(transport, protocol)’ tuple is returned on success.

     The created transport is an implementation-dependent bidirectional
     stream.

     Other arguments:

        * 'ssl': if given and not false, a SSL/TLS transport is created
          (by default a plain TCP transport is created).  If 'ssl' is a
          *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. object, this context is used to
          create the transport; if 'ssl' is *note True: fcc, a default
          context returned from *note ssl.create_default_context(): 68e.
          is used.

          Δείτε επίσης
          ............

          *note SSL/TLS security considerations: 3ad9.

        * 'server_hostname' sets or overrides the hostname that the
          target server’s certificate will be matched against.  Should
          only be passed if 'ssl' is not ‘None’.  By default the value
          of the 'host' argument is used.  If 'host' is empty, there is
          no default and you must pass a value for 'server_hostname'.
          If 'server_hostname' is an empty string, hostname matching is
          disabled (which is a serious security risk, allowing for
          potential man-in-the-middle attacks).

        * 'family', 'proto', 'flags' are the optional address family,
          protocol and flags to be passed through to getaddrinfo() for
          'host' resolution.  If given, these should all be integers
          from the corresponding *note socket: d4. module constants.

        * 'happy_eyeballs_delay', if given, enables Happy Eyeballs for
          this connection.  It should be a floating-point number
          representing the amount of time in seconds to wait for a
          connection attempt to complete, before starting the next
          attempt in parallel.  This is the «Connection Attempt Delay»
          as defined in RFC 8305(1).  A sensible default value
          recommended by the RFC is ‘0.25’ (250 milliseconds).

        * 'interleave' controls address reordering when a host name
          resolves to multiple IP addresses.  If ‘0’ or unspecified, no
          reordering is done, and addresses are tried in the order
          returned by *note getaddrinfo(): fd3.  If a positive integer
          is specified, the addresses are interleaved by address family,
          and the given integer is interpreted as «First Address Family
          Count» as defined in RFC 8305(2).  The default is ‘0’ if
          'happy_eyeballs_delay' is not specified, and ‘1’ if it is.

        * 'sock', if given, should be an existing, already connected
          *note socket.socket: 115a. object to be used by the transport.
          If 'sock' is given, none of 'host', 'port', 'family', 'proto',
          'flags', 'happy_eyeballs_delay', 'interleave' and 'local_addr'
          should be specified.

               Σημείωση: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the transport created.  To close the socket,
               call the transport’s *note close(): 3ada. method.

        * 'local_addr', if given, is a ‘(local_host, local_port)’ tuple
          used to bind the socket locally.  The 'local_host' and
          'local_port' are looked up using ‘getaddrinfo()’, similarly to
          'host' and 'port'.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' is (for a TLS connection) the time in
          seconds to wait for the TLS handshake to complete before
          aborting the connection.  ‘60.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait for the
          SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the connection.
          ‘30.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

        * 'all_errors' determines what exceptions are raised when a
          connection cannot be created.  By default, only a single
          ‘Exception’ is raised: the first exception if there is only
          one or all errors have same message, or a single ‘OSError’
          with the error messages combined.  When ‘all_errors’ is
          ‘True’, an ‘ExceptionGroup’ will be raised containing all
          exceptions (even if there is only one).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support for SSL/TLS in *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 9fe.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The socket option *note socket.TCP_NODELAY:
     f32. is set by default for all TCP connections.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout'
     parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the 'happy_eyeballs_delay' and
     'interleave' parameters.

     Happy Eyeballs Algorithm: Success with Dual-Stack Hosts.  When a
     server’s IPv4 path and protocol are working, but the server’s IPv6
     path and protocol are not working, a dual-stack client application
     experiences significant connection delay compared to an IPv4-only
     client.  This is undesirable because it causes the dual-stack
     client to have a worse user experience.  This document specifies
     requirements for algorithms that reduce this user-visible delay and
     provides an algorithm.

     For more information:
     ‘https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6555’

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout'
     parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: 'all_errors' was added.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note open_connection(): edc. function is a high-level
     alternative API. It returns a pair of (*note StreamReader: 194a,
     *note StreamWriter: 1c76.) that can be used directly in async/await
     code.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.create_datagram_endpoint (protocol_factory,
          local_addr=None, remote_addr=None, *, family=0, proto=0,
          flags=0, reuse_port=None, allow_broadcast=None, sock=None)

     Create a datagram connection.

     The socket family can be either *note AF_INET: 1da7, *note
     AF_INET6: 1da8, or *note AF_UNIX: 1daa, depending on 'host' (or the
     'family' argument, if provided).

     The socket type will be *note SOCK_DGRAM: 1697.

     'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning a *note protocol:
     3ad6. implementation.

     A tuple of ‘(transport, protocol)’ is returned on success.

     Other arguments:

        * 'local_addr', if given, is a ‘(local_host, local_port)’ tuple
          used to bind the socket locally.  The 'local_host' and
          'local_port' are looked up using *note getaddrinfo(): fd3.

               Σημείωση: On Windows, when using the proactor event loop
               with ‘local_addr=None’, an *note OSError: 53c. with
               ‘errno.WSAEINVAL’ will be raised when running it.

        * 'remote_addr', if given, is a ‘(remote_host, remote_port)’
          tuple used to connect the socket to a remote address.  The
          'remote_host' and 'remote_port' are looked up using *note
          getaddrinfo(): fd3.

        * 'family', 'proto', 'flags' are the optional address family,
          protocol and flags to be passed through to *note
          getaddrinfo(): fd3. for 'host' resolution.  If given, these
          should all be integers from the corresponding *note socket:
          d4. module constants.

        * 'reuse_port' tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to be
          bound to the same port as other existing endpoints are bound
          to, so long as they all set this flag when being created.
          This option is not supported on Windows and some Unixes.  If
          the *note socket.SO_REUSEPORT: f32. constant is not defined
          then this capability is unsupported.

        * 'allow_broadcast' tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to
          send messages to the broadcast address.

        * 'sock' can optionally be specified in order to use a
          preexisting, already connected, *note socket.socket: 115a.
          object to be used by the transport.  If specified,
          'local_addr' and 'remote_addr' should be omitted (must be
          *note None: a65.).

               Σημείωση: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the transport created.  To close the socket,
               call the transport’s *note close(): 3ada. method.

     See *note UDP echo client protocol: 3adb. and *note UDP echo server
     protocol: 3adc. examples.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4.4: The 'family', 'proto', 'flags',
     'reuse_address', 'reuse_port', 'allow_broadcast', and 'sock'
     parameters were added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added support for Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8.1: The 'reuse_address' parameter is no
     longer supported, as using *note socket.SO_REUSEADDR: f32. poses a
     significant security concern for UDP. Explicitly passing
     ‘reuse_address=True’ will raise an exception.

     When multiple processes with differing UIDs assign sockets to an
     identical UDP socket address with ‘SO_REUSEADDR’, incoming packets
     can become randomly distributed among the sockets.

     For supported platforms, 'reuse_port' can be used as a replacement
     for similar functionality.  With 'reuse_port', *note
     socket.SO_REUSEPORT: f32. is used instead, which specifically
     prevents processes with differing UIDs from assigning sockets to
     the same socket address.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The 'reuse_address' parameter, disabled
     since Python 3.8.1, 3.7.6 and 3.6.10, has been entirely removed.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.create_unix_connection (protocol_factory,
          path=None, *, ssl=None, sock=None, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     Create a Unix connection.

     The socket family will be *note AF_UNIX: 1daa.; socket type will be
     *note SOCK_STREAM: 1698.

     A tuple of ‘(transport, protocol)’ is returned on success.

     'path' is the name of a Unix domain socket and is required, unless
     a 'sock' parameter is specified.  Abstract Unix sockets, *note str:
     1df, *note bytes: 1c7, and *note Path: 4ee. paths are supported.

     See the documentation of the *note loop.create_connection(): 9f9.
     method for information about arguments to this method.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout'
     parameter.  The 'path' parameter can now be a *note path-like
     object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout'
     parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8305.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8305.html


File: python.info,  Node: Creating network servers,  Next: Transferring files,  Prev: Opening network connections,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.58 Creating network servers
..................................

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.create_server (protocol_factory, host=None,
          port=None, *, family=socket.AF_UNSPEC,
          flags=socket.AI_PASSIVE, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          reuse_address=None, reuse_port=None, keep_alive=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True)

     Create a TCP server (socket type *note SOCK_STREAM: 1698.)
     listening on 'port' of the 'host' address.

     Returns a *note Server: ed6. object.

     Arguments:

        * 'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning a *note
          protocol: 3ad6. implementation.

        * The 'host' parameter can be set to several types which
          determine where the server would be listening:

             - If 'host' is a string, the TCP server is bound to a
               single network interface specified by 'host'.

             - If 'host' is a sequence of strings, the TCP server is
               bound to all network interfaces specified by the
               sequence.

             - If 'host' is an empty string or ‘None’, all interfaces
               are assumed and a list of multiple sockets will be
               returned (most likely one for IPv4 and another one for
               IPv6).

        * The 'port' parameter can be set to specify which port the
          server should listen on.  If ‘0’ or ‘None’ (the default), a
          random unused port will be selected (note that if 'host'
          resolves to multiple network interfaces, a different random
          port will be selected for each interface).

        * 'family' can be set to either *note socket.AF_INET: 1da7. or
          *note AF_INET6: 1da8. to force the socket to use IPv4 or IPv6.
          If not set, the 'family' will be determined from host name
          (defaults to *note AF_UNSPEC: 3ade.).

        * 'flags' is a bitmask for *note getaddrinfo(): fd3.

        * 'sock' can optionally be specified in order to use a
          preexisting socket object.  If specified, 'host' and 'port'
          must not be specified.

               Σημείωση: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the server created.  To close the socket, call
               the server’s *note close(): 3a41. method.

        * 'backlog' is the maximum number of queued connections passed
          to *note listen(): 120f. (defaults to 100).

        * 'ssl' can be set to an *note SSLContext: 336. instance to
          enable TLS over the accepted connections.

        * 'reuse_address' tells the kernel to reuse a local socket in
          ‘TIME_WAIT’ state, without waiting for its natural timeout to
          expire.  If not specified will automatically be set to ‘True’
          on Unix.

        * 'reuse_port' tells the kernel to allow this endpoint to be
          bound to the same port as other existing endpoints are bound
          to, so long as they all set this flag when being created.
          This option is not supported on Windows.

        * 'keep_alive' set to ‘True’ keeps connections active by
          enabling the periodic transmission of messages.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'keep_alive' parameter.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' is (for a TLS server) the time in
          seconds to wait for the TLS handshake to complete before
          aborting the connection.  ‘60.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait for the
          SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the connection.
          ‘30.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

        * 'start_serving' set to ‘True’ (the default) causes the created
          server to start accepting connections immediately.  When set
          to ‘False’, the user should await on *note
          Server.start_serving(): ed8. or *note Server.serve_forever():
          ed9. to make the server to start accepting connections.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support for SSL/TLS in *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 9fe.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5.1: The 'host' parameter can be a sequence of
     strings.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added 'ssl_handshake_timeout' and
     'start_serving' parameters.  The socket option *note
     socket.TCP_NODELAY: f32. is set by default for all TCP connections.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout'
     parameter.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note start_server(): edd. function is a higher-level
     alternative API that returns a pair of *note StreamReader: 194a.
     and *note StreamWriter: 1c76. that can be used in an async/await
     code.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.create_unix_server (protocol_factory, path=None,
          *, sock=None, backlog=100, ssl=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None,
          start_serving=True, cleanup_socket=True)

     Similar to *note loop.create_server(): ed7. but works with the
     *note AF_UNIX: 1daa. socket family.

     'path' is the name of a Unix domain socket, and is required, unless
     a 'sock' argument is provided.  Abstract Unix sockets, *note str:
     1df, *note bytes: 1c7, and *note Path: 4ee. paths are supported.

     If 'cleanup_socket' is true then the Unix socket will automatically
     be removed from the filesystem when the server is closed, unless
     the socket has been replaced after the server has been created.

     See the documentation of the *note loop.create_server(): ed7.
     method for information about arguments to this method.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout' and
     'start_serving' parameters.  The 'path' parameter can now be a
     *note Path: 4ee. object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout'
     parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'cleanup_socket' parameter.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.connect_accepted_socket (protocol_factory, sock,
          *, ssl=None, ssl_handshake_timeout=None,
          ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     Wrap an already accepted connection into a transport/protocol pair.

     This method can be used by servers that accept connections outside
     of asyncio but that use asyncio to handle them.

     Parameters:

        * 'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning a *note
          protocol: 3ad6. implementation.

        * 'sock' is a preexisting socket object returned from *note
          socket.accept: 115b.

               Σημείωση: The 'sock' argument transfers ownership of the
               socket to the transport created.  To close the socket,
               call the transport’s *note close(): 3ada. method.

        * 'ssl' can be set to an *note SSLContext: 336. to enable SSL
          over the accepted connections.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' is (for an SSL connection) the time in
          seconds to wait for the SSL handshake to complete before
          aborting the connection.  ‘60.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait for the
          SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the connection.
          ‘30.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

     Returns a ‘(transport, protocol)’ pair.

     Added in version 3.5.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'ssl_handshake_timeout'
     parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout'
     parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Transferring files,  Next: TLS upgrade,  Prev: Creating network servers,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.59 Transferring files
............................

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.sendfile (transport, file, offset=0, count=None,
          *, fallback=True)

     Send a 'file' over a 'transport'.  Return the total number of bytes
     sent.

     The method uses high-performance *note os.sendfile(): ed3. if
     available.

     'file' must be a regular file object opened in binary mode.

     'offset' tells from where to start reading the file.  If specified,
     'count' is the total number of bytes to transmit as opposed to
     sending the file until EOF is reached.  File position is always
     updated, even when this method raises an error, and *note
     file.tell(): 174f. can be used to obtain the actual number of bytes
     sent.

     'fallback' set to ‘True’ makes asyncio to manually read and send
     the file when the platform does not support the sendfile system
     call (e.g.  Windows or SSL socket on Unix).

     Raise *note SendfileNotAvailableError: 3ab6. if the system does not
     support the 'sendfile' syscall and 'fallback' is ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: TLS upgrade,  Next: Watching file descriptors,  Prev: Transferring files,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.60 TLS upgrade
.....................

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.start_tls (transport, protocol, sslcontext, *,
          server_side=False, server_hostname=None,
          ssl_handshake_timeout=None, ssl_shutdown_timeout=None)

     Upgrade an existing transport-based connection to TLS.

     Create a TLS coder/decoder instance and insert it between the
     'transport' and the 'protocol'.  The coder/decoder implements both
     'transport'-facing protocol and 'protocol'-facing transport.

     Return the created two-interface instance.  After 'await', the
     'protocol' must stop using the original 'transport' and communicate
     with the returned object only because the coder caches
     'protocol'-side data and sporadically exchanges extra TLS session
     packets with 'transport'.

     In some situations (e.g.  when the passed transport is already
     closing) this may return ‘None’.

     Parameters:

        * 'transport' and 'protocol' instances that methods like *note
          create_server(): ed7. and *note create_connection(): 9f9.
          return.

        * 'sslcontext': a configured instance of *note SSLContext: 336.

        * 'server_side' pass ‘True’ when a server-side connection is
          being upgraded (like the one created by *note create_server():
          ed7.).

        * 'server_hostname': sets or overrides the host name that the
          target server’s certificate will be matched against.

        * 'ssl_handshake_timeout' is (for a TLS connection) the time in
          seconds to wait for the TLS handshake to complete before
          aborting the connection.  ‘60.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

        * 'ssl_shutdown_timeout' is the time in seconds to wait for the
          SSL shutdown to complete before aborting the connection.
          ‘30.0’ seconds if ‘None’ (default).

     Added in version 3.7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'ssl_shutdown_timeout'
     parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Watching file descriptors,  Next: Working with socket objects directly,  Prev: TLS upgrade,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.61 Watching file descriptors
...................................

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.add_reader (fd, callback, *args)

     Start monitoring the 'fd' file descriptor for read availability and
     invoke 'callback' with the specified arguments once 'fd' is
     available for reading.

     Any preexisting callback registered for 'fd' is cancelled and
     replaced by 'callback'.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.remove_reader (fd)

     Stop monitoring the 'fd' file descriptor for read availability.
     Returns ‘True’ if 'fd' was previously being monitored for reads.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.add_writer (fd, callback, *args)

     Start monitoring the 'fd' file descriptor for write availability
     and invoke 'callback' with the specified arguments 'args' once 'fd'
     is available for writing.

     Any preexisting callback registered for 'fd' is cancelled and
     replaced by 'callback'.

     Use *note functools.partial(): 4a6. *note to pass keyword
     arguments: 3ad0. to 'callback'.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.remove_writer (fd)

     Stop monitoring the 'fd' file descriptor for write availability.
     Returns ‘True’ if 'fd' was previously being monitored for writes.

See also *note Platform Support: 3ae6. section for some limitations of
these methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Working with socket objects directly,  Next: DNS,  Prev: Watching file descriptors,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.62 Working with socket objects directly
..............................................

In general, protocol implementations that use transport-based APIs such
as *note loop.create_connection(): 9f9. and *note loop.create_server():
ed7. are faster than implementations that work with sockets directly.
However, there are some use cases when performance is not critical, and
working with *note socket: 115a. objects directly is more convenient.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.sock_recv (sock, nbytes)

     Receive up to 'nbytes' from 'sock'.  Asynchronous version of *note
     socket.recv(): 115d.

     Return the received data as a bytes object.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Even though this method was always
     documented as a coroutine method, releases before Python 3.7
     returned a *note Future: f8b.  Since Python 3.7 this is an ‘async
     def’ method.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.sock_recv_into (sock, buf)

     Receive data from 'sock' into the 'buf' buffer.  Modeled after the
     blocking *note socket.recv_into(): 16c2. method.

     Return the number of bytes written to the buffer.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.sock_recvfrom (sock, bufsize)

     Receive a datagram of up to 'bufsize' from 'sock'.  Asynchronous
     version of *note socket.recvfrom(): 115e.

     Return a tuple of (received data, remote address).

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.sock_recvfrom_into (sock, buf, nbytes=0)

     Receive a datagram of up to 'nbytes' from 'sock' into 'buf'.
     Asynchronous version of *note socket.recvfrom_into(): 16c3.

     Return a tuple of (number of bytes received, remote address).

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.sock_sendall (sock, data)

     Send 'data' to the 'sock' socket.  Asynchronous version of *note
     socket.sendall(): 1161.

     This method continues to send to the socket until either all data
     in 'data' has been sent or an error occurs.  ‘None’ is returned on
     success.  On error, an exception is raised.  Additionally, there is
     no way to determine how much data, if any, was successfully
     processed by the receiving end of the connection.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Even though the method was always
     documented as a coroutine method, before Python 3.7 it returned a
     *note Future: f8b.  Since Python 3.7, this is an ‘async def’
     method.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.sock_sendto (sock, data, address)

     Send a datagram from 'sock' to 'address'.  Asynchronous version of
     *note socket.sendto(): 1162.

     Return the number of bytes sent.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.sock_connect (sock, address)

     Connect 'sock' to a remote socket at 'address'.

     Asynchronous version of *note socket.connect(): 115c.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5.2: ‘address’ no longer needs to be resolved.
     ‘sock_connect’ will try to check if the 'address' is already
     resolved by calling *note socket.inet_pton(): d2c.  If not, *note
     loop.getaddrinfo(): fd3. will be used to resolve the 'address'.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note loop.create_connection(): 9f9. and *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): edc.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.sock_accept (sock)

     Accept a connection.  Modeled after the blocking *note
     socket.accept(): 115b. method.

     The socket must be bound to an address and listening for
     connections.  The return value is a pair ‘(conn, address)’ where
     'conn' is a 'new' socket object usable to send and receive data on
     the connection, and 'address' is the address bound to the socket on
     the other end of the connection.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Even though the method was always
     documented as a coroutine method, before Python 3.7 it returned a
     *note Future: f8b.  Since Python 3.7, this is an ‘async def’
     method.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note loop.create_server(): ed7. and *note start_server(): edd.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.sock_sendfile (sock, file, offset=0, count=None,
          *, fallback=True)

     Send a file using high-performance *note os.sendfile: ed3. if
     possible.  Return the total number of bytes sent.

     Asynchronous version of *note socket.sendfile(): 120e.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 1698. *note
     socket: 115a.

     'file' must be a regular file object open in binary mode.

     'offset' tells from where to start reading the file.  If specified,
     'count' is the total number of bytes to transmit as opposed to
     sending the file until EOF is reached.  File position is always
     updated, even when this method raises an error, and *note
     file.tell(): 174f. can be used to obtain the actual number of bytes
     sent.

     'fallback', when set to ‘True’, makes asyncio manually read and
     send the file when the platform does not support the sendfile
     syscall (e.g.  Windows or SSL socket on Unix).

     Raise *note SendfileNotAvailableError: 3ab6. if the system does not
     support 'sendfile' syscall and 'fallback' is ‘False’.

     'sock' must be a non-blocking socket.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: DNS,  Next: Working with pipes,  Prev: Working with socket objects directly,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.63 DNS
.............

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.getaddrinfo (host, port, *, family=0, type=0,
          proto=0, flags=0)

     Asynchronous version of *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 1925.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.getnameinfo (sockaddr, flags=0)

     Asynchronous version of *note socket.getnameinfo(): 1c42.

     Σημείωση: Both 'getaddrinfo' and 'getnameinfo' internally utilize
     their synchronous versions through the loop’s default thread pool
     executor.  When this executor is saturated, these methods may
     experience delays, which higher-level networking libraries may
     report as increased timeouts.  To mitigate this, consider using a
     custom executor for other user tasks, or setting a default executor
     with a larger number of workers.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Both 'getaddrinfo' and 'getnameinfo' methods
were always documented to return a coroutine, but prior to Python 3.7
they were, in fact, returning *note asyncio.Future: f8b. objects.
Starting with Python 3.7 both methods are coroutines.


File: python.info,  Node: Working with pipes,  Next: Unix signals,  Prev: DNS,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.64 Working with pipes
............................

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.connect_read_pipe (protocol_factory, pipe)

     Register the read end of 'pipe' in the event loop.

     'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning an *note asyncio
     protocol: 3ad6. implementation.

     'pipe' is a *note file-like object: 156c.

     Return pair ‘(transport, protocol)’, where 'transport' supports the
     *note ReadTransport: 3aea. interface and 'protocol' is an object
     instantiated by the 'protocol_factory'.

     With *note SelectorEventLoop: 30b. event loop, the 'pipe' is set to
     non-blocking mode.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.connect_write_pipe (protocol_factory, pipe)

     Register the write end of 'pipe' in the event loop.

     'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning an *note asyncio
     protocol: 3ad6. implementation.

     'pipe' is *note file-like object: 156c.

     Return pair ‘(transport, protocol)’, where 'transport' supports
     *note WriteTransport: 3aeb. interface and 'protocol' is an object
     instantiated by the 'protocol_factory'.

     With *note SelectorEventLoop: 30b. event loop, the 'pipe' is set to
     non-blocking mode.

     Σημείωση: *note SelectorEventLoop: 30b. does not support the above
     methods on Windows.  Use *note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe. instead for
     Windows.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3a87. and *note
loop.subprocess_shell(): 3a88. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Unix signals,  Next: Executing code in thread or process pools,  Prev: Working with pipes,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.65 Unix signals
......................

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.add_signal_handler (signum, callback, *args)

     Set 'callback' as the handler for the 'signum' signal, passing
     'args' as positional arguments.

     The callback will be invoked by 'loop', along with other queued
     callbacks and runnable coroutines of that event loop.  Unlike
     signal handlers registered using *note signal.signal(): 14e0, a
     callback registered with this function is allowed to interact with
     the event loop.

     Raise *note ValueError: 277. if the signal number is invalid or
     uncatchable.  Raise *note RuntimeError: 30d. if there is a problem
     setting up the handler.

     Use *note functools.partial(): 4a6. *note to pass keyword
     arguments: 3ad0. to 'callback'.

     Like *note signal.signal(): 14e0, this function must be invoked in
     the main thread.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.remove_signal_handler (sig)

     Remove the handler for the 'sig' signal.

     Return ‘True’ if the signal handler was removed, or ‘False’ if no
     handler was set for the given signal.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note signal: ce. module.


File: python.info,  Node: Executing code in thread or process pools,  Next: Error handling API,  Prev: Unix signals,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.66 Executing code in thread or process pools
...................................................

 -- Μέθοδος: awaitable loop.run_in_executor (executor, func, *args)

     Arrange for 'func' to be called in the specified executor passing
     'args' as positional arguments.

     The 'executor' argument should be an *note
     concurrent.futures.Executor: 3928. instance.  The default executor
     is used if 'executor' is ‘None’.  The default executor can be set
     by *note loop.set_default_executor(): b28, otherwise, a *note
     concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. will be
     lazy-initialized and used by *note run_in_executor(): cba. if
     needed.

     Example:

          import asyncio
          import concurrent.futures

          def blocking_io():
              # File operations (such as logging) can block the
              # event loop: run them in a thread pool.
              with open('/dev/urandom', 'rb') as f:
                  return f.read(100)

          def cpu_bound():
              # CPU-bound operations will block the event loop:
              # in general it is preferable to run them in a
              # process pool.
              return sum(i * i for i in range(10 ** 7))

          async def main():
              loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

              ## Options:

              # 1. Run in the default loop's executor:
              result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                  None, blocking_io)
              print('default thread pool', result)

              # 2. Run in a custom thread pool:
              with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor() as pool:
                  result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                      pool, blocking_io)
                  print('custom thread pool', result)

              # 3. Run in a custom process pool:
              with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor() as pool:
                  result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                      pool, cpu_bound)
                  print('custom process pool', result)

              # 4. Run in a custom interpreter pool:
              with concurrent.futures.InterpreterPoolExecutor() as pool:
                  result = await loop.run_in_executor(
                      pool, cpu_bound)
                  print('custom interpreter pool', result)

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              asyncio.run(main())

     Note that the entry point guard (‘if __name__ == '__main__'’) is
     required for option 3 due to the peculiarities of *note
     multiprocessing: 98, which is used by *note ProcessPoolExecutor:
     206.  See *note Safe importing of main module: 3911.

     This method returns a *note asyncio.Future: f8b. object.

     Use *note functools.partial(): 4a6. *note to pass keyword
     arguments: 3ad0. to 'func'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5.3: ‘loop.run_in_executor()’ no longer
     configures the ‘max_workers’ of the thread pool executor it
     creates, instead leaving it up to the thread pool executor (*note
     ThreadPoolExecutor: b27.) to set the default.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.set_default_executor (executor)

     Set 'executor' as the default executor used by *note
     run_in_executor(): cba.  'executor' must be an instance of *note
     ThreadPoolExecutor: b27, which includes *note
     InterpreterPoolExecutor: 46a.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: 'executor' must be an instance of *note
     ThreadPoolExecutor: b27.


File: python.info,  Node: Error handling API,  Next: Enabling debug mode,  Prev: Executing code in thread or process pools,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.67 Error handling API
............................

Allows customizing how exceptions are handled in the event loop.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.set_exception_handler (handler)

     Set 'handler' as the new event loop exception handler.

     If 'handler' is ‘None’, the default exception handler will be set.
     Otherwise, 'handler' must be a callable with the signature matching
     ‘(loop, context)’, where ‘loop’ is a reference to the active event
     loop, and ‘context’ is a ‘dict’ object containing the details of
     the exception (see *note call_exception_handler(): 3af2.
     documentation for details about context).

     If the handler is called on behalf of a *note Task: 460. or *note
     Handle: 2071, it is run in the *note contextvars.Context: 421. of
     that task or callback handle.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The handler may be called in the *note
     Context: 421. of the task or handle where the exception originated.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.get_exception_handler ()

     Return the current exception handler, or ‘None’ if no custom
     exception handler was set.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.default_exception_handler (context)

     Default exception handler.

     This is called when an exception occurs and no exception handler is
     set.  This can be called by a custom exception handler that wants
     to defer to the default handler behavior.

     'context' parameter has the same meaning as in *note
     call_exception_handler(): 3af2.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.call_exception_handler (context)

     Call the current event loop exception handler.

     'context' is a ‘dict’ object containing the following keys (new
     keys may be introduced in future Python versions):

        * “message”: Error message;

        * “exception” (optional): Exception object;

        * “future” (optional): *note asyncio.Future: f8b. instance;

        * “task” (optional): *note asyncio.Task: 460. instance;

        * “handle” (optional): *note asyncio.Handle: 2071. instance;

        * “protocol” (optional): *note Protocol: 3ad6. instance;

        * “transport” (optional): *note Transport: 3ad7. instance;

        * “socket” (optional): *note socket.socket: 115a. instance;

        * “source_traceback” (optional): Traceback of the source;

        * “handle_traceback” (optional): Traceback of the handle;

        * 
          “asyncgen” (optional): Asynchronous generator that caused

               the exception.

          Σημείωση: This method should not be overloaded in subclassed
          event loops.  For custom exception handling, use the *note
          set_exception_handler(): 3af1. method.


File: python.info,  Node: Enabling debug mode,  Next: Running subprocesses,  Prev: Error handling API,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.68 Enabling debug mode
.............................

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.get_debug ()

     Get the debug mode (*note bool: 5ef.) of the event loop.

     The default value is ‘True’ if the environment variable *note
     PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 2327. is set to a non-empty string, ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Μέθοδος: loop.set_debug (enabled: bool)

     Set the debug mode of the event loop.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The new *note Python Development Mode: 70d.
     can now also be used to enable the debug mode.

 -- Ιδιότητα: loop.slow_callback_duration

     This attribute can be used to set the minimum execution duration in
     seconds that is considered «slow».  When debug mode is enabled,
     «slow» callbacks are logged.

     Default value is 100 milliseconds.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note debug mode of asyncio: 2328.


File: python.info,  Node: Running subprocesses,  Prev: Enabling debug mode,  Up: Event loop methods

5.20.1.69 Running subprocesses
..............................

Methods described in this subsections are low-level.  In regular
async/await code consider using the high-level *note
asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): e3b. and *note
asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): e3a. convenience functions instead.

     Σημείωση: On Windows, the default event loop *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 9fe. supports subprocesses, whereas *note
     SelectorEventLoop: 30b. does not.  See *note Subprocess Support on
     Windows: 3a89. for details.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.subprocess_exec (protocol_factory, *args,
          stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
          stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)

     Create a subprocess from one or more string arguments specified by
     'args'.

     'args' must be a list of strings represented by:

        * *note str: 1df.;

        * or *note bytes: 1c7, encoded to the *note filesystem encoding:
          2e50.

     The first string specifies the program executable, and the
     remaining strings specify the arguments.  Together, string
     arguments form the ‘argv’ of the program.

     This is similar to the standard library *note subprocess.Popen:
     6bf. class called with ‘shell=False’ and the list of strings passed
     as the first argument; however, where ‘Popen’ takes a single
     argument which is list of strings, 'subprocess_exec' takes multiple
     string arguments.

     The 'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning a subclass of
     the *note asyncio.SubprocessProtocol: 3af7. class.

     Other parameters:

        * 'stdin' can be any of these:

             * a file-like object

             * an existing file descriptor (a positive integer), for
               example those created with *note os.pipe(): 1d62.

             * the *note subprocess.PIPE: f46. constant (default) which
               will create a new pipe and connect it,

             * the value ‘None’ which will make the subprocess inherit
               the file descriptor from this process

             * the *note subprocess.DEVNULL: 14f9. constant which
               indicates that the special *note os.devnull: 2002. file
               will be used

        * 'stdout' can be any of these:

             * a file-like object

             * the *note subprocess.PIPE: f46. constant (default) which
               will create a new pipe and connect it,

             * the value ‘None’ which will make the subprocess inherit
               the file descriptor from this process

             * the *note subprocess.DEVNULL: 14f9. constant which
               indicates that the special *note os.devnull: 2002. file
               will be used

        * 'stderr' can be any of these:

             * a file-like object

             * the *note subprocess.PIPE: f46. constant (default) which
               will create a new pipe and connect it,

             * the value ‘None’ which will make the subprocess inherit
               the file descriptor from this process

             * the *note subprocess.DEVNULL: 14f9. constant which
               indicates that the special *note os.devnull: 2002. file
               will be used

             * the *note subprocess.STDOUT: 3973. constant which will
               connect the standard error stream to the process”
               standard output stream

        * All other keyword arguments are passed to *note
          subprocess.Popen: 6bf. without interpretation, except for
          'bufsize', 'universal_newlines', 'shell', 'text', 'encoding'
          and 'errors', which should not be specified at all.

          The ‘asyncio’ subprocess API does not support decoding the
          streams as text.  *note bytes.decode(): ca8. can be used to
          convert the bytes returned from the stream to text.

     If a file-like object passed as 'stdin', 'stdout' or 'stderr'
     represents a pipe, then the other side of this pipe should be
     registered with *note connect_write_pipe(): 3a8b. or *note
     connect_read_pipe(): 3a8a. for use with the event loop.

     See the constructor of the *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf. class for
     documentation on other arguments.

     Returns a pair of ‘(transport, protocol)’, where 'transport'
     conforms to the *note asyncio.SubprocessTransport: 3af8. base class
     and 'protocol' is an object instantiated by the 'protocol_factory'.

     If the transport is closed or is garbage collected, the child
     process is killed if it is still running.

 -- Μέθοδος: async loop.subprocess_shell (protocol_factory, cmd, *,
          stdin=subprocess.PIPE, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
          stderr=subprocess.PIPE, **kwargs)

     Create a subprocess from 'cmd', which can be a *note str: 1df. or a
     *note bytes: 1c7. string encoded to the *note filesystem encoding:
     2e50, using the platform’s «shell» syntax.

     This is similar to the standard library *note subprocess.Popen:
     6bf. class called with ‘shell=True’.

     The 'protocol_factory' must be a callable returning a subclass of
     the *note SubprocessProtocol: 3af7. class.

     See *note subprocess_exec(): 3a87. for more details about the
     remaining arguments.

     Returns a pair of ‘(transport, protocol)’, where 'transport'
     conforms to the *note SubprocessTransport: 3af8. base class and
     'protocol' is an object instantiated by the 'protocol_factory'.

     If the transport is closed or is garbage collected, the child
     process is killed if it is still running.

     Σημείωση: It is the application’s responsibility to ensure that all
     whitespace and special characters are quoted appropriately to avoid
     shell injection(1) vulnerabilities.  The *note shlex.quote(): 781.
     function can be used to properly escape whitespace and special
     characters in strings that are going to be used to construct shell
     commands.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection


File: python.info,  Node: Callback handles,  Next: Server objects,  Prev: Event loop methods,  Up: Event loop

5.20.1.70 Callback handles
..........................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.Handle

     A callback wrapper object returned by *note loop.call_soon(): ec8,
     *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): ec9.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_context ()

          Return the *note contextvars.Context: 421. object associated
          with the handle.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Μέθοδος: cancel ()

          Cancel the callback.  If the callback has already been
          canceled or executed, this method has no effect.

      -- Μέθοδος: cancelled ()

          Return ‘True’ if the callback was cancelled.

          Added in version 3.7.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.TimerHandle

     A callback wrapper object returned by *note loop.call_later(): eca,
     and *note loop.call_at(): ecb.

     This class is a subclass of *note Handle: 2071.

      -- Μέθοδος: when ()

          Return a scheduled callback time as *note float: 327. seconds.

          The time is an absolute timestamp, using the same time
          reference as *note loop.time(): 3ad3.

          Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Server objects,  Next: Event loop implementations,  Prev: Callback handles,  Up: Event loop

5.20.1.71 Server objects
........................

Server objects are created by *note loop.create_server(): ed7, *note
loop.create_unix_server(): 6d0, *note start_server(): edd, and *note
start_unix_server(): 3a44. functions.

Do not instantiate the *note Server: ed6. class directly.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.Server

     'Server' objects are asynchronous context managers.  When used in
     an ‘async with’ statement, it’s guaranteed that the Server object
     is closed and not accepting new connections when the ‘async with’
     statement is completed:

          srv = await loop.create_server(...)

          async with srv:
              # some code

          # At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Server object is an asynchronous context
     manager since Python 3.7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: This class was exposed publicly as
     ‘asyncio.Server’ in Python 3.9.11, 3.10.3 and 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Stop serving: close listening sockets and set the *note
          sockets: fd5. attribute to ‘None’.

          The sockets that represent existing incoming client
          connections are left open.

          The server is closed asynchronously; use the *note
          wait_closed(): 1c46. coroutine to wait until the server is
          closed (and no more connections are active).

      -- Μέθοδος: close_clients ()

          Close all existing incoming client connections.

          Calls *note close(): 3ada. on all associated transports.

          *note close(): 3a41. should be called before ‘close_clients()’
          when closing the server to avoid races with new clients
          connecting.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: abort_clients ()

          Close all existing incoming client connections immediately,
          without waiting for pending operations to complete.

          Calls *note abort(): 3afb. on all associated transports.

          *note close(): 3a41. should be called before ‘abort_clients()’
          when closing the server to avoid races with new clients
          connecting.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_loop ()

          Return the event loop associated with the server object.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Μέθοδος: async start_serving ()

          Start accepting connections.

          This method is idempotent, so it can be called when the server
          is already serving.

          The 'start_serving' keyword-only parameter to *note
          loop.create_server(): ed7. and *note asyncio.start_server():
          edd. allows creating a Server object that is not accepting
          connections initially.  In this case ‘Server.start_serving()’,
          or *note Server.serve_forever(): ed9. can be used to make the
          Server start accepting connections.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Μέθοδος: async serve_forever ()

          Start accepting connections until the coroutine is cancelled.
          Cancellation of ‘serve_forever’ task causes the server to be
          closed.

          This method can be called if the server is already accepting
          connections.  Only one ‘serve_forever’ task can exist per one
          'Server' object.

          Example:

               async def client_connected(reader, writer):
                   # Communicate with the client with
                   # reader/writer streams.  For example:
                   await reader.readline()

               async def main(host, port):
                   srv = await asyncio.start_server(
                       client_connected, host, port)
                   await srv.serve_forever()

               asyncio.run(main('127.0.0.1', 0))

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_serving ()

          Return ‘True’ if the server is accepting new connections.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Μέθοδος: async wait_closed ()

          Wait until the *note close(): 3a41. method completes and all
          active connections have finished.

      -- Ιδιότητα: sockets

          List of socket-like objects, ‘asyncio.trsock.TransportSocket’,
          which the server is listening on.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Prior to Python 3.7 ‘Server.sockets’
          used to return an internal list of server sockets directly.
          In 3.7 a copy of that list is returned.


File: python.info,  Node: Event loop implementations,  Next: Examples<15>,  Prev: Server objects,  Up: Event loop

5.20.1.72 Event loop implementations
....................................

asyncio ships with two different event loop implementations: *note
SelectorEventLoop: 30b. and *note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe.

By default asyncio is configured to use *note EventLoop: 1c6d.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.SelectorEventLoop

     A subclass of *note AbstractEventLoop: d29. based on the *note
     selectors: ca. module.

     Uses the most efficient 'selector' available for the given
     platform.  It is also possible to manually configure the exact
     selector implementation to be used:

          import asyncio
          import selectors

          async def main():
             ...

          loop_factory = lambda: asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selectors.SelectSelector())
          asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=loop_factory)

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.ProactorEventLoop

     A subclass of *note AbstractEventLoop: d29. for Windows that uses
     «I/O Completion Ports» (IOCP).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     MSDN documentation on I/O Completion Ports(1).

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.EventLoop

          An alias to the most efficient available subclass of *note
          AbstractEventLoop: d29. for the given platform.

          It is an alias to *note SelectorEventLoop: 30b. on Unix and
          *note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe. on Windows.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.AbstractEventLoop

     Abstract base class for asyncio-compliant event loops.

     The *note Event loop methods: 3aca. section lists all methods that
     an alternative implementation of ‘AbstractEventLoop’ should have
     defined.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/windows/win32/fileio/i-o-completion-ports


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<15>,  Prev: Event loop implementations,  Up: Event loop

5.20.1.73 Examples
..................

Note that all examples in this section 'purposefully' show how to use
the low-level event loop APIs, such as *note loop.run_forever(): 3acc.
and *note loop.call_soon(): ec8.  Modern asyncio applications rarely
need to be written this way; consider using the high-level functions
like *note asyncio.run(): 309.

* Menu:

* Hello World with call_soon(): Hello World with call_soon.
* Display the current date with call_later(): Display the current date with call_later.
* Watch a file descriptor for read events::
* Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM::


File: python.info,  Node: Hello World with call_soon,  Next: Display the current date with call_later,  Up: Examples<15>

5.20.1.74 Hello World with call_soon()
......................................

An example using the *note loop.call_soon(): ec8. method to schedule a
callback.  The callback displays ‘"Hello World"’ and then stops the
event loop:

     import asyncio

     def hello_world(loop):
         """A callback to print 'Hello World' and stop the event loop"""
         print('Hello World')
         loop.stop()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     # Schedule a call to hello_world()
     loop.call_soon(hello_world, loop)

     # Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()
     try:
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         loop.close()

Δείτε επίσης
............

A similar *note Hello World: 39fe. example created with a coroutine and
the *note run(): 309. function.


File: python.info,  Node: Display the current date with call_later,  Next: Watch a file descriptor for read events,  Prev: Hello World with call_soon,  Up: Examples<15>

5.20.1.75 Display the current date with call_later()
....................................................

An example of a callback displaying the current date every second.  The
callback uses the *note loop.call_later(): eca. method to reschedule
itself after 5 seconds, and then stops the event loop:

     import asyncio
     import datetime as dt

     def display_date(end_time, loop):
         print(dt.datetime.now())
         if (loop.time() + 1.0) < end_time:
             loop.call_later(1, display_date, end_time, loop)
         else:
             loop.stop()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     # Schedule the first call to display_date()
     end_time = loop.time() + 5.0
     loop.call_soon(display_date, end_time, loop)

     # Blocking call interrupted by loop.stop()
     try:
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         loop.close()

Δείτε επίσης
............

A similar *note current date: 3a1b. example created with a coroutine and
the *note run(): 309. function.


File: python.info,  Node: Watch a file descriptor for read events,  Next: Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM,  Prev: Display the current date with call_later,  Up: Examples<15>

5.20.1.76 Watch a file descriptor for read events
.................................................

Wait until a file descriptor received some data using the *note
loop.add_reader(): 3a5e. method and then close the event loop:

     import asyncio
     from socket import socketpair

     # Create a pair of connected file descriptors
     rsock, wsock = socketpair()

     loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()

     def reader():
         data = rsock.recv(100)
         print("Received:", data.decode())

         # We are done: unregister the file descriptor
         loop.remove_reader(rsock)

         # Stop the event loop
         loop.stop()

     # Register the file descriptor for read event
     loop.add_reader(rsock, reader)

     # Simulate the reception of data from the network
     loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

     try:
         # Run the event loop
         loop.run_forever()
     finally:
         # We are done. Close sockets and the event loop.
         rsock.close()
         wsock.close()
         loop.close()

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * A similar *note example: 3a5c. using transports, protocols, and the
     *note loop.create_connection(): 9f9. method.

   * Another similar *note example: 3a5a. using the high-level *note
     asyncio.open_connection(): edc. function and streams.


File: python.info,  Node: Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM,  Prev: Watch a file descriptor for read events,  Up: Examples<15>

5.20.1.77 Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM
....................................................

(This ‘signal’ example only works on Unix.)

Register handlers for signals *note SIGINT: 4df. and *note SIGTERM:
1782. using the *note loop.add_signal_handler(): 3aed. method:

     import asyncio
     import functools
     import os
     import signal

     def ask_exit(signame, loop):
         print("got signal %s: exit" % signame)
         loop.stop()

     async def main():
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         for signame in {'SIGINT', 'SIGTERM'}:
             loop.add_signal_handler(
                 getattr(signal, signame),
                 functools.partial(ask_exit, signame, loop))

         await asyncio.sleep(3600)

     print("Event loop running for 1 hour, press Ctrl+C to interrupt.")
     print(f"pid {os.getpid()}: send SIGINT or SIGTERM to exit.")

     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: Futures,  Next: Transports and Protocols,  Prev: Event loop,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.78 Futures
.................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/futures.py(1), Lib/asyncio/base_futures.py(2)

__________________________________________________________________

'Future' objects are used to bridge 'low-level callback-based code' with
high-level async/await code.

* Menu:

* Future Functions::
* Future Object::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/futures.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/base_futures.py


File: python.info,  Node: Future Functions,  Next: Future Object,  Up: Futures

5.20.1.79 Future Functions
..........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.isfuture (obj)

     Return ‘True’ if 'obj' is either of:

        * an instance of *note asyncio.Future: f8b,

        * an instance of *note asyncio.Task: 460,

        * a Future-like object with a ‘_asyncio_future_blocking’
          attribute.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.ensure_future (obj, *, loop=None)

     Return:

        * 'obj' argument as is, if 'obj' is a *note Future: f8b, a *note
          Task: 460, or a Future-like object (*note isfuture(): 3b08. is
          used for the test.)

        * a *note Task: 460. object wrapping 'obj', if 'obj' is a
          coroutine (*note iscoroutine(): 890. is used for the test); in
          this case the coroutine will be scheduled by
          ‘ensure_future()’.

        * a *note Task: 460. object that would await on 'obj', if 'obj'
          is an awaitable (*note inspect.isawaitable(): 11cb. is used
          for the test.)

     If 'obj' is neither of the above a *note TypeError: 291. is raised.

          Σημαντικό: Save a reference to the result of this function, to
          avoid a task disappearing mid-execution.

          See also the *note create_task(): 462. function which is the
          preferred way for creating new tasks or use *note
          asyncio.TaskGroup: 6d7. which keeps reference to the task
          internally.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5.1: The function accepts any *note awaitable:
     6cf. object.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: Deprecation warning is emitted if
     'obj' is not a Future-like object and 'loop' is not specified and
     there is no running event loop.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.wrap_future (future, *, loop=None)

     Wrap a *note concurrent.futures.Future: 155b. object in a *note
     asyncio.Future: f8b. object.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: Deprecation warning is emitted if
     'future' is not a Future-like object and 'loop' is not specified
     and there is no running event loop.


File: python.info,  Node: Future Object,  Prev: Future Functions,  Up: Futures

5.20.1.80 Future Object
.......................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.Future (*, loop=None)

     A Future represents an eventual result of an asynchronous
     operation.  Not thread-safe.

     Future is an *note awaitable: 6cf. object.  Coroutines can await on
     Future objects until they either have a result or an exception set,
     or until they are cancelled.  A Future can be awaited multiple
     times and the result is same.

     Typically Futures are used to enable low-level callback-based code
     (e.g.  in protocols implemented using asyncio *note transports:
     3a05.) to interoperate with high-level async/await code.

     The rule of thumb is to never expose Future objects in user-facing
     APIs, and the recommended way to create a Future object is to call
     *note loop.create_future(): 1038.  This way alternative event loop
     implementations can inject their own optimized implementations of a
     Future object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added support for the *note contextvars:
     28. module.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: Deprecation warning is emitted if
     'loop' is not specified and there is no running event loop.

      -- Μέθοδος: result ()

          Return the result of the Future.

          If the Future is 'done' and has a result set by the *note
          set_result(): 3a31. method, the result value is returned.

          If the Future is 'done' and has an exception set by the *note
          set_exception(): 103c. method, this method raises the
          exception.

          If the Future has been 'cancelled', this method raises a *note
          CancelledError: 6da. exception.

          If the Future’s result isn’t yet available, this method raises
          an *note InvalidStateError: 3a34. exception.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_result (result)

          Mark the Future as 'done' and set its result.

          Raises an *note InvalidStateError: 3a34. error if the Future
          is already 'done'.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_exception (exception)

          Mark the Future as 'done' and set an exception.

          Raises an *note InvalidStateError: 3a34. error if the Future
          is already 'done'.

      -- Μέθοδος: done ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Future is 'done'.

          A Future is 'done' if it was 'cancelled' or if it has a result
          or an exception set with *note set_result(): 3a31. or *note
          set_exception(): 103c. calls.

      -- Μέθοδος: cancelled ()

          Return ‘True’ if the Future was 'cancelled'.

          The method is usually used to check if a Future is not
          'cancelled' before setting a result or an exception for it:

               if not fut.cancelled():
                   fut.set_result(42)

      -- Μέθοδος: add_done_callback (callback, *, context=None)

          Add a callback to be run when the Future is 'done'.

          The 'callback' is called with the Future object as its only
          argument.

          If the Future is already 'done' when this method is called,
          the callback is scheduled with *note loop.call_soon(): ec8.

          An optional keyword-only 'context' argument allows specifying
          a custom *note contextvars.Context: 421. for the 'callback' to
          run in.  The current context is used when no 'context' is
          provided.

          *note functools.partial(): 4a6. can be used to pass parameters
          to the callback, e.g.:

               # Call 'print("Future:", fut)' when "fut" is done.
               fut.add_done_callback(
                   functools.partial(print, "Future:"))

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'context' keyword-only parameter
          was added.  See PEP 567(1) for more details.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove_done_callback (callback)

          Remove 'callback' from the callbacks list.

          Returns the number of callbacks removed, which is typically 1,
          unless a callback was added more than once.

      -- Μέθοδος: cancel (msg=None)

          Cancel the Future and schedule callbacks.

          If the Future is already 'done' or 'cancelled', return
          ‘False’.  Otherwise, change the Future’s state to 'cancelled',
          schedule the callbacks, and return ‘True’.

          The optional string argument 'msg' is passed as the argument
          to the *note CancelledError: 6da. exception raised when a
          cancelled Future is awaited.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added the 'msg' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: exception ()

          Return the exception that was set on this Future.

          The exception (or ‘None’ if no exception was set) is returned
          only if the Future is 'done'.

          If the Future has been 'cancelled', this method raises a *note
          CancelledError: 6da. exception.

          If the Future isn’t 'done' yet, this method raises an *note
          InvalidStateError: 3a34. exception.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_loop ()

          Return the event loop the Future object is bound to.

          Added in version 3.7.

This example creates a Future object, creates and schedules an
asynchronous Task to set result for the Future, and waits until the
Future has a result:

     async def set_after(fut, delay, value):
         # Sleep for *delay* seconds.
         await asyncio.sleep(delay)

         # Set *value* as a result of *fut* Future.
         fut.set_result(value)

     async def main():
         # Get the current event loop.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # Create a new Future object.
         fut = loop.create_future()

         # Run "set_after()" coroutine in a parallel Task.
         # We are using the low-level "loop.create_task()" API here because
         # we already have a reference to the event loop at hand.
         # Otherwise we could have just used "asyncio.create_task()".
         loop.create_task(
             set_after(fut, 1, '... world'))

         print('hello ...')

         # Wait until *fut* has a result (1 second) and print it.
         print(await fut)

     asyncio.run(main())

     Σημαντικό: The Future object was designed to mimic *note
     concurrent.futures.Future: 155b.  Key differences include:

        - unlike asyncio Futures, *note concurrent.futures.Future: 155b.
          instances cannot be awaited.

        - *note asyncio.Future.result(): 3b0b. and *note
          asyncio.Future.exception(): 3b0e. do not accept the 'timeout'
          argument.

        - *note asyncio.Future.result(): 3b0b. and *note
          asyncio.Future.exception(): 3b0e. raise an *note
          InvalidStateError: 3a34. exception when the Future is not
          'done'.

        - Callbacks registered with *note
          asyncio.Future.add_done_callback(): ecc. are not called
          immediately.  They are scheduled with *note loop.call_soon():
          ec8. instead.

        - asyncio Future is not compatible with the *note
          concurrent.futures.wait(): 1dfc. and *note
          concurrent.futures.as_completed(): 1bd1. functions.

        - *note asyncio.Future.cancel(): 1da3. accepts an optional ‘msg’
          argument, but *note concurrent.futures.Future.cancel(): 3934.
          does not.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/


File: python.info,  Node: Transports and Protocols,  Next: Policies,  Prev: Futures,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.81 Transports and Protocols
..................................

Preface
.......

Transports and Protocols are used by the 'low-level' event loop APIs
such as *note loop.create_connection(): 9f9.  They use callback-based
programming style and enable high-performance implementations of network
or IPC protocols (e.g.  HTTP).

Essentially, transports and protocols should only be used in libraries
and frameworks and never in high-level asyncio applications.

This documentation page covers both *note Transports: 3b13. and *note
Protocols: 3b14.

Introduction
............

At the highest level, the transport is concerned with 'how' bytes are
transmitted, while the protocol determines 'which' bytes to transmit
(and to some extent when).

A different way of saying the same thing: a transport is an abstraction
for a socket (or similar I/O endpoint) while a protocol is an
abstraction for an application, from the transport’s point of view.

Yet another view is the transport and protocol interfaces together
define an abstract interface for using network I/O and interprocess I/O.

There is always a 1:1 relationship between transport and protocol
objects: the protocol calls transport methods to send data, while the
transport calls protocol methods to pass it data that has been received.

Most of connection oriented event loop methods (such as *note
loop.create_connection(): 9f9.) usually accept a 'protocol_factory'
argument used to create a 'Protocol' object for an accepted connection,
represented by a 'Transport' object.  Such methods usually return a
tuple of ‘(transport, protocol)’.

Contents
........

This documentation page contains the following sections:

   * The *note Transports: 3b13. section documents asyncio *note
     BaseTransport: 3b15, *note ReadTransport: 3aea, *note
     WriteTransport: 3aeb, *note Transport: 3b16, *note
     DatagramTransport: 1d25, and *note SubprocessTransport: 3af8.
     classes.

   * The *note Protocols: 3b14. section documents asyncio *note
     BaseProtocol: 3b17, *note Protocol: 3b18, *note BufferedProtocol:
     e63, *note DatagramProtocol: abc, and *note SubprocessProtocol:
     3af7. classes.

   * The *note Examples: 3b19. section showcases how to work with
     transports, protocols, and low-level event loop APIs.

* Menu:

* Transports::
* Protocols: Protocols<2>.
* Examples: Examples<16>.


File: python.info,  Node: Transports,  Next: Protocols<2>,  Up: Transports and Protocols

5.20.1.82 Transports
....................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/transports.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Transports are classes provided by *note asyncio: b. in order to
abstract various kinds of communication channels.

Transport objects are always instantiated by an *note asyncio event
loop: 112f.

asyncio implements transports for TCP, UDP, SSL, and subprocess pipes.
The methods available on a transport depend on the transport’s kind.

The transport classes are *note not thread safe: 3a2c.

* Menu:

* Transports Hierarchy::
* Base Transport::
* Read-only Transports::
* Write-only Transports::
* Datagram Transports::
* Subprocess Transports::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/transports.py


File: python.info,  Node: Transports Hierarchy,  Next: Base Transport,  Up: Transports

5.20.1.83 Transports Hierarchy
..............................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.BaseTransport

     Base class for all transports.  Contains methods that all asyncio
     transports share.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.WriteTransport (BaseTransport)

     A base transport for write-only connections.

     Instances of the 'WriteTransport' class are returned from the *note
     loop.connect_write_pipe(): 3a8b. event loop method and are also
     used by subprocess-related methods like *note
     loop.subprocess_exec(): 3a87.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.ReadTransport (BaseTransport)

     A base transport for read-only connections.

     Instances of the 'ReadTransport' class are returned from the *note
     loop.connect_read_pipe(): 3a8a. event loop method and are also used
     by subprocess-related methods like *note loop.subprocess_exec():
     3a87.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.Transport (WriteTransport, ReadTransport)

     Interface representing a bidirectional transport, such as a TCP
     connection.

     The user does not instantiate a transport directly; they call a
     utility function, passing it a protocol factory and other
     information necessary to create the transport and protocol.

     Instances of the 'Transport' class are returned from or used by
     event loop methods like *note loop.create_connection(): 9f9, *note
     loop.create_unix_connection(): 3a43, *note loop.create_server():
     ed7, *note loop.sendfile(): 3ae0, etc.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.DatagramTransport (BaseTransport)

     A transport for datagram (UDP) connections.

     Instances of the 'DatagramTransport' class are returned from the
     *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a. event loop method.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.SubprocessTransport (BaseTransport)

     An abstraction to represent a connection between a parent and its
     child OS process.

     Instances of the 'SubprocessTransport' class are returned from
     event loop methods *note loop.subprocess_shell(): 3a88. and *note
     loop.subprocess_exec(): 3a87.


File: python.info,  Node: Base Transport,  Next: Read-only Transports,  Prev: Transports Hierarchy,  Up: Transports

5.20.1.84 Base Transport
........................

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseTransport.close ()

     Close the transport.

     If the transport has a buffer for outgoing data, buffered data will
     be flushed asynchronously.  No more data will be received.  After
     all buffered data is flushed, the protocol’s *note
     protocol.connection_lost(): 3b1c. method will be called with *note
     None: a65. as its argument.  The transport should not be used once
     it is closed.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseTransport.is_closing ()

     Return ‘True’ if the transport is closing or is closed.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseTransport.get_extra_info (name, default=None)

     Return information about the transport or underlying resources it
     uses.

     'name' is a string representing the piece of transport-specific
     information to get.

     'default' is the value to return if the information is not
     available, or if the transport does not support querying it with
     the given third-party event loop implementation or on the current
     platform.

     For example, the following code attempts to get the underlying
     socket object of the transport:

          sock = transport.get_extra_info('socket')
          if sock is not None:
              print(sock.getsockopt(...))

     Categories of information that can be queried on some transports:

        * socket:

             - ‘'peername'’: the remote address to which the socket is
               connected, result of *note socket.socket.getpeername():
               3b1d. (‘None’ on error)

             - ‘'socket'’: *note socket.socket: 115a. instance

             - ‘'sockname'’: the socket’s own address, result of *note
               socket.socket.getsockname(): 50c.

        * SSL socket:

             - ‘'compression'’: the compression algorithm being used as
               a string, or ‘None’ if the connection isn’t compressed;
               result of *note ssl.SSLSocket.compression(): 14f0.

             - ‘'cipher'’: a three-value tuple containing the name of
               the cipher being used, the version of the SSL protocol
               that defines its use, and the number of secret bits being
               used; result of *note ssl.SSLSocket.cipher(): 3b1e.

             - ‘'peercert'’: peer certificate; result of *note
               ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): 1361.

             - ‘'sslcontext'’: *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. instance

             - ‘'ssl_object'’: *note ssl.SSLObject: f40. or *note
               ssl.SSLSocket: cbb. instance

        * pipe:

             - ‘'pipe'’: pipe object

        * subprocess:

             - ‘'subprocess'’: *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf. instance

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseTransport.set_protocol (protocol)

     Set a new protocol.

     Switching protocol should only be done when both protocols are
     documented to support the switch.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseTransport.get_protocol ()

     Return the current protocol.


File: python.info,  Node: Read-only Transports,  Next: Write-only Transports,  Prev: Base Transport,  Up: Transports

5.20.1.85 Read-only Transports
..............................

 -- Μέθοδος: ReadTransport.is_reading ()

     Return ‘True’ if the transport is receiving new data.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Μέθοδος: ReadTransport.pause_reading ()

     Pause the receiving end of the transport.  No data will be passed
     to the protocol’s *note protocol.data_received(): 1d01. method
     until *note resume_reading(): ee0. is called.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The method is idempotent, i.e.  it can be
     called when the transport is already paused or closed.

 -- Μέθοδος: ReadTransport.resume_reading ()

     Resume the receiving end.  The protocol’s *note
     protocol.data_received(): 1d01. method will be called once again if
     some data is available for reading.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The method is idempotent, i.e.  it can be
     called when the transport is already reading.


File: python.info,  Node: Write-only Transports,  Next: Datagram Transports,  Prev: Read-only Transports,  Up: Transports

5.20.1.86 Write-only Transports
...............................

 -- Μέθοδος: WriteTransport.abort ()

     Close the transport immediately, without waiting for pending
     operations to complete.  Buffered data will be lost.  No more data
     will be received.  The protocol’s *note protocol.connection_lost():
     3b1c. method will eventually be called with *note None: a65. as its
     argument.

 -- Μέθοδος: WriteTransport.can_write_eof ()

     Return *note True: fcc. if the transport supports *note
     write_eof(): 3b24, *note False: ef5. if not.

 -- Μέθοδος: WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_size ()

     Return the current size of the output buffer used by the transport.

 -- Μέθοδος: WriteTransport.get_write_buffer_limits ()

     Get the 'high' and 'low' watermarks for write flow control.  Return
     a tuple ‘(low, high)’ where 'low' and 'high' are positive number of
     bytes.

     Use *note set_write_buffer_limits(): 3b25. to set the limits.

     Added in version 3.4.2.

 -- Μέθοδος: WriteTransport.set_write_buffer_limits (high=None,
          low=None)

     Set the 'high' and 'low' watermarks for write flow control.

     These two values (measured in number of bytes) control when the
     protocol’s *note protocol.pause_writing(): 3b26. and *note
     protocol.resume_writing(): 3b27. methods are called.  If specified,
     the low watermark must be less than or equal to the high watermark.
     Neither 'high' nor 'low' can be negative.

     *note pause_writing(): 3b26. is called when the buffer size becomes
     greater than or equal to the 'high' value.  If writing has been
     paused, *note resume_writing(): 3b27. is called when the buffer
     size becomes less than or equal to the 'low' value.

     The defaults are implementation-specific.  If only the high
     watermark is given, the low watermark defaults to an
     implementation-specific value less than or equal to the high
     watermark.  Setting 'high' to zero forces 'low' to zero as well,
     and causes *note pause_writing(): 3b26. to be called whenever the
     buffer becomes non-empty.  Setting 'low' to zero causes *note
     resume_writing(): 3b27. to be called only once the buffer is empty.
     Use of zero for either limit is generally sub-optimal as it reduces
     opportunities for doing I/O and computation concurrently.

     Use *note get_write_buffer_limits(): 117d. to get the limits.

 -- Μέθοδος: WriteTransport.write (data)

     Write some 'data' bytes to the transport.

     This method does not block; it buffers the data and arranges for it
     to be sent out asynchronously.

 -- Μέθοδος: WriteTransport.writelines (list_of_data)

     Write a list (or any iterable) of data bytes to the transport.
     This is functionally equivalent to calling *note write(): 1a0a. on
     each element yielded by the iterable, but may be implemented more
     efficiently.

 -- Μέθοδος: WriteTransport.write_eof ()

     Close the write end of the transport after flushing all buffered
     data.  Data may still be received.

     This method can raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a. if the
     transport (e.g.  SSL) doesn’t support half-closed connections.


File: python.info,  Node: Datagram Transports,  Next: Subprocess Transports,  Prev: Write-only Transports,  Up: Transports

5.20.1.87 Datagram Transports
.............................

 -- Μέθοδος: DatagramTransport.sendto (data, addr=None)

     Send the 'data' bytes to the remote peer given by 'addr' (a
     transport-dependent target address).  If 'addr' is *note None: a65,
     the data is sent to the target address given on transport creation.

     This method does not block; it buffers the data and arranges for it
     to be sent out asynchronously.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: This method can be called with an empty
     bytes object to send a zero-length datagram.  The buffer size
     calculation used for flow control is also updated to account for
     the datagram header.

 -- Μέθοδος: DatagramTransport.abort ()

     Close the transport immediately, without waiting for pending
     operations to complete.  Buffered data will be lost.  No more data
     will be received.  The protocol’s *note protocol.connection_lost():
     3b1c. method will eventually be called with *note None: a65. as its
     argument.


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocess Transports,  Prev: Datagram Transports,  Up: Transports

5.20.1.88 Subprocess Transports
...............................

 -- Μέθοδος: SubprocessTransport.get_pid ()

     Return the subprocess process id as an integer.

 -- Μέθοδος: SubprocessTransport.get_pipe_transport (fd)

     Return the transport for the communication pipe corresponding to
     the integer file descriptor 'fd':

        * ‘0’: writable streaming transport of the standard input
          ('stdin'), or *note None: a65. if the subprocess was not
          created with ‘stdin=PIPE’

        * ‘1’: readable streaming transport of the standard output
          ('stdout'), or *note None: a65. if the subprocess was not
          created with ‘stdout=PIPE’

        * ‘2’: readable streaming transport of the standard error
          ('stderr'), or *note None: a65. if the subprocess was not
          created with ‘stderr=PIPE’

        * other 'fd': *note None: a65.

 -- Μέθοδος: SubprocessTransport.get_returncode ()

     Return the subprocess return code as an integer or *note None: a65.
     if it hasn’t returned, which is similar to the *note
     subprocess.Popen.returncode: e52. attribute.

 -- Μέθοδος: SubprocessTransport.kill ()

     Kill the subprocess.

     On POSIX systems, the function sends SIGKILL to the subprocess.  On
     Windows, this method is an alias for *note terminate(): 3b2f.

     See also *note subprocess.Popen.kill(): 1780.

 -- Μέθοδος: SubprocessTransport.send_signal (signal)

     Send the 'signal' number to the subprocess, as in *note
     subprocess.Popen.send_signal(): 1781.

 -- Μέθοδος: SubprocessTransport.terminate ()

     Stop the subprocess.

     On POSIX systems, this method sends *note SIGTERM: 1782. to the
     subprocess.  On Windows, the Windows API function
     ‘TerminateProcess()’ is called to stop the subprocess.

     See also *note subprocess.Popen.terminate(): 177f.

 -- Μέθοδος: SubprocessTransport.close ()

     Kill the subprocess by calling the *note kill(): 3b2e. method.

     If the subprocess hasn’t returned yet, and close transports of
     'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' pipes.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocols<2>,  Next: Examples<16>,  Prev: Transports,  Up: Transports and Protocols

5.20.1.89 Protocols
...................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/protocols.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

asyncio provides a set of abstract base classes that should be used to
implement network protocols.  Those classes are meant to be used
together with *note transports: 3ad7.

Subclasses of abstract base protocol classes may implement some or all
methods.  All these methods are callbacks: they are called by transports
on certain events, for example when some data is received.  A base
protocol method should be called by the corresponding transport.

* Menu:

* Base Protocols::
* Base Protocol::
* Streaming Protocols::
* Buffered Streaming Protocols::
* Datagram Protocols::
* Subprocess Protocols::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/protocols.py


File: python.info,  Node: Base Protocols,  Next: Base Protocol,  Up: Protocols<2>

5.20.1.90 Base Protocols
........................

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.BaseProtocol

     Base protocol with methods that all protocols share.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.Protocol (BaseProtocol)

     The base class for implementing streaming protocols (TCP, Unix
     sockets, etc).

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.BufferedProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     A base class for implementing streaming protocols with manual
     control of the receive buffer.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.DatagramProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     The base class for implementing datagram (UDP) protocols.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.SubprocessProtocol (BaseProtocol)

     The base class for implementing protocols communicating with child
     processes (unidirectional pipes).


File: python.info,  Node: Base Protocol,  Next: Streaming Protocols,  Prev: Base Protocols,  Up: Protocols<2>

5.20.1.91 Base Protocol
.......................

All asyncio protocols can implement Base Protocol callbacks.

Connection Callbacks
....................

Connection callbacks are called on all protocols, exactly once per a
successful connection.  All other protocol callbacks can only be called
between those two methods.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseProtocol.connection_made (transport)

     Called when a connection is made.

     The 'transport' argument is the transport representing the
     connection.  The protocol is responsible for storing the reference
     to its transport.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseProtocol.connection_lost (exc)

     Called when the connection is lost or closed.

     The argument is either an exception object or *note None: a65.  The
     latter means a regular EOF is received, or the connection was
     aborted or closed by this side of the connection.

Flow Control Callbacks
......................

Flow control callbacks can be called by transports to pause or resume
writing performed by the protocol.

See the documentation of the *note set_write_buffer_limits(): 3b25.
method for more details.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseProtocol.pause_writing ()

     Called when the transport’s buffer goes over the high watermark.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseProtocol.resume_writing ()

     Called when the transport’s buffer drains below the low watermark.

If the buffer size equals the high watermark, *note pause_writing():
3b26. is not called: the buffer size must go strictly over.

Conversely, *note resume_writing(): 3b27. is called when the buffer size
is equal or lower than the low watermark.  These end conditions are
important to ensure that things go as expected when either mark is zero.


File: python.info,  Node: Streaming Protocols,  Next: Buffered Streaming Protocols,  Prev: Base Protocol,  Up: Protocols<2>

5.20.1.92 Streaming Protocols
.............................

Event methods, such as *note loop.create_server(): ed7, *note
loop.create_unix_server(): 6d0, *note loop.create_connection(): 9f9,
*note loop.create_unix_connection(): 3a43, *note
loop.connect_accepted_socket(): bbb, *note loop.connect_read_pipe():
3a8a, and *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 3a8b. accept factories that
return streaming protocols.

 -- Μέθοδος: Protocol.data_received (data)

     Called when some data is received.  'data' is a non-empty bytes
     object containing the incoming data.

     Whether the data is buffered, chunked or reassembled depends on the
     transport.  In general, you shouldn’t rely on specific semantics
     and instead make your parsing generic and flexible.  However, data
     is always received in the correct order.

     The method can be called an arbitrary number of times while a
     connection is open.

     However, *note protocol.eof_received(): 3b35. is called at most
     once.  Once ‘eof_received()’ is called, ‘data_received()’ is not
     called anymore.

 -- Μέθοδος: Protocol.eof_received ()

     Called when the other end signals it won’t send any more data (for
     example by calling *note transport.write_eof(): 3b24, if the other
     end also uses asyncio).

     This method may return a false value (including ‘None’), in which
     case the transport will close itself.  Conversely, if this method
     returns a true value, the protocol used determines whether to close
     the transport.  Since the default implementation returns ‘None’, it
     implicitly closes the connection.

     Some transports, including SSL, don’t support half-closed
     connections, in which case returning true from this method will
     result in the connection being closed.

State machine:

     start -> connection_made
         [-> data_received]*
         [-> eof_received]?
     -> connection_lost -> end


File: python.info,  Node: Buffered Streaming Protocols,  Next: Datagram Protocols,  Prev: Streaming Protocols,  Up: Protocols<2>

5.20.1.93 Buffered Streaming Protocols
......................................

Added in version 3.7.

Buffered Protocols can be used with any event loop method that supports
*note Streaming Protocols: 3b34.

‘BufferedProtocol’ implementations allow explicit manual allocation and
control of the receive buffer.  Event loops can then use the buffer
provided by the protocol to avoid unnecessary data copies.  This can
result in noticeable performance improvement for protocols that receive
big amounts of data.  Sophisticated protocol implementations can
significantly reduce the number of buffer allocations.

The following callbacks are called on *note BufferedProtocol: e63.
instances:

 -- Μέθοδος: BufferedProtocol.get_buffer (sizehint)

     Called to allocate a new receive buffer.

     'sizehint' is the recommended minimum size for the returned buffer.
     It is acceptable to return smaller or larger buffers than what
     'sizehint' suggests.  When set to -1, the buffer size can be
     arbitrary.  It is an error to return a buffer with a zero size.

     ‘get_buffer()’ must return an object implementing the *note buffer
     protocol: 311.

 -- Μέθοδος: BufferedProtocol.buffer_updated (nbytes)

     Called when the buffer was updated with the received data.

     'nbytes' is the total number of bytes that were written to the
     buffer.

 -- Μέθοδος: BufferedProtocol.eof_received ()

     See the documentation of the *note protocol.eof_received(): 3b35.
     method.

*note get_buffer(): 3b37. can be called an arbitrary number of times
during a connection.  However, *note protocol.eof_received(): 3b35. is
called at most once and, if called, ‘get_buffer()’ and *note
buffer_updated(): 3b38. won’t be called after it.

State machine:

     start -> connection_made
         [-> get_buffer
             [-> buffer_updated]?
         ]*
         [-> eof_received]?
     -> connection_lost -> end


File: python.info,  Node: Datagram Protocols,  Next: Subprocess Protocols,  Prev: Buffered Streaming Protocols,  Up: Protocols<2>

5.20.1.94 Datagram Protocols
............................

Datagram Protocol instances should be constructed by protocol factories
passed to the *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a. method.

 -- Μέθοδος: DatagramProtocol.datagram_received (data, addr)

     Called when a datagram is received.  'data' is a bytes object
     containing the incoming data.  'addr' is the address of the peer
     sending the data; the exact format depends on the transport.

 -- Μέθοδος: DatagramProtocol.error_received (exc)

     Called when a previous send or receive operation raises an *note
     OSError: 53c.  'exc' is the ‘OSError’ instance.

     This method is called in rare conditions, when the transport (e.g.
     UDP) detects that a datagram could not be delivered to its
     recipient.  In many conditions though, undeliverable datagrams will
     be silently dropped.

     Σημείωση: On BSD systems (macOS, FreeBSD, etc.)  flow control is
     not supported for datagram protocols, because there is no reliable
     way to detect send failures caused by writing too many packets.

     The socket always appears “ready” and excess packets are dropped.
     An *note OSError: 53c. with ‘errno’ set to *note errno.ENOBUFS:
     1d6e. may or may not be raised; if it is raised, it will be
     reported to *note DatagramProtocol.error_received(): 3b3c. but
     otherwise ignored.


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocess Protocols,  Prev: Datagram Protocols,  Up: Protocols<2>

5.20.1.95 Subprocess Protocols
..............................

Subprocess Protocol instances should be constructed by protocol
factories passed to the *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3a87. and *note
loop.subprocess_shell(): 3a88. methods.

 -- Μέθοδος: SubprocessProtocol.pipe_data_received (fd, data)

     Called when the child process writes data into its stdout or stderr
     pipe.

     'fd' is the integer file descriptor of the pipe.

     'data' is a non-empty bytes object containing the received data.

 -- Μέθοδος: SubprocessProtocol.pipe_connection_lost (fd, exc)

     Called when one of the pipes communicating with the child process
     is closed.

     'fd' is the integer file descriptor that was closed.

 -- Μέθοδος: SubprocessProtocol.process_exited ()

     Called when the child process has exited.

     It can be called before *note pipe_data_received(): 1d4e. and *note
     pipe_connection_lost(): 3b3e. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<16>,  Prev: Protocols<2>,  Up: Transports and Protocols

5.20.1.96 Examples
..................

* Menu:

* TCP Echo Server::
* TCP Echo Client::
* UDP Echo Server::
* UDP Echo Client::
* Connecting Existing Sockets::
* loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol.


File: python.info,  Node: TCP Echo Server,  Next: TCP Echo Client,  Up: Examples<16>

5.20.1.97 TCP Echo Server
.........................

Create a TCP echo server using the *note loop.create_server(): ed7.
method, send back received data, and close the connection:

     import asyncio


     class EchoServerProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
         def connection_made(self, transport):
             peername = transport.get_extra_info('peername')
             print('Connection from {}'.format(peername))
             self.transport = transport

         def data_received(self, data):
             message = data.decode()
             print('Data received: {!r}'.format(message))

             print('Send: {!r}'.format(message))
             self.transport.write(data)

             print('Close the client socket')
             self.transport.close()


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         server = await loop.create_server(
             EchoServerProtocol,
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         async with server:
             await server.serve_forever()


     asyncio.run(main())

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note TCP echo server using streams: 3a56. example uses the
high-level *note asyncio.start_server(): edd. function.


File: python.info,  Node: TCP Echo Client,  Next: UDP Echo Server,  Prev: TCP Echo Server,  Up: Examples<16>

5.20.1.98 TCP Echo Client
.........................

A TCP echo client using the *note loop.create_connection(): 9f9. method,
sends data, and waits until the connection is closed:

     import asyncio


     class EchoClientProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):
         def __init__(self, message, on_con_lost):
             self.message = message
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             transport.write(self.message.encode())
             print('Data sent: {!r}'.format(self.message))

         def data_received(self, data):
             print('Data received: {!r}'.format(data.decode()))

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             print('The server closed the connection')
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
         message = 'Hello World!'

         transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
             lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, on_con_lost),
             '127.0.0.1', 8888)

         # Wait until the protocol signals that the connection
         # is lost and close the transport.
         try:
             await on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note TCP echo client using streams: 3a53. example uses the
high-level *note asyncio.open_connection(): edc. function.


File: python.info,  Node: UDP Echo Server,  Next: UDP Echo Client,  Prev: TCP Echo Client,  Up: Examples<16>

5.20.1.99 UDP Echo Server
.........................

A UDP echo server, using the *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a.
method, sends back received data:

     import asyncio


     class EchoServerProtocol:
         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport

         def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
             message = data.decode()
             print('Received %r from %s' % (message, addr))
             print('Send %r to %s' % (message, addr))
             self.transport.sendto(data, addr)


     async def main():
         print("Starting UDP server")

         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         # One protocol instance will be created to serve all
         # client requests.
         transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
             EchoServerProtocol,
             local_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))

         try:
             await asyncio.sleep(3600)  # Serve for 1 hour.
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: UDP Echo Client,  Next: Connecting Existing Sockets,  Prev: UDP Echo Server,  Up: Examples<16>

5.20.1.100 UDP Echo Client
..........................

A UDP echo client, using the *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a.
method, sends data and closes the transport when it receives the answer:

     import asyncio


     class EchoClientProtocol:
         def __init__(self, message, on_con_lost):
             self.message = message
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost
             self.transport = None

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport
             print('Send:', self.message)
             self.transport.sendto(self.message.encode())

         def datagram_received(self, data, addr):
             print("Received:", data.decode())

             print("Close the socket")
             self.transport.close()

         def error_received(self, exc):
             print('Error received:', exc)

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             print("Connection closed")
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()
         message = "Hello World!"

         transport, protocol = await loop.create_datagram_endpoint(
             lambda: EchoClientProtocol(message, on_con_lost),
             remote_addr=('127.0.0.1', 9999))

         try:
             await on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()


     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: Connecting Existing Sockets,  Next: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol,  Prev: UDP Echo Client,  Up: Examples<16>

5.20.1.101 Connecting Existing Sockets
......................................

Wait until a socket receives data using the *note
loop.create_connection(): 9f9. method with a protocol:

     import asyncio
     import socket


     class MyProtocol(asyncio.Protocol):

         def __init__(self, on_con_lost):
             self.transport = None
             self.on_con_lost = on_con_lost

         def connection_made(self, transport):
             self.transport = transport

         def data_received(self, data):
             print("Received:", data.decode())

             # We are done: close the transport;
             # connection_lost() will be called automatically.
             self.transport.close()

         def connection_lost(self, exc):
             # The socket has been closed
             self.on_con_lost.set_result(True)


     async def main():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()
         on_con_lost = loop.create_future()

         # Create a pair of connected sockets
         rsock, wsock = socket.socketpair()

         # Register the socket to wait for data.
         transport, protocol = await loop.create_connection(
             lambda: MyProtocol(on_con_lost), sock=rsock)

         # Simulate the reception of data from the network.
         loop.call_soon(wsock.send, 'abc'.encode())

         try:
             await protocol.on_con_lost
         finally:
             transport.close()
             wsock.close()

     asyncio.run(main())

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note watch a file descriptor for read events: 3a5d. example uses
the low-level *note loop.add_reader(): 3a5e. method to register an FD.

The *note register an open socket to wait for data using streams: 3a5a.
example uses high-level streams created by the *note open_connection():
edc. function in a coroutine.


File: python.info,  Node: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol,  Prev: Connecting Existing Sockets,  Up: Examples<16>

5.20.1.102 loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol
........................................................

An example of a subprocess protocol used to get the output of a
subprocess and to wait for the subprocess exit.

The subprocess is created by the *note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3a87.
method:

     import asyncio
     import sys

     class DateProtocol(asyncio.SubprocessProtocol):
         def __init__(self, exit_future):
             self.exit_future = exit_future
             self.output = bytearray()
             self.pipe_closed = False
             self.exited = False

         def pipe_connection_lost(self, fd, exc):
             self.pipe_closed = True
             self.check_for_exit()

         def pipe_data_received(self, fd, data):
             self.output.extend(data)

         def process_exited(self):
             self.exited = True
             # process_exited() method can be called before
             # pipe_connection_lost() method: wait until both methods are
             # called.
             self.check_for_exit()

         def check_for_exit(self):
             if self.pipe_closed and self.exited:
                 self.exit_future.set_result(True)

     async def get_date():
         # Get a reference to the event loop as we plan to use
         # low-level APIs.
         loop = asyncio.get_running_loop()

         code = 'import datetime as dt; print(dt.datetime.now())'
         exit_future = asyncio.Future(loop=loop)

         # Create the subprocess controlled by DateProtocol;
         # redirect the standard output into a pipe.
         transport, protocol = await loop.subprocess_exec(
             lambda: DateProtocol(exit_future),
             sys.executable, '-c', code,
             stdin=None, stderr=None)

         # Wait for the subprocess exit using the process_exited()
         # method of the protocol.
         await exit_future

         # Close the stdout pipe.
         transport.close()

         # Read the output which was collected by the
         # pipe_data_received() method of the protocol.
         data = bytes(protocol.output)
         return data.decode('ascii').rstrip()

     date = asyncio.run(get_date())
     print(f"Current date: {date}")

See also the *note same example: 3a9b. written using high-level APIs.


File: python.info,  Node: Policies,  Next: Platform Support,  Prev: Transports and Protocols,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.103 Policies
...................

     Προειδοποίηση: Policies are deprecated and will be removed in
     Python 3.16.  Users are encouraged to use the *note asyncio.run():
     309. function or the *note asyncio.Runner: 30a. with 'loop_factory'
     to use the desired loop implementation.

An event loop policy is a global object used to get and set the current
*note event loop: 112f, as well as create new event loops.  The default
policy can be *note replaced: 3b48. with *note built-in alternatives:
3b49. to use different event loop implementations, or substituted by a
*note custom policy: 3b4a. that can override these behaviors.

The *note policy object: 3b4b. gets and sets a separate event loop per
'context'.  This is per-thread by default, though custom policies could
define 'context' differently.

Custom event loop policies can control the behavior of *note
get_event_loop(): 56c, *note set_event_loop(): 1d53, and *note
new_event_loop(): 3a0b.

Policy objects should implement the APIs defined in the *note
AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 303. abstract base class.

* Menu:

* Getting and Setting the Policy::
* Policy Objects::
* Custom Policies::


File: python.info,  Node: Getting and Setting the Policy,  Next: Policy Objects,  Up: Policies

5.20.1.104 Getting and Setting the Policy
.........................................

The following functions can be used to get and set the policy for the
current process:

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.get_event_loop_policy ()

     Return the current process-wide policy.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: The ‘get_event_loop_policy()’ function
     is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio.set_event_loop_policy (policy)

     Set the current process-wide policy to 'policy'.

     If 'policy' is set to ‘None’, the default policy is restored.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: The ‘set_event_loop_policy()’ function
     is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16.


File: python.info,  Node: Policy Objects,  Next: Custom Policies,  Prev: Getting and Setting the Policy,  Up: Policies

5.20.1.105 Policy Objects
.........................

The abstract event loop policy base class is defined as follows:

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy

     An abstract base class for asyncio policies.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_event_loop ()

          Get the event loop for the current context.

          Return an event loop object implementing the *note
          AbstractEventLoop: d29. interface.

          This method should never return ‘None’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_event_loop (loop)

          Set the event loop for the current context to 'loop'.

      -- Μέθοδος: new_event_loop ()

          Create and return a new event loop object.

          This method should never return ‘None’.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: The ‘AbstractEventLoopPolicy’ class is
     deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16.

asyncio ships with the following built-in policies:

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy

     The default asyncio policy.  Uses *note SelectorEventLoop: 30b. on
     Unix and *note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe. on Windows.

     There is no need to install the default policy manually.  asyncio
     is configured to use the default policy automatically.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: On Windows, *note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe.
     is now used by default.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The *note get_event_loop(): 56c. method of
     the default asyncio policy now raises a *note RuntimeError: 30d. if
     there is no set event loop.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: The ‘DefaultEventLoopPolicy’ class is
     deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy

     An alternative event loop policy that uses the *note
     SelectorEventLoop: 30b. event loop implementation.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: The ‘WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy’
     class is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16.

 -- Κλάση: asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy

     An alternative event loop policy that uses the *note
     ProactorEventLoop: 9fe. event loop implementation.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: The ‘WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy’
     class is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Policies,  Prev: Policy Objects,  Up: Policies

5.20.1.106 Custom Policies
..........................

To implement a new event loop policy, it is recommended to subclass
*note DefaultEventLoopPolicy: 304. and override the methods for which
custom behavior is wanted, e.g.:

     class MyEventLoopPolicy(asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy):

         def get_event_loop(self):
             """Get the event loop.

             This may be None or an instance of EventLoop.
             """
             loop = super().get_event_loop()
             # Do something with loop ...
             return loop

     asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(MyEventLoopPolicy())


File: python.info,  Node: Platform Support,  Next: Extending,  Prev: Policies,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.107 Platform Support
...........................

The *note asyncio: b. module is designed to be portable, but some
platforms have subtle differences and limitations due to the platforms”
underlying architecture and capabilities.

* Menu:

* All Platforms::
* Windows: Windows<83>.
* macOS: macOS<53>.


File: python.info,  Node: All Platforms,  Next: Windows<83>,  Up: Platform Support

5.20.1.108 All Platforms
........................

   * *note loop.add_reader(): 3a5e. and *note loop.add_writer(): 3ae4.
     cannot be used to monitor file I/O.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<83>,  Next: macOS<53>,  Prev: All Platforms,  Up: Platform Support

5.20.1.109 Windows
..................

'Source code:' Lib/asyncio/proactor_events.py(1),
Lib/asyncio/windows_events.py(2), Lib/asyncio/windows_utils.py(3)

__________________________________________________________________

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: On Windows, *note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe. is now
the default event loop.

All event loops on Windows do not support the following methods:

   * *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 3a43. and *note
     loop.create_unix_server(): 6d0. are not supported.  The *note
     socket.AF_UNIX: 1daa. socket family is specific to Unix.

   * *note loop.add_signal_handler(): 3aed. and *note
     loop.remove_signal_handler(): 3aee. are not supported.

*note SelectorEventLoop: 30b. has the following limitations:

   * *note SelectSelector: 3b57. is used to wait on socket events: it
     supports sockets and is limited to 512 sockets.

   * *note loop.add_reader(): 3a5e. and *note loop.add_writer(): 3ae4.
     only accept socket handles (e.g.  pipe file descriptors are not
     supported).

   * Pipes are not supported, so the *note loop.connect_read_pipe():
     3a8a. and *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 3a8b. methods are not
     implemented.

   * *note Subprocesses: 39ff. are not supported, i.e.  *note
     loop.subprocess_exec(): 3a87. and *note loop.subprocess_shell():
     3a88. methods are not implemented.

*note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe. has the following limitations:

   * The *note loop.add_reader(): 3a5e. and *note loop.add_writer():
     3ae4. methods are not supported.

The resolution of the monotonic clock on Windows is usually around 15.6
milliseconds.  The best resolution is 0.5 milliseconds.  The resolution
depends on the hardware (availability of HPET(4)) and on the Windows
configuration.

* Menu:

* Subprocess Support on Windows::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/proactor_events.py

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/windows_events.py

   (3) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/windows_utils.py

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Precision_Event_Timer


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocess Support on Windows,  Up: Windows<83>

5.20.1.110 Subprocess Support on Windows
........................................

On Windows, the default event loop *note ProactorEventLoop: 9fe.
supports subprocesses, whereas *note SelectorEventLoop: 30b. does not.


File: python.info,  Node: macOS<53>,  Prev: Windows<83>,  Up: Platform Support

5.20.1.111 macOS
................

Modern macOS versions are fully supported.

macOS <= 10.8
.............

On macOS 10.6, 10.7 and 10.8, the default event loop uses *note
selectors.KqueueSelector: 3b5a, which does not support character devices
on these versions.  The *note SelectorEventLoop: 30b. can be manually
configured to use *note SelectSelector: 3b57. or *note PollSelector:
f96. to support character devices on these older versions of macOS.
Example:

     import asyncio
     import selectors

     selector = selectors.SelectSelector()
     loop = asyncio.SelectorEventLoop(selector)
     asyncio.set_event_loop(loop)


File: python.info,  Node: Extending,  Next: High-level API Index,  Prev: Platform Support,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.112 Extending
....................

The main direction for *note asyncio: b. extending is writing custom
'event loop' classes.  Asyncio has helpers that could be used to
simplify this task.

     Σημείωση: Third-parties should reuse existing asyncio code with
     caution, a new Python version is free to break backward
     compatibility in 'internal' part of API.

* Menu:

* Writing a Custom Event Loop::
* Future and Task private constructors::
* Task lifetime support::


File: python.info,  Node: Writing a Custom Event Loop,  Next: Future and Task private constructors,  Up: Extending

5.20.1.113 Writing a Custom Event Loop
......................................

*note asyncio.AbstractEventLoop: d29. declares very many methods.
Implementing all them from scratch is a tedious job.

A loop can get many common methods implementation for free by inheriting
from ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop’.

In turn, the successor should implement a bunch of 'private' methods
declared but not implemented in ‘asyncio.BaseEventLoop’.

For example, ‘loop.create_connection()’ checks arguments, resolves DNS
addresses, and calls ‘loop._make_socket_transport()’ that should be
implemented by inherited class.  The ‘_make_socket_transport()’ method
is not documented and is considered as an 'internal' API.


File: python.info,  Node: Future and Task private constructors,  Next: Task lifetime support,  Prev: Writing a Custom Event Loop,  Up: Extending

5.20.1.114 Future and Task private constructors
...............................................

*note asyncio.Future: f8b. and *note asyncio.Task: 460. should be never
created directly, please use corresponding *note loop.create_future():
1038. and *note loop.create_task(): 463, or *note asyncio.create_task():
462. factories instead.

However, third-party 'event loops' may 'reuse' built-in future and task
implementations for the sake of getting a complex and highly optimized
code for free.

For this purpose the following, 'private' constructors are listed:

 -- Μέθοδος: Future.__init__ (*, loop=None)

     Create a built-in future instance.

     'loop' is an optional event loop instance.

 -- Μέθοδος: Task.__init__ (coro, *, loop=None, name=None, context=None)

     Create a built-in task instance.

     'loop' is an optional event loop instance.  The rest of arguments
     are described in *note loop.create_task(): 463. description.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: 'context' argument is added.


File: python.info,  Node: Task lifetime support,  Prev: Future and Task private constructors,  Up: Extending

5.20.1.115 Task lifetime support
................................

A third party task implementation should call the following functions to
keep a task visible by *note asyncio.all_tasks(): d20. and *note
asyncio.current_task(): 88f.:

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio._register_task (task)

     Register a new 'task' as managed by 'asyncio'.

     Call the function from a task constructor.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio._unregister_task (task)

     Unregister a 'task' from 'asyncio' internal structures.

     The function should be called when a task is about to finish.

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio._enter_task (loop, task)

     Switch the current task to the 'task' argument.

     Call the function just before executing a portion of embedded
     'coroutine' (*note coroutine.send(): 260e. or *note
     coroutine.throw(): 904.).

 -- Συνάρτηση: asyncio._leave_task (loop, task)

     Switch the current task back from 'task' to ‘None’.

     Call the function just after *note coroutine.send(): 260e. or *note
     coroutine.throw(): 904. execution.


File: python.info,  Node: High-level API Index,  Next: Low-level API Index,  Prev: Extending,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.116 High-level API Index
...............................

This page lists all high-level async/await enabled asyncio APIs.

* Menu:

* Tasks::
* Queues::
* Subprocesses: Subprocesses<2>.
* Streams: Streams<2>.
* Synchronization::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<15>.


File: python.info,  Node: Tasks,  Next: Queues,  Up: High-level API Index

5.20.1.117 Tasks
................

Utilities to run asyncio programs, create Tasks, and await on multiple
things with timeouts.

*note run(): 309.                                      Create event loop, run a coroutine, close the loop.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Runner: 30a.                                     A context manager that simplifies multiple async
                                                       function calls.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Task: 460.                                       Task object.
                                                       
                                                       
*note TaskGroup: 6d7.                                  A context manager that holds a group of tasks.
                                                       Provides a convenient and reliable way to wait for
                                                       all tasks in the group to finish.
                                                       
                                                       
*note create_task(): 462.                              Start an asyncio Task, then returns it.
                                                       
                                                       
*note current_task(): 88f.                             Return the current Task.
                                                       
                                                       
*note all_tasks(): d20.                                Return all tasks that are not yet finished for an
                                                       event loop.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note sleep(): e33.                            Sleep for a number of seconds.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note gather(): 9f4.                           Schedule and wait for things concurrently.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note wait_for(): 9f6.                         Run with a timeout.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note shield(): e34.                           Shield from cancellation.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note wait(): 891.                             Monitor for completion.
                                                       
                                                       
*note timeout(): 9f5.                                  Run with a timeout.  Useful in cases when ‘wait_for’
                                                       is not suitable.
                                                       
                                                       
*note to_thread(): cb9.                                Asynchronously run a function in a separate OS
                                                       thread.
                                                       
                                                       
*note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): c58.                 Schedule a coroutine from another OS thread.
                                                       
                                                       
‘for in’ *note as_completed(): 6cc.                    Monitor for completion with a ‘for’ loop.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Using asyncio.gather() to run things in parallel: 3a1d.

   * *note Using asyncio.wait_for() to enforce a timeout: 3a25.

   * *note Cancellation: 3a3a.

   * *note Using asyncio.sleep(): 3a1b.

   * See also the main *note Tasks documentation page: 39fe.


File: python.info,  Node: Queues,  Next: Subprocesses<2>,  Prev: Tasks,  Up: High-level API Index

5.20.1.118 Queues
.................

Queues should be used to distribute work amongst multiple asyncio Tasks,
implement connection pools, and pub/sub patterns.

*note Queue: e39.                                      A FIFO queue.
                                                       
                                                       
*note PriorityQueue: 3aad.                             A priority queue.
                                                       
                                                       
*note LifoQueue: 3aaf.                                 A LIFO queue.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Using asyncio.Queue to distribute workload between several
     Tasks: 3ab1.

   * See also the *note Queues documentation page: 3a00.


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocesses<2>,  Next: Streams<2>,  Prev: Queues,  Up: High-level API Index

5.20.1.119 Subprocesses
.......................

Utilities to spawn subprocesses and run shell commands.

‘await’ *note create_subprocess_exec(): e3a.           Create a subprocess.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note create_subprocess_shell(): e3b.          Run a shell command.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Executing a shell command: 3a81.

   * See also the *note subprocess APIs: 39ff. documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Streams<2>,  Next: Synchronization,  Prev: Subprocesses<2>,  Up: High-level API Index

5.20.1.120 Streams
..................

High-level APIs to work with network IO.

‘await’ *note open_connection(): edc.                  Establish a TCP connection.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note open_unix_connection(): 3a42.            Establish a Unix socket connection.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note start_server(): edd.                     Start a TCP server.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note start_unix_server(): 3a44.               Start a Unix socket server.
                                                       
                                                       
*note StreamReader: 194a.                              High-level async/await object to receive network
                                                       data.
                                                       
                                                       
*note StreamWriter: 1c76.                              High-level async/await object to send network data.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Example TCP client: 3a3e.

   * See also the *note streams APIs: 19b0. documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronization,  Next: Exceptions<15>,  Prev: Streams<2>,  Up: High-level API Index

5.20.1.121 Synchronization
..........................

Threading-like synchronization primitives that can be used in Tasks.

*note Lock: e35.                                       A mutex lock.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Event: 56d.                                      An event object.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Condition: e36.                                  A condition object.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Semaphore: e37.                                  A semaphore.
                                                       
                                                       
*note BoundedSemaphore: e38.                           A bounded semaphore.
                                                       
                                                       
*note Barrier: 9f7.                                    A barrier object.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Using asyncio.Event: 3a6a.

   * *note Using asyncio.Barrier: 3a78.

   * See also the documentation of asyncio *note synchronization
     primitives: 3a01.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<15>,  Prev: Synchronization,  Up: High-level API Index

5.20.1.122 Exceptions
.....................

*note asyncio.CancelledError: 6da.                     Raised when a Task is cancelled.  See also
                                                       *note Task.cancel(): 6d9.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.BrokenBarrierError: 9f8.                 Raised when a Barrier is broken.  See also
                                                       *note Barrier.wait(): 3a77.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Handling CancelledError to run code on cancellation request:
     3a3a.

   * See also the full list of *note asyncio-specific exceptions: 3ab3.


File: python.info,  Node: Low-level API Index,  Next: Developing with asyncio,  Prev: High-level API Index,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.123 Low-level API Index
..............................

This page lists all low-level asyncio APIs.

* Menu:

* Obtaining the Event Loop::
* Event Loop Methods::
* Transports: Transports<2>.
* Protocols: Protocols<3>.
* Event Loop Policies::


File: python.info,  Node: Obtaining the Event Loop,  Next: Event Loop Methods,  Up: Low-level API Index

5.20.1.124 Obtaining the Event Loop
...................................

*note asyncio.get_running_loop(): ecf.                 The 'preferred' function to get the running event
                                                       loop.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 56c.                   Get an event loop instance (running or current via
                                                       the current policy).
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.set_event_loop(): 1d53.                  Set the event loop as current via the current
                                                       policy.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.new_event_loop(): 3a0b.                  Create a new event loop.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Using asyncio.get_running_loop(): 3b0f.


File: python.info,  Node: Event Loop Methods,  Next: Transports<2>,  Prev: Obtaining the Event Loop,  Up: Low-level API Index

5.20.1.125 Event Loop Methods
.............................

See also the main documentation section about the *note Event loop
methods: 3aca.

Lifecycle
.........

*note loop.run_until_complete(): 1036.                 Run a Future/Task/awaitable until complete.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.run_forever(): 3acc.                        Run the event loop forever.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.stop(): 103b.                               Stop the event loop.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.close(): 3ace.                              Close the event loop.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.is_running(): 3acd.                         Return ‘True’ if the event loop is running.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.is_closed(): 117c.                          Return ‘True’ if the event loop is closed.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.shutdown_asyncgens(): 103d.         Close asynchronous generators.
                                                       

Debugging
.........

*note loop.set_debug(): 117a.                          Enable or disable the debug mode.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_debug(): 117b.                          Get the current debug mode.
                                                       

Scheduling Callbacks
....................

*note loop.call_soon(): ec8.                           Invoke a callback soon.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): ec9.                A thread-safe variant of
                                                       *note loop.call_soon(): ec8.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_later(): eca.                          Invoke a callback 'after' the given time.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.call_at(): ecb.                             Invoke a callback 'at' the given time.
                                                       

Thread/Interpreter/Process Pool
...............................

‘await’ *note loop.run_in_executor(): cba.             Run a CPU-bound or other blocking function in a
                                                       *note concurrent.futures: 24. executor.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_default_executor(): b28.                Set the default executor for
                                                       *note loop.run_in_executor(): cba.
                                                       

Tasks and Futures
.................

*note loop.create_future(): 1038.                      Create a *note Future: f8b. object.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.create_task(): 463.                         Schedule coroutine as a *note Task: 460.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_task_factory(): 461.                    Set a factory used by *note loop.create_task(): 463.
                                                       to create *note Tasks: 460.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_task_factory(): 117e.                   Get the factory *note loop.create_task(): 463. uses
                                                       to create *note Tasks: 460.
                                                       

DNS
...

‘await’ *note loop.getaddrinfo(): fd3.                 Asynchronous version of
                                                       *note socket.getaddrinfo(): 1925.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.getnameinfo(): fd4.                 Asynchronous version of
                                                       *note socket.getnameinfo(): 1c42.
                                                       

Networking and IPC
..................

‘await’ *note loop.create_connection(): 9f9.           Open a TCP connection.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_server(): ed7.               Create a TCP server.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_unix_connection(): 3a43.     Open a Unix socket connection.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_unix_server(): 6d0.          Create a Unix socket server.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_accepted_socket(): bbb.     Wrap a *note socket: 115a. into a ‘(transport,
                                                       protocol)’ pair.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a.    Open a datagram (UDP) connection.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sendfile(): 3ae0.                   Send a file over a transport.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.start_tls(): ecd.                   Upgrade an existing connection to TLS.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_read_pipe(): 3a8a.          Wrap a read end of a pipe into a ‘(transport,
                                                       protocol)’ pair.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.connect_write_pipe(): 3a8b.         Wrap a write end of a pipe into a ‘(transport,
                                                       protocol)’ pair.
                                                       

Sockets
.......

‘await’ *note loop.sock_recv(): fd0.                   Receive data from the *note socket: 115a.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recv_into(): ece.              Receive data from the *note socket: 115a. into a
                                                       buffer.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recvfrom(): 9fc.               Receive a datagram from the *note socket: 115a.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_recvfrom_into(): 9fd.          Receive a datagram from the *note socket: 115a. into
                                                       a buffer.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendall(): fd1.                Send data to the *note socket: 115a.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendto(): 9fb.                 Send a datagram via the *note socket: 115a. to the
                                                       given address.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_connect(): 1181.               Connect the *note socket: 115a.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_accept(): fd2.                 Accept a *note socket: 115a. connection.
                                                       
                                                       
‘await’ *note loop.sock_sendfile(): ed2.               Send a file over the *note socket: 115a.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.add_reader(): 3a5e.                         Start watching a file descriptor for read
                                                       availability.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_reader(): 3ae3.                      Stop watching a file descriptor for read
                                                       availability.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.add_writer(): 3ae4.                         Start watching a file descriptor for write
                                                       availability.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_writer(): 3ae5.                      Stop watching a file descriptor for write
                                                       availability.
                                                       

Unix Signals
............

*note loop.add_signal_handler(): 3aed.                 Add a handler for a *note signal: ce.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.remove_signal_handler(): 3aee.              Remove a handler for a *note signal: ce.
                                                       

Subprocesses
............

*note loop.subprocess_exec(): 3a87.                    Spawn a subprocess.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.subprocess_shell(): 3a88.                   Spawn a subprocess from a shell command.
                                                       

Error Handling
..............

*note loop.call_exception_handler(): 3af2.             Call the exception handler.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.set_exception_handler(): 3af1.              Set a new exception handler.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.get_exception_handler(): 1039.              Get the current exception handler.
                                                       
                                                       
*note loop.default_exception_handler(): 3af3.          The default exception handler implementation.
                                                       

Examples
........

   * *note Using asyncio.new_event_loop() and loop.run_forever(): 3afe.

   * *note Using loop.call_later(): 3b00.

   * Using ‘loop.create_connection()’ to implement *note an echo-client:
     3a55.

   * Using ‘loop.create_connection()’ to *note connect a socket: 3a5c.

   * *note Using add_reader() to watch an FD for read events: 3a5d.

   * *note Using loop.add_signal_handler(): 3b03.

   * *note Using loop.subprocess_exec(): 3a9c.


File: python.info,  Node: Transports<2>,  Next: Protocols<3>,  Prev: Event Loop Methods,  Up: Low-level API Index

5.20.1.126 Transports
.....................

All transports implement the following methods:

*note transport.close(): 3ada.                         Close the transport.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.is_closing(): 1037.                    Return ‘True’ if the transport is closing or is
                                                       closed.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_extra_info(): e62.                 Request for information about the transport.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.set_protocol(): 3b1f.                  Set a new protocol.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_protocol(): 3b20.                  Return the current protocol.
                                                       

Transports that can receive data (TCP and Unix connections, pipes, etc).
Returned from methods like *note loop.create_connection(): 9f9, *note
loop.create_unix_connection(): 3a43, *note loop.connect_read_pipe():
3a8a, etc:

Read Transports
...............

*note transport.is_reading(): edf.                     Return ‘True’ if the transport is receiving.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.pause_reading(): ee1.                  Pause receiving.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.resume_reading(): ee0.                 Resume receiving.
                                                       

Transports that can Send data (TCP and Unix connections, pipes, etc).
Returned from methods like *note loop.create_connection(): 9f9, *note
loop.create_unix_connection(): 3a43, *note loop.connect_write_pipe():
3a8b, etc:

Write Transports
................

*note transport.write(): 1a0a.                         Write data to the transport.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.writelines(): 1a09.                    Write buffers to the transport.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.can_write_eof(): 3b23.                 Return *note True: fcc. if the transport supports
                                                       sending EOF.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.write_eof(): 3b24.                     Close and send EOF after flushing buffered data.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.abort(): 3afb.                         Close the transport immediately.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_write_buffer_size(): 192c.         Return the current size of the output buffer.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_write_buffer_limits(): 117d.       Return high and low water marks for write flow
                                                       control.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.set_write_buffer_limits(): 3b25.       Set new high and low water marks for write flow
                                                       control.
                                                       

Transports returned by *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): b1a.:

Datagram Transports
...................

*note transport.sendto(): 6d1.                         Send data to the remote peer.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.abort(): 3b29.                         Close the transport immediately.
                                                       

Low-level transport abstraction over subprocesses.  Returned by *note
loop.subprocess_exec(): 3a87. and *note loop.subprocess_shell(): 3a88.:

Subprocess Transports
.....................

*note transport.get_pid(): 3b2b.                       Return the subprocess process id.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_pipe_transport(): 3b2c.            Return the transport for the requested communication
                                                       pipe ('stdin', 'stdout', or 'stderr').
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.get_returncode(): 3b2d.                Return the subprocess return code.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.kill(): 3b2e.                          Kill the subprocess.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.send_signal(): 3b30.                   Send a signal to the subprocess.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.terminate(): 3b2f.                     Stop the subprocess.
                                                       
                                                       
*note transport.close(): 3b31.                         Kill the subprocess and close all pipes.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Protocols<3>,  Next: Event Loop Policies,  Prev: Transports<2>,  Up: Low-level API Index

5.20.1.127 Protocols
....................

Protocol classes can implement the following 'callback methods':

‘callback’ *note connection_made(): 3ad8.              Called when a connection is made.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note connection_lost(): 3b1c.              Called when the connection is lost or closed.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note pause_writing(): 3b26.                Called when the transport’s buffer goes over the
                                                       high water mark.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note resume_writing(): 3b27.               Called when the transport’s buffer drains below the
                                                       low water mark.
                                                       

Streaming Protocols (TCP, Unix Sockets, Pipes)
..............................................

‘callback’ *note data_received(): 1d01.                Called when some data is received.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note eof_received(): 3b35.                 Called when an EOF is received.
                                                       

Buffered Streaming Protocols
............................

‘callback’ *note get_buffer(): 3b37.                   Called to allocate a new receive buffer.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note buffer_updated(): 3b38.               Called when the buffer was updated with the received
                                                       data.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note eof_received(): 3b39.                 Called when an EOF is received.
                                                       

Datagram Protocols
..................

‘callback’ *note datagram_received(): 3b3b.            Called when a datagram is received.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note error_received(): 3b3c.               Called when a previous send or receive operation
                                                       raises an *note OSError: 53c.
                                                       

Subprocess Protocols
....................

‘callback’ *note pipe_data_received(): 1d4e.           Called when the child process writes data into its
                                                       'stdout' or 'stderr' pipe.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note pipe_connection_lost(): 3b3e.         Called when one of the pipes communicating with the
                                                       child process is closed.
                                                       
                                                       
‘callback’ *note process_exited(): 1d4d.               Called when the child process has exited.  It can be
                                                       called before *note pipe_data_received(): 1d4e. and
                                                       *note pipe_connection_lost(): 3b3e. methods.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Event Loop Policies,  Prev: Protocols<3>,  Up: Low-level API Index

5.20.1.128 Event Loop Policies
..............................

Policies is a low-level mechanism to alter the behavior of functions
like *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 56c.  See also the main *note
policies section: 3ac4. for more details.

Accessing Policies
..................

*note asyncio.get_event_loop_policy(): 307.            Return the current process-wide policy.
                                                       
                                                       
*note asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(): 308.            Set a new process-wide policy.
                                                       
                                                       
*note AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 303.                    Base class for policy objects.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Developing with asyncio,  Prev: Low-level API Index,  Up: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O

5.20.1.129 Developing with asyncio
..................................

Asynchronous programming is different from classic «sequential»
programming.

This page lists common mistakes and traps and explains how to avoid
them.

* Menu:

* Debug Mode::
* Concurrency and Multithreading::
* Running Blocking Code::
* Logging: Logging<3>.
* Detect never-awaited coroutines::
* Detect never-retrieved exceptions::
* Asynchronous generators best practices::


File: python.info,  Node: Debug Mode,  Next: Concurrency and Multithreading,  Up: Developing with asyncio

5.20.1.130 Debug Mode
.....................

By default asyncio runs in production mode.  In order to ease the
development asyncio has a 'debug mode'.

There are several ways to enable asyncio debug mode:

   * Setting the *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 2327. environment variable to
     ‘1’.

   * Using the *note Python Development Mode: 70d.

   * Passing ‘debug=True’ to *note asyncio.run(): 309.

   * Calling *note loop.set_debug(): 117a.

In addition to enabling the debug mode, consider also:

   * setting the log level of the *note asyncio logger: 3b7c. to *note
     logging.DEBUG: 22cd, for example the following snippet of code can
     be run at startup of the application:

          logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)

   * configuring the *note warnings: 11b. module to display *note
     ResourceWarning: 74f. warnings.  One way of doing that is by using
     the *note -W: 1c0. ‘default’ command line option.

When the debug mode is enabled:

   * Many non-threadsafe asyncio APIs (such as *note loop.call_soon():
     ec8. and *note loop.call_at(): ecb. methods) raise an exception if
     they are called from a wrong thread.

   * The execution time of the I/O selector is logged if it takes too
     long to perform an I/O operation.

   * Callbacks taking longer than 100 milliseconds are logged.  The
     *note loop.slow_callback_duration: 3af5. attribute can be used to
     set the minimum execution duration in seconds that is considered
     «slow».


File: python.info,  Node: Concurrency and Multithreading,  Next: Running Blocking Code,  Prev: Debug Mode,  Up: Developing with asyncio

5.20.1.131 Concurrency and Multithreading
.........................................

An event loop runs in a thread (typically the main thread) and executes
all callbacks and Tasks in its thread.  While a Task is running in the
event loop, no other Tasks can run in the same thread.  When a Task
executes an ‘await’ expression, the running Task gets suspended, and the
event loop executes the next Task.

To schedule a *note callback: 2fc5. from another OS thread, the *note
loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): ec9. method should be used.  Example:

     loop.call_soon_threadsafe(callback, *args)

Almost all asyncio objects are not thread safe, which is typically not a
problem unless there is code that works with them from outside of a Task
or a callback.  If there’s a need for such code to call a low-level
asyncio API, the *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): ec9. method should
be used, e.g.:

     loop.call_soon_threadsafe(fut.cancel)

To schedule a coroutine object from a different OS thread, the *note
run_coroutine_threadsafe(): c58. function should be used.  It returns a
*note concurrent.futures.Future: 155b. to access the result:

     async def coro_func():
          return await asyncio.sleep(1, 42)

     # Later in another OS thread:

     future = asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(coro_func(), loop)
     # Wait for the result:
     result = future.result()

To handle signals the event loop must be run in the main thread.

The *note loop.run_in_executor(): cba. method can be used with a *note
concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: b27. or *note
InterpreterPoolExecutor: 46a. to execute blocking code in a different OS
thread without blocking the OS thread that the event loop runs in.

There is currently no way to schedule coroutines or callbacks directly
from a different process (such as one started with *note
multiprocessing: 98.).  The *note Event loop methods: 3aca. section
lists APIs that can read from pipes and watch file descriptors without
blocking the event loop.  In addition, asyncio’s *note Subprocess: 39ff.
APIs provide a way to start a process and communicate with it from the
event loop.  Lastly, the aforementioned *note loop.run_in_executor():
cba. method can also be used with a *note
concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. to execute code in a
different process.


File: python.info,  Node: Running Blocking Code,  Next: Logging<3>,  Prev: Concurrency and Multithreading,  Up: Developing with asyncio

5.20.1.132 Running Blocking Code
................................

Blocking (CPU-bound) code should not be called directly.  For example,
if a function performs a CPU-intensive calculation for 1 second, all
concurrent asyncio Tasks and IO operations would be delayed by 1 second.

An executor can be used to run a task in a different thread, including
in a different interpreter, or even in a different process to avoid
blocking the OS thread with the event loop.  See the *note
loop.run_in_executor(): cba. method for more details.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging<3>,  Next: Detect never-awaited coroutines,  Prev: Running Blocking Code,  Up: Developing with asyncio

5.20.1.133 Logging
..................

asyncio uses the *note logging: 8a. module and all logging is performed
via the ‘"asyncio"’ logger.

The default log level is *note logging.INFO: 22ce, which can be easily
adjusted:

     logging.getLogger("asyncio").setLevel(logging.WARNING)

Network logging can block the event loop.  It is recommended to use a
separate thread for handling logs or use non-blocking IO. For example,
see *note Dealing with handlers that block: 3b81.


File: python.info,  Node: Detect never-awaited coroutines,  Next: Detect never-retrieved exceptions,  Prev: Logging<3>,  Up: Developing with asyncio

5.20.1.134 Detect never-awaited coroutines
..........................................

When a coroutine function is called, but not awaited (e.g.  ‘coro()’
instead of ‘await coro()’) or the coroutine is not scheduled with *note
asyncio.create_task(): 462, asyncio will emit a *note RuntimeWarning:
6dd.:

     import asyncio

     async def test():
         print("never scheduled")

     async def main():
         test()

     asyncio.run(main())

Output:

     test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
       test()

Output in debug mode:

     test.py:7: RuntimeWarning: coroutine 'test' was never awaited
     Coroutine created at (most recent call last)
       File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
         asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

       < .. >

       File "../t.py", line 7, in main
         test()
       test()

The usual fix is to either await the coroutine or call the *note
asyncio.create_task(): 462. function:

     async def main():
         await test()


File: python.info,  Node: Detect never-retrieved exceptions,  Next: Asynchronous generators best practices,  Prev: Detect never-awaited coroutines,  Up: Developing with asyncio

5.20.1.135 Detect never-retrieved exceptions
............................................

If a *note Future.set_exception(): 103c. is called but the Future object
is never awaited on, the exception would never be propagated to the user
code.  In this case, asyncio would emit a log message when the Future
object is garbage collected.

Example of an unhandled exception:

     import asyncio

     async def bug():
         raise Exception("not consumed")

     async def main():
         asyncio.create_task(bug())

     asyncio.run(main())

Output:

     Task exception was never retrieved
     future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
       exception=Exception('not consumed')>

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "test.py", line 4, in bug
         raise Exception("not consumed")
     Exception: not consumed

*note Enable the debug mode: 2328. to get the traceback where the task
was created:

     asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

Output in debug mode:

     Task exception was never retrieved
     future: <Task finished coro=<bug() done, defined at test.py:3>
         exception=Exception('not consumed') created at asyncio/tasks.py:321>

     source_traceback: Object created at (most recent call last):
       File "../t.py", line 9, in <module>
         asyncio.run(main(), debug=True)

     < .. >

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "../t.py", line 4, in bug
         raise Exception("not consumed")
     Exception: not consumed


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous generators best practices,  Prev: Detect never-retrieved exceptions,  Up: Developing with asyncio

5.20.1.136 Asynchronous generators best practices
.................................................

Writing correct and efficient asyncio code requires awareness of certain
pitfalls.  This section outlines essential best practices that can save
you hours of debugging.

* Menu:

* Close asynchronous generators explicitly::
* Create asynchronous generators only when the event loop is running::
* Avoid concurrent iteration and closure of the same generator::


File: python.info,  Node: Close asynchronous generators explicitly,  Next: Create asynchronous generators only when the event loop is running,  Up: Asynchronous generators best practices

5.20.1.137 Close asynchronous generators explicitly
...................................................

It is recommended to manually close the *note asynchronous generator:
3b87.  If a generator exits early - for example, due to an exception
raised in the body of an ‘async for’ loop - its asynchronous cleanup
code may run in an unexpected context.  This can occur after the tasks
it depends on have completed, or during the event loop shutdown when the
async-generator’s garbage collection hook is called.

To avoid this, explicitly close the generator by calling its *note
aclose(): caa. method, or use the *note contextlib.aclosing(): bc9.
context manager:

     import asyncio
     import contextlib

     async def gen():
       yield 1
       yield 2

     async def func():
       async with contextlib.aclosing(gen()) as g:
         async for x in g:
           break  # Don't iterate until the end

     asyncio.run(func())

As noted above, the cleanup code for these asynchronous generators is
deferred.  The following example demonstrates that the finalization of
an asynchronous generator can occur in an unexpected order:

     import asyncio
     work_done = False

     async def cursor():
         try:
             yield 1
         finally:
             assert work_done

     async def rows():
         global work_done
         try:
             yield 2
         finally:
             await asyncio.sleep(0.1) # imitate some async work
             work_done = True


     async def main():
         async for c in cursor():
             async for r in rows():
                 break
             break

     asyncio.run(main())

For this example, we get the following output:

     unhandled exception during asyncio.run() shutdown
     task: <Task finished name='Task-3' coro=<<async_generator_athrow without __name__>()> exception=AssertionError()>
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "example.py", line 6, in cursor
         yield 1
     asyncio.exceptions.CancelledError

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "example.py", line 8, in cursor
         assert work_done
                ^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError

The ‘cursor()’ asynchronous generator was finalized before the ‘rows’
generator - an unexpected behavior.

The example can be fixed by explicitly closing the ‘cursor’ and ‘rows’
async-generators:

     async def main():
         async with contextlib.aclosing(cursor()) as cursor_gen:
             async for c in cursor_gen:
                 async with contextlib.aclosing(rows()) as rows_gen:
                     async for r in rows_gen:
                         break
                 break


File: python.info,  Node: Create asynchronous generators only when the event loop is running,  Next: Avoid concurrent iteration and closure of the same generator,  Prev: Close asynchronous generators explicitly,  Up: Asynchronous generators best practices

5.20.1.138 Create asynchronous generators only when the event loop is running
.............................................................................

It is recommended to create *note asynchronous generators: 3b87. only
after the event loop has been created.

To ensure that asynchronous generators close reliably, the event loop
uses the *note sys.set_asyncgen_hooks(): 1baa. function to register
callback functions.  These callbacks update the list of running
asynchronous generators to keep it in a consistent state.

When the *note loop.shutdown_asyncgens(): 103d. function is called, the
running generators are stopped gracefully and the list is cleared.

The asynchronous generator invokes the corresponding system hook during
its first iteration.  At the same time, the generator records that the
hook has been called and does not call it again.

Therefore, if iteration begins before the event loop is created, the
event loop will not be able to add the generator to its list of active
generators because the hooks are set after the generator attempts to
call them.  Consequently, the event loop will not be able to terminate
the generator if necessary.

Consider the following example:

     import asyncio

     async def agenfn():
         try:
             yield 10
         finally:
             await asyncio.sleep(0)


     with asyncio.Runner() as runner:
         agen = agenfn()
         print(runner.run(anext(agen)))
         del agen

Output:

     10
     Exception ignored while closing generator <async_generator object agenfn at 0x000002F71CD10D70>:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "example.py", line 13, in <module>
         del agen
             ^^^^
     RuntimeError: async generator ignored GeneratorExit

This example can be fixed as follows:

     import asyncio

     async def agenfn():
         try:
             yield 10
         finally:
             await asyncio.sleep(0)

     async def main():
         agen = agenfn()
         print(await anext(agen))
         del agen

     asyncio.run(main())


File: python.info,  Node: Avoid concurrent iteration and closure of the same generator,  Prev: Create asynchronous generators only when the event loop is running,  Up: Asynchronous generators best practices

5.20.1.139 Avoid concurrent iteration and closure of the same generator
.......................................................................

Async generators may be reentered while another *note __anext__(): 2697.
/ *note athrow(): 906. / *note aclose(): caa. call is in progress.  This
may lead to an inconsistent state of the async generator and can cause
errors.

Let’s consider the following example:

     import asyncio

     async def consumer():
         for idx in range(100):
             await asyncio.sleep(0)
             message = yield idx
             print('received', message)

     async def amain():
         agenerator = consumer()
         await agenerator.asend(None)

         fa = asyncio.create_task(agenerator.asend('A'))
         fb = asyncio.create_task(agenerator.asend('B'))
         await fa
         await fb

     asyncio.run(amain())

Output:

     received A
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "test.py", line 38, in <module>
         asyncio.run(amain())
         ~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^
       File "Lib/asyncio/runners.py", line 204, in run
         return runner.run(main)
                ~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^
       File "Lib/asyncio/runners.py", line 127, in run
         return self._loop.run_until_complete(task)
                ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^
       File "Lib/asyncio/base_events.py", line 719, in run_until_complete
         return future.result()
                ~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "test.py", line 36, in amain
         await fb
     RuntimeError: anext(): asynchronous generator is already running

Therefore, it is recommended to avoid using asynchronous generators in
parallel tasks or across multiple event loops.

     Σημείωση: The source code for asyncio can be found in
     Lib/asyncio/(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/


File: python.info,  Node: socket — Low-level networking interface,  Next: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects,  Prev: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.20.2 ‘socket’ — Low-level networking interface
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/socket.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the BSD 'socket' interface.  It is
available on all modern Unix systems, Windows, MacOS, and probably
additional platforms.

     Σημείωση: Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are
     made to the operating system socket APIs.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

The Python interface is a straightforward transliteration of the Unix
system call and library interface for sockets to Python’s
object-oriented style: the *note socket(): 115a. function returns a
'socket object' whose methods implement the various socket system calls.
Parameter types are somewhat higher-level than in the C interface: as
with ‘read()’ and ‘write()’ operations on Python files, buffer
allocation on receive operations is automatic, and buffer length is
implicit on send operations.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note socketserver: d5.

     Classes that simplify writing network servers.

Module *note ssl: d8.

     A TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.

* Menu:

* Socket families::
* Module contents: Module contents<3>.
* Socket Objects::
* Notes on socket timeouts::
* Example: Example<7>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/socket.py


File: python.info,  Node: Socket families,  Next: Module contents<3>,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.20.2.1 Socket families
........................

Depending on the system and the build options, various socket families
are supported by this module.

The address format required by a particular socket object is
automatically selected based on the address family specified when the
socket object was created.  Socket addresses are represented as follows:

   - The address of an *note AF_UNIX: 1daa. socket bound to a file
     system node is represented as a string, using the file system
     encoding and the ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler (see PEP
     383(1)).  An address in Linux’s abstract namespace is returned as a
     *note bytes-like object: 436. with an initial null byte; note that
     sockets in this namespace can communicate with normal file system
     sockets, so programs intended to run on Linux may need to deal with
     both types of address.  A string or bytes-like object can be used
     for either type of address when passing it as an argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Previously, *note AF_UNIX: 1daa. socket
     paths were assumed to use UTF-8 encoding.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Writable *note bytes-like object: 436. is
     now accepted.

   - A pair ‘(host, port)’ is used for the *note AF_INET: 1da7. address
     family, where 'host' is a string representing either a hostname in
     internet domain notation like ‘'daring.cwi.nl'’ or an IPv4 address
     like ‘'100.50.200.5'’, and 'port' is an integer.

        - For IPv4 addresses, two special forms are accepted instead of
          a host address: ‘''’ represents ‘INADDR_ANY’, which is used to
          bind to all interfaces, and the string ‘'<broadcast>'’
          represents ‘INADDR_BROADCAST’.  This behavior is not
          compatible with IPv6, therefore, you may want to avoid these
          if you intend to support IPv6 with your Python programs.

   - For *note AF_INET6: 1da8. address family, a four-tuple ‘(host,
     port, flowinfo, scope_id)’ is used, where 'flowinfo' and 'scope_id'
     represent the ‘sin6_flowinfo’ and ‘sin6_scope_id’ members in
     ‘struct sockaddr_in6’ in C. For ‘socket’ module methods, 'flowinfo'
     and 'scope_id' can be omitted just for backward compatibility.
     Note, however, omission of 'scope_id' can cause problems in
     manipulating scoped IPv6 addresses.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: For multicast addresses (with 'scope_id'
     meaningful) 'address' may not contain ‘%scope_id’ (or ‘zone id’)
     part.  This information is superfluous and may be safely omitted
     (recommended).

   - ‘AF_NETLINK’ sockets are represented as pairs ‘(pid, groups)’.

   - Linux-only support for TIPC is available using the ‘AF_TIPC’
     address family.  TIPC is an open, non-IP based networked protocol
     designed for use in clustered computer environments.  Addresses are
     represented by a tuple, and the fields depend on the address type.
     The general tuple form is ‘(addr_type, v1, v2, v3 [, scope])’,
     where:

        - 'addr_type' is one of ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ’, ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAME’,
          or ‘TIPC_ADDR_ID’.

        - 'scope' is one of ‘TIPC_ZONE_SCOPE’, ‘TIPC_CLUSTER_SCOPE’, and
          ‘TIPC_NODE_SCOPE’.

        - If 'addr_type' is ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAME’, then 'v1' is the server
          type, 'v2' is the port identifier, and 'v3' should be 0.

          If 'addr_type' is ‘TIPC_ADDR_NAMESEQ’, then 'v1' is the server
          type, 'v2' is the lower port number, and 'v3' is the upper
          port number.

          If 'addr_type' is ‘TIPC_ADDR_ID’, then 'v1' is the node, 'v2'
          is the reference, and 'v3' should be set to 0.

   - A tuple ‘(interface, )’ is used for the *note AF_CAN: 3b90. address
     family, where 'interface' is a string representing a network
     interface name like ‘'can0'’.  The network interface name ‘''’ can
     be used to receive packets from all network interfaces of this
     family.

        - *note CAN_ISOTP: 3b91. protocol requires a tuple ‘(interface,
          rx_addr, tx_addr)’ where both additional parameters are
          unsigned long integer that represent a CAN identifier
          (standard or extended).

        - *note CAN_J1939: cff. protocol requires a tuple ‘(interface,
          name, pgn, addr)’ where additional parameters are 64-bit
          unsigned integer representing the ECU name, a 32-bit unsigned
          integer representing the Parameter Group Number (PGN), and an
          8-bit integer representing the address.

   - A string or a tuple ‘(id, unit)’ is used for the ‘SYSPROTO_CONTROL’
     protocol of the ‘PF_SYSTEM’ family.  The string is the name of a
     kernel control using a dynamically assigned ID. The tuple can be
     used if ID and unit number of the kernel control are known or if a
     registered ID is used.

     Added in version 3.3.

   - *note AF_BLUETOOTH: 1da9. supports the following protocols and
     address formats:

        - *note BTPROTO_L2CAP: 50b. accepts a tuple ‘(bdaddr, psm[,
          cid[, bdaddr_type]])’ where:

             - ‘bdaddr’ is a string specifying the Bluetooth address.

             - ‘psm’ is an integer specifying the Protocol/Service
               Multiplexer.

             - ‘cid’ is an optional integer specifying the Channel
               Identifier.  If not given, defaults to zero.

             - ‘bdaddr_type’ is an optional integer specifying the
               address type; one of *note BDADDR_BREDR: 3b92. (default),
               *note BDADDR_LE_PUBLIC: 3b93, *note BDADDR_LE_RANDOM:
               3b94.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added ‘cid’ and ‘bdaddr_type’ fields.

        - *note BTPROTO_RFCOMM: 3b95. accepts ‘(bdaddr, channel)’ where
          ‘bdaddr’ is the Bluetooth address as a string and ‘channel’ is
          an integer.

        - *note BTPROTO_HCI: 509. accepts a format that depends on your
          OS.

             - On Linux it accepts an integer ‘device_id’ or a tuple
               ‘(device_id, [channel])’ where ‘device_id’ specifies the
               number of the Bluetooth device, and ‘channel’ is an
               optional integer specifying the HCI channel (*note
               HCI_CHANNEL_RAW: 3b96. by default).

             - On FreeBSD, NetBSD and DragonFly BSD it accepts ‘bdaddr’
               where ‘bdaddr’ is the Bluetooth address as a string.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: NetBSD and DragonFlyBSD support added.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13.3: FreeBSD support added.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added ‘channel’ field.  ‘device_id’
          not packed in a tuple is now accepted.

        - *note BTPROTO_SCO: 50a. accepts ‘bdaddr’ where ‘bdaddr’ is the
          Bluetooth address as a string or a *note bytes: 1c7. object.
          (ex.  ‘'12:23:34:45:56:67'’ or ‘b'12:23:34:45:56:67'’)

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: FreeBSD support added.

   - *note AF_ALG: 1094. is a Linux-only socket based interface to
     Kernel cryptography.  An algorithm socket is configured with a
     tuple of two to four elements ‘(type, name [, feat [, mask]])’,
     where:

        - 'type' is the algorithm type as string, e.g.  ‘aead’, ‘hash’,
          ‘skcipher’ or ‘rng’.

        - 'name' is the algorithm name and operation mode as string,
          e.g.  ‘sha256’, ‘hmac(sha256)’, ‘cbc(aes)’ or
          ‘drbg_nopr_ctr_aes256’.

        - 'feat' and 'mask' are unsigned 32bit integers.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     Some algorithm types require more recent Kernels.

     Added in version 3.6.

   - *note AF_VSOCK: f33. allows communication between virtual machines
     and their hosts.  The sockets are represented as a ‘(CID, port)’
     tuple where the context ID or CID and port are integers.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 3.9

     See ‘vsock(7)(2)’

     Added in version 3.7.

   - *note AF_PACKET: 3b97. is a low-level interface directly to network
     devices.  The addresses are represented by the tuple ‘(ifname,
     proto[, pkttype[, hatype[, addr]]])’ where:

        - 'ifname' - String specifying the device name.

        - 'proto' - The Ethernet protocol number.  May be *note
          ETH_P_ALL: 1d21. to capture all protocols, one of the *note
          ETHERTYPE_* constants: 1d22. or any other Ethernet protocol
          number.

        - 'pkttype' - Optional integer specifying the packet type:

             - ‘PACKET_HOST’ (the default) - Packet addressed to the
               local host.

             - ‘PACKET_BROADCAST’ - Physical-layer broadcast packet.

             - ‘PACKET_MULTICAST’ - Packet sent to a physical-layer
               multicast address.

             - ‘PACKET_OTHERHOST’ - Packet to some other host that has
               been caught by a device driver in promiscuous mode.

             - ‘PACKET_OUTGOING’ - Packet originating from the local
               host that is looped back to a packet socket.

        - 'hatype' - Optional integer specifying the ARP hardware
          address type.

        - 'addr' - Optional bytes-like object specifying the hardware
          physical address, whose interpretation depends on the device.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.2.

   - *note AF_QIPCRTR: 3b98. is a Linux-only socket based interface for
     communicating with services running on co-processors in Qualcomm
     platforms.  The address family is represented as a ‘(node, port)’
     tuple where the 'node' and 'port' are non-negative integers.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.7.

     Added in version 3.8.

   - ‘IPPROTO_UDPLITE’ is a variant of UDP which allows you to specify
     what portion of a packet is covered with the checksum.  It adds two
     socket options that you can change.
     ‘self.setsockopt(IPPROTO_UDPLITE, UDPLITE_SEND_CSCOV, length)’ will
     change what portion of outgoing packets are covered by the checksum
     and ‘self.setsockopt(IPPROTO_UDPLITE, UDPLITE_RECV_CSCOV, length)’
     will filter out packets which cover too little of their data.  In
     both cases ‘length’ should be in ‘range(8, 2**16, 8)’.

     Such a socket should be constructed with ‘socket(AF_INET,
     SOCK_DGRAM, IPPROTO_UDPLITE)’ for IPv4 or ‘socket(AF_INET6,
     SOCK_DGRAM, IPPROTO_UDPLITE)’ for IPv6.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.20, FreeBSD >= 10.1

     Added in version 3.9.

   - *note AF_HYPERV: 3b99. is a Windows-only socket based interface for
     communicating with Hyper-V hosts and guests.  The address family is
     represented as a ‘(vm_id, service_id)’ tuple where the ‘vm_id’ and
     ‘service_id’ are UUID strings.

     The ‘vm_id’ is the virtual machine identifier or a set of known
     VMID values if the target is not a specific virtual machine.  Known
     VMID constants defined on ‘socket’ are:

        - ‘HV_GUID_ZERO’

        - ‘HV_GUID_BROADCAST’

        - ‘HV_GUID_WILDCARD’ - Used to bind on itself and accept
          connections from all partitions.

        - ‘HV_GUID_CHILDREN’ - Used to bind on itself and accept
          connection from child partitions.

        - ‘HV_GUID_LOOPBACK’ - Used as a target to itself.

        - ‘HV_GUID_PARENT’ - When used as a bind accepts connection from
          the parent partition.  When used as an address target it will
          connect to the parent partition.

     The ‘service_id’ is the service identifier of the registered
     service.

     Added in version 3.12.

If you use a hostname in the 'host' portion of IPv4/v6 socket address,
the program may show a nondeterministic behavior, as Python uses the
first address returned from the DNS resolution.  The socket address will
be resolved differently into an actual IPv4/v6 address, depending on the
results from DNS resolution and/or the host configuration.  For
deterministic behavior use a numeric address in 'host' portion.

All errors raise exceptions.  The normal exceptions for invalid argument
types and out-of-memory conditions can be raised.  Errors related to
socket or address semantics raise *note OSError: 53c. or one of its
subclasses.

Non-blocking mode is supported through *note setblocking(): 3261.  A
generalization of this based on timeouts is supported through *note
settimeout(): 3b9a.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/vsock(7)


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents<3>,  Next: Socket Objects,  Prev: Socket families,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.20.2.2 Module contents
........................

The module ‘socket’ exports the following elements.

* Menu:

* Exceptions: Exceptions<16>.
* Constants: Constants<8>.
* Functions: Functions<6>.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<16>,  Next: Constants<8>,  Up: Module contents<3>

5.20.2.3 Exceptions
...................

 -- Εξαίρεση: socket.error

     A deprecated alias of *note OSError: 53c.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Following PEP 3151(1), this class was made
     an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

 -- Εξαίρεση: socket.herror

     A subclass of *note OSError: 53c, this exception is raised for
     address-related errors, i.e.  for functions that use 'h_errno' in
     the POSIX C API, including *note gethostbyname_ex(): 1e7b. and
     *note gethostbyaddr(): 1e7a.  The accompanying value is a pair
     ‘(h_errno, string)’ representing an error returned by a library
     call.  'h_errno' is a numeric value, while 'string' represents the
     description of 'h_errno', as returned by the ‘hstrerror()’ C
     function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: This class was made a subclass of *note
     OSError: 53c.

 -- Εξαίρεση: socket.gaierror

     A subclass of *note OSError: 53c, this exception is raised for
     address-related errors by *note getaddrinfo(): 1925. and *note
     getnameinfo(): 1c42.  The accompanying value is a pair ‘(error,
     string)’ representing an error returned by a library call.
     'string' represents the description of 'error', as returned by the
     ‘gai_strerror()’ C function.  The numeric 'error' value will match
     one of the ‘EAI_*’ constants defined in this module.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: This class was made a subclass of *note
     OSError: 53c.

 -- Εξαίρεση: socket.timeout

     A deprecated alias of *note TimeoutError: c0e.

     A subclass of *note OSError: 53c, this exception is raised when a
     timeout occurs on a socket which has had timeouts enabled via a
     prior call to *note settimeout(): 3b9a. (or implicitly through
     *note setdefaulttimeout(): 3b9e.).  The accompanying value is a
     string whose value is currently always «timed out».

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: This class was made a subclass of *note
     OSError: 53c.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This class was made an alias of *note
     TimeoutError: c0e.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<8>,  Next: Functions<6>,  Prev: Exceptions<16>,  Up: Module contents<3>

5.20.2.4 Constants
..................

The AF_* and SOCK_* constants are now ‘AddressFamily’ and ‘SocketKind’
*note IntEnum: 109d. collections.

Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_UNIX
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_INET
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_INET6

     These constants represent the address (and protocol) families, used
     for the first argument to *note socket(): 115a.  If the *note
     AF_UNIX: 1daa. constant is not defined then this protocol is
     unsupported.  More constants may be available depending on the
     system.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_UNSPEC

     *note AF_UNSPEC: 3ade. means that *note getaddrinfo(): 1925. should
     return socket addresses for any address family (either IPv4, IPv6,
     or any other) that can be used.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOCK_STREAM
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOCK_DGRAM
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOCK_RAW
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOCK_RDM
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOCK_SEQPACKET

     These constants represent the socket types, used for the second
     argument to *note socket(): 115a.  More constants may be available
     depending on the system.  (Only *note SOCK_STREAM: 1698. and *note
     SOCK_DGRAM: 1697. appear to be generally useful.)

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK

     These two constants, if defined, can be combined with the socket
     types and allow you to set some flags atomically (thus avoiding
     possible race conditions and the need for separate calls).

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     Secure File Descriptor Handling(1) for a more thorough explanation.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.27.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: SO_*
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOMAXCONN

 -- Δεδομένα: MSG_*

 -- Δεδομένα: SOL_*

 -- Δεδομένα: SCM_*

 -- Δεδομένα: IPPROTO_*

 -- Δεδομένα: IPPORT_*

 -- Δεδομένα: INADDR_*

 -- Δεδομένα: IP_*

 -- Δεδομένα: IPV6_*

 -- Δεδομένα: EAI_*

 -- Δεδομένα: AI_*

 -- Δεδομένα: NI_*

 -- Δεδομένα: TCP_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Unix documentation
     on sockets and/or the IP protocol, are also defined in the socket
     module.  They are generally used in arguments to the *note
     setsockopt(): 1093. and *note getsockopt(): 1092. methods of socket
     objects.  In most cases, only those symbols that are defined in the
     Unix header files are defined; for a few symbols, default values
     are provided.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: ‘SO_DOMAIN’, ‘SO_PROTOCOL’, ‘SO_PEERSEC’,
     ‘SO_PASSSEC’, ‘TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’, ‘TCP_CONGESTION’ were added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6.5: Added support for ‘TCP_FASTOPEN’,
     ‘TCP_KEEPCNT’ on Windows platforms when available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: ‘TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’ was added.

     Added support for ‘TCP_KEEPIDLE’, ‘TCP_KEEPINTVL’ on Windows
     platforms when available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: ‘IP_RECVTOS’ was added.  Added
     ‘TCP_KEEPALIVE’.  On MacOS this constant can be used in the same
     way that ‘TCP_KEEPIDLE’ is used on Linux.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added ‘TCP_CONNECTION_INFO’.  On MacOS
     this constant can be used in the same way that ‘TCP_INFO’ is used
     on Linux and BSD.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added ‘SO_RTABLE’ and ‘SO_USER_COOKIE’.
     On OpenBSD and FreeBSD respectively those constants can be used in
     the same way that ‘SO_MARK’ is used on Linux.  Also added missing
     TCP socket options from Linux: ‘TCP_MD5SIG’,
     ‘TCP_THIN_LINEAR_TIMEOUTS’, ‘TCP_THIN_DUPACK’, ‘TCP_REPAIR’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_QUEUE’, ‘TCP_QUEUE_SEQ’, ‘TCP_REPAIR_OPTIONS’,
     ‘TCP_TIMESTAMP’, ‘TCP_CC_INFO’, ‘TCP_SAVE_SYN’, ‘TCP_SAVED_SYN’,
     ‘TCP_REPAIR_WINDOW’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_CONNECT’, ‘TCP_ULP’,
     ‘TCP_MD5SIG_EXT’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_KEY’, ‘TCP_FASTOPEN_NO_COOKIE’,
     ‘TCP_ZEROCOPY_RECEIVE’, ‘TCP_INQ’, ‘TCP_TX_DELAY’.  Added
     ‘IP_PKTINFO’, ‘IP_UNBLOCK_SOURCE’, ‘IP_BLOCK_SOURCE’,
     ‘IP_ADD_SOURCE_MEMBERSHIP’, ‘IP_DROP_SOURCE_MEMBERSHIP’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added ‘SO_BINDTOIFINDEX’.  On Linux this
     constant can be used in the same way that ‘SO_BINDTODEVICE’ is
     used, but with the index of a network interface instead of its
     name.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added missing ‘IP_FREEBIND’, ‘IP_RECVERR’,
     ‘IPV6_RECVERR’, ‘IP_RECVTTL’, and ‘IP_RECVORIGDSTADDR’ on Linux.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added support for ‘TCP_QUICKACK’ on
     Windows platforms when available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: ‘IPV6_HDRINCL’ was added.  Added support
     for ‘SO_PASSRIGHTS’ on Linux platforms when available.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_CAN
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.PF_CAN

 -- Δεδομένα: SOL_CAN_*

 -- Δεδομένα: CAN_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.25, NetBSD >= 8.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: NetBSD support was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Restored missing ‘CAN_RAW_ERR_FILTER’ on
     Linux.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.CAN_BCM

 -- Δεδομένα: CAN_BCM_*

     CAN_BCM, in the CAN protocol family, is the broadcast manager (BCM)
     protocol.  Broadcast manager constants, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

          Σημείωση: The ‘CAN_BCM_CAN_FD_FRAME’ flag is only available on
          Linux >= 4.8.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES

     Enables CAN FD support in a CAN_RAW socket.  This is disabled by
     default.  This allows your application to send both CAN and CAN FD
     frames; however, you must accept both CAN and CAN FD frames when
     reading from the socket.

     This constant is documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 3.6.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS

     Joins the applied CAN filters such that only CAN frames that match
     all given CAN filters are passed to user space.

     This constant is documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.1.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.CAN_ISOTP

     CAN_ISOTP, in the CAN protocol family, is the ISO-TP (ISO 15765-2)
     protocol.  ISO-TP constants, documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.CAN_J1939

     CAN_J1939, in the CAN protocol family, is the SAE J1939 protocol.
     J1939 constants, documented in the Linux documentation.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 5.4.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_DIVERT
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.PF_DIVERT

     These two constants, documented in the FreeBSD divert(4) manual
     page, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: FreeBSD >= 14.0.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_PACKET
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.PF_PACKET

 -- Δεδομένα: PACKET_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.ETH_P_ALL

     ‘ETH_P_ALL’ can be used in the *note socket: 115a. constructor as
     'proto' for the *note AF_PACKET: 3b97. family in order to capture
     every packet, regardless of protocol.

     For more information, see the ‘packet(7)(2)’ manpage.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_RDS
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.PF_RDS
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOL_RDS

 -- Δεδομένα: RDS_*

     Many constants of these forms, documented in the Linux
     documentation, are also defined in the socket module.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.30.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SIO_RCVALL
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH

 -- Δεδομένα: RCVALL_*

     Constants for Windows” WSAIoctl().  The constants are used as
     arguments to the *note ioctl(): 1090. method of socket objects.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’ was added.

 -- Δεδομένα: TIPC_*

     TIPC related constants, matching the ones exported by the C socket
     API. See the TIPC documentation for more information.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_ALG
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOL_ALG

 -- Δεδομένα: ALG_*

     Constants for Linux Kernel cryptography.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_VSOCK
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID

 -- Δεδομένα: VMADDR*

 -- Δεδομένα: SO_VM*

     Constants for Linux host/guest communication.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.8.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_LINK

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: BSD, macOS.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.has_ipv6

     This constant contains a boolean value which indicates if IPv6 is
     supported on this platform.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_BLUETOOTH
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.BTPROTO_L2CAP
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.BTPROTO_RFCOMM
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.BTPROTO_HCI
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.BTPROTO_SCO

     Integer constants for use with Bluetooth addresses.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.BDADDR_ANY
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.BDADDR_LOCAL

     These are string constants containing Bluetooth addresses with
     special meanings.  For example, *note BDADDR_ANY: 3baf. can be used
     to indicate any address when specifying the binding socket with
     *note BTPROTO_RFCOMM: 3b95.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.BDADDR_BREDR
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.BDADDR_LE_PUBLIC
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.BDADDR_LE_RANDOM

     These constants describe the Bluetooth address type when binding or
     connecting a *note BTPROTO_L2CAP: 50b. socket.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux, FreeBSD

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOL_RFCOMM
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOL_L2CAP
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOL_HCI
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOL_SCO
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SOL_BLUETOOTH

     Used in the level argument to the *note setsockopt(): 1093. and
     *note getsockopt(): 1092. methods of Bluetooth socket objects.

     *note SOL_BLUETOOTH: 3bb5. is only available on Linux.  Other
     constants are available if the corresponding protocol is supported.

 -- Δεδομένα: SO_L2CAP_*
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.L2CAP_LM

 -- Δεδομένα: L2CAP_LM_*

 -- Δεδομένα: SO_RFCOMM_*

 -- Δεδομένα: RFCOMM_LM_*

 -- Δεδομένα: SO_SCO_*

 -- Δεδομένα: SO_BTH_*

 -- Δεδομένα: BT_*

     Used in the option name and value argument to the *note
     setsockopt(): 1093. and *note getsockopt(): 1092. methods of
     Bluetooth socket objects.

     ‘BT_*’ and *note L2CAP_LM: 3bb6. are only available on Linux.
     ‘SO_BTH_*’ are only available on Windows.  Other constants may be
     available on Linux and various BSD platforms.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HCI_FILTER
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HCI_TIME_STAMP
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HCI_DATA_DIR
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SO_HCI_EVT_FILTER
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SO_HCI_PKT_FILTER

     Option names for use with *note BTPROTO_HCI: 509.  Availability and
     format of the option values depend on platform.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added ‘SO_HCI_EVT_FILTER’ and
     ‘SO_HCI_PKT_FILTER’ on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD. Added
     ‘HCI_DATA_DIR’ on FreeBSD, NetBSD and DragonFly BSD.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HCI_DEV_NONE

     The ‘device_id’ value used to create an HCI socket that isn’t
     specific to a single Bluetooth adapter.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HCI_CHANNEL_RAW
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HCI_CHANNEL_USER
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HCI_CHANNEL_MONITOR
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HCI_CHANNEL_CONTROL
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HCI_CHANNEL_LOGGING

     Possible values for ‘channel’ field in the *note BTPROTO_HCI: 509.
     address.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_QIPCRTR

     Constant for Qualcomm’s IPC router protocol, used to communicate
     with service providing remote processors.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 4.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SCM_CREDS2
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.LOCAL_CREDS
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT

     LOCAL_CREDS and LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT can be used with SOCK_DGRAM,
     SOCK_STREAM sockets, equivalent to Linux/DragonFlyBSD SO_PASSCRED,
     while LOCAL_CREDS sends the credentials at first read,
     LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT sends for each read, SCM_CREDS2 must be then
     used for the latter for the message type.

     Added in version 3.11.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: FreeBSD.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SO_INCOMING_CPU

     Constant to optimize CPU locality, to be used in conjunction with
     ‘SO_REUSEPORT’.

     Added in version 3.11.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 3.9

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SO_REUSEPORT_LB

          Constant to enable duplicate address and port bindings with
          load balancing.

     Added in version 3.14.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: FreeBSD >= 12.0

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.AF_HYPERV
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HV_PROTOCOL_RAW
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT_MAX
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HVSOCKET_CONNECTED_SUSPEND
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HVSOCKET_ADDRESS_FLAG_PASSTHRU
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HV_GUID_ZERO
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HV_GUID_WILDCARD
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HV_GUID_BROADCAST
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HV_GUID_CHILDREN
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HV_GUID_LOOPBACK
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.HV_GUID_PARENT

     Constants for Windows Hyper-V sockets for host/guest
     communications.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.ETHERTYPE_ARP
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.ETHERTYPE_IP
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.ETHERTYPE_IPV6
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.ETHERTYPE_VLAN

     IEEE 802.3 protocol number(3).  constants.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux, FreeBSD, macOS.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SHUT_RD
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SHUT_WR
 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SHUT_RDWR

     These constants are used by the *note shutdown(): 3bd7. method of
     socket objects.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://udrepper.livejournal.com/20407.html

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/packet(7)

   (3) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/ieee-802-numbers/ieee-802-numbers.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<6>,  Prev: Constants<8>,  Up: Module contents<3>

5.20.2.5 Functions
..................

* Menu:

* Creating sockets::
* Other functions: Other functions<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating sockets,  Next: Other functions<2>,  Up: Functions<6>

5.20.2.6 Creating sockets
.........................

The following functions all create *note socket objects: 3bda.

 -- Κλάση: socket.socket (family=AF_INET, type=SOCK_STREAM, proto=0,
          fileno=None)

     Create a new socket using the given address family, socket type and
     protocol number.  The address family should be *note AF_INET: 1da7.
     (the default), *note AF_INET6: 1da8, *note AF_UNIX: 1daa, *note
     AF_CAN: 3b90, *note AF_PACKET: 3b97, or *note AF_RDS: 3ba7.  The
     socket type should be *note SOCK_STREAM: 1698. (the default), *note
     SOCK_DGRAM: 1697, *note SOCK_RAW: 3ba0. or perhaps one of the other
     ‘SOCK_’ constants.  The protocol number is usually zero and may be
     omitted or in the case where the address family is ‘AF_CAN’ the
     protocol should be one of ‘CAN_RAW’, *note CAN_BCM: 134c, *note
     CAN_ISOTP: 3b91. or *note CAN_J1939: cff.

     If 'fileno' is specified, the values for 'family', 'type', and
     'proto' are auto-detected from the specified file descriptor.
     Auto-detection can be overruled by calling the function with
     explicit 'family', 'type', or 'proto' arguments.  This only affects
     how Python represents e.g.  the return value of *note
     socket.getpeername(): 3b1d. but not the actual OS resource.  Unlike
     *note socket.fromfd(): 3bdb, 'fileno' will return the same socket
     and not a duplicate.  This may help close a detached socket using
     *note socket.close(): f30.

     The newly created socket is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.__new__’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The AF_CAN family was added.  The AF_RDS
     family was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The CAN_BCM protocol was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The returned socket is now non-inheritable.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The CAN_ISOTP protocol was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: When *note SOCK_NONBLOCK: fc9. or *note
     SOCK_CLOEXEC: fca. bit flags are applied to 'type' they are
     cleared, and *note socket.type: fcb. will not reflect them.  They
     are still passed to the underlying system ‘socket()’ call.
     Therefore,

          sock = socket.socket(
              socket.AF_INET,
              socket.SOCK_STREAM | socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK)

     will still create a non-blocking socket on OSes that support
     ‘SOCK_NONBLOCK’, but ‘sock.type’ will be set to
     ‘socket.SOCK_STREAM’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The CAN_J1939 protocol was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The IPPROTO_MPTCP protocol was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.socketpair ([family[, type[, proto]]])

     Build a pair of connected socket objects using the given address
     family, socket type, and protocol number.  Address family, socket
     type, and protocol number are as for the *note socket(): 115a.
     function.  The default family is *note AF_UNIX: 1daa. if defined on
     the platform; otherwise, the default is *note AF_INET: 1da7.

     The newly created sockets are *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The returned socket objects now support the
     whole socket API, rather than a subset.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The returned sockets are now
     non-inheritable.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Windows support added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.create_connection (address,
          timeout=GLOBAL_DEFAULT, source_address=None, *,
          all_errors=False)

     Connect to a TCP service listening on the internet 'address' (a
     2-tuple ‘(host, port)’), and return the socket object.  This is a
     higher-level function than *note socket.connect(): 115c.: if 'host'
     is a non-numeric hostname, it will try to resolve it for both *note
     AF_INET: 1da7. and *note AF_INET6: 1da8, and then try to connect to
     all possible addresses in turn until a connection succeeds.  This
     makes it easy to write clients that are compatible to both IPv4 and
     IPv6.

     Passing the optional 'timeout' parameter will set the timeout on
     the socket instance before attempting to connect.  If no 'timeout'
     is supplied, the global default timeout setting returned by *note
     getdefaulttimeout(): 3bdc. is used.

     If supplied, 'source_address' must be a 2-tuple ‘(host, port)’ for
     the socket to bind to as its source address before connecting.  If
     host or port are “” or 0 respectively the OS default behavior will
     be used.

     When a connection cannot be created, an exception is raised.  By
     default, it is the exception from the last address in the list.  If
     'all_errors' is ‘True’, it is an *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8.
     containing the errors of all attempts.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'source_address' was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: 'all_errors' was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.create_server (address, *, family=AF_INET,
          backlog=None, reuse_port=False, dualstack_ipv6=False)

     Convenience function which creates a TCP socket bound to 'address'
     (a 2-tuple ‘(host, port)’) and returns the socket object.

     'family' should be either *note AF_INET: 1da7. or *note AF_INET6:
     1da8.  'backlog' is the queue size passed to *note socket.listen():
     120f.; if not specified , a default reasonable value is chosen.
     'reuse_port' dictates whether to set the ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ socket
     option.

     If 'dualstack_ipv6' is true, 'family' is *note AF_INET6: 1da8. and
     the platform supports it the socket will be able to accept both
     IPv4 and IPv6 connections, else it will raise *note ValueError:
     277.  Most POSIX platforms and Windows are supposed to support this
     functionality.  When this functionality is enabled the address
     returned by *note socket.getpeername(): 3b1d. when an IPv4
     connection occurs will be an IPv6 address represented as an
     IPv4-mapped IPv6 address.  If 'dualstack_ipv6' is false it will
     explicitly disable this functionality on platforms that enable it
     by default (e.g.  Linux).  This parameter can be used in
     conjunction with *note has_dualstack_ipv6(): df0.:

          import socket

          addr = ("", 8080)  # all interfaces, port 8080
          if socket.has_dualstack_ipv6():
              s = socket.create_server(addr, family=socket.AF_INET6, dualstack_ipv6=True)
          else:
              s = socket.create_server(addr)

          Σημείωση: On POSIX platforms the ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ socket option
          is set in order to immediately reuse previous sockets which
          were bound on the same 'address' and remained in TIME_WAIT
          state.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.has_dualstack_ipv6 ()

     Return ‘True’ if the platform supports creating a TCP socket which
     can handle both IPv4 and IPv6 connections.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.fromfd (fd, family, type, proto=0)

     Duplicate the file descriptor 'fd' (an integer as returned by a
     file object’s *note fileno(): 19b2. method) and build a socket
     object from the result.  Address family, socket type and protocol
     number are as for the *note socket(): 115a. function.  The file
     descriptor should refer to a socket, but this is not checked —
     subsequent operations on the object may fail if the file descriptor
     is invalid.  This function is rarely needed, but can be used to get
     or set socket options on a socket passed to a program as standard
     input or output (such as a server started by the Unix inet daemon).
     The socket is assumed to be in blocking mode.

     The newly created socket is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The returned socket is now non-inheritable.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.fromshare (data)

     Instantiate a socket from data obtained from the *note
     socket.share(): fc7. method.  The socket is assumed to be in
     blocking mode.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: socket.SocketType

     This is a Python type object that represents the socket object
     type.  It is the same as ‘type(socket(...))’.


File: python.info,  Node: Other functions<2>,  Prev: Creating sockets,  Up: Functions<6>

5.20.2.7 Other functions
........................

The ‘socket’ module also offers various network-related services:

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.close (fd)

     Close a socket file descriptor.  This is like *note os.close():
     f31, but for sockets.  On some platforms (most notably Windows)
     ‘os.close()’ does not work for socket file descriptors.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.getaddrinfo (host, port, family=AF_UNSPEC, type=0,
          proto=0, flags=0)

     This function wraps the C function ‘getaddrinfo’ of the underlying
     system.

     Translate the 'host'/'port' argument into a sequence of 5-tuples
     that contain all the necessary arguments for creating a socket
     connected to that service.  'host' is a domain name, a string
     representation of an IPv4/v6 address or ‘None’.  'port' is a string
     service name such as ‘'http'’, a numeric port number or ‘None’.  By
     passing ‘None’ as the value of 'host' and 'port', you can pass
     ‘NULL’ to the underlying C API.

     The 'family', 'type' and 'proto' arguments can be optionally
     specified in order to provide options and limit the list of
     addresses returned.  Pass their default values (*note AF_UNSPEC:
     3ade, 0, and 0, respectively) to not limit the results.  See the
     note below for details.

     The 'flags' argument can be one or several of the ‘AI_*’ constants,
     and will influence how results are computed and returned.  For
     example, ‘AI_NUMERICHOST’ will disable domain name resolution and
     will raise an error if 'host' is a domain name.

     The function returns a list of 5-tuples with the following
     structure:

     ‘(family, type, proto, canonname, sockaddr)’

     In these tuples, 'family', 'type', 'proto' are all integers and are
     meant to be passed to the *note socket(): 115a. function.
     'canonname' will be a string representing the canonical name of the
     'host' if ‘AI_CANONNAME’ is part of the 'flags' argument; else
     'canonname' will be empty.  'sockaddr' is a tuple describing a
     socket address, whose format depends on the returned 'family' and
     flags Python was compiled with, and is meant to be passed to the
     *note socket.connect(): 115c. method.

     'sockaddr' can be one of the following:

        * a ‘(address, port)’ 2-tuple for *note AF_INET: 1da7.

        * a ‘(address, port, flowinfo, scope_id)’ 4-tuple for *note
          AF_INET6: 1da8. if Python was compiled with ‘--enable-ipv6’
          (the default)

        * a 2-tuple containing raw data for *note AF_INET6: 1da8. if
          Python was compiled with ‘--disable-ipv6’

          Σημείωση: If you intend to use results from ‘getaddrinfo()’ to
          create a socket (rather than, for example, retrieve
          'canonname'), consider limiting the results by 'type' (e.g.
          *note SOCK_STREAM: 1698. or *note SOCK_DGRAM: 1697.) and/or
          'proto' (e.g.  ‘IPPROTO_TCP’ or ‘IPPROTO_UDP’) that your
          application can handle.

          The behavior with default values of 'family', 'type', 'proto'
          and 'flags' is system-specific.

          Many systems (for example, most Linux configurations) will
          return a sorted list of all matching addresses.  These
          addresses should generally be tried in order until a
          connection succeeds (possibly tried in parallel, for example,
          using a Happy Eyeballs(1) algorithm).  In these cases,
          limiting the 'type' and/or 'proto' can help eliminate
          unsuccessful or unusable connection attempts.

          Some systems will, however, only return a single address.
          (For example, this was reported on Solaris and AIX
          configurations.)  On these systems, limiting the 'type' and/or
          'proto' helps ensure that this address is usable.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.getaddrinfo’ with
     arguments ‘host’, ‘port’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’.

     The following example fetches address information for a
     hypothetical TCP connection to ‘example.org’ on port 80 (results
     may differ on your system if IPv6 isn’t enabled):

          >>> socket.getaddrinfo("example.org", 80, proto=socket.IPPROTO_TCP)
          [(socket.AF_INET6, socket.SOCK_STREAM,
           6, '', ('2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946', 80, 0, 0)),
           (socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM,
           6, '', ('93.184.216.34', 80))]

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: parameters can now be passed using keyword
     arguments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: for IPv6 multicast addresses, string
     representing an address will not contain ‘%scope_id’ part.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.getfqdn ([name])

     Return a fully qualified domain name for 'name'.  If 'name' is
     omitted or empty, it is interpreted as the local host.  To find the
     fully qualified name, the hostname returned by *note
     gethostbyaddr(): 1e7a. is checked, followed by aliases for the
     host, if available.  The first name which includes a period is
     selected.  In case no fully qualified domain name is available and
     'name' was provided, it is returned unchanged.  If 'name' was empty
     or equal to ‘'0.0.0.0'’, the hostname from *note gethostname():
     324b. is returned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.gethostbyname (hostname)

     Translate a host name to IPv4 address format.  The IPv4 address is
     returned as a string, such as ‘'100.50.200.5'’.  If the host name
     is an IPv4 address itself it is returned unchanged.  See *note
     gethostbyname_ex(): 1e7b. for a more complete interface.
     ‘gethostbyname()’ does not support IPv6 name resolution, and *note
     getaddrinfo(): 1925. should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack
     support.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.gethostbyname’ with
     argument ‘hostname’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.gethostbyname_ex (hostname)

     Translate a host name to IPv4 address format, extended interface.
     Return a 3-tuple ‘(hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist)’ where
     'hostname' is the host’s primary host name, 'aliaslist' is a
     (possibly empty) list of alternative host names for the same
     address, and 'ipaddrlist' is a list of IPv4 addresses for the same
     interface on the same host (often but not always a single address).
     ‘gethostbyname_ex()’ does not support IPv6 name resolution, and
     *note getaddrinfo(): 1925. should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual
     stack support.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.gethostbyname’ with
     argument ‘hostname’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.gethostname ()

     Return a string containing the hostname of the machine where the
     Python interpreter is currently executing.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.gethostname’ with no
     arguments.

     Note: ‘gethostname()’ doesn’t always return the fully qualified
     domain name; use *note getfqdn(): 1cec. for that.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.gethostbyaddr (ip_address)

     Return a 3-tuple ‘(hostname, aliaslist, ipaddrlist)’ where
     'hostname' is the primary host name responding to the given
     'ip_address', 'aliaslist' is a (possibly empty) list of alternative
     host names for the same address, and 'ipaddrlist' is a list of
     IPv4/v6 addresses for the same interface on the same host (most
     likely containing only a single address).  To find the fully
     qualified domain name, use the function *note getfqdn(): 1cec.
     ‘gethostbyaddr()’ supports both IPv4 and IPv6.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.gethostbyaddr’ with
     argument ‘ip_address’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.getnameinfo (sockaddr, flags)

     Translate a socket address 'sockaddr' into a 2-tuple ‘(host,
     port)’.  Depending on the settings of 'flags', the result can
     contain a fully qualified domain name or numeric address
     representation in 'host'.  Similarly, 'port' can contain a string
     port name or a numeric port number.

     For IPv6 addresses, ‘%scope_id’ is appended to the host part if
     'sockaddr' contains meaningful 'scope_id'.  Usually this happens
     for multicast addresses.

     For more information about 'flags' you can consult
     ‘getnameinfo(3)(2)’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.getnameinfo’ with
     argument ‘sockaddr’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.getprotobyname (protocolname)

     Translate an internet protocol name (for example, ‘'icmp'’) to a
     constant suitable for passing as the (optional) third argument to
     the *note socket(): 115a. function.  This is usually only needed
     for sockets opened in «raw» mode (*note SOCK_RAW: 3ba0.); for the
     normal socket modes, the correct protocol is chosen automatically
     if the protocol is omitted or zero.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.getservbyname (servicename[, protocolname])

     Translate an internet service name and protocol name to a port
     number for that service.  The optional protocol name, if given,
     should be ‘'tcp'’ or ‘'udp'’, otherwise any protocol will match.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.getservbyname’ with
     arguments ‘servicename’, ‘protocolname’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.getservbyport (port[, protocolname])

     Translate an internet port number and protocol name to a service
     name for that service.  The optional protocol name, if given,
     should be ‘'tcp'’ or ‘'udp'’, otherwise any protocol will match.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.getservbyport’ with
     arguments ‘port’, ‘protocolname’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.ntohl (x)

     Convert 32-bit positive integers from network to host byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap
     operation.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.ntohs (x)

     Convert 16-bit positive integers from network to host byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap
     operation.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Raises *note OverflowError: c57. if 'x'
     does not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.htonl (x)

     Convert 32-bit positive integers from host to network byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 4-byte swap
     operation.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.htons (x)

     Convert 16-bit positive integers from host to network byte order.
     On machines where the host byte order is the same as network byte
     order, this is a no-op; otherwise, it performs a 2-byte swap
     operation.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Raises *note OverflowError: c57. if 'x'
     does not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.inet_aton (ip_string)

     Convert an IPv4 address from dotted-quad string format (for
     example, “123.45.67.89”) to 32-bit packed binary format, as a bytes
     object four characters in length.  This is useful when conversing
     with a program that uses the standard C library and needs objects
     of type ‘in_addr’, which is the C type for the 32-bit packed binary
     this function returns.

     ‘inet_aton()’ also accepts strings with less than three dots; see
     the Unix manual page ‘inet(3)(3)’ for details.

     If the IPv4 address string passed to this function is invalid,
     *note OSError: 53c. will be raised.  Note that exactly what is
     valid depends on the underlying C implementation of ‘inet_aton()’.

     ‘inet_aton()’ does not support IPv6, and *note inet_pton(): d2c.
     should be used instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.inet_ntoa (packed_ip)

     Convert a 32-bit packed IPv4 address (a *note bytes-like object:
     436. four bytes in length) to its standard dotted-quad string
     representation (for example, “123.45.67.89”).  This is useful when
     conversing with a program that uses the standard C library and
     needs objects of type ‘in_addr’, which is the C type for the 32-bit
     packed binary data this function takes as an argument.

     If the byte sequence passed to this function is not exactly 4 bytes
     in length, *note OSError: 53c. will be raised.  ‘inet_ntoa()’ does
     not support IPv6, and *note inet_ntop(): 134e. should be used
     instead for IPv4/v6 dual stack support.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Writable *note bytes-like object: 436. is
     now accepted.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.inet_pton (address_family, ip_string)

     Convert an IP address from its family-specific string format to a
     packed, binary format.  ‘inet_pton()’ is useful when a library or
     network protocol calls for an object of type ‘in_addr’ (similar to
     *note inet_aton(): d2b.) or ‘in6_addr’.

     Supported values for 'address_family' are currently *note AF_INET:
     1da7. and *note AF_INET6: 1da8.  If the IP address string
     'ip_string' is invalid, *note OSError: 53c. will be raised.  Note
     that exactly what is valid depends on both the value of
     'address_family' and the underlying implementation of
     ‘inet_pton()’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Windows support added

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.inet_ntop (address_family, packed_ip)

     Convert a packed IP address (a *note bytes-like object: 436. of
     some number of bytes) to its standard, family-specific string
     representation (for example, ‘'7.10.0.5'’ or ‘'5aef:2b::8'’).
     ‘inet_ntop()’ is useful when a library or network protocol returns
     an object of type ‘in_addr’ (similar to *note inet_ntoa(): 3be5.)
     or ‘in6_addr’.

     Supported values for 'address_family' are currently *note AF_INET:
     1da7. and *note AF_INET6: 1da8.  If the bytes object 'packed_ip' is
     not the correct length for the specified address family, *note
     ValueError: 277. will be raised.  *note OSError: 53c. is raised for
     errors from the call to ‘inet_ntop()’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Windows support added

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Writable *note bytes-like object: 436. is
     now accepted.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.CMSG_LEN (length)

     Return the total length, without trailing padding, of an ancillary
     data item with associated data of the given 'length'.  This value
     can often be used as the buffer size for *note recvmsg(): 115f. to
     receive a single item of ancillary data, but RFC 3542(4) requires
     portable applications to use *note CMSG_SPACE(): 2005. and thus
     include space for padding, even when the item will be the last in
     the buffer.  Raises *note OverflowError: c57. if 'length' is
     outside the permissible range of values.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.CMSG_SPACE (length)

     Return the buffer size needed for *note recvmsg(): 115f. to receive
     an ancillary data item with associated data of the given 'length',
     along with any trailing padding.  The buffer space needed to
     receive multiple items is the sum of the ‘CMSG_SPACE()’ values for
     their associated data lengths.  Raises *note OverflowError: c57. if
     'length' is outside the permissible range of values.

     Note that some systems might support ancillary data without
     providing this function.  Also note that setting the buffer size
     using the results of this function may not precisely limit the
     amount of ancillary data that can be received, since additional
     data may be able to fit into the padding area.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     most Unix platforms.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.getdefaulttimeout ()

     Return the default timeout in seconds (float) for new socket
     objects.  A value of ‘None’ indicates that new socket objects have
     no timeout.  When the socket module is first imported, the default
     is ‘None’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.setdefaulttimeout (timeout)

     Set the default timeout in seconds (real number) for new socket
     objects.  When the socket module is first imported, the default is
     ‘None’.  See *note settimeout(): 3b9a. for possible values and
     their respective meanings.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number, not only integer
     or float.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.sethostname (name)

     Set the machine’s hostname to 'name'.  This will raise an *note
     OSError: 53c. if you don’t have enough rights.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.sethostname’ with
     argument ‘name’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not Android.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.if_nameindex ()

     Return a list of network interface information (index int, name
     string) tuples.  *note OSError: 53c. if the system call fails.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Windows support was added.

          Σημείωση: On Windows network interfaces have different names
          in different contexts (all names are examples):

             * UUID: ‘{FB605B73-AAC2-49A6-9A2F-25416AEA0573}’

             * name: ‘ethernet_32770’

             * friendly name: ‘vEthernet (nat)’

             * description: ‘Hyper-V Virtual Ethernet Adapter’

          This function returns names of the second form from the list,
          ‘ethernet_32770’ in this example case.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.if_nametoindex (if_name)

     Return a network interface index number corresponding to an
     interface name.  *note OSError: 53c. if no interface with the given
     name exists.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Windows support was added.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     «Interface name» is a name as documented in *note if_nameindex():
     df1.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.if_indextoname (if_index)

     Return a network interface name corresponding to an interface index
     number.  *note OSError: 53c. if no interface with the given index
     exists.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows, not WASI.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Windows support was added.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     «Interface name» is a name as documented in *note if_nameindex():
     df1.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.send_fds (sock, buffers, fds[, flags[, address]])

     Send the list of file descriptors 'fds' over an *note AF_UNIX:
     1daa. socket 'sock'.  The 'fds' parameter is a sequence of file
     descriptors.  Consult *note sendmsg(): 88c. for the documentation
     of these parameters.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Unix platforms supporting *note sendmsg(): 88c. and ‘SCM_RIGHTS’
     mechanism.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: socket.recv_fds (sock, bufsize, maxfds[, flags])

     Receive up to 'maxfds' file descriptors from an *note AF_UNIX:
     1daa. socket 'sock'.  Return ‘(msg, list(fds), flags, addr)’.
     Consult *note recvmsg(): 115f. for the documentation of these
     parameters.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Unix platforms supporting *note recvmsg(): 115f. and ‘SCM_RIGHTS’
     mechanism.

     Added in version 3.9.

          Σημείωση: Any truncated integers at the end of the list of
          file descriptors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Eyeballs

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/getnameinfo(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/inet(3)

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3542.html


File: python.info,  Node: Socket Objects,  Next: Notes on socket timeouts,  Prev: Module contents<3>,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.20.2.8 Socket Objects
.......................

Socket objects have the following methods.  Except for *note makefile():
1548, these correspond to Unix system calls applicable to sockets.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Support for the *note context manager: 478.
protocol was added.  Exiting the context manager is equivalent to
calling *note close(): f30.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.accept ()

     Accept a connection.  The socket must be bound to an address and
     listening for connections.  The return value is a pair ‘(conn,
     address)’ where 'conn' is a 'new' socket object usable to send and
     receive data on the connection, and 'address' is the address bound
     to the socket on the other end of the connection.

     The newly created socket is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The socket is now non-inheritable.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: 1141.
     exception (see PEP 475(1) for the rationale).

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.bind (address)

     Bind the socket to 'address'.  The socket must not already be
     bound.  The format of 'address' depends on the address family — see
     *note Socket families: 3b8d.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.bind’ with arguments
     ‘self’, ‘address’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.close ()

     Mark the socket closed.  The underlying system resource (e.g.  a
     file descriptor) is also closed when all file objects from *note
     makefile(): 1548. are closed.  Once that happens, all future
     operations on the socket object will fail.  The remote end will
     receive no more data (after queued data is flushed).

     Sockets are automatically closed when they are garbage-collected,
     but it is recommended to ‘close()’ them explicitly, or to use a
     *note with: 20a. statement around them.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: *note OSError: 53c. is now raised if an
     error occurs when the underlying ‘close()’ call is made.

          Σημείωση: ‘close()’ releases the resource associated with a
          connection but does not necessarily close the connection
          immediately.  If you want to close the connection in a timely
          fashion, call *note shutdown(): 3bd7. before ‘close()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.connect (address)

     Connect to a remote socket at 'address'.  The format of 'address'
     depends on the address family — see *note Socket families: 3b8d.

     If the connection is interrupted by a signal, the method waits
     until the connection completes, or raises a *note TimeoutError:
     c0e. on timeout, if the signal handler doesn’t raise an exception
     and the socket is blocking or has a timeout.  For non-blocking
     sockets, the method raises an *note InterruptedError: 1141.
     exception if the connection is interrupted by a signal (or the
     exception raised by the signal handler).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘address’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The method now waits until the connection
     completes instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: 1141.
     exception if the connection is interrupted by a signal, the signal
     handler doesn’t raise an exception and the socket is blocking or
     has a timeout (see the PEP 475(2) for the rationale).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.connect_ex (address)

     Like ‘connect(address)’, but return an error indicator instead of
     raising an exception for errors returned by the C-level ‘connect()’
     call (other problems, such as «host not found,» can still raise
     exceptions).  The error indicator is ‘0’ if the operation
     succeeded, otherwise the value of the ‘errno’ variable.  This is
     useful to support, for example, asynchronous connects.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘address’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.detach ()

     Put the socket object into closed state without actually closing
     the underlying file descriptor.  The file descriptor is returned,
     and can be reused for other purposes.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.dup ()

     Duplicate the socket.

     The newly created socket is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The socket is now non-inheritable.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.fileno ()

     Return the socket’s file descriptor (a small integer), or -1 on
     failure.  This is useful with *note select.select(): 1159.

     Under Windows the small integer returned by this method cannot be
     used where a file descriptor can be used (such as *note
     os.fdopen(): 2571.).  Unix does not have this limitation.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.get_inheritable ()

     Get the *note inheritable flag: 12aa. of the socket’s file
     descriptor or socket’s handle: ‘True’ if the socket can be
     inherited in child processes, ‘False’ if it cannot.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.getpeername ()

     Return the remote address to which the socket is connected.  This
     is useful to find out the port number of a remote IPv4/v6 socket,
     for instance.  The format of the address returned depends on the
     address family — see *note Socket families: 3b8d.  On some systems
     this function is not supported.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.getsockname ()

     Return the socket’s own address.  This is useful to find out the
     port number of an IPv4/v6 socket, for instance.  The format of the
     address returned depends on the address family — see *note Socket
     families: 3b8d.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.getsockopt (level, optname[, buflen])

     Return the value of the given socket option (see the Unix man page
     ‘getsockopt(2)(3)’).  The needed symbolic constants (*note SO_*
     etc.: f32.) are defined in this module.  If 'buflen' is absent, an
     integer option is assumed and its integer value is returned by the
     function.  If 'buflen' is present, it specifies the maximum length
     of the buffer used to receive the option in, and this buffer is
     returned as a bytes object.  It is up to the caller to decode the
     contents of the buffer (see the optional built-in module *note
     struct: de. for a way to decode C structures encoded as byte
     strings).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.getblocking ()

     Return ‘True’ if socket is in blocking mode, ‘False’ if in
     non-blocking.

     This is equivalent to checking ‘socket.gettimeout() != 0’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.gettimeout ()

     Return the timeout in seconds (float) associated with socket
     operations, or ‘None’ if no timeout is set.  This reflects the last
     call to *note setblocking(): 3261. or *note settimeout(): 3b9a.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.ioctl (control, option)

     The ‘ioctl()’ method is a limited interface to the WSAIoctl system
     interface.  Please refer to the Win32 documentation(4) for more
     information.

     On other platforms, the generic *note fcntl.fcntl(): 1962. and
     *note fcntl.ioctl(): 181d. functions may be used; they accept a
     socket object as their first argument.

     Currently only the following control codes are supported:
     ‘SIO_RCVALL’, ‘SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS’, and ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: ‘SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH’ was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.listen ([backlog])

     Enable a server to accept connections.  If 'backlog' is specified,
     it must be at least 0 (if it is lower, it is set to 0); it
     specifies the number of unaccepted connections that the system will
     allow before refusing new connections.  If not specified, a default
     reasonable value is chosen.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'backlog' parameter is now optional.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.makefile (mode='r', buffering=None, *,
          encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None)

     Return a *note file object: 156c. associated with the socket.  The
     exact returned type depends on the arguments given to ‘makefile()’.
     These arguments are interpreted the same way as by the built-in
     *note open(): 32b. function, except the only supported 'mode'
     values are ‘'r'’ (default), ‘'w'’, ‘'b'’, or a combination of
     those.

     The socket must be in blocking mode; it can have a timeout, but the
     file object’s internal buffer may end up in an inconsistent state
     if a timeout occurs.

     Closing the file object returned by ‘makefile()’ won’t close the
     original socket unless all other file objects have been closed and
     *note socket.close(): f30. has been called on the socket object.

          Σημείωση: On Windows, the file-like object created by
          ‘makefile()’ cannot be used where a file object with a file
          descriptor is expected, such as the stream arguments of *note
          subprocess.Popen(): 6bf.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.recv (bufsize[, flags])

     Receive data from the socket.  The return value is a bytes object
     representing the data received.  The maximum amount of data to be
     received at once is specified by 'bufsize'.  A returned empty bytes
     object indicates that the client has disconnected.  See the Unix
     manual page ‘recv(2)(5)’ for the meaning of the optional argument
     'flags'; it defaults to zero.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: 1141.
     exception (see PEP 475(6) for the rationale).

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.recvfrom (bufsize[, flags])

     Receive data from the socket.  The return value is a pair ‘(bytes,
     address)’ where 'bytes' is a bytes object representing the data
     received and 'address' is the address of the socket sending the
     data.  See the Unix manual page ‘recv(2)(7)’ for the meaning of the
     optional argument 'flags'; it defaults to zero.  The format of
     'address' depends on the address family — see *note Socket
     families: 3b8d.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: 1141.
     exception (see PEP 475(8) for the rationale).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: For multicast IPv6 address, first item of
     'address' does not contain ‘%scope_id’ part anymore.  In order to
     get full IPv6 address use *note getnameinfo(): 1c42.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.recvmsg (bufsize[, ancbufsize[, flags]])

     Receive normal data (up to 'bufsize' bytes) and ancillary data from
     the socket.  The 'ancbufsize' argument sets the size in bytes of
     the internal buffer used to receive the ancillary data; it defaults
     to 0, meaning that no ancillary data will be received.  Appropriate
     buffer sizes for ancillary data can be calculated using *note
     CMSG_SPACE(): 2005. or *note CMSG_LEN(): 2006, and items which do
     not fit into the buffer might be truncated or discarded.  The
     'flags' argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
     *note recv(): 115d.

     The return value is a 4-tuple: ‘(data, ancdata, msg_flags,
     address)’.  The 'data' item is a *note bytes: 1c7. object holding
     the non-ancillary data received.  The 'ancdata' item is a list of
     zero or more tuples ‘(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)’
     representing the ancillary data (control messages) received:
     'cmsg_level' and 'cmsg_type' are integers specifying the protocol
     level and protocol-specific type respectively, and 'cmsg_data' is a
     ‘bytes’ object holding the associated data.  The 'msg_flags' item
     is the bitwise OR of various flags indicating conditions on the
     received message; see your system documentation for details.  If
     the receiving socket is unconnected, 'address' is the address of
     the sending socket, if available; otherwise, its value is
     unspecified.

     On some systems, *note sendmsg(): 88c. and ‘recvmsg()’ can be used
     to pass file descriptors between processes over an *note AF_UNIX:
     1daa. socket.  When this facility is used (it is often restricted
     to *note SOCK_STREAM: 1698. sockets), ‘recvmsg()’ will return, in
     its ancillary data, items of the form ‘(socket.SOL_SOCKET,
     socket.SCM_RIGHTS, fds)’, where 'fds' is a *note bytes: 1c7. object
     representing the new file descriptors as a binary array of the
     native C int type.  If ‘recvmsg()’ raises an exception after the
     system call returns, it will first attempt to close any file
     descriptors received via this mechanism.

     Some systems do not indicate the truncated length of ancillary data
     items which have been only partially received.  If an item appears
     to extend beyond the end of the buffer, ‘recvmsg()’ will issue a
     *note RuntimeWarning: 6dd, and will return the part of it which is
     inside the buffer provided it has not been truncated before the
     start of its associated data.

     On systems which support the ‘SCM_RIGHTS’ mechanism, the following
     function will receive up to 'maxfds' file descriptors, returning
     the message data and a list containing the descriptors (while
     ignoring unexpected conditions such as unrelated control messages
     being received).  See also *note sendmsg(): 88c.

          import socket, array

          def recv_fds(sock, msglen, maxfds):
              fds = array.array("i")   # Array of ints
              msg, ancdata, flags, addr = sock.recvmsg(msglen, socket.CMSG_LEN(maxfds * fds.itemsize))
              for cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data in ancdata:
                  if cmsg_level == socket.SOL_SOCKET and cmsg_type == socket.SCM_RIGHTS:
                      # Append data, ignoring any truncated integers at the end.
                      fds.frombytes(cmsg_data[:len(cmsg_data) - (len(cmsg_data) % fds.itemsize)])
              return msg, list(fds)

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: 1141.
     exception (see PEP 475(9) for the rationale).

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.recvmsg_into (buffers[, ancbufsize[, flags]])

     Receive normal data and ancillary data from the socket, behaving as
     *note recvmsg(): 115f. would, but scatter the non-ancillary data
     into a series of buffers instead of returning a new bytes object.
     The 'buffers' argument must be an iterable of objects that export
     writable buffers (e.g.  *note bytearray: 1c6. objects); these will
     be filled with successive chunks of the non-ancillary data until it
     has all been written or there are no more buffers.  The operating
     system may set a limit (*note sysconf(): 1b0d. value ‘SC_IOV_MAX’)
     on the number of buffers that can be used.  The 'ancbufsize' and
     'flags' arguments have the same meaning as for ‘recvmsg()’.

     The return value is a 4-tuple: ‘(nbytes, ancdata, msg_flags,
     address)’, where 'nbytes' is the total number of bytes of
     non-ancillary data written into the buffers, and 'ancdata',
     'msg_flags' and 'address' are the same as for *note recvmsg():
     115f.

     Example:

          >>> import socket
          >>> s1, s2 = socket.socketpair()
          >>> b1 = bytearray(b'----')
          >>> b2 = bytearray(b'0123456789')
          >>> b3 = bytearray(b'--------------')
          >>> s1.send(b'Mary had a little lamb')
          22
          >>> s2.recvmsg_into([b1, memoryview(b2)[2:9], b3])
          (22, [], 0, None)
          >>> [b1, b2, b3]
          [bytearray(b'Mary'), bytearray(b'01 had a 9'), bytearray(b'little lamb---')]

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.recvfrom_into (buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])

     Receive data from the socket, writing it into 'buffer' instead of
     creating a new bytestring.  The return value is a pair ‘(nbytes,
     address)’ where 'nbytes' is the number of bytes received and
     'address' is the address of the socket sending the data.  See the
     Unix manual page ‘recv(2)(10)’ for the meaning of the optional
     argument 'flags'; it defaults to zero.  The format of 'address'
     depends on the address family — see *note Socket families: 3b8d.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.recv_into (buffer[, nbytes[, flags]])

     Receive up to 'nbytes' bytes from the socket, storing the data into
     a buffer rather than creating a new bytestring.  If 'nbytes' is not
     specified (or 0), receive up to the size available in the given
     buffer.  Returns the number of bytes received.  See the Unix manual
     page ‘recv(2)(11)’ for the meaning of the optional argument
     'flags'; it defaults to zero.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.send (bytes[, flags])

     Send data to the socket.  The socket must be connected to a remote
     socket.  The optional 'flags' argument has the same meaning as for
     *note recv(): 115d.  Returns the number of bytes sent.
     Applications are responsible for checking that all data has been
     sent; if only some of the data was transmitted, the application
     needs to attempt delivery of the remaining data.  For further
     information on this topic, consult the *note Socket Programming
     HOWTO: 3bea.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: 1141.
     exception (see PEP 475(12) for the rationale).

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.sendall (bytes[, flags])

     Send data to the socket.  The socket must be connected to a remote
     socket.  The optional 'flags' argument has the same meaning as for
     *note recv(): 115d.  Unlike *note send(): 1160, this method
     continues to send data from 'bytes' until either all data has been
     sent or an error occurs.  ‘None’ is returned on success.  On error,
     an exception is raised, and there is no way to determine how much
     data, if any, was successfully sent.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset each
     time data is sent successfully.  The socket timeout is now the
     maximum total duration to send all data.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: 1141.
     exception (see PEP 475(13) for the rationale).

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.sendto (bytes, address)

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.sendto (bytes, flags, address)

     Send data to the socket.  The socket should not be connected to a
     remote socket, since the destination socket is specified by
     'address'.  The optional 'flags' argument has the same meaning as
     for *note recv(): 115d.  Return the number of bytes sent.  The
     format of 'address' depends on the address family — see *note
     Socket families: 3b8d.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.sendto’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘address’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: 1141.
     exception (see PEP 475(14) for the rationale).

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.sendmsg (buffers[, ancdata[, flags[, address]]])

     Send normal and ancillary data to the socket, gathering the
     non-ancillary data from a series of buffers and concatenating it
     into a single message.  The 'buffers' argument specifies the
     non-ancillary data as an iterable of *note bytes-like objects: 436.
     (e.g.  *note bytes: 1c7. objects); the operating system may set a
     limit (*note sysconf(): 1b0d. value ‘SC_IOV_MAX’) on the number of
     buffers that can be used.  The 'ancdata' argument specifies the
     ancillary data (control messages) as an iterable of zero or more
     tuples ‘(cmsg_level, cmsg_type, cmsg_data)’, where 'cmsg_level' and
     'cmsg_type' are integers specifying the protocol level and
     protocol-specific type respectively, and 'cmsg_data' is a
     bytes-like object holding the associated data.  Note that some
     systems (in particular, systems without *note CMSG_SPACE(): 2005.)
     might support sending only one control message per call.  The
     'flags' argument defaults to 0 and has the same meaning as for
     *note send(): 1160.  If 'address' is supplied and not ‘None’, it
     sets a destination address for the message.  The return value is
     the number of bytes of non-ancillary data sent.

     The following function sends the list of file descriptors 'fds'
     over an *note AF_UNIX: 1daa. socket, on systems which support the
     ‘SCM_RIGHTS’ mechanism.  See also *note recvmsg(): 115f.

          import socket, array

          def send_fds(sock, msg, fds):
              return sock.sendmsg([msg], [(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SCM_RIGHTS, array.array("i", fds))])

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

     Most Unix platforms.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘socket.sendmsg’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘address’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If the system call is interrupted and the
     signal handler does not raise an exception, the method now retries
     the system call instead of raising an *note InterruptedError: 1141.
     exception (see PEP 475(15) for the rationale).

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.sendmsg_afalg ([msg], *, op[, iv[, assoclen[,
          flags]]])

     Specialized version of *note sendmsg(): 88c. for *note AF_ALG:
     1094. socket.  Set mode, IV, AEAD associated data length and flags
     for ‘AF_ALG’ socket.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.38.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.sendfile (file, offset=0, count=None)

     Send a file until EOF is reached by using high-performance *note
     os.sendfile: ed3. and return the total number of bytes which were
     sent.  'file' must be a regular file object opened in binary mode.
     If ‘os.sendfile’ is not available (e.g.  Windows) or 'file' is not
     a regular file *note send(): 1160. will be used instead.  'offset'
     tells from where to start reading the file.  If specified, 'count'
     is the total number of bytes to transmit as opposed to sending the
     file until EOF is reached.  File position is updated on return or
     also in case of error in which case *note file.tell(): 174f. can be
     used to figure out the number of bytes which were sent.  The socket
     must be of *note SOCK_STREAM: 1698. type.  Non-blocking sockets are
     not supported.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.set_inheritable (inheritable)

     Set the *note inheritable flag: 12aa. of the socket’s file
     descriptor or socket’s handle.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.setblocking (flag)

     Set blocking or non-blocking mode of the socket: if 'flag' is
     false, the socket is set to non-blocking, else to blocking mode.

     This method is a shorthand for certain *note settimeout(): 3b9a.
     calls:

        * ‘sock.setblocking(True)’ is equivalent to
          ‘sock.settimeout(None)’

        * ‘sock.setblocking(False)’ is equivalent to
          ‘sock.settimeout(0.0)’

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The method no longer applies *note
     SOCK_NONBLOCK: fc9. flag on *note socket.type: fcb.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.settimeout (value)

     Set a timeout on blocking socket operations.  The 'value' argument
     can be a nonnegative real number expressing seconds, or ‘None’.  If
     a non-zero value is given, subsequent socket operations will raise
     a *note timeout: c0d. exception if the timeout period 'value' has
     elapsed before the operation has completed.  If zero is given, the
     socket is put in non-blocking mode.  If ‘None’ is given, the socket
     is put in blocking mode.

     For further information, please consult the *note notes on socket
     timeouts: 3beb.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The method no longer toggles *note
     SOCK_NONBLOCK: fc9. flag on *note socket.type: fcb.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number, not only integer
     or float.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, value: int | Buffer)

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.setsockopt (level, optname, None, optlen: int)

     Set the value of the given socket option (see the Unix manual page
     ‘setsockopt(2)(16)’).  The needed symbolic constants are defined in
     this module (SO_* etc.  <socket-unix-constants>).  The value can be
     an integer, ‘None’ or a *note bytes-like object: 436. representing
     a buffer.  In the latter case it is up to the caller to ensure that
     the bytestring contains the proper bits (see the optional built-in
     module *note struct: de. for a way to encode C structures as
     bytestrings).  When 'value' is set to ‘None’, 'optlen' argument is
     required.  It’s equivalent to calling ‘setsockopt()’ C function
     with ‘optval=NULL’ and ‘optlen=optlen’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Writable *note bytes-like object: 436. is
     now accepted.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen:
     int) form added.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.shutdown (how)

     Shut down one or both halves of the connection.  If 'how' is *note
     SHUT_RD: 3bd4, further receives are disallowed.  If 'how' is *note
     SHUT_WR: 3bd5, further sends are disallowed.  If 'how' is *note
     SHUT_RDWR: 3bd6, further sends and receives are disallowed.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

 -- Μέθοδος: socket.share (process_id)

     Duplicate a socket and prepare it for sharing with a target
     process.  The target process must be provided with 'process_id'.
     The resulting bytes object can then be passed to the target process
     using some form of interprocess communication and the socket can be
     recreated there using *note fromshare(): fc6.  Once this method has
     been called, it is safe to close the socket since the operating
     system has already duplicated it for the target process.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.3.

Note that there are no methods ‘read()’ or ‘write()’; use *note recv():
115d. and *note send(): 1160. without 'flags' argument instead.

Socket objects also have these (read-only) attributes that correspond to
the values given to the *note socket: 115a. constructor.

 -- Ιδιότητα: socket.family

     The socket family.

 -- Ιδιότητα: socket.type

     The socket type.

 -- Ιδιότητα: socket.proto

     The socket protocol.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/getsockopt(2)

   (4) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms741621%28VS.85%29.aspx

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (7) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (10) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (11) https://manpages.debian.org/recv(2)

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (16) https://manpages.debian.org/setsockopt(2)


File: python.info,  Node: Notes on socket timeouts,  Next: Example<7>,  Prev: Socket Objects,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.20.2.9 Notes on socket timeouts
.................................

A socket object can be in one of three modes: blocking, non-blocking, or
timeout.  Sockets are by default always created in blocking mode, but
this can be changed by calling *note setdefaulttimeout(): 3b9e.

   * In 'blocking mode', operations block until complete or the system
     returns an error (such as connection timed out).

   * In 'non-blocking mode', operations fail (with an error that is
     unfortunately system-dependent) if they cannot be completed
     immediately: functions from the *note select: c9. module can be
     used to know when and whether a socket is available for reading or
     writing.

   * In 'timeout mode', operations fail if they cannot be completed
     within the timeout specified for the socket (they raise a *note
     timeout: c0d. exception) or if the system returns an error.

     Σημείωση: At the operating system level, sockets in 'timeout mode'
     are internally set in non-blocking mode.  Also, the blocking and
     timeout modes are shared between file descriptors and socket
     objects that refer to the same network endpoint.  This
     implementation detail can have visible consequences if e.g.  you
     decide to use the *note fileno(): 3be8. of a socket.

* Menu:

* Timeouts and the connect method::
* Timeouts and the accept method::


File: python.info,  Node: Timeouts and the connect method,  Next: Timeouts and the accept method,  Up: Notes on socket timeouts

5.20.2.10 Timeouts and the ‘connect’ method
...........................................

The *note connect(): 115c. operation is also subject to the timeout
setting, and in general it is recommended to call *note settimeout():
3b9a. before calling ‘connect()’ or pass a timeout parameter to *note
create_connection(): a62.  However, the system network stack may also
return a connection timeout error of its own regardless of any Python
socket timeout setting.


File: python.info,  Node: Timeouts and the accept method,  Prev: Timeouts and the connect method,  Up: Notes on socket timeouts

5.20.2.11 Timeouts and the ‘accept’ method
..........................................

If *note getdefaulttimeout(): 3bdc. is not *note None: a65, sockets
returned by the *note accept(): 115b. method inherit that timeout.
Otherwise, the behaviour depends on settings of the listening socket:

   * if the listening socket is in 'blocking mode' or in 'timeout mode',
     the socket returned by *note accept(): 115b. is in 'blocking mode';

   * if the listening socket is in 'non-blocking mode', whether the
     socket returned by *note accept(): 115b. is in blocking or
     non-blocking mode is operating system-dependent.  If you want to
     ensure cross-platform behaviour, it is recommended you manually
     override this setting.


File: python.info,  Node: Example<7>,  Prev: Notes on socket timeouts,  Up: socket — Low-level networking interface

5.20.2.12 Example
.................

Here are four minimal example programs using the TCP/IP protocol: a
server that echoes all data that it receives back (servicing only one
client), and a client using it.  Note that a server must perform the
sequence *note socket(): 115a, *note bind(): 18dc, *note listen(): 120f,
*note accept(): 115b. (possibly repeating the ‘accept()’ to service more
than one client), while a client only needs the sequence ‘socket()’,
*note connect(): 115c.  Also note that the server does not *note
sendall(): 1161./*note recv(): 115d. on the socket it is listening on
but on the new socket returned by ‘accept()’.

The first two examples support IPv4 only.

     # Echo server program
     import socket

     HOST = ''                 # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
     PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
         s.bind((HOST, PORT))
         s.listen(1)
         conn, addr = s.accept()
         with conn:
             print('Connected by', addr)
             while True:
                 data = conn.recv(1024)
                 if not data: break
                 conn.sendall(data)

     # Echo client program
     import socket

     HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
     PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as s:
         s.connect((HOST, PORT))
         s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
         data = s.recv(1024)
     print('Received', repr(data))

The next two examples are identical to the above two, but support both
IPv4 and IPv6.  The server side will listen to the first address family
available (it should listen to both instead).  On most of IPv6-ready
systems, IPv6 will take precedence and the server may not accept IPv4
traffic.  The client side will try to connect to all the addresses
returned as a result of the name resolution, and sends traffic to the
first one connected successfully.

     # Echo server program
     import socket
     import sys

     HOST = None               # Symbolic name meaning all available interfaces
     PORT = 50007              # Arbitrary non-privileged port
     s = None
     for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC,
                                   socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0, socket.AI_PASSIVE):
         af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
         try:
             s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
         except OSError as msg:
             s = None
             continue
         try:
             s.bind(sa)
             s.listen(1)
         except OSError as msg:
             s.close()
             s = None
             continue
         break
     if s is None:
         print('could not open socket')
         sys.exit(1)
     conn, addr = s.accept()
     with conn:
         print('Connected by', addr)
         while True:
             data = conn.recv(1024)
             if not data: break
             conn.send(data)

     # Echo client program
     import socket
     import sys

     HOST = 'daring.cwi.nl'    # The remote host
     PORT = 50007              # The same port as used by the server
     s = None
     for res in socket.getaddrinfo(HOST, PORT, socket.AF_UNSPEC, socket.SOCK_STREAM):
         af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res
         try:
             s = socket.socket(af, socktype, proto)
         except OSError as msg:
             s = None
             continue
         try:
             s.connect(sa)
         except OSError as msg:
             s.close()
             s = None
             continue
         break
     if s is None:
         print('could not open socket')
         sys.exit(1)
     with s:
         s.sendall(b'Hello, world')
         data = s.recv(1024)
     print('Received', repr(data))

The next example shows how to write a very simple network sniffer with
raw sockets on Windows.  The example requires administrator privileges
to modify the interface:

     import socket

     # the public network interface
     HOST = socket.gethostbyname(socket.gethostname())

     # create a raw socket and bind it to the public interface
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.IPPROTO_IP)
     s.bind((HOST, 0))

     # Include IP headers
     s.setsockopt(socket.IPPROTO_IP, socket.IP_HDRINCL, 1)

     # receive all packets
     s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_ON)

     # receive a packet
     print(s.recvfrom(65565))

     # disabled promiscuous mode
     s.ioctl(socket.SIO_RCVALL, socket.RCVALL_OFF)

The next example shows how to use the socket interface to communicate to
a CAN network using the raw socket protocol.  To use CAN with the
broadcast manager protocol instead, open a socket with:

     socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_DGRAM, socket.CAN_BCM)

After binding (‘CAN_RAW’) or connecting (*note CAN_BCM: 134c.) the
socket, you can use the *note socket.send(): 1160. and *note
socket.recv(): 115d. operations (and their counterparts) on the socket
object as usual.

This last example might require special privileges:

     import socket
     import struct


     # CAN frame packing/unpacking (see 'struct can_frame' in <linux/can.h>)

     can_frame_fmt = "=IB3x8s"
     can_frame_size = struct.calcsize(can_frame_fmt)

     def build_can_frame(can_id, data):
         can_dlc = len(data)
         data = data.ljust(8, b'\x00')
         return struct.pack(can_frame_fmt, can_id, can_dlc, data)

     def dissect_can_frame(frame):
         can_id, can_dlc, data = struct.unpack(can_frame_fmt, frame)
         return (can_id, can_dlc, data[:can_dlc])


     # create a raw socket and bind it to the 'vcan0' interface
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_CAN, socket.SOCK_RAW, socket.CAN_RAW)
     s.bind(('vcan0',))

     while True:
         cf, addr = s.recvfrom(can_frame_size)

         print('Received: can_id=%x, can_dlc=%x, data=%s' % dissect_can_frame(cf))

         try:
             s.send(cf)
         except OSError:
             print('Error sending CAN frame')

         try:
             s.send(build_can_frame(0x01, b'\x01\x02\x03'))
         except OSError:
             print('Error sending CAN frame')

Running an example several times with too small delay between
executions, could lead to this error:

     OSError: [Errno 98] Address already in use

This is because the previous execution has left the socket in a
‘TIME_WAIT’ state, and can’t be immediately reused.

There is a ‘socket’ flag to set, in order to prevent this,
‘socket.SO_REUSEADDR’:

     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     s.setsockopt(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SO_REUSEADDR, 1)
     s.bind((HOST, PORT))

the ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ flag tells the kernel to reuse a local socket in
‘TIME_WAIT’ state, without waiting for its natural timeout to expire.

Δείτε επίσης
............

For an introduction to socket programming (in C), see the following
papers:

   - 'An Introductory 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial', by
     Stuart Sechrest

   - 'An Advanced 4.3BSD Interprocess Communication Tutorial', by Samuel
     J. Leffler et al,

both in the UNIX Programmer’s Manual, Supplementary Documents 1
(sections PS1:7 and PS1:8).  The platform-specific reference material
for the various socket-related system calls are also a valuable source
of information on the details of socket semantics.  For Unix, refer to
the manual pages; for Windows, see the WinSock (or Winsock 2)
specification.  For IPv6-ready APIs, readers may want to refer to RFC
3493(1) titled Basic Socket Interface Extensions for IPv6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3493.html


File: python.info,  Node: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects,  Next: select — Waiting for I/O completion,  Prev: socket — Low-level networking interface,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.20.3 ‘ssl’ — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/ssl.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to Transport Layer Security (often known as
«Secure Sockets Layer») encryption and peer authentication facilities
for network sockets, both client-side and server-side.  This module uses
the OpenSSL library.

This is an *note optional module: 2347.  If it is missing from your copy
of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is,
whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

     Σημείωση: Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are
     made to the operating system socket APIs.  The installed version of
     OpenSSL may also cause variations in behavior.  For example,
     TLSv1.3 comes with OpenSSL version 1.1.1.

     Προειδοποίηση: Don’t use this module without reading the *note
     Security considerations: 3ad9.  Doing so may lead to a false sense
     of security, as the default settings of the ssl module are not
     necessarily appropriate for your application.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

This section documents the objects and functions in the ‘ssl’ module;
for more general information about TLS, SSL, and certificates, the
reader is referred to the documents in the «See Also» section at the
bottom.

This module provides a class, *note ssl.SSLSocket: cbb, which is derived
from the *note socket.socket: 115a. type, and provides a socket-like
wrapper that also encrypts and decrypts the data going over the socket
with SSL. It supports additional methods such as ‘getpeercert()’, which
retrieves the certificate of the other side of the connection,
‘cipher()’, which retrieves the cipher being used for the secure
connection or ‘get_verified_chain()’, ‘get_unverified_chain()’ which
retrieves certificate chain.

For more sophisticated applications, the *note ssl.SSLContext: 336.
class helps manage settings and certificates, which can then be
inherited by SSL sockets created through the *note
SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 933. method.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5.3: Updated to support linking with OpenSSL 1.1.0

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 are deprecated
and no longer supported.  In the future the ssl module will require at
least OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1.0.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: PEP 644(2) has been implemented.  The ssl
module requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer.

Use of deprecated constants and functions result in deprecation
warnings.

* Menu:

* Functions, constants, and exceptions: Functions constants and exceptions.
* SSL sockets::
* SSL contexts::
* Certificates::
* Examples: Examples<17>.
* Notes on non-blocking sockets::
* Memory BIO support::
* SSL session::
* Security considerations: Security considerations<2>.
* TLS 1.3: TLS 1 3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/ssl.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/


File: python.info,  Node: Functions constants and exceptions,  Next: SSL sockets,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.20.3.1 Functions, constants, and exceptions
.............................................

* Menu:

* Socket creation::
* Context creation::
* Signature algorithms::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<17>.
* Random generation::
* Certificate handling::
* Constants: Constants<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: Socket creation,  Next: Context creation,  Up: Functions constants and exceptions

5.20.3.2 Socket creation
........................

Instances of *note SSLSocket: cbb. must be created using the *note
SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 933. method.  The helper function *note
create_default_context(): 68e. returns a new context with secure default
settings.

Client socket example with default context and IPv4/IPv6 dual stack:

     import socket
     import ssl

     hostname = 'www.python.org'
     context = ssl.create_default_context()

     with socket.create_connection((hostname, 443)) as sock:
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
             print(ssock.version())

Client socket example with custom context and IPv4:

     hostname = 'www.python.org'
     # PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT requires valid cert chain and hostname
     context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     context.load_verify_locations('path/to/cabundle.pem')

     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_hostname=hostname) as ssock:
             print(ssock.version())

Server socket example listening on localhost IPv4:

     context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER)
     context.load_cert_chain('/path/to/certchain.pem', '/path/to/private.key')

     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM, 0) as sock:
         sock.bind(('127.0.0.1', 8443))
         sock.listen(5)
         with context.wrap_socket(sock, server_side=True) as ssock:
             conn, addr = ssock.accept()
             ...


File: python.info,  Node: Context creation,  Next: Signature algorithms,  Prev: Socket creation,  Up: Functions constants and exceptions

5.20.3.3 Context creation
.........................

A convenience function helps create *note SSLContext: 336. objects for
common purposes.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ssl.create_default_context (purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH,
          *, cafile=None, capath=None, cadata=None)

     Return a new *note SSLContext: 336. object with default settings
     for the given 'purpose'.  The settings are chosen by the ‘ssl’
     module, and usually represent a higher security level than when
     calling the ‘SSLContext’ constructor directly.

     'cafile', 'capath', 'cadata' represent optional CA certificates to
     trust for certificate verification, as in *note
     SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): 129c.  If all three are *note
     None: a65, this function can choose to trust the system’s default
     CA certificates instead.

     The settings are: *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48. or *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: c49, *note OP_NO_SSLv2: c12, and *note
     OP_NO_SSLv3: c13. with high encryption cipher suites without RC4
     and without unauthenticated cipher suites.  Passing *note
     SERVER_AUTH: 135c. as 'purpose' sets *note verify_mode: 3bf9. to
     *note CERT_REQUIRED: 3bfa. and either loads CA certificates (when
     at least one of 'cafile', 'capath' or 'cadata' is given) or uses
     *note SSLContext.load_default_certs(): 135b. to load default CA
     certificates.

     When *note keylog_filename: 3bfb. is supported and the environment
     variable ‘SSLKEYLOGFILE’ is set, ‘create_default_context()’ enables
     key logging.

     The default settings for this context include *note
     VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 68f. and *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 690.
     These make the underlying OpenSSL implementation behave more like a
     conforming implementation of RFC 5280(1), in exchange for a small
     amount of incompatibility with older X.509 certificates.

          Σημείωση: The protocol, options, cipher and other settings may
          change to more restrictive values anytime without prior
          deprecation.  The values represent a fair balance between
          compatibility and security.

          If your application needs specific settings, you should create
          a *note SSLContext: 336. and apply the settings yourself.

          Σημείωση: If you find that when certain older clients or
          servers attempt to connect with a *note SSLContext: 336.
          created by this function that they get an error stating
          «Protocol or cipher suite mismatch», it may be that they only
          support SSL3.0 which this function excludes using the *note
          OP_NO_SSLv3: c13.  SSL3.0 is widely considered to be
          completely broken(2).  If you still wish to continue to use
          this function but still allow SSL 3.0 connections you can
          re-enable them using:

               ctx = ssl.create_default_context(Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
               ctx.options &= ~ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3

          Σημείωση: This context enables *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 690.
          by default, which may reject pre- RFC 5280(3) or malformed
          certificates that the underlying OpenSSL implementation
          otherwise would accept.  While disabling this is not
          recommended, you can do so using:

               ctx = ssl.create_default_context()
               ctx.verify_flags &= ~ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4.4: RC4 was dropped from the default cipher
     string.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: ChaCha20/Poly1305 was added to the default
     cipher string.

     3DES was dropped from the default cipher string.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Support for key logging to ‘SSLKEYLOGFILE’
     was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The context now uses *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48. or *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: c49.
     protocol instead of generic *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The context now uses *note
     VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 68f. and *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 690.
     in its default verify flags.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POODLE

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html


File: python.info,  Node: Signature algorithms,  Next: Exceptions<17>,  Prev: Context creation,  Up: Functions constants and exceptions

5.20.3.4 Signature algorithms
.............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: ssl.get_sigalgs ()

     Return a list of available TLS signature algorithm names used by
     servers to complete the TLS handshake or clients requesting
     certificate-based authentication.  For example:

          >>> ssl.get_sigalgs()
          ['ecdsa_secp256r1_sha256', 'ecdsa_secp384r1_sha384', ...]

     These names can be used when building string values to pass to the
     *note SSLContext.set_client_sigalgs(): 261. and *note
     SSLContext.set_server_sigalgs(): 262. methods.

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<17>,  Next: Random generation,  Prev: Signature algorithms,  Up: Functions constants and exceptions

5.20.3.5 Exceptions
...................

 -- Εξαίρεση: ssl.SSLError

     Raised to signal an error from the underlying SSL implementation
     (currently provided by the OpenSSL library).  This signifies some
     problem in the higher-level encryption and authentication layer
     that’s superimposed on the underlying network connection.  This
     error is a subtype of *note OSError: 53c.  The error code and
     message of ‘SSLError’ instances are provided by the OpenSSL
     library.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: ‘SSLError’ used to be a subtype of *note
     socket.error: 13fe.

      -- Ιδιότητα: library

          A string mnemonic designating the OpenSSL submodule in which
          the error occurred, such as ‘SSL’, ‘PEM’ or ‘X509’.  The range
          of possible values depends on the OpenSSL version.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: reason

          A string mnemonic designating the reason this error occurred,
          for example ‘CERTIFICATE_VERIFY_FAILED’.  The range of
          possible values depends on the OpenSSL version.

          Added in version 3.3.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ssl.SSLZeroReturnError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 161e. raised when trying to read or
     write and the SSL connection has been closed cleanly.  Note that
     this doesn’t mean that the underlying transport (read TCP) has been
     closed.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ssl.SSLWantReadError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 161e. raised by a *note non-blocking
     SSL socket: 3c00. when trying to read or write data, but more data
     needs to be received on the underlying TCP transport before the
     request can be fulfilled.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ssl.SSLWantWriteError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 161e. raised by a *note non-blocking
     SSL socket: 3c00. when trying to read or write data, but more data
     needs to be sent on the underlying TCP transport before the request
     can be fulfilled.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ssl.SSLSyscallError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 161e. raised when a system error was
     encountered while trying to fulfill an operation on a SSL socket.
     Unfortunately, there is no easy way to inspect the original errno
     number.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ssl.SSLEOFError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 161e. raised when the SSL connection
     has been terminated abruptly.  Generally, you shouldn’t try to
     reuse the underlying transport when this error is encountered.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ssl.SSLCertVerificationError

     A subclass of *note SSLError: 161e. raised when certificate
     validation has failed.

     Added in version 3.7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: verify_code

          A numeric error number that denotes the verification error.

      -- Ιδιότητα: verify_message

          A human readable string of the verification error.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ssl.CertificateError

     An alias for *note SSLCertVerificationError: f3b.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The exception is now an alias for *note
     SSLCertVerificationError: f3b.


File: python.info,  Node: Random generation,  Next: Certificate handling,  Prev: Exceptions<17>,  Up: Functions constants and exceptions

5.20.3.6 Random generation
..........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: ssl.RAND_bytes (num, /)

     Return 'num' cryptographically strong pseudo-random bytes.  Raises
     an *note SSLError: 161e. if the PRNG has not been seeded with
     enough data or if the operation is not supported by the current
     RAND method.  *note RAND_status(): 1e74. can be used to check the
     status of the PRNG and *note RAND_add(): 3c06. can be used to seed
     the PRNG.

     For almost all applications *note os.urandom(): 931. is preferable.

     Read the Wikipedia article, Cryptographically secure pseudorandom
     number generator (CSPRNG)(1), to get the requirements of a
     cryptographically strong generator.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ssl.RAND_status ()

     Return ‘True’ if the SSL pseudo-random number generator has been
     seeded with “enough” randomness, and ‘False’ otherwise.  Use *note
     ssl.RAND_add(): 3c06. to increase the randomness of the
     pseudo-random number generator.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ssl.RAND_add (bytes, entropy, /)

     Mix the given 'bytes' into the SSL pseudo-random number generator.
     The parameter 'entropy' (a float) is a lower bound on the entropy
     contained in string (so you can always use ‘0.0’).  See RFC 1750(2)
     for more information on sources of entropy.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Writable *note bytes-like object: 436. is
     now accepted.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1750.html


File: python.info,  Node: Certificate handling,  Next: Constants<9>,  Prev: Random generation,  Up: Functions constants and exceptions

5.20.3.7 Certificate handling
.............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: ssl.cert_time_to_seconds (cert_time)

     Return the time in seconds since the epoch, given the ‘cert_time’
     string representing the «notBefore» or «notAfter» date from a
     certificate in ‘"%b %d %H:%M:%S %Y %Z"’ strptime format (C locale).

     Here’s an example:

          >>> import ssl
          >>> import datetime as dt
          >>> timestamp = ssl.cert_time_to_seconds("Jan  5 09:34:43 2018 GMT")
          >>> timestamp
          1515144883
          >>> print(dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, dt.UTC))
          2018-01-05 09:34:43+00:00

     «notBefore» or «notAfter» dates must use GMT ( RFC 5280(1)).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Interpret the input time as a time in UTC
     as specified by “GMT” timezone in the input string.  Local timezone
     was used previously.  Return an integer (no fractions of a second
     in the input format)

 -- Συνάρτηση: ssl.get_server_certificate (addr,
          ssl_version=PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT, ca_certs=None[, timeout])

     Given the address ‘addr’ of an SSL-protected server, as a
     ('hostname', 'port-number') pair, fetches the server’s certificate,
     and returns it as a PEM-encoded string.  If ‘ssl_version’ is
     specified, uses that version of the SSL protocol to attempt to
     connect to the server.  If 'ca_certs' is specified, it should be a
     file containing a list of root certificates, the same format as
     used for the 'cafile' parameter in *note
     SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): 129c.  The call will attempt to
     validate the server certificate against that set of root
     certificates, and will fail if the validation attempt fails.  A
     timeout can be specified with the ‘timeout’ parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: This function is now IPv6-compatible.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The default 'ssl_version' is changed from
     *note PROTOCOL_SSLv3: 3c08. to *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc. for
     maximum compatibility with modern servers.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The 'timeout' parameter was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ssl.DER_cert_to_PEM_cert (der_cert_bytes)

     Given a certificate as a DER-encoded blob of bytes, returns a
     PEM-encoded string version of the same certificate.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ssl.PEM_cert_to_DER_cert (pem_cert_string)

     Given a certificate as an ASCII PEM string, returns a DER-encoded
     sequence of bytes for that same certificate.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ssl.get_default_verify_paths ()

     Returns a named tuple with paths to OpenSSL’s default cafile and
     capath.  The paths are the same as used by *note
     SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths(): 1354.  The return value is a
     *note named tuple: a3d. ‘DefaultVerifyPaths’:

        * ‘cafile’ - resolved path to cafile or ‘None’ if the file
          doesn’t exist,

        * ‘capath’ - resolved path to capath or ‘None’ if the directory
          doesn’t exist,

        * ‘openssl_cafile_env’ - OpenSSL’s environment key that points
          to a cafile,

        * ‘openssl_cafile’ - hard coded path to a cafile,

        * ‘openssl_capath_env’ - OpenSSL’s environment key that points
          to a capath,

        * ‘openssl_capath’ - hard coded path to a capath directory

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ssl.enum_certificates (store_name)

     Retrieve certificates from Windows” system cert store.
     'store_name' may be one of ‘CA’, ‘ROOT’ or ‘MY’.  Windows may
     provide additional cert stores, too.

     The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust)
     tuples.  The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes.
     It is either ‘x509_asn’ for X.509 ASN.1 data or ‘pkcs_7_asn’ for
     PKCS#7 ASN.1 data.  Trust specifies the purpose of the certificate
     as a set of OIDS or exactly ‘True’ if the certificate is
     trustworthy for all purposes.

     Example:

          >>> ssl.enum_certificates("CA")
          [(b'data...', 'x509_asn', {'1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.1', '1.3.6.1.5.5.7.3.2'}),
           (b'data...', 'x509_asn', True)]

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ssl.enum_crls (store_name)

     Retrieve CRLs from Windows” system cert store.  'store_name' may be
     one of ‘CA’, ‘ROOT’ or ‘MY’.  Windows may provide additional cert
     stores, too.

     The function returns a list of (cert_bytes, encoding_type, trust)
     tuples.  The encoding_type specifies the encoding of cert_bytes.
     It is either ‘x509_asn’ for X.509 ASN.1 data or ‘pkcs_7_asn’ for
     PKCS#7 ASN.1 data.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.4.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<9>,  Prev: Certificate handling,  Up: Functions constants and exceptions

5.20.3.8 Constants
..................

     All constants are now *note enum.IntEnum: 109d. or *note
     enum.IntFlag: 105d. collections.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.CERT_NONE

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 3bf9.  Except for
     *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48, it is the default mode.  With
     client-side sockets, just about any cert is accepted.  Validation
     errors, such as untrusted or expired cert, are ignored and do not
     abort the TLS/SSL handshake.

     In server mode, no certificate is requested from the client, so the
     client does not send any for client cert authentication.

     See the discussion of *note Security considerations: 3ad9. below.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 3bf9.  In client
     mode, *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3c0d. has the same meaning as *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 3bfa.  It is recommended to use ‘CERT_REQUIRED’ for
     client-side sockets instead.

     In server mode, a client certificate request is sent to the client.
     The client may either ignore the request or send a certificate in
     order perform TLS client cert authentication.  If the client
     chooses to send a certificate, it is verified.  Any verification
     error immediately aborts the TLS handshake.

     Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to be
     passed to *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): 129c.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.CERT_REQUIRED

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_mode: 3bf9.  In this
     mode, certificates are required from the other side of the socket
     connection; an *note SSLError: 161e. will be raised if no
     certificate is provided, or if its validation fails.  This mode is
     'not' sufficient to verify a certificate in client mode as it does
     not match hostnames.  *note check_hostname: 3c0e. must be enabled
     as well to verify the authenticity of a cert.  *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48. uses *note CERT_REQUIRED: 3bfa. and
     enables ‘check_hostname’ by default.

     With server socket, this mode provides mandatory TLS client cert
     authentication.  A client certificate request is sent to the client
     and the client must provide a valid and trusted certificate.

     Use of this setting requires a valid set of CA certificates to be
     passed to *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): 129c.

 -- Κλάση: ssl.VerifyMode

     *note enum.IntEnum: 109d. collection of CERT_* constants.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.VERIFY_DEFAULT

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: 1357.  In this
     mode, certificate revocation lists (CRLs) are not checked.  By
     default OpenSSL does neither require nor verify CRLs.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: 1357.  In this
     mode, only the peer cert is checked but none of the intermediate CA
     certificates.  The mode requires a valid CRL that is signed by the
     peer cert’s issuer (its direct ancestor CA). If no proper CRL has
     been loaded with *note SSLContext.load_verify_locations: 129c,
     validation will fail.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: 1357.  In this
     mode, CRLs of all certificates in the peer cert chain are checked.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: 1357. to disable
     workarounds for broken X.509 certificates.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: 1357. to enables
     proxy certificate verification.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: 1357.  It
     instructs OpenSSL to prefer trusted certificates when building the
     trust chain to validate a certificate.  This flag is enabled by
     default.

     Added in version 3.4.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN

     Possible value for *note SSLContext.verify_flags: 1357.  It
     instructs OpenSSL to accept intermediate CAs in the trust store to
     be treated as trust-anchors, in the same way as the self-signed
     root CA certificates.  This makes it possible to trust certificates
     issued by an intermediate CA without having to trust its ancestor
     root CA.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Κλάση: ssl.VerifyFlags

     *note enum.IntFlag: 105d. collection of VERIFY_* constants.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS

     Selects the highest protocol version that both the client and
     server support.  Despite the name, this option can select both
     «SSL» and «TLS» protocols.

     Added in version 3.6.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: TLS clients and servers require
     different default settings for secure communication.  The generic
     TLS protocol constant is deprecated in favor of *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48. and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: c49.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT

     Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version that both the client
     and server support, and configure the context client-side
     connections.  The protocol enables *note CERT_REQUIRED: 3bfa. and
     *note check_hostname: 3c0e. by default.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER

     Auto-negotiate the highest protocol version that both the client
     and server support, and configure the context server-side
     connections.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23

     Alias for *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.6: Use *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc. instead.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3

     Selects SSL version 3 as the channel encryption protocol.

     This protocol is not available if OpenSSL is compiled with the
     ‘no-ssl3’ option.

          Προειδοποίηση: SSL version 3 is insecure.  Its use is highly
          discouraged.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version
     specific protocols.  Use the default protocol *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: c49. or *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48. with
     *note SSLContext.minimum_version: c46. and *note
     SSLContext.maximum_version: c47. instead.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1

     Selects TLS version 1.0 as the channel encryption protocol.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version
     specific protocols.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1

     Selects TLS version 1.1 as the channel encryption protocol.
     Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version
     specific protocols.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2

     Selects TLS version 1.2 as the channel encryption protocol.
     Available only with openssl version 1.0.1+.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.6: OpenSSL has deprecated all version
     specific protocols.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_ALL

     Enables workarounds for various bugs present in other SSL
     implementations.  This option is set by default.  It does not
     necessarily set the same flags as OpenSSL’s ‘SSL_OP_ALL’ constant.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_NO_SSLv2

     Prevents an SSLv2 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing SSLv2 as the protocol version.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.6: SSLv2 is deprecated

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_NO_SSLv3

     Prevents an SSLv3 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing SSLv3 as the protocol version.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.6: SSLv3 is deprecated

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1

     Prevents a TLSv1 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing TLSv1 as the protocol version.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.7: The option is deprecated since OpenSSL
     1.1.0, use the new *note SSLContext.minimum_version: c46. and *note
     SSLContext.maximum_version: c47. instead.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_1

     Prevents a TLSv1.1 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing TLSv1.1 as the protocol version.  Available only with
     openssl version 1.0.1+.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.7: The option is deprecated since OpenSSL
     1.1.0.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_2

     Prevents a TLSv1.2 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing TLSv1.2 as the protocol version.  Available only with
     openssl version 1.0.1+.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.7: The option is deprecated since OpenSSL
     1.1.0.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_NO_TLSv1_3

     Prevents a TLSv1.3 connection.  This option is only applicable in
     conjunction with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc.  It prevents the peers
     from choosing TLSv1.3 as the protocol version.  TLS 1.3 is
     available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 or later.  When Python has been
     compiled against an older version of OpenSSL, the flag defaults to
     '0'.

     Added in version 3.6.3.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.7: The option is deprecated since OpenSSL
     1.1.0.  It was added to 2.7.15 and 3.6.3 for backwards
     compatibility with OpenSSL 1.0.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION

     Disable all renegotiation in TLSv1.2 and earlier.  Do not send
     HelloRequest messages, and ignore renegotiation requests via
     ClientHello.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.0h and later.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE

     Use the server’s cipher ordering preference, rather than the
     client’s.  This option has no effect on client sockets and SSLv2
     server sockets.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_SINGLE_DH_USE

     Prevents reuse of the same DH key for distinct SSL sessions.  This
     improves forward secrecy but requires more computational resources.
     This option only applies to server sockets.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE

     Prevents reuse of the same ECDH key for distinct SSL sessions.
     This improves forward secrecy but requires more computational
     resources.  This option only applies to server sockets.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT

     Send dummy Change Cipher Spec (CCS) messages in TLS 1.3 handshake
     to make a TLS 1.3 connection look more like a TLS 1.2 connection.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and later.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_NO_COMPRESSION

     Disable compression on the SSL channel.  This is useful if the
     application protocol supports its own compression scheme.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Κλάση: ssl.Options

     *note enum.IntFlag: 105d. collection of OP_* constants.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_NO_TICKET

     Prevent client side from requesting a session ticket.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF

     Ignore unexpected shutdown of TLS connections.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 3.0.0 and later.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_ENABLE_KTLS

     Enable the use of the kernel TLS. To benefit from the feature,
     OpenSSL must have been compiled with support for it, and the
     negotiated cipher suites and extensions must be supported by it (a
     list of supported ones may vary by platform and kernel version).

     Note that with enabled kernel TLS some cryptographic operations are
     performed by the kernel directly and not via any available OpenSSL
     Providers.  This might be undesirable if, for example, the
     application requires all cryptographic operations to be performed
     by the FIPS provider.

     This option is only available with OpenSSL 3.0.0 and later.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT

     Allow legacy insecure renegotiation between OpenSSL and unpatched
     servers only.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_ALPN

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the
     'Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation' TLS extension as described
     in RFC 7301(1).

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support not checking
     subject common name and *note
     SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name: f3c. is writeable.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_ECDH

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the Elliptic
     Curve-based Diffie-Hellman key exchange.  This should be true
     unless the feature was explicitly disabled by the distributor.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_SNI

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the 'Server
     Name Indication' extension (as defined in RFC 6066(2)).

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_NPN

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the 'Next
     Protocol Negotiation' as described in the Application Layer
     Protocol Negotiation(3).  When true, you can use the *note
     SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 337. method to advertise which
     protocols you want to support.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_SSLv2

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 2.0
     protocol.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_SSLv3

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the SSL 3.0
     protocol.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_TLSv1

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.0
     protocol.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_1

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.1
     protocol.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_2

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.2
     protocol.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_TLSv1_3

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for the TLS 1.3
     protocol.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_PSK

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for TLS-PSK.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_PSK_TLS13

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for External PSKs
     in TLS 1.3 as described in RFC 9258(4).

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.HAS_PHA

     Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for TLS-PHA.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES

     List of supported TLS channel binding types.  Strings in this list
     can be used as arguments to *note SSLSocket.get_channel_binding():
     14ef.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION

     The version string of the OpenSSL library loaded by the
     interpreter:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION
          'OpenSSL 1.0.2k  26 Jan 2017'

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO

     A tuple of five integers representing version information about the
     OpenSSL library:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO
          (1, 0, 2, 11, 15)

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER

     The raw version number of the OpenSSL library, as a single integer:

          >>> ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER
          268443839
          >>> hex(ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER)
          '0x100020bf'

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE
 -- Δεδομένα: ssl.ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR

 -- Δεδομένα: ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*

     Alert Descriptions from RFC 5246(5) and others.  The IANA TLS Alert
     Registry(6) contains this list and references to the RFCs where
     their meaning is defined.

     Used as the return value of the callback function in *note
     SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): 1360.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Κλάση: ssl.AlertDescription

     *note enum.IntEnum: 109d. collection of ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*
     constants.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: Purpose.SERVER_AUTH

     Option for *note create_default_context(): 68e. and *note
     SSLContext.load_default_certs(): 135b.  This value indicates that
     the context may be used to authenticate web servers (therefore, it
     will be used to create client-side sockets).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH

     Option for *note create_default_context(): 68e. and *note
     SSLContext.load_default_certs(): 135b.  This value indicates that
     the context may be used to authenticate web clients (therefore, it
     will be used to create server-side sockets).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Κλάση: ssl.SSLErrorNumber

     *note enum.IntEnum: 109d. collection of SSL_ERROR_* constants.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Κλάση: ssl.TLSVersion

     *note enum.IntEnum: 109d. collection of SSL and TLS versions for
     *note SSLContext.maximum_version: c47. and *note
     SSLContext.minimum_version: c46.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED

 -- Ιδιότητα: TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED

     The minimum or maximum supported SSL or TLS version.  These are
     magic constants.  Their values don’t reflect the lowest and highest
     available TLS/SSL versions.

 -- Ιδιότητα: TLSVersion.SSLv3

 -- Ιδιότητα: TLSVersion.TLSv1

 -- Ιδιότητα: TLSVersion.TLSv1_1

 -- Ιδιότητα: TLSVersion.TLSv1_2

 -- Ιδιότητα: TLSVersion.TLSv1_3

     SSL 3.0 to TLS 1.3.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: All *note TLSVersion: 3c2d. members
     except *note TLSVersion.TLSv1_2: 3c33. and ‘TLSVersion.TLSv1_3’ are
     deprecated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (3) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9258.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5246.html

   (6) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml#tls-parameters-6


File: python.info,  Node: SSL sockets,  Next: SSL contexts,  Prev: Functions constants and exceptions,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.20.3.9 SSL sockets
....................

 -- Κλάση: ssl.SSLSocket (socket.socket)

     SSL sockets provide the following methods of *note Socket Objects:
     3bda.:

        - *note accept(): 115b.

        - *note bind(): 18dc.

        - *note close(): 10fa.

        - *note connect(): 115c.

        - *note detach(): 15c3.

        - *note fileno(): 3be8.

        - *note getpeername(): 3b1d, *note getsockname(): 50c.

        - *note getsockopt(): 1092, *note setsockopt(): 1093.

        - *note gettimeout(): 3be9, *note settimeout(): 3b9a, *note
          setblocking(): 3261.

        - *note listen(): 120f.

        - *note makefile(): 1548.

        - *note recv(): 115d, *note recv_into(): 16c2. (but passing a
          non-zero ‘flags’ argument is not allowed)

        - *note send(): 1160, *note sendall(): 1161. (with the same
          limitation)

        - *note sendfile(): 120e. (it may be high-performant only when
          the kernel TLS is enabled by setting *note OP_ENABLE_KTLS:
          1a43. or when a socket is plain-text, else *note send(): 1160.
          will be used)

        - *note shutdown(): 3bd7.

     However, since the SSL (and TLS) protocol has its own framing atop
     of TCP, the SSL sockets abstraction can, in certain respects,
     diverge from the specification of normal, OS-level sockets.  See
     especially the *note notes on non-blocking sockets: 3c00.

     Instances of ‘SSLSocket’ must be created using the *note
     SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 933. method.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The ‘sendfile()’ method was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The ‘shutdown()’ does not reset the socket
     timeout each time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout
     is now the maximum total duration of the shutdown.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.6: It is deprecated to create a
     ‘SSLSocket’ instance directly, use *note SSLContext.wrap_socket():
     933. to wrap a socket.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: ‘SSLSocket’ instances must to created with
     *note wrap_socket(): 933.  In earlier versions, it was possible to
     create instances directly.  This was never documented or officially
     supported.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Python now uses ‘SSL_read_ex’ and
     ‘SSL_write_ex’ internally.  The functions support reading and
     writing of data larger than 2 GB. Writing zero-length data no
     longer fails with a protocol violation error.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Python now uses ‘SSL_sendfile’ internally
     when possible.  The function sends a file more efficiently because
     it performs TLS encryption in the kernel to avoid additional
     context switches.

SSL sockets also have the following additional methods and attributes:

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.read (len=1024, buffer=None)

     Read up to 'len' bytes of data from the SSL socket and return the
     result as a ‘bytes’ instance.  If 'buffer' is specified, then read
     into the buffer instead, and return the number of bytes read.

     Raise *note SSLWantReadError: 121a. or *note SSLWantWriteError:
     121b. if the socket is *note non-blocking: 3c00. and the read would
     block.

     As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to ‘read()’ can
     also cause write operations.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset each
     time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now the
     maximum total duration to read up to 'len' bytes.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.6: Use ‘recv()’ instead of ‘read()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.write (data)

     Write 'data' to the SSL socket and return the number of bytes
     written.  The 'data' argument must be an object supporting the
     buffer interface.

     Raise *note SSLWantReadError: 121a. or *note SSLWantWriteError:
     121b. if the socket is *note non-blocking: 3c00. and the write
     would block.

     As at any time a re-negotiation is possible, a call to ‘write()’
     can also cause read operations.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset each
     time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now the
     maximum total duration to write 'data'.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.6: Use ‘send()’ instead of ‘write()’.

     Σημείωση: The *note read(): 121f. and *note write(): 1220. methods
     are the low-level methods that read and write unencrypted,
     application-level data and decrypt/encrypt it to encrypted,
     wire-level data.  These methods require an active SSL connection,
     i.e.  the handshake was completed and *note SSLSocket.unwrap():
     3c36. was not called.

     Normally you should use the socket API methods like *note recv():
     115d. and *note send(): 1160. instead of these methods.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.do_handshake (block=False)

     Perform the SSL setup handshake.

     If 'block' is true and the timeout obtained by *note gettimeout():
     3be9. is zero, the socket is set in blocking mode until the
     handshake is performed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The handshake method also performs
     ‘match_hostname()’ when the *note check_hostname: 3c0e. attribute
     of the socket’s *note context: 3c37. is true.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The socket timeout is no longer reset each
     time bytes are received or sent.  The socket timeout is now the
     maximum total duration of the handshake.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Hostname or IP address is matched by
     OpenSSL during handshake.  The function ‘match_hostname()’ is no
     longer used.  In case OpenSSL refuses a hostname or IP address, the
     handshake is aborted early and a TLS alert message is sent to the
     peer.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.getpeercert (binary_form=False)

     If there is no certificate for the peer on the other end of the
     connection, return ‘None’.  If the SSL handshake hasn’t been done
     yet, raise *note ValueError: 277.

     If the ‘binary_form’ parameter is *note False: ef5, and a
     certificate was received from the peer, this method returns a *note
     dict: 188. instance.  If the certificate was not validated, the
     dict is empty.  If the certificate was validated, it returns a dict
     with several keys, amongst them ‘subject’ (the principal for which
     the certificate was issued) and ‘issuer’ (the principal issuing the
     certificate).  If a certificate contains an instance of the
     'Subject Alternative Name' extension (see RFC 3280(1)), there will
     also be a ‘subjectAltName’ key in the dictionary.

     The ‘subject’ and ‘issuer’ fields are tuples containing the
     sequence of relative distinguished names (RDNs) given in the
     certificate’s data structure for the respective fields, and each
     RDN is a sequence of name-value pairs.  Here is a real-world
     example:

          {'issuer': ((('countryName', 'IL'),),
                      (('organizationName', 'StartCom Ltd.'),),
                      (('organizationalUnitName',
                        'Secure Digital Certificate Signing'),),
                      (('commonName',
                        'StartCom Class 2 Primary Intermediate Server CA'),)),
           'notAfter': 'Nov 22 08:15:19 2013 GMT',
           'notBefore': 'Nov 21 03:09:52 2011 GMT',
           'serialNumber': '95F0',
           'subject': ((('description', '571208-SLe257oHY9fVQ07Z'),),
                       (('countryName', 'US'),),
                       (('stateOrProvinceName', 'California'),),
                       (('localityName', 'San Francisco'),),
                       (('organizationName', 'Electronic Frontier Foundation, Inc.'),),
                       (('commonName', '*.eff.org'),),
                       (('emailAddress', 'hostmaster@eff.org'),)),
           'subjectAltName': (('DNS', '*.eff.org'), ('DNS', 'eff.org')),
           'version': 3}

     If the ‘binary_form’ parameter is *note True: fcc, and a
     certificate was provided, this method returns the DER-encoded form
     of the entire certificate as a sequence of bytes, or *note None:
     a65. if the peer did not provide a certificate.  Whether the peer
     provides a certificate depends on the SSL socket’s role:

        * for a client SSL socket, the server will always provide a
          certificate, regardless of whether validation was required;

        * for a server SSL socket, the client will only provide a
          certificate when requested by the server; therefore
          ‘getpeercert()’ will return *note None: a65. if you used *note
          CERT_NONE: 3c0c. (rather than *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3c0d. or
          *note CERT_REQUIRED: 3bfa.).

     See also *note SSLContext.check_hostname: 3c0e.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The returned dictionary includes additional
     items such as ‘issuer’ and ‘notBefore’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: *note ValueError: 277. is raised when the
     handshake isn’t done.  The returned dictionary includes additional
     X509v3 extension items such as ‘crlDistributionPoints’, ‘caIssuers’
     and ‘OCSP’ URIs.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: IPv6 address strings no longer have a
     trailing new line.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.get_verified_chain ()

     Returns verified certificate chain provided by the other end of the
     SSL channel as a list of DER-encoded bytes.  If certificate
     verification was disabled method acts the same as *note
     get_unverified_chain(): 1b70.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain ()

     Returns raw certificate chain provided by the other end of the SSL
     channel as a list of DER-encoded bytes.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.cipher ()

     Returns a three-value tuple containing the name of the cipher being
     used, the version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the
     number of secret bits being used.  If no connection has been
     established, returns ‘None’.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.shared_ciphers ()

     Return the list of ciphers available in both the client and server.
     Each entry of the returned list is a three-value tuple containing
     the name of the cipher, the version of the SSL protocol that
     defines its use, and the number of secret bits the cipher uses.
     ‘shared_ciphers()’ returns ‘None’ if no connection has been
     established or the socket is a client socket.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.group ()

     Return the group used for doing key agreement on this connection.
     If no connection has been established, returns ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.client_sigalg ()

     Return the signature algorithm used for performing
     certificate-based client authentication on this connection, or
     ‘None’ if no connection has been established or client
     authentication didn’t occur.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.server_sigalg ()

     Return the signature algorithm used by the server to complete the
     TLS handshake on this connection, or ‘None’ if no connection has
     been established or the cipher suite has no signature.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.compression ()

     Return the compression algorithm being used as a string, or ‘None’
     if the connection isn’t compressed.

     If the higher-level protocol supports its own compression
     mechanism, you can use *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 14f1. to disable
     SSL-level compression.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.get_channel_binding (cb_type='tls-unique')

     Get channel binding data for current connection, as a bytes object.
     Returns ‘None’ if not connected or the handshake has not been
     completed.

     The 'cb_type' parameter allow selection of the desired channel
     binding type.  Valid channel binding types are listed in the *note
     CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES: 3c28. list.  Currently only the “tls-unique”
     channel binding, defined by RFC 5929(2), is supported.  *note
     ValueError: 277. will be raised if an unsupported channel binding
     type is requested.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol ()

     Return the protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake.  If
     *note SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(): 1215. was not called, if the
     other party does not support ALPN, if this socket does not support
     any of the client’s proposed protocols, or if the handshake has not
     happened yet, ‘None’ is returned.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol ()

     Return the higher-level protocol that was selected during the
     TLS/SSL handshake.  If *note SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 337.
     was not called, or if the other party does not support NPN, or if
     the handshake has not yet happened, this will return ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: NPN has been superseded by ALPN

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.unwrap ()

     Performs the SSL shutdown handshake, which removes the TLS layer
     from the underlying socket, and returns the underlying socket
     object.  This can be used to go from encrypted operation over a
     connection to unencrypted.  The returned socket should always be
     used for further communication with the other side of the
     connection, rather than the original socket.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake ()

     Requests post-handshake authentication (PHA) from a TLS 1.3 client.
     PHA can only be initiated for a TLS 1.3 connection from a
     server-side socket, after the initial TLS handshake and with PHA
     enabled on both sides, see *note SSLContext.post_handshake_auth:
     df5.

     The method does not perform a cert exchange immediately.  The
     server-side sends a CertificateRequest during the next write event
     and expects the client to respond with a certificate on the next
     read event.

     If any precondition isn’t met (e.g.  not TLS 1.3, PHA not enabled),
     an *note SSLError: 161e. is raised.

          Σημείωση: Only available with OpenSSL 1.1.1 and TLS 1.3
          enabled.  Without TLS 1.3 support, the method raises *note
          NotImplementedError: 59a.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.version ()

     Return the actual SSL protocol version negotiated by the connection
     as a string, or ‘None’ if no secure connection is established.  As
     of this writing, possible return values include ‘"SSLv2"’,
     ‘"SSLv3"’, ‘"TLSv1"’, ‘"TLSv1.1"’ and ‘"TLSv1.2"’.  Recent OpenSSL
     versions may define more return values.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLSocket.pending ()

     Returns the number of already decrypted bytes available for read,
     pending on the connection.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLSocket.context

     The *note SSLContext: 336. object this SSL socket is tied to.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLSocket.server_side

     A boolean which is ‘True’ for server-side sockets and ‘False’ for
     client-side sockets.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLSocket.server_hostname

     Hostname of the server: *note str: 1df. type, or ‘None’ for
     server-side socket or if the hostname was not specified in the
     constructor.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The attribute is now always ASCII text.
     When ‘server_hostname’ is an internationalized domain name (IDN),
     this attribute now stores the A-label form (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’),
     rather than the U-label form (‘"pythön.org"’).

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLSocket.session

     The *note SSLSession: 109b. for this SSL connection.  The session
     is available for client and server side sockets after the TLS
     handshake has been performed.  For client sockets the session can
     be set before *note do_handshake(): 121e. has been called to reuse
     a session.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLSocket.session_reused

     Added in version 3.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3280.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5929.html


File: python.info,  Node: SSL contexts,  Next: Certificates,  Prev: SSL sockets,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.20.3.10 SSL contexts
......................

Added in version 3.2.

An SSL context holds various data longer-lived than single SSL
connections, such as SSL configuration options, certificate(s) and
private key(s).  It also manages a cache of SSL sessions for server-side
sockets, in order to speed up repeated connections from the same
clients.

 -- Κλάση: ssl.SSLContext (protocol=None)

     Create a new SSL context.  You may pass 'protocol' which must be
     one of the ‘PROTOCOL_*’ constants defined in this module.  The
     parameter specifies which version of the SSL protocol to use.
     Typically, the server chooses a particular protocol version, and
     the client must adapt to the server’s choice.  Most of the versions
     are not interoperable with the other versions.  If not specified,
     the default is *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc.; it provides the most
     compatibility with other versions.

     Here’s a table showing which versions in a client (down the side)
     can connect to which versions in a server (along the top):

     'client' / 'server'          'SSLv2'          'SSLv3'          'TLS' (1)         'TLSv1'       'TLSv1.1'       'TLSv1.2'
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'SSLv2'                      yes              no               no (2)            no            no              no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'SSLv3'                      no               yes              no (3)            no            no              no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLS' ('SSLv23') (4)         no (5)           no (6)           yes               yes           yes             yes
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1'                      no               no               yes               yes           no              no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1.1'                    no               no               yes               no            yes             no
                                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                    
     'TLSv1.2'                    no               no               yes               no            no              yes
                                                                                                                    

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note create_default_context(): 68e. lets the ‘ssl’ module choose
     security settings for a given purpose.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The context is created with secure default
     values.  The options *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 14f1, *note
     OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE: 14f4, *note OP_SINGLE_DH_USE: 3c19,
     *note OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE: 3c1a, *note OP_NO_SSLv2: c12, and *note
     OP_NO_SSLv3: c13. (except for *note PROTOCOL_SSLv3: 3c08.) are set
     by default.  The initial cipher suite list contains only ‘HIGH’
     ciphers, no ‘NULL’ ciphers and no ‘MD5’ ciphers.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: ‘SSLContext’ without protocol argument
     is deprecated.  The context class will either require *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48. or *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: c49.
     protocol in the future.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The default cipher suites now include only
     secure AES and ChaCha20 ciphers with forward secrecy and security
     level 2.  RSA and DH keys with less than 2048 bits and ECC keys
     with less than 224 bits are prohibited.  *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc,
     *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48, and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: c49.
     use TLS 1.2 as minimum TLS version.

          Σημείωση: ‘SSLContext’ only supports limited mutation once it
          has been used by a connection.  Adding new certificates to the
          internal trust store is allowed, but changing ciphers,
          verification settings, or mTLS certificates may result in
          surprising behavior.

          Σημείωση: ‘SSLContext’ is designed to be shared and used by
          multiple connections.  Thus, it is thread-safe as long as it
          is not reconfigured after being used by a connection.

*note SSLContext: 336. objects have the following methods and
attributes:

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.cert_store_stats ()

     Get statistics about quantities of loaded X.509 certificates, count
     of X.509 certificates flagged as CA certificates and certificate
     revocation lists as dictionary.

     Example for a context with one CA cert and one other cert:

          >>> context.cert_store_stats()
          {'crl': 0, 'x509_ca': 1, 'x509': 2}

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.load_cert_chain (certfile, keyfile=None,
          password=None)

     Load a private key and the corresponding certificate.  The
     'certfile' string must be the path to a single file in PEM format
     containing the certificate as well as any number of CA certificates
     needed to establish the certificate’s authenticity.  The 'keyfile'
     string, if present, must point to a file containing the private
     key.  Otherwise the private key will be taken from 'certfile' as
     well.  See the discussion of *note Certificates: 3c3c. for more
     information on how the certificate is stored in the 'certfile'.

     The 'password' argument may be a function to call to get the
     password for decrypting the private key.  It will only be called if
     the private key is encrypted and a password is necessary.  It will
     be called with no arguments, and it should return a string, bytes,
     or bytearray.  If the return value is a string it will be encoded
     as UTF-8 before using it to decrypt the key.  Alternatively a
     string, bytes, or bytearray value may be supplied directly as the
     'password' argument.  It will be ignored if the private key is not
     encrypted and no password is needed.

     If the 'password' argument is not specified and a password is
     required, OpenSSL’s built-in password prompting mechanism will be
     used to interactively prompt the user for a password.

     An *note SSLError: 161e. is raised if the private key doesn’t match
     with the certificate.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: New optional argument 'password'.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.load_default_certs (purpose=Purpose.SERVER_AUTH)

     Load a set of default «certification authority» (CA) certificates
     from default locations.  On Windows it loads CA certs from the ‘CA’
     and ‘ROOT’ system stores.  On all systems it calls *note
     SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths(): 1354.  In the future the
     method may load CA certificates from other locations, too.

     The 'purpose' flag specifies what kind of CA certificates are
     loaded.  The default settings *note Purpose.SERVER_AUTH: 135c.
     loads certificates, that are flagged and trusted for TLS web server
     authentication (client side sockets).  *note Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH:
     135d. loads CA certificates for client certificate verification on
     the server side.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.load_verify_locations (cafile=None, capath=None,
          cadata=None)

     Load a set of «certification authority» (CA) certificates used to
     validate other peers” certificates when *note verify_mode: 3bf9. is
     other than *note CERT_NONE: 3c0c.  At least one of 'cafile' or
     'capath' must be specified.

     This method can also load certification revocation lists (CRLs) in
     PEM or DER format.  In order to make use of CRLs, *note
     SSLContext.verify_flags: 1357. must be configured properly.

     The 'cafile' string, if present, is the path to a file of
     concatenated CA certificates in PEM format.  See the discussion of
     *note Certificates: 3c3c. for more information about how to arrange
     the certificates in this file.

     The 'capath' string, if present, is the path to a directory
     containing several CA certificates in PEM format, following an
     OpenSSL specific layout(7).

     The 'cadata' object, if present, is either an ASCII string of one
     or more PEM-encoded certificates or a *note bytes-like object: 436.
     of DER-encoded certificates.  Like with 'capath' extra lines around
     PEM-encoded certificates are ignored but at least one certificate
     must be present.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: New optional argument 'cadata'

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.get_ca_certs (binary_form=False)

     Get a list of loaded «certification authority» (CA) certificates.
     If the ‘binary_form’ parameter is *note False: ef5. each list entry
     is a dict like the output of *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): 1361.
     Otherwise the method returns a list of DER-encoded certificates.
     The returned list does not contain certificates from 'capath'
     unless a certificate was requested and loaded by a SSL connection.

          Σημείωση: Certificates in a capath directory aren’t loaded
          unless they have been used at least once.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.get_ciphers ()

     Get a list of enabled ciphers.  The list is in order of cipher
     priority.  See *note SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 25f.

     Example:

          >>> ctx = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23)
          >>> ctx.set_ciphers('ECDHE+AESGCM:!ECDSA')
          >>> ctx.get_ciphers()
          [{'aead': True,
            'alg_bits': 256,
            'auth': 'auth-rsa',
            'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
                           'Enc=AESGCM(256) Mac=AEAD',
            'digest': None,
            'id': 50380848,
            'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
            'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES256-GCM-SHA384',
            'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
            'strength_bits': 256,
            'symmetric': 'aes-256-gcm'},
           {'aead': True,
            'alg_bits': 128,
            'auth': 'auth-rsa',
            'description': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256 TLSv1.2 Kx=ECDH     Au=RSA  '
                           'Enc=AESGCM(128) Mac=AEAD',
            'digest': None,
            'id': 50380847,
            'kea': 'kx-ecdhe',
            'name': 'ECDHE-RSA-AES128-GCM-SHA256',
            'protocol': 'TLSv1.2',
            'strength_bits': 128,
            'symmetric': 'aes-128-gcm'}]

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.get_groups (*, include_aliases=False)

     Get a list of groups implemented for key agreement, taking into
     account the current TLS *note minimum_version: c46. and *note
     maximum_version: c47. values.  For example:

          >>> ctx = ssl.create_default_context()
          >>> ctx.minimum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3
          >>> ctx.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3
          >>> ctx.get_groups()
          ['secp256r1', 'secp384r1', 'secp521r1', 'x25519', 'x448', ...]

     By default, this method returns only the preferred IANA names for
     the available groups.  However, if the ‘include_aliases’ parameter
     is set to *note True: fcc. this method will also return any
     associated aliases such as the ECDH curve names supported in older
     versions of OpenSSL.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.set_default_verify_paths ()

     Load a set of default «certification authority» (CA) certificates
     from a filesystem path defined when building the OpenSSL library.
     Unfortunately, there’s no easy way to know whether this method
     succeeds: no error is returned if no certificates are to be found.
     When the OpenSSL library is provided as part of the operating
     system, though, it is likely to be configured properly.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.set_ciphers (ciphers, /)

     Set the allowed ciphers for sockets created with this context when
     connecting using TLS 1.2 and earlier.  The 'ciphers' argument
     should be a string in the OpenSSL cipher list format(8).  To set
     allowed TLS 1.3 ciphers, use *note SSLContext.set_ciphersuites():
     25e.

     If no cipher can be selected (because compile-time options or other
     configuration forbids use of all the specified ciphers), an *note
     SSLError: 161e. will be raised.

          Σημείωση: When connected, the *note SSLSocket.cipher(): 3b1e.
          method of SSL sockets will return details about the negotiated
          cipher.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.set_ciphersuites (ciphersuites, /)

     Set the allowed ciphers for sockets created with this context when
     connecting using TLS 1.3.  The 'ciphersuites' argument should be a
     colon-separate string of TLS 1.3 cipher names.  If no cipher can be
     selected (because compile-time options or other configuration
     forbids use of all the specified ciphers), an *note SSLError: 161e.
     will be raised.

          Σημείωση: When connected, the *note SSLSocket.cipher(): 3b1e.
          method of SSL sockets will return details about the negotiated
          cipher.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.set_groups (groups, /)

     Set the groups allowed for key agreement for sockets created with
     this context.  It should be a string in the OpenSSL group list
     format(9).

          Σημείωση: When connected, the *note SSLSocket.group(): 25c.
          method of SSL sockets will return the group used for key
          agreement on that connection.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.set_client_sigalgs (sigalgs, /)

     Set the signature algorithms allowed for certificate-based client
     authentication.  It should be a string in the OpenSSL client
     sigalgs list format(10).

          Σημείωση: When connected, the *note SSLSocket.client_sigalg():
          263. method of SSL sockets will return the signature algorithm
          used for performing certificate-based client authentication on
          that connection.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.set_server_sigalgs (sigalgs, /)

     Set the signature algorithms allowed for the server to complete the
     TLS handshake.  It should be a string in the OpenSSL sigalgs list
     format(11).

          Σημείωση: When connected, the *note SSLSocket.server_sigalg():
          264. method of SSL sockets will return the signature algorithm
          used by the server to complete the TLS handshake on that
          connection.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols (alpn_protocols)

     Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the
     SSL/TLS handshake.  It should be a list of ASCII strings, like
     ‘['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']’, ordered by preference.  The selection of
     a protocol will happen during the handshake, and will play out
     according to RFC 7301(12).  After a successful handshake, the *note
     SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): 1216. method will return the
     agreed-upon protocol.

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a. if *note
     HAS_ALPN: 1217. is ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.set_npn_protocols (npn_protocols)

     Specify which protocols the socket should advertise during the
     SSL/TLS handshake.  It should be a list of strings, like
     ‘['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']’, ordered by preference.  The selection of
     a protocol will happen during the handshake, and will play out
     according to the Application Layer Protocol Negotiation(13).  After
     a successful handshake, the *note
     SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol(): c4a. method will return the
     agreed-upon protocol.

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a. if *note
     HAS_NPN: 3c21. is ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: NPN has been superseded by ALPN

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.sni_callback

     Register a callback function that will be called after the TLS
     Client Hello handshake message has been received by the SSL/TLS
     server when the TLS client specifies a server name indication.  The
     server name indication mechanism is specified in RFC 6066(14)
     section 3 - Server Name Indication.

     Only one callback can be set per ‘SSLContext’.  If 'sni_callback'
     is set to ‘None’ then the callback is disabled.  Calling this
     function a subsequent time will disable the previously registered
     callback.

     The callback function will be called with three arguments; the
     first being the *note ssl.SSLSocket: cbb, the second is a string
     that represents the server name that the client is intending to
     communicate (or *note None: a65. if the TLS Client Hello does not
     contain a server name) and the third argument is the original *note
     SSLContext: 336.  The server name argument is text.  For
     internationalized domain name, the server name is an IDN A-label
     (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’).

     A typical use of this callback is to change the *note
     ssl.SSLSocket: cbb.’s *note SSLSocket.context: 3c37. attribute to a
     new object of type *note SSLContext: 336. representing a
     certificate chain that matches the server name.

     Due to the early negotiation phase of the TLS connection, only
     limited methods and attributes are usable like *note
     SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): 1216. and *note
     SSLSocket.context: 3c37.  The *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): 1361,
     *note SSLSocket.get_verified_chain(): 1b6f, *note
     SSLSocket.get_unverified_chain(): 1b70. *note SSLSocket.cipher():
     3b1e. and *note SSLSocket.compression(): 14f0. methods require that
     the TLS connection has progressed beyond the TLS Client Hello and
     therefore will not return meaningful values nor can they be called
     safely.

     The 'sni_callback' function must return ‘None’ to allow the TLS
     negotiation to continue.  If a TLS failure is required, a constant
     *note ALERT_DESCRIPTION_*: 3c2a. can be returned.  Other return
     values will result in a TLS fatal error with
     ‘ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR’.

     If an exception is raised from the 'sni_callback' function the TLS
     connection will terminate with a fatal TLS alert message *note
     ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE: 3c29.

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a. if the
     OpenSSL library had OPENSSL_NO_TLSEXT defined when it was built.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.set_servername_callback (server_name_callback)

     This is a legacy API retained for backwards compatibility.  When
     possible, you should use *note sni_callback: 1e85. instead.  The
     given 'server_name_callback' is similar to 'sni_callback', except
     that when the server hostname is an IDN-encoded internationalized
     domain name, the 'server_name_callback' receives a decoded U-label
     (‘"pythön.org"’).

     If there is a decoding error on the server name, the TLS connection
     will terminate with an *note ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR:
     3c2a. fatal TLS alert message to the client.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.load_dh_params (dhfile, /)

     Load the key generation parameters for Diffie-Hellman (DH) key
     exchange.  Using DH key exchange improves forward secrecy at the
     expense of computational resources (both on the server and on the
     client).  The 'dhfile' parameter should be the path to a file
     containing DH parameters in PEM format.

     This setting doesn’t apply to client sockets.  You can also use the
     *note OP_SINGLE_DH_USE: 3c19. option to further improve security.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.set_ecdh_curve (curve_name, /)

     Set the curve name for Elliptic Curve-based Diffie-Hellman (ECDH)
     key exchange.  ECDH is significantly faster than regular DH while
     arguably as secure.  The 'curve_name' parameter should be a string
     describing a well-known elliptic curve, for example ‘prime256v1’
     for a widely supported curve.

     This setting doesn’t apply to client sockets.  You can also use the
     *note OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE: 3c1a. option to further improve security.

     This method is not available if *note HAS_ECDH: 3c1f. is ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     SSL/TLS & Perfect Forward Secrecy(15)

          Vincent Bernat.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.wrap_socket (sock, server_side=False,
          do_handshake_on_connect=True, suppress_ragged_eofs=True,
          server_hostname=None, session=None)

     Wrap an existing Python socket 'sock' and return an instance of
     *note SSLContext.sslsocket_class: 3c3d. (default *note SSLSocket:
     cbb.).  The returned SSL socket is tied to the context, its
     settings and certificates.  'sock' must be a *note SOCK_STREAM:
     1698. socket; other socket types are unsupported.

     The parameter ‘server_side’ is a boolean which identifies whether
     server-side or client-side behavior is desired from this socket.

     For client-side sockets, the context construction is lazy; if the
     underlying socket isn’t connected yet, the context construction
     will be performed after ‘connect()’ is called on the socket.  For
     server-side sockets, if the socket has no remote peer, it is
     assumed to be a listening socket, and the server-side SSL wrapping
     is automatically performed on client connections accepted via the
     ‘accept()’ method.  The method may raise *note SSLError: 161e.

     On client connections, the optional parameter 'server_hostname'
     specifies the hostname of the service which we are connecting to.
     This allows a single server to host multiple SSL-based services
     with distinct certificates, quite similarly to HTTP virtual hosts.
     Specifying 'server_hostname' will raise a *note ValueError: 277. if
     'server_side' is true.

     The parameter ‘do_handshake_on_connect’ specifies whether to do the
     SSL handshake automatically after doing a ‘socket.connect()’, or
     whether the application program will call it explicitly, by
     invoking the *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): 121e. method.  Calling
     ‘SSLSocket.do_handshake()’ explicitly gives the program control
     over the blocking behavior of the socket I/O involved in the
     handshake.

     The parameter ‘suppress_ragged_eofs’ specifies how the
     ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ method should signal unexpected EOF from the
     other end of the connection.  If specified as *note True: fcc. (the
     default), it returns a normal EOF (an empty bytes object) in
     response to unexpected EOF errors raised from the underlying
     socket; if *note False: ef5, it will raise the exceptions back to
     the caller.

     'session', see *note session: 1b57.

     To wrap an *note SSLSocket: cbb. in another ‘SSLSocket’, use *note
     SSLContext.wrap_bio(): f41.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Always allow a server_hostname to be
     passed, even if OpenSSL does not have SNI.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 'session' argument was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The method returns an instance of *note
     SSLContext.sslsocket_class: 3c3d. instead of hard-coded *note
     SSLSocket: cbb.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.sslsocket_class

     The return type of *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 933, defaults to
     *note SSLSocket: cbb.  The attribute can be assigned to on
     instances of *note SSLContext: 336. in order to return a custom
     subclass of ‘SSLSocket’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.wrap_bio (incoming, outgoing, server_side=False,
          server_hostname=None, session=None)

     Wrap the BIO objects 'incoming' and 'outgoing' and return an
     instance of *note SSLContext.sslobject_class: 3c3e. (default *note
     SSLObject: f40.).  The SSL routines will read input data from the
     incoming BIO and write data to the outgoing BIO.

     The 'server_side', 'server_hostname' and 'session' parameters have
     the same meaning as in *note SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 933.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 'session' argument was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The method returns an instance of *note
     SSLContext.sslobject_class: 3c3e. instead of hard-coded *note
     SSLObject: f40.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.sslobject_class

     The return type of *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): f41, defaults to
     *note SSLObject: f40.  The attribute can be overridden on instance
     of class in order to return a custom subclass of ‘SSLObject’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.session_stats ()

     Get statistics about the SSL sessions created or managed by this
     context.  A dictionary is returned which maps the names of each
     piece of information(16) to their numeric values.  For example,
     here is the total number of hits and misses in the session cache
     since the context was created:

          >>> stats = context.session_stats()
          >>> stats['hits'], stats['misses']
          (0, 0)

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.check_hostname

     Whether to match the peer cert’s hostname in *note
     SSLSocket.do_handshake(): 121e.  The context’s *note verify_mode:
     3bf9. must be set to *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3c0d. or *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 3bfa, and you must pass 'server_hostname' to *note
     wrap_socket(): 933. in order to match the hostname.  Enabling
     hostname checking automatically sets ‘verify_mode’ from *note
     CERT_NONE: 3c0c. to ‘CERT_REQUIRED’.  It cannot be set back to
     ‘CERT_NONE’ as long as hostname checking is enabled.  The *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48. protocol enables hostname checking by
     default.  With other protocols, hostname checking must be enabled
     explicitly.

     Example:

          import socket, ssl

          context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2)
          context.verify_mode = ssl.CERT_REQUIRED
          context.check_hostname = True
          context.load_default_certs()

          s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
          ssl_sock = context.wrap_socket(s, server_hostname='www.verisign.com')
          ssl_sock.connect(('www.verisign.com', 443))

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: *note verify_mode: 3bf9. is now
     automatically changed to *note CERT_REQUIRED: 3bfa. when hostname
     checking is enabled and ‘verify_mode’ is *note CERT_NONE: 3c0c.
     Previously the same operation would have failed with a *note
     ValueError: 277.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.keylog_filename

     Write TLS keys to a keylog file, whenever key material is generated
     or received.  The keylog file is designed for debugging purposes
     only.  The file format is specified by NSS and used by many traffic
     analyzers such as Wireshark.  The log file is opened in append-only
     mode.  Writes are synchronized between threads, but not between
     processes.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.maximum_version

     A *note TLSVersion: 3c2d. enum member representing the highest
     supported TLS version.  The value defaults to *note
     TLSVersion.MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED: 3c2f.  The attribute is read-only for
     protocols other than *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc, *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48, and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: c49.

     The attributes ‘maximum_version’, *note minimum_version: c46. and
     *note SSLContext.options: c11. all affect the supported SSL and TLS
     versions of the context.  The implementation does not prevent
     invalid combination.  For example a context with *note
     OP_NO_TLSv1_2: 3c17. in ‘options’ and ‘maximum_version’ set to
     *note TLSVersion.TLSv1_2: 3c33. will not be able to establish a TLS
     1.2 connection.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.minimum_version

     Like *note SSLContext.maximum_version: c47. except it is the lowest
     supported version or *note TLSVersion.MINIMUM_SUPPORTED: 3c2e.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.num_tickets

     Control the number of TLS 1.3 session tickets of a *note
     PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: c49. context.  The setting has no impact on
     TLS 1.0 to 1.2 connections.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.options

     An integer representing the set of SSL options enabled on this
     context.  The default value is *note OP_ALL: 3c14, but you can
     specify other options such as *note OP_NO_SSLv2: c12. by ORing them
     together.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: ‘SSLContext.options’ returns *note Options:
     3c1c. flags:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().options
          <Options.OP_ALL|OP_NO_SSLv3|OP_NO_SSLv2|OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 2197947391>

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.7: All ‘OP_NO_SSL*’ and ‘OP_NO_TLS*’
     options have been deprecated since Python 3.7.  Use *note
     SSLContext.minimum_version: c46. and *note
     SSLContext.maximum_version: c47. instead.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.post_handshake_auth

     Enable TLS 1.3 post-handshake client authentication.
     Post-handshake auth is disabled by default and a server can only
     request a TLS client certificate during the initial handshake.
     When enabled, a server may request a TLS client certificate at any
     time after the handshake.

     When enabled on client-side sockets, the client signals the server
     that it supports post-handshake authentication.

     When enabled on server-side sockets, *note SSLContext.verify_mode:
     3bf9. must be set to *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3c0d. or *note
     CERT_REQUIRED: 3bfa, too.  The actual client cert exchange is
     delayed until *note SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): df6.
     is called and some I/O is performed.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.protocol

     The protocol version chosen when constructing the context.  This
     attribute is read-only.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name

     Whether *note check_hostname: 3c0e. falls back to verify the cert’s
     subject common name in the absence of a subject alternative name
     extension (default: true).

     Added in version 3.7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The flag had no effect with OpenSSL before
     version 1.1.1l.  Python 3.8.9, 3.9.3, and 3.10 include workarounds
     for previous versions.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.security_level

     An integer representing the security level(17) for the context.
     This attribute is read-only.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.verify_flags

     The flags for certificate verification operations.  You can set
     flags like *note VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF: 1359. by ORing them
     together.  By default OpenSSL does neither require nor verify
     certificate revocation lists (CRLs).

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: ‘SSLContext.verify_flags’ returns *note
     VerifyFlags: 3c11. flags:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_flags
          <VerifyFlags.VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST: 32768>

 -- Ιδιότητα: SSLContext.verify_mode

     Whether to try to verify other peers” certificates and how to
     behave if verification fails.  This attribute must be one of *note
     CERT_NONE: 3c0c, *note CERT_OPTIONAL: 3c0d. or *note CERT_REQUIRED:
     3bfa.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: ‘SSLContext.verify_mode’ returns *note
     VerifyMode: 3c0f. enum:

          >>> ssl.create_default_context().verify_mode
          <VerifyMode.CERT_REQUIRED: 2>

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.set_psk_client_callback (callback)

     Enables TLS-PSK (pre-shared key) authentication on a client-side
     connection.

     In general, certificate based authentication should be preferred
     over this method.

     The parameter ‘callback’ is a callable object with the signature:
     ‘def callback(hint: str | None) -> tuple[str | None, bytes]’.  The
     ‘hint’ parameter is an optional identity hint sent by the server.
     The return value is a tuple in the form (client-identity, psk).
     Client-identity is an optional string which may be used by the
     server to select a corresponding PSK for the client.  The string
     must be less than or equal to ‘256’ octets when UTF-8 encoded.  PSK
     is a *note bytes-like object: 436. representing the pre-shared key.
     Return a zero length PSK to reject the connection.

     Setting ‘callback’ to *note None: a65. removes any existing
     callback.

          Σημείωση: When using TLS 1.3:

             - the ‘hint’ parameter is always *note None: a65.

             - client-identity must be a non-empty string.

     Example usage:

          context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
          context.check_hostname = False
          context.verify_mode = ssl.CERT_NONE
          context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2
          context.set_ciphers('PSK')

          # A simple lambda:
          psk = bytes.fromhex('c0ffee')
          context.set_psk_client_callback(lambda hint: (None, psk))

          # A table using the hint from the server:
          psk_table = { 'ServerId_1': bytes.fromhex('c0ffee'),
                        'ServerId_2': bytes.fromhex('facade')
          }
          def callback(hint):
              return 'ClientId_1', psk_table.get(hint, b'')
          context.set_psk_client_callback(callback)

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a. if *note
     HAS_PSK: 3c27. is ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μέθοδος: SSLContext.set_psk_server_callback (callback,
          identity_hint=None)

     Enables TLS-PSK (pre-shared key) authentication on a server-side
     connection.

     In general, certificate based authentication should be preferred
     over this method.

     The parameter ‘callback’ is a callable object with the signature:
     ‘def callback(identity: str | None) -> bytes’.  The ‘identity’
     parameter is an optional identity sent by the client which can be
     used to select a corresponding PSK. The return value is a *note
     bytes-like object: 436. representing the pre-shared key.  Return a
     zero length PSK to reject the connection.

     Setting ‘callback’ to *note None: a65. removes any existing
     callback.

     The parameter ‘identity_hint’ is an optional identity hint string
     sent to the client.  The string must be less than or equal to ‘256’
     octets when UTF-8 encoded.

          Σημείωση: When using TLS 1.3 the ‘identity_hint’ parameter is
          not sent to the client.

     Example usage:

          context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER)
          context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_2
          context.set_ciphers('PSK')

          # A simple lambda:
          psk = bytes.fromhex('c0ffee')
          context.set_psk_server_callback(lambda identity: psk)

          # A table using the identity of the client:
          psk_table = { 'ClientId_1': bytes.fromhex('c0ffee'),
                        'ClientId_2': bytes.fromhex('facade')
          }
          def callback(identity):
              return psk_table.get(identity, b'')
          context.set_psk_server_callback(callback, 'ServerId_1')

     This method will raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a. if *note
     HAS_PSK: 3c27. is ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) TLS 1.3 protocol will be available with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc.
in OpenSSL >= 1.1.1.  There is no dedicated PROTOCOL constant for just
TLS 1.3.

   (2) ‘SSLContext’ disables SSLv2 with *note OP_NO_SSLv2: c12. by
default.

   (3) ‘SSLContext’ disables SSLv3 with *note OP_NO_SSLv3: c13. by
default.

   (4) TLS 1.3 protocol will be available with *note PROTOCOL_TLS: 3bfc.
in OpenSSL >= 1.1.1.  There is no dedicated PROTOCOL constant for just
TLS 1.3.

   (5) ‘SSLContext’ disables SSLv2 with *note OP_NO_SSLv2: c12. by
default.

   (6) ‘SSLContext’ disables SSLv3 with *note OP_NO_SSLv3: c13. by
default.

   (7) 
https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_load_verify_locations/

   (8) https://docs.openssl.org/master/man1/ciphers/

   (9) https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_set1_groups_list/

   (10) 
https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_set1_client_sigalgs_list/

   (11) https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_set1_sigalgs_list/

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html

   (13) 
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-Layer_Protocol_Negotiation

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (15) 
https://vincent.bernat.ch/en/blog/2011-ssl-perfect-forward-secrecy

   (16) https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man3/SSL_CTX_sess_number/

   (17) https://docs.openssl.org/master/man3/SSL_CTX_get_security_level/


File: python.info,  Node: Certificates,  Next: Examples<17>,  Prev: SSL contexts,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.20.3.11 Certificates
......................

Certificates in general are part of a public-key / private-key system.
In this system, each 'principal', (which may be a machine, or a person,
or an organization) is assigned a unique two-part encryption key.  One
part of the key is public, and is called the 'public key'; the other
part is kept secret, and is called the 'private key'.  The two parts are
related, in that if you encrypt a message with one of the parts, you can
decrypt it with the other part, and 'only' with the other part.

A certificate contains information about two principals.  It contains
the name of a 'subject', and the subject’s public key.  It also contains
a statement by a second principal, the 'issuer', that the subject is who
they claim to be, and that this is indeed the subject’s public key.  The
issuer’s statement is signed with the issuer’s private key, which only
the issuer knows.  However, anyone can verify the issuer’s statement by
finding the issuer’s public key, decrypting the statement with it, and
comparing it to the other information in the certificate.  The
certificate also contains information about the time period over which
it is valid.  This is expressed as two fields, called «notBefore» and
«notAfter».

In the Python use of certificates, a client or server can use a
certificate to prove who they are.  The other side of a network
connection can also be required to produce a certificate, and that
certificate can be validated to the satisfaction of the client or server
that requires such validation.  The connection attempt can be set to
raise an exception if the validation fails.  Validation is done
automatically, by the underlying OpenSSL framework; the application need
not concern itself with its mechanics.  But the application does usually
need to provide sets of certificates to allow this process to take
place.

Python uses files to contain certificates.  They should be formatted as
«PEM» (see RFC 1422(1)), which is a base-64 encoded form wrapped with a
header line and a footer line:

     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----

* Menu:

* Certificate chains::
* CA certificates::
* Combined key and certificate::
* Self-signed certificates::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1422.html


File: python.info,  Node: Certificate chains,  Next: CA certificates,  Up: Certificates

5.20.3.12 Certificate chains
............................

The Python files which contain certificates can contain a sequence of
certificates, sometimes called a 'certificate chain'.  This chain should
start with the specific certificate for the principal who «is» the
client or server, and then the certificate for the issuer of that
certificate, and then the certificate for the issuer of 'that'
certificate, and so on up the chain till you get to a certificate which
is 'self-signed', that is, a certificate which has the same subject and
issuer, sometimes called a 'root certificate'.  The certificates should
just be concatenated together in the certificate file.  For example,
suppose we had a three certificate chain, from our server certificate to
the certificate of the certification authority that signed our server
certificate, to the root certificate of the agency which issued the
certification authority’s certificate:

     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate for your server)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (the certificate for the CA)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (the root certificate for the CA's issuer)...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----


File: python.info,  Node: CA certificates,  Next: Combined key and certificate,  Prev: Certificate chains,  Up: Certificates

5.20.3.13 CA certificates
.........................

If you are going to require validation of the other side of the
connection’s certificate, you need to provide a «CA certs» file, filled
with the certificate chains for each issuer you are willing to trust.
Again, this file just contains these chains concatenated together.  For
validation, Python will use the first chain it finds in the file which
matches.  The platform’s certificates file can be used by calling *note
SSLContext.load_default_certs(): 135b, this is done automatically with
*note create_default_context(): 68e.


File: python.info,  Node: Combined key and certificate,  Next: Self-signed certificates,  Prev: CA certificates,  Up: Certificates

5.20.3.14 Combined key and certificate
......................................

Often the private key is stored in the same file as the certificate; in
this case, only the ‘certfile’ parameter to *note
SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): 797. needs to be passed.  If the private
key is stored with the certificate, it should come before the first
certificate in the certificate chain:

     -----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
     ... (private key in base64 encoding) ...
     -----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
     -----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
     ... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
     -----END CERTIFICATE-----


File: python.info,  Node: Self-signed certificates,  Prev: Combined key and certificate,  Up: Certificates

5.20.3.15 Self-signed certificates
..................................

If you are going to create a server that provides SSL-encrypted
connection services, you will need to acquire a certificate for that
service.  There are many ways of acquiring appropriate certificates,
such as buying one from a certification authority.  Another common
practice is to generate a self-signed certificate.  The simplest way to
do this is with the OpenSSL package, using something like the following:

     % openssl req -new -x509 -days 365 -nodes -out cert.pem -keyout cert.pem
     Generating a 1024 bit RSA private key
     .......++++++
     .............................++++++
     writing new private key to 'cert.pem'
     -----
     You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
     into your certificate request.
     What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a DN.
     There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
     For some fields there will be a default value,
     If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.
     -----
     Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:US
     State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:MyState
     Locality Name (eg, city) []:Some City
     Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:My Organization, Inc.
     Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:My Group
     Common Name (eg, YOUR name) []:myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
     Email Address []:ops@myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
     %

The disadvantage of a self-signed certificate is that it is its own root
certificate, and no one else will have it in their cache of known (and
trusted) root certificates.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<17>,  Next: Notes on non-blocking sockets,  Prev: Certificates,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.20.3.16 Examples
..................

* Menu:

* Testing for SSL support::
* Client-side operation::
* Server-side operation::


File: python.info,  Node: Testing for SSL support,  Next: Client-side operation,  Up: Examples<17>

5.20.3.17 Testing for SSL support
.................................

To test for the presence of SSL support in a Python installation, user
code should use the following idiom:

     try:
         import ssl
     except ImportError:
         pass
     else:
         ...  # do something that requires SSL support


File: python.info,  Node: Client-side operation,  Next: Server-side operation,  Prev: Testing for SSL support,  Up: Examples<17>

5.20.3.18 Client-side operation
...............................

This example creates a SSL context with the recommended security
settings for client sockets, including automatic certificate
verification:

     >>> context = ssl.create_default_context()

If you prefer to tune security settings yourself, you might create a
context from scratch (but beware that you might not get the settings
right):

     >>> context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     >>> context.load_verify_locations("/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt")

(this snippet assumes your operating system places a bundle of all CA
certificates in ‘/etc/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt’; if not, you’ll get an
error and have to adjust the location)

The *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48. protocol configures the context for
cert validation and hostname verification.  *note verify_mode: 3bf9. is
set to *note CERT_REQUIRED: 3bfa. and *note check_hostname: 3c0e. is set
to ‘True’.  All other protocols create SSL contexts with insecure
defaults.

When you use the context to connect to a server, *note CERT_REQUIRED:
3bfa. and *note check_hostname: 3c0e. validate the server certificate:
it ensures that the server certificate was signed with one of the CA
certificates, checks the signature for correctness, and verifies other
properties like validity and identity of the hostname:

     >>> conn = context.wrap_socket(socket.socket(socket.AF_INET),
     ...                            server_hostname="www.python.org")
     >>> conn.connect(("www.python.org", 443))

You may then fetch the certificate:

     >>> cert = conn.getpeercert()

Visual inspection shows that the certificate does identify the desired
service (that is, the HTTPS host ‘www.python.org’):

     >>> pprint.pprint(cert)
     {
         'OCSP': ('http://ocsp.digicert.com',),
         'caIssuers': ('http://cacerts.digicert.com/DigiCertSHA2ExtendedValidationServerCA.crt',),
         'crlDistributionPoints': (
             'http://crl3.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl',
             'http://crl4.digicert.com/sha2-ev-server-g1.crl',
         ),
         'issuer': (
             (('countryName', 'US'),),
             (('organizationName', 'DigiCert Inc'),),
             (('organizationalUnitName', 'www.digicert.com'),),
             (('commonName', 'DigiCert SHA2 Extended Validation Server CA'),),
         ),
         'notAfter': 'Sep  9 12:00:00 2016 GMT',
         'notBefore': 'Sep  5 00:00:00 2014 GMT',
         'serialNumber': '01BB6F00122B177F36CAB49CEA8B6B26',
         'subject': (
             (('businessCategory', 'Private Organization'),),
             (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.3', 'US'),),
             (('1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.2', 'Delaware'),),
             (('serialNumber', '3359300'),),
             (('streetAddress', '16 Allen Rd'),),
             (('postalCode', '03894-4801'),),
             (('countryName', 'US'),),
             (('stateOrProvinceName', 'NH'),),
             (('localityName', 'Wolfeboro'),),
             (('organizationName', 'Python Software Foundation'),),
             (('commonName', 'www.python.org'),),
         ),
         'subjectAltName': (
             ('DNS', 'www.python.org'),
             ('DNS', 'python.org'),
             ('DNS', 'pypi.org'),
             ('DNS', 'docs.python.org'),
             ('DNS', 'testpypi.org'),
             ('DNS', 'bugs.python.org'),
             ('DNS', 'wiki.python.org'),
             ('DNS', 'hg.python.org'),
             ('DNS', 'mail.python.org'),
             ('DNS', 'packaging.python.org'),
             ('DNS', 'pythonhosted.org'),
             ('DNS', 'www.pythonhosted.org'),
             ('DNS', 'test.pythonhosted.org'),
             ('DNS', 'us.pycon.org'),
             ('DNS', 'id.python.org'),
         ),
         'version': 3,
     }

Now the SSL channel is established and the certificate verified, you can
proceed to talk with the server:

     >>> conn.sendall(b"HEAD / HTTP/1.0\r\nHost: linuxfr.org\r\n\r\n")
     >>> pprint.pprint(conn.recv(1024).split(b"\r\n"))
     [
         b'HTTP/1.1 200 OK',
         b'Date: Sat, 18 Oct 2014 18:27:20 GMT',
         b'Server: nginx',
         b'Content-Type: text/html; charset=utf-8',
         b'X-Frame-Options: SAMEORIGIN',
         b'Content-Length: 45679',
         b'Accept-Ranges: bytes',
         b'Via: 1.1 varnish',
         b'Age: 2188',
         b'X-Served-By: cache-lcy1134-LCY',
         b'X-Cache: HIT',
         b'X-Cache-Hits: 11',
         b'Vary: Cookie',
         b'Strict-Transport-Security: max-age=63072000; includeSubDomains',
         b'Connection: close',
         b'',
         b'',
     ]

See the discussion of *note Security considerations: 3ad9. below.


File: python.info,  Node: Server-side operation,  Prev: Client-side operation,  Up: Examples<17>

5.20.3.19 Server-side operation
...............................

For server operation, typically you’ll need to have a server
certificate, and private key, each in a file.  You’ll first create a
context holding the key and the certificate, so that clients can check
your authenticity.  Then you’ll open a socket, bind it to a port, call
‘listen()’ on it, and start waiting for clients to connect:

     import socket, ssl

     context = ssl.create_default_context(ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
     context.load_cert_chain(certfile="mycertfile", keyfile="mykeyfile")

     bindsocket = socket.socket()
     bindsocket.bind(('myaddr.example.com', 10023))
     bindsocket.listen(5)

When a client connects, you’ll call ‘accept()’ on the socket to get the
new socket from the other end, and use the context’s *note
SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 933. method to create a server-side SSL socket
for the connection:

     while True:
         newsocket, fromaddr = bindsocket.accept()
         connstream = context.wrap_socket(newsocket, server_side=True)
         try:
             deal_with_client(connstream)
         finally:
             connstream.shutdown(socket.SHUT_RDWR)
             connstream.close()

Then you’ll read data from the ‘connstream’ and do something with it
till you are finished with the client (or the client is finished with
you):

     def deal_with_client(connstream):
         data = connstream.recv(1024)
         # empty data means the client is finished with us
         while data:
             if not do_something(connstream, data):
                 # we'll assume do_something returns False
                 # when we're finished with client
                 break
             data = connstream.recv(1024)
         # finished with client

And go back to listening for new client connections (of course, a real
server would probably handle each client connection in a separate
thread, or put the sockets in *note non-blocking mode: 3c00. and use an
event loop).


File: python.info,  Node: Notes on non-blocking sockets,  Next: Memory BIO support,  Prev: Examples<17>,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.20.3.20 Notes on non-blocking sockets
.......................................

SSL sockets behave slightly different than regular sockets in
non-blocking mode.  When working with non-blocking sockets, there are
thus several things you need to be aware of:

   - Most *note SSLSocket: cbb. methods will raise either *note
     SSLWantWriteError: 121b. or *note SSLWantReadError: 121a. instead
     of *note BlockingIOError: 4c3. if an I/O operation would block.
     ‘SSLWantReadError’ will be raised if a read operation on the
     underlying socket is necessary, and ‘SSLWantWriteError’ for a write
     operation on the underlying socket.  Note that attempts to 'write'
     to an SSL socket may require 'reading' from the underlying socket
     first, and attempts to 'read' from the SSL socket may require a
     prior 'write' to the underlying socket.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: In earlier Python versions, the
     ‘SSLSocket.send()’ method returned zero instead of raising *note
     SSLWantWriteError: 121b. or *note SSLWantReadError: 121a.

   - Calling *note select(): 1159. tells you that the OS-level socket
     can be read from (or written to), but it does not imply that there
     is sufficient data at the upper SSL layer.  For example, only part
     of an SSL frame might have arrived.  Therefore, you must be ready
     to handle ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ and ‘SSLSocket.send()’ failures, and
     retry after another call to ‘select()’.

   - Conversely, since the SSL layer has its own framing, a SSL socket
     may still have data available for reading without *note select():
     1159. being aware of it.  Therefore, you should first call
     ‘SSLSocket.recv()’ to drain any potentially available data, and
     then only block on a ‘select()’ call if still necessary.

     (of course, similar provisions apply when using other primitives
     such as *note poll(): 268, or those in the *note selectors: ca.
     module)

   - The SSL handshake itself will be non-blocking: the *note
     SSLSocket.do_handshake(): 121e. method has to be retried until it
     returns successfully.  Here is a synopsis using *note select():
     1159. to wait for the socket’s readiness:

          while True:
              try:
                  sock.do_handshake()
                  break
              except ssl.SSLWantReadError:
                  select.select([sock], [], [])
              except ssl.SSLWantWriteError:
                  select.select([], [sock], [])

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note asyncio: b. module supports *note non-blocking SSL sockets:
3c00. and provides a higher level *note Streams API: 19b0.  It polls for
events using the *note selectors: ca. module and handles *note
SSLWantWriteError: 121b, *note SSLWantReadError: 121a. and *note
BlockingIOError: 4c3. exceptions.  It runs the SSL handshake
asynchronously as well.


File: python.info,  Node: Memory BIO support,  Next: SSL session,  Prev: Notes on non-blocking sockets,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.20.3.21 Memory BIO support
............................

Added in version 3.5.

Ever since the SSL module was introduced in Python 2.6, the *note
SSLSocket: cbb. class has provided two related but distinct areas of
functionality:

   - SSL protocol handling

   - Network IO

The network IO API is identical to that provided by *note socket.socket:
115a, from which *note SSLSocket: cbb. also inherits.  This allows an
SSL socket to be used as a drop-in replacement for a regular socket,
making it very easy to add SSL support to an existing application.

Combining SSL protocol handling and network IO usually works well, but
there are some cases where it doesn’t.  An example is async IO
frameworks that want to use a different IO multiplexing model than the
«select/poll on a file descriptor» (readiness based) model that is
assumed by *note socket.socket: 115a. and by the internal OpenSSL socket
IO routines.  This is mostly relevant for platforms like Windows where
this model is not efficient.  For this purpose, a reduced scope variant
of *note SSLSocket: cbb. called *note SSLObject: f40. is provided.

 -- Κλάση: ssl.SSLObject

     A reduced-scope variant of *note SSLSocket: cbb. representing an
     SSL protocol instance that does not contain any network IO methods.
     This class is typically used by framework authors that want to
     implement asynchronous IO for SSL through memory buffers.

     This class implements an interface on top of a low-level SSL object
     as implemented by OpenSSL. This object captures the state of an SSL
     connection but does not provide any network IO itself.  IO needs to
     be performed through separate «BIO» objects which are OpenSSL’s IO
     abstraction layer.

     This class has no public constructor.  An ‘SSLObject’ instance must
     be created using the *note wrap_bio(): f41. method.  This method
     will create the ‘SSLObject’ instance and bind it to a pair of BIOs.
     The 'incoming' BIO is used to pass data from Python to the SSL
     protocol instance, while the 'outgoing' BIO is used to pass data
     the other way around.

     The following methods are available:

        - *note context: 3c37.

        - *note server_side: 3c39.

        - *note server_hostname: f3e.

        - *note session: 1b57.

        - *note session_reused: 3c3a.

        - *note read(): 121f.

        - *note write(): 1220.

        - *note getpeercert(): 1361.

        - *note get_verified_chain(): 1b6f.

        - *note get_unverified_chain(): 1b70.

        - *note selected_alpn_protocol(): 1216.

        - *note selected_npn_protocol(): c4a.

        - *note cipher(): 3b1e.

        - *note shared_ciphers(): 121d.

        - *note compression(): 14f0.

        - *note pending(): 3c38.

        - *note do_handshake(): 121e.

        - *note verify_client_post_handshake(): df6.

        - *note unwrap(): 3c36.

        - *note get_channel_binding(): 14ef.

        - *note version(): 1219.

     When compared to *note SSLSocket: cbb, this object lacks the
     following features:

        - Any form of network IO; ‘recv()’ and ‘send()’ read and write
          only to the underlying *note MemoryBIO: 1213. buffers.

        - There is no 'do_handshake_on_connect' machinery.  You must
          always manually call *note do_handshake(): 121e. to start the
          handshake.

        - There is no handling of 'suppress_ragged_eofs'.  All
          end-of-file conditions that are in violation of the protocol
          are reported via the *note SSLEOFError: 1903. exception.

        - The method *note unwrap(): 3c36. call does not return
          anything, unlike for an SSL socket where it returns the
          underlying socket.

        - The 'server_name_callback' callback passed to *note
          SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): 1360. will get an
          ‘SSLObject’ instance instead of a *note SSLSocket: cbb.
          instance as its first parameter.

     Some notes related to the use of ‘SSLObject’:

        - All IO on an ‘SSLObject’ is *note non-blocking: 3c00.  This
          means that for example *note read(): 121f. will raise an *note
          SSLWantReadError: 121a. if it needs more data than the
          incoming BIO has available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: ‘SSLObject’ instances must be created with
     *note wrap_bio(): f41.  In earlier versions, it was possible to
     create instances directly.  This was never documented or officially
     supported.

An SSLObject communicates with the outside world using memory buffers.
The class *note MemoryBIO: 1213. provides a memory buffer that can be
used for this purpose.  It wraps an OpenSSL memory BIO (Basic IO)
object:

 -- Κλάση: ssl.MemoryBIO

     A memory buffer that can be used to pass data between Python and an
     SSL protocol instance.

      -- Ιδιότητα: pending

          Return the number of bytes currently in the memory buffer.

      -- Ιδιότητα: eof

          A boolean indicating whether the memory BIO is current at the
          end-of-file position.

      -- Μέθοδος: read (n=-1, /)

          Read up to 'n' bytes from the memory buffer.  If 'n' is not
          specified or negative, all bytes are returned.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (buf, /)

          Write the bytes from 'buf' to the memory BIO. The 'buf'
          argument must be an object supporting the buffer protocol.

          The return value is the number of bytes written, which is
          always equal to the length of 'buf'.

      -- Μέθοδος: write_eof ()

          Write an EOF marker to the memory BIO. After this method has
          been called, it is illegal to call *note write(): 3c53.  The
          attribute *note eof: 3c51. will become true after all data
          currently in the buffer has been read.


File: python.info,  Node: SSL session,  Next: Security considerations<2>,  Prev: Memory BIO support,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.20.3.22 SSL session
.....................

Added in version 3.6.

 -- Κλάση: ssl.SSLSession

     Session object used by *note session: 1b57.

      -- Ιδιότητα: id

      -- Ιδιότητα: time

      -- Ιδιότητα: timeout

      -- Ιδιότητα: ticket_lifetime_hint

      -- Ιδιότητα: has_ticket


File: python.info,  Node: Security considerations<2>,  Next: TLS 1 3,  Prev: SSL session,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.20.3.23 Security considerations
.................................

* Menu:

* Best defaults::
* Manual settings::
* Multi-processing::


File: python.info,  Node: Best defaults,  Next: Manual settings,  Up: Security considerations<2>

5.20.3.24 Best defaults
.......................

For 'client use', if you don’t have any special requirements for your
security policy, it is highly recommended that you use the *note
create_default_context(): 68e. function to create your SSL context.  It
will load the system’s trusted CA certificates, enable certificate
validation and hostname checking, and try to choose reasonably secure
protocol and cipher settings.

For example, here is how you would use the *note smtplib.SMTP: cfa.
class to create a trusted, secure connection to a SMTP server:

     >>> import ssl, smtplib
     >>> smtp = smtplib.SMTP("mail.python.org", port=587)
     >>> context = ssl.create_default_context()
     >>> smtp.starttls(context=context)
     (220, b'2.0.0 Ready to start TLS')

If a client certificate is needed for the connection, it can be added
with *note SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): 797.

By contrast, if you create the SSL context by calling the *note
SSLContext: 336. constructor yourself, it will not have certificate
validation nor hostname checking enabled by default.  If you do so,
please read the paragraphs below to achieve a good security level.


File: python.info,  Node: Manual settings,  Next: Multi-processing,  Prev: Best defaults,  Up: Security considerations<2>

5.20.3.25 Manual settings
.........................

* Menu:

* Verifying certificates::
* Protocol versions::
* Cipher selection::


File: python.info,  Node: Verifying certificates,  Next: Protocol versions,  Up: Manual settings

5.20.3.26 Verifying certificates
................................

When calling the *note SSLContext: 336. constructor directly, *note
CERT_NONE: 3c0c. is the default.  Since it does not authenticate the
other peer, it can be insecure, especially in client mode where most of
the time you would like to ensure the authenticity of the server you’re
talking to.  Therefore, when in client mode, it is highly recommended to
use *note CERT_REQUIRED: 3bfa.  However, it is in itself not sufficient;
you also have to check that the server certificate, which can be
obtained by calling *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): 1361, matches the
desired service.  For many protocols and applications, the service can
be identified by the hostname.  This common check is automatically
performed when *note SSLContext.check_hostname: 3c0e. is enabled.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Hostname matchings is now performed by OpenSSL.
Python no longer uses ‘match_hostname()’.

In server mode, if you want to authenticate your clients using the SSL
layer (rather than using a higher-level authentication mechanism),
you’ll also have to specify *note CERT_REQUIRED: 3bfa. and similarly
check the client certificate.


File: python.info,  Node: Protocol versions,  Next: Cipher selection,  Prev: Verifying certificates,  Up: Manual settings

5.20.3.27 Protocol versions
...........................

SSL versions 2 and 3 are considered insecure and are therefore dangerous
to use.  If you want maximum compatibility between clients and servers,
it is recommended to use *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48. or *note
PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: c49. as the protocol version.  SSLv2 and SSLv3 are
disabled by default.

     >>> client_context = ssl.SSLContext(ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT)
     >>> client_context.minimum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3
     >>> client_context.maximum_version = ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_3

The SSL context created above will only allow TLSv1.3 and later (if
supported by your system) connections to a server.  *note
PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: c48. implies certificate validation and hostname
checks by default.  You have to load certificates into the context.


File: python.info,  Node: Cipher selection,  Prev: Protocol versions,  Up: Manual settings

5.20.3.28 Cipher selection
..........................

If you have advanced security requirements, fine-tuning of the ciphers
enabled when negotiating a SSL session is possible through the *note
SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 25f. method.  Starting from Python 3.2.3, the
ssl module disables certain weak ciphers by default, but you may want to
further restrict the cipher choice.  Be sure to read OpenSSL’s
documentation about the cipher list format(1).  If you want to check
which ciphers are enabled by a given cipher list, use *note
SSLContext.get_ciphers(): 109c. or the ‘openssl ciphers’ command on your
system.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.openssl.org/1.1.1/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-processing,  Prev: Manual settings,  Up: Security considerations<2>

5.20.3.29 Multi-processing
..........................

If using this module as part of a multi-processed application (using,
for example the *note multiprocessing: 98. or *note concurrent.futures:
24. modules), be aware that OpenSSL’s internal random number generator
does not properly handle forked processes.  Applications must change the
PRNG state of the parent process if they use any SSL feature with *note
os.fork(): 6bd.  Any successful call of *note RAND_add(): 3c06. or *note
RAND_bytes(): 932. is sufficient.


File: python.info,  Node: TLS 1 3,  Prev: Security considerations<2>,  Up: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

5.20.3.30 TLS 1.3
.................

Added in version 3.7.

The TLS 1.3 protocol behaves slightly differently than previous version
of TLS/SSL. Some new TLS 1.3 features are not yet available.

   - TLS 1.3 uses a disjunct set of cipher suites.  All AES-GCM and
     ChaCha20 cipher suites are enabled by default.  To restrict which
     TLS 1.3 ciphers are allowed, the *note
     SSLContext.set_ciphersuites(): 25e. method should be called instead
     of *note SSLContext.set_ciphers(): 25f, which only affects ciphers
     in older TLS versions.  The *note SSLContext.get_ciphers(): 109c.
     method returns information about ciphers for both TLS 1.3 and
     earlier versions and the method *note SSLSocket.cipher(): 3b1e.
     returns information about the negotiated cipher for both TLS 1.3
     and earlier versions once a connection is established.

   - Session tickets are no longer sent as part of the initial handshake
     and are handled differently.  *note SSLSocket.session: 1b57. and
     *note SSLSession: 109b. are not compatible with TLS 1.3.

   - Client-side certificates are also no longer verified during the
     initial handshake.  A server can request a certificate at any time.
     Clients process certificate requests while they send or receive
     application data from the server.

   - TLS 1.3 features like early data, deferred TLS client cert request,
     and rekeying are not supported yet.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Class *note socket.socket: 115a.

     Documentation of underlying *note socket: d4. class

SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: An Introduction(1)

     Intro from the Apache HTTP Server documentation

RFC 1422: Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail: Part II: Certificate-Based Key Management(2)

     Steve Kent

RFC 4086: Randomness Requirements for Security(3)

     Donald E. Eastlake, Jeffrey I. Schiller, Steve Crocker

RFC 5280: Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and Certificate Revocation List (CRL) Profile(4)

     David Cooper et al.

RFC 5246: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2(5)

     Tim Dierks and Eric Rescorla.

RFC 6066: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions(6)

     Donald E. Eastlake

IANA TLS: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters(7)

     IANA

RFC 7525: Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)(8)

     IETF

Mozilla's Server Side TLS recommendations(9)

     Mozilla

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://httpd.apache.org/docs/trunk/en/ssl/ssl_intro.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1422.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4086.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5246.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6066.html

   (7) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7525.html

   (9) https://wiki.mozilla.org/Security/Server_Side_TLS


File: python.info,  Node: select — Waiting for I/O completion,  Next: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing,  Prev: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.20.4 ‘select’ — Waiting for I/O completion
--------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the ‘select()’ and ‘poll()’ functions
available in most operating systems, ‘devpoll()’ available on Solaris
and derivatives, ‘epoll()’ available on Linux 2.5+ and ‘kqueue()’
available on most BSD. Note that on Windows, it only works for sockets;
on other operating systems, it also works for other file types (in
particular, on Unix, it works on pipes).  It cannot be used on regular
files to determine whether a file has grown since it was last read.

     Σημείωση: The *note selectors: ca. module allows high-level and
     efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the ‘select’ module
     primitives.  Users are encouraged to use the ‘selectors’ module
     instead, unless they want precise control over the OS-level
     primitives used.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

The module defines the following:

 -- Εξαίρεση: select.error

     A deprecated alias of *note OSError: 53c.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Following PEP 3151(1), this class was made
     an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

 -- Συνάρτηση: select.devpoll ()

     (Only supported on Solaris and derivatives.)  Returns a ‘/dev/poll’
     polling object; see section *note /dev/poll Polling Objects: 3c66.
     below for the methods supported by devpoll objects.

     ‘devpoll()’ objects are linked to the number of file descriptors
     allowed at the time of instantiation.  If your program reduces this
     value, ‘devpoll()’ will fail.  If your program increases this
     value, ‘devpoll()’ may return an incomplete list of active file
     descriptors.

     The new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The new file descriptor is now
     non-inheritable.

 -- Συνάρτηση: select.epoll (sizehint=-1, flags=0)

     (Only supported on Linux 2.5.44 and newer.)  Return an edge polling
     object, which can be used as Edge or Level Triggered interface for
     I/O events.

     'sizehint' informs epoll about the expected number of events to be
     registered.  It must be positive, or ‘-1’ to use the default.  It
     is only used on older systems where ‘epoll_create1(2)(2)’ is not
     available; otherwise it has no effect (though its value is still
     checked).

     'flags' is deprecated and completely ignored.  However, when
     supplied, its value must be ‘0’ or ‘select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC’,
     otherwise ‘OSError’ is raised.

     See the *note Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects: 3c67.
     section below for the methods supported by epolling objects.

     ‘epoll’ objects support the context management protocol: when used
     in a *note with: 20a. statement, the new file descriptor is
     automatically closed at the end of the block.

     The new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'flags' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Support for the *note with: 20a. statement
     was added.  The new file descriptor is now non-inheritable.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.4: The 'flags' parameter.
     ‘select.EPOLL_CLOEXEC’ is used by default now.  Use *note
     os.set_inheritable(): 12ac. to make the file descriptor
     inheritable.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: When CPython is built, this function may
     be disabled using *note -disable-epoll: 193a.

 -- Συνάρτηση: select.poll ()

     (Not supported by all operating systems.)  Returns a polling
     object, which supports registering and unregistering file
     descriptors, and then polling them for I/O events; see section
     *note Polling Objects: 3c68. below for the methods supported by
     polling objects.

 -- Συνάρτηση: select.kqueue ()

     (Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel queue object; see section
     *note Kqueue Objects: 3c69. below for the methods supported by
     kqueue objects.

     The new file descriptor is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The new file descriptor is now
     non-inheritable.

 -- Συνάρτηση: select.kevent (ident, filter=KQ_FILTER_READ,
          flags=KQ_EV_ADD, fflags=0, data=0, udata=0)

     (Only supported on BSD.) Returns a kernel event object; see section
     *note Kevent Objects: 3c6b. below for the methods supported by
     kevent objects.

 -- Συνάρτηση: select.select (rlist, wlist, xlist, timeout=None)

     This is a straightforward interface to the Unix ‘select()’ system
     call.  The first three arguments are iterables of “waitable
     objects”: either integers representing file descriptors or objects
     with a parameterless method named *note fileno(): 19b2. returning
     such an integer:

        * 'rlist': wait until ready for reading

        * 'wlist': wait until ready for writing

        * 'xlist': wait for an «exceptional condition» (see the manual
          page for what your system considers such a condition)

     Empty iterables are allowed, but acceptance of three empty
     iterables is platform-dependent.  (It is known to work on Unix but
     not on Windows.)  The optional 'timeout' argument specifies a
     time-out in seconds; it may be a non-integer to specify fractions
     of seconds.  When the 'timeout' argument is omitted or ‘None’, the
     function blocks until at least one file descriptor is ready.  A
     time-out value of zero specifies a poll and never blocks.

     The return value is a triple of lists of objects that are ready:
     subsets of the first three arguments.  When the time-out is reached
     without a file descriptor becoming ready, three empty lists are
     returned.

     Among the acceptable object types in the iterables are Python *note
     file objects: 156c. (e.g.  ‘sys.stdin’, or objects returned by
     *note open(): 32b. or *note os.popen(): 585.), socket objects
     returned by *note socket.socket(): 115a.  You may also define a
     'wrapper' class yourself, as long as it has an appropriate *note
     fileno(): 19b2. method (that really returns a file descriptor, not
     just a random integer).

          Σημείωση: 
          File objects on Windows are not acceptable, but sockets are.
          On Windows, the underlying ‘select()’ function is provided by
          the WinSock library, and does not handle file descriptors that
          don’t originate from WinSock.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(3) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: 1141.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'timeout', not
     only integer or float.

 -- Δεδομένα: select.PIPE_BUF

     The minimum number of bytes which can be written without blocking
     to a pipe when the pipe has been reported as ready for writing by
     *note select(): 1159, ‘poll()’ or another interface in this module.
     This doesn’t apply to other kinds of file-like objects such as
     sockets.

     This value is guaranteed by POSIX to be at least 512.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix

     Added in version 3.2.

* Menu:

* /dev/poll Polling Objects::
* Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
* Polling Objects::
* Kqueue Objects::
* Kevent Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/epoll_create1(2)

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: /dev/poll Polling Objects,  Next: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects,  Up: select — Waiting for I/O completion

5.20.4.1 ‘/dev/poll’ Polling Objects
....................................

Solaris and derivatives have ‘/dev/poll’.  While ‘select()’ is
'O'('highest file descriptor') and ‘poll()’ is 'O'('number of file
descriptors'), ‘/dev/poll’ is 'O'('active file descriptors').

‘/dev/poll’ behaviour is very close to the standard ‘poll()’ object.

 -- Μέθοδος: devpoll.close ()

     Close the file descriptor of the polling object.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Ιδιότητα: devpoll.closed

     ‘True’ if the polling object is closed.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μέθοδος: devpoll.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor number of the polling object.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μέθοδος: devpoll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     Register a file descriptor with the polling object.  Future calls
     to the *note poll(): 268. method will then check whether the file
     descriptor has any pending I/O events.  'fd' can be either an
     integer, or an object with a *note fileno(): 19b2. method that
     returns an integer.  File objects implement ‘fileno()’, so they can
     also be used as the argument.

     'eventmask' is an optional bitmask describing the type of events
     you want to check for.  The constants are the same as with ‘poll()’
     object.  The default value is a combination of the constants
     ‘POLLIN’, ‘POLLPRI’, and ‘POLLOUT’.

          Προειδοποίηση: Registering a file descriptor that’s already
          registered is not an error, but the result is undefined.  The
          appropriate action is to unregister or modify it first.  This
          is an important difference compared with ‘poll()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: devpoll.modify (fd[, eventmask])

     This method does an *note unregister(): 3c6f. followed by a *note
     register(): 3c6d.  It is (a bit) more efficient than doing the same
     explicitly.

 -- Μέθοδος: devpoll.unregister (fd)

     Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object.  Just
     like the *note register(): 3c6d. method, 'fd' can be an integer or
     an object with a *note fileno(): 19b2. method that returns an
     integer.

     Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered is
     safely ignored.

 -- Μέθοδος: devpoll.poll ([timeout])

     Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a
     possibly empty list containing ‘(fd, event)’ 2-tuples for the
     descriptors that have events or errors to report.  'fd' is the file
     descriptor, and 'event' is a bitmask with bits set for the reported
     events for that descriptor — ‘POLLIN’ for waiting input, ‘POLLOUT’
     to indicate that the descriptor can be written to, and so forth.
     An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file
     descriptors had any events to report.  If 'timeout' is given, it
     specifies the length of time in milliseconds which the system will
     wait for events before returning.  If 'timeout' is omitted, -1, or
     *note None: a65, the call will block until there is an event for
     this poll object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: 1141.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'timeout', not
     only integer or float.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects,  Next: Polling Objects,  Prev: /dev/poll Polling Objects,  Up: select — Waiting for I/O completion

5.20.4.2 Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects
.......................................................

     ‘https://linux.die.net/man/4/epoll’

     'eventmask'

     Constant                      Meaning
                                   
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   
     ‘EPOLLIN’                     Available for read
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLOUT’                    Available for write
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLPRI’                    Urgent data for read
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLERR’                    Error condition happened on the assoc.  fd
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLHUP’                    Hang up happened on the assoc.  fd
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLET’                     Set Edge Trigger behavior, the default is Level
                                   Trigger behavior
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLONESHOT’                Set one-shot behavior.  After one event is pulled
                                   out, the fd is internally disabled
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLEXCLUSIVE’              Wake only one epoll object when the associated fd
                                   has an event.  The default (if this flag is not
                                   set) is to wake all epoll objects polling on a
                                   fd.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDHUP’                  Stream socket peer closed connection or shut down
                                   writing half of connection.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDNORM’                 Equivalent to ‘EPOLLIN’
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLRDBAND’                 Priority data band can be read.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLWRNORM’                 Equivalent to ‘EPOLLOUT’
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLWRBAND’                 Priority data may be written.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLMSG’                    Ignored.
                                   
                                   
     ‘EPOLLWAKEUP’                 Prevents sleep during event waiting.
                                   

     Added in version 3.6: ‘EPOLLEXCLUSIVE’ was added.  It’s only
     supported by Linux Kernel 4.5 or later.

     Added in version 3.14: ‘EPOLLWAKEUP’ was added.  It’s only
     supported by Linux Kernel 3.5 or later.

 -- Μέθοδος: epoll.close ()

     Close the control file descriptor of the epoll object.

 -- Ιδιότητα: epoll.closed

     ‘True’ if the epoll object is closed.

 -- Μέθοδος: epoll.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.

 -- Μέθοδος: epoll.fromfd (fd)

     Create an epoll object from a given file descriptor.

 -- Μέθοδος: epoll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     Register a fd descriptor with the epoll object.

 -- Μέθοδος: epoll.modify (fd, eventmask)

     Modify a registered file descriptor.

 -- Μέθοδος: epoll.unregister (fd)

     Remove a registered file descriptor from the epoll object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The method no longer ignores the *note
     EBADF: d25. error.

 -- Μέθοδος: epoll.poll (timeout=None, maxevents=-1)

     Wait for events.  If 'timeout' is given, it specifies the length of
     time in seconds (may be non-integer) which the system will wait for
     events before returning.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: 1141.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'timeout', not
     only integer or float.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Polling Objects,  Next: Kqueue Objects,  Prev: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects,  Up: select — Waiting for I/O completion

5.20.4.3 Polling Objects
........................

The ‘poll()’ system call, supported on most Unix systems, provides
better scalability for network servers that service many, many clients
at the same time.  ‘poll()’ scales better because the system call only
requires listing the file descriptors of interest, while ‘select()’
builds a bitmap, turns on bits for the fds of interest, and then
afterward the whole bitmap has to be linearly scanned again.  ‘select()’
is 'O'('highest file descriptor'), while ‘poll()’ is 'O'('number of file
descriptors').

 -- Μέθοδος: poll.register (fd[, eventmask])

     Register a file descriptor with the polling object.  Future calls
     to the *note poll(): 268. method will then check whether the file
     descriptor has any pending I/O events.  'fd' can be either an
     integer, or an object with a *note fileno(): 19b2. method that
     returns an integer.  File objects implement ‘fileno()’, so they can
     also be used as the argument.

     'eventmask' is an optional bitmask describing the type of events
     you want to check for, and can be a combination of the constants
     ‘POLLIN’, ‘POLLPRI’, and ‘POLLOUT’, described in the table below.
     If not specified, the default value used will check for all 3 types
     of events.

     Constant                Meaning
                             
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                             
     ‘POLLIN’                There is data to read
                             
                             
     ‘POLLPRI’               There is urgent data to read
                             
                             
     ‘POLLOUT’               Ready for output: writing will not block
                             
                             
     ‘POLLERR’               Error condition of some sort
                             
                             
     ‘POLLHUP’               Hung up
                             
                             
     ‘POLLRDHUP’             Stream socket peer closed connection, or
                             shut down writing half of connection
                             
                             
     ‘POLLNVAL’              Invalid request: descriptor not open
                             

     Registering a file descriptor that’s already registered is not an
     error, and has the same effect as registering the descriptor
     exactly once.

 -- Μέθοδος: poll.modify (fd, eventmask)

     Modifies an already registered fd.  This has the same effect as
     ‘register(fd, eventmask)’.  Attempting to modify a file descriptor
     that was never registered causes an *note OSError: 53c. exception
     with errno ‘ENOENT’ to be raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: poll.unregister (fd)

     Remove a file descriptor being tracked by a polling object.  Just
     like the *note register(): 3c77. method, 'fd' can be an integer or
     an object with a *note fileno(): 19b2. method that returns an
     integer.

     Attempting to remove a file descriptor that was never registered
     causes a *note KeyError: 7df. exception to be raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: poll.poll ([timeout])

     Polls the set of registered file descriptors, and returns a
     possibly empty list containing ‘(fd, event)’ 2-tuples for the
     descriptors that have events or errors to report.  'fd' is the file
     descriptor, and 'event' is a bitmask with bits set for the reported
     events for that descriptor — ‘POLLIN’ for waiting input, ‘POLLOUT’
     to indicate that the descriptor can be written to, and so forth.
     An empty list indicates that the call timed out and no file
     descriptors had any events to report.  If 'timeout' is given, it
     specifies the length of time in milliseconds which the system will
     wait for events before returning.  If 'timeout' is omitted,
     negative, or *note None: a65, the call will block until there is an
     event for this poll object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: 1141.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'timeout', not
     only integer or float.  If ‘ppoll()’ function is available,
     'timeout' has a resolution of ‘1’ ns (‘1e-6’ ms) instead of ‘1’ ms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Kqueue Objects,  Next: Kevent Objects,  Prev: Polling Objects,  Up: select — Waiting for I/O completion

5.20.4.4 Kqueue Objects
.......................

 -- Μέθοδος: kqueue.close ()

     Close the control file descriptor of the kqueue object.

 -- Ιδιότητα: kqueue.closed

     ‘True’ if the kqueue object is closed.

 -- Μέθοδος: kqueue.fileno ()

     Return the file descriptor number of the control fd.

 -- Μέθοδος: kqueue.fromfd (fd)

     Create a kqueue object from a given file descriptor.

 -- Μέθοδος: kqueue.control (changelist, max_events[, timeout]) ->
          eventlist

     Low level interface to kevent

        - changelist must be an iterable of kevent objects or ‘None’

        - max_events must be 0 or a positive integer

        - timeout in seconds (non-integers are possible); the default is
          ‘None’, to wait forever

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The function is now retried with a
     recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal, except if the
     signal handler raises an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
     rationale), instead of raising *note InterruptedError: 1141.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'timeout', not
     only integer or float.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Kevent Objects,  Prev: Kqueue Objects,  Up: select — Waiting for I/O completion

5.20.4.5 Kevent Objects
.......................

‘https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=kqueue&sektion=2’

 -- Ιδιότητα: kevent.ident

     Value used to identify the event.  The interpretation depends on
     the filter but it’s usually the file descriptor.  In the
     constructor ident can either be an int or an object with a *note
     fileno(): 19b2. method.  kevent stores the integer internally.

 -- Ιδιότητα: kevent.filter

     Name of the kernel filter.

     Constant                        Meaning
                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_READ’                Takes a descriptor and returns whenever there
                                     is data available to read
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_WRITE’               Takes a descriptor and returns whenever there
                                     is data available to write
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_AIO’                 AIO requests
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_VNODE’               Returns when one or more of the requested
                                     events watched in 'fflag' occurs
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_PROC’                Watch for events on a process id
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_NETDEV’              Watch for events on a network device [not
                                     available on macOS]
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_SIGNAL’              Returns whenever the watched signal is
                                     delivered to the process
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_FILTER_TIMER’               Establishes an arbitrary timer
                                     

 -- Ιδιότητα: kevent.flags

     Filter action.

     Constant                        Meaning
                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ADD’                     Adds or modifies an event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_DELETE’                  Removes an event from the queue
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ENABLE’                  Permits control() to return the event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_DISABLE’                 Disables event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ONESHOT’                 Removes event after first occurrence
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_CLEAR’                   Reset the state after an event is retrieved
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_SYSFLAGS’                internal event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_FLAG1’                   internal event
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_EOF’                     Filter specific EOF condition
                                     
                                     
     ‘KQ_EV_ERROR’                   See return values
                                     

 -- Ιδιότητα: kevent.fflags

     Filter specific flags.

     ‘KQ_FILTER_READ’ and ‘KQ_FILTER_WRITE’ filter flags:

     Constant                         Meaning
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LOWAT’                  low water mark of a socket buffer
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_VNODE’ filter flags:

     Constant                         Meaning
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_DELETE’                 'unlink()' was called
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_WRITE’                  a write occurred
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXTEND’                 the file was extended
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_ATTRIB’                 an attribute was changed
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINK’                   the link count has changed
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_RENAME’                 the file was renamed
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_REVOKE’                 access to the file was revoked
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_PROC’ filter flags:

     Constant                         Meaning
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXIT’                   the process has exited
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_FORK’                   the process has called 'fork()'
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_EXEC’                   the process has executed a new process
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_PCTRLMASK’              internal filter flag
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_PDATAMASK’              internal filter flag
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_TRACK’                  follow a process across 'fork()'
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_CHILD’                  returned on the child process for 'NOTE_TRACK'
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_TRACKERR’               unable to attach to a child
                                      

     ‘KQ_FILTER_NETDEV’ filter flags (not available on macOS):

     Constant                         Meaning
                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKUP’                 link is up
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKDOWN’               link is down
                                      
                                      
     ‘KQ_NOTE_LINKINV’                link state is invalid
                                      

 -- Ιδιότητα: kevent.data

     Filter specific data.

 -- Ιδιότητα: kevent.udata

     User defined value.


File: python.info,  Node: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing,  Next: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events,  Prev: select — Waiting for I/O completion,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.20.5 ‘selectors’ — High-level I/O multiplexing
------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/selectors.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<9>.
* Classes::
* Examples: Examples<18>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/selectors.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<9>,  Next: Classes,  Up: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing

5.20.5.1 Introduction
.....................

This module allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon
the *note select: c9. module primitives.  Users are encouraged to use
this module instead, unless they want precise control over the OS-level
primitives used.

It defines a *note BaseSelector: 3c89. abstract base class, along with
several concrete implementations (*note KqueueSelector: 3b5a, *note
EpollSelector: f95.…), that can be used to wait for I/O readiness
notification on multiple file objects.  In the following, «file object»
refers to any object with a *note fileno(): 19b2. method, or a raw file
descriptor.  See *note file object: 156c.

*note DefaultSelector: 3c8a. is an alias to the most efficient
implementation available on the current platform: this should be the
default choice for most users.

     Σημείωση: The type of file objects supported depends on the
     platform: on Windows, sockets are supported, but not pipes, whereas
     on Unix, both are supported (some other types may be supported as
     well, such as fifos or special file devices).

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note select: c9.

     Low-level I/O multiplexing module.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: Classes,  Next: Examples<18>,  Prev: Introduction<9>,  Up: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing

5.20.5.2 Classes
................

Classes hierarchy:

     BaseSelector
     +-- SelectSelector
     +-- PollSelector
     +-- EpollSelector
     +-- DevpollSelector
     +-- KqueueSelector

In the following, 'events' is a bitwise mask indicating which I/O events
should be waited for on a given file object.  It can be a combination of
the module’s constants below:

     Constant                    Meaning
                                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
      -- Δεδομένα:               Available for read
               selectors.EVENT_READ

      -- Δεδομένα:               Available for write
               selectors.EVENT_WRITE

 -- Κλάση: selectors.SelectorKey

     A ‘SelectorKey’ is a *note namedtuple: 1cf. used to associate a
     file object to its underlying file descriptor, selected event mask
     and attached data.  It is returned by several *note BaseSelector:
     3c89. methods.

      -- Ιδιότητα: fileobj

          File object registered.

      -- Ιδιότητα: fd

          Underlying file descriptor.

      -- Ιδιότητα: events

          Events that must be waited for on this file object.

      -- Ιδιότητα: data

          Optional opaque data associated to this file object: for
          example, this could be used to store a per-client session ID.

 -- Κλάση: selectors.BaseSelector

     A ‘BaseSelector’ is used to wait for I/O event readiness on
     multiple file objects.  It supports file stream registration,
     unregistration, and a method to wait for I/O events on those
     streams, with an optional timeout.  It’s an abstract base class, so
     cannot be instantiated.  Use *note DefaultSelector: 3c8a. instead,
     or one of *note SelectSelector: 3b57, *note KqueueSelector: 3b5a.
     etc.  if you want to specifically use an implementation, and your
     platform supports it.  ‘BaseSelector’ and its concrete
     implementations support the *note context manager: 478. protocol.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod register (fileobj, events, data=None)

          Register a file object for selection, monitoring it for I/O
          events.

          'fileobj' is the file object to monitor.  It may either be an
          integer file descriptor or an object with a ‘fileno()’ method.
          'events' is a bitwise mask of events to monitor.  'data' is an
          opaque object.

          This returns a new *note SelectorKey: 3c8e. instance, or
          raises a *note ValueError: 277. in case of invalid event mask
          or file descriptor, or *note KeyError: 7df. if the file object
          is already registered.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod unregister (fileobj)

          Unregister a file object from selection, removing it from
          monitoring.  A file object shall be unregistered prior to
          being closed.

          'fileobj' must be a file object previously registered.

          This returns the associated *note SelectorKey: 3c8e. instance,
          or raises a *note KeyError: 7df. if 'fileobj' is not
          registered.  It will raise *note ValueError: 277. if 'fileobj'
          is invalid (e.g.  it has no ‘fileno()’ method or its
          ‘fileno()’ method has an invalid return value).

      -- Μέθοδος: modify (fileobj, events, data=None)

          Change a registered file object’s monitored events or attached
          data.

          This is equivalent to ‘BaseSelector.unregister(fileobj)’
          followed by ‘BaseSelector.register(fileobj, events, data)’,
          except that it can be implemented more efficiently.

          This returns a new *note SelectorKey: 3c8e. instance, or
          raises a *note ValueError: 277. in case of invalid event mask
          or file descriptor, or *note KeyError: 7df. if the file object
          is not registered.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod select (timeout=None)

          Wait until some registered file objects become ready, or the
          timeout expires.

          If ‘timeout > 0’, this specifies the maximum wait time, in
          seconds.  If ‘timeout <= 0’, the call won’t block, and will
          report the currently ready file objects.  If 'timeout' is
          ‘None’, the call will block until a monitored file object
          becomes ready.

          This returns a list of ‘(key, events)’ tuples, one for each
          ready file object.

          'key' is the *note SelectorKey: 3c8e. instance corresponding
          to a ready file object.  'events' is a bitmask of events ready
          on this file object.

               Σημείωση: This method can return before any file object
               becomes ready or the timeout has elapsed if the current
               process receives a signal: in this case, an empty list
               will be returned.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The selector is now retried with a
          recomputed timeout when interrupted by a signal if the signal
          handler did not raise an exception (see PEP 475(1) for the
          rationale), instead of returning an empty list of events
          before the timeout.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Close the selector.

          This must be called to make sure that any underlying resource
          is freed.  The selector shall not be used once it has been
          closed.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_key (fileobj)

          Return the key associated with a registered file object.

          This returns the *note SelectorKey: 3c8e. instance associated
          to this file object, or raises *note KeyError: 7df. if the
          file object is not registered.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod get_map ()

          Return a mapping of file objects to selector keys.

          This returns a *note Mapping: c9c. instance mapping registered
          file objects to their associated *note SelectorKey: 3c8e.
          instance.

 -- Κλάση: selectors.DefaultSelector

     The default selector class, using the most efficient implementation
     available on the current platform.  This should be the default
     choice for most users.

 -- Κλάση: selectors.SelectSelector

     *note select.select(): 1159.-based selector.

 -- Κλάση: selectors.PollSelector

     *note select.poll(): 268.-based selector.

 -- Κλάση: selectors.EpollSelector

     *note select.epoll(): 133d.-based selector.

      -- Μέθοδος: fileno ()

          This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying *note
          select.epoll(): 133d. object.

 -- Κλάση: selectors.DevpollSelector

     *note select.devpoll(): 133f.-based selector.

      -- Μέθοδος: fileno ()

          This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying *note
          select.devpoll(): 133f. object.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Κλάση: selectors.KqueueSelector

     *note select.kqueue(): 269.-based selector.

      -- Μέθοδος: fileno ()

          This returns the file descriptor used by the underlying *note
          select.kqueue(): 269. object.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<18>,  Prev: Classes,  Up: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing

5.20.5.3 Examples
.................

Here is a simple echo server implementation:

     import selectors
     import socket

     sel = selectors.DefaultSelector()

     def accept(sock, mask):
         conn, addr = sock.accept()  # Should be ready
         print('accepted', conn, 'from', addr)
         conn.setblocking(False)
         sel.register(conn, selectors.EVENT_READ, read)

     def read(conn, mask):
         data = conn.recv(1000)  # Should be ready
         if data:
             print('echoing', repr(data), 'to', conn)
             conn.send(data)  # Hope it won't block
         else:
             print('closing', conn)
             sel.unregister(conn)
             conn.close()

     sock = socket.socket()
     sock.bind(('localhost', 1234))
     sock.listen(100)
     sock.setblocking(False)
     sel.register(sock, selectors.EVENT_READ, accept)

     while True:
         events = sel.select()
         for key, mask in events:
             callback = key.data
             callback(key.fileobj, mask)


File: python.info,  Node: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events,  Next: mmap — Memory-mapped file support,  Prev: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.20.6 ‘signal’ — Set handlers for asynchronous events
------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/signal.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides mechanisms to use signal handlers in Python.

* Menu:

* General rules::
* Module contents: Module contents<4>.
* Examples: Examples<19>.
* Note on SIGPIPE::
* Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/signal.py


File: python.info,  Node: General rules,  Next: Module contents<4>,  Up: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.20.6.1 General rules
......................

The *note signal.signal(): 14e0. function allows defining custom
handlers to be executed when a signal is received.  A small number of
default handlers are installed: *note SIGPIPE: 3ca1. is ignored (so
write errors on pipes and sockets can be reported as ordinary Python
exceptions) and *note SIGINT: 4df. is translated into a *note
KeyboardInterrupt: d96. exception if the parent process has not changed
it.

A handler for a particular signal, once set, remains installed until it
is explicitly reset (Python emulates the BSD style interface regardless
of the underlying implementation), with the exception of the handler for
*note SIGCHLD: 3340, which follows the underlying implementation.

On WebAssembly platforms, signals are emulated and therefore behave
differently.  Several functions and signals are not available on these
platforms.

* Menu:

* Execution of Python signal handlers::
* Signals and threads::


File: python.info,  Node: Execution of Python signal handlers,  Next: Signals and threads,  Up: General rules

5.20.6.2 Execution of Python signal handlers
............................................

A Python signal handler does not get executed inside the low-level (C)
signal handler.  Instead, the low-level signal handler sets a flag which
tells the *note virtual machine: 3ca3. to execute the corresponding
Python signal handler at a later point (for example, at the next *note
bytecode: 6b3. instruction).  This has consequences:

   * It makes little sense to catch synchronous errors like *note
     SIGFPE: 1429. or *note SIGSEGV: 1428. that are caused by an invalid
     operation in C code.  Python will return from the signal handler to
     the C code, which is likely to raise the same signal again, causing
     Python to apparently hang.  From Python 3.3 onwards, you can use
     the *note faulthandler: 5b. module to report on synchronous errors.

   * A long-running calculation implemented purely in C (such as regular
     expression matching on a large body of text) may run uninterrupted
     for an arbitrary amount of time, regardless of any signals
     received.  The Python signal handlers will be called when the
     calculation finishes.

   * If the handler raises an exception, it will be raised «out of thin
     air» in the main thread.  See the *note note below: 28e8. for a
     discussion.


File: python.info,  Node: Signals and threads,  Prev: Execution of Python signal handlers,  Up: General rules

5.20.6.3 Signals and threads
............................

Python signal handlers are always executed in the main Python thread of
the main interpreter, even if the signal was received in another thread.
This means that signals can’t be used as a means of inter-thread
communication.  You can use the synchronization primitives from the
*note threading: f6. module instead.

Besides, only the main thread of the main interpreter is allowed to set
a new signal handler.

     Προειδοποίηση: Synchronization primitives such as *note
     threading.Lock: 1a10. should not be used within signal handlers.
     Doing so can lead to unexpected deadlocks.


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents<4>,  Next: Examples<19>,  Prev: General rules,  Up: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.20.6.4 Module contents
........................

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: signal (SIG*), handler (*note SIG_DFL: 1dac,
*note SIG_IGN: 1dab.) and sigmask (*note SIG_BLOCK: 3ca7, *note
SIG_UNBLOCK: 3ca8, *note SIG_SETMASK: 3ca9.) related constants listed
below were turned into *note enums: 109d. (*note Signals: 3caa, *note
Handlers: 3cab. and *note Sigmasks: 3cac. respectively).  *note
getsignal(): 1c2d, *note pthread_sigmask(): 14dc, *note sigpending():
14de. and *note sigwait(): 14df. functions return human-readable ‘enums’
as ‘Signals’ objects.

The signal module defines three enums:

 -- Κλάση: signal.Signals

     *note enum.IntEnum: 109d. collection of SIG* constants and the
     CTRL_* constants.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Κλάση: signal.Handlers

     *note enum.IntEnum: 109d. collection of the constants *note
     SIG_DFL: 1dac. and *note SIG_IGN: 1dab.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Κλάση: signal.Sigmasks

     *note enum.IntEnum: 109d. collection of the constants *note
     SIG_BLOCK: 3ca7, *note SIG_UNBLOCK: 3ca8. and *note SIG_SETMASK:
     3ca9.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigprocmask(2)(1)’ and ‘pthread_sigmask(3)(2)’
     for further information.

     Added in version 3.5.

The variables defined in the ‘signal’ module are:

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIG_DFL

     This is one of two standard signal handling options; it will simply
     perform the default function for the signal.  For example, on most
     systems the default action for *note SIGQUIT: 3cad. is to dump core
     and exit, while the default action for *note SIGCHLD: 3340. is to
     simply ignore it.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIG_IGN

     This is another standard signal handler, which will simply ignore
     the given signal.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGABRT

     Abort signal from ‘abort(3)(3)’.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGALRM

     Timer signal from ‘alarm(2)(4)’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGBREAK

     Interrupt from keyboard (CTRL + BREAK).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGBUS

     Bus error (bad memory access).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGCHLD

     Child process stopped or terminated.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGCLD

     Alias to *note SIGCHLD: 3340.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not macOS.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGCONT

     Continue the process if it is currently stopped

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGFPE

     Floating-point exception.  For example, division by zero.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note ZeroDivisionError: d11. is raised when the second argument of
     a division or modulo operation is zero.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGHUP

     Hangup detected on controlling terminal or death of controlling
     process.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGILL

     Illegal instruction.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGINT

     Interrupt from keyboard (CTRL + C).

     Default action is to raise *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGKILL

     Kill signal.

     It cannot be caught, blocked, or ignored.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGPIPE

     Broken pipe: write to pipe with no readers.

     Default action is to ignore the signal.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGPROF

     Profiling timer expired.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGQUIT

     Terminal quit signal.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGSEGV

     Segmentation fault: invalid memory reference.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGSTOP

     Stop executing (cannot be caught or ignored).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGSTKFLT

     Stack fault on coprocessor.  The Linux kernel does not raise this
     signal: it can only be raised in user space.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux.

     On architectures where the signal is available.  See the man page
     ‘signal(7)(5)’ for further information.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGTERM

     Termination signal.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGUSR1

     User-defined signal 1.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGUSR2

     User-defined signal 2.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGVTALRM

     Virtual timer expired.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGWINCH

     Window resize signal.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIGXCPU

     CPU time limit exceeded.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Δεδομένα: SIG*

     All the signal numbers are defined symbolically.  For example, the
     hangup signal is defined as *note signal.SIGHUP: 3cb1.; the
     variable names are identical to the names used in C programs, as
     found in ‘<signal.h>’.  The Unix man page for “‘signal’” lists the
     existing signals (on some systems this is ‘signal(2)(6)’, on others
     the list is in ‘signal(7)(7)’).  Note that not all systems define
     the same set of signal names; only those names defined by the
     system are defined by this module.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.CTRL_C_EVENT

     The signal corresponding to the ‘Ctrl’+‘C’ keystroke event.  This
     signal can only be used with *note os.kill(): 170c.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.CTRL_BREAK_EVENT

     The signal corresponding to the ‘Ctrl’+‘Break’ keystroke event.
     This signal can only be used with *note os.kill(): 170c.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.NSIG

     One more than the number of the highest signal number.  Use *note
     valid_signals(): 3cb9. to get valid signal numbers.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.ITIMER_REAL

     Decrements interval timer in real time, and delivers *note SIGALRM:
     3cae. upon expiration.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL

     Decrements interval timer only when the process is executing, and
     delivers SIGVTALRM upon expiration.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.ITIMER_PROF

     Decrements interval timer both when the process executes and when
     the system is executing on behalf of the process.  Coupled with
     ITIMER_VIRTUAL, this timer is usually used to profile the time
     spent by the application in user and kernel space.  SIGPROF is
     delivered upon expiration.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIG_BLOCK

     A possible value for the 'how' parameter to *note
     pthread_sigmask(): 14dc. indicating that signals are to be blocked.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIG_UNBLOCK

     A possible value for the 'how' parameter to *note
     pthread_sigmask(): 14dc. indicating that signals are to be
     unblocked.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: signal.SIG_SETMASK

     A possible value for the 'how' parameter to *note
     pthread_sigmask(): 14dc. indicating that the signal mask is to be
     replaced.

     Added in version 3.3.

The ‘signal’ module defines one exception:

 -- Εξαίρεση: signal.ItimerError

     Raised to signal an error from the underlying *note setitimer():
     3cbe. or *note getitimer(): 3cbf. implementation.  Expect this
     error if an invalid interval timer or a negative time is passed to
     ‘setitimer()’.  This error is a subtype of *note OSError: 53c.

     Added in version 3.3: This error used to be a subtype of *note
     IOError: 13fb, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

The ‘signal’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.alarm (time)

     If 'time' is non-zero, this function requests that a *note SIGALRM:
     3cae. signal be sent to the process in 'time' seconds.  Any
     previously scheduled alarm is canceled (only one alarm can be
     scheduled at any time).  The returned value is then the number of
     seconds before any previously set alarm was to have been delivered.
     If 'time' is zero, no alarm is scheduled, and any scheduled alarm
     is canceled.  If the return value is zero, no alarm is currently
     scheduled.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘alarm(2)(8)’ for further information.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.getsignal (signalnum)

     Return the current signal handler for the signal 'signalnum'.  The
     returned value may be a callable Python object, or one of the
     special values *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1dab, *note signal.SIG_DFL:
     1dac. or *note None: a65.  Here, ‘signal.SIG_IGN’ means that the
     signal was previously ignored, ‘signal.SIG_DFL’ means that the
     default way of handling the signal was previously in use, and
     ‘None’ means that the previous signal handler was not installed
     from Python.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.strsignal (signalnum)

     Returns the description of signal 'signalnum', such as «Interrupt»
     for *note SIGINT: 4df.  Returns *note None: a65. if 'signalnum' has
     no description.  Raises *note ValueError: 277. if 'signalnum' is
     invalid.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.valid_signals ()

     Return the set of valid signal numbers on this platform.  This can
     be less than ‘range(1, NSIG)’ if some signals are reserved by the
     system for internal use.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.pause ()

     Cause the process to sleep until a signal is received; the
     appropriate handler will then be called.  Returns nothing.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘signal(2)(9)’ for further information.

     See also *note sigwait(): 14df, *note sigwaitinfo(): 1164, *note
     sigtimedwait(): 1163. and *note sigpending(): 14de.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.raise_signal (signum)

     Sends a signal to the calling process.  Returns nothing.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.pidfd_send_signal (pidfd, sig, siginfo=None,
          flags=0)

     Send signal 'sig' to the process referred to by file descriptor
     'pidfd'.  Python does not currently support the 'siginfo'
     parameter; it must be ‘None’.  The 'flags' argument is provided for
     future extensions; no flag values are currently defined.

     See the ‘pidfd_send_signal(2)(10)’ man page for more information.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 5.1, Android >= *note
     build-time: f49. API level 31

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.pthread_kill (thread_id, signalnum)

     Send the signal 'signalnum' to the thread 'thread_id', another
     thread in the same process as the caller.  The target thread can be
     executing any code (Python or not).  However, if the target thread
     is executing the Python interpreter, the Python signal handlers
     will be *note executed by the main thread of the main interpreter:
     3ca5.  Therefore, the only point of sending a signal to a
     particular Python thread would be to force a running system call to
     fail with *note InterruptedError: 1141.

     Use *note threading.get_ident(): 1505. or the *note ident: 3390.
     attribute of *note threading.Thread: 420. objects to get a suitable
     value for 'thread_id'.

     If 'signalnum' is 0, then no signal is sent, but error checking is
     still performed; this can be used to check if the target thread is
     still running.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘signal.pthread_kill’ with
     arguments ‘thread_id’, ‘signalnum’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘pthread_kill(3)(11)’ for further information.

     See also *note os.kill(): 170c.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.pthread_sigmask (how, mask)

     Fetch and/or change the signal mask of the calling thread.  The
     signal mask is the set of signals whose delivery is currently
     blocked for the caller.  Return the old signal mask as a set of
     signals.

     The behavior of the call is dependent on the value of 'how', as
     follows.

        * *note SIG_BLOCK: 3ca7.: The set of blocked signals is the
          union of the current set and the 'mask' argument.

        * *note SIG_UNBLOCK: 3ca8.: The signals in 'mask' are removed
          from the current set of blocked signals.  It is permissible to
          attempt to unblock a signal which is not blocked.

        * *note SIG_SETMASK: 3ca9.: The set of blocked signals is set to
          the 'mask' argument.

     'mask' is a set of signal numbers (e.g.  {*note signal.SIGINT: 4df,
     *note signal.SIGTERM: 1782.}).  Use *note valid_signals(): 3cb9.
     for a full mask including all signals.

     For example, ‘signal.pthread_sigmask(signal.SIG_BLOCK, [])’ reads
     the signal mask of the calling thread.

     *note SIGKILL: f16. and *note SIGSTOP: 3cb3. cannot be blocked.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigprocmask(2)(12)’ and ‘pthread_sigmask(3)(13)’
     for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 3cc1, *note sigpending(): 14de. and *note
     sigwait(): 14df.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.setitimer (which, seconds, interval=0)

     Sets given interval timer (one of *note signal.ITIMER_REAL: 3cba,
     *note signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL: 3cbb. or *note signal.ITIMER_PROF:
     3cbc.) specified by 'which' to fire after 'seconds' (rounded up to
     microseconds, different from *note alarm(): 3cc0.) and after that
     every 'interval' seconds (if 'interval' is non-zero).  The interval
     timer specified by 'which' can be cleared by setting 'seconds' to
     zero.

     When an interval timer fires, a signal is sent to the process.  The
     signal sent is dependent on the timer being used; *note
     signal.ITIMER_REAL: 3cba. will deliver *note SIGALRM: 3cae, *note
     signal.ITIMER_VIRTUAL: 3cbb. sends *note SIGVTALRM: 3cb6, and *note
     signal.ITIMER_PROF: 3cbc. will deliver *note SIGPROF: 3cb2.

     The old values are returned as a two-tuple of floats: (‘delay’,
     ‘interval’).

     Attempting to pass an invalid interval timer will cause an *note
     ItimerError: 3cbd.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real numbers as 'seconds' and
     'interval', not only integers or floats.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.getitimer (which)

     Returns current value of a given interval timer specified by
     'which'.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.set_wakeup_fd (fd, *, warn_on_full_buffer=True)

     Set the wakeup file descriptor to 'fd'.  When a signal your program
     has registered a signal handler for is received, the signal number
     is written as a single byte into the fd.  If you haven’t registered
     a signal handler for the signals you care about, then nothing will
     be written to the wakeup fd.  This can be used by a library to
     wakeup a poll or select call, allowing the signal to be fully
     processed.

     The old wakeup fd is returned (or -1 if file descriptor wakeup was
     not enabled).  If 'fd' is -1, file descriptor wakeup is disabled.
     If not -1, 'fd' must be non-blocking.  It is up to the library to
     remove any bytes from 'fd' before calling poll or select again.

     When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from
     *note the main thread of the main interpreter: 3ca5.; attempting to
     call it from other threads will cause a *note ValueError: 277.
     exception to be raised.

     There are two common ways to use this function.  In both
     approaches, you use the fd to wake up when a signal arrives, but
     then they differ in how they determine 'which' signal or signals
     have arrived.

     In the first approach, we read the data out of the fd’s buffer, and
     the byte values give you the signal numbers.  This is simple, but
     in rare cases it can run into a problem: generally the fd will have
     a limited amount of buffer space, and if too many signals arrive
     too quickly, then the buffer may become full, and some signals may
     be lost.  If you use this approach, then you should set
     ‘warn_on_full_buffer=True’, which will at least cause a warning to
     be printed to stderr when signals are lost.

     In the second approach, we use the wakeup fd 'only' for wakeups,
     and ignore the actual byte values.  In this case, all we care about
     is whether the fd’s buffer is empty or non-empty; a full buffer
     doesn’t indicate a problem at all.  If you use this approach, then
     you should set ‘warn_on_full_buffer=False’, so that your users are
     not confused by spurious warning messages.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: On Windows, the function now also supports
     socket handles.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added ‘warn_on_full_buffer’ parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.siginterrupt (signalnum, flag)

     Change system call restart behaviour: if 'flag' is *note False:
     ef5, system calls will be restarted when interrupted by signal
     'signalnum', otherwise system calls will be interrupted.  Returns
     nothing.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘siginterrupt(3)(14)’ for further information.

     Note that installing a signal handler with *note signal(): ce. will
     reset the restart behaviour to interruptible by implicitly calling
     ‘siginterrupt()’ with a true 'flag' value for the given signal.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.signal (signalnum, handler)

     Set the handler for signal 'signalnum' to the function 'handler'.
     'handler' can be a callable Python object taking two arguments (see
     below), or one of the special values *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1dab. or
     *note signal.SIG_DFL: 1dac.  The previous signal handler will be
     returned (see the description of *note getsignal(): 1c2d. above).
     (See the Unix man page ‘signal(2)(15)’ for further information.)

     When threads are enabled, this function can only be called from
     *note the main thread of the main interpreter: 3ca5.; attempting to
     call it from other threads will cause a *note ValueError: 277.
     exception to be raised.

     The 'handler' is called with two arguments: the signal number and
     the current stack frame (‘None’ or a frame object; for a
     description of frame objects, see the *note description in the type
     hierarchy: acd. or see the attribute descriptions in the *note
     inspect: 81. module).

     On Windows, ‘signal()’ can only be called with *note SIGABRT: 142a,
     *note SIGFPE: 1429, *note SIGILL: 142c, *note SIGINT: 4df, *note
     SIGSEGV: 1428, *note SIGTERM: 1782, or *note SIGBREAK: 3caf.  A
     *note ValueError: 277. will be raised in any other case.  Note that
     not all systems define the same set of signal names; an *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. will be raised if a signal name is not defined
     as ‘SIG*’ module level constant.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.sigpending ()

     Examine the set of signals that are pending for delivery to the
     calling thread (i.e., the signals which have been raised while
     blocked).  Return the set of the pending signals.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigpending(2)(16)’ for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 3cc1, *note pthread_sigmask(): 14dc. and
     *note sigwait(): 14df.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.sigwait (sigset)

     Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one
     of the signals specified in the signal set 'sigset'.  The function
     accepts the signal (removes it from the pending list of signals),
     and returns the signal number.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigwait(3)(17)’ for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 3cc1, *note pthread_sigmask(): 14dc, *note
     sigpending(): 14de, *note sigwaitinfo(): 1164. and *note
     sigtimedwait(): 1163.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.sigwaitinfo (sigset)

     Suspend execution of the calling thread until the delivery of one
     of the signals specified in the signal set 'sigset'.  The function
     accepts the signal and removes it from the pending list of signals.
     If one of the signals in 'sigset' is already pending for the
     calling thread, the function will return immediately with
     information about that signal.  The signal handler is not called
     for the delivered signal.  The function raises an *note
     InterruptedError: 1141. if it is interrupted by a signal that is
     not in 'sigset'.

     The return value is an object representing the data contained in
     the ‘siginfo_t’ structure, namely: ‘si_signo’, ‘si_code’,
     ‘si_errno’, ‘si_pid’, ‘si_uid’, ‘si_status’, ‘si_band’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigwaitinfo(2)(18)’ for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 3cc1, *note sigwait(): 14df. and *note
     sigtimedwait(): 1163.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The function is now retried if interrupted
     by a signal not in 'sigset' and the signal handler does not raise
     an exception (see PEP 475(19) for the rationale).

 -- Συνάρτηση: signal.sigtimedwait (sigset, timeout)

     Like *note sigwaitinfo(): 1164, but takes an additional 'timeout'
     argument specifying a timeout.  If 'timeout' is specified as ‘0’, a
     poll is performed.  Returns *note None: a65. if a timeout occurs.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

     See the man page ‘sigtimedwait(2)(20)’ for further information.

     See also *note pause(): 3cc1, *note sigwait(): 14df. and *note
     sigwaitinfo(): 1164.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The function is now retried with the
     recomputed 'timeout' if interrupted by a signal not in 'sigset' and
     the signal handler does not raise an exception (see PEP 475(21) for
     the rationale).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepts any real number as 'timeout', not
     only integer or float.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/sigprocmask(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_sigmask(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/abort(3)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/alarm(2)

   (5) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(7)

   (6) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (7) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(7)

   (8) https://manpages.debian.org/alarm(2)

   (9) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (10) https://manpages.debian.org/pidfd_send_signal(2)

   (11) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_kill(3)

   (12) https://manpages.debian.org/sigprocmask(2)

   (13) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_sigmask(3)

   (14) https://manpages.debian.org/siginterrupt(3)

   (15) https://manpages.debian.org/signal(2)

   (16) https://manpages.debian.org/sigpending(2)

   (17) https://manpages.debian.org/sigwait(3)

   (18) https://manpages.debian.org/sigwaitinfo(2)

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/

   (20) https://manpages.debian.org/sigtimedwait(2)

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<19>,  Next: Note on SIGPIPE,  Prev: Module contents<4>,  Up: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.20.6.5 Examples
.................

Here is a minimal example program.  It uses the *note alarm(): 3cc0.
function to limit the time spent waiting to open a file; this is useful
if the file is for a serial device that may not be turned on, which
would normally cause the *note os.open(): 114b. to hang indefinitely.
The solution is to set a 5-second alarm before opening the file; if the
operation takes too long, the alarm signal will be sent, and the handler
raises an exception.

     import signal, os

     def handler(signum, frame):
         signame = signal.Signals(signum).name
         print(f'Signal handler called with signal {signame} ({signum})')
         raise OSError("Couldn't open device!")

     # Set the signal handler and a 5-second alarm
     signal.signal(signal.SIGALRM, handler)
     signal.alarm(5)

     # This open() may hang indefinitely
     fd = os.open('/dev/ttyS0', os.O_RDWR)

     signal.alarm(0)          # Disable the alarm


File: python.info,  Node: Note on SIGPIPE,  Next: Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions,  Prev: Examples<19>,  Up: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.20.6.6 Note on SIGPIPE
........................

Piping output of your program to tools like ‘head(1)(1)’ will cause a
*note SIGPIPE: 3ca1. signal to be sent to your process when the receiver
of its standard output closes early.  This results in an exception like
‘BrokenPipeError: [Errno 32] Broken pipe’.  To handle this case, wrap
your entry point to catch this exception as follows:

     import os
     import sys

     def main():
         try:
             # simulate large output (your code replaces this loop)
             for x in range(10000):
                 print("y")
             # flush output here to force SIGPIPE to be triggered
             # while inside this try block.
             sys.stdout.flush()
         except BrokenPipeError:
             # Python flushes standard streams on exit; redirect remaining output
             # to devnull to avoid another BrokenPipeError at shutdown
             devnull = os.open(os.devnull, os.O_WRONLY)
             os.dup2(devnull, sys.stdout.fileno())
             sys.exit(1)  # Python exits with error code 1 on EPIPE

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Do not set *note SIGPIPE: 3ca1.’s disposition to *note SIG_DFL: 1dac. in
order to avoid *note BrokenPipeError: 1404.  Doing that would cause your
program to exit unexpectedly whenever any socket connection is
interrupted while your program is still writing to it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/head(1)


File: python.info,  Node: Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions,  Prev: Note on SIGPIPE,  Up: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events

5.20.6.7 Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions
...............................................

If a signal handler raises an exception, the exception will be
propagated to the main thread and may be raised after any *note
bytecode: 6b3. instruction.  Most notably, a *note KeyboardInterrupt:
d96. may appear at any point during execution.  Most Python code,
including the standard library, cannot be made robust against this, and
so a ‘KeyboardInterrupt’ (or any other exception resulting from a signal
handler) may on rare occasions put the program in an unexpected state.

To illustrate this issue, consider the following code:

     class SpamContext:
         def __init__(self):
             self.lock = threading.Lock()

         def __enter__(self):
             # If KeyboardInterrupt occurs here, everything is fine
             self.lock.acquire()
             # If KeyboardInterrupt occurs here, __exit__ will not be called
             ...
             # KeyboardInterrupt could occur just before the function returns

         def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb):
             ...
             self.lock.release()

For many programs, especially those that merely want to exit on *note
KeyboardInterrupt: d96, this is not a problem, but applications that are
complex or require high reliability should avoid raising exceptions from
signal handlers.  They should also avoid catching ‘KeyboardInterrupt’ as
a means of gracefully shutting down.  Instead, they should install their
own *note SIGINT: 4df. handler.  Below is an example of an HTTP server
that avoids ‘KeyboardInterrupt’:

     import signal
     import socket
     from selectors import DefaultSelector, EVENT_READ
     from http.server import HTTPServer, SimpleHTTPRequestHandler

     interrupt_read, interrupt_write = socket.socketpair()

     def handler(signum, frame):
         print('Signal handler called with signal', signum)
         interrupt_write.send(b'\0')
     signal.signal(signal.SIGINT, handler)

     def serve_forever(httpd):
         sel = DefaultSelector()
         sel.register(interrupt_read, EVENT_READ)
         sel.register(httpd, EVENT_READ)

         while True:
             for key, _ in sel.select():
                 if key.fileobj == interrupt_read:
                     interrupt_read.recv(1)
                     return
                 if key.fileobj == httpd:
                     httpd.handle_request()

     print("Serving on port 8000")
     httpd = HTTPServer(('', 8000), SimpleHTTPRequestHandler)
     serve_forever(httpd)
     print("Shutdown...")


File: python.info,  Node: mmap — Memory-mapped file support,  Prev: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events,  Up: Networking and Interprocess Communication

5.20.7 ‘mmap’ — Memory-mapped file support
------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

Memory-mapped file objects behave like both *note bytearray: 1c6. and
like *note file objects: 156c.  You can use mmap objects in most places
where ‘bytearray’ are expected; for example, you can use the *note re:
c1. module to search through a memory-mapped file.  You can also change
a single byte by doing ‘obj[index] = 97’, or change a subsequence by
assigning to a slice: ‘obj[i1:i2] = b'...'’.  You can also read and
write data starting at the current file position, and ‘seek()’ through
the file to different positions.

A memory-mapped file is created by the *note mmap: 23c. constructor,
which is different on Unix and on Windows.  In either case you must
provide a file descriptor for a file opened for update.  If you wish to
map an existing Python file object, use its *note fileno(): 19b2. method
to obtain the correct value for the 'fileno' parameter.  Otherwise, you
can open the file using the *note os.open(): 114b. function, which
returns a file descriptor directly (the file still needs to be closed
when done).

     Σημείωση: If you want to create a memory-mapping for a writable,
     buffered file, you should *note flush(): 19fa. the file first.
     This is necessary to ensure that local modifications to the buffers
     are actually available to the mapping.

For both the Unix and Windows versions of the constructor, 'access' may
be specified as an optional keyword parameter.  'access' accepts one of
four values: ‘ACCESS_READ’, ‘ACCESS_WRITE’, or ‘ACCESS_COPY’ to specify
read-only, write-through or copy-on-write memory respectively, or
‘ACCESS_DEFAULT’ to defer to 'prot'.  'access' can be used on both Unix
and Windows.  If 'access' is not specified, Windows mmap returns a
write-through mapping.  The initial memory values for all three access
types are taken from the specified file.  Assignment to an ‘ACCESS_READ’
memory map raises a *note TypeError: 291. exception.  Assignment to an
‘ACCESS_WRITE’ memory map affects both memory and the underlying file.
Assignment to an ‘ACCESS_COPY’ memory map affects memory but does not
update the underlying file.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added ‘ACCESS_DEFAULT’ constant.

To map anonymous memory, -1 should be passed as the fileno along with
the length.

 -- Κλάση: mmap.mmap (fileno, length, tagname=None,
          access=ACCESS_DEFAULT, offset=0, *, trackfd=True)

     '(Windows version)' Maps 'length' bytes from the file specified by
     the file descriptor 'fileno', and creates a mmap object.  If
     'length' is larger than the current size of the file, the file is
     extended to contain 'length' bytes.  If 'length' is ‘0’, the
     maximum length of the map is the current size of the file, except
     that if the file is empty Windows raises an exception (you cannot
     create an empty mapping on Windows).

     'tagname', if specified and not ‘None’, is a string giving a tag
     name for the mapping.  Windows allows you to have many different
     mappings against the same file.  If you specify the name of an
     existing tag, that tag is opened, otherwise a new tag of this name
     is created.  If this parameter is omitted or ‘None’, the mapping is
     created without a name.  Avoiding the use of the 'tagname'
     parameter will assist in keeping your code portable between Unix
     and Windows.

     'offset' may be specified as a non-negative integer offset.  mmap
     references will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the
     file.  'offset' defaults to 0.  'offset' must be a multiple of the
     ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’.

     If 'trackfd' is ‘False’, the file handle corresponding to 'fileno'
     will not be duplicated, and the resulting ‘mmap’ object will not be
     associated with the map’s underlying file.  This means that the
     *note size(): 1a45. and *note resize(): 3e9. methods will fail.
     This mode is useful to limit the number of open file handles.  The
     original file can be renamed (but not deleted) after closing
     'fileno'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The 'trackfd' parameter was added.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘mmap.__new__’ with arguments
     ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’.

 -- Κλάση: mmap.mmap (fileno, length, flags=MAP_SHARED, prot=PROT_WRITE
          | PROT_READ, access=ACCESS_DEFAULT, offset=0, *, trackfd=True)

     '(Unix version)' Maps 'length' bytes from the file specified by the
     file descriptor 'fileno', and returns a mmap object.  If 'length'
     is ‘0’, the maximum length of the map will be the current size of
     the file when *note mmap: 23c. is called.

     'flags' specifies the nature of the mapping.  *note MAP_PRIVATE:
     3cc9. creates a private copy-on-write mapping, so changes to the
     contents of the mmap object will be private to this process, and
     *note MAP_SHARED: 3cca. creates a mapping that’s shared with all
     other processes mapping the same areas of the file.  The default
     value is ‘MAP_SHARED’.  Some systems have additional possible flags
     with the full list specified in *note MAP_* constants: 3ccb.

     'prot', if specified, gives the desired memory protection; the two
     most useful values are ‘PROT_READ’ and ‘PROT_WRITE’, to specify
     that the pages may be read or written.  'prot' defaults to
     ‘PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE’.

     'access' may be specified in lieu of 'flags' and 'prot' as an
     optional keyword parameter.  It is an error to specify both
     'flags', 'prot' and 'access'.  See the description of 'access'
     above for information on how to use this parameter.

     'offset' may be specified as a non-negative integer offset.  mmap
     references will be relative to the offset from the beginning of the
     file.  'offset' defaults to 0.  'offset' must be a multiple of
     ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’ which is equal to ‘PAGESIZE’ on Unix
     systems.

     If 'trackfd' is ‘False’, the file descriptor specified by 'fileno'
     will not be duplicated, and the resulting ‘mmap’ object will not be
     associated with the map’s underlying file.  This means that the
     *note size(): 1a45. and *note resize(): 3e9. methods will fail.
     This mode is useful to limit the number of open file descriptors.

     To ensure validity of the created memory mapping the file specified
     by the descriptor 'fileno' is internally automatically synchronized
     with the physical backing store on macOS.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'trackfd' parameter was added.

     This example shows a simple way of using *note mmap: 23c.:

          import mmap

          # write a simple example file
          with open("hello.txt", "wb") as f:
              f.write(b"Hello Python!\n")

          with open("hello.txt", "r+b") as f:
              # memory-map the file, size 0 means whole file
              mm = mmap.mmap(f.fileno(), 0)
              # read content via standard file methods
              print(mm.readline())  # prints b"Hello Python!\n"
              # read content via slice notation
              print(mm[:5])  # prints b"Hello"
              # update content using slice notation;
              # note that new content must have same size
              mm[6:] = b" world!\n"
              # ... and read again using standard file methods
              mm.seek(0)
              print(mm.readline())  # prints b"Hello  world!\n"
              # close the map
              mm.close()

     *note mmap: 23c. can also be used as a context manager in a *note
     with: 20a. statement:

          import mmap

          with mmap.mmap(-1, 13) as mm:
              mm.write(b"Hello world!")

     Added in version 3.2: Context manager support.

     The next example demonstrates how to create an anonymous map and
     exchange data between the parent and child processes:

          import mmap
          import os

          mm = mmap.mmap(-1, 13)
          mm.write(b"Hello world!")

          pid = os.fork()

          if pid == 0:  # In a child process
              mm.seek(0)
              print(mm.readline())

              mm.close()

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘mmap.__new__’ with arguments
     ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’.

     Memory-mapped file objects support the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Closes the mmap.  Subsequent calls to other methods of the
          object will result in a ValueError exception being raised.
          This will not close the open file.

      -- Ιδιότητα: closed

          ‘True’ if the file is closed.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: find (sub[, start[, end]])

          Returns the lowest index in the object where the subsequence
          'sub' is found, such that 'sub' is contained in the range
          ['start', 'end'].  Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are
          interpreted as in slice notation.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Writable *note bytes-like object: 436.
          is now accepted.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ([offset[, size]], *, flags=MS_SYNC)

          Flushes changes made to the in-memory copy of a file back to
          disk.  Without use of this call there is no guarantee that
          changes are written back before the object is destroyed.  If
          'offset' and 'size' are specified, only changes to the given
          range of bytes will be flushed to disk; otherwise, the whole
          extent of the mapping is flushed.  'offset' must be a multiple
          of the ‘PAGESIZE’ or ‘ALLOCATIONGRANULARITY’.

          The 'flags' parameter specifies the synchronization behavior.
          'flags' must be one of the *note MS_* constants: 3ccf.
          available on the system.

          On Windows, the 'flags' parameter is ignored.

          ‘None’ is returned to indicate success.  An exception is
          raised when the call failed.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Previously, a nonzero value was
          returned on success; zero was returned on error under Windows.
          A zero value was returned on success; an exception was raised
          on error under Unix.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Allow specifying 'offset' without
          'size'.  Previously, both 'offset' and 'size' parameters were
          required together.  Now 'offset' can be specified alone, and
          the flush operation will extend from 'offset' to the end of
          the mmap.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added 'flags' parameter to control
          synchronization behavior.

      -- Μέθοδος: madvise (option[, start[, length]])

          Send advice 'option' to the kernel about the memory region
          beginning at 'start' and extending 'length' bytes.  'option'
          must be one of the *note MADV_* constants: 3cd0. available on
          the system.  If 'start' and 'length' are omitted, the entire
          mapping is spanned.  On some systems (including Linux),
          'start' must be a multiple of the ‘PAGESIZE’.

          Availability: Systems with the ‘madvise()’ system call.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: move (dest, src, count)

          Copy the 'count' bytes starting at offset 'src' to the
          destination index 'dest'.  If the mmap was created with
          ‘ACCESS_READ’, then calls to move will raise a *note
          TypeError: 291. exception.

      -- Μέθοδος: read ([n])

          Return a *note bytes: 1c7. containing up to 'n' bytes starting
          from the current file position.  If the argument is omitted,
          ‘None’ or negative, return all bytes from the current file
          position to the end of the mapping.  The file position is
          updated to point after the bytes that were returned.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Argument can be omitted or ‘None’.

      -- Μέθοδος: read_byte ()

          Returns a byte at the current file position as an integer, and
          advances the file position by 1.

      -- Μέθοδος: readline ()

          Returns a single line, starting at the current file position
          and up to the next newline.  The file position is updated to
          point after the bytes that were returned.

      -- Μέθοδος: resize (newsize)

          Resizes the map and the underlying file, if any.

          Resizing a map created with 'access' of ‘ACCESS_READ’ or
          ‘ACCESS_COPY’, will raise a *note TypeError: 291. exception.
          Resizing a map created with 'trackfd' set to ‘False’, will
          raise a *note ValueError: 277. exception.

          'On Windows': Resizing the map will raise an *note OSError:
          53c. if there are other maps against the same named file.
          Resizing an anonymous map (ie against the pagefile) will
          silently create a new map with the original data copied over
          up to the length of the new size.

          Availability: Windows and systems with the ‘mremap()’ system
          call.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Correctly fails if attempting to
          resize when another map is held Allows resize against an
          anonymous map on Windows

      -- Μέθοδος: rfind (sub[, start[, end]])

          Returns the highest index in the object where the subsequence
          'sub' is found, such that 'sub' is contained in the range
          ['start', 'end'].  Optional arguments 'start' and 'end' are
          interpreted as in slice notation.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Writable *note bytes-like object: 436.
          is now accepted.

      -- Μέθοδος: seek (pos[, whence])

          Set the file’s current position.  'whence' argument is
          optional and defaults to ‘os.SEEK_SET’ or ‘0’ (absolute file
          positioning); other values are ‘os.SEEK_CUR’ or ‘1’ (seek
          relative to the current position) and ‘os.SEEK_END’ or ‘2’
          (seek relative to the file’s end).

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Return the new absolute position
          instead of ‘None’.

      -- Μέθοδος: seekable ()

          Return whether the file supports seeking, and the return value
          is always ‘True’.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_name (name, /)

          Annotate the memory mapping with the given 'name' for easier
          identification in ‘/proc/<pid>/maps’ if the kernel supports
          the feature and *note -X dev: 178. is passed to Python or if
          Python is built in *note debug mode: 3dc.  The length of
          'name' must not exceed 67 bytes including the ‘'\0'’
          terminator.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 5.17 (kernel built with
          ‘CONFIG_ANON_VMA_NAME’ option)

          Added in version 3.15.

      -- Μέθοδος: size ()

          Return the length of the file, which can be larger than the
          size of the memory-mapped area.  For an anonymous mapping,
          return its size.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Anonymous mappings are now supported
          on Unix.

      -- Μέθοδος: tell ()

          Returns the current position of the file pointer.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (bytes)

          Write the bytes in 'bytes' into memory at the current position
          of the file pointer and return the number of bytes written
          (never less than ‘len(bytes)’, since if the write fails, a
          *note ValueError: 277. will be raised).  The file position is
          updated to point after the bytes that were written.  If the
          mmap was created with ‘ACCESS_READ’, then writing to it will
          raise a *note TypeError: 291. exception.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Writable *note bytes-like object: 436.
          is now accepted.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The number of bytes written is now
          returned.

      -- Μέθοδος: write_byte (byte)

          Write the integer 'byte' into memory at the current position
          of the file pointer; the file position is advanced by ‘1’.  If
          the mmap was created with ‘ACCESS_READ’, then writing to it
          will raise a *note TypeError: 291. exception.

* Menu:

* MADV_* Constants::
* MAP_* Constants::
* MS_* Constants::


File: python.info,  Node: MADV_* Constants,  Next: MAP_* Constants,  Up: mmap — Memory-mapped file support

5.20.7.1 MADV_* Constants
.........................

 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_NORMAL
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_RANDOM
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_SEQUENTIAL
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_WILLNEED
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_DONTNEED
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_REMOVE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_DONTFORK
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_DOFORK
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_HWPOISON
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_MERGEABLE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_UNMERGEABLE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_HUGEPAGE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_NOHUGEPAGE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_DONTDUMP
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_DODUMP
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_FREE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_NOSYNC
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_AUTOSYNC
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_NOCORE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_CORE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_PROTECT
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_FREE_REUSABLE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MADV_FREE_REUSE

     These options can be passed to *note mmap.madvise(): dca.  Not
     every option will be present on every system.

     Availability: Systems with the madvise() system call.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: MAP_* Constants,  Next: MS_* Constants,  Prev: MADV_* Constants,  Up: mmap — Memory-mapped file support

5.20.7.2 MAP_* Constants
........................

 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_SHARED
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_PRIVATE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_32BIT
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_ANON
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_ANONYMOUS
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_CONCEAL
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_DENYWRITE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_EXECUTABLE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_HASSEMAPHORE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_JIT
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_NOCACHE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_NOEXTEND
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_NORESERVE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_POPULATE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_STACK
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_TPRO
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MAP_UNIX03

     These are the various flags that can be passed to *note
     mmap.mmap(): 23c.  ‘MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER’ is only available at FreeBSD
     and ‘MAP_CONCEAL’ is only available at OpenBSD. Note that some
     options might not be present on some systems.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added ‘MAP_POPULATE’ constant.

     Added in version 3.11: Added ‘MAP_STACK’ constant.

     Added in version 3.12: Added ‘MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER’ and ‘MAP_CONCEAL’
     constants.

     Added in version 3.13: Added ‘MAP_32BIT’, ‘MAP_HASSEMAPHORE’,
     ‘MAP_JIT’, ‘MAP_NOCACHE’, ‘MAP_NOEXTEND’, ‘MAP_NORESERVE’,
     ‘MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN’, ‘MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA’, ‘MAP_TPRO’,
     ‘MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE’, and ‘MAP_UNIX03’ constants.


File: python.info,  Node: MS_* Constants,  Prev: MAP_* Constants,  Up: mmap — Memory-mapped file support

5.20.7.3 MS_* Constants
.......................

 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MS_SYNC
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MS_ASYNC
 -- Δεδομένα: mmap.MS_INVALIDATE

     These flags control the synchronization behavior for *note
     mmap.flush(): e5e.:

        * ‘MS_SYNC’ - Synchronous flush: writes are scheduled and the
          call blocks until they are physically written to storage.

        * ‘MS_ASYNC’ - Asynchronous flush: writes are scheduled but the
          call returns immediately without waiting for completion.

        * ‘MS_INVALIDATE’ - Invalidate cached data: invalidates other
          mappings of the same file so they can see the changes.

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Internet Data Handling,  Next: Structured Markup Processing Tools,  Prev: Networking and Interprocess Communication,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.21 Internet Data Handling
===========================

This chapter describes modules which support handling data formats
commonly used on the internet.

* Menu:

* email — An email and MIME handling package::
* json — JSON encoder and decoder::
* mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats::
* mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types::
* base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
* binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII::
* quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data::


File: python.info,  Node: email — An email and MIME handling package,  Next: json — JSON encoder and decoder,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.21.1 ‘email’ — An email and MIME handling package
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/email/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘email’ package is a library for managing email messages.  It is
specifically 'not' designed to do any sending of email messages to SMTP
( RFC 2821(2)), NNTP, or other servers; those are functions of modules
such as *note smtplib: d2.  The ‘email’ package attempts to be as
RFC-compliant as possible, supporting RFC 5322(3) and RFC 6532(4), as
well as such MIME-related RFCs as RFC 2045(5), RFC 2046(6), RFC 2047(7),
RFC 2183(8), and RFC 2231(9).

The overall structure of the email package can be divided into three
major components, plus a fourth component that controls the behavior of
the other components.

The central component of the package is an «object model» that
represents email messages.  An application interacts with the package
primarily through the object model interface defined in the *note
message: 47. sub-module.  The application can use this API to ask
questions about an existing email, to construct a new email, or to add
or remove email subcomponents that themselves use the same object model
interface.  That is, following the nature of email messages and their
MIME subcomponents, the email object model is a tree structure of
objects that all provide the *note EmailMessage: 216. API.

The other two major components of the package are the *note parser: 51.
and the *note generator: 43.  The parser takes the serialized version of
an email message (a stream of bytes) and converts it into a tree of
*note EmailMessage: 216. objects.  The generator takes an ‘EmailMessage’
and turns it back into a serialized byte stream.  (The parser and
generator also handle streams of text characters, but this usage is
discouraged as it is too easy to end up with messages that are not valid
in one way or another.)

The control component is the *note policy: 52. module.  Every *note
EmailMessage: 216, every *note generator: 43, and every *note parser:
51. has an associated ‘policy’ object that controls its behavior.
Usually an application only needs to specify the policy when an
‘EmailMessage’ is created, either by directly instantiating an
‘EmailMessage’ to create a new email, or by parsing an input stream
using a ‘parser’.  But the policy can be changed when the message is
serialized using a ‘generator’.  This allows, for example, a generic
email message to be parsed from disk, but to serialize it using standard
SMTP settings when sending it to an email server.

The email package does its best to hide the details of the various
governing RFCs from the application.  Conceptually the application
should be able to treat the email message as a structured tree of
unicode text and binary attachments, without having to worry about how
these are represented when serialized.  In practice, however, it is
often necessary to be aware of at least some of the rules governing MIME
messages and their structure, specifically the names and nature of the
MIME «content types» and how they identify multipart documents.  For the
most part this knowledge should only be required for more complex
applications, and even then it should only be the high level structure
in question, and not the details of how those structures are
represented.  Since MIME content types are used widely in modern
internet software (not just email), this will be a familiar concept to
many programmers.

The following sections describe the functionality of the ‘email’
package.  We start with the *note message: 47. object model, which is
the primary interface an application will use, and follow that with the
*note parser: 51. and *note generator: 43. components.  Then we cover
the *note policy: 52. controls, which completes the treatment of the
main components of the library.

The next three sections cover the exceptions the package may raise and
the defects (non-compliance with the RFCs) that the *note parser: 51.
may detect.  Then we cover the *note headerregistry: 45. and the *note
contentmanager: 40. sub-components, which provide tools for doing more
detailed manipulation of headers and payloads, respectively.  Both of
these components contain features relevant to consuming and producing
non-trivial messages, but also document their extensibility APIs, which
will be of interest to advanced applications.

Following those is a set of examples of using the fundamental parts of
the APIs covered in the preceding sections.

The foregoing represent the modern (unicode friendly) API of the email
package.  The remaining sections, starting with the *note Message: 780.
class, cover the legacy *note compat32: 105a. API that deals much more
directly with the details of how email messages are represented.  The
‘compat32’ API does 'not' hide the details of the RFCs from the
application, but for applications that need to operate at that level,
they can be useful tools.  This documentation is also relevant for
applications that are still using the *note compat32: 105a. API for
backward compatibility reasons.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Docs reorganized and rewritten to promote the
new *note EmailMessage: 216./*note EmailPolicy: 1464. API.

Contents of the ‘email’ package documentation:

* Menu:

* email.message; Representing an email message: email message Representing an email message.
* email.parser; Parsing email messages: email parser Parsing email messages.
* email.generator; Generating MIME documents: email generator Generating MIME documents.
* email.policy; Policy Objects: email policy Policy Objects.
* email.errors; Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων: email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
* email.headerregistry; Custom Header Objects: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
* email.contentmanager; Managing MIME Content: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
* email; Examples: email Examples.
* email.message.Message; Representing an email message using the compat32 API: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
* email.mime; Creating email and MIME objects from scratch: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
* email.header; Internationalized headers: email header Internationalized headers.
* email.charset; Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων: email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
* email.encoders; Encoders: email encoders Encoders.
* email.utils; Miscellaneous utilities: email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
* email.iterators; Iterators: email iterators Iterators.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email/__init__.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2821.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html


File: python.info,  Node: email message Representing an email message,  Next: email parser Parsing email messages,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.1 ‘email.message’: Representing an email message
.......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/message.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.6: (2)

The central class in the *note email: 3e. package is the *note
EmailMessage: 216. class, imported from the ‘email.message’ module.  It
is the base class for the ‘email’ object model.  ‘EmailMessage’ provides
the core functionality for setting and querying header fields, for
accessing message bodies, and for creating or modifying structured
messages.

An email message consists of 'headers' and a 'payload' (which is also
referred to as the 'content').  Headers are RFC 5322(3) or RFC 6532(4)
style field names and values, where the field name and value are
separated by a colon.  The colon is not part of either the field name or
the field value.  The payload may be a simple text message, or a binary
object, or a structured sequence of sub-messages each with their own set
of headers and their own payload.  The latter type of payload is
indicated by the message having a MIME type such as ‘multipart/*’ or
‘message/rfc822’.

The conceptual model provided by an *note EmailMessage: 216. object is
that of an ordered dictionary of headers coupled with a 'payload' that
represents the RFC 5322(5) body of the message, which might be a list of
sub-‘EmailMessage’ objects.  In addition to the normal dictionary
methods for accessing the header names and values, there are methods for
accessing specialized information from the headers (for example the MIME
content type), for operating on the payload, for generating a serialized
version of the message, and for recursively walking over the object
tree.

The *note EmailMessage: 216. dictionary-like interface is indexed by the
header names, which must be ASCII values.  The values of the dictionary
are strings with some extra methods.  Headers are stored and returned in
case-preserving form, but field names are matched case-insensitively.
The keys are ordered, but unlike a real dict, there can be duplicates.
Additional methods are provided for working with headers that have
duplicate keys.

The 'payload' is either a string or bytes object, in the case of simple
message objects, or a list of *note EmailMessage: 216. objects, for MIME
container documents such as ‘multipart/*’ and ‘message/rfc822’ message
objects.

 -- Κλάση: email.message.EmailMessage (policy=default)

     If 'policy' is specified use the rules it specifies to update and
     serialize the representation of the message.  If 'policy' is not
     set, use the *note default: 19ac. policy, which follows the rules
     of the email RFCs except for line endings (instead of the RFC
     mandated ‘\r\n’, it uses the Python standard ‘\n’ line endings).
     For more information see the *note policy: 52. documentation.  (6)

      -- Μέθοδος: as_string (unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=None,
               policy=None)

          Return the entire message flattened as a string.  When
          optional 'unixfrom' is true, the envelope header is included
          in the returned string.  'unixfrom' defaults to ‘False’.  For
          backward compatibility with the base *note Message: 780. class
          'maxheaderlen' is accepted, but defaults to ‘None’, which
          means that by default the line length is controlled by the
          *note max_line_length: 3d04. of the policy.  The 'policy'
          argument may be used to override the default policy obtained
          from the message instance.  This can be used to control some
          of the formatting produced by the method, since the specified
          'policy' will be passed to the *note Generator: 1577.

          Flattening the message may trigger changes to the
          ‘EmailMessage’ if defaults need to be filled in to complete
          the transformation to a string (for example, MIME boundaries
          may be generated or modified).

          Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not
          be the most useful way to serialize messages in your
          application, especially if you are dealing with multiple
          messages.  See *note email.generator.Generator: 1577. for a
          more flexible API for serializing messages.  Note also that
          this method is restricted to producing messages serialized as
          «7 bit clean» when *note utf8: 217. is ‘False’, which is the
          default.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: the default behavior when
          'maxheaderlen' is not specified was changed from defaulting to
          0 to defaulting to the value of 'max_line_length' from the
          policy.

      -- Μέθοδος: __str__ ()

          Equivalent to
          ‘as_string(policy=self.policy.clone(utf8=True))’.  Allows
          ‘str(msg)’ to produce a string containing the serialized
          message in a readable format.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: the method was changed to use
          ‘utf8=True’, thus producing an RFC 6531(7)-like message
          representation, instead of being a direct alias for *note
          as_string(): 3d03.

      -- Μέθοδος: as_bytes (unixfrom=False, policy=None)

          Return the entire message flattened as a bytes object.  When
          optional 'unixfrom' is true, the envelope header is included
          in the returned string.  'unixfrom' defaults to ‘False’.  The
          'policy' argument may be used to override the default policy
          obtained from the message instance.  This can be used to
          control some of the formatting produced by the method, since
          the specified 'policy' will be passed to the *note
          BytesGenerator: 1578.

          Flattening the message may trigger changes to the
          ‘EmailMessage’ if defaults need to be filled in to complete
          the transformation to a string (for example, MIME boundaries
          may be generated or modified).

          Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not
          be the most useful way to serialize messages in your
          application, especially if you are dealing with multiple
          messages.  See *note email.generator.BytesGenerator: 1578. for
          a more flexible API for serializing messages.

      -- Μέθοδος: __bytes__ ()

          Equivalent to *note as_bytes(): 3d06.  Allows ‘bytes(msg)’ to
          produce a bytes object containing the serialized message.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_multipart ()

          Return ‘True’ if the message’s payload is a list of
          sub-‘EmailMessage’ objects, otherwise return ‘False’.  When
          ‘is_multipart()’ returns ‘False’, the payload should be a
          string object (which might be a CTE encoded binary payload).
          Note that ‘is_multipart()’ returning ‘True’ does not
          necessarily mean that «msg.get_content_maintype() ==
          “multipart”» will return the ‘True’.  For example,
          ‘is_multipart’ will return ‘True’ when the ‘EmailMessage’ is
          of type ‘message/rfc822’.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_unixfrom (unixfrom)

          Set the message’s envelope header to 'unixfrom', which should
          be a string.  (See *note mboxMessage: 3d0a. for a brief
          description of this header.)

      -- Μέθοδος: get_unixfrom ()

          Return the message’s envelope header.  Defaults to ‘None’ if
          the envelope header was never set.

     The following methods implement the mapping-like interface for
     accessing the message’s headers.  Note that there are some semantic
     differences between these methods and a normal mapping (i.e.
     dictionary) interface.  For example, in a dictionary there are no
     duplicate keys, but here there may be duplicate message headers.
     Also, in dictionaries there is no guaranteed order to the keys
     returned by *note keys(): 3d0c, but in an ‘EmailMessage’ object,
     headers are always returned in the order they appeared in the
     original message, or in which they were added to the message later.
     Any header deleted and then re-added is always appended to the end
     of the header list.

     These semantic differences are intentional and are biased toward
     convenience in the most common use cases.

     Note that in all cases, any envelope header present in the message
     is not included in the mapping interface.

      -- Μέθοδος: __len__ ()

          Return the total number of headers, including duplicates.

      -- Μέθοδος: __contains__ (name)

          Return ‘True’ if the message object has a field named 'name'.
          Matching is done without regard to case and 'name' does not
          include the trailing colon.  Used for the ‘in’ operator.  For
          example:

               if 'message-id' in myMessage:
                  print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])

      -- Μέθοδος: __getitem__ (name)

          Return the value of the named header field.  'name' does not
          include the colon field separator.  If the header is missing,
          ‘None’ is returned; a *note KeyError: 7df. is never raised.

          Note that if the named field appears more than once in the
          message’s headers, exactly which of those field values will be
          returned is undefined.  Use the *note get_all(): 3d10. method
          to get the values of all the extant headers named 'name'.

          Using the standard (non-‘compat32’) policies, the returned
          value is an instance of a subclass of *note
          email.headerregistry.BaseHeader: 3d11.

      -- Μέθοδος: __setitem__ (name, val)

          Add a header to the message with field name 'name' and value
          'val'.  The field is appended to the end of the message’s
          existing headers.

          Note that this does 'not' overwrite or delete any existing
          header with the same name.  If you want to ensure that the new
          header is the only one present in the message with field name
          'name', delete the field first, e.g.:

               del msg['subject']
               msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'

          If the *note policy: 52. defines certain headers to be unique
          (as the standard policies do), this method may raise a *note
          ValueError: 277. when an attempt is made to assign a value to
          such a header when one already exists.  This behavior is
          intentional for consistency’s sake, but do not depend on it as
          we may choose to make such assignments do an automatic
          deletion of the existing header in the future.

      -- Μέθοδος: __delitem__ (name)

          Delete all occurrences of the field with name 'name' from the
          message’s headers.  No exception is raised if the named field
          isn’t present in the headers.

      -- Μέθοδος: keys ()

          Return a list of all the message’s header field names.

      -- Μέθοδος: values ()

          Return a list of all the message’s field values.

      -- Μέθοδος: items ()

          Return a list of 2-tuples containing all the message’s field
          headers and values.

      -- Μέθοδος: get (name, failobj=None)

          Return the value of the named header field.  This is identical
          to *note __getitem__(): 787. except that optional 'failobj' is
          returned if the named header is missing ('failobj' defaults to
          ‘None’).

     Here are some additional useful header related methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_all (name, failobj=None)

          Return a list of all the values for the field named 'name'.
          If there are no such named headers in the message, 'failobj'
          is returned (defaults to ‘None’).

      -- Μέθοδος: add_header (_name, _value, **_params)

          Extended header setting.  This method is similar to *note
          __setitem__(): 3d12. except that additional header parameters
          can be provided as keyword arguments.  '_name' is the header
          field to add and '_value' is the 'primary' value for the
          header.

          For each item in the keyword argument dictionary '_params',
          the key is taken as the parameter name, with underscores
          converted to dashes (since dashes are illegal in Python
          identifiers).  Normally, the parameter will be added as
          ‘key="value"’ unless the value is ‘None’, in which case only
          the key will be added.

          If the value contains non-ASCII characters, the charset and
          language may be explicitly controlled by specifying the value
          as a three tuple in the format ‘(CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE)’,
          where ‘CHARSET’ is a string naming the charset to be used to
          encode the value, ‘LANGUAGE’ can usually be set to ‘None’ or
          the empty string (see RFC 2231(8) for other possibilities),
          and ‘VALUE’ is the string value containing non-ASCII code
          points.  If a three tuple is not passed and the value contains
          non-ASCII characters, it is automatically encoded in RFC
          2231(9) format using a ‘CHARSET’ of ‘utf-8’ and a ‘LANGUAGE’
          of ‘None’.

          Here is an example:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          This will add a header that looks like

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

          An example of the extended interface with non-ASCII
          characters:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
                              filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))

      -- Μέθοδος: replace_header (_name, _value)

          Replace a header.  Replace the first header found in the
          message that matches '_name', retaining header order and field
          name case of the original header.  If no matching header is
          found, raise a *note KeyError: 7df.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_content_type ()

          Return the message’s content type, coerced to lower case of
          the form ‘maintype/subtype’.  If there is no ‘Content-Type’
          header in the message return the value returned by *note
          get_default_type(): 3d1a.  If the ‘Content-Type’ header is
          invalid, return ‘text/plain’.

          (According to RFC 2045(10), messages always have a default
          type, ‘get_content_type()’ will always return a value.  RFC
          2045(11) defines a message’s default type to be ‘text/plain’
          unless it appears inside a ‘multipart/digest’ container, in
          which case it would be ‘message/rfc822’.  If the
          ‘Content-Type’ header has an invalid type specification, RFC
          2045(12) mandates that the default type be ‘text/plain’.)

      -- Μέθοδος: get_content_maintype ()

          Return the message’s main content type.  This is the
          ‘maintype’ part of the string returned by *note
          get_content_type(): 3d19.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_content_subtype ()

          Return the message’s sub-content type.  This is the ‘subtype’
          part of the string returned by *note get_content_type(): 3d19.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_default_type ()

          Return the default content type.  Most messages have a default
          content type of ‘text/plain’, except for messages that are
          subparts of ‘multipart/digest’ containers.  Such subparts have
          a default content type of ‘message/rfc822’.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_default_type (ctype)

          Set the default content type.  'ctype' should either be
          ‘text/plain’ or ‘message/rfc822’, although this is not
          enforced.  The default content type is not stored in the
          ‘Content-Type’ header, so it only affects the return value of
          the ‘get_content_type’ methods when no ‘Content-Type’ header
          is present in the message.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_param (param, value, header='Content-Type',
               requote=True, charset=None, language='', replace=False)

          Set a parameter in the ‘Content-Type’ header.  If the
          parameter already exists in the header, replace its value with
          'value'.  When 'header' is ‘Content-Type’ (the default) and
          the header does not yet exist in the message, add it, set its
          value to ‘text/plain’, and append the new parameter value.
          Optional 'header' specifies an alternative header to
          ‘Content-Type’.

          If the value contains non-ASCII characters, the charset and
          language may be explicitly specified using the optional
          'charset' and 'language' parameters.  Optional 'language'
          specifies the RFC 2231(13) language, defaulting to the empty
          string.  Both 'charset' and 'language' should be strings.  The
          default is to use the ‘utf8’ 'charset' and ‘None’ for the
          'language'.

          If 'replace' is ‘False’ (the default) the header is moved to
          the end of the list of headers.  If 'replace' is ‘True’, the
          header will be updated in place.

          Use of the 'requote' parameter with ‘EmailMessage’ objects is
          deprecated.

          Note that existing parameter values of headers may be accessed
          through the *note params: 3d1f. attribute of the header value
          (for example, ‘msg['Content-Type'].params['charset']’).

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: ‘replace’ keyword was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: del_param (param, header='content-type', requote=True)

          Remove the given parameter completely from the ‘Content-Type’
          header.  The header will be re-written in place without the
          parameter or its value.  Optional 'header' specifies an
          alternative to ‘Content-Type’.

          Use of the 'requote' parameter with ‘EmailMessage’ objects is
          deprecated.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_filename (failobj=None)

          Return the value of the ‘filename’ parameter of the
          ‘Content-Disposition’ header of the message.  If the header
          does not have a ‘filename’ parameter, this method falls back
          to looking for the ‘name’ parameter on the ‘Content-Type’
          header.  If neither is found, or the header is missing, then
          'failobj' is returned.  The returned string will always be
          unquoted as per *note email.utils.unquote(): 3d22.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_boundary (failobj=None)

          Return the value of the ‘boundary’ parameter of the
          ‘Content-Type’ header of the message, or 'failobj' if either
          the header is missing, or has no ‘boundary’ parameter.  The
          returned string will always be unquoted as per *note
          email.utils.unquote(): 3d22.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_boundary (boundary)

          Set the ‘boundary’ parameter of the ‘Content-Type’ header to
          'boundary'.  ‘set_boundary()’ will always quote 'boundary' if
          necessary.  A *note HeaderParseError: 3d25. is raised if the
          message object has no ‘Content-Type’ header.

          Note that using this method is subtly different from deleting
          the old ‘Content-Type’ header and adding a new one with the
          new boundary via *note add_header(): 3d17, because
          ‘set_boundary()’ preserves the order of the ‘Content-Type’
          header in the list of headers.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_content_charset (failobj=None)

          Return the ‘charset’ parameter of the ‘Content-Type’ header,
          coerced to lower case.  If there is no ‘Content-Type’ header,
          or if that header has no ‘charset’ parameter, 'failobj' is
          returned.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_charsets (failobj=None)

          Return a list containing the character set names in the
          message.  If the message is a ‘multipart’, then the list will
          contain one element for each subpart in the payload,
          otherwise, it will be a list of length 1.

          Each item in the list will be a string which is the value of
          the ‘charset’ parameter in the ‘Content-Type’ header for the
          represented subpart.  If the subpart has no ‘Content-Type’
          header, no ‘charset’ parameter, or is not of the ‘text’ main
          MIME type, then that item in the returned list will be
          'failobj'.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_attachment ()

          Return ‘True’ if there is a ‘Content-Disposition’ header and
          its (case insensitive) value is ‘attachment’, ‘False’
          otherwise.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4.2: is_attachment is now a method
          instead of a property, for consistency with *note
          is_multipart(): 3d29.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_content_disposition ()

          Return the lowercased value (without parameters) of the
          message’s ‘Content-Disposition’ header if it has one, or
          ‘None’.  The possible values for this method are 'inline',
          'attachment' or ‘None’ if the message follows RFC 2183(14).

          Added in version 3.5.

     The following methods relate to interrogating and manipulating the
     content (payload) of the message.

      -- Μέθοδος: walk ()

          The ‘walk()’ method is an all-purpose generator which can be
          used to iterate over all the parts and subparts of a message
          object tree, in depth-first traversal order.  You will
          typically use ‘walk()’ as the iterator in a ‘for’ loop; each
          iteration returns the next subpart.

          Here’s an example that prints the MIME type of every part of a
          multipart message structure:

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_type())
               multipart/report
               text/plain
               message/delivery-status
               text/plain
               text/plain
               message/rfc822
               text/plain

          ‘walk’ iterates over the subparts of any part where *note
          is_multipart(): 3d08. returns ‘True’, even though
          ‘msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'’ may return
          ‘False’.  We can see this in our example by making use of the
          ‘_structure’ debug helper function:

               >>> from email.iterators import _structure
               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
               ...           part.is_multipart())
               True True
               False False
               False True
               False False
               False False
               False True
               False False
               >>> _structure(msg)
               multipart/report
                   text/plain
                   message/delivery-status
                       text/plain
                       text/plain
                   message/rfc822
                       text/plain

          Here the ‘message’ parts are not ‘multiparts’, but they do
          contain subparts.  ‘is_multipart()’ returns ‘True’ and ‘walk’
          descends into the subparts.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_body (preferencelist=('related', 'html', 'plain'))

          Return the MIME part that is the best candidate to be the
          «body» of the message.

          'preferencelist' must be a sequence of strings from the set
          ‘related’, ‘html’, and ‘plain’, and indicates the order of
          preference for the content type of the part returned.

          Start looking for candidate matches with the object on which
          the ‘get_body’ method is called.

          If ‘related’ is not included in 'preferencelist', consider the
          root part (or subpart of the root part) of any related
          encountered as a candidate if the (sub-)part matches a
          preference.

          When encountering a ‘multipart/related’, check the ‘start’
          parameter and if a part with a matching ‘Content-ID’ is found,
          consider only it when looking for candidate matches.
          Otherwise consider only the first (default root) part of the
          ‘multipart/related’.

          If a part has a ‘Content-Disposition’ header, only consider
          the part a candidate match if the value of the header is
          ‘inline’.

          If none of the candidates matches any of the preferences in
          'preferencelist', return ‘None’.

          Notes: (1) For most applications the only 'preferencelist'
          combinations that really make sense are ‘('plain',)’,
          ‘('html', 'plain')’, and the default ‘('related', 'html',
          'plain')’.  (2) Because matching starts with the object on
          which ‘get_body’ is called, calling ‘get_body’ on a
          ‘multipart/related’ will return the object itself unless
          'preferencelist' has a non-default value.  (3) Messages (or
          message parts) that do not specify a ‘Content-Type’ or whose
          ‘Content-Type’ header is invalid will be treated as if they
          are of type ‘text/plain’, which may occasionally cause
          ‘get_body’ to return unexpected results.

      -- Μέθοδος: iter_attachments ()

          Return an iterator over all of the immediate sub-parts of the
          message that are not candidate «body» parts.  That is, skip
          the first occurrence of each of ‘text/plain’, ‘text/html’,
          ‘multipart/related’, or ‘multipart/alternative’ (unless they
          are explicitly marked as attachments via ‘Content-Disposition:
          attachment’), and return all remaining parts.  When applied
          directly to a ‘multipart/related’, return an iterator over the
          all the related parts except the root part (ie: the part
          pointed to by the ‘start’ parameter, or the first part if
          there is no ‘start’ parameter or the ‘start’ parameter doesn’t
          match the ‘Content-ID’ of any of the parts).  When applied
          directly to a ‘multipart/alternative’ or a non-‘multipart’,
          return an empty iterator.

      -- Μέθοδος: iter_parts ()

          Return an iterator over all of the immediate sub-parts of the
          message, which will be empty for a non-‘multipart’.  (See also
          *note walk(): 3d2b.)

      -- Μέθοδος: get_content (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          Call the *note get_content(): 3d30. method of the
          'content_manager', passing self as the message object, and
          passing along any other arguments or keywords as additional
          arguments.  If 'content_manager' is not specified, use the
          ‘content_manager’ specified by the current *note policy: 52.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_content (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          Call the *note set_content(): 3d31. method of the
          'content_manager', passing self as the message object, and
          passing along any other arguments or keywords as additional
          arguments.  If 'content_manager' is not specified, use the
          ‘content_manager’ specified by the current *note policy: 52.

      -- Μέθοδος: make_related (boundary=None)

          Convert a non-‘multipart’ message into a ‘multipart/related’
          message, moving any existing ‘Content-’ headers and payload
          into a (new) first part of the ‘multipart’.  If 'boundary' is
          specified, use it as the boundary string in the multipart,
          otherwise leave the boundary to be automatically created when
          it is needed (for example, when the message is serialized).

      -- Μέθοδος: make_alternative (boundary=None)

          Convert a non-‘multipart’ or a ‘multipart/related’ into a
          ‘multipart/alternative’, moving any existing ‘Content-’
          headers and payload into a (new) first part of the
          ‘multipart’.  If 'boundary' is specified, use it as the
          boundary string in the multipart, otherwise leave the boundary
          to be automatically created when it is needed (for example,
          when the message is serialized).

      -- Μέθοδος: make_mixed (boundary=None)

          Convert a non-‘multipart’, a ‘multipart/related’, or a
          ‘multipart-alternative’ into a ‘multipart/mixed’, moving any
          existing ‘Content-’ headers and payload into a (new) first
          part of the ‘multipart’.  If 'boundary' is specified, use it
          as the boundary string in the multipart, otherwise leave the
          boundary to be automatically created when it is needed (for
          example, when the message is serialized).

      -- Μέθοδος: add_related (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          If the message is a ‘multipart/related’, create a new message
          object, pass all of the arguments to its *note set_content():
          1e54. method, and *note attach(): 3d36. it to the ‘multipart’.
          If the message is a non-‘multipart’, call *note
          make_related(): 3d32. and then proceed as above.  If the
          message is any other type of ‘multipart’, raise a *note
          TypeError: 291.  If 'content_manager' is not specified, use
          the ‘content_manager’ specified by the current *note policy:
          52.  If the added part has no ‘Content-Disposition’ header,
          add one with the value ‘inline’.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_alternative (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          If the message is a ‘multipart/alternative’, create a new
          message object, pass all of the arguments to its *note
          set_content(): 1e54. method, and *note attach(): 3d36. it to
          the ‘multipart’.  If the message is a non-‘multipart’ or
          ‘multipart/related’, call *note make_alternative(): 3d33. and
          then proceed as above.  If the message is any other type of
          ‘multipart’, raise a *note TypeError: 291.  If
          'content_manager' is not specified, use the ‘content_manager’
          specified by the current *note policy: 52.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_attachment (*args, content_manager=None, **kw)

          If the message is a ‘multipart/mixed’, create a new message
          object, pass all of the arguments to its *note set_content():
          1e54. method, and *note attach(): 3d36. it to the ‘multipart’.
          If the message is a non-‘multipart’, ‘multipart/related’, or
          ‘multipart/alternative’, call *note make_mixed(): 3d34. and
          then proceed as above.  If 'content_manager' is not specified,
          use the ‘content_manager’ specified by the current *note
          policy: 52.  If the added part has no ‘Content-Disposition’
          header, add one with the value ‘attachment’.  This method can
          be used both for explicit attachments (‘Content-Disposition:
          attachment’) and ‘inline’ attachments (‘Content-Disposition:
          inline’), by passing appropriate options to the
          ‘content_manager’.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear ()

          Remove the payload and all of the headers.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear_content ()

          Remove the payload and all of the ‘!Content-’ headers, leaving
          all other headers intact and in their original order.

     ‘EmailMessage’ objects have the following instance attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: preamble

          The format of a MIME document allows for some text between the
          blank line following the headers, and the first multipart
          boundary string.  Normally, this text is never visible in a
          MIME-aware mail reader because it falls outside the standard
          MIME armor.  However, when viewing the raw text of the
          message, or when viewing the message in a non-MIME aware
          reader, this text can become visible.

          The 'preamble' attribute contains this leading extra-armor
          text for MIME documents.  When the *note Parser: 1546.
          discovers some text after the headers but before the first
          boundary string, it assigns this text to the message’s
          'preamble' attribute.  When the *note Generator: 1577. is
          writing out the plain text representation of a MIME message,
          and it finds the message has a 'preamble' attribute, it will
          write this text in the area between the headers and the first
          boundary.  See *note email.parser: 51. and *note
          email.generator: 43. for details.

          Note that if the message object has no preamble, the
          'preamble' attribute will be ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: epilogue

          The 'epilogue' attribute acts the same way as the 'preamble'
          attribute, except that it contains text that appears between
          the last boundary and the end of the message.  As with the
          *note preamble: 3d3b, if there is no epilog text this
          attribute will be ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: defects

          The 'defects' attribute contains a list of all the problems
          found when parsing this message.  See *note email.errors: 42.
          for a detailed description of the possible parsing defects.

 -- Κλάση: email.message.MIMEPart (policy=default)

     This class represents a subpart of a MIME message.  It is identical
     to *note EmailMessage: 216, except that no ‘MIME-Version’ headers
     are added when *note set_content(): 1e54. is called, since
     sub-parts do not need their own ‘MIME-Version’ headers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email/message.py

   (2) Originally added in 3.4 as a *note provisional module: 13ea.
Docs for legacy message class moved to *note email.message.Message;
Representing an email message using the compat32 API: 3d02.

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (6) The *note EmailMessage: 216. class requires a policy that
provides a ‘content_manager’ attribute for content management methods
like ‘set_content()’ and ‘get_content()’ to work.  The legacy *note
compat32: 105a. policy does not support these methods and should not be
used with ‘EmailMessage’.

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html


File: python.info,  Node: email parser Parsing email messages,  Next: email generator Generating MIME documents,  Prev: email message Representing an email message,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.2 ‘email.parser’: Parsing email messages
...............................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/parser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Message object structures can be created in one of two ways: they can be
created from whole cloth by creating an *note EmailMessage: 216. object,
adding headers using the dictionary interface, and adding payload(s)
using *note set_content(): 1e54. and related methods, or they can be
created by parsing a serialized representation of the email message.

The *note email: 3e. package provides a standard parser that understands
most email document structures, including MIME documents.  You can pass
the parser a bytes, string or file object, and the parser will return to
you the root *note EmailMessage: 216. instance of the object structure.
For simple, non-MIME messages the payload of this root object will
likely be a string containing the text of the message.  For MIME
messages, the root object will return ‘True’ from its *note
is_multipart(): 3d08. method, and the subparts can be accessed via the
payload manipulation methods, such as *note get_body(): 3d2c, *note
iter_parts(): 3d2e, and *note walk(): 3d2b.

There are actually two parser interfaces available for use, the *note
Parser: 1546. API and the incremental *note FeedParser: 19a9. API. The
‘Parser’ API is most useful if you have the entire text of the message
in memory, or if the entire message lives in a file on the file system.
‘FeedParser’ is more appropriate when you are reading the message from a
stream which might block waiting for more input (such as reading an
email message from a socket).  The ‘FeedParser’ can consume and parse
the message incrementally, and only returns the root object when you
close the parser.

Note that the parser can be extended in limited ways, and of course you
can implement your own parser completely from scratch.  All of the logic
that connects the *note email: 3e. package’s bundled parser and the
*note EmailMessage: 216. class is embodied in the *note Policy: 1460.
class, so a custom parser can create message object trees any way it
finds necessary by implementing custom versions of the appropriate
‘Policy’ methods.

* Menu:

* FeedParser API::
* Parser API::
* Additional notes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email/parser.py


File: python.info,  Node: FeedParser API,  Next: Parser API,  Up: email parser Parsing email messages

5.21.1.3 FeedParser API
.......................

The *note BytesFeedParser: 1574, imported from the ‘email.feedparser’
module, provides an API that is conducive to incremental parsing of
email messages, such as would be necessary when reading the text of an
email message from a source that can block (such as a socket).  The
‘BytesFeedParser’ can of course be used to parse an email message fully
contained in a *note bytes-like object: 436, string, or file, but the
*note BytesParser: 1575. API may be more convenient for such use cases.
The semantics and results of the two parser APIs are identical.

The *note BytesFeedParser: 1574.’s API is simple; you create an
instance, feed it a bunch of bytes until there’s no more to feed it,
then close the parser to retrieve the root message object.  The
‘BytesFeedParser’ is extremely accurate when parsing standards-compliant
messages, and it does a very good job of parsing non-compliant messages,
providing information about how a message was deemed broken.  It will
populate a message object’s *note defects: 3d3d. attribute with a list
of any problems it found in a message.  See the *note email.errors: 42.
module for the list of defects that it can find.

Here is the API for the *note BytesFeedParser: 1574.:

 -- Κλάση: email.parser.BytesFeedParser (_factory=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Create a ‘BytesFeedParser’ instance.  Optional '_factory' is a
     no-argument callable; if not specified use the *note
     message_factory: 1059. from the 'policy'.  Call '_factory' whenever
     a new message object is needed.

     If 'policy' is specified use the rules it specifies to update the
     representation of the message.  If 'policy' is not set, use the
     *note compat32: 1461. policy, which maintains backward
     compatibility with the Python 3.2 version of the email package and
     provides *note Message: 780. as the default factory.  All other
     policies provide *note EmailMessage: 216. as the default
     '_factory'.  For more information on what else 'policy' controls,
     see the *note policy: 52. documentation.

     Note: 'The policy keyword should always be specified'; The default
     will change to *note email.policy.default: 19ac. in a future
     version of Python.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'policy' keyword.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: '_factory' defaults to the policy
     ‘message_factory’.

      -- Μέθοδος: feed (data)

          Feed the parser some more data.  'data' should be a *note
          bytes-like object: 436. containing one or more lines.  The
          lines can be partial and the parser will stitch such partial
          lines together properly.  The lines can have any of the three
          common line endings: carriage return, newline, or carriage
          return and newline (they can even be mixed).

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Complete the parsing of all previously fed data and return the
          root message object.  It is undefined what happens if *note
          feed(): 3d42. is called after this method has been called.

 -- Κλάση: email.parser.FeedParser (_factory=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Works like *note BytesFeedParser: 1574. except that the input to
     the *note feed(): 3d42. method must be a string.  This is of
     limited utility, since the only way for such a message to be valid
     is for it to contain only ASCII text or, if *note utf8: 217. is
     ‘True’, no binary attachments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'policy' keyword.


File: python.info,  Node: Parser API,  Next: Additional notes,  Prev: FeedParser API,  Up: email parser Parsing email messages

5.21.1.4 Parser API
...................

The *note BytesParser: 1575. class, imported from the ‘email.parser’
module, provides an API that can be used to parse a message when the
complete contents of the message are available in a *note bytes-like
object: 436. or file.  The ‘email.parser’ module also provides *note
Parser: 1546. for parsing strings, and header-only parsers, *note
BytesHeaderParser: 1468. and *note HeaderParser: 1469, which can be used
if you’re only interested in the headers of the message.
‘BytesHeaderParser’ and ‘HeaderParser’ can be much faster in these
situations, since they do not attempt to parse the message body, instead
setting the payload to the raw body.

 -- Κλάση: email.parser.BytesParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Create a ‘BytesParser’ instance.  The '_class' and 'policy'
     arguments have the same meaning and semantics as the '_factory' and
     'policy' arguments of *note BytesFeedParser: 1574.

     Note: 'The policy keyword should always be specified'; The default
     will change to *note email.policy.default: 19ac. in a future
     version of Python.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Removed the 'strict' argument that was
     deprecated in 2.4.  Added the 'policy' keyword.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: '_class' defaults to the policy
     ‘message_factory’.

      -- Μέθοδος: parse (fp, headersonly=False)

          Read all the data from the binary file-like object 'fp', parse
          the resulting bytes, and return the message object.  'fp' must
          support both the *note readline(): 16ce. and the *note read():
          16cd. methods.

          The bytes contained in 'fp' must be formatted as a block of
          RFC 5322(1) (or, if *note utf8: 217. is ‘True’, RFC 6532(2))
          style headers and header continuation lines, optionally
          preceded by an envelope header.  The header block is
          terminated either by the end of the data or by a blank line.
          Following the header block is the body of the message (which
          may contain MIME-encoded subparts, including subparts with a
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of ‘8bit’).

          Optional 'headersonly' is a flag specifying whether to stop
          parsing after reading the headers or not.  The default is
          ‘False’, meaning it parses the entire contents of the file.

      -- Μέθοδος: parsebytes (bytes, headersonly=False)

          Similar to the *note parse(): 3d45. method, except it takes a
          *note bytes-like object: 436. instead of a file-like object.
          Calling this method on a bytes-like object is equivalent to
          wrapping 'bytes' in a *note BytesIO: 1255. instance first and
          calling ‘parse()’.

          Optional 'headersonly' is as with the *note parse(): 3d45.
          method.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Κλάση: email.parser.BytesHeaderParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Exactly like *note BytesParser: 1575, except that 'headersonly'
     defaults to ‘True’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Κλάση: email.parser.Parser (_class=None, *, policy=policy.compat32)

     This class is parallel to *note BytesParser: 1575, but handles
     string input.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the
     'policy' keyword.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: '_class' defaults to the policy
     ‘message_factory’.

      -- Μέθοδος: parse (fp, headersonly=False)

          Read all the data from the text-mode file-like object 'fp',
          parse the resulting text, and return the root message object.
          'fp' must support both the *note readline(): 2296. and the
          *note read(): 225b. methods on file-like objects.

          Other than the text mode requirement, this method operates
          like *note BytesParser.parse(): 3d45.

      -- Μέθοδος: parsestr (text, headersonly=False)

          Similar to the *note parse(): 3d47. method, except it takes a
          string object instead of a file-like object.  Calling this
          method on a string is equivalent to wrapping 'text' in a *note
          StringIO: 12d4. instance first and calling ‘parse()’.

          Optional 'headersonly' is as with the *note parse(): 3d47.
          method.

 -- Κλάση: email.parser.HeaderParser (_class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Exactly like *note Parser: 1546, except that 'headersonly' defaults
     to ‘True’.

Since creating a message object structure from a string or a file object
is such a common task, four functions are provided as a convenience.
They are available in the top-level *note email: 3e. package namespace.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.message_from_bytes (s, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Return a message object structure from a *note bytes-like object:
     436.  This is equivalent to ‘BytesParser().parsebytes(s)’.
     Optional '_class' and 'policy' are interpreted as with the *note
     BytesParser: 1575. class constructor.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the
     'policy' keyword.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.message_from_binary_file (fp, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Return a message object structure tree from an open binary *note
     file object: 156c.  This is equivalent to
     ‘BytesParser().parse(fp)’.  '_class' and 'policy' are interpreted
     as with the *note BytesParser: 1575. class constructor.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the
     'policy' keyword.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.message_from_string (s, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Return a message object structure from a string.  This is
     equivalent to ‘Parser().parsestr(s)’.  '_class' and 'policy' are
     interpreted as with the *note Parser: 1546. class constructor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the
     'policy' keyword.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.message_from_file (fp, _class=None, *,
          policy=policy.compat32)

     Return a message object structure tree from an open *note file
     object: 156c.  This is equivalent to ‘Parser().parse(fp)’.
     '_class' and 'policy' are interpreted as with the *note Parser:
     1546. class constructor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Removed the 'strict' argument.  Added the
     'policy' keyword.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: '_class' defaults to the policy
     ‘message_factory’.

Here’s an example of how you might use *note message_from_bytes(): 1572.
at an interactive Python prompt:

     >>> import email
     >>> msg = email.message_from_bytes(myBytes)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html


File: python.info,  Node: Additional notes,  Prev: Parser API,  Up: email parser Parsing email messages

5.21.1.5 Additional notes
.........................

Here are some notes on the parsing semantics:

   * Most non-‘multipart’ type messages are parsed as a single message
     object with a string payload.  These objects will return ‘False’
     for *note is_multipart(): 3d08, and *note iter_parts(): 3d2e. will
     yield an empty list.

   * All ‘multipart’ type messages will be parsed as a container message
     object with a list of sub-message objects for their payload.  The
     outer container message will return ‘True’ for *note
     is_multipart(): 3d08, and *note iter_parts(): 3d2e. will yield a
     list of subparts.

   * Most messages with a content type of ‘message/*’ (such as
     ‘message/delivery-status’ and ‘message/rfc822’) will also be parsed
     as container object containing a list payload of length 1.  Their
     *note is_multipart(): 3d08. method will return ‘True’.  The single
     element yielded by *note iter_parts(): 3d2e. will be a sub-message
     object.

   * Some non-standards-compliant messages may not be internally
     consistent about their ‘multipart’-edness.  Such messages may have
     a ‘Content-Type’ header of type ‘multipart’, but their *note
     is_multipart(): 3d08. method may return ‘False’.  If such messages
     were parsed with the *note FeedParser: 19a9, they will have an
     instance of the *note MultipartInvariantViolationDefect: 3d4c.
     class in their 'defects' attribute list.  See *note email.errors:
     42. for details.


File: python.info,  Node: email generator Generating MIME documents,  Next: email policy Policy Objects,  Prev: email parser Parsing email messages,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.6 ‘email.generator’: Generating MIME documents
.....................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/generator.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

One of the most common tasks is to generate the flat (serialized)
version of the email message represented by a message object structure.
You will need to do this if you want to send your message via *note
smtplib.SMTP.sendmail(): 120a, or print the message on the console.
Taking a message object structure and producing a serialized
representation is the job of the generator classes.

As with the *note email.parser: 51. module, you aren’t limited to the
functionality of the bundled generator; you could write one from scratch
yourself.  However the bundled generator knows how to generate most
email in a standards-compliant way, should handle MIME and non-MIME
email messages just fine, and is designed so that the bytes-oriented
parsing and generation operations are inverses, assuming the same
non-transforming *note policy: 52. is used for both.  That is, parsing
the serialized byte stream via the *note BytesParser: 1575. class and
then regenerating the serialized byte stream using *note BytesGenerator:
1578. should produce output identical to the input (2).  (On the other
hand, using the generator on an *note EmailMessage: 216. constructed by
program may result in changes to the ‘EmailMessage’ object as defaults
are filled in.)

The *note Generator: 1577. class can be used to flatten a message into a
text (as opposed to binary) serialized representation, but since Unicode
cannot represent binary data directly, the message is of necessity
transformed into something that contains only ASCII characters, using
the standard email RFC Content Transfer Encoding techniques for encoding
email messages for transport over channels that are not «8 bit clean».

To accommodate reproducible processing of SMIME-signed messages *note
Generator: 1577. disables header folding for message parts of type
‘multipart/signed’ and all subparts.

 -- Κλάση: email.generator.BytesGenerator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, *, policy=None)

     Return a ‘BytesGenerator’ object that will write any message
     provided to the *note flatten(): 3d51. method, or any
     surrogateescape encoded text provided to the *note write(): 3d52.
     method, to the *note file-like object: 19b1. 'outfp'.  'outfp' must
     support a ‘write’ method that accepts binary data.

     If optional 'mangle_from_' is ‘True’, put a ‘>’ character in front
     of any line in the body that starts with the exact string ‘"From
     "’, that is ‘From’ followed by a space at the beginning of a line.
     'mangle_from_' defaults to the value of the *note mangle_from_:
     11af. setting of the 'policy' (which is ‘True’ for the *note
     compat32: 105a. policy and ‘False’ for all others).  'mangle_from_'
     is intended for use when messages are stored in Unix mbox format
     (see *note mailbox: 8e. and WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS
     BAD(3)).

     If 'maxheaderlen' is not ‘None’, refold any header lines that are
     longer than 'maxheaderlen', or if ‘0’, do not rewrap any headers.
     If 'manheaderlen' is ‘None’ (the default), wrap headers and other
     message lines according to the 'policy' settings.

     If 'policy' is specified, use that policy to control message
     generation.  If 'policy' is ‘None’ (the default), use the policy
     associated with the *note Message: 780. or *note EmailMessage: 216.
     object passed to ‘flatten’ to control the message generation.  See
     *note email.policy: 52. for details on what 'policy' controls.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'policy' keyword.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The default behavior of the 'mangle_from_'
     and 'maxheaderlen' parameters is to follow the policy.

      -- Μέθοδος: flatten (msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)

          Print the textual representation of the message object
          structure rooted at 'msg' to the output file specified when
          the ‘BytesGenerator’ instance was created.

          If the *note policy: 52. option *note cte_type: 3d53. is
          ‘8bit’ (the default), copy any headers in the original parsed
          message that have not been modified to the output with any
          bytes with the high bit set reproduced as in the original, and
          preserve the non-ASCII ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of any body
          parts that have them.  If ‘cte_type’ is ‘7bit’, convert the
          bytes with the high bit set as needed using an
          ASCII-compatible ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.  That is,
          transform parts with non-ASCII ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’
          (‘Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit’) to an ASCII compatible
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’, and encode RFC-invalid non-ASCII
          bytes in headers using the MIME ‘unknown-8bit’ character set,
          thus rendering them RFC-compliant.

          If 'unixfrom' is ‘True’, print the envelope header delimiter
          used by the Unix mailbox format (see *note mailbox: 8e.)
          before the first of the RFC 5322(4) headers of the root
          message object.  If the root object has no envelope header,
          craft a standard one.  The default is ‘False’.  Note that for
          subparts, no envelope header is ever printed.

          If 'linesep' is not ‘None’, use it as the separator character
          between all the lines of the flattened message.  If 'linesep'
          is ‘None’ (the default), use the value specified in the
          'policy'.

      -- Μέθοδος: clone (fp)

          Return an independent clone of this ‘BytesGenerator’ instance
          with the exact same option settings, and 'fp' as the new
          'outfp'.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (s)

          Encode 's' using the ‘ASCII’ codec and the ‘surrogateescape’
          error handler, and pass it to the 'write' method of the
          'outfp' passed to the ‘BytesGenerator’’s constructor.

As a convenience, *note EmailMessage: 216. provides the methods *note
as_bytes(): 3d06. and ‘bytes(aMessage)’ (a.k.a.  *note __bytes__():
3d07.), which simplify the generation of a serialized binary
representation of a message object.  For more detail, see *note
email.message: 47.

Because strings cannot represent binary data, the *note Generator: 1577.
class must convert any binary data in any message it flattens to an
ASCII compatible format, by converting them to an ASCII compatible
‘Content-Transfer_Encoding’.  Using the terminology of the email RFCs,
you can think of this as ‘Generator’ serializing to an I/O stream that
is not «8 bit clean».  In other words, most applications will want to be
using *note BytesGenerator: 1578, and not ‘Generator’.

 -- Κλάση: email.generator.Generator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, *, policy=None)

     Return a ‘Generator’ object that will write any message provided to
     the *note flatten(): 3d55. method, or any text provided to the
     *note write(): 3d56. method, to the *note file-like object: 19b1.
     'outfp'.  'outfp' must support a ‘write’ method that accepts string
     data.

     If optional 'mangle_from_' is ‘True’, put a ‘>’ character in front
     of any line in the body that starts with the exact string ‘"From
     "’, that is ‘From’ followed by a space at the beginning of a line.
     'mangle_from_' defaults to the value of the *note mangle_from_:
     11af. setting of the 'policy' (which is ‘True’ for the *note
     compat32: 105a. policy and ‘False’ for all others).  'mangle_from_'
     is intended for use when messages are stored in Unix mbox format
     (see *note mailbox: 8e. and WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS
     BAD(5)).

     If 'maxheaderlen' is not ‘None’, refold any header lines that are
     longer than 'maxheaderlen', or if ‘0’, do not rewrap any headers.
     If 'manheaderlen' is ‘None’ (the default), wrap headers and other
     message lines according to the 'policy' settings.

     If 'policy' is specified, use that policy to control message
     generation.  If 'policy' is ‘None’ (the default), use the policy
     associated with the *note Message: 780. or *note EmailMessage: 216.
     object passed to ‘flatten’ to control the message generation.  See
     *note email.policy: 52. for details on what 'policy' controls.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'policy' keyword.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The default behavior of the 'mangle_from_'
     and 'maxheaderlen' parameters is to follow the policy.

      -- Μέθοδος: flatten (msg, unixfrom=False, linesep=None)

          Print the textual representation of the message object
          structure rooted at 'msg' to the output file specified when
          the ‘Generator’ instance was created.

          If the *note policy: 52. option *note cte_type: 3d53. is
          ‘8bit’, generate the message as if the option were set to
          ‘7bit’.  (This is required because strings cannot represent
          non-ASCII bytes.)  Convert any bytes with the high bit set as
          needed using an ASCII-compatible ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.
          That is, transform parts with non-ASCII
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ (‘Content-Transfer-Encoding:
          8bit’) to an ASCII compatible ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’, and
          encode RFC-invalid non-ASCII bytes in headers using the MIME
          ‘unknown-8bit’ character set, thus rendering them
          RFC-compliant.

          If 'unixfrom' is ‘True’, print the envelope header delimiter
          used by the Unix mailbox format (see *note mailbox: 8e.)
          before the first of the RFC 5322(6) headers of the root
          message object.  If the root object has no envelope header,
          craft a standard one.  The default is ‘False’.  Note that for
          subparts, no envelope header is ever printed.

          If 'linesep' is not ‘None’, use it as the separator character
          between all the lines of the flattened message.  If 'linesep'
          is ‘None’ (the default), use the value specified in the
          'policy'.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added support for re-encoding ‘8bit’
          message bodies, and the 'linesep' argument.

      -- Μέθοδος: clone (fp)

          Return an independent clone of this ‘Generator’ instance with
          the exact same options, and 'fp' as the new 'outfp'.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (s)

          Write 's' to the 'write' method of the 'outfp' passed to the
          ‘Generator’’s constructor.  This provides just enough
          file-like API for ‘Generator’ instances to be used in the
          *note print(): 131f. function.

As a convenience, *note EmailMessage: 216. provides the methods *note
as_string(): 3d03. and ‘str(aMessage)’ (a.k.a.  *note __str__(): 3d05.),
which simplify the generation of a formatted string representation of a
message object.  For more detail, see *note email.message: 47.

The ‘email.generator’ module also provides a derived class, *note
DecodedGenerator: 1058, which is like the *note Generator: 1577. base
class, except that non-‘text’ parts are not serialized, but are instead
represented in the output stream by a string derived from a template
filled in with information about the part.

 -- Κλάση: email.generator.DecodedGenerator (outfp, mangle_from_=None,
          maxheaderlen=None, fmt=None, *, policy=None)

     Act like *note Generator: 1577, except that for any subpart of the
     message passed to *note Generator.flatten(): 3d55, if the subpart
     is of main type ‘text’, print the decoded payload of the subpart,
     and if the main type is not ‘text’, instead of printing it fill in
     the string 'fmt' using information from the part and print the
     resulting filled-in string.

     To fill in 'fmt', execute ‘fmt % part_info’, where ‘part_info’ is a
     dictionary composed of the following keys and values:

        * ‘type’ – Full MIME type of the non-‘text’ part

        * ‘maintype’ – Main MIME type of the non-‘text’ part

        * ‘subtype’ – Sub-MIME type of the non-‘text’ part

        * ‘filename’ – Filename of the non-‘text’ part

        * ‘description’ – Description associated with the non-‘text’
          part

        * ‘encoding’ – Content transfer encoding of the non-‘text’ part

     If 'fmt' is ‘None’, use the following default 'fmt':

          «[Non-text (%(type)s) part of message omitted, filename
          %(filename)s]»

     Optional '_mangle_from_' and 'maxheaderlen' are as with the *note
     Generator: 1577. base class.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email/generator.py

   (2) This statement assumes that you use the appropriate setting for
‘unixfrom’, and that there are no *note email.policy: 52. settings
calling for automatic adjustments (for example, *note refold_source:
3d50. must be ‘none’, which is 'not' the default).  It is also not 100%
true, since if the message does not conform to the RFC standards
occasionally information about the exact original text is lost during
parsing error recovery.  It is a goal to fix these latter edge cases
when possible.

   (3) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (5) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email policy Policy Objects,  Next: email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων,  Prev: email generator Generating MIME documents,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.7 ‘email.policy’: Policy Objects
.......................................

Added in version 3.3.

'Source code:' Lib/email/policy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note email: 3e. package’s prime focus is the handling of email
messages as described by the various email and MIME RFCs.  However, the
general format of email messages (a block of header fields each
consisting of a name followed by a colon followed by a value, the whole
block followed by a blank line and an arbitrary “body”), is a format
that has found utility outside of the realm of email.  Some of these
uses conform fairly closely to the main email RFCs, some do not.  Even
when working with email, there are times when it is desirable to break
strict compliance with the RFCs, such as generating emails that
interoperate with email servers that do not themselves follow the
standards, or that implement extensions you want to use in ways that
violate the standards.

Policy objects give the email package the flexibility to handle all
these disparate use cases.

A *note Policy: 1460. object encapsulates a set of attributes and
methods that control the behavior of various components of the email
package during use.  ‘Policy’ instances can be passed to various classes
and methods in the email package to alter the default behavior.  The
settable values and their defaults are described below.

There is a default policy used by all classes in the email package.  For
all of the *note parser: 51. classes and the related convenience
functions, and for the *note Message: 780. class, this is the *note
Compat32: 1461. policy, via its corresponding pre-defined instance *note
compat32: 105a.  This policy provides for complete backward
compatibility (in some cases, including bug compatibility) with the
pre-Python3.3 version of the email package.

This default value for the 'policy' keyword to *note EmailMessage: 216.
is the *note EmailPolicy: 1464. policy, via its pre-defined instance
*note default: 19ac.

When a *note Message: 780. or *note EmailMessage: 216. object is
created, it acquires a policy.  If the message is created by a *note
parser: 51, a policy passed to the parser will be the policy used by the
message it creates.  If the message is created by the program, then the
policy can be specified when it is created.  When a message is passed to
a *note generator: 43, the generator uses the policy from the message by
default, but you can also pass a specific policy to the generator that
will override the one stored on the message object.

The default value for the 'policy' keyword for the *note email.parser:
51. classes and the parser convenience functions 'will be changing' in a
future version of Python.  Therefore you should 'always specify
explicitly which policy you want to use' when calling any of the classes
and functions described in the ‘parser’ module.

The first part of this documentation covers the features of *note
Policy: 1460, an *note abstract base class: 155f. that defines the
features that are common to all policy objects, including *note
compat32: 105a.  This includes certain hook methods that are called
internally by the email package, which a custom policy could override to
obtain different behavior.  The second part describes the concrete
classes *note EmailPolicy: 1464. and *note Compat32: 1461, which
implement the hooks that provide the standard behavior and the backward
compatible behavior and features, respectively.

*note Policy: 1460. instances are immutable, but they can be cloned,
accepting the same keyword arguments as the class constructor and
returning a new ‘Policy’ instance that is a copy of the original but
with the specified attributes values changed.

As an example, the following code could be used to read an email message
from a file on disk and pass it to the system ‘sendmail’ program on a
Unix system:

     >>> from email import message_from_binary_file
     >>> from email.generator import BytesGenerator
     >>> from email import policy
     >>> from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
     >>> with open('mymsg.txt', 'rb') as f:
     ...     msg = message_from_binary_file(f, policy=policy.default)
     ...
     >>> p = Popen(['sendmail', msg['To'].addresses[0]], stdin=PIPE)
     >>> g = BytesGenerator(p.stdin, policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep='\r\n'))
     >>> g.flatten(msg)
     >>> p.stdin.close()
     >>> rc = p.wait()

Here we are telling *note BytesGenerator: 1578. to use the RFC correct
line separator characters when creating the binary string to feed into
‘sendmail's’ ‘stdin’, where the default policy would use ‘\n’ line
separators.

Some email package methods accept a 'policy' keyword argument, allowing
the policy to be overridden for that method.  For example, the following
code uses the *note as_bytes(): 12e2. method of the 'msg' object from
the previous example and writes the message to a file using the native
line separators for the platform on which it is running:

     >>> import os
     >>> with open('converted.txt', 'wb') as f:
     ...     f.write(msg.as_bytes(policy=msg.policy.clone(linesep=os.linesep)))
     17

Policy objects can also be combined using the addition operator,
producing a policy object whose settings are a combination of the
non-default values of the summed objects:

     >>> compat_SMTP = policy.compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')
     >>> compat_strict = policy.compat32.clone(raise_on_defect=True)
     >>> compat_strict_SMTP = compat_SMTP + compat_strict

This operation is not commutative; that is, the order in which the
objects are added matters.  To illustrate:

     >>> policy100 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=100)
     >>> policy80 = policy.compat32.clone(max_line_length=80)
     >>> apolicy = policy100 + policy80
     >>> apolicy.max_line_length
     80
     >>> apolicy = policy80 + policy100
     >>> apolicy.max_line_length
     100

 -- Κλάση: email.policy.Policy (**kw)

     This is the *note abstract base class: 155f. for all policy
     classes.  It provides default implementations for a couple of
     trivial methods, as well as the implementation of the immutability
     property, the *note clone(): 1462. method, and the constructor
     semantics.

     The constructor of a policy class can be passed various keyword
     arguments.  The arguments that may be specified are any non-method
     properties on this class, plus any additional non-method properties
     on the concrete class.  A value specified in the constructor will
     override the default value for the corresponding attribute.

     This class defines the following properties, and thus values for
     the following may be passed in the constructor of any policy class:

      -- Ιδιότητα: max_line_length

          The maximum length of any line in the serialized output, not
          counting the end of line character(s).  Default is 78, per RFC
          5322(2).  A value of ‘0’ or *note None: a65. indicates that no
          line wrapping should be done at all.

      -- Ιδιότητα: linesep

          The string to be used to terminate lines in serialized output.
          The default is ‘\n’ because that’s the internal end-of-line
          discipline used by Python, though ‘\r\n’ is required by the
          RFCs.

      -- Ιδιότητα: cte_type

          Controls the type of Content Transfer Encodings that may be or
          are required to be used.  The possible values are:

          ‘7bit’       all data must be «7 bit clean» (ASCII-only).  This means that
                       where necessary data will be encoded using either
                       quoted-printable or base64 encoding.
                       
                       
          ‘8bit’       data is not constrained to be 7 bit clean.  Data in headers is
                       still required to be ASCII-only and so will be encoded (see
                       *note fold_binary(): 3d5c. and *note utf8: 217. below for
                       exceptions), but body parts may use the ‘8bit’ CTE.
                       

          A ‘cte_type’ value of ‘8bit’ only works with ‘BytesGenerator’,
          not ‘Generator’, because strings cannot contain binary data.
          If a ‘Generator’ is operating under a policy that specifies
          ‘cte_type=8bit’, it will act as if ‘cte_type’ is ‘7bit’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: raise_on_defect

          If *note True: fcc, any defects encountered will be raised as
          errors.  If *note False: ef5. (the default), defects will be
          passed to the *note register_defect(): 3d5e. method.

      -- Ιδιότητα: mangle_from_

          If *note True: fcc, lines starting with '«From «' in the body
          are escaped by putting a ‘>’ in front of them.  This parameter
          is used when the message is being serialized by a generator.
          Default: *note False: ef5.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Ιδιότητα: message_factory

          A factory function for constructing a new empty message
          object.  Used by the parser when building messages.  Defaults
          to ‘None’, in which case *note Message: 780. is used.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Ιδιότητα: verify_generated_headers

          If ‘True’ (the default), the generator will raise *note
          HeaderWriteError: 1910. instead of writing a header that is
          improperly folded or delimited, such that it would be parsed
          as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data.  Such
          headers can be generated by custom header classes or bugs in
          the ‘email’ module.

          As it’s a security feature, this defaults to ‘True’ even in
          the *note Compat32: 1461. policy.  For backwards compatible,
          but unsafe, behavior, it must be set to ‘False’ explicitly.

          Added in version 3.13.

     The following ‘Policy’ method is intended to be called by code
     using the email library to create policy instances with custom
     settings:

      -- Μέθοδος: clone (**kw)

          Return a new ‘Policy’ instance whose attributes have the same
          values as the current instance, except where those attributes
          are given new values by the keyword arguments.

     The remaining ‘Policy’ methods are called by the email package
     code, and are not intended to be called by an application using the
     email package.  A custom policy must implement all of these
     methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: handle_defect (obj, defect)

          Handle a 'defect' found on 'obj'.  When the email package
          calls this method, 'defect' will always be a subclass of *note
          MessageDefect: 3d60.

          The default implementation checks the *note raise_on_defect:
          3d5d. flag.  If it is ‘True’, 'defect' is raised as an
          exception.  If it is ‘False’ (the default), 'obj' and 'defect'
          are passed to *note register_defect(): 3d5e.

      -- Μέθοδος: register_defect (obj, defect)

          Register a 'defect' on 'obj'.  In the email package, 'defect'
          will always be a subclass of *note MessageDefect: 3d60.

          The default implementation calls the ‘append’ method of the
          ‘defects’ attribute of 'obj'.  When the email package calls
          *note handle_defect: 3d5f, 'obj' will normally have a
          ‘defects’ attribute that has an ‘append’ method.  Custom
          object types used with the email package (for example, custom
          ‘Message’ objects) should also provide such an attribute,
          otherwise defects in parsed messages will raise unexpected
          errors.

      -- Μέθοδος: header_max_count (name)

          Return the maximum allowed number of headers named 'name'.

          Called when a header is added to an *note EmailMessage: 216.
          or *note Message: 780. object.  If the returned value is not
          ‘0’ or ‘None’, and there are already a number of headers with
          the name 'name' greater than or equal to the value returned, a
          *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

          Because the default behavior of ‘Message.__setitem__’ is to
          append the value to the list of headers, it is easy to create
          duplicate headers without realizing it.  This method allows
          certain headers to be limited in the number of instances of
          that header that may be added to a ‘Message’ programmatically.
          (The limit is not observed by the parser, which will
          faithfully produce as many headers as exist in the message
          being parsed.)

          The default implementation returns ‘None’ for all header
          names.

      -- Μέθοδος: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          The email package calls this method with a list of strings,
          each string ending with the line separation characters found
          in the source being parsed.  The first line includes the field
          header name and separator.  All whitespace in the source is
          preserved.  The method should return the ‘(name, value)’ tuple
          that is to be stored in the ‘Message’ to represent the parsed
          header.

          If an implementation wishes to retain compatibility with the
          existing email package policies, 'name' should be the case
          preserved name (all characters up to the “‘:’” separator),
          while 'value' should be the unfolded value (all line separator
          characters removed, but whitespace kept intact), stripped of
          leading whitespace.

          'sourcelines' may contain surrogateescaped binary data.

          There is no default implementation

      -- Μέθοδος: header_store_parse (name, value)

          The email package calls this method with the name and value
          provided by the application program when the application
          program is modifying a ‘Message’ programmatically (as opposed
          to a ‘Message’ created by a parser).  The method should return
          the ‘(name, value)’ tuple that is to be stored in the
          ‘Message’ to represent the header.

          If an implementation wishes to retain compatibility with the
          existing email package policies, the 'name' and 'value' should
          be strings or string subclasses that do not change the content
          of the passed in arguments.

          There is no default implementation

      -- Μέθοδος: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          The email package calls this method with the 'name' and
          'value' currently stored in the ‘Message’ when that header is
          requested by the application program, and whatever the method
          returns is what is passed back to the application as the value
          of the header being retrieved.  Note that there may be more
          than one header with the same name stored in the ‘Message’;
          the method is passed the specific name and value of the header
          destined to be returned to the application.

          'value' may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  There
          should be no surrogateescaped binary data in the value
          returned by the method.

          There is no default implementation

      -- Μέθοδος: fold (name, value)

          The email package calls this method with the 'name' and
          'value' currently stored in the ‘Message’ for a given header.
          The method should return a string that represents that header
          «folded» correctly (according to the policy settings) by
          composing the 'name' with the 'value' and inserting *note
          linesep: 3d5b. characters at the appropriate places.  See RFC
          5322(3) for a discussion of the rules for folding email
          headers.

          'value' may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  There
          should be no surrogateescaped binary data in the string
          returned by the method.

      -- Μέθοδος: fold_binary (name, value)

          The same as *note fold(): 3d65, except that the returned value
          should be a bytes object rather than a string.

          'value' may contain surrogateescaped binary data.  These could
          be converted back into binary data in the returned bytes
          object.

 -- Κλάση: email.policy.EmailPolicy (**kw)

     This concrete *note Policy: 1460. provides behavior that is
     intended to be fully compliant with the current email RFCs.  These
     include (but are not limited to) RFC 5322(4), RFC 2047(5), and the
     current MIME RFCs.

     This policy adds new header parsing and folding algorithms.
     Instead of simple strings, headers are ‘str’ subclasses with
     attributes that depend on the type of the field.  The parsing and
     folding algorithm fully implement RFC 2047(6) and RFC 5322(7).

     The default value for the *note message_factory: 1059. attribute is
     *note EmailMessage: 216.

     In addition to the settable attributes listed above that apply to
     all policies, this policy adds the following additional attributes:

     Added in version 3.6: (8)

      -- Ιδιότητα: utf8

          If ‘False’, follow RFC 5322(9), supporting non-ASCII
          characters in headers by encoding them as RFC 2047(10)
          «encoded words».  If ‘True’, follow RFC 6532(11) and use
          ‘utf-8’ encoding for headers.  Messages formatted in this way
          may be passed to SMTP servers that support the ‘SMTPUTF8’
          extension ( RFC 6531(12)).

          When ‘False’, the generator will raise *note HeaderWriteError:
          1910. if any header includes non-ASCII characters in a context
          where RFC 2047(13) does not permit encoded words.  This
          particularly applies to mailboxes («addr-spec») with non-ASCII
          characters, which can be created via *note Address: 1912.  To
          use a mailbox with a non-ASCII domain name with ‘utf8=False’,
          first encode the domain using the third-party idna(14) or
          uts46(15) module or with *note encodings.idna: 55.  It is not
          possible to use a non-ASCII username («local-part») in a
          mailbox when ‘utf8=False’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Can trigger the raising of *note
          HeaderWriteError: 1910.  (Earlier versions incorrectly applied
          RFC 2047(16) in certain contexts, mostly notably in
          addr-specs.)

      -- Ιδιότητα: refold_source

          If the value for a header in the ‘Message’ object originated
          from a *note parser: 51. (as opposed to being set by a
          program), this attribute indicates whether or not a generator
          should refold that value when transforming the message back
          into serialized form.  The possible values are:

          ‘none’       all source values use original folding
                       
                       
          ‘long’       source values that have any line that is longer than
                       ‘max_line_length’ will be refolded
                       
                       
          ‘all’        all values are refolded.
                       

          The default is ‘long’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: header_factory

          A callable that takes two arguments, ‘name’ and ‘value’, where
          ‘name’ is a header field name and ‘value’ is an unfolded
          header field value, and returns a string subclass that
          represents that header.  A default ‘header_factory’ (see *note
          headerregistry: 45.) is provided that supports custom parsing
          for the various address and date RFC 5322(17) header field
          types, and the major MIME header field stypes.  Support for
          additional custom parsing will be added in the future.

      -- Ιδιότητα: content_manager

          An object with at least two methods: get_content and
          set_content.  When the *note get_content(): 3d2f. or *note
          set_content(): 1e54. method of an *note EmailMessage: 216.
          object is called, it calls the corresponding method of this
          object, passing it the message object as its first argument,
          and any arguments or keywords that were passed to it as
          additional arguments.  By default ‘content_manager’ is set to
          *note raw_data_manager: 3d67.

          Added in version 3.4.

     The class provides the following concrete implementations of the
     abstract methods of *note Policy: 1460.:

      -- Μέθοδος: header_max_count (name)

          Returns the value of the *note max_count: 3d69. attribute of
          the specialized class used to represent the header with the
          given name.

      -- Μέθοδος: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          The name is parsed as everything up to the “‘:’” and returned
          unmodified.  The value is determined by stripping leading
          whitespace off the remainder of the first line, joining all
          subsequent lines together, and stripping any trailing carriage
          return or linefeed characters.

      -- Μέθοδος: header_store_parse (name, value)

          The name is returned unchanged.  If the input value has a
          ‘name’ attribute and it matches 'name' ignoring case, the
          value is returned unchanged.  Otherwise the 'name' and 'value'
          are passed to ‘header_factory’, and the resulting header
          object is returned as the value.  In this case a ‘ValueError’
          is raised if the input value contains CR or LF characters.

      -- Μέθοδος: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          If the value has a ‘name’ attribute, it is returned to
          unmodified.  Otherwise the 'name', and the 'value' with any CR
          or LF characters removed, are passed to the ‘header_factory’,
          and the resulting header object is returned.  Any
          surrogateescaped bytes get turned into the unicode
          unknown-character glyph.

      -- Μέθοδος: fold (name, value)

          Header folding is controlled by the *note refold_source: 3d50.
          policy setting.  A value is considered to be a “source value”
          if and only if it does not have a ‘name’ attribute (having a
          ‘name’ attribute means it is a header object of some sort).
          If a source value needs to be refolded according to the
          policy, it is converted into a header object by passing the
          'name' and the 'value' with any CR and LF characters removed
          to the ‘header_factory’.  Folding of a header object is done
          by calling its ‘fold’ method with the current policy.

          Source values are split into lines using *note splitlines():
          15fb.  If the value is not to be refolded, the lines are
          rejoined using the ‘linesep’ from the policy and returned.
          The exception is lines containing non-ascii binary data.  In
          that case the value is refolded regardless of the
          ‘refold_source’ setting, which causes the binary data to be
          CTE encoded using the ‘unknown-8bit’ charset.

      -- Μέθοδος: fold_binary (name, value)

          The same as *note fold(): 1bfb. if *note cte_type: 3d53. is
          ‘7bit’, except that the returned value is bytes.

          If *note cte_type: 3d53. is ‘8bit’, non-ASCII binary data is
          converted back into bytes.  Headers with binary data are not
          refolded, regardless of the ‘refold_header’ setting, since
          there is no way to know whether the binary data consists of
          single byte characters or multibyte characters.

The following instances of *note EmailPolicy: 1464. provide defaults
suitable for specific application domains.  Note that in the future the
behavior of these instances (in particular the ‘HTTP’ instance) may be
adjusted to conform even more closely to the RFCs relevant to their
domains.

 -- Δεδομένα: email.policy.default

     An instance of ‘EmailPolicy’ with all defaults unchanged.  This
     policy uses the standard Python ‘\n’ line endings rather than the
     RFC-correct ‘\r\n’.

 -- Δεδομένα: email.policy.SMTP

     Suitable for serializing messages in conformance with the email
     RFCs.  Like ‘default’, but with ‘linesep’ set to ‘\r\n’, which is
     RFC compliant.

 -- Δεδομένα: email.policy.SMTPUTF8

     The same as ‘SMTP’ except that *note utf8: 217. is ‘True’.  Useful
     for serializing messages to a message store without using encoded
     words in the headers.  Should only be used for SMTP transmission if
     the sender or recipient addresses have non-ASCII characters (the
     *note smtplib.SMTP.send_message(): 120b. method handles this
     automatically).

 -- Δεδομένα: email.policy.HTTP

     Suitable for serializing headers with for use in HTTP traffic.
     Like ‘SMTP’ except that ‘max_line_length’ is set to ‘None’
     (unlimited).

 -- Δεδομένα: email.policy.strict

     Convenience instance.  The same as ‘default’ except that
     ‘raise_on_defect’ is set to ‘True’.  This allows any policy to be
     made strict by writing:

          somepolicy + policy.strict

With all of these *note EmailPolicies: 1464, the effective API of the
email package is changed from the Python 3.2 API in the following ways:

   * Setting a header on a *note Message: 780. results in that header
     being parsed and a header object created.

   * Fetching a header value from a *note Message: 780. results in that
     header being parsed and a header object created and returned.

   * Any header object, or any header that is refolded due to the policy
     settings, is folded using an algorithm that fully implements the
     RFC folding algorithms, including knowing where encoded words are
     required and allowed.

From the application view, this means that any header obtained through
the *note EmailMessage: 216. is a header object with extra attributes,
whose string value is the fully decoded unicode value of the header.
Likewise, a header may be assigned a new value, or a new header created,
using a unicode string, and the policy will take care of converting the
unicode string into the correct RFC encoded form.

The header objects and their attributes are described in *note
headerregistry: 45.

 -- Κλάση: email.policy.Compat32 (**kw)

     This concrete *note Policy: 1460. is the backward compatibility
     policy.  It replicates the behavior of the email package in Python
     3.2.  The ‘policy’ module also defines an instance of this class,
     *note compat32: 105a, that is used as the default policy.  Thus the
     default behavior of the email package is to maintain compatibility
     with Python 3.2.

     The following attributes have values that are different from the
     *note Policy: 1460. default:

      -- Ιδιότητα: mangle_from_

          The default is ‘True’.

     The class provides the following concrete implementations of the
     abstract methods of *note Policy: 1460.:

      -- Μέθοδος: header_source_parse (sourcelines)

          The name is parsed as everything up to the “‘:’” and returned
          unmodified.  The value is determined by stripping leading
          whitespace off the remainder of the first line, joining all
          subsequent lines together, and stripping any trailing carriage
          return or linefeed characters.

      -- Μέθοδος: header_store_parse (name, value)

          The name and value are returned unmodified.

      -- Μέθοδος: header_fetch_parse (name, value)

          If the value contains binary data, it is converted into a
          *note Header: 1e55. object using the ‘unknown-8bit’ charset.
          Otherwise it is returned unmodified.

      -- Μέθοδος: fold (name, value)

          Headers are folded using the *note Header: 1e55. folding
          algorithm, which preserves existing line breaks in the value,
          and wraps each resulting line to the ‘max_line_length’.
          Non-ASCII binary data are CTE encoded using the ‘unknown-8bit’
          charset.

      -- Μέθοδος: fold_binary (name, value)

          Headers are folded using the *note Header: 1e55. folding
          algorithm, which preserves existing line breaks in the value,
          and wraps each resulting line to the ‘max_line_length’.  If
          ‘cte_type’ is ‘7bit’, non-ascii binary data is CTE encoded
          using the ‘unknown-8bit’ charset.  Otherwise the original
          source header is used, with its existing line breaks and any
          (RFC invalid) binary data it may contain.

 -- Δεδομένα: email.policy.compat32

     An instance of *note Compat32: 1461, providing backward
     compatibility with the behavior of the email package in Python 3.2.

          Σημείωση: The *note compat32: 105a. policy should not be used
          as a policy for *note EmailMessage: 216. objects, and should
          only be used to serialize messages that were created using the
          ‘compat32’ policy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email/policy.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (8) Originally added in 3.3 as a *note provisional feature: 13ea.

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (14) https://pypi.org/project/idna/

   (15) https://pypi.org/project/uts46/

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων,  Next: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects,  Prev: email policy Policy Objects,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.8 ‘email.errors’: Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων
...........................................................

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/email/errors.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The following exception classes are defined in the ‘email.errors’
module:

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.MessageError

     Αυτή είναι η βασική κλάση για όλες τις εξαιρέσεις που μπορεί να
     κάνει raise το module *note email: 3e.  Παράγεται από την τυπική
     κλάση *note Exception: d9e. και δεν ορίζει επιπλέον μεθόδους.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.MessageParseError

     Αυτή είναι η βασική κλάση για τις εξαιρέσεις που γίνονται raise από
     την κλάση *note Parser: 1546.  Κληρονομεί από την *note
     MessageError: 3d78.  Αυτή η κλάση χρησιμοποιείται επίσης εσωτερικά
     από τον αναλυτή που χρησιμοποιείται από το *note headerregistry:
     45.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.HeaderParseError

     Γίνεται raise κάτω από ορισμένες συνθήκες σφάλματος κατά την
     ανάλυση των κεφαλίδων RFC 5322(2) ενός μηνύματος, αυτή η κλάση
     προέρχεται από την *note MessageParseError: 3d79.  Η μέθοδος *note
     set_boundary(): 3d24. θα κάνει raise αυτό το σφάλμα αν ο τύπος
     περιεχομένου είναι άγνωστος όταν καλείται η μέθοδος.  Η *note
     Header: 1e55. μπορεί να κάνει raise αυτό το σφάλμα για ορισμένα
     σφάλματα αποκωδικοποίησης base64, καθώς και όταν επιχειρείται η
     δημιουργία μιας κεφαλίδας που φαίνεται να περιέχει ενσωματωμένη
     κεφαλίδα (δηλαδή υπάρχει μια γραμμή συνέχειας που δεν έχει
     προηγούμενο κενό διάστημα και μοιάζει με κεφαλίδα).

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.BoundaryError

     Έχει καταργηθεί και δεν χρησιμοποιείται πλέον.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.MultipartConversionError

     Γίνεται raise εάν η μέθοδος *note attach(): 3d36. καλείται σε ένα
     στιγμιότυπο μιας κλάσης που προέρχεται από τη *note
     MIMENonMultipart: 3d7c. (π.χ.  *note MIMEImage: 3d7d.).  Η *note
     MultipartConversionError: 3d7b. κληρονομεί ταυτόχρονα από την *note
     MessageError: 3d78. και την ενσωματωμένη *note TypeError: 291.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.HeaderWriteError

     Γίνεται raise όταν παρουσιάζεται σφάλμα όταν το *note generator:
     43. εξάγει κεφαλίδες.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.MessageDefect

     Αυτή είναι η βασική κλάση για όλα τα ελαττώματα που εντοπίζονται
     κατά την ανάλυση μηνυμάτων email.  Είναι παράγωγη της *note
     ValueError: 277.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.HeaderDefect

     Αυτή είναι η βασική κλάση για όλα τα ελαττώματα που εντοπίζονται
     κατά την ανάλυση των κεφαλίδων email.  Είναι παράγωγο της *note
     MessageDefect: 3d60.

Ακολουθεί η λίστα με τα ελαττώματα που μπορεί να εντοπίσει η *note
FeedParser: 19a9. κατά την ανάλυση των μηνυμάτων.  Σημειώστε ότι τα
ελαττώματα προστίθενται στο μήνυμα όπου βρέθηκε το πρόβλημα, οπότε για
παράδειγμα, εάν ένα μήνυμα που είναι ένθετο μέσα σε ένα
‘multipart/alternative’ είχε μια παραμορφωμένη κεφαλίδα, αυτό το ένθετο
αντικείμενο μηνύματος θα είχε ένα ελάττωμα, αλλά τα μηνύματα που το
περιέχουν όχι.

Όλες οι κλάσεις ελαττωμάτων είναι υποκλάσεις της *note
email.errors.MessageDefect: 3d60.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect

     Ένα μήνυμα ισχυριζόταν ότι ήταν πολυμερές, αλλά δεν είχε παράμετρο
     ‘boundary’.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect

     Το όριο εκκίνησης που αναφέρεται στην κεφαλίδα ‘Content-Type’ δεν
     βρέθηκε ποτέ.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect

     Βρέθηκε ένα όριο εκκίνησης, αλλά δεν βρέθηκε ποτέ αντίστοιχο όριο
     κλεισίματος.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect

     Το μήνυμα είχε μια γραμμή συνέχισης ως την πρώτη γραμμή κεφαλίδας.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect

     Βρέθηκε μια κεφαλίδα «Unix From» στη μέση ενός μπλοκ κεφαλίδων.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect

     Βρέθηκε μια γραμμή κατά την ανάλυση των κεφαλίδων που δεν είχε
     αρχικό κενό αλλά δεν περιείχε “:”.  Η ανάλυση συνεχίζεται στην
     περίπτωση που η γραμμή αντιπροσωπεύει την πρώτη γραμμή του σώματος.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.MalformedHeaderDefect

     Βρέθηκε μια κεφαλίδα που της έλειπε μια άνω τελεία, ή ήταν αλλιώς
     παραμορφωμένη.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.3: Αυτό το σφάλμα δεν έχει χρησιμοποιηθεί
     εδώ και πολλές εκδόσεις της Python.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.MultipartInvariantViolationDefect

     Ένα μήνυμα δήλωσε ότι είναι ‘multipart’, αλλά δεν βρέθηκαν υπομέρη.
     Σημειώστε ότι όταν ένα μήνυμα έχει αυτό το σφάλμα, η μέθοδος του
     *note is_multipart(): 3d29. μπορεί να επιστρέψει ‘False’ ακόμα κι
     αν ο τύπος περιεχομένου του δηλώνει ότι είναι ‘multipart’.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.InvalidBase64PaddingDefect

     Όταν αποκωδικοποιείται ένα μπλοκ από base64 κωδικοποιημένα bytes, η
     προσθήκη padding δεν ήταν σωστή.  Προστίθεται αρκετό padding για να
     πραγματοποιηθεί η αποκωδικοποίηση, αλλά τα αποκωδικοποιημένα bytes
     που προκύπτουν μπορεί να είναι άκυρα.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.InvalidBase64CharactersDefect

     Όταν αποκωδικοποιείται ένα μπλοκ από base64 κωδικοποιημένα bytes,
     συναντήθηκαν χαρακτήρες εκτός του αλφαβήτου base64.  Οι χαρακτήρες
     αγνοούνται, αλλά τα αποκωδικοποιημένα bytes που προκύπτουν μπορεί
     να είναι άκυρα.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.InvalidBase64LengthDefect

     Όταν αποκωδικοποιείται ένα μπλοκ από base64 κωδικοποιημένα bytes, ο
     αριθμός των χαρακτήρων base64 χωρίς συμπλήρωμα ήταν άκυρος (1
     παραπάνω από ένα πολλαπλάσιο του 4).  Το κωδικοποιημένο μπλοκ
     διατηρήθηκε ως έχει.

 -- Εξαίρεση: email.errors.InvalidDateDefect

     Όταν αποκωδικοποιείται ένα άκυρο ή μη αναγνώσιμο πεδίο ημερομηνίας.
     Η αρχική τιμή διατηρείται ως έχει.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email/errors.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects,  Next: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content,  Prev: email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.9 ‘email.headerregistry’: Custom Header Objects
......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/headerregistry.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.6: (2)

Headers are represented by customized subclasses of *note str: 1df.  The
particular class used to represent a given header is determined by the
*note header_factory: 3d66. of the *note policy: 52. in effect when the
headers are created.  This section documents the particular
‘header_factory’ implemented by the email package for handling RFC
5322(3) compliant email messages, which not only provides customized
header objects for various header types, but also provides an extension
mechanism for applications to add their own custom header types.

When using any of the policy objects derived from *note EmailPolicy:
1464, all headers are produced by *note HeaderRegistry: 3d8d. and have
*note BaseHeader: 3d11. as their last base class.  Each header class has
an additional base class that is determined by the type of the header.
For example, many headers have the class *note UnstructuredHeader: 3d8e.
as their other base class.  The specialized second class for a header is
determined by the name of the header, using a lookup table stored in the
‘HeaderRegistry’.  All of this is managed transparently for the typical
application program, but interfaces are provided for modifying the
default behavior for use by more complex applications.

The sections below first document the header base classes and their
attributes, followed by the API for modifying the behavior of *note
HeaderRegistry: 3d8d, and finally the support classes used to represent
the data parsed from structured headers.

 -- Κλάση: email.headerregistry.BaseHeader (name, value)

     'name' and 'value' are passed to ‘BaseHeader’ from the *note
     header_factory: 3d66. call.  The string value of any header object
     is the 'value' fully decoded to unicode.

     This base class defines the following read-only properties:

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name of the header (the portion of the field before the
          “:”).  This is exactly the value passed in the *note
          header_factory: 3d66. call for 'name'; that is, case is
          preserved.

      -- Ιδιότητα: defects

          A tuple of *note HeaderDefect: 3d7e. instances reporting any
          RFC compliance problems found during parsing.  The email
          package tries to be complete about detecting compliance
          issues.  See the *note errors: 42. module for a discussion of
          the types of defects that may be reported.

      -- Ιδιότητα: max_count

          The maximum number of headers of this type that can have the
          same ‘name’.  A value of ‘None’ means unlimited.  The
          ‘BaseHeader’ value for this attribute is ‘None’; it is
          expected that specialized header classes will override this
          value as needed.

     ‘BaseHeader’ also provides the following method, which is called by
     the email library code and should not in general be called by
     application programs:

      -- Μέθοδος: fold (*, policy)

          Return a string containing *note linesep: 3d5b. characters as
          required to correctly fold the header according to 'policy'.
          A *note cte_type: 3d53. of ‘8bit’ will be treated as if it
          were ‘7bit’, since headers may not contain arbitrary binary
          data.  If *note utf8: 217. is ‘False’, non-ASCII data will be
          RFC 2047(4) encoded.

     ‘BaseHeader’ by itself cannot be used to create a header object.
     It defines a protocol that each specialized header cooperates with
     in order to produce the header object.  Specifically, ‘BaseHeader’
     requires that the specialized class provide a *note classmethod():
     69a. named ‘parse’.  This method is called as follows:

          parse(string, kwds)

     ‘kwds’ is a dictionary containing one pre-initialized key,
     ‘defects’.  ‘defects’ is an empty list.  The parse method should
     append any detected defects to this list.  On return, the ‘kwds’
     dictionary 'must' contain values for at least the keys ‘decoded’
     and ‘defects’.  ‘decoded’ should be the string value for the header
     (that is, the header value fully decoded to unicode).  The parse
     method should assume that 'string' may contain
     content-transfer-encoded parts, but should correctly handle all
     valid unicode characters as well so that it can parse un-encoded
     header values.

     ‘BaseHeader’’s ‘__new__’ then creates the header instance, and
     calls its ‘init’ method.  The specialized class only needs to
     provide an ‘init’ method if it wishes to set additional attributes
     beyond those provided by ‘BaseHeader’ itself.  Such an ‘init’
     method should look like this:

          def init(self, /, *args, **kw):
              self._myattr = kw.pop('myattr')
              super().init(*args, **kw)

     That is, anything extra that the specialized class puts in to the
     ‘kwds’ dictionary should be removed and handled, and the remaining
     contents of ‘kw’ (and ‘args’) passed to the ‘BaseHeader’ ‘init’
     method.

 -- Κλάση: email.headerregistry.UnstructuredHeader

     An «unstructured» header is the default type of header in RFC
     5322(5).  Any header that does not have a specified syntax is
     treated as unstructured.  The classic example of an unstructured
     header is the ‘Subject’ header.

     In RFC 5322(6), an unstructured header is a run of arbitrary text
     in the ASCII character set.  RFC 2047(7), however, has an RFC
     5322(8) compatible mechanism for encoding non-ASCII text as ASCII
     characters within a header value.  When a 'value' containing
     encoded words is passed to the constructor, the
     ‘UnstructuredHeader’ parser converts such encoded words into
     unicode, following the RFC 2047(9) rules for unstructured text.
     The parser uses heuristics to attempt to decode certain
     non-compliant encoded words.  Defects are registered in such cases,
     as well as defects for issues such as invalid characters within the
     encoded words or the non-encoded text.

     This header type provides no additional attributes.

 -- Κλάση: email.headerregistry.DateHeader

     RFC 5322(10) specifies a very specific format for dates within
     email headers.  The ‘DateHeader’ parser recognizes that date
     format, as well as recognizing a number of variant forms that are
     sometimes found «in the wild».

     This header type provides the following additional attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: datetime

          If the header value can be recognized as a valid date of one
          form or another, this attribute will contain a *note datetime:
          6e7. instance representing that date.  If the timezone of the
          input date is specified as ‘-0000’ (indicating it is in UTC
          but contains no information about the source timezone), then
          *note datetime: 3d93. will be a naive ‘datetime’.  If a
          specific timezone offset is found (including ‘+0000’), then
          ‘datetime’ will contain an aware ‘datetime’ that uses *note
          datetime.timezone: 146c. to record the timezone offset.

     The ‘decoded’ value of the header is determined by formatting the
     ‘datetime’ according to the RFC 5322(11) rules; that is, it is set
     to:

          email.utils.format_datetime(self.datetime)

     When creating a ‘DateHeader’, 'value' may be *note datetime: 6e7.
     instance.  This means, for example, that the following code is
     valid and does what one would expect:

          msg['Date'] = datetime(2011, 7, 15, 21)

     Because this is a naive ‘datetime’ it will be interpreted as a UTC
     timestamp, and the resulting value will have a timezone of ‘-0000’.
     Much more useful is to use the *note localtime(): 56f. function
     from the *note utils: 53. module:

          msg['Date'] = utils.localtime()

     This example sets the date header to the current time and date
     using the current timezone offset.

 -- Κλάση: email.headerregistry.AddressHeader

     Address headers are one of the most complex structured header
     types.  The ‘AddressHeader’ class provides a generic interface to
     any address header.

     This header type provides the following additional attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: groups

          A tuple of *note Group: 3d96. objects encoding the addresses
          and groups found in the header value.  Addresses that are not
          part of a group are represented in this list as single-address
          ‘Groups’ whose *note display_name: 3d97. is ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: addresses

          A tuple of *note Address: 1912. objects encoding all of the
          individual addresses from the header value.  If the header
          value contains any groups, the individual addresses from the
          group are included in the list at the point where the group
          occurs in the value (that is, the list of addresses is
          «flattened» into a one dimensional list).

     The ‘decoded’ value of the header will have all encoded words
     decoded to unicode.  *note idna: 55. encoded domain names are also
     decoded to unicode.  The ‘decoded’ value is set by *note joining:
     2847. the *note str: 1df. value of the elements of the ‘groups’
     attribute with ‘', '’.

     A list of *note Address: 1912. and *note Group: 3d96. objects in
     any combination may be used to set the value of an address header.
     ‘Group’ objects whose ‘display_name’ is ‘None’ will be interpreted
     as single addresses, which allows an address list to be copied with
     groups intact by using the list obtained from the ‘groups’
     attribute of the source header.

 -- Κλάση: email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader

     A subclass of *note AddressHeader: 3d94. that adds one additional
     attribute:

      -- Ιδιότητα: address

          The single address encoded by the header value.  If the header
          value actually contains more than one address (which would be
          a violation of the RFC under the default *note policy: 52.),
          accessing this attribute will result in a *note ValueError:
          277.

Many of the above classes also have a ‘Unique’ variant (for example,
‘UniqueUnstructuredHeader’).  The only difference is that in the
‘Unique’ variant, *note max_count: 3d69. is set to 1.

 -- Κλάση: email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader

     There is really only one valid value for the ‘MIME-Version’ header,
     and that is ‘1.0’.  For future proofing, this header class supports
     other valid version numbers.  If a version number has a valid value
     per RFC 2045(12), then the header object will have non-‘None’
     values for the following attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: version

          The version number as a string, with any whitespace and/or
          comments removed.

      -- Ιδιότητα: major

          The major version number as an integer

      -- Ιδιότητα: minor

          The minor version number as an integer

 -- Κλάση: email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader

     MIME headers all start with the prefix “Content-”.  Each specific
     header has a certain value, described under the class for that
     header.  Some can also take a list of supplemental parameters,
     which have a common format.  This class serves as a base for all
     the MIME headers that take parameters.

      -- Ιδιότητα: params

          A dictionary mapping parameter names to parameter values.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: It is now a *note frozendict: 182.
          instead of a *note types.MappingProxyType: 189.

 -- Κλάση: email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader

     A *note ParameterizedMIMEHeader: 3d9f. class that handles the
     ‘Content-Type’ header.

      -- Ιδιότητα: content_type

          The content type string, in the form ‘maintype/subtype’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: maintype

      -- Ιδιότητα: subtype

 -- Κλάση: email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader

     A *note ParameterizedMIMEHeader: 3d9f. class that handles the
     ‘Content-Disposition’ header.

      -- Ιδιότητα: content_disposition

          ‘inline’ and ‘attachment’ are the only valid values in common
          use.

 -- Κλάση: email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncodingHeader

     Handles the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.

      -- Ιδιότητα: cte

          Valid values are ‘7bit’, ‘8bit’, ‘base64’, and
          ‘quoted-printable’.  See RFC 2045(13) for more information.

 -- Κλάση: email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry (base_class=BaseHeader,
          default_class=UnstructuredHeader, use_default_map=True)

     This is the factory used by *note EmailPolicy: 1464. by default.
     ‘HeaderRegistry’ builds the class used to create a header instance
     dynamically, using 'base_class' and a specialized class retrieved
     from a registry that it holds.  When a given header name does not
     appear in the registry, the class specified by 'default_class' is
     used as the specialized class.  When 'use_default_map' is ‘True’
     (the default), the standard mapping of header names to classes is
     copied in to the registry during initialization.  'base_class' is
     always the last class in the generated class’s *note __bases__:
     184e. list.

     The default mappings are:


          subject: UniqueUnstructuredHeader


          date: UniqueDateHeader


          resent-date: DateHeader


          orig-date: UniqueDateHeader


          sender: UniqueSingleAddressHeader


          resent-sender: SingleAddressHeader


          to: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-to: AddressHeader


          cc: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-cc: AddressHeader


          bcc: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-bcc: AddressHeader


          from: UniqueAddressHeader


          resent-from: AddressHeader


          reply-to: UniqueAddressHeader


          mime-version: MIMEVersionHeader


          content-type: ContentTypeHeader


          content-disposition: ContentDispositionHeader


          content-transfer-encoding: ContentTransferEncodingHeader


          message-id: MessageIDHeader

     ‘HeaderRegistry’ has the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: map_to_type (self, name, cls)

          'name' is the name of the header to be mapped.  It will be
          converted to lower case in the registry.  'cls' is the
          specialized class to be used, along with 'base_class', to
          create the class used to instantiate headers that match
          'name'.

      -- Μέθοδος: __getitem__ (name)

          Construct and return a class to handle creating a 'name'
          header.

      -- Μέθοδος: __call__ (name, value)

          Retrieves the specialized header associated with 'name' from
          the registry (using 'default_class' if 'name' does not appear
          in the registry) and composes it with 'base_class' to produce
          a class, calls the constructed class’s constructor, passing it
          the same argument list, and finally returns the class instance
          created thereby.

The following classes are the classes used to represent data parsed from
structured headers and can, in general, be used by an application
program to construct structured values to assign to specific headers.

 -- Κλάση: email.headerregistry.Address (display_name='', username='',
          domain='', addr_spec=None)

     The class used to represent an email address.  The general form of
     an address is:

          [display_name] <username@domain>

     or:

          username@domain

     where each part must conform to specific syntax rules spelled out
     in RFC 5322(14).

     As a convenience 'addr_spec' can be specified instead of 'username'
     and 'domain', in which case 'username' and 'domain' will be parsed
     from the 'addr_spec'.  An 'addr_spec' must be a properly RFC quoted
     string; if it is not ‘Address’ will raise an error.  Unicode
     characters are allowed and will be property encoded when
     serialized.  However, per the RFCs, unicode is 'not' allowed in the
     username portion of the address.

      -- Ιδιότητα: display_name

          The display name portion of the address, if any, with all
          quoting removed.  If the address does not have a display name,
          this attribute will be an empty string.

      -- Ιδιότητα: username

          The ‘username’ portion of the address, with all quoting
          removed.

      -- Ιδιότητα: domain

          The ‘domain’ portion of the address.

      -- Ιδιότητα: addr_spec

          The ‘username@domain’ portion of the address, correctly quoted
          for use as a bare address (the second form shown above).  This
          attribute is not mutable.

      -- Μέθοδος: __str__ ()

          The ‘str’ value of the object is the address quoted according
          to RFC 5322(15) rules, but with no Content Transfer Encoding
          of any non-ASCII characters.

     To support SMTP ( RFC 5321(16)), ‘Address’ handles one special
     case: if ‘username’ and ‘domain’ are both the empty string (or
     ‘None’), then the string value of the ‘Address’ is ‘<>’.

 -- Κλάση: email.headerregistry.Group (display_name=None,
          addresses=None)

     The class used to represent an address group.  The general form of
     an address group is:

          display_name: [address-list];

     As a convenience for processing lists of addresses that consist of
     a mixture of groups and single addresses, a ‘Group’ may also be
     used to represent single addresses that are not part of a group by
     setting 'display_name' to ‘None’ and providing a list of the single
     address as 'addresses'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: display_name

          The ‘display_name’ of the group.  If it is ‘None’ and there is
          exactly one ‘Address’ in ‘addresses’, then the ‘Group’
          represents a single address that is not in a group.

      -- Ιδιότητα: addresses

          A possibly empty tuple of *note Address: 1912. objects
          representing the addresses in the group.

      -- Μέθοδος: __str__ ()

          The ‘str’ value of a ‘Group’ is formatted according to RFC
          5322(17), but with no Content Transfer Encoding of any
          non-ASCII characters.  If ‘display_name’ is none and there is
          a single ‘Address’ in the ‘addresses’ list, the ‘str’ value
          will be the same as the ‘str’ of that single ‘Address’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email/headerregistry.py

   (2) Originally added in 3.3 as a *note provisional module: 13ea.

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content,  Next: email Examples,  Prev: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.10 ‘email.contentmanager’: Managing MIME Content
.......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/contentmanager.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.6: (2)

 -- Κλάση: email.contentmanager.ContentManager

     Base class for content managers.  Provides the standard registry
     mechanisms to register converters between MIME content and other
     representations, as well as the ‘get_content’ and ‘set_content’
     dispatch methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_content (msg, *args, **kw)

          Look up a handler function based on the ‘mimetype’ of 'msg'
          (see next paragraph), call it, passing through all arguments,
          and return the result of the call.  The expectation is that
          the handler will extract the payload from 'msg' and return an
          object that encodes information about the extracted data.

          To find the handler, look for the following keys in the
          registry, stopping with the first one found:

             * the string representing the full MIME type
               (‘maintype/subtype’)

             * the string representing the ‘maintype’

             * the empty string

          If none of these keys produce a handler, raise a *note
          KeyError: 7df. for the full MIME type.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_content (msg, obj, *args, **kw)

          If the ‘maintype’ is ‘multipart’, raise a *note TypeError:
          291.; otherwise look up a handler function based on the type
          of 'obj' (see next paragraph), call *note clear_content():
          3d3a. on the 'msg', and call the handler function, passing
          through all arguments.  The expectation is that the handler
          will transform and store 'obj' into 'msg', possibly making
          other changes to 'msg' as well, such as adding various MIME
          headers to encode information needed to interpret the stored
          data.

          To find the handler, obtain the type of 'obj' (‘typ =
          type(obj)’), and look for the following keys in the registry,
          stopping with the first one found:

             * the type itself (‘typ’)

             * the type’s fully qualified name (‘typ.__module__ + '.' +
               typ.__qualname__’).

             * the type’s *note qualname: 2565. (‘typ.__qualname__’)

             * the type’s *note name: 184d. (‘typ.__name__’).

          If none of the above match, repeat all of the checks above for
          each of the types in the *note MRO: 1afd. (*note typ.__mro__:
          2569.).  Finally, if no other key yields a handler, check for
          a handler for the key ‘None’.  If there is no handler for
          ‘None’, raise a *note KeyError: 7df. for the fully qualified
          name of the type.

          Also add a ‘MIME-Version’ header if one is not present (see
          also *note MIMEPart: 12e5.).

      -- Μέθοδος: add_get_handler (key, handler)

          Record the function 'handler' as the handler for 'key'.  For
          the possible values of 'key', see *note get_content(): 3db7.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_set_handler (typekey, handler)

          Record 'handler' as the function to call when an object of a
          type matching 'typekey' is passed to *note set_content():
          3db9.  For the possible values of 'typekey', see
          ‘set_content()’.

* Menu:

* Content Manager Instances::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email/contentmanager.py

   (2) Originally added in 3.4 as a *note provisional module: 13ea.


File: python.info,  Node: Content Manager Instances,  Up: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content

5.21.1.11 Content Manager Instances
...................................

Currently the email package provides only one concrete content manager,
*note raw_data_manager: 3d67, although more may be added in the future.
‘raw_data_manager’ is the *note content_manager: 12e6. provided by *note
EmailPolicy: 1464. and its derivatives.

 -- Δεδομένα: email.contentmanager.raw_data_manager

     This content manager provides only a minimum interface beyond that
     provided by *note Message: 780. itself: it deals only with text,
     raw byte strings, and ‘Message’ objects.  Nevertheless, it provides
     significant advantages compared to the base API: ‘get_content’ on a
     text part will return a unicode string without the application
     needing to manually decode it, ‘set_content’ provides a rich set of
     options for controlling the headers added to a part and controlling
     the content transfer encoding, and it enables the use of the
     various ‘add_’ methods, thereby simplifying the creation of
     multipart messages.

      -- Μέθοδος: email.contentmanager.get_content (msg,
               errors='replace')

          Return the payload of the part as either a string (for ‘text’
          parts), an *note EmailMessage: 216. object (for
          ‘message/rfc822’ parts), or a ‘bytes’ object (for all other
          non-multipart types).  Raise a *note KeyError: 7df. if called
          on a ‘multipart’.  If the part is a ‘text’ part and 'errors'
          is specified, use it as the error handler when decoding the
          payload to unicode.  The default error handler is ‘replace’.

      -- Μέθοδος: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg, <'str'>,
               subtype="plain", charset='utf-8', cte=None,
               disposition=None, filename=None, cid=None, params=None,
               headers=None)

      -- Μέθοδος: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg, <'bytes'>,
               maintype, subtype, cte="base64", disposition=None,
               filename=None, cid=None, params=None, headers=None)

      -- Μέθοδος: email.contentmanager.set_content (msg,
               <'EmailMessage'>, cte=None, disposition=None,
               filename=None, cid=None, params=None, headers=None)

          Add headers and payload to 'msg':

          Add a ‘Content-Type’ header with a ‘maintype/subtype’ value.

             * For ‘str’, set the MIME ‘maintype’ to ‘text’, and set the
               subtype to 'subtype' if it is specified, or ‘plain’ if it
               is not.

             * For ‘bytes’, use the specified 'maintype' and 'subtype',
               or raise a *note TypeError: 291. if they are not
               specified.

             * For *note EmailMessage: 216. objects, set the maintype to
               ‘message’, and set the subtype to 'subtype' if it is
               specified or ‘rfc822’ if it is not.  If 'subtype' is
               ‘partial’, raise an error (‘bytes’ objects must be used
               to construct ‘message/partial’ parts).

          If 'charset' is provided (which is valid only for ‘str’),
          encode the string to bytes using the specified character set.
          The default is ‘utf-8’.  If the specified 'charset' is a known
          alias for a standard MIME charset name, use the standard
          charset instead.

          If 'cte' is set, encode the payload using the specified
          content transfer encoding, and set the
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header to that value.  Possible
          values for 'cte' are ‘quoted-printable’, ‘base64’, ‘7bit’,
          ‘8bit’, and ‘binary’.  If the input cannot be encoded in the
          specified encoding (for example, specifying a 'cte' of ‘7bit’
          for an input that contains non-ASCII values), raise a *note
          ValueError: 277.

             * For ‘str’ objects, if 'cte' is not set use heuristics to
               determine the most compact encoding.  Prior to encoding,
               *note str.splitlines(): 15fb. is used to normalize all
               line boundaries, ensuring that each line of the payload
               is terminated by the current policy’s *note linesep:
               3d5b. property (even if the original string did not end
               with one).

             * For ‘bytes’ objects, 'cte' is taken to be base64 if not
               set, and the aforementioned newline translation is not
               performed.

             * For *note EmailMessage: 216, per RFC 2046(1), raise an
               error if a 'cte' of ‘quoted-printable’ or ‘base64’ is
               requested for 'subtype' ‘rfc822’, and for any 'cte' other
               than ‘7bit’ for 'subtype' ‘external-body’.  For
               ‘message/rfc822’, use ‘8bit’ if 'cte' is not specified.
               For all other values of 'subtype', use ‘7bit’.

               Σημείωση: A 'cte' of ‘binary’ does not actually work
               correctly yet.  The ‘EmailMessage’ object as modified by
               ‘set_content’ is correct, but *note BytesGenerator: 1578.
               does not serialize it correctly.

          If 'disposition' is set, use it as the value of the
          ‘Content-Disposition’ header.  If not specified, and
          'filename' is specified, add the header with the value
          ‘attachment’.  If 'disposition' is not specified and
          'filename' is also not specified, do not add the header.  The
          only valid values for 'disposition' are ‘attachment’ and
          ‘inline’.

          If 'filename' is specified, use it as the value of the
          ‘filename’ parameter of the ‘Content-Disposition’ header.

          If 'cid' is specified, add a ‘Content-ID’ header with 'cid' as
          its value.

          If 'params' is specified, iterate its ‘items’ method and use
          the resulting ‘(key, value)’ pairs to set additional
          parameters on the ‘Content-Type’ header.

          If 'headers' is specified and is a list of strings of the form
          ‘headername: headervalue’ or a list of ‘header’ objects
          (distinguished from strings by having a ‘name’ attribute), add
          the headers to 'msg'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html


File: python.info,  Node: email Examples,  Next: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API,  Prev: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.12 ‘email’: Examples
...........................

Here are a few examples of how to use the *note email: 3e. package to
read, write, and send simple email messages, as well as more complex
MIME messages.

First, let’s see how to create and send a simple text message (both the
text content and the addresses may contain unicode characters):

     # Import smtplib for the actual sending function
     import smtplib

     # Import the email modules we'll need
     from email.message import EmailMessage

     # Open the plain text file whose name is in textfile for reading.
     with open(textfile) as fp:
         # Create a text/plain message
         msg = EmailMessage()
         msg.set_content(fp.read())

     # me == the sender's email address
     # you == the recipient's email address
     msg['Subject'] = f'The contents of {textfile}'
     msg['From'] = me
     msg['To'] = you

     # Send the message via our own SMTP server.
     s = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     s.send_message(msg)
     s.quit()

Parsing RFC 822(1) headers can easily be done by the using the classes
from the *note parser: 51. module:

     # Import the email modules we'll need
     #from email.parser import BytesParser
     from email.parser import Parser
     from email.policy import default

     # If the e-mail headers are in a file, uncomment these two lines:
     # with open(messagefile, 'rb') as fp:
     #     headers = BytesParser(policy=default).parse(fp)

     #  Or for parsing headers in a string (this is an uncommon operation), use:
     headers = Parser(policy=default).parsestr(
             'From: Foo Bar <user@example.com>\n'
             'To: <someone_else@example.com>\n'
             'Subject: Test message\n'
             '\n'
             'Body would go here\n')

     #  Now the header items can be accessed as a dictionary:
     print('To: {}'.format(headers['to']))
     print('From: {}'.format(headers['from']))
     print('Subject: {}'.format(headers['subject']))

     # You can also access the parts of the addresses:
     print('Recipient username: {}'.format(headers['to'].addresses[0].username))
     print('Sender name: {}'.format(headers['from'].addresses[0].display_name))

Here’s an example of how to send a MIME message containing a bunch of
family pictures that may be residing in a directory:

     # Import smtplib for the actual sending function.
     import smtplib

     # Here are the email package modules we'll need.
     from email.message import EmailMessage

     # Create the container email message.
     msg = EmailMessage()
     msg['Subject'] = 'Our family reunion'
     # me == the sender's email address
     # family = the list of all recipients' email addresses
     msg['From'] = me
     msg['To'] = ', '.join(family)
     msg.preamble = 'You will not see this in a MIME-aware mail reader.\n'

     # Open the files in binary mode.  You can also omit the subtype
     # if you want MIMEImage to guess it.
     for file in pngfiles:
         with open(file, 'rb') as fp:
             img_data = fp.read()
         msg.add_attachment(img_data, maintype='image',
                                      subtype='png')

     # Send the email via our own SMTP server.
     with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
         s.send_message(msg)

Here’s an example of how to send the entire contents of a directory as
an email message: (2)

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     """Send the contents of a directory as a MIME message."""

     import os
     import smtplib
     # For guessing MIME type based on file name extension
     import mimetypes

     from argparse import ArgumentParser

     from email.message import EmailMessage
     from email.policy import SMTP


     def main():
         parser = ArgumentParser(description="""\
     Send the contents of a directory as a MIME message.
     Unless the -o option is given, the email is sent by forwarding to your local
     SMTP server, which then does the normal delivery process.  Your local machine
     must be running an SMTP server.
     """)
         parser.add_argument('-d', '--directory',
                             help="""Mail the contents of the specified directory,
                             otherwise use the current directory.  Only the regular
                             files in the directory are sent, and we don't recurse to
                             subdirectories.""")
         parser.add_argument('-o', '--output',
                             metavar='FILE',
                             help="""Print the composed message to FILE instead of
                             sending the message to the SMTP server.""")
         parser.add_argument('-s', '--sender', required=True,
                             help='The value of the From: header (required)')
         parser.add_argument('-r', '--recipient', required=True,
                             action='append', metavar='RECIPIENT',
                             default=[], dest='recipients',
                             help='A To: header value (at least one required)')
         args = parser.parse_args()
         directory = args.directory
         if not directory:
             directory = '.'
         # Create the message
         msg = EmailMessage()
         msg['Subject'] = f'Contents of directory {os.path.abspath(directory)}'
         msg['To'] = ', '.join(args.recipients)
         msg['From'] = args.sender
         msg.preamble = 'You will not see this in a MIME-aware mail reader.\n'

         for filename in os.listdir(directory):
             path = os.path.join(directory, filename)
             if not os.path.isfile(path):
                 continue
             # Guess the content type based on the file's extension.  Encoding
             # will be ignored, although we should check for simple things like
             # gzip'd or compressed files.
             ctype, encoding = mimetypes.guess_file_type(path)
             if ctype is None or encoding is not None:
                 # No guess could be made, or the file is encoded (compressed), so
                 # use a generic bag-of-bits type.
                 ctype = 'application/octet-stream'
             maintype, subtype = ctype.split('/', 1)
             with open(path, 'rb') as fp:
                 msg.add_attachment(fp.read(),
                                    maintype=maintype,
                                    subtype=subtype,
                                    filename=filename)
         # Now send or store the message
         if args.output:
             with open(args.output, 'wb') as fp:
                 fp.write(msg.as_bytes(policy=SMTP))
         else:
             with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
                 s.send_message(msg)


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Here’s an example of how to unpack a MIME message like the one above,
into a directory of files:

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     """Unpack a MIME message into a directory of files."""

     import os
     import email
     import mimetypes

     from email.policy import default

     from argparse import ArgumentParser


     def main():
         parser = ArgumentParser(description="""\
     Unpack a MIME message into a directory of files.
     """)
         parser.add_argument('-d', '--directory', required=True,
                             help="""Unpack the MIME message into the named
                             directory, which will be created if it doesn't already
                             exist.""")
         parser.add_argument('msgfile')
         args = parser.parse_args()

         with open(args.msgfile, 'rb') as fp:
             msg = email.message_from_binary_file(fp, policy=default)

         try:
             os.mkdir(args.directory)
         except FileExistsError:
             pass

         counter = 1
         for part in msg.walk():
             # multipart/* are just containers
             if part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart':
                 continue
             # Applications should really sanitize the given filename so that an
             # email message can't be used to overwrite important files
             filename = part.get_filename()
             if not filename:
                 ext = mimetypes.guess_extension(part.get_content_type())
                 if not ext:
                     # Use a generic bag-of-bits extension
                     ext = '.bin'
                 filename = f'part-{counter:03d}{ext}'
             counter += 1
             with open(os.path.join(args.directory, filename), 'wb') as fp:
                 fp.write(part.get_payload(decode=True))


     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

Here’s an example of how to create an HTML message with an alternative
plain text version.  To make things a bit more interesting, we include a
related image in the html part, and we save a copy of what we are going
to send to disk, as well as sending it.

     #!/usr/bin/env python3

     import smtplib

     from email.message import EmailMessage
     from email.headerregistry import Address
     from email.utils import make_msgid

     # Create the base text message.
     msg = EmailMessage()
     msg['Subject'] = "Pourquoi pas des asperges pour ce midi ?"
     msg['From'] = Address("Pepé Le Pew", "pepe", "example.com")
     msg['To'] = (Address("Penelope Pussycat", "penelope", "example.com"),
                  Address("Fabrette Pussycat", "fabrette", "example.com"))
     msg.set_content("""\
     Salut!

     Cette recette [1] sera sûrement un très bon repas.

     [1] http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718

     --Pepé
     """)

     # Add the html version.  This converts the message into a multipart/alternative
     # container, with the original text message as the first part and the new html
     # message as the second part.
     asparagus_cid = make_msgid()
     msg.add_alternative("""\
     <html>
       <head></head>
       <body>
         <p>Salut!</p>
         <p>Cette
             <a href="http://www.yummly.com/recipe/Roasted-Asparagus-Epicurious-203718">
                 recette
             </a> sera sûrement un très bon repas.
         </p>
         <img src="cid:{asparagus_cid}">
       </body>
     </html>
     """.format(asparagus_cid=asparagus_cid[1:-1]), subtype='html')
     # note that we needed to peel the <> off the msgid for use in the html.

     # Now add the related image to the html part.
     with open("roasted-asparagus.jpg", 'rb') as img:
         msg.get_payload()[1].add_related(img.read(), 'image', 'jpeg',
                                          cid=asparagus_cid)

     # Make a local copy of what we are going to send.
     with open('outgoing.msg', 'wb') as f:
         f.write(bytes(msg))

     # Send the message via local SMTP server.
     with smtplib.SMTP('localhost') as s:
         s.send_message(msg)

If we were sent the message from the last example, here is one way we
could process it:

     import os
     import sys
     import tempfile
     import mimetypes
     import webbrowser

     # Import the email modules we'll need
     from email import policy
     from email.parser import BytesParser


     def magic_html_parser(html_text, partfiles):
         """Return safety-sanitized html linked to partfiles.

         Rewrite the href="cid:...." attributes to point to the filenames in partfiles.
         Though not trivial, this should be possible using html.parser.
         """
         raise NotImplementedError("Add the magic needed")


     # In a real program you'd get the filename from the arguments.
     with open('outgoing.msg', 'rb') as fp:
         msg = BytesParser(policy=policy.default).parse(fp)

     # Now the header items can be accessed as a dictionary, and any non-ASCII will
     # be converted to unicode:
     print('To:', msg['to'])
     print('From:', msg['from'])
     print('Subject:', msg['subject'])

     # If we want to print a preview of the message content, we can extract whatever
     # the least formatted payload is and print the first three lines.  Of course,
     # if the message has no plain text part printing the first three lines of html
     # is probably useless, but this is just a conceptual example.
     simplest = msg.get_body(preferencelist=('plain', 'html'))
     print()
     print(''.join(simplest.get_content().splitlines(keepends=True)[:3]))

     ans = input("View full message?")
     if ans.lower()[0] == 'n':
         sys.exit()

     # We can extract the richest alternative in order to display it:
     richest = msg.get_body()
     partfiles = {}
     if richest['content-type'].maintype == 'text':
         if richest['content-type'].subtype == 'plain':
             for line in richest.get_content().splitlines():
                 print(line)
             sys.exit()
         elif richest['content-type'].subtype == 'html':
             body = richest
         else:
             print("Don't know how to display {}".format(richest.get_content_type()))
             sys.exit()
     elif richest['content-type'].content_type == 'multipart/related':
         body = richest.get_body(preferencelist=('html'))
         for part in richest.iter_attachments():
             fn = part.get_filename()
             if fn:
                 extension = os.path.splitext(part.get_filename())[1]
             else:
                 extension = mimetypes.guess_extension(part.get_content_type())
             with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(suffix=extension, delete=False) as f:
                 f.write(part.get_content())
                 # again strip the <> to go from email form of cid to html form.
                 partfiles[part['content-id'][1:-1]] = f.name
     else:
         print("Don't know how to display {}".format(richest.get_content_type()))
         sys.exit()
     with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(mode='w', delete=False) as f:
         f.write(magic_html_parser(body.get_content(), partfiles))
     webbrowser.open(f.name)
     os.remove(f.name)
     for fn in partfiles.values():
         os.remove(fn)

     # Of course, there are lots of email messages that could break this simple
     # minded program, but it will handle the most common ones.

Up to the prompt, the output from the above is:

     To: Penelope Pussycat <penelope@example.com>, Fabrette Pussycat <fabrette@example.com>
     From: Pepé Le Pew <pepe@example.com>
     Subject: Pourquoi pas des asperges pour ce midi ?

     Salut!

     Cette recette [1] sera sûrement un très bon repas.

Legacy API:

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (2) Thanks to Matthew Dixon Cowles for the original inspiration and
examples.


File: python.info,  Node: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API,  Next: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch,  Prev: email Examples,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.13 ‘email.message.Message’: Representing an email message using the ‘compat32’ API
.........................................................................................

The *note Message: 780. class is very similar to the *note EmailMessage:
216. class, without the methods added by that class, and with the
default behavior of certain other methods being slightly different.  We
also document here some methods that, while supported by the
‘EmailMessage’ class, are not recommended unless you are dealing with
legacy code.

The philosophy and structure of the two classes is otherwise the same.

This document describes the behavior under the default (for *note
Message: 780.) policy *note Compat32: 1461.  If you are going to use
another policy, you should be using the *note EmailMessage: 216. class
instead.

An email message consists of 'headers' and a 'payload'.  Headers must be
RFC 5322(1) style names and values, where the field name and value are
separated by a colon.  The colon is not part of either the field name or
the field value.  The payload may be a simple text message, or a binary
object, or a structured sequence of sub-messages each with their own set
of headers and their own payload.  The latter type of payload is
indicated by the message having a MIME type such as ‘multipart/*’ or
‘message/rfc822’.

The conceptual model provided by a *note Message: 780. object is that of
an ordered dictionary of headers with additional methods for accessing
both specialized information from the headers, for accessing the
payload, for generating a serialized version of the message, and for
recursively walking over the object tree.  Note that duplicate headers
are supported but special methods must be used to access them.

The *note Message: 780. pseudo-dictionary is indexed by the header
names, which must be ASCII values.  The values of the dictionary are
strings that are supposed to contain only ASCII characters; there is
some special handling for non-ASCII input, but it doesn’t always produce
the correct results.  Headers are stored and returned in case-preserving
form, but field names are matched case-insensitively.  There may also be
a single envelope header, also known as the 'Unix-From' header or the
‘From_’ header.  The 'payload' is either a string or bytes, in the case
of simple message objects, or a list of ‘Message’ objects, for MIME
container documents (e.g.  ‘multipart/*’ and ‘message/rfc822’).

Here are the methods of the *note Message: 780. class:

 -- Κλάση: email.message.Message (policy=compat32)

     If 'policy' is specified (it must be an instance of a *note policy:
     52. class) use the rules it specifies to update and serialize the
     representation of the message.  If 'policy' is not set, use the
     *note compat32: 1461. policy, which maintains backward
     compatibility with the Python 3.2 version of the email package.
     For more information see the ‘policy’ documentation.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The 'policy' keyword argument was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: as_string (unixfrom=False, maxheaderlen=0,
               policy=None)

          Return the entire message flattened as a string.  When
          optional 'unixfrom' is true, the envelope header is included
          in the returned string.  'unixfrom' defaults to ‘False’.  For
          backward compatibility reasons, 'maxheaderlen' defaults to
          ‘0’, so if you want a different value you must override it
          explicitly (the value specified for 'max_line_length' in the
          policy will be ignored by this method).  The 'policy' argument
          may be used to override the default policy obtained from the
          message instance.  This can be used to control some of the
          formatting produced by the method, since the specified
          'policy' will be passed to the ‘Generator’.

          Flattening the message may trigger changes to the ‘Message’ if
          defaults need to be filled in to complete the transformation
          to a string (for example, MIME boundaries may be generated or
          modified).

          Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not
          always format the message the way you want.  For example, by
          default it does not do the mangling of lines that begin with
          ‘From’ that is required by the Unix mbox format.  For more
          flexibility, instantiate a *note Generator: 1577. instance and
          use its *note flatten(): 3d55. method directly.  For example:

               from io import StringIO
               from email.generator import Generator
               fp = StringIO()
               g = Generator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
               g.flatten(msg)
               text = fp.getvalue()

          If the message object contains binary data that is not encoded
          according to RFC standards, the non-compliant data will be
          replaced by unicode «unknown character» code points.  (See
          also *note as_bytes(): 12e2. and *note BytesGenerator: 1578.)

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: the 'policy' keyword argument was
          added.

      -- Μέθοδος: __str__ ()

          Equivalent to *note as_string(): 12e1.  Allows ‘str(msg)’ to
          produce a string containing the formatted message.

      -- Μέθοδος: as_bytes (unixfrom=False, policy=None)

          Return the entire message flattened as a bytes object.  When
          optional 'unixfrom' is true, the envelope header is included
          in the returned string.  'unixfrom' defaults to ‘False’.  The
          'policy' argument may be used to override the default policy
          obtained from the message instance.  This can be used to
          control some of the formatting produced by the method, since
          the specified 'policy' will be passed to the ‘BytesGenerator’.

          Flattening the message may trigger changes to the ‘Message’ if
          defaults need to be filled in to complete the transformation
          to a string (for example, MIME boundaries may be generated or
          modified).

          Note that this method is provided as a convenience and may not
          always format the message the way you want.  For example, by
          default it does not do the mangling of lines that begin with
          ‘From’ that is required by the Unix mbox format.  For more
          flexibility, instantiate a *note BytesGenerator: 1578.
          instance and use its *note flatten(): 3d51. method directly.
          For example:

               from io import BytesIO
               from email.generator import BytesGenerator
               fp = BytesIO()
               g = BytesGenerator(fp, mangle_from_=True, maxheaderlen=60)
               g.flatten(msg)
               text = fp.getvalue()

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Μέθοδος: __bytes__ ()

          Equivalent to *note as_bytes(): 12e2.  Allows ‘bytes(msg)’ to
          produce a bytes object containing the formatted message.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_multipart ()

          Return ‘True’ if the message’s payload is a list of
          sub-‘Message’ objects, otherwise return ‘False’.  When
          ‘is_multipart()’ returns ‘False’, the payload should be a
          string object (which might be a CTE encoded binary payload).
          (Note that ‘is_multipart()’ returning ‘True’ does not
          necessarily mean that «msg.get_content_maintype() ==
          “multipart”» will return the ‘True’.  For example,
          ‘is_multipart’ will return ‘True’ when the ‘Message’ is of
          type ‘message/rfc822’.)

      -- Μέθοδος: set_unixfrom (unixfrom)

          Set the message’s envelope header to 'unixfrom', which should
          be a string.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_unixfrom ()

          Return the message’s envelope header.  Defaults to ‘None’ if
          the envelope header was never set.

      -- Μέθοδος: attach (payload)

          Add the given 'payload' to the current payload, which must be
          ‘None’ or a list of ‘Message’ objects before the call.  After
          the call, the payload will always be a list of ‘Message’
          objects.  If you want to set the payload to a scalar object
          (e.g.  a string), use *note set_payload(): 3dc4. instead.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 216.
          class its functionality is replaced by *note set_content():
          1e54. and the related ‘make’ and ‘add’ methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_payload (i=None, decode=False)

          Return the current payload, which will be a list of ‘Message’
          objects when *note is_multipart(): 3d29. is ‘True’, or a
          string when ‘is_multipart()’ is ‘False’.  If the payload is a
          list and you mutate the list object, you modify the message’s
          payload in place.

          With optional argument 'i', ‘get_payload()’ will return the
          'i'-th element of the payload, counting from zero, if *note
          is_multipart(): 3d29. is ‘True’.  An *note IndexError: 18d7.
          will be raised if 'i' is less than 0 or greater than or equal
          to the number of items in the payload.  If the payload is a
          string (i.e.  ‘is_multipart()’ is ‘False’) and 'i' is given, a
          *note TypeError: 291. is raised.

          Optional 'decode' is a flag indicating whether the payload
          should be decoded or not, according to the
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.  When ‘True’ and the
          message is not a multipart, the payload will be decoded if
          this header’s value is ‘quoted-printable’ or ‘base64’.  If
          some other encoding is used, or ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’
          header is missing, the payload is returned as-is (undecoded).
          In all cases the returned value is binary data.  If the
          message is a multipart and the 'decode' flag is ‘True’, then
          ‘None’ is returned.  If the payload is base64 and it was not
          perfectly formed (missing padding, characters outside the
          base64 alphabet), then an appropriate defect will be added to
          the message’s defect property (*note
          InvalidBase64PaddingDefect: 3d86. or *note
          InvalidBase64CharactersDefect: 3d87, respectively).

          When 'decode' is ‘False’ (the default) the body is returned as
          a string without decoding the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’.
          However, for a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of 8bit, an attempt
          is made to decode the original bytes using the ‘charset’
          specified by the ‘Content-Type’ header, using the ‘replace’
          error handler.  If no ‘charset’ is specified, or if the
          ‘charset’ given is not recognized by the email package, the
          body is decoded using the default ASCII charset.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 216.
          class its functionality is replaced by *note get_content():
          3d2f. and *note iter_parts(): 3d2e.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_payload (payload, charset=None)

          Set the entire message object’s payload to 'payload'.  It is
          the client’s responsibility to ensure the payload invariants.
          Optional 'charset' sets the message’s default character set;
          see *note set_charset(): 3dc5. for details.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 216.
          class its functionality is replaced by *note set_content():
          1e54.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_charset (charset)

          Set the character set of the payload to 'charset', which can
          either be a *note Charset: 11b2. instance (see *note
          email.charset: 3f.), a string naming a character set, or
          ‘None’.  If it is a string, it will be converted to a
          ‘Charset’ instance.  If 'charset' is ‘None’, the ‘charset’
          parameter will be removed from the ‘Content-Type’ header (the
          message will not be otherwise modified).  Anything else will
          generate a *note TypeError: 291.

          If there is no existing ‘MIME-Version’ header one will be
          added.  If there is no existing ‘Content-Type’ header, one
          will be added with a value of ‘text/plain’.  Whether the
          ‘Content-Type’ header already exists or not, its ‘charset’
          parameter will be set to 'charset.output_charset'.  If
          'charset.input_charset' and 'charset.output_charset' differ,
          the payload will be re-encoded to the 'output_charset'.  If
          there is no existing ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header, then
          the payload will be transfer-encoded, if needed, using the
          specified *note Charset: 11b2, and a header with the
          appropriate value will be added.  If a
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header already exists, the payload
          is assumed to already be correctly encoded using that
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ and is not modified.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 216.
          class its functionality is replaced by the 'charset' parameter
          of the *note email.message.EmailMessage.set_content(): 1e54.
          method.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_charset ()

          Return the *note Charset: 11b2. instance associated with the
          message’s payload.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 216.
          class it always returns ‘None’.

     The following methods implement a mapping-like interface for
     accessing the message’s RFC 2822(2) headers.  Note that there are
     some semantic differences between these methods and a normal
     mapping (i.e.  dictionary) interface.  For example, in a dictionary
     there are no duplicate keys, but here there may be duplicate
     message headers.  Also, in dictionaries there is no guaranteed
     order to the keys returned by *note keys(): 3dc7, but in a
     ‘Message’ object, headers are always returned in the order they
     appeared in the original message, or were added to the message
     later.  Any header deleted and then re-added are always appended to
     the end of the header list.

     These semantic differences are intentional and are biased toward
     maximal convenience.

     Note that in all cases, any envelope header present in the message
     is not included in the mapping interface.

     In a model generated from bytes, any header values that (in
     contravention of the RFCs) contain non-ASCII bytes will, when
     retrieved through this interface, be represented as *note Header:
     1e55. objects with a charset of ‘unknown-8bit’.

      -- Μέθοδος: __len__ ()

          Return the total number of headers, including duplicates.

      -- Μέθοδος: __contains__ (name)

          Return ‘True’ if the message object has a field named 'name'.
          Matching is done case-insensitively and 'name' should not
          include the trailing colon.  Used for the ‘in’ operator, e.g.:

               if 'message-id' in myMessage:
                  print('Message-ID:', myMessage['message-id'])

      -- Μέθοδος: __getitem__ (name)

          Return the value of the named header field.  'name' should not
          include the colon field separator.  If the header is missing,
          ‘None’ is returned; a *note KeyError: 7df. is never raised.

          Note that if the named field appears more than once in the
          message’s headers, exactly which of those field values will be
          returned is undefined.  Use the *note get_all(): 3dca. method
          to get the values of all the extant named headers.

      -- Μέθοδος: __setitem__ (name, val)

          Add a header to the message with field name 'name' and value
          'val'.  The field is appended to the end of the message’s
          existing fields.

          Note that this does 'not' overwrite or delete any existing
          header with the same name.  If you want to ensure that the new
          header is the only one present in the message with field name
          'name', delete the field first, e.g.:

               del msg['subject']
               msg['subject'] = 'Python roolz!'

      -- Μέθοδος: __delitem__ (name)

          Delete all occurrences of the field with name 'name' from the
          message’s headers.  No exception is raised if the named field
          isn’t present in the headers.

      -- Μέθοδος: keys ()

          Return a list of all the message’s header field names.

      -- Μέθοδος: values ()

          Return a list of all the message’s field values.

      -- Μέθοδος: items ()

          Return a list of 2-tuples containing all the message’s field
          headers and values.

      -- Μέθοδος: get (name, failobj=None)

          Return the value of the named header field.  This is identical
          to *note __getitem__(): 787. except that optional 'failobj' is
          returned if the named header is missing (defaults to ‘None’).

     Here are some additional useful methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_all (name, failobj=None)

          Return a list of all the values for the field named 'name'.
          If there are no such named headers in the message, 'failobj'
          is returned (defaults to ‘None’).

      -- Μέθοδος: add_header (_name, _value, **_params)

          Extended header setting.  This method is similar to *note
          __setitem__(): 1aa3. except that additional header parameters
          can be provided as keyword arguments.  '_name' is the header
          field to add and '_value' is the 'primary' value for the
          header.

          For each item in the keyword argument dictionary '_params',
          the key is taken as the parameter name, with underscores
          converted to dashes (since dashes are illegal in Python
          identifiers).  Normally, the parameter will be added as
          ‘key="value"’ unless the value is ‘None’, in which case only
          the key will be added.  If the value contains non-ASCII
          characters, it can be specified as a three tuple in the format
          ‘(CHARSET, LANGUAGE, VALUE)’, where ‘CHARSET’ is a string
          naming the charset to be used to encode the value, ‘LANGUAGE’
          can usually be set to ‘None’ or the empty string (see RFC
          2231(3) for other possibilities), and ‘VALUE’ is the string
          value containing non-ASCII code points.  If a three tuple is
          not passed and the value contains non-ASCII characters, it is
          automatically encoded in RFC 2231(4) format using a ‘CHARSET’
          of ‘utf-8’ and a ‘LANGUAGE’ of ‘None’.

          Here’s an example:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          This will add a header that looks like

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

          An example with non-ASCII characters:

               msg.add_header('Content-Disposition', 'attachment',
                              filename=('iso-8859-1', '', 'Fußballer.ppt'))

          Which produces

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename*="iso-8859-1''Fu%DFballer.ppt"

      -- Μέθοδος: replace_header (_name, _value)

          Replace a header.  Replace the first header found in the
          message that matches '_name', retaining header order and field
          name case.  If no matching header was found, a *note KeyError:
          7df. is raised.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_content_type ()

          Return the message’s content type.  The returned string is
          coerced to lower case of the form ‘maintype/subtype’.  If
          there was no ‘Content-Type’ header in the message the default
          type as given by *note get_default_type(): 3dd1. will be
          returned.  Since according to RFC 2045(5), messages always
          have a default type, ‘get_content_type()’ will always return a
          value.

          RFC 2045(6) defines a message’s default type to be
          ‘text/plain’ unless it appears inside a ‘multipart/digest’
          container, in which case it would be ‘message/rfc822’.  If the
          ‘Content-Type’ header has an invalid type specification, RFC
          2045(7) mandates that the default type be ‘text/plain’.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_content_maintype ()

          Return the message’s main content type.  This is the
          ‘maintype’ part of the string returned by *note
          get_content_type(): 3dd0.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_content_subtype ()

          Return the message’s sub-content type.  This is the ‘subtype’
          part of the string returned by *note get_content_type(): 3dd0.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_default_type ()

          Return the default content type.  Most messages have a default
          content type of ‘text/plain’, except for messages that are
          subparts of ‘multipart/digest’ containers.  Such subparts have
          a default content type of ‘message/rfc822’.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_default_type (ctype)

          Set the default content type.  'ctype' should either be
          ‘text/plain’ or ‘message/rfc822’, although this is not
          enforced.  The default content type is not stored in the
          ‘Content-Type’ header.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_params (failobj=None, header='content-type',
               unquote=True)

          Return the message’s ‘Content-Type’ parameters, as a list.
          The elements of the returned list are 2-tuples of key/value
          pairs, as split on the ‘'='’ sign.  The left hand side of the
          ‘'='’ is the key, while the right hand side is the value.  If
          there is no ‘'='’ sign in the parameter the value is the empty
          string, otherwise the value is as described in *note
          get_param(): 3dd6. and is unquoted if optional 'unquote' is
          ‘True’ (the default).

          Optional 'failobj' is the object to return if there is no
          ‘Content-Type’ header.  Optional 'header' is the header to
          search instead of ‘Content-Type’.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 216.
          class its functionality is replaced by the 'params' property
          of the individual header objects returned by the header access
          methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_param (param, failobj=None, header='content-type',
               unquote=True)

          Return the value of the ‘Content-Type’ header’s parameter
          'param' as a string.  If the message has no ‘Content-Type’
          header or if there is no such parameter, then 'failobj' is
          returned (defaults to ‘None’).

          Optional 'header' if given, specifies the message header to
          use instead of ‘Content-Type’.

          Parameter keys are always compared case insensitively.  The
          return value can either be a string, or a 3-tuple if the
          parameter was RFC 2231(8) encoded.  When it’s a 3-tuple, the
          elements of the value are of the form ‘(CHARSET, LANGUAGE,
          VALUE)’.  Note that both ‘CHARSET’ and ‘LANGUAGE’ can be
          ‘None’, in which case you should consider ‘VALUE’ to be
          encoded in the ‘us-ascii’ charset.  You can usually ignore
          ‘LANGUAGE’.

          If your application doesn’t care whether the parameter was
          encoded as in RFC 2231(9), you can collapse the parameter
          value by calling *note email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value():
          3dd7, passing in the return value from ‘get_param()’.  This
          will return a suitably decoded Unicode string when the value
          is a tuple, or the original string unquoted if it isn’t.  For
          example:

               rawparam = msg.get_param('foo')
               param = email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value(rawparam)

          In any case, the parameter value (either the returned string,
          or the ‘VALUE’ item in the 3-tuple) is always unquoted, unless
          'unquote' is set to ‘False’.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 216.
          class its functionality is replaced by the 'params' property
          of the individual header objects returned by the header access
          methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_param (param, value, header='Content-Type',
               requote=True, charset=None, language='', replace=False)

          Set a parameter in the ‘Content-Type’ header.  If the
          parameter already exists in the header, its value will be
          replaced with 'value'.  If the ‘Content-Type’ header as not
          yet been defined for this message, it will be set to
          ‘text/plain’ and the new parameter value will be appended as
          per RFC 2045(10).

          Optional 'header' specifies an alternative header to
          ‘Content-Type’, and all parameters will be quoted as necessary
          unless optional 'requote' is ‘False’ (the default is ‘True’).

          If optional 'charset' is specified, the parameter will be
          encoded according to RFC 2231(11).  Optional 'language'
          specifies the RFC 2231 language, defaulting to the empty
          string.  Both 'charset' and 'language' should be strings.

          If 'replace' is ‘False’ (the default) the header is moved to
          the end of the list of headers.  If 'replace' is ‘True’, the
          header will be updated in place.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: ‘replace’ keyword was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: del_param (param, header='content-type', requote=True)

          Remove the given parameter completely from the ‘Content-Type’
          header.  The header will be re-written in place without the
          parameter or its value.  All values will be quoted as
          necessary unless 'requote' is ‘False’ (the default is ‘True’).
          Optional 'header' specifies an alternative to ‘Content-Type’.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_type (type, header='Content-Type', requote=True)

          Set the main type and subtype for the ‘Content-Type’ header.
          'type' must be a string in the form ‘maintype/subtype’,
          otherwise a *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

          This method replaces the ‘Content-Type’ header, keeping all
          the parameters in place.  If 'requote' is ‘False’, this leaves
          the existing header’s quoting as is, otherwise the parameters
          will be quoted (the default).

          An alternative header can be specified in the 'header'
          argument.  When the ‘Content-Type’ header is set a
          ‘MIME-Version’ header is also added.

          This is a legacy method.  On the *note EmailMessage: 216.
          class its functionality is replaced by the ‘make_’ and ‘add_’
          methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_filename (failobj=None)

          Return the value of the ‘filename’ parameter of the
          ‘Content-Disposition’ header of the message.  If the header
          does not have a ‘filename’ parameter, this method falls back
          to looking for the ‘name’ parameter on the ‘Content-Type’
          header.  If neither is found, or the header is missing, then
          'failobj' is returned.  The returned string will always be
          unquoted as per *note email.utils.unquote(): 3d22.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_boundary (failobj=None)

          Return the value of the ‘boundary’ parameter of the
          ‘Content-Type’ header of the message, or 'failobj' if either
          the header is missing, or has no ‘boundary’ parameter.  The
          returned string will always be unquoted as per *note
          email.utils.unquote(): 3d22.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_boundary (boundary)

          Set the ‘boundary’ parameter of the ‘Content-Type’ header to
          'boundary'.  ‘set_boundary()’ will always quote 'boundary' if
          necessary.  A *note HeaderParseError: 3d25. is raised if the
          message object has no ‘Content-Type’ header.

          Note that using this method is subtly different than deleting
          the old ‘Content-Type’ header and adding a new one with the
          new boundary via *note add_header(): 1aa4, because
          ‘set_boundary()’ preserves the order of the ‘Content-Type’
          header in the list of headers.  However, it does 'not'
          preserve any continuation lines which may have been present in
          the original ‘Content-Type’ header.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_content_charset (failobj=None)

          Return the ‘charset’ parameter of the ‘Content-Type’ header,
          coerced to lower case.  If there is no ‘Content-Type’ header,
          or if that header has no ‘charset’ parameter, 'failobj' is
          returned.

          Note that this method differs from *note get_charset(): 3dc6.
          which returns the *note Charset: 11b2. instance for the
          default encoding of the message body.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_charsets (failobj=None)

          Return a list containing the character set names in the
          message.  If the message is a ‘multipart’, then the list will
          contain one element for each subpart in the payload,
          otherwise, it will be a list of length 1.

          Each item in the list will be a string which is the value of
          the ‘charset’ parameter in the ‘Content-Type’ header for the
          represented subpart.  However, if the subpart has no
          ‘Content-Type’ header, no ‘charset’ parameter, or is not of
          the ‘text’ main MIME type, then that item in the returned list
          will be 'failobj'.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_content_disposition ()

          Return the lowercased value (without parameters) of the
          message’s ‘Content-Disposition’ header if it has one, or
          ‘None’.  The possible values for this method are 'inline',
          'attachment' or ‘None’ if the message follows RFC 2183(12).

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Μέθοδος: walk ()

          The ‘walk()’ method is an all-purpose generator which can be
          used to iterate over all the parts and subparts of a message
          object tree, in depth-first traversal order.  You will
          typically use ‘walk()’ as the iterator in a ‘for’ loop; each
          iteration returns the next subpart.

          Here’s an example that prints the MIME type of every part of a
          multipart message structure:

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_type())
               multipart/report
               text/plain
               message/delivery-status
               text/plain
               text/plain
               message/rfc822
               text/plain

          ‘walk’ iterates over the subparts of any part where *note
          is_multipart(): 3d29. returns ‘True’, even though
          ‘msg.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart'’ may return
          ‘False’.  We can see this in our example by making use of the
          ‘_structure’ debug helper function:

               >>> for part in msg.walk():
               ...     print(part.get_content_maintype() == 'multipart',
               ...           part.is_multipart())
               True True
               False False
               False True
               False False
               False False
               False True
               False False
               >>> _structure(msg)
               multipart/report
                   text/plain
                   message/delivery-status
                       text/plain
                       text/plain
                   message/rfc822
                       text/plain

          Here the ‘message’ parts are not ‘multiparts’, but they do
          contain subparts.  ‘is_multipart()’ returns ‘True’ and ‘walk’
          descends into the subparts.

     ‘Message’ objects can also optionally contain two instance
     attributes, which can be used when generating the plain text of a
     MIME message.

      -- Ιδιότητα: preamble

          The format of a MIME document allows for some text between the
          blank line following the headers, and the first multipart
          boundary string.  Normally, this text is never visible in a
          MIME-aware mail reader because it falls outside the standard
          MIME armor.  However, when viewing the raw text of the
          message, or when viewing the message in a non-MIME aware
          reader, this text can become visible.

          The 'preamble' attribute contains this leading extra-armor
          text for MIME documents.  When the *note Parser: 1546.
          discovers some text after the headers but before the first
          boundary string, it assigns this text to the message’s
          'preamble' attribute.  When the *note Generator: 1577. is
          writing out the plain text representation of a MIME message,
          and it finds the message has a 'preamble' attribute, it will
          write this text in the area between the headers and the first
          boundary.  See *note email.parser: 51. and *note
          email.generator: 43. for details.

          Note that if the message object has no preamble, the
          'preamble' attribute will be ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: epilogue

          The 'epilogue' attribute acts the same way as the 'preamble'
          attribute, except that it contains text that appears between
          the last boundary and the end of the message.

          You do not need to set the epilogue to the empty string in
          order for the *note Generator: 1577. to print a newline at the
          end of the file.

      -- Ιδιότητα: defects

          The 'defects' attribute contains a list of all the problems
          found when parsing this message.  See *note email.errors: 42.
          for a detailed description of the possible parsing defects.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2183.html


File: python.info,  Node: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch,  Next: email header Internationalized headers,  Prev: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.14 ‘email.mime’: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch
....................................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/mime/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module is part of the legacy (‘Compat32’) email API. Its
functionality is partially replaced by the *note contentmanager: 40. in
the new API, but in certain applications these classes may still be
useful, even in non-legacy code.

Ordinarily, you get a message object structure by passing a file or some
text to a parser, which parses the text and returns the root message
object.  However you can also build a complete message structure from
scratch, or even individual *note Message: 780. objects by hand.  In
fact, you can also take an existing structure and add new ‘Message’
objects, move them around, etc.  This makes a very convenient interface
for slicing-and-dicing MIME messages.

You can create a new object structure by creating *note Message: 780.
instances, adding attachments and all the appropriate headers manually.
For MIME messages though, the *note email: 3e. package provides some
convenient subclasses to make things easier.

Here are the classes:

 -- Κλάση: email.mime.base.MIMEBase (_maintype, _subtype, *,
          policy=compat32, **_params)

     Module: *note email.mime.base: 4b.

     This is the base class for all the MIME-specific subclasses of
     *note Message: 780.  Ordinarily you won’t create instances
     specifically of ‘MIMEBase’, although you could.  ‘MIMEBase’ is
     provided primarily as a convenient base class for more specific
     MIME-aware subclasses.

     '_maintype' is the ‘Content-Type’ major type (e.g.  ‘text’ or
     ‘image’), and '_subtype' is the ‘Content-Type’ minor type (e.g.
     ‘plain’ or ‘gif’).  '_params' is a parameter key/value dictionary
     and is passed directly to *note Message.add_header: 1aa4.

     If 'policy' is specified, (defaults to the *note compat32: 1461.
     policy) it will be passed to *note Message: 780.

     The ‘MIMEBase’ class always adds a ‘Content-Type’ header (based on
     '_maintype', '_subtype', and '_params'), and a ‘MIME-Version’
     header (always set to ‘1.0’).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

 -- Κλάση: email.mime.nonmultipart.MIMENonMultipart

     Module: *note email.mime.nonmultipart: 4f.

     A subclass of *note MIMEBase: 3de6, this is an intermediate base
     class for MIME messages that are not ‘multipart’.  The primary
     purpose of this class is to prevent the use of the *note attach():
     3d36. method, which only makes sense for ‘multipart’ messages.  If
     ‘attach()’ is called, a *note MultipartConversionError: 3d7b.
     exception is raised.

 -- Κλάση: email.mime.multipart.MIMEMultipart (_subtype='mixed',
          boundary=None, _subparts=None, *, policy=compat32, **_params)

     Module: *note email.mime.multipart: 4e.

     A subclass of *note MIMEBase: 3de6, this is an intermediate base
     class for MIME messages that are ‘multipart’.  Optional '_subtype'
     defaults to ‘mixed’, but can be used to specify the subtype of the
     message.  A ‘Content-Type’ header of ‘multipart/_subtype’ will be
     added to the message object.  A ‘MIME-Version’ header will also be
     added.

     Optional 'boundary' is the multipart boundary string.  When ‘None’
     (the default), the boundary is calculated when needed (for example,
     when the message is serialized).

     '_subparts' is a sequence of initial subparts for the payload.  It
     must be possible to convert this sequence to a list.  You can
     always attach new subparts to the message by using the *note
     Message.attach: 3d36. method.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: 1461.

     Additional parameters for the ‘Content-Type’ header are taken from
     the keyword arguments, or passed into the '_params' argument, which
     is a keyword dictionary.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

 -- Κλάση: email.mime.application.MIMEApplication (_data,
          _subtype='octet-stream',
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     Module: *note email.mime.application: 49.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 3d7c, the ‘MIMEApplication’
     class is used to represent MIME message objects of major type
     ‘application’.  '_data' contains the bytes for the raw application
     data.  Optional '_subtype' specifies the MIME subtype and defaults
     to ‘octet-stream’.

     Optional '_encoder' is a callable (i.e.  function) which will
     perform the actual encoding of the data for transport.  This
     callable takes one argument, which is the ‘MIMEApplication’
     instance.  It should use *note get_payload(): 1576. and *note
     set_payload(): 3dc4. to change the payload to encoded form.  It
     should also add any ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ or other headers to
     the message object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.
     See the *note email.encoders: 41. module for a list of the built-in
     encoders.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: 1461.

     '_params' are passed straight through to the base class
     constructor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

 -- Κλάση: email.mime.audio.MIMEAudio (_audiodata, _subtype=None,
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     Module: *note email.mime.audio: 4a.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 3d7c, the ‘MIMEAudio’ class
     is used to create MIME message objects of major type ‘audio’.
     '_audiodata' contains the bytes for the raw audio data.  If this
     data can be decoded as au, wav, aiff, or aifc, then the subtype
     will be automatically included in the ‘Content-Type’ header.
     Otherwise you can explicitly specify the audio subtype via the
     '_subtype' argument.  If the minor type could not be guessed and
     '_subtype' was not given, then *note TypeError: 291. is raised.

     Optional '_encoder' is a callable (i.e.  function) which will
     perform the actual encoding of the audio data for transport.  This
     callable takes one argument, which is the ‘MIMEAudio’ instance.  It
     should use *note get_payload(): 1576. and *note set_payload():
     3dc4. to change the payload to encoded form.  It should also add
     any ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ or other headers to the message
     object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.  See the
     *note email.encoders: 41. module for a list of the built-in
     encoders.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: 1461.

     '_params' are passed straight through to the base class
     constructor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

 -- Κλάση: email.mime.image.MIMEImage (_imagedata, _subtype=None,
          _encoder=email.encoders.encode_base64, *, policy=compat32,
          **_params)

     Module: *note email.mime.image: 4c.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 3d7c, the ‘MIMEImage’ class
     is used to create MIME message objects of major type ‘image’.
     '_imagedata' contains the bytes for the raw image data.  If this
     data type can be detected (jpeg, png, gif, tiff, rgb, pbm, pgm,
     ppm, rast, xbm, bmp, webp, and exr attempted), then the subtype
     will be automatically included in the ‘Content-Type’ header.
     Otherwise you can explicitly specify the image subtype via the
     '_subtype' argument.  If the minor type could not be guessed and
     '_subtype' was not given, then *note TypeError: 291. is raised.

     Optional '_encoder' is a callable (i.e.  function) which will
     perform the actual encoding of the image data for transport.  This
     callable takes one argument, which is the ‘MIMEImage’ instance.  It
     should use *note get_payload(): 1576. and *note set_payload():
     3dc4. to change the payload to encoded form.  It should also add
     any ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ or other headers to the message
     object as necessary.  The default encoding is base64.  See the
     *note email.encoders: 41. module for a list of the built-in
     encoders.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: 1461.

     '_params' are passed straight through to the *note MIMEBase: 3de6.
     constructor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

 -- Κλάση: email.mime.message.MIMEMessage (_msg, _subtype='rfc822', *,
          policy=compat32)

     Module: *note email.mime.message: 4d.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 3d7c, the ‘MIMEMessage’ class
     is used to create MIME objects of main type ‘message’.  '_msg' is
     used as the payload, and must be an instance of class *note
     Message: 780. (or a subclass thereof), otherwise a *note TypeError:
     291. is raised.

     Optional '_subtype' sets the subtype of the message; it defaults to
     ‘rfc822’.

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: 1461.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

 -- Κλάση: email.mime.text.MIMEText (_text, _subtype='plain',
          _charset=None, *, policy=compat32)

     Module: *note email.mime.text: 50.

     A subclass of *note MIMENonMultipart: 3d7c, the ‘MIMEText’ class is
     used to create MIME objects of major type ‘text’.  '_text' is the
     string for the payload.  '_subtype' is the minor type and defaults
     to ‘plain’.  '_charset' is the character set of the text and is
     passed as an argument to the ‘MIMENonMultipart’ constructor; it
     defaults to ‘us-ascii’ if the string contains only ‘ascii’ code
     points, and ‘utf-8’ otherwise.  The '_charset' parameter accepts
     either a string or a *note Charset: 11b2. instance.

     Unless the '_charset' argument is explicitly set to ‘None’, the
     MIMEText object created will have both a ‘Content-Type’ header with
     a ‘charset’ parameter, and a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.
     This means that a subsequent ‘set_payload’ call will not result in
     an encoded payload, even if a charset is passed in the
     ‘set_payload’ command.  You can «reset» this behavior by deleting
     the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header, after which a ‘set_payload’
     call will automatically encode the new payload (and add a new
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header).

     Optional 'policy' argument defaults to *note compat32: 1461.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: '_charset' also accepts *note Charset:
     11b2. instances.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added 'policy' keyword-only parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email/mime/


File: python.info,  Node: email header Internationalized headers,  Next: email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων,  Prev: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.15 ‘email.header’: Internationalized headers
...................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/header.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module is part of the legacy (‘Compat32’) email API. In the current
API encoding and decoding of headers is handled transparently by the
dictionary-like API of the *note EmailMessage: 216. class.  In addition
to uses in legacy code, this module can be useful in applications that
need to completely control the character sets used when encoding
headers.

The remaining text in this section is the original documentation of the
module.

RFC 2822(2) is the base standard that describes the format of email
messages.  It derives from the older RFC 822(3) standard which came into
widespread use at a time when most email was composed of ASCII
characters only.  RFC 2822(4) is a specification written assuming email
contains only 7-bit ASCII characters.

Of course, as email has been deployed worldwide, it has become
internationalized, such that language specific character sets can now be
used in email messages.  The base standard still requires email messages
to be transferred using only 7-bit ASCII characters, so a slew of RFCs
have been written describing how to encode email containing non-ASCII
characters into RFC 2822(5)-compliant format.  These RFCs include RFC
2045(6), RFC 2046(7), RFC 2047(8), and RFC 2231(9).  The *note email:
3e. package supports these standards in its ‘email.header’ and *note
email.charset: 3f. modules.

If you want to include non-ASCII characters in your email headers, say
in the ‘Subject’ or ‘To’ fields, you should use the *note Header: 1e55.
class and assign the field in the *note Message: 780. object to an
instance of ‘Header’ instead of using a string for the header value.
Import the ‘Header’ class from the ‘email.header’ module.  For example:

     >>> from email.message import Message
     >>> from email.header import Header
     >>> msg = Message()
     >>> h = Header('p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')
     >>> msg['Subject'] = h
     >>> msg.as_string()
     'Subject: =?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=\n\n'

Notice here how we wanted the ‘Subject’ field to contain a non-ASCII
character?  We did this by creating a *note Header: 1e55. instance and
passing in the character set that the byte string was encoded in.  When
the subsequent *note Message: 780. instance was flattened, the ‘Subject’
field was properly RFC 2047(10) encoded.  MIME-aware mail readers would
show this header using the embedded ISO-8859-1 character.

Here is the *note Header: 1e55. class description:

 -- Κλάση: email.header.Header (s=None, charset=None, maxlinelen=None,
          header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ', errors='strict')

     Create a MIME-compliant header that can contain strings in
     different character sets.

     Optional 's' is the initial header value.  If ‘None’ (the default),
     the initial header value is not set.  You can later append to the
     header with *note append(): 3dee. method calls.  's' may be an
     instance of *note bytes: 1c7. or *note str: 1df, but see the
     ‘append()’ documentation for semantics.

     Optional 'charset' serves two purposes: it has the same meaning as
     the 'charset' argument to the *note append(): 3dee. method.  It
     also sets the default character set for all subsequent ‘append()’
     calls that omit the 'charset' argument.  If 'charset' is not
     provided in the constructor (the default), the ‘us-ascii’ character
     set is used both as 's'’s initial charset and as the default for
     subsequent ‘append()’ calls.

     The maximum line length can be specified explicitly via
     'maxlinelen'.  For splitting the first line to a shorter value (to
     account for the field header which isn’t included in 's', e.g.
     ‘Subject’) pass in the name of the field in 'header_name'.  The
     default 'maxlinelen' is 78, and the default value for 'header_name'
     is ‘None’, meaning it is not taken into account for the first line
     of a long, split header.

     Optional 'continuation_ws' must be RFC 2822(11)-compliant folding
     whitespace, and is usually either a space or a hard tab character.
     This character will be prepended to continuation lines.
     'continuation_ws' defaults to a single space character.

     Optional 'errors' is passed straight through to the *note append():
     3dee. method.

      -- Μέθοδος: append (s, charset=None, errors='strict')

          Append the string 's' to the MIME header.

          Optional 'charset', if given, should be a *note Charset: 11b2.
          instance (see *note email.charset: 3f.) or the name of a
          character set, which will be converted to a ‘Charset’
          instance.  A value of ‘None’ (the default) means that the
          'charset' given in the constructor is used.

          's' may be an instance of *note bytes: 1c7. or *note str: 1df.
          If it is an instance of ‘bytes’, then 'charset' is the
          encoding of that byte string, and a *note UnicodeError: 675.
          will be raised if the string cannot be decoded with that
          character set.

          If 's' is an instance of *note str: 1df, then 'charset' is a
          hint specifying the character set of the characters in the
          string.

          In either case, when producing an RFC 2822(12)-compliant
          header using RFC 2047(13) rules, the string will be encoded
          using the output codec of the charset.  If the string cannot
          be encoded using the output codec, a UnicodeError will be
          raised.

          Optional 'errors' is passed as the errors argument to the
          decode call if 's' is a byte string.

      -- Μέθοδος: encode (splitchars=';, \t', maxlinelen=None,
               linesep='\n')

          Encode a message header into an RFC-compliant format, possibly
          wrapping long lines and encapsulating non-ASCII parts in
          base64 or quoted-printable encodings.

          Optional 'splitchars' is a string containing characters which
          should be given extra weight by the splitting algorithm during
          normal header wrapping.  This is in very rough support of RFC
          2822(14)'s “higher level syntactic breaks”: split points
          preceded by a splitchar are preferred during line splitting,
          with the characters preferred in the order in which they
          appear in the string.  Space and tab may be included in the
          string to indicate whether preference should be given to one
          over the other as a split point when other split chars do not
          appear in the line being split.  Splitchars does not affect
          RFC 2047(15) encoded lines.

          'maxlinelen', if given, overrides the instance’s value for the
          maximum line length.

          'linesep' specifies the characters used to separate the lines
          of the folded header.  It defaults to the most useful value
          for Python application code (‘\n’), but ‘\r\n’ can be
          specified in order to produce headers with RFC-compliant line
          separators.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'linesep' argument.

     The ‘Header’ class also provides a number of methods to support
     standard operators and built-in functions.

      -- Μέθοδος: __str__ ()

          Returns an approximation of the ‘Header’ as a string, using an
          unlimited line length.  All pieces are converted to unicode
          using the specified encoding and joined together
          appropriately.  Any pieces with a charset of ‘'unknown-8bit'’
          are decoded as ASCII using the ‘'replace'’ error handler.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added handling for the
          ‘'unknown-8bit'’ charset.

      -- Μέθοδος: __eq__ (other)

          This method allows you to compare two ‘Header’ instances for
          equality.

      -- Μέθοδος: __ne__ (other)

          This method allows you to compare two ‘Header’ instances for
          inequality.

The ‘email.header’ module also provides the following convenient
functions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.header.decode_header (header)

     Decode a message header value without converting the character set.
     The header value is in 'header'.

     For historical reasons, this function may return either:

       1. A list of pairs containing each of the decoded parts of the
          header, ‘(decoded_bytes, charset)’, where 'decoded_bytes' is
          always an instance of *note bytes: 1c7, and 'charset' is
          either:

                  - A lower case string containing the name of the
                    character set specified.

                  - ‘None’ for non-encoded parts of the header.

       2. A list of length 1 containing a pair ‘(string, None)’, where
          'string' is always an instance of *note str: 1df.

     An *note email.errors.HeaderParseError: 3d25. may be raised when
     certain decoding errors occur (e.g.  a base64 decoding exception).

     Here are examples:

          >>> from email.header import decode_header
          >>> decode_header('=?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=')
          [(b'p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')]
          >>> decode_header('unencoded_string')
          [('unencoded_string', None)]
          >>> decode_header('bar =?utf-8?B?ZsOzbw==?=')
          [(b'bar ', None), (b'f\xc3\xb3o', 'utf-8')]

          Σημείωση: This function exists for backwards compatibility
          only.  For new code, we recommend using *note
          email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry: 3d8d.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.header.make_header (decoded_seq, maxlinelen=None,
          header_name=None, continuation_ws=' ')

     Create a *note Header: 1e55. instance from a sequence of pairs as
     returned by *note decode_header(): 1465.

     *note decode_header(): 1465. takes a header value string and
     returns a sequence of pairs of the format ‘(decoded_string,
     charset)’ where 'charset' is the name of the character set.

     This function takes one of those sequence of pairs and returns a
     *note Header: 1e55. instance.  Optional 'maxlinelen',
     'header_name', and 'continuation_ws' are as in the ‘Header’
     constructor.

          Σημείωση: This function exists for backwards compatibility
          only, and is not recommended for use in new code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email/header.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2046.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html


File: python.info,  Node: email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων,  Next: email encoders Encoders,  Prev: email header Internationalized headers,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.16 ‘email.charset’: Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων
..........................................................

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/email.charset.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Αυτό το module αποτελεί μέρος του παλιού API (‘Compat32’) του email.
Στο νέο API, χρησιμοποιείται μόνο ο πίνακας των ψευδωνύμων.

Το υπόλοιπο κείμενο σε αυτή την ενότητα είναι η αρχική τεκμηρίωση του
module.

Αυτό το module παρέχει την κλάση *note Charset: 11b2. για την
αναπαράσταση των συνόλων χαρακτήρων και των μετατροπών τους σε μηνύματα
email, καθώς και ένα μητρώο συνόλων χαρακτήρων και διάφορες βοηθητικές
μεθόδους για τη διαχείρισή του.  Τα στιγμιότυπα της ‘Charset’
χρησιμοποιούνται σε αρκετά άλλα modules εντός του πακέτου *note email:
3e.

Import this class from the ‘email.charset’ module.

 -- Κλάση: email.charset.Charset (input_charset=DEFAULT_CHARSET)

     Αντιστοίχιση συνόλων χαρακτήρων στις ιδιότητες τους στο email.

     Αυτή η κλάση παρέχει πληροφορίες σχετικά με τις απαιτήσεις που
     επιβάλλονται σε ένα email για ένα συγκεκριμένο σύνολο χαρακτήρων.
     Παρέχει επίσης βοηθητικές ρουτίνες για την μετατροπή μεταξύ συνόλων
     χαρακτήρων, εφόσον είναι διαθέσιμα τα αντίστοιχα codecs.  Δεδομένου
     ενός συνόλου χαρακτήρων, θα προσπαθήσει να παρέχει πληροφορίες
     σχετικά με τον τρόπο χρήσης του σε ένα email με τρόπο συμβατό με το
     RFC.

     Ορισμένα σύνολα χαρακτήρων πρέπει να κωδικοποιούνται με
     quoted-printable ή base64 όταν χρησιμοποιούνται σε κεφαλίδες ή
     σώματα email.  Ορισμένα σύνολα χαρακτήρων πρέπει να μετατραπούν
     πλήρως και δεν επιτρέπονται στα email.

     Το προαιρετικό 'input_charset' περιγράφεται παρακάτω· μετατρέπεται
     πάντα σε πεζά.  Μετά την κανονικοποίηση ψευδωνύμων, χρησιμοποιείται
     επίσης ως αναζήτηση στο μητρώο των συνόλων χαρακτήρων για να
     προσδιορίσει την κωδικοποίηση κεφαλίδας, την κωδικοποίηση σώματος
     και τον κωδικοποιητή μετατροπής εξόδου που θα χρησιμοποιηθεί για το
     σύνολο χαρακτήρων.  Για παράδειγμα, εάν το 'input_charset' είναι
     ‘iso-8859-1’, τότε οι κεφαλίδες και τα σώματα θα κωδικοποιηθούν
     χρησιμοποιώντας quoted-printable και δεν απαιτείται codec
     μετατροπής εξόδου.  Εάν το 'input_charset' είναι ‘euc-jp’, τότε οι
     κεφαλίδες θα κωδικοποιηθούν με base64, τα σώματα δεν θα
     κωδικοποιηθούν, αλλά το κείμενο εξόδου θα μετατραπεί από το σύνολο
     χαρακτήρων ‘euc-jp’ στο ‘iso-2022-jp’.

     Στιγμιότυπα της κλάσης *note Charset: 11b2. έχουν τα ακόλουθα
     χαρακτηριστικά δεδομένων:

      -- Ιδιότητα: input_charset

          Το αρχικό σύνολο χαρακτήρων καθορίζεται.  Τα κοινά ψευδώνυμα
          μετατρέπονται στα 'επίσημα' ονόματα τους για το email (π.χ.
          το ‘latin_1’ μετατρέπεται σε ‘iso-8859-1’).  Προεπιλογή είναι
          το 7-bit ‘us-ascii’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: header_encoding

          Εάν το σύνολο χαρακτήρων πρέπει να κωδικοποιηθεί πριν
          χρησιμοποιηθεί σε κεφαλίδα email, αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό θα
          οριστεί σε ‘charset.QP’ (για quoted-printable),
          ‘charset.BASE64’ (για κωδικοποίηση base64), ή
          ‘charset.SHORTEST’ για την πιο σύντομη κωδικοποίηση από QP ή
          BASE64.  Διαφορετικά, θα είναι ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: body_encoding

          Ίδιο με το 'header_encoding', αλλά περιγράφει την κωδικοποίηση
          για το σώμα του μηνύματος email, το οποίο μπορεί να είναι
          διαφορετικό από την κωδικοποίηση της κεφαλίδας.  Η τιμή
          ‘charset.SHORTEST’ δεν επιτρέπεται για το 'body_encoding'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: output_charset

          Ορισμένα σύνολα χαρακτήρων πρέπει να μετατραπούν πριν
          χρησιμοποιηθούν σε κεφαλίδες ή σώματα email.  Αν το
          'input_charset' είναι ένα από αυτά, αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό θα
          περιέχει το όνομα του συνόλου χαρακτήρων στο οποίο θα
          μετατραπεί η έξοδος.  Αλλιώς, θα είναι ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: input_codec

          Το όνομα του Python codec που χρησιμοποιείται για την
          μετατροπή του 'input_charset' σε Unicode.  Αν δεν απαιτείται
          codec μετατροπής, αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό θα είναι ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: output_codec

          Το όνομα του Python codec που χρησιμοποιείται για την
          μετατροπή του Unicode στο 'output_charset'.  Αν δεν απαιτείται
          codec μετατροπής, αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό θα έχει την ίδια τιμή
          με το 'input_codec'.

     Στιγμιότυπα της κλάσης *note Charset: 11b2. διαθέτουν επίσης τις
     εξής μεθόδους:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_body_encoding ()

          Επιστρέφει τον κωδικοποιητή μεταφοράς περιεχομένου που
          χρησιμοποιείται για την κωδικοποίηση του σώματος.

          Αυτή είναι είτε η συμβολοσειρά ‘quoted-printable’ ή ‘base64’,
          ανάλογα με την κωδικοποίηση που χρησιμοποιείται, είτε είναι
          μια συνάρτηση, οπότε πρέπει να καλέσετε τη συνάρτηση με ένα
          μόνο όρισμα, το αντικείμενο Message που κωδικοποιείται.  Η
          συνάρτηση θα πρέπει στη συνέχεια να ορίσει την κεφαλίδα
          ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ η ίδια, σε ότι είναι κατάλληλο.

          Επιστρέφει την συμβολοσειρά ‘quoted-printable’ αν το
          'body_encoding' είναι ‘QP’, επιστρέφει την συμβολοσειρά
          ‘base64’ αν το 'body_encoding' είναι ‘BASE64’, και επιστρέφει
          την συμβολοσειρά ‘7bit’ διαφορετικά.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_output_charset ()

          Επιστρέφει το σύνολο χαρακτήρων εξόδου.

          Αυτό είναι το χαρακτηριστικό 'output_charset' αν δεν είναι
          ‘None’, διαφορετικά είναι το 'input_charset'.

      -- Μέθοδος: header_encode (string)

          Κωδικοποιεί την κεφαλίδα της συμβολοσειράς 'string'.

          Ο τύπος κωδικοποίησης (base64 ή quoted-printable) θα βασίζεται
          στο χαρακτηριστικό 'header_encoding'.

      -- Μέθοδος: header_encode_lines (string, maxlengths)

          Κωδικοποιεί την κεφαλίδα μιας συμβολοσειράς 'string'
          μετατρέποντας το πρώτα σε bytes.

          Αυτό είναι παρόμοιο με την μέθοδο *note header_encode(): 3dfe,
          εκτός από το ότι το string τοποθετείται στις μέγιστες γραμμές
          μήκους που δίνονται από το όρισμα 'maxlengths', το οποίο
          πρέπει να είναι ένας iterator: κάθε στοιχείο που επιστρέφεται
          από αυτόν τον iterator θα παρέχει το επόμενο μέγιστο μήκος
          γραμμής.

      -- Μέθοδος: body_encode (string)

          Κωδικοποίηση σώματος της συμβολοσειράς 'string'.

          Ο τύπος κωδικοποίησης (base64 ή quoted-printable) θα βασίζεται
          στο χαρακτηριστικό 'body_encoding'.

     Η κλάση *note Charset: 11b2. παρέχει επίσης αρκετές μεθόδους για να
     υποστηρίξει τις τυπικές λειτουργίες και τις ενσωματωμένες
     συναρτήσεις.

      -- Μέθοδος: __str__ ()

          Επιστρέφει το 'input_charset' ως συμβολοσειρά που έχει
          μετατραπεί σε πεζά.  Η μέθοδος ‘__repr__()’ είναι ένα
          ψευδώνυμο για την μέθοδο ‘__str__()’.

      -- Μέθοδος: __eq__ (other)

          Αυτή η μέθοδος σας επιτρέπει να συγκρίνετε δύο στιγμιότυπα της
          κλάσης *note Charset: 11b2. για ισότητα.

      -- Μέθοδος: __ne__ (other)

          Αυτή η μέθοδος σας επιτρέπει να συγκρίνετε δύο στιγμιότυπα της
          κλάσης *note Charset: 11b2. για ανισότητα.

The ‘email.charset’ module also provides the following functions for
adding new entries to the global character set, alias, and codec
registries:

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.charset.add_charset (charset, header_enc=None,
          body_enc=None, output_charset=None)

     Προσθέστε ιδιότητες χαρακτήρων στο καθολικό μητρώο.

     Το 'charset' είναι το σύνολο χαρακτήρων εισόδου, και πρέπει να
     είναι το κανονικό όνομα ενός συνόλου χαρακτήρων.

     Προαιρετικά το 'header_enc' και 'body_enc' είναι είτε ‘charset.QP’
     για κωδικοποίηση quoted-printable, ‘charset.BASE64’ για
     κωδικοποίηση base64, ‘charset.SHORTEST’ για την πιο σύντομη από τις
     κωδικοποιήσεις quoted-printable ή base64, ή ‘None’ για καμία
     κωδικοποίηση.  Το ‘SHORTEST’ είναι έγκυρο μόνο για το 'header_enc'.
     Η προεπιλογή είναι ‘None’ για καμία κωδικοποίηση.

     Προαιρετικό 'output_charset' είναι το σύνολο χαρακτήρων στο οποίο
     θα πρέπει να βρίσκεται η έξοδος.  Οι μετατροπές θα γίνονται από το
     εισερχόμενο σύνολο χαρακτήρων, σε Unicode, και στη συνέχεια στο
     σύνολο χαρακτήρων εξόδου όταν καλείται η μέθοδος
     ‘Charset.convert()’.  Η προεπιλογή είναι να εξάγεται το ίδιο σύνολο
     χαρακτήρων με το εισερχόμενο.

     Τόσο το 'input_charset' όσο και το 'output_charset' πρέπει να έχουν
     καταχωρίσεις Unicode codec στη χαρτογράφηση χαρακτήρων προς codec
     του module· χρησιμοποιήστε την συνάρτηση *note add_codec(): 3e05.
     για να προσθέσετε codecs που το module δεν γνωρίζει.  Δείτε την
     τεκμηρίωση του module *note codecs: 1c. για περισσότερες
     πληροφορίες.

     Το καθολικό μητρώο συνόλων χαρακτήρων διατηρείται στο καθολικό
     dictionary του module ‘CHARSETS’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.charset.add_alias (alias, canonical)

     Προσθέστε ένα ψευδώνυμο συνόλου χαρακτήρων.  Το 'alias' είναι το
     όνομα του ψευδωνύμου, π.χ.  ‘latin-1’.  Το 'canonical' είναι το
     κανονικό όνομα του συνόλου χαρακτήρων, π.χ.  ‘iso-8859-1’.

     Το παγκόσμιο μητρώο ψευδωνύμων συνόλων χαρακτήρων διατηρείται στο
     καθολικό λεξικό του module ‘ALIASES’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.charset.add_codec (charset, codecname)

     Προσθέστε έναν κωδικοποιητή που αντιστοιχεί χαρακτήρες από το
     δεδομένο σύνολο χαρακτήρων προς και από Unicode.

     Το 'charset' είναι το κανονικό όνομα ενός συνόλου χαρακτήρων.  Το
     'codecname' είναι το όνομα ενός κωδικοποιητή Python, ως κατάλληλο
     για το δεύτερο όρισμα της μεθόδου *note encode(): ca7. της κλάσης
     *note str: 1df.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email.charset.py


File: python.info,  Node: email encoders Encoders,  Next: email utils Miscellaneous utilities,  Prev: email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.17 ‘email.encoders’: Encoders
....................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/encoders.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module is part of the legacy (‘Compat32’) email API. In the new API
the functionality is provided by the 'cte' parameter of the *note
set_content(): 1e54. method.

This module is deprecated in Python 3.  The functions provided here
should not be called explicitly since the *note MIMEText: 11b1. class
sets the content type and CTE header using the '_subtype' and '_charset'
values passed during the instantiation of that class.

The remaining text in this section is the original documentation of the
module.

When creating *note Message: 780. objects from scratch, you often need
to encode the payloads for transport through compliant mail servers.
This is especially true for ‘image/*’ and ‘text/*’ type messages
containing binary data.

The *note email: 3e. package provides some convenient encoders in its
‘encoders’ module.  These encoders are actually used by the *note
MIMEAudio: 3de9. and *note MIMEImage: 3d7d. class constructors to
provide default encodings.  All encoder functions take exactly one
argument, the message object to encode.  They usually extract the
payload, encode it, and reset the payload to this newly encoded value.
They should also set the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header as
appropriate.

Note that these functions are not meaningful for a multipart message.
They must be applied to individual subparts instead, and will raise a
*note TypeError: 291. if passed a message whose type is multipart.

Here are the encoding functions provided:

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.encoders.encode_quopri (msg)

     Encodes the payload into quoted-printable form and sets the
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header to ‘quoted-printable’ (2).  This
     is a good encoding to use when most of your payload is normal
     printable data, but contains a few unprintable characters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.encoders.encode_base64 (msg)

     Encodes the payload into base64 form and sets the
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header to ‘base64’.  This is a good
     encoding to use when most of your payload is unprintable data since
     it is a more compact form than quoted-printable.  The drawback of
     base64 encoding is that it renders the text non-human readable.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.encoders.encode_7or8bit (msg)

     This doesn’t actually modify the message’s payload, but it does set
     the ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header to either ‘7bit’ or ‘8bit’
     as appropriate, based on the payload data.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.encoders.encode_noop (msg)

     This does nothing; it doesn’t even set the
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email/encoders.py

   (2) Note that encoding with *note encode_quopri(): 3e0a. also encodes
all tabs and space characters in the data.


File: python.info,  Node: email utils Miscellaneous utilities,  Next: email iterators Iterators,  Prev: email encoders Encoders,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.18 ‘email.utils’: Miscellaneous utilities
................................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/utils.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

There are a couple of useful utilities provided in the ‘email.utils’
module:

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.localtime (dt=None)

     Return local time as an aware datetime object.  If called without
     arguments, return current time.  Otherwise 'dt' argument should be
     a *note datetime: 6e7. instance, and it is converted to the local
     time zone according to the system time zone database.  If 'dt' is
     naive (that is, ‘dt.tzinfo’ is ‘None’), it is assumed to be in
     local time.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: The
     'isdst' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.make_msgid (idstring=None, domain=None)

     Returns a string suitable for an RFC 2822(2)-compliant ‘Message-ID’
     header.  Optional 'idstring' if given, is a string used to
     strengthen the uniqueness of the message id.  Optional 'domain' if
     given provides the portion of the msgid after the “@”.  The default
     is the local hostname.  It is not normally necessary to override
     this default, but may be useful certain cases, such as a
     constructing distributed system that uses a consistent domain name
     across multiple hosts.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'domain' keyword.

The remaining functions are part of the legacy (‘Compat32’) email API.
There is no need to directly use these with the new API, since the
parsing and formatting they provide is done automatically by the header
parsing machinery of the new API.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.quote (str)

     Return a new string with backslashes in 'str' replaced by two
     backslashes, and double quotes replaced by backslash-double quote.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.unquote (str)

     Return a new string which is an 'unquoted' version of 'str'.  If
     'str' ends and begins with double quotes, they are stripped off.
     Likewise if 'str' ends and begins with angle brackets, they are
     stripped off.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.parseaddr (address, *, strict=True)

     Parse address – which should be the value of some
     address-containing field such as ‘To’ or ‘Cc’ – into its
     constituent 'realname' and 'email address' parts.  Returns a tuple
     of that information, unless the parse fails, in which case a
     2-tuple of ‘('', '')’ is returned.

     If 'strict' is true, use a strict parser which rejects malformed
     inputs.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Add 'strict' optional parameter and reject
     malformed inputs by default.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.formataddr (pair, charset='utf-8')

     The inverse of *note parseaddr(): 6f9, this takes a 2-tuple of the
     form ‘(realname, email_address)’ and returns the string value
     suitable for a ‘To’ or ‘Cc’ header.  If the first element of 'pair'
     is false, then the second element is returned unmodified.

     Optional 'charset' is the character set that will be used in the
     RFC 2047(3) encoding of the ‘realname’ if the ‘realname’ contains
     non-ASCII characters.  Can be an instance of *note str: 1df. or a
     *note Charset: 11b2.  Defaults to ‘utf-8’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'charset' option.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.getaddresses (fieldvalues, *, strict=True)

     This method returns a list of 2-tuples of the form returned by
     ‘parseaddr()’.  'fieldvalues' is a sequence of header field values
     as might be returned by *note Message.get_all: 3dca.

     If 'strict' is true, use a strict parser which rejects malformed
     inputs.

     Here’s a simple example that gets all the recipients of a message:

          from email.utils import getaddresses

          tos = msg.get_all('to', [])
          ccs = msg.get_all('cc', [])
          resent_tos = msg.get_all('resent-to', [])
          resent_ccs = msg.get_all('resent-cc', [])
          all_recipients = getaddresses(tos + ccs + resent_tos + resent_ccs)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Add 'strict' optional parameter and reject
     malformed inputs by default.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.parsedate (date)

     Attempts to parse a date according to the rules in RFC 2822(4).
     however, some mailers don’t follow that format as specified, so
     ‘parsedate()’ tries to guess correctly in such cases.  'date' is a
     string containing an RFC 2822(5) date, such as ‘"Mon, 20 Nov 1995
     19:12:08 -0500"’.  If it succeeds in parsing the date,
     ‘parsedate()’ returns a 9-tuple that can be passed directly to
     *note time.mktime(): 1591.; otherwise ‘None’ will be returned.
     Note that indexes 6, 7, and 8 of the result tuple are not usable.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.parsedate_tz (date)

     Performs the same function as *note parsedate(): 3e13, but returns
     either ‘None’ or a 10-tuple; the first 9 elements make up a tuple
     that can be passed directly to *note time.mktime(): 1591, and the
     tenth is the offset of the date’s timezone from UTC (which is the
     official term for Greenwich Mean Time) (6).  If the input string
     has no timezone, the last element of the tuple returned is ‘0’,
     which represents UTC. Note that indexes 6, 7, and 8 of the result
     tuple are not usable.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.parsedate_to_datetime (date)

     The inverse of *note format_datetime(): 146a.  Performs the same
     function as *note parsedate(): 3e13, but on success returns a *note
     datetime: 6e7.; otherwise ‘ValueError’ is raised if 'date' contains
     an invalid value such as an hour greater than 23 or a timezone
     offset not between -24 and 24 hours.  If the input date has a
     timezone of ‘-0000’, the ‘datetime’ will be a naive ‘datetime’, and
     if the date is conforming to the RFCs it will represent a time in
     UTC but with no indication of the actual source timezone of the
     message the date comes from.  If the input date has any other valid
     timezone offset, the ‘datetime’ will be an aware ‘datetime’ with
     the corresponding a *note timezone: 146c. *note tzinfo: 9d8.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.mktime_tz (tuple)

     Turn a 10-tuple as returned by *note parsedate_tz(): 1e1a. into a
     UTC timestamp (seconds since the Epoch).  If the timezone item in
     the tuple is ‘None’, assume local time.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.formatdate (timeval=None, localtime=False,
          usegmt=False)

     Returns a date string as per RFC 2822(7), e.g.:

          Fri, 09 Nov 2001 01:08:47 -0000

     Optional 'timeval' if given is a floating-point time value as
     accepted by *note time.gmtime(): 1569. and *note time.localtime():
     189b, otherwise the current time is used.

     Optional 'localtime' is a flag that when ‘True’, interprets
     'timeval', and returns a date relative to the local timezone
     instead of UTC, properly taking daylight savings time into account.
     The default is ‘False’ meaning UTC is used.

     Optional 'usegmt' is a flag that when ‘True’, outputs a date string
     with the timezone as an ascii string ‘GMT’, rather than a numeric
     ‘-0000’.  This is needed for some protocols (such as HTTP). This
     only applies when 'localtime' is ‘False’.  The default is ‘False’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.format_datetime (dt, usegmt=False)

     Like ‘formatdate’, but the input is a *note datetime: 33. instance.
     If it is a naive datetime, it is assumed to be «UTC with no
     information about the source timezone», and the conventional
     ‘-0000’ is used for the timezone.  If it is an aware ‘datetime’,
     then the numeric timezone offset is used.  If it is an aware
     timezone with offset zero, then 'usegmt' may be set to ‘True’, in
     which case the string ‘GMT’ is used instead of the numeric timezone
     offset.  This provides a way to generate standards conformant HTTP
     date headers.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.decode_rfc2231 (s)

     Decode the string 's' according to RFC 2231(8).

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.encode_rfc2231 (s, charset=None,
          language=None)

     Encode the string 's' according to RFC 2231(9).  Optional 'charset'
     and 'language', if given is the character set name and language
     name to use.  If neither is given, 's' is returned as-is.  If
     'charset' is given but 'language' is not, the string is encoded
     using the empty string for 'language'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.collapse_rfc2231_value (value,
          errors='replace', fallback_charset='us-ascii')

     When a header parameter is encoded in RFC 2231(10) format, *note
     Message.get_param: 3dd6. may return a 3-tuple containing the
     character set, language, and value.  ‘collapse_rfc2231_value()’
     turns this into a unicode string.  Optional 'errors' is passed to
     the 'errors' argument of *note str: 1df.’s *note encode(): ca7.
     method; it defaults to ‘'replace'’.  Optional 'fallback_charset'
     specifies the character set to use if the one in the RFC 2231(11)
     header is not known by Python; it defaults to ‘'us-ascii'’.

     For convenience, if the 'value' passed to
     ‘collapse_rfc2231_value()’ is not a tuple, it should be a string
     and it is returned unquoted.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.utils.decode_params (params)

     Decode parameters list according to RFC 2231(12).  'params' is a
     sequence of 2-tuples containing elements of the form
     ‘(content-type, string-value)’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email/utils.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (6) Note that the sign of the timezone offset is the opposite of the
sign of the ‘time.timezone’ variable for the same timezone; the latter
variable follows the POSIX standard while this module follows RFC 2822
(https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html).

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html


File: python.info,  Node: email iterators Iterators,  Prev: email utils Miscellaneous utilities,  Up: email — An email and MIME handling package

5.21.1.19 ‘email.iterators’: Iterators
......................................

'Source code:' Lib/email/iterators.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Iterating over a message object tree is fairly easy with the *note
Message.walk: 3ddf. method.  The ‘email.iterators’ module provides some
useful higher level iterations over message object trees.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.iterators.body_line_iterator (msg, decode=False)

     This iterates over all the payloads in all the subparts of 'msg',
     returning the string payloads line-by-line.  It skips over all the
     subpart headers, and it skips over any subpart with a payload that
     isn’t a Python string.  This is somewhat equivalent to reading the
     flat text representation of the message from a file using *note
     readline(): 2296, skipping over all the intervening headers.

     Optional 'decode' is passed through to *note Message.get_payload:
     1576.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.iterators.typed_subpart_iterator (msg,
          maintype='text', subtype=None)

     This iterates over all the subparts of 'msg', returning only those
     subparts that match the MIME type specified by 'maintype' and
     'subtype'.

     Note that 'subtype' is optional; if omitted, then subpart MIME type
     matching is done only with the main type.  'maintype' is optional
     too; it defaults to ‘text’.

     Thus, by default ‘typed_subpart_iterator()’ returns each subpart
     that has a MIME type of ‘text/*’.

The following function has been added as a useful debugging tool.  It
should 'not' be considered part of the supported public interface for
the package.

 -- Συνάρτηση: email.iterators._structure (msg, fp=None, level=0,
          include_default=False)

     Prints an indented representation of the content types of the
     message object structure.  For example:

          >>> msg = email.message_from_file(somefile)
          >>> _structure(msg)
          multipart/mixed
              text/plain
              text/plain
              multipart/digest
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
                  message/rfc822
                      text/plain
              text/plain

     Optional 'fp' is a file-like object to print the output to.  It
     must be suitable for Python’s *note print(): 131f. function.
     'level' is used internally.  'include_default', if true, prints the
     default type as well.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note smtplib: d2.

     SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) client

Module *note poplib: b1.

     POP (Post Office Protocol) client

Module *note imaplib: 77.

     IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) client

Module *note mailbox: 8e.

     Tools for creating, reading, and managing collections of messages
     on disk using a variety standard formats.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/email/iterators.py


File: python.info,  Node: json — JSON encoder and decoder,  Next: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats,  Prev: email — An email and MIME handling package,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.21.2 ‘json’ — JSON encoder and decoder
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/json/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)(2), specified by RFC 7159(3) (which
obsoletes RFC 4627(4)) and by ECMA-404(5), is a lightweight data
interchange format inspired by JavaScript(6) object literal syntax
(although it is not a strict subset of JavaScript (7) ).

     Σημείωση: The term «object» in the context of JSON processing in
     Python can be ambiguous.  All values in Python are objects.  In
     JSON, an object refers to any data wrapped in curly braces, similar
     to a Python dictionary.

     Προειδοποίηση: Be cautious when parsing JSON data from untrusted
     sources.  A malicious JSON string may cause the decoder to consume
     considerable CPU and memory resources.  Limiting the size of data
     to be parsed is recommended.

This module exposes an API familiar to users of the standard library
*note marshal: 90. and *note pickle: ab. modules.

Encoding basic Python object hierarchies:

     >>> import json
     >>> json.dumps(['foo', {'bar': ('baz', None, 1.0, 2)}])
     '["foo", {"bar": ["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]'
     >>> print(json.dumps("\"foo\bar"))
     "\"foo\bar"
     >>> print(json.dumps('\u1234'))
     "\u1234"
     >>> print(json.dumps('\\'))
     "\\"
     >>> print(json.dumps({"c": 0, "b": 0, "a": 0}, sort_keys=True))
     {"a": 0, "b": 0, "c": 0}
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> io = StringIO()
     >>> json.dump(['streaming API'], io)
     >>> io.getvalue()
     '["streaming API"]'

Compact encoding:

     >>> import json
     >>> json.dumps([1, 2, 3, {'4': 5, '6': 7}], separators=(',', ':'))
     '[1,2,3,{"4":5,"6":7}]'

Pretty printing:

     >>> import json
     >>> print(json.dumps({'6': 7, '4': 5}, sort_keys=True, indent=4))
     {
         "4": 5,
         "6": 7
     }

Customizing JSON object encoding:

     >>> import json
     >>> def custom_json(obj):
     ...     if isinstance(obj, complex):
     ...         return {'__complex__': True, 'real': obj.real, 'imag': obj.imag}
     ...     raise TypeError(f'Cannot serialize object of {type(obj)}')
     ...
     >>> json.dumps(1 + 2j, default=custom_json)
     '{"__complex__": true, "real": 1.0, "imag": 2.0}'

Decoding JSON:

     >>> import json
     >>> json.loads('["foo", {"bar":["baz", null, 1.0, 2]}]')
     ['foo', {'bar': ['baz', None, 1.0, 2]}]
     >>> json.loads('"\\"foo\\bar"')
     '"foo\x08ar'
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> io = StringIO('["streaming API"]')
     >>> json.load(io)
     ['streaming API']

Customizing JSON object decoding:

     >>> import json
     >>> def as_complex(dct):
     ...     if '__complex__' in dct:
     ...         return complex(dct['real'], dct['imag'])
     ...     return dct
     ...
     >>> json.loads('{"__complex__": true, "real": 1, "imag": 2}',
     ...     object_hook=as_complex)
     (1+2j)
     >>> import decimal
     >>> json.loads('1.1', parse_float=decimal.Decimal)
     Decimal('1.1')

Extending *note JSONEncoder: 10fc.:

     >>> import json
     >>> class ComplexEncoder(json.JSONEncoder):
     ...     def default(self, obj):
     ...         if isinstance(obj, complex):
     ...             return [obj.real, obj.imag]
     ...         # Let the base class default method raise the TypeError
     ...         return super().default(obj)
     ...
     >>> json.dumps(2 + 1j, cls=ComplexEncoder)
     '[2.0, 1.0]'
     >>> ComplexEncoder().encode(2 + 1j)
     '[2.0, 1.0]'
     >>> list(ComplexEncoder().iterencode(2 + 1j))
     ['[2.0', ', 1.0', ']']

Using ‘json’ from the shell to validate and pretty-print:

     $ echo '{"json":"obj"}' | python -m json
     {
         "json": "obj"
     }
     $ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json
     Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)

See *note Command-line interface: 4cb. for detailed documentation.

     Σημείωση: JSON is a subset of YAML(8) 1.2.  The JSON produced by
     this module’s default settings (in particular, the default
     'separators' value) is also a subset of YAML 1.0 and 1.1.  This
     module can thus also be used as a YAML serializer.

     Σημείωση: This module’s encoders and decoders preserve input and
     output order by default.  Order is only lost if the underlying
     containers are unordered.

* Menu:

* Basic Usage::
* Encoders and Decoders::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<18>.
* Standard Compliance and Interoperability::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/json/__init__.py

   (2) https://json.org

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4627.html

   (5) 
https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript

   (7) As noted in the errata for RFC 7159
(https://www.rfc-editor.org/errata_search.php?rfc=7159), JSON permits
literal U+2028 (LINE SEPARATOR) and U+2029 (PARAGRAPH SEPARATOR)
characters in strings, whereas JavaScript (as of ECMAScript Edition 5.1)
does not.

   (8) https://yaml.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Usage,  Next: Encoders and Decoders,  Up: json — JSON encoder and decoder

5.21.2.1 Basic Usage
....................

 -- Συνάρτηση: json.dump (obj, fp, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, indent=None,
          separators=None, default=None, sort_keys=False, **kw)

     Serialize 'obj' as a JSON formatted stream to 'fp' (a
     ‘.write()’-supporting *note file-like object: 19b1.) using this
     *note Python-to-JSON conversion table: 3e21.

          Σημείωση: Unlike *note pickle: ab. and *note marshal: 90, JSON
          is not a framed protocol, so trying to serialize multiple
          objects with repeated calls to ‘dump()’ using the same 'fp'
          will result in an invalid JSON file.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘obj’ (*note object: e4d.) – The Python object to be
          serialized.

        * ‘fp’ (*note file-like object: 19b1.) – The file-like object
          'obj' will be serialized to.  The ‘json’ module always
          produces *note str: 1df. objects, not *note bytes: 1c7.
          objects, therefore ‘fp.write()’ must support ‘str’ input.

        * ‘skipkeys’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – If ‘True’, keys that are not
          of a basic type (*note str: 1df, *note int: 326, *note float:
          327, ‘bool’, ‘None’) will be skipped instead of raising a
          *note TypeError: 291.  Default ‘False’.

        * ‘ensure_ascii’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – If ‘True’ (the default),
          the output is guaranteed to have all incoming non-ASCII and
          non-printable characters escaped.  If ‘False’, all characters
          will be outputted as-is, except for the characters that must
          be escaped: quotation mark, reverse solidus, and the control
          characters U+0000 through U+001F.

        * ‘check_circular’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – If ‘False’, the circular
          reference check for container types is skipped and a circular
          reference will result in a *note RecursionError: 1121. (or
          worse).  Default ‘True’.

        * ‘allow_nan’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – If ‘False’, serialization of
          out-of-range *note float: 327. values (‘nan’, ‘inf’, ‘-inf’)
          will result in a *note ValueError: 277, in strict compliance
          with the JSON specification.  If ‘True’ (the default), their
          JavaScript equivalents (‘NaN’, ‘Infinity’, ‘-Infinity’) are
          used.

        * ‘cls’ (a *note JSONEncoder: 10fc. subclass) – If set, a custom
          JSON encoder with the *note default(): 3e22. method
          overridden, for serializing into custom datatypes.  If ‘None’
          (the default), ‘JSONEncoder’ is used.

        * ‘indent’ (*note int: 326.‘ | ’*note str: 1df.‘ | ’‘None’) – If
          a positive integer or string, JSON array elements and object
          members will be pretty-printed with that indent level.  A
          positive integer indents that many spaces per level; a string
          (such as ‘"\t"’) is used to indent each level.  If zero,
          negative, or ‘""’ (the empty string), only newlines are
          inserted.  If ‘None’ (the default), the most compact
          representation is used.

        * ‘separators’ (*note tuple: 1ce.‘ | ’‘None’) – A two-tuple:
          ‘(item_separator, key_separator)’.  If ‘None’ (the default),
          'separators' defaults to ‘(', ', ': ')’ if 'indent' is ‘None’,
          and ‘(',', ': ')’ otherwise.  For the most compact JSON,
          specify ‘(',', ':')’ to eliminate whitespace.

        * ‘default’ (*note callable: 2fa4. | None) – A function that is
          called for objects that can’t otherwise be serialized.  It
          should return a JSON encodable version of the object or raise
          a *note TypeError: 291.  If ‘None’ (the default), ‘TypeError’
          is raised.

        * ‘sort_keys’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – If ‘True’, dictionaries will
          be outputted sorted by key.  Default ‘False’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Allow strings for 'indent' in addition to
     integers.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Use ‘(',', ': ')’ as default if 'indent' is
     not ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: All optional parameters are now *note
     keyword-only: 7a3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: json.dumps (obj, *, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, cls=None, indent=None,
          separators=None, default=None, sort_keys=False, **kw)

     Serialize 'obj' to a JSON formatted *note str: 1df. using this
     *note conversion table: 3e21.  The arguments have the same meaning
     as in *note dump(): 10fb.

          Σημείωση: Keys in key/value pairs of JSON are always of the
          type *note str: 1df.  When a dictionary is converted into
          JSON, all the keys of the dictionary are coerced to strings.
          As a result of this, if a dictionary is converted into JSON
          and then back into a dictionary, the dictionary may not equal
          the original one.  That is, ‘loads(dumps(x)) != x’ if x has
          non-string keys.

 -- Συνάρτηση: json.load (fp, *, cls=None, object_hook=None,
          parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None,
          object_pairs_hook=None, array_hook=None, **kw)

     Deserialize 'fp' to a Python object using the *note JSON-to-Python
     conversion table: 3e23.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘fp’ (*note file-like object: 19b1.) – A ‘.read()’-supporting
          *note text file: 225c. or *note binary file: 225d. containing
          the JSON document to be deserialized.

        * ‘cls’ (a *note JSONDecoder: 10fd. subclass) – If set, a custom
          JSON decoder.  Additional keyword arguments to ‘load()’ will
          be passed to the constructor of 'cls'.  If ‘None’ (the
          default), ‘JSONDecoder’ is used.

        * ‘object_hook’ (*note callable: 2fa4. | None) – If set, a
          function that is called with the result of any JSON object
          literal decoded (a *note dict: 188.).  The return value of
          this function will be used instead of the ‘dict’.  This
          feature can be used to implement custom decoders, for example
          JSON-RPC(1) class hinting.  Default ‘None’.

        * ‘object_pairs_hook’ (*note callable: 2fa4. | None) – If set, a
          function that is called with the result of any JSON object
          literal decoded with an ordered list of pairs.  The return
          value of this function will be used instead of the *note dict:
          188.  This feature can be used to implement custom decoders.
          If 'object_hook' is also set, 'object_pairs_hook' takes
          priority.  Default ‘None’.

        * ‘array_hook’ (*note callable: 2fa4. | None) – If set, a
          function that is called with the result of any JSON array
          literal decoded with as a Python list.  The return value of
          this function will be used instead of the *note list: 4d9.
          This feature can be used to implement custom decoders.
          Default ‘None’.

        * ‘parse_float’ (*note callable: 2fa4. | None) – If set, a
          function that is called with the string of every JSON float to
          be decoded.  If ‘None’ (the default), it is equivalent to
          ‘float(num_str)’.  This can be used to parse JSON floats into
          custom datatypes, for example *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2.

        * ‘parse_int’ (*note callable: 2fa4. | None) – If set, a
          function that is called with the string of every JSON int to
          be decoded.  If ‘None’ (the default), it is equivalent to
          ‘int(num_str)’.  This can be used to parse JSON integers into
          custom datatypes, for example *note float: 327.

        * ‘parse_constant’ (*note callable: 2fa4. | None) – If set, a
          function that is called with one of the following strings:
          ‘'-Infinity'’, ‘'Infinity'’, or ‘'NaN'’.  This can be used to
          raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers are encountered.
          Default ‘None’.


     Προκαλεί:

        * *note JSONDecodeError: 11d5. – When the data being
          deserialized is not a valid JSON document.

        * *note UnicodeDecodeError: dd7. – When the data being
          deserialized does not contain UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32 encoded
          data.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1:

        * Added the optional 'object_pairs_hook' parameter.

        * 'parse_constant' doesn’t get called on “null”, “true”, “false”
          anymore.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6:

        * All optional parameters are now *note keyword-only: 7a3.

        * 'fp' can now be a *note binary file: 225d.  The input encoding
          should be UTF-8, UTF-16 or UTF-32.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The default 'parse_int' of *note int():
     326. now limits the maximum length of the integer string via the
     interpreter’s *note integer string conversion length limitation:
     9ec. to help avoid denial of service attacks.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the optional 'array_hook' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: json.loads (s, *, cls=None, object_hook=None,
          parse_float=None, parse_int=None, parse_constant=None,
          object_pairs_hook=None, array_hook=None, **kw)

     Identical to *note load(): 22e, but instead of a file-like object,
     deserialize 's' (a *note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7. or *note
     bytearray: 1c6. instance containing a JSON document) to a Python
     object using this *note conversion table: 3e23.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 's' can now be of type *note bytes: 1c7. or
     *note bytearray: 1c6.  The input encoding should be UTF-8, UTF-16
     or UTF-32.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The keyword argument 'encoding' has been
     removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jsonrpc.org


File: python.info,  Node: Encoders and Decoders,  Next: Exceptions<18>,  Prev: Basic Usage,  Up: json — JSON encoder and decoder

5.21.2.2 Encoders and Decoders
..............................

 -- Κλάση: json.JSONDecoder (*, object_hook=None, parse_float=None,
          parse_int=None, parse_constant=None, strict=True,
          object_pairs_hook=None, array_hook=None)

     Simple JSON decoder.

     Performs the following translations in decoding by default:

     JSON                Python
                         
     --------------------------------------------
                         
     object              dict
                         
                         
     array               list
                         
                         
     string              str
                         
                         
     number (int)        int
                         
                         
     number (real)       float
                         
                         
     true                True
                         
                         
     false               False
                         
                         
     null                None
                         

     It also understands ‘NaN’, ‘Infinity’, and ‘-Infinity’ as their
     corresponding ‘float’ values, which is outside the JSON spec.

     'object_hook' is an optional function that will be called with the
     result of every JSON object decoded and its return value will be
     used in place of the given *note dict: 188.  This can be used to
     provide custom deserializations (e.g.  to support JSON-RPC(1) class
     hinting).

     'object_pairs_hook' is an optional function that will be called
     with the result of every JSON object decoded with an ordered list
     of pairs.  The return value of 'object_pairs_hook' will be used
     instead of the *note dict: 188.  This feature can be used to
     implement custom decoders.  If 'object_hook' is also defined, the
     'object_pairs_hook' takes priority.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added support for 'object_pairs_hook'.

     'array_hook' is an optional function that will be called with the
     result of every JSON array decoded as a list.  The return value of
     'array_hook' will be used instead of the *note list: 4d9.  This
     feature can be used to implement custom decoders.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added support for 'array_hook'.

     'parse_float' is an optional function that will be called with the
     string of every JSON float to be decoded.  By default, this is
     equivalent to ‘float(num_str)’.  This can be used to use another
     datatype or parser for JSON floats (e.g.  *note decimal.Decimal:
     1c2.).

     'parse_int' is an optional function that will be called with the
     string of every JSON int to be decoded.  By default, this is
     equivalent to ‘int(num_str)’.  This can be used to use another
     datatype or parser for JSON integers (e.g.  *note float: 327.).

     'parse_constant' is an optional function that will be called with
     one of the following strings: ‘'-Infinity'’, ‘'Infinity'’, ‘'NaN'’.
     This can be used to raise an exception if invalid JSON numbers are
     encountered.

     If 'strict' is false (‘True’ is the default), then control
     characters will be allowed inside strings.  Control characters in
     this context are those with character codes in the 0–31 range,
     including ‘'\t'’ (tab), ‘'\n'’, ‘'\r'’ and ‘'\0'’.

     If the data being deserialized is not a valid JSON document, a
     *note JSONDecodeError: 11d5. will be raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: All parameters are now *note keyword-only:
     7a3.

      -- Μέθοδος: decode (s)

          Return the Python representation of 's' (a *note str: 1df.
          instance containing a JSON document).

          *note JSONDecodeError: 11d5. will be raised if the given JSON
          document is not valid.

      -- Μέθοδος: raw_decode (s)

          Decode a JSON document from 's' (a *note str: 1df. beginning
          with a JSON document) and return a 2-tuple of the Python
          representation and the index in 's' where the document ended.

          This can be used to decode a JSON document from a string that
          may have extraneous data at the end.

 -- Κλάση: json.JSONEncoder (*, skipkeys=False, ensure_ascii=True,
          check_circular=True, allow_nan=True, sort_keys=False,
          indent=None, separators=None, default=None)

     Extensible JSON encoder for Python data structures.

     Supports the following objects and types by default:

     Python                                       JSON
                                                  
     -----------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
     dict                                         object
                                                  
                                                  
     list, tuple                                  array
                                                  
                                                  
     str                                          string
                                                  
                                                  
     int, float, int- & float-derived Enums       number
                                                  
                                                  
     True                                         true
                                                  
                                                  
     False                                        false
                                                  
                                                  
     None                                         null
                                                  

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added support for int- and float-derived
     Enum classes.

     To extend this to recognize other objects, subclass and implement a
     *note default(): 3e22. method with another method that returns a
     serializable object for ‘o’ if possible, otherwise it should call
     the superclass implementation (to raise *note TypeError: 291.).

     If 'skipkeys' is false (the default), a *note TypeError: 291. will
     be raised when trying to encode keys that are not *note str: 1df,
     *note int: 326, *note float: 327, *note bool: 5ef. or ‘None’.  If
     'skipkeys' is true, such items are simply skipped.

     If 'ensure_ascii' is true (the default), the output is guaranteed
     to have all incoming non-ASCII and non-printable characters
     escaped.  If 'ensure_ascii' is false, all characters will be output
     as-is, except for the characters that must be escaped: quotation
     mark, reverse solidus, and the control characters U+0000 through
     U+001F.

     If 'check_circular' is true (the default), then lists, dicts, and
     custom encoded objects will be checked for circular references
     during encoding to prevent an infinite recursion (which would cause
     a *note RecursionError: 1121.).  Otherwise, no such check takes
     place.

     If 'allow_nan' is true (the default), then ‘NaN’, ‘Infinity’, and
     ‘-Infinity’ will be encoded as such.  This behavior is not JSON
     specification compliant, but is consistent with most JavaScript
     based encoders and decoders.  Otherwise, it will be a *note
     ValueError: 277. to encode such floats.

     If 'sort_keys' is true (default: ‘False’), then the output of
     dictionaries will be sorted by key; this is useful for regression
     tests to ensure that JSON serializations can be compared on a
     day-to-day basis.

     If 'indent' is a non-negative integer or string, then JSON array
     elements and object members will be pretty-printed with that indent
     level.  An indent level of 0, negative, or ‘""’ will only insert
     newlines.  ‘None’ (the default) selects the most compact
     representation.  Using a positive integer indent indents that many
     spaces per level.  If 'indent' is a string (such as ‘"\t"’), that
     string is used to indent each level.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Allow strings for 'indent' in addition to
     integers.

     If specified, 'separators' should be an ‘(item_separator,
     key_separator)’ tuple.  The default is ‘(', ', ': ')’ if 'indent'
     is ‘None’ and ‘(',', ': ')’ otherwise.  To get the most compact
     JSON representation, you should specify ‘(',', ':')’ to eliminate
     whitespace.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Use ‘(',', ': ')’ as default if 'indent' is
     not ‘None’.

     If specified, 'default' should be a function that gets called for
     objects that can’t otherwise be serialized.  It should return a
     JSON encodable version of the object or raise a *note TypeError:
     291.  If not specified, ‘TypeError’ is raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: All parameters are now *note keyword-only:
     7a3.

      -- Μέθοδος: default (o)

          Implement this method in a subclass such that it returns a
          serializable object for 'o', or calls the base implementation
          (to raise a *note TypeError: 291.).

          For example, to support arbitrary iterators, you could
          implement ‘default()’ like this:

               def default(self, o):
                  try:
                      iterable = iter(o)
                  except TypeError:
                      pass
                  else:
                      return list(iterable)
                  # Let the base class default method raise the TypeError
                  return super().default(o)

      -- Μέθοδος: encode (o)

          Return a JSON string representation of a Python data
          structure, 'o'.  For example:

               >>> json.JSONEncoder().encode({"foo": ["bar", "baz"]})
               '{"foo": ["bar", "baz"]}'

      -- Μέθοδος: iterencode (o)

          Encode the given object, 'o', and yield each string
          representation as available.  For example:

               for chunk in json.JSONEncoder().iterencode(bigobject):
                   mysocket.write(chunk)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jsonrpc.org


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<18>,  Next: Standard Compliance and Interoperability,  Prev: Encoders and Decoders,  Up: json — JSON encoder and decoder

5.21.2.3 Exceptions
...................

 -- Εξαίρεση: json.JSONDecodeError (msg, doc, pos)

     Subclass of *note ValueError: 277. with the following additional
     attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: msg

          The unformatted error message.

      -- Ιδιότητα: doc

          The JSON document being parsed.

      -- Ιδιότητα: pos

          The start index of 'doc' where parsing failed.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          The line corresponding to 'pos'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: colno

          The column corresponding to 'pos'.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Compliance and Interoperability,  Next: Command-line interface<4>,  Prev: Exceptions<18>,  Up: json — JSON encoder and decoder

5.21.2.4 Standard Compliance and Interoperability
.................................................

The JSON format is specified by RFC 7159(1) and by ECMA-404(2).  This
section details this module’s level of compliance with the RFC. For
simplicity, *note JSONEncoder: 10fc. and *note JSONDecoder: 10fd.
subclasses, and parameters other than those explicitly mentioned, are
not considered.

This module does not comply with the RFC in a strict fashion,
implementing some extensions that are valid JavaScript but not valid
JSON. In particular:

   - Infinite and NaN number values are accepted and output;

   - Repeated names within an object are accepted, and only the value of
     the last name-value pair is used.

Since the RFC permits RFC-compliant parsers to accept input texts that
are not RFC-compliant, this module’s deserializer is technically
RFC-compliant under default settings.

* Menu:

* Character Encodings::
* Infinite and NaN Number Values::
* Repeated Names Within an Object::
* Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values.
* Implementation Limitations::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html

   (2) 
https://ecma-international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-404/


File: python.info,  Node: Character Encodings,  Next: Infinite and NaN Number Values,  Up: Standard Compliance and Interoperability

5.21.2.5 Character Encodings
............................

The RFC requires that JSON be represented using either UTF-8, UTF-16, or
UTF-32, with UTF-8 being the recommended default for maximum
interoperability.

As permitted, though not required, by the RFC, this module’s serializer
sets 'ensure_ascii=True' by default, thus escaping the output so that
the resulting strings only contain printable ASCII characters.

Other than the 'ensure_ascii' parameter, this module is defined strictly
in terms of conversion between Python objects and *note Unicode strings:
1df, and thus does not otherwise directly address the issue of character
encodings.

The RFC prohibits adding a byte order mark (BOM) to the start of a JSON
text, and this module’s serializer does not add a BOM to its output.
The RFC permits, but does not require, JSON deserializers to ignore an
initial BOM in their input.  This module’s deserializer raises a *note
ValueError: 277. when an initial BOM is present.

The RFC does not explicitly forbid JSON strings which contain byte
sequences that don’t correspond to valid Unicode characters (e.g.
unpaired UTF-16 surrogates), but it does note that they may cause
interoperability problems.  By default, this module accepts and outputs
(when present in the original *note str: 1df.) code points for such
sequences.


File: python.info,  Node: Infinite and NaN Number Values,  Next: Repeated Names Within an Object,  Prev: Character Encodings,  Up: Standard Compliance and Interoperability

5.21.2.6 Infinite and NaN Number Values
.......................................

The RFC does not permit the representation of infinite or NaN number
values.  Despite that, by default, this module accepts and outputs
‘Infinity’, ‘-Infinity’, and ‘NaN’ as if they were valid JSON number
literal values:

     >>> # Neither of these calls raises an exception, but the results are not valid JSON
     >>> json.dumps(float('-inf'))
     '-Infinity'
     >>> json.dumps(float('nan'))
     'NaN'
     >>> # Same when deserializing
     >>> json.loads('-Infinity')
     -inf
     >>> json.loads('NaN')
     nan

In the serializer, the 'allow_nan' parameter can be used to alter this
behavior.  In the deserializer, the 'parse_constant' parameter can be
used to alter this behavior.


File: python.info,  Node: Repeated Names Within an Object,  Next: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values,  Prev: Infinite and NaN Number Values,  Up: Standard Compliance and Interoperability

5.21.2.7 Repeated Names Within an Object
........................................

The RFC specifies that the names within a JSON object should be unique,
but does not mandate how repeated names in JSON objects should be
handled.  By default, this module does not raise an exception; instead,
it ignores all but the last name-value pair for a given name:

     >>> weird_json = '{"x": 1, "x": 2, "x": 3}'
     >>> json.loads(weird_json)
     {'x': 3}

The 'object_pairs_hook' parameter can be used to alter this behavior.


File: python.info,  Node: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values,  Next: Implementation Limitations,  Prev: Repeated Names Within an Object,  Up: Standard Compliance and Interoperability

5.21.2.8 Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values
...............................................

The old version of JSON specified by the obsolete RFC 4627(1) required
that the top-level value of a JSON text must be either a JSON object or
array (Python *note dict: 188. or *note list: 4d9.), and could not be a
JSON null, boolean, number, or string value.  RFC 7159(2) removed that
restriction, and this module does not and has never implemented that
restriction in either its serializer or its deserializer.

Regardless, for maximum interoperability, you may wish to voluntarily
adhere to the restriction yourself.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4627.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7159.html


File: python.info,  Node: Implementation Limitations,  Prev: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values,  Up: Standard Compliance and Interoperability

5.21.2.9 Implementation Limitations
...................................

Some JSON deserializer implementations may set limits on:

   * the size of accepted JSON texts

   * the maximum level of nesting of JSON objects and arrays

   * the range and precision of JSON numbers

   * the content and maximum length of JSON strings

This module does not impose any such limits beyond those of the relevant
Python datatypes themselves or the Python interpreter itself.

When serializing to JSON, beware any such limitations in applications
that may consume your JSON. In particular, it is common for JSON numbers
to be deserialized into IEEE 754 double precision numbers and thus
subject to that representation’s range and precision limitations.  This
is especially relevant when serializing Python *note int: 326. values of
extremely large magnitude, or when serializing instances of «exotic»
numerical types such as *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<4>,  Prev: Standard Compliance and Interoperability,  Up: json — JSON encoder and decoder

5.21.2.10 Command-line interface
................................

'Source code:' Lib/json/tool.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘json’ module can be invoked as a script via ‘python -m json’ to
validate and pretty-print JSON objects.  The ‘json.tool’ submodule
implements this interface.

If the optional ‘infile’ and ‘outfile’ arguments are not specified,
*note sys.stdin: 94a. and *note sys.stdout: e9c. will be used
respectively:

     $ echo '{"json": "obj"}' | python -m json
     {
         "json": "obj"
     }
     $ echo '{1.2:3.4}' | python -m json
     Expecting property name enclosed in double quotes: line 1 column 2 (char 1)

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The output is now in the same order as the
input.  Use the *note -sort-keys: 3e35. option to sort the output of
dictionaries alphabetically by key.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The ‘json’ module may now be directly executed
as ‘python -m json’.  For backwards compatibility, invoking the CLI as
‘python -m json.tool’ remains supported.

* Menu:

* Command-line options: Command-line options<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/json/tool.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line options<3>,  Up: Command-line interface<4>

5.21.2.11 Command-line options
..............................

 -- Option: infile

     The JSON file to be validated or pretty-printed:

          $ python -m json mp_films.json
          [
              {
                  "title": "And Now for Something Completely Different",
                  "year": 1971
              },
              {
                  "title": "Monty Python and the Holy Grail",
                  "year": 1975
              }
          ]

     If 'infile' is not specified, read from *note sys.stdin: 94a.

 -- Option: outfile

     Write the output of the 'infile' to the given 'outfile'.
     Otherwise, write it to *note sys.stdout: e9c.

 -- Option: --sort-keys

     Sort the output of dictionaries alphabetically by key.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Option: --no-ensure-ascii

     Disable escaping of non-ascii characters, see *note json.dumps():
     248. for more information.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: --json-lines

     Parse every input line as separate JSON object.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Option: --indent, --tab, --no-indent, --compact

     Mutually exclusive options for whitespace control.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Show the help message.


File: python.info,  Node: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats,  Next: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types,  Prev: json — JSON encoder and decoder,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.21.3 ‘mailbox’ — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/mailbox.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines two classes, *note Mailbox: 15f1. and *note Message:
15f5, for accessing and manipulating on-disk mailboxes and the messages
they contain.  ‘Mailbox’ offers a dictionary-like mapping from keys to
messages.  ‘Message’ extends the *note email.message: 47. module’s *note
Message: 780. class with format-specific state and behavior.  Supported
mailbox formats are Maildir, mbox, MH, Babyl, and MMDF.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note email: 3e.

     Represent and manipulate messages.

* Menu:

* Mailbox objects::
* Message objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<19>.
* Examples: Examples<20>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/mailbox.py


File: python.info,  Node: Mailbox objects,  Next: Message objects,  Up: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

5.21.3.1 ‘Mailbox’ objects
..........................

 -- Κλάση: mailbox.Mailbox

     A mailbox, which may be inspected and modified.

     The ‘Mailbox’ class defines an interface and is not intended to be
     instantiated.  Instead, format-specific subclasses should inherit
     from ‘Mailbox’ and your code should instantiate a particular
     subclass.

     The ‘Mailbox’ interface is dictionary-like, with small keys
     corresponding to messages.  Keys are issued by the ‘Mailbox’
     instance with which they will be used and are only meaningful to
     that ‘Mailbox’ instance.  A key continues to identify a message
     even if the corresponding message is modified, such as by replacing
     it with another message.

     Messages may be added to a ‘Mailbox’ instance using the set-like
     method *note add(): 15f0. and removed using a ‘del’ statement or
     the set-like methods *note remove(): 3e46. and *note discard():
     3e47.

     ‘Mailbox’ interface semantics differ from dictionary semantics in
     some noteworthy ways.  Each time a message is requested, a new
     representation (typically a *note Message: 15f5. instance) is
     generated based upon the current state of the mailbox.  Similarly,
     when a message is added to a ‘Mailbox’ instance, the provided
     message representation’s contents are copied.  In neither case is a
     reference to the message representation kept by the ‘Mailbox’
     instance.

     The default ‘Mailbox’ *note iterator: 6ce. iterates over message
     representations, not keys as the default *note dictionary: 188.
     iterator does.  Moreover, modification of a mailbox during
     iteration is safe and well-defined.  Messages added to the mailbox
     after an iterator is created will not be seen by the iterator.
     Messages removed from the mailbox before the iterator yields them
     will be silently skipped, though using a key from an iterator may
     result in a *note KeyError: 7df. exception if the corresponding
     message is subsequently removed.

          Προειδοποίηση: Be very cautious when modifying mailboxes that
          might be simultaneously changed by some other process.  The
          safest mailbox format to use for such tasks is *note Maildir:
          84b.; try to avoid using single-file formats such as *note
          mbox: 1c03. for concurrent writing.  If you’re modifying a
          mailbox, you 'must' lock it by calling the *note lock(): 3e48.
          and *note unlock(): 3e49. methods 'before' reading any
          messages in the file or making any changes by adding or
          deleting a message.  Failing to lock the mailbox runs the risk
          of losing messages or corrupting the entire mailbox.

     The ‘Mailbox’ class supports the *note with: 20a. statement.  When
     used as a context manager, ‘Mailbox’ calls *note lock(): 3e48. when
     the context is entered, returns the mailbox object as the context
     object, and at context end calls *note close(): 3e4a, thereby
     releasing the lock.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Support for the *note with: 20a. statement
     was added.

     ‘Mailbox’ instances have the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: add (message)

          Add 'message' to the mailbox and return the key that has been
          assigned to it.

          Parameter 'message' may be a *note Message: 15f5. instance, an
          *note email.message.Message: 780. instance, a string, a byte
          string, or a file-like object (which should be open in binary
          mode).  If 'message' is an instance of the appropriate
          format-specific ‘Message’ subclass (e.g., if it’s an *note
          mboxMessage: 3d0a. instance and this is an *note mbox: 1c03.
          instance), its format-specific information is used.
          Otherwise, reasonable defaults for format-specific information
          are used.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Support for binary input was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove (key)
      -- Μέθοδος: __delitem__ (key)
      -- Μέθοδος: discard (key)

          Delete the message corresponding to 'key' from the mailbox.

          If no such message exists, a *note KeyError: 7df. exception is
          raised if the method was called as ‘remove()’ or
          ‘__delitem__()’ but no exception is raised if the method was
          called as ‘discard()’.  The behavior of ‘discard()’ may be
          preferred if the underlying mailbox format supports concurrent
          modification by other processes.

      -- Μέθοδος: __setitem__ (key, message)

          Replace the message corresponding to 'key' with 'message'.
          Raise a *note KeyError: 7df. exception if no message already
          corresponds to 'key'.

          As with *note add(): 15f0, parameter 'message' may be a *note
          Message: 15f5. instance, an *note email.message.Message: 780.
          instance, a string, a byte string, or a file-like object
          (which should be open in binary mode).  If 'message' is an
          instance of the appropriate format-specific ‘Message’ subclass
          (e.g., if it’s an *note mboxMessage: 3d0a. instance and this
          is an *note mbox: 1c03. instance), its format-specific
          information is used.  Otherwise, the format-specific
          information of the message that currently corresponds to 'key'
          is left unchanged.

      -- Μέθοδος: iterkeys ()

          Return an *note iterator: 6ce. over all keys

      -- Μέθοδος: keys ()

          The same as *note iterkeys(): 3e4d, except that a *note list:
          4d9. is returned rather than an *note iterator: 6ce.

      -- Μέθοδος: itervalues ()
      -- Μέθοδος: __iter__ ()

          Return an *note iterator: 6ce. over representations of all
          messages.  The messages are represented as instances of the
          appropriate format-specific *note Message: 15f5. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

               Σημείωση: The behavior of ‘__iter__()’ is unlike that of
               dictionaries, which iterate over keys.

      -- Μέθοδος: values ()

          The same as *note itervalues(): 3e4f, except that a *note
          list: 4d9. is returned rather than an *note iterator: 6ce.

      -- Μέθοδος: iteritems ()

          Return an *note iterator: 6ce. over ('key', 'message') pairs,
          where 'key' is a key and 'message' is a message
          representation.  The messages are represented as instances of
          the appropriate format-specific *note Message: 15f5. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- Μέθοδος: items ()

          The same as *note iteritems(): 3e52, except that a *note list:
          4d9. of pairs is returned rather than an *note iterator: 6ce.
          of pairs.

      -- Μέθοδος: get (key, default=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: __getitem__ (key)

          Return a representation of the message corresponding to 'key'.
          If no such message exists, 'default' is returned if the method
          was called as ‘get()’ and a *note KeyError: 7df. exception is
          raised if the method was called as ‘__getitem__()’.  The
          message is represented as an instance of the appropriate
          format-specific *note Message: 15f5. subclass unless a custom
          message factory was specified when the ‘Mailbox’ instance was
          initialized.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_message (key)

          Return a representation of the message corresponding to 'key'
          as an instance of the appropriate format-specific *note
          Message: 15f5. subclass, or raise a *note KeyError: 7df.
          exception if no such message exists.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_bytes (key)

          Return a byte representation of the message corresponding to
          'key', or raise a *note KeyError: 7df. exception if no such
          message exists.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_string (key)

          Return a string representation of the message corresponding to
          'key', or raise a *note KeyError: 7df. exception if no such
          message exists.  The message is processed through *note
          email.message.Message: 780. to convert it to a 7bit clean
          representation.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_file (key)

          Return a *note file-like: 19b1. representation of the message
          corresponding to 'key', or raise a *note KeyError: 7df.
          exception if no such message exists.  The file-like object
          behaves as if open in binary mode.  This file should be closed
          once it is no longer needed.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The file object really is a *note
          binary file: 225d.; previously it was incorrectly returned in
          text mode.  Also, the *note file-like object: 19b1. now
          supports the *note context manager: 478. protocol: you can use
          a *note with: 20a. statement to automatically close it.

               Σημείωση: Unlike other representations of messages, *note
               file-like: 19b1. representations are not necessarily
               independent of the ‘Mailbox’ instance that created them
               or of the underlying mailbox.  More specific
               documentation is provided by each subclass.

      -- Μέθοδος: __contains__ (key)

          Return ‘True’ if 'key' corresponds to a message, ‘False’
          otherwise.

      -- Μέθοδος: __len__ ()

          Return a count of messages in the mailbox.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear ()

          Delete all messages from the mailbox.

      -- Μέθοδος: pop (key, default=None)

          Return a representation of the message corresponding to 'key'
          and delete the message.  If no such message exists, return
          'default'.  The message is represented as an instance of the
          appropriate format-specific *note Message: 15f5. subclass
          unless a custom message factory was specified when the
          ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- Μέθοδος: popitem ()

          Return an arbitrary ('key', 'message') pair, where 'key' is a
          key and 'message' is a message representation, and delete the
          corresponding message.  If the mailbox is empty, raise a *note
          KeyError: 7df. exception.  The message is represented as an
          instance of the appropriate format-specific *note Message:
          15f5. subclass unless a custom message factory was specified
          when the ‘Mailbox’ instance was initialized.

      -- Μέθοδος: update (arg)

          Parameter 'arg' should be a 'key'-to-'message' mapping or an
          iterable of ('key', 'message') pairs.  Updates the mailbox so
          that, for each given 'key' and 'message', the message
          corresponding to 'key' is set to 'message' as if by using
          *note __setitem__(): 3e4c.  As with ‘__setitem__()’, each
          'key' must already correspond to a message in the mailbox or
          else a *note KeyError: 7df. exception will be raised, so in
          general it is incorrect for 'arg' to be a ‘Mailbox’ instance.

               Σημείωση: Unlike with dictionaries, keyword arguments are
               not supported.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ()

          Write any pending changes to the filesystem.  For some
          ‘Mailbox’ subclasses, changes are always written immediately
          and ‘flush()’ does nothing, but you should still make a habit
          of calling this method.

      -- Μέθοδος: lock ()

          Acquire an exclusive advisory lock on the mailbox so that
          other processes know not to modify it.  An *note
          ExternalClashError: 3e5d. is raised if the lock is not
          available.  The particular locking mechanisms used depend upon
          the mailbox format.  You should 'always' lock the mailbox
          before making any modifications to its contents.

      -- Μέθοδος: unlock ()

          Release the lock on the mailbox, if any.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Flush the mailbox, unlock it if necessary, and close any open
          files.  For some ‘Mailbox’ subclasses, this method does
          nothing.

* Menu:

* Maildir objects::
* mbox objects::
* MH objects::
* Babyl objects::
* MMDF objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Maildir objects,  Next: mbox objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.21.3.2 ‘Maildir’ objects
..........................

 -- Κλάση: mailbox.Maildir (dirname, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 15f1. for mailboxes in Maildir format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     MaildirMessage: 3e60. is used as the default message
     representation.  If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if
     it does not exist.

     If 'create' is ‘True’ and the 'dirname' path exists, it will be
     treated as an existing maildir without attempting to verify its
     directory layout.

     It is for historical reasons that 'dirname' is named as such rather
     than 'path'.

     Maildir is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the qmail
     mail transfer agent and now widely supported by other programs.
     Messages in a Maildir mailbox are stored in separate files within a
     common directory structure.  This design allows Maildir mailboxes
     to be accessed and modified by multiple unrelated programs without
     data corruption, so file locking is unnecessary.

     Maildir mailboxes contain three subdirectories, namely: ‘tmp’,
     ‘new’, and ‘cur’.  Messages are created momentarily in the ‘tmp’
     subdirectory and then moved to the ‘new’ subdirectory to finalize
     delivery.  A mail user agent may subsequently move the message to
     the ‘cur’ subdirectory and store information about the state of the
     message in a special «info» section appended to its file name.

     Folders of the style introduced by the Courier mail transfer agent
     are also supported.  Any subdirectory of the main mailbox is
     considered a folder if ‘'.'’ is the first character in its name.
     Folder names are represented by ‘Maildir’ without the leading
     ‘'.'’.  Each folder is itself a Maildir mailbox but should not
     contain other folders.  Instead, a logical nesting is indicated
     using ‘'.'’ to delimit levels, e.g., «Archived.2005.07».

      -- Ιδιότητα: colon

          The Maildir specification requires the use of a colon (‘':'’)
          in certain message file names.  However, some operating
          systems do not permit this character in file names, If you
          wish to use a Maildir-like format on such an operating system,
          you should specify another character to use instead.  The
          exclamation point (‘'!'’) is a popular choice.  For example:

               import mailbox
               mailbox.Maildir.colon = '!'

          The ‘colon’ attribute may also be set on a per-instance basis.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: ‘Maildir’ now ignores files with a leading
     dot.

     ‘Maildir’ instances have all of the methods of *note Mailbox: 15f1.
     in addition to the following:

      -- Μέθοδος: list_folders ()

          Return a list of the names of all folders.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_folder (folder)

          Return a ‘Maildir’ instance representing the folder whose name
          is 'folder'.  A *note NoSuchMailboxError: 3e64. exception is
          raised if the folder does not exist.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_folder (folder)

          Create a folder whose name is 'folder' and return a ‘Maildir’
          instance representing it.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove_folder (folder)

          Delete the folder whose name is 'folder'.  If the folder
          contains any messages, a *note NotEmptyError: 3e67. exception
          will be raised and the folder will not be deleted.

      -- Μέθοδος: clean ()

          Delete temporary files from the mailbox that have not been
          accessed in the last 36 hours.  The Maildir specification says
          that mail-reading programs should do this occasionally.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_flags (key)

          Return as a string the flags that are set on the message
          corresponding to 'key'.  This is the same as
          ‘get_message(key).get_flags()’ but much faster, because it
          does not open the message file.  Use this method when
          iterating over the keys to determine which messages are
          interesting to get.

          If you do have a *note MaildirMessage: 3e60. object, use its
          *note get_flags(): 3e69. method instead, because changes made
          by the message’s *note set_flags(): 3e6a, *note add_flag():
          3e6b. and *note remove_flag(): 3e6c. methods are not reflected
          here until the mailbox’s *note __setitem__(): 3e6d. method is
          called.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_flags (key, flags)

          On the message corresponding to 'key', set the flags specified
          by 'flags' and unset all others.  Calling
          ‘some_mailbox.set_flags(key, flags)’ is similar to

               one_message = some_mailbox.get_message(key)
               one_message.set_flags(flags)
               some_mailbox[key] = one_message

          but faster, because it does not open the message file.

          If you do have a *note MaildirMessage: 3e60. object, use its
          *note set_flags(): 3e6a. method instead, because changes made
          with this mailbox method will not be visible to the message
          object’s method, *note get_flags(): 3e69.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_flag (key, flag)

          On the message corresponding to 'key', set the flags specified
          by 'flag' without changing other flags.  To add more than one
          flag at a time, 'flag' may be a string of more than one
          character.

          Considerations for using this method versus the message
          object’s *note add_flag(): 3e6b. method are similar to those
          for *note set_flags(): 1c4d.; see the discussion there.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove_flag (key, flag)

          On the message corresponding to 'key', unset the flags
          specified by 'flag' without changing other flags.  To remove
          more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a string of more
          than one character.

          Considerations for using this method versus the message
          object’s *note remove_flag(): 3e6c. method are similar to
          those for *note set_flags(): 1c4d.; see the discussion there.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_info (key)

          Return a string containing the info for the message
          corresponding to 'key'.  This is the same as
          ‘get_message(key).get_info()’ but much faster, because it does
          not open the message file.  Use this method when iterating
          over the keys to determine which messages are interesting to
          get.

          If you do have a *note MaildirMessage: 3e60. object, use its
          *note get_info(): 3e6e. method instead, because changes made
          by the message’s *note set_info(): 3e6f. method are not
          reflected here until the mailbox’s *note __setitem__(): 3e6d.
          method is called.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_info (key, info)

          Set the info of the message corresponding to 'key' to 'info'.
          Calling ‘some_mailbox.set_info(key, flags)’ is similar to

               one_message = some_mailbox.get_message(key)
               one_message.set_info(info)
               some_mailbox[key] = one_message

          but faster, because it does not open the message file.

          If you do have a *note MaildirMessage: 3e60. object, use its
          *note set_info(): 3e6f. method instead, because changes made
          with this mailbox method will not be visible to the message
          object’s method, *note get_info(): 3e6e.

          Added in version 3.13.

     Some *note Mailbox: 15f1. methods implemented by ‘Maildir’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Μέθοδος: add (message)
      -- Μέθοδος: __setitem__ (key, message)
      -- Μέθοδος: update (arg)

               Προειδοποίηση: These methods generate unique file names
               based upon the current process ID. When using multiple
               threads, undetected name clashes may occur and cause
               corruption of the mailbox unless threads are coordinated
               to avoid using these methods to manipulate the same
               mailbox simultaneously.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ()

          All changes to Maildir mailboxes are immediately applied, so
          this method does nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: lock ()
      -- Μέθοδος: unlock ()

          Maildir mailboxes do not support (or require) locking, so
          these methods do nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          ‘Maildir’ instances do not keep any open files and the
          underlying mailboxes do not support locking, so this method
          does nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_file (key)

          Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to
          modify or remove the underlying message while the returned
          file remains open.

Δείτε επίσης
............

maildir man page from Courier(1)

     A specification of the format.  Describes a common extension for
     supporting folders.

Using maildir format(2)

     Notes on Maildir by its inventor.  Includes an updated
     name-creation scheme and details on «info» semantics.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.courier-mta.org/maildir.html

   (2) https://cr.yp.to/proto/maildir.html


File: python.info,  Node: mbox objects,  Next: MH objects,  Prev: Maildir objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.21.3.3 ‘mbox’ objects
.......................

 -- Κλάση: mailbox.mbox (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 15f1. for mailboxes in mbox format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     mboxMessage: 3d0a. is used as the default message representation.
     If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     The mbox format is the classic format for storing mail on Unix
     systems.  All messages in an mbox mailbox are stored in a single
     file with the beginning of each message indicated by a line whose
     first five characters are «From «.

     Several variations of the mbox format exist to address perceived
     shortcomings in the original.  In the interest of compatibility,
     ‘mbox’ implements the original format, which is sometimes referred
     to as 'mboxo'.  This means that the ‘Content-Length’ header, if
     present, is ignored and that any occurrences of «From « at the
     beginning of a line in a message body are transformed to «>From «
     when storing the message, although occurrences of «>From « are not
     transformed to «From « when reading the message.

     Some *note Mailbox: 15f1. methods implemented by ‘mbox’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_bytes (key, from_=False)

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix «From « line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_file (key, from_=False)

          Using the file after calling *note flush(): 1bcb. or *note
          close(): 3e4a. on the ‘mbox’ instance may yield unpredictable
          results or raise an exception.

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix «From « line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_string (key, from_=False)

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix «From « line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Μέθοδος: lock ()
      -- Μέθοδος: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used—dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.

Δείτε επίσης
............

mbox man page from tin(1)

     A specification of the format, with details on locking.

Configuring Netscape Mail on Unix: Why The Content-Length Format is Bad(2)

     An argument for using the original mbox format rather than a
     variation.

"mbox" is a family of several mutually incompatible mailbox formats(3)

     A history of mbox variations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mbox

   (2) https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html

   (3) 
https://www.loc.gov/preservation/digital/formats/fdd/fdd000383.shtml


File: python.info,  Node: MH objects,  Next: Babyl objects,  Prev: mbox objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.21.3.4 ‘MH’ objects
.....................

 -- Κλάση: mailbox.MH (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 15f1. for mailboxes in MH format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     MHMessage: 3e80. is used as the default message representation.  If
     'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     MH is a directory-based mailbox format invented for the MH Message
     Handling System, a mail user agent.  Each message in an MH mailbox
     resides in its own file.  An MH mailbox may contain other MH
     mailboxes (called 'folders') in addition to messages.  Folders may
     be nested indefinitely.  MH mailboxes also support 'sequences',
     which are named lists used to logically group messages without
     moving them to sub-folders.  Sequences are defined in a file called
     ‘.mh_sequences’ in each folder.

     The ‘MH’ class manipulates MH mailboxes, but it does not attempt to
     emulate all of ‘mh’’s behaviors.  In particular, it does not modify
     and is not affected by the ‘context’ or ‘.mh_profile’ files that
     are used by ‘mh’ to store its state and configuration.

     ‘MH’ instances have all of the methods of *note Mailbox: 15f1. in
     addition to the following:

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Supported folders that don’t contain a
     ‘.mh_sequences’ file.

      -- Μέθοδος: list_folders ()

          Return a list of the names of all folders.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_folder (folder)

          Return an ‘MH’ instance representing the folder whose name is
          'folder'.  A *note NoSuchMailboxError: 3e64. exception is
          raised if the folder does not exist.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_folder (folder)

          Create a folder whose name is 'folder' and return an ‘MH’
          instance representing it.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove_folder (folder)

          Delete the folder whose name is 'folder'.  If the folder
          contains any messages, a *note NotEmptyError: 3e67. exception
          will be raised and the folder will not be deleted.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_sequences ()

          Return a dictionary of sequence names mapped to key lists.  If
          there are no sequences, the empty dictionary is returned.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_sequences (sequences)

          Re-define the sequences that exist in the mailbox based upon
          'sequences', a dictionary of names mapped to key lists, like
          returned by *note get_sequences(): 3e85.

      -- Μέθοδος: pack ()

          Rename messages in the mailbox as necessary to eliminate gaps
          in numbering.  Entries in the sequences list are updated
          correspondingly.

               Σημείωση: Already-issued keys are invalidated by this
               operation and should not be subsequently used.

     Some *note Mailbox: 15f1. methods implemented by ‘MH’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Μέθοδος: remove (key)
      -- Μέθοδος: __delitem__ (key)
      -- Μέθοδος: discard (key)

          These methods immediately delete the message.  The MH
          convention of marking a message for deletion by prepending a
          comma to its name is not used.

      -- Μέθοδος: lock ()
      -- Μέθοδος: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used—dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.  For MH
          mailboxes, locking the mailbox means locking the
          ‘.mh_sequences’ file and, only for the duration of any
          operations that affect them, locking individual message files.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_file (key)

          Depending upon the host platform, it may not be possible to
          remove the underlying message while the returned file remains
          open.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ()

          All changes to MH mailboxes are immediately applied, so this
          method does nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          ‘MH’ instances do not keep any open files, so this method is
          equivalent to *note unlock(): 3e8c.

Δείτε επίσης
............

nmh - Message Handling System(1)

     Home page of ‘nmh’, an updated version of the original ‘mh’.

MH & nmh: Email for Users & Programmers(2)

     A GPL-licensed book on ‘mh’ and ‘nmh’, with some information on the
     mailbox format.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.nongnu.org/nmh/

   (2) https://rand-mh.sourceforge.io/book/


File: python.info,  Node: Babyl objects,  Next: MMDF objects,  Prev: MH objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.21.3.5 ‘Babyl’ objects
........................

 -- Κλάση: mailbox.Babyl (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 15f1. for mailboxes in Babyl format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     BabylMessage: 3e93. is used as the default message representation.
     If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     Babyl is a single-file mailbox format used by the Rmail mail user
     agent included with Emacs.  The beginning of a message is indicated
     by a line containing the two characters Control-Underscore
     (‘'\037'’) and Control-L (‘'\014'’).  The end of a message is
     indicated by the start of the next message or, in the case of the
     last message, a line containing a Control-Underscore (‘'\037'’)
     character.

     Messages in a Babyl mailbox have two sets of headers, original
     headers and so-called visible headers.  Visible headers are
     typically a subset of the original headers that have been
     reformatted or abridged to be more attractive.  Each message in a
     Babyl mailbox also has an accompanying list of 'labels', or short
     strings that record extra information about the message, and a list
     of all user-defined labels found in the mailbox is kept in the
     Babyl options section.

     ‘Babyl’ instances have all of the methods of *note Mailbox: 15f1.
     in addition to the following:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_labels ()

          Return a list of the names of all user-defined labels used in
          the mailbox.

               Σημείωση: The actual messages are inspected to determine
               which labels exist in the mailbox rather than consulting
               the list of labels in the Babyl options section, but the
               Babyl section is updated whenever the mailbox is
               modified.

     Some *note Mailbox: 15f1. methods implemented by ‘Babyl’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_file (key)

          In Babyl mailboxes, the headers of a message are not stored
          contiguously with the body of the message.  To generate a
          file-like representation, the headers and body are copied
          together into an *note io.BytesIO: 1255. instance, which has
          an API identical to that of a file.  As a result, the
          file-like object is truly independent of the underlying
          mailbox but does not save memory compared to a string
          representation.

      -- Μέθοδος: lock ()
      -- Μέθοδος: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used—dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Format of Version 5 Babyl Files(1)

     A specification of the Babyl format.

Reading Mail with Rmail(2)

     The Rmail manual, with some information on Babyl semantics.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://quimby.gnus.org/notes/BABYL

   (2) 
https://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/manual/html_node/emacs/Rmail.html


File: python.info,  Node: MMDF objects,  Prev: Babyl objects,  Up: Mailbox objects

5.21.3.6 ‘MMDF’ objects
.......................

 -- Κλάση: mailbox.MMDF (path, factory=None, create=True)

     A subclass of *note Mailbox: 15f1. for mailboxes in MMDF format.
     Parameter 'factory' is a callable object that accepts a file-like
     message representation (which behaves as if opened in binary mode)
     and returns a custom representation.  If 'factory' is ‘None’, *note
     MMDFMessage: 3e9a. is used as the default message representation.
     If 'create' is ‘True’, the mailbox is created if it does not exist.

     MMDF is a single-file mailbox format invented for the Multichannel
     Memorandum Distribution Facility, a mail transfer agent.  Each
     message is in the same form as an mbox message but is bracketed
     before and after by lines containing four Control-A (‘'\001'’)
     characters.  As with the mbox format, the beginning of each message
     is indicated by a line whose first five characters are «From «, but
     additional occurrences of «From « are not transformed to «>From «
     when storing messages because the extra message separator lines
     prevent mistaking such occurrences for the starts of subsequent
     messages.

     Some *note Mailbox: 15f1. methods implemented by ‘MMDF’ deserve
     special remarks:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_bytes (key, from_=False)

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix «From « line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_file (key, from_=False)

          Using the file after calling *note flush(): 1bcb. or *note
          close(): 3e4a. on the ‘MMDF’ instance may yield unpredictable
          results or raise an exception.

          Note: This method has an extra parameter ('from_') compared
          with other classes.  The first line of an mbox file entry is
          the Unix «From « line.  If 'from_' is False, the first line of
          the file is dropped.

      -- Μέθοδος: lock ()
      -- Μέθοδος: unlock ()

          Three locking mechanisms are used—dot locking and, if
          available, the ‘flock()’ and ‘lockf()’ system calls.

Δείτε επίσης
............

mmdf man page from tin(1)

     A specification of MMDF format from the documentation of tin, a
     newsreader.

MMDF(2)

     A Wikipedia article describing the Multichannel Memorandum
     Distribution Facility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mmdf

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMDF


File: python.info,  Node: Message objects,  Next: Exceptions<19>,  Prev: Mailbox objects,  Up: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

5.21.3.7 ‘Message’ objects
..........................

 -- Κλάση: mailbox.Message (message=None)

     A subclass of the *note email.message: 47. module’s *note Message:
     780.  Subclasses of ‘mailbox.Message’ add mailbox-format-specific
     state and behavior.

     If 'message' is omitted, the new instance is created in a default,
     empty state.  If 'message' is an *note email.message.Message: 780.
     instance, its contents are copied; furthermore, any format-specific
     information is converted insofar as possible if 'message' is a
     ‘Message’ instance.  If 'message' is a string, a byte string, or a
     file, it should contain an RFC 5322(1)-compliant message, which is
     read and parsed.  Files should be open in binary mode, but text
     mode files are accepted for backward compatibility.

     The format-specific state and behaviors offered by subclasses vary,
     but in general it is only the properties that are not specific to a
     particular mailbox that are supported (although presumably the
     properties are specific to a particular mailbox format).  For
     example, file offsets for single-file mailbox formats and file
     names for directory-based mailbox formats are not retained, because
     they are only applicable to the original mailbox.  But state such
     as whether a message has been read by the user or marked as
     important is retained, because it applies to the message itself.

     There is no requirement that ‘Message’ instances be used to
     represent messages retrieved using *note Mailbox: 15f1. instances.
     In some situations, the time and memory required to generate
     ‘Message’ representations might not be acceptable.  For such
     situations, ‘Mailbox’ instances also offer string and file-like
     representations, and a custom message factory may be specified when
     a ‘Mailbox’ instance is initialized.

* Menu:

* MaildirMessage objects::
* mboxMessage objects::
* MHMessage objects::
* BabylMessage objects::
* MMDFMessage objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: MaildirMessage objects,  Next: mboxMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.21.3.8 ‘MaildirMessage’ objects
.................................

 -- Κλάση: mailbox.MaildirMessage (message=None)

     A message with Maildir-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 15f5. constructor.

     Typically, a mail user agent application moves all of the messages
     in the ‘new’ subdirectory to the ‘cur’ subdirectory after the first
     time the user opens and closes the mailbox, recording that the
     messages are old whether or not they’ve actually been read.  Each
     message in ‘cur’ has an «info» section added to its file name to
     store information about its state.  (Some mail readers may also add
     an «info» section to messages in ‘new’.)  The «info» section may
     take one of two forms: it may contain «2,» followed by a list of
     standardized flags (e.g., «2,FR») or it may contain «1,» followed
     by so-called experimental information.  Standard flags for Maildir
     messages are as follows:

     Flag       Meaning       Explanation
                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                              
     D          Draft         Under composition
                              
                              
     F          Flagged       Marked as important
                              
                              
     P          Passed        Forwarded, resent, or bounced
                              
                              
     R          Replied       Replied to
                              
                              
     S          Seen          Read
                              
                              
     T          Trashed       Marked for subsequent deletion
                              

     ‘MaildirMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_subdir ()

          Return either «new» (if the message should be stored in the
          ‘new’ subdirectory) or «cur» (if the message should be stored
          in the ‘cur’ subdirectory).

               Σημείωση: A message is typically moved from ‘new’ to
               ‘cur’ after its mailbox has been accessed, whether or not
               the message has been read.  A message ‘msg’ has been read
               if ‘"S" in msg.get_flags()’ is ‘True’.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_subdir (subdir)

          Set the subdirectory the message should be stored in.
          Parameter 'subdir' must be either «new» or «cur».

      -- Μέθοδος: get_flags ()

          Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set.
          If the message complies with the standard Maildir format, the
          result is the concatenation in alphabetical order of zero or
          one occurrence of each of ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’, ‘'P'’, ‘'R'’, ‘'S'’,
          and ‘'T'’.  The empty string is returned if no flags are set
          or if «info» contains experimental semantics.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_flags (flags)

          Set the flags specified by 'flags' and unset all others.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_flag (flag)

          Set the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To add more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a
          string of more than one character.  The current «info» is
          overwritten whether or not it contains experimental
          information rather than flags.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove_flag (flag)

          Unset the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To remove more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be
          a string of more than one character.  If «info» contains
          experimental information rather than flags, the current «info»
          is not modified.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_date ()

          Return the delivery date of the message as a floating-point
          number representing seconds since the epoch.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_date (date)

          Set the delivery date of the message to 'date', a
          floating-point number representing seconds since the epoch.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_info ()

          Return a string containing the «info» for a message.  This is
          useful for accessing and modifying «info» that is experimental
          (i.e., not a list of flags).

      -- Μέθοδος: set_info (info)

          Set «info» to 'info', which should be a string.

When a ‘MaildirMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
mboxMessage: 3d0a. or *note MMDFMessage: 3e9a. instance, the ‘Status’
and ‘X-Status’ headers are omitted and the following conversions take
place:

Resulting state          *note mboxMessage: 3d0a. or
                         *note MMDFMessage: 3e9a. state
                         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
«cur» subdirectory       O flag
                         
                         
F flag                   F flag
                         
                         
R flag                   A flag
                         
                         
S flag                   R flag
                         
                         
T flag                   D flag
                         

When a ‘MaildirMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
MHMessage: 3e80. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state                     *note MHMessage: 3e80. state
                                    
-------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
«cur» subdirectory                  «unseen» sequence
                                    
                                    
«cur» subdirectory and S flag       no «unseen» sequence
                                    
                                    
F flag                              «flagged» sequence
                                    
                                    
R flag                              «replied» sequence
                                    

When a ‘MaildirMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
BabylMessage: 3e93. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state                     *note BabylMessage: 3e93. state
                                    
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
«cur» subdirectory                  «unseen» label
                                    
                                    
«cur» subdirectory and S flag       no «unseen» label
                                    
                                    
P flag                              «forwarded» or «resent» label
                                    
                                    
R flag                              «answered» label
                                    
                                    
T flag                              «deleted» label
                                    


File: python.info,  Node: mboxMessage objects,  Next: MHMessage objects,  Prev: MaildirMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.21.3.9 ‘mboxMessage’ objects
..............................

 -- Κλάση: mailbox.mboxMessage (message=None)

     A message with mbox-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 15f5. constructor.

     Messages in an mbox mailbox are stored together in a single file.
     The sender’s envelope address and the time of delivery are
     typically stored in a line beginning with «From « that is used to
     indicate the start of a message, though there is considerable
     variation in the exact format of this data among mbox
     implementations.  Flags that indicate the state of the message,
     such as whether it has been read or marked as important, are
     typically stored in ‘Status’ and ‘X-Status’ headers.

     Conventional flags for mbox messages are as follows:

     Flag       Meaning        Explanation
                               
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                               
     R          Read           Read
                               
                               
     O          Old            Previously detected by MUA
                               
                               
     D          Deleted        Marked for subsequent deletion
                               
                               
     F          Flagged        Marked as important
                               
                               
     A          Answered       Replied to
                               

     The «R» and «O» flags are stored in the ‘Status’ header, and the
     «D», «F», and «A» flags are stored in the ‘X-Status’ header.  The
     flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.

     ‘mboxMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_from ()

          Return a string representing the «From « line that marks the
          start of the message in an mbox mailbox.  The leading «From «
          and the trailing newline are excluded.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_from (from_, time_=None)

          Set the «From « line to 'from_', which should be specified
          without a leading «From « or trailing newline.  For
          convenience, 'time_' may be specified and will be formatted
          appropriately and appended to 'from_'.  If 'time_' is
          specified, it should be a *note time.struct_time: 10a7.
          instance, a tuple suitable for passing to *note
          time.strftime(): 1592, or ‘True’ (to use *note time.gmtime():
          1569.).

      -- Μέθοδος: get_flags ()

          Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set.
          If the message complies with the conventional format, the
          result is the concatenation in the following order of zero or
          one occurrence of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’, and
          ‘'A'’.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_flags (flags)

          Set the flags specified by 'flags' and unset all others.
          Parameter 'flags' should be the concatenation in any order of
          zero or more occurrences of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’,
          ‘'F'’, and ‘'A'’.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_flag (flag)

          Set the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To add more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a
          string of more than one character.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove_flag (flag)

          Unset the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To remove more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be
          a string of more than one character.

When an ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 3e60. instance, a «From « line is generated based upon
the ‘MaildirMessage’ instance’s delivery date, and the following
conversions take place:

Resulting state       *note MaildirMessage: 3e60. state
                      
----------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                S flag
                      
                      
O flag                «cur» subdirectory
                      
                      
D flag                T flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                R flag
                      

When an ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note MHMessage:
3e80. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note MHMessage: 3e80. state
                        
-------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no «unseen» sequence
                        
                        
O flag                  «unseen» sequence
                        
                        
F flag                  «flagged» sequence
                        
                        
A flag                  «replied» sequence
                        

When an ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
BabylMessage: 3e93. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note BabylMessage: 3e93. state
                        
----------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no «unseen» label
                        
                        
O flag                  «unseen» label
                        
                        
D flag                  «deleted» label
                        
                        
A flag                  «answered» label
                        

When a ‘mboxMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
MMDFMessage: 3e9a. instance, the «From « line is copied and all flags
directly correspond:

Resulting state       *note MMDFMessage: 3e9a. state
                      
-------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                R flag
                      
                      
O flag                O flag
                      
                      
D flag                D flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                A flag
                      


File: python.info,  Node: MHMessage objects,  Next: BabylMessage objects,  Prev: mboxMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.21.3.10 ‘MHMessage’ objects
.............................

 -- Κλάση: mailbox.MHMessage (message=None)

     A message with MH-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has the
     same meaning as with the *note Message: 15f5. constructor.

     MH messages do not support marks or flags in the traditional sense,
     but they do support sequences, which are logical groupings of
     arbitrary messages.  Some mail reading programs (although not the
     standard ‘mh’ and ‘nmh’) use sequences in much the same way flags
     are used with other formats, as follows:

     Sequence       Explanation
                    
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     unseen         Not read, but previously detected by MUA
                    
                    
     replied        Replied to
                    
                    
     flagged        Marked as important
                    

     ‘MHMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_sequences ()

          Return a list of the names of sequences that include this
          message.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_sequences (sequences)

          Set the list of sequences that include this message.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_sequence (sequence)

          Add 'sequence' to the list of sequences that include this
          message.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove_sequence (sequence)

          Remove 'sequence' from the list of sequences that include this
          message.

When an ‘MHMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 3e60. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state          *note MaildirMessage: 3e60. state
                         
-------------------------------------------------------------
                         
«unseen» sequence        no S flag
                         
                         
«replied» sequence       R flag
                         
                         
«flagged» sequence       F flag
                         

When an ‘MHMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note mboxMessage:
3d0a. or *note MMDFMessage: 3e9a. instance, the ‘Status’ and ‘X-Status’
headers are omitted and the following conversions take place:

Resulting state          *note mboxMessage: 3d0a. or
                         *note MMDFMessage: 3e9a. state
                         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
«unseen» sequence        no R flag
                         
                         
«replied» sequence       A flag
                         
                         
«flagged» sequence       F flag
                         

When an ‘MHMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note BabylMessage:
3e93. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state          *note BabylMessage: 3e93. state
                         
-----------------------------------------------------------
                         
«unseen» sequence        «unseen» label
                         
                         
«replied» sequence       «answered» label
                         


File: python.info,  Node: BabylMessage objects,  Next: MMDFMessage objects,  Prev: MHMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.21.3.11 ‘BabylMessage’ objects
................................

 -- Κλάση: mailbox.BabylMessage (message=None)

     A message with Babyl-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 15f5. constructor.

     Certain message labels, called 'attributes', are defined by
     convention to have special meanings.  The attributes are as
     follows:

     Label           Explanation
                     
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                     
     unseen          Not read, but previously detected by MUA
                     
                     
     deleted         Marked for subsequent deletion
                     
                     
     filed           Copied to another file or mailbox
                     
                     
     answered        Replied to
                     
                     
     forwarded       Forwarded
                     
                     
     edited          Modified by the user
                     
                     
     resent          Resent
                     

     By default, Rmail displays only visible headers.  The
     ‘BabylMessage’ class, though, uses the original headers because
     they are more complete.  Visible headers may be accessed explicitly
     if desired.

     ‘BabylMessage’ instances offer the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_labels ()

          Return a list of labels on the message.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_labels (labels)

          Set the list of labels on the message to 'labels'.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_label (label)

          Add 'label' to the list of labels on the message.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove_label (label)

          Remove 'label' from the list of labels on the message.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_visible ()

          Return a *note Message: 15f5. instance whose headers are the
          message’s visible headers and whose body is empty.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_visible (visible)

          Set the message’s visible headers to be the same as the
          headers in 'message'.  Parameter 'visible' should be a *note
          Message: 15f5. instance, an *note email.message.Message: 780.
          instance, a string, or a file-like object (which should be
          open in text mode).

      -- Μέθοδος: update_visible ()

          When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance’s original headers are
          modified, the visible headers are not automatically modified
          to correspond.  This method updates the visible headers as
          follows: each visible header with a corresponding original
          header is set to the value of the original header, each
          visible header without a corresponding original header is
          removed, and any of ‘Date’, ‘From’, ‘Reply-To’, ‘To’, ‘CC’,
          and ‘Subject’ that are present in the original headers but not
          the visible headers are added to the visible headers.

When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 3e60. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note MaildirMessage: 3e60. state
                        
------------------------------------------------------------
                        
«unseen» label          no S flag
                        
                        
«deleted» label         T flag
                        
                        
«answered» label        R flag
                        
                        
«forwarded» label       P flag
                        

When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
mboxMessage: 3d0a. or *note MMDFMessage: 3e9a. instance, the ‘Status’
and ‘X-Status’ headers are omitted and the following conversions take
place:

Resulting state        *note mboxMessage: 3d0a. or
                       *note MMDFMessage: 3e9a. state
                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
«unseen» label         no R flag
                       
                       
«deleted» label        D flag
                       
                       
«answered» label       A flag
                       

When a ‘BabylMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note MHMessage:
3e80. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state        *note MHMessage: 3e80. state
                       
------------------------------------------------------
                       
«unseen» label         «unseen» sequence
                       
                       
«answered» label       «replied» sequence
                       


File: python.info,  Node: MMDFMessage objects,  Prev: BabylMessage objects,  Up: Message objects

5.21.3.12 ‘MMDFMessage’ objects
...............................

 -- Κλάση: mailbox.MMDFMessage (message=None)

     A message with MMDF-specific behaviors.  Parameter 'message' has
     the same meaning as with the *note Message: 15f5. constructor.

     As with message in an mbox mailbox, MMDF messages are stored with
     the sender’s address and the delivery date in an initial line
     beginning with «From «.  Likewise, flags that indicate the state of
     the message are typically stored in ‘Status’ and ‘X-Status’
     headers.

     Conventional flags for MMDF messages are identical to those of mbox
     message and are as follows:

     Flag       Meaning        Explanation
                               
     ---------------------------------------------------------------
                               
     R          Read           Read
                               
                               
     O          Old            Previously detected by MUA
                               
                               
     D          Deleted        Marked for subsequent deletion
                               
                               
     F          Flagged        Marked as important
                               
                               
     A          Answered       Replied to
                               

     The «R» and «O» flags are stored in the ‘Status’ header, and the
     «D», «F», and «A» flags are stored in the ‘X-Status’ header.  The
     flags and headers typically appear in the order mentioned.

     ‘MMDFMessage’ instances offer the following methods, which are
     identical to those offered by *note mboxMessage: 3d0a.:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_from ()

          Return a string representing the «From « line that marks the
          start of the message in an mbox mailbox.  The leading «From «
          and the trailing newline are excluded.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_from (from_, time_=None)

          Set the «From « line to 'from_', which should be specified
          without a leading «From « or trailing newline.  For
          convenience, 'time_' may be specified and will be formatted
          appropriately and appended to 'from_'.  If 'time_' is
          specified, it should be a *note time.struct_time: 10a7.
          instance, a tuple suitable for passing to *note
          time.strftime(): 1592, or ‘True’ (to use *note time.gmtime():
          1569.).

      -- Μέθοδος: get_flags ()

          Return a string specifying the flags that are currently set.
          If the message complies with the conventional format, the
          result is the concatenation in the following order of zero or
          one occurrence of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’, ‘'F'’, and
          ‘'A'’.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_flags (flags)

          Set the flags specified by 'flags' and unset all others.
          Parameter 'flags' should be the concatenation in any order of
          zero or more occurrences of each of ‘'R'’, ‘'O'’, ‘'D'’,
          ‘'F'’, and ‘'A'’.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_flag (flag)

          Set the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To add more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be a
          string of more than one character.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove_flag (flag)

          Unset the flag(s) specified by 'flag' without changing other
          flags.  To remove more than one flag at a time, 'flag' may be
          a string of more than one character.

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
MaildirMessage: 3e60. instance, a «From « line is generated based upon
the ‘MaildirMessage’ instance’s delivery date, and the following
conversions take place:

Resulting state       *note MaildirMessage: 3e60. state
                      
----------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                S flag
                      
                      
O flag                «cur» subdirectory
                      
                      
D flag                T flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                R flag
                      

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note MHMessage:
3e80. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note MHMessage: 3e80. state
                        
-------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no «unseen» sequence
                        
                        
O flag                  «unseen» sequence
                        
                        
F flag                  «flagged» sequence
                        
                        
A flag                  «replied» sequence
                        

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon a *note
BabylMessage: 3e93. instance, the following conversions take place:

Resulting state         *note BabylMessage: 3e93. state
                        
----------------------------------------------------------
                        
R flag and O flag       no «unseen» label
                        
                        
O flag                  «unseen» label
                        
                        
D flag                  «deleted» label
                        
                        
A flag                  «answered» label
                        

When an ‘MMDFMessage’ instance is created based upon an *note
mboxMessage: 3d0a. instance, the «From « line is copied and all flags
directly correspond:

Resulting state       *note mboxMessage: 3d0a. state
                      
-------------------------------------------------------
                      
R flag                R flag
                      
                      
O flag                O flag
                      
                      
D flag                D flag
                      
                      
F flag                F flag
                      
                      
A flag                A flag
                      


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<19>,  Next: Examples<20>,  Prev: Message objects,  Up: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

5.21.3.13 Exceptions
....................

The following exception classes are defined in the ‘mailbox’ module:

 -- Εξαίρεση: mailbox.Error

     The base class for all other module-specific exceptions.

 -- Εξαίρεση: mailbox.NoSuchMailboxError

     Raised when a mailbox is expected but is not found, such as when
     instantiating a *note Mailbox: 15f1. subclass with a path that does
     not exist (and with the 'create' parameter set to ‘False’), or when
     opening a folder that does not exist.

 -- Εξαίρεση: mailbox.NotEmptyError

     Raised when a mailbox is not empty but is expected to be, such as
     when deleting a folder that contains messages.

 -- Εξαίρεση: mailbox.ExternalClashError

     Raised when some mailbox-related condition beyond the control of
     the program causes it to be unable to proceed, such as when failing
     to acquire a lock that another program already holds, or when a
     uniquely generated file name already exists.

 -- Εξαίρεση: mailbox.FormatError

     Raised when the data in a file cannot be parsed, such as when an
     *note MH: 1c35. instance attempts to read a corrupted
     ‘.mh_sequences’ file.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<20>,  Prev: Exceptions<19>,  Up: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

5.21.3.14 Examples
..................

A simple example of printing the subjects of all messages in a mailbox
that seem interesting:

     import mailbox
     for message in mailbox.mbox('~/mbox'):
         subject = message['subject']       # Could possibly be None.
         if subject and 'python' in subject.lower():
             print(subject)

To copy all mail from a Babyl mailbox to an MH mailbox, converting all
of the format-specific information that can be converted:

     import mailbox
     destination = mailbox.MH('~/Mail')
     destination.lock()
     for message in mailbox.Babyl('~/RMAIL'):
         destination.add(mailbox.MHMessage(message))
     destination.flush()
     destination.unlock()

This example sorts mail from several mailing lists into different
mailboxes, being careful to avoid mail corruption due to concurrent
modification by other programs, mail loss due to interruption of the
program, or premature termination due to malformed messages in the
mailbox:

     import mailbox
     import email.errors

     list_names = ('python-list', 'python-dev', 'python-bugs')

     boxes = {name: mailbox.mbox('~/email/%s' % name) for name in list_names}
     inbox = mailbox.Maildir('~/Maildir', factory=None)

     for key in inbox.iterkeys():
         try:
             message = inbox[key]
         except email.errors.MessageParseError:
             continue                # The message is malformed. Just leave it.

         for name in list_names:
             list_id = message['list-id']
             if list_id and name in list_id:
                 # Get mailbox to use
                 box = boxes[name]

                 # Write copy to disk before removing original.
                 # If there's a crash, you might duplicate a message, but
                 # that's better than losing a message completely.
                 box.lock()
                 box.add(message)
                 box.flush()
                 box.unlock()

                 # Remove original message
                 inbox.lock()
                 inbox.discard(key)
                 inbox.flush()
                 inbox.unlock()
                 break               # Found destination, so stop looking.

     for box in boxes.itervalues():
         box.close()


File: python.info,  Node: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types,  Next: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings,  Prev: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.21.4 ‘mimetypes’ — Map filenames to MIME types
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/mimetypes.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘mimetypes’ module converts between a filename or URL and the MIME
type associated with the filename extension.  Conversions are provided
from filename to MIME type and from MIME type to filename extension;
encodings are not supported for the latter conversion.

The module provides one class and a number of convenience functions.
The functions are the normal interface to this module, but some
applications may be interested in the class as well.

The functions described below provide the primary interface for this
module.  If the module has not been initialized, they will call *note
init(): 3ece. if they rely on the information ‘init()’ sets up.

 -- Συνάρτηση: mimetypes.guess_type (url, strict=True)

     Guess the type of a file based on its filename, path or URL, given
     by 'url'.  URL can be a string or a *note path-like object: 79f.

     The return value is a tuple ‘(type, encoding)’ where 'type' is
     ‘None’ if the type can’t be guessed (missing or unknown suffix) or
     a string of the form ‘'type/subtype'’, usable for a MIME
     ‘content-type’ header.

     'encoding' is ‘None’ for no encoding or the name of the program
     used to encode (e.g.  ‘compress’ or ‘gzip’).  The encoding is
     suitable for use as a ‘Content-Encoding’ header, 'not' as a
     ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ header.  The mappings are table driven.
     Encoding suffixes are case sensitive; type suffixes are first tried
     case sensitively, then case insensitively.

     The optional 'strict' argument is a flag specifying whether the
     list of known MIME types is limited to only the official types
     registered with IANA(2). However, the behavior of this module also
     depends on the underlying operating system.  Only file types
     recognized by the OS or explicitly registered with Python’s
     internal database can be identified.  When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the
     default), only the IANA types are supported; when 'strict' is
     ‘False’, some additional non-standard but commonly used MIME types
     are also recognized.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added support for 'url' being a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.13: Passing a file path
     instead of URL. Use *note guess_file_type(): 71a. for this.

 -- Συνάρτηση: mimetypes.guess_file_type (path, *, strict=True)

     Guess the type of a file based on its path, given by 'path'.
     Similar to the *note guess_type(): 71b. function, but accepts a
     path instead of URL. Path can be a string, a bytes object or a
     *note path-like object: 79f.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: mimetypes.guess_all_extensions (type, strict=True)

     Guess the extensions for a file based on its MIME type, given by
     'type'.  The return value is a list of strings giving all possible
     filename extensions, including the leading dot (‘'.'’).  The
     extensions are not guaranteed to have been associated with any
     particular data stream, but would be mapped to the MIME type 'type'
     by *note guess_type(): 71b. and *note guess_file_type(): 71a.

     The optional 'strict' argument has the same meaning as with the
     *note guess_type(): 71b. function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: mimetypes.guess_extension (type, strict=True)

     Guess the extension for a file based on its MIME type, given by
     'type'.  The return value is a string giving a filename extension,
     including the leading dot (‘'.'’).  The extension is not guaranteed
     to have been associated with any particular data stream, but would
     be mapped to the MIME type 'type' by *note guess_type(): 71b. and
     *note guess_file_type(): 71a.  If no extension can be guessed for
     'type', ‘None’ is returned.

     The optional 'strict' argument has the same meaning as with the
     *note guess_type(): 71b. function.

Some additional functions and data items are available for controlling
the behavior of the module.

 -- Συνάρτηση: mimetypes.init (files=None)

     Initialize the internal data structures.  If given, 'files' must be
     a sequence of file names which should be used to augment the
     default type map.  If omitted, the file names to use are taken from
     *note knownfiles: 3ed0.; on Windows, the current registry settings
     are loaded.  Each file named in 'files' or ‘knownfiles’ takes
     precedence over those named before it.  Calling ‘init()’ repeatedly
     is allowed.

     Specifying an empty list for 'files' will prevent the system
     defaults from being applied: only the well-known values will be
     present from a built-in list.

     If 'files' is ‘None’ the internal data structure is completely
     rebuilt to its initial default value.  This is a stable operation
     and will produce the same results when called multiple times.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Previously, Windows registry settings were
     ignored.

 -- Συνάρτηση: mimetypes.read_mime_types (filename)

     Load the type map given in the file 'filename', if it exists.  The
     type map is returned as a dictionary mapping filename extensions,
     including the leading dot (‘'.'’), to strings of the form
     ‘'type/subtype'’.  If the file 'filename' does not exist or cannot
     be read, ‘None’ is returned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: mimetypes.add_type (type, ext, strict=True)

     Add a mapping from the MIME type 'type' to the extension 'ext'.
     When the extension is already known, the new type will replace the
     old one.  When the type is already known the extension will be
     added to the list of known extensions.

     When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default), the mapping will be added to
     the official MIME types, otherwise to the non-standard ones.

 -- Δεδομένα: mimetypes.inited

     Flag indicating whether or not the global data structures have been
     initialized.  This is set to ‘True’ by *note init(): 3ece.

 -- Δεδομένα: mimetypes.knownfiles

     List of type map file names commonly installed.  These files are
     typically named ‘mime.types’ and are installed in different
     locations by different packages.

 -- Δεδομένα: mimetypes.suffix_map

     Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes.  This is used to allow
     recognition of encoded files for which the encoding and the type
     are indicated by the same extension.  For example, the ‘.tgz’
     extension is mapped to ‘.tar.gz’ to allow the encoding and type to
     be recognized separately.

 -- Δεδομένα: mimetypes.encodings_map

     Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.

 -- Δεδομένα: mimetypes.types_map

     Dictionary mapping filename extensions to MIME types.

 -- Δεδομένα: mimetypes.common_types

     Dictionary mapping filename extensions to non-standard, but
     commonly found MIME types.

An example usage of the module:

     >>> import mimetypes
     >>> mimetypes.init()
     >>> mimetypes.knownfiles
     ['/etc/mime.types', '/etc/httpd/mime.types', ... ]
     >>> mimetypes.suffix_map['.tgz']
     '.tar.gz'
     >>> mimetypes.encodings_map['.gz']
     'gzip'
     >>> mimetypes.types_map['.tgz']
     'application/x-tar-gz'

* Menu:

* MimeTypes objects::
* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<2>.
* Command-line example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/mimetypes.py

   (2) https://www.iana.org/assignments/media-types/media-types.xhtml


File: python.info,  Node: MimeTypes objects,  Next: Command-line usage<2>,  Up: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types

5.21.4.1 MimeTypes objects
..........................

The *note MimeTypes: 189d. class may be useful for applications which
may want more than one MIME-type database; it provides an interface
similar to the one of the ‘mimetypes’ module.

 -- Κλάση: mimetypes.MimeTypes (filenames=(), strict=True)

     This class represents a MIME-types database.  By default, it
     provides access to the same database as the rest of this module.
     The initial database is a copy of that provided by the module, and
     may be extended by loading additional ‘mime.types’-style files into
     the database using the *note read(): 3ed9. or *note readfp(): 3eda.
     methods.  The mapping dictionaries may also be cleared before
     loading additional data if the default data is not desired.

     The optional 'filenames' parameter can be used to cause additional
     files to be loaded «on top» of the default database.

      -- Ιδιότητα: suffix_map

          Dictionary mapping suffixes to suffixes.  This is used to
          allow recognition of encoded files for which the encoding and
          the type are indicated by the same extension.  For example,
          the ‘.tgz’ extension is mapped to ‘.tar.gz’ to allow the
          encoding and type to be recognized separately.  This is
          initially a copy of the global *note suffix_map: 3ed3. defined
          in the module.

      -- Ιδιότητα: encodings_map

          Dictionary mapping filename extensions to encoding types.
          This is initially a copy of the global *note encodings_map:
          3ed4. defined in the module.

      -- Ιδιότητα: types_map

          Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping filename extensions
          to MIME types: the first dictionary is for the non-standards
          types and the second one is for the standard types.  They are
          initialized by *note common_types: 3ed6. and *note types_map:
          3ed5.

      -- Ιδιότητα: types_map_inv

          Tuple containing two dictionaries, mapping MIME types to a
          list of filename extensions: the first dictionary is for the
          non-standards types and the second one is for the standard
          types.  They are initialized by *note common_types: 3ed6. and
          *note types_map: 3ed5.

      -- Μέθοδος: guess_extension (type, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_extension(): 3ecf. function, using
          the tables stored as part of the object.

      -- Μέθοδος: guess_type (url, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_type(): 71b. function, using the
          tables stored as part of the object.

      -- Μέθοδος: guess_file_type (path, *, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_file_type(): 71a. function, using
          the tables stored as part of the object.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: guess_all_extensions (type, strict=True)

          Similar to the *note guess_all_extensions(): 1e41. function,
          using the tables stored as part of the object.

      -- Μέθοδος: read (filename, strict=True)

          Load MIME information from a file named 'filename'.  This uses
          *note readfp(): 3eda. to parse the file.

          If 'strict' is ‘True’, information will be added to list of
          standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

      -- Μέθοδος: readfp (fp, strict=True)

          Load MIME type information from an open file 'fp'.  The file
          must have the format of the standard ‘mime.types’ files.

          If 'strict' is ‘True’, information will be added to the list
          of standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

      -- Μέθοδος: read_windows_registry (strict=True)

          Load MIME type information from the Windows registry.

          *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

          If 'strict' is ‘True’, information will be added to the list
          of standard types, else to the list of non-standard types.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_type (type, ext, strict=True)

          Add a mapping from the MIME type 'type' to the extension
          'ext'.  Valid extensions start with a “.” or are empty.  When
          the extension is already known, the new type will replace the
          old one.  When the type is already known the extension will be
          added to the list of known extensions.

          When 'strict' is ‘True’ (the default), the mapping will be
          added to the official MIME types, otherwise to the
          non-standard ones.

          Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.14, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.16:
          Invalid, undotted extensions will raise a *note ValueError:
          277. in Python 3.16.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line usage<2>,  Next: Command-line example,  Prev: MimeTypes objects,  Up: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types

5.21.4.2 Command-line usage
...........................

The ‘mimetypes’ module can be executed as a script from the command
line.

     python -m mimetypes [-h] [-e] [-l] type [type ...]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Επιλογή Προγράμματος: -h
 -- Επιλογή Προγράμματος: --help

     Show the help message and exit.

 -- Επιλογή Προγράμματος: -e
 -- Επιλογή Προγράμματος: --extension

     Guess extension instead of type.

 -- Επιλογή Προγράμματος: -l
 -- Επιλογή Προγράμματος: --lenient

     Additionally search for some common, but non-standard types.

By default the script converts MIME types to file extensions.  However,
if ‘--extension’ is specified, it converts file extensions to MIME
types.

For each ‘type’ entry, the script writes a line into the standard output
stream.  If an unknown type occurs, it writes an error message into the
standard error stream and exits with the return code ‘1’.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line example,  Prev: Command-line usage<2>,  Up: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types

5.21.4.3 Command-line example
.............................

Here are some examples of typical usage of the ‘mimetypes’ command-line
interface:

     $ # get a MIME type by a file name
     $ python -m mimetypes filename.png
     type: image/png encoding: None

     $ # get a MIME type by a URL
     $ python -m mimetypes https://example.com/filename.txt
     type: text/plain encoding: None

     $ # get a complex MIME type
     $ python -m mimetypes filename.tar.gz
     type: application/x-tar encoding: gzip

     $ # get a MIME type for a rare file extension
     $ python -m mimetypes filename.pict
     error: unknown extension of filename.pict

     $ # now look in the extended database built into Python
     $ python -m mimetypes --lenient filename.pict
     type: image/pict encoding: None

     $ # get a file extension by a MIME type
     $ python -m mimetypes --extension text/javascript
     .js

     $ # get a file extension by a rare MIME type
     $ python -m mimetypes --extension text/xul
     error: unknown type text/xul

     $ # now look in the extended database again
     $ python -m mimetypes --extension --lenient text/xul
     .xul

     $ # try to feed an unknown file extension
     $ python -m mimetypes filename.sh filename.nc filename.xxx filename.txt
     type: application/x-sh encoding: None
     type: application/x-netcdf encoding: None
     error: unknown extension of filename.xxx

     $ # try to feed an unknown MIME type
     $ python -m mimetypes --extension audio/aac audio/opus audio/future audio/x-wav
     .aac
     .opus
     error: unknown type audio/future


File: python.info,  Node: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings,  Next: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII,  Prev: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.21.5 ‘base64’ — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings
---------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/base64.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides functions for encoding binary data to printable
ASCII characters and decoding such encodings back to binary data.  This
includes the *note encodings specified in: 3eee. RFC 4648(2) (Base64,
Base32 and Base16) and the non-standard *note Base85 encodings: 3eef.

There are two interfaces provided by this module.  The modern interface
supports encoding *note bytes-like objects: 436. to ASCII *note bytes:
1c7, and decoding bytes-like objects or strings containing ASCII to
‘bytes’.  Both base-64 alphabets defined in RFC 4648(3) (normal, and
URL- and filesystem-safe) are supported.

The *note legacy interface: 3ef0. does not support decoding from
strings, but it does provide functions for encoding and decoding to and
from *note file objects: 156c.  It only supports the Base64 standard
alphabet, and it adds newlines every 76 characters as per RFC 2045(4).
Note that if you are looking for RFC 2045(5) support you probably want
to be looking at the *note email: 3e. package instead.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by
the decoding functions of the modern interface.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Any *note bytes-like objects: 436. are now
accepted by all encoding and decoding functions in this module.
Ascii85/Base85 support added.

* Menu:

* RFC 4648 Encodings::
* Base85 Encodings::
* Legacy Interface::
* Security Considerations: Security Considerations<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/base64.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html


File: python.info,  Node: RFC 4648 Encodings,  Next: Base85 Encodings,  Up: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings

5.21.5.1 RFC 4648 Encodings
...........................

The RFC 4648(1) encodings are suitable for encoding binary data so that
it can be safely sent by email, used as parts of URLs, or included as
part of an HTTP POST request.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.b64encode (s, altchars=None, *, padded=True,
          wrapcol=0)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: 436. 's' using Base64 and
     return the encoded *note bytes: 1c7.

     Optional 'altchars' must be a *note bytes-like object: 436. of
     length 2 which specifies an alternative alphabet for the ‘+’ and
     ‘/’ characters.  This allows an application to e.g.  generate URL
     or filesystem safe Base64 strings.  The default is ‘None’, for
     which the standard Base64 alphabet is used.

     If 'padded' is true (default), pad the encoded data with the “=”
     character to a size multiple of 4.  If 'padded' is false, do not
     add the pad characters.

     If 'wrapcol' is non-zero, insert a newline (‘b'\n'’) character
     after at most every 'wrapcol' characters.  If 'wrapcol' is zero
     (default), do not insert any newlines.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'padded' and 'wrapcol'
     parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.b64decode (s, altchars=None, validate=False, *,
          padded=True, canonical=False)

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.b64decode (s, altchars=None, validate=True, *,
          ignorechars, padded=True, canonical=False)

     Decode the Base64 encoded *note bytes-like object: 436. or ASCII
     string 's' and return the decoded *note bytes: 1c7.

     Optional 'altchars' must be a *note bytes-like object: 436. or
     ASCII string of length 2 which specifies the alternative alphabet
     used instead of the ‘+’ and ‘/’ characters.

     If 'padded' is true, the last group of 4 base 64 alphabet
     characters must be padded with the “=” character.  If 'padded' is
     false, padding is neither required nor recognized: the “=”
     character is not treated as padding but as a non-alphabet
     character, which means it is silently discarded when 'validate' is
     false, or causes an *note Error: 13ce. when 'validate' is true
     unless b”=” is included in 'ignorechars'.

     A *note binascii.Error: 13ce. exception is raised if 's' is
     incorrectly padded.

     If 'ignorechars' is specified, it should be a *note bytes-like
     object: 436. containing characters to ignore from the input when
     'validate' is true.  If 'ignorechars' contains the pad character
     ‘'='’, the pad characters presented before the end of the encoded
     data and the excess pad characters will be ignored.  The default
     value of 'validate' is ‘True’ if 'ignorechars' is specified,
     ‘False’ otherwise.

     If 'validate' is false, characters that are neither in the normal
     base-64 alphabet nor (if 'ignorechars' is not specified) the
     alternative alphabet are discarded prior to the padding check, but
     the ‘+’ and ‘/’ characters keep their meaning if they are not in
     'altchars' (they will be discarded in future Python versions).

     If 'validate' is true, these non-alphabet characters in the input
     result in a *note binascii.Error: 13ce.

     If 'canonical' is true, non-zero padding bits are rejected.  See
     *note binascii.a2b_base64(): 1fd. for details.

     For more information about the strict base64 check, see *note
     binascii.a2b_base64(): 1fd.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'canonical', 'ignorechars', and
     'padded' parameters.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepting the ‘+’ and ‘/’ characters
     with an alternative alphabet is now deprecated.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.standard_b64encode (s)

     Encode *note bytes-like object: 436. 's' using the standard Base64
     alphabet and return the encoded *note bytes: 1c7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.standard_b64decode (s)

     Decode *note bytes-like object: 436. or ASCII string 's' using the
     standard Base64 alphabet and return the decoded *note bytes: 1c7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.urlsafe_b64encode (s, *, padded=True)

     Encode *note bytes-like object: 436. 's' using the URL- and
     filesystem-safe alphabet, which substitutes ‘-’ instead of ‘+’ and
     ‘_’ instead of ‘/’ in the standard Base64 alphabet, and return the
     encoded *note bytes: 1c7.  The result can still contain ‘=’ if
     'padded' is true (default).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'padded' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.urlsafe_b64decode (s, *, padded=False)

     Decode *note bytes-like object: 436. or ASCII string 's' using the
     URL- and filesystem-safe alphabet, which substitutes ‘-’ instead of
     ‘+’ and ‘_’ instead of ‘/’ in the standard Base64 alphabet, and
     return the decoded *note bytes: 1c7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'padded' parameter.  Padding of
     input is no longer required by default.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15: Accepting the ‘+’ and ‘/’ characters
     is now deprecated.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.b32encode (s, *, padded=True, wrapcol=0)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: 436. 's' using Base32 and
     return the encoded *note bytes: 1c7.

     If 'padded' is true (default), pad the encoded data with the “=”
     character to a size multiple of 8.  If 'padded' is false, do not
     add the pad characters.

     If 'wrapcol' is non-zero, insert a newline (‘b'\n'’) character
     after at most every 'wrapcol' characters.  If 'wrapcol' is zero
     (default), do not add any newlines.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'padded' and 'wrapcol'
     parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.b32decode (s, casefold=False, map01=None, *,
          padded=True, ignorechars=b'', canonical=False)

     Decode the Base32 encoded *note bytes-like object: 436. or ASCII
     string 's' and return the decoded *note bytes: 1c7.

     Optional 'casefold' is a flag specifying whether a lowercase
     alphabet is acceptable as input.  For security purposes, the
     default is ‘False’.

     RFC 4648(2) allows for optional mapping of the digit 0 (zero) to
     the letter O (oh), and for optional mapping of the digit 1 (one) to
     either the letter I (eye) or letter L (el).  The optional argument
     'map01' when not ‘None’, specifies which letter the digit 1 should
     be mapped to (when 'map01' is not ‘None’, the digit 0 is always
     mapped to the letter O). For security purposes the default is
     ‘None’, so that 0 and 1 are not allowed in the input.

     If 'padded' is true, the last group of 8 base 32 alphabet
     characters must be padded with the “=” character.  If 'padded' is
     false, padding is neither required nor recognized: the “=”
     character is not treated as padding but as a non-alphabet
     character, which means it raises an *note Error: 13ce. unless b”=”
     is included in 'ignorechars'.

     'ignorechars' should be a *note bytes-like object: 436. containing
     characters to ignore from the input.

     If 'canonical' is true, non-zero padding bits are rejected.  See
     *note binascii.a2b_base32(): 1f7. for details.

     A *note binascii.Error: 13ce. is raised if 's' is incorrectly
     padded or if there are non-alphabet characters present in the
     input.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'canonical', 'ignorechars', and
     'padded' parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.b32hexencode (s, *, padded=True, wrapcol=0)

     Similar to *note b32encode(): 1e7. but uses the Extended Hex
     Alphabet, as defined in RFC 4648(3).

     Added in version 3.10.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'padded' and 'wrapcol'
     parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.b32hexdecode (s, casefold=False, *, padded=True,
          ignorechars=b'', canonical=False)

     Similar to *note b32decode(): 1e8. but uses the Extended Hex
     Alphabet, as defined in RFC 4648(4).

     This version does not allow the digit 0 (zero) to the letter O (oh)
     and digit 1 (one) to either the letter I (eye) or letter L (el)
     mappings, all these characters are included in the Extended Hex
     Alphabet and are not interchangeable.

     Added in version 3.10.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'canonical', 'ignorechars', and
     'padded' parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.b16encode (s, *, wrapcol=0)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: 436. 's' using Base16 and
     return the encoded *note bytes: 1c7.

     If 'wrapcol' is non-zero, insert a newline (‘b'\n'’) character
     after at most every 'wrapcol' characters.  If 'wrapcol' is zero
     (default), do not add any newlines.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'wrapcol' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.b16decode (s, casefold=False, *, ignorechars=b'')

     Decode the Base16 encoded *note bytes-like object: 436. or ASCII
     string 's' and return the decoded *note bytes: 1c7.

     Optional 'casefold' is a flag specifying whether a lowercase
     alphabet is acceptable as input.  For security purposes, the
     default is ‘False’.

     'ignorechars' should be a *note bytes-like object: 436. containing
     characters to ignore from the input.

     A *note binascii.Error: 13ce. is raised if 's' is incorrectly
     padded or if there are non-alphabet characters present in the
     input.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'ignorechars' parameter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html


File: python.info,  Node: Base85 Encodings,  Next: Legacy Interface,  Prev: RFC 4648 Encodings,  Up: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings

5.21.5.2 Base85 Encodings
.........................

Base85 encoding is not formally specified but rather a de facto
standard, thus different systems perform the encoding differently.

The *note a85encode(): 12ce. and *note b85encode(): 1f0. functions in
this module are two implementations of the de facto standard.  You
should call the function with the Base85 implementation used by the
software you intend to work with.

The two functions present in this module differ in how they handle the
following:

   * Whether to include enclosing ‘<~’ and ‘~>’ markers

   * Whether to include newline characters

   * The set of ASCII characters used for encoding

   * Handling of null bytes

Refer to the documentation of the individual functions for more
information.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.a85encode (b, *, foldspaces=False, wrapcol=0,
          pad=False, adobe=False)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: 436. 'b' using Ascii85 and
     return the encoded *note bytes: 1c7.

     'foldspaces' is an optional flag that uses the special short
     sequence “y” instead of 4 consecutive spaces (ASCII 0x20) as
     supported by “btoa”.  This feature is not supported by the
     «standard» Ascii85 encoding.

     If 'wrapcol' is non-zero, insert a newline (‘b'\n'’) character
     after at most every 'wrapcol' characters.  If 'wrapcol' is zero
     (default), do not insert any newlines.

     If 'pad' is true, the input is padded with ‘b'\0'’ so its length is
     a multiple of 4 bytes before encoding.  Note that the ‘btoa’
     implementation always pads.

     'adobe' controls whether the encoded byte sequence is framed with
     ‘<~’ and ‘~>’, which is used by the Adobe implementation.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.a85decode (b, *, foldspaces=False, adobe=False,
          ignorechars=b' \t\n\r\x0b', canonical=False)

     Decode the Ascii85 encoded *note bytes-like object: 436. or ASCII
     string 'b' and return the decoded *note bytes: 1c7.

     'foldspaces' is a flag that specifies whether the “y” short
     sequence should be accepted as shorthand for 4 consecutive spaces
     (ASCII 0x20).  This feature is not supported by the «standard»
     Ascii85 encoding.

     'adobe' controls whether the input sequence is in Adobe Ascii85
     format (i.e.  is framed with <~ and ~>).

     'ignorechars' should be a *note bytes-like object: 436. containing
     characters to ignore from the input.  This should only contain
     whitespace characters, and by default contains all whitespace
     characters in ASCII.

     If 'canonical' is true, non-canonical encodings are rejected.  See
     *note binascii.a2b_ascii85(): 1f9. for details.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'canonical' parameter.
     Single-character final groups are now always rejected as encoding
     violations.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.b85encode (b, pad=False, *, wrapcol=0)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: 436. 'b' using base85 (as used
     in e.g.  git-style binary diffs) and return the encoded *note
     bytes: 1c7.

     If 'pad' is true, the input is padded with ‘b'\0'’ so its length is
     a multiple of 4 bytes before encoding.

     If 'wrapcol' is non-zero, insert a newline (‘b'\n'’) character
     after at most every 'wrapcol' characters.  If 'wrapcol' is zero
     (default), do not add any newlines.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'wrapcol' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.b85decode (b, *, ignorechars=b'', canonical=False)

     Decode the base85-encoded *note bytes-like object: 436. or ASCII
     string 'b' and return the decoded *note bytes: 1c7.  Padding is
     implicitly removed, if necessary.

     'ignorechars' should be a *note bytes-like object: 436. containing
     characters to ignore from the input.

     If 'canonical' is true, non-canonical encodings are rejected.  See
     *note binascii.a2b_base85(): 1fb. for details.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'canonical' and 'ignorechars'
     parameters.  Single-character final groups are now always rejected
     as encoding violations.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.z85encode (s, pad=False, *, wrapcol=0)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: 436. 's' using Z85 (as used in
     ZeroMQ) and return the encoded *note bytes: 1c7.  See Z85
     specification(1) for more information.

     If 'pad' is true, the input is padded with ‘b'\0'’ so its length is
     a multiple of 4 bytes before encoding.

     If 'wrapcol' is non-zero, insert a newline (‘b'\n'’) character
     after at most every 'wrapcol' characters.  If 'wrapcol' is zero
     (default), do not add any newlines.

     Added in version 3.13.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The 'pad' parameter was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'wrapcol' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.z85decode (s, *, ignorechars=b'', canonical=False)

     Decode the Z85-encoded *note bytes-like object: 436. or ASCII
     string 's' and return the decoded *note bytes: 1c7.  See Z85
     specification(2) for more information.

     'ignorechars' should be a *note bytes-like object: 436. containing
     characters to ignore from the input.

     If 'canonical' is true, non-canonical encodings are rejected.  See
     *note binascii.a2b_base85(): 1fb. for details.

     Added in version 3.13.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'canonical' and 'ignorechars'
     parameters.  Single-character final groups are now always rejected
     as encoding violations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/

   (2) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy Interface,  Next: Security Considerations<2>,  Prev: Base85 Encodings,  Up: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings

5.21.5.3 Legacy Interface
.........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.decode (input, output)

     Decode the contents of the binary 'input' file and write the
     resulting binary data to the 'output' file.  'input' and 'output'
     must be *note file objects: 156c.  'input' will be read until
     ‘input.readline()’ returns an empty bytes object.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.decodebytes (s)

     Decode the *note bytes-like object: 436. 's', which must contain
     one or more lines of base64 encoded data, and return the decoded
     *note bytes: 1c7.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.encode (input, output)

     Encode the contents of the binary 'input' file and write the
     resulting base64 encoded data to the 'output' file.  'input' and
     'output' must be *note file objects: 156c.  'input' will be read
     until ‘input.read()’ returns an empty bytes object.  ‘encode()’
     inserts a newline character (‘b'\n'’) after every 76 bytes of the
     output, as well as ensuring that the output always ends with a
     newline, as per RFC 2045(1) (MIME).

 -- Συνάρτηση: base64.encodebytes (s)

     Encode the *note bytes-like object: 436. 's', which can contain
     arbitrary binary data, and return *note bytes: 1c7. containing the
     base64-encoded data, with newlines (‘b'\n'’) inserted after every
     76 bytes of output, and ensuring that there is a trailing newline,
     as per RFC 2045(2) (MIME).

     Added in version 3.1.

An example usage of the module:

     >>> import base64
     >>> encoded = base64.b64encode(b'data to be encoded')
     >>> encoded
     b'ZGF0YSB0byBiZSBlbmNvZGVk'
     >>> data = base64.b64decode(encoded)
     >>> data
     b'data to be encoded'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html


File: python.info,  Node: Security Considerations<2>,  Prev: Legacy Interface,  Up: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings

5.21.5.4 Security Considerations
................................

A new security considerations section was added to RFC 4648(1) (section
12); it’s recommended to review the security section for any code
deployed to production.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note binascii: 11.

     Support module containing ASCII-to-binary and binary-to-ASCII
     conversions.

RFC 1521(2) - MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part One: Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of Internet Message Bodies

     Section 5.2, «Base64 Content-Transfer-Encoding,» provides the
     definition of the base64 encoding.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html


File: python.info,  Node: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII,  Next: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data,  Prev: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.21.6 ‘binascii’ — Convert between binary and ASCII
----------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘binascii’ module contains a number of methods to convert between
binary and various ASCII-encoded binary representations.  Normally, you
will not use these functions directly but use wrapper modules like *note
base64: f. instead.  The ‘binascii’ module contains low-level functions
written in C for greater speed that are used by the higher-level
modules.

     Σημείωση: ‘a2b_*’ functions accept Unicode strings containing only
     ASCII characters.  Other functions only accept *note bytes-like
     objects: 436. (such as *note bytes: 1c7, *note bytearray: 1c6. and
     other objects that support the buffer protocol).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: ASCII-only unicode strings are now accepted
     by the ‘a2b_*’ functions.

The ‘binascii’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.a2b_uu (string)

     Convert a single line of uuencoded data back to binary and return
     the binary data.  Lines normally contain 45 (binary) bytes, except
     for the last line.  Line data may be followed by whitespace.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.b2a_uu (data, *, backtick=False)

     Convert binary data to a line of ASCII characters, the return value
     is the converted line, including a newline char.  The length of
     'data' should be at most 45.  If 'backtick' is true, zeros are
     represented by ‘'`'’ instead of spaces.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'backtick' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.a2b_base64 (string, /, *, padded=True,
          alphabet=BASE64_ALPHABET, strict_mode=False, canonical=False)

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.a2b_base64 (string, /, *, ignorechars,
          padded=True, alphabet=BASE64_ALPHABET, strict_mode=True,
          canonical=False)

     Convert a block of base64 data back to binary and return the binary
     data.  More than one line may be passed at a time.

     Optional 'alphabet' must be a *note bytes: 1c7. object of length 64
     which specifies an alternative alphabet.

     If 'padded' is true, the last group of 4 base 64 alphabet
     characters must be padded with the “=” character.  If 'padded' is
     false, padding is neither required nor recognized: the “=”
     character is not treated as padding but as a non-alphabet
     character, which means it is silently discarded when 'strict_mode'
     is false, or causes an *note Error: 13ce. when 'strict_mode' is
     true unless b”=” is included in 'ignorechars'.

     If 'ignorechars' is specified, it should be a *note bytes-like
     object: 436. containing characters to ignore from the input when
     'strict_mode' is true.  If 'ignorechars' contains the pad character
     ‘'='’, the pad characters presented before the end of the encoded
     data and the excess pad characters will be ignored.  The default
     value of 'strict_mode' is ‘True’ if 'ignorechars' is specified,
     ‘False’ otherwise.

     If 'strict_mode' is true, only valid base64 data will be converted.
     Invalid base64 data will raise *note binascii.Error: 13ce.

     Valid base64:

        * Conforms to RFC 4648(1).

        * Contains only characters from the base64 alphabet.

        * Contains no excess data after padding (including excess
          padding, newlines, etc.).

        * Does not start with a padding.

     If 'canonical' is true, non-zero padding bits in the last group are
     rejected with *note binascii.Error: 13ce, enforcing canonical
     encoding as defined in RFC 4648(2) section 3.5.  This check is
     independent of 'strict_mode'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'strict_mode' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'alphabet', 'canonical',
     'ignorechars', and 'padded' parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.b2a_base64 (data, *, padded=True,
          alphabet=BASE64_ALPHABET, wrapcol=0, newline=True)

     Convert binary data to a line(s) of ASCII characters in base64
     coding, as specified in RFC 4648(3).

     If 'padded' is true (default), pad the encoded data with the “=”
     character to a size multiple of 4.  If 'padded' is false, do not
     add the pad characters.

     If 'wrapcol' is non-zero, insert a newline (‘b'\n'’) character
     after at most every 'wrapcol' characters.  If 'wrapcol' is zero
     (default), do not insert any newlines.

     If 'newline' is true (default), a newline character will be added
     at the end of the output.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the 'newline' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'alphabet', 'padded' and
     'wrapcol' parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.a2b_ascii85 (string, /, *, foldspaces=False,
          adobe=False, ignorechars=b'', canonical=False)

     Convert Ascii85 data back to binary and return the binary data.

     Valid Ascii85 data contains characters from the Ascii85 alphabet in
     groups of five (except for the final group, which may have from two
     to five characters).  Each group encodes 32 bits of binary data in
     the range from ‘0’ to ‘2 ** 32 - 1’, inclusive.  The special
     character ‘z’ is accepted as a short form of the group ‘!!!!!’,
     which encodes four consecutive null bytes.  A single-character
     final group is always rejected as an encoding violation.

     'foldspaces' is a flag that specifies whether the “y” short
     sequence should be accepted as shorthand for 4 consecutive spaces
     (ASCII 0x20).  This feature is not supported by the «standard»
     Ascii85 encoding.

     'adobe' controls whether the input sequence is in Adobe Ascii85
     format (i.e.  is framed with <~ and ~>).

     'ignorechars' should be a *note bytes-like object: 436. containing
     characters to ignore from the input.  This should only contain
     whitespace characters.

     If 'canonical' is true, non-canonical encodings are rejected with
     *note binascii.Error: 13ce.  Here «canonical» means the encoding
     that *note b2a_ascii85(): 1f8. would produce: the ‘z’ abbreviation
     must be used for all-zero groups (rather than ‘!!!!!’), and partial
     final groups must use the same padding digits as the encoder.

     Invalid Ascii85 data will raise *note binascii.Error: 13ce.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.b2a_ascii85 (data, /, *, foldspaces=False,
          wrapcol=0, pad=False, adobe=False)

     Convert binary data to a formatted sequence of ASCII characters in
     Ascii85 coding.  The return value is the converted data.

     'foldspaces' is an optional flag that uses the special short
     sequence “y” instead of 4 consecutive spaces (ASCII 0x20) as
     supported by “btoa”.  This feature is not supported by the
     «standard» Ascii85 encoding.

     If 'wrapcol' is non-zero, insert a newline (‘b'\n'’) character
     after at most every 'wrapcol' characters.  If 'wrapcol' is zero
     (default), do not insert any newlines.

     If 'pad' is true, the input is padded with ‘b'\0'’ so its length is
     a multiple of 4 bytes before encoding.  Note that the ‘btoa’
     implementation always pads.

     'adobe' controls whether the encoded byte sequence is framed with
     ‘<~’ and ‘~>’, which is used by the Adobe implementation.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.a2b_base85 (string, /, *,
          alphabet=BASE85_ALPHABET, ignorechars=b'', canonical=False)

     Convert Base85 data back to binary and return the binary data.
     More than one line may be passed at a time.

     Valid Base85 data contains characters from the Base85 alphabet in
     groups of five (except for the final group, which may have from two
     to five characters).  Each group encodes 32 bits of binary data in
     the range from ‘0’ to ‘2 ** 32 - 1’, inclusive.  A single-character
     final group is always rejected as an encoding violation.

     Optional 'alphabet' must be a *note bytes: 1c7. object of length 85
     which specifies an alternative alphabet.

     'ignorechars' should be a *note bytes-like object: 436. containing
     characters to ignore from the input.

     If 'canonical' is true, non-canonical encodings are rejected with
     *note binascii.Error: 13ce.  Here «canonical» means the encoding
     that *note b2a_base85(): 1fa. would produce: partial final groups
     must use the same padding digits as the encoder.

     Invalid Base85 data will raise *note binascii.Error: 13ce.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.b2a_base85 (data, /, *,
          alphabet=BASE85_ALPHABET, wrapcol=0, pad=False)

     Convert binary data to a line of ASCII characters in Base85 coding.
     The return value is the converted line.

     Optional 'alphabet' must be a *note bytes-like object: 436. of
     length 85 which specifies an alternative alphabet.

     If 'wrapcol' is non-zero, insert a newline (‘b'\n'’) character
     after at most every 'wrapcol' characters.  If 'wrapcol' is zero
     (default), do not insert any newlines.

     If 'pad' is true, the input is padded with ‘b'\0'’ so its length is
     a multiple of 4 bytes before encoding.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.a2b_base32 (string, /, *, padded=True,
          alphabet=BASE32_ALPHABET, ignorechars=b'', canonical=False)

     Convert base32 data back to binary and return the binary data.

     Valid base32 data contains characters from the base32 alphabet
     specified in RFC 4648(4) in groups of eight (if necessary, the
     final group is padded to eight characters with ‘=’).  Each group
     encodes 40 bits of binary data in the range from ‘0’ to ‘2 ** 40 -
     1’, inclusive.

          Σημείωση: This function does not map lowercase characters
          (which are invalid in standard base32) to their uppercase
          counterparts, nor does it contextually map ‘0’ to ‘O’ and ‘1’
          to ‘I’/‘L’ as RFC 4648(5) allows.

     Optional 'alphabet' must be a *note bytes: 1c7. object of length 32
     which specifies an alternative alphabet.

     If 'padded' is true, the last group of 8 base 32 alphabet
     characters must be padded with the “=” character.  If 'padded' is
     false, the “=” character is treated as other non-alphabet
     characters (depending on the value of 'ignorechars').

     'ignorechars' should be a *note bytes-like object: 436. containing
     characters to ignore from the input.  If 'ignorechars' contains the
     pad character ‘'='’, the pad characters presented before the end of
     the encoded data and the excess pad characters will be ignored.

     If 'canonical' is true, non-zero padding bits in the last group are
     rejected with *note binascii.Error: 13ce, enforcing canonical
     encoding as defined in RFC 4648(6) section 3.5.

     Invalid base32 data will raise *note binascii.Error: 13ce.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.b2a_base32 (data, /, *, padded=True,
          alphabet=BASE32_ALPHABET, wrapcol=0)

     Convert binary data to a line of ASCII characters in base32 coding,
     as specified in RFC 4648(7).  The return value is the converted
     line.

     Optional 'alphabet' must be a *note bytes-like object: 436. of
     length 32 which specifies an alternative alphabet.

     If 'padded' is true (default), pad the encoded data with the “=”
     character to a size multiple of 8.  If 'padded' is false, do not
     add the pad characters.

     If 'wrapcol' is non-zero, insert a newline (‘b'\n'’) character
     after at most every 'wrapcol' characters.  If 'wrapcol' is zero
     (default), do not insert any newlines.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.a2b_qp (data, header=False)

     Convert a block of quoted-printable data back to binary and return
     the binary data.  More than one line may be passed at a time.  If
     the optional argument 'header' is present and true, underscores
     will be decoded as spaces.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.b2a_qp (data, quotetabs=False, istext=True,
          header=False)

     Convert binary data to a line(s) of ASCII characters in
     quoted-printable encoding.  The return value is the converted
     line(s).  If the optional argument 'quotetabs' is present and true,
     all tabs and spaces will be encoded.  If the optional argument
     'istext' is present and true, newlines are not encoded but trailing
     whitespace will be encoded.  If the optional argument 'header' is
     present and true, spaces will be encoded as underscores per RFC
     1522(8).  If the optional argument 'header' is present and false,
     newline characters will be encoded as well; otherwise linefeed
     conversion might corrupt the binary data stream.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.crc_hqx (data, value)

     Compute a 16-bit CRC value of 'data', starting with 'value' as the
     initial CRC, and return the result.  This uses the CRC-CCITT
     polynomial 'x'^16 + 'x'^12 + 'x'^5 + 1, often represented as
     0x1021.  This CRC is used in the binhex4 format.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.crc32 (data[, value])

     Compute CRC-32, the unsigned 32-bit checksum of 'data', starting
     with an initial CRC of 'value'.  The default initial CRC is zero.
     The algorithm is consistent with the ZIP file checksum.  Since the
     algorithm is designed for use as a checksum algorithm, it is not
     suitable for use as a general hash algorithm.  Use as follows:

          print(binascii.crc32(b"hello world"))
          # Or, in two pieces:
          crc = binascii.crc32(b"hello")
          crc = binascii.crc32(b" world", crc)
          print('crc32 = {:#010x}'.format(crc))

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.0: The result is always unsigned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.b2a_hex (data[, sep[, bytes_per_sep=1]])
 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.hexlify (data[, sep[, bytes_per_sep=1]])

     Return the hexadecimal representation of the binary 'data'.  Every
     byte of 'data' is converted into the corresponding 2-digit hex
     representation.  The returned bytes object is therefore twice as
     long as the length of 'data'.

     Similar functionality (but returning a text string) is also
     conveniently accessible using the *note bytes.hex(): 111e. method.

     If 'sep' is specified, it must be a single character str or bytes
     object.  It will be inserted in the output after every
     'bytes_per_sep' input bytes.  Separator placement is counted from
     the right end of the output by default, if you wish to count from
     the left, supply a negative 'bytes_per_sep' value.

          >>> import binascii
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef')
          b'b901ef'
          >>> binascii.hexlify(b'\xb9\x01\xef', '-')
          b'b9-01-ef'
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef', b'_', 2)
          b'b9_01ef'
          >>> binascii.b2a_hex(b'\xb9\x01\xef', b' ', -2)
          b'b901 ef'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'sep' and 'bytes_per_sep' parameters
     were added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.a2b_hex (hexstr, *, ignorechars=b'')
 -- Συνάρτηση: binascii.unhexlify (hexstr, *, ignorechars=b'')

     Return the binary data represented by the hexadecimal string
     'hexstr'.  This function is the inverse of *note b2a_hex(): 192b.
     'hexstr' must contain an even number of hexadecimal digits (which
     can be upper or lower case), otherwise an *note Error: 13ce.
     exception is raised.

     'ignorechars' should be a *note bytes-like object: 436. containing
     characters to ignore from the input.

     Similar functionality (accepting only text string arguments, but
     more liberal towards whitespace) is also accessible using the *note
     bytes.fromhex(): 434. class method.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'ignorechars' parameter.

 -- Εξαίρεση: binascii.Error

     Exception raised on errors.  These are usually programming errors.

 -- Εξαίρεση: binascii.Incomplete

     Exception raised on incomplete data.  These are usually not
     programming errors, but may be handled by reading a little more
     data and trying again.

 -- Δεδομένα: binascii.BASE64_ALPHABET

     The Base 64 alphabet according to RFC 4648(9).

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: binascii.URLSAFE_BASE64_ALPHABET

     The «URL and filename safe» Base 64 alphabet according to RFC
     4648(10).

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: binascii.UU_ALPHABET

     The uuencoding alphabet.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: binascii.CRYPT_ALPHABET

     The Base 64 alphabet used in the ‘crypt(3)(11)’ routine and in the
     GEDCOM format.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: binascii.BINHEX_ALPHABET

     The Base 64 alphabet used in BinHex 4 (HQX) within the classic Mac
     OS.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: binascii.BASE85_ALPHABET

     The Base85 alphabet.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: binascii.ASCII85_ALPHABET

     The Ascii85 alphabet.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: binascii.Z85_ALPHABET

     The Z85(12) alphabet.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: binascii.BASE32_ALPHABET

     The Base 32 alphabet according to RFC 4648(13).

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: binascii.BASE32HEX_ALPHABET

     The «Extended Hex» Base 32 alphabet according to RFC 4648(14).
     Data encoded with this alphabet maintains its sort order during
     bitwise comparisons.

     Added in version 3.15.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note base64: f.

     Support for RFC compliant base64-style encoding in base 16, 32, 64,
     and 85.

Module *note quopri: bf.

     Support for quoted-printable encoding used in MIME email messages.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (11) https://manpages.debian.org/crypt(3)

   (12) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html


File: python.info,  Node: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data,  Prev: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII,  Up: Internet Data Handling

5.21.7 ‘quopri’ — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
--------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/quopri.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module performs quoted-printable transport encoding and decoding,
as defined in RFC 1521(2): «MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)
Part One: Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of
Internet Message Bodies».  The quoted-printable encoding is designed for
data where there are relatively few nonprintable characters; the base64
encoding scheme available via the *note base64: f. module is more
compact if there are many such characters, as when sending a graphics
file.

 -- Συνάρτηση: quopri.decode (input, output, header=False)

     Decode the contents of the 'input' file and write the resulting
     decoded binary data to the 'output' file.  'input' and 'output'
     must be *note binary file objects: 156c.  If the optional argument
     'header' is present and true, underscore will be decoded as space.
     This is used to decode «Q»-encoded headers as described in RFC
     1522(3): «MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part Two:
     Message Header Extensions for Non-ASCII Text».

 -- Συνάρτηση: quopri.encode (input, output, quotetabs, header=False)

     Encode the contents of the 'input' file and write the resulting
     quoted-printable data to the 'output' file.  'input' and 'output'
     must be *note binary file objects: 156c.  'quotetabs', a
     non-optional flag which controls whether to encode embedded spaces
     and tabs; when true it encodes such embedded whitespace, and when
     false it leaves them unencoded.  Note that spaces and tabs
     appearing at the end of lines are always encoded, as per RFC
     1521(4).  'header' is a flag which controls if spaces are encoded
     as underscores as per RFC 1522(5).

 -- Συνάρτηση: quopri.decodestring (s, header=False)

     Like *note decode(): 2a95, except that it accepts a source *note
     bytes: 1c7. and returns the corresponding decoded ‘bytes’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: quopri.encodestring (s, quotetabs=False, header=False)

     Like *note encode(): 2a94, except that it accepts a source *note
     bytes: 1c7. and returns the corresponding encoded ‘bytes’.  By
     default, it sends a ‘False’ value to 'quotetabs' parameter of the
     ‘encode()’ function.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note base64: f.

     Encode and decode MIME base64 data

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/quopri.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1521.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1522.html


File: python.info,  Node: Structured Markup Processing Tools,  Next: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη,  Prev: Internet Data Handling,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.22 Structured Markup Processing Tools
=======================================

Python supports a variety of modules to work with various forms of
structured data markup.  This includes modules to work with the Standard
Generalized Markup Language (SGML) and the Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML), and several interfaces for working with the Extensible Markup
Language (XML).

* Menu:

* html — HyperText Markup Language support::
* html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
* html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
* XML Processing Modules::
* xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API.
* xml.dom — The Document Object Model API: xml dom — The Document Object Model API.
* xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation.
* xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
* xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
* xml.sax.handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
* xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
* xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
* xml.parsers.expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat: xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat.


File: python.info,  Node: html — HyperText Markup Language support,  Next: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.22.1 ‘html’ — HyperText Markup Language support
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/html/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines utilities to manipulate HTML.

 -- Συνάρτηση: html.escape (s, quote=True)

     Convert the characters ‘&’, ‘<’ and ‘>’ in string 's' to HTML-safe
     sequences.  Use this if you need to display text that might contain
     such characters in HTML. If the optional flag 'quote' is true (the
     default), the characters (‘"’) and (‘'’) are also translated; this
     helps for inclusion in an HTML attribute value delimited by quotes,
     as in ‘<a href="...">’.  If 'quote' is set to false, the characters
     (‘"’) and (‘'’) are not translated.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: html.unescape (s)

     Convert all named and numeric character references (e.g.  ‘&gt;’,
     ‘&#62;’, ‘&#x3e;’) in the string 's' to the corresponding Unicode
     characters.  This function uses the rules defined by the HTML 5
     standard for both valid and invalid character references, and the
     *note list of HTML 5 named character references: 147e.

     Added in version 3.4.

__________________________________________________________________

Submodules in the ‘html’ package are:

   * *note html.parser: 70. – HTML/XHTML parser with lenient parsing
     mode

   * *note html.entities: 6f. – HTML entity definitions

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/html/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser,  Next: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities,  Prev: html — HyperText Markup Language support,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.22.2 ‘html.parser’ — Simple HTML and XHTML parser
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/html/parser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines a class *note HTMLParser: c4d. which serves as the
basis for parsing text files formatted in HTML (HyperText Mark-up
Language) and XHTML.

 -- Κλάση: html.parser.HTMLParser (*, convert_charrefs=True,
          scripting=False)

     Create a parser instance able to parse invalid markup.

     If 'convert_charrefs' is true (the default), all character
     references (except the ones in elements like ‘script’ and ‘style’)
     are automatically converted to the corresponding Unicode
     characters.

     If 'scripting' is false (the default), the content of the
     ‘noscript’ element is parsed normally; if it’s true, it’s returned
     as is without being parsed.

     An ‘HTMLParser’ instance is fed HTML data and calls handler methods
     when start tags, end tags, text, comments, and other markup
     elements are encountered.  The user should subclass ‘HTMLParser’
     and override its methods to implement the desired behavior.

     This parser does not check that end tags match start tags or call
     the end-tag handler for elements which are closed implicitly by
     closing an outer element.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: 'convert_charrefs' keyword argument added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The default value for argument
     'convert_charrefs' is now ‘True’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14.1: Added the 'scripting' parameter.

* Menu:

* Example HTML Parser Application::
* HTMLParser Methods::
* Examples: Examples<21>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/html/parser.py


File: python.info,  Node: Example HTML Parser Application,  Next: HTMLParser Methods,  Up: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser

5.22.2.1 Example HTML Parser Application
........................................

As a basic example, below is a simple HTML parser that uses the *note
HTMLParser: c4d. class to print out start tags, end tags, and data as
they are encountered:

     from html.parser import HTMLParser

     class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
         def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
             print("Encountered a start tag:", tag)

         def handle_endtag(self, tag):
             print("Encountered an end tag :", tag)

         def handle_data(self, data):
             print("Encountered some data  :", data)

     parser = MyHTMLParser()
     parser.feed('<html><head><title>Test</title></head>'
                 '<body><h1>Parse me!</h1></body></html>')

The output will then be:

     Encountered a start tag: html
     Encountered a start tag: head
     Encountered a start tag: title
     Encountered some data  : Test
     Encountered an end tag : title
     Encountered an end tag : head
     Encountered a start tag: body
     Encountered a start tag: h1
     Encountered some data  : Parse me!
     Encountered an end tag : h1
     Encountered an end tag : body
     Encountered an end tag : html


File: python.info,  Node: HTMLParser Methods,  Next: Examples<21>,  Prev: Example HTML Parser Application,  Up: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser

5.22.2.2 ‘HTMLParser’ Methods
.............................

*note HTMLParser: c4d. instances have the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.feed (data)

     Feed some text to the parser.  It is processed insofar as it
     consists of complete elements; incomplete data is buffered until
     more data is fed or *note close(): 1a44. is called.  'data' must be
     *note str: 1df.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.close ()

     Force processing of all buffered data as if it were followed by an
     end-of-file mark.  This method may be redefined by a derived class
     to define additional processing at the end of the input, but the
     redefined version should always call the *note HTMLParser: c4d.
     base class method ‘close()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.reset ()

     Reset the instance.  Loses all unprocessed data.  This is called
     implicitly at instantiation time.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.getpos ()

     Return current line number and offset.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.get_starttag_text ()

     Return the text of the most recently opened start tag.  This should
     not normally be needed for structured processing, but may be useful
     in dealing with HTML «as deployed» or for re-generating input with
     minimal changes (whitespace between attributes can be preserved,
     etc.).

The following methods are called when data or markup elements are
encountered and they are meant to be overridden in a subclass.  The base
class implementations do nothing (except for *note handle_startendtag():
3f1e.):

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.handle_starttag (tag, attrs)

     This method is called to handle the start tag of an element (e.g.
     ‘<div id="main">’).

     The 'tag' argument is the name of the tag converted to lower case.
     The 'attrs' argument is a list of ‘(name, value)’ pairs containing
     the attributes found inside the tag’s ‘<>’ brackets.  The 'name'
     will be translated to lower case, and quotes in the 'value' have
     been removed, and character and entity references have been
     replaced.  For empty attributes, 'value' is ‘None’.

     For instance, for the tag ‘<A HREF="https://www.cwi.nl/">’, this
     method would be called as ‘handle_starttag('a', [('href',
     'https://www.cwi.nl/')])’.

     All entity references from *note html.entities: 6f. are replaced in
     the attribute values.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.handle_endtag (tag)

     This method is called to handle the end tag of an element (e.g.
     ‘</div>’).

     The 'tag' argument is the name of the tag converted to lower case.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.handle_startendtag (tag, attrs)

     Similar to *note handle_starttag(): 3f1f, but called when the
     parser encounters an XHTML-style empty tag (‘<img ... />’).  This
     method may be overridden by subclasses which require this
     particular lexical information; the default implementation simply
     calls ‘handle_starttag()’ and *note handle_endtag(): 3f20.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.handle_data (data)

     This method is called to process arbitrary data (e.g.  text nodes
     and the content of elements like ‘script’ and ‘style’).

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.handle_entityref (name)

     This method is called to process a named character reference of the
     form ‘&name;’ (e.g.  ‘&gt;’), where 'name' is a general entity
     reference (e.g.  ‘'gt'’).  This method is only called if
     'convert_charrefs' is false.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.handle_charref (name)

     This method is called to process decimal and hexadecimal numeric
     character references of the form ‘&#NNN;’ and ‘&#xNNN;’.  For
     example, the decimal equivalent for ‘&gt;’ is ‘&#62;’, whereas the
     hexadecimal is ‘&#x3E;’; in this case the method will receive
     ‘'62'’ or ‘'x3E'’.  This method is only called if
     'convert_charrefs' is false.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.handle_comment (data)

     This method is called when a comment is encountered (e.g.
     ‘<!--comment-->’).

     For example, the comment ‘<!-- comment -->’ will cause this method
     to be called with the argument ‘' comment '’.

     The content of Internet Explorer conditional comments (condcoms)
     will also be sent to this method, so, for ‘<!--[if IE
     9]>IE9-specific content<![endif]-->’, this method will receive
     ‘'[if IE 9]>IE9-specific content<![endif]'’.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.handle_decl (decl)

     This method is called to handle an HTML doctype declaration (e.g.
     ‘<!DOCTYPE html>’).

     The 'decl' parameter will be the entire contents of the declaration
     inside the ‘<!...>’ markup (e.g.  ‘'DOCTYPE html'’).

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.handle_pi (data)

     Method called when a processing instruction is encountered.  The
     'data' parameter will contain the entire processing instruction.
     For example, for the processing instruction ‘<?proc color='red'>’,
     this method would be called as ‘handle_pi("proc color='red'")’.  It
     is intended to be overridden by a derived class; the base class
     implementation does nothing.

          Σημείωση: The *note HTMLParser: c4d. class uses the SGML
          syntactic rules for processing instructions.  An XHTML
          processing instruction using the trailing ‘'?'’ will cause the
          ‘'?'’ to be included in 'data'.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTMLParser.unknown_decl (data)

     This method is called when an unrecognized declaration is read by
     the parser.

     The 'data' parameter will be the entire contents of the declaration
     inside the ‘<![...]>’ markup.  It is sometimes useful to be
     overridden by a derived class.  The base class implementation does
     nothing.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<21>,  Prev: HTMLParser Methods,  Up: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser

5.22.2.3 Examples
.................

The following class implements a parser that will be used to illustrate
more examples:

     from html.parser import HTMLParser
     from html.entities import name2codepoint

     class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser):
         def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs):
             print("Start tag:", tag)
             for attr in attrs:
                 print("     attr:", attr)

         def handle_endtag(self, tag):
             print("End tag  :", tag)

         def handle_data(self, data):
             print("Data     :", data)

         def handle_comment(self, data):
             print("Comment  :", data)

         def handle_entityref(self, name):
             c = chr(name2codepoint[name])
             print("Named ent:", c)

         def handle_charref(self, name):
             if name.startswith('x'):
                 c = chr(int(name[1:], 16))
             else:
                 c = chr(int(name))
             print("Num ent  :", c)

         def handle_decl(self, data):
             print("Decl     :", data)

     parser = MyHTMLParser()

Parsing a doctype:

     >>> parser.feed('<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" '
     ...             '"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">')
     Decl     : DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"

Parsing an element with a few attributes and a title:

     >>> parser.feed('<img src="python-logo.png" alt="The Python logo">')
     Start tag: img
          attr: ('src', 'python-logo.png')
          attr: ('alt', 'The Python logo')
     >>>
     >>> parser.feed('<h1>Python</h1>')
     Start tag: h1
     Data     : Python
     End tag  : h1

The content of elements like ‘script’ and ‘style’ is returned as is,
without further parsing:

     >>> parser.feed('<style type="text/css">#python { color: green }</style>')
     Start tag: style
          attr: ('type', 'text/css')
     Data     : #python { color: green }
     End tag  : style

     >>> parser.feed('<script type="text/javascript">'
     ...             'alert("<strong>hello! &#9786;</strong>");</script>')
     Start tag: script
          attr: ('type', 'text/javascript')
     Data     : alert("<strong>hello! &#9786;</strong>");
     End tag  : script

Attribute names are converted to lowercase, quotes from attribute values
removed, and ‘None’ is returned as 'value' for empty attributes (such as
‘checked’):

     >>> parser.feed("<input TYPE='checkbox' checked required='' disabled=disabled>")
     Start tag: input
          attr: ('type', 'checkbox')
          attr: ('checked', None)
          attr: ('required', '')
          attr: ('disabled', 'disabled')

Parsing comments:

     >>> parser.feed('<!--a comment-->'
     ...             '<!--[if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]-->')
     Comment  : a comment
     Comment  : [if IE 9]>IE-specific content<![endif]

Parsing named and numeric character references and converting them to
the correct char (note: these 3 references are all equivalent to ‘'>'’):

     >>> parser = MyHTMLParser()
     >>> parser.feed('&gt;&#62;&#x3E;')
     Data     : >>>

     >>> parser = MyHTMLParser(convert_charrefs=False)
     >>> parser.feed('&gt;&#62;&#x3E;')
     Named ent: >
     Num ent  : >
     Num ent  : >

Feeding incomplete chunks to *note feed(): 3f1a. works, but *note
handle_data(): 3f21. might be called more than once if
'convert_charrefs' is false:

     >>> for chunk in ['<sp', 'an>buff', 'ered', ' text</s', 'pan>']:
     ...     parser.feed(chunk)
     ...
     Start tag: span
     Data     : buff
     Data     : ered
     Data     :  text
     End tag  : span

Parsing invalid HTML (e.g.  unquoted attributes) also works:

     >>> parser.feed('<p><a class=link href=#main>tag soup</p ></a>')
     Start tag: p
     Start tag: a
          attr: ('class', 'link')
          attr: ('href', '#main')
     Data     : tag soup
     End tag  : p
     End tag  : a


File: python.info,  Node: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities,  Next: XML Processing Modules,  Prev: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.22.3 ‘html.entities’ — Definitions of HTML general entities
-------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/html/entities.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines four dictionaries, *note html5: 147e, *note
name2codepoint: 3f2d, *note codepoint2name: 3f2e, and *note entitydefs:
3f2f.

 -- Δεδομένα: html.entities.html5

     A dictionary that maps HTML5 named character references (2) to the
     equivalent Unicode character(s), e.g.  ‘html5['gt;'] == '>'’.  Note
     that the trailing semicolon is included in the name (e.g.
     ‘'gt;'’), however some of the names are accepted by the standard
     even without the semicolon: in this case the name is present with
     and without the ‘';'’.  See also *note html.unescape(): d21.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: html.entities.entitydefs

     A dictionary mapping XHTML 1.0 entity definitions to their
     replacement text in ISO Latin-1.

 -- Δεδομένα: html.entities.name2codepoint

     A dictionary that maps HTML4 entity names to the Unicode code
     points.

 -- Δεδομένα: html.entities.codepoint2name

     A dictionary that maps Unicode code points to HTML4 entity names.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/html/entities.py

   (2) See
‘https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/named-characters.html#named-character-references’


File: python.info,  Node: XML Processing Modules,  Next: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API,  Prev: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.22.4 XML Processing Modules
-----------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Python’s interfaces for processing XML are grouped in the ‘xml’ package.

     Σημείωση: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data,
     see *note XML security: 3f34.

It is important to note that modules in the ‘xml’ package require that
there be at least one SAX-compliant XML parser available.  The Expat
parser is included with Python, so the *note xml.parsers.expat: 12f.
module will always be available.

The documentation for the *note xml.dom: 12a. and *note xml.sax: 132.
packages are the definition of the Python bindings for the DOM and SAX
interfaces.

The XML handling submodules are:

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: the ElementTree API, a simple
     and lightweight XML processor

   * *note xml.dom: 12a.: the DOM API definition

   * *note xml.dom.minidom: 12b.: a minimal DOM implementation

   * *note xml.dom.pulldom: 12c.: support for building partial DOM trees

   * *note xml.sax: 132.: SAX2 base classes and convenience functions

   * *note xml.parsers.expat: 12f.: the Expat parser binding

This module also defines utility functions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.is_valid_name (name)

     Return ‘True’ if the string is a valid element or attribute name,
     ‘False’ otherwise.

     Almost all characters are permitted in names, except control
     characters and those which either are or reasonably could be used
     as delimiters.  Characters like «:», «-», «.», «_», and «·» are
     permitted, but «<», «/», «!», «?», and «=» are forbidden.  The name
     cannot start with a digit or a character like «-», «.», and «·».

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.is_valid_text (data)

     Return ‘True’ if the string is a sequence of legal XML 1.0
     characters, ‘False’ otherwise.

     Almost all characters are permitted in XML 1.0 documents, except C0
     control characters (excluding TAB, CR and LF), surrogate characters
     and special Unicode characters U+FFFE and U+FFFF.

     Added in version 3.15.

* Menu:

* XML security::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/xml/


File: python.info,  Node: XML security,  Up: XML Processing Modules

5.22.4.1 XML security
.....................

An attacker can abuse XML features to carry out denial of service
attacks, access local files, generate network connections to other
machines, or circumvent firewalls when attacker-controlled XML is being
parsed, in Python or elsewhere.

The built-in XML parsers of Python rely on the library libexpat(1),
commonly called Expat, for parsing XML.

By default, Expat itself does not access local files or create network
connections.

Expat versions lower than 2.7.2 may be vulnerable to the «billion
laughs», «quadratic blowup» and «large tokens» vulnerabilities, or to
disproportional use of dynamic memory.  Python bundles a copy of Expat,
and whether Python uses the bundled or a system-wide Expat, depends on
how the Python interpreter *note has been configured: 1d2b. in your
environment.  Python may be vulnerable if it uses such older versions of
Expat.  Check ‘pyexpat.EXPAT_VERSION’.

*note xmlrpc: 136. is 'vulnerable' to the «decompression bomb» attack.

billion laughs / exponential entity expansion

     The Billion Laughs(2) attack – also known as exponential entity
     expansion – uses multiple levels of nested entities.  Each entity
     refers to another entity several times, and the final entity
     definition contains a small string.  The exponential expansion
     results in several gigabytes of text and consumes lots of memory
     and CPU time.

quadratic blowup entity expansion

     A quadratic blowup attack is similar to a Billion Laughs(3) attack;
     it abuses entity expansion, too.  Instead of nested entities it
     repeats one large entity with a couple of thousand chars over and
     over again.  The attack isn’t as efficient as the exponential case
     but it avoids triggering parser countermeasures that forbid deeply
     nested entities.

decompression bomb

     Decompression bombs (aka ZIP bomb(4)) apply to all XML libraries
     that can parse compressed XML streams such as gzipped HTTP streams
     or LZMA-compressed files.  For an attacker it can reduce the amount
     of transmitted data by three magnitudes or more.

large tokens

     Expat needs to re-parse unfinished tokens; without the protection
     introduced in Expat 2.6.0, this can lead to quadratic runtime that
     can be used to cause denial of service in the application parsing
     XML. The issue is known as CVE 2023-52425(5).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs

   (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb

   (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425


File: python.info,  Node: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API,  Next: xml dom — The Document Object Model API,  Prev: XML Processing Modules,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.22.5 ‘xml.etree.ElementTree’ — The ElementTree XML API
--------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘xml.etree.ElementTree’ module implements a simple and efficient API
for parsing and creating XML data.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: This module will use a fast implementation
whenever available.

Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.3: The ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ module is
deprecated.

     Σημείωση: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data,
     see *note XML security: 3f34.

* Menu:

* Tutorial: Tutorial<3>.
* XPath support::
* Reference: Reference<5>.
* XInclude support::
* Reference: Reference<6>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py


File: python.info,  Node: Tutorial<3>,  Next: XPath support,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API

5.22.5.1 Tutorial
.................

This is a short tutorial for using ‘xml.etree.ElementTree’ (‘ET’ in
short).  The goal is to demonstrate some of the building blocks and
basic concepts of the module.

* Menu:

* XML tree and elements::
* Parsing XML::
* Pull API for non-blocking parsing::
* Finding interesting elements::
* Modifying an XML File::
* Building XML documents::
* Parsing XML with Namespaces::


File: python.info,  Node: XML tree and elements,  Next: Parsing XML,  Up: Tutorial<3>

5.22.5.2 XML tree and elements
..............................

XML is an inherently hierarchical data format, and the most natural way
to represent it is with a tree.  ‘ET’ has two classes for this purpose -
*note ElementTree: d19. represents the whole XML document as a tree, and
*note Element: 343. represents a single node in this tree.  Interactions
with the whole document (reading and writing to/from files) are usually
done on the ‘ElementTree’ level.  Interactions with a single XML element
and its sub-elements are done on the ‘Element’ level.


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing XML,  Next: Pull API for non-blocking parsing,  Prev: XML tree and elements,  Up: Tutorial<3>

5.22.5.3 Parsing XML
....................

We’ll be using the fictive ‘country_data.xml’ XML document as the sample
data for this section:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank>1</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank>4</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Panama">
             <rank>68</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
             <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
         </country>
     </data>

We can import this data by reading from a file:

     import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET
     tree = ET.parse('country_data.xml')
     root = tree.getroot()

Or directly from a string:

     root = ET.fromstring(country_data_as_string)

*note fromstring(): 3f3e. parses XML from a string directly into an
*note Element: 343, which is the root element of the parsed tree.  Other
parsing functions may create an *note ElementTree: d19.  Check the
documentation to be sure.

As an *note Element: 343, ‘root’ has a tag and a dictionary of
attributes:

     >>> root.tag
     'data'
     >>> root.attrib
     {}

It also has children nodes over which we can iterate:

     >>> for child in root:
     ...     print(child.tag, child.attrib)
     ...
     country {'name': 'Liechtenstein'}
     country {'name': 'Singapore'}
     country {'name': 'Panama'}

Children are nested, and we can access specific child nodes by index:

     >>> root[0][1].text
     '2008'

     Σημείωση: Not all elements of the XML input will end up as elements
     of the parsed tree.  Currently, this module skips over any XML
     comments, processing instructions, and document type declarations
     in the input.  Nevertheless, trees built using this module’s API
     rather than parsing from XML text can have comments and processing
     instructions in them; they will be included when generating XML
     output.  A document type declaration may be accessed by passing a
     custom *note TreeBuilder: e19. instance to the *note XMLParser:
     e18. constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: Pull API for non-blocking parsing,  Next: Finding interesting elements,  Prev: Parsing XML,  Up: Tutorial<3>

5.22.5.4 Pull API for non-blocking parsing
..........................................

Most parsing functions provided by this module require the whole
document to be read at once before returning any result.  It is possible
to use an *note XMLParser: e18. and feed data into it incrementally, but
it is a push API that calls methods on a callback target, which is too
low-level and inconvenient for most needs.  Sometimes what the user
really wants is to be able to parse XML incrementally, without blocking
operations, while enjoying the convenience of fully constructed *note
Element: 343. objects.

The most powerful tool for doing this is *note XMLPullParser: 139c.  It
does not require a blocking read to obtain the XML data, and is instead
fed with data incrementally with *note XMLPullParser.feed(): 3f40.
calls.  To get the parsed XML elements, call *note
XMLPullParser.read_events(): 3f41.  Here is an example:

     >>> parser = ET.XMLPullParser(['start', 'end'])
     >>> parser.feed('<mytag>sometext')
     >>> list(parser.read_events())
     [('start', <Element 'mytag' at 0x7fa66db2be58>)]
     >>> parser.feed(' more text</mytag>')
     >>> for event, elem in parser.read_events():
     ...     print(event)
     ...     print(elem.tag, 'text=', elem.text)
     ...
     end
     mytag text= sometext more text

The obvious use case is applications that operate in a non-blocking
fashion where the XML data is being received from a socket or read
incrementally from some storage device.  In such cases, blocking reads
are unacceptable.

Because it’s so flexible, *note XMLPullParser: 139c. can be inconvenient
to use for simpler use-cases.  If you don’t mind your application
blocking on reading XML data but would still like to have incremental
parsing capabilities, take a look at *note iterparse(): 3eb.  It can be
useful when you’re reading a large XML document and don’t want to hold
it wholly in memory.

Where 'immediate' feedback through events is wanted, calling method
*note XMLPullParser.flush(): 778. can help reduce delay; please make
sure to study the related security notes.


File: python.info,  Node: Finding interesting elements,  Next: Modifying an XML File,  Prev: Pull API for non-blocking parsing,  Up: Tutorial<3>

5.22.5.5 Finding interesting elements
.....................................

*note Element: 343. has some useful methods that help iterate
recursively over all the sub-tree below it (its children, their
children, and so on).  For example, *note Element.iter(): 16f3.:

     >>> for neighbor in root.iter('neighbor'):
     ...     print(neighbor.attrib)
     ...
     {'name': 'Austria', 'direction': 'E'}
     {'name': 'Switzerland', 'direction': 'W'}
     {'name': 'Malaysia', 'direction': 'N'}
     {'name': 'Costa Rica', 'direction': 'W'}
     {'name': 'Colombia', 'direction': 'E'}

*note Element.findall(): 1aa2. finds only elements with a tag which are
direct children of the current element.  *note Element.find(): 1aa1.
finds the 'first' child with a particular tag, and *note Element.text:
3f43. accesses the element’s text content.  *note Element.get(): 3f44.
accesses the element’s attributes:

     >>> for country in root.findall('country'):
     ...     rank = country.find('rank').text
     ...     name = country.get('name')
     ...     print(name, rank)
     ...
     Liechtenstein 1
     Singapore 4
     Panama 68

More sophisticated specification of which elements to look for is
possible by using *note XPath: f6b.


File: python.info,  Node: Modifying an XML File,  Next: Building XML documents,  Prev: Finding interesting elements,  Up: Tutorial<3>

5.22.5.6 Modifying an XML File
..............................

*note ElementTree: d19. provides a simple way to build XML documents and
write them to files.  The *note ElementTree.write(): e5b. method serves
this purpose.

Once created, an *note Element: 343. object may be manipulated by
directly changing its fields (such as *note Element.text: 3f43.), adding
and modifying attributes (*note Element.set(): 3f46. method), as well as
adding new children (for example with *note Element.append(): 3f47.).

Let’s say we want to add one to each country’s rank, and add an
‘updated’ attribute to the rank element:

     >>> for rank in root.iter('rank'):
     ...     new_rank = int(rank.text) + 1
     ...     rank.text = str(new_rank)
     ...     rank.set('updated', 'yes')
     ...
     >>> tree.write('output.xml')

Our XML now looks like this:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Panama">
             <rank updated="yes">69</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>13600</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Costa Rica" direction="W"/>
             <neighbor name="Colombia" direction="E"/>
         </country>
     </data>

We can remove elements using *note Element.remove(): 1981.  Let’s say we
want to remove all countries with a rank higher than 50:

     >>> for country in root.findall('country'):
     ...     # using root.findall() to avoid removal during traversal
     ...     rank = int(country.find('rank').text)
     ...     if rank > 50:
     ...         root.remove(country)
     ...
     >>> tree.write('output.xml')

Note that concurrent modification while iterating can lead to problems,
just like when iterating and modifying Python lists or dicts.
Therefore, the example first collects all matching elements with
‘root.findall()’, and only then iterates over the list of matches.

Our XML now looks like this:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <data>
         <country name="Liechtenstein">
             <rank updated="yes">2</rank>
             <year>2008</year>
             <gdppc>141100</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Austria" direction="E"/>
             <neighbor name="Switzerland" direction="W"/>
         </country>
         <country name="Singapore">
             <rank updated="yes">5</rank>
             <year>2011</year>
             <gdppc>59900</gdppc>
             <neighbor name="Malaysia" direction="N"/>
         </country>
     </data>


File: python.info,  Node: Building XML documents,  Next: Parsing XML with Namespaces,  Prev: Modifying an XML File,  Up: Tutorial<3>

5.22.5.7 Building XML documents
...............................

The *note SubElement(): 1930. function also provides a convenient way to
create new sub-elements for a given element:

     >>> a = ET.Element('a')
     >>> b = ET.SubElement(a, 'b')
     >>> c = ET.SubElement(a, 'c')
     >>> d = ET.SubElement(c, 'd')
     >>> ET.dump(a)
     <a><b /><c><d /></c></a>


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing XML with Namespaces,  Prev: Building XML documents,  Up: Tutorial<3>

5.22.5.8 Parsing XML with Namespaces
....................................

If the XML input has namespaces(1), tags and attributes with prefixes in
the form ‘prefix:sometag’ get expanded to ‘{uri}sometag’ where the
'prefix' is replaced by the full 'URI'. Also, if there is a default
namespace(2), that full URI gets prepended to all of the non-prefixed
tags.

Here is an XML example that incorporates two namespaces, one with the
prefix «fictional» and the other serving as the default namespace:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <actors xmlns:fictional="http://characters.example.com"
             xmlns="http://people.example.com">
         <actor>
             <name>John Cleese</name>
             <fictional:character>Lancelot</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Archie Leach</fictional:character>
         </actor>
         <actor>
             <name>Eric Idle</name>
             <fictional:character>Sir Robin</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Gunther</fictional:character>
             <fictional:character>Commander Clement</fictional:character>
         </actor>
     </actors>

One way to search and explore this XML example is to manually add the
URI to every tag or attribute in the xpath of a *note find(): 1aa1. or
*note findall(): 1aa2.:

     root = fromstring(xml_text)
     for actor in root.findall('{http://people.example.com}actor'):
         name = actor.find('{http://people.example.com}name')
         print(name.text)
         for char in actor.findall('{http://characters.example.com}character'):
             print(' |-->', char.text)

A better way to search the namespaced XML example is to create a
dictionary with your own prefixes and use those in the search functions:

     ns = {'real_person': 'http://people.example.com',
           'role': 'http://characters.example.com'}

     for actor in root.findall('real_person:actor', ns):
         name = actor.find('real_person:name', ns)
         print(name.text)
         for char in actor.findall('role:character', ns):
             print(' |-->', char.text)

These two approaches both output:

     John Cleese
      |--> Lancelot
      |--> Archie Leach
     Eric Idle
      |--> Sir Robin
      |--> Gunther
      |--> Commander Clement

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_namespace

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-names/#defaulting


File: python.info,  Node: XPath support,  Next: Reference<5>,  Prev: Tutorial<3>,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API

5.22.5.9 XPath support
......................

This module provides limited support for XPath expressions(1) for
locating elements in a tree.  The goal is to support a small subset of
the abbreviated syntax; a full XPath engine is outside the scope of the
module.

* Menu:

* Example: Example<8>.
* Supported XPath syntax::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xpath


File: python.info,  Node: Example<8>,  Next: Supported XPath syntax,  Up: XPath support

5.22.5.10 Example
.................

Here’s an example that demonstrates some of the XPath capabilities of
the module.  We’ll be using the ‘countrydata’ XML document from the
*note Parsing XML: 3f3c. section:

     import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET

     root = ET.fromstring(countrydata)

     # Top-level elements
     root.findall(".")

     # All 'neighbor' grand-children of 'country' children of the top-level
     # elements
     root.findall("./country/neighbor")

     # Nodes with name='Singapore' that have a 'year' child
     root.findall(".//year/..[@name='Singapore']")

     # 'year' nodes that are children of nodes with name='Singapore'
     root.findall(".//*[@name='Singapore']/year")

     # All 'neighbor' nodes that are the second child of their parent
     root.findall(".//neighbor[2]")

For XML with namespaces, use the usual qualified ‘{namespace}tag’
notation:

     # All dublin-core "title" tags in the document
     root.findall(".//{http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/}title")


File: python.info,  Node: Supported XPath syntax,  Prev: Example<8>,  Up: XPath support

5.22.5.11 Supported XPath syntax
................................

Syntax                      Meaning
                            
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
‘tag’                       Selects all child elements with the given tag.  For
                            example, ‘spam’ selects all child elements named ‘spam’,
                            and ‘spam/egg’ selects all grandchildren named ‘egg’ in
                            all children named ‘spam’.  ‘{namespace}*’ selects all
                            tags in the given namespace, ‘{*}spam’ selects tags
                            named ‘spam’ in any (or no) namespace, and ‘{}*’ only
                            selects tags that are not in a namespace.
                            
                            Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Support for star-wildcards was
                            added.
                            
                            
‘*’                         Selects all child elements, including comments and
                            processing instructions.  For example, ‘*/egg’ selects
                            all grandchildren named ‘egg’.
                            
                            
‘.’                         Selects the current node.  This is mostly useful at the
                            beginning of the path, to indicate that it’s a relative
                            path.
                            
                            
‘//’                        Selects all subelements, on all levels beneath the
                            current element.  For example, ‘.//egg’ selects all
                            ‘egg’ elements in the entire tree.
                            
                            
‘..’                        Selects the parent element.  Returns ‘None’ if the path
                            attempts to reach the ancestors of the start element
                            (the element ‘find’ was called on).
                            
                            
‘[@attrib]’                 Selects all elements that have the given attribute.
                            
                            
‘[@attrib='value']’         Selects all elements for which the given attribute has
                            the given value.  The value cannot contain quotes.
                            
                            
‘[@attrib!='value']’        Selects all elements for which the given attribute does
                            not have the given value.  The value cannot contain
                            quotes.
                            
                            Added in version 3.10.
                            
                            
‘[tag]’                     Selects all elements that have a child named ‘tag’.
                            Only immediate children are supported.
                            
                            
‘[.='text']’                Selects all elements whose complete text content,
                            including descendants, equals the given ‘text’.
                            
                            Added in version 3.7.
                            
                            
‘[.!='text']’               Selects all elements whose complete text content,
                            including descendants, does not equal the given ‘text’.
                            
                            Added in version 3.10.
                            
                            
‘[tag='text']’              Selects all elements that have a child named ‘tag’ whose
                            complete text content, including descendants, equals the
                            given ‘text’.
                            
                            
‘[tag!='text']’             Selects all elements that have a child named ‘tag’ whose
                            complete text content, including descendants, does not
                            equal the given ‘text’.
                            
                            Added in version 3.10.
                            
                            
‘[position]’                Selects all elements that are located at the given
                            position.  The position can be either an integer (1 is
                            the first position), the expression ‘last()’ (for the
                            last position), or a position relative to the last
                            position (e.g.  ‘last()-1’).
                            

Predicates (expressions within square brackets) must be preceded by a
tag name, an asterisk, or another predicate.  ‘position’ predicates must
be preceded by a tag name.


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<5>,  Next: XInclude support,  Prev: XPath support,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API

5.22.5.12 Reference
...................

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<7>.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<7>,  Up: Reference<5>

5.22.5.13 Functions
...................

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.canonicalize (xml_data=None, *,
          out=None, from_file=None, **options)

     C14N 2.0(1) transformation function.

     Canonicalization is a way to normalise XML output in a way that
     allows byte-by-byte comparisons and digital signatures.  It reduces
     the freedom that XML serializers have and instead generates a more
     constrained XML representation.  The main restrictions regard the
     placement of namespace declarations, the ordering of attributes,
     and ignorable whitespace.

     This function takes an XML data string ('xml_data') or a file path
     or file-like object ('from_file') as input, converts it to the
     canonical form, and writes it out using the 'out' file(-like)
     object, if provided, or returns it as a text string if not.  The
     output file receives text, not bytes.  It should therefore be
     opened in text mode with ‘utf-8’ encoding.

     Typical uses:

          xml_data = "<root>...</root>"
          print(canonicalize(xml_data))

          with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file:
              canonicalize(xml_data, out=out_file)

          with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file:
              canonicalize(from_file="inputfile.xml", out=out_file)

     The configuration 'options' are as follows:

        - 'with_comments': set to true to include comments (default:
          false)

        - 
          'strip_text': set to true to strip whitespace before and after text content

               (default: false)

        - 
          'rewrite_prefixes': set to true to replace namespace prefixes by «n{number}»

               (default: false)

        - 
          'qname_aware_tags': a set of qname aware tag names in which prefixes

               should be replaced in text content (default: empty)

        - 
          'qname_aware_attrs': a set of qname aware attribute names in which prefixes

               should be replaced in text content (default: empty)

        - 'exclude_attrs': a set of attribute names that should not be
          serialised

        - 'exclude_tags': a set of tag names that should not be
          serialised

     In the option list above, «a set» refers to any collection or
     iterable of strings, no ordering is expected.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.Comment (text=None)

     Comment element factory.  This factory function creates a special
     element that will be serialized as an XML comment by the standard
     serializer.  The comment string can be either a bytestring or a
     Unicode string.  'text' is a string containing the comment string.
     Returns an element instance representing a comment.

     Note that *note XMLParser: e18. skips over comments in the input
     instead of creating comment objects for them.  An *note
     ElementTree: d19. will only contain comment nodes if they have been
     inserted into to the tree using one of the *note Element: 343.
     methods.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.dump (elem)

     Writes an element tree or element structure to sys.stdout.  This
     function should be used for debugging only.

     The exact output format is implementation dependent.  In this
     version, it’s written as an ordinary XML file.

     'elem' is an element tree or an individual element.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘dump()’ function now preserves the
     attribute order specified by the user.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstring (text, parser=None)

     Parses an XML section from a string constant.  Same as *note XML():
     3f52.  'text' is a string containing XML data.  'parser' is an
     optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard *note
     XMLParser: e18. parser is used.  Returns an *note Element: 343.
     instance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist (sequence,
          parser=None)

     Parses an XML document from a sequence of string fragments.
     'sequence' is a list or other sequence containing XML data
     fragments.  'parser' is an optional parser instance.  If not given,
     the standard *note XMLParser: e18. parser is used.  Returns an
     *note Element: 343. instance.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.indent (tree, space=' ', level=0)

     Appends whitespace to the subtree to indent the tree visually.
     This can be used to generate pretty-printed XML output.  'tree' can
     be an Element or ElementTree.  'space' is the whitespace string
     that will be inserted for each indentation level, two space
     characters by default.  For indenting partial subtrees inside of an
     already indented tree, pass the initial indentation level as
     'level'.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.iselement (element)

     Check if an object appears to be a valid element object.  'element'
     is an element instance.  Return ‘True’ if this is an element
     object.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse (source, events=None,
          parser=None)

     Parses an XML section into an element tree incrementally, and
     reports what’s going on to the user.  'source' is a filename or
     *note file object: 156c. containing XML data.  'events' is a
     sequence of events to report back.  The supported events are the
     strings ‘"start"’, ‘"end"’, ‘"comment"’, ‘"pi"’, ‘"start-ns"’ and
     ‘"end-ns"’ (the «ns» events are used to get detailed namespace
     information).  If 'events' is omitted, only ‘"end"’ events are
     reported.  'parser' is an optional parser instance.  If not given,
     the standard *note XMLParser: e18. parser is used.  'parser' must
     be a subclass of ‘XMLParser’ and can only use the default *note
     TreeBuilder: e19. as a target.  Returns an *note iterator: 6ce.
     providing ‘(event, elem)’ pairs; it has a ‘root’ attribute that
     references the root element of the resulting XML tree once 'source'
     is fully read.  The iterator has the ‘close()’ method that closes
     the internal file object if 'source' is a filename.

     Note that while ‘iterparse()’ builds the tree incrementally, it
     issues blocking reads on 'source' (or the file it names).  As such,
     it’s unsuitable for applications where blocking reads can’t be
     made.  For fully non-blocking parsing, see *note XMLPullParser:
     139c.

          Σημείωση: ‘iterparse()’ only guarantees that it has seen the
          «>» character of a starting tag when it emits a «start» event,
          so the attributes are defined, but the contents of the text
          and tail attributes are undefined at that point.  The same
          applies to the element children; they may or may not be
          present.

          If you need a fully populated element, look for «end» events
          instead.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.4: The 'parser' argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘comment’ and ‘pi’ events were added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the ‘close()’ method.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: A *note ResourceWarning: 74f. is now
     emitted if the iterator opened a file and is not explicitly closed.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.parse (source, parser=None)

     Parses an XML section into an element tree.  'source' is a filename
     or file object containing XML data.  'parser' is an optional parser
     instance.  If not given, the standard *note XMLParser: e18. parser
     is used.  Returns an *note ElementTree: d19. instance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.ProcessingInstruction (target,
          text=None)

     PI element factory.  This factory function creates a special
     element that will be serialized as an XML processing instruction.
     'target' is a string containing the PI target.  'text' is a string
     containing the PI contents, if given.  Returns an element instance,
     representing a processing instruction.

     Note that *note XMLParser: e18. skips over processing instructions
     in the input instead of creating PI objects for them.  An *note
     ElementTree: d19. will only contain processing instruction nodes if
     they have been inserted into to the tree using one of the *note
     Element: 343. methods.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace (prefix, uri)

     Registers a namespace prefix.  The registry is global, and any
     existing mapping for either the given prefix or the namespace URI
     will be removed.  'prefix' is a namespace prefix.  'uri' is a
     namespace uri.  Tags and attributes in this namespace will be
     serialized with the given prefix, if at all possible.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement (parent, tag, /,
          attrib={}, **extra)

     Subelement factory.  This function creates an element instance, and
     appends it to an existing element.

     The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be
     either bytestrings or Unicode strings.  'parent' is the parent
     element.  'tag' is the subelement name.  'attrib' is an optional
     dictionary, containing element attributes.  'extra' contains
     additional attributes, given as keyword arguments.  Returns an
     element instance.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: 'attrib' can now be a *note frozendict:
     182.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: 'parent' and 'tag' are now positional-only
     parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring (element,
          encoding='us-ascii', method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None,
          default_namespace=None, short_empty_elements=True)

     Generates a string representation of an XML element, including all
     subelements.  'element' is an *note Element: 343. instance.
     'encoding' (2) is the output encoding (default is US-ASCII). Use
     ‘encoding="unicode"’ to generate a Unicode string (otherwise, a
     bytestring is generated).  'method' is either ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’ or
     ‘"text"’ (default is ‘"xml"’).  'xml_declaration',
     'default_namespace' and 'short_empty_elements' has the same meaning
     as in *note ElementTree.write(): e5b.  Returns an (optionally)
     encoded string containing the XML data.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added the 'short_empty_elements' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the 'xml_declaration' and
     'default_namespace' parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘tostring()’ function now preserves the
     attribute order specified by the user.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist (element,
          encoding='us-ascii', method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None,
          default_namespace=None, short_empty_elements=True)

     Generates a string representation of an XML element, including all
     subelements.  'element' is an *note Element: 343. instance.
     'encoding' (3) is the output encoding (default is US-ASCII). Use
     ‘encoding="unicode"’ to generate a Unicode string (otherwise, a
     bytestring is generated).  'method' is either ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’ or
     ‘"text"’ (default is ‘"xml"’).  'xml_declaration',
     'default_namespace' and 'short_empty_elements' has the same meaning
     as in *note ElementTree.write(): e5b.  Returns a list of
     (optionally) encoded strings containing the XML data.  It does not
     guarantee any specific sequence, except that
     ‘b"".join(tostringlist(element)) == tostring(element)’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added the 'short_empty_elements' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added the 'xml_declaration' and
     'default_namespace' parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘tostringlist()’ function now preserves
     the attribute order specified by the user.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.XML (text, parser=None)

     Parses an XML section from a string constant.  This function can be
     used to embed «XML literals» in Python code.  'text' is a string
     containing XML data.  'parser' is an optional parser instance.  If
     not given, the standard *note XMLParser: e18. parser is used.
     Returns an *note Element: 343. instance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLID (text, parser=None)

     Parses an XML section from a string constant, and also returns a
     dictionary which maps from element id:s to elements.  'text' is a
     string containing XML data.  'parser' is an optional parser
     instance.  If not given, the standard *note XMLParser: e18. parser
     is used.  Returns a tuple containing an *note Element: 343.
     instance and a dictionary.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/

   (2) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, «UTF-8» is valid, but «UTF8» is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.

   (3) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, «UTF-8» is valid, but «UTF8» is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: XInclude support,  Next: Reference<6>,  Prev: Reference<5>,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API

5.22.5.14 XInclude support
..........................

This module provides limited support for XInclude directives(1), via the
*note xml.etree.ElementInclude: 12d. helper module.  This module can be
used to insert subtrees and text strings into element trees, based on
information in the tree.

* Menu:

* Example: Example<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xinclude/


File: python.info,  Node: Example<9>,  Up: XInclude support

5.22.5.15 Example
.................

Here’s an example that demonstrates use of the XInclude module.  To
include an XML document in the current document, use the
‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ element and set the 'parse'
attribute to ‘"xml"’, and use the 'href' attribute to specify the
document to include.

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       <xi:include href="source.xml" parse="xml" />
     </document>

By default, the 'href' attribute is treated as a file name.  You can use
custom loaders to override this behaviour.  Also note that the standard
helper does not support XPointer syntax.

To process this file, load it as usual, and pass the root element to the
‘xml.etree.ElementTree’ module:

     from xml.etree import ElementTree, ElementInclude

     tree = ElementTree.parse("document.xml")
     root = tree.getroot()

     ElementInclude.include(root)

The ElementInclude module replaces the
‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ element with the root element
from the 'source.xml' document.  The result might look something like
this:

     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       <para>This is a paragraph.</para>
     </document>

If the 'parse' attribute is omitted, it defaults to «xml».  The href
attribute is required.

To include a text document, use the
‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ element, and set the 'parse'
attribute to «text»:

     <?xml version="1.0"?>
     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       Copyright (c) <xi:include href="year.txt" parse="text" />.
     </document>

The result might look something like:

     <document xmlns:xi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude">
       Copyright (c) 2003.
     </document>


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<6>,  Prev: XInclude support,  Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API

5.22.5.16 Reference
...................

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<8>.
* Element Objects::
* ElementTree Objects::
* QName Objects::
* TreeBuilder Objects::
* XMLParser Objects::
* XMLPullParser Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<20>.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<8>,  Next: Element Objects,  Up: Reference<6>

5.22.5.17 Functions
...................

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementInclude.default_loader (href, parse,
          encoding=None)

     Default loader.  This default loader reads an included resource
     from disk.  'href' is a URL. 'parse' is for parse mode either «xml»
     or «text».  'encoding' is an optional text encoding.  If not given,
     encoding is ‘utf-8’.  Returns the expanded resource.  If the parse
     mode is ‘"xml"’, this is an *note Element: 343. instance.  If the
     parse mode is ‘"text"’, this is a string.  If the loader fails, it
     can return ‘None’ or raise an exception.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.etree.ElementInclude.include (elem, loader=None,
          base_url=None, max_depth=6)

     This function expands XInclude directives in-place in tree pointed
     by 'elem'.  'elem' is either the root *note Element: 343. or an
     *note ElementTree: d19. instance to find such element.  'loader' is
     an optional resource loader.  If omitted, it defaults to *note
     default_loader(): 3f5e.  If given, it should be a callable that
     implements the same interface as ‘default_loader()’.  'base_url' is
     base URL of the original file, to resolve relative include file
     references.  'max_depth' is the maximum number of recursive
     inclusions.  Limited to reduce the risk of malicious content
     explosion.  Pass ‘None’ to disable the limitation.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added the 'base_url' and 'max_depth'
     parameters.


File: python.info,  Node: Element Objects,  Next: ElementTree Objects,  Prev: Functions<8>,  Up: Reference<6>

5.22.5.18 Element Objects
.........................

 -- Κλάση: xml.etree.ElementTree.Element (tag, /, attrib={}, **extra)

     Element class.  This class defines the Element interface, and
     provides a reference implementation of this interface.

     The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be
     either bytestrings or Unicode strings.  'tag' is the element name.
     'attrib' is an optional dictionary, containing element attributes.
     'extra' contains additional attributes, given as keyword arguments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: 'attrib' can now be a *note frozendict:
     182.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: 'tag' is now a positional-only parameter.

      -- Ιδιότητα: tag

          A string identifying what kind of data this element represents
          (the element type, in other words).

      -- Ιδιότητα: text
      -- Ιδιότητα: tail

          These attributes can be used to hold additional data
          associated with the element.  Their values are usually strings
          but may be any application-specific object.  If the element is
          created from an XML file, the 'text' attribute holds either
          the text between the element’s start tag and its first child
          or end tag, or ‘None’, and the 'tail' attribute holds either
          the text between the element’s end tag and the next tag, or
          ‘None’.  For the XML data

               <a><b>1<c>2<d/>3</c></b>4</a>

          the 'a' element has ‘None’ for both 'text' and 'tail'
          attributes, the 'b' element has 'text' ‘"1"’ and 'tail' ‘"4"’,
          the 'c' element has 'text' ‘"2"’ and 'tail' ‘None’, and the
          'd' element has 'text' ‘None’ and 'tail' ‘"3"’.

          To collect the inner text of an element, see *note itertext():
          157e, for example ‘"".join(element.itertext())’.

          Applications may store arbitrary objects in these attributes.

      -- Ιδιότητα: attrib

          A dictionary containing the element’s attributes.  Note that
          while the 'attrib' value is always a real mutable Python
          dictionary, an ElementTree implementation may choose to use
          another internal representation, and create the dictionary
          only if someone asks for it.  To take advantage of such
          implementations, use the dictionary methods below whenever
          possible.

     The following dictionary-like methods work on the element
     attributes.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear ()

          Resets an element.  This function removes all subelements,
          clears all attributes, and sets the text and tail attributes
          to ‘None’.

      -- Μέθοδος: get (key, default=None)

          Gets the element attribute named 'key'.

          Returns the attribute value, or 'default' if the attribute was
          not found.

      -- Μέθοδος: items ()

          Returns the element attributes as a sequence of (name, value)
          pairs.  The attributes are returned in an arbitrary order.

      -- Μέθοδος: keys ()

          Returns the elements attribute names as a list.  The names are
          returned in an arbitrary order.

      -- Μέθοδος: set (key, value)

          Set the attribute 'key' on the element to 'value'.

     The following methods work on the element’s children (subelements).

      -- Μέθοδος: append (subelement)

          Adds the element 'subelement' to the end of this element’s
          internal list of subelements.  Raises *note TypeError: 291. if
          'subelement' is not an ‘Element’.

      -- Μέθοδος: extend (subelements)

          Appends 'subelements' from an iterable of elements.  Raises
          *note TypeError: 291. if a subelement is not an ‘Element’.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: find (match, namespaces=None)

          Finds the first subelement matching 'match'.  'match' may be a
          tag name or a *note path: f6b.  Returns an element instance or
          ‘None’.  'namespaces' is an optional mapping from namespace
          prefix to full name.  Pass ‘''’ as prefix to move all
          unprefixed tag names in the expression into the given
          namespace.

      -- Μέθοδος: findall (match, namespaces=None)

          Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or *note path:
          f6b.  Returns a list containing all matching elements in
          document order.  'namespaces' is an optional mapping from
          namespace prefix to full name.  Pass ‘''’ as prefix to move
          all unprefixed tag names in the expression into the given
          namespace.

      -- Μέθοδος: findtext (match, default=None, namespaces=None)

          Finds text for the first subelement matching 'match'.  'match'
          may be a tag name or a *note path: f6b.  Returns the text
          content of the first matching element, or 'default' if no
          element was found.  Note that if the matching element has no
          text content an empty string is returned.  'namespaces' is an
          optional mapping from namespace prefix to full name.  Pass
          ‘''’ as prefix to move all unprefixed tag names in the
          expression into the given namespace.

      -- Μέθοδος: insert (index, subelement)

          Inserts 'subelement' at the given position in this element.
          Raises *note TypeError: 291. if 'subelement' is not an
          ‘Element’.

      -- Μέθοδος: iter (tag=None)

          Creates a tree *note iterator: 6ce. with the current element
          as the root.  The iterator iterates over this element and all
          elements below it, in document (depth first) order.  If 'tag'
          is not ‘None’ or ‘'*'’, only elements whose tag equals 'tag'
          are returned from the iterator.  If the tree structure is
          modified during iteration, the result is undefined.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: iterfind (match, namespaces=None)

          Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or *note path:
          f6b.  Returns an iterable yielding all matching elements in
          document order.  'namespaces' is an optional mapping from
          namespace prefix to full name.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: itertext ()

          Creates a text iterator.  The iterator loops over this element
          and all subelements, in document order, and returns all inner
          text.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: makeelement (tag, attrib)

          Creates a new element object of the same type as this element.
          Do not call this method, use the *note SubElement(): 1930.
          factory function instead.

      -- Μέθοδος: remove (subelement)

          Removes 'subelement' from the element.  Unlike the find*
          methods this method compares elements based on the instance
          identity, not on tag value or contents.

     ‘Element’ objects also support the following sequence type methods
     for working with subelements: *note __delitem__(): 1671, *note
     __getitem__(): 787, *note __setitem__(): 1670, *note __len__():
     1989.

     Caution: Elements with no subelements will test as ‘False’.  In a
     future release of Python, all elements will test as ‘True’
     regardless of whether subelements exist.  Instead, prefer explicit
     ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not None’ tests.:

          element = root.find('foo')

          if not element:  # careful!
              print("element not found, or element has no subelements")

          if element is None:
              print("element not found")

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Testing the truth value of an Element
     emits *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.

     Prior to Python 3.8, the serialisation order of the XML attributes
     of elements was artificially made predictable by sorting the
     attributes by their name.  Based on the now guaranteed ordering of
     dicts, this arbitrary reordering was removed in Python 3.8 to
     preserve the order in which attributes were originally parsed or
     created by user code.

     In general, user code should try not to depend on a specific
     ordering of attributes, given that the XML Information Set(1)
     explicitly excludes the attribute order from conveying information.
     Code should be prepared to deal with any ordering on input.  In
     cases where deterministic XML output is required, e.g.  for
     cryptographic signing or test data sets, canonical serialisation is
     available with the *note canonicalize(): e17. function.

     In cases where canonical output is not applicable but a specific
     attribute order is still desirable on output, code should aim for
     creating the attributes directly in the desired order, to avoid
     perceptual mismatches for readers of the code.  In cases where this
     is difficult to achieve, a recipe like the following can be applied
     prior to serialisation to enforce an order independently from the
     Element creation:

          def reorder_attributes(root):
              for el in root.iter():
                  attrib = el.attrib
                  if len(attrib) > 1:
                      # adjust attribute order, e.g. by sorting
                      attribs = sorted(attrib.items())
                      attrib.clear()
                      attrib.update(attribs)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-infoset/


File: python.info,  Node: ElementTree Objects,  Next: QName Objects,  Prev: Element Objects,  Up: Reference<6>

5.22.5.19 ElementTree Objects
.............................

 -- Κλάση: xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree (element=None, file=None)

     ElementTree wrapper class.  This class represents an entire element
     hierarchy, and adds some extra support for serialization to and
     from standard XML.

     'element' is the root element.  The tree is initialized with the
     contents of the XML 'file' if given.

      -- Μέθοδος: _setroot (element)

          Replaces the root element for this tree.  This discards the
          current contents of the tree, and replaces it with the given
          element.  Use with care.  'element' is an element instance.

      -- Μέθοδος: find (match, namespaces=None)

          Same as *note Element.find(): 1aa1, starting at the root of
          the tree.

      -- Μέθοδος: findall (match, namespaces=None)

          Same as *note Element.findall(): 1aa2, starting at the root of
          the tree.

      -- Μέθοδος: findtext (match, default=None, namespaces=None)

          Same as *note Element.findtext(): 190a, starting at the root
          of the tree.

      -- Μέθοδος: getroot ()

          Returns the root element for this tree.

      -- Μέθοδος: iter (tag=None)

          Creates and returns a tree iterator for the root element.  The
          iterator loops over all elements in this tree, in section
          order.  'tag' is the tag to look for (default is to return all
          elements).

      -- Μέθοδος: iterfind (match, namespaces=None)

          Same as *note Element.iterfind(): 157d, starting at the root
          of the tree.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: parse (source, parser=None)

          Loads an external XML section into this element tree.
          'source' is a file name or *note file object: 156c.  'parser'
          is an optional parser instance.  If not given, the standard
          *note XMLParser: e18. parser is used.  Returns the section
          root element.

      -- Μέθοδος: write (file, encoding='us-ascii',
               xml_declaration=None, default_namespace=None,
               method='xml', *, short_empty_elements=True)

          Writes the element tree to a file, as XML. 'file' is a file
          name, or a *note file object: 156c. opened for writing.
          'encoding' (1) is the output encoding (default is US-ASCII).
          'xml_declaration' controls if an XML declaration should be
          added to the file.  Use ‘False’ for never, ‘True’ for always,
          ‘None’ for only if not US-ASCII or UTF-8 or Unicode (default
          is ‘None’).  'default_namespace' sets the default XML
          namespace (for «xmlns»).  'method' is either ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’
          or ‘"text"’ (default is ‘"xml"’).  The keyword-only
          'short_empty_elements' parameter controls the formatting of
          elements that contain no content.  If ‘True’ (the default),
          they are emitted as a single self-closed tag, otherwise they
          are emitted as a pair of start/end tags.

          The output is either a string (*note str: 1df.) or binary
          (*note bytes: 1c7.).  This is controlled by the 'encoding'
          argument.  If 'encoding' is ‘"unicode"’, the output is a
          string; otherwise, it’s binary.  Note that this may conflict
          with the type of 'file' if it’s an open *note file object:
          156c.; make sure you do not try to write a string to a binary
          stream and vice versa.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added the 'short_empty_elements'
          parameter.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘write()’ method now preserves the
          attribute order specified by the user.

This is the XML file that is going to be manipulated:

     <html>
         <head>
             <title>Example page</title>
         </head>
         <body>
             <p>Moved to <a href="http://example.org/">example.org</a>
             or <a href="http://example.com/">example.com</a>.</p>
         </body>
     </html>

Example of changing the attribute «target» of every link in first
paragraph:

     >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import ElementTree
     >>> tree = ElementTree()
     >>> tree.parse("index.xhtml")
     <Element 'html' at 0xb77e6fac>
     >>> p = tree.find("body/p")     # Finds first occurrence of tag p in body
     >>> p
     <Element 'p' at 0xb77ec26c>
     >>> links = list(p.iter("a"))   # Returns list of all links
     >>> links
     [<Element 'a' at 0xb77ec2ac>, <Element 'a' at 0xb77ec1cc>]
     >>> for i in links:             # Iterates through all found links
     ...     i.attrib["target"] = "blank"
     ...
     >>> tree.write("output.xhtml")

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, «UTF-8» is valid, but «UTF8» is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: QName Objects,  Next: TreeBuilder Objects,  Prev: ElementTree Objects,  Up: Reference<6>

5.22.5.20 QName Objects
.......................

 -- Κλάση: xml.etree.ElementTree.QName (text_or_uri, tag=None)

     QName wrapper.  This can be used to wrap a QName attribute value,
     in order to get proper namespace handling on output.  'text_or_uri'
     is a string containing the QName value, in the form {uri}local, or,
     if the tag argument is given, the URI part of a QName.  If 'tag' is
     given, the first argument is interpreted as a URI, and this
     argument is interpreted as a local name.  ‘QName’ instances are
     opaque.


File: python.info,  Node: TreeBuilder Objects,  Next: XMLParser Objects,  Prev: QName Objects,  Up: Reference<6>

5.22.5.21 TreeBuilder Objects
.............................

 -- Κλάση: xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder (element_factory=None, *,
          comment_factory=None, pi_factory=None, insert_comments=False,
          insert_pis=False)

     Generic element structure builder.  This builder converts a
     sequence of start, data, end, comment and pi method calls to a
     well-formed element structure.  You can use this class to build an
     element structure using a custom XML parser, or a parser for some
     other XML-like format.

     'element_factory', when given, must be a callable accepting two
     positional arguments: a tag and a dict of attributes.  It is
     expected to return a new element instance.

     The 'comment_factory' and 'pi_factory' functions, when given,
     should behave like the *note Comment(): 3f50. and *note
     ProcessingInstruction(): 3f56. functions to create comments and
     processing instructions.  When not given, the default factories
     will be used.  When 'insert_comments' and/or 'insert_pis' is true,
     comments/pis will be inserted into the tree if they appear within
     the root element (but not outside of it).

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Flushes the builder buffers, and returns the toplevel document
          element.  Returns an *note Element: 343. instance.

      -- Μέθοδος: data (data)

          Adds text to the current element.  'data' is a string.  This
          should be either a bytestring, or a Unicode string.

      -- Μέθοδος: end (tag)

          Closes the current element.  'tag' is the element name.
          Returns the closed element.

      -- Μέθοδος: start (tag, attrs)

          Opens a new element.  'tag' is the element name.  'attrs' is a
          dictionary containing element attributes.  Returns the opened
          element.

      -- Μέθοδος: comment (text)

          Creates a comment with the given 'text'.  If ‘insert_comments’
          is true, this will also add it to the tree.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: pi (target, text)

          Creates a process instruction with the given 'target' name and
          'text'.  If ‘insert_pis’ is true, this will also add it to the
          tree.

          Added in version 3.8.

     In addition, a custom ‘TreeBuilder’ object can provide the
     following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: doctype (name, pubid, system)

          Handles a doctype declaration.  'name' is the doctype name.
          'pubid' is the public identifier.  'system' is the system
          identifier.  This method does not exist on the default
          ‘TreeBuilder’ class.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: start_ns (prefix, uri)

          Is called whenever the parser encounters a new namespace
          declaration, before the ‘start()’ callback for the opening
          element that defines it.  'prefix' is ‘''’ for the default
          namespace and the declared namespace prefix name otherwise.
          'uri' is the namespace URI.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: end_ns (prefix)

          Is called after the ‘end()’ callback of an element that
          declared a namespace prefix mapping, with the name of the
          'prefix' that went out of scope.

          Added in version 3.8.

 -- Κλάση: xml.etree.ElementTree.C14NWriterTarget (write, *,
          with_comments=False, strip_text=False, rewrite_prefixes=False,
          qname_aware_tags=None, qname_aware_attrs=None,
          exclude_attrs=None, exclude_tags=None)

     A C14N 2.0(1) writer.  Arguments are the same as for the *note
     canonicalize(): e17. function.  This class does not build a tree
     but translates the callback events directly into a serialised form
     using the 'write' function.

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/


File: python.info,  Node: XMLParser Objects,  Next: XMLPullParser Objects,  Prev: TreeBuilder Objects,  Up: Reference<6>

5.22.5.22 XMLParser Objects
...........................

 -- Κλάση: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser (*, target=None,
          encoding=None)

     This class is the low-level building block of the module.  It uses
     *note xml.parsers.expat: 12f. for efficient, event-based parsing of
     XML. It can be fed XML data incrementally with the *note feed():
     3f81. method, and parsing events are translated to a push API - by
     invoking callbacks on the 'target' object.  If 'target' is omitted,
     the standard *note TreeBuilder: e19. is used.  If 'encoding' (1) is
     given, the value overrides the encoding specified in the XML file.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Parameters are now *note keyword-only: 7a3.
     The 'html' argument is no longer supported.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Finishes feeding data to the parser.  Returns the result of
          calling the ‘close()’ method of the 'target' passed during
          construction; by default, this is the toplevel document
          element.

      -- Μέθοδος: feed (data)

          Feeds data to the parser.  'data' is encoded data.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ()

          Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which
          can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular
          with Expat >=2.6.0.  The implementation of ‘flush()’
          temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if currently
          enabled) and triggers a reparse.  Disabling reparse deferral
          has security consequences; please see *note
          xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 77a.
          for details.

          ‘flush()’ has been backported to some prior releases of
          CPython as a security fix.  Check for availability using *note
          hasattr(): 8e2. if used in code running across a variety of
          Python versions.

          Added in version 3.13.

     *note XMLParser.feed(): 3f81. calls 'target"s ‘start(tag,
     attrs_dict)’ method for each opening tag, its ‘end(tag)’ method for
     each closing tag, and data is processed by method ‘data(data)’.
     For further supported callback methods, see the *note TreeBuilder:
     e19. class.  *note XMLParser.close(): 3f82. calls 'target"s method
     ‘close()’.  ‘XMLParser’ can be used not only for building a tree
     structure.  This is an example of counting the maximum depth of an
     XML file:

          >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import XMLParser
          >>> class MaxDepth:                     # The target object of the parser
          ...     maxDepth = 0
          ...     depth = 0
          ...     def start(self, tag, attrib):   # Called for each opening tag.
          ...         self.depth += 1
          ...         if self.depth > self.maxDepth:
          ...             self.maxDepth = self.depth
          ...     def end(self, tag):             # Called for each closing tag.
          ...         self.depth -= 1
          ...     def data(self, data):
          ...         pass            # We do not need to do anything with data.
          ...     def close(self):    # Called when all data has been parsed.
          ...         return self.maxDepth
          ...
          >>> target = MaxDepth()
          >>> parser = XMLParser(target=target)
          >>> exampleXml = """
          ... <a>
          ...   <b>
          ...   </b>
          ...   <b>
          ...     <c>
          ...       <d>
          ...       </d>
          ...     </c>
          ...   </b>
          ... </a>"""
          >>> parser.feed(exampleXml)
          >>> parser.close()
          4

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the
appropriate standards.  For example, «UTF-8» is valid, but «UTF8» is
not.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: XMLPullParser Objects,  Next: Exceptions<20>,  Prev: XMLParser Objects,  Up: Reference<6>

5.22.5.23 XMLPullParser Objects
...............................

 -- Κλάση: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser (events=None)

     A pull parser suitable for non-blocking applications.  Its
     input-side API is similar to that of *note XMLParser: e18, but
     instead of pushing calls to a callback target, ‘XMLPullParser’
     collects an internal list of parsing events and lets the user read
     from it.  'events' is a sequence of events to report back.  The
     supported events are the strings ‘"start"’, ‘"end"’, ‘"comment"’,
     ‘"pi"’, ‘"start-ns"’ and ‘"end-ns"’ (the «ns» events are used to
     get detailed namespace information).  If 'events' is omitted, only
     ‘"end"’ events are reported.

      -- Μέθοδος: feed (data)

          Feed the given bytes data to the parser.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush ()

          Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which
          can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular
          with Expat >=2.6.0.  The implementation of ‘flush()’
          temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if currently
          enabled) and triggers a reparse.  Disabling reparse deferral
          has security consequences; please see *note
          xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 77a.
          for details.

          ‘flush()’ has been backported to some prior releases of
          CPython as a security fix.  Check for availability using *note
          hasattr(): 8e2. if used in code running across a variety of
          Python versions.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Signal the parser that the data stream is terminated.  Unlike
          *note XMLParser.close(): 3f82, this method always returns
          *note None: a65.  Any events not yet retrieved when the parser
          is closed can still be read with *note read_events(): 3f41.

      -- Μέθοδος: read_events ()

          Return an iterator over the events which have been encountered
          in the data fed to the parser.  The iterator yields ‘(event,
          elem)’ pairs, where 'event' is a string representing the type
          of event (e.g.  ‘"end"’) and 'elem' is the encountered *note
          Element: 343. object, or other context value as follows.

             * ‘start’, ‘end’: the current Element.

             * ‘comment’, ‘pi’: the current comment / processing
               instruction

             * ‘start-ns’: a tuple ‘(prefix, uri)’ naming the declared
               namespace mapping.

             * ‘end-ns’: *note None: a65. (this may change in a future
               version)

          Events provided in a previous call to ‘read_events()’ will not
          be yielded again.  Events are consumed from the internal queue
          only when they are retrieved from the iterator, so multiple
          readers iterating in parallel over iterators obtained from
          ‘read_events()’ will have unpredictable results.

          Σημείωση: ‘XMLPullParser’ only guarantees that it has seen the
          «>» character of a starting tag when it emits a «start» event,
          so the attributes are defined, but the contents of the text
          and tail attributes are undefined at that point.  The same
          applies to the element children; they may or may not be
          present.

          If you need a fully populated element, look for «end» events
          instead.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘comment’ and ‘pi’ events were added.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<20>,  Prev: XMLPullParser Objects,  Up: Reference<6>

5.22.5.24 Exceptions
....................

 -- Κλάση: xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError

     XML parse error, raised by the various parsing methods in this
     module when parsing fails.  The string representation of an
     instance of this exception will contain a user-friendly error
     message.  In addition, it will have the following attributes
     available:

      -- Ιδιότητα: code

          A numeric error code from the expat parser.  See the
          documentation of *note xml.parsers.expat: 12f. for the list of
          error codes and their meanings.

      -- Ιδιότητα: position

          A tuple of 'line', 'column' numbers, specifying where the
          error occurred.


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom — The Document Object Model API,  Next: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation,  Prev: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.22.6 ‘xml.dom’ — The Document Object Model API
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The Document Object Model, or «DOM,» is a cross-language API from the
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) for accessing and modifying XML
documents.  A DOM implementation presents an XML document as a tree
structure, or allows client code to build such a structure from scratch.
It then gives access to the structure through a set of objects which
provided well-known interfaces.

The DOM is extremely useful for random-access applications.  SAX only
allows you a view of one bit of the document at a time.  If you are
looking at one SAX element, you have no access to another.  If you are
looking at a text node, you have no access to a containing element.
When you write a SAX application, you need to keep track of your
program’s position in the document somewhere in your own code.  SAX does
not do it for you.  Also, if you need to look ahead in the XML document,
you are just out of luck.

Some applications are simply impossible in an event driven model with no
access to a tree.  Of course you could build some sort of tree yourself
in SAX events, but the DOM allows you to avoid writing that code.  The
DOM is a standard tree representation for XML data.

The Document Object Model is being defined by the W3C in stages, or
«levels» in their terminology.  The Python mapping of the API is
substantially based on the DOM Level 2 recommendation.

DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM. How
this is accomplished is not covered at all by DOM Level 1, and Level 2
provides only limited improvements: There is a ‘DOMImplementation’
object class which provides access to ‘Document’ creation methods, but
no way to access an XML reader/parser/Document builder in an
implementation-independent way.  There is also no well-defined way to
access these methods without an existing ‘Document’ object.  In Python,
each DOM implementation will provide a function *note
getDOMImplementation(): 3f8c.  DOM Level 3 adds a Load/Store
specification, which defines an interface to the reader, but this is not
yet available in the Python standard library.

Once you have a DOM document object, you can access the parts of your
XML document through its properties and methods.  These properties are
defined in the DOM specification; this portion of the reference manual
describes the interpretation of the specification in Python.

The specification provided by the W3C defines the DOM API for Java,
ECMAScript, and OMG IDL. The Python mapping defined here is based in
large part on the IDL version of the specification, but strict
compliance is not required (though implementations are free to support
the strict mapping from IDL). See section *note Conformance: 3f8d. for a
detailed discussion of mapping requirements.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Specification(2)

     The W3C recommendation upon which the Python DOM API is based.

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification(3)

     The W3C recommendation for the DOM supported by *note
     xml.dom.minidom: 12b.

Python Language Mapping Specification(4)

     This specifies the mapping from OMG IDL to Python.

* Menu:

* Module Contents::
* Objects in the DOM::
* Conformance::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/2000/REC-DOM-Level-2-Core-20001113/

   (3) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/

   (4) https://www.omg.org/spec/PYTH/1.2/PDF


File: python.info,  Node: Module Contents,  Next: Objects in the DOM,  Up: xml dom — The Document Object Model API

5.22.6.1 Module Contents
........................

The ‘xml.dom’ contains the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.dom.registerDOMImplementation (name, factory)

     Register the 'factory' function with the name 'name'.  The factory
     function should return an object which implements the
     ‘DOMImplementation’ interface.  The factory function can return the
     same object every time, or a new one for each call, as appropriate
     for the specific implementation (e.g.  if that implementation
     supports some customization).

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.dom.getDOMImplementation (name=None, features=())

     Return a suitable DOM implementation.  The 'name' is either
     well-known, the module name of a DOM implementation, or ‘None’.  If
     it is not ‘None’, imports the corresponding module and returns a
     ‘DOMImplementation’ object if the import succeeds.  If no name is
     given, and if the environment variable ‘PYTHON_DOM’ is set, this
     variable is used to find the implementation.

     If name is not given, this examines the available implementations
     to find one with the required feature set.  If no implementation
     can be found, raise an *note ImportError: 1bd.  The features list
     must be a sequence of ‘(feature, version)’ pairs which are passed
     to the ‘hasFeature()’ method on available ‘DOMImplementation’
     objects.

Some convenience constants are also provided:

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.dom.EMPTY_NAMESPACE

     The value used to indicate that no namespace is associated with a
     node in the DOM. This is typically found as the ‘namespaceURI’ of a
     node, or used as the 'namespaceURI' parameter to a
     namespaces-specific method.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.dom.XML_NAMESPACE

     The namespace URI associated with the reserved prefix ‘xml’, as
     defined by Namespaces in XML(1) (section 4).

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.dom.XMLNS_NAMESPACE

     The namespace URI for namespace declarations, as defined by
     Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Core Specification(2) (section
     1.1.8).

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.dom.XHTML_NAMESPACE

     The URI of the XHTML namespace as defined by XHTML 1.0: The
     Extensible HyperText Markup Language(3) (section 3.1.1).

In addition, ‘xml.dom’ contains a base ‘Node’ class and the DOM
exception classes.  The ‘Node’ class provided by this module does not
implement any of the methods or attributes defined by the DOM
specification; concrete DOM implementations must provide those.  The
‘Node’ class provided as part of this module does provide the constants
used for the ‘nodeType’ attribute on concrete ‘Node’ objects; they are
located within the class rather than at the module level to conform with
the DOM specifications.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Core/core.html

   (3) https://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/


File: python.info,  Node: Objects in the DOM,  Next: Conformance,  Prev: Module Contents,  Up: xml dom — The Document Object Model API

5.22.6.2 Objects in the DOM
...........................

The definitive documentation for the DOM is the DOM specification from
the W3C.

Note that DOM attributes may also be manipulated as nodes instead of as
simple strings.  It is fairly rare that you must do this, however, so
this usage is not yet documented.

Interface                            Section                                 Purpose
                                                                             
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                             
‘DOMImplementation’                  *note DOMImplementation Objects: 3f96.  Interface to the underlying
                                                                             implementation.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Node’                               *note Node Objects: 3f97.               Base interface for most objects in
                                                                             a document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘NodeList’                           *note NodeList Objects: 25a0.           Interface for a sequence of nodes.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘DocumentType’                       *note DocumentType Objects: 3f98.       Information about the declarations
                                                                             needed to process a document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Document’                           *note Document Objects: 3f99.           Object which represents an entire
                                                                             document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Element’                            *note Element Objects: 3f9a.            Element nodes in the document
                                                                             hierarchy.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Attr’                               *note Attr Objects: 3f9b.               Attribute value nodes on element
                                                                             nodes.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Comment’                            *note Comment Objects: 3f9c.            Representation of comments in the
                                                                             source document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘Text’                               *note Text and CDATASection Objects: 3f9d.Nodes containing textual content
                                                                             from the document.
                                                                             
                                                                             
‘ProcessingInstruction’              *note ProcessingInstruction Objects: 3f9e.Processing instruction
                                                                             representation.
                                                                             

An additional section describes the exceptions defined for working with
the DOM in Python.

* Menu:

* DOMImplementation Objects::
* Node Objects::
* NodeList Objects::
* DocumentType Objects::
* Document Objects::
* Element Objects: Element Objects<2>.
* Attr Objects::
* NamedNodeMap Objects::
* Comment Objects::
* Text and CDATASection Objects::
* ProcessingInstruction Objects::
* Exceptions: Exceptions<21>.


File: python.info,  Node: DOMImplementation Objects,  Next: Node Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.22.6.3 DOMImplementation Objects
..................................

The ‘DOMImplementation’ interface provides a way for applications to
determine the availability of particular features in the DOM they are
using.  DOM Level 2 added the ability to create new ‘Document’ and
‘DocumentType’ objects using the ‘DOMImplementation’ as well.

 -- Μέθοδος: DOMImplementation.hasFeature (feature, version)

     Return ‘True’ if the feature identified by the pair of strings
     'feature' and 'version' is implemented.

 -- Μέθοδος: DOMImplementation.createDocument (namespaceUri,
          qualifiedName, doctype)

     Return a new ‘Document’ object (the root of the DOM), with a child
     ‘Element’ object having the given 'namespaceUri' and
     'qualifiedName'.  The 'doctype' must be a ‘DocumentType’ object
     created by *note createDocumentType(): 3fa2, or ‘None’.  In the
     Python DOM API, the first two arguments can also be ‘None’ in order
     to indicate that no ‘Element’ child is to be created.

 -- Μέθοδος: DOMImplementation.createDocumentType (qualifiedName,
          publicId, systemId)

     Return a new ‘DocumentType’ object that encapsulates the given
     'qualifiedName', 'publicId', and 'systemId' strings, representing
     the information contained in an XML document type declaration.


File: python.info,  Node: Node Objects,  Next: NodeList Objects,  Prev: DOMImplementation Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.22.6.4 Node Objects
.....................

All of the components of an XML document are subclasses of ‘Node’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Node.nodeType

     An integer representing the node type.  Symbolic constants for the
     types are on the ‘Node’ object: ‘ELEMENT_NODE’, ‘ATTRIBUTE_NODE’,
     ‘TEXT_NODE’, ‘CDATA_SECTION_NODE’, ‘ENTITY_NODE’,
     ‘PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE’, ‘COMMENT_NODE’, ‘DOCUMENT_NODE’,
     ‘DOCUMENT_TYPE_NODE’, ‘NOTATION_NODE’.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Node.parentNode

     The parent of the current node, or ‘None’ for the document node.
     The value is always a ‘Node’ object or ‘None’.  For ‘Element’
     nodes, this will be the parent element, except for the root
     element, in which case it will be the ‘Document’ object.  For
     ‘Attr’ nodes, this is always ‘None’.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Node.attributes

     A ‘NamedNodeMap’ of attribute objects.  Only elements have actual
     values for this; others provide ‘None’ for this attribute.  This is
     a read-only attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Node.previousSibling

     The node that immediately precedes this one with the same parent.
     For instance the element with an end-tag that comes just before the
     'self' element’s start-tag.  Of course, XML documents are made up
     of more than just elements so the previous sibling could be text, a
     comment, or something else.  If this node is the first child of the
     parent, this attribute will be ‘None’.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Node.nextSibling

     The node that immediately follows this one with the same parent.
     See also *note previousSibling: 3fa7.  If this is the last child of
     the parent, this attribute will be ‘None’.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Node.childNodes

     A list of nodes contained within this node.  This is a read-only
     attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Node.firstChild

     The first child of the node, if there are any, or ‘None’.  This is
     a read-only attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Node.lastChild

     The last child of the node, if there are any, or ‘None’.  This is a
     read-only attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Node.localName

     The part of the ‘tagName’ following the colon if there is one, else
     the entire ‘tagName’.  The value is a string.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Node.prefix

     The part of the ‘tagName’ preceding the colon if there is one, else
     the empty string.  The value is a string, or ‘None’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Node.namespaceURI

     The namespace associated with the element name.  This will be a
     string or ‘None’.  This is a read-only attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Node.nodeName

     This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM
     specification for details.  You can always get the information you
     would get here from another property such as the ‘tagName’ property
     for elements or the ‘name’ property for attributes.  For all node
     types, the value of this attribute will be either a string or
     ‘None’.  This is a read-only attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Node.nodeValue

     This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM
     specification for details.  The situation is similar to that with
     *note nodeName: 3faf.  The value is a string or ‘None’.

 -- Μέθοδος: Node.hasAttributes ()

     Return ‘True’ if the node has any attributes.

 -- Μέθοδος: Node.hasChildNodes ()

     Return ‘True’ if the node has any child nodes.

 -- Μέθοδος: Node.isSameNode (other)

     Return ‘True’ if 'other' refers to the same node as this node.
     This is especially useful for DOM implementations which use any
     sort of proxy architecture (because more than one object can refer
     to the same node).

          Σημείωση: This is based on a proposed DOM Level 3 API which is
          still in the «working draft» stage, but this particular
          interface appears uncontroversial.  Changes from the W3C will
          not necessarily affect this method in the Python DOM interface
          (though any new W3C API for this would also be supported).

 -- Μέθοδος: Node.appendChild (newChild)

     Add a new child node to this node at the end of the list of
     children, returning 'newChild'.  If the node was already in the
     tree, it is removed first.

 -- Μέθοδος: Node.insertBefore (newChild, refChild)

     Insert a new child node before an existing child.  It must be the
     case that 'refChild' is a child of this node; if not, *note
     ValueError: 277. is raised.  'newChild' is returned.  If 'refChild'
     is ‘None’, it inserts 'newChild' at the end of the children’s list.

 -- Μέθοδος: Node.removeChild (oldChild)

     Remove a child node.  'oldChild' must be a child of this node; if
     not, *note ValueError: 277. is raised.  'oldChild' is returned on
     success.  If 'oldChild' will not be used further, its ‘unlink()’
     method should be called.

 -- Μέθοδος: Node.replaceChild (newChild, oldChild)

     Replace an existing node with a new node.  It must be the case that
     'oldChild' is a child of this node; if not, *note ValueError: 277.
     is raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: Node.normalize ()

     Join adjacent text nodes so that all stretches of text are stored
     as single ‘Text’ instances.  This simplifies processing text from a
     DOM tree for many applications.

 -- Μέθοδος: Node.cloneNode (deep)

     Clone this node.  Setting 'deep' means to clone all child nodes as
     well.  This returns the clone.


File: python.info,  Node: NodeList Objects,  Next: DocumentType Objects,  Prev: Node Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.22.6.5 NodeList Objects
.........................

A ‘NodeList’ represents a sequence of nodes.  These objects are used in
two ways in the DOM Core recommendation: an ‘Element’ object provides
one as its list of child nodes, and the ‘getElementsByTagName()’ and
‘getElementsByTagNameNS()’ methods of ‘Node’ return objects with this
interface to represent query results.

The DOM Level 2 recommendation defines one method and one attribute for
these objects:

 -- Μέθοδος: NodeList.item (i)

     Return the 'i'’th item from the sequence, if there is one, or
     ‘None’.  The index 'i' is not allowed to be less than zero or
     greater than or equal to the length of the sequence.

 -- Ιδιότητα: NodeList.length

     The number of nodes in the sequence.

In addition, the Python DOM interface requires that some additional
support is provided to allow ‘NodeList’ objects to be used as Python
sequences.  All ‘NodeList’ implementations must include support for
*note __len__(): 1989. and *note __getitem__(): 787.; this allows
iteration over the ‘NodeList’ in *note for: 321. statements and proper
support for the *note len(): a1f. built-in function.

If a DOM implementation supports modification of the document, the
‘NodeList’ implementation must also support the *note __setitem__():
1670. and *note __delitem__(): 1671. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: DocumentType Objects,  Next: Document Objects,  Prev: NodeList Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.22.6.6 DocumentType Objects
.............................

Information about the notations and entities declared by a document
(including the external subset if the parser uses it and can provide the
information) is available from a ‘DocumentType’ object.  The
‘DocumentType’ for a document is available from the ‘Document’ object’s
‘doctype’ attribute; if there is no ‘DOCTYPE’ declaration for the
document, the document’s ‘doctype’ attribute will be set to ‘None’
instead of an instance of this interface.

‘DocumentType’ is a specialization of ‘Node’, and adds the following
attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: DocumentType.publicId

     The public identifier for the external subset of the document type
     definition.  This will be a string or ‘None’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: DocumentType.systemId

     The system identifier for the external subset of the document type
     definition.  This will be a URI as a string, or ‘None’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: DocumentType.internalSubset

     A string giving the complete internal subset from the document.
     This does not include the brackets which enclose the subset.  If
     the document has no internal subset, this should be ‘None’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: DocumentType.name

     The name of the root element as given in the ‘DOCTYPE’ declaration,
     if present.

 -- Ιδιότητα: DocumentType.entities

     This is a ‘NamedNodeMap’ giving the definitions of external
     entities.  For entity names defined more than once, only the first
     definition is provided (others are ignored as required by the XML
     recommendation).  This may be ‘None’ if the information is not
     provided by the parser, or if no entities are defined.

 -- Ιδιότητα: DocumentType.notations

     This is a ‘NamedNodeMap’ giving the definitions of notations.  For
     notation names defined more than once, only the first definition is
     provided (others are ignored as required by the XML
     recommendation).  This may be ‘None’ if the information is not
     provided by the parser, or if no notations are defined.


File: python.info,  Node: Document Objects,  Next: Element Objects<2>,  Prev: DocumentType Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.22.6.7 Document Objects
.........................

A ‘Document’ represents an entire XML document, including its
constituent elements, attributes, processing instructions, comments etc.
Remember that it inherits properties from ‘Node’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Document.documentElement

     The one and only root element of the document.

 -- Μέθοδος: Document.createElement (tagName)

     Create and return a new element node.  The element is not inserted
     into the document when it is created.  You need to explicitly
     insert it with one of the other methods such as ‘insertBefore()’ or
     ‘appendChild()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: Document.createElementNS (namespaceURI, tagName)

     Create and return a new element with a namespace.  The 'tagName'
     may have a prefix.  The element is not inserted into the document
     when it is created.  You need to explicitly insert it with one of
     the other methods such as ‘insertBefore()’ or ‘appendChild()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: Document.createTextNode (data)

     Create and return a text node containing the data passed as a
     parameter.  As with the other creation methods, this one does not
     insert the node into the tree.

 -- Μέθοδος: Document.createComment (data)

     Create and return a comment node containing the data passed as a
     parameter.  As with the other creation methods, this one does not
     insert the node into the tree.

 -- Μέθοδος: Document.createProcessingInstruction (target, data)

     Create and return a processing instruction node containing the
     'target' and 'data' passed as parameters.  As with the other
     creation methods, this one does not insert the node into the tree.

 -- Μέθοδος: Document.createAttribute (name)

     Create and return an attribute node.  This method does not
     associate the attribute node with any particular element.  You must
     use ‘setAttributeNode()’ on the appropriate ‘Element’ object to use
     the newly created attribute instance.

 -- Μέθοδος: Document.createAttributeNS (namespaceURI, qualifiedName)

     Create and return an attribute node with a namespace.  The
     'tagName' may have a prefix.  This method does not associate the
     attribute node with any particular element.  You must use
     ‘setAttributeNode()’ on the appropriate ‘Element’ object to use the
     newly created attribute instance.

 -- Μέθοδος: Document.getElementsByTagName (tagName)

     Search for all descendants (direct children, children’s children,
     etc.)  with a particular element type name.

 -- Μέθοδος: Document.getElementsByTagNameNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Search for all descendants (direct children, children’s children,
     etc.)  with a particular namespace URI and localname.  The
     localname is the part of the namespace after the prefix.


File: python.info,  Node: Element Objects<2>,  Next: Attr Objects,  Prev: Document Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.22.6.8 Element Objects
........................

‘Element’ is a subclass of ‘Node’, so inherits all the attributes of
that class.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Element.tagName

     The element type name.  In a namespace-using document it may have
     colons in it.  The value is a string.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.getElementsByTagName (tagName)

     Same as equivalent method in the ‘Document’ class.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.getElementsByTagNameNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Same as equivalent method in the ‘Document’ class.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.hasAttribute (name)

     Return ‘True’ if the element has an attribute named by 'name'.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.hasAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Return ‘True’ if the element has an attribute named by
     'namespaceURI' and 'localName'.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.getAttribute (name)

     Return the value of the attribute named by 'name' as a string.  If
     no such attribute exists, an empty string is returned, as if the
     attribute had no value.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.getAttributeNode (attrname)

     Return the ‘Attr’ node for the attribute named by 'attrname'.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.getAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Return the value of the attribute named by 'namespaceURI' and
     'localName' as a string.  If no such attribute exists, an empty
     string is returned, as if the attribute had no value.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.getAttributeNodeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Return an attribute value as a node, given a 'namespaceURI' and
     'localName'.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.removeAttribute (name)

     Remove an attribute by name.  If there is no matching attribute, a
     *note NotFoundErr: 3fd9. is raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.removeAttributeNode (oldAttr)

     Remove and return 'oldAttr' from the attribute list, if present.
     If 'oldAttr' is not present, *note NotFoundErr: 3fd9. is raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.removeAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName)

     Remove an attribute by name.  Note that it uses a localName, not a
     qname.  No exception is raised if there is no matching attribute.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.setAttribute (name, value)

     Set an attribute value from a string.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.setAttributeNode (newAttr)

     Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing
     attribute if necessary if the ‘name’ attribute matches.  If a
     replacement occurs, the old attribute node will be returned.  If
     'newAttr' is already in use, *note InuseAttributeErr: 3fde. will be
     raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.setAttributeNodeNS (newAttr)

     Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing
     attribute if necessary if the ‘namespaceURI’ and ‘localName’
     attributes match.  If a replacement occurs, the old attribute node
     will be returned.  If 'newAttr' is already in use, *note
     InuseAttributeErr: 3fde. will be raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: Element.setAttributeNS (namespaceURI, qname, value)

     Set an attribute value from a string, given a 'namespaceURI' and a
     'qname'.  Note that a qname is the whole attribute name.  This is
     different than above.


File: python.info,  Node: Attr Objects,  Next: NamedNodeMap Objects,  Prev: Element Objects<2>,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.22.6.9 Attr Objects
.....................

‘Attr’ inherits from ‘Node’, so inherits all its attributes.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Attr.name

     The attribute name.  In a namespace-using document it may include a
     colon.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Attr.localName

     The part of the name following the colon if there is one, else the
     entire name.  This is a read-only attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Attr.prefix

     The part of the name preceding the colon if there is one, else the
     empty string.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Attr.value

     The text value of the attribute.  This is a synonym for the
     ‘nodeValue’ attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: NamedNodeMap Objects,  Next: Comment Objects,  Prev: Attr Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.22.6.10 NamedNodeMap Objects
..............................

‘NamedNodeMap’ does 'not' inherit from ‘Node’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: NamedNodeMap.length

     The length of the attribute list.

 -- Μέθοδος: NamedNodeMap.item (index)

     Return an attribute with a particular index.  The order you get the
     attributes in is arbitrary but will be consistent for the life of a
     DOM. Each item is an attribute node.  Get its value with the
     ‘value’ attribute.

There are also experimental methods that give this class more mapping
behavior.  You can use them or you can use the standardized
‘getAttribute*()’ family of methods on the ‘Element’ objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Comment Objects,  Next: Text and CDATASection Objects,  Prev: NamedNodeMap Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.22.6.11 Comment Objects
.........................

‘Comment’ represents a comment in the XML document.  It is a subclass of
‘Node’, but cannot have child nodes.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Comment.data

     The content of the comment as a string.  The attribute contains all
     characters between the leading ‘<!-’‘-’ and trailing ‘-’‘->’, but
     does not include them.


File: python.info,  Node: Text and CDATASection Objects,  Next: ProcessingInstruction Objects,  Prev: Comment Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.22.6.12 Text and CDATASection Objects
.......................................

The ‘Text’ interface represents text in the XML document.  If the parser
and DOM implementation support the DOM’s XML extension, portions of the
text enclosed in CDATA marked sections are stored in ‘CDATASection’
objects.  These two interfaces are identical, but provide different
values for the ‘nodeType’ attribute.

These interfaces extend the ‘Node’ interface.  They cannot have child
nodes.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Text.data

     The content of the text node as a string.

     Σημείωση: The use of a ‘CDATASection’ node does not indicate that
     the node represents a complete CDATA marked section, only that the
     content of the node was part of a CDATA section.  A single CDATA
     section may be represented by more than one node in the document
     tree.  There is no way to determine whether two adjacent
     ‘CDATASection’ nodes represent different CDATA marked sections.


File: python.info,  Node: ProcessingInstruction Objects,  Next: Exceptions<21>,  Prev: Text and CDATASection Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.22.6.13 ProcessingInstruction Objects
.......................................

Represents a processing instruction in the XML document; this inherits
from the ‘Node’ interface and cannot have child nodes.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ProcessingInstruction.target

     The content of the processing instruction up to the first
     whitespace character.  This is a read-only attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ProcessingInstruction.data

     The content of the processing instruction following the first
     whitespace character.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<21>,  Prev: ProcessingInstruction Objects,  Up: Objects in the DOM

5.22.6.14 Exceptions
....................

The DOM Level 2 recommendation defines a single exception, *note
DOMException: 3ff3, and a number of constants that allow applications to
determine what sort of error occurred.  ‘DOMException’ instances carry a
*note code: 1b. attribute that provides the appropriate value for the
specific exception.

The Python DOM interface provides the constants, but also expands the
set of exceptions so that a specific exception exists for each of the
exception codes defined by the DOM. The implementations must raise the
appropriate specific exception, each of which carries the appropriate
value for the *note code: 1b. attribute.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.DOMException

     Base exception class used for all specific DOM exceptions.  This
     exception class cannot be directly instantiated.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.DomstringSizeErr

     Raised when a specified range of text does not fit into a string.
     This is not known to be used in the Python DOM implementations, but
     may be received from DOM implementations not written in Python.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.HierarchyRequestErr

     Raised when an attempt is made to insert a node where the node type
     is not allowed.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.IndexSizeErr

     Raised when an index or size parameter to a method is negative or
     exceeds the allowed values.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr

     Raised when an attempt is made to insert an ‘Attr’ node that is
     already present elsewhere in the document.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.InvalidAccessErr

     Raised if a parameter or an operation is not supported on the
     underlying object.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.InvalidCharacterErr

     This exception is raised when a string parameter contains a
     character that is not permitted in the context it’s being used in
     by the XML 1.0 recommendation.  For example, attempting to create
     an ‘Element’ node with a space in the element type name will cause
     this error to be raised.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.InvalidModificationErr

     Raised when an attempt is made to modify the type of a node.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.InvalidStateErr

     Raised when an attempt is made to use an object that is not defined
     or is no longer usable.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.NamespaceErr

     If an attempt is made to change any object in a way that is not
     permitted with regard to the Namespaces in XML(1) recommendation,
     this exception is raised.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.NotFoundErr

     Exception when a node does not exist in the referenced context.
     For example, ‘NamedNodeMap.removeNamedItem()’ will raise this if
     the node passed in does not exist in the map.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.NotSupportedErr

     Raised when the implementation does not support the requested type
     of object or operation.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.NoDataAllowedErr

     This is raised if data is specified for a node which does not
     support data.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.NoModificationAllowedErr

     Raised on attempts to modify an object where modifications are not
     allowed (such as for read-only nodes).

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.SyntaxErr

     Raised when an invalid or illegal string is specified.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.dom.WrongDocumentErr

     Raised when a node is inserted in a different document than it
     currently belongs to, and the implementation does not support
     migrating the node from one document to the other.

The exception codes defined in the DOM recommendation map to the
exceptions described above according to this table:

Constant                                   Exception
                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                           
‘DOMSTRING_SIZE_ERR’                       *note DomstringSizeErr: 3ff4.
                                           
                                           
‘HIERARCHY_REQUEST_ERR’                    *note HierarchyRequestErr: 3ff5.
                                           
                                           
‘INDEX_SIZE_ERR’                           *note IndexSizeErr: 3ff6.
                                           
                                           
‘INUSE_ATTRIBUTE_ERR’                      *note InuseAttributeErr: 3fde.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_ACCESS_ERR’                       *note InvalidAccessErr: 3ff7.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_CHARACTER_ERR’                    *note InvalidCharacterErr: 3ff8.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_MODIFICATION_ERR’                 *note InvalidModificationErr: 3ff9.
                                           
                                           
‘INVALID_STATE_ERR’                        *note InvalidStateErr: 3ffa.
                                           
                                           
‘NAMESPACE_ERR’                            *note NamespaceErr: 3ffb.
                                           
                                           
‘NOT_FOUND_ERR’                            *note NotFoundErr: 3fd9.
                                           
                                           
‘NOT_SUPPORTED_ERR’                        *note NotSupportedErr: 3ffc.
                                           
                                           
‘NO_DATA_ALLOWED_ERR’                      *note NoDataAllowedErr: 3ffd.
                                           
                                           
‘NO_MODIFICATION_ALLOWED_ERR’              *note NoModificationAllowedErr: 3ffe.
                                           
                                           
‘SYNTAX_ERR’                               *note SyntaxErr: 3fff.
                                           
                                           
‘WRONG_DOCUMENT_ERR’                       *note WrongDocumentErr: 4000.
                                           

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/


File: python.info,  Node: Conformance,  Prev: Objects in the DOM,  Up: xml dom — The Document Object Model API

5.22.6.15 Conformance
.....................

This section describes the conformance requirements and relationships
between the Python DOM API, the W3C DOM recommendations, and the OMG IDL
mapping for Python.

* Menu:

* Type Mapping::
* Accessor Methods::


File: python.info,  Node: Type Mapping,  Next: Accessor Methods,  Up: Conformance

5.22.6.16 Type Mapping
......................

The IDL types used in the DOM specification are mapped to Python types
according to the following table.

IDL Type               Python Type
                       
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘boolean’              ‘bool’ or ‘int’
                       
                       
‘int’                  ‘int’
                       
                       
‘long int’             ‘int’
                       
                       
‘unsigned int’         ‘int’
                       
                       
‘DOMString’            ‘str’ or ‘bytes’
                       
                       
‘null’                 ‘None’
                       


File: python.info,  Node: Accessor Methods,  Prev: Type Mapping,  Up: Conformance

5.22.6.17 Accessor Methods
..........................

The mapping from OMG IDL to Python defines accessor functions for IDL
‘attribute’ declarations in much the way the Java mapping does.  Mapping
the IDL declarations

     readonly attribute string someValue;
              attribute string anotherValue;

yields three accessor functions: a «get» method for ‘someValue’
(‘_get_someValue()’), and «get» and «set» methods for ‘anotherValue’
(‘_get_anotherValue()’ and ‘_set_anotherValue()’).  The mapping, in
particular, does not require that the IDL attributes are accessible as
normal Python attributes: ‘object.someValue’ is 'not' required to work,
and may raise an *note AttributeError: 1a9.

The Python DOM API, however, 'does' require that normal attribute access
work.  This means that the typical surrogates generated by Python IDL
compilers are not likely to work, and wrapper objects may be needed on
the client if the DOM objects are accessed via CORBA. While this does
require some additional consideration for CORBA DOM clients, the
implementers with experience using DOM over CORBA from Python do not
consider this a problem.  Attributes that are declared ‘readonly’ may
not restrict write access in all DOM implementations.

In the Python DOM API, accessor functions are not required.  If
provided, they should take the form defined by the Python IDL mapping,
but these methods are considered unnecessary since the attributes are
accessible directly from Python.  «Set» accessors should never be
provided for ‘readonly’ attributes.

The IDL definitions do not fully embody the requirements of the W3C DOM
API, such as the notion of certain objects, such as the return value of
‘getElementsByTagName()’, being «live».  The Python DOM API does not
require implementations to enforce such requirements.


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation,  Next: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees,  Prev: xml dom — The Document Object Model API,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.22.7 ‘xml.dom.minidom’ — Minimal DOM implementation
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘xml.dom.minidom’ is a minimal implementation of the Document Object
Model interface, with an API similar to that in other languages.  It is
intended to be simpler than the full DOM and also significantly smaller.
Users who are not already proficient with the DOM should consider using
the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. module for their XML processing
instead.

     Σημείωση: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data,
     see *note XML security: 3f34.

DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM. With
‘xml.dom.minidom’, this is done through the parse functions:

     from xml.dom.minidom import parse, parseString

     dom1 = parse('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')  # parse an XML file by name

     datasource = open('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml')
     dom2 = parse(datasource)  # parse an open file

     dom3 = parseString('<myxml>Some data<empty/> some more data</myxml>')

The *note parse(): 4009. function can take either a filename or an open
file object.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.dom.minidom.parse (filename_or_file, parser=None,
          bufsize=None)

     Return a ‘Document’ from the given input.  'filename_or_file' may
     be either a file name, or a file-like object.  'parser', if given,
     must be a SAX2 parser object.  This function will change the
     document handler of the parser and activate namespace support;
     other parser configuration (like setting an entity resolver) must
     have been done in advance.

If you have XML in a string, you can use the *note parseString(): 400a.
function instead:

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.dom.minidom.parseString (string, parser=None)

     Return a ‘Document’ that represents the 'string'.  This method
     creates an *note io.StringIO: 12d4. object for the string and
     passes that on to *note parse(): 4009.

Both functions return a ‘Document’ object representing the content of
the document.

What the *note parse(): 4009. and *note parseString(): 400a. functions
do is connect an XML parser with a «DOM builder» that can accept parse
events from any SAX parser and convert them into a DOM tree.  The names
of the functions are perhaps misleading, but are easy to grasp when
learning the interfaces.  The parsing of the document will be completed
before these functions return; it’s simply that these functions do not
provide a parser implementation themselves.

You can also create a ‘Document’ by calling a method on a «DOM
Implementation» object.  You can get this object either by calling the
‘getDOMImplementation()’ function in the *note xml.dom: 12a. package or
the ‘xml.dom.minidom’ module.  Once you have a ‘Document’, you can add
child nodes to it to populate the DOM:

     from xml.dom.minidom import getDOMImplementation

     impl = getDOMImplementation()

     newdoc = impl.createDocument(None, "some_tag", None)
     top_element = newdoc.documentElement
     text = newdoc.createTextNode('Some textual content.')
     top_element.appendChild(text)

Once you have a DOM document object, you can access the parts of your
XML document through its properties and methods.  These properties are
defined in the DOM specification.  The main property of the document
object is the ‘documentElement’ property.  It gives you the main element
in the XML document: the one that holds all others.  Here is an example
program:

     dom3 = parseString("<myxml>Some data</myxml>")
     assert dom3.documentElement.tagName == "myxml"

When you are finished with a DOM tree, you may optionally call the
‘unlink()’ method to encourage early cleanup of the now-unneeded
objects.  ‘unlink()’ is an ‘xml.dom.minidom’-specific extension to the
DOM API that renders the node and its descendants essentially useless.
Otherwise, Python’s garbage collector will eventually take care of the
objects in the tree.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification(2)

     The W3C recommendation for the DOM supported by ‘xml.dom.minidom’.

* Menu:

* DOM Objects::
* DOM Example::
* minidom and the DOM standard::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py

   (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/


File: python.info,  Node: DOM Objects,  Next: DOM Example,  Up: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation

5.22.7.1 DOM Objects
....................

The definition of the DOM API for Python is given as part of the *note
xml.dom: 12a. module documentation.  This section lists the differences
between the API and ‘xml.dom.minidom’.

 -- Μέθοδος: Node.unlink ()

     Break internal references within the DOM so that it will be garbage
     collected on versions of Python without cyclic GC. Even when cyclic
     GC is available, using this can make large amounts of memory
     available sooner, so calling this on DOM objects as soon as they
     are no longer needed is good practice.  This only needs to be
     called on the ‘Document’ object, but may be called on child nodes
     to discard children of that node.

     You can avoid calling this method explicitly by using the *note
     with: 20a. statement.  The following code will automatically unlink
     'dom' when the ‘with’ block is exited:

          with xml.dom.minidom.parse(datasource) as dom:
              ... # Work with dom.

 -- Μέθοδος: Node.writexml (writer, indent='', addindent='', newl='',
          encoding=None, standalone=None)

     Write XML to the writer object.  The writer receives texts but not
     bytes as input, it should have a ‘write()’ method which matches
     that of the file object interface.  The 'indent' parameter is the
     indentation of the current node.  The 'addindent' parameter is the
     incremental indentation to use for subnodes of the current one.
     The 'newl' parameter specifies the string to use to terminate
     newlines.

     For the ‘Document’ node, an additional keyword argument 'encoding'
     can be used to specify the encoding field of the XML header.

     Similarly, explicitly stating the 'standalone' argument causes the
     standalone document declarations to be added to the prologue of the
     XML document.  If the value is set to ‘True’, ‘standalone="yes"’ is
     added, otherwise it is set to ‘"no"’.  Not stating the argument
     will omit the declaration from the document.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘writexml()’ method now preserves the
     attribute order specified by the user.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The 'standalone' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Node.toxml (encoding=None, standalone=None)

     Return a string or byte string containing the XML represented by
     the DOM node.

     With an explicit 'encoding' (1) argument, the result is a byte
     string in the specified encoding.  With no 'encoding' argument, the
     result is a Unicode string, and the XML declaration in the
     resulting string does not specify an encoding.  Encoding this
     string in an encoding other than UTF-8 is likely incorrect, since
     UTF-8 is the default encoding of XML.

     The 'standalone' argument behaves exactly as in *note writexml():
     e58.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘toxml()’ method now preserves the
     attribute order specified by the user.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The 'standalone' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: Node.toprettyxml (indent='\t', newl='\n', encoding=None,
          standalone=None)

     Return a pretty-printed version of the document.  'indent'
     specifies the indentation string and defaults to a tabulator;
     'newl' specifies the string emitted at the end of each line and
     defaults to ‘\n’.

     The 'encoding' argument behaves like the corresponding argument of
     *note toxml(): e59.

     The 'standalone' argument behaves exactly as in *note writexml():
     e58.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘toprettyxml()’ method now preserves
     the attribute order specified by the user.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The 'standalone' parameter was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The encoding name included in the XML output should conform to
the appropriate standards.  For example, «UTF-8» is valid, but «UTF8» is
not valid in an XML document’s declaration, even though Python accepts
it as an encoding name.  See
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.


File: python.info,  Node: DOM Example,  Next: minidom and the DOM standard,  Prev: DOM Objects,  Up: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation

5.22.7.2 DOM Example
....................

This example program is a fairly realistic example of a simple program.
In this particular case, we do not take much advantage of the
flexibility of the DOM.

     import xml.dom.minidom

     document = """\
     <slideshow>
     <title>Demo slideshow</title>
     <slide><title>Slide title</title>
     <point>This is a demo</point>
     <point>Of a program for processing slides</point>
     </slide>

     <slide><title>Another demo slide</title>
     <point>It is important</point>
     <point>To have more than</point>
     <point>one slide</point>
     </slide>
     </slideshow>
     """

     dom = xml.dom.minidom.parseString(document)

     def getText(nodelist):
         rc = []
         for node in nodelist:
             if node.nodeType == node.TEXT_NODE:
                 rc.append(node.data)
         return ''.join(rc)

     def handleSlideshow(slideshow):
         print("<html>")
         handleSlideshowTitle(slideshow.getElementsByTagName("title")[0])
         slides = slideshow.getElementsByTagName("slide")
         handleToc(slides)
         handleSlides(slides)
         print("</html>")

     def handleSlides(slides):
         for slide in slides:
             handleSlide(slide)

     def handleSlide(slide):
         handleSlideTitle(slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0])
         handlePoints(slide.getElementsByTagName("point"))

     def handleSlideshowTitle(title):
         print(f"<title>{getText(title.childNodes)}</title>")

     def handleSlideTitle(title):
         print(f"<h2>{getText(title.childNodes)}</h2>")

     def handlePoints(points):
         print("<ul>")
         for point in points:
             handlePoint(point)
         print("</ul>")

     def handlePoint(point):
         print(f"<li>{getText(point.childNodes)}</li>")

     def handleToc(slides):
         for slide in slides:
             title = slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0]
             print(f"<p>{getText(title.childNodes)}</p>")

     handleSlideshow(dom)


File: python.info,  Node: minidom and the DOM standard,  Prev: DOM Example,  Up: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation

5.22.7.3 minidom and the DOM standard
.....................................

The ‘xml.dom.minidom’ module is essentially a DOM 1.0-compatible DOM
with some DOM 2 features (primarily namespace features).

Usage of the DOM interface in Python is straight-forward.  The following
mapping rules apply:

   * Interfaces are accessed through instance objects.  Applications
     should not instantiate the classes themselves; they should use the
     creator functions available on the ‘Document’ object.  Derived
     interfaces support all operations (and attributes) from the base
     interfaces, plus any new operations.

   * Operations are used as methods.  Since the DOM uses only *note in:
     323. parameters, the arguments are passed in normal order (from
     left to right).  There are no optional arguments.  ‘void’
     operations return ‘None’.

   * IDL attributes map to instance attributes.  For compatibility with
     the OMG IDL language mapping for Python, an attribute ‘foo’ can
     also be accessed through accessor methods ‘_get_foo()’ and
     ‘_set_foo()’.  ‘readonly’ attributes must not be changed; this is
     not enforced at runtime.

   * The types ‘short int’, ‘unsigned int’, ‘unsigned long long’, and
     ‘boolean’ all map to Python integer objects.

   * The type ‘DOMString’ maps to Python strings.  ‘xml.dom.minidom’
     supports either bytes or strings, but will normally produce
     strings.  Values of type ‘DOMString’ may also be ‘None’ where
     allowed to have the IDL ‘null’ value by the DOM specification from
     the W3C.

   * ‘const’ declarations map to variables in their respective scope
     (e.g.  ‘xml.dom.minidom.Node.PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE’); they
     must not be changed.

   * ‘DOMException’ is currently not supported in ‘xml.dom.minidom’.
     Instead, ‘xml.dom.minidom’ uses standard Python exceptions such as
     *note TypeError: 291. and *note AttributeError: 1a9.

   * ‘NodeList’ objects are implemented using Python’s built-in list
     type.  These objects provide the interface defined in the DOM
     specification, but with earlier versions of Python they do not
     support the official API. They are, however, much more «Pythonic»
     than the interface defined in the W3C recommendations.

The following interfaces have no implementation in ‘xml.dom.minidom’:

   * ‘DOMTimeStamp’

   * ‘EntityReference’

Most of these reflect information in the XML document that is not of
general utility to most DOM users.


File: python.info,  Node: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees,  Next: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers,  Prev: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.22.8 ‘xml.dom.pulldom’ — Support for building partial DOM trees
-----------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘xml.dom.pulldom’ module provides a «pull parser» which can also be
asked to produce DOM-accessible fragments of the document where
necessary.  The basic concept involves pulling «events» from a stream of
incoming XML and processing them.  In contrast to SAX which also employs
an event-driven processing model together with callbacks, the user of a
pull parser is responsible for explicitly pulling events from the
stream, looping over those events until either processing is finished or
an error condition occurs.

     Σημείωση: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data,
     see *note XML security: 3f34.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7.1: The SAX parser no longer processes general
external entities by default to increase security by default.  To enable
processing of external entities, pass a custom parser instance in:

     from xml.dom.pulldom import parse
     from xml.sax import make_parser
     from xml.sax.handler import feature_external_ges

     parser = make_parser()
     parser.setFeature(feature_external_ges, True)
     parse(filename, parser=parser)

Example:

     from xml.dom import pulldom

     doc = pulldom.parse('sales_items.xml')
     for event, node in doc:
         if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'item':
             if int(node.getAttribute('price')) > 50:
                 doc.expandNode(node)
                 print(node.toxml())

‘event’ is a constant and can be one of:

   * ‘START_ELEMENT’

   * ‘END_ELEMENT’

   * ‘COMMENT’

   * ‘START_DOCUMENT’

   * ‘END_DOCUMENT’

   * ‘CHARACTERS’

   * ‘PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION’

   * ‘IGNORABLE_WHITESPACE’

‘node’ is an object of type ‘xml.dom.minidom.Document’,
‘xml.dom.minidom.Element’ or ‘xml.dom.minidom.Text’.

Since the document is treated as a «flat» stream of events, the document
«tree» is implicitly traversed and the desired elements are found
regardless of their depth in the tree.  In other words, one does not
need to consider hierarchical issues such as recursive searching of the
document nodes, although if the context of elements were important, one
would either need to maintain some context-related state (i.e.
remembering where one is in the document at any given point) or to make
use of the *note DOMEventStream.expandNode(): 4015. method and switch to
DOM-related processing.

 -- Κλάση: xml.dom.pulldom.PullDOM (documentFactory=None)

     Subclass of *note xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler: 4017.

 -- Κλάση: xml.dom.pulldom.SAX2DOM (documentFactory=None)

     Subclass of *note xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler: 4017.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.dom.pulldom.parse (stream_or_string, parser=None,
          bufsize=None)

     Return a *note DOMEventStream: b1c. from the given input.
     'stream_or_string' may be either a file name, or a file-like
     object.  'parser', if given, must be an *note XMLReader: 401a.
     object.  This function will change the document handler of the
     parser and activate namespace support; other parser configuration
     (like setting an entity resolver) must have been done in advance.

If you have XML in a string, you can use the *note parseString(): 401b.
function instead:

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.dom.pulldom.parseString (string, parser=None)

     Return a *note DOMEventStream: b1c. that represents the (Unicode)
     'string'.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.dom.pulldom.default_bufsize

     Default value for the 'bufsize' parameter to *note parse(): 4019.

     The value of this variable can be changed before calling *note
     parse(): 4019. and the new value will take effect.

* Menu:

* DOMEventStream Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py


File: python.info,  Node: DOMEventStream Objects,  Up: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees

5.22.8.1 DOMEventStream Objects
...............................

 -- Κλάση: xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream (stream, parser, bufsize)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Support for *note __getitem__(): 787.
     method has been removed.

      -- Μέθοδος: getEvent ()

          Return a tuple containing 'event' and the current 'node' as
          ‘xml.dom.minidom.Document’ if event equals ‘START_DOCUMENT’,
          ‘xml.dom.minidom.Element’ if event equals ‘START_ELEMENT’ or
          ‘END_ELEMENT’ or ‘xml.dom.minidom.Text’ if event equals
          ‘CHARACTERS’.  The current node does not contain information
          about its children, unless *note expandNode(): 4015. is
          called.

      -- Μέθοδος: expandNode (node)

          Expands all children of 'node' into 'node'.  Example:

               from xml.dom import pulldom

               xml = '<html><title>Foo</title> <p>Some text <div>and more</div></p> </html>'
               doc = pulldom.parseString(xml)
               for event, node in doc:
                   if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'p':
                       # Following statement only prints '<p/>'
                       print(node.toxml())
                       doc.expandNode(node)
                       # Following statement prints node with all its children '<p>Some text <div>and more</div></p>'
                       print(node.toxml())

      -- Μέθοδος: reset ()


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers,  Next: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX,  Prev: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.22.9 ‘xml.sax’ — Support for SAX2 parsers
-------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘xml.sax’ package provides a number of modules which implement the
Simple API for XML (SAX) interface for Python.  The package itself
provides the SAX exceptions and the convenience functions which will be
most used by users of the SAX API.

     Σημείωση: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data,
     see *note XML security: 3f34.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7.1: The SAX parser no longer processes general
external entities by default to increase security.  Before, the parser
created network connections to fetch remote files or loaded local files
from the file system for DTD and entities.  The feature can be enabled
again with method *note setFeature(): 4024. on the parser object and
argument *note feature_external_ges: 19b7.

The convenience functions are:

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.sax.make_parser (parser_list=[])

     Create and return a SAX *note XMLReader: 401a. object.  The first
     parser found will be used.  If 'parser_list' is provided, it must
     be an iterable of strings which name modules that have a function
     named ‘create_parser()’.  Modules listed in 'parser_list' will be
     used before modules in the default list of parsers.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'parser_list' argument can be any
     iterable, not just a list.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.sax.parse (filename_or_stream, handler,
          error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())

     Create a SAX parser and use it to parse a document.  The document,
     passed in as 'filename_or_stream', can be a filename or a file
     object.  The 'handler' parameter needs to be a SAX *note
     ContentHandler: 4017. instance.  If 'error_handler' is given, it
     must be a SAX *note ErrorHandler: 4025. instance; if omitted, *note
     SAXParseException: 4026. will be raised on all errors.  There is no
     return value; all work must be done by the 'handler' passed in.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.sax.parseString (string, handler,
          error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler())

     Similar to *note parse(): 1fd5, but parses from a buffer 'string'
     received as a parameter.  'string' must be a *note str: 1df.
     instance or a *note bytes-like object: 436.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support of *note str: 1df. instances.

A typical SAX application uses three kinds of objects: readers, handlers
and input sources.  «Reader» in this context is another term for parser,
i.e.  some piece of code that reads the bytes or characters from the
input source, and produces a sequence of events.  The events then get
distributed to the handler objects, i.e.  the reader invokes a method on
the handler.  A SAX application must therefore obtain a reader object,
create or open the input sources, create the handlers, and connect these
objects all together.  As the final step of preparation, the reader is
called to parse the input.  During parsing, methods on the handler
objects are called based on structural and syntactic events from the
input data.

For these objects, only the interfaces are relevant; they are normally
not instantiated by the application itself.  Since Python does not have
an explicit notion of interface, they are formally introduced as
classes, but applications may use implementations which do not inherit
from the provided classes.  The *note InputSource: 124c, *note Locator:
4027, ‘Attributes’, ‘AttributesNS’, and *note XMLReader: 401a.
interfaces are defined in the module *note xml.sax.xmlreader: 135.  The
handler interfaces are defined in *note xml.sax.handler: 133.  For
convenience, ‘InputSource’ (which is often instantiated directly) and
the handler classes are also available from ‘xml.sax’.  These interfaces
are described below.

In addition to these classes, ‘xml.sax’ provides the following exception
classes.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.sax.SAXException (msg, exception=None)

     Encapsulate an XML error or warning.  This class can contain basic
     error or warning information from either the XML parser or the
     application: it can be subclassed to provide additional
     functionality or to add localization.  Note that although the
     handlers defined in the *note ErrorHandler: 4025. interface receive
     instances of this exception, it is not required to actually raise
     the exception — it is also useful as a container for information.

     When instantiated, 'msg' should be a human-readable description of
     the error.  The optional 'exception' parameter, if given, should be
     ‘None’ or an exception that was caught by the parsing code and is
     being passed along as information.

     This is the base class for the other SAX exception classes.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.sax.SAXParseException (msg, exception, locator)

     Subclass of *note SAXException: 4028. raised on parse errors.
     Instances of this class are passed to the methods of the SAX *note
     ErrorHandler: 4025. interface to provide information about the
     parse error.  This class supports the SAX *note Locator: 4027.
     interface as well as the *note SAXException: 4028. interface.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.sax.SAXNotRecognizedException (msg, exception=None)

     Subclass of *note SAXException: 4028. raised when a SAX *note
     XMLReader: 401a. is confronted with an unrecognized feature or
     property.  SAX applications and extensions may use this class for
     similar purposes.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.sax.SAXNotSupportedException (msg, exception=None)

     Subclass of *note SAXException: 4028. raised when a SAX *note
     XMLReader: 401a. is asked to enable a feature that is not
     supported, or to set a property to a value that the implementation
     does not support.  SAX applications and extensions may use this
     class for similar purposes.

Δείτε επίσης
............

SAX: The Simple API for XML(2)

     This site is the focal point for the definition of the SAX API. It
     provides a Java implementation and online documentation.  Links to
     implementations and historical information are also available.

Module *note xml.sax.handler: 133.

     Definitions of the interfaces for application-provided objects.

Module *note xml.sax.saxutils: 134.

     Convenience functions for use in SAX applications.

Module *note xml.sax.xmlreader: 135.

     Definitions of the interfaces for parser-provided objects.

* Menu:

* SAXException Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py

   (2) http://www.saxproject.org/


File: python.info,  Node: SAXException Objects,  Up: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers

5.22.9.1 SAXException Objects
.............................

The *note SAXException: 4028. exception class supports the following
methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: SAXException.getMessage ()

     Return a human-readable message describing the error condition.

 -- Μέθοδος: SAXException.getException ()

     Return an encapsulated exception object, or ‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX,  Next: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities,  Prev: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.22.10 ‘xml.sax.handler’ — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX
-------------------------------------------------------------

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/xml/sax/handler.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The SAX API defines five kinds of handlers: content handlers, DTD
handlers, error handlers, entity resolvers and lexical handlers.
Applications normally only need to implement those interfaces whose
events they are interested in; they can implement the interfaces in a
single object or in multiple objects.  Handler implementations should
inherit from the base classes provided in the module ‘xml.sax.handler’,
so that all methods get default implementations.

 -- Κλάση: xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler

     Αυτή είναι η κύρια διεπαφή callback στο SAX και η πιο σημαντική για
     τις εφαρμογές.  Η σειρά των γεγονότων σε αυτή τη διεπαφή
     αντικατοπτρίζει τη σειρά των πληροφοριών στο έγγραφο.

 -- Κλάση: xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler

     Χειρισμός DTD γεγονότων.

     Αυτή η διεπαφή καθορίζει μόνο τα γεγονότα DTD που απαιτούνται για
     βασική ανάλυση (μη αναλυμένες οντότητες και ιδιότητες).

 -- Κλάση: xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver

     Βασική διεπαφή για την επίλυση οντοτήτων.  Εάν δημιουργήσετε ένα
     αντικείμενο που υλοποιεί αυτή τη διεπαφή, τότε θα πρέπει να το
     καταχωρήσετε στον αναλυτή σας, o αναλυτής θα καλέσει τη μέθοδο στο
     αντικείμενό σας για να επιλύσει όλες τις εξωτερικές οντότητες.

 -- Κλάση: xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler

     Διεπαφή που χρησιμοποιείται από τον αναλυτή για να παρουσιάσει
     μηνύματα σφάλματος και προειδοποιήσεων στην εφαρμογή.  Οι μέθοδοι
     αυτού του αντικειμένου ελέγχουν αν τα σφάλματα μετατρέπονται άμεσα
     σε εξαιρέσεις ή αντιμετωπίζονται με κάποιο άλλο τρόπο.

 -- Κλάση: xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler

     Διεπαφή που χρησιμοποιείται από τον αναλυτή για να παρουσιάσει
     γεγονότα χαμηλής συχνότητας που μπορεί να μην ενδιαφέρουν πολλές
     εφαρμογές.

In addition to these classes, ‘xml.sax.handler’ provides symbolic
constants for the feature and property names.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.sax.handler.feature_namespaces

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespaces"’
          true: Εκτέλεση επεξεργασίας ονομάτων χώρου.
          false: Προαιρετικά μη εκτέλεση επεξεργασίας ονομάτων χώρου (υπονοεί namespace-prefixes; προεπιλογή).
          access: (ανάλυση) μόνο για ανάγνωση; (μη ανάλυση) ανάγνωση/εγγραφή

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.sax.handler.feature_namespace_prefixes

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespace-prefixes"’
          true: Αναφορά των αρχικών ονομάτων με πρόθεμα και ιδιοτήτων που χρησιμοποιούνται για δηλώσεις ονομάτων χώρου.
          false: Μη αναφορά ιδιοτήτων που χρησιμοποιούνται για δηλώσεις ονομάτων χώρου, και προαιρετικά μη αναφορά αρχικών ονομάτων με πρόθεμα (προεπιλογή).
          access: (ανάλυση) μόνο για ανάγνωση; (μη ανάλυση) ανάγνωση/εγγραφή

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.sax.handler.feature_string_interning

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/string-interning"’
          true: Όλα τα ονόματα στοιχείων, πρόθεμα, ονόματα ιδιοτήτων, URIs ονομάτων χώρου και τοπικά ονόματα εσωτερικεύονται χρησιμοποιώντας την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση εσωτερικοποίησης (intern).
          false: Τα ονόματα δεν εσωτερικεύονται απαραίτητα, αν και μπορεί να είναι (προεπιλογή).
          access: (ανάλυση) μόνο για ανάγνωση; (μη ανάλυση) ανάγνωση/εγγραφή

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.sax.handler.feature_validation

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/validation"’
          true: Αναφορά όλων των σφαλμάτων επικύρωσης (υπονοεί external-general-entities και external-parameter-entities).
          false: Μη αναφορά σφαλμάτων επικύρωσης.
          access: (ανάλυση) μόνο για ανάγνωση; (μη ανάλυση) ανάγνωση/εγγραφή

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges

          Προειδοποίηση: Η ενεργοποίηση ανοίγει μια ευπάθεια σε
          επιθέσεις εξωτερικών οντοτήτων(2) εάν ο αναλυτής
          χρησιμοποιείται με περιεχόμενο XML που παρέχεται από τον
          χρήστη.  Παρακαλώ σκεφτείτε το μοντέλο απειλών σας(3) πριν
          ενεργοποιήσετε αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό.

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-general-entities"’
          true: Συμπερίληψη όλων των εξωτερικών γενικών (κείμενο) οντοτήτων.
          false: Μη συμπερίληψη εξωτερικών γενικών οντοτήτων.
          access: (ανάλυση) μόνο για ανάγνωση; (μη ανάλυση) ανάγνωση/εγγραφή

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.sax.handler.feature_external_pes

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-parameter-entities"’
          true: Συμπερίληψη όλων των εξωτερικών παραμέτρων οντοτήτων, συμπεριλαμβανομένου του εξωτερικού υποσυνόλου DTD.
          false: Μη συμπερίληψη εξωτερικών παραμέτρων οντοτήτων, ακόμη και του εξωτερικού υποσυνόλου DTD.
          access: (ανάλυση) μόνο για ανάγνωση; (μη ανάλυση) ανάγνωση/εγγραφή

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.sax.handler.all_features

     Λίστα όλων των χαρακτηριστικών.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.sax.handler.property_lexical_handler

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler"’
          data type: xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler (δεν υποστηρίζεται στην Python 2)
          description: Ένας προαιρετικός χειριστής επέκτασης για λεξικά συμβάντα όπως τα σχόλια.
          access: read/write

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.sax.handler.property_declaration_handler

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/declaration-handler"’
          data type: xml.sax.sax2lib.DeclHandler (δεν υποστηρίζεται στην Python 2)
          description: Ένας προαιρετικός χειριστής επέκτασης για γεγονότα που σχετίζονται με το DTD εκτός από τις δηλώσεις και τις μη αναλυμένες οντότητες.
          access: read/write

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.sax.handler.property_dom_node

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/dom-node"’
          data type: org.w3c.dom.Node (δεν υποστηρίζεται στην Python 2)
          description: Κατά την ανάλυση, ο τρέχων DOM κόμβος που επισκέπτεται εάν αυτός είναι ένας επαναληπτικός DOM κόμβος∙ όταν δεν αναλύεται, ο ριζικός DOM κόμβος για την επανάληψη.
          access: (ανάλυση) μόνο για ανάγνωση; (μη ανάλυση) ανάγνωση/εγγραφή

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.sax.handler.property_xml_string

          value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/xml-string"’
          data type: Bytes
          description: Η κυριολεκτική συμβολοσειρά χαρακτήρων που ήταν η πηγή για το τρέχον γεγονός.
          access: μόνο για ανάγνωση

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.sax.handler.all_properties

     Λίστα όλων των γνωστών ονομάτων ιδιοτήτων.

* Menu:

* ContentHandler Αντικείμενα::
* DTDHandler Αντικείμενα::
* EntityResolver Αντικείμενα::
* ErrorHandler Αντικείμενα::
* LexicalHandler Αντικείμενα::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/xml/sax/handler.py

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_external_entity_attack

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat_model


File: python.info,  Node: ContentHandler Αντικείμενα,  Next: DTDHandler Αντικείμενα,  Up: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX

5.22.10.1 ContentHandler Αντικείμενα
....................................

Οι χρήστες αναμένεται να δημιουργήσουν υποκλάση *note ContentHandler:
4017. για να υποστηρίξουν την εφαρμογή τους.  Οι ακόλουθες μέθοδοι
καλούνται από τον αναλυτή στα κατάλληλα γεγονότα στο έγγραφο εισόδου:

 -- Μέθοδος: ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator (locator)

     Καλείται από τον αναλυτή για να δώσει στην εφαρμογή έναν εντοπιστή
     για τον εντοπισμό της προέλευσης των γεγονότων του εγγράφου.

     Οι αναλυτές SAX ενθαρρύνονται έντονα (αν και δεν απαιτείται
     απολύτως) να παρέχουν έναν εντοπιστή: εάν το κάνουν, πρέπει να
     παρέχουν τον εντοπιστή στην εφαρμογή καλώντας αυτή τη μέθοδο πριν
     από την κλήση οποιωνδήποτε άλλων μεθόδων στη διεπαφή
     DocumentHandler.

     Ο εντοπιστής επιτρέπει στην εφαρμογή να προσδιορίσει τη θέση τέλους
     οποιουδήποτε γεγονότος που σχετίζεται με το έγγραφο, ακόμη και αν ο
     αναλυτής δεν αναφέρει σφάλμα.  Συνήθως, η εφαρμογή θα
     χρησιμοποιήσει αυτές τις πληροφορίες για την αναφορά των δικών της
     σφαλμάτων (όπως περιεχόμενο χαρακτήρων που δεν αντιστοιχεί στους
     επιχειρηματικούς κανόνες της εφαρμογής).  Οι πληροφορίες που
     επιστρέφονται από τον εντοπιστή πιθανώς δεν είναι αρκετές για χρήση
     με μια μηχανή αναζήτησης.

     Σημειώστε ότι ο εντοπιστής θα επιστρέψει σωστές πληροφορίες μόνο
     κατά την κλήση των γεγονότων σε αυτή τη διεπαφή.  Η εφαρμογή δεν θα
     πρέπει να προσπαθήσει να τον χρησιμοποιήσει σε οποιαδήποτε άλλη
     στιγμή.

 -- Μέθοδος: ContentHandler.startDocument ()

     Λήψη ειδοποίησης για την αρχή ενός εγγράφου.

     Ο αναλυτής SAX θα καλέσει αυτή τη μέθοδο μόνο μία φορά, πριν από
     οποιαδήποτε άλλη μέθοδο σε αυτή τη διεπαφή ή σε DTDHandler (εκτός
     από *note setDocumentLocator(): 4041.).

 -- Μέθοδος: ContentHandler.endDocument ()

     Λήψη ειδοποίησης για το τέλος ενός εγγράφου.

     Ο αναλυτής SAX θα καλέσει αυτή τη μέθοδο μόνο μία φορά, και θα
     είναι η τελευταία μέθοδος που θα κληθεί κατά τη διάρκεια της
     ανάλυσης.  Ο αναλυτής δεν θα καλέσει αυτή τη μέθοδο μέχρι να
     εγκαταλείψει την ανάλυση (εξαιτίας ενός μη ανακτήσιμου σφάλματος) ή
     να φτάσει στο τέλος της εισόδου.

 -- Μέθοδος: ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping (prefix, uri)

     Αρχή της έκτασης ενός προθέματος-URI χαρτογράφησης ονόματος χώρου.

     Οι πληροφορίες από αυτό το γεγονός δεν είναι απαραίτητες για την
     κανονική επεξεργασία ονομάτων χώρου: ο αναγνώστης SAX XML θα
     αντικαταστήσει αυτόματα τα προθέματα για τα ονόματα στοιχείων και
     ιδιοτήτων όταν είναι ενεργοποιημένο το χαρακτηριστικό
     ‘feature_namespaces’ (η προεπιλογή).

     Υπάρχουν, ωστόσο, περιπτώσεις όπου οι εφαρμογές χρειάζεται να
     χρησιμοποιούν προθέματα σε δεδομένα χαρακτήρων ή σε τιμές
     ιδιοτήτων, όπου δεν μπορούν να επεκταθούν αυτόματα με ασφάλεια.  Τα
     γεγονότα *note startPrefixMapping(): 4044. και *note
     endPrefixMapping(): 4045. παρέχουν στις εφαρμογές τις πληροφορίες
     για να επεκτείνουν τα προθέματα σε αυτά τα συμφραζόμενα, εάν είναι
     απαραίτητο.

     Σημειώστε ότι τα γεγονότα *note startPrefixMapping(): 4044. και
     *note endPrefixMapping(): 4045. δεν εγγυώνται ότι θα είναι σωστά
     εγκατεστημένα σε σχέση με το ένα το άλλο: όλα τα γεγονότα
     ‘startPrefixMapping()’ θα συμβούν πριν από το αντίστοιχο *note
     startElement(): 18e5. γεγονός, και όλα τα γεγονότα
     ‘endPrefixMapping()’ θα συμβούν μετά το αντίστοιχο *note
     endElement(): 18e6. γεγονός, αλλά η σειρά τους δεν είναι εγγυημένη.

 -- Μέθοδος: ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping (prefix)

     Τέλος της έκτασης μιας χαρτογράφησης προθέματος-URI.

     Δείτε *note startPrefixMapping(): 4044. για λεπτομέρειες.  Αυτό το
     γεγονός θα συμβεί πάντα μετά το αντίστοιχο γεγονός *note
     endElement(): 18e6, αλλά η σειρά των γεγονότων *note
     endPrefixMapping(): 4045. δεν είναι εγγυημένη.

 -- Μέθοδος: ContentHandler.startElement (name, attrs)

     Σηματοδοτεί την αρχή ενός στοιχείου σε λειτουργία χωρίς ονόματα
     χώρου.

     Η παράμετρος 'name' περιέχει το ακατέργαστο όνομα XML 1.0 του τύπου
     στοιχείου ως συμβολοσειρά και η παράμετρος 'attrs' περιέχει ένα
     αντικείμενο της *note Attributes: 4046. διεπαφής που περιέχει τις
     ιδιότητες του στοιχείου.  Το αντικείμενο που περιέχεται στην
     παράμετρο 'attrs' μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ξανά από τον αναλυτή∙ η
     διατήρηση αναφοράς σε αυτό δεν είναι αξιόπιστος τρόπος για να
     διατηρήσετε αντίγραφο των ιδιοτήτων.  Για να διατηρήσετε ένα
     αντίγραφο των ιδιοτήτων, χρησιμοποιήστε τη μέθοδο *note copy(): 29.
     του αντικειμένου 'attrs'.

 -- Μέθοδος: ContentHandler.endElement (name)

     Σηματοδοτεί το τέλος ενός στοιχείου σε λειτουργία χωρίς ονόματα
     χώρου.

     Η παράμετρος 'name' περιέχει το όνομα του τύπου στοιχείου, όπως και
     με το *note startElement(): 18e5. γεγονός.

 -- Μέθοδος: ContentHandler.startElementNS (name, qname, attrs)

     Σηματοδοτεί την αρχή ενός στοιχείου σε λειτουργία ονομάτων χώρου.

     Η παράμετρος 'name' περιέχει το όνομα του τύπου στοιχείου ως ‘(uri,
     localname)’ πλειάδα, η παράμετρος 'qname' περιέχει το ακατέργαστο
     όνομα XML 1.0 που χρησιμοποιείται στο έγγραφο προέλευσης, και η
     παράμετρος 'attrs' περιέχει μια παρουσία της διεπαφής *note
     AttributesNS: 4048. που περιέχει τις ιδιότητες του στοιχείου.  Εάν
     δεν συσχετίζεται κανένα όνομα χώρου με το στοιχείο, το 'uri'
     συστατικό του 'name' θα είναι ‘None’.  Το αντικείμενο που
     περιέχεται στην παράμετρο 'attrs' μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ξανά από
     τον αναλυτή.  Η διατήρηση αναφοράς σε αυτό δεν είναι αξιόπιστος
     τρόπος για να διατηρήσετε αντίγραφο των ιδιοτήτων.  Για να
     διατηρήσετε ένα αντίγραφο των ιδιοτήτων, χρησιμοποιήστε τη μέθοδο
     *note copy(): 29. του αντικειμένου 'attrs'.

     Οι αναλυτές μπορούν να ορίσουν την παράμετρο 'qname' σε ‘None’,
     εκτός εάν είναι ενεργοποιημένο το χαρακτηριστικό
     ‘feature_namespace_prefixes’.

 -- Μέθοδος: ContentHandler.endElementNS (name, qname)

     Σηματοδοτεί το τέλος ενός στοιχείου σε λειτουργία ονομάτων χώρου.

     Η παράμετρος 'name' περιέχει το όνομα του τύπου στοιχείου, όπως και
     με τη *note startElementNS(): 4047. μέθοδο, όπως και η παράμετρος
     'qname'.

 -- Μέθοδος: ContentHandler.characters (content)

     Λήψη ειδοποίησης για δεδομένα χαρακτήρων.

     Ο Αναλυτής θα καλέσει αυτή τη μέθοδο για να αναφέρει κάθε κομμάτι
     δεδομένων χαρακτήρων.  Οι αναλυτές SAX μπορεί να επιστρέψουν όλα τα
     συνεχόμενα δεδομένα χαρακτήρων σε ένα μοναδικό κομμάτι, ή μπορεί να
     τα χωρίσουν σε αρκετά κομμάτια.  Ωστόσο, όλοι οι χαρακτήρες σε
     οποιοδήποτε μεμονωμένο γεγονός πρέπει να προέρχονται από την ίδια
     εξωτερική οντότητα, έτσι ώστε ο Εντοπιστής να παρέχει χρήσιμες
     πληροφορίες.

     Το 'content' μπορεί να είναι μια συμβολοσειρά ή ένα στιγμιότυπο
     bytes.  Το αναγνωστικό ‘expat’ παράγει πάντα συμβολοσειρές.

          Σημείωση: Η προηγούμενη διεπαφή SAX 1 που παρείχε η ομάδα
          ειδικού ενδιαφέροντος Python XML Group χρησιμοποιούσε μια
          διεπαφή που έμοιαζε περισσότερο με τη Java για αυτή τη μέθοδο.
          Δεδομένου ότι οι περισσότεροι αναλυτές που χρησιμοποιούνται
          από την Python δεν εκμεταλλεύονταν την παλαιότερη διεπαφή,
          επιλέχθηκε η απλούστερη υπογραφή για να την αντικαταστήσει.
          Για να μετατρέψετε τον παλιό κώδικα στη νέα διεπαφή,
          χρησιμοποιήστε 'content' αντί να τεμαχίζετε το περιεχόμενο με
          τις παλιές παραμέτρους 'offset' και 'length'.

 -- Μέθοδος: ContentHandler.ignorableWhitespace (whitespace)

     Λήψη ειδοποίησης για αγνοήσιμα κενά σε περιεχόμενο στοιχείου.

     Οι Επικυρωτικοί Αναλυτές πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούν αυτή τη μέθοδο για
     να αναφέρουν κάθε κομμάτι αγνοήσιμου κενού (βλ.  την W3C XML 1.0
     σύσταση, τμήμα 2.10): οι μη επικυρωτικοί αναλυτές μπορούν επίσης να
     χρησιμοποιούν αυτή τη μέθοδο εάν είναι ικανοί να αναλύουν και να
     χρησιμοποιούν μοντέλα περιεχομένου.

     Οι αναλυτές SAX μπορεί να επιστρέψουν όλα τα συνεχόμενα κενά σε ένα
     μοναδικό κομμάτι, ή μπορεί να τα χωρίσουν σε αρκετά κομμάτια.
     Ωστόσο, όλοι οι χαρακτήρες σε οποιοδήποτε μεμονωμένο γεγονός πρέπει
     να προέρχονται από την ίδια εξωτερική οντότητα, έτσι ώστε ο
     Εντοπιστής να παρέχει χρήσιμες πληροφορίες.

 -- Μέθοδος: ContentHandler.processingInstruction (target, data)

     Λήψη ειδοποίησης για μια οδηγία επεξεργασίας.

     Ο Αναλυτής θα καλέσει αυτή τη μέθοδο μία φορά για κάθε οδηγία
     επεξεργασίας που βρέθηκε: σημειώστε ότι οι οδηγίες επεξεργασίας
     μπορεί να εμφανίζονται πριν ή μετά το κύριο στοιχείο του εγγράφου.

     Ένας αναλυτής SAX δεν πρέπει ποτέ να αναφέρει μια δήλωση XML (XML
     1.0, τμήμα 2.8) ή μια δήλωση κειμένου (XML 1.0, τμήμα 4.3.1)
     χρησιμοποιώντας αυτή τη μέθοδο.

 -- Μέθοδος: ContentHandler.skippedEntity (name)

     Λήψη ειδοποίησης για μια παράλειψη οντότητας.

     Ο Αναλυτής θα καλέσει αυτή τη μέθοδο μία φορά για κάθε παράλειψη
     οντότητας.  Οι μη επικυρωτικοί επεξεργαστές μπορεί να παραλείψουν
     οντότητες εάν δεν έχουν δει τις δηλώσεις (για παράδειγμα, η
     οντότητα δηλώθηκε σε ένα εξωτερικό υποσύνολο DTD). Όλοι οι
     επεξεργαστές μπορεί να παραλείψουν εξωτερικές οντότητες, ανάλογα με
     τις τιμές των ιδιοτήτων ‘feature_external_ges’ και
     ‘feature_external_pes’.


File: python.info,  Node: DTDHandler Αντικείμενα,  Next: EntityResolver Αντικείμενα,  Prev: ContentHandler Αντικείμενα,  Up: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX

5.22.10.2 DTDHandler Αντικείμενα
................................

Τα *note DTDHandler: 4032. αντικείμενα παρέχουν τις ακόλουθες μεθόδους:

 -- Μέθοδος: DTDHandler.notationDecl (name, publicId, systemId)

     Χειρισμός ενός γεγονότος δήλωσης σημείωσης.

 -- Μέθοδος: DTDHandler.unparsedEntityDecl (name, publicId, systemId,
          ndata)

     Χειρισμός ενός γεγονότος δήλωσης μη αναλυμένης οντότητας.


File: python.info,  Node: EntityResolver Αντικείμενα,  Next: ErrorHandler Αντικείμενα,  Prev: DTDHandler Αντικείμενα,  Up: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX

5.22.10.3 EntityResolver Αντικείμενα
....................................

 -- Μέθοδος: EntityResolver.resolveEntity (publicId, systemId)

     Επιλύστε τον αναγνωριστικό συστήματος μιας οντότητας και επιστρέψτε
     είτε τον αναγνωριστικό συστήματος για ανάγνωση ως συμβολοσειρά,
     είτε μια InputSource για ανάγνωση.  Η προεπιλεγμένη υλοποίηση
     επιστρέφει το 'systemId'.


File: python.info,  Node: ErrorHandler Αντικείμενα,  Next: LexicalHandler Αντικείμενα,  Prev: EntityResolver Αντικείμενα,  Up: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX

5.22.10.4 ErrorHandler Αντικείμενα
..................................

Τα αντικείμενα με αυτή τη διεπαφή χρησιμοποιούνται για να λαμβάνουν
πληροφορίες σφάλματος και προειδοποίησης από το *note XMLReader: 401a.
Εάν δημιουργήσετε ένα αντικείμενο που υλοποιεί αυτή τη διεπαφή, τότε
εγγράψτε το αντικείμενο με το σας ‘XMLReader’, ο αναλυτής θα καλέσει τις
μεθόδους στο αντικείμενό σας για να αναφέρει όλες τις προειδοποιήσεις
και τα σφάλματα.  Υπάρχουν τρία επίπεδα σφαλμάτων διαθέσιμα:
προειδοποιήσεις, (πιθανώς) ανακτήσιμα σφάλματα και μη ανακτήσιμα
σφάλματα.  Όλες οι μέθοδοι δέχονται ένα *note SAXParseException: 4026.
ως τη μόνη παράμετρο.  Τα σφάλματα και οι προειδοποιήσεις μπορούν να
μετατραπούν σε εξαίρεση κάνοντας raise το αντικείμενο της εξαίρεσης που
περιέχεται.

 -- Μέθοδος: ErrorHandler.error (exception)

     Καλείται όταν ο αναλυτής συναντήσει ένα ανακτήσιμο σφάλμα.  Εάν
     αυτή η μέθοδος δεν κάνει raise μια εξαίρεση, η ανάλυση μπορεί να
     συνεχιστεί, αλλά δεν θα πρέπει να αναμένεται περαιτέρω πληροφορίες
     εγγράφου από την εφαρμογή.  Η επιτρεπόμενη συνέχιση του αναλυτή
     μπορεί να επιτρέψει την ανακάλυψη πρόσθετων σφαλμάτων στο έγγραφο
     εισόδου.

 -- Μέθοδος: ErrorHandler.fatalError (exception)

     Καλείται όταν ο αναλυτής συναντήσει ένα σφάλμα από το οποίο δεν
     μπορεί να ανακάμψει.  Η ανάλυση αναμένεται να τερματιστεί όταν αυτή
     η μέθοδος επιστρέψει.

 -- Μέθοδος: ErrorHandler.warning (exception)

     Καλείται όταν ο αναλυτής παρουσιάσει πληροφορίες προειδοποίησης
     στην εφαρμογή.  Η ανάλυση αναμένεται να συνεχιστεί όταν αυτή η
     μέθοδος επιστρέψει, και οι πληροφορίες του εγγράφου θα συνεχίσουν
     να περνούν στην εφαρμογή.  Κάνοντας raise μια εξαίρεση σε αυτή τη
     μέθοδο, θα οδηγήσει στον τερματισμό της ανάλυσης.


File: python.info,  Node: LexicalHandler Αντικείμενα,  Prev: ErrorHandler Αντικείμενα,  Up: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX

5.22.10.5 LexicalHandler Αντικείμενα
....................................

Προαιρετικός χειριστής SAX2 για λεξικά γεγονότα.

Αυτός ο χειριστής χρησιμοποιείται για την απόκτηση λεξικών πληροφοριών
σχετικά με ένα έγγραφο XML. Οι λεξικές πληροφορίες περιλαμβάνουν
πληροφορίες που περιγράφουν την κωδικοποίηση του εγγράφου που
χρησιμοποιείται και τα σχόλια XML που ενσωματώνονται στο έγγραφο, καθώς
και τα όρια τμημάτων για το DTD και για τυχόν τμήματα CDATA. Οι λεξικοί
χειριστές χρησιμοποιούνται με τον ίδιο τρόπο όπως οι χειριστές
περιεχομένου.

Ορίστε τον LexicalHandler ενός XMLReader χρησιμοποιώντας τη μέθοδο
setProperty με τον αναγνωριστικό ιδιότητας
‘'http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler'’.

 -- Μέθοδος: LexicalHandler.comment (content)

     Αναφέρει ένα σχόλιο οπουδήποτε στο έγγραφο (συμπεριλαμβανομένου του
     DTD και εκτός του στοιχείου εγγράφου).

 -- Μέθοδος: LexicalHandler.startDTD (name, public_id, system_id)

     Αναφέρει την αρχή των δηλώσεων DTD εάν το έγγραφο έχει συσχετισμένο
     DTD.

 -- Μέθοδος: LexicalHandler.endDTD ()

     Αναφέρει το τέλος της δήλωσης DTD.

 -- Μέθοδος: LexicalHandler.startCDATA ()

     Αναφέρει την αρχή ενός τμήματος σημειωμένου ως CDATA.

     Τα περιεχόμενα του τμήματος σημειωμένου ως CDATA θα αναφερθούν μέσω
     του χειριστή χαρακτήρων.

 -- Μέθοδος: LexicalHandler.endCDATA ()

     Αναφέρει το τέλος ενός τμήματος σημειωμένου ως CDATA.


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities,  Next: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers,  Prev: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.22.11 ‘xml.sax.saxutils’ — SAX Utilities
------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The module ‘xml.sax.saxutils’ contains a number of classes and functions
that are commonly useful when creating SAX applications, either in
direct use, or as base classes.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.sax.saxutils.escape (data, entities={})

     Escape ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’, and ‘'>'’ in a string of data.

     You can escape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as the
     optional 'entities' parameter.  The keys and values must all be
     strings; each key will be replaced with its corresponding value.
     The characters ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’ and ‘'>'’ are always escaped, even if
     'entities' is provided.

          Σημείωση: This function should only be used to escape
          characters that can’t be used directly in XML. Do not use this
          function as a general string translation function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.sax.saxutils.unescape (data, entities={})

     Unescape ‘'&amp;'’, ‘'&lt;'’, and ‘'&gt;'’ in a string of data.

     You can unescape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as
     the optional 'entities' parameter.  The keys and values must all be
     strings; each key will be replaced with its corresponding value.
     ‘'&amp;'’, ‘'&lt;'’, and ‘'&gt;'’ are always unescaped, even if
     'entities' is provided.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.sax.saxutils.quoteattr (data, entities={})

     Similar to *note escape(): 4063, but also prepares 'data' to be
     used as an attribute value.  The return value is a quoted version
     of 'data' with any additional required replacements.  ‘quoteattr()’
     will select a quote character based on the content of 'data',
     attempting to avoid encoding any quote characters in the string.
     If both single- and double-quote characters are already in 'data',
     the double-quote characters will be encoded and 'data' will be
     wrapped in double-quotes.  The resulting string can be used
     directly as an attribute value:

          >>> print("<element attr=%s>" % quoteattr("ab ' cd \" ef"))
          <element attr="ab ' cd &quot; ef">

     This function is useful when generating attribute values for HTML
     or any SGML using the reference concrete syntax.

 -- Κλάση: xml.sax.saxutils.XMLGenerator (out=None,
          encoding='iso-8859-1', short_empty_elements=False)

     This class implements the *note ContentHandler: 4017. interface by
     writing SAX events back into an XML document.  In other words,
     using an ‘XMLGenerator’ as the content handler will reproduce the
     original document being parsed.  'out' should be a file-like object
     which will default to 'sys.stdout'.  'encoding' is the encoding of
     the output stream which defaults to ‘'iso-8859-1'’.
     'short_empty_elements' controls the formatting of elements that
     contain no content: if ‘False’ (the default) they are emitted as a
     pair of start/end tags, if set to ‘True’ they are emitted as a
     single self-closed tag.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'short_empty_elements' parameter.

 -- Κλάση: xml.sax.saxutils.XMLFilterBase (base)

     This class is designed to sit between an *note XMLReader: 401a. and
     the client application’s event handlers.  By default, it does
     nothing but pass requests up to the reader and events on to the
     handlers unmodified, but subclasses can override specific methods
     to modify the event stream or the configuration requests as they
     pass through.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.sax.saxutils.prepare_input_source (source, base='')

     This function takes an input source and an optional base URL and
     returns a fully resolved *note InputSource: 124c. object ready for
     reading.  The input source can be given as a string, a file-like
     object, or an ‘InputSource’ object; parsers will use this function
     to implement the polymorphic 'source' argument to their *note
     parse(): 4069. method.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py


File: python.info,  Node: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers,  Next: xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat,  Prev: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.22.12 ‘xml.sax.xmlreader’ — Interface for XML parsers
-------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

SAX parsers implement the *note XMLReader: 401a. interface.  They are
implemented in a Python module, which must provide a function
‘create_parser()’.  This function is invoked by *note
xml.sax.make_parser(): 200a. with no arguments to create a new parser
object.

 -- Κλάση: xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader

     Base class which can be inherited by SAX parsers.

 -- Κλάση: xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser

     In some cases, it is desirable not to parse an input source at
     once, but to feed chunks of the document as they get available.
     Note that the reader will normally not read the entire file, but
     read it in chunks as well; still ‘parse()’ won’t return until the
     entire document is processed.  So these interfaces should be used
     if the blocking behaviour of ‘parse()’ is not desirable.

     When the parser is instantiated it is ready to begin accepting data
     from the feed method immediately.  After parsing has been finished
     with a call to close the reset method must be called to make the
     parser ready to accept new data, either from feed or using the
     parse method.

     Note that these methods must 'not' be called during parsing, that
     is, after parse has been called and before it returns.

     By default, the class also implements the parse method of the
     XMLReader interface using the feed, close and reset methods of the
     IncrementalParser interface as a convenience to SAX 2.0 driver
     writers.

 -- Κλάση: xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator

     Interface for associating a SAX event with a document location.  A
     locator object will return valid results only during calls to
     DocumentHandler methods; at any other time, the results are
     unpredictable.  If information is not available, methods may return
     ‘None’.

 -- Κλάση: xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource (system_id=None)

     Encapsulation of the information needed by the *note XMLReader:
     401a. to read entities.

     This class may include information about the public identifier,
     system identifier, byte stream (possibly with character encoding
     information) and/or the character stream of an entity.

     Applications will create objects of this class for use in the *note
     XMLReader.parse(): 4069. method and for returning from
     EntityResolver.resolveEntity.

     An ‘InputSource’ belongs to the application, the *note XMLReader:
     401a. is not allowed to modify ‘InputSource’ objects passed to it
     from the application, although it may make copies and modify those.

 -- Κλάση: xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl (attrs)

     This is an implementation of the ‘Attributes’ interface (see
     section *note The Attributes Interface: 4046.).  This is a
     dictionary-like object which represents the element attributes in a
     ‘startElement()’ call.  In addition to the most useful dictionary
     operations, it supports a number of other methods as described by
     the interface.  Objects of this class should be instantiated by
     readers; 'attrs' must be a dictionary-like object containing a
     mapping from attribute names to attribute values.

 -- Κλάση: xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNSImpl (attrs, qnames)

     Namespace-aware variant of *note AttributesImpl: 406e, which will
     be passed to ‘startElementNS()’.  It is derived from
     ‘AttributesImpl’, but understands attribute names as two-tuples of
     'namespaceURI' and 'localname'.  In addition, it provides a number
     of methods expecting qualified names as they appear in the original
     document.  This class implements the ‘AttributesNS’ interface (see
     section *note The AttributesNS Interface: 4048.).

* Menu:

* XMLReader Objects::
* IncrementalParser Objects::
* Locator Objects::
* InputSource Objects::
* The Attributes Interface::
* The AttributesNS Interface::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py


File: python.info,  Node: XMLReader Objects,  Next: IncrementalParser Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

5.22.12.1 XMLReader Objects
...........................

The *note XMLReader: 401a. interface supports the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.parse (source)

     Process an input source, producing SAX events.  The 'source' object
     can be a system identifier (a string identifying the input source –
     typically a file name or a URL), a *note pathlib.Path: 4ee. or
     *note path-like: 79f. object, or an *note InputSource: 124c.
     object.  When ‘parse()’ returns, the input is completely processed,
     and the parser object can be discarded or reset.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support of character streams.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added support of path-like objects.

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.getContentHandler ()

     Return the current *note ContentHandler: 4017.

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.setContentHandler (handler)

     Set the current *note ContentHandler: 4017.  If no ‘ContentHandler’
     is set, content events will be discarded.

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.getDTDHandler ()

     Return the current *note DTDHandler: 4032.

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.setDTDHandler (handler)

     Set the current *note DTDHandler: 4032.  If no ‘DTDHandler’ is set,
     DTD events will be discarded.

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.getEntityResolver ()

     Return the current *note EntityResolver: 4033.

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.setEntityResolver (handler)

     Set the current *note EntityResolver: 4033.  If no ‘EntityResolver’
     is set, attempts to resolve an external entity will result in
     opening the system identifier for the entity, and fail if it is not
     available.

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.getErrorHandler ()

     Return the current *note ErrorHandler: 4025.

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.setErrorHandler (handler)

     Set the current error handler.  If no *note ErrorHandler: 4025. is
     set, errors will be raised as exceptions, and warnings will be
     printed.

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.setLocale (locale)

     Allow an application to set the locale for errors and warnings.

     SAX parsers are not required to provide localization for errors and
     warnings; if they cannot support the requested locale, however,
     they must raise a SAX exception.  Applications may request a locale
     change in the middle of a parse.

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.getFeature (featurename)

     Return the current setting for feature 'featurename'.  If the
     feature is not recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised.
     The well-known featurenames are listed in the module *note
     xml.sax.handler: 133.

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.setFeature (featurename, value)

     Set the 'featurename' to 'value'.  If the feature is not
     recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised.  If the feature
     or its setting is not supported by the parser,
     'SAXNotSupportedException' is raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.getProperty (propertyname)

     Return the current setting for property 'propertyname'.  If the
     property is not recognized, a ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is
     raised.  The well-known propertynames are listed in the module
     *note xml.sax.handler: 133.

 -- Μέθοδος: XMLReader.setProperty (propertyname, value)

     Set the 'propertyname' to 'value'.  If the property is not
     recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised.  If the property
     or its setting is not supported by the parser,
     'SAXNotSupportedException' is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: IncrementalParser Objects,  Next: Locator Objects,  Prev: XMLReader Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

5.22.12.2 IncrementalParser Objects
...................................

Instances of *note IncrementalParser: 406d. offer the following
additional methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: IncrementalParser.feed (data)

     Process a chunk of 'data'.

 -- Μέθοδος: IncrementalParser.close ()

     Assume the end of the document.  That will check well-formedness
     conditions that can be checked only at the end, invoke handlers,
     and may clean up resources allocated during parsing.

 -- Μέθοδος: IncrementalParser.reset ()

     This method is called after close has been called to reset the
     parser so that it is ready to parse new documents.  The results of
     calling parse or feed after close without calling reset are
     undefined.


File: python.info,  Node: Locator Objects,  Next: InputSource Objects,  Prev: IncrementalParser Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

5.22.12.3 Locator Objects
.........................

Instances of *note Locator: 4027. provide these methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: Locator.getColumnNumber ()

     Return the column number where the current event begins.

 -- Μέθοδος: Locator.getLineNumber ()

     Return the line number where the current event begins.

 -- Μέθοδος: Locator.getPublicId ()

     Return the public identifier for the current event.

 -- Μέθοδος: Locator.getSystemId ()

     Return the system identifier for the current event.


File: python.info,  Node: InputSource Objects,  Next: The Attributes Interface,  Prev: Locator Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

5.22.12.4 InputSource Objects
.............................

 -- Μέθοδος: InputSource.setPublicId (id)

     Sets the public identifier of this *note InputSource: 124c.

 -- Μέθοδος: InputSource.getPublicId ()

     Returns the public identifier of this *note InputSource: 124c.

 -- Μέθοδος: InputSource.setSystemId (id)

     Sets the system identifier of this *note InputSource: 124c.

 -- Μέθοδος: InputSource.getSystemId ()

     Returns the system identifier of this *note InputSource: 124c.

 -- Μέθοδος: InputSource.setEncoding (encoding)

     Sets the character encoding of this *note InputSource: 124c.

     The encoding must be a string acceptable for an XML encoding
     declaration (see section 4.3.3 of the XML recommendation).

     The encoding attribute of the *note InputSource: 124c. is ignored
     if the ‘InputSource’ also contains a character stream.

 -- Μέθοδος: InputSource.getEncoding ()

     Get the character encoding of this InputSource.

 -- Μέθοδος: InputSource.setByteStream (bytefile)

     Set the byte stream (a *note binary file: 225d.) for this input
     source.

     The SAX parser will ignore this if there is also a character stream
     specified, but it will use a byte stream in preference to opening a
     URI connection itself.

     If the application knows the character encoding of the byte stream,
     it should set it with the setEncoding method.

 -- Μέθοδος: InputSource.getByteStream ()

     Get the byte stream for this input source.

     The getEncoding method will return the character encoding for this
     byte stream, or ‘None’ if unknown.

 -- Μέθοδος: InputSource.setCharacterStream (charfile)

     Set the character stream (a *note text file: 225c.) for this input
     source.

     If there is a character stream specified, the SAX parser will
     ignore any byte stream and will not attempt to open a URI
     connection to the system identifier.

 -- Μέθοδος: InputSource.getCharacterStream ()

     Get the character stream for this input source.


File: python.info,  Node: The Attributes Interface,  Next: The AttributesNS Interface,  Prev: InputSource Objects,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

5.22.12.5 The ‘Attributes’ Interface
....................................

‘Attributes’ objects implement a portion of the *note mapping protocol:
1564, including the methods ‘copy()’, ‘get()’, *note __contains__():
175c, ‘items()’, ‘keys()’, and ‘values()’.  The following methods are
also provided:

 -- Μέθοδος: Attributes.getLength ()

     Return the number of attributes.

 -- Μέθοδος: Attributes.getNames ()

     Return the names of the attributes.

 -- Μέθοδος: Attributes.getType (name)

     Returns the type of the attribute 'name', which is normally
     ‘'CDATA'’.

 -- Μέθοδος: Attributes.getValue (name)

     Return the value of attribute 'name'.


File: python.info,  Node: The AttributesNS Interface,  Prev: The Attributes Interface,  Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

5.22.12.6 The ‘AttributesNS’ Interface
......................................

This interface is a subtype of the ‘Attributes’ interface (see section
*note The Attributes Interface: 4046.).  All methods supported by that
interface are also available on ‘AttributesNS’ objects.

The following methods are also available:

 -- Μέθοδος: AttributesNS.getValueByQName (name)

     Return the value for a qualified name.

 -- Μέθοδος: AttributesNS.getNameByQName (name)

     Return the ‘(namespace, localname)’ pair for a qualified 'name'.

 -- Μέθοδος: AttributesNS.getQNameByName (name)

     Return the qualified name for a ‘(namespace, localname)’ pair.

 -- Μέθοδος: AttributesNS.getQNames ()

     Return the qualified names of all attributes.


File: python.info,  Node: xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat,  Prev: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers,  Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools

5.22.13 ‘xml.parsers.expat’ — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

     Σημείωση: Εάν χρειάζεται να αναλύσετε μη αξιόπιστα ή μη
     πιστοποιημένα δεδομένα, δείτε *note XML security: 3f34.

The ‘xml.parsers.expat’ module is a Python interface to the Expat
non-validating XML parser.  The module provides a single extension type,
‘xmlparser’, that represents the current state of an XML parser.  After
an ‘xmlparser’ object has been created, various attributes of the object
can be set to handler functions.  When an XML document is then fed to
the parser, the handler functions are called for the character data and
markup in the XML document.

Αυτό το module χρησιμοποιεί το ‘pyexpat’ module για να παρέχει πρόσβαση
στον αναλυτή Expat.  Η άμεση χρήση του ‘pyexpat’ module δεν συνιστάται
πλέον.

Αυτό το module παρέχει μια εξαίρεση και έναν τύπο αντικειμένου:

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError

     Η εξαίρεση γίνεται raise όταν το Expat αναφέρει ένα σφάλμα.  Δείτε
     την ενότητα *note Εξαιρέσεις ExpatError: 40a2. για περισσότερες
     πληροφορίες σχετικά με την ερμηνεία σφαλμάτων Expat.

 -- Εξαίρεση: xml.parsers.expat.error

     Ψευδώνυμο για *note ExpatError: 161d.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.XMLParserType

     Ο τύπος των τιμών επιστροφής από τη συνάρτηση *note ParserCreate():
     40a5.

The ‘xml.parsers.expat’ module contains two functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.parsers.expat.ErrorString (errno)

     Επιστρέφει μια επεξηγηματική συμβολοσειρά για έναν δεδομένο αριθμό
     σφάλματος 'errno'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate (encoding=None,
          namespace_separator=None)

     Δημιουργεί και επιστρέφει ένα νέο αντικείμενο ‘xmlparser’.  Το
     'encoding', εάν καθοριστεί, πρέπει να είναι μια συμβολοσειρά που
     ονομάζει την κωδικοποίηση που χρησιμοποιείται από τα δεδομένα XML.
     Το Expat δεν υποστηρίζει τόσες πολλές κωδικοποιήσεις όσες η Python,
     και το ρεπερτόριό του από κωδικοποιήσεις δεν μπορεί να επεκταθεί·
     υποστηρίζει UTF-8, UTF-16, ISO-8859-1 (Latin1) και ASCII. Εάν δοθεί
     το 'encoding' (1), θα αντικαταστήσει την έμμεση ή ρητή κωδικοποίηση
     του εγγράφου.  Οι αναλυτές που δημιουργούνται μέσω ‘ParserCreate()’
     ονομάζονται αναλυτές «ρίζας», με την έννοια ότι δεν έχουν
     συνδεδεμένο κανέναν γονικό αναλυτή.  Οι μη ριζικοί αναλυτές
     δημιουργούνται από το *note parser.ExternalEntityParserCreate:
     1931.

     Το Expat μπορεί προαιρετικά να κάνει επεξεργασία χώρων ονομάτων XML
     για εσάς, εφόσον ενεργοποιηθεί με την παροχή μιας τιμής στο
     'namespace_separator'.  Η τιμή πρέπει να είναι μια συμβολοσειρά
     ενός χαρακτήρα· διαφορετικά θα γίνει raise μια *note ValueError:
     277. εάν το μήκος της συμβολοσειράς είναι μη έγκυρο (το ‘None’
     θεωρείται το ίδιο με το να μην δοθεί καθόλου τιμή).  Όταν είναι
     ενεργοποιημένη η επεξεργασία χώρων ονομάτων, τα ονόματα τύπων
     στοιχείων και τα ονόματα χαρακτηριστικών που ανήκουν σε έναν χώρο
     ονομάτων θα επεκταθούν.  Το όνομα στοιχείου που περνάει στους
     χειριστές στοιχείων ‘StartElementHandler’ και ‘EndElementHandler’
     θα είναι ο συνδυασμός του URI χώρου ονομάτων, του χαρακτήρα
     διαχωρισμού χώρου ονομάτων και του τοπικού μέρους του ονόματος.
     Εάν ο διαχωριστής χώρου ονομάτων είναι ένα μηδενικό byte (‘chr(0)’)
     τότε το URI χώρου ονομάτων και το τοπικό μέρος θα συνδυαστούν χωρίς
     κανέναν διαχωριστή.

     Για παράδειγμα, εάν το 'namespace_separator' οριστεί σε χαρακτήρα
     κενό (‘' '’) και αναλυθεί το ακόλουθο έγγραφο:

          <?xml version="1.0"?>
          <root xmlns    = "http://default-namespace.org/"
                xmlns:py = "http://www.python.org/ns/">
            <py:elem1 />
            <elem2 xmlns="" />
          </root>

     Το χαρακτηριστικό ‘StartElementHandler’ θα λάβει τις ακόλουθες
     συμβολοσειρές για κάθε στοιχείο:

          http://default-namespace.org/ root
          http://www.python.org/ns/ elem1
          elem2

     Λόγω περιορισμών στη βιβλιοθήκη ‘Expat’ που χρησιμοποιείται από το
     ‘pyexpat’, η αντικείμενη ‘xmlparser’ που επιστρέφεται μπορεί να
     χρησιμοποιηθεί μόνο για την ανάλυση ενός μεμονωμένου εγγράφου XML.
     Καλέστε ‘ParserCreate’ για κάθε έγγραφο για να παρέχετε μοναδικά
     στιγμιότυπα αναλυτών.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The Expat XML Parser(2)

     Αρχική σελίδα του έργου Expat.

* Menu:

* Αντικείμενα XMLParser::
* Εξαιρέσεις ExpatError::
* Παράδειγμα::
* Περιγραφές Μοντέλου Περιεχομένου::
* Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Η συμβολοσειρά κωδικοποίησης που περιλαμβάνεται στην έξοδο XML θα
πρέπει να συμμορφώνεται με τα κατάλληλα πρότυπα.  Για παράδειγμα, το
«UTF-8» είναι έγκυρο, αλλά το «UTF8» δεν είναι.  Δείτε
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ και
‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.

   (2) http://www.libexpat.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα XMLParser,  Next: Εξαιρέσεις ExpatError,  Up: xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat

5.22.13.1 Αντικείμενα XMLParser
...............................

Τα ‘xmlparser’ αντικείμενα έχουν τις ακόλουθες μεθόδους:

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.Parse (data[, isfinal])

     Αναλύει τα περιεχόμενα της συμβολοσειράς 'data', καλώντας τις
     κατάλληλες συναρτήσεις χειρισμού για την επεξεργασία των αναλυμένων
     δεδομένων.  Το 'isfinal' πρέπει να είναι true στην τελική κλήση
     αυτής της μεθόδου· επιτρέπει την ανάλυση ενός μεμονωμένου αρχείου
     σε θραύσματα, όχι την υποβολή πολλαπλών αρχείων.  Το 'data' μπορεί
     να είναι η κενή συμβολοσειρά οποιαδήποτε στιγμή.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.ParseFile (file)

     Αναλύει δεδομένα XML διαβάζοντας από το αντικείμενο 'file'.  Το
     'file' απαιτείται μόνο να παρέχει τη μέθοδο ‘read(nbytes)’,
     επιστρέφοντας την κενή συμβολοσειρά όταν δεν υπάρχουν άλλα
     δεδομένα.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.SetBase (base)

     Ορίζει τη βάση που θα χρησιμοποιηθεί για την επίλυση σχετικών URI
     σε αναγνωριστικά συστήματος μέσα σε δηλώσεις.  Η επίλυση σχετικών
     αναγνωριστικών αφήνεται στην εφαρμογή: αυτή η τιμή θα περαστεί ως
     όρισμα 'base' στις συναρτήσεις *note ExternalEntityRefHandler():
     40ac, *note NotationDeclHandler(): 40ad. και *note
     UnparsedEntityDeclHandler(): 40ae.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.GetBase ()

     Επιστρέφει μια συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει τη βάση που ορίστηκε από
     μια προηγούμενη κλήση στο *note SetBase(): 40ab, ή ‘None’ εάν το
     ‘SetBase()’ δεν έχει κληθεί.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.GetInputContext ()

     Επιστρέφει τα δεδομένα εισόδου που δημιουργήθηκαν από το τρέχον
     γεγονός ως συμβολοσειρά.  Τα δεδομένα είναι στην κωδικοποίηση της
     οντότητας που περιέχει το κείμενο.  Όταν καλείται ενώ δεν είναι
     ενεργός κάποιος χειριστής γεγονότος, η τιμή επιστροφής είναι
     ‘None’.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate (context[, encoding])

     Δημιουργεί έναν «θυγατρικό» αναλυτή που μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί
     για την ανάλυση μιας εξωτερικής αναλυμένης οντότητας που αναφέρεται
     από το περιεχόμενο που αναλύεται από τον γονικό αναλυτή.  Η
     παράμετρος 'context' πρέπει να είναι η συμβολοσειρά που περνάει στη
     συνάρτηση χειρισμού *note ExternalEntityRefHandler(): 40ac, που
     περιγράφεται παρακάτω.  Ο παιδικός αναλυτής δημιουργείται με τα
     *note ordered_attributes: 40b1. και *note specified_attributes:
     40b2. ορισμένα στις τιμές αυτού του αναλυτή.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.SetParamEntityParsing (flag)

     Ελέγχει την ανάλυση των οντοτήτων παραμέτρων (συμπεριλαμβανομένου
     του εξωτερικού υποσυνόλου DTD). Οι πιθανές τιμές 'flag' είναι
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_NEVER’,
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_UNLESS_STANDALONE’ και
     ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_ALWAYS’.  Επιστρέφει true εάν ο ορισμός
     της σημαίας ήταν επιτυχής.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.UseForeignDTD ([flag])

     Η κλήση αυτού με μια αληθή τιμή για το 'flag' (η προεπιλογή) θα
     προκαλέσει το Expat να καλέσει το *note ExternalEntityRefHandler:
     40ac. με *note None: a65. για όλα τα ορίσματα για να επιτρέψει τη
     φόρτωση ενός εναλλακτικού DTD. Εάν το έγγραφο δεν περιέχει δήλωση
     τύπου εγγράφου, το ‘ExternalEntityRefHandler’ θα κληθεί ακόμα, αλλά
     το *note StartDoctypeDeclHandler: 40b5. και *note
     EndDoctypeDeclHandler: 40b6. δεν θα κληθούν.

     Η μετάδοση μιας ψευδούς τιμής για το 'flag' θα ακυρώσει μια
     προηγούμενη κλήση που πέρασε μια αληθή τιμή, αλλά διαφορετικά δεν
     έχει καμία επίδραση.

     Αυτή η μέθοδος μπορεί να κληθεί μόνο πριν κληθούν οι μέθοδοι *note
     Parse(): 40a9. ή *note ParseFile(): 40aa.; η κλήση της μετά από
     οποιαδήποτε από αυτές θα προκαλέσει *note ExpatError: 161d. να
     γίνει raise με το χαρακτηριστικό *note code: 1b. ορισμένο σε
     ‘errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING]’.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled (enabled)

          Προειδοποίηση: Η κλήση ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False)’ έχει
          επιπτώσεις στην ασφάλεια, όπως αναλυτικά παρακάτω· βεβαιωθείτε
          ότι κατανοείτε αυτές τις συνέπειες πριν από τη χρήση της
          μεθόδου ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled’.

     Το Expat 2.6.0 εισήγαγε έναν μηχανισμό ασφάλειας που ονομάζεται
     «αναβολή επανεπεξεργασίας» όπου αντί να προκαλείται άρνηση
     υπηρεσίας μέσω τετραγωνικού χρόνου εκτέλεσης από την
     επανεπεξεργασία μεγάλων token, η επανεπεξεργασία μη ολοκληρωμένων
     token τώρα καθυστερείται από προεπιλογή μέχρι να φτάσει μια επαρκής
     ποσότητα εισόδου.  Λόγω αυτής της καθυστέρησης, οι καταχωρημένοι
     χειριστές μπορεί — ανάλογα με το μέγεθος των τμημάτων εισόδου που
     ωθούνται στο Expat — να μην καλούνται αμέσως μετά την ώθηση νέας
     εισόδου στον αναλυτή.  Όπου επιθυμείται άμεση ανατροφοδότηση και
     ανάληψη ευθύνης για την προστασία από την άρνηση υπηρεσίας από
     μεγάλα token, η κλήση ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False)’
     απενεργοποιεί την αναβολή επανεπεξεργασίας για το τρέχον
     στιγμιότυπο αναλυτή Expat, προσωρινά ή συνολικά.  Η κλήση
     ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(True)’ επιτρέπει την επανενεργοποίηση
     της αναβολής επανεπεξεργασίας.

     ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled()’ has been backported to some prior
     releases of CPython as a security fix.  Check for availability
     using *note hasattr(): 8e2. if used in code running across a
     variety of Python versions.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled ()

     Επιστρέφει εάν η αναβολή επανεπεξεργασίας είναι επί του παρόντος
     ενεργοποιημένη για το δεδομένο στιγμιότυπο αναλυτή Expat.

     Added in version 3.13.

‘xmlparser’ objects have the following methods to tune protections
against some common XML vulnerabilities.

 -- Μέθοδος:
          xmlparser.SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionActivationThreshold
          (threshold, /)

     Sets the number of output bytes needed to activate protection
     against billion laughs(1) attacks.

     The number of output bytes includes amplification from entity
     expansion and reading DTD files.

     Parser objects usually have a protection activation threshold of 8
     MiB, but the actual default value depends on the underlying Expat
     library.

     Γίνεται raise *note ExpatError: 161d. εάν αυτή η μέθοδος κληθεί σε
     έναν *note non-root: 40a7. αναλυτή.  Τα αντίστοιχα *note lineno:
     40b7. και *note offset: 40b8. δεν πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούνται καθώς
     μπορεί να μην έχουν καμία ειδική σημασία.

     ‘SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionActivationThreshold()’ has been
     backported to some prior releases of CPython as a security fix.
     Check for availability using *note hasattr(): 8e2. if used in code
     running across a variety of Python versions.

          Σημείωση: Activation thresholds below 4 MiB are known to break
          support for DITA 1.3 payload and are hence not recommended.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μέθοδος:
          xmlparser.SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionMaximumAmplification
          (max_factor, /)

     Sets the maximum tolerated amplification factor for protection
     against billion laughs(2) attacks.

     The amplification factor is calculated as ‘(direct + indirect) /
     direct’ while parsing, where ‘direct’ is the number of bytes read
     from the primary document in parsing and ‘indirect’ is the number
     of bytes added by expanding entities and reading of external DTD
     files.

     The 'max_factor' value must be a non-NaN *note float: 327. value
     greater than or equal to 1.0.  Peak amplifications of factor 15,000
     for the entire payload and of factor 30,000 in the middle of
     parsing have been observed with small benign files in practice.  In
     particular, the activation threshold should be carefully chosen to
     avoid false positives.

     Parser objects usually have a maximum amplification factor of 100,
     but the actual default value depends on the underlying Expat
     library.

     Γίνεται raise *note ExpatError: 161d. εάν αυτή η μέθοδος κληθεί σε
     έναν *note non-root: 40a7. αναλυτή ή εάν το 'max_factor' είναι
     εκτός του έγκυρου εύρους.  Τα αντίστοιχα *note lineno: 40b7. και
     *note offset: 40b8. δεν πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούνται καθώς μπορεί να
     μην έχουν καμία ειδική σημασία.

     ‘SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionMaximumAmplification()’ has been
     backported to some prior releases of CPython as a security fix.
     Check for availability using *note hasattr(): 8e2. if used in code
     running across a variety of Python versions.

          Σημείωση: The maximum amplification factor is only considered
          if the threshold that can be adjusted by *note
          SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionActivationThreshold(): 2b9. is
          exceeded.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.SetAllocTrackerActivationThreshold (threshold, /)

     Ορίζει τον αριθμό των δεσμευμένων byte δυναμικής μνήμης που
     απαιτούνται για την ενεργοποίηση της προστασίας κατά της
     δυσανάλογης χρήσης RAM.

     Parser objects usually have an allocation activation threshold of
     64 MiB, but the actual default value depends on the underlying
     Expat library.

     Γίνεται raise *note ExpatError: 161d. εάν αυτή η μέθοδος κληθεί σε
     έναν *note non-root: 40a7. αναλυτή.  Τα αντίστοιχα *note lineno:
     40b7. και *note offset: 40b8. δεν πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούνται καθώς
     μπορεί να μην έχουν καμία ειδική σημασία.

     ‘SetAllocTrackerActivationThreshold()’ has been backported to some
     prior releases of CPython as a security fix.  Check for
     availability using *note hasattr(): 8e2. if used in code running
     across a variety of Python versions.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.SetAllocTrackerMaximumAmplification (max_factor,
          /)

     Ορίζει τον μέγιστο παράγοντα ενίσχυσης μεταξύ άμεσης εισόδου και
     byte δυναμικής μνήμης που έχουν δεσμευτεί.

     Ο παράγοντας ενίσχυσης υπολογίζεται ως ‘allocated / direct’ κατά
     την ανάλυση, όπου το ‘direct’ είναι ο αριθμός των byte που
     διαβάστηκαν από το κύριο έγγραφο στην ανάλυση και το ‘allocated’
     είναι ο αριθμός των byte δυναμικής μνήμης που έχουν δεσμευτεί στην
     ιεραρχία αναλυτών.

     Η τιμή 'max_factor' πρέπει να είναι μια μη-NaN *note float: 327.
     τιμή μεγαλύτερη ή ίση του 1.0.  Παράγοντες ενίσχυσης μεγαλύτεροι
     από 100.0 μπορούν να παρατηρηθούν κοντά στην αρχή της ανάλυσης
     ακόμη και με ακίνδυνα αρχεία στην πράξη.  Ειδικότερα, το όριο
     ενεργοποίησης πρέπει να επιλεγεί προσεκτικά για να αποφευχθούν
     ψευδώς θετικά.

     Parser objects usually have a maximum amplification factor of 100,
     but the actual default value depends on the underlying Expat
     library.

     Γίνεται raise *note ExpatError: 161d. εάν αυτή η μέθοδος κληθεί σε
     έναν *note non-root: 40a7. αναλυτή ή εάν το 'max_factor' είναι
     εκτός του έγκυρου εύρους.  Τα αντίστοιχα *note lineno: 40b7. και
     *note offset: 40b8. δεν πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούνται καθώς μπορεί να
     μην έχουν καμία ειδική σημασία.

     ‘SetAllocTrackerMaximumAmplification()’ has been backported to some
     prior releases of CPython as a security fix.  Check for
     availability using *note hasattr(): 8e2. if used in code running
     across a variety of Python versions.

          Σημείωση: Ο μέγιστος παράγοντας ενίσχυσης λαμβάνεται υπόψιν
          μόνο εάν ξεπεραστεί το όριο ενεργοποίησης που μπορεί να
          προσαρμοστεί από το *note
          SetAllocTrackerActivationThreshold(): 2b6.

     Added in version 3.15.

Τα ‘xmlparser’ αντικείμενα έχουν τα ακόλουθα χαρακτηριστικά:

 -- Ιδιότητα: xmlparser.buffer_size

     Το μέγεθος του buffer που χρησιμοποιείται όταν το *note
     buffer_text: 1864. είναι true.  Ένα νέο μέγεθος buffer μπορεί να
     οριστεί εκχωρώντας μια νέα ακέραια τιμή σε αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό.
     Όταν αλλάζει το μέγεθος, το buffer θα εκκενωθεί.

 -- Ιδιότητα: xmlparser.buffer_text

     Ο ορισμός αυτού σε true προκαλεί το αντικείμενο ‘xmlparser’ να
     αποθηκεύει σε buffer το κειμενικό περιεχόμενο που επιστρέφεται από
     το Expat για να αποφευχθούν πολλαπλές κλήσεις στην ανάκληση *note
     CharacterDataHandler(): 40ba. όποτε είναι δυνατόν.  Αυτό μπορεί να
     βελτιώσει σημαντικά την απόδοση καθώς το Expat κανονικά διασπά τα
     δεδομένα χαρακτήρων σε θραύσματα σε κάθε αλλαγή γραμμής.  Αυτό το
     χαρακτηριστικό είναι false από προεπιλογή, και μπορεί να αλλάξει
     οποιαδήποτε στιγμή.  Σημειώστε ότι όταν είναι false, τα δεδομένα
     που δεν περιέχουν αλλαγές γραμμών μπορεί επίσης να διασπαστούν.

 -- Ιδιότητα: xmlparser.buffer_used

     Εάν το *note buffer_text: 1864. είναι ενεργοποιημένο, ο αριθμός των
     byte που αποθηκεύονται στο buffer.  Αυτά τα byte αντιπροσωπεύουν
     κείμενο κωδικοποιημένο σε UTF-8.  Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό δεν έχει
     καμία ουσιαστική ερμηνεία όταν το ‘buffer_text’ είναι false.

 -- Ιδιότητα: xmlparser.ordered_attributes

     Ο ορισμός αυτού του χαρακτηριστικού σε έναν μη μηδενικό ακέραιο
     προκαλεί τα χαρακτηριστικά να αναφέρονται ως λίστα αντί για λεξικό.
     Τα χαρακτηριστικά παρουσιάζονται με τη σειρά που βρέθηκαν στο
     κείμενο του εγγράφου.  Για κάθε χαρακτηριστικό, παρουσιάζονται δύο
     καταχωρήσεις λίστας: το όνομα του χαρακτηριστικού και η τιμή του
     χαρακτηριστικού.  (Παλαιότερες εκδόσεις αυτού του module
     χρησιμοποιούσαν επίσης αυτή τη μορφή.)  Από προεπιλογή, αυτό το
     χαρακτηριστικό είναι false· μπορεί να αλλάξει οποιαδήποτε στιγμή.

 -- Ιδιότητα: xmlparser.specified_attributes

     Εάν οριστεί σε έναν μη μηδενικό ακέραιο, ο αναλυτής θα αναφέρει
     μόνο εκείνα τα χαρακτηριστικά που καθορίστηκαν στο παράδειγμα
     εγγράφου και όχι εκείνα που προέκυψαν από δηλώσεις χαρακτηριστικών.
     Οι εφαρμογές που το ορίζουν αυτό πρέπει να είναι ιδιαίτερα
     προσεκτικές στη χρήση των πρόσθετων πληροφοριών που είναι
     διαθέσιμες από τις δηλώσεις όπως απαιτείται για τη συμμόρφωση με τα
     πρότυπα για τη συμπεριφορά των επεξεργαστών XML. Από προεπιλογή,
     αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό είναι false· μπορεί να αλλάξει οποιαδήποτε
     στιγμή.

Τα ακόλουθα χαρακτηριστικά περιέχουν τιμές που σχετίζονται με το πιο
πρόσφατο σφάλμα που αντιμετωπίστηκε από ένα αντικείμενο ‘xmlparser’, και
θα έχουν σωστές τιμές μόνο όταν μια κλήση στο ‘Parse()’ ή ‘ParseFile()’
έχει προκαλέσει μια εξαίρεση *note xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError: 161d.

 -- Ιδιότητα: xmlparser.ErrorByteIndex

     Δείκτης byte στον οποίο συνέβη ένα σφάλμα.

 -- Ιδιότητα: xmlparser.ErrorCode

     Αριθμητικός κωδικός που προσδιορίζει το πρόβλημα.  Αυτή η τιμή
     μπορεί να περαστεί στη συνάρτηση *note ErrorString(): 40a6, ή να
     συγκριθεί με μία από τις σταθερές που ορίζονται στο αντικείμενο
     ‘errors’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: xmlparser.ErrorColumnNumber

     Αριθμός στήλης στον οποίο συνέβη ένα σφάλμα.

 -- Ιδιότητα: xmlparser.ErrorLineNumber

     Αριθμός γραμμής στον οποίο συνέβη ένα σφάλμα.

Τα ακόλουθα χαρακτηριστικά περιέχουν τιμές που σχετίζονται με την
τρέχουσα θέση ανάλυσης σε ένα αντικείμενο ‘xmlparser’.  Κατά τη διάρκεια
μιας ανάκλησης που αναφέρει ένα γεγονός ανάλυσης, υποδεικνύουν τη θέση
της πρώτης από τη σειρά χαρακτήρων που δημιούργησαν το γεγονός.  Όταν
καλείται εκτός μιας ανάκλησης, η υποδεικνυόμενη θέση θα είναι ακριβώς
μετά το τελευταίο γεγονός ανάλυσης (ανεξάρτητα από το αν υπήρχε μια
σχετική ανάκληση).

 -- Ιδιότητα: xmlparser.CurrentByteIndex

     Τρέχων δείκτης byte στην είσοδο του αναλυτή.

 -- Ιδιότητα: xmlparser.CurrentColumnNumber

     Τρέχων αριθμός στήλης στην είσοδο του αναλυτή.

 -- Ιδιότητα: xmlparser.CurrentLineNumber

     Τρέχων αριθμός γραμμής στην είσοδο του αναλυτή.

Εδώ είναι η λίστα των χειριστών που μπορούν να οριστούν.  Για να ορίσετε
έναν χειριστή σε ένα αντικείμενο ‘xmlparser’ 'o', χρησιμοποιήστε
‘o.handlername = func’.  Το 'handlername' πρέπει να ληφθεί από την
ακόλουθη λίστα, και το 'func' πρέπει να είναι ένα αντικείμενο που μπορεί
να κληθεί αποδεχόμενο τον σωστό αριθμό ορισμάτων.  Τα ορίσματα είναι
όλες συμβολοσειρές, εκτός εάν αναφέρεται διαφορετικά.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.XmlDeclHandler (version, encoding, standalone)

     Καλείται όταν αναλύεται η δήλωση XML. Η δήλωση XML είναι η
     (προαιρετική) δήλωση της εφαρμοστέας έκδοσης της σύστασης XML, της
     κωδικοποίησης του κειμένου του εγγράφου, και μια προαιρετική
     «αυτόνομη» δήλωση.  Το 'version' και το 'encoding' θα είναι
     συμβολοσειρές, και το 'standalone' θα είναι ‘1’ εάν το έγγραφο
     δηλώνεται αυτόνομο, ‘0’ εάν δηλώνεται ότι δεν είναι αυτόνομο, ή
     ‘-1’ εάν η ρήτρα αυτόνομης παραλείφθηκε.  Αυτό είναι διαθέσιμο μόνο
     με την έκδοση 1.95.0 ή νεότερη του Expat.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler (doctypeName, systemId,
          publicId, has_internal_subset)

     Called when Expat begins parsing the document type declaration
     (‘<!DOCTYPE ...’).  The 'doctypeName' is provided exactly as
     presented.  The 'systemId' and 'publicId' parameters give the
     system and public identifiers if specified, or ‘None’ if omitted.
     'has_internal_subset' will be true if the document contains an
     internal document declaration subset.  This requires Expat version
     1.2 or newer.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.EndDoctypeDeclHandler ()

     Καλείται όταν το Expat ολοκληρώνει την ανάλυση της δήλωσης τύπου
     εγγράφου.  Αυτό απαιτεί Expat έκδοσης 1.2 ή νεότερης.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.ElementDeclHandler (name, model)

     Καλείται μία φορά για κάθε δήλωση τύπου στοιχείου.  Το 'name' είναι
     το όνομα του τύπου στοιχείου, και το 'model' είναι μια αναπαράσταση
     του μοντέλου περιεχομένου.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.AttlistDeclHandler (elname, attname, type,
          default, required)

     Καλείται για κάθε δηλωμένο χαρακτηριστικό για έναν τύπο στοιχείου.
     Εάν μια δήλωση λίστας χαρακτηριστικών δηλώνει τρία χαρακτηριστικά,
     αυτός ο χειριστής καλείται τρεις φορές, μία για κάθε
     χαρακτηριστικό.  Το 'elname' είναι το όνομα του στοιχείου στο οποίο
     εφαρμόζεται η δήλωση και το 'attname' είναι το όνομα του δηλωμένου
     χαρακτηριστικού.  Ο τύπος χαρακτηριστικού είναι μια συμβολοσειρά
     που περνάει ως 'type'· οι πιθανές τιμές είναι ‘'CDATA'’, ‘'ID'’,
     ‘'IDREF'’, … το 'default' δίνει την προεπιλεγμένη τιμή για το
     χαρακτηριστικό που χρησιμοποιείται όταν το χαρακτηριστικό δεν
     καθορίζεται από το παράδειγμα εγγράφου, ή ‘None’ εάν δεν υπάρχει
     προεπιλεγμένη τιμή (τιμές ‘#IMPLIED’).  Εάν το χαρακτηριστικό
     απαιτείται να δοθεί στο παράδειγμα εγγράφου, το 'required' θα είναι
     true.  Αυτό απαιτεί Expat έκδοση 1.95.0 ή νεότερης.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.StartElementHandler (name, attributes)

     Καλείται για την έναρξη κάθε στοιχείου.  Το 'name' είναι μια
     συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει το όνομα του στοιχείου, και το
     'attributes' είναι τα χαρακτηριστικά του στοιχείου.  Εάν το *note
     ordered_attributes: 40b1. είναι true, αυτό είναι μια λίστα (δείτε
     το ‘ordered_attributes’ για μια πλήρη περιγραφή).  Διαφορετικά
     είναι ένα λεξικό που αντιστοιχίζει ονόματα σε τιμές.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.EndElementHandler (name)

     Καλείται για το τέλος κάθε στοιχείου.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.ProcessingInstructionHandler (target, data)

     Καλείται για κάθε οδηγία επεξεργασίας.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.CharacterDataHandler (data)

     Καλείται για δεδομένα χαρακτήρων.  Αυτό θα κληθεί για κανονικά
     δεδομένα χαρακτήρων, περιεχόμενο επισημασμένο ως CDATA, και
     αγνοήσιμο κενό χώρο.  Οι εφαρμογές που πρέπει να διακρίνουν αυτές
     τις περιπτώσεις μπορούν να χρησιμοποιήσουν τις ανακλήσεις *note
     StartCdataSectionHandler: 40c8, *note EndCdataSectionHandler: 40c9,
     και *note ElementDeclHandler: 1922. για να συλλέξουν τις
     απαιτούμενες πληροφορίες.  Σημειώστε ότι τα δεδομένα χαρακτήρων
     μπορεί να διασπαστούν ακόμη και αν είναι μικρά και έτσι μπορεί να
     λάβετε περισσότερες από μία κλήσεις στο *note
     CharacterDataHandler(): 40ba.  Ορίστε το χαρακτηριστικό
     στιγμιότυπου *note buffer_text: 1864. σε ‘True’ για να αποφύγετε
     αυτό.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.UnparsedEntityDeclHandler (entityName, base,
          systemId, publicId, notationName)

     Καλείται για δηλώσεις μη αναλυμένων (NDATA) οντοτήτων.  Αυτό είναι
     παρόν μόνο για την έκδοση 1.2 της βιβλιοθήκης Expat· για πιο
     πρόσφατες εκδόσεις, χρησιμοποιήστε *note EntityDeclHandler: 40ca.
     αντ” αυτού.  (Η υποκείμενη λειτουργία στη βιβλιοθήκη Expat έχει
     κηρυχθεί απαρχαιωμένη.)

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.EntityDeclHandler (entityName,
          is_parameter_entity, value, base, systemId, publicId,
          notationName)

     Καλείται για όλες τις δηλώσεις οντοτήτων.  Για παραμετρικές και
     εσωτερικές οντότητες, το 'value' θα είναι μια συμβολοσειρά που
     δίνει τα δηλωμένα περιεχόμενα της οντότητας· αυτό θα είναι ‘None’
     για εξωτερικές οντότητες.  Η παράμετρος 'notationName' θα είναι
     ‘None’ για αναλυμένες οντότητες, και το όνομα της σημειογραφίας για
     μη αναλυμένες οντότητες.  Το 'is_parameter_entity' θα είναι true
     εάν η οντότητα είναι μια παραμετρική οντότητα ή false για γενικές
     οντότητες (οι περισσότερες εφαρμογές χρειάζεται να ασχολούνται μόνο
     με γενικές οντότητες).  Αυτό είναι διαθέσιμο μόνο ξεκινώντας από
     την έκδοση 1.95.0 της βιβλιοθήκης Expat.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.NotationDeclHandler (notationName, base,
          systemId, publicId)

     Καλείται για δηλώσεις σημειογραφίας.  Το 'notationName', 'base',
     και 'systemId', και 'publicId' είναι συμβολοσειρές εάν δίνονται.
     Εάν το δημόσιο αναγνωριστικό παραλείπεται, το 'publicId' θα είναι
     ‘None’.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.StartNamespaceDeclHandler (prefix, uri)

     Καλείται όταν ένα στοιχείο περιέχει μια δήλωση χώρου ονομάτων.  Οι
     δηλώσεις χώρων ονομάτων επεξεργάζονται πριν κληθεί ο *note
     StartElementHandler: 40c5. για το στοιχείο στο οποίο τοποθετούνται
     οι δηλώσεις.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.EndNamespaceDeclHandler (prefix)

     Καλείται όταν επιτευχθεί η ετικέτα κλεισίματος για ένα στοιχείο που
     περιείχε μια δήλωση χώρου ονομάτων.  Αυτό καλείται μία φορά για
     κάθε δήλωση χώρου ονομάτων στο στοιχείο με την αντίστροφη σειρά για
     την οποία κλήθηκε ο *note StartNamespaceDeclHandler: 40cb. για να
     υποδείξει την έναρξη της εμβέλειας κάθε δήλωσης χώρου ονομάτων.  Οι
     κλήσεις σε αυτόν τον χειριστή γίνονται μετά τον αντίστοιχο *note
     EndElementHandler: 40c6. για το τέλος του στοιχείου.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.CommentHandler (data)

     Καλείται για σχόλια.  Το 'data' είναι το κείμενο του σχολίου,
     εξαιρώντας το προκαταρκτικό ‘'<!-’‘-'’ και το τελικό ‘'-’‘->'’.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler ()

     Καλείται στην αρχή μιας ενότητας CDATA. Αυτό και το *note
     EndCdataSectionHandler: 40c9. είναι απαραίτητα για να μπορέσουμε να
     αναγνωρίσουμε την συντακτική έναρξη και το τέλος για τις ενότητες
     CDATA.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler ()

     Καλείται στο τέλος μιας ενότητας CDATA.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.DefaultHandler (data)

     Καλείται για οποιουσδήποτε χαρακτήρες στο έγγραφο XML για τους
     οποίους δεν έχει οριστεί κάποιος κατάλληλος χειριστής.  Αυτό
     σημαίνει χαρακτήρες που είναι μέρος μιας κατασκευής που θα μπορούσε
     να αναφερθεί, αλλά για την οποία δεν έχει παρασχεθεί χειριστής.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand (data)

     Αυτό είναι το ίδιο με το *note DefaultHandler(): 40ce, αλλά δεν
     εμποδίζει την επέκταση εσωτερικών οντοτήτων.  Η αναφορά οντότητας
     δεν θα περαστεί στον προεπιλεγμένο χειριστή.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.NotStandaloneHandler ()

     Καλείται εάν το έγγραφο XML δεν έχει δηλωθεί ως αυτόνομο έγγραφο.
     Αυτό συμβαίνει όταν υπάρχει ένα εξωτερικό υποσύνολο ή μια αναφορά
     σε μια παραμετρική οντότητα, αλλά η δήλωση XML δεν ορίζει το
     standalone σε ‘yes’ σε μια δήλωση XML. Εάν αυτός ο χειριστής
     επιστρέψει ‘0’, τότε ο αναλυτής θα προκαλέσει ένα σφάλμα
     ‘XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE’.  Εάν αυτός ο χειριστής δεν έχει
     οριστεί, δεν γίνεται raise καμία εξαίρεση από τον αναλυτή για αυτή
     την κατάσταση.

 -- Μέθοδος: xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler (context, base,
          systemId, publicId)

          Προειδοποίηση: Η υλοποίηση ενός χειριστή που έχει πρόσβαση σε
          τοπικά αρχεία και/ή στο δίκτυο μπορεί να δημιουργήσει μια
          ευπάθεια σε ‘external entity attacks
          <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_external_entity_attack>’
          εάν το ‘xmlparser’ χρησιμοποιείται με περιεχόμενο XML που
          παρέχεται από τον χρήστη.  Σκεφτείτε το threat model(3) σας
          πριν υλοποιήσετε αυτόν τον χειριστή.

     Καλείται για αναφορές σε εξωτερικές οντότητες.  Το 'base' είναι η
     τρέχουσα βάση, όπως ορίζεται από μια προηγούμενη κλήση στο *note
     SetBase(): 40ab.  Τα δημόσια και συστημικά αναγνωριστικά,
     'systemId' και 'publicId', είναι συμβολοσειρές εάν δίνονται· εάν το
     δημόσιο αναγνωριστικό δεν δίνεται, το 'publicId' θα είναι ‘None’.
     Η τιμή 'context' είναι αδιαφανής και πρέπει να χρησιμοποιείται μόνο
     όπως περιγράφεται παρακάτω.

     Για να αναλυθούν εξωτερικές οντότητες, αυτός ο χειριστής πρέπει να
     υλοποιηθεί.  Είναι υπεύθυνος για τη δημιουργία του υπο-αναλυτή
     χρησιμοποιώντας ‘ExternalEntityParserCreate(context)’, την
     αρχικοποίηση του με τις κατάλληλες ανακλήσεις, και την ανάλυση της
     οντότητας.  Αυτός ο χειριστής πρέπει να επιστρέψει έναν ακέραιο·
     εάν επιστρέψει ‘0’, ο αναλυτής θα προκαλέσει ένα σφάλμα
     ‘XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING’, διαφορετικά η ανάλυση θα
     συνεχιστεί.

     Εάν αυτός ο χειριστής δεν παρέχεται, οι εξωτερικές οντότητες
     αναφέρονται από την ανάκληση *note DefaultHandler: 40ce, εάν
     παρέχεται.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs_attack

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs_attack

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat_model


File: python.info,  Node: Εξαιρέσεις ExpatError,  Next: Παράδειγμα,  Prev: Αντικείμενα XMLParser,  Up: xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat

5.22.13.2 Εξαιρέσεις ExpatError
...............................

Οι εξαιρέσεις *note ExpatError: 161d. έχουν έναν αριθμό ενδιαφερόντων
χαρακτηριστικών:

 -- Ιδιότητα: ExpatError.code

     Ο εσωτερικός αριθμός σφάλματος του Expat για το συγκεκριμένο
     σφάλμα.  Το *note errors.messages: 40d3. λεξικό αντιστοιχεί αυτούς
     τους αριθμούς σφάλματος στα μηνύματα σφαλμάτων του Expat.  Για
     παράδειγμα:

          from xml.parsers.expat import ParserCreate, ExpatError, errors

          p = ParserCreate()
          try:
              p.Parse(some_xml_document)
          except ExpatError as err:
              print("Error:", errors.messages[err.code])

     Το module *note errors: 130. παρέχει επίσης σταθερές μηνυμάτων
     σφαλμάτων και ένα λεξικό *note codes: 40d4. που αντιστοιχίζει αυτά
     τα μηνύματα πίσω στους κωδικούς σφαλμάτων, δείτε παρακάτω.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ExpatError.lineno

     Αριθμός γραμμής στον οποίο ανιχνεύθηκε το σφάλμα.  Η πρώτη γραμμή
     αριθμείται ‘1’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: ExpatError.offset

     Χαρακτήρας μετατόπισης στη γραμμή όπου συνέβη το σφάλμα.  Η πρώτη
     στήλη αριθμείται ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: Παράδειγμα,  Next: Περιγραφές Μοντέλου Περιεχομένου,  Prev: Εξαιρέσεις ExpatError,  Up: xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat

5.22.13.3 Παράδειγμα
....................

Το ακόλουθο πρόγραμμα ορίζει τρεις χειριστές που απλώς εκτυπώνουν τα
ορίσματά τους.

     import xml.parsers.expat

     # 3 handler functions
     def start_element(name, attrs):
         print('Start element:', name, attrs)
     def end_element(name):
         print('End element:', name)
     def char_data(data):
         print('Character data:', repr(data))

     p = xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate()

     p.StartElementHandler = start_element
     p.EndElementHandler = end_element
     p.CharacterDataHandler = char_data

     p.Parse("""<?xml version="1.0"?>
     <parent id="top"><child1 name="paul">Text goes here</child1>
     <child2 name="fred">More text</child2>
     </parent>""", 1)

Η έξοδος από αυτό το πρόγραμμα είναι:

     Start element: parent {'id': 'top'}
     Start element: child1 {'name': 'paul'}
     Character data: 'Text goes here'
     End element: child1
     Character data: '\n'
     Start element: child2 {'name': 'fred'}
     Character data: 'More text'
     End element: child2
     Character data: '\n'
     End element: parent


File: python.info,  Node: Περιγραφές Μοντέλου Περιεχομένου,  Next: Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat,  Prev: Παράδειγμα,  Up: xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat

5.22.13.4 Περιγραφές Μοντέλου Περιεχομένου
..........................................

Τα μοντέλα περιεχομένου περιγράφονται χρησιμοποιώντας εμφωλευμένες
πλειάδες.  Κάθε πλειάδα περιέχει τέσσερις τιμές: ο τύπος, ο ποσοτικός
δείκτης, το όνομα, και μια πλειάδα παιδιών.  Τα παιδιά είναι απλώς
επιπλέον περιγραφές μοντέλου περιεχομένου.

The values of the first two fields are constants defined in the
‘xml.parsers.expat.model’ module.  These constants can be collected in
two groups: the model type group and the quantifier group.

Οι σταθερές στην ομάδα τύπου μοντέλου είναι:

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_ANY

     Το στοιχείο που ονομάζεται από το όνομα μοντέλου δηλώθηκε ότι έχει
     ένα μοντέλο περιεχομένου ‘ANY’.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_CHOICE

     Το ονομαζόμενο στοιχείο επιτρέπει μια επιλογή από έναν αριθμό
     επιλογών· αυτό χρησιμοποιείται για μοντέλα περιεχομένου όπως ‘(A |
     B | C)’.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_EMPTY

     Στοιχεία που δηλώνονται ως ‘EMPTY’ έχουν αυτόν τον τύπο μοντέλου.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_MIXED

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_NAME

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_SEQ

     Τα μοντέλα που αντιπροσωπεύουν μια σειρά μοντέλων που ακολουθούν το
     ένα το άλλο υποδεικνύονται με αυτόν τον τύπο μοντέλου.  Αυτό
     χρησιμοποιείται για μοντέλα όπως ‘(A, B, C)’.

Οι σταθερές στην ομάδα ποσοτικών δεικτών είναι:

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_NONE

     Δεν δίνεται κανένας τροποποιητής, οπότε μπορεί να εμφανιστεί
     ακριβώς μία φορά, όπως για ‘A’.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_OPT

     Το μοντέλο είναι προαιρετικό: μπορεί να εμφανιστεί μία φορά ή
     καθόλου, όπως για ‘A?’.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_PLUS

     Το μοντέλο πρέπει να εμφανίζεται μία ή περισσότερες φορές (όπως
     ‘A+’).

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_REP

     Το μοντέλο πρέπει να εμφανίζεται μηδέν ή περισσότερες φορές, όπως
     για ‘A*’.


File: python.info,  Node: Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat,  Prev: Περιγραφές Μοντέλου Περιεχομένου,  Up: xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat

5.22.13.5 Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat
..................................

The following constants are provided in the ‘xml.parsers.expat.errors’
module.  These constants are useful in interpreting some of the
attributes of the ‘ExpatError’ exception objects raised when an error
has occurred.  Since for backwards compatibility reasons, the constants”
value is the error 'message' and not the numeric error 'code', you do
this by comparing its *note code: 1b. attribute with
‘errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CONSTANT_NAME]’.

Το module ‘errors’ έχει τα ακόλουθα χαρακτηριστικά:

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes

     Ένα λεξικό που αντιστοιχίζει περιγραφές συμβολοσειρών στους
     κωδικούς σφαλμάτων τους.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages

     Ένα λεξικό που αντιστοιχίζει αριθμητικούς κωδικούς σφαλμάτων στις
     περιγραφές συμβολοσειρών τους.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY

 -- Δεδομένα:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF

     Μια αναφορά οντότητας σε μια τιμή χαρακτηριστικού αναφέρθηκε σε μια
     εξωτερική οντότητα αντί για μια εσωτερική οντότητα.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF

     Μια αναφορά χαρακτήρα αναφέρθηκε σε έναν χαρακτήρα που είναι
     παράνομος στο XML (για παράδειγμα, ο χαρακτήρας ‘0’, ή “‘&#0;’”).

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF

     Μια αναφορά οντότητας αναφέρθηκε σε μια οντότητα που δηλώθηκε με
     μια σημειογραφία, οπότε δεν μπορεί να αναλυθεί.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE

     Ένα χαρακτηριστικό χρησιμοποιήθηκε περισσότερες από μία φορές σε
     μια ετικέτα έναρξης.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN

     Προκαλείται όταν ένα εισερχόμενο byte δεν μπορούσε να ανατεθεί
     σωστά σε έναν χαρακτήρα· για παράδειγμα, ένα byte NUL (τιμή ‘0’) σε
     μια ροή εισόδου UTF-8.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT

     Κάτι άλλο εκτός από κενό χώρο συνέβη μετά το στοιχείο εγγράφου.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI

     Βρέθηκε μια δήλωση XML κάπου αλλού εκτός από την αρχή των δεδομένων
     εισόδου.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS

     Το έγγραφο δεν περιέχει στοιχεία (το XML απαιτεί όλα τα έγγραφα να
     περιέχουν ακριβώς ένα στοιχείο κορυφαίου επιπέδου)..

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY

     Το Expat δεν ήταν σε θέση να δεσμεύσει μνήμη εσωτερικά.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF

     Βρέθηκε μια αναφορά παραμετρικής οντότητας όπου δεν επιτρέπεται.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR

     Βρέθηκε ένας ατελής χαρακτήρας στην είσοδο.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF

     Μια αναφορά οντότητας περιείχε μια άλλη αναφορά στην ίδια οντότητα·
     πιθανώς μέσω ενός διαφορετικού ονόματος, και πιθανώς έμμεσα.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SYNTAX

     Συνέβη κάποιο μη καθορισμένο συντακτικό σφάλμα.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH

     Μια ετικέτα λήξης δεν ταιριάζει με την πιο εσωτερική ανοιχτή
     ετικέτα έναρξης.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN

     Κάποιο token (όπως μια ετικέτα έναρξης) δεν έκλεισε πριν το τέλος
     της ροής ή συναντήθηκε το επόμενο διακριτικό.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY

     Έγινε αναφορά σε μια οντότητα που δεν ορίστηκε.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING

     Η κωδικοποίηση εγγράφου δεν υποστηρίζεται από το Expat.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION

     Μια ενότητα με σήμανση CDATA δεν έκλεισε.

 -- Δεδομένα:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE

     Ο αναλυτής διαπίστωσε ότι το έγγραφο δεν ήταν «αυτόνομο» αν και το
     δήλωνε ότι ήταν στη δήλωση XML, και ο ‘NotStandaloneHandler’
     ορίστηκε και επέστρεψε ‘0’.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE

 -- Δεδομένα:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD

     An operation was requested that requires DTD support to be compiled
     in, but Expat was configured without DTD support.  This should
     never be reported by a standard build of the ‘xml.parsers.expat’
     module.

 -- Δεδομένα:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING

     Ζητήθηκε μια αλλαγή συμπεριφοράς μετά την έναρξη της ανάλυσης που
     μπορεί να αλλάξει μόνο πριν ξεκινήσει η ανάλυση.  Αυτό (προς το
     παρόν) προκαλείται μόνο από τη ‘UseForeignDTD()’.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX

     Βρέθηκε ένα μη δηλωμένο πρόθεμα όταν η επεξεργασία χώρου ονομάτων
     ήταν ενεργοποιημένη.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX

     Το έγγραφο προσπάθησε να αφαιρέσει τη δήλωση χώρου ονομάτων που
     σχετίζεται με ένα πρόθεμα.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE

     Μια παραμετρική οντότητα περιείχε ατελή σήμανση.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_XML_DECL

     Το έγγραφο δεν περιείχε καθόλου στοιχείο εγγράφου.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL

     Υπήρξε σφάλμα κατά την ανάλυση μιας δήλωσης κειμένου σε μια
     εξωτερική οντότητα.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PUBLICID

     Βρέθηκαν χαρακτήρες στο δημόσιο αναγνωριστικό που δεν επιτρέπονται.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED

     Η ζητούμενη λειτουργία πραγματοποιήθηκε σε έναν αναλυτή που είχε
     ανασταλεί, αλλά δεν επιτρέπεται.  Αυτό περιλαμβάνει προσπάθειες
     παροχής επιπλέον εισόδου ή διακοπής του αναλυτή.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED

     Έγινε μια προσπάθεια να συνεχιστεί ο αναλυτής όταν ο αναλυτής δεν
     είχε ανασταλεί.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ABORTED

     Αυτό δεν θα πρέπει να αναφέρεται σε εφαρμογές Python.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FINISHED

     Η ζητούμενη λειτουργία πραγματοποιήθηκε σε έναν αναλυτή που
     ολοκλήρωσε την ανάλυση της εισόδου, αλλά δεν επιτρέπεται.  Αυτό
     περιλαμβάνει προσπάθειες παροχής επιπλέον εισόδου ή διακοπής του
     αναλυτή.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML

     Έγινε μια προσπάθεια να ακυρωθεί η δήλωση του δεσμευμένου
     προθέματος χώρου ονομάτων ‘xml’ ή να το συνδέσει με ένα άλλο URI
     χώρου ονομάτων.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS

     Έγινε μια προσπάθεια να δηλωθεί ή να ακυρωθεί η δήλωση του
     δεσμευμένου προθέματος χώρου ονομάτων ‘xmlns’.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI

     Έγινε μια προσπάθεια να δεσμευτεί το URI ενός από τα δεσμευμένα
     προθέματα χώρου ονομάτων ‘xml’ και ‘xmlns’ σε ένα άλλο πρόθεμα
     χώρου ονομάτων.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT

     Αυτό δεν θα πρέπει να αναφέρεται σε εφαρμογές Python.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER

     Αυτό δεν θα πρέπει να αναφέρεται σε εφαρμογές Python.

 -- Δεδομένα:
          xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH

     Το όριο στον παράγοντα ενίσχυσης εισόδου (από DTD και οντότητες)
     έχει παραβιαστεί.

 -- Δεδομένα: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_STARTED

     Ο αναλυτής προσπάθησε να σταματήσει ή να ανασταλεί πριν ξεκινήσει.

     Added in version 3.14.

Υποσημειώσεις
.............


File: python.info,  Node: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη,  Next: Multimedia Services,  Prev: Structured Markup Processing Tools,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.23 Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη
=======================================

Τα modules που περιγράφονται σε αυτό το κεφάλαιο υλοποιούν πρωτόκολλα
internet και υποστήριξη για τις σχετικές τεχνολογίες.  Όλα υλοποιούνται
σε Python.  Τα περισσότερα από αυτά τα modules απαιτούν την παρουσία
του, εξαρτώμενου από το σύστημα, module *note socket: d4, το οποίο
υποστηρίζεται επί του παρόντος στις περισσότερες δημοφιλείς πλατφόρμες.
Εδώ είναι μια επισκόπηση:

* Menu:

* webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller::
* wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation::
* urllib — URL handling modules::
* urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
* urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
* urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
* urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
* urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
* http — HTTP modules::
* http.client — HTTP protocol client: http client — HTTP protocol client.
* ftplib — FTP protocol client::
* poplib — POP3 protocol client::
* imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client::
* smtplib — SMTP protocol client::
* uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562::
* socketserver — A framework for network servers::
* http.server — HTTP servers: http server — HTTP servers.
* http.cookies — HTTP state management: http cookies — HTTP state management.
* http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
* xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules::
* xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access.
* xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers.
* ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library::


File: python.info,  Node: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller,  Next: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.1 ‘webbrowser’ — Convenient web-browser controller
-------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/webbrowser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘webbrowser’ module provides a high-level interface to allow
displaying web-based documents to users.  Under most circumstances,
simply calling the *note open(): 1923. function from this module will do
the right thing.

Under Unix, graphical browsers are preferred under X11, but text-mode
browsers will be used if graphical browsers are not available or an X11
display isn’t available.  If text-mode browsers are used, the calling
process will block until the user exits the browser.

If the environment variable ‘BROWSER’ exists, it is interpreted as the
*note os.pathsep: 2322.-separated list of browsers to try ahead of the
platform defaults.  When the value of a list part contains the string
‘%s’, then it is interpreted as a literal browser command line to be
used with the argument URL substituted for ‘%s’; if the value is a
single word that refers to one of the already registered browsers this
browser is added to the front of the search list; if the part does not
contain ‘%s’, it is simply interpreted as the name of the browser to
launch.  (2)

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The ‘BROWSER’ variable can now also be used to
reorder the list of platform defaults.  This is particularly useful on
macOS where the platform defaults do not refer to command-line tools on
‘PATH’.

For non-Unix platforms, or when a remote browser is available on Unix,
the controlling process will not wait for the user to finish with the
browser, but allow the remote browser to maintain its own windows on the
display.  If remote browsers are not available on Unix, the controlling
process will launch a new browser and wait.

On iOS, the ‘BROWSER’ environment variable, as well as any arguments
controlling autoraise, browser preference, and new tab/window creation
will be ignored.  Web pages will 'always' be opened in the user’s
preferred browser, in a new tab, with the browser being brought to the
foreground.  The use of the ‘webbrowser’ module on iOS requires the
*note ctypes: 2d. module.  If ‘ctypes’ isn’t available, calls to *note
open(): 1923. will fail.

* Menu:

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<5>.
* Browser controller objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/webbrowser.py

   (2) Executables named here without a full path will be searched in
the directories given in the ‘PATH’ environment variable.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<5>,  Next: Browser controller objects,  Up: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller

5.23.1.1 Command-line interface
...............................

The script ‘webbrowser’ can be used as a command-line interface for the
module.  It accepts a URL as the argument.  It accepts the following
optional parameters:

 -- Option: -n, --new-window

     Opens the URL in a new browser window, if possible.

 -- Option: -t, --new-tab

     Opens the URL in a new browser tab.

The options are, naturally, mutually exclusive.  Usage example:

     python -m webbrowser -t "https://www.python.org"

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI, not Android.

The following exception is defined:

 -- Εξαίρεση: webbrowser.Error

     Exception raised when a browser control error occurs.

The following functions are defined:

 -- Συνάρτηση: webbrowser.open (url, new=0, autoraise=True)

     Display 'url' using the default browser.  If 'new' is 0, the 'url'
     is opened in the same browser window if possible.  If 'new' is 1, a
     new browser window is opened if possible.  If 'new' is 2, a new
     browser page («tab») is opened if possible.  If 'autoraise' is
     ‘True’, the window is raised if possible (note that under many
     window managers this will occur regardless of the setting of this
     variable).

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

     Note that on some platforms, trying to open a filename using this
     function, may work and start the operating system’s associated
     program.  However, this is neither supported nor portable.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘webbrowser.open’ with
     argument ‘url’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: webbrowser.open_new (url)

     Open 'url' in a new window of the default browser, if possible,
     otherwise, open 'url' in the only browser window.

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: webbrowser.open_new_tab (url)

     Open 'url' in a new page («tab») of the default browser, if
     possible, otherwise equivalent to *note open_new(): 4113.

     Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: webbrowser.get (using=None)

     Return a controller object for the browser type 'using'.  If
     'using' is ‘None’, return a controller for a default browser
     appropriate to the caller’s environment.

 -- Συνάρτηση: webbrowser.register (name, constructor, instance=None, *,
          preferred=False)

     Register the browser type 'name'.  Once a browser type is
     registered, the *note get(): 4115. function can return a controller
     for that browser type.  If 'instance' is not provided, or is
     ‘None’, 'constructor' will be called without parameters to create
     an instance when needed.  If 'instance' is provided, 'constructor'
     will never be called, and may be ‘None’.

     Setting 'preferred' to ‘True’ makes this browser a preferred result
     for a *note get(): 4115. call with no argument.  Otherwise, this
     entry point is only useful if you plan to either set the ‘BROWSER’
     variable or call ‘get()’ with a nonempty argument matching the name
     of a handler you declare.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: 'preferred' keyword-only parameter was
     added.

A number of browser types are predefined.  This table gives the type
names that may be passed to the *note get(): 4115. function and the
corresponding instantiations for the controller classes, all defined in
this module.

Type Name                    Class Name                                    Notes
                                                                           
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                           
‘'mozilla'’                  ‘Mozilla('mozilla')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'firefox'’                  ‘Mozilla('mozilla')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'epiphany'’                 ‘Epiphany('epiphany')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'kfmclient'’                ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'konqueror'’                ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'kfm'’                      ‘Konqueror()’                                 (1)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'opera'’                    ‘Opera()’
                             
                                                                           
‘'links'’                    ‘GenericBrowser('links')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'elinks'’                   ‘Elinks('elinks')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'lynx'’                     ‘GenericBrowser('lynx')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'w3m'’                      ‘GenericBrowser('w3m')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'windows-default'’          ‘WindowsDefault’                              (2)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'macos'’                    ‘MacOS('default')’                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'safari'’                   ‘MacOS('safari')’                             (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'chrome'’                   ‘MacOS('google chrome')’                      (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'firefox'’                  ‘MacOS('firefox')’                            (3)
                                                                           
                                                                           
‘'google-chrome'’            ‘Chrome('google-chrome')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chromium'’                 ‘Chromium('chromium')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'chromium-browser'’         ‘Chromium('chromium-browser')’
                             
                                                                           
‘'iosbrowser'’               ‘IOSBrowser’                                  (4)
                                                                           

Notes:

  1. «Konqueror» is the file manager for the KDE desktop environment for
     Unix, and only makes sense to use if KDE is running.  Some way of
     reliably detecting KDE would be nice; the ‘KDEDIR’ variable is not
     sufficient.  Note also that the name «kfm» is used even when using
     the ‘konqueror’ command with KDE 2 — the implementation selects the
     best strategy for running Konqueror.

  2. Only on Windows platforms.

  3. Only on macOS.

  4. Only on iOS.

Added in version 3.2: A new ‘MacOSXOSAScript’ class has been added and
is used on Mac instead of the previous ‘MacOSX’ class.  This adds
support for opening browsers not currently set as the OS default.

Added in version 3.3: Support for Chrome/Chromium has been added.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Support for several obsolete browsers has been
removed.  Removed browsers include Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon,
Skipstone, Iceape, and Firefox versions 35 and below.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Support for iOS has been added.

Added in version 3.15: ‘MacOS’ has been added as a replacement for
‘MacOSXOSAScript’, opening browsers via ‘/usr/bin/open’ instead of
‘osascript’.

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.17:
‘MacOSXOSAScript’ is deprecated in favour of ‘MacOS’.  Using
‘/usr/bin/open’ instead of ‘osascript’ is a security and usability
improvement: ‘osascript’ may be blocked on managed systems due to its
abuse potential as a general-purpose scripting interpreter.

Here are some simple examples:

     url = 'https://docs.python.org/'

     # Open URL in a new tab, if a browser window is already open.
     webbrowser.open_new_tab(url)

     # Open URL in new window, raising the window if possible.
     webbrowser.open_new(url)


File: python.info,  Node: Browser controller objects,  Prev: Command-line interface<5>,  Up: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller

5.23.1.2 Browser controller objects
...................................

Browser controllers provide the *note name: 799. attribute, and the
following three methods which parallel module-level convenience
functions:

 -- Ιδιότητα: controller.name

     System-dependent name for the browser.

 -- Μέθοδος: controller.open (url, new=0, autoraise=True)

     Display 'url' using the browser handled by this controller.  If
     'new' is 1, a new browser window is opened if possible.  If 'new'
     is 2, a new browser page («tab») is opened if possible.

 -- Μέθοδος: controller.open_new (url)

     Open 'url' in a new window of the browser handled by this
     controller, if possible, otherwise, open 'url' in the only browser
     window.  Alias *note open_new(): 4113.

 -- Μέθοδος: controller.open_new_tab (url)

     Open 'url' in a new page («tab») of the browser handled by this
     controller, if possible, otherwise equivalent to *note open_new():
     4113.


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation,  Next: urllib — URL handling modules,  Prev: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.2 ‘wsgiref’ — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
--------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/wsgiref(1)

__________________________________________________________________

     Προειδοποίηση: ‘wsgiref’ is a reference implementation and is not
     recommended for production.  The module only implements basic
     security checks.

The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) is a standard interface between
web server software and web applications written in Python.  Having a
standard interface makes it easy to use an application that supports
WSGI with a number of different web servers.

Only authors of web servers and programming frameworks need to know
every detail and corner case of the WSGI design.  You don’t need to
understand every detail of WSGI just to install a WSGI application or to
write a web application using an existing framework.

‘wsgiref’ is a reference implementation of the WSGI specification that
can be used to add WSGI support to a web server or framework.  It
provides utilities for manipulating WSGI environment variables and
response headers, base classes for implementing WSGI servers, a demo
HTTP server that serves WSGI applications, types for static type
checking, and a validation tool that checks WSGI servers and
applications for conformance to the WSGI specification ( PEP 3333(2)).

See wsgi.readthedocs.io(3) for more information about WSGI, and links to
tutorials and other resources.

* Menu:

* wsgiref.util – WSGI environment utilities: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
* wsgiref.headers – WSGI response header tools: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
* wsgiref.simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
* wsgiref.validate — WSGI conformance checker: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
* wsgiref.handlers – server/gateway base classes: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
* wsgiref.types – WSGI types for static type checking: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
* Examples: Examples<22>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/wsgiref

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://wsgi.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities,  Next: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.23.2.1 ‘wsgiref.util’ – WSGI environment utilities
....................................................

This module provides a variety of utility functions for working with
WSGI environments.  A WSGI environment is a dictionary containing HTTP
request variables as described in PEP 3333(1).  All of the functions
taking an 'environ' parameter expect a WSGI-compliant dictionary to be
supplied; please see PEP 3333(2) for a detailed specification and *note
WSGIEnvironment: 4120. for a type alias that can be used in type
annotations.

 -- Συνάρτηση: wsgiref.util.guess_scheme (environ)

     Return a guess for whether ‘wsgi.url_scheme’ should be «http» or
     «https», by checking for a ‘HTTPS’ environment variable in the
     'environ' dictionary.  The return value is a string.

     This function is useful when creating a gateway that wraps CGI or a
     CGI-like protocol such as FastCGI. Typically, servers providing
     such protocols will include a ‘HTTPS’ variable with a value of «1»,
     «yes», or «on» when a request is received via SSL. So, this
     function returns «https» if such a value is found, and «http»
     otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: wsgiref.util.request_uri (environ, include_query=True)

     Return the full request URI, optionally including the query string,
     using the algorithm found in the «URL Reconstruction» section of
     PEP 3333(3).  If 'include_query' is false, the query string is not
     included in the resulting URI.

 -- Συνάρτηση: wsgiref.util.application_uri (environ)

     Similar to *note request_uri(): 4122, except that the ‘PATH_INFO’
     and ‘QUERY_STRING’ variables are ignored.  The result is the base
     URI of the application object addressed by the request.

 -- Συνάρτηση: wsgiref.util.shift_path_info (environ)

     Shift a single name from ‘PATH_INFO’ to ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ and return
     the name.  The 'environ' dictionary is 'modified' in-place; use a
     copy if you need to keep the original ‘PATH_INFO’ or ‘SCRIPT_NAME’
     intact.

     If there are no remaining path segments in ‘PATH_INFO’, ‘None’ is
     returned.

     Typically, this routine is used to process each portion of a
     request URI path, for example to treat the path as a series of
     dictionary keys.  This routine modifies the passed-in environment
     to make it suitable for invoking another WSGI application that is
     located at the target URI. For example, if there is a WSGI
     application at ‘/foo’, and the request URI path is ‘/foo/bar/baz’,
     and the WSGI application at ‘/foo’ calls ‘shift_path_info()’, it
     will receive the string «bar», and the environment will be updated
     to be suitable for passing to a WSGI application at ‘/foo/bar’.
     That is, ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ will change from ‘/foo’ to ‘/foo/bar’, and
     ‘PATH_INFO’ will change from ‘/bar/baz’ to ‘/baz’.

     When ‘PATH_INFO’ is just a «/», this routine returns an empty
     string and appends a trailing slash to ‘SCRIPT_NAME’, even though
     empty path segments are normally ignored, and ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ doesn’t
     normally end in a slash.  This is intentional behavior, to ensure
     that an application can tell the difference between URIs ending in
     ‘/x’ from ones ending in ‘/x/’ when using this routine to do object
     traversal.

 -- Συνάρτηση: wsgiref.util.setup_testing_defaults (environ)

     Update 'environ' with trivial defaults for testing purposes.

     This routine adds various parameters required for WSGI, including
     ‘HTTP_HOST’, ‘SERVER_NAME’, ‘SERVER_PORT’, ‘REQUEST_METHOD’,
     ‘SCRIPT_NAME’, ‘PATH_INFO’, and all of the PEP 3333(4)-defined
     ‘wsgi.*’ variables.  It only supplies default values, and does not
     replace any existing settings for these variables.

     This routine is intended to make it easier for unit tests of WSGI
     servers and applications to set up dummy environments.  It should
     NOT be used by actual WSGI servers or applications, since the data
     is fake!

     Example usage (see also *note demo_app(): 4126. for another
     example):

          from wsgiref.util import setup_testing_defaults
          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

          # A relatively simple WSGI application. It's going to print out the
          # environment dictionary after being updated by setup_testing_defaults
          def simple_app(environ, start_response):
              setup_testing_defaults(environ)

              status = '200 OK'
              headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain; charset=utf-8')]

              start_response(status, headers)

              ret = [("%s: %s\n" % (key, value)).encode("utf-8")
                     for key, value in environ.items()]
              return ret

          with make_server('', 8000, simple_app) as httpd:
              print("Serving on port 8000...")
              httpd.serve_forever()

In addition to the environment functions above, the ‘wsgiref.util’
module also provides these miscellaneous utilities:

 -- Συνάρτηση: wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop (header_name)

     Return ‘True’ if “header_name” is an HTTP/1.1 «Hop-by-Hop» header,
     as defined by RFC 2616(5).

 -- Κλάση: wsgiref.util.FileWrapper (filelike, blksize=8192)

     A concrete implementation of the *note wsgiref.types.FileWrapper:
     4127. protocol used to convert a file-like object to an *note
     iterator: 6ce.  The resulting objects are *note iterable: 15ce.s.
     As the object is iterated over, the optional 'blksize' parameter
     will be repeatedly passed to the 'filelike' object’s ‘read()’
     method to obtain bytestrings to yield.  When ‘read()’ returns an
     empty bytestring, iteration is ended and is not resumable.

     If 'filelike' has a ‘close()’ method, the returned object will also
     have a ‘close()’ method, and it will invoke the 'filelike' object’s
     ‘close()’ method when called.

     Example usage:

          from io import StringIO
          from wsgiref.util import FileWrapper

          # We're using a StringIO-buffer for as the file-like object
          filelike = StringIO("This is an example file-like object"*10)
          wrapper = FileWrapper(filelike, blksize=5)

          for chunk in wrapper:
              print(chunk)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Support for *note __getitem__(): 787.
     method has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools,  Next: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server,  Prev: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.23.2.2 ‘wsgiref.headers’ – WSGI response header tools
.......................................................

This module provides a single class, *note Headers: 1249, for convenient
manipulation of WSGI response headers using a mapping-like interface.

 -- Κλάση: wsgiref.headers.Headers ([headers])

     Create a mapping-like object wrapping 'headers', which must be a
     list of header name/value tuples as described in PEP 3333(1).  The
     default value of 'headers' is an empty list.

     ‘Headers’ objects support typical mapping operations including
     *note __getitem__(): 787, *note get(): 2223, *note __setitem__():
     1670, *note setdefault(): 1421, *note __delitem__(): 1671. and
     *note __contains__(): 175c.  For each of these methods, the key is
     the header name (treated case-insensitively), and the value is the
     first value associated with that header name.  Setting a header
     deletes any existing values for that header, then adds a new value
     at the end of the wrapped header list.  Headers” existing order is
     generally maintained, with new headers added to the end of the
     wrapped list.

     Unlike a dictionary, ‘Headers’ objects do not raise an error when
     you try to get or delete a key that isn’t in the wrapped header
     list.  Getting a nonexistent header just returns ‘None’, and
     deleting a nonexistent header does nothing.

     ‘Headers’ objects also support ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’
     methods.  The lists returned by ‘keys()’ and ‘items()’ can include
     the same key more than once if there is a multi-valued header.  The
     ‘len()’ of a ‘Headers’ object is the same as the length of its
     ‘items()’, which is the same as the length of the wrapped header
     list.  In fact, the ‘items()’ method just returns a copy of the
     wrapped header list.

     Calling ‘bytes()’ on a ‘Headers’ object returns a formatted
     bytestring suitable for transmission as HTTP response headers.
     Each header is placed on a line with its value, separated by a
     colon and a space.  Each line is terminated by a carriage return
     and line feed, and the bytestring is terminated with a blank line.

     In addition to their mapping interface and formatting features,
     ‘Headers’ objects also have the following methods for querying and
     adding multi-valued headers, and for adding headers with MIME
     parameters:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_all (name)

          Return a list of all the values for the named header.

          The returned list will be sorted in the order they appeared in
          the original header list or were added to this instance, and
          may contain duplicates.  Any fields deleted and re-inserted
          are always appended to the header list.  If no fields exist
          with the given name, returns an empty list.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_header (name, value, **_params)

          Add a (possibly multi-valued) header, with optional MIME
          parameters specified via keyword arguments.

          'name' is the header field to add.  Keyword arguments can be
          used to set MIME parameters for the header field.  Each
          parameter must be a string or ‘None’.  Underscores in
          parameter names are converted to dashes, since dashes are
          illegal in Python identifiers, but many MIME parameter names
          include dashes.  If the parameter value is a string, it is
          added to the header value parameters in the form
          ‘name="value"’.  If it is ‘None’, only the parameter name is
          added.  (This is used for MIME parameters without a value.)
          Example usage:

               h.add_header('content-disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif')

          The above will add a header that looks like this:

               Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif"

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: 'headers' parameter is optional.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server,  Next: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker,  Prev: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.23.2.3 ‘wsgiref.simple_server’ – a simple WSGI HTTP server
............................................................

This module implements a simple HTTP server (based on *note http.server:
75.) that serves WSGI applications.  Each server instance serves a
single WSGI application on a given host and port.  If you want to serve
multiple applications on a single host and port, you should create a
WSGI application that parses ‘PATH_INFO’ to select which application to
invoke for each request.  (E.g., using the ‘shift_path_info()’ function
from *note wsgiref.util: 126.)

 -- Συνάρτηση: wsgiref.simple_server.make_server (host, port, app,
          server_class=WSGIServer, handler_class=WSGIRequestHandler)

     Create a new WSGI server listening on 'host' and 'port', accepting
     connections for 'app'.  The return value is an instance of the
     supplied 'server_class', and will process requests using the
     specified 'handler_class'.  'app' must be a WSGI application
     object, as defined by PEP 3333(1).

     Example usage:

          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server, demo_app

          with make_server('', 8000, demo_app) as httpd:
              print("Serving HTTP on port 8000...")

              # Respond to requests until process is killed
              httpd.serve_forever()

              # Alternative: serve one request, then exit
              httpd.handle_request()

 -- Συνάρτηση: wsgiref.simple_server.demo_app (environ, start_response)

     This function is a small but complete WSGI application that returns
     a text page containing the message «Hello world!» and a list of the
     key/value pairs provided in the 'environ' parameter.  It’s useful
     for verifying that a WSGI server (such as ‘wsgiref.simple_server’)
     is able to run a simple WSGI application correctly.

     The 'start_response' callable should follow the *note
     StartResponse: 412d. protocol.

 -- Κλάση: wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass)

     Create a ‘WSGIServer’ instance.  'server_address' should be a
     ‘(host,port)’ tuple, and 'RequestHandlerClass' should be the
     subclass of *note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 226. that
     will be used to process requests.

     You do not normally need to call this constructor, as the *note
     make_server(): 412c. function can handle all the details for you.

     ‘WSGIServer’ is a subclass of *note http.server.HTTPServer: 412f,
     so all of its methods (such as ‘serve_forever()’ and
     ‘handle_request()’) are available.  ‘WSGIServer’ also provides
     these WSGI-specific methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: set_app (application)

          Sets the callable 'application' as the WSGI application that
          will receive requests.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_app ()

          Returns the currently set application callable.

     Normally, however, you do not need to use these additional methods,
     as *note set_app(): 4130. is normally called by *note
     make_server(): 412c, and the *note get_app(): 4131. exists mainly
     for the benefit of request handler instances.

 -- Κλάση: wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler (request,
          client_address, server)

     Create an HTTP handler for the given 'request' (i.e.  a socket),
     'client_address' (a ‘(host,port)’ tuple), and 'server' (*note
     WSGIServer: 412e. instance).

     You do not need to create instances of this class directly; they
     are automatically created as needed by *note WSGIServer: 412e.
     objects.  You can, however, subclass this class and supply it as a
     'handler_class' to the *note make_server(): 412c. function.  Some
     possibly relevant methods for overriding in subclasses:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_environ ()

          Return a *note WSGIEnvironment: 4120. dictionary for a
          request.  The default implementation copies the contents of
          the *note WSGIServer: 412e. object’s ‘base_environ’ dictionary
          attribute and then adds various headers derived from the HTTP
          request.  Each call to this method should return a new
          dictionary containing all of the relevant CGI environment
          variables as specified in PEP 3333(2).

      -- Μέθοδος: get_stderr ()

          Return the object that should be used as the ‘wsgi.errors’
          stream.  The default implementation just returns ‘sys.stderr’.

      -- Μέθοδος: handle ()

          Process the HTTP request.  The default implementation creates
          a handler instance using a *note wsgiref.handlers: 122. class
          to implement the actual WSGI application interface.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker,  Next: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes,  Prev: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.23.2.4 ‘wsgiref.validate’ — WSGI conformance checker
......................................................

When creating new WSGI application objects, frameworks, servers, or
middleware, it can be useful to validate the new code’s conformance
using ‘wsgiref.validate’.  This module provides a function that creates
WSGI application objects that validate communications between a WSGI
server or gateway and a WSGI application object, to check both sides for
protocol conformance.

Note that this utility does not guarantee complete PEP 3333(1)
compliance; an absence of errors from this module does not necessarily
mean that errors do not exist.  However, if this module does produce an
error, then it is virtually certain that either the server or
application is not 100% compliant.

This module is based on the ‘paste.lint’ module from Ian Bicking’s
«Python Paste» library.

 -- Συνάρτηση: wsgiref.validate.validator (application)

     Wrap 'application' and return a new WSGI application object.  The
     returned application will forward all requests to the original
     'application', and will check that both the 'application' and the
     server invoking it are conforming to the WSGI specification and to
     RFC 2616(2).

     Any detected nonconformance results in an *note AssertionError:
     a97. being raised; note, however, that how these errors are handled
     is server-dependent.  For example, *note wsgiref.simple_server:
     124. and other servers based on *note wsgiref.handlers: 122. (that
     don’t override the error handling methods to do something else)
     will simply output a message that an error has occurred, and dump
     the traceback to ‘sys.stderr’ or some other error stream.

     This wrapper may also generate output using the *note warnings:
     11b. module to indicate behaviors that are questionable but which
     may not actually be prohibited by PEP 3333(3).  Unless they are
     suppressed using Python command-line options or the ‘warnings’ API,
     any such warnings will be written to ‘sys.stderr’ ('not'
     ‘wsgi.errors’, unless they happen to be the same object).

     Example usage:

          from wsgiref.validate import validator
          from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server

          # Our callable object which is intentionally not compliant to the
          # standard, so the validator is going to break
          def simple_app(environ, start_response):
              status = '200 OK'  # HTTP Status
              headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain')]  # HTTP Headers
              start_response(status, headers)

              # This is going to break because we need to return a list, and
              # the validator is going to inform us
              return b"Hello World"

          # This is the application wrapped in a validator
          validator_app = validator(simple_app)

          with make_server('', 8000, validator_app) as httpd:
              print("Listening on port 8000....")
              httpd.serve_forever()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes,  Next: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking,  Prev: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.23.2.5 ‘wsgiref.handlers’ – server/gateway base classes
.........................................................

This module provides base handler classes for implementing WSGI servers
and gateways.  These base classes handle most of the work of
communicating with a WSGI application, as long as they are given a
CGI-like environment, along with input, output, and error streams.

 -- Κλάση: wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler

     CGI-based invocation via ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’, ‘sys.stderr’
     and ‘os.environ’.  This is useful when you have a WSGI application
     and want to run it as a CGI script.  Simply invoke
     ‘CGIHandler().run(app)’, where ‘app’ is the WSGI application object
     you wish to invoke.

     This class is a subclass of *note BaseCGIHandler: 413a. that sets
     ‘wsgi.run_once’ to true, ‘wsgi.multithread’ to false, and
     ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ to true, and always uses *note sys: e2. and
     *note os: a5. to obtain the necessary CGI streams and environment.

 -- Κλάση: wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler

     A specialized alternative to *note CGIHandler: 4139, for use when
     deploying on Microsoft’s IIS web server, without having set the
     config allowPathInfo option (IIS>=7) or metabase
     allowPathInfoForScriptMappings (IIS<7).

     By default, IIS gives a ‘PATH_INFO’ that duplicates the
     ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ at the front, causing problems for WSGI applications
     that wish to implement routing.  This handler strips any such
     duplicated path.

     IIS can be configured to pass the correct ‘PATH_INFO’, but this
     causes another bug where ‘PATH_TRANSLATED’ is wrong.  Luckily this
     variable is rarely used and is not guaranteed by WSGI. On IIS<7,
     though, the setting can only be made on a vhost level, affecting
     all other script mappings, many of which break when exposed to the
     ‘PATH_TRANSLATED’ bug.  For this reason IIS<7 is almost never
     deployed with the fix (Even IIS7 rarely uses it because there is
     still no UI for it.).

     There is no way for CGI code to tell whether the option was set, so
     a separate handler class is provided.  It is used in the same way
     as *note CGIHandler: 4139, i.e., by calling
     ‘IISCGIHandler().run(app)’, where ‘app’ is the WSGI application
     object you wish to invoke.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Κλάση: wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler (stdin, stdout, stderr,
          environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)

     Similar to *note CGIHandler: 4139, but instead of using the *note
     sys: e2. and *note os: a5. modules, the CGI environment and I/O
     streams are specified explicitly.  The 'multithread' and
     'multiprocess' values are used to set the ‘wsgi.multithread’ and
     ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ flags for any applications run by the handler
     instance.

     This class is a subclass of *note SimpleHandler: 413c. intended for
     use with software other than HTTP «origin servers».  If you are
     writing a gateway protocol implementation (such as CGI, FastCGI,
     SCGI, etc.)  that uses a ‘Status:’ header to send an HTTP status,
     you probably want to subclass this instead of ‘SimpleHandler’.

 -- Κλάση: wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler (stdin, stdout, stderr,
          environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False)

     Similar to *note BaseCGIHandler: 413a, but designed for use with
     HTTP origin servers.  If you are writing an HTTP server
     implementation, you will probably want to subclass this instead of
     ‘BaseCGIHandler’.

     This class is a subclass of *note BaseHandler: 1fc2.  It overrides
     the ‘__init__()’, *note get_stdin(): 413d, *note get_stderr():
     413e, *note add_cgi_vars(): 413f, *note _write(): 4140, and *note
     _flush(): 4141. methods to support explicitly setting the
     environment and streams via the constructor.  The supplied
     environment and streams are stored in the ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’,
     ‘stderr’, and ‘environ’ attributes.

     The *note write(): 1099. method of 'stdout' should write each chunk
     in full, like *note io.BufferedIOBase: a83.

 -- Κλάση: wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler

     This is an abstract base class for running WSGI applications.  Each
     instance will handle a single HTTP request, although in principle
     you could create a subclass that was reusable for multiple
     requests.

     ‘BaseHandler’ instances have only one method intended for external
     use:

      -- Μέθοδος: run (app)

          Run the specified WSGI application, 'app'.

     All of the other ‘BaseHandler’ methods are invoked by this method
     in the process of running the application, and thus exist primarily
     to allow customizing the process.

     The following methods MUST be overridden in a subclass:

      -- Μέθοδος: _write (data)

          Buffer the bytes 'data' for transmission to the client.  It’s
          okay if this method actually transmits the data; ‘BaseHandler’
          just separates write and flush operations for greater
          efficiency when the underlying system actually has such a
          distinction.

      -- Μέθοδος: _flush ()

          Force buffered data to be transmitted to the client.  It’s
          okay if this method is a no-op (i.e., if *note _write(): 4140.
          actually sends the data).

      -- Μέθοδος: get_stdin ()

          Return an object compatible with *note InputStream: 4143.
          suitable for use as the ‘wsgi.input’ of the request currently
          being processed.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_stderr ()

          Return an object compatible with *note ErrorStream: 4144.
          suitable for use as the ‘wsgi.errors’ of the request currently
          being processed.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_cgi_vars ()

          Insert CGI variables for the current request into the
          ‘environ’ attribute.

     Here are some other methods and attributes you may wish to
     override.  This list is only a summary, however, and does not
     include every method that can be overridden.  You should consult
     the docstrings and source code for additional information before
     attempting to create a customized ‘BaseHandler’ subclass.

     Attributes and methods for customizing the WSGI environment:

      -- Ιδιότητα: wsgi_multithread

          The value to be used for the ‘wsgi.multithread’ environment
          variable.  It defaults to true in ‘BaseHandler’, but may have
          a different default (or be set by the constructor) in the
          other subclasses.

      -- Ιδιότητα: wsgi_multiprocess

          The value to be used for the ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ environment
          variable.  It defaults to true in ‘BaseHandler’, but may have
          a different default (or be set by the constructor) in the
          other subclasses.

      -- Ιδιότητα: wsgi_run_once

          The value to be used for the ‘wsgi.run_once’ environment
          variable.  It defaults to false in ‘BaseHandler’, but *note
          CGIHandler: 4139. sets it to true by default.

      -- Ιδιότητα: os_environ

          The default environment variables to be included in every
          request’s WSGI environment.  By default, this is a copy of
          ‘os.environ’ at the time that ‘wsgiref.handlers’ was imported,
          but subclasses can either create their own at the class or
          instance level.  Note that the dictionary should be considered
          read-only, since the default value is shared between multiple
          classes and instances.

      -- Ιδιότητα: server_software

          If the *note origin_server: 414a. attribute is set, this
          attribute’s value is used to set the default ‘SERVER_SOFTWARE’
          WSGI environment variable, and also to set a default ‘Server:’
          header in HTTP responses.  It is ignored for handlers (such as
          *note BaseCGIHandler: 413a. and *note CGIHandler: 4139.) that
          are not HTTP origin servers.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The term «Python» is replaced with
          implementation specific term like «CPython», «Jython» etc.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_scheme ()

          Return the URL scheme being used for the current request.  The
          default implementation uses the ‘guess_scheme()’ function from
          *note wsgiref.util: 126. to guess whether the scheme should be
          «http» or «https», based on the current request’s ‘environ’
          variables.

      -- Μέθοδος: setup_environ ()

          Set the ‘environ’ attribute to a fully populated WSGI
          environment.  The default implementation uses all of the above
          methods and attributes, plus the *note get_stdin(): 413d,
          *note get_stderr(): 413e, and *note add_cgi_vars(): 413f.
          methods and the *note wsgi_file_wrapper: 414d. attribute.  It
          also inserts a ‘SERVER_SOFTWARE’ key if not present, as long
          as the *note origin_server: 414a. attribute is a true value
          and the *note server_software: 4149. attribute is set.

     Methods and attributes for customizing exception handling:

      -- Μέθοδος: log_exception (exc_info)

          Log the 'exc_info' tuple in the server log.  'exc_info' is a
          ‘(type, value, traceback)’ tuple.  The default implementation
          simply writes the traceback to the request’s ‘wsgi.errors’
          stream and flushes it.  Subclasses can override this method to
          change the format or retarget the output, mail the traceback
          to an administrator, or whatever other action may be deemed
          suitable.

      -- Ιδιότητα: traceback_limit

          The maximum number of frames to include in tracebacks output
          by the default *note log_exception(): 414e. method.  If
          ‘None’, all frames are included.

      -- Μέθοδος: error_output (environ, start_response)

          This method is a WSGI application to generate an error page
          for the user.  It is only invoked if an error occurs before
          headers are sent to the client.

          This method can access the current error using
          ‘sys.exception()’, and should pass that information to
          'start_response' when calling it (as described in the «Error
          Handling» section of PEP 3333(1)).  In particular, the
          'start_response' callable should follow the *note
          StartResponse: 412d. protocol.

          The default implementation just uses the *note error_status:
          4151, *note error_headers: 4152, and *note error_body: 4153.
          attributes to generate an output page.  Subclasses can
          override this to produce more dynamic error output.

          Note, however, that it’s not recommended from a security
          perspective to spit out diagnostics to any old user; ideally,
          you should have to do something special to enable diagnostic
          output, which is why the default implementation doesn’t
          include any.

      -- Ιδιότητα: error_status

          The HTTP status used for error responses.  This should be a
          status string as defined in PEP 3333(2); it defaults to a 500
          code and message.

      -- Ιδιότητα: error_headers

          The HTTP headers used for error responses.  This should be a
          list of WSGI response headers (‘(name, value)’ tuples), as
          described in PEP 3333(3).  The default list just sets the
          content type to ‘text/plain’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: error_body

          The error response body.  This should be an HTTP response body
          bytestring.  It defaults to the plain text, «A server error
          occurred.  Please contact the administrator.»

     Methods and attributes for PEP 3333(4)’s «Optional
     Platform-Specific File Handling» feature:

      -- Ιδιότητα: wsgi_file_wrapper

          A ‘wsgi.file_wrapper’ factory, compatible with *note
          wsgiref.types.FileWrapper: 4127, or ‘None’.  The default value
          of this attribute is the *note wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: b1d.
          class.

      -- Μέθοδος: sendfile ()

          Override to implement platform-specific file transmission.
          This method is called only if the application’s return value
          is an instance of the class specified by the *note
          wsgi_file_wrapper: 414d. attribute.  It should return a true
          value if it was able to successfully transmit the file, so
          that the default transmission code will not be executed.  The
          default implementation of this method just returns a false
          value.

     Miscellaneous methods and attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: origin_server

          This attribute should be set to a true value if the handler’s
          *note _write(): 4140. and *note _flush(): 4141. are being used
          to communicate directly to the client, rather than via a
          CGI-like gateway protocol that wants the HTTP status in a
          special ‘Status:’ header.

          This attribute’s default value is true in ‘BaseHandler’, but
          false in *note BaseCGIHandler: 413a. and *note CGIHandler:
          4139.

      -- Ιδιότητα: http_version

          If *note origin_server: 414a. is true, this string attribute
          is used to set the HTTP version of the response set to the
          client.  It defaults to ‘"1.0"’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: wsgiref.handlers.read_environ ()

     Transcode CGI variables from ‘os.environ’ to PEP 3333(5) «bytes in
     unicode» strings, returning a new dictionary.  This function is
     used by *note CGIHandler: 4139. and *note IISCGIHandler: 413b. in
     place of directly using ‘os.environ’, which is not necessarily
     WSGI-compliant on all platforms and web servers using Python 3 –
     specifically, ones where the OS’s actual environment is Unicode
     (i.e.  Windows), or ones where the environment is bytes, but the
     system encoding used by Python to decode it is anything other than
     ISO-8859-1 (e.g.  Unix systems using UTF-8).

     If you are implementing a CGI-based handler of your own, you
     probably want to use this routine instead of just copying values
     out of ‘os.environ’ directly.

     Added in version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/


File: python.info,  Node: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking,  Next: Examples<22>,  Prev: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.23.2.6 ‘wsgiref.types’ – WSGI types for static type checking
..............................................................

This module provides various types for static type checking as described
in PEP 3333(1).

Added in version 3.11.

 -- Κλάση: wsgiref.types.StartResponse

     A *note typing.Protocol: 76c. describing start_response()(2)
     callables ( PEP 3333(3)).

 -- Δεδομένα: wsgiref.types.WSGIEnvironment

     A type alias describing a WSGI environment dictionary.

 -- Δεδομένα: wsgiref.types.WSGIApplication

     A type alias describing a WSGI application callable.

 -- Κλάση: wsgiref.types.InputStream

     A *note typing.Protocol: 76c. describing a WSGI Input Stream(4).

 -- Κλάση: wsgiref.types.ErrorStream

     A *note typing.Protocol: 76c. describing a WSGI Error Stream(5).

 -- Κλάση: wsgiref.types.FileWrapper

     A *note typing.Protocol: 76c. describing a file wrapper(6).  See
     *note wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: b1d. for a concrete implementation
     of this protocol.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#the-start-response-callable

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams

   (6) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#optional-platform-specific-file-handling


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<22>,  Prev: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking,  Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

5.23.2.7 Examples
.................

This is a working «Hello World» WSGI application, where the
'start_response' callable should follow the *note StartResponse: 412d.
protocol:

     """
     Every WSGI application must have an application object - a callable
     object that accepts two arguments. For that purpose, we're going to
     use a function (note that you're not limited to a function, you can
     use a class for example). The first argument passed to the function
     is a dictionary containing CGI-style environment variables and the
     second variable is the callable object.
     """
     from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server


     def hello_world_app(environ, start_response):
         status = "200 OK"  # HTTP Status
         headers = [("Content-type", "text/plain; charset=utf-8")]  # HTTP Headers
         start_response(status, headers)

         # The returned object is going to be printed
         return [b"Hello World"]

     with make_server("", 8000, hello_world_app) as httpd:
         print("Serving on port 8000...")

         # Serve until process is killed
         httpd.serve_forever()

Example of a WSGI application serving the current directory, accept
optional directory and port number (default: 8000) on the command line:

     """
     Small wsgiref based web server. Takes a path to serve from and an
     optional port number (defaults to 8000), then tries to serve files.
     MIME types are guessed from the file names, 404 errors are raised
     if the file is not found.
     """
     import mimetypes
     import os
     import sys
     from wsgiref import simple_server, util


     def app(environ, respond):
         # Get the file name and MIME type
         fn = os.path.join(path, environ["PATH_INFO"][1:])
         if "." not in fn.split(os.path.sep)[-1]:
             fn = os.path.join(fn, "index.html")
         mime_type = mimetypes.guess_file_type(fn)[0]

         # Return 200 OK if file exists, otherwise 404 Not Found
         if os.path.exists(fn):
             respond("200 OK", [("Content-Type", mime_type)])
             return util.FileWrapper(open(fn, "rb"))
         else:
             respond("404 Not Found", [("Content-Type", "text/plain")])
             return [b"not found"]


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         # Get the path and port from command-line arguments
         path = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) > 1 else os.getcwd()
         port = int(sys.argv[2]) if len(sys.argv) > 2 else 8000

         # Make and start the server until control-c
         httpd = simple_server.make_server("", port, app)
         print(f"Serving {path} on port {port}, control-C to stop")
         try:
             httpd.serve_forever()
         except KeyboardInterrupt:
             print("Shutting down.")
             httpd.server_close()


File: python.info,  Node: urllib — URL handling modules,  Next: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs,  Prev: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.3 ‘urllib’ — URL handling modules
--------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/urllib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘urllib’ is a package that collects several modules for working with
URLs:

   * *note urllib.request: 114. for opening and reading URLs

   * *note urllib.error: 112. containing the exceptions raised by *note
     urllib.request: 114.

   * *note urllib.parse: 113. for parsing URLs

   * *note urllib.robotparser: 116. for parsing ‘robots.txt’ files

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/urllib/


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs,  Next: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib,  Prev: urllib — URL handling modules,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.4 ‘urllib.request’ — Extensible library for opening URLs
-------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/urllib/request.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘urllib.request’ module defines functions and classes which help in
opening URLs (mostly HTTP) in a complex world — basic and digest
authentication, redirections, cookies and more.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The Requests package(2) is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client
interface.

     Προειδοποίηση: On macOS it is unsafe to use this module in programs
     using *note os.fork(): 6bd. because the *note getproxies(): 415f.
     implementation for macOS uses a higher-level system API. Set the
     environment variable ‘no_proxy’ to ‘*’ to avoid this problem (e.g.
     ‘os.environ["no_proxy"] = "*"’).

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

The ‘urllib.request’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.request.urlopen (url, data=None[, timeout], *,
          context=None)

     Open 'url', which can be either a string containing a valid,
     properly encoded URL, or a *note Request: 1381. object.

     'data' must be an object specifying additional data to be sent to
     the server, or ‘None’ if no such data is needed.  See *note
     Request: 1381. for details.

     urllib.request module uses HTTP/1.1 and includes ‘Connection:close’
     header in its HTTP requests.

     The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for
     blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified,
     the global default timeout setting will be used).  This actually
     only works for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections.

     If 'context' is specified, it must be a *note ssl.SSLContext: 336.
     instance describing the various SSL options.  See *note
     HTTPSConnection: 224. for more details.

     This function always returns an object which can work as a *note
     context manager: 478. and has the properties 'url', 'headers', and
     'status'.  See *note urllib.response.addinfourl: 4160. for more
     detail on these properties.

     For HTTP and HTTPS URLs, this function returns a *note
     http.client.HTTPResponse: 147a. object slightly modified.  In
     addition to the three new methods above, the msg attribute contains
     the same information as the *note reason: 4161. attribute — the
     reason phrase returned by server — instead of the response headers
     as it is specified in the documentation for ‘HTTPResponse’.

     For FTP, file, and data URLs, this function returns a *note
     urllib.response.addinfourl: 4160. object.

     Raises *note URLError: 53a. on protocol errors.

     Note that ‘None’ may be returned if no handler handles the request
     (though the default installed global *note OpenerDirector: 199b.
     uses *note UnknownHandler: 4162. to ensure this never happens).

     In addition, if proxy settings are detected (for example, when a
     ‘*_proxy’ environment variable like ‘http_proxy’ is set), *note
     ProxyHandler: 1fa5. is default installed and makes sure the
     requests are handled through the proxy.

     The legacy ‘urllib.urlopen’ function from Python 2.6 and earlier
     has been discontinued; *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 57f.
     corresponds to the old ‘urllib2.urlopen’.  Proxy handling, which
     was done by passing a dictionary parameter to ‘urllib.urlopen’, can
     be obtained by using *note ProxyHandler: 1fa5. objects.

     The default opener raises an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘urllib.Request’ with arguments ‘fullurl’, ‘data’, ‘headers’,
     ‘method’ taken from the request object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'cafile' and 'capath' were added.

     HTTPS virtual hosts are now supported if possible (that is, if
     *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3c20. is true).

     'data' can be an iterable object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'cadefault' was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4.3: 'context' was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: HTTPS connection now send an ALPN
     extension with protocol indicator ‘http/1.1’ when no 'context' is
     given.  Custom 'context' should set ALPN protocols with *note
     set_alpn_protocols(): 1215.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Remove 'cafile', 'capath' and 'cadefault'
     parameters: use the 'context' parameter instead.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.request.install_opener (opener)

     Install an *note OpenerDirector: 199b. instance as the default
     global opener.  Installing an opener is only necessary if you want
     urlopen to use that opener; otherwise, simply call *note
     OpenerDirector.open(): 1385. instead of *note urlopen(): 57f.  The
     code does not check for a real ‘OpenerDirector’, and any class with
     the appropriate interface will work.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.request.build_opener ([handler, ...])

     Return an *note OpenerDirector: 199b. instance, which chains the
     handlers in the order given.  'handler's can be either instances of
     *note BaseHandler: 4164, or subclasses of ‘BaseHandler’ (in which
     case it must be possible to call the constructor without any
     parameters).  Instances of the following classes will be in front
     of the 'handler's, unless the 'handler's contain them, instances of
     them or subclasses of them: *note ProxyHandler: 1fa5. (if proxy
     settings are detected), *note UnknownHandler: 4162, *note
     HTTPHandler: 10b8, *note HTTPDefaultErrorHandler: 4165, *note
     HTTPRedirectHandler: 4166, *note FTPHandler: 4167, *note
     FileHandler: 4168, *note HTTPErrorProcessor: 4169.

     If the Python installation has SSL support (i.e., if the *note ssl:
     d8. module can be imported), *note HTTPSHandler: 15ca. will also be
     added.

     A *note BaseHandler: 4164. subclass may also change its
     ‘handler_order’ attribute to modify its position in the handlers
     list.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.request.pathname2url (path, *, add_scheme=False)

     Convert the given local path to a ‘file:’ URL. This function uses
     *note quote(): f62. function to encode the path.

     If 'add_scheme' is false (the default), the return value omits the
     ‘file:’ scheme prefix.  Set 'add_scheme' to true to return a
     complete URL.

     This example shows the function being used on Windows:

          >>> from urllib.request import pathname2url
          >>> path = 'C:\\Program Files'
          >>> pathname2url(path, add_scheme=True)
          'file:///C:/Program%20Files'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Windows drive letters are no longer
     converted to uppercase, and ‘:’ characters not following a drive
     letter no longer cause an *note OSError: 53c. exception to be
     raised on Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Paths beginning with a slash are converted
     to URLs with authority sections.  For example, the path
     ‘/etc/hosts’ is converted to the URL ‘///etc/hosts’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The 'add_scheme' parameter was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.request.url2pathname (url, *,
          require_scheme=False, resolve_host=False)

     Convert the given ‘file:’ URL to a local path.  This function uses
     *note unquote(): 1cfa. to decode the URL.

     If 'require_scheme' is false (the default), the given value should
     omit a ‘file:’ scheme prefix.  If 'require_scheme' is set to true,
     the given value should include the prefix; a *note URLError: 53a.
     is raised if it doesn’t.

     The URL authority is discarded if it is empty, ‘localhost’, or the
     local hostname.  Otherwise, if 'resolve_host' is set to true, the
     authority is resolved using *note socket.gethostbyname(): 3bdf. and
     discarded if it matches a local IP address (as per RFC 8089 §3(3)).
     If the authority is still unhandled, then on Windows a UNC path is
     returned, and on other platforms a *note URLError: 53a. is raised.

     This example shows the function being used on Windows:

          >>> from urllib.request import url2pathname
          >>> url = 'file:///C:/Program%20Files'
          >>> url2pathname(url, require_scheme=True)
          'C:\\Program Files'

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Windows drive letters are no longer
     converted to uppercase, and ‘:’ characters not following a drive
     letter no longer cause an *note OSError: 53c. exception to be
     raised on Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The URL authority is discarded if it
     matches the local hostname.  Otherwise, if the authority isn’t
     empty or ‘localhost’, then on Windows a UNC path is returned (as
     before), and on other platforms a *note URLError: 53a. is raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The URL query and fragment components are
     discarded if present.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The 'require_scheme' and 'resolve_host'
     parameters were added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.request.getproxies ()

     This helper function returns a dictionary of scheme to proxy server
     URL mappings.  It scans the environment for variables named
     ‘<scheme>_proxy’, in a case insensitive approach, for all operating
     systems first, and when it cannot find it, looks for proxy
     information from System Configuration for macOS and Windows Systems
     Registry for Windows.  If both lowercase and uppercase environment
     variables exist (and disagree), lowercase is preferred.

          Σημείωση: If the environment variable ‘REQUEST_METHOD’ is set,
          which usually indicates your script is running in a CGI
          environment, the environment variable ‘HTTP_PROXY’ (uppercase
          ‘_PROXY’) will be ignored.  This is because that variable can
          be injected by a client using the «Proxy:» HTTP header.  If
          you need to use an HTTP proxy in a CGI environment, either use
          ‘ProxyHandler’ explicitly, or make sure the variable name is
          in lowercase (or at least the ‘_proxy’ suffix).

The following classes are provided:

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.Request (url, data=None, headers={},
          origin_req_host=None, unverifiable=False, method=None)

     This class is an abstraction of a URL request.

     'url' should be a string containing a valid, properly encoded URL.

     'data' must be an object specifying additional data to send to the
     server, or ‘None’ if no such data is needed.  Currently HTTP
     requests are the only ones that use 'data'.  The supported object
     types include bytes, file-like objects, and iterables of bytes-like
     objects.  If no ‘Content-Length’ nor ‘Transfer-Encoding’ header
     field has been provided, *note HTTPHandler: 10b8. will set these
     headers according to the type of 'data'.  ‘Content-Length’ will be
     used to send bytes objects, while ‘Transfer-Encoding: chunked’ as
     specified in RFC 7230(4), Section 3.3.1 will be used to send files
     and other iterables.

     For an HTTP POST request method, 'data' should be a buffer in the
     standard ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ format.  The *note
     urllib.parse.urlencode(): 1246. function takes a mapping or
     sequence of 2-tuples and returns an ASCII string in this format.
     It should be encoded to bytes before being used as the 'data'
     parameter.

     'headers' should be a dictionary, and will be treated as if *note
     add_header(): 416a. was called with each key and value as
     arguments.  This is often used to «spoof» the ‘User-Agent’ header
     value, which is used by a browser to identify itself – some HTTP
     servers only allow requests coming from common browsers as opposed
     to scripts.  For example, Mozilla Firefox may identify itself as
     ‘"Mozilla/5.0 (X11; U; Linux i686) Gecko/20071127
     Firefox/2.0.0.11"’, while *note urllib: 111.’s default user agent
     string is ‘"Python-urllib/2.6"’ (on Python 2.6).  All header keys
     are sent in camel case.

     An appropriate ‘Content-Type’ header should be included if the
     'data' argument is present.  If this header has not been provided
     and 'data' is not ‘None’, ‘Content-Type:
     application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ will be added as a default.

     The next two arguments are only of interest for correct handling of
     third-party HTTP cookies:

     'origin_req_host' should be the request-host of the origin
     transaction, as defined by RFC 2965(5).  It defaults to
     ‘http.cookiejar.request_host(self)’.  This is the host name or IP
     address of the original request that was initiated by the user.
     For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document,
     this should be the request-host of the request for the page
     containing the image.

     'unverifiable' should indicate whether the request is unverifiable,
     as defined by RFC 2965(6).  It defaults to ‘False’.  An
     unverifiable request is one whose URL the user did not have the
     option to approve.  For example, if the request is for an image in
     an HTML document, and the user had no option to approve the
     automatic fetching of the image, this should be true.

     'method' should be a string that indicates the HTTP request method
     that will be used (e.g.  ‘'HEAD'’).  If provided, its value is
     stored in the *note method: 1382. attribute and is used by *note
     get_method(): 1512.  The default is ‘'GET'’ if 'data' is ‘None’ or
     ‘'POST'’ otherwise.  Subclasses may indicate a different default
     method by setting the ‘method’ attribute in the class itself.

          Σημείωση: The request will not work as expected if the data
          object is unable to deliver its content more than once (e.g.
          a file or an iterable that can produce the content only once)
          and the request is retried for HTTP redirects or
          authentication.  The 'data' is sent to the HTTP server right
          away after the headers.  There is no support for a
          100-continue expectation in the library.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: *note Request.method: 1382. argument is
     added to the Request class.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Default *note Request.method: 1382. may be
     indicated at the class level.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Do not raise an error if the
     ‘Content-Length’ has not been provided and 'data' is neither ‘None’
     nor a bytes object.  Fall back to use chunked transfer encoding
     instead.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.OpenerDirector

     The ‘OpenerDirector’ class opens URLs via *note BaseHandler: 4164.s
     chained together.  It manages the chaining of handlers, and
     recovery from errors.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.BaseHandler

     This is the base class for all registered handlers — and handles
     only the simple mechanics of registration.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler

     A class which defines a default handler for HTTP error responses;
     all responses are turned into *note HTTPError: 1387. exceptions.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler

     A class to handle redirections.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor (cookiejar=None)

     A class to handle HTTP Cookies.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.ProxyHandler (proxies=None)

     Cause requests to go through a proxy.  If 'proxies' is given, it
     must be a dictionary mapping protocol names to URLs of proxies.
     The default is to read the list of proxies from the environment
     variables ‘<protocol>_proxy’.  If no proxy environment variables
     are set, then in a Windows environment proxy settings are obtained
     from the registry’s Internet Settings section, and in a macOS
     environment proxy information is retrieved from the System
     Configuration Framework.

     To disable autodetected proxy pass an empty dictionary.

     The ‘no_proxy’ environment variable can be used to specify hosts
     which shouldn’t be reached via proxy; if set, it should be a
     comma-separated list of hostname suffixes, optionally with ‘:port’
     appended, for example ‘cern.ch,ncsa.uiuc.edu,some.host:8080’.

          Σημείωση: ‘HTTP_PROXY’ will be ignored if a variable
          ‘REQUEST_METHOD’ is set; see the documentation on *note
          getproxies(): 415f.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr

     Keep a database of ‘(realm, uri) -> (user, password)’ mappings.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm

     Keep a database of ‘(realm, uri) -> (user, password)’ mappings.  A
     realm of ‘None’ is considered a catch-all realm, which is searched
     if no other realm fits.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth

     A variant of *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 416d. that also
     has a database of ‘uri -> is_authenticated’ mappings.  Can be used
     by a BasicAuth handler to determine when to send authentication
     credentials immediately instead of waiting for a ‘401’ response
     first.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to
     the remote host and to a proxy.  'password_mgr', if given, should
     be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 416c.;
     refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 416e. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.  If
     'passwd_mgr' also provides ‘is_authenticated’ and
     ‘update_authenticated’ methods (see *note
     HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects: 416f.), then the handler will
     use the ‘is_authenticated’ result for a given URI to determine
     whether or not to send authentication credentials with the request.
     If ‘is_authenticated’ returns ‘True’ for the URI, credentials are
     sent.  If ‘is_authenticated’ is ‘False’, credentials are not sent,
     and then if a ‘401’ response is received the request is re-sent
     with the authentication credentials.  If authentication succeeds,
     ‘update_authenticated’ is called to set ‘is_authenticated’ ‘True’
     for the URI, so that subsequent requests to the URI or any of its
     super-URIs will automatically include the authentication
     credentials.

     Added in version 3.5: Added ‘is_authenticated’ support.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the remote host.  'password_mgr', if
     given, should be something that is compatible with *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr: 416c.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr
     Objects: 416e. for information on the interface that must be
     supported.  HTTPBasicAuthHandler will raise a *note ValueError:
     277. when presented with a wrong Authentication scheme.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the proxy.  'password_mgr', if given,
     should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr:
     416c.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 416e. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to
     the remote host and to a proxy.  'password_mgr', if given, should
     be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 416c.;
     refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 416e. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added support for HTTP digest
     authentication algorithm ‘SHA-256’.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the remote host.  'password_mgr', if
     given, should be something that is compatible with *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr: 416c.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr
     Objects: 416e. for information on the interface that must be
     supported.  When both Digest Authentication Handler and Basic
     Authentication Handler are both added, Digest Authentication is
     always tried first.  If the Digest Authentication returns a 40x
     response again, it is sent to Basic Authentication handler to
     Handle.  This Handler method will raise a *note ValueError: 277.
     when presented with an authentication scheme other than Digest or
     Basic.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Raise *note ValueError: 277. on unsupported
     Authentication Scheme.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None)

     Handle authentication with the proxy.  'password_mgr', if given,
     should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr:
     416c.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 416e. for
     information on the interface that must be supported.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.HTTPHandler

     A class to handle opening of HTTP URLs.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.HTTPSHandler (debuglevel=0, context=None,
          check_hostname=None)

     A class to handle opening of HTTPS URLs.  'context' and
     'check_hostname' have the same meaning as in *note
     http.client.HTTPSConnection: 224.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'context' and 'check_hostname' were added.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.FileHandler

     Open local files.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.DataHandler

     Open data URLs.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.FTPHandler

     Open FTP URLs.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler

     Open FTP URLs, keeping a cache of open FTP connections to minimize
     delays.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.UnknownHandler

     A catch-all class to handle unknown URLs.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor

     Process HTTP error responses.

* Menu:

* Request Objects::
* OpenerDirector Objects::
* BaseHandler Objects::
* HTTPRedirectHandler Objects::
* HTTPCookieProcessor Objects::
* ProxyHandler Objects::
* HTTPPasswordMgr Objects::
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects::
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects::
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects::
* HTTPHandler Objects::
* HTTPSHandler Objects::
* FileHandler Objects::
* DataHandler Objects::
* FTPHandler Objects::
* CacheFTPHandler Objects::
* UnknownHandler Objects::
* HTTPErrorProcessor Objects::
* Examples: Examples<23>.
* Legacy interface::
* urllib.request Restrictions: urllib request Restrictions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/urllib/request.py

   (2) https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/master/

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8089.html#section-3

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7230.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: Request Objects,  Next: OpenerDirector Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.1 Request Objects
........................

The following methods describe *note Request: 1381.’s public interface,
and so all may be overridden in subclasses.  It also defines several
public attributes that can be used by clients to inspect the parsed
request.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Request.full_url

     The original URL passed to the constructor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4.

     Request.full_url is a property with setter, getter and a deleter.
     Getting ‘full_url’ returns the original request URL with the
     fragment, if it was present.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Request.type

     The URI scheme.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Request.host

     The URI authority, typically a host, but may also contain a port
     separated by a colon.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Request.origin_req_host

     The original host for the request, without port.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Request.selector

     The URI path.  If the *note Request: 1381. uses a proxy, then
     selector will be the full URL that is passed to the proxy.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Request.data

     The entity body for the request, or ‘None’ if not specified.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Changing value of ‘Request.data’ now
     deletes «Content-Length» header if it was previously set or
     calculated.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Request.unverifiable

     boolean, indicates whether the request is unverifiable as defined
     by RFC 2965(1).

 -- Ιδιότητα: Request.method

     The HTTP request method to use.  By default its value is *note
     None: a65, which means that *note get_method(): 1512. will do its
     normal computation of the method to be used.  Its value can be set
     (thus overriding the default computation in ‘get_method()’) either
     by providing a default value by setting it at the class level in a
     *note Request: 1381. subclass, or by passing a value in to the
     ‘Request’ constructor via the 'method' argument.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: A default value can now be set in
     subclasses; previously it could only be set via the constructor
     argument.

 -- Μέθοδος: Request.get_method ()

     Return a string indicating the HTTP request method.  If *note
     Request.method: 1382. is not ‘None’, return its value, otherwise
     return ‘'GET'’ if *note Request.data: 1384. is ‘None’, or ‘'POST'’
     if it’s not.  This is only meaningful for HTTP requests.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: get_method now looks at the value of *note
     Request.method: 1382.

 -- Μέθοδος: Request.add_header (key, val)

     Add another header to the request.  Headers are currently ignored
     by all handlers except HTTP handlers, where they are added to the
     list of headers sent to the server.  Note that there cannot be more
     than one header with the same name, and later calls will overwrite
     previous calls in case the 'key' collides.  Currently, this is no
     loss of HTTP functionality, since all headers which have meaning
     when used more than once have a (header-specific) way of gaining
     the same functionality using only one header.  Note that headers
     added using this method are also added to redirected requests.

 -- Μέθοδος: Request.add_unredirected_header (key, header)

     Add a header that will not be added to a redirected request.

 -- Μέθοδος: Request.has_header (header)

     Return whether the instance has the named header (checks both
     regular and unredirected).

 -- Μέθοδος: Request.remove_header (header)

     Remove named header from the request instance (both from regular
     and unredirected headers).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μέθοδος: Request.get_full_url ()

     Return the URL given in the constructor.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4.

     Returns *note Request.full_url: 1383.

 -- Μέθοδος: Request.set_proxy (host, type)

     Prepare the request by connecting to a proxy server.  The 'host'
     and 'type' will replace those of the instance, and the instance’s
     selector will be the original URL given in the constructor.

 -- Μέθοδος: Request.get_header (header_name, default=None)

     Return the value of the given header.  If the header is not
     present, return the default value.

 -- Μέθοδος: Request.header_items ()

     Return a list of tuples (header_name, header_value) of the Request
     headers.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The request methods add_data, has_data,
get_data, get_type, get_host, get_selector, get_origin_req_host and
is_unverifiable that were deprecated since 3.3 have been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: OpenerDirector Objects,  Next: BaseHandler Objects,  Prev: Request Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.2 OpenerDirector Objects
...............................

*note OpenerDirector: 199b. instances have the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: OpenerDirector.add_handler (handler)

     'handler' should be an instance of *note BaseHandler: 4164.  The
     following methods are searched, and added to the possible chains
     (note that HTTP errors are a special case).  Note that, in the
     following, 'protocol' should be replaced with the actual protocol
     to handle, for example ‘http_response()’ would be the HTTP protocol
     response handler.  Also 'type' should be replaced with the actual
     HTTP code, for example ‘http_error_404()’ would handle HTTP 404
     errors.

        * ‘<protocol>_open()’ — signal that the handler knows how to
          open 'protocol' URLs.

          See *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(): 4184. for more
          information.

        * ‘http_error_<type>()’ — signal that the handler knows how to
          handle HTTP errors with HTTP error code 'type'.

          See *note BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(): 4185. for more
          information.

        * ‘<protocol>_error()’ — signal that the handler knows how to
          handle errors from (non-‘http’) 'protocol'.

        * ‘<protocol>_request()’ — signal that the handler knows how to
          pre-process 'protocol' requests.

          See *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(): 4186. for more
          information.

        * ‘<protocol>_response()’ — signal that the handler knows how to
          post-process 'protocol' responses.

          See *note BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(): 4187. for more
          information.

 -- Μέθοδος: OpenerDirector.open (url, data=None[, timeout])

     Open the given 'url' (which can be a request object or a string),
     optionally passing the given 'data'.  Arguments, return values and
     exceptions raised are the same as those of *note urlopen(): 57f.
     (which simply calls the ‘open()’ method on the currently installed
     global *note OpenerDirector: 199b.).  The optional 'timeout'
     parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations
     like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default
     timeout setting will be used).  The timeout feature actually works
     only for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections.

 -- Μέθοδος: OpenerDirector.error (proto, *args)

     Handle an error of the given protocol.  This will call the
     registered error handlers for the given protocol with the given
     arguments (which are protocol specific).  The HTTP protocol is a
     special case which uses the HTTP response code to determine the
     specific error handler; refer to the ‘http_error_<type>()’ methods
     of the handler classes.

     Return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of *note
     urlopen(): 57f.

OpenerDirector objects open URLs in three stages:

The order in which these methods are called within each stage is
determined by sorting the handler instances.

  1. Every handler with a method named like ‘<protocol>_request()’ has
     that method called to pre-process the request.

  2. Handlers with a method named like ‘<protocol>_open()’ are called to
     handle the request.  This stage ends when a handler either returns
     a non-*note None: a65. value (ie.  a response), or raises an
     exception (usually *note URLError: 53a.).  Exceptions are allowed
     to propagate.

     In fact, the above algorithm is first tried for methods named *note
     default_open(): 4189.  If all such methods return *note None: a65,
     the algorithm is repeated for methods named like
     ‘<protocol>_open()’.  If all such methods return ‘None’, the
     algorithm is repeated for methods named *note unknown_open(): 418a.

     Note that the implementation of these methods may involve calls of
     the parent *note OpenerDirector: 199b. instance’s *note open():
     1385. and *note error(): 4188. methods.

  3. Every handler with a method named like ‘<protocol>_response()’ has
     that method called to post-process the response.


File: python.info,  Node: BaseHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects,  Prev: OpenerDirector Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.3 BaseHandler Objects
............................

*note BaseHandler: 4164. objects provide a couple of methods that are
directly useful, and others that are meant to be used by derived
classes.  These are intended for direct use:

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseHandler.add_parent (director)

     Add a director as parent.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseHandler.close ()

     Remove any parents.

The following attribute and methods should only be used by classes
derived from *note BaseHandler: 4164.

     Σημείωση: The convention has been adopted that subclasses defining
     ‘<protocol>_request()’ or ‘<protocol>_response()’ methods are named
     ‘*Processor’; all others are named ‘*Handler’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: BaseHandler.parent

     A valid *note OpenerDirector: 199b, which can be used to open using
     a different protocol, or handle errors.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseHandler.default_open (req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 4164, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs.

     This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 199b.  It should return a file-like object as
     described in the return value of the *note open(): 1385. method of
     ‘OpenerDirector’, or ‘None’.  It should raise *note URLError: 53a,
     unless a truly exceptional thing happens (for example, *note
     MemoryError: 18fa. should not be mapped to ‘URLError’).

     This method will be called before any protocol-specific open
     method.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseHandler.<protocol>_open(req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 4164, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to handle URLs with the
     given protocol.

     This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 199b.  Return values should be the same as for
     *note default_open(): 4189.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseHandler.unknown_open (req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 4164, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs with no
     specific registered handler to open it.

     This method, if implemented, will be called by the *note parent:
     418f. *note OpenerDirector: 199b.  Return values should be the same
     as for *note default_open(): 4189.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseHandler.http_error_default (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 4164, but
     subclasses should override it if they intend to provide a catch-all
     for otherwise unhandled HTTP errors.  It will be called
     automatically by the *note OpenerDirector: 199b. getting the error,
     and should not normally be called in other circumstances.

     *note OpenerDirector: 199b. will call this method with five
     positional arguments:

       1. a *note Request: 1381. object,

       2. a file-like object with the HTTP error body,

       3. the three-digit code of the error, as a string,

       4. the user-visible explanation of the code, as a string, and

       5. the headers of the error, as a mapping object.

     Return values and exceptions raised should be the same as those of
     *note urlopen(): 57f.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseHandler.http_error_<nnn>(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs)

     'nnn' should be a three-digit HTTP error code.  This method is also
     not defined in *note BaseHandler: 4164, but will be called, if it
     exists, on an instance of a subclass, when an HTTP error with code
     'nnn' occurs.

     Subclasses should override this method to handle specific HTTP
     errors.

     Arguments, return values and exceptions raised should be the same
     as for *note http_error_default(): 4190.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseHandler.<protocol>_request(req)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 4164, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to pre-process requests of
     the given protocol.

     This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 199b.  'req' will be a *note Request: 1381. object.
     The return value should be a ‘Request’ object.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseHandler.<protocol>_response(req, response)

     This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 4164, but
     subclasses should define it if they want to post-process responses
     of the given protocol.

     This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note
     OpenerDirector: 199b.  'req' will be a *note Request: 1381. object.
     'response' will be an object implementing the same interface as the
     return value of *note urlopen(): 57f.  The return value should
     implement the same interface as the return value of ‘urlopen()’.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects,  Prev: BaseHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.4 HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
....................................

     Σημείωση: Some HTTP redirections require action from this module’s
     client code.  If this is the case, *note HTTPError: 1387. is
     raised.  See RFC 2616(1) for details of the precise meanings of the
     various redirection codes.

     An *note HTTPError: 1387. exception raised as a security
     consideration if the HTTPRedirectHandler is presented with a
     redirected URL which is not an HTTP, HTTPS or FTP URL.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs, newurl)

     Return a *note Request: 1381. or ‘None’ in response to a redirect.
     This is called by the default implementations of the
     ‘http_error_30*()’ methods when a redirection is received from the
     server.  If a redirection should take place, return a new ‘Request’
     to allow ‘http_error_30*()’ to perform the redirect to 'newurl'.
     Otherwise, raise *note HTTPError: 1387. if no other handler should
     try to handle this URL, or return ‘None’ if you can’t but another
     handler might.

          Σημείωση: The default implementation of this method does not
          strictly follow RFC 2616(2), which says that 301 and 302
          responses to ‘POST’ requests must not be automatically
          redirected without confirmation by the user.  In reality,
          browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses,
          changing the POST to a ‘GET’, and the default implementation
          reproduces this behavior.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Redirect to the ‘Location:’ or ‘URI:’ URL. This method is called by
     the parent *note OpenerDirector: 199b. when getting an HTTP “moved
     permanently” response.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 4194, but called for the
     “found” response.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 4194, but called for the “see
     other” response.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 4194, but called for the
     “temporary redirect” response.  It does not allow changing the
     request method from ‘POST’ to ‘GET’.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_308 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     The same as *note http_error_301(): 4194, but called for the
     “permanent redirect” response.  It does not allow changing the
     request method from ‘POST’ to ‘GET’.

     Added in version 3.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects,  Next: ProxyHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.5 HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
....................................

*note HTTPCookieProcessor: 416b. instances have one attribute:

 -- Ιδιότητα: HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar

     The *note http.cookiejar.CookieJar: 419c. in which cookies are
     stored.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects,  Prev: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.6 ProxyHandler Objects
.............................

 -- Μέθοδος: ProxyHandler.<protocol>_open(request)

     The *note ProxyHandler: 1fa5. will have a method
     ‘<protocol>_open()’ for every 'protocol' which has a proxy in the
     'proxies' dictionary given in the constructor.  The method will
     modify requests to go through the proxy, by calling
     ‘request.set_proxy()’, and call the next handler in the chain to
     actually execute the protocol.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects,  Next: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects,  Prev: ProxyHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.7 HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
................................

These methods are available on *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 416c. and *note
HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 416d. objects.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password (realm, uri, user, passwd)

     'uri' can be either a single URI, or a sequence of URIs.  'realm',
     'user' and 'passwd' must be strings.  This causes ‘(user, passwd)’
     to be used as authentication tokens when authentication for 'realm'
     and a super-URI of any of the given URIs is given.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password (realm, authuri)

     Get user/password for given realm and URI, if any.  This method
     will return ‘(None, None)’ if there is no matching user/password.

     For *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 416d. objects, the realm
     ‘None’ will be searched if the given 'realm' has no matching
     user/password.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects,  Next: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.8 HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects
.............................................

This password manager extends *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm:
416d. to support tracking URIs for which authentication credentials
should always be sent.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password (realm, uri,
          user, passwd, is_authenticated=False)

     'realm', 'uri', 'user', 'passwd' are as for *note
     HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password(): 41a0.  'is_authenticated' sets the
     initial value of the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the given URI or
     list of URIs.  If 'is_authenticated' is specified as ‘True’,
     'realm' is ignored.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.find_user_password (realm,
          authuri)

     Same as for *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 416d. objects

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated (self,
          uri, is_authenticated=False)

     Update the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the given 'uri' or list of
     URIs.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated (self,
          authuri)

     Returns the current state of the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the
     given URI.


File: python.info,  Node: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.9 AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
.........................................

 -- Μέθοδος: AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed (authreq,
          host, req, headers)

     Handle an authentication request by getting a user/password pair,
     and re-trying the request.  'authreq' should be the name of the
     header where the information about the realm is included in the
     request, 'host' specifies the URL and path to authenticate for,
     'req' should be the (failed) *note Request: 1381. object, and
     'headers' should be the error headers.

     'host' is either an authority (e.g.  ‘"python.org"’) or a URL
     containing an authority component (e.g.  ‘"http://python.org/"’).
     In either case, the authority must not contain a userinfo component
     (so, ‘"python.org"’ and ‘"python.org:80"’ are fine,
     ‘"joe:password@python.org"’ is not).


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Next: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.10 HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
......................................

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Next: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.11 ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
.......................................

 -- Μέθοδος: ProxyBasicAuthHandler.http_error_407 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.12 AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
...........................................

 -- Μέθοδος: AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed (authreq,
          host, req, headers)

     'authreq' should be the name of the header where the information
     about the realm is included in the request, 'host' should be the
     host to authenticate to, 'req' should be the (failed) *note
     Request: 1381. object, and 'headers' should be the error headers.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Next: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Prev: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.13 HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
.......................................

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.14 ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
........................................

 -- Μέθοδος: ProxyDigestAuthHandler.http_error_407 (req, fp, code, msg,
          hdrs)

     Retry the request with authentication information, if available.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPSHandler Objects,  Prev: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.15 HTTPHandler Objects
.............................

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPHandler.http_open (req)

     Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on
     ‘req.data’.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPSHandler Objects,  Next: FileHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.16 HTTPSHandler Objects
..............................

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPSHandler.https_open (req)

     Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending
     on ‘req.data’.


File: python.info,  Node: FileHandler Objects,  Next: DataHandler Objects,  Prev: HTTPSHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.17 FileHandler Objects
.............................

 -- Μέθοδος: FileHandler.file_open (req)

     Open the file locally, if there is no host name, or the host name
     is ‘'localhost'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: This method is applicable only for local
     hostnames.  When a remote hostname is given, a *note URLError: 53a.
     is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: DataHandler Objects,  Next: FTPHandler Objects,  Prev: FileHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.18 DataHandler Objects
.............................

 -- Μέθοδος: DataHandler.data_open (req)

     Read a data URL. This kind of URL contains the content encoded in
     the URL itself.  The data URL syntax is specified in RFC 2397(1).
     This implementation ignores white spaces in base64 encoded data
     URLs so the URL may be wrapped in whatever source file it comes
     from.  But even though some browsers don’t mind about a missing
     padding at the end of a base64 encoded data URL, this
     implementation will raise a *note ValueError: 277. in that case.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2397.html


File: python.info,  Node: FTPHandler Objects,  Next: CacheFTPHandler Objects,  Prev: DataHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.19 FTPHandler Objects
............................

 -- Μέθοδος: FTPHandler.ftp_open (req)

     Open the FTP file indicated by 'req'.  The login is always done
     with empty username and password.


File: python.info,  Node: CacheFTPHandler Objects,  Next: UnknownHandler Objects,  Prev: FTPHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.20 CacheFTPHandler Objects
.................................

*note CacheFTPHandler: 1c9d. objects are *note FTPHandler: 4167. objects
with the following additional methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout (t)

     Set timeout of connections to 't' seconds.

 -- Μέθοδος: CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns (m)

     Set maximum number of cached connections to 'm'.


File: python.info,  Node: UnknownHandler Objects,  Next: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects,  Prev: CacheFTPHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.21 UnknownHandler Objects
................................

 -- Μέθοδος: UnknownHandler.unknown_open ()

     Raise a *note URLError: 53a. exception.


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects,  Next: Examples<23>,  Prev: UnknownHandler Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.22 HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
....................................

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response (request, response)

     Process HTTP error responses.

     For 200 error codes, the response object is returned immediately.

     For non-200 error codes, this simply passes the job on to the
     ‘http_error_<type>()’ handler methods, via *note
     OpenerDirector.error(): 4188.  Eventually, *note
     HTTPDefaultErrorHandler: 4165. will raise an *note HTTPError: 1387.
     if no other handler handles the error.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response (request, response)

     Process HTTPS error responses.

     The behavior is same as *note http_response(): 41cf.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<23>,  Next: Legacy interface,  Prev: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.23 Examples
..................

In addition to the examples below, more examples are given in *note
HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package: 41d3.

This example gets the python.org main page and displays the first 300
bytes of it:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
     ...     print(f.read(300))
     ...
     b'<!doctype html>\n<!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->\n<!--[if IE 7]>      <html class="no-js ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">          <![endif]-->\n<!--[if IE 8]>      <html class="no-js ie8 lt-ie9">

Note that urlopen returns a bytes object.  This is because there is no
way for urlopen to automatically determine the encoding of the byte
stream it receives from the HTTP server.  In general, a program will
decode the returned bytes object to string once it determines or guesses
the appropriate encoding.

The following HTML spec document,
‘https://html.spec.whatwg.org/#charset’, lists the various ways in which
an HTML or an XML document could have specified its encoding
information.

For additional information, see the W3C document:
‘https://www.w3.org/International/questions/qa-html-encoding-declarations’.

As the python.org website uses 'utf-8' encoding as specified in its meta
tag, we will use the same for decoding the bytes object:

     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f:
     ...     print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
     ...
     <!doctype html>
     <!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->
     <!-

It is also possible to achieve the same result without using the *note
context manager: 478. approach:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> f = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/')
     >>> try:
     ...     print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8'))
     ... finally:
     ...     f.close()
     ...
     <!doctype html>
     <!--[if lt IE 7]>   <html class="no-js ie6 lt-ie7 lt-ie8 lt-ie9">   <![endif]-->
     <!--

In the following example, we are sending a data-stream to the stdin of a
CGI and reading the data it returns to us.  Note that this example will
only work when the Python installation supports SSL.

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> req = urllib.request.Request(url='https://localhost/cgi-bin/test.cgi',
     ...                       data=b'This data is passed to stdin of the CGI')
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...
     Got Data: "This data is passed to stdin of the CGI"

The code for the sample CGI used in the above example is:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     import sys
     data = sys.stdin.read()
     print('Content-type: text/plain\n\nGot Data: "%s"' % data)

Here is an example of doing a ‘PUT’ request using *note Request: 1381.:

     import urllib.request
     DATA = b'some data'
     req = urllib.request.Request(url='http://localhost:8080', data=DATA, method='PUT')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
         pass
     print(f.status)
     print(f.reason)

Use of Basic HTTP Authentication:

     import urllib.request
     # Create an OpenerDirector with support for Basic HTTP Authentication...
     auth_handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler()
     auth_handler.add_password(realm='PDQ Application',
                               uri='https://mahler:8092/site-updates.py',
                               user='klem',
                               passwd='kadidd!ehopper')
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(auth_handler)
     # ...and install it globally so it can be used with urlopen.
     urllib.request.install_opener(opener)
     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.example.com/login.html') as f:
         print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

*note build_opener(): 581. provides many handlers by default, including
a *note ProxyHandler: 1fa5.  By default, ‘ProxyHandler’ uses the
environment variables named ‘<scheme>_proxy’, where ‘<scheme>’ is the
URL scheme involved.  For example, the ‘http_proxy’ environment variable
is read to obtain the HTTP proxy’s URL.

This example replaces the default *note ProxyHandler: 1fa5. with one
that uses programmatically supplied proxy URLs, and adds proxy
authorization support with *note ProxyBasicAuthHandler: 4171.

     proxy_handler = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({'http': 'http://www.example.com:3128/'})
     proxy_auth_handler = urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler()
     proxy_auth_handler.add_password('realm', 'host', 'username', 'password')

     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_handler, proxy_auth_handler)
     # This time, rather than install the OpenerDirector, we use it directly:
     with opener.open('http://www.example.com/login.html') as f:
        print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

Adding HTTP headers:

Use the 'headers' argument to the *note Request: 1381. constructor, or:

     import urllib.request
     req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.example.com/')
     req.add_header('Referer', 'http://www.python.org/')
     # Customize the default User-Agent header value:
     req.add_header('User-Agent', 'urllib-example/0.1 (Contact: . . .)')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as f:
         print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

*note OpenerDirector: 199b. automatically adds a ‘User-Agent’ header to
every *note Request: 1381.  To change this:

     import urllib.request
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener()
     opener.addheaders = [('User-agent', 'Mozilla/5.0')]
     with opener.open('http://www.example.com/') as f:
        print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))

Also, remember that a few standard headers (‘Content-Length’,
‘Content-Type’ and ‘Host’) are added when the *note Request: 1381. is
passed to *note urlopen(): 57f. (or *note OpenerDirector.open(): 1385.).
Here is an example session that uses the ‘GET’ method to retrieve a URL
containing parameters:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
     >>> url = "http://www.musi-cal.com/cgi-bin/query?%s" % params
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen(url) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...

The following example uses the ‘POST’ method instead.  Note that params
output from urlencode is encoded to bytes before it is sent to urlopen
as data:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> data = urllib.parse.urlencode({'spam': 1, 'eggs': 2, 'bacon': 0})
     >>> data = data.encode('ascii')
     >>> with urllib.request.urlopen("http://requestb.in/xrbl82xr", data) as f:
     ...     print(f.read().decode('utf-8'))
     ...

The following example uses an explicitly specified HTTP proxy,
overriding environment settings:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> proxies = {'http': 'http://proxy.example.com:8080/'}
     >>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.ProxyHandler(proxies))
     >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org") as f:
     ...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
     ...

The following example uses no proxies at all, overriding environment
settings:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.ProxyHandler({}}))
     >>> with opener.open("http://www.python.org/") as f:
     ...     f.read().decode('utf-8')
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy interface,  Next: urllib request Restrictions,  Prev: Examples<23>,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.24 Legacy interface
..........................

The following functions and classes are ported from the Python 2 module
‘urllib’ (as opposed to ‘urllib2’).  They might become deprecated at
some point in the future.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.request.urlretrieve (url, filename=None,
          reporthook=None, data=None)

     Copy a network object denoted by a URL to a local file.  If the URL
     points to a local file, the object will not be copied unless
     filename is supplied.  Return a tuple ‘(filename, headers)’ where
     'filename' is the local file name under which the object can be
     found, and 'headers' is whatever the ‘info()’ method of the object
     returned by *note urlopen(): 57f. returned (for a remote object).
     Exceptions are the same as for ‘urlopen()’.

     The second argument, if present, specifies the file location to
     copy to (if absent, the location will be a tempfile with a
     generated name).  The third argument, if present, is a callable
     that will be called once on establishment of the network connection
     and once after each block read thereafter.  The callable will be
     passed three arguments; a count of blocks transferred so far, a
     block size in bytes, and the total size of the file.  The third
     argument may be ‘-1’ on older FTP servers which do not return a
     file size in response to a retrieval request.

     The following example illustrates the most common usage scenario:

          >>> import urllib.request
          >>> local_filename, headers = urllib.request.urlretrieve('http://python.org/')
          >>> html = open(local_filename)
          >>> html.close()

     If the 'url' uses the ‘http:’ scheme identifier, the optional
     'data' argument may be given to specify a ‘POST’ request (normally
     the request type is ‘GET’).  The 'data' argument must be a bytes
     object in standard ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ format; see
     the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): 1246. function.

     ‘urlretrieve()’ will raise *note ContentTooShortError: 41d6. when
     it detects that the amount of data available was less than the
     expected amount (which is the size reported by a 'Content-Length'
     header).  This can occur, for example, when the download is
     interrupted.

     The 'Content-Length' is treated as a lower bound: if there’s more
     data to read, urlretrieve reads more data, but if less data is
     available, it raises the exception.

     You can still retrieve the downloaded data in this case, it is
     stored in the ‘content’ attribute of the exception instance.

     If no 'Content-Length' header was supplied, urlretrieve can not
     check the size of the data it has downloaded, and just returns it.
     In this case you just have to assume that the download was
     successful.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.request.urlcleanup ()

     Cleans up temporary files that may have been left behind by
     previous calls to *note urlretrieve(): 580.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib request Restrictions,  Prev: Legacy interface,  Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs

5.23.4.25 ‘urllib.request’ Restrictions
.......................................

   * Currently, only the following protocols are supported: HTTP
     (versions 0.9 and 1.0), FTP, local files, and data URLs.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added support for data URLs.

   * The caching feature of *note urlretrieve(): 580. has been disabled
     until someone finds the time to hack proper processing of
     Expiration time headers.

   * There should be a function to query whether a particular URL is in
     the cache.

   * For backward compatibility, if a URL appears to point to a local
     file but the file can’t be opened, the URL is re-interpreted using
     the FTP protocol.  This can sometimes cause confusing error
     messages.

   * The *note urlopen(): 57f. and *note urlretrieve(): 580. functions
     can cause arbitrarily long delays while waiting for a network
     connection to be set up.  This means that it is difficult to build
     an interactive web client using these functions without using
     threads.

   * The data returned by *note urlopen(): 57f. or *note urlretrieve():
     580. is the raw data returned by the server.  This may be binary
     data (such as an image), plain text or (for example) HTML. The HTTP
     protocol provides type information in the reply header, which can
     be inspected by looking at the ‘Content-Type’ header.  If the
     returned data is HTML, you can use the module *note html.parser:
     70. to parse it.

   * The code handling the FTP protocol cannot differentiate between a
     file and a directory.  This can lead to unexpected behavior when
     attempting to read a URL that points to a file that is not
     accessible.  If the URL ends in a ‘/’, it is assumed to refer to a
     directory and will be handled accordingly.  But if an attempt to
     read a file leads to a 550 error (meaning the URL cannot be found
     or is not accessible, often for permission reasons), then the path
     is treated as a directory in order to handle the case when a
     directory is specified by a URL but the trailing ‘/’ has been left
     off.  This can cause misleading results when you try to fetch a
     file whose read permissions make it inaccessible; the FTP code will
     try to read it, fail with a 550 error, and then perform a directory
     listing for the unreadable file.  If fine-grained control is
     needed, consider using the *note ftplib: 61. module.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib,  Next: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components,  Prev: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.5 ‘urllib.response’ — Response classes used by urllib
----------------------------------------------------------

The ‘urllib.response’ module defines functions and classes which define
a minimal file-like interface, including ‘read()’ and ‘readline()’.
Functions defined by this module are used internally by the
‘urllib.request’ module.  The typical response object is a *note
urllib.response.addinfourl: 4160. instance:

 -- Κλάση: urllib.response.addinfourl

      -- Ιδιότητα: url

          URL of the resource retrieved, commonly used to determine if a
          redirect was followed.

      -- Ιδιότητα: headers

          Returns the headers of the response in the form of an *note
          EmailMessage: 216. instance.

      -- Ιδιότητα: status

          Added in version 3.9.

          Status code returned by server.

      -- Μέθοδος: geturl ()

          Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: Deprecated in favor of *note url:
          1b08.

      -- Μέθοδος: info ()

          Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: Deprecated in favor of *note
          headers: 41d9.

      -- Ιδιότητα: code

          Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: Deprecated in favor of *note
          status: 41da.

      -- Μέθοδος: getcode ()

          Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: Deprecated in favor of *note
          status: 41da.


File: python.info,  Node: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components,  Next: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request,  Prev: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.6 ‘urllib.parse’ — Parse URLs into components
--------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/urllib/parse.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines a standard interface to break Uniform Resource
Locator (URL) strings up in components (addressing scheme, network
location, path etc.), to combine the components back into a URL string,
and to convert a «relative URL» to an absolute URL given a «base URL.»

The module has been designed to match the internet RFC on Relative
Uniform Resource Locators.  It supports the following URL schemes:
‘file’, ‘ftp’, ‘gopher’, ‘hdl’, ‘http’, ‘https’, ‘imap’,
‘itms-services’, ‘mailto’, ‘mms’, ‘news’, ‘nntp’, ‘prospero’, ‘rsync’,
‘rtsp’, ‘rtsps’, ‘rtspu’, ‘sftp’, ‘shttp’, ‘sip’, ‘sips’, ‘snews’,
‘svn’, ‘svn+ssh’, ‘telnet’, ‘wais’, ‘ws’, ‘wss’.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' The inclusion of the ‘itms-services’
URL scheme can prevent an app from passing Apple’s App Store review
process for the macOS and iOS App Stores.  Handling for the
‘itms-services’ scheme is always removed on iOS; on macOS, it 'may' be
removed if CPython has been built with the *note
-with-app-store-compliance: 1ba4. option.

The ‘urllib.parse’ module defines functions that fall into two broad
categories: URL parsing and URL quoting.  These are covered in detail in
the following sections.

This module’s functions use the deprecated term ‘netloc’ (or ‘net_loc’),
which was introduced in RFC 1808(2).  However, this term has been
obsoleted by RFC 3986(3), which introduced the term ‘authority’ as its
replacement.  The use of ‘netloc’ is continued for backward
compatibility.

* Menu:

* URL Parsing::
* URL parsing security::
* Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes::
* Structured Parse Results::
* URL Quoting::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/urllib/parse.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: URL Parsing,  Next: URL parsing security,  Up: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components

5.23.6.1 URL Parsing
....................

The URL parsing functions focus on splitting a URL string into its
components, or on combining URL components into a URL string.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.urlsplit (urlstring, scheme=None,
          allow_fragments=True, *, missing_as_none=False)

     Parse a URL into five components, returning a 5-item *note named
     tuple: a3d. *note SplitResult: 41e3. or *note SplitResultBytes:
     41e4.  This corresponds to the general structure of a URL:
     ‘scheme://netloc/path?query#fragment’.  Each tuple item is a
     string, possibly empty, or ‘None’ if 'missing_as_none' is true.
     Not defined component are represented an empty string (by default)
     or ‘None’ if 'missing_as_none' is true.  The components are not
     broken up into smaller parts (for example, the network location is
     a single string), and % escapes are not expanded.  The delimiters
     as shown above are not part of the result, except for a leading
     slash in the 'path' component, which is retained if present.  For
     example:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
          >>> urlsplit("scheme://netloc/path?query#fragment")
          SplitResult(scheme='scheme', netloc='netloc', path='/path',
                      query='query', fragment='fragment')
          >>> o = urlsplit("http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?"
          ...              "highlight=params#url-parsing")
          >>> o
          SplitResult(scheme='http', netloc='docs.python.org:80',
                      path='/3/library/urllib.parse.html',
                      query='highlight=params', fragment='url-parsing')
          >>> o.scheme
          'http'
          >>> o.netloc
          'docs.python.org:80'
          >>> o.hostname
          'docs.python.org'
          >>> o.port
          80
          >>> o._replace(fragment="").geturl()
          'http://docs.python.org:80/3/library/urllib.parse.html?highlight=params'
          >>> urlsplit("http://docs.python.org?")
          SplitResult(scheme='http', netloc='docs.python.org', path='',
                      query='', fragment='')
          >>> urlsplit("http://docs.python.org?", missing_as_none=True)
          SplitResult(scheme='http', netloc='docs.python.org', path='',
                      query='', fragment=None)

     Following the syntax specifications in RFC 1808(1), ‘urlsplit()’
     recognizes a netloc only if it is properly introduced by “//”.
     Otherwise the input is presumed to be a relative URL and thus to
     start with a path component.

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
          >>> urlsplit('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      query='', fragment='')
          >>> urlsplit('www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      query='', fragment='')
          >>> urlsplit('help/Python.html')
          SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='', path='help/Python.html',
                      query='', fragment='')
          >>> urlsplit('help/Python.html', missing_as_none=True)
          SplitResult(scheme=None, netloc=None, path='help/Python.html',
                      query=None, fragment=None)

     The 'scheme' argument gives the default addressing scheme, to be
     used only if the URL does not specify one.  It should be the same
     type (text or bytes) as 'urlstring' or ‘None’, except that the ‘''’
     is always allowed, and is automatically converted to ‘b''’ if
     appropriate.

     If the 'allow_fragments' argument is false, fragment identifiers
     are not recognized.  Instead, they are parsed as part of the path
     or query component, and ‘fragment’ is set to ‘None’ or the empty
     string (depending on the value of 'missing_as_none') in the return
     value.

     The return value is a *note named tuple: a3d, which means that its
     items can be accessed by index or as named attributes, which are:

     Attribute              Index       Value                         Value if not present
                                                                      
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘scheme’               0           URL scheme specifier          'scheme' parameter or empty
                                                                      string (2)
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘netloc’               1           Network location part         ‘None’ or empty string (3)
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘path’                 2           Hierarchical path             empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘query’                3           Query component               ‘None’ or empty string (4)
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             4           Fragment identifier           ‘None’ or empty string (5)
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘username’                         User name                     ‘None’
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘password’                         Password                      ‘None’
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘hostname’                         Host name (lower case)        ‘None’
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘port’                             Port number as integer, if    ‘None’
                                        present                       
                                        

     Reading the ‘port’ attribute will raise a *note ValueError: 277. if
     an invalid port is specified in the URL. See section *note
     Structured Parse Results: 41e5. for more information on the result
     object.

     Unmatched square brackets in the ‘netloc’ attribute will raise a
     *note ValueError: 277.

     Characters in the ‘netloc’ attribute that decompose under NFKC
     normalization (as used by the IDNA encoding) into any of ‘/’, ‘?’,
     ‘#’, ‘@’, or ‘:’ will raise a *note ValueError: 277.  If the URL is
     decomposed before parsing, no error will be raised.

     Following some of the WHATWG spec(6) that updates RFC 3986(7),
     leading C0 control and space characters are stripped from the URL.
     ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are removed from the URL at any
     position.

     As is the case with all named tuples, the subclass has a few
     additional methods and attributes that are particularly useful.
     One such method is ‘_replace()’.  The ‘_replace()’ method will
     return a new *note SplitResult: 41e3. object replacing specified
     fields with new values.

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
          >>> u = urlsplit('//www.cwi.nl:80/%7Eguido/Python.html')
          >>> u
          SplitResult(scheme='', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      query='', fragment='')
          >>> u._replace(scheme='http')
          SplitResult(scheme='http', netloc='www.cwi.nl:80', path='/%7Eguido/Python.html',
                      query='', fragment='')

          Προειδοποίηση: ‘urlsplit()’ does not perform validation.  See
          *note URL parsing security: 41e6. for details.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added IPv6 URL parsing capabilities.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The fragment is now parsed for all URL
     schemes (unless 'allow_fragments' is false), in accordance with RFC
     3986(8).  Previously, an allowlist of schemes that support
     fragments existed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Out-of-range port numbers now raise *note
     ValueError: 277, instead of returning ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Characters that affect netloc parsing under
     NFKC normalization will now raise *note ValueError: 277.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: ASCII newline and tab characters are
     stripped from the URL.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Leading WHATWG C0 control and space
     characters are stripped from the URL.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'missing_as_none' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.parse_qs (qs, keep_blank_values=False,
          strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace',
          max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

     Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
     ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’).  Data are returned as a
     dictionary.  The dictionary keys are the unique query variable
     names and the values are lists of values for each name.

     The optional argument 'keep_blank_values' is a flag indicating
     whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated
     as blank strings.  A true value indicates that blanks should be
     retained as blank strings.  The default false value indicates that
     blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not
     included.

     The optional argument 'strict_parsing' is a flag indicating what to
     do with parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are
     silently ignored.  If true, errors raise a *note ValueError: 277.
     exception.

     The optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to
     decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as
     accepted by the *note bytes.decode(): ca8. method.

     The optional argument 'max_num_fields' is the maximum number of
     fields to read.  If set, then throws a *note ValueError: 277. if
     there are more than 'max_num_fields' fields read.

     The optional argument 'separator' is the symbol to use for
     separating the query arguments.  It defaults to ‘&’.

     Use the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): 1246. function (with the
     ‘doseq’ parameter set to ‘True’) to convert such dictionaries into
     query strings.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Add 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added 'max_num_fields' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added 'separator' parameter with the
     default value of ‘&’.  Python versions earlier than Python 3.10
     allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query parameter separator.  This
     has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as
     the default separator.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: Accepting objects with false values
     (like ‘0’ and ‘[]’) except empty strings and byte-like objects and
     ‘None’ is now deprecated.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.parse_qsl (qs, keep_blank_values=False,
          strict_parsing=False, encoding='utf-8', errors='replace',
          max_num_fields=None, separator='&')

     Parse a query string given as a string argument (data of type
     ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’).  Data are returned as a list
     of name, value pairs.

     The optional argument 'keep_blank_values' is a flag indicating
     whether blank values in percent-encoded queries should be treated
     as blank strings.  A true value indicates that blanks should be
     retained as blank strings.  The default false value indicates that
     blank values are to be ignored and treated as if they were not
     included.

     The optional argument 'strict_parsing' is a flag indicating what to
     do with parsing errors.  If false (the default), errors are
     silently ignored.  If true, errors raise a *note ValueError: 277.
     exception.

     The optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to
     decode percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as
     accepted by the *note bytes.decode(): ca8. method.

     The optional argument 'max_num_fields' is the maximum number of
     fields to read.  If set, then throws a *note ValueError: 277. if
     there are more than 'max_num_fields' fields read.

     The optional argument 'separator' is the symbol to use for
     separating the query arguments.  It defaults to ‘&’.

     Use the *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): 1246. function to convert
     such lists of pairs into query strings.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Add 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added 'max_num_fields' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added 'separator' parameter with the
     default value of ‘&’.  Python versions earlier than Python 3.10
     allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query parameter separator.  This
     has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as
     the default separator.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.urlunsplit (parts)

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.urlunsplit (parts, *, keep_empty)

     Construct a URL from a tuple as returned by *note urlsplit(): 2a3.
     The 'parts' argument can be any five-item iterable.

     This may result in a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the
     URL that was parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for
     example, a ‘?’ with an empty query; the RFC states that these are
     equivalent).

     If 'keep_empty' is true, empty strings are kept in the result (for
     example, a ‘?’ for an empty query), only ‘None’ components are
     omitted.  This allows rebuilding a URL that was parsed with option
     ‘missing_as_none=True’.  By default, 'keep_empty' is true if
     'parts' is the result of the *note urlsplit(): 2a3. call with
     ‘missing_as_none=True’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'keep_empty' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.urlparse (urlstring, scheme=None,
          allow_fragments=True, *, missing_as_none=False)

     This is similar to *note urlsplit(): 2a3, but additionally splits
     the 'path' component on 'path' and 'params'.  This function returns
     a 6-item *note named tuple: a3d. *note ParseResult: 41e7. or *note
     ParseResultBytes: 41e8.  Its items are the same as for the
     ‘urlsplit()’ result, except that 'params' is inserted at index 3,
     between 'path' and 'query'.

     This function is based on obsoleted RFC 1738(9) and RFC 1808(10),
     which listed 'params' as the main URL component.  The more recent
     URL syntax allows parameters to be applied to each segment of the
     'path' portion of the URL (see RFC 3986(11)).  *note urlsplit():
     2a3. should generally be used instead of ‘urlparse()’.  A separate
     function is needed to separate the path segments and parameters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.urlunparse (parts)

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.urlunparse (parts, *, keep_empty)

     Combine the elements of a tuple as returned by *note urlparse():
     2a4. into a complete URL as a string.  The 'parts' argument can be
     any six-item iterable.

     This may result in a slightly different, but equivalent URL, if the
     URL that was parsed originally had unnecessary delimiters (for
     example, a ‘?’ with an empty query; the RFC states that these are
     equivalent).

     If 'keep_empty' is true, empty strings are kept in the result (for
     example, a ‘?’ for an empty query), only ‘None’ components are
     omitted.  This allows rebuilding a URL that was parsed with option
     ‘missing_as_none=True’.  By default, 'keep_empty' is true if
     'parts' is the result of the *note urlparse(): 2a4. call with
     ‘missing_as_none=True’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'keep_empty' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.urljoin (base, url, allow_fragments=True)

     Construct a full («absolute») URL by combining a «base URL»
     ('base') with another URL ('url').  Informally, this uses
     components of the base URL, in particular the addressing scheme,
     the network location and (part of) the path, to provide missing
     components in the relative URL. For example:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urljoin
          >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html', 'FAQ.html')
          'http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/FAQ.html'

     The 'allow_fragments' argument has the same meaning and default as
     for *note urlsplit(): 2a3.

          Σημείωση: If 'url' is an absolute URL (that is, it starts with
          ‘//’ or ‘scheme://’), the 'url'’s hostname and/or scheme will
          be present in the result.  For example:

               >>> urljoin('http://www.cwi.nl/%7Eguido/Python.html',
               ...         '//www.python.org/%7Eguido')
               'http://www.python.org/%7Eguido'

          If you do not want that behavior, preprocess the 'url' with
          *note urlsplit(): 2a3. and *note urlunsplit(): 2a6, removing
          possible 'scheme' and 'netloc' parts.

          Προειδοποίηση: Because an absolute URL may be passed as the
          ‘url’ parameter, it is generally 'not secure' to use ‘urljoin’
          with an attacker-controlled ‘url’.  For example in,
          ‘urljoin("https://website.com/users/", username)’, if
          ‘username’ can contain an absolute URL, the result of
          ‘urljoin’ will be the absolute URL.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Behavior updated to match the semantics
     defined in RFC 3986(12).

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.urldefrag (url, *, missing_as_none=False)

     If 'url' contains a fragment identifier, return a modified version
     of 'url' with no fragment identifier, and the fragment identifier
     as a separate string.  If there is no fragment identifier in 'url',
     return 'url' unmodified and an empty string (by default) or ‘None’
     if 'missing_as_none' is true.

     The return value is a *note named tuple: a3d, its items can be
     accessed by index or as named attributes:

     Attribute              Index       Value                         Value if not present
                                                                      
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                      
     ‘url’                  0           URL with no fragment          empty string
                                                                      
                                                                      
     ‘fragment’             1           Fragment identifier           ‘None’ or empty string (13)
                                                                      

     See section *note Structured Parse Results: 41e5. for more
     information on the result object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Result is a structured object rather than a
     simple 2-tuple.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'missing_as_none' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.unwrap (url)

     Extract the url from a wrapped URL (that is, a string formatted as
     ‘<URL:scheme://host/path>’, ‘<scheme://host/path>’,
     ‘URL:scheme://host/path’ or ‘scheme://host/path’).  If 'url' is not
     a wrapped URL, it is returned without changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (2) Depending on the value of the 'missing_as_none' argument.

   (3) Depending on the value of the 'missing_as_none' argument.

   (4) Depending on the value of the 'missing_as_none' argument.

   (5) Depending on the value of the 'missing_as_none' argument.

   (6) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1738.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (13) Depending on the value of the 'missing_as_none' argument.


File: python.info,  Node: URL parsing security,  Next: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes,  Prev: URL Parsing,  Up: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components

5.23.6.2 URL parsing security
.............................

The *note urlsplit(): 2a3. and *note urlparse(): 2a4. APIs do not
perform 'validation' of inputs.  They may not raise errors on inputs
that other applications consider invalid.  They may also succeed on some
inputs that might not be considered URLs elsewhere.  Their purpose is
for practical functionality rather than purity.

Instead of raising an exception on unusual input, they may instead
return some component parts as empty strings or ‘None’ (depending on the
value of the 'missing_as_none' argument).  Or components may contain
more than perhaps they should.

We recommend that users of these APIs where the values may be used
anywhere with security implications code defensively.  Do some
verification within your code before trusting a returned component part.
Does that ‘scheme’ make sense?  Is that a sensible ‘path’?  Is there
anything strange about that ‘hostname’?  etc.

What constitutes a URL is not universally well defined.  Different
applications have different needs and desired constraints.  For instance
the living WHATWG spec(1) describes what user facing web clients such as
a web browser require.  While RFC 3986(2) is more general.  These
functions incorporate some aspects of both, but cannot be claimed
compliant with either.  The APIs and existing user code with
expectations on specific behaviors predate both standards leading us to
be very cautious about making API behavior changes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/#concept-basic-url-parser

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes,  Next: Structured Parse Results,  Prev: URL parsing security,  Up: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components

5.23.6.3 Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes
....................................

The URL parsing functions were originally designed to operate on
character strings only.  In practice, it is useful to be able to
manipulate properly quoted and encoded URLs as sequences of ASCII bytes.
Accordingly, the URL parsing functions in this module all operate on
*note bytes: 1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6. objects in addition to *note
str: 1df. objects.

If *note str: 1df. data is passed in, the result will also contain only
‘str’ data.  If *note bytes: 1c7. or *note bytearray: 1c6. data is
passed in, the result will contain only ‘bytes’ data.

Attempting to mix *note str: 1df. data with *note bytes: 1c7. or *note
bytearray: 1c6. in a single function call will result in a *note
TypeError: 291. being raised, while attempting to pass in non-ASCII byte
values will trigger *note UnicodeDecodeError: dd7.

To support easier conversion of result objects between *note str: 1df.
and *note bytes: 1c7, all return values from URL parsing functions
provide either an ‘encode()’ method (when the result contains ‘str’
data) or a ‘decode()’ method (when the result contains ‘bytes’ data).
The signatures of these methods match those of the corresponding ‘str’
and ‘bytes’ methods (except that the default encoding is ‘'ascii'’
rather than ‘'utf-8'’).  Each produces a value of a corresponding type
that contains either ‘bytes’ data (for ‘encode()’ methods) or ‘str’ data
(for ‘decode()’ methods).

Applications that need to operate on potentially improperly quoted URLs
that may contain non-ASCII data will need to do their own decoding from
bytes to characters before invoking the URL parsing methods.

The behaviour described in this section applies only to the URL parsing
functions.  The URL quoting functions use their own rules when producing
or consuming byte sequences as detailed in the documentation of the
individual URL quoting functions.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: URL parsing functions now accept ASCII encoded
byte sequences


File: python.info,  Node: Structured Parse Results,  Next: URL Quoting,  Prev: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes,  Up: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components

5.23.6.4 Structured Parse Results
.................................

The result objects from the *note urlsplit(): 2a3, *note urlparse():
2a4. and *note urldefrag(): 2a5. functions are subclasses of the *note
tuple: 1ce. type.  These subclasses add the attributes listed in the
documentation for those functions, the encoding and decoding support
described in the previous section, as well as an additional method:

 -- Μέθοδος: urllib.parse.SplitResult.geturl ()

     Return the re-combined version of the original URL as a string.
     This may differ from the original URL in that the scheme may be
     normalized to lower case and empty components may be dropped.
     Specifically, empty parameters, queries, and fragment identifiers
     will be removed unless the URL was parsed with
     ‘missing_as_none=True’.

     For *note urldefrag(): 2a5. results, only empty fragment
     identifiers will be removed.  For *note urlsplit(): 2a3. and *note
     urlparse(): 2a4. results, all noted changes will be made to the URL
     returned by this method.

     The result of this method remains unchanged if passed back through
     the original parsing function:

          >>> from urllib.parse import urlsplit
          >>> url = 'HTTP://www.Python.org/doc/#'
          >>> r1 = urlsplit(url)
          >>> r1.geturl()
          'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
          >>> r2 = urlsplit(r1.geturl())
          >>> r2.geturl()
          'http://www.Python.org/doc/'
          >>> r3 = urlsplit(url, missing_as_none=True)
          >>> r3.geturl()
          'http://www.Python.org/doc/#'

The following classes provide the implementations of the structured
parse results when operating on *note str: 1df. objects:

 -- Κλάση: urllib.parse.DefragResult (url, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urldefrag(): 2a5. results containing *note
     str: 1df. data.  The ‘encode()’ method returns a *note
     DefragResultBytes: 41ef. instance.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.parse.ParseResult (scheme, netloc, path, params,
          query, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlparse(): 2a4. results containing *note
     str: 1df. data.  The ‘encode()’ method returns a *note
     ParseResultBytes: 41e8. instance.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.parse.SplitResult (scheme, netloc, path, query,
          fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlsplit(): 2a3. results containing *note
     str: 1df. data.  The ‘encode()’ method returns a *note
     SplitResultBytes: 41e4. instance.

The following classes provide the implementations of the parse results
when operating on *note bytes: 1c7. or *note bytearray: 1c6. objects:

 -- Κλάση: urllib.parse.DefragResultBytes (url, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urldefrag(): 2a5. results containing *note
     bytes: 1c7. data.  The ‘decode()’ method returns a *note
     DefragResult: 41ee. instance.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.parse.ParseResultBytes (scheme, netloc, path, params,
          query, fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlparse(): 2a4. results containing *note
     bytes: 1c7. data.  The ‘decode()’ method returns a *note
     ParseResult: 41e7. instance.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Κλάση: urllib.parse.SplitResultBytes (scheme, netloc, path, query,
          fragment)

     Concrete class for *note urlsplit(): 2a3. results containing *note
     bytes: 1c7. data.  The ‘decode()’ method returns a *note
     SplitResult: 41e3. instance.

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: URL Quoting,  Prev: Structured Parse Results,  Up: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components

5.23.6.5 URL Quoting
....................

The URL quoting functions focus on taking program data and making it
safe for use as URL components by quoting special characters and
appropriately encoding non-ASCII text.  They also support reversing
these operations to recreate the original data from the contents of a
URL component if that task isn’t already covered by the URL parsing
functions above.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.quote (string, safe='/', encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Replace special characters in 'string' using the ‘%XX’ escape.
     Letters, digits, and the characters ‘'_.-~'’ are never quoted.  By
     default, this function is intended for quoting the path section of
     a URL. The optional 'safe' parameter specifies additional ASCII
     characters that should not be quoted — its default value is ‘'/'’.

     'string' may be either a *note str: 1df. or a *note bytes: 1c7.
     object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Moved from RFC 2396(1) to RFC 3986(2) for
     quoting URL strings.  «~» is now included in the set of unreserved
     characters.

     The optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to deal
     with non-ASCII characters, as accepted by the *note str.encode():
     ca7. method.  'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’.  'errors' defaults
     to ‘'strict'’, meaning unsupported characters raise a *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: a67.  'encoding' and 'errors' must not be
     supplied if 'string' is a *note bytes: 1c7, or a *note TypeError:
     291. is raised.

     Note that ‘quote(string, safe, encoding, errors)’ is equivalent to
     ‘quote_from_bytes(string.encode(encoding, errors), safe)’.

     Example: ‘quote('/El Niño/')’ yields ‘'/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/'’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.quote_plus (string, safe='', encoding=None,
          errors=None)

     Like *note quote(): f62, but also replace spaces with plus signs,
     as required for quoting HTML form values when building up a query
     string to go into a URL. Plus signs in the original string are
     escaped unless they are included in 'safe'.  It also does not have
     'safe' default to ‘'/'’.

     Example: ‘quote_plus('/El Niño/')’ yields ‘'%2FEl+Ni%C3%B1o%2F'’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.quote_from_bytes (bytes, safe='/')

     Like *note quote(): f62, but accepts a *note bytes: 1c7. object
     rather than a *note str: 1df, and does not perform string-to-bytes
     encoding.

     Example: ‘quote_from_bytes(b'a&\xef')’ yields ‘'a%26%EF'’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.unquote (string, encoding='utf-8',
          errors='replace')

     Replace ‘%XX’ escapes with their single-character equivalent.  The
     optional 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters specify how to decode
     percent-encoded sequences into Unicode characters, as accepted by
     the *note bytes.decode(): ca8. method.

     'string' may be either a *note str: 1df. or a *note bytes: 1c7.
     object.

     'encoding' defaults to ‘'utf-8'’.  'errors' defaults to
     ‘'replace'’, meaning invalid sequences are replaced by a
     placeholder character.

     Example: ‘unquote('/El%20Ni%C3%B1o/')’ yields ‘'/El Niño/'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: 'string' parameter supports bytes and str
     objects (previously only str).

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.unquote_plus (string, encoding='utf-8',
          errors='replace')

     Like *note unquote(): 1cfa, but also replace plus signs with
     spaces, as required for unquoting HTML form values.

     'string' must be a *note str: 1df.

     Example: ‘unquote_plus('/El+Ni%C3%B1o/')’ yields ‘'/El Niño/'’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.unquote_to_bytes (string)

     Replace ‘%XX’ escapes with their single-octet equivalent, and
     return a *note bytes: 1c7. object.

     'string' may be either a *note str: 1df. or a *note bytes: 1c7.
     object.

     If it is a *note str: 1df, unescaped non-ASCII characters in
     'string' are encoded into UTF-8 bytes.

     Example: ‘unquote_to_bytes('a%26%EF')’ yields ‘b'a&\xef'’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: urllib.parse.urlencode (query, doseq=False, safe='',
          encoding=None, errors=None, quote_via=quote_plus)

     Convert a mapping object or a sequence of two-element tuples, which
     may contain *note str: 1df. or *note bytes: 1c7. objects, to a
     percent-encoded ASCII text string.  If the resultant string is to
     be used as a 'data' for POST operation with the *note urlopen():
     57f. function, then it should be encoded to bytes, otherwise it
     would result in a *note TypeError: 291.

     The resulting string is a series of ‘key=value’ pairs separated by
     ‘'&'’ characters, where both 'key' and 'value' are quoted using the
     'quote_via' function.  By default, *note quote_plus(): 15ed. is
     used to quote the values, which means spaces are quoted as a ‘'+'’
     character and “/” characters are encoded as ‘%2F’, which follows
     the standard for GET requests
     (‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’).  An alternate function that
     can be passed as 'quote_via' is *note quote(): f62, which will
     encode spaces as ‘%20’ and not encode “/” characters.  For maximum
     control of what is quoted, use ‘quote’ and specify a value for
     'safe'.

     When a sequence of two-element tuples is used as the 'query'
     argument, the first element of each tuple is a key and the second
     is a value.  The value element in itself can be a sequence and in
     that case, if the optional parameter 'doseq' evaluates to ‘True’,
     individual ‘key=value’ pairs separated by ‘'&'’ are generated for
     each element of the value sequence for the key.  The order of
     parameters in the encoded string will match the order of parameter
     tuples in the sequence.

     The 'safe', 'encoding', and 'errors' parameters are passed down to
     'quote_via' (the 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters are only passed
     when a query element is a *note str: 1df.).

     To reverse this encoding process, *note parse_qs(): 589. and *note
     parse_qsl(): 588. are provided in this module to parse query
     strings into Python data structures.

     Refer to *note urllib examples: 41d4. to find out how the *note
     urllib.parse.urlencode(): 1246. method can be used for generating
     the query string of a URL or data for a POST request.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'query' supports bytes and string objects.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the 'quote_via' parameter.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: Accepting objects with false values
     (like ‘0’ and ‘[]’) except empty strings and byte-like objects and
     ‘None’ is now deprecated.

Δείτε επίσης
............

WHATWG(3) - URL Living standard

     Working Group for the URL Standard that defines URLs, domains, IP
     addresses, the application/x-www-form-urlencoded format, and their
     API.

RFC 3986(4) - Uniform Resource Identifiers

     This is the current standard (STD66).  Any changes to urllib.parse
     module should conform to this.  Certain deviations could be
     observed, which are mostly for backward compatibility purposes and
     for certain de-facto parsing requirements as commonly observed in
     major browsers.

RFC 2732(5) - Format for Literal IPv6 Addresses in URL’s.

     This specifies the parsing requirements of IPv6 URLs.

RFC 2396(6) - Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax

     Document describing the generic syntactic requirements for both
     Uniform Resource Names (URNs) and Uniform Resource Locators (URLs).

RFC 2368(7) - The mailto URL scheme.

     Parsing requirements for mailto URL schemes.

RFC 1808(8) - Relative Uniform Resource Locators

     This Request For Comments includes the rules for joining an
     absolute and a relative URL, including a fair number of «Abnormal
     Examples» which govern the treatment of border cases.

RFC 1738(9) - Uniform Resource Locators (URL)

     This specifies the formal syntax and semantics of absolute URLs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://url.spec.whatwg.org/

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2368.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1738.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request,  Next: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt,  Prev: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.7 ‘urllib.error’ — Exception classes raised by urllib.request
------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/urllib/error.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘urllib.error’ module defines the exception classes for exceptions
raised by *note urllib.request: 114.  The base exception class is *note
URLError: 53a.

The following exceptions are raised by ‘urllib.error’ as appropriate:

 -- Εξαίρεση: urllib.error.URLError

     The handlers raise this exception (or derived exceptions) when they
     run into a problem.  It is a subclass of *note OSError: 53c.

      -- Ιδιότητα: reason

          The reason for this error.  It can be a message string or
          another exception instance.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: ‘URLError’ used to be a subtype of *note
     IOError: 13fb, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

 -- Εξαίρεση: urllib.error.HTTPError (url, code, msg, hdrs, fp)

     Though being an exception (a subclass of *note URLError: 53a.), an
     ‘HTTPError’ can also function as a non-exceptional file-like return
     value (the same thing that *note urlopen(): 57f. returns).  This is
     useful when handling exotic HTTP errors, such as requests for
     authentication.

      -- Ιδιότητα: url

          Contains the request URL. An alias for 'filename' attribute.

      -- Ιδιότητα: code

          An HTTP status code as defined in RFC 2616(2).  This numeric
          value corresponds to a value found in the dictionary of codes
          as found in *note
          http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses: 41f8.

      -- Ιδιότητα: reason

          This is usually a string explaining the reason for this error.
          An alias for 'msg' attribute.

      -- Ιδιότητα: headers

          The HTTP response headers for the HTTP request that caused the
          ‘HTTPError’.  An alias for 'hdrs' attribute.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Ιδιότητα: fp

          A file-like object where the HTTP error body can be read from.

 -- Εξαίρεση: urllib.error.ContentTooShortError (msg, content)

     This exception is raised when the *note urlretrieve(): 580.
     function detects that the amount of the downloaded data is less
     than the expected amount (given by the 'Content-Length' header).

      -- Ιδιότητα: content

          The downloaded (and supposedly truncated) data.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/urllib/error.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt,  Next: http — HTTP modules,  Prev: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.8 ‘urllib.robotparser’ — Parser for robots.txt
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/urllib/robotparser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a single class, *note RobotFileParser: 10ba, which
answers questions about whether or not a particular user agent can fetch
a URL on the website that published the ‘robots.txt’ file.  For more
details on the structure of ‘robots.txt’ files, see RFC 9309(2).

 -- Κλάση: urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser (url='')

     This class provides methods to read, parse and answer questions
     about the ‘robots.txt’ file at 'url'.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_url (url)

          Sets the URL referring to a ‘robots.txt’ file.

      -- Μέθοδος: read ()

          Reads the ‘robots.txt’ URL and feeds it to the parser.

      -- Μέθοδος: parse (lines)

          Parses the lines argument.

      -- Μέθοδος: can_fetch (useragent, url)

          Returns ‘True’ if the 'useragent' is allowed to fetch the
          'url' according to the rules contained in the parsed
          ‘robots.txt’ file.

      -- Μέθοδος: mtime ()

          Returns the time the ‘robots.txt’ file was last fetched.  This
          is useful for long-running web spiders that need to check for
          new ‘robots.txt’ files periodically.

      -- Μέθοδος: modified ()

          Sets the time the ‘robots.txt’ file was last fetched to the
          current time.

      -- Μέθοδος: crawl_delay (useragent)

          Returns the value of the ‘Crawl-delay’ parameter from
          ‘robots.txt’ for the 'useragent' in question.  If there is no
          such parameter or it doesn’t apply to the 'useragent'
          specified or the ‘robots.txt’ entry for this parameter has
          invalid syntax, return ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Μέθοδος: request_rate (useragent)

          Returns the contents of the ‘Request-rate’ parameter from
          ‘robots.txt’ as a *note named tuple: a3d.
          ‘RequestRate(requests, seconds)’.  If there is no such
          parameter or it doesn’t apply to the 'useragent' specified or
          the ‘robots.txt’ entry for this parameter has invalid syntax,
          return ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Μέθοδος: site_maps ()

          Returns the contents of the ‘Sitemap’ parameter from
          ‘robots.txt’ in the form of a *note list(): 4d9.  If there is
          no such parameter or the ‘robots.txt’ entry for this parameter
          has invalid syntax, return ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.8.

The following example demonstrates basic use of the *note
RobotFileParser: 10ba. class:

     >>> import urllib.robotparser
     >>> rp = urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser()
     >>> rp.set_url("http://www.pythontest.net/robots.txt")
     >>> rp.read()
     >>> rrate = rp.request_rate("*")
     >>> rrate.requests
     1
     >>> rrate.seconds
     1
     >>> rp.crawl_delay("*")
     6
     >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.pythontest.net/")
     True
     >>> rp.can_fetch("*", "http://www.pythontest.net/no-robots-here/")
     False

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/urllib/robotparser.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9309.html


File: python.info,  Node: http — HTTP modules,  Next: http client — HTTP protocol client,  Prev: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.9 ‘http’ — HTTP modules
----------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/http/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘http’ is a package that collects several modules for working with the
HyperText Transfer Protocol:

   * *note http.client: 72. is a low-level HTTP protocol client; for
     high-level URL opening use *note urllib.request: 114.

   * *note http.server: 75. contains basic HTTP server classes based on
     *note socketserver: d5.

   * *note http.cookies: 74. has utilities for implementing state
     management with cookies

   * *note http.cookiejar: 73. provides persistence of cookies

The ‘http’ module also defines the following enums that help you work
with http related code:

 -- Κλάση: http.HTTPStatus

     Added in version 3.5.

     A subclass of *note enum.IntEnum: 109d. that defines a set of HTTP
     status codes, reason phrases and long descriptions written in
     English.

     Usage:

          >>> from http import HTTPStatus
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK
          HTTPStatus.OK
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK == 200
          True
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.value
          200
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.phrase
          'OK'
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.description
          'Request fulfilled, document follows'
          >>> list(HTTPStatus)
          [HTTPStatus.CONTINUE, HTTPStatus.SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS, ...]

* Menu:

* HTTP status codes::
* HTTP status category::
* HTTP methods::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/http/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP status codes,  Next: HTTP status category,  Up: http — HTTP modules

5.23.9.1 HTTP status codes
..........................

Supported, IANA-registered status codes(1) available in *note
http.HTTPStatus: cd0. are:

Code        Enum Name                               Details
                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
‘100’       ‘CONTINUE’                              HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(2), Section 15.2.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘101’       ‘SWITCHING_PROTOCOLS’                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(3), Section 15.2.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘102’       ‘PROCESSING’                            WebDAV RFC 2518(4), Section 10.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘103’       ‘EARLY_HINTS’                           An HTTP Status Code for Indicating Hints RFC 8297(5)
                                                    
                                                    
‘200’       ‘OK’                                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(6), Section 15.3.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘201’       ‘CREATED’                               HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(7), Section 15.3.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘202’       ‘ACCEPTED’                              HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(8), Section 15.3.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘203’       ‘NON_AUTHORITATIVE_INFORMATION’         HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(9), Section 15.3.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘204’       ‘NO_CONTENT’                            HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(10), Section 15.3.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘205’       ‘RESET_CONTENT’                         HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(11), Section 15.3.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘206’       ‘PARTIAL_CONTENT’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(12), Section 15.3.7
                                                    
                                                    
‘207’       ‘MULTI_STATUS’                          WebDAV RFC 4918(13), Section 11.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘208’       ‘ALREADY_REPORTED’                      WebDAV Binding Extensions RFC 5842(14), Section 7.1 (Experimental)
                                                    
                                                    
‘226’       ‘IM_USED’                               Delta Encoding in HTTP RFC 3229(15), Section 10.4.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘300’       ‘MULTIPLE_CHOICES’                      HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(16), Section 15.4.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘301’       ‘MOVED_PERMANENTLY’                     HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(17), Section 15.4.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘302’       ‘FOUND’                                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(18), Section 15.4.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘303’       ‘SEE_OTHER’                             HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(19), Section 15.4.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘304’       ‘NOT_MODIFIED’                          HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(20), Section 15.4.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘305’       ‘USE_PROXY’                             HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(21), Section 15.4.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘307’       ‘TEMPORARY_REDIRECT’                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(22), Section 15.4.8
                                                    
                                                    
‘308’       ‘PERMANENT_REDIRECT’                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(23), Section 15.4.9
                                                    
                                                    
‘400’       ‘BAD_REQUEST’                           HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(24), Section 15.5.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘401’       ‘UNAUTHORIZED’                          HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(25), Section 15.5.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘402’       ‘PAYMENT_REQUIRED’                      HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(26), Section 15.5.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘403’       ‘FORBIDDEN’                             HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(27), Section 15.5.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘404’       ‘NOT_FOUND’                             HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(28), Section 15.5.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘405’       ‘METHOD_NOT_ALLOWED’                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(29), Section 15.5.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘406’       ‘NOT_ACCEPTABLE’                        HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(30), Section 15.5.7
                                                    
                                                    
‘407’       ‘PROXY_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED’         HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(31), Section 15.5.8
                                                    
                                                    
‘408’       ‘REQUEST_TIMEOUT’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(32), Section 15.5.9
                                                    
                                                    
‘409’       ‘CONFLICT’                              HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(33), Section 15.5.10
                                                    
                                                    
‘410’       ‘GONE’                                  HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(34), Section 15.5.11
                                                    
                                                    
‘411’       ‘LENGTH_REQUIRED’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(35), Section 15.5.12
                                                    
                                                    
‘412’       ‘PRECONDITION_FAILED’                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(36), Section 15.5.13
                                                    
                                                    
‘413’       ‘CONTENT_TOO_LARGE’                     HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(37), Section 15.5.14
                                                    
                                                    
‘414’       ‘URI_TOO_LONG’                          HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(38), Section 15.5.15
                                                    
                                                    
‘415’       ‘UNSUPPORTED_MEDIA_TYPE’                HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(39), Section 15.5.16
                                                    
                                                    
‘416’       ‘RANGE_NOT_SATISFIABLE’                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(40), Section 15.5.17
                                                    
                                                    
‘417’       ‘EXPECTATION_FAILED’                    HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(41), Section 15.5.18
                                                    
                                                    
‘418’       ‘IM_A_TEAPOT’                           HTCPCP/1.0 RFC 2324(42), Section 2.3.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘421’       ‘MISDIRECTED_REQUEST’                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(43), Section 15.5.20
                                                    
                                                    
‘422’       ‘UNPROCESSABLE_CONTENT’                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(44), Section 15.5.21
                                                    
                                                    
‘423’       ‘LOCKED’                                WebDAV RFC 4918(45), Section 11.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘424’       ‘FAILED_DEPENDENCY’                     WebDAV RFC 4918(46), Section 11.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘425’       ‘TOO_EARLY’                             Using Early Data in HTTP RFC 8470(47)
                                                    
                                                    
‘426’       ‘UPGRADE_REQUIRED’                      HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(48), Section 15.5.22
                                                    
                                                    
‘428’       ‘PRECONDITION_REQUIRED’                 Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585(49)
                                                    
                                                    
‘429’       ‘TOO_MANY_REQUESTS’                     Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585(50)
                                                    
                                                    
‘431’       ‘REQUEST_HEADER_FIELDS_TOO_LARGE’       Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585(51)
                                                    
                                                    
‘451’       ‘UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS’         An HTTP Status Code to Report Legal Obstacles RFC 7725(52)
                                                    
                                                    
‘500’       ‘INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR’                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(53), Section 15.6.1
                                                    
                                                    
‘501’       ‘NOT_IMPLEMENTED’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(54), Section 15.6.2
                                                    
                                                    
‘502’       ‘BAD_GATEWAY’                           HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(55), Section 15.6.3
                                                    
                                                    
‘503’       ‘SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE’                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(56), Section 15.6.4
                                                    
                                                    
‘504’       ‘GATEWAY_TIMEOUT’                       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(57), Section 15.6.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘505’       ‘HTTP_VERSION_NOT_SUPPORTED’            HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(58), Section 15.6.6
                                                    
                                                    
‘506’       ‘VARIANT_ALSO_NEGOTIATES’               Transparent Content Negotiation in HTTP RFC 2295(59), Section 8.1 (Experimental)
                                                    
                                                    
‘507’       ‘INSUFFICIENT_STORAGE’                  WebDAV RFC 4918(60), Section 11.5
                                                    
                                                    
‘508’       ‘LOOP_DETECTED’                         WebDAV Binding Extensions RFC 5842(61), Section 7.2 (Experimental)
                                                    
                                                    
‘510’       ‘NOT_EXTENDED’                          An HTTP Extension Framework RFC 2774(62), Section 7 (Experimental)
                                                    
                                                    
‘511’       ‘NETWORK_AUTHENTICATION_REQUIRED’       Additional HTTP Status Codes RFC 6585(63), Section 6
                                                    

In order to preserve backwards compatibility, enum values are also
present in the *note http.client: 72. module in the form of constants.
The enum name is equal to the constant name (i.e.  ‘http.HTTPStatus.OK’
is also available as ‘http.client.OK’).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added ‘421 MISDIRECTED_REQUEST’ status code.

Added in version 3.8: Added ‘451 UNAVAILABLE_FOR_LEGAL_REASONS’ status
code.

Added in version 3.9: Added ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’, ‘418 IM_A_TEAPOT’ and
‘425 TOO_EARLY’ status codes.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Implemented RFC9110 naming for status
constants.  Old constant names are preserved for backwards
compatibility: ‘413 REQUEST_ENTITY_TOO_LARGE’, ‘414
REQUEST_URI_TOO_LONG’, ‘416 REQUESTED_RANGE_NOT_SATISFIABLE’ and ‘422
UNPROCESSABLE_ENTITY’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-status-codes/http-status-codes.xhtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2518.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8297.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5842.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3229.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (18) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (20) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (21) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (22) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (23) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (24) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (25) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (26) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (27) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (28) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (29) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (30) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (31) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (32) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (33) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (34) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (35) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (37) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (38) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (39) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (40) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (41) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (42) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2324.html

   (43) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (44) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (45) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (46) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (47) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8470.html

   (48) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (49) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (50) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (51) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html

   (52) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7725.html

   (53) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (54) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (55) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (56) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (57) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (58) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (59) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2295.html

   (60) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4918.html

   (61) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5842.html

   (62) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2774.html

   (63) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6585.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP status category,  Next: HTTP methods,  Prev: HTTP status codes,  Up: http — HTTP modules

5.23.9.2 HTTP status category
.............................

Added in version 3.12.

The enum values have several properties to indicate the HTTP status
category:

Property                 Indicates that               Details
                                                      
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
‘is_informational’       ‘100 <= status <= 199’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(1), Section 15
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_success’             ‘200 <= status <= 299’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(2), Section 15
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_redirection’         ‘300 <= status <= 399’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(3), Section 15
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_client_error’        ‘400 <= status <= 499’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(4), Section 15
                                                      
                                                      
‘is_server_error’        ‘500 <= status <= 599’       HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(5), Section 15
                                                      

     Usage:

          >>> from http import HTTPStatus
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.is_success
          True
          >>> HTTPStatus.OK.is_client_error
          False

 -- Κλάση: http.HTTPMethod

     Added in version 3.11.

     A subclass of *note enum.StrEnum: a0d. that defines a set of HTTP
     methods and descriptions written in English.

     Usage:

          >>> from http import HTTPMethod
          >>>
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET
          <HTTPMethod.GET>
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET == 'GET'
          True
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET.value
          'GET'
          >>> HTTPMethod.GET.description
          'Retrieve the target.'
          >>> list(HTTPMethod)
          [<HTTPMethod.CONNECT>,
           <HTTPMethod.DELETE>,
           <HTTPMethod.GET>,
           <HTTPMethod.HEAD>,
           <HTTPMethod.OPTIONS>,
           <HTTPMethod.PATCH>,
           <HTTPMethod.POST>,
           <HTTPMethod.PUT>,
           <HTTPMethod.TRACE>]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTP methods,  Prev: HTTP status category,  Up: http — HTTP modules

5.23.9.3 HTTP methods
.....................

Supported, IANA-registered methods(1) available in *note
http.HTTPMethod: 420b. are:

Method          Enum Name                               Details
                                                        
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        
‘GET’           ‘GET’                                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(2), Section 9.3.1
                                                        
                                                        
‘HEAD’          ‘HEAD’                                  HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(3), Section 9.3.2
                                                        
                                                        
‘POST’          ‘POST’                                  HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(4), Section 9.3.3
                                                        
                                                        
‘PUT’           ‘PUT’                                   HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(5), Section 9.3.4
                                                        
                                                        
‘DELETE’        ‘DELETE’                                HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(6), Section 9.3.5
                                                        
                                                        
‘CONNECT’       ‘CONNECT’                               HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(7), Section 9.3.6
                                                        
                                                        
‘OPTIONS’       ‘OPTIONS’                               HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(8), Section 9.3.7
                                                        
                                                        
‘TRACE’         ‘TRACE’                                 HTTP Semantics RFC 9110(9), Section 9.3.8
                                                        
                                                        
‘PATCH’         ‘PATCH’                                 HTTP/1.1 RFC 5789(10)
                                                        

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.iana.org/assignments/http-methods/http-methods.xhtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9110.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5789.html


File: python.info,  Node: http client — HTTP protocol client,  Next: ftplib — FTP protocol client,  Prev: http — HTTP modules,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.10 ‘http.client’ — HTTP protocol client
--------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/http/client.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines classes that implement the client side of the HTTP
and HTTPS protocols.  It is normally not used directly — the module
*note urllib.request: 114. uses it to handle URLs that use HTTP and
HTTPS.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The Requests package(2) is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client
interface.

     Σημείωση: HTTPS support is only available if Python was compiled
     with SSL support (through the *note ssl: d8. module).

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

The module provides the following classes:

 -- Κλάση: http.client.HTTPConnection (host, port=None[, timeout],
          source_address=None, blocksize=8192,
          max_response_headers=None)

     An ‘HTTPConnection’ instance represents one transaction with an
     HTTP server.  It should be instantiated by passing it a host and
     optional port number.  If no port number is passed, the port is
     extracted from the host string if it has the form ‘host:port’, else
     the default HTTP port (80) is used.  If the optional 'timeout'
     parameter is given, blocking operations (like connection attempts)
     will timeout after that many seconds (if it is not given, the
     global default timeout setting is used).  The optional
     'source_address' parameter may be a tuple of a (host, port) to use
     as the source address the HTTP connection is made from.  The
     optional 'blocksize' parameter sets the buffer size in bytes for
     sending a file-like message body.  The optional
     'max_response_headers' parameter sets the maximum number of allowed
     response headers to help prevent denial-of-service attacks,
     otherwise the default value (100) is used.

     For example, the following calls all create instances that connect
     to the server at the same host and port:

          >>> h1 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org')
          >>> h2 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org:80')
          >>> h3 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80)
          >>> h4 = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org', 80, timeout=10)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'source_address' was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The 'strict' parameter was removed.  HTTP
     0.9-style «Simple Responses» are no longer supported.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: 'blocksize' parameter was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: 'max_response_headers' parameter was
     added.

 -- Κλάση: http.client.HTTPSConnection (host, port=None, *[, timeout],
          source_address=None, context=None, blocksize=8192,
          max_response_headers=None)

     A subclass of *note HTTPConnection: 223. that uses SSL for
     communication with secure servers.  Default port is ‘443’.  If
     'context' is specified, it must be a *note ssl.SSLContext: 336.
     instance describing the various SSL options.

     Please read *note Security considerations: 3ad9. for more
     information on best practices.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'source_address', 'context' and
     'check_hostname' were added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: This class now supports HTTPS virtual hosts
     if possible (that is, if *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3c20. is true).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The 'strict' parameter was removed.  HTTP
     0.9-style «Simple Responses» are no longer supported.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4.3: This class now performs all the necessary
     certificate and hostname checks by default.  To revert to the
     previous, unverified, behavior ‘ssl._create_unverified_context()’
     can be passed to the 'context' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: This class now enables TLS 1.3 *note
     ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: df5. for the default 'context'
     or when 'cert_file' is passed with a custom 'context'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This class now sends an ALPN extension
     with protocol indicator ‘http/1.1’ when no 'context' is given.
     Custom 'context' should set ALPN protocols with *note
     set_alpn_protocols(): 1215.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The deprecated 'key_file', 'cert_file' and
     'check_hostname' parameters have been removed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: 'max_response_headers' parameter was
     added.

 -- Κλάση: http.client.HTTPResponse (sock, debuglevel=0, method=None,
          url=None)

     Class whose instances are returned upon successful connection.  Not
     instantiated directly by user.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The 'strict' parameter was removed.  HTTP
     0.9 style «Simple Responses» are no longer supported.

This module provides the following function:

 -- Συνάρτηση: http.client.parse_headers (fp)

     Parse the headers from a file pointer 'fp' representing a HTTP
     request/response.  The file has to be a *note BufferedIOBase: a83.
     reader (i.e.  not text) and must provide a valid RFC 5322(3) style
     header.

     This function returns an instance of *note http.client.HTTPMessage:
     4211. that holds the header fields, but no payload (the same as
     *note HTTPResponse.msg: 4212. and *note
     http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.headers: 4213.).  After
     returning, the file pointer 'fp' is ready to read the HTTP body.

          Σημείωση: *note parse_headers(): 2015. does not parse the
          start-line of a HTTP message; it only parses the ‘Name: value’
          lines.  The file has to be ready to read these field lines, so
          the first line should already be consumed before calling the
          function.

The following exceptions are raised as appropriate:

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.HTTPException

     The base class of the other exceptions in this module.  It is a
     subclass of *note Exception: d9e.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.NotConnected

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 4214.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.InvalidURL

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 4214, raised if a port is given
     and is either non-numeric or empty.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.UnknownProtocol

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 4214.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.UnknownTransferEncoding

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 4214.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.UnimplementedFileMode

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 4214.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.IncompleteRead

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 4214.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.ImproperConnectionState

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 4214.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.CannotSendRequest

     A subclass of *note ImproperConnectionState: 421b.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.CannotSendHeader

     A subclass of *note ImproperConnectionState: 421b.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.ResponseNotReady

     A subclass of *note ImproperConnectionState: 421b.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.BadStatusLine

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 4214.  Raised if a server
     responds with a HTTP status code that we don’t understand.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.LineTooLong

     A subclass of *note HTTPException: 4214.  Raised if an excessively
     long line is received in the HTTP protocol from the server.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.client.RemoteDisconnected

     A subclass of *note ConnectionResetError: 1407. and *note
     BadStatusLine: 421f.  Raised by *note HTTPConnection.getresponse():
     11bd. when the attempt to read the response results in no data read
     from the connection, indicating that the remote end has closed the
     connection.

     Added in version 3.5: Previously, *note BadStatusLine: 421f.‘('')’
     was raised.

The constants defined in this module are:

 -- Δεδομένα: http.client.HTTP_PORT

     The default port for the HTTP protocol (always ‘80’).

 -- Δεδομένα: http.client.HTTPS_PORT

     The default port for the HTTPS protocol (always ‘443’).

 -- Δεδομένα: http.client.responses

     This dictionary maps the HTTP 1.1 status codes to the W3C names.

     Example: ‘http.client.responses[http.client.NOT_FOUND]’ is ‘'Not
     Found'’.

See *note HTTP status codes: 4208. for a list of HTTP status codes that
are available in this module as constants.

* Menu:

* HTTPConnection Objects::
* HTTPResponse Objects::
* Examples: Examples<24>.
* HTTPMessage Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/http/client.py

   (2) https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/latest/

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPConnection Objects,  Next: HTTPResponse Objects,  Up: http client — HTTP protocol client

5.23.10.1 HTTPConnection Objects
................................

*note HTTPConnection: 223. instances have the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPConnection.request (method, url, body=None, headers={},
          *, encode_chunked=False)

     This will send a request to the server using the HTTP request
     method 'method' and the request URI 'url'.  The provided 'url' must
     be an absolute path to conform with RFC 2616 §5.1.2(1) (unless
     connecting to an HTTP proxy server or using the ‘OPTIONS’ or
     ‘CONNECT’ methods).

     If 'body' is specified, the specified data is sent after the
     headers are finished.  It may be a *note str: 1df, a *note
     bytes-like object: 436, an open *note file object: 156c, or an
     iterable of *note bytes: 1c7.  If 'body' is a string, it is encoded
     as ISO-8859-1, the default for HTTP. If it is a bytes-like object,
     the bytes are sent as is.  If it is a file object, the contents of
     the file is sent; this file object should support at least the
     ‘read()’ method.  If the file object is an instance of *note
     io.TextIOBase: a84, the data returned by the ‘read()’ method will
     be encoded as ISO-8859-1, otherwise the data returned by ‘read()’
     is sent as is.  If 'body' is an iterable, the elements of the
     iterable are sent as is until the iterable is exhausted.

     The 'headers' argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to
     send with the request.  A Host header(2) must be provided to
     conform with RFC 2616 §5.1.2(3) (unless connecting to an HTTP proxy
     server or using the ‘OPTIONS’ or ‘CONNECT’ methods).

     If 'headers' contains neither Content-Length nor Transfer-Encoding,
     but there is a request body, one of those header fields will be
     added automatically.  If 'body' is ‘None’, the Content-Length
     header is set to ‘0’ for methods that expect a body (‘PUT’, ‘POST’,
     and ‘PATCH’).  If 'body' is a string or a bytes-like object that is
     not also a *note file: 156c, the Content-Length header is set to
     its length.  Any other type of 'body' (files and iterables in
     general) will be chunk-encoded, and the Transfer-Encoding header
     will automatically be set instead of Content-Length.

     The 'encode_chunked' argument is only relevant if Transfer-Encoding
     is specified in 'headers'.  If 'encode_chunked' is ‘False’, the
     HTTPConnection object assumes that all encoding is handled by the
     calling code.  If it is ‘True’, the body will be chunk-encoded.

     For example, to perform a ‘GET’ request to
     ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’:

          >>> import http.client
          >>> host = "docs.python.org"
          >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection(host)
          >>> conn.request("GET", "/3/", headers={"Host": host})
          >>> response = conn.getresponse()
          >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
          200 OK

          Σημείωση: Chunked transfer encoding has been added to the HTTP
          protocol version 1.1.  Unless the HTTP server is known to
          handle HTTP 1.1, the caller must either specify the
          Content-Length, or must pass a *note str: 1df. or bytes-like
          object that is not also a file as the body representation.

          Σημείωση: Note that you must have read the whole response or
          call *note close(): 4226. if *note getresponse(): 11bd. raised
          an non-*note ConnectionError: 11bf. exception before you can
          send a new request to the server.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'body' can now be an iterable.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: If neither Content-Length nor
     Transfer-Encoding are set in 'headers', file and iterable 'body'
     objects are now chunk-encoded.  The 'encode_chunked' argument was
     added.  No attempt is made to determine the Content-Length for file
     objects.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPConnection.getresponse ()

     Should be called after a request is sent to get the response from
     the server.  Returns an *note HTTPResponse: 147a. instance.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If a *note ConnectionError: 11bf. or
     subclass is raised, the *note HTTPConnection: 223. object will be
     ready to reconnect when a new request is sent.

     Note that this does not apply to *note OSError: 53c.s raised by the
     underlying socket.  Instead the caller is responsible to call *note
     close(): 4226. on the existing connection.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPConnection.set_debuglevel (level)

     Set the debugging level.  The default debug level is ‘0’, meaning
     no debugging output is printed.  Any value greater than ‘0’ will
     cause all currently defined debug output to be printed to stdout.
     The ‘debuglevel’ is passed to any new *note HTTPResponse: 147a.
     objects that are created.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPConnection.set_tunnel (host, port=None, headers=None)

     Set the host and the port for HTTP Connect Tunnelling.  This allows
     running the connection through a proxy server.

     The 'host' and 'port' arguments specify the endpoint of the
     tunneled connection (i.e.  the address included in the CONNECT
     request, 'not' the address of the proxy server).

     The 'headers' argument should be a mapping of extra HTTP headers to
     send with the CONNECT request.

     As HTTP/1.1 is used for HTTP CONNECT tunnelling request, as per the
     RFC(4), a HTTP ‘Host:’ header must be provided, matching the
     authority-form of the request target provided as the destination
     for the CONNECT request.  If a HTTP ‘Host:’ header is not provided
     via the headers argument, one is generated and transmitted
     automatically.

     For example, to tunnel through a HTTPS proxy server running locally
     on port 8080, we would pass the address of the proxy to the *note
     HTTPSConnection: 224. constructor, and the address of the host that
     we eventually want to reach to the ‘set_tunnel()’ method:

          >>> import http.client
          >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("localhost", 8080)
          >>> conn.set_tunnel("www.python.org")
          >>> conn.request("HEAD","/index.html")

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: HTTP CONNECT tunnelling requests use
     protocol HTTP/1.1, upgraded from protocol HTTP/1.0.  ‘Host:’ HTTP
     headers are mandatory for HTTP/1.1, so one will be automatically
     generated and transmitted if not provided in the headers argument.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPConnection.get_proxy_response_headers ()

     Returns a dictionary with the headers of the response received from
     the proxy server to the CONNECT request.

     If the CONNECT request was not sent, the method returns ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPConnection.connect ()

     Connect to the server specified when the object was created.  By
     default, this is called automatically when making a request if the
     client does not already have a connection.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘http.client.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPConnection.close ()

     Close the connection to the server.

 -- Ιδιότητα: HTTPConnection.blocksize

     Buffer size in bytes for sending a file-like message body.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Ιδιότητα: HTTPConnection.max_response_headers

     The maximum number of allowed response headers to help prevent
     denial-of-service attacks.  By default, the maximum number of
     allowed headers is set to 100.

     Added in version 3.15.

As an alternative to using the *note request(): 106a. method described
above, you can also send your request step by step, by using the four
functions below.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPConnection.putrequest (method, url, skip_host=False,
          skip_accept_encoding=False)

     This should be the first call after the connection to the server
     has been made.  It sends a line to the server consisting of the
     'method' string, the 'url' string, and the HTTP version
     (‘HTTP/1.1’).  To disable automatic sending of ‘Host:’ or
     ‘Accept-Encoding:’ headers (for example to accept additional
     content encodings), specify 'skip_host' or 'skip_accept_encoding'
     with non-False values.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPConnection.putheader (header, argument[, ...])

     Send an RFC 822(5)-style header to the server.  It sends a line to
     the server consisting of the header, a colon and a space, and the
     first argument.  If more arguments are given, continuation lines
     are sent, each consisting of a tab and an argument.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPConnection.endheaders (message_body=None, *,
          encode_chunked=False)

     Send a blank line to the server, signalling the end of the headers.
     The optional 'message_body' argument can be used to pass a message
     body associated with the request.

     If 'encode_chunked' is ‘True’, the result of each iteration of
     'message_body' will be chunk-encoded as specified in RFC 7230(6),
     Section 3.3.1.  How the data is encoded is dependent on the type of
     'message_body'.  If 'message_body' implements the *note buffer
     interface: 311. the encoding will result in a single chunk.  If
     'message_body' is a *note collections.abc.Iterable: 28aa, each
     iteration of 'message_body' will result in a chunk.  If
     'message_body' is a *note file object: 156c, each call to ‘.read()’
     will result in a chunk.  The method automatically signals the end
     of the chunk-encoded data immediately after 'message_body'.

          Σημείωση: Due to the chunked encoding specification, empty
          chunks yielded by an iterator body will be ignored by the
          chunk-encoder.  This is to avoid premature termination of the
          read of the request by the target server due to malformed
          encoding.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added chunked encoding support and the
     'encode_chunked' parameter.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPConnection.send (data)

     Send data to the server.  This should be used directly only after
     the *note endheaders(): 106b. method has been called and before
     *note getresponse(): 11bd. is called.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘http.client.send’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘data’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-5.1.2

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-14.23

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html#section-5.1.2

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7231#section-4.3.6

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7230.html


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPResponse Objects,  Next: Examples<24>,  Prev: HTTPConnection Objects,  Up: http client — HTTP protocol client

5.23.10.2 HTTPResponse Objects
..............................

An *note HTTPResponse: 147a. instance wraps the HTTP response from the
server.  It provides access to the request headers and the entity body.
The response is an iterable object and can be used in a with statement.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The *note io.BufferedIOBase: a83. interface is
now implemented and all of its reader operations are supported.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPResponse.read ([amt])

     Reads and returns the response body, or up to the next 'amt' bytes.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPResponse.readinto (b)

     Reads up to the next len(b) bytes of the response body into the
     buffer 'b'.  Returns the number of bytes read.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPResponse.getheader (name, default=None)

     Return the value of the header 'name', or 'default' if there is no
     header matching 'name'.  If there is more than one header with the
     name 'name', return all of the values joined by “, “.  If 'default'
     is any iterable other than a single string, its elements are
     similarly returned joined by commas.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPResponse.getheaders ()

     Return a list of (header, value) tuples.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPResponse.fileno ()

     Return the ‘fileno’ of the underlying socket.

 -- Ιδιότητα: HTTPResponse.msg

     A *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 4211. instance containing the
     response headers.  ‘http.client.HTTPMessage’ is a subclass of *note
     email.message.Message: 780.

 -- Ιδιότητα: HTTPResponse.version

     HTTP protocol version used by server.  10 for HTTP/1.0, 11 for
     HTTP/1.1.

 -- Ιδιότητα: HTTPResponse.url

     URL of the resource retrieved, commonly used to determine if a
     redirect was followed.

 -- Ιδιότητα: HTTPResponse.headers

     Headers of the response in the form of an *note
     email.message.EmailMessage: 216. instance.

 -- Ιδιότητα: HTTPResponse.status

     Status code returned by server.

 -- Ιδιότητα: HTTPResponse.reason

     Reason phrase returned by server.

 -- Ιδιότητα: HTTPResponse.debuglevel

     A debugging hook.  If *note debuglevel: 4237. is greater than zero,
     messages will be printed to stdout as the response is read and
     parsed.

 -- Ιδιότητα: HTTPResponse.closed

     Is ‘True’ if the stream is closed.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPResponse.geturl ()

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: Deprecated in favor of *note url: 4234.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPResponse.info ()

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: Deprecated in favor of *note headers:
     4235.

 -- Μέθοδος: HTTPResponse.getcode ()

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: Deprecated in favor of *note status:
     4236.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<24>,  Next: HTTPMessage Objects,  Prev: HTTPResponse Objects,  Up: http client — HTTP protocol client

5.23.10.3 Examples
..................

Here is an example session that uses the ‘GET’ method:

     >>> import http.client
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/")
     >>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(r1.status, r1.reason)
     200 OK
     >>> data1 = r1.read()  # This will return entire content.
     >>> # The following example demonstrates reading data in chunks.
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/")
     >>> r1 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> while chunk := r1.read(200):
     ...     print(repr(chunk))
     b'<!doctype html>\n<!--[if"...
     ...
     >>> # Example of an invalid request
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("docs.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("GET", "/parrot.spam")
     >>> r2 = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(r2.status, r2.reason)
     404 Not Found
     >>> data2 = r2.read()
     >>> conn.close()

Here is an example session that uses the ‘HEAD’ method.  Note that the
‘HEAD’ method never returns any data.

     >>> import http.client
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPSConnection("www.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("HEAD", "/")
     >>> res = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(res.status, res.reason)
     200 OK
     >>> data = res.read()
     >>> print(len(data))
     0
     >>> data == b''
     True

Here is an example session that uses the ‘POST’ method:

     >>> import http.client, urllib.parse
     >>> params = urllib.parse.urlencode({'@number': 12524, '@type': 'issue', '@action': 'show'})
     >>> headers = {"Content-type": "application/x-www-form-urlencoded",
     ...            "Accept": "text/plain"}
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("bugs.python.org")
     >>> conn.request("POST", "", params, headers)
     >>> response = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
     302 Found
     >>> data = response.read()
     >>> data
     b'Redirecting to <a href="https://bugs.python.org/issue12524">https://bugs.python.org/issue12524</a>'
     >>> conn.close()

Client side HTTP ‘PUT’ requests are very similar to ‘POST’ requests.
The difference lies only on the server side where HTTP servers will
allow resources to be created via ‘PUT’ requests.  It should be noted
that custom HTTP methods are also handled in *note
urllib.request.Request: 1381. by setting the appropriate method
attribute.  Here is an example session that uses the ‘PUT’ method:

     >>> # This creates an HTTP request
     >>> # with the content of BODY as the enclosed representation
     >>> # for the resource http://localhost:8080/file
     ...
     >>> import http.client
     >>> BODY = "***filecontents***"
     >>> conn = http.client.HTTPConnection("localhost", 8080)
     >>> conn.request("PUT", "/file", BODY)
     >>> response = conn.getresponse()
     >>> print(response.status, response.reason)
     200, OK


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPMessage Objects,  Prev: Examples<24>,  Up: http client — HTTP protocol client

5.23.10.4 HTTPMessage Objects
.............................

 -- Κλάση: http.client.HTTPMessage (email.message.Message)

An *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 4211. instance holds the headers from
an HTTP response.  It is implemented using the *note
email.message.Message: 780. class.


File: python.info,  Node: ftplib — FTP protocol client,  Next: poplib — POP3 protocol client,  Prev: http client — HTTP protocol client,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.11 ‘ftplib’ — FTP protocol client
--------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/ftplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines the class *note FTP: cca. and a few related items.
The ‘FTP’ class implements the client side of the FTP protocol.  You can
use this to write Python programs that perform a variety of automated
FTP jobs, such as mirroring other FTP servers.  It is also used by the
module *note urllib.request: 114. to handle URLs that use FTP. For more
information on FTP (File Transfer Protocol), see internet RFC 959(2).

The default encoding is UTF-8, following RFC 2640(3).

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

Here’s a sample session using the ‘ftplib’ module:

     >>> from ftplib import FTP
     >>> ftp = FTP('ftp.us.debian.org')  # connect to host, default port
     >>> ftp.login()                     # user anonymous, passwd anonymous@
     '230 Login successful.'
     >>> ftp.cwd('debian')               # change into "debian" directory
     '250 Directory successfully changed.'
     >>> ftp.retrlines('LIST')           # list directory contents
     -rw-rw-r--    1 1176     1176         1063 Jun 15 10:18 README
     ...
     drwxr-sr-x    5 1176     1176         4096 Dec 19  2000 pool
     drwxr-sr-x    4 1176     1176         4096 Nov 17  2008 project
     drwxr-xr-x    3 1176     1176         4096 Oct 10  2012 tools
     '226 Directory send OK.'
     >>> with open('README', 'wb') as fp:
     >>>     ftp.retrbinary('RETR README', fp.write)
     '226 Transfer complete.'
     >>> ftp.quit()
     '221 Goodbye.'

* Menu:

* Reference: Reference<7>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/ftplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html


File: python.info,  Node: Reference<7>,  Up: ftplib — FTP protocol client

5.23.11.1 Reference
...................

* Menu:

* FTP objects::
* FTP_TLS objects::
* Module variables::


File: python.info,  Node: FTP objects,  Next: FTP_TLS objects,  Up: Reference<7>

5.23.11.2 FTP objects
.....................

 -- Κλάση: ftplib.FTP (host='', user='', passwd='', acct='',
          timeout=None, source_address=None, *, encoding='utf-8')

     Return a new instance of the ‘FTP’ class.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘host’ (*note str: 1df.) – The hostname to connect to.  If
          given, ‘connect(host)’ is implicitly called by the
          constructor.

        * ‘user’ (*note str: 1df.) – The username to log in with
          (default: ‘'anonymous'’).  If given, ‘login(host, passwd,
          acct)’ is implicitly called by the constructor.

        * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 1df.) – The password to use when logging
          in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty string or
          ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically generated.

        * ‘acct’ (*note str: 1df.) – Account information to be used for
          the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.  See
          RFC-959(1) for more details.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 327.‘ | ’‘None’) – A timeout in
          seconds for blocking operations like *note connect(): 4246.
          (default: the global default timeout setting).

        * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 1ce.‘ | ’‘None’) – A 2-tuple
          ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its source address
          before connecting.

        * ‘encoding’ (*note str: 1df.) – The encoding for directories
          and filenames (default: ‘'utf-8'’).

     The ‘FTP’ class supports the *note with: 20a. statement, e.g.:

          >>> from ftplib import FTP
          >>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
          ...     ftp.login()
          ...     ftp.dir()
          ...
          '230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
          dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
          dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
          dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
          dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora
          >>>

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Support for the *note with: 20a. statement
     was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'source_address' parameter was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 277. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.  The 'encoding' parameter was
     added, and the default was changed from Latin-1 to UTF-8 to follow
     RFC 2640(2).

     Several ‘FTP’ methods are available in two flavors: one for
     handling text files and another for binary files.  The methods are
     named for the command which is used followed by ‘lines’ for the
     text version or ‘binary’ for the binary version.

     ‘FTP’ instances have the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: set_debuglevel (level)

          Set the instance’s debugging level as an *note int: 326.  This
          controls the amount of debugging output printed.  The debug
          levels are:

             * ‘0’ (default): No debug output.

             * ‘1’: Produce a moderate amount of debug output, generally
               a single line per request.

             * ‘2’ or higher: Produce the maximum amount of debugging
               output, logging each line sent and received on the
               control connection.

      -- Μέθοδος: connect (host='', port=0, timeout=None,
               source_address=None)

          Connect to the given host and port.  This function should be
          called only once for each instance; it should not be called if
          a 'host' argument was given when the ‘FTP’ instance was
          created.  All other ‘FTP’ methods can only be called after a
          connection has successfully been made.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘host’ (*note str: 1df.) – The host to connect to.

             * ‘port’ (*note int: 326.) – The TCP port to connect to
               (default: ‘21’, as specified by the FTP protocol
               specification).  It is rarely needed to specify a
               different port number.

             * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 327.‘ | ’‘None’) – A timeout in
               seconds for the connection attempt (default: the global
               default timeout setting).

             * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 1ce.‘ | ’‘None’) – A
               2-tuple ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its
               source address before connecting.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ftplib.connect’ with
          arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'source_address' parameter was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: getwelcome ()

          Return the welcome message sent by the server in reply to the
          initial connection.  (This message sometimes contains
          disclaimers or help information that may be relevant to the
          user.)

      -- Μέθοδος: login (user='anonymous', passwd='', acct='')

          Log on to the connected FTP server.  This function should be
          called only once for each instance, after a connection has
          been established; it should not be called if the 'host' and
          'user' arguments were given when the ‘FTP’ instance was
          created.  Most FTP commands are only allowed after the client
          has logged in.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘user’ (*note str: 1df.) – The username to log in with
               (default: ‘'anonymous'’).

             * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 1df.) – The password to use when
               logging in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty
               string or ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically
               generated.

             * ‘acct’ (*note str: 1df.) – Account information to be used
               for the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.
               See RFC-959(3) for more details.

      -- Μέθοδος: abort ()

          Abort a file transfer that is in progress.  Using this does
          not always work, but it’s worth a try.

      -- Μέθοδος: sendcmd (cmd)

          Send a simple command string to the server and return the
          response string.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ftplib.sendcmd’ with
          arguments ‘self’, ‘cmd’.

      -- Μέθοδος: voidcmd (cmd)

          Send a simple command string to the server and handle the
          response.  Return the response string if the response code
          corresponds to success (codes in the range 200–299).  Raise
          *note error_reply: 424d. otherwise.

          Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ftplib.sendcmd’ with
          arguments ‘self’, ‘cmd’.

      -- Μέθοδος: retrbinary (cmd, callback, blocksize=8192, rest=None)

          Retrieve a file in binary transfer mode.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘cmd’ (*note str: 1df.) – An appropriate ‘RETR’ command:
               ‘"RETR FILENAME"’.

             * ‘callback’ (*note callable: 2fa4.) – A single parameter
               callable that is called for each block of data received,
               with its single argument being the data as *note bytes:
               1c7.

             * ‘blocksize’ (*note int: 326.) – The maximum chunk size to
               read on the low-level *note socket: 115a. object created
               to do the actual transfer.  This also corresponds to the
               largest size of data that will be passed to 'callback'.
               Defaults to ‘8192’.

             * ‘rest’ (*note int: 326.) – A ‘REST’ command to be sent to
               the server.  See the documentation for the 'rest'
               parameter of the *note transfercmd(): 424f. method.

      -- Μέθοδος: retrlines (cmd, callback=None)

          Retrieve a file or directory listing in the encoding specified
          by the 'encoding' parameter at initialization.  'cmd' should
          be an appropriate ‘RETR’ command (see *note retrbinary():
          424e.) or a command such as ‘LIST’ or ‘NLST’ (usually just the
          string ‘'LIST'’).  ‘LIST’ retrieves a list of files and
          information about those files.  ‘NLST’ retrieves a list of
          file names.  The 'callback' function is called for each line
          with a string argument containing the line with the trailing
          CRLF stripped.  The default 'callback' prints the line to
          *note sys.stdout: e9c.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_pasv (val)

          Enable «passive» mode if 'val' is true, otherwise disable
          passive mode.  Passive mode is on by default.

      -- Μέθοδος: storbinary (cmd, fp, blocksize=8192, callback=None,
               rest=None)

          Store a file in binary transfer mode.


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘cmd’ (*note str: 1df.) – An appropriate ‘STOR’ command:
               ‘"STOR FILENAME"’.

             * ‘fp’ (*note file object: 156c.) – A file object (opened
               in binary mode) which is read until EOF, using its *note
               read(): 11d0. method in blocks of size 'blocksize' to
               provide the data to be stored.

             * ‘blocksize’ (*note int: 326.) – The read block size.
               Defaults to ‘8192’.

             * ‘callback’ (*note callable: 2fa4.) – A single parameter
               callable that is called for each block of data sent, with
               its single argument being the data as *note bytes: 1c7.

             * ‘rest’ (*note int: 326.) – A ‘REST’ command to be sent to
               the server.  See the documentation for the 'rest'
               parameter of the *note transfercmd(): 424f. method.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The 'rest' parameter was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: storlines (cmd, fp, callback=None)

          Store a file in line mode.  'cmd' should be an appropriate
          ‘STOR’ command (see *note storbinary(): 16ae.).  Lines are
          read until EOF from the *note file object: 156c. 'fp' (opened
          in binary mode) using its *note readline(): 16ce. method to
          provide the data to be stored.  'callback' is an optional
          single parameter callable that is called on each line after it
          is sent.

      -- Μέθοδος: transfercmd (cmd, rest=None)

          Initiate a transfer over the data connection.  If the transfer
          is active, send an ‘EPRT’ or ‘PORT’ command and the transfer
          command specified by 'cmd', and accept the connection.  If the
          server is passive, send an ‘EPSV’ or ‘PASV’ command, connect
          to it, and start the transfer command.  Either way, return the
          socket for the connection.

          If optional 'rest' is given, a ‘REST’ command is sent to the
          server, passing 'rest' as an argument.  'rest' is usually a
          byte offset into the requested file, telling the server to
          restart sending the file’s bytes at the requested offset,
          skipping over the initial bytes.  Note however that the
          ‘transfercmd()’ method converts 'rest' to a string with the
          'encoding' parameter specified at initialization, but no check
          is performed on the string’s contents.  If the server does not
          recognize the ‘REST’ command, an *note error_reply: 424d.
          exception will be raised.  If this happens, simply call
          ‘transfercmd()’ without a 'rest' argument.

      -- Μέθοδος: ntransfercmd (cmd, rest=None)

          Like *note transfercmd(): 424f, but returns a tuple of the
          data connection and the expected size of the data.  If the
          expected size could not be computed, ‘None’ will be returned
          as the expected size.  'cmd' and 'rest' means the same thing
          as in ‘transfercmd()’.

      -- Μέθοδος: mlsd (path='', facts=[])

          List a directory in a standardized format by using ‘MLSD’
          command ( RFC 3659(4)).  If 'path' is omitted the current
          directory is assumed.  'facts' is a list of strings
          representing the type of information desired (e.g.  ‘["type",
          "size", "perm"]’).  Return a generator object yielding a tuple
          of two elements for every file found in path.  First element
          is the file name, the second one is a dictionary containing
          facts about the file name.  Content of this dictionary might
          be limited by the 'facts' argument but server is not
          guaranteed to return all requested facts.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: nlst (argument[, ...])

          Return a list of file names as returned by the ‘NLST’ command.
          The optional 'argument' is a directory to list (default is the
          current server directory).  Multiple arguments can be used to
          pass non-standard options to the ‘NLST’ command.

               Σημείωση: If your server supports the command, *note
               mlsd(): 146f. offers a better API.

      -- Μέθοδος: dir (argument[, ...])

          Produce a directory listing as returned by the ‘LIST’ command,
          printing it to standard output.  The optional 'argument' is a
          directory to list (default is the current server directory).
          Multiple arguments can be used to pass non-standard options to
          the ‘LIST’ command.  If the last argument is a function, it is
          used as a 'callback' function as for *note retrlines(): 4250.;
          the default prints to *note sys.stdout: e9c.  This method
          returns ‘None’.

               Σημείωση: If your server supports the command, *note
               mlsd(): 146f. offers a better API.

      -- Μέθοδος: rename (fromname, toname)

          Rename file 'fromname' on the server to 'toname'.

      -- Μέθοδος: delete (filename)

          Remove the file named 'filename' from the server.  If
          successful, returns the text of the response, otherwise raises
          *note error_perm: 4256. on permission errors or *note
          error_reply: 424d. on other errors.

      -- Μέθοδος: cwd (pathname)

          Set the current directory on the server.

      -- Μέθοδος: mkd (pathname)

          Create a new directory on the server.

      -- Μέθοδος: pwd ()

          Return the pathname of the current directory on the server.

      -- Μέθοδος: rmd (dirname)

          Remove the directory named 'dirname' on the server.

      -- Μέθοδος: size (filename)

          Request the size of the file named 'filename' on the server.
          On success, the size of the file is returned as an integer,
          otherwise ‘None’ is returned.  Note that the ‘SIZE’ command is
          not standardized, but is supported by many common server
          implementations.

      -- Μέθοδος: quit ()

          Send a ‘QUIT’ command to the server and close the connection.
          This is the «polite» way to close a connection, but it may
          raise an exception if the server responds with an error to the
          ‘QUIT’ command.  This implies a call to the *note close():
          425d. method which renders the ‘FTP’ instance useless for
          subsequent calls (see below).

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Close the connection unilaterally.  This should not be applied
          to an already closed connection such as after a successful
          call to *note quit(): 425c.  After this call the ‘FTP’
          instance should not be used any more (after a call to
          ‘close()’ or ‘quit()’ you cannot reopen the connection by
          issuing another *note login(): 4249. method).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3659.html


File: python.info,  Node: FTP_TLS objects,  Next: Module variables,  Prev: FTP objects,  Up: Reference<7>

5.23.11.3 FTP_TLS objects
.........................

 -- Κλάση: ftplib.FTP_TLS (host='', user='', passwd='', acct='', *,
          context=None, timeout=None, source_address=None,
          encoding='utf-8')

     An *note FTP: cca. subclass which adds TLS support to FTP as
     described in RFC 4217(1).  Connect to port 21 implicitly securing
     the FTP control connection before authenticating.

          Σημείωση: The user must explicitly secure the data connection
          by calling the *note prot_p(): 425f. method.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘host’ (*note str: 1df.) – The hostname to connect to.  If
          given, ‘connect(host)’ is implicitly called by the
          constructor.

        * ‘user’ (*note str: 1df.) – The username to log in with
          (default: ‘'anonymous'’).  If given, ‘login(host, passwd,
          acct)’ is implicitly called by the constructor.

        * ‘passwd’ (*note str: 1df.) – The password to use when logging
          in.  If not given, and if 'passwd' is the empty string or
          ‘"-"’, a password will be automatically generated.

        * ‘acct’ (*note str: 1df.) – Account information to be used for
          the ‘ACCT’ FTP command.  Few systems implement this.  See
          RFC-959(2) for more details.

        * ‘context’ (*note ssl.SSLContext: 336.) – An SSL context object
          which allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates
          and private keys into a single, potentially long-lived,
          structure.  Please read *note Security considerations: 3ad9.
          for best practices.

        * ‘timeout’ (*note float: 327.‘ | ’‘None’) – A timeout in
          seconds for blocking operations like *note connect(): 4246.
          (default: the global default timeout setting).

        * ‘source_address’ (*note tuple: 1ce.‘ | ’‘None’) – A 2-tuple
          ‘(host, port)’ for the socket to bind to as its source address
          before connecting.

        * ‘encoding’ (*note str: 1df.) – The encoding for directories
          and filenames (default: ‘'utf-8'’).

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'source_address' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The class now supports hostname check with
     *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3c0e. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3c20.).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 277. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.  The 'encoding' parameter was
     added, and the default was changed from Latin-1 to UTF-8 to follow
     RFC 2640(3).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

     Here’s a sample session using the ‘FTP_TLS’ class:

          >>> ftps = FTP_TLS('ftp.pureftpd.org')
          >>> ftps.login()
          '230 Anonymous user logged in'
          >>> ftps.prot_p()
          '200 Data protection level set to "private"'
          >>> ftps.nlst()
          ['6jack', 'OpenBSD', 'antilink', 'blogbench', 'bsdcam', 'clockspeed', 'djbdns-jedi', 'docs', 'eaccelerator-jedi', 'favicon.ico', 'francotone', 'fugu', 'ignore', 'libpuzzle', 'metalog', 'minidentd', 'misc', 'mysql-udf-global-user-variables', 'php-jenkins-hash', 'php-skein-hash', 'php-webdav', 'phpaudit', 'phpbench', 'pincaster', 'ping', 'posto', 'pub', 'public', 'public_keys', 'pure-ftpd', 'qscan', 'qtc', 'sharedance', 'skycache', 'sound', 'tmp', 'ucarp']

     ‘FTP_TLS’ class inherits from *note FTP: cca, defining these
     additional methods and attributes:

      -- Μέθοδος: auth ()

          Set up a secure control connection by using TLS.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The method now supports hostname check
          with *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3c0e. and 'Server
          Name Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3c20.).

      -- Μέθοδος: ccc ()

          Revert control channel back to plaintext.  This can be useful
          to take advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT
          with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: prot_p ()

          Set up secure data connection by using TLS.

      -- Μέθοδος: prot_c ()

          Set up clear text data connection.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4217.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc959.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html


File: python.info,  Node: Module variables,  Prev: FTP_TLS objects,  Up: Reference<7>

5.23.11.4 Module variables
..........................

 -- Εξαίρεση: ftplib.error_reply

     Exception raised when an unexpected reply is received from the
     server.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ftplib.error_temp

     Exception raised when an error code signifying a temporary error
     (response codes in the range 400–499) is received.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ftplib.error_perm

     Exception raised when an error code signifying a permanent error
     (response codes in the range 500–599) is received.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ftplib.error_proto

     Exception raised when a reply is received from the server that does
     not fit the response specifications of the File Transfer Protocol,
     i.e.  begin with a digit in the range 1–5.

 -- Δεδομένα: ftplib.all_errors

     The set of all exceptions (as a tuple) that methods of *note FTP:
     cca. instances may raise as a result of problems with the FTP
     connection (as opposed to programming errors made by the caller).
     This set includes the four exceptions listed above as well as *note
     OSError: 53c. and *note EOFError: 167e.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note netrc: 9f.

     Parser for the ‘.netrc’ file format.  The file ‘.netrc’ is
     typically used by FTP clients to load user authentication
     information before prompting the user.


File: python.info,  Node: poplib — POP3 protocol client,  Next: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client,  Prev: ftplib — FTP protocol client,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.12 ‘poplib’ — POP3 protocol client
---------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/poplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines a class, *note POP3: cf0, which encapsulates a
connection to a POP3 server and implements the protocol as defined in
RFC 1939(2).  The ‘POP3’ class supports both the minimal and optional
command sets from RFC 1939(3).  The ‘POP3’ class also supports the
‘STLS’ command introduced in RFC 2595(4) to enable encrypted
communication on an already established connection.

Additionally, this module provides a class *note POP3_SSL: cf1, which
provides support for connecting to POP3 servers that use SSL as an
underlying protocol layer.

Note that POP3, though widely supported, is obsolescent.  The
implementation quality of POP3 servers varies widely, and too many are
quite poor.  If your mailserver supports IMAP, you would be better off
using the *note imaplib.IMAP4: 31a. class, as IMAP servers tend to be
better implemented.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

The ‘poplib’ module provides two classes:

 -- Κλάση: poplib.POP3 (host, port=POP3_PORT[, timeout])

     This class implements the actual POP3 protocol.  The connection is
     created when the instance is initialized.  If 'port' is omitted,
     the standard POP3 port (110) is used.  The optional 'timeout'
     parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt
     (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be
     used).

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘poplib.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

     All commands will raise an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘poplib.putline’ with arguments ‘self’ and ‘line’, where ‘line’ is
     the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 277. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.

 -- Κλάση: poplib.POP3_SSL (host, port=POP3_SSL_PORT, *, timeout=None,
          context=None)

     This is a subclass of *note POP3: cf0. that connects to the server
     over an SSL encrypted socket.  If 'port' is not specified, 995, the
     standard POP3-over-SSL port is used.  'timeout' works as in the
     ‘POP3’ constructor.  'context' is an optional *note ssl.SSLContext:
     336. object which allows bundling SSL configuration options,
     certificates and private keys into a single (potentially
     long-lived) structure.  Please read *note Security considerations:
     3ad9. for best practices.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘poplib.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

     All commands will raise an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘poplib.putline’ with arguments ‘self’ and ‘line’, where ‘line’ is
     the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'context' parameter added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The class now supports hostname check with
     *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3c0e. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3c20.).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 277. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

One exception is defined as an attribute of the ‘poplib’ module:

 -- Εξαίρεση: poplib.error_proto

     Exception raised on any errors from this module (errors from *note
     socket: d4. module are not caught).  The reason for the exception
     is passed to the constructor as a string.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note imaplib: 77.

     The standard Python IMAP module.

Frequently Asked Questions About Fetchmail(5)

     The FAQ for the ‘fetchmail’ POP/IMAP client collects information on
     POP3 server variations and RFC noncompliance that may be useful if
     you need to write an application based on the POP protocol.

* Menu:

* POP3 Objects::
* POP3 Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/poplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1939.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1939.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2595.html

   (5) http://www.catb.org/~esr/fetchmail/fetchmail-FAQ.html


File: python.info,  Node: POP3 Objects,  Next: POP3 Example,  Up: poplib — POP3 protocol client

5.23.12.1 POP3 Objects
......................

All POP3 commands are represented by methods of the same name, in
lowercase; most return the response text sent by the server.

A *note POP3: cf0. instance has the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.set_debuglevel (level)

     Set the instance’s debugging level.  This controls the amount of
     debugging output printed.  The default, ‘0’, produces no debugging
     output.  A value of ‘1’ produces a moderate amount of debugging
     output, generally a single line per request.  A value of ‘2’ or
     higher produces the maximum amount of debugging output, logging
     each line sent and received on the control connection.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.getwelcome ()

     Returns the greeting string sent by the POP3 server.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.capa ()

     Query the server’s capabilities as specified in RFC 2449(1).
     Returns a dictionary in the form ‘{'name': ['param'...]}’.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.user (username)

     Send user command, response should indicate that a password is
     required.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.pass_ (password)

     Send password, response includes message count and mailbox size.
     Note: the mailbox on the server is locked until *note quit(): 1544.
     is called.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.apop (user, secret)

     Use the more secure APOP authentication to log into the POP3
     server.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.rpop (user)

     Use RPOP authentication (similar to UNIX r-commands) to log into
     POP3 server.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.stat ()

     Get mailbox status.  The result is a tuple of 2 integers: ‘(message
     count, mailbox size)’.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.list ([which])

     Request message list, result is in the form ‘(response, ['mesg_num
     octets', ...], octets)’.  If 'which' is set, it is the message to
     list.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.retr (which)

     Retrieve whole message number 'which', and set its seen flag.
     Result is in form ‘(response, ['line', ...], octets)’.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.dele (which)

     Flag message number 'which' for deletion.  On most servers
     deletions are not actually performed until QUIT (the major
     exception is Eudora QPOP, which deliberately violates the RFCs by
     doing pending deletes on any disconnect).

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.rset ()

     Remove any deletion marks for the mailbox.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.noop ()

     Do nothing.  Might be used as a keep-alive.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.quit ()

     Signoff: commit changes, unlock mailbox, drop connection.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.top (which, howmuch)

     Retrieves the message header plus 'howmuch' lines of the message
     after the header of message number 'which'.  Result is in form
     ‘(response, ['line', ...], octets)’.

     The POP3 TOP command this method uses, unlike the RETR command,
     doesn’t set the message’s seen flag; unfortunately, TOP is poorly
     specified in the RFCs and is frequently broken in off-brand
     servers.  Test this method by hand against the POP3 servers you
     will use before trusting it.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.uidl (which=None)

     Return message digest (unique id) list.  If 'which' is specified,
     result contains the unique id for that message in the form
     ‘'response mesgnum uid’, otherwise result is list ‘(response,
     ['mesgnum uid', ...], octets)’.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.utf8 ()

     Try to switch to UTF-8 mode.  Returns the server response if
     successful, raises *note error_proto: 1545. if not.  Specified in
     RFC 6856(2).

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Μέθοδος: POP3.stls (context=None)

     Start a TLS session on the active connection as specified in RFC
     2595(3).  This is only allowed before user authentication

     'context' parameter is a *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. object which
     allows bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private
     keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read
     *note Security considerations: 3ad9. for best practices.

     This method supports hostname checking via *note
     ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3c0e. and 'Server Name Indication'
     (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3c20.).

     Added in version 3.4.

Instances of *note POP3_SSL: cf1. have no additional methods.  The
interface of this subclass is identical to its parent.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2449.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6856.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2595.html


File: python.info,  Node: POP3 Example,  Prev: POP3 Objects,  Up: poplib — POP3 protocol client

5.23.12.2 POP3 Example
......................

Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox
and retrieves and prints all messages:

     import getpass, poplib

     M = poplib.POP3('localhost')
     M.user(getpass.getuser())
     M.pass_(getpass.getpass())
     numMessages = len(M.list()[1])
     for i in range(numMessages):
         for j in M.retr(i+1)[1]:
             print(j)

At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more
extensive example of usage.


File: python.info,  Node: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client,  Next: smtplib — SMTP protocol client,  Prev: poplib — POP3 protocol client,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.13 ‘imaplib’ — IMAP4 protocol client
-----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/imaplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines three classes, *note IMAP4: 31a, *note IMAP4_SSL:
cd3. and *note IMAP4_stream: cd5, which encapsulate a connection to an
IMAP4 server and implement a large subset of the IMAP4rev1 client
protocol as defined in RFC 2060(2).  It is backward compatible with
IMAP4 ( RFC 1730(3)) servers, but note that the ‘STATUS’ command is not
supported in IMAP4.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

Three classes are provided by the ‘imaplib’ module, *note IMAP4: 31a. is
the base class:

 -- Κλάση: imaplib.IMAP4 (host='', port=IMAP4_PORT, timeout=None)

     This class implements the actual IMAP4 protocol.  The connection is
     created and protocol version (IMAP4 or IMAP4rev1) is determined
     when the instance is initialized.  If 'host' is not specified, ‘''’
     (the local host) is used.  If 'port' is omitted, the standard IMAP4
     port (143) is used.  The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a
     timeout in seconds for the connection attempt.  If timeout is not
     given or is ‘None’, the global default socket timeout is used.

     The ‘IMAP4’ class supports the *note with: 20a. statement.  When
     used like this, the IMAP4 ‘LOGOUT’ command is issued automatically
     when the ‘with’ statement exits.  E.g.:

          >>> from imaplib import IMAP4
          >>> with IMAP4("domain.org") as M:
          ...     M.noop()
          ...
          ('OK', [b'Nothing Accomplished. d25if65hy903weo.87'])

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Support for the *note with: 20a. statement
     was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The optional 'timeout' parameter was added.

Three exceptions are defined as attributes of the *note IMAP4: 31a.
class:

 -- Εξαίρεση: IMAP4.error

     Exception raised on any errors.  The reason for the exception is
     passed to the constructor as a string.

 -- Εξαίρεση: IMAP4.abort

     IMAP4 server errors cause this exception to be raised.  This is a
     sub-class of *note IMAP4.error: 1a0c.  Note that closing the
     instance and instantiating a new one will usually allow recovery
     from this exception.

 -- Εξαίρεση: IMAP4.readonly

     This exception is raised when a writable mailbox has its status
     changed by the server.  This is a sub-class of *note IMAP4.error:
     1a0c.  Some other client now has write permission, and the mailbox
     will need to be re-opened to re-obtain write permission.

There’s also a subclass for secure connections:

 -- Κλάση: imaplib.IMAP4_SSL (host='', port=IMAP4_SSL_PORT, *,
          ssl_context=None, timeout=None)

     This is a subclass derived from *note IMAP4: 31a. that connects
     over an SSL encrypted socket (to use this class you need a socket
     module that was compiled with SSL support).  If 'host' is not
     specified, ‘''’ (the local host) is used.  If 'port' is omitted,
     the standard IMAP4-over-SSL port (993) is used.  'ssl_context' is a
     *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. object which allows bundling SSL
     configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single
     (potentially long-lived) structure.  Please read *note Security
     considerations: 3ad9. for best practices.

     The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for
     the connection attempt.  If timeout is not given or is ‘None’, the
     global default socket timeout is used.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'ssl_context' parameter was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The class now supports hostname check with
     *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3c0e. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3c20.).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The optional 'timeout' parameter was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

The second subclass allows for connections created by a child process:

 -- Κλάση: imaplib.IMAP4_stream (command)

     This is a subclass derived from *note IMAP4: 31a. that connects to
     the ‘stdin/stdout’ file descriptors created by passing 'command' to
     ‘subprocess.Popen()’.

The following utility functions are defined:

 -- Συνάρτηση: imaplib.Internaldate2tuple (datestr)

     Parse an IMAP4 ‘INTERNALDATE’ string and return corresponding local
     time.  The return value is a *note time.struct_time: 10a7. tuple or
     ‘None’ if the string has wrong format.

 -- Συνάρτηση: imaplib.Int2AP (num)

     Converts an integer into a bytes representation using characters
     from the set [‘A’ ..  ‘P’].

 -- Συνάρτηση: imaplib.ParseFlags (flagstr)

     Converts an IMAP4 ‘FLAGS’ response to a tuple of individual flags.

 -- Συνάρτηση: imaplib.Time2Internaldate (date_time)

     Convert 'date_time' to an IMAP4 ‘INTERNALDATE’ representation.  The
     return value is a string in the form: ‘"DD-Mmm-YYYY HH:MM:SS
     +HHMM"’ (including double-quotes).  The 'date_time' argument can be
     a number (int or float) representing seconds since epoch (as
     returned by *note time.time(): 75e.), a 9-tuple representing local
     time an instance of *note time.struct_time: 10a7. (as returned by
     *note time.localtime(): 189b.), an aware instance of *note
     datetime.datetime: 6e7, or a double-quoted string.  In the last
     case, it is assumed to already be in the correct format.

Note that IMAP4 message numbers change as the mailbox changes; in
particular, after an ‘EXPUNGE’ command performs deletions the remaining
messages are renumbered.  So it is highly advisable to use UIDs instead,
with the UID command.

At the end of the module, there is a test section that contains a more
extensive example of usage.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Documents describing the protocol, sources for servers implementing it,
by the University of Washington’s IMAP Information Center can all be
found at ('Source Code') ‘https://github.com/uw-imap/imap’ ('Not
Maintained').

* Menu:

* IMAP4 Objects::
* IMAP4 Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/imaplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2060.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1730.html


File: python.info,  Node: IMAP4 Objects,  Next: IMAP4 Example,  Up: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client

5.23.13.1 IMAP4 Objects
.......................

All IMAP4rev1 commands are represented by methods of the same name,
either uppercase or lowercase.

All arguments to commands are converted to strings, except for
‘AUTHENTICATE’, and the last argument to ‘APPEND’ which is passed as an
IMAP4 literal.  If necessary (the string contains IMAP4
protocol-sensitive characters and isn’t enclosed with either parentheses
or double quotes) each string is quoted.  However, the 'password'
argument to the ‘LOGIN’ command is always quoted.  If you want to avoid
having an argument string quoted (eg: the 'flags' argument to ‘STORE’)
then enclose the string in parentheses (eg: ‘r'(\Deleted)'’).

Most commands return a tuple: ‘(type, [data, ...])’ where 'type' is
usually ‘'OK'’ or ‘'NO'’, and 'data' is either the text from the command
response, or mandated results from the command.  Each 'data' is either a
‘bytes’, or a tuple.  If a tuple, then the first part is the header of
the response, and the second part contains the data (ie: “literal”
value).

The 'message_set' options to commands below is a string specifying one
or more messages to be acted upon.  It may be a simple message number
(‘'1'’), a range of message numbers (‘'2:4'’), or a group of
non-contiguous ranges separated by commas (‘'1:3,6:9'’).  A range can
contain an asterisk to indicate an infinite upper bound (‘'3:*'’).

An *note IMAP4: 31a. instance has the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.append (mailbox, flags, date_time, message)

     Append 'message' to named mailbox.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.authenticate (mechanism, authobject)

     Authenticate command — requires response processing.

     'mechanism' specifies which authentication mechanism is to be used
     - it should appear in the instance variable ‘capabilities’ in the
     form ‘AUTH=mechanism’.

     'authobject' must be a callable object:

          data = authobject(response)

     It will be called to process server continuation responses; the
     'response' argument it is passed will be ‘bytes’.  It should return
     ‘bytes’ 'data' that will be base64 encoded and sent to the server.
     It should return ‘None’ if the client abort response ‘*’ should be
     sent instead.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: string usernames and passwords are now
     encoded to ‘utf-8’ instead of being limited to ASCII.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.check ()

     Checkpoint mailbox on server.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.close ()

     Close currently selected mailbox.  Deleted messages are removed
     from writable mailbox.  This is the recommended command before
     ‘LOGOUT’.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.copy (message_set, new_mailbox)

     Copy 'message_set' messages onto end of 'new_mailbox'.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.create (mailbox)

     Create new mailbox named 'mailbox'.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.delete (mailbox)

     Delete old mailbox named 'mailbox'.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.deleteacl (mailbox, who)

     Delete the ACLs (remove any rights) set for who on mailbox.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.enable (capability)

     Enable 'capability' (see RFC 5161(1)).  Most capabilities do not
     need to be enabled.  Currently only the ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ capability is
     supported (see RFC 6855(2)).

     Added in version 3.5: The ‘enable()’ method itself, and RFC 6855(3)
     support.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.expunge ()

     Permanently remove deleted items from selected mailbox.  Generates
     an ‘EXPUNGE’ response for each deleted message.  Returned data
     contains a list of ‘EXPUNGE’ message numbers in order received.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.fetch (message_set, message_parts)

     Fetch (parts of) messages.  'message_parts' should be a string of
     message part names enclosed within parentheses, eg: ‘"(UID
     BODY[TEXT])"’.  Returned data are tuples of message part envelope
     and data.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.getacl (mailbox)

     Get the ‘ACL’s for 'mailbox'.  The method is non-standard, but is
     supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.getannotation (mailbox, entry, attribute)

     Retrieve the specified ‘ANNOTATION’s for 'mailbox'.  The method is
     non-standard, but is supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.getquota (root)

     Get the ‘quota’ 'root'’s resource usage and limits.  This method is
     part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.getquotaroot (mailbox)

     Get the list of ‘quota’ ‘roots’ for the named 'mailbox'.  This
     method is part of the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.idle (duration=None)

     Return an ‘Idler’: an iterable context manager implementing the
     IMAP4 ‘IDLE’ command as defined in RFC 2177(4).

     The returned object sends the ‘IDLE’ command when activated by the
     *note with: 20a. statement, produces IMAP untagged responses via
     the *note iterator: 6ce. protocol, and sends ‘DONE’ upon context
     exit.

     All untagged responses that arrive after sending the ‘IDLE’ command
     (including any that arrive before the server acknowledges the
     command) will be available via iteration.  Any leftover responses
     (those not iterated in the *note with: 20a. context) can be
     retrieved in the usual way after ‘IDLE’ ends, using *note
     IMAP4.response(): 4293.

     Responses are represented as ‘(type, [data, ...])’ tuples, as
     described in *note IMAP4 Objects: 4285.

     The 'duration' argument sets a maximum duration (in seconds) to
     keep idling, after which any ongoing iteration will stop.  It can
     be an *note int: 326. or *note float: 327, or ‘None’ for no time
     limit.  Callers wishing to avoid inactivity timeouts on servers
     that impose them should keep this at most 29 minutes (1740
     seconds).  Requires a socket connection; 'duration' must be ‘None’
     on *note IMAP4_stream: cd5. connections.

          >>> with M.idle(duration=29 * 60) as idler:
          ...     for typ, data in idler:
          ...         print(typ, data)
          ...
          EXISTS [b'1']
          RECENT [b'1']

      -- Μέθοδος: Idler.burst (interval=0.1)

          Yield a burst of responses no more than 'interval' seconds
          apart (expressed as an *note int: 326. or *note float: 327.).

          This *note generator: 1409. is an alternative to iterating one
          response at a time, intended to aid in efficient batch
          processing.  It retrieves the next response along with any
          immediately available subsequent responses.  (For example, a
          rapid series of ‘EXPUNGE’ responses after a bulk delete.)

          Requires a socket connection; does not work on *note
          IMAP4_stream: cd5. connections.

               >>> with M.idle() as idler:
               ...     # get a response and any others following by < 0.1 seconds
               ...     batch = list(idler.burst())
               ...     print(f'processing {len(batch)} responses...')
               ...     print(batch)
               ...
               processing 3 responses...
               [('EXPUNGE', [b'2']), ('EXPUNGE', [b'1']), ('RECENT', [b'0'])]

               Πρακτική συμβουλή: The ‘IDLE’ context’s maximum duration,
               as passed to ‘IMAP4.idle()’, is respected when waiting
               for the first response in a burst.  Therefore, an expired
               ‘Idler’ will cause this generator to return immediately
               without producing anything.  Callers should consider this
               if using it in a loop.

          Σημείωση: The iterator returned by ‘IMAP4.idle()’ is usable
          only within a *note with: 20a. statement.  Before or after
          that context, unsolicited responses are collected internally
          whenever a command finishes, and can be retrieved with *note
          IMAP4.response(): 4293.

          Σημείωση: The ‘Idler’ class name and structure are internal
          interfaces, subject to change.  Calling code can rely on its
          context management, iteration, and public method to remain
          stable, but should not subclass, instantiate, compare, or
          otherwise directly reference the class.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.list ([directory[, pattern]])

     List mailbox names in 'directory' matching 'pattern'.  'directory'
     defaults to the top-level mail folder, and 'pattern' defaults to
     match anything.  Returned data contains a list of ‘LIST’ responses.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.login (user, password)

     Identify the client using a plaintext password.  The 'password'
     will be quoted.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.login_cram_md5 (user, password)

     Force use of ‘CRAM-MD5’ authentication when identifying the client
     to protect the password.  Will only work if the server ‘CAPABILITY’
     response includes the phrase ‘AUTH=CRAM-MD5’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: An *note IMAP4.error: 1a0c. is raised if
     MD5 support is not available.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.logout ()

     Shutdown connection to server.  Returns server ‘BYE’ response.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The method no longer ignores silently
     arbitrary exceptions.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.lsub (directory='""', pattern='*')

     List subscribed mailbox names in directory matching pattern.
     'directory' defaults to the top level directory and 'pattern'
     defaults to match any mailbox.  Returned data are tuples of message
     part envelope and data.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.myrights (mailbox)

     Show my ACLs for a mailbox (i.e.  the rights that I have on
     mailbox).

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.namespace ()

     Returns IMAP namespaces as defined in RFC 2342(5).

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.noop ()

     Send ‘NOOP’ to server.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.open (host, port, timeout=None)

     Opens socket to 'port' at 'host'.  The optional 'timeout' parameter
     specifies a timeout in seconds for the connection attempt.  If
     timeout is not given or is ‘None’, the global default socket
     timeout is used.  Also note that if the 'timeout' parameter is set
     to be zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 277. to reject
     creating a non-blocking socket.  This method is implicitly called
     by the *note IMAP4: 31a. constructor.  The connection objects
     established by this method will be used in the *note IMAP4.read():
     429b, *note IMAP4.readline(): 429c, *note IMAP4.send(): 429d, and
     *note IMAP4.shutdown(): 429e. methods.  You may override this
     method.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘imaplib.open’ with arguments
     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The 'timeout' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.partial (message_num, message_part, start, length)

     Fetch truncated part of a message.  Returned data is a tuple of
     message part envelope and data.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.proxyauth (user)

     Assume authentication as 'user'.  Allows an authorised
     administrator to proxy into any user’s mailbox.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.read (size)

     Reads 'size' bytes from the remote server.  You may override this
     method.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.readline ()

     Reads one line from the remote server.  You may override this
     method.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.recent ()

     Prompt server for an update.  Returned data is ‘None’ if no new
     messages, else value of ‘RECENT’ response.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.rename (oldmailbox, newmailbox)

     Rename mailbox named 'oldmailbox' to 'newmailbox'.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.response (code)

     Return data for response 'code' if received, or ‘None’.  Returns
     the given code, instead of the usual type.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.search (charset, criterion[, ...])

     Search mailbox for matching messages.  'charset' may be ‘None’, in
     which case no ‘CHARSET’ will be specified in the request to the
     server.  The IMAP protocol requires that at least one criterion be
     specified; an exception will be raised when the server returns an
     error.  'charset' must be ‘None’ if the ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ capability
     was enabled using the *note enable(): 11c2. command.

     Example:

          # M is a connected IMAP4 instance...
          typ, msgnums = M.search(None, 'FROM', '"LDJ"')

          # or:
          typ, msgnums = M.search(None, '(FROM "LDJ")')

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.select (mailbox='INBOX', readonly=False)

     Select a mailbox.  Returned data is the count of messages in
     'mailbox' (‘EXISTS’ response).  The default 'mailbox' is ‘'INBOX'’.
     If the 'readonly' flag is set, modifications to the mailbox are not
     allowed.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.send (data)

     Sends ‘data’ to the remote server.  You may override this method.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘imaplib.send’ with arguments
     ‘self’, ‘data’.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.setacl (mailbox, who, what)

     Set an ‘ACL’ for 'mailbox'.  The method is non-standard, but is
     supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.setannotation (mailbox, entry, attribute[, ...])

     Set ‘ANNOTATION’s for 'mailbox'.  The method is non-standard, but
     is supported by the ‘Cyrus’ server.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.setquota (root, limits)

     Set the ‘quota’ 'root'’s resource 'limits'.  This method is part of
     the IMAP4 QUOTA extension defined in rfc2087.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.shutdown ()

     Close connection established in ‘open’.  This method is implicitly
     called by *note IMAP4.logout(): e53.  You may override this method.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.socket ()

     Returns socket instance used to connect to server.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.sort (sort_criteria, charset, search_criterion[,
          ...])

     The ‘sort’ command is a variant of ‘search’ with sorting semantics
     for the results.  Returned data contains a space separated list of
     matching message numbers.

     Sort has two arguments before the 'search_criterion' argument(s); a
     parenthesized list of 'sort_criteria', and the searching 'charset'.
     Note that unlike ‘search’, the searching 'charset' argument is
     mandatory.  There is also a ‘uid sort’ command which corresponds to
     ‘sort’ the way that ‘uid search’ corresponds to ‘search’.  The
     ‘sort’ command first searches the mailbox for messages that match
     the given searching criteria using the charset argument for the
     interpretation of strings in the searching criteria.  It then
     returns the numbers of matching messages.

     This is an ‘IMAP4rev1’ extension command.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.starttls (ssl_context=None)

     Send a ‘STARTTLS’ command.  The 'ssl_context' argument is optional
     and should be a *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. object.  This will
     enable encryption on the IMAP connection.  Please read *note
     Security considerations: 3ad9. for best practices.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The method now supports hostname check with
     *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3c0e. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3c20.).

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.status (mailbox, names)

     Request named status conditions for 'mailbox'.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.store (message_set, command, flag_list)

     Alters flag dispositions for messages in mailbox.  'command' is
     specified by section 6.4.6 of RFC 2060(6) as being one of «FLAGS»,
     «+FLAGS», or «-FLAGS», optionally with a suffix of «.SILENT».

     For example, to set the delete flag on all messages:

          typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
          for num in data[0].split():
             M.store(num, '+FLAGS', '\\Deleted')
          M.expunge()

          Σημείωση: Creating flags containing “]” (for example:
          «[test]») violates RFC 3501(7) (the IMAP protocol).  However,
          imaplib has historically allowed creation of such tags, and
          popular IMAP servers, such as Gmail, accept and produce such
          flags.  There are non-Python programs which also create such
          tags.  Although it is an RFC violation and IMAP clients and
          servers are supposed to be strict, imaplib still continues to
          allow such tags to be created for backward compatibility
          reasons, and as of Python 3.6, handles them if they are sent
          from the server, since this improves real-world compatibility.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.subscribe (mailbox)

     Subscribe to new mailbox.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.thread (threading_algorithm, charset,
          search_criterion[, ...])

     The ‘thread’ command is a variant of ‘search’ with threading
     semantics for the results.  Returned data contains a space
     separated list of thread members.

     Thread members consist of zero or more messages numbers, delimited
     by spaces, indicating successive parent and child.

     Thread has two arguments before the 'search_criterion' argument(s);
     a 'threading_algorithm', and the searching 'charset'.  Note that
     unlike ‘search’, the searching 'charset' argument is mandatory.
     There is also a ‘uid thread’ command which corresponds to ‘thread’
     the way that ‘uid search’ corresponds to ‘search’.  The ‘thread’
     command first searches the mailbox for messages that match the
     given searching criteria using the 'charset' argument for the
     interpretation of strings in the searching criteria.  It then
     returns the matching messages threaded according to the specified
     threading algorithm.

     This is an ‘IMAP4rev1’ extension command.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.uid (command, arg[, ...])

     Execute command args with messages identified by UID, rather than
     message number.  Returns response appropriate to command.  At least
     one argument must be supplied; if none are provided, the server
     will return an error and an exception will be raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.unsubscribe (mailbox)

     Unsubscribe from old mailbox.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.unselect ()

     *note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): cd6. frees server’s resources
     associated with the selected mailbox and returns the server to the
     authenticated state.  This command performs the same actions as
     *note imaplib.IMAP4.close(): cd7, except that no messages are
     permanently removed from the currently selected mailbox.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Μέθοδος: IMAP4.xatom (name[, ...])

     Allow simple extension commands notified by server in ‘CAPABILITY’
     response.

The following attributes are defined on instances of *note IMAP4: 31a.:

 -- Ιδιότητα: IMAP4.PROTOCOL_VERSION

     The most recent supported protocol in the ‘CAPABILITY’ response
     from the server.

 -- Ιδιότητα: IMAP4.debug

     Integer value to control debugging output.  The initialize value is
     taken from the module variable ‘Debug’.  Values greater than three
     trace each command.

 -- Ιδιότητα: IMAP4.utf8_enabled

     Boolean value that is normally ‘False’, but is set to ‘True’ if an
     *note enable(): 11c2. command is successfully issued for the
     ‘UTF8=ACCEPT’ capability.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Property: IMAP4.file

     Internal *note BufferedReader: 15b5. associated with the underlying
     socket.  This property is documented for legacy purposes but not
     part of the public interface.  The caller is responsible to ensure
     that the current file is closed before changing it.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.19.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5161.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2177.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2342.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2060.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3501.html


File: python.info,  Node: IMAP4 Example,  Prev: IMAP4 Objects,  Up: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client

5.23.13.2 IMAP4 Example
.......................

Here is a minimal example (without error checking) that opens a mailbox
and retrieves and prints all messages:

     import getpass, imaplib

     M = imaplib.IMAP4(host='example.org')
     M.login(getpass.getuser(), getpass.getpass())
     M.select()
     typ, data = M.search(None, 'ALL')
     for num in data[0].split():
         typ, data = M.fetch(num, '(RFC822)')
         print('Message %s\n%s\n' % (num, data[0][1]))
     M.close()
     M.logout()


File: python.info,  Node: smtplib — SMTP protocol client,  Next: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562,  Prev: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.14 ‘smtplib’ — SMTP protocol client
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/smtplib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘smtplib’ module defines an SMTP client session object that can be
used to send mail to any internet machine with an SMTP or ESMTP listener
daemon.  For details of SMTP and ESMTP operation, consult RFC 821(2)
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) and RFC 1869(3) (SMTP Service
Extensions).

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

 -- Κλάση: smtplib.SMTP (host='', port=0, local_hostname=None[,
          timeout], source_address=None)

     An ‘SMTP’ instance encapsulates an SMTP connection.  It has methods
     that support a full repertoire of SMTP and ESMTP operations.

     If the host parameter is set to a truthy value, *note
     SMTP.connect(): 1913. is called with host and port automatically
     when the object is created; otherwise, ‘connect()’ must be called
     manually.

     If specified, 'local_hostname' is used as the FQDN of the local
     host in the HELO/EHLO command.  Otherwise, the local hostname is
     found using *note socket.getfqdn(): 1cec.  If the *note connect():
     1913. call returns anything other than a success code, an *note
     SMTPConnectError: 42b8. is raised.  The optional 'timeout'
     parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations
     like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default
     timeout setting will be used).  If the timeout expires, *note
     TimeoutError: c0e. is raised.  The optional 'source_address'
     parameter allows binding to some specific source address in a
     machine with multiple network interfaces, and/or to some specific
     source TCP port.  It takes a 2-tuple ‘(host, port)’, for the socket
     to bind to as its source address before connecting.  If omitted (or
     if 'host' or 'port' are ‘''’ and/or ‘0’ respectively) the OS
     default behavior will be used.

     For normal use, you should only require the initialization/connect,
     *note sendmail(): 120a, and *note SMTP.quit(): 42b9. methods.  An
     example is included below.

     The ‘SMTP’ class supports the *note with: 20a. statement.  When
     used like this, the SMTP ‘QUIT’ command is issued automatically
     when the ‘with’ statement exits.  E.g.:

          >>> from smtplib import SMTP
          >>> with SMTP("domain.org") as smtp:
          ...     smtp.noop()
          ...
          (250, b'Ok')
          >>>

     All commands will raise an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘smtplib.SMTP.send’ with arguments ‘self’ and ‘data’, where ‘data’
     is the bytes about to be sent to the remote host.

      -- Ιδιότητα: default_port

          The default port used for SMTP connections (25).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Support for the *note with: 20a. statement
     was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'source_address' argument was added.

     Added in version 3.5: The SMTPUTF8 extension ( RFC 6531(4)) is now
     supported.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 277. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket.

 -- Κλάση: smtplib.SMTP_SSL (host='', port=0, local_hostname=None, *[,
          timeout], context=None, source_address=None)

     An ‘SMTP_SSL’ instance behaves exactly the same as instances of
     *note SMTP: cfa.  ‘SMTP_SSL’ should be used for situations where
     SSL is required from the beginning of the connection and using
     *note SMTP.starttls(): 14e4. is not appropriate.

     If the host parameter is set to a truthy value, *note
     SMTP.connect(): 1913. is called with host and port automatically
     when the object is created; otherwise, ‘SMTP.connect()’ must be
     called manually.

     The optional arguments 'local_hostname', 'timeout' and
     'source_address' have the same meaning as they do in the *note
     SMTP: cfa. class.  'context', also optional, can contain a *note
     SSLContext: 336. and allows configuring various aspects of the
     secure connection.  Please read *note Security considerations:
     3ad9. for best practices.

      -- Ιδιότητα: default_port

          The default port used for SMTP-over-SSL connections (465).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'context' was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The 'source_address' argument was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The class now supports hostname check with
     *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3c0e. and 'Server Name
     Indication' (see *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3c20.).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: If the 'timeout' parameter is set to be
     zero, it will raise a *note ValueError: 277. to prevent the
     creation of a non-blocking socket

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

 -- Κλάση: smtplib.LMTP (host='', port=LMTP_PORT, local_hostname=None,
          source_address=None[, timeout])

     The LMTP protocol, which is very similar to ESMTP, is heavily based
     on the standard SMTP client.  It’s common to use Unix sockets for
     LMTP, so our *note connect(): 1913. method must support that as
     well as a regular host:port server.  The optional arguments
     'local_hostname' and 'source_address' have the same meaning as they
     do in the *note SMTP: cfa. class.  To specify a Unix socket, you
     must use an absolute path for 'host', starting with a “/”.

     Authentication is supported, using the regular SMTP mechanism.
     When using a Unix socket, LMTP generally don’t support or require
     any authentication, but your mileage might vary.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The optional 'timeout' parameter was added.

A nice selection of exceptions is defined as well:

 -- Εξαίρεση: smtplib.SMTPException

     Subclass of *note OSError: 53c. that is the base exception class
     for all the other exceptions provided by this module.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: SMTPException became subclass of *note
     OSError: 53c.

 -- Εξαίρεση: smtplib.SMTPServerDisconnected

     This exception is raised when the server unexpectedly disconnects,
     or when an attempt is made to use the *note SMTP: cfa. instance
     before connecting it to a server.

 -- Εξαίρεση: smtplib.SMTPResponseException

     Base class for all exceptions that include an SMTP error code.
     These exceptions are generated in some instances when the SMTP
     server returns an error code.

      -- Ιδιότητα: smtp_code

          The error code.

      -- Ιδιότητα: smtp_error

          The error message.

 -- Εξαίρεση: smtplib.SMTPSenderRefused

     Sender address refused.  In addition to the attributes set by on
     all *note SMTPResponseException: 42bd. exceptions, this sets
     “sender” to the string that the SMTP server refused.

 -- Εξαίρεση: smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused

     All recipient addresses refused.

      -- Ιδιότητα: recipients

          A dictionary of exactly the same sort as returned by *note
          SMTP.sendmail(): 120a. containing the errors for each
          recipient.

 -- Εξαίρεση: smtplib.SMTPDataError

     The SMTP server refused to accept the message data.

 -- Εξαίρεση: smtplib.SMTPConnectError

     Error occurred during establishment of a connection with the
     server.

 -- Εξαίρεση: smtplib.SMTPHeloError

     The server refused our ‘HELO’ message.

 -- Εξαίρεση: smtplib.SMTPNotSupportedError

     The command or option attempted is not supported by the server.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Εξαίρεση: smtplib.SMTPAuthenticationError

     SMTP authentication went wrong.  Most probably the server didn’t
     accept the username/password combination provided.

Δείτε επίσης
............

RFC 821(5) - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

     Protocol definition for SMTP. This document covers the model,
     operating procedure, and protocol details for SMTP.

RFC 1869(6) - SMTP Service Extensions

     Definition of the ESMTP extensions for SMTP. This describes a
     framework for extending SMTP with new commands, supporting dynamic
     discovery of the commands provided by the server, and defines a few
     additional commands.

* Menu:

* SMTP Objects::
* SMTP Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/smtplib.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc821.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1869.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc821.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1869.html


File: python.info,  Node: SMTP Objects,  Next: SMTP Example,  Up: smtplib — SMTP protocol client

5.23.14.1 SMTP Objects
......................

An *note SMTP: cfa. instance has the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.set_debuglevel (level)

     Set the debug output level.  A value of 1 or ‘True’ for 'level'
     results in debug messages for connection and for all messages sent
     to and received from the server.  A value of 2 for 'level' results
     in these messages being timestamped.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added debuglevel 2.

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.docmd (cmd, args='')

     Send a command 'cmd' to the server.  The optional argument 'args'
     is simply concatenated to the command, separated by a space.

     This returns a 2-tuple composed of a numeric response code and the
     actual response line (multiline responses are joined into one long
     line.)

     In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method
     explicitly.  It is used to implement other methods and may be
     useful for testing private extensions.

     If the connection to the server is lost while waiting for the
     reply, *note SMTPServerDisconnected: 42bc. will be raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.connect (host='localhost', port=0)

     Connect to a host on a given port.  The defaults are to connect to
     the local host at the standard SMTP port (25).  If the hostname
     ends with a colon (‘':'’) followed by a number, that suffix will be
     stripped off and the number interpreted as the port number to use.
     This method is automatically invoked by the constructor if a host
     is specified during instantiation.  Returns a 2-tuple of the
     response code and message sent by the server in its connection
     response.

     If port is not changed from its default value of 0, the value of
     the *note default_port: 42ba. attribute is used.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘smtplib.connect’ with
     arguments ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’.

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.helo (name='')

     Identify yourself to the SMTP server using ‘HELO’.  The hostname
     argument defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local
     host.  The message returned by the server is stored as the *note
     helo_resp: 42ca. attribute of the object.

     In normal operation it should not be necessary to call this method
     explicitly.  It will be implicitly called by the *note sendmail():
     120a. when necessary.

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.ehlo (name='')

     Identify yourself to an ESMTP server using ‘EHLO’.  The hostname
     argument defaults to the fully qualified domain name of the local
     host.  Examine the response for ESMTP option and store them for use
     by *note has_extn(): 42cc.  Also sets several informational
     attributes: the message returned by the server is stored as the
     *note ehlo_resp: 42cd. attribute, *note does_esmtp: 42ce. is set to
     ‘True’ or ‘False’ depending on whether the server supports ESMTP,
     and *note esmtp_features: 42cf. will be a dictionary containing the
     names of the SMTP service extensions this server supports, and
     their parameters (if any).

     Unless you wish to use *note has_extn(): 42cc. before sending mail,
     it should not be necessary to call this method explicitly.  It will
     be implicitly called by *note sendmail(): 120a. when necessary.

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.ehlo_or_helo_if_needed ()

     This method calls *note ehlo(): 42cb. and/or *note helo(): 42c9. if
     there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this session.
     It tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.

     *note SMTPHeloError: 42c4.

          The server didn’t reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.has_extn (name)

     Return *note True: fcc. if 'name' is in the set of SMTP service
     extensions returned by the server, *note False: ef5. otherwise.
     Case is ignored.

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.verify (address)

     Check the validity of an address on this server using SMTP ‘VRFY’.
     Returns a tuple consisting of code 250 and a full RFC 822(1)
     address (including human name) if the user address is valid.
     Otherwise returns an SMTP error code of 400 or greater and an error
     string.

          Σημείωση: Many sites disable SMTP ‘VRFY’ in order to foil
          spammers.

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.login (user, password, *, initial_response_ok=True)

     Log in on an SMTP server that requires authentication.  The
     arguments are the username and the password to authenticate with.
     If there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this
     session, this method tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.  This method will
     return normally if the authentication was successful, or may raise
     the following exceptions:

     *note SMTPHeloError: 42c4.

          The server didn’t reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

     *note SMTPAuthenticationError: 42c5.

          The server didn’t accept the username/password combination.

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 1f9f.

          The ‘AUTH’ command is not supported by the server.

     *note SMTPException: 134a.

          No suitable authentication method was found.

     Each of the authentication methods supported by ‘smtplib’ are tried
     in turn if they are advertised as supported by the server.  See
     *note auth(): 1208. for a list of supported authentication methods.
     'initial_response_ok' is passed through to ‘auth()’.

     Optional keyword argument 'initial_response_ok' specifies whether,
     for authentication methods that support it, an «initial response»
     as specified in RFC 4954(2) can be sent along with the ‘AUTH’
     command, rather than requiring a challenge/response.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 1f9f. may be
     raised, and the 'initial_response_ok' parameter was added.

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.auth (mechanism, authobject, *,
          initial_response_ok=True)

     Issue an ‘SMTP’ ‘AUTH’ command for the specified authentication
     'mechanism', and handle the challenge response via 'authobject'.

     'mechanism' specifies which authentication mechanism is to be used
     as argument to the ‘AUTH’ command; the valid values are those
     listed in the ‘auth’ element of *note esmtp_features: 42cf.

     'authobject' must be a callable object taking an optional single
     argument:

          data = authobject(challenge=None)

     If optional keyword argument 'initial_response_ok' is true,
     ‘authobject()’ will be called first with no argument.  It can
     return the RFC 4954(3) «initial response» ASCII ‘str’ which will be
     encoded and sent with the ‘AUTH’ command as below.  If the
     ‘authobject()’ does not support an initial response (e.g.  because
     it requires a challenge), it should return ‘None’ when called with
     ‘challenge=None’.  If 'initial_response_ok' is false, then
     ‘authobject()’ will not be called first with ‘None’.

     If the initial response check returns ‘None’, or if
     'initial_response_ok' is false, ‘authobject()’ will be called to
     process the server’s challenge response; the 'challenge' argument
     it is passed will be a ‘bytes’.  It should return ASCII ‘str’
     'data' that will be base64 encoded and sent to the server.

     The ‘SMTP’ class provides ‘authobjects’ for the ‘CRAM-MD5’,
     ‘PLAIN’, and ‘LOGIN’ mechanisms; they are named
     ‘SMTP.auth_cram_md5’, ‘SMTP.auth_plain’, and ‘SMTP.auth_login’
     respectively.  They all require that the ‘user’ and ‘password’
     properties of the ‘SMTP’ instance are set to appropriate values.

     User code does not normally need to call ‘auth’ directly, but can
     instead call the *note login(): 42d2. method, which will try each
     of the above mechanisms in turn, in the order listed.  ‘auth’ is
     exposed to facilitate the implementation of authentication methods
     not (or not yet) supported directly by ‘smtplib’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.starttls (*, context=None)

     Put the SMTP connection in TLS (Transport Layer Security) mode.
     All SMTP commands that follow will be encrypted.  You should then
     call *note ehlo(): 42cb. again.

     If 'keyfile' and 'certfile' are provided, they are used to create
     an *note ssl.SSLContext: 336.

     Optional 'context' parameter is an *note ssl.SSLContext: 336.
     object; This is an alternative to using a keyfile and a certfile
     and if specified both 'keyfile' and 'certfile' should be ‘None’.

     If there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this
     session, this method tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The deprecated 'keyfile' and 'certfile'
     parameters have been removed.

     *note SMTPHeloError: 42c4.

          The server didn’t reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 1f9f.

          The server does not support the STARTTLS extension.

     *note RuntimeError: 30d.

          SSL/TLS support is not available to your Python interpreter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'context' was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The method now supports hostname check with
     *note ssl.SSLContext.check_hostname: 3c0e. and 'Server Name
     Indicator' (see *note HAS_SNI: 3c20.).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The error raised for lack of STARTTLS
     support is now the *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 1f9f. subclass
     instead of the base *note SMTPException: 134a.

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.sendmail (from_addr, to_addrs, msg, mail_options=(),
          rcpt_options=())

     Send mail.  The required arguments are an RFC 822(4) from-address
     string, a list of RFC 822(5) to-address strings (a bare string will
     be treated as a list with 1 address), and a message string.  The
     caller may pass a list of ESMTP options (such as ‘"8bitmime"’) to
     be used in ‘MAIL FROM’ commands as 'mail_options'.  ESMTP options
     (such as ‘DSN’ commands) that should be used with all ‘RCPT’
     commands can be passed as 'rcpt_options'.  Each option should be
     passed as a string containing the full text of the option,
     including any potential key (for instance,
     ‘"NOTIFY=SUCCESS,FAILURE"’).  (If you need to use different ESMTP
     options to different recipients you have to use the low-level
     methods such as ‘mail()’, ‘rcpt()’ and ‘data()’ to send the
     message.)

          Σημείωση: The 'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' parameters are used
          to construct the message envelope used by the transport
          agents.  ‘sendmail’ does not modify the message headers in any
          way.

     'msg' may be a string containing characters in the ASCII range, or
     a byte string.  A string is encoded to bytes using the ascii codec,
     and lone ‘\r’ and ‘\n’ characters are converted to ‘\r\n’
     characters.  A byte string is not modified.

     If there has been no previous ‘EHLO’ or ‘HELO’ command this
     session, this method tries ESMTP ‘EHLO’ first.  If the server does
     ESMTP, message size and each of the specified options will be
     passed to it (if the option is in the feature set the server
     advertises).  If ‘EHLO’ fails, ‘HELO’ will be tried and ESMTP
     options suppressed.

     This method will return normally if the mail is accepted for at
     least one recipient.  Otherwise it will raise an exception.  That
     is, if this method does not raise an exception, then someone should
     get your mail.  If this method does not raise an exception, it
     returns a dictionary, with one entry for each recipient that was
     refused.  Each entry contains a tuple of the SMTP error code and
     the accompanying error message sent by the server.

     If ‘SMTPUTF8’ is included in 'mail_options', and the server
     supports it, 'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' may contain non-ASCII
     characters.

     This method may raise the following exceptions:

     *note SMTPRecipientsRefused: 42c1.

          All recipients were refused.  Nobody got the mail.

     *note SMTPHeloError: 42c4.

          The server didn’t reply properly to the ‘HELO’ greeting.

     *note SMTPSenderRefused: 42c0.

          The server didn’t accept the 'from_addr'.

     *note SMTPDataError: 42c3.

          The server replied with an unexpected error code (other than a
          refusal of a recipient).

     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 1f9f.

          ‘SMTPUTF8’ was given in the 'mail_options' but is not
          supported by the server.

     Unless otherwise noted, the connection will be open even after an
     exception is raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: 'msg' may be a byte string.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: ‘SMTPUTF8’ support added, and *note
     SMTPNotSupportedError: 1f9f. may be raised if ‘SMTPUTF8’ is
     specified but the server does not support it.

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.send_message (msg, from_addr=None, to_addrs=None,
          mail_options=(), rcpt_options=())

     This is a convenience method for calling *note sendmail(): 120a.
     with the message represented by an *note email.message.Message:
     780. object.  The arguments have the same meaning as for
     ‘sendmail()’, except that 'msg' is a ‘Message’ object.

     If 'from_addr' is ‘None’ or 'to_addrs' is ‘None’, ‘send_message’
     fills those arguments with addresses extracted from the headers of
     'msg' as specified in RFC 5322(6): 'from_addr' is set to the
     ‘Sender’ field if it is present, and otherwise to the ‘From’ field.
     'to_addrs' combines the values (if any) of the ‘To’, ‘Cc’, and
     ‘Bcc’ fields from 'msg'.  If exactly one set of ‘Resent-*’ headers
     appear in the message, the regular headers are ignored and the
     ‘Resent-*’ headers are used instead.  If the message contains more
     than one set of ‘Resent-*’ headers, a *note ValueError: 277. is
     raised, since there is no way to unambiguously detect the most
     recent set of ‘Resent-’ headers.

     ‘send_message’ serializes 'msg' using *note BytesGenerator: 1578.
     with ‘\r\n’ as the 'linesep', and calls *note sendmail(): 120a. to
     transmit the resulting message.  Regardless of the values of
     'from_addr' and 'to_addrs', ‘send_message’ does not transmit any
     ‘Bcc’ or ‘Resent-Bcc’ headers that may appear in 'msg'.  If any of
     the addresses in 'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' contain non-ASCII
     characters and the server does not advertise ‘SMTPUTF8’ support, an
     *note SMTPNotSupportedError: 1f9f. is raised.  Otherwise the
     ‘Message’ is serialized with a clone of its *note policy: 52. with
     the *note utf8: 217. attribute set to ‘True’, and ‘SMTPUTF8’ and
     ‘BODY=8BITMIME’ are added to 'mail_options'.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Added in version 3.5: Support for internationalized addresses
     (‘SMTPUTF8’).

 -- Μέθοδος: SMTP.quit ()

     Terminate the SMTP session and close the connection.  Return the
     result of the SMTP ‘QUIT’ command.

Low-level methods corresponding to the standard SMTP/ESMTP commands
‘HELP’, ‘RSET’, ‘NOOP’, ‘MAIL’, ‘RCPT’, and ‘DATA’ are also supported.
Normally these do not need to be called directly, so they are not
documented here.  For details, consult the module code.

Additionally, an SMTP instance has the following attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: SMTP.helo_resp

     The response to the ‘HELO’ command, see *note helo(): 42c9.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SMTP.ehlo_resp

     The response to the ‘EHLO’ command, see *note ehlo(): 42cb.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SMTP.does_esmtp

     A boolean value indicating whether the server supports ESMTP, see
     *note ehlo(): 42cb.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SMTP.esmtp_features

     A dictionary of the names of SMTP service extensions supported by
     the server, see *note ehlo(): 42cb.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4954.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4954.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html


File: python.info,  Node: SMTP Example,  Prev: SMTP Objects,  Up: smtplib — SMTP protocol client

5.23.14.2 SMTP Example
......................

This example prompts the user for addresses needed in the message
envelope (“To” and “From” addresses), and the message to be delivered.
Note that the headers to be included with the message must be included
in the message as entered; this example doesn’t do any processing of the
RFC 822(1) headers.  In particular, the “To” and “From” addresses must
be included in the message headers explicitly:

     import smtplib

     def prompt(title):
         return input(title).strip()

     from_addr = prompt("From: ")
     to_addrs  = prompt("To: ").split()
     print("Enter message, end with ^D (Unix) or ^Z (Windows):")

     # Add the From: and To: headers at the start!
     lines = [f"From: {from_addr}", f"To: {', '.join(to_addrs)}", ""]
     while True:
         try:
             line = input()
         except EOFError:
             break
         else:
             lines.append(line)

     msg = "\r\n".join(lines)
     print("Message length is", len(msg))

     server = smtplib.SMTP("localhost")
     server.set_debuglevel(1)
     server.sendmail(from_addr, to_addrs, msg)
     server.quit()

     Σημείωση: In general, you will want to use the *note email: 3e.
     package’s features to construct an email message, which you can
     then send via *note send_message(): 120b.; see *note email;
     Examples: 12e7.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562,  Next: socketserver — A framework for network servers,  Prev: smtplib — SMTP protocol client,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.15 ‘uuid’ — UUID objects according to
------------------------------------------

'RFC 9562'

'Source code:' Lib/uuid.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides immutable *note UUID: e25. objects (the ‘UUID’
class) and *note functions: 42d8. for generating UUIDs corresponding to
a specific UUID version as specified in RFC 9562(2) (which supersedes
RFC 4122(3)), for example, *note uuid1(): f67. for UUID version 1, *note
uuid3(): 561. for UUID version 3, and so on.  Note that UUID version 2
is deliberately omitted as it is outside the scope of the RFC.

If all you want is a unique ID, you should probably call *note uuid1():
f67. or *note uuid4(): 563.  Note that ‘uuid1()’ may compromise privacy
since it creates a UUID containing the computer’s network address.
‘uuid4()’ creates a random UUID.

Depending on support from the underlying platform, *note uuid1(): f67.
may or may not return a «safe» UUID. A safe UUID is one which is
generated using synchronization methods that ensure no two processes can
obtain the same UUID. All instances of *note UUID: e25. have an *note
is_safe: f65. attribute which relays any information about the UUID’s
safety, using this enumeration:

 -- Κλάση: uuid.SafeUUID

     Added in version 3.7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: safe

          The UUID was generated by the platform in a
          multiprocessing-safe way.

      -- Ιδιότητα: unsafe

          The UUID was not generated in a multiprocessing-safe way.

      -- Ιδιότητα: unknown

          The platform does not provide information on whether the UUID
          was generated safely or not.

 -- Κλάση: uuid.UUID (hex=None, bytes=None, bytes_le=None, fields=None,
          int=None, version=None, *, is_safe=SafeUUID.unknown)

     Create a UUID from either a string of 32 hexadecimal digits, a
     string of 16 bytes in big-endian order as the 'bytes' argument, a
     string of 16 bytes in little-endian order as the 'bytes_le'
     argument, a tuple of six integers (32-bit 'time_low', 16-bit
     'time_mid', 16-bit 'time_hi_version', 8-bit 'clock_seq_hi_variant',
     8-bit 'clock_seq_low', 48-bit 'node') as the 'fields' argument, or
     a single 128-bit integer as the 'int' argument.  When a string of
     hex digits is given, curly braces, hyphens, and a URN prefix are
     all optional.  For example, these expressions all yield the same
     UUID:

          UUID('{12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678}')
          UUID('12345678123456781234567812345678')
          UUID('urn:uuid:12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678')
          UUID(bytes=b'\x12\x34\x56\x78'*4)
          UUID(bytes_le=b'\x78\x56\x34\x12\x34\x12\x78\x56' +
                        b'\x12\x34\x56\x78\x12\x34\x56\x78')
          UUID(fields=(0x12345678, 0x1234, 0x5678, 0x12, 0x34, 0x567812345678))
          UUID(int=0x12345678123456781234567812345678)

     Exactly one of 'hex', 'bytes', 'bytes_le', 'fields', or 'int' must
     be given.  The 'version' argument is optional; if given, the
     resulting UUID will have its variant and version number set
     according to RFC 9562(4), overriding bits in the given 'hex',
     'bytes', 'bytes_le', 'fields', or 'int'.

     Comparison of UUID objects are made by way of comparing their *note
     UUID.int: 42dd. attributes.  Comparison with a non-UUID object
     raises a *note TypeError: 291.

     ‘str(uuid)’ returns a string in the form
     ‘12345678-1234-5678-1234-567812345678’ where the 32 hexadecimal
     digits represent the UUID.

*note UUID: e25. instances have these read-only attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.bytes

     The UUID as a 16-byte string (containing the six integer fields in
     big-endian byte order).

 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.bytes_le

     The UUID as a 16-byte string (with 'time_low', 'time_mid', and
     'time_hi_version' in little-endian byte order).

 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.fields

     A tuple of the six integer fields of the UUID, which are also
     available as six individual attributes and two derived attributes:

Field                                                  Meaning
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.time_low                            The first 32 bits of the UUID. Only relevant to
                                                       version 1.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.time_mid                            The next 16 bits of the UUID. Only relevant to
                                                       version 1.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.time_hi_version                     The next 16 bits of the UUID. Only relevant to
                                                       version 1.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.clock_seq_hi_variant                The next 8 bits of the UUID. Only relevant to
                                                       versions 1 and 6.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.clock_seq_low                       The next 8 bits of the UUID. Only relevant to
                                                       versions 1 and 6.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.node                                The last 48 bits of the UUID. Only relevant to
                                                       version 1.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.time                                The 60-bit timestamp as a count of 100-nanosecond
                                                       intervals since Gregorian epoch (1582-10-15
                                                       00:00:00) for versions 1 and 6, or the 48-bit
                                                       timestamp in milliseconds since Unix epoch
                                                       (1970-01-01 00:00:00) for version 7.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.clock_seq                           The 14-bit sequence number.  Only relevant to
                                                       versions 1 and 6.
                                                       

 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.hex

     The UUID as a 32-character lowercase hexadecimal string.

 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.int

     The UUID as a 128-bit integer.

 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.urn

     The UUID as a URN as specified in RFC 9562(5).

 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.variant

     The UUID variant, which determines the internal layout of the UUID.
     This will be one of the constants *note RESERVED_NCS: 42eb, *note
     RFC_4122: 42ec, *note RESERVED_MICROSOFT: 42ed, or *note
     RESERVED_FUTURE: 42ee.

 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.version

     The UUID version number (1 through 8, meaningful only when the
     variant is *note RFC_4122: 42ec.).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added UUID versions 6, 7 and 8.

 -- Ιδιότητα: UUID.is_safe

     An enumeration of *note SafeUUID: 42d9. which indicates whether the
     platform generated the UUID in a multiprocessing-safe way.

     Added in version 3.7.

The ‘uuid’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: uuid.getnode ()

     Get the hardware address as a 48-bit positive integer.  The first
     time this runs, it may launch a separate program, which could be
     quite slow.  If all attempts to obtain the hardware address fail,
     we choose a random 48-bit number with the multicast bit (least
     significant bit of the first octet) set to 1 as recommended in RFC
     4122(6).  «Hardware address» means the MAC address of a network
     interface.  On a machine with multiple network interfaces,
     universally administered MAC addresses (i.e.  where the second
     least significant bit of the first octet is 'unset') will be
     preferred over locally administered MAC addresses, but with no
     other ordering guarantees.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Universally administered MAC addresses are
     preferred over locally administered MAC addresses, since the former
     are guaranteed to be globally unique, while the latter are not.

 -- Συνάρτηση: uuid.uuid1 (node=None, clock_seq=None)

     Generate a UUID from a host ID, sequence number, and the current
     time according to RFC 9562, §5.1(7).

     When 'node' is not specified, *note getnode(): f66. is used to
     obtain the hardware address as a 48-bit positive integer.  When a
     sequence number 'clock_seq' is not specified, a pseudo-random
     14-bit positive integer is generated.

     If 'node' or 'clock_seq' exceed their expected bit count, only
     their least significant bits are kept.

 -- Συνάρτηση: uuid.uuid3 (namespace, name)

     Generate a UUID based on the MD5 hash of a namespace identifier
     (which is a UUID) and a name (which is a *note bytes: 1c7. object
     or a string that will be encoded using UTF-8) according to RFC
     9562, §5.3(8).

 -- Συνάρτηση: uuid.uuid4 ()

     Generate a random UUID in a cryptographically-secure method
     according to RFC 9562, §5.4(9).

 -- Συνάρτηση: uuid.uuid5 (namespace, name)

     Generate a UUID based on the SHA-1 hash of a namespace identifier
     (which is a UUID) and a name (which is a *note bytes: 1c7. object
     or a string that will be encoded using UTF-8) according to RFC
     9562, §5.5(10).

 -- Συνάρτηση: uuid.uuid6 (node=None, clock_seq=None)

     Generate a UUID from a sequence number and the current time
     according to RFC 9562, §5.6(11).

     This is an alternative to *note uuid1(): f67. to improve database
     locality.

     When 'node' is not specified, *note getnode(): f66. is used to
     obtain the hardware address as a 48-bit positive integer.  When a
     sequence number 'clock_seq' is not specified, a pseudo-random
     14-bit positive integer is generated.

     If 'node' or 'clock_seq' exceed their expected bit count, only
     their least significant bits are kept.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: uuid.uuid7 ()

     Generate a time-based UUID according to RFC 9562, §5.7(12).

     For portability across platforms lacking sub-millisecond precision,
     UUIDs produced by this function embed a 48-bit timestamp and use a
     42-bit counter to guarantee monotonicity within a millisecond.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: uuid.uuid8 (a=None, b=None, c=None)

     Generate a pseudo-random UUID according to RFC 9562, §5.8(13).

     When specified, the parameters 'a', 'b' and 'c' are expected to be
     positive integers of 48, 12 and 62 bits respectively.  If they
     exceed their expected bit count, only their least significant bits
     are kept; non-specified arguments are substituted for a
     pseudo-random integer of appropriate size.

     By default, 'a', 'b' and 'c' are not generated by a
     cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG).
     Use *note uuid4(): 563. when a UUID needs to be used in a
     security-sensitive context.

     Added in version 3.14.

The ‘uuid’ module defines the following namespace identifiers for use
with *note uuid3(): 561. or *note uuid5(): 562.

 -- Δεδομένα: uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS

     When this namespace is specified, the 'name' string is a fully
     qualified domain name.

 -- Δεδομένα: uuid.NAMESPACE_URL

     When this namespace is specified, the 'name' string is a URL.

 -- Δεδομένα: uuid.NAMESPACE_OID

     When this namespace is specified, the 'name' string is an ISO OID.

 -- Δεδομένα: uuid.NAMESPACE_X500

     When this namespace is specified, the 'name' string is an X.500 DN
     in DER or a text output format.

The ‘uuid’ module defines the following constants for the possible
values of the *note variant: 42ea. attribute:

 -- Δεδομένα: uuid.RESERVED_NCS

     Reserved for NCS compatibility.

 -- Δεδομένα: uuid.RFC_4122

     Specifies the UUID layout given in RFC 4122(14).  This constant is
     kept for backward compatibility even though RFC 4122(15) has been
     superseded by RFC 9562(16).

 -- Δεδομένα: uuid.RESERVED_MICROSOFT

     Reserved for Microsoft compatibility.

 -- Δεδομένα: uuid.RESERVED_FUTURE

     Reserved for future definition.

The ‘uuid’ module defines the special Nil and Max UUID values:

 -- Δεδομένα: uuid.NIL

     A special form of UUID that is specified to have all 128 bits set
     to zero according to RFC 9562, §5.9(17).

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: uuid.MAX

     A special form of UUID that is specified to have all 128 bits set
     to one according to RFC 9562, §5.10(18).

     Added in version 3.14.

Δείτε επίσης
............

RFC 9562(19) - A Universally Unique IDentifier (UUID) URN Namespace

     This specification defines a Uniform Resource Name namespace for
     UUIDs, the internal format of UUIDs, and methods of generating
     UUIDs.

* Menu:

* Command-Line Usage::
* Example: Example<10>.
* Command-Line Example::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/uuid.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.1

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.3

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.4

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.5

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.6

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.7

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.8

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.9

   (18) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-5.10

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Usage,  Next: Example<10>,  Up: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562

5.23.15.1 Command-Line Usage
............................

Added in version 3.12.

The ‘uuid’ module can be executed as a script from the command line.

     python -m uuid [-h] [-u {uuid1,uuid3,uuid4,uuid5,uuid6,uuid7,uuid8}] [-n NAMESPACE] [-N NAME]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Show the help message and exit.

 -- Option: -u <uuid>
 -- Option: --uuid <uuid>

     Specify the function name to use to generate the uuid.  By default
     *note uuid4(): 563. is used.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Allow generating UUID versions 6, 7 and 8.

 -- Option: -n <namespace>
 -- Option: --namespace <namespace>

     The namespace is a ‘UUID’, or ‘@ns’ where ‘ns’ is a well-known
     predefined UUID addressed by namespace name.  Such as ‘@dns’,
     ‘@url’, ‘@oid’, and ‘@x500’.  Only required for *note uuid3(): 561.
     / *note uuid5(): 562. functions.

 -- Option: -N <name>
 -- Option: --name <name>

     The name used as part of generating the uuid.  Only required for
     *note uuid3(): 561. / *note uuid5(): 562. functions.

 -- Option: -C <num>
 -- Option: --count <num>

     Generate 'num' fresh UUIDs.

     Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Example<10>,  Next: Command-Line Example,  Prev: Command-Line Usage,  Up: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562

5.23.15.2 Example
.................

Here are some examples of typical usage of the ‘uuid’ module:

     >>> import uuid

     >>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time
     >>> uuid.uuid1()
     UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e')

     >>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
     >>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
     UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e')

     >>> # make a random UUID
     >>> uuid.uuid4()
     UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da')

     >>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name
     >>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org')
     UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d')

     >>> # make a UUID from a string of hex digits (braces and hyphens ignored)
     >>> x = uuid.UUID('{00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f}')

     >>> # convert a UUID to a string of hex digits in standard form
     >>> str(x)
     '00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f'

     >>> # get the raw 16 bytes of the UUID
     >>> x.bytes
     b'\x00\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05\x06\x07\x08\t\n\x0b\x0c\r\x0e\x0f'

     >>> # make a UUID from a 16-byte string
     >>> uuid.UUID(bytes=x.bytes)
     UUID('00010203-0405-0607-0809-0a0b0c0d0e0f')

     >>> # get the Nil UUID
     >>> uuid.NIL
     UUID('00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000')

     >>> # get the Max UUID
     >>> uuid.MAX
     UUID('ffffffff-ffff-ffff-ffff-ffffffffffff')

     >>> # same as UUIDv1 but with fields reordered to improve DB locality
     >>> uuid.uuid6()
     UUID('1f0799c0-98b9-62db-92c6-a0d365b91053')

     >>> # get UUIDv7 creation (local) time as a timestamp in milliseconds
     >>> u = uuid.uuid7()
     >>> u.time
     1743936859822

     >>> # get UUIDv7 creation (local) time as a datetime object
     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(u.time / 1000)
     datetime.datetime(...)

     >>> # make a UUID with custom blocks
     >>> uuid.uuid8(0x12345678, 0x9abcdef0, 0x11223344)
     UUID('00001234-5678-8ef0-8000-000011223344')


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Example,  Prev: Example<10>,  Up: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562

5.23.15.3 Command-Line Example
..............................

Here are some examples of typical usage of the ‘uuid’ command-line
interface:

     # generate a random UUID - by default uuid4() is used
     $ python -m uuid

     # generate a UUID using uuid1()
     $ python -m uuid -u uuid1

     # generate a UUID using uuid5
     $ python -m uuid -u uuid5 -n @url -N example.com

     # generate 42 random UUIDs
     $ python -m uuid -C 42


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver — A framework for network servers,  Next: http server — HTTP servers,  Prev: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.16 ‘socketserver’ — A framework for network servers
--------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/socketserver.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘socketserver’ module simplifies the task of writing network
servers.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

There are four basic concrete server classes:

 -- Κλάση: socketserver.TCPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass,
          bind_and_activate=True)

     This uses the internet TCP protocol, which provides for continuous
     streams of data between the client and server.  If
     'bind_and_activate' is true, the constructor automatically attempts
     to invoke *note server_bind(): 4305. and *note server_activate():
     4306.  The other parameters are passed to the *note BaseServer:
     14e9. base class.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The default queue size is now
     ‘socket.SOMAXCONN’ for *note socketserver.TCPServer: 16c4.

 -- Κλάση: socketserver.UDPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass,
          bind_and_activate=True)

     This uses datagrams, which are discrete packets of information that
     may arrive out of order or be lost while in transit.  The
     parameters are the same as for *note TCPServer: 16c4.

 -- Κλάση: socketserver.UnixStreamServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)
 -- Κλάση: socketserver.UnixDatagramServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True)

     These more infrequently used classes are similar to the TCP and UDP
     classes, but use Unix domain sockets; they’re not available on
     non-Unix platforms.  The parameters are the same as for *note
     TCPServer: 16c4.

These four classes process requests 'synchronously'; each request must
be completed before the next request can be started.  This isn’t
suitable if each request takes a long time to complete, because it
requires a lot of computation, or because it returns a lot of data which
the client is slow to process.  The solution is to create a separate
process or thread to handle each request; the *note ForkingMixIn: f37.
and *note ThreadingMixIn: f01. mix-in classes can be used to support
asynchronous behaviour.

Creating a server requires several steps.  First, you must create a
request handler class by subclassing the *note BaseRequestHandler: 430a.
class and overriding its *note handle(): 430b. method; this method will
process incoming requests.  Second, you must instantiate one of the
server classes, passing it the server’s address and the request handler
class.  It is recommended to use the server in a *note with: 20a.
statement.  Then call the *note handle_request(): 16c7. or *note
serve_forever(): 14eb. method of the server object to process one or
many requests.  Finally, call *note server_close(): f35. to close the
socket (unless you used a ‘with’ statement).

When inheriting from *note ThreadingMixIn: f01. for threaded connection
behavior, you should explicitly declare how you want your threads to
behave on an abrupt shutdown.  The ‘ThreadingMixIn’ class defines an
attribute 'daemon_threads', which indicates whether or not the server
should wait for thread termination.  You should set the flag explicitly
if you would like threads to behave autonomously; the default is *note
False: ef5, meaning that Python will not exit until all threads created
by ‘ThreadingMixIn’ have exited.

Server classes have the same external methods and attributes, no matter
what network protocol they use.

* Menu:

* Server Creation Notes::
* Server Objects::
* Request Handler Objects::
* Examples: Examples<25>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/socketserver.py


File: python.info,  Node: Server Creation Notes,  Next: Server Objects,  Up: socketserver — A framework for network servers

5.23.16.1 Server Creation Notes
...............................

There are five classes in an inheritance diagram, four of which
represent synchronous servers of four types:

     +------------+
     | BaseServer |
     +------------+
           |
           v
     +-----------+        +------------------+
     | TCPServer |------->| UnixStreamServer |
     +-----------+        +------------------+
           |
           v
     +-----------+        +--------------------+
     | UDPServer |------->| UnixDatagramServer |
     +-----------+        +--------------------+

Note that *note UnixDatagramServer: 4309. derives from *note UDPServer:
4307, not from *note UnixStreamServer: 4308. — the only difference
between an IP and a Unix server is the address family.

 -- Κλάση: socketserver.ForkingMixIn
 -- Κλάση: socketserver.ThreadingMixIn

     Forking and threading versions of each type of server can be
     created using these mix-in classes.  For instance, *note
     ThreadingUDPServer: 430d. is created as follows:

          class ThreadingUDPServer(ThreadingMixIn, UDPServer):
              pass

     The mix-in class comes first, since it overrides a method defined
     in *note UDPServer: 4307.  Setting the various attributes also
     changes the behavior of the underlying server mechanism.

     ‘ForkingMixIn’ and the Forking classes mentioned below are only
     available on POSIX platforms that support *note fork(): 6bd.

      -- Ιδιότητα: block_on_close

          *note ForkingMixIn.server_close: f35. waits until all child
          processes complete, except if *note block_on_close: f36.
          attribute is ‘False’.

          *note ThreadingMixIn.server_close: f35. waits until all
          non-daemon threads complete, except if *note block_on_close:
          f36. attribute is ‘False’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: max_children

          Specify how many child processes will exist to handle requests
          at a time for ‘ForkingMixIn’.  If the limit is reached, new
          requests will wait until one child process has finished.

      -- Ιδιότητα: daemon_threads

          For ‘ThreadingMixIn’ use daemonic threads by setting *note
          ThreadingMixIn.daemon_threads: 430f. to ‘True’ to not wait
          until threads complete.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: *note ForkingMixIn.server_close: f35. and
     ‘ThreadingMixIn.server_close’ now waits until all child processes
     and non-daemonic threads complete.  Add a new *note
     ForkingMixIn.block_on_close: f36. class attribute to opt-in for the
     pre-3.7 behaviour.

 -- Κλάση: socketserver.ForkingTCPServer
 -- Κλάση: socketserver.ForkingUDPServer
 -- Κλάση: socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer
 -- Κλάση: socketserver.ThreadingUDPServer
 -- Κλάση: socketserver.ForkingUnixStreamServer
 -- Κλάση: socketserver.ForkingUnixDatagramServer
 -- Κλάση: socketserver.ThreadingUnixStreamServer
 -- Κλάση: socketserver.ThreadingUnixDatagramServer

     These classes are pre-defined using the mix-in classes.

Added in version 3.12: The ‘ForkingUnixStreamServer’ and
‘ForkingUnixDatagramServer’ classes were added.

To implement a service, you must derive a class from *note
BaseRequestHandler: 430a. and redefine its *note handle(): 430b. method.
You can then run various versions of the service by combining one of the
server classes with your request handler class.  The request handler
class must be different for datagram or stream services.  This can be
hidden by using the handler subclasses *note StreamRequestHandler: 1098.
or *note DatagramRequestHandler: 4317.

Of course, you still have to use your head!  For instance, it makes no
sense to use a forking server if the service contains state in memory
that can be modified by different requests, since the modifications in
the child process would never reach the initial state kept in the parent
process and passed to each child.  In this case, you can use a threading
server, but you will probably have to use locks to protect the integrity
of the shared data.

On the other hand, if you are building an HTTP server where all data is
stored externally (for instance, in the file system), a synchronous
class will essentially render the service «deaf» while one request is
being handled – which may be for a very long time if a client is slow to
receive all the data it has requested.  Here a threading or forking
server is appropriate.

In some cases, it may be appropriate to process part of a request
synchronously, but to finish processing in a forked child depending on
the request data.  This can be implemented by using a synchronous server
and doing an explicit fork in the request handler class *note handle():
430b. method.

Another approach to handling multiple simultaneous requests in an
environment that supports neither threads nor *note fork(): 6bd. (or
where these are too expensive or inappropriate for the service) is to
maintain an explicit table of partially finished requests and to use
*note selectors: ca. to decide which request to work on next (or whether
to handle a new incoming request).  This is particularly important for
stream services where each client can potentially be connected for a
long time (if threads or subprocesses cannot be used).


File: python.info,  Node: Server Objects,  Next: Request Handler Objects,  Prev: Server Creation Notes,  Up: socketserver — A framework for network servers

5.23.16.2 Server Objects
........................

 -- Κλάση: socketserver.BaseServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass)

     This is the superclass of all Server objects in the module.  It
     defines the interface, given below, but does not implement most of
     the methods, which is done in subclasses.  The two parameters are
     stored in the respective *note server_address: 4319. and *note
     RequestHandlerClass: 431a. attributes.

      -- Μέθοδος: fileno ()

          Return an integer file descriptor for the socket on which the
          server is listening.  This function is most commonly passed to
          *note selectors: ca, to allow monitoring multiple servers in
          the same process.

      -- Μέθοδος: handle_request ()

          Process a single request.  This function calls the following
          methods in order: *note get_request(): 431c, *note
          verify_request(): 431d, and *note process_request(): 431e.  If
          the user-provided *note handle(): 430b. method of the handler
          class raises an exception, the server’s *note handle_error():
          10f8. method will be called.  If no request is received within
          *note timeout: 16c5. seconds, *note handle_timeout(): 16c6.
          will be called and ‘handle_request()’ will return.

      -- Μέθοδος: serve_forever (poll_interval=0.5)

          Handle requests until an explicit *note shutdown(): 2004.
          request.  Poll for shutdown every 'poll_interval' seconds.
          Ignores the *note timeout: 16c5. attribute.  It also calls
          *note service_actions(): 14ea, which may be used by a subclass
          or mixin to provide actions specific to a given service.  For
          example, the *note ForkingMixIn: f37. class uses
          ‘service_actions()’ to clean up zombie child processes.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added ‘service_actions’ call to the
          ‘serve_forever’ method.

      -- Μέθοδος: service_actions ()

          This is called in the *note serve_forever(): 14eb. loop.  This
          method can be overridden by subclasses or mixin classes to
          perform actions specific to a given service, such as cleanup
          actions.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: shutdown ()

          Tell the *note serve_forever(): 14eb. loop to stop and wait
          until it does.  ‘shutdown()’ must be called while
          ‘serve_forever()’ is running in a different thread otherwise
          it will deadlock.

      -- Μέθοδος: server_close ()

          Clean up the server.  May be overridden.

      -- Ιδιότητα: address_family

          The family of protocols to which the server’s socket belongs.
          Common examples are *note socket.AF_INET: 1da7, *note
          socket.AF_INET6: 1da8, and *note socket.AF_UNIX: 1daa.
          Subclass the TCP or UDP server classes in this module with
          class attribute ‘address_family = AF_INET6’ set if you want
          IPv6 server classes.

      -- Ιδιότητα: RequestHandlerClass

          The user-provided request handler class; an instance of this
          class is created for each request.

      -- Ιδιότητα: server_address

          The address on which the server is listening.  The format of
          addresses varies depending on the protocol family; see the
          documentation for the *note socket: d4. module for details.
          For internet protocols, this is a tuple containing a string
          giving the address, and an integer port number: ‘('127.0.0.1',
          80)’, for example.

      -- Ιδιότητα: socket

          The socket object on which the server will listen for incoming
          requests.

     The server classes support the following class variables:

      -- Ιδιότητα: allow_reuse_address

          Whether the server will allow the reuse of an address.  This
          defaults to *note False: ef5, and can be set in subclasses to
          change the policy.

      -- Ιδιότητα: request_queue_size

          The size of the request queue.  If it takes a long time to
          process a single request, any requests that arrive while the
          server is busy are placed into a queue, up to *note
          request_queue_size: 4322. requests.  Once the queue is full,
          further requests from clients will get a «Connection denied»
          error.  The default value is usually 5, but this can be
          overridden by subclasses.

      -- Ιδιότητα: socket_type

          The type of socket used by the server; *note
          socket.SOCK_STREAM: 1698. and *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 1697.
          are two common values.

      -- Ιδιότητα: timeout

          Timeout duration, measured in seconds, or *note None: a65. if
          no timeout is desired.  If *note handle_request(): 16c7.
          receives no incoming requests within the timeout period, the
          *note handle_timeout(): 16c6. method is called.

     There are various server methods that can be overridden by
     subclasses of base server classes like *note TCPServer: 16c4.;
     these methods aren’t useful to external users of the server object.

      -- Μέθοδος: finish_request (request, client_address)

          Actually processes the request by instantiating *note
          RequestHandlerClass: 431a. and calling its *note handle():
          430b. method.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_request ()

          Must accept a request from the socket, and return a 2-tuple
          containing the 'new' socket object to be used to communicate
          with the client, and the client’s address.

      -- Μέθοδος: handle_error (request, client_address)

          This function is called if the *note handle(): 430b. method of
          a *note RequestHandlerClass: 431a. instance raises an
          exception.  The default action is to print the traceback to
          standard error and continue handling further requests.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Now only called for exceptions derived
          from the *note Exception: d9e. class.

      -- Μέθοδος: handle_timeout ()

          This function is called when the *note timeout: 16c5.
          attribute has been set to a value other than *note None: a65.
          and the timeout period has passed with no requests being
          received.  The default action for forking servers is to
          collect the status of any child processes that have exited,
          while in threading servers this method does nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: process_request (request, client_address)

          Calls *note finish_request(): 4324. to create an instance of
          the *note RequestHandlerClass: 431a.  If desired, this
          function can create a new process or thread to handle the
          request; the *note ForkingMixIn: f37. and *note
          ThreadingMixIn: f01. classes do this.

      -- Μέθοδος: server_activate ()

          Called by the server’s constructor to activate the server.
          The default behavior for a TCP server just invokes *note
          listen(): 120f. on the server’s socket.  May be overridden.

      -- Μέθοδος: server_bind ()

          Called by the server’s constructor to bind the socket to the
          desired address.  May be overridden.

      -- Μέθοδος: verify_request (request, client_address)

          Must return a Boolean value; if the value is *note True: fcc,
          the request will be processed, and if it’s *note False: ef5,
          the request will be denied.  This function can be overridden
          to implement access controls for a server.  The default
          implementation always returns ‘True’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Support for the *note context manager: 478.
     protocol was added.  Exiting the context manager is equivalent to
     calling *note server_close(): f35.


File: python.info,  Node: Request Handler Objects,  Next: Examples<25>,  Prev: Server Objects,  Up: socketserver — A framework for network servers

5.23.16.3 Request Handler Objects
.................................

 -- Κλάση: socketserver.BaseRequestHandler

     This is the superclass of all request handler objects.  It defines
     the interface, given below.  A concrete request handler subclass
     must define a new *note handle(): 430b. method, and can override
     any of the other methods.  A new instance of the subclass is
     created for each request.

      -- Μέθοδος: setup ()

          Called before the *note handle(): 430b. method to perform any
          initialization actions required.  The default implementation
          does nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: handle ()

          This function must do all the work required to service a
          request.  The default implementation does nothing.  Several
          instance attributes are available to it; the request is
          available as *note request: 4327.; the client address as *note
          client_address: 4328.; and the server instance as *note
          server: 4329, in case it needs access to per-server
          information.

          The type of *note request: 4327. is different for datagram or
          stream services.  For stream services, ‘request’ is a socket
          object; for datagram services, ‘request’ is a pair of string
          and socket.

      -- Μέθοδος: finish ()

          Called after the *note handle(): 430b. method to perform any
          clean-up actions required.  The default implementation does
          nothing.  If *note setup(): 4326. raises an exception, this
          function will not be called.

      -- Ιδιότητα: request

          The 'new' *note socket.socket: 115a. object to be used to
          communicate with the client.

      -- Ιδιότητα: client_address

          Client address returned by *note BaseServer.get_request():
          431c.

      -- Ιδιότητα: server

          *note BaseServer: 14e9. object used for handling the request.

 -- Κλάση: socketserver.StreamRequestHandler
 -- Κλάση: socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler

     These *note BaseRequestHandler: 430a. subclasses override the *note
     setup(): 4326. and *note finish(): 432a. methods, and provide *note
     rfile: 432b. and *note wfile: 1097. attributes.

      -- Ιδιότητα: rfile

          A file object from which receives the request is read.
          Support the *note io.BufferedIOBase: a83. readable interface.

      -- Ιδιότητα: wfile

          A file object to which the reply is written.  Support the
          *note io.BufferedIOBase: a83. writable interface

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: *note wfile: 1097. also supports the *note
     io.BufferedIOBase: a83. writable interface.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<25>,  Prev: Request Handler Objects,  Up: socketserver — A framework for network servers

5.23.16.4 Examples
..................

* Menu:

* socketserver.TCPServer Example: socketserver TCPServer Example.
* socketserver.UDPServer Example: socketserver UDPServer Example.
* Asynchronous Mixins::


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver TCPServer Example,  Next: socketserver UDPServer Example,  Up: Examples<25>

5.23.16.5 ‘socketserver.TCPServer’ Example
..........................................

This is the server side:

     import socketserver

     class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
         """
         The request handler class for our server.

         It is instantiated once per connection to the server, and must
         override the handle() method to implement communication to the
         client.
         """

         def handle(self):
             # self.request is the TCP socket connected to the client
             pieces = [b'']
             total = 0
             while b'\n' not in pieces[-1] and total < 10_000:
                 pieces.append(self.request.recv(2000))
                 total += len(pieces[-1])
             self.data = b''.join(pieces)
             print(f"Received from {self.client_address[0]}:")
             print(self.data.decode("utf-8"))
             # just send back the same data, but upper-cased
             self.request.sendall(self.data.upper())
             # after we return, the socket will be closed.

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999

         # Create the server, binding to localhost on port 9999
         with socketserver.TCPServer((HOST, PORT), MyTCPHandler) as server:
             # Activate the server; this will keep running until you
             # interrupt the program with Ctrl-C
             server.serve_forever()

An alternative request handler class that makes use of streams
(file-like objects that simplify communication by providing the standard
file interface):

     class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):

         def handle(self):
             # self.rfile is a file-like object created by the handler.
             # We can now use e.g. readline() instead of raw recv() calls.
             # We limit ourselves to 10000 bytes to avoid abuse by the sender.
             self.data = self.rfile.readline(10000).rstrip()
             print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:")
             print(self.data.decode("utf-8"))
             # Likewise, self.wfile is a file-like object used to write back
             # to the client
             self.wfile.write(self.data.upper())

The difference is that the ‘readline()’ call in the second handler will
call ‘recv()’ multiple times until it encounters a newline character,
while the first handler had to use a ‘recv()’ loop to accumulate data
until a newline itself.  If it had just used a single ‘recv()’ without
the loop it would just have returned what has been received so far from
the client.  TCP is stream based: data arrives in the order it was sent,
but there is no correlation between client ‘send()’ or ‘sendall()’ calls
and the number of ‘recv()’ calls on the server required to receive it.

This is the client side:

     import socket
     import sys

     HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
     data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])

     # Create a socket (SOCK_STREAM means a TCP socket)
     with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
         # Connect to server and send data
         sock.connect((HOST, PORT))
         sock.sendall(bytes(data, "utf-8"))
         sock.sendall(b"\n")

         # Receive data from the server and shut down
         received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")

     print("Sent:    ", data)
     print("Received:", received)

The output of the example should look something like this:

Server:

     $ python TCPServer.py
     127.0.0.1 wrote:
     b'hello world with TCP'
     127.0.0.1 wrote:
     b'python is nice'

Client:

     $ python TCPClient.py hello world with TCP
     Sent:     hello world with TCP
     Received: HELLO WORLD WITH TCP
     $ python TCPClient.py python is nice
     Sent:     python is nice
     Received: PYTHON IS NICE


File: python.info,  Node: socketserver UDPServer Example,  Next: Asynchronous Mixins,  Prev: socketserver TCPServer Example,  Up: Examples<25>

5.23.16.6 ‘socketserver.UDPServer’ Example
..........................................

This is the server side:

     import socketserver

     class MyUDPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):
         """
         This class works similar to the TCP handler class, except that
         self.request consists of a pair of data and client socket, and since
         there is no connection the client address must be given explicitly
         when sending data back via sendto().
         """

         def handle(self):
             data = self.request[0].strip()
             socket = self.request[1]
             print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:")
             print(data)
             socket.sendto(data.upper(), self.client_address)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
         with socketserver.UDPServer((HOST, PORT), MyUDPHandler) as server:
             server.serve_forever()

This is the client side:

     import socket
     import sys

     HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999
     data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:])

     # SOCK_DGRAM is the socket type to use for UDP sockets
     sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_DGRAM)

     # As you can see, there is no connect() call; UDP has no connections.
     # Instead, data is directly sent to the recipient via sendto().
     sock.sendto(bytes(data + "\n", "utf-8"), (HOST, PORT))
     received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8")

     print("Sent:    ", data)
     print("Received:", received)

The output of the example should look exactly like for the TCP server
example.


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous Mixins,  Prev: socketserver UDPServer Example,  Up: Examples<25>

5.23.16.7 Asynchronous Mixins
.............................

To build asynchronous handlers, use the *note ThreadingMixIn: f01. and
*note ForkingMixIn: f37. classes.

An example for the *note ThreadingMixIn: f01. class:

     import socket
     import threading
     import socketserver

     class ThreadedTCPRequestHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler):

         def handle(self):
             data = str(self.request.recv(1024), 'ascii')
             cur_thread = threading.current_thread()
             response = bytes("{}: {}".format(cur_thread.name, data), 'ascii')
             self.request.sendall(response)

     class ThreadedTCPServer(socketserver.ThreadingMixIn, socketserver.TCPServer):
         pass

     def client(ip, port, message):
         with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock:
             sock.connect((ip, port))
             sock.sendall(bytes(message, 'ascii'))
             response = str(sock.recv(1024), 'ascii')
             print("Received: {}".format(response))

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         # Port 0 means to select an arbitrary unused port
         HOST, PORT = "localhost", 0

         server = ThreadedTCPServer((HOST, PORT), ThreadedTCPRequestHandler)
         with server:
             ip, port = server.server_address

             # Start a thread with the server -- that thread will then start one
             # more thread for each request
             server_thread = threading.Thread(target=server.serve_forever)
             # Exit the server thread when the main thread terminates
             server_thread.daemon = True
             server_thread.start()
             print("Server loop running in thread:", server_thread.name)

             client(ip, port, "Hello World 1")
             client(ip, port, "Hello World 2")
             client(ip, port, "Hello World 3")

             server.shutdown()

The output of the example should look something like this:

     $ python ThreadedTCPServer.py
     Server loop running in thread: Thread-1
     Received: Thread-2: Hello World 1
     Received: Thread-3: Hello World 2
     Received: Thread-4: Hello World 3

The *note ForkingMixIn: f37. class is used in the same way, except that
the server will spawn a new process for each request.  Available only on
POSIX platforms that support *note fork(): 6bd.


File: python.info,  Node: http server — HTTP servers,  Next: http cookies — HTTP state management,  Prev: socketserver — A framework for network servers,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.17 ‘http.server’ — HTTP servers
------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/http/server.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module defines classes for implementing HTTP servers.

     Προειδοποίηση: ‘http.server’ is not recommended for production.  It
     only implements *note basic security checks: 4333.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

One class, *note HTTPServer: 412f, is a *note socketserver.TCPServer:
16c4. subclass.  It creates and listens at the HTTP socket, dispatching
the requests to a handler.  Code to create and run the server looks like
this:

     def run(server_class=HTTPServer, handler_class=BaseHTTPRequestHandler):
         server_address = ('', 8000)
         httpd = server_class(server_address, handler_class)
         httpd.serve_forever()

 -- Κλάση: http.server.HTTPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass)

     This class builds on the *note TCPServer: 16c4. class by storing
     the server address as instance variables named ‘server_name’ and
     ‘server_port’.  The server is accessible by the handler, typically
     through the handler’s ‘server’ instance variable.

 -- Κλάση: http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass)

     This class is identical to HTTPServer but uses threads to handle
     requests by using the *note ThreadingMixIn: f01.  This is useful to
     handle web browsers pre-opening sockets, on which *note HTTPServer:
     412f. would wait indefinitely.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Κλάση: http.server.HTTPSServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass,
          bind_and_activate=True, *, certfile, keyfile=None,
          password=None, alpn_protocols=None)

     Subclass of *note HTTPServer: 412f. with a wrapped socket using the
     *note ssl: d8. module.  If the ‘ssl’ module is not available,
     instantiating a ‘HTTPSServer’ object fails with a *note
     RuntimeError: 30d.

     The 'certfile' argument is the path to the SSL certificate chain
     file, and the 'keyfile' is the path to file containing the private
     key.

     A 'password' can be specified for files protected and wrapped with
     PKCS#8, but beware that this could possibly expose hardcoded
     passwords in clear.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     See *note ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): 797. for additional
     information on the accepted values for 'certfile', 'keyfile' and
     'password'.

     When specified, the 'alpn_protocols' argument must be a sequence of
     strings specifying the «Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation»
     (ALPN) protocols supported by the server.  ALPN allows the server
     and the client to negotiate the application protocol during the TLS
     handshake.

     By default, it is set to ‘["http/1.1"]’, meaning the server
     supports HTTP/1.1.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Κλάση: http.server.ThreadingHTTPSServer (server_address,
          RequestHandlerClass, bind_and_activate=True, *, certfile,
          keyfile=None, password=None, alpn_protocols=None)

     This class is identical to *note HTTPSServer: 4b6. but uses threads
     to handle requests by inheriting from *note ThreadingMixIn: f01.
     This is analogous to *note ThreadingHTTPServer: f00. only using
     ‘HTTPSServer’.

     Added in version 3.14.

The *note HTTPServer: 412f, *note ThreadingHTTPServer: f00, *note
HTTPSServer: 4b6. and *note ThreadingHTTPSServer: 4334. must be given a
'RequestHandlerClass' on instantiation, of which this module provides
three different variants:

 -- Κλάση: http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler (request, client_address,
          server)

     This class is used to handle the HTTP requests that arrive at the
     server.  By itself, it cannot respond to any actual HTTP requests;
     it must be subclassed to handle each request method (for example,
     ‘'GET'’ or ‘'POST'’).  ‘BaseHTTPRequestHandler’ provides a number
     of class and instance variables, and methods for use by subclasses.

     The handler will parse the request and the headers, then call a
     method specific to the request type.  The method name is
     constructed from the request.  For example, for the request method
     ‘SPAM’, the ‘do_SPAM()’ method will be called with no arguments.
     All of the relevant information is stored in instance variables of
     the handler.  Subclasses should not need to override or extend the
     ‘__init__()’ method.

     ‘BaseHTTPRequestHandler’ has the following instance variables:

      -- Ιδιότητα: client_address

          Contains a tuple of the form ‘(host, port)’ referring to the
          client’s address.

      -- Ιδιότητα: server

          Contains the server instance.

      -- Ιδιότητα: close_connection

          Boolean that should be set before *note handle_one_request():
          4338. returns, indicating if another request may be expected,
          or if the connection should be shut down.

      -- Ιδιότητα: requestline

          Contains the string representation of the HTTP request line.
          The terminating CRLF is stripped.  This attribute should be
          set by *note handle_one_request(): 4338.  If no valid request
          line was processed, it should be set to the empty string.

      -- Ιδιότητα: command

          Contains the command (request type).  For example, ‘'GET'’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: path

          Contains the request path.  If query component of the URL is
          present, then ‘path’ includes the query.  Using the
          terminology of RFC 3986(2), ‘path’ here includes ‘hier-part’
          and the ‘query’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: request_version

          Contains the version string from the request.  For example,
          ‘'HTTP/1.0'’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: headers

          Holds an instance of the class specified by the *note
          MessageClass: 433d. class variable.  This instance parses and
          manages the headers in the HTTP request.  The *note
          parse_headers(): 2015. function from *note http.client: 72. is
          used to parse the headers and it requires that the HTTP
          request provide a valid RFC 5322(3) style header.

      -- Ιδιότητα: rfile

          An *note io.BufferedIOBase: a83. input stream, ready to read
          from the start of the optional input data.

      -- Ιδιότητα: wfile

          Contains the output stream for writing a response back to the
          client.  Proper adherence to the HTTP protocol must be used
          when writing to this stream in order to achieve successful
          interoperation with HTTP clients.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: This is an *note io.BufferedIOBase:
          a83. stream.

     ‘BaseHTTPRequestHandler’ has the following attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: server_version

          Specifies the server software version.  You may want to
          override this.  The format is multiple whitespace-separated
          strings, where each string is of the form name[/version].  For
          example, ‘'BaseHTTP/0.2'’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: sys_version

          Contains the Python system version, in a form usable by the
          *note version_string: 4342. method and the *note
          server_version: 4340. class variable.  For example,
          ‘'Python/1.4'’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: error_message_format

          Specifies a format string that should be used by *note
          send_error(): 12fa. method for building an error response to
          the client.  The string is filled by default with variables
          from *note responses: 41f8. based on the status code that
          passed to ‘send_error()’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: error_content_type

          Specifies the Content-Type HTTP header of error responses sent
          to the client.  The default value is ‘'text/html'’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: protocol_version

          Specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant.
          It is sent in responses to let the client know the server’s
          communication capabilities for future requests.  If set to
          ‘'HTTP/1.1'’, the server will permit HTTP persistent
          connections; however, your server 'must' then include an
          accurate ‘Content-Length’ header (using *note send_header():
          4345.) in all of its responses to clients.  For backwards
          compatibility, the setting defaults to ‘'HTTP/1.0'’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: MessageClass

          Specifies an *note email.message.Message: 780.-like class to
          parse HTTP headers.  Typically, this is not overridden, and it
          defaults to *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 4211.

      -- Ιδιότητα: responses

          This attribute contains a mapping of error code integers to
          two-element tuples containing a short and long message.  For
          example, ‘{code: (shortmessage, longmessage)}’.  The
          'shortmessage' is usually used as the 'message' key in an
          error response, and 'longmessage' as the 'explain' key.  It is
          used by *note send_response_only(): 4346. and *note
          send_error(): 12fa. methods.

     A ‘BaseHTTPRequestHandler’ instance has the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: handle ()

          Calls *note handle_one_request(): 4338. once (or, if
          persistent connections are enabled, multiple times) to handle
          incoming HTTP requests.  You should never need to override it;
          instead, implement appropriate ‘do_*()’ methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: handle_one_request ()

          This method will parse and dispatch the request to the
          appropriate ‘do_*()’ method.  You should never need to
          override it.

      -- Μέθοδος: handle_expect_100 ()

          When an HTTP/1.1 conformant server receives an ‘Expect:
          100-continue’ request header it responds back with a ‘100
          Continue’ followed by ‘200 OK’ headers.  This method can be
          overridden to raise an error if the server does not want the
          client to continue.  For example, the server can choose to
          send ‘417 Expectation Failed’ as a response header and ‘return
          False’.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: send_error (code, message=None, explain=None)

          Sends and logs a complete error reply to the client.  The
          numeric 'code' specifies the HTTP error code, with 'message'
          as an optional, short, human readable description of the
          error.  The 'explain' argument can be used to provide more
          detailed information about the error; it will be formatted
          using the *note error_message_format: 12fb. attribute and
          emitted, after a complete set of headers, as the response
          body.  The *note responses: 41f8. attribute holds the default
          values for 'message' and 'explain' that will be used if no
          value is provided; for unknown codes the default value for
          both is the string ‘???’.  The body will be empty if the
          method is HEAD or the response code is one of the following:
          ‘1XX’, ‘204 No Content’, ‘205 Reset Content’, ‘304 Not
          Modified’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The error response includes a
          Content-Length header.  Added the 'explain' argument.

      -- Μέθοδος: send_response (code, message=None)

          Adds a response header to the headers buffer and logs the
          accepted request.  The HTTP response line is written to the
          internal buffer, followed by 'Server' and 'Date' headers.  The
          values for these two headers are picked up from the *note
          version_string(): 4342. and *note date_time_string(): 434a.
          methods, respectively.  If the server does not intend to send
          any other headers using the *note send_header(): 4345. method,
          then ‘send_response()’ should be followed by an *note
          end_headers(): 1478. call.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Headers are stored to an internal
          buffer and *note end_headers(): 1478. needs to be called
          explicitly.

      -- Μέθοδος: send_header (keyword, value)

          Adds the HTTP header to an internal buffer which will be
          written to the output stream when either *note end_headers():
          1478. or *note flush_headers(): 1479. is invoked.  'keyword'
          should specify the header keyword, with 'value' specifying its
          value.  Note that, after the send_header calls are done,
          ‘end_headers()’ MUST BE called in order to complete the
          operation.

          This method does not reject input containing CRLF sequences.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Headers are stored in an internal
          buffer.

      -- Μέθοδος: send_response_only (code, message=None)

          Sends the response header only, used for the purposes when
          ‘100 Continue’ response is sent by the server to the client.
          The headers not buffered and sent directly the output
          stream.If the 'message' is not specified, the HTTP message
          corresponding the response 'code' is sent.

          This method does not reject 'message' containing CRLF
          sequences.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: end_headers ()

          Adds a blank line (indicating the end of the HTTP headers in
          the response) to the headers buffer and calls *note
          flush_headers(): 1479.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The buffered headers are written to
          the output stream.

      -- Μέθοδος: flush_headers ()

          Finally send the headers to the output stream and flush the
          internal headers buffer.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: log_request (code='-', size='-')

          Logs an accepted (successful) request.  'code' should specify
          the numeric HTTP code associated with the response.  If a size
          of the response is available, then it should be passed as the
          'size' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: log_error (...)

          Logs an error when a request cannot be fulfilled.  By default,
          it passes the message to *note log_message(): 434d, so it
          takes the same arguments ('format' and additional values).

      -- Μέθοδος: log_message (format, ...)

          Logs an arbitrary message to ‘sys.stderr’.  This is typically
          overridden to create custom error logging mechanisms.  The
          'format' argument is a standard printf-style format string,
          where the additional arguments to ‘log_message()’ are applied
          as inputs to the formatting.  The client ip address and
          current date and time are prefixed to every message logged.

      -- Μέθοδος: version_string ()

          Returns the server software’s version string.  This is a
          combination of the *note server_version: 4340. and *note
          sys_version: 4341. attributes.

      -- Μέθοδος: date_time_string (timestamp=None)

          Returns the date and time given by 'timestamp' (which must be
          ‘None’ or in the format returned by *note time.time(): 75e.),
          formatted for a message header.  If 'timestamp' is omitted, it
          uses the current date and time.

          The result looks like ‘'Sun, 06 Nov 1994 08:49:37 GMT'’.

      -- Μέθοδος: log_date_time_string ()

          Returns the current date and time, formatted for logging.

      -- Μέθοδος: address_string ()

          Returns the client address.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Previously, a name lookup was
          performed.  To avoid name resolution delays, it now always
          returns the IP address.

 -- Κλάση: http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (request,
          client_address, server, *, directory=None,
          extra_response_headers=None)

     This class serves files from the directory 'directory' and below,
     or the current directory if 'directory' is not provided, directly
     mapping the directory structure to HTTP requests.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the 'directory' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The 'directory' parameter accepts a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added 'extra_response_headers' parameter.

     A lot of the work, such as parsing the request, is done by the base
     class *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 226.  This class implements the
     *note do_GET(): 4350. and *note do_HEAD(): 4351. functions.

     The following are defined as class-level attributes of
     ‘SimpleHTTPRequestHandler’:

      -- Ιδιότητα: server_version

          This will be ‘"SimpleHTTP/" + __version__’, where
          ‘__version__’ is defined at the module level.

      -- Ιδιότητα: default_content_type

          Specifies the Content-Type header value sent when the MIME
          type cannot be guessed from the file extension of the
          requested URL. By default, it is set to
          ‘'application/octet-stream'’.

          Added in version 3.15.

      -- Ιδιότητα: extensions_map

          A dictionary mapping suffixes into MIME types, contains custom
          overrides for the default system mappings.  The mapping is
          used case-insensitively, and so should contain only
          lower-cased keys.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: This dictionary is no longer filled
          with the default system mappings, but only contains overrides.

      -- Ιδιότητα: extra_response_headers

          A sequence of ‘(name, value)’ pairs containing user-defined
          extra HTTP response headers to add to each successful HTTP
          status 200 response.  These headers are not included in other
          status code responses.

          Headers that the server sends automatically such as
          ‘Content-Type’ will not be overwritten by
          ‘extra_response_headers’.

     The ‘SimpleHTTPRequestHandler’ class defines the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: do_HEAD ()

          This method serves the ‘'HEAD'’ request type: it sends the
          headers it would send for the equivalent ‘GET’ request.  See
          the *note do_GET(): 4350. method for a more complete
          explanation of the possible headers.

      -- Μέθοδος: do_GET ()

          The request is mapped to a local file by interpreting the
          request as a path relative to the current working directory.

          If the request was mapped to a directory, the directory is
          checked for a file named ‘index.html’ or ‘index.htm’ (in that
          order).  If found, the file’s contents are returned; otherwise
          a directory listing is generated by calling the
          ‘list_directory()’ method.  This method uses *note
          os.listdir(): 14a6. to scan the directory, and returns a ‘404’
          error response if the ‘listdir()’ fails.

          If the request was mapped to a file, it is opened.  Any *note
          OSError: 53c. exception in opening the requested file is
          mapped to a ‘404’, ‘'File not found'’ error.  If there was an
          ‘'If-Modified-Since'’ header in the request, and the file was
          not modified after this time, a ‘304’, ‘'Not Modified'’
          response is sent.  Otherwise, the content type is guessed by
          calling the ‘guess_type()’ method, which in turn uses the
          'extensions_map' variable, and the file contents are returned.

          A ‘'Content-type:'’ header with the guessed content type is
          output, followed by a ‘'Content-Length:'’ header with the
          file’s size and a ‘'Last-Modified:'’ header with the file’s
          modification time.

          The instance attribute *note extra_response_headers: 4354. is
          a sequence of ‘(name, value)’ pairs containing user-defined
          extra response headers.

          Then follows a blank line signifying the end of the headers,
          and then the contents of the file are output.

          For example usage, see the implementation of the ‘test’
          function in Lib/http/server.py(4).

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Support of the ‘'If-Modified-Since'’
          header.

The *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 22a. class can be used in the
following manner in order to create a very basic webserver serving files
relative to the current directory:

     import http.server
     import socketserver

     PORT = 8000

     Handler = http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler

     with socketserver.TCPServer(("", PORT), Handler) as httpd:
         print("serving at port", PORT)
         httpd.serve_forever()

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 22a. can also be subclassed to enhance
behavior, such as using different index file names by overriding the
class attribute ‘index_pages’.

* Menu:

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<6>.
* Security considerations: Security considerations<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/http/server.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5322.html

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/http/server.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<6>,  Next: Security considerations<3>,  Up: http server — HTTP servers

5.23.17.1 Command-line interface
................................

‘http.server’ can also be invoked directly using the *note -m: 4ca.
switch of the interpreter.  The following example illustrates how to
serve files relative to the current directory:

     python -m http.server [OPTIONS] [port]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: port

     The server listens to port 8000 by default.  The default can be
     overridden by passing the desired port number as an argument:

          python -m http.server 9000

 -- Option: -b, --bind <address>

     Specifies a specific address to which it should bind.  Both IPv4
     and IPv6 addresses are supported.  By default, the server binds
     itself to all interfaces.  For example, the following command
     causes the server to bind to localhost only:

          python -m http.server --bind 127.0.0.1

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Support IPv6 in the ‘--bind’ option.

 -- Option: -d, --directory <dir>

     Specifies a directory to which it should serve the files.  By
     default, the server uses the current directory.  For example, the
     following command uses a specific directory:

          python -m http.server --directory /tmp/

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Option: -p, --protocol <version>

     Specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant.  By
     default, the server is conformant to HTTP/1.0.  For example, the
     following command runs an HTTP/1.1 conformant server:

          python -m http.server --protocol HTTP/1.1

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Option: --content-type <content_type>

     Specifies the default Content-Type HTTP header used when the MIME
     type cannot be guessed from the URL’s file extension.  By default,
     the server uses ‘'application/octet-stream'’:

          python -m http.server --content-type text/html

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Option: --tls-cert

     Specifies a TLS certificate chain for HTTPS connections:

          python -m http.server --tls-cert fullchain.pem

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Option: --tls-key

     Specifies a private key file for HTTPS connections.

     This option requires ‘--tls-cert’ to be specified.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Option: --tls-password-file

     Specifies the password file for password-protected private keys:

          python -m http.server \
                 --tls-cert cert.pem \
                 --tls-key key.pem \
                 --tls-password-file password.txt

     This option requires ‘--tls-cert’ to be specified.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Option: -H, --header <header> <value>

     Specify an additional extra HTTP Response Header to send on
     successful HTTP 200 responses.  Can be used multiple times to send
     additional custom response headers.  Headers that are sent
     automatically by the server (for instance Content-Type) will not be
     overwritten by the server.

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Security considerations<3>,  Prev: Command-line interface<6>,  Up: http server — HTTP servers

5.23.17.2 Security considerations
.................................

*note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: 22a. will follow symbolic links when
handling requests, this makes it possible for files outside of the
specified directory to be served.

Methods *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_header(): 4345. and *note
BaseHTTPRequestHandler.send_response_only(): 4346. assume sanitized
input and do not perform input validation such as checking for the
presence of CRLF sequences.  Untrusted input may result in HTTP Header
injection attacks.

Earlier versions of Python did not scrub control characters from the log
messages emitted to stderr from ‘python -m http.server’ or the default
*note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 226. ‘.log_message’ implementation.  This
could allow remote clients connecting to your server to send nefarious
control codes to your terminal.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Control characters are scrubbed in stderr logs.


File: python.info,  Node: http cookies — HTTP state management,  Next: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients,  Prev: http server — HTTP servers,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.18 ‘http.cookies’ — HTTP state management
----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/http/cookies.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘http.cookies’ module defines classes for abstracting the concept of
cookies, an HTTP state management mechanism.  It supports both simple
string-only cookies, and provides an abstraction for having any
serializable data-type as cookie value.

The module formerly strictly applied the parsing rules described in the
RFC 2109(2) and RFC 2068(3) specifications.  It has since been
discovered that MSIE 3.0x didn’t follow the character rules outlined in
those specs; many current-day browsers and servers have also relaxed
parsing rules when it comes to cookie handling.  As a result, this
module now uses parsing rules that are a bit less strict than they once
were.

The character set, *note string.ascii_letters: 1668, *note
string.digits: 293c. and ‘!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:’ denote the set of valid
characters allowed by this module in a cookie name (as *note key: fc0.).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Allowed “:” as a valid cookie name character.

     Σημείωση: On encountering an invalid cookie, *note CookieError:
     4362. is raised, so if your cookie data comes from a browser you
     should always prepare for invalid data and catch ‘CookieError’ on
     parsing.

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.cookies.CookieError

     Exception failing because of RFC 2109(4) invalidity: incorrect
     attributes, incorrect ‘Set-Cookie’ header, etc.

 -- Κλάση: http.cookies.BaseCookie ([input])

     This class is a dictionary-like object whose keys are strings and
     whose values are *note Morsel: fc3. instances.  Note that upon
     setting a key to a value, the value is first converted to a
     ‘Morsel’ containing the key and the value.

     If 'input' is given, it is passed to the *note load(): 4364.
     method.

 -- Κλάση: http.cookies.SimpleCookie ([input])

     This class derives from *note BaseCookie: 4363. and overrides *note
     value_decode(): 4365. and *note value_encode(): 4366.
     ‘SimpleCookie’ supports strings as cookie values.  When setting the
     value, ‘SimpleCookie’ calls the builtin *note str(): 1df. to
     convert the value to a string.  Values received from HTTP are kept
     as strings.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note http.cookiejar: 73.

     HTTP cookie handling for web 'clients'.  The *note http.cookiejar:
     73. and ‘http.cookies’ modules do not depend on each other.

RFC 2109(5) - HTTP State Management Mechanism

     This is the state management specification implemented by this
     module.

* Menu:

* Cookie Objects::
* Morsel Objects::
* Example: Example<11>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/http/cookies.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2068.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: Cookie Objects,  Next: Morsel Objects,  Up: http cookies — HTTP state management

5.23.18.1 Cookie Objects
........................

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseCookie.value_decode (val)

     Return a tuple ‘(real_value, coded_value)’ from a string
     representation.  ‘real_value’ can be any type.  This method does no
     decoding in *note BaseCookie: 4363. — it exists so it can be
     overridden.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseCookie.value_encode (val)

     Return a tuple ‘(real_value, coded_value)’.  'val' can be any type,
     but ‘coded_value’ will always be converted to a string.  This
     method does no encoding in *note BaseCookie: 4363. — it exists so
     it can be overridden.

     In general, it should be the case that ‘value_encode()’ and *note
     value_decode(): 4365. are inverses on the range of 'value_decode'.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseCookie.output (attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:',
          sep='\r\n')

     Return a string representation suitable to be sent as HTTP headers.
     'attrs' and 'header' are sent to each *note Morsel: fc3.’s *note
     output(): 2f6. method.  'sep' is used to join the headers together,
     and is by default the combination ‘'\r\n'’ (CRLF).

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseCookie.js_output (attrs=None)

     Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser
     which supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP headers
     was sent.

     The meaning for 'attrs' is the same as in *note output(): 2f7.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.19:
     This method generates a JavaScript snippet to set cookies in the
     browser, which is no longer considered a standard or recommended
     approach.  Use *note output(): 2f7. instead to generate HTTP
     headers.

 -- Μέθοδος: BaseCookie.load (rawdata)

     If 'rawdata' is a string, parse it as an ‘HTTP_COOKIE’ and add the
     values found there as *note Morsel: fc3.s.  If it is a dictionary,
     it is equivalent to:

          for k, v in rawdata.items():
              cookie[k] = v


File: python.info,  Node: Morsel Objects,  Next: Example<11>,  Prev: Cookie Objects,  Up: http cookies — HTTP state management

5.23.18.2 Morsel Objects
........................

 -- Κλάση: http.cookies.Morsel

     Abstract a key/value pair, which has some RFC 2109(1) attributes.

     Morsels are dictionary-like objects, whose set of keys is constant
     — the valid RFC 2109(2) attributes, which are:

           -- Ιδιότητα: expires
           -- Ιδιότητα: path
           -- Ιδιότητα: comment
           -- Ιδιότητα: domain

           -- Ιδιότητα: max-age
           -- Ιδιότητα: secure
           -- Ιδιότητα: version
           -- Ιδιότητα: httponly
           -- Ιδιότητα: samesite
           -- Ιδιότητα: partitioned

     The attribute *note httponly: 1773. specifies that the cookie is
     only transferred in HTTP requests, and is not accessible through
     JavaScript.  This is intended to mitigate some forms of cross-site
     scripting.

     The attribute *note samesite: 4371. controls when the browser sends
     the cookie with cross-site requests.  This helps to mitigate CSRF
     attacks.  Valid values are «Strict» (only sent with same-site
     requests), «Lax» (sent with same-site requests and top-level
     navigations), and «None» (sent with same-site and cross-site
     requests).  When using «None», the «secure» attribute must also be
     set, as required by modern browsers.

     The attribute *note partitioned: 4372. indicates to user agents
     that these cross-site cookies 'should' only be available in the
     same top-level context that the cookie was first set in.  For this
     to be accepted by the user agent, you 'must' also set ‘Secure’.

     In addition, it is recommended to use the ‘__Host’ prefix when
     setting partitioned cookies to make them bound to the hostname and
     not the registrable domain.  Read CHIPS (Cookies Having Independent
     Partitioned State)(3) for full details and examples.

     The keys are case-insensitive and their default value is ‘''’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: ‘__eq__()’ now takes *note key: fc0. and
     *note value: fc1. into account.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Attributes *note key: fc0, *note value:
     fc1. and *note coded_value: fc2. are read-only.  Use *note set():
     fc4. for setting them.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added support for the *note samesite: 4371.
     attribute.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added support for the *note partitioned:
     4372. attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Morsel.value

     The value of the cookie.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Morsel.coded_value

     The encoded value of the cookie — this is what should be sent.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Morsel.key

     The name of the cookie.

 -- Μέθοδος: Morsel.set (key, value, coded_value)

     Set the 'key', 'value' and 'coded_value' attributes.

 -- Μέθοδος: Morsel.isReservedKey (K)

     Whether 'K' is a member of the set of keys of a *note Morsel: fc3.

 -- Μέθοδος: Morsel.output (attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:')

     Return a string representation of the Morsel, suitable to be sent
     as an HTTP header.  By default, all the attributes are included,
     unless 'attrs' is given, in which case it should be a list of
     attributes to use.  'header' is by default ‘"Set-Cookie:"’.

 -- Μέθοδος: Morsel.js_output (attrs=None)

     Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser
     which supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP header
     was sent.

     The meaning for 'attrs' is the same as in *note output(): 2f6.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.19:
     This method generates a JavaScript snippet to set cookies in the
     browser, which is no longer considered a standard or recommended
     approach.  Use *note output(): 2f6. instead to generate HTTP
     headers.

 -- Μέθοδος: Morsel.OutputString (attrs=None)

     Return a string representing the Morsel, without any surrounding
     HTTP or JavaScript.

     The meaning for 'attrs' is the same as in *note output(): 2f6.

 -- Μέθοδος: Morsel.update (values)

     Update the values in the Morsel dictionary with the values in the
     dictionary 'values'.  Raise an error if any of the keys in the
     'values' dict is not a valid RFC 2109(4) attribute.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: an error is raised for invalid keys.

 -- Μέθοδος: Morsel.copy (value)

     Return a shallow copy of the Morsel object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: return a Morsel object instead of a dict.

 -- Μέθοδος: Morsel.setdefault (key, value=None)

     Raise an error if key is not a valid RFC 2109(5) attribute,
     otherwise behave the same as *note dict.setdefault(): 1421.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://github.com/privacycg/CHIPS/blob/main/README.md

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: Example<11>,  Prev: Morsel Objects,  Up: http cookies — HTTP state management

5.23.18.3 Example
.................

The following example demonstrates how to use the ‘http.cookies’ module.

     >>> from http import cookies
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["fig"] = "newton"
     >>> C["sugar"] = "wafer"
     >>> print(C) # generate HTTP headers
     Set-Cookie: fig=newton
     Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
     >>> print(C.output()) # same thing
     Set-Cookie: fig=newton
     Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["rocky"] = "road"
     >>> C["rocky"]["path"] = "/cookie"
     >>> print(C.output(header="Cookie:"))
     Cookie: rocky=road; Path=/cookie
     >>> print(C.output(attrs=[], header="Cookie:"))
     Cookie: rocky=road
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C.load("chips=ahoy; vienna=finger") # load from a string (HTTP header)
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: chips=ahoy
     Set-Cookie: vienna=finger
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C.load('keebler="E=everybody; L=\\"Loves\\"; fudge=;";')
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: keebler="E=everybody; L=\"Loves\"; fudge=;"
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["oreo"] = "doublestuff"
     >>> C["oreo"]["path"] = "/"
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: oreo=doublestuff; Path=/
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["twix"] = "none for you"
     >>> C["twix"].value
     'none for you'
     >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie()
     >>> C["number"] = 7 # equivalent to C["number"] = str(7)
     >>> C["string"] = "seven"
     >>> C["number"].value
     '7'
     >>> C["string"].value
     'seven'
     >>> print(C)
     Set-Cookie: number=7
     Set-Cookie: string=seven


File: python.info,  Node: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients,  Next: xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules,  Prev: http cookies — HTTP state management,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.19 ‘http.cookiejar’ — Cookie handling for HTTP clients
-----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/http/cookiejar.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘http.cookiejar’ module defines classes for automatic handling of
HTTP cookies.  It is useful for accessing websites that require small
pieces of data – 'cookies' – to be set on the client machine by an HTTP
response from a web server, and then returned to the server in later
HTTP requests.

Both the regular Netscape cookie protocol and the protocol defined by
RFC 2965(2) are handled.  RFC 2965 handling is switched off by default.
RFC 2109(3) cookies are parsed as Netscape cookies and subsequently
treated either as Netscape or RFC 2965 cookies according to the “policy”
in effect.  Note that the great majority of cookies on the internet are
Netscape cookies.  ‘http.cookiejar’ attempts to follow the de-facto
Netscape cookie protocol (which differs substantially from that set out
in the original Netscape specification), including taking note of the
‘max-age’ and ‘port’ cookie-attributes introduced with RFC 2965.

     Σημείωση: The various named parameters found in ‘Set-Cookie’ and
     ‘Set-Cookie2’ headers (eg.  ‘domain’ and ‘expires’) are
     conventionally referred to as 'attributes'.  To distinguish them
     from Python attributes, the documentation for this module uses the
     term 'cookie-attribute' instead.

The module defines the following exception:

 -- Εξαίρεση: http.cookiejar.LoadError

     Instances of *note FileCookieJar: 437c. raise this exception on
     failure to load cookies from a file.  ‘LoadError’ is a subclass of
     *note OSError: 53c.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: ‘LoadError’ used to be a subtype of *note
     IOError: 13fb, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

The following classes are provided:

 -- Κλάση: http.cookiejar.CookieJar (policy=None)

     'policy' is an object implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 437d.
     interface.

     The ‘CookieJar’ class stores HTTP cookies.  It extracts cookies
     from HTTP requests, and returns them in HTTP responses.
     ‘CookieJar’ instances automatically expire contained cookies when
     necessary.  Subclasses are also responsible for storing and
     retrieving cookies from a file or database.

 -- Κλάση: http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar (filename=None, delayload=None,
          policy=None)

     'policy' is an object implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 437d.
     interface.  For the other arguments, see the documentation for the
     corresponding attributes.

     A *note CookieJar: 419c. which can load cookies from, and perhaps
     save cookies to, a file on disk.  Cookies are 'NOT' loaded from the
     named file until either the *note load(): 437e. or *note revert():
     437f. method is called.  Subclasses of this class are documented in
     section *note FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web
     browsers: 4380.

     This should not be initialized directly – use its subclasses below
     instead.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The filename parameter supports a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

 -- Κλάση: http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy

     This class is responsible for deciding whether each cookie should
     be accepted from / returned to the server.

 -- Κλάση: http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy (blocked_domains=None,
          allowed_domains=None, netscape=True, rfc2965=False,
          rfc2109_as_netscape=None, hide_cookie2=False,
          strict_domain=False, strict_rfc2965_unverifiable=True,
          strict_ns_unverifiable=False,
          strict_ns_domain=DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal,
          strict_ns_set_initial_dollar=False, strict_ns_set_path=False,
          secure_protocols=('https', 'wss'))

     Constructor arguments should be passed as keyword arguments only.
     'blocked_domains' is a sequence of domain names that we never
     accept cookies from, nor return cookies to.  'allowed_domains' if
     not *note None: a65, this is a sequence of the only domains for
     which we accept and return cookies.  'secure_protocols' is a
     sequence of protocols for which secure cookies can be added to.  By
     default 'https' and 'wss' (secure websocket) are considered secure
     protocols.  For all other arguments, see the documentation for
     *note CookiePolicy: 437d. and ‘DefaultCookiePolicy’ objects.

     ‘DefaultCookiePolicy’ implements the standard accept / reject rules
     for Netscape and RFC 2965(4) cookies.  By default, RFC 2109(5)
     cookies (ie.  cookies received in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header with a
     version cookie-attribute of 1) are treated according to the RFC
     2965 rules.  However, if RFC 2965 handling is turned off or *note
     rfc2109_as_netscape: 4381. is ‘True’, RFC 2109 cookies are
     “downgraded” by the *note CookieJar: 419c. instance to Netscape
     cookies, by setting the ‘version’ attribute of the *note Cookie:
     4382. instance to 0.  ‘DefaultCookiePolicy’ also provides some
     parameters to allow some fine-tuning of policy.

 -- Κλάση: http.cookiejar.Cookie

     This class represents Netscape, RFC 2109(6) and RFC 2965(7)
     cookies.  It is not expected that users of ‘http.cookiejar’
     construct their own ‘Cookie’ instances.  Instead, if necessary,
     call ‘make_cookies()’ on a *note CookieJar: 419c. instance.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note urllib.request: 114.

     URL opening with automatic cookie handling.

Module *note http.cookies: 74.

     HTTP cookie classes, principally useful for server-side code.  The
     ‘http.cookiejar’ and *note http.cookies: 74. modules do not depend
     on each other.

‘https://curl.se/rfc/cookie_spec.html’

     The specification of the original Netscape cookie protocol.  Though
     this is still the dominant protocol, the “Netscape cookie protocol”
     implemented by all the major browsers (and ‘http.cookiejar’) only
     bears a passing resemblance to the one sketched out in
     ‘cookie_spec.html’.

RFC 2109(8) - HTTP State Management Mechanism

     Obsoleted by RFC 2965(9).  Uses ‘Set-Cookie’ with version=1.

RFC 2965(10) - HTTP State Management Mechanism

     The Netscape protocol with the bugs fixed.  Uses ‘Set-Cookie2’ in
     place of ‘Set-Cookie’.  Not widely used.

‘https://kristol.org/cookie/errata.html’

     Unfinished errata to RFC 2965(11).

RFC 2964(12) - Use of HTTP State Management

* Menu:

* CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects::
* FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers::
* CookiePolicy Objects::
* DefaultCookiePolicy Objects::
* Cookie Objects: Cookie Objects<2>.
* Examples: Examples<26>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/http/cookiejar.py

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2964.html


File: python.info,  Node: CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects,  Next: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers,  Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.23.19.1 CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects
.............................................

*note CookieJar: 419c. objects support the *note iterator: 6ce. protocol
for iterating over contained *note Cookie: 4382. objects.

*note CookieJar: 419c. has the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: CookieJar.add_cookie_header (request)

     Add correct ‘Cookie’ header to 'request'.

     If policy allows (ie.  the ‘rfc2965’ and ‘hide_cookie2’ attributes
     of the *note CookieJar: 419c.’s *note CookiePolicy: 437d. instance
     are true and false respectively), the ‘Cookie2’ header is also
     added when appropriate.

     The 'request' object (usually a *note urllib.request.Request: 1381.
     instance) must support the methods ‘get_full_url()’,
     ‘has_header()’, ‘get_header()’, ‘header_items()’,
     ‘add_unredirected_header()’ and the attributes ‘host’, ‘type’,
     ‘unverifiable’ and ‘origin_req_host’ as documented by *note
     urllib.request: 114.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'request' object needs ‘origin_req_host’
     attribute.  Dependency on a deprecated method
     ‘get_origin_req_host()’ has been removed.

 -- Μέθοδος: CookieJar.extract_cookies (response, request)

     Extract cookies from HTTP 'response' and store them in the *note
     CookieJar: 419c, where allowed by policy.

     The *note CookieJar: 419c. will look for allowable ‘Set-Cookie’ and
     ‘Set-Cookie2’ headers in the 'response' argument, and store cookies
     as appropriate (subject to the *note CookiePolicy.set_ok(): 4387.
     method’s approval).

     The 'response' object (usually the result of a call to *note
     urllib.request.urlopen(): 57f, or similar) should support an
     ‘info()’ method, which returns an *note email.message.Message: 780.
     instance.

     The 'request' object (usually a *note urllib.request.Request: 1381.
     instance) must support the method ‘get_full_url()’ and the
     attributes ‘host’, ‘unverifiable’ and ‘origin_req_host’, as
     documented by *note urllib.request: 114.  The request is used to
     set default values for cookie-attributes as well as for checking
     that the cookie is allowed to be set.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'request' object needs ‘origin_req_host’
     attribute.  Dependency on a deprecated method
     ‘get_origin_req_host()’ has been removed.

 -- Μέθοδος: CookieJar.set_policy (policy)

     Set the *note CookiePolicy: 437d. instance to be used.

 -- Μέθοδος: CookieJar.make_cookies (response, request)

     Return sequence of *note Cookie: 4382. objects extracted from
     'response' object.

     See the documentation for *note extract_cookies(): 4386. for the
     interfaces required of the 'response' and 'request' arguments.

 -- Μέθοδος: CookieJar.set_cookie_if_ok (cookie, request)

     Set a *note Cookie: 4382. if policy says it’s OK to do so.

 -- Μέθοδος: CookieJar.set_cookie (cookie)

     Set a *note Cookie: 4382, without checking with policy to see
     whether or not it should be set.

 -- Μέθοδος: CookieJar.clear ([domain[, path[, name]]])

     Clear some cookies.

     If invoked without arguments, clear all cookies.  If given a single
     argument, only cookies belonging to that 'domain' will be removed.
     If given two arguments, cookies belonging to the specified 'domain'
     and URL 'path' are removed.  If given three arguments, then the
     cookie with the specified 'domain', 'path' and 'name' is removed.

     Raises *note KeyError: 7df. if no matching cookie exists.

 -- Μέθοδος: CookieJar.clear_session_cookies ()

     Discard all session cookies.

     Discards all contained cookies that have a true ‘discard’ attribute
     (usually because they had either no ‘max-age’ or ‘expires’
     cookie-attribute, or an explicit ‘discard’ cookie-attribute).  For
     interactive browsers, the end of a session usually corresponds to
     closing the browser window.

     Note that the ‘save()’ method won’t save session cookies anyway,
     unless you ask otherwise by passing a true 'ignore_discard'
     argument.

*note FileCookieJar: 437c. implements the following additional methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: FileCookieJar.save (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     Save cookies to a file.

     This base class raises *note NotImplementedError: 59a.  Subclasses
     may leave this method unimplemented.

     'filename' is the name of file in which to save cookies.  If
     'filename' is not specified, ‘self.filename’ is used (whose default
     is the value passed to the constructor, if any); if ‘self.filename’
     is *note None: a65, *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

     'ignore_discard': save even cookies set to be discarded.
     'ignore_expires': save even cookies that have expired

     The file is overwritten if it already exists, thus wiping all the
     cookies it contains.  Saved cookies can be restored later using the
     *note load(): 437e. or *note revert(): 437f. methods.

 -- Μέθοδος: FileCookieJar.load (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     Load cookies from a file.

     Old cookies are kept unless overwritten by newly loaded ones.

     Arguments are as for *note save(): 438e.

     The named file must be in the format understood by the class, or
     *note LoadError: 437b. will be raised.  Also, *note OSError: 53c.
     may be raised, for example if the file does not exist.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: *note IOError: 13fb. used to be raised, it
     is now an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

 -- Μέθοδος: FileCookieJar.revert (filename=None, ignore_discard=False,
          ignore_expires=False)

     Clear all cookies and reload cookies from a saved file.

     ‘revert()’ can raise the same exceptions as *note load(): 437e.  If
     there is a failure, the object’s state will not be altered.

*note FileCookieJar: 437c. instances have the following public
attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: FileCookieJar.filename

     Filename of default file in which to keep cookies.  This attribute
     may be assigned to.

 -- Ιδιότητα: FileCookieJar.delayload

     If true, load cookies lazily from disk.  This attribute should not
     be assigned to.  This is only a hint, since this only affects
     performance, not behaviour (unless the cookies on disk are
     changing).  A *note CookieJar: 419c. object may ignore it.  None of
     the *note FileCookieJar: 437c. classes included in the standard
     library lazily loads cookies.


File: python.info,  Node: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers,  Next: CookiePolicy Objects,  Prev: CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects,  Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.23.19.2 FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers
.....................................................................

The following *note CookieJar: 419c. subclasses are provided for reading
and writing.

 -- Κλάση: http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar (filename=None,
          delayload=None, policy=None)

     A *note FileCookieJar: 437c. that can load from and save cookies to
     disk in the Mozilla ‘cookies.txt’ file format (which is also used
     by curl and the Lynx and Netscape browsers).

          Σημείωση: This loses information about RFC 2965(1) cookies,
          and also about newer or non-standard cookie-attributes such as
          ‘port’.

          Προειδοποίηση: Back up your cookies before saving if you have
          cookies whose loss / corruption would be inconvenient (there
          are some subtleties which may lead to slight changes in the
          file over a load / save round-trip).

     Also note that cookies saved while Mozilla is running will get
     clobbered by Mozilla.

 -- Κλάση: http.cookiejar.LWPCookieJar (filename=None, delayload=None,
          policy=None)

     A *note FileCookieJar: 437c. that can load from and save cookies to
     disk in format compatible with the libwww-perl library’s
     ‘Set-Cookie3’ file format.  This is convenient if you want to store
     cookies in a human-readable file.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The filename parameter supports a *note
     path-like object: 79f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: CookiePolicy Objects,  Next: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects,  Prev: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers,  Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.23.19.3 CookiePolicy Objects
..............................

Objects implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 437d. interface have the
following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: CookiePolicy.set_ok (cookie, request)

     Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be accepted
     from server.

     'cookie' is a *note Cookie: 4382. instance.  'request' is an object
     implementing the interface defined by the documentation for *note
     CookieJar.extract_cookies(): 4386.

 -- Μέθοδος: CookiePolicy.return_ok (cookie, request)

     Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be returned
     to server.

     'cookie' is a *note Cookie: 4382. instance.  'request' is an object
     implementing the interface defined by the documentation for *note
     CookieJar.add_cookie_header(): 4385.

 -- Μέθοδος: CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok (domain, request)

     Return ‘False’ if cookies should not be returned, given cookie
     domain.

     This method is an optimization.  It removes the need for checking
     every cookie with a particular domain (which might involve reading
     many files).  Returning true from ‘domain_return_ok()’ and *note
     path_return_ok(): 4398. leaves all the work to *note return_ok():
     4396.

     If ‘domain_return_ok()’ returns true for the cookie domain, *note
     path_return_ok(): 4398. is called for the cookie path.  Otherwise,
     ‘path_return_ok()’ and *note return_ok(): 4396. are never called
     for that cookie domain.  If ‘path_return_ok()’ returns true,
     ‘return_ok()’ is called with the *note Cookie: 4382. object itself
     for a full check.  Otherwise, ‘return_ok()’ is never called for
     that cookie path.

     Note that ‘domain_return_ok()’ is called for every 'cookie' domain,
     not just for the 'request' domain.  For example, the function might
     be called with both ‘".example.com"’ and ‘"www.example.com"’ if the
     request domain is ‘"www.example.com"’.  The same goes for *note
     path_return_ok(): 4398.

     The 'request' argument is as documented for *note return_ok():
     4396.

 -- Μέθοδος: CookiePolicy.path_return_ok (path, request)

     Return ‘False’ if cookies should not be returned, given cookie
     path.

     See the documentation for *note domain_return_ok(): 4397.

In addition to implementing the methods above, implementations of the
*note CookiePolicy: 437d. interface must also supply the following
attributes, indicating which protocols should be used, and how.  All of
these attributes may be assigned to.

 -- Ιδιότητα: CookiePolicy.netscape

     Implement Netscape protocol.

 -- Ιδιότητα: CookiePolicy.rfc2965

     Implement RFC 2965(1) protocol.

 -- Ιδιότητα: CookiePolicy.hide_cookie2

     Don’t add ‘Cookie2’ header to requests (the presence of this header
     indicates to the server that we understand RFC 2965(2) cookies).

The most useful way to define a *note CookiePolicy: 437d. class is by
subclassing from *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1fe3. and overriding some or
all of the methods above.  ‘CookiePolicy’ itself may be used as a “null
policy” to allow setting and receiving any and all cookies (this is
unlikely to be useful).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects,  Next: Cookie Objects<2>,  Prev: CookiePolicy Objects,  Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.23.19.4 DefaultCookiePolicy Objects
.....................................

Implements the standard rules for accepting and returning cookies.

Both RFC 2965(1) and Netscape cookies are covered.  RFC 2965 handling is
switched off by default.

The easiest way to provide your own policy is to override this class and
call its methods in your overridden implementations before adding your
own additional checks:

     import http.cookiejar
     class MyCookiePolicy(http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy):
         def set_ok(self, cookie, request):
             if not http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_ok(self, cookie, request):
                 return False
             if i_dont_want_to_store_this_cookie(cookie):
                 return False
             return True

In addition to the features required to implement the *note
CookiePolicy: 437d. interface, this class allows you to block and allow
domains from setting and receiving cookies.  There are also some
strictness switches that allow you to tighten up the rather loose
Netscape protocol rules a little bit (at the cost of blocking some
benign cookies).

A domain blocklist and allowlist is provided (both off by default).
Only domains not in the blocklist and present in the allowlist (if the
allowlist is active) participate in cookie setting and returning.  Use
the 'blocked_domains' constructor argument, and ‘blocked_domains()’ and
‘set_blocked_domains()’ methods (and the corresponding argument and
methods for 'allowed_domains').  If you set an allowlist, you can turn
it off again by setting it to *note None: a65.

Domains in block or allow lists that do not start with a dot must equal
the cookie domain to be matched.  For example, ‘"example.com"’ matches a
blocklist entry of ‘"example.com"’, but ‘"www.example.com"’ does not.
Domains that do start with a dot are matched by more specific domains
too.  For example, both ‘"www.example.com"’ and
‘"www.coyote.example.com"’ match ‘".example.com"’ (but ‘"example.com"’
itself does not).  IP addresses are an exception, and must match
exactly.  For example, if blocked_domains contains ‘"192.168.1.2"’ and
‘".168.1.2"’, 192.168.1.2 is blocked, but 193.168.1.2 is not.

*note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1fe3. implements the following additional
methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains ()

     Return the sequence of blocked domains (as a tuple).

 -- Μέθοδος: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains (blocked_domains)

     Set the sequence of blocked domains.

 -- Μέθοδος: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_blocked (domain)

     Return ‘True’ if 'domain' is on the blocklist for setting or
     receiving cookies.

 -- Μέθοδος: DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains ()

     Return *note None: a65, or the sequence of allowed domains (as a
     tuple).

 -- Μέθοδος: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains (allowed_domains)

     Set the sequence of allowed domains, or *note None: a65.

 -- Μέθοδος: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed (domain)

     Return ‘True’ if 'domain' is not on the allowlist for setting or
     receiving cookies.

*note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1fe3. instances have the following
attributes, which are all initialised from the constructor arguments of
the same name, and which may all be assigned to.

 -- Ιδιότητα: DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape

     If true, request that the *note CookieJar: 419c. instance downgrade
     RFC 2109(2) cookies (ie.  cookies received in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header
     with a version cookie-attribute of 1) to Netscape cookies by
     setting the version attribute of the *note Cookie: 4382. instance
     to 0.  The default value is *note None: a65, in which case RFC 2109
     cookies are downgraded if and only if RFC 2965(3) handling is
     turned off.  Therefore, RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded by default.

General strictness switches:

 -- Ιδιότητα: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_domain

     Don’t allow sites to set two-component domains with country-code
     top-level domains like ‘.co.uk’, ‘.gov.uk’, ‘.co.nz’.etc.  This is
     far from perfect and isn’t guaranteed to work!

RFC 2965(4) protocol strictness switches:

 -- Ιδιότητα: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_rfc2965_unverifiable

     Follow RFC 2965(5) rules on unverifiable transactions (usually, an
     unverifiable transaction is one resulting from a redirect or a
     request for an image hosted on another site).  If this is false,
     cookies are 'never' blocked on the basis of verifiability

Netscape protocol strictness switches:

 -- Ιδιότητα: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_unverifiable

     Apply RFC 2965(6) rules on unverifiable transactions even to
     Netscape cookies.

 -- Ιδιότητα: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domain

     Flags indicating how strict to be with domain-matching rules for
     Netscape cookies.  See below for acceptable values.

 -- Ιδιότητα: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_initial_dollar

     Ignore cookies in Set-Cookie: headers that have names starting with
     ‘'$'’.

 -- Ιδιότητα: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_path

     Don’t allow setting cookies whose path doesn’t path-match request
     URI.

*note strict_ns_domain: 43a7. is a collection of flags.  Its value is
constructed by or-ing together (for example,
‘DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain’ means both flags are set).

 -- Ιδιότητα: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDots

     When setting cookies, the “host prefix” must not contain a dot (eg.
     ‘www.foo.bar.com’ can’t set a cookie for ‘.bar.com’, because
     ‘www.foo’ contains a dot).

 -- Ιδιότητα: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomain

     Cookies that did not explicitly specify a ‘domain’ cookie-attribute
     can only be returned to a domain equal to the domain that set the
     cookie (eg.  ‘spam.example.com’ won’t be returned cookies from
     ‘example.com’ that had no ‘domain’ cookie-attribute).

 -- Ιδιότητα: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainRFC2965Match

     When setting cookies, require a full RFC 2965(7) domain-match.

The following attributes are provided for convenience, and are the most
useful combinations of the above flags:

 -- Ιδιότητα: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal

     Equivalent to 0 (ie.  all of the above Netscape domain strictness
     flags switched off).

 -- Ιδιότητα: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrict

     Equivalent to ‘DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: Cookie Objects<2>,  Next: Examples<26>,  Prev: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects,  Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.23.19.5 Cookie Objects
........................

*note Cookie: 4382. instances have Python attributes roughly
corresponding to the standard cookie-attributes specified in the various
cookie standards.  The correspondence is not one-to-one, because there
are complicated rules for assigning default values, because the
‘max-age’ and ‘expires’ cookie-attributes contain equivalent
information, and because RFC 2109(1) cookies may be “downgraded” by
‘http.cookiejar’ from version 1 to version 0 (Netscape) cookies.

Assignment to these attributes should not be necessary other than in
rare circumstances in a *note CookiePolicy: 437d. method.  The class
does not enforce internal consistency, so you should know what you’re
doing if you do that.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.version

     Integer or *note None: a65.  Netscape cookies have *note version:
     43b0. 0.  RFC 2965(2) and RFC 2109(3) cookies have a ‘version’
     cookie-attribute of 1.  However, note that ‘http.cookiejar’ may
     “downgrade” RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in which case
     ‘version’ is 0.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.name

     Cookie name (a string).

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.value

     Cookie value (a string), or *note None: a65.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.port

     String representing a port or a set of ports (eg.  “80”, or
     “80,8080”), or *note None: a65.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.domain

     Cookie domain (a string).

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.path

     Cookie path (a string, eg.  ‘'/acme/rocket_launchers'’).

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.secure

     ‘True’ if cookie should only be returned over a secure connection.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.expires

     Integer expiry date in seconds since epoch, or *note None: a65.
     See also the *note is_expired(): 43b8. method.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.discard

     ‘True’ if this is a session cookie.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.comment

     String comment from the server explaining the function of this
     cookie, or *note None: a65.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.comment_url

     URL linking to a comment from the server explaining the function of
     this cookie, or *note None: a65.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.rfc2109

     ‘True’ if this cookie was received as an RFC 2109(4) cookie (ie.
     the cookie arrived in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header, and the value of the
     Version cookie-attribute in that header was 1).  This attribute is
     provided because ‘http.cookiejar’ may “downgrade” RFC 2109 cookies
     to Netscape cookies, in which case *note version: 43b0. is 0.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.port_specified

     ‘True’ if a port or set of ports was explicitly specified by the
     server (in the ‘Set-Cookie’ / ‘Set-Cookie2’ header).

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.domain_specified

     ‘True’ if a domain was explicitly specified by the server.

 -- Ιδιότητα: Cookie.domain_initial_dot

     ‘True’ if the domain explicitly specified by the server began with
     a dot (‘'.'’).

Cookies may have additional non-standard cookie-attributes.  These may
be accessed using the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: Cookie.has_nonstandard_attr (name)

     Return ‘True’ if cookie has the named cookie-attribute.

 -- Μέθοδος: Cookie.get_nonstandard_attr (name, default=None)

     If cookie has the named cookie-attribute, return its value.
     Otherwise, return 'default'.

 -- Μέθοδος: Cookie.set_nonstandard_attr (name, value)

     Set the value of the named cookie-attribute.

The *note Cookie: 4382. class also defines the following method:

 -- Μέθοδος: Cookie.is_expired (now=None)

     ‘True’ if cookie has passed the time at which the server requested
     it should expire.  If 'now' is given (in seconds since the epoch),
     return whether the cookie has expired at the specified time.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<26>,  Prev: Cookie Objects<2>,  Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

5.23.19.6 Examples
..................

The first example shows the most common usage of ‘http.cookiejar’:

     import http.cookiejar, urllib.request
     cj = http.cookiejar.CookieJar()
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

This example illustrates how to open a URL using your Netscape, Mozilla,
or Lynx cookies (assumes Unix/Netscape convention for location of the
cookies file):

     import os, http.cookiejar, urllib.request
     cj = http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar()
     cj.load(os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".netscape", "cookies.txt"))
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

The next example illustrates the use of *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1fe3.
Turn on RFC 2965(1) cookies, be more strict about domains when setting
and returning Netscape cookies, and block some domains from setting
cookies or having them returned:

     import urllib.request
     from http.cookiejar import CookieJar, DefaultCookiePolicy
     policy = DefaultCookiePolicy(
         rfc2965=True, strict_ns_domain=Policy.DomainStrict,
         blocked_domains=["ads.net", ".ads.net"])
     cj = CookieJar(policy)
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj))
     r = opener.open("http://example.com/")

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules,  Next: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access,  Prev: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.20 ‘xmlrpc’ — XMLRPC server and client modules
---------------------------------------------------

XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via HTTP
as a transport.  With it, a client can call methods with parameters on a
remote server (the server is named by a URI) and get back structured
data.

‘xmlrpc’ is a package that collects server and client modules
implementing XML-RPC. The modules are:

   * *note xmlrpc.client: 137.

   * *note xmlrpc.server: 138.


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access,  Next: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers,  Prev: xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.21 ‘xmlrpc.client’ — XML-RPC client access
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xmlrpc/client.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via
HTTP(S) as a transport.  With it, a client can call methods with
parameters on a remote server (the server is named by a URI) and get
back structured data.  This module supports writing XML-RPC client code;
it handles all the details of translating between conformable Python
objects and XML on the wire.

     Προειδοποίηση: The ‘xmlrpc.client’ module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data, see *note XML security: 3f34.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: For HTTPS URIs, ‘xmlrpc.client’ now performs all
the necessary certificate and hostname checks by default.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

 -- Κλάση: xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy (uri, transport=None,
          encoding=None, verbose=False, allow_none=False,
          use_datetime=False, use_builtin_types=False, *, headers=(),
          context=None)

     A ‘ServerProxy’ instance is an object that manages communication
     with a remote XML-RPC server.  The required first argument is a URI
     (Uniform Resource Indicator), and will normally be the URL of the
     server.  The optional second argument is a transport factory
     instance; by default it is an internal ‘SafeTransport’ instance for
     https: URLs and an internal HTTP ‘Transport’ instance otherwise.
     The optional third argument is an encoding, by default UTF-8.  The
     optional fourth argument is a debugging flag.

     The following parameters govern the use of the returned proxy
     instance.  If 'allow_none' is true, the Python constant ‘None’ will
     be translated into XML; the default behaviour is for ‘None’ to
     raise a *note TypeError: 291.  This is a commonly used extension to
     the XML-RPC specification, but isn’t supported by all clients and
     servers; see http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php(2) for a
     description.  The 'use_builtin_types' flag can be used to cause
     date/time values to be presented as *note datetime.datetime: 6e7.
     objects and binary data to be presented as *note bytes: 1c7.
     objects; this flag is false by default.  ‘datetime.datetime’,
     ‘bytes’ and *note bytearray: 1c6. objects may be passed to calls.
     The 'headers' parameter is an optional sequence of HTTP headers to
     send with each request, expressed as a sequence of 2-tuples
     representing the header name and value.  (e.g.  ‘[('Header-Name',
     'value')]’).  If an HTTPS URL is provided, 'context' may be *note
     ssl.SSLContext: 336. and configures the SSL settings of the
     underlying HTTPS connection.  The obsolete 'use_datetime' flag is
     similar to 'use_builtin_types' but it applies only to date/time
     values.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'headers' parameter was added.

     Both the HTTP and HTTPS transports support the URL syntax extension
     for HTTP Basic Authentication: ‘http://user:pass@host:port/path’.
     The ‘user:pass’ portion will be base64-encoded as an HTTP
     “Authorization” header, and sent to the remote server as part of
     the connection process when invoking an XML-RPC method.  You only
     need to use this if the remote server requires a Basic
     Authentication user and password.

     The returned instance is a proxy object with methods that can be
     used to invoke corresponding RPC calls on the remote server.  If
     the remote server supports the introspection API, the proxy can
     also be used to query the remote server for the methods it supports
     (service discovery) and fetch other server-associated metadata.

     Types that are conformable (e.g.  that can be marshalled through
     XML), include the following (and except where noted, they are
     unmarshalled as the same Python type):

     XML-RPC type               Python type
                                
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                
     ‘boolean’                  *note bool: 5ef.
                                
                                
     ‘int’, ‘i1’, ‘i2’, ‘i4’,   *note int: 326. in range from -2147483648 to 2147483647.
     ‘i8’ or ‘biginteger’       Values get the ‘<int>’ tag.
                                
                                
     ‘double’ or ‘float’        *note float: 327.  Values get the ‘<double>’ tag.
                                
                                
     ‘string’                   *note str: 1df.
                                
                                
     ‘array’                    *note list: 4d9. or *note tuple: 1ce. containing
                                conformable elements.  Arrays are returned as ‘lists’.
                                
                                
     ‘struct’                   *note dict: 188.  Keys must be strings, values may be any
                                conformable type.  Objects of user-defined classes can be
                                passed in; only their *note __dict__: 1bf. attribute is
                                transmitted.
                                
                                
     ‘dateTime.iso8601’         *note DateTime: 1786. or *note datetime.datetime: 6e7.
                                Returned type depends on values of 'use_builtin_types'
                                and 'use_datetime' flags.
                                
                                
     ‘base64’                   *note Binary: 43ca, *note bytes: 1c7. or
                                *note bytearray: 1c6.  Returned type depends on the value
                                of the 'use_builtin_types' flag.
                                
                                
     ‘nil’                      The ‘None’ constant.  Passing is allowed only if
                                'allow_none' is true.
                                
                                
     ‘bigdecimal’               *note decimal.Decimal: 1c2.  Returned type only.
                                

     This is the full set of data types supported by XML-RPC. Method
     calls may also raise a special *note Fault: 43cb. instance, used to
     signal XML-RPC server errors, or *note ProtocolError: 43cc. used to
     signal an error in the HTTP/HTTPS transport layer.  Both ‘Fault’
     and ‘ProtocolError’ derive from a base class called ‘Error’.  Note
     that the xmlrpc client module currently does not marshal instances
     of subclasses of built-in types.

     When passing strings, characters special to XML such as ‘<’, ‘>’,
     and ‘&’ will be automatically escaped.  However, it’s the caller’s
     responsibility to ensure that the string is free of characters that
     aren’t allowed in XML, such as the control characters with ASCII
     values between 0 and 31 (except, of course, tab, newline and
     carriage return); failing to do this will result in an XML-RPC
     request that isn’t well-formed XML. If you have to pass arbitrary
     bytes via XML-RPC, use *note bytes: 1c7. or *note bytearray: 1c6.
     classes or the *note Binary: 43ca. wrapper class described below.

     ‘Server’ is retained as an alias for ‘ServerProxy’ for backwards
     compatibility.  New code should use ‘ServerProxy’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the 'context' argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added support of type tags with prefixes
     (e.g.  ‘ex:nil’).  Added support of unmarshalling additional types
     used by Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics: ‘i1’, ‘i2’,
     ‘i8’, ‘biginteger’, ‘float’ and ‘bigdecimal’.  See
     ‘https://ws.apache.org/xmlrpc/types.html’ for a description.

Δείτε επίσης
............

XML-RPC HOWTO(3)

     A good description of XML-RPC operation and client software in
     several languages.  Contains pretty much everything an XML-RPC
     client developer needs to know.

XML-RPC Introspection(4)

     Describes the XML-RPC protocol extension for introspection.

XML-RPC Specification(5)

     The official specification.

* Menu:

* ServerProxy Objects::
* DateTime Objects::
* Binary Objects::
* Fault Objects::
* ProtocolError Objects::
* MultiCall Objects::
* Convenience Functions::
* Example of Client Usage::
* Example of Client and Server Usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/xmlrpc/client.py

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20130120074804/http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php

   (3) https://tldp.org/HOWTO/XML-RPC-HOWTO/index.html

   (4) https://xmlrpc-c.sourceforge.io/introspection.html

   (5) http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/spec.html


File: python.info,  Node: ServerProxy Objects,  Next: DateTime Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.23.21.1 ServerProxy Objects
.............................

A *note ServerProxy: e1b. instance has a method corresponding to each
remote procedure call accepted by the XML-RPC server.  Calling the
method performs an RPC, dispatched by both name and argument signature
(e.g.  the same method name can be overloaded with multiple argument
signatures).  The RPC finishes either by returning data in a conformant
type or by raising a *note Fault: 43cb. or *note ProtocolError: 43cc.
exception indicating an error.

Servers that support the XML introspection API support some common
methods grouped under the reserved ‘system’ attribute:

 -- Μέθοδος: ServerProxy.system.listMethods ()

     This method returns a list of strings, one for each (non-system)
     method supported by the XML-RPC server.

 -- Μέθοδος: ServerProxy.system.methodSignature (name)

     This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented
     by the XML-RPC server.  It returns an array of possible signatures
     for this method.  A signature is an array of types.  The first of
     these types is the return type of the method, the rest are
     parameters.

     Because multiple signatures (ie.  overloading) is permitted, this
     method returns a list of signatures rather than a singleton.

     Signatures themselves are restricted to the top level parameters
     expected by a method.  For instance if a method expects one array
     of structs as a parameter, and it returns a string, its signature
     is simply «string, array».  If it expects three integers and
     returns a string, its signature is «string, int, int, int».

     If no signature is defined for the method, a non-array value is
     returned.  In Python this means that the type of the returned value
     will be something other than list.

 -- Μέθοδος: ServerProxy.system.methodHelp (name)

     This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented
     by the XML-RPC server.  It returns a documentation string
     describing the use of that method.  If no such string is available,
     an empty string is returned.  The documentation string may contain
     HTML markup.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Instances of *note ServerProxy: e1b. support the
*note context manager: 478. protocol for closing the underlying
transport.

A working example follows.  The server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     def is_even(n):
         return n % 2 == 0

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(is_even, "is_even")
     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     with xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/") as proxy:
         print("3 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(3)))
         print("100 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(100)))


File: python.info,  Node: DateTime Objects,  Next: Binary Objects,  Prev: ServerProxy Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.23.21.2 DateTime Objects
..........................

 -- Κλάση: xmlrpc.client.DateTime

     This class may be initialized with seconds since the epoch, a time
     tuple, an ISO 8601 time/date string, or a *note datetime.datetime:
     6e7. instance.  It has the following methods, supported mainly for
     internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code:

      -- Μέθοδος: decode (string)

          Accept a string as the instance’s new time value.

      -- Μέθοδος: encode (out)

          Write the XML-RPC encoding of this ‘DateTime’ item to the
          'out' stream object.

     It also supports certain of Python’s built-in operators through
     *note rich comparison: 1645. and *note __repr__(): 1bc. methods.

A working example follows.  The server code:

     import datetime as dt
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     import xmlrpc.client

     def today():
         today = dt.datetime.today()
         return xmlrpc.client.DateTime(today)

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(today, "today")
     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client
     import datetime as dt

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")

     today = proxy.today()
     # convert the ISO 8601 string to a datetime object
     converted = dt.datetime.strptime(today.value, "%Y%m%dT%H:%M:%S")
     print(f"Today: {converted.strftime('%d.%m.%Y, %H:%M')}")


File: python.info,  Node: Binary Objects,  Next: Fault Objects,  Prev: DateTime Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.23.21.3 Binary Objects
........................

 -- Κλάση: xmlrpc.client.Binary

     This class may be initialized from bytes data (which may include
     NULs).  The primary access to the content of a ‘Binary’ object is
     provided by an attribute:

      -- Ιδιότητα: data

          The binary data encapsulated by the ‘Binary’ instance.  The
          data is provided as a *note bytes: 1c7. object.

     ‘Binary’ objects have the following methods, supported mainly for
     internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code:

      -- Μέθοδος: decode (bytes)

          Accept a base64 *note bytes: 1c7. object and decode it as the
          instance’s new data.

      -- Μέθοδος: encode (out)

          Write the XML-RPC base 64 encoding of this binary item to the
          'out' stream object.

          The encoded data will have newlines every 76 characters as per
          RFC 2045 section 6.8(1), which was the de facto standard
          base64 specification when the XML-RPC spec was written.

     It also supports certain of Python’s built-in operators through
     *note __eq__(): ec0. and *note __ne__(): 18b9. methods.

Example usage of the binary objects.  We’re going to transfer an image
over XMLRPC:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     import xmlrpc.client

     def python_logo():
         with open("python_logo.jpg", "rb") as handle:
             return xmlrpc.client.Binary(handle.read())

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(python_logo, 'python_logo')

     server.serve_forever()

The client gets the image and saves it to a file:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     with open("fetched_python_logo.jpg", "wb") as handle:
         handle.write(proxy.python_logo().data)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html#section-6.8


File: python.info,  Node: Fault Objects,  Next: ProtocolError Objects,  Prev: Binary Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.23.21.4 Fault Objects
.......................

 -- Κλάση: xmlrpc.client.Fault

     A ‘Fault’ object encapsulates the content of an XML-RPC fault tag.
     Fault objects have the following attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: faultCode

          An int indicating the fault type.

      -- Ιδιότητα: faultString

          A string containing a diagnostic message associated with the
          fault.

In the following example we’re going to intentionally cause a *note
Fault: 43cb. by returning a complex type object.  The server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     # A marshalling error is going to occur because we're returning a
     # complex number
     def add(x, y):
         return x+y+0j

     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_function(add, 'add')

     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     try:
         proxy.add(2, 5)
     except xmlrpc.client.Fault as err:
         print("A fault occurred")
         print("Fault code: %d" % err.faultCode)
         print("Fault string: %s" % err.faultString)


File: python.info,  Node: ProtocolError Objects,  Next: MultiCall Objects,  Prev: Fault Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.23.21.5 ProtocolError Objects
...............................

 -- Κλάση: xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError

     A ‘ProtocolError’ object describes a protocol error in the
     underlying transport layer (such as a 404 “not found” error if the
     server named by the URI does not exist).  It has the following
     attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: url

          The URI or URL that triggered the error.

      -- Ιδιότητα: errcode

          The error code.

      -- Ιδιότητα: errmsg

          The error message or diagnostic string.

      -- Ιδιότητα: headers

          A dict containing the headers of the HTTP/HTTPS request that
          triggered the error.

In the following example we’re going to intentionally cause a *note
ProtocolError: 43cc. by providing an invalid URI:

     import xmlrpc.client

     # create a ServerProxy with a URI that doesn't respond to XMLRPC requests
     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://google.com/")

     try:
         proxy.some_method()
     except xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError as err:
         print("A protocol error occurred")
         print("URL: %s" % err.url)
         print("HTTP/HTTPS headers: %s" % err.headers)
         print("Error code: %d" % err.errcode)
         print("Error message: %s" % err.errmsg)


File: python.info,  Node: MultiCall Objects,  Next: Convenience Functions,  Prev: ProtocolError Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.23.21.6 MultiCall Objects
...........................

The *note MultiCall: 43e6. object provides a way to encapsulate multiple
calls to a remote server into a single request (1).

 -- Κλάση: xmlrpc.client.MultiCall (server)

     Create an object used to boxcar method calls.  'server' is the
     eventual target of the call.  Calls can be made to the result
     object, but they will immediately return ‘None’, and only store the
     call name and arguments in the ‘MultiCall’ object.  Calling the
     object itself causes all stored calls to be transmitted as a single
     ‘system.multicall’ request.  The result of this call is a *note
     generator: 1409.; iterating over this generator yields the
     individual results.

A usage example of this class follows.  The server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer

     def add(x, y):
         return x + y

     def subtract(x, y):
         return x - y

     def multiply(x, y):
         return x * y

     def divide(x, y):
         return x // y

     # A simple server with simple arithmetic functions
     server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000))
     print("Listening on port 8000...")
     server.register_multicall_functions()
     server.register_function(add, 'add')
     server.register_function(subtract, 'subtract')
     server.register_function(multiply, 'multiply')
     server.register_function(divide, 'divide')
     server.serve_forever()

The client code for the preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/")
     multicall = xmlrpc.client.MultiCall(proxy)
     multicall.add(7, 3)
     multicall.subtract(7, 3)
     multicall.multiply(7, 3)
     multicall.divide(7, 3)
     result = multicall()

     print("7+3=%d, 7-3=%d, 7*3=%d, 7//3=%d" % tuple(result))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This approach has been first presented in a discussion on
xmlrpc.com
(https://web.archive.org/web/20060624230303/http://www.xmlrpc.com/discuss/msgReader$1208?mode=topic).


File: python.info,  Node: Convenience Functions,  Next: Example of Client Usage,  Prev: MultiCall Objects,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.23.21.7 Convenience Functions
...............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: xmlrpc.client.dumps (params, methodname=None,
          methodresponse=None, encoding=None, allow_none=False)

     Convert 'params' into an XML-RPC request, or into a response if
     'methodresponse' is true.  'params' can be either a tuple of
     arguments or an instance of the *note Fault: 43cb. exception class.
     If 'methodresponse' is true, only a single value can be returned,
     meaning that 'params' must be of length 1.  'encoding', if
     supplied, is the encoding to use in the generated XML; the default
     is UTF-8.  Python’s *note None: a65. value cannot be used in
     standard XML-RPC; to allow using it via an extension, provide a
     true value for 'allow_none'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: xmlrpc.client.loads (data, use_datetime=False,
          use_builtin_types=False)

     Convert an XML-RPC request or response into Python objects, a
     ‘(params, methodname)’.  'params' is a tuple of argument;
     'methodname' is a string, or ‘None’ if no method name is present in
     the packet.  If the XML-RPC packet represents a fault condition,
     this function will raise a *note Fault: 43cb. exception.  The
     'use_builtin_types' flag can be used to cause date/time values to
     be presented as *note datetime.datetime: 6e7. objects and binary
     data to be presented as *note bytes: 1c7. objects; this flag is
     false by default.

     The obsolete 'use_datetime' flag is similar to 'use_builtin_types'
     but it applies only to date/time values.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.


File: python.info,  Node: Example of Client Usage,  Next: Example of Client and Server Usage,  Prev: Convenience Functions,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.23.21.8 Example of Client Usage
.................................

     # simple test program (from the XML-RPC specification)
     from xmlrpc.client import ServerProxy, Error

     # server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000") # local server
     with ServerProxy("http://betty.userland.com") as proxy:

         print(proxy)

         try:
             print(proxy.examples.getStateName(41))
         except Error as v:
             print("ERROR", v)

To access an XML-RPC server through a HTTP proxy, you need to define a
custom transport.  The following example shows how:

     import http.client
     import xmlrpc.client

     class ProxiedTransport(xmlrpc.client.Transport):

         def set_proxy(self, host, port=None, headers=None):
             self.proxy = host, port
             self.proxy_headers = headers

         def make_connection(self, host):
             connection = http.client.HTTPConnection(*self.proxy)
             connection.set_tunnel(host, headers=self.proxy_headers)
             self._connection = host, connection
             return connection

     transport = ProxiedTransport()
     transport.set_proxy('proxy-server', 8080)
     server = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://betty.userland.com', transport=transport)
     print(server.examples.getStateName(41))


File: python.info,  Node: Example of Client and Server Usage,  Prev: Example of Client Usage,  Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access

5.23.21.9 Example of Client and Server Usage
............................................

See *note SimpleXMLRPCServer example: 43ec.


File: python.info,  Node: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers,  Next: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library,  Prev: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.22 ‘xmlrpc.server’ — Basic XML-RPC servers
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/xmlrpc/server.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘xmlrpc.server’ module provides a basic server framework for XML-RPC
servers written in Python.  Servers can either be free standing, using
*note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 43f0, or embedded in a CGI environment, using
*note CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 43f1.

     Προειδοποίηση: The ‘xmlrpc.server’ module is not secure against
     maliciously constructed data.  If you need to parse untrusted or
     unauthenticated data, see *note XML security: 3f34.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

 -- Κλάση: xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer (addr,
          requestHandler=SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True,
          allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True,
          use_builtin_types=False)

     Create a new server instance.  This class provides methods for
     registration of functions that can be called by the XML-RPC
     protocol.  The 'requestHandler' parameter should be a factory for
     request handler instances; it defaults to *note
     SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler: 16cc.  The 'addr' and 'requestHandler'
     parameters are passed to the *note socketserver.TCPServer: 16c4.
     constructor.  If 'logRequests' is true (the default), requests will
     be logged; setting this parameter to false will turn off logging.
     The 'allow_none' and 'encoding' parameters are passed on to *note
     xmlrpc.client: 137. and control the XML-RPC responses that will be
     returned from the server.  The 'bind_and_activate' parameter
     controls whether ‘server_bind()’ and ‘server_activate()’ are called
     immediately by the constructor; it defaults to true.  Setting it to
     false allows code to manipulate the 'allow_reuse_address' class
     variable before the address is bound.  The 'use_builtin_types'
     parameter is passed to the *note loads(): 17d7. function and
     controls which types are processed when date/times values or binary
     data are received; it defaults to false.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.

 -- Κλάση: xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (allow_none=False,
          encoding=None, use_builtin_types=False)

     Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI
     environment.  The 'allow_none' and 'encoding' parameters are passed
     on to *note xmlrpc.client: 137. and control the XML-RPC responses
     that will be returned from the server.  The 'use_builtin_types'
     parameter is passed to the *note loads(): 17d7. function and
     controls which types are processed when date/times values or binary
     data are received; it defaults to false.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.

 -- Κλάση: xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     Create a new request handler instance.  This request handler
     supports ‘POST’ requests and modifies logging so that the
     'logRequests' parameter to the *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 43f0.
     constructor parameter is honored.

* Menu:

* SimpleXMLRPCServer objects::
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::
* Documenting XMLRPC server::
* DocXMLRPCServer objects::
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/xmlrpc/server.py


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer objects,  Next: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers

5.23.22.1 SimpleXMLRPCServer objects
....................................

The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 43f0. class is based on *note
socketserver.TCPServer: 16c4. and provides a means of creating simple,
stand alone XML-RPC servers.

 -- Μέθοδος: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function (function=None,
          name=None)

     Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests.  If
     'name' is given, it will be the method name associated with
     'function', otherwise *note function.__name__: 1679. will be used.
     'name' is a string, and may contain characters not legal in Python
     identifiers, including the period character.

     This method can also be used as a decorator.  When used as a
     decorator, 'name' can only be given as a keyword argument to
     register 'function' under 'name'.  If no 'name' is given, *note
     function.__name__: 1679. will be used.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: ‘register_function()’ can be used as a
     decorator.

 -- Μέθοδος: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_instance (instance,
          allow_dotted_names=False)

     Register an object which is used to expose method names which have
     not been registered using *note register_function(): 43f4.  If
     'instance' contains a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is called with the
     requested method name and the parameters from the request.  Its API
     is ‘def _dispatch(self, method, params)’ (note that 'params' does
     not represent a variable argument list).  If it calls an underlying
     function to perform its task, that function is called as
     ‘func(*params)’, expanding the parameter list.  The return value
     from ‘_dispatch()’ is returned to the client as the result.  If
     'instance' does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is searched for
     an attribute matching the name of the requested method.

     If the optional 'allow_dotted_names' argument is true and the
     instance does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, then if the
     requested method name contains periods, each component of the
     method name is searched for individually, with the effect that a
     simple hierarchical search is performed.  The value found from this
     search is then called with the parameters from the request, and the
     return value is passed back to the client.

          Προειδοποίηση: Enabling the 'allow_dotted_names' option allows
          intruders to access your module’s global variables and may
          allow intruders to execute arbitrary code on your machine.
          Only use this option on a secure, closed network.

 -- Μέθοδος: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_introspection_functions ()

     Registers the XML-RPC introspection functions ‘system.listMethods’,
     ‘system.methodHelp’ and ‘system.methodSignature’.

 -- Μέθοδος: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_multicall_functions ()

     Registers the XML-RPC multicall function system.multicall.

 -- Ιδιότητα: SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths

     An attribute value that must be a tuple listing valid path portions
     of the URL for receiving XML-RPC requests.  Requests posted to
     other paths will result in a 404 «no such page» HTTP error.  If
     this tuple is empty, all paths will be considered valid.  The
     default value is ‘('/', '/RPC2')’.

* Menu:

* SimpleXMLRPCServer example::


File: python.info,  Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer example,  Up: SimpleXMLRPCServer objects

5.23.22.2 SimpleXMLRPCServer example
....................................

Server code:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     # Restrict to a particular path.
     class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
         rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)

     # Create server
     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
                             requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
         server.register_introspection_functions()

         # Register pow() function; this will use the value of
         # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'.
         server.register_function(pow)

         # Register a function under a different name
         def adder_function(x, y):
             return x + y
         server.register_function(adder_function, 'add')

         # Register an instance; all the methods of the instance are
         # published as XML-RPC methods (in this case, just 'mul').
         class MyFuncs:
             def mul(self, x, y):
                 return x * y

         server.register_instance(MyFuncs())

         # Run the server's main loop
         server.serve_forever()

The following client code will call the methods made available by the
preceding server:

     import xmlrpc.client

     s = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://localhost:8000')
     print(s.pow(2,3))  # Returns 2**3 = 8
     print(s.add(2,3))  # Returns 5
     print(s.mul(5,2))  # Returns 5*2 = 10

     # Print list of available methods
     print(s.system.listMethods())

‘register_function()’ can also be used as a decorator.  The previous
server example can register functions in a decorator way:

     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer
     from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler

     class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler):
         rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',)

     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000),
                             requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server:
         server.register_introspection_functions()

         # Register pow() function; this will use the value of
         # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'.
         server.register_function(pow)

         # Register a function under a different name, using
         # register_function as a decorator. *name* can only be given
         # as a keyword argument.
         @server.register_function(name='add')
         def adder_function(x, y):
             return x + y

         # Register a function under function.__name__.
         @server.register_function
         def mul(x, y):
             return x * y

         server.serve_forever()

The following example included in the ‘Lib/xmlrpc/server.py’ module
shows a server allowing dotted names and registering a multicall
function.

     Προειδοποίηση: Enabling the 'allow_dotted_names' option allows
     intruders to access your module’s global variables and may allow
     intruders to execute arbitrary code on your machine.  Only use this
     example within a secure, closed network.

     import datetime as dt

     class ExampleService:
         def getData(self):
             return '42'

         class currentTime:
             @staticmethod
             def getCurrentTime():
                 return dt.datetime.now()

     with SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) as server:
         server.register_function(pow)
         server.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
         server.register_instance(ExampleService(), allow_dotted_names=True)
         server.register_multicall_functions()
         print('Serving XML-RPC on localhost port 8000')
         try:
             server.serve_forever()
         except KeyboardInterrupt:
             print("\nKeyboard interrupt received, exiting.")
             sys.exit(0)

This ExampleService demo can be invoked from the command line:

     python -m xmlrpc.server

The client that interacts with the above server is included in
‘Lib/xmlrpc/client.py’:

     server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000")

     try:
         print(server.currentTime.getCurrentTime())
     except Error as v:
         print("ERROR", v)

     multi = MultiCall(server)
     multi.getData()
     multi.pow(2,9)
     multi.add(1,2)
     try:
         for response in multi():
             print(response)
     except Error as v:
         print("ERROR", v)

This client which interacts with the demo XMLRPC server can be invoked
as:

     python -m xmlrpc.client


File: python.info,  Node: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Next: Documenting XMLRPC server,  Prev: SimpleXMLRPCServer objects,  Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers

5.23.22.3 CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
.................................

The *note CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 43f1. class can be used to handle
XML-RPC requests sent to Python CGI scripts.

 -- Μέθοδος: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function (function=None,
          name=None)

     Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests.  If
     'name' is given, it will be the method name associated with
     'function', otherwise *note function.__name__: 1679. will be used.
     'name' is a string, and may contain characters not legal in Python
     identifiers, including the period character.

     This method can also be used as a decorator.  When used as a
     decorator, 'name' can only be given as a keyword argument to
     register 'function' under 'name'.  If no 'name' is given, *note
     function.__name__: 1679. will be used.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: ‘register_function()’ can be used as a
     decorator.

 -- Μέθοδος: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_instance (instance)

     Register an object which is used to expose method names which have
     not been registered using *note register_function(): 43fb.  If
     instance contains a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is called with the
     requested method name and the parameters from the request; the
     return value is returned to the client as the result.  If instance
     does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is searched for an
     attribute matching the name of the requested method; if the
     requested method name contains periods, each component of the
     method name is searched for individually, with the effect that a
     simple hierarchical search is performed.  The value found from this
     search is then called with the parameters from the request, and the
     return value is passed back to the client.

 -- Μέθοδος: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_introspection_functions ()

     Register the XML-RPC introspection functions ‘system.listMethods’,
     ‘system.methodHelp’ and ‘system.methodSignature’.

 -- Μέθοδος: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_multicall_functions ()

     Register the XML-RPC multicall function ‘system.multicall’.

 -- Μέθοδος: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.handle_request (request_text=None)

     Handle an XML-RPC request.  If 'request_text' is given, it should
     be the POST data provided by the HTTP server, otherwise the
     contents of stdin will be used.

Example:

     class MyFuncs:
         def mul(self, x, y):
             return x * y


     handler = CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler()
     handler.register_function(pow)
     handler.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add')
     handler.register_introspection_functions()
     handler.register_instance(MyFuncs())
     handler.handle_request()


File: python.info,  Node: Documenting XMLRPC server,  Next: DocXMLRPCServer objects,  Prev: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers

5.23.22.4 Documenting XMLRPC server
...................................

These classes extend the above classes to serve HTML documentation in
response to HTTP GET requests.  Servers can either be free standing,
using *note DocXMLRPCServer: 1f97, or embedded in a CGI environment,
using *note DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 4401.

 -- Κλάση: xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer (addr,
          requestHandler=DocXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True,
          allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True,
          use_builtin_types=True)

     Create a new server instance.  All parameters have the same meaning
     as for *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 43f0.; 'requestHandler' defaults
     to *note DocXMLRPCRequestHandler: 4402.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.

 -- Κλάση: xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler

     Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI
     environment.

 -- Κλάση: xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCRequestHandler

     Create a new request handler instance.  This request handler
     supports XML-RPC POST requests, documentation GET requests, and
     modifies logging so that the 'logRequests' parameter to the *note
     DocXMLRPCServer: 1f97. constructor parameter is honored.


File: python.info,  Node: DocXMLRPCServer objects,  Next: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Prev: Documenting XMLRPC server,  Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers

5.23.22.5 DocXMLRPCServer objects
.................................

The *note DocXMLRPCServer: 1f97. class is derived from *note
SimpleXMLRPCServer: 43f0. and provides a means of creating
self-documenting, stand alone XML-RPC servers.  HTTP POST requests are
handled as XML-RPC method calls.  HTTP GET requests are handled by
generating pydoc-style HTML documentation.  This allows a server to
provide its own web-based documentation.

 -- Μέθοδος: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_title (server_title)

     Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation.  This title
     will be used inside the HTML «title» element.

 -- Μέθοδος: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_name (server_name)

     Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation.  This name
     will appear at the top of the generated documentation inside a «h1»
     element.

 -- Μέθοδος: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_documentation
          (server_documentation)

     Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation.  This
     description will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in
     the documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,  Prev: DocXMLRPCServer objects,  Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers

5.23.22.6 DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
....................................

The *note DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 4401. class is derived from *note
CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 43f1. and provides a means of creating
self-documenting, XML-RPC CGI scripts.  HTTP POST requests are handled
as XML-RPC method calls.  HTTP GET requests are handled by generating
pydoc-style HTML documentation.  This allows a server to provide its own
web-based documentation.

 -- Μέθοδος: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_title (server_title)

     Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation.  This title
     will be used inside the HTML «title» element.

 -- Μέθοδος: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_name (server_name)

     Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation.  This name
     will appear at the top of the generated documentation inside a «h1»
     element.

 -- Μέθοδος: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_documentation
          (server_documentation)

     Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation.  This
     description will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in
     the documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library,  Prev: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers,  Up: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη

5.23.23 ‘ipaddress’ — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library
----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/ipaddress.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘ipaddress’ provides the capabilities to create, manipulate and operate
on IPv4 and IPv6 addresses and networks.

The functions and classes in this module make it straightforward to
handle various tasks related to IP addresses, including checking whether
or not two hosts are on the same subnet, iterating over all hosts in a
particular subnet, checking whether or not a string represents a valid
IP address or network definition, and so on.

This is the full module API reference—for an overview and introduction,
see *note An introduction to the ipaddress module: 440f.

Added in version 3.3.

* Menu:

* Convenience factory functions::
* IP Addresses::
* IP Network definitions::
* Interface objects::
* Other Module Level Functions::
* Custom Exceptions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/ipaddress.py


File: python.info,  Node: Convenience factory functions,  Next: IP Addresses,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.23.23.1 Convenience factory functions
.......................................

The ‘ipaddress’ module provides factory functions to conveniently create
IP addresses, networks and interfaces:

 -- Συνάρτηση: ipaddress.ip_address (address)

     Return an *note IPv4Address: 710. or *note IPv6Address: 711. object
     depending on the IP address passed as argument.  Either IPv4 or
     IPv6 addresses may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will be
     considered to be IPv4 by default.  A *note ValueError: 277. is
     raised if 'address' does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6
     address.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.168.0.1')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::')
          IPv6Address('2001:db8::')

 -- Συνάρτηση: ipaddress.ip_network (address, strict=True)

     Return an *note IPv4Network: 712. or *note IPv6Network: 713. object
     depending on the IP address passed as argument.  'address' is a
     string or integer representing the IP network.  Either IPv4 or IPv6
     networks may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will be
     considered to be IPv4 by default.  'strict' is passed to
     ‘IPv4Network’ or ‘IPv6Network’ constructor.  A *note ValueError:
     277. is raised if 'address' does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6
     address, or if the network has host bits set.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.168.0.0/28')
          IPv4Network('192.168.0.0/28')

 -- Συνάρτηση: ipaddress.ip_interface (address)

     Return an *note IPv4Interface: 1d94. or *note IPv6Interface: 1d95.
     object depending on the IP address passed as argument.  'address'
     is a string or integer representing the IP address.  Either IPv4 or
     IPv6 addresses may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will be
     considered to be IPv4 by default.  A *note ValueError: 277. is
     raised if 'address' does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6
     address.

One downside of these convenience functions is that the need to handle
both IPv4 and IPv6 formats means that error messages provide minimal
information on the precise error, as the functions don’t know whether
the IPv4 or IPv6 format was intended.  More detailed error reporting can
be obtained by calling the appropriate version specific class
constructors directly.


File: python.info,  Node: IP Addresses,  Next: IP Network definitions,  Prev: Convenience factory functions,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.23.23.2 IP Addresses
......................

* Menu:

* Address objects::
* Conversion to Strings and Integers::
* Operators: Operators<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Address objects,  Next: Conversion to Strings and Integers,  Up: IP Addresses

5.23.23.3 Address objects
.........................

The *note IPv4Address: 710. and *note IPv6Address: 711. objects share a
lot of common attributes.  Some attributes that are only meaningful for
IPv6 addresses are also implemented by ‘IPv4Address’ objects, in order
to make it easier to write code that handles both IP versions correctly.
Address objects are *note hashable: 183, so they can be used as keys in
dictionaries.

 -- Κλάση: ipaddress.IPv4Address (address)

     Construct an IPv4 address.  An *note AddressValueError: 4416. is
     raised if 'address' is not a valid IPv4 address.

     The following constitutes a valid IPv4 address:

       1. A string in decimal-dot notation, consisting of four decimal
          integers in the inclusive range 0–255, separated by dots (e.g.
          ‘192.168.0.1’).  Each integer represents an octet (byte) in
          the address.  Leading zeroes are not tolerated to prevent
          confusion with octal notation.

       2. An integer that fits into 32 bits.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 1c7. object of length 4
          (most significant octet first).

          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(3232235521)
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(b'\xC0\xA8\x00\x01')
          IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Leading zeros are tolerated, even in
     ambiguous cases that look like octal notation.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9.5: Leading zeros are no longer tolerated and
     are treated as an error.  IPv4 address strings are now parsed as
     strict as glibc *note inet_pton(): d2c.

      -- Ιδιότητα: version

          The appropriate version number: ‘4’ for IPv4, ‘6’ for IPv6.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Made available on the class.

      -- Ιδιότητα: max_prefixlen

          The total number of bits in the address representation for
          this version: ‘32’ for IPv4, ‘128’ for IPv6.

          The prefix defines the number of leading bits in an address
          that are compared to determine whether or not an address is
          part of a network.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Made available on the class.

      -- Ιδιότητα: compressed

      -- Ιδιότητα: exploded

          The string representation in dotted decimal notation.  Leading
          zeroes are never included in the representation.

          As IPv4 does not define a shorthand notation for addresses
          with octets set to zero, these two attributes are always the
          same as ‘str(addr)’ for IPv4 addresses.  Exposing these
          attributes makes it easier to write display code that can
          handle both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses.

      -- Ιδιότητα: packed

          The binary representation of this address - a *note bytes:
          1c7. object of the appropriate length (most significant octet
          first).  This is 4 bytes for IPv4 and 16 bytes for IPv6.

      -- Ιδιότητα: reverse_pointer

          The name of the reverse DNS PTR record for the IP address,
          e.g.:

               >>> ipaddress.ip_address("127.0.0.1").reverse_pointer
               '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa'
               >>> ipaddress.ip_address("2001:db8::1").reverse_pointer
               '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.8.b.d.0.1.0.0.2.ip6.arpa'

          This is the name that could be used for performing a PTR
          lookup, not the resolved hostname itself.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_multicast

          ‘True’ if the address is reserved for multicast use.  See RFC
          3171(1) (for IPv4) or RFC 2373(2) (for IPv6).

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_private

          ‘True’ if the address is defined as not globally reachable by
          iana-ipv4-special-registry(3) (for IPv4) or
          iana-ipv6-special-registry(4) (for IPv6) with the following
          exceptions:

             * ‘is_private’ is ‘False’ for the shared address space
               (‘100.64.0.0/10’)

             * For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the ‘is_private’ value is
               determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4
               addresses and the following condition holds (see *note
               IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped: 441d.):

                    address.is_private == address.ipv4_mapped.is_private

          ‘is_private’ has value opposite to *note is_global: 1309,
          except for the shared address space (‘100.64.0.0/10’ range)
          where they are both ‘False’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Fixed some false positives and false
          negatives.

             * ‘192.0.0.0/24’ is considered private with the exception
               of ‘192.0.0.9/32’ and ‘192.0.0.10/32’ (previously: only
               the ‘192.0.0.0/29’ sub-range was considered private).

             * ‘64:ff9b:1::/48’ is considered private.

             * ‘2002::/16’ is considered private.

             * There are exceptions within ‘2001::/23’ (otherwise
               considered private): ‘2001:1::1/128’, ‘2001:1::2/128’,
               ‘2001:3::/32’, ‘2001:4:112::/48’, ‘2001:20::/28’,
               ‘2001:30::/28’.  The exceptions are not considered
               private.

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_global

          ‘True’ if the address is defined as globally reachable by
          iana-ipv4-special-registry(5) (for IPv4) or
          iana-ipv6-special-registry(6) (for IPv6) with the following
          exception:

          For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the ‘is_private’ value is
          determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4 addresses
          and the following condition holds (see *note
          IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped: 441d.):

               address.is_global == address.ipv4_mapped.is_global

          ‘is_global’ has value opposite to *note is_private: 1bcd,
          except for the shared address space (‘100.64.0.0/10’ range)
          where they are both ‘False’.

          Added in version 3.4.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Fixed some false positives and false
          negatives, see *note is_private: 1bcd. for details.

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_unspecified

          ‘True’ if the address is unspecified.  See RFC 5735(7) (for
          IPv4) or RFC 2373(8) (for IPv6).

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_reserved

          ‘True’ if the address is noted as reserved by the IETF. For
          IPv4, this is only ‘240.0.0.0/4’, the ‘Reserved’ address
          block.  For IPv6, this is all addresses allocated(9) as
          ‘Reserved by IETF’ for future use.

               Σημείωση: For IPv4, ‘is_reserved’ is not related to the
               address block value of the ‘Reserved-by-Protocol’ column
               in iana-ipv4-special-registry(10).

               Προσοχή: For IPv6, ‘fec0::/10’ a former Site-Local scoped
               address prefix is currently excluded from that list (see
               *note is_site_local: 4420. & RFC 3879(11)).

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_loopback

          ‘True’ if this is a loopback address.  See RFC 3330(12) (for
          IPv4) or RFC 2373(13) (for IPv6).

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_link_local

          ‘True’ if the address is reserved for link-local usage.  See
          RFC 3927(14).

      -- Ιδιότητα: ipv6_mapped

          ‘IPv4Address’ object representing the IPv4-mapped IPv6
          address.  See RFC 4291(15).

          Added in version 3.13.

 -- Μέθοδος: IPv4Address.__format__ (fmt)

     Returns a string representation of the IP address, controlled by an
     explicit format string.  'fmt' can be one of the following: ‘'s'’,
     the default option, equivalent to *note str(): 1df, ‘'b'’ for a
     zero-padded binary string, ‘'X'’ or ‘'x'’ for an uppercase or
     lowercase hexadecimal representation, or ‘'n'’, which is equivalent
     to ‘'b'’ for IPv4 addresses and ‘'x'’ for IPv6.  For binary and
     hexadecimal representations, the form specifier ‘'#'’ and the
     grouping option ‘'_'’ are available.  ‘__format__’ is used by
     ‘format’, ‘str.format’ and f-strings.

          >>> format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
          '192.168.0.1'
          >>> '{:#b}'.format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
          '0b11000000101010000000000000000001'
          >>> f'{ipaddress.IPv6Address("2001:db8::1000"):s}'
          '2001:db8::1000'
          >>> format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000'), '_X')
          '2001_0DB8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000'
          >>> '{:#_n}'.format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000'))
          '0x2001_0db8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000'

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Κλάση: ipaddress.IPv6Address (address)

     Construct an IPv6 address.  An *note AddressValueError: 4416. is
     raised if 'address' is not a valid IPv6 address.

     The following constitutes a valid IPv6 address:

       1. A string consisting of eight groups of four hexadecimal
          digits, each group representing 16 bits.  The groups are
          separated by colons.  This describes an 'exploded' (longhand)
          notation.  The string can also be 'compressed' (shorthand
          notation) by various means.  See RFC 4291(16) for details.
          For example, ‘"0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0abc:0007:0def"’ can
          be compressed to ‘"::abc:7:def"’.

          Optionally, the string may also have a scope zone ID,
          expressed with a suffix ‘%scope_id’.  If present, the scope ID
          must be non-empty, and may not contain ‘%’.  See RFC 4007(17)
          for details.  For example, ‘fe80::1234%1’ might identify
          address ‘fe80::1234’ on the first link of the node.

       2. An integer that fits into 128 bits.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 1c7. object of length
          16, big-endian.

          >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
          IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')
          >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1')
          IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1')

      -- Ιδιότητα: compressed

     The short form of the address representation, with leading zeroes
     in groups omitted and the longest sequence of groups consisting
     entirely of zeroes collapsed to a single empty group.

     This is also the value returned by ‘str(addr)’ for IPv6 addresses.

      -- Ιδιότητα: exploded

     The long form of the address representation, with all leading
     zeroes and groups consisting entirely of zeroes included.

     For the following attributes and methods, see the corresponding
     documentation of the *note IPv4Address: 710. class:

      -- Ιδιότητα: packed

      -- Ιδιότητα: reverse_pointer

      -- Ιδιότητα: version

      -- Ιδιότητα: max_prefixlen

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_multicast

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_private

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_global

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_unspecified

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_reserved

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_loopback

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_link_local

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_site_local

          ‘True’ if the address is reserved for site-local usage.  Note
          that the site-local address space has been deprecated by RFC
          3879(18).  Use *note is_private: 1bcd. to test if this address
          is in the space of unique local addresses as defined by RFC
          4193(19).

      -- Ιδιότητα: ipv4_mapped

          For addresses that appear to be IPv4 mapped addresses in the
          range ‘::FFFF:0:0/96’ as defined by RFC 4291(20), this
          property reports the embedded IPv4 address.  For any other
          address, this property will be ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: scope_id

          For scoped addresses as defined by RFC 4007(21), this property
          identifies the particular zone of the address’s scope that the
          address belongs to, as a string.  When no scope zone is
          specified, this property will be ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: sixtofour

          For addresses that appear to be 6to4 addresses (starting with
          ‘2002::/16’) as defined by RFC 3056(22), this property will
          report the embedded IPv4 address.  For any other address, this
          property will be ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: teredo

          For addresses that appear to be Teredo addresses (starting
          with ‘2001::/32’) as defined by RFC 4380(23), this property
          will report the embedded ‘(server, client)’ IP address pair.
          For any other address, this property will be ‘None’.

 -- Μέθοδος: IPv6Address.__format__ (fmt)

     Refer to the corresponding method documentation in *note
     IPv4Address: 710.

     Added in version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3171.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (3) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml

   (4) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml

   (5) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml

   (6) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml

   (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5735.html

   (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (9) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/ipv6-address-space/ipv6-address-space.xhtml

   (10) 
https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml

   (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3879.html

   (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3330.html

   (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html

   (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3927.html

   (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html

   (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html

   (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html

   (18) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3879.html

   (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4193.html

   (20) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html

   (21) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html

   (22) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3056.html

   (23) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4380.html


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion to Strings and Integers,  Next: Operators<2>,  Prev: Address objects,  Up: IP Addresses

5.23.23.4 Conversion to Strings and Integers
............................................

To interoperate with networking interfaces such as the socket module,
addresses must be converted to strings or integers.  This is handled
using the *note str(): 1df. and *note int(): 326. builtin functions:

     >>> str(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
     '192.168.0.1'
     >>> int(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1'))
     3232235521
     >>> str(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
     '::1'
     >>> int(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1'))
     1

Note that IPv6 scoped addresses are converted to integers without scope
zone ID.


File: python.info,  Node: Operators<2>,  Prev: Conversion to Strings and Integers,  Up: IP Addresses

5.23.23.5 Operators
...................

Address objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise,
operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e.  IPv4
with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

* Menu:

* Comparison operators::
* Arithmetic operators::


File: python.info,  Node: Comparison operators,  Next: Arithmetic operators,  Up: Operators<2>

5.23.23.6 Comparison operators
..............................

Address objects can be compared with the usual set of comparison
operators.  Same IPv6 addresses with different scope zone IDs are not
equal.  Some examples:

     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') > IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     True
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') == IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     False
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') != IPv4Address('127.0.0.1')
     True
     >>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234') == IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1')
     False
     >>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1') != IPv6Address('fe80::1234%2')
     True


File: python.info,  Node: Arithmetic operators,  Prev: Comparison operators,  Up: Operators<2>

5.23.23.7 Arithmetic operators
..............................

Integers can be added to or subtracted from address objects.  Some
examples:

     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') + 3
     IPv4Address('127.0.0.5')
     >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') - 3
     IPv4Address('126.255.255.255')
     >>> IPv4Address('255.255.255.255') + 1
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ipaddress.AddressValueError: 4294967296 (>= 2**32) is not permitted as an IPv4 address


File: python.info,  Node: IP Network definitions,  Next: Interface objects,  Prev: IP Addresses,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.23.23.8 IP Network definitions
................................

The *note IPv4Network: 712. and *note IPv6Network: 713. objects provide
a mechanism for defining and inspecting IP network definitions.  A
network definition consists of a 'mask' and a 'network address', and as
such defines a range of IP addresses that equal the network address when
masked (binary AND) with the mask.  For example, a network definition
with the mask ‘255.255.255.0’ and the network address ‘192.168.1.0’
consists of IP addresses in the inclusive range ‘192.168.1.0’ to
‘192.168.1.255’.

* Menu:

* Prefix, net mask and host mask: Prefix net mask and host mask.
* Network objects::
* Operators: Operators<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Prefix net mask and host mask,  Next: Network objects,  Up: IP Network definitions

5.23.23.9 Prefix, net mask and host mask
........................................

There are several equivalent ways to specify IP network masks.  A
'prefix' ‘/<nbits>’ is a notation that denotes how many high-order bits
are set in the network mask.  A 'net mask' is an IP address with some
number of high-order bits set.  Thus the prefix ‘/24’ is equivalent to
the net mask ‘255.255.255.0’ in IPv4, or ‘ffff:ff00::’ in IPv6.  In
addition, a 'host mask' is the logical inverse of a 'net mask', and is
sometimes used (for example in Cisco access control lists) to denote a
network mask.  The host mask equivalent to ‘/24’ in IPv4 is ‘0.0.0.255’.


File: python.info,  Node: Network objects,  Next: Operators<3>,  Prev: Prefix net mask and host mask,  Up: IP Network definitions

5.23.23.10 Network objects
..........................

All attributes implemented by address objects are implemented by network
objects as well.  In addition, network objects implement additional
attributes.  All of these are common between *note IPv4Network: 712. and
*note IPv6Network: 713, so to avoid duplication they are only documented
for ‘IPv4Network’.  Network objects are *note hashable: 183, so they can
be used as keys in dictionaries.

 -- Κλάση: ipaddress.IPv4Network (address, strict=True)

     Construct an IPv4 network definition.  'address' can be one of the
     following:

       1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional mask,
          separated by a slash (‘/’).  The IP address is the network
          address, and the mask can be either a single number, which
          means it’s a 'prefix', or a string representation of an IPv4
          address.  If it’s the latter, the mask is interpreted as a
          'net mask' if it starts with a non-zero field, or as a 'host
          mask' if it starts with a zero field, with the single
          exception of an all-zero mask which is treated as a 'net
          mask'.  If no mask is provided, it’s considered to be ‘/32’.

          For example, the following 'address' specifications are
          equivalent: ‘192.168.1.0/24’, ‘192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0’ and
          ‘192.168.1.0/0.0.0.255’.

       2. An integer that fits into 32 bits.  This is equivalent to a
          single-address network, with the network address being
          'address' and the mask being ‘/32’.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 1c7. object of length 4,
          big-endian.  The interpretation is similar to an integer
          'address'.

       4. A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the
          address description is either a string, a 32-bits integer, a
          4-bytes packed integer, or an existing *note IPv4Address: 710.
          object; and the netmask is either an integer representing the
          prefix length (e.g.  ‘24’) or a string representing the prefix
          mask (e.g.  ‘255.255.255.0’).

     An *note AddressValueError: 4416. is raised if 'address' is not a
     valid IPv4 address.  A *note NetmaskValueError: 4437. is raised if
     the mask is not valid for an IPv4 address.

     If 'strict' is ‘True’ and host bits are set in the supplied
     address, then *note ValueError: 277. is raised.  Otherwise, the
     host bits are masked out to determine the appropriate network
     address.

     Unless stated otherwise, all network methods accepting other
     network/address objects will raise *note TypeError: 291. if the
     argument’s IP version is incompatible to ‘self’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the two-tuple form for the 'address'
     constructor parameter.

      -- Ιδιότητα: version

      -- Ιδιότητα: max_prefixlen

          Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in *note
          IPv4Address: 710.

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_multicast

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_private

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_unspecified

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_reserved

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_loopback

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_link_local

          These attributes are true for the network as a whole if they
          are true for both the network address and the broadcast
          address.

      -- Ιδιότητα: network_address

          The network address for the network.  The network address and
          the prefix length together uniquely define a network.

      -- Ιδιότητα: broadcast_address

          The broadcast address for the network.  Packets sent to the
          broadcast address should be received by every host on the
          network.

      -- Ιδιότητα: hostmask

          The host mask, as an *note IPv4Address: 710. object.

      -- Ιδιότητα: netmask

          The net mask, as an *note IPv4Address: 710. object.

      -- Ιδιότητα: with_prefixlen

      -- Ιδιότητα: compressed

      -- Ιδιότητα: exploded

          A string representation of the network, with the mask in
          prefix notation.

          ‘with_prefixlen’ and ‘compressed’ are always the same as
          ‘str(network)’.  ‘exploded’ uses the exploded form the network
          address.

      -- Ιδιότητα: with_netmask

          A string representation of the network, with the mask in net
          mask notation.

      -- Ιδιότητα: with_hostmask

          A string representation of the network, with the mask in host
          mask notation.

      -- Ιδιότητα: num_addresses

          The total number of addresses in the network.

      -- Ιδιότητα: prefixlen

          Length of the network prefix, in bits.

      -- Μέθοδος: hosts ()

          Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network.  The
          usable hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the
          network, except the network address itself and the network
          broadcast address.  For networks with a mask length of 31, the
          network address and network broadcast address are also
          included in the result.  Networks with a mask of 32 will
          return a list containing the single host address.

               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/29').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.2'),
                IPv4Address('192.0.2.3'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.4'),
                IPv4Address('192.0.2.5'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/31').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').hosts())
               [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')]

      -- Μέθοδος: overlaps (other)

          ‘True’ if this network is partly or wholly contained in
          'other' or 'other' is wholly contained in this network.

      -- Μέθοδος: address_exclude (network)

          Computes the network definitions resulting from removing the
          given 'network' from this one.  Returns an iterator of network
          objects.  Raises *note ValueError: 277. if 'network' is not
          completely contained in this network.

               >>> n1 = ip_network('192.0.2.0/28')
               >>> n2 = ip_network('192.0.2.1/32')
               >>> list(n1.address_exclude(n2))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.8/29'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.4/30'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.2/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')]

      -- Μέθοδος: subnets (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

          The subnets that join to make the current network definition,
          depending on the argument values.  'prefixlen_diff' is the
          amount our prefix length should be increased by.  'new_prefix'
          is the desired new prefix of the subnets; it must be larger
          than our prefix.  One and only one of 'prefixlen_diff' and
          'new_prefix' must be set.  Returns an iterator of network
          objects.

               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets())
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(prefixlen_diff=2))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=26))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'),
                IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')]
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=23))
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
                   raise ValueError('new prefix must be longer')
               ValueError: new prefix must be longer
               >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=25))
               [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')]

      -- Μέθοδος: supernet (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

          The supernet containing this network definition, depending on
          the argument values.  'prefixlen_diff' is the amount our
          prefix length should be decreased by.  'new_prefix' is the
          desired new prefix of the supernet; it must be smaller than
          our prefix.  One and only one of 'prefixlen_diff' and
          'new_prefix' must be set.  Returns a single network object.

               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet()
               IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/23')
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(prefixlen_diff=2)
               IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/22')
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(new_prefix=20)
               IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/20')

      -- Μέθοδος: subnet_of (other)

          Return ‘True’ if this network is a subnet of 'other'.

               >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
               >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
               >>> b.subnet_of(a)
               True

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Μέθοδος: supernet_of (other)

          Return ‘True’ if this network is a supernet of 'other'.

               >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24')
               >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30')
               >>> a.supernet_of(b)
               True

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Μέθοδος: compare_networks (other)

          Compare this network to 'other'.  In this comparison only the
          network addresses are considered; host bits aren’t.  Returns
          either ‘-1’, ‘0’ or ‘1’.

               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.2/32'))
               -1
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.0/32'))
               1
               >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32'))
               0

          Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.7: It uses the same ordering and
          comparison algorithm as «<», «==», and «>»

 -- Κλάση: ipaddress.IPv6Network (address, strict=True)

     Construct an IPv6 network definition.  'address' can be one of the
     following:

       1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional prefix
          length, separated by a slash (‘/’).  The IP address is the
          network address, and the prefix length must be a single
          number, the 'prefix'.  If no prefix length is provided, it’s
          considered to be ‘/128’.

          Note that currently expanded netmasks are not supported.  That
          means ‘2001:db00::0/24’ is a valid argument while
          ‘2001:db00::0/ffff:ff00::’ is not.

       2. An integer that fits into 128 bits.  This is equivalent to a
          single-address network, with the network address being
          'address' and the mask being ‘/128’.

       3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 1c7. object of length
          16, big-endian.  The interpretation is similar to an integer
          'address'.

       4. A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the
          address description is either a string, a 128-bits integer, a
          16-bytes packed integer, or an existing *note IPv6Address:
          711. object; and the netmask is an integer representing the
          prefix length.

     An *note AddressValueError: 4416. is raised if 'address' is not a
     valid IPv6 address.  A *note NetmaskValueError: 4437. is raised if
     the mask is not valid for an IPv6 address.

     If 'strict' is ‘True’ and host bits are set in the supplied
     address, then *note ValueError: 277. is raised.  Otherwise, the
     host bits are masked out to determine the appropriate network
     address.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the two-tuple form for the 'address'
     constructor parameter.

      -- Ιδιότητα: version

      -- Ιδιότητα: max_prefixlen

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_multicast

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_private

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_unspecified

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_reserved

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_loopback

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_link_local

      -- Ιδιότητα: network_address

      -- Ιδιότητα: broadcast_address

      -- Ιδιότητα: hostmask

      -- Ιδιότητα: netmask

      -- Ιδιότητα: with_prefixlen

      -- Ιδιότητα: compressed

      -- Ιδιότητα: exploded

      -- Ιδιότητα: with_netmask

      -- Ιδιότητα: with_hostmask

      -- Ιδιότητα: num_addresses

      -- Ιδιότητα: prefixlen

      -- Μέθοδος: hosts ()

          Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network.  The
          usable hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the
          network, except the Subnet-Router anycast address.  For
          networks with a mask length of 127, the Subnet-Router anycast
          address is also included in the result.  Networks with a mask
          of 128 will return a list containing the single host address.

      -- Μέθοδος: overlaps (other)

      -- Μέθοδος: address_exclude (network)

      -- Μέθοδος: subnets (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

      -- Μέθοδος: supernet (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None)

      -- Μέθοδος: subnet_of (other)

      -- Μέθοδος: supernet_of (other)

      -- Μέθοδος: compare_networks (other)

          Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in *note
          IPv4Network: 712.

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_site_local

          This attribute is true for the network as a whole if it is
          true for both the network address and the broadcast address.


File: python.info,  Node: Operators<3>,  Prev: Network objects,  Up: IP Network definitions

5.23.23.11 Operators
....................

Network objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise,
operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e.  IPv4
with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

* Menu:

* Logical operators::
* Iteration::
* Networks as containers of addresses::


File: python.info,  Node: Logical operators,  Next: Iteration,  Up: Operators<3>

5.23.23.12 Logical operators
............................

Network objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators.
Network objects are ordered first by network address, then by net mask.


File: python.info,  Node: Iteration,  Next: Networks as containers of addresses,  Prev: Logical operators,  Up: Operators<3>

5.23.23.13 Iteration
....................

Network objects can be iterated to list all the addresses belonging to
the network.  For iteration, 'all' hosts are returned, including
unusable hosts (for usable hosts, use the *note hosts(): 19c4. method).
An example:

     >>> for addr in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28'):
     ...     addr
     ...
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.2')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.3')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.4')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.7')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.8')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.9')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.10')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.11')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.12')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.13')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.14')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')


File: python.info,  Node: Networks as containers of addresses,  Prev: Iteration,  Up: Operators<3>

5.23.23.14 Networks as containers of addresses
..............................................

Network objects can act as containers of addresses.  Some examples:

     >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[0]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.0')
     >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[15]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')
     >>> IPv4Address('192.0.2.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
     True
     >>> IPv4Address('192.0.3.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Interface objects,  Next: Other Module Level Functions,  Prev: IP Network definitions,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.23.23.15 Interface objects
............................

Interface objects are *note hashable: 183, so they can be used as keys
in dictionaries.

 -- Κλάση: ipaddress.IPv4Interface (address)

     Construct an IPv4 interface.  The meaning of 'address' is as in the
     constructor of *note IPv4Network: 712, except that arbitrary host
     addresses are always accepted.

     ‘IPv4Interface’ is a subclass of *note IPv4Address: 710, so it
     inherits all the attributes from that class.  In addition, the
     following attributes are available:

      -- Ιδιότητα: ip

          The address (*note IPv4Address: 710.) without network
          information.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.ip
               IPv4Address('192.0.2.5')

      -- Ιδιότητα: network

          The network (*note IPv4Network: 712.) this interface belongs
          to.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.network
               IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

      -- Ιδιότητα: with_prefixlen

          A string representation of the interface with the mask in
          prefix notation.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_prefixlen
               '192.0.2.5/24'

      -- Ιδιότητα: with_netmask

          A string representation of the interface with the network as a
          net mask.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_netmask
               '192.0.2.5/255.255.255.0'

      -- Ιδιότητα: with_hostmask

          A string representation of the interface with the network as a
          host mask.

               >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24')
               >>> interface.with_hostmask
               '192.0.2.5/0.0.0.255'

 -- Κλάση: ipaddress.IPv6Interface (address)

     Construct an IPv6 interface.  The meaning of 'address' is as in the
     constructor of *note IPv6Network: 713, except that arbitrary host
     addresses are always accepted.

     ‘IPv6Interface’ is a subclass of *note IPv6Address: 711, so it
     inherits all the attributes from that class.  In addition, the
     following attributes are available:

      -- Ιδιότητα: ip

      -- Ιδιότητα: network

      -- Ιδιότητα: with_prefixlen

      -- Ιδιότητα: with_netmask

      -- Ιδιότητα: with_hostmask

          Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in *note
          IPv4Interface: 1d94.

* Menu:

* Operators: Operators<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Operators<4>,  Up: Interface objects

5.23.23.16 Operators
....................

Interface objects support some operators.  Unless stated otherwise,
operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e.  IPv4
with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6).

* Menu:

* Logical operators: Logical operators<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Logical operators<2>,  Up: Operators<4>

5.23.23.17 Logical operators
............................

Interface objects can be compared with the usual set of logical
operators.

For equality comparison (‘==’ and ‘!=’), both the IP address and network
must be the same for the objects to be equal.  An interface will not
compare equal to any address or network object.

For ordering (‘<’, ‘>’, etc) the rules are different.  Interface and
address objects with the same IP version can be compared, and the
address objects will always sort before the interface objects.  Two
interface objects are first compared by their networks and, if those are
the same, then by their IP addresses.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Module Level Functions,  Next: Custom Exceptions,  Prev: Interface objects,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.23.23.18 Other Module Level Functions
.......................................

The module also provides the following module level functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed (address)

     Represent an address as 4 packed bytes in network (big-endian)
     order.  'address' is an integer representation of an IPv4 IP
     address.  A *note ValueError: 277. is raised if the integer is
     negative or too large to be an IPv4 IP address.

          >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
          IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
          >>> ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed(3221225985)
          b'\xc0\x00\x02\x01'

 -- Συνάρτηση: ipaddress.v6_int_to_packed (address)

     Represent an address as 16 packed bytes in network (big-endian)
     order.  'address' is an integer representation of an IPv6 IP
     address.  A *note ValueError: 277. is raised if the integer is
     negative or too large to be an IPv6 IP address.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ipaddress.summarize_address_range (first, last)

     Return an iterator of the summarized network range given the first
     and last IP addresses.  'first' is the first *note IPv4Address:
     710. or *note IPv6Address: 711. in the range and 'last' is the last
     ‘IPv4Address’ or ‘IPv6Address’ in the range.  A *note TypeError:
     291. is raised if 'first' or 'last' are not IP addresses or are not
     of the same version.  A *note ValueError: 277. is raised if 'last'
     is not greater than 'first' or if 'first' address version is not 4
     or 6.

          >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in ipaddress.summarize_address_range(
          ...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'),
          ...    ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.130'))]
          [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.130/32')]

 -- Συνάρτηση: ipaddress.collapse_addresses (addresses)

     Return an iterator of the collapsed *note IPv4Network: 712. or
     *note IPv6Network: 713. objects.  'addresses' is an *note iterable:
     15ce. of ‘IPv4Network’ or ‘IPv6Network’ objects.  A *note
     TypeError: 291. is raised if 'addresses' contains mixed version
     objects.

          >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in
          ... ipaddress.collapse_addresses([ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'),
          ... ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')])]
          [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')]

 -- Συνάρτηση: ipaddress.get_mixed_type_key (obj)

     Return a key suitable for sorting between networks and addresses.
     Address and Network objects are not sortable by default; they’re
     fundamentally different, so the expression:

          IPv4Address('192.0.2.0') <= IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

     doesn’t make sense.  There are some times however, where you may
     wish to have ‘ipaddress’ sort these anyway.  If you need to do
     this, you can use this function as the 'key' argument to *note
     sorted(): f8c.

     'obj' is either a network or address object.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Exceptions,  Prev: Other Module Level Functions,  Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

5.23.23.19 Custom Exceptions
............................

To support more specific error reporting from class constructors, the
module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Εξαίρεση: ipaddress.AddressValueError (ValueError)

     Any value error related to the address.

 -- Εξαίρεση: ipaddress.NetmaskValueError (ValueError)

     Any value error related to the net mask.


File: python.info,  Node: Multimedia Services,  Next: Internationalization,  Prev: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.24 Multimedia Services
========================

The modules described in this chapter implement various algorithms or
interfaces that are mainly useful for multimedia applications.  They are
available at the discretion of the installation.  Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* wave — Read and write WAV files::
* colorsys — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων::


File: python.info,  Node: wave — Read and write WAV files,  Next: colorsys — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων,  Up: Multimedia Services

5.24.1 ‘wave’ — Read and write WAV files
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/wave.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘wave’ module provides a convenient interface to the Waveform Audio
«WAVE» (or «WAV») file format.

The module supports uncompressed PCM and IEEE floating-point WAV
formats.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Support for ‘WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE’ headers
was added, provided that the extended format is
‘KSDATAFORMAT_SUBTYPE_PCM’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Support for reading and writing
‘WAVE_FORMAT_IEEE_FLOAT’ files was added.

The ‘wave’ module defines the following function and exception:

 -- Συνάρτηση: wave.open (file, mode=None)

     If 'file' is a string, a *note path-like object: 79f. or a *note
     bytes-like object: 436. open the file by that name, otherwise treat
     it as a file-like object.  'mode' can be:

     ‘'rb'’

          Read only mode.

     ‘'wb'’

          Write only mode.

     Note that it does not allow read/write WAV files.

     A 'mode' of ‘'rb'’ returns a *note Wave_read: 2e6. object, while a
     'mode' of ‘'wb'’ returns a *note Wave_write: 2e7. object.  If
     'mode' is omitted and a file-like object is passed as 'file',
     ‘file.mode’ is used as the default value for 'mode'.

     If you pass in a file-like object, the wave object will not close
     it when its ‘close()’ method is called; it is the caller’s
     responsibility to close the file object.

     The ‘open()’ function may be used in a *note with: 20a. statement.
     When the ‘with’ block completes, the *note Wave_read.close(): 4487.
     or *note Wave_write.close(): 4488. method is called.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added support for unseekable files.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added support for *note path-like objects:
     79f. and *note bytes-like objects: 436.

 -- Εξαίρεση: wave.Error

     An error raised when something is impossible because it violates
     the WAV specification or hits an implementation deficiency.

 -- Δεδομένα: wave.WAVE_FORMAT_PCM

     Format code for uncompressed PCM audio.

 -- Δεδομένα: wave.WAVE_FORMAT_IEEE_FLOAT

     Format code for IEEE floating-point audio.

 -- Δεδομένα: wave.WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE

     Format code for WAVE extensible headers.

* Menu:

* Wave_read Objects::
* Wave_write Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/wave.py


File: python.info,  Node: Wave_read Objects,  Next: Wave_write Objects,  Up: wave — Read and write WAV files

5.24.1.1 Wave_read Objects
..........................

 -- Κλάση: wave.Wave_read

     Read a WAV file.

     Wave_read objects, as returned by *note open(): d17, have the
     following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Close the stream if it was opened by ‘wave’, and make the
          instance unusable.  This is called automatically on object
          collection.

      -- Μέθοδος: getnchannels ()

          Returns number of audio channels (‘1’ for mono, ‘2’ for
          stereo).

      -- Μέθοδος: getsampwidth ()

          Returns sample width in bytes.

      -- Μέθοδος: getframerate ()

          Returns sampling frequency.

      -- Μέθοδος: getnframes ()

          Returns number of audio frames.

      -- Μέθοδος: getformat ()

          Returns the frame format code.

          This is one of *note WAVE_FORMAT_PCM: 448a, *note
          WAVE_FORMAT_IEEE_FLOAT: 448b, or *note WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE:
          448c.

      -- Μέθοδος: getcomptype ()

          Returns compression type (‘'NONE'’ is the only supported
          type).

      -- Μέθοδος: getcompname ()

          Human-readable version of *note getcomptype(): 4493.  Usually
          ‘'not compressed'’ parallels ‘'NONE'’.

      -- Μέθοδος: getparams ()

          Returns a *note namedtuple(): 1cf. ‘(nchannels, sampwidth,
          framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)’, equivalent to output
          of the ‘get*()’ methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: readframes (n)

          Reads and returns at most 'n' frames of audio, as a *note
          bytes: 1c7. object.

      -- Μέθοδος: rewind ()

          Rewind the file pointer to the beginning of the audio stream.

     The following two methods define a term «position» which is
     compatible between them, and is otherwise implementation dependent.

      -- Μέθοδος: setpos (pos)

          Set the file pointer to the specified position.

      -- Μέθοδος: tell ()

          Return current file pointer position.


File: python.info,  Node: Wave_write Objects,  Prev: Wave_read Objects,  Up: wave — Read and write WAV files

5.24.1.2 Wave_write Objects
...........................

 -- Κλάση: wave.Wave_write

     Write a WAV file.

     Wave_write objects, as returned by *note open(): d17.

     For seekable output streams, the ‘wave’ header will automatically
     be updated to reflect the number of frames actually written.  For
     unseekable streams, the 'nframes' value must be accurate when the
     first frame data is written.  An accurate 'nframes' value can be
     achieved either by calling *note setnframes(): 4499. or *note
     setparams(): 2b0. with the number of frames that will be written
     before *note close(): 4488. is called and then using *note
     writeframesraw(): 1395. to write the frame data, or by calling
     *note writeframes(): 1396. with all of the frame data to be
     written.  In the latter case ‘writeframes()’ will calculate the
     number of frames in the data and set 'nframes' accordingly before
     writing the frame data.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added support for unseekable files.

     Wave_write objects have the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Make sure 'nframes' is correct, and close the file if it was
          opened by ‘wave’.  This method is called upon object
          collection.  It will raise an exception if the output stream
          is not seekable and 'nframes' does not match the number of
          frames actually written.

      -- Μέθοδος: setnchannels (n)

          Set the number of channels.

      -- Μέθοδος: getnchannels ()

          Return the number of channels.

      -- Μέθοδος: setsampwidth (n)

          Set the sample width to 'n' bytes.

          For *note WAVE_FORMAT_IEEE_FLOAT: 448b, only 4-byte (32-bit)
          and 8-byte (64-bit) sample widths are supported.

      -- Μέθοδος: getsampwidth ()

          Return the sample width in bytes.

      -- Μέθοδος: setframerate (n)

          Set the frame rate to 'n'.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: A non-integral input to this method is
          rounded to the nearest integer.

      -- Μέθοδος: getframerate ()

          Return the frame rate.

      -- Μέθοδος: setnframes (n)

          Set the number of frames to 'n'.  This will be changed later
          if the number of frames actually written is different (this
          update attempt will raise an error if the output stream is not
          seekable).

      -- Μέθοδος: getnframes ()

          Return the number of audio frames written so far.

      -- Μέθοδος: setcomptype (type, name)

          Set the compression type and description.  At the moment, only
          compression type ‘NONE’ is supported, meaning no compression.

      -- Μέθοδος: getcomptype ()

          Return the compression type (‘'NONE'’).

      -- Μέθοδος: getcompname ()

          Return the human-readable compression type name.

      -- Μέθοδος: setformat (format)

          Set the frame format code.

          Supported values are *note WAVE_FORMAT_PCM: 448a. and *note
          WAVE_FORMAT_IEEE_FLOAT: 448b.

          When setting *note WAVE_FORMAT_IEEE_FLOAT: 448b, the sample
          width must be 4 or 8 bytes.

      -- Μέθοδος: getformat ()

          Return the current frame format code.

      -- Μέθοδος: setparams (tuple)

          The 'tuple' should be ‘(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate,
          nframes, comptype, compname, format)’, with values valid for
          the ‘set*()’ methods.  Sets all parameters.

          For backwards compatibility, a 6-item tuple without 'format'
          is also accepted and defaults to *note WAVE_FORMAT_PCM: 448a.

          For ‘format=WAVE_FORMAT_IEEE_FLOAT’, 'sampwidth' must be 4 or
          8.

      -- Μέθοδος: getparams ()

          Return a *note namedtuple(): 1cf. ‘(nchannels, sampwidth,
          framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)’ containing the
          current output parameters.

      -- Μέθοδος: tell ()

          Return current position in the file, with the same disclaimer
          for the *note Wave_read.tell(): 4497. and *note
          Wave_read.setpos(): 4496. methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: writeframesraw (data)

          Write audio frames, without correcting 'nframes'.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Any *note bytes-like object: 436. is
          now accepted.

      -- Μέθοδος: writeframes (data)

          Write audio frames and make sure 'nframes' is correct.  It
          will raise an error if the output stream is not seekable and
          the total number of frames that have been written after 'data'
          has been written does not match the previously set value for
          'nframes'.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Any *note bytes-like object: 436. is
          now accepted.

          Note that it is invalid to set any parameters after calling
          ‘writeframes()’ or *note writeframesraw(): 1395, and any
          attempt to do so will raise *note wave.Error: 4489.

          For *note WAVE_FORMAT_IEEE_FLOAT: 448b. output, a ‘fact’ chunk
          is written as required by the WAVE specification for non-PCM
          formats.


File: python.info,  Node: colorsys — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων,  Prev: wave — Read and write WAV files,  Up: Multimedia Services

5.24.2 ‘colorsys’ — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων
---------------------------------------------------------

'Πηγαίος κώδικας' Lib/colorsys.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘colorsys’ module defines bidirectional conversions of color values
between colors expressed in the RGB (Red Green Blue) color space used in
computer monitors and three other coordinate systems: YIQ, HLS (Hue
Lightness Saturation) and HSV (Hue Saturation Value).  Coordinates in
all of these color spaces are floating-point values.  In the YIQ space,
the Y coordinate is between 0 and 1, but the I and Q coordinates can be
positive or negative.  In all other spaces, the coordinates are all
between 0 and 1.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Περισσότερες πληροφορίες σχετικά με τους χρωματικούς χώρους μπορούν να
βρεθούν στις διευθύνσεις ‘https://poynton.ca/ColorFAQ.html’ και
‘https://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-spaces.htm’.

The ‘colorsys’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: colorsys.rgb_to_yiq (r, g, b)

     Μετατρέπει το χρώμα από συντεταγμένες RGB σε συντεταγμένες YIQ.

 -- Συνάρτηση: colorsys.yiq_to_rgb (y, i, q)

     Μετατρέπει το χρώμα από συντεταγμένες YIQ σε συντεταγμένες RGB.

 -- Συνάρτηση: colorsys.rgb_to_hls (r, g, b)

     Μετατρέπει το χρώμα από συντεταγμένες RGB σε συντεταγμένες HLS.

 -- Συνάρτηση: colorsys.hls_to_rgb (h, l, s)

     Μετατρέπει το χρώμα από συντεταγμένες HLS σε συντεταγμένες RGB.

 -- Συνάρτηση: colorsys.rgb_to_hsv (r, g, b)

     Μετατρέπει το χρώμα από συντεταγμένες RGB σε συντεταγμένες HSV.

 -- Συνάρτηση: colorsys.hsv_to_rgb (h, s, v)

     Μετατρέπει το χρώμα από συντεταγμένες HSV σε συντεταγμένες RGB.

Παράδειγμα:

     >>> import colorsys
     >>> colorsys.rgb_to_hsv(0.2, 0.4, 0.4)
     (0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
     >>> colorsys.hsv_to_rgb(0.5, 0.5, 0.4)
     (0.2, 0.4, 0.4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/colorsys.py


File: python.info,  Node: Internationalization,  Next: Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk,  Prev: Multimedia Services,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.25 Internationalization
=========================

The modules described in this chapter help you write software that is
independent of language and locale by providing mechanisms for selecting
a language to be used in program messages or by tailoring output to
match local conventions.

The list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* gettext — Multilingual internationalization services::
* locale — Internationalization services::


File: python.info,  Node: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services,  Next: locale — Internationalization services,  Up: Internationalization

5.25.1 ‘gettext’ — Multilingual internationalization services
-------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/gettext.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘gettext’ module provides internationalization (I18N) and
localization (L10N) services for your Python modules and applications.
It supports both the GNU ‘gettext’ message catalog API and a higher
level, class-based API that may be more appropriate for Python files.
The interface described below allows you to write your module and
application messages in one natural language, and provide a catalog of
translated messages for running under different natural languages.

Some hints on localizing your Python modules and applications are also
given.

* Menu:

* GNU gettext API::
* Class-based API::
* Internationalizing your programs and modules::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/gettext.py


File: python.info,  Node: GNU gettext API,  Next: Class-based API,  Up: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services

5.25.1.1 GNU ‘gettext’ API
..........................

The ‘gettext’ module defines the following API, which is very similar to
the GNU ‘gettext’ API. If you use this API you will affect the
translation of your entire application globally.  Often this is what you
want if your application is monolingual, with the choice of language
dependent on the locale of your user.  If you are localizing a Python
module, or if your application needs to switch languages on the fly, you
probably want to use the class-based API instead.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gettext.bindtextdomain (domain, localedir=None)

     Bind the 'domain' to the locale directory 'localedir'.  More
     concretely, ‘gettext’ will look for binary ‘.mo’ files for the
     given domain using the path (on Unix):
     ‘`localedir'/`language'/LC_MESSAGES/`domain'.mo’, where 'language'
     is searched for in the environment variables ‘LANGUAGE’, ‘LC_ALL’,
     ‘LC_MESSAGES’, and ‘LANG’ respectively.

     If 'localedir' is omitted or ‘None’, then the current binding for
     'domain' is returned.  (1)

 -- Συνάρτηση: gettext.textdomain (domain=None)

     Change or query the current global domain.  If 'domain' is ‘None’,
     then the current global domain is returned, otherwise the global
     domain is set to 'domain', which is returned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gettext.gettext (message)

     Return the localized translation of 'message', based on the current
     global domain, language, and locale directory.  This function is
     usually aliased as ‘_()’ in the local namespace (see examples
     below).

 -- Συνάρτηση: gettext.dgettext (domain, message)

     Like *note gettext(): 180b, but look the message up in the
     specified 'domain'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gettext.ngettext (singular, plural, n)

     Like *note gettext(): 180b, but consider plural forms.  If a
     translation is found, apply the plural formula to 'n', and return
     the resulting message (some languages have more than two plural
     forms).  If no translation is found, return 'singular' if 'n' is 1;
     return 'plural' otherwise.

     The Plural formula is taken from the catalog header.  It is a C or
     Python expression that has a free variable 'n'; the expression
     evaluates to the index of the plural in the catalog.  See the GNU
     gettext documentation(2) for the precise syntax to be used in ‘.po’
     files and the formulas for a variety of languages.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gettext.dngettext (domain, singular, plural, n)

     Like *note ngettext(): 44b7, but look the message up in the
     specified 'domain'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gettext.pgettext (context, message)

 -- Συνάρτηση: gettext.dpgettext (domain, context, message)

 -- Συνάρτηση: gettext.npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

 -- Συνάρτηση: gettext.dnpgettext (domain, context, singular, plural, n)

     Similar to the corresponding functions without the ‘p’ in the
     prefix (that is, *note gettext(): 66, *note dgettext(): 44b6, *note
     ngettext(): 44b7, *note dngettext(): 44b8.), but the translation is
     restricted to the given message 'context'.

     Added in version 3.8.

Note that GNU ‘gettext’ also defines a ‘dcgettext()’ method, but this
was deemed not useful and so it is currently unimplemented.

Here’s an example of typical usage for this API:

     import gettext
     gettext.bindtextdomain('myapplication', '/path/to/my/language/directory')
     gettext.textdomain('myapplication')
     _ = gettext.gettext
     # ...
     print(_('This is a translatable string.'))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The default locale directory is system dependent; for example, on
Red Hat Linux it is ‘/usr/share/locale’, but on Solaris it is
‘/usr/lib/locale’.  The ‘gettext’ module does not try to support these
system dependent defaults; instead its default is
‘`sys.base_prefix'/share/locale’ (see *note sys.base_prefix: 3aa.).  For
this reason, it is always best to call *note bindtextdomain(): 44b4.
with an explicit absolute path at the start of your application.

   (2) https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/gettext.html


File: python.info,  Node: Class-based API,  Next: Internationalizing your programs and modules,  Prev: GNU gettext API,  Up: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services

5.25.1.2 Class-based API
........................

The class-based API of the ‘gettext’ module gives you more flexibility
and greater convenience than the GNU ‘gettext’ API. It is the
recommended way of localizing your Python applications and modules.
‘gettext’ defines a *note GNUTranslations: 44bd. class which implements
the parsing of GNU ‘.mo’ format files, and has methods for returning
strings.  Instances of this class can also install themselves in the
built-in namespace as the function ‘_()’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gettext.find (domain, localedir=None, languages=None,
          all=False)

     This function implements the standard ‘.mo’ file search algorithm.
     It takes a 'domain', identical to what *note textdomain(): 44b5.
     takes.  Optional 'localedir' is as in *note bindtextdomain(): 44b4.
     Optional 'languages' is a list of strings, where each string is a
     language code.

     If 'localedir' is not given, then the default system locale
     directory is used.  (1)  If 'languages' is not given, then the
     following environment variables are searched: ‘LANGUAGE’, ‘LC_ALL’,
     ‘LC_MESSAGES’, and ‘LANG’.  The first one returning a non-empty
     value is used for the 'languages' variable.  The environment
     variables should contain a colon separated list of languages, which
     will be split on the colon to produce the expected list of language
     code strings.

     ‘find()’ then expands and normalizes the languages, and then
     iterates through them, searching for an existing file built of
     these components:

     ‘`localedir'/`language'/LC_MESSAGES/`domain'.mo’

     The first such file name that exists is returned by ‘find()’.  If
     no such file is found, then ‘None’ is returned.  If 'all' is given,
     it returns a list of all file names, in the order in which they
     appear in the languages list or the environment variables.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gettext.translation (domain, localedir=None,
          languages=None, class_=None, fallback=False)

     Return a ‘*Translations’ instance based on the 'domain',
     'localedir', and 'languages', which are first passed to *note
     find(): 44be. to get a list of the associated ‘.mo’ file paths.
     Instances with identical ‘.mo’ file names are cached.  The actual
     class instantiated is 'class_' if provided, otherwise *note
     GNUTranslations: 44bd.  The class’s constructor must take a single
     *note file object: 156c. argument.

     If multiple files are found, later files are used as fallbacks for
     earlier ones.  To allow setting the fallback, *note copy.copy():
     942. is used to clone each translation object from the cache; the
     actual instance data is still shared with the cache.

     If no ‘.mo’ file is found, this function raises *note OSError: 53c.
     if 'fallback' is false (which is the default), and returns a *note
     NullTranslations: 44bf. instance if 'fallback' is true.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: *note IOError: 13fb. used to be raised, it
     is now an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: 'codeset' parameter is removed.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gettext.install (domain, localedir=None, *, names=None)

     This installs the function ‘_()’ in Python’s builtins namespace,
     based on 'domain' and 'localedir' which are passed to the function
     *note translation(): e3c.

     For the 'names' parameter, please see the description of the
     translation object’s *note install(): 44c0. method.

     As seen below, you usually mark the strings in your application
     that are candidates for translation, by wrapping them in a call to
     the ‘_()’ function, like this:

          print(_('This string will be translated.'))

     For convenience, you want the ‘_()’ function to be installed in
     Python’s builtins namespace, so it is easily accessible in all
     modules of your application.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: 'names' is now a keyword-only parameter.

* Menu:

* The NullTranslations class::
* The GNUTranslations class::
* Solaris message catalog support::
* The Catalog constructor::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) See the footnote for *note bindtextdomain(): 44b4. above.


File: python.info,  Node: The NullTranslations class,  Next: The GNUTranslations class,  Up: Class-based API

5.25.1.3 The ‘NullTranslations’ class
.....................................

Translation classes are what actually implement the translation of
original source file message strings to translated message strings.  The
base class used by all translation classes is *note NullTranslations:
44bf.; this provides the basic interface you can use to write your own
specialized translation classes.  Here are the methods of
‘NullTranslations’:

 -- Κλάση: gettext.NullTranslations (fp=None)

     Takes an optional *note file object: 156c. 'fp', which is ignored
     by the base class.  Initializes «protected» instance variables
     '_info' and '_charset' which are set by derived classes, as well as
     '_fallback', which is set through *note add_fallback(): 44c2.  It
     then calls ‘self._parse(fp)’ if 'fp' is not ‘None’.

      -- Μέθοδος: _parse (fp)

          No-op in the base class, this method takes file object 'fp',
          and reads the data from the file, initializing its message
          catalog.  If you have an unsupported message catalog file
          format, you should override this method to parse your format.

      -- Μέθοδος: add_fallback (fallback)

          Add 'fallback' as the fallback object for the current
          translation object.  A translation object should consult the
          fallback if it cannot provide a translation for a given
          message.

      -- Μέθοδος: gettext (message)

          If a fallback has been set, forward ‘gettext()’ to the
          fallback.  Otherwise, return 'message'.  Overridden in derived
          classes.

      -- Μέθοδος: ngettext (singular, plural, n)

          If a fallback has been set, forward ‘ngettext()’ to the
          fallback.  Otherwise, return 'singular' if 'n' is 1; return
          'plural' otherwise.  Overridden in derived classes.

      -- Μέθοδος: pgettext (context, message)

          If a fallback has been set, forward ‘pgettext()’ to the
          fallback.  Otherwise, return the translated message.
          Overridden in derived classes.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

          If a fallback has been set, forward ‘npgettext()’ to the
          fallback.  Otherwise, return the translated message.
          Overridden in derived classes.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: info ()

          Return a dictionary containing the metadata found in the
          message catalog file.

      -- Μέθοδος: charset ()

          Return the encoding of the message catalog file.

      -- Μέθοδος: install (names=None)

          This method installs *note gettext(): 44c4. into the built-in
          namespace, binding it to ‘_’.

          If the 'names' parameter is given, it must be a sequence
          containing the names of functions you want to install in the
          builtins namespace in addition to ‘_()’.  Supported names are
          ‘'gettext'’, ‘'ngettext'’, ‘'pgettext'’, and ‘'npgettext'’.

          Note that this is only one way, albeit the most convenient
          way, to make the ‘_()’ function available to your application.
          Because it affects the entire application globally, and
          specifically the built-in namespace, localized modules should
          never install ‘_()’.  Instead, they should use this code to
          make ‘_()’ available to their module:

               import gettext
               t = gettext.translation('mymodule', ...)
               _ = t.gettext

          This puts ‘_()’ only in the module’s global namespace and so
          only affects calls within this module.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added ‘'pgettext'’ and ‘'npgettext'’.


File: python.info,  Node: The GNUTranslations class,  Next: Solaris message catalog support,  Prev: The NullTranslations class,  Up: Class-based API

5.25.1.4 The ‘GNUTranslations’ class
....................................

The ‘gettext’ module provides one additional class derived from *note
NullTranslations: 44bf.: *note GNUTranslations: 44bd.  This class
overrides ‘_parse()’ to enable reading GNU ‘gettext’ format ‘.mo’ files
in both big-endian and little-endian format.

*note GNUTranslations: 44bd. parses optional metadata out of the
translation catalog.  It is convention with GNU ‘gettext’ to include
metadata as the translation for the empty string.  This metadata is in
RFC 822(1)-style ‘key: value’ pairs, and should contain the
‘Project-Id-Version’ key.  If the key ‘Content-Type’ is found, then the
‘charset’ property is used to initialize the «protected» ‘_charset’
instance variable, defaulting to ‘None’ if not found.  If the charset
encoding is specified, then all message ids and message strings read
from the catalog are converted to Unicode using this encoding, else
ASCII is assumed.

Since message ids are read as Unicode strings too, all ‘*gettext()’
methods will assume message ids as Unicode strings, not byte strings.

The entire set of key/value pairs are placed into a dictionary and set
as the «protected» ‘_info’ instance variable.

If the ‘.mo’ file’s magic number is invalid, the major version number is
unexpected, or if other problems occur while reading the file,
instantiating a *note GNUTranslations: 44bd. class can raise *note
OSError: 53c.

 -- Κλάση: gettext.GNUTranslations

     The following methods are overridden from the base class
     implementation:

      -- Μέθοδος: gettext (message)

          Look up the 'message' id in the catalog and return the
          corresponding message string, as a Unicode string.  If there
          is no entry in the catalog for the 'message' id, and a
          fallback has been set, the look up is forwarded to the
          fallback’s *note gettext(): 44c4. method.  Otherwise, the
          'message' id is returned.

      -- Μέθοδος: ngettext (singular, plural, n)

          Do a plural-forms lookup of a message id.  'singular' is used
          as the message id for purposes of lookup in the catalog, while
          'n' is used to determine which plural form to use.  The
          returned message string is a Unicode string.

          If the message id is not found in the catalog, and a fallback
          is specified, the request is forwarded to the fallback’s *note
          ngettext(): 44c5. method.  Otherwise, when 'n' is 1 'singular'
          is returned, and 'plural' is returned in all other cases.

          Here is an example:

               n = len(os.listdir('.'))
               cat = GNUTranslations(somefile)
               message = cat.ngettext(
                   'There is %(num)d file in this directory',
                   'There are %(num)d files in this directory',
                   n) % {'num': n}

      -- Μέθοδος: pgettext (context, message)

          Look up the 'context' and 'message' id in the catalog and
          return the corresponding message string, as a Unicode string.
          If there is no entry in the catalog for the 'message' id and
          'context', and a fallback has been set, the look up is
          forwarded to the fallback’s ‘pgettext()’ method.  Otherwise,
          the 'message' id is returned.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: npgettext (context, singular, plural, n)

          Do a plural-forms lookup of a message id.  'singular' is used
          as the message id for purposes of lookup in the catalog, while
          'n' is used to determine which plural form to use.

          If the message id for 'context' is not found in the catalog,
          and a fallback is specified, the request is forwarded to the
          fallback’s ‘npgettext()’ method.  Otherwise, when 'n' is 1
          'singular' is returned, and 'plural' is returned in all other
          cases.

          Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html


File: python.info,  Node: Solaris message catalog support,  Next: The Catalog constructor,  Prev: The GNUTranslations class,  Up: Class-based API

5.25.1.5 Solaris message catalog support
........................................

The Solaris operating system defines its own binary ‘.mo’ file format,
but since no documentation can be found on this format, it is not
supported at this time.


File: python.info,  Node: The Catalog constructor,  Prev: Solaris message catalog support,  Up: Class-based API

5.25.1.6 The Catalog constructor
................................

GNOME uses a version of the ‘gettext’ module by James Henstridge, but
this version has a slightly different API. Its documented usage was:

     import gettext
     cat = gettext.Catalog(domain, localedir)
     _ = cat.gettext
     print(_('hello world'))

For compatibility with this older module, the function ‘Catalog()’ is an
alias for the *note translation(): e3c. function described above.

One difference between this module and Henstridge’s: his catalog objects
supported access through a mapping API, but this appears to be unused
and so is not currently supported.


File: python.info,  Node: Internationalizing your programs and modules,  Next: Acknowledgements<9>,  Prev: Class-based API,  Up: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services

5.25.1.7 Internationalizing your programs and modules
.....................................................

Internationalization (I18N) refers to the operation by which a program
is made aware of multiple languages.  Localization (L10N) refers to the
adaptation of your program, once internationalized, to the local
language and cultural habits.  In order to provide multilingual messages
for your Python programs, you need to take the following steps:

  1. prepare your program or module by specially marking translatable
     strings

  2. run a suite of tools over your marked files to generate raw
     messages catalogs

  3. create language-specific translations of the message catalogs

  4. use the ‘gettext’ module so that message strings are properly
     translated

In order to prepare your code for I18N, you need to look at all the
strings in your files.  Any string that needs to be translated should be
marked by wrapping it in ‘_('...')’ — that is, a call to the function
*note _: 66.  For example:

     filename = 'mylog.txt'
     message = _('writing a log message')
     with open(filename, 'w') as fp:
         fp.write(message)

In this example, the string ‘'writing a log message'’ is marked as a
candidate for translation, while the strings ‘'mylog.txt'’ and ‘'w'’ are
not.

There are a few tools to extract the strings meant for translation.  The
original GNU ‘gettext’ only supported C or C++ source code but its
extended version ‘xgettext’ scans code written in a number of languages,
including Python, to find strings marked as translatable.  Babel(1) is a
Python internationalization library that includes a ‘pybabel’ script to
extract and compile message catalogs.  François Pinard’s program called
‘xpot’ does a similar job and is available as part of his po-utils
package(2).

(Python also includes pure-Python versions of these programs, called
‘pygettext.py’ and ‘msgfmt.py’; some Python distributions will install
them for you.  ‘pygettext.py’ is similar to ‘xgettext’, but only
understands Python source code and cannot handle other programming
languages such as C or C++.  ‘pygettext.py’ supports a command-line
interface similar to ‘xgettext’; for details on its use, run
‘pygettext.py --help’.  ‘msgfmt.py’ is binary compatible with GNU
‘msgfmt’.  With these two programs, you may not need the GNU ‘gettext’
package to internationalize your Python applications.)

‘xgettext’, ‘pygettext’, and similar tools generate ‘.po’ files that are
message catalogs.  They are structured human-readable files that contain
every marked string in the source code, along with a placeholder for the
translated versions of these strings.

Copies of these ‘.po’ files are then handed over to the individual human
translators who write translations for every supported natural language.
They send back the completed language-specific versions as a
‘<language-name>.po’ file that’s compiled into a machine-readable ‘.mo’
binary catalog file using the ‘msgfmt’ program.  The ‘.mo’ files are
used by the ‘gettext’ module for the actual translation processing at
run-time.

How you use the ‘gettext’ module in your code depends on whether you are
internationalizing a single module or your entire application.  The next
two sections will discuss each case.

* Menu:

* Localizing your module::
* Localizing your application::
* Changing languages on the fly::
* Deferred translations::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://babel.pocoo.org/

   (2) https://github.com/pinard/po-utils


File: python.info,  Node: Localizing your module,  Next: Localizing your application,  Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules

5.25.1.8 Localizing your module
...............................

If you are localizing your module, you must take care not to make global
changes, e.g.  to the built-in namespace.  You should not use the GNU
‘gettext’ API but instead the class-based API.

Let’s say your module is called «spam» and the module’s various natural
language translation ‘.mo’ files reside in ‘/usr/share/locale’ in GNU
‘gettext’ format.  Here’s what you would put at the top of your module:

     import gettext
     t = gettext.translation('spam', '/usr/share/locale')
     _ = t.gettext


File: python.info,  Node: Localizing your application,  Next: Changing languages on the fly,  Prev: Localizing your module,  Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules

5.25.1.9 Localizing your application
....................................

If you are localizing your application, you can install the ‘_()’
function globally into the built-in namespace, usually in the main
driver file of your application.  This will let all your
application-specific files just use ‘_('...')’ without having to
explicitly install it in each file.

In the simple case then, you need only add the following bit of code to
the main driver file of your application:

     import gettext
     gettext.install('myapplication')

If you need to set the locale directory, you can pass it into the *note
install(): e3d. function:

     import gettext
     gettext.install('myapplication', '/usr/share/locale')


File: python.info,  Node: Changing languages on the fly,  Next: Deferred translations,  Prev: Localizing your application,  Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules

5.25.1.10 Changing languages on the fly
.......................................

If your program needs to support many languages at the same time, you
may want to create multiple translation instances and then switch
between them explicitly, like so:

     import gettext

     lang1 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['en'])
     lang2 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['fr'])
     lang3 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['de'])

     # start by using language1
     lang1.install()

     # ... time goes by, user selects language 2
     lang2.install()

     # ... more time goes by, user selects language 3
     lang3.install()


File: python.info,  Node: Deferred translations,  Prev: Changing languages on the fly,  Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules

5.25.1.11 Deferred translations
...............................

In most coding situations, strings are translated where they are coded.
Occasionally however, you need to mark strings for translation, but
defer actual translation until later.  A classic example is:

     animals = ['mollusk',
                'albatross',
                'rat',
                'penguin',
                'python', ]
     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(a)

Here, you want to mark the strings in the ‘animals’ list as being
translatable, but you don’t actually want to translate them until they
are printed.

Here is one way you can handle this situation:

     def _(message): return message

     animals = [_('mollusk'),
                _('albatross'),
                _('rat'),
                _('penguin'),
                _('python'), ]

     del _

     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(_(a))

This works because the dummy definition of ‘_()’ simply returns the
string unchanged.  And this dummy definition will temporarily override
any definition of ‘_()’ in the built-in namespace (until the *note del:
1d1d. command).  Take care, though if you have a previous definition of
‘_()’ in the local namespace.

Note that the second use of ‘_()’ will not identify «a» as being
translatable to the ‘gettext’ program, because the parameter is not a
string literal.

Another way to handle this is with the following example:

     def N_(message): return message

     animals = [N_('mollusk'),
                N_('albatross'),
                N_('rat'),
                N_('penguin'),
                N_('python'), ]

     # ...
     for a in animals:
         print(_(a))

In this case, you are marking translatable strings with the function
‘N_()’, which won’t conflict with any definition of ‘_()’.  However, you
will need to teach your message extraction program to look for
translatable strings marked with ‘N_()’.  ‘xgettext’, ‘pygettext’,
‘pybabel extract’, and ‘xpot’ all support this through the use of the
‘-k’ command-line switch.  The choice of ‘N_()’ here is totally
arbitrary; it could have just as easily been
‘MarkThisStringForTranslation()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<9>,  Prev: Internationalizing your programs and modules,  Up: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services

5.25.1.12 Acknowledgements
..........................

The following people contributed code, feedback, design suggestions,
previous implementations, and valuable experience to the creation of
this module:

   * Peter Funk

   * James Henstridge

   * Juan David Ibáñez Palomar

   * Marc-André Lemburg

   * Martin von Löwis

   * François Pinard

   * Barry Warsaw

   * Gustavo Niemeyer


File: python.info,  Node: locale — Internationalization services,  Prev: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services,  Up: Internationalization

5.25.2 ‘locale’ — Internationalization services
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/locale.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘locale’ module opens access to the POSIX locale database and
functionality.  The POSIX locale mechanism allows programmers to deal
with certain cultural issues in an application, without requiring the
programmer to know all the specifics of each country where the software
is executed.

The ‘locale’ module is implemented on top of the ‘_locale’ module, which
in turn uses an ANSI C locale implementation if available.

The ‘locale’ module defines the following exception and functions:

 -- Εξαίρεση: locale.Error

     Exception raised when the locale passed to *note setlocale(): 231.
     is not recognized.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.setlocale (category, locale=None)

     If 'locale' is given and not ‘None’, ‘setlocale()’ modifies the
     locale setting for the 'category'.  The available categories are
     listed in the data description below.  'locale' may be a *note
     string: 44db, or a pair, language code and encoding.  An empty
     string specifies the user’s default settings.  If the modification
     of the locale fails, the exception *note Error: 44da. is raised.
     If successful, the new locale setting is returned.

     If 'locale' is a pair, it is converted to a locale name using the
     locale aliasing engine.  The language code has the same format as a
     *note locale name: 44db, but without encoding.  The language code
     and encoding can be ‘None’.

     If 'locale' is omitted or ‘None’, the current setting for
     'category' is returned.

     Example:

          >>> import locale
          >>> loc = locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL)  # get current locale
          # use German locale; name and availability varies with platform
          >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'de_DE.UTF-8')
          >>> locale.strcoll('f\xe4n', 'foo')  # compare a string containing an umlaut
          >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')   # use user's preferred locale
          >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'C')  # use default (C) locale
          >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, loc)  # restore saved locale

     ‘setlocale()’ is not thread-safe on most systems.  Applications
     typically start with a call of:

          import locale
          locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '')

     This sets the locale for all categories to the user’s default
     setting (typically specified in the ‘LANG’ environment variable).
     If the locale is not changed thereafter, using multithreading
     should not cause problems.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Support language codes with ‘@’-modifiers.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.localeconv ()

     Returns the database of the local conventions as a dictionary.
     This dictionary has the following strings as keys:

     Category                   Key                                       Meaning
                                                                          
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
     *note LC_NUMERIC: 44dc.    ‘'decimal_point'’                         Decimal point character.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'grouping'’                              Sequence of numbers specifying
                                                                          which relative positions the
                                                                          ‘'thousands_sep'’ is expected.  If
                                                                          the sequence is terminated with
                                                                          *note CHAR_MAX: 44dd, no further
                                                                          grouping is performed.  If the
                                                                          sequence terminates with a ‘0’,
                                                                          the last group size is repeatedly
                                                                          used.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'thousands_sep'’                         Character used between groups.
                                                                          
                                                                          
     *note LC_MONETARY: 44de.   ‘'int_curr_symbol'’                       International currency symbol.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'currency_symbol'’                       Local currency symbol.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_cs_precedes/n_cs_precedes'’           Whether the currency symbol
                                                                          precedes the value (for positive
                                                                          resp.  negative values).
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_sep_by_space/n_sep_by_space'’         Whether the currency symbol is
                                                                          separated from the value by a
                                                                          space (for positive resp.
                                                                          negative values).
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_decimal_point'’                     Decimal point used for monetary
                                                                          values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'frac_digits'’                           Number of fractional digits used
                                                                          in local formatting of monetary
                                                                          values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'int_frac_digits'’                       Number of fractional digits used
                                                                          in international formatting of
                                                                          monetary values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_thousands_sep'’                     Group separator used for monetary
                                                                          values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'mon_grouping'’                          Equivalent to ‘'grouping'’, used
                                                                          for monetary values.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'positive_sign'’                         Symbol used to annotate a positive
                                                                          monetary value.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'negative_sign'’                         Symbol used to annotate a negative
                                                                          monetary value.
                                                                          
                                                                          
                                ‘'p_sign_posn/n_sign_posn'’               The position of the sign (for
                                                                          positive resp.  negative values),
                                                                          see below.
                                                                          

     All numeric values can be set to *note CHAR_MAX: 44dd. to indicate
     that there is no value specified in this locale.

     The possible values for ‘'p_sign_posn'’ and ‘'n_sign_posn'’ are
     given below.

     Value              Explanation
                        
     -----------------------------------------------------------------
                        
     ‘0’                Currency and value are surrounded by
                        parentheses.
                        
                        
     ‘1’                The sign should precede the value and
                        currency symbol.
                        
                        
     ‘2’                The sign should follow the value and
                        currency symbol.
                        
                        
     ‘3’                The sign should immediately precede the
                        value.
                        
                        
     ‘4’                The sign should immediately follow the
                        value.
                        
                        
     ‘CHAR_MAX’         Nothing is specified in this locale.
                        

     The function temporarily sets the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the
     ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale or the ‘LC_MONETARY’ locale if locales are
     different and numeric or monetary strings are non-ASCII. This
     temporary change affects other threads.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The function now temporarily sets the
     ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale in some cases.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.nl_langinfo (option)

     Return some locale-specific information as a string.  This function
     is not available on all systems, and the set of possible options
     might also vary across platforms.  The possible argument values are
     numbers, for which symbolic constants are available in the locale
     module.

     The ‘nl_langinfo()’ function accepts one of the following keys.
     Most descriptions are taken from the corresponding description in
     the GNU C library.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.CODESET

          Get a string with the name of the character encoding used in
          the selected locale.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.D_T_FMT

          Get a string that can be used as a format string for *note
          time.strftime(): 1592. to represent date and time in a
          locale-specific way.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.D_FMT

          Get a string that can be used as a format string for *note
          time.strftime(): 1592. to represent a date in a
          locale-specific way.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.T_FMT

          Get a string that can be used as a format string for *note
          time.strftime(): 1592. to represent a time in a
          locale-specific way.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.T_FMT_AMPM

          Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 1592. to
          represent time in the am/pm format.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.DAY_1
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.DAY_2
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.DAY_3
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.DAY_4
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.DAY_5
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.DAY_6
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.DAY_7

          Get the name of the n-th day of the week.

               Σημείωση: This follows the US convention of *note DAY_1:
               44e4. being Sunday, not the international convention (ISO
               8601) that Monday is the first day of the week.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABDAY_1
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABDAY_2
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABDAY_3
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABDAY_4
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABDAY_5
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABDAY_6
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABDAY_7

          Get the abbreviated name of the n-th day of the week.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.MON_1
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.MON_2
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.MON_3
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.MON_4
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.MON_5
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.MON_6
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.MON_7
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.MON_8
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.MON_9
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.MON_10
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.MON_11
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.MON_12

          Get the name of the n-th month.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABMON_1
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABMON_2
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABMON_3
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABMON_4
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABMON_5
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABMON_6
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABMON_7
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABMON_8
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABMON_9
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABMON_10
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABMON_11
      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ABMON_12

          Get the abbreviated name of the n-th month.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.RADIXCHAR

          Get the radix character (decimal dot, decimal comma, etc.).

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.THOUSEP

          Get the separator character for thousands (groups of three
          digits).

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.YESEXPR

          Get a regular expression that can be used with the regex
          function to recognize a positive response to a yes/no
          question.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.NOEXPR

          Get a regular expression that can be used with the ‘regex(3)’
          function to recognize a negative response to a yes/no
          question.

               Σημείωση: The regular expressions for *note YESEXPR:
               450c. and *note NOEXPR: 450d. use syntax suitable for the
               ‘regex’ function from the C library, which might differ
               from the syntax used in *note re: c1.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.CRNCYSTR

          Get the currency symbol, preceded by «-» if the symbol should
          appear before the value, «+» if the symbol should appear after
          the value, or «.» if the symbol should replace the radix
          character.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ERA

          Get a string which describes how years are counted and
          displayed for each era in a locale.

          Most locales do not define this value.  An example of a locale
          which does define this value is the Japanese one.  In Japan,
          the traditional representation of dates includes the name of
          the era corresponding to the then-emperor’s reign.

          Normally it should not be necessary to use this value
          directly.  Specifying the ‘E’ modifier in their format strings
          causes the *note time.strftime(): 1592. function to use this
          information.  The format of the returned string is specified
          in 'The Open Group Base Specifications Issue 8', paragraph
          7.3.5.2 LC_TIME C-Language Access(2).

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ERA_D_T_FMT

          Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 1592. to
          represent date and time in a locale-specific era-based way.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ERA_D_FMT

          Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 1592. to
          represent a date in a locale-specific era-based way.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ERA_T_FMT

          Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 1592. to
          represent a time in a locale-specific era-based way.

      -- Δεδομένα: locale.ALT_DIGITS

          Get a string consisting of up to 100 semicolon-separated
          symbols used to represent the values 0 to 99 in a
          locale-specific way.  In most locales this is an empty string.

     The function temporarily sets the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the locale
     of the category that determines the requested value (‘LC_TIME’,
     ‘LC_NUMERIC’, ‘LC_MONETARY’ or ‘LC_MESSAGES’) if locales are
     different and the resulting string is non-ASCII. This temporary
     change affects other threads.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The function now temporarily sets the
     ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale in some cases.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.getdefaultlocale ([envvars])

     Tries to determine the default locale settings and returns them as
     a tuple of the form ‘(language code, encoding)’.

     According to POSIX, a program which has not called
     ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’ runs using the portable ‘'C'’ locale.
     Calling ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’ lets it use the default locale as
     defined by the ‘LANG’ variable.  Since we do not want to interfere
     with the current locale setting we thus emulate the behavior in the
     way described above.

     To maintain compatibility with other platforms, not only the ‘LANG’
     variable is tested, but a list of variables given as envvars
     parameter.  The first found to be defined will be used.  'envvars'
     defaults to the search path used in GNU gettext; it must always
     contain the variable name ‘'LANG'’.  The GNU gettext search path
     contains ‘'LC_ALL'’, ‘'LC_CTYPE'’, ‘'LANG'’ and ‘'LANGUAGE'’, in
     that order.

     The language code has the same format as a *note locale name: 44db,
     but without encoding and ‘@’-modifier.  The language code and
     encoding may be ‘None’ if their values cannot be determined.  The
     «C» locale is represented as ‘(None, None)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.getlocale (category=LC_CTYPE)

     Returns the current setting for the given locale category as a
     tuple containing the language code and encoding.  'category' may be
     one of the ‘LC_*’ values except *note LC_ALL: 4514.  It defaults to
     *note LC_CTYPE: 4515.

     The language code has the same format as a *note locale name: 44db,
     but without encoding.  The language code and encoding may be ‘None’
     if their values cannot be determined.  The «C» locale is
     represented as ‘(None, None)’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: ‘@’-modifier are no longer silently
     removed, but included in the language code.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.getpreferredencoding (do_setlocale=True)

     Return the *note locale encoding: 74d. used for text data,
     according to user preferences.  User preferences are expressed
     differently on different systems, and might not be available
     programmatically on some systems, so this function only returns a
     guess.

     On some systems, it is necessary to invoke *note setlocale(): 231.
     to obtain the user preferences, so this function is not
     thread-safe.  If invoking setlocale is not necessary or desired,
     'do_setlocale' should be set to ‘False’.

     On Android or if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46. is enabled,
     always return ‘'utf-8'’, the *note locale encoding: 74d. and the
     'do_setlocale' argument are ignored.

     The *note Python preinitialization: 4516. configures the LC_CTYPE
     locale.  See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     948.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The function now always returns ‘"utf-8"’
     on Android or if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46. is enabled.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.getencoding ()

     Get the current *note locale encoding: 74d.:

        * On Android and VxWorks, return ‘"utf-8"’.

        * On Unix, return the encoding of the current *note LC_CTYPE:
          4515. locale.  Return ‘"utf-8"’ if ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’
          returns an empty string: for example, if the current LC_CTYPE
          locale is not supported.

        * On Windows, return the ANSI code page.

     The *note Python preinitialization: 4516. configures the LC_CTYPE
     locale.  See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     948.

     This function is similar to *note getpreferredencoding(False): 947.
     except this function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.normalize (localename)

     Returns a normalized locale code for the given locale name.  The
     returned locale code is formatted for use with *note setlocale():
     231.  If normalization fails, the original name is returned
     unchanged.

     If the given encoding is not known, the function defaults to the
     default encoding for the locale code just like *note setlocale():
     231.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.strcoll (string1, string2)

     Compares two strings according to the current *note LC_COLLATE:
     4519. setting.  As any other compare function, returns a negative,
     or a positive value, or ‘0’, depending on whether 'string1'
     collates before or after 'string2' or is equal to it.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.strxfrm (string)

     Transforms a string to one that can be used in locale-aware
     comparisons.  For example, ‘strxfrm(s1) < strxfrm(s2)’ is
     equivalent to ‘strcoll(s1, s2) < 0’.  This function can be used
     when the same string is compared repeatedly, e.g.  when collating a
     sequence of strings.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.format_string (format, val, grouping=False,
          monetary=False)

     Formats a number 'val' according to the current *note LC_NUMERIC:
     44dc. setting.  The format follows the conventions of the ‘%’
     operator.  For floating-point values, the decimal point is modified
     if appropriate.  If 'grouping' is ‘True’, also takes the grouping
     into account.

     If 'monetary' is true, the conversion uses monetary thousands
     separator and grouping strings.

     Processes formatting specifiers as in ‘format % val’, but takes the
     current locale settings into account.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'monetary' keyword parameter was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.currency (val, symbol=True, grouping=False,
          international=False)

     Formats a number 'val' according to the current *note LC_MONETARY:
     44de. settings.

     The returned string includes the currency symbol if 'symbol' is
     true, which is the default.  If 'grouping' is ‘True’ (which is not
     the default), grouping is done with the value.  If 'international'
     is ‘True’ (which is not the default), the international currency
     symbol is used.

          Σημείωση: This function will not work with the “C” locale, so
          you have to set a locale via *note setlocale(): 231. first.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.str (float)

     Formats a floating-point number using the same format as the
     built-in function ‘str(float)’, but takes the decimal point into
     account.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.delocalize (string)

     Converts a string into a normalized number string, following the
     *note LC_NUMERIC: 44dc. settings.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.localize (string, grouping=False, monetary=False)

     Converts a normalized number string into a formatted string
     following the *note LC_NUMERIC: 44dc. settings.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.atof (string, func=float)

     Converts a string to a number, following the *note LC_NUMERIC:
     44dc. settings, by calling 'func' on the result of calling *note
     delocalize(): 11d9. on 'string'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.atoi (string)

     Converts a string to an integer, following the *note LC_NUMERIC:
     44dc. conventions.

 -- Δεδομένα: locale.LC_CTYPE

     Locale category for the character type functions.  Most
     importantly, this category defines the text encoding, i.e.  how
     bytes are interpreted as Unicode codepoints.  See PEP 538(3) and
     PEP 540(4) for how this variable might be automatically coerced to
     ‘C.UTF-8’ to avoid issues created by invalid settings in containers
     or incompatible settings passed over remote SSH connections.

     Python doesn’t internally use locale-dependent character
     transformation functions from ‘ctype.h’.  Instead, ‘pyctype.h’
     provides locale-independent equivalents like *note Py_TOLOWER:
     16fd.

 -- Δεδομένα: locale.LC_COLLATE

     Locale category for sorting strings.  The functions *note
     strcoll(): 4518. and *note strxfrm(): 19f7. of the ‘locale’ module
     are affected.

 -- Δεδομένα: locale.LC_TIME

     Locale category for the formatting of time.  The function *note
     time.strftime(): 1592. follows these conventions.

 -- Δεδομένα: locale.LC_MONETARY

     Locale category for formatting of monetary values.  The available
     options are available from the *note localeconv(): fbd. function.

 -- Δεδομένα: locale.LC_MESSAGES

     Locale category for message display.  Python currently does not
     support application specific locale-aware messages.  Messages
     displayed by the operating system, like those returned by *note
     os.strerror(): 3249. might be affected by this category.

     This value may not be available on operating systems not conforming
     to the POSIX standard, most notably Windows.

 -- Δεδομένα: locale.LC_NUMERIC

     Locale category for formatting numbers.  The functions *note
     format_string(): 92d, *note atoi(): 451e, *note atof(): 451d. and
     *note str(): 451b. of the ‘locale’ module are affected by that
     category.  All other numeric formatting operations are not
     affected.

 -- Δεδομένα: locale.LC_ALL

     Combination of all locale settings.  If this flag is used when the
     locale is changed, setting the locale for all categories is
     attempted.  If that fails for any category, no category is changed
     at all.  When the locale is retrieved using this flag, a string
     indicating the setting for all categories is returned.  This string
     can be later used to restore the settings.

 -- Δεδομένα: locale.CHAR_MAX

     This is a symbolic constant used for different values returned by
     *note localeconv(): fbd.

* Menu:

* Background, details, hints, tips and caveats: Background details hints tips and caveats.
* Locale names::
* For extension writers and programs that embed Python::
* Access to message catalogs::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/locale.py

   (2) 
https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/basedefs/V1_chap07.html#tag_07_03_05_02

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: Background details hints tips and caveats,  Next: Locale names,  Up: locale — Internationalization services

5.25.2.1 Background, details, hints, tips and caveats
.....................................................

The C standard defines the locale as a program-wide property that may be
relatively expensive to change.  On top of that, some implementations
are broken in such a way that frequent locale changes may cause core
dumps.  This makes the locale somewhat painful to use correctly.

Initially, when a program is started, the locale is the ‘C’ locale, no
matter what the user’s preferred locale is.  There is one exception: the
*note LC_CTYPE: 4515. category is changed at startup to set the current
locale encoding to the user’s preferred locale encoding.  The program
must explicitly say that it wants the user’s preferred locale settings
for other categories by calling ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’.

It is generally a bad idea to call *note setlocale(): 231. in some
library routine, since as a side effect it affects the entire program.
Saving and restoring it is almost as bad: it is expensive and affects
other threads that happen to run before the settings have been restored.

If, when coding a module for general use, you need a locale independent
version of an operation that is affected by the locale (such as certain
formats used with *note time.strftime(): 1592.), you will have to find a
way to do it without using the standard library routine.  Even better is
convincing yourself that using locale settings is okay.  Only as a last
resort should you document that your module is not compatible with
non-‘C’ locale settings.

The only way to perform numeric operations according to the locale is to
use the special functions defined by this module: *note atof(): 451d,
*note atoi(): 451e, *note format_string(): 92d, *note str(): 451b.

There is no way to perform case conversions and character
classifications according to the locale.  For (Unicode) text strings
these are done according to the character value only, while for byte
strings, the conversions and classifications are done according to the
ASCII value of the byte, and bytes whose high bit is set (i.e.,
non-ASCII bytes) are never converted or considered part of a character
class such as letter or whitespace.


File: python.info,  Node: Locale names,  Next: For extension writers and programs that embed Python,  Prev: Background details hints tips and caveats,  Up: locale — Internationalization services

5.25.2.2 Locale names
.....................

The format of the locale name is platform dependent, and the set of
supported locales can depend on the system configuration.

On Posix platforms, it usually has the format (1):

       language ["_" territory] ["." charset] ["@" modifier]

where 'language' is a two- or three-letter language code from ISO
639(2), 'territory' is a two-letter country or region code from ISO
3166(3), 'charset' is a locale encoding, and 'modifier' is a script
name, a language subtag, a sort order identifier, or other locale
modifier (for example, «latin», «valencia», «stroke» and «euro»).

On Windows, several formats are supported.  (4)  (5)  A subset of IETF
BCP 47(6) tags:

       language ["-" script] ["-" territory] ["." charset]
       language ["-" script] "-" territory "-" modifier

where 'language' and 'territory' have the same meaning as in Posix,
'script' is a four-letter script code from ISO 15924(7), and 'modifier'
is a language subtag, a sort order identifier or custom modifier (for
example, «valencia», «stroke» or «x-python»).  Both hyphen (‘'-'’) and
underscore (‘'_'’) separators are supported.  Only UTF-8 encoding is
allowed for BCP 47 tags.

Windows also supports locale names in the format:

       language ["_" territory] ["." charset]

where 'language' and 'territory' are full names, such as «English» and
«United States», and 'charset' is either a code page number (for
example, «1252») or UTF-8.  Only the underscore separator is supported
in this format.

The «C» locale is supported on all platforms.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) IEEE Std 1003.1-2024; 8.2 Internationalization Variables
(https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/basedefs/V1_chap08.html#tag_08_02)

   (2) https://www.iso.org/iso-639-language-code

   (3) https://www.iso.org/iso-3166-country-codes.html

   (4) UCRT Locale names, Languages, and Country/Region strings
(https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/c-runtime-library/locale-names-languages-and-country-region-strings)

   (5) Locale Names
(https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/intl/locale-names)

   (6) https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/bcp47

   (7) https://www.unicode.org/iso15924/


File: python.info,  Node: For extension writers and programs that embed Python,  Next: Access to message catalogs,  Prev: Locale names,  Up: locale — Internationalization services

5.25.2.3 For extension writers and programs that embed Python
.............................................................

Extension modules should never call *note setlocale(): 231, except to
find out what the current locale is.  But since the return value can
only be used portably to restore it, that is not very useful (except
perhaps to find out whether or not the locale is ‘C’).

When Python code uses the ‘locale’ module to change the locale, this
also affects the embedding application.  If the embedding application
doesn’t want this to happen, it should remove the ‘_locale’ extension
module (which does all the work) from the table of built-in modules in
the ‘config.c’ file, and make sure that the ‘_locale’ module is not
accessible as a shared library.


File: python.info,  Node: Access to message catalogs,  Prev: For extension writers and programs that embed Python,  Up: locale — Internationalization services

5.25.2.4 Access to message catalogs
...................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.gettext (msg)

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.dgettext (domain, msg)

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.dcgettext (domain, msg, category)

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.textdomain (domain)

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.bindtextdomain (domain, dir)

 -- Συνάρτηση: locale.bind_textdomain_codeset (domain, codeset)

The locale module exposes the C library’s gettext interface on systems
that provide this interface.  It consists of the functions *note
gettext(): 66, *note dgettext(): 4528, *note dcgettext(): 4529, *note
textdomain(): 452a, *note bindtextdomain(): 452b, and *note
bind_textdomain_codeset(): 452c.  These are similar to the same
functions in the *note gettext: 66. module, but use the C library’s
binary format for message catalogs, and the C library’s search
algorithms for locating message catalogs.

Python applications should normally find no need to invoke these
functions, and should use *note gettext: 66. instead.  A known exception
to this rule are applications that link with additional C libraries
which internally invoke C functions ‘gettext’ or ‘dcgettext’.  For these
applications, it may be necessary to bind the text domain, so that the
libraries can properly locate their message catalogs.


File: python.info,  Node: Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk,  Next: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης,  Prev: Internationalization,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.26 Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk
=====================================

Το Tk/Tcl αποτελεί από καιρό αναπόσπαστο μέρος της Python.  Παρέχει ένα
ισχυρό και ανεξάρτητο πλατφόρμας εργαλείο παραθύρων, το οποίο είναι
διαθέσιμο στους προγραμματιστές της Python που χρησιμοποιούν το πακέτο
*note tkinter: f9. και την επέκτασή του, το *note tkinter.ttk: 102.
module.

Το πακέτο *note tkinter: f9. είναι ένα λεπτό αντικειμενοστραφές στρώμα
πάνω από το Tcl/Tk.Για να χρησιμοποιήσετε το ‘tkinter’, δεν χρειάζεται
να γράψετε κώδικα Tcl, αλλά θα χρειαστεί να συμβουλευτείτε την
τεκμηρίωση του Tcl.  Το ‘tkinter’ είναι ένα σύνολο περιβλημάτων που
υλοποιούν τα widget του Tk ως κλάσεις Python.

Το *note tkinter: f9. έχει ως κύρια πλεονεκτήματα το γεγονός ότι είναι
γρήγορο και ότι συνήθως συνοδεύει την Python.  Αν και η τυπική
τεκμηρίωσή του είναι ανεπαρκής, υπάρχει καλό υλικό διαθέσιμο, το οποίο
περιλαμβάνει: αναφορές, σεμινάρια, ένα βιβλίο και άλλα.  Το ‘tkinter’
είναι επίσης γνωστό για την ξεπερασμένη του εμφάνιση και αίσθηση, η
οποία έχει βελτιωθεί σημαντικά στο Tk 8.5.  Παρ” όλα αυτά, υπάρχουν
πολλές άλλες βιβλιοθήκες GUI που μπορεί να σας ενδιαφέρουν.  Το Python
wiki παραθέτει διάφορα εναλλακτικά GUI frameworks and tools(1).

* Menu:

* tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk::
* tkinter.colorchooser — Color choosing dialog: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog.
* tkinter.font — Tkinter font wrapper: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
* Tkinter Dialogs::
* tkinter.messagebox — Tkinter message prompts: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
* tkinter.scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget.
* tkinter.dnd — Drag and drop support: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
* tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets.
* IDLE — Python editor and shell::
* turtle — Turtle graphics::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk,  Next: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog,  Up: Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk

5.26.1 ‘tkinter’ — Python interface to Tcl/Tk
---------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘tkinter’ package («Tk interface») is the standard Python interface
to the Tcl/Tk GUI toolkit.  Both Tk and ‘tkinter’ are available on most
Unix platforms, including macOS, as well as on Windows systems.

Running ‘python -m tkinter’ from the command line should open a window
demonstrating a simple Tk interface, letting you know that ‘tkinter’ is
properly installed on your system, and also showing what version of
Tcl/Tk is installed, so you can read the Tcl/Tk documentation specific
to that version.

Tkinter supports a range of Tcl/Tk versions, built either with or
without thread support.  The official Python binary release bundles
Tcl/Tk 8.6 threaded.  See the source code for the *note _tkinter: 3.
module for more information about supported versions.

Tkinter is not a thin wrapper, but adds a fair amount of its own logic
to make the experience more pythonic.  This documentation will
concentrate on these additions and changes, and refer to the official
Tcl/Tk documentation for details that are unchanged.

     Σημείωση: Tcl/Tk 8.5 (2007) introduced a modern set of themed user
     interface components along with a new API to use them.  Both old
     and new APIs are still available.  Most documentation you will find
     online still uses the old API and can be woefully outdated.

This is an *note optional module: 2347.  If it is missing from your copy
of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is,
whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * 
     TkDocs(2)

          Extensive tutorial on creating user interfaces with Tkinter.
          Explains key concepts, and illustrates recommended approaches
          using the modern API.

   * 
     Tkinter 8.5 reference: a GUI for Python(3)

          Reference documentation for Tkinter 8.5 detailing available
          classes, methods, and options.

Tcl/Tk Resources:

   * 
     Tk commands(4)

          Comprehensive reference to each of the underlying Tcl/Tk
          commands used by Tkinter.

   * 
     Tcl/Tk Home Page(5)

          Additional documentation, and links to Tcl/Tk core
          development.

Books:

   * 
     Modern Tkinter for Busy Python Developers(6)

          By Mark Roseman.  (ISBN 978-1999149567)

   * 
     Python GUI programming with Tkinter(7)

          By Alan D. Moore.  (ISBN 978-1788835886)

   * 
     Programming Python(8)

          By Mark Lutz; has excellent coverage of Tkinter.  (ISBN
          978-0596158101)

   * 
     Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition)(9)

          By John Ousterhout, inventor of Tcl/Tk, and Ken Jones; does
          not cover Tkinter.  (ISBN 978-0321336330)

* Menu:

* Architecture::
* Tkinter Modules::
* Tkinter Life Preserver::
* Threading model::
* Handy Reference::
* File Handlers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tkinter/__init__.py

   (2) https://tkdocs.com/

   (3) https://www.tkdocs.com/shipman/

   (4) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm

   (5) https://www.tcl.tk

   (6) https://tkdocs.com/book.html

   (7) 
https://www.packtpub.com/en-us/product/python-gui-programming-with-tkinter-9781788835886

   (8) https://learning-python.com/about-pp4e.html

   (9) https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/032133633X


File: python.info,  Node: Architecture,  Next: Tkinter Modules,  Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.26.1.1 Architecture
.....................

Tcl/Tk is not a single library but rather consists of a few distinct
modules, each with separate functionality and its own official
documentation.  Python’s binary releases also ship an add-on module
together with it.

Tcl

     Tcl is a dynamic interpreted programming language, just like
     Python.  Though it can be used on its own as a general-purpose
     programming language, it is most commonly embedded into C
     applications as a scripting engine or an interface to the Tk
     toolkit.  The Tcl library has a C interface to create and manage
     one or more instances of a Tcl interpreter, run Tcl commands and
     scripts in those instances, and add custom commands implemented in
     either Tcl or C. Each interpreter has an event queue, and there are
     facilities to send events to it and process them.  Unlike Python,
     Tcl’s execution model is designed around cooperative multitasking,
     and Tkinter bridges this difference (see *note Threading model:
     4534. for details).

Tk

     Tk is a Tcl package(1) implemented in C that adds custom commands
     to create and manipulate GUI widgets.  Each *note Tk: 1bb6. object
     embeds its own Tcl interpreter instance with Tk loaded into it.
     Tk’s widgets are very customizable, though at the cost of a dated
     appearance.  Tk uses Tcl’s event queue to generate and process GUI
     events.

Ttk

     Themed Tk (Ttk) is a newer family of Tk widgets that provide a much
     better appearance on different platforms than many of the classic
     Tk widgets.  Ttk is distributed as part of Tk, starting with Tk
     version 8.5.  Python bindings are provided in a separate module,
     *note tkinter.ttk: 102.

Internally, Tk and Ttk use facilities of the underlying operating
system, i.e., Xlib on Unix/X11, Cocoa on macOS, GDI on Windows.

When your Python application uses a class in Tkinter, e.g., to create a
widget, the ‘tkinter’ module first assembles a Tcl/Tk command string.
It passes that Tcl command string to an internal *note _tkinter: 3.
binary module, which then calls the Tcl interpreter to evaluate it.  The
Tcl interpreter will then call into the Tk and/or Ttk packages, which
will in turn make calls to Xlib, Cocoa, or GDI.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.tcl-lang.org/37432


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter Modules,  Next: Tkinter Life Preserver,  Prev: Architecture,  Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.26.1.2 Tkinter Modules
........................

Support for Tkinter is spread across several modules.  Most applications
will need the main ‘tkinter’ module, as well as the *note tkinter.ttk:
102. module, which provides the modern themed widget set and API:

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter import ttk

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.Tk (screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk',
          useTk=True, sync=False, use=None)

     Construct a toplevel Tk widget, which is usually the main window of
     an application, and initialize a Tcl interpreter for this widget.
     Each instance has its own associated Tcl interpreter.

     The ‘Tk’ class is typically instantiated using all default values.
     However, the following keyword arguments are currently recognized:

     'screenName'

          When given (as a string), sets the ‘DISPLAY’ environment
          variable.  (X11 only)

     'baseName'

          Name of the profile file.  By default, 'baseName' is derived
          from the program name (‘sys.argv[0]’).

     'className'

          Name of the widget class.  Used as a profile file and also as
          the name with which Tcl is invoked ('argv0' in 'interp').

     'useTk'

          If ‘True’, initialize the Tk subsystem.  The *note
          tkinter.Tcl(): 4536. function sets this to ‘False’.

     'sync'

          If ‘True’, execute all X server commands synchronously, so
          that errors are reported immediately.  Can be used for
          debugging.  (X11 only)

     'use'

          Specifies the 'id' of the window in which to embed the
          application, instead of it being created as an independent
          toplevel window.  'id' must be specified in the same way as
          the value for the -use option for toplevel widgets (that is,
          it has a form like that returned by ‘winfo_id()’).

          Note that on some platforms this will only work correctly if
          'id' refers to a Tk frame or toplevel that has its -container
          option enabled.

     ‘Tk’ reads and interprets profile files, named ‘.`className'.tcl’
     and ‘.`baseName'.tcl’, into the Tcl interpreter and calls *note
     exec(): 185. on the contents of ‘.`className'.py’ and
     ‘.`baseName'.py’.  The path for the profile files is the ‘HOME’
     environment variable or, if that isn’t defined, then *note
     os.curdir: 2e73.

      -- Ιδιότητα: tk

          The Tk application object created by instantiating ‘Tk’.  This
          provides access to the Tcl interpreter.  Each widget that is
          attached the same instance of ‘Tk’ has the same value for its
          *note tk: 19fe. attribute.

      -- Ιδιότητα: master

          The widget object that contains this widget.  For ‘Tk’, the
          ‘master’ is *note None: a65. because it is the main window.
          The terms 'master' and 'parent' are similar and sometimes used
          interchangeably as argument names; however, calling
          ‘winfo_parent()’ returns a string of the widget name whereas
          ‘master’ returns the object.  'parent'/'child' reflects the
          tree-like relationship while 'master' (or
          'container')/'content' reflects the container structure.

      -- Ιδιότητα: children

          The immediate descendants of this widget as a *note dict: 188.
          with the child widget names as the keys and the child instance
          objects as the values.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.Tcl (screenName=None, baseName=None,
          className='Tk', useTk=False)

     The ‘Tcl()’ function is a factory function which creates an object
     much like that created by the *note Tk: 1bb6. class, except that it
     does not initialize the Tk subsystem.  This is most often useful
     when driving the Tcl interpreter in an environment where one
     doesn’t want to create extraneous toplevel windows, or where one
     cannot (such as Unix/Linux systems without an X server).  An object
     created by the ‘Tcl()’ object can have a Toplevel window created
     (and the Tk subsystem initialized) by calling its ‘loadtk()’
     method.

The modules that provide Tk support include:

‘tkinter’

     Main Tkinter module.

*note tkinter.colorchooser: fa.

     Dialog to let the user choose a color.

*note tkinter.commondialog: fb.

     Base class for the dialogs defined in the other modules listed
     here.

*note tkinter.filedialog: fd.

     Common dialogs to allow the user to specify a file to open or save.

*note tkinter.font: fe.

     Utilities to help work with fonts.

*note tkinter.messagebox: ff.

     Access to standard Tk dialog boxes.

*note tkinter.scrolledtext: 100.

     Text widget with a vertical scroll bar built in.

*note tkinter.simpledialog: 101.

     Basic dialogs and convenience functions.

*note tkinter.ttk: 102.

     Themed widget set introduced in Tk 8.5, providing modern
     alternatives for many of the classic widgets in the main ‘tkinter’
     module.

Additional modules:

*note _tkinter: 3.

     A binary module that contains the low-level interface to Tcl/Tk.
     It is automatically imported by the main ‘tkinter’ module, and
     should never be used directly by application programmers.  It is
     usually a shared library (or DLL), but might in some cases be
     statically linked with the Python interpreter.

*note idlelib: 76.

     Python’s Integrated Development and Learning Environment (IDLE).
     Based on ‘tkinter’.

‘tkinter.constants’

     Symbolic constants that can be used in place of strings when
     passing various parameters to Tkinter calls.  Automatically
     imported by the main ‘tkinter’ module.

*note tkinter.dnd: fc.

     (experimental) Drag-and-drop support for ‘tkinter’.  This will
     become deprecated when it is replaced with the Tk DND.

*note turtle: 10a.

     Turtle graphics in a Tk window.


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter Life Preserver,  Next: Threading model,  Prev: Tkinter Modules,  Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.26.1.3 Tkinter Life Preserver
...............................

This section is not designed to be an exhaustive tutorial on either Tk
or Tkinter.  For that, refer to one of the external resources noted
earlier.  Instead, this section provides a very quick orientation to
what a Tkinter application looks like, identifies foundational Tk
concepts, and explains how the Tkinter wrapper is structured.

The remainder of this section will help you to identify the classes,
methods, and options you’ll need in your Tkinter application, and where
to find more detailed documentation on them, including in the official
Tcl/Tk reference manual.

* Menu:

* A Hello World Program::
* Important Tk Concepts::
* Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk::
* How do I…? What option does…?::
* Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual::


File: python.info,  Node: A Hello World Program,  Next: Important Tk Concepts,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.26.1.4 A Hello World Program
..............................

We’ll start by walking through a «Hello World» application in Tkinter.
This isn’t the smallest one we could write, but has enough to illustrate
some key concepts you’ll need to know.

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter import ttk
     root = Tk()
     frm = ttk.Frame(root, padding=10)
     frm.grid()
     ttk.Label(frm, text="Hello World!").grid(column=0, row=0)
     ttk.Button(frm, text="Quit", command=root.destroy).grid(column=1, row=0)
     root.mainloop()

After the imports, the next line creates an instance of the ‘Tk’ class,
which initializes Tk and creates its associated Tcl interpreter.  It
also creates a toplevel window, known as the root window, which serves
as the main window of the application.

The following line creates a frame widget, which in this case will
contain a label and a button we’ll create next.  The frame is fit inside
the root window.

The next line creates a label widget holding a static text string.  The
‘grid()’ method is used to specify the relative layout (position) of the
label within its containing frame widget, similar to how tables in HTML
work.

A button widget is then created, and placed to the right of the label.
When pressed, it will call the ‘destroy()’ method of the root window.

Finally, the ‘mainloop()’ method puts everything on the display, and
responds to user input until the program terminates.


File: python.info,  Node: Important Tk Concepts,  Next: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk,  Prev: A Hello World Program,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.26.1.5 Important Tk Concepts
..............................

Even this simple program illustrates the following key Tk concepts:

widgets

     A Tkinter user interface is made up of individual 'widgets'.  Each
     widget is represented as a Python object, instantiated from classes
     like ‘ttk.Frame’, ‘ttk.Label’, and ‘ttk.Button’.

widget hierarchy

     Widgets are arranged in a 'hierarchy'.  The label and button were
     contained within a frame, which in turn was contained within the
     root window.  When creating each 'child' widget, its 'parent'
     widget is passed as the first argument to the widget constructor.

configuration options

     Widgets have 'configuration options', which modify their appearance
     and behavior, such as the text to display in a label or button.
     Different classes of widgets will have different sets of options.

geometry management

     Widgets aren’t automatically added to the user interface when they
     are created.  A 'geometry manager' like ‘grid’ controls where in
     the user interface they are placed.

event loop

     Tkinter reacts to user input, changes from your program, and even
     refreshes the display only when actively running an 'event loop'.
     If your program isn’t running the event loop, your user interface
     won’t update.


File: python.info,  Node: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk,  Next: How do I…? What option does…?,  Prev: Important Tk Concepts,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.26.1.6 Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk
...............................................

When your application uses Tkinter’s classes and methods, internally
Tkinter is assembling strings representing Tcl/Tk commands, and
executing those commands in the Tcl interpreter attached to your
application’s ‘Tk’ instance.

Whether it’s trying to navigate reference documentation, trying to find
the right method or option, adapting some existing code, or debugging
your Tkinter application, there are times that it will be useful to
understand what those underlying Tcl/Tk commands look like.

To illustrate, here is the Tcl/Tk equivalent of the main part of the
Tkinter script above.

     ttk::frame .frm -padding 10
     grid .frm
     grid [ttk::label .frm.lbl -text "Hello World!"] -column 0 -row 0
     grid [ttk::button .frm.btn -text "Quit" -command "destroy ."] -column 1 -row 0

Tcl’s syntax is similar to many shell languages, where the first word is
the command to be executed, with arguments to that command following it,
separated by spaces.  Without getting into too many details, notice the
following:

   * The commands used to create widgets (like ‘ttk::frame’) correspond
     to widget classes in Tkinter.

   * Tcl widget options (like ‘-text’) correspond to keyword arguments
     in Tkinter.

   * Widgets are referred to by a 'pathname' in Tcl (like ‘.frm.btn’),
     whereas Tkinter doesn’t use names but object references.

   * A widget’s place in the widget hierarchy is encoded in its
     (hierarchical) pathname, which uses a ‘.’ (dot) as a path
     separator.  The pathname for the root window is just ‘.’ (dot).  In
     Tkinter, the hierarchy is defined not by pathname but by specifying
     the parent widget when creating each child widget.

   * Operations which are implemented as separate 'commands' in Tcl
     (like ‘grid’ or ‘destroy’) are represented as 'methods' on Tkinter
     widget objects.  As you’ll see shortly, at other times Tcl uses
     what appear to be method calls on widget objects, which more
     closely mirror what is used in Tkinter.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I…? What option does…?,  Next: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual,  Prev: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.26.1.7 How do I…? What option does…?
......................................

If you’re not sure how to do something in Tkinter, and you can’t
immediately find it in the tutorial or reference documentation you’re
using, there are a few strategies that can be helpful.

First, remember that the details of how individual widgets work may vary
across different versions of both Tkinter and Tcl/Tk.  If you’re
searching documentation, make sure it corresponds to the Python and
Tcl/Tk versions installed on your system.

When searching for how to use an API, it helps to know the exact name of
the class, option, or method that you’re using.  Introspection, either
in an interactive Python shell or with *note print(): 131f, can help you
identify what you need.

To find out what configuration options are available on any widget, call
its ‘configure()’ method, which returns a dictionary containing a
variety of information about each object, including its default and
current values.  Use ‘keys()’ to get just the names of each option.

     btn = ttk.Button(frm, ...)
     print(btn.configure().keys())

As most widgets have many configuration options in common, it can be
useful to find out which are specific to a particular widget class.
Comparing the list of options to that of a simpler widget, like a frame,
is one way to do that.

     print(set(btn.configure().keys()) - set(frm.configure().keys()))

Similarly, you can find the available methods for a widget object using
the standard *note dir(): a23. function.  If you try it, you’ll see
there are over 200 common widget methods, so again identifying those
specific to a widget class is helpful.

     print(dir(btn))
     print(set(dir(btn)) - set(dir(frm)))


File: python.info,  Node: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual,  Prev: How do I…? What option does…?,  Up: Tkinter Life Preserver

5.26.1.8 Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual
...............................................

As noted, the official Tk commands(1) reference manual (man pages) is
often the most accurate description of what specific operations on
widgets do.  Even when you know the name of the option or method that
you need, you may still have a few places to look.

While all operations in Tkinter are implemented as method calls on
widget objects, you’ve seen that many Tcl/Tk operations appear as
commands that take a widget pathname as its first parameter, followed by
optional parameters, e.g.

     destroy .
     grid .frm.btn -column 0 -row 0

Others, however, look more like methods called on a widget object (in
fact, when you create a widget in Tcl/Tk, it creates a Tcl command with
the name of the widget pathname, with the first parameter to that
command being the name of a method to call).

     .frm.btn invoke
     .frm.lbl configure -text "Goodbye"

In the official Tcl/Tk reference documentation, you’ll find most
operations that look like method calls on the man page for a specific
widget (e.g., you’ll find the ‘invoke()’ method on the ttk::button(2)
man page), while functions that take a widget as a parameter often have
their own man page (e.g., grid(3)).

You’ll find many common options and methods in the options(4) or
ttk::widget(5) man pages, while others are found in the man page for a
specific widget class.

You’ll also find that many Tkinter methods have compound names, e.g.,
‘winfo_x()’, ‘winfo_height()’, ‘winfo_viewable()’.  You’d find
documentation for all of these in the winfo(6) man page.

     Σημείωση: Somewhat confusingly, there are also methods on all
     Tkinter widgets that don’t actually operate on the widget, but
     operate at a global scope, independent of any widget.  Examples are
     methods for accessing the clipboard or the system bell.  (They
     happen to be implemented as methods in the base ‘Widget’ class that
     all Tkinter widgets inherit from).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm

   (2) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_button.htm

   (3) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/grid.htm

   (4) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/options.htm

   (5) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_widget.htm

   (6) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/winfo.htm


File: python.info,  Node: Threading model,  Next: Handy Reference,  Prev: Tkinter Life Preserver,  Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.26.1.9 Threading model
........................

Python and Tcl/Tk have very different threading models, which ‘tkinter’
tries to bridge.  If you use threads, you may need to be aware of this.

A Python interpreter may have many threads associated with it.  In Tcl,
multiple threads can be created, but each thread has a separate Tcl
interpreter instance associated with it.  Threads can also create more
than one interpreter instance, though each interpreter instance can be
used only by the one thread that created it.

Each ‘Tk’ object created by ‘tkinter’ contains a Tcl interpreter.  It
also keeps track of which thread created that interpreter.  Calls to
‘tkinter’ can be made from any Python thread.  Internally, if a call
comes from a thread other than the one that created the ‘Tk’ object, an
event is posted to the interpreter’s event queue, and when executed, the
result is returned to the calling Python thread.

Tcl/Tk applications are normally event-driven, meaning that after
initialization, the interpreter runs an event loop (i.e.
‘Tk.mainloop()’) and responds to events.  Because it is single-threaded,
event handlers must respond quickly, otherwise they will block other
events from being processed.  To avoid this, any long-running
computations should not run in an event handler, but are either broken
into smaller pieces using timers, or run in another thread.  This is
different from many GUI toolkits where the GUI runs in a completely
separate thread from all application code including event handlers.

If the Tcl interpreter is not running the event loop and processing
events, any ‘tkinter’ calls made from threads other than the one running
the Tcl interpreter will fail.

A number of special cases exist:

   * Tcl/Tk libraries can be built so they are not thread-aware.  In
     this case, ‘tkinter’ calls the library from the originating Python
     thread, even if this is different than the thread that created the
     Tcl interpreter.  A global lock ensures only one call occurs at a
     time.

   * While ‘tkinter’ allows you to create more than one instance of a
     ‘Tk’ object (with its own interpreter), all interpreters that are
     part of the same thread share a common event queue, which gets ugly
     fast.  In practice, don’t create more than one instance of ‘Tk’ at
     a time.  Otherwise, it’s best to create them in separate threads
     and ensure you’re running a thread-aware Tcl/Tk build.

   * Blocking event handlers are not the only way to prevent the Tcl
     interpreter from reentering the event loop.  It is even possible to
     run multiple nested event loops or abandon the event loop entirely.
     If you’re doing anything tricky when it comes to events or threads,
     be aware of these possibilities.

   * There are a few select ‘tkinter’ functions that presently work only
     when called from the thread that created the Tcl interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: Handy Reference,  Next: File Handlers,  Prev: Threading model,  Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.26.1.10 Handy Reference
.........................

* Menu:

* Setting Options::
* The Packer::
* Packer Options::
* Coupling Widget Variables::
* The Window Manager::
* Tk Option Data Types::
* Bindings and Events::
* The index Parameter::
* Images::


File: python.info,  Node: Setting Options,  Next: The Packer,  Up: Handy Reference

5.26.1.11 Setting Options
.........................

Options control things like the color and border width of a widget.
Options can be set in three ways:

At object creation time, using keyword arguments

          fred = Button(self, fg="red", bg="blue")

After object creation, treating the option name like a dictionary index

          fred["fg"] = "red"
          fred["bg"] = "blue"

Use the config() method to update multiple attrs subsequent to object creation

          fred.config(fg="red", bg="blue")

For a complete explanation of a given option and its behavior, see the
Tk man pages for the widget in question.

Note that the man pages list «STANDARD OPTIONS» and «WIDGET SPECIFIC
OPTIONS» for each widget.  The former is a list of options that are
common to many widgets, the latter are the options that are
idiosyncratic to that particular widget.  The Standard Options are
documented on the ‘options(3)(1)’ man page.

No distinction between standard and widget-specific options is made in
this document.  Some options don’t apply to some kinds of widgets.
Whether a given widget responds to a particular option depends on the
class of the widget; buttons have a ‘command’ option, labels do not.

The options supported by a given widget are listed in that widget’s man
page, or can be queried at runtime by calling the ‘config()’ method
without arguments, or by calling the ‘keys()’ method on that widget.
The return value of these calls is a dictionary whose key is the name of
the option as a string (for example, ‘'relief'’) and whose values are
5-tuples.

Some options, like ‘bg’ are synonyms for common options with long names
(‘bg’ is shorthand for «background»).  Passing the ‘config()’ method the
name of a shorthand option will return a 2-tuple, not 5-tuple.  The
2-tuple passed back will contain the name of the synonym and the «real»
option (such as ‘('bg', 'background')’).

Index       Meaning                               Example
                                                  
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
0           option name                           ‘'relief'’
                                                  
                                                  
1           option name for database lookup       ‘'relief'’
                                                  
                                                  
2           option class for database lookup      ‘'Relief'’
                                                  
                                                  
3           default value                         ‘'raised'’
                                                  
                                                  
4           current value                         ‘'groove'’
                                                  

Example:

     >>> print(fred.config())
     {'relief': ('relief', 'relief', 'Relief', 'raised', 'groove')}

Of course, the dictionary printed will include all the options available
and their values.  This is meant only as an example.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/options(3)


File: python.info,  Node: The Packer,  Next: Packer Options,  Prev: Setting Options,  Up: Handy Reference

5.26.1.12 The Packer
....................

The packer is one of Tk’s geometry-management mechanisms.  Geometry
managers are used to specify the relative positioning of widgets within
their container.  In contrast to the more cumbersome 'placer' (which is
used less commonly, and we do not cover here), the packer takes
qualitative relationship specification - 'above', 'to the left of',
'filling', etc - and works everything out to determine the exact
placement coordinates for you.

The size of any container widget is determined by the size of the
«content widgets» inside.  The packer is used to control where content
widgets appear inside the container into which they are packed.  You can
pack widgets into frames, and frames into other frames, in order to
achieve the kind of layout you desire.  Additionally, the arrangement is
dynamically adjusted to accommodate incremental changes to the
configuration, once it is packed.

Note that widgets do not appear until they have had their geometry
specified with a geometry manager.  It’s a common early mistake to leave
out the geometry specification, and then be surprised when the widget is
created but nothing appears.  A widget will appear only after it has
had, for example, the packer’s ‘pack()’ method applied to it.

The pack() method can be called with keyword-option/value pairs that
control where the widget is to appear within its container, and how it
is to behave when the main application window is resized.  Here are some
examples:

     fred.pack()                     # defaults to side = "top"
     fred.pack(side="left")
     fred.pack(expand=1)


File: python.info,  Node: Packer Options,  Next: Coupling Widget Variables,  Prev: The Packer,  Up: Handy Reference

5.26.1.13 Packer Options
........................

For more extensive information on the packer and the options that it can
take, see the man pages and page 183 of John Ousterhout’s book.

anchor

     Anchor type.  Denotes where the packer is to place each content in
     its parcel.

expand

     Boolean, ‘0’ or ‘1’.

fill

     Legal values: ‘'x'’, ‘'y'’, ‘'both'’, ‘'none'’.

ipadx and ipady

     A distance - designating internal padding on each side of the
     content.

padx and pady

     A distance - designating external padding on each side of the
     content.

side

     Legal values are: ‘'left'’, ‘'right'’, ‘'top'’, ‘'bottom'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Coupling Widget Variables,  Next: The Window Manager,  Prev: Packer Options,  Up: Handy Reference

5.26.1.14 Coupling Widget Variables
...................................

The current-value setting of some widgets (like text entry widgets) can
be connected directly to application variables by using special options.
These options are ‘variable’, ‘textvariable’, ‘onvalue’, ‘offvalue’, and
‘value’.  This connection works both ways: if the variable changes for
any reason, the widget it’s connected to will be updated to reflect the
new value.

Unfortunately, in the current implementation of ‘tkinter’ it is not
possible to hand over an arbitrary Python variable to a widget through a
‘variable’ or ‘textvariable’ option.  The only kinds of variables for
which this works are variables that are subclassed from a class called
Variable, defined in ‘tkinter’.

There are many useful subclasses of Variable already defined:
‘StringVar’, ‘IntVar’, ‘DoubleVar’, and ‘BooleanVar’.  To read the
current value of such a variable, call the ‘get()’ method on it, and to
change its value you call the ‘set()’ method.  If you follow this
protocol, the widget will always track the value of the variable, with
no further intervention on your part.

For example:

     import tkinter as tk

     class App(tk.Frame):
         def __init__(self, master):
             super().__init__(master)
             self.pack()

             self.entrythingy = tk.Entry()
             self.entrythingy.pack()

             # Create the application variable.
             self.contents = tk.StringVar()
             # Set it to some value.
             self.contents.set("this is a variable")
             # Tell the entry widget to watch this variable.
             self.entrythingy["textvariable"] = self.contents

             # Define a callback for when the user hits return.
             # It prints the current value of the variable.
             self.entrythingy.bind('<Key-Return>',
                                  self.print_contents)

         def print_contents(self, event):
             print("Hi. The current entry content is:",
                   self.contents.get())

     root = tk.Tk()
     myapp = App(root)
     myapp.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: The Window Manager,  Next: Tk Option Data Types,  Prev: Coupling Widget Variables,  Up: Handy Reference

5.26.1.15 The Window Manager
............................

In Tk, there is a utility command, ‘wm’, for interacting with the window
manager.  Options to the ‘wm’ command allow you to control things like
titles, placement, icon bitmaps, and the like.  In ‘tkinter’, these
commands have been implemented as methods on the ‘Wm’ class.  Toplevel
widgets are subclassed from the ‘Wm’ class, and so can call the ‘Wm’
methods directly.

To get at the toplevel window that contains a given widget, you can
often just refer to the widget’s ‘master’.  Of course if the widget has
been packed inside of a frame, the ‘master’ won’t represent a toplevel
window.  To get at the toplevel window that contains an arbitrary
widget, you can call the ‘_root()’ method.  This method begins with an
underscore to denote the fact that this function is part of the
implementation, and not an interface to Tk functionality.

Here are some examples of typical usage:

     import tkinter as tk

     class App(tk.Frame):
         def __init__(self, master=None):
             super().__init__(master)
             self.pack()

     # create the application
     myapp = App()

     #
     # here are method calls to the window manager class
     #
     myapp.master.title("My Do-Nothing Application")
     myapp.master.maxsize(1000, 400)

     # start the program
     myapp.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: Tk Option Data Types,  Next: Bindings and Events,  Prev: The Window Manager,  Up: Handy Reference

5.26.1.16 Tk Option Data Types
..............................

anchor

     Legal values are points of the compass: ‘"n"’, ‘"ne"’, ‘"e"’,
     ‘"se"’, ‘"s"’, ‘"sw"’, ‘"w"’, ‘"nw"’, and also ‘"center"’.

bitmap

     There are eight built-in, named bitmaps: ‘'error'’, ‘'gray25'’,
     ‘'gray50'’, ‘'hourglass'’, ‘'info'’, ‘'questhead'’, ‘'question'’,
     ‘'warning'’.  To specify an X bitmap filename, give the full path
     to the file, preceded with an ‘@’, as in
     ‘"@/usr/contrib/bitmap/gumby.bit"’.

boolean

     You can pass integers 0 or 1 or the strings ‘"yes"’ or ‘"no"’.

callback

     This is any Python function that takes no arguments.  For example:

          def print_it():
              print("hi there")
          fred["command"] = print_it

color

     Colors can be given as the names of X colors in the rgb.txt file,
     or as strings representing RGB values in 4 bit: ‘"#RGB"’, 8 bit:
     ‘"#RRGGBB"’, 12 bit: ‘"#RRRGGGBBB"’, or 16 bit: ‘"#RRRRGGGGBBBB"’
     ranges, where R,G,B here represent any legal hex digit.  See page
     160 of Ousterhout’s book for details.

cursor

     The standard X cursor names from ‘cursorfont.h’ can be used,
     without the ‘XC_’ prefix.  For example to get a hand cursor
     (‘XC_hand2’), use the string ‘"hand2"’.  You can also specify a
     bitmap and mask file of your own.  See page 179 of Ousterhout’s
     book.

distance

     Screen distances can be specified in either pixels or absolute
     distances.  Pixels are given as numbers and absolute distances as
     strings, with the trailing character denoting units: ‘c’ for
     centimetres, ‘i’ for inches, ‘m’ for millimetres, ‘p’ for printer’s
     points.  For example, 3.5 inches is expressed as ‘"3.5i"’.

font

     Tk uses a list font name format, such as ‘{courier 10 bold}’.  Font
     sizes with positive numbers are measured in points; sizes with
     negative numbers are measured in pixels.

geometry

     This is a string of the form ‘widthxheight’, where width and height
     are measured in pixels for most widgets (in characters for widgets
     displaying text).  For example: ‘fred["geometry"] = "200x100"’.

justify

     Legal values are the strings: ‘"left"’, ‘"center"’, and ‘"right"’.

region

     This is a string with four space-delimited elements, each of which
     is a legal distance (see above).  For example: ‘"2 3 4 5"’ and ‘"3i
     2i 4.5i 2i"’ and ‘"3c 2c 4c 10.43c"’ are all legal regions.

relief

     Determines what the border style of a widget will be.  Legal values
     are: ‘"raised"’, ‘"sunken"’, ‘"flat"’, ‘"groove"’, and ‘"ridge"’.

scrollcommand

     This is almost always the ‘set()’ method of some scrollbar widget,
     but can be any widget method that takes a single argument.

wrap

     Must be one of: ‘"none"’, ‘"char"’, or ‘"word"’.


File: python.info,  Node: Bindings and Events,  Next: The index Parameter,  Prev: Tk Option Data Types,  Up: Handy Reference

5.26.1.17 Bindings and Events
.............................

The bind method from the widget command allows you to watch for certain
events and to have a callback function trigger when that event type
occurs.  The form of the bind method is:

     def bind(self, sequence, func, add=''):

where:

sequence

     is a string that denotes the target kind of event.  (See the
     ‘bind(3tk)(1)’ man page, and page 201 of John Ousterhout’s book,
     ‘Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition)’, for details).

func

     is a Python function, taking one argument, to be invoked when the
     event occurs.  An Event instance will be passed as the argument.
     (Functions deployed this way are commonly known as 'callbacks'.)

add

     is optional, either ‘''’ or ‘'+'’.  Passing an empty string denotes
     that this binding is to replace any other bindings that this event
     is associated with.  Passing a ‘'+'’ means that this function is to
     be added to the list of functions bound to this event type.

For example:

     def turn_red(self, event):
         event.widget["activeforeground"] = "red"

     self.button.bind("<Enter>", self.turn_red)

Notice how the widget field of the event is being accessed in the
‘turn_red()’ callback.  This field contains the widget that caught the X
event.  The following table lists the other event fields you can access,
and how they are denoted in Tk, which can be useful when referring to
the Tk man pages.

Tk       Tkinter Event Field       Tk       Tkinter Event Field
                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            
%f       focus                     %A       char
                                            
                                            
%h       height                    %E       send_event
                                            
                                            
%k       keycode                   %K       keysym
                                            
                                            
%s       state                     %N       keysym_num
                                            
                                            
%t       time                      %T       type
                                            
                                            
%w       width                     %W       widget
                                            
                                            
%x       x                         %X       x_root
                                            
                                            
%y       y                         %Y       y_root
                                            

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/bind(3tk)


File: python.info,  Node: The index Parameter,  Next: Images,  Prev: Bindings and Events,  Up: Handy Reference

5.26.1.18 The index Parameter
.............................

A number of widgets require «index» parameters to be passed.  These are
used to point at a specific place in a Text widget, or to particular
characters in an Entry widget, or to particular menu items in a Menu
widget.

Entry widget indexes (index, view index, etc.)

     Entry widgets have options that refer to character positions in the
     text being displayed.  You can use these ‘tkinter’ functions to
     access these special points in text widgets:

Text widget indexes

     The index notation for Text widgets is very rich and is best
     described in the Tk man pages.

Menu indexes (menu.invoke(), menu.entryconfig(), etc.)

     Some options and methods for menus manipulate specific menu
     entries.  Anytime a menu index is needed for an option or a
     parameter, you may pass in:

        * an integer which refers to the numeric position of the entry
          in the widget, counted from the top, starting with 0;

        * the string ‘"active"’, which refers to the menu position that
          is currently under the cursor;

        * the string ‘"last"’ which refers to the last menu item;

        * An integer preceded by ‘@’, as in ‘@6’, where the integer is
          interpreted as a y pixel coordinate in the menu’s coordinate
          system;

        * the string ‘"none"’, which indicates no menu entry at all,
          most often used with menu.activate() to deactivate all
          entries, and finally,

        * a text string that is pattern matched against the label of the
          menu entry, as scanned from the top of the menu to the bottom.
          Note that this index type is considered after all the others,
          which means that matches for menu items labelled ‘last’,
          ‘active’, or ‘none’ may be interpreted as the above literals,
          instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Images,  Prev: The index Parameter,  Up: Handy Reference

5.26.1.19 Images
................

Images of different formats can be created through the corresponding
subclass of ‘tkinter.Image’:

   * ‘BitmapImage’ for images in XBM format.

   * ‘PhotoImage’ for images in PGM, PPM, GIF and PNG formats.  The
     latter is supported starting with Tk 8.6.

Either type of image is created through either the ‘file’ or the ‘data’
option (other options are available as well).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy_replace()’
to copy a region from one image to other image, possibly with pixel
zooming and/or subsampling.  Add 'from_coords' parameter to ‘PhotoImage’
methods ‘copy()’, ‘zoom()’ and ‘subsample()’.  Add 'zoom' and
'subsample' parameters to ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy()’.

The image object can then be used wherever an ‘image’ option is
supported by some widget (e.g.  labels, buttons, menus).  In these
cases, Tk will not keep a reference to the image.  When the last Python
reference to the image object is deleted, the image data is deleted as
well, and Tk will display an empty box wherever the image was used.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The Pillow(1) package adds support for formats such as BMP, JPEG, TIFF,
and WebP, among others.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://python-pillow.org/


File: python.info,  Node: File Handlers,  Prev: Handy Reference,  Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

5.26.1.20 File Handlers
.......................

Tk allows you to register and unregister a callback function which will
be called from the Tk mainloop when I/O is possible on a file
descriptor.  Only one handler may be registered per file descriptor.
Example code:

     import tkinter
     widget = tkinter.Tk()
     mask = tkinter.READABLE | tkinter.WRITABLE
     widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, callback)
     ...
     widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file)

This feature is not available on Windows.

Since you don’t know how many bytes are available for reading, you may
not want to use the *note BufferedIOBase: a83. or *note TextIOBase: a84.
*note read(): 16cd. or *note readline(): 16ce. methods, since these will
insist on reading a predefined number of bytes.  For sockets, the *note
recv(): 115d. or *note recvfrom(): 115e. methods will work fine; for
other files, use raw reads or ‘os.read(file.fileno(), maxbytecount)’.

 -- Μέθοδος: Widget.tk.createfilehandler (file, mask, func)

     Registers the file handler callback function 'func'.  The 'file'
     argument may either be an object with a *note fileno(): 19b2.
     method (such as a file or socket object), or an integer file
     descriptor.  The 'mask' argument is an ORed combination of any of
     the three constants below.  The callback is called as follows:

          callback(file, mask)

 -- Μέθοδος: Widget.tk.deletefilehandler (file)

     Unregisters a file handler.

 -- Δεδομένα: _tkinter.READABLE
 -- Δεδομένα: _tkinter.WRITABLE
 -- Δεδομένα: _tkinter.EXCEPTION

     Constants used in the 'mask' arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog,  Next: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper,  Prev: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk,  Up: Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk

5.26.2 ‘tkinter.colorchooser’ — Color choosing dialog
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘tkinter.colorchooser’ module provides the *note Chooser: 4555.
class as an interface to the native color picker dialog.  ‘Chooser’
implements a modal color choosing dialog window.  The ‘Chooser’ class
inherits from the *note Dialog: 4556. class.

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.colorchooser.Chooser (master=None, **options)

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.colorchooser.askcolor (color=None, **options)

     Create a color choosing dialog.  A call to this method will show
     the window, wait for the user to make a selection, and return the
     selected color (or ‘None’) to the caller.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note tkinter.commondialog: fb.

     Tkinter standard dialog module

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper,  Next: Tkinter Dialogs,  Prev: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog,  Up: Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk

5.26.3 ‘tkinter.font’ — Tkinter font wrapper
--------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/font.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘tkinter.font’ module provides the *note Font: 1ec4. class for
creating and using named fonts.

The different font weights and slants are:

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.font.NORMAL
 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.font.BOLD
 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.font.ITALIC
 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.font.ROMAN

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.font.Font (root=None, font=None, name=None,
          exists=False, **options)

     The ‘Font’ class represents a named font.  'Font' instances are
     given unique names and can be specified by their family, size, and
     style configuration.  Named fonts are Tk’s method of creating and
     identifying fonts as a single object, rather than specifying a font
     by its attributes with each occurrence.

          arguments:

                    'font' - font specifier tuple (family, size, options)
                    'name' - unique font name
                    'exists' - self points to existing named font if true

          additional keyword options (ignored if 'font' is specified):

                    'family' - font family i.e. Courier, Times
                    'size' - font size
                         If 'size' is positive it is interpreted as size in points.
                         If 'size' is a negative number its absolute value is treated
                         as size in pixels.
                    'weight' - font emphasis (NORMAL, BOLD)
                    'slant' - ROMAN, ITALIC
                    'underline' - font underlining (0 - none, 1 - underline)
                    'overstrike' - font strikeout (0 - none, 1 - strikeout)

      -- Μέθοδος: actual (option=None, displayof=None)

          Return the attributes of the font.

      -- Μέθοδος: cget (option)

          Retrieve an attribute of the font.

      -- Μέθοδος: config (**options)

          Modify attributes of the font.

      -- Μέθοδος: copy ()

          Return new instance of the current font.

      -- Μέθοδος: measure (text, displayof=None)

          Return amount of space the text would occupy on the specified
          display when formatted in the current font.  If no display is
          specified then the main application window is assumed.

      -- Μέθοδος: metrics (*options, **kw)

          Return font-specific data.  Options include:

          'ascent' - distance between baseline and highest point that a

               character of the font can occupy

          'descent' - distance between baseline and lowest point that a

               character of the font can occupy

          'linespace' - minimum vertical separation necessary between any two

               characters of the font that ensures no vertical overlap
               between lines.

          'fixed' - 1 if font is fixed-width else 0

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.font.families (root=None, displayof=None)

     Return the different font families.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.font.names (root=None)

     Return the names of defined fonts.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.font.nametofont (name, root=None)

     Return a *note Font: 1ec4. representation of a tk named font.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The 'root' parameter was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tkinter/font.py


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter Dialogs,  Next: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts,  Prev: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper,  Up: Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk

5.26.4 Tkinter Dialogs
----------------------

* Menu:

* tkinter.simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
* tkinter.filedialog — File selection dialogs: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs.
* tkinter.commondialog — Dialog window templates: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs,  Next: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs,  Up: Tkinter Dialogs

5.26.4.1 ‘tkinter.simpledialog’ — Standard Tkinter input dialogs
................................................................

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘tkinter.simpledialog’ module contains convenience classes and
functions for creating simple modal dialogs to get a value from the
user.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.simpledialog.askfloat (title, prompt, **kw)
 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.simpledialog.askinteger (title, prompt, **kw)
 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.simpledialog.askstring (title, prompt, **kw)

     The above three functions provide dialogs that prompt the user to
     enter a value of the desired type.

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog (parent, title=None)

     The base class for custom dialogs.

      -- Μέθοδος: body (master)

          Override to construct the dialog’s interface and return the
          widget that should have initial focus.

      -- Μέθοδος: buttonbox ()

          Default behaviour adds OK and Cancel buttons.  Override for
          custom button layouts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs,  Next: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates,  Prev: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs,  Up: Tkinter Dialogs

5.26.4.2 ‘tkinter.filedialog’ — File selection dialogs
......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘tkinter.filedialog’ module provides classes and factory functions
for creating file/directory selection windows.

* Menu:

* Native Load/Save Dialogs::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: Native Load/Save Dialogs,  Up: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs

5.26.4.3 Native Load/Save Dialogs
.................................

The following classes and functions provide file dialog windows that
combine a native look-and-feel with configuration options to customize
behaviour.  The following keyword arguments are applicable to the
classes and functions listed below:

          'parent' - the window to place the dialog on top of

          'title' - the title of the window

          'initialdir' - the directory that the dialog starts in

          'initialfile' - the file selected upon opening of the dialog

          'filetypes' - a sequence of (label, pattern) tuples, “*” wildcard is allowed

          'defaultextension' - default extension to append to file (save dialogs)

          'multiple' - when true, selection of multiple items is allowed

'Static factory functions'

The below functions when called create a modal, native look-and-feel
dialog, wait for the user’s selection, then return the selected value(s)
or ‘None’ to the caller.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfile (mode='r', **options)
 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfiles (mode='r', **options)

     The above two functions create an *note Open: 4574. dialog and
     return the opened file object(s) in read-only mode.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfile (mode='w', **options)

     Create a *note SaveAs: 4576. dialog and return a file object opened
     in write-only mode.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilename (**options)
 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilenames (**options)

     The above two functions create an *note Open: 4574. dialog and
     return the selected filename(s) that correspond to existing
     file(s).

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfilename (**options)

     Create a *note SaveAs: 4576. dialog and return the selected
     filename.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.filedialog.askdirectory (**options)

          Prompt user to select a directory.
          Additional keyword option:
               'mustexist' - determines if selection must be an existing directory.

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.filedialog.Open (master=None, **options)
 -- Κλάση: tkinter.filedialog.SaveAs (master=None, **options)

     The above two classes provide native dialog windows for saving and
     loading files.

'Convenience classes'

The below classes are used for creating file/directory windows from
scratch.  These do not emulate the native look-and-feel of the platform.

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.filedialog.Directory (master=None, **options)

     Create a dialog prompting the user to select a directory.

     Σημείωση: The 'FileDialog' class should be subclassed for custom
     event handling and behaviour.

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog (master, title=None)

     Create a basic file selection dialog.

      -- Μέθοδος: cancel_command (event=None)

          Trigger the termination of the dialog window.

      -- Μέθοδος: dirs_double_event (event)

          Event handler for double-click event on directory.

      -- Μέθοδος: dirs_select_event (event)

          Event handler for click event on directory.

      -- Μέθοδος: files_double_event (event)

          Event handler for double-click event on file.

      -- Μέθοδος: files_select_event (event)

          Event handler for single-click event on file.

      -- Μέθοδος: filter_command (event=None)

          Filter the files by directory.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_filter ()

          Retrieve the file filter currently in use.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_selection ()

          Retrieve the currently selected item.

      -- Μέθοδος: go (dir_or_file=os.curdir, pattern='*', default='',
               key=None)

          Render dialog and start event loop.

      -- Μέθοδος: ok_event (event)

          Exit dialog returning current selection.

      -- Μέθοδος: quit (how=None)

          Exit dialog returning filename, if any.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_filter (dir, pat)

          Set the file filter.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_selection (file)

          Update the current file selection to 'file'.

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.filedialog.LoadFileDialog (master, title=None)

     A subclass of FileDialog that creates a dialog window for selecting
     an existing file.

      -- Μέθοδος: ok_command ()

          Test that a file is provided and that the selection indicates
          an already existing file.

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.filedialog.SaveFileDialog (master, title=None)

     A subclass of FileDialog that creates a dialog window for selecting
     a destination file.

      -- Μέθοδος: ok_command ()

          Test whether or not the selection points to a valid file that
          is not a directory.  Confirmation is required if an already
          existing file is selected.


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates,  Prev: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs,  Up: Tkinter Dialogs

5.26.4.4 ‘tkinter.commondialog’ — Dialog window templates
.........................................................

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘tkinter.commondialog’ module provides the *note Dialog: 4556. class
that is the base class for dialogs defined in other supporting modules.

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.commondialog.Dialog (master=None, **options)

      -- Μέθοδος: show (**options)

          Render the Dialog window.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Modules *note tkinter.messagebox: ff, *note Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή
Αρχείων: 2255.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts,  Next: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget,  Prev: Tkinter Dialogs,  Up: Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk

5.26.5 ‘tkinter.messagebox’ — Tkinter message prompts
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘tkinter.messagebox’ module provides a template base class as well
as a variety of convenience methods for commonly used configurations.
The message boxes are modal and will return a subset of (‘True’,
‘False’, ‘None’, *note OK: 4593, *note CANCEL: 4594, *note YES: 4595,
*note NO: 4596.) based on the user’s selection.  Common message box
styles and layouts include but are not limited to:

[image src="python-figures/tk_msg.png"]


Figure
 -- Κλάση: tkinter.messagebox.Message (master=None, **options)

     Create a message window with an application-specified message, an
     icon and a set of buttons.  Each of the buttons in the message
     window is identified by a unique symbolic name (see the 'type'
     options).

     The following options are supported:

          'command'

               Specifies the function to invoke when the user closes the
               dialog.  The name of the button clicked by the user to
               close the dialog is passed as argument.  This is only
               available on macOS.

          'default'

               Gives the *note symbolic name: 4598. of the default
               button for this message window (*note OK: 4593, *note
               CANCEL: 4594, and so on).  If this option is not
               specified, the first button in the dialog will be made
               the default.

          'detail'

               Specifies an auxiliary message to the main message given
               by the 'message' option.  The message detail will be
               presented beneath the main message and, where supported
               by the OS, in a less emphasized font than the main
               message.

          'icon'

               Specifies an *note icon: 4599. to display.  If this
               option is not specified, then the *note INFO: 459a. icon
               will be displayed.

          'message'

               Specifies the message to display in this message box.
               The default value is an empty string.

          'parent'

               Makes the specified window the logical parent of the
               message box.  The message box is displayed on top of its
               parent window.

          'title'

               Specifies a string to display as the title of the message
               box.  This option is ignored on macOS, where platform
               guidelines forbid the use of a title on this kind of
               dialog.

          'type'

               Arranges for a *note predefined set of buttons: 459b. to
               be displayed.

      -- Μέθοδος: show (**options)

          Display a message window and wait for the user to select one
          of the buttons.  Then return the symbolic name of the selected
          button.  Keyword arguments can override options specified in
          the constructor.

'Information message box'

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.messagebox.showinfo (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Creates and displays an information message box with the specified
     title and message.

'Warning message boxes'

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.messagebox.showwarning (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Creates and displays a warning message box with the specified title
     and message.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.messagebox.showerror (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Creates and displays an error message box with the specified title
     and message.

'Question message boxes'

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.messagebox.askquestion (title=None, message=None,
          *, type=YESNO, **options)

     Ask a question.  By default shows buttons *note YES: 4595. and
     *note NO: 4596.  Returns the symbolic name of the selected button.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.messagebox.askokcancel (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Ask if operation should proceed.  Shows buttons *note OK: 4593. and
     *note CANCEL: 4594.  Returns ‘True’ if the answer is ok and ‘False’
     otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.messagebox.askretrycancel (title=None,
          message=None, **options)

     Ask if operation should be retried.  Shows buttons *note RETRY:
     45a3. and *note CANCEL: 4594.  Return ‘True’ if the answer is yes
     and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.messagebox.askyesno (title=None, message=None,
          **options)

     Ask a question.  Shows buttons *note YES: 4595. and *note NO: 4596.
     Returns ‘True’ if the answer is yes and ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.messagebox.askyesnocancel (title=None,
          message=None, **options)

     Ask a question.  Shows buttons *note YES: 4595, *note NO: 4596. and
     *note CANCEL: 4594.  Return ‘True’ if the answer is yes, ‘None’ if
     cancelled, and ‘False’ otherwise.
Symbolic names of buttons:

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.ABORT = 'abort'

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.RETRY = 'retry'

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.IGNORE = 'ignore'

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok'

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.CANCEL = 'cancel'

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.YES = 'yes'

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.NO = 'no'
Predefined sets of buttons:

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.ABORTRETRYIGNORE = 'abortretryignore'

     Displays three buttons whose symbolic names are *note ABORT: 45a6,
     *note RETRY: 45a3. and *note IGNORE: 45a7.

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok'

     Displays one button whose symbolic name is *note OK: 4593.

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.OKCANCEL = 'okcancel'

     Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note OK: 4593. and
     *note CANCEL: 4594.

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.RETRYCANCEL = 'retrycancel'

     Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note RETRY: 45a3.
     and *note CANCEL: 4594.

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.YESNO = 'yesno'

     Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note YES: 4595. and
     *note NO: 4596.

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.YESNOCANCEL = 'yesnocancel'

     Displays three buttons whose symbolic names are *note YES: 4595,
     *note NO: 4596. and *note CANCEL: 4594.
Icon images:

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.ERROR = 'error'

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.INFO = 'info'

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.QUESTION = 'question'

 -- Δεδομένα: tkinter.messagebox.WARNING = 'warning'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget,  Next: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support,  Prev: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts,  Up: Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk

5.26.6 ‘tkinter.scrolledtext’ — Scrolled Text Widget
----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘tkinter.scrolledtext’ module provides a class of the same name
which implements a basic text widget which has a vertical scroll bar
configured to do the «right thing.» Using the *note ScrolledText: 45b3.
class is a lot easier than setting up a text widget and scroll bar
directly.

The text widget and scrollbar are packed together in a ‘Frame’, and the
methods of the ‘Grid’ and ‘Pack’ geometry managers are acquired from the
‘Frame’ object.  This allows the *note ScrolledText: 45b3. widget to be
used directly to achieve most normal geometry management behavior.

Should more specific control be necessary, the following attributes are
available:

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText (master=None, **kw)

      -- Ιδιότητα: frame

          The frame which surrounds the text and scroll bar widgets.

      -- Ιδιότητα: vbar

          The scroll bar widget.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support,  Next: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets,  Prev: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget,  Up: Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk

5.26.7 ‘tkinter.dnd’ — Drag and drop support
--------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/dnd.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

     Σημείωση: This is experimental and due to be deprecated when it is
     replaced with the Tk DND.

The ‘tkinter.dnd’ module provides drag-and-drop support for objects
within a single application, within the same window or between windows.
To enable an object to be dragged, you must create an event binding for
it that starts the drag-and-drop process.  Typically, you bind a
ButtonPress event to a callback function that you write (see *note
Bindings and Events: 4547.).  The function should call *note
dnd_start(): 45b9, where “source” is the object to be dragged, and
“event” is the event that invoked the call (the argument to your
callback function).

Selection of a target object occurs as follows:

  1. Top-down search of area under mouse for target widget

        * Target widget should have a callable 'dnd_accept' attribute

        * If 'dnd_accept' is not present or returns ‘None’, search moves
          to parent widget

        * If no target widget is found, then the target object is ‘None’

  2. Call to '<old_target>.dnd_leave(source, event)'

  3. Call to '<new_target>.dnd_enter(source, event)'

  4. Call to '<target>.dnd_commit(source, event)' to notify of drop

  5. Call to '<source>.dnd_end(target, event)' to signal end of
     drag-and-drop

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.dnd.DndHandler (source, event)

     The 'DndHandler' class handles drag-and-drop events tracking Motion
     and ButtonRelease events on the root of the event widget.

      -- Μέθοδος: cancel (event=None)

          Cancel the drag-and-drop process.

      -- Μέθοδος: finish (event, commit=0)

          Execute end of drag-and-drop functions.

      -- Μέθοδος: on_motion (event)

          Inspect area below mouse for target objects while drag is
          performed.

      -- Μέθοδος: on_release (event)

          Signal end of drag when the release pattern is triggered.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tkinter.dnd.dnd_start (source, event)

     Factory function for drag-and-drop process.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Bindings and Events: 4547.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tkinter/dnd.py


File: python.info,  Node: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets,  Next: IDLE — Python editor and shell,  Prev: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support,  Up: Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk

5.26.8 ‘tkinter.ttk’ — Tk themed widgets
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/ttk.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘tkinter.ttk’ module provides access to the Tk themed widget set,
introduced in Tk 8.5.  It provides additional benefits including
anti-aliased font rendering under X11 and window transparency (requiring
a composition window manager on X11).

The basic idea for ‘tkinter.ttk’ is to separate, to the extent possible,
the code implementing a widget’s behavior from the code implementing its
appearance.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Tk Widget Styling Support(2)

     A document introducing theming support for Tk

* Menu:

* Using Ttk::
* Ttk Widgets::
* Widget::
* Combobox::
* Spinbox::
* Notebook::
* Progressbar::
* Separator::
* Sizegrip::
* Treeview::
* Ttk Styling::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tkinter/ttk.py

   (2) https://core.tcl.tk/tips/doc/trunk/tip/48.md


File: python.info,  Node: Using Ttk,  Next: Ttk Widgets,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.1 Using Ttk
..................

To start using Ttk, import its module:

     from tkinter import ttk

To override the basic Tk widgets, the import should follow the Tk
import:

     from tkinter import *
     from tkinter.ttk import *

That code causes several ‘tkinter.ttk’ widgets (‘Button’, ‘Checkbutton’,
‘Entry’, ‘Frame’, ‘Label’, ‘LabelFrame’, ‘Menubutton’, ‘PanedWindow’,
‘Radiobutton’, ‘Scale’ and ‘Scrollbar’) to automatically replace the Tk
widgets.

This has the direct benefit of using the new widgets which gives a
better look and feel across platforms; however, the replacement widgets
are not completely compatible.  The main difference is that widget
options such as «fg», «bg» and others related to widget styling are no
longer present in Ttk widgets.  Instead, use the ‘ttk.Style’ class for
improved styling effects.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Converting existing applications to use Tile widgets(1)

     A monograph (using Tcl terminology) about differences typically
     encountered when moving applications to use the new widgets.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/doc/converting.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Ttk Widgets,  Next: Widget,  Prev: Using Ttk,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.2 Ttk Widgets
....................

Ttk comes with 18 widgets, twelve of which already existed in tkinter:
‘Button’, ‘Checkbutton’, ‘Entry’, ‘Frame’, ‘Label’, ‘LabelFrame’,
‘Menubutton’, ‘PanedWindow’, ‘Radiobutton’, ‘Scale’, ‘Scrollbar’, and
*note Spinbox: f53.  The other six are new: *note Combobox: 45c4, *note
Notebook: 45c5, *note Progressbar: 45c6, ‘Separator’, ‘Sizegrip’ and
*note Treeview: e56.  And all them are subclasses of *note Widget: 45c7.

Using the Ttk widgets gives the application an improved look and feel.
As discussed above, there are differences in how the styling is coded.

Tk code:

     l1 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")
     l2 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white")

Ttk code:

     style = ttk.Style()
     style.configure("BW.TLabel", foreground="black", background="white")

     l1 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")
     l2 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel")

For more information about *note TtkStyling: 45c8, see the *note Style:
761. class documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Widget,  Next: Combobox,  Prev: Ttk Widgets,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.3 Widget
...............

‘ttk.Widget’ defines standard options and methods supported by Tk themed
widgets and is not supposed to be directly instantiated.

* Menu:

* Standard Options::
* Scrollable Widget Options::
* Label Options::
* Compatibility Options::
* Widget States::
* ttk.Widget: ttk Widget.


File: python.info,  Node: Standard Options,  Next: Scrollable Widget Options,  Up: Widget

5.26.8.4 Standard Options
.........................

All the ‘ttk’ Widgets accept the following options:

Option          Description
                
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                
class           Specifies the window class.  The class is used when querying the
                option database for the window’s other options, to determine the
                default bindtags for the window, and to select the widget’s
                default layout and style.  This option is read-only, and may
                only be specified when the window is created.
                
                
cursor          Specifies the mouse cursor to be used for the widget.  If set to
                the empty string (the default), the cursor is inherited for the
                parent widget.
                
                
takefocus       Determines whether the window accepts the focus during keyboard
                traversal.  0, 1 or an empty string is returned.  If 0 is
                returned, it means that the window should be skipped entirely
                during keyboard traversal.  If 1, it means that the window
                should receive the input focus as long as it is viewable.  And
                an empty string means that the traversal scripts make the
                decision about whether or not to focus on the window.
                
                
style           May be used to specify a custom widget style.
                


File: python.info,  Node: Scrollable Widget Options,  Next: Label Options,  Prev: Standard Options,  Up: Widget

5.26.8.5 Scrollable Widget Options
..................................

The following options are supported by widgets that are controlled by a
scrollbar.

Option               Description
                     
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
xscrollcommand       Used to communicate with horizontal scrollbars.
                     
                     When the view in the widget’s window change, the widget
                     will generate a Tcl command based on the scrollcommand.
                     
                     Usually this option consists of the method
                     ‘Scrollbar.set()’ of some scrollbar.  This will cause the
                     scrollbar to be updated whenever the view in the window
                     changes.
                     
                     
yscrollcommand       Used to communicate with vertical scrollbars.  For some
                     more information, see above.
                     


File: python.info,  Node: Label Options,  Next: Compatibility Options,  Prev: Scrollable Widget Options,  Up: Widget

5.26.8.6 Label Options
......................

The following options are supported by labels, buttons and other
button-like widgets.

Option             Description
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
text               Specifies a text string to be displayed inside the widget.
                   
                   
textvariable       Specifies a name whose value will be used in place of the
                   text option resource.
                   
                   
underline          If set, specifies the index (0-based) of a character to
                   underline in the text string.  The underline character is
                   used for mnemonic activation.
                   
                   
image              Specifies an image to display.  This is a list of 1 or more
                   elements.  The first element is the default image name.  The
                   rest of the list if a sequence of statespec/value pairs as
                   defined by *note Style.map(): 1edb, specifying different
                   images to use when the widget is in a particular state or a
                   combination of states.  All images in the list should have
                   the same size.
                   
                   
compound           Specifies how to display the image relative to the text, in
                   the case both text and images options are present.  Valid
                   values are:
                   
                      * text: display text only
                   
                      * image: display image only
                   
                      * top, bottom, left, right: display image above, below,
                        left of, or right of the text, respectively.
                   
                      * none: the default.  display the image if present,
                        otherwise the text.
                   
                   
width              If greater than zero, specifies how much space, in character
                   widths, to allocate for the text label, if less than zero,
                   specifies a minimum width.  If zero or unspecified, the
                   natural width of the text label is used.
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Compatibility Options,  Next: Widget States,  Prev: Label Options,  Up: Widget

5.26.8.7 Compatibility Options
..............................

Option       Description
             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
state        May be set to «normal» or «disabled» to control the «disabled»
             state bit.  This is a write-only option: setting it changes the
             widget state, but the *note Widget.state(): 45ce. method does not
             affect this option.
             


File: python.info,  Node: Widget States,  Next: ttk Widget,  Prev: Compatibility Options,  Up: Widget

5.26.8.8 Widget States
......................

The widget state is a bitmap of independent state flags.

Flag             Description
                 
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
active           The mouse cursor is over the widget and pressing a mouse button
                 will cause some action to occur
                 
                 
disabled         Widget is disabled under program control
                 
                 
focus            Widget has keyboard focus
                 
                 
pressed          Widget is being pressed
                 
                 
selected         «On», «true», or «current» for things like Checkbuttons and
                 radiobuttons
                 
                 
background       Windows and Mac have a notion of an «active» or foreground
                 window.  The 'background' state is set for widgets in a
                 background window, and cleared for those in the foreground
                 window
                 
                 
readonly         Widget should not allow user modification
                 
                 
alternate        A widget-specific alternate display format
                 
                 
invalid          The widget’s value is invalid
                 

A state specification is a sequence of state names, optionally prefixed
with an exclamation point indicating that the bit is off.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Widget,  Prev: Widget States,  Up: Widget

5.26.8.9 ttk.Widget
...................

Besides the methods described below, the ‘ttk.Widget’ supports the
methods ‘tkinter.Widget.cget()’ and ‘tkinter.Widget.configure()’.

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.ttk.Widget

      -- Μέθοδος: identify (x, y)

          Returns the name of the element at position 'x' 'y', or the
          empty string if the point does not lie within any element.

          'x' and 'y' are pixel coordinates relative to the widget.

      -- Μέθοδος: instate (statespec, callback=None, *args, **kw)

          Test the widget’s state.  If a callback is not specified,
          returns ‘True’ if the widget state matches 'statespec' and
          ‘False’ otherwise.  If callback is specified then it is called
          with args if widget state matches 'statespec'.

      -- Μέθοδος: state (statespec=None)

          Modify or inquire widget state.  If 'statespec' is specified,
          sets the widget state according to it and return a new
          'statespec' indicating which flags were changed.  If
          'statespec' is not specified, returns the currently enabled
          state flags.

     'statespec' will usually be a list or a tuple.


File: python.info,  Node: Combobox,  Next: Spinbox,  Prev: Widget,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.10 Combobox
..................

The ‘ttk.Combobox’ widget combines a text field with a pop-down list of
values.  This widget is a subclass of ‘Entry’.

Besides the methods inherited from *note Widget: 45c7.: ‘Widget.cget()’,
‘Widget.configure()’, *note Widget.identify(): 45d1, *note
Widget.instate(): 45d2. and *note Widget.state(): 45ce, and the
following inherited from ‘Entry’: ‘Entry.bbox()’, ‘Entry.delete()’,
‘Entry.icursor()’, ‘Entry.index()’, ‘Entry.insert()’,
‘Entry.selection()’, ‘Entry.xview()’, it has some other methods,
described at ‘ttk.Combobox’.

* Menu:

* Options::
* Virtual events::
* ttk.Combobox: ttk Combobox.


File: python.info,  Node: Options,  Next: Virtual events,  Up: Combobox

5.26.8.11 Options
.................

This widget accepts the following specific options:

Option                Description
                      
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                      
exportselection       Boolean value.  If set, the widget selection is linked to
                      the Window Manager selection (which can be returned by
                      invoking Misc.selection_get, for example).
                      
                      
justify               Specifies how the text is aligned within the widget.  One
                      of «left», «center», or «right».
                      
                      
height                Specifies the height of the pop-down listbox, in rows.
                      
                      
postcommand           A script (possibly registered with Misc.register) that is
                      called immediately before displaying the values.  It may
                      specify which values to display.
                      
                      
state                 One of «normal», «readonly», or «disabled».  In the
                      «readonly» state, the value may not be edited directly,
                      and the user can only selection of the values from the
                      dropdown list.  In the «normal» state, the text field is
                      directly editable.  In the «disabled» state, no
                      interaction is possible.
                      
                      
textvariable          Specifies a name whose value is linked to the widget
                      value.  Whenever the value associated with that name
                      changes, the widget value is updated, and vice versa.  See
                      ‘tkinter.StringVar’.
                      
                      
values                Specifies the list of values to display in the drop-down
                      listbox.
                      
                      
width                 Specifies an integer value indicating the desired width of
                      the entry window, in average-size characters of the
                      widget’s font.
                      


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual events,  Next: ttk Combobox,  Prev: Options,  Up: Combobox

5.26.8.12 Virtual events
........................

The combobox widgets generates a '<<ComboboxSelected>>' virtual event
when the user selects an element from the list of values.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Combobox,  Prev: Virtual events,  Up: Combobox

5.26.8.13 ttk.Combobox
......................

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.ttk.Combobox

      -- Μέθοδος: current (newindex=None)

          If 'newindex' is specified, sets the combobox value to the
          element position 'newindex'.  Otherwise, returns the index of
          the current value or -1 if the current value is not in the
          values list.

      -- Μέθοδος: get ()

          Returns the current value of the combobox.

      -- Μέθοδος: set (value)

          Sets the value of the combobox to 'value'.


File: python.info,  Node: Spinbox,  Next: Notebook,  Prev: Combobox,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.14 Spinbox
.................

The ‘ttk.Spinbox’ widget is a ‘ttk.Entry’ enhanced with increment and
decrement arrows.  It can be used for numbers or lists of string values.
This widget is a subclass of ‘Entry’.

Besides the methods inherited from *note Widget: 45c7.: ‘Widget.cget()’,
‘Widget.configure()’, *note Widget.identify(): 45d1, *note
Widget.instate(): 45d2. and *note Widget.state(): 45ce, and the
following inherited from ‘Entry’: ‘Entry.bbox()’, ‘Entry.delete()’,
‘Entry.icursor()’, ‘Entry.index()’, ‘Entry.insert()’, ‘Entry.xview()’,
it has some other methods, described at ‘ttk.Spinbox’.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<2>.
* Virtual events: Virtual events<2>.
* ttk.Spinbox: ttk Spinbox.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<2>,  Next: Virtual events<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.26.8.15 Options
.................

This widget accepts the following specific options:

Option                     Description
                           
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                           
from                       Float value.  If set, this is the minimum value to which
                           the decrement button will decrement.  Must be spelled as
                           ‘from_’ when used as an argument, since ‘from’ is a
                           Python keyword.
                           
                           
to                         Float value.  If set, this is the maximum value to which
                           the increment button will increment.
                           
                           
increment                  Float value.  Specifies the amount which the
                           increment/decrement buttons change the value.  Defaults
                           to 1.0.
                           
                           
values                     Sequence of string or float values.  If specified, the
                           increment/decrement buttons will cycle through the items
                           in this sequence rather than incrementing or
                           decrementing numbers.
                           
                           
wrap                       Boolean value.  If ‘True’, increment and decrement
                           buttons will cycle from the ‘to’ value to the ‘from’
                           value or the ‘from’ value to the ‘to’ value,
                           respectively.
                           
                           
format                     String value.  This specifies the format of numbers set
                           by the increment/decrement buttons.  It must be in the
                           form «%W.Pf», where W is the padded width of the value,
                           P is the precision, and “%” and “f” are literal.
                           
                           
command                    Python callable.  Will be called with no arguments
                           whenever either of the increment or decrement buttons
                           are pressed.
                           


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual events<2>,  Next: ttk Spinbox,  Prev: Options<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.26.8.16 Virtual events
........................

The spinbox widget generates an '<<Increment>>' virtual event when the
user presses <Up>, and a '<<Decrement>>' virtual event when the user
presses <Down>.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Spinbox,  Prev: Virtual events<2>,  Up: Spinbox

5.26.8.17 ttk.Spinbox
.....................

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.ttk.Spinbox

      -- Μέθοδος: get ()

          Returns the current value of the spinbox.

      -- Μέθοδος: set (value)

          Sets the value of the spinbox to 'value'.


File: python.info,  Node: Notebook,  Next: Progressbar,  Prev: Spinbox,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.18 Notebook
..................

Ttk Notebook widget manages a collection of windows and displays a
single one at a time.  Each child window is associated with a tab, which
the user may select to change the currently displayed window.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<3>.
* Tab Options::
* Tab Identifiers::
* Virtual Events::
* ttk.Notebook: ttk Notebook.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<3>,  Next: Tab Options,  Up: Notebook

5.26.8.19 Options
.................

This widget accepts the following specific options:

Option        Description
              
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              
height        If present and greater than zero, specifies the desired height of
              the pane area (not including internal padding or tabs).
              Otherwise, the maximum height of all panes is used.
              
              
padding       Specifies the amount of extra space to add around the outside of
              the notebook.  The padding is a list up to four length
              specifications left top right bottom.  If fewer than four elements
              are specified, bottom defaults to top, right defaults to left, and
              top defaults to left.
              
              
width         If present and greater than zero, specified the desired width of
              the pane area (not including internal padding).  Otherwise, the
              maximum width of all panes is used.
              


File: python.info,  Node: Tab Options,  Next: Tab Identifiers,  Prev: Options<3>,  Up: Notebook

5.26.8.20 Tab Options
.....................

There are also specific options for tabs:

Option          Description
                
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                
state           Either «normal», «disabled» or «hidden».  If «disabled», then
                the tab is not selectable.  If «hidden», then the tab is not
                shown.
                
                
sticky          Specifies how the child window is positioned within the pane
                area.  Value is a string containing zero or more of the
                characters «n», «s», «e» or «w».  Each letter refers to a side
                (north, south, east or west) that the child window will stick
                to, as per the ‘grid()’ geometry manager.
                
                
padding         Specifies the amount of extra space to add between the notebook
                and this pane.  Syntax is the same as for the option padding
                used by this widget.
                
                
text            Specifies a text to be displayed in the tab.
                
                
image           Specifies an image to display in the tab.  See the option image
                described in *note Widget: 45c7.
                
                
compound        Specifies how to display the image relative to the text, in the
                case both options text and image are present.  See
                *note Label Options: 45cc. for legal values.
                
                
underline       Specifies the index (0-based) of a character to underline in the
                text string.  The underlined character is used for mnemonic
                activation if *note Notebook.enable_traversal(): 45e3. is
                called.
                


File: python.info,  Node: Tab Identifiers,  Next: Virtual Events,  Prev: Tab Options,  Up: Notebook

5.26.8.21 Tab Identifiers
.........................

The tab_id present in several methods of ‘ttk.Notebook’ may take any of
the following forms:

   * An integer between zero and the number of tabs

   * The name of a child window

   * A positional specification of the form «@x,y», which identifies the
     tab

   * The literal string «current», which identifies the currently
     selected tab

   * The literal string «end», which returns the number of tabs (only
     valid for *note Notebook.index(): 45e5.)


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual Events,  Next: ttk Notebook,  Prev: Tab Identifiers,  Up: Notebook

5.26.8.22 Virtual Events
........................

This widget generates a '<<NotebookTabChanged>>' virtual event after a
new tab is selected.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Notebook,  Prev: Virtual Events,  Up: Notebook

5.26.8.23 ttk.Notebook
......................

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.ttk.Notebook

      -- Μέθοδος: add (child, **kw)

          Adds a new tab to the notebook.

          If window is currently managed by the notebook but hidden, it
          is restored to its previous position.

          See *note Tab Options: 45e2. for the list of available
          options.

      -- Μέθοδος: forget (tab_id)

          Removes the tab specified by 'tab_id', unmaps and unmanages
          the associated window.

      -- Μέθοδος: hide (tab_id)

          Hides the tab specified by 'tab_id'.

          The tab will not be displayed, but the associated window
          remains managed by the notebook and its configuration
          remembered.  Hidden tabs may be restored with the *note add():
          45e8. command.

      -- Μέθοδος: identify (x, y)

          Returns the name of the tab element at position 'x', 'y', or
          the empty string if none.

      -- Μέθοδος: index (tab_id)

          Returns the numeric index of the tab specified by 'tab_id', or
          the total number of tabs if 'tab_id' is the string «end».

      -- Μέθοδος: insert (pos, child, **kw)

          Inserts a pane at the specified position.

          'pos' is either the string «end», an integer index, or the
          name of a managed child.  If 'child' is already managed by the
          notebook, moves it to the specified position.

          See *note Tab Options: 45e2. for the list of available
          options.

      -- Μέθοδος: select (tab_id=None)

          Selects the specified 'tab_id'.

          The associated child window will be displayed, and the
          previously selected window (if different) is unmapped.  If
          'tab_id' is omitted, returns the widget name of the currently
          selected pane.

      -- Μέθοδος: tab (tab_id, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the options of the specific 'tab_id'.

          If 'kw' is not given, returns a dictionary of the tab option
          values.  If 'option' is specified, returns the value of that
          'option'.  Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding
          values.

      -- Μέθοδος: tabs ()

          Returns a list of windows managed by the notebook.

      -- Μέθοδος: enable_traversal ()

          Enable keyboard traversal for a toplevel window containing
          this notebook.

          This will extend the bindings for the toplevel window
          containing the notebook as follows:

             * ‘Control’-‘Tab’: selects the tab following the currently
               selected one.

             * ‘Shift’-‘Control’-‘Tab’: selects the tab preceding the
               currently selected one.

             * ‘Alt’-‘K’: where 'K' is the mnemonic (underlined)
               character of any tab, will select that tab.

          Multiple notebooks in a single toplevel may be enabled for
          traversal, including nested notebooks.  However, notebook
          traversal only works properly if all panes have the notebook
          they are in as master.


File: python.info,  Node: Progressbar,  Next: Separator,  Prev: Notebook,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.24 Progressbar
.....................

The ‘ttk.Progressbar’ widget shows the status of a long-running
operation.  It can operate in two modes: 1) the determinate mode which
shows the amount completed relative to the total amount of work to be
done and 2) the indeterminate mode which provides an animated display to
let the user know that work is progressing.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<4>.
* ttk.Progressbar: ttk Progressbar.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<4>,  Next: ttk Progressbar,  Up: Progressbar

5.26.8.25 Options
.................

This widget accepts the following specific options:

Option         Description
               
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
               
orient         One of «horizontal» or «vertical».  Specifies the orientation of
               the progress bar.
               
               
length         Specifies the length of the long axis of the progress bar (width
               if horizontal, height if vertical).
               
               
mode           One of «determinate» or «indeterminate».
               
               
maximum        A number specifying the maximum value.  Defaults to 100.
               
               
value          The current value of the progress bar.  In «determinate» mode,
               this represents the amount of work completed.  In «indeterminate»
               mode, it is interpreted as modulo 'maximum'; that is, the
               progress bar completes one «cycle» when its value increases by
               'maximum'.
               
               
variable       A name which is linked to the option value.  If specified, the
               value of the progress bar is automatically set to the value of
               this name whenever the latter is modified.
               
               
phase          Read-only option.  The widget periodically increments the value
               of this option whenever its value is greater than 0 and, in
               determinate mode, less than maximum.  This option may be used by
               the current theme to provide additional animation effects.
               


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Progressbar,  Prev: Options<4>,  Up: Progressbar

5.26.8.26 ttk.Progressbar
.........................

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.ttk.Progressbar

      -- Μέθοδος: start (interval=None)

          Begin autoincrement mode: schedules a recurring timer event
          that calls *note Progressbar.step(): 45f4. every 'interval'
          milliseconds.  If omitted, 'interval' defaults to 50
          milliseconds.

      -- Μέθοδος: step (amount=None)

          Increments the progress bar’s value by 'amount'.

          'amount' defaults to 1.0 if omitted.

      -- Μέθοδος: stop ()

          Stop autoincrement mode: cancels any recurring timer event
          initiated by *note Progressbar.start(): 45f3. for this
          progress bar.


File: python.info,  Node: Separator,  Next: Sizegrip,  Prev: Progressbar,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.27 Separator
...................

The ‘ttk.Separator’ widget displays a horizontal or vertical separator
bar.

It has no other methods besides the ones inherited from ‘ttk.Widget’.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<5>,  Up: Separator

5.26.8.28 Options
.................

This widget accepts the following specific option:

Option       Description
             
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
orient       One of «horizontal» or «vertical».  Specifies the orientation of
             the separator.
             


File: python.info,  Node: Sizegrip,  Next: Treeview,  Prev: Separator,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.29 Sizegrip
..................

The ‘ttk.Sizegrip’ widget (also known as a grow box) allows the user to
resize the containing toplevel window by pressing and dragging the grip.

This widget has neither specific options nor specific methods, besides
the ones inherited from ‘ttk.Widget’.

* Menu:

* Platform-specific notes::
* Bugs::


File: python.info,  Node: Platform-specific notes,  Next: Bugs,  Up: Sizegrip

5.26.8.30 Platform-specific notes
.................................

   * On macOS, toplevel windows automatically include a built-in size
     grip by default.  Adding a ‘Sizegrip’ is harmless, since the
     built-in grip will just mask the widget.


File: python.info,  Node: Bugs,  Prev: Platform-specific notes,  Up: Sizegrip

5.26.8.31 Bugs
..............

   * If the containing toplevel’s position was specified relative to the
     right or bottom of the screen (e.g.  ….), the ‘Sizegrip’ widget
     will not resize the window.

   * This widget supports only «southeast» resizing.


File: python.info,  Node: Treeview,  Next: Ttk Styling,  Prev: Sizegrip,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.32 Treeview
..................

The ‘ttk.Treeview’ widget displays a hierarchical collection of items.
Each item has a textual label, an optional image, and an optional list
of data values.  The data values are displayed in successive columns
after the tree label.

The order in which data values are displayed may be controlled by
setting the widget option ‘displaycolumns’.  The tree widget can also
display column headings.  Columns may be accessed by number or symbolic
names listed in the widget option columns.  See *note Column
Identifiers: 45fc.

Each item is identified by a unique name.  The widget will generate item
IDs if they are not supplied by the caller.  There is a distinguished
root item, named ‘{}’.  The root item itself is not displayed; its
children appear at the top level of the hierarchy.

Each item also has a list of tags, which can be used to associate event
bindings with individual items and control the appearance of the item.

The Treeview widget supports horizontal and vertical scrolling,
according to the options described in *note Scrollable Widget Options:
45cb. and the methods *note Treeview.xview(): 45fd. and *note
Treeview.yview(): 45fe.

* Menu:

* Options: Options<6>.
* Item Options::
* Tag Options::
* Column Identifiers::
* Virtual Events: Virtual Events<2>.
* ttk.Treeview: ttk Treeview.


File: python.info,  Node: Options<6>,  Next: Item Options,  Up: Treeview

5.26.8.33 Options
.................

This widget accepts the following specific options:

Option               Description
                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
columns              A list of column identifiers, specifying the number of
                     columns and their names.
                     
                     
displaycolumns       A list of column identifiers (either symbolic or integer
                     indices) specifying which data columns are displayed and
                     the order in which they appear, or the string «#all».
                     
                     
height               Specifies the number of rows which should be visible.
                     Note: the requested width is determined from the sum of
                     the column widths.
                     
                     
padding              Specifies the internal padding for the widget.  The
                     padding is a list of up to four length specifications.
                     
                     
selectmode           Controls how the built-in class bindings manage the
                     selection.  One of «extended», «browse» or «none».  If set
                     to «extended» (the default), multiple items may be
                     selected.  If «browse», only a single item will be
                     selected at a time.  If «none», the selection will not be
                     changed.
                     
                     Note that the application code and tag bindings can set
                     the selection however they wish, regardless of the value
                     of this option.
                     
                     
show                 A list containing zero or more of the following values,
                     specifying which elements of the tree to display.
                     
                        * tree: display tree labels in column #0.
                     
                        * headings: display the heading row.
                     
                     The default is «tree headings», i.e., show all elements.
                     
                     'Note': Column #0 always refers to the tree column, even
                     if show=»tree» is not specified.
                     


File: python.info,  Node: Item Options,  Next: Tag Options,  Prev: Options<6>,  Up: Treeview

5.26.8.34 Item Options
......................

The following item options may be specified for items in the insert and
item widget commands.

Option       Description
             
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             
text         The textual label to display for the item.
             
             
image        A Tk Image, displayed to the left of the label.
             
             
values       The list of values associated with the item.
             
             Each item should have the same number of values as the widget
             option columns.  If there are fewer values than columns, the
             remaining values are assumed empty.  If there are more values
             than columns, the extra values are ignored.
             
             
open         ‘True’/‘False’ value indicating whether the item’s children
             should be displayed or hidden.
             
             
tags         A list of tags associated with this item.
             


File: python.info,  Node: Tag Options,  Next: Column Identifiers,  Prev: Item Options,  Up: Treeview

5.26.8.35 Tag Options
.....................

The following options may be specified on tags:

Option           Description
                 
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
foreground       Specifies the text foreground color.
                 
                 
background       Specifies the cell or item background color.
                 
                 
font             Specifies the font to use when drawing text.
                 
                 
image            Specifies the item image, in case the item’s image option is
                 empty.
                 


File: python.info,  Node: Column Identifiers,  Next: Virtual Events<2>,  Prev: Tag Options,  Up: Treeview

5.26.8.36 Column Identifiers
............................

Column identifiers take any of the following forms:

   * A symbolic name from the list of columns option.

   * An integer n, specifying the nth data column.

   * A string of the form #n, where n is an integer, specifying the nth
     display column.

Notes:

   * Item’s option values may be displayed in a different order than the
     order in which they are stored.

   * Column #0 always refers to the tree column, even if show=»tree» is
     not specified.

A data column number is an index into an item’s option values list; a
display column number is the column number in the tree where the values
are displayed.  Tree labels are displayed in column #0.  If option
displaycolumns is not set, then data column n is displayed in column
#n+1.  Again, 'column #0 always refers to the tree column'.


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual Events<2>,  Next: ttk Treeview,  Prev: Column Identifiers,  Up: Treeview

5.26.8.37 Virtual Events
........................

The Treeview widget generates the following virtual events.

Event                    Description
                         
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
<<TreeviewSelect>>       Generated whenever the selection changes.
                         
                         
<<TreeviewOpen>>         Generated just before settings the focus item to
                         open=True.
                         
                         
<<TreeviewClose>>        Generated just after setting the focus item to
                         open=False.
                         

The *note Treeview.focus(): 4603. and *note Treeview.selection(): e55.
methods can be used to determine the affected item or items.


File: python.info,  Node: ttk Treeview,  Prev: Virtual Events<2>,  Up: Treeview

5.26.8.38 ttk.Treeview
......................

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.ttk.Treeview

      -- Μέθοδος: bbox (item, column=None)

          Returns the bounding box (relative to the treeview widget’s
          window) of the specified 'item' in the form (x, y, width,
          height).

          If 'column' is specified, returns the bounding box of that
          cell.  If the 'item' is not visible (i.e., if it is a
          descendant of a closed item or is scrolled offscreen), returns
          an empty string.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_children (item=None)

          Returns the list of children belonging to 'item'.

          If 'item' is not specified, returns root children.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_children (item, *newchildren)

          Replaces 'item'’s child with 'newchildren'.

          Children present in 'item' that are not present in
          'newchildren' are detached from the tree.  No items in
          'newchildren' may be an ancestor of 'item'.  Note that not
          specifying 'newchildren' results in detaching 'item'’s
          children.

      -- Μέθοδος: column (column, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the options for the specified 'column'.

          If 'kw' is not given, returns a dict of the column option
          values.  If 'option' is specified then the value for that
          'option' is returned.  Otherwise, sets the options to the
          corresponding values.

          The valid options/values are:

          'id'

               Returns the column name.  This is a read-only option.

          'anchor': One of the standard Tk anchor values.

               Specifies how the text in this column should be aligned
               with respect to the cell.

          'minwidth': width

               The minimum width of the column in pixels.  The treeview
               widget will not make the column any smaller than
               specified by this option when the widget is resized or
               the user drags a column.

          'stretch': ‘True’/‘False’

               Specifies whether the column’s width should be adjusted
               when the widget is resized.

          'width': width

               The width of the column in pixels.

          To configure the tree column, call this with column = «#0»

      -- Μέθοδος: delete (*items)

          Delete all specified 'items' and all their descendants.

          The root item may not be deleted.

      -- Μέθοδος: detach (*items)

          Unlinks all of the specified 'items' from the tree.

          The items and all of their descendants are still present, and
          may be reinserted at another point in the tree, but will not
          be displayed.

          The root item may not be detached.

      -- Μέθοδος: exists (item)

          Returns ‘True’ if the specified 'item' is present in the tree.

      -- Μέθοδος: focus (item=None)

          If 'item' is specified, sets the focus item to 'item'.
          Otherwise, returns the current focus item, or “” if there is
          none.

      -- Μέθοδος: heading (column, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the heading options for the specified
          'column'.

          If 'kw' is not given, returns a dict of the heading option
          values.  If 'option' is specified then the value for that
          'option' is returned.  Otherwise, sets the options to the
          corresponding values.

          The valid options/values are:

          'text': text

               The text to display in the column heading.

          'image': imageName

               Specifies an image to display to the right of the column
               heading.

          'anchor': anchor

               Specifies how the heading text should be aligned.  One of
               the standard Tk anchor values.

          'command': callback

               A callback to be invoked when the heading label is
               pressed.

          To configure the tree column heading, call this with column =
          «#0».

      -- Μέθοδος: identify (component, x, y)

          Returns a description of the specified 'component' under the
          point given by 'x' and 'y', or the empty string if no such
          'component' is present at that position.

      -- Μέθοδος: identify_row (y)

          Returns the item ID of the item at position 'y'.

      -- Μέθοδος: identify_column (x)

          Returns the data column identifier of the cell at position
          'x'.

          The tree column has ID #0.

      -- Μέθοδος: identify_region (x, y)

          Returns one of:

          region          meaning
                          
          -----------------------------------------------------------
                          
          heading         Tree heading area.
                          
                          
          separator       Space between two columns headings.
                          
                          
          tree            The tree area.
                          
                          
          cell            A data cell.
                          

          Availability: Tk 8.6.

      -- Μέθοδος: identify_element (x, y)

          Returns the element at position 'x', 'y'.

          Availability: Tk 8.6.

      -- Μέθοδος: index (item)

          Returns the integer index of 'item' within its parent’s list
          of children.

      -- Μέθοδος: insert (parent, index, iid=None, **kw)

          Creates a new item and returns the item identifier of the
          newly created item.

          'parent' is the item ID of the parent item, or the empty
          string to create a new top-level item.  'index' is an integer,
          or the value «end», specifying where in the list of parent’s
          children to insert the new item.  If 'index' is less than or
          equal to zero, the new node is inserted at the beginning; if
          'index' is greater than or equal to the current number of
          children, it is inserted at the end.  If 'iid' is specified,
          it is used as the item identifier; 'iid' must not already
          exist in the tree.  Otherwise, a new unique identifier is
          generated.

          See *note Item Options: 4600. for the list of available
          options.

      -- Μέθοδος: item (item, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the options for the specified 'item'.

          If no options are given, a dict with options/values for the
          item is returned.  If 'option' is specified then the value for
          that option is returned.  Otherwise, sets the options to the
          corresponding values as given by 'kw'.

      -- Μέθοδος: move (item, parent, index)

          Moves 'item' to position 'index' in 'parent'’s list of
          children.

          It is illegal to move an item under one of its descendants.
          If 'index' is less than or equal to zero, 'item' is moved to
          the beginning; if greater than or equal to the number of
          children, it is moved to the end.  If 'item' was detached it
          is reattached.

      -- Μέθοδος: next (item)

          Returns the identifier of 'item'’s next sibling, or “” if
          'item' is the last child of its parent.

      -- Μέθοδος: parent (item)

          Returns the ID of the parent of 'item', or “” if 'item' is at
          the top level of the hierarchy.

      -- Μέθοδος: prev (item)

          Returns the identifier of 'item'’s previous sibling, or “” if
          'item' is the first child of its parent.

      -- Μέθοδος: reattach (item, parent, index)

          An alias for *note Treeview.move(): 4615.

      -- Μέθοδος: see (item)

          Ensure that 'item' is visible.

          Sets all of 'item'’s ancestors open option to ‘True’, and
          scrolls the widget if necessary so that 'item' is within the
          visible portion of the tree.

      -- Μέθοδος: selection ()

          Returns a tuple of selected items.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: ‘selection()’ no longer takes
          arguments.  For changing the selection state use the following
          selection methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: selection_set (*items)

          'items' becomes the new selection.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 'items' can be passed as separate
          arguments, not just as a single tuple.

      -- Μέθοδος: selection_add (*items)

          Add 'items' to the selection.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 'items' can be passed as separate
          arguments, not just as a single tuple.

      -- Μέθοδος: selection_remove (*items)

          Remove 'items' from the selection.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 'items' can be passed as separate
          arguments, not just as a single tuple.

      -- Μέθοδος: selection_toggle (*items)

          Toggle the selection state of each item in 'items'.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: 'items' can be passed as separate
          arguments, not just as a single tuple.

      -- Μέθοδος: set (item, column=None, value=None)

          With one argument, returns a dictionary of column/value pairs
          for the specified 'item'.  With two arguments, returns the
          current value of the specified 'column'.  With three
          arguments, sets the value of given 'column' in given 'item' to
          the specified 'value'.

      -- Μέθοδος: tag_bind (tagname, sequence=None, callback=None)

          Bind a callback for the given event 'sequence' to the tag
          'tagname'.  When an event is delivered to an item, the
          callbacks for each of the item’s tags option are called.

      -- Μέθοδος: tag_configure (tagname, option=None, **kw)

          Query or modify the options for the specified 'tagname'.

          If 'kw' is not given, returns a dict of the option settings
          for 'tagname'.  If 'option' is specified, returns the value
          for that 'option' for the specified 'tagname'.  Otherwise,
          sets the options to the corresponding values for the given
          'tagname'.

      -- Μέθοδος: tag_has (tagname, item=None)

          If 'item' is specified, returns 1 or 0 depending on whether
          the specified 'item' has the given 'tagname'.  Otherwise,
          returns a list of all items that have the specified tag.

          Availability: Tk 8.6

      -- Μέθοδος: xview (*args)

          Query or modify horizontal position of the treeview.

      -- Μέθοδος: yview (*args)

          Query or modify vertical position of the treeview.


File: python.info,  Node: Ttk Styling,  Prev: Treeview,  Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets

5.26.8.39 Ttk Styling
.....................

Each widget in ‘ttk’ is assigned a style, which specifies the set of
elements making up the widget and how they are arranged, along with
dynamic and default settings for element options.  By default the style
name is the same as the widget’s class name, but it may be overridden by
the widget’s style option.  If you don’t know the class name of a
widget, use the method ‘Misc.winfo_class()’ (somewidget.winfo_class()).

Δείτε επίσης
............

Tcl'2004 conference presentation(1)

     This document explains how the theme engine works

 -- Κλάση: tkinter.ttk.Style

     This class is used to manipulate the style database.

      -- Μέθοδος: configure (style, query_opt=None, **kw)

          Query or set the default value of the specified option(s) in
          'style'.

          Each key in 'kw' is an option and each value is a string
          identifying the value for that option.

          For example, to change every default button to be a flat
          button with some padding and a different background color:

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               ttk.Style().configure("TButton", padding=6, relief="flat",
                  background="#ccc")

               btn = ttk.Button(text="Sample")
               btn.pack()

               root.mainloop()

      -- Μέθοδος: map (style, query_opt=None, **kw)

          Query or sets dynamic values of the specified option(s) in
          'style'.

          Each key in 'kw' is an option and each value should be a list
          or a tuple (usually) containing statespecs grouped in tuples,
          lists, or some other preference.  A statespec is a compound of
          one or more states and then a value.

          An example may make it more understandable:

               import tkinter
               from tkinter import ttk

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.map("C.TButton",
                   foreground=[('pressed', 'red'), ('active', 'blue')],
                   background=[('pressed', '!disabled', 'black'), ('active', 'white')]
                   )

               colored_btn = ttk.Button(text="Test", style="C.TButton").pack()

               root.mainloop()

          Note that the order of the (states, value) sequences for an
          option does matter, if the order is changed to ‘[('active',
          'blue'), ('pressed', 'red')]’ in the foreground option, for
          example, the result would be a blue foreground when the widget
          were in active or pressed states.

      -- Μέθοδος: lookup (style, option, state=None, default=None)

          Returns the value specified for 'option' in 'style'.

          If 'state' is specified, it is expected to be a sequence of
          one or more states.  If the 'default' argument is set, it is
          used as a fallback value in case no specification for option
          is found.

          To check what font a Button uses by default:

               from tkinter import ttk

               print(ttk.Style().lookup("TButton", "font"))

      -- Μέθοδος: layout (style, layoutspec=None)

          Define the widget layout for given 'style'.  If 'layoutspec'
          is omitted, return the layout specification for given style.

          'layoutspec', if specified, is expected to be a list or some
          other sequence type (excluding strings), where each item
          should be a tuple and the first item is the layout name and
          the second item should have the format described in *note
          Layouts: 4626.

          To understand the format, see the following example (it is not
          intended to do anything useful):

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.layout("TMenubutton", [
                  ("Menubutton.background", None),
                  ("Menubutton.button", {"children":
                      [("Menubutton.focus", {"children":
                          [("Menubutton.padding", {"children":
                              [("Menubutton.label", {"side": "left", "expand": 1})]
                          })]
                      })]
                  }),
               ])

               mbtn = ttk.Menubutton(text='Text')
               mbtn.pack()
               root.mainloop()

      -- Μέθοδος: element_create (elementname, etype, *args, **kw)

          Create a new element in the current theme, of the given
          'etype' which is expected to be either «image», «from» or
          «vsapi».  The latter is only available in Tk 8.6 on Windows.

          If «image» is used, 'args' should contain the default image
          name followed by statespec/value pairs (this is the
          imagespec), and 'kw' may have the following options:

          border=padding

               padding is a list of up to four integers, specifying the
               left, top, right, and bottom borders, respectively.

          height=height

               Specifies a minimum height for the element.  If less than
               zero, the base image’s height is used as a default.

          padding=padding

               Specifies the element’s interior padding.  Defaults to
               border’s value if not specified.

          sticky=spec

               Specifies how the image is placed within the final
               parcel.  spec contains zero or more characters «n», «s»,
               «w», or «e».

          width=width

               Specifies a minimum width for the element.  If less than
               zero, the base image’s width is used as a default.

          Example:

               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button.png')
               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-pressed.png')
               img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-active.png')
               style = ttk.Style(root)
               style.element_create('Button.button', 'image',
                                    img1, ('pressed', img2), ('active', img3),
                                    border=(2, 4), sticky='we')

          If «from» is used as the value of 'etype', ‘element_create()’
          will clone an existing element.  'args' is expected to contain
          a themename, from which the element will be cloned, and
          optionally an element to clone from.  If this element to clone
          from is not specified, an empty element will be used.  'kw' is
          discarded.

          Example:

               style = ttk.Style(root)
               style.element_create('plain.background', 'from', 'default')

          If «vsapi» is used as the value of 'etype', ‘element_create()’
          will create a new element in the current theme whose visual
          appearance is drawn using the Microsoft Visual Styles API
          which is responsible for the themed styles on Windows XP and
          Vista.  'args' is expected to contain the Visual Styles class
          and part as given in the Microsoft documentation followed by
          an optional sequence of tuples of ttk states and the
          corresponding Visual Styles API state value.  'kw' may have
          the following options:

          padding=padding

               Specify the element’s interior padding.  'padding' is a
               list of up to four integers specifying the left, top,
               right and bottom padding quantities respectively.  If
               fewer than four elements are specified, bottom defaults
               to top, right defaults to left, and top defaults to left.
               In other words, a list of three numbers specify the left,
               vertical, and right padding; a list of two numbers
               specify the horizontal and the vertical padding; a single
               number specifies the same padding all the way around the
               widget.  This option may not be mixed with any other
               options.

          margins=padding

               Specifies the elements exterior padding.  'padding' is a
               list of up to four integers specifying the left, top,
               right and bottom padding quantities respectively.  This
               option may not be mixed with any other options.

          width=width

               Specifies the width for the element.  If this option is
               set then the Visual Styles API will not be queried for
               the recommended size or the part.  If this option is set
               then 'height' should also be set.  The 'width' and
               'height' options cannot be mixed with the 'padding' or
               'margins' options.

          height=height

               Specifies the height of the element.  See the comments
               for 'width'.

          Example:

               style = ttk.Style(root)
               style.element_create('pin', 'vsapi', 'EXPLORERBAR', 3, [
                                    ('pressed', '!selected', 3),
                                    ('active', '!selected', 2),
                                    ('pressed', 'selected', 6),
                                    ('active', 'selected', 5),
                                    ('selected', 4),
                                    ('', 1)])
               style.layout('Explorer.Pin',
                            [('Explorer.Pin.pin', {'sticky': 'news'})])
               pin = ttk.Checkbutton(style='Explorer.Pin')
               pin.pack(expand=True, fill='both')

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added support of the «vsapi» element
          factory.

      -- Μέθοδος: element_names ()

          Returns the list of elements defined in the current theme.

      -- Μέθοδος: element_options (elementname)

          Returns the list of 'elementname'’s options.

      -- Μέθοδος: theme_create (themename, parent=None, settings=None)

          Create a new theme.

          It is an error if 'themename' already exists.  If 'parent' is
          specified, the new theme will inherit styles, elements and
          layouts from the parent theme.  If 'settings' are present they
          are expected to have the same syntax used for *note
          theme_settings(): 462a.

      -- Μέθοδος: theme_settings (themename, settings)

          Temporarily sets the current theme to 'themename', apply
          specified 'settings' and then restore the previous theme.

          Each key in 'settings' is a style and each value may contain
          the keys “configure”, “map”, “layout” and “element create” and
          they are expected to have the same format as specified by the
          methods *note Style.configure(): 4623, *note Style.map():
          1edb, *note Style.layout(): 4625. and *note
          Style.element_create(): 760. respectively.

          As an example, let’s change the Combobox for the default theme
          a bit:

               from tkinter import ttk
               import tkinter

               root = tkinter.Tk()

               style = ttk.Style()
               style.theme_settings("default", {
                  "TCombobox": {
                      "configure": {"padding": 5},
                      "map": {
                          "background": [("active", "green2"),
                                         ("!disabled", "green4")],
                          "fieldbackground": [("!disabled", "green3")],
                          "foreground": [("focus", "OliveDrab1"),
                                         ("!disabled", "OliveDrab2")]
                      }
                  }
               })

               combo = ttk.Combobox().pack()

               root.mainloop()

      -- Μέθοδος: theme_names ()

          Returns a list of all known themes.

      -- Μέθοδος: theme_use (themename=None)

          If 'themename' is not given, returns the theme in use.
          Otherwise, sets the current theme to 'themename', refreshes
          all widgets and emits a <<ThemeChanged>> event.

* Menu:

* Layouts::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/tile-tcl2004.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Layouts,  Up: Ttk Styling

5.26.8.40 Layouts
.................

A layout can be just ‘None’, if it takes no options, or a dict of
options specifying how to arrange the element.  The layout mechanism
uses a simplified version of the pack geometry manager: given an initial
cavity, each element is allocated a parcel.

The valid options/values are:

'side': whichside

     Specifies which side of the cavity to place the element; one of
     top, right, bottom or left.  If omitted, the element occupies the
     entire cavity.

'sticky': nswe

     Specifies where the element is placed inside its allocated parcel.

'unit': 0 or 1

     If set to 1, causes the element and all of its descendants to be
     treated as a single element for the purposes of *note
     Widget.identify(): 45d1. et al.  It’s used for things like
     scrollbar thumbs with grips.

'children': [sublayout… ]

     Specifies a list of elements to place inside the element.  Each
     element is a tuple (or other sequence type) where the first item is
     the layout name, and the other is a *note Layout: 4626.


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE — Python editor and shell,  Next: turtle — Turtle graphics,  Prev: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets,  Up: Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk

5.26.9 IDLE — Python editor and shell
-------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/idlelib/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

IDLE is Python’s Integrated Development and Learning Environment.

IDLE has the following features:

   * cross-platform: works mostly the same on Windows, Unix, and macOS

   * Python shell window (interactive interpreter) with colorizing of
     code input, output, and error messages

   * multi-window text editor with multiple undo, Python colorizing,
     smart indent, call tips, auto completion, and other features

   * search within any window, replace within editor windows, and search
     through multiple files (grep)

   * debugger with persistent breakpoints, stepping, and viewing of
     global and local namespaces

   * configuration, browsers, and other dialogs

The IDLE application is implemented in the *note idlelib: 76. package.

This is an *note optional module: 2347.  If it is missing from your copy
of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is,
whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

* Menu:

* Menus::
* Editing and Navigation::
* Startup and Code Execution::
* Help and Preferences::
* idlelib — implementation of IDLE application::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/idlelib/


File: python.info,  Node: Menus,  Next: Editing and Navigation,  Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell

5.26.9.1 Menus
..............

IDLE has two main window types, the Shell window and the Editor window.
It is possible to have multiple editor windows simultaneously.  On
Windows and Linux, each has its own top menu.  Each menu documented
below indicates which window type it is associated with.

Output windows, such as used for Edit => Find in Files, are a subtype of
editor window.  They currently have the same top menu but a different
default title and context menu.

On macOS, there is one application menu.  It dynamically changes
according to the window currently selected.  It has an IDLE menu, and
some entries described below are moved around to conform to Apple
guidelines.

* Menu:

* File menu (Shell and Editor): File menu Shell and Editor.
* Edit menu (Shell and Editor): Edit menu Shell and Editor.
* Format menu (Editor window only): Format menu Editor window only.
* Run menu (Editor window only): Run menu Editor window only.
* Shell menu (Shell window only): Shell menu Shell window only.
* Debug menu (Shell window only): Debug menu Shell window only.
* Options menu (Shell and Editor): Options menu Shell and Editor.
* Window menu (Shell and Editor): Window menu Shell and Editor.
* Help menu (Shell and Editor): Help menu Shell and Editor.
* Context menus::


File: python.info,  Node: File menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Edit menu Shell and Editor,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.2 File menu (Shell and Editor)
.....................................

New File

     Create a new file editing window.

Open…

     Open an existing file with an Open dialog.

Open Module…

     Open an existing module (searches sys.path).

Recent Files

     Open a list of recent files.  Click one to open it.

Module Browser

     Show functions, classes, and methods in the current Editor file in
     a tree structure.  In the shell, open a module first.

Path Browser

     Show sys.path directories, modules, functions, classes and methods
     in a tree structure.

Save

     Save the current window to the associated file, if there is one.
     Windows that have been changed since being opened or last saved
     have a * before and after the window title.  If there is no
     associated file, do Save As instead.

Save As…

     Save the current window with a Save As dialog.  The file saved
     becomes the new associated file for the window.  (If your file
     manager is set to hide extensions, the current extension will be
     omitted in the file name box.  If the new filename has no “.”,
     “.py” and “.txt” will be added for Python and text files, except
     that on macOS Aqua,”.py” is added for all files.)

Save Copy As…

     Save the current window to different file without changing the
     associated file.  (See Save As note above about filename
     extensions.)

Print Window

     Print the current window to the default printer.

Close Window

     Close the current window (if an unsaved editor, ask to save; if an
     unsaved Shell, ask to quit execution).  Calling ‘exit()’ or
     ‘close()’ in the Shell window also closes Shell.  If this is the
     only window, also exit IDLE.

Exit IDLE

     Close all windows and quit IDLE (ask to save unsaved edit windows).


File: python.info,  Node: Edit menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Format menu Editor window only,  Prev: File menu Shell and Editor,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.3 Edit menu (Shell and Editor)
.....................................

Undo

     Undo the last change to the current window.  A maximum of 1000
     changes may be undone.

Redo

     Redo the last undone change to the current window.

Select All

     Select the entire contents of the current window.

Cut

     Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the
     selection.

Copy

     Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard.

Paste

     Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current
     window.

The clipboard functions are also available in context menus.

Find…

     Open a search dialog with many options

Find Again

     Repeat the last search, if there is one.

Find Selection

     Search for the currently selected string, if there is one.

Find in Files…

     Open a file search dialog.  Put results in a new output window.

Replace…

     Open a search-and-replace dialog.

Go to Line

     Move the cursor to the beginning of the line requested and make
     that line visible.  A request past the end of the file goes to the
     end.  Clear any selection and update the line and column status.

Show Completions

     Open a scrollable list allowing selection of existing names.  See
     *note Completions: 4634. in the Editing and Navigation section
     below.

Expand Word

     Expand a prefix you have typed to match a full word in the same
     window; repeat to get a different expansion.

Show Call Tip

     After an unclosed parenthesis for a function, open a small window
     with function parameter hints.  See *note Calltips: 4635. in the
     Editing and Navigation section below.

Show Surrounding Parens

     Highlight the surrounding parenthesis.


File: python.info,  Node: Format menu Editor window only,  Next: Run menu Editor window only,  Prev: Edit menu Shell and Editor,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.4 Format menu (Editor window only)
.........................................

Format Paragraph

     Rewrap the text block containing the text insert cursor.  Avoid
     code lines.  See *note Format block: 4638. in the Editing and
     Navigation section below.

Indent Region

     Shift selected lines right by the indent width (default 4 spaces).

Dedent Region

     Shift selected lines left by the indent width (default 4 spaces).

Comment Out Region

     Insert ## in front of selected lines.

Uncomment Region

     Remove leading # or ## from selected lines.

Tabify Region

     Turn 'leading' stretches of spaces into tabs.  (Note: We recommend
     using 4 space blocks to indent Python code.)

Untabify Region

     Turn 'all' tabs into the correct number of spaces.

Toggle Tabs

     Open a dialog to switch between indenting with spaces and tabs.

New Indent Width

     Open a dialog to change indent width.  The accepted default by the
     Python community is 4 spaces.

Strip Trailing Whitespace

     Remove trailing space and other whitespace characters after the
     last non-whitespace character of a line by applying *note
     str.rstrip(): 1853. to each line, including lines within multiline
     strings.  Except for Shell windows, remove extra newlines at the
     end of the file.


File: python.info,  Node: Run menu Editor window only,  Next: Shell menu Shell window only,  Prev: Format menu Editor window only,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.5 Run menu (Editor window only)
......................................

Run Module

     Do *note Check Module: 463b.  If no error, restart the shell to
     clean the environment, then execute the module.  Output is
     displayed in the Shell window.  Note that output requires use of
     ‘print’ or ‘write’.  When execution is complete, the Shell retains
     focus and displays a prompt.  At this point, one may interactively
     explore the result of execution.  This is similar to executing a
     file with ‘python -i file’ at a command line.

Run… Customized

     Same as *note Run Module: 463a, but run the module with customized
     settings.  'Command Line Arguments' extend *note sys.argv: 1609. as
     if passed on a command line.  The module can be run in the Shell
     without restarting.

Check Module

     Check the syntax of the module currently open in the Editor window.
     If the module has not been saved IDLE will either prompt the user
     to save or autosave, as selected in the General tab of the Idle
     Settings dialog.  If there is a syntax error, the approximate
     location is indicated in the Editor window.

Python Shell

     Open or wake up the Python Shell window.


File: python.info,  Node: Shell menu Shell window only,  Next: Debug menu Shell window only,  Prev: Run menu Editor window only,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.6 Shell menu (Shell window only)
.......................................

View Last Restart

     Scroll the shell window to the last Shell restart.

Restart Shell

     Restart the shell to clean the environment and reset display and
     exception handling.

Previous History

     Cycle through earlier commands in history which match the current
     entry.

Next History

     Cycle through later commands in history which match the current
     entry.

Interrupt Execution

     Stop a running program.


File: python.info,  Node: Debug menu Shell window only,  Next: Options menu Shell and Editor,  Prev: Shell menu Shell window only,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.7 Debug menu (Shell window only)
.......................................

Go to File/Line

     Look on the current line.  with the cursor, and the line above for
     a filename and line number.  If found, open the file if not already
     open, and show the line.  Use this to view source lines referenced
     in an exception traceback and lines found by Find in Files.  Also
     available in the context menu of the Shell window and Output
     windows.

Debugger (toggle)

     When activated, code entered in the Shell or run from an Editor
     will run under the debugger.  In the Editor, breakpoints can be set
     with the context menu.  This feature is still incomplete and
     somewhat experimental.

Stack Viewer

     Show the stack traceback of the last exception in a tree widget,
     with access to locals and globals.

Auto-open Stack Viewer

     Toggle automatically opening the stack viewer on an unhandled
     exception.


File: python.info,  Node: Options menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Window menu Shell and Editor,  Prev: Debug menu Shell window only,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.8 Options menu (Shell and Editor)
........................................

Configure IDLE

     Open a configuration dialog and change preferences for the
     following: fonts, indentation, keybindings, text color themes,
     startup windows and size, additional help sources, and extensions.
     On macOS, open the configuration dialog by selecting Preferences in
     the application menu.  For more details, see *note Setting
     preferences: 4641. under Help and preferences.

Most configuration options apply to all windows or all future windows.
The option items below only apply to the active window.

Show/Hide Code Context (Editor Window only)

     Open a pane at the top of the edit window which shows the block
     context of the code which has scrolled above the top of the window.
     See *note Code Context: 4642. in the Editing and Navigation section
     below.

Show/Hide Line Numbers (Editor Window only)

     Open a column to the left of the edit window which shows the number
     of each line of text.  The default is off, which may be changed in
     the preferences (see *note Setting preferences: 4641.).

Zoom/Restore Height

     Toggles the window between normal size and maximum height.  The
     initial size defaults to 40 lines by 80 chars unless changed on the
     General tab of the Configure IDLE dialog.  The maximum height for a
     screen is determined by momentarily maximizing a window the first
     time one is zoomed on the screen.  Changing screen settings may
     invalidate the saved height.  This toggle has no effect when a
     window is maximized.


File: python.info,  Node: Window menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Help menu Shell and Editor,  Prev: Options menu Shell and Editor,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.9 Window menu (Shell and Editor)
.......................................

Lists the names of all open windows; select one to bring it to the
foreground (deiconifying it if necessary).


File: python.info,  Node: Help menu Shell and Editor,  Next: Context menus,  Prev: Window menu Shell and Editor,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.10 Help menu (Shell and Editor)
......................................

About IDLE

     Display version, copyright, license, credits, and more.

IDLE Help

     Display this IDLE document, detailing the menu options, basic
     editing and navigation, and other tips.

Python Docs

     Access local Python documentation, if installed, or start a web
     browser and open docs.python.org showing the latest Python
     documentation.

Turtle Demo

     Run the turtledemo module with example Python code and turtle
     drawings.

Additional help sources may be added here with the Configure IDLE dialog
under the General tab.  See the *note Help sources: 4645. subsection
below for more on Help menu choices.


File: python.info,  Node: Context menus,  Prev: Help menu Shell and Editor,  Up: Menus

5.26.9.11 Context menus
.......................

Open a context menu by right-clicking in a window (Control-click on
macOS). Context menus have the standard clipboard functions also on the
Edit menu.

Cut

     Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the
     selection.

Copy

     Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard.

Paste

     Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current
     window.

Editor windows also have breakpoint functions.  Lines with a breakpoint
set are specially marked.  Breakpoints only have an effect when running
under the debugger.  Breakpoints for a file are saved in the user’s
‘.idlerc’ directory.

Set Breakpoint

     Set a breakpoint on the current line.

Clear Breakpoint

     Clear the breakpoint on that line.

Shell and Output windows also have the following.

Go to file/line

     Same as in Debug menu.

The Shell window also has an output squeezing facility explained in the
'Python Shell window' subsection below.

Squeeze

     If the cursor is over an output line, squeeze all the output
     between the code above and the prompt below down to a “Squeezed
     text” label.


File: python.info,  Node: Editing and Navigation,  Next: Startup and Code Execution,  Prev: Menus,  Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell

5.26.9.12 Editing and Navigation
................................

* Menu:

* Editor windows::
* Key bindings::
* Automatic indentation::
* Search and Replace::
* Completions::
* Calltips::
* Format block::
* Code Context::
* Shell window::
* Text colors::


File: python.info,  Node: Editor windows,  Next: Key bindings,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.13 Editor windows
........................

IDLE may open editor windows when it starts, depending on settings and
how you start IDLE. Thereafter, use the File menu.  There can be only
one open editor window for a given file.

The title bar contains the name of the file, the full path, and the
version of Python and IDLE running the window.  The status bar contains
the line number (“Ln”) and column number (“Col”).  Line numbers start
with 1; column numbers with 0.

IDLE assumes that files with a known .py* extension contain Python code
and that other files do not.  Run Python code with the Run menu.


File: python.info,  Node: Key bindings,  Next: Automatic indentation,  Prev: Editor windows,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.14 Key bindings
......................

The IDLE insertion cursor is a thin vertical bar between character
positions.  When characters are entered, the insertion cursor and
everything to its right moves right one character and the new character
is entered in the new space.

Several non-character keys move the cursor and possibly delete
characters.  Deletion does not puts text on the clipboard, but IDLE has
an undo list.  Wherever this doc discusses keys, “C” refers to the
‘Control’ key on Windows and Unix and the ‘Command’ key on macOS. (And
all such discussions assume that the keys have not been re-bound to
something else.)

   * Arrow keys move the cursor one character or line.

   * ‘C’-‘LeftArrow’ and ‘C’-‘RightArrow’ moves left or right one word.

   * ‘Home’ and ‘End’ go to the beginning or end of the line.

   * ‘Page Up’ and ‘Page Down’ go up or down one screen.

   * ‘C’-‘Home’ and ‘C’-‘End’ go to beginning or end of the file.

   * ‘Backspace’ and ‘Del’ (or ‘C’-‘d’) delete the previous or next
     character.

   * ‘C’-‘Backspace’ and ‘C’-‘Del’ delete one word left or right.

   * ‘C’-‘k’ deletes (“kills”) everything to the right.

Standard keybindings (like ‘C’-‘c’ to copy and ‘C’-‘v’ to paste) may
work.  Keybindings are selected in the Configure IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: Automatic indentation,  Next: Search and Replace,  Prev: Key bindings,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.15 Automatic indentation
...............................

After a block-opening statement, the next line is indented by 4 spaces
(in the Python Shell window by one tab).  After certain keywords (break,
return etc.)  the next line is dedented.  In leading indentation,
‘Backspace’ deletes up to 4 spaces if they are there.  ‘Tab’ inserts
spaces (in the Python Shell window one tab), number depends on Indent
width.  Currently, tabs are restricted to four spaces due to Tcl/Tk
limitations.

See also the indent/dedent region commands on the *note Format menu:
4636.


File: python.info,  Node: Search and Replace,  Next: Completions,  Prev: Automatic indentation,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.16 Search and Replace
............................

Any selection becomes a search target.  However, only selections within
a line work because searches are only performed within lines with the
terminal newline removed.  If ‘[x] Regular expression’ is checked, the
target is interpreted according to the Python re module.


File: python.info,  Node: Completions,  Next: Calltips,  Prev: Search and Replace,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.17 Completions
.....................

Completions are supplied, when requested and available, for module
names, attributes of classes or functions, or filenames.  Each request
method displays a completion box with existing names.  (See tab
completions below for an exception.)  For any box, change the name being
completed and the item highlighted in the box by typing and deleting
characters; by hitting ‘Up’, ‘Down’, ‘PageUp’, ‘PageDown’, ‘Home’, and
‘End’ keys; and by a single click within the box.  Close the box with
‘Escape’, ‘Enter’, and double ‘Tab’ keys or clicks outside the box.  A
double click within the box selects and closes.

One way to open a box is to type a key character and wait for a
predefined interval.  This defaults to 2 seconds; customize it in the
settings dialog.  (To prevent auto popups, set the delay to a large
number of milliseconds, such as 100000000.)  For imported module names
or class or function attributes, type “.”.  For filenames in the root
directory, type *note os.sep: a5a. or *note os.altsep: a5b. immediately
after an opening quote.  (On Windows, one can specify a drive first.)
Move into subdirectories by typing a directory name and a separator.

Instead of waiting, or after a box is closed, open a completion box
immediately with Show Completions on the Edit menu.  The default hot key
is ‘C’-‘space’.  If one types a prefix for the desired name before
opening the box, the first match or near miss is made visible.  The
result is the same as if one enters a prefix after the box is displayed.
Show Completions after a quote completes filenames in the current
directory instead of a root directory.

Hitting ‘Tab’ after a prefix usually has the same effect as Show
Completions.  (With no prefix, it indents.)  However, if there is only
one match to the prefix, that match is immediately added to the editor
text without opening a box.

Invoking “Show Completions”, or hitting ‘Tab’ after a prefix, outside of
a string and without a preceding “.” opens a box with keywords, builtin
names, and available module-level names.

When editing code in an editor (as oppose to Shell), increase the
available module-level names by running your code and not restarting the
Shell thereafter.  This is especially useful after adding imports at the
top of a file.  This also increases possible attribute completions.

Completion boxes initially exclude names beginning with “_” or, for
modules, not included in “__all__”.  The hidden names can be accessed by
typing “_” after “.”, either before or after the box is opened.


File: python.info,  Node: Calltips,  Next: Format block,  Prev: Completions,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.18 Calltips
..................

A calltip is shown automatically when one types ‘(’ after the name of an
'accessible' function.  A function name expression may include dots and
subscripts.  A calltip remains until it is clicked, the cursor is moved
out of the argument area, or ‘)’ is typed.  Whenever the cursor is in
the argument part of a definition, select Edit and «Show Call Tip» on
the menu or enter its shortcut to display a calltip.

The calltip consists of the function’s signature and docstring up to the
latter’s first blank line or the fifth non-blank line.  (Some builtin
functions lack an accessible signature.)  A “/” or “*” in the signature
indicates that the preceding or following arguments are passed by
position or name (keyword) only.  Details are subject to change.

In Shell, the accessible functions depends on what modules have been
imported into the user process, including those imported by Idle itself,
and which definitions have been run, all since the last restart.

For example, restart the Shell and enter ‘itertools.count(’.  A calltip
appears because Idle imports itertools into the user process for its own
use.  (This could change.)  Enter ‘turtle.write(’ and nothing appears.
Idle does not itself import turtle.  The menu entry and shortcut also do
nothing.  Enter ‘import turtle’.  Thereafter, ‘turtle.write(’ will
display a calltip.

In an editor, import statements have no effect until one runs the file.
One might want to run a file after writing import statements, after
adding function definitions, or after opening an existing file.


File: python.info,  Node: Format block,  Next: Code Context,  Prev: Calltips,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.19 Format block
......................

Reformat Paragraph rewraps a block (“paragraph”) of contiguous equally
indented non-blank comments, a similar block of text within a multiline
string, or a selected subset of either.  If needed, add a blank line to
separate string from code.  Partial lines in a selection expand to
complete lines.  The resulting lines have the same indent as before but
have maximum total length of N columns (characters).  Change the default
N of 72 on the Window tab of IDLE Settings.


File: python.info,  Node: Code Context,  Next: Shell window,  Prev: Format block,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.20 Code Context
......................

Within an editor window containing Python code, code context can be
toggled in order to show or hide a pane at the top of the window.  When
shown, this pane freezes the opening lines for block code, such as those
beginning with ‘class’, ‘def’, or ‘if’ keywords, that would have
otherwise scrolled out of view.  The size of the pane will be expanded
and contracted as needed to show the all current levels of context, up
to the maximum number of lines defined in the Configure IDLE dialog
(which defaults to 15).  If there are no current context lines and the
feature is toggled on, a single blank line will display.  Clicking on a
line in the context pane will move that line to the top of the editor.

The text and background colors for the context pane can be configured
under the Highlights tab in the Configure IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: Shell window,  Next: Text colors,  Prev: Code Context,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.21 Shell window
......................

In IDLE’s Shell, enter, edit, and recall complete statements.  (Most
consoles and terminals only work with a single physical line at a time).

Submit a single-line statement for execution by hitting ‘Return’ with
the cursor anywhere on the line.  If a line is extended with Backslash
(‘\’), the cursor must be on the last physical line.  Submit a
multi-line compound statement by entering a blank line after the
statement.

When one pastes code into Shell, it is not compiled and possibly
executed until one hits ‘Return’, as specified above.  One may edit
pasted code first.  If one pastes more than one statement into Shell,
the result will be a *note SyntaxError: 17e. when multiple statements
are compiled as if they were one.

Lines containing ‘RESTART’ mean that the user execution process has been
re-started.  This occurs when the user execution process has crashed,
when one requests a restart on the Shell menu, or when one runs code in
an editor window.

The editing features described in previous subsections work when
entering code interactively.  IDLE’s Shell window also responds to the
following:

   * ‘C’-‘c’ attempts to interrupt statement execution (but may fail).

   * ‘C’-‘d’ closes Shell if typed at a ‘>>>’ prompt.

   * ‘Alt’-‘p’ and ‘Alt’-‘n’ (‘C’-‘p’ and ‘C’-‘n’ on macOS) retrieve to
     the current prompt the previous or next previously entered
     statement that matches anything already typed.

   * ‘Return’ while the cursor is on any previous statement appends the
     latter to anything already typed at the prompt.


File: python.info,  Node: Text colors,  Prev: Shell window,  Up: Editing and Navigation

5.26.9.22 Text colors
.....................

Idle defaults to black on white text, but colors text with special
meanings.  For the shell, these are shell output, shell error, user
output, and user error.  For Python code, at the shell prompt or in an
editor, these are keywords, builtin class and function names, names
following ‘class’ and ‘def’, strings, and comments.  For any text
window, these are the cursor (when present), found text (when possible),
and selected text.

IDLE also highlights the *note soft keywords: be6. *note match: 1d4,
‘case’, and *note _: be7. in pattern-matching statements.  However, this
highlighting is not perfect and will be incorrect in some rare cases,
including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’ patterns.

Text coloring is done in the background, so uncolorized text is
occasionally visible.  To change the color scheme, use the Configure
IDLE dialog Highlighting tab.  The marking of debugger breakpoint lines
in the editor and text in popups and dialogs is not user-configurable.


File: python.info,  Node: Startup and Code Execution,  Next: Help and Preferences,  Prev: Editing and Navigation,  Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell

5.26.9.23 Startup and Code Execution
....................................

Upon startup with the ‘-s’ option, IDLE will execute the file referenced
by the environment variables ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453.
IDLE first checks for ‘IDLESTARTUP’; if ‘IDLESTARTUP’ is present the
file referenced is run.  If ‘IDLESTARTUP’ is not present, IDLE checks
for ‘PYTHONSTARTUP’.  Files referenced by these environment variables
are convenient places to store functions that are used frequently from
the IDLE shell, or for executing import statements to import common
modules.

In addition, ‘Tk’ also loads a startup file if it is present.  Note that
the Tk file is loaded unconditionally.  This additional file is
‘.Idle.py’ and is looked for in the user’s home directory.  Statements
in this file will be executed in the Tk namespace, so this file is not
useful for importing functions to be used from IDLE’s Python shell.

* Menu:

* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<3>.
* Startup failure::
* Running user code::
* User output in Shell::
* Developing tkinter applications::
* Running without a subprocess::


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line usage<3>,  Next: Startup failure,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.26.9.24 Command-line usage
............................

IDLE can be invoked from the command line with various options.  The
general syntax is:

     python -m idlelib [options] [file ...]

The following options are available:

 -- Option: -c <command>

     Run the specified Python command in the shell window.  For example,
     pass ‘-c "print('Hello, World!')"’.  On Windows, the outer quotes
     must be double quotes as shown.

 -- Option: -d

     Enable the debugger and open the shell window.

 -- Option: -e

     Open an editor window.

 -- Option: -h

     Print a help message with legal combinations of options and exit.

 -- Option: -i

     Open a shell window.

 -- Option: -r <file>

     Run the specified file in the shell window.

 -- Option: -s

     Run the startup file (as defined by the environment variables
     ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453.) before opening the
     shell window.

 -- Option: -t <title>

     Set the title of the shell window.

 -- Option: -

     Read and execute standard input in the shell window.  This option
     must be the last one before any arguments.

If arguments are provided:

   - If ‘-’, ‘-c’, or ‘-r’ is used, all arguments are placed in
     ‘sys.argv[1:]’, and ‘sys.argv[0]’ is set to ‘''’, ‘'-c'’, or ‘'-r'’
     respectively.  No editor window is opened, even if that is the
     default set in the 'Options' dialog.

   - Otherwise, arguments are treated as files to be opened for editing,
     and ‘sys.argv’ reflects the arguments passed to IDLE itself.


File: python.info,  Node: Startup failure,  Next: Running user code,  Prev: Command-line usage<3>,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.26.9.25 Startup failure
.........................

IDLE uses a socket to communicate between the IDLE GUI process and the
user code execution process.  A connection must be established whenever
the Shell starts or restarts.  (The latter is indicated by a divider
line that says “RESTART”).  If the user process fails to connect to the
GUI process, it usually displays a ‘Tk’ error box with a “cannot
connect” message that directs the user here.  It then exits.

One specific connection failure on Unix systems results from
misconfigured masquerading rules somewhere in a system’s network setup.
When IDLE is started from a terminal, one will see a message starting
with ‘** Invalid host:’.  The valid value is ‘127.0.0.1
(idlelib.rpc.LOCALHOST)’.  One can diagnose with ‘tcpconnect -irv
127.0.0.1 6543’ in one terminal window and ‘tcplisten <same args>’ in
another.

A common cause of failure is a user-written file with the same name as a
standard library module, such as 'random.py' and 'tkinter.py'.  When
such a file is located in the same directory as a file that is about to
be run, IDLE cannot import the stdlib file.  The current fix is to
rename the user file.

Though less common than in the past, an antivirus or firewall program
may stop the connection.  If the program cannot be taught to allow the
connection, then it must be turned off for IDLE to work.  It is safe to
allow this internal connection because no data is visible on external
ports.  A similar problem is a network mis-configuration that blocks
connections.

Python installation issues occasionally stop IDLE: multiple versions can
clash, or a single installation might need admin access.  If one undo
the clash, or cannot or does not want to run as admin, it might be
easiest to completely remove Python and start over.

A zombie pythonw.exe process could be a problem.  On Windows, use Task
Manager to check for one and stop it if there is.  Sometimes a restart
initiated by a program crash or Keyboard Interrupt (control-C) may fail
to connect.  Dismissing the error box or using Restart Shell on the
Shell menu may fix a temporary problem.

When IDLE first starts, it attempts to read user configuration files in
‘~/.idlerc/’ (~ is one’s home directory).  If there is a problem, an
error message should be displayed.  Leaving aside random disk glitches,
this can be prevented by never editing the files by hand.  Instead, use
the configuration dialog, under Options.  Once there is an error in a
user configuration file, the best solution may be to delete it and start
over with the settings dialog.

If IDLE quits with no message, and it was not started from a console,
try starting it from a console or terminal (‘python -m idlelib’) and see
if this results in an error message.

On Unix-based systems with tcl/tk older than ‘8.6.11’ (see ‘About IDLE’)
certain characters of certain fonts can cause a tk failure with a
message to the terminal.  This can happen either if one starts IDLE to
edit a file with such a character or later when entering such a
character.  If one cannot upgrade tcl/tk, then re-configure IDLE to use
a font that works better.


File: python.info,  Node: Running user code,  Next: User output in Shell,  Prev: Startup failure,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.26.9.26 Running user code
...........................

With rare exceptions, the result of executing Python code with IDLE is
intended to be the same as executing the same code by the default
method, directly with Python in a text-mode system console or terminal
window.  However, the different interface and operation occasionally
affect visible results.  For instance, ‘sys.modules’ starts with more
entries, and ‘threading.active_count()’ returns 2 instead of 1.

By default, IDLE runs user code in a separate OS process rather than in
the user interface process that runs the shell and editor.  In the
execution process, it replaces ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’, and
‘sys.stderr’ with objects that get input from and send output to the
Shell window.  The original values stored in ‘sys.__stdin__’,
‘sys.__stdout__’, and ‘sys.__stderr__’ are not touched, but may be
‘None’.

Sending print output from one process to a text widget in another is
slower than printing to a system terminal in the same process.  This has
the most effect when printing multiple arguments, as the string for each
argument, each separator, the newline are sent separately.  For
development, this is usually not a problem, but if one wants to print
faster in IDLE, format and join together everything one wants displayed
together and then print a single string.  Both format strings and *note
str.join(): 2803. can help combine fields and lines.

IDLE’s standard stream replacements are not inherited by subprocesses
created in the execution process, whether directly by user code or by
modules such as multiprocessing.  If such subprocess use ‘input’ from
sys.stdin or ‘print’ or ‘write’ to sys.stdout or sys.stderr, IDLE should
be started in a command line window.  (On Windows, use ‘python’ or ‘py’
rather than ‘pythonw’ or ‘pyw’.)  The secondary subprocess will then be
attached to that window for input and output.

If ‘sys’ is reset by user code, such as with ‘importlib.reload(sys)’,
IDLE’s changes are lost and input from the keyboard and output to the
screen will not work correctly.

When Shell has the focus, it controls the keyboard and screen.  This is
normally transparent, but functions that directly access the keyboard
and screen will not work.  These include system-specific functions that
determine whether a key has been pressed and if so, which.

The IDLE code running in the execution process adds frames to the call
stack that would not be there otherwise.  IDLE wraps
‘sys.getrecursionlimit’ and ‘sys.setrecursionlimit’ to reduce the effect
of the additional stack frames.

When user code raises SystemExit either directly or by calling sys.exit,
IDLE returns to a Shell prompt instead of exiting.


File: python.info,  Node: User output in Shell,  Next: Developing tkinter applications,  Prev: Running user code,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.26.9.27 User output in Shell
..............................

When a program outputs text, the result is determined by the
corresponding output device.  When IDLE executes user code, ‘sys.stdout’
and ‘sys.stderr’ are connected to the display area of IDLE’s Shell.
Some of its features are inherited from the underlying Tk Text widget.
Others are programmed additions.  Where it matters, Shell is designed
for development rather than production runs.

For instance, Shell never throws away output.  A program that sends
unlimited output to Shell will eventually fill memory, resulting in a
memory error.  In contrast, some system text windows only keep the last
n lines of output.  A Windows console, for instance, keeps a
user-settable 1 to 9999 lines, with 300 the default.

A Tk Text widget, and hence IDLE’s Shell, displays characters
(codepoints) in the BMP (Basic Multilingual Plane) subset of Unicode.
Which characters are displayed with a proper glyph and which with a
replacement box depends on the operating system and installed fonts.
Tab characters cause the following text to begin after the next tab
stop.  (They occur every 8 “characters”).  Newline characters cause
following text to appear on a new line.  Other control characters are
ignored or displayed as a space, box, or something else, depending on
the operating system and font.  (Moving the text cursor through such
output with arrow keys may exhibit some surprising spacing behavior.)

     >>> s = 'a\tb\a<\x02><\r>\bc\nd'  # Enter 22 chars.
     >>> len(s)
     14
     >>> s  # Display repr(s)
     'a\tb\x07<\x02><\r>\x08c\nd'
     >>> print(s, end='')  # Display s as is.
     # Result varies by OS and font.  Try it.

The ‘repr’ function is used for interactive echo of expression values.
It returns an altered version of the input string in which control
codes, some BMP codepoints, and all non-BMP codepoints are replaced with
escape codes.  As demonstrated above, it allows one to identify the
characters in a string, regardless of how they are displayed.

Normal and error output are generally kept separate (on separate lines)
from code input and each other.  They each get different highlight
colors.

For SyntaxError tracebacks, the normal “^” marking where the error was
detected is replaced by coloring the text with an error highlight.  When
code run from a file causes other exceptions, one may right click on a
traceback line to jump to the corresponding line in an IDLE editor.  The
file will be opened if necessary.

Shell has a special facility for squeezing output lines down to a
“Squeezed text” label.  This is done automatically for output over N
lines (N = 50 by default).  N can be changed in the PyShell section of
the General page of the Settings dialog.  Output with fewer lines can be
squeezed by right clicking on the output.  This can be useful lines long
enough to slow down scrolling.

Squeezed output is expanded in place by double-clicking the label.  It
can also be sent to the clipboard or a separate view window by
right-clicking the label.


File: python.info,  Node: Developing tkinter applications,  Next: Running without a subprocess,  Prev: User output in Shell,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.26.9.28 Developing tkinter applications
.........................................

IDLE is intentionally different from standard Python in order to
facilitate development of tkinter programs.  Enter ‘import tkinter as
tk; root = tk.Tk()’ in standard Python and nothing appears.  Enter the
same in IDLE and a tk window appears.  In standard Python, one must also
enter ‘root.update()’ to see the window.  IDLE does the equivalent in
the background, about 20 times a second, which is about every 50
milliseconds.  Next enter ‘b = tk.Button(root, text='button');
b.pack()’.  Again, nothing visibly changes in standard Python until one
enters ‘root.update()’.

Most tkinter programs run ‘root.mainloop()’, which usually does not
return until the tk app is destroyed.  If the program is run with
‘python -i’ or from an IDLE editor, a ‘>>>’ shell prompt does not appear
until ‘mainloop()’ returns, at which time there is nothing left to
interact with.

When running a tkinter program from an IDLE editor, one can comment out
the mainloop call.  One then gets a shell prompt immediately and can
interact with the live application.  One just has to remember to
re-enable the mainloop call when running in standard Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Running without a subprocess,  Prev: Developing tkinter applications,  Up: Startup and Code Execution

5.26.9.29 Running without a subprocess
......................................

By default, IDLE executes user code in a separate subprocess via a
socket, which uses the internal loopback interface.  This connection is
not externally visible and no data is sent to or received from the
internet.  If firewall software complains anyway, you can ignore it.

If the attempt to make the socket connection fails, Idle will notify
you.  Such failures are sometimes transient, but if persistent, the
problem may be either a firewall blocking the connection or
misconfiguration of a particular system.  Until the problem is fixed,
one can run Idle with the -n command line switch.

If IDLE is started with the -n command line switch it will run in a
single process and will not create the subprocess which runs the RPC
Python execution server.  This can be useful if Python cannot create the
subprocess or the RPC socket interface on your platform.  However, in
this mode user code is not isolated from IDLE itself.  Also, the
environment is not restarted when Run/Run Module (F5) is selected.  If
your code has been modified, you must reload() the affected modules and
re-import any specific items (e.g.  from foo import baz) if the changes
are to take effect.  For these reasons, it is preferable to run IDLE
with the default subprocess if at all possible.

Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Help and Preferences,  Next: idlelib — implementation of IDLE application,  Prev: Startup and Code Execution,  Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell

5.26.9.30 Help and Preferences
..............................

* Menu:

* Help sources::
* Setting preferences::
* IDLE on macOS::
* Extensions::


File: python.info,  Node: Help sources,  Next: Setting preferences,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.26.9.31 Help sources
......................

Help menu entry «IDLE Help» displays a formatted html version of the
IDLE chapter of the Library Reference.  The result, in a read-only
tkinter text window, is close to what one sees in a web browser.
Navigate through the text with a mousewheel, the scrollbar, or up and
down arrow keys held down.  Or click the TOC (Table of Contents) button
and select a section header in the opened box.

Help menu entry «Python Docs» opens the extensive sources of help,
including tutorials, available at ‘docs.python.org/x.y’, where “x.y” is
the currently running Python version.  If your system has an off-line
copy of the docs (this may be an installation option), that will be
opened instead.

Selected URLs can be added or removed from the help menu at any time
using the General tab of the Configure IDLE dialog.


File: python.info,  Node: Setting preferences,  Next: IDLE on macOS,  Prev: Help sources,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.26.9.32 Setting preferences
.............................

The font preferences, highlighting, keys, and general preferences can be
changed via Configure IDLE on the Option menu.  Non-default user
settings are saved in a ‘.idlerc’ directory in the user’s home
directory.  Problems caused by bad user configuration files are solved
by editing or deleting one or more of the files in ‘.idlerc’.

On the Font tab, see the text sample for the effect of font face and
size on multiple characters in multiple languages.  Edit the sample to
add other characters of personal interest.  Use the sample to select
monospaced fonts.  If particular characters have problems in Shell or an
editor, add them to the top of the sample and try changing first size
and then font.

On the Highlights and Keys tab, select a built-in or custom color theme
and key set.  To use a newer built-in color theme or key set with older
IDLEs, save it as a new custom theme or key set and it well be
accessible to older IDLEs.


File: python.info,  Node: IDLE on macOS,  Next: Extensions,  Prev: Setting preferences,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.26.9.33 IDLE on macOS
.......................

Under System Preferences: Dock, one can set «Prefer tabs when opening
documents» to «Always».  This setting is not compatible with the
tk/tkinter GUI framework used by IDLE, and it breaks a few IDLE
features.


File: python.info,  Node: Extensions,  Prev: IDLE on macOS,  Up: Help and Preferences

5.26.9.34 Extensions
....................

IDLE contains an extension facility.  Preferences for extensions can be
changed with the Extensions tab of the preferences dialog.  See the
beginning of config-extensions.def in the idlelib directory for further
information.  The only current default extension is zzdummy, an example
also used for testing.


File: python.info,  Node: idlelib — implementation of IDLE application,  Prev: Help and Preferences,  Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell

5.26.9.35 idlelib — implementation of IDLE application
......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/idlelib(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The Lib/idlelib package implements the IDLE application.  See the rest
of this page for how to use IDLE.

The files in idlelib are described in idlelib/README.txt.  Access it
either in idlelib or click Help => About IDLE on the IDLE menu.  This
file also maps IDLE menu items to the code that implements the item.
Except for files listed under “Startup”, the idlelib code is “private”
in sense that feature changes can be backported (see PEP 434(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/idlelib

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/


File: python.info,  Node: turtle — Turtle graphics,  Prev: IDLE — Python editor and shell,  Up: Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk

5.26.10 ‘turtle’ — Turtle graphics
----------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/turtle.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<10>.
* Get started::
* Tutorial: Tutorial<4>.
* How to…::
* Turtle graphics reference::
* Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions::
* Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions::
* Public classes::
* Explanation: Explanation<2>.
* Help and configuration::
* turtledemo — Demo scripts::
* Changes since Python 2.6: Changes since Python 2 6.
* Changes since Python 3.0: Changes since Python 3 0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/turtle.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<10>,  Next: Get started,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.26.10.1 Introduction
......................

Turtle graphics is an implementation of the popular geometric drawing
tools introduced in Logo(1), developed by Wally Feurzeig, Seymour Papert
and Cynthia Solomon in 1967.

This is an *note optional module: 2347.  If it is missing from your copy
of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is,
whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_(robot)


File: python.info,  Node: Get started,  Next: Tutorial<4>,  Prev: Introduction<10>,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.26.10.2 Get started
.....................

Imagine a robotic turtle starting at (0, 0) in the x-y plane.  After an
‘import turtle’, give it the command ‘turtle.forward(15)’, and it moves
(on-screen!)  15 pixels in the direction it is facing, drawing a line as
it moves.  Give it the command ‘turtle.right(25)’, and it rotates
in-place 25 degrees clockwise.

Turtle star
...........

Turtle can draw intricate shapes using programs that repeat simple
moves.

[image src="python-figures/turtle-star.png"]


In Python, turtle graphics provides a representation of a physical
«turtle» (a little robot with a pen) that draws on a sheet of paper on
the floor.

It’s an effective and well-proven way for learners to encounter
programming concepts and interaction with software, as it provides
instant, visible feedback.  It also provides convenient access to
graphical output in general.

Turtle drawing was originally created as an educational tool, to be used
by teachers in the classroom.  For the programmer who needs to produce
some graphical output it can be a way to do that without the overhead of
introducing more complex or external libraries into their work.


File: python.info,  Node: Tutorial<4>,  Next: How to…,  Prev: Get started,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.26.10.3 Tutorial
..................

New users should start here.  In this tutorial we’ll explore some of the
basics of turtle drawing.

* Menu:

* Starting a turtle environment::
* Basic drawing::
* Making algorithmic patterns::


File: python.info,  Node: Starting a turtle environment,  Next: Basic drawing,  Up: Tutorial<4>

5.26.10.4 Starting a turtle environment
.......................................

In a Python shell, import all the objects of the ‘turtle’ module:

     from turtle import *

If you run into a ‘No module named '_tkinter'’ error, you’ll have to
install the *note Tk interface package: f9. on your system.


File: python.info,  Node: Basic drawing,  Next: Making algorithmic patterns,  Prev: Starting a turtle environment,  Up: Tutorial<4>

5.26.10.5 Basic drawing
.......................

Send the turtle forward 100 steps:

     forward(100)

You should see (most likely, in a new window on your display) a line
drawn by the turtle, heading East.  Change the direction of the turtle,
so that it turns 120 degrees left (anti-clockwise):

     left(120)

Let’s continue by drawing a triangle:

     forward(100)
     left(120)
     forward(100)

Notice how the turtle, represented by an arrow, points in different
directions as you steer it.

Experiment with those commands, and also with ‘backward()’ and
‘right()’.

* Menu:

* Pen control::
* The turtle’s position::


File: python.info,  Node: Pen control,  Next: The turtle’s position,  Up: Basic drawing

5.26.10.6 Pen control
.....................

Try changing the color - for example, ‘color('blue')’ - and width of the
line - for example, ‘width(3)’ - and then drawing again.

You can also move the turtle around without drawing, by lifting up the
pen: ‘up()’ before moving.  To start drawing again, use ‘down()’.


File: python.info,  Node: The turtle’s position,  Prev: Pen control,  Up: Basic drawing

5.26.10.7 The turtle’s position
...............................

Send your turtle back to its starting-point (useful if it has
disappeared off-screen):

     home()

The home position is at the center of the turtle’s screen.  If you ever
need to know them, get the turtle’s x-y coordinates with:

     pos()

Home is at ‘(0, 0)’.

And after a while, it will probably help to clear the window so we can
start anew:

     clearscreen()


File: python.info,  Node: Making algorithmic patterns,  Prev: Basic drawing,  Up: Tutorial<4>

5.26.10.8 Making algorithmic patterns
.....................................

Using loops, it’s possible to build up geometric patterns:

     for steps in range(100):
         for c in ('blue', 'red', 'green'):
             color(c)
             forward(steps)
             right(30)

- which of course, are limited only by the imagination!

Let’s draw the star shape at the top of this page.  We want red lines,
filled in with yellow:

     color('red')
     fillcolor('yellow')

Just as ‘up()’ and ‘down()’ determine whether lines will be drawn,
filling can be turned on and off:

     begin_fill()

Next we’ll create a loop:

     while True:
         forward(200)
         left(170)
         if abs(pos()) < 1:
             break

‘abs(pos()) < 1’ is a good way to know when the turtle is back at its
home position.

Finally, complete the filling:

     end_fill()

(Note that filling only actually takes place when you give the
‘end_fill()’ command.)


File: python.info,  Node: How to…,  Next: Turtle graphics reference,  Prev: Tutorial<4>,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.26.10.9 How to…
.................

This section covers some typical turtle use-cases and approaches.

* Menu:

* Get started as quickly as possible::
* Automatically begin and end filling::
* Use the turtle module namespace::
* Use turtle graphics in a script::
* Use object-oriented turtle graphics::


File: python.info,  Node: Get started as quickly as possible,  Next: Automatically begin and end filling,  Up: How to…

5.26.10.10 Get started as quickly as possible
.............................................

One of the joys of turtle graphics is the immediate, visual feedback
that’s available from simple commands - it’s an excellent way to
introduce children to programming ideas, with a minimum of overhead (not
just children, of course).

The turtle module makes this possible by exposing all its basic
functionality as functions, available with ‘from turtle import *’.  The
*note turtle graphics tutorial: 466f. covers this approach.

It’s worth noting that many of the turtle commands also have even more
terse equivalents, such as ‘fd()’ for *note forward(): 3858.  These are
especially useful when working with learners for whom typing is not a
skill.

     You’ll need to have the *note Tk interface package: f9. installed
     on your system for turtle graphics to work.  Be warned that this is
     not always straightforward, so check this in advance if you’re
     planning to use turtle graphics with a learner.


File: python.info,  Node: Automatically begin and end filling,  Next: Use the turtle module namespace,  Prev: Get started as quickly as possible,  Up: How to…

5.26.10.11 Automatically begin and end filling
..............................................

Starting with Python 3.14, you can use the *note fill(): 523. *note
context manager: 478. instead of *note begin_fill(): 467b. and *note
end_fill(): 467c. to automatically begin and end fill.  Here is an
example:

     with fill():
         for i in range(4):
             forward(100)
             right(90)

     forward(200)

The code above is equivalent to:

     begin_fill()
     for i in range(4):
         forward(100)
         right(90)
     end_fill()

     forward(200)


File: python.info,  Node: Use the turtle module namespace,  Next: Use turtle graphics in a script,  Prev: Automatically begin and end filling,  Up: How to…

5.26.10.12 Use the ‘turtle’ module namespace
............................................

Using ‘from turtle import *’ is convenient - but be warned that it
imports a rather large collection of objects, and if you’re doing
anything but turtle graphics you run the risk of a name conflict (this
becomes even more an issue if you’re using turtle graphics in a script
where other modules might be imported).

The solution is to use ‘import turtle’ - ‘fd()’ becomes ‘turtle.fd()’,
‘width()’ becomes ‘turtle.width()’ and so on.  (If typing «turtle» over
and over again becomes tedious, use for example ‘import turtle as t’
instead.)


File: python.info,  Node: Use turtle graphics in a script,  Next: Use object-oriented turtle graphics,  Prev: Use the turtle module namespace,  Up: How to…

5.26.10.13 Use turtle graphics in a script
..........................................

It’s recommended to use the ‘turtle’ module namespace as described
immediately above, for example:

     import turtle as t
     from random import random

     for i in range(100):
         steps = int(random() * 100)
         angle = int(random() * 360)
         t.right(angle)
         t.fd(steps)

Another step is also required though - as soon as the script ends,
Python will also close the turtle’s window.  Add:

     t.mainloop()

to the end of the script.  The script will now wait to be dismissed and
will not exit until it is terminated, for example by closing the turtle
graphics window.


File: python.info,  Node: Use object-oriented turtle graphics,  Prev: Use turtle graphics in a script,  Up: How to…

5.26.10.14 Use object-oriented turtle graphics
..............................................

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Explanation of the object-oriented interface: 4680.

Other than for very basic introductory purposes, or for trying things
out as quickly as possible, it’s more usual and much more powerful to
use the object-oriented approach to turtle graphics.  For example, this
allows multiple turtles on screen at once.

In this approach, the various turtle commands are methods of objects
(mostly of ‘Turtle’ objects).  You 'can' use the object-oriented
approach in the shell, but it would be more typical in a Python script.

The example above then becomes:

     from turtle import Turtle
     from random import random

     t = Turtle()
     for i in range(100):
         steps = int(random() * 100)
         angle = int(random() * 360)
         t.right(angle)
         t.fd(steps)

     t.screen.mainloop()

Note the last line.  ‘t.screen’ is an instance of the *note Screen:
4681. that a Turtle instance exists on; it’s created automatically along
with the turtle.

The turtle’s screen can be customised, for example:

     t.screen.title('Object-oriented turtle demo')
     t.screen.bgcolor("orange")


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle graphics reference,  Next: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions,  Prev: How to…,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.26.10.15 Turtle graphics reference
....................................

     Σημείωση: In the following documentation the argument list for
     functions is given.  Methods, of course, have the additional first
     argument 'self' which is omitted here.

* Menu:

* Turtle methods::
* Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen::


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle methods,  Next: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen,  Up: Turtle graphics reference

5.26.10.16 Turtle methods
.........................

Turtle motion

     Move and draw

               *note forward(): 3858. | *note fd(): 4684.
               *note backward(): 4685. | *note bk(): 4686. | *note back(): 4687.
               *note right(): 4688. | *note rt(): 4689.
               *note left(): 468a. | *note lt(): 468b.
               *note goto(): 468c. | *note setpos(): 468d. | *note setposition(): 468e.
               *note teleport(): 1c9c.
               *note setx(): 468f.
               *note sety(): 4690.
               *note setheading(): 4691. | *note seth(): 4692.
               *note home(): 4693.
               *note circle(): 4694.
               *note dot(): 4695.
               *note stamp(): 4696.
               *note clearstamp(): 4697.
               *note clearstamps(): 4698.
               *note undo(): 4699.
               *note speed(): 469a.

     Tell Turtle’s state

               *note position(): 469b. | *note pos(): 469c.
               *note towards(): 469d.
               *note xcor(): 469e.
               *note ycor(): 469f.
               *note heading(): 46a0.
               *note distance(): 46a1.

     Setting and measurement

               *note degrees(): 46a2.
               *note radians(): 46a3.

Pen control

     Drawing state

               *note pendown(): 46a4. | *note pd(): 46a5. | *note down(): 46a6.
               *note penup(): 46a7. | *note pu(): 46a8. | *note up(): 46a9.
               *note pensize(): 46aa. | *note width(): 46ab.
               *note pen(): 46ac.
               *note isdown(): 46ad.

     Color control

               *note color(): 46ae.
               *note pencolor(): 46af.
               *note fillcolor(): 46b0.

     Filling

               *note filling(): 46b1.
               *note fill(): 523.
               *note begin_fill(): 467b.
               *note end_fill(): 467c.

     More drawing control

               *note reset(): 46b2.
               *note clear(): 46b3.
               *note write(): 46b4.

Turtle state

     Visibility

               *note showturtle(): 46b5. | *note st(): 46b6.
               *note hideturtle(): 46b7. | *note ht(): 46b8.
               *note isvisible(): 46b9.

     Appearance

               *note shape(): 46ba.
               *note resizemode(): 46bb.
               *note shapesize(): 46bc. | *note turtlesize(): 46bd.
               *note shearfactor(): 46be.
               *note tiltangle(): b0d.
               *note tilt(): 46bf.
               *note shapetransform(): 46c0.
               *note get_shapepoly(): 46c1.

Using events

          *note onclick(): 46c2.
          *note onrelease(): 46c3.
          *note ondrag(): 46c4.

Special Turtle methods

          *note poly(): 524.
          *note begin_poly(): 46c5.
          *note end_poly(): 46c6.
          *note get_poly(): 46c7.
          *note clone(): 46c8.
          *note getturtle(): 46c9. | *note getpen(): 46ca.
          *note getscreen(): 46cb.
          *note setundobuffer(): 46cc.
          *note undobufferentries(): 46cd.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen,  Prev: Turtle methods,  Up: Turtle graphics reference

5.26.10.17 Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen
.........................................

Window control

          *note bgcolor(): 46cf.
          *note bgpic(): 46d0.
          *note clearscreen(): 46d1.
          *note resetscreen(): 46d2.
          *note screensize(): 46d3.
          *note setworldcoordinates(): 46d4.

Animation control

          *note no_animation(): 525.
          *note delay(): 46d5.
          *note tracer(): 46d6.
          *note update(): 46d7.

Using screen events

          *note listen(): 46d8.
          *note onkey(): 46d9. | *note onkeyrelease(): 46da.
          *note onkeypress(): 46db.
          *note onclick(): 46c2. | *note onscreenclick(): 46dc.
          *note ontimer(): 46dd.
          *note mainloop(): 46de. | *note done(): 46df.

Settings and special methods

          *note mode(): 46e0.
          *note colormode(): 46e1.
          *note getcanvas(): 46e2.
          *note getshapes(): 46e3.
          *note register_shape(): 46e4. | *note addshape(): 46e5.
          *note turtles(): 46e6.
          *note window_height(): 46e7.
          *note window_width(): 46e8.

Input methods

          *note textinput(): 1e71.
          *note numinput(): 1e72.

Methods specific to Screen

          *note bye(): 46e9.
          *note exitonclick(): 46ea.
          *note save(): 1b83.
          *note setup(): 46eb.
          *note title(): 46ec.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions,  Next: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions,  Prev: Turtle graphics reference,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.26.10.18 Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions
..................................................................

Most of the examples in this section refer to a Turtle instance called
‘turtle’.

* Menu:

* Turtle motion::
* Tell Turtle’s state::
* Settings for measurement::
* Pen control: Pen control<2>.
* Turtle state::
* Using events::
* Special Turtle methods::
* Compound shapes::


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle motion,  Next: Tell Turtle’s state,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.26.10.19 Turtle motion
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.forward (distance)
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.fd (distance)


     Παράμετροι: ‘distance’ – a number (integer or float)

     Move the turtle forward by the specified 'distance', in the
     direction the turtle is headed.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.forward(25)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (25.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.forward(-75)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-50.00,0.00)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.back (distance)
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.bk (distance)
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.backward (distance)


     Παράμετροι: ‘distance’ – a number

     Move the turtle backward by 'distance', opposite to the direction
     the turtle is headed.  Do not change the turtle’s heading.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.backward(30)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-30.00,0.00)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.right (angle)
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.rt (angle)


     Παράμετροι: ‘angle’ – a number (integer or float)

     Turn turtle right by 'angle' units.  (Units are by default degrees,
     but can be set via the *note degrees(): 46a2. and *note radians():
     46a3. functions.)  Angle orientation depends on the turtle mode,
     see *note mode(): 46e0.

          >>> turtle.heading()
          22.0
          >>> turtle.right(45)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          337.0

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.left (angle)
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.lt (angle)


     Παράμετροι: ‘angle’ – a number (integer or float)

     Turn turtle left by 'angle' units.  (Units are by default degrees,
     but can be set via the *note degrees(): 46a2. and *note radians():
     46a3. functions.)  Angle orientation depends on the turtle mode,
     see *note mode(): 46e0.

          >>> turtle.heading()
          22.0
          >>> turtle.left(45)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          67.0

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.goto (x, y=None)
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.setpos (x, y=None)
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.setposition (x, y=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘x’ – a number or a pair/vector of numbers

        * ‘y’ – a number or ‘None’

     If 'y' is ‘None’, 'x' must be a pair of coordinates or a *note
     Vec2D: 46ef. (e.g.  as returned by *note pos(): 469c.).

     Move turtle to an absolute position.  If the pen is down, draw
     line.  Do not change the turtle’s orientation.

          >>> tp = turtle.pos()
          >>> tp
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos(60,30)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,30.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos((20,80))
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (20.00,80.00)
          >>> turtle.setpos(tp)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (0.00,0.00)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.teleport (x, y=None, *, fill_gap=False)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘x’ – a number or ‘None’

        * ‘y’ – a number or ‘None’

        * ‘fill_gap’ – a boolean

     Move turtle to an absolute position.  Unlike goto(x, y), a line
     will not be drawn.  The turtle’s orientation does not change.  If
     currently filling, the polygon(s) teleported from will be filled
     after leaving, and filling will begin again after teleporting.
     This can be disabled with fill_gap=True, which makes the imaginary
     line traveled during teleporting act as a fill barrier like in
     goto(x, y).

          >>> tp = turtle.pos()
          >>> tp
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(60)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(y=10)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (60.00,10.00)
          >>> turtle.teleport(20, 30)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (20.00,30.00)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.setx (x)


     Παράμετροι: ‘x’ – a number (integer or float)

     Set the turtle’s first coordinate to 'x', leave second coordinate
     unchanged.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,240.00)
          >>> turtle.setx(10)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (10.00,240.00)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.sety (y)


     Παράμετροι: ‘y’ – a number (integer or float)

     Set the turtle’s second coordinate to 'y', leave first coordinate
     unchanged.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,40.00)
          >>> turtle.sety(-10)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-10.00)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.setheading (to_angle)
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.seth (to_angle)


     Παράμετροι: ‘to_angle’ – a number (integer or float)

     Set the orientation of the turtle to 'to_angle'.  Here are some
     common directions in degrees:

     standard mode           logo mode
                             
     -------------------------------------------------
                             
     0 - east                0 - north
                             
                             
     90 - north              90 - east
                             
                             
     180 - west              180 - south
                             
                             
     270 - south             270 - west
                             

          >>> turtle.setheading(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.home ()

     Move turtle to the origin – coordinates (0,0) – and set its heading
     to its start-orientation (which depends on the mode, see *note
     mode(): 46e0.).

          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-10.00)
          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.circle (radius, extent=None, steps=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘radius’ – a number

        * ‘extent’ – a number (or ‘None’)

        * ‘steps’ – an integer (or ‘None’)

     Draw a circle with given 'radius'.  The center is 'radius' units
     left of the turtle; 'extent' – an angle – determines which part of
     the circle is drawn.  If 'extent' is not given, draw the entire
     circle.  If 'extent' is not a full circle, one endpoint of the arc
     is the current pen position.  Draw the arc in counterclockwise
     direction if 'radius' is positive, otherwise in clockwise
     direction.  Finally the direction of the turtle is changed by the
     amount of 'extent'.

     As the circle is approximated by an inscribed regular polygon,
     'steps' determines the number of steps to use.  If not given, it
     will be calculated automatically.  May be used to draw regular
     polygons.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0
          >>> turtle.circle(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (-0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0
          >>> turtle.circle(120, 180)  # draw a semicircle
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,240.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          180.0

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.dot ()

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.dot (size)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.dot (color, /)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.dot (size, color, /)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.dot (size, r, g, b, /)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘size’ – an integer >= 1 (if given)

        * ‘color’ – a colorstring or a numeric color tuple

     Draw a circular dot with diameter 'size', using 'color'.  If 'size'
     is not given, the maximum of ‘pensize+4’ and ‘2*pensize’ is used.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.dot()
          >>> turtle.fd(50); turtle.dot(20, "blue"); turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (100.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.stamp ()

     Stamp a copy of the turtle shape onto the canvas at the current
     turtle position.  Return a stamp_id for that stamp, which can be
     used to delete it by calling ‘clearstamp(stamp_id)’.

          >>> turtle.color("blue")
          >>> stamp_id = turtle.stamp()
          >>> turtle.fd(50)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.clearstamp (stampid)


     Παράμετροι: ‘stampid’ – an integer, must be return value of
     previous *note stamp(): 4696. call

     Delete stamp with given 'stampid'.

          >>> turtle.position()
          (150.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.color("blue")
          >>> astamp = turtle.stamp()
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (200.00,-0.00)
          >>> turtle.clearstamp(astamp)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (200.00,-0.00)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.clearstamps (n=None)


     Παράμετροι: ‘n’ – an integer (or ‘None’)

     Delete all or first/last 'n' of turtle’s stamps.  If 'n' is ‘None’,
     delete all stamps, if 'n' > 0 delete first 'n' stamps, else if 'n'
     < 0 delete last 'n' stamps.

          >>> for i in range(8):
          ...     unused_stamp_id = turtle.stamp()
          ...     turtle.fd(30)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps(2)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps(-2)
          >>> turtle.clearstamps()

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.undo ()

     Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s).  Number of available
     undo actions is determined by the size of the undobuffer.

          >>> for i in range(4):
          ...     turtle.fd(50); turtle.lt(80)
          ...
          >>> for i in range(8):
          ...     turtle.undo()

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.speed (speed=None)


     Παράμετροι: ‘speed’ – an integer in the range 0..10 or a
     speedstring (see below)

     Set the turtle’s speed to an integer value in the range 0..10.  If
     no argument is given, return current speed.

     If input is a number greater than 10 or smaller than 0.5, speed is
     set to 0.  Speedstrings are mapped to speedvalues as follows:

        * «fastest»: 0

        * «fast»: 10

        * «normal»: 6

        * «slow»: 3

        * «slowest»: 1

     Speeds from 1 to 10 enforce increasingly faster animation of line
     drawing and turtle turning.

     Attention: 'speed' = 0 means that 'no' animation takes place.
     forward/back makes turtle jump and likewise left/right make the
     turtle turn instantly.

          >>> turtle.speed()
          3
          >>> turtle.speed('normal')
          >>> turtle.speed()
          6
          >>> turtle.speed(9)
          >>> turtle.speed()
          9


File: python.info,  Node: Tell Turtle’s state,  Next: Settings for measurement,  Prev: Turtle motion,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.26.10.20 Tell Turtle’s state
..............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.position ()
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.pos ()

     Return the turtle’s current location (x,y) (as a *note Vec2D: 46ef.
     vector).

          >>> turtle.pos()
          (440.00,-0.00)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.towards (x, y=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘x’ – a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle
          instance

        * ‘y’ – a number if 'x' is a number, else ‘None’

     Return the angle between the line from turtle position to position
     specified by (x,y), the vector or the other turtle.  This depends
     on the turtle’s start orientation which depends on the mode -
     «standard»/»world» or «logo».

          >>> turtle.goto(10, 10)
          >>> turtle.towards(0,0)
          225.0

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.xcor ()

     Return the turtle’s x coordinate.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(50)
          >>> turtle.forward(100)
          >>> turtle.pos()
          (64.28,76.60)
          >>> print(round(turtle.xcor(), 5))
          64.27876

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.ycor ()

     Return the turtle’s y coordinate.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(60)
          >>> turtle.forward(100)
          >>> print(turtle.pos())
          (50.00,86.60)
          >>> print(round(turtle.ycor(), 5))
          86.60254

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.heading ()

     Return the turtle’s current heading (value depends on the turtle
     mode, see *note mode(): 46e0.).

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(67)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          67.0

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.distance (x, y=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘x’ – a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle
          instance

        * ‘y’ – a number if 'x' is a number, else ‘None’

     Return the distance from the turtle to (x,y), the given vector, or
     the given other turtle, in turtle step units.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.distance(30,40)
          50.0
          >>> turtle.distance((30,40))
          50.0
          >>> joe = Turtle()
          >>> joe.forward(77)
          >>> turtle.distance(joe)
          77.0


File: python.info,  Node: Settings for measurement,  Next: Pen control<2>,  Prev: Tell Turtle’s state,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.26.10.21 Settings for measurement
...................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.degrees (fullcircle=360.0)


     Παράμετροι: ‘fullcircle’ – a number

     Set angle measurement units, i.e.  set number of «degrees» for a
     full circle.  Default value is 360 degrees.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

          >>> # Change angle measurement unit to grad (also known as gon,
          >>> # grade, or gradian and equals 1/100-th of the right angle.)
          >>> turtle.degrees(400.0)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          100.0
          >>> turtle.degrees(360)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.radians ()

     Set the angle measurement units to radians.  Equivalent to
     ‘degrees(2*math.pi)’.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.left(90)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          90.0
          >>> turtle.radians()
          >>> turtle.heading()
          1.5707963267948966


File: python.info,  Node: Pen control<2>,  Next: Turtle state,  Prev: Settings for measurement,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.26.10.22 Pen control
......................

* Menu:

* Drawing state::
* Color control::
* Filling::
* More drawing control::


File: python.info,  Node: Drawing state,  Next: Color control,  Up: Pen control<2>

5.26.10.23 Drawing state
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.pendown ()
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.pd ()
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.down ()

     Pull the pen down – drawing when moving.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.penup ()
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.pu ()
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.up ()

     Pull the pen up – no drawing when moving.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.pensize (width=None)
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.width (width=None)


     Παράμετροι: ‘width’ – a positive number

     Set the line thickness to 'width' or return it.  If resizemode is
     set to «auto» and turtleshape is a polygon, that polygon is drawn
     with the same line thickness.  If no argument is given, the current
     pensize is returned.

          >>> turtle.pensize()
          1
          >>> turtle.pensize(10)   # from here on lines of width 10 are drawn

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.pen (pen=None, **pendict)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘pen’ – a dictionary with some or all of the below listed keys

        * ‘pendict’ – one or more keyword-arguments with the below
          listed keys as keywords

     Return or set the pen’s attributes in a «pen-dictionary» with the
     following key/value pairs:

        * «shown»: True/False

        * «pendown»: True/False

        * «pencolor»: color-string or color-tuple

        * «fillcolor»: color-string or color-tuple

        * «pensize»: positive number

        * «speed»: number in range 0..10

        * «resizemode»: «auto» or «user» or «noresize»

        * «stretchfactor»: (positive number, positive number)

        * «outline»: positive number

        * «tilt»: number

     This dictionary can be used as argument for a subsequent call to
     ‘pen()’ to restore the former pen-state.  Moreover one or more of
     these attributes can be provided as keyword-arguments.  This can be
     used to set several pen attributes in one statement.

          >>> turtle.pen(fillcolor="black", pencolor="red", pensize=10)
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())
          [('fillcolor', 'black'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red'),
           ('pendown', True), ('pensize', 10), ('resizemode', 'noresize'),
           ('shearfactor', 0.0), ('shown', True), ('speed', 9),
           ('stretchfactor', (1.0, 1.0)), ('tilt', 0.0)]
          >>> penstate=turtle.pen()
          >>> turtle.color("yellow", "")
          >>> turtle.penup()
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
          [('fillcolor', ''), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'yellow')]
          >>> turtle.pen(penstate, fillcolor="green")
          >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3]
          [('fillcolor', 'green'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red')]

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.isdown ()

     Return ‘True’ if pen is down, ‘False’ if it’s up.

          >>> turtle.penup()
          >>> turtle.isdown()
          False
          >>> turtle.pendown()
          >>> turtle.isdown()
          True


File: python.info,  Node: Color control,  Next: Filling,  Prev: Drawing state,  Up: Pen control<2>

5.26.10.24 Color control
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.pencolor ()

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.pencolor (color, /)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.pencolor (r, g, b, /)

     Return or set the pencolor.

     Four input formats are allowed:

     ‘pencolor()’

          Return the current pencolor as color specification string or
          as a tuple (see example).  May be used as input to another
          color/pencolor/fillcolor/bgcolor call.

     ‘pencolor(colorstring)’

          Set pencolor to 'colorstring', which is a Tk color
          specification string, such as ‘"red"’, ‘"yellow"’, or
          ‘"#33cc8c"’.

     ‘pencolor((r, g, b))’

          Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of 'r',
          'g', and 'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range
          0..colormode, where colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see *note
          colormode(): 46e1.).

     ‘pencolor(r, g, b)’

          Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by 'r', 'g', and
          'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range
          0..colormode.

     If turtleshape is a polygon, the outline of that polygon is drawn
     with the newly set pencolor.

          >>> colormode()
          1.0
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          'red'
          >>> turtle.pencolor("brown")
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          'brown'
          >>> tup = (0.2, 0.8, 0.55)
          >>> turtle.pencolor(tup)
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (0.2, 0.8, 0.5490196078431373)
          >>> colormode(255)
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (51.0, 204.0, 140.0)
          >>> turtle.pencolor('#32c18f')
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.fillcolor ()

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.fillcolor (color, /)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.fillcolor (r, g, b, /)

     Return or set the fillcolor.

     Four input formats are allowed:

     ‘fillcolor()’

          Return the current fillcolor as color specification string,
          possibly in tuple format (see example).  May be used as input
          to another color/pencolor/fillcolor/bgcolor call.

     ‘fillcolor(colorstring)’

          Set fillcolor to 'colorstring', which is a Tk color
          specification string, such as ‘"red"’, ‘"yellow"’, or
          ‘"#33cc8c"’.

     ‘fillcolor((r, g, b))’

          Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of
          'r', 'g', and 'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the
          range 0..colormode, where colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see
          *note colormode(): 46e1.).

     ‘fillcolor(r, g, b)’

          Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by 'r', 'g', and
          'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range
          0..colormode.

     If turtleshape is a polygon, the interior of that polygon is drawn
     with the newly set fillcolor.

          >>> turtle.fillcolor("violet")
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          'violet'
          >>> turtle.pencolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
          >>> turtle.fillcolor((50, 193, 143))  # Integers, not floats
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          (50.0, 193.0, 143.0)
          >>> turtle.fillcolor('#ffffff')
          >>> turtle.fillcolor()
          (255.0, 255.0, 255.0)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.color ()

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.color (color, /)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.color (r, g, b, /)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.color (pencolor, fillcolor, /)

     Return or set pencolor and fillcolor.

     Several input formats are allowed.  They use 0 to 3 arguments as
     follows:

     ‘color()’

          Return the current pencolor and the current fillcolor as a
          pair of color specification strings or tuples as returned by
          *note pencolor(): 46af. and *note fillcolor(): 46b0.

     ‘color(colorstring)’, ‘color((r,g,b))’, ‘color(r,g,b)’

          Inputs as in *note pencolor(): 46af, set both, fillcolor and
          pencolor, to the given value.

     ‘color(colorstring1, colorstring2)’, ‘color((r1,g1,b1), (r2,g2,b2))’

          Equivalent to ‘pencolor(colorstring1)’ and
          ‘fillcolor(colorstring2)’ and analogously if the other input
          format is used.

     If turtleshape is a polygon, outline and interior of that polygon
     is drawn with the newly set colors.

          >>> turtle.color("red", "green")
          >>> turtle.color()
          ('red', 'green')
          >>> color("#285078", "#a0c8f0")
          >>> color()
          ((40.0, 80.0, 120.0), (160.0, 200.0, 240.0))

See also: Screen method *note colormode(): 46e1.


File: python.info,  Node: Filling,  Next: More drawing control,  Prev: Color control,  Up: Pen control<2>

5.26.10.25 Filling
..................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.filling ()

     Return fillstate (‘True’ if filling, ‘False’ else).

          >>> turtle.begin_fill()
          >>> if turtle.filling():
          ...    turtle.pensize(5)
          ... else:
          ...    turtle.pensize(3)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.fill ()

     Fill the shape drawn in the ‘with turtle.fill():’ block.

          >>> turtle.color("black", "red")
          >>> with turtle.fill():
          ...     turtle.circle(80)

     Using ‘fill()’ is equivalent to adding the *note begin_fill():
     467b. before the fill-block and *note end_fill(): 467c. after the
     fill-block:

          >>> turtle.color("black", "red")
          >>> turtle.begin_fill()
          >>> turtle.circle(80)
          >>> turtle.end_fill()

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.begin_fill ()

     To be called just before drawing a shape to be filled.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.end_fill ()

     Fill the shape drawn after the last call to *note begin_fill():
     467b.

     Whether or not overlap regions for self-intersecting polygons or
     multiple shapes are filled depends on the operating system
     graphics, type of overlap, and number of overlaps.  For example,
     the Turtle star above may be either all yellow or have some white
     regions.

          >>> turtle.color("black", "red")
          >>> turtle.begin_fill()
          >>> turtle.circle(80)
          >>> turtle.end_fill()


File: python.info,  Node: More drawing control,  Prev: Filling,  Up: Pen control<2>

5.26.10.26 More drawing control
...............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.reset ()

     Delete the turtle’s drawings from the screen, re-center the turtle
     and set variables to the default values.

          >>> turtle.goto(0,-22)
          >>> turtle.left(100)
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,-22.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          100.0
          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.position()
          (0.00,0.00)
          >>> turtle.heading()
          0.0

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.clear ()

     Delete the turtle’s drawings from the screen.  Do not move turtle.
     State and position of the turtle as well as drawings of other
     turtles are not affected.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.write (arg, move=False, align='left',
          font=('Arial', 8, 'normal'))


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘arg’ – object to be written to the TurtleScreen

        * ‘move’ – True/False

        * ‘align’ – one of the strings «left», «center» or right»

        * ‘font’ – a triple (fontname, fontsize, fonttype)

     Write text - the string representation of 'arg' - at the current
     turtle position according to 'align' («left», «center» or «right»)
     and with the given font.  If 'move' is true, the pen is moved to
     the bottom-right corner of the text.  By default, 'move' is
     ‘False’.

          >>> turtle.write("Home = ", True, align="center")
          >>> turtle.write((0,0), True)


File: python.info,  Node: Turtle state,  Next: Using events,  Prev: Pen control<2>,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.26.10.27 Turtle state
.......................

* Menu:

* Visibility::
* Appearance::


File: python.info,  Node: Visibility,  Next: Appearance,  Up: Turtle state

5.26.10.28 Visibility
.....................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.hideturtle ()
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.ht ()

     Make the turtle invisible.  It’s a good idea to do this while
     you’re in the middle of doing some complex drawing, because hiding
     the turtle speeds up the drawing observably.

          >>> turtle.hideturtle()

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.showturtle ()
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.st ()

     Make the turtle visible.

          >>> turtle.showturtle()

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.isvisible ()

     Return ‘True’ if the Turtle is shown, ‘False’ if it’s hidden.

          >>> turtle.hideturtle()
          >>> turtle.isvisible()
          False
          >>> turtle.showturtle()
          >>> turtle.isvisible()
          True


File: python.info,  Node: Appearance,  Prev: Visibility,  Up: Turtle state

5.26.10.29 Appearance
.....................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.shape (name=None)


     Παράμετροι: ‘name’ – a string which is a valid shapename

     Set turtle shape to shape with given 'name' or, if name is not
     given, return name of current shape.  Shape with 'name' must exist
     in the TurtleScreen’s shape dictionary.  Initially there are the
     following polygon shapes: «arrow», «turtle», «circle», «square»,
     «triangle», «classic».  To learn about how to deal with shapes see
     Screen method *note register_shape(): 46e4.

          >>> turtle.shape()
          'classic'
          >>> turtle.shape("turtle")
          >>> turtle.shape()
          'turtle'

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.resizemode (rmode=None)


     Παράμετροι: ‘rmode’ – one of the strings «auto», «user», «noresize»

     Set resizemode to one of the values: «auto», «user», «noresize».
     If 'rmode' is not given, return current resizemode.  Different
     resizemodes have the following effects:

        - «auto»: adapts the appearance of the turtle corresponding to
          the value of pensize.

        - «user»: adapts the appearance of the turtle according to the
          values of stretchfactor and outlinewidth (outline), which are
          set by *note shapesize(): 46bc.

        - «noresize»: no adaption of the turtle’s appearance takes
          place.

     ‘resizemode("user")’ is called by *note shapesize(): 46bc. when
     used with arguments.

          >>> turtle.resizemode()
          'noresize'
          >>> turtle.resizemode("auto")
          >>> turtle.resizemode()
          'auto'

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.shapesize (stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None,
          outline=None)
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.turtlesize (stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None,
          outline=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘stretch_wid’ – positive number

        * ‘stretch_len’ – positive number

        * ‘outline’ – positive number

     Return or set the pen’s attributes x/y-stretchfactors and/or
     outline.  Set resizemode to «user».  If and only if resizemode is
     set to «user», the turtle will be displayed stretched according to
     its stretchfactors: 'stretch_wid' is stretchfactor perpendicular to
     its orientation, 'stretch_len' is stretchfactor in direction of its
     orientation, 'outline' determines the width of the shape’s outline.

          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (1.0, 1.0, 1)
          >>> turtle.resizemode("user")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5, 5, 12)
          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (5, 5, 12)
          >>> turtle.shapesize(outline=8)
          >>> turtle.shapesize()
          (5, 5, 8)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.shearfactor (shear=None)


     Παράμετροι: ‘shear’ – number (optional)

     Set or return the current shearfactor.  Shear the turtleshape
     according to the given shearfactor shear, which is the tangent of
     the shear angle.  Do 'not' change the turtle’s heading (direction
     of movement).  If shear is not given: return the current
     shearfactor, i.  e.  the tangent of the shear angle, by which lines
     parallel to the heading of the turtle are sheared.

          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor(0.5)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor()
          0.5

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.tilt (angle)


     Παράμετροι: ‘angle’ – a number

     Rotate the turtleshape by 'angle' from its current tilt-angle, but
     do 'not' change the turtle’s heading (direction of movement).

          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.tilt(30)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.tilt(30)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.tiltangle (angle=None)


     Παράμετροι: ‘angle’ – a number (optional)

     Set or return the current tilt-angle.  If angle is given, rotate
     the turtleshape to point in the direction specified by angle,
     regardless of its current tilt-angle.  Do 'not' change the turtle’s
     heading (direction of movement).  If angle is not given: return the
     current tilt-angle, i.  e.  the angle between the orientation of
     the turtleshape and the heading of the turtle (its direction of
     movement).

          >>> turtle.reset()
          >>> turtle.shape("circle")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2)
          >>> turtle.tilt(45)
          >>> turtle.tiltangle()
          45.0

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.shapetransform (t11=None, t12=None, t21=None,
          t22=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘t11’ – a number (optional)

        * ‘t12’ – a number (optional)

        * ‘t21’ – a number (optional)

        * ‘t12’ – a number (optional)

     Set or return the current transformation matrix of the turtle
     shape.

     If none of the matrix elements are given, return the transformation
     matrix as a tuple of 4 elements.  Otherwise set the given elements
     and transform the turtleshape according to the matrix consisting of
     first row t11, t12 and second row t21, t22.  The determinant t11 *
     t22 - t12 * t21 must not be zero, otherwise an error is raised.
     Modify stretchfactor, shearfactor and tiltangle according to the
     given matrix.

          >>> turtle = Turtle()
          >>> turtle.shape("square")
          >>> turtle.shapesize(4,2)
          >>> turtle.shearfactor(-0.5)
          >>> turtle.shapetransform()
          (4.0, -1.0, -0.0, 2.0)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.get_shapepoly ()

     Return the current shape polygon as tuple of coordinate pairs.
     This can be used to define a new shape or components of a compound
     shape.

          >>> turtle.shape("square")
          >>> turtle.shapetransform(4, -1, 0, 2)
          >>> turtle.get_shapepoly()
          ((50, -20), (30, 20), (-50, 20), (-30, -20))


File: python.info,  Node: Using events,  Next: Special Turtle methods,  Prev: Turtle state,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.26.10.30 Using events
.......................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.onclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with two arguments which will be called
          with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas

        * ‘btn’ – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse
          button)

        * ‘add’ – ‘True’ or ‘False’ – if ‘True’, a new binding will be
          added, otherwise it will replace a former binding

     Bind 'fun' to mouse-click events on this turtle.  If 'fun' is
     ‘None’, existing bindings are removed.  Example for the anonymous
     turtle, i.e.  the procedural way:

          >>> def turn(x, y):
          ...     left(180)
          ...
          >>> onclick(turn)  # Now clicking into the turtle will turn it.
          >>> onclick(None)  # event-binding will be removed

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.onrelease (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with two arguments which will be called
          with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas

        * ‘btn’ – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse
          button)

        * ‘add’ – ‘True’ or ‘False’ – if ‘True’, a new binding will be
          added, otherwise it will replace a former binding

     Bind 'fun' to mouse-button-release events on this turtle.  If 'fun'
     is ‘None’, existing bindings are removed.

          >>> class MyTurtle(Turtle):
          ...     def glow(self,x,y):
          ...         self.fillcolor("red")
          ...     def unglow(self,x,y):
          ...         self.fillcolor("")
          ...
          >>> turtle = MyTurtle()
          >>> turtle.onclick(turtle.glow)     # clicking on turtle turns fillcolor red,
          >>> turtle.onrelease(turtle.unglow) # releasing turns it to transparent.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.ondrag (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with two arguments which will be called
          with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas

        * ‘btn’ – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse
          button)

        * ‘add’ – ‘True’ or ‘False’ – if ‘True’, a new binding will be
          added, otherwise it will replace a former binding

     Bind 'fun' to mouse-move events on this turtle.  If 'fun' is
     ‘None’, existing bindings are removed.

     Remark: Every sequence of mouse-move-events on a turtle is preceded
     by a mouse-click event on that turtle.

          >>> turtle.ondrag(turtle.goto)

     Subsequently, clicking and dragging the Turtle will move it across
     the screen thereby producing handdrawings (if pen is down).


File: python.info,  Node: Special Turtle methods,  Next: Compound shapes,  Prev: Using events,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.26.10.31 Special Turtle methods
.................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.poly ()

     Record the vertices of a polygon drawn in the ‘with turtle.poly():’
     block.  The first and last vertices will be connected.

          >>> with turtle.poly():
          ...     turtle.forward(100)
          ...     turtle.right(60)
          ...     turtle.forward(100)

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.begin_poly ()

     Start recording the vertices of a polygon.  Current turtle position
     is first vertex of polygon.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.end_poly ()

     Stop recording the vertices of a polygon.  Current turtle position
     is last vertex of polygon.  This will be connected with the first
     vertex.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.get_poly ()

     Return the last recorded polygon.

          >>> turtle.home()
          >>> turtle.begin_poly()
          >>> turtle.fd(100)
          >>> turtle.left(20)
          >>> turtle.fd(30)
          >>> turtle.left(60)
          >>> turtle.fd(50)
          >>> turtle.end_poly()
          >>> p = turtle.get_poly()
          >>> register_shape("myFavouriteShape", p)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.clone ()

     Create and return a clone of the turtle with same position, heading
     and turtle properties.

          >>> mick = Turtle()
          >>> joe = mick.clone()

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.getturtle ()
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.getpen ()

     Return the Turtle object itself.  Only reasonable use: as a
     function to return the «anonymous turtle»:

          >>> pet = getturtle()
          >>> pet.fd(50)
          >>> pet
          <turtle.Turtle object at 0x...>

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.getscreen ()

     Return the *note TurtleScreen: 46fc. object the turtle is drawing
     on.  TurtleScreen methods can then be called for that object.

          >>> ts = turtle.getscreen()
          >>> ts
          <turtle._Screen object at 0x...>
          >>> ts.bgcolor("pink")

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.setundobuffer (size)


     Παράμετροι: ‘size’ – an integer or ‘None’

     Set or disable undobuffer.  If 'size' is an integer, an empty
     undobuffer of given size is installed.  'size' gives the maximum
     number of turtle actions that can be undone by the *note undo():
     4699. method/function.  If 'size' is ‘None’, the undobuffer is
     disabled.

          >>> turtle.setundobuffer(42)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.undobufferentries ()

     Return number of entries in the undobuffer.

          >>> while undobufferentries():
          ...     undo()


File: python.info,  Node: Compound shapes,  Prev: Special Turtle methods,  Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions

5.26.10.32 Compound shapes
..........................

To use compound turtle shapes, which consist of several polygons of
different color, you must use the helper class *note Shape: 46ff.
explicitly as described below:

  1. Create an empty Shape object of type «compound».

  2. Add as many components to this object as desired, using the *note
     addcomponent(): 4700. method.

     For example:

          >>> s = Shape("compound")
          >>> poly1 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
          >>> s.addcomponent(poly1, "red", "blue")
          >>> poly2 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(-10,-5))
          >>> s.addcomponent(poly2, "blue", "red")

  3. Now add the Shape to the Screen’s shapelist and use it:

          >>> register_shape("myshape", s)
          >>> shape("myshape")

     Σημείωση: The *note Shape: 46ff. class is used internally by the
     *note register_shape(): 46e4. method in different ways.  The
     application programmer has to deal with the Shape class 'only' when
     using compound shapes like shown above!


File: python.info,  Node: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions,  Next: Public classes,  Prev: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.26.10.33 Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions
.....................................................................

Most of the examples in this section refer to a TurtleScreen instance
called ‘screen’.

* Menu:

* Window control::
* Animation control::
* Using screen events::
* Input methods::
* Settings and special methods::
* Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.


File: python.info,  Node: Window control,  Next: Animation control,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.26.10.34 Window control
.........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.bgcolor ()

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.bgcolor (color, /)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.bgcolor (r, g, b, /)

     Return or set the background color of the TurtleScreen.

     Four input formats are allowed:

     ‘bgcolor()’

          Return the current background color as color specification
          string or as a tuple (see example).  May be used as input to
          another color/pencolor/fillcolor/bgcolor call.

     ‘bgcolor(colorstring)’

          Set the background color to 'colorstring', which is a Tk color
          specification string, such as ‘"red"’, ‘"yellow"’, or
          ‘"#33cc8c"’.

     ‘bgcolor((r, g, b))’

          Set the background color to the RGB color represented by the
          tuple of 'r', 'g', and 'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be
          in the range 0..colormode, where colormode is either 1.0 or
          255 (see *note colormode(): 46e1.).

     ‘bgcolor(r, g, b)’

          Set the background color to the RGB color represented by 'r',
          'g', and 'b'.  Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range
          0..colormode.

          >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
          >>> screen.bgcolor()
          'orange'
          >>> screen.bgcolor("#800080")
          >>> screen.bgcolor()
          (128.0, 0.0, 128.0)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.bgpic (picname=None)


     Παράμετροι: ‘picname’ – a string, name of an image file (PNG, GIF,
     PGM, and PPM) or ‘"nopic"’, or ‘None’

     Set background image or return name of current backgroundimage.  If
     'picname' is a filename, set the corresponding image as background.
     If 'picname' is ‘"nopic"’, delete background image, if present.  If
     'picname' is ‘None’, return the filename of the current
     backgroundimage.

          >>> screen.bgpic()
          'nopic'
          >>> screen.bgpic("landscape.gif")
          >>> screen.bgpic()
          "landscape.gif"

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.clear ()

          Σημείωση: This TurtleScreen method is available as a global
          function only under the name ‘clearscreen’.  The global
          function ‘clear’ is a different one derived from the Turtle
          method ‘clear’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.clearscreen ()

     Delete all drawings and all turtles from the TurtleScreen.  Reset
     the now empty TurtleScreen to its initial state: white background,
     no background image, no event bindings and tracing on.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.reset ()

          Σημείωση: This TurtleScreen method is available as a global
          function only under the name ‘resetscreen’.  The global
          function ‘reset’ is another one derived from the Turtle method
          ‘reset’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.resetscreen ()

     Reset all Turtles on the Screen to their initial state.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.screensize (canvwidth=None, canvheight=None,
          bg=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘canvwidth’ – positive integer, new width of canvas in pixels

        * ‘canvheight’ – positive integer, new height of canvas in
          pixels

        * ‘bg’ – colorstring or color-tuple, new background color

     If no arguments are given, return current (canvaswidth,
     canvasheight).  Else resize the canvas the turtles are drawing on.
     Do not alter the drawing window.  To observe hidden parts of the
     canvas, use the scrollbars.  With this method, one can make visible
     those parts of a drawing which were outside the canvas before.

          >>> screen.screensize()
          (400, 300)
          >>> screen.screensize(2000,1500)
          >>> screen.screensize()
          (2000, 1500)

     e.g.  to search for an erroneously escaped turtle ;-)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.setworldcoordinates (llx, lly, urx, ury)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘llx’ – a number, x-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas

        * ‘lly’ – a number, y-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas

        * ‘urx’ – a number, x-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas

        * ‘ury’ – a number, y-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas

     Set up user-defined coordinate system and switch to mode «world» if
     necessary.  This performs a ‘screen.reset()’.  If mode «world» is
     already active, all drawings are redrawn according to the new
     coordinates.

     'ATTENTION': in user-defined coordinate systems angles may appear
     distorted.

          >>> screen.reset()
          >>> screen.setworldcoordinates(-50,-7.5,50,7.5)
          >>> for _ in range(72):
          ...     left(10)
          ...
          >>> for _ in range(8):
          ...     left(45); fd(2)   # a regular octagon


File: python.info,  Node: Animation control,  Next: Using screen events,  Prev: Window control,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.26.10.35 Animation control
............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.no_animation ()

     Temporarily disable turtle animation.  The code written inside the
     ‘no_animation’ block will not be animated; once the code block is
     exited, the drawing will appear.

          >>> with screen.no_animation():
          ...     for dist in range(2, 400, 2):
          ...         fd(dist)
          ...         rt(90)

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.delay (delay=None)


     Παράμετροι: ‘delay’ – positive integer

     Set or return the drawing 'delay' in milliseconds.  (This is
     approximately the time interval between two consecutive canvas
     updates.)  The longer the drawing delay, the slower the animation.

     Optional argument:

          >>> screen.delay()
          10
          >>> screen.delay(5)
          >>> screen.delay()
          5

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.tracer (n=None, delay=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘n’ – nonnegative integer

        * ‘delay’ – nonnegative integer

     Turn turtle animation on/off and set delay for update drawings.  If
     'n' is given, only each n-th regular screen update is really
     performed.  (Can be used to accelerate the drawing of complex
     graphics.)  When called without arguments, returns the currently
     stored value of n.  Second argument sets delay value (see *note
     delay(): 46d5.).

          >>> screen.tracer(8, 25)
          >>> dist = 2
          >>> for i in range(200):
          ...     fd(dist)
          ...     rt(90)
          ...     dist += 2

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.update ()

     Perform a TurtleScreen update.  To be used when tracer is turned
     off.

See also the RawTurtle/Turtle method *note speed(): 469a.


File: python.info,  Node: Using screen events,  Next: Input methods,  Prev: Animation control,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.26.10.36 Using screen events
..............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.listen (xdummy=None, ydummy=None)

     Set focus on TurtleScreen (in order to collect key-events).  Dummy
     arguments are provided in order to be able to pass ‘listen()’ to
     the onclick method.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.onkey (fun, key)
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.onkeyrelease (fun, key)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with no arguments or ‘None’

        * ‘key’ – a string: key (e.g.  «a») or key-symbol (e.g.
          «space»)

     Bind 'fun' to key-release event of key.  If 'fun' is ‘None’, event
     bindings are removed.  Remark: in order to be able to register
     key-events, TurtleScreen must have the focus.  (See method *note
     listen(): 46d8.)

          >>> def f():
          ...     fd(50)
          ...     lt(60)
          ...
          >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
          >>> screen.listen()

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.onkeypress (fun, key=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with no arguments or ‘None’

        * ‘key’ – a string: key (e.g.  «a») or key-symbol (e.g.
          «space»)

     Bind 'fun' to key-press event of key if key is given, or to any
     key-press-event if no key is given.  Remark: in order to be able to
     register key-events, TurtleScreen must have focus.  (See method
     *note listen(): 46d8.)

          >>> def f():
          ...     fd(50)
          ...
          >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up")
          >>> screen.listen()

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.onclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.onscreenclick (fun, btn=1, add=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with two arguments which will be called
          with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas

        * ‘btn’ – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse
          button)

        * ‘add’ – ‘True’ or ‘False’ – if ‘True’, a new binding will be
          added, otherwise it will replace a former binding

     Bind 'fun' to mouse-click events on this screen.  If 'fun' is
     ‘None’, existing bindings are removed.

     Example for a TurtleScreen instance named ‘screen’ and a Turtle
     instance named ‘turtle’:

          >>> screen.onclick(turtle.goto) # Subsequently clicking into the TurtleScreen will
          >>>                             # make the turtle move to the clicked point.
          >>> screen.onclick(None)        # remove event binding again

          Σημείωση: This TurtleScreen method is available as a global
          function only under the name ‘onscreenclick’.  The global
          function ‘onclick’ is another one derived from the Turtle
          method ‘onclick’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.ontimer (fun, t=0)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘fun’ – a function with no arguments

        * ‘t’ – a number >= 0

     Install a timer that calls 'fun' after 't' milliseconds.

          >>> running = True
          >>> def f():
          ...     if running:
          ...         fd(50)
          ...         lt(60)
          ...         screen.ontimer(f, 250)
          >>> f()   ### makes the turtle march around
          >>> running = False

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.mainloop ()
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.done ()

     Starts event loop - calling Tkinter’s mainloop function.  Must be
     the last statement in a turtle graphics program.  Must 'not' be
     used if a script is run from within IDLE in -n mode (No subprocess)
     - for interactive use of turtle graphics.

          >>> screen.mainloop()


File: python.info,  Node: Input methods,  Next: Settings and special methods,  Prev: Using screen events,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.26.10.37 Input methods
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.textinput (title, prompt)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘title’ – string

        * ‘prompt’ – string

     Pop up a dialog window for input of a string.  Parameter title is
     the title of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing
     what information to input.  Return the string input.  If the dialog
     is canceled, return ‘None’.

          >>> screen.textinput("NIM", "Name of first player:")

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.numinput (title, prompt, default=None,
          minval=None, maxval=None)


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘title’ – string

        * ‘prompt’ – string

        * ‘default’ – number (optional)

        * ‘minval’ – number (optional)

        * ‘maxval’ – number (optional)

     Pop up a dialog window for input of a number.  title is the title
     of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing what
     numerical information to input.  default: default value, minval:
     minimum value for input, maxval: maximum value for input.  The
     number input must be in the range minval ..  maxval if these are
     given.  If not, a hint is issued and the dialog remains open for
     correction.  Return the number input.  If the dialog is canceled,
     return ‘None’.

          >>> screen.numinput("Poker", "Your stakes:", 1000, minval=10, maxval=10000)


File: python.info,  Node: Settings and special methods,  Next: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen,  Prev: Input methods,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.26.10.38 Settings and special methods
.......................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.mode (mode=None)


     Παράμετροι: ‘mode’ – one of the strings «standard», «logo» or
     «world»

     Set turtle mode («standard», «logo» or «world») and perform reset.
     If mode is not given, current mode is returned.

     Mode «standard» is compatible with old ‘turtle’.  Mode «logo» is
     compatible with most Logo turtle graphics.  Mode «world» uses
     user-defined «world coordinates».  'Attention': in this mode angles
     appear distorted if ‘x/y’ unit-ratio doesn’t equal 1.

     Mode             Initial turtle heading        positive angles
                                                    
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                    
     «standard»       to the right (east)           counterclockwise
                                                    
                                                    
     «logo»           upward (north)                clockwise
                                                    

          >>> mode("logo")   # resets turtle heading to north
          >>> mode()
          'logo'

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.colormode (cmode=None)


     Παράμετροι: ‘cmode’ – one of the values 1.0 or 255

     Return the colormode or set it to 1.0 or 255.  Subsequently 'r',
     'g', 'b' values of color triples have to be in the range
     0..*cmode*.

          >>> screen.colormode(1)
          >>> turtle.pencolor(240, 160, 80)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
          TurtleGraphicsError: bad color sequence: (240, 160, 80)
          >>> screen.colormode()
          1.0
          >>> screen.colormode(255)
          >>> screen.colormode()
          255
          >>> turtle.pencolor(240,160,80)

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.getcanvas ()

     Return the Canvas of this TurtleScreen.  Useful for insiders who
     know what to do with a Tkinter Canvas.

          >>> cv = screen.getcanvas()
          >>> cv
          <turtle.ScrolledCanvas object ...>

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.getshapes ()

     Return a list of names of all currently available turtle shapes.

          >>> screen.getshapes()
          ['arrow', 'blank', 'circle', ..., 'turtle']

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.register_shape (name, shape=None)
 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.addshape (name, shape=None)

     There are four different ways to call this function:

       1. 'name' is the name of an image file (PNG, GIF, PGM, and PPM)
          and 'shape' is ‘None’: Install the corresponding image shape.

               >>> screen.register_shape("turtle.gif")

               Σημείωση: Image shapes 'do not' rotate when turning the
               turtle, so they do not display the heading of the turtle!

       2. 'name' is an arbitrary string and 'shape' is the name of an
          image file (PNG, GIF, PGM, and PPM): Install the corresponding
          image shape.

               >>> screen.register_shape("turtle", "turtle.gif")

               Σημείωση: Image shapes 'do not' rotate when turning the
               turtle, so they do not display the heading of the turtle!

       3. 'name' is an arbitrary string and 'shape' is a tuple of pairs
          of coordinates: Install the corresponding polygon shape.

               >>> screen.register_shape("triangle", ((5,-3), (0,5), (-5,-3)))

       4. 'name' is an arbitrary string and 'shape' is a (compound)
          *note Shape: 46ff. object: Install the corresponding compound
          shape.

     Add a turtle shape to TurtleScreen’s shapelist.  Only thusly
     registered shapes can be used by issuing the command
     ‘shape(shapename)’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added support for PNG, PGM, and PPM image
     formats.  Both a shape name and an image file name can be
     specified.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.turtles ()

     Return the list of turtles on the screen.

          >>> for turtle in screen.turtles():
          ...     turtle.color("red")

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.window_height ()

     Return the height of the turtle window.

          >>> screen.window_height()
          480

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.window_width ()

     Return the width of the turtle window.

          >>> screen.window_width()
          640


File: python.info,  Node: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen,  Prev: Settings and special methods,  Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions

5.26.10.39 Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen
......................................................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.bye ()

     Shut the turtlegraphics window.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.exitonclick ()

     Bind ‘bye()’ method to mouse clicks on the Screen.

     If the value «using_IDLE» in the configuration dictionary is
     ‘False’ (default value), also enter mainloop.  Remark: If IDLE with
     the ‘-n’ switch (no subprocess) is used, this value should be set
     to ‘True’ in ‘turtle.cfg’.  In this case IDLE’s own mainloop is
     active also for the client script.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.save (filename, overwrite=False)

     Save the current turtle drawing (and turtles) as a PostScript file.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘filename’ – the path of the saved PostScript file

        * ‘overwrite’ – if ‘False’ and there already exists a file with
          the given filename, then the function will raise a
          ‘FileExistsError’.  If it is ‘True’, the file will be
          overwritten.

          >>> screen.save("my_drawing.ps")
          >>> screen.save("my_drawing.ps", overwrite=True)

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.setup (width=_CFG['width'], height=_CFG['height'],
          startx=_CFG['leftright'], starty=_CFG['topbottom'])

     Set the size and position of the main window.  Default values of
     arguments are stored in the configuration dictionary and can be
     changed via a ‘turtle.cfg’ file.


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘width’ – if an integer, a size in pixels, if a float, a
          fraction of the screen; default is 50% of screen

        * ‘height’ – if an integer, the height in pixels, if a float, a
          fraction of the screen; default is 75% of screen

        * ‘startx’ – if positive, starting position in pixels from the
          left edge of the screen, if negative from the right edge, if
          ‘None’, center window horizontally

        * ‘starty’ – if positive, starting position in pixels from the
          top edge of the screen, if negative from the bottom edge, if
          ‘None’, center window vertically

          >>> screen.setup (width=200, height=200, startx=0, starty=0)
          >>>              # sets window to 200x200 pixels, in upper left of screen
          >>> screen.setup(width=.75, height=0.5, startx=None, starty=None)
          >>>              # sets window to 75% of screen by 50% of screen and centers

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.title (titlestring)


     Παράμετροι: ‘titlestring’ – a string that is shown in the titlebar
     of the turtle graphics window

     Set title of turtle window to 'titlestring'.

          >>> screen.title("Welcome to the turtle zoo!")


File: python.info,  Node: Public classes,  Next: Explanation<2>,  Prev: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.26.10.40 Public classes
.........................

 -- Κλάση: turtle.RawTurtle (canvas)
 -- Κλάση: turtle.RawPen (canvas)


     Παράμετροι: ‘canvas’ – a ‘tkinter.Canvas’, a *note ScrolledCanvas:
     470c. or a *note TurtleScreen: 46fc.

     Create a turtle.  The turtle has all methods described above as
     «methods of Turtle/RawTurtle».

 -- Κλάση: turtle.Turtle

     Subclass of RawTurtle, has the same interface but draws on a
     default *note Screen: 4681. object created automatically when
     needed for the first time.

 -- Κλάση: turtle.TurtleScreen (cv)


     Παράμετροι: ‘cv’ – a ‘tkinter.Canvas’

     Provides screen oriented methods like *note bgcolor(): 46cf. etc.
     that are described above.

 -- Κλάση: turtle.Screen

     Subclass of TurtleScreen, with *note four methods added: 4708.

 -- Κλάση: turtle.ScrolledCanvas (master)


     Παράμετροι: ‘master’ – some Tkinter widget to contain the
     ScrolledCanvas, i.e.  a Tkinter-canvas with scrollbars added

     Used by class Screen, which thus automatically provides a
     ScrolledCanvas as playground for the turtles.

 -- Κλάση: turtle.Shape (type_, data)


     Παράμετροι: ‘type_’ – one of the strings «polygon», «image»,
     «compound»

     Data structure modeling shapes.  The pair ‘(type_, data)’ must
     follow this specification:

     'type_'         'data'
                     
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                     
     «polygon»       a polygon-tuple, i.e.  a tuple of pairs of coordinates
                     
                     
     «image»         an image (in this form only used internally!)
                     
                     
     «compound»      ‘None’ (a compound shape has to be constructed using the
                     *note addcomponent(): 4700. method)
                     

      -- Μέθοδος: addcomponent (poly, fill, outline=None)


          Παράμετροι:

             * ‘poly’ – a polygon, i.e.  a tuple of pairs of numbers

             * ‘fill’ – a color the 'poly' will be filled with

             * ‘outline’ – a color for the poly’s outline (if given)

          Example:

               >>> poly = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5))
               >>> s = Shape("compound")
               >>> s.addcomponent(poly, "red", "blue")
               >>> # ... add more components and then use register_shape()

          See *note Compound shapes: 46fe.

 -- Κλάση: turtle.Vec2D (x, y)

     A two-dimensional vector class, used as a helper class for
     implementing turtle graphics.  May be useful for turtle graphics
     programs too.  Derived from tuple, so a vector is a tuple!

     Provides (for 'a', 'b' vectors, 'k' number):

        * ‘a + b’ vector addition

        * ‘a - b’ vector subtraction

        * ‘a * b’ inner product

        * ‘k * a’ and ‘a * k’ multiplication with scalar

        * ‘abs(a)’ absolute value of a

        * ‘a.rotate(angle)’ rotation


File: python.info,  Node: Explanation<2>,  Next: Help and configuration,  Prev: Public classes,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.26.10.41 Explanation
......................

A turtle object draws on a screen object, and there a number of key
classes in the turtle object-oriented interface that can be used to
create them and relate them to each other.

A *note Turtle: 470d. instance will automatically create a *note Screen:
4681. instance if one is not already present.

‘Turtle’ is a subclass of *note RawTurtle: 470a, which 'doesn’t'
automatically create a drawing surface - a 'canvas' will need to be
provided or created for it.  The 'canvas' can be a ‘tkinter.Canvas’,
*note ScrolledCanvas: 470c. or *note TurtleScreen: 46fc.

*note TurtleScreen: 46fc. is the basic drawing surface for a turtle.
*note Screen: 4681. is a subclass of ‘TurtleScreen’, and includes *note
some additional methods: 4708. for managing its appearance (including
size and title) and behaviour.  ‘TurtleScreen’’s constructor needs a
‘tkinter.Canvas’ or a *note ScrolledCanvas: 470c. as an argument.

The functional interface for turtle graphics uses the various methods of
‘Turtle’ and ‘TurtleScreen’/‘Screen’.  Behind the scenes, a screen
object is automatically created whenever a function derived from a
‘Screen’ method is called.  Similarly, a turtle object is automatically
created whenever any of the functions derived from a Turtle method is
called.

To use multiple turtles on a screen, the object-oriented interface must
be used.


File: python.info,  Node: Help and configuration,  Next: turtledemo — Demo scripts,  Prev: Explanation<2>,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.26.10.42 Help and configuration
.................................

* Menu:

* How to use help::
* Translation of docstrings into different languages::
* How to configure Screen and Turtles::


File: python.info,  Node: How to use help,  Next: Translation of docstrings into different languages,  Up: Help and configuration

5.26.10.43 How to use help
..........................

The public methods of the Screen and Turtle classes are documented
extensively via docstrings.  So these can be used as online-help via the
Python help facilities:

   - When using IDLE, tooltips show the signatures and first lines of
     the docstrings of typed in function-/method calls.

   - Calling *note help(): ca9. on methods or functions displays the
     docstrings:

          >>> help(Screen.bgcolor)
          Help on method bgcolor in module turtle:

          bgcolor(self, *args) unbound turtle.Screen method
              Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.

              Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
              in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.


              >>> screen.bgcolor("orange")
              >>> screen.bgcolor()
              "orange"
              >>> screen.bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
              >>> screen.bgcolor()
              "#800080"

          >>> help(Turtle.penup)
          Help on method penup in module turtle:

          penup(self) unbound turtle.Turtle method
              Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.

              Aliases: penup | pu | up

              No argument

              >>> turtle.penup()

   - The docstrings of the functions which are derived from methods have
     a modified form:

          >>> help(bgcolor)
          Help on function bgcolor in module turtle:

          bgcolor(*args)
              Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen.

              Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers
              in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers.

              Example::

                >>> bgcolor("orange")
                >>> bgcolor()
                "orange"
                >>> bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5)
                >>> bgcolor()
                "#800080"

          >>> help(penup)
          Help on function penup in module turtle:

          penup()
              Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving.

              Aliases: penup | pu | up

              No argument

              Example:
              >>> penup()

These modified docstrings are created automatically together with the
function definitions that are derived from the methods at import time.


File: python.info,  Node: Translation of docstrings into different languages,  Next: How to configure Screen and Turtles,  Prev: How to use help,  Up: Help and configuration

5.26.10.44 Translation of docstrings into different languages
.............................................................

There is a utility to create a dictionary the keys of which are the
method names and the values of which are the docstrings of the public
methods of the classes Screen and Turtle.

 -- Συνάρτηση: turtle.write_docstringdict
          (filename='turtle_docstringdict')


     Παράμετροι: ‘filename’ – a string, used as filename

     Create and write docstring-dictionary to a Python script with the
     given filename.  This function has to be called explicitly (it is
     not used by the turtle graphics classes).  The docstring dictionary
     will be written to the Python script ‘`filename'.py’.  It is
     intended to serve as a template for translation of the docstrings
     into different languages.

If you (or your students) want to use ‘turtle’ with online help in your
native language, you have to translate the docstrings and save the
resulting file as e.g.  ‘turtle_docstringdict_german.py’.

If you have an appropriate entry in your ‘turtle.cfg’ file this
dictionary will be read in at import time and will replace the original
English docstrings.

At the time of this writing there are docstring dictionaries in German
and in Italian.  (Requests please to <glingl@aon.at>.)


File: python.info,  Node: How to configure Screen and Turtles,  Prev: Translation of docstrings into different languages,  Up: Help and configuration

5.26.10.45 How to configure Screen and Turtles
..............................................

The built-in default configuration mimics the appearance and behaviour
of the old turtle module in order to retain best possible compatibility
with it.

If you want to use a different configuration which better reflects the
features of this module or which better fits to your needs, e.g.  for
use in a classroom, you can prepare a configuration file ‘turtle.cfg’
which will be read at import time and modify the configuration according
to its settings.

The built in configuration would correspond to the following
‘turtle.cfg’:

     width = 0.5
     height = 0.75
     leftright = None
     topbottom = None
     canvwidth = 400
     canvheight = 300
     mode = standard
     colormode = 1.0
     delay = 10
     undobuffersize = 1000
     shape = classic
     pencolor = black
     fillcolor = black
     resizemode = noresize
     visible = True
     language = english
     exampleturtle = turtle
     examplescreen = screen
     title = Python Turtle Graphics
     using_IDLE = False

Short explanation of selected entries:

   - The first four lines correspond to the arguments of the *note
     Screen.setup: 46eb. method.

   - Line 5 and 6 correspond to the arguments of the method *note
     Screen.screensize: 46d3.

   - 'shape' can be any of the built-in shapes, e.g: arrow, turtle, etc.
     For more info try ‘help(shape)’.

   - If you want to use no fill color (i.e.  make the turtle
     transparent), you have to write ‘fillcolor = ""’ (but all nonempty
     strings must not have quotes in the cfg file).

   - If you want to reflect the turtle its state, you have to use
     ‘resizemode = auto’.

   - If you set e.g.  ‘language = italian’ the docstringdict
     ‘turtle_docstringdict_italian.py’ will be loaded at import time (if
     present on the import path, e.g.  in the same directory as
     ‘turtle’).

   - The entries 'exampleturtle' and 'examplescreen' define the names of
     these objects as they occur in the docstrings.  The transformation
     of method-docstrings to function-docstrings will delete these names
     from the docstrings.

   - 'using_IDLE': Set this to ‘True’ if you regularly work with IDLE
     and its ‘-n’ switch («no subprocess»).  This will prevent *note
     exitonclick(): 46ea. to enter the mainloop.

There can be a ‘turtle.cfg’ file in the directory where ‘turtle’ is
stored and an additional one in the current working directory.  The
latter will override the settings of the first one.

The ‘Lib/turtledemo’ directory contains a ‘turtle.cfg’ file.  You can
study it as an example and see its effects when running the demos
(preferably not from within the demo-viewer).


File: python.info,  Node: turtledemo — Demo scripts,  Next: Changes since Python 2 6,  Prev: Help and configuration,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.26.10.46 ‘turtledemo’ — Demo scripts
......................................

The ‘turtledemo’ package includes a set of demo scripts.  These scripts
can be run and viewed using the supplied demo viewer as follows:

     python -m turtledemo

Alternatively, you can run the demo scripts individually.  For example,

     python -m turtledemo.bytedesign

The ‘turtledemo’ package directory contains:

   - A demo viewer ‘__main__.py’ which can be used to view the
     sourcecode of the scripts and run them at the same time.

   - Multiple scripts demonstrating different features of the ‘turtle’
     module.  Examples can be accessed via the Examples menu.  They can
     also be run standalone.

   - A ‘turtle.cfg’ file which serves as an example of how to write and
     use such files.

The demo scripts are:

Name                         Description                        Features
                                                                
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                
‘bytedesign’                 complex classical turtle           *note tracer(): 46d6,
                             graphics pattern                   *note delay(): 46d5,
                                                                *note update(): 46d7.
                                                                
                                                                
‘chaos’                      graphs Verhulst dynamics, shows    world coordinates
                             that computer’s computations can   
                             generate results sometimes
                             against the common sense
                             expectations
                             
                                                                
‘clock’                      analog clock showing time of       turtles as clock’s hands,
                             your computer                      *note ontimer(): 46dd.
                                                                
                                                                
‘colormixer’                 experiment with r, g, b            *note ondrag(): 46c4.
                                                                
                                                                
‘forest’                     3 breadth-first trees              randomization
                                                                
                                                                
‘fractalcurves’              Hilbert & Koch curves              recursion
                                                                
                                                                
‘lindenmayer’                ethnomathematics (indian kolams)   L-System
                                                                
                                                                
‘minimal_hanoi’              Towers of Hanoi                    Rectangular Turtles as Hanoi discs
                                                                (*note shape(): 46ba,
                                                                *note shapesize(): 46bc.)
                                                                
                                                                
‘nim’                        play the classical nim game with   turtles as nimsticks, event driven
                             three heaps of sticks against      (mouse, keyboard)
                             the computer.                      
                             
                                                                
‘paint’                      super minimalistic drawing         *note onclick(): 46c2.
                             program                            
                             
                                                                
‘peace’                      elementary                         turtle: appearance and animation
                                                                
                                                                
‘penrose’                    aperiodic tiling with kites and    *note stamp(): 4696.
                             darts                              
                             
                                                                
‘planet_and_moon’            simulation of gravitational        compound shapes, *note Vec2D: 46ef.
                             system                             
                             
                                                                
‘rosette’                    a pattern from the wikipedia       *note clone(): 46c8, *note undo(): 4699.
                             article on turtle graphics         
                             
                                                                
‘round_dance’                dancing turtles rotating           compound shapes, *note clone(): 46c8.
                             pairwise in opposite direction     *note shapesize(): 46bc,
                                                                *note tilt(): 46bf,
                                                                *note get_shapepoly(): 46c1,
                                                                *note update(): 46d7.
                                                                
                                                                
‘sorting_animate’            visual demonstration of            simple alignment, randomization
                             different sorting methods          
                             
                                                                
‘tree’                       a (graphical) breadth first tree   *note clone(): 46c8.
                             (using generators)                 
                             
                                                                
‘two_canvases’               simple design                      turtles on two canvases
                                                                
                                                                
‘yinyang’                    another elementary example         *note circle(): 4694.
                                                                

Have fun!


File: python.info,  Node: Changes since Python 2 6,  Next: Changes since Python 3 0,  Prev: turtledemo — Demo scripts,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.26.10.47 Changes since Python 2.6
...................................

   - The methods *note Turtle.tracer: 46d6, *note Turtle.window_width:
     46e8. and *note Turtle.window_height: 46e7. have been eliminated.
     Methods with these names and functionality are now available only
     as methods of *note Screen: 4681.  The functions derived from these
     remain available.  (In fact already in Python 2.6 these methods
     were merely duplications of the corresponding *note TurtleScreen:
     46fc./‘Screen’ methods.)

   - The method ‘Turtle.fill()’ has been eliminated.  The behaviour of
     *note begin_fill(): 467b. and *note end_fill(): 467c. have changed
     slightly: now every filling process must be completed with an
     ‘end_fill()’ call.

   - A method *note Turtle.filling: 46b1. has been added.  It returns a
     boolean value: ‘True’ if a filling process is under way, ‘False’
     otherwise.  This behaviour corresponds to a ‘fill()’ call without
     arguments in Python 2.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Changes since Python 3 0,  Prev: Changes since Python 2 6,  Up: turtle — Turtle graphics

5.26.10.48 Changes since Python 3.0
...................................

   - The *note Turtle: 470d. methods *note shearfactor(): 46be, *note
     shapetransform(): 46c0. and *note get_shapepoly(): 46c1. have been
     added.  Thus the full range of regular linear transforms is now
     available for transforming turtle shapes.  *note tiltangle(): b0d.
     has been enhanced in functionality: it now can be used to get or
     set the tilt angle.

   - The *note Screen: 4681. method *note onkeypress(): 46db. has been
     added as a complement to *note onkey(): 46d9.  As the latter binds
     actions to the key release event, an alias: *note onkeyrelease():
     46da. was also added for it.

   - The method *note Screen.mainloop: 46de. has been added, so there is
     no longer a need to use the standalone ‘mainloop()’ function when
     working with *note Screen: 4681. and *note Turtle: 470d. objects.

   - Two input methods have been added: *note Screen.textinput: 1e71.
     and *note Screen.numinput: 1e72.  These pop up input dialogs and
     return strings and numbers respectively.


File: python.info,  Node: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης,  Next: Debugging and profiling,  Prev: Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.27 Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης
=======================

Τα modules που περιγράφονται σε αυτό το κεφάλαιο σας βοηθούν να γράψετε
λογισμικό.  Για παράδειγμα, το module *note pydoc: bd. παίρνει ένα
module και δημιουργεί τεκμηρίωση βάσει του περιεχομένου του.  Τα modules
*note doctest: 3d. και *note unittest: 10f. παρέχουν πλαίσια για τη
συγγραφή ελέγχων μονάδας που εκτελούν αυτόματα τον κώδικα και
επαληθεύουν ότι παράγεται το αναμενόμενο αποτέλεσμα.

Ο κατάλογος των modules που περιγράφονται σε αυτό το κεφάλαιο είναι:

* Menu:

* typing — Support for type hints::
* pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system::
* Python Development Mode::
* doctest — Test interactive Python examples::
* unittest — Unit testing framework::
* unittest.mock — mock object library: unittest mock — mock object library.
* unittest.mock — ξεκινώντας: unittest mock — ξεκινώντας.
* test — Regression tests package for Python::
* test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
* test.support.socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
* test.support.script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
* test.support.bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
* test.support.threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
* test.support.os_helper — Utilities for os tests: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
* test.support.import_helper — Utilities for import tests: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
* test.support.warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.


File: python.info,  Node: typing — Support for type hints,  Next: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.1 ‘typing’ — Support for type hints
----------------------------------------

Added in version 3.5.

'Source code:' Lib/typing.py(1)

     Σημείωση: The Python runtime does not enforce function and variable
     type annotations.  They can be used by third party tools such as
     *note type checkers: 775, IDEs, linters, etc.

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides runtime support for type hints.

Consider the function below:

     def surface_area_of_cube(edge_length: float) -> str:
         return f"The surface area of the cube is {6 * edge_length ** 2}."

The function ‘surface_area_of_cube’ takes an argument expected to be an
instance of *note float: 327, as indicated by the *note type hint: 25c1.
‘edge_length: float’.  The function is expected to return an instance of
*note str: 1df, as indicated by the ‘-> str’ hint.

While type hints can be simple classes like *note float: 327. or *note
str: 1df, they can also be more complex.  The *note typing: 10d. module
provides a vocabulary of more advanced type hints.

New features are frequently added to the ‘typing’ module.  The
typing_extensions(2) package provides backports of these new features to
older versions of Python.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Typing cheat sheet(3)

     A quick overview of type hints (hosted at the mypy docs)

Type System Reference section of the mypy docs(4)

     The Python typing system is standardised via PEPs, so this
     reference should broadly apply to most Python type checkers.  (Some
     parts may still be specific to mypy.)

Static Typing with Python(5)

     Type-checker-agnostic documentation written by the community
     detailing type system features, useful typing related tools and
     typing best practices.

* Menu:

* Specification for the Python Type System::
* Type aliases::
* NewType::
* Annotating callable objects::
* Generics::
* Annotating tuples::
* The type of class objects::
* Annotating generators and coroutines::
* User-defined generic types::
* The Any type::
* Nominal vs structural subtyping::
* Module contents: Module contents<5>.
* Deprecation Timeline of Major Features::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/typing.py

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/typing_extensions/

   (3) https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/cheat_sheet_py3.html

   (4) https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/index.html

   (5) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Specification for the Python Type System,  Next: Type aliases,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.27.1.1 Specification for the Python Type System
.................................................

The canonical, up-to-date specification of the Python type system can be
found at Specification for the Python type system(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/spec/index.html


File: python.info,  Node: Type aliases,  Next: NewType,  Prev: Specification for the Python Type System,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.27.1.2 Type aliases
.....................

A type alias is defined using the *note type: 85a. statement, which
creates an instance of *note TypeAliasType: 52a.  In this example,
‘Vector’ and ‘list[float]’ will be treated equivalently by static type
checkers:

     type Vector = list[float]

     def scale(scalar: float, vector: Vector) -> Vector:
         return [scalar * num for num in vector]

     # passes type checking; a list of floats qualifies as a Vector.
     new_vector = scale(2.0, [1.0, -4.2, 5.4])

Type aliases are useful for simplifying complex type signatures.  For
example:

     from collections.abc import Sequence

     type ConnectionOptions = dict[str, str]
     type Address = tuple[str, int]
     type Server = tuple[Address, ConnectionOptions]

     def broadcast_message(message: str, servers: Sequence[Server]) -> None:
         ...

     # The static type checker will treat the previous type signature as
     # being exactly equivalent to this one.
     def broadcast_message(
         message: str,
         servers: Sequence[tuple[tuple[str, int], dict[str, str]]]
     ) -> None:
         ...

The *note type: 85a. statement is new in Python 3.12.  For backwards
compatibility, type aliases can also be created through simple
assignment:

     Vector = list[float]

Or marked with *note TypeAlias: ba9. to make it explicit that this is a
type alias, not a normal variable assignment:

     from typing import TypeAlias

     Vector: TypeAlias = list[float]


File: python.info,  Node: NewType,  Next: Annotating callable objects,  Prev: Type aliases,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.27.1.3 NewType
................

Use the *note NewType: 10b1. helper to create distinct types:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)
     some_id = UserId(524313)

The static type checker will treat the new type as if it were a subclass
of the original type.  This is useful in helping catch logical errors:

     def get_user_name(user_id: UserId) -> str:
         ...

     # passes type checking
     user_a = get_user_name(UserId(42351))

     # fails type checking; an int is not a UserId
     user_b = get_user_name(-1)

You may still perform all ‘int’ operations on a variable of type
‘UserId’, but the result will always be of type ‘int’.  This lets you
pass in a ‘UserId’ wherever an ‘int’ might be expected, but will prevent
you from accidentally creating a ‘UserId’ in an invalid way:

     # 'output' is of type 'int', not 'UserId'
     output = UserId(23413) + UserId(54341)

Note that these checks are enforced only by the static type checker.  At
runtime, the statement ‘Derived = NewType('Derived', Base)’ will make
‘Derived’ a callable that immediately returns whatever parameter you
pass it.  That means the expression ‘Derived(some_value)’ does not
create a new class or introduce much overhead beyond that of a regular
function call.

More precisely, the expression ‘some_value is Derived(some_value)’ is
always true at runtime.

It is invalid to create a subtype of ‘Derived’:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

     # Fails at runtime and does not pass type checking
     class AdminUserId(UserId): pass

However, it is possible to create a *note NewType: 10b1. based on a
“derived” ‘NewType’:

     from typing import NewType

     UserId = NewType('UserId', int)

     ProUserId = NewType('ProUserId', UserId)

and typechecking for ‘ProUserId’ will work as expected.

See PEP 484(1) for more details.

     Σημείωση: Recall that the use of a type alias declares two types to
     be 'equivalent' to one another.  Doing ‘type Alias = Original’ will
     make the static type checker treat ‘Alias’ as being 'exactly
     equivalent' to ‘Original’ in all cases.  This is useful when you
     want to simplify complex type signatures.

     In contrast, ‘NewType’ declares one type to be a 'subtype' of
     another.  Doing ‘Derived = NewType('Derived', Original)’ will make
     the static type checker treat ‘Derived’ as a 'subclass' of
     ‘Original’, which means a value of type ‘Original’ cannot be used
     in places where a value of type ‘Derived’ is expected.  This is
     useful when you want to prevent logic errors with minimal runtime
     cost.

Added in version 3.5.2.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: ‘NewType’ is now a class rather than a
function.  As a result, there is some additional runtime cost when
calling ‘NewType’ over a regular function.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The performance of calling ‘NewType’ has been
restored to its level in Python 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Annotating callable objects,  Next: Generics,  Prev: NewType,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.27.1.4 Annotating callable objects
....................................

Functions – or other *note callable: 2fa4. objects – can be annotated
using *note collections.abc.Callable: bc6. or deprecated *note
typing.Callable: ba5.  ‘Callable[[int], str]’ signifies a function that
takes a single parameter of type *note int: 326. and returns a *note
str: 1df.

For example:

     from collections.abc import Callable, Awaitable

     def feeder(get_next_item: Callable[[], str]) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     def async_query(on_success: Callable[[int], None],
                     on_error: Callable[[int, Exception], None]) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     async def on_update(value: str) -> None:
         ...  # Body

     callback: Callable[[str], Awaitable[None]] = on_update

The subscription syntax must always be used with exactly two values: the
argument list and the return type.  The argument list must be a list of
types, a *note ParamSpec: 295, *note Concatenate: ba4, or an ellipsis
(‘...’).  The return type must be a single type.

If a literal ellipsis ‘...’ is given as the argument list, it indicates
that a callable with any arbitrary parameter list would be acceptable:

     def concat(x: str, y: str) -> str:
         return x + y

     x: Callable[..., str]
     x = str     # OK
     x = concat  # Also OK

‘Callable’ cannot express complex signatures such as functions that take
a variadic number of arguments, *note overloaded functions: 4723, or
functions that have keyword-only parameters.  However, these signatures
can be expressed by defining a *note Protocol: 76c. class with a *note
__call__(): 961. method:

     from collections.abc import Iterable
     from typing import Protocol

     class Combiner(Protocol):
         def __call__(self, *vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]: ...

     def batch_proc(data: Iterable[bytes], cb_results: Combiner) -> bytes:
         for item in data:
             ...

     def good_cb(*vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]:
         ...
     def bad_cb(*vals: bytes, maxitems: int | None) -> list[bytes]:
         ...

     batch_proc([], good_cb)  # OK
     batch_proc([], bad_cb)   # Error! Argument 2 has incompatible type because of
                              # different name and kind in the callback

Callables which take other callables as arguments may indicate that
their parameter types are dependent on each other using *note ParamSpec:
295.  Additionally, if that callable adds or removes arguments from
other callables, the *note Concatenate: ba4. operator may be used.  They
take the form ‘Callable[ParamSpecVariable, ReturnType]’ and
‘Callable[Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ..., ParamSpecVariable],
ReturnType]’ respectively.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: ‘Callable’ now supports *note ParamSpec: 295.
and *note Concatenate: ba4.  See PEP 612(1) for more details.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The documentation for *note ParamSpec: 295. and *note Concatenate: ba4.
provides examples of usage in ‘Callable’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: Generics,  Next: Annotating tuples,  Prev: Annotating callable objects,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.27.1.5 Generics
.................

Since type information about objects kept in containers cannot be
statically inferred in a generic way, many container classes in the
standard library support subscription to denote the expected types of
container elements.

     from collections.abc import Mapping, Sequence

     class Employee: ...

     # Sequence[Employee] indicates that all elements in the sequence
     # must be instances of "Employee".
     # Mapping[str, str] indicates that all keys and all values in the mapping
     # must be strings.
     def notify_by_email(employees: Sequence[Employee],
                         overrides: Mapping[str, str]) -> None: ...

Generic functions and classes can be parameterized by using *note type
parameter syntax: 7a5.:

     from collections.abc import Sequence

     def first[T](l: Sequence[T]) -> T:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "T"
         return l[0]

Or by using the *note TypeVar: 294. factory directly:

     from collections.abc import Sequence
     from typing import TypeVar

     U = TypeVar('U')                  # Declare type variable "U"

     def second(l: Sequence[U]) -> U:  # Function is generic over the TypeVar "U"
         return l[1]

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Syntactic support for generics is new in Python
3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Annotating tuples,  Next: The type of class objects,  Prev: Generics,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.27.1.6 Annotating tuples
..........................

For most containers in Python, the typing system assumes that all
elements in the container will be of the same type.  For example:

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     # Type checker will infer that all elements in ``x`` are meant to be ints
     x: list[int] = []

     # Type checker error: ``list`` only accepts a single type argument:
     y: list[int, str] = [1, 'foo']

     # Type checker will infer that all keys in ``z`` are meant to be strings,
     # and that all values in ``z`` are meant to be either strings or ints
     z: Mapping[str, str | int] = {}

*note list: 4d9. only accepts one type argument, so a type checker would
emit an error on the ‘y’ assignment above.  Similarly, *note Mapping:
c9c. only accepts two type arguments: the first indicates the type of
the keys, and the second indicates the type of the values.

Unlike most other Python containers, however, it is common in idiomatic
Python code for tuples to have elements which are not all of the same
type.  For this reason, tuples are special-cased in Python’s typing
system.  *note tuple: 1ce. accepts 'any number' of type arguments:

     # OK: ``x`` is assigned to a tuple of length 1 where the sole element is an int
     x: tuple[int] = (5,)

     # OK: ``y`` is assigned to a tuple of length 2;
     # element 1 is an int, element 2 is a str
     y: tuple[int, str] = (5, "foo")

     # Error: the type annotation indicates a tuple of length 1,
     # but ``z`` has been assigned to a tuple of length 3
     z: tuple[int] = (1, 2, 3)

To denote a tuple which could be of 'any' length, and in which all
elements are of the same type ‘T’, use the literal ellipsis ‘...’:
‘tuple[T, ...]’.  To denote an empty tuple, use ‘tuple[()]’.  Using
plain ‘tuple’ as an annotation is equivalent to using ‘tuple[Any, ...]’:

     x: tuple[int, ...] = (1, 2)
     # These reassignments are OK: ``tuple[int, ...]`` indicates x can be of any length
     x = (1, 2, 3)
     x = ()
     # This reassignment is an error: all elements in ``x`` must be ints
     x = ("foo", "bar")

     # ``y`` can only ever be assigned to an empty tuple
     y: tuple[()] = ()

     z: tuple = ("foo", "bar")
     # These reassignments are OK: plain ``tuple`` is equivalent to ``tuple[Any, ...]``
     z = (1, 2, 3)
     z = ()


File: python.info,  Node: The type of class objects,  Next: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Prev: Annotating tuples,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.27.1.7 The type of class objects
..................................

A variable annotated with ‘C’ may accept a value of type ‘C’.  In
contrast, a variable annotated with ‘type[C]’ (or deprecated *note
typing.Type[C]: 4728.) may accept values that are classes themselves –
specifically, it will accept the 'class object' of ‘C’.  For example:

     a = 3         # Has type ``int``
     b = int       # Has type ``type[int]``
     c = type(a)   # Also has type ``type[int]``

Note that ‘type[C]’ is covariant:

     class User: ...
     class ProUser(User): ...
     class TeamUser(User): ...

     def make_new_user(user_class: type[User]) -> User:
         # ...
         return user_class()

     make_new_user(User)      # OK
     make_new_user(ProUser)   # Also OK: ``type[ProUser]`` is a subtype of ``type[User]``
     make_new_user(TeamUser)  # Still fine
     make_new_user(User())    # Error: expected ``type[User]`` but got ``User``
     make_new_user(int)       # Error: ``type[int]`` is not a subtype of ``type[User]``

The only legal parameters for *note type: 186. are classes, *note Any:
a9a, *note type variables: 25bf, and unions of any of these types.  For
example:

     def new_non_team_user(user_class: type[BasicUser | ProUser]): ...

     new_non_team_user(BasicUser)  # OK
     new_non_team_user(ProUser)    # OK
     new_non_team_user(TeamUser)   # Error: ``type[TeamUser]`` is not a subtype
                                   # of ``type[BasicUser | ProUser]``
     new_non_team_user(User)       # Also an error

‘type[Any]’ is equivalent to *note type: 186, which is the root of
Python’s *note metaclass hierarchy: 25b3.


File: python.info,  Node: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Next: User-defined generic types,  Prev: The type of class objects,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.27.1.8 Annotating generators and coroutines
.............................................

A generator can be annotated using the generic type *note
Generator[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]: 1193.  For example:

     def echo_round() -> Generator[int, float, str]:
         sent = yield 0
         while sent >= 0:
             sent = yield round(sent)
         return 'Done'

Note that unlike many other generic classes in the standard library, the
‘SendType’ of *note Generator: 1193. behaves contravariantly, not
covariantly or invariantly.

The ‘SendType’ and ‘ReturnType’ parameters default to ‘None’:

     def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start += 1

It is also possible to set these types explicitly:

     def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int, None, None]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start += 1

Simple generators that only ever yield values can also be annotated as
having a return type of either *note Iterable[YieldType]: 28aa. or *note
Iterator[YieldType]: 28ab.:

     def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Iterator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start += 1

Async generators are handled in a similar fashion, but don’t expect a
‘ReturnType’ type argument (*note AsyncGenerator[YieldType, SendType]:
104a.).  The ‘SendType’ argument defaults to ‘None’, so the following
definitions are equivalent:

     async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start = await increment(start)

     async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int, None]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start = await increment(start)

As in the synchronous case, *note AsyncIterable[YieldType]: 1197. and
*note AsyncIterator[YieldType]: 1196. are available as well:

     async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncIterator[int]:
         while True:
             yield start
             start = await increment(start)

Coroutines can be annotated using *note Coroutine[YieldType, SendType,
ReturnType]: 1195.  Generic arguments correspond to those of *note
Generator: 1193, for example:

     from collections.abc import Coroutine
     c: Coroutine[list[str], str, int]  # Some coroutine defined elsewhere
     x = c.send('hi')                   # Inferred type of 'x' is list[str]
     async def bar() -> None:
         y = await c                    # Inferred type of 'y' is int


File: python.info,  Node: User-defined generic types,  Next: The Any type,  Prev: Annotating generators and coroutines,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.27.1.9 User-defined generic types
...................................

A user-defined class can be defined as a generic class.

     from logging import Logger

     class LoggedVar[T]:
         def __init__(self, value: T, name: str, logger: Logger) -> None:
             self.name = name
             self.logger = logger
             self.value = value

         def set(self, new: T) -> None:
             self.log('Set ' + repr(self.value))
             self.value = new

         def get(self) -> T:
             self.log('Get ' + repr(self.value))
             return self.value

         def log(self, message: str) -> None:
             self.logger.info('%s: %s', self.name, message)

This syntax indicates that the class ‘LoggedVar’ is parameterised around
a single *note type variable: 472b. ‘T’ .  This also makes ‘T’ valid as
a type within the class body.

Generic classes implicitly inherit from *note Generic: 19f2.  For
compatibility with Python 3.11 and lower, it is also possible to inherit
explicitly from ‘Generic’ to indicate a generic class:

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic

     T = TypeVar('T')

     class LoggedVar(Generic[T]):
         ...

Generic classes have *note __class_getitem__(): b21. methods, meaning
they can be parameterised at runtime (e.g.  ‘LoggedVar[int]’ below):

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     def zero_all_vars(vars: Iterable[LoggedVar[int]]) -> None:
         for var in vars:
             var.set(0)

A generic type can have any number of type variables.  All varieties of
*note TypeVar: 294. are permissible as parameters for a generic type:

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic, Sequence

     class WeirdTrio[T, B: Sequence[bytes], S: (int, str)]:
         ...

     OldT = TypeVar('OldT', contravariant=True)
     OldB = TypeVar('OldB', bound=Sequence[bytes], covariant=True)
     OldS = TypeVar('OldS', int, str)

     class OldWeirdTrio(Generic[OldT, OldB, OldS]):
         ...

Each type variable argument to *note Generic: 19f2. must be distinct.
This is thus invalid:

     from typing import TypeVar, Generic
     ...

     class Pair[M, M]:  # SyntaxError
         ...

     T = TypeVar('T')

     class Pair(Generic[T, T]):   # INVALID
         ...

Generic classes can also inherit from other classes:

     from collections.abc import Sized

     class LinkedList[T](Sized):
         ...

When inheriting from generic classes, some type parameters could be
fixed:

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     class MyDict[T](Mapping[str, T]):
         ...

In this case ‘MyDict’ has a single parameter, ‘T’.

Using a generic class without specifying type parameters assumes *note
Any: a9a. for each position.  In the following example, ‘MyIterable’ is
not generic but implicitly inherits from ‘Iterable[Any]’:

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     class MyIterable(Iterable): # Same as Iterable[Any]
         ...

User-defined generic type aliases are also supported.  Examples:

     from collections.abc import Iterable

     type Response[S] = Iterable[S] | int

     # Return type here is same as Iterable[str] | int
     def response(query: str) -> Response[str]:
         ...

     type Vec[T] = Iterable[tuple[T, T]]

     def inproduct[T: (int, float, complex)](v: Vec[T]) -> T: # Same as Iterable[tuple[T, T]]
         return sum(x*y for x, y in v)

For backward compatibility, generic type aliases can also be created
through a simple assignment:

     from collections.abc import Iterable
     from typing import TypeVar

     S = TypeVar("S")
     Response = Iterable[S] | int

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: *note Generic: 19f2. no longer has a custom
metaclass.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Syntactic support for generics and type aliases
is new in version 3.12.  Previously, generic classes had to explicitly
inherit from *note Generic: 19f2. or contain a type variable in one of
their bases.

User-defined generics for parameter expressions are also supported via
parameter specification variables in the form ‘[**P]’.  The behavior is
consistent with type variables” described above as parameter
specification variables are treated by the ‘typing’ module as a
specialized type variable.  The one exception to this is that a list of
types can be used to substitute a *note ParamSpec: 295.:

     >>> class Z[T, **P]: ...  # T is a TypeVar; P is a ParamSpec
     ...
     >>> Z[int, [dict, float]]
     __main__.Z[int, [dict, float]]

Classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 295. can also be created using
explicit inheritance from *note Generic: 19f2.  In this case, ‘**’ is
not used:

     from typing import ParamSpec, Generic

     P = ParamSpec('P')

     class Z(Generic[P]):
         ...

Another difference between *note TypeVar: 294. and *note ParamSpec: 295.
is that a generic with only one parameter specification variable will
accept parameter lists in the forms ‘X[[Type1, Type2, ...]]’ and also
‘X[Type1, Type2, ...]’ for aesthetic reasons.  Internally, the latter is
converted to the former, so the following are equivalent:

     >>> class X[**P]: ...
     ...
     >>> X[int, str]
     __main__.X[[int, str]]
     >>> X[[int, str]]
     __main__.X[[int, str]]

Note that generics with *note ParamSpec: 295. may not have correct
‘__parameters__’ after substitution in some cases because they are
intended primarily for static type checking.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: *note Generic: 19f2. can now be parameterized
over parameter expressions.  See *note ParamSpec: 295. and PEP 612(1)
for more details.

A user-defined generic class can have ABCs as base classes without a
metaclass conflict.  Generic metaclasses are not supported.  The outcome
of parameterizing generics is cached, and most types in the ‘typing’
module are *note hashable: 183. and comparable for equality.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: The Any type,  Next: Nominal vs structural subtyping,  Prev: User-defined generic types,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.27.1.10 The ‘Any’ type
........................

A special kind of type is *note Any: a9a.  A static type checker will
treat every type as being compatible with ‘Any’ and ‘Any’ as being
compatible with every type.

This means that it is possible to perform any operation or method call
on a value of type *note Any: a9a. and assign it to any variable:

     from typing import Any

     a: Any = None
     a = []          # OK
     a = 2           # OK

     s: str = ''
     s = a           # OK

     def foo(item: Any) -> int:
         # Passes type checking; 'item' could be any type,
         # and that type might have a 'bar' method
         item.bar()
         ...

Notice that no type checking is performed when assigning a value of type
*note Any: a9a. to a more precise type.  For example, the static type
checker did not report an error when assigning ‘a’ to ‘s’ even though
‘s’ was declared to be of type *note str: 1df. and receives an *note
int: 326. value at runtime!

Furthermore, all functions without a return type or parameter types will
implicitly default to using *note Any: a9a.:

     def legacy_parser(text):
         ...
         return data

     # A static type checker will treat the above
     # as having the same signature as:
     def legacy_parser(text: Any) -> Any:
         ...
         return data

This behavior allows *note Any: a9a. to be used as an 'escape hatch'
when you need to mix dynamically and statically typed code.

Contrast the behavior of *note Any: a9a. with the behavior of *note
object: e4d.  Similar to ‘Any’, every type is a subtype of ‘object’.
However, unlike ‘Any’, the reverse is not true: ‘object’ is 'not' a
subtype of every other type.

That means when the type of a value is *note object: e4d, a type checker
will reject almost all operations on it, and assigning it to a variable
(or using it as a return value) of a more specialized type is a type
error.  For example:

     def hash_a(item: object) -> int:
         # Fails type checking; an object does not have a 'magic' method.
         item.magic()
         ...

     def hash_b(item: Any) -> int:
         # Passes type checking
         item.magic()
         ...

     # Passes type checking, since ints and strs are subclasses of object
     hash_a(42)
     hash_a("foo")

     # Passes type checking, since Any is compatible with all types
     hash_b(42)
     hash_b("foo")

Use *note object: e4d. to indicate that a value could be any type in a
typesafe manner.  Use *note Any: a9a. to indicate that a value is
dynamically typed.


File: python.info,  Node: Nominal vs structural subtyping,  Next: Module contents<5>,  Prev: The Any type,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.27.1.11 Nominal vs structural subtyping
.........................................

Initially PEP 484(1) defined the Python static type system as using
'nominal subtyping'.  This means that a class ‘A’ is allowed where a
class ‘B’ is expected if and only if ‘A’ is a subclass of ‘B’.

This requirement previously also applied to abstract base classes, such
as *note Iterable: 28aa.  The problem with this approach is that a class
had to be explicitly marked to support them, which is unpythonic and
unlike what one would normally do in idiomatic dynamically typed Python
code.  For example, this conforms to PEP 484(2):

     from collections.abc import Sized, Iterable, Iterator

     class Bucket(Sized, Iterable[int]):
         ...
         def __len__(self) -> int: ...
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

PEP 544(3) solves this problem by allowing users to write the above code
without explicit base classes in the class definition, allowing ‘Bucket’
to be implicitly considered a subtype of both ‘Sized’ and
‘Iterable[int]’ by static type checkers.  This is known as 'structural
subtyping' (or static duck-typing):

     from collections.abc import Iterator, Iterable

     class Bucket:  # Note: no base classes
         ...
         def __len__(self) -> int: ...
         def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ...

     def collect(items: Iterable[int]) -> int: ...
     result = collect(Bucket())  # Passes type check

Moreover, by subclassing a special class *note Protocol: 76c, a user can
define new custom protocols to fully enjoy structural subtyping (see
examples below).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents<5>,  Next: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features,  Prev: Nominal vs structural subtyping,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.27.1.12 Module contents
.........................

The ‘typing’ module defines the following classes, functions and
decorators.

* Menu:

* Special typing primitives::
* Protocols: Protocols<4>.
* ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O::
* Functions and decorators::
* Introspection helpers::
* Constant::
* Deprecated aliases::


File: python.info,  Node: Special typing primitives,  Next: Protocols<4>,  Up: Module contents<5>

5.27.1.13 Special typing primitives
...................................

* Menu:

* Special types::
* Special forms::
* Building generic types and type aliases::
* Other special directives::


File: python.info,  Node: Special types,  Next: Special forms,  Up: Special typing primitives

5.27.1.14 Special types
.......................

These can be used as types in annotations.  They do not support
subscription using ‘[]’.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.Any

     Special type indicating an unconstrained type.

        * Every type is compatible with ‘Any’.

        * ‘Any’ is compatible with every type.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: ‘Any’ can now be used as a base class.
     This can be useful for avoiding type checker errors with classes
     that can duck type anywhere or are highly dynamic.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.AnyStr

     A *note constrained type variable: 4731.

     Definition:

          AnyStr = TypeVar('AnyStr', str, bytes)

     ‘AnyStr’ is meant to be used for functions that may accept *note
     str: 1df. or *note bytes: 1c7. arguments but cannot allow the two
     to mix.

     For example:

          def concat(a: AnyStr, b: AnyStr) -> AnyStr:
              return a + b

          concat("foo", "bar")    # OK, output has type 'str'
          concat(b"foo", b"bar")  # OK, output has type 'bytes'
          concat("foo", b"bar")   # Error, cannot mix str and bytes

     Note that, despite its name, ‘AnyStr’ has nothing to do with the
     *note Any: a9a. type, nor does it mean «any string».  In
     particular, ‘AnyStr’ and ‘str | bytes’ are different from each
     other and have different use cases:

          # Invalid use of AnyStr:
          # The type variable is used only once in the function signature,
          # so cannot be "solved" by the type checker
          def greet_bad(cond: bool) -> AnyStr:
              return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

          # The better way of annotating this function:
          def greet_proper(cond: bool) -> str | bytes:
              return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!"

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.13, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.18:
     Deprecated in favor of the new *note type parameter syntax: 7a5.
     Use ‘class A[T: (str, bytes)]: ...’ instead of importing ‘AnyStr’.
     See PEP 695(1) for more details.

     In Python 3.16, ‘AnyStr’ will be removed from ‘typing.__all__’, and
     deprecation warnings will be emitted at runtime when it is accessed
     or imported from ‘typing’.  ‘AnyStr’ will be removed from ‘typing’
     in Python 3.18.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.LiteralString

     Special type that includes only literal strings.

     Any string literal is compatible with ‘LiteralString’, as is
     another ‘LiteralString’.  However, an object typed as just ‘str’ is
     not.  A string created by composing ‘LiteralString’-typed objects
     is also acceptable as a ‘LiteralString’.

     Example:

          def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> None:
              ...

          def caller(arbitrary_string: str, literal_string: LiteralString) -> None:
              run_query("SELECT * FROM students")  # OK
              run_query(literal_string)  # OK
              run_query("SELECT * FROM " + literal_string)  # OK
              run_query(arbitrary_string)  # type checker error
              run_query(  # type checker error
                  f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}"
              )

     ‘LiteralString’ is useful for sensitive APIs where arbitrary
     user-generated strings could generate problems.  For example, the
     two cases above that generate type checker errors could be
     vulnerable to an SQL injection attack.

     See PEP 675(2) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.Never
 -- Δεδομένα: typing.NoReturn

     ‘Never’ and ‘NoReturn’ represent the bottom type(3), a type that
     has no members.

     They can be used to indicate that a function never returns, such as
     *note sys.exit(): 4ff.:

          from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

          def stop() -> Never:
              raise RuntimeError('no way')

     Or to define a function that should never be called, as there are
     no valid arguments, such as *note assert_never(): a95.:

          from typing import Never  # or NoReturn

          def never_call_me(arg: Never) -> None:
              pass

          def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
              never_call_me(arg)  # type checker error
              match arg:
                  case int():
                      print("It's an int")
                  case str():
                      print("It's a str")
                  case _:
                      never_call_me(arg)  # OK, arg is of type Never (or NoReturn)

     ‘Never’ and ‘NoReturn’ have the same meaning in the type system and
     static type checkers treat both equivalently.

     Added in version 3.6.2: Added ‘NoReturn’.

     Added in version 3.11: Added ‘Never’.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.Self

     Special type to represent the current enclosed class.

     For example:

          from typing import Self, reveal_type

          class Foo:
              def return_self(self) -> Self:
                  ...
                  return self

          class SubclassOfFoo(Foo): pass

          reveal_type(Foo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "Foo"
          reveal_type(SubclassOfFoo().return_self())  # Revealed type is "SubclassOfFoo"

     This annotation is semantically equivalent to the following, albeit
     in a more succinct fashion:

          from typing import TypeVar

          Self = TypeVar("Self", bound="Foo")

          class Foo:
              def return_self(self: Self) -> Self:
                  ...
                  return self

     In general, if something returns ‘self’, as in the above examples,
     you should use ‘Self’ as the return annotation.  If
     ‘Foo.return_self’ was annotated as returning ‘"Foo"’, then the type
     checker would infer the object returned from
     ‘SubclassOfFoo.return_self’ as being of type ‘Foo’ rather than
     ‘SubclassOfFoo’.

     Other common use cases include:

        - *note classmethod: 69a.s that are used as alternative
          constructors and return instances of the ‘cls’ parameter.

        - Annotating an *note __enter__(): 9c6. method which returns
          self.

     You should not use ‘Self’ as the return annotation if the method is
     not guaranteed to return an instance of a subclass when the class
     is subclassed:

          class Eggs:
              # Self would be an incorrect return annotation here,
              # as the object returned is always an instance of Eggs,
              # even in subclasses
              def returns_eggs(self) -> "Eggs":
                  return Eggs()

     See PEP 673(4) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.TypeAlias

     Special annotation for explicitly declaring a *note type alias:
     870.

     For example:

          from typing import TypeAlias

          Factors: TypeAlias = list[int]

     ‘TypeAlias’ is particularly useful on older Python versions for
     annotating aliases that make use of forward references, as it can
     be hard for type checkers to distinguish these from normal variable
     assignments:

          from typing import Generic, TypeAlias, TypeVar

          T = TypeVar("T")

          # "Box" does not exist yet,
          # so we have to use quotes for the forward reference on Python <3.12.
          # Using ``TypeAlias`` tells the type checker that this is a type alias declaration,
          # not a variable assignment to a string.
          BoxOfStrings: TypeAlias = "Box[str]"

          class Box(Generic[T]):
              @classmethod
              def make_box_of_strings(cls) -> BoxOfStrings: ...

     See PEP 613(5) for more details.

     Added in version 3.10.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘TypeAlias’ is deprecated in favor of
     the *note type: 85a. statement, which creates instances of *note
     TypeAliasType: 52a. and which natively supports forward references.
     Note that while ‘TypeAlias’ and ‘TypeAliasType’ serve similar
     purposes and have similar names, they are distinct and the latter
     is not the type of the former.  Removal of ‘TypeAlias’ is not
     currently planned, but users are encouraged to migrate to ‘type’
     statements.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/

   (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_type

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/


File: python.info,  Node: Special forms,  Next: Building generic types and type aliases,  Prev: Special types,  Up: Special typing primitives

5.27.1.15 Special forms
.......................

These can be used as types in annotations.  They all support
subscription using ‘[]’, but each has a unique syntax.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Union

     Union type; ‘Union[X, Y]’ is equivalent to ‘X | Y’ and means either
     X or Y.

     To define a union, use e.g.  ‘Union[int, str]’ or the shorthand
     ‘int | str’.  Using that shorthand is recommended.  Details:

        * The arguments must be types and there must be at least one.

        * Unions of unions are flattened, e.g.:

               Union[Union[int, str], float] == Union[int, str, float]

          However, this does not apply to unions referenced through a
          type alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the underlying
          *note TypeAliasType: 52a.:

               type A = Union[int, str]
               Union[A, float] != Union[int, str, float]

        * Unions of a single argument vanish, e.g.:

               Union[int] == int  # The constructor actually returns int

        * Redundant arguments are skipped, e.g.:

               Union[int, str, int] == Union[int, str] == int | str

        * When comparing unions, the argument order is ignored, e.g.:

               Union[int, str] == Union[str, int]

        * You cannot subclass or instantiate a ‘Union’.

        * You cannot write ‘Union[X][Y]’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Don’t remove explicit subclasses from
     unions at runtime.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Unions can now be written as ‘X | Y’.  See
     *note union type expressions: ba2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: *note types.UnionType: 527. is now an
     alias for ‘Union’, and both ‘Union[int, str]’ and ‘int | str’
     create instances of the same class.  To check whether an object is
     a ‘Union’ at runtime, use ‘isinstance(obj, Union)’.  For
     compatibility with earlier versions of Python, use ‘get_origin(obj)
     is typing.Union or get_origin(obj) is types.UnionType’.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.Optional

     ‘Optional[X]’ is equivalent to ‘X | None’ (or ‘Union[X, None]’).

     Note that this is not the same concept as an optional argument,
     which is one that has a default.  An optional argument with a
     default does not require the ‘Optional’ qualifier on its type
     annotation just because it is optional.  For example:

          def foo(arg: int = 0) -> None:
              ...

     On the other hand, if an explicit value of ‘None’ is allowed, the
     use of ‘Optional’ is appropriate, whether the argument is optional
     or not.  For example:

          def foo(arg: Optional[int] = None) -> None:
              ...

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Optional can now be written as ‘X | None’.
     See *note union type expressions: ba2.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.Concatenate

     Special form for annotating higher-order functions.

     ‘Concatenate’ can be used in conjunction with *note Callable: 28cb.
     and *note ParamSpec: 295. to annotate a higher-order callable which
     adds, removes, or transforms parameters of another callable.  Usage
     is in the form ‘Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ...,
     ParamSpecVariable]’.  ‘Concatenate’ is valid when used in *note
     Callable: 28cb. type hints and when instantiating user-defined
     generic classes with ‘ParamSpec’ parameters.  The last parameter to
     ‘Concatenate’ must be a ‘ParamSpec’ or ellipsis (‘...’).

     For example, to annotate a decorator ‘with_lock’ which provides a
     *note threading.Lock: 1a10. to the decorated function,
     ‘Concatenate’ can be used to indicate that ‘with_lock’ expects a
     callable which takes in a ‘Lock’ as the first argument, and returns
     a callable with a different type signature.  In this case, the
     *note ParamSpec: 295. indicates that the returned callable’s
     parameter types are dependent on the parameter types of the
     callable being passed in:

          from collections.abc import Callable
          from threading import Lock
          from typing import Concatenate

          # Use this lock to ensure that only one thread is executing a function
          # at any time.
          my_lock = Lock()

          def with_lock[**P, R](f: Callable[Concatenate[Lock, P], R]) -> Callable[P, R]:
              '''A type-safe decorator which provides a lock.'''
              def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> R:
                  # Provide the lock as the first argument.
                  return f(my_lock, *args, **kwargs)
              return inner

          @with_lock
          def sum_threadsafe(lock: Lock, numbers: list[float]) -> float:
              '''Add a list of numbers together in a thread-safe manner.'''
              with lock:
                  return sum(numbers)

          # We don't need to pass in the lock ourselves thanks to the decorator.
          sum_threadsafe([1.1, 2.2, 3.3])

     Added in version 3.10.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * PEP 612(1) – Parameter Specification Variables (the PEP which
          introduced ‘ParamSpec’ and ‘Concatenate’)

        * *note ParamSpec: 295.

        * *note Annotating callable objects: 28cb.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.Literal

     Special typing form to define «literal types».

     ‘Literal’ can be used to indicate to type checkers that the
     annotated object has a value equivalent to one of the provided
     literals.

     For example:

          def validate_simple(data: Any) -> Literal[True]:  # always returns True
              ...

          type Mode = Literal['r', 'rb', 'w', 'wb']
          def open_helper(file: str, mode: Mode) -> str:
              ...

          open_helper('/some/path', 'r')      # Passes type check
          open_helper('/other/path', 'typo')  # Error in type checker

     ‘Literal[...]’ cannot be subclassed.  At runtime, an arbitrary
     value is allowed as type argument to ‘Literal[...]’, but type
     checkers may impose restrictions.  See PEP 586(2) for more details
     about literal types.

     Additional details:

        * The arguments must be literal values and there must be at
          least one.

        * Nested ‘Literal’ types are flattened, e.g.:

               assert Literal[Literal[1, 2], 3] == Literal[1, 2, 3]

          However, this does not apply to ‘Literal’ types referenced
          through a type alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the
          underlying *note TypeAliasType: 52a.:

               type A = Literal[1, 2]
               assert Literal[A, 3] != Literal[1, 2, 3]

        * Redundant arguments are skipped, e.g.:

               assert Literal[1, 2, 1] == Literal[1, 2]

        * When comparing literals, the argument order is ignored, e.g.:

               assert Literal[1, 2] == Literal[2, 1]

        * You cannot subclass or instantiate a ‘Literal’.

        * You cannot write ‘Literal[X][Y]’.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9.1: ‘Literal’ now de-duplicates parameters.
     Equality comparisons of ‘Literal’ objects are no longer order
     dependent.  ‘Literal’ objects will now raise a *note TypeError:
     291. exception during equality comparisons if one of their
     parameters are not *note hashable: 183.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.ClassVar

     Special type construct to mark class variables.

     As introduced in PEP 526(3), a variable annotation wrapped in
     ClassVar indicates that a given attribute is intended to be used as
     a class variable and should not be set on instances of that class.
     Usage:

          class Starship:
              stats: ClassVar[dict[str, int]] = {} # class variable
              damage: int = 10                     # instance variable

     ‘ClassVar’ accepts only types and cannot be further subscribed.

     ‘ClassVar’ is not a class itself, and should not be used with *note
     isinstance(): 2ef. or *note issubclass(): 2f0.  ‘ClassVar’ does not
     change Python runtime behavior, but it can be used by third-party
     type checkers.  For example, a type checker might flag the
     following code as an error:

          enterprise_d = Starship(3000)
          enterprise_d.stats = {} # Error, setting class variable on instance
          Starship.stats = {}     # This is OK

     Added in version 3.5.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: ‘ClassVar’ can now be nested in *note
     Final: 76f. and vice versa.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.Final

     Special typing construct to indicate final names to type checkers.

     Final names cannot be reassigned in any scope.  Final names
     declared in class scopes cannot be overridden in subclasses.

     For example:

          MAX_SIZE: Final = 9000
          MAX_SIZE += 1  # Error reported by type checker

          class Connection:
              TIMEOUT: Final[int] = 10

          class FastConnector(Connection):
              TIMEOUT = 1  # Error reported by type checker

     There is no runtime checking of these properties.  See PEP 591(4)
     for more details.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: ‘Final’ can now be nested in *note
     ClassVar: 76e. and vice versa.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.Required

     Special typing construct to mark a *note TypedDict: 290. key as
     required.

     This is mainly useful for ‘total=False’ TypedDicts.  See *note
     TypedDict: 290. and PEP 655(5) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.NotRequired

     Special typing construct to mark a *note TypedDict: 290. key as
     potentially missing.

     See *note TypedDict: 290. and PEP 655(6) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.ReadOnly

     A special typing construct to mark an item of a *note TypedDict:
     290. as read-only.

     For example:

          class Movie(TypedDict):
             title: ReadOnly[str]
             year: int

          def mutate_movie(m: Movie) -> None:
             m["year"] = 1999  # allowed
             m["title"] = "The Matrix"  # typechecker error

     There is no runtime checking for this property.

     See *note TypedDict: 290. and PEP 705(7) for more details.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.Annotated

     Special typing form to add context-specific metadata to an
     annotation.

     Add metadata ‘x’ to a given type ‘T’ by using the annotation
     ‘Annotated[T, x]’.  Metadata added using ‘Annotated’ can be used by
     static analysis tools or at runtime.  At runtime, the metadata is
     stored in a ‘__metadata__’ attribute.

     If a library or tool encounters an annotation ‘Annotated[T, x]’ and
     has no special logic for the metadata, it should ignore the
     metadata and simply treat the annotation as ‘T’.  As such,
     ‘Annotated’ can be useful for code that wants to use annotations
     for purposes outside Python’s static typing system.

     Using ‘Annotated[T, x]’ as an annotation still allows for static
     typechecking of ‘T’, as type checkers will simply ignore the
     metadata ‘x’.  In this way, ‘Annotated’ differs from the *note
     @no_type_check: aa1. decorator, which can also be used for adding
     annotations outside the scope of the typing system, but completely
     disables typechecking for a function or class.

     The responsibility of how to interpret the metadata lies with the
     tool or library encountering an ‘Annotated’ annotation.  A tool or
     library encountering an ‘Annotated’ type can scan through the
     metadata elements to determine if they are of interest (e.g., using
     *note isinstance(): 2ef.).

      -- Describe: Annotated[<type>, <metadata>]

     Here is an example of how you might use ‘Annotated’ to add metadata
     to type annotations if you were doing range analysis:

          @dataclass
          class ValueRange:
              lo: int
              hi: int

          T1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(-10, 5)]
          T2 = Annotated[T1, ValueRange(-20, 3)]

     The first argument to ‘Annotated’ must be a valid type.  Multiple
     metadata elements can be supplied as ‘Annotated’ supports variadic
     arguments.  The order of the metadata elements is preserved and
     matters for equality checks:

          @dataclass
          class ctype:
               kind: str

          a1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")]
          a2 = Annotated[int, ctype("char"), ValueRange(3, 10)]

          assert a1 != a2  # Order matters

     It is up to the tool consuming the annotations to decide whether
     the client is allowed to add multiple metadata elements to one
     annotation and how to merge those annotations.

     Nested ‘Annotated’ types are flattened.  The order of the metadata
     elements starts with the innermost annotation:

          assert Annotated[Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)], ctype("char")] == Annotated[
              int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")
          ]

     However, this does not apply to ‘Annotated’ types referenced
     through a type alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the underlying
     *note TypeAliasType: 52a.:

          type From3To10[T] = Annotated[T, ValueRange(3, 10)]
          assert Annotated[From3To10[int], ctype("char")] != Annotated[
             int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")
          ]

     Duplicated metadata elements are not removed:

          assert Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)] != Annotated[
              int, ValueRange(3, 10), ValueRange(3, 10)
          ]

     ‘Annotated’ can be used with nested and generic aliases:

               @dataclass
               class MaxLen:
                   value: int

               type Vec[T] = Annotated[list[tuple[T, T]], MaxLen(10)]

               # When used in a type annotation, a type checker will treat "V" the same as
               # ``Annotated[list[tuple[int, int]], MaxLen(10)]``:
               type V = Vec[int]

     ‘Annotated’ cannot be used with an unpacked *note TypeVarTuple:
     293.:

          type Variadic[*Ts] = Annotated[*Ts, Ann1] = Annotated[T1, T2, T3, ..., Ann1]  # NOT valid

     where ‘T1’, ‘T2’, … are *note TypeVars: 294.  This is invalid as
     only one type should be passed to Annotated.

     By default, *note get_type_hints(): a9e. strips the metadata from
     annotations.  Pass ‘include_extras=True’ to have the metadata
     preserved:

               >>> from typing import Annotated, get_type_hints
               >>> def func(x: Annotated[int, "metadata"]) -> None: pass
               ...
               >>> get_type_hints(func)
               {'x': <class 'int'>, 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}
               >>> get_type_hints(func, include_extras=True)
               {'x': typing.Annotated[int, 'metadata'], 'return': <class 'NoneType'>}

     At runtime, the metadata associated with an ‘Annotated’ type can be
     retrieved via the ‘__metadata__’ attribute:

               >>> from typing import Annotated
               >>> X = Annotated[int, "very", "important", "metadata"]
               >>> X
               typing.Annotated[int, 'very', 'important', 'metadata']
               >>> X.__metadata__
               ('very', 'important', 'metadata')

     If you want to retrieve the original type wrapped by ‘Annotated’,
     use the ‘__origin__’ attribute:

               >>> from typing import Annotated, get_origin
               >>> Password = Annotated[str, "secret"]
               >>> Password.__origin__
               <class 'str'>

     Note that using *note get_origin(): 314. will return ‘Annotated’
     itself:

               >>> get_origin(Password)
               typing.Annotated

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 593(8) - Flexible function and variable annotations

          The PEP introducing ‘Annotated’ to the standard library.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.TypeForm

     A special form representing the value that results from evaluating
     a type expression.

     This value encodes the information supplied in the type expression,
     and it represents the type described by that type expression.

     When used in a type expression, ‘TypeForm’ describes a set of type
     form objects.  It accepts a single type argument, which must be a
     valid type expression.  ‘TypeForm[T]’ describes the set of all type
     form objects that represent the type ‘T’ or types assignable to
     ‘T’.

     ‘TypeForm(obj)’ simply returns ‘obj’ unchanged.  This is useful for
     explicitly marking a value as a type form for static type checkers.

     Example:

          from typing import Any, TypeForm

          def cast[T](typ: TypeForm[T], value: Any) -> T: ...

          reveal_type(cast(int, "x"))  # Revealed type is "int"

     See PEP 747(9) for details.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.TypeIs

     Special typing construct for marking user-defined type predicate
     functions.

     ‘TypeIs’ can be used to annotate the return type of a user-defined
     type predicate function.  ‘TypeIs’ only accepts a single type
     argument.  At runtime, functions marked this way should return a
     boolean and take at least one positional argument.

     ‘TypeIs’ aims to benefit 'type narrowing' – a technique used by
     static type checkers to determine a more precise type of an
     expression within a program’s code flow.  Usually type narrowing is
     done by analyzing conditional code flow and applying the narrowing
     to a block of code.  The conditional expression here is sometimes
     referred to as a «type predicate»:

          def is_str(val: str | float):
              # "isinstance" type predicate
              if isinstance(val, str):
                  # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``str``
                  ...
              else:
                  # Else, type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``float``.
                  ...

     Sometimes it would be convenient to use a user-defined boolean
     function as a type predicate.  Such a function should use
     ‘TypeIs[...]’ or *note TypeGuard: 698. as its return type to alert
     static type checkers to this intention.  ‘TypeIs’ usually has more
     intuitive behavior than ‘TypeGuard’, but it cannot be used when the
     input and output types are incompatible (e.g., ‘list[object]’ to
     ‘list[int]’) or when the function does not return ‘True’ for all
     instances of the narrowed type.

     Using ‘-> TypeIs[NarrowedType]’ tells the static type checker that
     for a given function:

       1. The return value is a boolean.

       2. If the return value is ‘True’, the type of its argument is the
          intersection of the argument’s original type and
          ‘NarrowedType’.

       3. If the return value is ‘False’, the type of its argument is
          narrowed to exclude ‘NarrowedType’.

     For example:

          from typing import assert_type, final, TypeIs

          class Parent: pass
          class Child(Parent): pass
          @final
          class Unrelated: pass

          def is_parent(val: object) -> TypeIs[Parent]:
              return isinstance(val, Parent)

          def run(arg: Child | Unrelated):
              if is_parent(arg):
                  # Type of ``arg`` is narrowed to the intersection
                  # of ``Parent`` and ``Child``, which is equivalent to
                  # ``Child``.
                  assert_type(arg, Child)
              else:
                  # Type of ``arg`` is narrowed to exclude ``Parent``,
                  # so only ``Unrelated`` is left.
                  assert_type(arg, Unrelated)

     The type inside ‘TypeIs’ must be consistent with the type of the
     function’s argument; if it is not, static type checkers will raise
     an error.  An incorrectly written ‘TypeIs’ function can lead to
     unsound behavior in the type system; it is the user’s
     responsibility to write such functions in a type-safe manner.

     If a ‘TypeIs’ function is a class or instance method, then the type
     in ‘TypeIs’ maps to the type of the second parameter (after ‘cls’
     or ‘self’).

     In short, the form ‘def foo(arg: TypeA) -> TypeIs[TypeB]: ...’,
     means that if ‘foo(arg)’ returns ‘True’, then ‘arg’ is an instance
     of ‘TypeB’, and if it returns ‘False’, it is not an instance of
     ‘TypeB’.

     ‘TypeIs’ also works with type variables.  For more information, see
     PEP 742(10) (Narrowing types with ‘TypeIs’).

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.TypeGuard

     Special typing construct for marking user-defined type predicate
     functions.

     Type predicate functions are user-defined functions that return
     whether their argument is an instance of a particular type.
     ‘TypeGuard’ works similarly to *note TypeIs: 697, but has subtly
     different effects on type checking behavior (see below).

     Using ‘-> TypeGuard’ tells the static type checker that for a given
     function:

       1. The return value is a boolean.

       2. If the return value is ‘True’, the type of its argument is the
          type inside ‘TypeGuard’.

     ‘TypeGuard’ also works with type variables.  See PEP 647(11) for
     more details.

     For example:

          def is_str_list(val: list[object]) -> TypeGuard[list[str]]:
              '''Determines whether all objects in the list are strings'''
              return all(isinstance(x, str) for x in val)

          def func1(val: list[object]):
              if is_str_list(val):
                  # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``list[str]``.
                  print(" ".join(val))
              else:
                  # Type of ``val`` remains as ``list[object]``.
                  print("Not a list of strings!")

     ‘TypeIs’ and ‘TypeGuard’ differ in the following ways:

        * ‘TypeIs’ requires the narrowed type to be a subtype of the
          input type, while ‘TypeGuard’ does not.  The main reason is to
          allow for things like narrowing ‘list[object]’ to ‘list[str]’
          even though the latter is not a subtype of the former, since
          ‘list’ is invariant.

        * When a ‘TypeGuard’ function returns ‘True’, type checkers
          narrow the type of the variable to exactly the ‘TypeGuard’
          type.  When a ‘TypeIs’ function returns ‘True’, type checkers
          can infer a more precise type combining the previously known
          type of the variable with the ‘TypeIs’ type.  (Technically,
          this is known as an intersection type.)

        * When a ‘TypeGuard’ function returns ‘False’, type checkers
          cannot narrow the type of the variable at all.  When a
          ‘TypeIs’ function returns ‘False’, type checkers can narrow
          the type of the variable to exclude the ‘TypeIs’ type.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.Unpack

     Typing operator to conceptually mark an object as having been
     unpacked.

     For example, using the unpack operator ‘*’ on a *note type variable
     tuple: 4734. is equivalent to using ‘Unpack’ to mark the type
     variable tuple as having been unpacked:

          Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
          tup: tuple[*Ts]
          # Effectively does:
          tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]

     In fact, ‘Unpack’ can be used interchangeably with ‘*’ in the
     context of *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 293. and *note
     builtins.tuple: 1ce. types.  You might see ‘Unpack’ being used
     explicitly in older versions of Python, where ‘*’ couldn’t be used
     in certain places:

          # In older versions of Python, TypeVarTuple and Unpack
          # are located in the `typing_extensions` backports package.
          from typing_extensions import TypeVarTuple, Unpack

          Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts')
          tup: tuple[*Ts]         # Syntax error on Python <= 3.10!
          tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]]  # Semantically equivalent, and backwards-compatible

     ‘Unpack’ can also be used along with *note typing.TypedDict: 290.
     for typing ‘**kwargs’ in a function signature:

          from typing import TypedDict, Unpack

          class Movie(TypedDict):
              name: str
              year: int

          # This function expects two keyword arguments - `name` of type `str`
          # and `year` of type `int`.
          def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ...

     See PEP 692(12) for more details on using ‘Unpack’ for ‘**kwargs’
     typing.

     Added in version 3.11.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0747/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/


File: python.info,  Node: Building generic types and type aliases,  Next: Other special directives,  Prev: Special forms,  Up: Special typing primitives

5.27.1.16 Building generic types and type aliases
.................................................

The following classes should not be used directly as annotations.  Their
intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating generic types and
type aliases.

These objects can be created through special syntax (*note type
parameter lists: 7a5. and the *note type: 85a. statement).  For
compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, they can also be created
without the dedicated syntax, as documented below.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Generic

     Abstract base class for generic types.

     A generic type is typically declared by adding a list of type
     parameters after the class name:

          class Mapping[KT, VT]:
              def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
                  ...
                  # Etc.

     Such a class implicitly inherits from ‘Generic’.  The runtime
     semantics of this syntax are discussed in the *note Language
     Reference: 86e.

     This class can then be used as follows:

          def lookup_name[X, Y](mapping: Mapping[X, Y], key: X, default: Y) -> Y:
              try:
                  return mapping[key]
              except KeyError:
                  return default

     Here the brackets after the function name indicate a *note generic
     function: 86f.

     For backwards compatibility, generic classes can also be declared
     by explicitly inheriting from ‘Generic’.  In this case, the type
     parameters must be declared separately:

          KT = TypeVar('KT')
          VT = TypeVar('VT')

          class Mapping(Generic[KT, VT]):
              def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT:
                  ...
                  # Etc.

 -- Κλάση: typing.TypeVar (name, *constraints, bound=None,
          covariant=False, contravariant=False, infer_variance=False,
          default=typing.NoDefault)

     Type variable.

     The preferred way to construct a type variable is via the dedicated
     syntax for *note generic functions: 86f, *note generic classes:
     86e, and *note generic type aliases: 871.:

          class Sequence[T]:  # T is a TypeVar
              ...

     This syntax can also be used to create bounded and constrained type
     variables:

          class StrSequence[S: str]:  # S is a TypeVar with a `str` upper bound;
              ...                     # we can say that S is "bounded by `str`"


          class StrOrBytesSequence[A: (str, bytes)]:  # A is a TypeVar constrained to str or bytes
              ...

     However, if desired, reusable type variables can also be
     constructed manually, like so:

          T = TypeVar('T')  # Can be anything
          S = TypeVar('S', bound=str)  # Can be any subtype of str
          A = TypeVar('A', str, bytes)  # Must be exactly str or bytes

     Type variables exist primarily for the benefit of static type
     checkers.  They serve as the parameters for generic types as well
     as for generic function and type alias definitions.  See *note
     Generic: 19f2. for more information on generic types.  Generic
     functions work as follows:

          def repeat[T](x: T, n: int) -> Sequence[T]:
              """Return a list containing n references to x."""
              return [x]*n


          def print_capitalized[S: str](x: S) -> S:
              """Print x capitalized, and return x."""
              print(x.capitalize())
              return x


          def concatenate[A: (str, bytes)](x: A, y: A) -> A:
              """Add two strings or bytes objects together."""
              return x + y

     Note that type variables can be 'bounded', 'constrained', or
     neither, but cannot be both bounded 'and' constrained.

     The variance of type variables is inferred by type checkers when
     they are created through the *note type parameter syntax: 7a5. or
     when ‘infer_variance=True’ is passed.  Manually created type
     variables may be explicitly marked covariant or contravariant by
     passing ‘covariant=True’ or ‘contravariant=True’.  By default,
     manually created type variables are invariant.  See PEP 484(1) and
     PEP 695(2) for more details.

     Bounded type variables and constrained type variables have
     different semantics in several important ways.  Using a 'bounded'
     type variable means that the ‘TypeVar’ will be solved using the
     most specific type possible:

          x = print_capitalized('a string')
          reveal_type(x)  # revealed type is str

          class StringSubclass(str):
              pass

          y = print_capitalized(StringSubclass('another string'))
          reveal_type(y)  # revealed type is StringSubclass

          z = print_capitalized(45)  # error: int is not a subtype of str

     The upper bound of a type variable can be a concrete type, abstract
     type (ABC or Protocol), or even a union of types:

          # Can be anything with an __abs__ method
          def print_abs[T: SupportsAbs](arg: T) -> None:
              print("Absolute value:", abs(arg))

          U = TypeVar('U', bound=str|bytes)  # Can be any subtype of the union str|bytes
          V = TypeVar('V', bound=SupportsAbs)  # Can be anything with an __abs__ method
     Using a 'constrained' type variable, however, means that the
     ‘TypeVar’ can only ever be solved as being exactly one of the
     constraints given:

          a = concatenate('one', 'two')
          reveal_type(a)  # revealed type is str

          b = concatenate(StringSubclass('one'), StringSubclass('two'))
          reveal_type(b)  # revealed type is str, despite StringSubclass being passed in

          c = concatenate('one', b'two')  # error: type variable 'A' can be either str or bytes in a function call, but not both

     At runtime, ‘isinstance(x, T)’ will raise *note TypeError: 291.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __name__

          The name of the type variable.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __covariant__

          Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as covariant.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __contravariant__

          Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as
          contravariant.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __infer_variance__

          Whether the type variable’s variance should be inferred by
          type checkers.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __bound__

          The upper bound of the type variable, if any.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: For type variables created through
          *note type parameter syntax: 7a5, the bound is evaluated only
          when the attribute is accessed, not when the type variable is
          created (see *note Καθυστερημένη εκτίμηση: 872.).

      -- Μέθοδος: evaluate_bound ()

          An *note evaluate function: 473c. corresponding to the *note
          __bound__: 473a. attribute.  When called directly, this method
          supports only the *note VALUE: 40b. format, which is
          equivalent to accessing the ‘__bound__’ attribute directly,
          but the method object can be passed to *note
          annotationlib.call_evaluate_function(): 473d. to evaluate the
          value in a different format.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __constraints__

          A tuple containing the constraints of the type variable, if
          any.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: For type variables created through
          *note type parameter syntax: 7a5, the constraints are
          evaluated only when the attribute is accessed, not when the
          type variable is created (see *note Καθυστερημένη εκτίμηση:
          872.).

      -- Μέθοδος: evaluate_constraints ()

          An *note evaluate function: 473c. corresponding to the *note
          __constraints__: 473e. attribute.  When called directly, this
          method supports only the *note VALUE: 40b. format, which is
          equivalent to accessing the ‘__constraints__’ attribute
          directly, but the method object can be passed to *note
          annotationlib.call_evaluate_function(): 473d. to evaluate the
          value in a different format.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __default__

          The default value of the type variable, or *note
          typing.NoDefault: 76a. if it has no default.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: evaluate_default ()

          An *note evaluate function: 473c. corresponding to the *note
          __default__: 4740. attribute.  When called directly, this
          method supports only the *note VALUE: 40b. format, which is
          equivalent to accessing the ‘__default__’ attribute directly,
          but the method object can be passed to *note
          annotationlib.call_evaluate_function(): 473d. to evaluate the
          value in a different format.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: has_default ()

          Return whether or not the type variable has a default value.
          This is equivalent to checking whether *note __default__:
          4740. is not the *note typing.NoDefault: 76a. singleton,
          except that it does not force evaluation of the *note lazily
          evaluated: 872. default value.

          Added in version 3.13.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Type variables can now be declared using
     the *note type parameter: 7a5. syntax introduced by PEP 695(3).
     The ‘infer_variance’ parameter was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Support for default values was added.

 -- Κλάση: typing.TypeVarTuple (name, *, bound=None, covariant=False,
          contravariant=False, infer_variance=False,
          default=typing.NoDefault)

     Type variable tuple.  A specialized form of *note type variable:
     472b. that enables 'variadic' generics.

     Type variable tuples can be declared in *note type parameter lists:
     7a5. using a single asterisk (‘*’) before the name:

          def move_first_element_to_last[T, *Ts](tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
              return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

     Or by explicitly invoking the ‘TypeVarTuple’ constructor:

          T = TypeVar("T")
          Ts = TypeVarTuple("Ts")

          def move_first_element_to_last(tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]:
              return (*tup[1:], tup[0])

     A normal type variable enables parameterization with a single type.
     A type variable tuple, in contrast, allows parameterization with an
     'arbitrary' number of types by acting like an 'arbitrary' number of
     type variables wrapped in a tuple.  For example:

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to ()
          # Return value is (1,), which has type tuple[int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1,))

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str,)
          # Return value is ('spam', 1), which has type tuple[str, int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam'))

          # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str, float)
          # Return value is ('spam', 3.0, 1), which has type tuple[str, float, int]
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam', 3.0))

          # This fails to type check (and fails at runtime)
          # because tuple[()] is not compatible with tuple[T, *Ts]
          # (at least one element is required)
          move_first_element_to_last(tup=())

     Note the use of the unpacking operator ‘*’ in ‘tuple[T, *Ts]’.
     Conceptually, you can think of ‘Ts’ as a tuple of type variables
     ‘(T1, T2, ...)’.  ‘tuple[T, *Ts]’ would then become ‘tuple[T, *(T1,
     T2, ...)]’, which is equivalent to ‘tuple[T, T1, T2, ...]’.  (Note
     that in older versions of Python, you might see this written using
     *note Unpack: 1bb1. instead, as ‘Unpack[Ts]’.)

     Type variable tuples must 'always' be unpacked.  This helps
     distinguish type variable tuples from normal type variables:

          x: Ts          # Not valid
          x: tuple[Ts]   # Not valid
          x: tuple[*Ts]  # The correct way to do it

     Type variable tuples can be used in the same contexts as normal
     type variables.  For example, in class definitions, arguments, and
     return types:

          class Array[*Shape]:
              def __getitem__(self, key: tuple[*Shape]) -> float: ...
              def __abs__(self) -> "Array[*Shape]": ...
              def get_shape(self) -> tuple[*Shape]: ...

     Type variable tuples can be happily combined with normal type
     variables:

          class Array[DType, *Shape]:  # This is fine
              pass

          class Array2[*Shape, DType]:  # This would also be fine
              pass

          class Height: ...
          class Width: ...

          float_array_1d: Array[float, Height] = Array()     # Totally fine
          int_array_2d: Array[int, Height, Width] = Array()  # Yup, fine too

     However, note that at most one type variable tuple may appear in a
     single list of type arguments or type parameters:

          x: tuple[*Ts, *Ts]            # Not valid
          class Array[*Shape, *Shape]:  # Not valid
              pass

     Finally, an unpacked type variable tuple can be used as the type
     annotation of ‘*args’:

          def call_soon[*Ts](
              callback: Callable[[*Ts], None],
              *args: *Ts
          ) -> None:
              ...
              callback(*args)

     In contrast to non-unpacked annotations of ‘*args’ - e.g.  ‘*args:
     int’, which would specify that 'all' arguments are ‘int’ - ‘*args:
     *Ts’ enables reference to the types of the 'individual' arguments
     in ‘*args’.  Here, this allows us to ensure the types of the
     ‘*args’ passed to ‘call_soon’ match the types of the (positional)
     arguments of ‘callback’.

     See PEP 646(4) for more details on type variable tuples.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __name__

          The name of the type variable tuple.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __covariant__

          Whether the type variable tuple has been explicitly marked as
          covariant.

          Added in version 3.15.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __contravariant__

          Whether the type variable tuple has been explicitly marked as
          contravariant.

          Added in version 3.15.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __infer_variance__

          Whether the type variable tuple’s variance should be inferred
          by type checkers.

          Added in version 3.15.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __default__

          The default value of the type variable tuple, or *note
          typing.NoDefault: 76a. if it has no default.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: evaluate_default ()

          An *note evaluate function: 473c. corresponding to the *note
          __default__: 4747. attribute.  When called directly, this
          method supports only the *note VALUE: 40b. format, which is
          equivalent to accessing the ‘__default__’ attribute directly,
          but the method object can be passed to *note
          annotationlib.call_evaluate_function(): 473d. to evaluate the
          value in a different format.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: has_default ()

          Return whether or not the type variable tuple has a default
          value.  This is equivalent to checking whether *note
          __default__: 4747. is not the *note typing.NoDefault: 76a.
          singleton, except that it does not force evaluation of the
          *note lazily evaluated: 872. default value.

          Added in version 3.13.

     Type variable tuples created with ‘covariant=True’ or
     ‘contravariant=True’ can be used to declare covariant or
     contravariant generic types.  The ‘bound’ argument is also
     accepted, similar to *note TypeVar: 294, but its actual semantics
     are yet to be decided.

     Added in version 3.11.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Type variable tuples can now be declared
     using the *note type parameter: 7a5. syntax introduced by PEP
     695(5).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Support for default values was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added support for the ‘bound’,
     ‘covariant’, ‘contravariant’, and ‘infer_variance’ parameters.

 -- Κλάση: typing.ParamSpec (name, *, bound=None, covariant=False,
          contravariant=False, infer_variance=False,
          default=typing.NoDefault)

     Parameter specification variable.  A specialized version of *note
     type variables: 472b.

     In *note type parameter lists: 7a5, parameter specifications can be
     declared with two asterisks (‘**’):

          type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int]

     For compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, ‘ParamSpec’ objects
     can also be created as follows:

          P = ParamSpec('P')

     Parameter specification variables exist primarily for the benefit
     of static type checkers.  They are used to forward the parameter
     types of one callable to another callable – a pattern commonly
     found in higher order functions and decorators.  They are only
     valid when used in ‘Concatenate’, or as the first argument to
     ‘Callable’, or as parameters for user-defined Generics.  See *note
     Generic: 19f2. for more information on generic types.

     For example, to add basic logging to a function, one can create a
     decorator ‘add_logging’ to log function calls.  The parameter
     specification variable tells the type checker that the callable
     passed into the decorator and the new callable returned by it have
     inter-dependent type parameters:

          from collections.abc import Callable
          import logging

          def add_logging[T, **P](f: Callable[P, T]) -> Callable[P, T]:
              '''A type-safe decorator to add logging to a function.'''
              def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> T:
                  logging.info(f'{f.__name__} was called')
                  return f(*args, **kwargs)
              return inner

          @add_logging
          def add_two(x: float, y: float) -> float:
              '''Add two numbers together.'''
              return x + y

     Without ‘ParamSpec’, the simplest way to annotate this previously
     was to use a *note TypeVar: 294. with upper bound ‘Callable[...,
     Any]’.  However this causes two problems:

       1. The type checker can’t type check the ‘inner’ function because
          ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ have to be typed *note Any: a9a.

       2. *note cast(): 474a. may be required in the body of the
          ‘add_logging’ decorator when returning the ‘inner’ function,
          or the static type checker must be told to ignore the ‘return
          inner’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: args

      -- Ιδιότητα: kwargs

          Since ‘ParamSpec’ captures both positional and keyword
          parameters, ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ can be used to split a
          ‘ParamSpec’ into its components.  ‘P.args’ represents the
          tuple of positional parameters in a given call and should only
          be used to annotate ‘*args’.  ‘P.kwargs’ represents the
          mapping of keyword parameters to their values in a given call,
          and should be only be used to annotate ‘**kwargs’.  Both
          attributes require the annotated parameter to be in scope.  At
          runtime, ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ are instances respectively of
          *note ParamSpecArgs: ba6. and *note ParamSpecKwargs: ba7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __name__

          The name of the parameter specification.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __covariant__

          Whether the parameter specification has been explicitly marked
          as covariant.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __contravariant__

          Whether the parameter specification has been explicitly marked
          as contravariant.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __infer_variance__

          Whether the parameter specification’s variance should be
          inferred by type checkers.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __default__

          The default value of the parameter specification, or *note
          typing.NoDefault: 76a. if it has no default.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: evaluate_default ()

          An *note evaluate function: 473c. corresponding to the *note
          __default__: 4751. attribute.  When called directly, this
          method supports only the *note VALUE: 40b. format, which is
          equivalent to accessing the ‘__default__’ attribute directly,
          but the method object can be passed to *note
          annotationlib.call_evaluate_function(): 473d. to evaluate the
          value in a different format.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: has_default ()

          Return whether or not the parameter specification has a
          default value.  This is equivalent to checking whether *note
          __default__: 4751. is not the *note typing.NoDefault: 76a.
          singleton, except that it does not force evaluation of the
          *note lazily evaluated: 872. default value.

          Added in version 3.13.

     Parameter specification variables created with ‘covariant=True’ or
     ‘contravariant=True’ can be used to declare covariant or
     contravariant generic types.  The ‘bound’ argument is also
     accepted, similar to *note TypeVar: 294.  However the actual
     semantics of these keywords are yet to be decided.

     Added in version 3.10.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Parameter specifications can now be
     declared using the *note type parameter: 7a5. syntax introduced by
     PEP 695(6).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Support for default values was added.

          Σημείωση: Only parameter specification variables defined in
          global scope can be pickled.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * PEP 612(7) – Parameter Specification Variables (the PEP which
          introduced ‘ParamSpec’ and ‘Concatenate’)

        * *note Concatenate: ba4.

        * *note Annotating callable objects: 28cb.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.ParamSpecArgs
 -- Δεδομένα: typing.ParamSpecKwargs

     Arguments and keyword arguments attributes of a *note ParamSpec:
     295.  The ‘P.args’ attribute of a ‘ParamSpec’ is an instance of
     ‘ParamSpecArgs’, and ‘P.kwargs’ is an instance of
     ‘ParamSpecKwargs’.  They are intended for runtime introspection and
     have no special meaning to static type checkers.

     Calling *note get_origin(): 314. on either of these objects will
     return the original ‘ParamSpec’:

          >>> from typing import ParamSpec, get_origin
          >>> P = ParamSpec("P")
          >>> get_origin(P.args) is P
          True
          >>> get_origin(P.kwargs) is P
          True

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Κλάση: typing.TypeAliasType (name, value, *, type_params=(),
          qualname=None)

     The type of type aliases created through the *note type: 85a.
     statement.

     Example:

          >>> type Alias = int
          >>> type(Alias)
          <class 'typing.TypeAliasType'>

     Added in version 3.12.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __name__

          The name of the type alias:

               >>> type Alias = int
               >>> Alias.__name__
               'Alias'

      -- Ιδιότητα: __qualname__

          The *note qualified name: 1f19. of the type alias:

               >>> class Class:
               ...     type Alias = int
               ...
               >>> Class.Alias.__qualname__
               'Class.Alias'

          Added in version 3.15.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __module__

          The name of the module in which the type alias was defined:

               >>> type Alias = int
               >>> Alias.__module__
               '__main__'

          This attribute is writable.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The attribute is now writable.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __type_params__

          The type parameters of the type alias, or an empty tuple if
          the alias is not generic:

               >>> type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T]
               >>> ListOrSet.__type_params__
               (T,)
               >>> type NotGeneric = int
               >>> NotGeneric.__type_params__
               ()

      -- Ιδιότητα: __value__

          The type alias’s value.  This is *note lazily evaluated: 872,
          so names used in the definition of the alias are not resolved
          until the ‘__value__’ attribute is accessed:

               >>> type Mutually = Recursive
               >>> type Recursive = Mutually
               >>> Mutually
               Mutually
               >>> Recursive
               Recursive
               >>> Mutually.__value__
               Recursive
               >>> Recursive.__value__
               Mutually

      -- Μέθοδος: evaluate_value ()

          An *note evaluate function: 473c. corresponding to the *note
          __value__: 4758. attribute.  When called directly, this method
          supports only the *note VALUE: 40b. format, which is
          equivalent to accessing the ‘__value__’ attribute directly,
          but the method object can be passed to *note
          annotationlib.call_evaluate_function(): 473d. to evaluate the
          value in a different format:

               >>> type Alias = undefined
               >>> Alias.__value__
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               NameError: name 'undefined' is not defined
               >>> from annotationlib import Format, call_evaluate_function
               >>> Alias.evaluate_value(Format.VALUE)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               NameError: name 'undefined' is not defined
               >>> call_evaluate_function(Alias.evaluate_value, Format.FORWARDREF)
               ForwardRef('undefined')

          Added in version 3.14.

     Unpacking
     .........

     Type aliases support star unpacking using the ‘*Alias’ syntax.
     This is equivalent to using ‘Unpack[Alias]’ directly:

          >>> type Alias = tuple[int, str]
          >>> type Unpacked = tuple[bool, *Alias]
          >>> Unpacked.__value__
          tuple[bool, typing.Unpack[Alias]]

     Added in version 3.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/


File: python.info,  Node: Other special directives,  Prev: Building generic types and type aliases,  Up: Special typing primitives

5.27.1.17 Other special directives
..................................

These functions and classes should not be used directly as annotations.
Their intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating and
declaring types.

 -- Κλάση: typing.NamedTuple

     Typed version of *note collections.namedtuple(): 1cf.

     Usage:

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              name: str
              id: int

     This is equivalent to:

          Employee = collections.namedtuple('Employee', ['name', 'id'])

     To give a field a default value, you can assign to it in the class
     body:

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              name: str
              id: int = 3

          employee = Employee('Guido')
          assert employee.id == 3

     Fields with a default value must come after any fields without a
     default.

     The resulting class has an extra attribute ‘__annotations__’ giving
     a dict that maps the field names to the field types.  (The field
     names are in the ‘_fields’ attribute and the default values are in
     the ‘_field_defaults’ attribute, both of which are part of the
     *note namedtuple(): 1cf. API.)

     ‘NamedTuple’ subclasses can also have docstrings and methods:

          class Employee(NamedTuple):
              """Represents an employee."""
              name: str
              id: int = 3

              def __repr__(self) -> str:
                  return f'<Employee {self.name}, id={self.id}>'

     ‘NamedTuple’ subclasses can be generic:

          class Group[T](NamedTuple):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     Backward-compatible usage:

          # For creating a generic NamedTuple on Python 3.11
          T = TypeVar("T")

          class Group(NamedTuple, Generic[T]):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

          # A functional syntax is also supported
          Employee = NamedTuple('Employee', [('name', str), ('id', int)])

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added support for PEP 526(1) variable
     annotation syntax.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6.1: Added support for default values,
     methods, and docstrings.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘_field_types’ and ‘__annotations__’
     attributes are now regular dictionaries instead of instances of
     ‘OrderedDict’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Removed the ‘_field_types’ attribute in
     favor of the more standard ‘__annotations__’ attribute which has
     the same information.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: ‘NamedTuple’ is now a function rather than
     a class.  It can still be used as a class base, as described above.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added support for generic namedtuples.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Using *note super(): 443. (and the
     ‘__class__’ *note closure variable: 1ab7.) in methods of
     ‘NamedTuple’ subclasses is unsupported and causes a *note
     TypeError: 291.

 -- Κλάση: typing.NewType (name, tp)

     Helper class to create low-overhead *note distinct types: 4720.

     A ‘NewType’ is considered a distinct type by a typechecker.  At
     runtime, however, calling a ‘NewType’ returns its argument
     unchanged.

     Usage:

          UserId = NewType('UserId', int)  # Declare the NewType "UserId"
          first_user = UserId(1)  # "UserId" returns the argument unchanged at runtime

      -- Ιδιότητα: __module__

          The name of the module in which the new type is defined.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __name__

          The name of the new type.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __supertype__

          The type that the new type is based on.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: ‘NewType’ is now a class rather than a
     function.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Protocol (Generic)

     Base class for protocol classes.

     Protocol classes are defined like this:

          class Proto(Protocol):
              def meth(self) -> int:
                  ...

     Such classes are primarily used with static type checkers that
     recognize structural subtyping (static duck-typing), for example:

          class C:
              def meth(self) -> int:
                  return 0

          def func(x: Proto) -> int:
              return x.meth()

          func(C())  # Passes static type check

     See PEP 544(2) for more details.  Protocol classes decorated with
     *note runtime_checkable(): 861. (described later) act as
     simple-minded runtime protocols that check only the presence of
     given attributes, ignoring their type signatures.  Protocol classes
     without this decorator cannot be used as the second argument to
     *note isinstance(): 2ef. or *note issubclass(): 2f0.

     Protocol classes can be generic, for example:

          class GenProto[T](Protocol):
              def meth(self) -> T:
                  ...

     In code that needs to be compatible with Python 3.11 or older,
     generic Protocols can be written as follows:

          T = TypeVar("T")

          class GenProto(Protocol[T]):
              def meth(self) -> T:
                  ...

     Added in version 3.8.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.20: It
     is deprecated to call *note isinstance(): 2ef. and *note
     issubclass(): 2f0. checks on protocol classes that were not
     explicitly decorated with ‘runtime_checkable()’ but that inherit
     from a runtime-checkable protocol class.  This will throw a *note
     TypeError: 291. in Python 3.20.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @typing.runtime_checkable

     Mark a protocol class as a runtime protocol.

     Such a protocol can be used with *note isinstance(): 2ef. and *note
     issubclass(): 2f0.  This allows a simple-minded structural check,
     very similar to «one trick ponies» in *note collections.abc: 1f.
     such as *note Iterable: 28aa.  For example:

          @runtime_checkable
          class Closable(Protocol):
              def close(self): ...

          assert isinstance(open('/some/file'), Closable)

          @runtime_checkable
          class Named(Protocol):
              name: str

          import threading
          assert isinstance(threading.Thread(name='Bob'), Named)

     Runtime checkability of protocols is not inherited.  A subclass of
     a runtime-checkable protocol is only runtime-checkable if it is
     explicitly marked as such, regardless of class hierarchy:

          @runtime_checkable
          class Iterable(Protocol):
              def __iter__(self): ...

          # Without @runtime_checkable, Reversible would no longer be runtime-checkable.
          @runtime_checkable
          class Reversible(Iterable, Protocol):
              def __reversed__(self): ...

     This decorator raises *note TypeError: 291. when applied to a
     non-protocol class.

          Σημείωση: ‘runtime_checkable()’ will check only the presence
          of the required methods or attributes, not their type
          signatures or types.  For example, *note ssl.SSLObject: f40.
          is a class, therefore it passes an *note issubclass(): 2f0.
          check against *note Callable: 28cb.  However, the
          ‘ssl.SSLObject.__init__’ method exists only to raise a *note
          TypeError: 291. with a more informative message, therefore
          making it impossible to call (instantiate) ‘ssl.SSLObject’.

          Σημείωση: An *note isinstance(): 2ef. check against a
          runtime-checkable protocol can be surprisingly slow compared
          to an ‘isinstance()’ check against a non-protocol class.
          Consider using alternative idioms such as *note hasattr():
          8e2. calls for structural checks in performance-sensitive
          code.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The internal implementation of *note
     isinstance(): 2ef. checks against runtime-checkable protocols now
     uses *note inspect.getattr_static(): 8a5. to look up attributes
     (previously, *note hasattr(): 8e2. was used).  As a result, some
     objects which used to be considered instances of a
     runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of
     that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa.  Most users are
     unlikely to be affected by this change.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The members of a runtime-checkable
     protocol are now considered «frozen» at runtime as soon as the
     class has been created.  Monkey-patching attributes onto a
     runtime-checkable protocol will still work, but will have no impact
     on *note isinstance(): 2ef. checks comparing objects to the
     protocol.  See *note What’s new in Python 3.12: 8e1. for more
     details.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.20: It
     is deprecated to call *note isinstance(): 2ef. and *note
     issubclass(): 2f0. checks on protocol classes that were not
     explicitly decorated with ‘runtime_checkable()’ but that inherit
     from a runtime-checkable protocol class.  This will throw a *note
     TypeError: 291. in Python 3.20.

 -- Κλάση: typing.TypedDict (dict)

     Special construct to add type hints to a dictionary.  At runtime
     «‘TypedDict’ instances» are simply *note dicts: 188.

     ‘TypedDict’ declares a dictionary type that expects all of its
     instances to have a certain set of keys, where each key is
     associated with a value of a consistent type.  This expectation is
     not checked at runtime but is only enforced by type checkers.
     Usage:

          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              label: str

          a: Point2D = {'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'label': 'good'}  # OK
          b: Point2D = {'z': 3, 'label': 'bad'}           # Fails type check

          assert Point2D(x=1, y=2, label='first') == dict(x=1, y=2, label='first')

     An alternative way to create a ‘TypedDict’ is by using
     function-call syntax.  The second argument must be a literal *note
     dict: 188.:

          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': str})

     This functional syntax allows defining keys which are not valid
     *note identifiers: 2491, for example because they are keywords or
     contain hyphens, or when key names must not be *note mangled: 2293.
     like regular private names:

          # raises SyntaxError
          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              in: int  # 'in' is a keyword
              x-y: int  # name with hyphens

          class Definition(TypedDict):
              __schema: str  # mangled to `_Definition__schema`

          # OK, functional syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'in': int, 'x-y': int})
          Definition = TypedDict('Definition', {'__schema': str})  # not mangled

     By default, all keys must be present in a ‘TypedDict’.  It is
     possible to mark individual keys as non-required using *note
     NotRequired: 9c3.:

          class Point2D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              label: NotRequired[str]

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': NotRequired[str]})

     This means that a ‘Point2D’ ‘TypedDict’ can have the ‘label’ key
     omitted.

     It is also possible to mark all keys as non-required by default by
     specifying a totality of ‘False’:

          class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
              x: int
              y: int

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int}, total=False)

     This means that a ‘Point2D’ ‘TypedDict’ can have any of the keys
     omitted.  A type checker is only expected to support a literal
     ‘False’ or ‘True’ as the value of the ‘total’ argument.  ‘True’ is
     the default, and makes all items defined in the class body
     required.

     Individual keys of a ‘total=False’ ‘TypedDict’ can be marked as
     required using *note Required: 9c2.:

          class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
              x: Required[int]
              y: Required[int]
              label: str

          # Alternative syntax
          Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {
              'x': Required[int],
              'y': Required[int],
              'label': str
          }, total=False)

     It is possible for a ‘TypedDict’ type to inherit from one or more
     other ‘TypedDict’ types using the class-based syntax.  Usage:

          class Point3D(Point2D):
              z: int

     ‘Point3D’ has three items: ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’.  It is equivalent to
     this definition:

          class Point3D(TypedDict):
              x: int
              y: int
              z: int

     By default, a ‘TypedDict’ is open, meaning that it may contain
     additional keys at runtime beyond those defined in the class body.
     The 'closed' class argument can be used to control this; if
     ‘closed=True’, the ‘TypedDict’ cannot contain additional keys.

          class ClosedPoint(TypedDict, closed=True):
              x: int
              y: int

          class ClosedPoint3D(ClosedPoint):  # type checker error: cannot add keys to a closed TypedDict
              z: int

     Setting ‘closed=False’ explicitly requests the default open
     behavior.  If the argument is not passed, this state is inherited
     from the parent class.

     In addition to being open or closed, a ‘TypedDict’ can also be
     configured to have extra items.  If the 'extra_items' class
     argument is set to a type, the ‘TypedDict’ can contain arbitrary
     additional keys, but the values of those keys must be of the
     specified type.

          class ExtraItemsPoint(TypedDict, extra_items=int):
              x: int
              y: int

          point: ExtraItemsPoint = {'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'anything': 3}  # OK

     The 'extra_items' argument is also inherited through subclassing.
     It is unset by default, and it may not be used together with the
     'closed' argument.

     A ‘TypedDict’ cannot inherit from a non-‘TypedDict’ class, except
     for *note Generic: 19f2.  For example:

          class X(TypedDict):
              x: int

          class Y(TypedDict):
              y: int

          class Z(object): pass  # A non-TypedDict class

          class XY(X, Y): pass  # OK

          class XZ(X, Z): pass  # raises TypeError

     A ‘TypedDict’ can be generic:

          class Group[T](TypedDict):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     To create a generic ‘TypedDict’ that is compatible with Python 3.11
     or lower, inherit from *note Generic: 19f2. explicitly:

          T = TypeVar("T")

          class Group(TypedDict, Generic[T]):
              key: T
              group: list[T]

     A ‘TypedDict’ can be introspected via annotations dicts (see *note
     Annotations Best Practices: bb6. for more information on
     annotations best practices) and the following attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: __total__

          ‘Point2D.__total__’ gives the value of the ‘total’ argument.
          Example:

               >>> from typing import TypedDict
               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict): pass
               >>> Point2D.__total__
               True
               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False): pass
               >>> Point2D.__total__
               False
               >>> class Point3D(Point2D): pass
               >>> Point3D.__total__
               True

          This attribute reflects 'only' the value of the ‘total’
          argument to the current ‘TypedDict’ class, not whether the
          class is semantically total.  For example, a ‘TypedDict’ with
          ‘__total__’ set to ‘True’ may have keys marked with *note
          NotRequired: 9c3, or it may inherit from another ‘TypedDict’
          with ‘total=False’.  Therefore, it is generally better to use
          *note __required_keys__: 475f. and *note __optional_keys__:
          4760. for introspection.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __required_keys__

          Added in version 3.9.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __optional_keys__

          ‘Point2D.__required_keys__’ and ‘Point2D.__optional_keys__’
          return *note frozenset: 9d4. objects containing required and
          non-required keys, respectively.

          Keys marked with *note Required: 9c2. will always appear in
          ‘__required_keys__’ and keys marked with *note NotRequired:
          9c3. will always appear in ‘__optional_keys__’.

          For backwards compatibility with Python 3.10 and below, it is
          also possible to use inheritance to declare both required and
          non-required keys in the same ‘TypedDict’ .  This is done by
          declaring a ‘TypedDict’ with one value for the ‘total’
          argument and then inheriting from it in another ‘TypedDict’
          with a different value for ‘total’:

               >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False):
               ...     x: int
               ...     y: int
               ...
               >>> class Point3D(Point2D):
               ...     z: int
               ...
               >>> Point3D.__required_keys__ == frozenset({'z'})
               True
               >>> Point3D.__optional_keys__ == frozenset({'x', 'y'})
               True

          Added in version 3.9.

               Σημείωση: If ‘from __future__ import annotations’ is used
               or if annotations are given as strings, annotations are
               not evaluated when the ‘TypedDict’ is defined.
               Therefore, the runtime introspection that
               ‘__required_keys__’ and ‘__optional_keys__’ rely on may
               not work properly, and the values of the attributes may
               be incorrect.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __readonly_keys__

          A *note frozenset: 9d4. containing the names of all read-only
          keys.  Keys are read-only if they carry the *note ReadOnly:
          696. qualifier.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __mutable_keys__

          A *note frozenset: 9d4. containing the names of all mutable
          keys.  Keys are mutable if they do not carry the *note
          ReadOnly: 696. qualifier.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __closed__

          The value of the 'closed' class argument.  It can be ‘True’,
          ‘False’, or *note None: a65.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __extra_items__

          The value of the 'extra_items' class argument.  It can be a
          valid type or *note NoExtraItems: 4765.

     See the TypedDict(3) section in the typing documentation for more
     examples and detailed rules.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: ‘TypedDict’ is now a function rather than a
     class.  It can still be used as a class base, as described above.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added support for marking individual keys
     as *note Required: 9c2. or *note NotRequired: 9c3.  See PEP 655(4).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added support for generic ‘TypedDict’s.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Removed support for the keyword-argument
     method of creating ‘TypedDict’s.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Support for the *note ReadOnly: 696.
     qualifier was added.  See PEP 705(5).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Support for the 'closed' and 'extra_items'
     class arguments was added.  See PEP 728(6).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/

   (3) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/spec/typeddict.html#typeddict

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0728/


File: python.info,  Node: Protocols<4>,  Next: ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O,  Prev: Special typing primitives,  Up: Module contents<5>

5.27.1.18 Protocols
...................

The following protocols are provided by the ‘typing’ module.  All are
decorated with *note @runtime_checkable: 861.

 -- Κλάση: typing.SupportsAbs

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__abs__’ that is covariant in its
     return type.

 -- Κλάση: typing.SupportsBytes

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__bytes__’.

 -- Κλάση: typing.SupportsComplex

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__complex__’.

 -- Κλάση: typing.SupportsFloat

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__float__’.

 -- Κλάση: typing.SupportsIndex

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__index__’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Κλάση: typing.SupportsInt

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__int__’.

 -- Κλάση: typing.SupportsRound

     An ABC with one abstract method ‘__round__’ that is covariant in
     its return type.


File: python.info,  Node: ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O,  Next: Functions and decorators,  Prev: Protocols<4>,  Up: Module contents<5>

5.27.1.19 ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O
.................................................

 -- Κλάση: typing.IO [AnyStr]
 -- Κλάση: typing.TextIO
 -- Κλάση: typing.BinaryIO

     Generic class ‘IO[AnyStr]’ and its subclasses ‘TextIO(IO[str])’ and
     ‘BinaryIO(IO[bytes])’ represent the types of I/O streams such as
     returned by *note open(): 32b.  Please note that these classes are
     not protocols, and their interface is fairly broad.

The protocols *note io.Reader: 4c4. and *note io.Writer: 4c5. offer a
simpler alternative for argument types, when only the ‘read()’ or
‘write()’ methods are accessed, respectively:

     def read_and_write(reader: Reader[str], writer: Writer[bytes]):
         data = reader.read()
         writer.write(data.encode())

Also consider using *note collections.abc.Iterable: 28aa. for iterating
over the lines of an input stream:

     def read_config(stream: Iterable[str]):
         for line in stream:
             ...


File: python.info,  Node: Functions and decorators,  Next: Introspection helpers,  Prev: ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O,  Up: Module contents<5>

5.27.1.20 Functions and decorators
..................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: typing.cast (typ, val)

     Cast a value to a type.

     This returns the value unchanged.  To the type checker this signals
     that the return value has the designated type, but at runtime we
     intentionally don’t check anything (we want this to be as fast as
     possible).

 -- Συνάρτηση: typing.assert_type (val, typ, /)

     Ask a static type checker to confirm that 'val' has an inferred
     type of 'typ'.

     At runtime this does nothing: it returns the first argument
     unchanged with no checks or side effects, no matter the actual type
     of the argument.

     When a static type checker encounters a call to ‘assert_type()’, it
     emits an error if the value is not of the specified type:

          def greet(name: str) -> None:
              assert_type(name, str)  # OK, inferred type of `name` is `str`
              assert_type(name, int)  # type checker error

     This function is useful for ensuring the type checker’s
     understanding of a script is in line with the developer’s
     intentions:

          def complex_function(arg: object):
              # Do some complex type-narrowing logic,
              # after which we hope the inferred type will be `int`
              ...
              # Test whether the type checker correctly understands our function
              assert_type(arg, int)

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: typing.assert_never (arg, /)

     Ask a static type checker to confirm that a line of code is
     unreachable.

     Example:

          def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None:
              match arg:
                  case int():
                      print("It's an int")
                  case str():
                      print("It's a str")
                  case _ as unreachable:
                      assert_never(unreachable)

     Here, the annotations allow the type checker to infer that the last
     case can never execute, because ‘arg’ is either an *note int: 326.
     or a *note str: 1df, and both options are covered by earlier cases.

     If a type checker finds that a call to ‘assert_never()’ is
     reachable, it will emit an error.  For example, if the type
     annotation for ‘arg’ was instead ‘int | str | float’, the type
     checker would emit an error pointing out that ‘unreachable’ is of
     type *note float: 327.  For a call to ‘assert_never’ to pass type
     checking, the inferred type of the argument passed in must be the
     bottom type, *note Never: a96, and nothing else.

     At runtime, this throws an exception when called.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     Unreachable Code and Exhaustiveness Checking(1) has more
     information about exhaustiveness checking with static typing.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: typing.reveal_type (obj, /)

     Ask a static type checker to reveal the inferred type of an
     expression.

     When a static type checker encounters a call to this function, it
     emits a diagnostic with the inferred type of the argument.  For
     example:

          x: int = 1
          reveal_type(x)  # Revealed type is "builtins.int"

     This can be useful when you want to debug how your type checker
     handles a particular piece of code.

     At runtime, this function prints the runtime type of its argument
     to *note sys.stderr: d05. and returns the argument unchanged
     (allowing the call to be used within an expression):

          x = reveal_type(1)  # prints "Runtime type is int"
          print(x)  # prints "1"

     Note that the runtime type may be different from (more or less
     specific than) the type statically inferred by a type checker.

     Most type checkers support ‘reveal_type()’ anywhere, even if the
     name is not imported from ‘typing’.  Importing the name from
     ‘typing’, however, allows your code to run without runtime errors
     and communicates intent more clearly.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @typing.dataclass_transform (*, eq_default=True,
          order_default=False, kw_only_default=False,
          frozen_default=False, field_specifiers=(), **kwargs)

     Decorator to mark an object as providing *note dataclass: 6e6.-like
     behavior.

     ‘dataclass_transform’ may be used to decorate a class, metaclass,
     or a function that is itself a decorator.  The presence of
     ‘@dataclass_transform()’ tells a static type checker that the
     decorated object performs runtime «magic» that transforms a class
     in a similar way to *note @dataclasses.dataclass: 6e6.

     Example usage with a decorator function:

          @dataclass_transform()
          def create_model[T](cls: type[T]) -> type[T]:
              ...
              return cls

          @create_model
          class CustomerModel:
              id: int
              name: str

     On a base class:

          @dataclass_transform()
          class ModelBase: ...

          class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
              id: int
              name: str

     On a metaclass:

          @dataclass_transform()
          class ModelMeta(type): ...

          class ModelBase(metaclass=ModelMeta): ...

          class CustomerModel(ModelBase):
              id: int
              name: str

     The ‘CustomerModel’ classes defined above will be treated by type
     checkers similarly to classes created with *note
     @dataclasses.dataclass: 6e6.  For example, type checkers will
     assume these classes have ‘__init__’ methods that accept ‘id’ and
     ‘name’.

     The decorated class, metaclass, or function may accept the
     following bool arguments which type checkers will assume have the
     same effect as they would have on the *note @dataclasses.dataclass:
     6e6. decorator: ‘init’, ‘eq’, ‘order’, ‘unsafe_hash’, ‘frozen’,
     ‘match_args’, ‘kw_only’, and ‘slots’.  It must be possible for the
     value of these arguments (‘True’ or ‘False’) to be statically
     evaluated.

     The arguments to the ‘dataclass_transform’ decorator can be used to
     customize the default behaviors of the decorated class, metaclass,
     or function:


     Παράμετροι:

        * ‘eq_default’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – Indicates whether the ‘eq’
          parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is omitted
          by the caller.  Defaults to ‘True’.

        * ‘order_default’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – Indicates whether the
          ‘order’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is
          omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

        * ‘kw_only_default’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – Indicates whether the
          ‘kw_only’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it
          is omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

        * ‘frozen_default’ (*note bool: 5ef.) – Indicates whether the
          ‘frozen’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is
          omitted by the caller.  Defaults to ‘False’.

          Added in version 3.12.

        * ‘field_specifiers’ (*note tuple: 1ce.‘[’*note Callable:
          bc6.‘[’‘...’‘, ’‘Any’‘]’‘, ’‘...’‘]’) – Specifies a static
          list of supported classes or functions that describe fields,
          similar to *note dataclasses.field(): 1945.  Defaults to ‘()’.

        * ‘**kwargs’ (‘Any’) – Arbitrary other keyword arguments are
          accepted in order to allow for possible future extensions.

     Type checkers recognize the following optional parameters on field
     specifiers: 'Recognised parameters for field specifiers'

     Parameter name           Description
                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
     ‘init’                   Indicates whether the field should be included in the synthesized ‘__init__’
                              method.  If unspecified, ‘init’ defaults to ‘True’.
                              
                              
     ‘default’                Provides the default value for the field.
                              
                              
     ‘default_factory’        Provides a runtime callback that returns the default value for the field.  If
                              neither ‘default’ nor ‘default_factory’ are specified, the field is assumed to
                              have no default value and must be provided a value when the class is instantiated.
                              
                              
     ‘factory’                An alias for the ‘default_factory’ parameter on field specifiers.
                              
                              
     ‘kw_only’                Indicates whether the field should be marked as keyword-only.  If ‘True’, the
                              field will be keyword-only.  If ‘False’, it will not be keyword-only.  If
                              unspecified, the value of the ‘kw_only’ parameter on the object decorated with
                              ‘dataclass_transform’ will be used, or if that is unspecified, the value of
                              ‘kw_only_default’ on ‘dataclass_transform’ will be used.
                              
                              
     ‘alias’                  Provides an alternative name for the field.  This alternative name is used in the
                              synthesized ‘__init__’ method.
                              

     At runtime, this decorator records its arguments in the
     ‘__dataclass_transform__’ attribute on the decorated object.  It
     has no other runtime effect.

     See PEP 681(2) for more details.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @typing.overload

     Decorator for creating overloaded functions and methods.

     The ‘@overload’ decorator allows describing functions and methods
     that support multiple different combinations of argument types.  A
     series of ‘@overload’-decorated definitions must be followed by
     exactly one non-‘@overload’-decorated definition (for the same
     function/method).

     ‘@overload’-decorated definitions are for the benefit of the type
     checker only, since they will be overwritten by the
     non-‘@overload’-decorated definition.  The
     non-‘@overload’-decorated definition, meanwhile, will be used at
     runtime but should be ignored by a type checker.  At runtime,
     calling an ‘@overload’-decorated function directly will raise *note
     NotImplementedError: 59a.

     An example of overload that gives a more precise type than can be
     expressed using a union or a type variable:

          @overload
          def process(response: None) -> None:
              ...
          @overload
          def process(response: int) -> tuple[int, str]:
              ...
          @overload
          def process(response: bytes) -> str:
              ...
          def process(response):
              ...  # actual implementation goes here

     See PEP 484(3) for more details and comparison with other typing
     semantics.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Overloaded functions can now be
     introspected at runtime using *note get_overloads(): a9c.

 -- Συνάρτηση: typing.get_overloads (func)

     Return a sequence of *note @overload: 476c.-decorated definitions
     for 'func'.

     'func' is the function object for the implementation of the
     overloaded function.  For example, given the definition of
     ‘process’ in the documentation for *note @overload: 476c,
     ‘get_overloads(process)’ will return a sequence of three function
     objects for the three defined overloads.  If called on a function
     with no overloads, ‘get_overloads()’ returns an empty sequence.

     ‘get_overloads()’ can be used for introspecting an overloaded
     function at runtime.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: typing.clear_overloads ()

     Clear all registered overloads in the internal registry.

     This can be used to reclaim the memory used by the registry.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @typing.final

     Decorator to indicate final methods and final classes.

     Decorating a method with ‘@final’ indicates to a type checker that
     the method cannot be overridden in a subclass.  Decorating a class
     with ‘@final’ indicates that it cannot be subclassed.

     For example:

          class Base:
              @final
              def done(self) -> None:
                  ...
          class Sub(Base):
              def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
                  ...

          @final
          class Leaf:
              ...
          class Other(Leaf):  # Error reported by type checker
              ...

     There is no runtime checking of these properties.  See PEP 591(4)
     for more details.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The decorator will now attempt to set a
     ‘__final__’ attribute to ‘True’ on the decorated object.  Thus, a
     check like ‘if getattr(obj, "__final__", False)’ can be used at
     runtime to determine whether an object ‘obj’ has been marked as
     final.  If the decorated object does not support setting
     attributes, the decorator returns the object unchanged without
     raising an exception.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @typing.no_type_check

     Decorator to indicate that annotations are not type hints.

     This works as a class or function *note decorator: b18.  With a
     class, it applies recursively to all methods and classes defined in
     that class (but not to methods defined in its superclasses or
     subclasses).  Type checkers will ignore all annotations in a
     function or class with this decorator.

     ‘@no_type_check’ mutates the decorated object in place.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @typing.override

     Decorator to indicate that a method in a subclass is intended to
     override a method or attribute in a superclass.

     Type checkers should emit an error if a method decorated with
     ‘@override’ does not, in fact, override anything.  This helps
     prevent bugs that may occur when a base class is changed without an
     equivalent change to a child class.

     For example:

          class Base:
              def log_status(self) -> None:
                  ...

          class Sub(Base):
              @override
              def log_status(self) -> None:  # Okay: overrides Base.log_status
                  ...

              @override
              def done(self) -> None:  # Error reported by type checker
                  ...

     There is no runtime checking of this property.

     The decorator will attempt to set an ‘__override__’ attribute to
     ‘True’ on the decorated object.  Thus, a check like ‘if
     getattr(obj, "__override__", False)’ can be used at runtime to
     determine whether an object ‘obj’ has been marked as an override.
     If the decorated object does not support setting attributes, the
     decorator returns the object unchanged without raising an
     exception.

     See PEP 698(5) for more details.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @typing.disjoint_base

     Decorator to mark a class as a disjoint base.

     Type checkers do not allow child classes of a disjoint base ‘C’ to
     inherit from other disjoint bases that are not parent or child
     classes of ‘C’.

     For example:

          @disjoint_base
          class Disjoint1: pass

          @disjoint_base
          class Disjoint2: pass

          class Disjoint3(Disjoint1, Disjoint2): pass  # Type checker error

     Type checkers can use knowledge of disjoint bases to detect
     unreachable code and determine when two types can overlap.

     The corresponding runtime concept is a solid base (see *note
     Multiple inheritance: 2291.).  Classes that are solid bases at
     runtime can be marked with ‘@disjoint_base’ in stub files.  Users
     may also mark other classes as disjoint bases to indicate to type
     checkers that multiple inheritance with other disjoint bases should
     not be allowed.

     Note that the concept of a solid base is a CPython implementation
     detail, and the exact set of standard library classes that are
     disjoint bases at runtime may change in future versions of Python.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @typing.type_check_only

     Decorator to mark a class or function as unavailable at runtime.

     This decorator is itself not available at runtime.  It is mainly
     intended to mark classes that are defined in type stub files if an
     implementation returns an instance of a private class:

          @type_check_only
          class Response:  # private or not available at runtime
              code: int
              def get_header(self, name: str) -> str: ...

          def fetch_response() -> Response: ...

     Note that returning instances of private classes is not
     recommended.  It is usually preferable to make such classes public.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/guides/unreachable.html

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/


File: python.info,  Node: Introspection helpers,  Next: Constant,  Prev: Functions and decorators,  Up: Module contents<5>

5.27.1.21 Introspection helpers
...............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: typing.get_type_hints (obj, globalns=None, localns=None,
          include_extras=False, *, format=Format.VALUE)

     Return a dictionary containing type hints for a function, method,
     module, class object, or other callable object.

     This is often the same as *note annotationlib.get_annotations():
     66c, but this function makes the following changes to the
     annotations dictionary:

        * Forward references encoded as string literals or *note
          ForwardRef: 1dd3. objects are handled by evaluating them in
          'globalns', 'localns', and (where applicable) 'obj'’s *note
          type parameter: 7a5. namespace.  If 'globalns' or 'localns' is
          not given, appropriate namespace dictionaries are inferred
          from 'obj'.

        * ‘None’ is replaced with *note types.NoneType: c2a.

        * If *note @no_type_check: aa1. has been applied to 'obj', an
          empty dictionary is returned.

        * If 'obj' is a class ‘C’, the function returns a dictionary
          that merges annotations from ‘C’’s base classes with those on
          ‘C’ directly.  This is done by traversing *note C.__mro__:
          2569. and iteratively combining *note annotations: 110a. of
          each base class.  Annotations on classes appearing earlier in
          the *note method resolution order: 2784. always take
          precedence over annotations on classes appearing later in the
          method resolution order.

        * The function recursively replaces all occurrences of
          ‘Annotated[T, ...]’, ‘Required[T]’, ‘NotRequired[T]’, and
          ‘ReadOnly[T]’ with ‘T’, unless 'include_extras' is set to
          ‘True’ (see *note Annotated: d09. for more information).

          Προσοχή: This function may execute arbitrary code contained in
          annotations.  See *note Security implications of introspecting
          annotations: 476f. for more information.

          Σημείωση: If *note Format.VALUE: 40b. is used and any forward
          references in the annotations of 'obj' are not resolvable, a
          *note NameError: 665. exception is raised.  For example, this
          can happen with names imported under *note if TYPE_CHECKING:
          10b0.  More generally, any kind of exception can be raised if
          an annotation contains invalid Python code.

          Σημείωση: Calling ‘get_type_hints()’ on an instance is not
          supported.  To retrieve annotations for an instance, call
          ‘get_type_hints()’ on the instance’s class instead (for
          example, ‘get_type_hints(type(obj))’).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added ‘include_extras’ parameter as part of
     PEP 593(1).  See the documentation on *note Annotated: d09. for
     more information.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Previously, ‘Optional[t]’ was added for
     function and method annotations if a default value equal to ‘None’
     was set.  Now the annotation is returned unchanged.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added the ‘format’ parameter.  See the
     documentation on *note annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. for
     more information.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Calling ‘get_type_hints()’ on instances is
     no longer supported.  Some instances were accepted in earlier
     versions as an undocumented implementation detail.

 -- Συνάρτηση: typing.get_origin (tp)

     Get the unsubscripted version of a type: for a typing object of the
     form ‘X[Y, Z, ...]’ return ‘X’.

     If ‘X’ is a typing-module alias for a builtin or *note collections:
     1e. class, it will be normalized to the original class.  If ‘X’ is
     an instance of *note ParamSpecArgs: ba6. or *note ParamSpecKwargs:
     ba7, return the underlying *note ParamSpec: 295.  Return ‘None’ for
     unsupported objects.

     Examples:

          assert get_origin(str) is None
          assert get_origin(Dict[str, int]) is dict
          assert get_origin(Union[int, str]) is Union
          assert get_origin(Annotated[str, "metadata"]) is Annotated
          P = ParamSpec('P')
          assert get_origin(P.args) is P
          assert get_origin(P.kwargs) is P

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: typing.get_args (tp)

     Get type arguments with all substitutions performed: for a typing
     object of the form ‘X[Y, Z, ...]’ return ‘(Y, Z, ...)’.

     If ‘X’ is a union or *note Literal: c2d. contained in another
     generic type, the order of ‘(Y, Z, ...)’ may be different from the
     order of the original arguments ‘[Y, Z, ...]’ due to type caching.
     Return ‘()’ for unsupported objects.

     Examples:

          assert get_args(int) == ()
          assert get_args(Dict[int, str]) == (int, str)
          assert get_args(Union[int, str]) == (int, str)

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: typing.get_protocol_members (tp)

     Return the set of members defined in a *note Protocol: 76c.

          >>> from typing import Protocol, get_protocol_members
          >>> class P(Protocol):
          ...     def a(self) -> str: ...
          ...     b: int
          >>> get_protocol_members(P) == frozenset({'a', 'b'})
          True

     Raise *note TypeError: 291. for arguments that are not Protocols.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: typing.is_protocol (tp)

     Determine if a type is a *note Protocol: 76c.

     For example:

          class P(Protocol):
              def a(self) -> str: ...
              b: int

          is_protocol(P)    # => True
          is_protocol(int)  # => False

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: typing.is_typeddict (tp)

     Check if a type is a *note TypedDict: 290.

     For example:

          class Film(TypedDict):
              title: str
              year: int

          assert is_typeddict(Film)
          assert not is_typeddict(list | str)

          # TypedDict is a factory for creating typed dicts,
          # not a typed dict itself
          assert not is_typeddict(TypedDict)

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Κλάση: typing.ForwardRef

     Class used for internal typing representation of string forward
     references.

     For example, ‘List["SomeClass"]’ is implicitly transformed into
     ‘List[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]’.  ‘ForwardRef’ should not be
     instantiated by a user, but may be used by introspection tools.

          Σημείωση: PEP 585(2) generic types such as ‘list["SomeClass"]’
          will not be implicitly transformed into
          ‘list[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]’ and thus will not
          automatically resolve to ‘list[SomeClass]’.

     Added in version 3.7.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: This is now an alias for *note
     annotationlib.ForwardRef: 1967.  Several undocumented behaviors of
     this class have been changed; for example, after a ‘ForwardRef’ has
     been evaluated, the evaluated value is no longer cached.

 -- Συνάρτηση: typing.evaluate_forward_ref (forward_ref, *, owner=None,
          globals=None, locals=None, type_params=None,
          format=annotationlib.Format.VALUE)

     Evaluate an *note annotationlib.ForwardRef: 1967. as a *note type
     hint: 25c1.

     This is similar to calling *note
     annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate(): 150, but unlike that method,
     ‘evaluate_forward_ref()’ also recursively evaluates forward
     references nested within the type hint.

     See the documentation for *note
     annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate(): 150. for the meaning of the
     'owner', 'globals', 'locals', 'type_params', and 'format'
     parameters.

          Προσοχή: This function may execute arbitrary code contained in
          annotations.  See *note Security implications of introspecting
          annotations: 476f. for more information.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.NoDefault

     A sentinel object used to indicate that a type parameter has no
     default value.  For example:

          >>> T = TypeVar("T")
          >>> T.__default__ is typing.NoDefault
          True
          >>> S = TypeVar("S", default=None)
          >>> S.__default__ is None
          True

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.NoExtraItems

     A *note sentinel: 18b. object used to indicate that a *note
     TypedDict: 290. does not have the 'extra_items' class argument.

          >>> from typing import TypedDict, NoExtraItems
          >>> class Point(TypedDict):
          ...     x: int
          ...     y: int
          ...
          >>> Point.__extra_items__ is NoExtraItems
          True

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Constant,  Next: Deprecated aliases,  Prev: Introspection helpers,  Up: Module contents<5>

5.27.1.22 Constant
..................

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.TYPE_CHECKING

     A special constant that is assumed to be ‘True’ by 3rd party static
     type checkers.  It’s ‘False’ at runtime.

     A module which is expensive to import, and which only contain types
     used for typing annotations, can be safely imported inside an ‘if
     TYPE_CHECKING:’ block.  This prevents the module from actually
     being imported at runtime; annotations aren’t eagerly evaluated
     (see PEP 649(1)) so using undefined symbols in annotations is
     harmless–as long as you don’t later examine them.  Your static type
     analysis tool will set ‘TYPE_CHECKING’ to ‘True’ during static type
     analysis, which means the module will be imported and the types
     will be checked properly during such analysis.

     Usage:

          if TYPE_CHECKING:
              import expensive_mod

          def fun(arg: expensive_mod.SomeType) -> None:
              local_var: expensive_mod.AnotherType = other_fun()

     If you occasionally need to examine type annotations at runtime
     which may contain undefined symbols, use *note
     annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. with a ‘format’ parameter of
     *note annotationlib.Format.STRING: 40d. or *note
     annotationlib.Format.FORWARDREF: 40c. to safely retrieve the
     annotations without raising *note NameError: 665.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated aliases,  Prev: Constant,  Up: Module contents<5>

5.27.1.23 Deprecated aliases
............................

This module defines several deprecated aliases to pre-existing standard
library classes.  These were originally included in the ‘typing’ module
in order to support parameterizing these generic classes using ‘[]’.
However, the aliases became redundant in Python 3.9 when the
corresponding pre-existing classes were enhanced to support ‘[]’ (see
PEP 585(1)).

The redundant types are deprecated as of Python 3.9.  However, while the
aliases may be removed at some point, removal of these aliases is not
currently planned.  As such, no deprecation warnings are currently
issued by the interpreter for these aliases.

If at some point it is decided to remove these deprecated aliases, a
deprecation warning will be issued by the interpreter for at least two
releases prior to removal.  The aliases are guaranteed to remain in the
‘typing’ module without deprecation warnings until at least Python 3.14.

Type checkers are encouraged to flag uses of the deprecated types if the
program they are checking targets a minimum Python version of 3.9 or
newer.

* Menu:

* Aliases to built-in types::
* Aliases to types in collections::
* Aliases to other concrete types::
* Aliases to container ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
* Aliases to contextlib ABCs::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to built-in types,  Next: Aliases to types in collections,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.24 Aliases to built-in types
...................................

 -- Κλάση: typing.Dict (dict, MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note dict: 188.

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note Mapping: c9c. rather than to use
     *note dict: 188. or ‘typing.Dict’.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note builtins.dict: 188. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note Τύπος Generic Alias:
     a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.List (list, MutableSequence[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note list: 4d9.

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note Sequence: 156d. or *note Iterable:
     28aa. rather than to use *note list: 4d9. or ‘typing.List’.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note builtins.list: 4d9. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note Τύπος Generic Alias:
     a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Set (set, MutableSet[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note builtins.set: 42b.

     Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract
     collection type such as *note collections.abc.Set: 28a1. rather
     than to use *note set: 42b. or *note typing.Set: 4778.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note builtins.set: 42b. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note Τύπος Generic Alias:
     a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.FrozenSet (frozenset, AbstractSet[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note builtins.frozenset: 9d4.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note builtins.frozenset: 9d4. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.Tuple

     Deprecated alias for *note tuple: 1ce.

     *note tuple: 1ce. and ‘Tuple’ are special-cased in the type system;
     see *note Annotating tuples: 28cc. for more details.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note builtins.tuple: 1ce. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note Τύπος Generic Alias:
     a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Type (Generic[CT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note type: 186.

     See *note The type of class objects: 4727. for details on using
     *note type: 186. or ‘typing.Type’ in type annotations.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note builtins.type: 186. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note Τύπος Generic Alias:
     a9f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to types in collections,  Next: Aliases to other concrete types,  Prev: Aliases to built-in types,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.25 Aliases to types in ‘collections’
...........................................

 -- Κλάση: typing.DefaultDict (collections.defaultdict,
          MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.defaultdict: 1565.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.defaultdict: 1565.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.OrderedDict (collections.OrderedDict,
          MutableMapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5.

     Added in version 3.7.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.ChainMap (collections.ChainMap, MutableMapping[KT,
          VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.ChainMap: fdb.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.ChainMap: fdb. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Counter (collections.Counter, Dict[T, int])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.Counter: 204.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.Counter: 204. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Deque (deque, MutableSequence[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.deque: 9d6.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.deque: 9d6. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to other concrete types,  Next: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: Aliases to types in collections,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.26 Aliases to other concrete types
.........................................

 -- Κλάση: typing.Pattern
 -- Κλάση: typing.Match

     Deprecated aliases corresponding to the return types from *note
     re.compile(): f93. and *note re.search(): 15d3.

     These types (and the corresponding functions) are generic over
     *note AnyStr: 7a4.  ‘Pattern’ can be specialised as ‘Pattern[str]’
     or ‘Pattern[bytes]’; ‘Match’ can be specialised as ‘Match[str]’ or
     ‘Match[bytes]’.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: Classes ‘Pattern’ and ‘Match’ from
     *note re: c1. now support ‘[]’.  See PEP 585(1) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Text

     Deprecated alias for *note str: 1df.

     ‘Text’ is provided to supply a forward compatible path for Python 2
     code: in Python 2, ‘Text’ is an alias for ‘unicode’.

     Use ‘Text’ to indicate that a value must contain a unicode string
     in a manner that is compatible with both Python 2 and Python 3:

          def add_unicode_checkmark(text: Text) -> Text:
              return text + u' \u2713'

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.11: Python 2 is no longer supported, and
     most type checkers also no longer support type checking Python 2
     code.  Removal of the alias is not currently planned, but users are
     encouraged to use *note str: 1df. instead of ‘Text’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc,  Next: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: Aliases to other concrete types,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.27 Aliases to container ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
........................................................

 -- Κλάση: typing.AbstractSet (Collection[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Set: 28a1.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.Set: 28a1. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.ByteString (Sequence[int])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2cb.

     Use ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)’ to test if ‘obj’
     implements the *note buffer protocol: 311. at runtime.  For use in
     type annotations, either use *note Buffer: 312. or a union that
     explicitly specifies the types your code supports (e.g., ‘bytes |
     bytearray | memoryview’).

     ‘ByteString’ was originally intended to be an abstract class that
     would serve as a supertype of both *note bytes: 1c7. and *note
     bytearray: 1c6.  However, since the ABC never had any methods,
     knowing that an object was an instance of ‘ByteString’ never
     actually told you anything useful about the object.  Other common
     buffer types such as *note memoryview: 1d2. were also never
     understood as subtypes of ‘ByteString’ (either at runtime or by
     static type checkers).

     See PEP 688(2) for more details.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.9, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.17.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Collection (Sized, Iterable[T_co], Container[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Collection: 1047.

     Added in version 3.6.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.Collection: 1047.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Container (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Container: 28ac.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.Container: 28ac.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.ItemsView (MappingView, AbstractSet[tuple[KT_co,
          VT_co]])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 28b0.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 28b0.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.KeysView (MappingView, AbstractSet[KT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.KeysView: 28af.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.KeysView: 28af.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Mapping (Collection[KT], Generic[KT, VT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Mapping: c9c.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.Mapping: c9c. now
     supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(7) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.MappingView (Sized)

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MappingView: 28ae.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.MappingView:
     28ae. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(8) and *note
     Τύπος Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.MutableMapping (Mapping[KT, VT])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 1459.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.MutableMapping:
     1459. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(9) and *note
     Τύπος Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.MutableSequence (Sequence[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: 6c6.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.MutableSequence:
     6c6. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(10) and *note
     Τύπος Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.MutableSet (AbstractSet[T])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 28ad.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 28ad.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(11) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Sequence (Reversible[T_co], Collection[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Sequence: 156d.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.Sequence: 156d.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(12) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.ValuesView (MappingView, Collection[_VT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 28b1.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 28b1.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(13) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Next: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Prev: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.28 Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
...........................................................

 -- Κλάση: typing.Coroutine (Awaitable[ReturnType], Generic[YieldType,
          SendType, ReturnType])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Coroutine: 1195.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 2baf. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.Coroutine: 1195. and
     ‘typing.Coroutine’ in type annotations.

     Added in version 3.5.3.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.Coroutine: 1195.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.AsyncGenerator (AsyncIterator[YieldType],
          Generic[YieldType, SendType])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: 104a.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 2baf. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: 104a. and
     ‘typing.AsyncGenerator’ in type annotations.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator:
     104a. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note
     Τύπος Generic Alias: a9f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The ‘SendType’ parameter now has a
     default.

 -- Κλάση: typing.AsyncIterable (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: 1197.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable:
     1197. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note
     Τύπος Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.AsyncIterator (AsyncIterable[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: 1196.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator:
     1196. now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(4) and *note
     Τύπος Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Awaitable (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Awaitable: 1194.

     Added in version 3.5.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.Awaitable: 1194.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Next: Aliases to contextlib ABCs,  Prev: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.29 Aliases to other ABCs in ‘collections.abc’
....................................................

 -- Κλάση: typing.Iterable (Generic[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Iterable: 28aa.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.Iterable: 28aa.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Iterator (Iterable[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Iterator: 28ab.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.Iterator: 28ab.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Δεδομένα: typing.Callable

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Callable: bc6.

     See *note Annotating callable objects: 28cb. for details on how to
     use *note collections.abc.Callable: bc6. and ‘typing.Callable’ in
     type annotations.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.Callable: bc6.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(3) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: ‘Callable’ now supports *note ParamSpec:
     295. and *note Concatenate: ba4.  See PEP 612(4) for more details.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Generator (Iterator[YieldType], Generic[YieldType,
          SendType, ReturnType])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Generator: 1193.

     See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 2baf. for details
     on using *note collections.abc.Generator: 1193. and
     ‘typing.Generator’ in type annotations.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.Generator: 1193.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(5) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Default values for the send and return
     types were added.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Hashable

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Hashable: 902.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12: Use *note collections.abc.Hashable:
     902. directly instead.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Reversible (Iterable[T_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Reversible: 1048.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note collections.abc.Reversible: 1048.
     now supports subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(6) and *note Τύπος
     Generic Alias: a9f.

 -- Κλάση: typing.Sized

     Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Sized: 903.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12: Use *note collections.abc.Sized: 903.
     directly instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Aliases to contextlib ABCs,  Prev: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc,  Up: Deprecated aliases

5.27.1.30 Aliases to ‘contextlib’ ABCs
......................................

 -- Κλάση: typing.ContextManager (Generic[T_co, ExitT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: 104d.

     The first type parameter, ‘T_co’, represents the type returned by
     the *note __enter__(): 9c6. method.  The optional second type
     parameter, ‘ExitT_co’, which defaults to ‘bool | None’, represents
     the type returned by the *note __exit__(): 16a5. method.

     Added in version 3.5.4.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note
     contextlib.AbstractContextManager: 104d. now supports subscripting
     (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(1) and *note Τύπος Generic Alias: a9f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the optional second type parameter,
     ‘ExitT_co’.

 -- Κλάση: typing.AsyncContextManager (Generic[T_co, AExitT_co])

     Deprecated alias to *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager:
     eeb.

     The first type parameter, ‘T_co’, represents the type returned by
     the *note __aenter__(): 2613. method.  The optional second type
     parameter, ‘AExitT_co’, which defaults to ‘bool | None’, represents
     the type returned by the *note __aexit__(): 1bad. method.

     Added in version 3.6.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note
     contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager: eeb. now supports
     subscripting (‘[]’).  See PEP 585(2) and *note Τύπος Generic Alias:
     a9f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the optional second type parameter,
     ‘AExitT_co’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features,  Prev: Module contents<5>,  Up: typing — Support for type hints

5.27.1.31 Deprecation Timeline of Major Features
................................................

Certain features in ‘typing’ are deprecated and may be removed in a
future version of Python.  The following table summarizes major
deprecations for your convenience.  This is subject to change, and not
all deprecations are listed.

Feature                       Deprecated in                 Projected removal             PEP/issue
                                                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
‘typing’ versions of          3.9                           Undecided (see                PEP 585(1)
standard collections                                        *note Deprecated aliases: 4772.
                                                            for more information)
                                                            
                                                                                          
*note typing.ByteString: 2e3. 3.9                           3.17                          gh-91896(2)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note typing.Text: 340.       3.11                          Undecided                     gh-92332(3)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note typing.Hashable: 900.   3.12                          Undecided                     gh-94309(4)
and                                                                                       
*note typing.Sized: 901.

*note typing.TypeAlias: ba9.  3.12                          Undecided                     PEP 695(5)
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
*note typing.AnyStr: 7a4.     3.13                          3.18                          gh-105578(6)
                                                                                          

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105578


File: python.info,  Node: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system,  Next: Python Development Mode,  Prev: typing — Support for type hints,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.2 ‘pydoc’ — Documentation generator and online help system
---------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pydoc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘pydoc’ module automatically generates documentation from Python
modules.  The documentation can be presented as pages of text on the
console, served to a web browser, or saved to HTML files.

For modules, classes, functions and methods, the displayed documentation
is derived from the docstring (i.e.  the *note __doc__: cf4. attribute)
of the object, and recursively of its documentable members.  If there is
no docstring, ‘pydoc’ tries to obtain a description from the block of
comment lines just above the definition of the class, function or method
in the source file, or at the top of the module (see *note
inspect.getcomments(): 1b52.).

The built-in function *note help(): ca9. invokes the online help system
in the interactive interpreter, which uses ‘pydoc’ to generate its
documentation as text on the console.  The same text documentation can
also be viewed from outside the Python interpreter by running ‘pydoc’ as
a script at the operating system’s command prompt.  For example, running

     python -m pydoc sys

at a shell prompt will display documentation on the *note sys: e2.
module, in a style similar to the manual pages shown by the Unix ‘man’
command.  The argument to ‘pydoc’ can be the name of a function, module,
or package, or a dotted reference to a class, method, or function within
a module or module in a package.  If the argument to ‘pydoc’ looks like
a path (that is, it contains the path separator for your operating
system, such as a slash in Unix), and refers to an existing Python
source file, then documentation is produced for that file.

     Σημείωση: In order to find objects and their documentation, ‘pydoc’
     imports the module(s) to be documented.  Therefore, any code on
     module level will be executed on that occasion.  Use an ‘if
     __name__ == '__main__':’ guard to only execute code when a file is
     invoked as a script and not just imported.

When printing output to the console, ‘pydoc’ attempts to paginate the
output for easier reading.  If either the ‘MANPAGER’ or the ‘PAGER’
environment variable is set, ‘pydoc’ will use its value as a pagination
program.  When both are set, ‘MANPAGER’ is used.

Specifying a ‘-w’ flag before the argument will cause HTML documentation
to be written out to a file in the current directory, instead of
displaying text on the console.

Specifying a ‘-k’ flag before the argument will search the synopsis
lines of all available modules for the keyword given as the argument,
again in a manner similar to the Unix ‘man’ command.  The synopsis line
of a module is the first line of its documentation string.

You can also use ‘pydoc’ to start an HTTP server on the local machine
that will serve documentation to visiting web browsers.  ‘python -m
pydoc -p 1234’ will start a HTTP server on port 1234, allowing you to
browse the documentation at ‘http://localhost:1234/’ in your preferred
web browser.  Specifying ‘0’ as the port number will select an arbitrary
unused port.

‘python -m pydoc -n <hostname>’ will start the server listening at the
given hostname.  By default the hostname is “localhost” but if you want
the server to be reached from other machines, you may want to change the
host name that the server responds to.  During development this is
especially useful if you want to run pydoc from within a container.

‘python -m pydoc -b’ will start the server and additionally open a web
browser to a module index page.  Each served page has a navigation bar
at the top where you can 'Get' help on an individual item, 'Search' all
modules with a keyword in their synopsis line, and go to the 'Module
index', 'Topics' and 'Keywords' pages.

When ‘pydoc’ generates documentation, it uses the current environment
and path to locate modules.  Thus, invoking ‘pydoc spam’ documents
precisely the version of the module you would get if you started the
Python interpreter and typed ‘import spam’.

Module docs for core modules are assumed to reside in
‘https://docs.python.org/X.Y/library/’ where ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are the major
and minor version numbers of the Python interpreter.  This can be
overridden by setting the ‘PYTHONDOCS’ environment variable to a
different URL or to a local directory containing the Library Reference
Manual pages.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the ‘-b’ option.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The ‘-g’ command line option was removed.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: ‘pydoc’ now uses *note inspect.signature(): 4bd.
rather than *note inspect.getfullargspec(): b1f. to extract signature
information from callables.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the ‘-n’ option.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/pydoc.py


File: python.info,  Node: Python Development Mode,  Next: doctest — Test interactive Python examples,  Prev: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.3 Python Development Mode
------------------------------

Added in version 3.7.

The Python Development Mode introduces additional runtime checks that
are too expensive to be enabled by default.  It should not be more
verbose than the default if the code is correct; new warnings are only
emitted when an issue is detected.

It can be enabled using the *note -X dev: 178. command line option or by
setting the *note PYTHONDEVMODE: eb5. environment variable to ‘1’.

See also *note Python debug build: 3dc.

* Menu:

* Effects of the Python Development Mode::
* ResourceWarning Example::
* Bad file descriptor error example::


File: python.info,  Node: Effects of the Python Development Mode,  Next: ResourceWarning Example,  Up: Python Development Mode

5.27.3.1 Effects of the Python Development Mode
...............................................

Enabling the Python Development Mode is similar to the following
command, but with additional effects described below:

     PYTHONMALLOC=debug PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG=1 python -W default -X faulthandler

Effects of the Python Development Mode:

   * Add ‘default’ *note warning filter: 2319.  The following warnings
     are shown:

        * *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.

        * *note ImportWarning: 907.

        * *note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b.

        * *note ResourceWarning: 74f.

     Normally, the above warnings are filtered by the default *note
     warning filters: 2319.

     It behaves as if the *note -W default: 1c0. command line option is
     used.

     Use the *note -W error: 1c0. command line option or set the *note
     PYTHONWARNINGS: 1c1. environment variable to ‘error’ to treat
     warnings as errors.

   * Install debug hooks on memory allocators to check for:

        * Buffer underflow

        * Buffer overflow

        * Memory allocator API violation

        * Unsafe usage of the GIL

     See the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): 1028. C function.

     It behaves as if the *note PYTHONMALLOC: 1022. environment variable
     is set to ‘debug’.

     To enable the Python Development Mode without installing debug
     hooks on memory allocators, set the *note PYTHONMALLOC: 1022.
     environment variable to ‘default’.

   * Call *note faulthandler.enable(): 219. at Python startup to install
     handlers for the *note SIGSEGV: 1428, *note SIGFPE: 1429, *note
     SIGABRT: 142a, *note SIGBUS: 142b. and *note SIGILL: 142c. signals
     to dump the Python traceback on a crash.

     It behaves as if the *note -X faulthandler: 178. command line
     option is used or if the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 142d.
     environment variable is set to ‘1’.

   * Enable *note asyncio debug mode: 2328.  For example, *note asyncio:
     b. checks for coroutines that were not awaited and logs them.

     It behaves as if the *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 2327. environment
     variable is set to ‘1’.

   * Check the 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments for string encoding and
     decoding operations.  Examples: *note open(): 32b, *note
     str.encode(): ca7. and *note bytes.decode(): ca8.

     By default, for best performance, the 'errors' argument is only
     checked at the first encoding/decoding error and the 'encoding'
     argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings.

   * The *note io.IOBase: 70a. destructor logs ‘close()’ exceptions.

   * Set the *note dev_mode: 206f. attribute of *note sys.flags: a7c. to
     ‘True’.

The Python Development Mode does not enable the *note tracemalloc: 108.
module by default, because the overhead cost (to performance and memory)
would be too large.  Enabling the ‘tracemalloc’ module provides
additional information on the origin of some errors.  For example, *note
ResourceWarning: 74f. logs the traceback where the resource was
allocated, and a buffer overflow error logs the traceback where the
memory block was allocated.

The Python Development Mode does not prevent the *note -O: 431. command
line option from removing *note assert: d31. statements nor from setting
*note __debug__: bb7. to ‘False’.

The Python Development Mode can only be enabled at the Python startup.
Its value can be read from *note sys.flags.dev_mode: a7c.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The *note io.IOBase: 70a. destructor now logs
‘close()’ exceptions.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments are now
checked for string encoding and decoding operations.


File: python.info,  Node: ResourceWarning Example,  Next: Bad file descriptor error example,  Prev: Effects of the Python Development Mode,  Up: Python Development Mode

5.27.3.2 ResourceWarning Example
................................

Example of a script counting the number of lines of the text file
specified in the command line:

     import sys

     def main():
         fp = open(sys.argv[1])
         nlines = len(fp.readlines())
         print(nlines)
         # The file is closed implicitly

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

The script does not close the file explicitly.  By default, Python does
not emit any warning.  Example using README.txt, which has 269 lines:

     $ python script.py README.txt
     269

Enabling the Python Development Mode displays a *note ResourceWarning:
74f. warning:

     $ python -X dev script.py README.txt
     269
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback

In addition, enabling *note tracemalloc: 108. shows the line where the
file was opened:

     $ python -X dev -X tracemalloc=5 script.py README.rst
     269
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     Object allocated at (most recent call last):
       File "script.py", lineno 10
         main()
       File "script.py", lineno 4
         fp = open(sys.argv[1])

The fix is to close explicitly the file.  Example using a context
manager:

     def main():
         # Close the file explicitly when exiting the with block
         with open(sys.argv[1]) as fp:
             nlines = len(fp.readlines())
         print(nlines)

Not closing a resource explicitly can leave a resource open for way
longer than expected; it can cause severe issues upon exiting Python.
It is bad in CPython, but it is even worse in PyPy.  Closing resources
explicitly makes an application more deterministic and more reliable.


File: python.info,  Node: Bad file descriptor error example,  Prev: ResourceWarning Example,  Up: Python Development Mode

5.27.3.3 Bad file descriptor error example
..........................................

Script displaying the first line of itself:

     import os

     def main():
         fp = open(__file__)
         firstline = fp.readline()
         print(firstline.rstrip())
         os.close(fp.fileno())
         # The file is closed implicitly

     main()

By default, Python does not emit any warning:

     $ python script.py
     import os

The Python Development Mode shows a *note ResourceWarning: 74f. and logs
a «Bad file descriptor» error when finalizing the file object:

     $ python -X dev script.py
     import os
     script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
       main()
     ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback
     Exception ignored in: <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'>
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "script.py", line 10, in <module>
         main()
     OSError: [Errno 9] Bad file descriptor

‘os.close(fp.fileno())’ closes the file descriptor.  When the file
object finalizer tries to close the file descriptor again, it fails with
the ‘Bad file descriptor’ error.  A file descriptor must be closed only
once.  In the worst case scenario, closing it twice can lead to a crash
(see bpo-18748(1) for an example).

The fix is to remove the ‘os.close(fp.fileno())’ line, or open the file
with ‘closefd=False’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748


File: python.info,  Node: doctest — Test interactive Python examples,  Next: unittest — Unit testing framework,  Prev: Python Development Mode,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.4 ‘doctest’ — Test interactive Python examples
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/doctest.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘doctest’ module searches for pieces of text that look like
interactive Python sessions, and then executes those sessions to verify
that they work exactly as shown.  There are several common ways to use
doctest:

   * To check that a module’s docstrings are up-to-date by verifying
     that all interactive examples still work as documented.

   * To perform regression testing by verifying that interactive
     examples from a test file or a test object work as expected.

   * To write tutorial documentation for a package, liberally
     illustrated with input-output examples.  Depending on whether the
     examples or the expository text are emphasized, this has the flavor
     of «literate testing» or «executable documentation».

Here’s a complete but small example module:

     """
     This is the "example" module.

     The example module supplies one function, factorial().  For example,

     >>> factorial(5)
     120
     """

     def factorial(n):
         """Return the factorial of n, an exact integer >= 0.

         >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
         [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
         >>> factorial(30)
         265252859812191058636308480000000
         >>> factorial(-1)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         ValueError: n must be >= 0

         Factorials of floats are OK, but the float must be an exact integer:
         >>> factorial(30.1)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         ValueError: n must be exact integer
         >>> factorial(30.0)
         265252859812191058636308480000000

         It must also not be ridiculously large:
         >>> factorial(1e100)
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         OverflowError: n too large
         """

         import math
         if not n >= 0:
             raise ValueError("n must be >= 0")
         if math.floor(n) != n:
             raise ValueError("n must be exact integer")
         if n+1 == n:  # catch a value like 1e300
             raise OverflowError("n too large")
         result = 1
         factor = 2
         while factor <= n:
             result *= factor
             factor += 1
         return result


     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import doctest
         doctest.testmod()

If you run ‘example.py’ directly from the command line, ‘doctest’ works
its magic:

     $ python example.py
     $

There’s no output!  That’s normal, and it means all the examples worked.
Pass ‘-v’ to the script, and ‘doctest’ prints a detailed log of what
it’s trying, and prints a summary at the end:

     $ python example.py -v
     Trying:
         factorial(5)
     Expecting:
         120
     ok
     Trying:
         [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
     Expecting:
         [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
     ok

And so on, eventually ending with:

     Trying:
         factorial(1e100)
     Expecting:
         Traceback (most recent call last):
             ...
         OverflowError: n too large
     ok
     2 items passed all tests:
        1 test in __main__
        6 tests in __main__.factorial
     7 tests in 2 items.
     7 passed.
     Test passed.
     $

That’s all you need to know to start making productive use of ‘doctest’!
Jump in.  The following sections provide full details.  Note that there
are many examples of doctests in the standard Python test suite and
libraries.  Especially useful examples can be found in the standard test
file ‘Lib/test/test_doctest/test_doctest.py’.

Added in version 3.13: Output is colorized by default and can be *note
controlled using environment variables: 1af.

* Menu:

* Simple Usage; Checking Examples in Docstrings: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings.
* Simple Usage; Checking Examples in a Text File: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File.
* Command-line Usage::
* How It Works::
* Basic API::
* Unittest API::
* Advanced API::
* Debugging::
* Soapbox::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/doctest.py


File: python.info,  Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings,  Next: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.27.4.1 Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings
......................................................

The simplest way to start using doctest (but not necessarily the way
you’ll continue to do it) is to end each module ‘M’ with:

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         import doctest
         doctest.testmod()

‘doctest’ then examines docstrings in module ‘M’.

Running the module as a script causes the examples in the docstrings to
get executed and verified:

     python M.py

This won’t display anything unless an example fails, in which case the
failing example(s) and the cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to
stdout, and the final line of output is ‘***Test Failed*** N failures.’,
where 'N' is the number of examples that failed.

Run it with the ‘-v’ switch instead:

     python M.py -v

and a detailed report of all examples tried is printed to standard
output, along with assorted summaries at the end.

You can force verbose mode by passing ‘verbose=True’ to *note testmod():
180f, or prohibit it by passing ‘verbose=False’.  In either of those
cases, *note sys.argv: 1609. is not examined by ‘testmod()’ (so passing
‘-v’ or not has no effect).

There is also a command line shortcut for running *note testmod(): 180f,
see section *note Command-line Usage: 47ae.

For more information on *note testmod(): 180f, see section *note Basic
API: 47af.


File: python.info,  Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File,  Next: Command-line Usage,  Prev: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.27.4.2 Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File
.......................................................

Another simple application of doctest is testing interactive examples in
a text file.  This can be done with the *note testfile(): 47b2.
function:

     import doctest
     doctest.testfile("example.txt")

That short script executes and verifies any interactive Python examples
contained in the file ‘example.txt’.  The file content is treated as if
it were a single giant docstring; the file doesn’t need to contain a
Python program!  For example, perhaps ‘example.txt’ contains this:

     The ``example`` module
     ======================

     Using ``factorial``
     -------------------

     This is an example text file in reStructuredText format.  First import
     ``factorial`` from the ``example`` module:

         >>> from example import factorial

     Now use it:

         >>> factorial(6)
         120

Running ‘doctest.testfile("example.txt")’ then finds the error in this
documentation:

     File "./example.txt", line 14, in example.txt
     Failed example:
         factorial(6)
     Expected:
         120
     Got:
         720

As with *note testmod(): 180f, *note testfile(): 47b2. won’t display
anything unless an example fails.  If an example does fail, then the
failing example(s) and the cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to
stdout, using the same format as ‘testmod()’.

By default, *note testfile(): 47b2. looks for files in the calling
module’s directory.  See section *note Basic API: 47af. for a
description of the optional arguments that can be used to tell it to
look for files in other locations.

Like *note testmod(): 180f, *note testfile(): 47b2.”s verbosity can be
set with the ‘-v’ command-line switch or with the optional keyword
argument 'verbose'.

There is also a command line shortcut for running *note testfile():
47b2, see section *note Command-line Usage: 47ae.

For more information on *note testfile(): 47b2, see section *note Basic
API: 47af.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line Usage,  Next: How It Works,  Prev: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.27.4.3 Command-line Usage
...........................

The ‘doctest’ module can be invoked as a script from the command line:

     python -m doctest [-v] [-o OPTION] [-f] file [file ...]

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     Detailed report of all examples tried is printed to standard
     output, along with assorted summaries at the end:

          python -m doctest -v example.py

     This will import ‘example.py’ as a standalone module and run *note
     testmod(): 180f. on it.  Note that this may not work correctly if
     the file is part of a package and imports other submodules from
     that package.

     If the file name does not end with ‘.py’, ‘doctest’ infers that it
     must be run with *note testfile(): 47b2. instead:

          python -m doctest -v example.txt

 -- Option: -o, --option <option>

     Option flags control various aspects of doctest’s behavior, see
     section *note Option Flags: 12de.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Option: -f, --fail-fast

     This is shorthand for ‘-o FAIL_FAST’.

     Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: How It Works,  Next: Basic API,  Prev: Command-line Usage,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.27.4.4 How It Works
.....................

This section examines in detail how doctest works: which docstrings it
looks at, how it finds interactive examples, what execution context it
uses, how it handles exceptions, and how option flags can be used to
control its behavior.  This is the information that you need to know to
write doctest examples; for information about actually running doctest
on these examples, see the following sections.

* Menu:

* Which Docstrings Are Examined?::
* How are Docstring Examples Recognized?::
* What’s the Execution Context?::
* What About Exceptions?::
* Option Flags::
* Directives::
* Warnings: Warnings<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Which Docstrings Are Examined?,  Next: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?,  Up: How It Works

5.27.4.5 Which Docstrings Are Examined?
.......................................

The module docstring, and all function, class and method docstrings are
searched.  Objects imported into the module are not searched.

In addition, there are cases when you want tests to be part of a module
but not part of the help text, which requires that the tests not be
included in the docstring.  Doctest looks for a module-level variable
called ‘__test__’ and uses it to locate other tests.  If ‘M.__test__’
exists, it must be a dict, and each entry maps a (string) name to a
function object, class object, or string.  Function and class object
docstrings found from ‘M.__test__’ are searched, and strings are treated
as if they were docstrings.  In output, a key ‘K’ in ‘M.__test__’
appears with name ‘M.__test__.K’.

For example, place this block of code at the top of ‘example.py’:

     __test__ = {
         'numbers': """
     >>> factorial(6)
     720

     >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)]
     [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120]
     """
     }

The value of ‘example.__test__["numbers"]’ will be treated as a
docstring and all the tests inside it will be run.  It is important to
note that the value can be mapped to a function, class object, or
module; if so, ‘doctest’ searches them recursively for docstrings, which
are then scanned for tests.

Any classes found are recursively searched similarly, to test docstrings
in their contained methods and nested classes.

     Σημείωση: ‘doctest’ can only automatically discover classes and
     functions that are defined at the module level or inside other
     classes.

     Since nested classes and functions only exist when an outer
     function is called, they cannot be discovered.  Define them outside
     to make them visible.


File: python.info,  Node: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?,  Next: What’s the Execution Context?,  Prev: Which Docstrings Are Examined?,  Up: How It Works

5.27.4.6 How are Docstring Examples Recognized?
...............................................

In most cases a copy-and-paste of an interactive console session works
fine, but doctest isn’t trying to do an exact emulation of any specific
Python shell.

     >>> # comments are ignored
     >>> x = 12
     >>> x
     12
     >>> if x == 13:
     ...     print("yes")
     ... else:
     ...     print("no")
     ...     print("NO")
     ...     print("NO!!!")
     ...
     no
     NO
     NO!!!
     >>>

Any expected output must immediately follow the final ‘'>>> '’ or ‘'...
'’ line containing the code, and the expected output (if any) extends to
the next ‘'>>> '’ or all-whitespace line.

The fine print:

   * Expected output cannot contain an all-whitespace line, since such a
     line is taken to signal the end of expected output.  If expected
     output does contain a blank line, put ‘<BLANKLINE>’ in your doctest
     example each place a blank line is expected.

   * All hard tab characters are expanded to spaces, using 8-column tab
     stops.  Tabs in output generated by the tested code are not
     modified.  Because any hard tabs in the sample output 'are'
     expanded, this means that if the code output includes hard tabs,
     the only way the doctest can pass is if the *note
     NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE: 47c1. option or *note directive: 47c2. is in
     effect.  Alternatively, the test can be rewritten to capture the
     output and compare it to an expected value as part of the test.
     This handling of tabs in the source was arrived at through trial
     and error, and has proven to be the least error prone way of
     handling them.  It is possible to use a different algorithm for
     handling tabs by writing a custom *note DocTestParser: 47c3. class.

   * Output to stdout is captured, but not output to stderr (exception
     tracebacks are captured via a different means).

   * If you continue a line via backslashing in an interactive session,
     or for any other reason use a backslash, you should use a raw
     docstring, which will preserve your backslashes exactly as you type
     them:

          >>> def f(x):
          ...     r'''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n'''
          ...
          >>> print(f.__doc__)
          Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n

     Otherwise, the backslash will be interpreted as part of the string.
     For example, the ‘\n’ above would be interpreted as a newline
     character.  Alternatively, you can double each backslash in the
     doctest version (and not use a raw string):

          >>> def f(x):
          ...     '''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\\n'''
          ...
          >>> print(f.__doc__)
          Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n

   * The starting column doesn’t matter:

          >>> assert "Easy!"
                >>> import math
                    >>> math.floor(1.9)
                    1

     and as many leading whitespace characters are stripped from the
     expected output as appeared in the initial ‘'>>> '’ line that
     started the example.


File: python.info,  Node: What’s the Execution Context?,  Next: What About Exceptions?,  Prev: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?,  Up: How It Works

5.27.4.7 What’s the Execution Context?
......................................

By default, each time ‘doctest’ finds a docstring to test, it uses a
'shallow copy' of ‘M’’s globals, so that running tests doesn’t change
the module’s real globals, and so that one test in ‘M’ can’t leave
behind crumbs that accidentally allow another test to work.  This means
examples can freely use any names defined at top-level in ‘M’, and names
defined earlier in the docstring being run.  Examples cannot see names
defined in other docstrings.

You can force use of your own dict as the execution context by passing
‘globs=your_dict’ to *note testmod(): 180f. or *note testfile(): 47b2.
instead.


File: python.info,  Node: What About Exceptions?,  Next: Option Flags,  Prev: What’s the Execution Context?,  Up: How It Works

5.27.4.8 What About Exceptions?
...............................

No problem, provided that the traceback is the only output produced by
the example: just paste in the traceback.  (1)  Since tracebacks contain
details that are likely to change rapidly (for example, exact file paths
and line numbers), this is one case where doctest works hard to be
flexible in what it accepts.

Simple example:

     >>> [1, 2, 3].remove(42)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list

That doctest succeeds if *note ValueError: 277. is raised, with the
‘list.remove(x): x not in list’ detail as shown.

The expected output for an exception must start with a traceback header,
which may be either of the following two lines, indented the same as the
first line of the example:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
     Traceback (innermost last):

The traceback header is followed by an optional traceback stack, whose
contents are ignored by doctest.  The traceback stack is typically
omitted, or copied verbatim from an interactive session.

The traceback stack is followed by the most interesting part: the
line(s) containing the exception type and detail.  This is usually the
last line of a traceback, but can extend across multiple lines if the
exception has a multi-line detail:

     >>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     ValueError: multi
         line
     detail

The last three lines (starting with *note ValueError: 277.) are compared
against the exception’s type and detail, and the rest are ignored.

Best practice is to omit the traceback stack, unless it adds significant
documentation value to the example.  So the last example is probably
better as:

     >>> raise ValueError('multi\n    line\ndetail')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: multi
         line
     detail

Note that tracebacks are treated very specially.  In particular, in the
rewritten example, the use of ‘...’ is independent of doctest’s *note
ELLIPSIS: 1810. option.  The ellipsis in that example could be left out,
or could just as well be three (or three hundred) commas or digits, or
an indented transcript of a Monty Python skit.

Some details you should read once, but won’t need to remember:

   * Doctest can’t guess whether your expected output came from an
     exception traceback or from ordinary printing.  So, e.g., an
     example that expects ‘ValueError: 42 is prime’ will pass whether
     *note ValueError: 277. is actually raised or if the example merely
     prints that traceback text.  In practice, ordinary output rarely
     begins with a traceback header line, so this doesn’t create real
     problems.

   * Each line of the traceback stack (if present) must be indented
     further than the first line of the example, 'or' start with a
     non-alphanumeric character.  The first line following the traceback
     header indented the same and starting with an alphanumeric is taken
     to be the start of the exception detail.  Of course this does the
     right thing for genuine tracebacks.

   * When the *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL: 16ad. doctest option is
     specified, everything following the leftmost colon and any module
     information in the exception name is ignored.

   * The interactive shell omits the traceback header line for some
     *note SyntaxError: 17e.s.  But doctest uses the traceback header
     line to distinguish exceptions from non-exceptions.  So in the rare
     case where you need to test a ‘SyntaxError’ that omits the
     traceback header, you will need to manually add the traceback
     header line to your test example.

   * For some exceptions, Python displays the position of the error
     using ‘^’ markers and tildes:

          >>> 1 + None
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              1 + None
              ~~^~~~~~
          TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType'

     Since the lines showing the position of the error come before the
     exception type and detail, they are not checked by doctest.  For
     example, the following test would pass, even though it puts the ‘^’
     marker in the wrong location:

          >>> 1 + None
            File "<stdin>", line 1
              1 + None
              ^~~~~~~~
          TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Examples containing both expected output and an exception are not
supported.  Trying to guess where one ends and the other begins is too
error-prone, and that also makes for a confusing test.


File: python.info,  Node: Option Flags,  Next: Directives,  Prev: What About Exceptions?,  Up: How It Works

5.27.4.9 Option Flags
.....................

A number of option flags control various aspects of doctest’s behavior.
Symbolic names for the flags are supplied as module constants, which can
be *note bitwise ORed: 26c4. together and passed to various functions.
The names can also be used in *note doctest directives: 47c2, and may be
passed to the doctest command line interface via the ‘-o’ option.

The first group of options define test semantics, controlling aspects of
how doctest decides whether actual output matches an example’s expected
output:

 -- Δεδομένα: doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1

     By default, if an expected output block contains just ‘1’, an
     actual output block containing just ‘1’ or just ‘True’ is
     considered to be a match, and similarly for ‘0’ versus ‘False’.
     When *note DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1: 47ca. is specified, neither
     substitution is allowed.  The default behavior caters to that
     Python changed the return type of many functions from integer to
     boolean; doctests expecting «little integer» output still work in
     these cases.  This option will probably go away, but not for
     several years.

 -- Δεδομένα: doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE

     By default, if an expected output block contains a line containing
     only the string ‘<BLANKLINE>’, then that line will match a blank
     line in the actual output.  Because a genuinely blank line delimits
     the expected output, this is the only way to communicate that a
     blank line is expected.  When *note DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE: 47cb. is
     specified, this substitution is not allowed.

 -- Δεδομένα: doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE

     When specified, all sequences of whitespace (blanks and newlines)
     are treated as equal.  Any sequence of whitespace within the
     expected output will match any sequence of whitespace within the
     actual output.  By default, whitespace must match exactly.  *note
     NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE: 47c1. is especially useful when a line of
     expected output is very long, and you want to wrap it across
     multiple lines in your source.

 -- Δεδομένα: doctest.ELLIPSIS

     When specified, an ellipsis marker (‘...’) in the expected output
     can match any substring in the actual output.  This includes
     substrings that span line boundaries, and empty substrings, so it’s
     best to keep usage of this simple.  Complicated uses can lead to
     the same kinds of «oops, it matched too much!» surprises that ‘.*’
     is prone to in regular expressions.

 -- Δεδομένα: doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL

     When specified, doctests expecting exceptions pass so long as an
     exception of the expected type is raised, even if the details
     (message and fully qualified exception name) don’t match.

     For example, an example expecting ‘ValueError: 42’ will pass if the
     actual exception raised is ‘ValueError: 3*14’, but will fail if,
     say, a *note TypeError: 291. is raised instead.  It will also
     ignore any fully qualified name included before the exception
     class, which can vary between implementations and versions of
     Python and the code/libraries in use.  Hence, all three of these
     variations will work with the flag specified:

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          Exception: message

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          builtins.Exception: message

          >>> raise Exception('message')
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          __main__.Exception: message

     Note that *note ELLIPSIS: 1810. can also be used to ignore the
     details of the exception message, but such a test may still fail
     based on whether the module name is present or matches exactly.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL: 16ad. now
     also ignores any information relating to the module containing the
     exception under test.

 -- Δεδομένα: doctest.SKIP

     When specified, do not run the example at all.  This can be useful
     in contexts where doctest examples serve as both documentation and
     test cases, and an example should be included for documentation
     purposes, but should not be checked.  E.g., the example’s output
     might be random; or the example might depend on resources which
     would be unavailable to the test driver.

     The SKIP flag can also be used for temporarily «commenting out»
     examples.

 -- Δεδομένα: doctest.COMPARISON_FLAGS

     A bitmask or’ing together all the comparison flags above.

The second group of options controls how test failures are reported:

 -- Δεδομένα: doctest.REPORT_UDIFF

     When specified, failures that involve multi-line expected and
     actual outputs are displayed using a unified diff.

 -- Δεδομένα: doctest.REPORT_CDIFF

     When specified, failures that involve multi-line expected and
     actual outputs will be displayed using a context diff.

 -- Δεδομένα: doctest.REPORT_NDIFF

     When specified, differences are computed by ‘difflib.Differ’, using
     the same algorithm as the popular ‘ndiff.py’ utility.  This is the
     only method that marks differences within lines as well as across
     lines.  For example, if a line of expected output contains digit
     ‘1’ where actual output contains letter ‘l’, a line is inserted
     with a caret marking the mismatching column positions.

 -- Δεδομένα: doctest.REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE

     When specified, display the first failing example in each doctest,
     but suppress output for all remaining examples.  This will prevent
     doctest from reporting correct examples that break because of
     earlier failures; but it might also hide incorrect examples that
     fail independently of the first failure.  When *note
     REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE: 47ce. is specified, the remaining
     examples are still run, and still count towards the total number of
     failures reported; only the output is suppressed.

 -- Δεδομένα: doctest.FAIL_FAST

     When specified, exit after the first failing example and don’t
     attempt to run the remaining examples.  Thus, the number of
     failures reported will be at most 1.  This flag may be useful
     during debugging, since examples after the first failure won’t even
     produce debugging output.

 -- Δεδομένα: doctest.REPORTING_FLAGS

     A bitmask or’ing together all the reporting flags above.

There is also a way to register new option flag names, though this isn’t
useful unless you intend to extend ‘doctest’ internals via subclassing:

 -- Συνάρτηση: doctest.register_optionflag (name)

     Create a new option flag with a given name, and return the new
     flag’s integer value.  ‘register_optionflag()’ can be used when
     subclassing *note OutputChecker: 47d1. or *note DocTestRunner:
     47d2. to create new options that are supported by your subclasses.
     ‘register_optionflag()’ should always be called using the following
     idiom:

          MY_FLAG = register_optionflag('MY_FLAG')


File: python.info,  Node: Directives,  Next: Warnings<2>,  Prev: Option Flags,  Up: How It Works

5.27.4.10 Directives
....................

Doctest directives may be used to modify the *note option flags: 12de.
for an individual example.  Doctest directives are special Python
comments following an example’s source code:

     directive:             "#" "doctest:" *note directive_options: 47d5.
     directive_options:     *note directive_option: 47d6. ("," *note directive_option: 47d6.)*
     directive_option:      *note on_or_off: 47d7. *note directive_option_name: 47d8.
     on_or_off:             "+" | "-"
     directive_option_name: "DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE" | "NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE" | ...

Whitespace is not allowed between the ‘+’ or ‘-’ and the directive
option name.  The directive option name can be any of the option flag
names explained above.

An example’s doctest directives modify doctest’s behavior for that
single example.  Use ‘+’ to enable the named behavior, or ‘-’ to disable
it.

For example, this test passes:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,   1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,
     10,  11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]

Without the directive it would fail, both because the actual output
doesn’t have two blanks before the single-digit list elements, and
because the actual output is on a single line.  This test also passes,
and also requires a directive to do so:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     [0, 1, ..., 18, 19]

Multiple directives can be used on a single physical line, separated by
commas:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS, +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,    1, ...,   18,    19]

If multiple directive comments are used for a single example, then they
are combined:

     >>> print(list(range(20)))  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     ...                         # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE
     [0,    1, ...,   18,    19]

As the previous example shows, you can add ‘...’ lines to your example
containing only directives.  This can be useful when an example is too
long for a directive to comfortably fit on the same line:

     >>> print(list(range(5)) + list(range(10, 20)) + list(range(30, 40)))
     ... # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     [0, ..., 4, 10, ..., 19, 30, ..., 39]

Note that since all options are disabled by default, and directives
apply only to the example they appear in, enabling options (via ‘+’ in a
directive) is usually the only meaningful choice.  However, option flags
can also be passed to functions that run doctests, establishing
different defaults.  In such cases, disabling an option via ‘-’ in a
directive can be useful.


File: python.info,  Node: Warnings<2>,  Prev: Directives,  Up: How It Works

5.27.4.11 Warnings
..................

‘doctest’ is serious about requiring exact matches in expected output.
If even a single character doesn’t match, the test fails.  This will
probably surprise you a few times, as you learn exactly what Python does
and doesn’t guarantee about output.  For example, when printing a set,
Python doesn’t guarantee that the element is printed in any particular
order, so a test like

     >>> foo()
     {"spam", "eggs"}

is vulnerable!  One workaround is to do

     >>> foo() == {"spam", "eggs"}
     True

instead.  Another is to do

     >>> d = sorted(foo())
     >>> d
     ['eggs', 'spam']

There are others, but you get the idea.

Another bad idea is to print things that embed an object address, like

     >>> id(1.0)  # certain to fail some of the time
     7948648
     >>> class C: pass
     >>> C()  # the default repr() for instances embeds an address
     <C object at 0x00AC18F0>

The *note ELLIPSIS: 1810. directive gives a nice approach for the last
example:

     >>> C()  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
     <C object at 0x...>

Floating-point numbers are also subject to small output variations
across platforms, because Python defers to the platform C library for
some floating-point calculations, and C libraries vary widely in quality
here.

     >>> 1000**0.1  # risky
     1.9952623149688797
     >>> round(1000**0.1, 9) # safer
     1.995262315
     >>> print(f'{1000**0.1:.4f}') # much safer
     1.9953

Numbers of the form ‘I/2.**J’ are safe across all platforms, and I often
contrive doctest examples to produce numbers of that form:

     >>> 3./4  # utterly safe
     0.75

Simple fractions are also easier for people to understand, and that
makes for better documentation.


File: python.info,  Node: Basic API,  Next: Unittest API,  Prev: How It Works,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.27.4.12 Basic API
...................

The functions *note testmod(): 180f. and *note testfile(): 47b2. provide
a simple interface to doctest that should be sufficient for most basic
uses.  For a less formal introduction to these two functions, see
sections *note Simple Usage; Checking Examples in Docstrings: 47ac. and
*note Simple Usage; Checking Examples in a Text File: 47b0.

 -- Συνάρτηση: doctest.testfile (filename, module_relative=True,
          name=None, package=None, globs=None, verbose=None,
          report=True, optionflags=0, extraglobs=None,
          raise_on_error=False, parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)

     All arguments except 'filename' are optional, and should be
     specified in keyword form.

     Test examples in the file named 'filename'.  Return
     ‘(failure_count, test_count)’.

     Optional argument 'module_relative' specifies how the filename
     should be interpreted:

        * If 'module_relative' is ‘True’ (the default), then 'filename'
          specifies an OS-independent module-relative path.  By default,
          this path is relative to the calling module’s directory; but
          if the 'package' argument is specified, then it is relative to
          that package.  To ensure OS-independence, 'filename' should
          use ‘/’ characters to separate path segments, and may not be
          an absolute path (i.e., it may not begin with ‘/’).

        * If 'module_relative' is ‘False’, then 'filename' specifies an
          OS-specific path.  The path may be absolute or relative;
          relative paths are resolved with respect to the current
          working directory.

     Optional argument 'name' gives the name of the test; by default, or
     if ‘None’, ‘os.path.basename(filename)’ is used.

     Optional argument 'package' is a Python package or the name of a
     Python package whose directory should be used as the base directory
     for a module-relative filename.  If no package is specified, then
     the calling module’s directory is used as the base directory for
     module-relative filenames.  It is an error to specify 'package' if
     'module_relative' is ‘False’.

     Optional argument 'globs' gives a dict to be used as the globals
     when executing examples.  A new shallow copy of this dict is
     created for the doctest, so its examples start with a clean slate.
     By default, or if ‘None’, a new empty dict is used.

     Optional argument 'extraglobs' gives a dict merged into the globals
     used to execute examples.  This works like *note dict.update():
     1807.: if 'globs' and 'extraglobs' have a common key, the
     associated value in 'extraglobs' appears in the combined dict.  By
     default, or if ‘None’, no extra globals are used.  This is an
     advanced feature that allows parameterization of doctests.  For
     example, a doctest can be written for a base class, using a generic
     name for the class, then reused to test any number of subclasses by
     passing an 'extraglobs' dict mapping the generic name to the
     subclass to be tested.

     Optional argument 'verbose' prints lots of stuff if true, and
     prints only failures if false; by default, or if ‘None’, it’s true
     if and only if ‘'-v'’ is in *note sys.argv: 1609.

     Optional argument 'report' prints a summary at the end when true,
     else prints nothing at the end.  In verbose mode, the summary is
     detailed, else the summary is very brief (in fact, empty if all
     tests passed).

     Optional argument 'optionflags' (default value ‘0’) takes the *note
     bitwise OR: 26c4. of option flags.  See section *note Option Flags:
     12de.

     Optional argument 'raise_on_error' defaults to false.  If true, an
     exception is raised upon the first failure or unexpected exception
     in an example.  This allows failures to be post-mortem debugged.
     Default behavior is to continue running examples.

     Optional argument 'parser' specifies a *note DocTestParser: 47c3.
     (or subclass) that should be used to extract tests from the files.
     It defaults to a normal parser (i.e., ‘DocTestParser()’).

     Optional argument 'encoding' specifies an encoding that should be
     used to convert the file to unicode.

 -- Συνάρτηση: doctest.testmod (m=None, name=None, globs=None,
          verbose=None, report=True, optionflags=0, extraglobs=None,
          raise_on_error=False, exclude_empty=False)

     All arguments are optional, and all except for 'm' should be
     specified in keyword form.

     Test examples in docstrings in functions and classes reachable from
     module 'm' (or module *note __main__: 1. if 'm' is not supplied or
     is ‘None’), starting with ‘m.__doc__’.

     Also test examples reachable from dict ‘m.__test__’, if it exists.
     ‘m.__test__’ maps names (strings) to functions, classes and
     strings; function and class docstrings are searched for examples;
     strings are searched directly, as if they were docstrings.

     Only docstrings attached to objects belonging to module 'm' are
     searched.

     Return ‘(failure_count, test_count)’.

     Optional argument 'name' gives the name of the module; by default,
     or if ‘None’, ‘m.__name__’ is used.

     Optional argument 'exclude_empty' defaults to false.  If true,
     objects for which no doctests are found are excluded from
     consideration.  The default is a backward compatibility hack, so
     that code still using *note doctest.master.summarize: 47dc. in
     conjunction with ‘testmod()’ continues to get output for objects
     with no tests.  The 'exclude_empty' argument to the newer *note
     DocTestFinder: 1bb3. constructor defaults to true.

     Optional arguments 'extraglobs', 'verbose', 'report',
     'optionflags', 'raise_on_error', and 'globs' are the same as for
     function *note testfile(): 47b2. above, except that 'globs'
     defaults to ‘m.__dict__’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: doctest.run_docstring_examples (f, globs, verbose=False,
          name='NoName', compileflags=None, optionflags=0)

     Test examples associated with object 'f'; for example, 'f' may be a
     string, a module, a function, or a class object.

     A shallow copy of dictionary argument 'globs' is used for the
     execution context.

     Optional argument 'name' is used in failure messages, and defaults
     to ‘"NoName"’.

     If optional argument 'verbose' is true, output is generated even if
     there are no failures.  By default, output is generated only in
     case of an example failure.

     Optional argument 'compileflags' gives the set of flags that should
     be used by the Python compiler when running the examples.  By
     default, or if ‘None’, flags are deduced corresponding to the set
     of future features found in 'globs'.

     Optional argument 'optionflags' works as for function *note
     testfile(): 47b2. above.


File: python.info,  Node: Unittest API,  Next: Advanced API,  Prev: Basic API,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.27.4.13 Unittest API
......................

As your collection of doctest’ed modules grows, you’ll want a way to run
all their doctests systematically.  ‘doctest’ provides two functions
that can be used to create *note unittest: 10f. test suites from modules
and text files containing doctests.  To integrate with ‘unittest’ test
discovery, include a *note load_tests: 47e0. function in your test
module:

     import unittest
     import doctest
     import my_module_with_doctests

     def load_tests(loader, tests, ignore):
         tests.addTests(doctest.DocTestSuite(my_module_with_doctests))
         return tests

There are two main functions for creating *note unittest.TestSuite:
11ad. instances from text files and modules with doctests:

 -- Συνάρτηση: doctest.DocFileSuite (*paths, module_relative=True,
          package=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None, globs=None,
          optionflags=0, parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None)

     Convert doctest tests from one or more text files to a *note
     unittest.TestSuite: 11ad.

     The returned *note unittest.TestSuite: 11ad. is to be run by the
     unittest framework and runs the interactive examples in each file.
     Each file is run as a separate unit test, and each example in a
     file is run as a *note subtest: 138b.  If any example in a file
     fails, then the synthesized unit test fails.  The traceback for
     failure or error contains the name of the file containing the test
     and a (sometimes approximate) line number.  If all the examples in
     a file are skipped, then the synthesized unit test is also marked
     as skipped.

     Pass one or more paths (as strings) to text files to be examined.

     Options may be provided as keyword arguments:

     Optional argument 'module_relative' specifies how the filenames in
     'paths' should be interpreted:

        * If 'module_relative' is ‘True’ (the default), then each
          filename in 'paths' specifies an OS-independent
          module-relative path.  By default, this path is relative to
          the calling module’s directory; but if the 'package' argument
          is specified, then it is relative to that package.  To ensure
          OS-independence, each filename should use ‘/’ characters to
          separate path segments, and may not be an absolute path (i.e.,
          it may not begin with ‘/’).

        * If 'module_relative' is ‘False’, then each filename in 'paths'
          specifies an OS-specific path.  The path may be absolute or
          relative; relative paths are resolved with respect to the
          current working directory.

     Optional argument 'package' is a Python package or the name of a
     Python package whose directory should be used as the base directory
     for module-relative filenames in 'paths'.  If no package is
     specified, then the calling module’s directory is used as the base
     directory for module-relative filenames.  It is an error to specify
     'package' if 'module_relative' is ‘False’.

     Optional argument 'setUp' specifies a set-up function for the test
     suite.  This is called before running the tests in each file.  The
     'setUp' function will be passed a *note DocTest: 1c31. object.  The
     'setUp' function can access the test globals as the *note globs:
     47e1. attribute of the test passed.

     Optional argument 'tearDown' specifies a tear-down function for the
     test suite.  This is called after running the tests in each file.
     The 'tearDown' function will be passed a *note DocTest: 1c31.
     object.  The 'tearDown' function can access the test globals as the
     *note globs: 47e1. attribute of the test passed.

     Optional argument 'globs' is a dictionary containing the initial
     global variables for the tests.  A new copy of this dictionary is
     created for each test.  By default, 'globs' is a new empty
     dictionary.

     Optional argument 'optionflags' specifies the default doctest
     options for the tests, created by or-ing together individual option
     flags.  See section *note Option Flags: 12de.  See function *note
     set_unittest_reportflags(): 47e2. below for a better way to set
     reporting options.

     Optional argument 'parser' specifies a *note DocTestParser: 47c3.
     (or subclass) that should be used to extract tests from the files.
     It defaults to a normal parser (i.e., ‘DocTestParser()’).

     Optional argument 'encoding' specifies an encoding that should be
     used to convert the file to unicode.

     The global ‘__file__’ is added to the globals provided to doctests
     loaded from a text file using ‘DocFileSuite()’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Run each example as a *note subtest: 138b.

 -- Συνάρτηση: doctest.DocTestSuite (module=None, globs=None,
          extraglobs=None, test_finder=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None,
          optionflags=0, checker=None)

     Convert doctest tests for a module to a *note unittest.TestSuite:
     11ad.

     The returned *note unittest.TestSuite: 11ad. is to be run by the
     unittest framework and runs each doctest in the module.  Each
     docstring is run as a separate unit test, and each example in a
     docstring is run as a *note subtest: 138b.  If any of the doctests
     fail, then the synthesized unit test fails.  The traceback for
     failure or error contains the name of the file containing the test
     and a (sometimes approximate) line number.  If all the examples in
     a docstring are skipped, then the synthesized unit test is also
     marked as skipped.

     Optional argument 'module' provides the module to be tested.  It
     can be a module object or a (possibly dotted) module name.  If not
     specified, the module calling this function is used.

     Optional argument 'globs' is a dictionary containing the initial
     global variables for the tests.  A new copy of this dictionary is
     created for each test.  By default, 'globs' is the module’s *note
     __dict__: 2561.

     Optional argument 'extraglobs' specifies an extra set of global
     variables, which is merged into 'globs'.  By default, no extra
     globals are used.

     Optional argument 'test_finder' is the *note DocTestFinder: 1bb3.
     object (or a drop-in replacement) that is used to extract doctests
     from the module.

     Optional arguments 'setUp', 'tearDown', and 'optionflags' are the
     same as for function *note DocFileSuite(): 1a14. above, but they
     are called for each docstring.

     This function uses the same search technique as *note testmod():
     180f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: ‘DocTestSuite()’ returns an empty *note
     unittest.TestSuite: 11ad. if 'module' contains no docstrings
     instead of raising *note ValueError: 277.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Run each example as a *note subtest: 138b.

Under the covers, *note DocTestSuite(): 11ac. creates a *note
unittest.TestSuite: 11ad. out of ‘doctest.DocTestCase’ instances, and
‘DocTestCase’ is a subclass of *note unittest.TestCase: 52f.
‘DocTestCase’ isn’t documented here (it’s an internal detail), but
studying its code can answer questions about the exact details of *note
unittest: 10f. integration.

Similarly, *note DocFileSuite(): 1a14. creates a *note
unittest.TestSuite: 11ad. out of ‘doctest.DocFileCase’ instances, and
‘DocFileCase’ is a subclass of ‘DocTestCase’.

So both ways of creating a *note unittest.TestSuite: 11ad. run instances
of ‘DocTestCase’.  This is important for a subtle reason: when you run
‘doctest’ functions yourself, you can control the ‘doctest’ options in
use directly, by passing option flags to ‘doctest’ functions.  However,
if you’re writing a *note unittest: 10f. framework, ‘unittest’
ultimately controls when and how tests get run.  The framework author
typically wants to control ‘doctest’ reporting options (perhaps, e.g.,
specified by command line options), but there’s no way to pass options
through ‘unittest’ to ‘doctest’ test runners.

For this reason, ‘doctest’ also supports a notion of ‘doctest’ reporting
flags specific to *note unittest: 10f. support, via this function:

 -- Συνάρτηση: doctest.set_unittest_reportflags (flags)

     Set the ‘doctest’ reporting flags to use.

     Argument 'flags' takes the *note bitwise OR: 26c4. of option flags.
     See section *note Option Flags: 12de.  Only «reporting flags» can
     be used.

     This is a module-global setting, and affects all future doctests
     run by module *note unittest: 10f.: the ‘runTest()’ method of
     ‘DocTestCase’ looks at the option flags specified for the test case
     when the ‘DocTestCase’ instance was constructed.  If no reporting
     flags were specified (which is the typical and expected case),
     ‘doctest’’s ‘unittest’ reporting flags are *note bitwise ORed:
     26c4. into the option flags, and the option flags so augmented are
     passed to the *note DocTestRunner: 47d2. instance created to run
     the doctest.  If any reporting flags were specified when the
     ‘DocTestCase’ instance was constructed, ‘doctest’’s ‘unittest’
     reporting flags are ignored.

     The value of the *note unittest: 10f. reporting flags in effect
     before the function was called is returned by the function.


File: python.info,  Node: Advanced API,  Next: Debugging,  Prev: Unittest API,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.27.4.14 Advanced API
......................

The basic API is a simple wrapper that’s intended to make doctest easy
to use.  It is fairly flexible, and should meet most users” needs;
however, if you require more fine-grained control over testing, or wish
to extend doctest’s capabilities, then you should use the advanced API.

The advanced API revolves around two container classes, which are used
to store the interactive examples extracted from doctest cases:

   * *note Example: 47e5.: A single Python *note statement: 2e17, paired
     with its expected output.

   * *note DocTest: 1c31.: A collection of *note Example: 47e5.s,
     typically extracted from a single docstring or text file.

Additional processing classes are defined to find, parse, and run, and
check doctest examples:

   * *note DocTestFinder: 1bb3.: Finds all docstrings in a given module,
     and uses a *note DocTestParser: 47c3. to create a *note DocTest:
     1c31. from every docstring that contains interactive examples.

   * *note DocTestParser: 47c3.: Creates a *note DocTest: 1c31. object
     from a string (such as an object’s docstring).

   * *note DocTestRunner: 47d2.: Executes the examples in a *note
     DocTest: 1c31, and uses an *note OutputChecker: 47d1. to verify
     their output.

   * *note OutputChecker: 47d1.: Compares the actual output from a
     doctest example with the expected output, and decides whether they
     match.

The relationships among these processing classes are summarized in the
following diagram:

                                 list of:
     +------+                   +---------+
     |module| --DocTestFinder-> | DocTest | --DocTestRunner-> results
     +------+    |        ^     +---------+     |       ^    (printed)
                 |        |     | Example |     |       |
                 v        |     |   ...   |     v       |
                DocTestParser   | Example |   OutputChecker
                                +---------+

* Menu:

* DocTest Objects::
* Example Objects::
* DocTestFinder objects::
* DocTestParser objects::
* TestResults objects::
* DocTestRunner objects::
* OutputChecker objects::


File: python.info,  Node: DocTest Objects,  Next: Example Objects,  Up: Advanced API

5.27.4.15 DocTest Objects
.........................

 -- Κλάση: doctest.DocTest (examples, globs, name, filename, lineno,
          docstring)

     A collection of doctest examples that should be run in a single
     namespace.  The constructor arguments are used to initialize the
     attributes of the same names.

     ‘DocTest’ defines the following attributes.  They are initialized
     by the constructor, and should not be modified directly.

      -- Ιδιότητα: examples

          A list of *note Example: 47e5. objects encoding the individual
          interactive Python examples that should be run by this test.

      -- Ιδιότητα: globs

          The namespace (aka globals) that the examples should be run
          in.  This is a dictionary mapping names to values.  Any
          changes to the namespace made by the examples (such as binding
          new variables) will be reflected in *note globs: 47e1. after
          the test is run.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          A string name identifying the ‘DocTest’.  Typically, this is
          the name of the object or file that the test was extracted
          from.

      -- Ιδιότητα: filename

          The name of the file that this ‘DocTest’ was extracted from;
          or ‘None’ if the filename is unknown, or if the ‘DocTest’ was
          not extracted from a file.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          The line number within *note filename: 47ea. where this
          ‘DocTest’ begins, or ‘None’ if the line number is unavailable.
          This line number is zero-based with respect to the beginning
          of the file.

      -- Ιδιότητα: docstring

          The string that the test was extracted from, or ‘None’ if the
          string is unavailable, or if the test was not extracted from a
          string.


File: python.info,  Node: Example Objects,  Next: DocTestFinder objects,  Prev: DocTest Objects,  Up: Advanced API

5.27.4.16 Example Objects
.........................

 -- Κλάση: doctest.Example (source, want, exc_msg=None, lineno=0,
          indent=0, options=None)

     A single interactive example, consisting of a Python statement and
     its expected output.  The constructor arguments are used to
     initialize the attributes of the same names.

     ‘Example’ defines the following attributes.  They are initialized
     by the constructor, and should not be modified directly.

      -- Ιδιότητα: source

          A string containing the example’s source code.  This source
          code consists of a single Python statement, and always ends
          with a newline; the constructor adds a newline when necessary.

      -- Ιδιότητα: want

          The expected output from running the example’s source code
          (either from stdout, or a traceback in case of exception).
          *note want: 47ef. ends with a newline unless no output is
          expected, in which case it’s an empty string.  The constructor
          adds a newline when necessary.

      -- Ιδιότητα: exc_msg

          The exception message generated by the example, if the example
          is expected to generate an exception; or ‘None’ if it is not
          expected to generate an exception.  This exception message is
          compared against the return value of *note
          traceback.format_exception_only(): c26.  *note exc_msg: 47f0.
          ends with a newline unless it’s ‘None’.  The constructor adds
          a newline if needed.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          The line number within the string containing this example
          where the example begins.  This line number is zero-based with
          respect to the beginning of the containing string.

      -- Ιδιότητα: indent

          The example’s indentation in the containing string, i.e., the
          number of space characters that precede the example’s first
          prompt.

      -- Ιδιότητα: options

          A dictionary mapping from option flags to ‘True’ or ‘False’,
          which is used to override default options for this example.
          Any option flags not contained in this dictionary are left at
          their default value (as specified by the *note DocTestRunner:
          47d2.’s *note optionflags: 12de.).  By default, no options are
          set.


File: python.info,  Node: DocTestFinder objects,  Next: DocTestParser objects,  Prev: Example Objects,  Up: Advanced API

5.27.4.17 DocTestFinder objects
...............................

 -- Κλάση: doctest.DocTestFinder (verbose=False, parser=DocTestParser(),
          recurse=True, exclude_empty=True)

     A processing class used to extract the *note DocTest: 1c31.s that
     are relevant to a given object, from its docstring and the
     docstrings of its contained objects.  ‘DocTest’s can be extracted
     from modules, classes, functions, methods, staticmethods,
     classmethods, and properties.

     The optional argument 'verbose' can be used to display the objects
     searched by the finder.  It defaults to ‘False’ (no output).

     The optional argument 'parser' specifies the *note DocTestParser:
     47c3. object (or a drop-in replacement) that is used to extract
     doctests from docstrings.

     If the optional argument 'recurse' is false, then *note
     DocTestFinder.find(): 1c75. will only examine the given object, and
     not any contained objects.

     If the optional argument 'exclude_empty' is false, then *note
     DocTestFinder.find(): 1c75. will include tests for objects with
     empty docstrings.

     ‘DocTestFinder’ defines the following method:

      -- Μέθοδος: find (obj[, name][, module][, globs][, extraglobs])

          Return a list of the *note DocTest: 1c31.s that are defined by
          'obj'’s docstring, or by any of its contained objects”
          docstrings.

          The optional argument 'name' specifies the object’s name; this
          name will be used to construct names for the returned *note
          DocTest: 1c31.s.  If 'name' is not specified, then
          ‘obj.__name__’ is used.

          The optional parameter 'module' is the module that contains
          the given object.  If the module is not specified or is
          ‘None’, then the test finder will attempt to automatically
          determine the correct module.  The object’s module is used:

             * As a default namespace, if 'globs' is not specified.

             * To prevent the DocTestFinder from extracting DocTests
               from objects that are imported from other modules.
               (Contained objects with modules other than 'module' are
               ignored.)

             * To find the name of the file containing the object.

             * To help find the line number of the object within its
               file.

          If 'module' is ‘False’, no attempt to find the module will be
          made.  This is obscure, of use mostly in testing doctest
          itself: if 'module' is ‘False’, or is ‘None’ but cannot be
          found automatically, then all objects are considered to belong
          to the (non-existent) module, so all contained objects will
          (recursively) be searched for doctests.

          The globals for each *note DocTest: 1c31. is formed by
          combining 'globs' and 'extraglobs' (bindings in 'extraglobs'
          override bindings in 'globs').  A new shallow copy of the
          globals dictionary is created for each ‘DocTest’.  If 'globs'
          is not specified, then it defaults to the module’s *note
          __dict__: 2561, if specified, or ‘{}’ otherwise.  If
          'extraglobs' is not specified, then it defaults to ‘{}’.


File: python.info,  Node: DocTestParser objects,  Next: TestResults objects,  Prev: DocTestFinder objects,  Up: Advanced API

5.27.4.18 DocTestParser objects
...............................

 -- Κλάση: doctest.DocTestParser

     A processing class used to extract interactive examples from a
     string, and use them to create a *note DocTest: 1c31. object.

     ‘DocTestParser’ defines the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: get_doctest (string, globs, name, filename, lineno)

          Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and
          collect them into a *note DocTest: 1c31. object.

          'globs', 'name', 'filename', and 'lineno' are attributes for
          the new ‘DocTest’ object.  See the documentation for *note
          DocTest: 1c31. for more information.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_examples (string, name='<string>')

          Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and return
          them as a list of *note Example: 47e5. objects.  Line numbers
          are 0-based.  The optional argument 'name' is a name
          identifying this string, and is only used for error messages.

      -- Μέθοδος: parse (string, name='<string>')

          Divide the given string into examples and intervening text,
          and return them as a list of alternating *note Example: 47e5.s
          and strings.  Line numbers for the ‘Example’s are 0-based.
          The optional argument 'name' is a name identifying this
          string, and is only used for error messages.


File: python.info,  Node: TestResults objects,  Next: DocTestRunner objects,  Prev: DocTestParser objects,  Up: Advanced API

5.27.4.19 TestResults objects
.............................

 -- Κλάση: doctest.TestResults (failed, attempted)

      -- Ιδιότητα: failed

          Number of failed tests.

      -- Ιδιότητα: attempted

          Number of attempted tests.

      -- Ιδιότητα: skipped

          Number of skipped tests.

          Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: DocTestRunner objects,  Next: OutputChecker objects,  Prev: TestResults objects,  Up: Advanced API

5.27.4.20 DocTestRunner objects
...............................

 -- Κλάση: doctest.DocTestRunner (checker=None, verbose=None,
          optionflags=0)

     A processing class used to execute and verify the interactive
     examples in a *note DocTest: 1c31.

     The comparison between expected outputs and actual outputs is done
     by an *note OutputChecker: 47d1.  This comparison may be customized
     with a number of option flags; see section *note Option Flags:
     12de. for more information.  If the option flags are insufficient,
     then the comparison may also be customized by passing a subclass of
     ‘OutputChecker’ to the constructor.

     The test runner’s display output can be controlled in two ways.
     First, an output function can be passed to *note run(): 6f3.; this
     function will be called with strings that should be displayed.  It
     defaults to ‘sys.stdout.write’.  If capturing the output is not
     sufficient, then the display output can be also customized by
     subclassing DocTestRunner, and overriding the methods *note
     report_skip(): 1a15, *note report_start(): 4801, *note
     report_success(): 4802, *note report_unexpected_exception(): 4803,
     and *note report_failure(): 4804.

     The optional keyword argument 'checker' specifies the *note
     OutputChecker: 47d1. object (or drop-in replacement) that should be
     used to compare the expected outputs to the actual outputs of
     doctest examples.

     The optional keyword argument 'verbose' controls the
     ‘DocTestRunner’’s verbosity.  If 'verbose' is ‘True’, then
     information is printed about each example, as it is run.  If
     'verbose' is ‘False’, then only failures are printed.  If 'verbose'
     is unspecified, or ‘None’, then verbose output is used iff the
     command-line switch ‘-v’ is used.

     The optional keyword argument 'optionflags' can be used to control
     how the test runner compares expected output to actual output, and
     how it displays failures.  For more information, see section *note
     Option Flags: 12de.

     The test runner accumulates statistics.  The aggregated number of
     attempted, failed and skipped examples is also available via the
     *note tries: 4805, *note failures: 4806. and *note skips: 6f4.
     attributes.  The *note run(): 6f3. and *note summarize(): 47dc.
     methods return a *note TestResults: 47fc. instance.

     ‘DocTestRunner’ defines the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: report_skip (out, test, example)

          Report that the given example was skipped.  This method is
          provided to allow subclasses of ‘DocTestRunner’ to customize
          their output; it should not be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'test' is the
          test containing 'example'.  'out' is the output function that
          was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 6f3.

          Added in version 3.15.

      -- Μέθοδος: report_start (out, test, example)

          Report that the test runner is about to process the given
          example.  This method is provided to allow subclasses of
          ‘DocTestRunner’ to customize their output; it should not be
          called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'test' is the
          test containing 'example'.  'out' is the output function that
          was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 6f3.

      -- Μέθοδος: report_success (out, test, example, got)

          Report that the given example ran successfully.  This method
          is provided to allow subclasses of ‘DocTestRunner’ to
          customize their output; it should not be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'got' is the
          actual output from the example.  'test' is the test containing
          'example'.  'out' is the output function that was passed to
          *note DocTestRunner.run(): 6f3.

      -- Μέθοδος: report_failure (out, test, example, got)

          Report that the given example failed.  This method is provided
          to allow subclasses of ‘DocTestRunner’ to customize their
          output; it should not be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'got' is the
          actual output from the example.  'test' is the test containing
          'example'.  'out' is the output function that was passed to
          *note DocTestRunner.run(): 6f3.

      -- Μέθοδος: report_unexpected_exception (out, test, example,
               exc_info)

          Report that the given example raised an unexpected exception.
          This method is provided to allow subclasses of ‘DocTestRunner’
          to customize their output; it should not be called directly.

          'example' is the example about to be processed.  'exc_info' is
          a tuple containing information about the unexpected exception
          (as returned by *note sys.exc_info(): a7a.).  'test' is the
          test containing 'example'.  'out' is the output function that
          was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 6f3.

      -- Μέθοδος: run (test, compileflags=None, out=None,
               clear_globs=True)

          Run the examples in 'test' (a *note DocTest: 1c31. object),
          and display the results using the writer function 'out'.
          Return a *note TestResults: 47fc. instance.

          The examples are run in the namespace ‘test.globs’.  If
          'clear_globs' is true (the default), then this namespace will
          be cleared after the test runs, to help with garbage
          collection.  If you would like to examine the namespace after
          the test completes, then use 'clear_globs=False'.

          'compileflags' gives the set of flags that should be used by
          the Python compiler when running the examples.  If not
          specified, then it will default to the set of future-import
          flags that apply to 'globs'.

          The output of each example is checked using the
          ‘DocTestRunner’’s output checker, and the results are
          formatted by the ‘DocTestRunner.report_*()’ methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: summarize (verbose=None)

          Print a summary of all the test cases that have been run by
          this DocTestRunner, and return a *note TestResults: 47fc.
          instance.

          The optional 'verbose' argument controls how detailed the
          summary is.  If the verbosity is not specified, then the
          ‘DocTestRunner’’s verbosity is used.

     *note DocTestParser: 47c3. has the following attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: tries

          Number of attempted examples.

      -- Ιδιότητα: failures

          Number of failed examples.

      -- Ιδιότητα: skips

          Number of skipped examples.

          Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: OutputChecker objects,  Prev: DocTestRunner objects,  Up: Advanced API

5.27.4.21 OutputChecker objects
...............................

 -- Κλάση: doctest.OutputChecker

     A class used to check the whether the actual output from a doctest
     example matches the expected output.  ‘OutputChecker’ defines two
     methods: *note check_output(): 4809, which compares a given pair of
     outputs, and returns ‘True’ if they match; and *note
     output_difference(): 480a, which returns a string describing the
     differences between two outputs.

     ‘OutputChecker’ defines the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: check_output (want, got, optionflags)

          Return ‘True’ iff the actual output from an example ('got')
          matches the expected output ('want').  These strings are
          always considered to match if they are identical; but
          depending on what option flags the test runner is using,
          several non-exact match types are also possible.  See section
          *note Option Flags: 12de. for more information about option
          flags.

      -- Μέθοδος: output_difference (example, got, optionflags)

          Return a string describing the differences between the
          expected output for a given example ('example') and the actual
          output ('got').  'optionflags' is the set of option flags used
          to compare 'want' and 'got'.


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging,  Next: Soapbox,  Prev: Advanced API,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.27.4.22 Debugging
...................

Doctest provides several mechanisms for debugging doctest examples:

   * Several functions convert doctests to executable Python programs,
     which can be run under the Python debugger, *note pdb: aa.

   * The *note DebugRunner: 480d. class is a subclass of *note
     DocTestRunner: 47d2. that raises an exception for the first failing
     example, containing information about that example.  This
     information can be used to perform post-mortem debugging on the
     example.

   * The *note unittest: 10f. cases generated by *note DocTestSuite():
     11ac. support the *note debug(): 480e. method defined by *note
     unittest.TestCase: 52f.

   * You can add a call to *note pdb.set_trace(): 4fa. in a doctest
     example, and you’ll drop into the Python debugger when that line is
     executed.  Then you can inspect current values of variables, and so
     on.  For example, suppose ‘a.py’ contains just this module
     docstring:

          """
          >>> def f(x):
          ...     g(x*2)
          >>> def g(x):
          ...     print(x+3)
          ...     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          >>> f(3)
          9
          """

     Then an interactive Python session may look like this:

          >>> import a, doctest
          >>> doctest.testmod(a)
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[1]>(3)g()->None
          -> import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          (Pdb) list
            1     def g(x):
            2         print(x+3)
            3  ->     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()
          [EOF]
          (Pdb) p x
          6
          (Pdb) step
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[0]>(2)f()->None
          -> g(x*2)
          (Pdb) list
            1     def f(x):
            2  ->     g(x*2)
          [EOF]
          (Pdb) p x
          3
          (Pdb) step
          --Return--
          > <doctest a[2]>(1)?()->None
          -> f(3)
          (Pdb) cont
          (0, 3)
          >>>

Functions that convert doctests to Python code, and possibly run the
synthesized code under the debugger:

 -- Συνάρτηση: doctest.script_from_examples (s)

     Convert text with examples to a script.

     Argument 's' is a string containing doctest examples.  The string
     is converted to a Python script, where doctest examples in 's' are
     converted to regular code, and everything else is converted to
     Python comments.  The generated script is returned as a string.
     For example,

          import doctest
          print(doctest.script_from_examples(r"""
              Set x and y to 1 and 2.
              >>> x, y = 1, 2

              Print their sum:
              >>> print(x+y)
              3
          """))

     displays:

          # Set x and y to 1 and 2.
          x, y = 1, 2
          #
          # Print their sum:
          print(x+y)
          # Expected:
          ## 3

     This function is used internally by other functions (see below),
     but can also be useful when you want to transform an interactive
     Python session into a Python script.

 -- Συνάρτηση: doctest.testsource (module, name)

     Convert the doctest for an object to a script.

     Argument 'module' is a module object, or dotted name of a module,
     containing the object whose doctests are of interest.  Argument
     'name' is the name (within the module) of the object with the
     doctests of interest.  The result is a string, containing the
     object’s docstring converted to a Python script, as described for
     *note script_from_examples(): 480f. above.  For example, if module
     ‘a.py’ contains a top-level function ‘f()’, then

          import a, doctest
          print(doctest.testsource(a, "a.f"))

     prints a script version of function ‘f()’”s docstring, with
     doctests converted to code, and the rest placed in comments.

 -- Συνάρτηση: doctest.debug (module, name, pm=False)

     Debug the doctests for an object.

     The 'module' and 'name' arguments are the same as for function
     *note testsource(): 4810. above.  The synthesized Python script for
     the named object’s docstring is written to a temporary file, and
     then that file is run under the control of the Python debugger,
     *note pdb: aa.

     A shallow copy of ‘module.__dict__’ is used for both local and
     global execution context.

     Optional argument 'pm' controls whether post-mortem debugging is
     used.  If 'pm' has a true value, the script file is run directly,
     and the debugger gets involved only if the script terminates via
     raising an unhandled exception.  If it does, then post-mortem
     debugging is invoked, via *note pdb.post_mortem(): 177d, passing
     the traceback object from the unhandled exception.  If 'pm' is not
     specified, or is false, the script is run under the debugger from
     the start, via passing an appropriate *note exec(): 185. call to
     *note pdb.run(): 4811.

 -- Συνάρτηση: doctest.debug_src (src, pm=False, globs=None)

     Debug the doctests in a string.

     This is like function *note debug(): 480e. above, except that a
     string containing doctest examples is specified directly, via the
     'src' argument.

     Optional argument 'pm' has the same meaning as in function *note
     debug(): 480e. above.

     Optional argument 'globs' gives a dictionary to use as both local
     and global execution context.  If not specified, or ‘None’, an
     empty dictionary is used.  If specified, a shallow copy of the
     dictionary is used.

The *note DebugRunner: 480d. class, and the special exceptions it may
raise, are of most interest to testing framework authors, and will only
be sketched here.  See the source code, and especially ‘DebugRunner’’s
docstring (which is a doctest!)  for more details:

 -- Κλάση: doctest.DebugRunner (checker=None, verbose=None,
          optionflags=0)

     A subclass of *note DocTestRunner: 47d2. that raises an exception
     as soon as a failure is encountered.  If an unexpected exception
     occurs, an *note UnexpectedException: 4813. exception is raised,
     containing the test, the example, and the original exception.  If
     the output doesn’t match, then a *note DocTestFailure: 4814.
     exception is raised, containing the test, the example, and the
     actual output.

     For information about the constructor parameters and methods, see
     the documentation for *note DocTestRunner: 47d2. in section *note
     Advanced API: 47e4.

There are two exceptions that may be raised by *note DebugRunner: 480d.
instances:

 -- Εξαίρεση: doctest.DocTestFailure (test, example, got)

     An exception raised by *note DocTestRunner: 47d2. to signal that a
     doctest example’s actual output did not match its expected output.
     The constructor arguments are used to initialize the attributes of
     the same names.

*note DocTestFailure: 4814. defines the following attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: DocTestFailure.test

     The *note DocTest: 1c31. object that was being run when the example
     failed.

 -- Ιδιότητα: DocTestFailure.example

     The *note Example: 47e5. that failed.

 -- Ιδιότητα: DocTestFailure.got

     The example’s actual output.

 -- Εξαίρεση: doctest.UnexpectedException (test, example, exc_info)

     An exception raised by *note DocTestRunner: 47d2. to signal that a
     doctest example raised an unexpected exception.  The constructor
     arguments are used to initialize the attributes of the same names.

*note UnexpectedException: 4813. defines the following attributes:

 -- Ιδιότητα: UnexpectedException.test

     The *note DocTest: 1c31. object that was being run when the example
     failed.

 -- Ιδιότητα: UnexpectedException.example

     The *note Example: 47e5. that failed.

 -- Ιδιότητα: UnexpectedException.exc_info

     A tuple containing information about the unexpected exception, as
     returned by *note sys.exc_info(): a7a.


File: python.info,  Node: Soapbox,  Prev: Debugging,  Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples

5.27.4.23 Soapbox
.................

As mentioned in the introduction, ‘doctest’ has grown to have three
primary uses:

  1. Checking examples in docstrings.

  2. Regression testing.

  3. Executable documentation / literate testing.

These uses have different requirements, and it is important to
distinguish them.  In particular, filling your docstrings with obscure
test cases makes for bad documentation.

When writing a docstring, choose docstring examples with care.  There’s
an art to this that needs to be learned—it may not be natural at first.
Examples should add genuine value to the documentation.  A good example
can often be worth many words.  If done with care, the examples will be
invaluable for your users, and will pay back the time it takes to
collect them many times over as the years go by and things change.  I’m
still amazed at how often one of my ‘doctest’ examples stops working
after a «harmless» change.

Doctest also makes an excellent tool for regression testing, especially
if you don’t skimp on explanatory text.  By interleaving prose and
examples, it becomes much easier to keep track of what’s actually being
tested, and why.  When a test fails, good prose can make it much easier
to figure out what the problem is, and how it should be fixed.  It’s
true that you could write extensive comments in code-based testing, but
few programmers do.  Many have found that using doctest approaches
instead leads to much clearer tests.  Perhaps this is simply because
doctest makes writing prose a little easier than writing code, while
writing comments in code is a little harder.  I think it goes deeper
than just that: the natural attitude when writing a doctest-based test
is that you want to explain the fine points of your software, and
illustrate them with examples.  This in turn naturally leads to test
files that start with the simplest features, and logically progress to
complications and edge cases.  A coherent narrative is the result,
instead of a collection of isolated functions that test isolated bits of
functionality seemingly at random.  It’s a different attitude, and
produces different results, blurring the distinction between testing and
explaining.

Regression testing is best confined to dedicated objects or files.
There are several options for organizing tests:

   * Write text files containing test cases as interactive examples, and
     test the files using *note testfile(): 47b2. or *note
     DocFileSuite(): 1a14.  This is recommended, although is easiest to
     do for new projects, designed from the start to use doctest.

   * Define functions named ‘_regrtest_topic’ that consist of single
     docstrings, containing test cases for the named topics.  These
     functions can be included in the same file as the module, or
     separated out into a separate test file.

   * Define a *note __test__: 47be. dictionary mapping from regression
     test topics to docstrings containing test cases.

When you have placed your tests in a module, the module can itself be
the test runner.  When a test fails, you can arrange for your test
runner to re-run only the failing doctest while you debug the problem.
Here is a minimal example of such a test runner:

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import doctest
         flags = doctest.REPORT_NDIFF|doctest.FAIL_FAST
         if len(sys.argv) > 1:
             name = sys.argv[1]
             if name in globals():
                 obj = globals()[name]
             else:
                 obj = __test__[name]
             doctest.run_docstring_examples(obj, globals(), name=name,
                                            optionflags=flags)
         else:
             fail, total = doctest.testmod(optionflags=flags)
             print(f"{fail} failures out of {total} tests")


File: python.info,  Node: unittest — Unit testing framework,  Next: unittest mock — mock object library,  Prev: doctest — Test interactive Python examples,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.5 ‘unittest’ — Unit testing framework
------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/unittest/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

(If you are already familiar with the basic concepts of testing, you
might want to skip to *note the list of assert methods: 4820.)

The ‘unittest’ unit testing framework was originally inspired by JUnit
and has a similar flavor as major unit testing frameworks in other
languages.  It supports test automation, sharing of setup and shutdown
code for tests, aggregation of tests into collections, and independence
of the tests from the reporting framework.

To achieve this, ‘unittest’ supports some important concepts in an
object-oriented way:

test fixture

     A 'test fixture' represents the preparation needed to perform one
     or more tests, and any associated cleanup actions.  This may
     involve, for example, creating temporary or proxy databases,
     directories, or starting a server process.

test case

     A 'test case' is the individual unit of testing.  It checks for a
     specific response to a particular set of inputs.  ‘unittest’
     provides a base class, *note TestCase: 52f, which may be used to
     create new test cases.

test suite

     A 'test suite' is a collection of test cases, test suites, or both.
     It is used to aggregate tests that should be executed together.

test runner

     A 'test runner' is a component which orchestrates the execution of
     tests and provides the outcome to the user.  The runner may use a
     graphical interface, a textual interface, or return a special value
     to indicate the results of executing the tests.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note doctest: 3d.

     Another test-support module with a very different flavor.

Simple Smalltalk Testing: With Patterns(2)

     Kent Beck’s original paper on testing frameworks using the pattern
     shared by ‘unittest’.

pytest(3)

     Third-party unittest framework with a lighter-weight syntax for
     writing tests.  For example, ‘assert func(10) == 42’.

The Python Testing Tools Taxonomy(4)

     An extensive list of Python testing tools including functional
     testing frameworks and mock object libraries.

Testing in Python Mailing List(5)

     A special-interest-group for discussion of testing, and testing
     tools, in Python.

The script ‘Tools/unittestgui/unittestgui.py’ in the Python source
distribution is a GUI tool for test discovery and execution.  This is
intended largely for ease of use for those new to unit testing.  For
production environments it is recommended that tests be driven by a
continuous integration system such as Buildbot(6), Jenkins(7), GitHub
Actions(8), or AppVeyor(9).

* Menu:

* Basic example::
* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<2>.
* Test Discovery::
* Organizing test code::
* Re-using old test code::
* Skipping tests and expected failures::
* Distinguishing test iterations using subtests::
* Classes and functions::
* Class and Module Fixtures::
* Signal Handling::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/unittest/__init__.py

   (2) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20150315073817/http://www.xprogramming.com/testfram.htm

   (3) https://docs.pytest.org/

   (4) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonTestingToolsTaxonomy

   (5) http://lists.idyll.org/listinfo/testing-in-python

   (6) https://buildbot.net/

   (7) https://www.jenkins.io/

   (8) https://github.com/features/actions

   (9) https://www.appveyor.com/


File: python.info,  Node: Basic example,  Next: Command-Line Interface<2>,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.27.5.1 Basic example
......................

The ‘unittest’ module provides a rich set of tools for constructing and
running tests.  This section demonstrates that a small subset of the
tools suffice to meet the needs of most users.

Here is a short script to test three string methods:

     import unittest

     class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_upper(self):
             self.assertEqual('foo'.upper(), 'FOO')

         def test_isupper(self):
             self.assertTrue('FOO'.isupper())
             self.assertFalse('Foo'.isupper())

         def test_split(self):
             s = 'hello world'
             self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', 'world'])
             # check that s.split fails when the separator is not a string
             with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
                 s.split(2)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         unittest.main()

A test case is created by subclassing *note unittest.TestCase: 52f.  The
three individual tests are defined with methods whose names start with
the letters ‘test’.  This naming convention informs the test runner
about which methods represent tests.

The crux of each test is a call to *note assertEqual(): 937. to check
for an expected result; *note assertTrue(): 935. or *note assertFalse():
936. to verify a condition; or *note assertRaises(): 93b. to verify that
a specific exception gets raised.  These methods are used instead of the
*note assert: d31. statement so the test runner can accumulate all test
results and produce a report.

The *note setUp(): 16de. and *note tearDown(): 16df. methods allow you
to define instructions that will be executed before and after each test
method.  They are covered in more detail in the section *note Organizing
test code: 4823.

The final block shows a simple way to run the tests.  *note
unittest.main(): 138c. provides a command-line interface to the test
script.  When run from the command line, the above script produces an
output that looks like this:

     ...
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 3 tests in 0.000s

     OK

Passing the ‘-v’ option to your test script will instruct *note
unittest.main(): 138c. to enable a higher level of verbosity, and
produce the following output:

     test_isupper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_isupper) ... ok
     test_split (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_split) ... ok
     test_upper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_upper) ... ok

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 3 tests in 0.001s

     OK

The above examples show the most commonly used ‘unittest’ features which
are sufficient to meet many everyday testing needs.  The remainder of
the documentation explores the full feature set from first principles.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The behavior of returning a value from a test
method (other than the default ‘None’ value), is now deprecated.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Interface<2>,  Next: Test Discovery,  Prev: Basic example,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.27.5.2 Command-Line Interface
...............................

The unittest module can be used from the command line to run tests from
modules, classes or even individual test methods:

     python -m unittest test_module1 test_module2
     python -m unittest test_module.TestClass
     python -m unittest test_module.TestClass.test_method

You can pass in a list with any combination of module names, and fully
qualified class or method names.

Test modules can be specified by file path as well:

     python -m unittest tests/test_something.py

This allows you to use the shell filename completion to specify the test
module.  The file specified must still be importable as a module.  The
path is converted to a module name by removing the “.py” and converting
path separators into “.”.  If you want to execute a test file that isn’t
importable as a module you should execute the file directly instead.

You can run tests with more detail (higher verbosity) by passing in the
-v flag:

     python -m unittest -v test_module

When executed without arguments *note Test Discovery: 4826. is started:

     python -m unittest

For a list of all the command-line options:

     python -m unittest -h

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: In earlier versions it was only possible to run
individual test methods and not modules or classes.

Added in version 3.14: Output is colorized by default and can be *note
controlled using environment variables: 1af.

* Menu:

* Command-line options: Command-line options<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line options<4>,  Up: Command-Line Interface<2>

5.27.5.3 Command-line options
.............................

‘unittest’ supports these command-line options:

 -- Option: -b, --buffer

     The standard output and standard error streams are buffered during
     the test run.  Output during a passing test is discarded.  Output
     is echoed normally on test fail or error and is added to the
     failure messages.

 -- Option: -c, --catch

     ‘Control’-‘C’ during the test run waits for the current test to end
     and then reports all the results so far.  A second ‘Control’-‘C’
     raises the normal *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96. exception.

     See *note Signal Handling: 482a. for the functions that provide
     this functionality.

 -- Option: -f, --failfast

     Stop the test run on the first error or failure.

 -- Option: -k

     Only run test methods and classes that match the pattern or
     substring.  This option may be used multiple times, in which case
     all test cases that match any of the given patterns are included.

     Patterns that contain a wildcard character (‘*’) are matched
     against the test name using *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 1e4c.;
     otherwise simple case-sensitive substring matching is used.

     Patterns are matched against the fully qualified test method name
     as imported by the test loader.

     For example, ‘-k foo’ matches ‘foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something’,
     ‘bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo’, but not
     ‘bar_tests.FooTest.test_something’.

 -- Option: --locals

     Show local variables in tracebacks.

 -- Option: --durations N

     Show the N slowest test cases (N=0 for all).

Added in version 3.2: The command-line options ‘-b’, ‘-c’ and ‘-f’ were
added.

Added in version 3.5: The command-line option ‘--locals’.

Added in version 3.7: The command-line option ‘-k’.

Added in version 3.12: The command-line option ‘--durations’.

The command line can also be used for test discovery, for running all of
the tests in a project or just a subset.


File: python.info,  Node: Test Discovery,  Next: Organizing test code,  Prev: Command-Line Interface<2>,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.27.5.4 Test Discovery
.......................

Added in version 3.2.

Unittest supports simple test discovery.  In order to be compatible with
test discovery, all of the test files must be *note modules: 222d. or
*note packages: 223d. importable from the top-level directory of the
project (this means that their filenames must be valid *note
identifiers: 2491.).

Test discovery is implemented in *note TestLoader.discover(): 138e, but
can also be used from the command line.  The basic command-line usage
is:

     cd project_directory
     python -m unittest discover

     Σημείωση: As a shortcut, ‘python -m unittest’ is the equivalent of
     ‘python -m unittest discover’.  If you want to pass arguments to
     test discovery the ‘discover’ sub-command must be used explicitly.

The ‘discover’ sub-command has the following options:

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     Verbose output

 -- Option: -s, --start-directory directory

     Directory to start discovery (‘.’ default)

 -- Option: -p, --pattern pattern

     Pattern to match test files (‘test*.py’ default)

 -- Option: -t, --top-level-directory directory

     Top level directory of project (defaults to start directory)

The *note -s: 4832, *note -p: 4834, and *note -t: 4836. options can be
passed in as positional arguments in that order.  The following two
command lines are equivalent:

     python -m unittest discover -s project_directory -p "*_test.py"
     python -m unittest discover project_directory "*_test.py"

As well as being a path it is possible to pass a package name, for
example ‘myproject.subpackage.test’, as the start directory.  The
package name you supply will then be imported and its location on the
filesystem will be used as the start directory.

     Προσοχή: Test discovery loads tests by importing them.  Once test
     discovery has found all the test files from the start directory you
     specify it turns the paths into package names to import.  For
     example ‘foo/bar/baz.py’ will be imported as ‘foo.bar.baz’.

     If you have a package installed globally and attempt test discovery
     on a different copy of the package then the import 'could' happen
     from the wrong place.  If this happens test discovery will warn you
     and exit.

     If you supply the start directory as a package name rather than a
     path to a directory then discover assumes that whichever location
     it imports from is the location you intended, so you will not get
     the warning.

Test modules and packages can customize test loading and discovery by
through the *note load_tests protocol: 4838.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Test discovery supports *note namespace
packages: 52e.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Test discovery dropped the *note namespace
packages: 52e. support.  It has been broken since Python 3.7.  Start
directory and its subdirectories containing tests must be regular
package that have ‘__init__.py’ file.

If the start directory is the dotted name of the package, the ancestor
packages can be namespace packages.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Test discovery supports *note namespace
package: 52e. as start directory again.  To avoid scanning directories
unrelated to Python, tests are not searched in subdirectories that do
not contain ‘__init__.py’.


File: python.info,  Node: Organizing test code,  Next: Re-using old test code,  Prev: Test Discovery,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.27.5.5 Organizing test code
.............................

The basic building blocks of unit testing are 'test cases' — single
scenarios that must be set up and checked for correctness.  In
‘unittest’, test cases are represented by *note unittest.TestCase: 52f.
instances.  To make your own test cases you must write subclasses of
*note TestCase: 52f. or use *note FunctionTestCase: 1c7f.

The testing code of a *note TestCase: 52f. instance should be entirely
self contained, such that it can be run either in isolation or in
arbitrary combination with any number of other test cases.

The simplest *note TestCase: 52f. subclass will simply implement a test
method (i.e.  a method whose name starts with ‘test’) in order to
perform specific testing code:

     import unittest

     class DefaultWidgetSizeTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_default_widget_size(self):
             widget = Widget('The widget')
             self.assertEqual(widget.size(), (50, 50))

Note that in order to test something, we use one of the *note assert*
methods: 4820. provided by the *note TestCase: 52f. base class.  If the
test fails, an exception will be raised with an explanatory message, and
‘unittest’ will identify the test case as a 'failure'.  Any other
exceptions will be treated as 'errors'.

Tests can be numerous, and their set-up can be repetitive.  Luckily, we
can factor out set-up code by implementing a method called *note
setUp(): 16de, which the testing framework will automatically call for
every single test we run:

     import unittest

     class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def setUp(self):
             self.widget = Widget('The widget')

         def test_default_widget_size(self):
             self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (50,50),
                              'incorrect default size')

         def test_widget_resize(self):
             self.widget.resize(100,150)
             self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (100,150),
                              'wrong size after resize')

     Σημείωση: The order in which the various tests will be run is
     determined by sorting the test method names with respect to the
     built-in ordering for strings.

If the *note setUp(): 16de. method raises an exception while the test is
running, the framework will consider the test to have suffered an error,
and the test method will not be executed.

Similarly, we can provide a *note tearDown(): 16df. method that tidies
up after the test method has been run:

     import unittest

     class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def setUp(self):
             self.widget = Widget('The widget')

         def tearDown(self):
             self.widget.dispose()

If *note setUp(): 16de. succeeded, *note tearDown(): 16df. will be run
whether the test method succeeded or not.

Such a working environment for the testing code is called a 'test
fixture'.  A new TestCase instance is created as a unique test fixture
used to execute each individual test method.  Thus *note setUp(): 16de,
*note tearDown(): 16df, and ‘TestCase.__init__()’ will be called once
per test.

It is recommended that you use TestCase implementations to group tests
together according to the features they test.  ‘unittest’ provides a
mechanism for this: the 'test suite', represented by ‘unittest’’s *note
TestSuite: 11ad. class.  In most cases, calling *note unittest.main():
138c. will do the right thing and collect all the module’s test cases
for you and execute them.

However, should you want to customize the building of your test suite,
you can do it yourself:

     def suite():
         suite = unittest.TestSuite()
         suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_default_widget_size'))
         suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_widget_resize'))
         return suite

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         runner = unittest.TextTestRunner()
         runner.run(suite())

You can place the definitions of test cases and test suites in the same
modules as the code they are to test (such as ‘widget.py’), but there
are several advantages to placing the test code in a separate module,
such as ‘test_widget.py’:

   * The test module can be run standalone from the command line.

   * The test code can more easily be separated from shipped code.

   * There is less temptation to change test code to fit the code it
     tests without a good reason.

   * Test code should be modified much less frequently than the code it
     tests.

   * Tested code can be refactored more easily.

   * Tests for modules written in C must be in separate modules anyway,
     so why not be consistent?

   * If the testing strategy changes, there is no need to change the
     source code.


File: python.info,  Node: Re-using old test code,  Next: Skipping tests and expected failures,  Prev: Organizing test code,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.27.5.6 Re-using old test code
...............................

Some users will find that they have existing test code that they would
like to run from ‘unittest’, without converting every old test function
to a *note TestCase: 52f. subclass.

For this reason, ‘unittest’ provides a *note FunctionTestCase: 1c7f.
class.  This subclass of *note TestCase: 52f. can be used to wrap an
existing test function.  Set-up and tear-down functions can also be
provided.

Given the following test function:

     def testSomething():
         something = makeSomething()
         assert something.name is not None
         # ...

one can create an equivalent test case instance as follows, with
optional set-up and tear-down methods:

     testcase = unittest.FunctionTestCase(testSomething,
                                          setUp=makeSomethingDB,
                                          tearDown=deleteSomethingDB)

     Σημείωση: Even though *note FunctionTestCase: 1c7f. can be used to
     quickly convert an existing test base over to a ‘unittest’-based
     system, this approach is not recommended.  Taking the time to set
     up proper *note TestCase: 52f. subclasses will make future test
     refactorings infinitely easier.

In some cases, the existing tests may have been written using the *note
doctest: 3d. module.  If so, ‘doctest’ provides a *note DocTestSuite:
11ac. class that can automatically build *note unittest.TestSuite: 11ad.
instances from the existing ‘doctest’-based tests.


File: python.info,  Node: Skipping tests and expected failures,  Next: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests,  Prev: Re-using old test code,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.27.5.7 Skipping tests and expected failures
.............................................

Added in version 3.1.

Unittest supports skipping individual test methods and even whole
classes of tests.  In addition, it supports marking a test as an
«expected failure,» a test that is broken and will fail, but shouldn’t
be counted as a failure on a *note TestResult: 1510.

Skipping a test is simply a matter of using the *note skip(): 1fae.
*note decorator: b18. or one of its conditional variants, calling *note
TestCase.skipTest(): 483e. within a *note setUp(): 16de. or test method,
or raising *note SkipTest: 138d. directly.

Basic skipping looks like this:

     class MyTestCase(unittest.TestCase):

         @unittest.skip("demonstrating skipping")
         def test_nothing(self):
             self.fail("shouldn't happen")

         @unittest.skipIf(mylib.__version__ < (1, 3),
                          "not supported in this library version")
         def test_format(self):
             # Tests that work for only a certain version of the library.
             pass

         @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows")
         def test_windows_support(self):
             # windows specific testing code
             pass

         def test_maybe_skipped(self):
             if not external_resource_available():
                 self.skipTest("external resource not available")
             # test code that depends on the external resource
             pass

This is the output of running the example above in verbose mode:

     test_format (__main__.MyTestCase.test_format) ... skipped 'not supported in this library version'
     test_nothing (__main__.MyTestCase.test_nothing) ... skipped 'demonstrating skipping'
     test_maybe_skipped (__main__.MyTestCase.test_maybe_skipped) ... skipped 'external resource not available'
     test_windows_support (__main__.MyTestCase.test_windows_support) ... skipped 'requires Windows'

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Ran 4 tests in 0.005s

     OK (skipped=4)

Classes can be skipped just like methods:

     @unittest.skip("showing class skipping")
     class MySkippedTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         def test_not_run(self):
             pass

*note TestCase.setUp(): 16de. can also skip the test.  This is useful
when a resource that needs to be set up is not available.

Expected failures use the *note expectedFailure(): 483f. decorator.

     class ExpectedFailureTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
         @unittest.expectedFailure
         def test_fail(self):
             self.assertEqual(1, 0, "broken")

It’s easy to roll your own skipping decorators by making a decorator
that calls *note skip(): 1fae. on the test when it wants it to be
skipped.  This decorator skips the test unless the passed object has a
certain attribute:

     def skipUnlessHasattr(obj, attr):
         if hasattr(obj, attr):
             return lambda func: func
         return unittest.skip("{!r} doesn't have {!r}".format(obj, attr))

The following decorators and exception implement test skipping and
expected failures:

 -- Συνάρτηση: @unittest.skip (reason)

     Unconditionally skip the decorated test.  'reason' should describe
     why the test is being skipped.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @unittest.skipIf (condition, reason)

     Skip the decorated test if 'condition' is true.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @unittest.skipUnless (condition, reason)

     Skip the decorated test unless 'condition' is true.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @unittest.expectedFailure

     Mark the test as an expected failure or error.  If the test fails
     or errors in the test function itself (rather than in one of the
     'test fixture' methods) then it will be considered a success.  If
     the test passes, it will be considered a failure.

 -- Εξαίρεση: unittest.SkipTest (reason)

     This exception is raised to skip a test.

     Usually you can use *note TestCase.skipTest(): 483e. or one of the
     skipping decorators instead of raising this directly.

Skipped tests will not have *note setUp(): 16de. or *note tearDown():
16df. run around them.  Skipped classes will not have *note
setUpClass(): e12. or *note tearDownClass(): 16dc. run.  Skipped modules
will not have *note setUpModule(): e11. or *note tearDownModule(): 16db.
run.


File: python.info,  Node: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests,  Next: Classes and functions,  Prev: Skipping tests and expected failures,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.27.5.8 Distinguishing test iterations using subtests
......................................................

Added in version 3.4.

When there are very small differences among your tests, for instance
some parameters, unittest allows you to distinguish them inside the body
of a test method using the *note subTest(): 138a. context manager.

For example, the following test:

     class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_even(self):
             """
             Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
             """
             for i in range(0, 6):
                 with self.subTest(i=i):
                     self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)

will produce the following output:

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=1)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=3)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=5)
     Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even.
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
         ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
     AssertionError: 1 != 0

Without using a subtest, execution would stop after the first failure,
and the error would be less easy to diagnose because the value of ‘i’
wouldn’t be displayed:

     ======================================================================
     FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even)
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "subtests.py", line 32, in test_even
         self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0)
     AssertionError: 1 != 0


File: python.info,  Node: Classes and functions,  Next: Class and Module Fixtures,  Prev: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.27.5.9 Classes and functions
..............................

This section describes in depth the API of ‘unittest’.

* Menu:

* Test cases::
* Grouping tests::
* Loading and running tests::


File: python.info,  Node: Test cases,  Next: Grouping tests,  Up: Classes and functions

5.27.5.10 Test cases
....................

 -- Κλάση: unittest.TestCase (methodName='runTest')

     Instances of the ‘TestCase’ class represent the logical test units
     in the ‘unittest’ universe.  This class is intended to be used as a
     base class, with specific tests being implemented by concrete
     subclasses.  This class implements the interface needed by the test
     runner to allow it to drive the tests, and methods that the test
     code can use to check for and report various kinds of failure.

     Each instance of ‘TestCase’ will run a single base method: the
     method named 'methodName'.  In most uses of ‘TestCase’, you will
     neither change the 'methodName' nor reimplement the default
     ‘runTest()’ method.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: ‘TestCase’ can be instantiated successfully
     without providing a 'methodName'.  This makes it easier to
     experiment with ‘TestCase’ from the interactive interpreter.

     ‘TestCase’ instances provide three groups of methods: one group
     used to run the test, another used by the test implementation to
     check conditions and report failures, and some inquiry methods
     allowing information about the test itself to be gathered.

     Methods in the first group (running the test) are:

      -- Μέθοδος: setUp ()

          Method called to prepare the test fixture.  This is called
          immediately before calling the test method; other than *note
          AssertionError: a97. or *note SkipTest: 138d, any exception
          raised by this method will be considered an error rather than
          a test failure.  The default implementation does nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: tearDown ()

          Method called immediately after the test method has been
          called and the result recorded.  This is called even if the
          test method raised an exception, so the implementation in
          subclasses may need to be particularly careful about checking
          internal state.  Any exception, other than *note
          AssertionError: a97. or *note SkipTest: 138d, raised by this
          method will be considered an additional error rather than a
          test failure (thus increasing the total number of reported
          errors).  This method will only be called if the *note
          setUp(): 16de. succeeds, regardless of the outcome of the test
          method.  The default implementation does nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: setUpClass ()

          A class method called before tests in an individual class are
          run.  ‘setUpClass’ is called with the class as the only
          argument and must be decorated as a *note classmethod(): 69a.:

               @classmethod
               def setUpClass(cls):
                   ...

          See *note Class and Module Fixtures: 4847. for more details.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: tearDownClass ()

          A class method called after tests in an individual class have
          run.  ‘tearDownClass’ is called with the class as the only
          argument and must be decorated as a *note classmethod(): 69a.:

               @classmethod
               def tearDownClass(cls):
                   ...

          See *note Class and Module Fixtures: 4847. for more details.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: run (result=None)

          Run the test, collecting the result into the *note TestResult:
          1510. object passed as 'result'.  If 'result' is omitted or
          ‘None’, a temporary result object is created (by calling the
          *note defaultTestResult(): 4848. method) and used.  The result
          object is returned to ‘run()’”s caller.

          The same effect may be had by simply calling the ‘TestCase’
          instance.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Previous versions of ‘run’ did not
          return the result.  Neither did calling an instance.

      -- Μέθοδος: skipTest (reason)

          Calling this during a test method or *note setUp(): 16de.
          skips the current test.  See *note Skipping tests and expected
          failures: 483d. for more information.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: subTest (msg=None, **params)

          Return a context manager which executes the enclosed code
          block as a subtest.  'msg' and 'params' are optional,
          arbitrary values which are displayed whenever a subtest fails,
          allowing you to identify them clearly.

          A test case can contain any number of subtest declarations,
          and they can be arbitrarily nested.

          See *note Distinguishing test iterations using subtests: 138b.
          for more information.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Μέθοδος: debug ()

          Run the test without collecting the result.  This allows
          exceptions raised by the test to be propagated to the caller,
          and can be used to support running tests under a debugger.
     The ‘TestCase’ class provides several assert methods to check for
     and report failures.  The following table lists the most commonly
     used methods (see the tables below for more assert methods):

     Method                                        Checks that                       New in
                                                                                     
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
     *note assertEqual(a, b): 937.                 ‘a == b’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotEqual(a, b): 938.              ‘a != b’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertTrue(x): 935.                     ‘bool(x) is True’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertFalse(x): 936.                    ‘bool(x) is False’
                                                   
                                                                                     
     *note assertIs(a, b): 16e0.                   ‘a is b’                          3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNot(a, b): 16e1.                ‘a is not b’                      3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNone(x): 162f.                  ‘x is None’                       3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsNotNone(x): 1630.               ‘x is not None’                   3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIn(a, b): 16e9.                   ‘a in b’                          3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotIn(a, b): 16ea.                ‘a not in b’                      3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsInstance(a, b): 16e2.           ‘isinstance(a, b)’                3.2
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotIsInstance(a, b): 16e3.        ‘not isinstance(a, b)’            3.2
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertIsSubclass(a, b): 532.            ‘issubclass(a, b)’                3.14
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertNotIsSubclass(a, b): 533.         ‘not issubclass(a, b)’            3.14
                                                                                     

     All the assert methods accept a 'msg' argument that, if specified,
     is used as the error message on failure (see also *note
     longMessage: 16da.).  Note that the 'msg' keyword argument can be
     passed to *note assertRaises(): 93b, *note assertRaisesRegex():
     93d, *note assertWarns(): 2a0, *note assertWarnsRegex(): 2a1. only
     when they are used as a context manager.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that 'first' and 'second' are equal.  If the values do
          not compare equal, the test will fail.

          In addition, if 'first' and 'second' are the exact same type
          and one of list, tuple, dict, set, frozenset or str or any
          type that a subclass registers with *note
          addTypeEqualityFunc(): 16ed. the type-specific equality
          function will be called in order to generate a more useful
          default error message (see also the *note list of
          type-specific methods: 4849.).

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added the automatic calling of
          type-specific equality function.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: *note assertMultiLineEqual(): 16e8.
          added as the default type equality function for comparing
          strings.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertNotEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that 'first' and 'second' are not equal.  If the values
          do compare equal, the test will fail.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertTrue (expr, msg=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: assertFalse (expr, msg=None)

          Test that 'expr' is true (or false).

          Note that this is equivalent to ‘bool(expr) is True’ and not
          to ‘expr is True’ (use ‘assertIs(expr, True)’ for the latter).
          This method should also be avoided when more specific methods
          are available (e.g.  ‘assertEqual(a, b)’ instead of
          ‘assertTrue(a == b)’), because they provide a better error
          message in case of failure.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertIs (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: assertIsNot (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that 'first' and 'second' are (or are not) the same
          object.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertIsNone (expr, msg=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: assertIsNotNone (expr, msg=None)

          Test that 'expr' is (or is not) ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertIn (member, container, msg=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: assertNotIn (member, container, msg=None)

          Test that 'member' is (or is not) in 'container'.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertIsInstance (obj, cls, msg=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: assertNotIsInstance (obj, cls, msg=None)

          Test that 'obj' is (or is not) an instance of 'cls' (which can
          be a class or a tuple of classes, as supported by *note
          isinstance(): 2ef.).  To check for the exact type, use *note
          assertIs(type(obj), cls): 16e0.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertIsSubclass (cls, superclass, msg=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: assertNotIsSubclass (cls, superclass, msg=None)

          Test that 'cls' is (or is not) a subclass of 'superclass'
          (which can be a class or a tuple of classes, as supported by
          *note issubclass(): 2f0.).  To check for the exact type, use
          *note assertIs(cls, superclass): 16e0.

          Added in version 3.14.

     It is also possible to check the production of exceptions,
     warnings, and log messages using the following methods:

     Method                                                        Checks that                                New in
                                                                                                              
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                              
     *note assertRaises(exc, fun, *args, **kwds): 93b.             ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'exc'
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertRaisesRegex(exc, r, fun, *args, **kwds): 93d.     ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'exc' and      3.1
                                                                   the message matches regex 'r'              
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertWarns(warn, fun, *args, **kwds): 2a0.             ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'warn'         3.2
                                                                                                              
                                                                                                              
     *note assertWarnsRegex(warn, r, fun, *args, **kwds): 2a1.     ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'warn' and     3.2
                                                                   the message matches regex 'r'              
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertLogs(logger, level): 29f.                         The ‘with’ block logs on 'logger' with     3.4
                                                                   minimum 'level'                            
                                                                   
                                                                                                              
     *note assertNoLogs(logger, level): c30.                       The ‘with’ block does not log on           3.10
                                                                                                              
                                                                        'logger' with minimum 'level'
                                                                   

      -- Μέθοδος: assertRaises (exception, callable, *args, **kwds)

      -- Μέθοδος: assertRaises (exception, *, msg=None)

          Test that an exception is raised when 'callable' is called
          with any positional or keyword arguments that are also passed
          to ‘assertRaises()’.  The test passes if 'exception' is
          raised, is an error if another exception is raised, or fails
          if no exception is raised.  To catch any of a group of
          exceptions, a tuple containing the exception classes may be
          passed as 'exception'.

          If only the 'exception' and possibly the 'msg' arguments are
          given, return a context manager so that the code under test
          can be written inline rather than as a function:

               with self.assertRaises(SomeException):
                   do_something()

          When used as a context manager, ‘assertRaises()’ accepts the
          additional keyword argument 'msg'.

          The context manager will store the caught exception object in
          its ‘exception’ attribute.  This can be useful if the
          intention is to perform additional checks on the exception
          raised:

               with self.assertRaises(SomeException) as cm:
                   do_something()

               the_exception = cm.exception
               self.assertEqual(the_exception.error_code, 3)

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added the ability to use
          ‘assertRaises()’ as a context manager.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the ‘exception’ attribute.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'msg' keyword argument when
          used as a context manager.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertRaisesRegex (exception, regex, callable, *args,
               **kwds)

      -- Μέθοδος: assertRaisesRegex (exception, regex, *, msg=None)

          Like *note assertRaises(): 93b. but also tests that 'regex'
          matches on the string representation of the raised exception.
          'regex' may be a regular expression object or a string
          containing a regular expression suitable for use by *note
          re.search(): 15d3.  Examples:

               self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, "invalid literal for.*XYZ'$",
                                      int, 'XYZ')

          or:

               with self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, 'literal'):
                  int('XYZ')

          Added in version 3.1: Added under the name
          ‘assertRaisesRegexp’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Renamed to ‘assertRaisesRegex()’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'msg' keyword argument when
          used as a context manager.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertWarns (warning, callable, *args, **kwds)

      -- Μέθοδος: assertWarns (warning, *, msg=None)

          Test that a warning is triggered when 'callable' is called
          with any positional or keyword arguments that are also passed
          to ‘assertWarns()’.  The test passes if 'warning' is triggered
          and fails if it isn’t.  Any exception is an error.  To catch
          any of a group of warnings, a tuple containing the warning
          classes may be passed as 'warnings'.

          If only the 'warning' and possibly the 'msg' arguments are
          given, return a context manager so that the code under test
          can be written inline rather than as a function:

               with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning):
                   do_something()

          When used as a context manager, ‘assertWarns()’ accepts the
          additional keyword argument 'msg'.

          The context manager will store the caught warning object in
          its ‘warning’ attribute, and the source line which triggered
          the warnings in the ‘filename’ and ‘lineno’ attributes.  This
          can be useful if the intention is to perform additional checks
          on the warning caught:

               with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning) as cm:
                   do_something()

               self.assertIn('myfile.py', cm.filename)
               self.assertEqual(320, cm.lineno)

          The context managers can be nested to test that multiple
          different warnings are emitted:

               with (self.assertWarns(SomeWarning),
                     self.assertWarns(OtherWarning)):
                   do_something()

          This method works regardless of the warning filters in place
          when it is called.

          Added in version 3.2.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'msg' keyword argument when
          used as a context manager.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Warnings that do not match the
          specified category are no longer swallowed.  Nested context
          managers are now supported.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertWarnsRegex (warning, regex, callable, *args,
               **kwds)

      -- Μέθοδος: assertWarnsRegex (warning, regex, *, msg=None)

          Like *note assertWarns(): 2a0. but also tests that 'regex'
          matches on the message of the triggered warning.  'regex' may
          be a regular expression object or a string containing a
          regular expression suitable for use by *note re.search():
          15d3.  Example:

               self.assertWarnsRegex(DeprecationWarning,
                                     r'legacy_function\(\) is deprecated',
                                     legacy_function, 'XYZ')

          or:

               with self.assertWarnsRegex(RuntimeWarning, 'unsafe frobnicating'):
                   frobnicate('/etc/passwd')

          The context managers can be nested to test that multiple
          different warnings are emitted:

               with (self.assertWarns(SomeWarning, regex1),
                     self.assertWarns(OtherWarning, regex2)):
                   do_something()

          Added in version 3.2.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added the 'msg' keyword argument when
          used as a context manager.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Warnings that do not match the
          specified category or regex are no longer swallowed.  Nested
          context managers are now supported.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertLogs (logger=None, level=None, formatter=None)

          A context manager to test that at least one message is logged
          on the 'logger' or one of its children, with at least the
          given 'level'.

          If given, 'logger' should be a *note logging.Logger: f0c.
          object or a *note str: 1df. giving the name of a logger.  The
          default is the root logger, which will catch all messages that
          were not blocked by a non-propagating descendent logger.

          If given, 'level' should be either a numeric logging level or
          its string equivalent (for example either ‘"ERROR"’ or *note
          logging.ERROR: 22d0.).  The default is *note logging.INFO:
          22ce.

          If given, 'formatter' should be a *note logging.Formatter:
          1839. object.  The default is a formatter with format string
          ‘"%(levelname)s:%(name)s:%(message)s"’

          The test passes if at least one message emitted inside the
          ‘with’ block matches the 'logger' and 'level' conditions,
          otherwise it fails.

          The object returned by the context manager is a recording
          helper which keeps tracks of the matching log messages.  It
          has two attributes:

           -- Ιδιότητα: records

               A list of *note logging.LogRecord: 138f. objects of the
               matching log messages.

           -- Ιδιότητα: output

               A list of *note str: 1df. objects with the formatted
               output of matching messages.

          Example:

               with self.assertLogs('foo', level='INFO') as cm:
                   logging.getLogger('foo').info('first message')
                   logging.getLogger('foo.bar').error('second message')
               self.assertEqual(cm.output, ['INFO:foo:first message',
                                            'ERROR:foo.bar:second message'])

          Added in version 3.4.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Now accepts a 'formatter' to control
          how messages are formatted.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertNoLogs (logger=None, level=None)

          A context manager to test that no messages are logged on the
          'logger' or one of its children, with at least the given
          'level'.

          If given, 'logger' should be a *note logging.Logger: f0c.
          object or a *note str: 1df. giving the name of a logger.  The
          default is the root logger, which will catch all messages.

          If given, 'level' should be either a numeric logging level or
          its string equivalent (for example either ‘"ERROR"’ or *note
          logging.ERROR: 22d0.).  The default is *note logging.INFO:
          22ce.

          Unlike *note assertLogs(): 29f, nothing will be returned by
          the context manager.

          Added in version 3.10.

     There are also other methods used to perform more specific checks,
     such as:

     Method                                      Checks that                          New in
                                                                                      
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                      
     *note assertAlmostEqual(a, b): 939.         ‘round(a-b, 7) == 0’
                                                 
                                                                                      
     *note assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b): 93a.      ‘round(a-b, 7) != 0’
                                                 
                                                                                      
     *note assertGreater(a, b): 16e4.            ‘a > b’                              3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertGreaterEqual(a, b): 16e5.       ‘a >= b’                             3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertLess(a, b): 16e6.               ‘a < b’                              3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertLessEqual(a, b): 16e7.          ‘a <= b’                             3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertRegex(s, r): 93c.               ‘r.search(s)’                        3.1
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertNotRegex(s, r): 93e.            ‘not r.search(s)’                    3.2
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertCountEqual(a, b): 15d1.         'a' contains the same elements as    3.2
                                                 'b', regardless of their order.      
                                                 
                                                                                      
     *note assertStartsWith(a, b): 534.          ‘a.startswith(b)’                    3.14
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertNotStartsWith(a, b): 535.       ‘not a.startswith(b)’                3.14
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertEndsWith(a, b): 536.            ‘a.endswith(b)’                      3.14
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertNotEndsWith(a, b): 537.         ‘not a.endswith(b)’                  3.14
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertHasAttr(a, b): 530.             ‘hastattr(a, b)’                     3.14
                                                                                      
                                                                                      
     *note assertNotHasAttr(a, b): 531.          ‘not hastattr(a, b)’                 3.14
                                                                                      

      -- Μέθοδος: assertAlmostEqual (first, second, places=7, msg=None,
               delta=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: assertNotAlmostEqual (first, second, places=7,
               msg=None, delta=None)

          Test that 'first' and 'second' are approximately (or not
          approximately) equal by computing the difference, rounding to
          the given number of decimal 'places' (default 7), and
          comparing to zero.  Note that these methods round the values
          to the given number of 'decimal places' (i.e.  like the *note
          round(): 167f. function) and not 'significant digits'.

          If 'delta' is supplied instead of 'places' then the difference
          between 'first' and 'second' must be less or equal to (or
          greater than) 'delta'.

          Supplying both 'delta' and 'places' raises a *note TypeError:
          291.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: ‘assertAlmostEqual()’ automatically
          considers almost equal objects that compare equal.
          ‘assertNotAlmostEqual()’ automatically fails if the objects
          compare equal.  Added the 'delta' keyword argument.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertGreater (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: assertGreaterEqual (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: assertLess (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: assertLessEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that 'first' is respectively >, >=, < or <= than 'second'
          depending on the method name.  If not, the test will fail:

               >>> self.assertGreaterEqual(3, 4)
               AssertionError: "3" unexpectedly not greater than or equal to "4"

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertRegex (text, regex, msg=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: assertNotRegex (text, regex, msg=None)

          Test that a 'regex' search matches (or does not match) 'text'.
          In case of failure, the error message will include the pattern
          and the 'text' (or the pattern and the part of 'text' that
          unexpectedly matched).  'regex' may be a regular expression
          object or a string containing a regular expression suitable
          for use by *note re.search(): 15d3.

          Added in version 3.1: Added under the name
          ‘assertRegexpMatches’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The method ‘assertRegexpMatches()’ has
          been renamed to ‘assertRegex()’.

          Added in version 3.2: ‘assertNotRegex()’.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertCountEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that sequence 'first' contains the same elements as
          'second', regardless of their order.  When they don’t, an
          error message listing the differences between the sequences
          will be generated.

          Duplicate elements are 'not' ignored when comparing 'first'
          and 'second'.  It verifies whether each element has the same
          count in both sequences.  Equivalent to:
          ‘assertEqual(Counter(list(first)), Counter(list(second)))’ but
          works with sequences of unhashable objects as well.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertStartsWith (s, prefix, msg=None)

      -- Μέθοδος: assertNotStartsWith (s, prefix, msg=None)

          Test that the Unicode or byte string 's' starts (or does not
          start) with a 'prefix'.  'prefix' can also be a tuple of
          strings to try.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertEndsWith (s, suffix, msg=None)

      -- Μέθοδος: assertNotEndsWith (s, suffix, msg=None)

          Test that the Unicode or byte string 's' ends (or does not
          end) with a 'suffix'.  'suffix' can also be a tuple of strings
          to try.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertHasAttr (obj, name, msg=None)

      -- Μέθοδος: assertNotHasAttr (obj, name, msg=None)

          Test that the object 'obj' has (or has not) an attribute
          'name'.

          Added in version 3.14.

     The *note assertEqual(): 937. method dispatches the equality check
     for objects of the same type to different type-specific methods.
     These methods are already implemented for most of the built-in
     types, but it’s also possible to register new methods using *note
     addTypeEqualityFunc(): 16ed.:

      -- Μέθοδος: addTypeEqualityFunc (typeobj, function)

          Registers a type-specific method called by *note
          assertEqual(): 937. to check if two objects of exactly the
          same 'typeobj' (not subclasses) compare equal.  'function'
          must take two positional arguments and a third msg=None
          keyword argument just as ‘assertEqual()’ does.  It must raise
          *note self.failureException(msg): 484c. when inequality
          between the first two parameters is detected – possibly
          providing useful information and explaining the inequalities
          in details in the error message.

          Added in version 3.1.

     The list of type-specific methods automatically used by *note
     assertEqual(): 937. are summarized in the following table.  Note
     that it’s usually not necessary to invoke these methods directly.

     Method                                        Used to compare                   New in
                                                                                     
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
     *note assertMultiLineEqual(a, b): 16e8.       strings                           3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertSequenceEqual(a, b): 162e.        sequences                         3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertListEqual(a, b): 162c.            lists                             3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertTupleEqual(a, b): 162d.           tuples                            3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertSetEqual(a, b): 162a.             sets or frozensets                3.1
                                                                                     
                                                                                     
     *note assertDictEqual(a, b): 162b.            dicts                             3.1
                                                                                     

      -- Μέθοδος: assertMultiLineEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that the multiline string 'first' is equal to the string
          'second'.  When not equal a diff of the two strings
          highlighting the differences will be included in the error
          message.  This method is used by default when comparing
          strings with *note assertEqual(): 937.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertSequenceEqual (first, second, msg=None,
               seq_type=None)

          Tests that two sequences are equal.  If a 'seq_type' is
          supplied, both 'first' and 'second' must be instances of
          'seq_type' or a failure will be raised.  If the sequences are
          different an error message is constructed that shows the
          difference between the two.

          This method is not called directly by *note assertEqual():
          937, but it’s used to implement *note assertListEqual(): 162c.
          and *note assertTupleEqual(): 162d.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertListEqual (first, second, msg=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: assertTupleEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Tests that two lists or tuples are equal.  If not, an error
          message is constructed that shows only the differences between
          the two.  An error is also raised if either of the parameters
          are of the wrong type.  These methods are used by default when
          comparing lists or tuples with *note assertEqual(): 937.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertSetEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Tests that two sets are equal.  If not, an error message is
          constructed that lists the differences between the sets.  This
          method is used by default when comparing sets or frozensets
          with *note assertEqual(): 937.

          Fails if either of 'first' or 'second' does not have a *note
          difference(): 2891. method.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: assertDictEqual (first, second, msg=None)

          Test that two dictionaries are equal.  If not, an error
          message is constructed that shows the differences in the
          dictionaries.  This method will be used by default to compare
          dictionaries in calls to *note assertEqual(): 937.

          Added in version 3.1.

     Finally the ‘TestCase’ provides the following methods and
     attributes:

      -- Μέθοδος: fail (msg=None)

          Signals a test failure unconditionally, with 'msg' or ‘None’
          for the error message.

      -- Ιδιότητα: failureException

          This class attribute gives the exception raised by the test
          method.  If a test framework needs to use a specialized
          exception, possibly to carry additional information, it must
          subclass this exception in order to «play fair» with the
          framework.  The initial value of this attribute is *note
          AssertionError: a97.

      -- Ιδιότητα: longMessage

          This class attribute determines what happens when a custom
          failure message is passed as the msg argument to an assertXYY
          call that fails.  ‘True’ is the default value.  In this case,
          the custom message is appended to the end of the standard
          failure message.  When set to ‘False’, the custom message
          replaces the standard message.

          The class setting can be overridden in individual test methods
          by assigning an instance attribute, self.longMessage, to
          ‘True’ or ‘False’ before calling the assert methods.

          The class setting gets reset before each test call.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: maxDiff

          This attribute controls the maximum length of diffs output by
          assert methods that report diffs on failure.  It defaults to
          80*8 characters.  Assert methods affected by this attribute
          are *note assertSequenceEqual(): 162e. (including all the
          sequence comparison methods that delegate to it), *note
          assertDictEqual(): 162b. and *note assertMultiLineEqual():
          16e8.

          Setting ‘maxDiff’ to ‘None’ means that there is no maximum
          length of diffs.

          Added in version 3.2.

     Testing frameworks can use the following methods to collect
     information on the test:

      -- Μέθοδος: countTestCases ()

          Return the number of tests represented by this test object.
          For ‘TestCase’ instances, this will always be ‘1’.

      -- Μέθοδος: defaultTestResult ()

          Return an instance of the test result class that should be
          used for this test case class (if no other result instance is
          provided to the *note run(): 150f. method).

          For ‘TestCase’ instances, this will always be an instance of
          *note TestResult: 1510.; subclasses of ‘TestCase’ should
          override this as necessary.

      -- Μέθοδος: id ()

          Return a string identifying the specific test case.  This is
          usually the full name of the test method, including the module
          and class name.

      -- Μέθοδος: shortDescription ()

          Returns a description of the test, or ‘None’ if no description
          has been provided.  The default implementation of this method
          returns the first line of the test method’s docstring, if
          available, or ‘None’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: In 3.1 this was changed to add the
          test name to the short description even in the presence of a
          docstring.  This caused compatibility issues with unittest
          extensions and adding the test name was moved to the *note
          TextTestResult: 93f. in Python 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: addCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Add a function to be called after *note tearDown(): 16df. to
          cleanup resources used during the test.  Functions will be
          called in reverse order to the order they are added (LIFO).
          They are called with any arguments and keyword arguments
          passed into ‘addCleanup()’ when they are added.

          If *note setUp(): 16de. fails, meaning that *note tearDown():
          16df. is not called, then any cleanup functions added will
          still be called.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: enterContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note context manager: 478.  If successful,
          also add its *note __exit__(): 16a5. method as a cleanup
          function by *note addCleanup(): e43. and return the result of
          the *note __enter__(): 9c6. method.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: doCleanups ()

          This method is called unconditionally after *note tearDown():
          16df, or after *note setUp(): 16de. if ‘setUp()’ raises an
          exception.

          It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added
          by *note addCleanup(): e43.  If you need cleanup functions to
          be called 'prior' to *note tearDown(): 16df. then you can call
          ‘doCleanups()’ yourself.

          ‘doCleanups()’ pops methods off the stack of cleanup functions
          one at a time, so it can be called at any time.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod addClassCleanup (function, /, *args,
               **kwargs)

          Add a function to be called after *note tearDownClass(): 16dc.
          to cleanup resources used during the test class.  Functions
          will be called in reverse order to the order they are added
          (LIFO).  They are called with any arguments and keyword
          arguments passed into ‘addClassCleanup()’ when they are added.

          If *note setUpClass(): e12. fails, meaning that *note
          tearDownClass(): 16dc. is not called, then any cleanup
          functions added will still be called.

          Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod enterClassContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note context manager: 478.  If successful,
          also add its *note __exit__(): 16a5. method as a cleanup
          function by *note addClassCleanup(): e10. and return the
          result of the *note __enter__(): 9c6. method.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod doClassCleanups ()

          This method is called unconditionally after *note
          tearDownClass(): 16dc, or after *note setUpClass(): e12. if
          ‘setUpClass()’ raises an exception.

          It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added
          by *note addClassCleanup(): e10.  If you need cleanup
          functions to be called 'prior' to *note tearDownClass(): 16dc.
          then you can call ‘doClassCleanups()’ yourself.

          ‘doClassCleanups()’ pops methods off the stack of cleanup
          functions one at a time, so it can be called at any time.

          Added in version 3.8.

 -- Κλάση: unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase (methodName='runTest')

     This class provides an API similar to *note TestCase: 52f. and also
     accepts coroutines as test functions.

     Added in version 3.8.

      -- Ιδιότητα: loop_factory

          The 'loop_factory' passed to *note asyncio.Runner: 30a.
          Override in subclasses with *note asyncio.EventLoop: 1c6d. to
          avoid using the asyncio policy system.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Μέθοδος: async asyncSetUp ()

          Method called to prepare the test fixture.  This is called
          after *note TestCase.setUp(): 16de.  This is called
          immediately before calling the test method; other than *note
          AssertionError: a97. or *note SkipTest: 138d, any exception
          raised by this method will be considered an error rather than
          a test failure.  The default implementation does nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: async asyncTearDown ()

          Method called immediately after the test method has been
          called and the result recorded.  This is called before *note
          tearDown(): 16df.  This is called even if the test method
          raised an exception, so the implementation in subclasses may
          need to be particularly careful about checking internal state.
          Any exception, other than *note AssertionError: a97. or *note
          SkipTest: 138d, raised by this method will be considered an
          additional error rather than a test failure (thus increasing
          the total number of reported errors).  This method will only
          be called if the *note asyncSetUp(): 4854. succeeds,
          regardless of the outcome of the test method.  The default
          implementation does nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: addAsyncCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

          This method accepts a coroutine that can be used as a cleanup
          function.

      -- Μέθοδος: async enterAsyncContext (cm)

          Enter the supplied *note asynchronous context manager: 9d2.
          If successful, also add its *note __aexit__(): 1bad. method as
          a cleanup function by *note addAsyncCleanup(): 4856. and
          return the result of the *note __aenter__(): 2613. method.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: run (result=None)

          Sets up a new event loop to run the test, collecting the
          result into the *note TestResult: 1510. object passed as
          'result'.  If 'result' is omitted or ‘None’, a temporary
          result object is created (by calling the *note
          defaultTestResult(): 4848. method) and used.  The result
          object is returned to ‘run()’”s caller.  At the end of the
          test all the tasks in the event loop are cancelled.

     An example illustrating the order:

          from unittest import IsolatedAsyncioTestCase

          events = []


          class Test(IsolatedAsyncioTestCase):


              def setUp(self):
                  events.append("setUp")

              async def asyncSetUp(self):
                  self._async_connection = await AsyncConnection()
                  events.append("asyncSetUp")

              async def test_response(self):
                  events.append("test_response")
                  response = await self._async_connection.get("https://example.com")
                  self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
                  self.addAsyncCleanup(self.on_cleanup)

              def tearDown(self):
                  events.append("tearDown")

              async def asyncTearDown(self):
                  await self._async_connection.close()
                  events.append("asyncTearDown")

              async def on_cleanup(self):
                  events.append("cleanup")

          if __name__ == "__main__":
              unittest.main()

     After running the test, ‘events’ would contain ‘["setUp",
     "asyncSetUp", "test_response", "asyncTearDown", "tearDown",
     "cleanup"]’.

 -- Κλάση: unittest.FunctionTestCase (testFunc, setUp=None,
          tearDown=None, description=None)

     This class implements the portion of the *note TestCase: 52f.
     interface which allows the test runner to drive the test, but does
     not provide the methods which test code can use to check and report
     errors.  This is used to create test cases using legacy test code,
     allowing it to be integrated into a ‘unittest’-based test
     framework.


File: python.info,  Node: Grouping tests,  Next: Loading and running tests,  Prev: Test cases,  Up: Classes and functions

5.27.5.11 Grouping tests
........................

 -- Κλάση: unittest.TestSuite (tests=())

     This class represents an aggregation of individual test cases and
     test suites.  The class presents the interface needed by the test
     runner to allow it to be run as any other test case.  Running a
     ‘TestSuite’ instance is the same as iterating over the suite,
     running each test individually.

     If 'tests' is given, it must be an iterable of individual test
     cases or other test suites that will be used to build the suite
     initially.  Additional methods are provided to add test cases and
     suites to the collection later on.

     ‘TestSuite’ objects behave much like *note TestCase: 52f. objects,
     except they do not actually implement a test.  Instead, they are
     used to aggregate tests into groups of tests that should be run
     together.  Some additional methods are available to add tests to
     ‘TestSuite’ instances:

      -- Μέθοδος: addTest (test)

          Add a *note TestCase: 52f. or ‘TestSuite’ to the suite.

      -- Μέθοδος: addTests (tests)

          Add all the tests from an iterable of *note TestCase: 52f. and
          ‘TestSuite’ instances to this test suite.

          This is equivalent to iterating over 'tests', calling *note
          addTest(): 485a. for each element.

     ‘TestSuite’ shares the following methods with *note TestCase: 52f.:

      -- Μέθοδος: run (result)

          Run the tests associated with this suite, collecting the
          result into the test result object passed as 'result'.  Note
          that unlike *note TestCase.run(): 150f, ‘TestSuite.run()’
          requires the result object to be passed in.

      -- Μέθοδος: debug ()

          Run the tests associated with this suite without collecting
          the result.  This allows exceptions raised by the test to be
          propagated to the caller and can be used to support running
          tests under a debugger.

      -- Μέθοδος: countTestCases ()

          Return the number of tests represented by this test object,
          including all individual tests and sub-suites.

      -- Μέθοδος: __iter__ ()

          Tests grouped by a ‘TestSuite’ are always accessed by
          iteration.  Subclasses can lazily provide tests by overriding
          ‘__iter__()’.  Note that this method may be called several
          times on a single suite (for example when counting tests or
          comparing for equality) so the tests returned by repeated
          iterations before *note TestSuite.run(): 485c. must be the
          same for each call iteration.  After ‘TestSuite.run()’,
          callers should not rely on the tests returned by this method
          unless the caller uses a subclass that overrides
          ‘TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()’ to preserve test references.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: In earlier versions the ‘TestSuite’
          accessed tests directly rather than through iteration, so
          overriding ‘__iter__()’ wasn’t sufficient for providing tests.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: In earlier versions the ‘TestSuite’
          held references to each *note TestCase: 52f. after *note
          TestSuite.run(): 485c.  Subclasses can restore that behavior
          by overriding ‘TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()’.

     In the typical usage of a ‘TestSuite’ object, the *note run():
     485c. method is invoked by a ‘TestRunner’ rather than by the
     end-user test harness.


File: python.info,  Node: Loading and running tests,  Prev: Grouping tests,  Up: Classes and functions

5.27.5.12 Loading and running tests
...................................

 -- Κλάση: unittest.TestLoader

     The ‘TestLoader’ class is used to create test suites from classes
     and modules.  Normally, there is no need to create an instance of
     this class; the ‘unittest’ module provides an instance that can be
     shared as *note unittest.defaultTestLoader: 4860.  Using a subclass
     or instance, however, allows customization of some configurable
     properties.

     ‘TestLoader’ objects have the following attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: errors

          A list of the non-fatal errors encountered while loading
          tests.  Not reset by the loader at any point.  Fatal errors
          are signalled by the relevant method raising an exception to
          the caller.  Non-fatal errors are also indicated by a
          synthetic test that will raise the original error when run.

          Added in version 3.5.

     ‘TestLoader’ objects have the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: loadTestsFromTestCase (testCaseClass)

          Return a suite of all test cases contained in the *note
          TestCase: 52f.-derived ‘testCaseClass’.

          A test case instance is created for each method named by *note
          getTestCaseNames(): 795.  By default these are the method
          names beginning with ‘test’.  If ‘getTestCaseNames()’ returns
          no methods, but the ‘runTest()’ method is implemented, a
          single test case is created for that method instead.

      -- Μέθοδος: loadTestsFromModule (module, *, pattern=None)

          Return a suite of all test cases contained in the given
          module.  This method searches 'module' for classes derived
          from *note TestCase: 52f. and creates an instance of the class
          for each test method defined for the class.

               Σημείωση: While using a hierarchy of *note TestCase:
               52f.-derived classes can be convenient in sharing
               fixtures and helper functions, defining test methods on
               base classes that are not intended to be instantiated
               directly does not play well with this method.  Doing so,
               however, can be useful when the fixtures are different
               and defined in subclasses.

          If a module provides a ‘load_tests’ function it will be called
          to load the tests.  This allows modules to customize test
          loading.  This is the *note load_tests protocol: 4838.  The
          'pattern' argument is passed as the third argument to
          ‘load_tests’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Support for ‘load_tests’ added.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Support for a keyword-only argument
          'pattern' has been added.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The undocumented and unofficial
          'use_load_tests' parameter has been removed.

      -- Μέθοδος: loadTestsFromName (name, module=None)

          Return a suite of all test cases given a string specifier.

          The specifier 'name' is a «dotted name» that may resolve
          either to a module, a test case class, a test method within a
          test case class, a *note TestSuite: 11ad. instance, or a
          callable object which returns a *note TestCase: 52f. or
          ‘TestSuite’ instance.  These checks are applied in the order
          listed here; that is, a method on a possible test case class
          will be picked up as «a test method within a test case class»,
          rather than «a callable object».

          For example, if you have a module ‘SampleTests’ containing a
          *note TestCase: 52f.-derived class ‘SampleTestCase’ with three
          test methods (‘test_one()’, ‘test_two()’, and ‘test_three()’),
          the specifier ‘'SampleTests.SampleTestCase'’ would cause this
          method to return a suite which will run all three test
          methods.  Using the specifier
          ‘'SampleTests.SampleTestCase.test_two'’ would cause it to
          return a test suite which will run only the ‘test_two()’ test
          method.  The specifier can refer to modules and packages which
          have not been imported; they will be imported as a
          side-effect.

          The method optionally resolves 'name' relative to the given
          'module'.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If an *note ImportError: 1bd. or *note
          AttributeError: 1a9. occurs while traversing 'name' then a
          synthetic test that raises that error when run will be
          returned.  These errors are included in the errors accumulated
          by self.errors.

      -- Μέθοδος: loadTestsFromNames (names, module=None)

          Similar to *note loadTestsFromName(): 16eb, but takes a
          sequence of names rather than a single name.  The return value
          is a test suite which supports all the tests defined for each
          name.

      -- Μέθοδος: getTestCaseNames (testCaseClass)

          Return a sorted sequence of method names found within
          'testCaseClass'; this should be a subclass of *note TestCase:
          52f.

      -- Μέθοδος: discover (start_dir, pattern='test*.py',
               top_level_dir=None)

          Find all the test modules by recursing into subdirectories
          from the specified start directory, and return a TestSuite
          object containing them.  Only test files that match 'pattern'
          will be loaded.  (Using shell style pattern matching.)  Only
          module names that are importable (i.e.  are valid Python
          identifiers) will be loaded.

          All test modules must be importable from the top level of the
          project.  If the start directory is not the top level
          directory then 'top_level_dir' must be specified separately.

          If importing a module fails, for example due to a syntax
          error, then this will be recorded as a single error and
          discovery will continue.  If the import failure is due to
          *note SkipTest: 138d. being raised, it will be recorded as a
          skip instead of an error.

          If a package (a directory containing a file named
          ‘__init__.py’) is found, the package will be checked for a
          ‘load_tests’ function.  If this exists then it will be called
          ‘package.load_tests(loader, tests, pattern)’.  Test discovery
          takes care to ensure that a package is only checked for tests
          once during an invocation, even if the load_tests function
          itself calls ‘loader.discover’.

          If ‘load_tests’ exists then discovery does 'not' recurse into
          the package, ‘load_tests’ is responsible for loading all tests
          in the package.

          The pattern is deliberately not stored as a loader attribute
          so that packages can continue discovery themselves.

          'top_level_dir' is stored internally, and used as a default to
          any nested calls to ‘discover()’.  That is, if a package’s
          ‘load_tests’ calls ‘loader.discover()’, it does not need to
          pass this argument.

          'start_dir' can be a dotted module name as well as a
          directory.

          Added in version 3.2.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Modules that raise *note SkipTest:
          138d. on import are recorded as skips, not errors.

          'start_dir' can be a *note namespace packages: 52e.

          Paths are sorted before being imported so that execution order
          is the same even if the underlying file system’s ordering is
          not dependent on file name.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Found packages are now checked for
          ‘load_tests’ regardless of whether their path matches
          'pattern', because it is impossible for a package name to
          match the default pattern.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: 'start_dir' can not be a *note
          namespace packages: 52e.  It has been broken since Python 3.7,
          and Python 3.11 officially removes it.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: 'top_level_dir' is only stored for
          the duration of 'discover' call.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: 'start_dir' can once again be a *note
          namespace package: 52e.

     The following attributes of a ‘TestLoader’ can be configured either
     by subclassing or assignment on an instance:

      -- Ιδιότητα: testMethodPrefix

          String giving the prefix of method names which will be
          interpreted as test methods.  The default value is ‘'test'’.

          This affects *note getTestCaseNames(): 795. and all the
          ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods.

      -- Ιδιότητα: sortTestMethodsUsing

          Function to be used to compare method names when sorting them
          in *note getTestCaseNames(): 795. and all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’
          methods.

      -- Ιδιότητα: suiteClass

          Callable object that constructs a test suite from a list of
          tests.  No methods on the resulting object are needed.  The
          default value is the *note TestSuite: 11ad. class.

          This affects all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods.

      -- Ιδιότητα: testNamePatterns

          List of Unix shell-style wildcard test name patterns that test
          methods have to match to be included in test suites (see ‘-k’
          option).

          If this attribute is not ‘None’ (the default), all test
          methods to be included in test suites must match one of the
          patterns in this list.  Note that matches are always performed
          using *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 1e4c, so unlike patterns
          passed to the ‘-k’ option, simple substring patterns will have
          to be converted using ‘*’ wildcards.

          This affects all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods.

          Added in version 3.7.

 -- Κλάση: unittest.TestResult

     This class is used to compile information about which tests have
     succeeded and which have failed.

     A ‘TestResult’ object stores the results of a set of tests.  The
     *note TestCase: 52f. and *note TestSuite: 11ad. classes ensure that
     results are properly recorded; test authors do not need to worry
     about recording the outcome of tests.

     Testing frameworks built on top of ‘unittest’ may want access to
     the ‘TestResult’ object generated by running a set of tests for
     reporting purposes; a ‘TestResult’ instance is returned by the
     ‘TestRunner.run()’ method for this purpose.

     ‘TestResult’ instances have the following attributes that will be
     of interest when inspecting the results of running a set of tests:

      -- Ιδιότητα: errors

          A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 52f. instances
          and strings holding formatted tracebacks.  Each tuple
          represents a test which raised an unexpected exception.

      -- Ιδιότητα: failures

          A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 52f. instances
          and strings holding formatted tracebacks.  Each tuple
          represents a test where a failure was explicitly signalled
          using the *note assert* methods: 4820.

      -- Ιδιότητα: skipped

          A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 52f. instances
          and strings holding the reason for skipping the test.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Ιδιότητα: expectedFailures

          A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 52f. instances
          and strings holding formatted tracebacks.  Each tuple
          represents an expected failure or error of the test case.

      -- Ιδιότητα: unexpectedSuccesses

          A list containing *note TestCase: 52f. instances that were
          marked as expected failures, but succeeded.

      -- Ιδιότητα: collectedDurations

          A list containing 2-tuples of test case names and floats
          representing the elapsed time of each test which was run.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- Ιδιότητα: shouldStop

          Set to ‘True’ when the execution of tests should stop by *note
          stop(): 486b.

      -- Ιδιότητα: testsRun

          The total number of tests run so far.

      -- Ιδιότητα: buffer

          If set to true, ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ will be buffered
          in between *note startTest(): 486e. and *note stopTest():
          486f. being called.  Collected output will only be echoed onto
          the real ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ if the test fails or
          errors.  Any output is also attached to the failure / error
          message.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Ιδιότητα: failfast

          If set to true *note stop(): 486b. will be called on the first
          failure or error, halting the test run.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Ιδιότητα: tb_locals

          If set to true then local variables will be shown in
          tracebacks.

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Μέθοδος: wasSuccessful ()

          Return ‘True’ if all tests run so far have passed, otherwise
          returns ‘False’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Returns ‘False’ if there were any
          *note unexpectedSuccesses: 4869. from tests marked with the
          *note expectedFailure(): 483f. decorator.

      -- Μέθοδος: stop ()

          This method can be called to signal that the set of tests
          being run should be aborted by setting the *note shouldStop:
          486a. attribute to ‘True’.  ‘TestRunner’ objects should
          respect this flag and return without running any additional
          tests.

          For example, this feature is used by the *note TextTestRunner:
          1cb9. class to stop the test framework when the user signals
          an interrupt from the keyboard.  Interactive tools which
          provide ‘TestRunner’ implementations can use this in a similar
          manner.

     The following methods of the ‘TestResult’ class are used to
     maintain the internal data structures, and may be extended in
     subclasses to support additional reporting requirements.  This is
     particularly useful in building tools which support interactive
     reporting while tests are being run.

      -- Μέθοδος: startTest (test)

          Called when the test case 'test' is about to be run.

      -- Μέθοδος: stopTest (test)

          Called after the test case 'test' has been executed,
          regardless of the outcome.

      -- Μέθοδος: startTestRun ()

          Called once before any tests are executed.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: stopTestRun ()

          Called once after all tests are executed.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: addError (test, err)

          Called when the test case 'test' raises an unexpected
          exception.  'err' is a tuple of the form returned by *note
          sys.exc_info(): a7a.: ‘(type, value, traceback)’.

          The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test,
          formatted_err)’ to the instance’s *note errors: 4865.
          attribute, where 'formatted_err' is a formatted traceback
          derived from 'err'.

      -- Μέθοδος: addFailure (test, err)

          Called when the test case 'test' signals a failure.  'err' is
          a tuple of the form returned by *note sys.exc_info(): a7a.:
          ‘(type, value, traceback)’.

          The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test,
          formatted_err)’ to the instance’s *note failures: 4866.
          attribute, where 'formatted_err' is a formatted traceback
          derived from 'err'.

      -- Μέθοδος: addSuccess (test)

          Called when the test case 'test' succeeds.

          The default implementation does nothing.

      -- Μέθοδος: addSkip (test, reason)

          Called when the test case 'test' is skipped.  'reason' is the
          reason the test gave for skipping.

          The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test, reason)’ to
          the instance’s *note skipped: 4867. attribute.

      -- Μέθοδος: addExpectedFailure (test, err)

          Called when the test case 'test' fails or errors, but was
          marked with the *note expectedFailure(): 483f. decorator.

          The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test,
          formatted_err)’ to the instance’s *note expectedFailures:
          4868. attribute, where 'formatted_err' is a formatted
          traceback derived from 'err'.

      -- Μέθοδος: addUnexpectedSuccess (test)

          Called when the test case 'test' was marked with the *note
          expectedFailure(): 483f. decorator, but succeeded.

          The default implementation appends the test to the instance’s
          *note unexpectedSuccesses: 4869. attribute.

      -- Μέθοδος: addSubTest (test, subtest, outcome)

          Called when a subtest finishes.  'test' is the test case
          corresponding to the test method.  'subtest' is a custom *note
          TestCase: 52f. instance describing the subtest.

          If 'outcome' is *note None: a65, the subtest succeeded.
          Otherwise, it failed with an exception where 'outcome' is a
          tuple of the form returned by *note sys.exc_info(): a7a.:
          ‘(type, value, traceback)’.

          The default implementation does nothing when the outcome is a
          success, and records subtest failures as normal failures.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Μέθοδος: addDuration (test, elapsed)

          Called when the test case finishes.  'elapsed' is the time
          represented in seconds, and it includes the execution of
          cleanup functions.

          Added in version 3.12.

 -- Κλάση: unittest.TextTestResult (stream, descriptions, verbosity, *,
          durations=None)

     A concrete implementation of *note TestResult: 1510. used by the
     *note TextTestRunner: 1cb9.  Subclasses should accept ‘**kwargs’ to
     ensure compatibility as the interface changes.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added the 'durations' keyword parameter.

 -- Δεδομένα: unittest.defaultTestLoader

     Instance of the *note TestLoader: 792. class intended to be shared.
     If no customization of the ‘TestLoader’ is needed, this instance
     can be used instead of repeatedly creating new instances.

 -- Κλάση: unittest.TextTestRunner (stream=None, descriptions=True,
          verbosity=1, failfast=False, buffer=False, resultclass=None,
          warnings=None, *, tb_locals=False, durations=None)

     A basic test runner implementation that outputs results to a
     stream.  If 'stream' is ‘None’, the default, *note sys.stderr: d05.
     is used as the output stream.  This class has a few configurable
     parameters, but is essentially very simple.  Graphical applications
     which run test suites should provide alternate implementations.
     Such implementations should accept ‘**kwargs’ as the interface to
     construct runners changes when features are added to unittest.

     By default this runner shows *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9, *note
     PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b, *note ResourceWarning: 74f. and
     *note ImportWarning: 907. even if they are *note ignored by
     default: 4876.  This behavior can be overridden using Python’s
     ‘-Wd’ or ‘-Wa’ options (see *note Warning control: 2318.) and
     leaving 'warnings' to ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'warnings' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The default stream is set to *note
     sys.stderr: d05. at instantiation time rather than import time.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the 'tb_locals' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added the 'durations' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: _makeResult ()

          This method returns the instance of ‘TestResult’ used by *note
          run(): 4878.  It is not intended to be called directly, but
          can be overridden in subclasses to provide a custom
          ‘TestResult’.

          ‘_makeResult()’ instantiates the class or callable passed in
          the ‘TextTestRunner’ constructor as the ‘resultclass’
          argument.  It defaults to *note TextTestResult: 93f. if no
          ‘resultclass’ is provided.  The result class is instantiated
          with the following arguments:

               stream, descriptions, verbosity

      -- Μέθοδος: run (test)

          This method is the main public interface to the
          ‘TextTestRunner’.  This method takes a *note TestSuite: 11ad.
          or *note TestCase: 52f. instance.  A *note TestResult: 1510.
          is created by calling *note _makeResult(): 4877. and the
          test(s) are run and the results printed to stdout.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unittest.main (module='__main__', defaultTest=None,
          argv=None, testRunner=None,
          testLoader=unittest.defaultTestLoader, exit=True, verbosity=1,
          failfast=None, catchbreak=None, buffer=None, warnings=None)

     A command-line program that loads a set of tests from 'module' and
     runs them; this is primarily for making test modules conveniently
     executable.  The simplest use for this function is to include the
     following line at the end of a test script:

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              unittest.main()

     You can run tests with more detailed information by passing in the
     verbosity argument:

          if __name__ == '__main__':
              unittest.main(verbosity=2)

     The 'defaultTest' argument is either the name of a single test or
     an iterable of test names to run if no test names are specified via
     'argv'.  If not specified or ‘None’ and no test names are provided
     via 'argv', all tests found in 'module' are run.

     The 'argv' argument can be a list of options passed to the program,
     with the first element being the program name.  If not specified or
     ‘None’, the values of *note sys.argv: 1609. are used.

     The 'testRunner' argument can either be a test runner class or an
     already created instance of it.  By default ‘main’ calls *note
     sys.exit(): 4ff. with an exit code indicating success (0) or
     failure (1) of the tests run.  An exit code of 5 indicates that no
     tests were run or skipped.

     The 'testLoader' argument has to be a *note TestLoader: 792.
     instance, and defaults to *note defaultTestLoader: 4860.

     ‘main’ supports being used from the interactive interpreter by
     passing in the argument ‘exit=False’.  This displays the result on
     standard output without calling *note sys.exit(): 4ff.:

          >>> from unittest import main
          >>> main(module='test_module', exit=False)

     The 'failfast', 'catchbreak' and 'buffer' parameters have the same
     effect as the same-name *note command-line options: 4827.

     The 'warnings' argument specifies the *note warning filter: 1cc.
     that should be used while running the tests.  If it’s not
     specified, it will remain ‘None’ if a ‘-W’ option is passed to
     ‘python’ (see *note Warning control: 2318.), otherwise it will be
     set to ‘'default'’.

     Calling ‘main’ returns an object with the ‘result’ attribute that
     contains the result of the tests run as a *note
     unittest.TestResult: 1510.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: The 'exit' parameter was added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The 'verbosity', 'failfast', 'catchbreak',
     'buffer' and 'warnings' parameters were added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The 'defaultTest' parameter was changed to
     also accept an iterable of test names.

* Menu:

* load_tests Protocol::


File: python.info,  Node: load_tests Protocol,  Up: Loading and running tests

5.27.5.13 load_tests Protocol
.............................

Added in version 3.2.

Modules or packages can customize how tests are loaded from them during
normal test runs or test discovery by implementing a function called
‘load_tests’.

If a test module defines ‘load_tests’ it will be called by *note
TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 793. with the following arguments:

     load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)

where 'pattern' is passed straight through from ‘loadTestsFromModule’.
It defaults to ‘None’.

It should return a *note TestSuite: 11ad.

'loader' is the instance of *note TestLoader: 792. doing the loading.
'standard_tests' are the tests that would be loaded by default from the
module.  It is common for test modules to only want to add or remove
tests from the standard set of tests.  The third argument is used when
loading packages as part of test discovery.

A typical ‘load_tests’ function that loads tests from a specific set of
*note TestCase: 52f. classes may look like:

     test_cases = (TestCase1, TestCase2, TestCase3)

     def load_tests(loader, tests, pattern):
         suite = TestSuite()
         for test_class in test_cases:
             tests = loader.loadTestsFromTestCase(test_class)
             suite.addTests(tests)
         return suite

If discovery is started in a directory containing a package, either from
the command line or by calling *note TestLoader.discover(): 138e, then
the package ‘__init__.py’ will be checked for ‘load_tests’.  If that
function does not exist, discovery will recurse into the package as
though it were just another directory.  Otherwise, discovery of the
package’s tests will be left up to ‘load_tests’ which is called with the
following arguments:

     load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern)

This should return a *note TestSuite: 11ad. representing all the tests
from the package.  (‘standard_tests’ will only contain tests collected
from ‘__init__.py’.)

Because the pattern is passed into ‘load_tests’ the package is free to
continue (and potentially modify) test discovery.  A “do nothing”
‘load_tests’ function for a test package would look like:

     def load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern):
         # top level directory cached on loader instance
         this_dir = os.path.dirname(__file__)
         package_tests = loader.discover(start_dir=this_dir, pattern=pattern)
         standard_tests.addTests(package_tests)
         return standard_tests

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Discovery no longer checks package names for
matching 'pattern' due to the impossibility of package names matching
the default pattern.


File: python.info,  Node: Class and Module Fixtures,  Next: Signal Handling,  Prev: Classes and functions,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.27.5.14 Class and Module Fixtures
...................................

Class and module level fixtures are implemented in *note TestSuite:
11ad.  When the test suite encounters a test from a new class then *note
tearDownClass(): 16dc. from the previous class (if there is one) is
called, followed by *note setUpClass(): e12. from the new class.

Similarly if a test is from a different module from the previous test
then ‘tearDownModule’ from the previous module is run, followed by
‘setUpModule’ from the new module.

After all the tests have run the final ‘tearDownClass’ and
‘tearDownModule’ are run.

Note that shared fixtures do not play well with [potential] features
like test parallelization and they break test isolation.  They should be
used with care.

The default ordering of tests created by the unittest test loaders is to
group all tests from the same modules and classes together.  This will
lead to ‘setUpClass’ / ‘setUpModule’ (etc) being called exactly once per
class and module.  If you randomize the order, so that tests from
different modules and classes are adjacent to each other, then these
shared fixture functions may be called multiple times in a single test
run.

Shared fixtures are not intended to work with suites with non-standard
ordering.  A ‘BaseTestSuite’ still exists for frameworks that don’t want
to support shared fixtures.

If there are any exceptions raised during one of the shared fixture
functions the test is reported as an error.  Because there is no
corresponding test instance an ‘_ErrorHolder’ object (that has the same
interface as a *note TestCase: 52f.) is created to represent the error.
If you are just using the standard unittest test runner then this detail
doesn’t matter, but if you are a framework author it may be relevant.

* Menu:

* setUpClass and tearDownClass::
* setUpModule and tearDownModule::


File: python.info,  Node: setUpClass and tearDownClass,  Next: setUpModule and tearDownModule,  Up: Class and Module Fixtures

5.27.5.15 setUpClass and tearDownClass
......................................

These must be implemented as class methods:

     import unittest

     class Test(unittest.TestCase):
         @classmethod
         def setUpClass(cls):
             cls._connection = createExpensiveConnectionObject()

         @classmethod
         def tearDownClass(cls):
             cls._connection.destroy()

If you want the ‘setUpClass’ and ‘tearDownClass’ on base classes called
then you must call up to them yourself.  The implementations in *note
TestCase: 52f. are empty.

If an exception is raised during a ‘setUpClass’ then the tests in the
class are not run and the ‘tearDownClass’ is not run.  Skipped classes
will not have ‘setUpClass’ or ‘tearDownClass’ run.  If the exception is
a *note SkipTest: 138d. exception then the class will be reported as
having been skipped instead of as an error.


File: python.info,  Node: setUpModule and tearDownModule,  Prev: setUpClass and tearDownClass,  Up: Class and Module Fixtures

5.27.5.16 setUpModule and tearDownModule
........................................

These should be implemented as functions:

     def setUpModule():
         createConnection()

     def tearDownModule():
         closeConnection()

If an exception is raised in a ‘setUpModule’ then none of the tests in
the module will be run and the ‘tearDownModule’ will not be run.  If the
exception is a *note SkipTest: 138d. exception then the module will be
reported as having been skipped instead of as an error.

To add cleanup code that must be run even in the case of an exception,
use ‘addModuleCleanup’:

 -- Συνάρτηση: unittest.addModuleCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs)

     Add a function to be called after *note tearDownModule(): 16db. to
     cleanup resources used during the test class.  Functions will be
     called in reverse order to the order they are added (LIFO).  They
     are called with any arguments and keyword arguments passed into
     *note addModuleCleanup(): e0f. when they are added.

     If *note setUpModule(): e11. fails, meaning that *note
     tearDownModule(): 16db. is not called, then any cleanup functions
     added will still be called.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unittest.enterModuleContext (cm)

     Enter the supplied *note context manager: 478.  If successful, also
     add its *note __exit__(): 16a5. method as a cleanup function by
     *note addModuleCleanup(): e0f. and return the result of the *note
     __enter__(): 9c6. method.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unittest.doModuleCleanups ()

     This function is called unconditionally after *note
     tearDownModule(): 16db, or after *note setUpModule(): e11. if
     ‘setUpModule()’ raises an exception.

     It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added by
     *note addModuleCleanup(): e0f.  If you need cleanup functions to be
     called 'prior' to *note tearDownModule(): 16db. then you can call
     ‘doModuleCleanups()’ yourself.

     ‘doModuleCleanups()’ pops methods off the stack of cleanup
     functions one at a time, so it can be called at any time.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: Signal Handling,  Prev: Class and Module Fixtures,  Up: unittest — Unit testing framework

5.27.5.17 Signal Handling
.........................

Added in version 3.2.

The *note -c/-catch: 16d7. command-line option to unittest, along with
the ‘catchbreak’ parameter to *note unittest.main(): 138c, provide more
friendly handling of control-C during a test run.  With catch break
behavior enabled control-C will allow the currently running test to
complete, and the test run will then end and report all the results so
far.  A second control-c will raise a *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96. in
the usual way.

The control-c handling signal handler attempts to remain compatible with
code or tests that install their own *note signal.SIGINT: 4df. handler.
If the ‘unittest’ handler is called but 'isn’t' the installed
‘signal.SIGINT’ handler, i.e.  it has been replaced by the system under
test and delegated to, then it calls the default handler.  This will
normally be the expected behavior by code that replaces an installed
handler and delegates to it.  For individual tests that need ‘unittest’
control-c handling disabled the *note removeHandler(): 16d8. decorator
can be used.

There are a few utility functions for framework authors to enable
control-c handling functionality within test frameworks.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unittest.installHandler ()

     Install the control-c handler.  When a *note signal.SIGINT: 4df. is
     received (usually in response to the user pressing control-c) all
     registered results have *note stop(): 486b. called.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unittest.registerResult (result)

     Register a *note TestResult: 1510. object for control-c handling.
     Registering a result stores a weak reference to it, so it doesn’t
     prevent the result from being garbage collected.

     Registering a *note TestResult: 1510. object has no side-effects if
     control-c handling is not enabled, so test frameworks can
     unconditionally register all results they create independently of
     whether or not handling is enabled.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unittest.removeResult (result)

     Remove a registered result.  Once a result has been removed then
     *note stop(): 486b. will no longer be called on that result object
     in response to a control-c.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unittest.removeHandler (function=None)

     When called without arguments this function removes the control-c
     handler if it has been installed.  This function can also be used
     as a test decorator to temporarily remove the handler while the
     test is being executed:

          @unittest.removeHandler
          def test_signal_handling(self):
              ...


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock — mock object library,  Next: unittest mock — ξεκινώντας,  Prev: unittest — Unit testing framework,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.6 ‘unittest.mock’ — mock object library
--------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

'Source code:' Lib/unittest/mock.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

‘unittest.mock’ is a library for testing in Python.  It allows you to
replace parts of your system under test with mock objects and make
assertions about how they have been used.

‘unittest.mock’ provides a core *note Mock: e0e. class removing the need
to create a host of stubs throughout your test suite.  After performing
an action, you can make assertions about which methods / attributes were
used and arguments they were called with.  You can also specify return
values and set needed attributes in the normal way.

Additionally, mock provides a *note patch(): 1243. decorator that
handles patching module and class level attributes within the scope of a
test, along with *note sentinel: 18b. for creating unique objects.  See
the *note quick guide: 4881. for some examples of how to use *note Mock:
e0e, *note MagicMock: 1240. and ‘patch()’.

Mock is designed for use with *note unittest: 10f. and is based on the
“action -> assertion” pattern instead of “record -> replay” used by many
mocking frameworks.

There is a backport of ‘unittest.mock’ for earlier versions of Python,
available as mock(2) on PyPI.

* Menu:

* Quick Guide::
* The Mock Class::
* The patchers::
* MagicMock and magic method support::
* Helpers::
* Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/unittest/mock.py

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/mock/


File: python.info,  Node: Quick Guide,  Next: The Mock Class,  Up: unittest mock — mock object library

5.27.6.1 Quick Guide
....................

*note Mock: e0e. and *note MagicMock: 1240. objects create all
attributes and methods as you access them and store details of how they
have been used.  You can configure them, to specify return values or
limit what attributes are available, and then make assertions about how
they have been used:

     >>> from unittest.mock import MagicMock
     >>> thing = ProductionClass()
     >>> thing.method = MagicMock(return_value=3)
     >>> thing.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
     3
     >>> thing.method.assert_called_with(3, 4, 5, key='value')

*note side_effect: 4882. allows you to perform side effects, including
raising an exception when a mock is called:

     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock
     >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=KeyError('foo'))
     >>> mock()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     KeyError: 'foo'

     >>> values = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
     >>> def side_effect(arg):
     ...     return values[arg]
     ...
     >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> mock('a'), mock('b'), mock('c')
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock.side_effect = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
     >>> mock(), mock(), mock()
     (5, 4, 3)

Mock has many other ways you can configure it and control its behaviour.
For example the 'spec' argument configures the mock to take its
specification from another object.  Attempting to access attributes or
methods on the mock that don’t exist on the spec will fail with an *note
AttributeError: 1a9.

The *note patch(): 1243. decorator / context manager makes it easy to
mock classes or objects in a module under test.  The object you specify
will be replaced with a mock (or other object) during the test and
restored when the test ends:

     >>> from unittest.mock import patch
     >>> @patch('module.ClassName2')
     ... @patch('module.ClassName1')
     ... def test(MockClass1, MockClass2):
     ...     module.ClassName1()
     ...     module.ClassName2()
     ...     assert MockClass1 is module.ClassName1
     ...     assert MockClass2 is module.ClassName2
     ...     assert MockClass1.called
     ...     assert MockClass2.called
     ...
     >>> test()

     Σημείωση: When you nest patch decorators the mocks are passed in to
     the decorated function in the same order they applied (the normal
     'Python' order that decorators are applied).  This means from the
     bottom up, so in the example above the mock for ‘module.ClassName1’
     is passed in first.

     With *note patch(): 1243. it matters that you patch objects in the
     namespace where they are looked up.  This is normally
     straightforward, but for a quick guide read *note where to patch:
     4883.

As well as a decorator *note patch(): 1243. can be used as a context
manager in a with statement:

     >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method', return_value=None) as mock_method:
     ...     thing = ProductionClass()
     ...     thing.method(1, 2, 3)
     ...
     >>> mock_method.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)

There is also *note patch.dict(): 1b7a. for setting values in a
dictionary just during a scope and restoring the dictionary to its
original state when the test ends:

     >>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
     >>> original = foo.copy()
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> assert foo == original

Mock supports the mocking of Python *note magic methods: 4884.  The
easiest way of using magic methods is with the *note MagicMock: 1240.
class.  It allows you to do things like:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'foobarbaz'
     >>> str(mock)
     'foobarbaz'
     >>> mock.__str__.assert_called_with()

Mock allows you to assign functions (or other Mock instances) to magic
methods and they will be called appropriately.  The *note MagicMock:
1240. class is just a Mock variant that has all of the magic methods
pre-created for you (well, all the useful ones anyway).

The following is an example of using magic methods with the ordinary
Mock class:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = Mock(return_value='wheeeeee')
     >>> str(mock)
     'wheeeeee'

For ensuring that the mock objects in your tests have the same api as
the objects they are replacing, you can use *note auto-speccing: 4885.
Auto-speccing can be done through the 'autospec' argument to patch, or
the *note create_autospec(): 1b4e. function.  Auto-speccing creates mock
objects that have the same attributes and methods as the objects they
are replacing, and any functions and methods (including constructors)
have the same call signature as the real object.

This ensures that your mocks will fail in the same way as your
production code if they are used incorrectly:

     >>> from unittest.mock import create_autospec
     >>> def function(a, b, c):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> mock_function = create_autospec(function, return_value='fishy')
     >>> mock_function(1, 2, 3)
     'fishy'
     >>> mock_function.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock_function('wrong arguments')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     TypeError: missing a required argument: 'b'

*note create_autospec(): 1b4e. can also be used on classes, where it
copies the signature of the ‘__init__’ method, and on callable objects
where it copies the signature of the ‘__call__’ method.


File: python.info,  Node: The Mock Class,  Next: The patchers,  Prev: Quick Guide,  Up: unittest mock — mock object library

5.27.6.2 The Mock Class
.......................

*note Mock: e0e. is a flexible mock object intended to replace the use
of stubs and test doubles throughout your code.  Mocks are callable and
create attributes as new mocks when you access them (1).  Accessing the
same attribute will always return the same mock.  Mocks record how you
use them, allowing you to make assertions about what your code has done
to them.

*note MagicMock: 1240. is a subclass of *note Mock: e0e. with all the
magic methods pre-created and ready to use.  There are also non-callable
variants, useful when you are mocking out objects that aren’t callable:
*note NonCallableMock: 4887. and *note NonCallableMagicMock: 4888.

The *note patch(): 1243. decorators makes it easy to temporarily replace
classes in a particular module with a *note Mock: e0e. object.  By
default ‘patch()’ will create a *note MagicMock: 1240. for you.  You can
specify an alternative class of ‘Mock’ using the 'new_callable' argument
to ‘patch()’.

 -- Κλάση: unittest.mock.Mock (spec=None, side_effect=None,
          return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None,
          unsafe=False, **kwargs)

     Create a new ‘Mock’ object.  ‘Mock’ takes several optional
     arguments that specify the behaviour of the Mock object:

        * 'spec': This can be either a list of strings or an existing
          object (a class or instance) that acts as the specification
          for the mock object.  If you pass in an object then a list of
          strings is formed by calling dir on the object (excluding
          unsupported magic attributes and methods).  Accessing any
          attribute not in this list will raise an *note AttributeError:
          1a9.

          If 'spec' is an object (rather than a list of strings) then
          *note __class__: 184f. returns the class of the spec object.
          This allows mocks to pass *note isinstance(): 2ef. tests.

        * 'spec_set': A stricter variant of 'spec'.  If used, attempting
          to 'set' or get an attribute on the mock that isn’t on the
          object passed as 'spec_set' will raise an *note
          AttributeError: 1a9.

        * 'side_effect': A function to be called whenever the Mock is
          called.  See the *note side_effect: 4882. attribute.  Useful
          for raising exceptions or dynamically changing return values.
          The function is called with the same arguments as the mock,
          and unless it returns *note DEFAULT: 4889, the return value of
          this function is used as the return value.

          Alternatively 'side_effect' can be an exception class or
          instance.  In this case the exception will be raised when the
          mock is called.

          If 'side_effect' is an iterable then each call to the mock
          will return the next value from the iterable.

          A 'side_effect' can be cleared by setting it to ‘None’.

        * 'return_value': The value returned when the mock is called.
          By default this is a new Mock (created on first access).  See
          the *note return_value: 488a. attribute.

        * 'unsafe': By default, accessing any attribute whose name
          starts with 'assert', 'assret', 'asert', 'aseert' or 'assrt'
          will raise an *note AttributeError: 1a9.  Passing
          ‘unsafe=True’ will allow access to these attributes.

          Added in version 3.5.

        * 'wraps': Item for the mock object to wrap.  If 'wraps' is not
          ‘None’ then calling the Mock will pass the call through to the
          wrapped object (returning the real result).  Attribute access
          on the mock will return a Mock object that wraps the
          corresponding attribute of the wrapped object (so attempting
          to access an attribute that doesn’t exist will raise an *note
          AttributeError: 1a9.).

          If the mock has an explicit 'return_value' set then calls are
          not passed to the wrapped object and the 'return_value' is
          returned instead.

        * 'name': If the mock has a name then it will be used in the
          repr of the mock.  This can be useful for debugging.  The name
          is propagated to child mocks.

     Mocks can also be called with arbitrary keyword arguments.  These
     will be used to set attributes on the mock after it is created.
     See the *note configure_mock(): 488b. method for details.

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_called ()

          Assert that the mock was called at least once.

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called()

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_called_once ()

          Assert that the mock was called exactly once.

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_once()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'method' to have been called once. Called 2 times.
               Calls: [call(), call()].

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_called_with (*args, **kwargs)

          This method is a convenient way of asserting that the last
          call has been made in a particular way:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method(1, 2, 3, test='wow')
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3, test='wow')

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_called_once_with (*args, **kwargs)

          Assert that the mock was called exactly once and that call was
          with the specified arguments.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock('foo', bar='baz')
               >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar='baz')
               >>> mock('other', bar='values')
               >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('other', bar='values')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'mock' to be called once. Called 2 times.
               Calls: [call('foo', bar='baz'), call('other', bar='values')].

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_any_call (*args, **kwargs)

          assert the mock has been called with the specified arguments.

          The assert passes if the mock has 'ever' been called, unlike
          *note assert_called_with(): 1ff2. and *note
          assert_called_once_with(): 488c. that only pass if the call is
          the most recent one, and in the case of
          ‘assert_called_once_with()’ it must also be the only call.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock(1, 2, arg='thing')
               >>> mock('some', 'thing', 'else')
               >>> mock.assert_any_call(1, 2, arg='thing')

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_has_calls (calls, any_order=False)

          assert the mock has been called with the specified calls.  The
          *note mock_calls: 488e. list is checked for the calls.

          If 'any_order' is false then the calls must be sequential.
          There can be extra calls before or after the specified calls.

          If 'any_order' is true then the calls can be in any order, but
          they must all appear in *note mock_calls: 488e.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock(1)
               >>> mock(2)
               >>> mock(3)
               >>> mock(4)
               >>> calls = [call(2), call(3)]
               >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls)
               >>> calls = [call(4), call(2), call(3)]
               >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_not_called ()

          Assert the mock was never called.

               >>> m = Mock()
               >>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
               >>> obj = m.hello()
               >>> m.hello.assert_not_called()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               AssertionError: Expected 'hello' to not have been called. Called 1 times.
               Calls: [call()].

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Μέθοδος: reset_mock (*, return_value=False, side_effect=False)

          The reset_mock method resets all the call attributes on a mock
          object:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock('hello')
               >>> mock.called
               True
               >>> mock.reset_mock()
               >>> mock.called
               False

          This can be useful where you want to make a series of
          assertions that reuse the same object.

          'return_value' parameter when set to ‘True’ resets *note
          return_value: 488a.:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=5)
               >>> mock('hello')
               5
               >>> mock.reset_mock(return_value=True)
               >>> mock('hello')
               <Mock name='mock()' id='...'>

          'side_effect' parameter when set to ‘True’ resets *note
          side_effect: 4882.:

               >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=ValueError)
               >>> mock('hello')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               ValueError
               >>> mock.reset_mock(side_effect=True)
               >>> mock('hello')
               <Mock name='mock()' id='...'>

          Note that ‘reset_mock()’ 'doesn’t' clear the *note
          return_value: 488a, *note side_effect: 4882. or any child
          attributes you have set using normal assignment by default.

          Child mocks are reset as well.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added two keyword-only arguments to
          the reset_mock function.

      -- Μέθοδος: mock_add_spec (spec, spec_set=False)

          Add a spec to a mock.  'spec' can either be an object or a
          list of strings.  Only attributes on the 'spec' can be fetched
          as attributes from the mock.

          If 'spec_set' is true then only attributes on the spec can be
          set.

      -- Μέθοδος: attach_mock (mock, attribute)

          Attach a mock as an attribute of this one, replacing its name
          and parent.  Calls to the attached mock will be recorded in
          the *note method_calls: 4890. and *note mock_calls: 488e.
          attributes of this one.

      -- Μέθοδος: configure_mock (**kwargs)

          Set attributes on the mock through keyword arguments.

          Attributes plus return values and side effects can be set on
          child mocks using standard dot notation and unpacking a
          dictionary in the method call:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
               >>> mock.configure_mock(**attrs)
               >>> mock.method()
               3
               >>> mock.other()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               KeyError

          The same thing can be achieved in the constructor call to
          mocks:

               >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
               >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
               >>> mock.some_attribute
               'eggs'
               >>> mock.method()
               3
               >>> mock.other()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               KeyError

          ‘configure_mock()’ exists to make it easier to do
          configuration after the mock has been created.

      -- Μέθοδος: __dir__ ()

          ‘Mock’ objects limit the results of ‘dir(some_mock)’ to useful
          results.  For mocks with a 'spec' this includes all the
          permitted attributes for the mock.

          See *note FILTER_DIR: 4892. for what this filtering does, and
          how to switch it off.

      -- Μέθοδος: _get_child_mock (**kw)

          Create the child mocks for attributes and return value.  By
          default child mocks will be the same type as the parent.
          Subclasses of Mock may want to override this to customize the
          way child mocks are made.

          For non-callable mocks the callable variant will be used
          (rather than any custom subclass).

      -- Ιδιότητα: called

          A boolean representing whether or not the mock object has been
          called:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock.called
               False
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.called
               True

      -- Ιδιότητα: call_count

          An integer telling you how many times the mock object has been
          called:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock.call_count
               0
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.call_count
               2

      -- Ιδιότητα: return_value

          Set this to configure the value returned by calling the mock:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.return_value = 'fish'
               >>> mock()
               'fish'

          The default return value is a mock object and you can
          configure it in the normal way:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.return_value.attribute = sentinel.Attribute
               >>> mock.return_value()
               <Mock name='mock()()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.return_value.assert_called_with()

          *note return_value: 488a. can also be set in the constructor:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
               >>> mock.return_value
               3
               >>> mock()
               3

      -- Ιδιότητα: side_effect

          This can either be a function to be called when the mock is
          called, an iterable or an exception (class or instance) to be
          raised.

          If you pass in a function it will be called with same
          arguments as the mock and unless the function returns the
          *note DEFAULT: 4889. singleton the call to the mock will then
          return whatever the function returns.  If the function returns
          ‘DEFAULT’ then the mock will return its normal value (from the
          *note return_value: 488a.).

          If you pass in an iterable, it is used to retrieve an iterator
          which must yield a value on every call.  This value can either
          be an exception instance to be raised, or a value to be
          returned from the call to the mock (*note DEFAULT: 4889.
          handling is identical to the function case).

          An example of a mock that raises an exception (to test
          exception handling of an API):

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.side_effect = Exception('Boom!')
               >>> mock()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                 ...
               Exception: Boom!

          Using *note side_effect: 4882. to return a sequence of values:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.side_effect = [3, 2, 1]
               >>> mock(), mock(), mock()
               (3, 2, 1)

          Using a callable:

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
               >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     return DEFAULT
               ...
               >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect
               >>> mock()
               3

          *note side_effect: 4882. can be set in the constructor.
          Here’s an example that adds one to the value the mock is
          called with and returns it:

               >>> side_effect = lambda value: value + 1
               >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
               >>> mock(3)
               4
               >>> mock(-8)
               -7

          Setting *note side_effect: 4882. to ‘None’ clears it:

               >>> m = Mock(side_effect=KeyError, return_value=3)
               >>> m()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
                ...
               KeyError
               >>> m.side_effect = None
               >>> m()
               3

      -- Ιδιότητα: call_args

          This is either ‘None’ (if the mock hasn’t been called), or the
          arguments that the mock was last called with.  This will be in
          the form of a tuple: the first member, which can also be
          accessed through the ‘args’ property, is any positional
          arguments the mock was called with (or an empty tuple) and the
          second member, which can also be accessed through the ‘kwargs’
          property, is any keyword arguments (or an empty dictionary).

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> print(mock.call_args)
               None
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock.call_args
               call()
               >>> mock.call_args == ()
               True
               >>> mock(3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args
               call(3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args == ((3, 4),)
               True
               >>> mock.call_args.args
               (3, 4)
               >>> mock.call_args.kwargs
               {}
               >>> mock(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args
               call(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args.args
               (3, 4, 5)
               >>> mock.call_args.kwargs
               {'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'}

          *note call_args: 1f5d, along with members of the lists *note
          call_args_list: 4895, *note method_calls: 4890. and *note
          mock_calls: 488e. are *note call: 1fa3. objects.  These are
          tuples, so they can be unpacked to get at the individual
          arguments and make more complex assertions.  See *note calls
          as tuples: 4896.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added ‘args’ and ‘kwargs’ properties.

      -- Ιδιότητα: call_args_list

          This is a list of all the calls made to the mock object in
          sequence (so the length of the list is the number of times it
          has been called).  Before any calls have been made it is an
          empty list.  The *note call: 1fa3. object can be used for
          conveniently constructing lists of calls to compare with *note
          call_args_list: 4895.

               >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
               >>> mock()
               >>> mock(3, 4)
               >>> mock(key='fish', next='w00t!')
               >>> mock.call_args_list
               [call(), call(3, 4), call(key='fish', next='w00t!')]
               >>> expected = [(), ((3, 4),), ({'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'},)]
               >>> mock.call_args_list == expected
               True

          Members of *note call_args_list: 4895. are *note call: 1fa3.
          objects.  These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the
          individual arguments.  See *note calls as tuples: 4896.

      -- Ιδιότητα: method_calls

          As well as tracking calls to themselves, mocks also track
          calls to methods and attributes, and 'their' methods and
          attributes:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.method()
               <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.property.method.attribute()
               <Mock name='mock.property.method.attribute()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.method_calls
               [call.method(), call.property.method.attribute()]

          Members of *note method_calls: 4890. are *note call: 1fa3.
          objects.  These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the
          individual arguments.  See *note calls as tuples: 4896.

      -- Ιδιότητα: mock_calls

          *note mock_calls: 488e. records 'all' calls to the mock
          object, its methods, magic methods 'and' return value mocks.

               >>> mock = MagicMock()
               >>> result = mock(1, 2, 3)
               >>> mock.first(a=3)
               <MagicMock name='mock.first()' id='...'>
               >>> mock.second()
               <MagicMock name='mock.second()' id='...'>
               >>> int(mock)
               1
               >>> result(1)
               <MagicMock name='mock()()' id='...'>
               >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call.first(a=3), call.second(),
               ... call.__int__(), call()(1)]
               >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
               True

          Members of *note mock_calls: 488e. are *note call: 1fa3.
          objects.  These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the
          individual arguments.  See *note calls as tuples: 4896.

               Σημείωση: The way *note mock_calls: 488e. are recorded
               means that where nested calls are made, the parameters of
               ancestor calls are not recorded and so will always
               compare equal:

                    >>> mock = MagicMock()
                    >>> mock.top(a=3).bottom()
                    <MagicMock name='mock.top().bottom()' id='...'>
                    >>> mock.mock_calls
                    [call.top(a=3), call.top().bottom()]
                    >>> mock.mock_calls[-1] == call.top(a=-1).bottom()
                    True

      -- Ιδιότητα: __class__

          Normally the ‘__class__’ attribute of an object will return
          its type.  For a mock object with a ‘spec’, ‘__class__’
          returns the spec class instead.  This allows mock objects to
          pass *note isinstance(): 2ef. tests for the object they are
          replacing / masquerading as:

               >>> mock = Mock(spec=3)
               >>> isinstance(mock, int)
               True

          ‘__class__’ is assignable to, this allows a mock to pass an
          *note isinstance(): 2ef. check without forcing you to use a
          spec:

               >>> mock = Mock()
               >>> mock.__class__ = dict
               >>> isinstance(mock, dict)
               True

 -- Κλάση: unittest.mock.NonCallableMock (spec=None, wraps=None,
          name=None, spec_set=None, **kwargs)

     A non-callable version of *note Mock: e0e.  The constructor
     parameters have the same meaning of ‘Mock’, with the exception of
     'return_value' and 'side_effect' which have no meaning on a
     non-callable mock.

Mock objects that use a class or an instance as a ‘spec’ or ‘spec_set’
are able to pass *note isinstance(): 2ef. tests:

     >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
     >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
     True
     >>> mock = Mock(spec_set=SomeClass())
     >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass)
     True

The *note Mock: e0e. classes have support for mocking magic methods.
See *note magic methods: 4884. for the full details.

The mock classes and the *note patch(): 1243. decorators all take
arbitrary keyword arguments for configuration.  For the ‘patch()’
decorators the keywords are passed to the constructor of the mock being
created.  The keyword arguments are for configuring attributes of the
mock:

     >>> m = MagicMock(attribute=3, other='fish')
     >>> m.attribute
     3
     >>> m.other
     'fish'

The return value and side effect of child mocks can be set in the same
way, using dotted notation.  As you can’t use dotted names directly in a
call you have to create a dictionary and unpack it using ‘**’:

     >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
     >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs)
     >>> mock.some_attribute
     'eggs'
     >>> mock.method()
     3
     >>> mock.other()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError

A callable mock which was created with a 'spec' (or a 'spec_set') will
introspect the specification object’s signature when matching calls to
the mock.  Therefore, it can match the actual call’s arguments
regardless of whether they were passed positionally or by name:

     >>> def f(a, b, c): pass
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
     >>> mock(1, 2, c=3)
     <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)

This applies to *note assert_called_with(): 1ff2, *note
assert_called_once_with(): 488c, *note assert_has_calls(): 1c2a. and
*note assert_any_call(): 488d.  When *note Autospeccing: 4885, it will
also apply to method calls on the mock object.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added signature introspection on specced and
autospecced mock objects.

 -- Κλάση: unittest.mock.PropertyMock (*args, **kwargs)

     A mock intended to be used as a *note property: 6bb, or other *note
     descriptor: 21f, on a class.  ‘PropertyMock’ provides *note
     __get__(): 188a. and *note __set__(): 25aa. methods so you can
     specify a return value when it is fetched.

     Fetching a ‘PropertyMock’ instance from an object calls the mock,
     with no args.  Setting it calls the mock with the value being set.

          >>> class Foo:
          ...     @property
          ...     def foo(self):
          ...         return 'something'
          ...     @foo.setter
          ...     def foo(self, value):
          ...         pass
          ...
          >>> with patch('__main__.Foo.foo', new_callable=PropertyMock) as mock_foo:
          ...     mock_foo.return_value = 'mockity-mock'
          ...     this_foo = Foo()
          ...     print(this_foo.foo)
          ...     this_foo.foo = 6
          ...
          mockity-mock
          >>> mock_foo.mock_calls
          [call(), call(6)]

Because of the way mock attributes are stored you can’t directly attach
a *note PropertyMock: 4898. to a mock object.  Instead you can attach it
to the mock type object:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> p = PropertyMock(return_value=3)
     >>> type(m).foo = p
     >>> m.foo
     3
     >>> p.assert_called_once_with()

     Προσοχή: If an *note AttributeError: 1a9. is raised by *note
     PropertyMock: 4898, it will be interpreted as a missing descriptor
     and *note __getattr__(): 8e3. will be called on the parent mock:

          >>> m = MagicMock()
          >>> no_attribute = PropertyMock(side_effect=AttributeError)
          >>> type(m).my_property = no_attribute
          >>> m.my_property
          <MagicMock name='mock.my_property' id='140165240345424'>

     See *note __getattr__(): 8e3. for details.

 -- Κλάση: unittest.mock.AsyncMock (spec=None, side_effect=None,
          return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None,
          unsafe=False, **kwargs)

     An asynchronous version of *note MagicMock: 1240.  The ‘AsyncMock’
     object will behave so the object is recognized as an async
     function, and the result of a call is an awaitable.

          >>> mock = AsyncMock()
          >>> inspect.iscoroutinefunction(mock)
          True
          >>> inspect.isawaitable(mock())
          True

     The result of ‘mock()’ is an async function which will have the
     outcome of ‘side_effect’ or ‘return_value’ after it has been
     awaited:

        - if ‘side_effect’ is a function, the async function will return
          the result of that function,

        - if ‘side_effect’ is an exception, the async function will
          raise the exception,

        - if ‘side_effect’ is an iterable, the async function will
          return the next value of the iterable, however, if the
          sequence of result is exhausted, ‘StopAsyncIteration’ is
          raised immediately,

        - if ‘side_effect’ is not defined, the async function will
          return the value defined by ‘return_value’, hence, by default,
          the async function returns a new ‘AsyncMock’ object.

     Setting the 'spec' of a *note Mock: e0e. or *note MagicMock: 1240.
     to an async function will result in a coroutine object being
     returned after calling.

          >>> async def async_func(): pass
          ...
          >>> mock = MagicMock(async_func)
          >>> mock
          <MagicMock spec='function' id='...'>
          >>> mock()
          <coroutine object AsyncMockMixin._mock_call at ...>

     Setting the 'spec' of a *note Mock: e0e, *note MagicMock: 1240, or
     ‘AsyncMock’ to a class with asynchronous and synchronous functions
     will automatically detect the synchronous functions and set them as
     ‘MagicMock’ (if the parent mock is ‘AsyncMock’ or ‘MagicMock’) or
     ‘Mock’ (if the parent mock is ‘Mock’).  All asynchronous functions
     will be ‘AsyncMock’.

          >>> class ExampleClass:
          ...     def sync_foo():
          ...         pass
          ...     async def async_foo():
          ...         pass
          ...
          >>> a_mock = AsyncMock(ExampleClass)
          >>> a_mock.sync_foo
          <MagicMock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'>
          >>> a_mock.async_foo
          <AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'>
          >>> mock = Mock(ExampleClass)
          >>> mock.sync_foo
          <Mock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'>
          >>> mock.async_foo
          <AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'>

     Added in version 3.8.

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_awaited ()

          Assert that the mock was awaited at least once.  Note that
          this is separate from the object having been called, the
          ‘await’ keyword must be used:

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(coroutine_mock):
               ...     await coroutine_mock
               ...
               >>> coroutine_mock = mock()
               >>> mock.called
               True
               >>> mock.assert_awaited()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited.
               >>> asyncio.run(main(coroutine_mock))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited()

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_awaited_once ()

          Assert that the mock was awaited exactly once.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main():
               ...     await mock()
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once()
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once()
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times.

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_awaited_with (*args, **kwargs)

          Assert that the last await was with the specified arguments.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_with('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_with('other')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: expected await not found.
               Expected: mock('other')
               Actual: mock('foo', bar='bar')

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_awaited_once_with (*args, **kwargs)

          Assert that the mock was awaited exactly once and with the
          specified arguments.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times.

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_any_await (*args, **kwargs)

          Assert the mock has ever been awaited with the specified
          arguments.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar'))
               >>> asyncio.run(main('hello'))
               >>> mock.assert_any_await('foo', bar='bar')
               >>> mock.assert_any_await('other')
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: mock('other') await not found

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_has_awaits (calls, any_order=False)

          Assert the mock has been awaited with the specified calls.
          The *note await_args_list: 1f5c. list is checked for the
          awaits.

          If 'any_order' is false then the awaits must be sequential.
          There can be extra calls before or after the specified awaits.

          If 'any_order' is true then the awaits can be in any order,
          but they must all appear in *note await_args_list: 1f5c.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs):
               ...     await mock(*args, **kwargs)
               ...
               >>> calls = [call("foo"), call("bar")]
               >>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls)
               Traceback (most recent call last):
               ...
               AssertionError: Awaits not found.
               Expected: [call('foo'), call('bar')]
               Actual: []
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls)

      -- Μέθοδος: assert_not_awaited ()

          Assert that the mock was never awaited.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> mock.assert_not_awaited()

      -- Μέθοδος: reset_mock (*args, **kwargs)

          See *note Mock.reset_mock(): 10b6.  Also sets *note
          await_count: 48a1. to 0, *note await_args: 48a2. to None, and
          clears the *note await_args_list: 1f5c.

      -- Ιδιότητα: await_count

          An integer keeping track of how many times the mock object has
          been awaited.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main():
               ...     await mock()
               ...
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.await_count
               1
               >>> asyncio.run(main())
               >>> mock.await_count
               2

      -- Ιδιότητα: await_args

          This is either ‘None’ (if the mock hasn’t been awaited), or
          the arguments that the mock was last awaited with.  Functions
          the same as *note Mock.call_args: 1f5d.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args):
               ...     await mock(*args)
               ...
               >>> mock.await_args
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> mock.await_args
               call('foo')
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.await_args
               call('bar')

      -- Ιδιότητα: await_args_list

          This is a list of all the awaits made to the mock object in
          sequence (so the length of the list is the number of times it
          has been awaited).  Before any awaits have been made it is an
          empty list.

               >>> mock = AsyncMock()
               >>> async def main(*args):
               ...     await mock(*args)
               ...
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               []
               >>> asyncio.run(main('foo'))
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               [call('foo')]
               >>> asyncio.run(main('bar'))
               >>> mock.await_args_list
               [call('foo'), call('bar')]

 -- Κλάση: unittest.mock.ThreadingMock (spec=None, side_effect=None,
          return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None,
          unsafe=False, *, timeout=UNSET, **kwargs)

     A version of *note MagicMock: 1240. for multithreading tests.  The
     ‘ThreadingMock’ object provides extra methods to wait for a call to
     be invoked, rather than assert on it immediately.

     The default timeout is specified by the ‘timeout’ argument, or if
     unset by the *note ThreadingMock.DEFAULT_TIMEOUT: 48a4. attribute,
     which defaults to blocking (‘None’).

     You can configure the global default timeout by setting *note
     ThreadingMock.DEFAULT_TIMEOUT: 48a4.

      -- Μέθοδος: wait_until_called (*, timeout=UNSET)

          Waits until the mock is called.

          If a timeout was passed at the creation of the mock or if a
          timeout argument is passed to this function, the function
          raises an *note AssertionError: a97. if the call is not
          performed in time.

               >>> mock = ThreadingMock()
               >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=mock)
               >>> thread.start()
               >>> mock.wait_until_called(timeout=1)
               >>> thread.join()

      -- Μέθοδος: wait_until_any_call_with (*args, **kwargs)

          Waits until the mock is called with the specified arguments.

          If a timeout was passed at the creation of the mock the
          function raises an *note AssertionError: a97. if the call is
          not performed in time.

               >>> mock = ThreadingMock()
               >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=mock, args=("arg1", "arg2",), kwargs={"arg": "thing"})
               >>> thread.start()
               >>> mock.wait_until_any_call_with("arg1", "arg2", arg="thing")
               >>> thread.join()

      -- Ιδιότητα: DEFAULT_TIMEOUT

          Global default timeout in seconds to create instances of
          ‘ThreadingMock’.

     Added in version 3.13.

* Menu:

* Calling::
* Deleting Attributes::
* Mock names and the name attribute::
* Attaching Mocks as Attributes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The only exceptions are magic methods and attributes (those that
have leading and trailing double underscores).  Mock doesn’t create
these but instead raises an *note AttributeError: 1a9.  This is because
the interpreter will often implicitly request these methods, and gets
'very' confused to get a new Mock object when it expects a magic method.
If you need magic method support see *note magic methods: 4884.


File: python.info,  Node: Calling,  Next: Deleting Attributes,  Up: The Mock Class

5.27.6.3 Calling
................

Mock objects are callable.  The call will return the value set as the
*note return_value: 488a. attribute.  The default return value is a new
Mock object; it is created the first time the return value is accessed
(either explicitly or by calling the Mock) - but it is stored and the
same one returned each time.

Calls made to the object will be recorded in the attributes like *note
call_args: 1f5d. and *note call_args_list: 4895.

If *note side_effect: 4882. is set then it will be called after the call
has been recorded, so if ‘side_effect’ raises an exception the call is
still recorded.

The simplest way to make a mock raise an exception when called is to
make *note side_effect: 4882. an exception class or instance:

     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=IndexError)
     >>> m(1, 2, 3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     IndexError
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1, 2, 3)]
     >>> m.side_effect = KeyError('Bang!')
     >>> m('two', 'three', 'four')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError: 'Bang!'
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1, 2, 3), call('two', 'three', 'four')]

If *note side_effect: 4882. is a function then whatever that function
returns is what calls to the mock return.  The ‘side_effect’ function is
called with the same arguments as the mock.  This allows you to vary the
return value of the call dynamically, based on the input:

     >>> def side_effect(value):
     ...     return value + 1
     ...
     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
     >>> m(1)
     2
     >>> m(2)
     3
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call(1), call(2)]

If you want the mock to still return the default return value (a new
mock), or any set return value, then there are two ways of doing this.
Either return *note return_value: 488a. from inside *note side_effect:
4882, or return *note DEFAULT: 4889.:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return m.return_value
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m.return_value = 3
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return DEFAULT
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m()
     3

To remove a *note side_effect: 4882, and return to the default
behaviour, set the ‘side_effect’ to ‘None’:

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=6)
     >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...     return 3
     ...
     >>> m.side_effect = side_effect
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> m.side_effect = None
     >>> m()
     6

The *note side_effect: 4882. can also be any iterable object.  Repeated
calls to the mock will return values from the iterable (until the
iterable is exhausted and a *note StopIteration: fba. is raised):

     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=[1, 2, 3])
     >>> m()
     1
     >>> m()
     2
     >>> m()
     3
     >>> m()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     StopIteration

If any members of the iterable are exceptions they will be raised
instead of returned:

     >>> iterable = (33, ValueError, 66)
     >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=iterable)
     >>> m()
     33
     >>> m()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     ValueError
     >>> m()
     66


File: python.info,  Node: Deleting Attributes,  Next: Mock names and the name attribute,  Prev: Calling,  Up: The Mock Class

5.27.6.4 Deleting Attributes
............................

Mock objects create attributes on demand.  This allows them to pretend
to be objects of any type.

You may want a mock object to return ‘False’ to a *note hasattr(): 8e2.
call, or raise an *note AttributeError: 1a9. when an attribute is
fetched.  You can do this by providing an object as a ‘spec’ for a mock,
but that isn’t always convenient.

You «block» attributes by deleting them.  Once deleted, accessing an
attribute will raise an *note AttributeError: 1a9.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
     True
     >>> del mock.m
     >>> hasattr(mock, 'm')
     False
     >>> del mock.f
     >>> mock.f
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: f


File: python.info,  Node: Mock names and the name attribute,  Next: Attaching Mocks as Attributes,  Prev: Deleting Attributes,  Up: The Mock Class

5.27.6.5 Mock names and the name attribute
..........................................

Since «name» is an argument to the *note Mock: e0e. constructor, if you
want your mock object to have a «name» attribute you can’t just pass it
in at creation time.  There are two alternatives.  One option is to use
*note configure_mock(): 488b.:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.configure_mock(name='my_name')
     >>> mock.name
     'my_name'

A simpler option is to simply set the «name» attribute after mock
creation:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.name = "foo"


File: python.info,  Node: Attaching Mocks as Attributes,  Prev: Mock names and the name attribute,  Up: The Mock Class

5.27.6.6 Attaching Mocks as Attributes
......................................

When you attach a mock as an attribute of another mock (or as the return
value) it becomes a «child» of that mock.  Calls to the child are
recorded in the *note method_calls: 4890. and *note mock_calls: 488e.
attributes of the parent.  This is useful for configuring child mocks
and then attaching them to the parent, or for attaching mocks to a
parent that records all calls to the children and allows you to make
assertions about the order of calls between mocks:

     >>> parent = MagicMock()
     >>> child1 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> child2 = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> parent.child1 = child1
     >>> parent.child2 = child2
     >>> child1(1)
     >>> child2(2)
     >>> parent.mock_calls
     [call.child1(1), call.child2(2)]

The exception to this is if the mock has a name.  This allows you to
prevent the «parenting» if for some reason you don’t want it to happen.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> not_a_child = MagicMock(name='not-a-child')
     >>> mock.attribute = not_a_child
     >>> mock.attribute()
     <MagicMock name='not-a-child()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     []

Mocks created for you by *note patch(): 1243. are automatically given
names.  To attach mocks that have names to a parent you use the *note
attach_mock(): 1b69. method:

     >>> thing1 = object()
     >>> thing2 = object()
     >>> parent = MagicMock()
     >>> with patch('__main__.thing1', return_value=None) as child1:
     ...     with patch('__main__.thing2', return_value=None) as child2:
     ...         parent.attach_mock(child1, 'child1')
     ...         parent.attach_mock(child2, 'child2')
     ...         child1('one')
     ...         child2('two')
     ...
     >>> parent.mock_calls
     [call.child1('one'), call.child2('two')]


File: python.info,  Node: The patchers,  Next: MagicMock and magic method support,  Prev: The Mock Class,  Up: unittest mock — mock object library

5.27.6.7 The patchers
.....................

The patch decorators are used for patching objects only within the scope
of the function they decorate.  They automatically handle the unpatching
for you, even if exceptions are raised.  All of these functions can also
be used in with statements or as class decorators.

* Menu:

* patch::
* patch.object: patch object.
* patch.dict: patch dict.
* patch.multiple: patch multiple.
* patch methods; start and stop: patch methods start and stop.
* patch builtins::
* TEST_PREFIX::
* Nesting Patch Decorators::
* Where to patch::
* Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: patch,  Next: patch object,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.8 patch
..............

     Σημείωση: The key is to do the patching in the right namespace.
     See the section *note where to patch: 48ae.

 -- Συνάρτηση: unittest.mock.patch (target, new=DEFAULT, spec=None,
          create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None,
          **kwargs)

     ‘patch()’ acts as a function decorator, class decorator or a
     context manager.  Inside the body of the function or with
     statement, the 'target' is patched with a 'new' object.  When the
     function/with statement exits the patch is undone.

     If 'new' is omitted, then the target is replaced with an *note
     AsyncMock: e0d. if the patched object is an async function or a
     *note MagicMock: 1240. otherwise.  If ‘patch()’ is used as a
     decorator and 'new' is omitted, the created mock is passed in as an
     extra argument to the decorated function.  If ‘patch()’ is used as
     a context manager the created mock is returned by the context
     manager.

     'target' should be a string in the form
     ‘'package.module.ClassName'’.  The 'target' is imported and the
     specified object replaced with the 'new' object, so the 'target'
     must be importable from the environment you are calling ‘patch()’
     from.  The target is imported when the decorated function is
     executed, not at decoration time.

     The 'spec' and 'spec_set' keyword arguments are passed to the *note
     MagicMock: 1240. if patch is creating one for you.

     In addition you can pass ‘spec=True’ or ‘spec_set=True’, which
     causes patch to pass in the object being mocked as the
     spec/spec_set object.

     'new_callable' allows you to specify a different class, or callable
     object, that will be called to create the 'new' object.  By default
     *note AsyncMock: e0d. is used for async functions and *note
     MagicMock: 1240. for the rest.

     A more powerful form of 'spec' is 'autospec'.  If you set
     ‘autospec=True’ then the mock will be created with a spec from the
     object being replaced.  All attributes of the mock will also have
     the spec of the corresponding attribute of the object being
     replaced.  Methods and functions being mocked will have their
     arguments checked and will raise a *note TypeError: 291. if they
     are called with the wrong signature.  For mocks replacing a class,
     their return value (the “instance”) will have the same spec as the
     class.  See the *note create_autospec(): 1b4e. function and *note
     Autospeccing: 4885.

     Instead of ‘autospec=True’ you can pass ‘autospec=some_object’ to
     use an arbitrary object as the spec instead of the one being
     replaced.

     By default ‘patch()’ will fail to replace attributes that don’t
     exist.  If you pass in ‘create=True’, and the attribute doesn’t
     exist, patch will create the attribute for you when the patched
     function is called, and delete it again after the patched function
     has exited.  This is useful for writing tests against attributes
     that your production code creates at runtime.  It is off by default
     because it can be dangerous.  With it switched on you can write
     passing tests against APIs that don’t actually exist!

          Σημείωση: 
          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If you are patching builtins in a
          module then you don’t need to pass ‘create=True’, it will be
          added by default.

     Patch can be used as a *note TestCase: 52f. class decorator.  It
     works by decorating each test method in the class.  This reduces
     the boilerplate code when your test methods share a common
     patchings set.  ‘patch()’ finds tests by looking for method names
     that start with ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’.  By default this is ‘'test'’,
     which matches the way *note unittest: 10f. finds tests.  You can
     specify an alternative prefix by setting ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’.

     Patch can be used as a context manager, with the with statement.
     Here the patching applies to the indented block after the with
     statement.  If you use «as» then the patched object will be bound
     to the name after the «as»; very useful if ‘patch()’ is creating a
     mock object for you.

     ‘patch()’ takes arbitrary keyword arguments.  These will be passed
     to *note AsyncMock: e0d. if the patched object is asynchronous, to
     *note MagicMock: 1240. otherwise or to 'new_callable' if specified.

     ‘patch.dict(...)’, ‘patch.multiple(...)’ and ‘patch.object(...)’
     are available for alternate use-cases.

*note patch(): 1243. as function decorator, creating the mock for you
and passing it into the decorated function:

     >>> @patch('__main__.SomeClass')
     ... def function(normal_argument, mock_class):
     ...     print(mock_class is SomeClass)
     ...
     >>> function(None)
     True

Patching a class replaces the class with a *note MagicMock: 1240.
'instance'.  If the class is instantiated in the code under test then it
will be the *note return_value: 488a. of the mock that will be used.

If the class is instantiated multiple times you could use *note
side_effect: 4882. to return a new mock each time.  Alternatively you
can set the 'return_value' to be anything you want.

To configure return values on methods of 'instances' on the patched
class you must do this on the *note return_value: 488a.  For example:

     >>> class Class:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> with patch('__main__.Class') as MockClass:
     ...     instance = MockClass.return_value
     ...     instance.method.return_value = 'foo'
     ...     assert Class() is instance
     ...     assert Class().method() == 'foo'
     ...

If you use 'spec' or 'spec_set' and *note patch(): 1243. is replacing a
'class', then the return value of the created mock will have the same
spec.

     >>> Original = Class
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.Class', spec=True)
     >>> MockClass = patcher.start()
     >>> instance = MockClass()
     >>> assert isinstance(instance, Original)
     >>> patcher.stop()

The 'new_callable' argument is useful where you want to use an
alternative class to the default *note MagicMock: 1240. for the created
mock.  For example, if you wanted a *note NonCallableMock: 4887. to be
used:

     >>> thing = object()
     >>> with patch('__main__.thing', new_callable=NonCallableMock) as mock_thing:
     ...     assert thing is mock_thing
     ...     thing()
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'NonCallableMock' object is not callable

Another use case might be to replace an object with an *note
io.StringIO: 12d4. instance:

     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> def foo():
     ...     print('Something')
     ...
     >>> @patch('sys.stdout', new_callable=StringIO)
     ... def test(mock_stdout):
     ...     foo()
     ...     assert mock_stdout.getvalue() == 'Something\n'
     ...
     >>> test()

When *note patch(): 1243. is creating a mock for you, it is common that
the first thing you need to do is to configure the mock.  Some of that
configuration can be done in the call to patch.  Any arbitrary keywords
you pass into the call will be used to set attributes on the created
mock:

     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', first='one', second='two')
     >>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
     >>> mock_thing.first
     'one'
     >>> mock_thing.second
     'two'

As well as attributes on the created mock attributes, like the *note
return_value: 488a. and *note side_effect: 4882, of child mocks can also
be configured.  These aren’t syntactically valid to pass in directly as
keyword arguments, but a dictionary with these as keys can still be
expanded into a *note patch(): 1243. call using ‘**’:

     >>> config = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError}
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', **config)
     >>> mock_thing = patcher.start()
     >>> mock_thing.method()
     3
     >>> mock_thing.other()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     KeyError

By default, attempting to patch a function in a module (or a method or
an attribute in a class) that does not exist will fail with *note
AttributeError: 1a9.:

     >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42)
     ... def test():
     ...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
     ...
     >>> test()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     AttributeError: <module 'sys' (built-in)> does not have the attribute 'non_existing_attribute'

but adding ‘create=True’ in the call to *note patch(): 1243. will make
the previous example work as expected:

     >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42, create=True)
     ... def test(mock_stdout):
     ...     assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42
     ...
     >>> test()

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: *note patch(): 1243. now returns an *note
AsyncMock: e0d. if the target is an async function.


File: python.info,  Node: patch object,  Next: patch dict,  Prev: patch,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.9 patch.object
.....................

 -- Συνάρτηση: patch.object (target, attribute, new=DEFAULT, spec=None,
          create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None,
          **kwargs)

     patch the named member ('attribute') on an object ('target') with a
     mock object.

     ‘patch.object()’ can be used as a decorator, class decorator or a
     context manager.  Arguments 'new', 'spec', 'create', 'spec_set',
     'autospec' and 'new_callable' have the same meaning as for *note
     patch(): 1243.  Like ‘patch()’, ‘patch.object()’ takes arbitrary
     keyword arguments for configuring the mock object it creates.

     When used as a class decorator ‘patch.object()’ honours
     ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ for choosing which methods to wrap.

You can either call *note patch.object(): 1b25. with three arguments or
two arguments.  The three argument form takes the object to be patched,
the attribute name and the object to replace the attribute with.

When calling with the two argument form you omit the replacement object,
and a mock is created for you and passed in as an extra argument to the
decorated function:

     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
     ... def test(mock_method):
     ...     SomeClass.class_method(3)
     ...     mock_method.assert_called_with(3)
     ...
     >>> test()

'spec', 'create' and the other arguments to *note patch.object(): 1b25.
have the same meaning as they do for *note patch(): 1243.


File: python.info,  Node: patch dict,  Next: patch multiple,  Prev: patch object,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.10 patch.dict
....................

 -- Συνάρτηση: patch.dict (in_dict, values=(), clear=False, **kwargs)

     Patch a dictionary, or dictionary like object, and restore the
     dictionary to its original state after the test, where the restored
     dictionary is a copy of the dictionary as it was before the test.

     'in_dict' can be a dictionary or a mapping like container.  If it
     is a mapping then it must at least support getting, setting and
     deleting items plus iterating over keys.

     'in_dict' can also be a string specifying the name of the
     dictionary, which will then be fetched by importing it.

     'values' can be a dictionary of values to set in the dictionary.
     'values' can also be an iterable of ‘(key, value)’ pairs.

     If 'clear' is true then the dictionary will be cleared before the
     new values are set.

     ‘patch.dict()’ can also be called with arbitrary keyword arguments
     to set values in the dictionary.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: ‘patch.dict()’ now returns the patched
     dictionary when used as a context manager.

*note patch.dict(): 1b7a. can be used as a context manager, decorator or
class decorator:

     >>> foo = {}
     >>> @patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'})
     ... def test():
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> test()
     >>> assert foo == {}

When used as a class decorator *note patch.dict(): 1b7a. honours
‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ (default to ‘'test'’) for choosing which methods to
wrap:

     >>> import os
     >>> import unittest
     >>> from unittest.mock import patch
     >>> @patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'})
     ... class TestSample(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def test_sample(self):
     ...         self.assertEqual(os.environ['newkey'], 'newvalue')

If you want to use a different prefix for your test, you can inform the
patchers of the different prefix by setting ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’.  For
more details about how to change the value of see *note TEST_PREFIX:
48b1.

*note patch.dict(): 1b7a. can be used to add members to a dictionary, or
simply let a test change a dictionary, and ensure the dictionary is
restored when the test ends.

     >>> foo = {}
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}) as patched_foo:
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...     assert patched_foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...     # You can add, update or delete keys of foo (or patched_foo, it's the same dict)
     ...     patched_foo['spam'] = 'eggs'
     ...
     >>> assert foo == {}
     >>> assert patched_foo == {}

     >>> import os
     >>> with patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'}):
     ...     print(os.environ['newkey'])
     ...
     newvalue
     >>> assert 'newkey' not in os.environ

Keywords can be used in the *note patch.dict(): 1b7a. call to set values
in the dictionary:

     >>> mymodule = MagicMock()
     >>> mymodule.function.return_value = 'fish'
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', mymodule=mymodule):
     ...     import mymodule
     ...     mymodule.function('some', 'args')
     ...
     'fish'

*note patch.dict(): 1b7a. can be used with dictionary like objects that
aren’t actually dictionaries.  At the very minimum they must support
item getting, setting, deleting and either iteration or membership test.
This corresponds to the magic methods *note __getitem__(): 787, *note
__setitem__(): 1670, *note __delitem__(): 1671. and either *note
__iter__(): 229a. or *note __contains__(): 175c.

     >>> class Container:
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.values = {}
     ...     def __getitem__(self, name):
     ...         return self.values[name]
     ...     def __setitem__(self, name, value):
     ...         self.values[name] = value
     ...     def __delitem__(self, name):
     ...         del self.values[name]
     ...     def __iter__(self):
     ...         return iter(self.values)
     ...
     >>> thing = Container()
     >>> thing['one'] = 1
     >>> with patch.dict(thing, one=2, two=3):
     ...     assert thing['one'] == 2
     ...     assert thing['two'] == 3
     ...
     >>> assert thing['one'] == 1
     >>> assert list(thing) == ['one']


File: python.info,  Node: patch multiple,  Next: patch methods start and stop,  Prev: patch dict,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.11 patch.multiple
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: patch.multiple (target, spec=None, create=False,
          spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs)

     Perform multiple patches in a single call.  It takes the object to
     be patched (either as an object or a string to fetch the object by
     importing) and keyword arguments for the patches:

          with patch.multiple(settings, FIRST_PATCH='one', SECOND_PATCH='two'):
              ...

     Use *note DEFAULT: 4889. as the value if you want
     ‘patch.multiple()’ to create mocks for you.  In this case the
     created mocks are passed into a decorated function by keyword, and
     a dictionary is returned when ‘patch.multiple()’ is used as a
     context manager.

     ‘patch.multiple()’ can be used as a decorator, class decorator or a
     context manager.  The arguments 'spec', 'spec_set', 'create',
     'autospec' and 'new_callable' have the same meaning as for *note
     patch(): 1243.  These arguments will be applied to 'all' patches
     done by ‘patch.multiple()’.

     When used as a class decorator ‘patch.multiple()’ honours
     ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ for choosing which methods to wrap.

If you want *note patch.multiple(): 48b3. to create mocks for you, then
you can use *note DEFAULT: 4889. as the value.  If you use
‘patch.multiple()’ as a decorator then the created mocks are passed into
the decorated function by keyword.

     >>> thing = object()
     >>> other = object()

     >>> @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
     ... def test_function(thing, other):
     ...     assert isinstance(thing, MagicMock)
     ...     assert isinstance(other, MagicMock)
     ...
     >>> test_function()

*note patch.multiple(): 48b3. can be nested with other ‘patch’
decorators, but put arguments passed by keyword 'after' any of the
standard arguments created by *note patch(): 1243.:

     >>> @patch('sys.exit')
     ... @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT)
     ... def test_function(mock_exit, other, thing):
     ...     assert 'other' in repr(other)
     ...     assert 'thing' in repr(thing)
     ...     assert 'exit' in repr(mock_exit)
     ...
     >>> test_function()

If *note patch.multiple(): 48b3. is used as a context manager, the value
returned by the context manager is a dictionary where created mocks are
keyed by name:

     >>> with patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT) as values:
     ...     assert 'other' in repr(values['other'])
     ...     assert 'thing' in repr(values['thing'])
     ...     assert values['thing'] is thing
     ...     assert values['other'] is other
     ...


File: python.info,  Node: patch methods start and stop,  Next: patch builtins,  Prev: patch multiple,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.12 patch methods: start and stop
.......................................

All the patchers have ‘start()’ and ‘stop()’ methods.  These make it
simpler to do patching in ‘setUp’ methods or where you want to do
multiple patches without nesting decorators or with statements.

To use them call *note patch(): 1243, *note patch.object(): 1b25. or
*note patch.dict(): 1b7a. as normal and keep a reference to the returned
‘patcher’ object.  You can then call ‘start()’ to put the patch in place
and ‘stop()’ to undo it.

If you are using *note patch(): 1243. to create a mock for you then it
will be returned by the call to ‘patcher.start’.

     >>> patcher = patch('package.module.ClassName')
     >>> from package import module
     >>> original = module.ClassName
     >>> new_mock = patcher.start()
     >>> assert module.ClassName is not original
     >>> assert module.ClassName is new_mock
     >>> patcher.stop()
     >>> assert module.ClassName is original
     >>> assert module.ClassName is not new_mock

A typical use case for this might be for doing multiple patches in the
‘setUp’ method of a *note TestCase: 52f.:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         self.patcher1 = patch('package.module.Class1')
     ...         self.patcher2 = patch('package.module.Class2')
     ...         self.MockClass1 = self.patcher1.start()
     ...         self.MockClass2 = self.patcher2.start()
     ...
     ...     def tearDown(self):
     ...         self.patcher1.stop()
     ...         self.patcher2.stop()
     ...
     ...     def test_something(self):
     ...         assert package.module.Class1 is self.MockClass1
     ...         assert package.module.Class2 is self.MockClass2
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').run()

     Προσοχή: If you use this technique you must ensure that the
     patching is «undone» by calling ‘stop’.  This can be fiddlier than
     you might think, because if an exception is raised in the ‘setUp’
     then ‘tearDown’ is not called.  *note
     unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): e43. makes this easier:

          >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
          ...     def setUp(self):
          ...         patcher = patch('package.module.Class')
          ...         self.MockClass = patcher.start()
          ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
          ...
          ...     def test_something(self):
          ...         assert package.module.Class is self.MockClass
          ...

     As an added bonus you no longer need to keep a reference to the
     ‘patcher’ object.

It is also possible to stop all patches which have been started by using
*note patch.stopall(): 48b6.

 -- Συνάρτηση: patch.stopall ()

     Stop all active patches.  Only stops patches started with ‘start’.


File: python.info,  Node: patch builtins,  Next: TEST_PREFIX,  Prev: patch methods start and stop,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.13 patch builtins
........................

You can patch any builtins within a module.  The following example
patches builtin *note ord(): 252c.:

     >>> @patch('__main__.ord')
     ... def test(mock_ord):
     ...     mock_ord.return_value = 101
     ...     print(ord('c'))
     ...
     >>> test()
     101


File: python.info,  Node: TEST_PREFIX,  Next: Nesting Patch Decorators,  Prev: patch builtins,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.14 TEST_PREFIX
.....................

All of the patchers can be used as class decorators.  When used in this
way they wrap every test method on the class.  The patchers recognise
methods that start with ‘'test'’ as being test methods.  This is the
same way that the *note unittest.TestLoader: 792. finds test methods by
default.

It is possible that you want to use a different prefix for your tests.
You can inform the patchers of the different prefix by setting
‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’:

     >>> patch.TEST_PREFIX = 'foo'
     >>> value = 3
     >>>
     >>> @patch('__main__.value', 'not three')
     ... class Thing:
     ...     def foo_one(self):
     ...         print(value)
     ...     def foo_two(self):
     ...         print(value)
     ...
     >>>
     >>> Thing().foo_one()
     not three
     >>> Thing().foo_two()
     not three
     >>> value
     3


File: python.info,  Node: Nesting Patch Decorators,  Next: Where to patch,  Prev: TEST_PREFIX,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.15 Nesting Patch Decorators
..................................

If you want to perform multiple patches then you can simply stack up the
decorators.

You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern:

     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method')
     ... @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
     ... def test(mock1, mock2):
     ...     assert SomeClass.static_method is mock1
     ...     assert SomeClass.class_method is mock2
     ...     SomeClass.static_method('foo')
     ...     SomeClass.class_method('bar')
     ...     return mock1, mock2
     ...
     >>> mock1, mock2 = test()
     >>> mock1.assert_called_once_with('foo')
     >>> mock2.assert_called_once_with('bar')

Note that the decorators are applied from the bottom upwards.  This is
the standard way that Python applies decorators.  The order of the
created mocks passed into your test function matches this order.


File: python.info,  Node: Where to patch,  Next: Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects,  Prev: Nesting Patch Decorators,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.16 Where to patch
........................

*note patch(): 1243. works by (temporarily) changing the object that a
'name' points to with another one.  There can be many names pointing to
any individual object, so for patching to work you must ensure that you
patch the name used by the system under test.

The basic principle is that you patch where an object is 'looked up',
which is not necessarily the same place as where it is defined.  A
couple of examples will help to clarify this.

Imagine we have a project that we want to test with the following
structure:

     a.py
         -> Defines SomeClass

     b.py
         -> from a import SomeClass
         -> some_function instantiates SomeClass

Now we want to test ‘some_function’ but we want to mock out ‘SomeClass’
using *note patch(): 1243.  The problem is that when we import module b,
which we will have to do when it imports ‘SomeClass’ from module a.  If
we use ‘patch()’ to mock out ‘a.SomeClass’ then it will have no effect
on our test; module b already has a reference to the 'real' ‘SomeClass’
and it looks like our patching had no effect.

The key is to patch out ‘SomeClass’ where it is used (or where it is
looked up).  In this case ‘some_function’ will actually look up
‘SomeClass’ in module b, where we have imported it.  The patching should
look like:

     @patch('b.SomeClass')

However, consider the alternative scenario where instead of ‘from a
import SomeClass’ module b does ‘import a’ and ‘some_function’ uses
‘a.SomeClass’.  Both of these import forms are common.  In this case the
class we want to patch is being looked up in the module and so we have
to patch ‘a.SomeClass’ instead:

     @patch('a.SomeClass')


File: python.info,  Node: Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects,  Prev: Where to patch,  Up: The patchers

5.27.6.17 Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects
................................................

Both *note patch: 48ad. and *note patch.object: 48af. correctly patch
and restore descriptors: class methods, static methods and properties.
You should patch these on the 'class' rather than an instance.  They
also work with 'some' objects that proxy attribute access, like the
django settings object(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20200603181648/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/weblog/arch_d7_2010_12_04.shtml#e1198


File: python.info,  Node: MagicMock and magic method support,  Next: Helpers,  Prev: The patchers,  Up: unittest mock — mock object library

5.27.6.18 MagicMock and magic method support
............................................

* Menu:

* Mocking Magic Methods::
* Magic Mock::


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking Magic Methods,  Next: Magic Mock,  Up: MagicMock and magic method support

5.27.6.19 Mocking Magic Methods
...............................

*note Mock: e0e. supports mocking the Python protocol methods, also
known as *note «magic methods»: 48be.  This allows mock objects to
replace containers or other objects that implement Python protocols.

Because magic methods are looked up differently from normal methods (1),
this support has been specially implemented.  This means that only
specific magic methods are supported.  The supported list includes
'almost' all of them.  If there are any missing that you need please let
us know.

You mock magic methods by setting the method you are interested in to a
function or a mock instance.  If you are using a function then it 'must'
take ‘self’ as the first argument (2).

     >>> def __str__(self):
     ...     return 'fooble'
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = __str__
     >>> str(mock)
     'fooble'

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__ = Mock()
     >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'fooble'
     >>> str(mock)
     'fooble'

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__iter__ = Mock(return_value=iter([]))
     >>> list(mock)
     []

One use case for this is for mocking objects used as context managers in
a *note with: 20a. statement:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.__enter__ = Mock(return_value='foo')
     >>> mock.__exit__ = Mock(return_value=False)
     >>> with mock as m:
     ...     assert m == 'foo'
     ...
     >>> mock.__enter__.assert_called_with()
     >>> mock.__exit__.assert_called_with(None, None, None)

Calls to magic methods do not appear in *note method_calls: 4890, but
they are recorded in *note mock_calls: 488e.

     Σημείωση: If you use the 'spec' keyword argument to create a mock
     then attempting to set a magic method that isn’t in the spec will
     raise an *note AttributeError: 1a9.

The full list of supported magic methods is:

   * ‘__hash__’, ‘__sizeof__’, ‘__repr__’ and ‘__str__’

   * ‘__dir__’, ‘__format__’ and ‘__subclasses__’

   * ‘__round__’, ‘__floor__’, ‘__trunc__’ and ‘__ceil__’

   * Comparisons: ‘__lt__’, ‘__gt__’, ‘__le__’, ‘__ge__’, ‘__eq__’ and
     ‘__ne__’

   * Container methods: ‘__getitem__’, ‘__setitem__’, ‘__delitem__’,
     ‘__contains__’, ‘__len__’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__reversed__’ and
     ‘__missing__’

   * Context manager: ‘__enter__’, ‘__exit__’, ‘__aenter__’ and
     ‘__aexit__’

   * Unary numeric methods: ‘__neg__’, ‘__pos__’ and ‘__invert__’

   * The numeric methods (including right hand and in-place variants):
     ‘__add__’, ‘__sub__’, ‘__mul__’, ‘__matmul__’, ‘__truediv__’,
     ‘__floordiv__’, ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__lshift__’,
     ‘__rshift__’, ‘__and__’, ‘__xor__’, ‘__or__’, and ‘__pow__’

   * Numeric conversion methods: ‘__complex__’, ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’
     and ‘__index__’

   * Descriptor methods: ‘__get__’, ‘__set__’ and ‘__delete__’

   * Pickling: ‘__reduce__’, ‘__reduce_ex__’, ‘__getinitargs__’,
     ‘__getnewargs__’, ‘__getstate__’ and ‘__setstate__’

   * File system path representation: ‘__fspath__’

   * Asynchronous iteration methods: ‘__aiter__’ and ‘__anext__’

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added support for *note
os.PathLike.__fspath__(): 1010.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added support for ‘__aenter__’, ‘__aexit__’,
‘__aiter__’ and ‘__anext__’.

The following methods exist but are 'not' supported as they are either
in use by mock, can’t be set dynamically, or can cause problems:

   * ‘__getattr__’, ‘__setattr__’, ‘__init__’ and ‘__new__’

   * ‘__prepare__’, ‘__instancecheck__’, ‘__subclasscheck__’, ‘__del__’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Magic methods 'should' be looked up on the class rather than the
instance.  Different versions of Python are inconsistent about applying
this rule.  The supported protocol methods should work with all
supported versions of Python.

   (2) The function is basically hooked up to the class, but each ‘Mock’
instance is kept isolated from the others.


File: python.info,  Node: Magic Mock,  Prev: Mocking Magic Methods,  Up: MagicMock and magic method support

5.27.6.20 Magic Mock
....................

There are two ‘MagicMock’ variants: *note MagicMock: 1240. and *note
NonCallableMagicMock: 4888.

 -- Κλάση: unittest.mock.MagicMock (*args, **kw)

     ‘MagicMock’ is a subclass of *note Mock: e0e. with default
     implementations of most of the *note magic methods: 48be.  You can
     use ‘MagicMock’ without having to configure the magic methods
     yourself.

     The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for *note Mock:
     e0e.

     If you use the 'spec' or 'spec_set' arguments then 'only' magic
     methods that exist in the spec will be created.

 -- Κλάση: unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock (*args, **kw)

     A non-callable version of *note MagicMock: 1240.

     The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for *note
     MagicMock: 1240, with the exception of 'return_value' and
     'side_effect' which have no meaning on a non-callable mock.

The magic methods are setup with *note MagicMock: 1240. objects, so you
can configure them and use them in the usual way:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock[3] = 'fish'
     >>> mock.__setitem__.assert_called_with(3, 'fish')
     >>> mock.__getitem__.return_value = 'result'
     >>> mock[2]
     'result'

By default many of the protocol methods are required to return objects
of a specific type.  These methods are preconfigured with a default
return value, so that they can be used without you having to do anything
if you aren’t interested in the return value.  You can still 'set' the
return value manually if you want to change the default.

Methods and their defaults:

   * ‘__lt__’: *note NotImplemented: 440.

   * ‘__gt__’: ‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__le__’: ‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__ge__’: ‘NotImplemented’

   * ‘__int__’: ‘1’

   * ‘__contains__’: ‘False’

   * ‘__len__’: ‘0’

   * ‘__iter__’: ‘iter([])’

   * ‘__exit__’: ‘False’

   * ‘__aexit__’: ‘False’

   * ‘__complex__’: ‘1j’

   * ‘__float__’: ‘1.0’

   * ‘__bool__’: ‘True’

   * ‘__index__’: ‘1’

   * ‘__hash__’: default hash for the mock

   * ‘__str__’: default str for the mock

   * ‘__sizeof__’: default sizeof for the mock

For example:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> int(mock)
     1
     >>> len(mock)
     0
     >>> list(mock)
     []
     >>> object() in mock
     False

The two equality methods, ‘__eq__()’ and ‘__ne__()’, are special.  They
do the default equality comparison on identity, using the *note
side_effect: 4882. attribute, unless you change their return value to
return something else:

     >>> MagicMock() == 3
     False
     >>> MagicMock() != 3
     True
     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__eq__.return_value = True
     >>> mock == 3
     True

The return value of ‘MagicMock.__iter__()’ can be any iterable object
and isn’t required to be an iterator:

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']

If the return value 'is' an iterator, then iterating over it once will
consume it and subsequent iterations will result in an empty list:

     >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = iter(['a', 'b', 'c'])
     >>> list(mock)
     ['a', 'b', 'c']
     >>> list(mock)
     []

‘MagicMock’ has all of the supported magic methods configured except for
some of the obscure and obsolete ones.  You can still set these up if
you want.

Magic methods that are supported but not setup by default in ‘MagicMock’
are:

   * ‘__subclasses__’

   * ‘__dir__’

   * ‘__format__’

   * ‘__get__’, ‘__set__’ and ‘__delete__’

   * ‘__reversed__’ and ‘__missing__’

   * ‘__reduce__’, ‘__reduce_ex__’, ‘__getinitargs__’, ‘__getnewargs__’,
     ‘__getstate__’ and ‘__setstate__’

   * ‘__getformat__’


File: python.info,  Node: Helpers,  Next: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps,  Prev: MagicMock and magic method support,  Up: unittest mock — mock object library

5.27.6.21 Helpers
.................

* Menu:

* sentinel::
* DEFAULT::
* call::
* create_autospec::
* ANY::
* FILTER_DIR::
* mock_open::
* Autospeccing::
* Sealing mocks::


File: python.info,  Node: sentinel,  Next: DEFAULT,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.22 sentinel
..................

 -- Δεδομένα: unittest.mock.sentinel

     The ‘sentinel’ object provides a convenient way of providing unique
     objects for your tests.

     Attributes are created on demand when you access them by name.
     Accessing the same attribute will always return the same object.
     The objects returned have a sensible repr so that test failure
     messages are readable.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The ‘sentinel’ attributes now preserve
     their identity when they are *note copied: 29. or *note pickled:
     ab.

Sometimes when testing you need to test that a specific object is passed
as an argument to another method, or returned.  It can be common to
create named sentinel objects to test this.  *note sentinel: 18b.
provides a convenient way of creating and testing the identity of
objects like this.

In this example we monkey patch ‘method’ to return
‘sentinel.some_object’:

     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> real.method = Mock(name="method")
     >>> real.method.return_value = sentinel.some_object
     >>> result = real.method()
     >>> assert result is sentinel.some_object
     >>> result
     sentinel.some_object


File: python.info,  Node: DEFAULT,  Next: call,  Prev: sentinel,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.23 DEFAULT
.................

 -- Δεδομένα: unittest.mock.DEFAULT

     The ‘DEFAULT’ object is a pre-created sentinel (actually
     ‘sentinel.DEFAULT’).  It can be used by *note side_effect: 4882.
     functions to indicate that the normal return value should be used.


File: python.info,  Node: call,  Next: create_autospec,  Prev: DEFAULT,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.24 call
..............

 -- Συνάρτηση: unittest.mock.call (*args, **kwargs)

     ‘call()’ is a helper object for making simpler assertions, for
     comparing with *note call_args: 1f5d, *note call_args_list: 4895,
     *note mock_calls: 488e. and *note method_calls: 4890.  ‘call()’ can
     also be used with *note assert_has_calls(): 1c2a.

          >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
          >>> m(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar')
          >>> m()
          >>> m.call_args_list == [call(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar'), call()]
          True

 -- Μέθοδος: call.call_list ()

     For a call object that represents multiple calls, ‘call_list()’
     returns a list of all the intermediate calls as well as the final
     call.

‘call_list’ is particularly useful for making assertions on «chained
calls».  A chained call is multiple calls on a single line of code.
This results in multiple entries in *note mock_calls: 488e. on a mock.
Manually constructing the sequence of calls can be tedious.

*note call_list(): 48c4. can construct the sequence of calls from the
same chained call:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
     <MagicMock name='mock().method().other()()' id='...'>
     >>> kall = call(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0)
     >>> kall.call_list()
     [
         call(1),
         call().method(arg='foo'),
         call().method().other('bar'),
         call().method().other()(2.0),
     ]
     >>> m.mock_calls == kall.call_list()
     True
A ‘call’ object is either a tuple of (positional args, keyword args) or
(name, positional args, keyword args) depending on how it was
constructed.  When you construct them yourself this isn’t particularly
interesting, but the ‘call’ objects that are in the *note
Mock.call_args: 1f5d, *note Mock.call_args_list: 4895. and *note
Mock.mock_calls: 488e. attributes can be introspected to get at the
individual arguments they contain.

The ‘call’ objects in *note Mock.call_args: 1f5d. and *note
Mock.call_args_list: 4895. are two-tuples of (positional args, keyword
args) whereas the ‘call’ objects in *note Mock.mock_calls: 488e, along
with ones you construct yourself, are three-tuples of (name, positional
args, keyword args).

You can use their «tupleness» to pull out the individual arguments for
more complex introspection and assertions.  The positional arguments are
a tuple (an empty tuple if there are no positional arguments) and the
keyword arguments are a dictionary:

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> m(1, 2, 3, arg='one', arg2='two')
     >>> kall = m.call_args
     >>> kall.args
     (1, 2, 3)
     >>> kall.kwargs
     {'arg': 'one', 'arg2': 'two'}
     >>> kall.args is kall[0]
     True
     >>> kall.kwargs is kall[1]
     True

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m.foo(4, 5, 6, arg='two', arg2='three')
     <MagicMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
     >>> kall = m.mock_calls[0]
     >>> name, args, kwargs = kall
     >>> name
     'foo'
     >>> args
     (4, 5, 6)
     >>> kwargs
     {'arg': 'two', 'arg2': 'three'}
     >>> name is m.mock_calls[0][0]
     True


File: python.info,  Node: create_autospec,  Next: ANY,  Prev: call,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.25 create_autospec
.........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: unittest.mock.create_autospec (spec, spec_set=False,
          instance=False, **kwargs)

     Create a mock object using another object as a spec.  Attributes on
     the mock will use the corresponding attribute on the 'spec' object
     as their spec.

     Functions or methods being mocked will have their arguments checked
     to ensure that they are called with the correct signature.

     If 'spec_set' is ‘True’ then attempting to set attributes that
     don’t exist on the spec object will raise an *note AttributeError:
     1a9.

     If a class is used as a spec then the return value of the mock (the
     instance of the class) will have the same spec.  You can use a
     class as the spec for an instance object by passing
     ‘instance=True’.  The returned mock will only be callable if
     instances of the mock are callable.

     ‘create_autospec()’ also takes arbitrary keyword arguments that are
     passed to the constructor of the created mock.

See *note Autospeccing: 4885. for examples of how to use auto-speccing
with *note create_autospec(): 1b4e. and the 'autospec' argument to *note
patch(): 1243.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: *note create_autospec(): 1b4e. now returns an
*note AsyncMock: e0d. if the target is an async function.


File: python.info,  Node: ANY,  Next: FILTER_DIR,  Prev: create_autospec,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.26 ANY
.............

 -- Δεδομένα: unittest.mock.ANY

Sometimes you may need to make assertions about 'some' of the arguments
in a call to mock, but either not care about some of the arguments or
want to pull them individually out of *note call_args: 1f5d. and make
more complex assertions on them.

To ignore certain arguments you can pass in objects that compare equal
to 'everything'.  Calls to *note assert_called_with(): 1ff2. and *note
assert_called_once_with(): 488c. will then succeed no matter what was
passed in.

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock('foo', bar=object())
     >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar=ANY)

*note ANY: 1fa1. can also be used in comparisons with call lists like
*note mock_calls: 488e.:

     >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None)
     >>> m(1)
     >>> m(1, 2)
     >>> m(object())
     >>> m.mock_calls == [call(1), call(1, 2), ANY]
     True

*note ANY: 1fa1. is not limited to comparisons with call objects and so
can also be used in test assertions:

     class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):

         def test_split(self):
             s = 'hello world'
             self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', ANY])


File: python.info,  Node: FILTER_DIR,  Next: mock_open,  Prev: ANY,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.27 FILTER_DIR
....................

 -- Δεδομένα: unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR

*note FILTER_DIR: 4892. is a module level variable that controls the way
mock objects respond to *note dir(): a23.  The default is ‘True’, which
uses the filtering described below, to only show useful members.  If you
dislike this filtering, or need to switch it off for diagnostic
purposes, then set ‘mock.FILTER_DIR = False’.

With filtering on, ‘dir(some_mock)’ shows only useful attributes and
will include any dynamically created attributes that wouldn’t normally
be shown.  If the mock was created with a 'spec' (or 'autospec' of
course) then all the attributes from the original are shown, even if
they haven’t been accessed yet:

     >>> dir(Mock())
     ['assert_any_call',
      'assert_called',
      'assert_called_once',
      'assert_called_once_with',
      'assert_called_with',
      'assert_has_calls',
      'assert_not_called',
      'attach_mock',
      ...
     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> dir(Mock(spec=request))
     ['AbstractBasicAuthHandler',
      'AbstractDigestAuthHandler',
      'AbstractHTTPHandler',
      'BaseHandler',
      ...

Many of the not-very-useful (private to *note Mock: e0e. rather than the
thing being mocked) underscore and double underscore prefixed attributes
have been filtered from the result of calling *note dir(): a23. on a
‘Mock’.  If you dislike this behaviour you can switch it off by setting
the module level switch *note FILTER_DIR: 4892.:

     >>> from unittest import mock
     >>> mock.FILTER_DIR = False
     >>> dir(mock.Mock())
     ['_NonCallableMock__get_return_value',
      '_NonCallableMock__get_side_effect',
      '_NonCallableMock__return_value_doc',
      '_NonCallableMock__set_return_value',
      '_NonCallableMock__set_side_effect',
      '__call__',
      '__class__',
      ...

Alternatively you can just use ‘vars(my_mock)’ (instance members) and
‘dir(type(my_mock))’ (type members) to bypass the filtering irrespective
of *note FILTER_DIR: 4892.


File: python.info,  Node: mock_open,  Next: Autospeccing,  Prev: FILTER_DIR,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.28 mock_open
...................

 -- Συνάρτηση: unittest.mock.mock_open (mock=None, read_data=None)

     A helper function to create a mock to replace the use of *note
     open(): 32b.  It works for ‘open()’ called directly or used as a
     context manager.

     The 'mock' argument is the mock object to configure.  If ‘None’
     (the default) then a *note MagicMock: 1240. will be created for
     you, with the API limited to methods or attributes available on
     standard file handles.

     'read_data' is a string for the *note read(): 11d0, *note
     readline(): 16ce, and *note readlines(): 29bb. methods of the file
     handle to return.  Calls to those methods will take data from
     'read_data' until it is depleted.  The mock of these methods is
     pretty simplistic: every time the 'mock' is called, the 'read_data'
     is rewound to the start.  If you need more control over the data
     that you are feeding to the tested code you will need to customize
     this mock for yourself.  When that is insufficient, one of the
     in-memory filesystem packages on PyPI(1) can offer a realistic
     filesystem for testing.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added *note readline(): 16ce. and *note
     readlines(): 29bb. support.  The mock of *note read(): 11d0.
     changed to consume 'read_data' rather than returning it on each
     call.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: 'read_data' is now reset on each call to
     the 'mock'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added *note __iter__(): 229a. to
     implementation so that iteration (such as in for loops) correctly
     consumes 'read_data'.

Using *note open(): 32b. as a context manager is a great way to ensure
your file handles are closed properly and is becoming common:

     with open('/some/path', 'w') as f:
         f.write('something')

The issue is that even if you mock out the call to *note open(): 32b. it
is the 'returned object' that is used as a context manager (and has
*note __enter__(): 9c6. and *note __exit__(): 16a5. called).

Mocking context managers with a *note MagicMock: 1240. is common enough
and fiddly enough that a helper function is useful.

     >>> m = mock_open()
     >>> with patch('__main__.open', m):
     ...     with open('foo', 'w') as h:
     ...         h.write('some stuff')
     ...
     >>> m.mock_calls
     [call('foo', 'w'),
      call().__enter__(),
      call().write('some stuff'),
      call().__exit__(None, None, None)]
     >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo', 'w')
     >>> handle = m()
     >>> handle.write.assert_called_once_with('some stuff')

And for reading files:

     >>> with patch('__main__.open', mock_open(read_data='bibble')) as m:
     ...     with open('foo') as h:
     ...         result = h.read()
     ...
     >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo')
     >>> assert result == 'bibble'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: Autospeccing,  Next: Sealing mocks,  Prev: mock_open,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.29 Autospeccing
......................

Autospeccing is based on the existing ‘spec’ feature of mock.  It limits
the api of mocks to the api of an original object (the spec), but it is
recursive (implemented lazily) so that attributes of mocks only have the
same api as the attributes of the spec.  In addition mocked functions /
methods have the same call signature as the original so they raise a
*note TypeError: 291. if they are called incorrectly.

Before I explain how auto-speccing works, here’s why it is needed.

*note Mock: e0e. is a very powerful and flexible object, but it suffers
from a flaw which is general to mocking.  If you refactor some of your
code, rename members and so on, any tests for code that is still using
the 'old api' but uses mocks instead of the real objects will still
pass.  This means your tests can all pass even though your code is
broken.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Before 3.5, tests with a typo in the word assert
would silently pass when they should raise an error.  You can still
achieve this behavior by passing ‘unsafe=True’ to Mock.

Note that this is another reason why you need integration tests as well
as unit tests.  Testing everything in isolation is all fine and dandy,
but if you don’t test how your units are «wired together» there is still
lots of room for bugs that tests might have caught.

‘unittest.mock’ already provides a feature to help with this, called
speccing.  If you use a class or instance as the ‘spec’ for a mock then
you can only access attributes on the mock that exist on the real class:

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=request.Request)
     >>> mock.assret_called_with  # Intentional typo!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'

The spec only applies to the mock itself, so we still have the same
issue with any methods on the mock:

     >>> mock.header_items()
     <mock.Mock object at 0x...>
     >>> mock.header_items.assret_called_with()  # Intentional typo!

Auto-speccing solves this problem.  You can either pass ‘autospec=True’
to *note patch(): 1243. / *note patch.object(): 1b25. or use the *note
create_autospec(): 1b4e. function to create a mock with a spec.  If you
use the ‘autospec=True’ argument to ‘patch()’ then the object that is
being replaced will be used as the spec object.  Because the speccing is
done «lazily» (the spec is created as attributes on the mock are
accessed) you can use it with very complex or deeply nested objects
(like modules that import modules that import modules) without a big
performance hit.

Here’s an example of it in use:

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> patcher = patch('__main__.request', autospec=True)
     >>> mock_request = patcher.start()
     >>> request is mock_request
     True
     >>> mock_request.Request
     <MagicMock name='request.Request' spec='Request' id='...'>

You can see that ‘request.Request’ has a spec.  ‘request.Request’ takes
two arguments in the constructor (one of which is 'self').  Here’s what
happens if we try to call it incorrectly:

     >>> req = request.Request()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     TypeError: <lambda>() takes at least 2 arguments (1 given)

The spec also applies to instantiated classes (i.e.  the return value of
specced mocks):

     >>> req = request.Request('foo')
     >>> req
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='request.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>

‘Request’ objects are not callable, so the return value of instantiating
our mocked out ‘request.Request’ is a non-callable mock.  With the spec
in place any typos in our asserts will raise the correct error:

     >>> req.add_header('spam', 'eggs')
     <MagicMock name='request.Request().add_header()' id='...'>
     >>> req.add_header.assret_called_with  # Intentional typo!
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with'
     >>> req.add_header.assert_called_with('spam', 'eggs')

In many cases you will just be able to add ‘autospec=True’ to your
existing *note patch(): 1243. calls and then be protected against bugs
due to typos and api changes.

As well as using 'autospec' through *note patch(): 1243. there is a
*note create_autospec(): 1b4e. for creating autospecced mocks directly:

     >>> from urllib import request
     >>> mock_request = create_autospec(request)
     >>> mock_request.Request('foo', 'bar')
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='mock.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'>

This isn’t without caveats and limitations however, which is why it is
not the default behaviour.  In order to know what attributes are
available on the spec object, autospec has to introspect (access
attributes) the spec.  As you traverse attributes on the mock a
corresponding traversal of the original object is happening under the
hood.  If any of your specced objects have properties or descriptors
that can trigger code execution then you may not be able to use
autospec.  On the other hand it is much better to design your objects so
that introspection is safe (1).

A more serious problem is that it is common for instance attributes to
be created in the *note __init__(): 2fa. method and not to exist on the
class at all.  'autospec' can’t know about any dynamically created
attributes and restricts the api to visible attributes.

     >>> class Something:
     ...   def __init__(self):
     ...     self.a = 33
     ...
     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'

There are a few different ways of resolving this problem.  The easiest,
but not necessarily the least annoying, way is to simply set the
required attributes on the mock after creation.  Just because 'autospec'
doesn’t allow you to fetch attributes that don’t exist on the spec it
doesn’t prevent you setting them:

     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a = 33
     ...

There is a more aggressive version of both 'spec' and 'autospec' that
'does' prevent you setting non-existent attributes.  This is useful if
you want to ensure your code only 'sets' valid attributes too, but
obviously it prevents this particular scenario:

     >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True, spec_set=True):
     ...   thing = Something()
     ...   thing.a = 33
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a'

Probably the best way of solving the problem is to add class attributes
as default values for instance members initialised in *note __init__():
2fa.  Note that if you are only setting default attributes in
‘__init__()’ then providing them via class attributes (shared between
instances of course) is faster too.  e.g.

     class Something:
         a = 33

This brings up another issue.  It is relatively common to provide a
default value of ‘None’ for members that will later be an object of a
different type.  ‘None’ would be useless as a spec because it wouldn’t
let you access 'any' attributes or methods on it.  As ‘None’ is 'never'
going to be useful as a spec, and probably indicates a member that will
normally of some other type, autospec doesn’t use a spec for members
that are set to ‘None’.  These will just be ordinary mocks (well -
MagicMocks):

     >>> class Something:
     ...     member = None
     ...
     >>> mock = create_autospec(Something)
     >>> mock.member.foo.bar.baz()
     <MagicMock name='mock.member.foo.bar.baz()' id='...'>

If modifying your production classes to add defaults isn’t to your
liking then there are more options.  One of these is simply to use an
instance as the spec rather than the class.  The other is to create a
subclass of the production class and add the defaults to the subclass
without affecting the production class.  Both of these require you to
use an alternative object as the spec.  Thankfully *note patch(): 1243.
supports this - you can simply pass the alternative object as the
'autospec' argument:

     >>> class Something:
     ...   def __init__(self):
     ...     self.a = 33
     ...
     >>> class SomethingForTest(Something):
     ...   a = 33
     ...
     >>> p = patch('__main__.Something', autospec=SomethingForTest)
     >>> mock = p.start()
     >>> mock.a
     <NonCallableMagicMock name='Something.a' spec='int' id='...'>

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This only applies to classes or already instantiated objects.
Calling a mocked class to create a mock instance 'does not' create a
real instance.  It is only attribute lookups - along with calls to *note
dir(): a23. - that are done.


File: python.info,  Node: Sealing mocks,  Prev: Autospeccing,  Up: Helpers

5.27.6.30 Sealing mocks
.......................

 -- Συνάρτηση: unittest.mock.seal (mock)

     Seal will disable the automatic creation of mocks when accessing an
     attribute of the mock being sealed or any of its attributes that
     are already mocks recursively.

     If a mock instance with a name or a spec is assigned to an
     attribute it won’t be considered in the sealing chain.  This allows
     one to prevent seal from fixing part of the mock object.

          >>> mock = Mock()
          >>> mock.submock.attribute1 = 2
          >>> mock.not_submock = mock.Mock(name="sample_name")
          >>> seal(mock)
          >>> mock.new_attribute  # This will raise AttributeError.
          >>> mock.submock.attribute2  # This will raise AttributeError.
          >>> mock.not_submock.attribute2  # This won't raise.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps,  Prev: Helpers,  Up: unittest mock — mock object library

5.27.6.31 Order of precedence of ‘side_effect’, ‘return_value’ and 'wraps'
..........................................................................

The order of their precedence is:

  1. *note side_effect: 4882.

  2. *note return_value: 488a.

  3. 'wraps'

If all three are set, mock will return the value from *note side_effect:
4882, ignoring *note return_value: 488a. and the wrapped object
altogether.  If any two are set, the one with the higher precedence will
return the value.  Regardless of the order of which was set first, the
order of precedence remains unchanged.

     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock
     >>> class Order:
     ...     @staticmethod
     ...     def get_value():
     ...         return "third"
     ...
     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first"]
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first'

As ‘None’ is the default value of *note side_effect: 4882, if you
reassign its value back to ‘None’, the order of precedence will be
checked between *note return_value: 488a. and the wrapped object,
ignoring ‘side_effect’.

     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

If the value being returned by *note side_effect: 4882. is *note
DEFAULT: 4889, it is ignored and the order of precedence moves to the
successor to obtain the value to return.

     >>> from unittest.mock import DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = [DEFAULT]
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

When *note Mock: e0e. wraps an object, the default value of *note
return_value: 488a. will be *note DEFAULT: 4889.

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.return_value
     sentinel.DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value
     sentinel.DEFAULT

The order of precedence will ignore this value and it will move to the
last successor which is the wrapped object.

As the real call is being made to the wrapped object, creating an
instance of this mock will return the real instance of the class.  The
positional arguments, if any, required by the wrapped object must be
passed.

     >>> order_mock_instance = order_mock()
     >>> isinstance(order_mock_instance, Order)
     True
     >>> order_mock_instance.get_value()
     'third'

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'third'

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'

But if you assign ‘None’ to it, this will not be ignored as it is an
explicit assignment.  So, the order of precedence will not move to the
wrapped object.

     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value() is None
     True

Even if you set all three at once when initializing the mock, the order
of precedence remains the same:

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order,
     ...                   **{"get_value.side_effect": ["first"],
     ...                      "get_value.return_value": "second"}
     ...                   )
     ...
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first'
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'second'
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'third'

If *note side_effect: 4882. is exhausted, the order of precedence will
not cause a value to be obtained from the successors.  Instead,
‘StopIteration’ exception is raised.

     >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order)
     >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first side effect value",
     ...                                     "another side effect value"]
     >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second"

     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'first side effect value'
     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     'another side effect value'

     >>> order_mock.get_value()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
      ...
     StopIteration


File: python.info,  Node: unittest mock — ξεκινώντας,  Next: test — Regression tests package for Python,  Prev: unittest mock — mock object library,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.7 ‘unittest.mock’ — ξεκινώντας
-----------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

* Menu:

* Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης (Mock): Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock.
* Patch decorators::
* Further examples::


File: python.info,  Node: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock,  Next: Patch decorators,  Up: unittest mock — ξεκινώντας

5.27.7.1 Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης (Mock)
......................................

* Menu:

* Mock patching methods::
* Mock for method calls on an object::
* Mocking classes::
* Ονομασία των προσομοιώσεών σας::
* Tracking all calls::
* Setting return values and attributes::
* Πρόκληση εξαιρέσεων με προσομοιώσεις::
* Συναρτήσεις παρενέργειας και iterables::
* Προσομοίωση ασύγχρονων επαναληπτών::
* Προσομοίωση ασύγχρονου διαχειριστή περιεχομένου::
* Creating a mock from an existing object::
* Χρήση του side_effect για επιστροφή περιεχομένου ανά αρχείο::


File: python.info,  Node: Mock patching methods,  Next: Mock for method calls on an object,  Up: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock

5.27.7.2 Mock patching methods
..............................

Κοινές χρήσεις για αντικείμενα *note Mock: e0e. περιλαμβάνουν:

   * Επιδιόρθωση (Patching) μεθόδων

   * Καταγραφή κλήσεων μεθόδων σε αντικείμενα

Ίσως θέλετε να αντικαταστήσετε μια μέθοδο σε ένα αντικείμενο για να
ελέγξετε ότι καλείται με τα σωστά ορίσματα από ένα άλλο μέρος του
συστήματος:

     >>> real = SomeClass()
     >>> real.method = MagicMock(name='method')
     >>> real.method(3, 4, 5, key='value')
     <MagicMock name='method()' id='...'>

Μόλις χρησιμοποιηθεί η προσομοίωσή μας (‘real.method’ σε αυτό το
παράδειγμα) θα έχει μεθόδους και χαρακτηριστικά που σας επιτρέπουν να
κάνετε δηλώσεις σχετικά με το πώς έχει χρησιμοποιηθεί.

     Σημείωση: Στα περισσότερα από αυτά τα παραδείγματα οι κλάσεις *note
     Mock: e0e. και *note MagicMock: 1240. είναι εναλλάξιμες.  Καθώς η
     ‘MagicMock’ είναι η πιο ικανή κλάση, αποτελεί μια λογική επιλογή
     για χρήση από προεπιλογή.

Μόλις κληθεί η προσομοίωση, το χαρακτηριστικό *note called: 4894.
ορίζεται σε ‘True’.  Πιο σημαντικό είναι ότι μπορούμε να
χρησιμοποιήσουμε τη μέθοδο *note assert_called_with(): 1ff2. ή *note
assert_called_once_with(): 488c. για να ελέγξουμε ότι κλήθηκε με τα
σωστά ορίσματα.

Αυτό το παράδειγμα ελέγχει ότι η κλήση της ‘ProductionClass().method’
έχει ως αποτέλεσμα μια κλήση στη μέθοδο ‘something’:

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         self.something(1, 2, 3)
     ...     def something(self, a, b, c):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> real.something = MagicMock()
     >>> real.method()
     >>> real.something.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)


File: python.info,  Node: Mock for method calls on an object,  Next: Mocking classes,  Prev: Mock patching methods,  Up: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock

5.27.7.3 Mock for method calls on an object
...........................................

Στο τελευταίο παράδειγμα επιδιορθώσαμε μια μέθοδο απευθείας σε ένα
αντικείμενο για να ελέγξουμε ότι κλήθηκε σωστά.  Μια άλλη κοινή χρήση
είναι να περάσουμε ένα αντικείμενο σε μια μέθοδο (ή σε κάποιο μέρος του
συστήματος υπό δοκιμή) και στη συνέχεια να ελέγξουμε ότι χρησιμοποιείται
με τον σωστό τρόπο.

Η απλή ‘ProductionClass’ παρακάτω έχει μια μέθοδο ‘closer’.  Εάν κληθεί
με ένα αντικείμενο, τότε καλεί τη μέθοδο ‘close’ σε αυτό.

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def closer(self, something):
     ...         something.close()
     ...

Έτσι, για να το δοκιμάσουμε, πρέπει να περάσουμε ένα αντικείμενο με μια
μέθοδο ‘close’ και να ελέγξουμε ότι κλήθηκε σωστά.

     >>> real = ProductionClass()
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> real.closer(mock)
     >>> mock.close.assert_called_with()

Δεν χρειάζεται να κάνουμε καμία εργασία για να παρέχουμε τη μέθοδο
“close” στην προσομοίωσή μας.  Η πρόσβαση στο close τη δημιουργεί.
Έτσι, αν το “close” δεν έχει ήδη κληθεί, τότε η πρόσβαση σε αυτό στη
δοκιμή θα το δημιουργήσει, αλλά η *note assert_called_with(): 1ff2. θα
κάνει raise μια εξαίρεση αποτυχίας.


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking classes,  Next: Ονομασία των προσομοιώσεών σας,  Prev: Mock for method calls on an object,  Up: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock

5.27.7.4 Mocking classes
........................

Μια συνηθισμένη περίπτωση χρήσης είναι η προσομοίωση κλάσεων που
δημιουργούνται από τον κώδικα υπό δοκιμή.  Όταν επιδιορθώνετε (patch)
μια κλάση, τότε αυτή η κλάση αντικαθίσταται με μια προσομοίωση.  Τα
στιγμιότυπα δημιουργούνται με την 'κλήση της κλάσης'.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι
έχετε πρόσβαση στο «στιγμιότυπο προσομοίωσης» εξετάζοντας την τιμή
επιστροφής της προσομοιωμένης κλάσης.

Στο παρακάτω παράδειγμα έχουμε μια συνάρτηση ‘some_function’ που
δημιουργεί ένα στιγμιότυπο της ‘Foo’ και καλεί μια μέθοδο σε αυτό.  Η
κλήση στη *note patch(): 1243. αντικαθιστά την κλάση ‘Foo’ με μια
προσομοίωση.  Το στιγμιότυπο της ‘Foo’ είναι το αποτέλεσμα της κλήσης
της προσομοίωσης, οπότε διαμορφώνεται τροποποιώντας το χαρακτηριστικό
*note return_value: 488a. της προσομοίωσης.

     >>> def some_function():
     ...     instance = module.Foo()
     ...     return instance.method()
     ...
     >>> with patch('module.Foo') as mock:
     ...     instance = mock.return_value
     ...     instance.method.return_value = 'the result'
     ...     result = some_function()
     ...     assert result == 'the result'


File: python.info,  Node: Ονομασία των προσομοιώσεών σας,  Next: Tracking all calls,  Prev: Mocking classes,  Up: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock

5.27.7.5 Ονομασία των προσομοιώσεών σας
.......................................

Μπορεί να είναι χρήσιμο να δώσετε στις προσομοιώσεις σας ένα όνομα.  Το
όνομα εμφανίζεται στην αναπαράσταση (repr) της προσομοίωσης και μπορεί
να είναι χρήσιμο όταν η προσομοίωση εμφανίζεται σε μηνύματα αποτυχίας
δοκιμών.  Το όνομα επίσης μεταδίδεται σε χαρακτηριστικά ή μεθόδους της
προσομοίωσης:

     >>> mock = MagicMock(name='foo')
     >>> mock
     <MagicMock name='foo' id='...'>
     >>> mock.method
     <MagicMock name='foo.method' id='...'>


File: python.info,  Node: Tracking all calls,  Next: Setting return values and attributes,  Prev: Ονομασία των προσομοιώσεών σας,  Up: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock

5.27.7.6 Tracking all calls
...........................

Συχνά θέλετε να παρακολουθείτε περισσότερες από μία κλήσεις σε μια
μέθοδο.  Το χαρακτηριστικό *note mock_calls: 488e. καταγράφει όλες τις
κλήσεις σε θυγατρικά χαρακτηριστικά της προσομοίωσης - και επίσης στα
παιδιά τους.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.method()
     <MagicMock name='mock.method()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.attribute.method(10, x=53)
     <MagicMock name='mock.attribute.method()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]

Εάν κάνετε μια δήλωση σχετικά με το ‘mock_calls’ και έχουν κληθεί
απροσδόκητες μέθοδοι, τότε η δήλωση θα αποτύχει.  Αυτό είναι χρήσιμο
επειδή εκτός από το να δηλώνετε ότι οι κλήσεις που περιμένατε έχουν
γίνει, ελέγχετε επίσης ότι έγιναν με τη σωστή σειρά και χωρίς επιπλέον
κλήσεις:

Χρησιμοποιήστε το αντικείμενο *note call: 1fa3. για να κατασκευάσετε
λίστες για σύγκριση με το ‘mock_calls’:

     >>> expected = [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)]
     >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
     True

Ωστόσο, οι παράμετροι σε κλήσεις που επιστρέφουν προσομοιώσεις δεν
καταγράφονται, που σημαίνει ότι δεν είναι δυνατή η παρακολούθηση
εμφωλευμένων κλήσεων όπου οι παράμετροι που χρησιμοποιούνται για τη
δημιουργία προγόνων είναι σημαντικοί:

     >>> m = Mock()
     >>> m.factory(important=True).deliver()
     <Mock name='mock.factory().deliver()' id='...'>
     >>> m.mock_calls[-1] == call.factory(important=False).deliver()
     True


File: python.info,  Node: Setting return values and attributes,  Next: Πρόκληση εξαιρέσεων με προσομοιώσεις,  Prev: Tracking all calls,  Up: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock

5.27.7.7 Setting return values and attributes
.............................................

Ορισμός των τιμών επιστροφής σε ένα αντικείμενο προσομοίωσης είναι
εξαιρετικά εύκολος:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.return_value = 3
     >>> mock()
     3

Φυσικά μπορείτε να κάνετε το ίδιο για μεθόδους στην προσομοίωση:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.method.return_value = 3
     >>> mock.method()
     3

Η τιμή επιστροφής μπορεί επίσης να οριστεί στον κατασκευαστή:

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3)
     >>> mock()
     3

Εάν χρειάζεστε έναν ορισμό χαρακτηριστικού στην προσομοίωσή σας, απλώς
κάντε το:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.x = 3
     >>> mock.x
     3

Μερικές φορές θέλετε να προσομοιώσετε μια πιο σύνθετη κατάσταση, όπως
για παράδειγμα ‘mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")’.  Εάν
θέλαμε αυτή τη κλήση να επιστρέψει μια λίστα, τότε πρέπει να
διαμορφώσουμε το αποτέλεσμα της εμφωλευμένης κλήσης.

Μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε το αντικείμενο *note call: 1fa3. για να
κατασκευάσουμε την λίστα των κλήσεων σε μια «αλυσιδωτή κλήση» όπως αυτή
για εύκολη δήλωση αργότερα:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> cursor = mock.connection.cursor.return_value
     >>> cursor.execute.return_value = ['foo']
     >>> mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")
     ['foo']
     >>> expected = call.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1").call_list()
     >>> mock.mock_calls
     [call.connection.cursor(), call.connection.cursor().execute('SELECT 1')]
     >>> mock.mock_calls == expected
     True

Είναι η κλήση στο ‘.call_list()’ που μετατρέπει το αντικείμενο κλήσης σε
μια λίστα κλήσεων που αντιπροσωπεύουν τις αλυσιδωτές κλήσεις.


File: python.info,  Node: Πρόκληση εξαιρέσεων με προσομοιώσεις,  Next: Συναρτήσεις παρενέργειας και iterables,  Prev: Setting return values and attributes,  Up: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock

5.27.7.8 Πρόκληση εξαιρέσεων με προσομοιώσεις
.............................................

Ένα χρήσιμο χαρακτηριστικό είναι το *note side_effect: 4882.  Εάν το
ορίσετε σε μια κλάση εξαίρεσης ή ένα στιγμιότυπο, τότε η εξαίρεση θα
γίνει raise όταν κληθεί η προσομοίωση.

     >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=Exception('Boom!'))
     >>> mock()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     Exception: Boom!


File: python.info,  Node: Συναρτήσεις παρενέργειας και iterables,  Next: Προσομοίωση ασύγχρονων επαναληπτών,  Prev: Πρόκληση εξαιρέσεων με προσομοιώσεις,  Up: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock

5.27.7.9 Συναρτήσεις παρενέργειας και iterables
...............................................

Το ‘side_effect’ μπορεί επίσης να οριστεί σε μια συνάρτηση ή ένα
iterable.  Η χρήση του ‘side_effect’ ως iterable είναι όταν η
προσομοίωσή σας πρόκειται να κληθεί αρκετές φορές, και θέλετε κάθε κλήση
να επιστρέφει μια διαφορετική τιμή.  Όταν ορίζετε το ‘side_effect’ σε
ένα iterable, κάθε κλήση στην προσομοίωση επιστρέφει την επόμενη τιμή
από το iterable:

     >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=[4, 5, 6])
     >>> mock()
     4
     >>> mock()
     5
     >>> mock()
     6

Για πιο προηγμένες χρήσεις, όπως η δυναμική μεταβολή των τιμών
επιστροφής ανάλογα με το πώς καλείται η προσομοίωση, το ‘side_effect’
μπορεί να είναι μια συνάρτηση.  Η συνάρτηση θα κληθεί με τα ίδια
ορίσματα με την προσομοίωση.  Ό,τι επιστρέφει η συνάρτηση είναι αυτό που
επιστρέφει η κλήση:

     >>> vals = {(1, 2): 1, (2, 3): 2}
     >>> def side_effect(*args):
     ...     return vals[args]
     ...
     >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect)
     >>> mock(1, 2)
     1
     >>> mock(2, 3)
     2


File: python.info,  Node: Προσομοίωση ασύγχρονων επαναληπτών,  Next: Προσομοίωση ασύγχρονου διαχειριστή περιεχομένου,  Prev: Συναρτήσεις παρενέργειας και iterables,  Up: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock

5.27.7.10 Προσομοίωση ασύγχρονων επαναληπτών
............................................

Από την έκδοση Python 3.8, οι ‘AsyncMock’ και ‘MagicMock’ έχουν
υποστήριξη για την προσομοίωση *note ασύγχρονων επαναληπτών: 1130. μέσω
του ‘__aiter__’.  Το χαρακτηριστικό *note return_value: 488a. του
‘__aiter__’ μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να ορίσει τις τιμές επιστροφής
που θα χρησιμοποιηθούν για την επανάληψη.

     >>> mock = MagicMock()  # AsyncMock also works here
     >>> mock.__aiter__.return_value = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> async def main():
     ...     return [i async for i in mock]
     ...
     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     [1, 2, 3]


File: python.info,  Node: Προσομοίωση ασύγχρονου διαχειριστή περιεχομένου,  Next: Creating a mock from an existing object,  Prev: Προσομοίωση ασύγχρονων επαναληπτών,  Up: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock

5.27.7.11 Προσομοίωση ασύγχρονου διαχειριστή περιεχομένου
.........................................................

Από την έκδοση Python 3.8, οι ‘AsyncMock’ και ‘MagicMock’ έχουν
υποστήριξη για την προσομοίωση *note ασύγχρονων διαχειριστών: 9f3. μέσω
των ‘__aenter__’ και ‘__aexit__’.  Από προεπιλογή, οι ‘__aenter__’ και
‘__aexit__’ είναι στιγμιότυπα ‘AsyncMock’ που επιστρέφουν μια ασύγχρονη
συνάρτηση.

     >>> class AsyncContextManager:
     ...     async def __aenter__(self):
     ...         return self
     ...     async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> mock_instance = MagicMock(AsyncContextManager())  # AsyncMock also works here
     >>> async def main():
     ...     async with mock_instance as result:
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> asyncio.run(main())
     >>> mock_instance.__aenter__.assert_awaited_once()
     >>> mock_instance.__aexit__.assert_awaited_once()


File: python.info,  Node: Creating a mock from an existing object,  Next: Χρήση του side_effect για επιστροφή περιεχομένου ανά αρχείο,  Prev: Προσομοίωση ασύγχρονου διαχειριστή περιεχομένου,  Up: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock

5.27.7.12 Creating a mock from an existing object
.................................................

Ένα πρόβλημα με την υπερβολική χρήση της προσομοίωσης είναι ότι συνδέει
τις δοκιμές σας με την υλοποίηση των προσομοιώσεών σας αντί με τον
πραγματικό κώδικα.  Υποθέστε ότι έχετε μια κλάση που υλοποιεί την
‘some_method’.  Σε μια δοκιμή για μια άλλη κλάση, παρέχετε μια
προσομοίωση αυτού του αντικειμένου που 'επίσης' παρέχει την
‘some_method’.  Εάν αργότερα αναδιαρθρώσετε την πρώτη κλάση, έτσι ώστε
να μην έχει πλέον την ‘some_method’ - τότε οι δοκιμές σας θα συνεχίσουν
να περνούν, παρόλο που ο κώδικάς σας είναι τώρα σπασμένος!

*note Mock: e0e. σας επιτρέπει να παρέχετε ένα αντικείμενο ως
προδιαγραφή για την προσομοίωση, χρησιμοποιώντας το όρισμα
λέξης-κλειδιού 'spec'.  Η πρόσβαση σε μεθόδους / χαρακτηριστικά στην
προσομοίωση που δεν υπάρχουν στο αντικείμενο προδιαγραφής σας θα γίνει
raise αμέσως ένα σφάλμα χαρακτηριστικού.  Εάν αλλάξετε την υλοποίηση της
προδιαγραφής σας, τότε οι δοκιμές που χρησιμοποιούν αυτή την κλάση θα
αρχίσουν να αποτυγχάνουν αμέσως χωρίς να χρειάζεται να δημιουργήσετε ένα
στιγμιότυπο της κλάσης σε αυτές τις δοκιμές.

     >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass)
     >>> mock.old_method()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'old_method'. Did you mean: 'class_method'?

Η χρήση μιας προδιαγραφής επιτρέπει επίσης μια πιο έξυπνη αντιστοίχιση
των κλήσεων που γίνονται στην προσομοίωση, ανεξάρτητα από το αν
ορισμένες παράμετροι περάστηκαν ως ορισμένες ή ονομαστικές παραμέτρους:

     >>> def f(a, b, c): pass
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(spec=f)
     >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
     <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'>
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3)

Εάν θέλετε αυτή η πιο έξυπνη αντιστοίχιση να λειτουργεί επίσης με
κλήσεις μεθόδων στην προσομοίωση, μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε *note
auto-speccing: 4885.

Εάν θέλετε μια πιο ισχυρή μορφή προδιαγραφής που αποτρέπει τον ορισμό
αυθαίρετων χαρακτηριστικών καθώς και την πρόσβαση σε αυτά, τότε μπορείτε
να χρησιμοποιήσετε το 'spec_set' αντί για το 'spec'.


File: python.info,  Node: Χρήση του side_effect για επιστροφή περιεχομένου ανά αρχείο,  Prev: Creating a mock from an existing object,  Up: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock

5.27.7.13 Χρήση του side_effect για επιστροφή περιεχομένου ανά αρχείο
.....................................................................

Η *note mock_open(): 1390. χρησιμοποιείται για την επιδιόρθωση (patch)
της *note open(): 32b. μεθόδου.  Το *note side_effect: 4882. μπορεί να
χρησιμοποιηθεί για την επιστροφή ενός νέου αντικειμένου Mock ανά κλήση.
Αυτό μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την επιστροφή διαφορετικών
περιεχομένων ανά αρχείο που αποθηκεύονται σε ένα λεξικό:

     DEFAULT = "default"
     data_dict = {"file1": "data1",
                  "file2": "data2"}

     def open_side_effect(name):
         return mock_open(read_data=data_dict.get(name, DEFAULT))()

     with patch("builtins.open", side_effect=open_side_effect):
         with open("file1") as file1:
             assert file1.read() == "data1"

         with open("file2") as file2:
             assert file2.read() == "data2"

         with open("file3") as file2:
             assert file2.read() == "default"


File: python.info,  Node: Patch decorators,  Next: Further examples,  Prev: Χρήση της Προσομοίωσης Mock,  Up: unittest mock — ξεκινώντας

5.27.7.14 Patch decorators
..........................

     Σημείωση: Με την *note patch(): 1243. έχει σημασία να επιδιορθώνετε
     αντικείμενα στο χώρο ονομάτων όπου αναζητούνται.  Αυτό είναι
     συνήθως απλό, αλλά για έναν γρήγορο οδηγό διαβάστε *note where to
     patch: 4883.

Μια κοινή ανάγκη στις δοκιμές είναι να επιδιορθώσετε ένα χαρακτηριστικό
κλάσης ή ένα χαρακτηριστικό μονάδας, για παράδειγμα επιδιόρθωση ενός
ενσωματωμένου ή επιδιόρθωση μιας κλάσης σε μια μονάδα για να ελέγξετε
ότι δημιουργείται.  Οι μονάδες και οι κλάσεις είναι ουσιαστικά
παγκόσμιες, οπότε η επιδιόρθωση σε αυτές πρέπει να αναιρεθεί μετά τη
δοκιμή ή η επιδιόρθωση θα επιμείνει σε άλλες δοκιμές και θα προκαλέσει
προβλήματα που είναι δύσκολα να διαγνωστούν.

Η προσομοίωση παρέχει τρεις βολικούς διακοσμητές για αυτό: *note
patch(): 1243, *note patch.object(): 1b25. και *note patch.dict(): 1b7a.
Η ‘patch’ παίρνει μια μοναδική συμβολοσειρά, της μορφής
‘package.module.Class.attribute’ για να καθορίσει το χαρακτηριστικό που
επιδιορθώνετε.  Επίσης παίρνει προαιρετικά μια τιμή με την οποία θέλετε
να αντικατασταθεί το χαρακτηριστικό (ή η κλάση ή οτιδήποτε).
“patch.object” παίρνει ένα αντικείμενο και το όνομα του χαρακτηριστικού
που θα θέλατε να επιδιορθώσετε, συν προαιρετικά την τιμή με την οποία θα
το επιδιορθώσετε.

‘patch.object’:

     >>> original = SomeClass.attribute
     >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     assert SomeClass.attribute == sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()
     >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original

     >>> @patch('package.module.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     from package.module import attribute
     ...     assert attribute is sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()

Εάν επιδιορθώνετε ένα module (συμπεριλαμβανομένου του *note builtins:
13.), τότε χρησιμοποιήστε την *note patch(): 1243. αντί για την *note
patch.object(): 1b25.:

     >>> mock = MagicMock(return_value=sentinel.file_handle)
     >>> with patch('builtins.open', mock):
     ...     handle = open('filename', 'r')
     ...
     >>> mock.assert_called_with('filename', 'r')
     >>> assert handle == sentinel.file_handle, "incorrect file handle returned"

Το όνομα του module μπορεί να είναι “τελεία”, με τη μορφή
‘package.module’ εάν χρειάζεται:

     >>> @patch('package.module.ClassName.attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ... def test():
     ...     from package.module import ClassName
     ...     assert ClassName.attribute == sentinel.attribute
     ...
     >>> test()

Ένα ωραίο μοτίβο είναι να διακοσμείτε πραγματικά τις μεθόδους δοκιμής:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute)
     ...     def test_something(self):
     ...         self.assertEqual(SomeClass.attribute, sentinel.attribute)
     ...
     >>> original = SomeClass.attribute
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()
     >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original

Εάν θέλετε να επιδιορθώσετε με μια προσομοίωση, μπορείτε να
χρησιμοποιήσετε *note patch(): 1243. με μόνο ένα όρισμα (ή *note
patch.object(): 1b25. με δύο ορίσματα).  Η προσομοίωση θα δημιουργηθεί
για εσάς και θα περαστεί στη συνάρτηση / μέθοδο δοκιμής:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method')
     ...     def test_something(self, mock_method):
     ...         SomeClass.static_method()
     ...         mock_method.assert_called_with()
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()

Μπορείτε να στοιβάξετε πολλαπλούς διακοσμητές επιδιόρθωσης
χρησιμοποιώντας

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     @patch('package.module.ClassName1')
     ...     @patch('package.module.ClassName2')
     ...     def test_something(self, MockClass2, MockClass1):
     ...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName1, MockClass1)
     ...         self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName2, MockClass2)
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something()

Όταν εμφωλεύετε διακοσμητές επιδιόρθωσης, οι προσομοιώσεις περνιούνται
στη διακοσμημένη συνάρτηση με την ίδια σειρά που εφαρμόστηκαν (η
κανονική τάξη 'Python' με την οποία εφαρμόζονται οι διακοσμητές).  Αυτό
σημαίνει από κάτω προς τα πάνω, οπότε στο παραπάνω παράδειγμα η
προσομοίωση για το ‘test_module.ClassName2’ περνάει πρώτη.

Υπάρχει επίσης η *note patch.dict(): 1b7a. για τον ορισμό τιμών σε ένα
λεξικό μόνο κατά τη διάρκεια ενός πεδίου και την αποκατάσταση του
λεξικού στην αρχική του κατάσταση όταν τελειώνει η δοκιμή:

     >>> foo = {'key': 'value'}
     >>> original = foo.copy()
     >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True):
     ...     assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'}
     ...
     >>> assert foo == original

Η ‘patch’, η ‘patch.object’ και η ‘patch.dict’ μπορούν όλες να
χρησιμοποιηθούν ως διαχειριστές συμφραζομένων.

Όπου χρησιμοποιείτε την *note patch(): 1243. για να δημιουργήσετε μια
προσομοίωση για εσάς, μπορείτε να λάβετε μια αναφορά στην προσομοίωση
χρησιμοποιώντας τη μορφή «as» της δήλωσης with:

     >>> class ProductionClass:
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method') as mock_method:
     ...     mock_method.return_value = None
     ...     real = ProductionClass()
     ...     real.method(1, 2, 3)
     ...
     >>> mock_method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3)

Ως εναλλακτική, η ‘patch’, η ‘patch.object’ και η ‘patch.dict’ μπορούν
να χρησιμοποιηθούν ως διακοσμητές κλάσης.  Όταν χρησιμοποιούνται με
αυτόν τον τρόπο, είναι το ίδιο με την εφαρμογή του διακοσμητή ξεχωριστά
σε κάθε μέθοδο του οποίου το όνομα ξεκινά με «test».


File: python.info,  Node: Further examples,  Prev: Patch decorators,  Up: unittest mock — ξεκινώντας

5.27.7.15 Further examples
..........................

Εδώ είναι μερικά ακόμη παραδείγματα για μερικά ελαφρώς πιο προηγμένα
σενάρια.

* Menu:

* Προσομοίωση αλυσιδωτών κλήσεων::
* Μερική προσομοίωση::
* Mocking a generator method::
* Εφαρμογή της ίδιας επιδιόρθωσης σε κάθε μέθοδο δοκιμής::
* Mocking unbound methods::
* Έλεγχος πολλαπλών κλήσεων με προσομοίωση::
* Αντιμετώπιση μεταβλητών ορισμάτων::
* Nesting patches::
* Προσομοίωση ενός λεξικού με το MagicMock::
* Υποκλάσεις Mock και τα χαρακτηριστικά τους::
* Προσομοίωση εισαγωγών με το patch.dict: Προσομοίωση εισαγωγών με το patch dict.
* Παρακολούθηση της σειράς κλήσεων και λιγότερο λεκτικές δηλώσεις κλήσεων::
* Πιο σύνθετη αντιστοίχιση ορισμάτων::


File: python.info,  Node: Προσομοίωση αλυσιδωτών κλήσεων,  Next: Μερική προσομοίωση,  Up: Further examples

5.27.7.16 Προσομοίωση αλυσιδωτών κλήσεων
........................................

Η προσομοίωση αλυσιδωτών κλήσεων είναι στην πραγματικότητα απλή με την
προσομοίωση μόλις κατανοήσετε το χαρακτηριστικό *note return_value:
488a.  Όταν καλείται μια προσομοίωση για πρώτη φορά, ή λαμβάνετε την
‘return_value’ της πριν καλεστεί, δημιουργείται μια νέα *note Mock: e0e.

Αυτό σημαίνει ότι μπορείτε να δείτε πώς έχει χρησιμοποιηθεί το
αντικείμενο που επιστρέφεται από μια κλήση σε ένα προσομοιωμένο
αντικείμενο, εξετάζοντας την προσομοίωση ‘return_value’:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock().foo(a=2, b=3)
     <Mock name='mock().foo()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.return_value.foo.assert_called_with(a=2, b=3)

Από εδώ είναι ένα απλό βήμα για τη διαμόρφωση και στη συνέχεια τη
δημιουργία δηλώσεων σχετικά με τις αλυσιδωτές κλήσεις.  Φυσικά μια άλλη
εναλλακτική είναι να γράψετε τον κώδικά σας με πιο δοκιμαστικό τρόπο από
την αρχή…

Λοιπόν, υποθέτουμε ότι έχουμε κάποιο κώδικα που μοιάζει λίγο με αυτό:

     >>> class Something:
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.backend = BackendProvider()
     ...     def method(self):
     ...         response = self.backend.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
     ...         # more code

Υποθέτοντας ότι το ‘BackendProvider’ έχει ήδη δοκιμαστεί καλά, πώς
δοκιμάζουμε τη ‘method()’; Συγκεκριμένα, θέλουμε να δοκιμάσουμε ότι η
ενότητα κώδικα ‘# more code’ χρησιμοποιεί το αντικείμενο απόκρισης με
τον σωστό τρόπο.

Καθώς αυτή η αλυσίδα κλήσεων γίνεται από ένα χαρακτηριστικό
στιγμιότυπου, μπορούμε να επιδιορθώσουμε (monkey patch) το
χαρακτηριστικό ‘backend’ σε ένα στιγμιότυπο ‘Something’.  Σε αυτή την
συγκεκριμένη περίπτωση, μας ενδιαφέρει μόνο η τιμή επιστροφής από την
τελική κλήση στο ‘start_call’, οπότε δεν έχουμε πολλή διαμόρφωση να
κάνουμε.  Ας υποθέσουμε ότι το αντικείμενο που επιστρέφει είναι “σαν
αρχείο”, οπότε θα διασφαλίσουμε ότι το αντικείμενο απόκρισης μας
χρησιμοποιεί την ενσωματωμένη *note open(): 32b. ως το ‘spec’ της.

Για να το κάνουμε αυτό, δημιουργούμε ένα στιγμιότυπο προσομοίωσης ως το
mock backend μας και δημιουργούμε ένα αντικείμενο προσομοίωσης απόκρισης
για αυτό.  Για να ορίσουμε την απόκριση ως την τιμή επιστροφής για
εκείνο το τελικό ‘start_call’, θα μπορούσαμε να κάνουμε αυτό:

     mock_backend.get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value = mock_response

Μπορούμε να το κάνουμε με έναν ελαφρώς πιο ωραίο τρόπο χρησιμοποιώντας
τη *note configure_mock(): 488b. μέθοδο για να ορίσουμε απευθείας την
τιμή επιστροφής για εμάς:

     >>> something = Something()
     >>> mock_response = Mock(spec=open)
     >>> mock_backend = Mock()
     >>> config = {'get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value': mock_response}
     >>> mock_backend.configure_mock(**config)

Με αυτά, επιδιορθώνουμε (monkey patch) το «mock backend» στη θέση του
και μπορούμε να κάνουμε την πραγματική κλήση:

     >>> something.backend = mock_backend
     >>> something.method()

Με το χαρακτηριστικό *note mock_calls: 488e. μπορούμε να ελέγξουμε την
αλυσιδωτή κλήση με μια μοναδική δήλωση.  Μια αλυσιδωτή κλήση είναι
πολλές κλήσεις σε μία γραμμή κώδικα, οπότε θα υπάρχουν πολλές εισαγωγές
στο ‘mock_calls’.  Μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε τη *note
call.call_list(): 48c4. για να δημιουργήσουμε αυτή τη λίστα κλήσεων για
εμάς:

     >>> chained = call.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call()
     >>> call_list = chained.call_list()
     >>> assert mock_backend.mock_calls == call_list


File: python.info,  Node: Μερική προσομοίωση,  Next: Mocking a generator method,  Prev: Προσομοίωση αλυσιδωτών κλήσεων,  Up: Further examples

5.27.7.17 Μερική προσομοίωση
............................

Για ορισμένες δοκιμές, μπορεί να θέλετε να προσομοιώσετε μια κλήση στη
*note datetime.date.today(): 186c. για να επιστρέψετε μια γνωστή
ημερομηνία, αλλά δεν θέλετε να αποτρέψετε τον κώδικα υπό δοκιμή από τη
δημιουργία νέων αντικειμένων ημερομηνίας.  Δυστυχώς, η *note
datetime.date: 48d. είναι γραμμένη σε C, οπότε δεν μπορείτε απλώς να
κάνετε monkey-patch στη στατική ‘datetime.date.today()’ μέθοδο.

Αντίθετα, μπορείτε ουσιαστικά να τυλίξετε την κλάση ημερομηνίας με μια
προσομοίωση, ενώ περνάτε κλήσεις στον κατασκευαστή στην πραγματική κλάση
(και επιστρέφοντας πραγματικά στιγμιότυπα).

Η *note patch decorator: 1243. χρησιμοποιείται εδώ για να επιδιορθώσετε
την κλάση ημερομηνίας στο μοντέλο υπό δοκιμή.  Το χαρακτηριστικό *note
side_effect: 4882. στην προσομοίωση της κλάσης ημερομηνίας ρυθμίζεται
στη συνέχεια σε μια συνάρτηση λάμδα που επιστρέφει μια πραγματική
ημερομηνία.  Όταν καλείται η προσομοίωση της κλάσης ημερομηνίας, θα
κατασκευαστεί και θα επιστραφεί μια πραγματική ημερομηνία από το
‘side_effect’.

     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> with patch('mymodule.date') as mock_date:
     ...     mock_date.today.return_value = dt.date(2010, 10, 8)
     ...     mock_date.side_effect = lambda *args, **kw: dt.date(*args, **kw)
     ...
     ...     assert mymodule.date.today() == dt.date(2010, 10, 8)
     ...     assert mymodule.date(2009, 6, 8) == dt.date(2009, 6, 8)

Σημειώστε ότι δεν επιδιορθώνουμε παγκοσμίως την *note datetime.date:
48d, αλλά επιδιορθώνουμε την ‘date’ στο μοντέλο που τη 'χρησιμοποιεί'.
Δείτε *note where to patch: 4883.

Όταν καλείται το ‘date.today()’, επιστρέφεται μια γνωστή ημερομηνία,
αλλά οι κλήσεις στον κατασκευαστή ‘date(...)’ εξακολουθούν να
επιστρέφουν κανονικές ημερομηνίες.  Χωρίς αυτό, μπορεί να βρεθείτε να
πρέπει να υπολογίσετε ένα αναμενόμενο αποτέλεσμα χρησιμοποιώντας ακριβώς
τον ίδιο αλγόριθμο με τον κώδικα υπό δοκιμή, που είναι ένα κλασικό
αντι-μοτίβο δοκιμών.

Οι κλήσεις στον κατασκευαστή ημερομηνίας καταγράφονται στα
χαρακτηριστικά του ‘mock_date’ (‘call_count’ και φίλοι), τα οποία μπορεί
επίσης να είναι χρήσιμα για τις δοκιμές σας.

Ένας εναλλακτικός τρόπος αντιμετώπισης της προσομοίωσης ημερομηνιών ή
άλλων ενσωματωμένων κλάσεων, συζητείται σε αυτή την καταχώρηση
ιστολογίου(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://williambert.online/2011/07/how-to-unit-testing-in-django-with-mocking-and-patching/


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking a generator method,  Next: Εφαρμογή της ίδιας επιδιόρθωσης σε κάθε μέθοδο δοκιμής,  Prev: Μερική προσομοίωση,  Up: Further examples

5.27.7.18 Mocking a generator method
....................................

Μια γεννήτρια Python είναι μια συνάρτηση ή μέθοδος που χρησιμοποιεί τη
*note yield: d93. δήλωση για να επιστρέψει μια σειρά τιμών όταν γίνεται
επανάληψη πάνω της (1).

Μια μέθοδος / συνάρτηση γεννήτριας καλείται για να επιστρέψει το
αντικείμενο γεννήτριας.  Είναι το αντικείμενο γεννήτριας που στη
συνέχεια επαναλαμβάνεται.  Η μέθοδος πρωτοκόλλου για την επανάληψη είναι
η *note __iter__(): 229a, οπότε μπορούμε να την προσομοιώσουμε
χρησιμοποιώντας μια *note MagicMock: 1240.

Εδώ είναι ένα παράδειγμα κλάσης με μια μέθοδο «iter» που υλοποιείται ως
γεννήτρια:

     >>> class Foo:
     ...     def iter(self):
     ...         for i in [1, 2, 3]:
     ...             yield i
     ...
     >>> foo = Foo()
     >>> list(foo.iter())
     [1, 2, 3]

Πώς θα προσομοιώναμε αυτή την κλάση, και συγκεκριμένα τη μέθοδο της
«iter»;

Για να διαμορφώσουμε τις τιμές που επιστρέφονται από την επανάληψη (ρητά
στην κλήση στη *note list: 4d9.), πρέπει να διαμορφώσουμε το αντικείμενο
που επιστρέφεται από την κλήση στο ‘foo.iter()’.

     >>> mock_foo = MagicMock()
     >>> mock_foo.iter.return_value = iter([1, 2, 3])
     >>> list(mock_foo.iter())
     [1, 2, 3]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Υπάρχουν επίσης εκφράσεις γεννητριών και πιο προηγμένες χρήσεις
(http://www.dabeaz.com/coroutines/index.html) γεννητριών, αλλά δεν μας
απασχολούν εδώ.  Μια πολύ καλή εισαγωγή στις γεννήτριες και πόσο ισχυρές
είναι: Generator Tricks for Systems Programmers
(http://www.dabeaz.com/generators/).


File: python.info,  Node: Εφαρμογή της ίδιας επιδιόρθωσης σε κάθε μέθοδο δοκιμής,  Next: Mocking unbound methods,  Prev: Mocking a generator method,  Up: Further examples

5.27.7.19 Εφαρμογή της ίδιας επιδιόρθωσης σε κάθε μέθοδο δοκιμής
................................................................

Εάν θέλετε να υπάρχουν πολλές επιδιορθώσεις για πολλαπλές μεθόδους
δοκιμής, ο προφανής τρόπος είναι να εφαρμόσετε τους διακοσμητές
επιδιόρθωσης σε κάθε μέθοδο.  Αυτό μπορεί να φαίνεται σαν περιττή
επανάληψη.  Αντίθετα, μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε την *note patch():
1243. (σε όλες τις διάφορες μορφές της) ως διακοσμητή κλάσης.  Αυτό
εφαρμόζει τις επιδιορθώσεις σε όλες τις μεθόδους δοκιμής στην κλάση.
Μια μέθοδος δοκιμής αναγνωρίζεται από μεθόδους των οποίων τα ονόματα
ξεκινούν με ‘test’:

     >>> @patch('mymodule.SomeClass')
     ... class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def test_one(self, MockSomeClass):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
     ...
     ...     def test_two(self, MockSomeClass):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass)
     ...
     ...     def not_a_test(self):
     ...         return 'something'
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_one').test_one()
     >>> MyTest('test_two').test_two()
     >>> MyTest('test_two').not_a_test()
     'something'

Ένας εναλλακτικός τρόπος διαχείρισης των επιδιορθώσεων είναι η χρήση των
*note patch methods; start and stop: 48b5.  Αυτά σας επιτρέπουν να
μετακινήσετε την επιδιόρθωση στις μεθόδους σας ‘setUp’ και ‘tearDown’.

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         self.patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
     ...         self.mock_foo = self.patcher.start()
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
     ...
     ...     def tearDown(self):
     ...         self.patcher.stop()
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()

Εάν χρησιμοποιήσετε αυτήν την τεχνική, πρέπει να διασφαλίσετε ότι η
επιδιόρθωση αναιρείται καλώντας το ‘stop’.  Αυτό μπορεί να είναι πιο
περίπλοκο από ό,τι μπορεί να νομίζετε, επειδή εάν γίνει raise μια
εξαίρεση στο setUp, τότε το tearDown δεν καλείται.  Η *note
unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): e43. καθιστά αυτό πιο εύκολο:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...     def setUp(self):
     ...         patcher = patch('mymodule.foo')
     ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
     ...         self.mock_foo = patcher.start()
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo)
     ...
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()


File: python.info,  Node: Mocking unbound methods,  Next: Έλεγχος πολλαπλών κλήσεων με προσομοίωση,  Prev: Εφαρμογή της ίδιας επιδιόρθωσης σε κάθε μέθοδο δοκιμής,  Up: Further examples

5.27.7.20 Mocking unbound methods
.................................

Μερικές φορές μια δοκιμή χρειάζεται να επιδιορθώσει μια 'μη δεσμευμένη
μέθοδο', που σημαίνει την επιδιόρθωση της μεθόδου στην κλάση αντί για το
στιγμιότυπο.  Για να κάνετε δηλώσεις σχετικά με το ποια αντικείμενα
καλούσαν αυτή τη συγκεκριμένη μέθοδο, πρέπει να περάσετε το ‘self’ ως
πρώτο όρισμα.  Το πρόβλημα είναι ότι δεν μπορείτε να επιδιορθώσετε με
μια προσομοίωση για αυτό, επειδή αν αντικαταστήσετε μια μη δεσμευμένη
μέθοδο με μια προσομοίωση, δεν γίνεται δεσμευμένη μέθοδος όταν ανακτάται
από το στιγμιότυπο, και έτσι δεν περνάει το ‘self’.  Η λύση είναι να
επιδιορθώσετε τη μη δεσμευμένη μέθοδο με μια πραγματική συνάρτηση αντί
για αυτό.  Ο διακοσμητής *note patch(): 1243. το καθιστά τόσο απλό να
επιδιορθώνετε μεθόδους με μια προσομοίωση που η ανάγκη δημιουργίας μιας
πραγματικής συνάρτησης γίνεται ενοχλητική.

Εάν περάσετε το ‘autospec=True’ στην επιδιόρθωση, τότε γίνεται η
επιδιόρθωση με ένα 'πραγματικό' αντικείμενο συνάρτησης.  Αυτό το
αντικείμενο συνάρτησης έχει την ίδια υπογραφή με αυτό που αντικαθιστά,
αλλά αναθέτει σε μια προσομοίωση κάτω από την κουκούλα.  Ακόμα λαμβάνετε
την προσομοίωσή σας που δημιουργείται αυτόματα με ακριβώς τον ίδιο τρόπο
όπως πριν.  Αυτό που σημαίνει, όμως, είναι ότι αν το χρησιμοποιήσετε για
να επιδιορθώσετε μια μη δεσμευμένη μέθοδο σε μια κλάση, η προσομοιωμένη
συνάρτηση θα μετατραπεί σε δεσμευμένη μέθοδο εάν ανακτηθεί από ένα
στιγμιότυπο.  Θα έχει το ‘self’ που περνάει ως πρώτο όρισμα, που είναι
ακριβώς αυτό που χρειαζόταν:

     >>> class Foo:
     ...   def foo(self):
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> with patch.object(Foo, 'foo', autospec=True) as mock_foo:
     ...   mock_foo.return_value = 'foo'
     ...   foo = Foo()
     ...   foo.foo()
     ...
     'foo'
     >>> mock_foo.assert_called_once_with(foo)

Εάν δεν χρησιμοποιήσουμε το ‘autospec=True’, τότε η μη δεσμευμένη
μέθοδος επιδιορθώνεται με ένα στιγμιότυπο Mock αντίθετα, και δεν
καλείται με το ‘self’.


File: python.info,  Node: Έλεγχος πολλαπλών κλήσεων με προσομοίωση,  Next: Αντιμετώπιση μεταβλητών ορισμάτων,  Prev: Mocking unbound methods,  Up: Further examples

5.27.7.21 Έλεγχος πολλαπλών κλήσεων με προσομοίωση
..................................................

Η προσομοίωση έχει ένα ωραίο API για τη δημιουργία δηλώσεων σχετικά με
το πώς χρησιμοποιούνται τα αντικείμενα προσομοίωσής σας.

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> mock.foo_bar.return_value = None
     >>> mock.foo_bar('baz', spam='eggs')
     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_with('baz', spam='eggs')

Εάν η προσομοίωσή σας καλείται μόνο μία φορά, μπορείτε να
χρησιμοποιήσετε τη *note assert_called_once_with(): 488c. μέθοδο που
επίσης δηλώνει ότι το *note call_count: 19a6. είναι ένα.

     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
     >>> mock.foo_bar()
     >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected 'foo_bar' to be called once. Called 2 times.
     Calls: [call('baz', spam='eggs'), call()].

Και οι δύο ‘assert_called_with’ και ‘assert_called_once_with’ κάνουν
δηλώσεις σχετικά με την 'τελευταία' κλήση.  Εάν η προσομοίωσή σας
πρόκειται να καλείται πολλές φορές, και θέλετε να κάνετε δηλώσεις
σχετικά με 'όλες' αυτές τις κλήσεις, μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε το
*note call_args_list: 4895.:

     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock(1, 2, 3)
     >>> mock(4, 5, 6)
     >>> mock()
     >>> mock.call_args_list
     [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]

Ο βοηθός *note call: 1fa3. καθιστά εύκολο να κάνετε δηλώσεις σχετικά με
αυτές τις κλήσεις.  Μπορείτε να δημιουργήσετε μια λίστα με τις
αναμενόμενες κλήσεις και να τη συγκρίνετε με το ‘call_args_list’.  Αυτό
μοιάζει αξιοσημείωτα με το repr του ‘call_args_list’:

     >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()]
     >>> mock.call_args_list == expected
     True


File: python.info,  Node: Αντιμετώπιση μεταβλητών ορισμάτων,  Next: Nesting patches,  Prev: Έλεγχος πολλαπλών κλήσεων με προσομοίωση,  Up: Further examples

5.27.7.22 Αντιμετώπιση μεταβλητών ορισμάτων
...........................................

Μια άλλη κατάσταση που είναι σπάνια, αλλά μπορεί να σας δαγκώσει, είναι
όταν η προσομοίωσή σας καλείται με μεταβλητά ορίσματα.  Το ‘call_args’
και το ‘call_args_list’ αποθηκεύουν 'αναφορές' στα ορίσματα.  Εάν τα
ορίσματα μεταβλητοποιηθούν από τον κώδικα υπό δοκιμή, τότε δεν μπορείτε
πλέον να κάνετε δηλώσεις σχετικά με το ποιες ήταν οι τιμές όταν κλήθηκε
η προσομοίωση.

Εδώ είναι μερικοί παραδείγματα κώδικα που δείχνουν το πρόβλημα.
Φανταστείτε τις παρακάτω συναρτήσεις ορισμένες στο “mymodule”:

     def frob(val):
         pass

     def grob(val):
         "First frob and then clear val"
         frob(val)
         val.clear()

Όταν προσπαθήσουμε να δοκιμάσουμε ότι το ‘grob’ καλεί το ‘frob’ με το
σωστό όρισμα, δείτε τι συμβαίνει:

     >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
     ...     val = {6}
     ...     mymodule.grob(val)
     ...
     >>> val
     set()
     >>> mock_frob.assert_called_with({6})
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected: (({6},), {})
     Called with: ((set(),), {})

Μια πιθανότητα θα ήταν για την προσομοίωση να αντιγράψει τα ορίσματα που
περνάτε.  Αυτό θα μπορούσε στη συνέχεια να προκαλέσει προβλήματα εάν
κάνετε δηλώσεις που βασίζονται στην ταυτότητα αντικειμένου για την
ισότητα.

Here’s one solution that uses the *note side_effect: 4882.
functionality.  If you provide a ‘side_effect’ function for a mock then
‘side_effect’ will be called with the same args as the mock.  This gives
us an opportunity to copy the arguments and store them for later
assertions.  In this example we’re using 'another' mock to store the
arguments so that we can use the mock methods for doing the assertion.
Again a helper function sets this up for us.

     >>> from copy import deepcopy
     >>> from unittest.mock import Mock, patch, DEFAULT
     >>> def copy_call_args(mock):
     ...     new_mock = Mock()
     ...     def side_effect(*args, **kwargs):
     ...         args = deepcopy(args)
     ...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
     ...         new_mock(*args, **kwargs)
     ...         return DEFAULT
     ...     mock.side_effect = side_effect
     ...     return new_mock
     ...
     >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob:
     ...     new_mock = copy_call_args(mock_frob)
     ...     val = {6}
     ...     mymodule.grob(val)
     ...
     >>> new_mock.assert_called_with({6})
     >>> new_mock.call_args
     call({6})

Το ‘copy_call_args’ καλείται με την προσομοίωση που θα κληθεί.
Επιστρέφει μια νέα προσομοίωση στην οποία κάνουμε τη δήλωση.  Η
συνάρτηση ‘side_effect’ κάνει ένα αντίγραφο των ορισμάτων και καλεί τη
‘new_mock’ με το αντίγραφο.

     Σημείωση: Εάν η προσομοίωσή σας πρόκειται να χρησιμοποιηθεί μόνο
     μία φορά, υπάρχει ένας ευκολότερος τρόπος ελέγχου των ορισμάτων στο
     σημείο που καλούνται.  Μπορείτε απλά να κάνετε τον έλεγχο μέσα σε
     μια ‘side_effect’ συνάρτηση.

          >>> def side_effect(arg):
          ...     assert arg == {6}
          ...
          >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect)
          >>> mock({6})
          >>> mock(set())
          Traceback (most recent call last):
              ...
          AssertionError

Μια εναλλακτική προσέγγιση είναι να δημιουργήσετε μια υποκλάση της *note
Mock: e0e. ή *note MagicMock: 1240. που αντιγράφει (χρησιμοποιώντας τη
*note copy.deepcopy(): f2b.) τα ορίσματα.  Εδώ είναι ένα παράδειγμα
υλοποίησης:

     >>> from copy import deepcopy
     >>> class CopyingMock(MagicMock):
     ...     def __call__(self, /, *args, **kwargs):
     ...         args = deepcopy(args)
     ...         kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs)
     ...         return super().__call__(*args, **kwargs)
     ...
     >>> c = CopyingMock(return_value=None)
     >>> arg = set()
     >>> c(arg)
     >>> arg.add(1)
     >>> c.assert_called_with(set())
     >>> c.assert_called_with(arg)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: expected call not found.
     Expected: mock({1})
     Actual: mock(set())
     >>> c.foo
     <CopyingMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>

Όταν υποκλάσετε το ‘Mock’ ή το ‘MagicMock’, όλα τα δυναμικά
δημιουργημένα χαρακτηριστικά, και το ‘return_value’ θα χρησιμοποιούν την
υποκλάση σας αυτόματα.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι όλα τα παιδιά ενός
‘CopyingMock’ θα έχουν επίσης τον τύπο ‘CopyingMock’.


File: python.info,  Node: Nesting patches,  Next: Προσομοίωση ενός λεξικού με το MagicMock,  Prev: Αντιμετώπιση μεταβλητών ορισμάτων,  Up: Further examples

5.27.7.23 Nesting patches
.........................

Η χρήση της επιδιόρθωσης ως διαχειριστής περιβάλλοντος είναι ωραία, αλλά
αν κάνετε πολλαπλές επιδιορθώσεις, μπορεί να καταλήξετε με
επικαλυπτόμενες δηλώσεις with που εσοχίζουν όλο και περισσότερο προς τα
δεξιά:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         with patch('mymodule.Foo') as mock_foo:
     ...             with patch('mymodule.Bar') as mock_bar:
     ...                 with patch('mymodule.Spam') as mock_spam:
     ...                     assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
     ...                     assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
     ...                     assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
     ...
     >>> original = mymodule.Foo
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').test_foo()
     >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original

Με τις λειτουργίες καθαρισμού του unittest και το *note patch methods;
start and stop: 48b5. μπορούμε να επιτύχουμε το ίδιο αποτέλεσμα χωρίς
την εμφωλευμένη εσοχή.  Μια απλή βοηθητική μέθοδος, ‘create_patch’,
τοποθετεί την επιδιόρθωση στη θέση της και επιστρέφει την δημιουργημένη
προσομοίωση για εμάς:

     >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase):
     ...
     ...     def create_patch(self, name):
     ...         patcher = patch(name)
     ...         thing = patcher.start()
     ...         self.addCleanup(patcher.stop)
     ...         return thing
     ...
     ...     def test_foo(self):
     ...         mock_foo = self.create_patch('mymodule.Foo')
     ...         mock_bar = self.create_patch('mymodule.Bar')
     ...         mock_spam = self.create_patch('mymodule.Spam')
     ...
     ...         assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo
     ...         assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar
     ...         assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam
     ...
     >>> original = mymodule.Foo
     >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()
     >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original


File: python.info,  Node: Προσομοίωση ενός λεξικού με το MagicMock,  Next: Υποκλάσεις Mock και τα χαρακτηριστικά τους,  Prev: Nesting patches,  Up: Further examples

5.27.7.24 Προσομοίωση ενός λεξικού με το MagicMock
..................................................

Ίσως θέλετε να προσομοιώσετε ένα λεξικό ή άλλο αντικείμενο κοντέινερ,
καταγράφοντας όλη την πρόσβαση σε αυτό, ενώ εξακολουθεί να
συμπεριφέρεται σαν λεξικό.

Μπορούμε να το κάνουμε αυτό με την *note MagicMock: 1240, η οποία θα
συμπεριφέρεται σαν λεξικό, και χρησιμοποιώντας το *note side_effect:
4882. για να αναθέσουμε την πρόσβαση στο λεξικό σε ένα πραγματικό
υποκείμενο λεξικό που είναι υπό τον έλεγχό μας.

Όταν οι μέθοδοι *note __getitem__(): 787. και *note __setitem__(): 1670.
του ‘MagicMock’ μας καλούνται (κανονική πρόσβαση λεξικού), τότε το
‘side_effect’ καλείται με το κλειδί (και στην περίπτωση του
‘__setitem__’ και την τιμή επίσης).  Μπορούμε επίσης να ελέγξουμε τι
επιστρέφεται.

Μετά τη χρήση του ‘MagicMock’, μπορούμε να χρησιμοποιήσουμε
χαρακτηριστικά όπως το *note call_args_list: 4895. για να κάνουμε
δηλώσεις σχετικά με το πώς χρησιμοποιήθηκε το λεξικό:

     >>> my_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
     >>> def getitem(name):
     ...      return my_dict[name]
     ...
     >>> def setitem(name, val):
     ...     my_dict[name] = val
     ...
     >>> mock = MagicMock()
     >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
     >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem

     Σημείωση: Μια εναλλακτική λύση στη χρήση του ‘MagicMock’ είναι να
     χρησιμοποιήσετε το ‘Mock’ και να παρέχετε 'μόνο' τις μαγικές
     μεθόδους που θέλετε συγκεκριμένα:

          >>> mock = Mock()
          >>> mock.__getitem__ = Mock(side_effect=getitem)
          >>> mock.__setitem__ = Mock(side_effect=setitem)

     Μια 'τρίτη' επιλογή είναι να χρησιμοποιήσετε το ‘MagicMock’ αλλά
     περνώντας το ‘dict’ ως όρισμα 'spec' (ή 'spec_set'), έτσι ώστε το
     δημιουργημένο ‘MagicMock’ να έχει διαθέσιμες μόνο τις μαγικές
     μεθόδους λεξικού:

          >>> mock = MagicMock(spec_set=dict)
          >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem
          >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem

Με αυτές τις λειτουργίες side effect στη θέση τους, το ‘mock’ θα
συμπεριφέρεται σαν ένα κανονικό λεξικό αλλά καταγράφοντας την πρόσβαση.
Ακόμα κάνει raise μια *note KeyError: 7df. εάν προσπαθήσετε να
αποκτήσετε πρόσβαση σε ένα κλειδί που δεν υπάρχει.

     >>> mock['a']
     1
     >>> mock['c']
     3
     >>> mock['d']
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     KeyError: 'd'
     >>> mock['b'] = 'fish'
     >>> mock['d'] = 'eggs'
     >>> mock['b']
     'fish'
     >>> mock['d']
     'eggs'

Μετά τη χρήση του, μπορείτε να κάνετε δηλώσεις σχετικά με την πρόσβαση
χρησιμοποιώντας τις κανονικές μεθόδους και χαρακτηριστικά προσομοίωσης:

     >>> mock.__getitem__.call_args_list
     [call('a'), call('c'), call('d'), call('b'), call('d')]
     >>> mock.__setitem__.call_args_list
     [call('b', 'fish'), call('d', 'eggs')]
     >>> my_dict
     {'a': 1, 'b': 'fish', 'c': 3, 'd': 'eggs'}


File: python.info,  Node: Υποκλάσεις Mock και τα χαρακτηριστικά τους,  Next: Προσομοίωση εισαγωγών με το patch dict,  Prev: Προσομοίωση ενός λεξικού με το MagicMock,  Up: Further examples

5.27.7.25 Υποκλάσεις Mock και τα χαρακτηριστικά τους
....................................................

Υπάρχουν διάφοροι λόγοι για τους οποίους μπορεί να θέλετε να υποκλάσετε
την *note Mock: e0e.  Ένας λόγος μπορεί να είναι η προσθήκη βοηθητικών
μεθόδων.  Εδώ είναι ένα ανόητο παράδειγμα:

     >>> class MyMock(MagicMock):
     ...     def has_been_called(self):
     ...         return self.called
     ...
     >>> mymock = MyMock(return_value=None)
     >>> mymock
     <MyMock id='...'>
     >>> mymock.has_been_called()
     False
     >>> mymock()
     >>> mymock.has_been_called()
     True

Η τυπική συμπεριφορά για τα στιγμιότυπα ‘Mock’ είναι ότι τα
χαρακτηριστικά και οι επιστρεφόμενες τιμές προσομοιώσεων είναι του ίδιου
τύπου με την προσομοίωση στην οποία έχουν πρόσβαση.  Αυτό διασφαλίζει
ότι τα χαρακτηριστικά ‘Mock’ είναι ‘Mocks’ και τα χαρακτηριστικά
‘MagicMock’ είναι ‘MagicMocks’ (1).  Έτσι, εάν υποκλάσετε για να
προσθέσετε βοηθητικές μεθόδους, τότε θα είναι επίσης διαθέσιμες στα
χαρακτηριστικά και στην επιστρεφόμενη τιμή προσομοίωσης των στιγμιότυπων
της υποκλάσης σας.

     >>> mymock.foo
     <MyMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
     >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
     False
     >>> mymock.foo()
     <MyMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'>
     >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called()
     True

Μερικές φορές αυτό είναι άβολο.  Για παράδειγμα, ένας χρήστης(2)
υποκλάσει την προσομοίωση για να δημιουργήσει έναν προσαρμογέα
Twisted(3).  Η εφαρμογή αυτού και στα χαρακτηριστικά προκαλεί πραγματικά
σφάλματα.

‘Mock’ (σε όλες τις παραλλαγές του) χρησιμοποιεί μια μέθοδο που
ονομάζεται ‘_get_child_mock’ για να δημιουργήσει αυτές τις
«υπο-προσομοιώσεις» για χαρακτηριστικά και επιστρεφόμενες τιμές.
Μπορείτε να αποτρέψετε τη χρήση της υποκλάσης σας για χαρακτηριστικά,
υπερκαλύπτοντας αυτή τη μέθοδο.  Η υπογραφή είναι ότι λαμβάνει αυθαίρετα
ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών (‘**kwargs’) που στη συνέχεια περνιούνται στον
κατασκευαστή προσομοιώσεων:

     >>> class Subclass(MagicMock):
     ...     def _get_child_mock(self, /, **kwargs):
     ...         return MagicMock(**kwargs)
     ...
     >>> mymock = Subclass()
     >>> mymock.foo
     <MagicMock name='mock.foo' id='...'>
     >>> assert isinstance(mymock, Subclass)
     >>> assert not isinstance(mymock.foo, Subclass)
     >>> assert not isinstance(mymock(), Subclass)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Μια εξαίρεση σε αυτόν τον κανόνα είναι οι μη κλητές
προσομοιώσεις.  Τα χαρακτηριστικά χρησιμοποιούν την κλητή παραλλαγή
επειδή διαφορετικά οι μη κλητές προσομοιώσεις δεν θα μπορούσαν να έχουν
κλητές μεθόδους.

   (2) https://code.google.com/archive/p/mock/issues/105

   (3) 
https://twisted.org/documents/11.0.0/api/twisted.python.components.html


File: python.info,  Node: Προσομοίωση εισαγωγών με το patch dict,  Next: Παρακολούθηση της σειράς κλήσεων και λιγότερο λεκτικές δηλώσεις κλήσεων,  Prev: Υποκλάσεις Mock και τα χαρακτηριστικά τους,  Up: Further examples

5.27.7.26 Προσομοίωση εισαγωγών με το patch.dict
................................................

Μια κατάσταση όπου η προσομοίωση μπορεί να είναι δύσκολη είναι όταν
έχετε μια τοπική εισαγωγή μέσα σε μια συνάρτηση.  Αυτές είναι πιο
δύσκολες για προσομοίωση επειδή δεν χρησιμοποιούν ένα αντικείμενο από το
χώρο ονομάτων του module που μπορούμε να επιδιορθώσουμε.

Γενικά, οι τοπικές εισαγωγές πρέπει να αποφεύγονται.  Κάποιες φορές
γίνονται για να αποτραπούν οι κυκλικές εξαρτήσεις, για τις οποίες
υπάρχει 'συνήθως' ένας πολύ καλύτερος τρόπος για να λυθεί το πρόβλημα
(αναδιαμόρφωση του κώδικα) ή για να αποτραπούν τα «προκαταβολικά κόστη»
καθυστερώντας την εισαγωγή.  Αυτό μπορεί επίσης να λυθεί με καλύτερους
τρόπους από μια άνευ όρων τοπική εισαγωγή (αποθηκεύστε το module ως
χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης ή module και κάντε την εισαγωγή μόνο στην πρώτη
χρήση).

Ανεξάρτητα από αυτό, υπάρχει ένας τρόπος να χρησιμοποιήσετε το ‘mock’
για να επηρεάσετε τα αποτελέσματα μιας εισαγωγής.  Η εισαγωγή ανακτά ένα
'αντικείμενο' από το λεξικό *note sys.modules: 19ba.  Σημειώστε ότι
ανακτά ένα 'αντικείμενο', το οποίο δεν χρειάζεται να είναι ένα module.
Η εισαγωγή ενός module για πρώτη φορά έχει ως αποτέλεσμα τη τοποθέτηση
ενός αντικειμένου module στο ‘sys.modules’, οπότε συνήθως όταν εισάγετε
κάτι, λαμβάνετε πίσω ένα module.  Ωστόσο, αυτό δεν χρειάζεται να είναι η
περίπτωση.

Αυτό σημαίνει ότι μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε το *note patch.dict():
1b7a. για να τοποθετήσετε 'προσωρινά' μια προσομοίωση στο *note
sys.modules: 19ba.  Οποιεσδήποτε εισαγωγές ενώ αυτή η επιδιόρθωση είναι
ενεργή θα ανακτούν την προσομοίωση.  Όταν ολοκληρωθεί η επιδιόρθωση (η
διακοσμημένη συνάρτηση εξέρχεται, το σώμα της δήλωσης with ολοκληρώνεται
ή καλείται το ‘patcher.stop()’), τότε ό,τι υπήρχε προηγουμένως θα
αποκατασταθεί με ασφάλεια.

Εδώ είναι ένα παράδειγμα που προσομοιώνει το module “fooble”.

     >>> import sys
     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
     ...    import fooble
     ...    fooble.blob()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.blob()' id='...'>
     >>> assert 'fooble' not in sys.modules
     >>> mock.blob.assert_called_once_with()

Όπως μπορείτε να δείτε, το ‘import fooble’ πετυχαίνει, αλλά κατά την
έξοδο δεν παραμένει κανένα “fooble” στο *note sys.modules: 19ba.

Αυτό λειτουργεί επίσης για τη μορφή ‘from module import name’:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}):
     ...    from fooble import blob
     ...    blob.blip()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.blob.blip()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.blob.blip.assert_called_once_with()

Με λίγη περισσότερη δουλειά, μπορείτε επίσης να προσομοιώσετε εισαγωγές
πακέτων:

     >>> mock = Mock()
     >>> modules = {'package': mock, 'package.module': mock.module}
     >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', modules):
     ...    from package.module import fooble
     ...    fooble()
     ...
     <Mock name='mock.module.fooble()' id='...'>
     >>> mock.module.fooble.assert_called_once_with()


File: python.info,  Node: Παρακολούθηση της σειράς κλήσεων και λιγότερο λεκτικές δηλώσεις κλήσεων,  Next: Πιο σύνθετη αντιστοίχιση ορισμάτων,  Prev: Προσομοίωση εισαγωγών με το patch dict,  Up: Further examples

5.27.7.27 Παρακολούθηση της σειράς κλήσεων και λιγότερο λεκτικές δηλώσεις κλήσεων
.................................................................................

Η *note Mock: e0e. σας επιτρέπει να παρακολουθείτε τη 'σειρά' των
κλήσεων μεθόδων στις προσομοιώσεις σας μέσω του χαρακτηριστικού *note
method_calls: 4890.  Αυτό δεν σας επιτρέπει να παρακολουθείτε τη σειρά
των κλήσεων μεταξύ ξεχωριστών αντικειμένων προσομοίωσης, ωστόσο μπορούμε
να χρησιμοποιήσουμε το *note mock_calls: 488e. για να επιτύχουμε το ίδιο
αποτέλεσμα.

Επειδή οι προσομοιώσεις παρακολουθούν τις κλήσεις σε υπο-προσομοιώσεις
στο ‘mock_calls’, και η πρόσβαση σε ένα αυθαίρετο χαρακτηριστικό μιας
προσομοίωσης δημιουργεί μια υπο-προσομοίωση, μπορούμε να δημιουργήσουμε
τις ξεχωριστές προσομοιώσεις μας από μια γονική.  Οι κλήσεις σε αυτές
τις υπο-προσομοιώσεις θα καταγράφονται στη συνέχεια, με σειρά, στο
‘mock_calls’ της γονικής:

     >>> manager = Mock()
     >>> mock_foo = manager.foo
     >>> mock_bar = manager.bar

     >>> mock_foo.something()
     <Mock name='mock.foo.something()' id='...'>
     >>> mock_bar.other.thing()
     <Mock name='mock.bar.other.thing()' id='...'>

     >>> manager.mock_calls
     [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]

Μπορούμε στη συνέχεια να κάνουμε δηλώσεις σχετικά με τις κλήσεις,
συμπεριλαμβανομένης της σειράς, συγκρίνοντας με το χαρακτηριστικό
‘mock_calls’ στην προσομοίωση διαχειριστή:

     >>> expected_calls = [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()]
     >>> manager.mock_calls == expected_calls
     True

Αν το ‘patch’ δημιουργεί και τοποθετεί τις προσομοιώσεις σας, τότε
μπορείτε να τις επισυνάψετε σε μια διαχειριστική προσομοίωση
χρησιμοποιώντας τη μέθοδο *note attach_mock(): 1b69.  Μετά την
επισύναψη, οι κλήσεις θα καταγράφονται στο ‘mock_calls’ του διαχειριστή.

     >>> manager = MagicMock()
     >>> with patch('mymodule.Class1') as MockClass1:
     ...     with patch('mymodule.Class2') as MockClass2:
     ...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass1, 'MockClass1')
     ...         manager.attach_mock(MockClass2, 'MockClass2')
     ...         MockClass1().foo()
     ...         MockClass2().bar()
     <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass1().foo()' id='...'>
     <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass2().bar()' id='...'>
     >>> manager.mock_calls
     [call.MockClass1(),
     call.MockClass1().foo(),
     call.MockClass2(),
     call.MockClass2().bar()]

Εάν έχουν γίνει πολλές κλήσεις, αλλά σας ενδιαφέρει μόνο μια
συγκεκριμένη ακολουθία από αυτές, τότε μια εναλλακτική είναι να
χρησιμοποιήσετε τη μέθοδο *note assert_has_calls(): 1c2a.  Αυτή λαμβάνει
μια λίστα κλήσεων (κατασκευασμένη με το *note call: 1fa3. αντικείμενο).
Εάν αυτή η ακολουθία κλήσεων βρίσκεται στο *note mock_calls: 488e, τότε
η δήλωση πετυχαίνει.

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m().foo().bar().baz()
     <MagicMock name='mock().foo().bar().baz()' id='...'>
     >>> m.one().two().three()
     <MagicMock name='mock.one().two().three()' id='...'>
     >>> calls = call.one().two().three().call_list()
     >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls)

Ακόμα κι αν η αλυσιδωτή κλήση ‘m.one().two().three()’ δεν είναι οι μόνες
κλήσεις που έχουν γίνει στην προσομοίωση, η δήλωση εξακολουθεί να
πετυχαίνει.

Μερικές φορές μια προσομοίωση μπορεί να έχει γίνει πολλές κλήσεις σε
αυτήν, και σας ενδιαφέρει μόνο να κάνετε δηλώσεις για 'μερικές' από
αυτές τις κλήσεις.  Μπορεί να μην σας ενδιαφέρει καν η σειρά.  Σε αυτή
την περίπτωση, μπορείτε να περάσετε το ‘any_order=True’ στο
‘assert_has_calls’:

     >>> m = MagicMock()
     >>> m(1), m.two(2, 3), m.seven(7), m.fifty('50')
     (...)
     >>> calls = [call.fifty('50'), call(1), call.seven(7)]
     >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)


File: python.info,  Node: Πιο σύνθετη αντιστοίχιση ορισμάτων,  Prev: Παρακολούθηση της σειράς κλήσεων και λιγότερο λεκτικές δηλώσεις κλήσεων,  Up: Further examples

5.27.7.28 Πιο σύνθετη αντιστοίχιση ορισμάτων
............................................

Χρησιμοποιώντας την ίδια βασική έννοια με το *note ANY: 1fa1, μπορούμε
να υλοποιήσουμε αντιστοιχίσεις για να κάνουμε πιο σύνθετες δηλώσεις
σχετικά με αντικείμενα που χρησιμοποιούνται ως ορίσματα σε
προσομοιώσεις.

Ας υποθέσουμε ότι αναμένουμε να περαστεί κάποιο αντικείμενο σε μια
προσομοίωση που κανονικά συγκρίνεται ως ίσο βάσει της ταυτότητας του
αντικειμένου (που είναι το προεπιλεγμένο της Python για καθορισμένες από
τον χρήστη κλάσεις).  Για να χρησιμοποιήσουμε τη *note
assert_called_with(): 1ff2, θα πρέπει να περάσουμε το ακριβώς ίδιο
αντικείμενο.  Εάν μας ενδιαφέρουν μόνο μερικά από τα χαρακτηριστικά
αυτού του αντικειμένου, τότε μπορούμε να δημιουργήσουμε έναν
αντιστοιχιστή που θα ελέγχει αυτά τα χαρακτηριστικά για εμάς.

Μπορείτε να δείτε σε αυτό το παράδειγμα πώς μια “τυπική” κλήση στο
‘assert_called_with’ δεν είναι επαρκής:

     >>> class Foo:
     ...     def __init__(self, a, b):
     ...         self.a, self.b = a, b
     ...
     >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None)
     >>> mock(Foo(1, 2))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(Foo(1, 2))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: expected call not found.
     Expected: mock(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)
     Actual: mock(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>)

Μια συνάρτηση σύγκρισης για την κλάση μας ‘Foo’ μπορεί να μοιάζει κάπως
έτσι:

     >>> def compare(self, other):
     ...     if not type(self) == type(other):
     ...         return False
     ...     if self.a != other.a:
     ...         return False
     ...     if self.b != other.b:
     ...         return False
     ...     return True
     ...

Και ένα αντικείμενο αντιστοίχισης που μπορεί να χρησιμοποιεί συναρτήσεις
σύγκρισης όπως αυτή για τη λειτουργία ισότητας του θα μοιάζει κάπως
έτσι:

     >>> class Matcher:
     ...     def __init__(self, compare, some_obj):
     ...         self.compare = compare
     ...         self.some_obj = some_obj
     ...     def __eq__(self, other):
     ...         return self.compare(self.some_obj, other)
     ...

Βάζοντας όλα αυτά μαζί:

     >>> match_foo = Matcher(compare, Foo(1, 2))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_foo)

Το ‘Matcher’ δημιουργείται με τη συνάρτηση σύγκρισης και το αντικείμενο
που θέλουμε να συγκρίνουμε.  Στο ‘assert_called_with’, θα κληθεί η
μέθοδος ισότητας του ‘Matcher’, η οποία συγκρίνει το αντικείμενο με το
οποίο κλήθηκε η προσομοίωση με αυτό που δημιουργήσαμε τον αντιστοιχιστή
μας.  Εάν ταιριάζουν, τότε το ‘assert_called_with’ περνάει, και αν δεν
ταιριάζουν, γίνεται raise μια *note AssertionError: a97.:

     >>> match_wrong = Matcher(compare, Foo(3, 4))
     >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_wrong)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AssertionError: Expected: ((<Matcher object at 0x...>,), {})
     Called with: ((<Foo object at 0x...>,), {})

Με λίγη τροποποίηση, θα μπορούσατε να κάνετε τη συνάρτηση σύγκρισης να
κάνει raise απευθείας την *note AssertionError: a97. και να παρέχει ένα
πιο χρήσιμο μήνυμα αποτυχίας.

Από την έκδοση 1.5, η βιβλιοθήκη δοκιμών Python PyHamcrest(1) παρέχει
παρόμοια λειτουργικότητα, που μπορεί να είναι χρήσιμη εδώ, με τη μορφή
του αντιστοιχιστή ισότητας
(hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality(2)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/

   (2) 
https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/en/release-1.8/integration/#module-hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality


File: python.info,  Node: test — Regression tests package for Python,  Next: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite,  Prev: unittest mock — ξεκινώντας,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.8 ‘test’ — Regression tests package for Python
---------------------------------------------------

     Σημείωση: The ‘test’ package is meant for internal use by Python
     only.  It is documented for the benefit of the core developers of
     Python.  Any use of this package outside of Python’s standard
     library is discouraged as code mentioned here can change or be
     removed without notice between releases of Python.

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘test’ package contains all regression tests for Python as well as
the modules *note test.support: ed. and *note test.regrtest: ec.
‘test.support’ is used to enhance your tests while ‘test.regrtest’
drives the testing suite.

Each module in the ‘test’ package whose name starts with ‘test_’ is a
testing suite for a specific module or feature.  All new tests should be
written using the *note unittest: 10f. or *note doctest: 3d. module.
Some older tests are written using a «traditional» testing style that
compares output printed to ‘sys.stdout’; this style of test is
considered deprecated.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note unittest: 10f.

     Writing PyUnit regression tests.

Module *note doctest: 3d.

     Tests embedded in documentation strings.

* Menu:

* Writing Unit Tests for the test package::
* Running tests using the command-line interface::


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Unit Tests for the test package,  Next: Running tests using the command-line interface,  Up: test — Regression tests package for Python

5.27.8.1 Writing Unit Tests for the ‘test’ package
..................................................

It is preferred that tests that use the *note unittest: 10f. module
follow a few guidelines.  One is to name the test module by starting it
with ‘test_’ and end it with the name of the module being tested.  The
test methods in the test module should start with ‘test_’ and end with a
description of what the method is testing.  This is needed so that the
methods are recognized by the test driver as test methods.  Also, no
documentation string for the method should be included.  A comment (such
as ‘# Tests function returns only True or False’) should be used to
provide documentation for test methods.  This is done because
documentation strings get printed out if they exist and thus what test
is being run is not stated.

A basic boilerplate is often used:

     import unittest
     from test import support

     class MyTestCase1(unittest.TestCase):

         # Only use setUp() and tearDown() if necessary

         def setUp(self):
             ... code to execute in preparation for tests ...

         def tearDown(self):
             ... code to execute to clean up after tests ...

         def test_feature_one(self):
             # Test feature one.
             ... testing code ...

         def test_feature_two(self):
             # Test feature two.
             ... testing code ...

         ... more test methods ...

     class MyTestCase2(unittest.TestCase):
         ... same structure as MyTestCase1 ...

     ... more test classes ...

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         unittest.main()

This code pattern allows the testing suite to be run by *note
test.regrtest: ec, on its own as a script that supports the *note
unittest: 10f. CLI, or via the ‘python -m unittest’ CLI.

The goal for regression testing is to try to break code.  This leads to
a few guidelines to be followed:

   * The testing suite should exercise all classes, functions, and
     constants.  This includes not just the external API that is to be
     presented to the outside world but also «private» code.

   * Whitebox testing (examining the code being tested when the tests
     are being written) is preferred.  Blackbox testing (testing only
     the published user interface) is not complete enough to make sure
     all boundary and edge cases are tested.

   * Make sure all possible values are tested including invalid ones.
     This makes sure that not only all valid values are acceptable but
     also that improper values are handled correctly.

   * Exhaust as many code paths as possible.  Test where branching
     occurs and thus tailor input to make sure as many different paths
     through the code are taken.

   * Add an explicit test for any bugs discovered for the tested code.
     This will make sure that the error does not crop up again if the
     code is changed in the future.

   * Make sure to clean up after your tests (such as close and remove
     all temporary files).

   * If a test is dependent on a specific condition of the operating
     system then verify the condition already exists before attempting
     the test.

   * Import as few modules as possible and do it as soon as possible.
     This minimizes external dependencies of tests and also minimizes
     possible anomalous behavior from side-effects of importing a
     module.

   * Try to maximize code reuse.  On occasion, tests will vary by
     something as small as what type of input is used.  Minimize code
     duplication by subclassing a basic test class with a class that
     specifies the input:

          class TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin:

              func = mySuperWhammyFunction

              def test_func(self):
                  self.func(self.arg)

          class AcceptLists(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = [1, 2, 3]

          class AcceptStrings(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = 'abc'

          class AcceptTuples(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase):
              arg = (1, 2, 3)

     When using this pattern, remember that all classes that inherit
     from *note unittest.TestCase: 52f. are run as tests.  The
     ‘TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin’ class in the example above does not
     have any data and so can’t be run by itself, thus it does not
     inherit from ‘unittest.TestCase’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Test Driven Development

     A book by Kent Beck on writing tests before code.


File: python.info,  Node: Running tests using the command-line interface,  Prev: Writing Unit Tests for the test package,  Up: test — Regression tests package for Python

5.27.8.2 Running tests using the command-line interface
.......................................................

The ‘test’ package can be run as a script to drive Python’s regression
test suite, thanks to the *note -m: 4ca. option: ‘python -m test’.
Under the hood, it uses ‘test.regrtest’; the call ‘python -m
test.regrtest’ used in previous Python versions still works.  Running
the script by itself automatically starts running all regression tests
in the ‘test’ package.  It does this by finding all modules in the
package whose name starts with ‘test_’, importing them, and executing
the function ‘test_main()’ if present or loading the tests via
unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule if ‘test_main’ does not exist.
The names of tests to execute may also be passed to the script.
Specifying a single regression test (‘python -m test test_spam’) will
minimize output and only print whether the test passed or failed.

Running ‘test’ directly allows what resources are available for tests to
use to be set.  You do this by using the ‘-u’ command-line option.
Specifying ‘all’ as the value for the ‘-u’ option enables all possible
resources: ‘python -m test -uall’.  If all but one resource is desired
(a more common case), a comma-separated list of resources that are not
desired may be listed after ‘all’.  The command ‘python -m test
-uall,-audio,-largefile’ will run ‘test’ with all resources except the
‘audio’ and ‘largefile’ resources.  For a list of all resources and more
command-line options, run ‘python -m test -h’.

Some other ways to execute the regression tests depend on what platform
the tests are being executed on.  On Unix, you can run ‘make test’ at
the top-level directory where Python was built.  On Windows, executing
‘rt.bat’ from your ‘PCbuild’ directory will run all regression tests.

Added in version 3.14: Output is colorized by default and can be *note
controlled using environment variables: 1af.


File: python.info,  Node: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite,  Next: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests,  Prev: test — Regression tests package for Python,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.9 ‘test.support’ — Utilities for the Python test suite
-----------------------------------------------------------

The ‘test.support’ module provides support for Python’s regression test
suite.

     Σημείωση: ‘test.support’ is not a public module.  It is documented
     here to help Python developers write tests.  The API of this module
     is subject to change without backwards compatibility concerns
     between releases.

This module defines the following exceptions:

 -- Εξαίρεση: test.support.TestFailed

     Exception to be raised when a test fails.  This is deprecated in
     favor of *note unittest: 10f.-based tests and *note
     unittest.TestCase: 52f.’s assertion methods.

 -- Εξαίρεση: test.support.ResourceDenied

     Subclass of *note unittest.SkipTest: 138d.  Raised when a resource
     (such as a network connection) is not available.  Raised by the
     *note requires(): 48f6. function.

The ‘test.support’ module defines the following constants:

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.verbose

     ‘True’ when verbose output is enabled.  Should be checked when more
     detailed information is desired about a running test.  'verbose' is
     set by *note test.regrtest: ec.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.is_jython

     ‘True’ if the running interpreter is Jython.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.is_android

     ‘True’ if ‘sys.platform’ is ‘android’.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.is_emscripten

     ‘True’ if ‘sys.platform’ is ‘emscripten’.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.is_wasi

     ‘True’ if ‘sys.platform’ is ‘wasi’.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.is_apple_mobile

     ‘True’ if ‘sys.platform’ is ‘ios’, ‘tvos’, or ‘watchos’.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.is_apple

     ‘True’ if ‘sys.platform’ is ‘darwin’ or ‘is_apple_mobile’ is
     ‘True’.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.unix_shell

     Path for shell if not on Windows; otherwise ‘None’.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds for tests using a network server listening on
     the network local loopback interface like ‘127.0.0.1’.

     The timeout is long enough to prevent test failure: it takes into
     account that the client and the server can run in different threads
     or even different processes.

     The timeout should be long enough for *note connect(): 115c, *note
     recv(): 115d. and *note send(): 1160. methods of *note
     socket.socket: 115a.

     Its default value is 5 seconds.

     See also *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 1f8e.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.INTERNET_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds for network requests going to the internet.

     The timeout is short enough to prevent a test to wait for too long
     if the internet request is blocked for whatever reason.

     Usually, a timeout using ‘INTERNET_TIMEOUT’ should not mark a test
     as failed, but skip the test instead: see *note
     transient_internet(): 48ff.

     Its default value is 1 minute.

     See also *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 1f8d.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.SHORT_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds to mark a test as failed if the test takes «too
     long».

     The timeout value depends on the regrtest ‘--timeout’ command line
     option.

     If a test using ‘SHORT_TIMEOUT’ starts to fail randomly on slow
     buildbots, use *note LONG_TIMEOUT: 1f8f. instead.

     Its default value is 30 seconds.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.LONG_TIMEOUT

     Timeout in seconds to detect when a test hangs.

     It is long enough to reduce the risk of test failure on the slowest
     Python buildbots.  It should not be used to mark a test as failed
     if the test takes «too long».  The timeout value depends on the
     regrtest ‘--timeout’ command line option.

     Its default value is 5 minutes.

     See also *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 1f8d, *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT:
     1f8e. and *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 1e5a.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.PGO

     Set when tests can be skipped when they are not useful for PGO.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.PIPE_MAX_SIZE

     A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS pipe buffer
     size, to make writes blocking.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.Py_DEBUG

     ‘True’ if Python was built with the *note Py_DEBUG: 19eb. macro
     defined, that is, if Python was *note built in debug mode: 3dc.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.SOCK_MAX_SIZE

     A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS socket
     buffer size, to make writes blocking.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.TEST_SUPPORT_DIR

     Set to the top level directory that contains ‘test.support’.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.TEST_HOME_DIR

     Set to the top level directory for the test package.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.TEST_DATA_DIR

     Set to the ‘data’ directory within the test package.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t

     Set to *note sys.maxsize: 156e. for big memory tests.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.max_memuse

     Set by *note set_memlimit(): 4909. as the memory limit for big
     memory tests.  Limited by *note MAX_Py_ssize_t: 4907.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.real_max_memuse

     Set by *note set_memlimit(): 4909. as the memory limit for big
     memory tests.  Not limited by *note MAX_Py_ssize_t: 4907.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS

     Set to ‘True’ if Python is built without docstrings (the
     ‘WITH_DOC_STRINGS’ macro is not defined).  See the *note configure
     -without-doc-strings: 238e. option.

     See also the *note HAVE_DOCSTRINGS: 490c. variable.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.HAVE_DOCSTRINGS

     Set to ‘True’ if function docstrings are available.  See the *note
     python -OO: 431. option, which strips docstrings of functions
     implemented in Python.

     See also the *note MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS: 490b. variable.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL

     Define the URL of a dedicated HTTP server for the network tests.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.ALWAYS_EQ

     Object that is equal to anything.  Used to test mixed type
     comparison.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.NEVER_EQ

     Object that is not equal to anything (even to *note ALWAYS_EQ:
     490e.).  Used to test mixed type comparison.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.LARGEST

     Object that is greater than anything (except itself).  Used to test
     mixed type comparison.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.SMALLEST

     Object that is less than anything (except itself).  Used to test
     mixed type comparison.

The ‘test.support’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.busy_retry (timeout, err_msg=None, /, *,
          error=True)

     Run the loop body until ‘break’ stops the loop.

     After 'timeout' seconds, raise an *note AssertionError: a97. if
     'error' is true, or just stop the loop if 'error' is false.

     Example:

          for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT):
              if check():
                  break

     Example of error=False usage:

          for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False):
              if check():
                  break
          else:
              raise RuntimeError('my custom error')

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.sleeping_retry (timeout, err_msg=None, /, *,
          init_delay=0.010, max_delay=1.0, error=True)

     Wait strategy that applies exponential backoff.

     Run the loop body until ‘break’ stops the loop.  Sleep at each loop
     iteration, but not at the first iteration.  The sleep delay is
     doubled at each iteration (up to 'max_delay' seconds).

     See *note busy_retry(): 4912. documentation for the parameters
     usage.

     Example raising an exception after SHORT_TIMEOUT seconds:

          for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT):
              if check():
                  break

     Example of error=False usage:

          for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False):
              if check():
                  break
          else:
              raise RuntimeError('my custom error')

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.is_resource_enabled (resource)

     Return ‘True’ if 'resource' is enabled and available.  The list of
     available resources is only set when *note test.regrtest: ec. is
     executing the tests.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.get_resource_value (resource)

     Return the value specified for 'resource' (as ‘-u RESOURCE=VALUE’).
     Return ‘None’ if 'resource' is disabled or no value is specified.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.python_is_optimized ()

     Return ‘True’ if Python was not built with ‘-O0’ or ‘-Og’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.with_pymalloc ()

     Return ‘_testcapi.WITH_PYMALLOC’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.requires (resource, msg=None)

     Raise *note ResourceDenied: 48f5. if 'resource' is not available.
     'msg' is the argument to ‘ResourceDenied’ if it is raised.  Always
     returns ‘True’ if called by a function whose ‘__name__’ is
     ‘'__main__'’.  Used when tests are executed by *note test.regrtest:
     ec.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.sortdict (dict)

     Return a repr of 'dict' with keys sorted.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.findfile (filename, subdir=None)

     Return the path to the file named 'filename'.  If no match is found
     'filename' is returned.  This does not equal a failure since it
     could be the path to the file.

     Setting 'subdir' indicates a relative path to use to find the file
     rather than looking directly in the path directories.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.get_pagesize ()

     Get size of a page in bytes.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.setswitchinterval (interval)

     Set the *note sys.setswitchinterval(): d16. to the given
     'interval'.  Defines a minimum interval for Android systems to
     prevent the system from hanging.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.check_impl_detail (**guards)

     Use this check to guard CPython’s implementation-specific tests or
     to run them only on the implementations guarded by the arguments.
     This function returns ‘True’ or ‘False’ depending on the host
     platform.  Example usage:

          check_impl_detail()               # Only on CPython (default).
          check_impl_detail(jython=True)    # Only on Jython.
          check_impl_detail(cpython=False)  # Everywhere except CPython.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.set_memlimit (limit)

     Set the values for *note max_memuse: 4908. and *note
     real_max_memuse: 490a. for big memory tests.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.record_original_stdout (stdout)

     Store the value from 'stdout'.  It is meant to hold the stdout at
     the time the regrtest began.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.get_original_stdout ()

     Return the original stdout set by *note record_original_stdout():
     491d. or ‘sys.stdout’ if it’s not set.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.args_from_interpreter_flags ()

     Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current
     settings in ‘sys.flags’ and ‘sys.warnoptions’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.optim_args_from_interpreter_flags ()

     Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current
     optimization settings in ‘sys.flags’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.captured_stdin ()
 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.captured_stdout ()
 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.captured_stderr ()

     A context managers that temporarily replaces the named stream with
     *note io.StringIO: 12d4. object.

     Example use with output streams:

          with captured_stdout() as stdout, captured_stderr() as stderr:
              print("hello")
              print("error", file=sys.stderr)
          assert stdout.getvalue() == "hello\n"
          assert stderr.getvalue() == "error\n"

     Example use with input stream:

          with captured_stdin() as stdin:
              stdin.write('hello\n')
              stdin.seek(0)
              # call test code that consumes from sys.stdin
              captured = input()
          self.assertEqual(captured, "hello")

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.disable_faulthandler ()

     A context manager that temporary disables *note faulthandler: 5b.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.gc_collect ()

     Force as many objects as possible to be collected.  This is needed
     because timely deallocation is not guaranteed by the garbage
     collector.  This means that ‘__del__’ methods may be called later
     than expected and weakrefs may remain alive for longer than
     expected.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.disable_gc ()

     A context manager that disables the garbage collector on entry.  On
     exit, the garbage collector is restored to its prior state.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.swap_attr (obj, attr, new_val)

     Context manager to swap out an attribute with a new object.

     Usage:

          with swap_attr(obj, "attr", 5):
              ...

     This will set ‘obj.attr’ to 5 for the duration of the ‘with’ block,
     restoring the old value at the end of the block.  If ‘attr’ doesn’t
     exist on ‘obj’, it will be created and then deleted at the end of
     the block.

     The old value (or ‘None’ if it doesn’t exist) will be assigned to
     the target of the «as» clause, if there is one.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.swap_item (obj, attr, new_val)

     Context manager to swap out an item with a new object.

     Usage:

          with swap_item(obj, "item", 5):
              ...

     This will set ‘obj["item"]’ to 5 for the duration of the ‘with’
     block, restoring the old value at the end of the block.  If ‘item’
     doesn’t exist on ‘obj’, it will be created and then deleted at the
     end of the block.

     The old value (or ‘None’ if it doesn’t exist) will be assigned to
     the target of the «as» clause, if there is one.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.flush_std_streams ()

     Call the ‘flush()’ method on *note sys.stdout: e9c. and then on
     *note sys.stderr: d05.  It can be used to make sure that the logs
     order is consistent before writing into stderr.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.print_warning (msg)

     Print a warning into *note sys.__stderr__: 492a.  Format the
     message as: ‘f"Warning -- {msg}"’.  If 'msg' is made of multiple
     lines, add ‘"Warning -- "’ prefix to each line.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.wait_process (pid, *, exitcode,
          timeout=None)

     Wait until process 'pid' completes and check that the process exit
     code is 'exitcode'.

     Raise an *note AssertionError: a97. if the process exit code is not
     equal to 'exitcode'.

     If the process runs longer than 'timeout' seconds (*note
     SHORT_TIMEOUT: 1e5a. by default), kill the process and raise an
     *note AssertionError: a97.  The timeout feature is not available on
     Windows.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.calcobjsize (fmt)

     Return the size of the *note PyObject: 19b. whose structure members
     are defined by 'fmt'.  The returned value includes the size of the
     Python object header and alignment.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.calcvobjsize (fmt)

     Return the size of the *note PyVarObject: 492d. whose structure
     members are defined by 'fmt'.  The returned value includes the size
     of the Python object header and alignment.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.checksizeof (test, o, size)

     For testcase 'test', assert that the ‘sys.getsizeof’ for 'o' plus
     the GC header size equals 'size'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.anticipate_failure (condition)

     A decorator to conditionally mark tests with *note
     unittest.expectedFailure(): 483f.  Any use of this decorator should
     have an associated comment identifying the relevant tracker issue.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.system_must_validate_cert (f)

     A decorator that skips the decorated test on TLS certification
     validation failures.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.run_with_locale (catstr, *locales)

     A decorator for running a function in a different locale, correctly
     resetting it after it has finished.  'catstr' is the locale
     category as a string (for example ‘"LC_ALL"’).  The 'locales'
     passed will be tried sequentially, and the first valid locale will
     be used.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.run_with_tz (tz)

     A decorator for running a function in a specific timezone,
     correctly resetting it after it has finished.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.requires_freebsd_version (*min_version)

     Decorator for the minimum version when running test on FreeBSD. If
     the FreeBSD version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.requires_linux_version (*min_version)

     Decorator for the minimum version when running test on Linux.  If
     the Linux version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.requires_mac_version (*min_version)

     Decorator for the minimum version when running test on macOS. If
     the macOS version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.requires_gil_enabled

     Decorator for skipping tests on the free-threaded build.  If the
     *note GIL: 411. is disabled, the test is skipped.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.requires_IEEE_754

     Decorator for skipping tests on non-IEEE 754 platforms.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.requires_zlib

     Decorator for skipping tests if *note zlib: 13c. doesn’t exist.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.requires_gzip

     Decorator for skipping tests if *note gzip: 6a. doesn’t exist.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.requires_bz2

     Decorator for skipping tests if *note bz2: 14. doesn’t exist.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.requires_lzma

     Decorator for skipping tests if *note lzma: 8d. doesn’t exist.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.requires_resource (resource)

     Decorator for skipping tests if 'resource' is not available.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.requires_docstrings

     Decorator for only running the test if *note HAVE_DOCSTRINGS: 490c.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.requires_limited_api

     Decorator for only running the test if *note Limited C API: 829. is
     available.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.cpython_only

     Decorator for tests only applicable to CPython.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.impl_detail (msg=None, **guards)

     Decorator for invoking *note check_impl_detail(): 491c. on
     'guards'.  If that returns ‘False’, then uses 'msg' as the reason
     for skipping the test.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.thread_unsafe (reason=None)

     Decorator for marking tests as thread-unsafe.  This test always
     runs in one thread even when invoked with ‘--parallel-threads’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.no_tracing

     Decorator to temporarily turn off tracing for the duration of the
     test.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.refcount_test

     Decorator for tests which involve reference counting.  The
     decorator does not run the test if it is not run by CPython.  Any
     trace function is unset for the duration of the test to prevent
     unexpected refcounts caused by the trace function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.bigmemtest (size, memuse, dry_run=True)

     Decorator for bigmem tests.

     'size' is a requested size for the test (in arbitrary,
     test-interpreted units.)  'memuse' is the number of bytes per unit
     for the test, or a good estimate of it.  For example, a test that
     needs two byte buffers, of 4 GiB each, could be decorated with
     ‘@bigmemtest(size=_4G, memuse=2)’.

     The 'size' argument is normally passed to the decorated test method
     as an extra argument.  If 'dry_run' is ‘True’, the value passed to
     the test method may be less than the requested value.  If 'dry_run'
     is ‘False’, it means the test doesn’t support dummy runs when ‘-M’
     is not specified.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.bigaddrspacetest

     Decorator for tests that fill the address space.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.linked_to_musl ()

     Return ‘False’ if there is no evidence the interpreter was compiled
     with ‘musl’, otherwise return a version triple, either ‘(0, 0, 0)’
     if the version is unknown, or the actual version if it is known.
     Intended for use in ‘skip’ decorators.  ‘emscripten’ and ‘wasi’ are
     assumed to be compiled with ‘musl’; otherwise ‘platform.libc_ver’
     is checked.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.check_syntax_error (testcase, statement,
          errtext='', *, lineno=None, offset=None)

     Test for syntax errors in 'statement' by attempting to compile
     'statement'.  'testcase' is the *note unittest: 10f. instance for
     the test.  'errtext' is the regular expression which should match
     the string representation of the raised *note SyntaxError: 17e.  If
     'lineno' is not ‘None’, compares to the line of the exception.  If
     'offset' is not ‘None’, compares to the offset of the exception.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.open_urlresource (url, *args, **kw)

     Open 'url'.  If open fails, raises *note TestFailed: 48f4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.reap_children ()

     Use this at the end of ‘test_main’ whenever sub-processes are
     started.  This will help ensure that no extra children (zombies)
     stick around to hog resources and create problems when looking for
     refleaks.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.get_attribute (obj, name)

     Get an attribute, raising *note unittest.SkipTest: 138d. if *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. is raised.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.catch_unraisable_exception ()

     Context manager catching unraisable exception using *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 70c.

     Storing the exception value (‘cm.unraisable.exc_value’) creates a
     reference cycle.  The reference cycle is broken explicitly when the
     context manager exits.

     Storing the object (‘cm.unraisable.object’) can resurrect it if it
     is set to an object which is being finalized.  Exiting the context
     manager clears the stored object.

     Usage:

          with support.catch_unraisable_exception() as cm:
              # code creating an "unraisable exception"
              ...

              # check the unraisable exception: use cm.unraisable
              ...

          # cm.unraisable attribute no longer exists at this point
          # (to break a reference cycle)

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.load_package_tests (pkg_dir, loader,
          standard_tests, pattern)

     Generic implementation of the *note unittest: 10f. ‘load_tests’
     protocol for use in test packages.  'pkg_dir' is the root directory
     of the package; 'loader', 'standard_tests', and 'pattern' are the
     arguments expected by ‘load_tests’.  In simple cases, the test
     package’s ‘__init__.py’ can be the following:

          import os
          from test.support import load_package_tests

          def load_tests(*args):
              return load_package_tests(os.path.dirname(__file__), *args)

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.detect_api_mismatch (ref_api, other_api, *,
          ignore=())

     Returns the set of attributes, functions or methods of 'ref_api'
     not found on 'other_api', except for a defined list of items to be
     ignored in this check specified in 'ignore'.

     By default this skips private attributes beginning with “_” but
     includes all magic methods, i.e.  those starting and ending in
     “__”.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.patch (test_instance, object_to_patch,
          attr_name, new_value)

     Override 'object_to_patch.attr_name' with 'new_value'.  Also add
     cleanup procedure to 'test_instance' to restore 'object_to_patch'
     for 'attr_name'.  The 'attr_name' should be a valid attribute for
     'object_to_patch'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.run_in_subinterp (code)

     Run 'code' in subinterpreter.  Raise *note unittest.SkipTest: 138d.
     if *note tracemalloc: 108. is enabled.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.check_free_after_iterating (test, iter, cls,
          args=())

     Assert instances of 'cls' are deallocated after iterating.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.missing_compiler_executable (cmd_names=[])

     Check for the existence of the compiler executables whose names are
     listed in 'cmd_names' or all the compiler executables when
     'cmd_names' is empty and return the first missing executable or
     ‘None’ when none is found missing.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.check__all__ (test_case, module,
          name_of_module=None, extra=(), not_exported=())

     Assert that the ‘__all__’ variable of 'module' contains all public
     names.

     The module’s public names (its API) are detected automatically
     based on whether they match the public name convention and were
     defined in 'module'.

     The 'name_of_module' argument can specify (as a string or tuple
     thereof) what module(s) an API could be defined in order to be
     detected as a public API. One case for this is when 'module'
     imports part of its public API from other modules, possibly a C
     backend (like ‘csv’ and its ‘_csv’).

     The 'extra' argument can be a set of names that wouldn’t otherwise
     be automatically detected as «public», like objects without a
     proper *note __module__: 28d3. attribute.  If provided, it will be
     added to the automatically detected ones.

     The 'not_exported' argument can be a set of names that must not be
     treated as part of the public API even though their names indicate
     otherwise.

     Example use:

          import bar
          import foo
          import unittest
          from test import support

          class MiscTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
              def test__all__(self):
                  support.check__all__(self, foo)

          class OtherTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
              def test__all__(self):
                  extra = {'BAR_CONST', 'FOO_CONST'}
                  not_exported = {'baz'}  # Undocumented name.
                  # bar imports part of its API from _bar.
                  support.check__all__(self, bar, ('bar', '_bar'),
                                       extra=extra, not_exported=not_exported)

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize
          ()

     Skip tests if the ‘multiprocessing.synchronize’ module is missing,
     if there is no available semaphore implementation, or if creating a
     lock raises an *note OSError: 53c.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.check_disallow_instantiation (test_case, tp,
          *args, **kwds)

     Assert that type 'tp' cannot be instantiated using 'args' and
     'kwds'.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.adjust_int_max_str_digits (max_digits)

     This function returns a context manager that will change the global
     *note sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 1b11. setting for the duration
     of the context to allow execution of test code that needs a
     different limit on the number of digits when converting between an
     integer and string.

     Added in version 3.11.

The ‘test.support’ module defines the following classes:

 -- Κλάση: test.support.SuppressCrashReport

     A context manager used to try to prevent crash dialog popups on
     tests that are expected to crash a subprocess.

     On Windows, it disables Windows Error Reporting dialogs using
     SetErrorMode(1).

     On UNIX, *note resource.setrlimit(): 3e7. is used to set *note
     resource.RLIMIT_CORE: 4954.’s soft limit to 0 to prevent coredump
     file creation.

     On both platforms, the old value is restored by *note __exit__():
     16a5.

 -- Κλάση: test.support.SaveSignals

     Class to save and restore signal handlers registered by the Python
     signal handler.

      -- Μέθοδος: save (self)

          Save the signal handlers to a dictionary mapping signal
          numbers to the current signal handler.

      -- Μέθοδος: restore (self)

          Set the signal numbers from the *note save(): 4956. dictionary
          to the saved handler.

 -- Κλάση: test.support.Matcher

      -- Μέθοδος: matches (self, d, **kwargs)

          Try to match a single dict with the supplied arguments.

      -- Μέθοδος: match_value (self, k, dv, v)

          Try to match a single stored value ('dv') with a supplied
          value ('v').

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms680621.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests,  Next: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests,  Prev: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.10 ‘test.support.socket_helper’ — Utilities for socket tests
-----------------------------------------------------------------

The ‘test.support.socket_helper’ module provides support for socket
tests.

Added in version 3.9.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.socket_helper.IPV6_ENABLED

     Set to ‘True’ if IPv6 is enabled on this host, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.socket_helper.find_unused_port
          (family=socket.AF_INET, socktype=socket.SOCK_STREAM)

     Returns an unused port that should be suitable for binding.  This
     is achieved by creating a temporary socket with the same family and
     type as the ‘sock’ parameter (default is *note AF_INET: 1da7, *note
     SOCK_STREAM: 1698.), and binding it to the specified host address
     (defaults to ‘0.0.0.0’) with the port set to 0, eliciting an unused
     ephemeral port from the OS. The temporary socket is then closed and
     deleted, and the ephemeral port is returned.

     Either this method or *note bind_port(): 495e. should be used for
     any tests where a server socket needs to be bound to a particular
     port for the duration of the test.  Which one to use depends on
     whether the calling code is creating a Python socket, or if an
     unused port needs to be provided in a constructor or passed to an
     external program (i.e.  the ‘-accept’ argument to openssl’s
     s_server mode).  Always prefer ‘bind_port()’ over
     ‘find_unused_port()’ where possible.  Using a hard coded port is
     discouraged since it can make multiple instances of the test
     impossible to run simultaneously, which is a problem for buildbots.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.socket_helper.bind_port (sock, host=HOST)

     Bind the socket to a free port and return the port number.  Relies
     on ephemeral ports in order to ensure we are using an unbound port.
     This is important as many tests may be running simultaneously,
     especially in a buildbot environment.  This method raises an
     exception if the ‘sock.family’ is *note AF_INET: 1da7. and
     ‘sock.type’ is *note SOCK_STREAM: 1698, and the socket has
     ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ or ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ set on it.  Tests should never set
     these socket options for TCP/IP sockets.  The only case for setting
     these options is testing multicasting via multiple UDP sockets.

     Additionally, if the ‘SO_EXCLUSIVEADDRUSE’ socket option is
     available (i.e.  on Windows), it will be set on the socket.  This
     will prevent anyone else from binding to our host/port for the
     duration of the test.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.socket_helper.bind_unix_socket (sock, addr)

     Bind a Unix socket, raising *note unittest.SkipTest: 138d. if *note
     PermissionError: 10f9. is raised.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.socket_helper.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket

     A decorator for running tests that require a functional ‘bind()’
     for Unix sockets.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.socket_helper.transient_internet
          (resource_name, *, timeout=30.0, errnos=())

     A context manager that raises *note ResourceDenied: 48f5. when
     various issues with the internet connection manifest themselves as
     exceptions.


File: python.info,  Node: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests,  Next: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation,  Prev: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.11 ‘test.support.script_helper’ — Utilities for the Python execution tests
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The ‘test.support.script_helper’ module provides support for Python’s
script execution tests.

 -- Συνάρτηση:
          test.support.script_helper.interpreter_requires_environment ()

     Return ‘True’ if ‘sys.executable interpreter’ requires environment
     variables in order to be able to run at all.

     This is designed to be used with ‘@unittest.skipIf()’ to annotate
     tests that need to use an ‘assert_python*()’ function to launch an
     isolated mode (‘-I’) or no environment mode (‘-E’) sub-interpreter
     process.

     A normal build & test does not run into this situation but it can
     happen when trying to run the standard library test suite from an
     interpreter that doesn’t have an obvious home with Python’s current
     home finding logic.

     Setting *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. is one way to get most of the
     testsuite to run in that situation.  *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6. or
     ‘PYTHONUSERSITE’ are other common environment variables that might
     impact whether or not the interpreter can start.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.script_helper.run_python_until_end (*args,
          **env_vars)

     Set up the environment based on 'env_vars' for running the
     interpreter in a subprocess.  The values can include ‘__isolated’,
     ‘__cleanenv’, ‘__cwd’, and ‘TERM’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The function no longer strips whitespaces
     from 'stderr'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.script_helper.assert_python_ok (*args,
          **env_vars)

     Assert that running the interpreter with 'args' and optional
     environment variables 'env_vars' succeeds (‘rc == 0’) and return a
     ‘(return code, stdout, stderr)’ tuple.

     If the '__cleanenv' keyword-only parameter is set, 'env_vars' is
     used as a fresh environment.

     Python is started in isolated mode (command line option ‘-I’),
     except if the '__isolated' keyword-only parameter is set to
     ‘False’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The function no longer strips whitespaces
     from 'stderr'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.script_helper.assert_python_failure (*args,
          **env_vars)

     Assert that running the interpreter with 'args' and optional
     environment variables 'env_vars' fails (‘rc != 0’) and return a
     ‘(return code, stdout, stderr)’ tuple.

     See *note assert_python_ok(): 4964. for more options.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The function no longer strips whitespaces
     from 'stderr'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.script_helper.spawn_python (*args,
          stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.STDOUT, **kw)

     Run a Python subprocess with the given arguments.

     'kw' is extra keyword args to pass to *note subprocess.Popen():
     6bf.  Returns a *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf. object.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.script_helper.kill_python (p)

     Run the given *note subprocess.Popen: 6bf. process until completion
     and return stdout.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.script_helper.make_script (script_dir,
          script_basename, source, omit_suffix=False)

     Create script containing 'source' in path 'script_dir' and
     'script_basename'.  If 'omit_suffix' is ‘False’, append ‘.py’ to
     the name.  Return the full script path.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.script_helper.make_zip_script (zip_dir,
          zip_basename, script_name, name_in_zip=None)

     Create zip file at 'zip_dir' and 'zip_basename' with extension
     ‘zip’ which contains the files in 'script_name'.  'name_in_zip' is
     the archive name.  Return a tuple containing ‘(full path, full path
     of archive name)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.script_helper.make_pkg (pkg_dir,
          init_source='')

     Create a directory named 'pkg_dir' containing an ‘__init__’ file
     with 'init_source' as its contents.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.script_helper.make_zip_pkg (zip_dir,
          zip_basename, pkg_name, script_basename, source, depth=1,
          compiled=False)

     Create a zip package directory with a path of 'zip_dir' and
     'zip_basename' containing an empty ‘__init__’ file and a file
     'script_basename' containing the 'source'.  If 'compiled' is
     ‘True’, both source files will be compiled and added to the zip
     package.  Return a tuple of the full zip path and the archive name
     for the zip file.


File: python.info,  Node: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation,  Next: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests,  Prev: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.12 ‘test.support.bytecode_helper’ — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The ‘test.support.bytecode_helper’ module provides support for testing
and inspecting bytecode generation.

Added in version 3.9.

The module defines the following class:

 -- Κλάση: test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase
          (unittest.TestCase)

     This class has custom assertion methods for inspecting bytecode.

 -- Μέθοδος: BytecodeTestCase.get_disassembly_as_string (co)

     Return the disassembly of 'co' as string.

 -- Μέθοδος: BytecodeTestCase.assertInBytecode (x, opname,
          argval=_UNSPECIFIED)

     Return instr if 'opname' is found, otherwise throws *note
     AssertionError: a97.

 -- Μέθοδος: BytecodeTestCase.assertNotInBytecode (x, opname,
          argval=_UNSPECIFIED)

     Throws *note AssertionError: a97. if 'opname' is found.


File: python.info,  Node: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests,  Next: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests,  Prev: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.13 ‘test.support.threading_helper’ — Utilities for threading tests
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

The ‘test.support.threading_helper’ module provides support for
threading tests.

Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.threading_helper.join_thread (thread,
          timeout=None)

     Join a 'thread' within 'timeout'.  Raise an *note AssertionError:
     a97. if thread is still alive after 'timeout' seconds.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.threading_helper.reap_threads

     Decorator to ensure the threads are cleaned up even if the test
     fails.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.threading_helper.start_threads (threads,
          unlock=None)

     Context manager to start 'threads', which is a sequence of threads.
     'unlock' is a function called after the threads are started, even
     if an exception was raised; an example would be *note
     threading.Event.set(): 387f.  ‘start_threads’ will attempt to join
     the started threads upon exit.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.threading_helper.threading_cleanup
          (*original_values)

     Cleanup up threads not specified in 'original_values'.  Designed to
     emit a warning if a test leaves running threads in the background.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.threading_helper.threading_setup ()

     Return current thread count and copy of dangling threads.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.threading_helper.wait_threads_exit
          (timeout=None)

     Context manager to wait until all threads created in the ‘with’
     statement exit.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.threading_helper.catch_threading_exception
          ()

     Context manager catching *note threading.Thread: 420. exception
     using *note threading.excepthook(): c23.

     Attributes set when an exception is caught:

        * ‘exc_type’

        * ‘exc_value’

        * ‘exc_traceback’

        * ‘thread’

     See *note threading.excepthook(): c23. documentation.

     These attributes are deleted at the context manager exit.

     Usage:

          with threading_helper.catch_threading_exception() as cm:
              # code spawning a thread which raises an exception
              ...

              # check the thread exception, use cm attributes:
              # exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread
              ...

          # exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread attributes of cm no longer
          # exists at this point
          # (to avoid reference cycles)

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.threading_helper.run_concurrently
          (worker_func, nthreads, args=(), kwargs={})

     Run the worker function concurrently in multiple threads.
     Re-raises an exception if any thread raises one, after all threads
     have finished.


File: python.info,  Node: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests,  Next: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests,  Prev: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.14 ‘test.support.os_helper’ — Utilities for os tests
---------------------------------------------------------

The ‘test.support.os_helper’ module provides support for os tests.

Added in version 3.10.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.os_helper.FS_NONASCII

     A non-ASCII character encodable by *note os.fsencode(): 1013.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.os_helper.SAVEDCWD

     Set to *note os.getcwd(): 1b26.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN

     Set to a name that is safe to use as the name of a temporary file.
     Any temporary file that is created should be closed and unlinked
     (removed).

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_NONASCII

     Set to a filename containing the *note FS_NONASCII: 497b.
     character, if it exists.  This guarantees that if the filename
     exists, it can be encoded and decoded with the default filesystem
     encoding.  This allows tests that require a non-ASCII filename to
     be easily skipped on platforms where they can’t work.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNENCODABLE

     Set to a filename (str type) that should not be able to be encoded
     by file system encoding in strict mode.  It may be ‘None’ if it’s
     not possible to generate such a filename.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNDECODABLE

     Set to a filename (bytes type) that should not be able to be
     decoded by file system encoding in strict mode.  It may be ‘None’
     if it’s not possible to generate such a filename.

 -- Δεδομένα: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNICODE

     Set to a non-ASCII name for a temporary file.

 -- Κλάση: test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard

     Class used to temporarily set or unset environment variables.
     Instances can be used as a context manager and have a complete
     dictionary interface for querying/modifying the underlying
     ‘os.environ’.  After exit from the context manager all changes to
     environment variables done through this instance will be rolled
     back.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added dictionary interface.

 -- Κλάση: test.support.os_helper.FakePath (path)

     Simple *note path-like object: 79f.  It implements the *note
     __fspath__(): 1010. method which just returns the 'path' argument.
     If 'path' is an exception, it will be raised in ‘__fspath__()’.

 -- Μέθοδος: EnvironmentVarGuard.set (envvar, value)

     Temporarily set the environment variable ‘envvar’ to the value of
     ‘value’.

 -- Μέθοδος: EnvironmentVarGuard.unset (envvar, *others)

     Temporarily unset one or more environment variables.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: More than one environment variable can be
     unset.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.os_helper.can_symlink ()

     Return ‘True’ if the OS supports symbolic links, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.os_helper.can_xattr ()

     Return ‘True’ if the OS supports xattr, ‘False’ otherwise.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.os_helper.change_cwd (path, quiet=False)

     A context manager that temporarily changes the current working
     directory to 'path' and yields the directory.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’, the context manager raises an exception on
     error.  Otherwise, it issues only a warning and keeps the current
     working directory the same.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.os_helper.create_empty_file (filename)

     Create an empty file with 'filename'.  If it already exists,
     truncate it.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.os_helper.fd_count ()

     Count the number of open file descriptors.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.os_helper.fs_is_case_insensitive (directory)

     Return ‘True’ if the file system for 'directory' is
     case-insensitive.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.os_helper.make_bad_fd ()

     Create an invalid file descriptor by opening and closing a
     temporary file, and returning its descriptor.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.os_helper.rmdir (filename)

     Call *note os.rmdir(): 149f. on 'filename'.  On Windows platforms,
     this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of
     the file, which is needed due to antivirus programs that can hold
     files open and prevent deletion.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.os_helper.rmtree (path)

     Call *note shutil.rmtree(): 335. on 'path' or call *note
     os.lstat(): 8b1. and *note os.rmdir(): 149f. to remove a path and
     its contents.  As with *note rmdir(): 498b, on Windows platforms
     this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of
     the files.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_symlink

     A decorator for running tests that require support for symbolic
     links.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_xattr

     A decorator for running tests that require support for xattr.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.os_helper.temp_cwd (name='tempcwd',
          quiet=False)

     A context manager that temporarily creates a new directory and
     changes the current working directory (CWD).

     The context manager creates a temporary directory in the current
     directory with name 'name' before temporarily changing the current
     working directory.  If 'name' is ‘None’, the temporary directory is
     created using *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 730.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’ and it is not possible to create or change
     the CWD, an error is raised.  Otherwise, only a warning is raised
     and the original CWD is used.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.os_helper.temp_dir (path=None, quiet=False)

     A context manager that creates a temporary directory at 'path' and
     yields the directory.

     If 'path' is ‘None’, the temporary directory is created using *note
     tempfile.mkdtemp(): 730.  If 'quiet' is ‘False’, the context
     manager raises an exception on error.  Otherwise, if 'path' is
     specified and cannot be created, only a warning is issued.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.os_helper.temp_umask (umask)

     A context manager that temporarily sets the process umask.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.os_helper.unlink (filename)

     Call *note os.unlink(): 14a1. on 'filename'.  As with *note
     rmdir(): 498b, on Windows platforms, this is wrapped with a wait
     loop that checks for the existence of the file.


File: python.info,  Node: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests,  Next: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests,  Prev: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.15 ‘test.support.import_helper’ — Utilities for import tests
-----------------------------------------------------------------

The ‘test.support.import_helper’ module provides support for import
tests.

Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.import_helper.forget (module_name)

     Remove the module named 'module_name' from ‘sys.modules’ and delete
     any byte-compiled files of the module.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.import_helper.import_fresh_module (name,
          fresh=(), blocked=(), deprecated=False)

     This function imports and returns a fresh copy of the named Python
     module by removing the named module from ‘sys.modules’ before doing
     the import.  Note that unlike ‘reload()’, the original module is
     not affected by this operation.

     'fresh' is an iterable of additional module names that are also
     removed from the ‘sys.modules’ cache before doing the import.

     'blocked' is an iterable of module names that are replaced with
     ‘None’ in the module cache during the import to ensure that
     attempts to import them raise *note ImportError: 1bd.

     The named module and any modules named in the 'fresh' and 'blocked'
     parameters are saved before starting the import and then reinserted
     into ‘sys.modules’ when the fresh import is complete.

     Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this
     import if 'deprecated' is ‘True’.

     This function will raise *note ImportError: 1bd. if the named
     module cannot be imported.

     Example use:

          # Get copies of the warnings module for testing without affecting the
          # version being used by the rest of the test suite. One copy uses the
          # C implementation, the other is forced to use the pure Python fallback
          # implementation
          py_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', blocked=['_warnings'])
          c_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', fresh=['_warnings'])

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.import_helper.import_module (name,
          deprecated=False, *, required_on=())

     This function imports and returns the named module.  Unlike a
     normal import, this function raises *note unittest.SkipTest: 138d.
     if the module cannot be imported.

     Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this
     import if 'deprecated' is ‘True’.  If a module is required on a
     platform but optional for others, set 'required_on' to an iterable
     of platform prefixes which will be compared against *note
     sys.platform: 518.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.import_helper.modules_setup ()

     Return a copy of *note sys.modules: 19ba.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.import_helper.modules_cleanup (oldmodules)

     Remove modules except for 'oldmodules' and ‘encodings’ in order to
     preserve internal cache.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.import_helper.unload (name)

     Delete 'name' from ‘sys.modules’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.import_helper.make_legacy_pyc (source)

     Move a PEP 3147(1)/ PEP 488(2) pyc file to its legacy pyc location
     and return the file system path to the legacy pyc file.  The
     'source' value is the file system path to the source file.  It does
     not need to exist, however the PEP 3147/488 pyc file must exist.

 -- Κλάση: test.support.import_helper.CleanImport (*module_names)

     A context manager to force import to return a new module reference.
     This is useful for testing module-level behaviors, such as the
     emission of a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. on import.  Example
     usage:

          with CleanImport('foo'):
              importlib.import_module('foo')  # New reference.

 -- Κλάση: test.support.import_helper.DirsOnSysPath (*paths)

     A context manager to temporarily add directories to *note sys.path:
     194.

     This makes a copy of *note sys.path: 194, appends any directories
     given as positional arguments, then reverts ‘sys.path’ to the
     copied settings when the context ends.

     Note that 'all' *note sys.path: 194. modifications in the body of
     the context manager, including replacement of the object, will be
     reverted at the end of the block.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/


File: python.info,  Node: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests,  Prev: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests,  Up: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης

5.27.16 ‘test.support.warnings_helper’ — Utilities for warnings tests
---------------------------------------------------------------------

The ‘test.support.warnings_helper’ module provides support for warnings
tests.

Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.warnings_helper.ignore_warnings (*,
          category)

     Suppress warnings that are instances of 'category', which must be
     *note Warning: 290e. or a subclass.  Roughly equivalent to *note
     warnings.catch_warnings(): 423. with *note
     warnings.simplefilter('ignore', category=category): aae.  For
     example:

          @warning_helper.ignore_warnings(category=DeprecationWarning)
          def test_suppress_warning():
              # do something

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.warnings_helper.check_no_resource_warning
          (testcase)

     Context manager to check that no *note ResourceWarning: 74f. was
     raised.  You must remove the object which may emit
     ‘ResourceWarning’ before the end of the context manager.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.warnings_helper.check_syntax_warning
          (testcase, statement, errtext='', *, lineno=1, offset=None)

     Test for syntax warning in 'statement' by attempting to compile
     'statement'.  Test also that the *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. is
     emitted only once, and that it will be converted to a *note
     SyntaxError: 17e. when turned into error.  'testcase' is the *note
     unittest: 10f. instance for the test.  'errtext' is the regular
     expression which should match the string representation of the
     emitted ‘SyntaxWarning’ and raised ‘SyntaxError’.  If 'lineno' is
     not ‘None’, compares to the line of the warning and exception.  If
     'offset' is not ‘None’, compares to the offset of the exception.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: test.support.warnings_helper.check_warnings (*filters,
          quiet=True)

     A convenience wrapper for *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 423.
     that makes it easier to test that a warning was correctly raised.
     It is approximately equivalent to calling
     ‘warnings.catch_warnings(record=True)’ with *note
     warnings.simplefilter(): aae. set to ‘always’ and with the option
     to automatically validate the results that are recorded.

     ‘check_warnings’ accepts 2-tuples of the form ‘("message regexp",
     WarningCategory)’ as positional arguments.  If one or more
     'filters' are provided, or if the optional keyword argument 'quiet'
     is ‘False’, it checks to make sure the warnings are as expected:
     each specified filter must match at least one of the warnings
     raised by the enclosed code or the test fails, and if any warnings
     are raised that do not match any of the specified filters the test
     fails.  To disable the first of these checks, set 'quiet' to
     ‘True’.

     If no arguments are specified, it defaults to:

          check_warnings(("", Warning), quiet=True)

     In this case all warnings are caught and no errors are raised.

     On entry to the context manager, a ‘WarningRecorder’ instance is
     returned.  The underlying warnings list from *note
     catch_warnings(): 423. is available via the recorder object’s *note
     warnings: 11b. attribute.  As a convenience, the attributes of the
     object representing the most recent warning can also be accessed
     directly through the recorder object (see example below).  If no
     warning has been raised, then any of the attributes that would
     otherwise be expected on an object representing a warning will
     return ‘None’.

     The recorder object also has a ‘reset()’ method, which clears the
     warnings list.

     The context manager is designed to be used like this:

          with check_warnings(("assertion is always true", SyntaxWarning),
                              ("", UserWarning)):
              exec('assert(False, "Hey!")')
              warnings.warn(UserWarning("Hide me!"))

     In this case if either warning was not raised, or some other
     warning was raised, ‘check_warnings()’ would raise an error.

     When a test needs to look more deeply into the warnings, rather
     than just checking whether or not they occurred, code like this can
     be used:

          with check_warnings(quiet=True) as w:
              warnings.warn("foo")
              assert str(w.args[0]) == "foo"
              warnings.warn("bar")
              assert str(w.args[0]) == "bar"
              assert str(w.warnings[0].args[0]) == "foo"
              assert str(w.warnings[1].args[0]) == "bar"
              w.reset()
              assert len(w.warnings) == 0

     Here all warnings will be caught, and the test code tests the
     captured warnings directly.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: New optional arguments 'filters' and
     'quiet'.

 -- Κλάση: test.support.warnings_helper.WarningsRecorder

     Class used to record warnings for unit tests.  See documentation of
     *note check_warnings(): 49a0. above for more details.


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging and profiling,  Next: Software Packaging and Distribution,  Prev: Εργαλεία Ανάπτυξης,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.28 Debugging and profiling
============================

Αυτές οι βιβλιοθήκες σας βοηθούν στην ανάπτυξη με την Python: ο
αποσφαλματωτής (debugger) σας επιτρέπει να εκτελείτε τον κώδικα βήμα
προς βήμα, να αναλύετε στοίβες κλήσεων και να ορίζετε σημεία διακοπής
κ.ά., ενώ τα εργαλεία ανάλυσης απόδοσης εκτελούν τον κώδικα και σας
παρέχουν λεπτομερή ανάλυση των χρόνων εκτέλεσης, επιτρέποντάς σας να
εντοπίσετε σημεία συμφόρησης στα προγράμματά σας.  Τα συμβάντα ελέγχου
παρέχουν ορατότητα στις συμπεριφορές κατά τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης, οι οποίες
διαφορετικά θα απαιτούσαν παρεμβατική αποσφαλμάτωση ή επιδιόρθωση.

* Menu:

* Audit events table::
* bdb — Debugger framework::
* faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback::
* pdb — The Python Debugger::
* profiling — Python profilers::
* pstats — Statistics for profilers::
* timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα::
* trace — Ιχνηλάτηση ή παρακολούθηση εκτέλεσης εντολών Python::
* tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations::


File: python.info,  Node: Audit events table,  Next: bdb — Debugger framework,  Up: Debugging and profiling

5.28.1 Audit events table
-------------------------

This table contains all events raised by *note sys.audit(): 1b36. or
*note PySys_Audit(): 808. calls throughout the CPython runtime and the
standard library.  These calls were added in 3.8 or later (see PEP
578(1)).

See *note sys.addaudithook(): 49a7. and *note PySys_AddAuditHook():
49a8. for information on handling these events.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This table is generated from the
CPython documentation, and may not represent events raised by other
implementations.  See your runtime specific documentation for actual
events raised.

Audit event                        Arguments                                                   References
                                                                                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                               
_thread.start_new_thread           ‘function’, ‘args’, ‘kwargs’                                *note [1]: 49a9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
array.__new__                      ‘typecode’, ‘initializer’                                   *note [1]: 6c5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.breakpoint                ‘breakpointhook’                                            *note [1]: 4f9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.id                        ‘id’                                                        *note [1]: 17c5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.input                     ‘prompt’                                                    *note [1]: 167d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
builtins.input/result              ‘result’                                                    *note [1]: 167d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
code.__new__                       ‘code’, ‘filename’, ‘name’, ‘argcount’,                     *note [1]: 2e1.
                                   ‘posonlyargcount’, ‘kwonlyargcount’, ‘nlocals’,             
                                   ‘stacksize’, ‘flags’
                                   
                                                                                               
compile                            ‘source’, ‘filename’                                        *note [1]: 1c8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.PyConfig_Set               ‘name’, ‘value’                                             *note [1]: 5aa.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear                                                               *note [1]: 49aa.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.PyInterpreterState_New                                                                 *note [1]: 49ab.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks                                                                 *note [1]: 10cf.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.remote_debugger_script     ‘script_path’                                               *note [1]: 49ac.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_command                ‘command’                                                   *note [1]: 445.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_file                   ‘filename’                                                  *note [1]: 49ad.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_interactivehook        ‘hook’                                                      *note [1]: 1371.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_module                 ‘module-name’                                               *note [1]: 4ca.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_startup                ‘filename’                                                  *note [1]: 453.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
cpython.run_stdin                                                                              *note [1]: 49ae.*note [2]: 49af.*note [3]: 49b0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.addressof                   ‘obj’                                                       *note [1]: 3595.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.call_function               ‘func_pointer’, ‘arguments’                                 *note [1]: 358f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.cdata                       ‘address’                                                   *note [1]: 359f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.cdata/buffer                ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’                                 *note [1]: 35a4.*note [2]: 35a5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.create_string_buffer        ‘init’, ‘size’                                              *note [1]: 3548.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.create_unicode_buffer       ‘init’, ‘size’                                              *note [1]: 1fa4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlopen                      ‘name’                                                      *note [1]: 3588.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlsym                       ‘library’, ‘name’                                           *note [1]: 3588.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.dlsym/handle                ‘handle’, ‘name’                                            *note [1]: 3588.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.get_errno                                                                               *note [1]: 3580.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.get_last_error                                                                          *note [1]: 3582.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.memoryview_at               ‘address’, ‘size’, ‘readonly’                               *note [1]: 49b1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_errno                   ‘errno’                                                     *note [1]: 3581.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_exception               ‘code’                                                      *note [1]: 358f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.set_last_error              ‘error’                                                     *note [1]: 3583.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.string_at                   ‘ptr’, ‘size’                                               *note [1]: 482.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ctypes.wstring_at                  ‘ptr’, ‘size’                                               *note [1]: 359e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ensurepip.bootstrap                ‘root’                                                      *note [1]: 49b2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
exec                               ‘code_object’                                               *note [1]: 184.*note [2]: 185.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.fcntl                        ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘arg’                                          *note [1]: 1962.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.flock                        ‘fd’, ‘operation’                                           *note [1]: 49b3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.ioctl                        ‘fd’, ‘request’, ‘arg’                                      *note [1]: 181d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
fcntl.lockf                        ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’, ‘start’, ‘whence’                       *note [1]: 178f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ftplib.connect                     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 4246.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
ftplib.sendcmd                     ‘self’, ‘cmd’                                               *note [1]: 424b.*note [2]: 424c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
function.__new__                   ‘code’                                                      *note [1]: c59.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_objects                     ‘generation’                                                *note [1]: bdd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_referents                   ‘objs’                                                      *note [1]: bdf.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
gc.get_referrers                   ‘objs’                                                      *note [1]: bde.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
glob.glob                          ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’                                     *note [1]: 2d4.*note [2]: be1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
glob.glob/2                        ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’, ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’               *note [1]: 2d4.*note [2]: be1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
http.client.connect                ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 4228.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
http.client.send                   ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 422d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
imaplib.open                       ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: cd4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
imaplib.send                       ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: 429d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
import                             ‘module’, ‘filename’, ‘sys.path’, ‘sys.meta_path’,          *note [1]: 9da.
                                   ‘sys.path_hooks’                                            
                                   
                                                                                               
marshal.dumps                      ‘value’, ‘version’                                          *note [1]: 2f6a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
marshal.load                                                                                   *note [1]: 1fe5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
marshal.loads                      ‘bytes’                                                     *note [1]: 1fe5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
mmap.__new__                       ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’                      *note [1]: 23c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.get_osfhandle               ‘fd’                                                        *note [1]: 49b4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.locking                     ‘fd’, ‘mode’, ‘nbytes’                                      *note [1]: 49b5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
msvcrt.open_osfhandle              ‘handle’, ‘flags’                                           *note [1]: 49b6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__delattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’                                               *note [1]: 256e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__getattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’                                               *note [1]: f90.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
object.__setattr__                 ‘obj’, ‘name’, ‘value’                                      *note [1]: 256d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
open                               ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘flags’                                     *note [1]: 32b.*note [2]: 92b.*note [3]: 114b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.add_dll_directory               ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: dae.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chdir                           ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: a02.*note [2]: 1142.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chflags                         ‘path’, ‘flags’                                             *note [1]: 1499.*note [2]: 329f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chmod                           ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’                                    *note [1]: 72c.*note [2]: 72d.*note [3]: 72b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.chown                           ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’                              *note [1]: 149a.*note [2]: 1143.*note [3]: 32a0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.exec                            ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’                                       *note [1]: 3310.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.fork                                                                                        *note [1]: 6bd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.forkpty                                                                                     *note [1]: 6be.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.fwalk                           ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘follow_symlinks’, ‘dir_fd’    *note [1]: f18.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.getxattr                        ‘path’, ‘attribute’                                         *note [1]: 14b0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.kill                            ‘pid’, ‘sig’                                                *note [1]: 170c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.killpg                          ‘pgid’, ‘sig’                                               *note [1]: 1fab.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.link                            ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’                    *note [1]: 149b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listdir                         ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 14a6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listdrives                                                                                  *note [1]: 8ae.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listmounts                      ‘volume’                                                    *note [1]: 8b0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listvolumes                                                                                 *note [1]: 8af.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.listxattr                       ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: 14b1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.lockf                           ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’                                          *note [1]: 14bf.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.mkdir                           ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’                                    *note [1]: 72f.*note [2]: 72e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.posix_spawn                     ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’                                       *note [1]: 731.*note [2]: 1949.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.putenv                          ‘key’, ‘value’                                              *note [1]: 4e7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.remove                          ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: 149c.*note [2]: 32a5.*note [3]: 14a1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.removexattr                     ‘path’, ‘attribute’                                         *note [1]: 14b2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.rename                          ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’                    *note [1]: 149d.*note [2]: 32a6.*note [3]: 149e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.rmdir                           ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: 149f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.scandir                         ‘path’                                                      *note [1]: e23.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.setxattr                        ‘path’, ‘attribute’, ‘value’, ‘flags’                       *note [1]: 14b3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.spawn                           ‘mode’, ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’                               *note [1]: 586.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.startfile                       ‘path’, ‘operation’                                         *note [1]: 1e79.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.startfile/2                     ‘path’, ‘operation’, ‘arguments’, ‘cwd’, ‘show_cmd’         *note [1]: 1e79.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.symlink                         ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘dir_fd’                                      *note [1]: 14a0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.system                          ‘command’                                                   *note [1]: 17ff.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.truncate                        ‘fd’, ‘length’                                              *note [1]: 1148.*note [2]: 11ef.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.unsetenv                        ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 4e8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.utime                           ‘path’, ‘times’, ‘ns’, ‘dir_fd’                             *note [1]: 14a2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
os.walk                            ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘followlinks’                  *note [1]: 8b9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pathlib.Path.glob                  ‘self’, ‘pattern’                                           *note [1]: 73a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pathlib.Path.rglob                 ‘self’, ‘pattern’                                           *note [1]: 73b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pdb.Pdb                                                                                        *note [1]: 4fb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pickle.find_class                  ‘module’, ‘name’                                            *note [1]: 19b5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
poplib.connect                     ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: cf0.*note [2]: cf1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
poplib.putline                     ‘self’, ‘line’                                              *note [1]: cf0.*note [2]: cf1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
pty.spawn                          ‘argv’                                                      *note [1]: 132c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
resource.prlimit                   ‘pid’, ‘resource’, ‘limits’                                 *note [1]: 3e8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
resource.setrlimit                 ‘resource’, ‘limits’                                        *note [1]: 3e7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
setopencodehook                                                                                *note [1]: 1c9e.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.chown                       ‘path’, ‘user’, ‘group’                                     *note [1]: 74b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copyfile                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: e1e.*note [2]: e1f.*note [3]: e1d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copymode                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: e1e.*note [2]: 1c2c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copystat                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: e1f.*note [2]: 14da.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.copytree                    ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: ded.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.make_archive                ‘base_name’, ‘format’, ‘root_dir’, ‘base_dir’               *note [1]: 8c3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.move                        ‘src’, ‘dst’                                                *note [1]: e20.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.rmtree                      ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’                                            *note [1]: 335.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
shutil.unpack_archive              ‘filename’, ‘extract_dir’, ‘format’                         *note [1]: 882.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
signal.pthread_kill                ‘thread_id’, ‘signalnum’                                    *note [1]: 14dd.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
smtplib.connect                    ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’                                      *note [1]: 1913.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
smtplib.send                       ‘self’, ‘data’                                              *note [1]: cfa.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.__new__                     ‘self’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’                        *note [1]: 115a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.bind                        ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: 18dc.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.connect                     ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: 115c.*note [2]: 18db.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getaddrinfo                 ‘host’, ‘port’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’                *note [1]: 1925.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostbyaddr               ‘ip_address’                                                *note [1]: 1e7a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostbyname               ‘hostname’                                                  *note [1]: 3bdf.*note [2]: 1e7b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.gethostname                                                                             *note [1]: 324b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getnameinfo                 ‘sockaddr’                                                  *note [1]: 1c42.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getservbyname               ‘servicename’, ‘protocolname’                               *note [1]: 3be1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.getservbyport               ‘port’, ‘protocolname’                                      *note [1]: 3be2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sendmsg                     ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: 88c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sendto                      ‘self’, ‘address’                                           *note [1]: 1162.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
socket.sethostname                 ‘name’                                                      *note [1]: 14e7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.connect                    ‘database’                                                  *note [1]: 3e0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.connect/handle             ‘connection_handle’                                         *note [1]: 3e0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.enable_load_extension      ‘connection’, ‘enabled’                                     *note [1]: c17.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sqlite3.load_extension             ‘connection’, ‘path’                                        *note [1]: 8c8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
subprocess.Popen                   ‘executable’, ‘args’, ‘cwd’, ‘env’                          *note [1]: 6bf.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._current_exceptions                                                                        *note [1]: 8d2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._current_frames                                                                            *note [1]: 17d5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._getframe                      ‘frame’                                                     *note [1]: ace.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys._getframemodulename            ‘depth’                                                     *note [1]: 1cde.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.addaudithook                                                                               *note [1]: 49a8.*note [2]: 49a7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.excepthook                     ‘hook’, ‘type’, ‘value’, ‘traceback’                        *note [1]: be5.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.monitoring.register_callback   ‘func’                                                      *note [1]: 49b7.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.remote_exec                    ‘pid’                                                       *note [1]: 49b8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer                                                               *note [1]: 1baa.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter                                                               *note [1]: 1baa.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.setprofile                                                                                 *note [1]: 18a0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.settrace                                                                                   *note [1]: 55c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
sys.unraisablehook                 ‘hook’, ‘unraisable’                                        *note [1]: 70c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.closelog                                                                                *note [1]: 94c.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.openlog                     ‘ident’, ‘logoption’, ‘facility’                            *note [1]: 94b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.setlogmask                  ‘maskpri’                                                   *note [1]: 49b9.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
syslog.syslog                      ‘priority’, ‘message’                                       *note [1]: 94d.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
tempfile.mkdtemp                   ‘fullpath’                                                  *note [1]: 15da.*note [2]: 730.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
tempfile.mkstemp                   ‘fullpath’                                                  *note [1]: 8d6.*note [2]: 1a0d.*note [3]: 2ef1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
time.sleep                         ‘secs’                                                      *note [1]: 49ba.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
urllib.Request                     ‘fullurl’, ‘data’, ‘headers’, ‘method’                      *note [1]: 57f.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
webbrowser.open                    ‘url’                                                       *note [1]: 1923.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.ConnectRegistry             ‘computer_name’, ‘key’                                      *note [1]: 49bb.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.CreateKey                   ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 49bc.*note [2]: 1707.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DeleteKey                   ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 49bd.*note [2]: 1708.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DeleteTree                  ‘key’, ‘sub_key’                                            *note [1]: 19ea.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DeleteValue                 ‘key’, ‘value’                                              *note [1]: 49be.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.DisableReflectionKey        ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 1709.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnableReflectionKey         ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 170a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnumKey                     ‘key’, ‘index’                                              *note [1]: 49bf.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.EnumValue                   ‘key’, ‘index’                                              *note [1]: 49c0.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings    ‘str’                                                       *note [1]: 179a.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.LoadKey                     ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘file_name’                               *note [1]: 49c1.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.OpenKey                     ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’                                  *note [1]: 49c2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.OpenKey/result              ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 49bc.*note [2]: 1707.*note [3]: 49c2.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.PyHKEY.Detach               ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 49c3.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryInfoKey                ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 49c4.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryReflectionKey          ‘key’                                                       *note [1]: 170b.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.QueryValue                  ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’                              *note [1]: 49c5.*note [2]: 19a8.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.SaveKey                     ‘key’, ‘file_name’                                          *note [1]: 49c6.
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
winreg.SetValue                    ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’                           *note [1]: 49c7.*note [2]: 1d02.
                                                                                               

The following events are raised internally and do not correspond to any
public API of CPython:

Audit event                      Arguments
                                 
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 
_winapi.CreateFile               ‘file_name’, ‘desired_access’, ‘share_mode’,
                                 ‘creation_disposition’,
                                 ‘flags_and_attributes’
                                 
                                 
_winapi.CreateJunction           ‘src_path’, ‘dst_path’
                                 
                                 
_winapi.CreateNamedPipe          ‘name’, ‘open_mode’, ‘pipe_mode’
                                 
                                 
_winapi.CreatePipe

_winapi.CreateProcess            ‘application_name’, ‘command_line’,
                                 ‘current_directory’
                                 
                                 
_winapi.OpenProcess              ‘process_id’, ‘desired_access’
                                 
                                 
_winapi.TerminateProcess         ‘handle’, ‘exit_code’
                                 
                                 
_posixsubprocess.fork_exec       ‘exec_list’, ‘args’, ‘env’
                                 
                                 
ctypes.PyObj_FromPtr             ‘obj’
                                 

Added in version 3.14: The ‘_posixsubprocess.fork_exec’ internal audit
event.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: bdb — Debugger framework,  Next: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback,  Prev: Audit events table,  Up: Debugging and profiling

5.28.2 ‘bdb’ — Debugger framework
---------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/bdb.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘bdb’ module handles basic debugger functions, like setting
breakpoints or managing execution via the debugger.

The following exception is defined:

 -- Εξαίρεση: bdb.BdbQuit

     Exception raised by the *note Bdb: 550. class for quitting the
     debugger.

The ‘bdb’ module also defines two classes:

 -- Κλάση: bdb.Breakpoint (self, file, line, temporary=False, cond=None,
          funcname=None)

     This class implements temporary breakpoints, ignore counts,
     disabling and (re-)enabling, and conditionals.

     Breakpoints are indexed by number through a list called *note
     bpbynumber: 49cc. and by ‘(file, line)’ pairs through *note bplist:
     49cd.  The former points to a single instance of class
     ‘Breakpoint’.  The latter points to a list of such instances since
     there may be more than one breakpoint per line.

     When creating a breakpoint, its associated *note file name: 49ce.
     should be in canonical form.  If a *note funcname: 49cf. is
     defined, a breakpoint *note hit: 49d0. will be counted when the
     first line of that function is executed.  A *note conditional:
     49d1. breakpoint always counts a ‘hit’.

     ‘Breakpoint’ instances have the following methods:

      -- Μέθοδος: deleteMe ()

          Delete the breakpoint from the list associated to a file/line.
          If it is the last breakpoint in that position, it also deletes
          the entry for the file/line.

      -- Μέθοδος: enable ()

          Mark the breakpoint as enabled.

      -- Μέθοδος: disable ()

          Mark the breakpoint as disabled.

      -- Μέθοδος: bpformat ()

          Return a string with all the information about the breakpoint,
          nicely formatted:

             * Breakpoint number.

             * Temporary status (del or keep).

             * File/line position.

             * Break condition.

             * Number of times to ignore.

             * Number of times hit.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: bpprint (out=None)

          Print the output of *note bpformat(): 49d5. to the file 'out',
          or if it is ‘None’, to standard output.

     ‘Breakpoint’ instances have the following attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: file

          File name of the ‘Breakpoint’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: line

          Line number of the ‘Breakpoint’ within *note file: 49ce.

      -- Ιδιότητα: temporary

          ‘True’ if a ‘Breakpoint’ at (file, line) is temporary.

      -- Ιδιότητα: cond

          Condition for evaluating a ‘Breakpoint’ at (file, line).

      -- Ιδιότητα: funcname

          Function name that defines whether a ‘Breakpoint’ is hit upon
          entering the function.

      -- Ιδιότητα: enabled

          ‘True’ if ‘Breakpoint’ is enabled.

      -- Ιδιότητα: bpbynumber

          Numeric index for a single instance of a ‘Breakpoint’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: bplist

          Dictionary of ‘Breakpoint’ instances indexed by (*note file:
          49ce, *note line: 49d7.) tuples.

      -- Ιδιότητα: ignore

          Number of times to ignore a ‘Breakpoint’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: hits

          Count of the number of times a ‘Breakpoint’ has been hit.

 -- Κλάση: bdb.Bdb (skip=None, backend='settrace')

     The ‘Bdb’ class acts as a generic Python debugger base class.

     This class takes care of the details of the trace facility; a
     derived class should implement user interaction.  The standard
     debugger class (*note pdb.Pdb: 4fb.) is an example.

     The 'skip' argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style
     module name patterns.  The debugger will not step into frames that
     originate in a module that matches one of these patterns.  Whether
     a frame is considered to originate in a certain module is
     determined by the ‘__name__’ in the frame globals.

     The 'backend' argument specifies the backend to use for ‘Bdb’.  It
     can be either ‘'settrace'’ or ‘'monitoring'’.  ‘'settrace'’ uses
     *note sys.settrace(): 55c. which has the best backward
     compatibility.  The ‘'monitoring'’ backend uses the new *note
     sys.monitoring: e3. that was introduced in Python 3.12, which can
     be much more efficient because it can disable unused events.  We
     are trying to keep the exact interfaces for both backends, but
     there are some differences.  The debugger developers are encouraged
     to use the ‘'monitoring'’ backend to achieve better performance.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added the 'skip' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added the 'backend' parameter.

     The following methods of ‘Bdb’ normally don’t need to be
     overridden.

      -- Μέθοδος: canonic (filename)

          Return canonical form of 'filename'.

          For real file names, the canonical form is an
          operating-system-dependent, *note case-normalized: 2e71. *note
          absolute path: 16bf.  A 'filename' with angle brackets, such
          as ‘"<stdin>"’ generated in interactive mode, is returned
          unchanged.

      -- Μέθοδος: start_trace (self)

          Start tracing.  For ‘'settrace'’ backend, this method is
          equivalent to ‘sys.settrace(self.trace_dispatch)’

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: stop_trace (self)

          Stop tracing.  For ‘'settrace'’ backend, this method is
          equivalent to ‘sys.settrace(None)’

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: reset ()

          Set the ‘botframe’, ‘stopframe’, ‘returnframe’ and *note
          quitting: 49df. attributes with values ready to start
          debugging.

      -- Μέθοδος: trace_dispatch (frame, event, arg)

          This function is installed as the trace function of debugged
          frames.  Its return value is the new trace function (in most
          cases, that is, itself).

          The default implementation decides how to dispatch a frame,
          depending on the type of event (passed as a string) that is
          about to be executed.  'event' can be one of the following:

             * ‘"line"’: A new line of code is going to be executed.

             * ‘"call"’: A function is about to be called, or another
               code block entered.

             * ‘"return"’: A function or other code block is about to
               return.

             * ‘"exception"’: An exception has occurred.

          For all the events, specialized functions (see below) are
          called.

          The 'arg' parameter depends on the previous event.

          See the documentation for *note sys.settrace(): 55c. for more
          information on the trace function.  For more information on
          code and frame objects, refer to *note Η τυπική ιεραρχία
          τύπου: 2520.

      -- Μέθοδος: dispatch_line (frame)

          If the debugger should stop on the current line, invoke the
          *note user_line(): 49e2. method (which should be overridden in
          subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 500. exception if the
          *note quitting: 49df. flag is set (which can be set from
          ‘user_line()’).  Return a reference to the *note
          trace_dispatch(): 49e0. method for further tracing in that
          scope.

      -- Μέθοδος: dispatch_call (frame, arg)

          If the debugger should stop on this function call, invoke the
          *note user_call(): 49e4. method (which should be overridden in
          subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 500. exception if the
          *note quitting: 49df. flag is set (which can be set from
          ‘user_call()’).  Return a reference to the *note
          trace_dispatch(): 49e0. method for further tracing in that
          scope.

      -- Μέθοδος: dispatch_return (frame, arg)

          If the debugger should stop on this function return, invoke
          the *note user_return(): 49e6. method (which should be
          overridden in subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 500.
          exception if the *note quitting: 49df. flag is set (which can
          be set from ‘user_return()’).  Return a reference to the *note
          trace_dispatch(): 49e0. method for further tracing in that
          scope.

      -- Μέθοδος: dispatch_exception (frame, arg)

          If the debugger should stop at this exception, invokes the
          *note user_exception(): 49e8. method (which should be
          overridden in subclasses).  Raise a *note BdbQuit: 500.
          exception if the *note quitting: 49df. flag is set (which can
          be set from ‘user_exception()’).  Return a reference to the
          *note trace_dispatch(): 49e0. method for further tracing in
          that scope.

     Normally derived classes don’t override the following methods, but
     they may if they want to redefine the definition of stopping and
     breakpoints.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_skipped_module (module_name)

          Return ‘True’ if 'module_name' matches any skip pattern.

      -- Μέθοδος: stop_here (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if 'frame' is below the starting frame in the
          stack.

      -- Μέθοδος: break_here (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if there is an effective breakpoint for this
          line.

          Check whether a line or function breakpoint exists and is in
          effect.  Delete temporary breakpoints based on information
          from *note effective(): 49ec.

      -- Μέθοδος: break_anywhere (frame)

          Return ‘True’ if any breakpoint exists for 'frame'’s filename.

     Derived classes should override these methods to gain control over
     debugger operation.

      -- Μέθοδος: user_call (frame, argument_list)

          Called from *note dispatch_call(): 49e3. if a break might stop
          inside the called function.

          'argument_list' is not used anymore and will always be ‘None’.
          The argument is kept for backwards compatibility.

      -- Μέθοδος: user_line (frame)

          Called from *note dispatch_line(): 49e1. when either *note
          stop_here(): 49ea. or *note break_here(): 49eb. returns
          ‘True’.

      -- Μέθοδος: user_return (frame, return_value)

          Called from *note dispatch_return(): 49e5. when *note
          stop_here(): 49ea. returns ‘True’.

      -- Μέθοδος: user_exception (frame, exc_info)

          Called from *note dispatch_exception(): 49e7. when *note
          stop_here(): 49ea. returns ‘True’.

      -- Μέθοδος: do_clear (arg)

          Handle how a breakpoint must be removed when it is a temporary
          one.

          This method must be implemented by derived classes.

     Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to
     affect the stepping state.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_step ()

          Stop after one line of code.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_next (frame)

          Stop on the next line in or below the given frame.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_return (frame)

          Stop when returning from the given frame.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_until (frame, lineno=None)

          Stop when the line with the 'lineno' greater than the current
          one is reached or when returning from current frame.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_trace ([frame])

          Start debugging from 'frame'.  If 'frame' is not specified,
          debugging starts from caller’s frame.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: *note set_trace(): 49f4. will enter
          the debugger immediately, rather than on the next line of code
          to be executed.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_continue ()

          Stop only at breakpoints or when finished.  If there are no
          breakpoints, set the system trace function to ‘None’.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_quit ()

          Set the ‘quitting’ attribute to ‘True’.  This raises *note
          BdbQuit: 500. in the next call to one of the ‘dispatch_*()’
          methods.

     Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to
     manipulate breakpoints.  These methods return a string containing
     an error message if something went wrong, or ‘None’ if all is well.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_break (filename, lineno, temporary=False,
               cond=None, funcname=None)

          Set a new breakpoint.  If the 'lineno' line doesn’t exist for
          the 'filename' passed as argument, return an error message.
          The 'filename' should be in canonical form, as described in
          the *note canonic(): 49db. method.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear_break (filename, lineno)

          Delete the breakpoints in 'filename' and 'lineno'.  If none
          were set, return an error message.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear_bpbynumber (arg)

          Delete the breakpoint which has the index 'arg' in the *note
          Breakpoint.bpbynumber: 49cc.  If 'arg' is not numeric or out
          of range, return an error message.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear_all_file_breaks (filename)

          Delete all breakpoints in 'filename'.  If none were set,
          return an error message.

      -- Μέθοδος: clear_all_breaks ()

          Delete all existing breakpoints.  If none were set, return an
          error message.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_bpbynumber (arg)

          Return a breakpoint specified by the given number.  If 'arg'
          is a string, it will be converted to a number.  If 'arg' is a
          non-numeric string, if the given breakpoint never existed or
          has been deleted, a *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

          Added in version 3.2.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_break (filename, lineno)

          Return ‘True’ if there is a breakpoint for 'lineno' in
          'filename'.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_breaks (filename, lineno)

          Return all breakpoints for 'lineno' in 'filename', or an empty
          list if none are set.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_file_breaks (filename)

          Return all breakpoints in 'filename', or an empty list if none
          are set.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_all_breaks ()

          Return all breakpoints that are set.

     Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to
     disable and restart events to achieve better performance.  These
     methods only work when using the ‘'monitoring'’ backend.

      -- Μέθοδος: disable_current_event ()

          Disable the current event until the next time *note
          restart_events(): 4a01. is called.  This is helpful when the
          debugger is not interested in the current line.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: restart_events ()

          Restart all the disabled events.  This function is
          automatically called in ‘dispatch_*’ methods after ‘user_*’
          methods are called.  If the ‘dispatch_*’ methods are not
          overridden, the disabled events will be restarted after each
          user interaction.

          Added in version 3.14.

     Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to get a
     data structure representing a stack trace.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_stack (f, t)

          Return a list of (frame, lineno) tuples in a stack trace, and
          a size.

          The most recently called frame is last in the list.  The size
          is the number of frames below the frame where the debugger was
          invoked.

      -- Μέθοδος: format_stack_entry (frame_lineno, lprefix=': ')

          Return a string with information about a stack entry, which is
          a ‘(frame, lineno)’ tuple.  The return string contains:

             * The canonical filename which contains the frame.

             * The function name or ‘"<lambda>"’.

             * The input arguments.

             * The return value.

             * The line of code (if it exists).

     The following two methods can be called by clients to use a
     debugger to debug a *note statement: 2e17, given as a string.

      -- Μέθοδος: run (cmd, globals=None, locals=None)

          Debug a statement executed via the *note exec(): 185.
          function.  'globals' defaults to ‘__main__.__dict__’, 'locals'
          defaults to 'globals'.

      -- Μέθοδος: runeval (expr, globals=None, locals=None)

          Debug an expression executed via the *note eval(): 184.
          function.  'globals' and 'locals' have the same meaning as in
          *note run(): 4a04.

      -- Μέθοδος: runctx (cmd, globals, locals)

          For backwards compatibility.  Calls the *note run(): 4a04.
          method.

      -- Μέθοδος: runcall (func, /, *args, **kwds)

          Debug a single function call, and return its result.

Finally, the module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: bdb.checkfuncname (b, frame)

     Return ‘True’ if we should break here, depending on the way the
     *note Breakpoint: 49cb. 'b' was set.

     If it was set via line number, it checks if *note b.line: 49d7. is
     the same as the one in 'frame'.  If the breakpoint was set via
     *note function name: 49cf, we have to check we are in the right
     'frame' (the right function) and if we are on its first executable
     line.

 -- Συνάρτηση: bdb.effective (file, line, frame)

     Return ‘(active breakpoint, delete temporary flag)’ or ‘(None,
     None)’ as the breakpoint to act upon.

     The 'active breakpoint' is the first entry in *note bplist: 49cd.
     for the (*note file: 49ce, *note line: 49d7.) (which must exist)
     that is *note enabled: 49d9, for which *note checkfuncname(): 4a07.
     is true, and that has neither a false *note condition: 49d1. nor
     positive *note ignore: 49da. count.  The 'flag', meaning that a
     temporary breakpoint should be deleted, is ‘False’ only when the
     ‘cond’ cannot be evaluated (in which case, ‘ignore’ count is
     ignored).

     If no such entry exists, then ‘(None, None)’ is returned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: bdb.set_trace ()

     Start debugging with a *note Bdb: 550. instance from caller’s
     frame.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/bdb.py


File: python.info,  Node: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback,  Next: pdb — The Python Debugger,  Prev: bdb — Debugger framework,  Up: Debugging and profiling

5.28.3 ‘faulthandler’ — Dump the Python traceback
-------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on
a fault, after a timeout, or on a user signal.  Call *note
faulthandler.enable(): 219. to install fault handlers for the *note
SIGSEGV: 1428, *note SIGFPE: 1429, *note SIGABRT: 142a, *note SIGBUS:
142b, and *note SIGILL: 142c. signals.  You can also enable them at
startup by setting the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 142d. environment
variable or by using the *note -X: 178. ‘faulthandler’ command line
option.

The fault handler is compatible with system fault handlers like Apport
or the Windows fault handler.  The module uses an alternative stack for
signal handlers if the ‘sigaltstack()’ function is available.  This
allows it to dump the traceback even on a stack overflow.

The fault handler is called on catastrophic cases and therefore can only
use signal-safe functions (e.g.  it cannot allocate memory on the heap).
Because of this limitation traceback dumping is minimal compared to
normal Python tracebacks:

   * Only ASCII is supported.  The ‘backslashreplace’ error handler is
     used on encoding.

   * Each string is limited to 500 characters.

   * Only the filename, the function name and the line number are
     displayed.  (no source code)

   * It is limited to 100 frames per thread, and 100 threads
     (configurable via 'max_threads').

   * The order is reversed: the most recent call is shown first.

By default, the Python traceback is written to *note sys.stderr: d05.
To see tracebacks, applications must be run in the terminal.  A log file
can alternatively be passed to *note faulthandler.enable(): 219.

The module is implemented in C, so tracebacks can be dumped on a crash
or when Python is deadlocked.

The *note Python Development Mode: 70d. calls *note
faulthandler.enable(): 219. at Python startup.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note pdb: aa.

     Interactive source code debugger for Python programs.

Module *note traceback: 107.

     Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of
     Python programs.

* Menu:

* Dumping the traceback::
* Dumping the C stack::
* Fault handler state::
* Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout::
* Dumping the traceback on a user signal::
* Issue with file descriptors::
* Example: Example<12>.


File: python.info,  Node: Dumping the traceback,  Next: Dumping the C stack,  Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

5.28.3.1 Dumping the traceback
..............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: faulthandler.dump_traceback (file=sys.stderr,
          all_threads=True, *, max_threads=100)

     Dump the tracebacks of all threads into 'file'.  If 'all_threads'
     is ‘False’, dump only the current thread.  'max_threads' caps the
     number of threads dumped.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note traceback.print_tb(): 1236, which can be used to print a
     traceback object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support for passing file descriptor
     to this function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'max_threads' keyword argument.


File: python.info,  Node: Dumping the C stack,  Next: Fault handler state,  Prev: Dumping the traceback,  Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

5.28.3.2 Dumping the C stack
............................

Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: faulthandler.dump_c_stack (file=sys.stderr)

     Dump the C stack trace of the current thread into 'file'.

     If the Python build does not support it or the operating system
     does not provide a stack trace, then this prints an error in place
     of a dumped C stack.

* Menu:

* C Stack Compatibility::


File: python.info,  Node: C Stack Compatibility,  Up: Dumping the C stack

5.28.3.3 C Stack Compatibility
..............................

If the system does not support the C-level ‘backtrace(3)(1)’ or
‘dladdr1(3)(2)’, then C stack dumps will not work.  An error will be
printed instead of the stack.

Additionally, some compilers do not support *note CPython’s: ae3.
implementation of C stack dumps.  As a result, a different error may be
printed instead of the stack, even if the operating system supports
dumping stacks.

     Σημείωση: Dumping C stacks can be arbitrarily slow, depending on
     the DWARF level of the binaries in the call stack.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/backtrace(3)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/dladdr1(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Fault handler state,  Next: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout,  Prev: Dumping the C stack,  Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

5.28.3.4 Fault handler state
............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: faulthandler.enable (file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True,
          c_stack=True, *, max_threads=100)

     Enable the fault handler: install handlers for the *note SIGSEGV:
     1428, *note SIGFPE: 1429, *note SIGABRT: 142a, *note SIGBUS: 142b.
     and *note SIGILL: 142c. signals to dump the Python traceback.  If
     'all_threads' is ‘True’, produce tracebacks for every running
     thread.  Otherwise, dump only the current thread.

     The 'file' must be kept open until the fault handler is disabled:
     see *note issue with file descriptors: 4a0f.

     If 'c_stack' is ‘True’, then the C stack trace is printed after the
     Python traceback, unless the system does not support it.  See *note
     dump_c_stack(): 49f. for more information on compatibility.

     'max_threads' caps the number of threads dumped when a fatal signal
     fires.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support for passing file descriptor
     to this function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: On Windows, a handler for Windows exception
     is also installed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The dump now mentions if a garbage
     collector collection is running if 'all_threads' is true.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Only the current thread is dumped if the
     *note GIL: 411. is disabled to prevent the risk of data races.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The dump now displays the C stack trace if
     'c_stack' is true.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'max_threads' keyword argument.

 -- Συνάρτηση: faulthandler.disable ()

     Disable the fault handler: uninstall the signal handlers installed
     by *note enable(): 219.

 -- Συνάρτηση: faulthandler.is_enabled ()

     Check if the fault handler is enabled.


File: python.info,  Node: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout,  Next: Dumping the traceback on a user signal,  Prev: Fault handler state,  Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

5.28.3.5 Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout
...............................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: faulthandler.dump_traceback_later (timeout, repeat=False,
          file=sys.stderr, exit=False, *, max_threads=100)

     Dump the tracebacks of all threads, after a timeout of 'timeout'
     seconds, or every 'timeout' seconds if 'repeat' is ‘True’.  If
     'exit' is ‘True’, call ‘_exit()’ with status=1 after dumping the
     tracebacks.  (Note ‘_exit()’ exits the process immediately, which
     means it doesn’t do any cleanup like flushing file buffers.)  If
     the function is called twice, the new call replaces previous
     parameters and resets the timeout.  The timer has a sub-second
     resolution.  'max_threads' caps the number of threads dumped.

     The 'file' must be kept open until the traceback is dumped or *note
     cancel_dump_traceback_later(): 4a13. is called: see *note issue
     with file descriptors: 4a0f.

     This function is implemented using a watchdog thread.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support for passing file descriptor
     to this function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: This function is now always available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'max_threads' keyword argument.

 -- Συνάρτηση: faulthandler.cancel_dump_traceback_later ()

     Cancel the last call to *note dump_traceback_later(): 21b.


File: python.info,  Node: Dumping the traceback on a user signal,  Next: Issue with file descriptors,  Prev: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout,  Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

5.28.3.6 Dumping the traceback on a user signal
...............................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: faulthandler.register (signum, file=sys.stderr,
          all_threads=True, chain=False, *, max_threads=100)

     Register a user signal: install a handler for the 'signum' signal
     to dump the traceback of all threads, or of the current thread if
     'all_threads' is ‘False’, into 'file'.  Call the previous handler
     if chain is ‘True’.  'max_threads' caps the number of threads
     dumped.

     The 'file' must be kept open until the signal is unregistered by
     *note unregister(): 4a15.: see *note issue with file descriptors:
     4a0f.

     Not available on Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support for passing file descriptor
     to this function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'max_threads' keyword argument.

 -- Συνάρτηση: faulthandler.unregister (signum)

     Unregister a user signal: uninstall the handler of the 'signum'
     signal installed by *note register(): 21c.  Return ‘True’ if the
     signal was registered, ‘False’ otherwise.

     Not available on Windows.


File: python.info,  Node: Issue with file descriptors,  Next: Example<12>,  Prev: Dumping the traceback on a user signal,  Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

5.28.3.7 Issue with file descriptors
....................................

*note enable(): 219, *note dump_traceback_later(): 21b. and *note
register(): 21c. keep the file descriptor of their 'file' argument.  If
the file is closed and its file descriptor is reused by a new file, or
if *note os.dup2(): f20. is used to replace the file descriptor, the
traceback will be written into a different file.  Call these functions
again each time that the file is replaced.


File: python.info,  Node: Example<12>,  Prev: Issue with file descriptors,  Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

5.28.3.8 Example
................

Example of a segmentation fault on Linux with and without enabling the
fault handler:

     $ python -c "import ctypes; ctypes.string_at(0)"
     Segmentation fault

     $ python -q -X faulthandler
     >>> import ctypes
     >>> ctypes.string_at(0)
     Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault

     Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700 (most recent call first):
       File "/opt/python/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
       File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>

     Current thread's C stack trace (most recent call first):
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at _Py_DumpStack+0x42 [0x5b27f7d7147e]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x32dcbd [0x5b27f7d85cbd]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x32df8a [0x5b27f7d85f8a]
       Binary file "/usr/lib/libc.so.6", at +0x3def0 [0x77b73226bef0]
       Binary file "/usr/lib/libc.so.6", at +0x17ef9c [0x77b7323acf9c]
       Binary file "/opt/python/build/lib.linux-x86_64-3.15/_ctypes.cpython-315d-x86_64-linux-gnu.so", at +0xcdf6 [0x77b7315dddf6]
       Binary file "/usr/lib/libffi.so.8", at +0x7976 [0x77b73158f976]
       Binary file "/usr/lib/libffi.so.8", at +0x413c [0x77b73158c13c]
       Binary file "/usr/lib/libffi.so.8", at ffi_call+0x12e [0x77b73158ef0e]
       Binary file "/opt/python/build/lib.linux-x86_64-3.15/_ctypes.cpython-315d-x86_64-linux-gnu.so", at +0x15a33 [0x77b7315e6a33]
       Binary file "/opt/python/build/lib.linux-x86_64-3.15/_ctypes.cpython-315d-x86_64-linux-gnu.so", at +0x164fa [0x77b7315e74fa]
       Binary file "/opt/python/build/lib.linux-x86_64-3.15/_ctypes.cpython-315d-x86_64-linux-gnu.so", at +0xc624 [0x77b7315dd624]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at _PyObject_MakeTpCall+0xce [0x5b27f7b73883]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x11bab6 [0x5b27f7b73ab6]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at PyObject_Vectorcall+0x23 [0x5b27f7b73b04]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault+0x490c [0x5b27f7cbb302]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x2818e6 [0x5b27f7cd98e6]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x281aab [0x5b27f7cd9aab]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at PyEval_EvalCode+0xc5 [0x5b27f7cd9ba3]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x255957 [0x5b27f7cad957]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x255ab4 [0x5b27f7cadab4]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault+0x6c3e [0x5b27f7cbd634]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x2818e6 [0x5b27f7cd98e6]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x281aab [0x5b27f7cd9aab]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x11b6e1 [0x5b27f7b736e1]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x11d348 [0x5b27f7b75348]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x11d626 [0x5b27f7b75626]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at PyObject_Call+0x20 [0x5b27f7b7565e]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x32a67a [0x5b27f7d8267a]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x32a7f8 [0x5b27f7d827f8]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at +0x32ac1b [0x5b27f7d82c1b]
       Binary file "/opt/python/python", at Py_RunMain+0x31 [0x5b27f7d82ebe]
       <truncated rest of calls>
     Segmentation fault


File: python.info,  Node: pdb — The Python Debugger,  Next: profiling — Python profilers,  Prev: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback,  Up: Debugging and profiling

5.28.4 ‘pdb’ — The Python Debugger
----------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pdb.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The module ‘pdb’ defines an interactive source code debugger for Python
programs.  It supports setting (conditional) breakpoints and single
stepping at the source line level, inspection of stack frames, source
code listing, and evaluation of arbitrary Python code in the context of
any stack frame.  It also supports post-mortem debugging and can be
called under program control.

The debugger is extensible – it is actually defined as the class *note
Pdb: 4fb.  This is currently undocumented but easily understood by
reading the source.  The extension interface uses the modules *note bdb:
10. and *note cmd: 1a.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note faulthandler: 5b.

     Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a
     timeout, or on a user signal.

Module *note traceback: 107.

     Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of
     Python programs.

The typical usage to break into the debugger is to insert:

     import pdb; pdb.set_trace()

Or:

     breakpoint()

at the location you want to break into the debugger, and then run the
program.  You can then step through the code following this statement,
and continue running without the debugger using the *note continue:
4a1c. command.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The built-in *note breakpoint(): 4f9, when
called with defaults, can be used instead of ‘import pdb;
pdb.set_trace()’.

     def double(x):
        breakpoint()
        return x * 2
     val = 3
     print(f"{val} * 2 is {double(val)}")

The debugger’s prompt is ‘(Pdb)’, which is the indicator that you are in
debug mode:

     > ...(2)double()
     -> breakpoint()
     (Pdb) p x
     3
     (Pdb) continue
     3 * 2 is 6

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Tab-completion via the *note readline: c2.
module is available for commands and command arguments, e.g.  the
current global and local names are offered as arguments of the ‘p’
command.

* Menu:

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<7>.
* Debugger commands::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/pdb.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<7>,  Next: Debugger commands,  Up: pdb — The Python Debugger

5.28.4.1 Command-line interface
...............................

You can also invoke ‘pdb’ from the command line to debug other scripts.
For example:

     python -m pdb [-c command] (-m module | -p pid | pyfile) [args ...]

When invoked as a module, pdb will automatically enter post-mortem
debugging if the program being debugged exits abnormally.  After
post-mortem debugging (or after normal exit of the program), pdb will
restart the program.  Automatic restarting preserves pdb’s state (such
as breakpoints) and in most cases is more useful than quitting the
debugger upon program’s exit.

 -- Option: -c, --command <command>

     To execute commands as if given in a ‘.pdbrc’ file; see *note
     Debugger commands: 4a20.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the ‘-c’ option.

 -- Option: -m <module>

     To execute modules similar to the way ‘python -m’ does.  As with a
     script, the debugger will pause execution just before the first
     line of the module.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the ‘-m’ option.

 -- Option: -p, --pid <pid>

     Attach to the process with the specified PID.

     Added in version 3.14.

To attach to a running Python process for remote debugging, use the ‘-p’
or ‘--pid’ option with the target process’s PID:

     python -m pdb -p 1234

     Σημείωση: Attaching to a process that is blocked in a system call
     or waiting for I/O will only work once the next bytecode
     instruction is executed or when the process receives a signal.

Typical usage to execute a statement under control of the debugger is:

     >>> import pdb
     >>> def f(x):
     ...     print(1 / x)
     >>> pdb.run("f(2)")
     > <string>(1)<module>()
     (Pdb) continue
     0.5
     >>>

The typical usage to inspect a crashed program is:

     >>> import pdb
     >>> def f(x):
     ...     print(1 / x)
     ...
     >>> f(0)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in f
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> pdb.pm()
     > <stdin>(2)f()
     (Pdb) p x
     0
     (Pdb)

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The implementation of PEP 667(1) means that
name assignments made via ‘pdb’ will immediately affect the active
scope, even when running inside an *note optimized scope: 6ad.

The module defines the following functions; each enters the debugger in
a slightly different way:

 -- Συνάρτηση: pdb.run (statement, globals=None, locals=None)

     Execute the 'statement' (given as a string or a code object) under
     debugger control.  The debugger prompt appears before any code is
     executed; you can set breakpoints and type *note continue: 4a1c, or
     you can step through the statement using *note step: 4a23. or *note
     next: 4a24. (all these commands are explained below).  The optional
     'globals' and 'locals' arguments specify the environment in which
     the code is executed; by default the dictionary of the module *note
     __main__: 1. is used.  (See the explanation of the built-in *note
     exec(): 185. or *note eval(): 184. functions.)

 -- Συνάρτηση: pdb.runeval (expression, globals=None, locals=None)

     Evaluate the 'expression' (given as a string or a code object)
     under debugger control.  When ‘runeval()’ returns, it returns the
     value of the 'expression'.  Otherwise this function is similar to
     *note run(): 4811.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pdb.runcall (function, *args, **kwds)

     Call the 'function' (a function or method object, not a string)
     with the given arguments.  When ‘runcall()’ returns, it returns
     whatever the function call returned.  The debugger prompt appears
     as soon as the function is entered.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pdb.set_trace (*, header=None, commands=None)

     Enter the debugger at the calling stack frame.  This is useful to
     hard-code a breakpoint at a given point in a program, even if the
     code is not otherwise being debugged (e.g.  when an assertion
     fails).  If given, 'header' is printed to the console just before
     debugging begins.  The 'commands' argument, if given, is a list of
     commands to execute when the debugger starts.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The keyword-only argument 'header'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: ‘set_trace()’ will enter the debugger
     immediately, rather than on the next line of code to be executed.

     Added in version 3.14: The 'commands' argument.

 -- Συνάρτηση: awaitable pdb.set_trace_async (*, header=None,
          commands=None)

     async version of *note set_trace(): 4fa.  This function should be
     used inside an async function with *note await: 432.

          async def f():
              await pdb.set_trace_async()

     *note await: 432. statements are supported if the debugger is
     invoked by this function.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pdb.post_mortem (t=None)

     Enter post-mortem debugging of the given exception or *note
     traceback object: eba.  If no value is given, it uses the exception
     that is currently being handled, or raises ‘ValueError’ if there
     isn’t one.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Support for exception objects was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pdb.pm ()

     Enter post-mortem debugging of the exception found in *note
     sys.last_exc: 8ce.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pdb.set_default_backend (backend)

     There are two supported backends for pdb: ‘'settrace'’ and
     ‘'monitoring'’.  See *note bdb.Bdb: 550. for details.  The user can
     set the default backend to use if none is specified when
     instantiating *note Pdb: 4fb.  If no backend is specified, the
     default is ‘'settrace'’.

          Σημείωση: *note breakpoint(): 4f9. and *note set_trace(): 4fa.
          will not be affected by this function.  They always use
          ‘'monitoring'’ backend.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pdb.get_default_backend ()

     Returns the default backend for pdb.

     Added in version 3.14.

The ‘run*’ functions and *note set_trace(): 4fa. are aliases for
instantiating the *note Pdb: 4fb. class and calling the method of the
same name.  If you want to access further features, you have to do this
yourself:

 -- Κλάση: pdb.Pdb (completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None,
          skip=None, nosigint=False, readrc=True, mode=None,
          backend=None, colorize=False)

     ‘Pdb’ is the debugger class.

     The 'completekey', 'stdin' and 'stdout' arguments are passed to the
     underlying *note cmd.Cmd: 1a78. class; see the description there.

     The 'skip' argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style
     module name patterns.  The debugger will not step into frames that
     originate in a module that matches one of these patterns.  (2)

     By default, Pdb sets a handler for the SIGINT signal (which is sent
     when the user presses ‘Ctrl’-‘C’ on the console) when you give a
     *note continue: 4a1c. command.  This allows you to break into the
     debugger again by pressing ‘Ctrl’-‘C’.  If you want Pdb not to
     touch the SIGINT handler, set 'nosigint' to true.

     The 'readrc' argument defaults to true and controls whether Pdb
     will load .pdbrc files from the filesystem.

     The 'mode' argument specifies how the debugger was invoked.  It
     impacts the workings of some debugger commands.  Valid values are
     ‘'inline'’ (used by the breakpoint() builtin), ‘'cli'’ (used by the
     command line invocation) or ‘None’ (for backwards compatible
     behaviour, as before the 'mode' argument was added).

     The 'backend' argument specifies the backend to use for the
     debugger.  If ‘None’ is passed, the default backend will be used.
     See *note set_default_backend(): 4a27.  Otherwise the supported
     backends are ‘'settrace'’ and ‘'monitoring'’.

     The 'colorize' argument, if set to ‘True’, will enable colorized
     output in the debugger, if color is supported.  This will highlight
     source code displayed in pdb.

     Example call to enable tracing with 'skip':

          import pdb; pdb.Pdb(skip=['django.*']).set_trace()

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘pdb.Pdb’ with no arguments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added the 'skip' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'nosigint' parameter.
     Previously, a SIGINT handler was never set by Pdb.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The 'readrc' argument.

     Added in version 3.14: Added the 'mode' argument.

     Added in version 3.14: Added the 'backend' argument.

     Added in version 3.14: Added the 'colorize' argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Inline breakpoints like *note
     breakpoint(): 4f9. or *note pdb.set_trace(): 4fa. will always stop
     the program at calling frame, ignoring the 'skip' pattern (if any).

      -- Μέθοδος: run (statement, globals=None, locals=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: runeval (expression, globals=None, locals=None)
      -- Μέθοδος: runcall (function, *args, **kwds)
      -- Μέθοδος: set_trace ()

          See the documentation for the functions explained above.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/

   (2) Whether a frame is considered to originate in a certain module is
determined by the ‘__name__’ in the frame globals.


File: python.info,  Node: Debugger commands,  Prev: Command-line interface<7>,  Up: pdb — The Python Debugger

5.28.4.2 Debugger commands
..........................

The commands recognized by the debugger are listed below.  Most commands
can be abbreviated to one or two letters as indicated; e.g.  ‘h(elp)’
means that either ‘h’ or ‘help’ can be used to enter the help command
(but not ‘he’ or ‘hel’, nor ‘H’ or ‘Help’ or ‘HELP’).  Arguments to
commands must be separated by whitespace (spaces or tabs).  Optional
arguments are enclosed in square brackets (‘[]’) in the command syntax;
the square brackets must not be typed.  Alternatives in the command
syntax are separated by a vertical bar (‘|’).

Entering a blank line repeats the last command entered.  Exception: if
the last command was a *note list: 4a2d. command, the next 11 lines are
listed.

Commands that the debugger doesn’t recognize are assumed to be Python
statements and are executed in the context of the program being
debugged.  Python statements can also be prefixed with an exclamation
point (‘!’).  This is a powerful way to inspect the program being
debugged; it is even possible to change a variable or call a function.
When an exception occurs in such a statement, the exception name is
printed but the debugger’s state is not changed.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Expressions/Statements whose prefix is a pdb
command are now correctly identified and executed.

The debugger supports *note aliases: 4a2e.  Aliases can have parameters
which allows one a certain level of adaptability to the context under
examination.

Multiple commands may be entered on a single line, separated by ‘;;’.
(A single ‘;’ is not used as it is the separator for multiple commands
in a line that is passed to the Python parser.)  No intelligence is
applied to separating the commands; the input is split at the first ‘;;’
pair, even if it is in the middle of a quoted string.  A workaround for
strings with double semicolons is to use implicit string concatenation
‘';'';'’ or ‘";"";"’.

To set a temporary global variable, use a 'convenience variable'.  A
'convenience variable' is a variable whose name starts with ‘$’.  For
example, ‘$foo = 1’ sets a global variable ‘$foo’ which you can use in
the debugger session.  The 'convenience variables' are cleared when the
program resumes execution so it’s less likely to interfere with your
program compared to using normal variables like ‘foo = 1’.

There are four preset 'convenience variables':

   * ‘$_frame’: the current frame you are debugging

   * ‘$_retval’: the return value if the frame is returning

   * ‘$_exception’: the exception if the frame is raising an exception

   * ‘$_asynctask’: the asyncio task if pdb stops in an async function

Added in version 3.12: Added the 'convenience variable' feature.

Added in version 3.14: Added the ‘$_asynctask’ convenience variable.

If a file ‘.pdbrc’ exists in the user’s home directory or in the current
directory, it is read with ‘'utf-8'’ encoding and executed as if it had
been typed at the debugger prompt, with the exception that empty lines
and lines starting with ‘#’ are ignored.  This is particularly useful
for aliases.  If both files exist, the one in the home directory is read
first and aliases defined there can be overridden by the local file.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: ‘.pdbrc’ can now contain commands that continue
debugging, such as *note continue: 4a1c. or *note next: 4a24.
Previously, these commands had no effect.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: ‘.pdbrc’ is now read with ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.
Previously, it was read with the system locale encoding.

 -- Pdbcommand: h(elp) [command]

     Without argument, print the list of available commands.  With a
     'command' as argument, print help about that command.  ‘help pdb’
     displays the full documentation (the docstring of the ‘pdb’
     module).  Since the 'command' argument must be an identifier, ‘help
     exec’ must be entered to get help on the ‘!’ command.

 -- Pdbcommand: w(here) [count]

     Print a stack trace, with the most recent frame at the bottom.  if
     'count' is 0, print the current frame entry.  If 'count' is
     negative, print the least recent - 'count' frames.  If 'count' is
     positive, print the most recent 'count' frames.  An arrow (‘>’)
     indicates the current frame, which determines the context of most
     commands.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: 'count' argument is added.

 -- Pdbcommand: d(own) [count]

     Move the current frame 'count' (default one) levels down in the
     stack trace (to a newer frame).

 -- Pdbcommand: u(p) [count]

     Move the current frame 'count' (default one) levels up in the stack
     trace (to an older frame).

 -- Pdbcommand: b(reak) [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]

     With a 'lineno' argument, set a break at line 'lineno' in the
     current file.  The line number may be prefixed with a 'filename'
     and a colon, to specify a breakpoint in another file (possibly one
     that hasn’t been loaded yet).  The file is searched on *note
     sys.path: 194.  Acceptable forms of 'filename' are
     ‘/abspath/to/file.py’, ‘relpath/file.py’, ‘module’ and
     ‘package.module’.

     With a 'function' argument, set a break at the first executable
     statement within that function.  'function' can be any expression
     that evaluates to a function in the current namespace.

     If a second argument is present, it is an expression which must
     evaluate to true before the breakpoint is honored.

     Without argument, list all breaks, including for each breakpoint,
     the number of times that breakpoint has been hit, the current
     ignore count, and the associated condition if any.

     Each breakpoint is assigned a number to which all the other
     breakpoint commands refer.

 -- Pdbcommand: tbreak [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]]

     Temporary breakpoint, which is removed automatically when it is
     first hit.  The arguments are the same as for *note break: 4a33.

 -- Pdbcommand: cl(ear) [filename:lineno | bpnumber ...]

     With a 'filename:lineno' argument, clear all the breakpoints at
     this line.  With a space separated list of breakpoint numbers,
     clear those breakpoints.  Without argument, clear all breaks (but
     first ask confirmation).

 -- Pdbcommand: disable bpnumber [bpnumber ...]

     Disable the breakpoints given as a space separated list of
     breakpoint numbers.  Disabling a breakpoint means it cannot cause
     the program to stop execution, but unlike clearing a breakpoint, it
     remains in the list of breakpoints and can be (re-)enabled.

 -- Pdbcommand: enable bpnumber [bpnumber ...]

     Enable the breakpoints specified.

 -- Pdbcommand: ignore bpnumber [count]

     Set the ignore count for the given breakpoint number.  If 'count'
     is omitted, the ignore count is set to 0.  A breakpoint becomes
     active when the ignore count is zero.  When non-zero, the 'count'
     is decremented each time the breakpoint is reached and the
     breakpoint is not disabled and any associated condition evaluates
     to true.

 -- Pdbcommand: condition bpnumber [condition]

     Set a new 'condition' for the breakpoint, an expression which must
     evaluate to true before the breakpoint is honored.  If 'condition'
     is absent, any existing condition is removed; i.e., the breakpoint
     is made unconditional.

 -- Pdbcommand: commands [bpnumber]

     Specify a list of commands for breakpoint number 'bpnumber'.  The
     commands themselves appear on the following lines.  Type a line
     containing just ‘end’ to terminate the commands.  An example:

          (Pdb) commands 1
          (com) p some_variable
          (com) end
          (Pdb)

     To remove all commands from a breakpoint, type ‘commands’ and
     follow it immediately with ‘end’; that is, give no commands.

     With no 'bpnumber' argument, ‘commands’ refers to the most recently
     set breakpoint that still exists.

     You can use breakpoint commands to start your program up again.
     Simply use the *note continue: 4a1c. command, or *note step: 4a23,
     or any other command that resumes execution.

     Specifying any command resuming execution (currently *note
     continue: 4a1c, *note step: 4a23, *note next: 4a24, *note return:
     4a3a, *note until: 4a3b, *note jump: 4a3c, *note quit: 4a3d. and
     their abbreviations) terminates the command list (as if that
     command was immediately followed by end).  This is because any time
     you resume execution (even with a simple next or step), you may
     encounter another breakpoint—which could have its own command list,
     leading to ambiguities about which list to execute.

     If the list of commands contains the ‘silent’ command, or a command
     that resumes execution, then the breakpoint message containing
     information about the frame is not displayed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Frame information will not be displayed if
     a command that resumes execution is present in the command list.

 -- Pdbcommand: s(tep)

     Execute the current line, stop at the first possible occasion
     (either in a function that is called or on the next line in the
     current function).

 -- Pdbcommand: n(ext)

     Continue execution until the next line in the current function is
     reached or it returns.  (The difference between *note next: 4a24.
     and *note step: 4a23. is that ‘step’ stops inside a called
     function, while ‘next’ executes called functions at (nearly) full
     speed, only stopping at the next line in the current function.)

 -- Pdbcommand: unt(il) [lineno]

     Without argument, continue execution until the line with a number
     greater than the current one is reached.

     With 'lineno', continue execution until a line with a number
     greater or equal to 'lineno' is reached.  In both cases, also stop
     when the current frame returns.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Allow giving an explicit line number.

 -- Pdbcommand: r(eturn)

     Continue execution until the current function returns.

 -- Pdbcommand: c(ont(inue))

     Continue execution, only stop when a breakpoint is encountered.

 -- Pdbcommand: j(ump) lineno

     Set the next line that will be executed.  Only available in the
     bottom-most frame.  This lets you jump back and execute code again,
     or jump forward to skip code that you don’t want to run.

     It should be noted that not all jumps are allowed – for instance it
     is not possible to jump into the middle of a *note for: 321. loop
     or out of a *note finally: 44c. clause.

 -- Pdbcommand: l(ist) [first[, last]]

     List source code for the current file.  Without arguments, list 11
     lines around the current line or continue the previous listing.
     With ‘.’ as argument, list 11 lines around the current line.  With
     one argument, list 11 lines around at that line.  With two
     arguments, list the given range; if the second argument is less
     than the first, it is interpreted as a count.

     The current line in the current frame is indicated by ‘->’.  If an
     exception is being debugged, the line where the exception was
     originally raised or propagated is indicated by ‘>>’, if it differs
     from the current line.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the ‘>>’ marker.

 -- Pdbcommand: ll | longlist

     List all source code for the current function or frame.
     Interesting lines are marked as for *note list: 4a2d.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: a(rgs)

     Print the arguments of the current function and their current
     values.

 -- Pdbcommand: p expression

     Evaluate 'expression' in the current context and print its value.

          Σημείωση: ‘print()’ can also be used, but is not a debugger
          command — this executes the Python *note print(): 131f.
          function.

 -- Pdbcommand: pp expression

     Like the *note p: 1320. command, except the value of 'expression'
     is pretty-printed using the *note pprint: b3. module.

 -- Pdbcommand: whatis expression

     Print the type of 'expression'.

 -- Pdbcommand: source expression

     Try to get source code of 'expression' and display it.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: display [expression]

     Display the value of 'expression' if it changed, each time
     execution stops in the current frame.

     Without 'expression', list all display expressions for the current
     frame.

          Σημείωση: Display evaluates 'expression' and compares to the
          result of the previous evaluation of 'expression', so when the
          result is mutable, display may not be able to pick up the
          changes.

     Example:

          lst = []
          breakpoint()
          pass
          lst.append(1)
          print(lst)

     Display won’t realize ‘lst’ has been changed because the result of
     evaluation is modified in place by ‘lst.append(1)’ before being
     compared:

          > example.py(3)<module>()
          -> pass
          (Pdb) display lst
          display lst: []
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(4)<module>()
          -> lst.append(1)
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(5)<module>()
          -> print(lst)
          (Pdb)

     You can do some tricks with copy mechanism to make it work:

          > example.py(3)<module>()
          -> pass
          (Pdb) display lst[:]
          display lst[:]: []
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(4)<module>()
          -> lst.append(1)
          (Pdb) n
          > example.py(5)<module>()
          -> print(lst)
          display lst[:]: [1]  [old: []]
          (Pdb)

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: undisplay [expression]

     Do not display 'expression' anymore in the current frame.  Without
     'expression', clear all display expressions for the current frame.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Pdbcommand: interact

     Start an interactive interpreter (using the *note code: 1b. module)
     in a new global namespace initialised from the local and global
     namespaces for the current scope.  Use ‘exit()’ or ‘quit()’ to exit
     the interpreter and return to the debugger.

          Σημείωση: As ‘interact’ creates a new dedicated namespace for
          code execution, assignments to variables will not affect the
          original namespaces.  However, modifications to any referenced
          mutable objects will be reflected in the original namespaces
          as usual.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: ‘exit()’ and ‘quit()’ can be used to exit
     the *note interact: 4a44. command.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: *note interact: 4a44. directs its output
     to the debugger’s output channel rather than *note sys.stderr: d05.

 -- Pdbcommand: alias [name [command]]

     Create an alias called 'name' that executes 'command'.  The
     'command' must 'not' be enclosed in quotes.  Replaceable parameters
     can be indicated by ‘%1’, ‘%2’, … and ‘%9’, while ‘%*’ is replaced
     by all the parameters.  If 'command' is omitted, the current alias
     for 'name' is shown.  If no arguments are given, all aliases are
     listed.

     Aliases may be nested and can contain anything that can be legally
     typed at the pdb prompt.  Note that internal pdb commands 'can' be
     overridden by aliases.  Such a command is then hidden until the
     alias is removed.  Aliasing is recursively applied to the first
     word of the command line; all other words in the line are left
     alone.

     As an example, here are two useful aliases (especially when placed
     in the ‘.pdbrc’ file):

          # Print instance variables (usage "pi classInst")
          alias pi for k in %1.__dict__.keys(): print(f"%1.{k} = {%1.__dict__[k]}")
          # Print instance variables in self
          alias ps pi self

 -- Pdbcommand: unalias name

     Delete the specified alias 'name'.

 -- Pdbcommand: ! statement

     Execute the (one-line) 'statement' in the context of the current
     stack frame.  The exclamation point can be omitted unless the first
     word of the statement resembles a debugger command, e.g.:

          (Pdb) ! n=42
          (Pdb)

     To set a global variable, you can prefix the assignment command
     with a *note global: 6b5. statement on the same line, e.g.:

          (Pdb) global list_options; list_options = ['-l']
          (Pdb)

 -- Pdbcommand: run [args ...]
 -- Pdbcommand: restart [args ...]

     Restart the debugged Python program.  If 'args' is supplied, it is
     split with *note shlex: cc. and the result is used as the new *note
     sys.argv: 1609.  History, breakpoints, actions and debugger options
     are preserved.  *note restart: 4a49. is an alias for *note run:
     4a48.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: *note run: 4a48. and *note restart: 4a49.
     commands are disabled when the debugger is invoked in ‘'inline'’
     mode.

 -- Pdbcommand: q(uit)

     Quit from the debugger.  The program being executed is aborted.  An
     end-of-file input is equivalent to *note quit: 4a3d.

     A confirmation prompt will be shown if the debugger is invoked in
     ‘'inline'’ mode.  Either ‘y’, ‘Y’, ‘<Enter>’ or ‘EOF’ will confirm
     the quit.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: A confirmation prompt will be shown if the
     debugger is invoked in ‘'inline'’ mode.  After the confirmation,
     the debugger will call *note sys.exit(): 4ff. immediately, instead
     of raising *note bdb.BdbQuit: 500. in the next trace event.

 -- Pdbcommand: debug code

     Enter a recursive debugger that steps through 'code' (which is an
     arbitrary expression or statement to be executed in the current
     environment).

 -- Pdbcommand: retval

     Print the return value for the last return of the current function.

 -- Pdbcommand: exceptions [excnumber]

     List or jump between chained exceptions.

     When using ‘pdb.pm()’ or ‘Pdb.post_mortem(...)’ with a chained
     exception instead of a traceback, it allows the user to move
     between the chained exceptions using ‘exceptions’ command to list
     exceptions, and ‘exceptions <number>’ to switch to that exception.

     Example:

          def out():
              try:
                  middle()
              except Exception as e:
                  raise ValueError("reraise middle() error") from e

          def middle():
              try:
                  return inner(0)
              except Exception as e:
                  raise ValueError("Middle fail")

          def inner(x):
              1 / x

           out()

     calling ‘pdb.pm()’ will allow to move between exceptions:

          > example.py(5)out()
          -> raise ValueError("reraise middle() error") from e

          (Pdb) exceptions
            0 ZeroDivisionError('division by zero')
            1 ValueError('Middle fail')
          > 2 ValueError('reraise middle() error')

          (Pdb) exceptions 0
          > example.py(16)inner()
          -> 1 / x

          (Pdb) up
          > example.py(10)middle()
          -> return inner(0)

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: profiling — Python profilers,  Next: pstats — Statistics for profilers,  Prev: pdb — The Python Debugger,  Up: Debugging and profiling

5.28.5 ‘profiling’ — Python profilers
-------------------------------------

Added in version 3.15.

'Source code:' Lib/profiling/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Introduction to profiling::
* Choosing a profiler::
* Quick start::
* Understanding profile output::
* Legacy compatibility::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/profiling/


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction to profiling,  Next: Choosing a profiler,  Up: profiling — Python profilers

5.28.5.1 Introduction to profiling
..................................

A 'profile' is a set of statistics that describes how often and for how
long various parts of a program execute.  These statistics help identify
performance bottlenecks and guide optimization efforts.  Python provides
two fundamentally different approaches to collecting this information:
statistical sampling and deterministic tracing.

The ‘profiling’ package organizes Python’s built-in profiling tools
under a single namespace.  It contains two submodules, each implementing
a different profiling methodology:

*note profiling.sampling: b6.

     A statistical profiler that periodically samples the call stack.
     Run scripts directly or attach to running processes by PID.
     Provides multiple output formats (flame graphs, heatmaps, Firefox
     Profiler), GIL analysis, GC tracking, and multiple profiling modes
     (wall-clock, CPU, GIL) with virtually no overhead.

*note profiling.tracing: b7.

     A deterministic profiler that traces every function call, return,
     and exception event.  Provides exact call counts and precise timing
     information, capturing every invocation including very fast
     functions.

     Σημείωση: The profiler modules are designed to provide an execution
     profile for a given program, not for benchmarking purposes.  For
     benchmarking, use the *note timeit: f8. module, which provides
     reasonably accurate timing measurements.  This distinction is
     particularly important when comparing Python code against C code:
     deterministic profilers introduce overhead for Python code but not
     for C-level functions, which can skew comparisons.


File: python.info,  Node: Choosing a profiler,  Next: Quick start,  Prev: Introduction to profiling,  Up: profiling — Python profilers

5.28.5.2 Choosing a profiler
............................

For most performance analysis, use the statistical profiler (*note
profiling.sampling: b6.).  It has minimal overhead, works for both
development and production, and provides rich visualization options
including flame graphs, heatmaps, GIL analysis, and more.

Use the deterministic profiler (*note profiling.tracing: b7.) when you
need 'exact call counts' and cannot afford to miss any function calls.
Since it instruments every function call and return, it will capture
even very fast functions that complete between sampling intervals.  The
tradeoff is higher overhead.

The following table summarizes the key differences:

Feature                  Statistical sampling               Deterministic
                         (*note profiling.sampling: b6.)    (*note profiling.tracing: b7.)
                                                            
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
'Overhead'               Virtually none                     Moderate
                                                            
                                                            
'Accuracy'               Statistical estimate               Exact call counts
                                                            
                                                            
'Output formats'         pstats, flame graph, heatmap,      pstats
                         gecko, collapsed                   
                         
                                                            
'Profiling modes'        Wall-clock, CPU, GIL               Wall-clock
                                                            
                                                            
'Special frames'         GC, native (C extensions)          N/A
                                                            
                                                            
'Attach to PID'          Yes                                No
                                                            

* Menu:

* When to use statistical sampling::
* When to use deterministic tracing::


File: python.info,  Node: When to use statistical sampling,  Next: When to use deterministic tracing,  Up: Choosing a profiler

5.28.5.3 When to use statistical sampling
.........................................

The statistical profiler (*note profiling.sampling: b6.) is recommended
for most performance analysis tasks.  Use it the same way you would use
*note profiling.tracing: b7.:

     python -m profiling.sampling run script.py

One of the main strengths of the sampling profiler is its variety of
output formats.  Beyond traditional pstats tables, it can generate
interactive flame graphs that visualize call hierarchies, line-level
source heatmaps that show exactly where time is spent in your code, and
Firefox Profiler output for timeline-based analysis.

The profiler also provides insight into Python interpreter behavior that
deterministic profiling cannot capture.  Use ‘--mode gil’ to identify
GIL contention in multi-threaded code, ‘--mode cpu’ to measure actual
CPU time excluding I/O waits, or inspect ‘<GC>’ frames to understand
garbage collection overhead.  The ‘--native’ option reveals time spent
in C extensions, helping distinguish Python overhead from library
performance.

For multi-threaded applications, the ‘-a’ option samples all threads
simultaneously, showing how work is distributed.  And for production
debugging, the ‘attach’ command connects to any running Python process
by PID without requiring a restart or code changes.


File: python.info,  Node: When to use deterministic tracing,  Prev: When to use statistical sampling,  Up: Choosing a profiler

5.28.5.4 When to use deterministic tracing
..........................................

The deterministic profiler (*note profiling.tracing: b7.) instruments
every function call and return.  This approach has higher overhead than
sampling, but guarantees complete coverage of program execution.

The primary reason to choose deterministic tracing is when you need
exact call counts.  Statistical profiling estimates frequency based on
sampling, which may undercount short-lived functions that complete
between samples.  If you need to verify that an optimization actually
reduced the number of function calls, or if you want to trace the
complete call graph to understand caller-callee relationships,
deterministic tracing is the right choice.

Deterministic tracing also excels at capturing functions that execute in
microseconds.  Such functions may not appear frequently enough in
statistical samples, but deterministic tracing records every invocation
regardless of duration.


File: python.info,  Node: Quick start,  Next: Understanding profile output,  Prev: Choosing a profiler,  Up: profiling — Python profilers

5.28.5.5 Quick start
....................

This section provides the minimal steps needed to start profiling.  For
complete documentation, see the dedicated pages for each profiler.

* Menu:

* Statistical profiling::
* Deterministic profiling::


File: python.info,  Node: Statistical profiling,  Next: Deterministic profiling,  Up: Quick start

5.28.5.6 Statistical profiling
..............................

To profile a script, use the *note profiling.sampling: b6. module with
the ‘run’ command:

     python -m profiling.sampling run script.py
     python -m profiling.sampling run -m mypackage.module

This runs the script under the profiler and prints a summary of where
time was spent.  For an interactive flame graph:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --flamegraph script.py

To profile an already-running process, use the ‘attach’ command with the
process ID:

     python -m profiling.sampling attach 1234

For custom settings, specify the sampling interval (in microseconds) and
duration (in seconds):

     python -m profiling.sampling run -i 50 -d 30 script.py


File: python.info,  Node: Deterministic profiling,  Prev: Statistical profiling,  Up: Quick start

5.28.5.7 Deterministic profiling
................................

To profile a script from the command line:

     python -m profiling.tracing script.py

To profile a piece of code programmatically:

     import profiling.tracing
     profiling.tracing.run('my_function()')

This executes the given code under the profiler and prints a summary
showing exact function call counts and timing.


File: python.info,  Node: Understanding profile output,  Next: Legacy compatibility,  Prev: Quick start,  Up: profiling — Python profilers

5.28.5.8 Understanding profile output
.....................................

Both profilers collect function-level statistics, though they present
them in different formats.  The sampling profiler offers multiple
visualizations (flame graphs, heatmaps, Firefox Profiler, pstats
tables), while the deterministic profiler produces pstats-compatible
output.  Regardless of format, the underlying concepts are the same.

Key profiling concepts:

'Direct time' (also called 'self time' or 'tottime')

     Time spent executing code in the function itself, excluding time
     spent in functions it called.  High direct time indicates the
     function contains expensive operations.

'Cumulative time' (also called 'total time' or 'cumtime')

     Time spent in the function and all functions it called.  This
     measures the total cost of calling a function, including its entire
     call subtree.

'Call count' (also called 'ncalls' or 'samples')

     How many times the function was called (deterministic) or sampled
     (statistical).  In deterministic profiling, this is exact.  In
     statistical profiling, it represents the number of times the
     function appeared in a stack sample.

'Primitive calls'

     Calls that are not induced by recursion.  When a function recurses,
     the total call count includes recursive invocations, but primitive
     calls counts only the initial entry.  Displayed as
     ‘total/primitive’ (for example, ‘3/1’ means three total calls, one
     primitive).

'Caller/Callee relationships'

     Which functions called a given function (callers) and which
     functions it called (callees).  Flame graphs visualize this as
     nested rectangles; pstats can display it via the *note
     print_callers(): 4a5a. and *note print_callees(): 4a5b. methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy compatibility,  Prev: Understanding profile output,  Up: profiling — Python profilers

5.28.5.9 Legacy compatibility
.............................

For backward compatibility, the ‘cProfile’ module remains available as
an alias to *note profiling.tracing: b7.  Existing code using ‘import
cProfile’ will continue to work without modification in all future
Python versions.

Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15: The pure Python *note profile: b4. module
is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.17.  Use *note
profiling.tracing: b7. (or its alias ‘cProfile’) instead.  See ‘profile’
for migration guidance.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note profiling.sampling: b6.

     Statistical sampling profiler with flame graphs, heatmaps, and GIL
     analysis.  Recommended for most users.

*note profiling.tracing: b7.

     Deterministic tracing profiler for exact call counts.

*note pstats: b8.

     Statistics analysis and formatting for profile data.

*note timeit: f8.

     Module for measuring execution time of small code snippets.

Submodules
..........

* Menu:

* profiling.tracing — Deterministic profiler: profiling tracing — Deterministic profiler.
* profiling.sampling — Statistical profiler: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler.


File: python.info,  Node: profiling tracing — Deterministic profiler,  Next: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler,  Up: Legacy compatibility

5.28.5.10 ‘profiling.tracing’ — Deterministic profiler
......................................................

Added in version 3.15.

'Source code:' Lib/profiling/tracing/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘profiling.tracing’ module provides deterministic profiling of
Python programs.  It monitors every function call, function return, and
exception event, recording precise timing for each.  This approach
provides exact call counts and complete visibility into program
execution, making it ideal for development and testing scenarios.

     Σημείωση: This module is also available as ‘cProfile’ for backward
     compatibility.  The ‘cProfile’ name will continue to work in all
     future Python versions.  Use whichever import style suits your
     codebase:

          # Preferred (new style)
          import profiling.tracing
          profiling.tracing.run('my_function()')

          # Also works (backward compatible)
          import cProfile
          cProfile.run('my_function()')

* Menu:

* What is deterministic profiling?::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<8>.
* Programmatic usage examples::
* Module reference::
* Using a custom timer::
* Limitations::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/profiling/tracing/


File: python.info,  Node: What is deterministic profiling?,  Next: Command-line interface<8>,  Up: profiling tracing — Deterministic profiler

5.28.5.11 What is deterministic profiling?
..........................................

'Deterministic profiling' captures every function call, function return,
and exception event during program execution.  The profiler measures the
precise time intervals between these events, providing exact statistics
about how the program behaves.

In contrast to *note statistical profiling: 4a61, which samples the call
stack periodically to estimate where time is spent, deterministic
profiling records every event.  This means you get exact call counts
rather than statistical approximations.  The trade-off is that
instrumenting every event introduces overhead that can slow down program
execution.

Python’s interpreted nature makes deterministic profiling practical.
The interpreter already dispatches events for function calls and
returns, so the profiler can hook into this mechanism without requiring
code modification.  The overhead tends to be moderate relative to the
inherent cost of interpretation, making deterministic profiling suitable
for most development workflows.

Deterministic profiling helps answer questions like:

   - How many times was this function called?

   - What is the complete call graph of my program?

   - Which functions are called by a particular function?

   - Are there unexpected function calls happening?

Call count statistics can identify bugs (surprising counts) and inline
expansion opportunities (high call counts).  Internal time statistics
reveal «hot loops» that warrant optimization.  Cumulative time
statistics help identify algorithmic inefficiencies.  The handling of
cumulative times in this profiler allows direct comparison of recursive
and iterative implementations.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<8>,  Next: Programmatic usage examples,  Prev: What is deterministic profiling?,  Up: profiling tracing — Deterministic profiler

5.28.5.12 Command-line interface
................................

The ‘profiling.tracing’ module can be invoked as a script to profile
another script or module:

     python -m profiling.tracing [-o output_file] [-s sort_order] (-m module | script.py)

This runs the specified script or module under the profiler and prints
the results to standard output (or saves them to a file).

 -- Option: -o <output_file>

     Write the profile results to a file instead of standard output.
     The output file can be read by the *note pstats: b8. module for
     later analysis.

 -- Option: -s <sort_order>

     Sort the output by the specified key.  This accepts any of the sort
     keys recognized by *note pstats.Stats.sort_stats(): 4a66, such as
     ‘cumulative’, ‘time’, ‘calls’, or ‘name’.  This option only applies
     when *note -o: 4a64. is not specified.

 -- Option: -m <module>

     Profile a module instead of a script.  The module is located using
     the standard import mechanism.

     Added in version 3.7: The ‘-m’ option for ‘cProfile’.

     Added in version 3.8: The ‘-m’ option for *note profile: b4.


File: python.info,  Node: Programmatic usage examples,  Next: Module reference,  Prev: Command-line interface<8>,  Up: profiling tracing — Deterministic profiler

5.28.5.13 Programmatic usage examples
.....................................

For more control over profiling, use the module’s functions and classes
directly.

* Menu:

* Basic profiling::
* Using the Profile class::


File: python.info,  Node: Basic profiling,  Next: Using the Profile class,  Up: Programmatic usage examples

5.28.5.14 Basic profiling
.........................

The simplest approach uses the ‘run()’ function:

     import profiling.tracing
     profiling.tracing.run('my_function()')

This profiles the given code string and prints a summary to standard
output.  To save results for later analysis:

     profiling.tracing.run('my_function()', 'output.prof')


File: python.info,  Node: Using the Profile class,  Prev: Basic profiling,  Up: Programmatic usage examples

5.28.5.15 Using the ‘Profile’ class
...................................

The ‘Profile’ class provides fine-grained control:

     import profiling.tracing
     import pstats
     from io import StringIO

     pr = profiling.tracing.Profile()
     pr.enable()
     # ... code to profile ...
     pr.disable()

     # Print results
     s = StringIO()
     ps = pstats.Stats(pr, stream=s).sort_stats(pstats.SortKey.CUMULATIVE)
     ps.print_stats()
     print(s.getvalue())

The ‘Profile’ class also works as a context manager:

     import profiling.tracing

     with profiling.tracing.Profile() as pr:
         # ... code to profile ...

     pr.print_stats()


File: python.info,  Node: Module reference,  Next: Using a custom timer,  Prev: Programmatic usage examples,  Up: profiling tracing — Deterministic profiler

5.28.5.16 Module reference
..........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: profiling.tracing.run (command, filename=None, sort=-1)

     Profile execution of a command and print or save the results.

     This function executes the 'command' string using *note exec():
     185. in the ‘__main__’ module’s namespace:

          exec(command, __main__.__dict__, __main__.__dict__)

     If 'filename' is not provided, the function creates a *note
     pstats.Stats: 4a6d. instance and prints a summary to standard
     output.  If 'filename' is provided, the raw profile data is saved
     to that file for later analysis with *note pstats: b8.

     The 'sort' argument specifies the sort order for printed output,
     accepting any value recognized by *note pstats.Stats.sort_stats():
     4a66.

 -- Συνάρτηση: profiling.tracing.runctx (command, globals, locals,
          filename=None, sort=-1)

     Profile execution of a command with explicit namespaces.

     Like *note run(): 4a6c, but executes the command with the specified
     'globals' and 'locals' mappings instead of using the ‘__main__’
     module’s namespace:

          exec(command, globals, locals)

 -- Κλάση: profiling.tracing.Profile (timer=None, timeunit=0.0,
          subcalls=True, builtins=True)

     A profiler object that collects execution statistics.

     The optional 'timer' argument specifies a custom timing function.
     If not provided, the profiler uses a platform-appropriate default
     timer.  When supplying a custom timer, it must return a single
     number representing the current time.  If the timer returns
     integers, use 'timeunit' to specify the duration of one time unit
     (for example, ‘0.001’ for milliseconds).

     The 'subcalls' argument controls whether the profiler tracks call
     relationships between functions.  The 'builtins' argument controls
     whether built-in functions are profiled.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added context manager support.

      -- Μέθοδος: enable ()

          Start collecting profiling data.

      -- Μέθοδος: disable ()

          Stop collecting profiling data.

      -- Μέθοδος: create_stats ()

          Stop collecting data and record the results internally as the
          current profile.

      -- Μέθοδος: print_stats (sort=-1)

          Create a *note pstats.Stats: 4a6d. object from the current
          profile and print the results to standard output.

          The 'sort' argument specifies the sorting order.  It accepts a
          single key or a tuple of keys for multi-level sorting, using
          the same values as *note pstats.Stats.sort_stats(): 4a66.

          Added in version 3.13: Support for a tuple of sort keys.

      -- Μέθοδος: dump_stats (filename)

          Write the current profile data to 'filename'.  The file can be
          read by *note pstats.Stats: 4a6d. for later analysis.

      -- Μέθοδος: run (cmd)

          Profile the command string via *note exec(): 185.

      -- Μέθοδος: runctx (cmd, globals, locals)

          Profile the command string via *note exec(): 185. with the
          specified namespaces.

      -- Μέθοδος: runcall (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Profile a function call.  Returns whatever 'func' returns:

               result = pr.runcall(my_function, arg1, arg2, keyword=value)

     Σημείωση: Profiling requires that the profiled code returns
     normally.  If the interpreter terminates (for example, via *note
     sys.exit(): 4ff.) during profiling, no results will be available.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a custom timer,  Next: Limitations,  Prev: Module reference,  Up: profiling tracing — Deterministic profiler

5.28.5.17 Using a custom timer
..............................

The *note Profile: 4a6f. class accepts a custom timing function,
allowing you to measure different aspects of execution such as
wall-clock time or CPU time.  Pass the timing function to the
constructor:

     pr = profiling.tracing.Profile(my_timer_function)

The timer function must return a single number representing the current
time.  If it returns integers, also specify 'timeunit' to indicate the
duration of one unit:

     # Timer returns time in milliseconds
     pr = profiling.tracing.Profile(my_ms_timer, 0.001)

For best performance, the timer function should be as fast as possible.
The profiler calls it frequently, so timer overhead directly affects
profiling overhead.

The *note time: f7. module provides several functions suitable for use
as custom timers:

   - *note time.perf_counter(): e49. for high-resolution wall-clock time

   - *note time.process_time(): e4a. for CPU time (excluding sleep)

   - *note time.monotonic(): 75d. for monotonic clock time


File: python.info,  Node: Limitations,  Prev: Using a custom timer,  Up: profiling tracing — Deterministic profiler

5.28.5.18 Limitations
.....................

Deterministic profiling has inherent limitations related to timing
accuracy.

The underlying timer typically has a resolution of about one
millisecond.  Measurements cannot be more accurate than this resolution.
With enough measurements, timing errors tend to average out, but
individual measurements may be imprecise.

There is also latency between when an event occurs and when the profiler
captures the timestamp.  Similarly, there is latency after reading the
timestamp before user code resumes.  Functions called frequently
accumulate this latency, which can make them appear slower than they
actually are.  This error is typically less than one clock tick per call
but can become significant for functions called many times.

The ‘profiling.tracing’ module (and its ‘cProfile’ alias) is implemented
as a C extension with low overhead, so these timing issues are less
pronounced than with the deprecated pure Python *note profile: b4.
module.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note profiling: b5.

     Overview of Python profiling tools and guidance on choosing a
     profiler.

*note profiling.sampling: b6.

     Statistical sampling profiler for production use.

*note pstats: b8.

     Statistics analysis and formatting for profile data.

*note profile: b4.

     Deprecated pure Python profiler (includes calibration
     documentation).


File: python.info,  Node: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler,  Prev: profiling tracing — Deterministic profiler,  Up: Legacy compatibility

5.28.5.19 ‘profiling.sampling’ — Statistical profiler
.....................................................

Added in version 3.15.

'Source code:' Lib/profiling/sampling/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

[image src="python-figures/tachyon-logo.png" alt="Tachyon logo"]


The ‘profiling.sampling’ module, named 'Tachyon', provides statistical
profiling of Python programs through periodic stack sampling.  Tachyon
can run scripts directly or attach to any running Python process without
requiring code changes or restarts.  Because sampling occurs externally
to the target process, overhead is virtually zero, making Tachyon
suitable for both development and production environments.

* Menu:

* What is statistical profiling?::
* Quick examples::
* Commands::
* Sampling configuration::
* Profiling modes::
* Output formats::
* Record and replay workflow::
* Live mode::
* Async-aware profiling::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<9>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/profiling/sampling/


File: python.info,  Node: What is statistical profiling?,  Next: Quick examples,  Up: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler

5.28.5.20 What is statistical profiling?
........................................

Statistical profiling builds a picture of program behavior by
periodically capturing snapshots of the call stack.  Rather than
instrumenting every function call and return as deterministic profilers
do, Tachyon reads the call stack at regular intervals to record what
code is currently running.

This approach rests on a simple principle: functions that consume
significant CPU time will appear frequently in the collected samples.
By gathering thousands of samples over a profiling session, Tachyon
constructs an accurate statistical estimate of where time is spent.  The
more samples collected, the more precise this estimate becomes.

     Σημείωση: An interactive visualization of sampling profiling is
     available in the HTML version of this documentation.

* Menu:

* How time is estimated::
* When to use a different approach::


File: python.info,  Node: How time is estimated,  Next: When to use a different approach,  Up: What is statistical profiling?

5.28.5.21 How time is estimated
...............................

The time values shown in Tachyon’s output are 'estimates derived from
sample counts', not direct measurements.  Tachyon counts how many times
each function appears in the collected samples, then multiplies by the
sampling interval to estimate time.

For example, with a 10 kHz sampling rate over a 10-second profile,
Tachyon collects approximately 100,000 samples.  If a function appears
in 5,000 samples (5% of total), Tachyon estimates it consumed 5% of the
10-second duration, or about 500 milliseconds.  This is a statistical
estimate, not a precise measurement.

The accuracy of these estimates depends on sample count.  With 100,000
samples, a function showing 5% has a margin of error of roughly ±0.5%.
With only 1,000 samples, the same 5% measurement could actually
represent anywhere from 3% to 7% of real time.

This is why longer profiling durations and shorter sampling intervals
produce more reliable results—they collect more samples.  For most
performance analysis, the default settings provide sufficient accuracy
to identify bottlenecks and guide optimization efforts.

Because sampling is statistical, results will vary slightly between
runs.  A function showing 12% in one run might show 11% or 13% in the
next.  This is normal and expected.  Focus on the overall pattern rather
than exact percentages, and don’t worry about small variations between
runs.


File: python.info,  Node: When to use a different approach,  Prev: How time is estimated,  Up: What is statistical profiling?

5.28.5.22 When to use a different approach
..........................................

Statistical sampling is not ideal for every situation.

For very short scripts that complete in under one second, the profiler
may not collect enough samples for reliable results.  Use *note
profiling.tracing: b7. instead, or run the script in a loop to extend
profiling time.

When you need exact call counts, sampling cannot provide them.  Sampling
estimates frequency from snapshots, so if you need to know precisely how
many times a function was called, use *note profiling.tracing: b7.

When comparing two implementations where the difference might be only
1-2%, sampling noise can obscure real differences.  Use *note timeit:
f8. for micro-benchmarks or *note profiling.tracing: b7. for precise
measurements.

The key difference from *note profiling.tracing: b7. is how measurement
happens.  A tracing profiler instruments your code, recording every
function call and return.  This provides exact call counts and precise
timing but adds overhead to every function call.  A sampling profiler,
by contrast, observes the program from outside at fixed intervals
without modifying its execution.  Think of the difference like this:
tracing is like having someone follow you and write down every step you
take, while sampling is like taking photographs every second and
inferring your path from those snapshots.

This external observation model is what makes sampling profiling
practical for production use.  The profiled program runs at full speed
because there is no instrumentation code running inside it, and the
target process is never stopped or paused during sampling—Tachyon reads
the call stack directly from the process’s memory while it continues to
run.  You can attach to a live server, collect data, and detach without
the application ever knowing it was observed.  The trade-off is that
very short-lived functions may be missed if they happen to complete
between samples.

Statistical profiling excels at answering the question, «Where is my
program spending time?» It reveals hotspots and bottlenecks in
production code where deterministic profiling overhead would be
unacceptable.  For exact call counts and complete call graphs, use *note
profiling.tracing: b7. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Quick examples,  Next: Commands,  Prev: What is statistical profiling?,  Up: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler

5.28.5.23 Quick examples
........................

Profile a script and see the results immediately:

     python -m profiling.sampling run script.py

Profile a module with arguments:

     python -m profiling.sampling run -m mypackage.module arg1 arg2

Generate an interactive flame graph:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --flamegraph -o profile.html script.py

Attach to a running process by PID:

     python -m profiling.sampling attach 12345

Print a single snapshot of a running process’s stack:

     python -m profiling.sampling dump 12345

Use live mode for real-time monitoring (press ‘q’ to quit):

     python -m profiling.sampling run --live script.py

Profile for 60 seconds with a faster sampling rate:

     python -m profiling.sampling run -d 60 -r 20khz script.py

Generate a line-by-line heatmap:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --heatmap script.py

Enable opcode-level profiling to see which bytecode instructions are
executing:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --opcodes --flamegraph script.py


File: python.info,  Node: Commands,  Next: Sampling configuration,  Prev: Quick examples,  Up: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler

5.28.5.24 Commands
..................

Tachyon operates through several subcommands.  ‘run’ and ‘attach’
collect samples over time; ‘dump’ captures a single snapshot; ‘replay’
converts binary profiles to other formats.

* Menu:

* The run command::
* The attach command::
* The dump command::
* The replay command::
* Profiling in production::
* Platform requirements::
* Version compatibility::


File: python.info,  Node: The run command,  Next: The attach command,  Up: Commands

5.28.5.25 The ‘run’ command
...........................

The ‘run’ command launches a Python script or module and profiles it
from startup:

     python -m profiling.sampling run script.py
     python -m profiling.sampling run -m mypackage.module

When profiling a script, the profiler starts the target in a subprocess,
waits for it to initialize, then begins collecting samples.  The ‘-m’
flag indicates that the target should be run as a module (equivalent to
‘python -m’).  Arguments after the target are passed through to the
profiled program:

     python -m profiling.sampling run script.py --config settings.yaml


File: python.info,  Node: The attach command,  Next: The dump command,  Prev: The run command,  Up: Commands

5.28.5.26 The ‘attach’ command
..............................

The ‘attach’ command connects to an already-running Python process by
its process ID:

     python -m profiling.sampling attach 12345

This command is particularly valuable for investigating performance
issues in production systems.  The target process requires no
modification and need not be restarted.  The profiler attaches, collects
samples for the specified duration, then detaches and produces output.

     python -m profiling.sampling attach --live 12345
     python -m profiling.sampling attach --flamegraph -d 30 -o profile.html 12345

On most systems, attaching to another process requires appropriate
permissions.  See *note Platform requirements: 4a84. for
platform-specific requirements.


File: python.info,  Node: The dump command,  Next: The replay command,  Prev: The attach command,  Up: Commands

5.28.5.27 The ‘dump’ command
............................

The ‘dump’ command prints a single snapshot of a running process’s
Python stack and exits, similar to a traceback:

     python -m profiling.sampling dump 12345

Unlike ‘attach’, ‘dump’ does not run a sampling loop: it reads the stack
once.  This is useful for investigating hung or unresponsive processes,
or for answering «what is this process doing right now?».

The output mirrors a traceback (most recent call last) and annotates
each thread with its current state (main thread, has GIL, on CPU,
waiting for GIL, has exception, or idle):

     Stack dump for PID 12345, thread 140735 (main thread, has GIL, on CPU; most recent call last):
       File "server.py", line 28, in serve
         await handle_request(req)
       File "handler.py", line 91, in handle_request
         result = expensive_call(req)

When the target’s source files are readable, ‘dump’ prints the source
line for each frame and highlights the executing expression.

Like ‘attach’, ‘dump’ requires permission to read the target process’s
memory.  See *note Platform requirements: 4a84.

The ‘dump’ command supports the following options:

‘-a’, ‘--all-threads’

     Dump every thread in the target process.  Without this flag only
     the main thread is shown.

‘--native’

     Include synthetic ‘<native>’ frames marking transitions into C
     extensions or other non-Python code.

‘--no-gc’

     Hide the synthetic ‘<GC>’ frames that mark active garbage
     collection.

‘--opcodes’

     Annotate each frame with the bytecode opcode the thread is
     currently executing (for example, ‘opcode=CALL_KW’).  Useful for
     instruction-level investigation, including identifying
     specializations chosen by the adaptive interpreter.

‘--async-aware’

     Reconstruct stacks across ‘await’ boundaries.  ‘dump’ walks the
     task graph and emits one section per task, with ‘<task>’ markers
     separating coroutines awaiting each other.

‘--async-mode {running,all}’

     Controls which tasks are included when ‘--async-aware’ is enabled.
     ‘running’ shows only the task currently executing on each thread;
     ‘all’ (the default for ‘dump’) also includes tasks suspended on a
     wait.  ‘attach’’s default for this flag is ‘running’; ‘dump’
     defaults to ‘all’ because a single snapshot is most useful when it
     shows the full task graph.

‘--blocking’

     Pause every thread in the target while reading its stack and resume
     them after.  Guarantees a fully consistent snapshot at the cost of
     briefly stopping the target.  Without it, ‘dump’ reads memory while
     the target keeps running, which is faster but can occasionally
     produce a torn stack.


File: python.info,  Node: The replay command,  Next: Profiling in production,  Prev: The dump command,  Up: Commands

5.28.5.28 The ‘replay’ command
..............................

The ‘replay’ command converts binary profile files to other output
formats:

     python -m profiling.sampling replay profile.bin
     python -m profiling.sampling replay --flamegraph -o profile.html profile.bin

This command is useful when you have captured profiling data in binary
format and want to analyze it later or convert it to a visualization
format.  Binary profiles can be replayed multiple times to different
formats without re-profiling.

     # Convert binary to pstats (default, prints to stdout)
     python -m profiling.sampling replay profile.bin

     # Convert binary to flame graph
     python -m profiling.sampling replay --flamegraph -o output.html profile.bin

     # Convert binary to gecko format for Firefox Profiler
     python -m profiling.sampling replay --gecko -o profile.json profile.bin

     # Convert binary to heatmap
     python -m profiling.sampling replay --heatmap -o my_heatmap profile.bin


File: python.info,  Node: Profiling in production,  Next: Platform requirements,  Prev: The replay command,  Up: Commands

5.28.5.29 Profiling in production
.................................

The sampling profiler is designed for production use.  It imposes no
measurable overhead on the target process because it reads memory
externally rather than instrumenting code.  The target application
continues running at full speed and is unaware it is being profiled.

When profiling production systems, keep these guidelines in mind:

Start with shorter durations (10-30 seconds) to get quick results, then
extend if you need more statistical accuracy.  By default, profiling
runs until the target process completes, which is usually sufficient to
identify major hotspots.

If possible, profile during representative load rather than peak
traffic.  Profiles collected during normal operation are easier to
interpret than those collected during unusual spikes.

The profiler itself consumes some CPU on the machine where it runs (not
on the target process).  On the same machine, this is typically
negligible.  When profiling remote processes, network latency does not
affect the target.

Results from production may differ from development due to different
data sizes, concurrent load, or caching effects.  This is expected and
is often exactly what you want to capture.


File: python.info,  Node: Platform requirements,  Next: Version compatibility,  Prev: Profiling in production,  Up: Commands

5.28.5.30 Platform requirements
...............................

The profiler reads the target process’s memory to capture stack traces.
This requires elevated permissions on most operating systems.

'Linux'

On Linux, the profiler uses ‘ptrace’ or ‘process_vm_readv’ to read the
target process’s memory.  This typically requires one of:

   - Running as root

   - Having the ‘CAP_SYS_PTRACE’ capability

   - Adjusting the Yama ptrace scope:
     ‘/proc/sys/kernel/yama/ptrace_scope’

The default ptrace_scope of 1 restricts ptrace to parent processes only.
To allow attaching to any process owned by the same user, set it to 0:

     echo 0 | sudo tee /proc/sys/kernel/yama/ptrace_scope

'macOS'

On macOS, the profiler uses ‘task_for_pid()’ to access the target
process.  This requires one of:

   - Running as root

   - The profiler binary having the ‘com.apple.security.cs.debugger’
     entitlement

   - System Integrity Protection (SIP) being disabled (not recommended)

'Windows'

On Windows, the profiler requires administrative privileges or the
‘SeDebugPrivilege’ privilege to read another process’s memory.


File: python.info,  Node: Version compatibility,  Prev: Platform requirements,  Up: Commands

5.28.5.31 Version compatibility
...............................

The profiler and target process must run the same Python minor version
(for example, both Python 3.15).  Attaching from Python 3.14 to a Python
3.15 process is not supported.

Additional restrictions apply to pre-release Python versions: if either
the profiler or target is running a pre-release (alpha, beta, or release
candidate), both must run the exact same version.

On free-threaded Python builds, the profiler cannot attach from a
free-threaded build to a standard build, or vice versa.


File: python.info,  Node: Sampling configuration,  Next: Profiling modes,  Prev: Commands,  Up: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler

5.28.5.32 Sampling configuration
................................

Before exploring the various output formats and visualization options,
it is important to understand how to configure the sampling process
itself.  The profiler offers several options that control how frequently
samples are collected, how long profiling runs, which threads are
observed, and what additional context is captured in each sample.

The default configuration works well for most use cases:

Option                        Default
                              
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
Default for                   1 kHz
‘--sampling-rate’ / ‘-r’      

Default for ‘--duration’ /    Run to completion
‘-d’                          

Default for ‘--all-threads’   Main thread only
/ ‘-a’                        

Default for ‘--native’        No ‘<native>’ frames (C code time attributed to caller)
                              
                              
Default for ‘--no-gc’         ‘<GC>’ frames included when garbage collection is active
                              
                              
Default for ‘--mode’          Wall-clock mode (all samples recorded)
                              
                              
Default for                   Disabled
‘--realtime-stats’            

Default for                   Disabled
‘--subprocesses’              

Default for ‘--blocking’      Disabled (non-blocking sampling)
                              

* Menu:

* Sampling rate and duration::
* Thread selection::
* Blocking mode::
* Special frames::
* Opcode-aware profiling::
* Real-time statistics::
* Subprocess profiling::
* Sampling efficiency::


File: python.info,  Node: Sampling rate and duration,  Next: Thread selection,  Up: Sampling configuration

5.28.5.33 Sampling rate and duration
....................................

The two most fundamental parameters are the sampling rate and duration.
Together, these determine how many samples will be collected during a
profiling session.

The *note -sampling-rate: 4a8e. option (*note -r: 4a8e.) sets how
frequently samples are collected.  The default is 1 kHz (1,000 samples
per second):

     python -m profiling.sampling run -r 20khz script.py

Higher rates capture more samples and provide finer-grained data at the
cost of slightly higher profiler CPU usage.  Lower rates reduce profiler
overhead but may miss short-lived functions.  For most applications, the
default rate provides a good balance between accuracy and overhead.

The *note -duration: 4a8f. option (*note -d: 4a8f.) sets how long to
profile in seconds.  By default, profiling continues until the target
process exits or is interrupted:

     python -m profiling.sampling run -d 60 script.py

Specifying a duration is useful when attaching to long-running processes
or when you want to limit profiling to a specific time window.  When
profiling a script, the default behavior of running to completion is
usually what you want.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread selection,  Next: Blocking mode,  Prev: Sampling rate and duration,  Up: Sampling configuration

5.28.5.34 Thread selection
..........................

Python programs often use multiple threads, whether explicitly through
the *note threading: f6. module or implicitly through libraries that
manage thread pools.

By default, the profiler samples only the main thread.  The *note
-all-threads: 4a91. option (*note -a: 4a91.) enables sampling of all
threads in the process:

     python -m profiling.sampling run -a script.py

Multi-thread profiling reveals how work is distributed across threads
and can identify threads that are blocked or starved.  Each thread’s
samples are combined in the output, with the ability to filter by thread
in some formats.  This option is particularly useful when investigating
concurrency issues or when work is distributed across a thread pool.


File: python.info,  Node: Blocking mode,  Next: Special frames,  Prev: Thread selection,  Up: Sampling configuration

5.28.5.35 Blocking mode
.......................

By default, Tachyon reads the target process’s memory without stopping
it.  This non-blocking approach is ideal for most profiling scenarios
because it imposes virtually zero overhead on the target application:
the profiled program runs at full speed and is unaware it is being
observed.

However, non-blocking sampling can occasionally produce incomplete or
inconsistent stack traces in applications with many generators or
coroutines that rapidly switch between yield points, or in programs with
very fast-changing call stacks where functions enter and exit between
the start and end of a single stack read, resulting in reconstructed
stacks that mix frames from different execution states or that never
actually existed.

For these cases, the *note -blocking: 4a94. option stops the target
process during each sample:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --blocking script.py
     python -m profiling.sampling attach --blocking 12345

When blocking mode is enabled, the profiler suspends the target process,
reads its stack, then resumes it.  This guarantees that each captured
stack represents a real, consistent snapshot of what the process was
doing at that instant.  The trade-off is that the target process runs
slower because it is repeatedly paused.

     Προειδοποίηση: Do not use very high sample rates (low ‘--interval’
     values) with blocking mode.  Suspending and resuming a process
     takes time, and if the sampling interval is too short, the target
     will spend more time stopped than running.  For blocking mode,
     intervals of 1000 microseconds (1 millisecond) or higher are
     recommended.  The default 100 microsecond interval may cause
     noticeable slowdown in the target application.

Use blocking mode only when you observe inconsistent stacks in your
profiles, particularly with generator-heavy or coroutine-heavy code.
For most applications, the default non-blocking mode provides accurate
results with zero impact on the target process.


File: python.info,  Node: Special frames,  Next: Opcode-aware profiling,  Prev: Blocking mode,  Up: Sampling configuration

5.28.5.36 Special frames
........................

The profiler can inject artificial frames into the captured stacks to
provide additional context about what the interpreter is doing at the
moment each sample is taken.  These synthetic frames help distinguish
different types of execution that would otherwise be invisible.

The *note -native: 4a96. option adds ‘<native>’ frames to indicate when
Python has called into C code (extension modules, built-in functions, or
the interpreter itself):

     python -m profiling.sampling run --native script.py

These frames help distinguish time spent in Python code versus time
spent in native libraries.  Without this option, native code execution
appears as time in the Python function that made the call.  This is
useful when optimizing code that makes heavy use of C extensions like
NumPy or database drivers.

By default, the profiler includes ‘<GC>’ frames when garbage collection
is active.  The *note -no-gc: 4a97. option suppresses these frames:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --no-gc script.py

GC frames help identify programs where garbage collection consumes
significant time, which may indicate memory allocation patterns worth
optimizing.  If you see substantial time in ‘<GC>’ frames, consider
investigating object allocation rates or using object pooling.


File: python.info,  Node: Opcode-aware profiling,  Next: Real-time statistics,  Prev: Special frames,  Up: Sampling configuration

5.28.5.37 Opcode-aware profiling
................................

The *note -opcodes: 4a99. option enables instruction-level profiling
that captures which Python bytecode instructions are executing at each
sample:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --opcodes --flamegraph script.py

This feature provides visibility into Python’s bytecode execution,
including adaptive specialization optimizations.  When a generic
instruction like ‘LOAD_ATTR’ is specialized at runtime into a more
efficient variant like ‘LOAD_ATTR_INSTANCE_VALUE’, the profiler shows
both the specialized name and the base instruction.

Opcode information appears in several output formats:

   - 'Flame graphs': Hovering over a frame displays a tooltip with a
     bytecode instruction breakdown, showing which opcodes consumed time
     in that function

   - 'Heatmap': Expandable bytecode panels per source line show
     instruction breakdown with specialization percentages

   - 'Live mode': An opcode panel shows instruction-level statistics for
     the selected function, accessible via keyboard navigation

   - 'Gecko format': Opcode transitions are emitted as interval markers
     in the Firefox Profiler timeline

This level of detail is particularly useful for:

   - Understanding the performance impact of Python’s adaptive
     specialization

   - Identifying hot bytecode instructions that might benefit from
     optimization

   - Analyzing the effectiveness of different code patterns at the
     instruction level

   - Debugging performance issues that occur at the bytecode level

The *note -opcodes: 4a99. option is compatible with *note -live: 4a9a,
*note -flamegraph: 4a9b, *note -heatmap: 4a9c, and *note -gecko: 4a9d.
formats.  It requires additional memory to store opcode information and
may slightly reduce sampling performance, but provides unprecedented
visibility into Python’s execution model.


File: python.info,  Node: Real-time statistics,  Next: Subprocess profiling,  Prev: Opcode-aware profiling,  Up: Sampling configuration

5.28.5.38 Real-time statistics
..............................

The *note -realtime-stats: 4a9f. option displays sampling rate
statistics during profiling:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --realtime-stats script.py

This shows the actual achieved sampling rate, which may be lower than
requested if the profiler cannot keep up.  The statistics help verify
that profiling is working correctly and that sufficient samples are
being collected.  See *note Sampling efficiency: 4aa0. for details on
interpreting these metrics.


File: python.info,  Node: Subprocess profiling,  Next: Sampling efficiency,  Prev: Real-time statistics,  Up: Sampling configuration

5.28.5.39 Subprocess profiling
..............................

The *note -subprocesses: 4aa2. option enables automatic profiling of
subprocesses spawned by the target:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --subprocesses script.py
     python -m profiling.sampling attach --subprocesses 12345

When enabled, the profiler monitors the target process for child process
creation.  When a new Python child process is detected, a separate
profiler instance is automatically spawned to profile it.  This is
useful for applications that use *note multiprocessing: 98, *note
subprocess: df, *note concurrent.futures: 24. with *note
ProcessPoolExecutor: 206, or other process spawning mechanisms.

     from concurrent.futures import ProcessPoolExecutor
     import math

     def compute_factorial(n):
         total = 0
         for i in range(50):
             total += math.factorial(n)
         return total

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         numbers = [5000 + i * 100 for i in range(50)]
         with ProcessPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as executor:
             results = list(executor.map(compute_factorial, numbers))
         print(f"Computed {len(results)} factorials")

LiteralBlock: worker_pool.py

     python -m profiling.sampling run --subprocesses --flamegraph worker_pool.py

This produces separate flame graphs for the main process and each worker
process: ‘flamegraph_<main_pid>.html’, ‘flamegraph_<worker1_pid>.html’,
and so on.

Each subprocess receives its own output file.  The filename is derived
from the specified output path (or the default) with the subprocess’s
process ID appended:

   - If you specify ‘-o profile.html’, subprocesses produce
     ‘profile_12345.html’, ‘profile_12346.html’, and so on

   - With default output, subprocesses produce files like
     ‘flamegraph_12345.html’ or directories like ‘heatmap_12345’

   - For pstats format (which defaults to stdout), subprocesses produce
     files like ‘profile_12345.pstats’

The subprocess profilers inherit most sampling options from the parent
(sampling rate, duration, thread selection, native frames, GC frames,
async-aware mode, and output format).  All Python descendant processes
are profiled recursively, including grandchildren and further
descendants.

Subprocess detection works by periodically scanning for new descendants
of the target process and checking whether each new process is a Python
process by probing the process memory for Python runtime structures.
Non-Python subprocesses (such as shell commands or external tools) are
ignored.

There is a limit of 100 concurrent subprocess profilers to prevent
resource exhaustion in programs that spawn many processes.  If this
limit is reached, additional subprocesses are not profiled and a warning
is printed.

The *note -subprocesses: 4aa2. option is incompatible with *note -live:
4a9a. mode because live mode uses an interactive terminal interface that
cannot accommodate multiple concurrent profiler displays.


File: python.info,  Node: Sampling efficiency,  Prev: Subprocess profiling,  Up: Sampling configuration

5.28.5.40 Sampling efficiency
.............................

Sampling efficiency metrics help assess the quality of the collected
data.  These metrics appear in the profiler’s terminal output and in the
flame graph sidebar.

'Sampling efficiency' is the percentage of sample attempts that
succeeded.  Each sample attempt reads the target process’s call stack
from memory.  An attempt can fail if the process is in an inconsistent
state at the moment of reading, such as during a context switch or while
the interpreter is updating its internal structures.  A low efficiency
may indicate that the profiler could not keep up with the requested
sampling rate, often due to system load or an overly aggressive interval
setting.

'Missed samples' is the percentage of expected samples that were not
collected.  Based on the configured interval and duration, the profiler
expects to collect a certain number of samples.  Some samples may be
missed if the profiler falls behind schedule, for example when the
system is under heavy load.  A small percentage of missed samples is
normal and does not significantly affect the statistical accuracy of the
profile.

Both metrics are informational.  Even with some failed attempts or
missed samples, the profile remains statistically valid as long as
enough samples were collected.  The profiler reports the actual number
of samples captured, which you can use to judge whether the data is
sufficient for your analysis.


File: python.info,  Node: Profiling modes,  Next: Output formats,  Prev: Sampling configuration,  Up: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler

5.28.5.41 Profiling modes
.........................

The sampling profiler supports four modes that control which samples are
recorded.  The mode determines what the profile measures: total elapsed
time, CPU execution time, time spent holding the global interpreter
lock, or exception handling.

* Menu:

* Wall-clock mode::
* CPU mode::
* Comparing wall-clock and CPU profiles::
* GIL mode::
* Exception mode::


File: python.info,  Node: Wall-clock mode,  Next: CPU mode,  Up: Profiling modes

5.28.5.42 Wall-clock mode
.........................

Wall-clock mode (*note -mode: 4aa6.‘=wall’) captures all samples
regardless of what the thread is doing.  This is the default mode and
provides a complete picture of where time passes during program
execution:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --mode=wall script.py

In wall-clock mode, samples are recorded whether the thread is actively
executing Python code, waiting for I/O, blocked on a lock, or sleeping.
This makes wall-clock profiling ideal for understanding the overall time
distribution in your program, including time spent waiting.

If your program spends significant time in I/O operations, network
calls, or sleep, wall-clock mode will show these waits as time
attributed to the calling function.  This is often exactly what you want
when optimizing end-to-end latency.


File: python.info,  Node: CPU mode,  Next: Comparing wall-clock and CPU profiles,  Prev: Wall-clock mode,  Up: Profiling modes

5.28.5.43 CPU mode
..................

CPU mode (*note -mode: 4aa6.‘=cpu’) records samples only when the thread
is actually executing on a CPU core:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --mode=cpu script.py

Samples taken while the thread is sleeping, blocked on I/O, or waiting
for a lock are discarded.  The resulting profile shows where CPU cycles
are consumed, filtering out idle time.

CPU mode is useful when you want to focus on computational hotspots
without being distracted by I/O waits.  If your program alternates
between computation and network calls, CPU mode reveals which
computational sections are most expensive.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparing wall-clock and CPU profiles,  Next: GIL mode,  Prev: CPU mode,  Up: Profiling modes

5.28.5.44 Comparing wall-clock and CPU profiles
...............................................

Running both wall-clock and CPU mode profiles can reveal whether a
function’s time is spent computing or waiting.

If a function appears prominently in both profiles, it is a true
computational hotspot—actively using the CPU. Optimization should focus
on algorithmic improvements or more efficient code.

If a function is high in wall-clock mode but low or absent in CPU mode,
it is I/O-bound or waiting.  The function spends most of its time
waiting for network, disk, locks, or sleep.  CPU optimization won’t help
here; consider async I/O, connection pooling, or reducing wait time
instead.

     import time

     def do_sleep():
         time.sleep(2)

     def do_compute():
         sum(i**2 for i in range(1000000))

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         do_sleep()
         do_compute()

     python -m profiling.sampling run --mode=wall script.py  # do_sleep ~98%, do_compute ~1%
     python -m profiling.sampling run --mode=cpu script.py   # do_sleep absent, do_compute dominates


File: python.info,  Node: GIL mode,  Next: Exception mode,  Prev: Comparing wall-clock and CPU profiles,  Up: Profiling modes

5.28.5.45 GIL mode
..................

GIL mode (*note -mode: 4aa6.‘=gil’) records samples only when the thread
holds Python’s global interpreter lock:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --mode=gil script.py

The GIL is held only while executing Python bytecode.  When Python calls
into C extensions, performs I/O operations, or executes native code, the
GIL is typically released.  This means GIL mode effectively measures
time spent running Python code specifically, filtering out time in
native libraries.

In multi-threaded programs, GIL mode reveals which code is preventing
other threads from running Python bytecode.  Since only one thread can
hold the GIL at a time, functions that appear frequently in GIL mode
profiles are monopolizing the interpreter.

GIL mode helps answer questions like «which functions are monopolizing
the GIL?» and «why are my other threads starving?» It can also be useful
in single-threaded programs to distinguish Python execution time from
time spent in C extensions or I/O.

     import hashlib

     def hash_work():
         # C extension - releases GIL during computation
         for _ in range(200):
             hashlib.sha256(b"data" * 250000).hexdigest()

     def python_work():
         # Pure Python - holds GIL during computation
         for _ in range(3):
             sum(i**2 for i in range(1000000))

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         hash_work()
         python_work()

     python -m profiling.sampling run --mode=cpu script.py  # hash_work ~42%, python_work ~38%
     python -m profiling.sampling run --mode=gil script.py  # hash_work ~5%, python_work ~60%


File: python.info,  Node: Exception mode,  Prev: GIL mode,  Up: Profiling modes

5.28.5.46 Exception mode
........................

Exception mode (‘--mode=exception’) records samples only when a thread
has an active exception:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --mode=exception script.py

Samples are recorded in two situations: when an exception is being
propagated up the call stack (after ‘raise’ but before being caught), or
when code is executing inside an ‘except’ block where exception
information is still present in the thread state.

The following example illustrates which code regions are captured:

     def example():
         try:
             raise ValueError("error")    # Captured: exception being raised
         except ValueError:
             process_error()              # Captured: inside except block
         finally:
             cleanup()                    # NOT captured: exception already handled

     def example_propagating():
         try:
             try:
                 raise ValueError("error")
             finally:
                 cleanup()                # Captured: exception propagating through
         except ValueError:
             pass

     def example_no_exception():
         try:
             do_work()
         finally:
             cleanup()                    # NOT captured: no exception involved

Note that ‘finally’ blocks are only captured when an exception is
actively propagating through them.  Once an ‘except’ block finishes
executing, Python clears the exception information before running any
subsequent ‘finally’ block.  Similarly, ‘finally’ blocks that run during
normal execution (when no exception was raised) are not captured because
no exception state is present.

This mode is useful for understanding where your program spends time
handling errors.  Exception handling can be a significant source of
overhead in code that uses exceptions for flow control (such as
‘StopIteration’ in iterators) or in applications that process many error
conditions (such as network servers handling connection failures).

Exception mode helps answer questions like «how much time is spent
handling exceptions?» and «which exception handlers are the most
expensive?» It can reveal hidden performance costs in code that catches
and processes many exceptions, even when those exceptions are handled
gracefully.  For example, if a parsing library uses exceptions
internally to signal format errors, this mode will capture time spent in
those handlers even if the calling code never sees the exceptions.


File: python.info,  Node: Output formats,  Next: Record and replay workflow,  Prev: Profiling modes,  Up: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler

5.28.5.47 Output formats
........................

The profiler produces output in several formats, each suited to
different analysis workflows.  The format is selected with a
command-line flag, and output goes to stdout, a file, or a directory
depending on the format.

* Menu:

* pstats format::
* Collapsed stacks format::
* Flame graph format::
* Gecko format::
* Heatmap format::
* Binary format::


File: python.info,  Node: pstats format,  Next: Collapsed stacks format,  Up: Output formats

5.28.5.48 pstats format
.......................

The pstats format (*note -pstats: 4aad.) produces a text table similar
to what deterministic profilers generate.  This is the default output
format:

     python -m profiling.sampling run script.py
     python -m profiling.sampling run --pstats script.py

[image src="python-figures/tachyon-pstats.png" alt="Tachyon pstats terminal output"]


Figure: The pstats format displays profiling results in a color-coded
table showing function hotspots, sample counts, and timing estimates.

Output appears on stdout by default:

     Profile Stats (Mode: wall):
          nsamples  sample%    tottime (ms)  cumul%   cumtime (ms)  filename:lineno(function)
            234/892    11.7%       234.00     44.6%       892.00    server.py:145(handle_request)
            156/156     7.8%       156.00      7.8%       156.00    <built-in>:0(socket.recv)
             98/421     4.9%        98.00     21.1%       421.00    parser.py:67(parse_message)

The columns show sampling counts and estimated times:

   - 'nsamples': Displayed as ‘direct/cumulative’ (for example,
     ‘10/50’).  Direct samples are when the function was at the top of
     the stack, actively executing.  Cumulative samples are when the
     function appeared anywhere on the stack, including when it was
     waiting for functions it called.  If a function shows ‘10/50’, it
     was directly executing in 10 samples and was on the call stack in
     50 samples total.

   - 'sample%' and 'cumul%': Percentages of total samples for direct and
     cumulative counts respectively.

   - 'tottime' and 'cumtime': Estimated wall-clock time based on sample
     counts and the profiling duration.  Time units are selected
     automatically based on the magnitude: seconds for large values,
     milliseconds for moderate values, or microseconds for small values.

The output includes a legend explaining each column and a summary of
interesting functions that highlights:

   - 'Hot spots': Functions with high direct/cumulative sample ratio
     (ratio close to 1.0).  These functions spend most of their time
     executing their own code rather than waiting for callees.  High
     ratios indicate where CPU time is actually consumed.

   - 'Indirect calls': Functions with large differences between
     cumulative and direct samples.  These are orchestration functions
     that delegate work to other functions.  They appear frequently on
     the stack but rarely at the top.

   - 'Call magnification': Functions where cumulative samples far exceed
     direct samples (high cumulative/direct multiplier).  These are
     frequently-nested functions that appear deep in many call chains.

Use *note -no-summary: 4aae. to suppress both the legend and summary
sections.

To save pstats output to a binary file instead of stdout:

     python -m profiling.sampling run -o profile.pstats script.py

The pstats format supports several options for controlling the display.
The *note -sort: 4aaf. option determines the column used for ordering
results:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --sort=tottime script.py
     python -m profiling.sampling run --sort=cumtime script.py
     python -m profiling.sampling run --sort=nsamples script.py

The *note -limit: 4ab0. option restricts output to the top N entries:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --limit=30 script.py

The *note -no-summary: 4aae. option suppresses the header summary that
precedes the statistics table.


File: python.info,  Node: Collapsed stacks format,  Next: Flame graph format,  Prev: pstats format,  Up: Output formats

5.28.5.49 Collapsed stacks format
.................................

Collapsed stacks format (*note -collapsed: 4ab2.) produces one line per
unique call stack, with a count of how many times that stack was
sampled:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --collapsed script.py

The output looks like:

     main;process_data;parse_json;decode_utf8 42
     main;process_data;parse_json 156
     main;handle_request;send_response 89

Each line contains semicolon-separated function names representing the
call stack from bottom to top, followed by a space and the sample count.
This format is designed for compatibility with external flame graph
tools, particularly Brendan Gregg’s ‘flamegraph.pl’ script.

To generate a flame graph from collapsed stacks:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --collapsed script.py > stacks.txt
     flamegraph.pl stacks.txt > profile.svg

The resulting SVG can be viewed in any web browser and provides an
interactive visualization where you can click to zoom into specific call
paths.


File: python.info,  Node: Flame graph format,  Next: Gecko format,  Prev: Collapsed stacks format,  Up: Output formats

5.28.5.50 Flame graph format
............................

Flame graph format (*note -flamegraph: 4a9b.) produces a self-contained
HTML file with an interactive flame graph visualization:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --flamegraph script.py
     python -m profiling.sampling run --flamegraph -o profile.html script.py

[image src="python-figures/tachyon-flamegraph.png" alt="Tachyon interactive flame graph"]


Figure: The flame graph visualization shows call stacks as nested
rectangles, with width proportional to time spent.  The sidebar displays
runtime statistics, GIL metrics, and hotspot functions.

If no output file is specified, the profiler generates a filename based
on the process ID (for example, ‘flamegraph.12345.html’).

The generated HTML file requires no external dependencies and can be
opened directly in a web browser.  The visualization displays call
stacks as nested rectangles, with width proportional to time spent.
Hovering over a rectangle shows details about that function including
source code context, and clicking zooms into that portion of the call
tree.

The flame graph interface includes:

   - A sidebar showing profile summary, thread statistics, sampling
     efficiency metrics (see *note Sampling efficiency: 4aa0.), and top
     hotspot functions

   - Search functionality supporting both function name matching and
     ‘file.py:42’ line patterns

   - Per-thread filtering via dropdown

   - Dark/light theme toggle (preference saved across sessions)

   - SVG export for saving the current view

The thread statistics section shows runtime behavior metrics:

   - 'GIL Held': percentage of samples where a thread held the global
     interpreter lock (actively running Python code)

   - 'GIL Released': percentage of samples where no thread held the GIL

   - 'Waiting GIL': percentage of samples where a thread was waiting to
     acquire the GIL

   - 'GC': percentage of samples during garbage collection

These statistics help identify GIL contention and understand how time is
distributed between Python execution, native code, and waiting.

Flame graphs are particularly effective for identifying deep call stacks
and understanding the hierarchical structure of time consumption.  Wide
rectangles at the top indicate functions that consume significant time
either directly or through their callees.

* Menu:

* Differential flame graphs::


File: python.info,  Node: Differential flame graphs,  Up: Flame graph format

5.28.5.51 Differential flame graphs
...................................

Differential flame graphs compare two profiling runs to highlight where
performance changed.  This helps identify regressions introduced by code
changes and validate that optimizations achieved their intended effect:

     # Capture baseline profile
     python -m profiling.sampling run --binary -o baseline.bin script.py

     # After modifying code, generate differential flamegraph
     python -m profiling.sampling run --diff-flamegraph baseline.bin -o diff.html script.py

The visualization draws the current profile with frame widths showing
current time consumption, then applies color to indicate how each
function changed relative to the baseline.

'Color coding':

   - 'Red': Functions consuming more time (regressions).  Lighter shades
     indicate modest increases, while darker shades show severe
     regressions.

   - 'Blue': Functions consuming less time (improvements).  Lighter
     shades for modest reductions, darker shades for significant
     speedups.

   - 'Gray': Minimal or no change.

   - 'Purple': New functions not present in the baseline.

Frame colors indicate changes in 'direct time' (time when the function
was at the top of the stack, actively executing), not cumulative time
including callees.  Hovering over a frame shows comparison details
including baseline time, current time, and the percentage change.

Some call paths may disappear entirely between profiles.  These are
called 'elided stacks' and occur when optimizations eliminate code paths
or certain branches stop executing.  If elided stacks are present, an
elided toggle appears allowing you to switch between the main
differential view and an elided-only view that shows just the removed
paths (colored purple).


File: python.info,  Node: Gecko format,  Next: Heatmap format,  Prev: Flame graph format,  Up: Output formats

5.28.5.52 Gecko format
......................

Gecko format (*note -gecko: 4a9d.) produces JSON output compatible with
the Firefox Profiler:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --gecko script.py
     python -m profiling.sampling run --gecko -o profile.json script.py

The Firefox Profiler(1) is a sophisticated web-based tool originally
built for profiling Firefox itself.  It provides features beyond basic
flame graphs, including a timeline view, call tree exploration, and
marker visualization.  See the Firefox Profiler documentation(2) for
detailed usage instructions.

To use the output, open the Firefox Profiler in your browser and load
the JSON file.  The profiler runs entirely client-side, so your
profiling data never leaves your machine.

Gecko format automatically collects additional metadata about GIL state
and CPU activity, enabling analysis features specific to Python’s
threading model.  The profiler emits interval markers that appear as
colored bands in the Firefox Profiler timeline:

   - 'GIL markers': show when threads hold or release the global
     interpreter lock

   - 'CPU markers': show when threads are executing on CPU versus idle

   - 'Code type markers': distinguish Python code from native (C
     extension) code

   - 'GC markers': indicate garbage collection activity

For this reason, the *note -mode: 4aa6. option is not available with
Gecko format; all relevant data is captured automatically.

[image src="python-figures/tachyon-gecko-calltree.png" alt="Firefox Profiler Call Tree view"]


Figure: The Call Tree view shows the complete call hierarchy with sample
counts and percentages.  The sidebar displays detailed statistics for
the selected function including running time and sample distribution.

[image src="python-figures/tachyon-gecko-flamegraph.png" alt="Firefox Profiler Flame Graph view"]


Figure: The Flame Graph visualization shows call stacks as nested
rectangles.  Functions names are visible in the call hierarchy.

[image src="python-figures/tachyon-gecko-opcodes.png" alt="Firefox Profiler Marker Chart with opcodes"]


Figure: The Marker Chart displays interval markers including CPU state,
GIL status, and opcodes.  With ‘--opcodes’ enabled, bytecode
instructions like ‘BINARY_OP_ADD_FLOAT’, ‘CALL_PY_EXACT_ARGS’, and
‘CALL_LIST_APPEND’ appear as markers showing execution over time.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://profiler.firefox.com

   (2) https://profiler.firefox.com/docs/#/


File: python.info,  Node: Heatmap format,  Next: Binary format,  Prev: Gecko format,  Up: Output formats

5.28.5.53 Heatmap format
........................

Heatmap format (*note -heatmap: 4a9c.) generates an interactive HTML
visualization showing sample counts at the source line level:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --heatmap script.py
     python -m profiling.sampling run --heatmap -o my_heatmap script.py

[image src="python-figures/tachyon-heatmap.png" alt="Tachyon heatmap visualization"]


Figure: The heatmap overlays sample counts directly on your source code.
Lines are color-coded from cool (few samples) to hot (many samples).
Navigation buttons (▲▼) let you jump between callers and callees.

Unlike other formats that produce a single file, heatmap output creates
a directory containing HTML files for each profiled source file.  If no
output path is specified, the directory is named ‘heatmap_PID’.

The heatmap visualization displays your source code with a color
gradient indicating how many samples were collected at each line.  Hot
lines (many samples) appear in warm colors, while cold lines (few or no
samples) appear in cool colors.  This view helps pinpoint exactly which
lines of code are responsible for time consumption.

The heatmap interface provides several interactive features:

   - 'Coloring modes': toggle between «Self Time» (direct execution) and
     «Total Time» (cumulative, including time in called functions)

   - 'Cold code filtering': show all lines or only lines with samples

   - 'Call graph navigation': each line shows navigation buttons (▲ for
     callers, ▼ for callees) that let you trace execution paths through
     your code.  When multiple functions called or were called from a
     line, a menu appears showing all options with their sample counts.

   - 'Scroll minimap': a vertical overview showing the heat distribution
     across the entire file

   - 'Hierarchical index': files organized by type (stdlib,
     site-packages, project) with aggregate sample counts per folder

   - 'Dark/light theme': toggle with preference saved across sessions

   - 'Line linking': click line numbers to create shareable URLs

When opcode-level profiling is enabled with *note -opcodes: 4a99, each
hot line can be expanded to show which bytecode instructions consumed
time:

[image src="python-figures/tachyon-heatmap-with-opcodes.png" alt="Heatmap with expanded bytecode panel"]


Figure: Expanding a hot line reveals the bytecode instructions executed,
including specialized variants.  The panel shows sample counts per
instruction and the overall specialization percentage for the line.

Heatmaps are especially useful when you know which file contains a
performance issue but need to identify the specific lines.  Many
developers prefer this format because it maps directly to their source
code, making it easy to read and navigate.  For smaller scripts and
focused analysis, heatmaps provide an intuitive view that shows exactly
where time is spent without requiring interpretation of hierarchical
visualizations.


File: python.info,  Node: Binary format,  Prev: Heatmap format,  Up: Output formats

5.28.5.54 Binary format
.......................

Binary format (*note -binary: 4ab8.) produces a compact binary file for
efficient storage of profiling data:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --binary -o profile.bin script.py
     python -m profiling.sampling attach --binary -o profile.bin 12345

The *note -compression: 4ab9. option controls data compression:

   - ‘auto’ (default): Use zstd compression if available, otherwise no
     compression

   - ‘zstd’: Force zstd compression (requires *note compression.zstd:
     23. support)

   - ‘none’: Disable compression

     python -m profiling.sampling run --binary --compression=zstd -o profile.bin script.py

To analyze binary profiles, use the *note The replay command: 4a87. to
convert them to other formats like flame graphs or pstats output.


File: python.info,  Node: Record and replay workflow,  Next: Live mode,  Prev: Output formats,  Up: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler

5.28.5.55 Record and replay workflow
....................................

The binary format combined with the replay command enables a
record-and-replay workflow that separates data capture from analysis.
Rather than generating visualizations during profiling, you capture raw
data to a compact binary file and convert it to different formats later.

This approach has three main benefits:

   - Sampling runs faster because the work of building data structures
     for visualization is deferred until replay.

   - A single binary capture can be converted to multiple output formats
     without re-profiling: pstats for a quick overview, flame graph for
     visual exploration, heatmap for line-level detail.

   - Binary files are compact and easy to share with colleagues who can
     convert them to their preferred format.

A typical workflow:

     # Capture profile in production or during tests
     python -m profiling.sampling attach --binary -o profile.bin 12345

     # Later, analyze with different formats
     python -m profiling.sampling replay profile.bin
     python -m profiling.sampling replay --flamegraph -o profile.html profile.bin
     python -m profiling.sampling replay --heatmap -o heatmap profile.bin


File: python.info,  Node: Live mode,  Next: Async-aware profiling,  Prev: Record and replay workflow,  Up: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler

5.28.5.56 Live mode
...................

Live mode (*note -live: 4a9a.) provides a terminal-based real-time view
of profiling data, similar to the ‘top’ command for system processes:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --live script.py
     python -m profiling.sampling attach --live 12345

[image src="python-figures/tachyon-live-mode-2.gif" alt="Tachyon live mode showing all threads"]


Figure
Live mode displays real-time profiling statistics, showing combined data
from multiple threads in a multi-threaded application.

The display updates continuously as new samples arrive, showing the
current hottest functions.  This mode requires the *note curses: 2e.
module, which is available on Unix-like systems but not on Windows.  The
terminal must be at least 60 columns wide and 12 lines tall; larger
terminals display more columns.

The header displays the top 3 hottest functions, sampling efficiency
metrics, and thread status statistics (GIL held percentage, CPU usage,
GC time).  The main table shows function statistics with the currently
sorted column indicated by an arrow (▼).

When *note -opcodes: 4a99. is enabled, an additional opcode panel
appears below the main table, showing instruction-level statistics for
the currently selected function.  This panel displays which bytecode
instructions are executing most frequently, including specialized
variants and their base opcodes.

[image src="python-figures/tachyon-live-mode-1.gif" alt="Tachyon live mode with opcode panel"]


Figure
Live mode with ‘--opcodes’ enabled shows an opcode panel with a bytecode
instruction breakdown for the selected function.

* Menu:

* Keyboard commands::


File: python.info,  Node: Keyboard commands,  Up: Live mode

5.28.5.57 Keyboard commands
...........................

Within live mode, keyboard commands control the display:

‘q’

     Quit the profiler and return to the shell.

‘s’ / ‘S’

     Cycle through sort orders forward/backward (sample count,
     percentage, total time, cumulative percentage, cumulative time).

‘p’

     Pause or resume display updates.  Sampling continues in the
     background while the display is paused, so you can freeze the view
     to examine results without stopping data collection.

‘r’

     Reset all statistics and start fresh.  This is disabled after
     profiling finishes to prevent accidental data loss.

‘/’

     Enter filter mode to search for functions by name.  The filter uses
     case-insensitive substring matching against the filename and
     function name.  Type a pattern and press Enter to apply, or Escape
     to cancel.  Glob patterns and regular expressions are not
     supported.

‘c’

     Clear the current filter and show all functions again.

‘t’

     Toggle between viewing all threads combined or per-thread
     statistics.  In per-thread mode, a thread counter (for example,
     ‘1/4’) appears showing your position among the available threads.

‘←’ ‘→’ or ‘↑’ ‘↓’

     In per-thread view, navigate between threads.  Navigation wraps
     around from the last thread to the first and vice versa.

‘+’ / ‘-’

     Increase or decrease the display refresh rate.  The range is 0.05
     seconds (20 Hz, very responsive) to 1.0 second (1 Hz, lower
     overhead).  Faster refresh rates use more CPU. The default is 0.1
     seconds (10 Hz).

‘x’

     Toggle trend indicators that show whether functions are becoming
     hotter or cooler over time.  When enabled, increasing metrics
     appear in green and decreasing metrics appear in red, comparing
     each update to the previous one.

‘h’ or ‘?’

     Show the help screen with all available commands.

‘j’ / ‘k’ (or ‘Up’ / ‘Down’)

     Navigate through opcode entries in the opcode panel (when
     ‘--opcodes’ is enabled).  These keys scroll through the
     instruction-level statistics for the currently selected function.

When profiling finishes (duration expires or target process exits), the
display shows a «PROFILING COMPLETE» banner and freezes the final
results.  You can still navigate, sort, and filter the results before
pressing ‘q’ to exit.

Live mode is incompatible with output format options (*note -collapsed:
4ab2, *note -flamegraph: 4a9b, and so on) because it uses an interactive
terminal interface rather than producing file output.


File: python.info,  Node: Async-aware profiling,  Next: Command-line interface<9>,  Prev: Live mode,  Up: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler

5.28.5.58 Async-aware profiling
...............................

For programs using *note asyncio: b, the profiler offers async-aware
mode (*note -async-aware: 4abe.) that reconstructs call stacks based on
the task structure rather than the raw Python frames:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --async-aware async_script.py

Standard profiling of async code can be confusing because the physical
call stack often shows event loop internals rather than the logical flow
of your coroutines.  Async-aware mode addresses this by tracking which
task is running and presenting stacks that reflect the ‘await’ chain.

     import asyncio

     async def fetch(url):
         await asyncio.sleep(0.1)
         return url

     async def main():
         for _ in range(50):
             await asyncio.gather(fetch("a"), fetch("b"), fetch("c"))

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         asyncio.run(main())

     python -m profiling.sampling run --async-aware --flamegraph -o out.html script.py

     Σημείωση: Async-aware profiling requires the target process to have
     the *note asyncio: b. module loaded.  If you profile a script
     before it imports asyncio, async-aware mode will not be able to
     capture task information.

* Menu:

* Async modes::
* Task markers and stack reconstruction::
* Option restrictions::


File: python.info,  Node: Async modes,  Next: Task markers and stack reconstruction,  Up: Async-aware profiling

5.28.5.59 Async modes
.....................

The *note -async-mode: 4ac0. option controls which tasks appear in the
profile:

     python -m profiling.sampling run --async-aware --async-mode=running async_script.py
     python -m profiling.sampling run --async-aware --async-mode=all async_script.py

With *note -async-mode: 4ac0.‘=running’ (the default), only the task
currently executing on the CPU is profiled.  This shows where your
program is actively spending time and is the typical choice for
performance analysis.

With *note -async-mode: 4ac0.‘=all’, tasks that are suspended (awaiting
I/O, locks, or other tasks) are also included.  This mode is useful for
understanding what your program is waiting on, but produces larger
profiles since every suspended task appears in each sample.


File: python.info,  Node: Task markers and stack reconstruction,  Next: Option restrictions,  Prev: Async modes,  Up: Async-aware profiling

5.28.5.60 Task markers and stack reconstruction
...............................................

In async-aware profiles, you will see ‘<task>’ frames that mark
boundaries between asyncio tasks.  These are synthetic frames inserted
by the profiler to show the task structure.  The task name appears as
the function name in these frames.

When a task awaits another task, the profiler reconstructs the logical
call chain by following the ‘await’ relationships.  Only «leaf» tasks
(tasks that no other task is currently awaiting) generate their own
stack entries.  Tasks being awaited by other tasks appear as part of
their awaiter’s stack instead.

If a task has multiple awaiters (a diamond pattern in the task graph),
the profiler deterministically selects one parent and annotates the task
marker with the number of parents, for example ‘MyTask (2 parents)’.
This indicates that alternate execution paths exist but are not shown in
this particular stack.


File: python.info,  Node: Option restrictions,  Prev: Task markers and stack reconstruction,  Up: Async-aware profiling

5.28.5.61 Option restrictions
.............................

Async-aware mode uses a different stack reconstruction mechanism and is
incompatible with: *note -native: 4a96, *note -no-gc: 4a97, *note
-all-threads: 4a91, and *note -mode: 4aa6.‘=cpu’ or ‘--mode’‘=gil’.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<9>,  Prev: Async-aware profiling,  Up: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler

5.28.5.62 Command-line interface
................................

The complete command-line interface for reference.

* Menu:

* Global options::
* Dump options::
* Sampling options::
* Mode options::
* Output options::
* pstats display options::
* Run command options::


File: python.info,  Node: Global options,  Next: Dump options,  Up: Command-line interface<9>

5.28.5.63 Global options
........................

 -- Option: run

     Run and profile a Python script or module.

 -- Option: attach

     Attach to and profile a running process by PID.

 -- Option: dump

     Print a single one-shot snapshot of a running process’s Python
     stack.

 -- Option: replay

     Convert a binary profile file to another output format.


File: python.info,  Node: Dump options,  Next: Sampling options,  Prev: Global options,  Up: Command-line interface<9>

5.28.5.64 Dump options
......................

The following options apply to the ‘dump’ subcommand:

 -- Option: -a, --all-threads

     Dump all threads in the target process instead of just the main
     thread.

 -- Option: --native

     Include ‘<native>’ frames for non-Python code.

 -- Option: --no-gc

     Exclude ‘<GC>’ frames for active garbage collection.

 -- Option: --opcodes

     Show bytecode opcode names when available.

 -- Option: --async-aware

     Reconstruct the stack across ‘await’ boundaries for asyncio
     applications.

 -- Option: --async-mode <mode>

     Async stack mode: ‘running’ (only the running task) or ‘all’ (all
     tasks including waiting).  Defaults to ‘all’ for ‘dump’.  Requires
     *note -async-aware: 4abe.

 -- Option: --blocking

     Pause all threads in the target process while reading the stack.


File: python.info,  Node: Sampling options,  Next: Mode options,  Prev: Dump options,  Up: Command-line interface<9>

5.28.5.65 Sampling options
..........................

 -- Option: -r <rate>, --sampling-rate <rate>

     Sampling rate (for example, ‘10000’, ‘10khz’, ‘10k’).  Default:
     ‘1khz’.

 -- Option: -d <seconds>, --duration <seconds>

     Profiling duration in seconds.  Default: run to completion.

 -- Option: -a, --all-threads

     Sample all threads, not just the main thread.

 -- Option: --realtime-stats

     Display sampling statistics during profiling.

 -- Option: --native

     Include ‘<native>’ frames for non-Python code.

 -- Option: --no-gc

     Exclude ‘<GC>’ frames for garbage collection.

 -- Option: --async-aware

     Enable async-aware profiling for asyncio programs.

 -- Option: --opcodes

     Gather bytecode opcode information for instruction-level profiling.
     Shows which bytecode instructions are executing, including
     specializations.  Compatible with ‘--live’, ‘--flamegraph’,
     ‘--heatmap’, and ‘--gecko’ formats only.

 -- Option: --subprocesses

     Also profile subprocesses.  Each subprocess gets its own profiler
     instance and output file.  Incompatible with ‘--live’.

 -- Option: --blocking

     Pause the target process during each sample.  This ensures
     consistent stack traces at the cost of slowing down the target.
     Use with longer intervals (1000 µs or higher) to minimize impact.
     See *note Blocking mode: 4a92. for details.


File: python.info,  Node: Mode options,  Next: Output options,  Prev: Sampling options,  Up: Command-line interface<9>

5.28.5.66 Mode options
......................

 -- Option: --mode <mode>

     Sampling mode: ‘wall’ (default), ‘cpu’, ‘gil’, or ‘exception’.  The
     ‘cpu’, ‘gil’, and ‘exception’ modes are incompatible with
     ‘--async-aware’.

 -- Option: --async-mode <mode>

     Async profiling mode: ‘running’ (default) or ‘all’.  Requires
     ‘--async-aware’.


File: python.info,  Node: Output options,  Next: pstats display options,  Prev: Mode options,  Up: Command-line interface<9>

5.28.5.67 Output options
........................

 -- Option: --pstats

     Generate pstats statistics.  This is the default.  When written to
     stdout, the output is a text table; with *note -o: 4ad8, it is a
     binary pstats file.

 -- Option: --collapsed

     Generate collapsed stack format for external flame graph tools.

 -- Option: --flamegraph

     Generate self-contained HTML flame graph.

 -- Option: --diff-flamegraph <baseline.bin>

     Generate differential flamegraph comparing to a baseline binary
     profile.

 -- Option: --gecko

     Generate Gecko JSON format for Firefox Profiler.

 -- Option: --heatmap

     Generate HTML heatmap with line-level sample counts.

 -- Option: --binary

     Generate high-performance binary format for later conversion with
     the ‘replay’ command.

 -- Option: --compression <type>

     Compression for binary format: ‘auto’ (use zstd if available,
     default), ‘zstd’, or ‘none’.

 -- Option: -o <path>, --output <path>

     Output file or directory path.  Default behavior varies by format:
     *note -pstats: 4aad. prints a text table to stdout, while ‘-o’
     writes a binary pstats file.  Other formats generate a file named
     ‘<format>_<PID>.<ext>’ (for example, ‘flamegraph_12345.html’).
     *note -heatmap: 4a9c. creates a directory named ‘heatmap_<PID>’.

 -- Option: --browser

     Automatically open HTML output (*note -flamegraph: 4a9b. and *note
     -heatmap: 4a9c.) in your default web browser after generation.
     When profiling with *note -subprocesses: 4aa2, only the main
     process opens the browser; subprocess outputs are never
     auto-opened.


File: python.info,  Node: pstats display options,  Next: Run command options,  Prev: Output options,  Up: Command-line interface<9>

5.28.5.68 pstats display options
................................

These options apply only to pstats format output.

 -- Option: --sort <key>

     Sort order: ‘nsamples’, ‘tottime’, ‘cumtime’, ‘sample-pct’,
     ‘cumul-pct’, ‘nsamples-cumul’, or ‘name’.  Default: ‘nsamples’.

 -- Option: -l <count>, --limit <count>

     Maximum number of entries to display.  Default: 15.

 -- Option: --no-summary

     Omit the Legend and Summary of Interesting Functions sections from
     output.


File: python.info,  Node: Run command options,  Prev: pstats display options,  Up: Command-line interface<9>

5.28.5.69 Run command options
.............................

 -- Option: -m, --module

     Treat the target as a module name rather than a script path.

 -- Option: --live

     Start interactive terminal interface instead of batch profiling.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note profiling: b5.

     Overview of Python profiling tools and guidance on choosing a
     profiler.

*note profiling.tracing: b7.

     Deterministic tracing profiler for exact call counts and timing.

*note pstats: b8.

     Statistics analysis for profile data.

Firefox Profiler(1)

     Web-based profiler that accepts Gecko format output.  See the
     documentation(2) for usage details.

FlameGraph(3)

     Tools for generating flame graphs from collapsed stack format.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://profiler.firefox.com

   (2) https://profiler.firefox.com/docs/#/

   (3) https://github.com/brendangregg/FlameGraph


File: python.info,  Node: pstats — Statistics for profilers,  Next: timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα,  Prev: profiling — Python profilers,  Up: Debugging and profiling

5.28.6 ‘pstats’ — Statistics for profilers
------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pstats.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘pstats’ module provides tools for reading, manipulating, and
displaying profiling statistics generated by Python’s profilers.  It
reads output from both *note profiling.tracing: b7. (deterministic
profiler) and *note profiling.sampling: b6. (statistical profiler).

* Menu:

* Reading and displaying profile data::
* The Stats class::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<10>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/pstats.py


File: python.info,  Node: Reading and displaying profile data,  Next: The Stats class,  Up: pstats — Statistics for profilers

5.28.6.1 Reading and displaying profile data
............................................

The *note Stats: 4a6d. class is the primary interface for working with
profile data.  It can read statistics from files or directly from a
*note Profile: 4a6f. object.

Load statistics from a file and print a basic report:

     import pstats

     p = pstats.Stats('profile_output.prof')
     p.print_stats()

The *note Stats: 4a6d. object provides methods for sorting and filtering
the data before printing.  For example, to see the ten functions with
the highest cumulative time:

     from pstats import SortKey

     p = pstats.Stats('profile_output.prof')
     p.sort_stats(SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(10)

* Menu:

* Working with statistics::
* Filtering output::
* Analyzing call relationships::
* Combining multiple profiles::


File: python.info,  Node: Working with statistics,  Next: Filtering output,  Up: Reading and displaying profile data

5.28.6.2 Working with statistics
................................

The *note Stats: 4a6d. class supports method chaining, making it
convenient to perform multiple operations:

     p = pstats.Stats('restats')
     p.strip_dirs().sort_stats(-1).print_stats()

The *note strip_dirs(): 4ae7. method removes directory paths from
filenames, making the output more compact.  The *note sort_stats():
4a66. method accepts various keys to control the sort order.

Different sort keys highlight different aspects of performance:

     from pstats import SortKey

     # Functions that consume the most cumulative time
     p.sort_stats(SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(10)

     # Functions that consume the most time in their own code
     p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME).print_stats(10)

     # Functions sorted by name
     p.sort_stats(SortKey.NAME).print_stats()


File: python.info,  Node: Filtering output,  Next: Analyzing call relationships,  Prev: Working with statistics,  Up: Reading and displaying profile data

5.28.6.3 Filtering output
.........................

The *note print_stats(): 4ae9. method accepts restrictions that filter
which functions are displayed.  Restrictions can be integers (limiting
the count), floats between 0 and 1 (selecting a percentage), or strings
(matching function names via regular expression).

Print only the top 10%:

     p.print_stats(.1)

Print only functions whose names contain «init»:

     p.print_stats('init')

Combine restrictions (they apply sequentially):

     # Top 10%, then only those containing "init"
     p.print_stats(.1, 'init')

     # Functions in files matching "foo:", limited to top 50%
     p.sort_stats(SortKey.FILENAME).print_stats('foo:', .5)


File: python.info,  Node: Analyzing call relationships,  Next: Combining multiple profiles,  Prev: Filtering output,  Up: Reading and displaying profile data

5.28.6.4 Analyzing call relationships
.....................................

The *note print_callers(): 4a5a. method shows which functions called
each displayed function:

     p.print_callers()

The *note print_callees(): 4a5b. method shows the opposite relationship,
listing which functions each displayed function called:

     p.print_callees()

Both methods accept the same restriction arguments as *note
print_stats(): 4ae9.


File: python.info,  Node: Combining multiple profiles,  Prev: Analyzing call relationships,  Up: Reading and displaying profile data

5.28.6.5 Combining multiple profiles
....................................

Statistics from multiple profiling runs can be combined into a single
*note Stats: 4a6d. object:

     # Load multiple files at once
     p = pstats.Stats('run1.prof', 'run2.prof', 'run3.prof')

     # Or add files incrementally
     p = pstats.Stats('run1.prof')
     p.add('run2.prof')
     p.add('run3.prof')

When files are combined, statistics for identical functions (same file,
line, and name) are accumulated, giving an aggregate view across all
profiling runs.


File: python.info,  Node: The Stats class,  Next: Command-line interface<10>,  Prev: Reading and displaying profile data,  Up: pstats — Statistics for profilers

5.28.6.6 The ‘Stats’ class
..........................

 -- Κλάση: pstats.Stats (*filenames_or_profile, stream=sys.stdout)

     Create a statistics object from profile data.

     The arguments can be filenames (strings or path-like objects) or
     *note Profile: 4a6f. objects.  If multiple sources are provided,
     their statistics are combined.

     The 'stream' argument specifies where output from *note
     print_stats(): 4ae9. and related methods is written.  It defaults
     to *note sys.stdout: e9c.

     The profile data format is specific to the Python version that
     created it.  There is no compatibility guarantee between Python
     versions or between different profilers.

      -- Μέθοδος: strip_dirs ()

          Remove leading path information from all filenames.

          This method modifies the object in place and returns it for
          method chaining.  After stripping, the statistics are
          considered to be in random order.

          If stripping causes two functions to become indistinguishable
          (same filename, line number, and function name), their
          statistics are combined into a single entry.

      -- Μέθοδος: add (*filenames)

          Add profiling data from additional files.

          The files must have been created by the same profiler type.
          Statistics for identical functions are accumulated.

      -- Μέθοδος: dump_stats (filename)

          Save the current statistics to a file.

          The file is created if it does not exist and overwritten if it
          does.  The saved data can be loaded by creating a new ‘Stats’
          object.

      -- Μέθοδος: sort_stats (*keys)

          Sort the statistics according to the specified criteria.

          Each key can be a string or a *note SortKey: 4aef. enum
          member.  When multiple keys are provided, later keys break
          ties in earlier keys.

          Using *note SortKey: 4aef. enum members is preferred over
          strings as it provides better error checking:

               from pstats import SortKey
               p.sort_stats(SortKey.CUMULATIVE)

          Valid sort keys:

          String                 Enum                         Meaning
                                                              
          -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                              
          ‘'calls'’              ‘SortKey.CALLS’              call count
                                                              
                                                              
          ‘'cumulative'’         ‘SortKey.CUMULATIVE’         cumulative time
                                                              
                                                              
          ‘'cumtime'’            N/A                          cumulative time
                                                              
                                                              
          ‘'file'’               N/A                          file name
                                                              
                                                              
          ‘'filename'’           ‘SortKey.FILENAME’           file name
                                                              
                                                              
          ‘'module'’             N/A                          file name
                                                              
                                                              
          ‘'ncalls'’             N/A                          call count
                                                              
                                                              
          ‘'pcalls'’             ‘SortKey.PCALLS’             primitive call count
                                                              
                                                              
          ‘'line'’               ‘SortKey.LINE’               line number
                                                              
                                                              
          ‘'name'’               ‘SortKey.NAME’               function name
                                                              
                                                              
          ‘'nfl'’                ‘SortKey.NFL’                name/file/line
                                                              
                                                              
          ‘'stdname'’            ‘SortKey.STDNAME’            standard name
                                                              
                                                              
          ‘'time'’               ‘SortKey.TIME’               internal time
                                                              
                                                              
          ‘'tottime'’            N/A                          internal time
                                                              

          All sorts on statistics are in descending order (most time
          consuming first), while name, file, and line number sorts are
          ascending (alphabetical).

          The difference between ‘SortKey.NFL’ and ‘SortKey.STDNAME’ is
          that NFL sorts line numbers numerically while STDNAME sorts
          them as strings.  ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NFL)’ is equivalent to
          ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NAME, SortKey.FILENAME, SortKey.LINE)’.

          For backward compatibility, the numeric arguments ‘-1’, ‘0’,
          ‘1’, and ‘2’ are also accepted, meaning ‘'stdname'’,
          ‘'calls'’, ‘'time'’, and ‘'cumulative'’ respectively.

          Added in version 3.7: The *note SortKey: 4aef. enum.

      -- Μέθοδος: reverse_order ()

          Reverse the current sort order.

          By default, the sort direction is chosen appropriately for the
          sort key (descending for time-based keys, ascending for
          name-based keys).  This method inverts that choice.

      -- Μέθοδος: print_stats (*restrictions)

          Print a report of the profiling statistics.

          The output includes a header line summarizing the data,
          followed by a table of function statistics sorted according to
          the last *note sort_stats(): 4a66. call.

          Restrictions filter the output.  Each restriction is either:

             - An integer: limits output to that many entries

             - A float between 0.0 and 1.0: selects that fraction of
               entries

             - A string: matches function names via regular expression

          Restrictions are applied sequentially.  For example:

               print_stats(.1, 'foo:')

          First limits to the top 10%, then filters to functions
          matching “foo:”.

      -- Μέθοδος: print_callers (*restrictions)

          Print the callers of each function in the statistics.

          For each function in the filtered results, shows which
          functions called it and how often.

          With *note profiling.tracing: b7. (or ‘cProfile’), each caller
          line shows three numbers: the number of calls from that
          caller, and the total and cumulative times for those specific
          calls.

          Accepts the same restriction arguments as *note print_stats():
          4ae9.

      -- Μέθοδος: print_callees (*restrictions)

          Print the functions called by each function in the statistics.

          This is the inverse of *note print_callers(): 4a5a, showing
          which functions each listed function called.

          Accepts the same restriction arguments as *note print_stats():
          4ae9.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_stats_profile ()

          Return a ‘StatsProfile’ object containing the statistics.

          The returned object provides programmatic access to the
          profile data, with function names mapped to ‘FunctionProfile’
          objects containing timing and call count information.

          Added in version 3.9.

 -- Κλάση: pstats.SortKey

     An enumeration of valid sort keys for *note Stats.sort_stats():
     4a66.

      -- Ιδιότητα: CALLS

          Sort by call count.

      -- Ιδιότητα: CUMULATIVE

          Sort by cumulative time.

      -- Ιδιότητα: FILENAME

          Sort by file name.

      -- Ιδιότητα: LINE

          Sort by line number.

      -- Ιδιότητα: NAME

          Sort by function name.

      -- Ιδιότητα: NFL

          Sort by name, then file, then line number (numeric line sort).

      -- Ιδιότητα: PCALLS

          Sort by primitive (non-recursive) call count.

      -- Ιδιότητα: STDNAME

          Sort by standard name (string-based line sort).

      -- Ιδιότητα: TIME

          Sort by internal time (time in function excluding subcalls).


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<10>,  Prev: The Stats class,  Up: pstats — Statistics for profilers

5.28.6.7 Command-line interface
...............................

The ‘pstats’ module can be invoked as a script to interactively browse
profile data:

     python -m pstats profile_output.prof

This opens a line-oriented interface (built on *note cmd: 1a.) for
examining the statistics.  Type ‘help’ at the prompt for available
commands.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note profiling: b5.

     Overview of Python profiling tools.

*note profiling.tracing: b7.

     Deterministic tracing profiler.

*note profiling.sampling: b6.

     Statistical sampling profiler.


File: python.info,  Node: timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα,  Next: trace — Ιχνηλάτηση ή παρακολούθηση εκτέλεσης εντολών Python,  Prev: pstats — Statistics for profilers,  Up: Debugging and profiling

5.28.7 ‘timeit’ — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα
---------------------------------------------------------------------

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/timeit.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Αυτό το module παρέχει έναν απλό τρόπο για να μετρήσετε τον χρόνο
εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα Python.  Διαθέτει τόσο *note
Command-line interface: 4b00. όσο και *note callable: 4b01.  Αποφεύγει
αρκετές συνηθισμένες παγίδες στη μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης.  Δείτε επίσης
την εισαγωγή του Tim Peters στο κεφάλαιο «Αλγόριθμοι» της δεύτερης
έκδοσης του 'Python Cookbook', που εκδόθηκε από την O’Reilly.

* Menu:

* Basic examples::
* Python interface::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<11>.
* Παραδείγματα: Παραδείγματα<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/timeit.py


File: python.info,  Node: Basic examples,  Next: Python interface,  Up: timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα

5.28.7.1 Basic examples
.......................

Το παρακάτω παράδειγμα δείχνει πώς η *note Command-line interface: 4b00.
μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να συγκρίνει τρεις διαφορετικές εκφράσεις:

     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join(str(n) for n in range(100))"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 30.2 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join([str(n) for n in range(100)])"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 27.5 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "'-'.join(map(str, range(100)))"
     10000 loops, best of 5: 23.2 usec per loop

Αυτό μπορεί να επιτευχθεί από το *note Python interface: 4b01. ως εξής:

     >>> import timeit
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(str(n) for n in range(100))', number=10000)
     0.3018611848820001
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join([str(n) for n in range(100)])', number=10000)
     0.2727368790656328
     >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(map(str, range(100)))', number=10000)
     0.23702679807320237

Μπορεί επίσης να δοθεί μια καλέσιμη συνάρτηση από το *note Python
interface: 4b01.:

     >>> timeit.timeit(lambda: "-".join(map(str, range(100))), number=10000)
     0.19665591977536678

Σημειώστε όμως ότι η *note timeit(): 122f. θα καθορίσει αυτόματα τον
αριθμό των επαναλήψεων μόνο όταν χρησιμοποιείται η διεπαφή γραμμής
εντολών.  Στην ενότητα *note Παραδείγματα: 4b03. μπορείτε να βρείτε πιο
προχωρημένα παραδείγματα.


File: python.info,  Node: Python interface,  Next: Command-line interface<11>,  Prev: Basic examples,  Up: timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα

5.28.7.2 Python interface
.........................

Το module ορίζει τρεις βοηθητικές συναρτήσεις και μία δημόσια κλάση:

 -- Συνάρτηση: timeit.timeit (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default
          timer>, number=1000000, globals=None)

     Δημιουργεί ένα στιγμιότυπο της κλάσης *note Timer: 186a. με τη
     δοσμένη εντολή, τον κώδικα 'setup' και τη συνάρτηση 'timer' και
     εκτελεί τη μέθοδο *note timeit(): 10a9. με 'number' εκτελέσεις.  Η
     προαιρετική παράμετρος 'globals' καθορίζει το namespace στο οποίο
     θα εκτελεστεί ο κώδικας.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Προστέθηκε η προαιρετική παράμετρος
     'globals'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: timeit.repeat (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default
          timer>, repeat=5, number=1000000, globals=None)

     Δημιουργεί ένα στιγμιότυπο της κλάσης *note Timer: 186a. με τη
     δοσμένη εντολή, τον κώδικα 'setup' και τη συνάρτηση 'timer' και
     εκτελεί τη μέθοδο *note repeat(): 4b06. με το δοσμένο πλήθος
     'repeat' και 'number' εκτελέσεις.  Η προαιρετική παράμετρος
     'globals' καθορίζει το namespace στο οποίο θα εκτελεστεί ο κώδικας.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Προστέθηκε η προαιρετική παράμετρος
     'globals'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Η προεπιλεγμένη τιμή του 'repeat' άλλαξε
     από 3 σε 5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: timeit.default_timer ()

     Ο προεπιλεγμένος χρονομετρητής, που είναι πάντα το
     time.perf_counter(), επιστρέφει δευτερόλεπτα ως float.
     Εναλλακτικά, το time.perf_counter_ns επιστρέφει ακέραια
     νανοδευτερόλεπτα.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Η *note time.perf_counter(): e49. είναι
     πλέον ο προεπιλεγμένος χρονομετρητής.

 -- Κλάση: timeit.Timer (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<timer
          function>, globals=None)

     Κλάση για τη μέτρηση της ταχύτητας εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων
     κώδικα.

     The constructor takes a statement to be timed, an additional
     statement used for setup, and a timer function.  Both statements
     default to ‘'pass'’; the timer function is platform-dependent (see
     the module doc string).  'stmt' and 'setup' may also contain
     multiple statements separated by ‘;’ or newlines, as long as they
     don’t contain multi-line string literals.  The statement will by
     default be executed within timeit’s namespace; this behavior can be
     controlled by passing a namespace to 'globals'.

     Για να μετρήσετε τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης της πρώτης εντολής,
     χρησιμοποιήστε τη μέθοδο *note timeit(): 10a9.  Οι μέθοδοι *note
     repeat(): 4b06. και *note autorange(): 283. είναι μέθοδοι ευκολίας
     για να καλέσετε τη ‘timeit()’ πολλές φορές.

     Ο χρόνος εκτέλεσης του 'setup' εξαιρείται από τη συνολική
     χρονομετρημένη εκτέλεση.

     Οι παράμετροι 'stmt' και 'setup' μπορούν επίσης να πάρουν
     αντικείμενα που είναι καλέσιμα χωρίς ορίσματα.  Αυτό θα ενσωματώσει
     κλήσεις σε αυτά σε μια συνάρτηση χρονομέτρησης που θα εκτελείται
     στη συνέχεια από τη *note timeit(): 10a9.  Σημειώστε ότι το κόστος
     χρονομέτρησης είναι λίγο μεγαλύτερο σε αυτή την περίπτωση λόγω των
     επιπλέον κλήσεων των συναρτήσεων.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Προστέθηκε η προαιρετική παράμετρος
     'globals'.

      -- Μέθοδος: timeit (number=1000000)

          Χρονομετρεί 'number' εκτελέσεις της κύριας εντολής.  Αυτή
          εκτελεί την εντολή setup μία φορά και στη συνέχεια επιστρέφει
          το χρόνο που απαιτείται για να εκτελέσει την κύρια εντολή
          πολλές φορές.  Ο προεπιλεγμένος χρονομετρητής επιστρέφει
          δευτερόλεπτα ως float.  Το όρισμα είναι ο αριθμός των
          επαναλήψεων, με προεπιλογή το ένα εκατομμύριο.  Η κύρια
          εντολή, η εντολή setup και η συνάρτηση χρονομέτρησης που θα
          χρησιμοποιηθούν περνιούνται στον κατασκευαστή.

               Σημείωση: Από προεπιλογή, η *note timeit(): 10a9.
               απενεργοποιεί προσωρινά τον *note garbage collection:
               19de. κατά τη διάρκεια της χρονομέτρησης.  Το πλεονέκτημα
               αυτής της προσέγγισης είναι ότι καθιστά τις ανεξάρτητες
               χρονομετρήσεις πιο συγκρίσιμες.  Το μειονέκτημα είναι ότι
               ο GC μπορεί να είναι σημαντικό συστατικό της απόδοσης της
               λειτουργίας που μετράται.  Αν ισχύει αυτό, ο GC μπορεί να
               ενεργοποιηθεί ξανά ως η πρώτη εντολή στο 'setup' string.
               Για παράδειγμα:

                    timeit.Timer('for i in range(10): oct(i)', 'gc.enable()').timeit()

      -- Μέθοδος: autorange (callback=None, target_time=None)

          Καθορίζει αυτόματα πόσες φορές θα καλέσει τη *note timeit():
          10a9.

          This is a convenience function that calls *note timeit():
          10a9. repeatedly so that the total time >= 'Timer.target_time'
          seconds, returning the eventual (number of loops, time taken
          for that number of loops).  It calls ‘timeit()’ with
          increasing numbers from the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, …
          until the time taken is at least 'target_time' seconds.

          Εάν το 'callback' είναι δοσμένο και δεν είναι ‘None’, θα
          κληθεί μετά από κάθε δοκιμή με δύο ορίσματα: ‘callback(number,
          time_taken)’.

          Added in version 3.6.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The optional 'target_time' parameter
          was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: repeat (repeat=5, number=1000000)

          Καλέστε τη *note timeit(): 10a9. μερικές φορές.

          Αυτή είναι μια συνάρτηση ευκολίας που καλεί τη *note timeit():
          10a9. επανειλημμένα, επιστρέφοντας μια λίστα αποτελεσμάτων.
          Το πρώτο όρισμα καθορίζει πόσες φορές να καλέσει τη
          ‘timeit()’.  Το δεύτερο όρισμα καθορίζει το όρισμα 'number'
          για τη ‘timeit()’.

               Σημείωση: Είναι δελεαστικό να υπολογίσετε τον μέσο όρο
               και την τυπική απόκλιση από το αποτέλεσμα vector και να
               τα αναφέρετε.  Ωστόσο, αυτό δεν είναι πολύ χρήσιμο.  Σε
               μια τυπική περίπτωση, η χαμηλότερη τιμή δίνει ένα
               κατώτατο όριο για το πόσο γρήγορα μπορεί να εκτελέσει το
               μηχάνημα σας το συγκεκριμένο απόσπασμα κώδικα∙ οι
               υψηλότερες τιμές στο αποτέλεσμα vector συνήθως δεν
               προκαλούνται από μεταβλητότητα στην ταχύτητα της Python,
               αλλά από άλλες διεργασίες που παρεμβαίνουν στην ακρίβεια
               της χρονομέτρησής σας.  Έτσι, η *note min(): 12b9. του
               αποτελέσματος είναι πιθανώς ο μόνος αριθμός που θα πρέπει
               να σας ενδιαφέρει.  Μετά από αυτό, θα πρέπει να εξετάσετε
               ολόκληρο το vector και να εφαρμόσετε κοινή λογική αντί
               για στατιστικά.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Η προεπιλεγμένη τιμή του 'repeat'
          άλλαξε από 3 σε 5.

      -- Μέθοδος: print_exc (file=None)

          Βοηθός για την εκτύπωση μιας ανίχνευσης από τον χρονομετρημένο
          κώδικα.

          Τυπική χρήση:

               t = Timer(...)       # outside the try/except
               try:
                   t.timeit(...)    # or t.repeat(...)
               except Exception:
                   t.print_exc()

          Το πλεονέκτημα σε σχέση με την τυπική ανίχνευση είναι ότι οι
          γραμμές πηγαίου κώδικα στο μεταγλωττισμένο πρότυπο θα
          εμφανίζονται.  Η προαιρετική παράμετρος 'file' καθορίζει πού
          θα σταλεί η ανίχνευση· η προεπιλογή είναι *note sys.stderr:
          d05.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<11>,  Next: Παραδείγματα<5>,  Prev: Python interface,  Up: timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα

5.28.7.3 Command-line interface
...............................

Όταν καλείται ως πρόγραμμα από τη γραμμή εντολών, χρησιμοποιείται η εξής
μορφή:

     python -m timeit [-n N] [-r N] [-u U] [-s S] [-p] [-v] [-h] [statement ...]

Όπου γίνονται κατανοητές οι εξής επιλογές:

 -- Option: -n N, --number=N

     πόσες φορές να εκτελεστεί η “statement”

 -- Option: -r N, --repeat=N

     πόσες φορές να επαναληφθεί ο χρονομετρητής (προεπιλογή 5)

 -- Option: -s S, --setup=S

     δήλωση που θα εκτελείται μία φορά αρχικά (προεπιλογή ‘pass’)

 -- Option: -p, --process

     μετράει τον χρόνο διεργασίας, όχι τον χρόνο ρολογιού,
     χρησιμοποιώντας την *note time.process_time(): e4a. αντί της *note
     time.perf_counter(): e49, που είναι η προεπιλογή

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Option: -u, --unit=U

     καθορίζει μια μονάδα χρόνου για την έξοδο του χρονομέτρου· μπορεί
     να επιλέξει ‘nsec’, ‘usec’, ‘msec’ ή ‘sec’

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Option: -t, --target-time=T

     if *note -number: 4b0a. is 0, the code will run until it takes at
     least this many seconds (default: 0.2)

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Option: -v, --verbose

     τυπώνει τα ακατέργαστα αποτελέσματα χρονομέτρησης· επαναλάβετε για
     περισσότερη ακρίβεια ψηφίων

 -- Option: -h, --help

     τυπώνει ένα σύντομο μήνυμα χρήσης και εξέρχεται

Μια πολυγραμμική δήλωση μπορεί να δοθεί καθορίζοντας κάθε γραμμή ως
ξεχωριστό όρισμα δήλωσης∙ οι εσοχές είναι δυνατές περικλείοντας ένα
όρισμα σε εισαγωγικά και χρησιμοποιώντας αρχικά κενά.  Πολλαπλές
επιλογές *note -s: 4b0e. θεωρούνται παρόμοιες.

If *note -n: 4b0a. is not given, a suitable number of loops is
calculated by trying increasing numbers from the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10,
20, 50, … until the total time is at least *note -target-time: 4b14.
seconds (default: 0.2).

Οι μετρήσεις της *note default_timer(): 4b07. μπορεί να επηρεαστούν από
άλλα προγράμματα που εκτελούνται στο ίδιο μηχάνημα, οπότε το καλύτερο
πράγμα που μπορείτε να κάνετε όταν απαιτείται ακριβής χρονομέτρηση είναι
να επαναλάβετε τη χρονομέτρηση μερικές φορές και να χρησιμοποιήσετε τον
καλύτερο χρόνο.  Η επιλογή *note -r: 4b0c. είναι καλή γι” αυτό· η
προεπιλογή των 5 επαναλήψεων είναι μάλλον αρκετή στις περισσότερες
περιπτώσεις.  Μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε την *note time.process_time():
e4a. για να μετρήσετε τον χρόνο CPU.

     Σημείωση: Υπάρχει μια συγκεκριμένη βασική καθυστέρηση που
     σχετίζεται με την εκτέλεση μιας δήλωσης pass.  Ο κώδικας εδώ δεν
     προσπαθεί να την αποκρύψει, αλλά θα πρέπει να είστε ενήμεροι γι”
     αυτήν.  Η βασική καθυστέρηση μπορεί να μετρηθεί καλώντας το
     πρόγραμμα χωρίς ορίσματα, και μπορεί να διαφέρει μεταξύ των
     εκδόσεων της Python.

Added in version 3.15: Output is in color by default and can be *note
controlled using environment variables: 1af.


File: python.info,  Node: Παραδείγματα<5>,  Prev: Command-line interface<11>,  Up: timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα

5.28.7.4 Παραδείγματα
.....................

Είναι δυνατόν να δοθεί μια δήλωση setup που εκτελείται μόνο μία φορά
στην αρχή:

     $ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "char in text"
     5000000 loops, best of 5: 0.0877 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "text.find(char)"
     1000000 loops, best of 5: 0.342 usec per loop

Στην έξοδο, υπάρχουν τρία πεδία.  Ο αριθμός επαναλήψεων, που σας λέει
πόσες φορές το σώμα της δήλωσης εκτελέστηκε ανά επανάληψη του
χρονομετρημένου βρόχου.  Ο αριθμός των επαναλήψεων (“best of 5”) που σας
λέει πόσες φορές η χρονομέτρηση επαναλήφθηκε, και τέλος ο χρόνος που
χρειάστηκε το σώμα της δήλωσης κατά μέσο όρο μέσα στην καλύτερη
επανάληψη του χρονομετρημένου βρόχου.  Δηλαδή, ο χρόνος που χρειάστηκε η
ταχύτερη επανάληψη διαιρούμενος με τον αριθμό επαναλήψεων.

     >>> import timeit
     >>> timeit.timeit('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     0.41440500499993504
     >>> timeit.timeit('text.find(char)', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     1.7246671520006203

Το ίδιο μπορεί να γίνει χρησιμοποιώντας την κλάση *note Timer: 186a. και
τις μεθόδους της:

     >>> import timeit
     >>> t = timeit.Timer('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"')
     >>> t.timeit()
     0.3955516149999312
     >>> t.repeat()
     [0.40183617287970225, 0.37027556854118704, 0.38344867356679524, 0.3712595970846668, 0.37866875250654886]

Τα παρακάτω παραδείγματα δείχνουν πως να χρονομετρήσετε εκφράσεις που
περιέχουν πολλαπλές γραμμές.  Εδώ συγκρίνουμε το κόστος της χρήσης της
*note hasattr(): 8e2. σε σχέση με το *note try: ad6./*note except: 447.
για να ελέγξουμε για απουσία και παρουσία χαρακτηριστικών αντικειμένων:

     $ python -m timeit "try:" "  str.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" "  pass"
     20000 loops, best of 5: 15.7 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass"
     50000 loops, best of 5: 4.26 usec per loop

     $ python -m timeit "try:" "  int.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" "  pass"
     200000 loops, best of 5: 1.43 usec per loop
     $ python -m timeit "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass"
     100000 loops, best of 5: 2.23 usec per loop

     >>> import timeit
     >>> # attribute is missing
     >>> s = """\
     ... try:
     ...     str.__bool__
     ... except AttributeError:
     ...     pass
     ... """
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.9138244460009446
     >>> s = "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass"
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.5829014980008651
     >>>
     >>> # attribute is present
     >>> s = """\
     ... try:
     ...     int.__bool__
     ... except AttributeError:
     ...     pass
     ... """
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.04215312199994514
     >>> s = "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass"
     >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000)
     0.08588060699912603

To give the ‘timeit’ module access to functions you define, you can pass
a 'setup' parameter which contains an import statement:

     def test():
         """Stupid test function"""
         L = [i for i in range(100)]

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import timeit
         print(timeit.timeit("test()", setup="from __main__ import test"))

Μια άλλη επιλογή είναι να περάσετε τη *note globals(): 1e01. στην
παράμετρο 'globals', η οποία θα προκαλέσει την εκτέλεση του κώδικα στο
τρέχον global namespace σας.  Αυτό μπορεί να είναι πιο βολικό από το να
καθορίσετε μεμονωμένα τις εισαγωγές (imports):

     def f(x):
         return x**2
     def g(x):
         return x**4
     def h(x):
         return x**8

     import timeit
     print(timeit.timeit('[func(42) for func in (f,g,h)]', globals=globals()))


File: python.info,  Node: trace — Ιχνηλάτηση ή παρακολούθηση εκτέλεσης εντολών Python,  Next: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations,  Prev: timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα,  Up: Debugging and profiling

5.28.8 ‘trace’ — Ιχνηλάτηση ή παρακολούθηση εκτέλεσης εντολών Python
--------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/trace.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘trace’ module allows you to trace program execution, generate
annotated statement coverage listings, print caller/callee relationships
and list functions executed during a program run.  It can be used in
another program or from the command line.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Coverage.py(2)

     Ένα δημοφιλές εργαλείο (διανέμεται από τρίτους) που παράγει
     αποτελέσματα σε HTML και διαθέτει ανεπτυγμένες δυνατότητες όπως
     branch coverage.

* Menu:

* Οδηγίες χρήσης γραμμής εντολών::
* Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/trace.py

   (2) https://coverage.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: Οδηγίες χρήσης γραμμής εντολών,  Next: Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή,  Up: trace — Ιχνηλάτηση ή παρακολούθηση εκτέλεσης εντολών Python

5.28.8.1 Οδηγίες χρήσης γραμμής εντολών
.......................................

The ‘trace’ module can be invoked from the command line.  It can be as
simple as

     python -m trace --count -C . somefile.py ...

Το παραπάνω θα εκτελέσει το αρχείο ‘somefile.py’ και θα παράγει μια
σημειωμένη λίστα με όλα τα Python modules που εισήχθησαν κατά την
εκτέλεση στον τρέχων φάκελο.

 -- Option: --help

     Εμφανίζει τις οδηγίες χρήσης και τερματίζει την εκτέλεση.

 -- Option: --version

     Εμφανίζει την έκδοση του module και τερματίζει την εκτέλεση.

Added in version 3.8: Added ‘--module’ option that allows running an
executable module.

* Menu:

* Κύριες επιλογές::
* Τροποποιητές::
* Φίλτρα::


File: python.info,  Node: Κύριες επιλογές,  Next: Τροποποιητές,  Up: Οδηγίες χρήσης γραμμής εντολών

5.28.8.2 Κύριες επιλογές
........................

At least one of the following options must be specified when invoking
‘trace’.  The *note -listfuncs: 4b23. option is mutually exclusive with
the *note -trace: 4b24. and *note -count: 4b25. options.  When
‘--listfuncs’ is provided, neither ‘--count’ nor ‘--trace’ are accepted,
and vice versa.

 -- Option: -c, --count

     Κατά την ολοκλήρωση του προγράμματος δημιουργεί ένα σύνολο από
     σημειωμένα αρχεία όπου φαίνεται πόσες φορές εκτελέσθηκε κάθε
     έκφραση.  Βλέπε επίσης *note -coverdir: 4b27, *note -file: 4b28.
     και *note -no-report: 4b29. παρακάτω.

 -- Option: -t, --trace

     Εμφανίζει τις γραμμές όπως εκτελούνται.

 -- Option: -l, --listfuncs

     Εμφανίζει τις συναρτήσεις που εκτελούνται τρέχοντας το πρόγραμμα.

 -- Option: -r, --report

     Παράγει μία σημειωμένη λίστα από την πρότερη εκτέλεση ενός
     προγράμματος που χρησιμοποίησε την επιλογή *note -count: 4b25. και
     *note -file: 4b28.  Δεν εκτελείται κάποιος κώδικας με την παρούσα
     επιλογή.

 -- Option: -T, --trackcalls

     Εμφανίζει τις σχέσεις κλήσεων που δημιουργούνται εκτελώντας το
     πρόγραμμα.


File: python.info,  Node: Τροποποιητές,  Next: Φίλτρα,  Prev: Κύριες επιλογές,  Up: Οδηγίες χρήσης γραμμής εντολών

5.28.8.3 Τροποποιητές
.....................

 -- Option: -f, --file=<file>

     Όνομα αρχείου όπου σωρεύονται οι μετρήσεις πολλαπλών ιχνηλατήσεων.
     Πρέπει να χρησιμοποιείται με την επιλογή *note -count: 4b25.

 -- Option: -C, --coverdir=<dir>

     Κατάλογος όπου αποθηκεύονται τα αρχεία αναφοράς.  Η αναφορά κάλυψης
     (coverage report) για το ‘package.module’ εγγράφεται στο αρχείο
     ‘`dir'/`package'/`module'.cover’.

 -- Option: -m, --missing

     Κατά την παραγωγή σημειωμένων λιστών, σημειώνει τις γραμμές που δεν
     εκτελέστηκαν με ‘>>>>>>’.

 -- Option: -s, --summary

     Κατά την χρήση της επιλογής *note -count: 4b25. ή της επιλογής
     *note -report: 4b2c, γράφει μία σύντομη περίληψη για κάθε αρχείο
     που επεξεργάζεται.

 -- Option: -R, --no-report

     Δεν δημιουργεί σημειωμένες λίστες.  Αυτή η επιλογή είναι χρήσιμη
     εάν σκοπεύετε να κάνετε πολλές εκτελέσεις με την επιλογή *note
     -count: 4b25. και τελικώς δημιουργήσετε ένα ενιαίο σύνολο
     σημειωμένων λιστών.

 -- Option: -g, --timing

     Προθεμάτιζει κάθε γραμμή με τον χρόνο που παρήλθε από την εκκίνηση
     του προγράμματος.  Χρησιμοποιείται μόνο κατά την ιχνηλάτηση.


File: python.info,  Node: Φίλτρα,  Prev: Τροποποιητές,  Up: Οδηγίες χρήσης γραμμής εντολών

5.28.8.4 Φίλτρα
...............

Αυτές οι επιλογές μπορούν να επαναληφθούν πολλαπλές φορές.

 -- Option: --ignore-module=<mod>

     Αγνόησε κάθε ένα από τα δεδομένα modules και submodules (εάν είναι
     πακέτο).  Το όρισμα μπορεί να είναι μία λίστα από ονόματα
     διαχωρισμένα με κόμμα.

 -- Option: --ignore-dir=<dir>

     Αγνοεί όλα τα modules και πακέτα στους δεδομένους φακέλους και
     υποφακέλους.  Το όρισμα μπορεί να είναι μία λίστα από φάκελους που
     χωρίζονται με *note os.pathsep: 2322.


File: python.info,  Node: Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή,  Prev: Οδηγίες χρήσης γραμμής εντολών,  Up: trace — Ιχνηλάτηση ή παρακολούθηση εκτέλεσης εντολών Python

5.28.8.5 Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή
.................................

 -- Κλάση: trace.Trace (count=1, trace=1, countfuncs=0, countcallers=0,
          ignoremods=(), ignoredirs=(), infile=None, outfile=None,
          timing=False)

     Δημιουργεί ένα αντικείμενο για την ιχνηλάτηση της εκτέλεσης μίας
     μόνο εντολής ή έκφρασης.  Όλες οι παράμετροι είναι προαιρετικές.  Η
     'count' επιτρέπει την αρίθμηση των γραμμών.  Η 'trace' επιτρέπει
     την ιχνηλάτηση εκτελέσεων ανά γραμμή.  Η 'countfuncs' επιτρέπει την
     αρίθμηση των συναρτήσεων που εκλήθησαν κατά την εκτέλεση.  Η
     'countcallers' επιτρέπει την ιχνηλάτηση συσχετισμένων κλήσεων.  Η
     'ignoremods' είναι μία λίστα με modules ή πακέτα προς παράβλεψη.  Η
     'ignoredirs' είναι μία λίστα φακέλων με προς παράβλεψη modules ή
     πακέτα.  Η 'infile' είναι το όνομα του αρχείου εκ του οποίου θα
     ληφθούν αποθηκευμένα αποτελέσματα ιχνηλατήσεων.  Η 'outfile' είναι
     το όνομα του αρχείου εις το οποίο θα εγγραφούν τα νεώτερα
     αποτελέσματα ιχνηλάτησης.  Η 'timing' ενεργοποιεί μία χρονοσφραγίδα
     σχετική με την έναρξη της εμφάνισης ιχνηλάτησης.

      -- Μέθοδος: run (cmd)

          Εκτελεί την εντολή και συλλέγει στατιστικά από την εκτέλεση με
          τις τρέχουσες επιλογές ιχνηλάτησης.  Η 'cmd' πρέπει να είναι
          μία συμβολοσειρά ή αντικείμενο κώδικα, κατάλληλο για διαβίβαση
          στην συνάρτηση *note exec(): 185.

      -- Μέθοδος: runctx (cmd, globals=None, locals=None)

          Εκτελεί την εντολή και συλλέγει στατιστικά από την εκτέλεση με
          τις τρέχουσες επιλογές ιχνηλάτησης, στο ορισμένο καθολικό και
          τοπικό περιβάλλον.  Εάν δεν ορισθούν, οι 'globals' και
          'locals' λαμβάνουν την τιμή κενού dictionary.

      -- Μέθοδος: runfunc (func, /, *args, **kwds)

          Καλεί την 'func' με τα δεδομένα ορίσματα υπό τον έλεγχο του
          αντικειμένου *note Trace: 4b3f. με τις τρέχουσες επιλογές
          ιχνηλάτησης.

      -- Μέθοδος: results ()

          Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο *note CoverageResults: 4b43. που
          περιέχει τα σωρευτικά αποτελέσματα όλων των προηγούμενων
          κλήσεων στις ‘run’, ‘runctx’ και ‘runfunc’ για το δοθέν *note
          Trace: 4b3f. στιγμιότυπο.  Δεν επαναφέρει τα συσσωρευμένα
          αποτελέσματα ιχνηλατήσεων.

 -- Κλάση: trace.CoverageResults

     Ένας περιέκτης για αποτελέσματα κάλυψης (coverage results), που
     δημιουργείται από τη *note Trace.results(): 4b42.  Δεν πρέπει να
     δημιουργείται απευθείας από τον χρήστη.

      -- Μέθοδος: update (other)

          Συγχωνεύει δεδομένα από ένα άλλο αντικείμενο *note
          CoverageResults: 4b43.

      -- Μέθοδος: write_results (show_missing=True, summary=False,
               coverdir=None, *, ignore_missing_files=False)

          Γράφει τα αποτελέσματα κάλυψης.  Ορίστε την 'show_missing' για
          να εμφανίζονται οι γραμμές που δεν εκτελέσθηκαν.  Ορίστε την
          'summary' ώστε να συμπεριληφθεί στο αποτέλεσμα η περίληψη
          κάλυψης ανά module.  Η 'coverdir' προσδιορίζει τον φάκελο εις
          τον οποίο θα εγγραφούν τα αρχεία με τα αποτελέσματα.  Εάν
          είναι ‘None’ τα αποτελέσματα για κάθε αρχείο εγγράφονται στον
          φάκελο του αρχείου αυτού.

          Εάν η 'ignore_missing_files' είναι ‘True’, η κάλυψη για μη
          υπάρχοντα αρχεία αγνοείται σιωπηρά.  Ειδαλλιώς, ένα μη υπάρχον
          αρχείο θα εγείρει *note FileNotFoundError: 243.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Προστέθηκε η παράμετρος
          'ignore_missing_files'.

Ένα απλό παράδειγμα που υποδεικνύει τη χρήση της προγραμματιστικής
διεπαφής:

     import sys
     import trace

     # δημιούργησε ένα αντικείμενο Trace λέγοντάς του τι να αγνοήσει και
     # εάν θα κάνει ιχνηλάτηση, αρίθμηση γραμμών ή και τα δύο.
     tracer = trace.Trace(
         ignoredirs=[sys.prefix, sys.exec_prefix],
         trace=0,
         count=1)

     # τρέξε τη νέα εντολή χρησιμοποιώντας τον δεδομένο ιχνηλάτη
     tracer.run('main()')

     # φτιάξε μια αναφορά τοποθετώντας το αποτέλεσμα στον τρέχων φάκελο
     r = tracer.results()
     r.write_results(show_missing=True, coverdir=".")


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations,  Prev: trace — Ιχνηλάτηση ή παρακολούθηση εκτέλεσης εντολών Python,  Up: Debugging and profiling

5.28.9 ‘tracemalloc’ — Trace memory allocations
-----------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/tracemalloc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The tracemalloc module is a debug tool to trace memory blocks allocated
by Python.  It provides the following information:

   * Traceback where an object was allocated

   * Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line
     number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory
     blocks

   * Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory
     leaks

To trace most memory blocks allocated by Python, the module should be
started as early as possible by setting the *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC:
231c. environment variable to ‘1’, or by using *note -X: 178.
‘tracemalloc’ command line option.  The *note tracemalloc.start(): 231b.
function can be called at runtime to start tracing Python memory
allocations.

By default, a trace of an allocated memory block only stores the most
recent frame (1 frame).  To store 25 frames at startup: set the *note
PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 231c. environment variable to ‘25’, or use the *note
-X: 178. ‘tracemalloc=25’ command line option.

* Menu:

* Examples: Examples<27>.
* API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tracemalloc.py


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<27>,  Next: API,  Up: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations

5.28.9.1 Examples
.................

* Menu:

* Display the top 10::
* Compute differences::
* Get the traceback of a memory block::
* Pretty top::


File: python.info,  Node: Display the top 10,  Next: Compute differences,  Up: Examples<27>

5.28.9.2 Display the top 10
...........................

Display the 10 files allocating the most memory:

     import tracemalloc

     tracemalloc.start()

     # ... run your application ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     top_stats = snapshot.statistics('lineno')

     print("[ Top 10 ]")
     for stat in top_stats[:10]:
         print(stat)

Example of output of the Python test suite:

     [ Top 10 ]
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=4855 KiB, count=39328, average=126 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=521 KiB, count=3199, average=167 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/collections/__init__.py:368: size=244 KiB, count=2315, average=108 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:381: size=185 KiB, count=779, average=243 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:402: size=154 KiB, count=378, average=416 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/abc.py:133: size=88.7 KiB, count=347, average=262 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1446: size=70.4 KiB, count=911, average=79 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1454: size=52.0 KiB, count=25, average=2131 B
     <string>:5: size=49.7 KiB, count=148, average=344 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/sysconfig.py:411: size=48.0 KiB, count=1, average=48.0 KiB

We can see that Python loaded ‘4855 KiB’ data (bytecode and constants)
from modules and that the *note collections: 1e. module allocated ‘244
KiB’ to build *note namedtuple: 1cf. types.

See *note Snapshot.statistics(): 4b4b. for more options.


File: python.info,  Node: Compute differences,  Next: Get the traceback of a memory block,  Prev: Display the top 10,  Up: Examples<27>

5.28.9.3 Compute differences
............................

Take two snapshots and display the differences:

     import tracemalloc
     tracemalloc.start()
     # ... start your application ...

     snapshot1 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     # ... call the function leaking memory ...
     snapshot2 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()

     top_stats = snapshot2.compare_to(snapshot1, 'lineno')

     print("[ Top 10 differences ]")
     for stat in top_stats[:10]:
         print(stat)

Example of output before/after running some tests of the Python test
suite:

     [ Top 10 differences ]
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=8173 KiB (+4428 KiB), count=71332 (+39369), average=117 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/linecache.py:127: size=940 KiB (+940 KiB), count=8106 (+8106), average=119 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:571: size=298 KiB (+298 KiB), count=589 (+589), average=519 B
     <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=1005 KiB (+166 KiB), count=7423 (+1526), average=139 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/mimetypes.py:217: size=112 KiB (+112 KiB), count=1334 (+1334), average=86 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/http/server.py:848: size=96.0 KiB (+96.0 KiB), count=1 (+1), average=96.0 KiB
     /usr/lib/python3.4/inspect.py:1465: size=83.5 KiB (+83.5 KiB), count=109 (+109), average=784 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/mock.py:491: size=77.7 KiB (+77.7 KiB), count=143 (+143), average=557 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/urllib/parse.py:476: size=71.8 KiB (+71.8 KiB), count=969 (+969), average=76 B
     /usr/lib/python3.4/contextlib.py:38: size=67.2 KiB (+67.2 KiB), count=126 (+126), average=546 B

We can see that Python has loaded ‘8173 KiB’ of module data (bytecode
and constants), and that this is ‘4428 KiB’ more than had been loaded
before the tests, when the previous snapshot was taken.  Similarly, the
*note linecache: 88. module has cached ‘940 KiB’ of Python source code
to format tracebacks, all of it since the previous snapshot.

If the system has little free memory, snapshots can be written on disk
using the *note Snapshot.dump(): 4b4d. method to analyze the snapshot
offline.  Then use the *note Snapshot.load(): 4b4e. method reload the
snapshot.


File: python.info,  Node: Get the traceback of a memory block,  Next: Pretty top,  Prev: Compute differences,  Up: Examples<27>

5.28.9.4 Get the traceback of a memory block
............................................

Code to display the traceback of the biggest memory block:

     import tracemalloc

     # Store 25 frames
     tracemalloc.start(25)

     # ... run your application ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     top_stats = snapshot.statistics('traceback')

     # pick the biggest memory block
     stat = top_stats[0]
     print("%s memory blocks: %.1f KiB" % (stat.count, stat.size / 1024))
     for line in stat.traceback.format():
         print(line)

Example of output of the Python test suite (traceback limited to 25
frames):

     903 memory blocks: 870.1 KiB
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 716
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1036
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 934
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/doctest.py", line 101
         import pdb
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 284
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 938
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581
       File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/support/__init__.py", line 1728
         import doctest
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/test_pickletools.py", line 21
         support.run_doctest(pickletools)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1276
         test_runner()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 976
         display_failure=not verbose)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 761
         match_tests=ns.match_tests)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1563
         main()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/__main__.py", line 3
         regrtest.main_in_temp_cwd()
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 73
         exec(code, run_globals)
       File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 160
         "__main__", fname, loader, pkg_name)

We can see that the most memory was allocated in the *note importlib:
7a. module to load data (bytecode and constants) from modules: ‘870.1
KiB’.  The traceback is where the ‘importlib’ loaded data most recently:
on the ‘import pdb’ line of the *note doctest: 3d. module.  The
traceback may change if a new module is loaded.


File: python.info,  Node: Pretty top,  Prev: Get the traceback of a memory block,  Up: Examples<27>

5.28.9.5 Pretty top
...................

Code to display the 10 lines allocating the most memory with a pretty
output, ignoring ‘<frozen importlib._bootstrap>’ and ‘<unknown>’ files:

     import linecache
     import os
     import tracemalloc

     def display_top(snapshot, key_type='lineno', limit=10):
         snapshot = snapshot.filter_traces((
             tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>"),
             tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<unknown>"),
         ))
         top_stats = snapshot.statistics(key_type)

         print("Top %s lines" % limit)
         for index, stat in enumerate(top_stats[:limit], 1):
             frame = stat.traceback[0]
             print("#%s: %s:%s: %.1f KiB"
                   % (index, frame.filename, frame.lineno, stat.size / 1024))
             line = linecache.getline(frame.filename, frame.lineno).strip()
             if line:
                 print('    %s' % line)

         other = top_stats[limit:]
         if other:
             size = sum(stat.size for stat in other)
             print("%s other: %.1f KiB" % (len(other), size / 1024))
         total = sum(stat.size for stat in top_stats)
         print("Total allocated size: %.1f KiB" % (total / 1024))

     tracemalloc.start()

     # ... run your application ...

     snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot()
     display_top(snapshot)

Example of output of the Python test suite:

     Top 10 lines
     #1: Lib/base64.py:414: 419.8 KiB
         _b85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _b85chars for b in _b85chars]
     #2: Lib/base64.py:306: 419.8 KiB
         _a85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _a85chars for b in _a85chars]
     #3: collections/__init__.py:368: 293.6 KiB
         exec(class_definition, namespace)
     #4: Lib/abc.py:133: 115.2 KiB
         cls = super().__new__(mcls, name, bases, namespace)
     #5: unittest/case.py:574: 103.1 KiB
         testMethod()
     #6: Lib/linecache.py:127: 95.4 KiB
         lines = fp.readlines()
     #7: urllib/parse.py:476: 71.8 KiB
         for a in _hexdig for b in _hexdig}
     #8: <string>:5: 62.0 KiB
     #9: Lib/_weakrefset.py:37: 60.0 KiB
         self.data = set()
     #10: Lib/base64.py:142: 59.8 KiB
         _b32tab2 = [a + b for a in _b32tab for b in _b32tab]
     6220 other: 3602.8 KiB
     Total allocated size: 5303.1 KiB

See *note Snapshot.statistics(): 4b4b. for more options.

* Menu:

* Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks::


File: python.info,  Node: Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks,  Up: Pretty top

5.28.9.6 Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks
.....................................................................

The following code computes two sums like ‘0 + 1 + 2 + ...’
inefficiently, by creating a list of those numbers.  This list consumes
a lot of memory temporarily.  We can use *note get_traced_memory():
4b52. and *note reset_peak(): d07. to observe the small memory usage
after the sum is computed as well as the peak memory usage during the
computations:

     import tracemalloc

     tracemalloc.start()

     # Example code: compute a sum with a large temporary list
     large_sum = sum(list(range(100000)))

     first_size, first_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()

     tracemalloc.reset_peak()

     # Example code: compute a sum with a small temporary list
     small_sum = sum(list(range(1000)))

     second_size, second_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory()

     print(f"{first_size=}, {first_peak=}")
     print(f"{second_size=}, {second_peak=}")

Output:

     first_size=664, first_peak=3592984
     second_size=804, second_peak=29704

Using *note reset_peak(): d07. ensured we could accurately record the
peak during the computation of ‘small_sum’, even though it is much
smaller than the overall peak size of memory blocks since the *note
start(): 231b. call.  Without the call to ‘reset_peak()’, ‘second_peak’
would still be the peak from the computation ‘large_sum’ (that is, equal
to ‘first_peak’).  In this case, both peaks are much higher than the
final memory usage, and which suggests we could optimise (by removing
the unnecessary call to *note list: 4d9, and writing ‘sum(range(...))’).


File: python.info,  Node: API,  Prev: Examples<27>,  Up: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations

5.28.9.7 API
............

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<9>.
* DomainFilter::
* Filter::
* Frame::
* Snapshot::
* Statistic::
* StatisticDiff::
* Trace::
* Traceback::


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<9>,  Next: DomainFilter,  Up: API

5.28.9.8 Functions
..................

 -- Συνάρτηση: tracemalloc.clear_traces ()

     Clear traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.

     See also *note stop(): 1acf.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tracemalloc.get_object_traceback (obj)

     Get the traceback where the Python object 'obj' was allocated.
     Return a *note Traceback: f55. instance, or ‘None’ if the
     ‘tracemalloc’ module is not tracing memory allocations or did not
     trace the allocation of the object.

     See also *note gc.get_referrers(): bde. and *note sys.getsizeof():
     1cda. functions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit ()

     Get the maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of a
     trace.

     The ‘tracemalloc’ module must be tracing memory allocations to get
     the limit, otherwise an exception is raised.

     The limit is set by the *note start(): 231b. function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tracemalloc.get_traced_memory ()

     Get the current size and peak size of memory blocks traced by the
     ‘tracemalloc’ module as a tuple: ‘(current: int, peak: int)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tracemalloc.reset_peak ()

     Set the peak size of memory blocks traced by the ‘tracemalloc’
     module to the current size.

     Do nothing if the ‘tracemalloc’ module is not tracing memory
     allocations.

     This function only modifies the recorded peak size, and does not
     modify or clear any traces, unlike *note clear_traces(): 4b55.
     Snapshots taken with *note take_snapshot(): 4b57. before a call to
     ‘reset_peak()’ can be meaningfully compared to snapshots taken
     after the call.

     See also *note get_traced_memory(): 4b52.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory ()

     Get the memory usage in bytes of the ‘tracemalloc’ module used to
     store traces of memory blocks.  Return an *note int: 326.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tracemalloc.is_tracing ()

     ‘True’ if the ‘tracemalloc’ module is tracing Python memory
     allocations, ‘False’ otherwise.

     See also *note start(): 231b. and *note stop(): 1acf. functions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tracemalloc.start (nframe: int = 1)

     Start tracing Python memory allocations: install hooks on Python
     memory allocators.  Collected tracebacks of traces will be limited
     to 'nframe' frames.  By default, a trace of a memory block only
     stores the most recent frame: the limit is ‘1’.  'nframe' must be
     greater or equal to ‘1’.

     You can still read the original number of total frames that
     composed the traceback by looking at the *note
     Traceback.total_nframe: 4b5a. attribute.

     Storing more than ‘1’ frame is only useful to compute statistics
     grouped by ‘'traceback'’ or to compute cumulative statistics: see
     the *note Snapshot.compare_to(): 4b5b. and *note
     Snapshot.statistics(): 4b4b. methods.

     Storing more frames increases the memory and CPU overhead of the
     ‘tracemalloc’ module.  Use the *note get_tracemalloc_memory():
     4b58. function to measure how much memory is used by the
     ‘tracemalloc’ module.

     The *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 231c. environment variable
     (‘PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=NFRAME’) and the *note -X: 178.
     ‘tracemalloc=NFRAME’ command line option can be used to start
     tracing at startup.

     See also *note stop(): 1acf, *note is_tracing(): 4b59. and *note
     get_traceback_limit(): 4b56. functions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tracemalloc.stop ()

     Stop tracing Python memory allocations: uninstall hooks on Python
     memory allocators.  Also clears all previously collected traces of
     memory blocks allocated by Python.

     Call *note take_snapshot(): 4b57. function to take a snapshot of
     traces before clearing them.

     See also *note start(): 231b, *note is_tracing(): 4b59. and *note
     clear_traces(): 4b55. functions.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tracemalloc.take_snapshot ()

     Take a snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.
     Return a new *note Snapshot: 4b5c. instance.

     The snapshot does not include memory blocks allocated before the
     ‘tracemalloc’ module started to trace memory allocations.

     Tracebacks of traces are limited to *note get_traceback_limit():
     4b56. frames.  Use the 'nframe' parameter of the *note start():
     231b. function to store more frames.

     The ‘tracemalloc’ module must be tracing memory allocations to take
     a snapshot, see the *note start(): 231b. function.

     See also the *note get_object_traceback(): 2126. function.


File: python.info,  Node: DomainFilter,  Next: Filter,  Prev: Functions<9>,  Up: API

5.28.9.9 DomainFilter
.....................

 -- Κλάση: tracemalloc.DomainFilter (inclusive: bool, domain: int)

     Filter traces of memory blocks by their address space (domain).

     Added in version 3.6.

      -- Ιδιότητα: inclusive

          If 'inclusive' is ‘True’ (include), match memory blocks
          allocated in the address space *note domain: 4b5f.

          If 'inclusive' is ‘False’ (exclude), match memory blocks not
          allocated in the address space *note domain: 4b5f.

      -- Ιδιότητα: domain

          Address space of a memory block (‘int’).  Read-only property.


File: python.info,  Node: Filter,  Next: Frame,  Prev: DomainFilter,  Up: API

5.28.9.10 Filter
................

 -- Κλάση: tracemalloc.Filter (inclusive: bool, filename_pattern: str,
          lineno: int = None, all_frames: bool = False, domain: int =
          None)

     Filter on traces of memory blocks.

     See the *note fnmatch.fnmatch(): 1e4b. function for the syntax of
     'filename_pattern'.  The ‘'.pyc'’ file extension is replaced with
     ‘'.py'’.

     Examples:

        * ‘Filter(True, subprocess.__file__)’ only includes traces of
          the *note subprocess: df. module

        * ‘Filter(False, tracemalloc.__file__)’ excludes traces of the
          ‘tracemalloc’ module

        * ‘Filter(False, "<unknown>")’ excludes empty tracebacks

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The ‘'.pyo'’ file extension is no longer
     replaced with ‘'.py'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the *note domain: 4b62. attribute.

      -- Ιδιότητα: domain

          Address space of a memory block (‘int’ or ‘None’).

          tracemalloc uses the domain ‘0’ to trace memory allocations
          made by Python.  C extensions can use other domains to trace
          other resources.

      -- Ιδιότητα: inclusive

          If 'inclusive' is ‘True’ (include), only match memory blocks
          allocated in a file with a name matching *note
          filename_pattern: 4b64. at line number *note lineno: 4b65.

          If 'inclusive' is ‘False’ (exclude), ignore memory blocks
          allocated in a file with a name matching *note
          filename_pattern: 4b64. at line number *note lineno: 4b65.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          Line number (‘int’) of the filter.  If 'lineno' is ‘None’, the
          filter matches any line number.

      -- Ιδιότητα: filename_pattern

          Filename pattern of the filter (‘str’).  Read-only property.

      -- Ιδιότητα: all_frames

          If 'all_frames' is ‘True’, all frames of the traceback are
          checked.  If 'all_frames' is ‘False’, only the most recent
          frame is checked.

          This attribute has no effect if the traceback limit is ‘1’.
          See the *note get_traceback_limit(): 4b56. function and *note
          Snapshot.traceback_limit: 4b67. attribute.


File: python.info,  Node: Frame,  Next: Snapshot,  Prev: Filter,  Up: API

5.28.9.11 Frame
...............

 -- Κλάση: tracemalloc.Frame

     Frame of a traceback.

     The *note Traceback: f55. class is a sequence of ‘Frame’ instances.

      -- Ιδιότητα: filename

          Filename (‘str’).

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          Line number (‘int’).


File: python.info,  Node: Snapshot,  Next: Statistic,  Prev: Frame,  Up: API

5.28.9.12 Snapshot
..................

 -- Κλάση: tracemalloc.Snapshot

     Snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python.

     The *note take_snapshot(): 4b57. function creates a snapshot
     instance.

      -- Μέθοδος: compare_to (old_snapshot: Snapshot, key_type: str,
               cumulative: bool = False)

          Compute the differences with an old snapshot.  Get statistics
          as a sorted list of *note StatisticDiff: 4b6d. instances
          grouped by 'key_type'.

          See the *note Snapshot.statistics(): 4b4b. method for
          'key_type' and 'cumulative' parameters.

          The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by:
          absolute value of *note StatisticDiff.size_diff: 4b6e, *note
          StatisticDiff.size: 4b6f, absolute value of *note
          StatisticDiff.count_diff: 4b70, *note Statistic.count: 4b71.
          and then by *note StatisticDiff.traceback: 4b72.

      -- Μέθοδος: dump (filename)

          Write the snapshot into a file.

          Use *note load(): 4b4e. to reload the snapshot.

      -- Μέθοδος: filter_traces (filters)

          Create a new ‘Snapshot’ instance with a filtered *note traces:
          4b74. sequence, 'filters' is a list of *note DomainFilter:
          10ad. and *note Filter: 4b61. instances.  If 'filters' is an
          empty list, return a new ‘Snapshot’ instance with a copy of
          the traces.

          All inclusive filters are applied at once, a trace is ignored
          if no inclusive filters match it.  A trace is ignored if at
          least one exclusive filter matches it.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: *note DomainFilter: 10ad. instances
          are now also accepted in 'filters'.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod load (filename)

          Load a snapshot from a file.

          See also *note dump(): 4b4d.

      -- Μέθοδος: statistics (key_type: str, cumulative: bool = False)

          Get statistics as a sorted list of *note Statistic: 4b75.
          instances grouped by 'key_type':

          key_type                  description
                                    
          -------------------------------------------------------
                                    
          ‘'filename'’              filename
                                    
                                    
          ‘'lineno'’                filename and line number
                                    
                                    
          ‘'traceback'’             traceback
                                    

          If 'cumulative' is ‘True’, cumulate size and count of memory
          blocks of all frames of the traceback of a trace, not only the
          most recent frame.  The cumulative mode can only be used with
          'key_type' equal to ‘'filename'’ and ‘'lineno'’.

          The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by:
          *note Statistic.size: 4b76, *note Statistic.count: 4b71. and
          then by *note Statistic.traceback: 4b77.

      -- Ιδιότητα: traceback_limit

          Maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of *note
          traces: 4b74.: result of the *note get_traceback_limit():
          4b56. when the snapshot was taken.

      -- Ιδιότητα: traces

          Traces of all memory blocks allocated by Python: sequence of
          *note Trace: 4b78. instances.

          The sequence has an undefined order.  Use the *note
          Snapshot.statistics(): 4b4b. method to get a sorted list of
          statistics.


File: python.info,  Node: Statistic,  Next: StatisticDiff,  Prev: Snapshot,  Up: API

5.28.9.13 Statistic
...................

 -- Κλάση: tracemalloc.Statistic

     Statistic on memory allocations.

     *note Snapshot.statistics(): 4b4b. returns a list of ‘Statistic’
     instances.

     See also the *note StatisticDiff: 4b6d. class.

      -- Ιδιότητα: count

          Number of memory blocks (‘int’).

      -- Ιδιότητα: size

          Total size of memory blocks in bytes (‘int’).

      -- Ιδιότητα: traceback

          Traceback where the memory block was allocated, *note
          Traceback: f55. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: StatisticDiff,  Next: Trace,  Prev: Statistic,  Up: API

5.28.9.14 StatisticDiff
.......................

 -- Κλάση: tracemalloc.StatisticDiff

     Statistic difference on memory allocations between an old and a new
     *note Snapshot: 4b5c. instance.

     *note Snapshot.compare_to(): 4b5b. returns a list of
     ‘StatisticDiff’ instances.  See also the *note Statistic: 4b75.
     class.

      -- Ιδιότητα: count

          Number of memory blocks in the new snapshot (‘int’): ‘0’ if
          the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot.

      -- Ιδιότητα: count_diff

          Difference of number of memory blocks between the old and the
          new snapshots (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks have been
          allocated in the new snapshot.

      -- Ιδιότητα: size

          Total size of memory blocks in bytes in the new snapshot
          (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks have been released in the
          new snapshot.

      -- Ιδιότητα: size_diff

          Difference of total size of memory blocks in bytes between the
          old and the new snapshots (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks
          have been allocated in the new snapshot.

      -- Ιδιότητα: traceback

          Traceback where the memory blocks were allocated, *note
          Traceback: f55. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Trace,  Next: Traceback,  Prev: StatisticDiff,  Up: API

5.28.9.15 Trace
...............

 -- Κλάση: tracemalloc.Trace

     Trace of a memory block.

     The *note Snapshot.traces: 4b74. attribute is a sequence of ‘Trace’
     instances.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the *note domain: 4b7d. attribute.

      -- Ιδιότητα: domain

          Address space of a memory block (‘int’).  Read-only property.

          tracemalloc uses the domain ‘0’ to trace memory allocations
          made by Python.  C extensions can use other domains to trace
          other resources.

      -- Ιδιότητα: size

          Size of the memory block in bytes (‘int’).

      -- Ιδιότητα: traceback

          Traceback where the memory block was allocated, *note
          Traceback: f55. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Traceback,  Prev: Trace,  Up: API

5.28.9.16 Traceback
...................

 -- Κλάση: tracemalloc.Traceback

     Sequence of *note Frame: 4b69. instances sorted from the oldest
     frame to the most recent frame.

     A traceback contains at least ‘1’ frame.  If the ‘tracemalloc’
     module failed to get a frame, the filename ‘"<unknown>"’ at line
     number ‘0’ is used.

     When a snapshot is taken, tracebacks of traces are limited to *note
     get_traceback_limit(): 4b56. frames.  See the *note
     take_snapshot(): 4b57. function.  The original number of frames of
     the traceback is stored in the *note Traceback.total_nframe: 4b5a.
     attribute.  That allows one to know if a traceback has been
     truncated by the traceback limit.

     The *note Trace.traceback: 4b7f. attribute is a ‘Traceback’
     instance.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Frames are now sorted from the oldest to
     the most recent, instead of most recent to oldest.

      -- Ιδιότητα: total_nframe

          Total number of frames that composed the traceback before
          truncation.  This attribute can be set to ‘None’ if the
          information is not available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The *note Traceback.total_nframe: 4b5a.
     attribute was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: format (limit=None, most_recent_first=False)

          Format the traceback as a list of lines.  Use the *note
          linecache: 88. module to retrieve lines from the source code.
          If 'limit' is set, format the 'limit' most recent frames if
          'limit' is positive.  Otherwise, format the ‘abs(limit)’
          oldest frames.  If 'most_recent_first' is ‘True’, the order of
          the formatted frames is reversed, returning the most recent
          frame first instead of last.

          Similar to the *note traceback.format_tb(): 4b81. function,
          except that ‘format()’ does not include newlines.

          Example:

               print("Traceback (most recent call first):")
               for line in traceback:
                   print(line)

          Output:

               Traceback (most recent call first):
                 File "test.py", line 9
                   obj = Object()
                 File "test.py", line 12
                   tb = tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(f())


File: python.info,  Node: Software Packaging and Distribution,  Next: Python Runtime Services,  Prev: Debugging and profiling,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.29 Software Packaging and Distribution
========================================

These libraries help you with publishing and installing Python software.
While these modules are designed to work in conjunction with the Python
Package Index(1), they can also be used with a local index server, or
without any index server at all.

* Menu:

* ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer::
* venv — Creation of virtual environments::
* zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer,  Next: venv — Creation of virtual environments,  Up: Software Packaging and Distribution

5.29.1 ‘ensurepip’ — Bootstrapping the ‘pip’ installer
------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

'Source code:' Lib/ensurepip(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘ensurepip’ package provides support for bootstrapping the ‘pip’
installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment.
This bootstrapping approach reflects the fact that ‘pip’ is an
independent project with its own release cycle, and the latest available
stable version is bundled with maintenance and feature releases of the
CPython reference interpreter.

In most cases, end users of Python shouldn’t need to invoke this module
directly (as ‘pip’ should be bootstrapped by default), but it may be
needed if installing ‘pip’ was skipped when installing Python (or when
creating a virtual environment) or after explicitly uninstalling ‘pip’.

     Σημείωση: This module 'does not' access the internet.  All of the
     components needed to bootstrap ‘pip’ are included as internal parts
     of the package.

This is an *note optional module: 2347.  If it is missing from your copy
of CPython, look for documentation from your distributor (that is,
whoever provided Python to you).  If you are the distributor, see *note
Requirements for optional modules: 2345.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Installing Python modules: 12a6.

     The end user guide for installing Python packages

PEP 453(2): Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations

     The original rationale and specification for this module.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 244d. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67.

* Menu:

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<12>.
* Module API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/ensurepip

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<12>,  Next: Module API,  Up: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer

5.29.1.1 Command-line interface
...............................

The command line interface is invoked using the interpreter’s ‘-m’
switch.

The simplest possible invocation is:

     python -m ensurepip

This invocation will install ‘pip’ if it is not already installed, but
otherwise does nothing.  To ensure the installed version of ‘pip’ is at
least as recent as the one available in ‘ensurepip’, pass the
‘--upgrade’ option:

     python -m ensurepip --upgrade

By default, ‘pip’ is installed into the current virtual environment (if
one is active) or into the system site packages (if there is no active
virtual environment).  The installation location can be controlled
through two additional command line options:

 -- Option: --root <dir>

     Installs ‘pip’ relative to the given root directory rather than the
     root of the currently active virtual environment (if any) or the
     default root for the current Python installation.

 -- Option: --user

     Installs ‘pip’ into the user site packages directory rather than
     globally for the current Python installation (this option is not
     permitted inside an active virtual environment).

By default, the scripts ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed (where X.Y
stands for the version of Python used to invoke ‘ensurepip’).  The
scripts installed can be controlled through two additional command line
options:

 -- Option: --altinstall

     If an alternate installation is requested, the ‘pipX’ script will
     'not' be installed.

 -- Option: --default-pip

     If a «default pip» installation is requested, the ‘pip’ script will
     be installed in addition to the two regular scripts.

Providing both of the script selection options will trigger an
exception.


File: python.info,  Node: Module API,  Prev: Command-line interface<12>,  Up: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer

5.29.1.2 Module API
...................

‘ensurepip’ exposes two functions for programmatic use:

 -- Συνάρτηση: ensurepip.version ()

     Returns a string specifying the available version of pip that will
     be installed when bootstrapping an environment.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ensurepip.bootstrap (root=None, upgrade=False,
          user=False, altinstall=False, default_pip=False, verbosity=0)

     Bootstraps ‘pip’ into the current or designated environment.

     'root' specifies an alternative root directory to install relative
     to.  If 'root' is ‘None’, then installation uses the default
     install location for the current environment.

     'upgrade' indicates whether or not to upgrade an existing
     installation of an earlier version of ‘pip’ to the available
     version.

     'user' indicates whether to use the user scheme rather than
     installing globally.

     By default, the scripts ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed
     (where X.Y stands for the current version of Python).

     If 'altinstall' is set, then ‘pipX’ will 'not' be installed.

     If 'default_pip' is set, then ‘pip’ will be installed in addition
     to the two regular scripts.

     Setting both 'altinstall' and 'default_pip' will trigger *note
     ValueError: 277.

     'verbosity' controls the level of output to *note sys.stdout: e9c.
     from the bootstrapping operation.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘ensurepip.bootstrap’ with
     argument ‘root’.

          Σημείωση: The bootstrapping process has side effects on both
          ‘sys.path’ and ‘os.environ’.  Invoking the command line
          interface in a subprocess instead allows these side effects to
          be avoided.

          Σημείωση: The bootstrapping process may install additional
          modules required by ‘pip’, but other software should not
          assume those dependencies will always be present by default
          (as the dependencies may be removed in a future version of
          ‘pip’).


File: python.info,  Node: venv — Creation of virtual environments,  Next: zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python,  Prev: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer,  Up: Software Packaging and Distribution

5.29.2 ‘venv’ — Creation of virtual environments
------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.3.

'Source code:' Lib/venv/(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘venv’ module supports creating lightweight «virtual environments»,
each with their own independent set of Python packages installed in
their *note site: cf. directories.  A virtual environment is created on
top of an existing Python installation, known as the virtual
environment’s «base» Python, and by default is isolated from the
packages in the base environment, so that only those explicitly
installed in the virtual environment are available.  See *note Virtual
Environments: 4b93. and ‘site’’s *note virtual environments
documentation: 4b94. for more information.

When used from within a virtual environment, common installation tools
such as pip(2) will install Python packages into a virtual environment
without needing to be told to do so explicitly.

A virtual environment is (amongst other things):

   * Used to contain a specific Python interpreter and software
     libraries and binaries which are needed to support a project
     (library or application).  These are by default isolated from
     software in other virtual environments and Python interpreters and
     libraries installed in the operating system.

   * Contained in a directory, conventionally named ‘.venv’ or ‘venv’ in
     the project directory, or under a container directory for lots of
     virtual environments, such as ‘~/.virtualenvs’.

   * Not checked into source control systems such as Git.

   * Considered as disposable – it should be simple to delete and
     recreate it from scratch.  You don’t place any project code in the
     environment.

   * Not considered as movable or copyable – you just recreate the same
     environment in the target location.

See PEP 405(3) for more background on Python virtual environments.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments(4)

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI.

This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 244d. or *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67.

* Menu:

* Creating virtual environments::
* How venvs work::
* API: API<2>.
* An example of extending EnvBuilder::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/venv/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/guides/installing-using-pip-and-virtual-environments/#create-and-use-virtual-environments


File: python.info,  Node: Creating virtual environments,  Next: How venvs work,  Up: venv — Creation of virtual environments

5.29.2.1 Creating virtual environments
......................................

*note Virtual environments: 3a9. are created by executing the ‘venv’
module:

     python -m venv /path/to/new/virtual/environment

This creates the target directory (including parent directories as
needed) and places a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file in it with a ‘home’ key pointing
to the Python installation from which the command was run.  It also
creates a ‘bin’ (or ‘Scripts’ on Windows) subdirectory containing a copy
or symlink of the Python executable (as appropriate for the platform or
arguments used at environment creation time).  It also creates a
‘lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages’ subdirectory (on Windows, this is
‘Lib\site-packages’).  If an existing directory is specified, it will be
re-used.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The use of ‘venv’ is now recommended for
creating virtual environments.

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.6, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.8: ‘pyvenv’ was
the recommended tool for creating virtual environments for Python 3.3
and 3.4, and replaced in 3.5 by executing ‘venv’ directly.

On Windows, invoke the ‘venv’ command as follows:

     PS> python -m venv C:\path\to\new\virtual\environment

The command, if run with ‘-h’, will show the available options:

     usage: venv [-h] [--system-site-packages] [--symlinks | --copies] [--clear]
                 [--upgrade] [--without-pip] [--prompt PROMPT] [--upgrade-deps]
                 [--without-scm-ignore-files]
                 ENV_DIR [ENV_DIR ...]

     Creates virtual Python environments in one or more target directories.

     Once an environment has been created, you may wish to activate it, e.g. by
     sourcing an activate script in its bin directory.

 -- Option: ENV_DIR

     A required argument specifying the directory to create the
     environment in.

 -- Option: --system-site-packages

     Give the virtual environment access to the system site-packages
     directory.

 -- Option: --symlinks

     Try to use symlinks rather than copies, when symlinks are not the
     default for the platform.

 -- Option: --copies

     Try to use copies rather than symlinks, even when symlinks are the
     default for the platform.

 -- Option: --clear

     Delete the contents of the environment directory if it already
     exists, before environment creation.

 -- Option: --upgrade

     Upgrade the environment directory to use this version of Python,
     assuming Python has been upgraded in-place.

 -- Option: --without-pip

     Skips installing or upgrading pip in the virtual environment (pip
     is bootstrapped by default).

 -- Option: --prompt <PROMPT>

     Provides an alternative prompt prefix for this environment.

 -- Option: --upgrade-deps

     Upgrade core dependencies (pip) to the latest version in PyPI.

 -- Option: --without-scm-ignore-files

     Skips adding SCM ignore files to the environment directory (Git is
     supported by default).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Installs pip by default, added the
‘--without-pip’ and ‘--copies’ options.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: In earlier versions, if the target directory
already existed, an error was raised, unless the ‘--clear’ or
‘--upgrade’ option was provided.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Add ‘--upgrade-deps’ option to upgrade pip +
setuptools to the latest on PyPI.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘setuptools’ is no longer a core venv
dependency.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the ‘--without-scm-ignore-files’ option.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: ‘venv’ now creates a ‘.gitignore’ file for Git
by default.

     Σημείωση: While symlinks are supported on Windows, they are not
     recommended.  Of particular note is that double-clicking
     ‘python.exe’ in File Explorer will resolve the symlink eagerly and
     ignore the virtual environment.

     Σημείωση: On Microsoft Windows, it may be required to enable the
     ‘Activate.ps1’ script by setting the execution policy for the user.
     You can do this by issuing the following PowerShell command:

          PS C:\> Set-ExecutionPolicy -ExecutionPolicy RemoteSigned -Scope CurrentUser

     See About Execution Policies(1) for more information.

The created ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file also includes the
‘include-system-site-packages’ key, set to ‘true’ if ‘venv’ is run with
the ‘--system-site-packages’ option, ‘false’ otherwise.

Unless the ‘--without-pip’ option is given, *note ensurepip: 58. will be
invoked to bootstrap ‘pip’ into the virtual environment.

Multiple paths can be given to ‘venv’, in which case an identical
virtual environment will be created, according to the given options, at
each provided path.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=135170


File: python.info,  Node: How venvs work,  Next: API<2>,  Prev: Creating virtual environments,  Up: venv — Creation of virtual environments

5.29.2.2 How venvs work
.......................

When a Python interpreter is running from a virtual environment, *note
sys.prefix: 3ab. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3a8. point to the
directories of the virtual environment, whereas *note sys.base_prefix:
3aa. and *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3a7. point to those of the base
Python used to create the environment.  It is sufficient to check
‘sys.prefix != sys.base_prefix’ to determine if the current interpreter
is running from a virtual environment.

A virtual environment may be «activated» using a script in its binary
directory (‘bin’ on POSIX; ‘Scripts’ on Windows).  This will prepend
that directory to your ‘PATH’, so that running ‘python’ will invoke the
environment’s Python interpreter and you can run installed scripts
without having to use their full path.  The invocation of the activation
script is platform-specific (‘<VENV>’ must be replaced by the path to
the directory containing the virtual environment):

Platform          Shell            Command to activate virtual environment
                                   
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   
POSIX             bash/zsh         ‘$ source <VENV>/bin/activate’
                                   
                  
fish              ‘$ source
                  <VENV>/bin/activate.fish’
                  
                  
csh/tcsh          ‘$ source
                  <VENV>/bin/activate.csh’
                  
                  
pwsh              ‘$
                  <VENV>/bin/Activate.ps1’
                  
                                   
Windows           cmd.exe          ‘C:\> <VENV>\Scripts\activate.bat’
                                   
                  
PowerShell        ‘PS C:\>
                  <VENV>\Scripts\Activate.ps1’
                  

Added in version 3.4: ‘fish’ and ‘csh’ activation scripts.

Added in version 3.8: PowerShell activation scripts installed under
POSIX for PowerShell Core support.

You don’t specifically 'need' to activate a virtual environment, as you
can just specify the full path to that environment’s Python interpreter
when invoking Python.  Furthermore, all scripts installed in the
environment should be runnable without activating it.

In order to achieve this, scripts installed into virtual environments
have a «shebang» line which points to the environment’s Python
interpreter, ‘#!/<PATH-TO-VENV>/bin/python’.  This means that the script
will run with that interpreter regardless of the value of ‘PATH’.  On
Windows, «shebang» line processing is supported if you have the *note
Διαχειριστής εγκατάστασης Python: 9bc. installed.  Thus, double-clicking
an installed script in a Windows Explorer window should run it with the
correct interpreter without the environment needing to be activated or
on the ‘PATH’.

When a virtual environment has been activated, the ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’
environment variable is set to the path of the environment.  Since
explicitly activating a virtual environment is not required to use it,
‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ cannot be relied upon to determine whether a virtual
environment is being used.

     Προειδοποίηση: Because scripts installed in environments should not
     expect the environment to be activated, their shebang lines contain
     the absolute paths to their environment’s interpreters.  Because of
     this, environments are inherently non-portable, in the general
     case.  You should always have a simple means of recreating an
     environment (for example, if you have a requirements file
     ‘requirements.txt’, you can invoke ‘pip install -r
     requirements.txt’ using the environment’s ‘pip’ to install all of
     the packages needed by the environment).  If for any reason you
     need to move the environment to a new location, you should recreate
     it at the desired location and delete the one at the old location.
     If you move an environment because you moved a parent directory of
     it, you should recreate the environment in its new location.
     Otherwise, software installed into the environment may not work as
     expected.

You can deactivate a virtual environment by typing ‘deactivate’ in your
shell.  The exact mechanism is platform-specific and is an internal
implementation detail (typically, a script or shell function will be
used).


File: python.info,  Node: API<2>,  Next: An example of extending EnvBuilder,  Prev: How venvs work,  Up: venv — Creation of virtual environments

5.29.2.3 API
............

The high-level method described above makes use of a simple API which
provides mechanisms for third-party virtual environment creators to
customize environment creation according to their needs, the *note
EnvBuilder: 772. class.

 -- Κλάση: venv.EnvBuilder (system_site_packages=False, clear=False,
          symlinks=False, upgrade=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None,
          upgrade_deps=False, *, scm_ignore_files=frozenset())

     The ‘EnvBuilder’ class accepts the following keyword arguments on
     instantiation:

        * 'system_site_packages' – a boolean value indicating that the
          system Python site-packages should be available to the
          environment (defaults to ‘False’).

        * 'clear' – a boolean value which, if true, will delete the
          contents of any existing target directory, before creating the
          environment.

        * 'symlinks' – a boolean value indicating whether to attempt to
          symlink the Python binary rather than copying.

        * 'upgrade' – a boolean value which, if true, will upgrade an
          existing environment with the running Python - for use when
          that Python has been upgraded in-place (defaults to ‘False’).

        * 'with_pip' – a boolean value which, if true, ensures pip is
          installed in the virtual environment.  This uses *note
          ensurepip: 58. with the ‘--default-pip’ option.

        * 'prompt' – a string to be used after virtual environment is
          activated (defaults to ‘None’ which means directory name of
          the environment would be used).  If the special string ‘"."’
          is provided, the basename of the current directory is used as
          the prompt.

        * 'upgrade_deps' – Update the base venv modules to the latest on
          PyPI

        * 'scm_ignore_files' – Create ignore files based for the
          specified source control managers (SCM) in the iterable.
          Support is defined by having a method named
          ‘create_{scm}_ignore_file’.  The only value supported by
          default is ‘"git"’ via *note create_git_ignore_file(): 4ba3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added the ‘with_pip’ parameter

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the ‘prompt’ parameter

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added the ‘upgrade_deps’ parameter

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the ‘scm_ignore_files’ parameter

     ‘EnvBuilder’ may be used as a base class.

      -- Μέθοδος: create (env_dir)

          Create a virtual environment by specifying the target
          directory (absolute or relative to the current directory)
          which is to contain the virtual environment.  The ‘create’
          method will either create the environment in the specified
          directory, or raise an appropriate exception.

          The ‘create’ method of the ‘EnvBuilder’ class illustrates the
          hooks available for subclass customization:

               def create(self, env_dir):
                   """
                   Create a virtualized Python environment in a directory.
                   env_dir is the target directory to create an environment in.
                   """
                   env_dir = os.path.abspath(env_dir)
                   context = self.ensure_directories(env_dir)
                   self.create_configuration(context)
                   self.setup_python(context)
                   self.setup_scripts(context)
                   self.post_setup(context)

          Each of the methods *note ensure_directories(): 4ba5, *note
          create_configuration(): 4ba6, *note setup_python(): 4ba7,
          *note setup_scripts(): 4ba8. and *note post_setup(): 4ba9. can
          be overridden.

      -- Μέθοδος: ensure_directories (env_dir)

          Creates the environment directory and all necessary
          subdirectories that don’t already exist, and returns a context
          object.  This context object is just a holder for attributes
          (such as paths) for use by the other methods.  If the
          ‘EnvBuilder’ is created with the arg ‘clear=True’, contents of
          the environment directory will be cleared and then all
          necessary subdirectories will be recreated.

          The returned context object is a *note types.SimpleNamespace:
          6ea. with the following attributes:

             * ‘env_dir’ - The location of the virtual environment.
               Used for ‘__VENV_DIR__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 4baa.).

             * ‘env_name’ - The name of the virtual environment.  Used
               for ‘__VENV_NAME__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 4baa.).

             * ‘prompt’ - The prompt to be used by the activation
               scripts.  Used for ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ in activation
               scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 4baa.).

             * ‘executable’ - The underlying Python executable used by
               the virtual environment.  This takes into account the
               case where a virtual environment is created from another
               virtual environment.

             * ‘inc_path’ - The include path for the virtual
               environment.

             * ‘lib_path’ - The purelib path for the virtual
               environment.

             * ‘platlib_path’ - The platlib path for the virtual
               environment.

             * ‘bin_path’ - The script path for the virtual environment.

             * ‘bin_name’ - The name of the script path relative to the
               virtual environment location.  Used for
               ‘__VENV_BIN_NAME__’ in activation scripts (see *note
               install_scripts(): 4baa.).

             * ‘env_exe’ - The name of the Python interpreter in the
               virtual environment.  Used for ‘__VENV_PYTHON__’ in
               activation scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 4baa.).

             * ‘env_exec_cmd’ - The name of the Python interpreter,
               taking into account filesystem redirections.  This can be
               used to run Python in the virtual environment.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The 'venv' *note sysconfig
          installation scheme: 65c. is used to construct the paths of
          the created directories.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The attribute ‘lib_path’ was added to
          the context, and the context object was documented.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The attribute ‘platlib_path’ was
          added to the context.

      -- Μέθοδος: create_configuration (context)

          Creates the ‘pyvenv.cfg’ configuration file in the
          environment.

      -- Μέθοδος: setup_python (context)

          Creates a copy or symlink to the Python executable in the
          environment.  On POSIX systems, if a specific executable
          ‘python3.x’ was used, symlinks to ‘python’ and ‘python3’ will
          be created pointing to that executable, unless files with
          those names already exist.

      -- Μέθοδος: setup_scripts (context)

          Installs activation scripts appropriate to the platform into
          the virtual environment.

      -- Μέθοδος: upgrade_dependencies (context)

          Upgrades the core venv dependency packages (currently pip(1))
          in the environment.  This is done by shelling out to the ‘pip’
          executable in the environment.

          Added in version 3.9.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: setuptools(2) is no longer a core
          venv dependency.

      -- Μέθοδος: post_setup (context)

          A placeholder method which can be overridden in third party
          implementations to pre-install packages in the virtual
          environment or perform other post-creation steps.

      -- Μέθοδος: install_scripts (context, path)

          This method can be called from *note setup_scripts(): 4ba8. or
          *note post_setup(): 4ba9. in subclasses to assist in
          installing custom scripts into the virtual environment.

          'path' is the path to a directory that should contain
          subdirectories ‘common’, ‘posix’, ‘nt’; each containing
          scripts destined for the ‘bin’ directory in the environment.
          The contents of ‘common’ and the directory corresponding to
          *note os.name: 3228. are copied after some text replacement of
          placeholders:

             * ‘__VENV_DIR__’ is replaced with the absolute path of the
               environment directory.

             * ‘__VENV_NAME__’ is replaced with the environment name
               (final path segment of environment directory).

             * ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ is replaced with the prompt (the
               environment name surrounded by parentheses and with a
               following space)

             * ‘__VENV_BIN_NAME__’ is replaced with the name of the bin
               directory (either ‘bin’ or ‘Scripts’).

             * ‘__VENV_PYTHON__’ is replaced with the absolute path of
               the environment’s executable.

          The directories are allowed to exist (for when an existing
          environment is being upgraded).

      -- Μέθοδος: create_git_ignore_file (context)

          Creates a ‘.gitignore’ file within the virtual environment
          that causes the entire directory to be ignored by the Git
          source control manager.

          Added in version 3.13.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7.2: Windows now uses redirector scripts for
     ‘python[w].exe’ instead of copying the actual binaries.  In 3.7.2
     only *note setup_python(): 4ba7. does nothing unless running from a
     build in the source tree.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7.3: Windows copies the redirector scripts as
     part of *note setup_python(): 4ba7. instead of *note
     setup_scripts(): 4ba8.  This was not the case in 3.7.2.  When using
     symlinks, the original executables will be linked.

There is also a module-level convenience function:

 -- Συνάρτηση: venv.create (env_dir, system_site_packages=False,
          clear=False, symlinks=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None,
          upgrade_deps=False, *, scm_ignore_files=frozenset())

     Create an *note EnvBuilder: 772. with the given keyword arguments,
     and call its *note create(): 4ba4. method with the 'env_dir'
     argument.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added the 'with_pip' parameter

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added the 'prompt' parameter

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added the 'upgrade_deps' parameter

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'scm_ignore_files' parameter

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/setuptools/


File: python.info,  Node: An example of extending EnvBuilder,  Prev: API<2>,  Up: venv — Creation of virtual environments

5.29.2.4 An example of extending ‘EnvBuilder’
.............................................

The following script shows how to extend *note EnvBuilder: 772. by
implementing a subclass which installs setuptools and pip into a created
virtual environment:

     import os
     import os.path
     from subprocess import Popen, PIPE
     import sys
     from threading import Thread
     from urllib.parse import urlsplit
     from urllib.request import urlretrieve
     import venv

     class ExtendedEnvBuilder(venv.EnvBuilder):
         """
         This builder installs setuptools and pip so that you can pip or
         easy_install other packages into the created virtual environment.

         :param nodist: If true, setuptools and pip are not installed into the
                        created virtual environment.
         :param nopip: If true, pip is not installed into the created
                       virtual environment.
         :param progress: If setuptools or pip are installed, the progress of the
                          installation can be monitored by passing a progress
                          callable. If specified, it is called with two
                          arguments: a string indicating some progress, and a
                          context indicating where the string is coming from.
                          The context argument can have one of three values:
                          'main', indicating that it is called from virtualize()
                          itself, and 'stdout' and 'stderr', which are obtained
                          by reading lines from the output streams of a subprocess
                          which is used to install the app.

                          If a callable is not specified, default progress
                          information is output to sys.stderr.
         """

         def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             self.nodist = kwargs.pop('nodist', False)
             self.nopip = kwargs.pop('nopip', False)
             self.progress = kwargs.pop('progress', None)
             self.verbose = kwargs.pop('verbose', False)
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

         def post_setup(self, context):
             """
             Set up any packages which need to be pre-installed into the
             virtual environment being created.

             :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                             creation request being processed.
             """
             os.environ['VIRTUAL_ENV'] = context.env_dir
             if not self.nodist:
                 self.install_setuptools(context)
             # Can't install pip without setuptools
             if not self.nopip and not self.nodist:
                 self.install_pip(context)

         def reader(self, stream, context):
             """
             Read lines from a subprocess' output stream and either pass to a progress
             callable (if specified) or write progress information to sys.stderr.
             """
             progress = self.progress
             while True:
                 s = stream.readline()
                 if not s:
                     break
                 if progress is not None:
                     progress(s, context)
                 else:
                     if not self.verbose:
                         sys.stderr.write('.')
                     else:
                         sys.stderr.write(s.decode('utf-8'))
                     sys.stderr.flush()
             stream.close()

         def install_script(self, context, name, url):
             _, _, path, _, _ = urlsplit(url)
             fn = os.path.split(path)[-1]
             binpath = context.bin_path
             distpath = os.path.join(binpath, fn)
             # Download script into the virtual environment's binaries folder
             urlretrieve(url, distpath)
             progress = self.progress
             if self.verbose:
                 term = '\n'
             else:
                 term = ''
             if progress is not None:
                 progress('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term), 'main')
             else:
                 sys.stderr.write('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term))
                 sys.stderr.flush()
             # Install in the virtual environment
             args = [context.env_exe, fn]
             p = Popen(args, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE, cwd=binpath)
             t1 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stdout, 'stdout'))
             t1.start()
             t2 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stderr, 'stderr'))
             t2.start()
             p.wait()
             t1.join()
             t2.join()
             if progress is not None:
                 progress('done.', 'main')
             else:
                 sys.stderr.write('done.\n')
             # Clean up - no longer needed
             os.unlink(distpath)

         def install_setuptools(self, context):
             """
             Install setuptools in the virtual environment.

             :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                             creation request being processed.
             """
             url = "https://bootstrap.pypa.io/ez_setup.py"
             self.install_script(context, 'setuptools', url)
             # clear up the setuptools archive which gets downloaded
             pred = lambda o: o.startswith('setuptools-') and o.endswith('.tar.gz')
             files = filter(pred, os.listdir(context.bin_path))
             for f in files:
                 f = os.path.join(context.bin_path, f)
                 os.unlink(f)

         def install_pip(self, context):
             """
             Install pip in the virtual environment.

             :param context: The information for the virtual environment
                             creation request being processed.
             """
             url = 'https://bootstrap.pypa.io/get-pip.py'
             self.install_script(context, 'pip', url)


     def main(args=None):
         import argparse

         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog=__name__,
                                          description='Creates virtual Python '
                                                      'environments in one or '
                                                      'more target '
                                                      'directories.')
         parser.add_argument('dirs', metavar='ENV_DIR', nargs='+',
                             help='A directory in which to create the '
                                  'virtual environment.')
         parser.add_argument('--no-setuptools', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='nodist',
                             help="Don't install setuptools or pip in the "
                                  "virtual environment.")
         parser.add_argument('--no-pip', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='nopip',
                             help="Don't install pip in the virtual "
                                  "environment.")
         parser.add_argument('--system-site-packages', default=False,
                             action='store_true', dest='system_site',
                             help='Give the virtual environment access to the '
                                  'system site-packages dir.')
         if os.name == 'nt':
             use_symlinks = False
         else:
             use_symlinks = True
         parser.add_argument('--symlinks', default=use_symlinks,
                             action='store_true', dest='symlinks',
                             help='Try to use symlinks rather than copies, '
                                  'when symlinks are not the default for '
                                  'the platform.')
         parser.add_argument('--clear', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='clear', help='Delete the contents of the '
                                                'virtual environment '
                                                'directory if it already '
                                                'exists, before virtual '
                                                'environment creation.')
         parser.add_argument('--upgrade', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='upgrade', help='Upgrade the virtual '
                                                  'environment directory to '
                                                  'use this version of '
                                                  'Python, assuming Python '
                                                  'has been upgraded '
                                                  'in-place.')
         parser.add_argument('--verbose', default=False, action='store_true',
                             dest='verbose', help='Display the output '
                                                  'from the scripts which '
                                                  'install setuptools and pip.')
         options = parser.parse_args(args)
         if options.upgrade and options.clear:
             raise ValueError('you cannot supply --upgrade and --clear together.')
         builder = ExtendedEnvBuilder(system_site_packages=options.system_site,
                                        clear=options.clear,
                                        symlinks=options.symlinks,
                                        upgrade=options.upgrade,
                                        nodist=options.nodist,
                                        nopip=options.nopip,
                                        verbose=options.verbose)
         for d in options.dirs:
             builder.create(d)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         rc = 1
         try:
             main()
             rc = 0
         except Exception as e:
             print('Error: %s' % e, file=sys.stderr)
         sys.exit(rc)

This script is also available for download online(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4673395


File: python.info,  Node: zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python,  Prev: venv — Creation of virtual environments,  Up: Software Packaging and Distribution

5.29.3 ‘zipapp’ — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python
-----------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.5.

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/zipapp.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Το παρόν module παρέχει εργαλεία για τη διαχείριση της δημιουργίας
αρχείων zip που περιέχουν κώδικα Python, τα οποία μπορούν να *note
executed directly by the Python interpreter: 230a.  Το module παρέχει
τόσο μια *note Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών: 4bb0. όσο και ένα *note Διεπαφή
Python: 4bb1.

* Menu:

* Βασικό Παράδειγμα::
* Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών: Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>.
* Διεπαφή Python::
* Παραδείγματα: Παραδείγματα<6>.
* Καθορισμός του Διερμηνέα::
* Δημιουργία Αυτόνομων Εφαρμογών με το zipapp::
* Η Μορφή Αρχείου Εφαρμογής Zip της Python::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/zipapp.py


File: python.info,  Node: Βασικό Παράδειγμα,  Next: Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>,  Up: zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python

5.29.3.1 Βασικό Παράδειγμα
..........................

Το παρακάτω παράδειγμα δείχνει πώς μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί η *note
Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών: 4bb0. για να δημιουργήσει ένα εκτελέσιμο αρχείο
από έναν φάκελο που περιέχει κώδικα Python.  Όταν εκτελείται, το αρχείο
θα εκτελέσει τη συνάρτηση ‘main’ από το module ‘myapp’ στο αρχείο.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp -m "myapp:main"
     $ python myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>


File: python.info,  Node: Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>,  Next: Διεπαφή Python,  Prev: Βασικό Παράδειγμα,  Up: zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python

5.29.3.2 Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών
................................

Όταν καλείται ως πρόγραμμα από τη γραμμή εντολών, χρησιμοποιείται η
παρακάτω μορφή:

     $ python -m zipapp source [options]

Αν το 'source' είναι ένας φάκελος, αυτό θα δημιουργήσει ένα αρχείο από
τα περιεχόμενα του 'source'.  Αν το 'source' είναι ένα αρχείο, θα πρέπει
να είναι ένα αρχείο, και θα αντιγραφεί στο αρχείο προορισμού (ή το
περιεχόμενο της γραμμής shebang θα εμφανιστεί αν έχει καθοριστεί η
επιλογή –info).

Οι παρακάτω επιλογές γίνονται κατανοητές:

 -- Option: -o <output>, --output=<output>

     Γράφει την έξοδο σε ένα αρχείο με όνομα 'output'.  Αν αυτή η
     επιλογή δεν καθοριστεί, το όνομα του αρχείου εξόδου θα είναι το
     ίδιο με το εισαγωγικό 'source', με την προσθήκη της επέκτασης
     ‘.pyz’.  Αν καθοριστεί ένα ρητό όνομα αρχείου, χρησιμοποιείται όπως
     είναι (έτσι θα πρέπει να συμπεριληφθεί μια επέκταση ‘.pyz’ αν
     απαιτείται).

     Ένα όνομα αρχείου εξόδου πρέπει να καθοριστεί αν το 'source' είναι
     ένα αρχείο (και σε αυτή την περίπτωση, το 'output' δεν πρέπει να
     είναι το ίδιο με το 'source').

 -- Option: -p <interpreter>, --python=<interpreter>

     Προσθέτει μια γραμμή ‘#!’ στο αρχείο που καθορίζει το 'interpreter'
     ως την εντολή που θα εκτελεστεί.  Επίσης, σε POSIX, καθιστά το
     αρχείο εκτελέσιμο.  Η προεπιλογή είναι να μην γράφεται καμία γραμμή
     ‘#!’ και να μην καθίσταται το αρχείο εκτελέσιμο.

 -- Option: -m <mainfn>, --main=<mainfn>

     Γράφει ένα αρχείο ‘__main__.py’ στο αρχείο που εκτελεί το 'mainfn'.
     Το 'mainfn' πρέπει να έχει τη μορφή «pkg.mod:fn», όπου «pkg.mod»
     είναι ένα πακέτο/module στο αρχείο, και «fn» είναι μια καλούμενη
     συνάρτηση στο δεδομένο module.  Το αρχείο ‘__main__.py’ θα
     εκτελέσει αυτή τη συνάρτηση.

     Η επιλογή *note -main: 4bb8. δεν μπορεί να καθοριστεί κατά την
     αντιγραφή ενός αρχείου.

 -- Option: -c, --compress

     Συμπιέζει τα αρχεία με τη μέθοδο deflate, μειώνοντας το μέγεθος του
     αρχείου εξόδου.  Από προεπιλογή, τα αρχεία αποθηκεύονται χωρίς
     συμπίεση στο αρχείο.

     Η επιλογή *note -compress: 4bba. δεν έχει καμία επίδραση κατά την
     αντιγραφή ενός αρχείου.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Option: --info

     Εμφανίζει τον ενσωματωμένο διερμηνέα στο αρχείο, για διαγνωστικούς
     σκοπούς.  Σε αυτή την περίπτωση, αγνοούνται όλες οι άλλες επιλογές
     και το SOURCE πρέπει να είναι ένα αρχείο, όχι ένας φάκελος.

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Εκτυπώνει ένα σύντομο μήνυμα χρήσης και εξέρχεται.


File: python.info,  Node: Διεπαφή Python,  Next: Παραδείγματα<6>,  Prev: Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>,  Up: zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python

5.29.3.3 Διεπαφή Python
.......................

Το module ορίζει δύο συναρτήσεις ευκολίας:

 -- Συνάρτηση: zipapp.create_archive (source, target=None,
          interpreter=None, main=None, filter=None, compressed=False)

     Δημιουργεί ένα αρχείο εφαρμογής από το 'source'.  Η πηγή μπορεί να
     είναι οποιοδήποτε από τα παρακάτω:

        * Το όνομα ενός φακέλου, ή ένα *note path-like object: 79f. που
          αναφέρεται σε έναν φάκελο, οπότε θα δημιουργηθεί ένα νέο
          αρχείο εφαρμογής από το περιεχόμενο αυτού του φακέλου.

        * Το όνομα ενός υπάρχοντος αρχείου εφαρμογής, ή ένα *note
          path-like object: 79f. που αναφέρεται σε ένα τέτοιο αρχείο,
          οπότε το αρχείο αντιγράφεται στο προορισμό (τροποποιώντας το
          για να αντικατοπτρίζει την τιμή που δίνεται για το όρισμα
          'interpreter').  Το όνομα του αρχείου θα πρέπει να
          περιλαμβάνει την επέκταση ‘.pyz’, αν απαιτείται.

        * Ένα αντικείμενο αρχείου ανοιχτό για ανάγνωση σε λειτουργία
          bytes.  Το περιεχόμενο του αρχείου θα πρέπει να είναι ένα
          αρχείο εφαρμογής, και το αντικείμενο αρχείου θεωρείται ότι
          είναι τοποθετημένο στην αρχή του αρχείου.

     Το όρισμα 'target' καθορίζει που θα γραφτεί το αποτέλεσμα του
     αρχείου:

        * Αν είναι το όνομα ενός αρχείου, ή ένα *note path-like object:
          79f, το αρχείο θα γραφτεί σε αυτό το αρχείο.

        * Αν είναι ένα ανοιχτό αντικείμενο αρχείου, το αρχείο θα γραφτεί
          σε αυτό το αντικείμενο αρχείου, το οποίο πρέπει να είναι
          ανοιχτό για εγγραφή σε λειτουργία bytes.

        * Αν το όρισμα προορισμού παραλειφθεί (ή είναι ‘None’), η πηγή
          πρέπει να είναι ένας φάκελος και ο προορισμός θα είναι ένα
          αρχείο με το ίδιο όνομα με την πηγή, με μια επέκταση ‘.pyz’
          προστιθέμενη.

     Το όρισμα 'interpreter' καθορίζει το όνομα του διερμηνέα Python με
     τον οποίο θα εκτελείται το αρχείο.  Γράφεται ως μια γραμμή
     «shebang» στην αρχή του αρχείου.  Σε POSIX, αυτό θα ερμηνευτεί από
     το λειτουργικό σύστημα, και σε Windows θα διαχειριστεί από τον
     διερμηνέα Python.  Η παράλειψη του 'interpreter' έχει ως αποτέλεσμα
     να μην γραφτεί καμία γραμμή shebang.  Αν καθοριστεί ένας
     διερμηνέας, και ο προορισμός είναι ένα όνομα αρχείου, θα τεθεί το
     εκτελέσιμο bit του αρχείου προορισμού.

     Το όρισμα 'main' καθορίζει το όνομα μιας καλούμενης συνάρτησης που
     θα χρησιμοποιηθεί ως το κύριο πρόγραμμα για το αρχείο.  Μπορεί να
     καθοριστεί μόνο αν η πηγή είναι ένας φάκελος, και η πηγή δεν
     περιέχει ήδη ένα αρχείο ‘__main__.py’.  Το όρισμα 'main' θα πρέπει
     να έχει τη μορφή «pkg.module:callable» και το αρχείο θα εκτελείται
     με την εισαγωγή «pkg.module» και την εκτέλεση της δεδομένης
     καλούμενης συνάρτησης χωρίς ορίσματα.  Είναι σφάλμα να παραλειφθεί
     το 'main' αν η πηγή είναι ένας φάκελος και δεν περιέχει ένα αρχείο
     ‘__main__.py’, καθώς διαφορετικά το παραγόμενο αρχείο δεν θα ήταν
     εκτελέσιμο.

     Το προαιρετικό όρισμα 'filter' καθορίζει μια συνάρτηση callback που
     περνάει ένα αντικείμενο Path που αναπαριστά το μονοπάτι του αρχείου
     που προστίθεται (σχετικό με τον φάκελο πηγής).  Θα πρέπει να
     επιστρέφει ‘True’ αν το αρχείο πρέπει να προστεθεί.

     Το προαιρετικό όρισμα 'compressed' καθορίζει αν τα αρχεία
     συμπιέζονται.  Αν οριστεί σε ‘True’, τα αρχεία στο αρχείο
     συμπιέζονται με τη μέθοδο deflate.  Διαφορετικά, τα αρχεία
     αποθηκεύονται χωρίς συμπίεση.  Αυτό το όρισμα δεν έχει καμία
     επίδραση κατά την αντιγραφή ενός υπάρχοντος αρχείου.

     Αν ένα αντικείμενο αρχείου καθοριστεί για το 'source' ή το
     'target', είναι ευθύνη του καλούντος να το κλείσει μετά την κλήση
     της create_archive.

     Κατά την αντιγραφή ενός υπάρχοντος αρχείου, τα αντικείμενα αρχείων
     που παρέχονται χρειάζονται μόνο τις μεθόδους ‘read’ και ‘readline’,
     ή ‘write’.  Όταν δημιουργείται ένα αρχείο από έναν φάκελο, αν το
     target είναι ένα αντικείμενο αρχείου, θα περαστεί στην κλάση
     ‘zipfile.ZipFile’ και πρέπει να παρέχει τις μεθόδους που χρειάζεται
     αυτή η κλάση.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Προστέθηκαν οι παράμετροι 'filter' και
     'compressed'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: zipapp.get_interpreter (archive)

     Επιστρέφει τον διερμηνέα που καθορίζεται στη γραμμή ‘#!’ στην αρχή
     του αρχείου.  Αν δεν υπάρχει γραμμή ‘#!’, επιστρέφει *note None:
     a65.  Το 'archive' μπορεί να είναι ένα όνομα αρχείου ή ένα
     αντικείμενο που μοιάζει με αρχείο και είναι ανοιχτό για ανάγνωση σε
     bytes.


File: python.info,  Node: Παραδείγματα<6>,  Next: Καθορισμός του Διερμηνέα,  Prev: Διεπαφή Python,  Up: zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python

5.29.3.4 Παραδείγματα
.....................

Συσκευάζει έναν φάκελο σε ένα αρχείο, και το εκτελεί.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp
     $ python myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>

Το ίδιο μπορεί να γίνει χρησιμοποιώντας τη συνάρτηση *note
create_archive(): f6e.:

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp', 'myapp.pyz')

Για να κάνετε την εφαρμογή άμεσα εκτελέσιμη σε POSIX, καθορίστε έναν
διερμηνέα που θα χρησιμοποιηθεί.

     $ python -m zipapp myapp -p "/usr/bin/env python"
     $ ./myapp.pyz
     <output from myapp>

Για να αντικαταστήσετε τη γραμμή shebang σε ένα υπάρχον αρχείο,
δημιουργήστε ένα τροποποιημένο αρχείο χρησιμοποιώντας τη συνάρτηση *note
create_archive(): f6e.:

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('old_archive.pyz', 'new_archive.pyz', '/usr/bin/python3')

Για να ενημερώσετε το αρχείο στη θέση του, κάντε την αντικατάσταση στη
μνήμη χρησιμοποιώντας ένα αντικείμενο *note BytesIO: 1255, και στη
συνέχεια αντικαταστήστε την πηγή.  Σημειώστε ότι υπάρχει κίνδυνος κατά
την αντικατάσταση ενός αρχείου στη θέση του ότι ένα σφάλμα θα οδηγήσει
στην απώλεια του αρχικού αρχείου.  Αυτός ο κώδικας δεν προστατεύει από
τέτοια σφάλματα, αλλά ο κώδικας παραγωγής θα πρέπει να το κάνει.
Επίσης, αυτή η μέθοδος θα λειτουργήσει μόνο αν το αρχείο χωράει στη
μνήμη:

     >>> import zipapp
     >>> import io
     >>> temp = io.BytesIO()
     >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp.pyz', temp, '/usr/bin/python2')
     >>> with open('myapp.pyz', 'wb') as f:
     >>>     f.write(temp.getvalue())


File: python.info,  Node: Καθορισμός του Διερμηνέα,  Next: Δημιουργία Αυτόνομων Εφαρμογών με το zipapp,  Prev: Παραδείγματα<6>,  Up: zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python

5.29.3.5 Καθορισμός του Διερμηνέα
.................................

Σημειώστε ότι αν καθορίσετε έναν διερμηνέα και στη συνέχεια διανείμετε
το αρχείο εφαρμογής σας, πρέπει να διασφαλίσετε ότι ο διερμηνέας που
χρησιμοποιείται είναι φορητός.  Ο διερμηνέας Python για Windows
υποστηρίζει τις περισσότερες κοινές μορφές γραμμής ‘#!’ POSIX, αλλά
υπάρχουν και άλλα ζητήματα που πρέπει να ληφθούν υπόψη:

   * Αν χρησιμοποιήσετε «/usr/bin/env python» (ή άλλες μορφές της
     εντολής «python», όπως «/usr/bin/python»), πρέπει να λάβετε υπόψη
     ότι οι χρήστες σας μπορεί να έχουν είτε Python 2 είτε Python 3 ως
     προεπιλογή, και να γράψετε τον κώδικά σας ώστε να λειτουργεί και
     στις δύο εκδόσεις.

   * Αν χρησιμοποιήσετε μια ρητή έκδοση, για παράδειγμα «/usr/bin/env
     python3», η εφαρμογή σας δεν θα λειτουργήσει για χρήστες που δεν
     έχουν αυτή την έκδοση.  (Αυτό μπορεί να είναι αυτό που θέλετε αν
     δεν έχετε κάνει τον κώδικά σας συμβατό με την Python 2).

   * Δεν υπάρχει τρόπος να πείτε «python X.Y ή νεότερη», οπότε να είστε
     προσεκτικοί όταν χρησιμοποιείτε μια ακριβή έκδοση όπως
     «/usr/bin/env python3.4», καθώς θα χρειαστεί να αλλάξετε τη γραμμή
     shebang για χρήστες της Python 3.5, για παράδειγμα.

Συνήθως, θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσετε ένα «/usr/bin/env python2» ή
«/usr/bin/env python3», ανάλογα με το αν ο κώδικάς σας είναι γραμμένος
για την Python 2 ή 3.


File: python.info,  Node: Δημιουργία Αυτόνομων Εφαρμογών με το zipapp,  Next: Η Μορφή Αρχείου Εφαρμογής Zip της Python,  Prev: Καθορισμός του Διερμηνέα,  Up: zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python

5.29.3.6 Δημιουργία Αυτόνομων Εφαρμογών με το zipapp
....................................................

Using the ‘zipapp’ module, it is possible to create self-contained
Python programs, which can be distributed to end users who only need to
have a suitable version of Python installed on their system.  The key to
doing this is to bundle all of the application’s dependencies into the
archive, along with the application code.

Τα βήματα για τη δημιουργία ενός αυτόνομου αρχείου είναι τα εξής:

  1. Δημιουργήστε την εφαρμογή σας σε έναν φάκελο όπως συνήθως, έτσι
     ώστε να έχετε έναν φάκελο ‘myapp’ που περιέχει ένα αρχείο
     ‘__main__.py’ και οποιονδήποτε υποστηρικτικό κώδικα εφαρμογής.

  2. Εγκαταστήστε όλες τις εξαρτήσεις της εφαρμογής σας στον φάκελο
     ‘myapp’, χρησιμοποιώντας το pip:

          $ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt --target myapp

     (αυτό υποθέτει ότι έχετε τις απαιτήσεις του έργου σας σε ένα αρχείο
     ‘requirements.txt’ - αν όχι, μπορείτε απλώς να καταγράψετε τις
     εξαρτήσεις χειροκίνητα στη γραμμή εντολών του pip).

  3. Συσκευάστε την εφαρμογή χρησιμοποιώντας:

          $ python -m zipapp -p "interpreter" myapp

Αυτό θα παράγει ένα αυτόνομο εκτελέσιμο, το οποίο μπορεί να εκτελεστεί
σε οποιαδήποτε μηχανή με τον κατάλληλο διερμηνέα διαθέσιμο.  Δείτε *note
Καθορισμός του Διερμηνέα: 4bc4. για λεπτομέρειες.  Μπορεί να αποσταλεί
στους χρήστες ως ένα μόνο αρχείο.

Σε Unix, το αρχείο ‘myapp.pyz’ είναι εκτελέσιμο όπως είναι.  Μπορείτε να
μετονομάσετε το αρχείο για να αφαιρέσετε την επέκταση ‘.pyz’ αν
προτιμάτε ένα «καθαρό» όνομα εντολής.  Σε Windows, το αρχείο
‘myapp.pyz[w]’ είναι εκτελέσιμο λόγω του γεγονότος ότι ο διερμηνέας
Python καταχωρεί τις επεκτάσεις αρχείων ‘.pyz’ και ‘.pyzw’ κατά την
εγκατάσταση.

* Menu:

* Προειδοποιήσεις::


File: python.info,  Node: Προειδοποιήσεις,  Up: Δημιουργία Αυτόνομων Εφαρμογών με το zipapp

5.29.3.7 Προειδοποιήσεις
........................

Αν η εφαρμογή σας εξαρτάται από ένα πακέτο που περιλαμβάνει μια επέκταση
C, αυτό το πακέτο δεν μπορεί να εκτελεστεί από ένα αρχείο zip (αυτό
είναι περιορισμός του λειτουργικού συστήματος, καθώς ο εκτελέσιμος
κώδικας πρέπει να είναι παρών στο σύστημα αρχείων για να τον φορτώσει ο
φορτωτής του λειτουργικού συστήματος).  Σε αυτή την περίπτωση, μπορείτε
να εξαιρέσετε αυτή την εξάρτηση από το αρχείο zip, και είτε να
απαιτήσετε από τους χρήστες σας να το έχουν εγκατεστημένο, είτε να το
αποστείλετε μαζί με το αρχείο zip και να προσθέσετε κώδικα στο
‘__main__.py’ για να συμπεριλάβετε τον φάκελο που περιέχει το
αποσυμπιεσμένο module στο ‘sys.path’.  Σε αυτή την περίπτωση, θα πρέπει
να διασφαλίσετε ότι θα αποστείλετε κατάλληλα δυαδικά αρχεία για την
αρχιτεκτονική/αρχιτεκτονικές (και ενδεχομένως να επιλέξετε την κατάλληλη
έκδοση για να προσθέσετε στο ‘sys.path’ κατά τη διάρκεια εκτέλεσης, με
βάση τη μηχανή του χρήστη).


File: python.info,  Node: Η Μορφή Αρχείου Εφαρμογής Zip της Python,  Prev: Δημιουργία Αυτόνομων Εφαρμογών με το zipapp,  Up: zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python

5.29.3.8 Η Μορφή Αρχείου Εφαρμογής Zip της Python
.................................................

Η Python μπορεί να εκτελεί αρχεία zip που περιέχουν ένα αρχείο
‘__main__.py’ από την έκδοση 2.6.  Για να εκτελεστεί από την Python, ένα
αρχείο εφαρμογής απλά πρέπει να είναι ένα τυπικό αρχείο zip που περιέχει
ένα αρχείο ‘__main__.py’ το οποίο θα εκτελείται ως το σημείο εισόδου για
την εφαρμογή.  Όπως συνήθως για οποιοδήποτε Python script, ο γονέας του
script (σε αυτή την περίπτωση το αρχείο zip) θα τοποθετηθεί στο *note
sys.path: 194. και έτσι περαιτέρω modules μπορούν να εισαχθούν από το
αρχείο zip.

Η μορφή αρχείου zip επιτρέπει την προσθήκη αυθαίρετων δεδομένων στην
αρχή ενός αρχείου zip.  Η μορφή αρχείου εφαρμογής zip χρησιμοποιεί αυτή
την ικανότητα για να προσθέσει μια τυπική γραμμή «shebang» POSIX στην
αρχή του αρχείου (‘#!/path/to/interpreter’).

Επίσημα, η μορφή αρχείου εφαρμογής zip της Python είναι επομένως:

  1. Μια προαιρετική γραμμή shebang, που περιέχει τους χαρακτήρες
     ‘b'#!'’ ακολουθούμενους από ένα όνομα διερμηνέα, και στη συνέχεια
     έναν χαρακτήρα newline (‘b'\n'’).  Το όνομα του διερμηνέα μπορεί να
     είναι οτιδήποτε αποδεκτό από την επεξεργασία «shebang» του
     λειτουργικού συστήματος, ή τον διερμηνέα Python σε Windows.  Ο
     διερμηνέας θα πρέπει να κωδικοποιείται σε UTF-8 σε Windows, και σε
     *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): 1017. σε POSIX.

  2. Τυπικά δεδομένα αρχείου zip, όπως παράγονται από το module *note
     zipfile: 13a.  Το περιεχόμενο του αρχείου zip 'πρέπει' να
     περιλαμβάνει ένα αρχείο ‘__main__.py’ (το οποίο πρέπει να βρίσκεται
     στο «root» του αρχείου zip - δηλαδή, δεν μπορεί να βρίσκεται σε
     υποφάκελο).  Τα δεδομένα του αρχείου zip μπορεί να είναι
     συμπιεσμένα ή μη συμπιεσμένα.

Αν ένα αρχείο εφαρμογής έχει μια γραμμή shebang, μπορεί να έχει
ρυθμιστεί το εκτελέσιμο bit σε συστήματα POSIX, για να επιτρέπεται η
άμεση εκτέλεσή του.

Δεν υπάρχει απαίτηση να χρησιμοποιούνται τα εργαλεία σε αυτό το module
για τη δημιουργία αρχείων εφαρμογής - το module είναι μια ευκολία, αλλά
τα αρχεία σε παραπάνω μορφή που δημιουργούνται με οποιονδήποτε τρόπο
είναι αποδεκτά από την Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Runtime Services,  Next: Custom Python Interpreters,  Prev: Software Packaging and Distribution,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.30 Python Runtime Services
============================

The modules described in this chapter provide a wide range of services
related to the Python interpreter and its interaction with its
environment.  Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* sys — System-specific parameters and functions::
* sys.monitoring — Execution event monitoring: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring.
* sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information::
* builtins — Built-in objects::
* __main__ — Top-level code environment::
* warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων::
* dataclasses — Data Classes::
* contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts::
* abc — Abstract Base Classes::
* atexit — Exit handlers::
* traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback::
* __future__ — Future statement definitions::
* gc — Garbage Collector interface::
* inspect — Inspect live objects::
* annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations::
* site — Site-specific configuration hook::


File: python.info,  Node: sys — System-specific parameters and functions,  Next: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.1 ‘sys’ — System-specific parameters and functions
-------------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to some variables used or maintained by the
interpreter and to functions that interact strongly with the
interpreter.  It is always available.  Unless explicitly noted
otherwise, all variables are read-only.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.abi_info

     Added in version 3.15.

     An object containing information about the ABI of the currently
     running Python interpreter.  It should include information that
     affect the CPython ABI in ways that require a specific build of the
     interpreter chosen from variants that can co-exist on a single
     machine.  For example, it does not encode the base OS (Linux or
     Windows), but does include pointer size since some systems support
     both 32- and 64-bit builds.  The available entries are the same on
     all platforms; e.g.  'pointer_size' is available even on
     64-bit-only architectures.

     The following attributes are available:

      -- Ιδιότητα: abi_info.pointer_bits

          The width of pointers in bits, as an integer, equivalent to ‘8
          * sizeof(void *)’.  Usually, this is ‘32’ or ‘64’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: abi_info.free_threaded

          A Boolean indicating whether the interpreter was built with
          *note free threading: 487. support.  This reflects either the
          presence of the *note -disable-gil: 6a5. ‘configure’ option
          (on Unix) or setting the ‘DisableGil’ property (on Windows).

      -- Ιδιότητα: abi_info.debug

          A Boolean indicating whether the interpreter was built in
          *note debug mode: 3dc.  This reflects either the presence of
          the *note -with-pydebug: 853. ‘configure’ option (on Unix) or
          the ‘Debug’ configuration (on Windows).

      -- Ιδιότητα: abi_info.byteorder

          A string indicating the native byte order, either ‘'big'’ or
          ‘'little'’.  This is the same as the *note byteorder: 27f1.
          attribute.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.abiflags

     On POSIX systems where Python was built with the standard
     ‘configure’ script, this contains the ABI flags as specified by PEP
     3149(1).

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Default flags became an empty string (‘m’
     flag for pymalloc has been removed).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.addaudithook (hook)

     Append the callable 'hook' to the list of active auditing hooks for
     the current (sub)interpreter.

     When an auditing event is raised through the *note sys.audit():
     1b36. function, each hook will be called in the order it was added
     with the event name and the tuple of arguments.  Native hooks added
     by *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 49a8. are called first, followed by
     hooks added in the current (sub)interpreter.  Hooks can then log
     the event, raise an exception to abort the operation, or terminate
     the process entirely.

     Note that audit hooks are primarily for collecting information
     about internal or otherwise unobservable actions, whether by Python
     or libraries written in Python.  They are not suitable for
     implementing a «sandbox».  In particular, malicious code can
     trivially disable or bypass hooks added using this function.  At a
     minimum, any security-sensitive hooks must be added using the C API
     *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 49a8. before initialising the runtime,
     and any modules allowing arbitrary memory modification (such as
     *note ctypes: 2d.) should be completely removed or closely
     monitored.

     Calling *note sys.addaudithook(): 49a7. will itself raise an
     auditing event named ‘sys.addaudithook’ with no arguments.  If any
     existing hooks raise an exception derived from *note RuntimeError:
     30d, the new hook will not be added and the exception suppressed.
     As a result, callers cannot assume that their hook has been added
     unless they control all existing hooks.

     See the *note audit events table: 1e0a. for all events raised by
     CPython, and PEP 578(2) for the original design discussion.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8.1: Exceptions derived from *note Exception:
     d9e. but not *note RuntimeError: 30d. are no longer suppressed.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' When tracing is enabled (see
     *note settrace(): 55c.), Python hooks are only traced if the
     callable has a ‘__cantrace__’ member that is set to a true value.
     Otherwise, trace functions will skip the hook.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.argv

     The list of command line arguments passed to a Python script.
     ‘argv[0]’ is the script name (it is operating system dependent
     whether this is a full pathname or not).  If the command was
     executed using the *note -c: 445. command line option to the
     interpreter, ‘argv[0]’ is set to the string ‘'-c'’.  If no script
     name was passed to the Python interpreter, ‘argv[0]’ is the empty
     string.

     To loop over the standard input, or the list of files given on the
     command line, see the *note fileinput: 5e. module.

     See also *note sys.orig_argv: c19.

          Σημείωση: On Unix, command line arguments are passed by bytes
          from OS. Python decodes them with filesystem encoding and
          «surrogateescape» error handler.  When you need original
          bytes, you can get it by ‘[os.fsencode(arg) for arg in
          sys.argv]’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.audit (event, *args)

     Raise an auditing event and trigger any active auditing hooks.
     'event' is a string identifying the event, and 'args' may contain
     optional arguments with more information about the event.  The
     number and types of arguments for a given event are considered a
     public and stable API and should not be modified between releases.

     For example, one auditing event is named ‘os.chdir’.  This event
     has one argument called 'path' that will contain the requested new
     working directory.

     *note sys.audit(): 1b36. will call the existing auditing hooks,
     passing the event name and arguments, and will re-raise the first
     exception from any hook.  In general, if an exception is raised, it
     should not be handled and the process should be terminated as
     quickly as possible.  This allows hook implementations to decide
     how to respond to particular events: they can merely log the event
     or abort the operation by raising an exception.

     Hooks are added using the *note sys.addaudithook(): 49a7. or *note
     PySys_AddAuditHook(): 49a8. functions.

     The native equivalent of this function is *note PySys_Audit(): 808.
     Using the native function is preferred when possible.

     See the *note audit events table: 1e0a. for all events raised by
     CPython.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.base_exec_prefix

     Equivalent to *note exec_prefix: 3a8, but referring to the base
     Python installation.

     When running under *note Virtual Environments: 4b93, *note
     exec_prefix: 3a8. gets overwritten to the virtual environment
     prefix.  ‘base_exec_prefix’, conversely, does not change, and
     always points to the base Python installation.  Refer to *note
     Virtual Environments: 4b93. for more information.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.base_prefix

     Equivalent to *note prefix: 3ab, but referring to the base Python
     installation.

     When running under *note virtual environment: 3a9, *note prefix:
     3ab. gets overwritten to the virtual environment prefix.
     ‘base_prefix’, conversely, does not change, and always points to
     the base Python installation.  Refer to *note Virtual Environments:
     4b93. for more information.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.byteorder

     An indicator of the native byte order.  This will have the value
     ‘'big'’ on big-endian (most-significant byte first) platforms, and
     ‘'little'’ on little-endian (least-significant byte first)
     platforms.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.builtin_module_names

     A tuple of strings containing the names of all modules that are
     compiled into this Python interpreter.  (This information is not
     available in any other way — ‘modules.keys()’ only lists the
     imported modules.)

     See also the *note sys.stdlib_module_names: c1a. list.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.call_tracing (func, args)

     Call ‘func(*args)’, while tracing is enabled.  The tracing state is
     saved, and restored afterwards.  This is intended to be called from
     a debugger from a checkpoint, to recursively debug or profile some
     other code.

     Tracing is suspended while calling a tracing function set by *note
     settrace(): 55c. or *note setprofile(): 18a0. to avoid infinite
     recursion.  ‘call_tracing()’ enables explicit recursion of the
     tracing function.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.copyright

     A string containing the copyright pertaining to the Python
     interpreter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys._clear_type_cache ()

     Clear the internal type cache.  The type cache is used to speed up
     attribute and method lookups.  Use the function 'only' to drop
     unnecessary references during reference leak debugging.

     This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes
     only.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13: Use the more general *note
     _clear_internal_caches(): 345. function instead.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys._clear_internal_caches ()

     Clear all internal performance-related caches.  Use this function
     'only' to release unnecessary references and memory blocks when
     hunting for leaks.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys._current_frames ()

     Return a dictionary mapping each thread’s identifier to the topmost
     stack frame currently active in that thread at the time the
     function is called.  Note that functions in the *note traceback:
     107. module can build the call stack given such a frame.

     This is most useful for debugging deadlock: this function does not
     require the deadlocked threads” cooperation, and such threads” call
     stacks are frozen for as long as they remain deadlocked.  The frame
     returned for a non-deadlocked thread may bear no relationship to
     that thread’s current activity by the time calling code examines
     the frame.

     This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes
     only.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘sys._current_frames’ with no
     arguments.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys._current_exceptions ()

     Return a dictionary mapping each thread’s identifier to the topmost
     exception currently active in that thread at the time the function
     is called.  If a thread is not currently handling an exception, it
     is not included in the result dictionary.

     This is most useful for statistical profiling.

     This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes
     only.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘sys._current_exceptions’
     with no arguments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Each value in the dictionary is now a
     single exception instance, rather than a 3-tuple as returned from
     ‘sys.exc_info()’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.breakpointhook ()

     This hook function is called by built-in *note breakpoint(): 4f9.
     By default, it drops you into the *note pdb: aa. debugger, but it
     can be set to any other function so that you can choose which
     debugger gets used.

     The signature of this function is dependent on what it calls.  For
     example, the default binding (e.g.  ‘pdb.set_trace()’) expects no
     arguments, but you might bind it to a function that expects
     additional arguments (positional and/or keyword).  The built-in
     ‘breakpoint()’ function passes its ‘*args’ and ‘**kws’ straight
     through.  Whatever ‘breakpointhooks()’ returns is returned from
     ‘breakpoint()’.

     The default implementation first consults the environment variable
     *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: ea0.  If that is set to ‘"0"’ then this
     function returns immediately; i.e.  it is a no-op.  If the
     environment variable is not set, or is set to the empty string,
     ‘pdb.set_trace()’ is called.  Otherwise this variable should name a
     function to run, using Python’s dotted-import nomenclature, e.g.
     ‘package.subpackage.module.function’.  In this case,
     ‘package.subpackage.module’ would be imported and the resulting
     module must have a callable named ‘function()’.  This is run,
     passing in ‘*args’ and ‘**kws’, and whatever ‘function()’ returns,
     ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ returns to the built-in *note breakpoint():
     4f9. function.

     Note that if anything goes wrong while importing the callable named
     by *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: ea0, a *note RuntimeWarning: 6dd. is
     reported and the breakpoint is ignored.

     Also note that if ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ is overridden
     programmatically, *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: ea0. is 'not' consulted.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys._debugmallocstats ()

     Print low-level information to stderr about the state of CPython’s
     memory allocator.

     If Python is *note built in debug mode: 3dc. (*note configure
     -with-pydebug option: 853.), it also performs some expensive
     internal consistency checks.

     Added in version 3.3.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This function is specific to
     CPython.  The exact output format is not defined here, and may
     change.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.dllhandle

     Integer specifying the handle of the Python DLL.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.displayhook (value)

     If 'value' is not ‘None’, this function prints ‘repr(value)’ to
     ‘sys.stdout’, and saves 'value' in ‘builtins._’.  If ‘repr(value)’
     is not encodable to ‘sys.stdout.encoding’ with ‘sys.stdout.errors’
     error handler (which is probably ‘'strict'’), encode it to
     ‘sys.stdout.encoding’ with ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handler.

     ‘sys.displayhook’ is called on the result of evaluating an *note
     expression: 25c4. entered in an interactive Python session.  The
     display of these values can be customized by assigning another
     one-argument function to ‘sys.displayhook’.

     Pseudo-code:

          def displayhook(value):
              if value is None:
                  return
              # Set '_' to None to avoid recursion
              builtins._ = None
              text = repr(value)
              try:
                  sys.stdout.write(text)
              except UnicodeEncodeError:
                  bytes = text.encode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'backslashreplace')
                  if hasattr(sys.stdout, 'buffer'):
                      sys.stdout.buffer.write(bytes)
                  else:
                      text = bytes.decode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'strict')
                      sys.stdout.write(text)
              sys.stdout.write("\n")
              builtins._ = value

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Use ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handler on
     *note UnicodeEncodeError: a67.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.dont_write_bytecode

     If this is true, Python won’t try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the
     import of source modules.  This value is initially set to ‘True’ or
     ‘False’ depending on the *note -B: 1770. command line option and
     the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1771. environment variable, but
     you can set it yourself to control bytecode file generation.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys._emscripten_info

     A *note named tuple: a3d. holding information about the environment
     on the 'wasm32-emscripten' platform.  The named tuple is
     provisional and may change in the future.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _emscripten_info.emscripten_version

          Emscripten version as tuple of ints (major, minor, micro),
          e.g.  ‘(3, 1, 8)’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _emscripten_info.runtime

          Runtime string, e.g.  browser user agent, ‘'Node.js
          v14.18.2'’, or ‘'UNKNOWN'’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _emscripten_info.pthreads

          ‘True’ if Python is compiled with Emscripten pthreads support.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _emscripten_info.shared_memory

          ‘True’ if Python is compiled with shared memory support.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Emscripten.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.pycache_prefix

     If this is set (not ‘None’), Python will write bytecode-cache
     ‘.pyc’ files to (and read them from) a parallel directory tree
     rooted at this directory, rather than from ‘__pycache__’
     directories in the source code tree.  Any ‘__pycache__’ directories
     in the source code tree will be ignored and new ‘.pyc’ files
     written within the pycache prefix.  Thus if you use *note
     compileall: 21. as a pre-build step, you must ensure you run it
     with the same pycache prefix (if any) that you will use at runtime.

     A relative path is interpreted relative to the current working
     directory.

     This value is initially set based on the value of the *note -X:
     178. ‘pycache_prefix=PATH’ command-line option or the *note
     PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: d6c. environment variable (command-line takes
     precedence).  If neither are set, it is ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.excepthook (type, value, traceback)

     This function prints out a given traceback and exception to
     ‘sys.stderr’.

     When an exception other than *note SystemExit: 10f7. is raised and
     uncaught, the interpreter calls ‘sys.excepthook’ with three
     arguments, the exception class, exception instance, and a traceback
     object.  In an interactive session this happens just before control
     is returned to the prompt; in a Python program this happens just
     before the program exits.  The handling of such top-level
     exceptions can be customized by assigning another three-argument
     function to ‘sys.excepthook’.

     Raise an auditing event ‘sys.excepthook’ with arguments ‘hook’,
     ‘type’, ‘value’, ‘traceback’ when an uncaught exception occurs.  If
     no hook has been set, ‘hook’ may be ‘None’.  If any hook raises an
     exception derived from *note RuntimeError: 30d. the call to the
     hook will be suppressed.  Otherwise, the audit hook exception will
     be reported as unraisable and ‘sys.excepthook’ will be called.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note sys.unraisablehook(): 70c. function handles unraisable
     exceptions and the *note threading.excepthook(): c23. function
     handles exception raised by *note threading.Thread.run(): e00.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.__breakpointhook__
 -- Δεδομένα: sys.__displayhook__
 -- Δεδομένα: sys.__excepthook__
 -- Δεδομένα: sys.__unraisablehook__

     These objects contain the original values of ‘breakpointhook’,
     ‘displayhook’, ‘excepthook’, and ‘unraisablehook’ at the start of
     the program.  They are saved so that ‘breakpointhook’,
     ‘displayhook’ and ‘excepthook’, ‘unraisablehook’ can be restored in
     case they happen to get replaced with broken or alternative
     objects.

     Added in version 3.7: __breakpointhook__

     Added in version 3.8: __unraisablehook__

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.exception ()

     This function, when called while an exception handler is executing
     (such as an ‘except’ or ‘except*’ clause), returns the exception
     instance that was caught by this handler.  When exception handlers
     are nested within one another, only the exception handled by the
     innermost handler is accessible.

     If no exception handler is executing, this function returns ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.exc_info ()

     This function returns the old-style representation of the handled
     exception.  If an exception ‘e’ is currently handled (so *note
     exception(): a7b. would return ‘e’), ‘exc_info()’ returns the tuple
     ‘(type(e), e, e.__traceback__)’.  That is, a tuple containing the
     type of the exception (a subclass of *note BaseException: 9b9.),
     the exception itself, and a *note traceback object: eba. which
     typically encapsulates the call stack at the point where the
     exception last occurred.

     If no exception is being handled anywhere on the stack, this
     function return a tuple containing three ‘None’ values.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ fields are now
     derived from the ‘value’ (the exception instance), so when an
     exception is modified while it is being handled, the changes are
     reflected in the results of subsequent calls to ‘exc_info()’.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.exec_prefix

     A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the
     platform-dependent Python files are installed; by default, this is
     also ‘'/usr/local'’.  This can be set at build time with the
     ‘--exec-prefix’ argument to the ‘configure’ script.  Specifically,
     all configuration files (e.g.  the ‘pyconfig.h’ header file) are
     installed in the directory ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/config’,
     and shared library modules are installed in
     ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/lib-dynload’, where 'X.Y' is the
     version number of Python, for example ‘3.2’.

          Σημείωση: If a *note virtual environment: 3a9. is in effect,
          this ‘exec_prefix’ will point to the virtual environment.  The
          value for the Python installation will still be available, via
          *note base_exec_prefix: 3a7.  Refer to *note Virtual
          Environments: 4b93. for more information.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: When running under a *note virtual
     environment: 3a9, *note prefix: 3ab. and ‘exec_prefix’ are now set
     to the virtual environment prefix by the *note path initialization:
     1953, instead of *note site: cf.  This means that ‘prefix’ and
     ‘exec_prefix’ always point to the virtual environment, even when
     ‘site’ is disabled (*note -S: 1551.).

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.executable

     A string giving the absolute path of the executable binary for the
     Python interpreter, on systems where this makes sense.  If Python
     is unable to retrieve the real path to its executable, *note
     sys.executable: 3ac. will be an empty string or ‘None’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.exit ([arg])

     Raise a *note SystemExit: 10f7. exception, signaling an intention
     to exit the interpreter.

     The optional argument 'arg' can be an integer giving the exit
     status (defaulting to zero), or another type of object.  If it is
     an integer, zero is considered «successful termination» and any
     nonzero value is considered «abnormal termination» by shells and
     the like.  Most systems require it to be in the range 0–127, and
     produce undefined results otherwise.  Some systems have a
     convention for assigning specific meanings to specific exit codes,
     but these are generally underdeveloped; Unix programs generally use
     2 for command line syntax errors and 1 for all other kinds of
     errors.  If another type of object is passed, ‘None’ is equivalent
     to passing zero, and any other object is printed to *note stderr:
     d05. and results in an exit code of 1.  In particular,
     ‘sys.exit("some error message")’ is a quick way to exit a program
     when an error occurs.

     Since ‘exit()’ ultimately «only» raises an exception, it will only
     exit the process when called from the main thread, and the
     exception is not intercepted.  Cleanup actions specified by *note
     finally: 44c. clauses of *note try: ad6. statements are honored,
     and it is possible to intercept the exit attempt at an outer level.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: If an error occurs in the cleanup after the
     Python interpreter has caught *note SystemExit: 10f7. (such as an
     error flushing buffered data in the standard streams), the exit
     status is changed to 120.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.flags

     The *note named tuple: a3d. 'flags' exposes the status of command
     line flags.  Flags should only be accessed only by name and not by
     index.  The attributes are read only.

      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.debug                              *note -d: 2312.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.inspect                            *note -i: 187d.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.interactive                        *note -i: 187d.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.isolated                           *note -I: d28.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.optimize                           *note -O: 431. or *note -OO: 116e.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.dont_write_bytecode                *note -B: 1770.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.no_user_site                       *note -s: 1732.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.no_site                            *note -S: 1551.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.ignore_environment                 *note -E: d27.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.verbose                            *note -v: 17c7.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.bytes_warning                      *note -b: 2ed.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.quiet                              *note -q: 1994.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.hash_randomization                 *note -R: 2065.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.dev_mode                           *note -X dev: 178.
                                                            (*note Python Development Mode: 70d.)
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.utf8_mode                          *note -X utf8: 178.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.safe_path                          *note -P: 9a3.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.int_max_str_digits                 *note -X int_max_str_digits: 178.
                                                            (*note integer string conversion length limitation: 9ec.)
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.warn_default_encoding              *note -X warn_default_encoding: 178.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.gil                                *note -X gil: 178. and *note PYTHON_GIL: 6a6.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.thread_inherit_context             *note -X thread_inherit_context: 178. and
                                                            *note PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT: 1a90.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- Ιδιότητα: flags.context_aware_warnings             *note -X context_aware_warnings: 178. and
                                                            *note PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS: 1a83.
                                                            

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added ‘quiet’ attribute for the new *note
     -q: 1994. flag.

     Added in version 3.2.3: The ‘hash_randomization’ attribute.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Removed obsolete ‘division_warning’
     attribute.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added ‘isolated’ attribute for *note -I:
     d28. ‘isolated’ flag.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the ‘dev_mode’ attribute for the new
     *note Python Development Mode: 70d. and the ‘utf8_mode’ attribute
     for the new *note -X: 178. ‘utf8’ flag.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added ‘warn_default_encoding’ attribute
     for *note -X: 178. ‘warn_default_encoding’ flag.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the ‘safe_path’ attribute for *note
     -P: 9a3. option.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the ‘int_max_str_digits’ attribute.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the ‘gil’ attribute.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added the ‘thread_inherit_context’
     attribute.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added the ‘context_aware_warnings’
     attribute.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.float_info

     A *note named tuple: a3d. holding information about the float type.
     It contains low level information about the precision and internal
     representation.  The values correspond to the various
     floating-point constants defined in the standard header file
     ‘float.h’ for the “C” programming language; see section 5.2.4.2.2
     of the 1999 ISO/IEC C standard *note [C99]: 4bed, “Characteristics
     of floating types”, for details.  Attributes of the ‘float_info’
     named tuple

     attribute                             float.h macro                         explanation
                                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                 
      -- Ιδιότητα: float_info.epsilon      ‘DBL_EPSILON’                         difference between 1.0 and the
                                                                                 least value greater than 1.0 that
                                                                                 is representable as a float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 See also *note math.ulp(): ce1.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Ιδιότητα: float_info.dig          ‘DBL_DIG’                             The maximum number of decimal
                                                                                 digits that can be faithfully
                                                                                 represented in a float; see below.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Ιδιότητα: float_info.mant_dig     ‘DBL_MANT_DIG’                        Float precision: the number of
                                                                                 base-‘radix’ digits in the
                                                                                 significand of a float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Ιδιότητα: float_info.max          ‘DBL_MAX’                             The maximum representable positive
                                                                                 finite float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Ιδιότητα: float_info.max_exp      ‘DBL_MAX_EXP’                         The maximum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘radix**(e-1)’ is a representable
                                                                                 finite float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Ιδιότητα: float_info.max_10_exp   ‘DBL_MAX_10_EXP’                      The maximum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘10**e’ is in the range of
                                                                                 representable finite floats.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Ιδιότητα: float_info.min          ‘DBL_MIN’                             The minimum representable positive
                                                                                 'normalized' float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 Use *note math.ulp(0.0): ce1. to
                                                                                 get the smallest positive
                                                                                 'denormalized' representable float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Ιδιότητα: float_info.min_exp      ‘DBL_MIN_EXP’                         The minimum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘radix**(e-1)’ is a normalized
                                                                                 float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Ιδιότητα: float_info.min_10_exp   ‘DBL_MIN_10_EXP’                      The minimum integer 'e' such that
                                                                                 ‘10**e’ is a normalized float.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Ιδιότητα: float_info.radix        ‘FLT_RADIX’                           The radix of exponent
                                                                                 representation.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
      -- Ιδιότητα: float_info.rounds       ‘FLT_ROUNDS’                          An integer representing the
                                                                                 rounding mode for floating-point
                                                                                 arithmetic.  This reflects the
                                                                                 value of the system ‘FLT_ROUNDS’
                                                                                 macro at interpreter startup time:
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘-1’: indeterminable
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘0’: toward zero
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘1’: to nearest
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘2’: toward positive infinity
                                                                                 
                                                                                    * ‘3’: toward negative infinity
                                                                                 
                                                                                 All other values for ‘FLT_ROUNDS’
                                                                                 characterize implementation-defined
                                                                                 rounding behavior.
                                                                                 

     The attribute *note sys.float_info.dig: 4bef. needs further
     explanation.  If ‘s’ is any string representing a decimal number
     with at most ‘sys.float_info.dig’ significant digits, then
     converting ‘s’ to a float and back again will recover a string
     representing the same decimal value:

          >>> import sys
          >>> sys.float_info.dig
          15
          >>> s = '3.14159265358979'    # decimal string with 15 significant digits
          >>> format(float(s), '.15g')  # convert to float and back -> same value
          '3.14159265358979'

     But for strings with more than *note sys.float_info.dig: 4bef.
     significant digits, this isn’t always true:

          >>> s = '9876543211234567'    # 16 significant digits is too many!
          >>> format(float(s), '.16g')  # conversion changes value
          '9876543211234568'

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.float_repr_style

     A string indicating how the *note repr(): 45b. function behaves for
     floats.  If the string has value ‘'short'’ then for a finite float
     ‘x’, ‘repr(x)’ aims to produce a short string with the property
     that ‘float(repr(x)) == x’.  This is the usual behaviour in Python
     3.1 and later.  Otherwise, ‘float_repr_style’ has value ‘'legacy'’
     and ‘repr(x)’ behaves in the same way as it did in versions of
     Python prior to 3.1.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getallocatedblocks ()

     Return the number of memory blocks currently allocated by the
     interpreter, regardless of their size.  This function is mainly
     useful for tracking and debugging memory leaks.  Because of the
     interpreter’s internal caches, the result can vary from call to
     call; you may have to call *note _clear_internal_caches(): 345. and
     *note gc.collect(): 44f. to get more predictable results.

     If a Python build or implementation cannot reasonably compute this
     information, ‘getallocatedblocks()’ is allowed to return 0 instead.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getunicodeinternedsize ()

     Return the number of unicode objects that have been interned.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getandroidapilevel ()

     Return the build-time API level of Android as an integer.  This
     represents the minimum version of Android this build of Python can
     run on.  For runtime version information, see *note
     platform.android_ver(): 1bd0.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Android.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getdefaultencoding ()

     Return ‘'utf-8'’.  This is the name of the default string encoding,
     used in methods like *note str.encode(): ca7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getdlopenflags ()

     Return the current value of the flags that are used for ‘dlopen()’
     calls.  Symbolic names for the flag values can be found in the
     *note os: a5. module (‘RTLD_XXX’ constants, e.g.  *note
     os.RTLD_LAZY: 14c4.).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getfilesystemencoding ()

     Get the *note filesystem encoding: 948.: the encoding used with the
     filesystem error handler to convert between Unicode filenames and
     bytes filenames.  The filesystem error handler is returned from
     *note getfilesystemencodeerrors(): 10a3.

     For best compatibility, str should be used for filenames in all
     cases, although representing filenames as bytes is also supported.
     Functions accepting or returning filenames should support either
     str or bytes and internally convert to the system’s preferred
     representation.

     *note os.fsencode(): 1013. and *note os.fsdecode(): 1012. should be
     used to ensure that the correct encoding and errors mode are used.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948. are
     configured at Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): b6f.
     function: see *note filesystem_encoding: 62e. and *note
     filesystem_errors: 62f. members of *note PyConfig: 60b.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: ‘getfilesystemencoding()’ result cannot be
     ‘None’ anymore.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Windows is no longer guaranteed to return
     ‘'mbcs'’.  See PEP 529(3) and *note
     _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 30e. for more information.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Return ‘'utf-8'’ if the *note Python UTF-8
     Mode: a46. is enabled.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors ()

     Get the *note filesystem error handler: 948.: the error handler
     used with the filesystem encoding to convert between Unicode
     filenames and bytes filenames.  The filesystem encoding is returned
     from *note getfilesystemencoding(): 1017.

     *note os.fsencode(): 1013. and *note os.fsdecode(): 1012. should be
     used to ensure that the correct encoding and errors mode are used.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948. are
     configured at Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): b6f.
     function: see *note filesystem_encoding: 62e. and *note
     filesystem_errors: 62f. members of *note PyConfig: 60b.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.get_int_max_str_digits ()

     Returns the current value for the *note integer string conversion
     length limitation: 9ec.  See also *note set_int_max_str_digits():
     1b11.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.get_lazy_imports ()

     Returns the current lazy imports mode as a string.

        * ‘"normal"’: Only imports explicitly marked with the ‘lazy’
          keyword are lazy

        * ‘"all"’: All top-level imports are potentially lazy

        * ‘"none"’: All lazy imports are suppressed (even explicitly
          marked ones)

     See also *note set_lazy_imports(): 17a. and PEP 810(4).

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.get_lazy_imports_filter ()

     Returns the current lazy imports filter function, or ‘None’ if no
     filter is set.

     The filter function is called for every potentially lazy import to
     determine whether it should actually be lazy.  See *note
     set_lazy_imports_filter(): 17c. for details on the filter function
     signature.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getrefcount (object)

     Return the reference count of the 'object'.  The count returned is
     generally one higher than you might expect, because it includes the
     (temporary) reference as an argument to ‘getrefcount()’.

     Note that the returned value may not actually reflect how many
     references to the object are actually held.  For example, some
     objects are *note immortal: 398. and have a very high refcount that
     does not reflect the actual number of references.  Consequently, do
     not rely on the returned value to be accurate, other than a value
     of 0 or 1.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' *note Immortal: 398. objects with
     a large reference count can be identified via *note _is_immortal():
     517.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Immortal objects have very large refcounts
     that do not match the actual number of references to the object.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getrecursionlimit ()

     Return the current value of the recursion limit, the maximum depth
     of the Python interpreter stack.  This limit prevents infinite
     recursion from causing an overflow of the C stack and crashing
     Python.  It can be set by *note setrecursionlimit(): 8d3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getsizeof (object[, default])

     Return the size of an object in bytes.  The object can be any type
     of object.  All built-in objects will return correct results, but
     this does not have to hold true for third-party extensions as it is
     implementation specific.

     Only the memory consumption directly attributed to the object is
     accounted for, not the memory consumption of objects it refers to.

     If given, 'default' will be returned if the object does not provide
     means to retrieve the size.  Otherwise a *note TypeError: 291. will
     be raised.

     ‘getsizeof()’ calls the object’s ‘__sizeof__’ method and adds an
     additional garbage collector overhead if the object is managed by
     the garbage collector.

     See recursive sizeof recipe(5) for an example of using
     ‘getsizeof()’ recursively to find the size of containers and all
     their contents.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getswitchinterval ()

     Return the interpreter’s «thread switch interval» in seconds; see
     *note setswitchinterval(): d16.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys._getframe ([depth])

     Return a frame object from the call stack.  If optional integer
     'depth' is given, return the frame object that many calls below the
     top of the stack.  If that is deeper than the call stack, *note
     ValueError: 277. is raised.  The default for 'depth' is zero,
     returning the frame at the top of the call stack.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘sys._getframe’ with argument
     ‘frame’.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This function should be used for
     internal and specialized purposes only.  It is not guaranteed to
     exist in all implementations of Python.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys._getframemodulename ([depth])

     Return the name of a module from the call stack.  If optional
     integer 'depth' is given, return the module that many calls below
     the top of the stack.  If that is deeper than the call stack, or if
     the module is unidentifiable, ‘None’ is returned.  The default for
     'depth' is zero, returning the module at the top of the call stack.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘sys._getframemodulename’
     with argument ‘depth’.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This function should be used for
     internal and specialized purposes only.  It is not guaranteed to
     exist in all implementations of Python.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getobjects (limit[, type])

     This function only exists if CPython was built using the
     specialized configure option *note -with-trace-refs: 828.  It is
     intended only for debugging garbage-collection issues.

     Return a list of up to 'limit' dynamically allocated Python
     objects.  If 'type' is given, only objects of that exact type (not
     subtypes) are included.

     Objects from the list are not safe to use.  Specifically, the
     result will include objects from all interpreters that share their
     object allocator state (that is, ones created with *note
     PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc: 4bfb. set to 1 or using
     *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 1d2f, and the *note main interpreter:
     410.).  Mixing objects from different interpreters may lead to
     crashes or other unexpected behavior.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This function should be used for
     specialized purposes only.  It is not guaranteed to exist in all
     implementations of Python.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The result may include objects from other
     interpreters.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getprofile ()

     Get the profiler function as set by *note setprofile(): 18a0.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.gettrace ()

     Get the trace function as set by *note settrace(): 55c.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' The ‘gettrace()’ function is
     intended only for implementing debuggers, profilers, coverage tools
     and the like.  Its behavior is part of the implementation platform,
     rather than part of the language definition, and thus may not be
     available in all Python implementations.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.getwindowsversion ()

     Return a named tuple describing the Windows version currently
     running.  The named elements are 'major', 'minor', 'build',
     'platform', 'service_pack', 'service_pack_minor',
     'service_pack_major', 'suite_mask', 'product_type' and
     'platform_version'.  'service_pack' contains a string,
     'platform_version' a 3-tuple and all other values are integers.
     The components can also be accessed by name, so
     ‘sys.getwindowsversion()[0]’ is equivalent to
     ‘sys.getwindowsversion().major’.  For compatibility with prior
     versions, only the first 5 elements are retrievable by indexing.

     'platform' will be ‘2’ (VER_PLATFORM_WIN32_NT).

     'product_type' may be one of the following values:

     Constant                                    Meaning
                                                 
     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     ‘1’ (VER_NT_WORKSTATION)                    The system is a workstation.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘2’ (VER_NT_DOMAIN_CONTROLLER)              The system is a domain controller.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘3’ (VER_NT_SERVER)                         The system is a server, but not a
                                                 domain controller.
                                                 

     This function wraps the Win32 ‘GetVersionEx()’ function; see the
     Microsoft documentation on ‘OSVERSIONINFOEX()’ for more information
     about these fields.

     'platform_version' returns the major version, minor version and
     build number of the current operating system, rather than the
     version that is being emulated for the process.  It is intended for
     use in logging rather than for feature detection.

          Σημείωση: 'platform_version' derives the version from
          kernel32.dll which can be of a different version than the OS
          version.  Please use *note platform: af. module for achieving
          accurate OS version.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Changed to a named tuple and added
     'service_pack_minor', 'service_pack_major', 'suite_mask', and
     'product_type'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added 'platform_version'

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.get_asyncgen_hooks ()

     Returns an 'asyncgen_hooks' object, which is similar to a *note
     namedtuple: 1cf. of the form ‘(firstiter, finalizer)’, where
     'firstiter' and 'finalizer' are expected to be either ‘None’ or
     functions which take an *note asynchronous generator iterator:
     3b87. as an argument, and are used to schedule finalization of an
     asynchronous generator by an event loop.

     Added in version 3.6: See PEP 525(6) for more details.

          Σημείωση: This function has been added on a provisional basis
          (see PEP 411(7) for details.)

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth ()

     Get the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by *note
     set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): f4b.

     Added in version 3.7.

          Σημείωση: This function has been added on a provisional basis
          (see PEP 411(8) for details.)  Use it only for debugging
          purposes.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.hash_info

     A *note named tuple: a3d. giving parameters of the numeric hash
     implementation.  For more details about hashing of numeric types,
     see *note Κατακερματισμός των αριθμητικών τύπων: 27f8.

      -- Ιδιότητα: hash_info.width

          The width in bits used for hash values

      -- Ιδιότητα: hash_info.modulus

          The prime modulus P used for numeric hash scheme

      -- Ιδιότητα: hash_info.inf

          The hash value returned for a positive infinity

      -- Ιδιότητα: hash_info.nan

          (This attribute is no longer used)

      -- Ιδιότητα: hash_info.imag

          The multiplier used for the imaginary part of a complex number

      -- Ιδιότητα: hash_info.algorithm

          The name of the algorithm for hashing of str, bytes, and
          memoryview

      -- Ιδιότητα: hash_info.hash_bits

          The internal output size of the hash algorithm

      -- Ιδιότητα: hash_info.seed_bits

          The size of the seed key of the hash algorithm

      -- Ιδιότητα: hash_info.cutoff

          Cutoff for small string DJBX33A optimization in range ‘[1,
          cutoff)’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added 'algorithm', 'hash_bits',
     'seed_bits', and 'cutoff'.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.hexversion

     The version number encoded as a single integer.  This is guaranteed
     to increase with each version, including proper support for
     non-production releases.  For example, to test that the Python
     interpreter is at least version 1.5.2, use:

          if sys.hexversion >= 0x010502F0:
              # use some advanced feature
              ...
          else:
              # use an alternative implementation or warn the user
              ...

     This is called ‘hexversion’ since it only really looks meaningful
     when viewed as the result of passing it to the built-in *note
     hex(): 1674. function.  The *note named tuple: a3d. *note
     sys.version_info: 2fc. may be used for a more human-friendly
     encoding of the same information.

     More details of ‘hexversion’ can be found at *note API and ABI
     Versioning: 4c05.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.implementation

     An object containing information about the implementation of the
     currently running Python interpreter.  The following attributes are
     required to exist in all Python implementations.

     'name' is the implementation’s identifier, e.g.  ‘'cpython'’.  The
     actual string is defined by the Python implementation, but it is
     guaranteed to be lower case.

     'version' is a named tuple, in the same format as *note
     sys.version_info: 2fc.  It represents the version of the Python
     'implementation'.  This has a distinct meaning from the specific
     version of the Python 'language' to which the currently running
     interpreter conforms, which ‘sys.version_info’ represents.  For
     example, for PyPy 1.8 ‘sys.implementation.version’ might be
     ‘sys.version_info(1, 8, 0, 'final', 0)’, whereas ‘sys.version_info’
     would be ‘sys.version_info(2, 7, 2, 'final', 0)’.  For CPython they
     are the same value, since it is the reference implementation.

     'hexversion' is the implementation version in hexadecimal format,
     like *note sys.hexversion: 4c04.

     'cache_tag' is the tag used by the import machinery in the
     filenames of cached modules.  By convention, it would be a
     composite of the implementation’s name and version, like
     ‘'cpython-33'’.  However, a Python implementation may use some
     other value if appropriate.  If ‘cache_tag’ is set to ‘None’, it
     indicates that module caching should be disabled.

     'supports_isolated_interpreters' is a boolean value, whether this
     implementation supports multiple isolated interpreters.  It is
     ‘True’ for CPython on most platforms.  Platforms with this support
     implement the low-level ‘_interpreters’ module.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 684(9), PEP 734(10), and *note concurrent.interpreters: 25.

     *note sys.implementation: 926. may contain additional attributes
     specific to the Python implementation.  These non-standard
     attributes must start with an underscore, and are not described
     here.  Regardless of its contents, ‘sys.implementation’ will not
     change during a run of the interpreter, nor between implementation
     versions.  (It may change between Python language versions,
     however.)  See PEP 421(11) for more information.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added ‘supports_isolated_interpreters’
     field.

          Σημείωση: The addition of new required attributes must go
          through the normal PEP process.  See PEP 421(12) for more
          information.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.int_info

     A *note named tuple: a3d. that holds information about Python’s
     internal representation of integers.  The attributes are read only.

      -- Ιδιότητα: int_info.bits_per_digit

          The number of bits held in each digit.  Python integers are
          stored internally in base ‘2**int_info.bits_per_digit’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: int_info.sizeof_digit

          The size in bytes of the C type used to represent a digit.

      -- Ιδιότητα: int_info.default_max_str_digits

          The default value for *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits():
          1a12. when it is not otherwise explicitly configured.

      -- Ιδιότητα: int_info.str_digits_check_threshold

          The minimum non-zero value for *note
          sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 1b11, *note
          PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1d38, or *note -X int_max_str_digits:
          178.

     Added in version 3.1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added *note default_max_str_digits: 28d8.
     and *note str_digits_check_threshold: 4c08.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.__interactivehook__

     When this attribute exists, its value is automatically called (with
     no arguments) when the interpreter is launched in *note interactive
     mode: 656.  This is done after the *note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453. file
     is read, so that you can set this hook there.  The *note site: cf.
     module *note sets this: 1372.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘cpython.run_interactivehook’
     with the hook object as the argument when the hook is called on
     startup.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.intern (string)

     Enter 'string' in the table of «interned» strings and return the
     interned string – which is 'string' itself or a copy.  Interning
     strings is useful to gain a little performance on dictionary lookup
     – if the keys in a dictionary are interned, and the lookup key is
     interned, the key comparisons (after hashing) can be done by a
     pointer compare instead of a string compare.  Normally, the names
     used in Python programs are automatically interned, and the
     dictionaries used to hold module, class or instance attributes have
     interned keys.

     Interned strings are not *note immortal: 398.; you must keep a
     reference to the return value of ‘intern()’ around to benefit from
     it.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys._is_gil_enabled ()

     Return *note True: fcc. if the *note GIL: 411. is enabled and *note
     False: ef5. if it is disabled.

     Added in version 3.13.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' It is not guaranteed to exist in
     all implementations of Python.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.is_finalizing ()

     Return *note True: fcc. if the main Python interpreter is *note
     shutting down: 1a0.  Return *note False: ef5. otherwise.

     See also the *note PythonFinalizationError: 68a. exception.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys._jit

     Utilities for observing just-in-time compilation.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' JIT compilation is an
     'experimental implementation detail' of CPython.  ‘sys._jit’ is not
     guaranteed to exist or behave the same way in all Python
     implementations, versions, or build configurations.

     Added in version 3.14.

      -- Συνάρτηση: _jit.is_available ()

          Return ‘True’ if the current Python executable supports JIT
          compilation, and ‘False’ otherwise.  This can be controlled by
          building CPython with the ‘--experimental-jit’ option on
          Windows, and the *note -enable-experimental-jit: 661. option
          on all other platforms.

      -- Συνάρτηση: _jit.is_enabled ()

          Return ‘True’ if JIT compilation is enabled for the current
          Python process (implies *note sys._jit.is_available(): 662.),
          and ‘False’ otherwise.  If JIT compilation is available, this
          can be controlled by setting the *note PYTHON_JIT: 660.
          environment variable to ‘0’ (disabled) or ‘1’ (enabled) at
          interpreter startup.

      -- Συνάρτηση: _jit.is_active ()

          Return ‘True’ if the topmost Python frame is currently
          executing JIT code (implies *note sys._jit.is_enabled():
          663.), and ‘False’ otherwise.

               Σημείωση: This function is intended for testing and
               debugging the JIT itself.  It should be avoided for any
               other purpose.

               Σημείωση: Due to the nature of tracing JIT compilers,
               repeated calls to this function may give surprising
               results.  For example, branching on its return value will
               likely lead to unexpected behavior (if doing so causes
               JIT code to be entered or exited):

                    >>> for warmup in range(BIG_NUMBER):
                    ...     # This line is "hot", and is eventually JIT-compiled:
                    ...     if sys._jit.is_active():
                    ...         # This line is "cold", and is run in the interpreter:
                    ...         assert sys._jit.is_active()
                    ...
                    Traceback (most recent call last):
                      File "<stdin>", line 5, in <module>
                        assert sys._jit.is_active()
                               ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
                    AssertionError

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.last_exc

     This variable is not always defined; it is set to the exception
     instance when an exception is not handled and the interpreter
     prints an error message and a stack traceback.  Its intended use is
     to allow an interactive user to import a debugger module and engage
     in post-mortem debugging without having to re-execute the command
     that caused the error.  (Typical use is ‘import pdb; pdb.pm()’ to
     enter the post-mortem debugger; see *note pdb: aa. module for more
     information.)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys._is_immortal (op)

     Return *note True: fcc. if the given object is *note immortal: 398,
     *note False: ef5. otherwise.

          Σημείωση: Objects that are immortal (and thus return ‘True’
          upon being passed to this function) are not guaranteed to be
          immortal in future versions, and vice versa for mortal
          objects.

     Added in version 3.14.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This function should be used for
     specialized purposes only.  It is not guaranteed to exist in all
     implementations of Python.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys._is_interned (string)

     Return *note True: fcc. if the given string is «interned», *note
     False: ef5. otherwise.

     Added in version 3.13.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' It is not guaranteed to exist in
     all implementations of Python.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.last_type
 -- Δεδομένα: sys.last_value
 -- Δεδομένα: sys.last_traceback

     These three variables are deprecated; use *note sys.last_exc: 8ce.
     instead.  They hold the legacy representation of ‘sys.last_exc’, as
     returned from *note exc_info(): a7a. above.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.maxsize

     An integer giving the maximum value a variable of type *note
     Py_ssize_t: e24. can take.  It’s usually ‘2**31 - 1’ on a 32-bit
     platform and ‘2**63 - 1’ on a 64-bit platform.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.maxunicode

     An integer giving the value of the largest Unicode code point, i.e.
     ‘1114111’ (‘0x10FFFF’ in hexadecimal).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Before PEP 393(13), ‘sys.maxunicode’ used
     to be either ‘0xFFFF’ or ‘0x10FFFF’, depending on the configuration
     option that specified whether Unicode characters were stored as
     UCS-2 or UCS-4.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.meta_path

     A list of *note meta path finder: 1418. objects that have their
     *note find_spec(): c3f. methods called to see if one of the objects
     can find the module to be imported.  By default, it holds entries
     that implement Python’s default import semantics.  The
     ‘find_spec()’ method is called with at least the absolute name of
     the module being imported.  If the module to be imported is
     contained in a package, then the parent package’s *note __path__:
     2243. attribute is passed in as a second argument.  The method
     returns a *note module spec: 2554, or ‘None’ if the module cannot
     be found.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: c44.

          The abstract base class defining the interface of finder
          objects on ‘meta_path’.

     *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 245d.

          The concrete class which *note find_spec(): c3f. should return
          instances of.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: *note Module specs: 2554. were introduced
     in Python 3.4, by PEP 451(14).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Removed the fallback that looked for a
     ‘find_module()’ method if a ‘meta_path’ entry didn’t have a *note
     find_spec(): c3f. method.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.modules

     This is a dictionary that maps module names to modules which have
     already been loaded.  This can be manipulated to force reloading of
     modules and other tricks.  However, replacing the dictionary will
     not necessarily work as expected and deleting essential items from
     the dictionary may cause Python to fail.  If you want to iterate
     over this global dictionary always use ‘sys.modules.copy()’ or
     ‘tuple(sys.modules)’ to avoid exceptions as its size may change
     during iteration as a side effect of code or activity in other
     threads.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.orig_argv

     The list of the original command line arguments passed to the
     Python executable.

     The elements of *note sys.orig_argv: c19. are the arguments to the
     Python interpreter, while the elements of *note sys.argv: 1609. are
     the arguments to the user’s program.  Arguments consumed by the
     interpreter itself will be present in ‘sys.orig_argv’ and missing
     from ‘sys.argv’.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.path

     A list of strings that specifies the search path for modules.
     Initialized from the environment variable *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6,
     plus an installation-dependent default.

     By default, as initialized upon program startup, a potentially
     unsafe path is prepended to *note sys.path: 194. ('before' the
     entries inserted as a result of *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6.):

        * ‘python -m module’ command line: prepend the current working
          directory.

        * ‘python script.py’ command line: prepend the script’s
          directory.  If it’s a symbolic link, resolve symbolic links.

        * ‘python -c code’ and ‘python’ (REPL) command lines: prepend an
          empty string, which means the current working directory.

     To not prepend this potentially unsafe path, use the *note -P: 9a3.
     command line option or the *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 9a4. environment
     variable.

     A program is free to modify this list for its own purposes.  Only
     strings should be added to *note sys.path: 194.; all other data
     types are ignored during import.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * Module *note site: cf. This describes how to use .pth files to
          extend *note sys.path: 194.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.path_hooks

     A list of callables that take a path argument to try to create a
     *note finder: 263e. for the path.  If a finder can be created, it
     is to be returned by the callable, else raise *note ImportError:
     1bd.

     Originally specified in PEP 302(15).

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.path_importer_cache

     A dictionary acting as a cache for *note finder: 263e. objects.
     The keys are paths that have been passed to *note sys.path_hooks:
     13cd. and the values are the finders that are found.  If a path is
     a valid file system path but no finder is found on ‘sys.path_hooks’
     then ‘None’ is stored.

     Originally specified in PEP 302(16).

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.platform

     A string containing a platform identifier.  Known values are:

     System               ‘platform’ value
                          
     -----------------------------------------------------
                          
     AIX                  ‘'aix'’
                          
                          
     Android              ‘'android'’
                          
                          
     Emscripten           ‘'emscripten'’
                          
                          
     FreeBSD              ‘'freebsd'’
                          
                          
     iOS                  ‘'ios'’
                          
                          
     Linux                ‘'linux'’
                          
                          
     macOS                ‘'darwin'’
                          
                          
     Windows              ‘'win32'’
                          
                          
     Windows/Cygwin       ‘'cygwin'’
                          
                          
     WASI                 ‘'wasi'’
                          

     On Unix systems not listed in the table, the value is the
     lowercased OS name as returned by ‘uname -s’, with the first part
     of the version as returned by ‘uname -r’ appended, e.g.
     ‘'sunos5'’, 'at the time when Python was built'.  Unless you want
     to test for a specific system version, it is therefore recommended
     to use the following idiom:

          if sys.platform.startswith('sunos'):
              # SunOS-specific code here...

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: On Linux, *note sys.platform: 518. doesn’t
     contain the major version anymore.  It is always ‘'linux'’, instead
     of ‘'linux2'’ or ‘'linux3'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: On AIX, *note sys.platform: 518. doesn’t
     contain the major version anymore.  It is always ‘'aix'’, instead
     of ‘'aix5'’ or ‘'aix7'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: On Android, *note sys.platform: 518. now
     returns ‘'android'’ rather than ‘'linux'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: On FreeBSD, *note sys.platform: 518.
     doesn’t contain the major version anymore.  It is always
     ‘'freebsd'’, instead of ‘'freebsd13'’ or ‘'freebsd14'’.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note os.name: 3228. has a coarser granularity.  *note os.uname():
     14c2. gives system-dependent version information.

     The *note platform: af. module provides detailed checks for the
     system’s identity.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.platlibdir

     Name of the platform-specific library directory.  It is used to
     build the path of standard library and the paths of installed
     extension modules.

     It is equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms.  On Fedora and SuSE, it
     is equal to ‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms which gives the following
     ‘sys.path’ paths (where ‘X.Y’ is the Python ‘major.minor’ version):

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/’: Standard library (like ‘os.py’ of the
          *note os: a5. module)

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/lib-dynload/’: C extension modules of
          the standard library (like the *note errno: 5a. module, the
          exact filename is platform specific)

        * ‘/usr/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/’ (always use ‘lib’, not
          *note sys.platlibdir: 2a9.): Third-party modules

        * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/site-packages/’: C extension modules of
          third-party packages

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.prefix

     A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the
     platform independent Python files are installed; on Unix, the
     default is ‘/usr/local’.  This can be set at build time with the
     *note -prefix: 233c. argument to the ‘configure’ script.  See *note
     Installation paths: 65c. for derived paths.

          Σημείωση: If a *note virtual environment: 3a9. is in effect,
          this ‘prefix’ will point to the virtual environment.  The
          value for the Python installation will still be available, via
          *note base_prefix: 3aa.  Refer to *note Virtual Environments:
          4b93. for more information.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: When running under a *note virtual
     environment: 3a9, ‘prefix’ and *note exec_prefix: 3a8. are now set
     to the virtual environment prefix by the *note path initialization:
     1953, instead of *note site: cf.  This means that ‘prefix’ and
     ‘exec_prefix’ always point to the virtual environment, even when
     ‘site’ is disabled (*note -S: 1551.).

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.ps1
 -- Δεδομένα: sys.ps2

     Strings specifying the primary and secondary prompt of the
     interpreter.  These are only defined if the interpreter is in
     interactive mode.  Their initial values in this case are ‘'>>> '’
     and ‘'... '’.  If a non-string object is assigned to either
     variable, its *note str(): 1df. is re-evaluated each time the
     interpreter prepares to read a new interactive command; this can be
     used to implement a dynamic prompt.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.setdlopenflags (n)

     Set the flags used by the interpreter for ‘dlopen()’ calls, such as
     when the interpreter loads extension modules.  Among other things,
     this will enable a lazy resolving of symbols when importing a
     module, if called as ‘sys.setdlopenflags(0)’.  To share symbols
     across extension modules, call as
     ‘sys.setdlopenflags(os.RTLD_GLOBAL)’.  Symbolic names for the flag
     values can be found in the *note os: a5. module (‘RTLD_XXX’
     constants, e.g.  *note os.RTLD_LAZY: 14c4.).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.set_int_max_str_digits (maxdigits)

     Set the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 9ec.
     used by this interpreter.  See also *note get_int_max_str_digits():
     1a12.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.set_lazy_imports (mode)

     Sets the global lazy imports mode.  The 'mode' parameter must be
     one of the following strings:

        * ‘"normal"’: Only imports explicitly marked with the ‘lazy’
          keyword are lazy

        * ‘"all"’: All top-level imports become potentially lazy

        * ‘"none"’: All lazy imports are suppressed (even explicitly
          marked ones)

     This function is intended for advanced users who need to control
     lazy imports across their entire application.  Library developers
     should generally not use this function as it affects the runtime
     execution of applications.

     In addition to the mode, lazy imports can be controlled via the
     filter provided by *note set_lazy_imports_filter(): 17c.

     See also *note get_lazy_imports(): 17b. and PEP 810(17).

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.set_lazy_imports_filter (filter)

     Sets the lazy imports filter callback.  The 'filter' parameter must
     be a callable or ‘None’ to clear the filter.

     The filter function is called for every potentially lazy import to
     determine whether it should actually be lazy.  It must have the
     following signature:

          def filter(importing_module: str, imported_module: str,
                     fromlist: tuple[str, ...] | None) -> bool

     Where:

        * 'importing_module' is the name of the module doing the import

        * 'imported_module' is the resolved name of the module being
          imported (for example, ‘lazy from .spam import eggs’ passes
          ‘package.spam’)

        * 'fromlist' is the tuple of names being imported (for ‘from ...
          import’ statements), or ‘None’ for regular imports

     The filter should return ‘True’ to allow the import to be lazy, or
     ‘False’ to force an eager import.

     This is an advanced feature intended for specialized users who need
     fine-grained control over lazy import behavior.

     See also *note get_lazy_imports_filter(): 4bfa. and PEP 810(18).

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.setprofile (profilefunc)

     Set the system’s profile function, which allows you to implement a
     Python source code profiler in Python.  See chapter *note profile —
     Pure Python profiler: 4c0a. for more information on the Python
     profiler.  The system’s profile function is called similarly to the
     system’s trace function (see *note settrace(): 55c.), but it is
     called with different events, for example it isn’t called for each
     executed line of code (only on call and return, but the return
     event is reported even when an exception has been set).  The
     function is thread-specific, but there is no way for the profiler
     to know about context switches between threads, so it does not make
     sense to use this in the presence of multiple threads.  Also, its
     return value is not used, so it can simply return ‘None’.  Error in
     the profile function will cause itself unset.

          Σημείωση: The same tracing mechanism is used for
          ‘setprofile()’ as *note settrace(): 55c.  To trace calls with
          ‘setprofile()’ inside a tracing function (e.g.  in a debugger
          breakpoint), see *note call_tracing(): 1dbd.

     Profile functions should have three arguments: 'frame', 'event',
     and 'arg'.  'frame' is the current stack frame.  'event' is a
     string: ‘'call'’, ‘'return'’, ‘'c_call'’, ‘'c_return'’, or
     ‘'c_exception'’.  'arg' depends on the event type.

     The events have the following meaning:

     ‘'call'’

          A function is called (or some other code block entered).  The
          profile function is called; 'arg' is ‘None’.

     ‘'return'’

          A function (or other code block) is about to return.  The
          profile function is called; 'arg' is the value that will be
          returned, or ‘None’ if the event is caused by an exception
          being raised.

     ‘'c_call'’

          A C function is about to be called.  This may be an extension
          function or a built-in.  'arg' is the C function object.

     ‘'c_return'’

          A C function has returned.  'arg' is the C function object.

     ‘'c_exception'’

          A C function has raised an exception.  'arg' is the C function
          object.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘sys.setprofile’ with no
     arguments.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.setrecursionlimit (limit)

     Set the maximum depth of the Python interpreter stack to 'limit'.
     This limit prevents infinite recursion from causing an overflow of
     the C stack and crashing Python.

     The highest possible limit is platform-dependent.  A user may need
     to set the limit higher when they have a program that requires deep
     recursion and a platform that supports a higher limit.  This should
     be done with care, because a too-high limit can lead to a crash.

     If the new limit is too low at the current recursion depth, a *note
     RecursionError: 1121. exception is raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5.1: A *note RecursionError: 1121. exception
     is now raised if the new limit is too low at the current recursion
     depth.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.setswitchinterval (interval)

     Set the interpreter’s thread switch interval (in seconds).  This
     floating-point value determines the ideal duration of the
     «timeslices» allocated to concurrently running Python threads.
     Please note that the actual value can be higher, especially if
     long-running internal functions or methods are used.  Also, which
     thread becomes scheduled at the end of the interval is the
     operating system’s decision.  The interpreter doesn’t have its own
     scheduler.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.settrace (tracefunc)

     Set the system’s trace function, which allows you to implement a
     Python source code debugger in Python.  The function is
     thread-specific; for a debugger to support multiple threads, it
     must register a trace function using ‘settrace()’ for each thread
     being debugged or use *note threading.settrace(): c20.

     Trace functions should have three arguments: 'frame', 'event', and
     'arg'.  'frame' is the *note current stack frame: acd.  'event' is
     a string: ‘'call'’, ‘'line'’, ‘'return'’, ‘'exception'’ or
     ‘'opcode'’.  'arg' depends on the event type.

     The trace function is invoked (with 'event' set to ‘'call'’)
     whenever a new local scope is entered; it should return a reference
     to a local trace function to be used for the new scope, or ‘None’
     if the scope shouldn’t be traced.

     The local trace function should return a reference to itself, or to
     another function which would then be used as the local trace
     function for the scope.

     If there is any error occurred in the trace function, it will be
     unset, just like ‘settrace(None)’ is called.

          Σημείωση: Tracing is disabled while calling the trace function
          (e.g.  a function set by ‘settrace()’).  For recursive tracing
          see *note call_tracing(): 1dbd.

     The events have the following meaning:

     ‘'call'’

          A function is called (or some other code block entered).  The
          global trace function is called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return
          value specifies the local trace function.

     ‘'line'’

          The interpreter is about to execute a new line of code or
          re-execute the condition of a loop.  The local trace function
          is called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return value specifies the new
          local trace function.  See ‘Objects/lnotab_notes.txt’ for a
          detailed explanation of how this works.  Per-line events may
          be disabled for a frame by setting *note f_trace_lines: f9b.
          to *note False: ef5. on that *note frame: acd.

     ‘'return'’

          A function (or other code block) is about to return.  The
          local trace function is called; 'arg' is the value that will
          be returned, or ‘None’ if the event is caused by an exception
          being raised.  The trace function’s return value is ignored.

     ‘'exception'’

          An exception has occurred.  The local trace function is
          called; 'arg' is a tuple ‘(exception, value, traceback)’; the
          return value specifies the new local trace function.

     ‘'opcode'’

          The interpreter is about to execute a new opcode (see *note
          dis: 3b. for opcode details).  The local trace function is
          called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return value specifies the new
          local trace function.  Per-opcode events are not emitted by
          default: they must be explicitly requested by setting *note
          f_trace_opcodes: f9c. to *note True: fcc. on the *note frame:
          acd.

     Note that as an exception is propagated down the chain of callers,
     an ‘'exception'’ event is generated at each level.

     For more fine-grained usage, it’s possible to set a trace function
     by assigning ‘frame.f_trace = tracefunc’ explicitly, rather than
     relying on it being set indirectly via the return value from an
     already installed trace function.  This is also required for
     activating the trace function on the current frame, which
     ‘settrace()’ doesn’t do.  Note that in order for this to work, a
     global tracing function must have been installed with ‘settrace()’
     in order to enable the runtime tracing machinery, but it doesn’t
     need to be the same tracing function (e.g.  it could be a low
     overhead tracing function that simply returns ‘None’ to disable
     itself immediately on each frame).

     For more information on code and frame objects, refer to *note Η
     τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου: 2520.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘sys.settrace’ with no
     arguments.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' The ‘settrace()’ function is
     intended only for implementing debuggers, profilers, coverage tools
     and the like.  Its behavior is part of the implementation platform,
     rather than part of the language definition, and thus may not be
     available in all Python implementations.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: ‘'opcode'’ event type added; *note
     f_trace_lines: f9b. and *note f_trace_opcodes: f9c. attributes
     added to frames

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.set_asyncgen_hooks ([firstiter] [, finalizer])

     Accepts two optional keyword arguments which are callables that
     accept an *note asynchronous generator iterator: 3b87. as an
     argument.  The 'firstiter' callable will be called when an
     asynchronous generator is iterated for the first time.  The
     'finalizer' will be called when an asynchronous generator is about
     to be garbage collected.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter’ with no arguments.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer’ with no arguments.

     Two auditing events are raised because the underlying API consists
     of two calls, each of which must raise its own event.

     Added in version 3.6: See PEP 525(19) for more details, and for a
     reference example of a 'finalizer' method see the implementation of
     ‘asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens’ in Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(20)

          Σημείωση: This function has been added on a provisional basis
          (see PEP 411(21) for details.)

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth (depth)

     Allows enabling or disabling coroutine origin tracking.  When
     enabled, the ‘cr_origin’ attribute on coroutine objects will
     contain a tuple of (filename, line number, function name) tuples
     describing the traceback where the coroutine object was created,
     with the most recent call first.  When disabled, ‘cr_origin’ will
     be ‘None’.

     To enable, pass a 'depth' value greater than zero; this sets the
     number of frames whose information will be captured.  To disable,
     set 'depth' to zero.

     This setting is thread-specific.

     Added in version 3.7.

          Σημείωση: This function has been added on a provisional basis
          (see PEP 411(22) for details.)  Use it only for debugging
          purposes.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.activate_stack_trampoline (backend, /)

     Activate the stack profiler trampoline 'backend'.  The only
     supported backend is ‘"perf"’.

     Stack trampolines cannot be activated if the JIT is active.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * *note Python support for the perf map compatible profilers:
          6b7.

        * ‘https://perf.wiki.kernel.org’

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline ()

     Deactivate the current stack profiler trampoline backend.

     If no stack profiler is activated, this function has no effect.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.is_stack_trampoline_active ()

     Return ‘True’ if a stack profiler trampoline is active.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.remote_exec (pid, script)

     Executes 'script', a file containing Python code in the remote
     process with the given 'pid'.

     This function returns immediately, and the code will be executed by
     the target process’s main thread at the next available opportunity,
     similarly to how signals are handled.  There is no interface to
     determine when the code has been executed.  The caller is
     responsible for making sure that the file still exists whenever the
     remote process tries to read it and that it hasn’t been
     overwritten.

     The remote process must be running a CPython interpreter of the
     same major and minor version as the local process.  If either the
     local or remote interpreter is pre-release (alpha, beta, or release
     candidate) then the local and remote interpreters must be the same
     exact version.

     See *note Remote debugging attachment protocol: 4c0b. for more
     information about the remote debugging mechanism.

     When the code is executed in the remote process, an *note auditing
     event: 1e65. ‘sys.remote_exec’ is raised with the 'pid' and the
     path to the script file.  This event is raised in the process that
     called *note sys.remote_exec(): 418.

     When the script is executed in the remote process, an *note
     auditing event: 1e65. ‘cpython.remote_debugger_script’ is raised
     with the path in the remote process.  This event is raised in the
     remote process, not the one that called *note sys.remote_exec():
     418.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, Windows.

     Added in version 3.14: See PEP 768(23) for more details.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding ()

     Changes the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948. to
     “mbcs” and “replace” respectively, for consistency with versions of
     Python prior to 3.6.

     This is equivalent to defining the *note
     PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 30f. environment variable before
     launching Python.

     See also *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): 1017. and *note
     sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): 10a3.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

          Σημείωση: Changing the filesystem encoding after Python
          startup is risky because the old fsencoding or paths encoded
          by the old fsencoding may be cached somewhere.  Use *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 30f. instead.

     Added in version 3.6: See PEP 529(24) for more details.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.13, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.16: Use
     *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 30f. instead.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.stdin
 -- Δεδομένα: sys.stdout
 -- Δεδομένα: sys.stderr

     *note File objects: 156c. used by the interpreter for standard
     input, output and errors:

        * ‘stdin’ is used for all interactive input (including calls to
          *note input(): 167d.);

        * ‘stdout’ is used for the output of *note print(): 131f. and
          *note expression: 25c4. statements and for the prompts of
          *note input(): 167d.;

        * The interpreter’s own prompts and its error messages go to
          ‘stderr’.

     These streams are regular *note text files: 225c. like those
     returned by the *note open(): 32b. function.  Their parameters are
     chosen as follows:

        * The encoding and error handling are is initialized from *note
          PyConfig.stdio_encoding: 835. and *note PyConfig.stdio_errors:
          4c0c.

          On Windows, UTF-8 is used for the console device.
          Non-character devices such as disk files and pipes use the
          system locale encoding (i.e.  the ANSI codepage).  Non-console
          character devices such as NUL (i.e.  where ‘isatty()’ returns
          ‘True’) use the value of the console input and output
          codepages at startup, respectively for stdin and
          stdout/stderr.  This defaults to the system *note locale
          encoding: 74d. if the process is not initially attached to a
          console.

          The special behaviour of the console can be overridden by
          setting the environment variable PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO
          before starting Python.  In that case, the console codepages
          are used as for any other character device.

          Under all platforms, you can override the character encoding
          by setting the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: 13b3. environment
          variable before starting Python or by using the new *note -X:
          178. ‘utf8’ command line option and *note PYTHONUTF8: 1ad.
          environment variable.  However, for the Windows console, this
          only applies when *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: 1019. is
          also set.

        * When interactive, the ‘stdout’ stream is line-buffered.
          Otherwise, it is block-buffered like regular text files.  The
          ‘stderr’ stream is line-buffered in both cases.  You can make
          both streams unbuffered by passing the *note -u: 1f7f.
          command-line option or setting the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED:
          1f80. environment variable.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Non-interactive ‘stderr’ is now
     line-buffered instead of fully buffered.

          Σημείωση: To write or read binary data from/to the standard
          streams, use the underlying binary *note buffer: 1648. object.
          For example, to write bytes to ‘stdout’, use
          ‘sys.stdout.buffer.write(b'abc')’.

          However, if you are writing a library (and do not control in
          which context its code will be executed), be aware that the
          standard streams may be replaced with file-like objects like
          *note io.StringIO: 12d4. which do not support the ‘buffer’
          attribute.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.__stdin__
 -- Δεδομένα: sys.__stdout__
 -- Δεδομένα: sys.__stderr__

     These objects contain the original values of ‘stdin’, ‘stderr’ and
     ‘stdout’ at the start of the program.  They are used during
     finalization, and could be useful to print to the actual standard
     stream no matter if the ‘sys.std*’ object has been redirected.

     It can also be used to restore the actual files to known working
     file objects in case they have been overwritten with a broken
     object.  However, the preferred way to do this is to explicitly
     save the previous stream before replacing it, and restore the saved
     object.

          Σημείωση: Under some conditions ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’
          as well as the original values ‘__stdin__’, ‘__stdout__’ and
          ‘__stderr__’ can be ‘None’.  It is usually the case for
          Windows GUI apps that aren’t connected to a console and Python
          apps started with ‘pythonw’.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.stdlib_module_names

     A frozenset of strings containing the names of standard library
     modules.

     It is the same on all platforms.  Modules which are not available
     on some platforms and modules disabled at Python build are also
     listed.  All module kinds are listed: pure Python, built-in, frozen
     and extension modules.  Test modules are excluded.

     For packages, only the main package is listed: sub-packages and
     sub-modules are not listed.  For example, the ‘email’ package is
     listed, but the ‘email.mime’ sub-package and the ‘email.message’
     sub-module are not listed.

     See also the *note sys.builtin_module_names: 2236. list.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.thread_info

     A *note named tuple: a3d. holding information about the thread
     implementation.

      -- Ιδιότητα: thread_info.name

          The name of the thread implementation:

             * ‘"nt"’: Windows threads

             * ‘"pthread"’: POSIX threads

             * ‘"pthread-stubs"’: stub POSIX threads (on WebAssembly
               platforms without threading support)

             * ‘"solaris"’: Solaris threads

      -- Ιδιότητα: thread_info.lock

          The name of the lock implementation:

             * ‘"semaphore"’: a lock uses a semaphore

             * ‘"mutex+cond"’: a lock uses a mutex and a condition
               variable

             * ‘None’ if this information is unknown

      -- Ιδιότητα: thread_info.version

          The name and version of the thread library.  It is a string,
          or ‘None’ if this information is unknown.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.tracebacklimit

     When this variable is set to an integer value, it determines the
     maximum number of levels of traceback information printed when an
     unhandled exception occurs.  The default is ‘1000’.  When set to
     ‘0’ or less, all traceback information is suppressed and only the
     exception type and value are printed.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.unraisablehook (unraisable, /)

     Handle an unraisable exception.

     Called when an exception has occurred but there is no way for
     Python to handle it.  For example, when a destructor raises an
     exception or during garbage collection (*note gc.collect(): 44f.).

     The 'unraisable' argument has the following attributes:

        * ‘exc_type’: Exception type.

        * ‘exc_value’: Exception value, can be ‘None’.

        * ‘exc_traceback’: Exception traceback, can be ‘None’.

        * ‘err_msg’: Error message, can be ‘None’.

        * ‘object’: Object causing the exception, can be ‘None’.

     The default hook formats ‘err_msg’ and ‘object’ as: ‘f'{err_msg}:
     {object!r}'’; use «Exception ignored in» error message if ‘err_msg’
     is ‘None’.  Similar to the *note traceback: 107. module, this adds
     color to exceptions by default.  This can be disabled using *note
     environment variables: 1af.

     *note sys.unraisablehook(): 70c. can be overridden to control how
     unraisable exceptions are handled.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Exceptions are now printed with colorful
     text.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note excepthook(): be5. which handles uncaught exceptions.

          Προειδοποίηση: Storing ‘exc_value’ using a custom hook can
          create a reference cycle.  It should be cleared explicitly to
          break the reference cycle when the exception is no longer
          needed.

          Storing ‘object’ using a custom hook can resurrect it if it is
          set to an object which is being finalized.  Avoid storing
          ‘object’ after the custom hook completes to avoid resurrecting
          objects.

     Raise an auditing event ‘sys.unraisablehook’ with arguments 'hook',
     'unraisable' when an exception that cannot be handled occurs.  The
     'unraisable' object is the same as what will be passed to the hook.
     If no hook has been set, 'hook' may be ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.version

     A string containing the version number of the Python interpreter
     plus additional information on the build number and compiler used.
     This string is displayed when the interactive interpreter is
     started.  Do not extract version information out of it, rather, use
     *note version_info: 2fc. and the functions provided by the *note
     platform: af. module.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.api_version

     The C API version, equivalent to the C macro *note
     PYTHON_API_VERSION: 4c12.  Defined for backwards compatibility.

     Currently, this constant is not updated in new Python versions, and
     is not useful for versioning.  This may change in the future.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.version_info

     A tuple containing the five components of the version number:
     'major', 'minor', 'micro', 'releaselevel', and 'serial'.  All
     values except 'releaselevel' are integers; the release level is
     ‘'alpha'’, ‘'beta'’, ‘'candidate'’, or ‘'final'’.  The
     ‘version_info’ value corresponding to the Python version 2.0 is
     ‘(2, 0, 0, 'final', 0)’.  The components can also be accessed by
     name, so ‘sys.version_info[0]’ is equivalent to
     ‘sys.version_info.major’ and so on.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added named component attributes.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.warnoptions

     This is an implementation detail of the warnings framework; do not
     modify this value.  Refer to the *note warnings: 11b. module for
     more information on the warnings framework.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.winver

     The version number used to form registry keys on Windows platforms.
     This is stored as string resource 1000 in the Python DLL. The value
     is normally the major and minor versions of the running Python
     interpreter.  It is provided in the ‘sys’ module for informational
     purposes; modifying this value has no effect on the registry keys
     used by Python.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.monitoring

     Namespace containing functions and constants for register callbacks
     and controlling monitoring events.  See *note sys.monitoring: e3.
     for details.

 -- Δεδομένα: sys._xoptions

     A dictionary of the various implementation-specific flags passed
     through the *note -X: 178. command-line option.  Option names are
     either mapped to their values, if given explicitly, or to *note
     True: fcc.  Example:

          $ ./python -Xa=b -Xc
          Python 3.2a3+ (py3k, Oct 16 2010, 20:14:50)
          [GCC 4.4.3] on linux2
          Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
          >>> import sys
          >>> sys._xoptions
          {'a': 'b', 'c': True}

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This is a CPython-specific way of
     accessing options passed through *note -X: 178.  Other
     implementations may export them through other means, or not at all.

     Added in version 3.2.

Citations
.........

(C99) ISO/IEC 9899:1999.  «Programming languages – C.» A public draft of
this standard is available at
‘https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1256.pdf’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0810/

   (5) 
https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577504-compute-memory-footprint-of-an-object-and-its-cont/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0734/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0810/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0810/

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (20) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0768/

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring,  Next: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information,  Prev: sys — System-specific parameters and functions,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.2 ‘sys.monitoring’ — Execution event monitoring
----------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.12.

__________________________________________________________________

     Σημείωση: ‘sys.monitoring’ is a namespace within the *note sys: e2.
     module, not an independent module, and ‘import sys.monitoring’
     would fail with a *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be.  Instead, simply
     ‘import sys’ and then use ‘sys.monitoring’.

This namespace provides access to the functions and constants necessary
to activate and control event monitoring.

As programs execute, events occur that might be of interest to tools
that monitor execution.  The ‘sys.monitoring’ namespace provides means
to receive callbacks when events of interest occur.

The monitoring API consists of three components:

   * *note Tool identifiers: 4c17.

   * *note Events: 4c18.

   * *note Callbacks: 4c19.

* Menu:

* Tool identifiers::
* Events::
* Turning events on and off::
* Registering callback functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Tool identifiers,  Next: Events,  Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring

5.30.2.1 Tool identifiers
.........................

A tool identifier is an integer and the associated name.  Tool
identifiers are used to discourage tools from interfering with each
other and to allow multiple tools to operate at the same time.
Currently tools are completely independent and cannot be used to monitor
each other.  This restriction may be lifted in the future.

Before registering or activating events, a tool should choose an
identifier.  Identifiers are integers in the range 0 to 5 inclusive.

* Menu:

* Registering and using tools::


File: python.info,  Node: Registering and using tools,  Up: Tool identifiers

5.30.2.2 Registering and using tools
....................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.monitoring.use_tool_id (tool_id: int, name: str, /)
          -> None

     Must be called before 'tool_id' can be used.  'tool_id' must be in
     the range 0 to 5 inclusive.  Raises a *note ValueError: 277. if
     'tool_id' is in use.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.monitoring.clear_tool_id (tool_id: int, /) -> None

     Unregister all events and callback functions associated with
     'tool_id'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.monitoring.free_tool_id (tool_id: int, /) -> None

     Should be called once a tool no longer requires 'tool_id'.  Will
     call *note clear_tool_id(): 1b49. before releasing 'tool_id'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.monitoring.get_tool (tool_id: int, /) -> str | None

     Returns the name of the tool if 'tool_id' is in use, otherwise it
     returns ‘None’.  'tool_id' must be in the range 0 to 5 inclusive.

All IDs are treated the same by the VM with regard to events, but the
following IDs are pre-defined to make co-operation of tools easier:

     sys.monitoring.DEBUGGER_ID = 0
     sys.monitoring.COVERAGE_ID = 1
     sys.monitoring.PROFILER_ID = 2
     sys.monitoring.OPTIMIZER_ID = 5


File: python.info,  Node: Events,  Next: Turning events on and off,  Prev: Tool identifiers,  Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring

5.30.2.3 Events
...............

The following events are supported:

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.BRANCH_LEFT

     A conditional branch goes left.

     It is up to the tool to determine how to present «left» and «right»
     branches.  There is no guarantee which branch is «left» and which
     is «right», except that it will be consistent for the duration of
     the program.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.BRANCH_RIGHT

     A conditional branch goes right.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.CALL

     A call in Python code (event occurs before the call).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.C_RAISE

     An exception raised from any callable, except for Python functions
     (event occurs after the exit).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.C_RETURN

     Return from any callable, except for Python functions (event occurs
     after the return).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.EXCEPTION_HANDLED

     An exception is handled.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.INSTRUCTION

     A VM instruction is about to be executed.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.JUMP

     An unconditional jump in the control flow graph is made.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.LINE

     An instruction is about to be executed that has a different line
     number from the preceding instruction.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_RESUME

     Resumption of a Python function (for generator and coroutine
     functions), except for ‘throw()’ calls.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_RETURN

     Return from a Python function (occurs immediately before the
     return, the callee’s frame will be on the stack).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_START

     Start of a Python function (occurs immediately after the call, the
     callee’s frame will be on the stack)

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_THROW

     A Python function is resumed by a ‘throw()’ call.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_UNWIND

     Exit from a Python function during exception unwinding.  This
     includes exceptions raised directly within the function and that
     are allowed to continue to propagate.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_YIELD

     Yield from a Python function (occurs immediately before the yield,
     the callee’s frame will be on the stack).

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.RAISE

     An exception is raised, except those that cause a *note
     STOP_ITERATION: 4c27. event.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.RERAISE

     An exception is re-raised, for example at the end of a *note
     finally: 44c. block.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.STOP_ITERATION

     An artificial *note StopIteration: fba. is raised; see *note the
     STOP_ITERATION event: 4c28.

More events may be added in the future.

These events are attributes of the ‘sys.monitoring.events’ namespace.
Each event is represented as a power-of-2 integer constant.  To define a
set of events, simply bitwise OR the individual events together.  For
example, to specify both *note PY_RETURN: 4c24. and *note PY_START:
4c25. events, use the expression ‘PY_RETURN | PY_START’.

 -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.NO_EVENTS

     An alias for ‘0’ so users can do explicit comparisons like:

          if get_events(DEBUGGER_ID) == NO_EVENTS:
              ...

     Setting this event deactivates all events.

* Menu:

* Local events::
* Deprecated event::
* Ancillary events::
* Other events::
* The STOP_ITERATION event::


File: python.info,  Node: Local events,  Next: Deprecated event,  Up: Events

5.30.2.4 Local events
.....................

Local events are associated with normal execution of the program and
happen at clearly defined locations.  All local events can be disabled
per location.  The local events are:

   * *note PY_START: 4c25.

   * *note PY_RESUME: 4c23.

   * *note PY_RETURN: 4c24.

   * *note PY_YIELD: 4c26.

   * *note CALL: 1bc7.

   * *note LINE: 4c22.

   * *note INSTRUCTION: 4c20.

   * *note JUMP: 4c21.

   * *note BRANCH_LEFT: 51b.

   * *note BRANCH_RIGHT: 51c.

   * *note STOP_ITERATION: 4c27.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated event,  Next: Ancillary events,  Prev: Local events,  Up: Events

5.30.2.5 Deprecated event
.........................

   * ‘BRANCH’

The ‘BRANCH’ event is deprecated in 3.14.  Using *note BRANCH_LEFT: 51b.
and *note BRANCH_RIGHT: 51c. events will give much better performance as
they can be disabled independently.


File: python.info,  Node: Ancillary events,  Next: Other events,  Prev: Deprecated event,  Up: Events

5.30.2.6 Ancillary events
.........................

Ancillary events can be monitored like other events, but are controlled
by another event:

   * *note C_RAISE: 4c1e.

   * *note C_RETURN: 4c1f.

The *note C_RETURN: 4c1f. and *note C_RAISE: 4c1e. events are controlled
by the *note CALL: 1bc7. event.  ‘C_RETURN’ and ‘C_RAISE’ events will
only be seen if the corresponding ‘CALL’ event is being monitored.


File: python.info,  Node: Other events,  Next: The STOP_ITERATION event,  Prev: Ancillary events,  Up: Events

5.30.2.7 Other events
.....................

Other events are not necessarily tied to a specific location in the
program and cannot be individually disabled per location.

The other events that can be monitored are:

   * *note PY_THROW: 271.

   * *note PY_UNWIND: 272.

   * *note RAISE: 273.

   * *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED: 274.

   * *note RERAISE: 275.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Other events can now be turned on and disabled
on a per code object basis.  Returning *note DISABLE: 276. from a
callback disables the event for the entire code object (for the current
tool).


File: python.info,  Node: The STOP_ITERATION event,  Prev: Other events,  Up: Events

5.30.2.8 The STOP_ITERATION event
.................................

PEP 380(1) specifies that a *note StopIteration: fba. exception is
raised when returning a value from a generator or coroutine.  However,
this is a very inefficient way to return a value, so some Python
implementations, notably CPython 3.12+, do not raise an exception unless
it would be visible to other code.

To allow tools to monitor for real exceptions without slowing down
generators and coroutines, the *note STOP_ITERATION: 4c27. event is
provided.  ‘STOP_ITERATION’ can be locally disabled.

Note that the *note STOP_ITERATION: 4c27. event and the *note RAISE:
273. event for a *note StopIteration: fba. exception are equivalent, and
are treated as interchangeable when generating events.  Implementations
will favor ‘STOP_ITERATION’ for performance reasons, but may generate a
‘RAISE’ event with a ‘StopIteration’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/#use-of-stopiteration-to-return-values


File: python.info,  Node: Turning events on and off,  Next: Registering callback functions,  Prev: Events,  Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring

5.30.2.9 Turning events on and off
..................................

In order to monitor an event, it must be turned on and a corresponding
callback must be registered.  Events can be turned on or off by setting
the events either globally and/or for a particular code object.  An
event will trigger only once, even if it is turned on both globally and
locally.

* Menu:

* Setting events globally::
* Per code object events::
* Disabling events::


File: python.info,  Node: Setting events globally,  Next: Per code object events,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.30.2.10 Setting events globally
.................................

Events can be controlled globally by modifying the set of events being
monitored.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.monitoring.get_events (tool_id: int, /) -> int

     Returns the ‘int’ representing all the active events.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.monitoring.set_events (tool_id: int, event_set: int,
          /) -> None

     Activates all events which are set in 'event_set'.  Raises a *note
     ValueError: 277. if 'tool_id' is not in use.

No events are active by default.


File: python.info,  Node: Per code object events,  Next: Disabling events,  Prev: Setting events globally,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.30.2.11 Per code object events
................................

Events can also be controlled on a per code object basis.  The functions
defined below which accept a *note types.CodeType: 2e1. should be
prepared to accept a look-alike object from functions which are not
defined in Python (see *note Monitoring C API: 694.).

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.monitoring.get_local_events (tool_id: int, code:
          CodeType, /) -> int

     Returns all the *note local events: 4c2b. for 'code'

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.monitoring.set_local_events (tool_id: int, code:
          CodeType, event_set: int, /) -> None

     Activates all the *note local events: 4c2b. for 'code' which are
     set in 'event_set'.  Raises a *note ValueError: 277. if 'tool_id'
     is not in use.


File: python.info,  Node: Disabling events,  Prev: Per code object events,  Up: Turning events on and off

5.30.2.12 Disabling events
..........................

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.monitoring.DISABLE

     A special value that can be returned from a callback function to
     disable events for the current code location.

*note Local events: 4c2b. can be disabled for a specific code location
by returning *note sys.monitoring.DISABLE: 276. from a callback
function.  This does not change which events are set, or any other code
locations for the same event.

*note Other events: 270. can be disabled on a per code object basis by
returning *note sys.monitoring.DISABLE: 276. from a callback function.
This disables the event for the entire code object (for the current
tool).

Disabling events for specific locations is very important for high
performance monitoring.  For example, a program can be run under a
debugger with no overhead if the debugger disables all monitoring except
for a few breakpoints.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.monitoring.restart_events () -> None

     Enable all the events that were disabled by *note
     sys.monitoring.DISABLE: 276. for all tools.


File: python.info,  Node: Registering callback functions,  Prev: Turning events on and off,  Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring

5.30.2.13 Registering callback functions
........................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: sys.monitoring.register_callback (tool_id: int, event:
          int, func: Callable | None, /) -> Callable | None

     Registers the callable 'func' for the 'event' with the given
     'tool_id'

     If another callback was registered for the given 'tool_id' and
     'event', it is unregistered and returned.  Otherwise
     ‘register_callback()’ returns ‘None’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘sys.monitoring.register_callback’ with argument ‘func’.

Functions can be unregistered by calling
‘sys.monitoring.register_callback(tool_id, event, None)’.

Callback functions can be registered and unregistered at any time.

Callbacks are called only once regardless if the event is turned on both
globally and locally.  As such, if an event could be turned on for both
global and local events by your code then the callback needs to be
written to handle either trigger.

* Menu:

* Callback function arguments::


File: python.info,  Node: Callback function arguments,  Up: Registering callback functions

5.30.2.14 Callback function arguments
.....................................

 -- Δεδομένα: sys.monitoring.MISSING

     A special value that is passed to a callback function to indicate
     that there are no arguments to the call.

When an active event occurs, the registered callback function is called.
Callback functions returning an object other than *note DISABLE: 276.
will have no effect.  Different events will provide the callback
function with different arguments, as follows:

   * *note PY_START: 4c25. and *note PY_RESUME: 4c23.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> object

   * *note PY_RETURN: 4c24. and *note PY_YIELD: 4c26.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, retval: object) -> object

   * *note CALL: 1bc7, *note C_RAISE: 4c1e. and *note C_RETURN: 4c1f.
     ('arg0' can be *note MISSING: 4c3b. specifically):

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, callable: object, arg0: object) -> object

     'code' represents the code object where the call is being made,
     while 'callable' is the object that is about to be called (and thus
     triggered the event).  If there are no arguments, 'arg0' is set to
     *note sys.monitoring.MISSING: 4c3b.

     For instance methods, 'callable' will be the function object as
     found on the class with 'arg0' set to the instance (i.e.  the
     ‘self’ argument to the method).

   * *note RAISE: 273, *note RERAISE: 275, *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED: 274,
     *note PY_UNWIND: 272, *note PY_THROW: 271. and *note
     STOP_ITERATION: 4c27.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, exception: BaseException) -> object

   * *note LINE: 4c22.:

          func(code: CodeType, line_number: int) -> object

   * *note BRANCH_LEFT: 51b, *note BRANCH_RIGHT: 51c. and *note JUMP:
     4c21.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, destination_offset: int) -> object

     Note that the 'destination_offset' is where the code will next
     execute.

   * *note INSTRUCTION: 4c20.:

          func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> object


File: python.info,  Node: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information,  Next: builtins — Built-in objects,  Prev: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.3 ‘sysconfig’ — Provide access to Python’s configuration information
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.2.

'Source code:' Lib/sysconfig(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘sysconfig’ module provides access to Python’s configuration
information like the list of installation paths and the configuration
variables relevant for the current platform.

* Menu:

* Configuration variables::
* Installation paths::
* User scheme::
* Home scheme::
* Prefix scheme::
* Installation path functions::
* Other functions: Other functions<3>.
* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<4>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/sysconfig


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration variables,  Next: Installation paths,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.30.3.1 Configuration variables
................................

A Python distribution contains a ‘Makefile’ and a ‘pyconfig.h’ header
file that are necessary to build both the Python binary itself and
third-party C extensions compiled using ‘setuptools’.

‘sysconfig’ puts all variables found in these files in a dictionary that
can be accessed using *note get_config_vars(): 51e. or *note
get_config_var(): 41e.

Notice that on Windows, it’s a much smaller set.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.get_config_vars (*args)

     With no arguments, return a dictionary of all configuration
     variables relevant for the current platform.

     With arguments, return a list of values that result from looking up
     each argument in the configuration variable dictionary.

     For each argument, if the value is not found, return ‘None’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.get_config_var (name)

     Return the value of a single variable 'name'.  Equivalent to
     ‘get_config_vars().get(name)’.

     If 'name' is not found, return ‘None’.

Example of usage:

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('Py_ENABLE_SHARED')
     0
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBDIR')
     '/usr/local/lib'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_vars('AR', 'CXX')
     ['ar', 'g++']


File: python.info,  Node: Installation paths,  Next: User scheme,  Prev: Configuration variables,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.30.3.2 Installation paths
...........................

Python uses an installation scheme that differs depending on the
platform and on the installation options.  These schemes are stored in
‘sysconfig’ under unique identifiers based on the value returned by
*note os.name: 3228.  The schemes are used by package installers to
determine where to copy files to.

Python currently supports nine schemes:

   - 'posix_prefix': scheme for POSIX platforms like Linux or macOS.
     This is the default scheme used when Python or a component is
     installed.

   - 'posix_home': scheme for POSIX platforms, when the 'home' option is
     used.  This scheme defines paths located under a specific home
     prefix.

   - 'posix_user': scheme for POSIX platforms, when the 'user' option is
     used.  This scheme defines paths located under the user’s home
     directory (*note site.USER_BASE: 16c1.).

   - 'posix_venv': scheme for *note Python virtual environments: 11a. on
     POSIX platforms; by default it is the same as 'posix_prefix'.

   - 'nt': scheme for Windows.  This is the default scheme used when
     Python or a component is installed.

   - 'nt_user': scheme for Windows, when the 'user' option is used.

   - 'nt_venv': scheme for *note Python virtual environments: 11a. on
     Windows; by default it is the same as 'nt'.

   - 'venv': a scheme with values from either 'posix_venv' or 'nt_venv'
     depending on the platform Python runs on.

   - 'osx_framework_user': scheme for macOS, when the 'user' option is
     used.

Each scheme is itself composed of a series of paths and each path has a
unique identifier.  Python currently uses eight paths:

   - 'stdlib': directory containing the standard Python library files
     that are not platform-specific.

   - 'platstdlib': directory containing the standard Python library
     files that are platform-specific.

   - 'platlib': directory for site-specific, platform-specific files.

   - 'purelib': directory for site-specific, non-platform-specific files
     (“pure” Python).

   - 'include': directory for non-platform-specific header files for the
     Python C-API.

   - 'platinclude': directory for platform-specific header files for the
     Python C-API.

   - 'scripts': directory for script files.

   - 'data': directory for data files.


File: python.info,  Node: User scheme,  Next: Home scheme,  Prev: Installation paths,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.30.3.3 User scheme
....................

This scheme is designed to be the most convenient solution for users
that don’t have write permission to the global site-packages directory
or don’t want to install into it.

Files will be installed into subdirectories of *note site.USER_BASE:
16c1. (written as ‘`userbase'’ hereafter).  This scheme installs pure
Python modules and extension modules in the same location (also known as
*note site.USER_SITE: 2315.).

* Menu:

* posix_user::
* nt_user::
* osx_framework_user::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_user,  Next: nt_user,  Up: User scheme

5.30.3.4 ‘posix_user’
.....................

Path               Installation directory
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: nt_user,  Next: osx_framework_user,  Prev: posix_user,  Up: User scheme

5.30.3.5 ‘nt_user’
..................

Path               Installation directory
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\Include’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\Scripts’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: osx_framework_user,  Prev: nt_user,  Up: User scheme

5.30.3.6 ‘osx_framework_user’
.............................

Path               Installation directory
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`userbase'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`userbase'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`userbase'/lib/python/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`userbase'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`userbase'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`userbase'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Home scheme,  Next: Prefix scheme,  Prev: User scheme,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.30.3.7 Home scheme
....................

The idea behind the «home scheme» is that you build and maintain a
personal stash of Python modules.  This scheme’s name is derived from
the idea of a «home» directory on Unix, since it’s not unusual for a
Unix user to make their home directory have a layout similar to ‘/usr/’
or ‘/usr/local/’.  This scheme can be used by anyone, regardless of the
operating system they are installing for.

* Menu:

* posix_home::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_home,  Up: Home scheme

5.30.3.8 ‘posix_home’
.....................

Path               Installation directory
                   
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`home'/lib/python’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`home'/include/python’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`home'/include/python’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`home'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`home'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Prefix scheme,  Next: Installation path functions,  Prev: Home scheme,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.30.3.9 Prefix scheme
......................

The «prefix scheme» is useful when you wish to use one Python
installation to perform the build/install (i.e., to run the setup
script), but install modules into the third-party module directory of a
different Python installation (or something that looks like a different
Python installation).  If this sounds a trifle unusual, it is—that’s why
the user and home schemes come before.  However, there are at least two
known cases where the prefix scheme will be useful.

First, consider that many Linux distributions put Python in ‘/usr’,
rather than the more traditional ‘/usr/local’.  This is entirely
appropriate, since in those cases Python is part of «the system» rather
than a local add-on.  However, if you are installing Python modules from
source, you probably want them to go in ‘/usr/local/lib/python2.`X'’
rather than ‘/usr/lib/python2.`X'’.

Another possibility is a network filesystem where the name used to write
to a remote directory is different from the name used to read it: for
example, the Python interpreter accessed as ‘/usr/local/bin/python’
might search for modules in ‘/usr/local/lib/python2.`X'’, but those
modules would have to be installed to, say,
‘/mnt/`@server'/export/lib/python2.`X'’.

* Menu:

* posix_prefix::
* nt::


File: python.info,  Node: posix_prefix,  Next: nt,  Up: Prefix scheme

5.30.3.10 ‘posix_prefix’
........................

Path               Installation directory
                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`prefix'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`prefix'/include/python`X.Y'’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`prefix'/bin’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`prefix'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: nt,  Prev: posix_prefix,  Up: Prefix scheme

5.30.3.11 ‘nt’
..............

Path               Installation directory
                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
'stdlib'           ‘`prefix'\Lib’
                   
                   
'platstdlib'       ‘`prefix'\Lib’
                   
                   
'platlib'          ‘`prefix'\Lib\site-packages’
                   
                   
'purelib'          ‘`prefix'\Lib\site-packages’
                   
                   
'include'          ‘`prefix'\Include’
                   
                   
'platinclude'      ‘`prefix'\Include’
                   
                   
'scripts'          ‘`prefix'\Scripts’
                   
                   
'data'             ‘`prefix'’
                   


File: python.info,  Node: Installation path functions,  Next: Other functions<3>,  Prev: Prefix scheme,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.30.3.12 Installation path functions
.....................................

‘sysconfig’ provides some functions to determine these installation
paths.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.get_scheme_names ()

     Return a tuple containing all schemes currently supported in
     ‘sysconfig’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.get_default_scheme ()

     Return the default scheme name for the current platform.

     Added in version 3.10: This function was previously named
     ‘_get_default_scheme()’ and considered an implementation detail.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: When Python runs from a virtual
     environment, the 'venv' scheme is returned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme (key)

     Return a preferred scheme name for an installation layout specified
     by 'key'.

     'key' must be either ‘"prefix"’, ‘"home"’, or ‘"user"’.

     The return value is a scheme name listed in *note
     get_scheme_names(): 4c4d.  It can be passed to ‘sysconfig’
     functions that take a 'scheme' argument, such as *note get_paths():
     156.

     Added in version 3.10.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: When Python runs from a virtual
     environment and ‘key="prefix"’, the 'venv' scheme is returned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig._get_preferred_schemes ()

     Return a dict containing preferred scheme names on the current
     platform.  Python implementers and redistributors may add their
     preferred schemes to the ‘_INSTALL_SCHEMES’ module-level global
     value, and modify this function to return those scheme names, to
     e.g.  provide different schemes for system and language package
     managers to use, so packages installed by either do not mix with
     those by the other.

     End users should not use this function, but *note
     get_default_scheme(): 1daf. and *note get_preferred_scheme(): a7f.
     instead.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.get_path_names ()

     Return a tuple containing all path names currently supported in
     ‘sysconfig’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.get_path (name[, scheme[, vars[, expand]]])

     Return an installation path corresponding to the path 'name', from
     the install scheme named 'scheme'.

     'name' has to be a value from the list returned by *note
     get_path_names(): 4c4f.

     ‘sysconfig’ stores installation paths corresponding to each path
     name, for each platform, with variables to be expanded.  For
     instance the 'stdlib' path for the 'nt' scheme is: ‘{base}/Lib’.

     ‘get_path()’ will use the variables returned by *note
     get_config_vars(): 51e. to expand the path.  All variables have
     default values for each platform so one may call this function and
     get the default value.

     If 'scheme' is provided, it must be a value from the list returned
     by *note get_scheme_names(): 4c4d.  Otherwise, the default scheme
     for the current platform is used.

     If 'vars' is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that
     will update the dictionary returned by *note get_config_vars():
     51e.

     If 'expand' is set to ‘False’, the path will not be expanded using
     the variables.

     If 'name' is not found, raise a *note KeyError: 7df.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.get_paths ([scheme[, vars[, expand]]])

     Return a dictionary containing all installation paths corresponding
     to an installation scheme.  See *note get_path(): 16d2. for more
     information.

     If 'scheme' is not provided, will use the default scheme for the
     current platform.

     If 'vars' is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that
     will update the dictionary used to expand the paths.

     If 'expand' is set to false, the paths will not be expanded.

     If 'scheme' is not an existing scheme, ‘get_paths()’ will raise a
     *note KeyError: 7df.


File: python.info,  Node: Other functions<3>,  Next: Command-line usage<4>,  Prev: Installation path functions,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.30.3.13 Other functions
.........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.get_python_version ()

     Return the ‘MAJOR.MINOR’ Python version number as a string.
     Similar to ‘'%d.%d' % sys.version_info[:2]’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.get_platform ()

     Return a string that identifies the current platform.

     This is used mainly to distinguish platform-specific build
     directories and platform-specific built distributions.  Typically
     includes the OS name and version and the architecture (as supplied
     by *note os.uname(): 14c2.), although the exact information
     included depends on the OS; e.g., on Linux, the kernel version
     isn’t particularly important.

     Examples of returned values:

        - linux-x86_64

        - linux-aarch64

        - solaris-2.6-sun4u

     Windows:

        - win-amd64 (64-bit Windows on AMD64, aka x86_64, Intel64, and
          EM64T)

        - win-arm64 (64-bit Windows on ARM64, aka AArch64)

        - win32 (all others - specifically, sys.platform is returned)

     POSIX based OS:

        - linux-x86_64

        - macosx-15.5-arm64

        - macosx-26.0-universal2 (macOS on Apple Silicon or Intel)

        - android-24-arm64_v8a

     For other non-POSIX platforms, currently just returns *note
     sys.platform: 518.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.is_python_build ()

     Return ‘True’ if the running Python interpreter was built from
     source and is being run from its built location, and not from a
     location resulting from e.g.  running ‘make install’ or installing
     via a binary installer.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.parse_config_h (fp[, vars])

     Parse a ‘config.h’-style file.

     'fp' is a file-like object pointing to the ‘config.h’-like file.

     A dictionary containing name/value pairs is returned.  If an
     optional dictionary is passed in as the second argument, it is used
     instead of a new dictionary, and updated with the values read in
     the file.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.get_config_h_filename ()

     Return the path of ‘pyconfig.h’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: sysconfig.get_makefile_filename ()

     Return the path of ‘Makefile’.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line usage<4>,  Prev: Other functions<3>,  Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information

5.30.3.14 Command-line usage
............................

You can use ‘sysconfig’ as a script with Python’s '-m' option:

     $ python -m sysconfig
     Platform: "macosx-10.4-i386"
     Python version: "3.2"
     Current installation scheme: "posix_prefix"

     Paths:
             data = "/usr/local"
             include = "/Users/tarek/Dev/svn.python.org/py3k/Include"
             platinclude = "."
             platlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
             platstdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"
             purelib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages"
             scripts = "/usr/local/bin"
             stdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2"

     Variables:
             AC_APPLE_UNIVERSAL_BUILD = "0"
             AIX_GENUINE_CPLUSPLUS = "0"
             AR = "ar"
             ARFLAGS = "rc"
             ...

This call will print in the standard output the information returned by
*note get_platform(): 15e8, *note get_python_version(): 15e9, *note
get_path(): 16d2. and *note get_config_vars(): 51e.


File: python.info,  Node: builtins — Built-in objects,  Next: __main__ — Top-level code environment,  Prev: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.4 ‘builtins’ — Built-in objects
------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides direct access to all “built-in” identifiers of
Python; for example, ‘builtins.open’ is the full name for the built-in
function *note open(): 32b.

This module is not normally accessed explicitly by most applications,
but can be useful in modules that provide objects with the same name as
a built-in value, but in which the built-in of that name is also needed.
For example, in a module that wants to implement an *note open(): 32b.
function that wraps the built-in ‘open()’, this module can be used
directly:

     import builtins

     def open(path):
         f = builtins.open(path, 'r')
         return UpperCaser(f)

     class UpperCaser:
         '''Wrapper around a file that converts output to uppercase.'''

         def __init__(self, f):
             self._f = f

         def read(self, count=-1):
             return self._f.read(count).upper()

         # ...

As an implementation detail, most modules have the name ‘__builtins__’
made available as part of their globals.  The value of ‘__builtins__’ is
normally either this module or the value of this module’s *note
__dict__: 1bf. attribute.  Since this is an implementation detail, it
may not be used by alternate implementations of Python.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * *note Built-in Constants: 266d.

   * *note Built-in Exceptions: 1e1e.

   * *note Ενσωματωμένες (Built-in) Συναρτήσεις: 1601.

   * *note Τύποι Built-in: 27e3.


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ — Top-level code environment,  Next: warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων,  Prev: builtins — Built-in objects,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.5 ‘__main__’ — Top-level code environment
----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

In Python, the special name ‘__main__’ is used for two important
constructs:

  1. the name of the top-level environment of the program, which can be
     checked using the ‘__name__ == '__main__'’ expression; and

  2. the ‘__main__.py’ file in Python packages.

Both of these mechanisms are related to Python modules; how users
interact with them and how they interact with each other.  They are
explained in detail below.  If you’re new to Python modules, see the
tutorial section *note Modules: 222d. for an introduction.

* Menu:

* __name__ == '__main__'::
* __main__.py in Python Packages: __main__ py in Python Packages.
* import __main__::


File: python.info,  Node: __name__ == '__main__',  Next: __main__ py in Python Packages,  Up: __main__ — Top-level code environment

5.30.5.1 ‘__name__ == '__main__'’
.................................

When a Python module or package is imported, ‘__name__’ is set to the
module’s name.  Usually, this is the name of the Python file itself
without the ‘.py’ extension:

     >>> import configparser
     >>> configparser.__name__
     'configparser'

If the file is part of a package, ‘__name__’ will also include the
parent package’s path:

     >>> from concurrent.futures import process
     >>> process.__name__
     'concurrent.futures.process'

However, if the module is executed in the top-level code environment,
its ‘__name__’ is set to the string ‘'__main__'’.

* Menu:

* What is the «top-level code environment»?::
* Idiomatic Usage::
* Packaging Considerations::


File: python.info,  Node: What is the «top-level code environment»?,  Next: Idiomatic Usage,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.30.5.2 What is the «top-level code environment»?
..................................................

‘__main__’ is the name of the environment where top-level code is run.
«Top-level code» is the first user-specified Python module that starts
running.  It’s «top-level» because it imports all other modules that the
program needs.  Sometimes «top-level code» is called an 'entry point' to
the application.

The top-level code environment can be:

   * the scope of an interactive prompt:

          >>> __name__
          '__main__'

   * the Python module passed to the Python interpreter as a file
     argument:

          $ python helloworld.py
          Hello, world!

   * the Python module or package passed to the Python interpreter with
     the *note -m: 4ca. argument:

          $ python -m tarfile
          usage: tarfile.py [-h] [-v] (...)

   * Python code read by the Python interpreter from standard input:

          $ echo "import this" | python
          The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

          Beautiful is better than ugly.
          Explicit is better than implicit.
          ...

   * Python code passed to the Python interpreter with the *note -c:
     445. argument:

          $ python -c "import this"
          The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

          Beautiful is better than ugly.
          Explicit is better than implicit.
          ...

In each of these situations, the top-level module’s ‘__name__’ is set to
‘'__main__'’.

As a result, a module can discover whether or not it is running in the
top-level environment by checking its own ‘__name__’, which allows a
common idiom for conditionally executing code when the module is not
initialized from an import statement:

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         # Execute when the module is not initialized from an import statement.
         ...

Δείτε επίσης
............

For a more detailed look at how ‘__name__’ is set in all situations, see
the tutorial section *note Modules: 222d.


File: python.info,  Node: Idiomatic Usage,  Next: Packaging Considerations,  Prev: What is the «top-level code environment»?,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.30.5.3 Idiomatic Usage
........................

Some modules contain code that is intended for script use only, like
parsing command-line arguments or fetching data from standard input.  If
a module like this was imported from a different module, for example to
unit test it, the script code would unintentionally execute as well.

This is where using the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ code block comes in
handy.  Code within this block won’t run unless the module is executed
in the top-level environment.

Putting as few statements as possible in the block below ‘if __name__ ==
'__main__'’ can improve code clarity and correctness.  Most often, a
function named ‘main’ encapsulates the program’s primary behavior:

     # echo.py

     import shlex
     import sys

     def echo(phrase: str) -> None:
        """A dummy wrapper around print."""
        # for demonstration purposes, you can imagine that there is some
        # valuable and reusable logic inside this function
        print(phrase)

     def main() -> int:
         """Echo the input arguments to standard output"""
         phrase = shlex.join(sys.argv)
         echo(phrase)
         return 0

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         sys.exit(main())  # next section explains the use of sys.exit

Note that if the module didn’t encapsulate code inside the ‘main’
function but instead put it directly within the ‘if __name__ ==
'__main__'’ block, the ‘phrase’ variable would be global to the entire
module.  This is error-prone as other functions within the module could
be unintentionally using the global variable instead of a local name.  A
‘main’ function solves this problem.

Using a ‘main’ function has the added benefit of the ‘echo’ function
itself being isolated and importable elsewhere.  When ‘echo.py’ is
imported, the ‘echo’ and ‘main’ functions will be defined, but neither
of them will be called, because ‘__name__ != '__main__'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Packaging Considerations,  Prev: Idiomatic Usage,  Up: __name__ == '__main__'

5.30.5.4 Packaging Considerations
.................................

‘main’ functions are often used to create command-line tools by
specifying them as entry points for console scripts.  When this is done,
pip(1) inserts the function call into a template script, where the
return value of ‘main’ is passed into *note sys.exit(): 4ff.  For
example:

     sys.exit(main())

Since the call to ‘main’ is wrapped in *note sys.exit(): 4ff, the
expectation is that your function will return some value acceptable as
an input to ‘sys.exit()’; typically, an integer or ‘None’ (which is
implicitly returned if your function does not have a return statement).

By proactively following this convention ourselves, our module will have
the same behavior when run directly (i.e.  ‘python echo.py’) as it will
have if we later package it as a console script entry-point in a
pip-installable package.

In particular, be careful about returning strings from your ‘main’
function.  *note sys.exit(): 4ff. will interpret a string argument as a
failure message, so your program will have an exit code of ‘1’,
indicating failure, and the string will be written to *note sys.stderr:
d05.  The ‘echo.py’ example from earlier exemplifies using the
‘sys.exit(main())’ convention.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Python Packaging User Guide(2) contains a collection of tutorials and
references on how to distribute and install Python packages with modern
tools.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pip.pypa.io/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: __main__ py in Python Packages,  Next: import __main__,  Prev: __name__ == '__main__',  Up: __main__ — Top-level code environment

5.30.5.5 ‘__main__.py’ in Python Packages
.........................................

If you are not familiar with Python packages, see section *note Πακέτα:
223d. of the tutorial.  Most commonly, the ‘__main__.py’ file is used to
provide a command-line interface for a package.  Consider the following
hypothetical package, «bandclass»:

     bandclass
       ├── __init__.py
       ├── __main__.py
       └── student.py

‘__main__.py’ will be executed when the package itself is invoked
directly from the command line using the *note -m: 4ca. flag.  For
example:

     $ python -m bandclass

This command will cause ‘__main__.py’ to run.  How you utilize this
mechanism will depend on the nature of the package you are writing, but
in this hypothetical case, it might make sense to allow the teacher to
search for students:

     # bandclass/__main__.py

     import sys
     from .student import search_students

     student_name = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) >= 2 else ''
     print(f'Found student: {search_students(student_name)}')

Note that ‘from .student import search_students’ is an example of a
relative import.  This import style can be used when referencing modules
within a package.  For more details, see *note Intra-package αναφορές:
2241. in the *note Modules: 222d. section of the tutorial.

* Menu:

* Idiomatic Usage: Idiomatic Usage<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Idiomatic Usage<2>,  Up: __main__ py in Python Packages

5.30.5.6 Idiomatic Usage
........................

The content of ‘__main__.py’ typically isn’t fenced with an ‘if __name__
== '__main__'’ block.  Instead, those files are kept short and import
functions to execute from other modules.  Those other modules can then
be easily unit-tested and are properly reusable.

If used, an ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ block will still work as
expected for a ‘__main__.py’ file within a package, because its
‘__name__’ attribute will include the package’s path if imported:

     >>> import asyncio.__main__
     >>> asyncio.__main__.__name__
     'asyncio.__main__'

This won’t work for ‘__main__.py’ files in the root directory of a
‘.zip’ file though.  Hence, for consistency, a minimal ‘__main__.py’
without a ‘__name__’ check is preferred.

Δείτε επίσης
............

See *note venv: 11a. for an example of a package with a minimal
‘__main__.py’ in the standard library.  It doesn’t contain a ‘if
__name__ == '__main__'’ block.  You can invoke it with ‘python -m venv
[directory]’.

See *note runpy: c6. for more details on the *note -m: 4ca. flag to the
interpreter executable.

See *note zipapp: 139. for how to run applications packaged as '.zip'
files.  In this case Python looks for a ‘__main__.py’ file in the root
directory of the archive.


File: python.info,  Node: import __main__,  Prev: __main__ py in Python Packages,  Up: __main__ — Top-level code environment

5.30.5.7 ‘import __main__’
..........................

Regardless of which module a Python program was started with, other
modules running within that same program can import the top-level
environment’s scope (*note namespace: 222e.) by importing the ‘__main__’
module.  This doesn’t import a ‘__main__.py’ file but rather whichever
module that received the special name ‘'__main__'’.

Here is an example module that consumes the ‘__main__’ namespace:

     # namely.py

     import __main__

     def did_user_define_their_name():
         return 'my_name' in dir(__main__)

     def print_user_name():
         if not did_user_define_their_name():
             raise ValueError('Define the variable `my_name`!')

         print(__main__.my_name)

Example usage of this module could be as follows:

     # start.py

     import sys

     from namely import print_user_name

     # my_name = "Dinsdale"

     def main():
         try:
             print_user_name()
         except ValueError as ve:
             return str(ve)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         sys.exit(main())

Now, if we started our program, the result would look like this:

     $ python start.py
     Define the variable `my_name`!

The exit code of the program would be 1, indicating an error.
Uncommenting the line with ‘my_name = "Dinsdale"’ fixes the program and
now it exits with status code 0, indicating success:

     $ python start.py
     Dinsdale

Note that importing ‘__main__’ doesn’t cause any issues with
unintentionally running top-level code meant for script use which is put
in the ‘if __name__ == "__main__"’ block of the ‘start’ module.  Why
does this work?

Python inserts an empty ‘__main__’ module in *note sys.modules: 19ba. at
interpreter startup, and populates it by running top-level code.  In our
example this is the ‘start’ module which runs line by line and imports
‘namely’.  In turn, ‘namely’ imports ‘__main__’ (which is really
‘start’).  That’s an import cycle!  Fortunately, since the partially
populated ‘__main__’ module is present in ‘sys.modules’, Python passes
that to ‘namely’.  See *note Special considerations for __main__: 2655.
in the import system’s reference for details on how this works.

The Python REPL is another example of a «top-level environment», so
anything defined in the REPL becomes part of the ‘__main__’ scope:

     >>> import namely
     >>> namely.did_user_define_their_name()
     False
     >>> namely.print_user_name()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: Define the variable `my_name`!
     >>> my_name = 'Jabberwocky'
     >>> namely.did_user_define_their_name()
     True
     >>> namely.print_user_name()
     Jabberwocky

The ‘__main__’ scope is used in the implementation of *note pdb: aa. and
*note rlcompleter: c5.


File: python.info,  Node: warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων,  Next: dataclasses — Data Classes,  Prev: __main__ — Top-level code environment,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.6 ‘warnings’ — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων
-------------------------------------------

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/warnings.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Τα μηνύματα προειδοποίησης συνήθως εκδίδονται σε καταστάσεις όπου είναι
χρήσιμο να ειδοποιηθεί ο χρήστης για κάποια κατάσταση σε ένα πρόγραμμα,
όπου αυτή η κατάσταση (κανονικά) δεν δικαιολογεί την πρόκληση εξαίρεσης
και τον τερματισμό του προγράμματος.  Για παράδειγμα, μπορεί να θέλετε
να εκδώσετε μια προειδοποίηση όταν ένα πρόγραμμα χρησιμοποιεί ένα
απαρχαιωμένο module.

Οι προγραμματιστές Python εκδίδουν προειδοποιήσεις καλώντας τη συνάρτηση
*note warn(): 18bb. που ορίζεται σε αυτό το module.  (Οι προγραμματιστές
C χρησιμοποιούν *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 17ee.; δείτε *note Exception
Handling: 4c68. για λεπτομέρειες).

Τα μηνύματα προειδοποίησης συνήθως γράφονται στο *note sys.stderr: d05,
αλλά η διάθεσή τους μπορεί να αλλάξει ευέλικτα, από την αγνόηση όλων των
προειδοποιήσεων έως την μετατροπή τους σε εξαιρέσεις.  Η διάθεση των
προειδοποιήσεων μπορεί να διαφέρει με βάση την *note warning category:
290d, το κείμενο του μηνύματος προειδοποίησης και την πηγή όπου
εκδίδεται.  Οι επαναλήψεις μιας συγκεκριμένης προειδοποίησης για την
ίδια πηγή συνήθως καταστέλλονται.

Υπάρχουν δύο στάδια στον έλεγχο προειδοποιήσεων: πρώτον, κάθε φορά που
εκδίδεται μια προειδοποίηση, γίνεται μια εκτίμηση για το αν πρέπει να
εκδοθεί ένα μήνυμα ή όχι.  Στη συνέχεια, εάν πρέπει να εκδοθεί ένα
μήνυμα, διαμορφώνεται και εκτυπώνεται χρησιμοποιώντας ένα ρυθμιζόμενο
από τον χρήστη hook.

Η εκτίμηση για το αν θα εκδοθεί ένα μήνυμα προειδοποίησης ελέγχεται από
το *note warning filter: 1cc, το οποίο είναι μια ακολουθία κανόνων και
ενεργειών αντιστοίχισης.  Οι κανόνες μπορούν να προστεθούν στο φίλτρο
καλώντας *note filterwarnings(): 184b. και να επαναφερθούν στην
προεπιλεγμένη κατάστασή τους καλώντας *note resetwarnings(): 4c69.

Η εκτύπωση των μηνυμάτων προειδοποίησης γίνεται καλώντας *note
showwarning(): 4c6a, η οποία μπορεί να αντικατασταθεί.  Η προεπιλεγμένη
υλοποίηση αυτής της συνάρτησης διαμορφώνει το μήνυμα καλώντας *note
formatwarning(): 1fe7, η οποία είναι επίσης διαθέσιμη για χρήση από
προσαρμοσμένες υλοποιήσεις.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Η *note logging.captureWarnings(): 33fe. σας επιτρέπει να χειρίζεστε
όλες τις προειδοποιήσεις με την τυπική υποδομή καταγραφής.

* Menu:

* Κατηγορίες Προειδοποίησης::
* Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων::
* Προσωρινή Καταστολή Προειδοποιήσεων::
* Δοκιμή Προειδοποιήσεων::
* Ενημέρωση κώδικα για νέες εκδόσεις εξαρτήσεων::
* Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες::
* Διαθέσιμοι Context Managers::
* Συγχρονισμένη ασφάλεια των Context Managers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/warnings.py


File: python.info,  Node: Κατηγορίες Προειδοποίησης,  Next: Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων,  Up: warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων

5.30.6.1 Κατηγορίες Προειδοποίησης
..................................

Υπάρχουν αρκετές ενσωματωμένες εξαιρέσεις που αντιπροσωπεύουν κατηγορίες
προειδοποιήσεων.  Αυτή η κατηγοριοποίηση είναι χρήσιμη για να μπορείτε
να φιλτράρετε ομάδες προειδοποιήσεων.

Παρόλο που τεχνικά αυτές είναι *note built-in exceptions: 290b,
τεκμηριώνονται εδώ, επειδή εννοιολογικά ανήκουν στο μηχανισμό
προειδοποιήσεων.

Ο κώδικας χρήστη μπορεί να ορίσει επιπλέον κατηγορίες προειδοποιήσεων
υποκατηγοριοποιώντας μία από τις τυπικές κατηγορίες προειδοποιήσεων.
Μια κατηγορία προειδοποίησης πρέπει πάντα να είναι υποκλάση της κλάσης
*note Warning: 290e.

Οι ακόλουθες κλάσεις κατηγοριών προειδοποιήσεων ορίζονται επί του
παρόντος:

Κλάση                                  Περιγραφή
                                       
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
*note Warning: 290e.                   Αυτή είναι η βασική κλάση όλων των κατηγοριών
                                       προειδοποιήσεων.  Είναι μια υποκλάση της
                                       *note Exception: d9e.
                                       
                                       
*note UserWarning: 290f.               Η προεπιλεγμένη κατηγορία για την
                                       *note warn(): 18bb.
                                       
                                       
*note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.         Βασική κατηγορία για προειδοποιήσεις σχετικά με
                                       απαρχαιωμένες λειτουργίες όταν αυτές οι
                                       προειδοποιήσεις προορίζονται για άλλους
                                       προγραμματιστές Python (αγνοούνται από
                                       προεπιλογή, εκτός εάν ενεργοποιούνται από κώδικα
                                       στο ‘__main__’).
                                       
                                       
*note SyntaxWarning: 44a.              Βασική κατηγορία για προειδοποιήσεις σχετικά με
                                       αμφίβολες συντακτικές λειτουργίες (συνήθως
                                       εκδίδονται κατά τη μεταγλώττιση κώδικα πηγής
                                       Python και επομένως δεν μπορούν να κατασταλούν
                                       από τα φίλτρα χρόνου εκτέλεσης)
                                       
                                       
*note RuntimeWarning: 6dd.             Βασική κατηγορία για προειδοποιήσεις σχετικά με
                                       αμφίβολες λειτουργίες χρόνου εκτέλεσης.
                                       
                                       
*note FutureWarning: 847.              Βασική κατηγορία για προειδοποιήσεις σχετικά με
                                       απαρχαιωμένες λειτουργίες όταν αυτές οι
                                       προειδοποιήσεις προορίζονται για τελικούς χρήστες
                                       εφαρμογών που είναι γραμμένες σε Python.
                                       
                                       
*note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b.  Βασική κατηγορία για προειδοποιήσεις σχετικά με
                                       λειτουργίες που θα απαρχαιωθούν στο μέλλον
                                       (αγνοούνται από προεπιλογή).
                                       
                                       
*note ImportWarning: 907.              Βασική κατηγορία για προειδοποιήσεις που
                                       ενεργοποιούνται κατά τη διαδικασία εισαγωγής ενός
                                       module (αγνοούνται από προεπιλογή).
                                       
                                       
*note UnicodeWarning: 17c6.            Βασική κατηγορία για προειδοποιήσεις που
                                       σχετίζονται με το Unicode.
                                       
                                       
*note BytesWarning: 2ee.               Βασική κατηγορία για προειδοποιήσεις που
                                       σχετίζονται με *note bytes: 1c7. και
                                       *note bytearray: 1c6.
                                       
                                       
*note ResourceWarning: 74f.            Βασική κατηγορία για προειδοποιήσεις που
                                       σχετίζονται με τη χρήση πόρων (αγνοούνται από
                                       προεπιλογή).
                                       

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Προηγουμένως, οι *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.
και *note FutureWarning: 847. διακρίνονταν με βάση το αν μια λειτουργία
αφαιρούνταν εντελώς ή άλλαζε τη συμπεριφορά της.  Τώρα διακρίνονται με
βάση το κοινό στο οποίο απευθύνονται και τον τρόπο με τον οποίο
χειρίζονται τα προεπιλεγμένα φίλτρα προειδοποιήσεων.


File: python.info,  Node: Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων,  Next: Προσωρινή Καταστολή Προειδοποιήσεων,  Prev: Κατηγορίες Προειδοποίησης,  Up: warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων

5.30.6.2 Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων
..................................

Το φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων ελέγχει αν οι προειδοποιήσεις αγνοούνται,
εμφανίζονται ή μετατρέπονται σε σφάλματα (προκαλώντας εξαίρεση).

Εννοιολογικά, το φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων διατηρεί μια διατεταγμένη λίστα
προδιαγραφών φίλτρων.  Κάθε συγκεκριμένη προειδοποίηση αντιστοιχίζεται
σε κάθε προδιαγραφή φίλτρου στη λίστα με τη σειρά μέχρι να βρεθεί μια
αντιστοιχία.  Το φίλτρο καθορίζει τη διάθεση της αντιστοιχίας.  Κάθε
καταχώριση είναι μια πλειάδα της μορφής ('action', 'message',
'category', 'module', 'lineno'), όπου:

   * 'action' είναι μία από τις ακόλουθες συμβολοσειρές:

     Τιμή                Διάθεση
                         
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------
                         
     ‘"default"’         εκτυπώνει την πρώτη εμφάνιση των ταιριασμένων
                         προειδοποιήσεων για κάθε τοποθεσία (module +
                         αριθμός γραμμής) όπου εκδίδεται η προειδοποίηση
                         
                         
     ‘"error"’           μετατρέπει τις ταιριασμένες προειδοποιήσεις σε
                         εξαιρέσεις
                         
                         
     ‘"ignore"’          ποτέ δεν εκτυπώνει τις ταιριασμένες
                         προειδοποιήσεις
                         
                         
     ‘"always"’          πάντα εκτυπώνει τις ταιριασμένες προειδοποιήσεις
                         
                         
     ‘"all"’             ψευδώνυμο για το «always»
                         
                         
     ‘"module"’          εκτυπώνει την πρώτη εμφάνιση των ταιριασμένων
                         προειδοποιήσεων για κάθε module όπου εκδίδεται η
                         προειδοποίηση (ανεξάρτητα από τον αριθμό
                         γραμμής)
                         
                         
     ‘"once"’            εκτυπώνει μόνο την πρώτη εμφάνιση των
                         ταιριασμένων προειδοποιήσεων, ανεξάρτητα από την
                         τοποθεσία
                         

   * 'message' is a string containing a regular expression that the
     start of the warning message must match, case-insensitively.  In
     *note -W: 1c0. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS: 1c1, if 'message' starts
     and ends with a forward slash (‘/’), it specifies a regular
     expression as above; otherwise it is a literal string that the
     start of the warning message must match (case-insensitively),
     ignoring any whitespace at the start or end of 'message'.

   * Το 'category' είναι μια κλάση (μια υποκλάση της *note Warning:
     290e.) της οποίας η κατηγορία προειδοποίησης πρέπει να είναι
     υποκλάση για να ταιριάζει.

   * 'module' is a string containing a regular expression that the start
     of the fully qualified module name must match, case-sensitively.
     In *note -W: 1c0. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS: 1c1, if 'module' starts
     and ends with a forward slash (‘/’), it specifies a regular
     expression as above; otherwise it is a literal string that the
     fully qualified module name must be equal to (case-sensitively),
     ignoring any whitespace at the start or end of 'module'.

   * Το 'lineno' είναι ένας ακέραιος αριθμός με τον οποίο πρέπει να
     ταιριάζει ο αριθμός γραμμής όπου συνέβη η προειδοποίηση, ή ‘0’ για
     να ταιριάζουν όλοι οι αριθμοί γραμμών.

Δεδομένου ότι η κλάση *note Warning: 290e. προέρχεται από την
ενσωματωμένη κλάση *note Exception: d9e, για να μετατρέψουμε μια
προειδοποίηση σε σφάλμα απλώς προκαλούμε ‘category(message)’.

Εάν αναφερθεί μια προειδοποίηση και δεν ταιριάζει με κανένα καταχωρημένο
φίλτρο, τότε εφαρμόζεται η ενέργεια «default» (εξ ου και το όνομά της).

* Menu:

* Κριτήρια Καταστολής Επαναλαμβανόμενων Προειδοποιήσεων::
* Περιγραφή Φίλτρων Προειδοποιήσεων::
* Προεπιλεγμένο φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων::
* Αντικατάσταση του προεπιλεγμένου φίλτρου::


File: python.info,  Node: Κριτήρια Καταστολής Επαναλαμβανόμενων Προειδοποιήσεων,  Next: Περιγραφή Φίλτρων Προειδοποιήσεων,  Up: Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων

5.30.6.3 Κριτήρια Καταστολής Επαναλαμβανόμενων Προειδοποιήσεων
..............................................................

Τα φίλτρα που καταστέλλουν τις επαναλαμβανόμενες προειδοποιήσεις
εφαρμόζουν τα ακόλουθα κριτήρια για να προσδιορίσουν αν μια
προειδοποίηση θεωρείται επανάληψη:

   - ‘"default"’: Μια προειδοποίηση θεωρείται επανάληψη μόνο αν τα
     ('message', 'category', 'module', 'lineno') είναι όλα τα ίδια.

   - ‘"module"’: Μια προειδοποίηση θεωρείται επανάληψη αν τα ('message',
     'category', 'module') είναι τα ίδια, αγνοώντας τον αριθμό γραμμής.

   - ‘"once"’: Μια προειδοποίηση θεωρείται επανάληψη αν τα ('message',
     'category') είναι τα ίδια, αγνοώντας το module και τον αριθμό
     γραμμής.


File: python.info,  Node: Περιγραφή Φίλτρων Προειδοποιήσεων,  Next: Προεπιλεγμένο φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων,  Prev: Κριτήρια Καταστολής Επαναλαμβανόμενων Προειδοποιήσεων,  Up: Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων

5.30.6.4 Περιγραφή Φίλτρων Προειδοποιήσεων
..........................................

The warnings filter is initialized by *note -W: 1c0. options passed to
the Python interpreter command line and the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: 1c1.
environment variable.  The interpreter saves the arguments for all
supplied entries without interpretation in *note sys.warnoptions: 3a5.;
the ‘warnings’ module parses these when it is first imported (invalid
options are ignored, after printing a message to *note sys.stderr:
d05.).

Τα μεμονωμένα φίλτρα προειδοποιήσεων καθορίζονται ως ακολουθία πεδίων
διαχωρισμένων με άνω και κάτω τελεία:

     action:message:category:module:line

Η σημασία του καθενός από αυτά τα πεδία περιγράφεται στο *note Το Φίλτρο
Προειδοποιήσεων: 1cc.  Όταν απαριθμούνται πολλαπλά φίλτρα σε μία μόνο
γραμμή (όπως για το *note PYTHONWARNINGS: 1c1.), τα μεμονωμένα φίλτρα
διαχωρίζονται με κόμματα και τα φίλτρα που απαριθμούνται αργότερα έχουν
προτεραιότητα έναντι αυτών που απαριθμούνται πριν από αυτά (καθώς
εφαρμόζονται από αριστερά προς τα δεξιά, και τα πιο πρόσφατα εφαρμοσμένα
φίλτρα έχουν προτεραιότητα έναντι των προηγούμενων).

Τα συνήθως χρησιμοποιούμενα φίλτρα προειδοποιήσεων εφαρμόζονται είτε σε
όλες τις προειδοποιήσεις, προειδοποιήσεις σε μια συγκεκριμένη κατηγορία
ή προειδοποιήσεις που προκαλούνται από συγκεκριμένα modules ή πακέτα.
Μερικά παραδείγματα:

     default                      # Εμφάνιση όλων των προειδοποιήσεων (ακόμη και αυτών που αγνοούνται από προεπιλογή)
     ignore                       # Αγνόηση όλων των προειδοποιήσεων
     error                        # Μετατροπή όλων των προειδοποιήσεων σε σφάλματα
     error::ResourceWarning       # Αντιμετώπιση των μηνυμάτων ResourceWarning ως σφάλματα
     default::DeprecationWarning  # Εμφάνιση μηνυμάτων DeprecationWarning
     ignore,default:::mymodule    # Αναφορά μόνο προειδοποιήσεων που ενεργοποιούνται από το "mymodule"
     error:::mymodule             # Μετατροπή προειδοποιήσεων σε σφάλματα στο "mymodule"


File: python.info,  Node: Προεπιλεγμένο φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων,  Next: Αντικατάσταση του προεπιλεγμένου φίλτρου,  Prev: Περιγραφή Φίλτρων Προειδοποιήσεων,  Up: Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων

5.30.6.5 Προεπιλεγμένο φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων
.............................................

Από προεπιλογή, η Python εγκαθιστά αρκετά φίλτρα προειδοποιήσεων, τα
οποία μπορούν να αντικατασταθούν από την επιλογή γραμμής εντολών *note
-W: 1c0, τη μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος *note PYTHONWARNINGS: 1c1. και
κλήσεις στη *note filterwarnings(): 184b.

Σε κανονικές εκδόσεις, το προεπιλεγμένο φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων έχει τις
ακόλουθες καταχωρήσεις (με σειρά προτεραιότητας):

     default::DeprecationWarning:__main__
     ignore::DeprecationWarning
     ignore::PendingDeprecationWarning
     ignore::ImportWarning
     ignore::ResourceWarning

Σε μια *note debug build: 3dc, η λίστα των προεπιλεγμένων φίλτρων
προειδοποιήσεων είναι κενή.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. αγνοείται πλέον
από προεπιλογή επιπλέον της *note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. εμφανίζεται ξανά
από προεπιλογή όταν ενεργοποιείται άμεσα από κώδικα στο ‘__main__’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: *note BytesWarning: 2ee. δεν εμφανίζεται πλέον
στη λίστα προεπιλεγμένων φίλτρων και αντ” αυτού διαμορφώνεται μέσω *note
sys.warnoptions: 3a5. όταν *note -b: 2ed. καθορίζεται δύο φορές.


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικατάσταση του προεπιλεγμένου φίλτρου,  Prev: Προεπιλεγμένο φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων,  Up: Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων

5.30.6.6 Αντικατάσταση του προεπιλεγμένου φίλτρου
.................................................

Οι προγραμματιστές εφαρμογών γραμμένων σε Python μπορεί να επιθυμούν να
αποκρύψουν 'όλες' τις προειδοποιήσεις επιπέδου Python από τους χρήστες
τους από προεπιλογή, και να τις εμφανίζουν μόνο κατά την εκτέλεση
δοκιμών ή άλλως εργαζόμενοι στην εφαρμογή.  Το χαρακτηριστικό *note
sys.warnoptions: 3a5. που χρησιμοποιείται για τη μετάδοση διαμορφώσεων
φίλτρων στον διερμηνέα μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ως δείκτης για να
υποδείξει αν οι προειδοποιήσεις πρέπει να απενεργοποιηθούν ή όχι:

     import sys

     if not sys.warnoptions:
         import warnings
         warnings.simplefilter("ignore")

Οι προγραμματιστές εργαλείων εκτέλεσης δοκιμών για κώδικα Python
συνιστάται να διασφαλίζουν αντ” αυτού ότι 'όλες' οι προειδοποιήσεις
εμφανίζονται από προεπιλογή για τον κώδικα υπό δοκιμή, χρησιμοποιώντας
κώδικα όπως:

     import sys

     if not sys.warnoptions:
         import os, warnings
         warnings.simplefilter("default") # Αλλαγή του φίλτρου σε αυτή τη διαδικασία
         os.environ["PYTHONWARNINGS"] = "default" # Επηρεάζει επίσης τις υποδιαδικασίες

Τέλος, οι προγραμματιστές διαδραστικών κελυφών που εκτελούν κώδικα
χρήστη σε ένα namespace διαφορετικό από το ‘__main__’ συνιστάται να
διασφαλίζουν ότι τα μηνύματα *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. γίνονται
ορατά από προεπιλογή, χρησιμοποιώντας κώδικα όπως ο παρακάτω (όπου το
‘user_ns’ είναι το module που χρησιμοποιείται για την εκτέλεση κώδικα
που εισάγεται διαδραστικά):

     import warnings
     warnings.filterwarnings("default", category=DeprecationWarning,
                                        module=user_ns.get("__name__"))


File: python.info,  Node: Προσωρινή Καταστολή Προειδοποιήσεων,  Next: Δοκιμή Προειδοποιήσεων,  Prev: Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων,  Up: warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων

5.30.6.7 Προσωρινή Καταστολή Προειδοποιήσεων
............................................

Εάν χρησιμοποιείτε κώδικα που γνωρίζετε ότι θα προκαλέσει μια
προειδοποίηση, όπως μια απαρχαιωμένη λειτουργία, αλλά δεν θέλετε να
δείτε την προειδοποίηση (ακόμη και όταν οι προειδοποιήσεις έχουν
ρυθμιστεί ρητά μέσω της γραμμής εντολών), τότε είναι δυνατό να
καταστείλετε την προειδοποίηση χρησιμοποιώντας τον *note catch_warnings:
423. context manager:

     import warnings

     def fxn():
         warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)

     with warnings.catch_warnings():
         warnings.simplefilter("ignore")
         fxn()

Ενώ βρίσκεστε μέσα στον context manager, όλες οι προειδοποιήσεις θα
απλώς θα αγνοούνται.  Αυτό σας επιτρέπει να χρησιμοποιείτε γνωστό
απαρχαιωμένο κώδικα χωρίς να χρειάζεται να δείτε την προειδοποίηση,
χωρίς να καταστέλλετε την προειδοποίηση για άλλο κώδικα που μπορεί να
μην είναι ενήμερος για τη χρήση απαρχαιωμένου κώδικα.

          Σημείωση: Δείτε το *note Συγχρονισμένη ασφάλεια των Context
          Managers: 4c76. για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με την ασφάλεια
          ταυτόχρονης εκτέλεσης του *note catch_warnings: 423. context
          manager όταν χρησιμοποιείται σε προγράμματα που χρησιμοποιούν
          πολλαπλές νηματοειδείς διαδικασίες ή ασύγχρονες λειτουργίες.


File: python.info,  Node: Δοκιμή Προειδοποιήσεων,  Next: Ενημέρωση κώδικα για νέες εκδόσεις εξαρτήσεων,  Prev: Προσωρινή Καταστολή Προειδοποιήσεων,  Up: warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων

5.30.6.8 Δοκιμή Προειδοποιήσεων
...............................

Για να δοκιμάσετε προειδοποιήσεις που προκαλούνται από κώδικα,
χρησιμοποιήστε τον *note catch_warnings: 423. context manager.  Με αυτόν
μπορείτε προσωρινά να μεταβάλλετε το φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων για να
διευκολύνετε τις δοκιμές σας.  Για παράδειγμα, κάντε το ακόλουθο για να
καταγράψετε όλες τις προειδοποιήσεις που έχουν προκληθεί για έλεγχο:

     import warnings

     def fxn():
         warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning)

     with warnings.catch_warnings(record=True) as w:
         # Cause all warnings to always be triggered.
         warnings.simplefilter("always")
         # Trigger a warning.
         fxn()
         # Verify some things
         assert len(w) == 1
         assert issubclass(w[-1].category, DeprecationWarning)
         assert "deprecated" in str(w[-1].message)

Μπορείτε επίσης να κάνετε όλες τις προειδοποιήσεις να είναι εξαιρέσεις
χρησιμοποιώντας το ‘error’ αντί για το ‘always’.  Ένα πράγμα που πρέπει
να γνωρίζετε είναι ότι εάν μια προειδοποίηση έχει ήδη προκληθεί λόγω
ενός κανόνα ‘once’/‘default’, τότε ανεξάρτητα από τα φίλτρα που έχουν
οριστεί, η προειδοποίηση δεν θα εμφανιστεί ξανά εκτός εάν έχει
καθαριστεί το μητρώο προειδοποιήσεων που σχετίζεται με την
προειδοποίηση.

Μόλις ο context manager τερματιστεί, το φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων
επαναφέρεται στην κατάσταση που βρισκόταν όταν εισήλθε το context.  Αυτό
αποτρέπει τις δοκιμές από το να αλλάζουν το φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων με
απροσδόκητους τρόπους μεταξύ των δοκιμών και να οδηγούν σε απροσδιόριστα
αποτελέσματα δοκιμών.

          Σημείωση: Δείτε το *note Συγχρονισμένη ασφάλεια των Context
          Managers: 4c76. για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με την ασφάλεια
          ταυτόχρονης εκτέλεσης του *note catch_warnings: 423. context
          manager όταν χρησιμοποιείται σε προγράμματα που χρησιμοποιούν
          πολλαπλές νηματοειδείς διαδικασίες ή ασύγχρονες λειτουργίες.

Όταν δοκιμάζετε πολλαπλές λειτουργίες που προκαλούν τον ίδιο τύπο
προειδοποίησης, είναι σημαντικό να τις δοκιμάζετε με τρόπο που να
επιβεβαιώνει ότι κάθε λειτουργία προκαλεί μια νέα προειδοποίηση (π.χ.
ρυθμίστε τις προειδοποιήσεις να προκαλούνται ως εξαιρέσεις και ελέγξτε
ότι οι λειτουργίες προκαλούν εξαιρέσεις, ελέγξτε ότι το μήκος της λίστας
προειδοποιήσεων συνεχίζει να αυξάνεται μετά από κάθε λειτουργία, ή
αλλιώς διαγράψτε τις προηγούμενες καταχωρίσεις από τη λίστα
προειδοποιήσεων πριν από κάθε νέα λειτουργία).


File: python.info,  Node: Ενημέρωση κώδικα για νέες εκδόσεις εξαρτήσεων,  Next: Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες,  Prev: Δοκιμή Προειδοποιήσεων,  Up: warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων

5.30.6.9 Ενημέρωση κώδικα για νέες εκδόσεις εξαρτήσεων
......................................................

Οι κατηγορίες προειδοποιήσεων που ενδιαφέρουν κυρίως τους
προγραμματιστές Python (αντί για τους τελικούς χρήστες εφαρμογών
γραμμένων σε Python) αγνοούνται από προεπιλογή.

Σημειωτέον, αυτή η λίστα «αγνοείται από προεπιλογή» περιλαμβάνει την
*note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. (για κάθε module εκτός από το
‘__main__’), που σημαίνει ότι οι προγραμματιστές πρέπει να βεβαιωθούν
ότι δοκιμάζουν τον κώδικά τους με τις συνήθεις αγνοούμενες
προειδοποιήσεις να γίνονται ορατές, προκειμένου να λαμβάνουν έγκαιρες
ειδοποιήσεις για μελλοντικές αλλαγές που σπάνε το API (είτε στην τυπική
βιβλιοθήκη είτε σε πακέτα τρίτων).

Στην ιδανική περίπτωση, ο κώδικας θα έχει μια κατάλληλη σουίτα δοκιμών,
και το εργαλείο εκτέλεσης δοκιμών θα φροντίζει να ενεργοποιεί όλες τις
προειδοποιήσεις αυτοματοποιημένα κατά την εκτέλεση δοκιμών (το εργαλείο
εκτέλεσης δοκιμών που παρέχεται από το module *note unittest: 10f. το
κάνει αυτό).

Σε λιγότερο ιδανικές περιπτώσεις, οι εφαρμογές μπορούν να ελεγχθούν για
τη χρήση απαρχαιωμένων διεπαφών περνώντας *note -Wd: 1c0. στον διερμηνέα
Python (αυτή είναι συντομογραφία για ‘-W default’) ή ρυθμίζοντας
‘PYTHONWARNINGS=default’ στο περιβάλλον.  Αυτό ενεργοποιεί την
προεπιλεγμένη διαχείριση για όλες τις προειδοποιήσεις,
συμπεριλαμβανομένων αυτών που αγνοούνται από προεπιλογή.  Για να
αλλάξετε ποια ενέργεια λαμβάνεται για τις αντιμετωπιζόμενες
προειδοποιήσεις, μπορείτε να αλλάξετε ποιο όρισμα περνιέται στο ‘-W’
(π.χ.  ‘-W error’).  Δείτε τη σημαία ‘-W’ για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες
σχετικά με το τι είναι δυνατό.


File: python.info,  Node: Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες,  Next: Διαθέσιμοι Context Managers,  Prev: Ενημέρωση κώδικα για νέες εκδόσεις εξαρτήσεων,  Up: warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων

5.30.6.10 Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες
................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: warnings.warn (message, category=None, stacklevel=1,
          source=None, *, skip_file_prefixes=())

     Εκδίδει μια προειδοποίηση, ή ίσως την αγνοεί ή κάνει raise μια
     εξαίρεση.  Το 'category' επιχείρημα, αν δοθεί, πρέπει να είναι μια
     *note warning category class: 290d.· η προεπιλογή είναι *note
     UserWarning: 290f.  Εναλλακτικά, το 'message' μπορεί να είναι μια
     *note Warning: 290e. παρουσία, στην οποία περίπτωση το 'category'
     θα αγνοηθεί και θα χρησιμοποιηθεί το ‘message.__class__’.  Σε αυτή
     την περίπτωση, το κείμενο του μηνύματος θα είναι ‘str(message)’.
     Αυτή η λειτουργία προκαλεί μια εξαίρεση αν η συγκεκριμένη
     προειδοποίηση που εκδίδεται μετατραπεί σε σφάλμα από το *note
     warnings filter: 1cc.  Το 'stacklevel' επιχείρημα μπορεί να
     χρησιμοποιηθεί από wrapper functions γραμμένες σε Python, όπως
     αυτό:

          def deprecated_api(message):
              warnings.warn(message, DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)

     Αυτό κάνει την προειδοποίηση να αναφέρεται στον καλούντα της
     ‘deprecated_api’, αντί στην πηγή της ίδιας της ‘deprecated_api’
     (δεδομένου ότι το δεύτερο θα αναιρούσε τον σκοπό του μηνύματος
     προειδοποίησης).

     Το 'skip_file_prefixes' όρισμα λέξεων-κλειδιών μπορεί να
     χρησιμοποιηθεί για να υποδείξει ποια stack frames αγνοούνται κατά
     την καταμέτρηση των επιπέδων στοίβας.  Αυτό μπορεί να είναι χρήσιμο
     όταν θέλετε η προειδοποίηση να εμφανίζεται πάντα σε σημεία κλήσης
     εκτός ενός πακέτου όταν ένα σταθερό 'stacklevel' δεν ταιριάζει σε
     όλες τις διαδρομές κλήσης ή είναι διαφορετικά δύσκολο να
     διατηρηθεί.  Εάν παρέχεται, πρέπει να είναι μια πλειάδα
     συμβολοσειρών.  Όταν παρέχονται προθέματα, το stacklevel
     παρακάμπτεται αυτοματοποιημένα ώστε να είναι ‘max(2, stacklevel)’.
     Για να προκαλέσετε την απόδοση μιας προειδοποίησης στον καλούντα
     από εκτός του τρέχοντος πακέτου, μπορείτε να γράψετε:

          # example/lower.py
          _warn_skips = (os.path.dirname(__file__),)

          def one_way(r_luxury_yacht=None, t_wobbler_mangrove=None):
              if r_luxury_yacht:
                  warnings.warn("Please migrate to t_wobbler_mangrove=.",
                                skip_file_prefixes=_warn_skips)

          # example/higher.py
          from . import lower

          def another_way(**kw):
              lower.one_way(**kw)

     Αυτό κάνει την προειδοποίηση να αναφέρεται τόσο στα σημεία κλήσης
     της ‘example.lower.one_way()’ όσο και της
     ‘package.higher.another_way()’ μόνο από κώδικα κλήσης που ζει εκτός
     του πακέτου ‘example’.

     'source', αν παρέχεται, είναι το καταστραμμένο αντικείμενο που
     εξέπεμψε μια *note ResourceWarning: 74f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Προστέθηκε η παράμετρος 'source'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Προστέθηκε το 'skip_file_prefixes'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: warnings.warn_explicit (message, category, filename,
          lineno, module=None, registry=None, module_globals=None,
          source=None)

     Αυτή είναι μια διεπαφή χαμηλού επιπέδου στη λειτουργικότητα της
     *note warn(): 18bb, με την οποία περνιούνται ρητά το μήνυμα, η
     κατηγορία, το όνομα αρχείου και ο αριθμός γραμμής, και προαιρετικά
     άλλα ορίσματα.  Το 'message' πρέπει να είναι μια συμβολοσειρά και
     το 'category' μια υποκλάση του *note Warning: 290e. ή το 'message'
     μπορεί να είναι μια παρουσία ‘Warning’, στην οποία περίπτωση το
     'category' θα αγνοηθεί.

     'module', if supplied, should be the module name.  If no module is
     passed, the module regular expression in *note warnings filter:
     1cc. will be tested against the module names constructed from the
     path components starting from all parent directories (with
     ‘/__init__.py’, ‘.py’ and, on Windows, ‘.pyw’ stripped) and against
     the filename with ‘.py’ stripped.  For example, when the filename
     is ‘'/path/to/package/module.py'’, it will be tested against
     ‘'path.to.package.module'’, ‘'to.package.module'’
     ‘'package.module'’, ‘'module'’, and ‘'/path/to/package/module'’.

     'registry', αν παρέχεται, θα πρέπει να είναι το
     ‘__warningregistry__’ λεξικό του module.  Εάν δεν περνιέται μητρώο,
     κάθε προειδοποίηση αντιμετωπίζεται ως η πρώτη εμφάνιση, δηλαδή, οι
     ενέργειες φίλτρου ‘"default"’, ‘"module"’ και ‘"once"’
     αντιμετωπίζονται ως ‘"always"’.

     'module_globals', αν παρέχεται, θα πρέπει να είναι το παγκόσμιο
     namespace που χρησιμοποιείται από τον κώδικα για τον οποίο
     εκδίδεται η προειδοποίηση.  (Αυτό το όρισμα χρησιμοποιείται για την
     υποστήριξη εμφάνισης πηγής για modules που βρίσκονται σε αρχεία zip
     ή άλλες πηγές εισαγωγής εκτός συστήματος αρχείων).

     'source', αν παρέχεται, είναι το καταστραμμένο αντικείμενο που
     εξέπεμψε μια *note ResourceWarning: 74f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Προσθήκη της παραμέτρου 'source'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: If no module is passed, test the filter
     regular expression against module names created from the path, not
     only the path itself.

 -- Συνάρτηση: warnings.showwarning (message, category, filename,
          lineno, file=None, line=None)

     Γράφει μια προειδοποίηση σε ένα αρχείο.  Η προεπιλεγμένη υλοποίηση
     καλεί τη ‘formatwarning(message, category, filename, lineno, line)’
     και γράφει τη συμβολοσειρά αποτέλεσμα στο 'file', που έχει
     προεπιλογή το *note sys.stderr: d05.  Μπορείτε να αντικαταστήσετε
     αυτή τη λειτουργία με οποιοδήποτε καλέσιμο αναθέτοντας στην
     ‘warnings.showwarning’.  Το 'line' είναι μια γραμμή πηγαίου κώδικα
     που θα συμπεριληφθεί στο μήνυμα προειδοποίησης· αν το 'line' δεν
     παρέχεται, η *note showwarning(): 4c6a. θα προσπαθήσει να διαβάσει
     τη γραμμή που καθορίζεται από το 'filename' και το 'lineno'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: warnings.formatwarning (message, category, filename,
          lineno, line=None)

     Μορφοποιεί μια προειδοποίηση με τον τυπικό τρόπο.  Αυτό επιστρέφει
     μια συμβολοσειρά που μπορεί να περιέχει ενσωματωμένες αλλαγές
     γραμμής και τελειώνει σε αλλαγή γραμμής.  Το 'line' είναι μια
     γραμμή πηγαίου κώδικα που θα συμπεριληφθεί στο μήνυμα
     προειδοποίησης· αν το 'line' δεν παρέχεται, η *note
     formatwarning(): 1fe7. θα προσπαθήσει να διαβάσει τη γραμμή που
     καθορίζεται από το 'filename' και το 'lineno'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: warnings.filterwarnings (action, message='',
          category=Warning, module='', lineno=0, append=False)

     Εισάγει μια καταχώριση στη λίστα *note προδιαγραφών φίλτρων
     προειδοποιήσεων: 1cc.  Η καταχώριση εισάγεται στην αρχή από
     προεπιλογή· αν το 'append' είναι αληθές, εισάγεται στο τέλος.  Αυτό
     ελέγχει τους τύπους των επιχειρημάτων, συντάσσει τις κανονικές
     εκφράσεις 'message' και 'module', και τις εισάγει ως πλειάδα στη
     λίστα φίλτρων προειδοποιήσεων.  Οι καταχωρίσεις πιο κοντά στην αρχή
     της λίστας παρακάμπτουν τις καταχωρίσεις αργότερα στη λίστα, αν και
     οι δύο ταιριάζουν σε μια συγκεκριμένη προειδοποίηση.  Τα
     παραλειφθέντα επιχειρήματα έχουν προεπιλογή μια τιμή που ταιριάζει
     με τα πάντα.

 -- Συνάρτηση: warnings.simplefilter (action, category=Warning,
          lineno=0, append=False)

     Εισάγει μια απλή καταχώριση στη λίστα *note προδιαγραφών φίλτρων
     προειδοποιήσεων: 1cc.  Η σημασία των παραμέτρων της λειτουργίας
     είναι όπως για την *note filterwarnings(): 184b, αλλά δεν
     χρειάζονται κανονικές εκφράσεις καθώς το φίλτρο που εισάγεται
     ταιριάζει πάντα με οποιοδήποτε μήνυμα σε οποιοδήποτε module αρκεί
     να ταιριάζουν η κατηγορία και ο αριθμός γραμμής.

 -- Συνάρτηση: warnings.resetwarnings ()

     Επαναφέρει το φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων.  Αυτό απορρίπτει την επίδραση
     όλων των προηγούμενων κλήσεων στην *note filterwarnings(): 184b,
     συμπεριλαμβανομένων των επιλογών γραμμής εντολών *note -W: 1c0. και
     κλήσεων στην *note simplefilter(): aae.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @warnings.deprecated (msg, *,
          category=DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=1)

     Διακοσμητής για να υποδείξει ότι μια κλάση, λειτουργία ή
     υπερφόρτωση είναι απαρχαιωμένη.

     Όταν αυτός ο διακοσμητής εφαρμόζεται σε ένα αντικείμενο, μπορεί να
     εκδοθούν προειδοποιήσεις απαρχαιώσεως κατά την εκτέλεση όταν το
     αντικείμενο χρησιμοποιείται.  Οι *note static type checkers: 775.
     θα παράγουν επίσης μια διάγνωση κατά τη χρήση του απαρχαιωμένου
     αντικειμένου.

     Χρήση:

          from warnings import deprecated
          from typing import overload

          @deprecated("Use B instead")
          class A:
              pass

          @deprecated("Use g instead")
          def f():
              pass

          @overload
          @deprecated("int support is deprecated")
          def g(x: int) -> int: ...
          @overload
          def g(x: str) -> int: ...

     Η προειδοποίηση που καθορίζεται από το 'category' θα εκδοθεί κατά
     την εκτέλεση κατά τη χρήση απαρχαιωμένων αντικειμένων.  Για
     λειτουργίες, αυτό συμβαίνει κατά τις κλήσεις· για κλάσεις, κατά την
     διαδικασία δημιουργίας στιγμιοτύπου και τη δημιουργία υποκλάσεων.
     Εάν το 'category' είναι ‘None’, δεν εκδίδεται καμία προειδοποίηση
     κατά την εκτέλεση.  Το 'stacklevel' καθορίζει πού εκδίδεται η
     προειδοποίηση.  Εάν είναι ‘1’ (η προεπιλογή), η προειδοποίηση
     εκδίδεται στον άμεσο καλούντα του απαρχαιωμένου αντικειμένου· αν
     είναι υψηλότερο, εκδίδεται πιο ψηλά στη στοίβα.  Η συμπεριφορά του
     στατικού ελεγκτή τύπων δεν επηρεάζεται από τα επιχειρήματα
     'category' και 'stacklevel'.

     Το μήνυμα απαρχαιώσεως που περνάει στον διακοσμητή αποθηκεύεται στο
     ‘__deprecated__’ χαρακτηριστικό στο διακοσμημένο αντικείμενο.  Εάν
     εφαρμόζεται σε μια υπερφόρτωση, ο διακοσμητής πρέπει να είναι μετά
     τον *note @~typing.overload: 476c. διακοσμητή για να υπάρχει το
     χαρακτηριστικό στην υπερφόρτωση όπως επιστρέφεται από τη *note
     typing.get_overloads(): a9c.

     Added in version 3.13: Δείτε το PEP 702(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/


File: python.info,  Node: Διαθέσιμοι Context Managers,  Next: Συγχρονισμένη ασφάλεια των Context Managers,  Prev: Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες,  Up: warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων

5.30.6.11 Διαθέσιμοι Context Managers
.....................................

 -- Κλάση: warnings.catch_warnings (*, record=False, module=None,
          action=None, category=Warning, lineno=0, append=False)

     Ένας context manager που αντιγράφει και, κατά την έξοδο, επαναφέρει
     το φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων και τη *note showwarning(): 4c6a.
     λειτουργία.  Αν το 'record' επιχείρημα είναι *note False: ef5. (η
     προεπιλογή) ο context manager επιστρέφει *note None: a65. κατά την
     είσοδο.  Αν το 'record' είναι *note True: fcc, επιστρέφεται μια
     λίστα που γεμίζει προοδευτικά με αντικείμενα όπως βλέπονται από μια
     προσαρμοσμένη ‘showwarning()’ λειτουργία (που επίσης καταστέλλει
     την έξοδο στο ‘sys.stdout’).  Κάθε αντικείμενο στη λίστα έχει
     χαρακτηριστικά με τα ίδια ονόματα με τα επιχειρήματα της
     ‘showwarning()’.

     The 'module' argument takes a module that will be used instead of
     the module returned when you import ‘warnings’ whose filter will be
     protected.  This argument exists primarily for testing the
     ‘warnings’ module itself.

     Αν το όρισμα 'action' δεν είναι ‘None’, τα υπόλοιπα ορίσματα
     περνιούνται στην *note simplefilter(): aae. σαν να είχε κληθεί
     αμέσως κατά την είσοδο στο context.

     Δείτε το *note Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων: 1cc. για τη σημασία των
     παραμέτρων 'category' και 'lineno'.

          Σημείωση: Δείτε το *note Συγχρονισμένη ασφάλεια των Context
          Managers: 4c76. για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με την ασφάλεια
          ταυτόχρονης εκτέλεσης του *note catch_warnings: 423. context
          manager όταν χρησιμοποιείται σε προγράμματα που χρησιμοποιούν
          πολλαπλές νηματοειδείς διαδικασίες ή ασύγχρονες λειτουργίες.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Προστέθηκαν οι παράμετροι 'action',
     'category', 'lineno' και 'append'.


File: python.info,  Node: Συγχρονισμένη ασφάλεια των Context Managers,  Prev: Διαθέσιμοι Context Managers,  Up: warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων

5.30.6.12 Συγχρονισμένη ασφάλεια των Context Managers
.....................................................

Η συμπεριφορά του *note catch_warnings: 423. context manager εξαρτάται
από τη *note sys.flags.context_aware_warnings: 42f. σημαία.  Αν η σημαία
είναι αληθής, ο context manager συμπεριφέρεται με τρόπο ασφαλή για
συγχρονισμό και αλλιώς όχι.  Η ασφάλεια για συγχρονισμό σημαίνει ότι
είναι τόσο ασφαλής για νήματα όσο και ασφαλής για χρήση μέσα σε *note
asyncio coroutines: 39fe. και εργασίες.  Το να είναι ασφαλές για νήματα
σημαίνει ότι η συμπεριφορά είναι προβλέψιμη σε ένα πρόγραμμα με πολλαπλά
νήματα.  Η σημαία έχει προεπιλογή να είναι αληθής για builds με ελεύθερα
νήματα και ψευδής αλλιώς.

If the *note context_aware_warnings: 42f. flag is false, then *note
catch_warnings: 423. will modify the global attributes of the ‘warnings’
module.  This is not safe if used within a concurrent program (using
multiple threads or using asyncio coroutines).  For example, if two or
more threads use the ‘catch_warnings’ class at the same time, the
behavior is undefined.

Αν η σημαία είναι αληθής, το *note catch_warnings: 423. δεν θα
τροποποιήσει τα παγκόσμια χαρακτηριστικά και θα χρησιμοποιήσει αντ”
αυτού μια *note ContextVar: 1a9d. για να αποθηκεύσει την νεοσυσταθείσα
κατάσταση φιλτραρίσματος προειδοποιήσεων.  Μια μεταβλητή context παρέχει
αποθήκευση τοπική στο νήμα και καθιστά τη χρήση της ‘catch_warnings’
ασφαλή για νήματα.

Η παράμετρος 'record' του context handler συμπεριφέρεται επίσης
διαφορετικά ανάλογα με την τιμή της σημαίας.  Όταν το 'record' είναι
αληθές και η σημαία είναι ψευδής, ο context manager λειτουργεί
αντικαθιστώντας και στη συνέχεια αργότερα επαναφέροντας τη *note
showwarning(): 4c6a. λειτουργία του module.  Αυτό δεν είναι ασφαλές για
συγχρονισμό.

Όταν το 'record' είναι αληθές και η σημαία είναι αληθής, η *note
showwarning(): 4c6a. λειτουργία δεν αντικαθίσταται.  Αντ” αυτού, η
κατάσταση καταγραφής υποδεικνύεται από ένα εσωτερικό χαρακτηριστικό στη
μεταβλητή context.  Σε αυτή την περίπτωση, η ‘showwarning()’ λειτουργία
δεν θα επαναφερθεί κατά την έξοδο από τον context handler.

Η *note context_aware_warnings: 42f. σημαία μπορεί να οριστεί με την
*note -X context_aware_warnings: 178. επιλογή γραμμής εντολών ή με τη
μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος *note PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS: 1a83.

          Σημείωση: Είναι πιθανό ότι οι περισσότερες εφαρμογές που
          επιθυμούν συμπεριφορά ασφαλή για νήματα του warnings module θα
          θέλουν επίσης να ορίσουν τη *note thread_inherit_context: 41f.
          σημαία σε αληθές.  Αυτή η σημαία προκαλεί τα νήματα που
          δημιουργούνται από την *note threading.Thread: 420. να
          ξεκινούν με ένα αντίγραφο των μεταβλητών context από το νήμα
          που τα ξεκινά.  Όταν είναι αληθής, το context που καθιερώνεται
          από την *note catch_warnings: 423. σε ένα νήμα θα ισχύει
          επίσης για νέα νήματα που ξεκινούν από αυτό.  Αν είναι ψευδής,
          τα νέα νήματα θα ξεκινούν με μια κενή μεταβλητή context
          προειδοποιήσεων, που σημαίνει ότι οποιοδήποτε φιλτράρισμα που
          καθιερώθηκε από έναν ‘catch_warnings’ context manager δεν θα
          είναι πλέον ενεργό.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Προστέθηκε η *note
sys.flags.context_aware_warnings: 42f. σημαία και η χρήση μιας
μεταβλητής context για την *note catch_warnings: 423. αν η σημαία είναι
αληθής.  Οι προηγούμενες εκδόσεις της Python συμπεριφέρονταν σαν να ήταν
η σημαία πάντα ορισμένη σε ψευδής.


File: python.info,  Node: dataclasses — Data Classes,  Next: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts,  Prev: warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.7 ‘dataclasses’ — Data Classes
-----------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/dataclasses.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a decorator and functions for automatically adding
generated *note special methods: 1e57. such as *note __init__(): 2fa.
and *note __repr__(): 1bc. to user-defined classes.  It was originally
described in PEP 557(2).

The member variables to use in these generated methods are defined using
PEP 526(3) type annotations.  For example, this code:

     from dataclasses import dataclass

     @dataclass
     class InventoryItem:
         """Class for keeping track of an item in inventory."""
         name: str
         unit_price: float
         quantity_on_hand: int = 0

         def total_cost(self) -> float:
             return self.unit_price * self.quantity_on_hand

will add, among other things, a ‘__init__()’ that looks like:

     def __init__(self, name: str, unit_price: float, quantity_on_hand: int = 0):
         self.name = name
         self.unit_price = unit_price
         self.quantity_on_hand = quantity_on_hand

Note that this method is automatically added to the class: it is not
directly specified in the ‘InventoryItem’ definition shown above.

Added in version 3.7.

* Menu:

* Module contents: Module contents<6>.
* Post-init processing::
* Class variables::
* Init-only variables::
* Frozen instances::
* Inheritance::
* Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__(): Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__.
* Default factory functions::
* Mutable default values::
* Descriptor-typed fields::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/dataclasses.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents<6>,  Next: Post-init processing,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.30.7.1 Module contents
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: @dataclasses.dataclass (*, init=True, repr=True, eq=True,
          order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True,
          kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)

     This function is a *note decorator: b18. that is used to add
     generated *note special methods: 1e57. to classes, as described
     below.

     The ‘@dataclass’ decorator examines the class to find ‘field’s.  A
     ‘field’ is defined as a class variable that has a *note type
     annotation: 110a.  With two exceptions described below, nothing in
     ‘@dataclass’ examines the type specified in the variable
     annotation.

     The order of the fields in all of the generated methods is the
     order in which they appear in the class definition.

     The ‘@dataclass’ decorator will add various «dunder» methods to the
     class, described below.  If any of the added methods already exist
     in the class, the behavior depends on the parameter, as documented
     below.  The decorator returns the same class that it is called on;
     no new class is created.

     If ‘@dataclass’ is used just as a simple decorator with no
     parameters, it acts as if it has the default values documented in
     this signature.  That is, these three uses of ‘@dataclass’ are
     equivalent:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              ...

          @dataclass()
          class C:
              ...

          @dataclass(init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False,
                     match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)
          class C:
              ...

     The parameters to ‘@dataclass’ are:

        - 'init': If true (the default), a *note __init__(): 2fa. method
          will be generated.

          If the class already defines ‘__init__()’, this parameter is
          ignored.

        - 'repr': If true (the default), a *note __repr__(): 1bc. method
          will be generated.  The generated repr string will have the
          class name and the name and repr of each field, in the order
          they are defined in the class.  Fields that are marked as
          being excluded from the repr are not included.  For example:
          ‘InventoryItem(name='widget', unit_price=3.0,
          quantity_on_hand=10)’.

          If the class already defines ‘__repr__()’, this parameter is
          ignored.

        - 'eq': If true (the default), an *note __eq__(): ec0. method
          will be generated.  This method compares the class as if it
          were a tuple of its fields, in order.  Both instances in the
          comparison must be of the identical type.

          If the class already defines ‘__eq__()’, this parameter is
          ignored.

        - 'order': If true (the default is ‘False’), *note __lt__():
          1645, *note __le__(): 16af, *note __gt__(): 16b0, and *note
          __ge__(): 16b1. methods will be generated.  These compare the
          class as if it were a tuple of its fields, in order.  Both
          instances in the comparison must be of the identical type.  If
          'order' is true and 'eq' is false, a *note ValueError: 277. is
          raised.

          If the class already defines any of ‘__lt__()’, ‘__le__()’,
          ‘__gt__()’, or ‘__ge__()’, then *note TypeError: 291. is
          raised.

        - 'unsafe_hash': If true, force ‘dataclasses’ to create a *note
          __hash__(): ec1. method, even though it may not be safe to do
          so.  Otherwise, generate a ‘__hash__()’ method according to
          how 'eq' and 'frozen' are set.  The default value is ‘False’.

          ‘__hash__()’ is used by built-in *note hash(): 9e2, and when
          objects are added to hashed collections such as dictionaries
          and sets.  Having a ‘__hash__()’ implies that instances of the
          class are immutable.  Mutability is a complicated property
          that depends on the programmer’s intent, the existence and
          behavior of ‘__eq__()’, and the values of the 'eq' and
          'frozen' flags in the ‘@dataclass’ decorator.

          By default, ‘@dataclass’ will not implicitly add a *note
          __hash__(): ec1. method unless it is safe to do so.  Neither
          will it add or change an existing explicitly defined
          ‘__hash__()’ method.  Setting the class attribute ‘__hash__ =
          None’ has a specific meaning to Python, as described in the
          ‘__hash__()’ documentation.

          If ‘__hash__()’ is not explicitly defined, or if it is set to
          ‘None’, then ‘@dataclass’ 'may' add an implicit ‘__hash__()’
          method.  Although not recommended, you can force ‘@dataclass’
          to create a ‘__hash__()’ method with ‘unsafe_hash=True’.  This
          might be the case if your class is logically immutable but can
          still be mutated.  This is a specialized use case and should
          be considered carefully.

          Here are the rules governing implicit creation of a
          ‘__hash__()’ method.  Note that you cannot both have an
          explicit ‘__hash__()’ method in your dataclass and set
          ‘unsafe_hash=True’; this will result in a *note TypeError:
          291.

          If 'eq' and 'frozen' are both true, by default ‘@dataclass’
          will generate a ‘__hash__()’ method for you.  If 'eq' is true
          and 'frozen' is false, ‘__hash__()’ will be set to ‘None’,
          marking it unhashable (which it is, since it is mutable).  If
          'eq' is false, ‘__hash__()’ will be left untouched meaning the
          ‘__hash__()’ method of the superclass will be used (if the
          superclass is *note object: e4d, this means it will fall back
          to id-based hashing).

        - 'frozen': If true (the default is ‘False’), assigning to
          fields will generate an exception.  This emulates read-only
          frozen instances.  See the *note discussion: 4c82. below.

          If *note __setattr__(): 256d. or *note __delattr__(): 256e. is
          defined in the class and 'frozen' is true, then *note
          TypeError: 291. is raised.

        - 'match_args': If true (the default is ‘True’), the *note
          __match_args__: 1e6c. tuple will be created from the list of
          non keyword-only parameters to the generated *note __init__():
          2fa. method (even if ‘__init__()’ is not generated, see
          above).  If false, or if ‘__match_args__’ is already defined
          in the class, then ‘__match_args__’ will not be generated.

          Added in version 3.10.

        - 'kw_only': If true (the default value is ‘False’), then all
          fields will be marked as keyword-only.  If a field is marked
          as keyword-only, then the only effect is that the *note
          __init__(): 2fa. parameter generated from a keyword-only field
          must be specified with a keyword when ‘__init__()’ is called.
          See the *note parameter: 253c. glossary entry for details.
          Also see the *note KW_ONLY: 1907. section.

          Keyword-only fields are not included in ‘__match_args__’.

          Added in version 3.10.

        - 'slots': If true (the default is ‘False’), *note __slots__:
          188d. attribute will be generated and new class will be
          returned instead of the original one.  If ‘__slots__’ is
          already defined in the class, then *note TypeError: 291. is
          raised.

               Προειδοποίηση: Passing parameters to a base class *note
               __init_subclass__(): a22. when using ‘slots=True’ will
               result in a *note TypeError: 291.  Either use
               ‘__init_subclass__’ with no parameters or use default
               values as a workaround.  See gh-91126(1) for full
               details.

          Added in version 3.10.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: If a field name is already included
          in the ‘__slots__’ of a base class, it will not be included in
          the generated ‘__slots__’ to prevent *note overriding them:
          25af.  Therefore, do not use ‘__slots__’ to retrieve the field
          names of a dataclass.  Use *note fields(): 1b4f. instead.  To
          be able to determine inherited slots, base class ‘__slots__’
          may be any iterable, but 'not' an iterator.

        - 'weakref_slot': If true (the default is ‘False’), add a slot
          named «__weakref__», which is required to make an instance
          *note weakref-able: 1399.  It is an error to specify
          ‘weakref_slot=True’ without also specifying ‘slots=True’.

          Added in version 3.11.

     ‘field’s may optionally specify a default value, using normal
     Python syntax:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              a: int       # 'a' has no default value
              b: int = 0   # assign a default value for 'b'

     In this example, both ‘a’ and ‘b’ will be included in the added
     *note __init__(): 2fa. method, which will be defined as:

          def __init__(self, a: int, b: int = 0):

     *note TypeError: 291. will be raised if a field without a default
     value follows a field with a default value.  This is true whether
     this occurs in a single class, or as a result of class inheritance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dataclasses.field (*, default=MISSING,
          default_factory=MISSING, init=True, repr=True, hash=None,
          compare=True, metadata=None, kw_only=MISSING, doc=None)

     For common and simple use cases, no other functionality is
     required.  There are, however, some dataclass features that require
     additional per-field information.  To satisfy this need for
     additional information, you can replace the default field value
     with a call to the provided ‘field()’ function.  For example:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              mylist: list[int] = field(default_factory=list)

          c = C()
          c.mylist += [1, 2, 3]

     As shown above, the *note MISSING: 1906. value is a sentinel object
     used to detect if some parameters are provided by the user.  This
     sentinel is used because ‘None’ is a valid value for some
     parameters with a distinct meaning.  No code should directly use
     the ‘MISSING’ value.

     The parameters to ‘field()’ are:

        - 'default': If provided, this will be the default value for
          this field.  This is needed because the ‘field()’ call itself
          replaces the normal position of the default value.

        - 'default_factory': If provided, it must be a zero-argument
          callable that will be called when a default value is needed
          for this field.  Among other purposes, this can be used to
          specify fields with mutable default values, as discussed
          below.  It is an error to specify both 'default' and
          'default_factory'.

        - 'init': If true (the default), this field is included as a
          parameter to the generated *note __init__(): 2fa. method.

        - 'repr': If true (the default), this field is included in the
          string returned by the generated *note __repr__(): 1bc.
          method.

        - 'hash': This can be a bool or ‘None’.  If true, this field is
          included in the generated *note __hash__(): ec1. method.  If
          false, this field is excluded from the generated ‘__hash__()’.
          If ‘None’ (the default), use the value of 'compare': this
          would normally be the expected behavior, since a field should
          be included in the hash if it’s used for comparisons.  Setting
          this value to anything other than ‘None’ is discouraged.

          One possible reason to set ‘hash=False’ but ‘compare=True’
          would be if a field is expensive to compute a hash value for,
          that field is needed for equality testing, and there are other
          fields that contribute to the type’s hash value.  Even if a
          field is excluded from the hash, it will still be used for
          comparisons.

        - 'compare': If true (the default), this field is included in
          the generated equality and comparison methods (*note __eq__():
          ec0, *note __gt__(): 16b0, et al.).

        - 'metadata': This can be a mapping or ‘None’.  ‘None’ is
          treated as an empty dict.  This value is wrapped in *note
          MappingProxyType(): 189. to make it read-only, and exposed on
          the *note Field: 1b6e. object.  It is not used at all by Data
          Classes, and is provided as a third-party extension mechanism.
          Multiple third-parties can each have their own key, to use as
          a namespace in the metadata.

        - 'kw_only': If true, this field will be marked as keyword-only.
          This is used when the generated *note __init__(): 2fa.
          method’s parameters are computed.

          Keyword-only fields are also not included in ‘__match_args__’.

          Added in version 3.10.

        - 'doc': optional docstring for this field.

          Added in version 3.14.

     If the default value of a field is specified by a call to
     ‘field()’, then the class attribute for this field will be replaced
     by the specified 'default' value.  If 'default' is not provided,
     then the class attribute will be deleted.  The intent is that after
     the *note @dataclass: 6e6. decorator runs, the class attributes
     will all contain the default values for the fields, just as if the
     default value itself were specified.  For example, after:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              x: int
              y: int = field(repr=False)
              z: int = field(repr=False, default=10)
              t: int = 20

     The class attribute ‘C.z’ will be ‘10’, the class attribute ‘C.t’
     will be ‘20’, and the class attributes ‘C.x’ and ‘C.y’ will not be
     set.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: If 'metadata' is ‘None’, use an empty
     *note frozendict: 182, instead of a *note MappingProxyType(): 189.
     of an empty *note dict: 188.

 -- Κλάση: dataclasses.Field

     ‘Field’ objects describe each defined field.  These objects are
     created internally, and are returned by the *note fields(): 1b4f.
     module-level method (see below).  Users should never instantiate a
     ‘Field’ object directly.  Its documented attributes are:

        - ‘name’: The name of the field.

        - ‘type’: The type of the field.

        - ‘default’, ‘default_factory’, ‘init’, ‘repr’, ‘hash’,
          ‘compare’, ‘metadata’, and ‘kw_only’ have the identical
          meaning and values as they do in the *note field(): 1945.
          function.

     Other attributes may exist, but they are private and must not be
     inspected or relied on.

 -- Κλάση: dataclasses.InitVar

     ‘InitVar[T]’ type annotations describe variables that are *note
     init-only: 4c83.  Fields annotated with ‘InitVar’ are considered
     pseudo-fields, and thus are neither returned by the *note fields():
     1b4f. function nor used in any way except adding them as parameters
     to *note __init__(): 2fa. and an optional *note __post_init__():
     4c84.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dataclasses.fields (class_or_instance)

     Returns a tuple of *note Field: 1b6e. objects that define the
     fields for this dataclass.  Accepts either a dataclass, or an
     instance of a dataclass.  Raises *note TypeError: 291. if not
     passed a dataclass or instance of one.  Does not return
     pseudo-fields which are ‘ClassVar’ or ‘InitVar’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dataclasses.asdict (obj, *, dict_factory=dict)

     Converts the dataclass 'obj' to a dict (by using the factory
     function 'dict_factory').  Each dataclass is converted to a dict of
     its fields, as ‘name: value’ pairs.  dataclasses, dicts,
     frozendicts, lists, and tuples are recursed into.  Other objects
     are copied with *note copy.deepcopy(): f2b.

     Example of using ‘asdict()’ on nested dataclasses:

          @dataclass
          class Point:
               x: int
               y: int

          @dataclass
          class C:
               mylist: list[Point]

          p = Point(10, 20)
          assert asdict(p) == {'x': 10, 'y': 20}

          c = C([Point(0, 0), Point(10, 4)])
          assert asdict(c) == {'mylist': [{'x': 0, 'y': 0}, {'x': 10, 'y': 4}]}

     To create a shallow copy, the following workaround may be used:

          {field.name: getattr(obj, field.name) for field in fields(obj)}

     ‘asdict()’ raises *note TypeError: 291. if 'obj' is not a dataclass
     instance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dataclasses.astuple (obj, *, tuple_factory=tuple)

     Converts the dataclass 'obj' to a tuple (by using the factory
     function 'tuple_factory').  Each dataclass is converted to a tuple
     of its field values.  dataclasses, dicts, frozendicts, lists, and
     tuples are recursed into.  Other objects are copied with *note
     copy.deepcopy(): f2b.

     Continuing from the previous example:

          assert astuple(p) == (10, 20)
          assert astuple(c) == ([(0, 0), (10, 4)],)

     To create a shallow copy, the following workaround may be used:

          tuple(getattr(obj, field.name) for field in dataclasses.fields(obj))

     ‘astuple()’ raises *note TypeError: 291. if 'obj' is not a
     dataclass instance.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dataclasses.make_dataclass (cls_name, fields, *,
          bases=(), namespace=None, init=True, repr=True, eq=True,
          order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True,
          kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False, module=None,
          decorator=dataclass)

     Creates a new dataclass with name 'cls_name', fields as defined in
     'fields', base classes as given in 'bases', and initialized with a
     namespace as given in 'namespace'.  'fields' is an iterable whose
     elements are each either ‘name’, ‘(name, type)’, or ‘(name, type,
     Field)’.  If just ‘name’ is supplied, *note typing.Any: a9a. is
     used for ‘type’.  The values of 'init', 'repr', 'eq', 'order',
     'unsafe_hash', 'frozen', 'match_args', 'kw_only', 'slots', and
     'weakref_slot' have the same meaning as they do in *note
     @dataclass: 6e6.

     If 'module' is defined, the ‘__module__’ attribute of the dataclass
     is set to that value.  By default, it is set to the module name of
     the caller.

     The 'decorator' parameter is a callable that will be used to create
     the dataclass.  It should take the class object as a first argument
     and the same keyword arguments as *note @dataclass: 6e6.  By
     default, the ‘@dataclass’ function is used.

     This function is not strictly required, because any Python
     mechanism for creating a new class with *note __annotations__: 66b.
     can then apply the *note @dataclass: 6e6. function to convert that
     class to a dataclass.  This function is provided as a convenience.
     For example:

          C = make_dataclass('C',
                             [('x', int),
                               'y',
                              ('z', int, field(default=5))],
                             namespace={'add_one': lambda self: self.x + 1})

     Is equivalent to:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              x: int
              y: 'typing.Any'
              z: int = 5

              def add_one(self):
                  return self.x + 1

     Added in version 3.14: Added the 'decorator' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dataclasses.replace (obj, /, **changes)

     Creates a new object of the same type as 'obj', replacing fields
     with values from 'changes'.  If 'obj' is not a Data Class, raises
     *note TypeError: 291.  If keys in 'changes' are not field names of
     the given dataclass, raises ‘TypeError’.

     The newly returned object is created by calling the *note
     __init__(): 2fa. method of the dataclass.  This ensures that *note
     __post_init__(): 4c84, if present, is also called.

     Init-only variables without default values, if any exist, must be
     specified on the call to ‘replace()’ so that they can be passed to
     ‘__init__()’ and *note __post_init__(): 4c84.

     It is an error for 'changes' to contain any fields that are defined
     as having ‘init=False’.  A *note ValueError: 277. will be raised in
     this case.

     Be forewarned about how ‘init=False’ fields work during a call to
     ‘replace()’.  They are not copied from the source object, but
     rather are initialized in *note __post_init__(): 4c84, if they’re
     initialized at all.  It is expected that ‘init=False’ fields will
     be rarely and judiciously used.  If they are used, it might be wise
     to have alternate class constructors, or perhaps a custom
     ‘replace()’ (or similarly named) method which handles instance
     copying.

     Dataclass instances are also supported by generic function *note
     copy.replace(): 45a.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dataclasses.is_dataclass (obj)

     Return ‘True’ if its parameter is a dataclass (including subclasses
     of a dataclass) or an instance of one, otherwise return ‘False’.

     If you need to know if a class is an instance of a dataclass (and
     not a dataclass itself), then add a further check for ‘not
     isinstance(obj, type)’:

          def is_dataclass_instance(obj):
              return is_dataclass(obj) and not isinstance(obj, type)

 -- Δεδομένα: dataclasses.MISSING

     A sentinel value signifying a missing default or default_factory.

 -- Δεδομένα: dataclasses.KW_ONLY

     A sentinel value used as a type annotation.  Any fields after a
     pseudo-field with the type of ‘KW_ONLY’ are marked as keyword-only
     fields.  Note that a pseudo-field of type ‘KW_ONLY’ is otherwise
     completely ignored.  This includes the name of such a field.  By
     convention, a name of ‘_’ is used for a ‘KW_ONLY’ field.
     Keyword-only fields signify *note __init__(): 2fa. parameters that
     must be specified as keywords when the class is instantiated.

     In this example, the fields ‘y’ and ‘z’ will be marked as
     keyword-only fields:

          @dataclass
          class Point:
              x: float
              _: KW_ONLY
              y: float
              z: float

          p = Point(0, y=1.5, z=2.0)

     In a single dataclass, it is an error to specify more than one
     field whose type is ‘KW_ONLY’.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Εξαίρεση: dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError

     Raised when an implicitly defined *note __setattr__(): 256d. or
     *note __delattr__(): 256e. is called on a dataclass which was
     defined with ‘frozen=True’.  It is a subclass of *note
     AttributeError: 1a9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91126


File: python.info,  Node: Post-init processing,  Next: Class variables,  Prev: Module contents<6>,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.30.7.2 Post-init processing
.............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: dataclasses.__post_init__ ()

     When defined on the class, it will be called by the generated *note
     __init__(): 2fa, normally as ‘self.__post_init__()’.  However, if
     any ‘InitVar’ fields are defined, they will also be passed to
     ‘__post_init__()’ in the order they were defined in the class.  If
     no ‘__init__()’ method is generated, then ‘__post_init__()’ will
     not automatically be called.

     Among other uses, this allows for initializing field values that
     depend on one or more other fields.  For example:

          @dataclass
          class C:
              a: float
              b: float
              c: float = field(init=False)

              def __post_init__(self):
                  self.c = self.a + self.b

The *note __init__(): 2fa. method generated by *note @dataclass: 6e6.
does not call base class ‘__init__()’ methods.  If the base class has an
‘__init__()’ method that has to be called, it is common to call this
method in a *note __post_init__(): 4c84. method:

     class Rectangle:
         def __init__(self, height, width):
             self.height = height
             self.width = width

     @dataclass
     class Square(Rectangle):
         side: float

         def __post_init__(self):
             super().__init__(self.side, self.side)

Note, however, that in general the dataclass-generated ‘__init__()’
methods don’t need to be called, since the derived dataclass will take
care of initializing all fields of any base class that is a dataclass
itself.

See the section below on init-only variables for ways to pass parameters
to ‘__post_init__()’.  Also see the warning about how *note replace():
1c70. handles ‘init=False’ fields.


File: python.info,  Node: Class variables,  Next: Init-only variables,  Prev: Post-init processing,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.30.7.3 Class variables
........................

One of the few places where *note @dataclass: 6e6. actually inspects the
type of a field is to determine if a field is a class variable as
defined in PEP 526(1).  It does this by checking if the type of the
field is *note typing.ClassVar: 76e.  If a field is a ‘ClassVar’, it is
excluded from consideration as a field and is ignored by the dataclass
mechanisms.  Such ‘ClassVar’ pseudo-fields are not returned by the
module-level *note fields(): 1b4f. function.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: Init-only variables,  Next: Frozen instances,  Prev: Class variables,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.30.7.4 Init-only variables
............................

Another place where *note @dataclass: 6e6. inspects a type annotation is
to determine if a field is an init-only variable.  It does this by
seeing if the type of a field is of type *note InitVar: 1dae.  If a
field is an ‘InitVar’, it is considered a pseudo-field called an
init-only field.  As it is not a true field, it is not returned by the
module-level *note fields(): 1b4f. function.  Init-only fields are added
as parameters to the generated *note __init__(): 2fa. method, and are
passed to the optional *note __post_init__(): 4c84. method.  They are
not otherwise used by dataclasses.

For example, suppose a field will be initialized from a database, if a
value is not provided when creating the class:

     @dataclass
     class C:
         i: int
         j: int | None = None
         database: InitVar[DatabaseType | None] = None

         def __post_init__(self, database):
             if self.j is None and database is not None:
                 self.j = database.lookup('j')

     c = C(10, database=my_database)

In this case, *note fields(): 1b4f. will return *note Field: 1b6e.
objects for ‘i’ and ‘j’, but not for ‘database’.


File: python.info,  Node: Frozen instances,  Next: Inheritance,  Prev: Init-only variables,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.30.7.5 Frozen instances
.........................

It is not possible to create truly immutable Python objects.  However,
by passing ‘frozen=True’ to the *note @dataclass: 6e6. decorator you can
emulate immutability.  In that case, dataclasses will add *note
__setattr__(): 256d. and *note __delattr__(): 256e. methods to the
class.  These methods will raise a *note FrozenInstanceError: 190f. when
invoked.

There is a tiny performance penalty when using ‘frozen=True’: *note
__init__(): 2fa. cannot use simple assignment to initialize fields, and
must use ‘object.__setattr__()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Inheritance,  Next: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Prev: Frozen instances,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.30.7.6 Inheritance
....................

When the dataclass is being created by the *note @dataclass: 6e6.
decorator, it looks through all of the class’s base classes in reverse
MRO (that is, starting at *note object: e4d.) and, for each dataclass
that it finds, adds the fields from that base class to an ordered
mapping of fields.  After all of the base class fields are added, it
adds its own fields to the ordered mapping.  All of the generated
methods will use this combined, calculated ordered mapping of fields.
Because the fields are in insertion order, derived classes override base
classes.  An example:

     @dataclass
     class Base:
         x: Any = 15.0
         y: int = 0

     @dataclass
     class C(Base):
         z: int = 10
         x: int = 15

The final list of fields is, in order, ‘x’, ‘y’, ‘z’.  The final type of
‘x’ is *note int: 326, as specified in class ‘C’.

The generated *note __init__(): 2fa. method for ‘C’ will look like:

     def __init__(self, x: int = 15, y: int = 0, z: int = 10):


File: python.info,  Node: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Next: Default factory functions,  Prev: Inheritance,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.30.7.7 Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in ‘__init__()’
...............................................................

After the parameters needed for *note __init__(): 2fa. are computed, any
keyword-only parameters are moved to come after all regular
(non-keyword-only) parameters.  This is a requirement of how
keyword-only parameters are implemented in Python: they must come after
non-keyword-only parameters.

In this example, ‘Base.y’, ‘Base.w’, and ‘D.t’ are keyword-only fields,
and ‘Base.x’ and ‘D.z’ are regular fields:

     @dataclass
     class Base:
         x: Any = 15.0
         _: KW_ONLY
         y: int = 0
         w: int = 1

     @dataclass
     class D(Base):
         z: int = 10
         t: int = field(kw_only=True, default=0)

The generated ‘__init__()’ method for ‘D’ will look like:

     def __init__(self, x: Any = 15.0, z: int = 10, *, y: int = 0, w: int = 1, t: int = 0):

Note that the parameters have been re-ordered from how they appear in
the list of fields: parameters derived from regular fields are followed
by parameters derived from keyword-only fields.

The relative ordering of keyword-only parameters is maintained in the
re-ordered ‘__init__()’ parameter list.


File: python.info,  Node: Default factory functions,  Next: Mutable default values,  Prev: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.30.7.8 Default factory functions
..................................

If a *note field(): 1945. specifies a 'default_factory', it is called
with zero arguments when a default value for the field is needed.  For
example, to create a new instance of a list, use:

     mylist: list = field(default_factory=list)

If a field is excluded from *note __init__(): 2fa. (using ‘init=False’)
and the field also specifies 'default_factory', then the default factory
function will always be called from the generated ‘__init__()’ function.
This happens because there is no other way to give the field an initial
value.


File: python.info,  Node: Mutable default values,  Next: Descriptor-typed fields,  Prev: Default factory functions,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.30.7.9 Mutable default values
...............................

Python stores default member variable values in class attributes.
Consider this example, not using dataclasses:

     class C:
         x = []
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

     o1 = C()
     o2 = C()
     o1.add(1)
     o2.add(2)
     assert o1.x == [1, 2]
     assert o1.x is o2.x

Note that the two instances of class ‘C’ share the same class variable
‘x’, as expected.

Using dataclasses, 'if' this code was valid:

     @dataclass
     class D:
         x: list = []      # This code raises ValueError
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

it would generate code similar to:

     class D:
         x = []
         def __init__(self, x=x):
             self.x = x
         def add(self, element):
             self.x.append(element)

     assert D().x is D().x

This has the same issue as the original example using class ‘C’.  That
is, two instances of class ‘D’ that do not specify a value for ‘x’ when
creating a class instance will share the same copy of ‘x’.  Because
dataclasses just use normal Python class creation they also share this
behavior.  There is no general way for Data Classes to detect this
condition.  Instead, the *note @dataclass: 6e6. decorator will raise a
*note ValueError: 277. if it detects an unhashable default parameter.
The assumption is that if a value is unhashable, it is mutable.  This is
a partial solution, but it does protect against many common errors.

Using default factory functions is a way to create new instances of
mutable types as default values for fields:

     @dataclass
     class D:
         x: list = field(default_factory=list)

     assert D().x is not D().x

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Instead of looking for and disallowing objects
of type *note list: 4d9, *note dict: 188, or *note set: 42b, unhashable
objects are now not allowed as default values.  Unhashability is used to
approximate mutability.


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor-typed fields,  Prev: Mutable default values,  Up: dataclasses — Data Classes

5.30.7.10 Descriptor-typed fields
.................................

Fields that are assigned *note descriptor objects: 100d. as their
default value have the following special behaviors:

   * The value for the field passed to the dataclass’s *note __init__():
     2fa. method is passed to the descriptor’s *note __set__(): 25aa.
     method rather than overwriting the descriptor object.

   * Similarly, when getting or setting the field, the descriptor’s
     *note __get__(): 188a. or ‘__set__()’ method is called rather than
     returning or overwriting the descriptor object.

   * To determine whether a field contains a default value, *note
     @dataclass: 6e6. will call the descriptor’s ‘__get__()’ method
     using its class access form: ‘descriptor.__get__(obj=None,
     type=cls)’.  If the descriptor returns a value in this case, it
     will be used as the field’s default.  On the other hand, if the
     descriptor raises *note AttributeError: 1a9. in this situation, no
     default value will be provided for the field.

     class IntConversionDescriptor:
         def __init__(self, *, default):
             self._default = default

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self._name = "_" + name

         def __get__(self, obj, type):
             if obj is None:
                 return self._default

             return getattr(obj, self._name, self._default)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             setattr(obj, self._name, int(value))

     @dataclass
     class InventoryItem:
         quantity_on_hand: IntConversionDescriptor = IntConversionDescriptor(default=100)

     i = InventoryItem()
     print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 100
     i.quantity_on_hand = 2.5    # calls __set__ with 2.5
     print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 2

Note that if a field is annotated with a descriptor type, but is not
assigned a descriptor object as its default value, the field will act
like a normal field.


File: python.info,  Node: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts,  Next: abc — Abstract Base Classes,  Prev: dataclasses — Data Classes,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.8 ‘contextlib’ — Utilities for ‘with’-statement contexts
-------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/contextlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides utilities for common tasks involving the *note
with: 20a. statement.  For more information see also *note Τύποι
Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου: 2601. and *note Με τους Διαχειριστές
Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης: 2572.

* Menu:

* Utilities::
* Examples and Recipes: Examples and Recipes<2>.
* Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/contextlib.py


File: python.info,  Node: Utilities,  Next: Examples and Recipes<2>,  Up: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts

5.30.8.1 Utilities
..................

Functions and classes provided:

 -- Κλάση: contextlib.AbstractContextManager

     An *note abstract base class: 155f. for classes that implement
     *note __enter__(): 9c6. and *note __exit__(): 16a5.  A default
     implementation for ‘__enter__()’ is provided which returns ‘self’
     while ‘__exit__()’ is an abstract method which by default returns
     ‘None’.  See also the definition of *note Τύποι Διαχείρισης
     Περιεχομένου: 2601.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Κλάση: contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager

     An *note abstract base class: 155f. for classes that implement
     *note __aenter__(): 2613. and *note __aexit__(): 1bad.  A default
     implementation for ‘__aenter__()’ is provided which returns ‘self’
     while ‘__aexit__()’ is an abstract method which by default returns
     ‘None’.  See also the definition of *note Ασύγχρονοι Διαχειριστές
     Περιβάλλοντος: 9f3.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @contextlib.contextmanager

     This function is a *note decorator: b18. that can be used to define
     a factory function for *note with: 20a. statement context managers,
     without needing to create a class or separate *note __enter__():
     9c6. and *note __exit__(): 16a5. methods.

     While many objects natively support use in with statements,
     sometimes a resource needs to be managed that isn’t a context
     manager in its own right, and doesn’t implement a ‘close()’ method
     for use with ‘contextlib.closing’.

     An abstract example would be the following to ensure correct
     resource management:

          from contextlib import contextmanager

          @contextmanager
          def managed_resource(*args, **kwds):
              # Code to acquire resource, e.g.:
              resource = acquire_resource(*args, **kwds)
              try:
                  yield resource
              finally:
                  # Code to release resource, e.g.:
                  release_resource(resource)

     The function can then be used like this:

          >>> with managed_resource(timeout=3600) as resource:
          ...     # Resource is released at the end of this block,
          ...     # even if code in the block raises an exception

     The function being decorated must return a *note generator:
     1409.-iterator when called.  This iterator must yield exactly one
     value, which will be bound to the targets in the *note with: 20a.
     statement’s ‘as’ clause, if any.

     At the point where the generator yields, the block nested in the
     *note with: 20a. statement is executed.  The generator is then
     resumed after the block is exited.  If an unhandled exception
     occurs in the block, it is reraised inside the generator at the
     point where the yield occurred.  Thus, you can use a *note try:
     ad6.…*note except: 447.…*note finally: 44c. statement to trap the
     error (if any), or ensure that some cleanup takes place.  If an
     exception is trapped merely in order to log it or to perform some
     action (rather than to suppress it entirely), the generator must
     reraise that exception.  Otherwise the generator context manager
     will indicate to the ‘with’ statement that the exception has been
     handled, and execution will resume with the statement immediately
     following the ‘with’ statement.

     ‘contextmanager()’ uses *note ContextDecorator: 20c. so the context
     managers it creates can be used as decorators as well as in *note
     with: 20a. statements.  When used as a decorator, a new generator
     instance is implicitly created on each function call (this allows
     the otherwise «one-shot» context managers created by
     ‘contextmanager()’ to meet the requirement that context managers
     support multiple invocations in order to be used as decorators).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Use of *note ContextDecorator: 20c.

 -- Συνάρτηση: @contextlib.asynccontextmanager

     Similar to *note contextmanager(): 20e, but creates an *note
     asynchronous context manager: 9f3.

     This function is a *note decorator: b18. that can be used to define
     a factory function for *note async with: 20b. statement
     asynchronous context managers, without needing to create a class or
     separate *note __aenter__(): 2613. and *note __aexit__(): 1bad.
     methods.  It must be applied to an *note asynchronous generator:
     2692. function.

     A simple example:

          from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

          @asynccontextmanager
          async def get_connection():
              conn = await acquire_db_connection()
              try:
                  yield conn
              finally:
                  await release_db_connection(conn)

          async def get_all_users():
              async with get_connection() as conn:
                  return conn.query('SELECT ...')

     Added in version 3.7.

     Context managers defined with ‘asynccontextmanager()’ can be used
     either as decorators or with *note async with: 20b. statements:

          import time
          from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

          @asynccontextmanager
          async def timeit():
              now = time.monotonic()
              try:
                  yield
              finally:
                  print(f'it took {time.monotonic() - now}s to run')

          @timeit()
          async def main():
              # ... async code ...

     When used as a decorator, a new generator instance is implicitly
     created on each function call.  This allows the otherwise
     «one-shot» context managers created by ‘asynccontextmanager()’ to
     meet the requirement that context managers support multiple
     invocations in order to be used as decorators.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Async context managers created with
     ‘asynccontextmanager()’ can be used as decorators.

 -- Συνάρτηση: contextlib.closing (thing)

     Return a context manager that closes 'thing' upon completion of the
     block.  This is basically equivalent to:

          from contextlib import contextmanager

          @contextmanager
          def closing(thing):
              try:
                  yield thing
              finally:
                  thing.close()

     And lets you write code like this:

          from contextlib import closing
          from urllib.request import urlopen

          with closing(urlopen('https://www.python.org')) as page:
              for line in page:
                  print(line)

     without needing to explicitly close ‘page’.  Even if an error
     occurs, ‘page.close()’ will be called when the *note with: 20a.
     block is exited.

          Σημείωση: Most types managing resources support the *note
          context manager: 478. protocol, which closes 'thing' on
          leaving the *note with: 20a. statement.  As such, ‘closing()’
          is most useful for third party types that don’t support
          context managers.  This example is purely for illustration
          purposes, as *note urlopen(): 57f. would normally be used in a
          context manager.

 -- Συνάρτηση: contextlib.aclosing (thing)

     Return an async context manager that calls the ‘aclose()’ method of
     'thing' upon completion of the block.  This is basically equivalent
     to:

          from contextlib import asynccontextmanager

          @asynccontextmanager
          async def aclosing(thing):
              try:
                  yield thing
              finally:
                  await thing.aclose()

     Significantly, ‘aclosing()’ supports deterministic cleanup of async
     generators when they happen to exit early by *note break: 428. or
     an exception.  For example:

          from contextlib import aclosing

          async with aclosing(my_generator()) as values:
              async for value in values:
                  if value == 42:
                      break

     This pattern ensures that the generator’s async exit code is
     executed in the same context as its iterations (so that exceptions
     and context variables work as expected, and the exit code isn’t run
     after the lifetime of some task it depends on).

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Συνάρτηση: contextlib.nullcontext (enter_result=None)

     Return a context manager that returns 'enter_result' from *note
     __enter__(): 9c6, but otherwise does nothing.  It is intended to be
     used as a stand-in for an optional context manager, for example:

          def myfunction(arg, ignore_exceptions=False):
              if ignore_exceptions:
                  # Use suppress to ignore all exceptions.
                  cm = contextlib.suppress(Exception)
              else:
                  # Do not ignore any exceptions, cm has no effect.
                  cm = contextlib.nullcontext()
              with cm:
                  # Do something

     An example using 'enter_result':

          def process_file(file_or_path):
              if isinstance(file_or_path, str):
                  # If string, open file
                  cm = open(file_or_path)
              else:
                  # Caller is responsible for closing file
                  cm = nullcontext(file_or_path)

              with cm as file:
                  # Perform processing on the file

     It can also be used as a stand-in for *note asynchronous context
     managers: 9f3.:

          async def send_http(session=None):
              if not session:
                  # If no http session, create it with aiohttp
                  cm = aiohttp.ClientSession()
              else:
                  # Caller is responsible for closing the session
                  cm = nullcontext(session)

              async with cm as session:
                  # Send http requests with session

     Added in version 3.7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: *note asynchronous context manager: 9d2.
     support was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: contextlib.suppress (*exceptions)

     Return a context manager that suppresses any of the specified
     exceptions if they occur in the body of a ‘with’ statement and then
     resumes execution with the first statement following the end of the
     ‘with’ statement.

     As with any other mechanism that completely suppresses exceptions,
     this context manager should be used only to cover very specific
     errors where silently continuing with program execution is known to
     be the right thing to do.

     For example:

          from contextlib import suppress

          with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
              os.remove('somefile.tmp')

          with suppress(FileNotFoundError):
              os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')

     This code is equivalent to:

          try:
              os.remove('somefile.tmp')
          except FileNotFoundError:
              pass

          try:
              os.remove('someotherfile.tmp')
          except FileNotFoundError:
              pass

     This context manager is *note reentrant: 4c96.

     If the code within the ‘with’ block raises a *note
     BaseExceptionGroup: 767, suppressed exceptions are removed from the
     group.  Any exceptions of the group which are not suppressed are
     re-raised in a new group which is created using the original
     group’s *note derive(): 1c3f. method.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘suppress’ now supports suppressing
     exceptions raised as part of a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 767.

 -- Συνάρτηση: contextlib.redirect_stdout (new_target)

     Context manager for temporarily redirecting *note sys.stdout: e9c.
     to another *note file object: 156c.

     This tool adds flexibility to existing functions or classes whose
     output is hardwired to *note sys.stdout: e9c.

     For example, the output of *note help(): ca9. normally is sent to
     'sys.stdout'.  You can capture that output in a string by
     redirecting the output to an *note io.StringIO: 12d4. object.  The
     replacement stream is returned from the *note __enter__(): 9c6.
     method and so is available as the target of the *note with: 20a.
     statement:

          with redirect_stdout(io.StringIO()) as f:
              help(pow)
          s = f.getvalue()

     To send the output of *note help(): ca9. to a file on disk,
     redirect the output to a regular file:

          with open('help.txt', 'w') as f:
              with redirect_stdout(f):
                  help(pow)

     To send the output of *note help(): ca9. to 'sys.stderr':

          with redirect_stdout(sys.stderr):
              help(pow)

     Note that the global side effect on *note sys.stdout: e9c. means
     that this context manager is not suitable for use in library code
     and most threaded applications.  It also has no effect on the
     output of subprocesses.  However, it is still a useful approach for
     many utility scripts.

     This context manager is *note reentrant: 4c96.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: contextlib.redirect_stderr (new_target)

     Similar to *note redirect_stdout(): 119f. but redirecting the
     global *note sys.stderr: d05. to another *note file object: 156c.

     This context manager is *note reentrant: 4c96.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: contextlib.chdir (path)

     Non parallel-safe context manager to change the current working
     directory.  As this changes a global state, the working directory,
     it is not suitable for use in most threaded or async contexts.  It
     is also not suitable for most non-linear code execution, like
     generators, where the program execution is temporarily relinquished
     – unless explicitly desired, you should not yield when this context
     manager is active.

     This is a simple wrapper around *note chdir(): a02, it changes the
     current working directory upon entering and restores the old one on
     exit.

     This context manager is *note reentrant: 4c96.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Κλάση: contextlib.ContextDecorator

     A base class that enables a context manager to also be used as a
     decorator.

     Context managers inheriting from ‘ContextDecorator’ have to
     implement *note __enter__(): 9c6. and *note __exit__(): 16a5. as
     normal.  ‘__exit__’ retains its optional exception handling even
     when used as a decorator.

     ‘ContextDecorator’ is used by *note contextmanager(): 20e, so you
     get this functionality automatically.

     Example of ‘ContextDecorator’:

          from contextlib import ContextDecorator

          class mycontext(ContextDecorator):
              def __enter__(self):
                  print('Starting')
                  return self

              def __exit__(self, *exc):
                  print('Finishing')
                  return False

     The class can then be used like this:

          >>> @mycontext()
          ... def function():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> function()
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

          >>> with mycontext():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

     This change is just syntactic sugar for any construct of the
     following form:

          def f():
              with cm():
                  # Do stuff

     ‘ContextDecorator’ lets you instead write:

          @cm()
          def f():
              # Do stuff

     It makes it clear that the ‘cm’ applies to the whole function,
     rather than just a piece of it (and saving an indentation level is
     nice, too).

     Existing context managers that already have a base class can be
     extended by using ‘ContextDecorator’ as a mixin class:

          from contextlib import ContextDecorator

          class mycontext(ContextBaseClass, ContextDecorator):
              def __enter__(self):
                  return self

              def __exit__(self, *exc):
                  return False

          Σημείωση: As the decorated function must be able to be called
          multiple times, the underlying context manager must support
          use in multiple *note with: 20a. statements.  If this is not
          the case, then the original construct with the explicit ‘with’
          statement inside the function should be used.

     When the decorated callable is a generator function, coroutine
     function, or asynchronous generator function, the returned wrapper
     is of the same kind and keeps the context manager open for the
     lifetime of the iteration or await rather than only for the call
     that creates the generator or coroutine object.  Wrapped generators
     and asynchronous generators are explicitly closed when iteration
     ends, as if by *note closing(): 3ec. or *note aclosing(): bc9.

          Σημείωση: For asynchronous generators the wrapper re-yields
          each value with ‘async for’; values sent with *note asend():
          cab. and exceptions thrown with *note athrow(): 906. are not
          forwarded to the wrapped generator.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Decorating a generator function, coroutine
     function, or asynchronous generator function now keeps the context
     manager open across iteration or await.  Previously the context
     manager exited as soon as the generator or coroutine object was
     created.

 -- Κλάση: contextlib.AsyncContextDecorator

     Similar to *note ContextDecorator: 20c, but the context manager is
     entered and exited with *note async with: 20b.  Decorate coroutine
     functions and asynchronous generator functions with this class; the
     returned wrapper is of the same kind.

          Σημείωση: Synchronous functions and generators are accepted,
          but the wrapper is always asynchronous, so the decorated
          callable must then be awaited or iterated with ‘async for’.
          If that change of calling convention is not intended, use
          *note ContextDecorator: 20c. instead.

     Example of ‘AsyncContextDecorator’:

          from asyncio import run
          from contextlib import AsyncContextDecorator

          class mycontext(AsyncContextDecorator):
              async def __aenter__(self):
                  print('Starting')
                  return self

              async def __aexit__(self, *exc):
                  print('Finishing')
                  return False

     The class can then be used like this:

          >>> @mycontext()
          ... async def function():
          ...     print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> run(function())
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

          >>> async def function():
          ...    async with mycontext():
          ...         print('The bit in the middle')
          ...
          >>> run(function())
          Starting
          The bit in the middle
          Finishing

     Added in version 3.10.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Decorating an asynchronous generator
     function now keeps the context manager open across iteration.
     Previously the context manager exited as soon as the generator
     object was created.  Synchronous functions and synchronous
     generator functions are also now accepted, with an asynchronous
     wrapper returned.

 -- Κλάση: contextlib.ExitStack

     A context manager that is designed to make it easy to
     programmatically combine other context managers and cleanup
     functions, especially those that are optional or otherwise driven
     by input data.

     For example, a set of files may easily be handled in a single with
     statement as follows:

          with ExitStack() as stack:
              files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
              # All opened files will automatically be closed at the end of
              # the with statement, even if attempts to open files later
              # in the list raise an exception

     The *note __enter__(): 9c6. method returns the ‘ExitStack’
     instance, and performs no additional operations.

     Each instance maintains a stack of registered callbacks that are
     called in reverse order when the instance is closed (either
     explicitly or implicitly at the end of a *note with: 20a.
     statement).  Note that callbacks are 'not' invoked implicitly when
     the context stack instance is garbage collected.

     This stack model is used so that context managers that acquire
     their resources in their ‘__init__’ method (such as file objects)
     can be handled correctly.

     Since registered callbacks are invoked in the reverse order of
     registration, this ends up behaving as if multiple nested *note
     with: 20a. statements had been used with the registered set of
     callbacks.  This even extends to exception handling - if an inner
     callback suppresses or replaces an exception, then outer callbacks
     will be passed arguments based on that updated state.

     This is a relatively low level API that takes care of the details
     of correctly unwinding the stack of exit callbacks.  It provides a
     suitable foundation for higher level context managers that
     manipulate the exit stack in application specific ways.

     Added in version 3.3.

      -- Μέθοδος: enter_context (cm)

          Enters a new context manager and adds its *note __exit__():
          16a5. method to the callback stack.  The return value is the
          result of the context manager’s own *note __enter__(): 9c6.
          method.

          These context managers may suppress exceptions just as they
          normally would if used directly as part of a *note with: 20a.
          statement.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Raises *note TypeError: 291. instead
          of *note AttributeError: 1a9. if 'cm' is not a context
          manager.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added support for arbitrary
          descriptors ‘__enter__()’ and ‘__exit__()’.

      -- Μέθοδος: push (exit)

          Adds a context manager’s *note __exit__(): 16a5. method to the
          callback stack.

          As ‘__enter__’ is 'not' invoked, this method can be used to
          cover part of an *note __enter__(): 9c6. implementation with a
          context manager’s own *note __exit__(): 16a5. method.

          If passed an object that is not a context manager, this method
          assumes it is a callback with the same signature as a context
          manager’s *note __exit__(): 16a5. method and adds it directly
          to the callback stack.

          By returning true values, these callbacks can suppress
          exceptions the same way context manager *note __exit__():
          16a5. methods can.

          The passed in object is returned from the function, allowing
          this method to be used as a function decorator.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added support for arbitrary
          descriptors ‘__exit__()’.

      -- Μέθοδος: callback (callback, /, *args, **kwds)

          Accepts an arbitrary callback function and arguments and adds
          it to the callback stack.

          Unlike the other methods, callbacks added this way cannot
          suppress exceptions (as they are never passed the exception
          details).

          The passed in callback is returned from the function, allowing
          this method to be used as a function decorator.

      -- Μέθοδος: pop_all ()

          Transfers the callback stack to a fresh ‘ExitStack’ instance
          and returns it.  No callbacks are invoked by this operation -
          instead, they will now be invoked when the new stack is closed
          (either explicitly or implicitly at the end of a *note with:
          20a. statement).

          For example, a group of files can be opened as an «all or
          nothing» operation as follows:

               with ExitStack() as stack:
                   files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames]
                   # Hold onto the close method, but don't call it yet.
                   close_files = stack.pop_all().close
                   # If opening any file fails, all previously opened files will be
                   # closed automatically. If all files are opened successfully,
                   # they will remain open even after the with statement ends.
                   # close_files() can then be invoked explicitly to close them all.

      -- Μέθοδος: close ()

          Immediately unwinds the callback stack, invoking callbacks in
          the reverse order of registration.  For any context managers
          and exit callbacks registered, the arguments passed in will
          indicate that no exception occurred.

 -- Κλάση: contextlib.AsyncExitStack

     An *note asynchronous context manager: 9f3, similar to *note
     ExitStack: 208, that supports combining both synchronous and
     asynchronous context managers, as well as having coroutines for
     cleanup logic.

     The *note close(): 4c99. method is not implemented; *note aclose():
     4c9a. must be used instead.

      -- Μέθοδος: async enter_async_context (cm)

          Similar to *note ExitStack.enter_context(): 9d0. but expects
          an asynchronous context manager.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Raises *note TypeError: 291. instead
          of *note AttributeError: 1a9. if 'cm' is not an asynchronous
          context manager.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added support for arbitrary
          descriptors ‘__aenter__()’ and ‘__aexit__()’.

      -- Μέθοδος: push_async_exit (exit)

          Similar to *note ExitStack.push(): 4c97. but expects either an
          asynchronous context manager or a coroutine function.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added support for arbitrary
          descriptors ‘__aexit__()’.

      -- Μέθοδος: push_async_callback (callback, /, *args, **kwds)

          Similar to *note ExitStack.callback(): e45. but expects a
          coroutine function.

      -- Μέθοδος: async aclose ()

          Similar to *note ExitStack.close(): 4c99. but properly handles
          awaitables.

     Continuing the example for *note asynccontextmanager(): 20f.:

          async with AsyncExitStack() as stack:
              connections = [await stack.enter_async_context(get_connection())
                  for i in range(5)]
              # All opened connections will automatically be released at the end of
              # the async with statement, even if attempts to open a connection
              # later in the list raise an exception.

     Added in version 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples and Recipes<2>,  Next: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers,  Prev: Utilities,  Up: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts

5.30.8.2 Examples and Recipes
.............................

This section describes some examples and recipes for making effective
use of the tools provided by ‘contextlib’.

* Menu:

* Supporting a variable number of context managers::
* Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods::
* Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation::
* Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables::
* Using a context manager as a function decorator::


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting a variable number of context managers,  Next: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.30.8.3 Supporting a variable number of context managers
.........................................................

The primary use case for *note ExitStack: 208. is the one given in the
class documentation: supporting a variable number of context managers
and other cleanup operations in a single *note with: 20a. statement.
The variability may come from the number of context managers needed
being driven by user input (such as opening a user specified collection
of files), or from some of the context managers being optional:

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         for resource in resources:
             stack.enter_context(resource)
         if need_special_resource():
             special = acquire_special_resource()
             stack.callback(release_special_resource, special)
         # Perform operations that use the acquired resources

As shown, *note ExitStack: 208. also makes it quite easy to use *note
with: 20a. statements to manage arbitrary resources that don’t natively
support the context management protocol.


File: python.info,  Node: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods,  Next: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation,  Prev: Supporting a variable number of context managers,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.30.8.4 Catching exceptions from ‘__enter__’ methods
.....................................................

It is occasionally desirable to catch exceptions from an *note
__enter__(): 9c6. method implementation, 'without' inadvertently
catching exceptions from the *note with: 20a. statement body or the
context manager’s *note __exit__(): 16a5. method.  By using *note
ExitStack: 208. the steps in the context management protocol can be
separated slightly in order to allow this:

     stack = ExitStack()
     try:
         x = stack.enter_context(cm)
     except Exception:
         # handle __enter__ exception
     else:
         with stack:
             # Handle normal case

Actually needing to do this is likely to indicate that the underlying
API should be providing a direct resource management interface for use
with *note try: ad6./*note except: 447./*note finally: 44c. statements,
but not all APIs are well designed in that regard.  When a context
manager is the only resource management API provided, then *note
ExitStack: 208. can make it easier to handle various situations that
can’t be handled directly in a *note with: 20a. statement.


File: python.info,  Node: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation,  Next: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables,  Prev: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.30.8.5 Cleaning up in an ‘__enter__’ implementation
.....................................................

As noted in the documentation of *note ExitStack.push(): 4c97, this
method can be useful in cleaning up an already allocated resource if
later steps in the *note __enter__(): 9c6. implementation fail.

Here’s an example of doing this for a context manager that accepts
resource acquisition and release functions, along with an optional
validation function, and maps them to the context management protocol:

     from contextlib import contextmanager, AbstractContextManager, ExitStack

     class ResourceManager(AbstractContextManager):

         def __init__(self, acquire_resource, release_resource, check_resource_ok=None):
             self.acquire_resource = acquire_resource
             self.release_resource = release_resource
             if check_resource_ok is None:
                 def check_resource_ok(resource):
                     return True
             self.check_resource_ok = check_resource_ok

         @contextmanager
         def _cleanup_on_error(self):
             with ExitStack() as stack:
                 stack.push(self)
                 yield
                 # The validation check passed and didn't raise an exception
                 # Accordingly, we want to keep the resource, and pass it
                 # back to our caller
                 stack.pop_all()

         def __enter__(self):
             resource = self.acquire_resource()
             with self._cleanup_on_error():
                 if not self.check_resource_ok(resource):
                     msg = "Failed validation for {!r}"
                     raise RuntimeError(msg.format(resource))
             return resource

         def __exit__(self, *exc_details):
             # We don't need to duplicate any of our resource release logic
             self.release_resource()


File: python.info,  Node: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables,  Next: Using a context manager as a function decorator,  Prev: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.30.8.6 Replacing any use of ‘try-finally’ and flag variables
..............................................................

A pattern you will sometimes see is a ‘try-finally’ statement with a
flag variable to indicate whether or not the body of the ‘finally’
clause should be executed.  In its simplest form (that can’t already be
handled just by using an ‘except’ clause instead), it looks something
like this:

     cleanup_needed = True
     try:
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             cleanup_needed = False
     finally:
         if cleanup_needed:
             cleanup_resources()

As with any ‘try’ statement based code, this can cause problems for
development and review, because the setup code and the cleanup code can
end up being separated by arbitrarily long sections of code.

*note ExitStack: 208. makes it possible to instead register a callback
for execution at the end of a ‘with’ statement, and then later decide to
skip executing that callback:

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         stack.callback(cleanup_resources)
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             stack.pop_all()

This allows the intended cleanup behaviour to be made explicit up front,
rather than requiring a separate flag variable.

If a particular application uses this pattern a lot, it can be
simplified even further by means of a small helper class:

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     class Callback(ExitStack):
         def __init__(self, callback, /, *args, **kwds):
             super().__init__()
             self.callback(callback, *args, **kwds)

         def cancel(self):
             self.pop_all()

     with Callback(cleanup_resources) as cb:
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             cb.cancel()

If the resource cleanup isn’t already neatly bundled into a standalone
function, then it is still possible to use the decorator form of *note
ExitStack.callback(): e45. to declare the resource cleanup in advance:

     from contextlib import ExitStack

     with ExitStack() as stack:
         @stack.callback
         def cleanup_resources():
             ...
         result = perform_operation()
         if result:
             stack.pop_all()

Due to the way the decorator protocol works, a callback function
declared this way cannot take any parameters.  Instead, any resources to
be released must be accessed as closure variables.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a context manager as a function decorator,  Prev: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables,  Up: Examples and Recipes<2>

5.30.8.7 Using a context manager as a function decorator
........................................................

*note ContextDecorator: 20c. makes it possible to use a context manager
in both an ordinary ‘with’ statement and also as a function decorator.

For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of
statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of
exit.  Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context
manager for the task, inheriting from *note ContextDecorator: 20c.
provides both capabilities in a single definition:

     from contextlib import ContextDecorator
     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class track_entry_and_exit(ContextDecorator):
         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name

         def __enter__(self):
             logging.info('Entering: %s', self.name)

         def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc, exc_tb):
             logging.info('Exiting: %s', self.name)

Instances of this class can be used as both a context manager:

     with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

And also as a function decorator:

     @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
     def activity():
         print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
         load_widget()

Note that there is one additional limitation when using context managers
as function decorators: there’s no way to access the return value of
*note __enter__(): 9c6.  If that value is needed, then it is still
necessary to use an explicit ‘with’ statement.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 343(1) - The «with» statement

     The specification, background, and examples for the Python *note
     with: 20a. statement.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/


File: python.info,  Node: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers,  Prev: Examples and Recipes<2>,  Up: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts

5.30.8.8 Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers
............................................................

Most context managers are written in a way that means they can only be
used effectively in a *note with: 20a. statement once.  These single use
context managers must be created afresh each time they’re used -
attempting to use them a second time will trigger an exception or
otherwise not work correctly.

This common limitation means that it is generally advisable to create
context managers directly in the header of the *note with: 20a.
statement where they are used (as shown in all of the usage examples
above).

Files are an example of effectively single use context managers, since
the first *note with: 20a. statement will close the file, preventing any
further IO operations using that file object.

Context managers created using *note contextmanager(): 20e. are also
single use context managers, and will complain about the underlying
generator failing to yield if an attempt is made to use them a second
time:

     >>> from contextlib import contextmanager
     >>> @contextmanager
     ... def singleuse():
     ...     print("Before")
     ...     yield
     ...     print("After")
     ...
     >>> cm = singleuse()
     >>> with cm:
     ...     pass
     ...
     Before
     After
     >>> with cm:
     ...     pass
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     RuntimeError: generator didn't yield

* Menu:

* Reentrant context managers::
* Reusable context managers::


File: python.info,  Node: Reentrant context managers,  Next: Reusable context managers,  Up: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers

5.30.8.9 Reentrant context managers
...................................

More sophisticated context managers may be «reentrant».  These context
managers can not only be used in multiple *note with: 20a. statements,
but may also be used 'inside' a ‘with’ statement that is already using
the same context manager.

*note threading.RLock: 2df. is an example of a reentrant context
manager, as are *note suppress(): 12d3, *note redirect_stdout(): 119f,
and *note chdir(): a01.  Here’s a very simple example of reentrant use:

     >>> from contextlib import redirect_stdout
     >>> from io import StringIO
     >>> stream = StringIO()
     >>> write_to_stream = redirect_stdout(stream)
     >>> with write_to_stream:
     ...     print("This is written to the stream rather than stdout")
     ...     with write_to_stream:
     ...         print("This is also written to the stream")
     ...
     >>> print("This is written directly to stdout")
     This is written directly to stdout
     >>> print(stream.getvalue())
     This is written to the stream rather than stdout
     This is also written to the stream

Real world examples of reentrancy are more likely to involve multiple
functions calling each other and hence be far more complicated than this
example.

Note also that being reentrant is 'not' the same thing as being thread
safe.  *note redirect_stdout(): 119f, for example, is definitely not
thread safe, as it makes a global modification to the system state by
binding *note sys.stdout: e9c. to a different stream.


File: python.info,  Node: Reusable context managers,  Prev: Reentrant context managers,  Up: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers

5.30.8.10 Reusable context managers
...................................

Distinct from both single use and reentrant context managers are
«reusable» context managers (or, to be completely explicit, «reusable,
but not reentrant» context managers, since reentrant context managers
are also reusable).  These context managers support being used multiple
times, but will fail (or otherwise not work correctly) if the specific
context manager instance has already been used in a containing with
statement.

*note threading.Lock: 1a10. is an example of a reusable, but not
reentrant, context manager (for a reentrant lock, it is necessary to use
*note threading.RLock: 2df. instead).

Another example of a reusable, but not reentrant, context manager is
*note ExitStack: 208, as it invokes 'all' currently registered callbacks
when leaving any with statement, regardless of where those callbacks
were added:

     >>> from contextlib import ExitStack
     >>> stack = ExitStack()
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from first context")
     ...     print("Leaving first context")
     ...
     Leaving first context
     Callback: from first context
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from second context")
     ...     print("Leaving second context")
     ...
     Leaving second context
     Callback: from second context
     >>> with stack:
     ...     stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
     ...     with stack:
     ...         stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
     ...         print("Leaving inner context")
     ...     print("Leaving outer context")
     ...
     Leaving inner context
     Callback: from inner context
     Callback: from outer context
     Leaving outer context

As the output from the example shows, reusing a single stack object
across multiple with statements works correctly, but attempting to nest
them will cause the stack to be cleared at the end of the innermost with
statement, which is unlikely to be desirable behaviour.

Using separate *note ExitStack: 208. instances instead of reusing a
single instance avoids that problem:

     >>> from contextlib import ExitStack
     >>> with ExitStack() as outer_stack:
     ...     outer_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context")
     ...     with ExitStack() as inner_stack:
     ...         inner_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context")
     ...         print("Leaving inner context")
     ...     print("Leaving outer context")
     ...
     Leaving inner context
     Callback: from inner context
     Leaving outer context
     Callback: from outer context


File: python.info,  Node: abc — Abstract Base Classes,  Next: atexit — Exit handlers,  Prev: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.9 ‘abc’ — Abstract Base Classes
------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides the infrastructure for defining *note abstract base
classes: 155f. (ABCs) in Python, as outlined in PEP 3119(2); see the PEP
for why this was added to Python.  (See also PEP 3141(3) and the *note
numbers: a2. module regarding a type hierarchy for numbers based on
ABCs.)

The *note collections: 1e. module has some concrete classes that derive
from ABCs; these can, of course, be further derived.  In addition, the
*note collections.abc: 1f. submodule has some ABCs that can be used to
test whether a class or instance provides a particular interface, for
example, if it is *note hashable: 183. or if it is a *note mapping:
1564.

This module provides the metaclass *note ABCMeta: 12c9. for defining
ABCs and a helper class *note ABC: 12c8. to alternatively define ABCs
through inheritance:

 -- Κλάση: abc.ABC

     A helper class that has *note ABCMeta: 12c9. as its metaclass.
     With this class, an abstract base class can be created by simply
     deriving from ‘ABC’ avoiding sometimes confusing metaclass usage,
     for example:

          from abc import ABC

          class MyABC(ABC):
              pass

     Note that the type of ‘ABC’ is still *note ABCMeta: 12c9, therefore
     inheriting from ‘ABC’ requires the usual precautions regarding
     metaclass usage, as multiple inheritance may lead to metaclass
     conflicts.  One may also define an abstract base class by passing
     the metaclass keyword and using ‘ABCMeta’ directly, for example:

          from abc import ABCMeta

          class MyABC(metaclass=ABCMeta):
              pass

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Κλάση: abc.ABCMeta

     Metaclass for defining Abstract Base Classes (ABCs).

     Use this metaclass to create an ABC. An ABC can be subclassed
     directly, and then acts as a mix-in class.  You can also register
     unrelated concrete classes (even built-in classes) and unrelated
     ABCs as «virtual subclasses» – these and their descendants will be
     considered subclasses of the registering ABC by the built-in *note
     issubclass(): 2f0. function, but the registering ABC won’t show up
     in their MRO (Method Resolution Order) nor will method
     implementations defined by the registering ABC be callable (not
     even via *note super(): 443.).  (4)

     Classes created with a metaclass of ‘ABCMeta’ have the following
     method:

      -- Μέθοδος: register (subclass)

          Register 'subclass' as a «virtual subclass» of this ABC. For
          example:

               from abc import ABC

               class MyABC(ABC):
                   pass

               MyABC.register(tuple)

               assert issubclass(tuple, MyABC)
               assert isinstance((), MyABC)

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Returns the registered subclass, to
          allow usage as a class decorator.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: To detect calls to ‘register()’, you
          can use the *note get_cache_token(): 12c7. function.

     You can also override this method in an abstract base class:

      -- Μέθοδος: __subclasshook__ (subclass)

          (Must be defined as a class method.)

          Check whether 'subclass' is considered a subclass of this ABC.
          This means that you can customize the behavior of *note
          issubclass(): 2f0. further without the need to call *note
          register(): 1436. on every class you want to consider a
          subclass of the ABC. (This class method is called from the
          *note __subclasscheck__(): 25bd. method of the ABC.)

          This method should return ‘True’, ‘False’ or *note
          NotImplemented: 440.  If it returns ‘True’, the 'subclass' is
          considered a subclass of this ABC. If it returns ‘False’, the
          'subclass' is not considered a subclass of this ABC, even if
          it would normally be one.  If it returns ‘NotImplemented’, the
          subclass check is continued with the usual mechanism.

     For a demonstration of these concepts, look at this example ABC
     definition:

          class Foo:
              def __getitem__(self, index):
                  ...
              def __len__(self):
                  ...
              def get_iterator(self):
                  return iter(self)

          class MyIterable(ABC):

              @abstractmethod
              def __iter__(self):
                  while False:
                      yield None

              def get_iterator(self):
                  return self.__iter__()

              @classmethod
              def __subclasshook__(cls, C):
                  if cls is MyIterable:
                      if any("__iter__" in B.__dict__ for B in C.__mro__):
                          return True
                  return NotImplemented

          MyIterable.register(Foo)

     The ABC ‘MyIterable’ defines the standard iterable method, *note
     __iter__(): 102d, as an abstract method.  The implementation given
     here can still be called from subclasses.  The ‘get_iterator()’
     method is also part of the ‘MyIterable’ abstract base class, but it
     does not have to be overridden in non-abstract derived classes.

     The *note __subclasshook__(): 2bad. class method defined here says
     that any class that has an *note __iter__(): 102d. method in its
     *note __dict__: 1bf. (or in that of one of its base classes,
     accessed via the *note __mro__: 2569. list) is considered a
     ‘MyIterable’ too.

     Finally, the last line makes ‘Foo’ a virtual subclass of
     ‘MyIterable’, even though it does not define an *note __iter__():
     102d. method (it uses the old-style iterable protocol, defined in
     terms of *note __len__(): 1989. and *note __getitem__(): 787.).
     Note that this will not make ‘get_iterator’ available as a method
     of ‘Foo’, so it is provided separately.

The ‘abc’ module also provides the following decorator:

 -- Συνάρτηση: @abc.abstractmethod

     A decorator indicating abstract methods.

     Using this decorator requires that the class’s metaclass is *note
     ABCMeta: 12c9. or is derived from it.  A class that has a metaclass
     derived from ‘ABCMeta’ cannot be instantiated unless all of its
     abstract methods and properties are overridden.  The abstract
     methods can be called using any of the normal “super” call
     mechanisms.  ‘abstractmethod()’ may be used to declare abstract
     methods for properties and descriptors.

     Dynamically adding abstract methods to a class, or attempting to
     modify the abstraction status of a method or class once it is
     created, are only supported using the *note
     update_abstractmethods(): 4ca9. function.  The ‘abstractmethod()’
     only affects subclasses derived using regular inheritance; «virtual
     subclasses» registered with the ABC’s *note register(): 1436.
     method are not affected.

     When ‘abstractmethod()’ is applied in combination with other method
     descriptors, it should be applied as the innermost decorator, as
     shown in the following usage examples:

          class C(ABC):
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_method(self, arg1):
                  ...
              @classmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg2):
                  ...
              @staticmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg3):
                  ...

              @property
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self):
                  ...
              @my_abstract_property.setter
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self, val):
                  ...

              @abstractmethod
              def _get_x(self):
                  ...
              @abstractmethod
              def _set_x(self, val):
                  ...
              x = property(_get_x, _set_x)

     In order to correctly interoperate with the abstract base class
     machinery, the descriptor must identify itself as abstract using
     ‘__isabstractmethod__’.  In general, this attribute should be
     ‘True’ if any of the methods used to compose the descriptor are
     abstract.  For example, Python’s built-in *note property: 6bb. does
     the equivalent of:

          class Descriptor:
              ...
              @property
              def __isabstractmethod__(self):
                  return any(getattr(f, '__isabstractmethod__', False) for
                             f in (self._fget, self._fset, self._fdel))

          Σημείωση: Unlike Java abstract methods, these abstract methods
          may have an implementation.  This implementation can be called
          via the *note super(): 443. mechanism from the class that
          overrides it.  This could be useful as an end-point for a
          super-call in a framework that uses cooperative
          multiple-inheritance.

The ‘abc’ module also supports the following legacy decorators:

 -- Συνάρτηση: @abc.abstractclassmethod

     Added in version 3.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.3: It is now possible to use *note
     classmethod: 69a. with *note abstractmethod(): 1433, making this
     decorator redundant.

     A subclass of the built-in *note classmethod(): 69a, indicating an
     abstract classmethod.  Otherwise it is similar to *note
     abstractmethod(): 1433.

     This special case is deprecated, as the *note classmethod(): 69a.
     decorator is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to
     an abstract method:

          class C(ABC):
              @classmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg):
                  ...

 -- Συνάρτηση: @abc.abstractstaticmethod

     Added in version 3.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.3: It is now possible to use *note
     staticmethod: 666. with *note abstractmethod(): 1433, making this
     decorator redundant.

     A subclass of the built-in *note staticmethod(): 666, indicating an
     abstract staticmethod.  Otherwise it is similar to *note
     abstractmethod(): 1433.

     This special case is deprecated, as the *note staticmethod(): 666.
     decorator is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to
     an abstract method:

          class C(ABC):
              @staticmethod
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg):
                  ...

 -- Συνάρτηση: @abc.abstractproperty

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.3: It is now possible to use *note
     property: 6bb, *note property.getter(): 1be2, *note
     property.setter(): 1be3. and *note property.deleter(): 1be4. with
     *note abstractmethod(): 1433, making this decorator redundant.

     A subclass of the built-in *note property(): 6bb, indicating an
     abstract property.

     This special case is deprecated, as the *note property(): 6bb.
     decorator is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to
     an abstract method:

          class C(ABC):
              @property
              @abstractmethod
              def my_abstract_property(self):
                  ...

     The above example defines a read-only property; you can also define
     a read-write abstract property by appropriately marking one or more
     of the underlying methods as abstract:

          class C(ABC):
              @property
              def x(self):
                  ...

              @x.setter
              @abstractmethod
              def x(self, val):
                  ...

     If only some components are abstract, only those components need to
     be updated to create a concrete property in a subclass:

          class D(C):
              @C.x.setter
              def x(self, val):
                  ...

The ‘abc’ module also provides the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: abc.get_cache_token ()

     Returns the current abstract base class cache token.

     The token is an opaque object (that supports equality testing)
     identifying the current version of the abstract base class cache
     for virtual subclasses.  The token changes with every call to *note
     ABCMeta.register(): 1436. on any ABC.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: abc.update_abstractmethods (cls)

     A function to recalculate an abstract class’s abstraction status.
     This function should be called if a class’s abstract methods have
     been implemented or changed after it was created.  Usually, this
     function should be called from within a class decorator.

     Returns 'cls', to allow usage as a class decorator.

     If 'cls' is not an instance of *note ABCMeta: 12c9, does nothing.

          Σημείωση: This function assumes that 'cls'’s superclasses are
          already updated.  It does not update any subclasses.

     Added in version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/

   (4) C++ programmers should note that Python’s virtual base class
concept is not the same as C++”s.


File: python.info,  Node: atexit — Exit handlers,  Next: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback,  Prev: abc — Abstract Base Classes,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.10 ‘atexit’ — Exit handlers
--------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘atexit’ module defines functions to register and unregister cleanup
functions.  Functions thus registered are automatically executed upon
normal interpreter termination.  ‘atexit’ runs these functions in the
'reverse' order in which they were registered; if you register ‘A’, ‘B’,
and ‘C’, at interpreter termination time they will be run in the order
‘C’, ‘B’, ‘A’.

'Note:' The functions registered via this module are not called when the
program is killed by a signal not handled by Python, when a Python fatal
internal error is detected, or when *note os._exit(): 28f5. is called.

'Note:' The effect of registering or unregistering functions from within
a cleanup function is undefined.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: When used with C-API subinterpreters, registered
functions are local to the interpreter they were registered in.

 -- Συνάρτηση: atexit.register (func, *args, **kwargs)

     Register 'func' as a function to be executed at termination.  Any
     optional arguments that are to be passed to 'func' must be passed
     as arguments to ‘register()’.  It is possible to register the same
     function and arguments more than once.

     At normal program termination (for instance, if *note sys.exit():
     4ff. is called or the main module’s execution completes), all
     functions registered are called in last in, first out order.  The
     assumption is that lower level modules will normally be imported
     before higher level modules and thus must be cleaned up later.

     If an exception is raised during execution of the exit handlers, a
     traceback is printed (unless *note SystemExit: 10f7. is raised) and
     the exception information is saved.  After all exit handlers have
     had a chance to run, the last exception to be raised is re-raised.

     This function returns 'func', which makes it possible to use it as
     a decorator.

          Προειδοποίηση: Starting new threads or calling *note
          os.fork(): 6bd. from a registered function can lead to race
          condition between the main Python runtime thread freeing
          thread states while internal *note threading: f6. routines or
          the new process try to use that state.  This can lead to
          crashes rather than clean shutdown.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Attempts to start a new thread or *note
     os.fork(): 6bd. a new process in a registered function now leads to
     *note RuntimeError: 30d.

 -- Συνάρτηση: atexit.unregister (func)

     Remove 'func' from the list of functions to be run at interpreter
     shutdown.  ‘unregister()’ silently does nothing if 'func' was not
     previously registered.  If 'func' has been registered more than
     once, every occurrence of that function in the ‘atexit’ call stack
     will be removed.  Equality comparisons (‘==’) are used internally
     during unregistration, so function references do not need to have
     matching identities.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note readline: c2.

     Useful example of ‘atexit’ to read and write *note readline: c2.
     history files.

* Menu:

* atexit Example::


File: python.info,  Node: atexit Example,  Up: atexit — Exit handlers

5.30.10.1 ‘atexit’ Example
..........................

The following simple example demonstrates how a module can initialize a
counter from a file when it is imported and save the counter’s updated
value automatically when the program terminates without relying on the
application making an explicit call into this module at termination.

     try:
         with open('counterfile') as infile:
             _count = int(infile.read())
     except FileNotFoundError:
         _count = 0

     def incrcounter(n):
         global _count
         _count = _count + n

     def savecounter():
         with open('counterfile', 'w') as outfile:
             outfile.write('%d' % _count)

     import atexit

     atexit.register(savecounter)

Positional and keyword arguments may also be passed to *note register():
c54. to be passed along to the registered function when it is called:

     def goodbye(name, adjective):
         print('Goodbye %s, it was %s to meet you.' % (name, adjective))

     import atexit

     atexit.register(goodbye, 'Donny', 'nice')
     # or:
     atexit.register(goodbye, adjective='nice', name='Donny')

Usage as a *note decorator: b18.:

     import atexit

     @atexit.register
     def goodbye():
         print('You are now leaving the Python sector.')

This only works with functions that can be called without arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback,  Next: __future__ — Future statement definitions,  Prev: atexit — Exit handlers,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.11 ‘traceback’ — Print or retrieve a stack traceback
---------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/traceback.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a standard interface to extract, format and print
stack traces of Python programs.  It is more flexible than the
interpreter’s default traceback display, and therefore makes it possible
to configure certain aspects of the output.  Finally, it contains a
utility for capturing enough information about an exception to print it
later, without the need to save a reference to the actual exception.
Since exceptions can be the roots of large objects graph, this utility
can significantly improve memory management.

The module uses *note traceback objects: eba. — these are objects of
type *note types.TracebackType: eb8, which are assigned to the *note
__traceback__: 166b. field of *note BaseException: 9b9. instances.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note faulthandler: 5b.

     Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a
     timeout, or on a user signal.

Module *note pdb: aa.

     Interactive source code debugger for Python programs.

The module’s API can be divided into two parts:

   * Module-level functions offering basic functionality, which are
     useful for interactive inspection of exceptions and tracebacks.

   * *note TracebackException: 764. class and its helper classes *note
     StackSummary: 1234. and *note FrameSummary: 1235.  These offer both
     more flexibility in the output generated and the ability to store
     the information necessary for later formatting without holding
     references to actual exception and traceback objects.

Added in version 3.13: Output is colorized by default and can be *note
controlled using environment variables: 1af.

* Menu:

* Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<2>.
* TracebackException Objects::
* StackSummary Objects::
* FrameSummary Objects::
* Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions::
* Examples of Using TracebackException::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/traceback.py


File: python.info,  Node: Module-Level Functions<2>,  Next: TracebackException Objects,  Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.30.11.1 Module-Level Functions
................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.print_tb (tb, limit=None, file=None)

     Print up to 'limit' stack trace entries from *note traceback
     object: eba. 'tb' (starting from the caller’s frame) if 'limit' is
     positive.  Otherwise, print the last ‘abs(limit)’ entries.  If
     'limit' is omitted or ‘None’, all entries are printed.  If 'file'
     is omitted or ‘None’, the output goes to *note sys.stderr: d05.;
     otherwise it should be an open *note file: 156c. or *note file-like
     object: 19b1. to receive the output.

          Σημείωση: The meaning of the 'limit' parameter is different
          than the meaning of *note sys.tracebacklimit: 1b5c.  A
          negative 'limit' value corresponds to a positive value of
          ‘sys.tracebacklimit’, whereas the behaviour of a positive
          'limit' value cannot be achieved with ‘sys.tracebacklimit’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added negative 'limit' support.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.print_exception (exc, /[, value, tb],
          limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

     Print exception information and stack trace entries from *note
     traceback object: eba. 'tb' to 'file'.  This differs from *note
     print_tb(): 1236. in the following ways:

        * if 'tb' is not ‘None’, it prints a header ‘Traceback (most
          recent call last):’

        * it prints the exception type and 'value' after the stack trace

        * if 'type(value)' is *note SyntaxError: 17e. and 'value' has
          the appropriate format, it prints the line where the syntax
          error occurred with a caret indicating the approximate
          position of the error.

     Since Python 3.10, instead of passing 'value' and 'tb', an
     exception object can be passed as the first argument.  If 'value'
     and 'tb' are provided, the first argument is ignored in order to
     provide backwards compatibility.

     The optional 'limit' argument has the same meaning as for *note
     print_tb(): 1236.  If 'chain' is true (the default), then chained
     exceptions (the *note __cause__: 166d. or *note __context__: 166c.
     attributes of the exception) will be printed as well, like the
     interpreter itself does when printing an unhandled exception.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'etype' argument is ignored and
     inferred from the type of 'value'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The 'etype' parameter has been renamed to
     'exc' and is now positional-only.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.print_exc (limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

     This is a shorthand for ‘print_exception(sys.exception(),
     limit=limit, file=file, chain=chain)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.print_last (limit=None, file=None, chain=True)

     This is a shorthand for ‘print_exception(sys.last_exc, limit=limit,
     file=file, chain=chain)’.  In general it will work only after an
     exception has reached an interactive prompt (see *note
     sys.last_exc: 8ce.).

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.print_stack (f=None, limit=None, file=None)

     Print up to 'limit' stack trace entries (starting from the
     invocation point) if 'limit' is positive.  Otherwise, print the
     last ‘abs(limit)’ entries.  If 'limit' is omitted or ‘None’, all
     entries are printed.  The optional 'f' argument can be used to
     specify an alternate *note stack frame: acd. to start.  The
     optional 'file' argument has the same meaning as for *note
     print_tb(): 1236.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added negative 'limit' support.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.extract_tb (tb, limit=None)

     Return a *note StackSummary: 1234. object representing a list of
     «pre-processed» stack trace entries extracted from the *note
     traceback object: eba. 'tb'.  It is useful for alternate formatting
     of stack traces.  The optional 'limit' argument has the same
     meaning as for *note print_tb(): 1236.  A «pre-processed» stack
     trace entry is a *note FrameSummary: 1235. object containing
     attributes *note filename: 4cb5, *note lineno: 4cb6, *note name:
     4cb7, and *note line: 4cb8. representing the information that is
     usually printed for a stack trace.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.extract_stack (f=None, limit=None)

     Extract the raw traceback from the current *note stack frame: acd.
     The return value has the same format as for *note extract_tb():
     4cb4.  The optional 'f' and 'limit' arguments have the same meaning
     as for *note print_stack(): 1237.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.print_list (extracted_list, file=None)

     Print the list of tuples as returned by *note extract_tb(): 4cb4.
     or *note extract_stack(): 4cb9. as a formatted stack trace to the
     given file.  If 'file' is ‘None’, the output is written to *note
     sys.stderr: d05.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.format_list (extracted_list)

     Given a list of tuples or *note FrameSummary: 1235. objects as
     returned by *note extract_tb(): 4cb4. or *note extract_stack():
     4cb9, return a list of strings ready for printing.  Each string in
     the resulting list corresponds to the item with the same index in
     the argument list.  Each string ends in a newline; the strings may
     contain internal newlines as well, for those items whose source
     text line is not ‘None’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.format_exception_only (exc, /[, value], *,
          show_group=False)

     Format the exception part of a traceback using an exception value
     such as given by *note sys.last_value: 8d0.  The return value is a
     list of strings, each ending in a newline.  The list contains the
     exception’s message, which is normally a single string; however,
     for *note SyntaxError: 17e. exceptions, it contains several lines
     that (when printed) display detailed information about where the
     syntax error occurred.  Following the message, the list contains
     the exception’s *note notes: 28e0.

     Since Python 3.10, instead of passing 'value', an exception object
     can be passed as the first argument.  If 'value' is provided, the
     first argument is ignored in order to provide backwards
     compatibility.

     When 'show_group' is ‘True’, and the exception is an instance of
     *note BaseExceptionGroup: 767, the nested exceptions are included
     as well, recursively, with indentation relative to their nesting
     depth.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The 'etype' parameter has been renamed to
     'exc' and is now positional-only.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The returned list now includes any *note
     notes: 28e0. attached to the exception.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: 'show_group' parameter was added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.format_exception (exc, /[, value, tb],
          limit=None, chain=True)

     Format a stack trace and the exception information.  The arguments
     have the same meaning as the corresponding arguments to *note
     print_exception(): c27.  The return value is a list of strings,
     each ending in a newline and some containing internal newlines.
     When these lines are concatenated and printed, exactly the same
     text is printed as does ‘print_exception()’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'etype' argument is ignored and
     inferred from the type of 'value'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This function’s behavior and signature
     were modified to match *note print_exception(): c27.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.format_exc (limit=None, chain=True)

     This is like ‘print_exc(limit)’ but returns a string instead of
     printing to a file.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.format_tb (tb, limit=None)

     A shorthand for ‘format_list(extract_tb(tb, limit))’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.format_stack (f=None, limit=None)

     A shorthand for ‘format_list(extract_stack(f, limit))’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.clear_frames (tb)

     Clears the local variables of all the stack frames in a *note
     traceback: eba. 'tb' by calling the *note clear(): 784. method of
     each *note frame object: acd.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.walk_stack (f)

     Walk a stack following *note f.f_back: b6b. from the given frame,
     yielding the frame and line number for each frame.  If 'f' is
     ‘None’, the current stack is used.  This helper is used with *note
     StackSummary.extract(): 4cbd.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: This function previously returned a
     generator that would walk the stack when first iterated over.  The
     generator returned now is the state of the stack when ‘walk_stack’
     is called.

 -- Συνάρτηση: traceback.walk_tb (tb)

     Walk a traceback following *note tb_next: eb9. yielding the frame
     and line number for each frame.  This helper is used with *note
     StackSummary.extract(): 4cbd.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: TracebackException Objects,  Next: StackSummary Objects,  Prev: Module-Level Functions<2>,  Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.30.11.2 ‘TracebackException’ Objects
......................................

Added in version 3.5.

‘TracebackException’ objects are created from actual exceptions to
capture data for later printing.  They offer a more lightweight method
of storing this information by avoiding holding references to *note
traceback: eba. and *note frame: acd. objects.  In addition, they expose
more options to configure the output compared to the module-level
functions described above.

 -- Κλάση: traceback.TracebackException (exc_type, exc_value,
          exc_traceback, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True,
          capture_locals=False, compact=False, max_group_width=15,
          max_group_depth=10)

     Capture an exception for later rendering.  The meaning of 'limit',
     'lookup_lines' and 'capture_locals' are as for the *note
     StackSummary: 1234. class.

     If 'compact' is true, only data that is required by
     ‘TracebackException’’s *note format(): 439. method is saved in the
     class attributes.  In particular, the *note __context__: 4cbf.
     field is calculated only if *note __cause__: 4cc0. is ‘None’ and
     *note __suppress_context__: 4cc1. is false.

     Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the
     traceback.

     'max_group_width' and 'max_group_depth' control the formatting of
     exception groups (see *note BaseExceptionGroup: 767.).  The depth
     refers to the nesting level of the group, and the width refers to
     the size of a single exception group’s exceptions array.  The
     formatted output is truncated when either limit is exceeded.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added the 'compact' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'max_group_width' and
     'max_group_depth' parameters.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __cause__

          A ‘TracebackException’ of the original *note __cause__: 166d.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __context__

          A ‘TracebackException’ of the original *note __context__:
          166c.

      -- Ιδιότητα: exceptions

          If ‘self’ represents an *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8, this field
          holds a list of ‘TracebackException’ instances representing
          the nested exceptions.  Otherwise it is ‘None’.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __suppress_context__

          The *note __suppress_context__: 270a. value from the original
          exception.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __notes__

          The *note __notes__: 28e0. value from the original exception,
          or ‘None’ if the exception does not have any notes.  If it is
          not ‘None’ is it formatted in the traceback after the
          exception string.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Ιδιότητα: stack

          A *note StackSummary: 1234. representing the traceback.

      -- Ιδιότητα: exc_type

          The class of the original traceback.

          Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

      -- Ιδιότητα: exc_type_str

          String display of the class of the original exception.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Ιδιότητα: filename

          For syntax errors - the file name where the error occurred.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          For syntax errors - the line number where the error occurred.

      -- Ιδιότητα: end_lineno

          For syntax errors - the end line number where the error
          occurred.  Can be ‘None’ if not present.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- Ιδιότητα: text

          For syntax errors - the text where the error occurred.

      -- Ιδιότητα: offset

          For syntax errors - the offset into the text where the error
          occurred.

      -- Ιδιότητα: end_offset

          For syntax errors - the end offset into the text where the
          error occurred.  Can be ‘None’ if not present.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- Ιδιότητα: msg

          For syntax errors - the compiler error message.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod from_exception (exc, *, limit=None,
               lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)

          Capture an exception for later rendering.  'limit',
          'lookup_lines' and 'capture_locals' are as for the *note
          StackSummary: 1234. class.

          Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the
          traceback.

      -- Μέθοδος: print (*, file=None, chain=True)

          Print to 'file' (default ‘sys.stderr’) the exception
          information returned by *note format(): 439.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- Μέθοδος: format (*, chain=True)

          Format the exception.

          If 'chain' is not ‘True’, *note __cause__: 4cc0. and *note
          __context__: 4cbf. will not be formatted.

          The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a
          newline and some containing internal newlines.  *note
          print_exception(): c27. is a wrapper around this method which
          just prints the lines to a file.

      -- Μέθοδος: format_exception_only (*, show_group=False)

          Format the exception part of the traceback.

          The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a
          newline.

          When 'show_group' is ‘False’, the generator emits the
          exception’s message followed by its notes (if it has any).
          The exception message is normally a single string; however,
          for *note SyntaxError: 17e. exceptions, it consists of several
          lines that (when printed) display detailed information about
          where the syntax error occurred.

          When 'show_group' is ‘True’, and the exception is an instance
          of *note BaseExceptionGroup: 767, the nested exceptions are
          included as well, recursively, with indentation relative to
          their nesting depth.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The exception’s *note notes: 28e0.
          are now included in the output.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'show_group' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: StackSummary Objects,  Next: FrameSummary Objects,  Prev: TracebackException Objects,  Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.30.11.3 ‘StackSummary’ Objects
................................

Added in version 3.5.

‘StackSummary’ objects represent a call stack ready for formatting.

 -- Κλάση: traceback.StackSummary

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod extract (frame_gen, *, limit=None,
               lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False)

          Construct a ‘StackSummary’ object from a frame generator (such
          as is returned by *note walk_stack(): 1232. or *note
          walk_tb(): 1233.).

          If 'limit' is supplied, only this many frames are taken from
          'frame_gen'.  If 'lookup_lines' is ‘False’, the returned *note
          FrameSummary: 1235. objects will not have read their lines in
          yet, making the cost of creating the ‘StackSummary’ cheaper
          (which may be valuable if it may not actually get formatted).
          If 'capture_locals' is ‘True’ the local variables in each
          ‘FrameSummary’ are captured as object representations.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Exceptions raised from *note repr():
          45b. on a local variable (when 'capture_locals' is ‘True’) are
          no longer propagated to the caller.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod from_list (a_list)

          Construct a ‘StackSummary’ object from a supplied list of
          *note FrameSummary: 1235. objects or old-style list of tuples.
          Each tuple should be a 4-tuple with 'filename', 'lineno',
          'name', 'line' as the elements.

      -- Μέθοδος: format ()

          Returns a list of strings ready for printing.  Each string in
          the resulting list corresponds to a single *note frame: acd.
          from the stack.  Each string ends in a newline; the strings
          may contain internal newlines as well, for those items with
          source text lines.

          For long sequences of the same frame and line, the first few
          repetitions are shown, followed by a summary line stating the
          exact number of further repetitions.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Long sequences of repeated frames are
          now abbreviated.

      -- Μέθοδος: format_frame_summary (frame_summary)

          Returns a string for printing one of the *note frames: acd.
          involved in the stack.  This method is called for each *note
          FrameSummary: 1235. object to be printed by *note
          StackSummary.format(): 4cd0.  If it returns ‘None’, the frame
          is omitted from the output.

          Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: FrameSummary Objects,  Next: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Prev: StackSummary Objects,  Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.30.11.4 ‘FrameSummary’ Objects
................................

Added in version 3.5.

A ‘FrameSummary’ object represents a single *note frame: acd. in a *note
traceback: eba.

 -- Κλάση: traceback.FrameSummary (filename, lineno, name, *,
          lookup_line=True, locals=None, line=None, end_lineno=None,
          colno=None, end_colno=None)

     Represents a single *note frame: acd. in the *note traceback: eba.
     or stack that is being formatted or printed.  It may optionally
     have a stringified version of the frame’s locals included in it.
     If 'lookup_line' is ‘False’, the source code is not looked up until
     the ‘FrameSummary’ has the *note line: 4cb8. attribute accessed
     (which also happens when casting it to a *note tuple: 1ce.).
     ‘line’ may be directly provided, and will prevent line lookups
     happening at all.  'locals' is an optional local variable mapping,
     and if supplied the variable representations are stored in the
     summary for later display.

     ‘FrameSummary’ instances have the following attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: filename

          The filename of the source code for this frame.  Equivalent to
          accessing *note f.f_code.co_filename: 1712. on a *note frame
          object: acd. 'f'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          The line number of the source code for this frame.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          Equivalent to accessing *note f.f_code.co_name: 2579. on a
          *note frame object: acd. 'f'.

      -- Ιδιότητα: line

          A string representing the source code for this frame, with
          leading and trailing whitespace stripped.  If the source is
          not available, it is ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: end_lineno

          The last line number of the source code for this frame.  By
          default, it is set to ‘lineno’ and indexation starts from 1.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The default value changed from ‘None’
          to ‘lineno’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: colno

          The column number of the source code for this frame.  By
          default, it is ‘None’ and indexation starts from 0.

      -- Ιδιότητα: end_colno

          The last column number of the source code for this frame.  By
          default, it is ‘None’ and indexation starts from 0.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Next: Examples of Using TracebackException,  Prev: FrameSummary Objects,  Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.30.11.5 Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions
......................................................

This simple example implements a basic read-eval-print loop, similar to
(but less useful than) the standard Python interactive interpreter loop.
For a more complete implementation of the interpreter loop, refer to the
*note code: 1b. module.

     import sys, traceback

     def run_user_code(envdir):
         source = input(">>> ")
         try:
             exec(source, envdir)
         except Exception:
             print("Exception in user code:")
             print("-"*60)
             traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stdout)
             print("-"*60)

     envdir = {}
     while True:
         run_user_code(envdir)

The following example demonstrates the different ways to print and
format the exception and traceback:

     import sys, traceback

     def lumberjack():
         bright_side_of_life()

     def bright_side_of_life():
         return tuple()[0]

     try:
         lumberjack()
     except IndexError as exc:
         print("*** print_tb:")
         traceback.print_tb(exc.__traceback__, limit=1, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** print_exception:")
         traceback.print_exception(exc, limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** print_exc:")
         traceback.print_exc(limit=2, file=sys.stdout)
         print("*** format_exc, first and last line:")
         formatted_lines = traceback.format_exc().splitlines()
         print(formatted_lines[0])
         print(formatted_lines[-1])
         print("*** format_exception:")
         print(repr(traceback.format_exception(exc)))
         print("*** extract_tb:")
         print(repr(traceback.extract_tb(exc.__traceback__)))
         print("*** format_tb:")
         print(repr(traceback.format_tb(exc.__traceback__)))
         print("*** tb_lineno:", exc.__traceback__.tb_lineno)

The output for the example would look similar to this:

     *** print_tb:
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
     *** print_exception:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** print_exc:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** format_exc, first and last line:
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     IndexError: tuple index out of range
     *** format_exception:
     ['Traceback (most recent call last):\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_life()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n    return tuple()[0]\n           ~~~~~~~^^^\n',
      'IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']
     *** extract_tb:
     [<FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 10 in <module>>,
      <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 4 in lumberjack>,
      <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 7 in bright_side_of_life>]
     *** format_tb:
     ['  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n    lumberjack()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n    bright_side_of_life()\n    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^\n',
      '  File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n    return tuple()[0]\n           ~~~~~~~^^^\n']
     *** tb_lineno: 10

The following example shows the different ways to print and format the
stack:

     >>> import traceback
     >>> def another_function():
     ...     lumberstack()
     ...
     >>> def lumberstack():
     ...     traceback.print_stack()
     ...     print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))
     ...     print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))
     ...
     >>> another_function()
       File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>
         another_function()
       File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function
         lumberstack()
       File "<doctest>", line 6, in lumberstack
         traceback.print_stack()
     [('<doctest>', 10, '<module>', 'another_function()'),
      ('<doctest>', 3, 'another_function', 'lumberstack()'),
      ('<doctest>', 7, 'lumberstack', 'print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))')]
     ['  File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>\n    another_function()\n',
      '  File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function\n    lumberstack()\n',
      '  File "<doctest>", line 8, in lumberstack\n    print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))\n']

This last example demonstrates the final few formatting functions:

     >>> import traceback
     >>> traceback.format_list([('spam.py', 3, '<module>', 'spam.eggs()'),
     ...                        ('eggs.py', 42, 'eggs', 'return "bacon"')])
     ['  File "spam.py", line 3, in <module>\n    spam.eggs()\n',
      '  File "eggs.py", line 42, in eggs\n    return "bacon"\n']
     >>> an_error = IndexError('tuple index out of range')
     >>> traceback.format_exception_only(an_error)
     ['IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']


File: python.info,  Node: Examples of Using TracebackException,  Prev: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions,  Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

5.30.11.6 Examples of Using ‘TracebackException’
................................................

With the helper class, we have more options:

     >>> import sys
     >>> from traceback import TracebackException
     >>>
     >>> def lumberjack():
     ...     bright_side_of_life()
     ...
     >>> def bright_side_of_life():
     ...     t = "bright", "side", "of", "life"
     ...     return t[5]
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     lumberjack()
     ... except IndexError as e:
     ...     exc = e
     ...
     >>> try:
     ...     try:
     ...         lumberjack()
     ...     except:
     ...         1/0
     ... except Exception as e:
     ...     chained_exc = e
     ...
     >>> # limit works as with the module-level functions
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     >>> # capture_locals adds local variables in frames
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2, capture_locals=True).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
         t = ("bright", "side", "of", "life")
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     >>> # The *chain* kwarg to print() controls whether chained
     >>> # exceptions are displayed
     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 4, in <module>
         lumberjack()
         ~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-8>", line 7, in lumberjack
         bright_side_of_life()
         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^
       File "<python-input-8>", line 11, in bright_side_of_life
         return t[5]
                ~^^^
     IndexError: tuple index out of range

     During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
         1/0
         ~^~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

     >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print(chain=False)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module>
         1/0
         ~^~
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: __future__ — Future statement definitions,  Next: gc — Garbage Collector interface,  Prev: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.12 ‘__future__’ — Future statement definitions
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/__future__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Imports of the form ‘from __future__ import feature’ are called *note
future statements: 670.  These are special-cased by the Python compiler
to allow the use of new Python features in modules containing the future
statement before the release in which the feature becomes standard.

While these future statements are given additional special meaning by
the Python compiler, they are still executed like any other import
statement and the ‘__future__’ exists and is handled by the import
system the same way any other Python module would be.  This design
serves three purposes:

   * To avoid confusing existing tools that analyze import statements
     and expect to find the modules they’re importing.

   * To document when incompatible changes were introduced, and when
     they will be — or were — made mandatory.  This is a form of
     executable documentation, and can be inspected programmatically via
     importing ‘__future__’ and examining its contents.

   * To ensure that *note future statements: 670. run under releases
     prior to Python 2.1 at least yield runtime exceptions (the import
     of ‘__future__’ will fail, because there was no module of that name
     prior to 2.1).

* Menu:

* Module Contents: Module Contents<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/__future__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Module Contents<2>,  Up: __future__ — Future statement definitions

5.30.12.1 Module Contents
.........................

No feature description will ever be deleted from ‘__future__’.  Since
its introduction in Python 2.1 the following features have found their
way into the language using this mechanism:

feature                       optional in                   mandatory in                  effect
                                                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
 -- Δεδομένα:                 2.1.0b1                       2.2                           PEP 227(1): 'Statically
          __future__.nested_scopes                                                        Nested Scopes'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- Δεδομένα:                 2.2.0a1                       2.3                           PEP 255(2): 'Simple
          __future__.generators                                                           Generators'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- Δεδομένα:                 2.2.0a2                       3.0                           PEP 238(3): 'Changing the
          __future__.division                                                             Division Operator'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- Δεδομένα:                 2.5.0a1                       3.0                           PEP 328(4): 'Imports:
          __future__.absolute_import                                                      Multi-Line and
                                                                                          Absolute/Relative'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- Δεδομένα:                 2.5.0a1                       2.6                           PEP 343(5): 'The “with”
          __future__.with_statement                                                       Statement'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- Δεδομένα:                 2.6.0a2                       3.0                           PEP 3105(6): 'Make print a
          __future__.print_function                                                       function'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- Δεδομένα:                 2.6.0a2                       3.0                           PEP 3112(7): 'Bytes
          __future__.unicode_literals                                                     literals in Python 3000'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- Δεδομένα:                 3.5.0b1                       3.7                           PEP 479(8): 'StopIteration
          __future__.generator_stop                                                       handling inside generators'
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
 -- Δεδομένα:                 3.7.0b1                       Never (9)                     PEP 563(10): 'Postponed
          __future__.annotations                                                          evaluation of annotations',
                                                                                          PEP 649(11): 'Deferred
                                                                                          evaluation of annotations
                                                                                          using descriptors'
                                                                                          

 -- Κλάση: __future__._Feature

     Each statement in ‘__future__.py’ is of the form:

          FeatureName = _Feature(OptionalRelease, MandatoryRelease,
                                 CompilerFlag)

     where, normally, 'OptionalRelease' is less than 'MandatoryRelease',
     and both are 5-tuples of the same form as *note sys.version_info:
     2fc.:

          (PY_MAJOR_VERSION, # the 2 in 2.1.0a3; an int
           PY_MINOR_VERSION, # the 1; an int
           PY_MICRO_VERSION, # the 0; an int
           PY_RELEASE_LEVEL, # "alpha", "beta", "candidate" or "final"; string
           PY_RELEASE_SERIAL # the 3; an int
          )

 -- Μέθοδος: _Feature.getOptionalRelease ()

     'OptionalRelease' records the first release in which the feature
     was accepted.

 -- Μέθοδος: _Feature.getMandatoryRelease ()

     In the case of a 'MandatoryRelease' that has not yet occurred,
     'MandatoryRelease' predicts the release in which the feature will
     become part of the language.

     Else 'MandatoryRelease' records when the feature became part of the
     language; in releases at or after that, modules no longer need a
     future statement to use the feature in question, but may continue
     to use such imports.

     'MandatoryRelease' may also be ‘None’, meaning that a planned
     feature got dropped or that it is not yet decided.

 -- Ιδιότητα: _Feature.compiler_flag

     'CompilerFlag' is the (bitfield) flag that should be passed in the
     fourth argument to the built-in function *note compile(): 1c8. to
     enable the feature in dynamically compiled code.  This flag is
     stored in the ‘_Feature.compiler_flag’ attribute on *note _Feature:
     27c1. instances.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Μελλοντικές δηλώσεις: 670.

     How the compiler treats future imports.

PEP 236(12) - Back to the __future__

     The original proposal for the __future__ mechanism.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/

   (9) ‘from __future__ import annotations’ was previously scheduled to
become mandatory in Python 3.10, but the change was delayed and
ultimately canceled.  This feature will eventually be deprecated and
removed.  See PEP 649 (https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/) and PEP 749
(https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/).

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/


File: python.info,  Node: gc — Garbage Collector interface,  Next: inspect — Inspect live objects,  Prev: __future__ — Future statement definitions,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.13 ‘gc’ — Garbage Collector interface
------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface to the optional garbage collector.  It
provides the ability to disable the collector, tune the collection
frequency, and set debugging options.  It also provides access to
unreachable objects that the collector found but cannot free.  Since the
collector supplements the reference counting already used in Python, you
can disable the collector if you are sure your program does not create
reference cycles.  Automatic collection can be disabled by calling
‘gc.disable()’.  To debug a leaking program call
‘gc.set_debug(gc.DEBUG_LEAK)’.  Notice that this includes
‘gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL’, causing garbage-collected objects to be saved in
gc.garbage for inspection.

The ‘gc’ module provides the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.enable ()

     Enable automatic garbage collection.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.disable ()

     Disable automatic garbage collection.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.isenabled ()

     Return ‘True’ if automatic collection is enabled.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.collect (generation=2)

     With no arguments, run a full collection.  The optional argument
     'generation' may be an integer specifying which generation to
     collect (from 0 to 2).  A *note ValueError: 277. is raised if the
     generation number is invalid.  The sum of collected objects and
     uncollectable objects is returned.

     The free lists maintained for a number of built-in types are
     cleared whenever a full collection or collection of the highest
     generation (2) is run.  Not all items in some free lists may be
     freed due to the particular implementation, in particular *note
     float: 327.

     The effect of calling ‘gc.collect()’ while the interpreter is
     already performing a collection is undefined.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: ‘generation=1’ performs an increment of
     collection.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14.5: ‘generation=1’ performs collection of
     the middle generation.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.set_debug (flags)

     Set the garbage collection debugging flags.  Debugging information
     will be written to ‘sys.stderr’.  See below for a list of debugging
     flags which can be combined using bit operations to control
     debugging.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.get_debug ()

     Return the debugging flags currently set.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.get_objects (generation=None)

     Returns a list of all objects tracked by the collector, excluding
     the list returned.  If 'generation' is not ‘None’, return only the
     objects tracked by the collector that are in that generation.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: New 'generation' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Generation 1 is removed

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14.5: Generation 1 is reintroduced to maintain
     GC behavior from 3.13.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘gc.get_objects’ with
     argument ‘generation’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.get_stats ()

     Return a list of three per-generation dictionaries containing
     collection statistics since interpreter start.  The number of keys
     may change in the future, but currently each dictionary will
     contain the following items:

        * ‘collections’ is the number of times this generation was
          collected;

        * ‘collected’ is the total number of objects collected inside
          this generation;

        * ‘uncollectable’ is the total number of objects which were
          found to be uncollectable (and were therefore moved to the
          *note garbage: 156a. list) inside this generation;

        * ‘candidates’ is the total number of objects in this generation
          which were considered for collection and traversed;

        * ‘duration’ is the total time in seconds spent in collections
          for this generation.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Add ‘duration’ and ‘candidates’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.set_threshold (threshold0[, threshold1[, threshold2]])

     Set the garbage collection thresholds (the collection frequency).
     Setting 'threshold0' to zero disables collection.

     The GC classifies objects into three generations depending on how
     many collection sweeps they have survived.  New objects are placed
     in the youngest generation (generation ‘0’).  If an object survives
     a collection it is moved into the next older generation.  Since
     generation ‘2’ is the oldest generation, objects in that generation
     remain there after a collection.  In order to decide when to run,
     the collector keeps track of the number object allocations and
     deallocations since the last collection.  When the number of
     allocations minus the number of deallocations exceeds 'threshold0',
     collection starts.  Initially only generation ‘0’ is examined.  If
     generation ‘0’ has been examined more than 'threshold1' times since
     generation ‘1’ has been examined, then generation ‘1’ is examined
     as well.  With the third generation, things are a bit more
     complicated, see Collecting the oldest generation(1) for more
     information.

     See Garbage collector design(2) for more information.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: 'threshold2' is ignored

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14.5: 'threshold2' is restored to match Python
     3.13 behavior.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.get_count ()

     Return the current collection counts as a tuple of ‘(count0,
     count1, count2)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.get_threshold ()

     Return the current collection thresholds as a tuple of
     ‘(threshold0, threshold1, threshold2)’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.get_referrers (*objs)

     Return the list of objects that directly refer to any of objs.
     This function will only locate those containers which support
     garbage collection; extension types which do refer to other objects
     but do not support garbage collection will not be found.

     Note that objects which have already been dereferenced, but which
     live in cycles and have not yet been collected by the garbage
     collector can be listed among the resulting referrers.  To get only
     currently live objects, call *note collect(): 44f. before calling
     ‘get_referrers()’.

          Προειδοποίηση: Care must be taken when using objects returned
          by ‘get_referrers()’ because some of them could still be under
          construction and hence in a temporarily invalid state.  Avoid
          using ‘get_referrers()’ for any purpose other than debugging.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘gc.get_referrers’ with
     argument ‘objs’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.get_referents (*objs)

     Return a list of objects directly referred to by any of the
     arguments.  The referents returned are those objects visited by the
     arguments” C-level *note tp_traverse: 36b. methods (if any), and
     may not be all objects actually directly reachable.  ‘tp_traverse’
     methods are supported only by objects that support garbage
     collection, and are only required to visit objects that may be
     involved in a cycle.  So, for example, if an integer is directly
     reachable from an argument, that integer object may or may not
     appear in the result list.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘gc.get_referents’ with
     argument ‘objs’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.is_tracked (obj)

     Returns ‘True’ if the object is currently tracked by the garbage
     collector, ‘False’ otherwise.  As a general rule, instances of
     atomic types aren’t tracked and instances of non-atomic types
     (containers, user-defined objects…) are.  However, some
     type-specific optimizations can be present in order to suppress the
     garbage collector footprint of simple instances (e.g.  dicts
     containing only atomic keys and values):

          >>> gc.is_tracked(0)
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked("a")
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked([])
          True
          >>> gc.is_tracked({})
          False
          >>> gc.is_tracked({"a": 1})
          True

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.is_finalized (obj)

     Returns ‘True’ if the given object has been finalized by the
     garbage collector, ‘False’ otherwise.

          >>> x = None
          >>> class Lazarus:
          ...     def __del__(self):
          ...         global x
          ...         x = self
          ...
          >>> lazarus = Lazarus()
          >>> gc.is_finalized(lazarus)
          False
          >>> del lazarus
          >>> gc.is_finalized(x)
          True

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.freeze ()

     Freeze all the objects tracked by the garbage collector; move them
     to a permanent generation and ignore them in all the future
     collections.

     If a process will ‘fork()’ without ‘exec()’, avoiding unnecessary
     copy-on-write in child processes will maximize memory sharing and
     reduce overall memory usage.  This requires both avoiding creation
     of freed «holes» in memory pages in the parent process and ensuring
     that GC collections in child processes won’t touch the ‘gc_refs’
     counter of long-lived objects originating in the parent process.
     To accomplish both, call ‘gc.disable()’ early in the parent
     process, ‘gc.freeze()’ right before ‘fork()’, and ‘gc.enable()’
     early in child processes.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.unfreeze ()

     Unfreeze the objects in the permanent generation, put them back
     into the oldest generation.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση: gc.get_freeze_count ()

     Return the number of objects in the permanent generation.

     Added in version 3.7.

The following variables are provided for read-only access (you can
mutate the values but should not rebind them):

 -- Δεδομένα: gc.garbage

     A list of objects which the collector found to be unreachable but
     could not be freed (uncollectable objects).  Starting with Python
     3.4, this list should be empty most of the time, except when using
     instances of C extension types with a non-‘NULL’ ‘tp_del’ slot.

     If *note DEBUG_SAVEALL: 4cf0. is set, then all unreachable objects
     will be added to this list rather than freed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: If this list is non-empty at *note
     interpreter shutdown: 1a0, a *note ResourceWarning: 74f. is
     emitted, which is silent by default.  If *note DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE:
     156b. is set, in addition all uncollectable objects are printed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Following PEP 442(3), objects with a *note
     __del__(): 13a6. method don’t end up in *note gc.garbage: 156a.
     anymore.

 -- Δεδομένα: gc.callbacks

     A list of callbacks that will be invoked by the garbage collector
     before and after collection.  The callbacks will be called with two
     arguments, 'phase' and 'info'.

     'phase' can be one of two values:

          «start»: The garbage collection is about to start.

          «stop»: The garbage collection has finished.

     'info' is a dict providing more information for the callback.  The
     following keys are currently defined:

          «generation»: The oldest generation being collected.

          «collected»: When 'phase' is «stop», the number of objects
          successfully collected.

          «uncollectable»: When 'phase' is «stop», the number of objects
          that could not be collected and were put in *note garbage:
          156a.

          «candidates»: When 'phase' is «stop», the total number of
          objects in this generation which were considered for
          collection and traversed.

          «duration»: When 'phase' is «stop», the time in seconds spent
          in the collection.

     Applications can add their own callbacks to this list.  The primary
     use cases are:

          Gathering statistics about garbage collection, such as how
          often various generations are collected, and how long the
          collection takes.

          Allowing applications to identify and clear their own
          uncollectable types when they appear in *note garbage: 156a.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Add «duration» and «candidates».

The following constants are provided for use with *note set_debug():
4cee.:

 -- Δεδομένα: gc.DEBUG_STATS

     Print statistics during collection.  This information can be useful
     when tuning the collection frequency.

 -- Δεδομένα: gc.DEBUG_COLLECTABLE

     Print information on collectable objects found.

 -- Δεδομένα: gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE

     Print information of uncollectable objects found (objects which are
     not reachable but cannot be freed by the collector).  These objects
     will be added to the ‘garbage’ list.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Also print the contents of the *note
     garbage: 156a. list at *note interpreter shutdown: 1a0, if it isn’t
     empty.

 -- Δεδομένα: gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL

     When set, all unreachable objects found will be appended to
     'garbage' rather than being freed.  This can be useful for
     debugging a leaking program.

 -- Δεδομένα: gc.DEBUG_LEAK

     The debugging flags necessary for the collector to print
     information about a leaking program (equal to ‘DEBUG_COLLECTABLE |
     DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE | DEBUG_SAVEALL’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/ff0ef0a54bef26fc507fbf9b7a6009eb7d3f17f5/InternalDocs/garbage_collector.md#collecting-the-oldest-generation

   (2) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.15/InternalDocs/garbage_collector.md

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: inspect — Inspect live objects,  Next: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations,  Prev: gc — Garbage Collector interface,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.14 ‘inspect’ — Inspect live objects
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/inspect.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘inspect’ module provides several useful functions to help get
information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods,
functions, tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects.  For example, it
can help you examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code
of a method, extract and format the argument list for a function, or get
all the information you need to display a detailed traceback.

There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type
checking, getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and
examining the interpreter stack.

* Menu:

* Types and members::
* Retrieving source code::
* Introspecting callables with the Signature object::
* Classes and functions: Classes and functions<2>.
* The interpreter stack::
* Fetching attributes statically::
* Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
* Code Objects Bit Flags::
* Buffer flags::
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<13>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/inspect.py


File: python.info,  Node: Types and members,  Next: Retrieving source code,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.30.14.1 Types and members
...........................

The *note getmembers(): 1de9. function retrieves the members of an
object such as a class or module.  The functions whose names begin with
«is» are mainly provided as convenient choices for the second argument
to ‘getmembers()’.  They also help you determine when you can expect to
find the following special attributes (see *note Χαρακτηριστικά που
σχετίζονται με εισαγωγή σε αντικείμενα modules: 2552. for module
attributes):

Type                  Attribute               Description
                                              
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              
class                 __doc__                 documentation string
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                name with which this class
                                              was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              name of module in which this
                                              class was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __type_params__         A tuple containing the
                                              *note type parameters: 7a5.
                                              of a generic class
                                              
                                              
method                __doc__                 documentation string
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                name with which this method
                                              was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      __func__                function object containing
                                              implementation of method
                                              
                                              
                      __self__                instance to which this method
                                              is bound, or ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              name of module in which this
                                              method was defined
                                              
                                              
function              __doc__                 documentation string
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                name with which this function
                                              was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      __code__                code object containing
                                              compiled function
                                              *note bytecode: 6b3.
                                              
                                              
                      __defaults__            tuple of any default values
                                              for positional or keyword
                                              parameters
                                              
                                              
                      __kwdefaults__          mapping of any default values
                                              for keyword-only parameters
                                              
                                              
                      __globals__             global namespace in which
                                              this function was defined
                                              
                                              
                      __builtins__            builtins namespace
                                              
                                              
                      __annotations__         mapping of parameters names
                                              to annotations; ‘"return"’
                                              key is reserved for return
                                              annotations.
                                              
                                              
                      __type_params__         A tuple containing the
                                              *note type parameters: 7a5.
                                              of a generic function
                                              
                                              
                      __module__              name of module in which this
                                              function was defined
                                              
                                              
traceback             tb_frame                frame object at this level
                                              
                                              
                      tb_lasti                index of last attempted
                                              instruction in bytecode
                                              
                                              
                      tb_lineno               current line number in Python
                                              source code
                                              
                                              
                      tb_next                 next inner traceback object
                                              (called by this level)
                                              
                                              
frame                 f_back                  next outer frame object (this
                                              frame’s caller)
                                              
                                              
                      f_builtins              builtins namespace seen by
                                              this frame
                                              
                                              
                      f_code                  code object being executed in
                                              this frame
                                              
                                              
                      f_globals               global namespace seen by this
                                              frame
                                              
                                              
                      f_lasti                 index of last attempted
                                              instruction in bytecode
                                              
                                              
                      f_lineno                current line number in Python
                                              source code
                                              
                                              
                      f_locals                local namespace seen by this
                                              frame
                                              
                                              
                      f_generator             returns the generator or
                                              coroutine object that owns
                                              this frame, or ‘None’ if the
                                              frame is of a regular
                                              function
                                              
                                              
                      f_trace                 tracing function for this
                                              frame, or ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      f_trace_lines           indicate whether a tracing
                                              event is triggered for each
                                              source source line
                                              
                                              
                      f_trace_opcodes         indicate whether per-opcode
                                              events are requested
                                              
                                              
                      clear()                 used to clear all references
                                              to local variables
                                              
                                              
code                  co_argcount             number of arguments (not
                                              including keyword only
                                              arguments, * or ** args)
                                              
                                              
                      co_code                 string of raw compiled
                                              bytecode
                                              
                                              
                      co_cellvars             tuple of names of cell
                                              variables (referenced by
                                              containing scopes)
                                              
                                              
                      co_consts               tuple of constants used in
                                              the bytecode
                                              
                                              
                      co_filename             name of file in which this
                                              code object was created
                                              
                                              
                      co_firstlineno          number of first line in
                                              Python source code
                                              
                                              
                      co_flags                bitmap of ‘CO_*’ flags, read
                                              more *note here: 2586.
                                              
                                              
                      co_freevars             tuple of names of free
                                              variables (referenced via a
                                              function’s closure)
                                              
                                              
                      co_posonlyargcount      number of positional only
                                              arguments
                                              
                                              
                      co_kwonlyargcount       number of keyword only
                                              arguments (not including **
                                              arg)
                                              
                                              
                      co_name                 name with which this code
                                              object was defined
                                              
                                              
                      co_qualname             fully qualified name with
                                              which this code object was
                                              defined
                                              
                                              
                      co_names                tuple of names other than
                                              arguments and function locals
                                              
                                              
                      co_nlocals              number of local variables
                                              
                                              
                      co_stacksize            virtual machine stack space
                                              required
                                              
                                              
                      co_varnames             tuple of names of arguments
                                              and local variables
                                              
                                              
                      co_lines()              returns an iterator that
                                              yields successive bytecode
                                              ranges
                                              
                                              
                      co_positions()          returns an iterator of source
                                              code positions for each
                                              bytecode instruction
                                              
                                              
                      replace()               returns a copy of the code
                                              object with new values
                                              
                                              
generator             __name__                name
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      gi_frame                frame
                                              
                                              
                      gi_running              is the generator running?
                                              
                                              
                      gi_suspended            is the generator suspended?
                                              
                                              
                      gi_code                 code
                                              
                                              
                      gi_yieldfrom            object being iterated by
                                              ‘yield from’, or ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      gi_state                state of the generator, one
                                              of ‘GEN_CREATED’,
                                              ‘GEN_RUNNING’,
                                              ‘GEN_SUSPENDED’, or
                                              ‘GEN_CLOSED’
                                              
                                              
async generator       __name__                name
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      ag_await                object being awaited on, or
                                              ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      ag_frame                frame
                                              
                                              
                      ag_running              is the generator running?
                                              
                                              
                      ag_suspended            is the generator suspended?
                                              
                                              
                      ag_code                 code
                                              
                                              
                      ag_state                state of the async generator,
                                              one of ‘AGEN_CREATED’,
                                              ‘AGEN_RUNNING’,
                                              ‘AGEN_SUSPENDED’, or
                                              ‘AGEN_CLOSED’
                                              
                                              
coroutine             __name__                name
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      cr_await                object being awaited on, or
                                              ‘None’
                                              
                                              
                      cr_frame                frame
                                              
                                              
                      cr_running              is the coroutine running?
                                              
                                              
                      cr_suspended            is the coroutine suspended?
                                              
                                              
                      cr_code                 code
                                              
                                              
                      cr_origin               where coroutine was created,
                                              or ‘None’.  See
                                              *note sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): f4b.
                                              
                                              
                      cr_state                state of the coroutine, one
                                              of ‘CORO_CREATED’,
                                              ‘CORO_RUNNING’,
                                              ‘CORO_SUSPENDED’, or
                                              ‘CORO_CLOSED’
                                              
                                              
builtin               __doc__                 documentation string
                                              
                                              
                      __name__                original name of this
                                              function or method
                                              
                                              
                      __qualname__            qualified name
                                              
                                              
                      __self__                instance to which a method is
                                              bound, or ‘None’
                                              

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Add ‘__qualname__’ and ‘gi_yieldfrom’ attributes
to generators.

The ‘__name__’ attribute of generators is now set from the function
name, instead of the code name, and it can now be modified.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Add ‘cr_origin’ attribute to coroutines.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Add ‘__builtins__’ attribute to functions.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Add ‘gi_suspended’ attribute to generators.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Add ‘cr_suspended’ attribute to coroutines.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Add ‘ag_suspended’ attribute to async
generators.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Add ‘f_generator’ attribute to frames.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Add ‘gi_state’ attribute to generators,
‘cr_state’ attribute to coroutines, and ‘ag_state’ attribute to async
generators.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getmembers (object[, predicate])

     Return all the members of an object in a list of ‘(name, value)’
     pairs sorted by name.  If the optional 'predicate' argument—which
     will be called with the ‘value’ object of each member—is supplied,
     only members for which the predicate returns a true value are
     included.

          Σημείωση: ‘getmembers()’ will only return class attributes
          defined in the metaclass when the argument is a class and
          those attributes have been listed in the metaclass” custom
          *note __dir__(): 1935.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getmembers_static (object[, predicate])

     Return all the members of an object in a list of ‘(name, value)’
     pairs sorted by name without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol, __getattr__ or __getattribute__.  Optionally,
     only return members that satisfy a given predicate.

          Σημείωση: ‘getmembers_static()’ may not be able to retrieve
          all members that getmembers can fetch (like dynamically
          created attributes) and may find members that getmembers can’t
          (like descriptors that raise AttributeError).  It can also
          return descriptor objects instead of instance members in some
          cases.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getmodulename (path)

     Return the name of the module named by the file 'path', without
     including the names of enclosing packages.  The file extension is
     checked against all of the entries in *note
     importlib.machinery.all_suffixes(): 4cf8.  If it matches, the final
     path component is returned with the extension removed.  Otherwise,
     ‘None’ is returned.

     Note that this function 'only' returns a meaningful name for actual
     Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages
     will still return ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: The function is based directly on *note
     importlib: 7a.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.ismodule (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a module.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.isclass (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a class, whether built-in or created
     in Python code.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.ismethod (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a bound method written in Python.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.ispackage (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a *note package: 4c1.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.isfunction (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a Python function, which includes
     functions created by a *note lambda: 2dce. expression.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.isgeneratorfunction (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a Python generator function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Functions wrapped in *note
     functools.partial(): 4a6. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function
     is a Python generator function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Functions wrapped in *note
     functools.partialmethod(): 4a7. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped
     function is a Python generator function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.isgenerator (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a generator.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.iscoroutinefunction (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a *note coroutine function: 112c. (a
     function defined with an *note async def: 9cf. syntax), a *note
     functools.partial(): 4a6. wrapping a coroutine function, or a sync
     function marked with *note markcoroutinefunction(): 8a1.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Functions wrapped in *note
     functools.partial(): 4a6. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function
     is a *note coroutine function: 112c.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Sync functions marked with *note
     markcoroutinefunction(): 8a1. now return ‘True’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Functions wrapped in *note
     functools.partialmethod(): 4a7. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped
     function is a *note coroutine function: 112c.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.markcoroutinefunction (func)

     Decorator to mark a callable as a *note coroutine function: 112c.
     if it would not otherwise be detected by *note
     iscoroutinefunction(): 302.

     This may be of use for sync functions that return a *note
     coroutine: 8a2, if the function is passed to an API that requires
     *note iscoroutinefunction(): 302.

     When possible, using an *note async def: 9cf. function is
     preferred.  Also acceptable is calling the function and testing the
     return with *note iscoroutine(): 11ca.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.iscoroutine (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a *note coroutine: 8a2. created by
     an *note async def: 9cf. function.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.isawaitable (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object can be used in *note await: 432.
     expression.

     Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from
     regular generators:

          import types

          def gen():
              yield
          @types.coroutine
          def gen_coro():
              yield

          assert not isawaitable(gen())
          assert isawaitable(gen_coro())

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.isasyncgenfunction (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is an *note asynchronous generator:
     2692. function, for example:

          >>> async def agen():
          ...     yield 1
          ...
          >>> inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen)
          True

     Added in version 3.6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Functions wrapped in *note
     functools.partial(): 4a6. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function
     is an *note asynchronous generator: 2692. function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Functions wrapped in *note
     functools.partialmethod(): 4a7. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped
     function is a *note asynchronous generator: 2692. function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.isasyncgen (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is an *note asynchronous generator
     iterator: 3b87. created by an *note asynchronous generator: 2692.
     function.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.istraceback (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a traceback.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.isframe (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a frame.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.iscode (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a code.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.isbuiltin (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a built-in function or a bound
     built-in method.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.ismethodwrapper (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the type of object is a *note MethodWrapperType:
     a3a.

     These are instances of *note MethodWrapperType: a3a, such as *note
     __str__(): a0f, *note __eq__(): ec0. and *note __repr__(): 1bc.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.isroutine (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a user-defined or built-in function
     or method.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.isabstract (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is an abstract base class.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.ismethoddescriptor (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a method descriptor, but not if
     *note ismethod(): 4cfb, *note isclass(): 4cfa, *note isfunction():
     4cfc. or *note isbuiltin(): 4d02. are true.

     This, for example, is true of ‘int.__add__’.  An object passing
     this test has a *note __get__(): 188a. method, but not a *note
     __set__(): 25aa. method or a *note __delete__(): 1b64. method.
     Beyond that, the set of attributes varies.  A *note __name__: 140e.
     attribute is usually sensible, and *note __doc__: cf4. often is.

     Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other
     tests return ‘False’ from the ‘ismethoddescriptor()’ test, simply
     because the other tests promise more – you can, e.g., count on
     having the *note __func__: 16a1. attribute (etc) when an object
     passes *note ismethod(): 4cfb.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: This function no longer incorrectly
     reports objects with *note __get__(): 188a. and *note __delete__():
     1b64, but not *note __set__(): 25aa, as being method descriptors
     (such objects are data descriptors, not method descriptors).

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.isdatadescriptor (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a data descriptor.

     Data descriptors have a *note __set__: 25aa. or a *note __delete__:
     1b64. method.  Examples are properties (defined in Python),
     getsets, and members.  The latter two are defined in C and there
     are more specific tests available for those types, which is robust
     across Python implementations.  Typically, data descriptors will
     also have *note __name__: 140e. and ‘__doc__’ attributes
     (properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes),
     but this is not guaranteed.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.isgetsetdescriptor (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a getset descriptor.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' getsets are attributes defined in
     extension modules via *note PyGetSetDef: f77. structures.  For
     Python implementations without such types, this method will always
     return ‘False’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.ismemberdescriptor (object)

     Return ‘True’ if the object is a member descriptor.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Member descriptors are attributes
     defined in extension modules via *note PyMemberDef: 95a.
     structures.  For Python implementations without such types, this
     method will always return ‘False’.


File: python.info,  Node: Retrieving source code,  Next: Introspecting callables with the Signature object,  Prev: Types and members,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.30.14.2 Retrieving source code
................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getdoc (object, *, inherit_class_doc=True,
          fallback_to_class_doc=True)

     Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with *note
     cleandoc(): 1c34.  If the documentation string for an object is not
     provided:

        * if the object is a class and 'inherit_class_doc' is true (by
          default), retrieve the documentation string from the
          inheritance hierarchy;

        * if the object is a method, a property or a descriptor,
          retrieve the documentation string from the inheritance
          hierarchy;

        * otherwise, if 'fallback_to_class_doc' is true (by default),
          retrieve the documentation string from the class of the
          object.

     Return ‘None’ if the documentation string is invalid or missing.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Documentation strings are now inherited if
     not overridden.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added parameters 'inherit_class_doc' and
     'fallback_to_class_doc'.

     Documentation strings on *note cached_property: 94e. objects are
     now inherited if not overridden.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getcomments (object)

     Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately
     preceding the object’s source code (for a class, function, or
     method), or at the top of the Python source file (if the object is
     a module).  If the object’s source code is unavailable, return
     ‘None’.  This could happen if the object has been defined in C or
     the interactive shell.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getfile (object)

     Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was
     defined.  This will fail with a *note TypeError: 291. if the object
     is a built-in module, class, or function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getmodule (object)

     Try to guess which module an object was defined in.  Return ‘None’
     if the module cannot be determined.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getsourcefile (object)

     Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was
     defined or ‘None’ if no way can be identified to get the source.
     This will fail with a *note TypeError: 291. if the object is a
     built-in module, class, or function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getsourcelines (object)

     Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an
     object.  The argument may be a module, class, method, function,
     traceback, frame, or code object.  The source code is returned as a
     list of the lines corresponding to the object and the line number
     indicates where in the original source file the first line of code
     was found.  An *note OSError: 53c. is raised if the source code
     cannot be retrieved.  A *note TypeError: 291. is raised if the
     object is a built-in module, class, or function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: *note OSError: 53c. is raised instead of
     *note IOError: 13fb, now an alias of the former.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getsource (object)

     Return the text of the source code for an object.  The argument may
     be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code
     object.  The source code is returned as a single string.  An *note
     OSError: 53c. is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved.  A
     *note TypeError: 291. is raised if the object is a built-in module,
     class, or function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: *note OSError: 53c. is raised instead of
     *note IOError: 13fb, now an alias of the former.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.cleandoc (doc)

     Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up
     with blocks of code.

     All leading whitespace is removed from the first line.  Any leading
     whitespace that can be uniformly removed from the second line
     onwards is removed.  Empty lines at the beginning and end are
     subsequently removed.  Also, all tabs are expanded to spaces.


File: python.info,  Node: Introspecting callables with the Signature object,  Next: Classes and functions<2>,  Prev: Retrieving source code,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.30.14.3 Introspecting callables with the Signature object
...........................................................

Added in version 3.3.

The *note Signature: 6e8. object represents the call signature of a
callable object and its return annotation.  To retrieve a ‘Signature’
object, use the ‘signature()’ function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.signature (callable, *, follow_wrapped=True,
          globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False,
          annotation_format=Format.VALUE)

     Return a *note Signature: 6e8. object for the given 'callable':

          >>> from inspect import signature
          >>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs):
          ...     pass

          >>> sig = signature(foo)

          >>> str(sig)
          '(a, *, b: int, **kwargs)'

          >>> str(sig.parameters['b'])
          'b: int'

          >>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation
          <class 'int'>

     Accepts a wide range of Python callables, from plain functions and
     classes to *note functools.partial(): 4a6. objects.

     If some of the annotations are strings (e.g., because ‘from
     __future__ import annotations’ was used), ‘signature()’ will
     attempt to automatically un-stringize the annotations using *note
     annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c.  The 'globals', 'locals', and
     'eval_str' parameters are passed into
     ‘annotationlib.get_annotations()’ when resolving the annotations;
     see the documentation for ‘annotationlib.get_annotations()’ for
     instructions on how to use these parameters.  A member of the *note
     annotationlib.Format: 4be. enum can be passed to the
     'annotation_format' parameter to control the format of the returned
     annotations.  For example, use
     ‘annotation_format=annotationlib.Format.STRING’ to return
     annotations in string format.

     Raises *note ValueError: 277. if no signature can be provided, and
     *note TypeError: 291. if that type of object is not supported.
     Also, if the annotations are stringized, and 'eval_str' is not
     false, the ‘eval()’ call(s) to un-stringize the annotations in
     *note annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. could potentially raise
     any kind of exception.

     A slash (/) in the signature of a function denotes that the
     parameters prior to it are positional-only.  For more info, see
     *note the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters: 27cf.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'follow_wrapped' parameter was added.
     Pass ‘False’ to get a signature of 'callable' specifically
     (‘callable.__wrapped__’ will not be used to unwrap decorated
     callables.)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The 'globals', 'locals', and 'eval_str'
     parameters were added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The 'annotation_format' parameter was
     added.

          Σημείωση: Some callables may not be introspectable in certain
          implementations of Python.  For example, in CPython, some
          built-in functions defined in C provide no metadata about
          their arguments.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' If the passed object has a
     ‘__signature__’ attribute, we may use it to create the signature.
     The exact semantics are an implementation detail and are subject to
     unannounced changes.  Consult the source code for current
     semantics.

 -- Κλάση: inspect.Signature (parameters=None, *,
          return_annotation=Signature.empty)

     A ‘Signature’ object represents the call signature of a function
     and its return annotation.  For each parameter accepted by the
     function it stores a *note Parameter: 6e9. object in its *note
     parameters: 4d0b. collection.

     The optional 'parameters' argument is a sequence of *note
     Parameter: 6e9. objects, which is validated to check that there are
     no parameters with duplicate names, and that the parameters are in
     the right order, i.e.  positional-only first, then
     positional-or-keyword, and that parameters with defaults follow
     parameters without defaults.

     The optional 'return_annotation' argument can be an arbitrary
     Python object.  It represents the «return» annotation of the
     callable.

     ‘Signature’ objects are 'immutable'.  Use *note
     Signature.replace(): 4d0c. or *note copy.replace(): 45a. to make a
     modified copy.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: ‘Signature’ objects are now picklable and
     *note hashable: 183.

      -- Ιδιότητα: empty

          A special class-level marker to specify absence of a return
          annotation.

      -- Ιδιότητα: parameters

          An ordered mapping of parameters” names to the corresponding
          *note Parameter: 6e9. objects.  Parameters appear in strict
          definition order, including keyword-only parameters.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Python only explicitly guaranteed that
          it preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters
          as of version 3.7, although in practice this order had always
          been preserved in Python 3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: return_annotation

          The «return» annotation for the callable.  If the callable has
          no «return» annotation, this attribute is set to *note
          Signature.empty: 4d0d.

      -- Μέθοδος: bind (*args, **kwargs)

          Create a mapping from positional and keyword arguments to
          parameters.  Returns *note BoundArguments: 1411. if ‘*args’
          and ‘**kwargs’ match the signature, or raises a *note
          TypeError: 291.

      -- Μέθοδος: bind_partial (*args, **kwargs)

          Works the same way as *note Signature.bind(): 1ab6, but allows
          the omission of some required arguments (mimics *note
          functools.partial(): 4a6. behavior.)  Returns *note
          BoundArguments: 1411, or raises a *note TypeError: 291. if the
          passed arguments do not match the signature.

      -- Μέθοδος: replace (*[, parameters][, return_annotation])

          Create a new ‘Signature’ instance based on the instance
          ‘replace()’ was invoked on.  It is possible to pass different
          'parameters' and/or 'return_annotation' to override the
          corresponding properties of the base signature.  To remove
          ‘return_annotation’ from the copied ‘Signature’, pass in *note
          Signature.empty: 4d0d.

               >>> def test(a, b):
               ...     pass
               ...
               >>> sig = signature(test)
               >>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno")
               >>> str(new_sig)
               "(a, b) -> 'new return anno'"

          ‘Signature’ objects are also supported by the generic function
          *note copy.replace(): 45a.

      -- Μέθοδος: format (*, max_width=None,
               quote_annotation_strings=True)

          Create a string representation of the ‘Signature’ object.

          If 'max_width' is passed, the method will attempt to fit the
          signature into lines of at most 'max_width' characters.  If
          the signature is longer than 'max_width', all parameters will
          be on separate lines.

          If 'quote_annotation_strings' is False, *note annotations:
          409. in the signature are displayed without opening and
          closing quotation marks if they are strings.  This is useful
          if the signature was created with the *note STRING: 40d.
          format or if ‘from __future__ import annotations’ was used.

          Added in version 3.13.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The 'unquote_annotations' parameter
          was added.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod from_callable (obj, *,
               follow_wrapped=True, globals=None, locals=None,
               eval_str=False)

          Return a ‘Signature’ (or its subclass) object for a given
          callable 'obj'.

          This method simplifies subclassing of ‘Signature’:

               class MySignature(Signature):
                   pass
               sig = MySignature.from_callable(sum)
               assert isinstance(sig, MySignature)

          Its behavior is otherwise identical to that of *note
          signature(): 4bd.

          Added in version 3.5.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The 'globals', 'locals', and
          'eval_str' parameters were added.

 -- Κλάση: inspect.Parameter (name, kind, *, default=Parameter.empty,
          annotation=Parameter.empty)

     ‘Parameter’ objects are 'immutable'.  Instead of modifying a
     ‘Parameter’ object, you can use *note Parameter.replace(): 4d10. or
     *note copy.replace(): 45a. to create a modified copy.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Parameter objects are now picklable and
     *note hashable: 183.

      -- Ιδιότητα: empty

          A special class-level marker to specify absence of default
          values and annotations.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name of the parameter as a string.  The name must be a
          valid Python identifier.

          'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' CPython generates implicit
          parameter names of the form ‘.0’ on the code objects used to
          implement comprehensions and generator expressions.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: These parameter names are now exposed
          by this module as names like ‘implicit0’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: default

          The default value for the parameter.  If the parameter has no
          default value, this attribute is set to *note Parameter.empty:
          4d11.

      -- Ιδιότητα: annotation

          The annotation for the parameter.  If the parameter has no
          annotation, this attribute is set to *note Parameter.empty:
          4d11.

      -- Ιδιότητα: kind

          Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter.  The
          possible values are accessible via ‘Parameter’ (like
          ‘Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY’), and support comparison and
          ordering, in the following order:

          Name                         Meaning
                                       
          --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       
          'POSITIONAL_ONLY'            Value must be supplied as a positional argument.
                                       Positional only parameters are those which
                                       appear before a ‘/’ entry (if present) in a
                                       Python function definition.
                                       
                                       
          'POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD'      Value may be supplied as either a keyword or
                                       positional argument (this is the standard
                                       binding behaviour for functions implemented in
                                       Python.)
                                       
                                       
          'VAR_POSITIONAL'             A tuple of positional arguments that aren’t
                                       bound to any other parameter.  This corresponds
                                       to a ‘*args’ parameter in a Python function
                                       definition.
                                       
                                       
          'KEYWORD_ONLY'               Value must be supplied as a keyword argument.
                                       Keyword only parameters are those which appear
                                       after a ‘*’ or ‘*args’ entry in a Python
                                       function definition.
                                       
                                       
          'VAR_KEYWORD'                A dict of keyword arguments that aren’t bound to
                                       any other parameter.  This corresponds to a
                                       ‘**kwargs’ parameter in a Python function
                                       definition.
                                       

          Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default
          values:

               >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
               ...     pass

               >>> sig = signature(foo)
               >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
               ...     if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and
               ...                        param.default is param.empty):
               ...         print('Parameter:', param)
               Parameter: c

      -- Ιδιότητα: kind.description

          Describes an enum value of *note Parameter.kind: 4d15.

          Added in version 3.8.

          Example: print all descriptions of arguments:

               >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10):
               ...     pass

               >>> sig = signature(foo)
               >>> for param in sig.parameters.values():
               ...     print(param.kind.description)
               positional or keyword
               positional or keyword
               keyword-only
               keyword-only

      -- Μέθοδος: replace (*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation])

          Create a new ‘Parameter’ instance based on the instance
          replaced was invoked on.  To override a ‘Parameter’ attribute,
          pass the corresponding argument.  To remove a default value
          or/and an annotation from a ‘Parameter’, pass *note
          Parameter.empty: 4d11.

               >>> from inspect import Parameter
               >>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42)
               >>> str(param)
               'foo=42'

               >>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param'
               'foo=42'

               >>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam'))
               "foo: 'spam'"

          ‘Parameter’ objects are also supported by the generic function
          *note copy.replace(): 45a.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: In Python 3.3 ‘Parameter’ objects were
     allowed to have ‘name’ set to ‘None’ if their ‘kind’ was set to
     ‘POSITIONAL_ONLY’.  This is no longer permitted.

 -- Κλάση: inspect.BoundArguments

     Result of a *note Signature.bind(): 1ab6. or *note
     Signature.bind_partial(): 4d0f. call.  Holds the mapping of
     arguments to the function’s parameters.

      -- Ιδιότητα: arguments

          A mutable mapping of parameters” names to arguments” values.
          Contains only explicitly bound arguments.  Changes in *note
          arguments: cdb. will reflect in *note args: 4d17. and *note
          kwargs: 4d18.

          Should be used in conjunction with *note Signature.parameters:
          4d0b. for any argument processing purposes.

               Σημείωση: Arguments for which *note Signature.bind():
               1ab6. or *note Signature.bind_partial(): 4d0f. relied on
               a default value are skipped.  However, if needed, use
               *note BoundArguments.apply_defaults(): 11c9. to add them.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note arguments: cdb. is now of type
          *note dict: 188.  Formerly, it was of type *note
          collections.OrderedDict: 9d5.

      -- Ιδιότητα: args

          A tuple of positional arguments values.  Dynamically computed
          from the *note arguments: cdb. attribute.

      -- Ιδιότητα: kwargs

          A dict of keyword arguments values.  Dynamically computed from
          the *note arguments: cdb. attribute.  Arguments that can be
          passed positionally are included in *note args: 4d17. instead.

      -- Ιδιότητα: signature

          A reference to the parent *note Signature: 6e8. object.

      -- Μέθοδος: apply_defaults ()

          Set default values for missing arguments.

          For variable-positional arguments (‘*args’) the default is an
          empty tuple.

          For variable-keyword arguments (‘**kwargs’) the default is an
          empty dict.

               >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass
               >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam')
               >>> ba.apply_defaults()
               >>> ba.arguments
               {'a': 'spam', 'b': 'ham', 'args': ()}

          Added in version 3.5.

     The *note args: 4d17. and *note kwargs: 4d18. properties can be
     used to invoke functions:

          def test(a, *, b):
              ...

          sig = signature(test)
          ba = sig.bind(10, b=20)
          test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs)

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 362(1) - Function Signature Object.

     The detailed specification, implementation details and examples.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/


File: python.info,  Node: Classes and functions<2>,  Next: The interpreter stack,  Prev: Introspecting callables with the Signature object,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.30.14.4 Classes and functions
...............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getclasstree (classes, unique=False)

     Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists.
     Where a nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the
     class whose entry immediately precedes the list.  Each entry is a
     2-tuple containing a class and a tuple of its base classes.  If the
     'unique' argument is true, exactly one entry appears in the
     returned structure for each class in the given list.  Otherwise,
     classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will
     appear multiple times.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getfullargspec (func, *,
          annotation_format=Format.VALUE)

     Get the names and default values of a Python function’s parameters.
     A *note named tuple: a3d. is returned:

     ‘FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs,
     kwonlydefaults, annotations)’

     'args' is a list of the positional parameter names.  'varargs' is
     the name of the ‘*’ parameter or ‘None’ if arbitrary positional
     arguments are not accepted.  'varkw' is the name of the ‘**’
     parameter or ‘None’ if arbitrary keyword arguments are not
     accepted.  'defaults' is an 'n'-tuple of default argument values
     corresponding to the last 'n' positional parameters, or ‘None’ if
     there are no such defaults defined.  'kwonlyargs' is a list of
     keyword-only parameter names in declaration order.
     'kwonlydefaults' is a dictionary mapping parameter names from
     'kwonlyargs' to the default values used if no argument is supplied.
     'annotations' is a dictionary mapping parameter names to
     annotations.  The special key ‘"return"’ is used to report the
     function return value annotation (if any).

     Note that *note signature(): 4bd. and *note Signature Object: 4d09.
     provide the recommended API for callable introspection, and support
     additional behaviours (like positional-only arguments) that are
     sometimes encountered in extension module APIs.  This function is
     retained primarily for use in code that needs to maintain
     compatibility with the Python 2 ‘inspect’ module API.

     A member of the *note annotationlib.Format: 4be. enum can be passed
     to the 'annotation_format' parameter to control the format of the
     returned annotations.  For example, use
     ‘annotation_format=annotationlib.Format.STRING’ to return
     annotations in string format.  Note that with the default ‘VALUE’
     format, creation of some argspecs may raise an exception.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: This function is now based on *note
     signature(): 4bd, but still ignores ‘__wrapped__’ attributes and
     includes the already bound first parameter in the signature output
     for bound methods.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: This method was previously documented as
     deprecated in favour of *note signature(): 4bd. in Python 3.5, but
     that decision has been reversed in order to restore a clearly
     supported standard interface for single-source Python 2/3 code
     migrating away from the legacy ‘getargspec()’ API.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Python only explicitly guaranteed that it
     preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters as of
     version 3.7, although in practice this order had always been
     preserved in Python 3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The 'annotation_format' parameter was
     added.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getargvalues (frame)

     Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame.  A
     *note named tuple: a3d. ‘ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals)’
     is returned.  'args' is a list of the argument names.  'varargs'
     and 'keywords' are the names of the ‘*’ and ‘**’ arguments or
     ‘None’.  'locals' is the locals dictionary of the given frame.

          Σημείωση: This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated
          in Python 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.formatargvalues (args[, varargs, varkw, locals,
          formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue])

     Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by
     *note getargvalues(): 126d.  The format* arguments are the
     corresponding optional formatting functions that are called to turn
     names and values into strings.

          Σημείωση: This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated
          in Python 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getmro (cls)

     Return a tuple of class cls’s base classes, including cls, in
     method resolution order.  No class appears more than once in this
     tuple.  Note that the method resolution order depends on cls’s
     type.  Unless a very peculiar user-defined metatype is in use, cls
     will be the first element of the tuple.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getcallargs (func, /, *args, **kwds)

     Bind the 'args' and 'kwds' to the argument names of the Python
     function or method 'func', as if it was called with them.  For
     bound methods, bind also the first argument (typically named
     ‘self’) to the associated instance.  A dict is returned, mapping
     the argument names (including the names of the ‘*’ and ‘**’
     arguments, if any) to their values from 'args' and 'kwds'.  In case
     of invoking 'func' incorrectly, i.e.  whenever ‘func(*args,
     **kwds)’ would raise an exception because of incompatible
     signature, an exception of the same type and the same or similar
     message is raised.  For example:

          >>> from inspect import getcallargs
          >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named):
          ...     pass
          ...
          >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)}
          True
          >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()}
          True
          >>> getcallargs(f)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a'

     Added in version 3.2.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.5: Use *note Signature.bind(): 1ab6. and
     *note Signature.bind_partial(): 4d0f. instead.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getclosurevars (func)

     Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or
     method 'func' to their current values.  A *note named tuple: a3d.
     ‘ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound)’ is returned.
     'nonlocals' maps referenced names to lexical closure variables,
     'globals' to the function’s module globals and 'builtins' to the
     builtins visible from the function body.  'unbound' is the set of
     names referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all
     given the current module globals and builtins.

     *note TypeError: 291. is raised if 'func' is not a Python function
     or method.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.unwrap (func, *, stop=None)

     Get the object wrapped by 'func'.  It follows the chain of
     ‘__wrapped__’ attributes returning the last object in the chain.

     'stop' is an optional callback accepting an object in the wrapper
     chain as its sole argument that allows the unwrapping to be
     terminated early if the callback returns a true value.  If the
     callback never returns a true value, the last object in the chain
     is returned as usual.  For example, *note signature(): 4bd. uses
     this to stop unwrapping if any object in the chain has a
     ‘__signature__’ attribute defined.

     *note ValueError: 277. is raised if a cycle is encountered.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.get_annotations (obj, *, globals=None,
          locals=None, eval_str=False,
          format=annotationlib.Format.VALUE)

     Compute the annotations dict for an object.

     This is an alias for *note annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c.;
     see the documentation of that function for more information.

          Προσοχή: This function may execute arbitrary code contained in
          annotations.  See *note Security implications of introspecting
          annotations: 476f. for more information.

     Added in version 3.10.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: This function is now an alias for *note
     annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c.  Calling it as
     ‘inspect.get_annotations’ will continue to work.


File: python.info,  Node: The interpreter stack,  Next: Fetching attributes statically,  Prev: Classes and functions<2>,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.30.14.5 The interpreter stack
...............................

Some of the following functions return *note FrameInfo: a3b. objects.
For backwards compatibility these objects allow tuple-like operations on
all attributes except ‘positions’.  This behavior is considered
deprecated and may be removed in the future.

 -- Κλάση: inspect.FrameInfo

      -- Ιδιότητα: frame

          The *note frame object: acd. that the record corresponds to.

      -- Ιδιότητα: filename

          The file name associated with the code being executed by the
          frame this record corresponds to.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          The line number of the current line associated with the code
          being executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

      -- Ιδιότητα: function

          The function name that is being executed by the frame this
          record corresponds to.

      -- Ιδιότητα: code_context

          A list of lines of context from the source code that’s being
          executed by the frame this record corresponds to.

      -- Ιδιότητα: index

          The index of the current line being executed in the *note
          code_context: 4d24. list.

      -- Ιδιότητα: positions

          A *note dis.Positions: 1b58. object containing the start line
          number, end line number, start column offset, and end column
          offset associated with the instruction being executed by the
          frame this record corresponds to.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Return a *note named tuple: a3d. instead of
     a *note tuple: 1ce.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: ‘FrameInfo’ is now a class instance (that
     is backwards compatible with the previous *note named tuple: a3d.).

 -- Κλάση: inspect.Traceback

      -- Ιδιότητα: filename

          The file name associated with the code being executed by the
          frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          The line number of the current line associated with the code
          being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- Ιδιότητα: function

          The function name that is being executed by the frame this
          traceback corresponds to.

      -- Ιδιότητα: code_context

          A list of lines of context from the source code that’s being
          executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to.

      -- Ιδιότητα: index

          The index of the current line being executed in the *note
          code_context: 4d2a. list.

      -- Ιδιότητα: positions

          A *note dis.Positions: 1b58. object containing the start line
          number, end line number, start column offset, and end column
          offset associated with the instruction being executed by the
          frame this traceback corresponds to.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: ‘Traceback’ is now a class instance (that
     is backwards compatible with the previous *note named tuple: a3d.).

     Σημείωση: Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the
     first element of the frame records these functions return, can
     cause your program to create reference cycles.  Once a reference
     cycle has been created, the lifespan of all objects which can be
     accessed from the objects which form the cycle can become much
     longer even if Python’s optional cycle detector is enabled.  If
     such cycles must be created, it is important to ensure they are
     explicitly broken to avoid the delayed destruction of objects and
     increased memory consumption which occurs.

     Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction of the
     frames (and local variables) can be made deterministic by removing
     the cycle in a *note finally: 44c. clause.  This is also important
     if the cycle detector was disabled when Python was compiled or
     using *note gc.disable(): 4cec.  For example:

          def handle_stackframe_without_leak():
              frame = inspect.currentframe()
              try:
                  # do something with the frame
              finally:
                  del frame

     If you want to keep the frame around (for example to print a
     traceback later), you can also break reference cycles by using the
     *note frame.clear(): 784. method.

The optional 'context' argument supported by most of these functions
specifies the number of lines of context to return, which are centered
around the current line.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getframeinfo (frame, context=1)

     Get information about a frame or traceback object.  A *note
     Traceback: a3c. object is returned.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: A *note Traceback: a3c. object is returned
     instead of a named tuple.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getouterframes (frame, context=1)

     Get a list of *note FrameInfo: a3b. objects for a frame and all
     outer frames.  These frames represent the calls that lead to the
     creation of 'frame'.  The first entry in the returned list
     represents 'frame'; the last entry represents the outermost call on
     'frame'’s stack.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: A list of *note named tuples: a3d.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     is returned.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: A list of *note FrameInfo: a3b. objects is
     returned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getinnerframes (traceback, context=1)

     Get a list of *note FrameInfo: a3b. objects for a traceback’s frame
     and all inner frames.  These frames represent calls made as a
     consequence of 'frame'.  The first entry in the list represents
     'traceback'; the last entry represents where the exception was
     raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: A list of *note named tuples: a3d.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     is returned.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: A list of *note FrameInfo: a3b. objects is
     returned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.currentframe ()

     Return the frame object for the caller’s stack frame.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This function relies on Python
     stack frame support in the interpreter, which isn’t guaranteed to
     exist in all implementations of Python.  If running in an
     implementation without Python stack frame support this function
     returns ‘None’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.stack (context=1)

     Return a list of *note FrameInfo: a3b. objects for the caller’s
     stack.  The first entry in the returned list represents the caller;
     the last entry represents the outermost call on the stack.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: A list of *note named tuples: a3d.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     is returned.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: A list of *note FrameInfo: a3b. objects is
     returned.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.trace (context=1)

     Return a list of *note FrameInfo: a3b. objects for the stack
     between the current frame and the frame in which an exception
     currently being handled was raised in.  The first entry in the list
     represents the caller; the last entry represents where the
     exception was raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: A list of *note named tuples: a3d.
     ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’
     is returned.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: A list of *note FrameInfo: a3b. objects is
     returned.


File: python.info,  Node: Fetching attributes statically,  Next: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators,  Prev: The interpreter stack,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.30.14.6 Fetching attributes statically
........................................

Both *note getattr(): f8f. and *note hasattr(): 8e2. can trigger code
execution when fetching or checking for the existence of attributes.
Descriptors, like properties, will be invoked and *note __getattr__():
8e3. and *note __getattribute__(): f90. may be called.

For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation
tools, this can be inconvenient.  *note getattr_static(): 8a5. has the
same signature as *note getattr(): f8f. but avoids executing code when
it fetches attributes.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getattr_static (obj, attr, default=None)

     Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the
     descriptor protocol, *note __getattr__(): 8e3. or *note
     __getattribute__(): f90.

     Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes that
     getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes) and may
     find attributes that getattr can’t (like descriptors that raise
     AttributeError).  It can also return descriptors objects instead of
     instance members.

     If the instance *note __dict__: 1bf. is shadowed by another member
     (for example a property) then this function will be unable to find
     instance members.

     Added in version 3.2.

*note getattr_static(): 8a5. does not resolve descriptors, for example
slot descriptors or getset descriptors on objects implemented in C. The
descriptor object is returned instead of the underlying attribute.

You can handle these with code like the following.  Note that for
arbitrary getset descriptors invoking these may trigger code execution:

     # example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types
     class _foo:
         __slots__ = ['foo']

     slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo)
     getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name)
     wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__'])
     descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor)

     result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo')
     if type(result) in descriptor_types:
         try:
             result = result.__get__()
         except AttributeError:
             # descriptors can raise AttributeError to
             # indicate there is no underlying value
             # in which case the descriptor itself will
             # have to do
             pass


File: python.info,  Node: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators,  Next: Code Objects Bit Flags,  Prev: Fetching attributes statically,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.30.14.7 Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators
..............................................................................

When implementing coroutine schedulers and for other advanced uses of
generators, it is useful to determine whether a generator is currently
executing, is waiting to start or resume or execution, or has already
terminated.  *note getgeneratorstate(): 15dc. allows the current state
of a generator to be determined easily.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getgeneratorstate (generator)

     Get current state of a generator-iterator.

     Possible states are:

        * GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.

        * GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.

        * GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.

        * GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getcoroutinestate (coroutine)

     Get current state of a coroutine object.  The function is intended
     to be used with coroutine objects created by *note async def: 9cf.
     functions, but will accept any coroutine-like object that has
     ‘cr_running’ and ‘cr_frame’ attributes.

     Possible states are:

        * CORO_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.

        * CORO_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.

        * CORO_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at an await expression.

        * CORO_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getasyncgenstate (agen)

     Get current state of an asynchronous generator object.  The
     function is intended to be used with asynchronous iterator objects
     created by *note async def: 9cf. functions which use the *note
     yield: d93. statement, but will accept any asynchronous
     generator-like object that has ‘ag_running’ and ‘ag_frame’
     attributes.

     Possible states are:

        * AGEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution.

        * AGEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter.

        * AGEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression.

        * AGEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed.

     Added in version 3.12.

The current internal state of the generator can also be queried.  This
is mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state is
being updated as expected:

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getgeneratorlocals (generator)

     Get the mapping of live local variables in 'generator' to their
     current values.  A dictionary is returned that maps from variable
     names to values.  This is the equivalent of calling *note locals():
     28b. in the body of the generator, and all the same caveats apply.

     If 'generator' is a *note generator: 1409. with no currently
     associated frame, then an empty dictionary is returned.  *note
     TypeError: 291. is raised if 'generator' is not a Python generator
     object.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This function relies on the
     generator exposing a Python stack frame for introspection, which
     isn’t guaranteed to be the case in all implementations of Python.
     In such cases, this function will always return an empty
     dictionary.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getcoroutinelocals (coroutine)

     This function is analogous to *note getgeneratorlocals(): 1482, but
     works for coroutine objects created by *note async def: 9cf.
     functions.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: inspect.getasyncgenlocals (agen)

     This function is analogous to *note getgeneratorlocals(): 1482, but
     works for asynchronous generator objects created by *note async
     def: 9cf. functions which use the *note yield: d93. statement.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Code Objects Bit Flags,  Next: Buffer flags,  Prev: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.30.14.8 Code Objects Bit Flags
................................

Python code objects have a *note co_flags: 1afc. attribute, which is a
bitmap of the following flags:

 -- Δεδομένα: inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED

     The code object is optimized, using fast locals.

 -- Δεδομένα: inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS

     If set, a new dict will be created for the frame’s *note f_locals:
     28d. when the code object is executed.

 -- Δεδομένα: inspect.CO_VARARGS

     The code object has a variable positional parameter (‘*args’-like).

 -- Δεδομένα: inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS

     The code object has a variable keyword parameter (‘**kwargs’-like).

 -- Δεδομένα: inspect.CO_NESTED

     The flag is set when the code object is a nested function.

 -- Δεδομένα: inspect.CO_GENERATOR

     The flag is set when the code object is a generator function, i.e.
     a generator object is returned when the code object is executed.

 -- Δεδομένα: inspect.CO_COROUTINE

     The flag is set when the code object is a coroutine function.  When
     the code object is executed it returns a coroutine object.  See PEP
     492(1) for more details.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Δεδομένα: inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE

     The flag is used to transform generators into generator-based
     coroutines.  Generator objects with this flag can be used in
     ‘await’ expression, and can ‘yield from’ coroutine objects.  See
     PEP 492(2) for more details.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Δεδομένα: inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR

     The flag is set when the code object is an asynchronous generator
     function.  When the code object is executed it returns an
     asynchronous generator object.  See PEP 525(3) for more details.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: inspect.CO_HAS_DOCSTRING

     The flag is set when there is a docstring for the code object in
     the source code.  If set, it will be the first item in *note
     co_consts: 1abf.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: inspect.CO_METHOD

     The flag is set when the code object is a function defined in class
     scope.

     Added in version 3.14.

     Σημείωση: The flags are specific to CPython, and may not be defined
     in other Python implementations.  Furthermore, the flags are an
     implementation detail, and can be removed or deprecated in future
     Python releases.  It’s recommended to use public APIs from the
     ‘inspect’ module for any introspection needs.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer flags,  Next: Command-line interface<13>,  Prev: Code Objects Bit Flags,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.30.14.9 Buffer flags
......................

 -- Κλάση: inspect.BufferFlags

     This is an *note enum.IntFlag: 105d. that represents the flags that
     can be passed to the *note __buffer__(): 879. method of objects
     implementing the *note buffer protocol: 311.

     The meaning of the flags is explained at *note Buffer request
     types: 4d3b.

      -- Ιδιότητα: SIMPLE

      -- Ιδιότητα: WRITABLE

      -- Ιδιότητα: FORMAT

      -- Ιδιότητα: ND

      -- Ιδιότητα: STRIDES

      -- Ιδιότητα: C_CONTIGUOUS

      -- Ιδιότητα: F_CONTIGUOUS

      -- Ιδιότητα: ANY_CONTIGUOUS

      -- Ιδιότητα: INDIRECT

      -- Ιδιότητα: CONTIG

      -- Ιδιότητα: CONTIG_RO

      -- Ιδιότητα: STRIDED

      -- Ιδιότητα: STRIDED_RO

      -- Ιδιότητα: RECORDS

      -- Ιδιότητα: RECORDS_RO

      -- Ιδιότητα: FULL

      -- Ιδιότητα: FULL_RO

      -- Ιδιότητα: READ

      -- Ιδιότητα: WRITE

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<13>,  Prev: Buffer flags,  Up: inspect — Inspect live objects

5.30.14.10 Command-line interface
.................................

The ‘inspect’ module also provides a basic introspection capability from
the command line.

By default, accepts the name of a module and prints the source of that
module.  A class or function within the module can be printed instead by
appending a colon and the qualified name of the target object.

 -- Option: --details

     Print information about the specified object rather than the source
     code

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The ‘--details’ option now supports basic
introspection for modules without available source code and indicates
when modules are frozen.  It also indicates when the given target
reference is not the canonical name of the referenced object.


File: python.info,  Node: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations,  Next: site — Site-specific configuration hook,  Prev: inspect — Inspect live objects,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.15 ‘annotationlib’ — Functionality for introspecting annotations
---------------------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.14.

'Source code:' Lib/annotationlib.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘annotationlib’ module provides tools for introspecting *note
annotations: 409. on modules, classes, and functions.

Annotations are *note lazily evaluated: 872. and often contain forward
references to objects that are not yet defined when the annotation is
created.  This module provides a set of low-level tools that can be used
to retrieve annotations in a reliable way, even in the presence of
forward references and other edge cases.

This module supports retrieving annotations in three main formats (see
*note Format: 4be.), each of which works best for different use cases:

   * *note VALUE: 40b. evaluates the annotations and returns their
     value.  This is most straightforward to work with, but it may raise
     errors, for example if the annotations contain references to
     undefined names.

   * *note FORWARDREF: 40c. returns *note ForwardRef: 1967. objects for
     annotations that cannot be resolved, allowing you to inspect the
     annotations without evaluating them.  This is useful when you need
     to work with annotations that may contain unresolved forward
     references.

   * *note STRING: 40d. returns the annotations as a string, similar to
     how it would appear in the source file.  This is useful for
     documentation generators that want to display annotations in a
     readable way.

The *note get_annotations(): 66c. function is the main entry point for
retrieving annotations.  Given a function, class, or module, it returns
an annotations dictionary in the requested format.  This module also
provides functionality for working directly with the *note annotate
function: 40a. that is used to evaluate annotations, such as *note
get_annotate_from_class_namespace(): 66e. and *note
call_annotate_function(): 19cf, as well as the *note
call_evaluate_function(): 473d. function for working with *note evaluate
functions: 473c.

     Προσοχή: Most functionality in this module can execute arbitrary
     code; see *note the security section: 476f. for more information.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 649(2) proposed the current model for how annotations work in
Python.

PEP 749(3) expanded on various aspects of PEP 649(4) and introduced the
‘annotationlib’ module.

*note Annotations Best Practices: bb6. provides best practices for
working with annotations.

typing-extensions(5) provides a backport of *note get_annotations():
66c. that works on earlier versions of Python.

* Menu:

* Annotation semantics::
* Classes: Classes<2>.
* Functions: Functions<10>.
* Recipes: Recipes<2>.
* Limitations of the STRING format::
* Limitations of the FORWARDREF format::
* Security implications of introspecting annotations::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/annotationlib.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (5) https://pypi.org/project/typing-extensions/


File: python.info,  Node: Annotation semantics,  Next: Classes<2>,  Up: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations

5.30.15.1 Annotation semantics
..............................

The way annotations are evaluated has changed over the history of Python
3, and currently still depends on a *note future import: 670.  There
have been execution models for annotations:

   * 'Stock semantics' (default in Python 3.0 through 3.13; see PEP
     3107(1) and PEP 526(2)): Annotations are evaluated eagerly, as they
     are encountered in the source code.

   * 'Stringified annotations' (used with ‘from __future__ import
     annotations’ in Python 3.7 and newer; see PEP 563(3)): Annotations
     are stored as strings only.

   * 'Deferred evaluation' (default in Python 3.14 and newer; see PEP
     649(4) and PEP 749(5)): Annotations are evaluated lazily, only when
     they are accessed.

As an example, consider the following program:

     def func(a: Cls) -> None:
         print(a)

     class Cls: pass

     print(func.__annotations__)

This will behave as follows:

   * Under stock semantics (Python 3.13 and earlier), it will throw a
     *note NameError: 665. at the line where ‘func’ is defined, because
     ‘Cls’ is an undefined name at that point.

   * Under stringified annotations (if ‘from __future__ import
     annotations’ is used), it will print ‘{'a': 'Cls', 'return':
     'None'}’.

   * Under deferred evaluation (Python 3.14 and later), it will print
     ‘{'a': <class 'Cls'>, 'return': None}’.

Stock semantics were used when function annotations were first
introduced in Python 3.0 (by PEP 3107(6)) because this was the simplest,
most obvious way to implement annotations.  The same execution model was
used when variable annotations were introduced in Python 3.6 (by PEP
526(7)).  However, stock semantics caused problems when using
annotations as type hints, such as a need to refer to names that are not
yet defined when the annotation is encountered.  In addition, there were
performance problems with executing annotations at module import time.
Therefore, in Python 3.7, PEP 563(8) introduced the ability to store
annotations as strings using the ‘from __future__ import annotations’
syntax.  The plan at the time was to eventually make this behavior the
default, but a problem appeared: stringified annotations are more
difficult to process for those who introspect annotations at runtime.
An alternative proposal, PEP 649(9), introduced the third execution
model, deferred evaluation, and was implemented in Python 3.14.
Stringified annotations are still used if ‘from __future__ import
annotations’ is present, but this behavior will eventually be removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/


File: python.info,  Node: Classes<2>,  Next: Functions<10>,  Prev: Annotation semantics,  Up: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations

5.30.15.2 Classes
.................

 -- Κλάση: annotationlib.Format

     An *note IntEnum: 109d. describing the formats in which annotations
     can be returned.  Members of the enum, or their equivalent integer
     values, can be passed to *note get_annotations(): 66c. and other
     functions in this module, as well as to *note __annotate__: 1b95.
     functions.

      -- Ιδιότητα: VALUE = 1

          Values are the result of evaluating the annotation
          expressions.

      -- Ιδιότητα: VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS = 2

          Special value used to signal that an annotate function is
          being evaluated in a special environment with fake globals.
          When passed this value, annotate functions should either
          return the same value as for the *note Format.VALUE: 40b.
          format, or raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a. to signal
          that they do not support execution in this environment.  This
          format is only used internally and should not be passed to the
          functions in this module.

      -- Ιδιότητα: FORWARDREF = 3

          Values are real annotation values (as per *note Format.VALUE:
          40b. format) for defined values, and *note ForwardRef: 1967.
          proxies for undefined values.  Real objects may contain
          references to ‘ForwardRef’ proxy objects.

      -- Ιδιότητα: STRING = 4

          Values are the text string of the annotation as it appears in
          the source code, up to modifications including, but not
          restricted to, whitespace normalizations and constant values
          optimizations.

          The exact values of these strings may change in future
          versions of Python.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Κλάση: annotationlib.ForwardRef

     A proxy object for forward references in annotations.

     Instances of this class are returned when the *note FORWARDREF:
     40c. format is used and annotations contain a name that cannot be
     resolved.  This can happen when a forward reference is used in an
     annotation, such as when a class is referenced before it is
     defined.

      -- Ιδιότητα: __forward_arg__

          A string containing the code that was evaluated to produce the
          ‘ForwardRef’.  The string may not be exactly equivalent to the
          original source.

      -- Μέθοδος: evaluate (*, owner=None, globals=None, locals=None,
               type_params=None, format=Format.VALUE)

          Evaluate the forward reference, returning its value.

          If the 'format' argument is *note VALUE: 40b. (the default),
          this method may throw an exception, such as *note NameError:
          665, if the forward reference refers to a name that cannot be
          resolved.  The arguments to this method can be used to provide
          bindings for names that would otherwise be undefined.  If the
          'format' argument is *note FORWARDREF: 40c, the method will
          never throw an exception, but may return a ‘ForwardRef’
          instance.  For example, if the forward reference object
          contains the code ‘list[undefined]’, where ‘undefined’ is a
          name that is not defined, evaluating it with the ‘FORWARDREF’
          format will return ‘list[ForwardRef('undefined')]’.  If the
          'format' argument is *note STRING: 40d, the method will return
          *note __forward_arg__: 4d55.

          The 'owner' parameter provides the preferred mechanism for
          passing scope information to this method.  The owner of a
          ‘ForwardRef’ is the object that contains the annotation from
          which the ‘ForwardRef’ derives, such as a module object, type
          object, or function object.

          The 'globals', 'locals', and 'type_params' parameters provide
          a more precise mechanism for influencing the names that are
          available when the ‘ForwardRef’ is evaluated.  'globals' and
          'locals' are passed to *note eval(): 184, representing the
          global and local namespaces in which the name is evaluated.
          The 'type_params' parameter is relevant for objects created
          using the native syntax for *note generic classes: 86e. and
          *note functions: 86f.  It is a tuple of *note type parameters:
          7a5. that are in scope while the forward reference is being
          evaluated.  For example, if evaluating a ‘ForwardRef’
          retrieved from an annotation found in the class namespace of a
          generic class ‘C’, 'type_params' should be set to
          ‘C.__type_params__’.

          ‘ForwardRef’ instances returned by *note get_annotations():
          66c. retain references to information about the scope they
          originated from, so calling this method with no further
          arguments may be sufficient to evaluate such objects.
          ‘ForwardRef’ instances created by other means may not have any
          information about their scope, so passing arguments to this
          method may be necessary to evaluate them successfully.

          If no 'owner', 'globals', 'locals', or 'type_params' are
          provided and the ‘ForwardRef’ does not contain information
          about its origin, empty globals and locals dictionaries are
          used.

     Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<10>,  Next: Recipes<2>,  Prev: Classes<2>,  Up: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations

5.30.15.3 Functions
...................

 -- Συνάρτηση: annotationlib.annotations_to_string (annotations)

     Convert an annotations dict containing runtime values to a dict
     containing only strings.  If the values are not already strings,
     they are converted using *note type_repr(): 1a7e.  This is meant as
     a helper for user-provided annotate functions that support the
     *note STRING: 40d. format but do not have access to the code
     creating the annotations.

     For example, this is used to implement the *note STRING: 40d. for
     *note typing.TypedDict: 290. classes created through the functional
     syntax:

          >>> from typing import TypedDict
          >>> Movie = TypedDict("movie", {"name": str, "year": int})
          >>> get_annotations(Movie, format=Format.STRING)
          {'name': 'str', 'year': 'int'}

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: annotationlib.call_annotate_function (annotate, format,
          *, owner=None)

     Call the *note annotate function: 40a. 'annotate' with the given
     'format', a member of the *note Format: 4be. enum, and return the
     annotations dictionary produced by the function.

     This helper function is required because annotate functions
     generated by the compiler for functions, classes, and modules only
     support the *note VALUE: 40b. format when called directly.  To
     support other formats, this function calls the annotate function in
     a special environment that allows it to produce annotations in the
     other formats.  This is a useful building block when implementing
     functionality that needs to partially evaluate annotations while a
     class is being constructed.

     'owner' is the object that owns the annotation function, usually a
     function, class, or module.  If provided, it is used in the *note
     FORWARDREF: 40c. format to produce a *note ForwardRef: 1967. object
     that carries more information.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 649(1) contains an explanation of the implementation technique
     used by this function.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: annotationlib.call_evaluate_function (evaluate, format,
          *, owner=None)

     Call the *note evaluate function: 473c. 'evaluate' with the given
     'format', a member of the *note Format: 4be. enum, and return the
     value produced by the function.  This is similar to *note
     call_annotate_function(): 19cf, but the latter always returns a
     dictionary mapping strings to annotations, while this function
     returns a single value.

     This is intended for use with the evaluate functions generated for
     lazily evaluated elements related to type aliases and type
     parameters:

        * *note typing.TypeAliasType.evaluate_value(): 4759, the value
          of type aliases

        * *note typing.TypeVar.evaluate_bound(): 473b, the bound of type
          variables

        * *note typing.TypeVar.evaluate_constraints(): 473f, the
          constraints of type variables

        * *note typing.TypeVar.evaluate_default(): 4741, the default
          value of type variables

        * *note typing.ParamSpec.evaluate_default(): 4752, the default
          value of parameter specifications

        * *note typing.TypeVarTuple.evaluate_default(): 4748, the
          default value of type variable tuples

     'owner' is the object that owns the evaluate function, such as the
     type alias or type variable object.

     'format' can be used to control the format in which the value is
     returned:

          >>> type Alias = undefined
          >>> call_evaluate_function(Alias.evaluate_value, Format.VALUE)
          Traceback (most recent call last):
          ...
          NameError: name 'undefined' is not defined
          >>> call_evaluate_function(Alias.evaluate_value, Format.FORWARDREF)
          ForwardRef('undefined')
          >>> call_evaluate_function(Alias.evaluate_value, Format.STRING)
          'undefined'

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: annotationlib.get_annotate_from_class_namespace
          (namespace)

     Retrieve the *note annotate function: 40a. from a class namespace
     dictionary 'namespace'.  Return ‘None’ if the namespace does not
     contain an annotate function.  This is primarily useful before the
     class has been fully created (e.g., in a metaclass); after the
     class exists, the annotate function can be retrieved with
     ‘cls.__annotate__’.  See *note below: 4d58. for an example using
     this function in a metaclass.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: annotationlib.get_annotations (obj, *, globals=None,
          locals=None, eval_str=False, format=Format.VALUE)

     Compute the annotations dict for an object.

     'obj' may be a callable, class, module, or other object with *note
     __annotate__: 1b95. or *note __annotations__: 66b. attributes.
     Passing any other object raises *note TypeError: 291.

     The 'format' parameter controls the format in which annotations are
     returned, and must be a member of the *note Format: 4be. enum or
     its integer equivalent.  The different formats work as follows:

        * VALUE: ‘object.__annotations__’ is tried first; if that does
          not exist, the ‘object.__annotate__’ function is called if it
          exists.

        * FORWARDREF: If ‘object.__annotations__’ exists and can be
          evaluated successfully, it is used; otherwise, the
          ‘object.__annotate__’ function is called.  If it does not
          exist either, ‘object.__annotations__’ is tried again and any
          error from accessing it is re-raised.

             * When calling ‘object.__annotate__’ it is first called
               with *note FORWARDREF: 40c.  If this is not implemented,
               it will then check if *note VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS:
               4d54. is supported and use that in the fake globals
               environment.  If neither of these formats are supported,
               it will fall back to using *note VALUE: 40b.  If ‘VALUE’
               fails, the error from this call will be raised.

        * STRING: If ‘object.__annotate__’ exists, it is called first;
          otherwise, ‘object.__annotations__’ is used and stringified
          using *note annotations_to_string(): 4d57.

             * When calling ‘object.__annotate__’ it is first called
               with *note STRING: 40d.  If this is not implemented, it
               will then check if *note VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS: 4d54.
               is supported and use that in the fake globals
               environment.  If neither of these formats are supported,
               it will fall back to using *note VALUE: 40b. with the
               result converted using *note annotations_to_string():
               4d57.  If ‘VALUE’ fails, the error from this call will be
               raised.

     Returns a dict.  ‘get_annotations()’ returns a new dict every time
     it’s called; calling it twice on the same object will return two
     different but equivalent dicts.

     This function handles several details for you:

        * If 'eval_str' is true, values of type ‘str’ will be
          un-stringized using *note eval(): 184.  This is intended for
          use with stringized annotations (‘from __future__ import
          annotations’).  It is an error to set 'eval_str' to true with
          formats other than *note Format.VALUE: 40b.

        * If 'obj' doesn’t have an annotations dict, returns an empty
          dict.  (Functions and methods always have an annotations dict;
          classes, modules, and other types of callables may not.)

        * Ignores inherited annotations on classes, as well as
          annotations on metaclasses.  If a class doesn’t have its own
          annotations dict, returns an empty dict.

        * All accesses to object members and dict values are done using
          ‘getattr()’ and ‘dict.get()’ for safety.

     'eval_str' controls whether or not values of type ‘str’ are
     replaced with the result of calling *note eval(): 184. on those
     values:

        * If eval_str is true, *note eval(): 184. is called on values of
          type ‘str’.  (Note that ‘get_annotations()’ doesn’t catch
          exceptions; if ‘eval()’ raises an exception, it will unwind
          the stack past the ‘get_annotations()’ call.)

        * If 'eval_str' is false (the default), values of type ‘str’ are
          unchanged.

     'globals' and 'locals' are passed in to *note eval(): 184.; see the
     documentation for ‘eval()’ for more information.  If 'globals' or
     'locals' is ‘None’, this function may replace that value with a
     context-specific default, contingent on ‘type(obj)’:

        * If 'obj' is a module, 'globals' defaults to ‘obj.__dict__’.

        * If 'obj' is a class, 'globals' defaults to
          ‘sys.modules[obj.__module__].__dict__’ and 'locals' defaults
          to the 'obj' class namespace.

        * If 'obj' is a callable, 'globals' defaults to *note
          obj.__globals__: 1678, although if 'obj' is a wrapped function
          (using *note functools.update_wrapper(): 13cb.) or a *note
          functools.partial: 4a6. object, it is unwrapped until a
          non-wrapped function is found.

     Calling ‘get_annotations()’ is best practice for accessing the
     annotations dict of any object.  See *note Annotations Best
     Practices: bb6. for more information on annotations best practices.

          >>> def f(a: int, b: str) -> float:
          ...     pass
          >>> get_annotations(f)
          {'a': <class 'int'>, 'b': <class 'str'>, 'return': <class 'float'>}

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Συνάρτηση: annotationlib.type_repr (value)

     Convert an arbitrary Python value to a format suitable for use by
     the *note STRING: 40d. format.  This calls *note repr(): 45b. for
     most objects, but has special handling for some objects, such as
     type objects.

     This is meant as a helper for user-provided annotate functions that
     support the *note STRING: 40d. format but do not have access to the
     code creating the annotations.  It can also be used to provide a
     user-friendly string representation for other objects that contain
     values that are commonly encountered in annotations.

     Added in version 3.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/#the-stringizer-and-the-fake-globals-environment


File: python.info,  Node: Recipes<2>,  Next: Limitations of the STRING format,  Prev: Functions<10>,  Up: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations

5.30.15.4 Recipes
.................

* Menu:

* Using annotations in a metaclass::
* Creating a custom callable annotate function::


File: python.info,  Node: Using annotations in a metaclass,  Next: Creating a custom callable annotate function,  Up: Recipes<2>

5.30.15.5 Using annotations in a metaclass
..........................................

A *note metaclass: 25b3. may want to inspect or even modify the
annotations in a class body during class creation.  Doing so requires
retrieving annotations from the class namespace dictionary.  For classes
created with ‘from __future__ import annotations’, the annotations will
be in the ‘__annotations__’ key of the dictionary.  For other classes
with annotations, *note get_annotate_from_class_namespace(): 66e. can be
used to get the annotate function, and *note call_annotate_function():
19cf. can be used to call it and retrieve the annotations.  Using the
*note FORWARDREF: 40c. format will usually be best, because this allows
the annotations to refer to names that cannot yet be resolved when the
class is created.

To modify the annotations, it is best to create a wrapper annotate
function that calls the original annotate function, makes any necessary
adjustments, and returns the result.

Below is an example of a metaclass that filters out all *note
typing.ClassVar: 76e. annotations from the class and puts them in a
separate attribute:

     import annotationlib
     import typing

     class ClassVarSeparator(type):
        def __new__(mcls, name, bases, ns):
           if "__annotations__" in ns:  # from __future__ import annotations
              annotations = ns["__annotations__"]
              classvar_keys = {
                 key for key, value in annotations.items()
                 # Use string comparison for simplicity; a more robust solution
                 # could use annotationlib.ForwardRef.evaluate
                 if value.startswith("ClassVar")
              }
              classvars = {key: annotations[key] for key in classvar_keys}
              ns["__annotations__"] = {
                 key: value for key, value in annotations.items()
                 if key not in classvar_keys
              }
              wrapped_annotate = None
           elif annotate := annotationlib.get_annotate_from_class_namespace(ns):
              annotations = annotationlib.call_annotate_function(
                 annotate, format=annotationlib.Format.FORWARDREF
              )
              classvar_keys = {
                 key for key, value in annotations.items()
                 if typing.get_origin(value) is typing.ClassVar
              }
              classvars = {key: annotations[key] for key in classvar_keys}

              def wrapped_annotate(format):
                 annos = annotationlib.call_annotate_function(annotate, format, owner=typ)
                 return {key: value for key, value in annos.items() if key not in classvar_keys}

           else:  # no annotations
              classvars = {}
              wrapped_annotate = None
           typ = super().__new__(mcls, name, bases, ns)

           if wrapped_annotate is not None:
              # Wrap the original __annotate__ with a wrapper that removes ClassVars
              typ.__annotate__ = wrapped_annotate
           typ.classvars = classvars  # Store the ClassVars in a separate attribute
           return typ


File: python.info,  Node: Creating a custom callable annotate function,  Prev: Using annotations in a metaclass,  Up: Recipes<2>

5.30.15.6 Creating a custom callable annotate function
......................................................

Custom *note annotate functions: 40a. may be literal functions like
those automatically generated for functions, classes, and modules.  Or,
they may wish to utilise the encapsulation provided by classes, in which
case any *note callable: 2fa4. can be used as an annotate function.

To provide the *note VALUE: 40b, *note STRING: 40d, or *note FORWARDREF:
40c. formats directly, an *note annotate function: 40a. must provide the
following attribute:

   * A callable ‘__call__’ with signature ‘__call__(format, /) -> dict’,
     that does not raise a *note NotImplementedError: 59a. when called
     with a supported format.

To provide the *note VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS: 4d54. format, which is
used to automatically generate *note STRING: 40d. or *note FORWARDREF:
40c. if they are not supported directly, *note annotate functions: 40a.
must provide the following attributes:

   * A callable ‘__call__’ with signature ‘__call__(format, /) -> dict’,
     that does not raise a *note NotImplementedError: 59a. when called
     with *note VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS: 4d54.

   * A *note code object: 6eb. ‘__code__’ containing the compiled code
     for the annotate function.

   * Optional: A tuple of the function’s positional defaults
     ‘__kwdefaults__’, if the function represented by ‘__code__’ uses
     any positional defaults.

   * Optional: A dict of the function’s keyword defaults ‘__defaults__’,
     if the function represented by ‘__code__’ uses any keyword
     defaults.

   * Optional: All other *note function attributes: 1f83.

     class Annotate:
         called_formats = []

         def __call__(self, format=None, /, *, _self=None):
             # When called with fake globals, `_self` will be the
             # actual self value, and `self` will be the format.
             if _self is not None:
                 self, format = _self, self

             self.called_formats.append(format)
             if format <= 2:  # VALUE or VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS
                 return {"x": MyType}
             raise NotImplementedError

         __code__ = __call__.__code__
         __defaults__ = (None,)
         __kwdefaults__ = property(lambda self: dict(_self=self))

         __globals__ = {}
         __builtins__ = {}
         __closure__ = None

This can then be called with:

     >>> from annotationlib import call_annotate_function, Format
     >>> call_annotate_function(Annotate(), format=Format.STRING)
     {'x': 'MyType'}

Or used as the annotate function for an object:

     >>> from annotationlib import get_annotations, Format
     >>> class C:
     ...   pass
     >>> C.__annotate__ = Annotate()
     >>> get_annotations(Annotate(), format=Format.STRING)
     {'x': 'MyType'}


File: python.info,  Node: Limitations of the STRING format,  Next: Limitations of the FORWARDREF format,  Prev: Recipes<2>,  Up: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations

5.30.15.7 Limitations of the ‘STRING’ format
............................................

The *note STRING: 40d. format is meant to approximate the source code of
the annotation, but the implementation strategy used means that it is
not always possible to recover the exact source code.

First, the stringifier of course cannot recover any information that is
not present in the compiled code, including comments, whitespace,
parenthesization, and operations that get simplified by the compiler.

Second, the stringifier can intercept almost all operations that involve
names looked up in some scope, but it cannot intercept operations that
operate fully on constants.  As a corollary, this also means it is not
safe to request the ‘STRING’ format on untrusted code: Python is
powerful enough that it is possible to achieve arbitrary code execution
even with no access to any globals or builtins.  For example:

     >>> def f(x: (1).__class__.__base__.__subclasses__()[-1].__init__.__builtins__["print"]("Hello world")): pass
     ...
     >>> annotationlib.get_annotations(f, format=annotationlib.Format.STRING)
     Hello world
     {'x': 'None'}

     Σημείωση: This particular example works as of the time of writing,
     but it relies on implementation details and is not guaranteed to
     work in the future.

Among the different kinds of expressions that exist in Python, as
represented by the *note ast: 9. module, some expressions are supported,
meaning that the ‘STRING’ format can generally recover the original
source code; others are unsupported, meaning that they may result in
incorrect output or an error.

The following are supported (sometimes with caveats):

   * *note ast.BinOp: 1fa2.

   * *note ast.UnaryOp: 4d5d.

        * *note ast.Invert: 4d5e. (‘~’), *note ast.UAdd: 4d5f. (‘+’),
          and *note ast.USub: 4d60. (‘-’) are supported

        * *note ast.Not: 4d61. (‘not’) is not supported

   * *note ast.Dict: 1f3d. (except when using ‘**’ unpacking)

   * *note ast.Set: 4d62.

   * *note ast.Compare: 4d63.

        * *note ast.Eq: 4d64. and *note ast.NotEq: 4d65. are supported

        * *note ast.Lt: 4d66, *note ast.LtE: 4d67, *note ast.Gt: 4d68,
          and *note ast.GtE: 4d69. are supported, but the operand may be
          flipped

        * *note ast.Is: 4d6a, *note ast.IsNot: 4d6b, *note ast.In: 4d6c,
          and *note ast.NotIn: 4d6d. are not supported

   * *note ast.Call: 4d6e. (except when using ‘**’ unpacking)

   * *note ast.Constant: 569. (though not the exact representation of
     the constant; for example, escape sequences in strings are lost;
     hexadecimal numbers are converted to decimal)

   * *note ast.Attribute: 4d6f. (assuming the value is not a constant)

   * *note ast.Subscript: 4d70. (assuming the value is not a constant)

   * *note ast.Starred: 4d71. (‘*’ unpacking)

   * *note ast.Name: 1f17.

   * *note ast.List: 4d72.

   * *note ast.Tuple: 4d73.

   * *note ast.Slice: 4d74.

The following are unsupported, but throw an informative error when
encountered by the stringifier:

   * *note ast.FormattedValue: 4d75. (f-strings; error is not detected
     if conversion specifiers like ‘!r’ are used)

   * *note ast.JoinedStr: 1c62. (f-strings)

The following are unsupported and result in incorrect output:

   * *note ast.BoolOp: 4d76. (‘and’ and ‘or’)

   * *note ast.IfExp: 4d77.

   * *note ast.Lambda: 4d78.

   * *note ast.ListComp: 4d79.

   * *note ast.SetComp: 4d7a.

   * *note ast.DictComp: 4d7b.

   * *note ast.GeneratorExp: 4d7c.

The following are disallowed in annotation scopes and therefore not
relevant:

   * *note ast.NamedExpr: 4d7d. (‘:=’)

   * *note ast.Await: 4d7e.

   * *note ast.Yield: 4d7f.

   * *note ast.YieldFrom: 4d80.


File: python.info,  Node: Limitations of the FORWARDREF format,  Next: Security implications of introspecting annotations,  Prev: Limitations of the STRING format,  Up: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations

5.30.15.8 Limitations of the ‘FORWARDREF’ format
................................................

The *note FORWARDREF: 40c. format aims to produce real values as much as
possible, with anything that cannot be resolved replaced with *note
ForwardRef: 1967. objects.  It is affected by broadly the same
Limitations as the *note STRING: 40d. format: annotations that perform
operations on literals or that use unsupported expression types may
raise exceptions when evaluated using the ‘FORWARDREF’ format.

Below are a few examples of the behavior with unsupported expressions:

     >>> from annotationlib import get_annotations, Format
     >>> def zerodiv(x: 1 / 0): ...
     >>> get_annotations(zerodiv, format=Format.STRING)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> get_annotations(zerodiv, format=Format.FORWARDREF)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ZeroDivisionError: division by zero
     >>> def ifexp(x: 1 if y else 0): ...
     >>> get_annotations(ifexp, format=Format.STRING)
     {'x': '1'}


File: python.info,  Node: Security implications of introspecting annotations,  Prev: Limitations of the FORWARDREF format,  Up: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations

5.30.15.9 Security implications of introspecting annotations
............................................................

Much of the functionality in this module involves executing code related
to annotations, which can then do arbitrary things.  For example, *note
get_annotations(): 66c. may call an arbitrary *note annotate function:
40a, and *note ForwardRef.evaluate(): 150. may call *note eval(): 184.
on an arbitrary string.  Code contained in an annotation might make
arbitrary system calls, enter an infinite loop, or perform any other
operation.  This is also true for any access of the *note
__annotations__: 66b. attribute, and for various functions in the *note
typing: 10d. module that work with annotations, such as *note
typing.get_type_hints(): a9e.

Any security issue arising from this also applies immediately after
importing code that may contain untrusted annotations: importing code
can always cause arbitrary operations to be performed.  However, it is
unsafe to accept strings or other input from an untrusted source and
pass them to any of the APIs for introspecting annotations, for example
by editing an ‘__annotations__’ dictionary or directly creating a *note
ForwardRef: 1967. object.


File: python.info,  Node: site — Site-specific configuration hook,  Prev: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations,  Up: Python Runtime Services

5.30.16 ‘site’ — Site-specific configuration hook
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/site.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

'This module is automatically imported during initialization.'  The
automatic import can be suppressed using the interpreter’s *note -S:
1551. option.

Importing this module normally appends site-specific paths to the module
search path and adds *note callables: 27df, including *note help(): ca9.
to the built-in namespace.  However, Python startup option *note -S:
1551. blocks this, and this module can be safely imported with no
automatic modifications to the module search path or additions to the
builtins.  To explicitly trigger the usual site-specific additions, call
the *note main(): 2316. function.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Importing the module used to trigger paths
manipulation even when using *note -S: 1551.

It starts by constructing up to four directories from a head and a tail
part.  For the head part, it uses ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’;
empty heads are skipped.  For the tail part, it uses the empty string
and then ‘lib/site-packages’ (on Windows) or
‘lib/python`X.Y[t]'/site-packages’ (on Unix and macOS). (The optional
suffix «t» indicates the *note free-threaded build: 198, and is appended
if ‘"t"’ is present in the *note sys.abiflags: e28. constant.)  For each
of the distinct head-tail combinations, it sees if it refers to an
existing directory, and if so, adds it to ‘sys.path’ and also inspects
the newly added path for configuration files.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Support for the «site-python» directory has been
removed.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: On Unix, *note Free threading: 487. Python
installations are identified by the «t» suffix in the version-specific
directory name, such as ‘lib/python3.13t/’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: ‘site’ is no longer responsible for updating
*note sys.prefix: 3ab. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3a8. on *note Virtual
Environments: 4b93.  This is now done during the *note path
initialization: 1953.  As a result, under *note Virtual Environments:
4b93, ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’ no longer depend on the ‘site’
initialization, and are therefore unaffected by *note -S: 1551.

When running under a *note virtual environment: 4b93, the ‘pyvenv.cfg’
file in *note sys.prefix: 3ab. is checked for site-specific
configurations.  If the ‘include-system-site-packages’ key exists and is
set to ‘true’ (case-insensitive), the system-level prefixes will be
searched for site-packages, otherwise they won’t.  If the system-level
prefixes are not searched then the user site prefixes are also
implicitly not searched for site-packages.

The ‘site’ module recognizes two startup configuration files of the form
‘`name'.pth’ for path configurations, and ‘`name'.start’ for
pre-first-line code execution.  Both files can exist in one of the four
directories mentioned above.  Within each directory, these files are
sorted alphabetically by filename, then parsed in sorted order.

* Menu:

* Path extensions (.pth files): Path extensions pth files.
* Startup entry points (.start files): Startup entry points start files.
* Startup file examples::
* Migrating from import lines in .pth files to .start files: Migrating from import lines in pth files to start files.
* sitecustomize::
* usercustomize::
* Readline configuration::
* Module contents: Module contents<7>.
* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<14>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/site.py


File: python.info,  Node: Path extensions pth files,  Next: Startup entry points start files,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.16.1 Path extensions (‘.pth’ files)
........................................

‘`name'.pth’ contains additional items (one per line) to be appended to
‘sys.path’.  Items that name non-existing directories are never added to
‘sys.path’, and no check is made that the item refers to a directory
rather than a file.  No item is added to ‘sys.path’ more than once.
Blank lines and lines beginning with ‘#’ are skipped.

For backward compatibility, lines starting with ‘import’ (followed by
space or tab) are executed with *note exec(): 185.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The ‘.pth’ files are now decoded by UTF-8 at
first and then by the *note locale encoding: 74d. if it fails.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: ‘.pth’ file lines starting with ‘import’ are
deprecated.  During the deprecation period, such lines are still
executed (except in the case below), but a diagnostic message is emitted
only when the *note -v: 17c7. flag is given.

‘import’ lines in ‘`name'.pth’ are silently ignored when a *note
matching: 195. ‘`name'.start’ file exists.

Errors on individual lines no longer abort processing of the rest of the
file.  Each error is reported and the remaining lines continue to be
processed.

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.20: Decoding
‘`name'.pth’ files in any encoding other than ‘utf-8-sig’ is deprecated
in Python 3.15, and support for decoding from the locale encoding will
be removed in Python 3.20.

‘import’ lines in ‘`name'.pth’ files are deprecated and will be silently
ignored in Python 3.18 and 3.19.  In Python 3.20 a warning will be
produced for ‘import’ lines in ‘`name'.pth’ files.


File: python.info,  Node: Startup entry points start files,  Next: Startup file examples,  Prev: Path extensions pth files,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.16.2 Startup entry points (‘.start’ files)
...............................................

Added in version 3.15.

A startup entry point file is a file whose name has the form
‘`name'.start’ and exists in one of the site-packages directories
described above.  Each file specifies entry points to be called during
interpreter startup, using the ‘pkg.mod:callable’ syntax understood by
*note pkgutil.resolve_name(): 1904.

Each non-blank line that does not begin with ‘#’ must contain an entry
point reference in the form ‘pkg.mod:callable’.  The colon and callable
portion are mandatory.  Each callable is invoked with no arguments, and
any return value is discarded.

‘.start’ files are processed after all ‘.pth’ path extensions have been
applied to *note sys.path: 194, ensuring that paths are available before
any startup code runs.

Unlike *note sys.path: 194. extensions from ‘.pth’ files, duplicate
entry points are 'not' de-duplicated — if an entry point appears more
than once, it will be called more than once.

If an exception occurs during resolution or invocation of an entry
point, a traceback is printed to *note sys.stderr: d05. and processing
continues with the remaining entry points.

‘.start’ files must be encoded in UTF-8.

PEP 829(1) defined the original specification for these features.

     Σημείωση: If a ‘`name'.start’ file exists alongside a ‘`name'.pth’
     file with the same base name, any ‘import’ lines in the ‘.pth’ file
     are ignored in favor of the entry points in the ‘.start’ file.

     Σημείωση: Executable lines (‘import’ lines in ‘`name'.pth’ files
     and ‘`name'.start’ file entry points) are always run at Python
     startup (unless *note -S: 1551. is given to disable the ‘site.py’
     module entirely), regardless of whether a particular module is
     actually going to be used.

     Σημείωση: ‘`name'.start’ files invoke *note pkgutil.resolve_name():
     1904. with ‘strict=True’, which requires the full
     ‘pkg.mod:callable’ form.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/


File: python.info,  Node: Startup file examples,  Next: Migrating from import lines in pth files to start files,  Prev: Startup entry points start files,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.16.3 Startup file examples
...............................

For example, suppose ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’ are set to
‘/usr/local’.  The Python X.Y library is then installed in
‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'’.  Suppose this has a subdirectory
‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’ with three
sub-subdirectories, ‘foo’, ‘bar’ and ‘spam’, and two path configuration
files, ‘foo.pth’ and ‘bar.pth’.  Assume ‘foo.pth’ contains the
following:

     # foo package configuration

     foo
     bar
     bletch

and ‘bar.pth’ contains:

     # bar package configuration

     bar

Then the following version-specific directories are added to ‘sys.path’,
in this order:

     /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/bar
     /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/foo

Note that ‘bletch’ is omitted because it doesn’t exist; the ‘bar’
directory precedes the ‘foo’ directory because ‘bar.pth’ comes
alphabetically before ‘foo.pth’; and ‘spam’ is omitted because it is not
mentioned in either path configuration file.

Let’s say that there is also a ‘foo.start’ file containing the
following:

     # foo package startup code

     foo.submod:initialize

Now, after ‘sys.path’ has been extended as above, and before Python
turns control over to user code, the ‘foo.submod’ module is imported and
the ‘initialize()’ function from that module is called.


File: python.info,  Node: Migrating from import lines in pth files to start files,  Next: sitecustomize,  Prev: Startup file examples,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.16.4 Migrating from ‘import’ lines in ‘.pth’ files to ‘.start’ files
.........................................................................

If your package currently ships a ‘`name'.pth’ file, you can keep all
‘sys.path’ extension lines unchanged.  Only ‘import’ lines need to be
migrated.

To migrate, create a callable (taking zero arguments) within an
importable module in your package.  Reference it as a ‘pkg.mod:callable’
entry point in a matching ‘`name'.start’ file.  Move everything on your
‘import’ line after the first semi-colon into the ‘callable()’ function.

If your package must straddle older Pythons that do not support PEP
829(1) and newer Pythons that do, change the ‘import’ lines in your
‘`name'.pth’ to use the following form:

     import pkg.mod; pkg.mod.callable()

Older Pythons will execute these ‘import’ lines, while newer Pythons
will ignore them in favor of the ‘`name'.start’ file.  After the
straddling period, remove all ‘import’ lines from your ‘.pth’ files.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/


File: python.info,  Node: sitecustomize,  Next: usercustomize,  Prev: Migrating from import lines in pth files to start files,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.16.5 ‘sitecustomize’
.........................

After these path manipulations, an attempt is made to import a module
named ‘sitecustomize’, which can perform arbitrary site-specific
customizations.  It is typically created by a system administrator in
the site-packages directory.  If this import fails with an *note
ImportError: 1bd. or its subclass exception, and the exception’s *note
name: 1902. attribute equals ‘'sitecustomize'’, it is silently ignored.
If Python is started without output streams available, as with
‘pythonw.exe’ on Windows (which is used by default to start IDLE),
attempted output from ‘sitecustomize’ is ignored.  Any other exception
causes a silent and perhaps mysterious failure of the process.


File: python.info,  Node: usercustomize,  Next: Readline configuration,  Prev: sitecustomize,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.16.6 ‘usercustomize’
.........................

After this, an attempt is made to import a module named ‘usercustomize’,
which can perform arbitrary user-specific customizations, if *note
ENABLE_USER_SITE: 4d8d. is true.  This file is intended to be created in
the user site-packages directory (see below), which is part of
‘sys.path’ unless disabled by *note -s: 1732.  If this import fails with
an *note ImportError: 1bd. or its subclass exception, and the
exception’s *note name: 1902. attribute equals ‘'usercustomize'’, it is
silently ignored.

Note that for some non-Unix systems, ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’
are empty, and the path manipulations are skipped; however the import of
*note sitecustomize: d0. and ‘usercustomize’ is still attempted.


File: python.info,  Node: Readline configuration,  Next: Module contents<7>,  Prev: usercustomize,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.16.7 Readline configuration
................................

On systems that support *note readline: c2, this module will also import
and configure the *note rlcompleter: c5. module, if Python is started in
*note interactive mode: 656. and without the *note -S: 1551. option.
The default behavior is to enable tab completion and to use
‘~/.python_history’ as the history save file.  To disable it, delete (or
override) the *note sys.__interactivehook__: 1371. attribute in your
*note sitecustomize: d0. or *note usercustomize: 117. module or your
*note PYTHONSTARTUP: 453. file.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Activation of rlcompleter and history was made
automatic.


File: python.info,  Node: Module contents<7>,  Next: Command-line interface<14>,  Prev: Readline configuration,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.16.8 Module contents
.........................

 -- Δεδομένα: site.PREFIXES

     A list of prefixes for site-packages directories.

 -- Δεδομένα: site.ENABLE_USER_SITE

     Flag showing the status of the user site-packages directory.
     ‘True’ means that it is enabled and was added to ‘sys.path’.
     ‘False’ means that it was disabled by user request (with *note -s:
     1732. or *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1733.).  ‘None’ means it was
     disabled for security reasons (mismatch between user or group id
     and effective id) or by an administrator.

 -- Δεδομένα: site.USER_SITE

     Path to the user site-packages for the running Python.  Can be
     ‘None’ if *note getusersitepackages(): 15e6. hasn’t been called
     yet.  Default value is ‘~/.local/lib/python`X.Y'[t]/site-packages’
     for UNIX and non-framework macOS builds,
     ‘~/Library/Python/`X.Y'/lib/python/site-packages’ for macOS
     framework builds, and ‘`%APPDATA%'\Python\Python`XY'\site-packages’
     on Windows.  The optional «t» indicates the free-threaded build.
     This directory is a site directory, which means that ‘.pth’ files
     in it will be processed.

 -- Δεδομένα: site.USER_BASE

     Path to the base directory for the user site-packages.  Can be
     ‘None’ if *note getuserbase(): 15e5. hasn’t been called yet.
     Default value is ‘~/.local’ for UNIX and macOS non-framework
     builds, ‘~/Library/Python/`X.Y'’ for macOS framework builds, and
     ‘`%APPDATA%'\Python’ for Windows.  This value is used to compute
     the installation directories for scripts, data files, Python
     modules, etc.  for the *note user installation scheme: 2325.  See
     also *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1731.

 -- Συνάρτηση: site.main ()

     Adds all the standard site-specific directories to the module
     search path.  This function is called automatically when this
     module is imported, unless the Python interpreter was started with
     the *note -S: 1551. flag.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: This function used to be called
     unconditionally.

 -- Συνάρτηση: site.addsitedir (sitedir, known_paths=None, *,
          defer_processing_start_files=False)

     Add a directory to sys.path and parse the ‘.pth’ and ‘.start’ files
     found in that directory.  Typically used in *note sitecustomize:
     d0. or *note usercustomize: 117. (see above).

     The 'known_paths' argument is an optional set of case-normalized
     paths used to prevent duplicate *note sys.path: 194. entries.  When
     ‘None’ (the default), the set is built from the current ‘sys.path’.

     While ‘.pth’ and ‘.start’ files are always parsed, set
     'defer_processing_start_files' to ‘True’ to prevent processing the
     startup data found in those files, so that you can process them
     explicitly (this is typically used by the *note main(): 2316.
     function).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also processes ‘.start’ files.  See *note
     Startup entry points (.start files): 195.  All ‘.pth’ and ‘.start’
     files are now read and accumulated before any path extensions,
     ‘import’ line execution, or entry point invocations take place.

 -- Συνάρτηση: site.getsitepackages ()

     Return a list containing all global site-packages directories.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: site.getuserbase ()

     Return the path of the user base directory, *note USER_BASE: 16c1.
     If it is not initialized yet, this function will also set it,
     respecting *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1731.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Συνάρτηση: site.getusersitepackages ()

     Return the path of the user-specific site-packages directory, *note
     USER_SITE: 2315.  If it is not initialized yet, this function will
     also set it, respecting *note USER_BASE: 16c1.  To determine if the
     user-specific site-packages was added to ‘sys.path’ *note
     ENABLE_USER_SITE: 4d8d. should be used.

     Added in version 3.2.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<14>,  Prev: Module contents<7>,  Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook

5.30.16.9 Command-line interface
................................

The ‘site’ module also provides a way to get the user directories from
the command line:

     $ python -m site --user-site
     /home/user/.local/lib/python3.11/site-packages

If it is called without arguments, it will print the contents of *note
sys.path: 194. on the standard output, followed by the value of *note
USER_BASE: 16c1. and whether the directory exists, then the same thing
for *note USER_SITE: 2315, and finally the value of *note
ENABLE_USER_SITE: 4d8d.

 -- Option: --user-base

     Print the path to the user base directory.

 -- Option: --user-site

     Print the path to the user site-packages directory.

If both options are given, user base and user site will be printed
(always in this order), separated by *note os.pathsep: 2322.

If any option is given, the script will exit with one of these values:
‘0’ if the user site-packages directory is enabled, ‘1’ if it was
disabled by the user, ‘2’ if it is disabled for security reasons or by
an administrator, and a value greater than 2 if there is an error.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * PEP 370(1) – Per user site-packages directory

   * PEP 829(2) – Startup entry points and the deprecation of import
     lines in ‘.pth’ files

   * *note The initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1953.
     – The initialization of *note sys.path: 194.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * See the *note concurrent.interpreters: 25. module, which similarly
     exposes core runtime functionality.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Python Interpreters,  Next: Importing Modules,  Prev: Python Runtime Services,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.31 Custom Python Interpreters
===============================

The modules described in this chapter allow writing interfaces similar
to Python’s interactive interpreter.  If you want a Python interpreter
that supports some special feature in addition to the Python language,
you should look at the *note code: 1b. module.  (The *note codeop: 1d.
module is lower-level, used to support compiling a possibly incomplete
chunk of Python code.)

The full list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* code — Interpreter base classes::
* codeop — Compile Python code::


File: python.info,  Node: code — Interpreter base classes,  Next: codeop — Compile Python code,  Up: Custom Python Interpreters

5.31.1 ‘code’ — Interpreter base classes
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/code.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘code’ module provides facilities to implement read-eval-print loops
in Python.  Two classes and convenience functions are included which can
be used to build applications which provide an interactive interpreter
prompt.

 -- Κλάση: code.InteractiveInterpreter (locals=None)

     This class deals with parsing and interpreter state (the user’s
     namespace); it does not deal with input buffering or prompting or
     input file naming (the filename is always passed in explicitly).
     The optional 'locals' argument specifies a mapping to use as the
     namespace in which code will be executed; it defaults to a newly
     created dictionary with key ‘'__name__'’ set to ‘'__console__'’ and
     key ‘'__doc__'’ set to ‘None’.

     Note that functions and classes objects created under an
     ‘InteractiveInterpreter’ instance will belong to the namespace
     specified by 'locals'.  They are only pickleable if 'locals' is the
     namespace of an existing module.

 -- Κλάση: code.InteractiveConsole (locals=None, filename='<console>',
          *, local_exit=False)

     Closely emulate the behavior of the interactive Python interpreter.
     This class builds on *note InteractiveInterpreter: 1b5b. and adds
     prompting using the familiar ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’, and input
     buffering.  If 'local_exit' is true, ‘exit()’ and ‘quit()’ in the
     console will not raise *note SystemExit: 10f7, but instead return
     to the calling code.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added 'local_exit' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: code.interact (banner=None, readfunc=None, local=None,
          exitmsg=None, local_exit=False)

     Convenience function to run a read-eval-print loop.  This creates a
     new instance of *note InteractiveConsole: 2a1e. and sets 'readfunc'
     to be used as the *note InteractiveConsole.raw_input(): 4d9b.
     method, if provided.  If 'local' is provided, it is passed to the
     ‘InteractiveConsole’ constructor for use as the default namespace
     for the interpreter loop.  If 'local_exit' is provided, it is
     passed to the ‘InteractiveConsole’ constructor.  The *note
     interact(): 4d9c. method of the instance is then run with 'banner'
     and 'exitmsg' passed as the banner and exit message to use, if
     provided.  The console object is discarded after use.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added 'exitmsg' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added 'local_exit' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: code.compile_command (source, filename='<input>',
          symbol='single')

     This function is useful for programs that want to emulate Python’s
     interpreter main loop (a.k.a.  the read-eval-print loop).  The
     tricky part is to determine when the user has entered an incomplete
     command that can be completed by entering more text (as opposed to
     a complete command or a syntax error).  This function 'almost'
     always makes the same decision as the real interpreter main loop.

     'source' is the source string; 'filename' is the optional filename
     from which source was read, defaulting to ‘'<input>'’; and 'symbol'
     is the optional grammar start symbol, which should be ‘'single'’
     (the default), ‘'eval'’ or ‘'exec'’.

     Returns a code object (the same as ‘compile(source, filename,
     symbol)’) if the command is complete and valid; ‘None’ if the
     command is incomplete; raises *note SyntaxError: 17e. if the
     command is complete and contains a syntax error, or raises *note
     OverflowError: c57. or *note ValueError: 277. if the command
     contains an invalid literal.

* Menu:

* Interactive Interpreter Objects::
* Interactive Console Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/code.py


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive Interpreter Objects,  Next: Interactive Console Objects,  Up: code — Interpreter base classes

5.31.1.1 Interactive Interpreter Objects
........................................

 -- Μέθοδος: InteractiveInterpreter.runsource (source,
          filename='<input>', symbol='single')

     Compile and run some source in the interpreter.  Arguments are the
     same as for *note compile_command(): 4d9d.; the default for
     'filename' is ‘'<input>'’, and for 'symbol' is ‘'single'’.  One of
     several things can happen:

        * The input is incorrect; *note compile_command(): 4d9d. raised
          an exception (*note SyntaxError: 17e. or *note OverflowError:
          c57.).  A syntax traceback will be printed by calling the
          *note showsyntaxerror(): 4da1. method.  ‘runsource()’ returns
          ‘False’.

        * The input is incomplete, and more input is required; *note
          compile_command(): 4d9d. returned ‘None’.  ‘runsource()’
          returns ‘True’.

        * The input is complete; *note compile_command(): 4d9d. returned
          a code object.  The code is executed by calling the *note
          runcode(): 4da2. (which also handles run-time exceptions,
          except for *note SystemExit: 10f7.).  ‘runsource()’ returns
          ‘False’.

     The return value can be used to decide whether to use ‘sys.ps1’ or
     ‘sys.ps2’ to prompt the next line.

 -- Μέθοδος: InteractiveInterpreter.runcode (code)

     Execute a code object.  When an exception occurs, *note
     showtraceback(): 1187. is called to display a traceback.  All
     exceptions are caught except *note SystemExit: 10f7, which is
     allowed to propagate.

     A note about *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96.: this exception may
     occur elsewhere in this code, and may not always be caught.  The
     caller should be prepared to deal with it.

 -- Μέθοδος: InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror (filename=None)

     Display the syntax error that just occurred.  This does not display
     a stack trace because there isn’t one for syntax errors.  If
     'filename' is given, it is stuffed into the exception instead of
     the default filename provided by Python’s parser, because it always
     uses ‘'<string>'’ when reading from a string.  The output is
     written by the *note write(): 4da3. method.

 -- Μέθοδος: InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback ()

     Display the exception that just occurred.  We remove the first
     stack item because it is within the interpreter object
     implementation.  The output is written by the *note write(): 4da3.
     method.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The full chained traceback is displayed
     instead of just the primary traceback.

 -- Μέθοδος: InteractiveInterpreter.write (data)

     Write a string to the standard error stream (‘sys.stderr’).
     Derived classes should override this to provide the appropriate
     output handling as needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Interactive Console Objects,  Prev: Interactive Interpreter Objects,  Up: code — Interpreter base classes

5.31.1.2 Interactive Console Objects
....................................

The *note InteractiveConsole: 2a1e. class is a subclass of *note
InteractiveInterpreter: 1b5b, and so offers all the methods of the
interpreter objects as well as the following additions.

 -- Μέθοδος: InteractiveConsole.interact (banner=None, exitmsg=None)

     Closely emulate the interactive Python console.  The optional
     'banner' argument specify the banner to print before the first
     interaction; by default it prints a banner similar to the one
     printed by the standard Python interpreter, followed by the class
     name of the console object in parentheses (so as not to confuse
     this with the real interpreter – since it’s so close!).

     The optional 'exitmsg' argument specifies an exit message printed
     when exiting.  Pass the empty string to suppress the exit message.
     If 'exitmsg' is not given or ‘None’, a default message is printed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: To suppress printing any banner, pass an
     empty string.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Print an exit message when exiting.

 -- Μέθοδος: InteractiveConsole.push (line)

     Push a line of source text to the interpreter.  The line should not
     have a trailing newline; it may have internal newlines.  The line
     is appended to a buffer and the interpreter’s *note runsource():
     4da0. method is called with the concatenated contents of the buffer
     as source.  If this indicates that the command was executed or
     invalid, the buffer is reset; otherwise, the command is incomplete,
     and the buffer is left as it was after the line was appended.  The
     return value is ‘True’ if more input is required, ‘False’ if the
     line was dealt with in some way (this is the same as
     ‘runsource()’).

 -- Μέθοδος: InteractiveConsole.resetbuffer ()

     Remove any unhandled source text from the input buffer.

 -- Μέθοδος: InteractiveConsole.raw_input (prompt='')

     Write a prompt and read a line.  The returned line does not include
     the trailing newline.  When the user enters the EOF key sequence,
     *note EOFError: 167e. is raised.  The base implementation reads
     from ‘sys.stdin’; a subclass may replace this with a different
     implementation.


File: python.info,  Node: codeop — Compile Python code,  Prev: code — Interpreter base classes,  Up: Custom Python Interpreters

5.31.2 ‘codeop’ — Compile Python code
-------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/codeop.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘codeop’ module provides utilities upon which the Python
read-eval-print loop can be emulated, as is done in the *note code: 1b.
module.  As a result, you probably don’t want to use the module
directly; if you want to include such a loop in your program you
probably want to use the ‘code’ module instead.

There are two parts to this job:

  1. Being able to tell if a line of input completes a Python statement:
     in short, telling whether to print “‘>>>’” or “‘...’” next.

  2. Remembering which future statements the user has entered, so
     subsequent input can be compiled with these in effect.

The ‘codeop’ module provides a way of doing each of these things, and a
way of doing them both.

To do just the former:

 -- Συνάρτηση: codeop.compile_command (source, filename='<input>',
          symbol='single')

     Tries to compile 'source', which should be a string of Python code
     and return a code object if 'source' is valid Python code.  In that
     case, the filename attribute of the code object will be 'filename',
     which defaults to ‘'<input>'’.  Returns ‘None’ if 'source' is 'not'
     valid Python code, but is a prefix of valid Python code.

     If there is a problem with 'source', an exception will be raised.
     *note SyntaxError: 17e. is raised if there is invalid Python
     syntax, and *note OverflowError: c57. or *note ValueError: 277. if
     there is an invalid literal.

     The 'symbol' argument determines whether 'source' is compiled as a
     statement (‘'single'’, the default), as a sequence of *note
     statement: 2e17. (‘'exec'’) or as an *note expression: 25c4.
     (‘'eval'’).  Any other value will cause *note ValueError: 277. to
     be raised.

          Σημείωση: It is possible (but not likely) that the parser
          stops parsing with a successful outcome before reaching the
          end of the source; in this case, trailing symbols may be
          ignored instead of causing an error.  For example, a backslash
          followed by two newlines may be followed by arbitrary garbage.
          This will be fixed once the API for the parser is better.

 -- Κλάση: codeop.Compile

     Instances of this class have *note __call__(): 961. methods
     identical in signature to the built-in function *note compile():
     1c8, but with the difference that if the instance compiles program
     text containing a *note __future__: 0. statement, the instance
     “remembers” and compiles all subsequent program texts with the
     statement in force.

 -- Κλάση: codeop.CommandCompiler

     Instances of this class have *note __call__(): 961. methods
     identical in signature to *note compile_command(): 1d51.; the
     difference is that if the instance compiles program text containing
     a *note __future__: 0. statement, the instance “remembers” and
     compiles all subsequent program texts with the statement in force.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/codeop.py


File: python.info,  Node: Importing Modules,  Next: Python Language Services,  Prev: Custom Python Interpreters,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.32 Importing Modules
======================

The modules described in this chapter provide new ways to import other
Python modules and hooks for customizing the import process.

The full list of modules described in this chapter is:

* Menu:

* zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives::
* pkgutil — Package extension utility::
* modulefinder — Find modules used by a script::
* runpy — Locating and executing Python modules::
* importlib — The implementation of import::
* importlib.resources – Ανάγνωση, άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων: importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων.
* importlib.resources.abc – Abstract base classes for resources: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
* importlib.metadata – Accessing package metadata: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata.
* The initialization of the sys.path module search path: The initialization of the sys path module search path.


File: python.info,  Node: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives,  Next: pkgutil — Package extension utility,  Up: Importing Modules

5.32.1 ‘zipimport’ — Import modules from Zip archives
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/zipimport.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module adds the ability to import Python modules (‘*.py’, ‘*.pyc’)
and packages from ZIP-format archives.  It is usually not needed to use
the ‘zipimport’ module explicitly; it is automatically used by the
built-in *note import: 9da. mechanism for *note sys.path: 194. items
that are paths to ZIP archives.

Typically, *note sys.path: 194. is a list of directory names as strings.
This module also allows an item of ‘sys.path’ to be a string naming a
ZIP file archive.  The ZIP archive can contain a subdirectory structure
to support package imports, and a path within the archive can be
specified to only import from a subdirectory.  For example, the path
‘example.zip/lib/’ would only import from the ‘lib/’ subdirectory within
the archive.

Any files may be present in the ZIP archive, but importers are only
invoked for ‘.py’ and ‘.pyc’ files.  ZIP import of dynamic modules
(‘.pyd’, ‘.so’) is disallowed.  Note that if an archive only contains
‘.py’ files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the
corresponding ‘.pyc’ file, meaning that if a ZIP archive doesn’t contain
‘.pyc’ files, importing may be rather slow.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Zstandard ('zstd') compressed zip file entries
are supported.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: ZIP64 is supported

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Previously, ZIP archives with an archive comment
were not supported.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PKZIP Application Note(2)

     Documentation on the ZIP file format by Phil Katz, the creator of
     the format and algorithms used.

PEP 273(3) - Import Modules from Zip Archives

     Written by James C. Ahlstrom, who also provided an implementation.
     Python 2.3 follows the specification in PEP 273(4), but uses an
     implementation written by Just van Rossum that uses the import
     hooks described in PEP 302(5).

*note importlib: 7a. - The implementation of the import machinery

     Package providing the relevant protocols for all importers to
     implement.

This module defines an exception:

 -- Εξαίρεση: zipimport.ZipImportError

     Exception raised by zipimporter objects.  It’s a subclass of *note
     ImportError: 1bd, so it can be caught as ‘ImportError’, too.

* Menu:

* zipimporter Objects::
* Examples: Examples<28>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/zipimport.py

   (2) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: zipimporter Objects,  Next: Examples<28>,  Up: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives

5.32.1.1 zipimporter Objects
............................

*note zipimporter: 4db6. is the class for importing ZIP files.

 -- Κλάση: zipimport.zipimporter (archivepath)

     Create a new zipimporter instance.  'archivepath' must be a path to
     a ZIP file, or to a specific path within a ZIP file.  For example,
     an 'archivepath' of ‘foo/bar.zip/lib’ will look for modules in the
     ‘lib’ directory inside the ZIP file ‘foo/bar.zip’ (provided that it
     exists).

     *note ZipImportError: 4db3. is raised if 'archivepath' doesn’t
     point to a valid ZIP archive.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Methods ‘find_loader()’ and
     ‘find_module()’, deprecated in 3.10 are now removed.  Use *note
     find_spec(): c35. instead.

      -- Μέθοδος: create_module (spec)

          Implementation of *note importlib.abc.Loader.create_module():
          106f. that returns *note None: a65. to explicitly request the
          default semantics.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- Μέθοδος: exec_module (module)

          Implementation of *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module():
          c40.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- Μέθοδος: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          An implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): c42.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_code (fullname)

          Return the code object for the specified module.  Raise *note
          ZipImportError: 4db3. if the module couldn’t be imported.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_data (pathname)

          Return the data associated with 'pathname'.  Raise *note
          OSError: 53c. if the file wasn’t found.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: *note IOError: 13fb. used to be
          raised, it is now an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_filename (fullname)

          Return the value ‘__file__’ would be set to if the specified
          module was imported.  Raise *note ZipImportError: 4db3. if the
          module couldn’t be imported.

          Added in version 3.1.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_source (fullname)

          Return the source code for the specified module.  Raise *note
          ZipImportError: 4db3. if the module couldn’t be found, return
          *note None: a65. if the archive does contain the module, but
          has no source for it.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_package (fullname)

          Return ‘True’ if the module specified by 'fullname' is a
          package.  Raise *note ZipImportError: 4db3. if the module
          couldn’t be found.

      -- Μέθοδος: invalidate_caches ()

          Clear out the internal cache of information about files found
          within the ZIP archive.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- Ιδιότητα: archive

          The file name of the importer’s associated ZIP file, without a
          possible subpath.

      -- Ιδιότητα: prefix

          The subpath within the ZIP file where modules are searched.
          This is the empty string for zipimporter objects which point
          to the root of the ZIP file.

     The *note archive: 4dbc. and *note prefix: 4dbd. attributes, when
     combined with a slash, equal the original 'archivepath' argument
     given to the ‘zipimporter’ constructor.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<28>,  Prev: zipimporter Objects,  Up: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives

5.32.1.2 Examples
.................

Here is an example that imports a module from a ZIP archive - note that
the ‘zipimport’ module is not explicitly used.

     $ unzip -l example_archive.zip
     Archive:  example_archive.zip
       Length     Date   Time    Name
      --------    ----   ----    ----
          8467  01-01-00 12:30   example.py
      --------                   -------
          8467                   1 file

     >>> import sys
     >>> # Add the archive to the front of the module search path
     >>> sys.path.insert(0, 'example_archive.zip')
     >>> import example
     >>> example.__file__
     'example_archive.zip/example.py'


File: python.info,  Node: pkgutil — Package extension utility,  Next: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script,  Prev: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives,  Up: Importing Modules

5.32.2 ‘pkgutil’ — Package extension utility
--------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pkgutil.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides utilities for the import system, in particular
package support.

 -- Κλάση: pkgutil.ModuleInfo (module_finder, name, ispkg)

     A namedtuple that holds a brief summary of a module’s info.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pkgutil.extend_path (path, name)

     Extend the search path for the modules which comprise a package.
     Intended use is to place the following code in a package’s
     ‘__init__.py’:

          from pkgutil import extend_path
          __path__ = extend_path(__path__, __name__)

     For each directory on *note sys.path: 194. that has a subdirectory
     that matches the package name, add the subdirectory to the
     package’s *note __path__: 2243.  This is useful if one wants to
     distribute different parts of a single logical package as multiple
     directories.

     It also looks for ‘*.pkg’ files beginning where ‘*’ matches the
     'name' argument.  This feature is similar to ‘*.pth’ files (see the
     *note site: cf. module for more information), except that it
     doesn’t special-case lines starting with ‘import’.  A ‘*.pkg’ file
     is trusted at face value: apart from skipping blank lines and
     ignoring comments, all entries found in a ‘*.pkg’ file are added to
     the path, regardless of whether they exist on the filesystem (this
     is a feature).

     If the input path is not a list (as is the case for frozen
     packages) it is returned unchanged.  The input path is not
     modified; an extended copy is returned.  Items are only appended to
     the copy at the end.

     It is assumed that *note sys.path: 194. is a sequence.  Items of
     ‘sys.path’ that are not strings referring to existing directories
     are ignored.  Unicode items on ‘sys.path’ that cause errors when
     used as filenames may cause this function to raise an exception (in
     line with *note os.path.isdir(): dd4. behavior).

 -- Συνάρτηση: pkgutil.get_importer (path_item)

     Retrieve a *note finder: 263e. for the given 'path_item'.

     The returned finder is cached in *note sys.path_importer_cache:
     9db. if it was newly created by a path hook.

     The cache (or part of it) can be cleared manually if a rescan of
     *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd. is necessary.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Updated to be based directly on *note
     importlib: 7a. rather than relying on the package internal PEP
     302(2) import emulation.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pkgutil.iter_importers (fullname='')

     Yield *note finder: 263e. objects for the given module name.

     If 'fullname' contains a ‘'.'’, the finders will be for the package
     containing 'fullname', otherwise they will be all registered top
     level finders (i.e.  those on both *note sys.meta_path: 10e3. and
     *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd.).

     If the named module is in a package, that package is imported as a
     side effect of invoking this function.

     If no module name is specified, all top level finders are produced.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Updated to be based directly on *note
     importlib: 7a. rather than relying on the package internal PEP
     302(3) import emulation.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pkgutil.iter_modules (path=None, prefix='')

     Yields *note ModuleInfo: 1101. for all submodules on 'path', or, if
     'path' is ‘None’, all top-level modules on *note sys.path: 194.

     'path' should be either ‘None’ or a list of paths to look for
     modules in.

     'prefix' is a string to output on the front of every module name on
     output.

          Σημείωση: Only works for a *note finder: 263e. which defines
          an ‘iter_modules()’ method.  This interface is non-standard,
          so the module also provides implementations for *note
          importlib.machinery.FileFinder: 141a. and *note
          zipimport.zipimporter: 4db6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Updated to be based directly on *note
     importlib: 7a. rather than relying on the package internal PEP
     302(4) import emulation.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pkgutil.walk_packages (path=None, prefix='',
          onerror=None)

     Yields *note ModuleInfo: 1101. for all modules recursively on
     'path', or, if 'path' is ‘None’, all accessible modules.

     'path' should be either ‘None’ or a list of paths to look for
     modules in.

     'prefix' is a string to output on the front of every module name on
     output.

     Note that this function must import all 'packages' ('not' all
     modules!)  on the given 'path', in order to access the ‘__path__’
     attribute to find submodules.

     'onerror' is a function which gets called with one argument (the
     name of the package which was being imported) if any exception
     occurs while trying to import a package.  If no 'onerror' function
     is supplied, *note ImportError: 1bd.s are caught and ignored, while
     all other exceptions are propagated, terminating the search.

     Examples:

          # list all modules python can access
          walk_packages()

          # list all submodules of ctypes
          walk_packages(ctypes.__path__, ctypes.__name__ + '.')

          Σημείωση: Only works for a *note finder: 263e. which defines
          an ‘iter_modules()’ method.  This interface is non-standard,
          so the module also provides implementations for *note
          importlib.machinery.FileFinder: 141a. and *note
          zipimport.zipimporter: 4db6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Updated to be based directly on *note
     importlib: 7a. rather than relying on the package internal PEP
     302(5) import emulation.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pkgutil.get_data (package, resource)

     Get a resource from a package.

     This is a wrapper for the *note loader: 1c30. *note get_data: 4dc5.
     API. The 'package' argument should be the name of a package, in
     standard module format (‘foo.bar’).  The 'resource' argument should
     be in the form of a relative filename, using ‘/’ as the path
     separator.

     The function returns a binary string that is the contents of the
     specified resource.

     This function uses the *note loader: 1c30. method *note get_data():
     4dc6. to support modules installed in the filesystem, but also in
     zip files, databases, or elsewhere.

     For packages located in the filesystem, which have already been
     imported, this is the rough equivalent of:

          d = os.path.dirname(sys.modules[package].__file__)
          data = open(os.path.join(d, resource), 'rb').read()

     Like the *note open(): 32b. function, ‘get_data()’ can follow
     parent directories (‘../’) and absolute paths (starting with ‘/’ or
     ‘C:/’, for example).  It can open compilation/installation
     artifacts like ‘.py’ and ‘.pyc’ files or files with *note reserved
     filenames: 2d9.  To be compatible with non-filesystem loaders,
     avoid using these features.

          Προειδοποίηση: This function is intended for trusted input.
          It does not verify that 'resource' «belongs» to 'package'.

     If you use a user-provided 'resource' path, consider verifying it.
     For example, require an alphanumeric filename with a known
     extension, or install and check a list of known resources.

     If the package cannot be located or loaded, or it uses a *note
     loader: 1c30. which does not support *note get_data: 4dc5, then
     ‘None’ is returned.  In particular, the loader for *note namespace
     packages: 52e. does not support ‘get_data’.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note importlib.resources: 7e. module provides structured
     access to module resources.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pkgutil.resolve_name (name, *, strict=False)

     Resolve a name to an object.

     This functionality is used in numerous places in the standard
     library (see bpo-12915(6)) - and equivalent functionality is also
     in widely used third-party packages such as setuptools, Django and
     Pyramid.

     It is expected that 'name' will be a string in one of the following
     formats, where W is shorthand for a valid Python identifier and dot
     stands for a literal period in these pseudo-regexes:

        * ‘W(.W)*’

        * ‘W(.W)*:(W(.W)*)?’

        * ‘W(.W)*:(W(.W)*)’

     The first form is intended for backward compatibility only.  It
     assumes that some part of the dotted name is a package, and the
     rest is an object somewhere within that package, possibly nested
     inside other objects.  Because the place where the package stops
     and the object hierarchy starts can’t be inferred by inspection,
     repeated attempts to import must be done with this form.

     In the second form, the caller makes the division point clear
     through the provision of a single colon: the dotted name to the
     left of the colon is a package to be imported, and the dotted name
     to the right is the object hierarchy within that package.  Only one
     import is needed in this form.  If it ends with the colon, then a
     module object is returned.

     The first two forms are accepted when ‘strict=False’ (the default).

     The third form requires both the module name and callable,
     separated by a colon.  Only this form is accepted when
     ‘strict=True’.

     The function will return an object (which might be a module), or
     raise one of the following exceptions:

     *note ValueError: 277. – if 'name' isn’t in a recognised format.

     *note ImportError: 1bd. – if an import failed when it shouldn’t
     have.

     *note AttributeError: 1a9. – If a failure occurred when traversing
     the object hierarchy within the imported package to get to the
     desired object.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The optional keyword-only ‘strict’ flag
     was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/pkgutil.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12915


File: python.info,  Node: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script,  Next: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules,  Prev: pkgutil — Package extension utility,  Up: Importing Modules

5.32.3 ‘modulefinder’ — Find modules used by a script
-----------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/modulefinder.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides a *note ModuleFinder: 1fd4. class that can be used
to determine the set of modules imported by a script.  ‘modulefinder.py’
can also be run as a script, giving the filename of a Python script as
its argument, after which a report of the imported modules will be
printed.

 -- Συνάρτηση: modulefinder.AddPackagePath (pkg_name, path)

     Record that the package named 'pkg_name' can be found in the
     specified 'path'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: modulefinder.ReplacePackage (oldname, newname)

     Allows specifying that the module named 'oldname' is in fact the
     package named 'newname'.

 -- Κλάση: modulefinder.ModuleFinder (path=None, debug=0, excludes=[],
          replace_paths=[])

     This class provides *note run_script(): 4dcc. and *note report():
     4dcd. methods to determine the set of modules imported by a script.
     'path' can be a list of directories to search for modules; if not
     specified, ‘sys.path’ is used.  'debug' sets the debugging level;
     higher values make the class print debugging messages about what
     it’s doing.  'excludes' is a list of module names to exclude from
     the analysis.  'replace_paths' is a list of ‘(oldpath, newpath)’
     tuples that will be replaced in module paths.

      -- Μέθοδος: report ()

          Print a report to standard output that lists the modules
          imported by the script and their paths, as well as modules
          that are missing or seem to be missing.

      -- Μέθοδος: run_script (pathname)

          Analyze the contents of the 'pathname' file, which must
          contain Python code.

      -- Ιδιότητα: modules

          A dictionary mapping module names to modules.  See *note
          Example usage of ModuleFinder: 4dcf.

* Menu:

* Example usage of ModuleFinder::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/modulefinder.py


File: python.info,  Node: Example usage of ModuleFinder,  Up: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script

5.32.3.1 Example usage of ‘ModuleFinder’
........................................

The script that is going to get analyzed later on (bacon.py):

     import re, itertools

     try:
         import baconhameggs
     except ImportError:
         pass

     try:
         import guido.python.ham
     except ImportError:
         pass

The script that will output the report of bacon.py:

     from modulefinder import ModuleFinder

     finder = ModuleFinder()
     finder.run_script('bacon.py')

     print('Loaded modules:')
     for name, mod in finder.modules.items():
         print('%s: ' % name, end='')
         print(','.join(list(mod.globalnames.keys())[:3]))

     print('-'*50)
     print('Modules not imported:')
     print('\n'.join(finder.badmodules.keys()))

Sample output (may vary depending on the architecture):

     Loaded modules:
     _types:
     copyreg:  _inverted_registry,_slotnames,__all__
     re._compiler:  isstring,_sre,_optimize_unicode
     _sre:
     re._constants:  REPEAT_ONE,makedict,AT_END_LINE
     sys:
     re:  __module__,finditer,_expand
     itertools:
     __main__:  re,itertools,baconhameggs
     re._parser:  _PATTERNENDERS,SRE_FLAG_UNICODE
     array:
     types:  __module__,IntType,TypeType
     ---------------------------------------------------
     Modules not imported:
     guido.python.ham
     baconhameggs


File: python.info,  Node: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules,  Next: importlib — The implementation of import,  Prev: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script,  Up: Importing Modules

5.32.4 ‘runpy’ — Locating and executing Python modules
------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/runpy.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘runpy’ module is used to locate and run Python modules without
importing them first.  Its main use is to implement the *note -m: 4ca.
command line switch that allows scripts to be located using the Python
module namespace rather than the filesystem.

Note that this is 'not' a sandbox module - all code is executed in the
current process, and any side effects (such as cached imports of other
modules) will remain in place after the functions have returned.

Furthermore, any functions and classes defined by the executed code are
not guaranteed to work correctly after a ‘runpy’ function has returned.
If that limitation is not acceptable for a given use case, *note
importlib: 7a. is likely to be a more suitable choice than this module.

The ‘runpy’ module provides two functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: runpy.run_module (mod_name, init_globals=None,
          run_name=None, alter_sys=False)

     Execute the code of the specified module and return the resulting
     module’s globals dictionary.  The module’s code is first located
     using the standard import mechanism (refer to PEP 302(2) for
     details) and then executed in a fresh module namespace.

     The 'mod_name' argument should be an absolute module name.  If the
     module name refers to a package rather than a normal module, then
     that package is imported and the *note __main__: 1. submodule
     within that package is then executed and the resulting module
     globals dictionary returned.

     The optional dictionary argument 'init_globals' may be used to
     pre-populate the module’s globals dictionary before the code is
     executed.  'init_globals' will not be modified.  If any of the
     special global variables below are defined in 'init_globals', those
     definitions are overridden by ‘run_module()’.

     The special global variables ‘__name__’, ‘__spec__’, ‘__file__’,
     ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are set in the globals dictionary
     before the module code is executed.  (Note that this is a minimal
     set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as an
     interpreter implementation detail.)

     ‘__name__’ is set to 'run_name' if this optional argument is not
     *note None: a65, to ‘mod_name + '.__main__'’ if the named module is
     a package and to the 'mod_name' argument otherwise.

     ‘__spec__’ will be set appropriately for the 'actually' imported
     module (that is, ‘__spec__.name’ will always be 'mod_name' or
     ‘mod_name + '.__main__'’, never 'run_name').

     ‘__file__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are *note set as normal:
     2552. based on the module spec.

     If the argument 'alter_sys' is supplied and evaluates to *note
     True: fcc, then ‘sys.argv[0]’ is updated with the value of
     ‘__file__’ and ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ is updated with a temporary
     module object for the module being executed.  Both ‘sys.argv[0]’
     and ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ are restored to their original values
     before the function returns.

     Note that this manipulation of *note sys: e2. is not thread-safe.
     Other threads may see the partially initialised module, as well as
     the altered list of arguments.  It is recommended that the ‘sys’
     module be left alone when invoking this function from threaded
     code.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note -m: 4ca. option offering equivalent functionality from
     the command line.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added ability to execute packages by
     looking for a *note __main__: 1. submodule.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added ‘__cached__’ global variable (see PEP
     3147(3)).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Updated to take advantage of the module
     spec feature added by PEP 451(4).  This allows ‘__cached__’ to be
     set correctly for modules run this way, as well as ensuring the
     real module name is always accessible as ‘__spec__.name’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The setting of ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’,
     and ‘__package__’ are deprecated.  See *note ModuleSpec: 245d. for
     alternatives.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: ‘__cached__’ is no longer set.

 -- Συνάρτηση: runpy.run_path (path_name, init_globals=None,
          run_name=None)

     Execute the code at the named filesystem location and return the
     resulting module’s globals dictionary.  As with a script name
     supplied to the CPython command line, 'file_path' may refer to a
     Python source file, a compiled bytecode file or a valid *note
     sys.path: 194. entry containing a *note __main__: 1. module (e.g.
     a zipfile containing a top-level ‘__main__.py’ file).

     For a simple script, the specified code is simply executed in a
     fresh module namespace.  For a valid *note sys.path: 194. entry
     (typically a zipfile or directory), the entry is first added to the
     beginning of ‘sys.path’.  The function then looks for and executes
     a *note __main__: 1. module using the updated path.  Note that
     there is no special protection against invoking an existing
     ‘__main__’ entry located elsewhere on ‘sys.path’ if there is no
     such module at the specified location.

     The optional dictionary argument 'init_globals' may be used to
     pre-populate the module’s globals dictionary before the code is
     executed.  'init_globals' will not be modified.  If any of the
     special global variables below are defined in 'init_globals', those
     definitions are overridden by ‘run_path()’.

     The special global variables ‘__name__’, ‘__spec__’, ‘__file__’,
     ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are set in the globals dictionary
     before the module code is executed.  (Note that this is a minimal
     set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as an
     interpreter implementation detail.)

     ‘__name__’ is set to 'run_name' if this optional argument is not
     *note None: a65. and to ‘'<run_path>'’ otherwise.

     If 'file_path' directly references a script file (whether as source
     or as precompiled byte code), then ‘__file__’ will be set to
     'file_path', and ‘__spec__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ will
     all be set to *note None: a65.

     If 'file_path' is a reference to a valid *note sys.path: 194.
     entry, then ‘__spec__’ will be set appropriately for the imported
     *note __main__: 1. module (that is, ‘__spec__.name’ will always be
     ‘__main__’).  ‘__file__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ will be
     *note set as normal: 2552. based on the module spec.

     A number of alterations are also made to the *note sys: e2. module.
     Firstly, *note sys.path: 194. may be altered as described above.
     ‘sys.argv[0]’ is updated with the value of 'file_path' and
     ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ is updated with a temporary module object
     for the module being executed.  All modifications to items in ‘sys’
     are reverted before the function returns.

     Note that, unlike *note run_module(): 1901, the alterations made to
     *note sys: e2. are not optional in this function as these
     adjustments are essential to allowing the execution of *note
     sys.path: 194. entries.  As the thread-safety limitations still
     apply, use of this function in threaded code should be either
     serialised with the import lock or delegated to a separate process.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note Interface options: 230a. for equivalent functionality on the
     command line (‘python path/to/script’).

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Updated to take advantage of the module
     spec feature added by PEP 451(5).  This allows ‘__cached__’ to be
     set correctly in the case where ‘__main__’ is imported from a valid
     *note sys.path: 194. entry rather than being executed directly.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The setting of ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’,
     and ‘__package__’ are deprecated.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: ‘__cached__’ is no longer set.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 338(6) – Executing modules as scripts

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

PEP 366(7) – Main module explicit relative imports

     PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan.

PEP 451(8) – A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System

     PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow

*note Command line and environment: 1f98. - CPython command line details

The *note importlib.import_module(): 927. function

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/runpy.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib — The implementation of import,  Next: importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων,  Prev: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules,  Up: Importing Modules

5.32.5 ‘importlib’ — The implementation of ‘import’
---------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.1.

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<11>.
* Functions: Functions<11>.
* importlib.abc – Abstract base classes related to import: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
* importlib.machinery – Importers and path hooks: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
* importlib.util – Utility code for importers: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
* Examples: Examples<29>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/importlib/__init__.py


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<11>,  Next: Functions<11>,  Up: importlib — The implementation of import

5.32.5.1 Introduction
.....................

The purpose of the ‘importlib’ package is three-fold.

One is to provide the implementation of the *note import: 9da. statement
(and thus, by extension, the *note __import__(): ca6. function) in
Python source code.  This provides an implementation of ‘import’ which
is portable to any Python interpreter.  This also provides an
implementation which is easier to comprehend than one implemented in a
programming language other than Python.

Two, the components to implement *note import: 9da. are exposed in this
package, making it easier for users to create their own custom objects
(known generically as an *note importer: 263f.) to participate in the
import process.

Three, the package contains modules exposing additional functionality
for managing aspects of Python packages:

   * *note importlib.metadata: 7d. presents access to metadata from
     third-party distributions.

   * *note importlib.resources: 7e. provides routines for accessing
     non-code «resources» from Python packages.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Η εντολή import: 9da.

     The language reference for the *note import: 9da. statement.

Packages specification(1)

     Original specification of packages.  Some semantics have changed
     since the writing of this document (e.g.  redirecting based on
     ‘None’ in *note sys.modules: 19ba.).

The *note __import__(): 1415. function

     The *note import: 9da. statement is syntactic sugar for this
     function.

*note The initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1953.

     The initialization of *note sys.path: 194.

PEP 235(2)

     Import on Case-Insensitive Platforms

PEP 263(3)

     Defining Python Source Code Encodings

PEP 302(4)

     New Import Hooks

PEP 328(5)

     Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative

PEP 366(6)

     Main module explicit relative imports

PEP 420(7)

     Implicit namespace packages

PEP 451(8)

     A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System

PEP 488(9)

     Elimination of PYO files

PEP 489(10)

     Multi-phase extension module initialization

PEP 552(11)

     Deterministic pycs

PEP 3120(12)

     Using UTF-8 as the Default Source Encoding

PEP 3147(13)

     PYC Repository Directories

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0235/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<11>,  Next: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import,  Prev: Introduction<11>,  Up: importlib — The implementation of import

5.32.5.2 Functions
..................

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.__import__ (name, globals=None, locals=None,
          fromlist=(), level=0)

     An implementation of the built-in ‘__import__()’ function.

          Σημείωση: Programmatic importing of modules should use *note
          import_module(): 927. instead of this function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.import_module (name, package=None)

     Import a module.  The 'name' argument specifies what module to
     import in absolute or relative terms (e.g.  either ‘pkg.mod’ or
     ‘..mod’).  If the name is specified in relative terms, then the
     'package' argument must be set to the name of the package which is
     to act as the anchor for resolving the package name (e.g.
     ‘import_module('..mod', 'pkg.subpkg')’ will import ‘pkg.mod’).

     The ‘import_module()’ function acts as a simplifying wrapper around
     *note importlib.__import__(): 1415.  This means all semantics of
     the function are derived from ‘importlib.__import__()’.  The most
     important difference between these two functions is that
     ‘import_module()’ returns the specified package or module (e.g.
     ‘pkg.mod’), while *note __import__(): ca6. returns the top-level
     package or module (e.g.  ‘pkg’).

     If you are dynamically importing a module that was created since
     the interpreter began execution (e.g., created a Python source
     file), you may need to call *note invalidate_caches(): fcf. in
     order for the new module to be noticed by the import system.

     If the module cannot be imported, ‘import_module()’ will raise
     *note ImportError: 1bd. or an appropriate subclass like *note
     ModuleNotFoundError: 1be.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Parent packages are automatically imported.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.invalidate_caches ()

     Invalidate the internal caches of finders stored at *note
     sys.meta_path: 10e3.  If a finder implements ‘invalidate_caches()’
     then it will be called to perform the invalidation.  This function
     should be called if any modules are created/installed while your
     program is running to guarantee all finders will notice the new
     module’s existence.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Namespace packages created/installed in a
     different *note sys.path: 194. location after the same namespace
     was already imported are noticed.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.reload (module)

     Reload a previously imported 'module'.  The argument must be a
     module object, so it must have been successfully imported before.
     This is useful if you have edited the module source file using an
     external editor and want to try out the new version without leaving
     the Python interpreter.  The return value is the module object
     (which can be different if re-importing causes a different object
     to be placed in *note sys.modules: 19ba.).

     When ‘reload()’ is executed:

        * Python module’s code is recompiled and the module-level code
          re-executed, defining a new set of objects which are bound to
          names in the module’s dictionary by reusing the *note loader:
          1c30. which originally loaded the module.  The ‘init’ function
          of extension modules is not called a second time.

        * As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only
          reclaimed after their reference counts drop to zero.

        * The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any
          new or changed objects.

        * Other references to the old objects (such as names external to
          the module) are not rebound to refer to the new objects and
          must be updated in each namespace where they occur if that is
          desired.

     There are a number of other caveats:

     When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module’s
     global variables) is retained.  Redefinitions of names will
     override the old definitions, so this is generally not a problem.
     If the new version of a module does not define a name that was
     defined by the old version, the old definition remains.  This
     feature can be used to the module’s advantage if it maintains a
     global table or cache of objects — with a *note try: ad6. statement
     it can test for the table’s presence and skip its initialization if
     desired:

          try:
              cache
          except NameError:
              cache = {}

     It is generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically
     loaded modules.  Reloading *note sys: e2, *note __main__: 1, *note
     builtins: 13. and other key modules is not recommended.  In many
     cases extension modules are not designed to be initialized more
     than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways when reloaded.

     If a module imports objects from another module using *note from:
     1650. … *note import: 9da. …, calling ‘reload()’ for the other
     module does not redefine the objects imported from it — one way
     around this is to re-execute the ‘from’ statement, another is to
     use ‘import’ and qualified names ('module.name') instead.

     If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module
     that defines the class does not affect the method definitions of
     the instances — they continue to use the old class definition.  The
     same is true for derived classes.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be. is raised
     when the module being reloaded lacks a *note ModuleSpec: 245d.

          Προειδοποίηση: This function is not thread-safe.  Calling it
          from multiple threads can result in unexpected behavior.  It’s
          recommended to use the *note threading.Lock: 1a10. or other
          synchronization primitives for thread-safe module reloading.


File: python.info,  Node: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import,  Next: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks,  Prev: Functions<11>,  Up: importlib — The implementation of import

5.32.5.3 ‘importlib.abc’ – Abstract base classes related to import
..................................................................

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘importlib.abc’ module contains all of the core abstract base
classes used by *note import: 9da.  Some subclasses of the core abstract
base classes are also provided to help in implementing the core ABCs.

ABC hierarchy:

     object
      +-- MetaPathFinder
      +-- PathEntryFinder
      +-- Loader
           +-- ResourceLoader --------+
           +-- InspectLoader          |
                +-- ExecutionLoader --+
                                      +-- FileLoader
                                      +-- SourceLoader

 -- Κλάση: importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder

     An abstract base class representing a *note meta path finder: 1418.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: No longer a subclass of ‘Finder’.

      -- Μέθοδος: find_spec (fullname, path, target=None)

          An abstract method for finding a *note spec: 2554. for the
          specified module.  If this is a top-level import, 'path' will
          be ‘None’.  Otherwise, this is a search for a subpackage or
          module and 'path' will be the value of *note __path__: 2243.
          from the parent package.  If a spec cannot be found, ‘None’ is
          returned.  When passed in, ‘target’ is a module object that
          the finder may use to make a more educated guess about what
          spec to return.  *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): c43.
          may be useful for implementing concrete ‘MetaPathFinders’.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Μέθοδος: invalidate_caches ()

          An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any
          internal cache used by the finder.  Used by *note
          importlib.invalidate_caches(): fcf. when invalidating the
          caches of all finders on *note sys.meta_path: 10e3.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Returns ‘None’ when called instead of
          *note NotImplemented: 440.

      -- Μέθοδος: discover (parent=None)

          An optional method which searches for possible specs with
          given 'parent' module spec.  If 'parent' is 'None',
          ‘MetaPathFinder.discover()’ will search for top-level modules.

          Returns an iterable of possible specs.

          Raises *note ValueError: 277. if 'parent' is not a package
          module.

               Προειδοποίηση: This method can potentially yield a very
               large number of objects, and it may carry out IO
               operations when computing these values.

               Because of this, it will generally be desirable to
               compute the result values on-the-fly, as they are needed.
               As such, the returned object is only guaranteed to be an
               *note iterable: 28aa, instead of a *note list: 4d9. or
               other *note collection: 1047. type.

          Added in version 3.15.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder

     An abstract base class representing a *note path entry finder:
     1419.  Though it bears some similarities to *note MetaPathFinder:
     c44, ‘PathEntryFinder’ is meant for use only within the path-based
     import subsystem provided by *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder:
     13cc.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: No longer a subclass of ‘Finder’.

      -- Μέθοδος: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          An abstract method for finding a *note spec: 2554. for the
          specified module.  The finder will search for the module only
          within the *note path entry: 264e. to which it is assigned.
          If a spec cannot be found, ‘None’ is returned.  When passed
          in, ‘target’ is a module object that the finder may use to
          make a more educated guess about what spec to return.  *note
          importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): c43. may be useful for
          implementing concrete ‘PathEntryFinders’.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Μέθοδος: invalidate_caches ()

          An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any
          internal cache used by the finder.  Used by *note
          importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches(): fce. when
          invalidating the caches of all cached finders.

      -- Μέθοδος: discover (parent=None)

          An optional method which searches for possible specs with
          given 'parent' module spec.  If 'parent' is 'None',
          ‘PathEntryFinder.discover()’ will search for top-level
          modules.

          Returns an iterable of possible specs.

          Raises *note ValueError: 277. if 'parent' is not a package
          module.

               Προειδοποίηση: This method can potentially yield a very
               large number of objects, and it may carry out IO
               operations when computing these values.

               Because of this, it will generally be desirable to
               compute the result values on-the-fly, as they are needed.
               As such, the returned object is only guaranteed to be an
               *note iterable: 28aa, instead of a *note list: 4d9. or
               other *note collection: 1047. type.

          Added in version 3.15.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.abc.Loader

          An abstract base class for a *note loader: 1c30.  See PEP
          302(2) for the exact definition for a loader.

          Loaders that wish to support resource reading should implement
          a ‘get_resource_reader()’ method as specified by *note
          importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 4ddc.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Introduced the optional
          ‘get_resource_reader()’ method.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Removed the ‘load_module()’ method.

      -- Μέθοδος: create_module (spec)

          A method that returns the module object to use when importing
          a module.  This method may return ‘None’, indicating that
          default module creation semantics should take place.

          Added in version 3.4.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: This method is no longer optional when
          *note exec_module(): c40. is defined.

      -- Μέθοδος: exec_module (module)

          An abstract method that executes the module in its own
          namespace when a module is imported or reloaded.  The module
          should already be initialized when ‘exec_module()’ is called.
          When this method exists, *note create_module(): 106f. must be
          defined.

          Added in version 3.4.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: *note create_module(): 106f. must also
          be defined.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.abc.ResourceLoader

     'Superseded by TraversableResources'

          An abstract base class for a *note loader: 1c30. which
          implements the optional PEP 302(3) protocol for loading
          arbitrary resources from the storage back-end.

          Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.7: This ABC is deprecated in favour
          of supporting resource loading through *note
          importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 571.  This class
          exists for backwards compatibility only with other ABCs in
          this module.

           -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod get_data (path)

                    An abstract method to return the bytes for the data
                    located at 'path'.  Loaders that have a file-like
                    storage back-end that allows storing arbitrary data
                    can implement this abstract method to give direct
                    access to the data stored.  *note OSError: 53c. is
                    to be raised if the 'path' cannot be found.  The
                    'path' is expected to be constructed using a
                    module’s *note __file__: 255a. attribute or an item
                    from a package’s *note __path__: 2243.

                    Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Raises *note OSError: 53c.
                    instead of *note NotImplementedError: 59a.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.abc.InspectLoader

     An abstract base class for a *note loader: 1c30. which implements
     the optional PEP 302(4) protocol for loaders that inspect modules.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_code (fullname)

          Return the code object for a module, or ‘None’ if the module
          does not have a code object (as would be the case, for
          example, for a built-in module).  Raise an *note ImportError:
          1bd. if loader cannot find the requested module.

               Σημείωση: While the method has a default implementation,
               it is suggested that it be overridden if possible for
               performance.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: No longer abstract and a concrete
          implementation is provided.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod get_source (fullname)

               An abstract method to return the source of a module.  It
               is returned as a text string using *note universal
               newlines: 10f1, translating all recognized line
               separators into ‘'\n'’ characters.  Returns ‘None’ if no
               source is available (e.g.  a built-in module).  Raises
               *note ImportError: 1bd. if the loader cannot find the
               module specified.

               Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Raises *note ImportError: 1bd.
               instead of *note NotImplementedError: 59a.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_package (fullname)

          An optional method to return a true value if the module is a
          package, a false value otherwise.  *note ImportError: 1bd. is
          raised if the *note loader: 1c30. cannot find the module.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Raises *note ImportError: 1bd. instead
          of *note NotImplementedError: 59a.

      -- Μέθοδος: static source_to_code (data, path='<string>',
               fullname=None)

          Create a code object from Python source.

          The 'data' argument can be whatever the *note compile(): 1c8.
          function supports (i.e.  string or bytes).  The 'path'
          argument should be the «path» to where the source code
          originated from, which can be an abstract concept (e.g.
          location in a zip file).

          With the subsequent code object one can execute it in a module
          by running ‘exec(code, module.__dict__)’.

          The optional argument 'fullname' specifies the module name.
          It is needed to unambiguous *note filter: 1cc. syntax warnings
          by module name.

          Added in version 3.4.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Made the method static.

          Added in version 3.15: Added the 'fullname' parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: exec_module (module)

          Implementation of *note Loader.exec_module(): c40.

          Added in version 3.4.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader

     An abstract base class which inherits from *note InspectLoader:
     12fe. that, when implemented, helps a module to be executed as a
     script.  The ABC represents an optional PEP 302(5) protocol.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod get_filename (fullname)

               An abstract method that is to return the value of *note
               __file__: 255a. for the specified module.  If no path is
               available, *note ImportError: 1bd. is raised.

               If source code is available, then the method should
               return the path to the source file, regardless of whether
               a bytecode was used to load the module.

               Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Raises *note ImportError: 1bd.
               instead of *note NotImplementedError: 59a.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.abc.FileLoader (fullname, path)

     An abstract base class which inherits from *note ResourceLoader:
     fa7. and *note ExecutionLoader: 4dde, providing concrete
     implementations of *note ResourceLoader.get_data(): 4dc5. and *note
     ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 4ddf.

     The 'fullname' argument is a fully resolved name of the module the
     loader is to handle.  The 'path' argument is the path to the file
     for the module.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Removed the ‘load_module()’ method.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name of the module the loader can handle.

      -- Ιδιότητα: path

          Path to the file of the module.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod get_filename (fullname)

          Returns *note path: 4de1.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod get_data (path)

          Reads 'path' as a binary file and returns the bytes from it.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.abc.SourceLoader

     An abstract base class for implementing source (and optionally
     bytecode) file loading.  The class inherits from both *note
     ResourceLoader: fa7. and *note ExecutionLoader: 4dde, requiring the
     implementation of:

        * *note ResourceLoader.get_data(): 4dc5.

        * 
          *note ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 4ddf.

               Should only return the path to the source file;
               sourceless loading is not supported.

     The abstract methods defined by this class are to add optional
     bytecode file support.  Not implementing these optional methods (or
     causing them to raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a.) causes the
     loader to only work with source code.  Implementing the methods
     allows the loader to work with source 'and' bytecode files; it does
     not allow for 'sourceless' loading where only bytecode is provided.
     Bytecode files are an optimization to speed up loading by removing
     the parsing step of Python’s compiler, and so no bytecode-specific
     API is exposed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Removed the ‘load_module()’ method.

      -- Μέθοδος: path_stats (path)

          Optional abstract method which returns a *note dict: 188.
          containing metadata about the specified path.  Supported
          dictionary keys are:

             - ‘'mtime'’ (mandatory): an integer or floating-point
               number representing the modification time of the source
               code;

             - ‘'size'’ (optional): the size in bytes of the source
               code.

          Any other keys in the dictionary are ignored, to allow for
          future extensions.  If the path cannot be handled, *note
          OSError: 53c. is raised.

          Added in version 3.3.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Raise *note OSError: 53c. instead of
          *note NotImplementedError: 59a.

      -- Μέθοδος: path_mtime (path)

          Optional abstract method which returns the modification time
          for the specified path.

          Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.3: This method is deprecated in
          favour of *note path_stats(): 1533.  You don’t have to
          implement it, but it is still available for compatibility
          purposes.  Raise *note OSError: 53c. if the path cannot be
          handled.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Raise *note OSError: 53c. instead of
          *note NotImplementedError: 59a.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_data (path, data)

          Optional abstract method which writes the specified bytes to a
          file path.  Any intermediate directories which do not exist
          are to be created automatically.

          When writing to the path fails because the path is read-only
          (*note errno.EACCES: 2908./*note PermissionError: 10f9.), do
          not propagate the exception.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: No longer raises *note
          NotImplementedError: 59a. when called.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_code (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.get_code():
          12ff.

      -- Μέθοδος: exec_module (module)

          Concrete implementation of *note Loader.exec_module(): c40.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_source (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.get_source():
          1302.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_package (fullname)

          Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.is_package():
          4ddd.  A module is determined to be a package if its file path
          (as provided by *note ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 4ddf.)
          is a file named ‘__init__’ when the file extension is removed
          'and' the module name itself does not end in ‘__init__’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/importlib/abc.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks,  Next: importlib util – Utility code for importers,  Prev: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import,  Up: importlib — The implementation of import

5.32.5.4 ‘importlib.machinery’ – Importers and path hooks
.........................................................

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/machinery.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains the various objects that help *note import: 9da.
find and load modules.

 -- Δεδομένα: importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
     source modules.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Δεδομένα: importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the file suffixes for non-optimized
     bytecode modules.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.5: Use *note BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 925.
     instead.

 -- Δεδομένα: importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the file suffixes for optimized
     bytecode modules.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.5: Use *note BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 925.
     instead.

 -- Δεδομένα: importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
     bytecode modules (including the leading dot).

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The value is no longer dependent on
     ‘__debug__’.

 -- Δεδομένα: importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES

     A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for
     extension modules.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.machinery.all_suffixes ()

     Returns a combined list of strings representing all file suffixes
     for modules recognized by the standard import machinery.  This is a
     helper for code which simply needs to know if a filesystem path
     potentially refers to a module without needing any details on the
     kind of module (for example, *note inspect.getmodulename(): 10f0.).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter

     An *note importer: 263f. for built-in modules.  All known built-in
     modules are listed in *note sys.builtin_module_names: 2236.  This
     class implements the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: c44. and
     *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader: 12fe. ABCs.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: As part of PEP 489(2), the builtin importer
     now implements ‘Loader.create_module()’ and ‘Loader.exec_module()’

 -- Κλάση: importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter

     An *note importer: 263f. for frozen modules.  This class implements
     the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: c44. and *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader: 12fe. ABCs.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Gained ‘create_module()’ and
     ‘exec_module()’ methods.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder

     *note Finder: 263e. for modules declared in the Windows registry.
     This class implements the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: c44.
     ABC.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.6: Use *note site: cf. configuration
     instead.  Future versions of Python may not enable this finder by
     default.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.machinery.PathFinder

     A *note Finder: 263e. for *note sys.path: 194. and package
     ‘__path__’ attributes.  This class implements the *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: c44. ABC.

     Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need
     for instantiation.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod find_spec (fullname, path=None,
               target=None)

          Class method that attempts to find a *note spec: 2554. for the
          module specified by 'fullname' on *note sys.path: 194. or, if
          defined, on 'path'.  For each path entry that is searched,
          *note sys.path_importer_cache: 9db. is checked.  If a
          non-false object is found then it is used as the *note path
          entry finder: 1419. to look for the module being searched for.
          If no entry is found in ‘sys.path_importer_cache’, then *note
          sys.path_hooks: 13cd. is searched for a finder for the path
          entry and, if found, is stored in ‘sys.path_importer_cache’
          along with being queried about the module.  If no finder is
          ever found then ‘None’ is both stored in the cache and
          returned.

          Added in version 3.4.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: If the current working directory –
          represented by an empty string – is no longer valid then
          ‘None’ is returned but no value is cached in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 9db.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod invalidate_caches ()

          Calls *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches():
          4ddb. on all finders stored in *note sys.path_importer_cache:
          9db. that define the method.  Otherwise entries in
          ‘sys.path_importer_cache’ set to ‘None’ are deleted.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Entries of ‘None’ in *note
          sys.path_importer_cache: 9db. are deleted.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Calls objects in *note sys.path_hooks:
     13cd. with the current working directory for ‘''’ (i.e.  the empty
     string).

 -- Κλάση: importlib.machinery.FileFinder (path, *loader_details)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder:
     c45. which caches results from the file system.

     The 'path' argument is the directory for which the finder is in
     charge of searching.

     The 'loader_details' argument is a variable number of 2-item tuples
     each containing a loader and a sequence of file suffixes the loader
     recognizes.  The loaders are expected to be callables which accept
     two arguments of the module’s name and the path to the file found.

     The finder will cache the directory contents as necessary, making
     stat calls for each module search to verify the cache is not
     outdated.  Because cache staleness relies upon the granularity of
     the operating system’s state information of the file system, there
     is a potential race condition of searching for a module, creating a
     new file, and then searching for the module the new file
     represents.  If the operations happen fast enough to fit within the
     granularity of stat calls, then the module search will fail.  To
     prevent this from happening, when you create a module dynamically,
     make sure to call *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): fcf.

     Added in version 3.3.

      -- Ιδιότητα: path

          The path the finder will search in.

      -- Μέθοδος: find_spec (fullname, target=None)

          Attempt to find the spec to handle 'fullname' within *note
          path: 4de8.

          Added in version 3.4.

      -- Μέθοδος: invalidate_caches ()

          Clear out the internal cache.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod path_hook (*loader_details)

          A class method which returns a closure for use on *note
          sys.path_hooks: 13cd.  An instance of ‘FileFinder’ is returned
          by the closure using the path argument given to the closure
          directly and 'loader_details' indirectly.

          If the argument to the closure is not an existing directory,
          *note ImportError: 1bd. is raised.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.machinery.NamespacePath (name, path, path_finder)

     Represents a *note namespace package: 52e.’s path (*note
     module.__path__: 2243.).

     When its ‘__path__’ value is accessed it will be recomputed if
     necessary.  This keeps it in-sync with the global state (*note
     sys.modules: 19ba.).

     The 'name' argument is the name of the namespace module.

     The 'path' argument is the initial path value.

     The 'path_finder' argument is the callable used to recompute the
     path value.  The callable has the same signature as *note
     importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): c3f.

     When the parent’s *note module.__path__: 2243. attribute is
     updated, the path value is recomputed.

     If the parent module is missing from *note sys.modules: 19ba, then
     *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be. will be raised.

     For top-level modules, the parent module’s path is *note sys.path:
     194.

          Σημείωση: *note PathFinder.invalidate_caches(): fce.
          invalidates ‘NamespacePath’, forcing the path value to be
          recomputed next time it is accessed.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader (fullname, path)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader:
     4de3. by subclassing *note importlib.abc.FileLoader: 141b. and
     providing some concrete implementations of other methods.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Removed the ‘load_module()’ method.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name of the module that this loader will handle.

      -- Ιδιότητα: path

          The path to the source file.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_package (fullname)

          Return ‘True’ if *note path: 4dec. appears to be for a
          package.

      -- Μέθοδος: path_stats (path)

          Concrete implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats(): 1533.

      -- Μέθοδος: set_data (path, data)

          Concrete implementation of *note
          importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data(): 4de4.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader (fullname, path)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.FileLoader: 141b.
     which can import bytecode files (i.e.  no source code files exist).

     Please note that direct use of bytecode files (and thus not source
     code files) inhibits your modules from being usable by all Python
     implementations or new versions of Python which change the bytecode
     format.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Removed the ‘load_module()’ method.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name of the module the loader will handle.

      -- Ιδιότητα: path

          The path to the bytecode file.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_package (fullname)

          Determines if the module is a package based on *note path:
          4df1.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_code (fullname)

          Returns the code object for *note name: 4df0. created from
          *note path: 4df1.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_source (fullname)

          Returns ‘None’ as bytecode files have no source when this
          loader is used.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader (fullname, path)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader:
     4dde. for extension modules.

     The 'fullname' argument specifies the name of the module the loader
     is to support.  The 'path' argument is the path to the extension
     module’s file.

     Note that, by default, importing an extension module will fail in
     subinterpreters if it doesn’t implement multi-phase init (see PEP
     489(3)), even if it would otherwise import successfully.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Multi-phase init is now required for use
     in subinterpreters.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          Name of the module the loader supports.

      -- Ιδιότητα: path

          Path to the extension module.

      -- Μέθοδος: create_module (spec)

          Creates the module object from the given specification in
          accordance with PEP 489(4).

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Μέθοδος: exec_module (module)

          Initializes the given module object in accordance with PEP
          489(5).

          Added in version 3.5.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_package (fullname)

          Returns ‘True’ if the file path points to a package’s
          ‘__init__’ module based on *note EXTENSION_SUFFIXES: 924.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_code (fullname)

          Returns ‘None’ as extension modules lack a code object.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_source (fullname)

          Returns ‘None’ as extension modules do not have source code.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_filename (fullname)

          Returns *note path: 4df6.

          Added in version 3.4.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.machinery.NamespaceLoader (name, path, path_finder)

     A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader:
     12fe. for namespace packages.  This is an alias for a private class
     and is only made public for introspecting the ‘__loader__’
     attribute on namespace packages:

          >>> from importlib.machinery import NamespaceLoader
          >>> import my_namespace
          >>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, NamespaceLoader)
          True
          >>> import importlib.abc
          >>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, importlib.abc.Loader)
          True

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec (name, loader, *, origin=None,
          loader_state=None, is_package=None)

     A specification for a module’s import-system-related state.  This
     is typically exposed as the module’s *note __spec__: 2555.
     attribute.  Many of these attributes are also available directly on
     a module: for example, ‘module.__spec__.origin == module.__file__’.
     Note, however, that while the 'values' are usually equivalent, they
     can differ since there is no synchronization between the two
     objects.  For example, it is possible to update the module’s *note
     __file__: 255a. at runtime and this will not be automatically
     reflected in the module’s *note __spec__.origin: 4dfc, and vice
     versa.

     Added in version 3.4.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The module’s fully qualified name (see *note module.__name__:
          172f.).  The *note finder: 263e. should always set this
          attribute to a non-empty string.

      -- Ιδιότητα: loader

          The *note loader: 1c30. used to load the module (see *note
          module.__loader__: 2ff.).  The *note finder: 263e. should
          always set this attribute.

      -- Ιδιότητα: origin

          The location the *note loader: 1c30. should use to load the
          module (see *note module.__file__: 255a.).  For example, for
          modules loaded from a ‘.py’ file this is the filename.  The
          *note finder: 263e. should always set this attribute to a
          meaningful value for the loader to use.  In the uncommon case
          that there is not one (like for namespace packages), it should
          be set to ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: submodule_search_locations

          A (possibly empty) *note sequence: 8ff. of strings enumerating
          the locations in which a package’s submodules will be found
          (see *note module.__path__: 2243.).  Most of the time there
          will only be a single directory in this list.

          The *note finder: 263e. should set this attribute to a
          sequence, even an empty one, to indicate to the import system
          that the module is a package.  It should be set to ‘None’ for
          non-package modules.  It is set automatically later to a
          special object for namespace packages.

      -- Ιδιότητα: loader_state

          The *note finder: 263e. may set this attribute to an object
          containing additional, module-specific data to use when
          loading the module.  Otherwise it should be set to ‘None’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: cached

          The filename of a compiled version of the module’s code.  The
          *note finder: 263e. should always set this attribute but it
          may be ‘None’ for modules that do not need compiled code
          stored.

      -- Ιδιότητα: parent

          (Read-only) The fully qualified name of the package the module
          is in (or the empty string for a top-level module).  See *note
          module.__package__: 58c.  If the module is a package then this
          is the same as *note name: 2556.

      -- Ιδιότητα: has_location

          ‘True’ if the spec’s *note origin: 4dfc. refers to a loadable
          location, ‘False’ otherwise.  This value impacts how ‘origin’
          is interpreted and how the module’s *note __file__: 255a. is
          populated.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.machinery.AppleFrameworkLoader (name, path)

     A specialization of *note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader:
     1071. that is able to load extension modules in Framework format.

     For compatibility with the iOS App Store, 'all' binary modules in
     an iOS app must be dynamic libraries, contained in a framework with
     appropriate metadata, stored in the ‘Frameworks’ folder of the
     packaged app.  There can be only a single binary per framework, and
     there can be no executable binary material outside the Frameworks
     folder.

     To accommodate this requirement, when running on iOS, extension
     module binaries are 'not' packaged as ‘.so’ files on ‘sys.path’,
     but as individual standalone frameworks.  To discover those
     frameworks, this loader is registered against the ‘.fwork’ file
     extension, with a ‘.fwork’ file acting as a placeholder in the
     original location of the binary on ‘sys.path’.  The ‘.fwork’ file
     contains the path of the actual binary in the ‘Frameworks’ folder,
     relative to the app bundle.  To allow for resolving a
     framework-packaged binary back to the original location, the
     framework is expected to contain a ‘.origin’ file that contains the
     location of the ‘.fwork’ file, relative to the app bundle.

     For example, consider the case of an import ‘from foo.bar import
     _whiz’, where ‘_whiz’ is implemented with the binary module
     ‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.so’, with ‘sources’ being the location
     registered on ‘sys.path’, relative to the application bundle.  This
     module 'must' be distributed as
     ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz’ (creating the
     framework name from the full import path of the module), with an
     ‘Info.plist’ file in the ‘.framework’ directory identifying the
     binary as a framework.  The ‘foo.bar._whiz’ module would be
     represented in the original location with a
     ‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.fwork’ marker file, containing the path
     ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz/foo.bar._whiz’.  The framework would also
     contain ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz.origin’,
     containing the path to the ‘.fwork’ file.

     When a module is loaded with this loader, the ‘__file__’ for the
     module will report as the location of the ‘.fwork’ file.  This
     allows code to use the ‘__file__’ of a module as an anchor for file
     system traversal.  However, the spec origin will reference the
     location of the 'actual' binary in the ‘.framework’ folder.

     The Xcode project building the app is responsible for converting
     any ‘.so’ files from wherever they exist in the ‘PYTHONPATH’ into
     frameworks in the ‘Frameworks’ folder (including stripping
     extensions from the module file, the addition of framework
     metadata, and signing the resulting framework), and creating the
     ‘.fwork’ and ‘.origin’ files.  This will usually be done with a
     build step in the Xcode project; see the iOS documentation for
     details on how to construct this build step.

     Added in version 3.13.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: iOS.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          Name of the module the loader supports.

      -- Ιδιότητα: path

          Path to the ‘.fwork’ file for the extension module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/importlib/machinery.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: importlib util – Utility code for importers,  Next: Examples<29>,  Prev: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks,  Up: importlib — The implementation of import

5.32.5.5 ‘importlib.util’ – Utility code for importers
......................................................

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/util.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains the various objects that help in the construction
of an *note importer: 263f.

 -- Δεδομένα: importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER

     The bytes which represent the bytecode version number.  If you need
     help with loading/writing bytecode then consider *note
     importlib.abc.SourceLoader: 4de3.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.util.cache_from_source (path, *,
          optimization=None)

     Return the PEP 3147(2)/ PEP 488(3) path to the byte-compiled file
     associated with the source 'path'.  For example, if 'path' is
     ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ the return value would be
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ for Python 3.2.  The
     ‘cpython-32’ string comes from the current magic tag (see
     ‘get_tag()’; if ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is not defined then
     *note NotImplementedError: 59a. will be raised).

     The 'optimization' parameter is used to specify the optimization
     level of the bytecode file.  An empty string represents no
     optimization, so ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ with an 'optimization' of ‘''’
     will result in a bytecode path of
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’.  ‘None’ causes the
     interpreter’s optimization level to be used.  Any other value’s
     string representation is used, so ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ with an
     'optimization' of ‘2’ will lead to the bytecode path of
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.opt-2.pyc’.  The string
     representation of 'optimization' can only be alphanumeric, else
     *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'optimization' parameter was added and
     the 'debug_override' parameter was deprecated.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The 'debug_override' parameter was
     removed.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.util.source_from_cache (path)

     Given the 'path' to a PEP 3147(4) file name, return the associated
     source code file path.  For example, if 'path' is
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ the returned path would
     be ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’.  'path' need not exist, however if it does
     not conform to PEP 3147(5) or PEP 488(6) format, a *note
     ValueError: 277. is raised.  If ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is
     not defined, *note NotImplementedError: 59a. is raised.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.util.decode_source (source_bytes)

     Decode the given bytes representing source code and return it as a
     string with universal newlines (as required by *note
     importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source(): 1302.).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.util.resolve_name (name, package)

     Resolve a relative module name to an absolute one.

     If 'name' has no leading dots, then 'name' is simply returned.
     This allows for usage such as ‘importlib.util.resolve_name('sys',
     __spec__.parent)’ without doing a check to see if the 'package'
     argument is needed.

     *note ImportError: 1bd. is raised if 'name' is a relative module
     name but 'package' is a false value (e.g.  ‘None’ or the empty
     string).  ‘ImportError’ is also raised if a relative name would
     escape its containing package (e.g.  requesting ‘..bacon’ from
     within the ‘spam’ package).

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: To improve consistency with import
     statements, raise *note ImportError: 1bd. instead of *note
     ValueError: 277. for invalid relative import attempts.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.util.find_spec (name, package=None)

     Find the *note spec: 2554. for a module, optionally relative to the
     specified 'package' name.  If the module is in *note sys.modules:
     19ba, then ‘sys.modules[name].__spec__’ is returned (unless the
     spec would be ‘None’ or is not set, in which case *note ValueError:
     277. is raised).  Otherwise a search using *note sys.meta_path:
     10e3. is done.  ‘None’ is returned if no spec is found.

     If 'name' is for a submodule (contains a dot), the parent module is
     automatically imported.

     'name' and 'package' work the same as for ‘import_module()’.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Raises *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be.
     instead of *note AttributeError: 1a9. if 'package' is in fact not a
     package (i.e.  lacks a *note __path__: 2243. attribute).

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.util.module_from_spec (spec)

     Create a new module based on 'spec' and *note
     spec.loader.create_module: 106f.

     If *note spec.loader.create_module: 106f. does not return ‘None’,
     then any pre-existing attributes will not be reset.  Also, no *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. will be raised if triggered while accessing
     'spec' or setting an attribute on the module.

     This function is preferred over using *note types.ModuleType: 11c7.
     to create a new module as 'spec' is used to set as many
     import-controlled attributes on the module as possible.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.util.spec_from_loader (name, loader, *,
          origin=None, is_package=None)

     A factory function for creating a *note ModuleSpec: 245d. instance
     based on a loader.  The parameters have the same meaning as they do
     for ModuleSpec.  The function uses available *note loader: 1c30.
     APIs, such as ‘InspectLoader.is_package()’, to fill in any missing
     information on the spec.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.util.spec_from_file_location (name, location,
          *, loader=None, submodule_search_locations=None)

     A factory function for creating a *note ModuleSpec: 245d. instance
     based on the path to a file.  Missing information will be filled in
     on the spec by making use of loader APIs and by the implication
     that the module will be file-based.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.util.source_hash (source_bytes)

     Return the hash of 'source_bytes' as bytes.  A hash-based ‘.pyc’
     file embeds the ‘source_hash()’ of the corresponding source file’s
     contents in its header.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Συνάρτηση:
          importlib.util._incompatible_extension_module_restrictions (*,
          disable_check)

     A context manager that can temporarily skip the compatibility check
     for extension modules.  By default the check is enabled and will
     fail when a single-phase init module is imported in a
     subinterpreter.  It will also fail for a multi-phase init module
     that doesn’t explicitly support a per-interpreter GIL, when
     imported in an interpreter with its own GIL.

     Note that this function is meant to accommodate an unusual case;
     one which is likely to eventually go away.  There’s is a pretty
     good chance this is not what you were looking for.

     You can get the same effect as this function by implementing the
     basic interface of multi-phase init ( PEP 489(7)) and lying about
     support for multiple interpreters (or per-interpreter GIL).

          Προειδοποίηση: Using this function to disable the check can
          lead to unexpected behavior and even crashes.  It should only
          be used during extension module development.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.util.LazyLoader (loader)

     A class which postpones the execution of the loader of a module
     until the module has an attribute accessed.

     This class 'only' works with loaders that define *note
     exec_module(): c40. as control over what module type is used for
     the module is required.  For those same reasons, the loader’s *note
     create_module(): 106f. method must return ‘None’ or a type for
     which its ‘__class__’ attribute can be mutated along with not using
     *note slots: 9d9.  Finally, modules which substitute the object
     placed into *note sys.modules: 19ba. will not work as there is no
     way to properly replace the module references throughout the
     interpreter safely; *note ValueError: 277. is raised if such a
     substitution is detected.

          Σημείωση: For projects where startup time is critical, this
          class allows for potentially minimizing the cost of loading a
          module if it is never used.  For projects where startup time
          is not essential then use of this class is 'heavily'
          discouraged due to error messages created during loading being
          postponed and thus occurring out of context.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Began calling *note create_module(): 106f,
     removing the compatibility warning for *note
     importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter: 1070. and *note
     importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: 1071.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod factory (loader)

          A class method which returns a callable that creates a lazy
          loader.  This is meant to be used in situations where the
          loader is passed by class instead of by instance.

               suffixes = importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES
               loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader
               lazy_loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory(loader)
               finder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder(path, (lazy_loader, suffixes))

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/importlib/util.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<29>,  Prev: importlib util – Utility code for importers,  Up: importlib — The implementation of import

5.32.5.6 Examples
.................

* Menu:

* Importing programmatically::
* Checking if a module can be imported::
* Importing a source file directly::
* Implementing lazy imports::
* Setting up an importer::
* Approximating importlib.import_module(): Approximating importlib import_module.


File: python.info,  Node: Importing programmatically,  Next: Checking if a module can be imported,  Up: Examples<29>

5.32.5.7 Importing programmatically
...................................

To programmatically import a module, use *note
importlib.import_module(): 927.

     import importlib

     itertools = importlib.import_module('itertools')


File: python.info,  Node: Checking if a module can be imported,  Next: Importing a source file directly,  Prev: Importing programmatically,  Up: Examples<29>

5.32.5.8 Checking if a module can be imported
.............................................

If you need to find out if a module can be imported without actually
doing the import, then you should use *note importlib.util.find_spec():
7a7.

Note that if ‘name’ is a submodule (contains a dot), *note
importlib.util.find_spec(): 7a7. will import the parent module.

     import importlib.util
     import sys

     # For illustrative purposes.
     name = 'itertools'

     if name in sys.modules:
         print(f"{name!r} already in sys.modules")
     elif (spec := importlib.util.find_spec(name)) is not None:
         # If you chose to perform the actual import ...
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         print(f"{name!r} has been imported")
     else:
         print(f"can't find the {name!r} module")


File: python.info,  Node: Importing a source file directly,  Next: Implementing lazy imports,  Prev: Checking if a module can be imported,  Up: Examples<29>

5.32.5.9 Importing a source file directly
.........................................

This recipe should be used with caution: it is an approximation of an
import statement where the file path is specified directly, rather than
*note sys.path: 194. being searched.  Alternatives should first be
considered first, such as modifying ‘sys.path’ when a proper module is
required, or using *note runpy.run_path(): 6ae. when the global
namespace resulting from running a Python file is appropriate.

To import a Python source file directly from a path, use the following
recipe:

     import importlib.util
     import sys


     def import_from_path(module_name, file_path):
         spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(module_name, file_path)
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[module_name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         return module


     # For illustrative purposes only (use of `json` is arbitrary).
     import json
     file_path = json.__file__
     module_name = json.__name__

     # Similar outcome as `import json`.
     json = import_from_path(module_name, file_path)


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing lazy imports,  Next: Setting up an importer,  Prev: Importing a source file directly,  Up: Examples<29>

5.32.5.10 Implementing lazy imports
...................................

The example below shows how to implement lazy imports:

     >>> import importlib.util
     >>> import sys
     >>> def lazy_import(name):
     ...     spec = importlib.util.find_spec(name)
     ...     loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader(spec.loader)
     ...     spec.loader = loader
     ...     module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
     ...     sys.modules[name] = module
     ...     loader.exec_module(module)
     ...     return module
     ...
     >>> lazy_typing = lazy_import("typing")
     >>> #lazy_typing is a real module object,
     >>> #but it is not loaded in memory yet.
     >>> lazy_typing.TYPE_CHECKING
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Setting up an importer,  Next: Approximating importlib import_module,  Prev: Implementing lazy imports,  Up: Examples<29>

5.32.5.11 Setting up an importer
................................

For deep customizations of import, you typically want to implement an
*note importer: 263f.  This means managing both the *note finder: 263e.
and *note loader: 1c30. side of things.  For finders there are two
flavours to choose from depending on your needs: a *note meta path
finder: 1418. or a *note path entry finder: 1419.  The former is what
you would put on *note sys.meta_path: 10e3. while the latter is what you
create using a *note path entry hook: 2650. on *note sys.path_hooks:
13cd. which works with *note sys.path: 194. entries to potentially
create a finder.  This example will show you how to register your own
importers so that import will use them (for creating an importer for
yourself, read the documentation for the appropriate classes defined
within this package):

     import importlib.machinery
     import sys

     # For illustrative purposes only.
     SpamMetaPathFinder = importlib.machinery.PathFinder
     SpamPathEntryFinder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder
     loader_details = (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader,
                       importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES)

     # Setting up a meta path finder.
     # Make sure to put the finder in the proper location in the list in terms of
     # priority.
     sys.meta_path.append(SpamMetaPathFinder)

     # Setting up a path entry finder.
     # Make sure to put the path hook in the proper location in the list in terms
     # of priority.
     sys.path_hooks.append(SpamPathEntryFinder.path_hook(loader_details))


File: python.info,  Node: Approximating importlib import_module,  Prev: Setting up an importer,  Up: Examples<29>

5.32.5.12 Approximating ‘importlib.import_module()’
...................................................

Import itself is implemented in Python code, making it possible to
expose most of the import machinery through importlib.  The following
helps illustrate the various APIs that importlib exposes by providing an
approximate implementation of *note importlib.import_module(): 927.:

     import importlib.util
     import sys

     def import_module(name, package=None):
         """An approximate implementation of import."""
         absolute_name = importlib.util.resolve_name(name, package)
         try:
             return sys.modules[absolute_name]
         except KeyError:
             pass

         path = None
         if '.' in absolute_name:
             parent_name, _, child_name = absolute_name.rpartition('.')
             parent_module = import_module(parent_name)
             path = parent_module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations
         for finder in sys.meta_path:
             spec = finder.find_spec(absolute_name, path)
             if spec is not None:
                 break
         else:
             msg = f'No module named {absolute_name!r}'
             raise ModuleNotFoundError(msg, name=absolute_name)
         module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec)
         sys.modules[absolute_name] = module
         spec.loader.exec_module(module)
         if path is not None:
             setattr(parent_module, child_name, module)
         return module


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων,  Next: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources,  Prev: importlib — The implementation of import,  Up: Importing Modules

5.32.6 ‘importlib.resources’ – Ανάγνωση, άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.7.

Αυτό το module αξιοποιεί το σύστημα εισαγωγής της Python για να παρέχει
πρόσβαση σε 'πόρους' εντός 'πακέτων'.

«Πόροι» είναι πόροι που μοιάζουν με αρχεία και σχετίζονται με ένα module
ή πακέτο στην Python.  Οι πόροι μπορεί να περιέχονται απευθείας σε ένα
πακέτο, μέσα σε έναν υποκατάλογο που περιλαμβάνεται σε αυτό το πακέτο, ή
δίπλα σε modules έξω από ένα πακέτο.  Οι πόροι μπορεί να είναι μορφής
κειμένου ή δυαδικής μορφής.  Ως αποτέλεσμα, ο πηγαίος κώδικας των
modules της Python (.py) ενός πακέτου και τα αποτελέσματα μεταγλώττισης
(pycache) και τα αποτελέσματα εγκατάστασης (όπως *note reserved
filenames: 2d9. σε καταλόγους) είναι τεχνικά de-facto πόροι αυτού του
πακέτου.  Ωστόσο, στην πράξη, οι πόροι είναι κυρίως εκείνα τα μη-Python
αρχεία που εκτίθενται συγκεκριμένα από τον συγγραφέα του πακέτου.

Οι πόροι μπορούν να ανοίξουν ή να διαβαστούν είτε σε δυαδική κατάσταση
είτε σε κατάσταση κειμένου.

Οι πόροι είναι κατά κάποιο τρόπο ανάλογοι με αρχεία μέσα σε καταλόγους,
αν και είναι σημαντικό να θυμόμαστε ότι αυτή είναι απλώς μια μεταφορά.
Οι πόροι και τα πακέτα 'δεν' χρειάζεται να υπάρχουν ως φυσικά αρχεία και
κατάλογοι στο σύστημα αρχείων: για παράδειγμα, ένα πακέτο και οι πόροι
του μπορούν να εισαχθούν από ένα αρχείο zip χρησιμοποιώντας το *note
zipimport: 13b.

     Προειδοποίηση: ‘importlib.resources’ follows the same security
     model as the built-in *note open(): 32b. function.  Passing
     untrusted inputs to the functions in this module is unsafe.

     Σημείωση: Το αυτόνομο backport αυτού του module παρέχει
     περισσότερες πληροφορίες στα using importlib.resources(2) και
     migrating from pkg_resources to importlib.resources(3).

Οι *note Loaders: 1275. που επιθυμούν να υποστηρίξουν ανάγνωση πόρων θα
πρέπει να υλοποιήσουν μια μέθοδο ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ όπως
ορίζεται από την κλάση *note importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader:
4ddc.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.resources.Anchor

     Αντιπροσωπεύει μία άγκυρα (anchor) για πόρους, είτε ένα *note
     module object: 11c7. είτε ένα όνομα module ως συμβολοσειρά.
     Ορίζεται ως ‘Union[str, ModuleType]’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.resources.files (anchor: Anchor | None = None)

     Επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο *note Traversable: 572. που
     αντιπροσωπεύει το δοχείο των πόρων (σκεφτείτε έναν κατάλογο) και
     τους πόρους του (σκεφτείτε αρχεία).  Ένα Traversable μπορεί να
     περιέχει και άλλα δοχεία (σκεφτείτε υποκαταλόγους).

     Το 'anchor' είναι μια προαιρετική κλάση *note Anchor: 4e0f.  Αν το
     anchor είναι πακέτο, οι πόροι επιλύονται σε αυτό το πακέτο.  Αν
     είναι module, οι πόροι επιλύονται δίπλα σε αυτό το module (στο ίδιο
     πακέτο ή στη ρίζα του πακέτου).  Αν το anchor παραλειφθεί,
     χρησιμοποιείται το module του καλούντος.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: 'package' parameter was renamed to
     'anchor'.  'package' was still accepted, but deprecated.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: 'package' parameter was fully removed.
     'anchor' can now be a non-package module and if omitted will
     default to the caller’s module.  'package' is no longer accepted
     since Python 3.15.  Consider passing the anchor positionally or
     using ‘importlib_resources >= 5.10’ for a compatible interface on
     older Pythons.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.resources.as_file (traversable)

     Δεδομένου ενός αντικειμένου *note Traversable: 572. που
     αντιπροσωπεύει ένα αρχείο ή κατάλογο, συνήθως από το *note
     importlib.resources.files(): 2d7, επιστρέφει ένα context manager
     για χρήση σε μια *note with: 20a. πρόταση.  Ο context manager
     παρέχει ένα αντικείμενο *note pathlib.Path: 4ee.

     Η έξοδος από τον context manager καθαρίζει οποιοδήποτε προσωρινό
     αρχείο ή κατάλογο που δημιουργήθηκε όταν ο πόρος εξήχθη, π.χ.  από
     ένα αρχείο zip.

     Χρησιμοποιήστε το ‘as_file’ όταν οι μέθοδοι του Traversable (όπως
     ‘read_text’, κλπ) δεν επαρκούν και απαιτείται ένα πραγματικό αρχείο
     ή κατάλογος στο σύστημα αρχείων.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Προστέθηκε υποστήριξη για 'traversable'
     που αντιπροσωπεύει έναν κατάλογο.

* Menu:

* Λειτουργικό API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py

   (2) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html

   (3) 
https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html


File: python.info,  Node: Λειτουργικό API,  Up: importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων

5.32.6.1 Λειτουργικό API
........................

Ένα σύνολο απλοποιημένων, βοηθών συμβατών με προηγούμενες εκδόσεις είναι
διαθέσιμο.  Αυτά επιτρέπουν κοινές λειτουργίες σε μια κλήση συνάρτησης.

Για όλες τις παρακάτω λειτουργίες:

   - Το 'anchor' είναι μια *note Anchor: 4e0f, όπως στη *note files():
     2d7.  Σε αντίθεση με τα ‘αρχεία’, ενδέχεται να μην παραλειφθεί.

   - Τα 'path_names' είναι στοιχεία του ονόματος διαδρομής ενός πόρου,
     σε σχέση με το anchor.  Για παράδειγμα, για να λάβετε το κείμενο
     του πόρου με το όνομα ‘info.txt’, χρησιμοποιήστε:

          importlib.resources.read_text(my_module, "info.txt")

     Όπως *note Traversable.joinpath: 572, Τα μεμονωμένα στοιχεία θα
     πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούν κάθετε (‘/’) ως διαχωριστές διαδρομή.  Για
     παράδειγμα, τα ακόλουθα είναι ισοδύναμα:

          importlib.resources.read_binary(my_module, "pics/painting.png")
          importlib.resources.read_binary(my_module, "pics", "painting.png")

     Για λόγους συμβατότητας προς τα πίσω, οι συναρτήσεις που διαβάζουν
     κείμενο απαιτούν ένα ρητό όρισμα 'encoding' εάν δίνονται πολλά
     'path_names'.  Για παράδειγμα, για να λάβετε το κείμενο του
     ‘info/chapter1.txt’, χρησιμοποιήστε:

          importlib.resources.read_text(my_module, "info", "chapter1.txt",
                                        encoding='utf-8')

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.resources.open_binary (anchor, *path_names)

     Ανοίξτε τον πόρο με όνομα για δυαδική ανάγνωση.

     Δείτε *note the introduction: 4e11. για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με το
     'anchor' και 'path_names'.

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση επιστρέφει ένα αντικείμενο *note BinaryIO: 4c8,
     ένα δυαδικό ρεύμα εισόδου για ανάγνωση.

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση είναι περίπου ισοδύναμη με:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).open('rb')

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Γίνονται αποδεκτά πολλά 'path_names'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.resources.open_text (anchor, *path_names,
          encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Ανοίγει τον δεδομένο πόρο για ανάγνωση κειμένου.  Από προεπιλογή,
     τα περιεχόμενα διαβάζονται ως αυστηρά UTF-8.

     Δείτε *note the introduction: 4e11. για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με το
     'anchor' και το 'path_names'.  Τα 'encoding' και 'errors' έχουν την
     ίδια σημασία όπως στο ενσωματωμένο *note open(): 32b.

     Για λόγους συμβατότητας για προηγούμενες εκδόσεις, το όρισμα
     'encoding' πρέπει να δίνεται ρητά εάν υπάρχουν πολλά 'path_names'.
     Αυτό ο περιορισμός έχει προγραμματιστεί να καταργηθεί στην Python
     3.15.

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση επιστρέφει ένα *note TextIO: 4c7. αντικείμενο,
     δηλαδή ένα ρεύμα εισόδου για ανάγνωση.

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση είναι περίπου ισοδύναμη με:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).open('r', encoding=encoding)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Πολλαπλά 'path_names' γίνονται δεκτά.  Τα
     'encoding' και 'errors' πρέπει να δίνονται ως ορίσματα
     λέξεων-κλειδιών.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.resources.read_binary (anchor, *path_names)

     Διαβάζει και επιστρέφει τα περιεχόμενα του δεδομένου πόρου ως *note
     bytes: 1c7.

     Δείτε *note the introduction: 4e11. για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με το
     'anchor' και 'path_names'.

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση είναι περίπου ισοδύναμη με:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).read_bytes()

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Γίνονται αποδεκτά πολλά 'path_names'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.resources.read_text (anchor, *path_names,
          encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')

     Διαβάζει και επιστρέφει τα περιεχόμενα του δεδομένου πόρου μέσα στο
     ως *note str: 1df.  Από προεπιλογή, τα περιεχόμενα διαβάζονται ως
     αυστηρό UTF-8.

     Δείτε *note the introduction: 4e11. για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με το
     'anchor' και το 'path_names'.  Τα 'encoding' και 'errors' έχουν την
     ίδια σημασία όπως στο ενσωματωμένο *note open(): 32b.

     Για λόγους συμβατότητας για προηγούμενες εκδόσεις, το όρισμα
     'encoding' πρέπει να δίνεται ρητά εάν υπάρχουν πολλά 'path_names'.
     Αυτό ο περιορισμός έχει προγραμματιστεί να καταργηθεί στην Python
     3.15.

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση είναι περίπου ισοδύναμη με:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).read_text(encoding=encoding)

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Πολλαπλά 'path_names' γίνονται δεκτά.  Τα
     'encoding' και 'errors' πρέπει να δίνονται ως ορίσματα
     λέξεων-κλειδιών.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.resources.path (anchor, *path_names)

     Παρέχει τη διαδρομή του 'resource' ως πραγματική διαδρομή
     συστήματος αρχείων.  Αυτή η συνάρτηση επιστρέφει ένα διαχειριστή
     περιεχομένου για χρήση σε μια *note with: 20a. πρόταση.  Ο
     διαχειριστής περιεχομένου παρέχει ένα αντικείμενο *note
     pathlib.Path: 4ee.

     Η έξοδος από τον context manager καθαρίζει οποιοδήποτε προσωρινό
     αρχείο που δημιουργήθηκε, π.χ.  όταν ο πόρος χρειάστηκε να εξαχθεί
     από ένα αρχείο zip.

     Για παράδειγμα, η μέθοδος *note stat(): bfc. απαιτεί μια πραγματική
     διαδρομή συστήματος αρχείων· μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ως εξής:

          with importlib.resources.path(anchor, "resource.txt") as fspath:
              result = fspath.stat()

     Δείτε *note the introduction: 4e11. για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με το
     'anchor' και 'path_names'.

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση είναι περίπου ισοδύναμη με:

          as_file(files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names))

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Πολλαπλά 'path_names' γίνονται δεκτά.  Τα
     'encoding' και 'errors' πρέπει να δίνονται ως ορίσματα
     λέξεων-κλειδιών.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.resources.is_resource (anchor, *path_names)

     Επιστρέφετε ‘True’ εάν υπάρχει ο δεδομένος πόρος, διαφορετικά
     ‘False’.  Αυτή η συνάρτηση δεν θεωρεί τους καταλόγους ως πόρους.

     Δείτε *note the introduction: 4e11. για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με το
     'anchor' και 'path_names'.

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση είναι περίπου ισοδύναμη με:

          files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).is_file()

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Γίνονται αποδεκτά πολλά 'path_names'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.resources.contents (anchor, *path_names)

     Επιστρέφει ένα iterable πάνω στα ονομασμένα στοιχεία μέσα στο
     πακέτο ή στη διαδρομή.  Το iterable επιστρέφει τα ονόματα των πόρων
     (π.χ.  αρχεία) και μη-πόρους (π.χ.  καταλόγους) ως *note str: 1df.
     Το iterable δεν επαναλαμβάνεται σε υποκαταλόγους.

     Δείτε *note the introduction: 4e11. για λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με το
     'anchor' και 'path_names'.

     Αυτή η συνάρτηση είναι περίπου ισοδύναμη με:

          for resource in files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).iterdir():
              yield resource.name

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.11: Προτιμήστε το ‘iterdir()’ όπως
     παραπάνω, το οποίο προσφέρει περισσότερο έλεγχο στα αποτελέσματα
     και πιο πλούσια λειτουργικότητα.


File: python.info,  Node: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources,  Next: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata,  Prev: importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων,  Up: Importing Modules

5.32.7 ‘importlib.resources.abc’ – Abstract base classes for resources
----------------------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Added in version 3.11.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader

     'Superseded by TraversableResources'

     An *note abstract base class: 155f. to provide the ability to read
     'resources'.

     From the perspective of this ABC, a 'resource' is a binary artifact
     that is shipped within a package.  Typically this is something like
     a data file that lives next to the ‘__init__.py’ file of the
     package.  The purpose of this class is to help abstract out the
     accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if the
     package and its data file(s) are stored e.g.  in a zip file versus
     on the file system.

     For any of methods of this class, a 'resource' argument is expected
     to be a *note path-like object: 79f. which represents conceptually
     just a file name.  This means that no subdirectory paths should be
     included in the 'resource' argument.  This is because the location
     of the package the reader is for, acts as the «directory».  Hence
     the metaphor for directories and file names is packages and
     resources, respectively.  This is also why instances of this class
     are expected to directly correlate to a specific package (instead
     of potentially representing multiple packages or a module).

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     provide a method called ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ which
     returns an object implementing this ABC’s interface.  If the module
     specified by fullname is not a package, this method should return
     *note None: a65.  An object compatible with this ABC should only be
     returned when the specified module is a package.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12: Use *note
     importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 571. instead.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod open_resource (resource)

          Returns an opened, *note file-like object: 19b1. for binary
          reading of the 'resource'.

          If the resource cannot be found, *note FileNotFoundError: 243.
          is raised.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod resource_path (resource)

          Returns the file system path to the 'resource'.

          If the resource does not concretely exist on the file system,
          raise *note FileNotFoundError: 243.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod is_resource (path)

          Returns ‘True’ if the named 'path' is considered a resource.
          *note FileNotFoundError: 243. is raised if 'path' does not
          exist.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The argument 'name' was renamed to
          'path'.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod contents ()

          Returns an *note iterable: 15ce. of strings over the contents
          of the package.  Do note that it is not required that all
          names returned by the iterator be actual resources, e.g.  it
          is acceptable to return names for which *note is_resource():
          4e17. would be false.

          Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow for
          situations where how a package and its resources are stored
          are known a priori and the non-resource names would be useful.
          For instance, returning subdirectory names is allowed so that
          when it is known that the package and resources are stored on
          the file system then those subdirectory names can be used
          directly.

          The abstract method returns an iterable of no items.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.resources.abc.Traversable

     An object with a subset of *note pathlib.Path: 4ee. methods
     suitable for traversing directories and opening files.

     For a representation of the object on the file-system, use *note
     importlib.resources.as_file(): 89f.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          Abstract.  The base name of this object without any parent
          references.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod iterdir ()

          Yield Traversable objects in self.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod is_dir ()

          Return ‘True’ if self is a directory.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod is_file ()

          Return ‘True’ if self is a file.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod joinpath (*pathsegments)

          Traverse directories according to 'pathsegments' and return
          the result as ‘Traversable’.

          Each 'pathsegments' argument may contain multiple names
          separated by forward slashes (‘/’, ‘posixpath.sep’ ).  For
          example, the following are equivalent:

               files.joinpath('subdir', 'subsuddir', 'file.txt')
               files.joinpath('subdir/subsuddir/file.txt')

          Note that some ‘Traversable’ implementations might not be
          updated to the latest version of the protocol.  For
          compatibility with such implementations, provide a single
          argument without path separators to each call to ‘joinpath’.
          For example:

               files.joinpath('subdir').joinpath('subsubdir').joinpath('file.txt')

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: ‘joinpath’ accepts multiple
          'pathsegments', and these segments may contain forward slashes
          as path separators.  Previously, only a single 'child'
          argument was accepted.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod __truediv__ (child)

          Return Traversable child in self.  Equivalent to
          ‘joinpath(child)’.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod open (mode='r', *args, **kwargs)

          'mode' may be “r” or “rb” to open as text or binary.  Return a
          handle suitable for reading (same as *note pathlib.Path.open:
          2e55.).

          When opening as text, accepts encoding parameters such as
          those accepted by *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c.

      -- Μέθοδος: read_bytes ()

          Read contents of self as bytes.

      -- Μέθοδος: read_text (encoding=None)

          Read contents of self as text.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources

     An abstract base class for resource readers capable of serving the
     *note importlib.resources.files(): 2d7. interface.  Subclasses
     *note ResourceReader: 4ddc. and provides concrete implementations
     of the ‘ResourceReader’’s abstract methods.  Therefore, any loader
     supplying ‘TraversableResources’ also supplies ‘ResourceReader’.

     Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to
     implement this interface.

      -- Μέθοδος: abstractmethod files ()

          Returns a *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 572.
          object for the loaded package.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py


File: python.info,  Node: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata,  Next: The initialization of the sys path module search path,  Prev: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources,  Up: Importing Modules

5.32.8 ‘importlib.metadata’ – Accessing package metadata
--------------------------------------------------------

Added in version 3.8.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: ‘importlib.metadata’ is no longer provisional.

'Source code:' Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py(1)

‘importlib.metadata’ is a library that provides access to the metadata
of an installed Distribution Package(2), such as its entry points or its
top-level names (Import Package(3)s, modules, if any).  Built in part on
Python’s import system, this library provides the entry point and
metadata APIs that were previously exposed by the now-removed
‘pkg_resources’ package.  Along with *note importlib.resources: 7e, it
supersedes ‘pkg_resources’.

‘importlib.metadata’ operates on third-party 'distribution packages'
installed into Python’s ‘site-packages’ directory via tools such as
pip(4).  Specifically, it works with distributions with discoverable
‘dist-info’ or ‘egg-info’ directories, and metadata defined by the Core
metadata specifications(5).

     Σημαντικό: These are 'not' necessarily equivalent to or correspond
     1:1 with the top-level 'import package' names that can be imported
     inside Python code.  One 'distribution package' can contain
     multiple 'import packages' (and single modules), and one top-level
     'import package' may map to multiple 'distribution packages' if it
     is a namespace package.  You can use *note
     packages_distributions(): be9. to get a mapping between them.

By default, distribution metadata can live on the file system or in zip
archives on *note sys.path: 194.  Through an extension mechanism, the
metadata can live almost anywhere.

Δείτε επίσης
............

‘https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/’

     The documentation for ‘importlib_metadata’, which supplies a
     backport of ‘importlib.metadata’.  This includes an API
     reference(6) for this module’s classes and functions, as well as a
     migration guide(7) for existing users of ‘pkg_resources’.

* Menu:

* Overview: Overview<3>.
* Functional API::
* Distributions::
* Distribution Discovery::
* Implementing Custom Providers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (3) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/pip/

   (5) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata

   (6) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html

   (7) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html


File: python.info,  Node: Overview<3>,  Next: Functional API,  Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata

5.32.8.1 Overview
.................

Let’s say you wanted to get the version string for a Distribution
Package(1) you’ve installed using ‘pip’.  We start by creating a virtual
environment and installing something into it:

     $ python -m venv example
     $ source example/bin/activate
     (example) $ python -m pip install wheel

You can get the version string for ‘wheel’ by running the following:

     (example) $ python
     >>> from importlib.metadata import version
     >>> version('wheel')
     '0.32.3'

You can also get a collection of entry points selectable by properties
of the EntryPoint (typically “group” or “name”), such as
‘console_scripts’, ‘distutils.commands’ and others.  Each group contains
a collection of *note EntryPoint: 788. objects.

You can get the *note metadata for a distribution: 4e28.:

     >>> list(metadata('wheel'))
     ['Metadata-Version', 'Name', 'Version', 'Summary', 'Home-page', 'Author', 'Author-email', 'Maintainer', 'Maintainer-email', 'License', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Keywords', 'Platform', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Requires-Python', 'Provides-Extra', 'Requires-Dist', 'Requires-Dist']

You can also get a *note distribution’s version number: 4e29, list its
*note constituent files: 4e2a, and get a list of the distribution’s
*note Distribution requirements: 4e2b.

 -- Εξαίρεση: importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError

     Subclass of *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be. raised by several
     functions in this module when queried for a distribution package
     which is not installed in the current Python environment.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Functional API,  Next: Distributions,  Prev: Overview<3>,  Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata

5.32.8.2 Functional API
.......................

This package provides the following functionality via its public API.

* Menu:

* Entry points::
* Distribution metadata::
* Distribution versions::
* Distribution files::
* Distribution requirements::
* Mapping import to distribution packages::


File: python.info,  Node: Entry points,  Next: Distribution metadata,  Up: Functional API

5.32.8.3 Entry points
.....................

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.metadata.entry_points (**select_params)

     Returns a *note EntryPoints: 4e2f. instance describing entry points
     for the current environment.  Any given keyword parameters are
     passed to the ‘select()’ method for comparison to the attributes of
     the individual entry point definitions.

     Note: to query for entry points based on ‘EntryPoint.dist’
     attribute, use *note Distribution.entry_points(): 4e30. instead (as
     different *note Distribution: 194f. instances do not currently
     compare equal, even if they have the same attributes)

 -- Κλάση: importlib.metadata.EntryPoints

     Details of a collection of installed entry points.

     Also provides a ‘.groups’ attribute that reports all identified
     entry point groups, and a ‘.names’ attribute that reports all
     identified entry point names.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.metadata.EntryPoint

     Details of an installed entry point.

     Each ‘EntryPoint’ instance has ‘.name’, ‘.group’, and ‘.value’
     attributes and a ‘.load()’ method to resolve the value.  There are
     also ‘.module’, ‘.attr’, and ‘.extras’ attributes for getting the
     components of the ‘.value’ attribute, and ‘.dist’ for obtaining
     information regarding the distribution package that provides the
     entry point.

Query all entry points:

     >>> eps = entry_points()

The ‘entry_points()’ function returns a ‘EntryPoints’ object, a
collection of all ‘EntryPoint’ objects with ‘names’ and ‘groups’
attributes for convenience:

     >>> sorted(eps.groups)
     ['console_scripts', 'distutils.commands', 'distutils.setup_keywords', 'egg_info.writers', 'setuptools.installation']

‘EntryPoints’ has a ‘select()’ method to select entry points matching
specific properties.  Select entry points in the ‘console_scripts’
group:

     >>> scripts = eps.select(group='console_scripts')

Equivalently, since ‘entry_points()’ passes keyword arguments through to
select:

     >>> scripts = entry_points(group='console_scripts')

Pick out a specific script named «wheel» (found in the wheel project):

     >>> 'wheel' in scripts.names
     True
     >>> wheel = scripts['wheel']

Equivalently, query for that entry point during selection:

     >>> (wheel,) = entry_points(group='console_scripts', name='wheel')
     >>> (wheel,) = entry_points().select(group='console_scripts', name='wheel')

Inspect the resolved entry point:

     >>> wheel
     EntryPoint(name='wheel', value='wheel.cli:main', group='console_scripts')
     >>> wheel.module
     'wheel.cli'
     >>> wheel.attr
     'main'
     >>> wheel.extras
     []
     >>> main = wheel.load()
     >>> main
     <function main at 0x103528488>

The ‘group’ and ‘name’ are arbitrary values defined by the package
author and usually a client will wish to resolve all entry points for a
particular group.  Read the setuptools docs(1) for more information on
entry points, their definition, and usage.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The «selectable» entry points were introduced
in ‘importlib_metadata’ 3.6 and Python 3.10.  Prior to those changes,
‘entry_points’ accepted no parameters and always returned a dictionary
of entry points, keyed by group.  With ‘importlib_metadata’ 5.0 and
Python 3.12, ‘entry_points’ always returns an ‘EntryPoints’ object.  See
backports.entry_points_selectable(2) for compatibility options.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: ‘EntryPoint’ objects no longer present a
tuple-like interface (*note __getitem__(): 787.).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/userguide/entry_point.html

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/backports.entry_points_selectable/


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution metadata,  Next: Distribution versions,  Prev: Entry points,  Up: Functional API

5.32.8.4 Distribution metadata
..............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.metadata.metadata (distribution_name)

     Return the distribution metadata corresponding to the named
     distribution package as a *note PackageMetadata: 4e34. instance.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 19cd. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.metadata.PackageMetadata

     A concrete implementation of the PackageMetadata protocol(1).

     In addition to providing the defined protocol methods and
     attributes, subscripting the instance is equivalent to calling the
     ‘get()’ method.

Every Distribution Package(2) includes some metadata, which you can
extract using the ‘metadata()’ function:

     >>> wheel_metadata = metadata('wheel')

The keys of the returned data structure name the metadata keywords, and
the values are returned unparsed from the distribution metadata:

     >>> wheel_metadata['Requires-Python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'

*note PackageMetadata: 4e34. also presents a ‘json’ attribute that
returns all the metadata in a JSON-compatible form per PEP 566(3):

     >>> wheel_metadata.json['requires_python']
     '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'

The full set of available metadata is not described here.  See the PyPA
Core metadata specification(4) for additional details.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The ‘Description’ is now included in the
metadata when presented through the payload.  Line continuation
characters have been removed.

The ‘json’ attribute was added.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html#importlib_metadata.PackageMetadata

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0566/

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution versions,  Next: Distribution files,  Prev: Distribution metadata,  Up: Functional API

5.32.8.5 Distribution versions
..............................

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.metadata.version (distribution_name)

     Return the installed distribution package version(1) for the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 19cd. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

The ‘version()’ function is the quickest way to get a Distribution
Package(2)’s version number, as a string:

     >>> version('wheel')
     '0.32.3'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#version

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution files,  Next: Distribution requirements,  Prev: Distribution versions,  Up: Functional API

5.32.8.6 Distribution files
...........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.metadata.files (distribution_name)

     Return the full set of files contained within the named
     distribution package as *note PackagePath: 1950. instances.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 19cd. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

     Returns *note None: a65. if the distribution is found but the
     installation database records reporting the files associated with
     the distribution package are missing.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.metadata.PackagePath

     A *note pathlib.PurePath: 8b6. derived object with additional
     ‘dist’, ‘size’, and ‘hash’ properties corresponding to the
     distribution package’s installation metadata for that file, also:

      -- Μέθοδος: locate ()

          If possible, return the concrete *note SimplePath: 4e39.
          allowing to access data, or raise a *note NotImplementedError:
          59a. otherwise.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.metadata.SimplePath

     A protocol representing a minimal subset of *note pathlib.Path:
     4ee. that allows to check if it ‘exists()’, to traverse using
     ‘joinpath()’ and ‘parent’, and to retrieve data using ‘read_text()’
     and ‘read_bytes()’.

The ‘files()’ function takes a Distribution Package(1) name and returns
all of the files installed by this distribution.  For example:

     >>> util = [p for p in files('wheel') if 'util.py' in str(p)][0]
     >>> util
     PackagePath('wheel/util.py')
     >>> util.size
     859
     >>> util.dist
     <importlib.metadata._hooks.PathDistribution object at 0x101e0cef0>
     >>> util.hash
     <FileHash mode: sha256 value: bYkw5oMccfazVCoYQwKkkemoVyMAFoR34mmKBx8R1NI>

Once you have the file, you can also read its contents:

     >>> print(util.read_text())
     import base64
     import sys
     ...
     def as_bytes(s):
         if isinstance(s, text_type):
             return s.encode('utf-8')
         return s

You can also use the ‘locate()’ method to get the absolute path to the
file:

     >>> util.locate()
     PosixPath('/home/gustav/example/lib/site-packages/wheel/util.py')

In the case where the metadata file listing files (‘RECORD’ or
‘SOURCES.txt’) is missing, ‘files()’ will return *note None: a65.  The
caller may wish to wrap calls to ‘files()’ in always_iterable(2) or
otherwise guard against this condition if the target distribution is not
known to have the metadata present.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) 
https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.always_iterable


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution requirements,  Next: Mapping import to distribution packages,  Prev: Distribution files,  Up: Functional API

5.32.8.7 Distribution requirements
..................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.metadata.requires (distribution_name)

     Return the declared dependency specifiers for the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 19cd. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

To get the full set of requirements for a Distribution Package(1), use
the ‘requires()’ function:

     >>> requires('wheel')
     ["pytest (>=3.0.0) ; extra == 'test'", "pytest-cov ; extra == 'test'"]

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping import to distribution packages,  Prev: Distribution requirements,  Up: Functional API

5.32.8.8 Mapping import to distribution packages
................................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.metadata.packages_distributions ()

     Return a mapping from the top level module and import package names
     found via *note sys.meta_path: 10e3. to the names of the
     distribution packages (if any) that provide the corresponding
     files.

     To allow for namespace packages (which may have members provided by
     multiple distribution packages), each top level import name maps to
     a list of distribution names rather than mapping directly to a
     single name.

A convenience method to resolve the Distribution Package(1) name (or
names, in the case of a namespace package) that provide each importable
top-level Python module or Import Package(2):

     >>> packages_distributions()
     {'importlib_metadata': ['importlib-metadata'], 'yaml': ['PyYAML'], 'jaraco': ['jaraco.classes', 'jaraco.functools'], ...}

Some editable installs, do not supply top-level names(3), and thus this
function is not reliable with such installs.

Added in version 3.10.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package

   (3) https://github.com/pypa/packaging-problems/issues/609


File: python.info,  Node: Distributions,  Next: Distribution Discovery,  Prev: Functional API,  Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata

5.32.8.9 Distributions
......................

While the module level API described above is the most common and
convenient usage, all that information is accessible from the *note
Distribution: 194f. class.  ‘Distribution’ is an abstract object that
represents the metadata for a Python Distribution Package(1).  Get the
concrete ‘Distribution’ subclass instance for an installed distribution
package by calling the *note distribution(): 4e40. function:

     >>> from importlib.metadata import distribution
     >>> dist = distribution('wheel')
     >>> type(dist)
     <class 'importlib.metadata.PathDistribution'>

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.metadata.distribution (distribution_name)

     Return a *note Distribution: 194f. instance describing the named
     distribution package.

     Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 19cd. if the named distribution
     package is not installed in the current Python environment.

Thus, an alternative way to get e.g.  the version number is through the
*note Distribution.version: 4e41. attribute:

     >>> dist.version
     '0.32.3'

The same applies for *note entry_points(): 4e2e. and *note files():
4e37.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.metadata.Distribution

     Details of an installed distribution package.

     Note: different ‘Distribution’ instances do not currently compare
     equal, even if they relate to the same installed distribution and
     accordingly have the same attributes.

      -- Μέθοδος: static at (path)

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod from_name (name)

          Return a ‘Distribution’ instance at the given path or with the
          given name.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod discover (*, context=None, **kwargs)

          Returns an iterable of ‘Distribution’ instances for all
          packages (see *note distribution-discovery: 4e45.).

          The optional argument 'context' is a *note
          DistributionFinder.Context: 4e46. instance, used to modify the
          search for distributions.  Alternatively, 'kwargs' may contain
          keyword arguments for constructing a new
          ‘DistributionFinder.Context’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: metadata: *note PackageMetadata: 4e34.

          There are all kinds of additional metadata available on
          ‘Distribution’ instances as a *note PackageMetadata: 4e34.
          instance:

               >>> dist.metadata['Requires-Python']
               '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*'
               >>> dist.metadata['License']
               'MIT'

          The full set of available metadata is not described here.  See
          the PyPA Core metadata specification(2) for additional
          details.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name: *note str: 1df.

      -- Ιδιότητα: requires: *note list: 4d9.[*note str: 1df.]

      -- Ιδιότητα: version: *note str: 1df.

          A few metadata fields are also available as shortcut
          properties.

          Added in version 3.10: The ‘name’ shortcut was added.

      -- Ιδιότητα: origin

          For editable packages, an ‘origin’ property may present PEP
          610(3) metadata (for non-editable packages, ‘origin’ is *note
          None: a65.):

               >>> dist.origin.url
               'file:///path/to/wheel-0.32.3.editable-py3-none-any.whl'

          The ‘origin’ object follows the Direct URL Data Structure(4).

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Ιδιότητα: entry_points: *note EntryPoints: 4e2f.

          The entry points provided by this distribution package.

      -- Ιδιότητα: files: *note list: 4d9.[*note PackagePath: 1950.] |
               *note None: a65.

          All files contained in this distribution package.  Like *note
          files(): 4e37, this returns *note None: a65. if there are no
          records.

     The following two abstract methods need to be implemented when
     *note implementing-custom-providers: 4e4c.:

      -- Μέθοδος: locate_file (path)

          Like ‘PackagePath.locate()’, return a *note SimplePath: 4e39.
          for the given path.  Takes a *note os.PathLike: 100f. or a
          *note str: 1df.

      -- Μέθοδος: read_text (filename)

          A shortcut for
          ‘distribution.locate_file(filename).read_text()’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package

   (2) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0610/

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/direct-url-data-structure/


File: python.info,  Node: Distribution Discovery,  Next: Implementing Custom Providers,  Prev: Distributions,  Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata

5.32.8.10 Distribution Discovery
................................

By default, this package provides built-in support for discovery of
metadata for file system and zip file Distribution Package(1)s.  This
metadata finder search defaults to ‘sys.path’, but varies slightly in
how it interprets those values from how other import machinery does.  In
particular:

   - ‘importlib.metadata’ does not honor *note bytes: 1c7. objects on
     ‘sys.path’.

   - ‘importlib.metadata’ will incidentally honor *note pathlib.Path:
     4ee. objects on ‘sys.path’ even though such values will be ignored
     for imports.

 -- Κλάση: importlib.metadata.DistributionFinder

     A *note MetaPathFinder: c44. subclass capable of discovering
     installed distributions.

     Custom providers should implement this interface in order to supply
     metadata.

           -- Κλάση: Context (**kwargs)

               A ‘Context’ gives a custom provider a means to solicit
               additional details from the callers of distribution
               discovery functions like *note distributions(): 4e51. or
               *note Distribution.discover(): 4e44. beyond ‘.name’ and
               ‘.path’ when searching for distributions.

               For example, a provider could expose suites of packages
               in either a «public» or «private» ‘realm’.  A caller of
               distribution discovery functions may wish to query only
               for distributions in a particular realm and could call
               ‘distributions(realm="private")’ to signal to the custom
               provider to only include distributions from that realm.

               Each ‘DistributionFinder’ must expect any parameters and
               should attempt to honor the canonical parameters defined
               below when appropriate.

               See the section on *note Implementing Custom Providers:
               4e4c. for more details.

                -- Ιδιότητα: name

                    Specific name for which a distribution finder should
                    match.

                    A ‘.name’ of ‘None’ matches all distributions.

                -- Ιδιότητα: path

                    A property providing the sequence of directory paths
                    that a distribution finder should search.

                    Typically refers to Python installed package paths
                    such as «site-packages» directories and defaults to
                    *note sys.path: 194.

 -- Συνάρτηση: importlib.metadata.distributions (**kwargs)

     Returns an iterable of *note Distribution: 194f. instances for all
     packages.

     The 'kwargs' argument may contain either a keyword argument
     ‘context’, a *note DistributionFinder.Context: 4e46. instance, or
     pass keyword arguments for constructing a new
     ‘DistributionFinder.Context’.  The ‘DistributionFinder.Context’ is
     used to modify the search for distributions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing Custom Providers,  Prev: Distribution Discovery,  Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata

5.32.8.11 Implementing Custom Providers
.......................................

‘importlib.metadata’ address two API surfaces, one for 'consumers' and
another for 'providers'.  Most users are consumers, consuming metadata
provided by the packages.  There are other use-cases, however, where
users wish to expose metadata through some other mechanism, such as
alongside a custom importer.  Such a use case calls for a 'custom
provider'.

Because Distribution Package(1) metadata is not available through *note
sys.path: 194. searches, or package loaders directly, the metadata for a
distribution is found through import system *note finders: 263c.  To
find a distribution package’s metadata, ‘importlib.metadata’ queries the
list of *note meta path finders: 1418. on *note sys.meta_path: 10e3.

The implementation has hooks integrated into the ‘PathFinder’, serving
metadata for distribution packages found on the file system.

The abstract class *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: c44. defines the
interface expected of finders by Python’s import system.
‘importlib.metadata’ extends this protocol by looking for an optional
‘find_distributions’ callable on the finders from *note sys.meta_path:
10e3. and presents this extended interface as the *note
DistributionFinder: 4e50. abstract base class, which defines this
abstract method:

     @abc.abstractmethod
     def find_distributions(context=DistributionFinder.Context()) -> Iterable[Distribution]:
         """Return an iterable of all Distribution instances capable of
         loading the metadata for packages for the indicated ``context``.
         """

The *note DistributionFinder.Context: 4e46. object provides *note path:
4e53. and *note name: 4e52. properties indicating the path to search and
name to match and may supply other relevant context sought by the
consumer.

In practice, to support finding distribution package metadata in
locations other than the file system, subclass ‘Distribution’ and
implement the abstract methods.  Then from a custom finder, return
instances of this derived ‘Distribution’ in the ‘find_distributions()’
method.

* Menu:

* Example: Example<13>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package


File: python.info,  Node: Example<13>,  Up: Implementing Custom Providers

5.32.8.12 Example
.................

Imagine a custom finder that loads Python modules from a database:

     class DatabaseImporter(importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder):
         def __init__(self, db):
             self.db = db

         def find_spec(self, fullname, target=None) -> ModuleSpec:
             return self.db.spec_from_name(fullname)

     sys.meta_path.append(DatabaseImporter(connect_db(...)))

That importer now presumably provides importable modules from a
database, but it provides no metadata or entry points.  For this custom
importer to provide metadata, it would also need to implement *note
DistributionFinder: 4e50.:

     from importlib.metadata import DistributionFinder

     class DatabaseImporter(DistributionFinder):
         ...

         def find_distributions(self, context=DistributionFinder.Context()):
             query = dict(name=context.name) if context.name else {}
             for dist_record in self.db.query_distributions(query):
                 yield DatabaseDistribution(dist_record)

In this way, ‘query_distributions’ would return records for each
distribution served by the database matching the query.  For example, if
‘requests-1.0’ is in the database, ‘find_distributions’ would yield a
‘DatabaseDistribution’ for ‘Context(name='requests')’ or
‘Context(name=None)’.

For the sake of simplicity, this example ignores ‘context.path’.  The
‘path’ attribute defaults to ‘sys.path’ and is the set of import paths
to be considered in the search.  A ‘DatabaseImporter’ could potentially
function without any concern for a search path.  Assuming the importer
does no partitioning, the «path» would be irrelevant.  In order to
illustrate the purpose of ‘path’, the example would need to illustrate a
more complex ‘DatabaseImporter’ whose behavior varied depending on
‘sys.path’/‘PYTHONPATH’.  In that case, the ‘find_distributions’ should
honor the ‘context.path’ and only yield ‘Distribution’s pertinent to
that path.

‘DatabaseDistribution’, then, would look something like:

     class DatabaseDistribution(importlib.metadata.Distribution):
         def __init__(self, record):
             self.record = record

         def read_text(self, filename):
             """
             Read a file like "METADATA" for the current distribution.
             """
             if filename == "METADATA":
                 return f"""Name: {self.record.name}
     Version: {self.record.version}
     """
             if filename == "entry_points.txt":
                 return "\n".join(
                   f"""[{ep.group}]\n{ep.name}={ep.value}"""
                   for ep in self.record.entry_points)

         def locate_file(self, path):
             raise RuntimeError("This distribution has no file system")

This basic implementation should provide metadata and entry points for
packages served by the ‘DatabaseImporter’, assuming that the ‘record’
supplies suitable ‘.name’, ‘.version’, and ‘.entry_points’ attributes.

The ‘DatabaseDistribution’ may also provide other metadata files, like
‘RECORD’ (required for ‘Distribution.files’) or override the
implementation of ‘Distribution.files’.  See the source for more
inspiration.


File: python.info,  Node: The initialization of the sys path module search path,  Prev: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata,  Up: Importing Modules

5.32.9 The initialization of the ‘sys.path’ module search path
--------------------------------------------------------------

A module search path is initialized when Python starts.  This module
search path may be accessed at *note sys.path: 194.

The first entry in the module search path is the directory that contains
the input script, if there is one.  Otherwise, the first entry is the
current directory, which is the case when executing the interactive
shell, a *note -c: 445. command, or *note -m: 4ca. module.

The *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6. environment variable is often used to add
directories to the search path.  If this environment variable is found
then the contents are added to the module search path.

     Σημείωση: *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6. will affect all installed Python
     versions/environments.  Be wary of setting this in your shell
     profile or global environment variables.  The *note site: cf.
     module offers more nuanced techniques as mentioned below.

The next items added are the directories containing standard Python
modules as well as any *note extension module: 2442.s that these modules
depend on.  Extension modules are ‘.pyd’ files on Windows and ‘.so’
files on other platforms.  The directory with the platform-independent
Python modules is called ‘prefix’.  The directory with the extension
modules is called ‘exec_prefix’.

The *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. environment variable may be used to set the
‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ locations.  Otherwise these directories are
found by using the Python executable as a starting point and then
looking for various “landmark” files and directories.  Note that any
symbolic links are followed so the real Python executable location is
used as the search starting point.  The Python executable location is
called ‘home’.

Once ‘home’ is determined, the ‘prefix’ directory is found by first
looking for ‘python`majorversion'`minorversion'.zip’ (‘python311.zip’).
On Windows the zip archive is searched for in ‘home’ and on Unix the
archive is expected to be in ‘lib’.  Note that the expected zip archive
location is added to the module search path even if the archive does not
exist.  If no archive was found, Python on Windows will continue the
search for ‘prefix’ by looking for ‘Lib\os.py’.  Python on Unix will
look for ‘lib/python`majorversion'.`minorversion'/os.py’
(‘lib/python3.11/os.py’).  On Windows ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are the
same, however on other platforms
‘lib/python`majorversion'.`minorversion'/lib-dynload’
(‘lib/python3.11/lib-dynload’) is searched for and used as an anchor for
‘exec_prefix’.  On some platforms ‘lib’ may be ‘lib64’ or another value,
see *note sys.platlibdir: 2a9. and *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 1f18.

Once found, ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are available at *note
sys.base_prefix: 3aa. and *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3a7. respectively.

If *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. is not set, and a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file is found
alongside the main executable, or in its parent directory, *note
sys.prefix: 3ab. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3a8. get set to the
directory containing ‘pyvenv.cfg’, otherwise they are set to the same
value as *note sys.base_prefix: 3aa. and *note sys.base_exec_prefix:
3a7, respectively.  This is used by *note Virtual Environments: 4b93.

Finally, the *note site: cf. module is processed and ‘site-packages’
directories are added to the module search path.  The *note
PYTHONUSERBASE: 1731. environment variable controls where is searched
for user site-packages and the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1733. environment
variable prevents searching for user site-packages all together.  A
common way to customize the search path is to create *note
sitecustomize: d0. or *note usercustomize: 117. modules as described in
the ‘site’ module documentation.

     Σημείωση: The command line options *note -E: d27, *note -P: 9a3,
     *note -I: d28, *note -S: 1551. and *note -s: 1732. further affect
     path calculations, see their documentation for details.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: *note sys.prefix: 3ab. and *note
sys.exec_prefix: 3a8. are now set to the ‘pyvenv.cfg’ directory during
the path initialization.  This was previously done by *note site: cf,
therefore affected by *note -S: 1551.

* Menu:

* Virtual Environments::
* _pth files::
* Embedded Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Virtual Environments,  Next: _pth files,  Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path

5.32.9.1 Virtual Environments
.............................

Virtual environments place a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file in their prefix, which
causes *note sys.prefix: 3ab. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3a8. to point
to them, instead of the base installation.

The ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ values of the base installation are
available at *note sys.base_prefix: 3aa. and *note sys.base_exec_prefix:
3a7.

As well as being used as a marker to identify virtual environments,
‘pyvenv.cfg’ may also be used to configure the *note site: cf.
initialization.  Please refer to ‘site’’s *note virtual environments
documentation: 4b94.

     Σημείωση: *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. overrides the ‘pyvenv.cfg’
     detection.

     Σημείωση: There are other ways «virtual environments» could be
     implemented.  This documentation refers to implementations based on
     the ‘pyvenv.cfg’ mechanism, such as *note venv: 11a, that many
     virtual environment implementations follow.


File: python.info,  Node: _pth files,  Next: Embedded Python,  Prev: Virtual Environments,  Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path

5.32.9.2 _pth files
...................

To completely override *note sys.path: 194. create a ‘._pth’ file with
the same name as the shared library or executable (‘python._pth’ or
‘python311._pth’).  The shared library path is always known on Windows,
however it may not be available on other platforms.  In the ‘._pth’ file
specify one line for each path to add to ‘sys.path’.  The file based on
the shared library name overrides the one based on the executable, which
allows paths to be restricted for any program loading the runtime if
desired.

When the file exists, all registry and environment variables are
ignored, isolated mode is enabled, and *note site: cf. is not imported
unless one line in the file specifies ‘import site’.  Blank paths and
lines starting with ‘#’ are ignored.  Each path may be absolute or
relative to the location of the file.  Import statements other than to
‘site’ are not permitted, and arbitrary code cannot be specified.

Note that ‘.pth’ files (without leading underscore) will be processed
normally by the *note site: cf. module when ‘import site’ has been
specified.


File: python.info,  Node: Embedded Python,  Prev: _pth files,  Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path

5.32.9.3 Embedded Python
........................

If Python is embedded within another application *note
Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. and the *note PyConfig: 60b. structure
can be used to initialize Python.  The path specific details are
described at *note Python Path Configuration: c80.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * *note Εύρεση modules: fdf. for detailed Windows notes.

   * *note Χρήση της Python σε πλατφόρμες Unix: 2331. for Unix details.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Language Services,  Next: MS Windows Specific Services,  Prev: Importing Modules,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.33 Python Language Services
=============================

Python provides a number of modules to assist in working with the Python
language.  These modules support tokenizing, parsing, syntax analysis,
bytecode disassembly, and various other facilities.

These modules include:

* Menu:

* ast — Abstract syntax trees::
* symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables::
* token — Constants used with Python parse trees::
* keyword — Testing for Python keywords::
* tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source::
* tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation::
* pyclbr — Python module browser support::
* py_compile — Compile Python source files::
* compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries::
* dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode::
* pickletools — Tools for pickle developers::


File: python.info,  Node: ast — Abstract syntax trees,  Next: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables,  Up: Python Language Services

5.33.1 ‘ast’ — Abstract syntax trees
------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/ast.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘ast’ module helps Python applications to process trees of the
Python abstract syntax grammar.  The abstract syntax itself might change
with each Python release; this module helps to find out programmatically
what the current grammar looks like.

An abstract syntax tree can be generated by passing *note
ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST: 4e62. as a flag to the *note compile(): 1c8. built-in
function, or using the *note parse(): 1c9. helper provided in this
module.  The result will be a tree of objects whose classes all inherit
from *note ast.AST: 2ec.  An abstract syntax tree can be compiled into a
Python code object using the built-in ‘compile()’ function.

* Menu:

* Abstract grammar::
* Node classes::
* ast helpers::
* Compiler flags: Compiler flags<2>.
* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<5>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/ast.py


File: python.info,  Node: Abstract grammar,  Next: Node classes,  Up: ast — Abstract syntax trees

5.33.1.1 Abstract grammar
.........................

The abstract grammar is currently defined as follows:

     -- ASDL's 4 builtin types are:
     -- identifier, int, string, constant

     module Python
     {
         mod = Module(stmt* body, type_ignore* type_ignores)
             | Interactive(stmt* body)
             | Expression(expr body)
             | FunctionType(expr* argtypes, expr returns)

         stmt = FunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
                            stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns,
                            string? type_comment, type_param* type_params)
               | AsyncFunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args,
                                  stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns,
                                  string? type_comment, type_param* type_params)

               | ClassDef(identifier name,
                  expr* bases,
                  keyword* keywords,
                  stmt* body,
                  expr* decorator_list,
                  type_param* type_params)
               | Return(expr? value)

               | Delete(expr* targets)
               | Assign(expr* targets, expr value, string? type_comment)
               | TypeAlias(expr name, type_param* type_params, expr value)
               | AugAssign(expr target, operator op, expr value)
               -- 'simple' indicates that we annotate simple name without parens
               | AnnAssign(expr target, expr annotation, expr? value, int simple)

               -- use 'orelse' because else is a keyword in target languages
               | For(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment)
               | AsyncFor(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment)
               | While(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
               | If(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse)
               | With(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment)
               | AsyncWith(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment)

               | Match(expr subject, match_case* cases)

               | Raise(expr? exc, expr? cause)
               | Try(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody)
               | TryStar(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody)
               | Assert(expr test, expr? msg)

               | Import(alias* names, int? is_lazy)
               | ImportFrom(identifier? module, alias* names, int? level, int? is_lazy)

               | Global(identifier* names)
               | Nonlocal(identifier* names)
               | Expr(expr value)
               | Pass | Break | Continue

               -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
               attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

               -- BoolOp() can use left & right?
         expr = BoolOp(boolop op, expr* values)
              | NamedExpr(expr target, expr value)
              | BinOp(expr left, operator op, expr right)
              | UnaryOp(unaryop op, expr operand)
              | Lambda(arguments args, expr body)
              | IfExp(expr test, expr body, expr orelse)
              | Dict(expr?* keys, expr* values)
              | Set(expr* elts)
              | ListComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              | SetComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              | DictComp(expr key, expr? value, comprehension* generators)
              | GeneratorExp(expr elt, comprehension* generators)
              -- the grammar constrains where yield expressions can occur
              | Await(expr value)
              | Yield(expr? value)
              | YieldFrom(expr value)
              -- need sequences for compare to distinguish between
              -- x < 4 < 3 and (x < 4) < 3
              | Compare(expr left, cmpop* ops, expr* comparators)
              | Call(expr func, expr* args, keyword* keywords)
              | FormattedValue(expr value, int conversion, expr? format_spec)
              | Interpolation(expr value, constant str, int conversion, expr? format_spec)
              | JoinedStr(expr* values)
              | TemplateStr(expr* values)
              | Constant(constant value, string? kind)

              -- the following expression can appear in assignment context
              | Attribute(expr value, identifier attr, expr_context ctx)
              | Subscript(expr value, expr slice, expr_context ctx)
              | Starred(expr value, expr_context ctx)
              | Name(identifier id, expr_context ctx)
              | List(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)
              | Tuple(expr* elts, expr_context ctx)

              -- can appear only in Subscript
              | Slice(expr? lower, expr? upper, expr? step)

               -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses
               attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         expr_context = Load | Store | Del

         boolop = And | Or

         operator = Add | Sub | Mult | MatMult | Div | Mod | Pow | LShift
                      | RShift | BitOr | BitXor | BitAnd | FloorDiv

         unaryop = Invert | Not | UAdd | USub

         cmpop = Eq | NotEq | Lt | LtE | Gt | GtE | Is | IsNot | In | NotIn

         comprehension = (expr target, expr iter, expr* ifs, int is_async)

         excepthandler = ExceptHandler(expr? type, identifier? name, stmt* body)
                         attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         arguments = (arg* posonlyargs, arg* args, arg? vararg, arg* kwonlyargs,
                      expr?* kw_defaults, arg? kwarg, expr* defaults)

         arg = (identifier arg, expr? annotation, string? type_comment)
                attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         -- keyword arguments supplied to call (NULL identifier for **kwargs)
         keyword = (identifier? arg, expr value)
                    attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         -- import name with optional 'as' alias.
         alias = (identifier name, identifier? asname)
                  attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset)

         withitem = (expr context_expr, expr? optional_vars)

         match_case = (pattern pattern, expr? guard, stmt* body)

         pattern = MatchValue(expr value)
                 | MatchSingleton(constant value)
                 | MatchSequence(pattern* patterns)
                 | MatchMapping(expr* keys, pattern* patterns, identifier? rest)
                 | MatchClass(expr cls, pattern* patterns, identifier* kwd_attrs, pattern* kwd_patterns)

                 | MatchStar(identifier? name)
                 -- The optional "rest" MatchMapping parameter handles capturing extra mapping keys

                 | MatchAs(pattern? pattern, identifier? name)
                 | MatchOr(pattern* patterns)

                  attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)

         type_ignore = TypeIgnore(int lineno, string tag)

         type_param = TypeVar(identifier name, expr? bound, expr? default_value)
                    | ParamSpec(identifier name, expr? default_value)
                    | TypeVarTuple(identifier name, expr? default_value)
                    attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset)
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Node classes,  Next: ast helpers,  Prev: Abstract grammar,  Up: ast — Abstract syntax trees

5.33.1.2 Node classes
.....................

 -- Κλάση: ast.AST

     This is the abstract base of all AST node classes.  The actual node
     classes are derived from the ‘Parser/Python.asdl’ file, which is
     reproduced *note above: 4e63.  They are defined in the ‘_ast’ C
     module and re-exported in ‘ast’.

     There is one class defined for each left-hand side symbol in the
     abstract grammar (for example, ‘ast.stmt’ or ‘ast.expr’).  In
     addition, there is one class defined for each constructor on the
     right-hand side; these classes inherit from the classes for the
     left-hand side trees.  For example, *note ast.BinOp: 1fa2. inherits
     from ‘ast.expr’.  For production rules with alternatives (aka
     «sums»), the left-hand side class is abstract: only instances of
     specific constructor nodes are ever created.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _fields

          Each concrete class has an attribute ‘_fields’ which gives the
          names of all child nodes.

          Each instance of a concrete class has one attribute for each
          child node, of the type as defined in the grammar.  For
          example, *note ast.BinOp: 1fa2. instances have an attribute
          ‘left’ of type ‘ast.expr’.

          If these attributes are marked as optional in the grammar
          (using a question mark), the value might be ‘None’.  If the
          attributes can have zero-or-more values (marked with an
          asterisk), the values are represented as Python lists.  All
          possible attributes must be present and have valid values when
          compiling an AST with *note compile(): 1c8.

      -- Ιδιότητα: _field_types

          The ‘_field_types’ attribute on each concrete class is a
          dictionary mapping field names (as also listed in *note
          _fields: 19da.) to their types.

               >>> ast.TypeVar._field_types
               {'name': <class 'str'>, 'bound': ast.expr | None, 'default_value': ast.expr | None}

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno
      -- Ιδιότητα: col_offset
      -- Ιδιότητα: end_lineno
      -- Ιδιότητα: end_col_offset

          Instances of ‘ast.expr’ and ‘ast.stmt’ subclasses have *note
          lineno: 4e66, *note col_offset: 4e67, *note end_lineno: 4e68,
          and *note end_col_offset: 4e69. attributes.  The ‘lineno’ and
          ‘end_lineno’ are the first and last line numbers of source
          text span (1-indexed so the first line is line 1) and the
          ‘col_offset’ and ‘end_col_offset’ are the corresponding UTF-8
          byte offsets of the first and last tokens that generated the
          node.  The UTF-8 offset is recorded because the parser uses
          UTF-8 internally.

          Note that the end positions are not required by the compiler
          and are therefore optional.  The end offset is 'after' the
          last symbol, for example one can get the source segment of a
          one-line expression node using ‘source_line[node.col_offset :
          node.end_col_offset]’.

     The constructor of a class ‘ast.T’ parses its arguments as follows:

        * If there are positional arguments, there must be as many as
          there are items in ‘T._fields’; they will be assigned as
          attributes of these names.

        * If there are keyword arguments, they will set the attributes
          of the same names to the given values.

     For example, to create and populate an *note ast.UnaryOp: 4d5d.
     node, you could use

          node = ast.UnaryOp(ast.USub(), ast.Constant(5, lineno=0, col_offset=0),
                             lineno=0, col_offset=0)

     If a field that is optional in the grammar is omitted from the
     constructor, it defaults to ‘None’.  If a list field is omitted, it
     defaults to the empty list.  If a field of type ‘ast.expr_context’
     is omitted, it defaults to *note Load(): 6c9.  If any other field
     is omitted, a *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. is raised and the AST
     node will not have this field.  In Python 3.15, this condition will
     raise an error.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Class *note ast.Constant: 569. is now used for
all constants.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Simple indices are represented by their value,
extended slices are represented as tuples.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: AST node constructors were changed to provide
sensible defaults for omitted fields: optional fields now default to
‘None’, list fields default to an empty list, and fields of type
‘ast.expr_context’ default to *note Load(): 6c9.  Previously, omitted
attributes would not exist on constructed nodes (accessing them raised
*note AttributeError: 1a9.).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The *note __repr__(): 1bc. output of *note AST:
2ec. nodes includes the values of the node fields.

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.8, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: Previous
versions of Python provided the AST classes ‘ast.Num’, ‘ast.Str’,
‘ast.Bytes’, ‘ast.NameConstant’ and ‘ast.Ellipsis’, which were
deprecated in Python 3.8.  These classes were removed in Python 3.14,
and their functionality has been replaced with *note ast.Constant: 569.

Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9: Old classes ‘ast.Index’ and ‘ast.ExtSlice’
are still available, but they will be removed in future Python releases.
In the meantime, instantiating them will return an instance of a
different class.

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.13, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15: Previous
versions of Python allowed the creation of AST nodes that were missing
required fields.  Similarly, AST node constructors allowed arbitrary
keyword arguments that were set as attributes of the AST node, even if
they did not match any of the fields of the AST node.  These cases now
raise a *note TypeError: 291.

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.20: In the
*note grammar above: 4e63, the AST node classes that correspond to
production rules with variants (aka «sums») are abstract classes.
Previous versions of Python allowed for the creation of direct instances
of these abstract node classes.  This behavior is deprecated and will be
removed in Python 3.20.

     Σημείωση: The descriptions of the specific node classes displayed
     here were initially adapted from the fantastic Green Tree Snakes(1)
     project and all its contributors.

* Menu:

* Root nodes::
* Literals: Literals<2>.
* Variables::
* Expressions: Expressions<2>.
* Statements::
* Control flow::
* Pattern matching::
* Type annotations::
* Type parameters::
* Function and class definitions::
* Async and await::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Root nodes,  Next: Literals<2>,  Up: Node classes

5.33.1.3 Root nodes
...................

 -- Κλάση: ast.Module (body, type_ignores)

     A Python module, as with *note file input: 2798.  Node type
     generated by *note ast.parse(): 1c9. in the default ‘"exec"’
     'mode'.

     ‘body’ is a *note list: 4d9. of the module’s *note Statements:
     4e6d.

     ‘type_ignores’ is a *note list: 4d9. of the module’s type ignore
     comments; see *note ast.parse(): 1c9. for more details.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))])

 -- Κλάση: ast.Expression (body)

     A single Python *note expression input: 279e.  Node type generated
     by *note ast.parse(): 1c9. when 'mode' is ‘"eval"’.

     ‘body’ is a single node, one of the *note expression types: 4e6f.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Constant(value=123))

 -- Κλάση: ast.Interactive (body)

     A single *note interactive input: 279b, like in *note Διαδραστική
     Λειτουργία: 6a0.  Node type generated by *note ast.parse(): 1c9.
     when 'mode' is ‘"single"’.

     ‘body’ is a *note list: 4d9. of *note statement nodes: 4e6d.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1; y = 2', mode='single'), indent=4))
          Interactive(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1)),
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='y', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=2))])

 -- Κλάση: ast.FunctionType (argtypes, returns)

     A representation of an old-style type comments for functions, as
     Python versions prior to 3.5 didn’t support PEP 484(1) annotations.
     Node type generated by *note ast.parse(): 1c9. when 'mode' is
     ‘"func_type"’.

     Such type comments would look like this:

          def sum_two_number(a, b):
              # type: (int, int) -> int
              return a + b

     ‘argtypes’ is a *note list: 4d9. of *note expression nodes: 4e6f.

     ‘returns’ is a single *note expression node: 4e6f.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(int, str) -> List[int]', mode='func_type'), indent=4))
          FunctionType(
              argtypes=[
                  Name(id='int'),
                  Name(id='str')],
              returns=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='List'),
                  slice=Name(id='int')))

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Literals<2>,  Next: Variables,  Prev: Root nodes,  Up: Node classes

5.33.1.4 Literals
.................

 -- Κλάση: ast.Constant (value, kind)

     A constant value.  The ‘value’ attribute of the ‘Constant’ literal
     contains the Python object it represents.  The values represented
     can be instances of *note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7, *note int:
     326, *note float: 327, *note complex: 328, and *note bool: 5ef, and
     the constants *note None: a65. and *note Ellipsis: 2519.

     The ‘kind’ attribute is an optional string.  For string literals
     with a ‘u’ prefix, ‘kind’ is set to ‘'u'’.  For all other
     constants, ‘kind’ is ‘None’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Constant(value=123))
          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("u'hello'", mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Constant(value='hello', kind='u'))

 -- Κλάση: ast.FormattedValue (value, conversion, format_spec)

     Node representing a single formatting field in an f-string.  If the
     string contains a single formatting field and nothing else the node
     can be isolated otherwise it appears in *note JoinedStr: 1c62.

        * ‘value’ is any expression node (such as a literal, a variable,
          or a function call).

        * ‘conversion’ is an integer:

             * -1: no formatting

             * 97 (‘ord('a')’): ‘!a’ *note ASCII: 1789. formatting

             * 114 (‘ord('r')’): ‘!r’ *note repr(): 45b. formatting

             * 115 (‘ord('s')’): ‘!s’ *note string: 1df. formatting

        * ‘format_spec’ is a *note JoinedStr: 1c62. node representing
          the formatting of the value, or ‘None’ if no format was
          specified.  Both ‘conversion’ and ‘format_spec’ can be set at
          the same time.

 -- Κλάση: ast.JoinedStr (values)

     An f-string, comprising a series of *note FormattedValue: 4d75. and
     *note Constant: 569. nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('f"sin({a}) is {sin(a):.3}"', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=JoinedStr(
                  values=[
                      Constant(value='sin('),
                      FormattedValue(
                          value=Name(id='a'),
                          conversion=-1),
                      Constant(value=') is '),
                      FormattedValue(
                          value=Call(
                              func=Name(id='sin'),
                              args=[
                                  Name(id='a')]),
                          conversion=-1,
                          format_spec=JoinedStr(
                              values=[
                                  Constant(value='.3')]))]))

 -- Κλάση: ast.TemplateStr (values, /)

     Added in version 3.14.

     Node representing a template string literal, comprising a series of
     *note Interpolation: 19cc. and *note Constant: 569. nodes.  These
     nodes may be any order, and do not need to be interleaved.

          >>> expr = ast.parse('t"{name} finished {place:ordinal}"', mode='eval')
          >>> print(ast.dump(expr, indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=TemplateStr(
                  values=[
                      Interpolation(
                          value=Name(id='name'),
                          str='name',
                          conversion=-1),
                      Constant(value=' finished '),
                      Interpolation(
                          value=Name(id='place'),
                          str='place',
                          conversion=-1,
                          format_spec=JoinedStr(
                              values=[
                                  Constant(value='ordinal')]))]))

 -- Κλάση: ast.Interpolation (value, str, conversion, format_spec=None)

     Added in version 3.14.

     Node representing a single interpolation field in a template string
     literal.

        * ‘value’ is any expression node (such as a literal, a variable,
          or a function call).  This has the same meaning as
          ‘FormattedValue.value’.

        * ‘str’ is a constant containing the text of the interpolation
          expression.

          If ‘str’ is set to ‘None’, then ‘value’ is used to generate
          code when calling *note ast.unparse(): cb6.  This no longer
          guarantees that the generated code is identical to the
          original and is intended for code generation.

        * ‘conversion’ is an integer:

             * -1: no conversion

             * 97 (‘ord('a')’): ‘!a’ *note ASCII: 1789. conversion

             * 114 (‘ord('r')’): ‘!r’ *note repr(): 45b. conversion

             * 115 (‘ord('s')’): ‘!s’ *note string: 1df. conversion

          This has the same meaning as ‘FormattedValue.conversion’.

        * ‘format_spec’ is a *note JoinedStr: 1c62. node representing
          the formatting of the value, or ‘None’ if no format was
          specified.  Both ‘conversion’ and ‘format_spec’ can be set at
          the same time.  This has the same meaning as
          ‘FormattedValue.format_spec’.

 -- Κλάση: ast.List (elts, ctx)
 -- Κλάση: ast.Tuple (elts, ctx)

     A list or tuple.  ‘elts’ holds a list of nodes representing the
     elements.  ‘ctx’ is *note Store: 4e73. if the container is an
     assignment target (i.e.  ‘(x,y)=something’), and *note Load: 6c9.
     otherwise.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[1, 2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=List(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)]))
          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(1, 2, 3)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Tuple(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)]))

 -- Κλάση: ast.Set (elts)

     A set.  ‘elts’ holds a list of nodes representing the set’s
     elements.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{1, 2, 3}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Set(
                  elts=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Constant(value=2),
                      Constant(value=3)]))

 -- Κλάση: ast.Dict (keys, values)

     A dictionary.  ‘keys’ and ‘values’ hold lists of nodes representing
     the keys and the values respectively, in matching order (what would
     be returned when calling ‘dictionary.keys()’ and
     ‘dictionary.values()’).

     When doing dictionary unpacking using dictionary literals the
     expression to be expanded goes in the ‘values’ list, with a ‘None’
     at the corresponding position in ‘keys’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{"a":1, **d}', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Dict(
                  keys=[
                      Constant(value='a'),
                      None],
                  values=[
                      Constant(value=1),
                      Name(id='d')]))


File: python.info,  Node: Variables,  Next: Expressions<2>,  Prev: Literals<2>,  Up: Node classes

5.33.1.5 Variables
..................

 -- Κλάση: ast.Name (id, ctx)

     A variable name.  ‘id’ holds the name as a string, and ‘ctx’ is one
     of the following types.

 -- Κλάση: ast.Load
 -- Κλάση: ast.Store
 -- Κλάση: ast.Del

     Variable references can be used to load the value of a variable, to
     assign a new value to it, or to delete it.  Variable references are
     given a context to distinguish these cases.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Name(id='a'))])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = 1'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Delete(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Del())])])

 -- Κλάση: ast.Starred (value, ctx)

     A ‘*var’ variable reference.  ‘value’ holds the variable, typically
     a *note Name: 1f17. node.  This type must be used when building a
     *note Call: 4d6e. node with ‘*args’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a, *b = it'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                                  Starred(
                                      value=Name(id='b', ctx=Store()),
                                      ctx=Store())],
                              ctx=Store())],
                      value=Name(id='it'))])


File: python.info,  Node: Expressions<2>,  Next: Statements,  Prev: Variables,  Up: Node classes

5.33.1.6 Expressions
....................

 -- Κλάση: ast.Expr (value)

     When an expression, such as a function call, appears as a statement
     by itself with its return value not used or stored, it is wrapped
     in this container.  ‘value’ holds one of the other nodes in this
     section, a *note Constant: 569, a *note Name: 1f17, a *note Lambda:
     4d78, a *note Yield: 4d7f. or *note YieldFrom: 4d80. node.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('-a'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=UnaryOp(
                          op=USub(),
                          operand=Name(id='a')))])

 -- Κλάση: ast.UnaryOp (op, operand)

     A unary operation.  ‘op’ is the operator, and ‘operand’ any
     expression node.

 -- Κλάση: ast.UAdd
 -- Κλάση: ast.USub
 -- Κλάση: ast.Not
 -- Κλάση: ast.Invert

     Unary operator tokens.  ‘Not’ is the ‘not’ keyword, ‘Invert’ is the
     ‘~’ operator.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('not x', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=UnaryOp(
                  op=Not(),
                  operand=Name(id='x')))

 -- Κλάση: ast.BinOp (left, op, right)

     A binary operation (like addition or division).  ‘op’ is the
     operator, and ‘left’ and ‘right’ are any expression nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x + y', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=BinOp(
                  left=Name(id='x'),
                  op=Add(),
                  right=Name(id='y')))

 -- Κλάση: ast.Add
 -- Κλάση: ast.Sub
 -- Κλάση: ast.Mult
 -- Κλάση: ast.Div
 -- Κλάση: ast.FloorDiv
 -- Κλάση: ast.Mod
 -- Κλάση: ast.Pow
 -- Κλάση: ast.LShift
 -- Κλάση: ast.RShift
 -- Κλάση: ast.BitOr
 -- Κλάση: ast.BitXor
 -- Κλάση: ast.BitAnd
 -- Κλάση: ast.MatMult

     Binary operator tokens.

 -- Κλάση: ast.BoolOp (op, values)

     A boolean operation, “or” or “and”.  ‘op’ is *note Or: 4e85. or
     *note And: 4e86.  ‘values’ are the values involved.  Consecutive
     operations with the same operator, such as ‘a or b or c’, are
     collapsed into one node with several values.

     This doesn’t include ‘not’, which is a *note UnaryOp: 4d5d.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x or y', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=BoolOp(
                  op=Or(),
                  values=[
                      Name(id='x'),
                      Name(id='y')]))

 -- Κλάση: ast.And
 -- Κλάση: ast.Or

     Boolean operator tokens.

 -- Κλάση: ast.Compare (left, ops, comparators)

     A comparison of two or more values.  ‘left’ is the first value in
     the comparison, ‘ops’ the list of operators, and ‘comparators’ the
     list of values after the first element in the comparison.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('1 <= a < 10', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Compare(
                  left=Constant(value=1),
                  ops=[
                      LtE(),
                      Lt()],
                  comparators=[
                      Name(id='a'),
                      Constant(value=10)]))

 -- Κλάση: ast.Eq
 -- Κλάση: ast.NotEq
 -- Κλάση: ast.Lt
 -- Κλάση: ast.LtE
 -- Κλάση: ast.Gt
 -- Κλάση: ast.GtE
 -- Κλάση: ast.Is
 -- Κλάση: ast.IsNot
 -- Κλάση: ast.In
 -- Κλάση: ast.NotIn

     Comparison operator tokens.

 -- Κλάση: ast.Call (func, args, keywords)

     A function call.  ‘func’ is the function, which will often be a
     *note Name: 1f17. or *note Attribute: 4d6f. object.  Of the
     arguments:

        * ‘args’ holds a list of the arguments passed by position.

        * ‘keywords’ holds a list of *note keyword: 4e87. objects
          representing arguments passed by keyword.

     The ‘args’ and ‘keywords’ arguments are optional and default to
     empty lists.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('func(a, b=c, *d, **e)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Call(
                  func=Name(id='func'),
                  args=[
                      Name(id='a'),
                      Starred(
                          value=Name(id='d'))],
                  keywords=[
                      keyword(
                          arg='b',
                          value=Name(id='c')),
                      keyword(
                          value=Name(id='e'))]))

 -- Κλάση: ast.keyword (arg, value)

     A keyword argument to a function call or class definition.  ‘arg’
     is a raw string of the parameter name, ‘value’ is a node to pass
     in.

 -- Κλάση: ast.IfExp (test, body, orelse)

     An expression such as ‘a if b else c’.  Each field holds a single
     node, so in the following example, all three are *note Name: 1f17.
     nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a if b else c', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=IfExp(
                  test=Name(id='b'),
                  body=Name(id='a'),
                  orelse=Name(id='c')))

 -- Κλάση: ast.Attribute (value, attr, ctx)

     Attribute access, e.g.  ‘d.keys’.  ‘value’ is a node, typically a
     *note Name: 1f17.  ‘attr’ is a bare string giving the name of the
     attribute, and ‘ctx’ is *note Load: 6c9, *note Store: 4e73. or
     *note Del: 4e75. according to how the attribute is acted on.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('snake.colour', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Attribute(
                  value=Name(id='snake'),
                  attr='colour'))

 -- Κλάση: ast.NamedExpr (target, value)

     A named expression.  This AST node is produced by the assignment
     expressions operator (also known as the walrus operator).  As
     opposed to the *note Assign: 4e88. node in which the first argument
     can be multiple nodes, in this case both ‘target’ and ‘value’ must
     be single nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(x := 4)', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=NamedExpr(
                  target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                  value=Constant(value=4)))

     Added in version 3.8.

* Menu:

* Subscripting::
* Comprehensions::


File: python.info,  Node: Subscripting,  Next: Comprehensions,  Up: Expressions<2>

5.33.1.7 Subscripting
.....................

 -- Κλάση: ast.Subscript (value, slice, ctx)

     A subscript, such as ‘l[1]’.  ‘value’ is the subscripted object
     (usually sequence or mapping).  ‘slice’ is an index, slice or key.
     It can be a *note Tuple: 4d73. and contain a *note Slice: 4d74.
     ‘ctx’ is *note Load: 6c9, *note Store: 4e73. or *note Del: 4e75.
     according to the action performed with the subscript.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='l'),
                  slice=Tuple(
                      elts=[
                          Slice(
                              lower=Constant(value=1),
                              upper=Constant(value=2)),
                          Constant(value=3)])))

 -- Κλάση: ast.Slice (lower, upper, step)

     Regular slicing (on the form ‘lower:upper’ or ‘lower:upper:step’).
     Can occur only inside the 'slice' field of *note Subscript: 4d70,
     either directly or as an element of *note Tuple: 4d73.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2]', mode='eval'), indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Subscript(
                  value=Name(id='l'),
                  slice=Slice(
                      lower=Constant(value=1),
                      upper=Constant(value=2))))


File: python.info,  Node: Comprehensions,  Prev: Subscripting,  Up: Expressions<2>

5.33.1.8 Comprehensions
.......................

 -- Κλάση: ast.ListComp (elt, generators)
 -- Κλάση: ast.SetComp (elt, generators)
 -- Κλάση: ast.GeneratorExp (elt, generators)
 -- Κλάση: ast.DictComp (key, value, generators)

     List and set comprehensions, generator expressions, and dictionary
     comprehensions.  ‘elt’ (or ‘key’ and ‘value’) is a single node
     representing the part that will be evaluated for each item.

     ‘generators’ is a list of *note comprehension: 4e8b. nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(
          ...     ast.parse('[x for x in numbers]', mode='eval'),
          ...     indent=4,
          ... ))
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Name(id='x'),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers'),
                          is_async=0)]))
          >>> print(ast.dump(
          ...     ast.parse('{x: x**2 for x in numbers}', mode='eval'),
          ...     indent=4,
          ... ))
          Expression(
              body=DictComp(
                  key=Name(id='x'),
                  value=BinOp(
                      left=Name(id='x'),
                      op=Pow(),
                      right=Constant(value=2)),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers'),
                          is_async=0)]))
          >>> print(ast.dump(
          ...     ast.parse('{x for x in numbers}', mode='eval'),
          ...     indent=4,
          ... ))
          Expression(
              body=SetComp(
                  elt=Name(id='x'),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='numbers'),
                          is_async=0)]))

 -- Κλάση: ast.comprehension (target, iter, ifs, is_async)

     One ‘for’ clause in a comprehension.  ‘target’ is the reference to
     use for each element - typically a *note Name: 1f17. or *note
     Tuple: 4d73. node.  ‘iter’ is the object to iterate over.  ‘ifs’ is
     a list of test expressions: each ‘for’ clause can have multiple
     ‘ifs’.

     ‘is_async’ indicates a comprehension is asynchronous (using an
     ‘async for’ instead of ‘for’).  The value is an integer (0 or 1).

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[ord(c) for line in file for c in line]', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # Multiple comprehensions in one.
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Call(
                      func=Name(id='ord'),
                      args=[
                          Name(id='c')]),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='line', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='file'),
                          is_async=0),
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='line'),
                          is_async=0)]))

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(n**2 for n in it if n>5 if n<10)', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # generator comprehension
          Expression(
              body=GeneratorExp(
                  elt=BinOp(
                      left=Name(id='n'),
                      op=Pow(),
                      right=Constant(value=2)),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='n', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='it'),
                          ifs=[
                              Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='n'),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=5)]),
                              Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='n'),
                                  ops=[
                                      Lt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=10)])],
                          is_async=0)]))

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[i async for i in soc]', mode='eval'),
          ...                indent=4)) # Async comprehension
          Expression(
              body=ListComp(
                  elt=Name(id='i'),
                  generators=[
                      comprehension(
                          target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()),
                          iter=Name(id='soc'),
                          is_async=1)]))


File: python.info,  Node: Statements,  Next: Control flow,  Prev: Expressions<2>,  Up: Node classes

5.33.1.9 Statements
...................

 -- Κλάση: ast.Assign (targets, value, type_comment)

     An assignment.  ‘targets’ is a list of nodes, and ‘value’ is a
     single node.

     Multiple nodes in ‘targets’ represents assigning the same value to
     each.  Unpacking is represented by putting a *note Tuple: 4d73. or
     *note List: 4d72. within ‘targets’.

      -- Ιδιότητα: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation
          as a comment.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = b = 1'), indent=4)) # Multiple assignment
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                          Name(id='b', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a,b = c'), indent=4)) # Unpacking
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                                  Name(id='b', ctx=Store())],
                              ctx=Store())],
                      value=Name(id='c'))])

 -- Κλάση: ast.AnnAssign (target, annotation, value, simple)

     An assignment with a type annotation.  ‘target’ is a single node
     and can be a *note Name: 1f17, an *note Attribute: 4d6f. or a *note
     Subscript: 4d70.  ‘annotation’ is the annotation, such as a *note
     Constant: 569. or ‘Name’ node.  ‘value’ is a single optional node.

     ‘simple’ is always either 0 (indicating a «complex» target) or 1
     (indicating a «simple» target).  A «simple» target consists solely
     of a *note Name: 1f17. node that does not appear between
     parentheses; all other targets are considered complex.  Only simple
     targets appear in the *note __annotations__: 66b. dictionary of
     modules and classes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('c: int'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int'),
                      simple=1)])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(a): int = 1'), indent=4)) # Annotation with parenthesis
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int'),
                      value=Constant(value=1),
                      simple=0)])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a.b: int'), indent=4)) # Attribute annotation
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Attribute(
                          value=Name(id='a'),
                          attr='b',
                          ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int'),
                      simple=0)])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a[1]: int'), indent=4)) # Subscript annotation
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='a'),
                          slice=Constant(value=1),
                          ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='int'),
                      simple=0)])

 -- Κλάση: ast.AugAssign (target, op, value)

     Augmented assignment, such as ‘a += 1’.  In the following example,
     ‘target’ is a *note Name: 1f17. node for ‘x’ (with the *note Store:
     4e73. context), ‘op’ is *note Add: 4e78, and ‘value’ is a *note
     Constant: 569. with value for 1.

     The ‘target’ attribute cannot be of class *note Tuple: 4d73. or
     *note List: 4d72, unlike the targets of *note Assign: 4e88.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x += 2'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AugAssign(
                      target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                      op=Add(),
                      value=Constant(value=2))])

 -- Κλάση: ast.Raise (exc, cause)

     A ‘raise’ statement.  ‘exc’ is the exception object to be raised,
     normally a *note Call: 4d6e. or *note Name: 1f17, or ‘None’ for a
     standalone ‘raise’.  ‘cause’ is the optional part for ‘y’ in ‘raise
     x from y’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('raise x from y'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Raise(
                      exc=Name(id='x'),
                      cause=Name(id='y'))])

 -- Κλάση: ast.Assert (test, msg)

     An assertion.  ‘test’ holds the condition, such as a *note Compare:
     4d63. node.  ‘msg’ holds the failure message.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('assert x,y'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assert(
                      test=Name(id='x'),
                      msg=Name(id='y'))])

 -- Κλάση: ast.Delete (targets)

     Represents a ‘del’ statement.  ‘targets’ is a list of nodes, such
     as *note Name: 1f17, *note Attribute: 4d6f. or *note Subscript:
     4d70. nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Delete(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Del()),
                          Name(id='y', ctx=Del()),
                          Name(id='z', ctx=Del())])])

 -- Κλάση: ast.Pass

     A ‘pass’ statement.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('pass'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Pass()])

 -- Κλάση: ast.TypeAlias (name, type_params, value)

     A *note type alias: 870. created through the *note type: 85a.
     statement.  ‘name’ is the name of the alias, ‘type_params’ is a
     list of *note type parameters: 4e94, and ‘value’ is the value of
     the type alias.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('type Alias = int'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      value=Name(id='int'))])

     Added in version 3.12.

Other statements which are only applicable inside functions or loops are
described in other sections.

* Menu:

* Imports::


File: python.info,  Node: Imports,  Up: Statements

5.33.1.10 Imports
.................

 -- Κλάση: ast.Import (names)

     An import statement.  ‘names’ is a list of *note alias: 1e6b.
     nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('import x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Import(
                      names=[
                          alias(name='x'),
                          alias(name='y'),
                          alias(name='z')],
                      is_lazy=0)])

 -- Κλάση: ast.ImportFrom (module, names, level)

     Represents ‘from x import y’.  ‘module’ is a raw string of the
     “from” name, without any leading dots, or ‘None’ for statements
     such as ‘from . import foo’.  ‘level’ is an integer holding the
     level of the relative import (0 means absolute import).

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from y import x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ImportFrom(
                      module='y',
                      names=[
                          alias(name='x'),
                          alias(name='y'),
                          alias(name='z')],
                      level=0,
                      is_lazy=0)])

 -- Κλάση: ast.alias (name, asname)

     Both parameters are raw strings of the names.  ‘asname’ can be
     ‘None’ if the regular name is to be used.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from ..foo.bar import a as b, c'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ImportFrom(
                      module='foo.bar',
                      names=[
                          alias(name='a', asname='b'),
                          alias(name='c')],
                      level=2,
                      is_lazy=0)])


File: python.info,  Node: Control flow,  Next: Pattern matching,  Prev: Statements,  Up: Node classes

5.33.1.11 Control flow
......................

     Σημείωση: Optional clauses such as ‘else’ are stored as an empty
     list if they’re not present.

 -- Κλάση: ast.If (test, body, orelse)

     An ‘if’ statement.  ‘test’ holds a single node, such as a *note
     Compare: 4d63. node.  ‘body’ and ‘orelse’ each hold a list of
     nodes.

     ‘elif’ clauses don’t have a special representation in the AST, but
     rather appear as extra ‘If’ nodes within the ‘orelse’ section of
     the previous one.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... if x:
          ...    ...
          ... elif y:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  If(
                      test=Name(id='x'),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          If(
                              test=Name(id='y'),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                              orelse=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

 -- Κλάση: ast.For (target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment)

     A ‘for’ loop.  ‘target’ holds the variable(s) the loop assigns to,
     as a single *note Name: 1f17, *note Tuple: 4d73, *note List: 4d72,
     *note Attribute: 4d6f. or *note Subscript: 4d70. node.  ‘iter’
     holds the item to be looped over, again as a single node.  ‘body’
     and ‘orelse’ contain lists of nodes to execute.  Those in ‘orelse’
     are executed if the loop finishes normally, rather than via a
     ‘break’ statement.

      -- Ιδιότητα: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation
          as a comment.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... for x in y:
          ...     ...
          ... else:
          ...     ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  For(
                      target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                      iter=Name(id='y'),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])

 -- Κλάση: ast.While (test, body, orelse)

     A ‘while’ loop.  ‘test’ holds the condition, such as a *note
     Compare: 4d63. node.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... while x:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  While(
                      test=Name(id='x'),
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])

 -- Κλάση: ast.Break
 -- Κλάση: ast.Continue

     The ‘break’ and ‘continue’ statements.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... for a in b:
          ...     if a > 5:
          ...         break
          ...     else:
          ...         continue
          ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  For(
                      target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()),
                      iter=Name(id='b'),
                      body=[
                          If(
                              test=Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='a'),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=5)]),
                              body=[
                                  Break()],
                              orelse=[
                                  Continue()])])])

 -- Κλάση: ast.Try (body, handlers, orelse, finalbody)

     ‘try’ blocks.  All attributes are list of nodes to execute, except
     for ‘handlers’, which is a list of *note ExceptHandler: 4ea0.
     nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... try:
          ...    ...
          ... except Exception:
          ...    ...
          ... except OtherException as e:
          ...    ...
          ... else:
          ...    ...
          ... finally:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Try(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='Exception'),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='OtherException'),
                              name='e',
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])],
                      orelse=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      finalbody=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])

 -- Κλάση: ast.TryStar (body, handlers, orelse, finalbody)

     ‘try’ blocks which are followed by ‘except*’ clauses.  The
     attributes are the same as for *note Try: 4e9f. but the *note
     ExceptHandler: 4ea0. nodes in ‘handlers’ are interpreted as
     ‘except*’ blocks rather then ‘except’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... try:
          ...    ...
          ... except* Exception:
          ...    ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TryStar(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='Exception'),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Κλάση: ast.ExceptHandler (type, name, body)

     A single ‘except’ clause.  ‘type’ is the exception type it will
     match, typically a *note Name: 1f17. node (or ‘None’ for a
     catch-all ‘except:’ clause).  ‘name’ is a raw string for the name
     to hold the exception, or ‘None’ if the clause doesn’t have ‘as
     foo’.  ‘body’ is a list of nodes.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... try:
          ...     a + 1
          ... except TypeError:
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Try(
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=BinOp(
                                  left=Name(id='a'),
                                  op=Add(),
                                  right=Constant(value=1)))],
                      handlers=[
                          ExceptHandler(
                              type=Name(id='TypeError'),
                              body=[
                                  Pass()])])])

 -- Κλάση: ast.With (items, body, type_comment)

     A ‘with’ block.  ‘items’ is a list of *note withitem: 4ea3. nodes
     representing the context managers, and ‘body’ is the indented block
     inside the context.

      -- Ιδιότητα: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation
          as a comment.

 -- Κλάση: ast.withitem (context_expr, optional_vars)

     A single context manager in a ‘with’ block.  ‘context_expr’ is the
     context manager, often a *note Call: 4d6e. node.  ‘optional_vars’
     is a *note Name: 1f17, *note Tuple: 4d73. or *note List: 4d72. for
     the ‘as foo’ part, or ‘None’ if that isn’t used.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... with a as b, c as d:
          ...    something(b, d)
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  With(
                      items=[
                          withitem(
                              context_expr=Name(id='a'),
                              optional_vars=Name(id='b', ctx=Store())),
                          withitem(
                              context_expr=Name(id='c'),
                              optional_vars=Name(id='d', ctx=Store()))],
                      body=[
                          Expr(
                              value=Call(
                                  func=Name(id='something'),
                                  args=[
                                      Name(id='b'),
                                      Name(id='d')]))])])


File: python.info,  Node: Pattern matching,  Next: Type annotations,  Prev: Control flow,  Up: Node classes

5.33.1.12 Pattern matching
..........................

 -- Κλάση: ast.Match (subject, cases)

     A ‘match’ statement.  ‘subject’ holds the subject of the match (the
     object that is being matched against the cases) and ‘cases’
     contains an iterable of *note match_case: 4ea7. nodes with the
     different cases.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Κλάση: ast.match_case (pattern, guard, body)

     A single case pattern in a ‘match’ statement.  ‘pattern’ contains
     the match pattern that the subject will be matched against.  Note
     that the *note AST: 2ec. nodes produced for patterns differ from
     those produced for expressions, even when they share the same
     syntax.

     The ‘guard’ attribute contains an expression that will be evaluated
     if the pattern matches the subject.

     ‘body’ contains a list of nodes to execute if the pattern matches
     and the result of evaluating the guard expression is true.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] if x>0:
          ...         ...
          ...     case tuple():
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x'),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchAs(name='x')]),
                              guard=Compare(
                                  left=Name(id='x'),
                                  ops=[
                                      Gt()],
                                  comparators=[
                                      Constant(value=0)]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='tuple')),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Κλάση: ast.MatchValue (value)

     A match literal or value pattern that compares by equality.
     ‘value’ is an expression node.  Permitted value nodes are
     restricted as described in the match statement documentation.  This
     pattern succeeds if the match subject is equal to the evaluated
     value.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case "Relevant":
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x'),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchValue(
                                  value=Constant(value='Relevant')),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Κλάση: ast.MatchSingleton (value)

     A match literal pattern that compares by identity.  ‘value’ is the
     singleton to be compared against: ‘None’, ‘True’, or ‘False’.  This
     pattern succeeds if the match subject is the given constant.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case None:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x'),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSingleton(value=None),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Κλάση: ast.MatchSequence (patterns)

     A match sequence pattern.  ‘patterns’ contains the patterns to be
     matched against the subject elements if the subject is a sequence.
     Matches a variable length sequence if one of the subpatterns is a
     ‘MatchStar’ node, otherwise matches a fixed length sequence.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [1, 2]:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x'),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=1)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=2))]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Κλάση: ast.MatchStar (name)

     Matches the rest of the sequence in a variable length match
     sequence pattern.  If ‘name’ is not ‘None’, a list containing the
     remaining sequence elements is bound to that name if the overall
     sequence pattern is successful.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [1, 2, *rest]:
          ...         ...
          ...     case [*_]:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x'),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=1)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=2)),
                                      MatchStar(name='rest')]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchSequence(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchStar()]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Κλάση: ast.MatchMapping (keys, patterns, rest)

     A match mapping pattern.  ‘keys’ is a sequence of expression nodes.
     ‘patterns’ is a corresponding sequence of pattern nodes.  ‘rest’ is
     an optional name that can be specified to capture the remaining
     mapping elements.  Permitted key expressions are restricted as
     described in the match statement documentation.

     This pattern succeeds if the subject is a mapping, all evaluated
     key expressions are present in the mapping, and the value
     corresponding to each key matches the corresponding subpattern.  If
     ‘rest’ is not ‘None’, a dict containing the remaining mapping
     elements is bound to that name if the overall mapping pattern is
     successful.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case {1: _, 2: _}:
          ...         ...
          ...     case {**rest}:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x'),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchMapping(
                                  keys=[
                                      Constant(value=1),
                                      Constant(value=2)],
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchAs(),
                                      MatchAs()]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchMapping(rest='rest'),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Κλάση: ast.MatchClass (cls, patterns, kwd_attrs, kwd_patterns)

     A match class pattern.  ‘cls’ is an expression giving the nominal
     class to be matched.  ‘patterns’ is a sequence of pattern nodes to
     be matched against the class defined sequence of pattern matching
     attributes.  ‘kwd_attrs’ is a sequence of additional attributes to
     be matched (specified as keyword arguments in the class pattern),
     ‘kwd_patterns’ are the corresponding patterns (specified as keyword
     values in the class pattern).

     This pattern succeeds if the subject is an instance of the
     nominated class, all positional patterns match the corresponding
     class-defined attributes, and any specified keyword attributes
     match their corresponding pattern.

     Note: classes may define a property that returns self in order to
     match a pattern node against the instance being matched.  Several
     builtin types are also matched that way, as described in the match
     statement documentation.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case Point2D(0, 0):
          ...         ...
          ...     case Point3D(x=0, y=0, z=0):
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x'),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='Point2D'),
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0))]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchClass(
                                  cls=Name(id='Point3D'),
                                  kwd_attrs=[
                                      'x',
                                      'y',
                                      'z'],
                                  kwd_patterns=[
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0)),
                                      MatchValue(
                                          value=Constant(value=0))]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Κλάση: ast.MatchAs (pattern, name)

     A match «as-pattern», capture pattern or wildcard pattern.
     ‘pattern’ contains the match pattern that the subject will be
     matched against.  If the pattern is ‘None’, the node represents a
     capture pattern (i.e a bare name) and will always succeed.

     The ‘name’ attribute contains the name that will be bound if the
     pattern is successful.  If ‘name’ is ‘None’, ‘pattern’ must also be
     ‘None’ and the node represents the wildcard pattern.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] as y:
          ...         ...
          ...     case _:
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x'),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchAs(
                                  pattern=MatchSequence(
                                      patterns=[
                                          MatchAs(name='x')]),
                                  name='y'),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]),
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchAs(),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Κλάση: ast.MatchOr (patterns)

     A match «or-pattern».  An or-pattern matches each of its
     subpatterns in turn to the subject, until one succeeds.  The
     or-pattern is then deemed to succeed.  If none of the subpatterns
     succeed the or-pattern fails.  The ‘patterns’ attribute contains a
     list of match pattern nodes that will be matched against the
     subject.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""
          ... match x:
          ...     case [x] | (y):
          ...         ...
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Match(
                      subject=Name(id='x'),
                      cases=[
                          match_case(
                              pattern=MatchOr(
                                  patterns=[
                                      MatchSequence(
                                          patterns=[
                                              MatchAs(name='x')]),
                                      MatchAs(name='y')]),
                              body=[
                                  Expr(
                                      value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])])

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Type annotations,  Next: Type parameters,  Prev: Pattern matching,  Up: Node classes

5.33.1.13 Type annotations
..........................

 -- Κλάση: ast.TypeIgnore (lineno, tag)

     A ‘# type: ignore’ comment located at 'lineno'.  'tag' is the
     optional tag specified by the form ‘# type: ignore <tag>’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1 # type: ignore', type_comments=True), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Assign(
                      targets=[
                          Name(id='x', ctx=Store())],
                      value=Constant(value=1))],
              type_ignores=[
                  TypeIgnore(lineno=1, tag='')])
          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x: bool = 1 # type: ignore[assignment]', type_comments=True), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  AnnAssign(
                      target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()),
                      annotation=Name(id='bool'),
                      value=Constant(value=1),
                      simple=1)],
              type_ignores=[
                  TypeIgnore(lineno=1, tag='[assignment]')])

          Σημείωση: ‘TypeIgnore’ nodes are not generated when the
          'type_comments' parameter is set to ‘False’ (default).  See
          *note ast.parse(): 1c9. for more details.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: Type parameters,  Next: Function and class definitions,  Prev: Type annotations,  Up: Node classes

5.33.1.14 Type parameters
.........................

*note Type parameters: 7a5. can exist on classes, functions, and type
aliases.

 -- Κλάση: ast.TypeVar (name, bound, default_value)

     A *note typing.TypeVar: 294.  ‘name’ is the name of the type
     variable.  ‘bound’ is the bound or constraints, if any.  If ‘bound’
     is a *note Tuple: 4d73, it represents constraints; otherwise it
     represents the bound.  ‘default_value’ is the default value; if the
     ‘TypeVar’ has no default, this attribute will be set to ‘None’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[T: int = bool] = list[T]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          TypeVar(
                              name='T',
                              bound=Name(id='int'),
                              default_value=Name(id='bool'))],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='list'),
                          slice=Name(id='T')))])

     Added in version 3.12.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'default_value' parameter.

 -- Κλάση: ast.ParamSpec (name, default_value)

     A *note typing.ParamSpec: 295.  ‘name’ is the name of the parameter
     specification.  ‘default_value’ is the default value; if the
     ‘ParamSpec’ has no default, this attribute will be set to ‘None’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[**P = [int, str]] = Callable[P, int]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          ParamSpec(
                              name='P',
                              default_value=List(
                                  elts=[
                                      Name(id='int'),
                                      Name(id='str')]))],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='Callable'),
                          slice=Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Name(id='P'),
                                  Name(id='int')])))])

     Added in version 3.12.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'default_value' parameter.

 -- Κλάση: ast.TypeVarTuple (name, default_value)

     A *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 293.  ‘name’ is the name of the type
     variable tuple.  ‘default_value’ is the default value; if the
     ‘TypeVarTuple’ has no default, this attribute will be set to
     ‘None’.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[*Ts = ()] = tuple[*Ts]"), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  TypeAlias(
                      name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()),
                      type_params=[
                          TypeVarTuple(name='Ts', default_value=Tuple())],
                      value=Subscript(
                          value=Name(id='tuple'),
                          slice=Tuple(
                              elts=[
                                  Starred(
                                      value=Name(id='Ts'))])))])

     Added in version 3.12.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'default_value' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Function and class definitions,  Next: Async and await,  Prev: Type parameters,  Up: Node classes

5.33.1.15 Function and class definitions
........................................

 -- Κλάση: ast.FunctionDef (name, args, body, decorator_list, returns,
          type_comment, type_params)

     A function definition.

        * ‘name’ is a raw string of the function name.

        * ‘args’ is an *note arguments: 4eb6. node.

        * ‘body’ is the list of nodes inside the function.

        * ‘decorator_list’ is the list of decorators to be applied,
          stored outermost first (i.e.  the first in the list will be
          applied last).

        * ‘returns’ is the return annotation.

        * ‘type_params’ is a list of *note type parameters: 4e94.

      -- Ιδιότητα: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation
          as a comment.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added ‘type_params’.

 -- Κλάση: ast.Lambda (args, body)

     ‘lambda’ is a minimal function definition that can be used inside
     an expression.  Unlike *note FunctionDef: 1c7e, ‘body’ holds a
     single node.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('lambda x,y: ...'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Lambda(
                          args=arguments(
                              args=[
                                  arg(arg='x'),
                                  arg(arg='y')]),
                          body=Constant(value=Ellipsis)))])

 -- Κλάση: ast.arguments (posonlyargs, args, vararg, kwonlyargs,
          kw_defaults, kwarg, defaults)

     The arguments for a function.

        * ‘posonlyargs’, ‘args’ and ‘kwonlyargs’ are lists of *note arg:
          4eb8. nodes.

        * ‘vararg’ and ‘kwarg’ are single *note arg: 4eb8. nodes,
          referring to the ‘*args, **kwargs’ parameters.

        * ‘kw_defaults’ is a list of default values for keyword-only
          arguments.  If one is ‘None’, the corresponding argument is
          required.

        * ‘defaults’ is a list of default values for arguments that can
          be passed positionally.  If there are fewer defaults, they
          correspond to the last n arguments.

 -- Κλάση: ast.arg (arg, annotation, type_comment)

     A single argument in a list.  ‘arg’ is a raw string of the argument
     name; ‘annotation’ is its annotation, such as a *note Name: 1f17.
     node.

      -- Ιδιότητα: type_comment

          ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation
          as a comment

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... @decorator1
          ... @decorator2
          ... def f(a: 'annotation', b=1, c=2, *d, e, f=3, **g) -> 'return annotation':
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  FunctionDef(
                      name='f',
                      args=arguments(
                          args=[
                              arg(
                                  arg='a',
                                  annotation=Constant(value='annotation')),
                              arg(arg='b'),
                              arg(arg='c')],
                          vararg=arg(arg='d'),
                          kwonlyargs=[
                              arg(arg='e'),
                              arg(arg='f')],
                          kw_defaults=[
                              None,
                              Constant(value=3)],
                          kwarg=arg(arg='g'),
                          defaults=[
                              Constant(value=1),
                              Constant(value=2)]),
                      body=[
                          Pass()],
                      decorator_list=[
                          Name(id='decorator1'),
                          Name(id='decorator2')],
                      returns=Constant(value='return annotation'))])

 -- Κλάση: ast.Return (value)

     A ‘return’ statement.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('return 4'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Return(
                      value=Constant(value=4))])

 -- Κλάση: ast.Yield (value)
 -- Κλάση: ast.YieldFrom (value)

     A ‘yield’ or ‘yield from’ expression.  Because these are
     expressions, they must be wrapped in an *note Expr: 4e77. node if
     the value sent back is not used.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield x'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=Yield(
                          value=Name(id='x')))])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield from x'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Expr(
                      value=YieldFrom(
                          value=Name(id='x')))])

 -- Κλάση: ast.Global (names)
 -- Κλάση: ast.Nonlocal (names)

     ‘global’ and ‘nonlocal’ statements.  ‘names’ is a list of raw
     strings.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('global x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Global(
                      names=[
                          'x',
                          'y',
                          'z'])])

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('nonlocal x,y,z'), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  Nonlocal(
                      names=[
                          'x',
                          'y',
                          'z'])])

 -- Κλάση: ast.ClassDef (name, bases, keywords, body, decorator_list,
          type_params)

     A class definition.

        * ‘name’ is a raw string for the class name

        * ‘bases’ is a list of nodes for explicitly specified base
          classes.

        * ‘keywords’ is a list of *note keyword: 4e87. nodes,
          principally for “metaclass”.  Other keywords will be passed to
          the metaclass, as per PEP 3115(1).

        * ‘body’ is a list of nodes representing the code within the
          class definition.

        * ‘decorator_list’ is a list of nodes, as in *note FunctionDef:
          1c7e.

        * ‘type_params’ is a list of *note type parameters: 4e94.

          >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
          ... @decorator1
          ... @decorator2
          ... class Foo(base1, base2, metaclass=meta):
          ...     pass
          ... """), indent=4))
          Module(
              body=[
                  ClassDef(
                      name='Foo',
                      bases=[
                          Name(id='base1'),
                          Name(id='base2')],
                      keywords=[
                          keyword(
                              arg='metaclass',
                              value=Name(id='meta'))],
                      body=[
                          Pass()],
                      decorator_list=[
                          Name(id='decorator1'),
                          Name(id='decorator2')])])

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added ‘type_params’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/


File: python.info,  Node: Async and await,  Prev: Function and class definitions,  Up: Node classes

5.33.1.16 Async and await
.........................

 -- Κλάση: ast.AsyncFunctionDef (name, args, body, decorator_list,
          returns, type_comment, type_params)

     An ‘async def’ function definition.  Has the same fields as *note
     FunctionDef: 1c7e.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added ‘type_params’.

 -- Κλάση: ast.Await (value)

     An ‘await’ expression.  ‘value’ is what it waits for.  Only valid
     in the body of an *note AsyncFunctionDef: 1c7d.

     >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\
     ... async def f():
     ...     await other_func()
     ... """), indent=4))
     Module(
         body=[
             AsyncFunctionDef(
                 name='f',
                 args=arguments(),
                 body=[
                     Expr(
                         value=Await(
                             value=Call(
                                 func=Name(id='other_func'))))])])

 -- Κλάση: ast.AsyncFor (target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment)
 -- Κλάση: ast.AsyncWith (items, body, type_comment)

     ‘async for’ loops and ‘async with’ context managers.  They have the
     same fields as *note For: 4e9a. and *note With: 4ea2, respectively.
     Only valid in the body of an *note AsyncFunctionDef: 1c7d.

     Σημείωση: When a string is parsed by *note ast.parse(): 1c9,
     operator nodes (subclasses of ‘ast.operator’, ‘ast.unaryop’,
     ‘ast.cmpop’, ‘ast.boolop’ and ‘ast.expr_context’) on the returned
     tree will be singletons.  Changes to one will be reflected in all
     other occurrences of the same value (for example, *note ast.Add:
     4e78.).


File: python.info,  Node: ast helpers,  Next: Compiler flags<2>,  Prev: Node classes,  Up: ast — Abstract syntax trees

5.33.1.17 ‘ast’ helpers
.......................

Apart from the node classes, the ‘ast’ module defines these utility
functions and classes for traversing abstract syntax trees:

 -- Συνάρτηση: ast.parse (source, filename='<unknown>', mode='exec', *,
          type_comments=False, feature_version=None, optimize=-1,
          module=None)

     Parse the source into an AST node.  Equivalent to ‘compile(source,
     filename, mode, flags=FLAGS_VALUE, optimize=optimize,
     module=module)’, where ‘FLAGS_VALUE’ is ‘ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’ if
     ‘optimize <= 0’ and ‘ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST’ otherwise.

     If ‘type_comments=True’ is given, the parser is modified to check
     and return type comments as specified by PEP 484(1) and PEP 526(2).
     This is equivalent to adding *note ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 4ec1. to
     the flags passed to *note compile(): 1c8.  This will report syntax
     errors for misplaced type comments.  Without this flag, type
     comments will be ignored, and the ‘type_comment’ field on selected
     AST nodes will always be ‘None’.  In addition, the locations of ‘#
     type: ignore’ comments will be returned as the ‘type_ignores’
     attribute of *note Module: 4e6c. (otherwise it is always an empty
     list).

     In addition, if ‘mode’ is ‘'func_type'’, the input syntax is
     modified to correspond to PEP 484(3) «signature type comments»,
     e.g.  ‘(str, int) -> List[str]’.

     Setting ‘feature_version’ to a tuple ‘(major, minor)’ will result
     in a «best-effort» attempt to parse using that Python version’s
     grammar.  For example, setting ‘feature_version=(3, 9)’ will
     attempt to disallow parsing of *note match: 1d4. statements.
     Currently ‘major’ must equal to ‘3’.  The lowest supported version
     is ‘(3, 7)’ (and this may increase in future Python versions); the
     highest is ‘sys.version_info[0:2]’.  «Best-effort» attempt means
     there is no guarantee that the parse (or success of the parse) is
     the same as when run on the Python version corresponding to
     ‘feature_version’.

     If source contains a null character (‘\0’), *note ValueError: 277.
     is raised.

          Προειδοποίηση: Note that successfully parsing source code into
          an AST object doesn’t guarantee that the source code provided
          is valid Python code that can be executed as the compilation
          step can raise further *note SyntaxError: 17e. exceptions.
          For instance, the source ‘return 42’ generates a valid AST
          node for a return statement, but it cannot be compiled alone
          (it needs to be inside a function node).

          In particular, *note ast.parse(): 1c9. won’t do any scoping
          checks, which the compilation step does.

          Προειδοποίηση: It is possible to crash the Python interpreter
          with a sufficiently large/complex string due to stack depth
          limitations in Python’s AST compiler.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added ‘type_comments’, ‘mode='func_type'’
     and ‘feature_version’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The minimum supported version for
     ‘feature_version’ is now ‘(3, 7)’.  The ‘optimize’ argument was
     added.

     Added in version 3.15: Added the 'module' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ast.unparse (ast_obj)

     Unparse an *note ast.AST: 2ec. object and generate a string with
     code that would produce an equivalent ‘ast.AST’ object if parsed
     back with *note ast.parse(): 1c9.

          Προειδοποίηση: The produced code string will not necessarily
          be equal to the original code that generated the *note
          ast.AST: 2ec. object (without any compiler optimizations, such
          as constant tuples/frozensets).

          Προειδοποίηση: Trying to unparse a highly complex expression
          would result with *note RecursionError: 1121.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ast.literal_eval (node_or_string)

     Evaluate an expression node or a string containing only a Python
     literal or container display.  The string or node provided may only
     consist of the following Python literal structures: strings, bytes,
     numbers, tuples, lists, dicts, sets, booleans, ‘None’ and
     ‘Ellipsis’.

     This can be used for evaluating strings containing Python values
     without the need to parse the values oneself.  It is not capable of
     evaluating arbitrarily complex expressions, for example involving
     operators or indexing.

     This function had been documented as «safe» in the past without
     defining what that meant.  That was misleading.  This is
     specifically designed not to execute Python code, unlike the more
     general *note eval(): 184.  There is no namespace, no name lookups,
     or ability to call out.  But it is not free from attack: A
     relatively small input can lead to memory exhaustion or to C stack
     exhaustion, crashing the process.  There is also the possibility
     for excessive CPU consumption denial of service on some inputs.
     Calling it on untrusted data is thus not recommended.

          Προειδοποίηση: It is possible to crash the Python interpreter
          due to stack depth limitations in Python’s AST compiler.

          It can raise *note ValueError: 277, *note TypeError: 291,
          *note SyntaxError: 17e, *note MemoryError: 18fa. and *note
          RecursionError: 1121. depending on the malformed input.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Now allows bytes and set literals.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Now supports creating empty sets with
     ‘'set()'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: For string inputs, leading spaces and tabs
     are now stripped.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ast.get_docstring (node, clean=True)

     Return the docstring of the given 'node' (which must be a *note
     FunctionDef: 1c7e, *note AsyncFunctionDef: 1c7d, *note ClassDef:
     1c7c, or *note Module: 4e6c. node), or ‘None’ if it has no
     docstring.  If 'clean' is true, clean up the docstring’s
     indentation with *note inspect.cleandoc(): 1c34.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: *note AsyncFunctionDef: 1c7d. is now
     supported.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ast.get_source_segment (source, node, *, padded=False)

     Get source code segment of the 'source' that generated 'node'.  If
     some location information (*note lineno: 4e66, *note end_lineno:
     4e68, *note col_offset: 4e67, or *note end_col_offset: 4e69.) is
     missing, return ‘None’.

     If 'padded' is ‘True’, the first line of a multi-line statement
     will be padded with spaces to match its original position.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ast.fix_missing_locations (node)

     When you compile a node tree with *note compile(): 1c8, the
     compiler expects *note lineno: 4e66. and *note col_offset: 4e67.
     attributes for every node that supports them.  This is rather
     tedious to fill in for generated nodes, so this helper adds these
     attributes recursively where not already set, by setting them to
     the values of the parent node.  It works recursively starting at
     'node'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ast.increment_lineno (node, n=1)

     Increment the line number and end line number of each node in the
     tree starting at 'node' by 'n'.  This is useful to «move code» to a
     different location in a file.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ast.copy_location (new_node, old_node)

     Copy source location (*note lineno: 4e66, *note col_offset: 4e67,
     *note end_lineno: 4e68, and *note end_col_offset: 4e69.) from
     'old_node' to 'new_node' if possible, and return 'new_node'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ast.iter_fields (node)

     Yield a tuple of ‘(fieldname, value)’ for each field in
     ‘node._fields’ that is present on 'node'.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ast.iter_child_nodes (node)

     Yield all direct child nodes of 'node', that is, all fields that
     are nodes and all items of fields that are lists of nodes.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ast.walk (node)

     Recursively yield all descendant nodes in the tree starting at
     'node' (including 'node' itself), in no specified order.  This is
     useful if you only want to modify nodes in place and don’t care
     about the context.

 -- Κλάση: ast.NodeVisitor

     A node visitor base class that walks the abstract syntax tree and
     calls a visitor function for every node found.  This function may
     return a value which is forwarded by the *note visit(): 4ec7.
     method.

     This class is meant to be subclassed, with the subclass adding
     visitor methods.

      -- Μέθοδος: visit (node)

          Visit a node.  The default implementation calls the method
          called ‘self.visit_CLASSNAME’ where 'classname' is the name of
          the node class, or *note generic_visit(): 4ec8. if that method
          doesn’t exist.

      -- Μέθοδος: generic_visit (node)

          This visitor calls *note visit(): 4ec7. on all children of the
          node.

          Note that child nodes of nodes that have a custom visitor
          method won’t be visited unless the visitor calls
          ‘generic_visit()’ or visits them itself.

      -- Μέθοδος: visit_Constant (node)

          Handles all constant nodes.

     Don’t use the ‘NodeVisitor’ if you want to apply changes to nodes
     during traversal.  For this a special visitor exists (*note
     NodeTransformer: 4ec9.) that allows modifications.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.8, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14:
     Methods ‘visit_Num()’, ‘visit_Str()’, ‘visit_Bytes()’,
     ‘visit_NameConstant()’ and ‘visit_Ellipsis()’ will not be called in
     Python 3.14+.  Add the *note visit_Constant(): e32. method instead
     to handle all constant nodes.

 -- Κλάση: ast.NodeTransformer

     A *note NodeVisitor: 56a. subclass that walks the abstract syntax
     tree and allows modification of nodes.

     The ‘NodeTransformer’ will walk the AST and use the return value of
     the visitor methods to replace or remove the old node.  If the
     return value of the visitor method is ‘None’, the node will be
     removed from its location, otherwise it is replaced with the return
     value.  The return value may be the original node in which case no
     replacement takes place.

     Here is an example transformer that rewrites all occurrences of
     name lookups (‘foo’) to ‘data['foo']’:

          class RewriteName(NodeTransformer):

              def visit_Name(self, node):
                  return Subscript(
                      value=Name(id='data'),
                      slice=Constant(value=node.id),
                      ctx=node.ctx
                  )

     Keep in mind that if the node you’re operating on has child nodes
     you must either transform the child nodes yourself or call the
     *note generic_visit(): 4ec8. method for the node first.

     For nodes that were part of a collection of statements (that
     applies to all statement nodes), the visitor may also return a list
     of nodes rather than just a single node.

     If ‘NodeTransformer’ introduces new nodes (that weren’t part of
     original tree) without giving them location information (such as
     *note lineno: 4e66.), *note fix_missing_locations(): 4ec2. should
     be called with the new sub-tree to recalculate the location
     information:

          tree = ast.parse('foo', mode='eval')
          new_tree = fix_missing_locations(RewriteName().visit(tree))

     Usually you use the transformer like this:

          node = YourTransformer().visit(node)

 -- Συνάρτηση: ast.dump (node, annotate_fields=True,
          include_attributes=False, *, color=False, indent=None,
          show_empty=False)

     Return a formatted dump of the tree in 'node'.  This is mainly
     useful for debugging purposes.  If 'annotate_fields' is true (by
     default), the returned string will show the names and the values
     for fields.  If 'annotate_fields' is false, the result string will
     be more compact by omitting unambiguous field names.  Attributes
     such as line numbers and column offsets are not dumped by default.
     If this is wanted, 'include_attributes' can be set to true.

     If 'color' is ‘True’, the returned string is syntax highlighted
     using ANSI escape sequences.  If ‘False’ (the default), colored
     output is always disabled.

     If 'indent' is a non-negative integer or string, then the tree will
     be pretty-printed with that indent level.  An indent level of 0,
     negative, or ‘""’ will only insert newlines.  ‘None’ (the default)
     selects the single line representation.  Using a positive integer
     indent indents that many spaces per level.  If 'indent' is a string
     (such as ‘"\t"’), that string is used to indent each level.

     If 'show_empty' is false (the default), optional empty lists and
     ‘Load()’ values will be omitted from the output.  Optional ‘None’
     values are always omitted.

          >>> tree = ast.parse('print(None)', '?', 'eval')
          >>> print(ast.dump(tree, indent=4))
          Expression(
              body=Call(
                  func=Name(id='print'),
                  args=[
                      Constant(value=None)]))
          >>> print(ast.dump(tree, indent=4, show_empty=True))
          Expression(
              body=Call(
                  func=Name(id='print', ctx=Load()),
                  args=[
                      Constant(value=None)],
                  keywords=[]))

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added the 'indent' option.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'show_empty' option.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Omit optional ‘Load()’ values by default.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Added the 'color' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: ast.compare (a, b, /, *, compare_attributes=False)

     Recursively compares two ASTs.

     'compare_attributes' affects whether AST attributes are considered
     in the comparison.  If 'compare_attributes' is ‘False’ (default),
     then attributes are ignored.  Otherwise they must all be equal.
     This option is useful to check whether the ASTs are structurally
     equal but differ in whitespace or similar details.  Attributes
     include line numbers and column offsets.

     Added in version 3.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Compiler flags<2>,  Next: Command-line usage<5>,  Prev: ast helpers,  Up: ast — Abstract syntax trees

5.33.1.18 Compiler flags
........................

The following flags may be passed to *note compile(): 1c8. in order to
change effects on the compilation of a program:

 -- Δεδομένα: ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT

     Enables support for top-level ‘await’, ‘async for’, ‘async with’
     and async comprehensions.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Δεδομένα: ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST

     Generates and returns an abstract syntax tree instead of returning
     a compiled code object.

 -- Δεδομένα: ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST

     The returned AST is optimized according to the 'optimize' argument
     in *note compile(): 1c8. or *note ast.parse(): 1c9.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS

     Enables support for PEP 484(1) and PEP 526(2) style type comments
     (‘# type: <type>’, ‘# type: ignore <stuff>’).

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line usage<5>,  Prev: Compiler flags<2>,  Up: ast — Abstract syntax trees

5.33.1.19 Command-line usage
............................

Added in version 3.9.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The output is now syntax highlighted by
default.  This can be *note controlled using environment variables: 1af.

The ‘ast’ module can be executed as a script from the command line.  It
is as simple as:

     python -m ast [-m <mode>] [-a] [infile]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Show the help message and exit.

 -- Option: -m <mode>
 -- Option: --mode <mode>

     Specify what kind of code must be compiled, like the 'mode'
     argument in *note parse(): 1c9.

 -- Option: --no-type-comments

     Don’t parse type comments.

 -- Option: -a, --include-attributes

     Include attributes such as line numbers and column offsets.

 -- Option: -i <indent>
 -- Option: --indent <indent>

     Indentation of nodes in AST (number of spaces).

 -- Option: --feature-version <version>

     Python version in the format 3.x (for example, 3.10).  Defaults to
     the current version of the interpreter.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Option: -O <level>
 -- Option: --optimize <level>

     Optimization level for parser.  Defaults to no optimization.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Option: --show-empty

     Show empty lists and fields that are ‘None’.  Defaults to not
     showing empty objects.

     Added in version 3.14.

If ‘infile’ is specified its contents are parsed to AST and dumped to
stdout.  Otherwise, the content is read from stdin.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Green Tree Snakes(1), an external documentation resource, has good
details on working with Python ASTs.

ASTTokens(2) annotates Python ASTs with the positions of tokens and text
in the source code that generated them.  This is helpful for tools that
make source code transformations.

leoAst.py(3) unifies the token-based and parse-tree-based views of
python programs by inserting two-way links between tokens and ast nodes.

LibCST(4) parses code as a Concrete Syntax Tree that looks like an ast
tree and keeps all formatting details.  It’s useful for building
automated refactoring (codemod) applications and linters.

Parso(5) is a Python parser that supports error recovery and round-trip
parsing for different Python versions (in multiple Python versions).
Parso is also able to list multiple syntax errors in your Python file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/

   (2) https://asttokens.readthedocs.io/en/latest/user-guide.html

   (3) https://leo-editor.github.io/leo-editor/appendices.html#leoast-py

   (4) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/

   (5) https://parso.readthedocs.io


File: python.info,  Node: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables,  Next: token — Constants used with Python parse trees,  Prev: ast — Abstract syntax trees,  Up: Python Language Services

5.33.2 ‘symtable’ — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables
----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/symtable.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Symbol tables are generated by the compiler from AST just before
bytecode is generated.  The symbol table is responsible for calculating
the scope of every identifier in the code.  ‘symtable’ provides an
interface to examine these tables.

* Menu:

* Generating Symbol Tables::
* Examining Symbol Tables::
* Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/symtable.py


File: python.info,  Node: Generating Symbol Tables,  Next: Examining Symbol Tables,  Up: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables

5.33.2.1 Generating Symbol Tables
.................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: symtable.symtable (code, filename, compile_type, *,
          module=None)

     Return the toplevel *note SymbolTable: 4edc. for the Python source
     'code'.  'filename' is the name of the file containing the code.
     'compile_type' is like the 'mode' argument to *note compile(): 1c8.
     The optional argument 'module' specifies the module name.  It is
     needed to unambiguous *note filter: 1cc. syntax warnings by module
     name.

     Added in version 3.15: Added the 'module' parameter.


File: python.info,  Node: Examining Symbol Tables,  Next: Command-Line Usage<2>,  Prev: Generating Symbol Tables,  Up: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables

5.33.2.2 Examining Symbol Tables
................................

 -- Κλάση: symtable.SymbolTableType

     An enumeration indicating the type of a *note SymbolTable: 4edc.
     object.

      -- Ιδιότητα: MODULE = "module"

          Used for the symbol table of a module.

      -- Ιδιότητα: FUNCTION = "function"

          Used for the symbol table of a function.

      -- Ιδιότητα: CLASS = "class"

          Used for the symbol table of a class.

     The following members refer to different flavors of *note
     annotation scopes: 6b4.

      -- Ιδιότητα: ANNOTATION = "annotation"

          Used for annotations if ‘from __future__ import annotations’
          is active.

      -- Ιδιότητα: TYPE_ALIAS = "type alias"

          Used for the symbol table of *note type: 85a. constructions.

      -- Ιδιότητα: TYPE_PARAMETERS = "type parameters"

          Used for the symbol table of *note generic functions: 86f. or
          *note generic classes: 86e.

      -- Ιδιότητα: TYPE_VARIABLE = "type variable"

          Used for the symbol table of the bound, the constraint tuple
          or the default value of a single type variable in the formal
          sense, i.e., a TypeVar, a TypeVarTuple or a ParamSpec object
          (the latter two do not support a bound or a constraint tuple).

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Κλάση: symtable.SymbolTable

     A namespace table for a block.  The constructor is not public.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_type ()

          Return the type of the symbol table.  Possible values are
          members of the *note SymbolTableType: 1b66. enumeration.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added ‘'annotation'’, ‘'TypeVar
          bound'’, ‘'type alias'’, and ‘'type parameter'’ as possible
          return values.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Return values are members of the
          *note SymbolTableType: 1b66. enumeration.

          The exact values of the returned string may change in the
          future, and thus, it is recommended to use *note
          SymbolTableType: 1b66. members instead of hard-coded strings.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_id ()

          Return the table’s identifier.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_name ()

          Return the table’s name.  This is the name of the class if the
          table is for a class, the name of the function if the table is
          for a function, or ‘'top'’ if the table is global (*note
          get_type(): 1b67. returns ‘'module'’).  For type parameter
          scopes (which are used for generic classes, functions, and
          type aliases), it is the name of the underlying class,
          function, or type alias.  For type alias scopes, it is the
          name of the type alias.  For *note TypeVar: 294. bound scopes,
          it is the name of the ‘TypeVar’.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_lineno ()

          Return the number of the first line in the block this table
          represents.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_optimized ()

          Return ‘True’ if the locals in this table can be optimized.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_nested ()

          Return ‘True’ if the block is a nested class or function.

      -- Μέθοδος: has_children ()

          Return ‘True’ if the block has nested namespaces within it.
          These can be obtained with *note get_children(): 4eeb.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_identifiers ()

          Return a view object containing the names of symbols in the
          table.  See the *note documentation of view objects: 289e.

      -- Μέθοδος: lookup (name)

          Lookup 'name' in the table and return a *note Symbol: 511.
          instance.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_symbols ()

          Return a list of *note Symbol: 511. instances for names in the
          table.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_children ()

          Return a list of the nested symbol tables.

 -- Κλάση: symtable.Function

     A namespace for a function or method.  This class inherits from
     *note SymbolTable: 4edc.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_parameters ()

          Return a tuple containing names of parameters to this
          function.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_locals ()

          Return a tuple containing names of locals in this function.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_globals ()

          Return a tuple containing names of globals in this function.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_nonlocals ()

          Return a tuple containing names of explicitly declared
          nonlocals in this function.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_frees ()

          Return a tuple containing names of *note free (closure)
          variables: 1ab7. in this function.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_cells ()

          Return a tuple containing names of *note cell variables: 1ab7.
          in this table.

          Added in version 3.15.

 -- Κλάση: symtable.Class

     A namespace of a class.  This class inherits from *note
     SymbolTable: 4edc.

 -- Κλάση: symtable.Symbol

     An entry in a *note SymbolTable: 4edc. corresponding to an
     identifier in the source.  The constructor is not public.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_name ()

          Return the symbol’s name.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_referenced ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is used in its block.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_imported ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is created from an import
          statement.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_parameter ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is a parameter.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_type_parameter ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is a type parameter.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_global ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is global.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_nonlocal ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is nonlocal.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_declared_global ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is declared global with a global
          statement.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_local ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is local to its block.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_annotated ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is annotated.

          Added in version 3.6.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_free ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is referenced in its block, but
          not assigned to.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_cell ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is referenced but not assigned in
          a nested block.

          Added in version 3.15.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_free_class ()

          Return 'True' if a class-scoped symbol is free from the
          perspective of a method.

          Consider the following example:

               def f():
                   x = 1  # function-scoped
                   class C:
                       x = 2  # class-scoped
                       def method(self):
                           return x

          In this example, the class-scoped symbol ‘x’ is considered to
          be free from the perspective of ‘C.method’, thereby allowing
          the latter to return '1' at runtime and not '2'.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_assigned ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is assigned to in its block.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_comp_iter ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is a comprehension iteration
          variable.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_comp_cell ()

          Return ‘True’ if the symbol is a cell in an inlined
          comprehension.

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- Μέθοδος: is_namespace ()

          Return ‘True’ if name binding introduces new namespace.

          If the name is used as the target of a function or class
          statement, this will be true.

          For example:

               >>> table = symtable.symtable("def some_func(): pass", "string", "exec")
               >>> table.lookup("some_func").is_namespace()
               True

          Note that a single name can be bound to multiple objects.  If
          the result is ‘True’, the name may also be bound to other
          objects, like an int or list, that does not introduce a new
          namespace.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_namespaces ()

          Return a list of namespaces bound to this name.

      -- Μέθοδος: get_namespace ()

          Return the namespace bound to this name.  If more than one or
          no namespace is bound to this name, a *note ValueError: 277.
          is raised.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Usage<2>,  Prev: Examining Symbol Tables,  Up: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables

5.33.2.3 Command-Line Usage
...........................

Added in version 3.13.

The ‘symtable’ module can be executed as a script from the command line.

     python -m symtable [infile...]

Symbol tables are generated for the specified Python source files and
dumped to stdout.  If no input file is specified, the content is read
from stdin.


File: python.info,  Node: token — Constants used with Python parse trees,  Next: keyword — Testing for Python keywords,  Prev: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables,  Up: Python Language Services

5.33.3 ‘token’ — Constants used with Python parse trees
-------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/token.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides constants which represent the numeric values of
leaf nodes of the parse tree (terminal tokens).  Refer to the file
‘Grammar/Tokens’ in the Python distribution for the definitions of the
names in the context of the language grammar.  The specific numeric
values which the names map to may change between Python versions.

The module also provides a mapping from numeric codes to names and some
functions.  The functions mirror definitions in the Python C header
files.

Note that a token’s value may depend on tokenizer options.  For example,
a ‘"+"’ token may be reported as either *note PLUS: 4f07. or *note OP:
247b, or a ‘"match"’ token may be either *note NAME: 24aa. or *note
SOFT_KEYWORD: 4f08.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.tok_name

     Dictionary mapping the numeric values of the constants defined in
     this module back to name strings, allowing more human-readable
     representation of parse trees to be generated.

 -- Συνάρτηση: token.ISTERMINAL (x)

     Return ‘True’ for terminal token values.

 -- Συνάρτηση: token.ISNONTERMINAL (x)

     Return ‘True’ for non-terminal token values.

 -- Συνάρτηση: token.ISEOF (x)

     Return ‘True’ if 'x' is the marker indicating the end of input.

The token constants are:

 -- Δεδομένα: token.NAME

     Token value that indicates an *note identifier or keyword: 2491.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.NUMBER

     Token value that indicates a *note numeric literal: 2492.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.STRING

     Token value that indicates a *note string or byte literal: 2490,
     excluding *note formatted string literals: 43a.  The token string
     is not interpreted: it includes the surrounding quotation marks and
     the prefix (if given); backslashes are included literally, without
     processing escape sequences.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.OP

     A generic token value that indicates an *note operator: 247d. or
     *note delimiter: 247c.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This value is only reported by
     the *note tokenize: 104. module.  Internally, the tokenizer uses
     *note exact token types: 250f. instead.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.COMMENT

     Token value used to indicate a comment.  The parser ignores
     ‘COMMENT’ tokens.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.NEWLINE

     Token value that indicates the end of a *note logical line: 2496.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.NL

     Token value used to indicate a non-terminating newline.  ‘NL’
     tokens are generated when a logical line of code is continued over
     multiple physical lines.  The parser ignores ‘NL’ tokens.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.INDENT

     Token value used at the beginning of a *note logical line: 2496. to
     indicate the start of an *note indented block: 248d.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.DEDENT

     Token value used at the beginning of a *note logical line: 2496. to
     indicate the end of an *note indented block: 248d.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.FSTRING_START

     Token value used to indicate the beginning of an *note f-string
     literal: 43a.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' The token string includes the
     prefix and the opening quote(s), but none of the contents of the
     literal.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.FSTRING_MIDDLE

     Token value used for literal text inside an *note f-string literal:
     43a, including format specifications.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Replacement fields (that is, the
     non-literal parts of f-strings) use the same tokens as other
     expressions, and are delimited by *note LBRACE: 4f0f, *note RBRACE:
     4f10, *note EXCLAMATION: 4f11. and *note COLON: 4f12. tokens.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.FSTRING_END

     Token value used to indicate the end of a *note f-string: 43a.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' The token string contains the
     closing quote(s).

 -- Δεδομένα: token.TSTRING_START

     Token value used to indicate the beginning of a template string
     literal.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' The token string includes the
     prefix and the opening quote(s), but none of the contents of the
     literal.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.TSTRING_MIDDLE

     Token value used for literal text inside a template string literal
     including format specifications.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Replacement fields (that is, the
     non-literal parts of t-strings) use the same tokens as other
     expressions, and are delimited by *note LBRACE: 4f0f, *note RBRACE:
     4f10, *note EXCLAMATION: 4f11. and *note COLON: 4f12. tokens.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.TSTRING_END

     Token value used to indicate the end of a template string literal.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' The token string contains the
     closing quote(s).

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.ENDMARKER

     Token value that indicates the end of input.  Used in *note
     top-level grammar rules: 2794.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.ENCODING

     Token value that indicates the encoding used to decode the source
     bytes into text.  The first token returned by *note
     tokenize.tokenize(): 8e9. will always be an ‘ENCODING’ token.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This token type isn’t used by the
     C tokenizer but is needed for the *note tokenize: 104. module.

The following token types are not produced by the *note tokenize: 104.
module, and are defined for special uses in the tokenizer or parser:

 -- Δεδομένα: token.TYPE_IGNORE

     Token value indicating that a ‘type: ignore’ comment was
     recognized.  Such tokens are produced instead of regular *note
     COMMENT: 4f0d. tokens only with the *note PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 4ec1.
     flag.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.TYPE_COMMENT

     Token value indicating that a type comment was recognized.  Such
     tokens are produced instead of regular *note COMMENT: 4f0d. tokens
     only with the *note PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 4ec1. flag.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.SOFT_KEYWORD

     Token value indicating a *note soft keyword: be6.

     The tokenizer never produces this value.  To check for a soft
     keyword, pass a *note NAME: 24aa. token’s string to *note
     keyword.issoftkeyword(): 4f19.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.ERRORTOKEN

     Token value used to indicate wrong input.

     The *note tokenize: 104. module generally indicates errors by
     raising exceptions instead of emitting this token.  It can also
     emit tokens such as *note OP: 247b. or *note NAME: 24aa. with
     strings that are later rejected by the parser.
The remaining tokens represent specific *note operators: 247d. and *note
delimiters: 247c.  (The *note tokenize: 104. module reports these as
*note OP: 247b.; see ‘exact_type’ in the ‘tokenize’ documentation for
details.)

Token                                                  Value
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.LPAR                               ‘"("’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.RPAR                               ‘")"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.LSQB                               ‘"["’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.RSQB                               ‘"]"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.COLON                              ‘":"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.COMMA                              ‘","’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.SEMI                               ‘";"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.PLUS                               ‘"+"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.MINUS                              ‘"-"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.STAR                               ‘"*"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.SLASH                              ‘"/"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.VBAR                               ‘"|"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.AMPER                              ‘"&"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.LESS                               ‘"<"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.GREATER                            ‘">"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.EQUAL                              ‘"="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.DOT                                ‘"."’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.PERCENT                            ‘"%"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.LBRACE                             ‘"{"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.RBRACE                             ‘"}"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.EQEQUAL                            ‘"=="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.NOTEQUAL                           ‘"!="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.LESSEQUAL                          ‘"<="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.GREATEREQUAL                       ‘">="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.TILDE                              ‘"~"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.CIRCUMFLEX                         ‘"^"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.LEFTSHIFT                          ‘"<<"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.RIGHTSHIFT                         ‘">>"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.DOUBLESTAR                         ‘"**"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.PLUSEQUAL                          ‘"+="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.MINEQUAL                           ‘"-="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.STAREQUAL                          ‘"*="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.SLASHEQUAL                         ‘"/="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.PERCENTEQUAL                       ‘"%="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.AMPEREQUAL                         ‘"&="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.VBAREQUAL                          ‘"|="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL                    ‘"^="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.LEFTSHIFTEQUAL                     ‘"<<="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL                    ‘">>="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.DOUBLESTAREQUAL                    ‘"**="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.DOUBLESLASH                        ‘"//"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.DOUBLESLASHEQUAL                   ‘"//="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.AT                                 ‘"@"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.ATEQUAL                            ‘"@="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.RARROW                             ‘"->"’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.ELLIPSIS                           ‘"..."’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.COLONEQUAL                         ‘":="’
                                                       
                                                       
 -- Δεδομένα: token.EXCLAMATION                        ‘"!"’
                                                       

The following non-token constants are provided:

 -- Δεδομένα: token.N_TOKENS

     The number of token types defined in this module.

 -- Δεδομένα: token.EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES

     A dictionary mapping the string representation of a token to its
     numeric code.

     Added in version 3.8.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added ‘AWAIT’ and ‘ASYNC’ tokens.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added *note COMMENT: 4f0d, *note NL: 4f0e. and
*note ENCODING: 4f16. tokens.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Removed ‘AWAIT’ and ‘ASYNC’ tokens.  «async» and
«await» are now tokenized as *note NAME: 24aa. tokens.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added *note TYPE_COMMENT: 4f18, *note
TYPE_IGNORE: 4f17, *note COLONEQUAL: 4f45.  Added ‘AWAIT’ and ‘ASYNC’
tokens back (they’re needed to support parsing older Python versions for
*note ast.parse(): 1c9. with ‘feature_version’ set to 6 or lower).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Added *note EXCLAMATION: 4f11.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Removed ‘AWAIT’ and ‘ASYNC’ tokens again.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/token.py


File: python.info,  Node: keyword — Testing for Python keywords,  Next: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source,  Prev: token — Constants used with Python parse trees,  Up: Python Language Services

5.33.4 ‘keyword’ — Testing for Python keywords
----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/keyword.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module allows a Python program to determine if a string is a *note
keyword: 247a. or *note soft keyword: be6.

 -- Συνάρτηση: keyword.iskeyword (s)

     Return ‘True’ if 's' is a Python *note keyword: 247a.

 -- Δεδομένα: keyword.kwlist

     Sequence containing all the *note keywords: 247a. defined for the
     interpreter.  If any keywords are defined to only be active when
     particular *note __future__: 0. statements are in effect, these
     will be included as well.

 -- Συνάρτηση: keyword.issoftkeyword (s)

     Return ‘True’ if 's' is a Python *note soft keyword: be6.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Δεδομένα: keyword.softkwlist

     Sequence containing all the *note soft keywords: be6. defined for
     the interpreter.  If any soft keywords are defined to only be
     active when particular *note __future__: 0. statements are in
     effect, these will be included as well.

     Added in version 3.9.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/keyword.py


File: python.info,  Node: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source,  Next: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation,  Prev: keyword — Testing for Python keywords,  Up: Python Language Services

5.33.5 ‘tokenize’ — Tokenizer for Python source
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tokenize.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘tokenize’ module provides a lexical scanner for Python source code,
implemented in Python.  The scanner in this module returns comments as
tokens as well, making it useful for implementing «pretty-printers»,
including colorizers for on-screen displays.

To simplify token stream handling, all *note operator: 247d. and *note
delimiter: 247c. tokens and *note Ellipsis: 2519. are returned using the
generic *note OP: 247b. token type.  The exact type can be determined by
checking the ‘exact_type’ property on the *note named tuple: a3d.
returned from *note tokenize.tokenize(): 8e9.

     Προειδοποίηση: Note that the functions in this module are only
     designed to parse syntactically valid Python code (code that does
     not raise when parsed using *note ast.parse(): 1c9.).  The behavior
     of the functions in this module is 'undefined' when providing
     invalid Python code and it can change at any point.

* Menu:

* Tokenizing input::
* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<6>.
* Examples: Examples<30>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tokenize.py


File: python.info,  Node: Tokenizing input,  Next: Command-line usage<6>,  Up: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source

5.33.5.1 Tokenizing input
.........................

The primary entry point is a *note generator: 1409.:

 -- Συνάρτηση: tokenize.tokenize (readline)

     The ‘tokenize()’ generator requires one argument, 'readline', which
     must be a callable object which provides the same interface as the
     *note io.IOBase.readline(): 16ce. method of file objects.  Each
     call to the function should return one line of input as bytes.

     The generator produces 5-tuples with these members: the token type;
     the token string; a 2-tuple ‘(srow, scol)’ of ints specifying the
     row and column where the token begins in the source; a 2-tuple
     ‘(erow, ecol)’ of ints specifying the row and column where the
     token ends in the source; and the line on which the token was
     found.  The line passed (the last tuple item) is the 'physical'
     line.  The 5 tuple is returned as a *note named tuple: a3d. with
     the field names: ‘type string start end line’.

     The returned *note named tuple: a3d. has an additional property
     named ‘exact_type’ that contains the exact operator type for *note
     OP: 247b. tokens.  For all other token types ‘exact_type’ equals
     the named tuple ‘type’ field.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: Added support for named tuples.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Added support for ‘exact_type’.

     ‘tokenize()’ determines the source encoding of the file by looking
     for a UTF-8 BOM or encoding cookie, according to PEP 263(1).

 -- Συνάρτηση: tokenize.generate_tokens (readline)

     Tokenize a source reading unicode strings instead of bytes.

     Like *note tokenize(): 8e9, the 'readline' argument is a callable
     returning a single line of input.  However, ‘generate_tokens()’
     expects 'readline' to return a str object rather than bytes.

     The result is an iterator yielding named tuples, exactly like *note
     tokenize(): 8e9.  It does not yield an *note ENCODING: 4f16. token.

All constants from the *note token: 103. module are also exported from
‘tokenize’.

Another function is provided to reverse the tokenization process.  This
is useful for creating tools that tokenize a script, modify the token
stream, and write back the modified script.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tokenize.untokenize (iterable)

     Converts tokens back into Python source code.  The 'iterable' must
     return sequences with at least two elements, the token type and the
     token string.  Any additional sequence elements are ignored.

     The result is guaranteed to tokenize back to match the input so
     that the conversion is lossless and round-trips are assured.  The
     guarantee applies only to the token type and token string as the
     spacing between tokens (column positions) may change.

     It returns bytes, encoded using the *note ENCODING: 4f16. token,
     which is the first token sequence output by *note tokenize(): 8e9.
     If there is no encoding token in the input, it returns a str
     instead.

*note tokenize(): 8e9. needs to detect the encoding of source files it
tokenizes.  The function it uses to do this is available:

 -- Συνάρτηση: tokenize.detect_encoding (readline)

     The ‘detect_encoding()’ function is used to detect the encoding
     that should be used to decode a Python source file.  It requires
     one argument, readline, in the same way as the *note tokenize():
     8e9. generator.

     It will call readline a maximum of twice, and return the encoding
     used (as a string) and a list of any lines (not decoded from bytes)
     it has read in.

     It detects the encoding from the presence of a UTF-8 BOM or an
     encoding cookie as specified in PEP 263(2).  If both a BOM and a
     cookie are present, but disagree, a *note SyntaxError: 17e. will be
     raised.  Note that if the BOM is found, ‘'utf-8-sig'’ will be
     returned as an encoding.

     If no encoding is specified, then the default of ‘'utf-8'’ will be
     returned.

     Use *note open(): 2f05. to open Python source files: it uses
     ‘detect_encoding()’ to detect the file encoding.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tokenize.open (filename)

     Open a file in read only mode using the encoding detected by *note
     detect_encoding(): 19ce.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- Εξαίρεση: tokenize.TokenError

     Raised when either a docstring or expression that may be split over
     several lines is not completed anywhere in the file, for example:

          """Beginning of
          docstring

     or:

          [1,
           2,
           3

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line usage<6>,  Next: Examples<30>,  Prev: Tokenizing input,  Up: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source

5.33.5.2 Command-line usage
...........................

Added in version 3.3.

The ‘tokenize’ module can be executed as a script from the command line.
It is as simple as:

     python -m tokenize [-e] [filename.py]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     show this help message and exit

 -- Option: -e, --exact

     display token names using the exact type

If ‘filename.py’ is specified its contents are tokenized to stdout.
Otherwise, tokenization is performed on stdin.

Added in version 3.15: Output is in color by default and can be *note
controlled using environment variables: 1af.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<30>,  Prev: Command-line usage<6>,  Up: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source

5.33.5.3 Examples
.................

Example of a script rewriter that transforms float literals into Decimal
objects:

     from tokenize import tokenize, untokenize, NUMBER, STRING, NAME, OP
     from io import BytesIO

     def decistmt(s):
         """Substitute Decimals for floats in a string of statements.

         >>> from decimal import Decimal
         >>> s = 'print(+21.3e-5*-.1234/81.7)'
         >>> decistmt(s)
         "print (+Decimal ('21.3e-5')*-Decimal ('.1234')/Decimal ('81.7'))"

         The format of the exponent is inherited from the platform C library.
         Known cases are "e-007" (Windows) and "e-07" (not Windows).  Since
         we're only showing 12 digits, and the 13th isn't close to 5, the
         rest of the output should be platform-independent.

         >>> exec(s)  #doctest: +ELLIPSIS
         -3.21716034272e-0...7

         Output from calculations with Decimal should be identical across all
         platforms.

         >>> exec(decistmt(s))
         -3.217160342717258261933904529E-7
         """
         result = []
         g = tokenize(BytesIO(s.encode('utf-8')).readline)  # tokenize the string
         for toknum, tokval, _, _, _ in g:
             if toknum == NUMBER and '.' in tokval:  # replace NUMBER tokens
                 result.extend([
                     (NAME, 'Decimal'),
                     (OP, '('),
                     (STRING, repr(tokval)),
                     (OP, ')')
                 ])
             else:
                 result.append((toknum, tokval))
         return untokenize(result).decode('utf-8')

Example of tokenizing from the command line.  The script:

     def say_hello():
         print("Hello, World!")

     say_hello()

will be tokenized to the following output where the first column is the
range of the line/column coordinates where the token is found, the
second column is the name of the token, and the final column is the
value of the token (if any):

     $ python -m tokenize hello.py
     0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
     1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
     1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
     1,13-1,14:          OP             '('
     1,14-1,15:          OP             ')'
     1,15-1,16:          OP             ':'
     1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
     2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
     2,9-2,10:           OP             '('
     2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
     2,25-2,26:          OP             ')'
     2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
     4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
     4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
     4,9-4,10:           OP             '('
     4,10-4,11:          OP             ')'
     4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''

The exact token type names can be displayed using the *note -e: 4f53.
option:

     $ python -m tokenize -e hello.py
     0,0-0,0:            ENCODING       'utf-8'
     1,0-1,3:            NAME           'def'
     1,4-1,13:           NAME           'say_hello'
     1,13-1,14:          LPAR           '('
     1,14-1,15:          RPAR           ')'
     1,15-1,16:          COLON          ':'
     1,16-1,17:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     2,0-2,4:            INDENT         '    '
     2,4-2,9:            NAME           'print'
     2,9-2,10:           LPAR           '('
     2,10-2,25:          STRING         '"Hello, World!"'
     2,25-2,26:          RPAR           ')'
     2,26-2,27:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     3,0-3,1:            NL             '\n'
     4,0-4,0:            DEDENT         ''
     4,0-4,9:            NAME           'say_hello'
     4,9-4,10:           LPAR           '('
     4,10-4,11:          RPAR           ')'
     4,11-4,12:          NEWLINE        '\n'
     5,0-5,0:            ENDMARKER      ''

Example of tokenizing a file programmatically, reading unicode strings
instead of bytes with *note generate_tokens(): 8ea.:

     import tokenize

     with tokenize.open('hello.py') as f:
         tokens = tokenize.generate_tokens(f.readline)
         for token in tokens:
             print(token)

Or reading bytes directly with *note tokenize(): 8e9.:

     import tokenize

     with open('hello.py', 'rb') as f:
         tokens = tokenize.tokenize(f.readline)
         for token in tokens:
             print(token)


File: python.info,  Node: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation,  Next: pyclbr — Python module browser support,  Prev: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source,  Up: Python Language Services

5.33.6 ‘tabnanny’ — Detection of ambiguous indentation
------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tabnanny.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

For the time being this module is intended to be called as a script.
However it is possible to import it into an IDE and use the function
*note check(): 4f59. described below.

     Σημείωση: The API provided by this module is likely to change in
     future releases; such changes may not be backward compatible.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tabnanny.check (file_or_dir)

     If 'file_or_dir' is a directory and not a symbolic link, then
     recursively descend the directory tree named by 'file_or_dir',
     checking all ‘.py’ files along the way.  If 'file_or_dir' is an
     ordinary Python source file, it is checked for whitespace related
     problems.  The diagnostic messages are written to standard output
     using the *note print(): 131f. function.

 -- Δεδομένα: tabnanny.verbose

     Flag indicating whether to print verbose messages.  This is
     incremented by the ‘-v’ option if called as a script.

 -- Δεδομένα: tabnanny.filename_only

     Flag indicating whether to print only the filenames of files
     containing whitespace related problems.  This is set to true by the
     ‘-q’ option if called as a script.

 -- Εξαίρεση: tabnanny.NannyNag

     Raised by *note process_tokens(): 4f5d. if detecting an ambiguous
     indent.  Captured and handled in *note check(): 4f59.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tabnanny.process_tokens (tokens)

     This function is used by *note check(): 4f59. to process tokens
     generated by the *note tokenize: 104. module.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note tokenize: 104.

     Lexical scanner for Python source code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tabnanny.py


File: python.info,  Node: pyclbr — Python module browser support,  Next: py_compile — Compile Python source files,  Prev: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation,  Up: Python Language Services

5.33.7 ‘pyclbr’ — Python module browser support
-----------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pyclbr.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘pyclbr’ module provides limited information about the functions,
classes, and methods defined in a Python-coded module.  The information
is sufficient to implement a module browser.  The information is
extracted from the Python source code rather than by importing the
module, so this module is safe to use with untrusted code.  This
restriction makes it impossible to use this module with modules not
implemented in Python, including all standard and optional extension
modules.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pyclbr.readmodule (module, path=None)

     Return a dictionary mapping module-level class names to class
     descriptors.  If possible, descriptors for imported base classes
     are included.  Parameter 'module' is a string with the name of the
     module to read; it may be the name of a module within a package.
     If given, 'path' is a sequence of directory paths prepended to
     ‘sys.path’, which is used to locate the module source code.

     This function is the original interface and is only kept for back
     compatibility.  It returns a filtered version of the following.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pyclbr.readmodule_ex (module, path=None)

     Return a dictionary-based tree containing a function or class
     descriptors for each function and class defined in the module with
     a ‘def’ or ‘class’ statement.  The returned dictionary maps
     module-level function and class names to their descriptors.  Nested
     objects are entered into the children dictionary of their parent.
     As with readmodule, 'module' names the module to be read and 'path'
     is prepended to sys.path.  If the module being read is a package,
     the returned dictionary has a key ‘'__path__'’ whose value is a
     list containing the package search path.

Added in version 3.7: Descriptors for nested definitions.  They are
accessed through the new children attribute.  Each has a new parent
attribute.

The descriptors returned by these functions are instances of Function
and Class classes.  Users are not expected to create instances of these
classes.

* Menu:

* Function Objects::
* Class Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/pyclbr.py


File: python.info,  Node: Function Objects,  Next: Class Objects,  Up: pyclbr — Python module browser support

5.33.7.1 Function Objects
.........................

 -- Κλάση: pyclbr.Function

     Class ‘Function’ instances describe functions defined by def
     statements.  They have the following attributes:

      -- Ιδιότητα: file

          Name of the file in which the function is defined.

      -- Ιδιότητα: module

          The name of the module defining the function described.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name of the function.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          The line number in the file where the definition starts.

      -- Ιδιότητα: parent

          For top-level functions, ‘None’.  For nested functions, the
          parent.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: children

          A *note dictionary: 188. mapping names to descriptors for
          nested functions and classes.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: is_async

          ‘True’ for functions that are defined with the *note async:
          9cf. prefix, ‘False’ otherwise.

          Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Class Objects,  Prev: Function Objects,  Up: pyclbr — Python module browser support

5.33.7.2 Class Objects
......................

 -- Κλάση: pyclbr.Class

     Class ‘Class’ instances describe classes defined by class
     statements.  They have the same attributes as *note Functions:
     4f63. and two more.

      -- Ιδιότητα: file

          Name of the file in which the class is defined.

      -- Ιδιότητα: module

          The name of the module defining the class described.

      -- Ιδιότητα: name

          The name of the class.

      -- Ιδιότητα: lineno

          The line number in the file where the definition starts.

      -- Ιδιότητα: parent

          For top-level classes, ‘None’.  For nested classes, the
          parent.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: children

          A dictionary mapping names to descriptors for nested functions
          and classes.

          Added in version 3.7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: super

          A list of ‘Class’ objects which describe the immediate base
          classes of the class being described.  Classes which are named
          as superclasses but which are not discoverable by *note
          readmodule_ex(): c05. are listed as a string with the class
          name instead of as ‘Class’ objects.

      -- Ιδιότητα: methods

          A *note dictionary: 188. mapping method names to line numbers.
          This can be derived from the newer *note children: 4f73.
          dictionary, but remains for back-compatibility.


File: python.info,  Node: py_compile — Compile Python source files,  Next: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries,  Prev: pyclbr — Python module browser support,  Up: Python Language Services

5.33.8 ‘py_compile’ — Compile Python source files
-------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/py_compile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘py_compile’ module provides a function to generate a byte-code file
from a source file, and another function used when the module source
file is invoked as a script.

Though not often needed, this function can be useful when installing
modules for shared use, especially if some of the users may not have
permission to write the byte-code cache files in the directory
containing the source code.

 -- Εξαίρεση: py_compile.PyCompileError

     Exception raised when an error occurs while attempting to compile
     the file.

 -- Συνάρτηση: py_compile.compile (file, cfile=None, dfile=None,
          doraise=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP, quiet=0)

     Compile a source file to byte-code and write out the byte-code
     cache file.  The source code is loaded from the file named 'file'.
     The byte-code is written to 'cfile', which defaults to the PEP
     3147(2)/ PEP 488(3) path, ending in ‘.pyc’.  For example, if 'file'
     is ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ 'cfile' will default to
     ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ for Python 3.2.  If
     'dfile' is specified, it is used instead of 'file' as the name of
     the source file from which source lines are obtained for display in
     exception tracebacks.  If 'doraise' is true, a *note
     PyCompileError: 4f79. is raised when an error is encountered while
     compiling 'file'.  If 'doraise' is false (the default), an error
     string is written to ‘sys.stderr’, but no exception is raised.
     This function returns the path to byte-compiled file, i.e.
     whatever 'cfile' value was used.

     The 'doraise' and 'quiet' arguments determine how errors are
     handled while compiling file.  If 'quiet' is 0 or 1, and 'doraise'
     is false, the default behaviour is enabled: an error string is
     written to ‘sys.stderr’, and the function returns ‘None’ instead of
     a path.  If 'doraise' is true, a *note PyCompileError: 4f79. is
     raised instead.  However if 'quiet' is 2, no message is written,
     and 'doraise' has no effect.

     If the path that 'cfile' becomes (either explicitly specified or
     computed) is a symlink or non-regular file, *note FileExistsError:
     13c9. will be raised.  This is to act as a warning that import will
     turn those paths into regular files if it is allowed to write
     byte-compiled files to those paths.  This is a side-effect of
     import using file renaming to place the final byte-compiled file
     into place to prevent concurrent file writing issues.

     'optimize' controls the optimization level and is passed to the
     built-in ‘compile()’ function.  The default of ‘-1’ selects the
     optimization level of the current interpreter.

     'invalidation_mode' should be a member of the *note
     PycInvalidationMode: 4f7a. enum and controls how the generated
     bytecode cache is invalidated at runtime.  The default is *note
     PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH: 4f7b. if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’
     environment variable is set, otherwise the default is *note
     PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP: 4f7c.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Changed default value of 'cfile' to be PEP
     3147(4)-compliant.  Previous default was 'file' + ‘'c'’ (‘'o'’ if
     optimization was enabled).  Also added the 'optimize' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Changed code to use *note importlib: 7a.
     for the byte-code cache file writing.  This means file
     creation/writing semantics now match what ‘importlib’ does, e.g.
     permissions, write-and-move semantics, etc.  Also added the caveat
     that *note FileExistsError: 13c9. is raised if 'cfile' is a symlink
     or non-regular file.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter was added
     as specified in PEP 552(5).  If the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment
     variable is set, 'invalidation_mode' will be forced to *note
     PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH: 4f7b.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7.2: The ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment
     variable no longer overrides the value of the 'invalidation_mode'
     argument, and determines its default value instead.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The 'quiet' parameter was added.

 -- Κλάση: py_compile.PycInvalidationMode

     An enumeration of possible methods the interpreter can use to
     determine whether a bytecode file is up to date with a source file.
     The ‘.pyc’ file indicates the desired invalidation mode in its
     header.  See *note Ακύρωση cached bytecode: 9e3. for more
     information on how Python invalidates ‘.pyc’ files at runtime.

     Added in version 3.7.

      -- Ιδιότητα: TIMESTAMP

          The ‘.pyc’ file includes the timestamp and size of the source
          file, which Python will compare against the metadata of the
          source file at runtime to determine if the ‘.pyc’ file needs
          to be regenerated.

      -- Ιδιότητα: CHECKED_HASH

          The ‘.pyc’ file includes a hash of the source file content,
          which Python will compare against the source at runtime to
          determine if the ‘.pyc’ file needs to be regenerated.

      -- Ιδιότητα: UNCHECKED_HASH

          Like *note CHECKED_HASH: 4f7b, the ‘.pyc’ file includes a hash
          of the source file content.  However, Python will at runtime
          assume the ‘.pyc’ file is up to date and not validate the
          ‘.pyc’ against the source file at all.

          This option is useful when the ‘.pycs’ are kept up to date by
          some system external to Python like a build system.

* Menu:

* Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<3>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/py_compile.py

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/


File: python.info,  Node: Command-Line Interface<3>,  Up: py_compile — Compile Python source files

5.33.8.1 Command-Line Interface
...............................

This module can be invoked as a script to compile several source files.
The files named in 'filenames' are compiled and the resulting bytecode
is cached in the normal manner.  This program does not search a
directory structure to locate source files; it only compiles files named
explicitly.  The exit status is nonzero if one of the files could not be
compiled.

 -- Option: <file> ... <fileN>
 -- Option: -

     Positional arguments are files to compile.  If ‘-’ is the only
     parameter, the list of files is taken from standard input.

 -- Option: -q, --quiet

     Suppress errors output.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added support for ‘-’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Added support for *note -q: 4f82.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note compileall: 21.

     Utilities to compile all Python source files in a directory tree.


File: python.info,  Node: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries,  Next: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode,  Prev: py_compile — Compile Python source files,  Up: Python Language Services

5.33.9 ‘compileall’ — Byte-compile Python libraries
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/compileall.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides some utility functions to support installing Python
libraries.  These functions compile Python source files in a directory
tree.  This module can be used to create the cached byte-code files at
library installation time, which makes them available for use even by
users who don’t have write permission to the library directories.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: not WASI.

This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly.  See *note
WebAssembly platforms: 1d67. for more information.

* Menu:

* Command-line use::
* Public functions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/compileall.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line use,  Next: Public functions,  Up: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries

5.33.9.1 Command-line use
.........................

This module can work as a script (using ‘python -m compileall’) to
compile Python sources.

 -- Option: directory ...
 -- Option: file ...

     Positional arguments are files to compile or directories that
     contain source files, traversed recursively.  If no argument is
     given, behave as if the command line was ‘-l <DIRECTORIES FROM
     SYS.PATH>’.

 -- Option: -l

     Do not recurse into subdirectories, only compile source code files
     directly contained in the named or implied directories.

 -- Option: -f

     Force rebuild even if timestamps are up-to-date.

 -- Option: -q

     Do not print the list of files compiled.  If passed once, error
     messages will still be printed.  If passed twice (‘-qq’), all
     output is suppressed.

 -- Option: -d destdir

     Directory prepended to the path to each file being compiled.  This
     will appear in compilation time tracebacks, and is also compiled in
     to the byte-code file, where it will be used in tracebacks and
     other messages in cases where the source file does not exist at the
     time the byte-code file is executed.

 -- Option: -s strip_prefix

     Remove the given prefix from paths recorded in the ‘.pyc’ files.
     Paths are made relative to the prefix.

     This option can be used with ‘-p’ but not with ‘-d’.

 -- Option: -p prepend_prefix

     Prepend the given prefix to paths recorded in the ‘.pyc’ files.
     Use ‘-p /’ to make the paths absolute.

     This option can be used with ‘-s’ but not with ‘-d’.

 -- Option: -x regex

     regex is used to search the full path to each file considered for
     compilation, and if the regex produces a match, the file is
     skipped.

 -- Option: -i list

     Read the file ‘list’ and add each line that it contains to the list
     of files and directories to compile.  If ‘list’ is ‘-’, read lines
     from ‘stdin’.

 -- Option: -b

     Write the byte-code files to their legacy locations and names,
     which may overwrite byte-code files created by another version of
     Python.  The default is to write files to their PEP 3147(1)
     locations and names, which allows byte-code files from multiple
     versions of Python to coexist.

 -- Option: -r

     Control the maximum recursion level for subdirectories.  If this is
     given, then ‘-l’ option will not be taken into account.  ‘python -m
     compileall <directory> -r 0’ is equivalent to ‘python -m compileall
     <directory> -l’.

 -- Option: -j N

     Use 'N' workers to compile the files within the given directory.
     If ‘0’ is used, then the result of *note os.process_cpu_count():
     6e0. will be used.

 -- Option: --invalidation-mode [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash]

     Control how the generated byte-code files are invalidated at
     runtime.  The ‘timestamp’ value, means that ‘.pyc’ files with the
     source timestamp and size embedded will be generated.  The
     ‘checked-hash’ and ‘unchecked-hash’ values cause hash-based pycs to
     be generated.  Hash-based pycs embed a hash of the source file
     contents rather than a timestamp.  See *note Ακύρωση cached
     bytecode: 9e3. for more information on how Python validates
     bytecode cache files at runtime.  The default is ‘timestamp’ if the
     ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is not set, and
     ‘checked-hash’ if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is
     set.

 -- Option: -o level

     Compile with the given optimization level.  May be used multiple
     times to compile for multiple levels at a time (for example,
     ‘compileall -o 1 -o 2’).

 -- Option: -e dir

     Ignore symlinks pointing outside the given directory.

 -- Option: --hardlink-dupes

     If two ‘.pyc’ files with different optimization level have the same
     content, use hard links to consolidate duplicate files.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the ‘-i’, ‘-b’ and ‘-h’ options.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the ‘-j’, ‘-r’, and ‘-qq’ options.  ‘-q’
option was changed to a multilevel value.  ‘-b’ will always produce a
byte-code file ending in ‘.pyc’, never ‘.pyo’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Added the ‘--invalidation-mode’ option.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added the ‘-s’, ‘-p’, ‘-e’ and
‘--hardlink-dupes’ options.  Raised the default recursion limit from 10
to *note sys.getrecursionlimit(): 8d4.  Added the possibility to specify
the ‘-o’ option multiple times.

There is no command-line option to control the optimization level used
by the *note compile(): 1c8. function, because the Python interpreter
itself already provides the option: ‘python -O -m compileall’.

Similarly, the *note compile(): 1c8. function respects the *note
sys.pycache_prefix: d6d. setting.  The generated bytecode cache will
only be useful if ‘compile()’ is run with the same ‘sys.pycache_prefix’
(if any) that will be used at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Public functions,  Prev: Command-line use,  Up: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries

5.33.9.2 Public functions
.........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: compileall.compile_dir (dir,
          maxlevels=sys.getrecursionlimit(), ddir=None, force=False,
          rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, workers=1,
          invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None,
          limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False)

     Recursively descend the directory tree named by 'dir', compiling
     all ‘.py’ files along the way.  Return a true value if all the
     files compiled successfully, and a false value otherwise.

     The 'maxlevels' parameter is used to limit the depth of the
     recursion; it defaults to ‘sys.getrecursionlimit()’.

     If 'ddir' is given, it is prepended to the path to each file being
     compiled for use in compilation time tracebacks, and is also
     compiled in to the byte-code file, where it will be used in
     tracebacks and other messages in cases where the source file does
     not exist at the time the byte-code file is executed.

     If 'force' is true, modules are re-compiled even if the timestamps
     are up to date.

     If 'rx' is given, its ‘search’ method is called on the complete
     path to each file considered for compilation, and if it returns a
     true value, the file is skipped.  This can be used to exclude files
     matching a regular expression, given as a *note re.Pattern: 1331.
     object.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’ or ‘0’ (the default), the filenames and other
     information are printed to standard out.  Set to ‘1’, only errors
     are printed.  Set to ‘2’, all output is suppressed.

     If 'legacy' is true, byte-code files are written to their legacy
     locations and names, which may overwrite byte-code files created by
     another version of Python.  The default is to write files to their
     PEP 3147(1) locations and names, which allows byte-code files from
     multiple versions of Python to coexist.

     'optimize' specifies the optimization level for the compiler.  It
     is passed to the built-in *note compile(): 1c8. function.  Accepts
     also a sequence of optimization levels which lead to multiple
     compilations of one ‘.py’ file in one call.

     The argument 'workers' specifies how many workers are used to
     compile files in parallel.  The default is to not use multiple
     workers.  If the platform can’t use multiple workers and 'workers'
     argument is given, then sequential compilation will be used as a
     fallback.  If 'workers' is 0, the number of cores in the system is
     used.  If 'workers' is lower than ‘0’, a *note ValueError: 277.
     will be raised.

     'invalidation_mode' should be a member of the *note
     py_compile.PycInvalidationMode: 4f7a. enum and controls how the
     generated pycs are invalidated at runtime.

     The 'stripdir', 'prependdir' and 'limit_sl_dest' arguments
     correspond to the ‘-s’, ‘-p’ and ‘-e’ options described above.
     They may be specified as ‘str’ or *note os.PathLike: 100f.

     If 'hardlink_dupes' is true and two ‘.pyc’ files with different
     optimization level have the same content, use hard links to
     consolidate duplicate files.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'legacy' and 'optimize'
     parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added the 'workers' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: 'quiet' parameter was changed to a
     multilevel value.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'legacy' parameter only writes out
     ‘.pyc’ files, not ‘.pyo’ files no matter what the value of
     'optimize' is.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter was
     added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7.2: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter’s
     default value is updated to ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Setting 'workers' to 0 now chooses the
     optimal number of cores.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added 'stripdir', 'prependdir',
     'limit_sl_dest' and 'hardlink_dupes' arguments.  Default value of
     'maxlevels' was changed from ‘10’ to ‘sys.getrecursionlimit()’

 -- Συνάρτηση: compileall.compile_file (fullname, ddir=None,
          force=False, rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None,
          limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False)

     Compile the file with path 'fullname'.  Return a true value if the
     file compiled successfully, and a false value otherwise.

     If 'ddir' is given, it is prepended to the path to the file being
     compiled for use in compilation time tracebacks, and is also
     compiled in to the byte-code file, where it will be used in
     tracebacks and other messages in cases where the source file does
     not exist at the time the byte-code file is executed.

     If 'rx' is given, its ‘search’ method is passed the full path name
     to the file being compiled, and if it returns a true value, the
     file is not compiled and ‘True’ is returned.  This can be used to
     exclude files matching a regular expression, given as a *note
     re.Pattern: 1331. object.

     If 'quiet' is ‘False’ or ‘0’ (the default), the filenames and other
     information are printed to standard out.  Set to ‘1’, only errors
     are printed.  Set to ‘2’, all output is suppressed.

     If 'legacy' is true, byte-code files are written to their legacy
     locations and names, which may overwrite byte-code files created by
     another version of Python.  The default is to write files to their
     PEP 3147(2) locations and names, which allows byte-code files from
     multiple versions of Python to coexist.

     'optimize' specifies the optimization level for the compiler.  It
     is passed to the built-in *note compile(): 1c8. function.  Accepts
     also a sequence of optimization levels which lead to multiple
     compilations of one ‘.py’ file in one call.

     'invalidation_mode' should be a member of the *note
     py_compile.PycInvalidationMode: 4f7a. enum and controls how the
     generated pycs are invalidated at runtime.

     The 'stripdir', 'prependdir' and 'limit_sl_dest' arguments
     correspond to the ‘-s’, ‘-p’ and ‘-e’ options described above.
     They may be specified as ‘str’ or *note os.PathLike: 100f.

     If 'hardlink_dupes' is true and two ‘.pyc’ files with different
     optimization level have the same content, use hard links to
     consolidate duplicate files.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: 'quiet' parameter was changed to a
     multilevel value.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'legacy' parameter only writes out
     ‘.pyc’ files, not ‘.pyo’ files no matter what the value of
     'optimize' is.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter was
     added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7.2: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter’s
     default value is updated to ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Added 'stripdir', 'prependdir',
     'limit_sl_dest' and 'hardlink_dupes' arguments.

 -- Συνάρτηση: compileall.compile_path (skip_curdir=True, maxlevels=0,
          force=False, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1,
          invalidation_mode=None)

     Byte-compile all the ‘.py’ files found along ‘sys.path’.  Return a
     true value if all the files compiled successfully, and a false
     value otherwise.

     If 'skip_curdir' is true (the default), the current directory is
     not included in the search.  All other parameters are passed to the
     *note compile_dir(): ee8. function.  Note that unlike the other
     compile functions, ‘maxlevels’ defaults to ‘0’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'legacy' and 'optimize'
     parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: 'quiet' parameter was changed to a
     multilevel value.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'legacy' parameter only writes out
     ‘.pyc’ files, not ‘.pyo’ files no matter what the value of
     'optimize' is.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter was
     added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7.2: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter’s
     default value is updated to ‘None’.

To force a recompile of all the ‘.py’ files in the ‘Lib/’ subdirectory
and all its subdirectories:

     import compileall

     compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', force=True)

     # Perform same compilation, excluding files in .svn directories.
     import re
     compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', rx=re.compile(r'[/\\][.]svn'), force=True)

     # pathlib.Path objects can also be used.
     import pathlib
     compileall.compile_dir(pathlib.Path('Lib/'), force=True)

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note py_compile: bb.

     Byte-compile a single source file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode,  Next: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers,  Prev: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries,  Up: Python Language Services

5.33.10 ‘dis’ — Disassembler for Python bytecode
------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/dis.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘dis’ module supports the analysis of CPython *note bytecode: 6b3.
by disassembling it.  The CPython bytecode which this module takes as an
input is defined in the file ‘Include/opcode.h’ and used by the compiler
and the interpreter.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Bytecode is an implementation detail
of the CPython interpreter.  No guarantees are made that bytecode will
not be added, removed, or changed between versions of Python.  Use of
this module should not be considered to work across Python VMs or Python
releases.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Use 2 bytes for each instruction.  Previously
the number of bytes varied by instruction.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The argument of jump, exception handling and
loop instructions is now the instruction offset rather than the byte
offset.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Some instructions are accompanied by one or
more inline cache entries, which take the form of *note CACHE: ae6.
instructions.  These instructions are hidden by default, but can be
shown by passing ‘show_caches=True’ to any ‘dis’ utility.  Furthermore,
the interpreter now adapts the bytecode to specialize it for different
runtime conditions.  The adaptive bytecode can be shown by passing
‘adaptive=True’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The argument of a jump is the offset of the
target instruction relative to the instruction that appears immediately
after the jump instruction’s *note CACHE: ae6. entries.

As a consequence, the presence of the *note CACHE: ae6. instructions is
transparent for forward jumps but needs to be taken into account when
reasoning about backward jumps.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The output shows logical labels rather than
instruction offsets for jump targets and exception handlers.  The ‘-O’
command line option and the ‘show_offsets’ argument were added.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The *note -P: 499. command-line option and the
‘show_positions’ argument were added.

The *note -S: 49a. command-line option is added.

Example: Given the function ‘myfunc()’:

     def myfunc(alist):
         return len(alist)

the following command can be used to display the disassembly of
‘myfunc()’:

     >>> dis.dis(myfunc)
       2           RESUME                   0

       3           LOAD_GLOBAL              1 (len + NULL)
                   LOAD_FAST_BORROW         0 (alist)
                   CALL                     1
                   RETURN_VALUE

(The «2» is a line number).

* Menu:

* Command-line interface: Command-line interface<15>.
* Bytecode analysis::
* Analysis functions::
* Python Bytecode Instructions::
* Opcode collections::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/dis.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface<15>,  Next: Bytecode analysis,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.33.10.1 Command-line interface
................................

The ‘dis’ module can be invoked as a script from the command line:

     python -m dis [-h] [-C] [-O] [-P] [-S] [infile]

The following options are accepted:

 -- Option: -h, --help

     Display usage and exit.

 -- Option: -C, --show-caches

     Show inline caches.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Option: -O, --show-offsets

     Show offsets of instructions.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Option: -P, --show-positions

     Show positions of instructions in the source code.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Option: -S, --specialized

     Show specialized bytecode.

     Added in version 3.14.

If ‘infile’ is specified, its disassembled code will be written to
stdout.  Otherwise, disassembly is performed on compiled source code
received from stdin.


File: python.info,  Node: Bytecode analysis,  Next: Analysis functions,  Prev: Command-line interface<15>,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.33.10.2 Bytecode analysis
...........................

Added in version 3.4.

The bytecode analysis API allows pieces of Python code to be wrapped in
a *note Bytecode: 495. object that provides easy access to details of
the compiled code.

 -- Κλάση: dis.Bytecode (x, *, first_line=None, current_offset=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False, show_offsets=False,
          show_positions=False)

     Analyse the bytecode corresponding to a function, generator,
     asynchronous generator, coroutine, method, string of source code,
     or a code object (as returned by *note compile(): 1c8.).

     This is a convenience wrapper around many of the functions listed
     below, most notably *note get_instructions(): 6f1, as iterating
     over a ‘Bytecode’ instance yields the bytecode operations as *note
     Instruction: 494. instances.

     If 'first_line' is not ‘None’, it indicates the line number that
     should be reported for the first source line in the disassembled
     code.  Otherwise, the source line information (if any) is taken
     directly from the disassembled code object.

     If 'current_offset' is not ‘None’, it refers to an instruction
     offset in the disassembled code.  Setting this means *note dis():
     12da. will display a «current instruction» marker against the
     specified opcode.

     If 'show_caches' is ‘True’, *note dis(): 12da. will display inline
     cache entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

     If 'adaptive' is ‘True’, *note dis(): 12da. will display
     specialized bytecode that may be different from the original
     bytecode.

     If 'show_offsets' is ‘True’, *note dis(): 12da. will include
     instruction offsets in the output.

     If 'show_positions' is ‘True’, *note dis(): 12da. will include
     instruction source code positions in the output.

      -- Μέθοδος: classmethod from_traceback (tb, *, show_caches=False)

          Construct a ‘Bytecode’ instance from the given traceback,
          setting 'current_offset' to the instruction responsible for
          the exception.

      -- Δεδομένα: codeobj

          The compiled code object.

      -- Δεδομένα: first_line

          The first source line of the code object (if available)

      -- Μέθοδος: dis ()

          Return a formatted view of the bytecode operations (the same
          as printed by *note dis.dis(): 496, but returned as a
          multi-line string).

      -- Μέθοδος: info ()

          Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed information
          about the code object, like *note code_info(): 15df.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: This can now handle coroutine and
     asynchronous generator objects.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'show_offsets' parameter

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added the 'show_positions' parameter.

Example:

     >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(myfunc)
     >>> for instr in bytecode:
     ...     print(instr.opname)
     ...
     RESUME
     LOAD_GLOBAL
     LOAD_FAST_BORROW
     CALL
     RETURN_VALUE


File: python.info,  Node: Analysis functions,  Next: Python Bytecode Instructions,  Prev: Bytecode analysis,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.33.10.3 Analysis functions
............................

The ‘dis’ module also defines the following analysis functions that
convert the input directly to the desired output.  They can be useful if
only a single operation is being performed, so the intermediate analysis
object isn’t useful:

 -- Συνάρτηση: dis.code_info (x)

     Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed code object
     information for the supplied function, generator, asynchronous
     generator, coroutine, method, source code string or code object.

     Note that the exact contents of code info strings are highly
     implementation dependent and they may change arbitrarily across
     Python VMs or Python releases.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: This can now handle coroutine and
     asynchronous generator objects.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dis.show_code (x, *, file=None)

     Print detailed code object information for the supplied function,
     method, source code string or code object to 'file' (or
     ‘sys.stdout’ if 'file' is not specified).

     This is a convenient shorthand for ‘print(code_info(x),
     file=file)’, intended for interactive exploration at the
     interpreter prompt.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added 'file' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dis.dis (x=None, *, file=None, depth=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False, show_offsets=False,
          show_positions=False)

     Disassemble the 'x' object.  'x' can denote either a module, a
     class, a method, a function, a generator, an asynchronous
     generator, a coroutine, a code object, a string of source code or a
     byte sequence of raw bytecode.  For a module, it disassembles all
     functions.  For a class, it disassembles all methods (including
     class and static methods).  For a code object or sequence of raw
     bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode instruction.  It also
     recursively disassembles nested code objects.  These can include
     generator expressions, nested functions, the bodies of nested
     classes, and the code objects used for *note annotation scopes:
     6b4.  Strings are first compiled to code objects with the *note
     compile(): 1c8. built-in function before being disassembled.  If no
     object is provided, this function disassembles the last traceback.

     The disassembly is written as text to the supplied 'file' argument
     if provided and to ‘sys.stdout’ otherwise.

     The maximal depth of recursion is limited by 'depth' unless it is
     ‘None’.  ‘depth=0’ means no recursion.

     If 'show_caches' is ‘True’, this function will display inline cache
     entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode.

     If 'adaptive' is ‘True’, this function will display specialized
     bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added 'file' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Implemented recursive disassembling and
     added 'depth' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: This can now handle coroutine and
     asynchronous generator objects.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'show_offsets' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added the 'show_positions' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dis.distb (tb=None, *, file=None, show_caches=False,
          adaptive=False, show_offset=False, show_positions=False)

     Disassemble the top-of-stack function of a traceback, using the
     last traceback if none was passed.  The instruction causing the
     exception is indicated.

     The disassembly is written as text to the supplied 'file' argument
     if provided and to ‘sys.stdout’ otherwise.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added 'file' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'show_offsets' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added the 'show_positions' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dis.disassemble (code, lasti=-1, *, file=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False, show_offsets=False,
          show_positions=False)
 -- Συνάρτηση: dis.disco (code, lasti=-1, *, file=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False, show_offsets=False,
          show_positions=False)

     Disassemble a code object, indicating the last instruction if
     'lasti' was provided.  The output is divided in the following
     columns:

       1. the source code location of the instruction.  Complete
          location information is shown if 'show_positions' is true.
          Otherwise (the default) only the line number is displayed.

       2. the current instruction, indicated as ‘-->’,

       3. a labelled instruction, indicated with ‘>>’,

       4. the address of the instruction,

       5. the operation code name,

       6. operation parameters, and

       7. interpretation of the parameters in parentheses.

     The parameter interpretation recognizes local and global variable
     names, constant values, branch targets, and compare operators.

     The disassembly is written as text to the supplied 'file' argument
     if provided and to ‘sys.stdout’ otherwise.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Added 'file' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added the 'show_offsets' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added the 'show_positions' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dis.get_instructions (x, *, first_line=None,
          show_caches=False, adaptive=False)

     Return an iterator over the instructions in the supplied function,
     method, source code string or code object.

     The iterator generates a series of *note Instruction: 494. named
     tuples giving the details of each operation in the supplied code.

     If 'first_line' is not ‘None’, it indicates the line number that
     should be reported for the first source line in the disassembled
     code.  Otherwise, the source line information (if any) is taken
     directly from the disassembled code object.

     The 'adaptive' parameter works as it does in *note dis(): 3b.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive'
     parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'show_caches' parameter is deprecated
     and has no effect.  The iterator generates the *note Instruction:
     494. instances with the 'cache_info' field populated (regardless of
     the value of 'show_caches') and it no longer generates separate
     items for the cache entries.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dis.findlinestarts (code)

     This generator function uses the *note co_lines(): 32d. method of
     the *note code object: 6eb. 'code' to find the offsets which are
     starts of lines in the source code.  They are generated as
     ‘(offset, lineno)’ pairs.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Line numbers can be decreasing.  Before,
     they were always increasing.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The PEP 626(1) *note co_lines(): 32d.
     method is used instead of the *note co_firstlineno: 2584. and
     ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’ attributes of the *note code object: 6eb.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Line numbers can be ‘None’ for bytecode
     that does not map to source lines.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dis.findlabels (code)

     Detect all offsets in the raw compiled bytecode string 'code' which
     are jump targets, and return a list of these offsets.

 -- Συνάρτηση: dis.stack_effect (opcode, oparg=None, *, jump=None)

     Compute the stack effect of 'opcode' with argument 'oparg'.

     If the code has a jump target and 'jump' is ‘True’,
     ‘stack_effect()’ will return the stack effect of jumping.  If
     'jump' is ‘False’, it will return the stack effect of not jumping.
     And if 'jump' is ‘None’ (default), it will return the maximal stack
     effect of both cases.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added 'jump' parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: If ‘oparg’ is omitted (or ‘None’), the
     stack effect is now returned for ‘oparg=0’.  Previously this was an
     error for opcodes that use their arg.  It is also no longer an
     error to pass an integer ‘oparg’ when the ‘opcode’ does not use it;
     the ‘oparg’ in this case is ignored.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Bytecode Instructions,  Next: Opcode collections,  Prev: Analysis functions,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.33.10.4 Python Bytecode Instructions
......................................

The *note get_instructions(): 6f1. function and *note Bytecode: 495.
class provide details of bytecode instructions as *note Instruction:
494. instances:

 -- Κλάση: dis.Instruction

     Details for a bytecode operation

      -- Δεδομένα: opcode

          numeric code for operation, corresponding to the opcode values
          listed below and the bytecode values in the *note Opcode
          collections: 4fb1.

      -- Δεδομένα: opname

          human readable name for operation

      -- Δεδομένα: baseopcode

          numeric code for the base operation if operation is
          specialized; otherwise equal to *note opcode: 4fb0.

      -- Δεδομένα: baseopname

          human readable name for the base operation if operation is
          specialized; otherwise equal to *note opname: 4fb5.

      -- Δεδομένα: arg

          numeric argument to operation (if any), otherwise ‘None’

      -- Δεδομένα: oparg

          alias for *note arg: 4fb6.

      -- Δεδομένα: argval

          resolved arg value (if any), otherwise ‘None’

      -- Δεδομένα: argrepr

          human readable description of operation argument (if any),
          otherwise an empty string.

      -- Δεδομένα: offset

          start index of operation within bytecode sequence

      -- Δεδομένα: start_offset

          start index of operation within bytecode sequence, including
          prefixed ‘EXTENDED_ARG’ operations if present; otherwise equal
          to *note offset: 4fba.

      -- Δεδομένα: cache_offset

          start index of the cache entries following the operation

      -- Δεδομένα: end_offset

          end index of the cache entries following the operation

      -- Δεδομένα: starts_line

          ‘True’ if this opcode starts a source line, otherwise ‘False’

      -- Δεδομένα: line_number

          source line number associated with this opcode (if any),
          otherwise ‘None’

      -- Δεδομένα: is_jump_target

          ‘True’ if other code jumps to here, otherwise ‘False’

      -- Δεδομένα: jump_target

          bytecode index of the jump target if this is a jump operation,
          otherwise ‘None’

      -- Δεδομένα: positions

          *note dis.Positions: 1b58. object holding the start and end
          locations that are covered by this instruction.

      -- Δεδομένα: cache_info

          Information about the cache entries of this instruction, as
          triplets of the form ‘(name, size, data)’, where the ‘name’
          and ‘size’ describe the cache format and data is the contents
          of the cache.  ‘cache_info’ is ‘None’ if the instruction does
          not have caches.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Field ‘positions’ is added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Changed field ‘starts_line’.

     Added fields ‘start_offset’, ‘cache_offset’, ‘end_offset’,
     ‘baseopname’, ‘baseopcode’, ‘jump_target’, ‘oparg’, ‘line_number’
     and ‘cache_info’.

 -- Κλάση: dis.Positions

     In case the information is not available, some fields might be
     ‘None’.

      -- Δεδομένα: lineno

      -- Δεδομένα: end_lineno

      -- Δεδομένα: col_offset

      -- Δεδομένα: end_col_offset

     Added in version 3.11.

The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode
instructions.

'General instructions'

In the following, We will refer to the interpreter stack as ‘STACK’ and
describe operations on it as if it was a Python list.  The top of the
stack corresponds to ‘STACK[-1]’ in this language.

 -- Opcode: NOP

     Do nothing code.  Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer,
     and to generate line tracing events.

 -- Opcode: NOT_TAKEN

     Do nothing code.  Used by the interpreter to record *note
     BRANCH_LEFT: 51b. and *note BRANCH_RIGHT: 51c. events for *note
     sys.monitoring: e3.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Opcode: POP_ITER

     Removes the iterator from the top of the stack.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Opcode: POP_TOP

     Removes the top-of-stack item:

          STACK.pop()

 -- Opcode: END_FOR

     Removes the top-of-stack item.  Equivalent to ‘POP_TOP’.  Used to
     clean up at the end of loops, hence the name.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: END_SEND

     Implements ‘del STACK[-2]’.  Used to clean up when a generator
     exits.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: COPY (i)

     Push the i-th item to the top of the stack without removing it from
     its original location:

          assert i > 0
          STACK.append(STACK[-i])

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: SWAP (i)

     Swap the top of the stack with the i-th element:

          STACK[-i], STACK[-1] = STACK[-1], STACK[-i]

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: CACHE

     Rather than being an actual instruction, this opcode is used to
     mark extra space for the interpreter to cache useful data directly
     in the bytecode itself.  It is automatically hidden by all ‘dis’
     utilities, but can be viewed with ‘show_caches=True’.

     Logically, this space is part of the preceding instruction.  Many
     opcodes expect to be followed by an exact number of caches, and
     will instruct the interpreter to skip over them at runtime.

     Populated caches can look like arbitrary instructions, so great
     care should be taken when reading or modifying raw, adaptive
     bytecode containing quickened data.

     Added in version 3.11.

'Unary operations'

Unary operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and
push the result back on the stack.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_NEGATIVE

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = -STACK[-1]’.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_NOT

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = not STACK[-1]’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: This instruction now requires an exact
     *note bool: 5ef. operand.

 -- Opcode: UNARY_INVERT

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = ~STACK[-1]’.

 -- Opcode: GET_ITER

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])’.

 -- Opcode: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is a *note generator iterator: f9e. or *note
     coroutine: 8a2. object it is left as is.  Otherwise, implements
     ‘STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Opcode: TO_BOOL

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = bool(STACK[-1])’.

     Added in version 3.13.

'Binary and in-place operations'

Binary operations remove the top two items from the stack (‘STACK[-1]’
and ‘STACK[-2]’).  They perform the operation, then put the result back
on the stack.

In-place operations are like binary operations, but the operation is
done in-place when ‘STACK[-2]’ supports it, and the resulting
‘STACK[-1]’ may be (but does not have to be) the original ‘STACK[-2]’.

 -- Opcode: BINARY_OP (op)

     Implements the binary and in-place operators (depending on the
     value of 'op'):

          rhs = STACK.pop()
          lhs = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(lhs op rhs)

     Added in version 3.11.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: With oparg :‘NB_SUBSCR’, implements binary
     subscript (replaces opcode ‘BINARY_SUBSCR’)

 -- Opcode: STORE_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          container[key] = value

 -- Opcode: DELETE_SUBSCR

     Implements:

          key = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          del container[key]

 -- Opcode: BINARY_SLICE

     Implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(container[start:end])

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: STORE_SLICE

     Implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          container = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          container[start:end] = value

     Added in version 3.12.

'Coroutine opcodes'

 -- Opcode: GET_AWAITABLE (where)

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = get_awaitable(STACK[-1])’, where
     ‘get_awaitable(o)’ returns ‘o’ if ‘o’ is a coroutine object or a
     generator object with the *note CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE: 4d37. flag,
     or resolves ‘o.__await__’.

          If the ‘where’ operand is nonzero, it indicates where the
          instruction occurs:

             * ‘1’: After a call to ‘__aenter__’

             * ‘2’: After a call to ‘__aexit__’

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Previously, this instruction did not have
     an oparg.

 -- Opcode: GET_AITER

     Implements ‘STACK[-1] = STACK[-1].__aiter__()’.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Returning awaitable objects from
     ‘__aiter__’ is no longer supported.

 -- Opcode: GET_ANEXT

     Implement ‘STACK.append(get_awaitable(STACK[-1].__anext__()))’ to
     the stack.  See ‘GET_AWAITABLE’ for details about ‘get_awaitable’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- Opcode: END_ASYNC_FOR

     Terminates an *note async for: e70. loop.  Handles an exception
     raised when awaiting a next item.  The stack contains the async
     iterable in ‘STACK[-2]’ and the raised exception in ‘STACK[-1]’.
     Both are popped.  If the exception is not *note StopAsyncIteration:
     1ffe, it is re-raised.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Exception representation on the stack now
     consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: CLEANUP_THROW

     Handles an exception raised during a *note throw(): 905. or *note
     close(): 199e. call through the current frame.  If ‘STACK[-1]’ is
     an instance of *note StopIteration: fba, pop three values from the
     stack and push its ‘value’ member.  Otherwise, re-raise
     ‘STACK[-1]’.

     Added in version 3.12.

'Miscellaneous opcodes'

 -- Opcode: SET_ADD (i)

     Implements:

          item = STACK.pop()
          set.add(STACK[-i], item)

     Used to implement set comprehensions.

 -- Opcode: LIST_APPEND (i)

     Implements:

          item = STACK.pop()
          list.append(STACK[-i], item)

     Used to implement list comprehensions.

 -- Opcode: MAP_ADD (i)

     Implements:

          value = STACK.pop()
          key = STACK.pop()
          dict.__setitem__(STACK[-i], key, value)

     Used to implement dict comprehensions.

     Added in version 3.1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Map value is ‘STACK[-1]’ and map key is
     ‘STACK[-2]’.  Before, those were reversed.

For all of the *note SET_ADD: 4fd2, *note LIST_APPEND: 4fd3. and *note
MAP_ADD: e71. instructions, while the added value or key/value pair is
popped off, the container object remains on the stack so that it is
available for further iterations of the loop.

 -- Opcode: RETURN_VALUE

     Returns with ‘STACK[-1]’ to the caller of the function.

 -- Opcode: YIELD_VALUE

     Yields ‘STACK.pop()’ from a *note generator: 1409.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: oparg set to be the stack depth.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: oparg set to be the exception block depth,
     for efficient closing of generators.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: oparg is ‘1’ if this instruction is part
     of a yield-from or await, and ‘0’ otherwise.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_ANNOTATIONS

     Checks whether ‘__annotations__’ is defined in ‘locals()’, if not
     it is set up to an empty ‘dict’.  This opcode is only emitted if a
     class or module body contains *note variable annotations: 110a.
     statically.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: POP_EXCEPT

     Pops a value from the stack, which is used to restore the exception
     state.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Exception representation on the stack now
     consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: RERAISE

     Re-raises the exception currently on top of the stack.  If oparg is
     non-zero, pops an additional value from the stack which is used to
     set *note f_lasti: c5e. of the current frame.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Exception representation on the stack now
     consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: PUSH_EXC_INFO

     Pops a value from the stack.  Pushes the current exception to the
     top of the stack.  Pushes the value originally popped back to the
     stack.  Used in exception handlers.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: CHECK_EXC_MATCH

     Performs exception matching for ‘except’.  Tests whether the
     ‘STACK[-2]’ is an exception matching ‘STACK[-1]’.  Pops ‘STACK[-1]’
     and pushes the boolean result of the test.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: CHECK_EG_MATCH

     Performs exception matching for ‘except*’.  Applies
     ‘split(STACK[-1])’ on the exception group representing ‘STACK[-2]’.

     In case of a match, pops two items from the stack and pushes the
     non-matching subgroup (‘None’ in case of full match) followed by
     the matching subgroup.  When there is no match, pops one item (the
     match type) and pushes ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: WITH_EXCEPT_START

     Calls the function in position 4 on the stack with arguments (type,
     val, tb) representing the exception at the top of the stack.  Used
     to implement the call ‘context_manager.__exit__(*exc_info())’ when
     an exception has occurred in a *note with: 20a. statement.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The ‘__exit__’ function is in position 4
     of the stack rather than 7.  Exception representation on the stack
     now consist of one, not three, items.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_COMMON_CONSTANT

     Pushes a common constant onto the stack.  The interpreter contains
     a hardcoded list of constants supported by this instruction.  Used
     by the *note assert: d31. statement to load *note AssertionError:
     a97.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_BUILD_CLASS

     Pushes ‘builtins.__build_class__()’ onto the stack.  It is later
     called to construct a class.

 -- Opcode: GET_LEN

     Perform ‘STACK.append(len(STACK[-1]))’.  Used in *note match: 1d4.
     statements where comparison with structure of pattern is needed.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_MAPPING

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is an instance of *note collections.abc.Mapping:
     c9c. (or, more technically: if it has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING:
     1e4f. flag set in its *note tp_flags: 1e68.), push ‘True’ onto the
     stack.  Otherwise, push ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_SEQUENCE

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is an instance of *note collections.abc.Sequence:
     156d. and is 'not' an instance of *note str: 1df./*note bytes:
     1c7./*note bytearray: 1c6. (or, more technically: if it has the
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1e50. flag set in its *note tp_flags:
     1e68.), push ‘True’ onto the stack.  Otherwise, push ‘False’.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_KEYS

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is a tuple of mapping keys, and ‘STACK[-2]’ is the
     match subject.  If ‘STACK[-2]’ contains all of the keys in
     ‘STACK[-1]’, push a *note tuple: 1ce. containing the corresponding
     values.  Otherwise, push ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.10.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Previously, this instruction also pushed a
     boolean value indicating success (‘True’) or failure (‘False’).

 -- Opcode: STORE_NAME (namei)

     Implements ‘name = STACK.pop()’.  'namei' is the index of 'name' in
     the attribute *note co_names: 2583. of the *note code object: 6eb.
     The compiler tries to use *note STORE_FAST: 1c69. or *note
     STORE_GLOBAL: 4fdc. if possible.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_NAME (namei)

     Implements ‘del name’, where 'namei' is the index into *note
     co_names: 2583. attribute of the *note code object: 6eb.

 -- Opcode: UNPACK_SEQUENCE (count)

     Unpacks ‘STACK[-1]’ into 'count' individual values, which are put
     onto the stack right-to-left.  Require there to be exactly 'count'
     values.:

          assert(len(STACK[-1]) == count)
          STACK.extend(STACK.pop()[:-count-1:-1])

 -- Opcode: UNPACK_EX (counts)

     Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in
     ‘STACK[-1]’ into individual values, where the total number of
     values can be smaller than the number of items in the iterable: one
     of the new values will be a list of all leftover items.

     The number of values before and after the list value is limited to
     255.

     The number of values before the list value is encoded in the
     argument of the opcode.  The number of values after the list if any
     is encoded using an ‘EXTENDED_ARG’.  As a consequence, the argument
     can be seen as a two bytes values where the low byte of 'counts' is
     the number of values before the list value, the high byte of
     'counts' the number of values after it.

     The extracted values are put onto the stack right-to-left, i.e.
     ‘a, *b, c = d’ will be stored after execution as ‘STACK.extend((a,
     b, c))’.

 -- Opcode: STORE_ATTR (namei)

     Implements:

          obj = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          obj.name = value

     where 'namei' is the index of name in *note co_names: 2583. of the
     *note code object: 6eb.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_ATTR (namei)

     Implements:

          obj = STACK.pop()
          del obj.name

     where 'namei' is the index of name into *note co_names: 2583. of
     the *note code object: 6eb.

 -- Opcode: STORE_GLOBAL (namei)

     Works as *note STORE_NAME: 4fdb, but stores the name as a global.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_GLOBAL (namei)

     Works as *note DELETE_NAME: 4fdd, but deletes a global name.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_CONST (consti)

     Pushes ‘co_consts[consti]’ onto the stack.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_SMALL_INT (i)

     Pushes the integer ‘i’ onto the stack.  ‘i’ must be in ‘range(256)’

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_NAME (namei)

     Pushes the value associated with ‘co_names[namei]’ onto the stack.
     The name is looked up within the locals, then the globals, then the
     builtins.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_LOCALS

     Pushes a reference to the locals dictionary onto the stack.  This
     is used to prepare namespace dictionaries for *note
     LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 8f5. and *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS:
     8f6.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS (i)

     Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the value for
     ‘co_names[namei]’.  If the name is not found there, looks it up in
     the globals and then the builtins, similar to *note LOAD_GLOBAL:
     1c60.  This is used for loading global variables in *note
     annotation scopes: 6b4. within class bodies.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_TEMPLATE

     Constructs a new *note Template: 415. instance from a tuple of
     strings and a tuple of interpolations and pushes the resulting
     object onto the stack:

          interpolations = STACK.pop()
          strings = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(_build_template(strings, interpolations))

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_INTERPOLATION (format)

     Constructs a new *note Interpolation: 416. instance from a value
     and its source expression and pushes the resulting object onto the
     stack.

     If no conversion or format specification is present, ‘format’ is
     set to ‘2’.

     If the low bit of ‘format’ is set, it indicates that the
     interpolation contains a format specification.

     If ‘format >> 2’ is non-zero, it indicates that the interpolation
     contains a conversion.  The value of ‘format >> 2’ is the
     conversion type (‘0’ for no conversion, ‘1’ for ‘!s’, ‘2’ for ‘!r’,
     and ‘3’ for ‘!a’):

          conversion = format >> 2
          if format & 1:
              format_spec = STACK.pop()
          else:
              format_spec = None
          expression = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(_build_interpolation(value, expression, conversion, format_spec))

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_TUPLE (count)

     Creates a tuple consuming 'count' items from the stack, and pushes
     the resulting tuple onto the stack:

          if count == 0:
              value = ()
          else:
              value = tuple(STACK[-count:])
              STACK = STACK[:-count]

          STACK.append(value)

 -- Opcode: BUILD_LIST (count)

     Works as *note BUILD_TUPLE: 4fe3, but creates a list.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_SET (count)

     Works as *note BUILD_TUPLE: 4fe3, but creates a set.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_MAP (count)

     Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack.  Pops ‘2 * count’
     items so that the dictionary holds 'count' entries: ‘{...,
     STACK[-4]: STACK[-3], STACK[-2]: STACK[-1]}’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The dictionary is created from stack items
     instead of creating an empty dictionary pre-sized to hold 'count'
     items.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_STRING (count)

     Concatenates 'count' strings from the stack and pushes the
     resulting string onto the stack.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: LIST_EXTEND (i)

     Implements:

          seq = STACK.pop()
          list.extend(STACK[-i], seq)

     Used to build lists.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: SET_UPDATE (i)

     Implements:

          seq = STACK.pop()
          set.update(STACK[-i], seq)

     Used to build sets.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: DICT_UPDATE (i)

     Implements:

          map = STACK.pop()
          dict.update(STACK[-i], map)

     Used to build dicts.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: DICT_MERGE (i)

     Like *note DICT_UPDATE: 4fe8. but raises an exception for duplicate
     keys.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_ATTR (namei)

     If the low bit of ‘namei’ is not set, this replaces ‘STACK[-1]’
     with ‘getattr(STACK[-1], co_names[namei>>1])’.

     If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, this will attempt to load a
     method named ‘co_names[namei>>1]’ from the ‘STACK[-1]’ object.
     ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.  This bytecode distinguishes two cases: if
     ‘STACK[-1]’ has a method with the correct name, the bytecode pushes
     the unbound method and ‘STACK[-1]’.  ‘STACK[-1]’ will be used as
     the first argument (‘self’) by *note CALL: af3. or *note CALL_KW:
     5a1. when calling the unbound method.  Otherwise, ‘NULL’ and the
     object returned by the attribute lookup are pushed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, then a
     ‘NULL’ or ‘self’ is pushed to the stack before the attribute or
     unbound method respectively.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_SUPER_ATTR (namei)

     This opcode implements *note super(): 443, both in its
     zero-argument and two-argument forms (e.g.  ‘super().method()’,
     ‘super().attr’ and ‘super(cls, self).method()’, ‘super(cls,
     self).attr’).

     It pops three values from the stack (from top of stack down):

        * ‘self’: the first argument to the current method

        * ‘cls’: the class within which the current method was defined

        * the global ‘super’

     With respect to its argument, it works similarly to *note
     LOAD_ATTR: 8ed, except that ‘namei’ is shifted left by 2 bits
     instead of 1.

     The low bit of ‘namei’ signals to attempt a method load, as with
     *note LOAD_ATTR: 8ed, which results in pushing ‘NULL’ and the
     loaded method.  When it is unset a single value is pushed to the
     stack.

     The second-low bit of ‘namei’, if set, means that this was a
     two-argument call to *note super(): 443. (unset means
     zero-argument).

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: COMPARE_OP (opname)

     Performs a Boolean operation.  The operation name can be found in
     ‘cmp_op[opname >> 5]’.  If the fifth-lowest bit of ‘opname’ is set
     (‘opname & 16’), the result should be coerced to ‘bool’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The fifth-lowest bit of the oparg now
     indicates a forced conversion to *note bool: 5ef.

 -- Opcode: IS_OP (invert)

     Performs ‘is’ comparison, or ‘is not’ if ‘invert’ is 1.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: CONTAINS_OP (invert)

     Performs ‘in’ comparison, or ‘not in’ if ‘invert’ is 1.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- Opcode: IMPORT_NAME (namei)

     Imports the module ‘co_names[namei]’.  ‘STACK[-1]’ and ‘STACK[-2]’
     are popped and provide the 'fromlist' and 'level' arguments of
     *note __import__(): ca6.  The module object is pushed onto the
     stack.  The current namespace is not affected: for a proper import
     statement, a subsequent *note STORE_FAST: 1c69. instruction
     modifies the namespace.

 -- Opcode: IMPORT_FROM (namei)

     Loads the attribute ‘co_names[namei]’ from the module found in
     ‘STACK[-1]’.  The resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be
     subsequently stored by a *note STORE_FAST: 1c69. instruction.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_FORWARD (delta)

     Increments bytecode counter by 'delta'.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_BACKWARD (delta)

     Decrements bytecode counter by 'delta'.  Checks for interrupts.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT (delta)

     Decrements bytecode counter by 'delta'.  Does not check for
     interrupts.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is true, increments the bytecode counter by 'delta'.
     ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The oparg is now a relative delta rather
     than an absolute target.  This opcode is a pseudo-instruction,
     replaced in final bytecode by the directed versions
     (forward/backward).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: This instruction now requires an exact
     *note bool: 5ef. operand.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is false, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The oparg is now a relative delta rather
     than an absolute target.  This opcode is a pseudo-instruction,
     replaced in final bytecode by the directed versions
     (forward/backward).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: This instruction now requires an exact
     *note bool: 5ef. operand.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is not ‘None’, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     Added in version 3.11.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_NONE (delta)

     If ‘STACK[-1]’ is ‘None’, increments the bytecode counter by
     'delta'.  ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped.

     Added in version 3.11.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction.

 -- Opcode: FOR_ITER (delta)

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is an *note iterator: 6ce.  Call its *note __next__():
     1672. method.  If this yields a new value, push it on the stack
     (leaving the iterator below it).  If the iterator indicates it is
     exhausted then the byte code counter is incremented by 'delta'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Up until 3.11 the iterator was popped when
     it was exhausted.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_GLOBAL (namei)

     Loads the global named ‘co_names[namei>>1]’ onto the stack.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, then a
     ‘NULL’ is pushed to the stack before the global variable.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This opcode is now only used in situations
     where the local variable is guaranteed to be initialized.  It
     cannot raise *note UnboundLocalError: 18d8.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_BORROW (var_num)

     Pushes a borrowed reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’
     onto the stack.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_LOAD_FAST (var_nums)

     Pushes references to ‘co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]’ and
     ‘co_varnames[var_nums & 15]’ onto the stack.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_BORROW_LOAD_FAST_BORROW (var_nums)

     Pushes borrowed references to ‘co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]’ and
     ‘co_varnames[var_nums & 15]’ onto the stack.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_CHECK (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack, raising an *note UnboundLocalError: 18d8. if the local
     variable has not been initialized.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR (var_num)

     Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the
     stack (or pushes ‘NULL’ onto the stack if the local variable has
     not been initialized) and sets ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ to ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: STORE_FAST (var_num)

     Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’.

 -- Opcode: STORE_FAST_STORE_FAST (var_nums)

     Stores ‘STACK[-1]’ into ‘co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]’ and
     ‘STACK[-2]’ into ‘co_varnames[var_nums & 15]’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: STORE_FAST_LOAD_FAST (var_nums)

     Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the local ‘co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]’
     and pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_nums & 15]’
     onto the stack.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_FAST (var_num)

     Deletes local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’.

 -- Opcode: MAKE_CELL (i)

     Creates a new cell in slot ‘i’.  If that slot is nonempty then that
     value is stored into the new cell.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_DEREF (i)

     Loads the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the «fast locals» storage.
     Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of
     *note co_varnames: 257f.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF (i)

     Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the name associated with
     slot ‘i’ of the «fast locals» storage in this mapping.  If the name
     is not found there, loads it from the cell contained in slot ‘i’,
     similar to *note LOAD_DEREF: 4ff1.  This is used for loading *note
     closure variables: 1ab7. in class bodies (which previously used
     ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’) and in *note annotation scopes: 6b4. within
     class bodies.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: STORE_DEREF (i)

     Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the
     «fast locals» storage.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of
     *note co_varnames: 257f.

 -- Opcode: DELETE_DEREF (i)

     Empties the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the «fast locals»
     storage.  Used by the *note del: 1d1d. statement.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of
     *note co_varnames: 257f.

 -- Opcode: COPY_FREE_VARS (n)

     Copies the ‘n’ *note free (closure) variables: 1ab7. from the
     closure into the frame.  Removes the need for special code on the
     caller’s side when calling closures.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: RAISE_VARARGS (argc)

     Raises an exception using one of the 3 forms of the ‘raise’
     statement, depending on the value of 'argc':

        * 0: ‘raise’ (re-raise previous exception)

        * 1: ‘raise STACK[-1]’ (raise exception instance or type at
          ‘STACK[-1]’)

        * 2: ‘raise STACK[-2] from STACK[-1]’ (raise exception instance
          or type at ‘STACK[-2]’ with ‘__cause__’ set to ‘STACK[-1]’)

 -- Opcode: CALL (argc)

     Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by
     ‘argc’.  On the stack are (in ascending order):

        * The callable

        * ‘self’ or ‘NULL’

        * The remaining positional arguments

     ‘argc’ is the total of the positional arguments, excluding ‘self’.

     ‘CALL’ pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack,
     calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the
     return value returned by the callable object.

     Added in version 3.11.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The callable now always appears at the
     same position on the stack.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Calls with keyword arguments are now
     handled by *note CALL_KW: 5a1.

 -- Opcode: CALL_KW (argc)

     Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by
     ‘argc’, including one or more named arguments.  On the stack are
     (in ascending order):

        * The callable

        * ‘self’ or ‘NULL’

        * The remaining positional arguments

        * The named arguments

        * A *note tuple: 1ce. of keyword argument names

     ‘argc’ is the total of the positional and named arguments,
     excluding ‘self’.  The length of the tuple of keyword argument
     names is the number of named arguments.

     ‘CALL_KW’ pops all arguments, the keyword names, and the callable
     object off the stack, calls the callable object with those
     arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable
     object.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: CALL_FUNCTION_EX (flags)

     Calls a callable object with variable set of positional and keyword
     arguments.  If the lowest bit of 'flags' is set, the top of the
     stack contains a mapping object containing additional keyword
     arguments.  Before the callable is called, the mapping object and
     iterable object are each «unpacked» and their contents passed in as
     keyword and positional arguments respectively.  ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’
     pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the
     callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value
     returned by the callable object.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Opcode: PUSH_NULL

     Pushes a ‘NULL’ to the stack.  Used in the call sequence to match
     the ‘NULL’ pushed by *note LOAD_ATTR: 8ed. for non-method calls.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: MAKE_FUNCTION

     Pushes a new function object on the stack built from the code
     object at ‘STACK[-1]’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Flag value ‘0x04’ is a tuple of strings
     instead of dictionary

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Qualified name at ‘STACK[-1]’ was removed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Extra function attributes on the stack,
     signaled by oparg flags, were removed.  They now use *note
     SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE: 4ff5.

 -- Opcode: SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE (flag)

     Sets an attribute on a function object.  Expects the function at
     ‘STACK[-1]’ and the attribute value to set at ‘STACK[-2]’; consumes
     both and leaves the function at ‘STACK[-1]’.  The flag determines
     which attribute to set:

        * ‘0x01’ a tuple of default values for positional-only and
          positional-or-keyword parameters in positional order

        * ‘0x02’ a dictionary of keyword-only parameters” default values

        * ‘0x04’ a tuple of strings containing parameters” annotations

        * ‘0x08’ a tuple containing cells for free variables, making a
          closure

        * ‘0x10’ the *note annotate function: 40a. for the function
          object

     Added in version 3.13.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added ‘0x10’ to indicate the annotate
     function for the function object.

 -- Opcode: BUILD_SLICE (argc)

     Pushes a slice object on the stack.  'argc' must be 2 or 3.  If it
     is 2, implements:

          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(slice(start, end))

     if it is 3, implements:

          step = STACK.pop()
          end = STACK.pop()
          start = STACK.pop()
          STACK.append(slice(start, end, step))

     See the *note slice(): 1d0. built-in function for more information.

 -- Opcode: EXTENDED_ARG (ext)

     Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the
     default one byte.  'ext' holds an additional byte which act as
     higher bits in the argument.  For each opcode, at most three
     prefixal ‘EXTENDED_ARG’ are allowed, forming an argument from
     two-byte to four-byte.

 -- Opcode: CONVERT_VALUE (oparg)

     Convert value to a string, depending on ‘oparg’:

          value = STACK.pop()
          result = func(value)
          STACK.append(result)

        * ‘oparg == 1’: call *note str(): 1df. on 'value'

        * ‘oparg == 2’: call *note repr(): 45b. on 'value'

        * ‘oparg == 3’: call *note ascii(): 1789. on 'value'

     Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: FORMAT_SIMPLE

     Formats the value on top of stack:

          value = STACK.pop()
          result = value.__format__("")
          STACK.append(result)

     Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: FORMAT_WITH_SPEC

     Formats the given value with the given format spec:

          spec = STACK.pop()
          value = STACK.pop()
          result = value.__format__(spec)
          STACK.append(result)

     Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings).

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Opcode: MATCH_CLASS (count)

     ‘STACK[-1]’ is a tuple of keyword attribute names, ‘STACK[-2]’ is
     the class being matched against, and ‘STACK[-3]’ is the match
     subject.  'count' is the number of positional sub-patterns.

     Pop ‘STACK[-1]’, ‘STACK[-2]’, and ‘STACK[-3]’.  If ‘STACK[-3]’ is
     an instance of ‘STACK[-2]’ and has the positional and keyword
     attributes required by 'count' and ‘STACK[-1]’, push a tuple of
     extracted attributes.  Otherwise, push ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.10.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Previously, this instruction also pushed a
     boolean value indicating success (‘True’) or failure (‘False’).

 -- Opcode: RESUME (context)

     A no-op.  Performs internal tracing, debugging and optimization
     checks.

     The ‘context’ operand consists of two parts.  The lowest two bits
     indicate where the ‘RESUME’ occurs:

        * ‘0’ The start of a function, which is neither a generator,
          coroutine nor an async generator

        * ‘1’ After a ‘yield’ expression

        * ‘2’ After a ‘yield from’ expression

        * ‘3’ After an ‘await’ expression

     The next bit is ‘1’ if the RESUME is at except-depth ‘1’, and ‘0’
     otherwise.

     Added in version 3.11.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The oparg value changed to include
     information about except-depth

 -- Opcode: RETURN_GENERATOR

     Create a generator, coroutine, or async generator from the current
     frame.  Used as first opcode of in code object for the above
     mentioned callables.  Clear the current frame and return the newly
     created generator.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: SEND (delta)

     Equivalent to ‘STACK[-1] = STACK[-2].send(STACK[-1])’.  Used in
     ‘yield from’ and ‘await’ statements.

     If the call raises *note StopIteration: fba, pop the top value from
     the stack, push the exception’s ‘value’ attribute, and increment
     the bytecode counter by 'delta'.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Opcode: HAVE_ARGUMENT

     This is not really an opcode.  It identifies the dividing line
     between opcodes in the range [0,255] which don’t use their argument
     and those that do (‘< HAVE_ARGUMENT’ and ‘>= HAVE_ARGUMENT’,
     respectively).

     If your application uses pseudo instructions or specialized
     instructions, use the *note hasarg: 79e. collection instead.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Now every instruction has an argument, but
     opcodes ‘< HAVE_ARGUMENT’ ignore it.  Before, only opcodes ‘>=
     HAVE_ARGUMENT’ had an argument.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Pseudo instructions were added to the
     ‘dis’ module, and for them it is not true that comparison with
     ‘HAVE_ARGUMENT’ indicates whether they use their arg.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13: Use *note hasarg: 79e. instead.

 -- Opcode: CALL_INTRINSIC_1

     Calls an intrinsic function with one argument.  Passes ‘STACK[-1]’
     as the argument and sets ‘STACK[-1]’ to the result.  Used to
     implement functionality that is not performance critical.

     The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

     Operand                                 Description
                                             
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_1_INVALID’                   Not valid
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_PRINT’                       Prints the argument to standard out.
                                             Used in the REPL.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_IMPORT_STAR’                 Performs ‘import *’ for the named
                                             module.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_STOPITERATION_ERROR’         Extracts the return value from a
                                             ‘StopIteration’ exception.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’              Wraps an async generator value
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_UNARY_POSITIVE’              Performs the unary ‘+’ operation
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_LIST_TO_TUPLE’               Converts a list to a tuple
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR’                     Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 294.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_PARAMSPEC’                   Creates a
                                             *note typing.ParamSpec: 295.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVARTUPLE’                Creates a
                                             *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 293.
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_SUBSCRIPT_GENERIC’           Returns *note typing.Generic: 19f2.
                                             subscripted with the argument
                                             
                                             
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEALIAS’                   Creates a
                                             *note typing.TypeAliasType: 52a.;
                                             used in the *note type: 85a.
                                             statement.  The argument is a tuple
                                             of the type alias’s name, type
                                             parameters, and value.
                                             

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: CALL_INTRINSIC_2

     Calls an intrinsic function with two arguments.  Used to implement
     functionality that is not performance critical:

          arg2 = STACK.pop()
          arg1 = STACK.pop()
          result = intrinsic2(arg1, arg2)
          STACK.append(result)

     The operand determines which intrinsic function is called:

     Operand                                      Description
                                                  
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_2_INVALID’                        Not valid
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_PREP_RERAISE_STAR’                Calculates the
                                                  *note ExceptionGroup: 6d8. to raise
                                                  from a ‘try-except*’.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_BOUND’               Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 294.
                                                  with a bound.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_CONSTRAINTS’         Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 294.
                                                  with constraints.
                                                  
                                                  
     ‘INTRINSIC_SET_FUNCTION_TYPE_PARAMS’         Sets the ‘__type_params__’ attribute
                                                  of a function.
                                                  

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_SPECIAL

     Performs special method lookup on ‘STACK[-1]’.  If
     ‘type(STACK[-1]).__xxx__’ is a method, leave
     ‘type(STACK[-1]).__xxx__; STACK[-1]’ on the stack.  If
     ‘type(STACK[-1]).__xxx__’ is not a method, leave
     ‘STACK[-1].__xxx__; NULL’ on the stack.

     Added in version 3.14.

'Pseudo-instructions'

These opcodes do not appear in Python bytecode.  They are used by the
compiler but are replaced by real opcodes or removed before bytecode is
generated.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_FINALLY (target)

     Set up an exception handler for the following code block.  If an
     exception occurs, the value stack level is restored to its current
     state and control is transferred to the exception handler at
     ‘target’.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_CLEANUP (target)

     Like ‘SETUP_FINALLY’, but in case of an exception also pushes the
     last instruction (‘lasti’) to the stack so that ‘RERAISE’ can
     restore it.  If an exception occurs, the value stack level and the
     last instruction on the frame are restored to their current state,
     and control is transferred to the exception handler at ‘target’.

 -- Opcode: SETUP_WITH (target)

     Like ‘SETUP_CLEANUP’, but in case of an exception one more item is
     popped from the stack before control is transferred to the
     exception handler at ‘target’.

     This variant is used in *note with: 20a. and *note async with: 20b.
     constructs, which push the return value of the context manager’s
     *note __enter__(): 9c6. or *note __aenter__(): 2613. to the stack.

 -- Opcode: POP_BLOCK

     Marks the end of the code block associated with the last
     ‘SETUP_FINALLY’, ‘SETUP_CLEANUP’ or ‘SETUP_WITH’.

 -- Opcode: JUMP
 -- Opcode: JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT

     Undirected relative jump instructions which are replaced by their
     directed (forward/backward) counterparts by the assembler.

 -- Opcode: JUMP_IF_TRUE
 -- Opcode: JUMP_IF_FALSE

     Conditional jumps which do not impact the stack.  Replaced by the
     sequence ‘COPY 1’, ‘TO_BOOL’, ‘POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE/FALSE’.

 -- Opcode: LOAD_CLOSURE (i)

     Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the «fast
     locals» storage.

     Note that ‘LOAD_CLOSURE’ is replaced with ‘LOAD_FAST’ in the
     assembler.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: This opcode is now a pseudo-instruction.


File: python.info,  Node: Opcode collections,  Prev: Python Bytecode Instructions,  Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

5.33.10.5 Opcode collections
............................

These collections are provided for automatic introspection of bytecode
instructions:

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The collections now contain pseudo instructions
and instrumented instructions as well.  These are opcodes with values
‘>= MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE’ and ‘>= MIN_INSTRUMENTED_OPCODE’.

 -- Δεδομένα: dis.opname

     Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode.

 -- Δεδομένα: dis.opmap

     Dictionary mapping operation names to bytecodes.

 -- Δεδομένα: dis.cmp_op

     Sequence of all compare operation names.

 -- Δεδομένα: dis.hasarg

     Sequence of bytecodes that use their argument.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Δεδομένα: dis.hasconst

     Sequence of bytecodes that access a constant.

 -- Δεδομένα: dis.hasfree

     Sequence of bytecodes that access a *note free (closure) variable:
     1ab7.  “free” in this context refers to names in the current scope
     that are referenced by inner scopes or names in outer scopes that
     are referenced from this scope.  It does 'not' include references
     to global or builtin scopes.

 -- Δεδομένα: dis.hasname

     Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name.

 -- Δεδομένα: dis.hasjump

     Sequence of bytecodes that have a jump target.  All jumps are
     relative.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- Δεδομένα: dis.haslocal

     Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable.

 -- Δεδομένα: dis.hascompare

     Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations.

 -- Δεδομένα: dis.hasexc

     Sequence of bytecodes that set an exception handler.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Δεδομένα: dis.hasjrel

     Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13: All jumps are now relative.  Use *note
     hasjump: 5005.

 -- Δεδομένα: dis.hasjabs

     Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13: All jumps are now relative.  This list
     is empty.


File: python.info,  Node: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers,  Prev: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode,  Up: Python Language Services

5.33.11 ‘pickletools’ — Tools for pickle developers
---------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/pickletools.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

This module contains various constants relating to the intimate details
of the *note pickle: ab. module, some lengthy comments about the
implementation, and a few useful functions for analyzing pickled data.
The contents of this module are useful for Python core developers who
are working on the ‘pickle’; ordinary users of the ‘pickle’ module
probably won’t find the ‘pickletools’ module relevant.

* Menu:

* Command-line usage: Command-line usage<7>.
* Programmatic interface::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/pickletools.py


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line usage<7>,  Next: Programmatic interface,  Up: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers

5.33.11.1 Command-line usage
............................

Added in version 3.2.

When invoked from the command line, ‘python -m pickletools’ will
disassemble the contents of one or more pickle files.  Note that if you
want to see the Python object stored in the pickle rather than the
details of pickle format, you may want to use ‘-m pickle’ instead.
However, when the pickle file that you want to examine comes from an
untrusted source, ‘-m pickletools’ is a safer option because it does not
execute pickle bytecode.

For example, with a tuple ‘(1, 2)’ pickled in file ‘x.pickle’:

     $ python -m pickle x.pickle
     (1, 2)

     $ python -m pickletools x.pickle
         0: \x80 PROTO      3
         2: K    BININT1    1
         4: K    BININT1    2
         6: \x86 TUPLE2
         7: q    BINPUT     0
         9: .    STOP
     highest protocol among opcodes = 2

* Menu:

* Command-line options: Command-line options<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line options<5>,  Up: Command-line usage<7>

5.33.11.2 Command-line options
..............................

 -- Option: -a, --annotate

     Annotate each line with a short opcode description.

 -- Option: -o, --output=<file>

     Name of a file where the output should be written.

 -- Option: -l, --indentlevel=<num>

     The number of blanks by which to indent a new MARK level.

 -- Option: -m, --memo

     When multiple objects are disassembled, preserve memo between
     disassemblies.

 -- Option: -p, --preamble=<preamble>

     When more than one pickle file is specified, print given preamble
     before each disassembly.

 -- Option: pickle_file

     A pickle file to read, or ‘-’ to indicate reading from standard
     input.

Added in version 3.15: Output is in color by default and can be *note
controlled using environment variables: 1af.


File: python.info,  Node: Programmatic interface,  Prev: Command-line usage<7>,  Up: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers

5.33.11.3 Programmatic interface
................................

 -- Συνάρτηση: pickletools.dis (pickle, out=None, memo=None,
          indentlevel=4, annotate=0)

     Outputs a symbolic disassembly of the pickle to the file-like
     object 'out', defaulting to ‘sys.stdout’.  'pickle' can be a string
     or a file-like object.  'memo' can be a Python dictionary that will
     be used as the pickle’s memo; it can be used to perform
     disassemblies across multiple pickles created by the same pickler.
     Successive levels, indicated by ‘MARK’ opcodes in the stream, are
     indented by 'indentlevel' spaces.  If a nonzero value is given to
     'annotate', each opcode in the output is annotated with a short
     description.  The value of 'annotate' is used as a hint for the
     column where annotation should start.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the 'annotate' parameter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pickletools.genops (pickle)

     Provides an *note iterator: 6ce. over all of the opcodes in a
     pickle, returning a sequence of ‘(opcode, arg, pos)’ triples.
     'opcode' is an instance of an ‘OpcodeInfo’ class; 'arg' is the
     decoded value, as a Python object, of the opcode’s argument; 'pos'
     is the position at which this opcode is located.  'pickle' can be a
     string or a file-like object.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pickletools.optimize (picklestring)

     Returns a new equivalent pickle string after eliminating unused
     ‘PUT’ opcodes.  The optimized pickle is shorter, takes less
     transmission time, requires less storage space, and unpickles more
     efficiently.


File: python.info,  Node: MS Windows Specific Services,  Next: Unix-specific services,  Prev: Python Language Services,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.34 MS Windows Specific Services
=================================

This chapter describes modules that are only available on MS Windows
platforms.

* Menu:

* msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime::
* winreg — Windows registry access::
* winsound — Διεπαφή αναπαραγωγής ήχου για Windows::


File: python.info,  Node: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime,  Next: winreg — Windows registry access,  Up: MS Windows Specific Services

5.34.1 ‘msvcrt’ — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
----------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' PC/msvcrtmodule.c(1)

__________________________________________________________________

These functions provide access to some useful capabilities on Windows
platforms.  Some higher-level modules use these functions to build the
Windows implementations of their services.  For example, the *note
getpass: 65. module uses this in the implementation of the *note
getpass(): 65. function.

Further documentation on these functions can be found in the Platform
API documentation.

The module implements both the normal and wide char variants of the
console I/O api.  The normal API deals only with ASCII characters and is
of limited use for internationalized applications.  The wide char API
should be used where ever possible.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Operations in this module now raise *note
OSError: 53c. where *note IOError: 13fb. was raised.

* Menu:

* File Operations::
* Console I/O::
* Other Functions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/PC/msvcrtmodule.c


File: python.info,  Node: File Operations,  Next: Console I/O,  Up: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

5.34.1.1 File Operations
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.locking (fd, mode, nbytes)

     Lock part of a file based on file descriptor 'fd' from the C
     runtime.  Raises *note OSError: 53c. on failure.  The locked region
     of the file extends from the current file position for 'nbytes'
     bytes, and may continue beyond the end of the file.  'mode' must be
     one of the ‘LK_*’ constants listed below.  Multiple regions in a
     file may be locked at the same time, but may not overlap.  Adjacent
     regions are not merged; they must be unlocked individually.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘msvcrt.locking’ with
     arguments ‘fd’, ‘mode’, ‘nbytes’.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.LK_LOCK
 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.LK_RLCK

     Locks the specified bytes.  If the bytes cannot be locked, the
     program immediately tries again after 1 second.  If, after 10
     attempts, the bytes cannot be locked, *note OSError: 53c. is
     raised.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.LK_NBLCK
 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.LK_NBRLCK

     Locks the specified bytes.  If the bytes cannot be locked, *note
     OSError: 53c. is raised.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.LK_UNLCK

     Unlocks the specified bytes, which must have been previously
     locked.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.setmode (fd, flags)

     Set the line-end translation mode for the file descriptor 'fd'.  To
     set it to text mode, 'flags' should be *note os.O_TEXT: 3279.; for
     binary, it should be *note os.O_BINARY: 326a.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.open_osfhandle (handle, flags)

     Create a C runtime file descriptor from the file handle 'handle'.
     The 'flags' parameter should be a bitwise OR of *note os.O_APPEND:
     326c, *note os.O_RDONLY: 3268, *note os.O_TEXT: 3279. and *note
     os.O_NOINHERIT: 3274.  The returned file descriptor may be used as
     a parameter to *note os.fdopen(): 2571. to create a file object.

     The file descriptor is inheritable by default.  Pass *note
     os.O_NOINHERIT: 3274. flag to make it non inheritable.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘msvcrt.open_osfhandle’ with
     arguments ‘handle’, ‘flags’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.get_osfhandle (fd)

     Return the file handle for the file descriptor 'fd'.  Raises *note
     OSError: 53c. if 'fd' is not recognized.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘msvcrt.get_osfhandle’ with
     argument ‘fd’.


File: python.info,  Node: Console I/O,  Next: Other Functions,  Prev: File Operations,  Up: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

5.34.1.2 Console I/O
....................

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.kbhit ()

     Returns a nonzero value if a keypress is waiting to be read.
     Otherwise, return 0.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.getch ()

     Read a keypress and return the resulting character as a byte
     string.  Nothing is echoed to the console.  This call will block if
     a keypress is not already available, but will not wait for ‘Enter’
     to be pressed.  If the pressed key was a special function key, this
     will return ‘'\000'’ or ‘'\xe0'’; the next call will return the
     keycode.  The ‘Control’-‘C’ keypress cannot be read with this
     function.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.getwch ()

     Wide char variant of *note getch(): 502c, returning a Unicode
     value.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.getche ()

     Similar to *note getch(): 502c, but the keypress will be echoed if
     it represents a printable character.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.getwche ()

     Wide char variant of *note getche(): 502d, returning a Unicode
     value.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.putch (char)

     Print the byte string 'char' to the console without buffering.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.putwch (unicode_char)

     Wide char variant of *note putch(): 502e, accepting a Unicode
     value.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.ungetch (char)

     Cause the byte string 'char' to be «pushed back» into the console
     buffer; it will be the next character read by *note getch(): 502c.
     or *note getche(): 502d.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.ungetwch (unicode_char)

     Wide char variant of *note ungetch(): 502f, accepting a Unicode
     value.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Functions,  Prev: Console I/O,  Up: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

5.34.1.3 Other Functions
........................

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.heapmin ()

     Force the ‘malloc()’ heap to clean itself up and return unused
     blocks to the operating system.  On failure, this raises *note
     OSError: 53c.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.set_error_mode (mode)

     Changes the location where the C runtime writes an error message
     for an error that might end the program.  'mode' must be one of the
     ‘OUT_*’ constants listed below or *note REPORT_ERRMODE: 5035.
     Returns the old setting or -1 if an error occurs.  Only available
     in *note debug build of Python: 3dc.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.OUT_TO_DEFAULT

     Error sink is determined by the app’s type.  Only available in
     *note debug build of Python: 3dc.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.OUT_TO_STDERR

     Error sink is a standard error.  Only available in *note debug
     build of Python: 3dc.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.OUT_TO_MSGBOX

     Error sink is a message box.  Only available in *note debug build
     of Python: 3dc.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.REPORT_ERRMODE

     Report the current error mode value.  Only available in *note debug
     build of Python: 3dc.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.CrtSetReportMode (type, mode)

     Specifies the destination or destinations for a specific report
     type generated by ‘_CrtDbgReport()’ in the MS VC++ runtime.  'type'
     must be one of the ‘CRT_*’ constants listed below.  'mode' must be
     one of the ‘CRTDBG_*’ constants listed below.  Only available in
     *note debug build of Python: 3dc.

 -- Συνάρτηση: msvcrt.CrtSetReportFile (type, file)

     After you use *note CrtSetReportMode(): 5039. to specify *note
     CRTDBG_MODE_FILE: 503b, you can specify the file handle to receive
     the message text.  'type' must be one of the ‘CRT_*’ constants
     listed below.  'file' should be the file handle your want
     specified.  Only available in *note debug build of Python: 3dc.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.CRT_WARN

     Warnings, messages, and information that doesn’t need immediate
     attention.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.CRT_ERROR

     Errors, unrecoverable problems, and issues that require immediate
     attention.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.CRT_ASSERT

     Assertion failures.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_DEBUG

     Writes the message to the debugger’s output window.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_FILE

     Writes the message to a user-supplied file handle.  *note
     CrtSetReportFile(): 503a. should be called to define the specific
     file or stream to use as the destination.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_WNDW

     Creates a message box to display the message along with the
     ‘Abort’, ‘Retry’, and ‘Ignore’ buttons.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.CRTDBG_REPORT_MODE

     Returns current 'mode' for the specified 'type'.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION

     The CRT Assembly version, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header file.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN

     The VC Assembly public key token, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header
     file.

 -- Δεδομένα: msvcrt.LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX

     The Libraries Assembly name prefix, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header
     file.


File: python.info,  Node: winreg — Windows registry access,  Next: winsound — Διεπαφή αναπαραγωγής ήχου για Windows,  Prev: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime,  Up: MS Windows Specific Services

5.34.2 ‘winreg’ — Windows registry access
-----------------------------------------

'Source code:' PC/winreg.c(1)

__________________________________________________________________

These functions expose the Windows registry API to Python.  Instead of
using an integer as the registry handle, a *note handle object: 5045. is
used to ensure that the handles are closed correctly, even if the
programmer neglects to explicitly close them.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Several functions in this module used to raise a
*note WindowsError: 13fd, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<12>.
* Constants: Constants<10>.
* Registry Handle Objects::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/PC/winreg.c


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<12>,  Next: Constants<10>,  Up: winreg — Windows registry access

5.34.2.1 Functions
..................

This module offers the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.CloseKey (hkey)

     Closes a previously opened registry key.  The 'hkey' argument
     specifies a previously opened key.

          Σημείωση: If 'hkey' is not closed using this method (or via
          *note hkey.Close(): 504a.), it is closed when the 'hkey'
          object is destroyed by Python.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.ConnectRegistry (computer_name, key)

     Establishes a connection to a predefined registry handle on another
     computer, and returns a *note handle object: 5045.

     'computer_name' is the name of the remote computer, of the form
     ‘r"\\computername"’.  If ‘None’, the local computer is used.

     'key' is the predefined handle to connect to.

     The return value is the handle of the opened key.  If the function
     fails, an *note OSError: 53c. exception is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.ConnectRegistry’ with
     arguments ‘computer_name’, ‘key’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: See *note above: 5046.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.CreateKey (key, sub_key)

     Creates or opens the specified key, returning a *note handle
     object: 5045.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'sub_key' is a string that names the key this method opens or
     creates.

     If 'key' is one of the predefined keys, 'sub_key' may be ‘None’.
     In that case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in
     to the function.

     If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.

     The return value is the handle of the opened key.  If the function
     fails, an *note OSError: 53c. exception is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.CreateKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’ with
     argument ‘key’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: See *note above: 5046.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.CreateKeyEx (key, sub_key, reserved=0,
          access=KEY_WRITE)

     Creates or opens the specified key, returning a *note handle
     object: 5045.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'sub_key' is a string that names the key this method opens or
     creates.

     'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is
     zero.

     'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes
     the desired security access for the key.  Default is *note
     KEY_WRITE: 504c.  See *note Access Rights: 504d. for other allowed
     values.

     If 'key' is one of the predefined keys, 'sub_key' may be ‘None’.
     In that case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in
     to the function.

     If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.

     The return value is the handle of the opened key.  If the function
     fails, an *note OSError: 53c. exception is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.CreateKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’ with
     argument ‘key’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: See *note above: 5046.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.DeleteKey (key, sub_key)

     Deletes the specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'sub_key' is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified
     by the 'key' parameter.  This value must not be ‘None’, and the key
     may not have subkeys.

     'This method can not delete keys with subkeys.'

     If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its
     values, is removed.  If the method fails, an *note OSError: 53c.
     exception is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.DeleteKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: See *note above: 5046.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.DeleteKeyEx (key, sub_key, access=KEY_WOW64_64KEY,
          reserved=0)

     Deletes the specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'sub_key' is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified
     by the 'key' parameter.  This value must not be ‘None’, and the key
     may not have subkeys.

     'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is
     zero.

     'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes
     the desired security access for the key.  Default is *note
     KEY_WOW64_64KEY: 504e.  On 32-bit Windows, the WOW64 constants are
     ignored.  See *note Access Rights: 504d. for other allowed values.

     'This method can not delete keys with subkeys.'

     If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its
     values, is removed.  If the method fails, an *note OSError: 53c.
     exception is raised.

     On unsupported Windows versions, *note NotImplementedError: 59a. is
     raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.DeleteKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: See *note above: 5046.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.DeleteTree (key, sub_key=None)

     Deletes the specified key and all its subkeys and values
     recursively.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'sub_key' is a string that names the subkey to delete.  If ‘None’,
     deletes all subkeys and values of the specified key.

     This function deletes a key and all its descendants.  If 'sub_key'
     is ‘None’, all subkeys and values of the specified key are deleted.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.DeleteTree’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.DeleteValue (key, value)

     Removes a named value from a registry key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'value' is a string that identifies the value to remove.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.DeleteValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘value’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.EnumKey (key, index)

     Enumerates subkeys of an open registry key, returning a string.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'index' is an integer that identifies the index of the key to
     retrieve.

     The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is
     called.  It is typically called repeatedly until an *note OSError:
     53c. exception is raised, indicating, no more values are available.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.EnumKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘index’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: See *note above: 5046.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.EnumValue (key, index)

     Enumerates values of an open registry key, returning a tuple.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'index' is an integer that identifies the index of the value to
     retrieve.

     The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is
     called.  It is typically called repeatedly, until an *note OSError:
     53c. exception is raised, indicating no more values.

     The result is a tuple of 3 items:

     Index       Meaning
                 
     -------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         A string that identifies the value name
                 
                 
     ‘1’         An object that holds the value data, and whose
                 type depends on the underlying registry type
                 
                 
     ‘2’         An integer that identifies the type of the
                 value data (see table in docs for
                 *note SetValueEx(): 1d02.)
                 

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.EnumValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘index’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: See *note above: 5046.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings (str)

     Expands environment variable placeholders ‘%NAME%’ in strings like
     *note REG_EXPAND_SZ: 504f.:

          >>> ExpandEnvironmentStrings('%windir%')
          'C:\\Windows'

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings’ with argument ‘str’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.FlushKey (key)

     Writes all the attributes of a key to the registry.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     It is not necessary to call ‘FlushKey()’ to change a key.  Registry
     changes are flushed to disk by the registry using its lazy flusher.
     Registry changes are also flushed to disk at system shutdown.
     Unlike *note CloseKey(): 5049, the ‘FlushKey()’ method returns only
     when all the data has been written to the registry.  An application
     should only call ‘FlushKey()’ if it requires absolute certainty
     that registry changes are on disk.

          Σημείωση: If you don’t know whether a ‘FlushKey()’ call is
          required, it probably isn’t.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.LoadKey (key, sub_key, file_name)

     Creates a subkey under the specified key and stores registration
     information from a specified file into that subkey.

     'key' is a handle returned by *note ConnectRegistry(): 49bb. or one
     of the constants *note HKEY_USERS: 5051. or *note
     HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE: 5052.

     'sub_key' is a string that identifies the subkey to load.

     'file_name' is the name of the file to load registry data from.
     This file must have been created with the *note SaveKey(): 49c6.
     function.  Under the file allocation table (FAT) file system, the
     filename may not have an extension.

     A call to ‘LoadKey()’ fails if the calling process does not have
     the ‘SE_RESTORE_PRIVILEGE’ privilege.  Note that privileges are
     different from permissions – see the RegLoadKey documentation(1)
     for more details.

     If 'key' is a handle returned by *note ConnectRegistry(): 49bb,
     then the path specified in 'file_name' is relative to the remote
     computer.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.LoadKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘file_name’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.OpenKey (key, sub_key, reserved=0,
          access=KEY_READ)
 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.OpenKeyEx (key, sub_key, reserved=0,
          access=KEY_READ)

     Opens the specified key, returning a *note handle object: 5045.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'sub_key' is a string that identifies the sub_key to open.

     'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero.  The default is
     zero.

     'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes
     the desired security access for the key.  Default is *note
     KEY_READ: 5054.  See *note Access Rights: 504d. for other allowed
     values.

     The result is a new handle to the specified key.

     If the function fails, *note OSError: 53c. is raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.OpenKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’ with
     argument ‘key’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Allow the use of named arguments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: See *note above: 5046.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.QueryInfoKey (key)

     Returns information about a key, as a tuple.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     The result is a tuple of 3 items:

     Index       Meaning
                 
     --------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         An integer giving the number of sub keys this
                 key has.
                 
                 
     ‘1’         An integer giving the number of values this key
                 has.
                 
                 
     ‘2’         An integer giving when the key was last
                 modified (if available) as 100’s of nanoseconds
                 since Jan 1, 1601.
                 

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.QueryInfoKey’ with
     argument ‘key’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.QueryValue (key, sub_key)

     Retrieves the unnamed value for a key, as a string.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'sub_key' is a string that holds the name of the subkey with which
     the value is associated.  If this parameter is ‘None’ or empty, the
     function retrieves the value set by the *note SetValue(): 49c7.
     method for the key identified by 'key'.

     Values in the registry have name, type, and data components.  This
     method retrieves the data for a key’s first value that has a ‘NULL’
     name.  But the underlying API call doesn’t return the type, so
     always use *note QueryValueEx(): 19a8. if possible.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.QueryValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.QueryValueEx (key, value_name)

     Retrieves the type and data for a specified value name associated
     with an open registry key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'value_name' is a string indicating the value to query.

     The result is a tuple of 2 items:

     Index       Meaning
                 
     ----------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         The value of the registry item.
                 
                 
     ‘1’         An integer giving the registry type for
                 this value (see table in docs for
                 *note SetValueEx(): 1d02.)
                 

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.QueryValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.SaveKey (key, file_name)

     Saves the specified key, and all its subkeys to the specified file.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'file_name' is the name of the file to save registry data to.  This
     file cannot already exist.  If this filename includes an extension,
     it cannot be used on file allocation table (FAT) file systems by
     the *note LoadKey(): 49c1. method.

     If 'key' represents a key on a remote computer, the path described
     by 'file_name' is relative to the remote computer.  The caller of
     this method must possess the 'SeBackupPrivilege' security
     privilege.  Note that privileges are different than permissions –
     see the Conflicts Between User Rights and Permissions
     documentation(2) for more details.

     This function passes ‘NULL’ for 'security_attributes' to the API.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.SaveKey’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘file_name’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.SetValue (key, sub_key, type, value)

     Associates a value with a specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'sub_key' is a string that names the subkey with which the value is
     associated.

     'type' is an integer that specifies the type of the data.
     Currently this must be *note REG_SZ: 5055, meaning only strings are
     supported.  Use the *note SetValueEx(): 1d02. function for support
     for other data types.

     'value' is a string that specifies the new value.

     If the key specified by the 'sub_key' parameter does not exist, the
     SetValue function creates it.

     Value lengths are limited by available memory.  Long values (more
     than 2048 bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames
     stored in the configuration registry.  This helps the registry
     perform efficiently.

     The key identified by the 'key' parameter must have been opened
     with *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 5056. access.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.SetValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.SetValueEx (key, value_name, reserved, type,
          value)

     Stores data in the value field of an open registry key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     'value_name' is a string that names the subkey with which the value
     is associated.

     'reserved' can be anything – zero is always passed to the API.

     'type' is an integer that specifies the type of the data.  See
     *note Value Types: 5057. for the available types.

     'value' is a string that specifies the new value.

     This method can also set additional value and type information for
     the specified key.  The key identified by the key parameter must
     have been opened with *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 5056. access.

     To open the key, use the *note CreateKey(): 49bc. or *note
     OpenKey(): 49c2. methods.

     Value lengths are limited by available memory.  Long values (more
     than 2048 bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames
     stored in the configuration registry.  This helps the registry
     perform efficiently.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.SetValue’ with
     arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.DisableReflectionKey (key)

     Disables registry reflection for 32-bit processes running on a
     64-bit operating system.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a. if executed on
     a 32-bit operating system.

     If the key is not on the reflection list, the function succeeds but
     has no effect.  Disabling reflection for a key does not affect
     reflection of any subkeys.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.DisableReflectionKey’
     with argument ‘key’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.EnableReflectionKey (key)

     Restores registry reflection for the specified disabled key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a. if executed on
     a 32-bit operating system.

     Restoring reflection for a key does not affect reflection of any
     subkeys.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.EnableReflectionKey’
     with argument ‘key’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winreg.QueryReflectionKey (key)

     Determines the reflection state for the specified key.

     'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_*
     constants: 504b.

     Returns ‘True’ if reflection is disabled.

     Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: 59a. if executed on
     a 32-bit operating system.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.QueryReflectionKey’
     with argument ‘key’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724889%28v=VS.85%29.aspx

   (2) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<10>,  Next: Registry Handle Objects,  Prev: Functions<12>,  Up: winreg — Windows registry access

5.34.2.2 Constants
..................

The following constants are defined for use in many ‘winreg’ functions.

* Menu:

* HKEY_* Constants::
* Access Rights::
* Value Types::


File: python.info,  Node: HKEY_* Constants,  Next: Access Rights,  Up: Constants<10>

5.34.2.3 HKEY_* Constants
.........................

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define types (or classes)
     of documents and the properties associated with those types.  Shell
     and COM applications use the information stored under this key.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_USER

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define the preferences of
     the current user.  These preferences include the settings of
     environment variables, data about program groups, colors, printers,
     network connections, and application preferences.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define the physical state
     of the computer, including data about the bus type, system memory,
     and installed hardware and software.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.HKEY_USERS

     Registry entries subordinate to this key define the default user
     configuration for new users on the local computer and the user
     configuration for the current user.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA

     Registry entries subordinate to this key allow you to access
     performance data.  The data is not actually stored in the registry;
     the registry functions cause the system to collect the data from
     its source.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG

     Contains information about the current hardware profile of the
     local computer system.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.HKEY_DYN_DATA

     This key is not used in versions of Windows after 98.


File: python.info,  Node: Access Rights,  Next: Value Types,  Prev: HKEY_* Constants,  Up: Constants<10>

5.34.2.4 Access Rights
......................

For more information, see Registry Key Security and Access(1).

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.KEY_ALL_ACCESS

     Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_REQUIRED, *note KEY_QUERY_VALUE: 5062,
     *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 5056, *note KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY: 5063, *note
     KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS: 5064, *note KEY_NOTIFY: 5065, and *note
     KEY_CREATE_LINK: 5066. access rights.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.KEY_WRITE

     Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_WRITE, *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 5056, and
     *note KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY: 5063. access rights.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.KEY_READ

     Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_READ, *note KEY_QUERY_VALUE: 5062,
     *note KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS: 5064, and *note KEY_NOTIFY: 5065.
     values.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.KEY_EXECUTE

     Equivalent to *note KEY_READ: 5054.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE

     Required to query the values of a registry key.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE

     Required to create, delete, or set a registry value.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY

     Required to create a subkey of a registry key.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS

     Required to enumerate the subkeys of a registry key.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.KEY_NOTIFY

     Required to request change notifications for a registry key or for
     subkeys of a registry key.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.KEY_CREATE_LINK

     Reserved for system use.

* Menu:

* 64-bit Specific::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: 64-bit Specific,  Up: Access Rights

5.34.2.5 64-bit Specific
........................

For more information, see Accessing an Alternate Registry View(1).

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.KEY_WOW64_64KEY

     Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on
     the 64-bit registry view.  On 32-bit Windows, this constant is
     ignored.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.KEY_WOW64_32KEY

     Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on
     the 32-bit registry view.  On 32-bit Windows, this constant is
     ignored.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa384129(v=VS.85).aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Value Types,  Prev: Access Rights,  Up: Constants<10>

5.34.2.6 Value Types
....................

For more information, see Registry Value Types(1).

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_BINARY

     Binary data in any form.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_DWORD

     32-bit number.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN

     A 32-bit number in little-endian format.  Equivalent to *note
     REG_DWORD: 506d.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN

     A 32-bit number in big-endian format.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_EXPAND_SZ

     Null-terminated string containing references to environment
     variables (‘%PATH%’).

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_LINK

     A Unicode symbolic link.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ

     A sequence of null-terminated strings, terminated by two null
     characters.  (Python handles this termination automatically.)

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_NONE

     No defined value type.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_QWORD

     A 64-bit number.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN

     A 64-bit number in little-endian format.  Equivalent to *note
     REG_QWORD: 10be.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_RESOURCE_LIST

     A device-driver resource list.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR

     A hardware setting.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST

     A hardware resource list.

 -- Δεδομένα: winreg.REG_SZ

     A null-terminated string.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724884%28v=VS.85%29.aspx


File: python.info,  Node: Registry Handle Objects,  Prev: Constants<10>,  Up: winreg — Windows registry access

5.34.2.7 Registry Handle Objects
................................

This object wraps a Windows HKEY object, automatically closing it when
the object is destroyed.  To guarantee cleanup, you can call either the
*note Close(): 504a. method on the object, or the *note CloseKey():
5049. function.

All registry functions in this module return one of these objects.

All registry functions in this module which accept a handle object also
accept an integer, however, use of the handle object is encouraged.

Handle objects provide semantics for *note __bool__(): 167a. – thus

     if handle:
         print("Yes")

will print ‘Yes’ if the handle is currently valid (has not been closed
or detached).

The object also support equality comparison semantics, so handle objects
will compare equal if they both reference the same underlying Windows
handle value.  Closed handle objects (those with a handle value of zero)
always compare equal.

Handle objects can be converted to an integer (e.g., using the built-in
*note int(): 326. function), in which case the underlying Windows handle
value is returned.  You can also use the *note Detach(): 49c3. method to
return the integer handle, and also disconnect the Windows handle from
the handle object.

 -- Μέθοδος: PyHKEY.Close ()

     Closes the underlying Windows handle.

     If the handle is already closed, no error is raised.

 -- Μέθοδος: PyHKEY.Detach ()

     Detaches the Windows handle from the handle object.

     The result is an integer that holds the value of the handle before
     it is detached.  If the handle is already detached or closed, this
     will return zero.

     After calling this function, the handle is effectively invalidated,
     but the handle is not closed.  You would call this function when
     you need the underlying Win32 handle to exist beyond the lifetime
     of the handle object.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘winreg.PyHKEY.Detach’ with
     argument ‘key’.

 -- Μέθοδος: PyHKEY.__enter__ ()
 -- Μέθοδος: PyHKEY.__exit__ (*exc_info)

     The HKEY object implements *note __enter__(): 9c6. and *note
     __exit__(): 16a5. and thus supports the context protocol for the
     *note with: 20a. statement:

          with OpenKey(HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE, "foo") as key:
              ...  # work with key

     will automatically close 'key' when control leaves the *note with:
     20a. block.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Handle objects are now compared by their
underlying Windows handle value instead of object identity for equality
comparisons.


File: python.info,  Node: winsound — Διεπαφή αναπαραγωγής ήχου για Windows,  Prev: winreg — Windows registry access,  Up: MS Windows Specific Services

5.34.3 ‘winsound’ — Διεπαφή αναπαραγωγής ήχου για Windows
---------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' PC/winsound.c(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘winsound’ module provides access to the basic sound-playing
machinery provided by Windows platforms.  It includes functions and
several constants.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

* Menu:

* Functions: Functions<13>.
* Constants: Constants<11>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/PC/winsound.c


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<13>,  Next: Constants<11>,  Up: winsound — Διεπαφή αναπαραγωγής ήχου για Windows

5.34.3.1 Functions
..................

 -- Συνάρτηση: winsound.Beep (frequency, duration)

     Εκπέμπει ηχητικό σήμα από το ηχείο του υπολογιστή.  Η παράμετρος
     'frequency' καθορίζει τη συχνότητα, σε hertz, του ήχου και πρέπει
     να είναι στο εύρος 37 έως 32.767.  Η παράμετρος 'duration'
     καθορίζει τον αριθμό των χιλιοστών του δευτερολέπτου που θα
     διαρκέσει ο ήχος.  Εάν το σύστημα δεν μπορεί να κάνει ηχητικό σήμα
     στο ηχείο, γίνεται raise μια *note RuntimeError: 30d.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winsound.PlaySound (sound, flags)

     Καλεί την υποκείμενη συνάρτηση ‘PlaySound()’ από το API της
     πλατφόρμας.  Η παράμετρος 'sound' μπορεί να είναι ένα όνομα
     αρχείου, ένα ψευδώνυμο συστήματος ήχου, δεδομένα ήχου ως *note
     bytes-like object: 436, ή ‘None’.  Η ερμηνεία της εξαρτάται από την
     τιμή των 'flags', τα οποία μπορούν να είναι ένας bitwise ORed
     συνδυασμός των σταθερών που περιγράφονται παρακάτω.  Εάν η
     παράμετρος 'sound' είναι ‘None’, οποιοσδήποτε ήχος κύματος που
     παίζει αυτή τη στιγμή σταματά.  Εάν το σύστημα υποδεικνύει σφάλμα,
     κάνει raise μια εξαίρεση *note RuntimeError: 30d.

 -- Συνάρτηση: winsound.MessageBeep (type=MB_OK)

     Καλεί την υποκείμενη συνάρτηση ‘MessageBeep()’ από το API της
     πλατφόρμας.  Αυτό αναπαράγει έναν ήχο όπως καθορίζεται στο μητρώο.
     Το όρισμα 'type' καθορίζει ποιος ήχος θα αναπαραχθεί.  Οι δυνατές
     τιμές είναι ‘-1’, ‘MB_ICONASTERISK’, ‘MB_ICONEXCLAMATION’,
     ‘MB_ICONHAND’, ‘MB_ICONQUESTION’ και ‘MB_OK’, όλες περιγράφονται
     παρακάτω.  Η τιμή ‘-1’ παράγει ένα «απλό ηχητικό σήμα».  Αυτό είναι
     το τελικό εφεδρικό αν δεν μπορεί να αναπαραχθεί άλλος ήχος.  Εάν το
     σύστημα υποδεικνύει σφάλμα, γίνεται raise μια *note RuntimeError:
     30d.


File: python.info,  Node: Constants<11>,  Prev: Functions<13>,  Up: winsound — Διεπαφή αναπαραγωγής ήχου για Windows

5.34.3.2 Constants
..................

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.SND_FILENAME

     The 'sound' παράμετρος είναι το όνομα ενός αρχείου WAV. Μην το
     χρησιμοποιείτε με *note SND_ALIAS: 507f.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.SND_ALIAS

     Η παράμετρος 'sound' είναι ένα όνομα συσχέτισης ήχου από το μητρώο.
     Εάν το μητρώο δεν περιέχει τέτοιο όνομα, αναπαράγει τον
     προεπιλεγμένο ήχο του συστήματος, εκτός εάν έχει καθοριστεί επίσης
     *note SND_NODEFAULT: 5080.  Εάν δεν είναι εγγεγραμμένος κανένας
     προεπιλεγμένος ήχος, γίνεται raise μια *note RuntimeError: 30d.
     Μην το χρησιμοποιείτε με *note SND_FILENAME: 507e.

     Όλα τα συστήματα Win32 υποστηρίζουν τουλάχιστον τα παρακάτω.  Τα
     περισσότερα συστήματα υποστηρίζουν πολύ περισσότερα:

     *note PlaySound(): 10c2.       Αντίστοιχο όνομα ήχου στον Πίνακα Ελέγχου
     'name'                         

     ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    
     ‘'SystemAsterisk'’             Αστερίσκος
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemExclamation'’          Αναφώνηση
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemExit'’                 Έξοδος από τα Windows
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemHand'’                 Κρίσιμη Διακοπή
                                    
                                    
     ‘'SystemQuestion'’             Ερώτηση
                                    

     Για παράδειγμα:

          import winsound
          # Play Windows exit sound.
          winsound.PlaySound("SystemExit", winsound.SND_ALIAS)

          # Probably play Windows default sound, if any is registered (because
          # "*" probably isn't the registered name of any sound).
          winsound.PlaySound("*", winsound.SND_ALIAS)

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.SND_LOOP

     Αναπαράγει τον ήχο επανειλημμένα.  Η σημαία *note SND_ASYNC: 5082.
     πρέπει επίσης να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να αποφευχθεί το μπλοκάρισμα.
     Δεν μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί με *note SND_MEMORY: 5083.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.SND_MEMORY

     The 'sound' παράμετρος της *note PlaySound(): 10c2. είναι μια
     εικόνα μνήμης ενός αρχείου WAV, ως *note bytes-like object: 436.

          Σημείωση: Αυτό το module δεν υποστηρίζει την αναπαραγωγή από
          μια εικόνα μνήμης ασύγχρονα, οπότε ένας συνδυασμός αυτής της
          σημαίας και της *note SND_ASYNC: 5082. θα εγείρει *note
          RuntimeError: 30d.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.SND_PURGE

     Σταματά την αναπαραγωγή όλων των περιπτώσεων του καθορισμένου ήχου.

          Σημείωση: Αυτή η σημαία δεν υποστηρίζεται σε σύγχρονες
          πλατφόρμες Windows.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.SND_ASYNC

     Επιστρέφει άμεσα, επιτρέποντας στους ήχους να αναπαράγονται
     ασύγχρονα.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.SND_NODEFAULT

     Εάν ο καθορισμένος ήχος δεν μπορεί να βρεθεί, μην αναπαράγετε τον
     προεπιλεγμένο ήχο του συστήματος.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.SND_NOSTOP

     Μην διακόπτετε τους ήχους που παίζουν αυτή τη στιγμή.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.SND_NOWAIT

     Επιστρέφει άμεσα εάν ο οδηγός ήχου είναι απασχολημένος.

          Σημείωση: Αυτή η σημαία δεν υποστηρίζεται σε σύγχρονες
          πλατφόρμες Windows.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.SND_APPLICATION

     Η παράμετρος 'sound' είναι ένα ψευδώνυμο συγκεκριμένης εφαρμογής
     στο μητρώο.  Αυτή η σημαία μπορεί να συνδυαστεί με τη σημαία *note
     SND_ALIAS: 507f. για να καθορίσει ένα ψευδώνυμο ήχου που ορίζεται
     από την εφαρμογή.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.SND_SENTRY

     Πυροδοτεί ένα γεγονός SoundSentry όταν αναπαράγεται ο ήχος.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.SND_SYNC

     Ο ήχος αναπαράγεται συγχρονισμένα.  Αυτή είναι η προεπιλεγμένη
     συμπεριφορά.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.SND_SYSTEM

     Αναθέτει τον ήχο στην συνεδρία ήχου για ήχους ειδοποίησης
     συστήματος.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.MB_ICONASTERISK

     Αναπαράγει τον ήχο ‘SystemDefault’.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.MB_ICONEXCLAMATION

     Αναπαράγει τον ήχο ‘SystemExclamation’.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.MB_ICONHAND

     Αναπαράγει τον ήχο ‘SystemHand’.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.MB_ICONQUESTION

     Αναπαράγει τον ήχο ‘SystemQuestion’.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.MB_OK

     Αναπαράγει τον ήχο ‘SystemDefault’.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.MB_ICONERROR

     Αναπαράγει τον ήχο ‘SystemHand’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.MB_ICONINFORMATION

     Αναπαράγει τον ήχο ‘SystemDefault’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.MB_ICONSTOP

     Αναπαράγει τον ήχο ‘SystemHand’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- Δεδομένα: winsound.MB_ICONWARNING

     Αναπαράγει τον ήχο ‘SystemExclamation’.

     Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Unix-specific services,  Next: Command-line interface Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών CLI για modules,  Prev: MS Windows Specific Services,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.35 Unix-specific services
===========================

The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to features
that are unique to the Unix operating system, or in some cases to some
or many variants of it.  Here’s an overview:

* Menu:

* shlex — Simple lexical analysis::
* posix — The most common POSIX system calls::
* pwd — Η βάση δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης::
* grp — The group database::
* termios — POSIX style tty control::
* tty — Terminal control functions::
* pty — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού::
* fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls::
* resource — Resource usage information::
* syslog — Unix syslog library routines::


File: python.info,  Node: shlex — Simple lexical analysis,  Next: posix — The most common POSIX system calls,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.35.1 ‘shlex’ — Simple lexical analysis
----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/shlex.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The *note shlex: 108a. class makes it easy to write lexical analyzers
for simple syntaxes resembling that of the Unix shell.  This will often
be useful for writing minilanguages, (for example, in run control files
for Python applications) or for parsing quoted strings.

The ‘shlex’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: shlex.split (s, comments=False, posix=True)

     Split the string 's' using shell-like syntax.  If 'comments' is
     *note False: ef5. (the default), the parsing of comments in the
     given string will be disabled (setting the *note commenters: 509a.
     attribute of the *note shlex: 108a. instance to the empty string).
     This function operates in POSIX mode by default, but uses non-POSIX
     mode if the 'posix' argument is false.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Passing ‘None’ for 's' argument now raises
     an exception, rather than reading *note sys.stdin: 94a.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shlex.join (split_command)

     Concatenate the tokens of the list 'split_command' and return a
     string.  This function is the inverse of *note split(): 949.

          >>> from shlex import join
          >>> print(join(['echo', '-n', 'Multiple words']))
          echo -n 'Multiple words'

     The returned value is shell-escaped to protect against injection
     vulnerabilities (see *note quote(): 781.).

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- Συνάρτηση: shlex.quote (s)

     Return a shell-escaped version of the string 's'.  The returned
     value is a string that can safely be used as one token in a shell
     command line, for cases where you cannot use a list.
          Προειδοποίηση: The ‘shlex’ module is 'only designed for Unix
          shells'.

          The ‘quote()’ function is not guaranteed to be correct on
          non-POSIX compliant shells or shells from other operating
          systems such as Windows.  Executing commands quoted by this
          module on such shells can open up the possibility of a command
          injection vulnerability.

          Consider using functions that pass command arguments with
          lists such as *note subprocess.run(): f45. with ‘shell=False’.

     This idiom would be unsafe:

          >>> filename = 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
          >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(filename)
          >>> print(command)  # executed by a shell: boom!
          ls -l somefile; rm -rf ~

     ‘quote()’ lets you plug the security hole:

          >>> from shlex import quote
          >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(quote(filename))
          >>> print(command)
          ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'
          >>> remote_command = 'ssh home {}'.format(quote(command))
          >>> print(remote_command)
          ssh home 'ls -l '"'"'somefile; rm -rf ~'"'"''

     The quoting is compatible with UNIX shells and with *note split():
     949.:

          >>> from shlex import split
          >>> remote_command = split(remote_command)
          >>> remote_command
          ['ssh', 'home', "ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'"]
          >>> command = split(remote_command[-1])
          >>> command
          ['ls', '-l', 'somefile; rm -rf ~']

     Added in version 3.3.

The ‘shlex’ module defines the following class:

 -- Κλάση: shlex.shlex (instream=None, infile=None, posix=False,
          punctuation_chars=False)

     A *note shlex: 108a. instance or subclass instance is a lexical
     analyzer object.  The initialization argument, if present,
     specifies where to read characters from.  It must be a
     file-/stream-like object with *note read(): 225b. and *note
     readline(): 2296. methods, or a string.  If no argument is given,
     input will be taken from ‘sys.stdin’.  The second optional argument
     is a filename string, which sets the initial value of the *note
     infile: 509b. attribute.  If the 'instream' argument is omitted or
     equal to ‘sys.stdin’, this second argument defaults to «stdin».
     The 'posix' argument defines the operational mode: when 'posix' is
     not true (default), the ‘shlex’ instance will operate in
     compatibility mode.  When operating in POSIX mode, ‘shlex’ will try
     to be as close as possible to the POSIX shell parsing rules.  The
     'punctuation_chars' argument provides a way to make the behaviour
     even closer to how real shells parse.  This can take a number of
     values: the default value, ‘False’, preserves the behaviour seen
     under Python 3.5 and earlier.  If set to ‘True’, then parsing of
     the characters ‘();<>|&’ is changed: any run of these characters
     (considered punctuation characters) is returned as a single token.
     If set to a non-empty string of characters, those characters will
     be used as the punctuation characters.  Any characters in the *note
     wordchars: 509c. attribute that appear in 'punctuation_chars' will
     be removed from ‘wordchars’.  See *note Improved Compatibility with
     Shells: 108b. for more information.  'punctuation_chars' can be set
     only upon ‘shlex’ instance creation and can’t be modified later.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The 'punctuation_chars' parameter was
     added.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note configparser: 26.

     Parser for configuration files similar to the Windows ‘.ini’ files.

* Menu:

* shlex Objects::
* Parsing Rules::
* Improved Compatibility with Shells::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/shlex.py


File: python.info,  Node: shlex Objects,  Next: Parsing Rules,  Up: shlex — Simple lexical analysis

5.35.1.1 shlex Objects
......................

A *note shlex: 108a. instance has the following methods:

 -- Μέθοδος: shlex.get_token ()

     Return a token.  If tokens have been stacked using *note
     push_token(): 50a0, pop a token off the stack.  Otherwise, read one
     from the input stream.  If reading encounters an immediate
     end-of-file, *note eof: 50a1. is returned (the empty string (‘''’)
     in non-POSIX mode, and ‘None’ in POSIX mode).

 -- Μέθοδος: shlex.push_token (str)

     Push the argument onto the token stack.

 -- Μέθοδος: shlex.read_token ()

     Read a raw token.  Ignore the pushback stack, and do not interpret
     source requests.  (This is not ordinarily a useful entry point, and
     is documented here only for the sake of completeness.)

 -- Μέθοδος: shlex.sourcehook (filename)

     When *note shlex: 108a. detects a source request (see *note source:
     50a4. below) this method is given the following token as argument,
     and expected to return a tuple consisting of a filename and an open
     file-like object.

     Normally, this method first strips any quotes off the argument.  If
     the result is an absolute pathname, or there was no previous source
     request in effect, or the previous source was a stream (such as
     ‘sys.stdin’), the result is left alone.  Otherwise, if the result
     is a relative pathname, the directory part of the name of the file
     immediately before it on the source inclusion stack is prepended
     (this behavior is like the way the C preprocessor handles ‘#include
     "file.h"’).

     The result of the manipulations is treated as a filename, and
     returned as the first component of the tuple, with *note open():
     32b. called on it to yield the second component.  (Note: this is
     the reverse of the order of arguments in instance initialization!)

     This hook is exposed so that you can use it to implement directory
     search paths, addition of file extensions, and other namespace
     hacks.  There is no corresponding “close” hook, but a shlex
     instance will call the *note close(): 70b. method of the sourced
     input stream when it returns EOF.

     For more explicit control of source stacking, use the *note
     push_source(): 50a5. and *note pop_source(): 50a6. methods.

 -- Μέθοδος: shlex.push_source (newstream, newfile=None)

     Push an input source stream onto the input stack.  If the filename
     argument is specified it will later be available for use in error
     messages.  This is the same method used internally by the *note
     sourcehook(): 50a3. method.

 -- Μέθοδος: shlex.pop_source ()

     Pop the last-pushed input source from the input stack.  This is the
     same method used internally when the lexer reaches EOF on a stacked
     input stream.

 -- Μέθοδος: shlex.error_leader (infile=None, lineno=None)

     This method generates an error message leader in the format of a
     Unix C compiler error label; the format is ‘'"%s", line %d: '’,
     where the ‘%s’ is replaced with the name of the current source file
     and the ‘%d’ with the current input line number (the optional
     arguments can be used to override these).

     This convenience is provided to encourage ‘shlex’ users to generate
     error messages in the standard, parseable format understood by
     Emacs and other Unix tools.

Instances of *note shlex: 108a. subclasses have some public instance
variables which either control lexical analysis or can be used for
debugging:

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.commenters

     The string of characters that are recognized as comment beginners.
     All characters from the comment beginner to end of line are
     ignored.  Includes just ‘'#'’ by default.

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.wordchars

     The string of characters that will accumulate into multi-character
     tokens.  By default, includes all ASCII alphanumerics and
     underscore.  In POSIX mode, the accented characters in the Latin-1
     set are also included.  If *note punctuation_chars: 1fa6. is not
     empty, the characters ‘~-./*?=’, which can appear in filename
     specifications and command line parameters, will also be included
     in this attribute, and any characters which appear in
     ‘punctuation_chars’ will be removed from ‘wordchars’ if they are
     present there.  If *note whitespace_split: 50a8. is set to ‘True’,
     this will have no effect.

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.whitespace

     Characters that will be considered whitespace and skipped.
     Whitespace bounds tokens.  By default, includes space, tab,
     linefeed and carriage-return.

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.escape

     Characters that will be considered as escape.  This will be only
     used in POSIX mode, and includes just ‘'\'’ by default.

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.quotes

     Characters that will be considered string quotes.  The token
     accumulates until the same quote is encountered again (thus,
     different quote types protect each other as in the shell.)  By
     default, includes ASCII single and double quotes.

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.escapedquotes

     Characters in *note quotes: 50ab. that will interpret escape
     characters defined in *note escape: 50aa.  This is only used in
     POSIX mode, and includes just ‘'"'’ by default.

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.whitespace_split

     If ‘True’, tokens will only be split in whitespaces.  This is
     useful, for example, for parsing command lines with *note shlex:
     108a, getting tokens in a similar way to shell arguments.  When
     used in combination with *note punctuation_chars: 1fa6, tokens will
     be split on whitespace in addition to those characters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The *note punctuation_chars: 1fa6.
     attribute was made compatible with the *note whitespace_split:
     50a8. attribute.

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.infile

     The name of the current input file, as initially set at class
     instantiation time or stacked by later source requests.  It may be
     useful to examine this when constructing error messages.

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.instream

     The input stream from which this *note shlex: 108a. instance is
     reading characters.

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.source

     This attribute is ‘None’ by default.  If you assign a string to it,
     that string will be recognized as a lexical-level inclusion request
     similar to the ‘source’ keyword in various shells.  That is, the
     immediately following token will be opened as a filename and input
     will be taken from that stream until EOF, at which point the *note
     close(): 70b. method of that stream will be called and the input
     source will again become the original input stream.  Source
     requests may be stacked any number of levels deep.

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.debug

     If this attribute is numeric and ‘1’ or more, a *note shlex: 108a.
     instance will print verbose progress output on its behavior.  If
     you need to use this, you can read the module source code to learn
     the details.

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.lineno

     Source line number (count of newlines seen so far plus one).

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.token

     The token buffer.  It may be useful to examine this when catching
     exceptions.

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.eof

     Token used to determine end of file.  This will be set to the empty
     string (‘''’), in non-POSIX mode, and to ‘None’ in POSIX mode.

 -- Ιδιότητα: shlex.punctuation_chars

     A read-only property.  Characters that will be considered
     punctuation.  Runs of punctuation characters will be returned as a
     single token.  However, note that no semantic validity checking
     will be performed: for example, “>>>” could be returned as a token,
     even though it may not be recognised as such by shells.

     Added in version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing Rules,  Next: Improved Compatibility with Shells,  Prev: shlex Objects,  Up: shlex — Simple lexical analysis

5.35.1.2 Parsing Rules
......................

When operating in non-POSIX mode, *note shlex: 108a. will try to obey
the following rules.

   * Quote characters are not recognized within words (‘Do"Not"Separate’
     is parsed as the single word ‘Do"Not"Separate’);

   * Escape characters are not recognized;

   * Enclosing characters in quotes preserve the literal value of all
     characters within the quotes;

   * Closing quotes separate words (‘"Do"Separate’ is parsed as ‘"Do"’
     and ‘Separate’);

   * If *note whitespace_split: 50a8. is ‘False’, any character not
     declared to be a word character, whitespace, or a quote will be
     returned as a single-character token.  If it is ‘True’, *note
     shlex: 108a. will only split words in whitespaces;

   * EOF is signaled with an empty string (‘''’);

   * It’s not possible to parse empty strings, even if quoted.

When operating in POSIX mode, *note shlex: 108a. will try to obey the
following parsing rules.

   * Quotes are stripped out, and do not separate words
     (‘"Do"Not"Separate"’ is parsed as the single word ‘DoNotSeparate’);

   * Non-quoted escape characters (e.g.  ‘'\'’) preserve the literal
     value of the next character that follows;

   * Enclosing characters in quotes which are not part of *note
     escapedquotes: 50ac. (e.g.  ‘"'"’)  preserve the literal value of
     all characters within the quotes;

   * Enclosing characters in quotes which are part of *note
     escapedquotes: 50ac. (e.g.  ‘'"'’)  preserves the literal value of
     all characters within the quotes, with the exception of the
     characters mentioned in *note escape: 50aa.  The escape characters
     retain their special meaning only when followed by the quote in
     use, or the escape character itself.  Otherwise the escape
     character will be considered a normal character.

   * EOF is signaled with a *note None: a65. value;

   * Quoted empty strings (‘''’) are allowed.


File: python.info,  Node: Improved Compatibility with Shells,  Prev: Parsing Rules,  Up: shlex — Simple lexical analysis

5.35.1.3 Improved Compatibility with Shells
...........................................

Added in version 3.6.

The *note shlex: cc. class provides compatibility with the parsing
performed by common Unix shells like ‘bash’, ‘dash’, and ‘sh’.  To take
advantage of this compatibility, specify the ‘punctuation_chars’
argument in the constructor.  This defaults to ‘False’, which preserves
pre-3.6 behaviour.  However, if it is set to ‘True’, then parsing of the
characters ‘();<>|&’ is changed: any run of these characters is returned
as a single token.  While this is short of a full parser for shells
(which would be out of scope for the standard library, given the
multiplicity of shells out there), it does allow you to perform
processing of command lines more easily than you could otherwise.  To
illustrate, you can see the difference in the following snippet:

     >>> import shlex
     >>> text = "a && b; c && d || e; f >'abc'; (def \"ghi\")"
     >>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True)
     >>> s.whitespace_split = True
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&&', 'b;', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e;', 'f', '>abc;', '(def', 'ghi)']
     >>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True, punctuation_chars=True)
     >>> s.whitespace_split = True
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&&', 'b', ';', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e', ';', 'f', '>', 'abc', ';',
     '(', 'def', 'ghi', ')']

Of course, tokens will be returned which are not valid for shells, and
you’ll need to implement your own error checks on the returned tokens.

Instead of passing ‘True’ as the value for the punctuation_chars
parameter, you can pass a string with specific characters, which will be
used to determine which characters constitute punctuation.  For example:

     >>> import shlex
     >>> s = shlex.shlex("a && b || c", punctuation_chars="|")
     >>> list(s)
     ['a', '&', '&', 'b', '||', 'c']

     Σημείωση: When ‘punctuation_chars’ is specified, the *note
     wordchars: 509c. attribute is augmented with the characters
     ‘~-./*?=’.  That is because these characters can appear in file
     names (including wildcards) and command-line arguments (e.g.
     ‘--color=auto’).  Hence:

          >>> import shlex
          >>> s = shlex.shlex('~/a && b-c --color=auto || d *.py?',
          ...                 punctuation_chars=True)
          >>> list(s)
          ['~/a', '&&', 'b-c', '--color=auto', '||', 'd', '*.py?']

     However, to match the shell as closely as possible, it is
     recommended to always use ‘posix’ and *note whitespace_split: 50a8.
     when using *note punctuation_chars: 1fa6, which will negate *note
     wordchars: 509c. entirely.

For best effect, ‘punctuation_chars’ should be set in conjunction with
‘posix=True’.  (Note that ‘posix=False’ is the default for *note shlex:
108a.)


File: python.info,  Node: posix — The most common POSIX system calls,  Next: pwd — Η βάση δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης,  Prev: shlex — Simple lexical analysis,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.35.2 ‘posix’ — The most common POSIX system calls
---------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to operating system functionality that is
standardized by the C Standard and the POSIX standard (a thinly
disguised Unix interface).

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

'Do not import this module directly.'  Instead, import the module *note
os: a5, which provides a 'portable' version of this interface.  On Unix,
the ‘os’ module provides a superset of the ‘posix’ interface.  On
non-Unix operating systems the ‘posix’ module is not available, but a
subset is always available through the ‘os’ interface.  Once ‘os’ is
imported, there is 'no' performance penalty in using it instead of
‘posix’.  In addition, ‘os’ provides some additional functionality, such
as automatically calling *note putenv(): 4e7. when an entry in
‘os.environ’ is changed.

Errors are reported as exceptions; the usual exceptions are given for
type errors, while errors reported by the system calls raise *note
OSError: 53c.

* Menu:

* Large File Support::
* Notable Module Contents::


File: python.info,  Node: Large File Support,  Next: Notable Module Contents,  Up: posix — The most common POSIX system calls

5.35.2.1 Large File Support
...........................

Several operating systems (including AIX and Solaris) provide support
for files that are larger than 2 GiB from a C programming model where
int and long are 32-bit values.  This is typically accomplished by
defining the relevant size and offset types as 64-bit values.  Such
files are sometimes referred to as 'large files'.

Large file support is enabled in Python when the size of an ‘off_t’ is
larger than a long and the long long is at least as large as an ‘off_t’.
It may be necessary to configure and compile Python with certain
compiler flags to enable this mode.  For example, with Solaris 2.6 and
2.7 you need to do something like:

     CFLAGS="`getconf LFS_CFLAGS`" OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
             ./configure

On large-file-capable Linux systems, this might work:

     CFLAGS='-D_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE -D_FILE_OFFSET_BITS=64' OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \
             ./configure


File: python.info,  Node: Notable Module Contents,  Prev: Large File Support,  Up: posix — The most common POSIX system calls

5.35.2.2 Notable Module Contents
................................

In addition to many functions described in the *note os: a5. module
documentation, ‘posix’ defines the following data item:

 -- Δεδομένα: posix.environ

     A dictionary representing the string environment at the time the
     interpreter was started.  Keys and values are bytes on Unix and str
     on Windows.  For example, ‘environ[b'HOME']’ (‘environ['HOME']’ on
     Windows) is the pathname of your home directory, equivalent to
     ‘getenv("HOME")’ in C.

     Modifying this dictionary does not affect the string environment
     passed on by *note execv(): 323e, *note popen(): 585. or *note
     system(): 17ff.; if you need to change the environment, pass
     ‘environ’ to *note execve(): 14a5. or add variable assignments and
     export statements to the command string for ‘system()’ or
     ‘popen()’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: On Unix, keys and values are bytes.

          Σημείωση: The *note os: a5. module provides an alternate
          implementation of ‘environ’ which updates the environment on
          modification.  Note also that updating *note os.environ: 4e5.
          will render this dictionary obsolete.  Use of the ‘os’ module
          version of this is recommended over direct access to the
          ‘posix’ module.


File: python.info,  Node: pwd — Η βάση δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης,  Next: grp — The group database,  Prev: posix — The most common POSIX system calls,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.35.3 ‘pwd’ — Η βάση δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης
-------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

Αυτό το module παρέχει πρόσβαση στη βάση δεδομένων λογαριασμών χρηστών
και κωδικών πρόσβασης του Unix.  Είναι διαθέσιμο σε όλες τις εκδόσεις
του Unix.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

Οι εγγραφές της βάσης δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης αναφέρονται ως ένα
αντικείμενο παρόμοιο με πλειάδα, του οποίου τα χαρακτηριστικά
αντιστοιχούν στα μέλη της δομής ‘passwd’ (Πεδίο χαρακτηριστικού
παρακάτω, δείτε ‘<pwd.h>’):

Δείκτης     Χαρακτηριστικό      Σημασία
                                
------------------------------------------------------------------
                                
0           ‘pw_name’           Όνομα σύνδεσης
                                
                                
1           ‘pw_passwd’         Προαιρετικός κρυπτογραφημένος
                                κωδικός πρόσβασης
                                
                                
2           ‘pw_uid’            Αριθμητικό αναγνωριστικό χρήστη
                                
                                
3           ‘pw_gid’            Αριθμητικό αναγνωριστικό γκρουπ
                                
                                
4           ‘pw_gecos’          Όνομα χρήστη ή πεδίο σχολίου
                                
                                
5           ‘pw_dir’            Κατάλογος αρχικού καταλόγου
                                χρήστη
                                
                                
6           ‘pw_shell’          Διερμηνέας εντολών χρήστη
                                

Τα στοιχεία uid και gid είναι ακέραιοι, όλα τα άλλα είναι συμβολοσειρές.
*note KeyError: 7df. γίνεται raise εάν η ζητούμενη εγγραφή δεν μπορεί να
βρεθεί.

     Σημείωση: Στο παραδοσιακό Unix, το πεδίο ‘pw_passwd’ συνήθως
     περιέχει έναν κωδικό πρόσβασης κρυπτογραφημένο με έναν αλγόριθμο
     που προέρχεται από το DES. Ωστόσο, τα περισσότερα σύγχρονα unices
     χρησιμοποιούν ένα λεγόμενο σύστημα 'shadow password'.  Σε αυτά τα
     unices, το πεδίο 'pw_passwd' περιέχει μόνο έναν αστερίσκο (‘'*'’) ή
     το γράμμα ‘'x'’ όπου ο κρυπτογραφημένος κωδικός πρόσβασης
     αποθηκεύεται σε ένα αρχείο ‘/etc/shadow’ που δεν είναι αναγνώσιμο
     από όλους.  Το αν το πεδίο 'pw_passwd' περιέχει κάτι χρήσιμο
     εξαρτάται από το σύστημα.

Ορίζει τα ακόλουθα στοιχεία:

 -- Συνάρτηση: pwd.getpwuid (uid)

     Επιστρέφει την εγγραφή της βάσης δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης για το
     δεδομένο αριθμητικό αναγνωριστικό χρήστη.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pwd.getpwnam (name)

     Επιστρέφει την εγγραφή της βάσης δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης για το
     δεδομένο όνομα χρήστη.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pwd.getpwall ()

     Επιστρέφει μια λίστα με όλες τις διαθέσιμες εγγραφές της βάσης
     δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης, σε τυχαία σειρά.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note grp: 69.

     Μια διεπαφή στη βάση δεδομένων ομάδων, παρόμοια με αυτή.


File: python.info,  Node: grp — The group database,  Next: termios — POSIX style tty control,  Prev: pwd — Η βάση δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.35.4 ‘grp’ — The group database
---------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides access to the Unix group database.  It is available
on all Unix versions.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS.

Group database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose
attributes correspond to the members of the ‘group’ structure (Attribute
field below, see ‘<grp.h>’):

Index       Attribute       Meaning
                            
------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
0           gr_name         the name of the group
                            
                            
1           gr_passwd       the (encrypted) group password;
                            often empty
                            
                            
2           gr_gid          the numerical group ID
                            
                            
3           gr_mem          all the group member’s user names
                            

The gid is an integer, name and password are strings, and the member
list is a list of strings.  (Note that most users are not explicitly
listed as members of the group they are in according to the password
database.  Check both databases to get complete membership information.
Also note that a ‘gr_name’ that starts with a ‘+’ or ‘-’ is likely to be
a YP/NIS reference and may not be accessible via *note getgrnam(): 398c.
or *note getgrgid(): 10e0.)

It defines the following items:

 -- Συνάρτηση: grp.getgrgid (id)

     Return the group database entry for the given numeric group ID.
     *note KeyError: 7df. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be
     found.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: *note TypeError: 291. is raised for
     non-integer arguments like floats or strings.

 -- Συνάρτηση: grp.getgrnam (name)

     Return the group database entry for the given group name.  *note
     KeyError: 7df. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found.

 -- Συνάρτηση: grp.getgrall ()

     Return a list of all available group entries, in arbitrary order.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note pwd: ba.

     An interface to the user database, similar to this.


File: python.info,  Node: termios — POSIX style tty control,  Next: tty — Terminal control functions,  Prev: grp — The group database,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.35.5 ‘termios’ — POSIX style tty control
------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface to the POSIX calls for tty I/O
control.  For a complete description of these calls, see ‘termios(3)(1)’
Unix manual page.  It is only available for those Unix versions that
support POSIX 'termios' style tty I/O control configured during
installation.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

All functions in this module take a file descriptor 'fd' as their first
argument.  This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by
‘sys.stdin.fileno()’, or a *note file object: 156c, such as ‘sys.stdin’
itself.

This module also defines all the constants needed to work with the
functions provided here; these have the same name as their counterparts
in C. Please refer to your system documentation for more information on
using these terminal control interfaces.

The module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: termios.tcgetattr (fd)

     Return a list containing the tty attributes for file descriptor
     'fd', as follows: ‘[iflag, oflag, cflag, lflag, ispeed, ospeed,
     cc]’ where 'cc' is a list of the tty special characters (each a
     string of length 1, except the items with indices ‘VMIN’ and
     ‘VTIME’, which are integers when these fields are defined).  The
     interpretation of the flags and the speeds as well as the indexing
     in the 'cc' array must be done using the symbolic constants defined
     in the ‘termios’ module.

 -- Συνάρτηση: termios.tcsetattr (fd, when, attributes)

     Set the tty attributes for file descriptor 'fd' from the
     'attributes', which is a list like the one returned by *note
     tcgetattr(): 1bfc.  The 'when' argument determines when the
     attributes are changed:

      -- Δεδομένα: termios.TCSANOW

          Change attributes immediately.

      -- Δεδομένα: termios.TCSADRAIN

          Change attributes after transmitting all queued output.

      -- Δεδομένα: termios.TCSAFLUSH

          Change attributes after transmitting all queued output and
          discarding all queued input.

 -- Συνάρτηση: termios.tcsendbreak (fd, duration)

     Send a break on file descriptor 'fd'.  A zero 'duration' sends a
     break for 0.25–0.5 seconds; a nonzero 'duration' has a system
     dependent meaning.

 -- Συνάρτηση: termios.tcdrain (fd)

     Wait until all output written to file descriptor 'fd' has been
     transmitted.

 -- Συνάρτηση: termios.tcflush (fd, queue)

     Discard queued data on file descriptor 'fd'.  The 'queue' selector
     specifies which queue: ‘TCIFLUSH’ for the input queue, ‘TCOFLUSH’
     for the output queue, or ‘TCIOFLUSH’ for both queues.

 -- Συνάρτηση: termios.tcflow (fd, action)

     Suspend or resume input or output on file descriptor 'fd'.  The
     'action' argument can be ‘TCOOFF’ to suspend output, ‘TCOON’ to
     restart output, ‘TCIOFF’ to suspend input, or ‘TCION’ to restart
     input.

 -- Συνάρτηση: termios.tcgetwinsize (fd)

     Return a tuple ‘(ws_row, ws_col)’ containing the tty window size
     for file descriptor 'fd'.  Requires ‘termios.TIOCGWINSZ’ or
     ‘termios.TIOCGSIZE’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- Συνάρτηση: termios.tcsetwinsize (fd, winsize)

     Set the tty window size for file descriptor 'fd' from 'winsize',
     which is a two-item tuple ‘(ws_row, ws_col)’ like the one returned
     by *note tcgetwinsize(): 50cd.  Requires at least one of the pairs
     (‘termios.TIOCGWINSZ’, ‘termios.TIOCSWINSZ’); (‘termios.TIOCGSIZE’,
     ‘termios.TIOCSSIZE’) to be defined.

     Added in version 3.11.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note tty: 109.

     Convenience functions for common terminal control operations.

* Menu:

* Example: Example<14>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/termios(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Example<14>,  Up: termios — POSIX style tty control

5.35.5.1 Example
................

Here’s a function that prompts for a password with echoing turned off.
Note the technique using a separate *note tcgetattr(): 1bfc. call and a
*note try: ad6. … *note finally: 44c. statement to ensure that the old
tty attributes are restored exactly no matter what happens:

     def getpass(prompt="Password: "):
         import termios, sys
         fd = sys.stdin.fileno()
         old = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
         new = termios.tcgetattr(fd)
         new[3] = new[3] & ~termios.ECHO          # lflags
         try:
             termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, new)
             passwd = input(prompt)
         finally:
             termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, old)
         return passwd


File: python.info,  Node: tty — Terminal control functions,  Next: pty — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού,  Prev: termios — POSIX style tty control,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.35.6 ‘tty’ — Terminal control functions
-----------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/tty.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘tty’ module defines functions for putting the tty into cbreak and
raw modes.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

Because it requires the *note termios: ea. module, it will work only on
Unix.

The ‘tty’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: tty.cfmakeraw (mode)

     Convert the tty attribute list 'mode', which is a list like the one
     returned by *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1bfc, to that of a tty in
     raw mode.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tty.cfmakecbreak (mode)

     Convert the tty attribute list 'mode', which is a list like the one
     returned by *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1bfc, to that of a tty in
     cbreak mode.

     This clears the ‘ECHO’ and ‘ICANON’ local mode flags in 'mode' as
     well as setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12.2: The ‘ICRNL’ flag is no longer cleared.
     This matches Linux and macOS ‘stty cbreak’ behavior and what *note
     setcbreak(): 1bfd. historically did.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tty.setraw (fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)

     Change the mode of the file descriptor 'fd' to raw.  If 'when' is
     omitted, it defaults to *note termios.TCSAFLUSH: 50c8, and is
     passed to *note termios.tcsetattr(): 1c6f.  The return value of
     *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1bfc. is saved before setting 'fd' to
     raw mode; this value is returned.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The return value is now the original tty
     attributes, instead of ‘None’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: tty.setcbreak (fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH)

     Change the mode of file descriptor 'fd' to cbreak.  If 'when' is
     omitted, it defaults to *note termios.TCSAFLUSH: 50c8, and is
     passed to *note termios.tcsetattr(): 1c6f.  The return value of
     *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1bfc. is saved before setting 'fd' to
     cbreak mode; this value is returned.

     This clears the ‘ECHO’ and ‘ICANON’ local mode flags as well as
     setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The return value is now the original tty
     attributes, instead of ‘None’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12.2: The ‘ICRNL’ flag is no longer cleared.
     This restores the behavior of Python 3.11 and earlier as well as
     matching what Linux, macOS, & BSDs describe in their ‘stty(1)’ man
     pages regarding cbreak mode.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note termios: ea.

     Low-level terminal control interface.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/tty.py


File: python.info,  Node: pty — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού,  Next: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls,  Prev: tty — Terminal control functions,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.35.7 ‘pty’ — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού
----------------------------------------------------

'Πηγαίος κώδικας:' Lib/pty.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

The ‘pty’ module defines operations for handling the pseudo-terminal
concept: starting another process and being able to write to and read
from its controlling terminal programmatically.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix.

Η διαχείριση ψευδοτερματικού είναι εξαιρετικά εξαρτώμενη από την
πλατφόρμα.  Αυτός ο κώδικας έχει δοκιμαστεί κυρίως σε Linux, FreeBSD και
macOS (υποτίθεται ότι λειτουργεί σε άλλες πλατφόρμες POSIX αλλά δεν έχει
δοκιμαστεί διεξοδώς).

The ‘pty’ module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: pty.fork ()

     Αντιγραφή.  Συνδέστε το τερματικό ελέγχου του παιδιού σε ένα
     ψευδοτερματικό.  Η επιστρεφόμενη τιμή είναι ‘(pid, fd)’.  Σημειώστε
     ότι το παιδί λαμβάνει 'pid' 0, και το 'fd' είναι 'invalid'.  Η
     επιστρεφόμενη τιμή του γονέα είναι το 'pid' του παιδιού, και το
     'fd' είναι ένας περιγραφέας αρχείου συνδεδεμένος με το τερματικό
     ελέγχου του παιδιού (και επίσης με την τυπική είσοδο και έξοδο του
     παιδιού).

     The returned file descriptor 'fd' is *note non-inheritable: 12aa.

          Προειδοποίηση: Σε macOS η χρήση αυτής της λειτουργίας είναι μη
          ασφαλής όταν αναμιγνύεται με τη χρήση ανώτερων συστημικών
          APIs, και αυτό περιλαμβάνει τη χρήση *note urllib.request:
          114.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The returned file descriptor is now made
     non-inheritable.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pty.openpty ()

     Ανοίξτε ένα νέο ζεύγος ψευδοτερματικών, χρησιμοποιώντας *note
     os.openpty(): 327f. αν είναι δυνατόν, ή κώδικα προσομοίωσης για
     γενικά συστήματα Unix.  Επιστρέφει ένα ζεύγος περιγραφέων αρχείων
     ‘(master, slave)’, για το κύριο και το δευτερεύον άκρο, αντίστοιχα.

 -- Συνάρτηση: pty.spawn (argv[, master_read[, stdin_read]])

     Δημιουργήστε μια διαδικασία, και συνδέστε το τερματικό ελέγχου της
     με την τυπική είσοδο/έξοδο της τρέχουσας διαδικασίας.  Αυτό
     χρησιμοποιείται συχνά για να αποπροσανατολίσει προγράμματα που
     επιμένουν να διαβάζουν από το τερματικό ελέγχου.  Αναμένεται ότι η
     διαδικασία που ξεκίνησε πίσω από το pty θα τερματιστεί τελικά, και
     όταν το κάνει 'spawn' θα επιστρέψει.

     Ένας βρόχος αντιγράφει την STDIN της τρέχουσας διαδικασίας στο
     παιδί και τα δεδομένα που λαμβάνονται από το παιδί στην STDOUT της
     τρέχουσας διαδικασίας.  Δεν ειδοποιείται το παιδί εάν η STDIN της
     τρέχουσας διαδικασίας κλείσει.

     Οι συναρτήσεις 'master_read' και 'stdin_read' λαμβάνουν έναν
     περιγραφέα αρχείου από τον οποίο πρέπει να διαβάσουν, και θα πρέπει
     πάντα να επιστρέφουν ένα byte string.  Για να αναγκάσετε το spawn
     να επιστρέψει πριν τερματιστεί η διαδικασία παιδί, θα πρέπει να
     επιστραφεί ένας κενός πίνακας byte για να σηματοδοτήσει το τέλος
     του αρχείου.

     Η προεπιλεγμένη υλοποίηση και για τις δύο συναρτήσεις θα διαβάσει
     και θα επιστρέψει έως και 1024 bytes κάθε φορά που καλείται η
     συνάρτηση.  Στην κλήση 'master_read' περνάει ο περιγραφέας αρχείου
     του κύριου ψευδοτερματικού για να διαβάσει την έξοδο από τη
     διαδικασία παιδί, και στην 'stdin_read' περνάει ο περιγραφέας
     αρχείου 0, για να διαβάσει από την τυπική είσοδο της διαδικασίας
     γονέα.

     Επιστροφή ενός κενό πίνακα byte από οποιαδήποτε κλήση ερμηνεύεται
     ως κατάσταση τέλους-αρχείου (EOF), και αυτή η κλήση δεν θα κληθεί
     μετά από αυτό.  Εάν η 'stdin_read' σηματοδοτήσει EOF, το τερματικό
     ελέγχου δεν μπορεί πλέον να επικοινωνήσει με τη διαδικασία γονέα ή
     τη διαδικασία παιδί.  Εκτός εάν η διαδικασία παιδί θα τερματιστεί
     χωρίς καμία είσοδο, το 'spawn' θα συνεχίσει να εκτελείται επ”
     άπειρον.  Εάν η 'master_read' σηματοδοτήσει EOF, προκύπτει η ίδια
     συμπεριφορά (τουλάχιστον στο linux).

     Επιστρέφει την τιμή κατάστασης εξόδου από *note os.waitpid(): 1153.
     στη διαδικασία παιδί.

     Η συνάρτηση *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): cea. μπορεί να
     χρησιμοποιηθεί για να μετατρέψει την κατάσταση εξόδου σε κωδικό
     εξόδου.

     Κάνει raise ένα *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘pty.spawn’ με όρισμα
     ‘argv’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Η συνάρτηση *note spawn(): 132c. τώρα
     επιστρέφει την τιμή κατάστασης από *note os.waitpid(): 1153. στη
     διαδικασία παιδί.

* Menu:

* Παράδειγμα: Παράδειγμα<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/pty.py


File: python.info,  Node: Παράδειγμα<2>,  Up: pty — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού

5.35.7.1 Παράδειγμα
...................

Το ακόλουθο πρόγραμμα λειτουργεί όπως η εντολή Unix ‘script(1)(1)’,
χρησιμοποιώντας ένα ψευδοτερματικό για να καταγράψει όλη την είσοδο και
έξοδο μιας συνεδρίας τερματικού σε ένα «typescript».

     import argparse
     import os
     import pty
     import sys
     import time

     parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
     parser.add_argument('-a', dest='append', action='store_true')
     parser.add_argument('-p', dest='use_python', action='store_true')
     parser.add_argument('filename', nargs='?', default='typescript')
     options = parser.parse_args()

     shell = sys.executable if options.use_python else os.environ.get('SHELL', 'sh')
     filename = options.filename
     mode = 'ab' if options.append else 'wb'

     with open(filename, mode) as script:
         def read(fd):
             data = os.read(fd, 1024)
             script.write(data)
             return data

         print('Script started, file is', filename)
         script.write(('Script started on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())

         pty.spawn(shell, read)

         script.write(('Script done on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode())
         print('Script done, file is', filename)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/script(1)


File: python.info,  Node: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls,  Next: resource — Resource usage information,  Prev: pty — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.35.8 ‘fcntl’ — The ‘fcntl’ and ‘ioctl’ system calls
-----------------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module performs file and I/O control on file descriptors.  It is an
interface to the ‘fcntl()’ and ‘ioctl()’ Unix routines.  See the
‘fcntl(2)(1)’ and ‘ioctl(2)(2)’ Unix manual pages for full details.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

All functions in this module take a file descriptor 'fd' as their first
argument.  This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by
‘sys.stdin.fileno()’, or an *note io.IOBase: 70a. object, such as
‘sys.stdin’ itself, which provides a *note fileno(): 19b2. that returns
a genuine file descriptor.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Operations in this module used to raise an *note
IOError: 13fb. where they now raise an *note OSError: 53c.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘fcntl’ module now contains ‘F_ADD_SEALS’,
‘F_GET_SEALS’, and ‘F_SEAL_*’ constants for sealing of *note
os.memfd_create(): dcd. file descriptors.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: On macOS, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_GETPATH’ constant, which obtains the path of a file from a file
descriptor.  On Linux(>=3.15), the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’ and ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’ constants, which are
used when working with open file description locks.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: On Linux >= 2.6.11, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes
the ‘F_GETPIPE_SZ’ and ‘F_SETPIPE_SZ’ constants, which allow to check
and modify a pipe’s size respectively.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: On FreeBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ constants, which allow to duplicate a
file descriptor, the latter setting ‘FD_CLOEXEC’ flag in addition.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: On Linux >= 4.5, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’ constants, which allow to share some data
of one file with another file by reflinking on some filesystems (e.g.,
btrfs, OCFS2, and XFS). This behavior is commonly referred to as
«copy-on-write».

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: On Linux >= 2.6.32, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes
the ‘F_GETOWN_EX’, ‘F_SETOWN_EX’, ‘F_OWNER_TID’, ‘F_OWNER_PID’,
‘F_OWNER_PGRP’ constants, which allow to direct I/O availability signals
to a specific thread, process, or process group.  On Linux >= 4.13, the
‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_GET_RW_HINT’, ‘F_SET_RW_HINT’,
‘F_GET_FILE_RW_HINT’, ‘F_SET_FILE_RW_HINT’, and ‘RWH_WRITE_LIFE_*’
constants, which allow to inform the kernel about the relative expected
lifetime of writes on a given inode or via a particular open file
description.  On Linux >= 5.1 and NetBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_SEAL_FUTURE_WRITE’ constant for use with ‘F_ADD_SEALS’ and
‘F_GET_SEALS’ operations.  On FreeBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_READAHEAD’, ‘F_ISUNIONSTACK’, and ‘F_KINFO’ constants.  On macOS and
FreeBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_RDAHEAD’ constant.  On NetBSD
and AIX, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_CLOSEM’ constant.  On NetBSD,
the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_MAXFD’ constant.  On macOS and NetBSD,
the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_GETNOSIGPIPE’ and ‘F_SETNOSIGPIPE’
constant.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: On Linux >= 6.1, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the
‘F_DUPFD_QUERY’ to query a file descriptor pointing to the same file.

The module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: fcntl.fcntl (fd, cmd, arg=0, /)

     Perform the operation 'cmd' on file descriptor 'fd' (file objects
     providing a *note fileno(): 19b2. method are accepted as well).
     The values used for 'cmd' are operating system dependent, and are
     available as constants in the ‘fcntl’ module, using the same names
     as used in the relevant C header files.  The argument 'arg' can
     either be an integer value, a *note bytes-like object: 436, or a
     string.  The type and size of 'arg' must match the type and size of
     the argument of the operation as specified in the relevant C
     documentation.

     When 'arg' is an integer, the function returns the integer return
     value of the C ‘fcntl()’ call.

     When the argument is bytes-like object, it represents a binary
     structure, for example, created by *note struct.pack(): 161b.  A
     string value is encoded to binary using the UTF-8 encoding.  The
     binary data is copied to a buffer whose address is passed to the C
     ‘fcntl()’ call.  The return value after a successful call is the
     contents of the buffer, converted to a *note bytes: 1c7. object.
     The length of the returned object will be the same as the length of
     the 'arg' argument.

     If the ‘fcntl()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 53c. is raised.

          Σημείωση: If the type or size of 'arg' does not match the type
          or size of the operation’s argument (for example, if an
          integer is passed when a pointer is expected, or the
          information returned in the buffer by the operating system is
          larger than the size of 'arg'), this is most likely to result
          in a segmentation violation or a more subtle data corruption.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘fcntl.fcntl’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘arg’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Add support of arbitrary *note bytes-like
     objects: 436, not only *note bytes: 1c7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The size of bytes-like objects is no
     longer limited to 1024 bytes.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fcntl.ioctl (fd, request, arg=0, mutate_flag=True, /)

     This function is identical to the *note fcntl(): 1962. function,
     except that the argument handling is even more complicated.

     The 'request' parameter is limited to values that can fit in
     32-bits or 64-bits, depending on the platform.  Additional
     constants of interest for use as the 'request' argument can be
     found in the *note termios: ea. module, under the same names as
     used in the relevant C header files.

     The parameter 'arg' can be an integer, a *note bytes-like object:
     436, or a string.  The type and size of 'arg' must match the type
     and size of the argument of the operation as specified in the
     relevant C documentation.

     If 'arg' does not support the read-write buffer interface or the
     'mutate_flag' is false, behavior is as for the *note fcntl(): 1962.
     function.

     If 'arg' supports the read-write buffer interface (like *note
     bytearray: 1c6.) and 'mutate_flag' is true (the default), then the
     buffer is (in effect) passed to the underlying ‘ioctl()’ system
     call, the latter’s return code is passed back to the calling
     Python, and the buffer’s new contents reflect the action of the
     ‘ioctl()’.  This is a slight simplification, because if the
     supplied buffer is less than 1024 bytes long it is first copied
     into a static buffer 1024 bytes long which is then passed to
     ‘ioctl()’ and copied back into the supplied buffer.

     If the ‘ioctl()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 53c. exception is
     raised.

          Σημείωση: If the type or size of 'arg' does not match the type
          or size of the operation’s argument (for example, if an
          integer is passed when a pointer is expected, or the
          information returned in the buffer by the operating system is
          larger than the size of 'arg'), this is most likely to result
          in a segmentation violation or a more subtle data corruption.

     An example:

          >>> import array, fcntl, struct, termios, os
          >>> os.getpgrp()
          13341
          >>> struct.unpack('h', fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, "  "))[0]
          13341
          >>> buf = array.array('h', [0])
          >>> fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, buf, 1)
          0
          >>> buf
          array('h', [13341])

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘fcntl.ioctl’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘request’, ‘arg’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The GIL is always released during a system
     call.  System calls failing with EINTR are automatically retried.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The size of not mutated bytes-like objects
     is no longer limited to 1024 bytes.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fcntl.flock (fd, operation, /)

     Perform the lock operation 'operation' on file descriptor 'fd'
     (file objects providing a *note fileno(): 19b2. method are accepted
     as well).  See the Unix manual ‘flock(2)(3)’ for details.  (On some
     systems, this function is emulated using ‘fcntl()’.)

     If the ‘flock()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 53c. exception is
     raised.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘fcntl.flock’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘operation’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: fcntl.lockf (fd, cmd, len=0, start=0, whence=0, /)

     This is essentially a wrapper around the *note fcntl(): 1962.
     locking calls.  'fd' is the file descriptor (file objects providing
     a *note fileno(): 19b2. method are accepted as well) of the file to
     lock or unlock, and 'cmd' is one of the following values:

      -- Δεδομένα: fcntl.LOCK_UN

          Release an existing lock.

      -- Δεδομένα: fcntl.LOCK_SH

          Acquire a shared lock.

      -- Δεδομένα: fcntl.LOCK_EX

          Acquire an exclusive lock.

      -- Δεδομένα: fcntl.LOCK_NB

          Bitwise OR with any of the other three ‘LOCK_*’ constants to
          make the request non-blocking.

     If ‘LOCK_NB’ is used and the lock cannot be acquired, an *note
     OSError: 53c. will be raised and the exception will have an 'errno'
     attribute set to *note EACCES: 2908. or *note EAGAIN: 28f9.
     (depending on the operating system; for portability, check for both
     values).  On at least some systems, ‘LOCK_EX’ can only be used if
     the file descriptor refers to a file opened for writing.

     'len' is the number of bytes to lock, 'start' is the byte offset at
     which the lock starts, relative to 'whence', and 'whence' is as
     with *note io.IOBase.seek(): 1631, specifically:

        * ‘0’ – relative to the start of the file (*note os.SEEK_SET:
          1632.)

        * ‘1’ – relative to the current buffer position (*note
          os.SEEK_CUR: 1633.)

        * ‘2’ – relative to the end of the file (*note os.SEEK_END:
          1634.)

     The default for 'start' is 0, which means to start at the beginning
     of the file.  The default for 'len' is 0 which means to lock to the
     end of the file.  The default for 'whence' is also 0.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘fcntl.lockf’ with arguments
     ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’, ‘start’, ‘whence’.

Examples (all on a SVR4 compliant system):

     import struct, fcntl, os

     f = open(...)
     rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETFL, os.O_NDELAY)

     lockdata = struct.pack('hhllhh', fcntl.F_WRLCK, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)
     rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETLKW, lockdata)

Note that in the first example the return value variable 'rv' will hold
an integer value; in the second example it will hold a *note bytes: 1c7.
object.  The structure lay-out for the 'lockdata' variable is system
dependent — therefore using the *note flock(): 49b3. call may be better.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note os: a5.

     If the locking flags *note O_SHLOCK: 17d1. and *note O_EXLOCK:
     17d2. are present in the *note os: a5. module (on BSD only), the
     *note os.open(): 114b. function provides an alternative to the
     *note lockf(): 178f. and *note flock(): 49b3. functions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/fcntl(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/ioctl(2)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/flock(2)


File: python.info,  Node: resource — Resource usage information,  Next: syslog — Unix syslog library routines,  Prev: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.35.9 ‘resource’ — Resource usage information
----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides basic mechanisms for measuring and controlling
system resources utilized by a program.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI.

Symbolic constants are used to specify particular system resources and
to request usage information about either the current process or its
children.

An *note OSError: 53c. is raised on syscall failure.

 -- Εξαίρεση: resource.error

     A deprecated alias of *note OSError: 53c.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Following PEP 3151(1), this class was made
     an alias of *note OSError: 53c.

* Menu:

* Resource Limits::
* Resource Usage::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: Resource Limits,  Next: Resource Usage,  Up: resource — Resource usage information

5.35.9.1 Resource Limits
........................

Resources usage can be limited using the *note setrlimit(): 3e7.
function described below.  Each resource is controlled by a pair of
limits: a soft limit and a hard limit.  The soft limit is the current
limit, and may be lowered or raised by a process over time.  The soft
limit can never exceed the hard limit.  The hard limit can be lowered to
any value greater than the soft limit, but not raised.  (Only processes
with the effective UID of the super-user can raise a hard limit.)

The specific resources that can be limited are system dependent.  They
are described in the ‘getrlimit(2)(1)’ man page.  The resources listed
below are supported when the underlying operating system supports them;
resources which cannot be checked or controlled by the operating system
are not defined in this module for those platforms.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIM_INFINITY

     Constant used to represent the limit for an unlimited resource.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: It is now always positive.  Previously, it
     could be negative, such as -1 or -3.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIM_SAVED_CUR

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIM_SAVED_MAX

     Constants used to represent the soft and hard limit values if they
     cannot be represented in the ‘rlim_t’ value in C. Can be equal to
     *note RLIM_INFINITY: 3e6.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Συνάρτηση: resource.getrlimit (resource)

     Returns a tuple ‘(soft, hard)’ with the current soft and hard
     limits of 'resource'.  Raises *note ValueError: 277. if an invalid
     resource is specified, or *note error: 50e1. if the underlying
     system call fails unexpectedly.

 -- Συνάρτηση: resource.setrlimit (resource, limits)

     Sets new limits of consumption of 'resource'.  The 'limits'
     argument must be a tuple ‘(soft, hard)’ of two integers describing
     the new limits.  A value of *note RLIM_INFINITY: 3e6. can be used
     to request a limit that is unlimited.

     Raises *note ValueError: 277. if an invalid resource is specified,
     if the new soft limit exceeds the hard limit, or if a process tries
     to raise its hard limit.  Specifying a limit of *note
     RLIM_INFINITY: 3e6. when the hard or system limit for that resource
     is not unlimited will result in a ‘ValueError’.  A process with the
     effective UID of super-user can request any valid limit value,
     including unlimited, but ‘ValueError’ will still be raised if the
     requested limit exceeds the system imposed limit.

     ‘setrlimit’ may also raise *note error: 50e1. if the underlying
     system call fails.

     VxWorks only supports setting *note RLIMIT_NOFILE: 50e3.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘resource.setrlimit’ with
     arguments ‘resource’, ‘limits’.

 -- Συνάρτηση: resource.prlimit (pid, resource[, limits])

     Combines *note setrlimit(): 3e7. and *note getrlimit(): 1a05. in
     one function and supports to get and set the resources limits of an
     arbitrary process.  If 'pid' is 0, then the call applies to the
     current process.  'resource' and 'limits' have the same meaning as
     in ‘setrlimit()’, except that 'limits' is optional.

     When 'limits' is not given the function returns the 'resource'
     limit of the process 'pid'.  When 'limits' is given the 'resource'
     limit of the process is set and the former resource limit is
     returned.

     Raises *note ProcessLookupError: 1403. when 'pid' can’t be found
     and *note PermissionError: 10f9. when the user doesn’t have
     ‘CAP_SYS_RESOURCE’ for the process.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘resource.prlimit’ with
     arguments ‘pid’, ‘resource’, ‘limits’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.36 with glibc >= 2.13.

     Added in version 3.4.

These symbols define resources whose consumption can be controlled using
the *note setrlimit(): 3e7. and *note getrlimit(): 1a05. functions
described below.  The values of these symbols are exactly the constants
used by C programs.

The Unix man page for ‘getrlimit(2)(2)’ lists the available resources.
Note that not all systems use the same symbol or same value to denote
the same resource.  This module does not attempt to mask platform
differences — symbols not defined for a platform will not be available
from this module on that platform.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_CORE

     The maximum size (in bytes) of a core file that the current process
     can create.  This may result in the creation of a partial core file
     if a larger core would be required to contain the entire process
     image.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_CPU

     The maximum amount of processor time (in seconds) that a process
     can use.  If this limit is exceeded, a *note SIGXCPU: 3cb8. signal
     is sent to the process.  (See the *note signal: ce. module
     documentation for information about how to catch this signal and do
     something useful, e.g.  flush open files to disk.)

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_FSIZE

     The maximum size of a file which the process may create.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_DATA

     The maximum size (in bytes) of the process’s heap.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_STACK

     The maximum size (in bytes) of the call stack for the current
     process.  This only affects the stack of the main thread in a
     multi-threaded process.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_RSS

     The maximum resident set size that should be made available to the
     process.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_NPROC

     The maximum number of processes the current process may create.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE

     The maximum number of open file descriptors for the current
     process.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_OFILE

     The BSD name for *note RLIMIT_NOFILE: 50e3.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK

     The maximum address space which may be locked in memory.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_VMEM

     The largest area of mapped memory which the process may occupy.
     Usually an alias of *note RLIMIT_AS: 50ed.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Solaris, FreeBSD, NetBSD.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_AS

     The maximum area (in bytes) of address space which may be taken by
     the process.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE

     The number of bytes that can be allocated for POSIX message queues.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.8.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_NICE

     The ceiling for the process’s nice level (calculated as 20 -
     rlim_cur).

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.12.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO

     The ceiling of the real-time priority.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.12.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME

     The time limit (in microseconds) on CPU time that a process can
     spend under real-time scheduling without making a blocking syscall.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.25.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING

     The number of signals which the process may queue.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Linux >= 2.6.8.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE

     The maximum size (in bytes) of socket buffer usage for this user.
     This limits the amount of network memory, and hence the amount of
     mbufs, that this user may hold at any time.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: FreeBSD, NetBSD.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_SWAP

     The maximum size (in bytes) of the swap space that may be reserved
     or used by all of this user id’s processes.  This limit is enforced
     only if bit 1 of the vm.overcommit sysctl is set.  Please see
     tuning(7)(3) for a complete description of this sysctl.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: FreeBSD >= 8.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_NPTS

     The maximum number of pseudo-terminals created by this user id.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: FreeBSD >= 8.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_KQUEUES

     The maximum number of kqueues this user id is allowed to create.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: FreeBSD >= 11.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_NTHR

     The maximum number of threads for this user id, not counting the
     main and kernel threads.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: NetBSD >= 7.0.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_PIPEBUF

     The maximum total size of in-kernel buffers for bi-directional
     pipes/fifos that this user id is allowed to consume.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: FreeBSD >= 14.2.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_THREADS

     The maximum number of threads each process can create.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: AIX.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RLIMIT_UMTXP

     The limit of the number of process-shared Posix thread library
     objects allocated by user id.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: FreeBSD >= 11.

     Added in version 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2)

   (3) https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=tuning&sektion=7


File: python.info,  Node: Resource Usage,  Prev: Resource Limits,  Up: resource — Resource usage information

5.35.9.2 Resource Usage
.......................

These functions are used to retrieve resource usage information:

 -- Συνάρτηση: resource.getrusage (who)

     This function returns an object that describes the resources
     consumed by either the current process or its children, as
     specified by the 'who' parameter.  The 'who' parameter should be
     specified using one of the ‘RUSAGE_*’ constants described below.

     A simple example:

          from resource import *
          import time

          # a non CPU-bound task
          time.sleep(3)
          print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF))

          # a CPU-bound task
          for i in range(10 ** 8):
             _ = 1 + 1
          print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF))

     The fields of the return value each describe how a particular
     system resource has been used, e.g.  amount of time spent running
     in user mode or number of times the process was swapped out of main
     memory.  Some values are dependent on the clock tick interval, e.g.
     the amount of memory the process is using.

     For backward compatibility, the return value is also accessible as
     a tuple of 16 elements.

     The fields ‘ru_utime’ and ‘ru_stime’ of the return value are
     floating-point values representing the amount of time spent
     executing in user mode and the amount of time spent executing in
     system mode, respectively.  The remaining values are integers.
     Consult the ‘getrusage(2)(1)’ man page for detailed information
     about these values.  A brief summary is presented here:

     Index        Field                      Resource
                                             
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                             
     ‘0’          ‘ru_utime’                 time in user mode (float seconds)
                                             
                                             
     ‘1’          ‘ru_stime’                 time in system mode (float seconds)
                                             
                                             
     ‘2’          ‘ru_maxrss’                maximum resident set size
                                             
                                             
     ‘3’          ‘ru_ixrss’                 shared memory size
                                             
                                             
     ‘4’          ‘ru_idrss’                 unshared memory size
                                             
                                             
     ‘5’          ‘ru_isrss’                 unshared stack size
                                             
                                             
     ‘6’          ‘ru_minflt’                page faults not requiring I/O
                                             
                                             
     ‘7’          ‘ru_majflt’                page faults requiring I/O
                                             
                                             
     ‘8’          ‘ru_nswap’                 number of swap outs
                                             
                                             
     ‘9’          ‘ru_inblock’               block input operations
                                             
                                             
     ‘10’         ‘ru_oublock’               block output operations
                                             
                                             
     ‘11’         ‘ru_msgsnd’                messages sent
                                             
                                             
     ‘12’         ‘ru_msgrcv’                messages received
                                             
                                             
     ‘13’         ‘ru_nsignals’              signals received
                                             
                                             
     ‘14’         ‘ru_nvcsw’                 voluntary context switches
                                             
                                             
     ‘15’         ‘ru_nivcsw’                involuntary context switches
                                             

     This function will raise a *note ValueError: 277. if an invalid
     'who' parameter is specified.  It may also raise *note error: 50e1.
     exception in unusual circumstances.

 -- Συνάρτηση: resource.getpagesize ()

     Returns the number of bytes in a system page.  (This need not be
     the same as the hardware page size.)

The following ‘RUSAGE_*’ symbols are passed to the *note getrusage():
17d3. function to specify which processes information should be provided
for.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RUSAGE_SELF

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 17d3. to request resources consumed by
     the calling process, which is the sum of resources used by all
     threads in the process.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RUSAGE_CHILDREN

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 17d3. to request resources consumed by
     child processes of the calling process which have been terminated
     and waited for.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RUSAGE_BOTH

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 17d3. to request resources consumed by
     both the current process and child processes.  May not be available
     on all systems.

 -- Δεδομένα: resource.RUSAGE_THREAD

     Pass to *note getrusage(): 17d3. to request resources consumed by
     the current thread.  May not be available on all systems.

     Added in version 3.2.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/getrusage(2)


File: python.info,  Node: syslog — Unix syslog library routines,  Prev: resource — Resource usage information,  Up: Unix-specific services

5.35.10 ‘syslog’ — Unix syslog library routines
-----------------------------------------------

__________________________________________________________________

This module provides an interface to the Unix ‘syslog’ library routines.
Refer to the Unix manual pages for a detailed description of the
‘syslog’ facility.

*note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS.

This module wraps the system ‘syslog’ family of routines.  A pure Python
library that can speak to a syslog server is available in the *note
logging.handlers: 8c. module as *note SysLogHandler: a4c.

The module defines the following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: syslog.syslog (message)

 -- Συνάρτηση: syslog.syslog (priority, message)

     Send the string 'message' to the system logger.  A trailing newline
     is added if necessary.  Each message is tagged with a priority
     composed of a 'facility' and a 'level'.  The optional 'priority'
     argument, which defaults to *note LOG_INFO: 50f7, determines the
     message priority.  If the facility is not encoded in 'priority'
     using logical-or (‘LOG_INFO | LOG_USER’), the value given in the
     *note openlog(): 94b. call is used.

     If *note openlog(): 94b. has not been called prior to the call to
     ‘syslog()’, ‘openlog()’ will be called with no arguments.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘syslog.syslog’ with
     arguments ‘priority’, ‘message’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: In previous versions, *note openlog(): 94b.
     would not be called automatically if it wasn’t called prior to the
     call to ‘syslog()’, deferring to the syslog implementation to call
     ‘openlog()’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This function is restricted in
     subinterpreters.  (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is
     affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.)
     *note openlog(): 94b. must be called in the main interpreter before
     ‘syslog()’ may be used in a subinterpreter.  Otherwise it will
     raise *note RuntimeError: 30d.

 -- Συνάρτηση: syslog.openlog ([ident[, logoption[, facility]]])

     Logging options of subsequent *note syslog(): e5. calls can be set
     by calling ‘openlog()’.  ‘syslog()’ will call ‘openlog()’ with no
     arguments if the log is not currently open.

     The optional 'ident' keyword argument is a string which is
     prepended to every message, and defaults to ‘sys.argv[0]’ with
     leading path components stripped.  The optional 'logoption' keyword
     argument (default is 0) is a bit field – see below for possible
     values to combine.  The optional 'facility' keyword argument
     (default is *note LOG_USER: 50f8.) sets the default facility for
     messages which do not have a facility explicitly encoded.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘syslog.openlog’ with
     arguments ‘ident’, ‘logoption’, ‘facility’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: In previous versions, keyword arguments
     were not allowed, and 'ident' was required.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This function is restricted in
     subinterpreters.  (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is
     affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.)  This
     may only be called in the main interpreter.  It will raise *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. if called in a subinterpreter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: syslog.closelog ()

     Reset the syslog module values and call the system library
     ‘closelog()’.

     This causes the module to behave as it does when initially
     imported.  For example, *note openlog(): 94b. will be called on the
     first *note syslog(): e5. call (if ‘openlog()’ hasn’t already been
     called), and 'ident' and other ‘openlog()’ parameters are reset to
     defaults.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘syslog.closelog’ with no
     arguments.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This function is restricted in
     subinterpreters.  (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is
     affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.)  This
     may only be called in the main interpreter.  It will raise *note
     RuntimeError: 30d. if called in a subinterpreter.

 -- Συνάρτηση: syslog.setlogmask (maskpri)

     Set the priority mask to 'maskpri' and return the previous mask
     value.  Calls to *note syslog(): e5. with a priority level not set
     in 'maskpri' are ignored.  The default is to log all priorities.
     The function ‘LOG_MASK(pri)’ calculates the mask for the individual
     priority 'pri'.  The function ‘LOG_UPTO(pri)’ calculates the mask
     for all priorities up to and including 'pri'.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘syslog.setlogmask’ with
     argument ‘maskpri’.

The module defines the following constants:

 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_EMERG
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_ALERT
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_CRIT
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_ERR
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_WARNING
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_NOTICE
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_INFO
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_DEBUG

     Priority levels (high to low).

 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_AUTH
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_AUTHPRIV
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_CRON
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_DAEMON
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_FTP
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_INSTALL
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_KERN
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_LAUNCHD
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_LPR
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_MAIL
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_NETINFO
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_NEWS
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_RAS
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_REMOTEAUTH
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_SYSLOG
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_USER
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_UUCP
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_LOCAL0
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_LOCAL1
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_LOCAL2
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_LOCAL3
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_LOCAL4
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_LOCAL5
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_LOCAL6
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_LOCAL7

     Facilities, depending on availability in ‘<syslog.h>’ for *note
     LOG_AUTHPRIV: 5101, *note LOG_FTP: 5104, *note LOG_NETINFO: 510a,
     *note LOG_REMOTEAUTH: 510d, *note LOG_INSTALL: 5105. and *note
     LOG_RAS: 510c.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Added *note LOG_FTP: 5104, *note
     LOG_NETINFO: 510a, *note LOG_REMOTEAUTH: 510d, *note LOG_INSTALL:
     5105, *note LOG_RAS: 510c, and *note LOG_LAUNCHD: 5107.

 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_PID
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_CONS
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_NDELAY
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_ODELAY
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_NOWAIT
 -- Δεδομένα: syslog.LOG_PERROR

     Log options, depending on availability in ‘<syslog.h>’ for *note
     LOG_ODELAY: 511b, *note LOG_NOWAIT: 511c. and *note LOG_PERROR:
     511d.

* Menu:

* Examples: Examples<31>.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<31>,  Up: syslog — Unix syslog library routines

5.35.10.1 Examples
..................

* Menu:

* Simple example::


File: python.info,  Node: Simple example,  Up: Examples<31>

5.35.10.2 Simple example
........................

A simple set of examples:

     import syslog

     syslog.syslog('Processing started')
     if error:
         syslog.syslog(syslog.LOG_ERR, 'Processing started')

An example of setting some log options, these would include the process
ID in logged messages, and write the messages to the destination
facility used for mail logging:

     syslog.openlog(logoption=syslog.LOG_PID, facility=syslog.LOG_MAIL)
     syslog.syslog('E-mail processing initiated...')


File: python.info,  Node: Command-line interface Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών CLI για modules,  Next: Superseded modules,  Prev: Unix-specific services,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.36 Command-line interface (Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών) (CLI) για modules
=======================================================================

Τα παρακάτω modules έχουν command-line interface.

   * *note ast: 1e2.

   * *note asyncio: 3a07.

   * *note base64: f.

   * *note calendar: 201.

   * *note code: 1b.

   * *note compileall: 4f88.

   * ‘cProfile’: see *note profiling.tracing: 4a63.

   * *note dis: 4f9f.

   * *note doctest: 47ae.

   * ‘encodings.rot_13’

   * *note ensurepip: 4b88.

   * *note filecmp: 5d.

   * *note fileinput: 5e.

   * *note ftplib: 61.

   * *note gzip: 3080.

   * *note http.server: 227.

   * *note idlelib: 4655.

   * *note inspect: 1305.

   * *note json: 4cb.

   * *note mimetypes: 4d3.

   * *note pdb: 55d.

   * *note pickle: 2f52.

   * *note pickletools: 2f53.

   * *note platform: 349c.

   * *note poplib: b1.

   * *note profiling.sampling: 4a61.

   * *note profiling.tracing: 4a63.

   * *note pstats: 4afc.

   * *note py_compile: 4f7f.

   * *note pyclbr: bc.

   * *note pydoc: bd.

   * *note quopri: bf.

   * *note random: 68d.

   * *note runpy: c6.

   * *note site: 4d92.

   * *note sqlite3: 257.

   * *note symtable: 4f03.

   * *note sysconfig: 4c54.

   * *note tabnanny: e6.

   * *note tarfile: 1374.

   * ‘this’

   * *note timeit: 4b00.

   * *note tokenize: 286.

   * *note trace: 4b1f.

   * *note turtledemo: 10b.

   * *note unittest: 4825.

   * *note uuid: 862.

   * *note venv: 4b96.

   * *note webbrowser: 410d.

   * *note zipapp: 4bb0.

   * *note zipfile: 30ef.

Δείτε επίσης το *note Python command-line interface: 1f98.


File: python.info,  Node: Superseded modules,  Next: Removed Modules,  Prev: Command-line interface Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών CLI για modules,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.37 Superseded modules
=======================

The modules described in this chapter have been superseded by other
modules for most use cases, and are retained primarily to preserve
backwards compatibility.

Modules may appear in this chapter because they only cover a limited
subset of a problem space, and a more generally applicable solution is
available elsewhere in the standard library (for example, *note getopt:
64. covers the very specific task of «mimic the C ‘getopt()’ API in
Python», rather than the broader command line option parsing and
argument parsing capabilities offered by *note optparse: a4. and *note
argparse: 7.).

Alternatively, modules may appear in this chapter because they are
deprecated outright, and awaiting removal in a future release, or they
are *note soft deprecated: 1a7. and their use is actively discouraged in
new projects.  With the removal of various obsolete modules through PEP
594(1), there are currently no modules in this latter category.

* Menu:

* getopt — C-style parser for command line options::
* profile — Pure Python profiler::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/


File: python.info,  Node: getopt — C-style parser for command line options,  Next: profile — Pure Python profiler,  Up: Superseded modules

5.37.1 ‘getopt’ — C-style parser for command line options
---------------------------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/getopt.py(1)

     Σημείωση: This module is considered feature complete.  A more
     declarative and extensible alternative to this API is provided in
     the *note optparse: a4. module.  Further functional enhancements
     for command line parameter processing are provided either as third
     party modules on PyPI, or else as features in the *note argparse:
     7. module.

__________________________________________________________________

This module helps scripts to parse the command line arguments in
‘sys.argv’.  It supports the same conventions as the Unix ‘getopt()’
function (including the special meanings of arguments of the form “‘-’”
and “‘--’“).  Long options similar to those supported by GNU software
may be used as well via an optional third argument.

Users who are unfamiliar with the Unix ‘getopt()’ function should
consider using the *note argparse: 7. module instead.  Users who are
familiar with the Unix ‘getopt()’ function, but would like to get
equivalent behavior while writing less code and getting better help and
error messages should consider using the *note optparse: a4. module.
See *note Choosing an argument parsing library: 35ca. for additional
details.

This module provides two functions and an exception:

 -- Συνάρτηση: getopt.getopt (args, shortopts, longopts=[])

     Parses command line options and parameter list.  'args' is the
     argument list to be parsed, without the leading reference to the
     running program.  Typically, this means ‘sys.argv[1:]’.
     'shortopts' is the string of option letters that the script wants
     to recognize, with options that require an argument followed by a
     colon (‘':'’) and options that accept an optional argument followed
     by two colons (‘'::'’); i.e., the same format that Unix ‘getopt()’
     uses.

          Σημείωση: Unlike GNU ‘getopt()’, after a non-option argument,
          all further arguments are considered also non-options.  This
          is similar to the way non-GNU Unix systems work.

     'longopts', if specified, must be a list of strings with the names
     of the long options which should be supported.  The leading ‘'--'’
     characters should not be included in the option name.  Long options
     which require an argument should be followed by an equal sign
     (‘'='’).  Long options which accept an optional argument should be
     followed by an equal sign and question mark (‘'=?'’).  To accept
     only long options, 'shortopts' should be an empty string.  Long
     options on the command line can be recognized so long as they
     provide a prefix of the option name that matches exactly one of the
     accepted options.  For example, if 'longopts' is ‘['foo', 'frob']’,
     the option ‘--fo’ will match as ‘--foo’, but ‘--f’ will not match
     uniquely, so *note GetoptError: 1b0a. will be raised.

     The return value consists of two elements: the first is a list of
     ‘(option, value)’ pairs; the second is the list of program
     arguments left after the option list was stripped (this is a
     trailing slice of 'args').  Each option-and-value pair returned has
     the option as its first element, prefixed with a hyphen for short
     options (e.g., ‘'-x'’) or two hyphens for long options (e.g.,
     ‘'--long-option'’), and the option argument as its second element,
     or an empty string if the option has no argument.  The options
     occur in the list in the same order in which they were found, thus
     allowing multiple occurrences.  Long and short options may be
     mixed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Optional arguments are supported.

 -- Συνάρτηση: getopt.gnu_getopt (args, shortopts, longopts=[])

     This function works like *note getopt(): 64, except that GNU style
     scanning mode is used by default.  This means that option and
     non-option arguments may be intermixed.  The ‘getopt()’ function
     stops processing options as soon as a non-option argument is
     encountered.

     If the first character of the option string is ‘'+'’, or if the
     environment variable ‘POSIXLY_CORRECT’ is set, then option
     processing stops as soon as a non-option argument is encountered.

     If the first character of the option string is ‘'-'’, non-option
     arguments that are followed by options are added to the list of
     option-and-value pairs as a pair that has ‘None’ as its first
     element and the list of non-option arguments as its second element.
     The second element of the ‘gnu_getopt()’ result is a list of
     program arguments after the last option.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Support for returning intermixed options
     and non-option arguments in order.

 -- Εξαίρεση: getopt.GetoptError

     This is raised when an unrecognized option is found in the argument
     list or when an option requiring an argument is given none.  The
     argument to the exception is a string indicating the cause of the
     error.  For long options, an argument given to an option which does
     not require one will also cause this exception to be raised.  The
     attributes ‘msg’ and ‘opt’ give the error message and related
     option; if there is no specific option to which the exception
     relates, ‘opt’ is an empty string.

 -- Εξαίρεση: getopt.error

     Alias for *note GetoptError: 1b0a.; for backward compatibility.

An example using only Unix style options:

     >>> import getopt
     >>> args = '-a -b -cfoo -d bar a1 a2'.split()
     >>> args
     ['-a', '-b', '-cfoo', '-d', 'bar', 'a1', 'a2']
     >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'abc:d:')
     >>> optlist
     [('-a', ''), ('-b', ''), ('-c', 'foo'), ('-d', 'bar')]
     >>> args
     ['a1', 'a2']

Using long option names is equally easy:

     >>> s = '--condition=foo --testing --output-file abc.def -x a1 a2'
     >>> args = s.split()
     >>> args
     ['--condition=foo', '--testing', '--output-file', 'abc.def', '-x', 'a1', 'a2']
     >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'x', [
     ...     'condition=', 'output-file=', 'testing'])
     >>> optlist
     [('--condition', 'foo'), ('--testing', ''), ('--output-file', 'abc.def'), ('-x', '')]
     >>> args
     ['a1', 'a2']

Optional arguments should be specified explicitly:

     >>> s = '-Con -C --color=off --color a1 a2'
     >>> args = s.split()
     >>> args
     ['-Con', '-C', '--color=off', '--color', 'a1', 'a2']
     >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'C::', ['color=?'])
     >>> optlist
     [('-C', 'on'), ('-C', ''), ('--color', 'off'), ('--color', '')]
     >>> args
     ['a1', 'a2']

The order of options and non-option arguments can be preserved:

     >>> s = 'a1 -x a2 a3 a4 --long a5 a6'
     >>> args = s.split()
     >>> args
     ['a1', '-x', 'a2', 'a3', 'a4', '--long', 'a5', 'a6']
     >>> optlist, args = getopt.gnu_getopt(args, '-x:', ['long='])
     >>> optlist
     [(None, ['a1']), ('-x', 'a2'), (None, ['a3', 'a4']), ('--long', 'a5')]
     >>> args
     ['a6']

In a script, typical usage is something like this:

     import getopt, sys

     def main():
         try:
             opts, args = getopt.getopt(sys.argv[1:], "ho:v", ["help", "output="])
         except getopt.GetoptError as err:
             # print help information and exit:
             print(err)  # will print something like "option -a not recognized"
             usage()
             sys.exit(2)
         output = None
         verbose = False
         for o, a in opts:
             if o == "-v":
                 verbose = True
             elif o in ("-h", "--help"):
                 usage()
                 sys.exit()
             elif o in ("-o", "--output"):
                 output = a
             else:
                 assert False, "unhandled option"
         process(args, output=output, verbose=verbose)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

Note that an equivalent command line interface could be produced with
less code and more informative help and error messages by using the
*note optparse: a4. module:

     import optparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = optparse.OptionParser()
         parser.add_option('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_option('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         opts, args = parser.parse_args()
         process(args, output=opts.output, verbose=opts.verbose)

A roughly equivalent command line interface for this case can also be
produced by using the *note argparse: 7. module:

     import argparse

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         parser.add_argument('-o', '--output')
         parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true')
         parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*')
         args = parser.parse_args()
         process(args.rest, output=args.output, verbose=args.verbose)

See *note Choosing an argument parsing library: 35ca. for details on how
the ‘argparse’ version of this code differs in behaviour from the
‘optparse’ (and ‘getopt’) version.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note optparse: a4.

     Declarative command line option parsing.

Module *note argparse: 7.

     More opinionated command line option and argument parsing library.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/getopt.py


File: python.info,  Node: profile — Pure Python profiler,  Prev: getopt — C-style parser for command line options,  Up: Superseded modules

5.37.2 ‘profile’ — Pure Python profiler
---------------------------------------

'Source code:' Lib/profile.py(1)

__________________________________________________________________

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.17.

The ‘profile’ module is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.17.
Use *note profiling.tracing: b7. instead.

The ‘profile’ module provides a pure Python implementation of a
deterministic profiler.  While useful for understanding profiler
internals or extending profiler behavior through subclassing, its pure
Python implementation introduces significant overhead compared to the
C-based *note profiling.tracing: b7. module.

For most profiling tasks, use:

   - *note profiling.sampling: b6. for production debugging with zero
     overhead

   - *note profiling.tracing: b7. for development and testing

* Menu:

* Migration::
* profile and profiling.tracing module reference: profile and profiling tracing module reference.
* Differences from profiling.tracing: Differences from profiling tracing.
* What is deterministic profiling?: What is deterministic profiling?<2>.
* Limitations: Limitations<2>.
* Calibration::
* Using a custom timer: Using a custom timer<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/profile.py


File: python.info,  Node: Migration,  Next: profile and profiling tracing module reference,  Up: profile — Pure Python profiler

5.37.2.1 Migration
..................

Migrating from ‘profile’ to *note profiling.tracing: b7. is
straightforward.  The APIs are compatible:

     # Old (deprecated)
     import profile
     profile.run('my_function()')

     # New (recommended)
     import profiling.tracing
     profiling.tracing.run('my_function()')

For most code, replacing ‘import profile’ with ‘import
profiling.tracing’ (and using ‘profiling.tracing’ instead of ‘profile’
throughout) provides a straightforward migration path.

     Σημείωση: The ‘cProfile’ module remains available as a
     backward-compatible alias to *note profiling.tracing: b7.  Existing
     code using ‘import cProfile’ will continue to work without
     modification.


File: python.info,  Node: profile and profiling tracing module reference,  Next: Differences from profiling tracing,  Prev: Migration,  Up: profile — Pure Python profiler

5.37.2.2 ‘profile’ and ‘profiling.tracing’ module reference
...........................................................

Both the ‘profile’ and *note profiling.tracing: b7. modules provide the
following functions:

 -- Συνάρτηση: profile.run (command, filename=None, sort=-1)

     This function takes a single argument that can be passed to the
     *note exec(): 185. function, and an optional file name.  In all
     cases this routine executes:

          exec(command, __main__.__dict__, __main__.__dict__)

     and gathers profiling statistics from the execution.  If no file
     name is present, then this function automatically creates a *note
     Stats: 4a6d. instance and prints a simple profiling report.  If the
     sort value is specified, it is passed to this ‘Stats’ instance to
     control how the results are sorted.

 -- Συνάρτηση: profile.runctx (command, globals, locals, filename=None,
          sort=-1)

     This function is similar to *note run(): 5130, with added arguments
     to supply the globals and locals mappings for the 'command' string.
     This routine executes:

          exec(command, globals, locals)

     and gathers profiling statistics as in the *note run(): 5130.
     function above.

 -- Κλάση: profile.Profile (timer=None, timeunit=0.0, subcalls=True,
          builtins=True)

     This class is normally only used if more precise control over
     profiling is needed than what the *note profiling.tracing.run():
     4a6c. function provides.

     A custom timer can be supplied for measuring how long code takes to
     run via the 'timer' argument.  This must be a function that returns
     a single number representing the current time.  If the number is an
     integer, the 'timeunit' specifies a multiplier that specifies the
     duration of each unit of time.  For example, if the timer returns
     times measured in thousands of seconds, the time unit would be
     ‘.001’.

     Directly using the ‘Profile’ class allows formatting profile
     results without writing the profile data to a file:

          import profiling.tracing
          import pstats
          import io
          from pstats import SortKey

          pr = profiling.tracing.Profile()
          pr.enable()
          # ... do something ...
          pr.disable()
          s = io.StringIO()
          sortby = SortKey.CUMULATIVE
          ps = pstats.Stats(pr, stream=s).sort_stats(sortby)
          ps.print_stats()
          print(s.getvalue())

     The ‘Profile’ class can also be used as a context manager
     (supported only in *note profiling.tracing: b7, not in the
     deprecated ‘profile’ module; see *note Τύποι Διαχείρισης
     Περιεχομένου: 2601.):

          import profiling.tracing

          with profiling.tracing.Profile() as pr:
              # ... do something ...

              pr.print_stats()

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added context manager support.

      -- Μέθοδος: enable ()

          Start collecting profiling data.  Only in *note
          profiling.tracing: b7.

      -- Μέθοδος: disable ()

          Stop collecting profiling data.  Only in *note
          profiling.tracing: b7.

      -- Μέθοδος: create_stats ()

          Stop collecting profiling data and record the results
          internally as the current profile.

      -- Μέθοδος: print_stats (sort=-1)

          Create a *note Stats: 4a6d. object based on the current
          profile and print the results to stdout.

          The 'sort' parameter specifies the sorting order of the
          displayed statistics.  It accepts a single key or a tuple of
          keys to enable multi-level sorting, as in *note
          pstats.Stats.sort_stats(): 4a66.

          Added in version 3.13: ‘print_stats()’ now accepts a tuple of
          keys.

      -- Μέθοδος: dump_stats (filename)

          Write the results of the current profile to 'filename'.

      -- Μέθοδος: run (cmd)

          Profile the cmd via *note exec(): 185.

      -- Μέθοδος: runctx (cmd, globals, locals)

          Profile the cmd via *note exec(): 185. with the specified
          global and local environment.

      -- Μέθοδος: runcall (func, /, *args, **kwargs)

          Profile ‘func(*args, **kwargs)’

Note that profiling will only work if the called command/function
actually returns.  If the interpreter is terminated (e.g.  via a *note
sys.exit(): 4ff. call during the called command/function execution) no
profiling results will be printed.


File: python.info,  Node: Differences from profiling tracing,  Next: What is deterministic profiling?<2>,  Prev: profile and profiling tracing module reference,  Up: profile — Pure Python profiler

5.37.2.3 Differences from ‘profiling.tracing’
.............................................

The ‘profile’ module differs from *note profiling.tracing: b7. in
several ways:

'Higher overhead.'  The pure Python implementation is significantly
slower than the C implementation, making it unsuitable for profiling
long-running programs or performance-sensitive code.

'Calibration support.'  The ‘profile’ module supports calibration to
compensate for profiling overhead.  This is not needed in *note
profiling.tracing: b7. because the C implementation has negligible
overhead.

'Custom timers.'  Both modules support custom timers, but ‘profile’
accepts timer functions that return tuples (like *note os.times():
14c1.), while *note profiling.tracing: b7. requires a function returning
a single number.

'Subclassing.'  The pure Python implementation is easier to subclass and
extend for custom profiling behavior.


File: python.info,  Node: What is deterministic profiling?<2>,  Next: Limitations<2>,  Prev: Differences from profiling tracing,  Up: profile — Pure Python profiler

5.37.2.4 What is deterministic profiling?
.........................................

'Deterministic profiling' is meant to reflect the fact that all
'function call', 'function return', and 'exception' events are
monitored, and precise timings are made for the intervals between these
events (during which time the user’s code is executing).  In contrast,
'statistical profiling' (which is provided by the *note
profiling.sampling: b6. module) periodically samples the effective
instruction pointer, and deduces where time is being spent.  The latter
technique traditionally involves less overhead (as the code does not
need to be instrumented), but provides only relative indications of
where time is being spent.

In Python, since there is an interpreter active during execution, the
presence of instrumented code is not required in order to do
deterministic profiling.  Python automatically provides a 'hook'
(optional callback) for each event.  In addition, the interpreted nature
of Python tends to add so much overhead to execution, that deterministic
profiling tends to only add small processing overhead in typical
applications.  The result is that deterministic profiling is not that
expensive, yet provides extensive run time statistics about the
execution of a Python program.

Call count statistics can be used to identify bugs in code (surprising
counts), and to identify possible inline-expansion points (high call
counts).  Internal time statistics can be used to identify «hot loops»
that should be carefully optimized.  Cumulative time statistics should
be used to identify high level errors in the selection of algorithms.
Note that the unusual handling of cumulative times in this profiler
allows statistics for recursive implementations of algorithms to be
directly compared to iterative implementations.


File: python.info,  Node: Limitations<2>,  Next: Calibration,  Prev: What is deterministic profiling?<2>,  Up: profile — Pure Python profiler

5.37.2.5 Limitations
....................

One limitation has to do with accuracy of timing information.  There is
a fundamental problem with deterministic profilers involving accuracy.
The most obvious restriction is that the underlying «clock» is only
ticking at a rate (typically) of about .001 seconds.  Hence no
measurements will be more accurate than the underlying clock.  If enough
measurements are taken, then the «error» will tend to average out.
Unfortunately, removing this first error induces a second source of
error.

The second problem is that it «takes a while» from when an event is
dispatched until the profiler’s call to get the time actually 'gets' the
state of the clock.  Similarly, there is a certain lag when exiting the
profiler event handler from the time that the clock’s value was obtained
(and then squirreled away), until the user’s code is once again
executing.  As a result, functions that are called many times, or call
many functions, will typically accumulate this error.  The error that
accumulates in this fashion is typically less than the accuracy of the
clock (less than one clock tick), but it 'can' accumulate and become
very significant.

The problem is more important with the deprecated ‘profile’ module than
with the lower-overhead *note profiling.tracing: b7.  For this reason,
‘profile’ provides a means of calibrating itself for a given platform so
that this error can be probabilistically (on the average) removed.
After the profiler is calibrated, it will be more accurate (in a least
square sense), but it will sometimes produce negative numbers (when call
counts are exceptionally low, and the gods of probability work against
you :-).  )  Do 'not' be alarmed by negative numbers in the profile.
They should 'only' appear if you have calibrated your profiler, and the
results are actually better than without calibration.


File: python.info,  Node: Calibration,  Next: Using a custom timer<2>,  Prev: Limitations<2>,  Up: profile — Pure Python profiler

5.37.2.6 Calibration
....................

The profiler of the ‘profile’ module subtracts a constant from each
event handling time to compensate for the overhead of calling the time
function, and socking away the results.  By default, the constant is 0.
The following procedure can be used to obtain a better constant for a
given platform (see *note Limitations: 513d.).

     import profile
     pr = profile.Profile()
     for i in range(5):
         print(pr.calibrate(10000))

The method executes the number of Python calls given by the argument,
directly and again under the profiler, measuring the time for both.  It
then computes the hidden overhead per profiler event, and returns that
as a float.  For example, on a 1.8Ghz Intel Core i5 running macOS, and
using Python’s time.process_time() as the timer, the magical number is
about 4.04e-6.

The object of this exercise is to get a fairly consistent result.  If
your computer is 'very' fast, or your timer function has poor
resolution, you might have to pass 100000, or even 1000000, to get
consistent results.

When you have a consistent answer, there are three ways you can use it:

     import profile

     # 1. Apply computed bias to all Profile instances created hereafter.
     profile.Profile.bias = your_computed_bias

     # 2. Apply computed bias to a specific Profile instance.
     pr = profile.Profile()
     pr.bias = your_computed_bias

     # 3. Specify computed bias in instance constructor.
     pr = profile.Profile(bias=your_computed_bias)

If you have a choice, you are better off choosing a smaller constant,
and then your results will «less often» show up as negative in profile
statistics.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a custom timer<2>,  Prev: Calibration,  Up: profile — Pure Python profiler

5.37.2.7 Using a custom timer
.............................

If you want to change how current time is determined (for example, to
force use of wall-clock time or elapsed process time), pass the timing
function you want to the *note Profile: da7. class constructor:

     pr = profile.Profile(your_time_func)

The resulting profiler will then call ‘your_time_func’.  Depending on
whether you are using *note profile.Profile: da7. or *note
profiling.tracing.Profile: 4a6f, ‘your_time_func’’s return value will be
interpreted differently:

*note profile.Profile: da7.

     ‘your_time_func’ should return a single number, or a list of
     numbers whose sum is the current time (like what *note os.times():
     14c1. returns).  If the function returns a single time number, or
     the list of returned numbers has length 2, then you will get an
     especially fast version of the dispatch routine.

     Be warned that you should calibrate the profiler class for the
     timer function that you choose (see *note Calibration: 513f.).  For
     most machines, a timer that returns a lone integer value will
     provide the best results in terms of low overhead during profiling.
     (*note os.times(): 14c1. is 'pretty' bad, as it returns a tuple of
     floating-point values).  If you want to substitute a better timer
     in the cleanest fashion, derive a class and hardwire a replacement
     dispatch method that best handles your timer call, along with the
     appropriate calibration constant.

*note profiling.tracing.Profile: 4a6f.

     ‘your_time_func’ should return a single number.  If it returns
     integers, you can also invoke the class constructor with a second
     argument specifying the real duration of one unit of time.  For
     example, if ‘your_integer_time_func’ returns times measured in
     thousands of seconds, you would construct the *note Profile: da7.
     instance as follows:

          pr = profiling.tracing.Profile(your_integer_time_func, 0.001)

     As the *note profiling.tracing.Profile: 4a6f. class cannot be
     calibrated, custom timer functions should be used with care and
     should be as fast as possible.  For the best results with a custom
     timer, it might be necessary to hard-code it in the C source of the
     internal ‘_lsprof’ module.

Python 3.3 adds several new functions in *note time: f7. that can be
used to make precise measurements of process or wall-clock time.  For
example, see *note time.perf_counter(): e49.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note profiling: b5.

     Overview of Python profiling tools.

*note profiling.tracing: b7.

     Recommended replacement for this module.

*note pstats: b8.

     Statistical analysis and formatting for profile data.


File: python.info,  Node: Removed Modules,  Next: Security Considerations<3>,  Prev: Superseded modules,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.38 Removed Modules
====================

The modules described in this chapter have been removed from the Python
standard library.  They are documented here to help people find
replacements.

* Menu:

* aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files::
* asynchat — Διαχειριστής εντολών/απαντήσεων ασύγχρονων υποδοχών::
* asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler::
* audioop — Manipulate raw audio data::
* cgi — Common Gateway Interface support::
* cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts::
* chunk — Read IFF chunked data::
* crypt — Function to check Unix passwords::
* distutils — Building and installing Python modules::
* imghdr — Determine the type of an image::
* imp — Access the import internals::
* mailcap — Mailcap file handling::
* msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files::
* nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages): nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
* nntplib — NNTP protocol client::
* ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices::
* pipes — Interface to shell pipelines::
* smtpd — SMTP Server::
* sndhdr — Determine type of sound file::
* spwd — The shadow password database::
* sunau — Read and write Sun AU files::
* telnetlib — Telnet client::
* uu — Encode and decode uuencode files::
* xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data::


File: python.info,  Node: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files,  Next: asynchat — Διαχειριστής εντολών/απαντήσεων ασύγχρονων υποδοχών,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.1 ‘aifc’ — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
--------------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘aifc’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/aifc.html


File: python.info,  Node: asynchat — Διαχειριστής εντολών/απαντήσεων ασύγχρονων υποδοχών,  Next: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler,  Prev: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.2 ‘asynchat’ — Διαχειριστής εντολών/απαντήσεων ασύγχρονων υποδοχών
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.6, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12.

Αυτό το module δεν αποτελεί πλέον μέρος της βασικής βιβλιοθήκης της
Python.  Αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση *note Python 3.12: 911. αφού είχε ήδη
καταργηθεί στην Python 3.6.  Η αφαίρεση αποφασίστηκε στο PEP 594(1).

Οι εφαρμογές θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούν το module *note asyncio: b.

Η τελευταία έκδοση της Python που περιλάμβανε το module ‘asynchat’ ήταν
η Python 3.11(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/asynchat.html


File: python.info,  Node: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler,  Next: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data,  Prev: asynchat — Διαχειριστής εντολών/απαντήσεων ασύγχρονων υποδοχών,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.3 ‘asyncore’ — Asynchronous socket handler
-----------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.6, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 911. after being deprecated in Python 3.6.
The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Applications should use the *note asyncio: b. module instead.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘asyncore’ module was
Python 3.11(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/asyncore.html


File: python.info,  Node: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data,  Next: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support,  Prev: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.4 ‘audioop’ — Manipulate raw audio data
--------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘audioop’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/audioop.html


File: python.info,  Node: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support,  Next: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts,  Prev: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.5 ‘cgi’ — Common Gateway Interface support
-----------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

A fork of the module on PyPI can be used instead: legacy-cgi(2).  This
is a copy of the cgi module, no longer maintained or supported by the
core Python team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘cgi’ module was Python
3.12(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/legacy-cgi/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/cgi.html


File: python.info,  Node: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts,  Next: chunk — Read IFF chunked data,  Prev: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.6 ‘cgitb’ — Traceback manager for CGI scripts
--------------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

A fork of the module on PyPI can now be used instead: legacy-cgi(2).
This is a copy of the cgi module, no longer maintained or supported by
the core Python team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘cgitb’ module was Python
3.12(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/legacy-cgi/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/cgitb.html


File: python.info,  Node: chunk — Read IFF chunked data,  Next: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords,  Prev: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.7 ‘chunk’ — Read IFF chunked data
--------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘chunk’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/chunk.html


File: python.info,  Node: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords,  Next: distutils — Building and installing Python modules,  Prev: chunk — Read IFF chunked data,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.8 ‘crypt’ — Function to check Unix passwords
-------------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Applications can use the *note hashlib: 6b. module from the standard
library.  Other possible replacements are third-party libraries from
PyPI: legacycrypt(2), bcrypt(3), or argon2-cffi(4).  These are not
supported or maintained by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘crypt’ module was Python
3.12(5).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/legacycrypt/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/bcrypt/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/argon2-cffi/

   (5) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/crypt.html


File: python.info,  Node: distutils — Building and installing Python modules,  Next: imghdr — Determine the type of an image,  Prev: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.9 ‘distutils’ — Building and installing Python modules
-----------------------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.10, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 917. after being deprecated in Python
3.10.  The removal was decided in PEP 632(1), which has migration
advice(2).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘distutils’ module was
Python 3.11(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice

   (3) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/distutils.html


File: python.info,  Node: imghdr — Determine the type of an image,  Next: imp — Access the import internals,  Prev: distutils — Building and installing Python modules,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.10 ‘imghdr’ — Determine the type of an image
-------------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Possible replacements are third-party libraries from PyPI: filetype(2),
puremagic(3), or python-magic(4).  These are not supported or maintained
by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘imghdr’ module was Python
3.12(5).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/

   (5) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/imghdr.html


File: python.info,  Node: imp — Access the import internals,  Next: mailcap — Mailcap file handling,  Prev: imghdr — Determine the type of an image,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.11 ‘imp’ — Access the import internals
-------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.4, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 921. after being deprecated in Python 3.4.

The *note removal notice: 921. includes guidance for migrating code from
‘imp’ to *note importlib: 7a.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘imp’ module was Python
3.11(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/imp.html


File: python.info,  Node: mailcap — Mailcap file handling,  Next: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files,  Prev: imp — Access the import internals,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.12 ‘mailcap’ — Mailcap file handling
-----------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘mailcap’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/mailcap.html


File: python.info,  Node: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files,  Next: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages,  Prev: mailcap — Mailcap file handling,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.13 ‘msilib’ — Read and write Microsoft Installer files
-----------------------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘msilib’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/msilib.html


File: python.info,  Node: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages,  Next: nntplib — NNTP protocol client,  Prev: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.14 ‘nis’ — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)
-----------------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘nis’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/nis.html


File: python.info,  Node: nntplib — NNTP protocol client,  Next: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices,  Prev: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.15 ‘nntplib’ — NNTP protocol client
----------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘nntplib’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/nntplib.html


File: python.info,  Node: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices,  Next: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines,  Prev: nntplib — NNTP protocol client,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.16 ‘ossaudiodev’ — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
--------------------------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘ossaudiodev’ module was
Python 3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/ossaudiodev.html


File: python.info,  Node: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines,  Next: smtpd — SMTP Server,  Prev: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.17 ‘pipes’ — Interface to shell pipelines
----------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Applications should use the *note subprocess: df. module instead.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘pipes’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/pipes.html


File: python.info,  Node: smtpd — SMTP Server,  Next: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file,  Prev: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.18 ‘smtpd’ — SMTP Server
-----------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.6, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.12: 911. after being deprecated in Python 3.6.
The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

A possible replacement is the third-party aiosmtpd(2) library.  This
library is not maintained or supported by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘smtpd’ module was Python
3.11(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/smtpd.html


File: python.info,  Node: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file,  Next: spwd — The shadow password database,  Prev: smtpd — SMTP Server,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.19 ‘sndhdr’ — Determine type of sound file
-----------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Possible replacements are third-party modules from PyPI: filetype(2),
puremagic(3), or python-magic(4).  These are not supported or maintained
by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘sndhdr’ module was Python
3.12(5).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/

   (4) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/

   (5) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/sndhdr.html


File: python.info,  Node: spwd — The shadow password database,  Next: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files,  Prev: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.20 ‘spwd’ — The shadow password database
---------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

A possible replacement is the third-party library python-pam(2).  This
library is not supported or maintained by the Python core team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘spwd’ module was Python
3.12(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/

   (3) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/spwd.html


File: python.info,  Node: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files,  Next: telnetlib — Telnet client,  Prev: spwd — The shadow password database,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.21 ‘sunau’ — Read and write Sun AU files
---------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘sunau’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/sunau.html


File: python.info,  Node: telnetlib — Telnet client,  Next: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files,  Prev: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.22 ‘telnetlib’ — Telnet client
-----------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

Possible replacements are third-party libraries from PyPI: telnetlib3(2)
or Exscript(3).  These are not supported or maintained by the Python
core team.

The last version of Python that provided the ‘telnetlib’ module was
Python 3.12(4).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/telnetlib3/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/Exscript/

   (4) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/telnetlib.html


File: python.info,  Node: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files,  Next: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data,  Prev: telnetlib — Telnet client,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.23 ‘uu’ — Encode and decode uuencode files
-----------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘uu’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/uu.html


File: python.info,  Node: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data,  Prev: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files,  Up: Removed Modules

5.38.24 ‘xdrlib’ — Encode and decode XDR data
---------------------------------------------

Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13.

This module is no longer part of the Python standard library.  It was
*note removed in Python 3.13: 682. after being deprecated in Python
3.11.  The removal was decided in PEP 594(1).

The last version of Python that provided the ‘xdrlib’ module was Python
3.12(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/

   (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/xdrlib.html


File: python.info,  Node: Security Considerations<3>,  Prev: Removed Modules,  Up: The Python Standard Library

5.39 Security Considerations
============================

The following modules have specific security considerations:

   * *note base64: f.: *note base64 security considerations: 3ef8. in
     RFC 4648(1)

   * *note hashlib: 6b.: *note all constructors take a «usedforsecurity»
     keyword-only argument disabling known insecure and blocked
     algorithms: 31ed.

   * *note http.server: 75. is not suitable for production use, only
     implementing basic security checks.  See the *note security
     considerations: 4333.

   * *note logging: 8a.: *note Logging configuration uses eval(): 3406.

   * *note multiprocessing: 98.: *note Connection.recv() uses pickle:
     38d0.

   * *note pickle: ab.: *note Restricting globals in pickle: 2f3e.

   * *note random: c0. shouldn’t be used for security purposes, use
     *note secrets: c8. instead

   * *note shelve: cb.: *note shelve is based on pickle and thus
     unsuitable for dealing with untrusted sources: 2f61.

   * *note ssl: d8.: *note SSL/TLS security considerations: 3ad9.

   * *note subprocess: df.: *note Subprocess security considerations:
     399c.

   * *note tempfile: e9.: *note mktemp is deprecated due to
     vulnerability to race conditions: 2efa.

   * *note xml: 129.: *note XML security: 3f34.

   * *note zipfile: 13a.: *note maliciously prepared .zip files can
     cause disk volume exhaustion: 30fe.

The *note -I: d28. command line option can be used to run Python in
isolated mode.  When it cannot be used, the *note -P: 9a3. option or the
*note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 9a4. environment variable can be used to not
prepend a potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 194. such as the
current directory, the script’s directory or an empty string.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html


File: python.info,  Node: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python,  Next: Python/C API reference manual,  Prev: The Python Standard Library,  Up: Top

6 Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python
**************************************************

This document describes how to write modules in C or C++ to extend the
Python interpreter with new modules.  Those modules can do what Python
code does – define functions, object types and methods – but also
interact with native libraries or achieve better performance by avoiding
the overhead of an interpreter.  The document also describes how to
embed the Python interpreter in another application, for use as an
extension language.  Finally, it shows how to compile and link extension
modules so that they can be loaded dynamically (at run time) into the
interpreter, if the underlying operating system supports this feature.

This document assumes basic knowledge about C and Python.  For an
informal introduction to Python, see *note Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python:
21a9.  *note Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς της Γλώσσας Python: 3f8. gives a more
formal definition of the language.  *note The Python Standard Library:
3f7. documents the existing object types, functions and modules (both
built-in and written in Python) that give the language its wide
application range.

Για μια λεπτομερή περιγραφή ολόκληρου του Python/C API, δείτε το
ξεχωριστό *note Python/C API reference manual: 21ab.

To support extensions, Python’s C API (Application Programmers
Interface) defines a set of functions, macros and variables that provide
access to most aspects of the Python run-time system.  The Python API is
incorporated in a C source file by including the header ‘"Python.h"’.

     Σημείωση: The C extension interface is specific to CPython, and
     extension modules do not work on other Python implementations.  In
     many cases, it is possible to avoid writing C extensions and
     preserve portability to other implementations.  For example, if
     your use case is calling C library functions or system calls, you
     should consider using the *note ctypes: 2d. module or the cffi(1)
     library rather than writing custom C code.  These modules let you
     write Python code to interface with C code and are more portable
     between implementations of Python than writing and compiling a C
     extension module.
* Menu:

* Your first C API extension module::
* Using the C API; Assorted topics: Using the C API Assorted topics.
* Defining Extension Types; Tutorial: Defining Extension Types Tutorial.
* Defining Extension Types; Assorted Topics: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics.
* Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C και C++::
* Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows::
* Embedding Python in Another Application::
* Προτεινόμενα εργαλεία τρίτων::
* C API Tutorial::
* Guides for intermediate topics::
* Ενσωμάτωση του χρόνου εκτέλεσης της CPython σε μεγαλύτερη εφαρμογή::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cffi.readthedocs.io/


File: python.info,  Node: Your first C API extension module,  Next: Using the C API Assorted topics,  Up: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python

6.1 Your first C API extension module
=====================================

This tutorial will take you through creating a simple Python extension
module written in C or C++.

We will use the low-level Python C API directly.  For easier ways to
create extension modules, see the *note recommended third party tools:
5198.

The tutorial assumes basic knowledge about Python: you should be able to
define functions in Python code before starting to write them in C. See
*note Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python: 21a9. for an introduction to Python
itself.

The tutorial should be approachable for anyone who can write a basic C
library.  While we will mention several concepts that a C beginner would
not be expected to know, like ‘static’ functions or linkage
declarations, understanding these is not necessary for success.

We will focus on giving you a «feel» of what Python’s C API is like.  It
will not teach you important concepts, like error handling and reference
counting, which are covered in later chapters.

We will assume that you use a Unix-like system (including macOS and
Linux), or Windows.  On other systems, you might need to adjust some
details – for example, a system command name.

You need to have a suitable C compiler and Python development headers
installed.  On Linux, headers are often in a package like ‘python3-dev’
or ‘python3-devel’.

You need to be able to install Python packages.  This tutorial uses
pip(1) (‘pip install’), but you can substitute any tool that can build
and install ‘pyproject.toml’-based projects, like uv(2) (‘uv pip
install’).  Preferably, have a *note virtual environment: 3a9.
activated.

     Σημείωση: This tutorial uses APIs that were added in CPython 3.15.
     To create an extension that’s compatible with earlier versions of
     CPython, please follow an earlier version of this documentation.

     This tutorial uses C syntax added in C11 and C++20.  If your
     extension needs to be compatible with earlier standards, please
     follow tutorials in documentation for Python 3.14 or below.

* Menu:

* What we’ll do::
* Start with the headers::
* Running your build tool::
* Module export hook::
* The slot table::
* Exposing a function::
* Returning an integer::
* Accepting a string::
* The result::
* Appendix; Other build tools: Appendix Other build tools.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pip.pypa.io/

   (2) https://docs.astral.sh/uv/


File: python.info,  Node: What we’ll do,  Next: Start with the headers,  Up: Your first C API extension module

6.1.1 What we’ll do
-------------------

Let’s create an extension module called ‘spam’ (1), which will include a
Python interface to the C standard library function ‘system()’.  This
function is defined in ‘stdlib.h’.  It takes a C string as argument,
runs the argument as a system command, and returns a result value as an
integer.  A manual page for ‘system()’ might summarize it this way:

     #include <stdlib.h>
     int system(const char *command);

Note that like many functions in the C standard library, this function
is already exposed in Python.  In production, use *note os.system():
17ff. or *note subprocess.run(): f45. rather than the module you’ll
write here.

We want this function to be callable from Python as follows:

     >>> import spam
     >>> status = spam.system("whoami")
     User Name
     >>> status
     0

     Σημείωση: The system command ‘whoami’ prints out your username.
     It’s useful in tutorials like this one because it has the same name
     on both Unix and Windows.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘spam’ is the favorite food of Monty Python fans…


File: python.info,  Node: Start with the headers,  Next: Running your build tool,  Prev: What we’ll do,  Up: Your first C API extension module

6.1.2 Start with the headers
----------------------------

Begin by creating a directory for this tutorial, and switching to it on
the command line.  Then, create a file named ‘spammodule.c’ in your
directory.  (1)

In this file, we’ll include two headers: ‘Python.h’ to pull in all
declarations of the Python C API, and ‘stdlib.h’ for the ‘system()’
function.  (2)

Add the following lines to ‘spammodule.c’:

     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stdlib.h>     // for system()

Be sure to put ‘stdlib.h’, and any other standard library includes,
'after' ‘Python.h’.  On some systems, Python may define some
pre-processor definitions that affect the standard headers.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The source file name is entirely up to you, though some tools can
be picky about the ‘.c’ extension.  This tutorial uses the traditional
‘*module.c’ suffix.  Some people would just use ‘spam.c’ to implement a
module named ‘spam’, projects where Python isn’t the primary language
might use ‘py_spam.c’, and so on.

   (2) Including ‘stdlib.h’ is technically not necessary, since
‘Python.h’ includes it and *note several other standard headers: 519b.
for its own use or for backwards compatibility.  However, it is good
practice to explicitly include what you need.


File: python.info,  Node: Running your build tool,  Next: Module export hook,  Prev: Start with the headers,  Up: Your first C API extension module

6.1.3 Running your build tool
-----------------------------

With only the includes in place, your extension won’t do anything.
Still, it’s a good time to compile it and try to import it.  This will
ensure that your build tool works, so that you can make and test
incremental changes as you follow the rest of the text.

CPython itself does not come with a tool to build extension modules; it
is recommended to use a third-party project for this.  In this tutorial,
we’ll use meson-python(1).  (If you want to use another one, see *note
Appendix; Other build tools: 519d.)

‘meson-python’ requires defining a «project» using two extra files.

First, add ‘pyproject.toml’ with these contents:

     [build-system]
     build-backend = 'mesonpy'
     requires = ['meson-python']

     [project]
     # Placeholder project information
     # (change this before distributing the module)
     name = 'sampleproject'
     version = '0'

Then, create ‘meson.build’ containing the following:

     project('sampleproject', 'c')

     py = import('python').find_installation(pure: false)

     py.extension_module(
        'spam',          # name of the importable Python module
        'spammodule.c',  # the C source file
        install: true,
     )

     Σημείωση: See meson-python documentation(2) for details on
     configuration.

Now, build install the 'project in the current directory' (‘.’) via
‘pip’:

     python -m pip -v install .

The ‘-v’ (‘--verbose’) option causes ‘pip’ to show the output from the
compiler, which is often useful during development.

     Πρακτική συμβουλή: If you don’t have ‘pip’ installed, run ‘python
     -m ensurepip’, preferably in a *note virtual environment: 3a9.
     (Or, if you prefer another tool that can build and install
     ‘pyproject.toml’-based projects, use that.)

Note that you will need to run this command again every time you change
your extension.  Unlike Python, C has an explicit compilation step.

When your extension is compiled and installed, start Python and try to
import it.  This should fail with the following exception:

     >>> import spam
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     ImportError: dynamic module does not define module export function (PyModExport_spam or PyInit_spam)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mesonbuild.com/meson-python/

   (2) meson-python


File: python.info,  Node: Module export hook,  Next: The slot table,  Prev: Running your build tool,  Up: Your first C API extension module

6.1.4 Module export hook
------------------------

The exception you got when you tried to import the module told you that
Python is looking for a «module export function», also known as a *note
module export hook: 38d.  Let’s define one.

First, add a prototype below the ‘#include’ lines:


     PyMODEXPORT_FUNC PyModExport_spam(void);


     Πρακτική συμβουλή: The prototype is not strictly necessary, but
     some modern compilers emit warnings without it.  It’s generally
     better to add the prototype than to disable the warning.

The *note PyMODEXPORT_FUNC: 1990. macro declares the function’s return
type, and adds any special linkage declarations needed to make the
function visible and usable when CPython loads it.

After the prototype, add the function itself.  For now, make it return
‘NULL’:

     PyMODEXPORT_FUNC
     PyModExport_spam(void)
     {
        return NULL;
     }

Compile and load the module again.  You should get a different error
this time.

     >>> import spam
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     SystemError: module export hook for module 'spam' failed without setting an exception

Simply returning ‘NULL’ is 'not' correct behavior for an export hook,
and CPython complains about it.  That’s good – it means that CPython
found the function!  Let’s now make it do something useful.


File: python.info,  Node: The slot table,  Next: Exposing a function,  Prev: Module export hook,  Up: Your first C API extension module

6.1.5 The slot table
--------------------

Rather than ‘NULL’, the export hook should return the information needed
to create a module.  Let’s start with the basics: the name and
docstring.

The information should be defined in an array of *note PySlot: 19d.
entries, which are essentially key-value pairs.  Define this array just
before your export hook:

     PyABIInfo_VAR(abi_info);

     static PySlot spam_slots[] = {
        PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_mod_abi, &abi_info),
        PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_mod_name, "spam"),
        PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_mod_doc, "A wonderful module with an example function"),
        PySlot_END
     };

The *note PySlot_STATIC_DATA: 388. macro is used when the slot value
(here: ‘&abi_info’, ‘"spam"’, and the docstring) is a pointer to
constant, statically allocated data.

The ‘PyABIInfo_VAR(abi_info);’ macro and the *note Py_mod_abi: 358. slot
are a bit of boilerplate that helps prevent extensions compiled for a
different version of Python from crashing the interpreter.

For both *note Py_mod_name: 51a0. and *note Py_mod_doc: 51a1, the values
are C strings – that is, NUL-terminated, UTF-8 encoded byte arrays.

Note ‘PySlot_END’ sentinel entry at the end.  This marks the end of the
array.  If you forget it, you’ll trigger undefined behavior.

The array is defined as ‘static’ – that is, not visible outside this
‘.c’ file.  This will be a common theme.  CPython only needs to access
the export hook; all global variables and all other functions should
generally be ‘static’, so that they don’t clash with other extensions.

Return this array from your export hook instead of ‘NULL’:

     PyMODEXPORT_FUNC
     PyModExport_spam(void)
     {
        return spam_slots;
     }

Now, recompile and try it out:

     >>> import spam
     >>> print(spam)
     <module 'spam' from '/home/encukou/dev/cpython/spam.so'>

You have an extension module!  Try ‘help(spam)’ to see the docstring.

The next step will be adding a function.


File: python.info,  Node: Exposing a function,  Next: Returning an integer,  Prev: The slot table,  Up: Your first C API extension module

6.1.6 Exposing a function
-------------------------

To expose the ‘system()’ C function directly to Python, we’ll need to
write a layer of glue code to convert arguments from Python objects to C
values, and the C return value back to Python.

One of the simplest ways to write glue code is a «*note METH_O: 18a9.»
function, which takes two Python objects and returns one.  All Python
objects – regardless of the Python type – are represented in C as
pointers to the *note PyObject: 19b. structure.

Add such a function above the slots array:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg)
     {
        Py_RETURN_NONE;
     }

For now, we ignore the arguments, and use the *note Py_RETURN_NONE:
1815. macro, which expands to a ‘return’ statement that properly returns
a Python *note None: a65. object.

Recompile your extension to make sure you don’t have syntax errors.  We
haven’t yet added ‘spam_system’ to the module, so you might get a
warning that ‘spam_system’ is unused.

* Menu:

* Method definitions::


File: python.info,  Node: Method definitions,  Up: Exposing a function

6.1.6.1 Method definitions
..........................

To expose the C function to Python, you will need to provide several
pieces of information in a structure called *note PyMethodDef: 1879.
(1):

   * ‘ml_name’: the name of the Python function;

   * ‘ml_doc’: a docstring;

   * ‘ml_meth’: the C function to be called; and

   * ‘ml_flags’: a set of flags describing details like how Python
     arguments are passed to the C function.  We’ll use *note METH_O:
     18a9. here – the flag that matches our ‘spam_system’ function’s
     signature.

Because modules typically create several functions, these definitions
need to be collected in an array, with a zero-filled sentinel at the
end.  Add this array just below the ‘spam_system’ function:


     static PyMethodDef spam_methods[] = {
         {
             .ml_name="system",
             .ml_meth=spam_system,
             .ml_flags=METH_O,
             .ml_doc="Execute a shell command.",
         },
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}        /* Sentinel */
     };


As with module slots, a zero-filled sentinel marks the end of the array.

Next, we’ll add the method to the module.  Add a *note Py_mod_methods:
51a6. slot to your *note PyMethodDef: 1879. array:


     PyABIInfo_VAR(abi_info);

     static PySlot spam_slots[] = {
         PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_mod_abi, &abi_info),
         PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_mod_name, "spam"),
         PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_mod_doc, "A wonderful module with an example function"),
         PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_mod_methods, spam_methods),
         PySlot_END
     };


Recompile your extension again, and test it.  Be sure to restart the
Python interpreter, so that ‘import spam’ picks up the new version of
the module.

You should now be able to call the function:

     >>> import spam
     >>> print(spam.system)
     <built-in function system>
     >>> print(spam.system('whoami'))
     None

Note that our ‘spam.system’ does not yet run the ‘whoami’ command; it
only returns ‘None’.

Check that the function accepts exactly one argument, as specified by
the *note METH_O: 18a9. flag:

     >>> print(spam.system('too', 'many', 'arguments'))
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     TypeError: spam.system() takes exactly one argument (3 given)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The ‘PyMethodDef’ structure is also used to create methods of
classes, so there’s no separate «‘PyFunctionDef’».


File: python.info,  Node: Returning an integer,  Next: Accepting a string,  Prev: Exposing a function,  Up: Your first C API extension module

6.1.7 Returning an integer
--------------------------

Now, let’s take a look at the return value.  Instead of ‘None’, we’ll
want ‘spam.system’ to return a number – that is, a Python *note int:
326. object.  Eventually this will be the exit code of a system command,
but let’s start with a fixed value, say, ‘3’.

The Python C API provides a function to create a Python *note int: 326.
object from a C ‘int’ value: *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1dca.  (1)

To call it, replace the ‘Py_RETURN_NONE’ with the following 3 lines:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg)
     {
        int status = 3;
        PyObject *result = PyLong_FromLong(status);
        return result;
     }

Recompile, restart the Python interpreter again, and check that the
function now returns 3:

     >>> import spam
     >>> spam.system('whoami')
     3

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The name *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1dca. might not seem obvious.
‘PyLong’ refers to a the Python *note int: 326, which was originally
called ‘long’; the ‘FromLong’ refers to the C ‘long’ (or ‘long int’)
type.


File: python.info,  Node: Accepting a string,  Next: The result,  Prev: Returning an integer,  Up: Your first C API extension module

6.1.8 Accepting a string
------------------------

Finally, let’s handle the function argument.

Our C function, ‘spam_system()’, takes two arguments.  The first one,
‘PyObject *self’, will be set to the ‘spam’ module object.  This isn’t
useful in our case, so we’ll ignore it.

The other one, ‘PyObject *arg’, will be set to the object that the user
passed from Python.  We expect that it should be a Python string.  In
order to use the information in it, we will need to convert it to a C
value – in this case, a C string (‘const char *’).

There’s a slight type mismatch here: Python’s *note str: 1df. objects
store Unicode text, but C strings are arrays of bytes.  So, we’ll need
to 'encode' the data, and we’ll use the UTF-8 encoding for it.  (UTF-8
might not always be correct for system commands, but it’s what *note
str.encode(): ca7. uses by default, and the C API has special support
for it.)

The function to encode a Python string into a UTF-8 buffer is named
*note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): c6f. (1).  Call it like this:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg)
     {
        const char *command = PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(arg, NULL);
        int status = 3;
        PyObject *result = PyLong_FromLong(status);
        return result;
     }

If *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): c6f. is successful, 'command' will
point to the resulting C string – a zero-terminated array of bytes (2).
This buffer is managed by the 'arg' object, which means we don’t need to
free it, but we must follow some rules:

   * We should only use the buffer inside the ‘spam_system’ function.
     After ‘spam_system’ returns, 'arg' and the buffer it manages might
     be garbage-collected.

   * We must not modify it.  This is why we use ‘const’.

If *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): c6f. was 'not' successful, it
returns a ‘NULL’ pointer.  When calling 'any' Python C API, we always
need to handle such error cases.  The way to do this in general is left
for later chapters of this documentation.  For now, be assured that we
are already handling errors from *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1dca.
correctly.

For the *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): c6f. call, the correct way to
handle errors is returning ‘NULL’ from ‘spam_system’.  Add an ‘if’ block
for this:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg)
     {
        const char *command = PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(arg);
        if (command == NULL) {
           return NULL;
        }
        int status = 3;
        PyObject *result = PyLong_FromLong(status);
        return result;
     }

To test that error handling works, compile again, restart Python so that
‘import spam’ picks up the new version of your module, and try passing a
non-string value to your function:

     >>> import spam
     >>> spam.system(3)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     TypeError: bad argument type for built-in operation

Now, all that is left is calling the C library function ‘system()’ with
the ‘char *’ buffer, and using its result instead of the ‘3’:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg)
     {
        const char *command = PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(arg);
        if (command == NULL) {
           return NULL;
        }
        int status = system(command);
        PyObject *result = PyLong_FromLong(status);
        return result;
     }

Compile your module, restart Python, and test.  This time, you should
see your username – the output of the ‘whoami’ system command:

     >>> import spam
     >>> result = spam.system('whoami')
     User Name
     >>> result
     0

You can also test with other commands, like ‘ls’, ‘dir’, or one that
doesn’t exist:

     >>> import spam
     >>> result = spam.system('nonexistent-command')
     sh: line 1: nonexistent-command: command not found
     >>> result
     32512

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Here, ‘PyUnicode’ refers to the original name of the Python *note
str: 1df. class: ‘unicode’.

The ‘AndSize’ part of the name refers to the fact that this function can
also retrieve the size of the buffer, using an output argument.  We
don’t need this, so we set the second argument to NULL.

   (2) We’re ignoring the fact that Python strings can also contain NUL
bytes, which terminate a C string.  In other words, our function will
treat ‘spam.system("foo\0bar")’ as ‘spam.system("foo")’.  This
possibility can lead to security issues, so the real ‘os.system’
function size checks for this case and raises an error.


File: python.info,  Node: The result,  Next: Appendix Other build tools,  Prev: Accepting a string,  Up: Your first C API extension module

6.1.9 The result
----------------

Congratulations!  You have written a complete Python C API extension
module, and completed this tutorial!

Here is the entire source file, for your convenience:
     /// Includes

     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stdlib.h>     // for system()

     /// Implementation of spam.system

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg)
     {
        const char *command = PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(arg, NULL);
        if (command == NULL) {
           return NULL;
        }
        int status = system(command);
        PyObject *result = PyLong_FromLong(status);
        return result;
     }

     /// Module method table

     static PyMethodDef spam_methods[] = {
         {
             .ml_name="system",
             .ml_meth=spam_system,
             .ml_flags=METH_O,
             .ml_doc="Execute a shell command.",
         },
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}        /* Sentinel */
     };

     /// Module slot table

     PyABIInfo_VAR(abi_info);

     static PySlot spam_slots[] = {
         PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_mod_abi, &abi_info),
         PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_mod_name, "spam"),
         PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_mod_doc, "A wonderful module with an example function"),
         PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_mod_methods, spam_methods),
         PySlot_END
     };

     /// Export hook prototype

     PyMODEXPORT_FUNC PyModExport_spam(void);

     /// Module export hook

     PyMODEXPORT_FUNC
     PyModExport_spam(void)
     {
        return spam_slots;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Appendix Other build tools,  Prev: The result,  Up: Your first C API extension module

6.1.10 Appendix: Other build tools
----------------------------------

You should be able to follow this tutorial – except the 'Running your
build tool' section itself – with a build tool other than
‘meson-python’.

The Python Packaging User Guide has a list of recommended tools(1); be
sure to choose one for the C language.

* Menu:

* Workaround for missing PyInit function::
* Compiling directly::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/guides/tool-recommendations/#build-backends-for-extension-modules


File: python.info,  Node: Workaround for missing PyInit function,  Next: Compiling directly,  Up: Appendix Other build tools

6.1.10.1 Workaround for missing PyInit function
...............................................

If your build tool output complains about missing ‘PyInit_spam’, add the
following function to your module for now:

     // A workaround
     void *PyInit_spam(void) { return NULL; }

This is a shim for an old-style *note initialization function: 38d,
which was required in extension modules for CPython 3.14 and below.
Current CPython does not need it, but some build tools may still assume
that all extension modules need to define it.

If you use this workaround, you will get the exception ‘SystemError:
initialization of spam failed without raising an exception’ instead of
‘ImportError: dynamic module does not define module export function’.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiling directly,  Prev: Workaround for missing PyInit function,  Up: Appendix Other build tools

6.1.10.2 Compiling directly
...........................

Using a third-party build tool is heavily recommended, as it will take
care of various details of your platform and Python installation, of
naming the resulting extension, and, later, of distributing your work.

If you are building an extension for as 'specific' system, or for
yourself only, you might instead want to run your compiler directly.
The way to do this is system-specific; be prepared for issues you will
need to solve yourself.

* Menu:

* Linux::


File: python.info,  Node: Linux,  Up: Compiling directly

6.1.10.3 Linux
..............

On Linux, the Python development package may include a ‘python3-config’
command that prints out the required compiler flags.  If you use it,
check that it corresponds to the CPython interpreter you’ll use to load
the module.  Then, start with the following command:

     gcc --shared $(python3-config --cflags --ldflags) spammodule.c -o spam.so

This should generate a ‘spam.so’ file that you need to put in a
directory on *note sys.path: 194.


File: python.info,  Node: Using the C API Assorted topics,  Next: Defining Extension Types Tutorial,  Prev: Your first C API extension module,  Up: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python

6.2 Using the C API: Assorted topics
====================================

The *note tutorial: 5196. walked you through creating a C API extension
module, but left many areas unexplained.  This document looks at several
concepts that you’ll need to learn in order to write more complex
extensions.

* Menu:

* Errors and Exceptions::
* Embedding an extension::
* Calling Python Functions from C::
* Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions::
* Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions::
* Building Arbitrary Values::
* Reference Counts::
* Writing Extensions in C++::
* Providing a C API for an Extension Module::


File: python.info,  Node: Errors and Exceptions,  Next: Embedding an extension,  Up: Using the C API Assorted topics

6.2.1 Errors and Exceptions
---------------------------

An important convention throughout the Python interpreter is the
following: when a function fails, it should set an exception condition
and return an error value (usually ‘-1’ or a ‘NULL’ pointer).  Exception
information is stored in three members of the interpreter’s thread
state.  These are ‘NULL’ if there is no exception.  Otherwise they are
the C equivalents of the members of the Python tuple returned by *note
sys.exc_info(): a7a.  These are the exception type, exception instance,
and a traceback object.  It is important to know about them to
understand how errors are passed around.

The Python API defines a number of functions to set various types of
exceptions.

The most common one is *note PyErr_SetString(): 980.  Its arguments are
an exception object and a C string.  The exception object is usually a
predefined object like *note PyExc_ZeroDivisionError: 51b5.  The C
string indicates the cause of the error and is converted to a Python
string object and stored as the «associated value» of the exception.

Another useful function is *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 51b6, which only
takes an exception argument and constructs the associated value by
inspection of the global variable ‘errno’.  The most general function is
*note PyErr_SetObject(): 97f, which takes two object arguments, the
exception and its associated value.  You don’t need to *note
Py_INCREF(): 974. the objects passed to any of these functions.

You can test non-destructively whether an exception has been set with
*note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5.  This returns the current exception
object, or ‘NULL’ if no exception has occurred.  You normally don’t need
to call ‘PyErr_Occurred()’ to see whether an error occurred in a
function call, since you should be able to tell from the return value.

When a function 'f' that calls another function 'g' detects that the
latter fails, 'f' should itself return an error value (usually ‘NULL’ or
‘-1’).  It should 'not' call one of the ‘PyErr_*’ functions — one has
already been called by 'g'.  'f'’s caller is then supposed to also
return an error indication to 'its' caller, again 'without' calling
‘PyErr_*’, and so on — the most detailed cause of the error was already
reported by the function that first detected it.  Once the error reaches
the Python interpreter’s main loop, this aborts the currently executing
Python code and tries to find an exception handler specified by the
Python programmer.

(There are situations where a module can actually give a more detailed
error message by calling another ‘PyErr_*’ function, and in such cases
it is fine to do so.  As a general rule, however, this is not necessary,
and can cause information about the cause of the error to be lost: most
operations can fail for a variety of reasons.)

To ignore an exception set by a function call that failed, the exception
condition must be cleared explicitly by calling *note PyErr_Clear():
13d9.  The only time C code should call ‘PyErr_Clear()’ is if it doesn’t
want to pass the error on to the interpreter but wants to handle it
completely by itself (possibly by trying something else, or pretending
nothing went wrong).

Every failing ‘malloc()’ call must be turned into an exception — the
direct caller of ‘malloc()’ (or ‘realloc()’) must call *note
PyErr_NoMemory(): 51b7. and return a failure indicator itself.  All the
object-creating functions (for example, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1dca.)
already do this, so this note is only relevant to those who call
‘malloc()’ directly.

Also note that, with the important exception of *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. and friends, functions that return an integer
status usually return a positive value or zero for success and ‘-1’ for
failure, like Unix system calls.

Finally, be careful to clean up garbage (by making *note Py_XDECREF():
b6e. or *note Py_DECREF(): 975. calls for objects you have already
created) when you return an error indicator!

The choice of which exception to raise is entirely yours.  There are
predeclared C objects corresponding to all built-in Python exceptions,
such as *note PyExc_ZeroDivisionError: 51b5, which you can use directly.
Of course, you should choose exceptions wisely — don’t use *note
PyExc_TypeError: 51b8. to mean that a file couldn’t be opened (that
should probably be *note PyExc_OSError: 51b9.).  If something’s wrong
with the argument list, the *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. function
usually raises ‘PyExc_TypeError’.  If you have an argument whose value
must be in a particular range or must satisfy other conditions, *note
PyExc_ValueError: 51ba. is appropriate.

You can also define a new exception that is unique to your module.  The
simplest way to do this is to declare a static global object variable at
the beginning of the file:

     static PyObject *SpamError = NULL;

and initialize it by calling *note PyErr_NewException(): 160e. in the
module’s *note Py_mod_exec: d46. function (‘spam_module_exec()’):

     SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL);

Since ‘SpamError’ is a global variable, it will be overwritten every
time the module is reinitialized, when the *note Py_mod_exec: d46.
function is called.

For now, let’s avoid the issue: we will block repeated initialization by
raising an *note ImportError: 1bd.:

     static PyObject *SpamError = NULL;

     static int
     spam_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         if (SpamError != NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ImportError,
                             "cannot initialize spam module more than once");
             return -1;
         }
         SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL);
         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SpamError", SpamError) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

     static PyModuleDef_Slot spam_module_slots[] = {
         {Py_mod_exec, spam_module_exec},
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "spam",
         .m_size = 0,  // non-negative
         .m_slots = spam_module_slots,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_spam(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module);
     }

Note that the Python name for the exception object is ‘spam.error’.  The
*note PyErr_NewException(): 160e. function may create a class with the
base class being *note Exception: d9e. (unless another class is passed
in instead of ‘NULL’), described in *note Built-in Exceptions: 1e1e.

Note also that the ‘SpamError’ variable retains a reference to the newly
created exception class; this is intentional!  Since the exception could
be removed from the module by external code, an owned reference to the
class is needed to ensure that it will not be discarded, causing
‘SpamError’ to become a dangling pointer.  Should it become a dangling
pointer, C code which raises the exception could cause a core dump or
other unintended side effects.

For now, the *note Py_DECREF(): 975. call to remove this reference is
missing.  Even when the Python interpreter shuts down, the global
‘SpamError’ variable will not be garbage-collected.  It will «leak».  We
did, however, ensure that this will happen at most once per process.

We discuss the use of *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 1875. as a function return
type later in this sample.

The ‘spam.error’ exception can be raised in your extension module using
a call to *note PyErr_SetString(): 980. as shown below:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = system(command);
         if (sts < 0) {
             PyErr_SetString(SpamError, "System command failed");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Embedding an extension,  Next: Calling Python Functions from C,  Prev: Errors and Exceptions,  Up: Using the C API Assorted topics

6.2.2 Embedding an extension
----------------------------

If you want to make your module a permanent part of the Python
interpreter, you will have to change the configuration setup and rebuild
the interpreter.  On Unix, place your file (‘spammodule.c’ for example)
in the ‘Modules/’ directory of an unpacked source distribution, add a
line to the file ‘Modules/Setup.local’ describing your file:

     spam spammodule.o

and rebuild the interpreter by running ‘make’ in the toplevel directory.
You can also run ‘make’ in the ‘Modules/’ subdirectory, but then you
must first rebuild ‘Makefile’ there by running “‘make’ Makefile”.  (This
is necessary each time you change the ‘Setup’ file.)

If your module requires additional libraries to link with, these can be
listed on the line in the configuration file as well, for instance:

     spam spammodule.o -lX11


File: python.info,  Node: Calling Python Functions from C,  Next: Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions,  Prev: Embedding an extension,  Up: Using the C API Assorted topics

6.2.3 Calling Python Functions from C
-------------------------------------

The tutorial concentrated on making C functions callable from Python.
The reverse is also useful: calling Python functions from C. This is
especially the case for libraries that support so-called «callback»
functions.  If a C interface makes use of callbacks, the equivalent
Python often needs to provide a callback mechanism to the Python
programmer; the implementation will require calling the Python callback
functions from a C callback.  Other uses are also imaginable.

Fortunately, the Python interpreter is easily called recursively, and
there is a standard interface to call a Python function.  (I won’t dwell
on how to call the Python parser with a particular string as input — if
you’re interested, have a look at the implementation of the *note -c:
445. command line option in ‘Modules/main.c’ from the Python source
code.)

Calling a Python function is easy.  First, the Python program must
somehow pass you the Python function object.  You should provide a
function (or some other interface) to do this.  When this function is
called, save a pointer to the Python function object (be careful to
*note Py_INCREF(): 974. it!)  in a global variable — or wherever you see
fit.  For example, the following function might be part of a module
definition:

     static PyObject *my_callback = NULL;

     static PyObject *
     my_set_callback(PyObject *dummy, PyObject *args)
     {
         PyObject *result = NULL;
         PyObject *temp;

         if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O:set_callback", &temp)) {
             if (!PyCallable_Check(temp)) {
                 PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "parameter must be callable");
                 return NULL;
             }
             Py_XINCREF(temp);         /* Add a reference to new callback */
             Py_XDECREF(my_callback);  /* Dispose of previous callback */
             my_callback = temp;       /* Remember new callback */
             /* Boilerplate to return "None" */
             Py_INCREF(Py_None);
             result = Py_None;
         }
         return result;
     }

This function must be registered with the interpreter using the *note
METH_VARARGS: 18aa. flag in *note PyMethodDef.ml_flags: 51bf.  The *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. function and its arguments are documented in
section *note Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions: 51c0.

The macros *note Py_XINCREF(): e29. and *note Py_XDECREF(): b6e.
increment/decrement the reference count of an object and are safe in the
presence of ‘NULL’ pointers (but note that 'temp' will not be ‘NULL’ in
this context).  More info on them in section *note Reference Counts:
51c1.

Later, when it is time to call the function, you call the C function
*note PyObject_CallObject(): 51c2.  This function has two arguments,
both pointers to arbitrary Python objects: the Python function, and the
argument list.  The argument list must always be a tuple object, whose
length is the number of arguments.  To call the Python function with no
arguments, pass in ‘NULL’, or an empty tuple; to call it with one
argument, pass a singleton tuple.  *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee. returns a
tuple when its format string consists of zero or more format codes
between parentheses.  For example:

     int arg;
     PyObject *arglist;
     PyObject *result;
     ...
     arg = 123;
     ...
     /* Time to call the callback */
     arglist = Py_BuildValue("(i)", arg);
     result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
     Py_DECREF(arglist);

*note PyObject_CallObject(): 51c2. returns a Python object pointer: this
is the return value of the Python function.  ‘PyObject_CallObject()’ is
«reference-count-neutral» with respect to its arguments.  In the example
a new tuple was created to serve as the argument list, which is *note
Py_DECREF(): 975.-ed immediately after the ‘PyObject_CallObject()’ call.

The return value of *note PyObject_CallObject(): 51c2. is «new»: either
it is a brand new object, or it is an existing object whose reference
count has been incremented.  So, unless you want to save it in a global
variable, you should somehow *note Py_DECREF(): 975. the result, even
(especially!)  if you are not interested in its value.

Before you do this, however, it is important to check that the return
value isn’t ‘NULL’.  If it is, the Python function terminated by raising
an exception.  If the C code that called *note PyObject_CallObject():
51c2. is called from Python, it should now return an error indication to
its Python caller, so the interpreter can print a stack trace, or the
calling Python code can handle the exception.  If this is not possible
or desirable, the exception should be cleared by calling *note
PyErr_Clear(): 13d9.  For example:

     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* Pass error back */
     ...use result...
     Py_DECREF(result);

Depending on the desired interface to the Python callback function, you
may also have to provide an argument list to *note
PyObject_CallObject(): 51c2.  In some cases the argument list is also
provided by the Python program, through the same interface that
specified the callback function.  It can then be saved and used in the
same manner as the function object.  In other cases, you may have to
construct a new tuple to pass as the argument list.  The simplest way to
do this is to call *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee.  For example, if you want
to pass an integral event code, you might use the following code:

     PyObject *arglist;
     ...
     arglist = Py_BuildValue("(l)", eventcode);
     result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
     Py_DECREF(arglist);
     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* Pass error back */
     /* Here maybe use the result */
     Py_DECREF(result);

Note the placement of ‘Py_DECREF(arglist)’ immediately after the call,
before the error check!  Also note that strictly speaking this code is
not complete: *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee. may run out of memory, and
this should be checked.

You may also call a function with keyword arguments by using *note
PyObject_Call(): 82f, which supports arguments and keyword arguments.
As in the above example, we use *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee. to construct
the dictionary.

     PyObject *dict;
     ...
     dict = Py_BuildValue("{s:i}", "name", val);
     result = PyObject_Call(my_callback, NULL, dict);
     Py_DECREF(dict);
     if (result == NULL)
         return NULL; /* Pass error back */
     /* Here maybe use the result */
     Py_DECREF(result);


File: python.info,  Node: Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions,  Next: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions,  Prev: Calling Python Functions from C,  Up: Using the C API Assorted topics

6.2.4 Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
--------------------------------------------------

The *note tutorial: 5196. uses a «*note METH_O: 18a9.» function, which
is limited to a single Python argument.  If you want more, you can use
*note METH_VARARGS: 18aa. instead.  With this flag, the C function will
receive a *note tuple: 1ce. of arguments instead of a single object.

For unpacking the tuple, CPython provides the *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
3b1. function, declared as follows:

     int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject *arg, const char *format, ...);

The 'arg' argument must be a tuple object containing an argument list
passed from Python to a C function.  The 'format' argument must be a
format string, whose syntax is explained in *note Parsing arguments and
building values: 601. in the Python/C API Reference Manual.  The
remaining arguments must be addresses of variables whose type is
determined by the format string.

For example, to receive a single Python *note str: 1df. object and turn
it into a C buffer, you would use ‘"s"’ as the format string:

     const char *command;
     if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command)) {
         return NULL;
     }

If an error is detected in the argument list, ‘PyArg_ParseTuple()’
returns ‘NULL’ (the error indicator for functions returning object
pointers); your function may return ‘NULL’, relying on the exception set
by *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1.

Note that while *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. checks that the Python
arguments have the required types, it cannot check the validity of the
addresses of C variables passed to the call: if you make mistakes there,
your code will probably crash or at least overwrite random bits in
memory.  So be careful!

Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller
are 'borrowed' references; do not decrement their reference count!

Some example calls:

     #include <Python.h>

     int ok;
     int i, j;
     long k, l;
     const char *s;
     Py_ssize_t size;

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""); /* No arguments */
         /* Python call: f() */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &s); /* A string */
         /* Possible Python call: f('whoops!') */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "lls", &k, &l, &s); /* Two longs and a string */
         /* Possible Python call: f(1, 2, 'three') */

     ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "(ii)s#", &i, &j, &s, &size);
         /* A pair of ints and a string, whose size is also returned */
         /* Possible Python call: f((1, 2), 'three') */

     {
         const char *file;
         const char *mode = "r";
         int bufsize = 0;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s|si", &file, &mode, &bufsize);
         /* A string, and optionally another string and an integer */
         /* Possible Python calls:
            f('spam')
            f('spam', 'w')
            f('spam', 'wb', 100000) */
     }

     {
         int left, top, right, bottom, h, v;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "((ii)(ii))(ii)",
                  &left, &top, &right, &bottom, &h, &v);
         /* A rectangle and a point */
         /* Possible Python call:
            f(((0, 0), (400, 300)), (10, 10)) */
     }

     {
         Py_complex c;
         ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "D:myfunction", &c);
         /* a complex, also providing a function name for errors */
         /* Possible Python call: myfunction(1+2j) */
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions,  Next: Building Arbitrary Values,  Prev: Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions,  Up: Using the C API Assorted topics

6.2.5 Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions
------------------------------------------------

If you also want your function to accept *note keyword arguments: 10cc,
use the *note METH_KEYWORDS: 51c6. flag in combination with *note
METH_VARARGS: 18aa.  (‘METH_KEYWORDS’ can also be used with other flags;
see its documentation for the allowed combinations.)

In this case, the C function should accept a third ‘PyObject *’
parameter which will be a dictionary of keywords.  Use *note
PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818. to parse the arguments to such a
function.

The *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818. function is declared as
follows:

     int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(PyObject *arg, PyObject *kwdict,
                                     const char *format, char * const *kwlist, ...);

The 'arg' and 'format' parameters are identical to those of the *note
PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. function.  The 'kwdict' parameter is the
dictionary of keywords received as the third parameter from the Python
runtime.  The 'kwlist' parameter is a ‘NULL’-terminated list of strings
which identify the parameters; the names are matched with the type
information from 'format' from left to right.  On success, *note
PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818. returns true, otherwise it returns
false and raises an appropriate exception.

     Σημείωση: Nested tuples cannot be parsed when using keyword
     arguments!  Keyword parameters passed in which are not present in
     the 'kwlist' will cause *note TypeError: 291. to be raised.

Here is an example module which uses keywords, based on an example by
Geoff Philbrick (<philbrick@hks.com>):

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     static PyObject *
     keywdarg_parrot(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *keywds)
     {
         int voltage;
         const char *state = "a stiff";
         const char *action = "voom";
         const char *type = "Norwegian Blue";

         static char *kwlist[] = {"voltage", "state", "action", "type", NULL};

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, keywds, "i|sss", kwlist,
                                          &voltage, &state, &action, &type))
             return NULL;

         printf("-- This parrot wouldn't %s if you put %i Volts through it.\n",
                action, voltage);
         printf("-- Lovely plumage, the %s -- It's %s!\n", type, state);

         Py_RETURN_NONE;
     }

     static PyMethodDef keywdarg_methods[] = {
         /* The cast of the function is necessary since PyCFunction values
          * only take two PyObject* parameters, and keywdarg_parrot() takes
          * three.
          */
         {"parrot", (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))keywdarg_parrot, METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS,
          "Print a lovely skit to standard output."},
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}   /* sentinel */
     };


File: python.info,  Node: Building Arbitrary Values,  Next: Reference Counts,  Prev: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions,  Up: Using the C API Assorted topics

6.2.6 Building Arbitrary Values
-------------------------------

This function is the counterpart to *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1.  It
is declared as follows:

     PyObject *Py_BuildValue(const char *format, ...);

It recognizes a set of format units similar to the ones recognized by
*note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1, but the arguments (which are input to the
function, not output) must not be pointers, just values.  It returns a
new Python object, suitable for returning from a C function called from
Python.

One difference with *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1.: while the latter
requires its first argument to be a tuple (since Python argument lists
are always represented as tuples internally), *note Py_BuildValue():
5ee. does not always build a tuple.  It builds a tuple only if its
format string contains two or more format units.  If the format string
is empty, it returns ‘None’; if it contains exactly one format unit, it
returns whatever object is described by that format unit.  To force it
to return a tuple of size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string.

Examples (to the left the call, to the right the resulting Python
value):

     Py_BuildValue("")                        None
     Py_BuildValue("i", 123)                  123
     Py_BuildValue("iii", 123, 456, 789)      (123, 456, 789)
     Py_BuildValue("s", "hello")              'hello'
     Py_BuildValue("y", "hello")              b'hello'
     Py_BuildValue("ss", "hello", "world")    ('hello', 'world')
     Py_BuildValue("s#", "hello", 4)          'hell'
     Py_BuildValue("y#", "hello", 4)          b'hell'
     Py_BuildValue("()")                      ()
     Py_BuildValue("(i)", 123)                (123,)
     Py_BuildValue("(ii)", 123, 456)          (123, 456)
     Py_BuildValue("(i,i)", 123, 456)         (123, 456)
     Py_BuildValue("[i,i]", 123, 456)         [123, 456]
     Py_BuildValue("{s:i,s:i}",
                   "abc", 123, "def", 456)    {'abc': 123, 'def': 456}
     Py_BuildValue("((ii)(ii)) (ii)",
                   1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)          (((1, 2), (3, 4)), (5, 6))


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Counts,  Next: Writing Extensions in C++,  Prev: Building Arbitrary Values,  Up: Using the C API Assorted topics

6.2.7 Reference Counts
----------------------

In languages like C or C++, the programmer is responsible for dynamic
allocation and deallocation of memory on the heap.  In C, this is done
using the functions ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’.  In C++, the operators
‘new’ and ‘delete’ are used with essentially the same meaning and we’ll
restrict the following discussion to the C case.

Every block of memory allocated with ‘malloc()’ should eventually be
returned to the pool of available memory by exactly one call to
‘free()’.  It is important to call ‘free()’ at the right time.  If a
block’s address is forgotten but ‘free()’ is not called for it, the
memory it occupies cannot be reused until the program terminates.  This
is called a 'memory leak'.  On the other hand, if a program calls
‘free()’ for a block and then continues to use the block, it creates a
conflict with reuse of the block through another ‘malloc()’ call.  This
is called 'using freed memory'.  It has the same bad consequences as
referencing uninitialized data — core dumps, wrong results, mysterious
crashes.

Common causes of memory leaks are unusual paths through the code.  For
instance, a function may allocate a block of memory, do some
calculation, and then free the block again.  Now a change in the
requirements for the function may add a test to the calculation that
detects an error condition and can return prematurely from the function.
It’s easy to forget to free the allocated memory block when taking this
premature exit, especially when it is added later to the code.  Such
leaks, once introduced, often go undetected for a long time: the error
exit is taken only in a small fraction of all calls, and most modern
machines have plenty of virtual memory, so the leak only becomes
apparent in a long-running process that uses the leaking function
frequently.  Therefore, it’s important to prevent leaks from happening
by having a coding convention or strategy that minimizes this kind of
errors.

Since Python makes heavy use of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, it needs a
strategy to avoid memory leaks as well as the use of freed memory.  The
chosen method is called 'reference counting'.  The principle is simple:
every object contains a counter, which is incremented when a reference
to the object is stored somewhere, and which is decremented when a
reference to it is deleted.  When the counter reaches zero, the last
reference to the object has been deleted and the object is freed.

An alternative strategy is called 'automatic garbage collection'.
(Sometimes, reference counting is also referred to as a garbage
collection strategy, hence my use of «automatic» to distinguish the
two.)  The big advantage of automatic garbage collection is that the
user doesn’t need to call ‘free()’ explicitly.  (Another claimed
advantage is an improvement in speed or memory usage — this is no hard
fact however.)  The disadvantage is that for C, there is no truly
portable automatic garbage collector, while reference counting can be
implemented portably (as long as the functions ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’
are available — which the C Standard guarantees).  Maybe some day a
sufficiently portable automatic garbage collector will be available for
C. Until then, we’ll have to live with reference counts.

While Python uses the traditional reference counting implementation, it
also offers a cycle detector that works to detect reference cycles.
This allows applications to not worry about creating direct or indirect
circular references; these are the weakness of garbage collection
implemented using only reference counting.  Reference cycles consist of
objects which contain (possibly indirect) references to themselves, so
that each object in the cycle has a reference count which is non-zero.
Typical reference counting implementations are not able to reclaim the
memory belonging to any objects in a reference cycle, or referenced from
the objects in the cycle, even though there are no further references to
the cycle itself.

The cycle detector is able to detect garbage cycles and can reclaim
them.  The *note gc: 63. module exposes a way to run the detector (the
*note collect(): 44f. function), as well as configuration interfaces and
the ability to disable the detector at runtime.

* Menu:

* Reference Counting in Python::
* Ownership Rules::
* Thin Ice::
* NULL Pointers::


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Counting in Python,  Next: Ownership Rules,  Up: Reference Counts

6.2.7.1 Reference Counting in Python
....................................

There are two macros, ‘Py_INCREF(x)’ and ‘Py_DECREF(x)’, which handle
the incrementing and decrementing of the reference count.  *note
Py_DECREF(): 975. also frees the object when the count reaches zero.
For flexibility, it doesn’t call ‘free()’ directly — rather, it makes a
call through a function pointer in the object’s 'type object'.  For this
purpose (and others), every object also contains a pointer to its type
object.

The big question now remains: when to use ‘Py_INCREF(x)’ and
‘Py_DECREF(x)’?  Let’s first introduce some terms.  Nobody «owns» an
object; however, you can 'own a reference' to an object.  An object’s
reference count is now defined as the number of owned references to it.
The owner of a reference is responsible for calling *note Py_DECREF():
975. when the reference is no longer needed.  Ownership of a reference
can be transferred.  There are three ways to dispose of an owned
reference: pass it on, store it, or call ‘Py_DECREF()’.  Forgetting to
dispose of an owned reference creates a memory leak.

It is also possible to 'borrow' (1) a reference to an object.  The
borrower of a reference should not call *note Py_DECREF(): 975.  The
borrower must not hold on to the object longer than the owner from which
it was borrowed.  Using a borrowed reference after the owner has
disposed of it risks using freed memory and should be avoided completely
(2).

The advantage of borrowing over owning a reference is that you don’t
need to take care of disposing of the reference on all possible paths
through the code — in other words, with a borrowed reference you don’t
run the risk of leaking when a premature exit is taken.  The
disadvantage of borrowing over owning is that there are some subtle
situations where in seemingly correct code a borrowed reference can be
used after the owner from which it was borrowed has in fact disposed of
it.

A borrowed reference can be changed into an owned reference by calling
*note Py_INCREF(): 974.  This does not affect the status of the owner
from which the reference was borrowed — it creates a new owned
reference, and gives full owner responsibilities (the new owner must
dispose of the reference properly, as well as the previous owner).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The metaphor of «borrowing» a reference is not completely
correct: the owner still has a copy of the reference.

   (2) Checking that the reference count is at least 1 'does not work' —
the reference count itself could be in freed memory and may thus be
reused for another object!


File: python.info,  Node: Ownership Rules,  Next: Thin Ice,  Prev: Reference Counting in Python,  Up: Reference Counts

6.2.7.2 Ownership Rules
.......................

Whenever an object reference is passed into or out of a function, it is
part of the function’s interface specification whether ownership is
transferred with the reference or not.

Most functions that return a reference to an object pass on ownership
with the reference.  In particular, all functions whose function it is
to create a new object, such as *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1dca. and *note
Py_BuildValue(): 5ee, pass ownership to the receiver.  Even if the
object is not actually new, you still receive ownership of a new
reference to that object.  For instance, ‘PyLong_FromLong()’ maintains a
cache of popular values and can return a reference to a cached item.

Many functions that extract objects from other objects also transfer
ownership with the reference, for instance *note
PyObject_GetAttrString(): 7e6.  The picture is less clear, here,
however, since a few common routines are exceptions: *note
PyTuple_GetItem(): 51ce, *note PyList_GetItem(): 7f5, *note
PyDict_GetItem(): 81c, and *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 81d. all return
references that you borrow from the tuple, list or dictionary.

The function *note PyImport_AddModule(): 7f2. also returns a borrowed
reference, even though it may actually create the object it returns:
this is possible because an owned reference to the object is stored in
‘sys.modules’.

When you pass an object reference into another function, in general, the
function borrows the reference from you — if it needs to store it, it
will use *note Py_INCREF(): 974. to become an independent owner.  There
are exactly two important exceptions to this rule: *note
PyTuple_SetItem(): 51cf. and *note PyList_SetItem(): 1adb.  These
functions take over ownership of the item passed to them — even if they
fail!  (Note that *note PyDict_SetItem(): 51d0. and friends don’t take
over ownership — they are «normal.»)

When a C function is called from Python, it borrows references to its
arguments from the caller.  The caller owns a reference to the object,
so the borrowed reference’s lifetime is guaranteed until the function
returns.  Only when such a borrowed reference must be stored or passed
on, it must be turned into an owned reference by calling *note
Py_INCREF(): 974.

The object reference returned from a C function that is called from
Python must be an owned reference — ownership is transferred from the
function to its caller.


File: python.info,  Node: Thin Ice,  Next: NULL Pointers,  Prev: Ownership Rules,  Up: Reference Counts

6.2.7.3 Thin Ice
................

There are a few situations where seemingly harmless use of a borrowed
reference can lead to problems.  These all have to do with implicit
invocations of the interpreter, which can cause the owner of a reference
to dispose of it.

The first and most important case to know about is using *note
Py_DECREF(): 975. on an unrelated object while borrowing a reference to
a list item.  For instance:

     void
     bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);

         PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
     }

This function first borrows a reference to ‘list[0]’, then replaces
‘list[1]’ with the value ‘0’, and finally prints the borrowed reference.
Looks harmless, right?  But it’s not!

Let’s follow the control flow into *note PyList_SetItem(): 1adb.  The
list owns references to all its items, so when item 1 is replaced, it
has to dispose of the original item 1.  Now let’s suppose the original
item 1 was an instance of a user-defined class, and let’s further
suppose that the class defined a ‘__del__()’ method.  If this class
instance has a reference count of 1, disposing of it will call its
‘__del__()’ method.  Internally, ‘PyList_SetItem()’ calls *note
Py_DECREF(): 975. on the replaced item, which invokes replaced item’s
corresponding *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. function.  During deallocation,
‘tp_dealloc’ calls *note tp_finalize: e6c, which is mapped to the
‘__del__()’ method for class instances (see PEP 442(1)).  This entire
sequence happens synchronously within the ‘PyList_SetItem()’ call.

Since it is written in Python, the ‘__del__()’ method can execute
arbitrary Python code.  Could it perhaps do something to invalidate the
reference to ‘item’ in ‘bug()’?  You bet!  Assuming that the list passed
into ‘bug()’ is accessible to the ‘__del__()’ method, it could execute a
statement to the effect of ‘del list[0]’, and assuming this was the last
reference to that object, it would free the memory associated with it,
thereby invalidating ‘item’.

The solution, once you know the source of the problem, is easy:
temporarily increment the reference count.  The correct version of the
function reads:

     void
     no_bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);

         Py_INCREF(item);
         PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L));
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0);
         Py_DECREF(item);
     }

This is a true story.  An older version of Python contained variants of
this bug and someone spent a considerable amount of time in a C debugger
to figure out why his ‘__del__()’ methods would fail…

The second case of problems with a borrowed reference is a variant
involving threads.  Normally, multiple threads in the Python interpreter
can’t get in each other’s way, because there is a *note global lock:
685. protecting Python’s entire object space.  However, it is possible
to temporarily release this lock using the macro *note
Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 51d4, and to re-acquire it using *note
Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: e4e.  This is common around blocking I/O calls, to
let other threads use the processor while waiting for the I/O to
complete.  Obviously, the following function has the same problem as the
previous one:

     void
     bug(PyObject *list)
     {
         PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0);
         Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
         ...some blocking I/O call...
         Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
         PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */
     }

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: NULL Pointers,  Prev: Thin Ice,  Up: Reference Counts

6.2.7.4 NULL Pointers
.....................

In general, functions that take object references as arguments do not
expect you to pass them ‘NULL’ pointers, and will dump core (or cause
later core dumps) if you do so.  Functions that return object references
generally return ‘NULL’ only to indicate that an exception occurred.
The reason for not testing for ‘NULL’ arguments is that functions often
pass the objects they receive on to other function — if each function
were to test for ‘NULL’, there would be a lot of redundant tests and the
code would run more slowly.

It is better to test for ‘NULL’ only at the «source:» when a pointer
that may be ‘NULL’ is received, for example, from ‘malloc()’ or from a
function that may raise an exception.

The macros *note Py_INCREF(): 974. and *note Py_DECREF(): 975. do not
check for ‘NULL’ pointers — however, their variants *note Py_XINCREF():
e29. and *note Py_XDECREF(): b6e. do.

The macros for checking for a particular object type (‘Pytype_Check()’)
don’t check for ‘NULL’ pointers — again, there is much code that calls
several of these in a row to test an object against various different
expected types, and this would generate redundant tests.  There are no
variants with ‘NULL’ checking.

The C function calling mechanism guarantees that the argument list
passed to C functions (‘args’ in the examples) is never ‘NULL’ — in fact
it guarantees that it is always a tuple (1).

It is a severe error to ever let a ‘NULL’ pointer «escape» to the Python
user.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) These guarantees don’t hold when you use the «old» style calling
convention — this is still found in much existing code.


File: python.info,  Node: Writing Extensions in C++,  Next: Providing a C API for an Extension Module,  Prev: Reference Counts,  Up: Using the C API Assorted topics

6.2.8 Writing Extensions in C++
-------------------------------

It is possible to write extension modules in C++.  Some restrictions
apply.  If the main program (the Python interpreter) is compiled and
linked by the C compiler, global or static objects with constructors
cannot be used.  This is not a problem if the main program is linked by
the C++ compiler.  Functions that will be called by the Python
interpreter (in particular, module initialization functions) have to be
declared using ‘extern "C"’.  It is unnecessary to enclose the Python
header files in ‘extern "C" {...}’ — they use this form already if the
symbol ‘__cplusplus’ is defined (all recent C++ compilers define this
symbol).


File: python.info,  Node: Providing a C API for an Extension Module,  Prev: Writing Extensions in C++,  Up: Using the C API Assorted topics

6.2.9 Providing a C API for an Extension Module
-----------------------------------------------

Many extension modules just provide new functions and types to be used
from Python, but sometimes the code in an extension module can be useful
for other extension modules.  For example, an extension module could
implement a type «collection» which works like lists without order.
Just like the standard Python list type has a C API which permits
extension modules to create and manipulate lists, this new collection
type should have a set of C functions for direct manipulation from other
extension modules.

At first sight this seems easy: just write the functions (without
declaring them ‘static’, of course), provide an appropriate header file,
and document the C API. And in fact this would work if all extension
modules were always linked statically with the Python interpreter.  When
modules are used as shared libraries, however, the symbols defined in
one module may not be visible to another module.  The details of
visibility depend on the operating system; some systems use one global
namespace for the Python interpreter and all extension modules (Windows,
for example), whereas others require an explicit list of imported
symbols at module link time (AIX is one example), or offer a choice of
different strategies (most Unices).  And even if symbols are globally
visible, the module whose functions one wishes to call might not have
been loaded yet!

Portability therefore requires not to make any assumptions about symbol
visibility.  This means that all symbols in extension modules should be
declared ‘static’, except for the module’s initialization function, in
order to avoid name clashes with other extension modules.  And it means
that symbols that 'should' be accessible from other extension modules
must be exported in a different way.

Python provides a special mechanism to pass C-level information
(pointers) from one extension module to another one: Capsules.  A
Capsule is a Python data type which stores a pointer (void*).  Capsules
can only be created and accessed via their C API, but they can be passed
around like any other Python object.  In particular, they can be
assigned to a name in an extension module’s namespace.  Other extension
modules can then import this module, retrieve the value of this name,
and then retrieve the pointer from the Capsule.

There are many ways in which Capsules can be used to export the C API of
an extension module.  Each function could get its own Capsule, or all C
API pointers could be stored in an array whose address is published in a
Capsule.  And the various tasks of storing and retrieving the pointers
can be distributed in different ways between the module providing the
code and the client modules.

Whichever method you choose, it’s important to name your Capsules
properly.  The function *note PyCapsule_New(): 51da. takes a name
parameter (const char*); you’re permitted to pass in a ‘NULL’ name, but
we strongly encourage you to specify a name.  Properly named Capsules
provide a degree of runtime type-safety; there is no feasible way to
tell one unnamed Capsule from another.

In particular, Capsules used to expose C APIs should be given a name
following this convention:

     modulename.attributename

The convenience function *note PyCapsule_Import(): 1e07. makes it easy
to load a C API provided via a Capsule, but only if the Capsule’s name
matches this convention.  This behavior gives C API users a high degree
of certainty that the Capsule they load contains the correct C API.

The following example demonstrates an approach that puts most of the
burden on the writer of the exporting module, which is appropriate for
commonly used library modules.  It stores all C API pointers (just one
in the example!)  in an array of void pointers which becomes the value
of a Capsule.  The header file corresponding to the module provides a
macro that takes care of importing the module and retrieving its C API
pointers; client modules only have to call this macro before accessing
the C API.

The exporting module is a modification of the ‘spam’ module from the
*note tutorial: 5196.  The function ‘spam.system()’ does not call the C
library function ‘system()’ directly, but a function ‘PySpam_System()’,
which would of course do something more complicated in reality (such as
adding «spam» to every command).  This function ‘PySpam_System()’ is
also exported to other extension modules.

The function ‘PySpam_System()’ is a plain C function, declared ‘static’
like everything else:

     static int
     PySpam_System(const char *command)
     {
         return system(command);
     }

The function ‘spam_system()’ is modified in a trivial way:

     static PyObject *
     spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         const char *command;
         int sts;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command))
             return NULL;
         sts = PySpam_System(command);
         return PyLong_FromLong(sts);
     }

In the beginning of the module, right after the line

     #include <Python.h>

two more lines must be added:

     #define SPAM_MODULE
     #include "spammodule.h"

The ‘#define’ is used to tell the header file that it is being included
in the exporting module, not a client module.  Finally, the module’s
*note mod_exec: d46. function must take care of initializing the C API
pointer array:

     static int
     spam_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         static void *PySpam_API[PySpam_API_pointers];
         PyObject *c_api_object;

         /* Initialize the C API pointer array */
         PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM] = (void *)PySpam_System;

         /* Create a Capsule containing the API pointer array's address */
         c_api_object = PyCapsule_New((void *)PySpam_API, "spam._C_API", NULL);

         if (PyModule_Add(m, "_C_API", c_api_object) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

Note that ‘PySpam_API’ is declared ‘static’; otherwise the pointer array
would disappear when ‘PyInit_spam()’ terminates!

The bulk of the work is in the header file ‘spammodule.h’, which looks
like this:

     #ifndef Py_SPAMMODULE_H
     #define Py_SPAMMODULE_H
     #ifdef __cplusplus
     extern "C" {
     #endif

     /* Header file for spammodule */

     /* C API functions */
     #define PySpam_System_NUM 0
     #define PySpam_System_RETURN int
     #define PySpam_System_PROTO (const char *command)

     /* Total number of C API pointers */
     #define PySpam_API_pointers 1


     #ifdef SPAM_MODULE
     /* This section is used when compiling spammodule.c */

     static PySpam_System_RETURN PySpam_System PySpam_System_PROTO;

     #else
     /* This section is used in modules that use spammodule's API */

     static void **PySpam_API;

     #define PySpam_System \
      (*(PySpam_System_RETURN (*)PySpam_System_PROTO) PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM])

     /* Return -1 on error, 0 on success.
      * PyCapsule_Import will set an exception if there's an error.
      */
     static int
     import_spam(void)
     {
         PySpam_API = (void **)PyCapsule_Import("spam._C_API", 0);
         return (PySpam_API != NULL) ? 0 : -1;
     }

     #endif

     #ifdef __cplusplus
     }
     #endif

     #endif /* !defined(Py_SPAMMODULE_H) */

All that a client module must do in order to have access to the function
‘PySpam_System()’ is to call the function (or rather macro)
‘import_spam()’ in its *note mod_exec: d46. function:

     static int
     client_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         if (import_spam() < 0) {
             return -1;
         }
         /* additional initialization can happen here */
         return 0;
     }

The main disadvantage of this approach is that the file ‘spammodule.h’
is rather complicated.  However, the basic structure is the same for
each function that is exported, so it has to be learned only once.

Finally it should be mentioned that Capsules offer additional
functionality, which is especially useful for memory allocation and
deallocation of the pointer stored in a Capsule.  The details are
described in the Python/C API Reference Manual in the section *note
Capsules: 2c04. and in the implementation of Capsules (files
‘Include/pycapsule.h’ and ‘Objects/pycapsule.c’ in the Python source
code distribution).


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Extension Types Tutorial,  Next: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics,  Prev: Using the C API Assorted topics,  Up: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python

6.3 Defining Extension Types: Tutorial
======================================

Python allows the writer of a C extension module to define new types
that can be manipulated from Python code, much like the built-in *note
str: 1df. and *note list: 4d9. types.  The code for all extension types
follows a pattern, but there are some details that you need to
understand before you can get started.  This document is a gentle
introduction to the topic.

* Menu:

* The Basics::
* Adding data and methods to the Basic example::
* Providing finer control over data attributes::
* Supporting cyclic garbage collection::
* Subclassing other types::


File: python.info,  Node: The Basics,  Next: Adding data and methods to the Basic example,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.3.1 The Basics
----------------

The *note CPython: ae3. runtime sees all Python objects as variables of
type *note PyObject: 19b.*, which serves as a «base type» for all Python
objects.  The *note PyObject: 19b. structure itself only contains the
object’s *note reference count: 2c5. and a pointer to the object’s «type
object».  This is where the action is; the type object determines which
(C) functions get called by the interpreter when, for instance, an
attribute gets looked up on an object, a method called, or it is
multiplied by another object.  These C functions are called «type
methods».

So, if you want to define a new extension type, you need to create a new
type object.

This sort of thing can only be explained by example, so here’s a
minimal, but complete, module that defines a new type named ‘Custom’
inside a C extension module ‘custom’:

     Σημείωση: What we’re showing here is the traditional way of
     defining 'static' extension types.  It should be adequate for most
     uses.  The C API also allows defining heap-allocated extension
     types using the *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e. function, which isn’t
     covered in this tutorial.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         /* Type-specific fields go here. */
     } CustomObject;

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
         .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
     };

     static int
     custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

     static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
         {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
         // Just use this while using static types
         {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = 0,
         .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
     }

Now that’s quite a bit to take in at once, but hopefully bits will seem
familiar from the previous chapter.  This file defines three things:

  1. What a ‘Custom’ 'object' contains: this is the ‘CustomObject’
     struct, which is allocated once for each ‘Custom’ instance.

  2. How the ‘Custom’ 'type' behaves: this is the ‘CustomType’ struct,
     which defines a set of flags and function pointers that the
     interpreter inspects when specific operations are requested.

  3. How to define and execute the ‘custom’ module: this is the
     ‘PyInit_custom’ function and the associated ‘custom_module’ struct
     for defining the module, and the ‘custom_module_exec’ function to
     set up a fresh module object.

The first bit is:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
     } CustomObject;

This is what a Custom object will contain.  ‘PyObject_HEAD’ is mandatory
at the start of each object struct and defines a field called ‘ob_base’
of type *note PyObject: 19b, containing a pointer to a type object and a
reference count (these can be accessed using the macros *note Py_TYPE:
5f5. and *note Py_REFCNT: 54b. respectively).  The reason for the macro
is to abstract away the layout and to enable additional fields in *note
debug builds: 3dc.

     Σημείωση: There is no semicolon above after the *note
     PyObject_HEAD: 1682. macro.  Be wary of adding one by accident:
     some compilers will complain.

Of course, objects generally store additional data besides the standard
‘PyObject_HEAD’ boilerplate; for example, here is the definition for
standard Python floats:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         double ob_fval;
     } PyFloatObject;

The second bit is the definition of the type object.

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,
         .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,
     };

     Σημείωση: We recommend using C99-style designated initializers as
     above, to avoid listing all the *note PyTypeObject: e6b. fields
     that you don’t care about and also to avoid caring about the
     fields” declaration order.

The actual definition of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. in ‘object.h’ has many
more *note fields: d55. than the definition above.  The remaining fields
will be filled with zeros by the C compiler, and it’s common practice to
not specify them explicitly unless you need them.

We’re going to pick it apart, one field at a time:

     .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)

This line is mandatory boilerplate to initialize the ‘ob_base’ field
mentioned above.

     .tp_name = "custom.Custom",

The name of our type.  This will appear in the default textual
representation of our objects and in some error messages, for example:

     >>> "" + custom.Custom()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "custom.Custom") to str

Note that the name is a dotted name that includes both the module name
and the name of the type within the module.  The module in this case is
‘custom’ and the type is ‘Custom’, so we set the type name to
‘custom.Custom’.  Using the real dotted import path is important to make
your type compatible with the *note pydoc: bd. and *note pickle: ab.
modules.

     .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
     .tp_itemsize = 0,

This is so that Python knows how much memory to allocate when creating
new ‘Custom’ instances.  *note tp_itemsize: 25b0. is only used for
variable-sized objects and should otherwise be zero.

     Σημείωση: If you want your type to be subclassable from Python, and
     your type has the same *note tp_basicsize: d4f. as its base type,
     you may have problems with multiple inheritance.  A Python subclass
     of your type will have to list your type first in its *note
     __bases__: 184e, or else it will not be able to call your type’s
     *note __new__(): 982. method without getting an error.  You can
     avoid this problem by ensuring that your type has a larger value
     for ‘tp_basicsize’ than its base type does.  Most of the time, this
     will be true anyway, because either your base type will be *note
     object: e4d, or else you will be adding data members to your base
     type, and therefore increasing its size.

We set the class flags to *note Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT: 51e0.

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT,

All types should include this constant in their flags.  It enables all
of the members defined until at least Python 3.3.  If you need further
members, you will need to OR the corresponding flags.

We provide a doc string for the type in *note tp_doc: 51e1.

     .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),

To enable object creation, we have to provide a *note tp_new: 981.
handler.  This is the equivalent of the Python method *note __new__():
982, but has to be specified explicitly.  In this case, we can just use
the default implementation provided by the API function *note
PyType_GenericNew(): 51e2.

     .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew,

Everything else in the file should be familiar, except for some code in
‘custom_module_exec()’:

     if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
         return -1;
     }

This initializes the ‘Custom’ type, filling in a number of members to
the appropriate default values, including *note ob_type: 51e3. that we
initially set to ‘NULL’.

     if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
         return -1;
     }

This adds the type to the module dictionary.  This allows us to create
‘Custom’ instances by calling the ‘Custom’ class:

     >>> import custom
     >>> mycustom = custom.Custom()

That’s it!  All that remains is to build it; put the above code in a
file called ‘custom.c’,

     [build-system]
     requires = ["setuptools"]
     build-backend = "setuptools.build_meta"

     [project]
     name = "custom"
     version = "1"

in a file called ‘pyproject.toml’, and

     from setuptools import Extension, setup
     setup(ext_modules=[Extension("custom", ["custom.c"])])

in a file called ‘setup.py’; then typing

     $ python -m pip install .

in a shell should produce a file ‘custom.so’ in a subdirectory and
install it; now fire up Python — you should be able to ‘import custom’
and play around with ‘Custom’ objects.

That wasn’t so hard, was it?

Of course, the current Custom type is pretty uninteresting.  It has no
data and doesn’t do anything.  It can’t even be subclassed.


File: python.info,  Node: Adding data and methods to the Basic example,  Next: Providing finer control over data attributes,  Prev: The Basics,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.3.2 Adding data and methods to the Basic example
--------------------------------------------------

Let’s extend the basic example to add some data and methods.  Let’s also
make the type usable as a base class.  We’ll create a new module,
‘custom2’ that adds these capabilities:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(PyObject *op)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR);
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR);
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
          "first name"},
         {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
          "last name"},
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(PyObject *op, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(dummy))
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         if (self->first == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
             return NULL;
         }
         if (self->last == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom2.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
     };

     static int
     custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

     static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
         {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
         {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom2",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = 0,
         .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom2(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
     }

This version of the module has a number of changes.

The ‘Custom’ type now has three data attributes in its C struct,
'first', 'last', and 'number'.  The 'first' and 'last' variables are
Python strings containing first and last names.  The 'number' attribute
is a C integer.

The object structure is updated accordingly:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

Because we now have data to manage, we have to be more careful about
object allocation and deallocation.  At a minimum, we need a
deallocation method:

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(PyObject *op)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
     }

which is assigned to the *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. member:

     .tp_dealloc = Custom_dealloc,

This method first clears the reference counts of the two Python
attributes.  *note Py_XDECREF(): b6e. correctly handles the case where
its argument is ‘NULL’ (which might happen here if ‘tp_new’ failed
midway).  It then calls the *note tp_free: 51e5. member of the object’s
type (computed by ‘Py_TYPE(self)’) to free the object’s memory.  Note
that the object’s type might not be ‘CustomType’, because the object may
be an instance of a subclass.

     Σημείωση: The explicit cast to ‘CustomObject *’ above is needed
     because we defined ‘Custom_dealloc’ to take a ‘PyObject *’
     argument, as the ‘tp_dealloc’ function pointer expects to receive a
     ‘PyObject *’ argument.  By assigning to the ‘tp_dealloc’ slot of a
     type, we declare that it can only be called with instances of our
     ‘CustomObject’ class, so the cast to ‘(CustomObject *)’ is safe.
     This is object-oriented polymorphism, in C!

     In existing code, or in previous versions of this tutorial, you
     might see similar functions take a pointer to the subtype object
     structure (‘CustomObject*’) directly, like this:

          Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self)
          {
              Py_XDECREF(self->first);
              Py_XDECREF(self->last);
              Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self);
          }
          ...
          .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc,

     This does the same thing on all architectures that CPython
     supports, but according to the C standard, it invokes undefined
     behavior.

We want to make sure that the first and last names are initialized to
empty strings, so we provide a ‘tp_new’ implementation:

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = PyUnicode_FromString("");
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

and install it in the *note tp_new: 981. member:

     .tp_new = Custom_new,

The ‘tp_new’ handler is responsible for creating (as opposed to
initializing) objects of the type.  It is exposed in Python as the *note
__new__(): 982. method.  It is not required to define a ‘tp_new’ member,
and indeed many extension types will simply reuse *note
PyType_GenericNew(): 51e2. as done in the first version of the ‘Custom’
type above.  In this case, we use the ‘tp_new’ handler to initialize the
‘first’ and ‘last’ attributes to non-‘NULL’ default values.

‘tp_new’ is passed the type being instantiated (not necessarily
‘CustomType’, if a subclass is instantiated) and any arguments passed
when the type was called, and is expected to return the instance
created.  ‘tp_new’ handlers always accept positional and keyword
arguments, but they often ignore the arguments, leaving the argument
handling to initializer (a.k.a.  ‘tp_init’ in C or ‘__init__’ in Python)
methods.

     Σημείωση: ‘tp_new’ shouldn’t call ‘tp_init’ explicitly, as the
     interpreter will do it itself.

The ‘tp_new’ implementation calls the *note tp_alloc: 51e6. slot to
allocate memory:

     self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);

Since memory allocation may fail, we must check the *note tp_alloc:
51e6. result against ‘NULL’ before proceeding.

     Σημείωση: We didn’t fill the *note tp_alloc: 51e6. slot ourselves.
     Rather *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. fills it for us by inheriting it
     from our base class, which is *note object: e4d. by default.  Most
     types use the default allocation strategy.

     Σημείωση: If you are creating a co-operative *note tp_new: 981.
     (one that calls a base type’s ‘tp_new’ or *note __new__(): 982.),
     you must 'not' try to determine what method to call using method
     resolution order at runtime.  Always statically determine what type
     you are going to call, and call its ‘tp_new’ directly, or via
     ‘type->tp_base->tp_new’.  If you do not do this, Python subclasses
     of your type that also inherit from other Python-defined classes
     may not work correctly.  (Specifically, you may not be able to
     create instances of such subclasses without getting a *note
     TypeError: 291.)

We also define an initialization function which accepts arguments to
provide initial values for our instance:

     static int
     Custom_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             tmp = self->first;
             Py_INCREF(first);
             self->first = first;
             Py_XDECREF(tmp);
         }
         if (last) {
             tmp = self->last;
             Py_INCREF(last);
             self->last = last;
             Py_XDECREF(tmp);
         }
         return 0;
     }

by filling the *note tp_init: 983. slot.

     .tp_init = Custom_init,

The *note tp_init: 983. slot is exposed in Python as the *note
__init__(): 2fa. method.  It is used to initialize an object after it’s
created.  Initializers always accept positional and keyword arguments,
and they should return either ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on error.

Unlike the ‘tp_new’ handler, there is no guarantee that ‘tp_init’ is
called at all (for example, the *note pickle: ab. module by default
doesn’t call *note __init__(): 2fa. on unpickled instances).  It can
also be called multiple times.  Anyone can call the ‘__init__()’ method
on our objects.  For this reason, we have to be extra careful when
assigning the new attribute values.  We might be tempted, for example to
assign the ‘first’ member like this:

     if (first) {
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_INCREF(first);
         self->first = first;
     }

But this would be risky.  Our type doesn’t restrict the type of the
‘first’ member, so it could be any kind of object.  It could have a
destructor that causes code to be executed that tries to access the
‘first’ member; or that destructor could detach the *note thread state:
1a1. and let arbitrary code run in other threads that accesses and
modifies our object.

To be paranoid and protect ourselves against this possibility, we almost
always reassign members before decrementing their reference counts.
When don’t we have to do this?

   * when we absolutely know that the reference count is greater than 1;

   * when we know that deallocation of the object (1) will neither
     detach the *note thread state: 1a1. nor cause any calls back into
     our type’s code;

   * when decrementing a reference count in a *note tp_dealloc: 51d3.
     handler on a type which doesn’t support cyclic garbage collection
     (2).

We want to expose our instance variables as attributes.  There are a
number of ways to do that.  The simplest way is to define member
definitions:

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0,
          "first name"},
         {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0,
          "last name"},
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

and put the definitions in the *note tp_members: 51e7. slot:

     .tp_members = Custom_members,

Each member definition has a member name, type, offset, access flags and
documentation string.  See the *note Generic Attribute Management: 51e8.
section below for details.

A disadvantage of this approach is that it doesn’t provide a way to
restrict the types of objects that can be assigned to the Python
attributes.  We expect the first and last names to be strings, but any
Python objects can be assigned.  Further, the attributes can be deleted,
setting the C pointers to ‘NULL’.  Even though we can make sure the
members are initialized to non-‘NULL’ values, the members can be set to
‘NULL’ if the attributes are deleted.

We define a single method, ‘Custom.name()’, that outputs the objects
name as the concatenation of the first and last names.

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(PyObject *op, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(dummy))
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         if (self->first == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first");
             return NULL;
         }
         if (self->last == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last");
             return NULL;
         }
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

The method is implemented as a C function that takes a ‘Custom’ (or
‘Custom’ subclass) instance as the first argument.  Methods always take
an instance as the first argument.  Methods often take positional and
keyword arguments as well, but in this case we don’t take any and don’t
need to accept a positional argument tuple or keyword argument
dictionary.  This method is equivalent to the Python method:

     def name(self):
         return "%s %s" % (self.first, self.last)

Note that we have to check for the possibility that our ‘first’ and
‘last’ members are ‘NULL’.  This is because they can be deleted, in
which case they are set to ‘NULL’.  It would be better to prevent
deletion of these attributes and to restrict the attribute values to be
strings.  We’ll see how to do that in the next section.

Now that we’ve defined the method, we need to create an array of method
definitions:

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

(note that we used the *note METH_NOARGS: 1876. flag to indicate that
the method is expecting no arguments other than 'self')

and assign it to the *note tp_methods: 51e9. slot:

     .tp_methods = Custom_methods,

Finally, we’ll make our type usable as a base class for subclassing.
We’ve written our methods carefully so far so that they don’t make any
assumptions about the type of the object being created or used, so all
we need to do is to add the *note Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE: 51ea. to our
class flag definition:

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,

We rename ‘PyInit_custom()’ to ‘PyInit_custom2()’, update the module
name in the *note PyModuleDef: d45. struct, and update the full class
name in the *note PyTypeObject: e6b. struct.

Finally, we update our ‘setup.py’ file to include the new module,

     from setuptools import Extension, setup
     setup(ext_modules=[
         Extension("custom", ["custom.c"]),
         Extension("custom2", ["custom2.c"]),
     ])

and then we re-install so that we can ‘import custom2’:

     $ python -m pip install .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) This is true when we know that the object is a basic type, like a
string or a float.

   (2) We relied on this in the *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. handler in this
example, because our type doesn’t support garbage collection.


File: python.info,  Node: Providing finer control over data attributes,  Next: Supporting cyclic garbage collection,  Prev: Adding data and methods to the Basic example,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.3.3 Providing finer control over data attributes
--------------------------------------------------

In this section, we’ll provide finer control over how the ‘first’ and
‘last’ attributes are set in the ‘Custom’ example.  In the previous
version of our module, the instance variables ‘first’ and ‘last’ could
be set to non-string values or even deleted.  We want to make sure that
these attributes always contain strings.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(PyObject *op)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         Py_XDECREF(self->first);
         Py_XDECREF(self->last);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR);
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR);
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(PyObject *op, void *closure)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         return Py_NewRef(self->first);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(PyObject *op, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getlast(PyObject *op, void *closure)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         return Py_NewRef(self->last);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setlast(PyObject *op, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The last attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", Custom_getfirst, Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", Custom_getlast, Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(PyObject *op, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(dummy))
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom3.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
         .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
     };

     static int
     custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

     static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
         {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
         {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom3",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = 0,
         .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom3(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
     }

To provide greater control, over the ‘first’ and ‘last’ attributes,
we’ll use custom getter and setter functions.  Here are the functions
for getting and setting the ‘first’ attribute:

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(PyObject *op, void *closure)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         Py_INCREF(self->first);
         return self->first;
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(PyObject *op, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         PyObject *tmp;
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         tmp = self->first;
         Py_INCREF(value);
         self->first = value;
         Py_DECREF(tmp);
         return 0;
     }

The getter function is passed a ‘Custom’ object and a «closure», which
is a void pointer.  In this case, the closure is ignored.  (The closure
supports an advanced usage in which definition data is passed to the
getter and setter.  This could, for example, be used to allow a single
set of getter and setter functions that decide the attribute to get or
set based on data in the closure.)

The setter function is passed the ‘Custom’ object, the new value, and
the closure.  The new value may be ‘NULL’, in which case the attribute
is being deleted.  In our setter, we raise an error if the attribute is
deleted or if its new value is not a string.

We create an array of *note PyGetSetDef: f77. structures:

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", Custom_getfirst, Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", Custom_getlast, Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

and register it in the *note tp_getset: 51ec. slot:

     .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,

The last item in a *note PyGetSetDef: f77. structure is the «closure»
mentioned above.  In this case, we aren’t using a closure, so we just
pass ‘NULL’.

We also remove the member definitions for these attributes:

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

We also need to update the *note tp_init: 983. handler to only allow
strings (1) to be passed:

     static int
     Custom_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             tmp = self->first;
             Py_INCREF(first);
             self->first = first;
             Py_DECREF(tmp);
         }
         if (last) {
             tmp = self->last;
             Py_INCREF(last);
             self->last = last;
             Py_DECREF(tmp);
         }
         return 0;
     }

With these changes, we can assure that the ‘first’ and ‘last’ members
are never ‘NULL’ so we can remove checks for ‘NULL’ values in almost all
cases.  This means that most of the *note Py_XDECREF(): b6e. calls can
be converted to *note Py_DECREF(): 975. calls.  The only place we can’t
change these calls is in the ‘tp_dealloc’ implementation, where there is
the possibility that the initialization of these members failed in
‘tp_new’.

We also rename the module initialization function and module name in the
initialization function, as we did before, and we add an extra
definition to the ‘setup.py’ file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) We now know that the first and last members are strings, so
perhaps we could be less careful about decrementing their reference
counts, however, we accept instances of string subclasses.  Even though
deallocating normal strings won’t call back into our objects, we can’t
guarantee that deallocating an instance of a string subclass won’t call
back into our objects.


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting cyclic garbage collection,  Next: Subclassing other types,  Prev: Providing finer control over data attributes,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.3.4 Supporting cyclic garbage collection
------------------------------------------

Python has a *note cyclic garbage collector (GC): 19de. that can
identify unneeded objects even when their reference counts are not zero.
This can happen when objects are involved in cycles.  For example,
consider:

     >>> l = []
     >>> l.append(l)
     >>> del l

In this example, we create a list that contains itself.  When we delete
it, it still has a reference from itself.  Its reference count doesn’t
drop to zero.  Fortunately, Python’s cyclic garbage collector will
eventually figure out that the list is garbage and free it.

In the second version of the ‘Custom’ example, we allowed any kind of
object to be stored in the ‘first’ or ‘last’ attributes (1).  Besides,
in the second and third versions, we allowed subclassing ‘Custom’, and
subclasses may add arbitrary attributes.  For any of those two reasons,
‘Custom’ objects can participate in cycles:

     >>> import custom3
     >>> class Derived(custom3.Custom): pass
     ...
     >>> n = Derived()
     >>> n.some_attribute = n

To allow a ‘Custom’ instance participating in a reference cycle to be
properly detected and collected by the cyclic GC, our ‘Custom’ type
needs to fill two additional slots and to enable a flag that enables
these slots:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>
     #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         PyObject *first; /* first name */
         PyObject *last;  /* last name */
         int number;
     } CustomObject;

     static int
     Custom_traverse(PyObject *op, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         Py_VISIT(self->first);
         Py_VISIT(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     static int
     Custom_clear(PyObject *op)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         Py_CLEAR(self->first);
         Py_CLEAR(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(PyObject *op)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(op);
         (void)Custom_clear(op);
         Py_TYPE(op)->tp_free(op);
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self;
         self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
         if (self != NULL) {
             self->first = Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR);
             if (self->first == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->last = Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR);
             if (self->last == NULL) {
                 Py_DECREF(self);
                 return NULL;
             }
             self->number = 0;
         }
         return (PyObject *) self;
     }

     static int
     Custom_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL};
         PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist,
                                          &first, &last,
                                          &self->number))
             return -1;

         if (first) {
             Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first));
         }
         if (last) {
             Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last));
         }
         return 0;
     }

     static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = {
         {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0,
          "custom number"},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getfirst(PyObject *op, void *closure)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         return Py_NewRef(self->first);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setfirst(PyObject *op, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The first attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyObject *
     Custom_getlast(PyObject *op, void *closure)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         return Py_NewRef(self->last);
     }

     static int
     Custom_setlast(PyObject *op, PyObject *value, void *closure)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         if (value == NULL) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute");
             return -1;
         }
         if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) {
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError,
                             "The last attribute value must be a string");
             return -1;
         }
         Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value));
         return 0;
     }

     static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = {
         {"first", Custom_getfirst, Custom_setfirst,
          "first name", NULL},
         {"last", Custom_getlast, Custom_setlast,
          "last name", NULL},
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyObject *
     Custom_name(PyObject *op, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(dummy))
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last);
     }

     static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = {
         {"name", Custom_name, METH_NOARGS,
          "Return the name, combining the first and last name"
         },
         {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
     };

     static PyTypeObject CustomType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "custom4.Custom",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,
         .tp_new = Custom_new,
         .tp_init = Custom_init,
         .tp_dealloc = Custom_dealloc,
         .tp_traverse = Custom_traverse,
         .tp_clear = Custom_clear,
         .tp_members = Custom_members,
         .tp_methods = Custom_methods,
         .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters,
     };

     static int
     custom_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

     static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = {
         {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec},
         {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static PyModuleDef custom_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "custom4",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = 0,
         .m_slots = custom_module_slots,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_custom4(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module);
     }

First, the traversal method lets the cyclic GC know about subobjects
that could participate in cycles:

     static int
     Custom_traverse(PyObject *op, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         int vret;
         if (self->first) {
             vret = visit(self->first, arg);
             if (vret != 0)
                 return vret;
         }
         if (self->last) {
             vret = visit(self->last, arg);
             if (vret != 0)
                 return vret;
         }
         return 0;
     }

For each subobject that can participate in cycles, we need to call the
‘visit()’ function, which is passed to the traversal method.  The
‘visit()’ function takes as arguments the subobject and the extra
argument 'arg' passed to the traversal method.  It returns an integer
value that must be returned if it is non-zero.

Python provides a *note Py_VISIT(): 51ee. macro that automates calling
visit functions.  With ‘Py_VISIT()’, we can minimize the amount of
boilerplate in ‘Custom_traverse’:

     static int
     Custom_traverse(PyObject *op, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         Py_VISIT(self->first);
         Py_VISIT(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

     Σημείωση: The *note tp_traverse: 36b. implementation must name its
     arguments exactly 'visit' and 'arg' in order to use *note
     Py_VISIT(): 51ee.

Second, we need to provide a method for clearing any subobjects that can
participate in cycles:

     static int
     Custom_clear(PyObject *op)
     {
         CustomObject *self = (CustomObject *) op;
         Py_CLEAR(self->first);
         Py_CLEAR(self->last);
         return 0;
     }

Notice the use of the *note Py_CLEAR(): 97c. macro.  It is the
recommended and safe way to clear data attributes of arbitrary types
while decrementing their reference counts.  If you were to call *note
Py_XDECREF(): b6e. instead on the attribute before setting it to ‘NULL’,
there is a possibility that the attribute’s destructor would call back
into code that reads the attribute again ('especially' if there is a
reference cycle).

     Σημείωση: You could emulate *note Py_CLEAR(): 97c. by writing:

          PyObject *tmp;
          tmp = self->first;
          self->first = NULL;
          Py_XDECREF(tmp);

     Nevertheless, it is much easier and less error-prone to always use
     *note Py_CLEAR(): 97c. when deleting an attribute.  Don’t try to
     micro-optimize at the expense of robustness!

The deallocator ‘Custom_dealloc’ may call arbitrary code when clearing
attributes.  It means the circular GC can be triggered inside the
function.  Since the GC assumes reference count is not zero, we need to
untrack the object from the GC by calling *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack():
18a7. before clearing members.  Here is our reimplemented deallocator
using ‘PyObject_GC_UnTrack()’ and ‘Custom_clear’:

     static void
     Custom_dealloc(PyObject *op)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(op);
         (void)Custom_clear(op);
         Py_TYPE(op)->tp_free(op);
     }

Finally, we add the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag to the class
flags:

     .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC,

That’s pretty much it.  If we had written custom *note tp_alloc: 51e6.
or *note tp_free: 51e5. handlers, we’d need to modify them for cyclic
garbage collection.  Most extensions will use the versions automatically
provided.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Also, even with our attributes restricted to strings instances,
the user could pass arbitrary *note str: 1df. subclasses and therefore
still create reference cycles.


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing other types,  Prev: Supporting cyclic garbage collection,  Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial

6.3.5 Subclassing other types
-----------------------------

It is possible to create new extension types that are derived from
existing types.  It is easiest to inherit from the built in types, since
an extension can easily use the *note PyTypeObject: e6b. it needs.  It
can be difficult to share these ‘PyTypeObject’ structures between
extension modules.

In this example we will create a ‘SubList’ type that inherits from the
built-in *note list: 4d9. type.  The new type will be completely
compatible with regular lists, but will have an additional ‘increment()’
method that increases an internal counter:

     >>> import sublist
     >>> s = sublist.SubList(range(3))
     >>> s.extend(s)
     >>> print(len(s))
     6
     >>> print(s.increment())
     1
     >>> print(s.increment())
     2

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     typedef struct {
         PyListObject list;
         int state;
     } SubListObject;

     static PyObject *
     SubList_increment(PyObject *op, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(dummy))
     {
         SubListObject *self = (SubListObject *) op;
         self->state++;
         return PyLong_FromLong(self->state);
     }

     static PyMethodDef SubList_methods[] = {
         {"increment", SubList_increment, METH_NOARGS,
          PyDoc_STR("increment state counter")},
         {NULL},
     };

     static int
     SubList_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         SubListObject *self = (SubListObject *) op;
         if (PyList_Type.tp_init(op, args, kwds) < 0)
             return -1;
         self->state = 0;
         return 0;
     }

     static PyTypeObject SubListType = {
         .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "sublist.SubList",
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("SubList objects"),
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(SubListObject),
         .tp_itemsize = 0,
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE,
         .tp_init = SubList_init,
         .tp_methods = SubList_methods,
     };

     static int
     sublist_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
         if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

     static PyModuleDef_Slot sublist_module_slots[] = {
         {Py_mod_exec, sublist_module_exec},
         {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED},
         {0, NULL}
     };

     static PyModuleDef sublist_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "sublist",
         .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.",
         .m_size = 0,
         .m_slots = sublist_module_slots,
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_sublist(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&sublist_module);
     }

As you can see, the source code closely resembles the ‘Custom’ examples
in previous sections.  We will break down the main differences between
them.

     typedef struct {
         PyListObject list;
         int state;
     } SubListObject;

The primary difference for derived type objects is that the base type’s
object structure must be the first value.  The base type will already
include the *note PyObject_HEAD(): 1682. at the beginning of its
structure.

When a Python object is a ‘SubList’ instance, its ‘PyObject *’ pointer
can be safely cast to both ‘PyListObject *’ and ‘SubListObject *’:

     static int
     SubList_init(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         SubListObject *self = (SubListObject *) op;
         if (PyList_Type.tp_init(op, args, kwds) < 0)
             return -1;
         self->state = 0;
         return 0;
     }

We see above how to call through to the *note __init__(): 2fa. method of
the base type.

This pattern is important when writing a type with custom *note tp_new:
981. and *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. members.  The ‘tp_new’ handler should
not actually create the memory for the object with its *note tp_alloc:
51e6, but let the base class handle it by calling its own ‘tp_new’.

The *note PyTypeObject: e6b. struct supports a *note tp_base: 2567.
specifying the type’s concrete base class.  Due to cross-platform
compiler issues, you can’t fill that field directly with a reference to
*note PyList_Type: 51f0.; it should be done in the *note Py_mod_exec:
d46. function:

     static int
     sublist_module_exec(PyObject *m)
     {
         SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type;
         if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) {
             return -1;
         }

         return 0;
     }

Before calling *note PyType_Ready(): b5e, the type structure must have
the *note tp_base: 2567. slot filled in.  When we are deriving an
existing type, it is not necessary to fill out the *note tp_alloc: 51e6.
slot with *note PyType_GenericNew(): 51e2. – the allocation function
from the base type will be inherited.

After that, calling *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. and adding the type
object to the module is the same as with the basic ‘Custom’ examples.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics,  Next: Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C και C++,  Prev: Defining Extension Types Tutorial,  Up: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python

6.4 Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics
=============================================

This section aims to give a quick fly-by on the various type methods you
can implement and what they do.

Here is the definition of *note PyTypeObject: e6b, with some fields only
used in *note debug builds: 3dc. omitted:

     typedef struct _typeobject {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *tp_name; /* For printing, in format "<module>.<name>" */
         Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

         /* Methods to implement standard operations */

         destructor tp_dealloc;
         Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset;
         getattrfunc tp_getattr;
         setattrfunc tp_setattr;
         PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2)
                                         or tp_reserved (Python 3) */
         reprfunc tp_repr;

         /* Method suites for standard classes */

         PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number;
         PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
         PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping;

         /* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */

         hashfunc tp_hash;
         ternaryfunc tp_call;
         reprfunc tp_str;
         getattrofunc tp_getattro;
         setattrofunc tp_setattro;

         /* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */
         PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer;

         /* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */
         unsigned long tp_flags;

         const char *tp_doc; /* Documentation string */

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.0 */
         /* call function for all accessible objects */
         traverseproc tp_traverse;

         /* delete references to contained objects */
         inquiry tp_clear;

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.1 */
         /* rich comparisons */
         richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

         /* weak reference enabler */
         Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset;

         /* Iterators */
         getiterfunc tp_iter;
         iternextfunc tp_iternext;

         /* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */
         PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
         PyMemberDef *tp_members;
         PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
         // Strong reference on a heap type, borrowed reference on a static type
         PyTypeObject *tp_base;
         PyObject *tp_dict;
         descrgetfunc tp_descr_get;
         descrsetfunc tp_descr_set;
         Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset;
         initproc tp_init;
         allocfunc tp_alloc;
         newfunc tp_new;
         freefunc tp_free; /* Low-level free-memory routine */
         inquiry tp_is_gc; /* For PyObject_IS_GC */
         PyObject *tp_bases;
         PyObject *tp_mro; /* method resolution order */
         PyObject *tp_cache; /* no longer used */
         void *tp_subclasses;  /* for static builtin types this is an index */
         PyObject *tp_weaklist; /* not used for static builtin types */
         destructor tp_del;

         /* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6.
          * If zero, the cache is invalid and must be initialized.
          */
         unsigned int tp_version_tag;

         destructor tp_finalize;
         vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall;

         /* bitset of which type-watchers care about this type */
         unsigned char tp_watched;

         /* Number of tp_version_tag values used.
          * Set to _Py_ATTR_CACHE_UNUSED if the attribute cache is
          * disabled for this type (e.g. due to custom MRO entries).
          * Otherwise, limited to MAX_VERSIONS_PER_CLASS (defined elsewhere).
          */
         uint16_t tp_versions_used;
     } PyTypeObject;

Now that’s a 'lot' of methods.  Don’t worry too much though – if you
have a type you want to define, the chances are very good that you will
only implement a handful of these.

As you probably expect by now, we’re going to go over this and give more
information about the various handlers.  We won’t go in the order they
are defined in the structure, because there is a lot of historical
baggage that impacts the ordering of the fields.  It’s often easiest to
find an example that includes the fields you need and then change the
values to suit your new type.

     const char *tp_name; /* For printing */

The name of the type – as mentioned in the previous chapter, this will
appear in various places, almost entirely for diagnostic purposes.  Try
to choose something that will be helpful in such a situation!

     Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

These fields tell the runtime how much memory to allocate when new
objects of this type are created.  Python has some built-in support for
variable length structures (think: strings, tuples) which is where the
*note tp_itemsize: 25b0. field comes in.  This will be dealt with later.

     const char *tp_doc;

Here you can put a string (or its address) that you want returned when
the Python script references ‘obj.__doc__’ to retrieve the doc string.

Now we come to the basic type methods – the ones most extension types
will implement.

* Menu:

* Finalization and De-allocation::
* Object Presentation::
* Attribute Management::
* Object Comparison::
* Abstract Protocol Support::
* Weak Reference Support::
* More Suggestions::


File: python.info,  Node: Finalization and De-allocation,  Next: Object Presentation,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.4.1 Finalization and De-allocation
------------------------------------

     destructor tp_dealloc;

This function is called when the reference count of the instance of your
type is reduced to zero and the Python interpreter wants to reclaim it.
If your type has memory to free or other clean-up to perform, you can
put it here.  The object itself needs to be freed here as well.  Here is
an example of this function:

     static void
     newdatatype_dealloc(PyObject *op)
     {
         newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
         free(self->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr);
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
     }

If your type supports garbage collection, the destructor should call
*note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 18a7. before clearing any member fields:

     static void
     newdatatype_dealloc(PyObject *op)
     {
         newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(op);
         Py_CLEAR(self->other_obj);
         ...
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
     }

One important requirement of the deallocator function is that it leaves
any pending exceptions alone.  This is important since deallocators are
frequently called as the interpreter unwinds the Python stack; when the
stack is unwound due to an exception (rather than normal returns),
nothing is done to protect the deallocators from seeing that an
exception has already been set.  Any actions which a deallocator
performs which may cause additional Python code to be executed may
detect that an exception has been set.  This can lead to misleading
errors from the interpreter.  The proper way to protect against this is
to save a pending exception before performing the unsafe action, and
restoring it when done.  This can be done using the *note PyErr_Fetch():
63b. and *note PyErr_Restore(): 63e. functions:

     static void
     my_dealloc(PyObject *obj)
     {
         MyObject *self = (MyObject *) obj;
         PyObject *cbresult;

         if (self->my_callback != NULL) {
             PyObject *err_type, *err_value, *err_traceback;

             /* This saves the current exception state */
             PyErr_Fetch(&err_type, &err_value, &err_traceback);

             cbresult = PyObject_CallNoArgs(self->my_callback);
             if (cbresult == NULL) {
                PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self->my_callback);
             }
             else {
                 Py_DECREF(cbresult);
             }

             /* This restores the saved exception state */
             PyErr_Restore(err_type, err_value, err_traceback);

             Py_DECREF(self->my_callback);
         }
         Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
     }

     Σημείωση: There are limitations to what you can safely do in a
     deallocator function.  First, if your type supports garbage
     collection (using *note tp_traverse: 36b. and/or *note tp_clear:
     51f7.), some of the object’s members can have been cleared or
     finalized by the time *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. is called.  Second,
     in ‘tp_dealloc’, your object is in an unstable state: its reference
     count is equal to zero.  Any call to a non-trivial object or API
     (as in the example above) might end up calling ‘tp_dealloc’ again,
     causing a double free and a crash.

     Starting with Python 3.4, it is recommended not to put any complex
     finalization code in *note tp_dealloc: 51d3, and instead use the
     new *note tp_finalize: e6c. type method.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 442(1) explains the new finalization scheme.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: Object Presentation,  Next: Attribute Management,  Prev: Finalization and De-allocation,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.4.2 Object Presentation
-------------------------

In Python, there are two ways to generate a textual representation of an
object: the *note repr(): 45b. function, and the *note str(): 1df.
function.  (The *note print(): 131f. function just calls ‘str()’.)
These handlers are both optional.

     reprfunc tp_repr;
     reprfunc tp_str;

The *note tp_repr: 51f9. handler should return a string object
containing a representation of the instance for which it is called.
Here is a simple example:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_repr(PyObject *op)
     {
         newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Repr-ified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
                                     self->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
     }

If no *note tp_repr: 51f9. handler is specified, the interpreter will
supply a representation that uses the type’s *note tp_name: 1ea6. and a
uniquely identifying value for the object.

The *note tp_str: 51fa. handler is to *note str(): 1df. what the *note
tp_repr: 51f9. handler described above is to *note repr(): 45b.; that
is, it is called when Python code calls ‘str()’ on an instance of your
object.  Its implementation is very similar to the ‘tp_repr’ function,
but the resulting string is intended for human consumption.  If ‘tp_str’
is not specified, the ‘tp_repr’ handler is used instead.

Here is a simple example:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_str(PyObject *op)
     {
         newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
         return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Stringified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}",
                                     self->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Attribute Management,  Next: Object Comparison,  Prev: Object Presentation,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.4.3 Attribute Management
--------------------------

For every object which can support attributes, the corresponding type
must provide the functions that control how the attributes are resolved.
There needs to be a function which can retrieve attributes (if any are
defined), and another to set attributes (if setting attributes is
allowed).  Removing an attribute is a special case, for which the new
value passed to the handler is ‘NULL’.

Python supports two pairs of attribute handlers; a type that supports
attributes only needs to implement the functions for one pair.  The
difference is that one pair takes the name of the attribute as a char*,
while the other accepts a *note PyObject: 19b.*.  Each type can use
whichever pair makes more sense for the implementation’s convenience.

     getattrfunc  tp_getattr;        /* char * version */
     setattrfunc  tp_setattr;
     /* ... */
     getattrofunc tp_getattro;       /* PyObject * version */
     setattrofunc tp_setattro;

If accessing attributes of an object is always a simple operation (this
will be explained shortly), there are generic implementations which can
be used to provide the *note PyObject: 19b.* version of the attribute
management functions.  The actual need for type-specific attribute
handlers almost completely disappeared starting with Python 2.2, though
there are many examples which have not been updated to use some of the
new generic mechanism that is available.

* Menu:

* Generic Attribute Management::
* Type-specific Attribute Management::


File: python.info,  Node: Generic Attribute Management,  Next: Type-specific Attribute Management,  Up: Attribute Management

6.4.3.1 Generic Attribute Management
....................................

Most extension types only use 'simple' attributes.  So, what makes the
attributes simple?  There are only a couple of conditions that must be
met:

  1. The name of the attributes must be known when *note PyType_Ready():
     b5e. is called.

  2. No special processing is needed to record that an attribute was
     looked up or set, nor do actions need to be taken based on the
     value.

Note that this list does not place any restrictions on the values of the
attributes, when the values are computed, or how relevant data is
stored.

When *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. is called, it uses three tables
referenced by the type object to create *note descriptor: 21f.s which
are placed in the dictionary of the type object.  Each descriptor
controls access to one attribute of the instance object.  Each of the
tables is optional; if all three are ‘NULL’, instances of the type will
only have attributes that are inherited from their base type, and should
leave the *note tp_getattro: 1c6a. and *note tp_setattro: 51fd. fields
‘NULL’ as well, allowing the base type to handle attributes.

The tables are declared as three fields of the type object:

     struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
     struct PyMemberDef *tp_members;
     struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;

If *note tp_methods: 51e9. is not ‘NULL’, it must refer to an array of
*note PyMethodDef: 1879. structures.  Each entry in the table is an
instance of this structure:

     typedef struct PyMethodDef {
         const char  *ml_name;       /* method name */
         PyCFunction  ml_meth;       /* implementation function */
         int          ml_flags;      /* flags */
         const char  *ml_doc;        /* docstring */
     } PyMethodDef;

One entry should be defined for each method provided by the type; no
entries are needed for methods inherited from a base type.  One
additional entry is needed at the end; it is a sentinel that marks the
end of the array.  The *note ml_name: 51fe. field of the sentinel must
be ‘NULL’.

The second table is used to define attributes which map directly to data
stored in the instance.  A variety of primitive C types are supported,
and access may be read-only or read-write.  The structures in the table
are defined as:

     typedef struct PyMemberDef {
         const char *name;
         int         type;
         int         offset;
         int         flags;
         const char *doc;
     } PyMemberDef;

For each entry in the table, a *note descriptor: 21f. will be
constructed and added to the type which will be able to extract a value
from the instance structure.  The *note type: 51ff. field should contain
a type code like *note Py_T_INT: 98e. or *note Py_T_DOUBLE: 98f.; the
value will be used to determine how to convert Python values to and from
C values.  The *note flags: 5200. field is used to store flags which
control how the attribute can be accessed: you can set it to *note
Py_READONLY: 990. to prevent Python code from setting it.

An interesting advantage of using the *note tp_members: 51e7. table to
build descriptors that are used at runtime is that any attribute defined
this way can have an associated doc string simply by providing the text
in the table.  An application can use the introspection API to retrieve
the descriptor from the class object, and get the doc string using its
*note __doc__: 2284. attribute.

As with the *note tp_methods: 51e9. table, a sentinel entry with a *note
ml_name: 51fe. value of ‘NULL’ is required.


File: python.info,  Node: Type-specific Attribute Management,  Prev: Generic Attribute Management,  Up: Attribute Management

6.4.3.2 Type-specific Attribute Management
..........................................

For simplicity, only the char* version will be demonstrated here; the
type of the name parameter is the only difference between the char* and
*note PyObject: 19b.* flavors of the interface.  This example
effectively does the same thing as the generic example above, but does
not use the generic support added in Python 2.2.  It explains how the
handler functions are called, so that if you do need to extend their
functionality, you’ll understand what needs to be done.

The *note tp_getattr: 5202. handler is called when the object requires
an attribute look-up.  It is called in the same situations where the
*note __getattr__(): 8e3. method of a class would be called.

Here is an example:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_getattr(PyObject *op, char *name)
     {
         newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
         if (strcmp(name, "data") == 0) {
             return PyLong_FromLong(self->data);
         }

         PyErr_Format(PyExc_AttributeError,
                      "'%.100s' object has no attribute '%.400s'",
                      Py_TYPE(self)->tp_name, name);
         return NULL;
     }

The *note tp_setattr: 5203. handler is called when the *note
__setattr__(): 256d. or *note __delattr__(): 256e. method of a class
instance would be called.  When an attribute should be deleted, the
third parameter will be ‘NULL’.  Here is an example that simply raises
an exception; if this were really all you wanted, the ‘tp_setattr’
handler should be set to ‘NULL’.

     static int
     newdatatype_setattr(PyObject *op, char *name, PyObject *v)
     {
         PyErr_Format(PyExc_RuntimeError, "Read-only attribute: %s", name);
         return -1;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Object Comparison,  Next: Abstract Protocol Support,  Prev: Attribute Management,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.4.4 Object Comparison
-----------------------

     richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

The *note tp_richcompare: 5205. handler is called when comparisons are
needed.  It is analogous to the *note rich comparison methods: 25a3,
like ‘__lt__()’, and also called by *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 5206.
and *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 1f7e.

This function is called with two Python objects and the operator as
arguments, where the operator is one of ‘Py_EQ’, ‘Py_NE’, ‘Py_LE’,
‘Py_GE’, ‘Py_LT’ or ‘Py_GT’.  It should compare the two objects with
respect to the specified operator and return ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’ if
the comparison is successful, ‘Py_NotImplemented’ to indicate that
comparison is not implemented and the other object’s comparison method
should be tried, or ‘NULL’ if an exception was set.

Here is a sample implementation, for a datatype that is considered equal
if the size of an internal pointer is equal:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_richcmp(PyObject *lhs, PyObject *rhs, int op)
     {
         newdatatypeobject *obj1 = (newdatatypeobject *) lhs;
         newdatatypeobject *obj2 = (newdatatypeobject *) rhs;
         PyObject *result;
         int c, size1, size2;

         /* code to make sure that both arguments are of type
            newdatatype omitted */

         size1 = obj1->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;
         size2 = obj2->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size;

         switch (op) {
         case Py_LT: c = size1 <  size2; break;
         case Py_LE: c = size1 <= size2; break;
         case Py_EQ: c = size1 == size2; break;
         case Py_NE: c = size1 != size2; break;
         case Py_GT: c = size1 >  size2; break;
         case Py_GE: c = size1 >= size2; break;
         }
         result = c ? Py_True : Py_False;
         return Py_NewRef(result);
      }


File: python.info,  Node: Abstract Protocol Support,  Next: Weak Reference Support,  Prev: Object Comparison,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.4.5 Abstract Protocol Support
-------------------------------

Python supports a variety of 'abstract' “protocols;” the specific
interfaces provided to use these interfaces are documented in *note
Abstract Objects Layer: 5208.

A number of these abstract interfaces were defined early in the
development of the Python implementation.  In particular, the number,
mapping, and sequence protocols have been part of Python since the
beginning.  Other protocols have been added over time.  For protocols
which depend on several handler routines from the type implementation,
the older protocols have been defined as optional blocks of handlers
referenced by the type object.  For newer protocols there are additional
slots in the main type object, with a flag bit being set to indicate
that the slots are present and should be checked by the interpreter.
(The flag bit does not indicate that the slot values are non-‘NULL’.
The flag may be set to indicate the presence of a slot, but a slot may
still be unfilled.)

     PyNumberMethods   *tp_as_number;
     PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
     PyMappingMethods  *tp_as_mapping;

If you wish your object to be able to act like a number, a sequence, or
a mapping object, then you place the address of a structure that
implements the C type *note PyNumberMethods: 17c0, *note
PySequenceMethods: 5209, or *note PyMappingMethods: 520a, respectively.
It is up to you to fill in this structure with appropriate values.  You
can find examples of the use of each of these in the ‘Objects’ directory
of the Python source distribution.

     hashfunc tp_hash;

This function, if you choose to provide it, should return a hash number
for an instance of your data type.  Here is a simple example:

     static Py_hash_t
     newdatatype_hash(PyObject *op)
     {
         newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
         Py_hash_t result;
         result = self->some_size + 32767 * self->some_number;
         if (result == -1) {
             result = -2;
         }
         return result;
     }

*note Py_hash_t: 1608. is a signed integer type with a platform-varying
width.  Returning ‘-1’ from *note tp_hash: 520b. indicates an error,
which is why you should be careful to avoid returning it when hash
computation is successful, as seen above.

     ternaryfunc tp_call;

This function is called when an instance of your data type is «called»,
for example, if ‘obj1’ is an instance of your data type and the Python
script contains ‘obj1('hello')’, the *note tp_call: 962. handler is
invoked.

This function takes three arguments:

  1. 'self' is the instance of the data type which is the subject of the
     call.  If the call is ‘obj1('hello')’, then 'self' is ‘obj1’.

  2. 'args' is a tuple containing the arguments to the call.  You can
     use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. to extract the arguments.

  3. 'kwds' is a dictionary of keyword arguments that were passed.  If
     this is non-‘NULL’ and you support keyword arguments, use *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818. to extract the arguments.  If
     you do not want to support keyword arguments and this is
     non-‘NULL’, raise a *note TypeError: 291. with a message saying
     that keyword arguments are not supported.

Here is a toy ‘tp_call’ implementation:

     static PyObject *
     newdatatype_call(PyObject *op, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     {
         newdatatypeobject *self = (newdatatypeobject *) op;
         PyObject *result;
         const char *arg1;
         const char *arg2;
         const char *arg3;

         if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "sss:call", &arg1, &arg2, &arg3)) {
             return NULL;
         }
         result = PyUnicode_FromFormat(
             "Returning -- value: [%d] arg1: [%s] arg2: [%s] arg3: [%s]\n",
             self->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size,
             arg1, arg2, arg3);
         return result;
     }

     /* Iterators */
     getiterfunc tp_iter;
     iternextfunc tp_iternext;

These functions provide support for the iterator protocol.  Both
handlers take exactly one parameter, the instance for which they are
being called, and return a new reference.  In the case of an error, they
should set an exception and return ‘NULL’.  *note tp_iter: 1891.
corresponds to the Python *note __iter__(): 102d. method, while *note
tp_iternext: 1892. corresponds to the Python *note __next__(): 1672.
method.

Any *note iterable: 15ce. object must implement the *note tp_iter: 1891.
handler, which must return an *note iterator: 6ce. object.  Here the
same guidelines apply as for Python classes:

   * For collections (such as lists and tuples) which can support
     multiple independent iterators, a new iterator should be created
     and returned by each call to *note tp_iter: 1891.

   * Objects which can only be iterated over once (usually due to side
     effects of iteration, such as file objects) can implement *note
     tp_iter: 1891. by returning a new reference to themselves – and
     should also therefore implement the *note tp_iternext: 1892.
     handler.

Any *note iterator: 6ce. object should implement both *note tp_iter:
1891. and *note tp_iternext: 1892.  An iterator’s ‘tp_iter’ handler
should return a new reference to the iterator.  Its ‘tp_iternext’
handler should return a new reference to the next object in the
iteration, if there is one.  If the iteration has reached the end,
‘tp_iternext’ may return ‘NULL’ without setting an exception, or it may
set *note StopIteration: fba. 'in addition' to returning ‘NULL’;
avoiding the exception can yield slightly better performance.  If an
actual error occurs, ‘tp_iternext’ should always set an exception and
return ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Weak Reference Support,  Next: More Suggestions,  Prev: Abstract Protocol Support,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.4.6 Weak Reference Support
----------------------------

One of the goals of Python’s weak reference implementation is to allow
any type to participate in the weak reference mechanism without
incurring the overhead on performance-critical objects (such as
numbers).

Δείτε επίσης
............

Documentation for the *note weakref: 11d. module.

For an object to be weakly referenceable, the extension type must set
the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF’ bit of the *note tp_flags: 1e68. field.
The legacy *note tp_weaklistoffset: d50. field should be left as zero.

If this flag is set, *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. should also be set.

Concretely, here is how the statically declared type object would look:

     static PyTypeObject TrivialType = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         /* ... other members omitted for brevity ... */
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF | ...,
     };

The only further addition is that ‘tp_dealloc’ needs to clear any weak
references (by calling *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 97a.):

     static void
     Trivial_dealloc(PyObject *op)
     {
         /* Clear weakrefs first before calling any destructors */
         PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(op);
         /* ... remainder of destruction code omitted for brevity ... */
         Py_TYPE(op)->tp_free(op);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: More Suggestions,  Prev: Weak Reference Support,  Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics

6.4.7 More Suggestions
----------------------

In order to learn how to implement any specific method for your new data
type, get the *note CPython: ae3. source code.  Go to the ‘Objects’
directory, then search the C source files for ‘tp_’ plus the function
you want (for example, ‘tp_richcompare’).  You will find examples of the
function you want to implement.

When you need to verify that an object is a concrete instance of the
type you are implementing, use the *note PyObject_TypeCheck(): 1eab.
function.  A sample of its use might be something like the following:

     if (!PyObject_TypeCheck(some_object, &MyType)) {
         PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "arg #1 not a mything");
         return NULL;
     }

Δείτε επίσης
............

Download CPython source releases.

     ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/source/’

The CPython project on GitHub, where the CPython source code is developed.

     ‘https://github.com/python/cpython’


File: python.info,  Node: Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C και C++,  Next: Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows,  Prev: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics,  Up: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python

6.5 Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C και C++
==================================

Μια επέκταση C για τη CPython είναι μια κοινόχρηστη βιβλιοθήκη (π.χ.
ένα αρχείο ‘.so’ στο Linux, ‘.pyd’ στα Windows), η οποία εξάγει μια
'συνάρτηση αρχικοποίησης'.

Δείτε το *note Defining extension modules: 5212. για περισσότερες
λεπτομέρειες.
* Menu:

* Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C και C++ με το setuptools::


File: python.info,  Node: Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C και C++ με το setuptools,  Up: Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C και C++

6.5.1 Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C και C++ με το setuptools
-----------------------------------------------------

Η κατασκευή, η συσκευασία και η διανομή modules επέκτασης γίνεται
καλύτερα με εργαλεία τρίτων και είναι εκτός πεδίου εφαρμογής αυτού του
εγγράφου.  Ένα κατάλληλο εργαλείο είναι το Setuptools, η τεκμηρίωση του
οποίου βρίσκεται στη διεύθυνση
‘https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/setuptools.html’.

Το module *note distutils: 3c, η οποία περιλαμβανόταν στην τυπική
βιβλιοθήκη μέχρι την Python 3.12, διατηρείται πλέον ως μέρος του
Setuptools.


File: python.info,  Node: Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows,  Next: Embedding Python in Another Application,  Prev: Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C και C++,  Up: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python

6.6 Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows
============================================

This chapter briefly explains how to create a Windows extension module
for Python using Microsoft Visual C++, and follows with more detailed
background information on how it works.  The explanatory material is
useful for both the Windows programmer learning to build Python
extensions and the Unix programmer interested in producing software
which can be successfully built on both Unix and Windows.

Module authors are encouraged to use the distutils approach for building
extension modules, instead of the one described in this section.  You
will still need the C compiler that was used to build Python; typically
Microsoft Visual C++.

     Σημείωση: This chapter mentions a number of filenames that include
     an encoded Python version number.  These filenames are represented
     with the version number shown as ‘XY’; in practice, ‘'X'’ will be
     the major version number and ‘'Y'’ will be the minor version number
     of the Python release you’re working with.  For example, if you are
     using Python 2.2.1, ‘XY’ will actually be ‘22’.

* Menu:

* A Cookbook Approach::
* Differences Between Unix and Windows::
* Using DLLs in Practice::


File: python.info,  Node: A Cookbook Approach,  Next: Differences Between Unix and Windows,  Up: Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows

6.6.1 A Cookbook Approach
-------------------------

There are two approaches to building extension modules on Windows, just
as there are on Unix: use the ‘setuptools’ package to control the build
process, or do things manually.  The setuptools approach works well for
most extensions; documentation on using ‘setuptools’ to build and
package extension modules is available in *note Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C
και C++ με το setuptools: 12a8.  If you find you really need to do
things manually, it may be instructive to study the project file for the
winsound(1) standard library module.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/PCbuild/winsound.vcxproj


File: python.info,  Node: Differences Between Unix and Windows,  Next: Using DLLs in Practice,  Prev: A Cookbook Approach,  Up: Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows

6.6.2 Differences Between Unix and Windows
------------------------------------------

Unix and Windows use completely different paradigms for run-time loading
of code.  Before you try to build a module that can be dynamically
loaded, be aware of how your system works.

In Unix, a shared object (‘.so’) file contains code to be used by the
program, and also the names of functions and data that it expects to
find in the program.  When the file is joined to the program, all
references to those functions and data in the file’s code are changed to
point to the actual locations in the program where the functions and
data are placed in memory.  This is basically a link operation.

In Windows, a dynamic-link library (‘.dll’) file has no dangling
references.  Instead, an access to functions or data goes through a
lookup table.  So the DLL code does not have to be fixed up at runtime
to refer to the program’s memory; instead, the code already uses the
DLL’s lookup table, and the lookup table is modified at runtime to point
to the functions and data.

In Unix, there is only one type of library file (‘.a’) which contains
code from several object files (‘.o’).  During the link step to create a
shared object file (‘.so’), the linker may find that it doesn’t know
where an identifier is defined.  The linker will look for it in the
object files in the libraries; if it finds it, it will include all the
code from that object file.

In Windows, there are two types of library, a static library and an
import library (both called ‘.lib’).  A static library is like a Unix
‘.a’ file; it contains code to be included as necessary.  An import
library is basically used only to reassure the linker that a certain
identifier is legal, and will be present in the program when the DLL is
loaded.  So the linker uses the information from the import library to
build the lookup table for using identifiers that are not included in
the DLL. When an application or a DLL is linked, an import library may
be generated, which will need to be used for all future DLLs that depend
on the symbols in the application or DLL.

Suppose you are building two dynamic-load modules, B and C, which should
share another block of code A. On Unix, you would 'not' pass ‘A.a’ to
the linker for ‘B.so’ and ‘C.so’; that would cause it to be included
twice, so that B and C would each have their own copy.  In Windows,
building ‘A.dll’ will also build ‘A.lib’.  You 'do' pass ‘A.lib’ to the
linker for B and C. ‘A.lib’ does not contain code; it just contains
information which will be used at runtime to access A’s code.

In Windows, using an import library is sort of like using ‘import spam’;
it gives you access to spam’s names, but does not create a separate
copy.  On Unix, linking with a library is more like ‘from spam import
*’; it does create a separate copy.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_NO_LINK_LIB

     Turn off the implicit, ‘#pragma’-based linkage with the Python
     library, performed inside CPython header files.

     Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Using DLLs in Practice,  Prev: Differences Between Unix and Windows,  Up: Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows

6.6.3 Using DLLs in Practice
----------------------------

Windows Python is built in Microsoft Visual C++; using other compilers
may or may not work.  The rest of this section is MSVC++ specific.

When creating DLLs in Windows, you can use the CPython library in two
ways:

  1. By default, inclusion of ‘PC/pyconfig.h’ directly or via ‘Python.h’
     triggers an implicit, configure-aware link with the library.  The
     header file chooses ‘pythonXY_d.lib’ for Debug, ‘pythonXY.lib’ for
     Release, and ‘pythonX.lib’ for Release with the *note Limited API:
     521d. enabled.

     To build two DLLs, spam and ni (which uses C functions found in
     spam), you could use these commands:

          cl /LD /I/python/include spam.c
          cl /LD /I/python/include ni.c spam.lib

     The first command created three files: ‘spam.obj’, ‘spam.dll’ and
     ‘spam.lib’.  ‘Spam.dll’ does not contain any Python functions (such
     as *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1.), but it does know how to find
     the Python code thanks to the implicitly linked ‘pythonXY.lib’.

     The second command created ‘ni.dll’ (and ‘.obj’ and ‘.lib’), which
     knows how to find the necessary functions from spam, and also from
     the Python executable.

  2. Manually by defining *note Py_NO_LINK_LIB: 657. macro before
     including ‘Python.h’.  You must pass ‘pythonXY.lib’ to the linker.

     To build two DLLs, spam and ni (which uses C functions found in
     spam), you could use these commands:

          cl /LD /DPy_NO_LINK_LIB /I/python/include spam.c ../libs/pythonXY.lib
          cl /LD /DPy_NO_LINK_LIB /I/python/include ni.c spam.lib ../libs/pythonXY.lib

     The first command created three files: ‘spam.obj’, ‘spam.dll’ and
     ‘spam.lib’.  ‘Spam.dll’ does not contain any Python functions (such
     as *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1.), but it does know how to find
     the Python code thanks to ‘pythonXY.lib’.

     The second command created ‘ni.dll’ (and ‘.obj’ and ‘.lib’), which
     knows how to find the necessary functions from spam, and also from
     the Python executable.

Not every identifier is exported to the lookup table.  If you want any
other modules (including Python) to be able to see your identifiers, you
have to say ‘_declspec(dllexport)’, as in ‘void _declspec(dllexport)
initspam(void)’ or ‘PyObject _declspec(dllexport) *NiGetSpamData(void)’.

Developer Studio will throw in a lot of import libraries that you do not
really need, adding about 100K to your executable.  To get rid of them,
use the Project Settings dialog, Link tab, to specify 'ignore default
libraries'.  Add the correct ‘msvcrt`xx'.lib’ to the list of libraries.


File: python.info,  Node: Embedding Python in Another Application,  Next: Προτεινόμενα εργαλεία τρίτων,  Prev: Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows,  Up: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python

6.7 Embedding Python in Another Application
===========================================

The previous chapters discussed how to extend Python, that is, how to
extend the functionality of Python by attaching a library of C functions
to it.  It is also possible to do it the other way around: enrich your
C/C++ application by embedding Python in it.  Embedding provides your
application with the ability to implement some of the functionality of
your application in Python rather than C or C++.  This can be used for
many purposes; one example would be to allow users to tailor the
application to their needs by writing some scripts in Python.  You can
also use it yourself if some of the functionality can be written in
Python more easily.

Embedding Python is similar to extending it, but not quite.  The
difference is that when you extend Python, the main program of the
application is still the Python interpreter, while if you embed Python,
the main program may have nothing to do with Python — instead, some
parts of the application occasionally call the Python interpreter to run
some Python code.

So if you are embedding Python, you are providing your own main program.
One of the things this main program has to do is initialize the Python
interpreter.  At the very least, you have to call the function *note
Py_Initialize(): 673.  There are optional calls to pass command line
arguments to Python.  Then later you can call the interpreter from any
part of the application.

There are several different ways to call the interpreter: you can pass a
string containing Python statements to *note PyRun_SimpleString(): 5221,
or you can pass a stdio file pointer and a file name (for identification
in error messages only) to *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 5222.  You can also
call the lower-level operations described in the previous chapters to
construct and use Python objects.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Python/C API reference manual: 21ab.

     The details of Python’s C interface are given in this manual.  A
     great deal of necessary information can be found here.

* Menu:

* Very High Level Embedding::
* Beyond Very High Level Embedding; An overview: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview.
* Pure Embedding::
* Extending Embedded Python::
* Embedding Python in C++::
* Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems::


File: python.info,  Node: Very High Level Embedding,  Next: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview,  Up: Embedding Python in Another Application

6.7.1 Very High Level Embedding
-------------------------------

The simplest form of embedding Python is the use of the very high level
interface.  This interface is intended to execute a Python script
without needing to interact with the application directly.  This can for
example be used to perform some operation on a file.

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         PyStatus status;
         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* optional but recommended */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name, argv[0]);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);

         PyRun_SimpleString("from time import time,ctime\n"
                            "print('Today is', ctime(time()))\n");
         if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) {
             exit(120);
         }
         return 0;

       exception:
          PyConfig_Clear(&config);
          Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

     Σημείωση: ‘#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was used to indicate that
     ‘Py_ssize_t’ should be used in some APIs instead of ‘int’.  It is
     not necessary since Python 3.13, but we keep it here for backward
     compatibility.  See *note Strings and buffers: 81f. for a
     description of this macro.

Setting *note PyConfig.program_name: 608. should be called before *note
Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. to inform the interpreter about paths to
Python run-time libraries.  Next, the Python interpreter is initialized
with *note Py_Initialize(): 673, followed by the execution of a
hard-coded Python script that prints the date and time.  Afterwards, the
*note Py_FinalizeEx(): 10cf. call shuts the interpreter down, followed
by the end of the program.  In a real program, you may want to get the
Python script from another source, perhaps a text-editor routine, a
file, or a database.  Getting the Python code from a file can better be
done by using the *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 5222. function, which saves
you the trouble of allocating memory space and loading the file
contents.


File: python.info,  Node: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview,  Next: Pure Embedding,  Prev: Very High Level Embedding,  Up: Embedding Python in Another Application

6.7.2 Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview
---------------------------------------------------

The high level interface gives you the ability to execute arbitrary
pieces of Python code from your application, but exchanging data values
is quite cumbersome to say the least.  If you want that, you should use
lower level calls.  At the cost of having to write more C code, you can
achieve almost anything.

It should be noted that extending Python and embedding Python is quite
the same activity, despite the different intent.  Most topics discussed
in the previous chapters are still valid.  To show this, consider what
the extension code from Python to C really does:

  1. Convert data values from Python to C,

  2. Perform a function call to a C routine using the converted values,
     and

  3. Convert the data values from the call from C to Python.

When embedding Python, the interface code does:

  1. Convert data values from C to Python,

  2. Perform a function call to a Python interface routine using the
     converted values, and

  3. Convert the data values from the call from Python to C.

As you can see, the data conversion steps are simply swapped to
accommodate the different direction of the cross-language transfer.  The
only difference is the routine that you call between both data
conversions.  When extending, you call a C routine, when embedding, you
call a Python routine.

This chapter will not discuss how to convert data from Python to C and
vice versa.  Also, proper use of references and dealing with errors is
assumed to be understood.  Since these aspects do not differ from
extending the interpreter, you can refer to earlier chapters for the
required information.


File: python.info,  Node: Pure Embedding,  Next: Extending Embedded Python,  Prev: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview,  Up: Embedding Python in Another Application

6.7.3 Pure Embedding
--------------------

The first program aims to execute a function in a Python script.  Like
in the section about the very high level interface, the Python
interpreter does not directly interact with the application (but that
will change in the next section).

The code to run a function defined in a Python script is:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

     int
     main(int argc, char *argv[])
     {
         PyObject *pName, *pModule, *pFunc;
         PyObject *pArgs, *pValue;
         int i;

         if (argc < 3) {
             fprintf(stderr,"Usage: call pythonfile funcname [args]\n");
             return 1;
         }

         Py_Initialize();
         pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]);
         /* Error checking of pName left out */

         pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);
         Py_DECREF(pName);

         if (pModule != NULL) {
             pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
             /* pFunc is a new reference */

             if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
                 pArgs = PyTuple_New(argc - 3);
                 for (i = 0; i < argc - 3; ++i) {
                     pValue = PyLong_FromLong(atoi(argv[i + 3]));
                     if (!pValue) {
                         Py_DECREF(pArgs);
                         Py_DECREF(pModule);
                         fprintf(stderr, "Cannot convert argument\n");
                         return 1;
                     }
                     /* pValue reference stolen here: */
                     PyTuple_SetItem(pArgs, i, pValue);
                 }
                 pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);
                 Py_DECREF(pArgs);
                 if (pValue != NULL) {
                     printf("Result of call: %ld\n", PyLong_AsLong(pValue));
                     Py_DECREF(pValue);
                 }
                 else {
                     Py_DECREF(pFunc);
                     Py_DECREF(pModule);
                     PyErr_Print();
                     fprintf(stderr,"Call failed\n");
                     return 1;
                 }
             }
             else {
                 if (PyErr_Occurred())
                     PyErr_Print();
                 fprintf(stderr, "Cannot find function \"%s\"\n", argv[2]);
             }
             Py_XDECREF(pFunc);
             Py_DECREF(pModule);
         }
         else {
             PyErr_Print();
             fprintf(stderr, "Failed to load \"%s\"\n", argv[1]);
             return 1;
         }
         if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) {
             return 120;
         }
         return 0;
     }

This code loads a Python script using ‘argv[1]’, and calls the function
named in ‘argv[2]’.  Its integer arguments are the other values of the
‘argv’ array.  If you *note compile and link: 5229. this program (let’s
call the finished executable ‘call’), and use it to execute a Python
script, such as:

     def multiply(a,b):
         print("Will compute", a, "times", b)
         c = 0
         for i in range(0, a):
             c = c + b
         return c

then the result should be:

     $ call multiply multiply 3 2
     Will compute 3 times 2
     Result of call: 6

Although the program is quite large for its functionality, most of the
code is for data conversion between Python and C, and for error
reporting.  The interesting part with respect to embedding Python starts
with

     Py_Initialize();
     pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]);
     /* Error checking of pName left out */
     pModule = PyImport_Import(pName);

After initializing the interpreter, the script is loaded using *note
PyImport_Import(): 179e.  This routine needs a Python string as its
argument, which is constructed using the *note
PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 1c8e. data conversion routine.

     pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]);
     /* pFunc is a new reference */

     if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) {
         ...
     }
     Py_XDECREF(pFunc);

Once the script is loaded, the name we’re looking for is retrieved using
*note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 7e6.  If the name exists, and the object
returned is callable, you can safely assume that it is a function.  The
program then proceeds by constructing a tuple of arguments as normal.
The call to the Python function is then made with:

     pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs);

Upon return of the function, ‘pValue’ is either ‘NULL’ or it contains a
reference to the return value of the function.  Be sure to release the
reference after examining the value.


File: python.info,  Node: Extending Embedded Python,  Next: Embedding Python in C++,  Prev: Pure Embedding,  Up: Embedding Python in Another Application

6.7.4 Extending Embedded Python
-------------------------------

Until now, the embedded Python interpreter had no access to
functionality from the application itself.  The Python API allows this
by extending the embedded interpreter.  That is, the embedded
interpreter gets extended with routines provided by the application.
While it sounds complex, it is not so bad.  Simply forget for a while
that the application starts the Python interpreter.  Instead, consider
the application to be a set of subroutines, and write some glue code
that gives Python access to those routines, just like you would write a
normal Python extension.  For example:

     static int numargs=0;

     /* Return the number of arguments of the application command line */
     static PyObject*
     emb_numargs(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
     {
         if(!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":numargs"))
             return NULL;
         return PyLong_FromLong(numargs);
     }

     static PyMethodDef emb_module_methods[] = {
         {"numargs", emb_numargs, METH_VARARGS,
          "Return the number of arguments received by the process."},
         {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}
     };

     static struct PyModuleDef emb_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "emb",
         .m_size = 0,
         .m_methods = emb_module_methods,
     };

     static PyObject*
     PyInit_emb(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&emb_module);
     }

Insert the above code just above the ‘main()’ function.  Also, insert
the following two statements before the call to *note Py_Initialize():
673.:

     numargs = argc;
     PyImport_AppendInittab("emb", &PyInit_emb);

These two lines initialize the ‘numargs’ variable, and make the
‘emb.numargs()’ function accessible to the embedded Python interpreter.
With these extensions, the Python script can do things like

     import emb
     print("Number of arguments", emb.numargs())

In a real application, the methods will expose an API of the application
to Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Embedding Python in C++,  Next: Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems,  Prev: Extending Embedded Python,  Up: Embedding Python in Another Application

6.7.5 Embedding Python in C++
-----------------------------

It is also possible to embed Python in a C++ program; precisely how this
is done will depend on the details of the C++ system used; in general
you will need to write the main program in C++, and use the C++ compiler
to compile and link your program.  There is no need to recompile Python
itself using C++.


File: python.info,  Node: Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems,  Prev: Embedding Python in C++,  Up: Embedding Python in Another Application

6.7.6 Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems
---------------------------------------------------

It is not necessarily trivial to find the right flags to pass to your
compiler (and linker) in order to embed the Python interpreter into your
application, particularly because Python needs to load library modules
implemented as C dynamic extensions (‘.so’ files) linked against it.

To find out the required compiler and linker flags, you can execute the
‘python`X.Y'-config’ script which is generated as part of the
installation process (a ‘python3-config’ script may also be available).
This script has several options, of which the following will be directly
useful to you:

   * ‘pythonX.Y-config --cflags’ will give you the recommended flags
     when compiling:

          $ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --cflags
          -I/opt/include/python3.11 -I/opt/include/python3.11 -Wsign-compare  -DNDEBUG -g -fwrapv -O3 -Wall

   * ‘pythonX.Y-config --ldflags --embed’ will give you the recommended
     flags when linking:

          $ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --ldflags --embed
          -L/opt/lib/python3.11/config-3.11-x86_64-linux-gnu -L/opt/lib -lpython3.11 -lpthread -ldl  -lutil -lm

     Σημείωση: To avoid confusion between several Python installations
     (and especially between the system Python and your own compiled
     Python), it is recommended that you use the absolute path to
     ‘python`X.Y'-config’, as in the above example.

If this procedure doesn’t work for you (it is not guaranteed to work for
all Unix-like platforms; however, we welcome *note bug reports: 522f.)
you will have to read your system’s documentation about dynamic linking
and/or examine Python’s ‘Makefile’ (use *note
sysconfig.get_makefile_filename(): 4c53. to find its location) and
compilation options.  In this case, the *note sysconfig: e4. module is a
useful tool to programmatically extract the configuration values that
you will want to combine together.  For example:

     >>> import sysconfig
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBS')
     '-lpthread -ldl  -lutil'
     >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LINKFORSHARED')
     '-Xlinker -export-dynamic'


File: python.info,  Node: Προτεινόμενα εργαλεία τρίτων,  Next: C API Tutorial,  Prev: Embedding Python in Another Application,  Up: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python

6.8 Προτεινόμενα εργαλεία τρίτων
================================

This document only covers the basic tools for creating extensions
provided as part of this version of CPython.  Some *note third party
tools: 5198. offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to
creating C and C++ extensions for Python.

While this document is aimed at extension authors, it should also be
helpful to the authors of such tools.  For example, the tutorial module
can serve as a simple test case for a build tool or sample expected
output of a code generator.


File: python.info,  Node: C API Tutorial,  Next: Guides for intermediate topics,  Prev: Προτεινόμενα εργαλεία τρίτων,  Up: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python

6.9 C API Tutorial
==================

This tutorial describes how to write a simple module in C or C++, using
the Python C API – that is, using the basic tools provided as part of
this version of CPython.

  1. *note Your first C API extension module: 5196.


File: python.info,  Node: Guides for intermediate topics,  Next: Ενσωμάτωση του χρόνου εκτέλεσης της CPython σε μεγαλύτερη εφαρμογή,  Prev: C API Tutorial,  Up: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python

6.10 Guides for intermediate topics
===================================

Αυτό το μέρος του οδηγού καλύπτει τη δημιουργία επεκτάσεων σε C και C++
χωρίς τη βοήθεια εργαλείων τρίτων.  Απευθύνεται κυρίως σε δημιουργούς
αυτών των εργαλείων, παρά ως προτεινόμενη μέθοδος για τη δημιουργία
δικών σας επεκτάσεων σε C.

   * *note Using the C API; Assorted topics: 51b0.

   * *note Defining Extension Types; Tutorial: 51dc.

   * *note Defining Extension Types; Assorted Topics: 51f3.

   * *note Κατασκευή Επεκτάσεων C και C++: 520f.

   * *note Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows: 2415.


File: python.info,  Node: Ενσωμάτωση του χρόνου εκτέλεσης της CPython σε μεγαλύτερη εφαρμογή,  Prev: Guides for intermediate topics,  Up: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python

6.11 Ενσωμάτωση του χρόνου εκτέλεσης της CPython σε μεγαλύτερη εφαρμογή
=======================================================================

Μερικές φορές, αντί να δημιουργήσουμε μια επέκταση που εκτελείται μέσα
στον διερμηνέα της Python ως κύρια εφαρμογή, είναι προτιμότερο να
ενσωματώσουμε τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης της CPython σε μια μεγαλύτερη
εφαρμογή.  Αυτή η ενότητα καλύπτει μερικές λεπτομέρειες για το πώς να το
κάνετε αυτό με επιτυχία.

   * *note Embedding Python in Another Application: 244c.


File: python.info,  Node: Python/C API reference manual,  Next: Installing Python modules,  Prev: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python,  Up: Top

7 Python/C API reference manual
*******************************

This manual documents the API used by C and C++ programmers who want to
write extension modules or embed Python.  It is a companion to *note
Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python: 21aa, which describes
the general principles of extension writing but does not document the
API functions in detail.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<12>.
* C API and ABI Stability::
* The Very High Level Layer::
* Reference Counting::
* Exception Handling::
* Defining extension modules::
* Definition slots::
* Utilities: Utilities<2>.
* Abstract Objects Layer::
* Concrete Objects Layer::
* Interpreter initialization and finalization::
* Thread states and the global interpreter lock::
* Asynchronous notifications::
* Operating system thread APIs::
* Synchronization primitives: Synchronization primitives<2>.
* Thread-local storage support::
* Multiple interpreters in a Python process::
* Profiling and tracing::
* Reference tracing::
* Python Initialization Configuration::
* Memory Management::
* Object Implementation Support::
* API and ABI Versioning::
* Monitoring C API::
* Generating Execution Events::


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<12>,  Next: C API and ABI Stability,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.1 Introduction
================

The Application Programmer’s Interface to Python gives C and C++
programmers access to the Python interpreter at a variety of levels.
The API is equally usable from C++, but for brevity it is generally
referred to as the Python/C API. There are two fundamentally different
reasons for using the Python/C API. The first reason is to write
'extension modules' for specific purposes; these are C modules that
extend the Python interpreter.  This is probably the most common use.
The second reason is to use Python as a component in a larger
application; this technique is generally referred to as 'embedding'
Python in an application.

Writing an extension module is a relatively well-understood process,
where a «cookbook» approach works well.  There are several tools that
automate the process to some extent.  While people have embedded Python
in other applications since its early existence, the process of
embedding Python is less straightforward than writing an extension.

Many API functions are useful independent of whether you’re embedding or
extending Python; moreover, most applications that embed Python will
need to provide a custom extension as well, so it’s probably a good idea
to become familiar with writing an extension before attempting to embed
Python in a real application.

* Menu:

* Language version compatibility::
* Coding standards::
* Include Files::
* Useful macros::
* Objects, Types and Reference Counts: Objects Types and Reference Counts.
* Exceptions: Exceptions<22>.
* Embedding Python::
* Debugging Builds::
* Recommended third party tools::


File: python.info,  Node: Language version compatibility,  Next: Coding standards,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.1 Language version compatibility
------------------------------------

Python’s C API is compatible with C11 and C++11 versions of C and C++.

This is a lower limit: the C API does not require features from later
C/C++ versions.  You do 'not' need to enable your compiler’s «c11 mode».


File: python.info,  Node: Coding standards,  Next: Include Files,  Prev: Language version compatibility,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.2 Coding standards
----------------------

If you’re writing C code for inclusion in CPython, you 'must' follow the
guidelines and standards defined in PEP 7(1).  These guidelines apply
regardless of the version of Python you are contributing to.  Following
these conventions is not necessary for your own third party extension
modules, unless you eventually expect to contribute them to Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/


File: python.info,  Node: Include Files,  Next: Useful macros,  Prev: Coding standards,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.3 Include Files
-------------------

All function, type and macro definitions needed to use the Python/C API
are included in your code by the following line:

     #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN
     #include <Python.h>

This implies inclusion of the following standard headers: ‘<stdio.h>’,
‘<string.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’, ‘<limits.h>’, ‘<assert.h>’ and ‘<stdlib.h>’
(if available).

     Σημείωση: Since Python may define some pre-processor definitions
     which affect the standard headers on some systems, you 'must'
     include ‘Python.h’ before any standard headers are included.

     It is recommended to always define ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ before
     including ‘Python.h’.  See *note Parsing arguments and building
     values: 601. for a description of this macro.

All user visible names defined by Python.h (except those defined by the
included standard headers) have one of the prefixes ‘Py’ or ‘_Py’.
Names beginning with ‘_Py’ are for internal use by the Python
implementation and should not be used by extension writers.  Structure
member names do not have a reserved prefix.

     Σημείωση: User code should never define names that begin with ‘Py’
     or ‘_Py’.  This confuses the reader, and jeopardizes the
     portability of the user code to future Python versions, which may
     define additional names beginning with one of these prefixes.

The header files are typically installed with Python.  On Unix, these
are located in the directories ‘`prefix'/include/pythonversion/’ and
‘`exec_prefix'/include/pythonversion/’, where *note prefix: 233c. and
*note exec_prefix: 233d. are defined by the corresponding parameters to
Python’s ‘configure’ script and 'version' is ‘'%d.%d' %
sys.version_info[:2]’.  On Windows, the headers are installed in
‘`prefix'/include’, where ‘prefix’ is the installation directory
specified to the installer.

To include the headers, place both directories (if different) on your
compiler’s search path for includes.  Do 'not' place the parent
directories on the search path and then use ‘#include
<pythonX.Y/Python.h>’; this will break on multi-platform builds since
the platform independent headers under *note prefix: 233c. include the
platform specific headers from *note exec_prefix: 233d.

C++ users should note that although the API is defined entirely using C,
the header files properly declare the entry points to be ‘extern "C"’.
As a result, there is no need to do anything special to use the API from
C++.

* Menu:

* System includes::


File: python.info,  Node: System includes,  Up: Include Files

7.1.3.1 System includes
.......................

     ‘Python.h’ includes several standard header files.  C extensions
     should include the standard headers that they use, and should not
     rely on these implicit includes.  The implicit includes are:

        * ‘<assert.h>’

        * ‘<intrin.h>’ (on Windows)

        * ‘<inttypes.h>’

        * ‘<limits.h>’

        * ‘<math.h>’

        * ‘<stdarg.h>’

        * ‘<string.h>’

        * ‘<wchar.h>’

        * ‘<sys/types.h>’ (if present)

     The following are included for backwards compatibility, unless
     using *note Limited API: 829. 3.13 or newer:

        * ‘<ctype.h>’

        * ‘<unistd.h>’ (on POSIX)

     The following are included for backwards compatibility, unless
     using *note Limited API: 829. 3.11 or newer:

        * ‘<errno.h>’

        * ‘<stdio.h>’

        * ‘<stdlib.h>’

     Σημείωση: Since Python may define some pre-processor definitions
     which affect the standard headers on some systems, you 'must'
     include ‘Python.h’ before any standard headers are included.


File: python.info,  Node: Useful macros,  Next: Objects Types and Reference Counts,  Prev: Include Files,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.4 Useful macros
-------------------

Several useful macros are defined in the Python header files.  Many are
defined closer to where they are useful (for example, *note
Py_RETURN_NONE: 1815, *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 1875.).  Others of a more
general utility are defined here.  This is not necessarily a complete
listing.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_CAN_START_THREADS

     If this macro is defined, then the current system is able to start
     threads.

     Currently, all systems supported by CPython (per PEP 11(1)), with
     the exception of some WebAssembly platforms, support starting
     threads.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_GETENV (s)

     Like ‘getenv(S)’, but returns ‘NULL’ if *note -E: d27. was passed
     on the command line (see *note PyConfig.use_environment: 61e.).

* Menu:

* Docstring macros::
* General utility macros::
* Declaration utilities::
* Outdated macros::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/


File: python.info,  Node: Docstring macros,  Next: General utility macros,  Up: Useful macros

7.1.4.1 Docstring macros
........................

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyDoc_STRVAR (name, str)

     Creates a variable with name 'name' that can be used in docstrings.
     If Python is built without docstrings (*note -without-doc-strings:
     238e.), the value will be an empty string.

     Example:

          PyDoc_STRVAR(pop_doc, "Remove and return the rightmost element.");

          static PyMethodDef deque_methods[] = {
              // ...
              {"pop", (PyCFunction)deque_pop, METH_NOARGS, pop_doc},
              // ...
          }

     Expands to ‘PyDoc_VAR(NAME) = PyDoc_STR(STR)’.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyDoc_STR (str)

     Expands to the given input string, or an empty string if docstrings
     are disabled (*note -without-doc-strings: 238e.).

     Example:

          static PyMethodDef pysqlite_row_methods[] = {
              {"keys", (PyCFunction)pysqlite_row_keys, METH_NOARGS,
                  PyDoc_STR("Returns the keys of the row.")},
              {NULL, NULL}
          };

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyDoc_VAR (name)

     Declares a static character array variable with the given 'name'.
     Expands to ‘static const char NAME[]’

     For example:

          PyDoc_VAR(python_doc) = PyDoc_STR(
             "A genus of constricting snakes in the Pythonidae family native "
             "to the tropics and subtropics of the Eastern Hemisphere.");


File: python.info,  Node: General utility macros,  Next: Declaration utilities,  Prev: Docstring macros,  Up: Useful macros

7.1.4.2 General utility macros
..............................

The following macros are for common tasks not specific to Python.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_UNUSED (arg)

     Use this for unused arguments in a function definition to silence
     compiler warnings.  Example: ‘int func(int a, int Py_UNUSED(b)) {
     return a; }’.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_GCC_ATTRIBUTE (name)

     Use a GCC attribute 'name', hiding it from compilers that don’t
     support GCC attributes (such as MSVC).

     This expands to ‘__attribute__((NAME))’ on a GCC compiler, and
     expands to nothing on compilers that don’t support GCC attributes.

* Menu:

* Numeric utilities::
* Assertion utilities::
* Type size utilities::
* Macro definition utilities::


File: python.info,  Node: Numeric utilities,  Next: Assertion utilities,  Up: General utility macros

7.1.4.3 Numeric utilities
.........................

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ABS (x)

     Return the absolute value of ‘x’.

     The argument may be evaluated more than once.  Consequently, do not
     pass an expression with side-effects directly to this macro.

     If the result cannot be represented (for example, if ‘x’ has
     ‘INT_MIN’ value for int type), the behavior is undefined.

     Corresponds roughly to ‘((X) < 0 ? -(X) : (X))’

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MAX (x, y)
 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MIN (x, y)

     Return the larger or smaller of the arguments, respectively.

     Any arguments may be evaluated more than once.  Consequently, do
     not pass an expression with side-effects directly to this macro.

     ‘Py_MAX’ corresponds roughly to ‘(((X) > (Y)) ? (X) : (Y))’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ARITHMETIC_RIGHT_SHIFT (type, integer, positions)

     Similar to ‘INTEGER >> POSITIONS’, but forces sign extension, as
     the C standard does not define whether a right-shift of a signed
     integer will perform sign extension or a zero-fill.

     'integer' should be any signed integer type.  'positions' is the
     number of positions to shift to the right.

     Both 'integer' and 'positions' can be evaluated more than once;
     consequently, avoid directly passing a function call or some other
     operation with side-effects to this macro.  Instead, store the
     result as a variable and then pass it.

     'type' is unused and only kept for backwards compatibility.
     Historically, 'type' was used to cast 'integer'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: This macro is now valid for all signed
     integer types, not just those for which ‘unsigned type’ is legal.
     As a result, 'type' is no longer used.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_CHARMASK (c)

     Argument must be a character or an integer in the range [-128, 127]
     or [0, 255].  This macro returns ‘c’ cast to an ‘unsigned char’.


File: python.info,  Node: Assertion utilities,  Next: Type size utilities,  Prev: Numeric utilities,  Up: General utility macros

7.1.4.4 Assertion utilities
...........................

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_UNREACHABLE ()

     Use this when you have a code path that cannot be reached by
     design.  For example, in the ‘default:’ clause in a ‘switch’
     statement for which all possible values are covered in ‘case’
     statements.  Use this in places where you might be tempted to put
     an ‘assert(0)’ or ‘abort()’ call.

     In release mode, the macro helps the compiler to optimize the code,
     and avoids a warning about unreachable code.  For example, the
     macro is implemented with ‘__builtin_unreachable()’ on GCC in
     release mode.

     In debug mode, and on unsupported compilers, the macro expands to a
     call to *note Py_FatalError(): d4b.

     A use for ‘Py_UNREACHABLE()’ is following a call to a function that
     never returns but that is not declared ‘_Noreturn’.

     If a code path is very unlikely code but can be reached under
     exceptional case, this macro must not be used.  For example, under
     low memory condition or if a system call returns a value out of the
     expected range.  In this case, it’s better to report the error to
     the caller.  If the error cannot be reported to caller, *note
     Py_FatalError(): d4b. can be used.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST (value, larger, smaller)

     Cast 'value' to type 'smaller' from type 'larger', validating that
     no information was lost.

     On release builds of Python, this is roughly equivalent to
     ‘((SMALLER) VALUE)’ (in C++, ‘static_cast<SMALLER>(VALUE)’ will be
     used instead).

     On debug builds (implying that *note Py_DEBUG: 19eb. is defined),
     this asserts that no information was lost with the cast from
     'larger' to 'smaller'.

     'value', 'larger', and 'smaller' may all be evaluated more than
     once in the expression; consequently, do not pass an expression
     with side-effects directly to this macro.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_BUILD_ASSERT (cond)

     Asserts a compile-time condition 'cond', as a statement.  The build
     will fail if the condition is false or cannot be evaluated at
     compile time.

     Corresponds roughly to ‘static_assert(COND)’ on C23 and above.

     For example:

          Py_BUILD_ASSERT(sizeof(PyTime_t) == sizeof(int64_t));

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR (cond)

     Asserts a compile-time condition 'cond', as an expression that
     evaluates to ‘0’.  The build will fail if the condition is false or
     cannot be evaluated at compile time.

     For example:

          #define foo_to_char(foo) \
              ((char *)(foo) + Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR(offsetof(struct foo, string) == 0))

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: Type size utilities,  Next: Macro definition utilities,  Prev: Assertion utilities,  Up: General utility macros

7.1.4.5 Type size utilities
...........................

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ARRAY_LENGTH (array)

     Compute the length of a statically allocated C array at compile
     time.

     The 'array' argument must be a C array with a size known at compile
     time.  Passing an array with an unknown size, such as a
     heap-allocated array, will result in a compilation error on some
     compilers, or otherwise produce incorrect results.

     This is roughly equivalent to:

          sizeof(array) / sizeof((array)[0])

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MEMBER_SIZE (type, member)

     Return the size of a structure ('type') 'member' in bytes.

     Corresponds roughly to ‘sizeof(((TYPE *)NULL)->MEMBER)’.

     Added in version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Macro definition utilities,  Prev: Type size utilities,  Up: General utility macros

7.1.4.6 Macro definition utilities
..................................

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_FORCE_EXPANSION (X)

     This is equivalent to ‘X’, which is useful for token-pasting in
     macros, as macro expansions in 'X' are forcefully evaluated by the
     preprocessor.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_STRINGIFY (x)

     Convert ‘x’ to a C string.  For example, ‘Py_STRINGIFY(123)’
     returns ‘"123"’.

     Added in version 3.4.


File: python.info,  Node: Declaration utilities,  Next: Outdated macros,  Prev: General utility macros,  Up: Useful macros

7.1.4.7 Declaration utilities
.............................

The following macros can be used in declarations.  They are most useful
for defining the C API itself, and have limited use for extension
authors.  Most of them expand to compiler-specific spellings of common
extensions to the C language.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ALWAYS_INLINE

     Ask the compiler to always inline a static inline function.  The
     compiler can ignore it and decide to not inline the function.

     Corresponds to ‘always_inline’ attribute in GCC and ‘__forceinline’
     in MSVC.

     It can be used to inline performance critical static inline
     functions when building Python in debug mode with function inlining
     disabled.  For example, MSC disables function inlining when
     building in debug mode.

     Marking blindly a static inline function with Py_ALWAYS_INLINE can
     result in worse performances (due to increased code size for
     example).  The compiler is usually smarter than the developer for
     the cost/benefit analysis.

     If Python is *note built in debug mode: 3dc. (if the *note
     Py_DEBUG: 19eb. macro is defined), the *note Py_ALWAYS_INLINE:
     1e62. macro does nothing.

     It must be specified before the function return type.  Usage:

          static inline Py_ALWAYS_INLINE int random(void) { return 4; }

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_NO_INLINE

     Disable inlining on a function.  For example, it reduces the C
     stack consumption: useful on LTO+PGO builds which heavily inline
     code (see bpo-33720(1)).

     Corresponds to the ‘noinline’ attribute/specification on GCC and
     MSVC.

     Usage:

          Py_NO_INLINE static int random(void) { return 4; }

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_DEPRECATED (version)

     Use this to declare APIs that were deprecated in a specific CPython
     version.  The macro must be placed before the symbol name.

     Example:

          Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void);

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: MSVC support was added.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_LOCAL (type)

     Declare a function returning the specified 'type' using a
     fast-calling qualifier for functions that are local to the current
     file.  Semantically, this is equivalent to ‘static TYPE’.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_LOCAL_INLINE (type)

     Equivalent to *note Py_LOCAL: 17ec. but additionally requests the
     function be inlined.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_LOCAL_SYMBOL

     Macro used to declare a symbol as local to the shared library
     (hidden).  On supported platforms, it ensures the symbol is not
     exported.

     On compatible versions of GCC/Clang, it expands to
     ‘__attribute__((visibility("hidden")))’.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_EXPORTED_SYMBOL

     Macro used to declare a symbol (function or data) as exported.  On
     Windows, this expands to ‘__declspec(dllexport)’.  On compatible
     versions of GCC/Clang, it expands to
     ‘__attribute__((visibility("default")))’.  This macro is for
     defining the C API itself; extension modules should not use it.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_IMPORTED_SYMBOL

     Macro used to declare a symbol as imported.  On Windows, this
     expands to ‘__declspec(dllimport)’.  This macro is for defining the
     C API itself; extension modules should not use it.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyAPI_FUNC (type)

     Macro used by CPython to declare a function as part of the C API.
     Its expansion depends on the platform and build configuration.
     This macro is intended for defining CPython’s C API itself;
     extension modules should not use it for their own symbols.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyAPI_DATA (type)

     Macro used by CPython to declare a public global variable as part
     of the C API. Its expansion depends on the platform and build
     configuration.  This macro is intended for defining CPython’s C API
     itself; extension modules should not use it for their own symbols.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720


File: python.info,  Node: Outdated macros,  Prev: Declaration utilities,  Up: Useful macros

7.1.4.8 Outdated macros
.......................

The following *note soft deprecated: 1a7. macros have been used to
features that have been standardized in C11 (or previous standards).

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ALIGNED (num)

     On some GCC-like compilers, specify alignment to 'num' bytes.  This
     does nothing on other compilers.

     Use the standard ‘alignas’ specifier rather than this macro.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T

     The ‘printf()’ formatting modifier for ‘size_t’.  Use ‘"z"’
     directly instead.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_LL (number)
 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ULL (number)

     Use 'number' as a ‘long long’ or ‘unsigned long long’ integer
     literal, respectively.

     Expands to 'number' followed by ‘LL’ or ‘LLU’, respectively, but
     will expand to some compiler-specific suffixes on some older
     compilers.

     Consider using the C99 standard suffixes ‘LL’ and ‘LLU’ directly.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_LONG_LONG
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_INT32_T
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_UINT32_T
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_INT64_T
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_UINT64_T

     Aliases for the types ‘long long’, ‘int32_t’, ‘uint32_t’.
     ‘int64_t’ and ‘uint64_t’, respectively.  Historically, these types
     needed compiler-specific extensions.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_LLONG_MIN
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_LLONG_MAX
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_ULLONG_MAX
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_SIZE_MAX

     Aliases for the values ‘LLONG_MIN’, ‘LLONG_MAX’, ‘ULLONG_MAX’, and
     ‘SIZE_MAX’, respectively.  Use these standard names instead.

     The required header, ‘<limits.h>’, *note is included: 519b. in
     ‘Python.h’.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MEMCPY (dest, src, n)

     This is an alias to ‘memcpy()’.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.14: Use ‘memcpy()’
     directly instead.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_UNICODE_SIZE

     Size of the ‘wchar_t’ type.  Use ‘sizeof(wchar_t)’ or
     ‘WCHAR_WIDTH/8’ instead.

     The required header for the latter, ‘<limits.h>’, *note is
     included: 519b. in ‘Python.h’.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_UNICODE_WIDE

     Defined if ‘wchar_t’ can hold a Unicode character (UCS-4).  Use
     ‘sizeof(wchar_t) >= 4’ instead

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_VA_COPY

     This is an alias to the C99-standard ‘va_copy’ function.

     Historically, this would use a compiler-specific method to copy a
     ‘va_list’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: This is now an alias to ‘va_copy’.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Objects Types and Reference Counts,  Next: Exceptions<22>,  Prev: Useful macros,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.5 Objects, Types and Reference Counts
-----------------------------------------

Most Python/C API functions have one or more arguments as well as a
return value of type *note PyObject: 19b.*.  This type is a pointer to
an opaque data type representing an arbitrary Python object.  Since all
Python object types are treated the same way by the Python language in
most situations (e.g., assignments, scope rules, and argument passing),
it is only fitting that they should be represented by a single C type.
Almost all Python objects live on the heap: you never declare an
automatic or static variable of type *note PyObject: 19b, only pointer
variables of type PyObject* can be declared.  The sole exception are the
type objects; since these must never be deallocated, they are typically
static *note PyTypeObject: e6b. objects.

All Python objects (even Python integers) have a 'type' and a 'reference
count'.  An object’s type determines what kind of object it is (e.g., an
integer, a list, or a user-defined function; there are many more as
explained in *note Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου: 2520.).  For each of the
well-known types there is a macro to check whether an object is of that
type; for instance, ‘PyList_Check(a)’ is true if (and only if) the
object pointed to by 'a' is a Python list.

* Menu:

* Reference Counts: Reference Counts<2>.
* Types: Types<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Counts<2>,  Next: Types<2>,  Up: Objects Types and Reference Counts

7.1.5.1 Reference Counts
........................

The reference count is important because today’s computers have a finite
(and often severely limited) memory size; it counts how many different
places there are that have a *note strong reference: 7da. to an object.
Such a place could be another object, or a global (or static) C
variable, or a local variable in some C function.  When the last strong
reference to an object is released (i.e.  its reference count becomes
zero), the object is deallocated.  If it contains references to other
objects, those references are released.  Those other objects may be
deallocated in turn, if there are no more references to them, and so on.
(There’s an obvious problem with objects that reference each other here;
for now, the solution is «don’t do that.»)

Reference counts are always manipulated explicitly.  The normal way is
to use the macro *note Py_INCREF(): 974. to take a new reference to an
object (i.e.  increment its reference count by one), and *note
Py_DECREF(): 975. to release that reference (i.e.  decrement the
reference count by one).  The ‘Py_DECREF()’ macro is considerably more
complex than the incref one, since it must check whether the reference
count becomes zero and then cause the object’s deallocator to be called.
The deallocator is a function pointer contained in the object’s type
structure.  The type-specific deallocator takes care of releasing
references for other objects contained in the object if this is a
compound object type, such as a list, as well as performing any
additional finalization that’s needed.  There’s no chance that the
reference count can overflow; at least as many bits are used to hold the
reference count as there are distinct memory locations in virtual memory
(assuming ‘sizeof(Py_ssize_t) >= sizeof(void*)’).  Thus, the reference
count increment is a simple operation.

It is not necessary to hold a *note strong reference: 7da. (i.e.
increment the reference count) for every local variable that contains a
pointer to an object.  In theory, the object’s reference count goes up
by one when the variable is made to point to it and it goes down by one
when the variable goes out of scope.  However, these two cancel each
other out, so at the end the reference count hasn’t changed.  The only
real reason to use the reference count is to prevent the object from
being deallocated as long as our variable is pointing to it.  If we know
that there is at least one other reference to the object that lives at
least as long as our variable, there is no need to take a new strong
reference (i.e.  increment the reference count) temporarily.  An
important situation where this arises is in objects that are passed as
arguments to C functions in an extension module that are called from
Python; the call mechanism guarantees to hold a reference to every
argument for the duration of the call.

However, a common pitfall is to extract an object from a list and hold
on to it for a while without taking a new reference.  Some other
operation might conceivably remove the object from the list, releasing
that reference, and possibly deallocating it.  The real danger is that
innocent-looking operations may invoke arbitrary Python code which could
do this; there is a code path which allows control to flow back to the
user from a *note Py_DECREF(): 975, so almost any operation is
potentially dangerous.

A safe approach is to always use the generic operations (functions whose
name begins with ‘PyObject_’, ‘PyNumber_’, ‘PySequence_’ or
‘PyMapping_’).  These operations always create a new *note strong
reference: 7da. (i.e.  increment the reference count) of the object they
return.  This leaves the caller with the responsibility to call *note
Py_DECREF(): 975. when they are done with the result; this soon becomes
second nature.

* Menu:

* Reference Count Details::


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Count Details,  Up: Reference Counts<2>

7.1.5.2 Reference Count Details
...............................

The reference count behavior of functions in the Python/C API is best
explained in terms of 'ownership of references'.  Ownership pertains to
references, never to objects (objects are not owned: they are always
shared).  «Owning a reference» means being responsible for calling
Py_DECREF on it when the reference is no longer needed.  Ownership can
also be transferred, meaning that the code that receives ownership of
the reference then becomes responsible for eventually releasing it by
calling *note Py_DECREF(): 975. or *note Py_XDECREF(): b6e. when it’s no
longer needed—or passing on this responsibility (usually to its caller).
When a function passes ownership of a reference on to its caller, the
caller is said to receive a 'new' reference.  When no ownership is
transferred, the caller is said to 'borrow' the reference.  Nothing
needs to be done for a *note borrowed reference: 603.

Conversely, when a calling function passes in a reference to an object,
there are two possibilities: the function 'steals' a reference to the
object, or it does not.  'Stealing a reference' means that when you pass
a reference to a function, that function assumes that it now owns that
reference, and you are not responsible for it any longer.

Few functions steal references; the two notable exceptions are *note
PyList_SetItem(): 1adb. and *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 51cf, which steal a
reference to the item (but not to the tuple or list into which the item
is put!).  These functions were designed to steal a reference because of
a common idiom for populating a tuple or list with newly created
objects; for example, the code to create the tuple ‘(1, 2, "three")’
could look like this (forgetting about error handling for the moment; a
better way to code this is shown below):

     PyObject *t;

     t = PyTuple_New(3);
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 0, PyLong_FromLong(1L));
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 1, PyLong_FromLong(2L));
     PyTuple_SetItem(t, 2, PyUnicode_FromString("three"));

Here, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1dca. returns a new reference which is
immediately stolen by *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 51cf.  When you want to
keep using an object although the reference to it will be stolen, use
*note Py_INCREF(): 974. to grab another reference before calling the
reference-stealing function.

Incidentally, *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 51cf. is the 'only' way to set
tuple items; *note PySequence_SetItem(): 2022. and *note
PyObject_SetItem(): 525f. refuse to do this since tuples are an
immutable data type.  You should only use ‘PyTuple_SetItem()’ for tuples
that you are creating yourself.

Equivalent code for populating a list can be written using *note
PyList_New(): 5260. and *note PyList_SetItem(): 1adb.

However, in practice, you will rarely use these ways of creating and
populating a tuple or list.  There’s a generic function, *note
Py_BuildValue(): 5ee, that can create most common objects from C values,
directed by a 'format string'.  For example, the above two blocks of
code could be replaced by the following (which also takes care of the
error checking):

     PyObject *tuple, *list;

     tuple = Py_BuildValue("(iis)", 1, 2, "three");
     list = Py_BuildValue("[iis]", 1, 2, "three");

It is much more common to use *note PyObject_SetItem(): 525f. and
friends with items whose references you are only borrowing, like
arguments that were passed in to the function you are writing.  In that
case, their behaviour regarding references is much saner, since you
don’t have to take a new reference just so you can give that reference
away («have it be stolen»).  For example, this function sets all items
of a list (actually, any mutable sequence) to a given item:

     int
     set_all(PyObject *target, PyObject *item)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;

         n = PyObject_Length(target);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1;
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             PyObject *index = PyLong_FromSsize_t(i);
             if (!index)
                 return -1;
             if (PyObject_SetItem(target, index, item) < 0) {
                 Py_DECREF(index);
                 return -1;
             }
             Py_DECREF(index);
         }
         return 0;
     }

The situation is slightly different for function return values.  While
passing a reference to most functions does not change your ownership
responsibilities for that reference, many functions that return a
reference to an object give you ownership of the reference.  The reason
is simple: in many cases, the returned object is created on the fly, and
the reference you get is the only reference to the object.  Therefore,
the generic functions that return object references, like *note
PyObject_GetItem(): 7e2. and *note PySequence_GetItem(): 2021, always
return a new reference (the caller becomes the owner of the reference).

It is important to realize that whether you own a reference returned by
a function depends on which function you call only — 'the plumage' (the
type of the object passed as an argument to the function) 'doesn’t enter
into it!'  Thus, if you extract an item from a list using *note
PyList_GetItem(): 7f5, you don’t own the reference — but if you obtain
the same item from the same list using *note PySequence_GetItem(): 2021.
(which happens to take exactly the same arguments), you do own a
reference to the returned object.

Here is an example of how you could write a function that computes the
sum of the items in a list of integers; once using *note
PyList_GetItem(): 7f5, and once using *note PySequence_GetItem(): 2021.

     long
     sum_list(PyObject *list)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;
         long total = 0, value;
         PyObject *item;

         n = PyList_Size(list);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1; /* Not a list */
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             item = PyList_GetItem(list, i); /* Can't fail */
             if (!PyLong_Check(item)) continue; /* Skip non-integers */
             value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
             if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
                 /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
                 return -1;
             total += value;
         }
         return total;
     }

     long
     sum_sequence(PyObject *sequence)
     {
         Py_ssize_t i, n;
         long total = 0, value;
         PyObject *item;
         n = PySequence_Length(sequence);
         if (n < 0)
             return -1; /* Has no length */
         for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             item = PySequence_GetItem(sequence, i);
             if (item == NULL)
                 return -1; /* Not a sequence, or other failure */
             if (PyLong_Check(item)) {
                 value = PyLong_AsLong(item);
                 Py_DECREF(item);
                 if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred())
                     /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */
                     return -1;
                 total += value;
             }
             else {
                 Py_DECREF(item); /* Discard reference ownership */
             }
         }
         return total;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Types<2>,  Prev: Reference Counts<2>,  Up: Objects Types and Reference Counts

7.1.5.3 Types
.............

There are few other data types that play a significant role in the
Python/C API; most are simple C types such as int, long, double and
char*.  A few structure types are used to describe static tables used to
list the functions exported by a module or the data attributes of a new
object type, and another is used to describe the value of a complex
number.  These will be discussed together with the functions that use
them.

 -- C Τύπος: type Py_ssize_t
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  A signed integral type such
     that ‘sizeof(Py_ssize_t) == sizeof(size_t)’.  C99 doesn’t define
     such a thing directly (size_t is an unsigned integral type).  See
     PEP 353(1) for details.  ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ is the largest positive
     value of type *note Py_ssize_t: e24.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions<22>,  Next: Embedding Python,  Prev: Objects Types and Reference Counts,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.6 Exceptions
----------------

The Python programmer only needs to deal with exceptions if specific
error handling is required; unhandled exceptions are automatically
propagated to the caller, then to the caller’s caller, and so on, until
they reach the top-level interpreter, where they are reported to the
user accompanied by a stack traceback.

For C programmers, however, error checking always has to be explicit.
All functions in the Python/C API can raise exceptions, unless an
explicit claim is made otherwise in a function’s documentation.  In
general, when a function encounters an error, it sets an exception,
discards any object references that it owns, and returns an error
indicator.  If not documented otherwise, this indicator is either ‘NULL’
or ‘-1’, depending on the function’s return type.  A few functions
return a Boolean true/false result, with false indicating an error.
Very few functions return no explicit error indicator or have an
ambiguous return value, and require explicit testing for errors with
*note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5.  These exceptions are always explicitly
documented.

Exception state is maintained in per-thread storage (this is equivalent
to using global storage in an unthreaded application).  A thread can be
in one of two states: an exception has occurred, or not.  The function
*note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. can be used to check for this: it returns
a borrowed reference to the exception type object when an exception has
occurred, and ‘NULL’ otherwise.  There are a number of functions to set
the exception state: *note PyErr_SetString(): 980. is the most common
(though not the most general) function to set the exception state, and
*note PyErr_Clear(): 13d9. clears the exception state.

The full exception state consists of three objects (all of which can be
‘NULL’): the exception type, the corresponding exception value, and the
traceback.  These have the same meanings as the Python result of
‘sys.exc_info()’; however, they are not the same: the Python objects
represent the last exception being handled by a Python *note try: ad6. …
*note except: 447. statement, while the C level exception state only
exists while an exception is being passed on between C functions until
it reaches the Python bytecode interpreter’s main loop, which takes care
of transferring it to ‘sys.exc_info()’ and friends.

Note that starting with Python 1.5, the preferred, thread-safe way to
access the exception state from Python code is to call the function
*note sys.exc_info(): a7a, which returns the per-thread exception state
for Python code.  Also, the semantics of both ways to access the
exception state have changed so that a function which catches an
exception will save and restore its thread’s exception state so as to
preserve the exception state of its caller.  This prevents common bugs
in exception handling code caused by an innocent-looking function
overwriting the exception being handled; it also reduces the often
unwanted lifetime extension for objects that are referenced by the stack
frames in the traceback.

As a general principle, a function that calls another function to
perform some task should check whether the called function raised an
exception, and if so, pass the exception state on to its caller.  It
should discard any object references that it owns, and return an error
indicator, but it should 'not' set another exception — that would
overwrite the exception that was just raised, and lose important
information about the exact cause of the error.

A simple example of detecting exceptions and passing them on is shown in
the ‘sum_sequence()’ example above.  It so happens that this example
doesn’t need to clean up any owned references when it detects an error.
The following example function shows some error cleanup.  First, to
remind you why you like Python, we show the equivalent Python code:

     def incr_item(dict, key):
         try:
             item = dict[key]
         except KeyError:
             item = 0
         dict[key] = item + 1

Here is the corresponding C code, in all its glory:

     int
     incr_item(PyObject *dict, PyObject *key)
     {
         /* Objects all initialized to NULL for Py_XDECREF */
         PyObject *item = NULL, *const_one = NULL, *incremented_item = NULL;
         int rv = -1; /* Return value initialized to -1 (failure) */

         item = PyObject_GetItem(dict, key);
         if (item == NULL) {
             /* Handle KeyError only: */
             if (!PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_KeyError))
                 goto error;

             /* Clear the error and use zero: */
             PyErr_Clear();
             item = PyLong_FromLong(0L);
             if (item == NULL)
                 goto error;
         }
         const_one = PyLong_FromLong(1L);
         if (const_one == NULL)
             goto error;

         incremented_item = PyNumber_Add(item, const_one);
         if (incremented_item == NULL)
             goto error;

         if (PyObject_SetItem(dict, key, incremented_item) < 0)
             goto error;
         rv = 0; /* Success */
         /* Continue with cleanup code */

      error:
         /* Cleanup code, shared by success and failure path */

         /* Use Py_XDECREF() to ignore NULL references */
         Py_XDECREF(item);
         Py_XDECREF(const_one);
         Py_XDECREF(incremented_item);

         return rv; /* -1 for error, 0 for success */
     }

This example represents an endorsed use of the ‘goto’ statement in C! It
illustrates the use of *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 5265. and *note
PyErr_Clear(): 13d9. to handle specific exceptions, and the use of *note
Py_XDECREF(): b6e. to dispose of owned references that may be ‘NULL’
(note the ‘'X'’ in the name; *note Py_DECREF(): 975. would crash when
confronted with a ‘NULL’ reference).  It is important that the variables
used to hold owned references are initialized to ‘NULL’ for this to
work; likewise, the proposed return value is initialized to ‘-1’
(failure) and only set to success after the final call made is
successful.


File: python.info,  Node: Embedding Python,  Next: Debugging Builds,  Prev: Exceptions<22>,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.7 Embedding Python
----------------------

The one important task that only embedders (as opposed to extension
writers) of the Python interpreter have to worry about is the
initialization, and possibly the finalization, of the Python
interpreter.  Most functionality of the interpreter can only be used
after the interpreter has been initialized.

The basic initialization function is *note Py_Initialize(): 673.  This
initializes the table of loaded modules, and creates the fundamental
modules *note builtins: 13, *note __main__: 1, and *note sys: e2.  It
also initializes the module search path (‘sys.path’).

*note Py_Initialize(): 673. does not set the «script argument list»
(‘sys.argv’).  If this variable is needed by Python code that will be
executed later, setting *note PyConfig.argv: 607. and *note
PyConfig.parse_argv: 1ee6. must be set: see *note Python Initialization
Configuration: 837.

On most systems (in particular, on Unix and Windows, although the
details are slightly different), *note Py_Initialize(): 673. calculates
the module search path based upon its best guess for the location of the
standard Python interpreter executable, assuming that the Python library
is found in a fixed location relative to the Python interpreter
executable.  In particular, it looks for a directory named
‘lib/python`X.Y'’ relative to the parent directory where the executable
named ‘python’ is found on the shell command search path (the
environment variable ‘PATH’).

For instance, if the Python executable is found in
‘/usr/local/bin/python’, it will assume that the libraries are in
‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'’.  (In fact, this particular path is also
the «fallback» location, used when no executable file named ‘python’ is
found along ‘PATH’.)  The user can override this behavior by setting the
environment variable *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad, or insert additional
directories in front of the standard path by setting *note PYTHONPATH:
13c6.

The embedding application can steer the search by setting *note
PyConfig.program_name: 608. 'before' calling *note
Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a.  Note that *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. still
overrides this and *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6. is still inserted in front of
the standard path.

Sometimes, it is desirable to «uninitialize» Python.  For instance, the
application may want to start over (make another call to *note
Py_Initialize(): 673.) or the application is simply done with its use of
Python and wants to free memory allocated by Python.  This can be
accomplished by calling *note Py_FinalizeEx(): 10cf.  The function *note
Py_IsInitialized(): 191f. returns true if Python is currently in the
initialized state.  More information about these functions is given in a
later chapter.  Notice that ‘Py_FinalizeEx()’ does 'not' free all memory
allocated by the Python interpreter, e.g.  memory allocated by extension
modules currently cannot be released.


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging Builds,  Next: Recommended third party tools,  Prev: Embedding Python,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.8 Debugging Builds
----------------------

Python can be built with several macros to enable extra checks of the
interpreter and extension modules.  These checks tend to add a large
amount of overhead to the runtime so they are not enabled by default.

A full list of the various types of debugging builds is in the file
‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ in the Python source distribution.  Builds are
available that support tracing of reference counts, debugging the memory
allocator, or low-level profiling of the main interpreter loop.  Only
the most frequently used builds will be described in the remainder of
this section.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_DEBUG

Compiling the interpreter with the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro defined produces
what is generally meant by *note a debug build of Python: 3dc.

On Unix, ‘Py_DEBUG’ can be enabled by adding *note -with-pydebug: 853.
to the ‘./configure’ command.  This will also disable compiler
optimization.

On Windows, selecting a debug build (e.g., by passing the *note -d:
2312. option to ‘PCbuild/build.bat’) automatically enables ‘Py_DEBUG’.
Additionally, the presence of the not-Python-specific ‘_DEBUG’ macro,
when defined by the compiler, will also implicitly enable ‘Py_DEBUG’.

In addition to the reference count debugging described below, extra
checks are performed.  See *note Python Debug Build: 3dc. for more
details.

Defining ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ enables reference tracing (see the *note
configure -with-trace-refs option: 828.).  When defined, a circular
doubly linked list of active objects is maintained by adding two extra
fields to every *note PyObject: 19b.  Total allocations are tracked as
well.  Upon exit, all existing references are printed.  (In interactive
mode this happens after every statement run by the interpreter.)

Please refer to ‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ in the Python source
distribution for more detailed information.


File: python.info,  Node: Recommended third party tools,  Prev: Debugging Builds,  Up: Introduction<12>

7.1.9 Recommended third party tools
-----------------------------------

The following third party tools offer both simpler and more
sophisticated approaches to creating C, C++ and Rust extensions for
Python:

   * Cython(1)

   * cffi(2)

   * HPy(3)

   * nanobind(4) (C++)

   * Numba(5)

   * pybind11(6) (C++)

   * PyO3(7) (Rust)

   * SWIG(8)

Using tools such as these can help avoid writing code that is tightly
bound to a particular version of CPython, avoid reference counting
errors, and focus more on your own code than on using the CPython API.
In general, new versions of Python can be supported by updating the
tool, and your code will often use newer and more efficient APIs
automatically.  Some tools also support compiling for other
implementations of Python from a single set of sources.

These projects are not supported by the same people who maintain Python,
and issues need to be raised with the projects directly.  Remember to
check that the project is still maintained and supported, as the list
above may become outdated.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions(9)

     The Python Packaging User Guide not only covers several available
     tools that simplify the creation of binary extensions, but also
     discusses the various reasons why creating an extension module may
     be desirable in the first place.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org/

   (2) https://cffi.readthedocs.io

   (3) https://hpyproject.org/

   (4) https://github.com/wjakob/nanobind

   (5) https://numba.pydata.org/

   (6) https://pybind11.readthedocs.io/

   (7) https://pyo3.rs/

   (8) https://www.swig.org

   (9) https://packaging.python.org/guides/packaging-binary-extensions/


File: python.info,  Node: C API and ABI Stability,  Next: The Very High Level Layer,  Prev: Introduction<12>,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.2 C API and ABI Stability
===========================

Unless documented otherwise, Python’s C API is covered by the Backwards
Compatibility Policy, PEP 387(1).  Most changes to it are
source-compatible (typically by only adding new API). Changing existing
API or removing API is only done after a deprecation period or to fix
serious issues.

CPython’s Application Binary Interface (ABI) is forward- and
backwards-compatible across a minor release (if these are compiled the
same way; see *note Platform Considerations: 526e. below).  So, code
compiled for Python 3.10.0 will work on 3.10.8 and vice versa, but will
need to be compiled separately for 3.9.x and 3.11.x.

There are two tiers of C API with different stability expectations:

   - *note Unstable API: 954, may change in minor versions without a
     deprecation period.  It is marked by the ‘PyUnstable’ prefix in
     names.

   - *note Limited API: 829, is compatible across several minor
     releases.  When *note Py_LIMITED_API: 84d. is defined, only this
     subset is exposed from ‘Python.h’.

These are discussed in more detail below.

Names prefixed by an underscore, such as ‘_Py_InternalState’, are
private API that can change without notice even in patch releases.  If
you need to use this API, consider reaching out to CPython developers(2)
to discuss adding public API for your use case.

* Menu:

* Unstable C API::
* Stable Application Binary Interfaces::
* Platform Considerations::
* ABI Checking::
* Contents of Limited API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/

   (2) https://discuss.python.org/c/core-dev/c-api/30


File: python.info,  Node: Unstable C API,  Next: Stable Application Binary Interfaces,  Up: C API and ABI Stability

7.2.1 Unstable C API
--------------------

Any API named with the ‘PyUnstable’ prefix exposes CPython
implementation details, and may change in every minor release (e.g.
from 3.9 to 3.10) without any deprecation warnings.  However, it will
not change in a bugfix release (e.g.  from 3.10.0 to 3.10.1).

It is generally intended for specialized, low-level tools like
debuggers.

Projects that use this API are expected to follow CPython development
and spend extra effort adjusting to changes.


File: python.info,  Node: Stable Application Binary Interfaces,  Next: Platform Considerations,  Prev: Unstable C API,  Up: C API and ABI Stability

7.2.2 Stable Application Binary Interfaces
------------------------------------------

Python’s 'Stable ABI' allows extensions to be compatible with multiple
versions of Python, without recompilation.

     Σημείωση: For simplicity, this document talks about 'extensions',
     but Stable ABI works the same way for all uses of the API – for
     example, embedding Python.

There are two Stable ABIs:

   - ‘abi3’, introduced in Python 3.2, is compatible with 'non'-*note
     free-threaded: 198. builds of CPython.

   - ‘abi3t’, introduced in Python 3.15, is compatible with *note
     free-threaded: 198. builds of CPython.  It has stricter API
     limitations than ‘abi3’.

          Added in version 3.15: ‘abi3t’ was added in PEP 803(1)

It is possible for an extension to be compiled for 'both' ‘abi3’ and
‘abi3t’ at the same time; the result will be compatible with both
free-threaded and non-free-threaded builds of Python.  Currently, this
has no downsides compared to compiling for ‘abi3t’ only.

Each Stable ABI is versioned using the first two numbers of the Python
version.  For example, Stable ABI 3.14 corresponds to Python 3.14.  An
extension compiled for Stable ABI 3.x is ABI-compatible with Python 3.x
and above.

Extensions that target a stable ABI must only use a limited subset of
the C API. This subset is known as the 'Limited API'; its contents are
*note listed below: b79.

On Windows, extensions that use a Stable ABI should be linked against
‘python3.dll’ rather than a version-specific library such as
‘python39.dll’.  This library only exposes the relevant symbols.

On some platforms, Python will look for and load shared library files
named with the ‘abi3’ or ‘abi3t’ tag (for example, ‘mymodule.abi3.so’).
*note Free-threaded: 198. interpreters only recognize the ‘abi3t’ tag,
while non-free-threaded ones will prefer ‘abi3’ but fall back to
‘abi3t’.  Thus, extensions compatible with both ABIs should use the
‘abi3t’ tag.

Python does not necessarily check that extensions it loads have
compatible ABI. Extension authors are encouraged to add a check using
the *note Py_mod_abi: 358. slot or the *note PyABIInfo_Check(): 359.
function, but the user (or their packaging tool) is ultimately
responsible for ensuring that, for example, extensions built for Stable
ABI 3.10 are not installed for lower versions of Python.

All functions in Stable ABI are present as functions in Python’s shared
library, not solely as macros.  This makes them usable are usable from
languages that don’t use the C preprocessor, including Python’s *note
ctypes: 2d.

* Menu:

* Compiling for Stable ABI::
* Stable ABI Scope and Performance::
* Stable ABI Caveats::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0803/


File: python.info,  Node: Compiling for Stable ABI,  Next: Stable ABI Scope and Performance,  Up: Stable Application Binary Interfaces

7.2.2.1 Compiling for Stable ABI
................................

     Σημείωση: Build tools (such as, for example, meson-python,
     scikit-build-core, or Setuptools) often have a mechanism for
     setting macros and synchronizing them with extension filenames and
     other metadata.  Prefer using such a mechanism, if it exists, over
     defining the macros manually.

     The rest of this section is mainly relevant for tool authors, and
     for people who compile extensions manually.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     list of recommended tools(1) in the Python Packaging User Guide

To compile for a Stable ABI, define one or both of the following macros
to the lowest Python version your extension should support, in *note
Py_PACK_VERSION: 5ac. format.  Typically, you should choose a specific
value rather than the version of the Python headers you are compiling
against.

The macros must be defined before including ‘Python.h’.  Since *note
Py_PACK_VERSION: 5ac. is not available at this point, you will need to
use the numeric value directly.  For reference, the values for a few
recent Python versions are:

     0x30b0000  /* Py_PACK_VERSION(3.11) */
     0x30c0000  /* Py_PACK_VERSION(3.12) */
     0x30d0000  /* Py_PACK_VERSION(3.13) */
     0x30e0000  /* Py_PACK_VERSION(3.14) */
     0x30f0000  /* Py_PACK_VERSION(3.15) */
     0x3100000  /* Py_PACK_VERSION(3.16) */

When one of the macros is defined, ‘Python.h’ will only expose API that
is compatible with the given Stable ABI – that is, the *note Limited
API: b79. plus some definitions that need to be visible to the compiler
but should not be used directly.  When both are defined, ‘Python.h’ will
only expose API compatible with both Stable ABIs.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_LIMITED_API

     Target ‘abi3’, that is, non-*note free-threaded builds: 198. of
     CPython.  See *note above: 19e. for common information.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TARGET_ABI3T

     Target ‘abi3t’, that is, *note free-threaded builds: 198. of
     CPython.  See *note above: 19e. for common information.

     Added in version 3.15.

Both macros specify a target ABI; the different naming style is due to
backwards compatibility.

     Historical note: You can also define ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ as ‘3’.  This
     works the same as ‘0x03020000’ (Python 3.2, the version that
     introduced Stable ABI).

When both are defined, ‘Python.h’ may, or may not, redefine
‘Py_LIMITED_API’ to match ‘Py_TARGET_ABI3T’.

On a *note free-threaded build: 198. – that is, when *note
Py_GIL_DISABLED: 191e. is defined – ‘Py_TARGET_ABI3T’ defaults to the
value of ‘Py_LIMITED_API’.  This means that there are two ways to build
for both ‘abi3’ and ‘abi3t’:

   - define both ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ and ‘Py_TARGET_ABI3T’, or

   - define only ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ and:

        - on Windows, define ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’;

        - on other systems, use the headers of free-threaded build of
          Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/guides/tool-recommendations/#build-backends-for-extension-modules


File: python.info,  Node: Stable ABI Scope and Performance,  Next: Stable ABI Caveats,  Prev: Compiling for Stable ABI,  Up: Stable Application Binary Interfaces

7.2.2.2 Stable ABI Scope and Performance
........................................

The goal for Stable ABI is to allow everything that is possible with the
full C API, but possibly with a performance penalty.  Generally,
compatibility with Stable ABI will require some changes to an
extension’s source code.

For example, while *note PyList_GetItem(): 7f5. is available, its
«unsafe» macro variant *note PyList_GET_ITEM(): 5275. is not.  The macro
can be faster because it can rely on version-specific implementation
details of the list object.

For another example, when 'not' compiling for Stable ABI, some C API
functions are inlined or replaced by macros.  Compiling for Stable ABI
disables this inlining, allowing stability as Python’s data structures
are improved, but possibly reducing performance.

By leaving out the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ or ‘Py_TARGET_ABI3T’ definition, it
is possible to compile Stable-ABI-compatible source for a
version-specific ABI. A potentially faster version-specific extension
can then be distributed alongside a version compiled for Stable ABI – a
slower but more compatible fallback.


File: python.info,  Node: Stable ABI Caveats,  Prev: Stable ABI Scope and Performance,  Up: Stable Application Binary Interfaces

7.2.2.3 Stable ABI Caveats
..........................

Note that compiling for Stable ABI is 'not' a complete guarantee that
code will be compatible with the expected Python versions.  Stable ABI
prevents 'ABI' issues, like linker errors due to missing symbols or data
corruption due to changes in structure layouts or function signatures.
However, other changes in Python can change the 'behavior' of
extensions.

One issue that the *note Py_TARGET_ABI3T: 5272. and *note
Py_LIMITED_API: 84d. macros do not guard against is calling a function
with arguments that are invalid in a lower Python version.  For example,
consider a function that starts accepting ‘NULL’ for an argument.  In
Python 3.9, ‘NULL’ now selects a default behavior, but in Python 3.8,
the argument will be used directly, causing a ‘NULL’ dereference and
crash.  A similar argument works for fields of structs.

For these reasons, we recommend testing an extension with 'all' minor
Python versions it supports.

We also recommend reviewing documentation of all used API to check if it
is explicitly part of the Limited API. Even with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’
defined, a few private declarations are exposed for technical reasons
(or even unintentionally, as bugs).

Also note that while compiling with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ 3.8 means that the
extension should 'load' on Python 3.12, and 'compile' with Python 3.12,
the same source will not necessarily compile with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ set
to 3.12.  In general, parts of the Limited API may be deprecated and
removed, provided that Stable ABI stays stable.


File: python.info,  Node: Platform Considerations,  Next: ABI Checking,  Prev: Stable Application Binary Interfaces,  Up: C API and ABI Stability

7.2.3 Platform Considerations
-----------------------------

ABI stability depends not only on Python, but also on the compiler used,
lower-level libraries and compiler options.  For the purposes of the
*note Stable ABIs: 197, these details define a “platform”.  They usually
depend on the OS type and processor architecture

It is the responsibility of each particular distributor of Python to
ensure that all Python versions on a particular platform are built in a
way that does not break the Stable ABIs, or the version-specific ABIs.
This is the case with Windows and macOS releases from ‘python.org’ and
many third-party distributors.


File: python.info,  Node: ABI Checking,  Next: Contents of Limited API,  Prev: Platform Considerations,  Up: C API and ABI Stability

7.2.4 ABI Checking
------------------

Added in version 3.15.

Python includes a rudimentary check for ABI compatibility.

This check is not comprehensive.  It only guards against common cases of
incompatible modules being installed for the wrong interpreter.  It also
does not take *note platform incompatibilities: 526e. into account.  It
can only be done after an extension is successfully loaded.

Despite these limitations, it is recommended that extension modules use
this mechanism, so that detectable incompatibilities raise exceptions
rather than crash.

Most modules can use this check via the *note Py_mod_abi: 358. slot and
the *note PyABIInfo_VAR: 35a. macro, for example like this:

     PyABIInfo_VAR(abi_info);

     static PyModuleDef_Slot mymodule_slots[] = {
        {Py_mod_abi, &abi_info},
        ...
     };

The full API is described below for advanced use cases.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyABIInfo_Check (PyABIInfo *info, const char
          *module_name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Verify
     that the given 'info' is compatible with the currently running
     interpreter.

     Return 0 on success.  On failure, raise an exception and return -1.

     If the ABI is incompatible, the raised exception will be *note
     ImportError: 1bd.

     The 'module_name' argument can be ‘NULL’, or point to a
     NUL-terminated UTF-8-encoded string used for error messages.

     Note that if 'info' describes the ABI that the current code uses
     (as defined by *note PyABIInfo_VAR: 35a, for example), using any
     other Python C API may lead to crashes.  In particular, it is not
     safe to examine the raised exception.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyABIInfo_VAR (NAME)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Define a
     static *note PyABIInfo: 527a. variable with the given 'NAME' that
     describes the ABI that the current code will use.  This macro
     expands to:

          static PyABIInfo NAME = {
              1, 0,
              PyABIInfo_DEFAULT_FLAGS,
              PY_VERSION_HEX,
              PyABIInfo_DEFAULT_ABI_VERSION
          }

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyABIInfo
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των
     μελών) από την έκδοση 3.15.'
      -- C Μέλος: uint8_t abiinfo_major_version

          The major version of *note PyABIInfo: 527a.  Can be set to:

             * ‘0’ to skip all checking, or

             * ‘1’ to specify this version of ‘PyABIInfo’.

      -- C Μέλος: uint8_t abiinfo_minor_version

          The minor version of *note PyABIInfo: 527a.  Must be set to
          ‘0’; larger values are reserved for backwards-compatible
          future versions of ‘PyABIInfo’.

      -- C Μέλος: uint16_t flags

          This field is usually set to the following macro:

           -- C Μακροεντολή: PyABIInfo_DEFAULT_FLAGS
               ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'
               Default flags, based on current values of macros such as
               *note Py_LIMITED_API: 84d. and *note Py_GIL_DISABLED:
               191e.

          Alternately, the field can be set to the following flags,
          combined by bitwise OR. Unused bits must be set to zero.

          ABI variant – one of:

                -- C Μακροεντολή: PyABIInfo_STABLE
                    ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση
                    3.15.'  Specifies that Stable ABI is used.

                -- C Μακροεντολή: PyABIInfo_INTERNAL

                    Specifies ABI specific to a particular build of
                    CPython.  Internal use only.

          Free-threading compatibility – one of:

                -- C Μακροεντολή: PyABIInfo_FREETHREADED
                    ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση
                    3.15.'  Specifies ABI compatible with *note
                    free-threaded builds: 198. of CPython.  (That is,
                    ones compiled with *note -disable-gil: 6a5.; with
                    ‘t’ in *note sys.abiflags: e28.)

                -- C Μακροεντολή: PyABIInfo_GIL
                    ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση
                    3.15.'  Specifies ABI compatible with
                    non-free-threaded builds of CPython (ones compiled
                    'without' *note -disable-gil: 6a5.).

                -- C Μακροεντολή: PyABIInfo_FREETHREADING_AGNOSTIC
                    ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση
                    3.15.'  Specifies ABI compatible with both
                    free-threaded and non-free-threaded builds of
                    CPython, that is, both ‘abi3’ and ‘abi3t’.

      -- C Μέλος: uint32_t build_version

          The version of the Python headers used to build the code, in
          the format used by *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 5af.

          This can be set to ‘0’ to skip any checks related to this
          field.  This option is meant mainly for projects that do not
          use the CPython headers directly, and do not emulate a
          specific version of them.

      -- C Μέλος: uint32_t abi_version

          The ABI version.

          For Stable ABI, this field should be the value of *note
          Py_LIMITED_API: 84d. or *note Py_TARGET_ABI3T: 5272.  If both
          are defined, use the smaller value.  (If ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is
          ‘3’; use *note Py_PACK_VERSION: 5ac.(3, 2) instead of ‘3’.)

          Otherwise, it should be set to *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 5af.

          It can also be set to ‘0’ to skip any checks related to this
          field.

           -- C Μακροεντολή: PyABIInfo_DEFAULT_ABI_VERSION
               ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'
               The value that should be used for this field, based on
               current values of macros such as *note Py_LIMITED_API:
               84d, *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 5af. and *note
               Py_GIL_DISABLED: 191e.

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Contents of Limited API,  Prev: ABI Checking,  Up: C API and ABI Stability

7.2.5 Contents of Limited API
-----------------------------

This is the definitive list of *note Limited API: 829. for Python 3.16:

   * *note METH_CLASS: 1877.

   * *note METH_COEXIST: 1819.

   * *note METH_FASTCALL: 34b.

   * *note METH_METHOD: d39.

   * *note METH_NOARGS: 1876.

   * *note METH_O: 18a9.

   * *note METH_STATIC: 1878.

   * *note METH_VARARGS: 18aa.

   * *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 965.

   * *note PyABIInfo: 527a.

   * *note PyABIInfo_Check(): 359.

   * *note PyABIInfo_DEFAULT_ABI_VERSION: 5286.

   * *note PyABIInfo_DEFAULT_FLAGS: 527e.

   * *note PyABIInfo_FREETHREADED: 5281.

   * *note PyABIInfo_FREETHREADING_AGNOSTIC: 5283.

   * *note PyABIInfo_GIL: 5282.

   * *note PyABIInfo_STABLE: 527f.

   * *note PyABIInfo_VAR: 35a.

   * *note PyAIter_Check(): 5288.

   * *note PyArg_Parse(): 1a6b.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1.

   * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818.

   * *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 18a8.

   * *note PyArg_VaParse(): 5289.

   * *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 819.

   * *note PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(): 528a.

   * *note PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS: 528b.

   * *note PyBUF_CONTIG: 528c.

   * *note PyBUF_CONTIG_RO: 528d.

   * *note PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS: 1759.

   * *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 528e.

   * *note PyBUF_FULL: 528f.

   * *note PyBUF_FULL_RO: 5290.

   * *note PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS: 175a.

   * *note PyBUF_INDIRECT: 5291.

   * *note PyBUF_MAX_NDIM: 5292.

   * *note PyBUF_ND: 5293.

   * *note PyBUF_READ: 1c13.

   * *note PyBUF_RECORDS: 5294.

   * *note PyBUF_RECORDS_RO: 5295.

   * *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 5296.

   * *note PyBUF_STRIDED: 5297.

   * *note PyBUF_STRIDED_RO: 5298.

   * *note PyBUF_STRIDES: 5299.

   * *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1758.

   * *note PyBUF_WRITE: 1c14.

   * *note PyBaseObject_Type: 529a.

   * *note PyBool_FromLong(): 529b.

   * *note PyBool_Type: 529c.

   * *note PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(): b41.

   * *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): b42.

   * *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): b3e.

   * *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): b3b.

   * *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): b40.

   * *note PyBuffer_Release(): 82d.

   * *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): b3c.

   * *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): b3d.

   * *note PyByteArrayIter_Type: 529d.

   * *note PyByteArray_AsString(): 529e.

   * *note PyByteArray_Concat(): 529f.

   * *note PyByteArray_FromObject(): 174b.

   * *note PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(): 174c.

   * *note PyByteArray_Resize(): 52a0.

   * *note PyByteArray_Size(): 52a1.

   * *note PyByteArray_Type: 52a2.

   * *note PyBytesIter_Type: 52a3.

   * *note PyBytes_AsString(): c5d.

   * *note PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 52a4.

   * *note PyBytes_Concat(): 52a5.

   * *note PyBytes_ConcatAndDel(): 52a6.

   * *note PyBytes_DecodeEscape(): 52a7.

   * *note PyBytes_FromFormat(): 1ffa.

   * *note PyBytes_FromFormatV(): 52a8.

   * *note PyBytes_FromObject(): 52a9.

   * *note PyBytes_FromString(): 52aa.

   * *note PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(): 3b2.

   * *note PyBytes_Repr(): 52ab.

   * *note PyBytes_Size(): 52ac.

   * *note PyBytes_Type: 52ad.

   * *note PyCFunction: 181a.

   * *note PyCFunctionFast: 52ae.

   * *note PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords: 52af.

   * *note PyCFunctionWithKeywords: 52b0.

   * *note PyCFunction_GetFlags(): 52b1.

   * *note PyCFunction_GetFunction(): 52b2.

   * *note PyCFunction_GetSelf(): 52b3.

   * *note PyCFunction_New(): 1ea7.

   * *note PyCFunction_NewEx(): 1f6a.

   * *note PyCFunction_Type: 52b4.

   * *note PyCMethod_New(): 1ea1.

   * *note PyCallIter_New(): 52b5.

   * *note PyCallIter_Type: 52b6.

   * *note PyCallable_Check(): 52b7.

   * *note PyCapsule_Destructor: 52b8.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetContext(): 52b9.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetDestructor(): 52ba.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetName(): 52bb.

   * *note PyCapsule_GetPointer(): 52bc.

   * *note PyCapsule_Import(): 1e07.

   * *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1701.

   * *note PyCapsule_New(): 51da.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetContext(): 52bd.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetDestructor(): 52be.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetName(): 52bf.

   * *note PyCapsule_SetPointer(): 52c0.

   * *note PyCapsule_Type: 52c1.

   * *note PyClassMethodDescr_Type: 52c2.

   * *note PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors(): 52c3.

   * *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3a1.

   * *note PyCodec_Decoder(): 52c4.

   * *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3a2.

   * *note PyCodec_Encoder(): 52c5.

   * *note PyCodec_IgnoreErrors(): 52c6.

   * *note PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder(): 52c7.

   * *note PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder(): 52c8.

   * *note PyCodec_KnownEncoding(): 52c9.

   * *note PyCodec_LookupError(): 52ca.

   * *note PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(): 1260.

   * *note PyCodec_Register(): 52cb.

   * *note PyCodec_RegisterError(): 52cc.

   * *note PyCodec_ReplaceErrors(): 52cd.

   * *note PyCodec_StreamReader(): 52ce.

   * *note PyCodec_StreamWriter(): 52cf.

   * *note PyCodec_StrictErrors(): 52d0.

   * *note PyCodec_Unregister(): c6d.

   * *note PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors(): 52d1.

   * *note PyComplex_FromDoubles(): 52d2.

   * *note PyComplex_ImagAsDouble(): 1c1b.

   * *note PyComplex_RealAsDouble(): 1c1a.

   * *note PyComplex_Type: 52d3.

   * *note PyCriticalSection: 368.

   * *note PyCriticalSection2: 52d4.

   * *note PyCriticalSection2_Begin(): 52d5.

   * *note PyCriticalSection2_End(): 52d6.

   * *note PyCriticalSection_Begin(): 52d7.

   * *note PyCriticalSection_End(): 52d8.

   * *note PyDescr_NewClassMethod(): 52d9.

   * *note PyDescr_NewGetSet(): 52da.

   * *note PyDescr_NewMember(): 52db.

   * *note PyDescr_NewMethod(): 1f69.

   * *note PyDictItems_Type: 52dc.

   * *note PyDictIterItem_Type: 52dd.

   * *note PyDictIterKey_Type: 52de.

   * *note PyDictIterValue_Type: 52df.

   * *note PyDictKeys_Type: 52e0.

   * *note PyDictProxy_New(): 52e1.

   * *note PyDictProxy_Type: 52e2.

   * *note PyDictRevIterItem_Type: 52e3.

   * *note PyDictRevIterKey_Type: 52e4.

   * *note PyDictRevIterValue_Type: 52e5.

   * *note PyDictValues_Type: 52e6.

   * *note PyDict_Clear(): 52e7.

   * *note PyDict_Contains(): 7d7.

   * *note PyDict_Copy(): 84f.

   * *note PyDict_DelItem(): 52e8.

   * *note PyDict_DelItemString(): 52e9.

   * *note PyDict_GetItem(): 81c.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 7d8.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 81d.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 634.

   * *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 7d9.

   * *note PyDict_Items(): 52ea.

   * *note PyDict_Keys(): 52eb.

   * *note PyDict_Merge(): 52ec.

   * *note PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(): 52ed.

   * *note PyDict_New(): 52ee.

   * *note PyDict_Next(): 1b9c.

   * *note PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 7db.

   * *note PyDict_SetItem(): 51d0.

   * *note PyDict_SetItemString(): 1b9b.

   * *note PyDict_Size(): 52ef.

   * *note PyDict_Type: 52f0.

   * *note PyDict_Update(): 52f1.

   * *note PyDict_Values(): 52f2.

   * *note PyEllipsis_Type: 52f3.

   * *note PyEnum_Type: 52f4.

   * *note PyErr_BadArgument(): 52f5.

   * *note PyErr_BadInternalCall(): 52f6.

   * *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 880.

   * *note PyErr_Clear(): 13d9.

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’

   * *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 648.

   * *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 5265.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 63b.

   * *note PyErr_Format(): 1262.

   * *note PyErr_FormatV(): 1261.

   * *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): b54.

   * *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): b51.

   * *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c.

   * *note PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(): 52f7.

   * *note PyErr_NewException(): 160e.

   * *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 160d.

   * *note PyErr_NoMemory(): 51b7.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 63d.

   * *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5.

   * *note PyErr_Print(): 1f21.

   * *note PyErr_PrintEx(): 52f8.

   * *note PyErr_ProgramText(): 52f9.

   * *note PyErr_ResourceWarning(): 10d1.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 63e.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(): 52fa.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 1c8c.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(): 52fb.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects(): 52fc.

   * *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): b53.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 51b6.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(): 1c8b.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 52fd.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects(): 52fe.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 52ff.

   * *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 1c8d.

   * *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): b52.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): 10f5.

   * *note PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(): 10d0.

   * *note PyErr_SetInterrupt(): 5300.

   * *note PyErr_SetInterruptEx(): c74.

   * *note PyErr_SetNone(): 5301.

   * *note PyErr_SetObject(): 97f.

   * *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 63f.

   * *note PyErr_SetString(): 980.

   * *note PyErr_SyntaxLocation(): 5302.

   * *note PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(): 5303.

   * *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 17ee.

   * *note PyErr_WarnExplicit(): 1c93.

   * *note PyErr_WarnFormat(): 5304.

   * *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 7e8.

   * *note PyEval_AcquireThread(): 83a.

   * *note PyEval_EvalCode(): c5c.

   * *note PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1cd9.

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrame(): 5305.

   * *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 13d6.

   * *note PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 7ea.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 1d37.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins(): 7e9.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrameGlobals(): 7eb.

   * *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 7ed.

   * *note PyEval_GetFuncDesc(): 5306.

   * *note PyEval_GetFuncName(): 5307.

   * *note PyEval_GetGlobals(): 7ec.

   * *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 7ee.

   * *note PyEval_InitThreads(): 1bc3.

   * *note PyEval_ReleaseThread(): 5308.

   * *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 839.

   * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 838.

   * *note PyExc_ArithmeticError: 5309.

   * *note PyExc_AssertionError: 530a.

   * *note PyExc_AttributeError: 530b.

   * *note PyExc_BaseException: 530c.

   * *note PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup: 530d.

   * *note PyExc_BlockingIOError: 530e.

   * *note PyExc_BrokenPipeError: 530f.

   * *note PyExc_BufferError: 5310.

   * *note PyExc_BytesWarning: 5311.

   * *note PyExc_ChildProcessError: 5312.

   * *note PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError: 5313.

   * *note PyExc_ConnectionError: 5314.

   * *note PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError: 5315.

   * *note PyExc_ConnectionResetError: 5316.

   * *note PyExc_DeprecationWarning: 5317.

   * *note PyExc_EOFError: 5318.

   * *note PyExc_EncodingWarning: 5319.

   * *note PyExc_EnvironmentError: 531a.

   * *note PyExc_Exception: 531b.

   * *note PyExc_FileExistsError: 531c.

   * *note PyExc_FileNotFoundError: 531d.

   * *note PyExc_FloatingPointError: 531e.

   * *note PyExc_FutureWarning: 531f.

   * *note PyExc_GeneratorExit: 5320.

   * *note PyExc_IOError: 5321.

   * *note PyExc_ImportError: 5322.

   * *note PyExc_ImportWarning: 5323.

   * *note PyExc_IndentationError: 5324.

   * *note PyExc_IndexError: 5325.

   * *note PyExc_InterruptedError: 5326.

   * *note PyExc_IsADirectoryError: 5327.

   * *note PyExc_KeyError: 5328.

   * *note PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt: 5329.

   * *note PyExc_LookupError: 532a.

   * *note PyExc_MemoryError: 532b.

   * *note PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError: 532c.

   * *note PyExc_NameError: 532d.

   * *note PyExc_NotADirectoryError: 532e.

   * *note PyExc_NotImplementedError: 532f.

   * *note PyExc_OSError: 51b9.

   * *note PyExc_OverflowError: 5330.

   * *note PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning: 5331.

   * *note PyExc_PermissionError: 5332.

   * *note PyExc_ProcessLookupError: 5333.

   * *note PyExc_RecursionError: 1263.

   * *note PyExc_ReferenceError: 5334.

   * *note PyExc_ResourceWarning: 5335.

   * *note PyExc_RuntimeError: 5336.

   * *note PyExc_RuntimeWarning: 5337.

   * *note PyExc_StopAsyncIteration: 5338.

   * *note PyExc_StopIteration: 5339.

   * *note PyExc_SyntaxError: 533a.

   * *note PyExc_SyntaxWarning: 533b.

   * *note PyExc_SystemError: 533c.

   * *note PyExc_SystemExit: 533d.

   * *note PyExc_TabError: 533e.

   * *note PyExc_TimeoutError: 533f.

   * *note PyExc_TypeError: 51b8.

   * *note PyExc_UnboundLocalError: 5340.

   * *note PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError: 5341.

   * *note PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError: 5342.

   * *note PyExc_UnicodeError: 5343.

   * *note PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError: 5344.

   * *note PyExc_UnicodeWarning: 5345.

   * *note PyExc_UserWarning: 5346.

   * *note PyExc_ValueError: 51ba.

   * *note PyExc_Warning: 5347.

   * *note PyExc_WindowsError: 5348.

   * *note PyExc_ZeroDivisionError: 51b5.

   * *note PyExceptionClass_Name(): e2a.

   * *note PyException_GetArgs(): 970.

   * *note PyException_GetCause(): 5349.

   * *note PyException_GetContext(): 534a.

   * *note PyException_GetTraceback(): 534b.

   * *note PyException_SetArgs(): 971.

   * *note PyException_SetCause(): 534c.

   * *note PyException_SetContext(): 534d.

   * *note PyException_SetTraceback(): 1fbe.

   * *note PyFile_FromFd(): 534e.

   * *note PyFile_GetLine(): 534f.

   * *note PyFile_WriteObject(): 5350.

   * *note PyFile_WriteString(): 5351.

   * *note PyFilter_Type: 5352.

   * *note PyFloat_AsDouble(): e2e.

   * *note PyFloat_FromDouble(): 5353.

   * *note PyFloat_FromString(): 5354.

   * *note PyFloat_GetInfo(): 1793.

   * *note PyFloat_GetMax(): 1791.

   * *note PyFloat_GetMin(): 1792.

   * *note PyFloat_Type: 5355.

   * *note PyFrameObject: b68.

   * *note PyFrame_GetCode(): b69.

   * *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): b6a.

   * *note PyFrozenSet_New(): 17e7.

   * *note PyFrozenSet_Type: 5356.

   * *note PyGC_Collect(): d56.

   * *note PyGC_Disable(): c7b.

   * *note PyGC_Enable(): c7a.

   * *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): c7c.

   * *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5.

   * *note PyGILState_GetThisThreadState(): 5357.

   * *note PyGILState_Release(): 1a6.

   * *note PyGILState_STATE: 5358.

   * *note PyGetSetDef: f77.

   * *note PyGetSetDescr_Type: 5359.

   * *note PyImport_AddModule(): 7f2.

   * *note PyImport_AddModuleObject(): 535a.

   * *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 7f1.

   * *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 1d1a.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 535b.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 535c.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(): 535d.

   * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 535e.

   * *note PyImport_GetImporter(): 1c8a.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicNumber(): 154c.

   * *note PyImport_GetMagicTag(): 535f.

   * *note PyImport_GetModule(): f71.

   * *note PyImport_GetModuleDict(): 5360.

   * *note PyImport_Import(): 179e.

   * *note PyImport_ImportFrozenModule(): 5361.

   * *note PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(): 5362.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(): 154d.

   * *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(): 5363.

   * *note PyImport_ReloadModule(): 5364.

   * *note PyIndex_Check(): d52.

   * *note PyInterpreterGuard: 5365.

   * *note PyInterpreterGuard_Close(): 5366.

   * *note PyInterpreterGuard_FromCurrent(): 5367.

   * *note PyInterpreterGuard_FromView(): 5368.

   * *note PyInterpreterState: c90.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Clear(): 49aa.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Delete(): 5369.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 83b.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_GetDict(): 536a.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_GetID(): f84.

   * *note PyInterpreterState_New(): 49ab.

   * *note PyInterpreterView: 536b.

   * *note PyInterpreterView_Close(): 536c.

   * *note PyInterpreterView_FromCurrent(): 536d.

   * *note PyInterpreterView_FromMain(): 536e.

   * *note PyIter_Check(): 1ea8.

   * *note PyIter_Next(): 5c6.

   * *note PyIter_NextItem(): 5c5.

   * *note PyIter_Send(): c6e.

   * *note PyListIter_Type: 536f.

   * *note PyListRevIter_Type: 5370.

   * *note PyList_Append(): 5371.

   * *note PyList_AsTuple(): 5372.

   * *note PyList_GetItem(): 7f5.

   * *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 7f4.

   * *note PyList_GetSlice(): 5373.

   * *note PyList_Insert(): 1ada.

   * *note PyList_New(): 5260.

   * *note PyList_Reverse(): 5374.

   * *note PyList_SetItem(): 1adb.

   * *note PyList_SetSlice(): 5375.

   * *note PyList_Size(): 17bc.

   * *note PyList_Sort(): 5376.

   * *note PyList_Type: 51f0.

   * *note PyLongExport: 1970.

   * *note PyLongLayout: 196f.

   * *note PyLongObject: 5cb.

   * *note PyLongRangeIter_Type: 5377.

   * *note PyLongWriter: 1971.

   * *note PyLongWriter_Create(): 5d7.

   * *note PyLongWriter_Discard(): 5d9.

   * *note PyLongWriter_Finish(): 5d8.

   * *note PyLong_AsDouble(): 1b87.

   * *note PyLong_AsInt(): 7fa.

   * *note PyLong_AsInt32(): 5cc.

   * *note PyLong_AsInt64(): 5cd.

   * *note PyLong_AsLong(): 7fb.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 160b.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongLong(): 5378.

   * *note PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 160a.

   * *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 7fc.

   * *note PyLong_AsSize_t(): 5379.

   * *note PyLong_AsSsize_t(): 537a.

   * *note PyLong_AsUInt32(): 5ce.

   * *note PyLong_AsUInt64(): 5cf.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLong(): 537b.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(): 1639.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(): 1fba.

   * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask(): 537c.

   * *note PyLong_AsVoidPtr(): 537d.

   * *note PyLong_Export(): 5d5.

   * *note PyLong_FreeExport(): 5d6.

   * *note PyLong_FromDouble(): d0e.

   * *note PyLong_FromInt32(): 5d0.

   * *note PyLong_FromInt64(): 5d1.

   * *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1dca.

   * *note PyLong_FromLongLong(): 1dcb.

   * *note PyLong_FromNativeBytes(): 7fd.

   * *note PyLong_FromSize_t(): 1ae0.

   * *note PyLong_FromSsize_t(): 1ac2.

   * *note PyLong_FromString(): 537e.

   * *note PyLong_FromUInt32(): 5d2.

   * *note PyLong_FromUInt64(): 5d3.

   * *note PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(): 1ade.

   * *note PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(): 1adf.

   * *note PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(): 7fe.

   * *note PyLong_FromVoidPtr(): 537f.

   * *note PyLong_GetInfo(): 5380.

   * *note PyLong_GetNativeLayout(): 5d4.

   * *note PyLong_Type: 5381.

   * *note PyMODEXPORT_FUNC: 1990.

   * *note PyMap_Type: 5382.

   * *note PyMapping_Check(): 5383.

   * *note PyMapping_GetItemString(): 7e3.

   * *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 7e0.

   * *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString(): 7e1.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 814.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 816.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 815.

   * *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 813.

   * *note PyMapping_Items(): f7c.

   * *note PyMapping_Keys(): f7a.

   * *note PyMapping_Length(): 5384.

   * *note PyMapping_SetItemString(): 5385.

   * *note PyMapping_Size(): 2024.

   * *note PyMapping_Values(): f7b.

   * *note PyMem_Calloc(): 125e.

   * *note PyMem_Free(): 17e4.

   * *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024.

   * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 824.

   * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 826.

   * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf.

   * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 825.

   * *note PyMem_Realloc(): 13da.

   * *note PyMemberDef: 95a.

   * *note PyMemberDescr_Type: 5386.

   * *note PyMember_GetOne(): 98c.

   * *note PyMember_SetOne(): 98d.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): b43.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1519.

   * *note PyMemoryView_FromObject(): 5387.

   * *note PyMemoryView_GetContiguous(): 5388.

   * *note PyMemoryView_Type: 5389.

   * *note PyMethodDef: 1879.

   * *note PyMethodDescr_Type: 538a.

   * *note PyModuleDef: d45.

   * *note PyModuleDef_Base: 538b.

   * *note PyModuleDef_Init(): 538c.

   * *note PyModuleDef_Slot: 538d.

   * *note PyModuleDef_Type: 538e.

   * *note PyModule_Add(): 7ff.

   * *note PyModule_AddFunctions(): 538f.

   * *note PyModule_AddIntConstant(): 18de.

   * *note PyModule_AddObject(): 801.

   * *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 800.

   * *note PyModule_AddStringConstant(): 18df.

   * *note PyModule_AddType(): d3d.

   * *note PyModule_Create2(): 5390.

   * *note PyModule_Exec(): 5391.

   * *note PyModule_ExecDef(): 394.

   * *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): 393.

   * *note PyModule_FromSlotsAndSpec(): 38c.

   * *note PyModule_GetDef(): 5392.

   * *note PyModule_GetDict(): 5393.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 640.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 641.

   * *note PyModule_GetName(): 5394.

   * *note PyModule_GetNameObject(): 5395.

   * *note PyModule_GetState(): d48.

   * *note PyModule_GetStateSize(): 5396.

   * *note PyModule_GetState_DuringGC(): 36f.

   * *note PyModule_GetToken(): 5397.

   * *note PyModule_GetToken_DuringGC(): 370.

   * *note PyModule_New(): 5398.

   * *note PyModule_NewObject(): 5399.

   * *note PyModule_SetDocString(): 539a.

   * *note PyModule_Type: 539b.

   * *note PyNumber_Absolute(): 539c.

   * *note PyNumber_Add(): 539d.

   * *note PyNumber_And(): 539e.

   * *note PyNumber_AsSsize_t(): 539f.

   * *note PyNumber_Check(): e2b.

   * *note PyNumber_Divmod(): 53a0.

   * *note PyNumber_Float(): e2d.

   * *note PyNumber_FloorDivide(): 53a1.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceAdd(): 53a2.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(): 53a3.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide(): 53a4.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceLshift(): 53a5.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(): 1265.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply(): 53a6.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceOr(): 53a7.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlacePower(): 53a8.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder(): 53a9.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceRshift(): 53aa.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(): 53ab.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide(): 53ac.

   * *note PyNumber_InPlaceXor(): 53ad.

   * *note PyNumber_Index(): c69.

   * *note PyNumber_Invert(): 53ae.

   * *note PyNumber_Long(): e2c.

   * *note PyNumber_Lshift(): 53af.

   * *note PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(): 1264.

   * *note PyNumber_Multiply(): 53b0.

   * *note PyNumber_Negative(): 53b1.

   * *note PyNumber_Or(): 53b2.

   * *note PyNumber_Positive(): 53b3.

   * *note PyNumber_Power(): 53b4.

   * *note PyNumber_Remainder(): 53b5.

   * *note PyNumber_Rshift(): 53b6.

   * *note PyNumber_Subtract(): 53b7.

   * *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 1d70.

   * *note PyNumber_TrueDivide(): 53b8.

   * *note PyNumber_Xor(): 53b9.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 642.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 643.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): f7e.

   * *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): f7d.

   * *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 1d9b.

   * *note PyOS_FSPath(): 10d2.

   * *note PyOS_InputHook: 986.

   * *note PyOS_InterruptOccurred(): 1f36.

   * *note PyOS_double_to_string(): 53ba.

   * *note PyOS_getsig(): 18e0.

   * *note PyOS_mystricmp(): 1f2f.

   * *note PyOS_mystrnicmp(): 1f2e.

   * *note PyOS_setsig(): 18e1.

   * *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 53bb.

   * *note PyOS_snprintf(): 18ab.

   * *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 163a.

   * *note PyOS_strtol(): 53bc.

   * *note PyOS_strtoul(): 53bd.

   * *note PyOS_vsnprintf(): 18ac.

   * *note PyObject: 19b.

   * *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: c75.

   * *note PyObject.ob_type: 51e3.

   * *note PyObject_ASCII(): 53be.

   * *note PyObject_AsFileDescriptor(): 53bf.

   * *note PyObject_Bytes(): 53c0.

   * *note PyObject_Call(): 82f.

   * *note PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(): 351.

   * *note PyObject_CallFunction(): 831.

   * *note PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 53c1.

   * *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 3b6.

   * *note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 1fce.

   * *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 82e.

   * *note PyObject_CallObject(): 51c2.

   * *note PyObject_Calloc(): 125f.

   * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 82b.

   * *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 97a.

   * *note PyObject_CopyData(): b3f.

   * *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1a6d.

   * *note PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1a6e.

   * *note PyObject_DelItem(): 53c2.

   * *note PyObject_DelItemString(): 53c3.

   * *note PyObject_Dir(): 53c4.

   * *note PyObject_Format(): 53c5.

   * *note PyObject_Free(): 1023.

   * *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5.

   * *note PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): d3f.

   * *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): d3e.

   * *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 18a6.

   * *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 18a7.

   * *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 53c6.

   * *note PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 1efa.

   * *note PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 53c7.

   * *note PyObject_GenericSetDict(): 53c8.

   * *note PyObject_GetAIter(): 53c9.

   * *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 3b7.

   * *note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 7e6.

   * *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c.

   * *note PyObject_GetItem(): 7e2.

   * *note PyObject_GetIter(): 53ca.

   * *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 7e4.

   * *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 7e5.

   * *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 19a.

   * *note PyObject_GetTypeData_DuringGC(): 36c.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 810.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttrString(): 812.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 811.

   * *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 80f.

   * *note PyObject_Hash(): 649.

   * *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1769.

   * *note PyObject_Init(): e2f.

   * *note PyObject_InitVar(): 1f34.

   * *note PyObject_IsInstance(): 1257.

   * *note PyObject_IsSubclass(): 1258.

   * *note PyObject_IsTrue(): 53cb.

   * *note PyObject_Length(): 53cc.

   * *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026.

   * *note PyObject_Not(): 53cd.

   * *note PyObject_Realloc(): 17e5.

   * *note PyObject_Repr(): 13d7.

   * *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 5206.

   * *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 1f7e.

   * *note PyObject_SelfIter(): 53ce.

   * *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 1927.

   * *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 1a6c.

   * *note PyObject_SetItem(): 525f.

   * *note PyObject_Size(): 53cf.

   * *note PyObject_Str(): 13d8.

   * *note PyObject_Type(): 53d0.

   * *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 963.

   * *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 964.

   * *note PyProperty_Type: 53d1.

   * *note PyRangeIter_Type: 53d2.

   * *note PyRange_Type: 53d3.

   * *note PyReversed_Type: 53d4.

   * *note PySeqIter_New(): 53d5.

   * *note PySeqIter_Type: 53d6.

   * *note PySequence_Check(): 53d7.

   * *note PySequence_Concat(): 53d8.

   * *note PySequence_Contains(): 605.

   * *note PySequence_Count(): 53d9.

   * *note PySequence_DelItem(): 2023.

   * *note PySequence_DelSlice(): 53da.

   * *note PySequence_Fast(): 1ac6.

   * *note PySequence_GetItem(): 2021.

   * *note PySequence_GetSlice(): 53db.

   * *note PySequence_In(): 604.

   * *note PySequence_InPlaceConcat(): 53dc.

   * *note PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(): 53dd.

   * *note PySequence_Index(): 53de.

   * *note PySequence_Length(): 53df.

   * *note PySequence_List(): 53e0.

   * *note PySequence_Repeat(): 53e1.

   * *note PySequence_SetItem(): 2022.

   * *note PySequence_SetSlice(): 53e2.

   * *note PySequence_Size(): 2020.

   * *note PySequence_Tuple(): 53e3.

   * *note PySetIter_Type: 53e4.

   * *note PySet_Add(): 17e8.

   * *note PySet_Clear(): 53e5.

   * *note PySet_Contains(): 17ea.

   * *note PySet_Discard(): 17e9.

   * *note PySet_New(): 17e6.

   * *note PySet_Pop(): 53e6.

   * *note PySet_Size(): 17eb.

   * *note PySet_Type: 53e7.

   * *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 646.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndices(): 53e8.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 644.

   * *note PySlice_New(): 53e9.

   * *note PySlice_Type: 53ea.

   * *note PySlice_Unpack(): 645.

   * *note PySlot: 19d.

   * *note PySlot_DATA: 383.

   * *note PySlot_END: 389.

   * *note PySlot_FUNC: 384.

   * *note PySlot_INT64: 386.

   * *note PySlot_INTPTR: 53eb.

   * *note PySlot_OPTIONAL: 53ec.

   * *note PySlot_PTR: 38a.

   * *note PySlot_PTR_STATIC: 38b.

   * *note PySlot_SIZE: 385.

   * *note PySlot_STATIC: 53ed.

   * *note PySlot_STATIC_DATA: 388.

   * *note PySlot_UINT64: 387.

   * *note PyState_AddModule(): 53ee.

   * *note PyState_FindModule(): 53ef.

   * *note PyState_RemoveModule(): 53f0.

   * *note PyStructSequence_Desc: f79.

   * *note PyStructSequence_Field: f78.

   * *note PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 53f1.

   * *note PyStructSequence_New(): 53f2.

   * *note PyStructSequence_NewType(): 53f3.

   * *note PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 53f4.

   * *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: d4a.

   * *note PySuper_Type: 53f5.

   * *note PySys_Audit(): 808.

   * *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 807.

   * *note PySys_FormatStderr(): 53f6.

   * *note PySys_FormatStdout(): 53f7.

   * *note PySys_GetAttr(): 352.

   * *note PySys_GetAttrString(): 353.

   * *note PySys_GetObject(): 356.

   * *note PySys_GetOptionalAttr(): 354.

   * *note PySys_GetOptionalAttrString(): 355.

   * *note PySys_GetXOptions(): 53f8.

   * *note PySys_SetArgv(): 1bc2.

   * *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 1bc1.

   * *note PySys_SetObject(): 53f9.

   * *note PySys_WriteStderr(): 53fa.

   * *note PySys_WriteStdout(): 53fb.

   * *note PyThreadState: b6c.

   * *note PyThreadStateToken: 53fc.

   * *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1b9e.

   * *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 1f7b.

   * *note PyThreadState_Ensure(): 53fd.

   * *note PyThreadState_EnsureFromView(): 53fe.

   * *note PyThreadState_Get(): 809.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetDict(): 53ff.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): b6d.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetID(): d3b.

   * *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): d3a.

   * *note PyThreadState_New(): 5400.

   * *note PyThreadState_Release(): 5401.

   * *note PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): f82.

   * *note PyThreadState_Swap(): 5402.

   * *note PyThread_GetInfo(): 5403.

   * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 654.

   * *note PyThread_acquire_lock(): 5404.

   * *note PyThread_acquire_lock_timed(): 5405.

   * *note PyThread_allocate_lock(): 5406.

   * *note PyThread_create_key(): 64a.

   * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 64c.

   * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 652.

   * *note PyThread_exit_thread(): 5407.

   * *note PyThread_free_lock(): 5408.

   * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 650.

   * *note PyThread_get_stacksize(): 5409.

   * *note PyThread_get_thread_ident(): 540a.

   * *note PyThread_get_thread_native_id(): 1d9c.

   * *note PyThread_init_thread(): 540b.

   * *note PyThread_release_lock(): 540c.

   * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 64e.

   * *note PyThread_set_stacksize(): 540d.

   * *note PyThread_start_new_thread(): 2018.

   * *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 64b.

   * *note PyThread_tss_create(): 540e.

   * *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 653.

   * *note PyThread_tss_free(): 64d.

   * *note PyThread_tss_get(): 651.

   * *note PyThread_tss_is_created(): 540f.

   * *note PyThread_tss_set(): 64f.

   * *note PyTraceBack_Here(): 5410.

   * *note PyTraceBack_Print(): 5411.

   * *note PyTraceBack_Type: 5412.

   * *note PyTupleIter_Type: 5413.

   * *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 51ce.

   * *note PyTuple_GetSlice(): 5414.

   * *note PyTuple_New(): 830.

   * *note PyTuple_Pack(): 5415.

   * *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 51cf.

   * *note PyTuple_Size(): 5416.

   * *note PyTuple_Type: 5417.

   * *note PyTypeObject: e6b.

   * *note PyType_ClearCache(): 5418.

   * *note PyType_Freeze(): 5dc.

   * *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391.

   * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390.

   * *note PyType_FromSlots(): 376.

   * *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e.

   * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 38f.

   * *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30.

   * *note PyType_GenericNew(): 51e2.

   * *note PyType_GetBaseByToken(): 5dd.

   * *note PyType_GetBaseByToken_DuringGC(): 371.

   * *note PyType_GetFlags(): 1f31.

   * *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 80a.

   * *note PyType_GetModule(): d37.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 827.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleByToken(): 5419.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleByToken_DuringGC(): 373.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleName(): 80c.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleState(): d38.

   * *note PyType_GetModuleState_DuringGC(): 36e.

   * *note PyType_GetModule_DuringGC(): 372.

   * *note PyType_GetName(): b36.

   * *note PyType_GetQualName(): b37.

   * *note PyType_GetSlot(): c72.

   * *note PyType_GetTypeDataSize(): 955.

   * *note PyType_IsSubtype(): 541a.

   * *note PyType_Modified(): 1d77.

   * *note PyType_Ready(): b5e.

   * *note PyType_Slot: 541b.

   * *note PyType_Spec: 1c8f.

   * *note PyType_Type: 958.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create(): 541c.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding(): 541d.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd(): 541e.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject(): 541f.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason(): 5420.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart(): 5421.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd(): 5422.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason(): 5423.

   * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart(): 5424.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding(): 5425.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd(): 1b1a.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject(): 5426.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason(): 5427.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart(): 1b1d.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd(): 5428.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason(): 5429.

   * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart(): 542a.

   * *note PyUnicodeIter_Type: 542b.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd(): 542c.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject(): 542d.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason(): 542e.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart(): 542f.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd(): 5430.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason(): 5431.

   * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart(): 5432.

   * *note PyUnicode_Append(): 5433.

   * *note PyUnicode_AppendAndDel(): 5434.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(): 153b.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsCharmapString(): 5435.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(): 5436.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(): 153a.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(): 153c.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(): 1539.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4(): 1521.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): c8e.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF16String(): 5437.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF32String(): 5438.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): c6f.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 1537.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(): 1538.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsWideChar(): 2025.

   * *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): c8f.

   * *note PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap(): 1c68.

   * *note PyUnicode_Compare(): c8a.

   * *note PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(): 160c.

   * *note PyUnicode_Concat(): 154a.

   * *note PyUnicode_Contains(): 5439.

   * *note PyUnicode_Count(): 543a.

   * *note PyUnicode_Decode(): 1fb7.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeASCII(): 543b.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap(): 543c.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful(): 543d.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 1c8e.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 543e.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(): 543f.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocale(): 5440.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): f87.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(): 5441.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 5442.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape(): 5443.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(): 5444.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(): 5445.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(): 5446.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(): 5447.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(): 5448.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful(): 5449.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(): 544a.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 1d15.

   * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape(): 544b.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(): 153d.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 201e.

   * *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): f88.

   * *note PyUnicode_Equal(): 5df.

   * *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8(): 80e.

   * *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 80d.

   * *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): 10d3.

   * *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 97b.

   * *note PyUnicode_Find(): 544c.

   * *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): c8c.

   * *note PyUnicode_Format(): 544d.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(): 544e.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 979.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromObject(): 544f.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromOrdinal(): 5450.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 5451.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(): 5452.

   * *note PyUnicode_FromWideChar(): 1535.

   * *note PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding(): 5453.

   * *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): c86.

   * *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 3b5.

   * *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): c84.

   * *note PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(): 1f78.

   * *note PyUnicode_Join(): 154b.

   * *note PyUnicode_Partition(): 1abc.

   * *note PyUnicode_RPartition(): 1abd.

   * *note PyUnicode_RSplit(): 1abb.

   * *note PyUnicode_ReadChar(): 151a.

   * *note PyUnicode_Replace(): 5454.

   * *note PyUnicode_Resize(): 5455.

   * *note PyUnicode_RichCompare(): 5456.

   * *note PyUnicode_Split(): 5457.

   * *note PyUnicode_Splitlines(): 5458.

   * *note PyUnicode_Substring(): c89.

   * *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): c8b.

   * *note PyUnicode_Translate(): 5459.

   * *note PyUnicode_Type: 545a.

   * *note PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 151b.

   * *note PyVarObject: 492d.

   * *note PyVarObject.ob_base: 545b.

   * *note PyVarObject.ob_size: 545c.

   * *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 95f.

   * *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 95e.

   * ‘PyWeakReference’

   * *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 3a4.

   * *note PyWeakref_NewProxy(): 545d.

   * *note PyWeakref_NewRef(): 1ddf.

   * *note PyWrapperDescr_Type: 545e.

   * *note PyWrapper_New(): 545f.

   * *note PyZip_Type: 5460.

   * *note Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX: 5461.

   * *note Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_BIG_ENDIAN: 5462.

   * *note Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS: 5463.

   * *note Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_LITTLE_ENDIAN: 5464.

   * *note Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN: 5465.

   * *note Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE: 5466.

   * *note Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER: 5467.

   * *note Py_AUDIT_READ: 991.

   * *note Py_AddPendingCall(): d49.

   * *note Py_AtExit(): 5468.

   * *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 51d4.

   * *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION: 5469.

   * *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2: 546a.

   * *note Py_BLOCK_THREADS: 546b.

   * *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee.

   * *note Py_BytesMain(): d89.

   * *note Py_CompileString(): c5b.

   * *note Py_DecRef(): 546c.

   * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85.

   * *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: e4e.

   * *note Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION: 546d.

   * *note Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION2: 546e.

   * *note Py_EncodeLocale(): f86.

   * *note Py_EndInterpreter(): 1a6f.

   * *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 5fe.

   * *note Py_Exit(): 1104.

   * *note Py_FatalError(): d4b.

   * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’

   * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’

   * *note Py_Finalize(): 672.

   * *note Py_FinalizeEx(): 10cf.

   * *note Py_GenericAlias(): 546f.

   * *note Py_GenericAliasType: 5470.

   * *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 17d4.

   * *note Py_GetCompiler(): 5471.

   * *note Py_GetConstant(): 7ef.

   * *note Py_GetConstantBorrowed(): 7f0.

   * *note Py_GetCopyright(): 5472.

   * *note Py_GetPlatform(): 5473.

   * *note Py_GetRecursionLimit(): 5474.

   * *note Py_GetVersion(): 5475.

   * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’

   * *note Py_IS_TYPE(): 19bb.

   * *note Py_IncRef(): 5476.

   * *note Py_Initialize(): 673.

   * *note Py_InitializeEx(): 5477.

   * *note Py_Is(): c76.

   * *note Py_IsFalse(): c79.

   * *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 7f3.

   * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 191f.

   * *note Py_IsNone(): c77.

   * *note Py_IsTrue(): c78.

   * *note Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): d3c.

   * *note Py_Main(): fe2.

   * *note Py_MakePendingCalls(): 5478.

   * *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 1d2f.

   * *note Py_NewRef(): c70.

   * *note Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION(): 5ad.

   * *note Py_PACK_VERSION(): 5ac.

   * *note Py_READONLY: 990.

   * *note Py_REFCNT(): 54b.

   * *note Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET: 959.

   * *note Py_ReprEnter(): 5479.

   * *note Py_ReprLeave(): 547a.

   * *note Py_SET_SIZE(): b62.

   * *note Py_SIZE(): b61.

   * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 1bc0.

   * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 1bbf.

   * *note Py_SetRecursionLimit(): 547b.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE: 51ea.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT: 51e0.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 95d.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 956.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR: 547c.

   * *note Py_TP_USE_SPEC: 547d.

   * *note Py_TYPE(): 5f5.

   * *note Py_T_BOOL: 547e.

   * *note Py_T_BYTE: 547f.

   * *note Py_T_CHAR: 5480.

   * *note Py_T_DOUBLE: 98f.

   * *note Py_T_FLOAT: 5481.

   * *note Py_T_INT: 98e.

   * *note Py_T_LONG: 5482.

   * *note Py_T_LONGLONG: 5483.

   * *note Py_T_OBJECT_EX: 993.

   * *note Py_T_PYSSIZET: 5484.

   * *note Py_T_SHORT: 5485.

   * *note Py_T_STRING: 5486.

   * *note Py_T_STRING_INPLACE: 5487.

   * *note Py_T_UBYTE: 5488.

   * *note Py_T_UINT: 5489.

   * *note Py_T_ULONG: 548a.

   * *note Py_T_ULONGLONG: 548b.

   * *note Py_T_USHORT: 548c.

   * *note Py_UCS4: 301.

   * *note Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS: 548d.

   * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’

   * *note Py_VaBuildValue(): 548e.

   * *note Py_Version: 5ae.

   * *note Py_XNewRef(): c71.

   * *note Py_am_aiter: 548f.

   * *note Py_am_anext: 5490.

   * *note Py_am_await: 5491.

   * *note Py_am_send: 5492.

   * *note Py_bf_getbuffer: 5493.

   * *note Py_bf_releasebuffer: 5494.

   * *note Py_buffer: b3a.

   * ‘Py_intptr_t’

   * *note Py_mod_abi: 358.

   * *note Py_mod_create: 5495.

   * *note Py_mod_doc: 51a1.

   * *note Py_mod_exec: d46.

   * *note Py_mod_gil: 691.

   * *note Py_mod_methods: 51a6.

   * *note Py_mod_multiple_interpreters: 5496.

   * *note Py_mod_name: 51a0.

   * *note Py_mod_slots: 37b.

   * *note Py_mod_state_clear: 5497.

   * *note Py_mod_state_free: 5498.

   * *note Py_mod_state_size: 5499.

   * *note Py_mod_state_traverse: 549a.

   * *note Py_mod_token: 549b.

   * *note Py_mp_ass_subscript: 549c.

   * *note Py_mp_length: 549d.

   * *note Py_mp_subscript: 549e.

   * *note Py_nb_absolute: 549f.

   * *note Py_nb_add: 54a0.

   * *note Py_nb_and: 54a1.

   * *note Py_nb_bool: 54a2.

   * *note Py_nb_divmod: 54a3.

   * *note Py_nb_float: 54a4.

   * *note Py_nb_floor_divide: 54a5.

   * *note Py_nb_index: 54a6.

   * *note Py_nb_inplace_add: 54a7.

   * *note Py_nb_inplace_and: 54a8.

   * *note Py_nb_inplace_floor_divide: 54a9.

   * *note Py_nb_inplace_lshift: 54aa.

   * *note Py_nb_inplace_matrix_multiply: 54ab.

   * *note Py_nb_inplace_multiply: 54ac.

   * *note Py_nb_inplace_or: 54ad.

   * *note Py_nb_inplace_power: 54ae.

   * *note Py_nb_inplace_remainder: 54af.

   * *note Py_nb_inplace_rshift: 54b0.

   * *note Py_nb_inplace_subtract: 54b1.

   * *note Py_nb_inplace_true_divide: 54b2.

   * *note Py_nb_inplace_xor: 54b3.

   * *note Py_nb_int: 54b4.

   * *note Py_nb_invert: 54b5.

   * *note Py_nb_lshift: 54b6.

   * *note Py_nb_matrix_multiply: 54b7.

   * *note Py_nb_multiply: 54b8.

   * *note Py_nb_negative: 54b9.

   * *note Py_nb_or: 54ba.

   * *note Py_nb_positive: 54bb.

   * *note Py_nb_power: 54bc.

   * *note Py_nb_remainder: 54bd.

   * *note Py_nb_rshift: 54be.

   * *note Py_nb_subtract: 54bf.

   * *note Py_nb_true_divide: 54c0.

   * *note Py_nb_xor: 54c1.

   * *note Py_slot_end: 377.

   * *note Py_slot_invalid: 378.

   * *note Py_slot_subslots: 379.

   * *note Py_sq_ass_item: 54c2.

   * *note Py_sq_concat: 54c3.

   * *note Py_sq_contains: 54c4.

   * *note Py_sq_inplace_concat: 54c5.

   * *note Py_sq_inplace_repeat: 54c6.

   * *note Py_sq_item: 54c7.

   * *note Py_sq_length: 54c8.

   * *note Py_sq_repeat: 54c9.

   * *note Py_ssize_t: e24.

   * *note Py_tp_alloc: 54ca.

   * *note Py_tp_base: 54cb.

   * *note Py_tp_bases: 54cc.

   * *note Py_tp_basicsize: 37d.

   * *note Py_tp_call: 54cd.

   * *note Py_tp_clear: 54ce.

   * *note Py_tp_dealloc: 54cf.

   * *note Py_tp_del: 54d0.

   * *note Py_tp_descr_get: 54d1.

   * *note Py_tp_descr_set: 54d2.

   * *note Py_tp_doc: 54d3.

   * *note Py_tp_extra_basicsize: 37e.

   * *note Py_tp_finalize: 54d4.

   * *note Py_tp_flags: 380.

   * *note Py_tp_free: 54d5.

   * *note Py_tp_getattr: 54d6.

   * *note Py_tp_getattro: 54d7.

   * *note Py_tp_getset: 54d8.

   * *note Py_tp_hash: 54d9.

   * *note Py_tp_init: 54da.

   * *note Py_tp_is_gc: 54db.

   * *note Py_tp_itemsize: 37f.

   * *note Py_tp_iter: 54dc.

   * *note Py_tp_iternext: 54dd.

   * *note Py_tp_members: 54de.

   * *note Py_tp_metaclass: 381.

   * *note Py_tp_methods: 54df.

   * *note Py_tp_module: 382.

   * *note Py_tp_name: 37c.

   * *note Py_tp_new: 54e0.

   * *note Py_tp_repr: 54e1.

   * *note Py_tp_richcompare: 54e2.

   * *note Py_tp_setattr: 54e3.

   * *note Py_tp_setattro: 54e4.

   * *note Py_tp_slots: 37a.

   * *note Py_tp_str: 54e5.

   * *note Py_tp_token: 5de.

   * *note Py_tp_traverse: 54e6.

   * *note Py_tp_vectorcall: 54e7.

   * ‘Py_uintptr_t’

   * *note allocfunc: 54e8.

   * *note binaryfunc: 54e9.

   * *note descrgetfunc: 54ea.

   * *note descrsetfunc: 54eb.

   * *note destructor: 54ec.

   * *note getattrfunc: 54ed.

   * *note getattrofunc: 54ee.

   * *note getbufferproc: 54ef.

   * *note getiterfunc: 54f0.

   * *note getter: 54f1.

   * *note hashfunc: 54f2.

   * *note initproc: 54f3.

   * *note inquiry: 54f4.

   * *note iternextfunc: 54f5.

   * *note lenfunc: 54f6.

   * *note newfunc: 54f7.

   * *note objobjargproc: 54f8.

   * *note objobjproc: 54f9.

   * *note releasebufferproc: 54fa.

   * *note reprfunc: 54fb.

   * *note richcmpfunc: 54fc.

   * *note setattrfunc: 54fd.

   * *note setattrofunc: 54fe.

   * *note setter: 54ff.

   * *note ssizeargfunc: 5500.

   * *note ssizeobjargproc: 5501.

   * ‘ssizessizeargfunc’

   * ‘ssizessizeobjargproc’

   * ‘symtable’

   * *note ternaryfunc: 5502.

   * *note traverseproc: 5503.

   * *note unaryfunc: 5504.

   * *note vectorcallfunc: 960.

   * *note visitproc: 5505.


File: python.info,  Node: The Very High Level Layer,  Next: Reference Counting,  Prev: C API and ABI Stability,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.3 The Very High Level Layer
=============================

The functions in this chapter will let you execute Python source code
given in a file or a buffer, but they will not let you interact in a
more detailed way with the interpreter.

Several of these functions accept a start symbol from the grammar as a
parameter.  The available start symbols are *note Py_eval_input: 550a,
*note Py_file_input: 550b, *note Py_single_input: 550c, and *note
Py_func_type_input: 550d.  These are described following the functions
which accept them as parameters.

Note also that several of these functions take FILE* parameters.  One
particular issue which needs to be handled carefully is that the ‘FILE’
structure for different C libraries can be different and incompatible.
Under Windows (at least), it is possible for dynamically linked
extensions to actually use different libraries, so care should be taken
that FILE* parameters are only passed to these functions if it is
certain that they were created by the same library that the Python
runtime is using.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_AnyFile (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags():
     550f. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’ and 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_AnyFileFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags():
     550f. below, leaving the 'closeit' argument set to ‘0’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_AnyFileEx (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          int closeit)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags():
     550f. below, leaving the 'flags' argument set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     If 'fp' refers to a file associated with an interactive device
     (console or terminal input or Unix pseudo-terminal), return the
     value of *note PyRun_InteractiveLoop(): 5512, otherwise return the
     result of *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 5222.  'filename' is decoded
     from the filesystem encoding (*note sys.getfilesystemencoding():
     1017.).  If 'filename' is ‘NULL’, this function uses ‘"???"’ as the
     filename.  If 'closeit' is true, the file is closed before
     ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()’ returns.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_SimpleString (const char *command)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleStringFlags():
     5513. below, leaving the *note PyCompilerFlags: e67.* argument set
     to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (const char *command,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Executes the Python source code from 'command' in the *note
     __main__: 1. module according to the 'flags' argument.  If
     ‘__main__’ does not already exist, it is created.  Returns ‘0’ on
     success or ‘-1’ if an exception was raised.  If there was an error,
     there is no way to get the exception information.  For the meaning
     of 'flags', see below.

     Note that if an otherwise unhandled *note SystemExit: 10f7. is
     raised, this function will not return ‘-1’, but exit the process,
     as long as *note PyConfig.inspect: 615. is zero.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_SimpleFile (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags():
     1ec0. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’ and 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_SimpleFileEx (FILE *fp, const char *filename,
          int closeit)

     This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags():
     1ec0. below, leaving 'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Similar to *note PyRun_SimpleStringFlags(): 5513, but the Python
     source code is read from 'fp' instead of an in-memory string.
     'filename' should be the name of the file, it is decoded from *note
     filesystem encoding and error handler: 948.  If 'closeit' is true,
     the file is closed before ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()’ returns.

          Σημείωση: On Windows, 'fp' should be opened as binary mode
          (e.g.  ‘fopen(filename, "rb")’).  Otherwise, Python may not
          handle script file with LF line ending correctly.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_InteractiveOneObject (FILE *fp, PyObject
          *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Read and execute a single statement from a file associated with an
     interactive device according to the 'flags' argument.  The user
     will be prompted using ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’.  'filename' must be
     a Python *note str: 1df. object.

     Returns ‘0’ when the input was executed successfully, ‘-1’ if there
     was an exception, or an error code from the ‘errcode.h’ include
     file distributed as part of Python if there was a parse error.
     (Note that ‘errcode.h’ is not included by ‘Python.h’, so must be
     included specifically if needed.)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_InteractiveOne (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags(): 5517. below, leaving 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Similar to *note PyRun_InteractiveOneObject(): 5515, but 'filename'
     is a const char*, which is decoded from the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 948.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_InteractiveLoop (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename)

     This is a simplified interface to *note
     PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags(): 5518. below, leaving 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags)

     Read and execute statements from a file associated with an
     interactive device until EOF is reached.  The user will be prompted
     using ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’.  'filename' is decoded from the
     *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948.  Returns ‘0’ at
     EOF or a negative number upon failure.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int (*PyOS_InputHook)(void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Can be set to point to a
     function with the prototype ‘int func(void)’.  The function will be
     called when Python’s interpreter prompt is about to become idle and
     wait for user input from the terminal.  The return value is
     ignored.  Overriding this hook can be used to integrate the
     interpreter’s prompt with other event loops, as done in
     ‘Modules/_tkinter.c’ in the Python source code.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This function is only called from the
     *note main interpreter: 410.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: char *(*PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer)(FILE*, FILE*,
          const char*)

     Can be set to point to a function with the prototype ‘char
     *func(FILE *stdin, FILE *stdout, char *prompt)’, overriding the
     default function used to read a single line of input at the
     interpreter’s prompt.  The function is expected to output the
     string 'prompt' if it’s not ‘NULL’, and then read a line of input
     from the provided standard input file, returning the resulting
     string.  For example, The *note readline: c2. module sets this hook
     to provide line-editing and tab-completion features.

     The result must be a string allocated by *note PyMem_RawMalloc():
     2bf. or *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 825, or ‘NULL’ if an error
     occurred.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The result must be allocated by *note
     PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf. or *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 825, instead
     of being allocated by *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024. or *note
     PyMem_Realloc(): 13da.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This function is only called from the
     *note main interpreter: 410.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyRun_String (const char *str,
          int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  This is a simplified
     interface to *note PyRun_StringFlags(): 5519. below, leaving
     'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyRun_StringFlags (const char
          *str, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals,
          PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Execute Python source code
     from 'str' in the context specified by the objects 'globals' and
     'locals' with the compiler flags specified by 'flags'.  'globals'
     must be a dictionary; 'locals' can be any object that implements
     the mapping protocol.  The parameter 'start' specifies the start
     symbol and must be one of the *note available start symbols: 551a.

     Returns the result of executing the code as a Python object, or
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyRun_File (FILE *fp, const char
          *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  This is a simplified
     interface to *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 551c. below, leaving
     'closeit' set to ‘0’ and 'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyRun_FileEx (FILE *fp, const
          char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject
          *locals, int closeit)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  This is a simplified
     interface to *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 551c. below, leaving
     'flags' set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyRun_FileFlags (FILE *fp, const
          char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject
          *locals, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  This is a simplified
     interface to *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 551c. below, leaving
     'closeit' set to ‘0’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyRun_FileExFlags (FILE *fp,
          const char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject
          *locals, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Similar to *note
     PyRun_StringFlags(): 5519, but the Python source code is read from
     'fp' instead of an in-memory string.  'filename' should be the name
     of the file, it is decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and
     error handler: 948.  If 'closeit' is true, the file is closed
     before *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 551c. returns.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_CompileString (const char
          *str, const char *filename, int start)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  This is a simplified interface to *note
     Py_CompileStringFlags(): 551f. below, leaving 'flags' set to
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_CompileStringFlags (const char
          *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  This is a simplified
     interface to *note Py_CompileStringExFlags(): 5520. below, with
     'optimize' set to ‘-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_CompileStringObject (const
          char *str, PyObject *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags
          *flags, int optimize)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Parse and compile the Python
     source code in 'str', returning the resulting code object.  The
     start symbol is given by 'start'; this can be used to constrain the
     code which can be compiled and should be *note available start
     symbols: 551a.  The filename specified by 'filename' is used to
     construct the code object and may appear in tracebacks or *note
     SyntaxError: 17e. exception messages.  This returns ‘NULL’ if the
     code cannot be parsed or compiled.

     The integer 'optimize' specifies the optimization level of the
     compiler; a value of ‘-1’ selects the optimization level of the
     interpreter as given by *note -O: 431. options.  Explicit levels
     are ‘0’ (no optimization; ‘__debug__’ is true), ‘1’ (asserts are
     removed, ‘__debug__’ is false) or ‘2’ (docstrings are removed too).

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_CompileStringExFlags (const
          char *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags
          *flags, int optimize)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Like *note
     Py_CompileStringObject(): 5521, but 'filename' is a byte string
     decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyEval_EvalCode (PyObject *co,
          PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  This is a simplified interface to *note PyEval_EvalCodeEx():
     1cd9, with just the code object, and global and local variables.
     The other arguments are set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyEval_EvalCodeEx (PyObject *co,
          PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *const *args,
          int argcount, PyObject *const *kws, int kwcount, PyObject
          *const *defs, int defcount, PyObject *kwdefs, PyObject
          *closure)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Evaluate a precompiled code object, given a particular
     environment for its evaluation.  This environment consists of a
     dictionary of global variables, a mapping object of local
     variables, arrays of arguments, keywords and defaults, a dictionary
     of default values for *note keyword-only: 7a3. arguments and a
     closure tuple of cells.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyEval_EvalFrame (PyFrameObject
          *f)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Evaluate an execution frame.  This is a simplified interface
     to *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 13d6, for backward compatibility.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyEval_EvalFrameEx (PyFrameObject
          *f, int throwflag)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  This is the main, unvarnished function of Python
     interpretation.  The code object associated with the execution
     frame 'f' is executed, interpreting bytecode and executing calls as
     needed.  The additional 'throwflag' parameter can mostly be ignored
     - if true, then it causes an exception to immediately be thrown;
     this is used for the *note throw(): 905. methods of generator
     objects.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: This function now includes a debug
     assertion to help ensure that it does not silently discard an
     active exception.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (PyCompilerFlags *cf)

     This function changes the flags of the current evaluation frame,
     and returns true on success, false on failure.

 -- C Struct: struct PyCompilerFlags

     This is the structure used to hold compiler flags.  In cases where
     code is only being compiled, it is passed as ‘int flags’, and in
     cases where code is being executed, it is passed as
     ‘PyCompilerFlags *flags’.  In this case, ‘from __future__ import’
     can modify 'flags'.

     Whenever ‘PyCompilerFlags *flags’ is ‘NULL’, *note cf_flags: 5523.
     is treated as equal to ‘0’, and any modification due to ‘from
     __future__ import’ is discarded.

      -- C Μέλος: int cf_flags

          Compiler flags.

      -- C Μέλος: int cf_feature_version

          'cf_feature_version' is the minor Python version.  It should
          be initialized to ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’.

          The field is ignored by default, it is used if and only if
          ‘PyCF_ONLY_AST’ flag is set in *note cf_flags: 5523.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Added 'cf_feature_version' field.

     The available compiler flags are accessible as macros:

      -- C Μακροεντολή: PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PyCF_ONLY_AST
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS

          See *note compiler flags: 27c0. in documentation of the ‘ast’
          Python module, which exports these constants under the same
          names.

     The «‘PyCF’» flags above can be combined with «‘CO_FUTURE’» flags
     such as *note CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS: 5529. to enable features
     normally selectable using *note future statements: 670.  See *note
     Code Object Flags: 552a. for a complete list.

* Menu:

* Available start symbols::
* Stack Effects::


File: python.info,  Node: Available start symbols,  Next: Stack Effects,  Up: The Very High Level Layer

7.3.1 Available start symbols
-----------------------------

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_eval_input

     The start symbol from the Python grammar for isolated expressions;
     for use with *note Py_CompileString(): c5b.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_file_input

     The start symbol from the Python grammar for sequences of
     statements as read from a file or other source; for use with *note
     Py_CompileString(): c5b.  This is the symbol to use when compiling
     arbitrarily long Python source code.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_single_input

     The start symbol from the Python grammar for a single statement;
     for use with *note Py_CompileString(): c5b.  This is the symbol
     used for the interactive interpreter loop.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_func_type_input

     The start symbol from the Python grammar for a function type; for
     use with *note Py_CompileString(): c5b.  This is used to parse
     «signature type comments» from PEP 484(1).

     This requires the *note PyCF_ONLY_AST: 5526. flag to be set.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * *note ast.FunctionType: 4e70.

        * PEP 484(2)

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/


File: python.info,  Node: Stack Effects,  Prev: Available start symbols,  Up: The Very High Level Layer

7.3.2 Stack Effects
-------------------

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note dis.stack_effect(): 12dc.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_INVALID_STACK_EFFECT

     Sentinel value representing an invalid stack effect.

     This is currently equivalent to ‘INT_MAX’.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffect (int opcode, int oparg)

     Compute the stack effect of 'opcode' with argument 'oparg'.

     On success, this function returns the stack effect; on failure,
     this returns *note PY_INVALID_STACK_EFFECT: 552d.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffectWithJump (int opcode,
          int oparg, int jump)

     Similar to *note PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffect(): 552e, but don’t
     include the stack effect of jumping if 'jump' is zero.

     If 'jump' is ‘0’, this will not include the stack effect of
     jumping, but if 'jump' is ‘1’ or ‘-1’, this will include it.

     On success, this function returns the stack effect; on failure,
     this returns *note PY_INVALID_STACK_EFFECT: 552d.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: Reference Counting,  Next: Exception Handling,  Prev: The Very High Level Layer,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.4 Reference Counting
======================

The functions and macros in this section are used for managing reference
counts of Python objects.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. Py_REFCNT (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Get the
     reference count of the Python object 'o'.

     Note that the returned value may not actually reflect how many
     references to the object are actually held.  For example, some
     objects are *note immortal: 398. and have a very high refcount that
     does not reflect the actual number of references.  Consequently, do
     not rely on the returned value to be accurate, other than a value
     of 0 or 1.

     Use the *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): c7e. function to set an object
     reference count.

          Σημείωση: On *note free-threaded builds: 198. of Python,
          returning 1 isn’t sufficient to determine if it’s safe to
          treat 'o' as having no access by other threads.  Use *note
          PyUnstable_Object_IsUniquelyReferenced(): 5f2. for that
          instead.

          See also the function *note
          PyUnstable_Object_IsUniqueReferencedTemporary(): 5f3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: *note Py_REFCNT(): 54b. is changed to the
     inline static function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The parameter type is no longer const
     *note PyObject: 19b.*.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_SET_REFCNT (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t refcnt)

     Set the object 'o' reference counter to 'refcnt'.

     On *note Python build with Free Threading: 235a, if 'refcnt' is
     larger than ‘UINT32_MAX’, the object is made *note immortal: 398.

     This function has no effect on *note immortal: 398. objects.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Immortal objects are not modified.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_INCREF (PyObject *o)

     Indicate taking a new *note strong reference: 7da. to object 'o',
     indicating it is in use and should not be destroyed.

     This function has no effect on *note immortal: 398. objects.

     This function is usually used to convert a *note borrowed
     reference: 603. to a *note strong reference: 7da. in-place.  The
     *note Py_NewRef(): c70. function can be used to create a new strong
     reference.

     When done using the object, release is by calling *note
     Py_DECREF(): 975.

     The object must not be ‘NULL’; if you aren’t sure that it isn’t
     ‘NULL’, use *note Py_XINCREF(): e29.

     Do not expect this function to actually modify 'o' in any way.  For
     at least some objects(1), this function has no effect.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Immortal objects are not modified.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_XINCREF (PyObject *o)

     Similar to *note Py_INCREF(): 974, but the object 'o' can be
     ‘NULL’, in which case this has no effect.

     See also *note Py_XNewRef(): c71.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_NewRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Create a
     new *note strong reference: 7da. to an object: call *note
     Py_INCREF(): 974. on 'o' and return the object 'o'.

     When the *note strong reference: 7da. is no longer needed, *note
     Py_DECREF(): 975. should be called on it to release the reference.

     The object 'o' must not be ‘NULL’; use *note Py_XNewRef(): c71. if
     'o' can be ‘NULL’.

     For example:

          Py_INCREF(obj);
          self->attr = obj;

     can be written as:

          self->attr = Py_NewRef(obj);

     See also *note Py_INCREF(): 974.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_XNewRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Similar
     to *note Py_NewRef(): c70, but the object 'o' can be NULL.

     If the object 'o' is ‘NULL’, the function just returns ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_DECREF (PyObject *o)

     Release a *note strong reference: 7da. to object 'o', indicating
     the reference is no longer used.

     This function has no effect on *note immortal: 398. objects.

     Once the last *note strong reference: 7da. is released (i.e.  the
     object’s reference count reaches 0), the object’s type’s
     deallocation function (which must not be ‘NULL’) is invoked.

     This function is usually used to delete a *note strong reference:
     7da. before exiting its scope.

     The object must not be ‘NULL’; if you aren’t sure that it isn’t
     ‘NULL’, use *note Py_XDECREF(): b6e.

     Do not expect this function to actually modify 'o' in any way.  For
     at least some objects(2), this function has no effect.

          Προειδοποίηση: The deallocation function can cause arbitrary
          Python code to be invoked (e.g.  when a class instance with a
          *note __del__(): 13a6. method is deallocated).  While
          exceptions in such code are not propagated, the executed code
          has free access to all Python global variables.  This means
          that any object that is reachable from a global variable
          should be in a consistent state before *note Py_DECREF(): 975.
          is invoked.  For example, code to delete an object from a list
          should copy a reference to the deleted object in a temporary
          variable, update the list data structure, and then call
          ‘Py_DECREF()’ for the temporary variable.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Immortal objects are not modified.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_XDECREF (PyObject *o)

     Similar to *note Py_DECREF(): 975, but the object 'o' can be
     ‘NULL’, in which case this has no effect.  The same warning from
     ‘Py_DECREF()’ applies here as well.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_CLEAR (PyObject *o)

     Release a *note strong reference: 7da. for object 'o'.  The object
     may be ‘NULL’, in which case the macro has no effect; otherwise the
     effect is the same as for *note Py_DECREF(): 975, except that the
     argument is also set to ‘NULL’.  The warning for ‘Py_DECREF()’ does
     not apply with respect to the object passed because the macro
     carefully uses a temporary variable and sets the argument to ‘NULL’
     before releasing the reference.

     It is a good idea to use this macro whenever releasing a reference
     to an object that might be traversed during garbage collection.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The macro argument is now only evaluated
     once.  If the argument has side effects, these are no longer
     duplicated.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_IncRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Indicate taking a new *note
     strong reference: 7da. to object 'o'.  A function version of *note
     Py_XINCREF(): e29.  It can be used for runtime dynamic embedding of
     Python.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_DecRef (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Release a *note strong
     reference: 7da. to object 'o'.  A function version of *note
     Py_XDECREF(): b6e.  It can be used for runtime dynamic embedding of
     Python.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_SETREF (dst, src)

     Macro safely releasing a *note strong reference: 7da. to object
     'dst' and setting 'dst' to 'src'.

     As in case of *note Py_CLEAR(): 97c, «the obvious» code can be
     deadly:

          Py_DECREF(dst);
          dst = src;

     The safe way is:

          Py_SETREF(dst, src);

     That arranges to set 'dst' to 'src' 'before' releasing the
     reference to the old value of 'dst', so that any code triggered as
     a side-effect of 'dst' getting torn down no longer believes 'dst'
     points to a valid object.

     Added in version 3.6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The macro arguments are now only evaluated
     once.  If an argument has side effects, these are no longer
     duplicated.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_XSETREF (dst, src)

     Variant of *note Py_SETREF: 97d. macro that uses *note
     Py_XDECREF(): b6e. instead of *note Py_DECREF(): 975.

     Added in version 3.6.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The macro arguments are now only evaluated
     once.  If an argument has side effects, these are no longer
     duplicated.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/


File: python.info,  Node: Exception Handling,  Next: Defining extension modules,  Prev: Reference Counting,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.5 Exception Handling
======================

The functions described in this chapter will let you handle and raise
Python exceptions.  It is important to understand some of the basics of
Python exception handling.  It works somewhat like the POSIX ‘errno’
variable: there is a global indicator (per thread) of the last error
that occurred.  Most C API functions don’t clear this on success, but
will set it to indicate the cause of the error on failure.  Most C API
functions also return an error indicator, usually ‘NULL’ if they are
supposed to return a pointer, or ‘-1’ if they return an integer
(exception: the ‘PyArg_*’ functions return ‘1’ for success and ‘0’ for
failure).

Concretely, the error indicator consists of three object pointers: the
exception’s type, the exception’s value, and the traceback object.  Any
of those pointers can be ‘NULL’ if non-set (although some combinations
are forbidden, for example you can’t have a non-‘NULL’ traceback if the
exception type is ‘NULL’).

When a function must fail because some function it called failed, it
generally doesn’t set the error indicator; the function it called
already set it.  It is responsible for either handling the error and
clearing the exception or returning after cleaning up any resources it
holds (such as object references or memory allocations); it should 'not'
continue normally if it is not prepared to handle the error.  If
returning due to an error, it is important to indicate to the caller
that an error has been set.  If the error is not handled or carefully
propagated, additional calls into the Python/C API may not behave as
intended and may fail in mysterious ways.

     Σημείωση: The error indicator is 'not' the result of *note
     sys.exc_info(): a7a.  The former corresponds to an exception that
     is not yet caught (and is therefore still propagating), while the
     latter returns an exception after it is caught (and has therefore
     stopped propagating).

* Menu:

* Printing and clearing::
* Raising exceptions::
* Issuing warnings::
* Querying the error indicator::
* Signal Handling: Signal Handling<2>.
* Exception Classes::
* Exception Objects::
* Unicode Exception Objects::
* Recursion Control::
* Exception and warning types::
* Tracebacks::


File: python.info,  Node: Printing and clearing,  Next: Raising exceptions,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.1 Printing and clearing
---------------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_Clear ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Clear the error indicator.
     If the error indicator is not set, there is no effect.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_PrintEx (int set_sys_last_vars)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Print a standard traceback to
     ‘sys.stderr’ and clear the error indicator.  'Unless' the error is
     a ‘SystemExit’, in that case no traceback is printed and the Python
     process will exit with the error code specified by the ‘SystemExit’
     instance.

     Call this function 'only' when the error indicator is set.
     Otherwise it will cause a fatal error!

     If 'set_sys_last_vars' is nonzero, the variable *note sys.last_exc:
     8ce. is set to the printed exception.  For backwards compatibility,
     the deprecated variables *note sys.last_type: 8cf, *note
     sys.last_value: 8d0. and *note sys.last_traceback: 8d1. are also
     set to the type, value and traceback of this exception,
     respectively.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The setting of *note sys.last_exc: 8ce.
     was added.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_Print ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Alias for ‘PyErr_PrintEx(1)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_WriteUnraisable (PyObject *obj)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Call *note
     sys.unraisablehook(): 70c. using the current exception and 'obj'
     argument.

     This utility function prints a warning message to ‘sys.stderr’ when
     an exception has been set but it is impossible for the interpreter
     to actually raise the exception.  It is used, for example, when an
     exception occurs in an *note __del__(): 13a6. method.

     The function is called with a single argument 'obj' that identifies
     the context in which the unraisable exception occurred.  If
     possible, the repr of 'obj' will be printed in the warning message.
     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, only the traceback is printed.

     An exception must be set when calling this function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Print a traceback.  Print only traceback if
     'obj' is ‘NULL’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Use *note sys.unraisablehook(): 70c.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_FormatUnraisable (const char *format, ...)

     Similar to *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 7e8, but the 'format' and
     subsequent parameters help format the warning message; they have
     the same meaning and values as in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat():
     81e.  ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable(obj)’ is roughly equivalent to
     ‘PyErr_FormatUnraisable("Exception ignored in: %R", obj)’.  If
     'format' is ‘NULL’, only the traceback is printed.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_DisplayException (PyObject *exc)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Print
     the standard traceback display of ‘exc’ to ‘sys.stderr’, including
     chained exceptions and notes.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Raising exceptions,  Next: Issuing warnings,  Prev: Printing and clearing,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.2 Raising exceptions
------------------------

These functions help you set the current thread’s error indicator.  For
convenience, some of these functions will always return a ‘NULL’ pointer
for use in a ‘return’ statement.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_SetString (PyObject *type, const char
          *message)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is the most common way
     to set the error indicator.  The first argument specifies the
     exception type; it is normally one of the standard exceptions, e.g.
     *note PyExc_RuntimeError: 5336.  You need not create a new *note
     strong reference: 7da. to it (e.g.  with *note Py_INCREF(): 974.).
     The second argument is an error message; it is decoded from
     ‘'utf-8'’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_SetObject (PyObject *type, PyObject *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This function is similar to
     *note PyErr_SetString(): 980. but lets you specify an arbitrary
     Python object for the «value» of the exception.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_Format (PyObject
          *exception, const char *format, ...)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  This function sets the error indicator and returns ‘NULL’.
     'exception' should be a Python exception class.  The 'format' and
     subsequent parameters help format the error message; they have the
     same meaning and values as in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e.
     'format' is an ASCII-encoded string.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_FormatV (PyObject
          *exception, const char *format, va_list vargs)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.5.'  Same as *note PyErr_Format(): 1262, but
     taking a ‘va_list’ argument rather than a variable number of
     arguments.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_SetNone (PyObject *type)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is a shorthand for
     ‘PyErr_SetObject(type, Py_None)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyErr_BadArgument ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is a shorthand for
     ‘PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, message)’, where 'message'
     indicates that a built-in operation was invoked with an illegal
     argument.  It is mostly for internal use.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_NoMemory ()
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  This is a shorthand for ‘PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_MemoryError)’;
     it returns ‘NULL’ so an object allocation function can write
     ‘return PyErr_NoMemory();’ when it runs out of memory.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_SetFromErrno (PyObject
          *type)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     This is a convenience function to raise an exception when a C
     library function has returned an error and set the C variable
     ‘errno’.  It constructs a tuple object whose first item is the
     integer ‘errno’ value and whose second item is the corresponding
     error message (gotten from ‘strerror()’), and then calls
     ‘PyErr_SetObject(type, object)’.  On Unix, when the ‘errno’ value
     is ‘EINTR’, indicating an interrupted system call, this calls *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 880, and if that set the error indicator,
     leaves it set to that.  The function always returns ‘NULL’, so a
     wrapper function around a system call can write ‘return
     PyErr_SetFromErrno(type);’ when the system call returns an error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b.
          *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject (PyObject *type,
          PyObject *filenameObject)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Similar to *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 51b6, with the
     additional behavior that if 'filenameObject' is not ‘NULL’, it is
     passed to the constructor of 'type' as a third parameter.  In the
     case of *note OSError: 53c. exception, this is used to define the
     ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b.
          *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects (PyObject *type,
          PyObject *filenameObject, PyObject *filenameObject2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 52fd, but takes a second
     filename object, for raising errors when a function that takes two
     filenames fails.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename
          (PyObject *type, const char *filename)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Similar to *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject():
     52fd, but the filename is given as a C string.  'filename' is
     decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (int
          ierr)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. on Windows από την έκδοση 3.7.'  This is a convenience
     function to raise *note OSError: 53c.  If called with 'ierr' of
     ‘0’, the error code returned by a call to ‘GetLastError()’ is used
     instead.  It calls the Win32 function ‘FormatMessage()’ to retrieve
     the Windows description of error code given by 'ierr' or
     ‘GetLastError()’, then it constructs a ‘OSError’ object with the
     *note winerror: 28eb. attribute set to the error code, the *note
     strerror: 28ec. attribute set to the corresponding error message
     (gotten from ‘FormatMessage()’), and then calls
     ‘PyErr_SetObject(PyExc_OSError, object)’.  This function always
     returns ‘NULL’.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr
          (PyObject *type, int ierr)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. on Windows από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 52ff, with an additional parameter
     specifying the exception type to be raised.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b.
          *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename (int ierr, const char
          *filename)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. on Windows από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 52ff, with the additional behavior that
     if 'filename' is not ‘NULL’, it is decoded from the filesystem
     encoding (*note os.fsdecode(): 1012.) and passed to the constructor
     of *note OSError: 53c. as a third parameter to be used to define
     the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b.
          *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (PyObject *type,
          int ierr, PyObject *filename)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. on Windows από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(): 52fa, with the additional behavior
     that if 'filename' is not ‘NULL’, it is passed to the constructor
     of *note OSError: 53c. as a third parameter to be used to define
     the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b.
          *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (PyObject
          *type, int ierr, PyObject *filename, PyObject *filename2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. on Windows από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(): 52fb, but accepts a
     second filename object.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b.
          *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename (PyObject *type, int
          ierr, const char *filename)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. on Windows από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 1c8d, with an additional
     parameter specifying the exception type to be raised.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_SetImportError (PyObject
          *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject *path)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  This is a convenience function to raise
     *note ImportError: 1bd.  'msg' will be set as the exception’s
     message string.  'name' and 'path', both of which can be ‘NULL’,
     will be set as the ‘ImportError’’s respective ‘name’ and ‘path’
     attributes.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass
          (PyObject *exception, PyObject *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject
          *path)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.6.'  Much like *note PyErr_SetImportError():
     10f5. but this function allows for specifying a subclass of *note
     ImportError: 1bd. to raise.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (PyObject *filename,
          int lineno, int col_offset)

     Set file, line, and offset information for the current exception.
     If the current exception is not a *note SyntaxError: 17e, then it
     sets additional attributes, which make the exception printing
     subsystem think the exception is a ‘SyntaxError’.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_RangedSyntaxLocationObject (PyObject
          *filename, int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int
          end_col_offset)

     Similar to *note PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject(): 5538, but also sets
     the 'end_lineno' and 'end_col_offset' information for the current
     exception.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (const char *filename, int
          lineno, int col_offset)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Like
     *note PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject(): 5538, but 'filename' is a byte
     string decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 948.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_SyntaxLocation (const char *filename, int
          lineno)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Like *note
     PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(): 5303, but the 'col_offset' parameter is
     omitted.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_BadInternalCall ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is a shorthand for
     ‘PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError, message)’, where 'message'
     indicates that an internal operation (e.g.  a Python/C API
     function) was invoked with an illegal argument.  It is mostly for
     internal use.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_ProgramTextObject (PyObject
          *filename, int lineno)

     Get the source line in 'filename' at line 'lineno'.  'filename'
     should be a Python *note str: 1df. object.

     On success, this function returns a Python string object with the
     found line.  On failure, this function returns ‘NULL’ without an
     exception set.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_ProgramText (const char
          *filename, int lineno)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_ProgramTextObject(): 553a, but 'filename' is a const char*,
     which is decoded with the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 948, instead of a Python object reference.


File: python.info,  Node: Issuing warnings,  Next: Querying the error indicator,  Prev: Raising exceptions,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.3 Issuing warnings
----------------------

Use these functions to issue warnings from C code.  They mirror similar
functions exported by the Python *note warnings: 11b. module.  They
normally print a warning message to 'sys.stderr'; however, it is also
possible that the user has specified that warnings are to be turned into
errors, and in that case they will raise an exception.  It is also
possible that the functions raise an exception because of a problem with
the warning machinery.  The return value is ‘0’ if no exception is
raised, or ‘-1’ if an exception is raised.  (It is not possible to
determine whether a warning message is actually printed, nor what the
reason is for the exception; this is intentional.)  If an exception is
raised, the caller should do its normal exception handling (for example,
*note Py_DECREF(): 975. owned references and return an error value).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyErr_WarnEx (PyObject *category, const char
          *message, Py_ssize_t stack_level)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Issue a warning message.  The
     'category' argument is a warning category (see below) or ‘NULL’;
     the 'message' argument is a UTF-8 encoded string.  'stack_level' is
     a positive number giving a number of stack frames; the warning will
     be issued from the currently executing line of code in that stack
     frame.  A 'stack_level' of 1 is the function calling *note
     PyErr_WarnEx(): 17ee, 2 is the function above that, and so forth.

     Warning categories must be subclasses of *note PyExc_Warning:
     5347.; ‘PyExc_Warning’ is a subclass of *note PyExc_Exception:
     531b.; the default warning category is *note PyExc_RuntimeWarning:
     5337.  The standard Python warning categories are available as
     global variables whose names are enumerated at *note Warning types:
     553c.

     For information about warning control, see the documentation for
     the *note warnings: 11b. module and the *note -W: 1c0. option in
     the command line documentation.  There is no C API for warning
     control.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (PyObject *category,
          PyObject *message, PyObject *filename, int lineno, PyObject
          *module, PyObject *registry)

     Issue a warning message with explicit control over all warning
     attributes.  This is a straightforward wrapper around the Python
     function *note warnings.warn_explicit(): 2ab.; see there for more
     information.  The 'module' and 'registry' arguments may be set to
     ‘NULL’ to get the default effect described there.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyErr_WarnExplicit (PyObject *category, const char
          *message, const char *filename, int lineno, const char
          *module, PyObject *registry)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Similar to *note
     PyErr_WarnExplicitObject(): 553d. except that 'message' and
     'module' are UTF-8 encoded strings, and 'filename' is decoded from
     the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyErr_WarnFormat (PyObject *category, Py_ssize_t
          stack_level, const char *format, ...)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Function similar to *note
     PyErr_WarnEx(): 17ee, but use *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e. to
     format the warning message.  'format' is an ASCII-encoded string.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyErr_WarnExplicitFormat (PyObject *category, const
          char *filename, int lineno, const char *module, PyObject
          *registry, const char *format, ...)

     Similar to *note PyErr_WarnExplicit(): 1c93, but uses *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e. to format the warning message.
     'format' is an ASCII-encoded string.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyErr_ResourceWarning (PyObject *source, Py_ssize_t
          stack_level, const char *format, ...)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.6.'  Function
     similar to *note PyErr_WarnFormat(): 5304, but 'category' is *note
     ResourceWarning: 74f. and it passes 'source' to
     ‘warnings.WarningMessage’.

     Added in version 3.6.


File: python.info,  Node: Querying the error indicator,  Next: Signal Handling<2>,  Prev: Issuing warnings,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.4 Querying the error indicator
----------------------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_Occurred ()
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.'  Test whether the error indicator is set.  If set,
     return the exception 'type' (the first argument to the last call to
     one of the ‘PyErr_Set*’ functions or to *note PyErr_Restore():
     63e.).  If not set, return ‘NULL’.  You do not own a reference to
     the return value, so you do not need to *note Py_DECREF(): 975. it.

     The caller must have an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

          Σημείωση: Do not compare the return value to a specific
          exception; use *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 5265. instead,
          shown below.  (The comparison could easily fail since the
          exception may be an instance instead of a class, in the case
          of a class exception, or it may be a subclass of the expected
          exception.)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyErr_ExceptionMatches (PyObject *exc)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Equivalent to
     ‘PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(PyErr_Occurred(), exc)’.  This should
     only be called when an exception is actually set; a memory access
     violation will occur if no exception has been raised.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (PyObject *given,
          PyObject *exc)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return true if the 'given'
     exception matches the exception type in 'exc'.  If 'exc' is a class
     object, this also returns true when 'given' is an instance of a
     subclass.  If 'exc' is a tuple, all exception types in the tuple
     (and recursively in subtuples) are searched for a match.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_GetRaisedException (void)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Return the exception currently being
     raised, clearing the error indicator at the same time.  Return
     ‘NULL’ if the error indicator is not set.

     This function is used by code that needs to catch exceptions, or
     code that needs to save and restore the error indicator
     temporarily.

     For example:

          {
             PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();

             /* ... code that might produce other errors ... */

             PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
          }

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): b51, to save the exception
     currently being handled.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_SetRaisedException (PyObject *exc)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Set
     'exc' as the exception currently being raised, clearing the
     existing exception if one is set.

          Προειδοποίηση: This call steals a reference to 'exc', which
          must be a valid exception.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_Fetch (PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue,
          PyObject **ptraceback)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     63c. instead.

     Retrieve the error indicator into three variables whose addresses
     are passed.  If the error indicator is not set, set all three
     variables to ‘NULL’.  If it is set, it will be cleared and you own
     a reference to each object retrieved.  The value and traceback
     object may be ‘NULL’ even when the type object is not.

          Σημείωση: This function is normally only used by legacy code
          that needs to catch exceptions or save and restore the error
          indicator temporarily.

          For example:

               {
                  PyObject *type, *value, *traceback;
                  PyErr_Fetch(&type, &value, &traceback);

                  /* ... code that might produce other errors ... */

                  PyErr_Restore(type, value, traceback);
               }

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_Restore (PyObject *type, PyObject *value,
          PyObject *traceback)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     63f. instead.

     Set the error indicator from the three objects, 'type', 'value',
     and 'traceback', clearing the existing exception if one is set.  If
     the objects are ‘NULL’, the error indicator is cleared.  Do not
     pass a ‘NULL’ type and non-‘NULL’ value or traceback.  The
     exception type should be a class.  Do not pass an invalid exception
     type or value.  (Violating these rules will cause subtle problems
     later.)  This call takes away a reference to each object: you must
     own a reference to each object before the call and after the call
     you no longer own these references.  (If you don’t understand this,
     don’t use this function.  I warned you.)

          Σημείωση: This function is normally only used by legacy code
          that needs to save and restore the error indicator
          temporarily.  Use *note PyErr_Fetch(): 63b. to save the
          current error indicator.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_NormalizeException (PyObject **exc, PyObject
          **val, PyObject **tb)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.12: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     63c. instead, to avoid any possible de-normalization.

     Under certain circumstances, the values returned by *note
     PyErr_Fetch(): 63b. below can be «unnormalized», meaning that
     ‘*exc’ is a class object but ‘*val’ is not an instance of the same
     class.  This function can be used to instantiate the class in that
     case.  If the values are already normalized, nothing happens.  The
     delayed normalization is implemented to improve performance.

          Σημείωση: This function 'does not' implicitly set the *note
          __traceback__: 166b. attribute on the exception value.  If
          setting the traceback appropriately is desired, the following
          additional snippet is needed:

               if (tb != NULL) {
                 PyException_SetTraceback(val, tb);
               }

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_GetHandledException (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Retrieve
     the active exception instance, as would be returned by *note
     sys.exception(): a7b.  This refers to an exception that was
     'already caught', not to an exception that was freshly raised.
     Returns a new reference to the exception or ‘NULL’.  Does not
     modify the interpreter’s exception state.

          Σημείωση: This function is not normally used by code that
          wants to handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code
          needs to save and restore the exception state temporarily.
          Use *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): b52. to restore or
          clear the exception state.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_SetHandledException (PyObject *exc)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Set the
     active exception, as known from ‘sys.exception()’.  This refers to
     an exception that was 'already caught', not to an exception that
     was freshly raised.  To clear the exception state, pass ‘NULL’.

          Σημείωση: This function is not normally used by code that
          wants to handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code
          needs to save and restore the exception state temporarily.
          Use *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): b51. to get the
          exception state.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_GetExcInfo (PyObject **ptype, PyObject
          **pvalue, PyObject **ptraceback)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Retrieve
     the old-style representation of the exception info, as known from
     *note sys.exc_info(): a7a.  This refers to an exception that was
     'already caught', not to an exception that was freshly raised.
     Returns new references for the three objects, any of which may be
     ‘NULL’.  Does not modify the exception info state.  This function
     is kept for backwards compatibility.  Prefer using *note
     PyErr_GetHandledException(): b51.

          Σημείωση: This function is not normally used by code that
          wants to handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code
          needs to save and restore the exception state temporarily.
          Use *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): b53. to restore or clear the
          exception state.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_SetExcInfo (PyObject *type, PyObject *value,
          PyObject *traceback)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Set the
     exception info, as known from ‘sys.exc_info()’.  This refers to an
     exception that was 'already caught', not to an exception that was
     freshly raised.  This function steals the references of the
     arguments.  To clear the exception state, pass ‘NULL’ for all three
     arguments.  This function is kept for backwards compatibility.
     Prefer using *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): b52.

          Σημείωση: This function is not normally used by code that
          wants to handle exceptions.  Rather, it can be used when code
          needs to save and restore the exception state temporarily.
          Use *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): b54. to read the exception
          state.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ arguments are
     no longer used and can be NULL. The interpreter now derives them
     from the exception instance (the ‘value’ argument).  The function
     still steals references of all three arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: Signal Handling<2>,  Next: Exception Classes,  Prev: Querying the error indicator,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.5 Signal Handling
---------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyErr_CheckSignals ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Handle external interruptions, such as signals or activating a
     debugger, whose processing has been delayed until it is safe to run
     Python code and/or raise exceptions.

     For example, pressing ‘Ctrl’-‘C’ causes a terminal to send the
     *note signal.SIGINT: 4df. signal.  This function executes the
     corresponding Python signal handler, which, by default, raises the
     *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96. exception.

     ‘PyErr_CheckSignals()’ should be called by long-running C code
     frequently enough so that the response appears immediate to humans.

     Handlers invoked by this function currently include:

        - Signal handlers, including Python functions registered using
          the *note signal: ce. module.

          Signal handlers are only run in the main thread of the main
          interpreter.

          (This is where the function got the name: originally, signals
          were the only way to interrupt the interpreter.)

        - Running the garbage collector, if necessary.

        - Executing a pending *note remote debugger: 4c0b. script.

        - Raise the exception set by *note PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc():
          f82.

     If any handler raises an exception, immediately return ‘-1’ with
     that exception set.  Any remaining interruptions are left to be
     processed on the next *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 880. invocation,
     if appropriate.

     If all handlers finish successfully, or there are no handlers to
     run, return ‘0’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This function may now invoke the garbage
     collector.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: This function may now execute a remote
     debugger script, if remote debugging is enabled.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The exception set by *note
     PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): f82. is now raised.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyErr_SetInterrupt ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Simulate the effect of a ‘SIGINT’ signal arriving.  This is
     equivalent to ‘PyErr_SetInterruptEx(SIGINT)’.

          Σημείωση: This function is async-signal-safe.  It can be
          called without an *note attached thread state: 1a1. and from a
          C signal handler.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyErr_SetInterruptEx (int signum)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'

     Simulate the effect of a signal arriving.  The next time *note
     PyErr_CheckSignals(): 880. is called, the Python signal handler for
     the given signal number will be called.

     This function can be called by C code that sets up its own signal
     handling and wants Python signal handlers to be invoked as expected
     when an interruption is requested (for example when the user
     presses Ctrl-C to interrupt an operation).

     If the given signal isn’t handled by Python (it was set to *note
     signal.SIG_DFL: 1dac. or *note signal.SIG_IGN: 1dab.), it will be
     ignored.

     If 'signum' is outside of the allowed range of signal numbers, ‘-1’
     is returned.  Otherwise, ‘0’ is returned.  The error indicator is
     never changed by this function.

          Σημείωση: This function is async-signal-safe.  It can be
          called without an *note attached thread state: 1a1. and from a
          C signal handler.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySignal_SetWakeupFd (int fd)

     This utility function specifies a file descriptor to which the
     signal number is written as a single byte whenever a signal is
     received.  'fd' must be non-blocking.  It returns the previous such
     file descriptor.

     The value ‘-1’ disables the feature; this is the initial state.
     This is equivalent to *note signal.set_wakeup_fd(): f2d. in Python,
     but without any error checking.  'fd' should be a valid file
     descriptor.  The function should only be called from the main
     thread.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: On Windows, the function now also supports
     socket handles.


File: python.info,  Node: Exception Classes,  Next: Exception Objects,  Prev: Signal Handling<2>,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.6 Exception Classes
-----------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_NewException (const char
          *name, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  This utility function creates and returns a new exception
     class.  The 'name' argument must be the name of the new exception,
     a C string of the form ‘module.classname’.  The 'base' and 'dict'
     arguments are normally ‘NULL’.  This creates a class object derived
     from *note Exception: d9e. (accessible in C as *note
     PyExc_Exception: 531b.).

     The *note __module__: 80b. attribute of the new class is set to the
     first part (up to the last dot) of the 'name' argument, and the
     class name is set to the last part (after the last dot).  The
     'base' argument can be used to specify alternate base classes; it
     can either be only one class or a tuple of classes.  The 'dict'
     argument can be used to specify a dictionary of class variables and
     methods.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (const
          char *name, const char *doc, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Same as *note PyErr_NewException(): 160e, except that the
     new exception class can easily be given a docstring: If 'doc' is
     non-‘NULL’, it will be used as the docstring for the exception
     class.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyExceptionClass_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return non-zero if 'ob' is an exception class, zero otherwise.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *PyExceptionClass_Name (PyObject *ob)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.8.'  Return
     *note tp_name: 1ea6. of the exception class 'ob'.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyException_HEAD

     This is a macro including the base fields for an exception object.

     This was included in Python’s C API by mistake and is not designed
     for use in extensions.  For creating custom exception objects, use
     *note PyErr_NewException(): 160e. or otherwise create a class
     inheriting from *note PyExc_BaseException: 530c.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Exception Objects,  Next: Unicode Exception Objects,  Prev: Exception Classes,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.7 Exception Objects
-----------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyExceptionInstance_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if 'op' is an instance of *note BaseException: 9b9,
     false otherwise.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyExceptionInstance_Class (op)

     Equivalent to *note Py_TYPE(op): 5f5.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyException_GetTraceback
          (PyObject *ex)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the traceback associated with the exception as a new
     reference, as accessible from Python through the *note
     __traceback__: 166b. attribute.  If there is no traceback
     associated, this returns ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyException_SetTraceback (PyObject *ex, PyObject
          *tb)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the traceback associated
     with the exception to 'tb'.  Use ‘Py_None’ to clear it.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyException_GetContext (PyObject
          *ex)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the context (another exception instance during whose
     handling 'ex' was raised) associated with the exception as a new
     reference, as accessible from Python through the *note __context__:
     166c. attribute.  If there is no context associated, this returns
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyException_SetContext (PyObject *ex, PyObject
          *ctx)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the context associated
     with the exception to 'ctx'.  Use ‘NULL’ to clear it.  There is no
     type check to make sure that 'ctx' is an exception instance.  This
     steals a reference to 'ctx'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyException_GetCause (PyObject
          *ex)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the cause (either an exception instance, or ‘None’,
     set by ‘raise ... from ...’) associated with the exception as a new
     reference, as accessible from Python through the *note __cause__:
     166d. attribute.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyException_SetCause (PyObject *ex, PyObject
          *cause)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the cause associated with
     the exception to 'cause'.  Use ‘NULL’ to clear it.  There is no
     type check to make sure that 'cause' is either an exception
     instance or ‘None’.  This steals a reference to 'cause'.

     The *note __suppress_context__: 270a. attribute is implicitly set
     to ‘True’ by this function.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyException_GetArgs (PyObject
          *ex)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Return *note args: 972. of exception
     'ex'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyException_SetArgs (PyObject *ex, PyObject *args)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Set
     *note args: 972. of exception 'ex' to 'args'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar
          (PyObject *orig, PyObject *excs)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Implement part of the interpreter’s implementation of ‘except*’.
     'orig' is the original exception that was caught, and 'excs' is the
     list of the exceptions that need to be raised.  This list contains
     the unhandled part of 'orig', if any, as well as the exceptions
     that were raised from the ‘except*’ clauses (so they have a
     different traceback from 'orig') and those that were reraised (and
     have the same traceback as 'orig').  Return the *note
     ExceptionGroup: 6d8. that needs to be reraised in the end, or
     ‘None’ if there is nothing to reraise.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Exception Objects,  Next: Recursion Control,  Prev: Exception Objects,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.8 Unicode Exception Objects
-------------------------------

The following functions are used to create and modify Unicode exceptions
from C.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create
          (const char *encoding, const char *object, Py_ssize_t length,
          Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, const char *reason)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a *note UnicodeDecodeError: dd7. object with the
     attributes 'encoding', 'object', 'length', 'start', 'end' and
     'reason'.  'encoding' and 'reason' are UTF-8 encoded strings.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the 'encoding' attribute of the given exception
     object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the 'object' attribute of the given exception object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *start)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *start)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *start)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Get the 'start' attribute of
     the given exception object and place it into '*start'.  'start'
     must not be ‘NULL’.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.

     If the *note UnicodeError.object: 1b1b. is an empty sequence, the
     resulting 'start' is ‘0’.  Otherwise, it is clipped to ‘[0,
     len(object) - 1]’.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note UnicodeError.start: 1ae1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t start)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t start)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t start)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the 'start' attribute of
     the given exception object to 'start'.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’
     on failure.

          Σημείωση: While passing a negative 'start' does not raise an
          exception, the corresponding getters will not consider it as a
          relative offset.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *end)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *end)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t *end)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Get the 'end' attribute of
     the given exception object and place it into '*end'.  'end' must
     not be ‘NULL’.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.

     If the *note UnicodeError.object: 1b1b. is an empty sequence, the
     resulting 'end' is ‘0’.  Otherwise, it is clipped to ‘[1,
     len(object)]’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t end)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t end)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc,
          Py_ssize_t end)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the 'end' attribute of
     the given exception object to 'end'.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’
     on failure.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note UnicodeError.end: 1ae2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the 'reason' attribute of the given exception object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (PyObject *exc,
          const char *reason)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (PyObject *exc,
          const char *reason)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (PyObject *exc,
          const char *reason)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the 'reason' attribute of
     the given exception object to 'reason'.  Return ‘0’ on success,
     ‘-1’ on failure.


File: python.info,  Node: Recursion Control,  Next: Exception and warning types,  Prev: Unicode Exception Objects,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.9 Recursion Control
-----------------------

These two functions provide a way to perform safe recursive calls at the
C level, both in the core and in extension modules.  They are needed if
the recursive code does not necessarily invoke Python code (which tracks
its recursion depth automatically).  They are also not needed for
'tp_call' implementations because the *note call protocol: 985. takes
care of recursion handling.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_EnterRecursiveCall (const char *where)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.9.'  Marks a
     point where a recursive C-level call is about to be performed.

     The function then checks if the stack limit is reached.  If this is
     the case, a *note RecursionError: 1121. is set and a nonzero value
     is returned.  Otherwise, zero is returned.

     'where' should be a UTF-8 encoded string such as ‘" in instance
     check"’ to be concatenated to the *note RecursionError: 1121.
     message caused by the recursion depth limit.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection(): 395.
     function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: This function is now also available in the
     *note limited API: 829.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.9.'  Ends a
     *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 5fe.  Must be called once for each
     'successful' invocation of ‘Py_EnterRecursiveCall()’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: This function is now also available in the
     *note limited API: 829.

Properly implementing *note tp_repr: 51f9. for container types requires
special recursion handling.  In addition to protecting the stack,
‘tp_repr’ also needs to track objects to prevent cycles.  The following
two functions facilitate this functionality.  Effectively, these are the
C equivalent to *note reprlib.recursive_repr(): 159c.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_ReprEnter (PyObject *object)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Called at the beginning of
     the *note tp_repr: 51f9. implementation to detect cycles.

     If the object has already been processed, the function returns a
     positive integer.  In that case the *note tp_repr: 51f9.
     implementation should return a string object indicating a cycle.
     As examples, *note dict: 188. objects return ‘{...}’ and *note
     list: 4d9. objects return ‘[...]’.

     The function will return a negative integer if the recursion limit
     is reached.  In that case the *note tp_repr: 51f9. implementation
     should typically return ‘NULL’.

     Otherwise, the function returns zero and the *note tp_repr: 51f9.
     implementation can continue normally.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_ReprLeave (PyObject *object)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Ends a *note Py_ReprEnter():
     5479.  Must be called once for each invocation of ‘Py_ReprEnter()’
     that returns zero.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_GetRecursionLimit (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Get the recursion limit for
     the current interpreter.  It can be set with *note
     Py_SetRecursionLimit(): 547b.  The recursion limit prevents the
     Python interpreter stack from growing infinitely.

     This function cannot fail, and the caller must hold an *note
     attached thread state: 1a1.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note sys.getrecursionlimit(): 8d4.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_SetRecursionLimit (int new_limit)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the recursion limit for
     the current interpreter.

     This function cannot fail, and the caller must hold an *note
     attached thread state: 1a1.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 8d3.


File: python.info,  Node: Exception and warning types,  Next: Tracebacks,  Prev: Recursion Control,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.10 Exception and warning types
----------------------------------

All standard Python exceptions and warning categories are available as
global variables whose names are ‘PyExc_’ followed by the Python
exception name.  These have the type *note PyObject: 19b.*; they are all
class objects.

For completeness, here are all the variables:

* Menu:

* Exception types::
* OSError aliases::
* Warning types::


File: python.info,  Node: Exception types,  Next: OSError aliases,  Up: Exception and warning types

7.5.10.1 Exception types
........................

C name                                                 Python name
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note BaseException: 9b9.
          *PyExc_BaseException                         
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note BaseExceptionGroup: 767.
          *PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup                    
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.11.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note Exception: d9e.
          *PyExc_Exception                             
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ArithmeticError: 28e1.
          *PyExc_ArithmeticError                       
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note AssertionError: a97.
          *PyExc_AssertionError                        
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note AttributeError: 1a9.
          *PyExc_AttributeError                        
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note BlockingIOError: 4c3.
          *PyExc_BlockingIOError                       
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note BrokenPipeError: 1404.
          *PyExc_BrokenPipeError                       
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note BufferError: 1998.
          *PyExc_BufferError                           
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ChildProcessError: 1400.
          *PyExc_ChildProcessError                     
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ConnectionAbortedError: 1405.
          *PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError                
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ConnectionError: 11bf.
          *PyExc_ConnectionError                       
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ConnectionRefusedError: 1406.
          *PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError                
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ConnectionResetError: 1407.
          *PyExc_ConnectionResetError                  
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note EOFError: 167e.
          *PyExc_EOFError                              
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note FileExistsError: 13c9.
          *PyExc_FileExistsError                       
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note FileNotFoundError: 243.
          *PyExc_FileNotFoundError                     
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note FloatingPointError: 28e2.
          *PyExc_FloatingPointError                    
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note GeneratorExit: 176a.
          *PyExc_GeneratorExit                         
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ImportCycleError: 28e7.
          *PyExc_ImportCycleError                      

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ImportError: 1bd.
          *PyExc_ImportError                           
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note IndentationError: b89.
          *PyExc_IndentationError                      
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note IndexError: 18d7.
          *PyExc_IndexError                            
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note InterruptedError: 1141.
          *PyExc_InterruptedError                      
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note IsADirectoryError: 1401.
          *PyExc_IsADirectoryError                     
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note KeyError: 7df.
          *PyExc_KeyError                              
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96.
          *PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt                     
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note LookupError: 25da.
          *PyExc_LookupError                           
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note MemoryError: 18fa.
          *PyExc_MemoryError                           
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ModuleNotFoundError: 1be.
          *PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError                   
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.6.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note NameError: 665.
          *PyExc_NameError                             
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note NotADirectoryError: 1402.
          *PyExc_NotADirectoryError                    
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note NotImplementedError: 59a.
          *PyExc_NotImplementedError                   
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyExc_OSError   *note OSError: 53c.
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'              

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note OverflowError: c57.
          *PyExc_OverflowError                         
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note PermissionError: 10f9.
          *PyExc_PermissionError                       
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ProcessLookupError: 1403.
          *PyExc_ProcessLookupError                    
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note PythonFinalizationError: 68a.
          *PyExc_PythonFinalizationError               

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note RecursionError: 1121.
          *PyExc_RecursionError                        
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ReferenceError: 18af.
          *PyExc_ReferenceError                        
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note RuntimeError: 30d.
          *PyExc_RuntimeError                          
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note StopAsyncIteration: 1ffe.
          *PyExc_StopAsyncIteration                    
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note StopIteration: fba.
          *PyExc_StopIteration                         
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note SyntaxError: 17e.
          *PyExc_SyntaxError                           
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note SystemError: 3ea.
          *PyExc_SystemError                           
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note SystemExit: 10f7.
          *PyExc_SystemExit                            
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note TabError: 950.
          *PyExc_TabError                              
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note TimeoutError: c0e.
          *PyExc_TimeoutError                          
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note TypeError: 291.
          *PyExc_TypeError                             
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note UnboundLocalError: 18d8.
          *PyExc_UnboundLocalError                     
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note UnicodeDecodeError: dd7.
          *PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError                    
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note UnicodeEncodeError: a67.
          *PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError                    
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note UnicodeError: 675.
          *PyExc_UnicodeError                          
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note UnicodeTranslateError: 1b1c.
          *PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError                 
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ValueError: 277.
          *PyExc_ValueError                            
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ZeroDivisionError: d11.
          *PyExc_ZeroDivisionError                     
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

Added in version 3.3: *note PyExc_BlockingIOError: 530e, *note
PyExc_BrokenPipeError: 530f, *note PyExc_ChildProcessError: 5312, *note
PyExc_ConnectionError: 5314, *note PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError: 5313,
*note PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError: 5315, *note
PyExc_ConnectionResetError: 5316, *note PyExc_FileExistsError: 531c,
*note PyExc_FileNotFoundError: 531d, *note PyExc_InterruptedError: 5326,
*note PyExc_IsADirectoryError: 5327, *note PyExc_NotADirectoryError:
532e, *note PyExc_PermissionError: 5332, *note PyExc_ProcessLookupError:
5333. and *note PyExc_TimeoutError: 533f. were introduced following PEP
3151(1).

Added in version 3.5: *note PyExc_StopAsyncIteration: 5338. and *note
PyExc_RecursionError: 1263.

Added in version 3.6: *note PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError: 532c.

Added in version 3.11: *note PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup: 530d.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/


File: python.info,  Node: OSError aliases,  Next: Warning types,  Prev: Exception types,  Up: Exception and warning types

7.5.10.2 OSError aliases
........................

The following are a compatibility aliases to *note PyExc_OSError: 51b9.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: These aliases used to be separate exception
types.

C name                                Python name                           Notes
                                                                            
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                            
 -- C Μεταβλητή:                      *note OSError: 53c.
          *note PyObject: 19b.        
          *PyExc_EnvironmentError
     ' Μέρος του
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή:                      *note OSError: 53c.
          *note PyObject: 19b.        
          *PyExc_IOError
     ' Μέρος του
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή:                      *note OSError: 53c.                   *note [win]: 5551.
          *note PyObject: 19b.                                              
          *PyExc_WindowsError
     ' Μέρος του
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. on
     Windows από την έκδοση 3.7.'

Notes:

(win) ‘PyExc_WindowsError’ is only defined on Windows; protect code that
uses this by testing that the preprocessor macro ‘MS_WINDOWS’ is
defined.


File: python.info,  Node: Warning types,  Prev: OSError aliases,  Up: Exception and warning types

7.5.10.3 Warning types
......................

C name                                                 Python name
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyExc_Warning   *note Warning: 290e.
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'              

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note BytesWarning: 2ee.
          *PyExc_BytesWarning                          
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9.
          *PyExc_DeprecationWarning                    
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note EncodingWarning: 231d.
          *PyExc_EncodingWarning                       
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.10.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note FutureWarning: 847.
          *PyExc_FutureWarning                         
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ImportWarning: 907.
          *PyExc_ImportWarning                         
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note PendingDeprecationWarning: c9b.
          *PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning             
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note ResourceWarning: 74f.
          *PyExc_ResourceWarning                       
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.7.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note RuntimeWarning: 6dd.
          *PyExc_RuntimeWarning                        
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note SyntaxWarning: 44a.
          *PyExc_SyntaxWarning                         
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note UnicodeWarning: 17c6.
          *PyExc_UnicodeWarning                        
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b.                  *note UserWarning: 290f.
          *PyExc_UserWarning                           
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

Added in version 3.2: *note PyExc_ResourceWarning: 5335.

Added in version 3.10: *note PyExc_EncodingWarning: 5319.


File: python.info,  Node: Tracebacks,  Prev: Exception and warning types,  Up: Exception Handling

7.5.11 Tracebacks
-----------------

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyTraceBack_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Type object for traceback
     objects.  This is available as *note types.TracebackType: eb8. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTraceBack_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if 'op' is a traceback object, false otherwise.  This
     function does not account for subtypes.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTraceBack_Here (PyFrameObject *f)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Replace the *note
     __traceback__: 166b. attribute on the current exception with a new
     traceback prepending 'f' to the existing chain.

     Calling this function without an exception set is undefined
     behavior.

     This function returns ‘0’ on success, and returns ‘-1’ with an
     exception set on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTraceBack_Print (PyObject *tb, PyObject *f)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Write the traceback 'tb' into
     the file 'f'.

     This function returns ‘0’ on success, and returns ‘-1’ with an
     exception set on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *PyUnstable_DumpTraceback (int fd,
          PyThreadState *tstate)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Write a trace of the Python stack in 'tstate' into the file 'fd'.
     The format looks like:

          Traceback (most recent call first):
            File "xxx", line xxx in <xxx>
            File "xxx", line xxx in <xxx>
            ...
            File "xxx", line xxx in <xxx>

     This function is meant to debug situations such as segfaults, fatal
     errors, and similar.  The file and function names it outputs are
     encoded to ASCII with backslashreplace and truncated to 500
     characters.  It writes only the first 100 frames; further frames
     are truncated with the line ‘...’.

     This function will return ‘NULL’ on success, or an error message on
     error.

     This function is intended for use in crash scenarios such as signal
     handlers for SIGSEGV, where the interpreter may be in an
     inconsistent state.  Given that it reads interpreter data
     structures that may be partially modified, the function might
     produce incomplete output or it may even crash itself.

     The caller does not need to hold an *note attached thread state:
     1a1, nor does 'tstate' need to be attached.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *PyUnstable_DumpTracebackThreads (int fd,
          PyInterpreterState *interp, PyThreadState *current_tstate,
          Py_ssize_t max_threads)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Write the traces of all Python threads in 'interp' into the file
     'fd'.

     If 'interp' is ‘NULL’ then this function will try to identify the
     current interpreter using thread-specific storage.  If it cannot,
     it will return an error.

     If 'current_tstate' is not ‘NULL’ then it will be used to identify
     what the current thread is in the written output.  If it is ‘NULL’
     then this function will identify the current thread using
     thread-specific storage.  It is not an error if the function is
     unable to get the current Python thread state.

     This function will return ‘NULL’ on success, or an error message on
     error.

     This function is meant to debug debug situations such as segfaults,
     fatal errors, and similar.  It calls *note
     PyUnstable_DumpTraceback(): 399. for each thread.  It only writes
     the tracebacks of the first 'max_threads' threads, further output
     is truncated with the line ‘...’.  If 'max_threads' is 0, the
     function will use a default value of 100 for the argument.

     This function is intended for use in crash scenarios such as signal
     handlers for SIGSEGV, where the interpreter may be in an
     inconsistent state.  Given that it reads interpreter data
     structures that may be partially modified, the function might
     produce incomplete output or it may even crash itself.

     The caller does not need to hold an *note attached thread state:
     1a1, nor does 'current_tstate' need to be attached.

          Προειδοποίηση: On the *note free-threaded build: 198, this
          function is not thread-safe.  If another thread deletes its
          *note thread state: 1a70. while this function is being called,
          the process will likely crash.

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining extension modules,  Next: Definition slots,  Prev: Exception Handling,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.6 Defining extension modules
==============================

A C extension for CPython is a shared library (for example, a ‘.so’ file
on Linux, ‘.pyd’ DLL on Windows), which is loadable into the Python
process (for example, it is compiled with compatible compiler settings),
and which exports an 'export hook' function (or an old-style *note
initialization function: 5558.).

To be importable by default (that is, by *note
importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: 1071.), the shared library must
be available on *note sys.path: 194, and must be named after the module
name plus an extension listed in *note
importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES: 924.

     Σημείωση: Building, packaging and distributing extension modules is
     best done with third-party tools, and is out of scope of this
     document.  One suitable tool is Setuptools, whose documentation can
     be found at ‘https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/setuptools.html’.

* Menu:

* Extension export hook::
* Multi-phase initialization::
* Multiple module instances::
* PyInit function::


File: python.info,  Node: Extension export hook,  Next: Multi-phase initialization,  Up: Defining extension modules

7.6.1 Extension export hook
---------------------------

Added in version 3.15: Support for the ‘PyModExport_<NAME>’ export hook
was added in Python 3.15.  The older way of defining modules is still
available: consult either the *note PyInit function: 5558. section or
earlier versions of this documentation if you plan to support earlier
Python versions.

The export hook must be an exported function with the following
signature:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PySlot: 19d. *PyModExport_modulename (void)

For modules with ASCII-only names, the *note export hook: 38d. must be
named ‘PyModExport_<NAME>’, with ‘<name>’ replaced by the module’s name.

For non-ASCII module names, the export hook must instead be named
‘PyModExportU_<NAME>’ (note the ‘U’), with ‘<name>’ encoded using
Python’s 'punycode' encoding with hyphens replaced by underscores.  In
Python:

     def hook_name(name):
         try:
             suffix = b'_' + name.encode('ascii')
         except UnicodeEncodeError:
             suffix = b'U_' + name.encode('punycode').replace(b'-', b'_')
         return b'PyModExport' + suffix

The export hook returns an array of *note PySlot: 19d. entries,
terminated by an entry with a slot ID of ‘0’.  These slots describe how
the module should be created and initialized.

This array must remain valid and constant until interpreter shutdown.
Typically, it should use ‘static’ storage.  Prefer using the *note
Py_mod_create: 5495. and *note Py_mod_exec: d46. slots for any dynamic
behavior.

The export hook may return ‘NULL’ with an exception set to signal
failure.

It is recommended to define the export hook function using a helper
macro:

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyMODEXPORT_FUNC
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Declare
     an extension module export hook.  This macro:

        * specifies the *note PySlot: 19d.* return type,

        * adds any special linkage declarations required by the
          platform, and

        * for C++, declares the function as ‘extern "C"’.

For example, a module called ‘spam’ would be defined like this:

     PyABIInfo_VAR(abi_info);

     static PySlot spam_slots[] = {
         PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_mod_abi, &abi_info),
         PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_mod_name, "spam"),
         PySlot_FUNC(Py_mod_init, spam_init_function),
         ...
         PySlot_END
     };

     PyMODEXPORT_FUNC
     PyModExport_spam(void)
     {
         return spam_slots;
     }

The export hook is typically the only non-‘static’ item defined in the
module’s C source.

The hook should be kept short – ideally, one line as above.  If you do
need to use Python C API in this function, it is recommended to call
‘PyABIInfo_Check(&abi_info, "modulename")’ first to raise an exception,
rather than crash, in common cases of ABI mismatch.

     Σημείωση: It is possible to export multiple modules from a single
     shared library by defining multiple export hooks.  However,
     importing them requires a custom importer or suitably named
     copies/links of the extension file, because Python’s import
     machinery only finds the function corresponding to the filename.
     See the Multiple modules in one library(1) section in PEP 489(2)
     for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/#multiple-modules-in-one-library

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-phase initialization,  Next: Multiple module instances,  Prev: Extension export hook,  Up: Defining extension modules

7.6.2 Multi-phase initialization
--------------------------------

The process of creating an extension module follows several phases:

   - Python finds and calls the export hook to get information on how to
     create the module.

   - Before any substantial code is executed, Python can determine which
     capabilities the module supports, and it can adjust the environment
     or refuse loading an incompatible extension.  Slots like *note
     Py_mod_abi: 358, *note Py_mod_gil: 691. and *note
     Py_mod_multiple_interpreters: 5496. influence this step.

   - By default, Python itself then creates the module object – that is,
     it does the equivalent of calling *note __new__(): 982. when
     creating an object.  This step can be overridden using the *note
     Py_mod_create: 5495. slot.

   - Python sets initial module attributes like *note __package__: 58c.
     and *note __loader__: 2ff, and inserts the module object into *note
     sys.modules: 19ba.

   - Afterwards, the module object is initialized in an
     extension-specific way – the equivalent of *note __init__(): 2fa.
     when creating an object, or of executing top-level code in a
     Python-language module.  The behavior is specified using the *note
     Py_mod_exec: d46. slot.

This is called 'multi-phase initialization' to distinguish it from the
legacy (but still supported) *note single-phase initialization: 555c,
where an initialization function returns a fully constructed module.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Added support for multi-phase initialization (
PEP 489(1)).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: Multiple module instances,  Next: PyInit function,  Prev: Multi-phase initialization,  Up: Defining extension modules

7.6.3 Multiple module instances
-------------------------------

By default, extension modules are not singletons.  For example, if the
*note sys.modules: 19ba. entry is removed and the module is re-imported,
a new module object is created and, typically, populated with fresh
method and type objects.  The old module is subject to normal garbage
collection.  This mirrors the behavior of pure-Python modules.

Additional module instances may be created in *note sub-interpreters:
410. or after Python runtime reinitialization (*note Py_Finalize(): 672.
and *note Py_Initialize(): 673.).  In these cases, sharing Python
objects between module instances would likely cause crashes or undefined
behavior.

To avoid such issues, each instance of an extension module should be
'isolated': changes to one instance should not implicitly affect the
others, and all state owned by the module, including references to
Python objects, should be specific to a particular module instance.  See
*note Isolating Extension Modules: 412. for more details and a practical
guide.

A simpler way to avoid these issues is *note raising an error on
repeated initialization: 555e.

All modules are expected to support *note sub-interpreters: 410, or
otherwise explicitly signal a lack of support.  This is usually achieved
by isolation or blocking repeated initialization, as above.  A module
may also be limited to the main interpreter using the *note
Py_mod_multiple_interpreters: 5496. slot.


File: python.info,  Node: PyInit function,  Prev: Multiple module instances,  Up: Defining extension modules

7.6.4 ‘PyInit’ function
-----------------------

*note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15: This functionality will
not get new features, but there are no plans to remove it.

Instead of *note PyModExport_modulename(): 19c, an extension module can
define an older-style 'initialization function' with the signature:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyInit_modulename (void)

Its name should be ‘PyInit_<NAME>’, with ‘<name>’ replaced by the name
of the module.  For non-ASCII module names, use ‘PyInitU_<NAME>’
instead, with ‘<name>’ encoded in the same way as for the *note export
hook: 38d. (that is, using Punycode with underscores).

If a module exports both ‘PyInit_<NAME>’ and ‘PyModExport_<NAME>’, the
‘PyInit_<NAME>’ function is ignored.

Like with *note PyMODEXPORT_FUNC: 1990, it is recommended to define the
initialization function using a helper macro:

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyMODINIT_FUNC

     Declare an extension module initialization function.  This macro:

        * specifies the *note PyObject: 19b.* return type,

        * adds any special linkage declarations required by the
          platform, and

        * for C++, declares the function as ‘extern "C"’.

Normally, the initialization function (‘PyInit_modulename’) returns a
*note PyModuleDef: d45. instance with non-‘NULL’ *note m_slots: 196c.
This allows Python to use *note multi-phase initialization: 555b.

Before it is returned, the ‘PyModuleDef’ instance must be initialized
using the following function:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyModuleDef_Init (PyModuleDef
          *def)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.5.'  Ensure a
     module definition is a properly initialized Python object that
     correctly reports its type and a reference count.

     Return 'def' cast to ‘PyObject*’, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred.

     Calling this function is required before returning a *note
     PyModuleDef: d45. from a module initialization function.  It should
     not be used in other contexts.

     Note that Python assumes that ‘PyModuleDef’ structures are
     statically allocated.  This function may return either a new
     reference or a borrowed one; this reference must not be released.

     Added in version 3.5.

For example, a module called ‘spam’ would be defined like this:

     static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = {
         .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         .m_name = "spam",
         ...
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_spam(void)
     {
         return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module);
     }

* Menu:

* Legacy single-phase initialization::


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy single-phase initialization,  Up: PyInit function

7.6.4.1 Legacy single-phase initialization
..........................................

*note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15: Single-phase
initialization is a legacy mechanism to initialize extension modules,
with known drawbacks and design flaws.  Extension module authors are
encouraged to use multi-phase initialization instead.

However, there are no plans to remove support for it.

In single-phase initialization, the old-style *note initialization
function: 5558. (‘PyInit_modulename’) should create, populate and return
a module object.  This is typically done using *note PyModule_Create():
5562. and functions like *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 800.

Single-phase initialization differs from the *note default: 555b. in the
following ways:

   * Single-phase modules are, or rather 'contain', “singletons”.

     When the module is first initialized, Python saves the contents of
     the module’s ‘__dict__’ (that is, typically, the module’s functions
     and types).

     For subsequent imports, Python does not call the initialization
     function again.  Instead, it creates a new module object with a new
     ‘__dict__’, and copies the saved contents to it.  For example,
     given a single-phase module ‘_testsinglephase’ (1) that defines a
     function ‘sum’ and an exception class ‘error’:

          >>> import sys
          >>> import _testsinglephase as one
          >>> del sys.modules['_testsinglephase']
          >>> import _testsinglephase as two
          >>> one is two
          False
          >>> one.__dict__ is two.__dict__
          False
          >>> one.sum is two.sum
          True
          >>> one.error is two.error
          True

     The exact behavior should be considered a CPython implementation
     detail.

   * To work around the fact that ‘PyInit_modulename’ does not take a
     'spec' argument, some state of the import machinery is saved and
     applied to the first suitable module created during the
     ‘PyInit_modulename’ call.  Specifically, when a sub-module is
     imported, this mechanism prepends the parent package name to the
     name of the module.

     A single-phase ‘PyInit_modulename’ function should create “its”
     module object as soon as possible, before any other module objects
     can be created.

   * Non-ASCII module names (‘PyInitU_modulename’) are not supported.

   * Single-phase modules support module lookup functions like *note
     PyState_FindModule(): 53ef.

   * The module’s *note PyModuleDef.m_slots: 196c. must be NULL.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) ‘_testsinglephase’ is an internal module used in CPython’s
self-test suite; your installation may or may not include it.


File: python.info,  Node: Definition slots,  Next: Utilities<2>,  Prev: Defining extension modules,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.7 Definition slots
====================

To define *note module objects: 5566. and *note classes: 5567. using the
C API, you may use an array of 'slots' – essentally, key-value pairs
that describe features of the object to create.  This decouples the data
from the structures used at runtime, allowing CPython – and other Python
C API implementations – to update the stuctures without breaking
backwards compatibility.

This section documents slots in general.  For object-specific behavior
and slot values, see documentation for functions that apply slots:

   - *note PyType_FromSlots(): 376. for types;

   - *note PyModule_FromSlotsAndSpec(): 38c. and *note Extension export
     hook: 38d. for modules.

When slots are passed to a function that applies them, the function will
not modify the slot array, nor any data it points to (recursively).
After the function is done, the caller is allowed to modify or
deallocate the array and any data it points to (recursively), except
data explicitly marked with *note PySlot_STATIC: 53ed.

Except when documented otherwise, multiple slots with the same ID (*note
sl_id: 5568.) may not occur in a single slots array.

Added in version 3.15: Slot arrays generalize an earlier way of defining
objects: using *note PyType_Spec: 1c8f. with *note PyType_Slot: 541b.
for types, and *note PyModuleDef: d45. with *note PyModuleDef_Slot:
538d. for modules.  The earlier API is *note soft deprecated: 1a7.;
there are no plans to remove it.

Entries of the slots array use the following structure:

 -- C Τύπος: type PySlot
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των
     μελών) από την έκδοση 3.15.'  An entry in a slots array.  Defined
     as:

          typedef struct {
              uint16_t sl_id;
              uint16_t sl_flags;
              uint32_t _reserved;  // must be 0
              union {
                  void *sl_ptr;
                  void (*sl_func)(void);
                  Py_ssize_t sl_size;
                  int64_t sl_int64;
                  uint64_t sl_uint64;
              };
          } PySlot;

      -- C Μέλος: uint16_t sl_id

          A slot ID, chosen from:

             - ‘Py_slot_*’ values documented in *note Common slot IDs:
               5569. below;

             - ‘Py_mod_*’ values for modules, as documented in *note
               Module definition: 556a.;

             - Values for types, as documented in *note Type slot IDs:
               556b.

          A ‘sl_id’ of zero (*note Py_slot_end: 377.) marks the end of a
          slots array.

      -- C Μέλος: void *sl_ptr
      -- C Μέλος: void (*sl_func)(void)
      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. sl_size
      -- C Μέλος: int64_t sl_int64
      -- C Μέλος: uint64_t sl_uint64

          The data for the slot.  These members are part of an anonymous
          union; the member to use depends on which data type is
          required by the slot ID: data pointer, function pointer, size,
          signed or unsigned integer, respectively.

          Except when documented otherwise for a specific slot ID,
          pointers (that is ‘sl_ptr’ and ‘sl_func’) may not be NULL.

      -- C Μέλος: uint16_t sl_flags

          Zero or more of the following flags, OR-ed together:

           -- C Μακροεντολή: PySlot_STATIC
               ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'
               All data the slot points to is statically allocated and
               constant.  Thus, the interpreter does not need to copy
               the information.

               This flag is implied for function pointers.

               The flag applies even to data the slot points to
               “indirectly”, except for slots nested via *note
               Py_slot_subslots: 379. which may have their own
               ‘PySlot_STATIC’ flags.  For example, if applied to a
               *note Py_tp_members: 54de. slot that points to an array
               of *note PyMemberDef: 95a. structures, then the entire
               array, as well as the name and doc strings in its
               elements, must be static and constant.

           -- C Μακροεντολή: PySlot_INTPTR
               ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'
               The data is stored in ‘sl_ptr’; CPython will cast it to
               the appropriate type.

               This flag can simplify porting from the older *note
               PyType_Slot: 541b. and *note PyModuleDef_Slot: 538d.
               structures.

           -- C Μακροεντολή: PySlot_OPTIONAL
               ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'
               If the slot ID is unknown, the interpreter should ignore
               the slot, rather than fail.

               For example, if Python 3.16 adds a new feature with a new
               slot ID,attr the corresponding slot may be marked
               ‘PySlot_OPTIONAL’ so that Python 3.15 ignores it.

               Note that the «optionality» only applies to unknown slot
               IDs.  This flag does not make Python skip invalid values
               of known slots.

     Added in version 3.15.

* Menu:

* Convenience macros::
* Common slot IDs::


File: python.info,  Node: Convenience macros,  Next: Common slot IDs,  Up: Definition slots

7.7.1 Convenience macros
------------------------

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PySlot_DATA (name, value)
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PySlot_FUNC (name, value)
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PySlot_SIZE (name, value)
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PySlot_INT64 (name, value)
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PySlot_UINT64 (name, value)
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PySlot_STATIC_DATA (name, value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'
     Convenience macros to define ‘PySlot’ structures with *note sl_id:
     5568. and a particular union member set.

     ‘PySlot_STATIC_DATA’ sets the *note PySlot_STATIC: 53ed. flag;
     others set no flags.

     Note that these macros use 'designated initializers', a C language
     feature that C++ added in the 2020 version of the standard.  If
     your code needs to be compatible with C++11 or older, use *note
     PySlot_PTR: 38a. instead.

     Defined as:

          #define PySlot_DATA(NAME, VALUE) \
             {.sl_id=NAME, .sl_ptr=(void*)(VALUE)}

          #define PySlot_FUNC(NAME, VALUE) \
             {.sl_id=NAME, .sl_func=(VALUE)}

          #define PySlot_SIZE(NAME, VALUE) \
             {.sl_id=NAME, .sl_size=(VALUE)}

          #define PySlot_INT64(NAME, VALUE) \
             {.sl_id=NAME, .sl_int64=(VALUE)}

          #define PySlot_UINT64(NAME, VALUE) \
             {.sl_id=NAME, .sl_uint64=(VALUE)}

          #define PySlot_STATIC_DATA(NAME, VALUE) \
             {.sl_id=NAME, .sl_flags=PySlot_STATIC, .sl_ptr=(VALUE)}

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PySlot_END
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'
     Convenience macro to mark the end of a ‘PySlot’ array.

     Defined as:

          #define PySlot_END {0}

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PySlot_PTR (name, value)
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PySlot_PTR_STATIC (name, value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'
     Convenience macros for use in C++11-compatible code.  This version
     of C++ does not allow setting arbitrary union members in literals;
     instead, these macros set the *note PySlot_INTPTR: 53eb. flag and
     cast the value to ‘(void*)’.

     Defined as:

          #define PySlot_PTR(NAME, VALUE) \
             {NAME, PySlot_INTPTR, {0}, {(void*)(VALUE)}}

          #define PySlot_PTR_STATIC(NAME, VALUE) \
             {NAME, PySlot_INTPTR|Py_SLOT_STATIC, {0}, {(void*)(VALUE)}}

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Common slot IDs,  Prev: Convenience macros,  Up: Definition slots

7.7.2 Common slot IDs
---------------------

The following slot IDs may be used in both type and module definitions.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_slot_end
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Marks
     the end of a slots array.  Defined as zero.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_slot_subslots
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Nested
     slots array.

     The value (*note sl_ptr: 556c.) should point to an array of *note
     PySlot: 19d. structures.  The slots in the array (up to but not
     including the zero-ID terminator) will be treated as if they were
     inserted if the current slot array, at the point ‘Py_slot_subslots’
     appears.

     Slot nesting depth is limited to 5 levels.  This restriction may be
     lifted in the future.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_slot_invalid
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'
     Reserved; will always be treated as an unknown slot ID. Defined as
     ‘UINT16_MAX’ (‘0xFFFF’).

     When used with the *note PySlot_OPTIONAL: 53ec. flag, defines a
     slot with no effect.  Without the flag, processing a slot with this
     ID will fail.

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Utilities<2>,  Next: Abstract Objects Layer,  Prev: Definition slots,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.8 Utilities
=============

The functions in this chapter perform various utility tasks, ranging
from helping C code be more portable across platforms, using Python
modules from C, and parsing function arguments and constructing Python
values from C values.

* Menu:

* Operating System Utilities::
* System Functions::
* Process Control::
* Importing Modules: Importing Modules<2>.
* Data marshalling support::
* Parsing arguments and building values::
* String conversion and formatting::
* Character classification and conversion::
* PyHash API::
* Reflection::
* Codec registry and support functions::
* PyTime C API::
* Support for Perf Maps::


File: python.info,  Node: Operating System Utilities,  Next: System Functions,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.8.1 Operating System Utilities
--------------------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyOS_FSPath (PyObject *path)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.6.'  Return the file system representation
     for 'path'.  If the object is a *note str: 1df. or *note bytes:
     1c7. object, then a new *note strong reference: 7da. is returned.
     If the object implements the *note os.PathLike: 100f. interface,
     then *note __fspath__(): 1010. is returned as long as it is a ‘str’
     or ‘bytes’ object.  Otherwise *note TypeError: 291. is raised and
     ‘NULL’ is returned.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_FdIsInteractive (FILE *fp, const char *filename)

     Return true (nonzero) if the standard I/O file 'fp' with name
     'filename' is deemed interactive.  This is the case for files for
     which ‘isatty(fileno(fp))’ is true.  If the *note
     PyConfig.interactive: 613. is non-zero, this function also returns
     true if the 'filename' pointer is ‘NULL’ or if the name is equal to
     one of the strings ‘'<stdin>'’ or ‘'???'’.

     This function must not be called before Python is initialized.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyOS_BeforeFork ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. on platforms with fork() από
     την έκδοση 3.7.'  Function to prepare some internal state before a
     process fork.  This should be called before calling ‘fork()’ or any
     similar function that clones the current process.  Only available
     on systems where ‘fork()’ is defined.

          Προειδοποίηση: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from
          the *note «main» thread: 557c. (of the *note «main»
          interpreter: 410.).  The same is true for ‘PyOS_BeforeFork()’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyOS_AfterFork_Parent ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. on platforms with fork() από
     την έκδοση 3.7.'  Function to update some internal state after a
     process fork.  This should be called from the parent process after
     calling ‘fork()’ or any similar function that clones the current
     process, regardless of whether process cloning was successful.
     Only available on systems where ‘fork()’ is defined.

          Προειδοποίηση: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from
          the *note «main» thread: 557c. (of the *note «main»
          interpreter: 410.).  The same is true for
          ‘PyOS_AfterFork_Parent()’.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyOS_AfterFork_Child ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. on platforms with fork() από
     την έκδοση 3.7.'  Function to update internal interpreter state
     after a process fork.  This must be called from the child process
     after calling ‘fork()’, or any similar function that clones the
     current process, if there is any chance the process will call back
     into the Python interpreter.  Only available on systems where
     ‘fork()’ is defined.

          Προειδοποίηση: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from
          the *note «main» thread: 557c. (of the *note «main»
          interpreter: 410.).  The same is true for
          ‘PyOS_AfterFork_Child()’.

     Added in version 3.7.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note os.register_at_fork(): 332. allows registering custom Python
     functions to be called by *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): f7d, *note
     PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): f7e. and *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     643.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyOS_AfterFork ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. on platforms with fork().'
     Function to update some internal state after a process fork; this
     should be called in the new process if the Python interpreter will
     continue to be used.  If a new executable is loaded into the new
     process, this function does not need to be called.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.7: This function is superseded by *note
     PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 643.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyOS_CheckStack ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. on platforms with
     USE_STACKCHECK από την έκδοση 3.7.'

     Return true when the interpreter runs out of stack space.  This is
     a reliable check, but is only available when ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ is
     defined (currently on certain versions of Windows using the
     Microsoft Visual C++ compiler).  ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ will be defined
     automatically; you should never change the definition in your own
     code.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef void (*PyOS_sighandler_t)(int)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 53bb. PyOS_getsig (int i)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the current signal
     handler for signal 'i'.  This is a thin wrapper around either
     ‘sigaction()’ or ‘signal()’.  Do not call those functions directly!

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 53bb. PyOS_setsig (int i,
          PyOS_sighandler_t h)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the signal handler for
     signal 'i' to be 'h'; return the old signal handler.  This is a
     thin wrapper around either ‘sigaction()’ or ‘signal()’.  Do not
     call those functions directly!

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyOS_InterruptOccurred (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Check if a ‘SIGINT’ signal
     has been received.

     Returns ‘1’ if a ‘SIGINT’ has occurred and clears the signal flag,
     or ‘0’ otherwise.

     In most cases, you should prefer *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 880.
     over this function.  ‘PyErr_CheckSignals()’ invokes the appropriate
     signal handlers for all pending signals, allowing Python code to
     handle the signal properly.  This function only detects ‘SIGINT’
     and does not invoke any Python signal handlers.

     This function is async-signal-safe and this function cannot fail.
     The caller must hold an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: wchar_t *Py_DecodeLocale (const char *arg, size_t
          *size)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'
          Προειδοποίηση: This function should not be called directly:
          use the *note PyConfig: 60b. API with the *note
          PyConfig_SetBytesString(): d7c. function which ensures that
          *note Python is preinitialized: 4516.

          This function must not be called before *note Python is
          preinitialized: 4516. and so that the LC_CTYPE locale is
          properly configured: see the *note Py_PreInitialize(): 631.
          function.

     Decode a byte string from the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 948.  If the error handler is *note surrogateescape error
     handler: 2a6a, undecodable bytes are decoded as characters in range
     U+DC80..U+DCFF; and if a byte sequence can be decoded as a
     surrogate character, the bytes are escaped using the
     surrogateescape error handler instead of decoding them.

     Return a pointer to a newly allocated wide character string, use
     *note PyMem_RawFree(): 826. to free the memory.  If size is not
     ‘NULL’, write the number of wide characters excluding the null
     character into ‘*size’

     Return ‘NULL’ on decoding error or memory allocation error.  If
     'size' is not ‘NULL’, ‘*size’ is set to ‘(size_t)-1’ on memory
     error or set to ‘(size_t)-2’ on decoding error.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948. are selected
     by *note PyConfig_Read(): b6f.: see *note filesystem_encoding: 62e.
     and *note filesystem_errors: 62f. members of *note PyConfig: 60b.

     Decoding errors should never happen, unless there is a bug in the C
     library.

     Use the *note Py_EncodeLocale(): f86. function to encode the
     character string back to a byte string.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 543e. and *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): f87. functions.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in
     the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on
     Windows if *note PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 62b. is
     zero;

 -- C Συνάρτηση: char *Py_EncodeLocale (const wchar_t *text, size_t
          *error_pos)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Encode a
     wide character string to the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 948.  If the error handler is *note surrogateescape error
     handler: 2a6a, surrogate characters in the range U+DC80..U+DCFF are
     converted to bytes 0x80..0xFF.

     Return a pointer to a newly allocated byte string, use *note
     PyMem_Free(): 17e4. to free the memory.  Return ‘NULL’ on encoding
     error or memory allocation error.

     If error_pos is not ‘NULL’, ‘*error_pos’ is set to ‘(size_t)-1’ on
     success, or set to the index of the invalid character on encoding
     error.

     The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948. are selected
     by *note PyConfig_Read(): b6f.: see *note filesystem_encoding: 62e.
     and *note filesystem_errors: 62f. members of *note PyConfig: 60b.

     Use the *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85. function to decode the bytes
     string back to a wide character string.

          Προειδοποίηση: This function must not be called before *note
          Python is preinitialized: 4516. and so that the LC_CTYPE
          locale is properly configured: see the *note
          Py_PreInitialize(): 631. function.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 201e. and *note
     PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): f88. functions.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in
     the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on
     Windows if *note PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 62b. is
     zero.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: FILE *Py_fopen (PyObject *path, const char *mode)

     Similar to ‘fopen()’, but 'path' is a Python object and an
     exception is set on error.

     'path' must be a *note str: 1df. object, a *note bytes: 1c7.
     object, or a *note path-like object: 79f.

     On success, return the new file pointer.  On error, set an
     exception and return ‘NULL’.

     The file must be closed by *note Py_fclose(): 5c1. rather than
     calling directly ‘fclose()’.

     The file descriptor is created non-inheritable ( PEP 446(1)).

     The caller must have an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_fclose (FILE *file)

     Close a file that was opened by *note Py_fopen(): 5c0.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, return ‘EOF’ and ‘errno’ is set
     to indicate the error.  In either case, any further access
     (including another call to *note Py_fclose(): 5c1.) to the stream
     results in undefined behavior.

     Added in version 3.14.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/


File: python.info,  Node: System Functions,  Next: Process Control,  Prev: Operating System Utilities,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.8.2 System Functions
----------------------

These are utility functions that make functionality from the *note sys:
e2. module accessible to C code.  They all work with the current
interpreter thread’s ‘sys’ module’s dict, which is contained in the
internal thread state structure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySys_GetAttr (PyObject *name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Get the
     attribute 'name' of the *note sys: e2. module.  Return a *note
     strong reference: 7da.  Raise *note RuntimeError: 30d. and return
     ‘NULL’ if it does not exist or if the ‘sys’ module cannot be found.

     If the non-existing object should not be treated as a failure, you
     can use *note PySys_GetOptionalAttr(): 354. instead.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySys_GetAttrString (const char
          *name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  This is
     the same as *note PySys_GetAttr(): 352, but 'name' is specified as
     a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note
     PyObject: 19b.*.

     If the non-existing object should not be treated as a failure, you
     can use *note PySys_GetOptionalAttrString(): 355. instead.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySys_GetOptionalAttr (PyObject *name, PyObject
          **result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Variant
     of *note PySys_GetAttr(): 352. which doesn’t raise exception if the
     object does not exist.

        * Set '*result' to a new *note strong reference: 7da. to the
          object and return ‘1’ if the object exists.

        * Set '*result' to ‘NULL’ and return ‘0’ without setting an
          exception if the object does not exist.

        * Set an exception, set '*result' to ‘NULL’, and return ‘-1’, if
          an error occurred.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySys_GetOptionalAttrString (const char *name,
          PyObject **result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  This is
     the same as *note PySys_GetOptionalAttr(): 354, but 'name' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySys_GetObject (const char
          *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.'  Similar to *note PySys_GetAttrString(): 353, but return
     a *note borrowed reference: 603. and return ‘NULL’ 'without'
     setting exception on failure.

     Preserves exception that was set before the call.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySys_SetObject (const char *name, PyObject *v)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set 'name' in the *note sys:
     e2. module to 'v' unless 'v' is ‘NULL’, in which case 'name' is
     deleted from the sys module.  Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PySys_WriteStdout (const char *format, ...)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Write the output string
     described by 'format' to *note sys.stdout: e9c.  No exceptions are
     raised, even if truncation occurs (see below).

     'format' should limit the total size of the formatted output string
     to 1000 bytes or less – after 1000 bytes, the output string is
     truncated.  In particular, this means that no unrestricted «%s»
     formats should occur; these should be limited using «%.<N>s» where
     <N> is a decimal number calculated so that <N> plus the maximum
     size of other formatted text does not exceed 1000 bytes.  Also
     watch out for «%f», which can print hundreds of digits for very
     large numbers.

     If a problem occurs, or *note sys.stdout: e9c. is unset, the
     formatted message is written to the real (C level) 'stdout'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PySys_WriteStderr (const char *format, ...)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  As *note PySys_WriteStdout():
     53fb, but write to *note sys.stderr: d05. or 'stderr' instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PySys_FormatStdout (const char *format, ...)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Function similar to
     PySys_WriteStdout() but format the message using *note
     PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 979. and don’t truncate the message to an
     arbitrary length.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PySys_FormatStderr (const char *format, ...)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  As *note
     PySys_FormatStdout(): 53f7, but write to *note sys.stderr: d05. or
     'stderr' instead.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySys_GetXOptions ()
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Return the current dictionary of
     *note -X: 178. options, similarly to *note sys._xoptions: 231f.  On
     error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is set.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySys_Audit (const char *event, const char *format,
          ...)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Raise an
     auditing event with any active hooks.  Return zero for success and
     non-zero with an exception set on failure.

     The 'event' string argument must not be 'NULL'.

     If any hooks have been added, 'format' and other arguments will be
     used to construct a tuple to pass.  Apart from ‘N’, the same format
     characters as used in *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee. are available.
     If the built value is not a tuple, it will be added into a
     single-element tuple.

     The ‘N’ format option must not be used.  It consumes a reference,
     but since there is no way to know whether arguments to this
     function will be consumed, using it may cause reference leaks.

     Note that ‘#’ format characters should always be treated as *note
     Py_ssize_t: e24, regardless of whether ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was
     defined.

     *note sys.audit(): 1b36. performs the same function from Python
     code.

     See also *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 807.

     Added in version 3.8.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8.2: Require *note Py_ssize_t: e24. for ‘#’
     format characters.  Previously, an unavoidable deprecation warning
     was raised.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySys_AuditTuple (const char *event, PyObject
          *args)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Similar
     to *note PySys_Audit(): 808, but pass arguments as a Python object.
     'args' must be a *note tuple: 1ce.  To pass no arguments, 'args'
     can be 'NULL'.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySys_AddAuditHook (Py_AuditHookFunction hook, void
          *userData)

     Append the callable 'hook' to the list of active auditing hooks.
     Return zero on success and non-zero on failure.  If the runtime has
     been initialized, also set an error on failure.  Hooks added
     through this API are called for all interpreters created by the
     runtime.

     The 'userData' pointer is passed into the hook function.  Since
     hook functions may be called from different runtimes, this pointer
     should not refer directly to Python state.

     This function is safe to call before *note Py_Initialize(): 673.
     When called after runtime initialization, existing audit hooks are
     notified and may silently abort the operation by raising an error
     subclassed from *note Exception: d9e. (other errors will not be
     silenced).

     The hook function is always called with an *note attached thread
     state: 1a1. by the Python interpreter that raised the event.

     See PEP 578(1) for a detailed description of auditing.  Functions
     in the runtime and standard library that raise events are listed in
     the *note audit events table: 1e0a.  Details are in each function’s
     documentation.

     If the interpreter is initialized, this function raises an auditing
     event ‘sys.addaudithook’ with no arguments.  If any existing hooks
     raise an exception derived from *note Exception: d9e, the new hook
     will not be added and the exception is cleared.  As a result,
     callers cannot assume that their hook has been added unless they
     control all existing hooks.

      -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*Py_AuditHookFunction)(const char *event,
               *note PyObject: 19b. *args, void *userData)

          The type of the hook function.  'event' is the C string event
          argument passed to *note PySys_Audit(): 808. or *note
          PySys_AuditTuple(): 807.  'args' is guaranteed to be a *note
          PyTupleObject: 5580.  'userData' is the argument passed to
          PySys_AddAuditHook().

     Added in version 3.8.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/


File: python.info,  Node: Process Control,  Next: Importing Modules<2>,  Prev: System Functions,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.8.3 Process Control
---------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_FatalError (const char *message)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Print a fatal error message and kill the process.  No cleanup is
     performed.  This function should only be invoked when a condition
     is detected that would make it dangerous to continue using the
     Python interpreter; e.g., when the object administration appears to
     be corrupted.  On Unix, the standard C library function ‘abort()’
     is called which will attempt to produce a ‘core’ file.

     The ‘Py_FatalError()’ function is replaced with a macro which logs
     automatically the name of the current function, unless the
     ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Log the function name automatically.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_Exit (int status)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Exit the current process.  This calls *note Py_FinalizeEx(): 10cf.
     and then calls the standard C library function ‘exit(status)’.  If
     ‘Py_FinalizeEx()’ indicates an error, the exit status is set to
     120.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Errors from finalization no longer ignored.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_AtExit (void (*func)())
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Register a cleanup function to be called by *note Py_FinalizeEx():
     10cf.  The cleanup function will be called with no arguments and
     should return no value.  At most 32 cleanup functions can be
     registered.  When the registration is successful, *note
     Py_AtExit(): 5468. returns ‘0’; on failure, it returns ‘-1’.  The
     cleanup function registered last is called first.  Each cleanup
     function will be called at most once.  Since Python’s internal
     finalization will have completed before the cleanup function, no
     Python APIs should be called by 'func'.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note PyUnstable_AtExit(): 1b19. for passing a ‘void *data’
     argument.


File: python.info,  Node: Importing Modules<2>,  Next: Data marshalling support,  Prev: Process Control,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.8.4 Importing Modules
-----------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_ImportModule (const char
          *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     This is a wrapper around *note PyImport_Import(): 179e. which takes
     a const char* as an argument instead of a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_ImportModuleEx (const
          char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'

     Import a module.  This is best described by referring to the
     built-in Python function *note __import__(): ca6.

     The return value is a new reference to the imported module or
     top-level package, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.
     Like for *note __import__(): ca6, the return value when a submodule
     of a package was requested is normally the top-level package,
     unless a non-empty 'fromlist' was given.

     Failing imports remove incomplete module objects, like with *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject
          (PyObject *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist, int level)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Import a module.  This is best described
     by referring to the built-in Python function *note __import__():
     ca6, as the standard ‘__import__()’ function calls this function
     directly.

     The return value is a new reference to the imported module or
     top-level package, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.
     Like for *note __import__(): ca6, the return value when a submodule
     of a package was requested is normally the top-level package,
     unless a non-empty 'fromlist' was given.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (const
          char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject
          *fromlist, int level)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Similar to *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(): 5363,
     but the name is a UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Negative values for 'level' are no longer
     accepted.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_Import (PyObject *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  This is a higher-level interface that calls the current
     «import hook function» (with an explicit 'level' of 0, meaning
     absolute import).  It invokes the *note __import__(): ca6. function
     from the ‘__builtins__’ of the current globals.  This means that
     the import is done using whatever import hooks are installed in the
     current environment.

     This function always uses absolute imports.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_ReloadModule (PyObject
          *m)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Reload a module.  Return a new reference to the reloaded
     module, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure (the module
     still exists in this case).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_AddModuleRef (const char
          *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Return the module object corresponding
     to a module name.

     The 'name' argument may be of the form ‘package.module’.  First
     check the modules dictionary if there’s one there, and if not,
     create a new one and insert it in the modules dictionary.

     Return a *note strong reference: 7da. to the module on success.
     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

     The module name 'name' is decoded from UTF-8.

     This function does not load or import the module; if the module
     wasn’t already loaded, you will get an empty module object.  Use
     *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3. or one of its variants to
     import a module.  Package structures implied by a dotted name for
     'name' are not created if not already present.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_AddModuleObject
          (PyObject *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 7f1, but return a *note borrowed
     reference: 603. and 'name' is a Python *note str: 1df. object.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_AddModule (const char
          *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.'  Similar to *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 7f1, but
     return a *note borrowed reference: 603.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_ExecCodeModule (const
          char *name, PyObject *co)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     Given a module name (possibly of the form ‘package.module’) and a
     code object read from a Python bytecode file or obtained from the
     built-in function *note compile(): 1c8, load the module.  Return a
     new reference to the module object, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set
     if an error occurred.  'name' is removed from *note sys.modules:
     19ba. in error cases, even if 'name' was already in ‘sys.modules’
     on entry to *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 535b.  Leaving
     incompletely initialized modules in ‘sys.modules’ is dangerous, as
     imports of such modules have no way to know that the module object
     is an unknown (and probably damaged with respect to the module
     author’s intents) state.

     The module’s *note __spec__: 2555. and *note __loader__: 2ff. will
     be set, if not set already, with the appropriate values.  The
     spec’s loader will be set to the module’s ‘__loader__’ (if set) and
     to an instance of *note SourceFileLoader: 141c. otherwise.

     The module’s *note __file__: 255a. attribute will be set to the
     code object’s *note co_filename: 1712.

     This function will reload the module if it was already imported.
     See *note PyImport_ReloadModule(): 5364. for the intended way to
     reload a module.

     If 'name' points to a dotted name of the form ‘package.module’, any
     package structures not already created will still not be created.

     See also *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 535c. and *note
     PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 535e.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The setting of ‘__cached__’ and *note
     __loader__: 2ff. is deprecated.  See *note ModuleSpec: 245d. for
     alternatives.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: ‘__cached__’ is no longer set.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx (const
          char *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Like *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 535b, but the *note
     __file__: 255a. attribute of the module object is set to 'pathname'
     if it is non-‘NULL’.

     See also *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 535e.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject
          (PyObject *name, PyObject *co, PyObject *pathname, PyObject
          *cpathname)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Like *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx():
     535c, but the path to any compiled file via 'cpathname' is used
     appropriately when non-‘NULL’.  Of the three functions, this is the
     preferred one to use.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Setting ‘__cached__’ is deprecated.  See
     *note ModuleSpec: 245d. for alternatives.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: ‘__cached__’ no longer set.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b.
          *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames (const char *name,
          PyObject *co, const char *pathname, const char *cpathname)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Like *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(): 535d, but
     'name', 'pathname' and 'cpathname' are UTF-8 encoded strings.
     Attempts are also made to figure out what the value for 'pathname'
     should be from 'cpathname' if the former is set to ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Uses ‘imp.source_from_cache()’ in
     calculating the source path if only the bytecode path is provided.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: No longer uses the removed ‘imp’ module.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: long PyImport_GetMagicNumber ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the magic number for
     Python bytecode files (a.k.a.  ‘.pyc’ file).  The magic number
     should be present in the first four bytes of the bytecode file, in
     little-endian byte order.  Returns ‘-1’ on error.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Return value of ‘-1’ upon failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *PyImport_GetMagicTag ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the magic tag string
     for PEP 3147(1) format Python bytecode file names.  Keep in mind
     that the value at ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is authoritative
     and should be used instead of this function.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_GetModuleDict ()
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.'  Return the dictionary used for the module
     administration (a.k.a.  ‘sys.modules’).  Note that this is a
     per-interpreter variable.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_GetModule (PyObject
          *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.8.'  Return the already imported module with
     the given name.  If the module has not been imported yet then
     returns ‘NULL’ but does not set an error.  Returns ‘NULL’ and sets
     an error if the lookup failed.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_GetImporter (PyObject
          *path)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a finder object for a *note sys.path:
     194./‘pkg.__path__’ item 'path', possibly by fetching it from the
     *note sys.path_importer_cache: 9db. dict.  If it wasn’t yet cached,
     traverse *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd. until a hook is found that can
     handle the path item.  Return ‘None’ if no hook could; this tells
     our caller that the *note path based finder: 2643. could not find a
     finder for this path item.  Cache the result in
     ‘sys.path_importer_cache’.  Return a new reference to the finder
     object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (PyObject *name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Load a
     frozen module named 'name'.  Return ‘1’ for success, ‘0’ if the
     module is not found, and ‘-1’ with an exception set if the
     initialization failed.  To access the imported module on a
     successful load, use *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3.  (Note the
     misnomer — this function would reload the module if it was already
     imported.)

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The ‘__file__’ attribute is no longer set
     on the module.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModule (const char *name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Similar to *note
     PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(): 5362, but the name is a UTF-8
     encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

 -- C Struct: struct _frozen

     This is the structure type definition for frozen module
     descriptors, as generated by the ‘freeze’ utility (see
     ‘Tools/freeze/’ in the Python source distribution).  Its
     definition, found in ‘Include/import.h’, is:

          struct _frozen {
              const char *name;
              const unsigned char *code;
              int size;
              bool is_package;
          };

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The new ‘is_package’ field indicates
     whether the module is a package or not.  This replaces setting the
     ‘size’ field to a negative value.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: const struct *note _frozen: b57.
          *PyImport_FrozenModules

     This pointer is initialized to point to an array of *note _frozen:
     b57. records, terminated by one whose members are all ‘NULL’ or
     zero.  When a frozen module is imported, it is searched in this
     table.  Third-party code could play tricks with this to provide a
     dynamically created collection of frozen modules.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyImport_AppendInittab (const char *name, PyObject
          *(*initfunc)(void))
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Add a single module to the
     existing table of built-in modules.  This is a convenience wrapper
     around *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 1d1b, returning ‘-1’ if the
     table could not be extended.  The new module can be imported by the
     name 'name', and uses the function 'initfunc' as the initialization
     function called on the first attempted import.  This should be
     called before *note Py_Initialize(): 673.

 -- C Struct: struct _inittab

     Structure describing a single entry in the list of built-in
     modules.  Programs which embed Python may use an array of these
     structures in conjunction with *note PyImport_ExtendInittab():
     1d1b. to provide additional built-in modules.  The structure
     consists of two members:

      -- C Μέλος: const char *name

          The module name, as an ASCII encoded string.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyObject: 19b. *(*initfunc)(void)

          Initialization function for a module built into the
          interpreter.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyImport_ExtendInittab (struct _inittab *newtab)

     Add a collection of modules to the table of built-in modules.  The
     'newtab' array must end with a sentinel entry which contains ‘NULL’
     for the *note name: 5588. field; failure to provide the sentinel
     value can result in a memory fault.  Returns ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’
     if insufficient memory could be allocated to extend the internal
     table.  In the event of failure, no modules are added to the
     internal table.  This must be called before *note Py_Initialize():
     673.

     If Python is initialized multiple times, *note
     PyImport_AppendInittab(): 1d1a. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab():
     1d1b. must be called before each Python initialization.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: struct *note _inittab: 5587. *PyImport_Inittab

     The table of built-in modules used by Python initialization.  Do
     not use this directly; use *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 1d1a.
     and *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 1d1b. instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_ImportModuleAttr
          (PyObject *mod_name, PyObject *attr_name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Import the module 'mod_name'
     and get its attribute 'attr_name'.

     Names must be Python *note str: 1df. objects.

     Helper function combining *note PyImport_Import(): 179e. and *note
     PyObject_GetAttr(): 3b7.  For example, it can raise *note
     ImportError: 1bd. if the module is not found, and *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. if the attribute doesn’t exist.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_ImportModuleAttrString
          (const char *mod_name, const char *attr_name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Similar to *note
     PyImport_ImportModuleAttr(): 5c3, but names are UTF-8 encoded
     strings instead of Python *note str: 1df. objects.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyImport_LazyImportsMode: 558b.
          PyImport_GetLazyImportsMode ()

     Gets the current lazy imports mode.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_GetLazyImportsFilter ()

     Return a *note strong reference: 7da. to the current lazy imports
     filter, or ‘NULL’ if none exists.  This function always succeeds.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyImport_SetLazyImportsMode
          (PyImport_LazyImportsMode mode)

     Similar to *note PyImport_ImportModuleAttr(): 5c3, but names are
     UTF-8 encoded strings instead of Python *note str: 1df. objects.

     This function always returns ‘0’.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyImport_SetLazyImportsFilter (PyObject *filter)

     Sets the current lazy imports filter.  The 'filter' should be a
     callable that will receive ‘(importing_module_name,
     imported_module_name, [fromlist])’ when an import can potentially
     be lazy.  The ‘imported_module_name’ value is the resolved module
     name, so ‘lazy from .spam import eggs’ passes ‘package.spam’.  The
     callable must return ‘True’ if the import should be lazy and
     ‘False’ otherwise.

     Return ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ with an exception set otherwise.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyImport_LazyImportsMode

     Enumeration of possible lazy import modes.

      -- C Enumerator: enumerator PyImport_LAZY_NORMAL

          Respect the ‘lazy’ keyword in source code.  This is the
          default mode.

      -- C Enumerator: enumerator PyImport_LAZY_ALL

          Make all imports lazy by default.

      -- C Enumerator: enumerator PyImport_LAZY_NONE

          Disable lazy imports entirely.  Even explicit ‘lazy’
          statements become eager imports.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyImport_CreateModuleFromInitfunc
          (PyObject *spec, PyObject *(*initfunc)(void))

     This function is a building block that enables embedders to
     implement the *note create_module(): 106f. step of custom static
     extension importers (e.g.  of statically-linked extensions).

     'spec' must be a *note ModuleSpec: 245d. object.

     'initfunc' must be an *note initialization function: 38d, the same
     as for *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 1d1a.

     On success, create and return a module object.  This module will
     not be initialized; call *note PyModule_Exec(): 5391. to initialize
     it.  (Custom importers should do this in their *note exec_module():
     c40. method.)

     On error, return NULL with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Data marshalling support,  Next: Parsing arguments and building values,  Prev: Importing Modules<2>,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.8.5 Data marshalling support
------------------------------

These routines allow C code to work with serialized objects using the
same data format as the *note marshal: 90. module.  There are functions
to write data into the serialization format, and additional functions
that can be used to read the data back.  Files used to store marshalled
data must be opened in binary mode.

Numeric values are stored with the least significant byte first.

The module supports several versions of the data format; see the *note
Python module documentation: 90. for details.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MARSHAL_VERSION

     The current format version.  See *note marshal.version: 2f69.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile (long value, FILE *file,
          int version)

     Marshal a long integer, 'value', to 'file'.  This will only write
     the least-significant 32 bits of 'value'; regardless of the size of
     the native long type.  'version' indicates the file format.

     This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator.
     Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to check for that.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile (PyObject *value, FILE
          *file, int version)

     Marshal a Python object, 'value', to 'file'.  'version' indicates
     the file format.

     This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator.
     Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to check for that.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString
          (PyObject *value, int version)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a bytes object
     containing the marshalled representation of 'value'.  'version'
     indicates the file format.

The following functions allow marshalled values to be read back in.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: long PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile (FILE *file)

     Return a C long from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading.
     Only a 32-bit value can be read in using this function, regardless
     of the native size of long.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 167e.)
     and returns ‘-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile (FILE *file)

     Return a C short from the data stream in a FILE* opened for
     reading.  Only a 16-bit value can be read in using this function,
     regardless of the native size of short.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 167e.)
     and returns ‘-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile
          (FILE *file)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a Python object from
     the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 167e,
     *note ValueError: 277. or *note TypeError: 291.) and returns
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile
          (FILE *file)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a Python object from
     the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading.  Unlike *note
     PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile(): 5599, this function assumes that no
     further objects will be read from the file, allowing it to
     aggressively load file data into memory so that the
     de-serialization can operate from data in memory rather than
     reading a byte at a time from the file.  Only use this variant if
     you are certain that you won’t be reading anything else from the
     file.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 167e,
     *note ValueError: 277. or *note TypeError: 291.) and returns
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString
          (const char *data, Py_ssize_t len)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a Python object from
     the data stream in a byte buffer containing 'len' bytes pointed to
     by 'data'.

     On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 167e,
     *note ValueError: 277. or *note TypeError: 291.) and returns
     ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing arguments and building values,  Next: String conversion and formatting,  Prev: Data marshalling support,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.8.6 Parsing arguments and building values
-------------------------------------------

These functions are useful when creating your own extension functions
and methods.  Additional information and examples are available in *note
Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python: 21aa.

The first three of these functions described, *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
3b1, *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818, and *note PyArg_Parse():
1a6b, all use 'format strings' which are used to tell the function about
the expected arguments.  The format strings use the same syntax for each
of these functions.

* Menu:

* Parsing arguments: Parsing arguments<2>.
* Building values::


File: python.info,  Node: Parsing arguments<2>,  Next: Building values,  Up: Parsing arguments and building values

7.8.6.1 Parsing arguments
.........................

A format string consists of zero or more «format units.» A format unit
describes one Python object; it is usually a single character or a
parenthesized sequence of format units.  With a few exceptions, a format
unit that is not a parenthesized sequence normally corresponds to a
single address argument to these functions.  In the following
description, the quoted form is the format unit; the entry in (round)
parentheses is the Python object type that matches the format unit; and
the entry in [square] brackets is the type of the C variable(s) whose
address should be passed.

* Menu:

* Strings and buffers::
* Numbers::
* Other objects::
* API Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Strings and buffers,  Next: Numbers,  Up: Parsing arguments<2>

7.8.6.2 Strings and buffers
...........................

     Σημείωση: On Python 3.12 and older, the macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’
     must be defined before including ‘Python.h’ to use all ‘#’ variants
     of formats (‘s#’, ‘y#’, etc.)  explained below.  This is not
     necessary on Python 3.13 and later.

These formats allow accessing an object as a contiguous chunk of memory.
You don’t have to provide raw storage for the returned unicode or bytes
area.

Unless otherwise stated, buffers are not NUL-terminated.

There are three ways strings and buffers can be converted to C:

   * Formats such as ‘y*’ and ‘s*’ fill a *note Py_buffer: b3a.
     structure.  This locks the underlying buffer so that the caller can
     subsequently use the buffer even inside a *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 51d4. block without the risk of mutable
     data being resized or destroyed.  As a result, 'you have to call'
     *note PyBuffer_Release(): 82d. after you have finished processing
     the data (or in any early abort case).

   * The ‘es’, ‘es#’, ‘et’ and ‘et#’ formats allocate the result buffer.
     'You have to call' *note PyMem_Free(): 17e4. after you have
     finished processing the data (or in any early abort case).

   * Other formats take a *note str: 1df. or a read-only *note
     bytes-like object: 436, such as *note bytes: 1c7, and provide a
     ‘const char *’ pointer to its buffer.  In this case the buffer is
     «borrowed»: it is managed by the corresponding Python object, and
     shares the lifetime of this object.  You won’t have to release any
     memory yourself.

     To ensure that the underlying buffer may be safely borrowed, the
     object’s *note PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer: b45. field must be
     ‘NULL’.  This disallows common mutable objects such as *note
     bytearray: 1c6, but also some read-only objects such as *note
     memoryview: 1d2. of *note bytes: 1c7.

     Besides this ‘bf_releasebuffer’ requirement, there is no check to
     verify whether the input object is immutable (e.g.  whether it
     would honor a request for a writable buffer, or whether another
     thread can mutate the data).

‘s’ (*note str: 1df.) [const char *]

     Convert a Unicode object to a C pointer to a character string.  A
     pointer to an existing string is stored in the character pointer
     variable whose address you pass.  The C string is NUL-terminated.
     The Python string must not contain embedded null code points; if it
     does, a *note ValueError: 277. exception is raised.  Unicode
     objects are converted to C strings using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.  If
     this conversion fails, a *note UnicodeError: 675. is raised.

          Σημείωση: This format does not accept *note bytes-like
          objects: 436.  If you want to accept filesystem paths and
          convert them to C character strings, it is preferable to use
          the ‘O&’ format with *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): 10d3. as
          'converter'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Previously, *note TypeError: 291. was
     raised when embedded null code points were encountered in the
     Python string.

‘s*’ (*note str: 1df. or *note bytes-like object: 436.) [Py_buffer]

     This format accepts Unicode objects as well as bytes-like objects.
     It fills a *note Py_buffer: b3a. structure provided by the caller.
     In this case the resulting C string may contain embedded NUL bytes.
     Unicode objects are converted to C strings using ‘'utf-8'’
     encoding.

‘s#’ (*note str: 1df, read-only *note bytes-like object: 436.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: e24.]

     Like ‘s*’, except that it provides a *note borrowed buffer: 602.
     The result is stored into two C variables, the first one a pointer
     to a C string, the second one its length.  The string may contain
     embedded null bytes.  Unicode objects are converted to C strings
     using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.

‘z’ (*note str: 1df. or ‘None’) [const char *]

     Like ‘s’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case
     the C pointer is set to ‘NULL’.

‘z*’ (*note str: 1df, *note bytes-like object: 436. or ‘None’) [Py_buffer]

     Like ‘s*’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case
     the ‘buf’ member of the *note Py_buffer: b3a. structure is set to
     ‘NULL’.

‘z#’ (*note str: 1df, read-only *note bytes-like object: 436. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: e24.]

     Like ‘s#’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case
     the C pointer is set to ‘NULL’.

‘y’ (read-only *note bytes-like object: 436.) [const char *]

     This format converts a bytes-like object to a C pointer to a *note
     borrowed: 602. character string; it does not accept Unicode
     objects.  The bytes buffer must not contain embedded null bytes; if
     it does, a *note ValueError: 277. exception is raised.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Previously, *note TypeError: 291. was
     raised when embedded null bytes were encountered in the bytes
     buffer.

‘y*’ (*note bytes-like object: 436.) [Py_buffer]

     This variant on ‘s*’ doesn’t accept Unicode objects, only
     bytes-like objects.  'This is the recommended way to accept binary
     data.'

‘y#’ (read-only *note bytes-like object: 436.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: e24.]

     This variant on ‘s#’ doesn’t accept Unicode objects, only
     bytes-like objects.

‘S’ (*note bytes: 1c7.) [PyBytesObject *]

     Requires that the Python object is a *note bytes: 1c7. object,
     without attempting any conversion.  Raises *note TypeError: 291. if
     the object is not a bytes object.  The C variable may also be
     declared as *note PyObject: 19b.*.

‘Y’ (*note bytearray: 1c6.) [PyByteArrayObject *]

     Requires that the Python object is a *note bytearray: 1c6. object,
     without attempting any conversion.  Raises *note TypeError: 291. if
     the object is not a ‘bytearray’ object.  The C variable may also be
     declared as *note PyObject: 19b.*.

‘U’ (*note str: 1df.) [PyObject *]

     Requires that the Python object is a Unicode object, without
     attempting any conversion.  Raises *note TypeError: 291. if the
     object is not a Unicode object.  The C variable may also be
     declared as *note PyObject: 19b.*.

‘w*’ (read-write *note bytes-like object: 436.) [Py_buffer]

     This format accepts any object which implements the read-write
     buffer interface.  It fills a *note Py_buffer: b3a. structure
     provided by the caller.  The buffer may contain embedded null
     bytes.  The caller has to call *note PyBuffer_Release(): 82d. when
     it is done with the buffer.

‘es’ (*note str: 1df.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]

     This variant on ‘s’ is used for encoding Unicode into a character
     buffer.  It only works for encoded data without embedded NUL bytes.

     This format requires two arguments.  The first is only used as
     input, and must be a const char* which points to the name of an
     encoding as a NUL-terminated string, or ‘NULL’, in which case
     ‘'utf-8'’ encoding is used.  An exception is raised if the named
     encoding is not known to Python.  The second argument must be a
     char**; the value of the pointer it references will be set to a
     buffer with the contents of the argument text.  The text will be
     encoded in the encoding specified by the first argument.

     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. will allocate a buffer of the needed
     size, copy the encoded data into this buffer and adjust '*buffer'
     to reference the newly allocated storage.  The caller is
     responsible for calling *note PyMem_Free(): 17e4. to free the
     allocated buffer after use.

‘et’ (*note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7. or *note bytearray: 1c6.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer]

     Same as ‘es’ except that byte string objects are passed through
     without recoding them.  Instead, the implementation assumes that
     the byte string object uses the encoding passed in as parameter.

‘es#’ (*note str: 1df.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, *note Py_ssize_t: e24. *buffer_length]

     This variant on ‘s#’ is used for encoding Unicode into a character
     buffer.  Unlike the ‘es’ format, this variant allows input data
     which contains NUL characters.

     It requires three arguments.  The first is only used as input, and
     must be a const char* which points to the name of an encoding as a
     NUL-terminated string, or ‘NULL’, in which case ‘'utf-8'’ encoding
     is used.  An exception is raised if the named encoding is not known
     to Python.  The second argument must be a char**; the value of the
     pointer it references will be set to a buffer with the contents of
     the argument text.  The text will be encoded in the encoding
     specified by the first argument.  The third argument must be a
     pointer to an integer; the referenced integer will be set to the
     number of bytes in the output buffer.

     There are two modes of operation:

     If '*buffer' points a ‘NULL’ pointer, the function will allocate a
     buffer of the needed size, copy the encoded data into this buffer
     and set '*buffer' to reference the newly allocated storage.  The
     caller is responsible for calling *note PyMem_Free(): 17e4. to free
     the allocated buffer after usage.

     If '*buffer' points to a non-‘NULL’ pointer (an already allocated
     buffer), *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. will use this location as
     the buffer and interpret the initial value of '*buffer_length' as
     the buffer size.  It will then copy the encoded data into the
     buffer and NUL-terminate it.  If the buffer is not large enough, a
     *note ValueError: 277. will be set.

     In both cases, '*buffer_length' is set to the length of the encoded
     data without the trailing NUL byte.

‘et#’ (*note str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7. or *note bytearray: 1c6.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, *note Py_ssize_t: e24. *buffer_length]

     Same as ‘es#’ except that byte string objects are passed through
     without recoding them.  Instead, the implementation assumes that
     the byte string object uses the encoding passed in as parameter.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘u’, ‘u#’, ‘Z’, and ‘Z#’ are removed because
they used a legacy ‘Py_UNICODE*’ representation.


File: python.info,  Node: Numbers,  Next: Other objects,  Prev: Strings and buffers,  Up: Parsing arguments<2>

7.8.6.3 Numbers
...............

These formats allow representing Python numbers or single characters as
C numbers.  Formats that require *note int: 326, *note float: 327. or
*note complex: 328. can also use the corresponding special methods *note
__index__(): 43d, *note __float__(): d92. or *note __complex__(): 9de.
to convert the Python object to the required type.

For signed integer formats, *note OverflowError: c57. is raised if the
value is out of range for the C type.  For unsigned integer formats, the
most significant bits are silently truncated when the receiving field is
too small to receive the value, and *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. is
emitted when the value is larger than the maximal value for the C type
or less than the minimal value for the corresponding signed integer type
of the same size.

‘b’ (*note int: 326.) [unsigned char]

     Convert a nonnegative Python integer to an unsigned tiny integer,
     stored in a C unsigned char.

‘B’ (*note int: 326.) [unsigned char]

     Convert a Python integer to a tiny integer without overflow
     checking, stored in a C unsigned char.  Convert a Python integer to
     a C unsigned char.

‘h’ (*note int: 326.) [short int]

     Convert a Python integer to a C short int.

‘H’ (*note int: 326.) [unsigned short int]

     Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned short int.

‘i’ (*note int: 326.) [int]

     Convert a Python integer to a plain C int.

‘I’ (*note int: 326.) [unsigned int]

     Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned int.

‘l’ (*note int: 326.) [long int]

     Convert a Python integer to a C long int.

‘k’ (*note int: 326.) [unsigned long]

     Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned long.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Use *note __index__(): 43d. if available.

‘L’ (*note int: 326.) [long long]

     Convert a Python integer to a C long long.

‘K’ (*note int: 326.) [unsigned long long]

     Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned long long.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Use *note __index__(): 43d. if available.

‘n’ (*note int: 326.) [*note Py_ssize_t: e24.]

     Convert a Python integer to a C *note Py_ssize_t: e24.

‘c’ (*note bytes: 1c7. or *note bytearray: 1c6. of length 1) [char]

     Convert a Python byte, represented as a *note bytes: 1c7. or *note
     bytearray: 1c6. object of length 1, to a C char.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Allow *note bytearray: 1c6. objects.

‘C’ (*note str: 1df. of length 1) [int]

     Convert a Python character, represented as a *note str: 1df. object
     of length 1, to a C int.

‘f’ (*note float: 327.) [float]

     Convert a Python floating-point number to a C float.

‘d’ (*note float: 327.) [double]

     Convert a Python floating-point number to a C double.

‘D’ (*note complex: 328.) [Py_complex]

     Convert a Python complex number to a C *note Py_complex: 3bc.
     structure.

Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15: For unsigned integer formats ‘B’, ‘H’, ‘I’,
‘k’ and ‘K’, *note DeprecationWarning: 2c9. is emitted when the value is
larger than the maximal value for the C type or less than the minimal
value for the corresponding signed integer type of the same size.


File: python.info,  Node: Other objects,  Next: API Functions,  Prev: Numbers,  Up: Parsing arguments<2>

7.8.6.4 Other objects
.....................

‘O’ (object) [PyObject *]

     Store a Python object (without any conversion) in a C object
     pointer.  The C program thus receives the actual object that was
     passed.  A new *note strong reference: 7da. to the object is not
     created (i.e.  its reference count is not increased).  The pointer
     stored is not ‘NULL’.

‘O!’ (object) ['typeobject', PyObject *]

     Store a Python object in a C object pointer.  This is similar to
     ‘O’, but takes two C arguments: the first is the address of a
     Python type object, the second is the address of the C variable (of
     type *note PyObject: 19b.*) into which the object pointer is
     stored.  If the Python object does not have the required type,
     *note TypeError: 291. is raised.

‘O&’ (object) ['converter', 'address']

     Convert a Python object to a C variable through a 'converter'
     function.  This takes two arguments: the first is a function, the
     second is the address of a C variable (of arbitrary type),
     converted to void*.  The 'converter' function in turn is called as
     follows:

          status = converter(object, address);

     where 'object' is the Python object to be converted and 'address'
     is the void* argument that was passed to the ‘PyArg_Parse*’
     function.  The returned 'status' should be ‘1’ for a successful
     conversion and ‘0’ if the conversion has failed.  When the
     conversion fails, the 'converter' function should raise an
     exception and leave the content of 'address' unmodified.

     If the 'converter' returns ‘Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED’, it may get
     called a second time if the argument parsing eventually fails,
     giving the converter a chance to release any memory that it had
     already allocated.  In this second call, the 'object' parameter
     will be ‘NULL’; 'address' will have the same value as in the
     original call.

     Examples of converters: *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): 10d3. and
     *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 97b.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: ‘Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED’ was added.

‘p’ (*note bool: 5ef.) [int]

     Tests the value passed in for truth (a boolean 'p'redicate) and
     converts the result to its equivalent C true/false integer value.
     Sets the int to ‘1’ if the expression was true and ‘0’ if it was
     false.  This accepts any valid Python value.  See *note Έλεγχος
     Έγκυρης Τιμής: 1a80. for more information about how Python tests
     values for truth.

     Added in version 3.3.

‘(items)’ (sequence) ['matching-items']

     The object must be a Python sequence (except *note str: 1df, *note
     bytes: 1c7. or *note bytearray: 1c6.) whose length is the number of
     format units in 'items'.  The C arguments must correspond to the
     individual format units in 'items'.  Format units for sequences may
     be nested.

     If 'items' contains format units which store a *note borrowed
     buffer: 602. (‘s’, ‘s#’, ‘z’, ‘z#’, ‘y’, or ‘y#’) or a *note
     borrowed reference: 603. (‘S’, ‘Y’, ‘U’, ‘O’, or ‘O!’), the object
     must be a Python tuple.  The 'converter' for the ‘O&’ format unit
     in 'items' must not store a borrowed buffer or a borrowed
     reference.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: *note str: 1df. and *note bytearray: 1c6.
     objects no longer accepted as a sequence.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: Non-tuple sequences are deprecated if
     'items' contains format units which store a borrowed buffer or a
     borrowed reference.

A few other characters have a meaning in a format string.  These may not
occur inside nested parentheses.  They are:

‘|’

     Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list
     are optional.  The C variables corresponding to optional arguments
     should be initialized to their default value — when an optional
     argument is not specified, *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. does not
     touch the contents of the corresponding C variable(s).

‘$’

     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818. only: Indicates that the
     remaining arguments in the Python argument list are keyword-only.
     Currently, all keyword-only arguments must also be optional
     arguments, so ‘|’ must always be specified before ‘$’ in the format
     string.

     Added in version 3.3.

‘:’

     The list of format units ends here; the string after the colon is
     used as the function name in error messages (the «associated value»
     of the exception that *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. raises).

‘;’

     The list of format units ends here; the string after the semicolon
     is used as the error message 'instead' of the default error
     message.  ‘:’ and ‘;’ mutually exclude each other.

Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller
are 'borrowed' references; do not release them (i.e.  do not decrement
their reference count)!

Additional arguments passed to these functions must be addresses of
variables whose type is determined by the format string; these are used
to store values from the input tuple.  There are a few cases, as
described in the list of format units above, where these parameters are
used as input values; they should match what is specified for the
corresponding format unit in that case.

For the conversion to succeed, the 'arg' object must match the format
and the format must be exhausted.  On success, the ‘PyArg_Parse*’
functions return true, otherwise they return false and raise an
appropriate exception.  When the ‘PyArg_Parse*’ functions fail due to
conversion failure in one of the format units, the variables at the
addresses corresponding to that and the following format units are left
untouched.


File: python.info,  Node: API Functions,  Prev: Other objects,  Up: Parsing arguments<2>

7.8.6.5 API Functions
.....................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyArg_ParseTuple (PyObject *args, const char
          *format, ...)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Parse the parameters of a
     function that takes only positional parameters into local
     variables.  Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false
     and raises the appropriate exception.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyArg_VaParse (PyObject *args, const char *format,
          va_list vargs)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Identical to *note
     PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1, except that it accepts a va_list rather
     than a variable number of arguments.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (PyObject *args,
          PyObject *kw, const char *format, char *const *keywords, ...)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Parse the parameters of a
     function that takes both positional and keyword parameters into
     local variables.  The 'keywords' argument is a ‘NULL’-terminated
     array of keyword parameter names specified as null-terminated ASCII
     or UTF-8 encoded C strings.  Empty names denote *note
     positional-only parameters: e47.  Returns true on success; on
     failure, it returns false and raises the appropriate exception.

          Σημείωση: The 'keywords' parameter declaration is char *const*
          in C and const char *const* in C++.  This can be overridden
          with the *note PY_CXX_CONST: 81a. macro.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Added support for *note positional-only
     parameters: e47.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The 'keywords' parameter has now type char
     *const* in C and const char *const* in C++, instead of char**.
     Added support for non-ASCII keyword parameter names.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (PyObject *args,
          PyObject *kw, const char *format, char *const *keywords,
          va_list vargs)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Identical to *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818, except that it accepts a
     va_list rather than a variable number of arguments.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (PyObject*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Ensure that the keys in the
     keywords argument dictionary are strings.  This is only needed if
     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818. is not used, since the
     latter already does this check.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyArg_Parse (PyObject *args, const char *format,
          ...)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Parse the parameter of a
     function that takes a single positional parameter into a local
     variable.  Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false
     and raises the appropriate exception.

     Example:

          // Function using METH_O calling convention
          static PyObject*
          my_function(PyObject *module, PyObject *arg)
          {
              int value;
              if (!PyArg_Parse(arg, "i:my_function", &value)) {
                  return NULL;
              }
              // ... use value ...
          }

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyArg_ParseArray (PyObject *const *args, Py_ssize_t
          nargs, const char *format, ...)

     Parse the parameters of a function that takes only array parameters
     into local variables (that is, a function using the *note
     METH_FASTCALL: 34b. calling convention).  Returns true on success;
     on failure, it returns false and raises the appropriate exception.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyArg_ParseArrayAndKeywords (PyObject *const *args,
          Py_ssize_t nargs, PyObject *kwnames, const char *format, const
          char *const *kwlist, ...)

     Parse the parameters of a function that takes both array and
     keyword parameters into local variables (that is, a function using
     the *note METH_FASTCALL: 34b. ‘|’ *note METH_KEYWORDS: 51c6.
     calling convention).  Returns true on success; on failure, it
     returns false and raises the appropriate exception.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyArg_UnpackTuple (PyObject *args, const char
          *name, Py_ssize_t min, Py_ssize_t max, ...)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  A simpler form of parameter
     retrieval which does not use a format string to specify the types
     of the arguments.  Functions which use this method to retrieve
     their parameters should be declared as *note METH_VARARGS: 18aa. in
     function or method tables.  The tuple containing the actual
     parameters should be passed as 'args'; it must actually be a tuple.
     The length of the tuple must be at least 'min' and no more than
     'max'; 'min' and 'max' may be equal.  Additional arguments must be
     passed to the function, each of which should be a pointer to a
     *note PyObject: 19b.* variable; these will be filled in with the
     values from 'args'; they will contain *note borrowed references:
     603.  The variables which correspond to optional parameters not
     given by 'args' will not be filled in; these should be initialized
     by the caller.  This function returns true on success and false if
     'args' is not a tuple or contains the wrong number of elements; an
     exception will be set if there was a failure.

     This is an example of the use of this function, taken from the
     sources for the ‘_weakref’ helper module for weak references:

          static PyObject *
          weakref_ref(PyObject *self, PyObject *args)
          {
              PyObject *object;
              PyObject *callback = NULL;
              PyObject *result = NULL;

              if (PyArg_UnpackTuple(args, "ref", 1, 2, &object, &callback)) {
                  result = PyWeakref_NewRef(object, callback);
              }
              return result;
          }

     The call to *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 18a8. in this example is
     entirely equivalent to this call to *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1.:

          PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O|O:ref", &object, &callback)

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_CXX_CONST

     The value to be inserted, if any, before char *const* in the
     'keywords' parameter declaration of *note
     PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818. and *note
     PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 819.  Default empty for C and
     ‘const’ for C++ (const char *const*).  To override, define it to
     the desired value before including ‘Python.h’.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Building values,  Prev: Parsing arguments<2>,  Up: Parsing arguments and building values

7.8.6.6 Building values
.......................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_BuildValue (const char
          *format, ...)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a new value based on a format string similar to those
     accepted by the ‘PyArg_Parse*’ family of functions and a sequence
     of values.  Returns the value or ‘NULL’ in the case of an error; an
     exception will be raised if ‘NULL’ is returned.

     *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee. does not always build a tuple.  It
     builds a tuple only if its format string contains two or more
     format units.  If the format string is empty, it returns ‘None’; if
     it contains exactly one format unit, it returns whatever object is
     described by that format unit.  To force it to return a tuple of
     size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string.

     When memory buffers are passed as parameters to supply data to
     build objects, as for the ‘s’ and ‘s#’ formats, the required data
     is copied.  Buffers provided by the caller are never referenced by
     the objects created by *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee.  In other words,
     if your code invokes ‘malloc()’ and passes the allocated memory to
     ‘Py_BuildValue()’, your code is responsible for calling ‘free()’
     for that memory once ‘Py_BuildValue()’ returns.

     In the following description, the quoted form is the format unit;
     the entry in (round) parentheses is the Python object type that the
     format unit will return; and the entry in [square] brackets is the
     type of the C value(s) to be passed.

     The characters space, tab, colon and comma are ignored in format
     strings (but not within format units such as ‘s#’).  This can be
     used to make long format strings a tad more readable.

     ‘s’ (*note str: 1df. or ‘None’) [const char *]

          Convert a null-terminated C string to a Python *note str: 1df.
          object using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.  If the C string pointer is
          ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is used.

     ‘s#’ (*note str: 1df. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: e24.]

          Convert a C string and its length to a Python *note str: 1df.
          object using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding.  If the C string pointer is
          ‘NULL’, the length is ignored and ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘y’ (*note bytes: 1c7.) [const char *]

          This converts a C string to a Python *note bytes: 1c7. object.
          If the C string pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘y#’ (*note bytes: 1c7.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: e24.]

          This converts a C string and its lengths to a Python object.
          If the C string pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘z’ (*note str: 1df. or ‘None’) [const char *]

          Same as ‘s’.

     ‘z#’ (*note str: 1df. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: e24.]

          Same as ‘s#’.

     ‘u’ (*note str: 1df.) [const wchar_t *]

          Convert a null-terminated ‘wchar_t’ buffer of Unicode (UTF-16
          or UCS-4) data to a Python Unicode object.  If the Unicode
          buffer pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘u#’ (*note str: 1df.) [const wchar_t *, *note Py_ssize_t: e24.]

          Convert a Unicode (UTF-16 or UCS-4) data buffer and its length
          to a Python Unicode object.  If the Unicode buffer pointer is
          ‘NULL’, the length is ignored and ‘None’ is returned.

     ‘U’ (*note str: 1df. or ‘None’) [const char *]

          Same as ‘s’.

     ‘U#’ (*note str: 1df. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: e24.]

          Same as ‘s#’.

     ‘i’ (*note int: 326.) [int]

          Convert a plain C int to a Python integer object.

     ‘b’ (*note int: 326.) [char]

          Convert a plain C char to a Python integer object.

     ‘h’ (*note int: 326.) [short int]

          Convert a plain C short int to a Python integer object.

     ‘l’ (*note int: 326.) [long int]

          Convert a C long int to a Python integer object.

     ‘B’ (*note int: 326.) [unsigned char]

          Convert a C unsigned char to a Python integer object.

     ‘H’ (*note int: 326.) [unsigned short int]

          Convert a C unsigned short int to a Python integer object.

     ‘I’ (*note int: 326.) [unsigned int]

          Convert a C unsigned int to a Python integer object.

     ‘k’ (*note int: 326.) [unsigned long]

          Convert a C unsigned long to a Python integer object.

     ‘L’ (*note int: 326.) [long long]

          Convert a C long long to a Python integer object.

     ‘K’ (*note int: 326.) [unsigned long long]

          Convert a C unsigned long long to a Python integer object.

     ‘n’ (*note int: 326.) [*note Py_ssize_t: e24.]

          Convert a C *note Py_ssize_t: e24. to a Python integer.

     ‘p’ (*note bool: 5ef.) [int]

          Convert a C int to a Python *note bool: 5ef. object.

          Be aware that this format requires an ‘int’ argument.  Unlike
          most other contexts in C, variadic arguments are not coerced
          to a suitable type automatically.  You can convert another
          type (for example, a pointer or a float) to a suitable ‘int’
          value using ‘(x) ? 1 : 0’ or ‘!!x’.

          Added in version 3.14.

     ‘c’ (*note bytes: 1c7. of length 1) [char]

          Convert a C int representing a byte to a Python *note bytes:
          1c7. object of length 1.

     ‘C’ (*note str: 1df. of length 1) [int]

          Convert a C int representing a character to Python *note str:
          1df. object of length 1.

     ‘d’ (*note float: 327.) [double]

          Convert a C double to a Python floating-point number.

     ‘f’ (*note float: 327.) [float]

          Convert a C float to a Python floating-point number.

     ‘D’ (*note complex: 328.) [Py_complex *]

          Convert a C *note Py_complex: 3bc. structure to a Python
          complex number.

     ‘O’ (object) [PyObject *]

          Pass a Python object untouched but create a new *note strong
          reference: 7da. to it (i.e.  its reference count is
          incremented by one).  If the object passed in is a ‘NULL’
          pointer, it is assumed that this was caused because the call
          producing the argument found an error and set an exception.
          Therefore, *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee. will return ‘NULL’ but
          won’t raise an exception.  If no exception has been raised
          yet, *note SystemError: 3ea. is set.

     ‘S’ (object) [PyObject *]

          Same as ‘O’.

     ‘N’ (object) [PyObject *]

          Same as ‘O’, except it doesn’t create a new *note strong
          reference: 7da.  Useful when the object is created by a call
          to an object constructor in the argument list.

     ‘O&’ (object) ['converter', 'anything']

          Convert 'anything' to a Python object through a 'converter'
          function.  The function is called with 'anything' (which
          should be compatible with void*) as its argument and should
          return a «new» Python object, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred.

     ‘(items)’ (*note tuple: 1ce.) ['matching-items']

          Convert a sequence of C values to a Python tuple with the same
          number of items.

     ‘[items]’ (*note list: 4d9.) ['matching-items']

          Convert a sequence of C values to a Python list with the same
          number of items.

     ‘{items}’ (*note dict: 188.) ['matching-items']

          Convert a sequence of C values to a Python dictionary.  Each
          pair of consecutive C values adds one item to the dictionary,
          serving as key and value, respectively.

     If there is an error in the format string, the *note SystemError:
     3ea. exception is set and ‘NULL’ returned.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_VaBuildValue (const char
          *format, va_list vargs)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Identical to *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee, except that it
     accepts a va_list rather than a variable number of arguments.


File: python.info,  Node: String conversion and formatting,  Next: Character classification and conversion,  Prev: Parsing arguments and building values,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.8.7 String conversion and formatting
--------------------------------------

Functions for number conversion and formatted string output.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyOS_snprintf (char *str, size_t size, const char
          *format, ...)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Output not more than 'size'
     bytes to 'str' according to the format string 'format' and the
     extra arguments.  See the Unix man page ‘snprintf(3)(1)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyOS_vsnprintf (char *str, size_t size, const char
          *format, va_list va)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Output not more than 'size'
     bytes to 'str' according to the format string 'format' and the
     variable argument list 'va'.  Unix man page ‘vsnprintf(3)(2)’.

*note PyOS_snprintf(): 18ab. and *note PyOS_vsnprintf(): 18ac. wrap the
Standard C library functions ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’.  Their
purpose is to guarantee consistent behavior in corner cases, which the
Standard C functions do not.

The wrappers ensure that ‘str[size-1]’ is always ‘'\0'’ upon return.
They never write more than 'size' bytes (including the trailing ‘'\0'’)
into str.  Both functions require that ‘str != NULL’, ‘size > 0’,
‘format != NULL’ and ‘size < INT_MAX’.  Note that this means there is no
equivalent to the C99 ‘n = snprintf(NULL, 0, ...)’ which would determine
the necessary buffer size.

The return value ('rv') for these functions should be interpreted as
follows:

   * When ‘0 <= rv < size’, the output conversion was successful and
     'rv' characters were written to 'str' (excluding the trailing
     ‘'\0'’ byte at ‘str[rv]’).

   * When ‘rv >= size’, the output conversion was truncated and a buffer
     with ‘rv + 1’ bytes would have been needed to succeed.
     ‘str[size-1]’ is ‘'\0'’ in this case.

   * When ‘rv < 0’, the output conversion failed and ‘str[size-1]’ is
     ‘'\0'’ in this case too, but the rest of 'str' is undefined.  The
     exact cause of the error depends on the underlying platform.

The following functions provide locale-independent string to number
conversions.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: unsigned long PyOS_strtoul (const char *str, char
          **ptr, int base)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Convert the initial part of
     the string in ‘str’ to an unsigned long value according to the
     given ‘base’, which must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’ inclusive, or be
     the special value ‘0’.

     Leading white space and case of characters are ignored.  If ‘base’
     is zero it looks for a leading ‘0b’, ‘0o’ or ‘0x’ to tell which
     base.  If these are absent it defaults to ‘10’.  Base must be 0 or
     between 2 and 36 (inclusive).  If ‘ptr’ is non-‘NULL’ it will
     contain a pointer to the end of the scan.

     If the converted value falls out of range of corresponding return
     type, range error occurs (‘errno’ is set to ‘ERANGE’) and
     ‘ULONG_MAX’ is returned.  If no conversion can be performed, ‘0’ is
     returned.

     See also the Unix man page ‘strtoul(3)(3)’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: long PyOS_strtol (const char *str, char **ptr, int
          base)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Convert the initial part of
     the string in ‘str’ to an long value according to the given ‘base’,
     which must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’ inclusive, or be the special
     value ‘0’.

     Same as *note PyOS_strtoul(): 53bd, but return a long value instead
     and ‘LONG_MAX’ on overflows.

     See also the Unix man page ‘strtol(3)(4)’.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double PyOS_string_to_double (const char *s, char
          **endptr, PyObject *overflow_exception)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Convert a string ‘s’ to a
     double, raising a Python exception on failure.  The set of accepted
     strings corresponds to the set of strings accepted by Python’s
     *note float(): 327. constructor, except that ‘s’ must not have
     leading or trailing whitespace.  The conversion is independent of
     the current locale.

     If ‘endptr’ is ‘NULL’, convert the whole string.  Raise *note
     ValueError: 277. and return ‘-1.0’ if the string is not a valid
     representation of a floating-point number.

     If endptr is not ‘NULL’, convert as much of the string as possible
     and set ‘*endptr’ to point to the first unconverted character.  If
     no initial segment of the string is the valid representation of a
     floating-point number, set ‘*endptr’ to point to the beginning of
     the string, raise ValueError, and return ‘-1.0’.

     If ‘s’ represents a value that is too large to store in a float
     (for example, ‘"1e500"’ is such a string on many platforms) then if
     ‘overflow_exception’ is ‘NULL’ return ‘INFINITY’ (with an
     appropriate sign) and don’t set any exception.  Otherwise,
     ‘overflow_exception’ must point to a Python exception object; raise
     that exception and return ‘-1.0’.  In both cases, set ‘*endptr’ to
     point to the first character after the converted value.

     If any other error occurs during the conversion (for example an
     out-of-memory error), set the appropriate Python exception and
     return ‘-1.0’.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: char *PyOS_double_to_string (double val, char
          format_code, int precision, int flags, int *ptype)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Convert a double 'val' to a
     string using supplied 'format_code', 'precision', and 'flags'.

     'format_code' must be one of ‘'e'’, ‘'E'’, ‘'f'’, ‘'F'’, ‘'g'’,
     ‘'G'’ or ‘'r'’.  For ‘'r'’, the supplied 'precision' must be 0 and
     is ignored.  The ‘'r'’ format code specifies the standard *note
     repr(): 45b. format.

     'flags' can be zero or more of the following values or-ed together:

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_DTSF_SIGN

          Always precede the returned string with a sign character, even
          if 'val' is non-negative.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0

          Ensure that the returned string will not look like an integer.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_DTSF_ALT

          Apply «alternate» formatting rules.  See the documentation for
          the *note PyOS_snprintf(): 18ab. ‘'#'’ specifier for details.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_DTSF_NO_NEG_0

          Negative zero is converted to positive zero.

          Added in version 3.11.

     If 'ptype' is non-‘NULL’, then the value it points to will be set
     to one of the following constants depending on the type of 'val':

     '*ptype'                                               type of 'val'
                                                            
     --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_DTST_FINITE                      finite number
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_DTST_INFINITE                    infinite number
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_DTST_NAN                         not a number
                                                            

     The return value is a pointer to 'buffer' with the converted string
     or ‘NULL’ if the conversion failed.  The caller is responsible for
     freeing the returned string by calling *note PyMem_Free(): 17e4.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyOS_mystricmp (const char *str1, const char *str2)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyOS_mystrnicmp (const char *str1, const char
          *str2, Py_ssize_t size)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Case insensitive comparison
     of strings.  These functions work almost identically to ‘strcmp()’
     and ‘strncmp()’ (respectively), except that they ignore the case of
     ASCII characters.

     Return ‘0’ if the strings are equal, a negative value if 'str1'
     sorts lexicographically before 'str2', or a positive value if it
     sorts after.

     In the 'str1' or 'str2' arguments, a NUL byte marks the end of the
     string.  For ‘PyOS_mystrnicmp()’, the 'size' argument gives the
     maximum size of the string, as if NUL was present at the index
     given by 'size'.

     These functions do not use the locale.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyOS_stricmp (const char *str1, const char *str2)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyOS_strnicmp (const char *str1, const char *str2,
          Py_ssize_t size)

     Case insensitive comparison of strings.

     On Windows, these are aliases of ‘stricmp()’ and ‘strnicmp()’,
     respectively.

     On other platforms, they are aliases of *note PyOS_mystricmp():
     1f2f. and *note PyOS_mystrnicmp(): 1f2e, respectively.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/snprintf(3)

   (2) https://manpages.debian.org/vsnprintf(3)

   (3) https://manpages.debian.org/strtoul(3)

   (4) https://manpages.debian.org/strtol(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Character classification and conversion,  Next: PyHash API,  Prev: String conversion and formatting,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.8.8 Character classification and conversion
---------------------------------------------

The following macros provide locale-independent (unlike the C standard
library ‘ctype.h’) character classification and conversion.  The
argument must be a signed or unsigned char.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ISALNUM (c)

     Return true if the character 'c' is an alphanumeric character.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ISALPHA (c)

     Return true if the character 'c' is an alphabetic character (‘a-z’
     and ‘A-Z’).

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ISDIGIT (c)

     Return true if the character 'c' is a decimal digit (‘0-9’).

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ISLOWER (c)

     Return true if the character 'c' is a lowercase ASCII letter
     (‘a-z’).

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ISUPPER (c)

     Return true if the character 'c' is an uppercase ASCII letter
     (‘A-Z’).

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ISSPACE (c)

     Return true if the character 'c' is a whitespace character (space,
     tab, carriage return, newline, vertical tab, or form feed).

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ISXDIGIT (c)

     Return true if the character 'c' is a hexadecimal digit (‘0-9’,
     ‘a-f’, and ‘A-F’).

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TOLOWER (c)

     Return the lowercase equivalent of the character 'c'.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TOUPPER (c)

     Return the uppercase equivalent of the character 'c'.


File: python.info,  Node: PyHash API,  Next: Reflection,  Prev: Character classification and conversion,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.8.9 PyHash API
----------------

See also the *note PyTypeObject.tp_hash: 520b. member and *note
Κατακερματισμός των αριθμητικών τύπων: 27f8.

 -- C Τύπος: type Py_hash_t

     Hash value type: signed integer.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Τύπος: type Py_uhash_t

     Hash value type: unsigned integer.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_HASH_ALGORITHM

     A numerical value indicating the algorithm for hashing of *note
     str: 1df, *note bytes: 1c7, and *note memoryview: 1d2.

     The algorithm name is exposed by *note sys.hash_info.algorithm:
     4c00.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_HASH_FNV
 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_HASH_SIPHASH24
 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_HASH_SIPHASH13

     Numerical values to compare to *note Py_HASH_ALGORITHM: 3b0. to
     determine which algorithm is used for hashing.  The hash algorithm
     can be configured via the configure *note -with-hash-algorithm:
     23a2. option.

     Added in version 3.4: Add ‘Py_HASH_FNV’ and ‘Py_HASH_SIPHASH24’.

     Added in version 3.11: Add ‘Py_HASH_SIPHASH13’.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_HASH_CUTOFF

     Buffers of length in range ‘[1, Py_HASH_CUTOFF)’ are hashed using
     DJBX33A instead of the algorithm described by *note
     Py_HASH_ALGORITHM: 3b0.

        - A ‘Py_HASH_CUTOFF’ of 0 disables the optimization.

        - ‘Py_HASH_CUTOFF’ must be non-negative and less or equal than
          7.

     32-bit platforms should use a cutoff smaller than 64-bit platforms
     because it is easier to create colliding strings.  A cutoff of 7 on
     64-bit platforms and 5 on 32-bit platforms should provide a decent
     safety margin.

     This corresponds to the *note sys.hash_info.cutoff: 4c03. constant.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyHASH_MODULUS

     The Mersenne prime(1) ‘P = 2**n -1’, used for numeric hash scheme.

     This corresponds to the *note sys.hash_info.modulus: 27f9.
     constant.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyHASH_BITS

     The exponent ‘n’ of ‘P’ in *note PyHASH_MODULUS: 1bf1.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyHASH_MULTIPLIER

     Prime multiplier used in string and various other hashes.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyHASH_INF

     The hash value returned for a positive infinity.

     This corresponds to the *note sys.hash_info.inf: 4bfd. constant.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyHASH_IMAG

     The multiplier used for the imaginary part of a complex number.

     This corresponds to the *note sys.hash_info.imag: 4bff. constant.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyHash_FuncDef

     Hash function definition used by *note PyHash_GetFuncDef(): 55bd.

      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_hash_t: 1608. (*const hash)(const void*,
               *note Py_ssize_t: e24.)

          Hash function.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *name

          Hash function name (UTF-8 encoded string).

          This corresponds to the *note sys.hash_info.algorithm: 4c00.
          constant.

      -- C Μέλος: const int hash_bits

          Internal size of the hash value in bits.

          This corresponds to the *note sys.hash_info.hash_bits: 4c01.
          constant.

      -- C Μέλος: const int seed_bits

          Size of seed input in bits.

          This corresponds to the *note sys.hash_info.seed_bits: 4c02.
          constant.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyHash_FuncDef: 55bc. *PyHash_GetFuncDef (void)

     Get the hash function definition.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     PEP 456(2) «Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm».

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_hash_t: 1608. Py_HashPointer (const void *ptr)

     Hash a pointer value: process the pointer value as an integer (cast
     it to ‘uintptr_t’ internally).  The pointer is not dereferenced.

     The function cannot fail: it cannot return ‘-1’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_hash_t: 1608. Py_HashBuffer (const void *ptr,
          Py_ssize_t len)

     Compute and return the hash value of a buffer of 'len' bytes
     starting at address 'ptr'.  The hash is guaranteed to match that of
     *note bytes: 1c7, *note memoryview: 1d2, and other built-in objects
     that implement the *note buffer protocol: 311.

     Use this function to implement hashing for immutable objects whose
     *note tp_richcompare: 5205. function compares to another object’s
     buffer.

     'len' must be greater than or equal to ‘0’.

     This function always succeeds.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_hash_t: 1608. PyObject_GenericHash (PyObject
          *obj)

     Generic hashing function that is meant to be put into a type
     object’s ‘tp_hash’ slot.  Its result only depends on the object’s
     identity.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' In CPython, it is equivalent to
     *note Py_HashPointer(): 638.

     Added in version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_prime

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/


File: python.info,  Node: Reflection,  Next: Codec registry and support functions,  Prev: PyHash API,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.8.10 Reflection
-----------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyEval_GetBuiltins (void)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.'

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13: Use *note PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins():
     7e9. instead.

     Return a dictionary of the builtins in the current execution frame,
     or the interpreter of the thread state if no frame is currently
     executing.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyEval_GetLocals (void)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.'

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13: Use either *note
     PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 7ed. to obtain the same behaviour as
     calling *note locals(): 28b. in Python code, or else call *note
     PyFrame_GetLocals(): 84e. on the result of *note PyEval_GetFrame():
     1d37. to access the *note f_locals: 28d. attribute of the currently
     executing frame.

     Return a mapping providing access to the local variables in the
     current execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently
     executing.

     Refer to *note locals(): 28b. for details of the mapping returned
     at different scopes.

     As this function returns a *note borrowed reference: 603, the
     dictionary returned for *note optimized scopes: 6ad. is cached on
     the frame object and will remain alive as long as the frame object
     does.  Unlike *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 7ed. and *note
     locals(): 28b, subsequent calls to this function in the same frame
     will update the contents of the cached dictionary to reflect
     changes in the state of the local variables rather than returning a
     new snapshot.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: As part of PEP 667(1), *note
     PyFrame_GetLocals(): 84e, *note locals(): 28b, and *note
     FrameType.f_locals: 28d. no longer make use of the shared cache
     dictionary.  Refer to the *note What’s New entry: 681. for
     additional details.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyEval_GetGlobals (void)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.'

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.13: Use *note PyEval_GetFrameGlobals():
     7eb. instead.

     Return a dictionary of the global variables in the current
     execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently executing.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyFrameObject: b68. *PyEval_GetFrame (void)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.'  Return the *note attached thread state: 1a1.’s frame,
     which is ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently executing.

     See also *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): b6d.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins (void)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Return a dictionary of the builtins in
     the current execution frame, or the interpreter of the thread state
     if no frame is currently executing.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyEval_GetFrameLocals (void)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Return a dictionary of the local
     variables in the current execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no frame is
     currently executing.  Equivalent to calling *note locals(): 28b. in
     Python code.

     To access *note f_locals: 28d. on the current frame without making
     an independent snapshot in *note optimized scopes: 6ad, call *note
     PyFrame_GetLocals(): 84e. on the result of *note PyEval_GetFrame():
     1d37.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyEval_GetFrameGlobals (void)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Return a dictionary of the global
     variables in the current execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no frame is
     currently executing.  Equivalent to calling *note globals(): 1e01.
     in Python code.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *PyEval_GetFuncName (PyObject *func)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the name of 'func' if
     it is a function, class or instance object, else the name of
     'func's type.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *PyEval_GetFuncDesc (PyObject *func)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return a description string,
     depending on the type of 'func'.  Return values include «()» for
     functions and methods, « constructor», « instance», and « object».
     Concatenated with the result of *note PyEval_GetFuncName(): 5307,
     the result will be a description of 'func'.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/


File: python.info,  Node: Codec registry and support functions,  Next: PyTime C API,  Prev: Reflection,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.8.11 Codec registry and support functions
-------------------------------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCodec_Register (PyObject *search_function)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Register a new codec search
     function.

     As a side effect, this tries to load the ‘encodings’ package, if
     not yet done, to make sure that it is always first in the list of
     search functions.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCodec_Unregister (PyObject *search_function)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'
     Unregister a codec search function and clear the registry’s cache.
     If the search function is not registered, do nothing.  Return 0 on
     success.  Raise an exception and return -1 on error.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCodec_KnownEncoding (const char *encoding)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending
     on whether there is a registered codec for the given 'encoding'.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_Encode (PyObject *object,
          const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Generic codec based encoding API.

     'object' is passed through the encoder function found for the given
     'encoding' using the error handling method defined by 'errors'.
     'errors' may be ‘NULL’ to use the default method defined for the
     codec.  Raises a *note LookupError: 25da. if no encoder can be
     found.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_Decode (PyObject *object,
          const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Generic codec based decoding API.

     'object' is passed through the decoder function found for the given
     'encoding' using the error handling method defined by 'errors'.
     'errors' may be ‘NULL’ to use the default method defined for the
     codec.  Raises a *note LookupError: 25da. if no decoder can be
     found.

* Menu:

* Codec lookup API::
* Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers::
* Codec utility variables::


File: python.info,  Node: Codec lookup API,  Next: Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers,  Up: Codec registry and support functions

7.8.11.1 Codec lookup API
.........................

In the following functions, the 'encoding' string is looked up converted
to all lower-case characters, which makes encodings looked up through
this mechanism effectively case-insensitive.  If no codec is found, a
*note KeyError: 7df. is set and ‘NULL’ returned.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_Encoder (const char
          *encoding)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Get an encoder function for the given 'encoding'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_Decoder (const char
          *encoding)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Get a decoder function for the given 'encoding'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (const
          char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Get an *note IncrementalEncoder: 2a4d. object for the given
     'encoding'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (const
          char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Get an *note IncrementalDecoder: 2a4e. object for the given
     'encoding'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_StreamReader (const char
          *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Get a *note StreamReader: 2a52. factory function for the
     given 'encoding'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_StreamWriter (const char
          *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Get a *note StreamWriter: 2a51. factory function for the
     given 'encoding'.


File: python.info,  Node: Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers,  Next: Codec utility variables,  Prev: Codec lookup API,  Up: Codec registry and support functions

7.8.11.2 Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers
.........................................................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCodec_RegisterError (const char *name, PyObject
          *error)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Register the error handling
     callback function 'error' under the given 'name'.  This callback
     function will be called by a codec when it encounters unencodable
     characters/undecodable bytes and 'name' is specified as the error
     parameter in the call to the encode/decode function.

     The callback gets a single argument, an instance of *note
     UnicodeEncodeError: a67, *note UnicodeDecodeError: dd7. or *note
     UnicodeTranslateError: 1b1c. that holds information about the
     problematic sequence of characters or bytes and their offset in the
     original string (see *note Unicode Exception Objects: 674. for
     functions to extract this information).  The callback must either
     raise the given exception, or return a two-item tuple containing
     the replacement for the problematic sequence, and an integer giving
     the offset in the original string at which encoding/decoding should
     be resumed.

     Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_LookupError (const char
          *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Lookup the error handling callback function registered under
     'name'.  As a special case ‘NULL’ can be passed, in which case the
     error handling callback for «strict» will be returned.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_StrictErrors (PyObject
          *exc)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Πάντοτε NULL.'' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Raise 'exc' as an exception.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (PyObject
          *exc)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Ignore the unicode error, skipping the faulty input.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (PyObject
          *exc)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Replace the unicode encode error with ‘?’ or ‘U+FFFD’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Replace the unicode encode error with XML character
     references.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Replace the unicode encode error with backslash escapes
     (‘\x’, ‘\u’ and ‘\U’).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors
          (PyObject *exc)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Replace the unicode encode error with
     ‘\N{...}’ escapes.

     Added in version 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Codec utility variables,  Prev: Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers,  Up: Codec registry and support functions

7.8.11.3 Codec utility variables
................................

 -- C Μεταβλητή: const char *Py_hexdigits

     A string constant containing the lowercase hexadecimal digits:
     ‘"0123456789abcdef"’.

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: PyTime C API,  Next: Support for Perf Maps,  Prev: Codec registry and support functions,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.8.12 PyTime C API
-------------------

Added in version 3.13.

The clock C API provides access to system clocks.  It is similar to the
Python *note time: f7. module.

For C API related to the *note datetime: 33. module, see *note DateTime
Objects: 55cf.

* Menu:

* Types: Types<3>.
* Clock Functions::
* Raw Clock Functions::
* Conversion functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Types<3>,  Next: Clock Functions,  Up: PyTime C API

7.8.12.1 Types
..............

 -- C Τύπος: type PyTime_t

     A timestamp or duration in nanoseconds, represented as a signed
     64-bit integer.

     The reference point for timestamps depends on the clock used.  For
     example, *note PyTime_Time(): 7d4. returns timestamps relative to
     the UNIX epoch.

     The supported range is around [-292.3 years; +292.3 years].  Using
     the Unix epoch (January 1st, 1970) as reference, the supported date
     range is around [1677-09-21; 2262-04-11].  The exact limits are
     exposed as constants:

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTime_t: 7cc. PyTime_MIN

     Minimum value of *note PyTime_t: 7cc.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTime_t: 7cc. PyTime_MAX

     Maximum value of *note PyTime_t: 7cc.


File: python.info,  Node: Clock Functions,  Next: Raw Clock Functions,  Prev: Types<3>,  Up: PyTime C API

7.8.12.2 Clock Functions
........................

The following functions take a pointer to a *note PyTime_t: 7cc. that
they set to the value of a particular clock.  Details of each clock are
given in the documentation of the corresponding Python function.

The functions return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ (with an exception set) on
failure.

On integer overflow, they set the *note PyExc_OverflowError: 5330.
exception and set ‘*result’ to the value clamped to the ‘[PyTime_MIN;
PyTime_MAX]’ range.  (On current systems, integer overflows are likely
caused by misconfigured system time.)

As any other C API (unless otherwise specified), the functions must be
called with an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTime_Monotonic (PyTime_t *result)

     Read the monotonic clock.  See *note time.monotonic(): 75d. for
     important details on this clock.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTime_PerfCounter (PyTime_t *result)

     Read the performance counter.  See *note time.perf_counter(): e49.
     for important details on this clock.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTime_Time (PyTime_t *result)

     Read the “wall clock” time.  See *note time.time(): 75e. for
     details important on this clock.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw Clock Functions,  Next: Conversion functions,  Prev: Clock Functions,  Up: PyTime C API

7.8.12.3 Raw Clock Functions
............................

Similar to clock functions, but don’t set an exception on error and
don’t require the caller to have an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

On success, the functions return ‘0’.

On failure, they set ‘*result’ to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’, 'without' setting
an exception.  To get the cause of the error, *note attach: 1a1. a *note
thread state: 1a70, and call the regular (non-‘Raw’) function.  Note
that the regular function may succeed after the ‘Raw’ one failed.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTime_MonotonicRaw (PyTime_t *result)

     Similar to *note PyTime_Monotonic(): 7d0, but don’t set an
     exception on error and don’t require an *note attached thread
     state: 1a1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTime_PerfCounterRaw (PyTime_t *result)

     Similar to *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 7d2, but don’t set an
     exception on error and don’t require an *note attached thread
     state: 1a1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTime_TimeRaw (PyTime_t *result)

     Similar to *note PyTime_Time(): 7d4, but don’t set an exception on
     error and don’t require an *note attached thread state: 1a1.


File: python.info,  Node: Conversion functions,  Prev: Raw Clock Functions,  Up: PyTime C API

7.8.12.4 Conversion functions
.............................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double PyTime_AsSecondsDouble (PyTime_t t)

     Convert a timestamp to a number of seconds as a C double.

     The function cannot fail, but note that double has limited accuracy
     for large values.


File: python.info,  Node: Support for Perf Maps,  Prev: PyTime C API,  Up: Utilities<2>

7.8.13 Support for Perf Maps
----------------------------

On supported platforms (Linux and macOS), the runtime can take advantage
of 'perf map files' to make Python functions visible to an external
profiling tool (such as perf(1) or samply(2)).  A running process may
create a file in the ‘/tmp’ directory, which contains entries that can
map a section of executable code to a name.  This interface is described
in the documentation of the Linux Perf tool(3).

In Python, these helper APIs can be used by libraries and features that
rely on generating machine code on the fly.

Note that holding an *note attached thread state: 1a1. is not required
for these APIs.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init (void)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Open the ‘/tmp/perf-$pid.map’ file, unless it’s already opened, and
     create a lock to ensure thread-safe writes to the file (provided
     the writes are done through *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry():
     1cac.).  Normally, there’s no need to call this explicitly; just
     use ‘PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry()’ and it will initialize the
     state on first call.

     Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure to create/open the perf map
     file, or ‘-2’ on failure to create a lock.  Check ‘errno’ for more
     information about the cause of a failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry (const void
          *code_addr, size_t code_size, const char *entry_name)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Write one single entry to the ‘/tmp/perf-$pid.map’ file.  This
     function is thread safe.  Here is what an example entry looks like:

          # address      size  name
          7f3529fcf759 b     py::bar:/run/t.py

     Will call *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 1cad. before
     writing the entry, if the perf map file is not already opened.
     Returns ‘0’ on success, or the same error codes as
     ‘PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init()’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini (void)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Close the perf map file opened by *note
     PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 1cad.  This is called by the
     runtime itself during interpreter shut-down.  In general, there
     shouldn’t be a reason to explicitly call this, except to handle
     specific scenarios such as forking.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://perf.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page

   (2) https://github.com/mstange/samply/

   (3) 
https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/tree/tools/perf/Documentation/jit-interface.txt


File: python.info,  Node: Abstract Objects Layer,  Next: Concrete Objects Layer,  Prev: Utilities<2>,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.9 Abstract Objects Layer
==========================

The functions in this chapter interact with Python objects regardless of
their type, or with wide classes of object types (e.g.  all numerical
types, or all sequence types).  When used on object types for which they
do not apply, they will raise a Python exception.

It is not possible to use these functions on objects that are not
properly initialized, such as a list object that has been created by
*note PyList_New(): 5260, but whose items have not been set to some
non-‘NULL’ value yet.

* Menu:

* Object Protocol::
* Call Protocol::
* Number Protocol::
* Sequence Protocol::
* Mapping Protocol::
* Iterator Protocol::
* Buffer Protocol::


File: python.info,  Node: Object Protocol,  Next: Call Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.9.1 Object Protocol
---------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_GetConstant (unsigned int
          constant_id)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Get a
     *note strong reference: 7da. to a constant.

     Set an exception and return ‘NULL’ if 'constant_id' is invalid.

     'constant_id' must be one of these constant identifiers:

     Constant Identifier                          Value     Returned object
                                                            
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_CONSTANT_NONE          ‘0’       *note None: a65.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_CONSTANT_FALSE         ‘1’       *note False: ef5.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_CONSTANT_TRUE          ‘2’       *note True: fcc.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_CONSTANT_ELLIPSIS      ‘3’       *note Ellipsis: 2519.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή:                           ‘4’       *note NotImplemented: 440.
               Py_CONSTANT_NOT_IMPLEMENTED                  

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_CONSTANT_ZERO          ‘5’       ‘0’
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_CONSTANT_ONE           ‘6’       ‘1’
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR     ‘7’       ‘''’
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_BYTES   ‘8’       ‘b''’
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_TUPLE   ‘9’       ‘()’
                                                            

     Numeric values are only given for projects which cannot use the
     constant identifiers.

     Added in version 3.13.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' In CPython, all of these
     constants are *note immortal: 398.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_GetConstantBorrowed (unsigned
          int constant_id)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Similar
     to *note Py_GetConstant(): 7ef, but return a *note borrowed
     reference: 603.

     This function is primarily intended for backwards compatibility:
     using *note Py_GetConstant(): 7ef. is recommended for new code.

     The reference is borrowed from the interpreter, and is valid until
     the interpreter finalization.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_NotImplemented

     The ‘NotImplemented’ singleton, used to signal that an operation is
     not implemented for the given type combination.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED

     Properly handle returning *note Py_NotImplemented: 55e8. from
     within a C function (that is, create a new *note strong reference:
     7da. to *note NotImplemented: 440. and return it).

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_PRINT_RAW

     Flag to be used with multiple functions that print the object (like
     *note PyObject_Print(): 18fe. and *note PyFile_WriteObject():
     5350.).  If passed, these functions use the *note str(): 1df. of
     the object instead of the *note repr(): 45b.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_Print (PyObject *o, FILE *fp, int flags)

     Print an object 'o', on file 'fp'.  Returns ‘-1’ on error.  The
     flags argument is used to enable certain printing options.  The
     only option currently supported is *note Py_PRINT_RAW: 55e9.; if
     given, the *note str(): 1df. of the object is written instead of
     the *note repr(): 45b.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyObject_Dump (PyObject *op)

     Dump an object 'op' to ‘stderr’.  This should only be used for
     debugging.

     The output is intended to try dumping objects even after memory
     corruption:

        * Information is written starting with fields that are the least
          likely to crash when accessed.

        * This function can be called without an *note attached thread
          state: 1a1, but it’s not recommended to do so: it can cause
          deadlocks.

        * An object that does not belong to the current interpreter may
          be dumped, but this may also cause crashes or unintended
          behavior.

        * Implement a heuristic to detect if the object memory has been
          freed.  Don’t display the object contents in this case, only
          its memory address.

        * The output format may change at any time.

     Example of output:

          object address  : 0x7f80124702c0
          object refcount : 2
          object type     : 0x9902e0
          object type name: str
          object repr     : 'abcdef'

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_HasAttrWithError (PyObject *o, PyObject
          *attr_name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Returns
     ‘1’ if 'o' has the attribute 'attr_name', and ‘0’ otherwise.  This
     is equivalent to the Python expression ‘hasattr(o, attr_name)’.  On
     failure, return ‘-1’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError (PyObject *o, const
          char *attr_name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  This is
     the same as *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 80f, but 'attr_name'
     is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather
     than a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_HasAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Returns ‘1’ if 'o' has the
     attribute 'attr_name', and ‘0’ otherwise.  This function always
     succeeds.

          Σημείωση: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note
          __getattr__(): 8e3. and *note __getattribute__(): f90. methods
          aren’t propagated, but instead given to *note
          sys.unraisablehook(): 70c.  For proper error handling, use
          *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 80f, *note
          PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 7e4. or *note PyObject_GetAttr():
          3b7. instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_HasAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_HasAttr(): 810, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const
     char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject:
     19b.*.

          Σημείωση: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note
          __getattr__(): 8e3. and *note __getattribute__(): f90. methods
          or while creating the temporary *note str: 1df. object are
          silently ignored.  For proper error handling, use *note
          PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 811, *note
          PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 7e5. or *note
          PyObject_GetAttrString(): 7e6. instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_GetAttr (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *attr_name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Retrieve an attribute named 'attr_name' from object 'o'.
     Returns the attribute value on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This
     is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o.attr_name’.

     If the missing attribute should not be treated as a failure, you
     can use *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 7e4. instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_GetAttrString (PyObject
          *o, const char *attr_name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  This is the same as *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 3b7, but
     'attr_name' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes
     string, rather than a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

     If the missing attribute should not be treated as a failure, you
     can use *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 7e5. instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_GetOptionalAttr (PyObject *obj, PyObject
          *attr_name, PyObject **result);
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Variant
     of *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 3b7. which doesn’t raise *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. if the attribute is not found.

     If the attribute is found, return ‘1’ and set '*result' to a new
     *note strong reference: 7da. to the attribute.  If the attribute is
     not found, return ‘0’ and set '*result' to ‘NULL’; the *note
     AttributeError: 1a9. is silenced.  If an error other than
     ‘AttributeError’ is raised, return ‘-1’ and set '*result' to
     ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString (PyObject *obj,
          const char *attr_name, PyObject **result);
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  This is
     the same as *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 7e4, but 'attr_name'
     is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather
     than a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_GenericGetAttr (PyObject
          *o, PyObject *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Generic attribute getter function that is meant to be put
     into a type object’s ‘tp_getattro’ slot.  It looks for a descriptor
     in the dictionary of classes in the object’s MRO as well as an
     attribute in the object’s *note __dict__: 1bf. (if present).  As
     outlined in *note Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων: 100d, data descriptors
     take preference over instance attributes, while non-data
     descriptors don’t.  Otherwise, an *note AttributeError: 1a9. is
     raised.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_SetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name,
          PyObject *v)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the value of the
     attribute named 'attr_name', for object 'o', to the value 'v'.
     Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ on failure; return ‘0’ on
     success.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
     ‘o.attr_name = v’.

     If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the attribute is deleted.  This behaviour is
     deprecated in favour of using *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1a6d, but
     there are currently no plans to remove it.

     The function must not be called with a ‘NULL’ 'v' and an exception
     set.  This case can arise from forgetting ‘NULL’ checks and would
     delete the attribute.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Must not be called with NULL value if an
     exception is set.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_SetAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name, PyObject *v)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_SetAttr(): 1927, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const
     char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject:
     19b.*.

     If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the attribute is deleted, but this feature is
     deprecated in favour of using *note PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1a6e.

     The function must not be called with a ‘NULL’ 'v' and an exception
     set.  This case can arise from forgetting ‘NULL’ checks and would
     delete the attribute.

     The number of different attribute names passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated
     string as 'attr_name'.  For attribute names that aren’t known at
     compile time, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 5451.
     and *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 1927. directly.  For more details,
     see *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 3b5, which may be used
     internally to create a key object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Must not be called with NULL value if an
     exception is set.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_GenericSetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject
          *name, PyObject *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Generic attribute setter and
     deleter function that is meant to be put into a type object’s *note
     tp_setattro: 51fd. slot.  It looks for a data descriptor in the
     dictionary of classes in the object’s MRO, and if found it takes
     preference over setting or deleting the attribute in the instance
     dictionary.  Otherwise, the attribute is set or deleted in the
     object’s *note __dict__: 1bf. (if present).  On success, ‘0’ is
     returned, otherwise an *note AttributeError: 1a9. is raised and
     ‘-1’ is returned.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_DelAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Delete
     attribute named 'attr_name', for object 'o'.  Returns ‘-1’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘del
     o.attr_name’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_DelAttrString (PyObject *o, const char
          *attr_name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  This is
     the same as *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1a6d, but 'attr_name' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

     The number of different attribute names passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated
     string as 'attr_name'.  For attribute names that aren’t known at
     compile time, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 5451.
     and *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1a6d. directly.  For more details,
     see *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 3b5, which may be used
     internally to create a key object for lookup.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_GenericGetDict (PyObject
          *o, void *context)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  A generic implementation for the getter
     of a ‘__dict__’ descriptor.  It creates the dictionary if
     necessary.

     This function may also be called to get the *note __dict__: 1bf. of
     the object 'o'.  Pass ‘NULL’ for 'context' when calling it.  Since
     this function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, it
     may be more efficient to call *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 3b7. when
     accessing an attribute on the object.

     On failure, returns ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_GenericSetDict (PyObject *o, PyObject
          *value, void *context)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  A generic
     implementation for the setter of a ‘__dict__’ descriptor.  This
     implementation does not allow the dictionary to be deleted.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. **_PyObject_GetDictPtr (PyObject
          *obj)

     Return a pointer to *note __dict__: 1bf. of the object 'obj'.  If
     there is no ‘__dict__’, return ‘NULL’ without setting an exception.

     This function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, so it
     may be more efficient to call *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 3b7. when
     accessing an attribute on the object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_RichCompare (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2, int opid)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Compare the values of 'o1' and 'o2' using the operation
     specified by 'opid', which must be one of *note Py_LT: 55eb, *note
     Py_LE: 55ec, *note Py_EQ: 55ed, *note Py_NE: 55ee, *note Py_GT:
     55ef, or *note Py_GE: 55f0, corresponding to ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘==’, ‘!=’,
     ‘>’, or ‘>=’ respectively.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o1 op o2’, where ‘op’ is the operator corresponding to
     'opid'.  Returns the value of the comparison on success, or ‘NULL’
     on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_RichCompareBool (PyObject *o1, PyObject
          *o2, int opid)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Compare the values of 'o1'
     and 'o2' using the operation specified by 'opid', like *note
     PyObject_RichCompare(): 5206, but returns ‘-1’ on error, ‘0’ if the
     result is false, ‘1’ otherwise.

     Σημείωση: If 'o1' and 'o2' are the same object, *note
     PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 1f7e. will always return ‘1’ for *note
     Py_EQ: 55ed. and ‘0’ for *note Py_NE: 55ee.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_Format (PyObject *obj,
          PyObject *format_spec)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Format 'obj' using
     'format_spec'.  This is equivalent to the Python expression
     ‘format(obj, format_spec)’.

     'format_spec' may be ‘NULL’.  In this case the call is equivalent
     to ‘format(obj)’.  Returns the formatted string on success, ‘NULL’
     on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_Repr (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     Compute a string representation of object 'o'.  Returns the string
     representation on success, ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘repr(o)’.  Called by the *note
     repr(): 45b. built-in function.

     If argument is ‘NULL’, return the string ‘'<NULL>'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: This function now includes a debug
     assertion to help ensure that it does not silently discard an
     active exception.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_ASCII (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     As *note PyObject_Repr(): 13d7, compute a string representation of
     object 'o', but escape the non-ASCII characters in the string
     returned by ‘PyObject_Repr()’ with ‘\x’, ‘\u’ or ‘\U’ escapes.
     This generates a string similar to that returned by
     ‘PyObject_Repr()’ in Python 2.  Called by the *note ascii(): 1789.
     built-in function.

     If argument is ‘NULL’, return the string ‘'<NULL>'’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_Str (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Compute a string representation of object 'o'.  Returns the
     string representation on success, ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘str(o)’.  Called by the *note
     str(): 1df. built-in function and, therefore, by the *note print():
     131f. function.

     If argument is ‘NULL’, return the string ‘'<NULL>'’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: This function now includes a debug
     assertion to help ensure that it does not silently discard an
     active exception.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_Bytes (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     Compute a bytes representation of object 'o'.  ‘NULL’ is returned
     on failure and a bytes object on success.  This is equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘bytes(o)’, when 'o' is not an integer.
     Unlike ‘bytes(o)’, a TypeError is raised when 'o' is an integer
     instead of a zero-initialized bytes object.

     If argument is ‘NULL’, return the *note bytes: 1c7. object
     ‘b'<NULL>'’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_IsSubclass (PyObject *derived, PyObject
          *cls)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return ‘1’ if the class
     'derived' is identical to or derived from the class 'cls',
     otherwise return ‘0’.  In case of an error, return ‘-1’.

     If 'cls' is a tuple, the check will be done against every entry in
     'cls'.  The result will be ‘1’ when at least one of the checks
     returns ‘1’, otherwise it will be ‘0’.

     If 'cls' has a *note __subclasscheck__(): 25bd. method, it will be
     called to determine the subclass status as described in PEP
     3119(1).  Otherwise, 'derived' is a subclass of 'cls' if it is a
     direct or indirect subclass, i.e.  contained in *note cls.__mro__:
     2569.

     Normally only class objects, i.e.  instances of *note type: 186. or
     a derived class, are considered classes.  However, objects can
     override this by having a *note __bases__: 184e. attribute (which
     must be a tuple of base classes).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_IsInstance (PyObject *inst, PyObject *cls)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return ‘1’ if 'inst' is an
     instance of the class 'cls' or a subclass of 'cls', or ‘0’ if not.
     On error, returns ‘-1’ and sets an exception.

     If 'cls' is a tuple, the check will be done against every entry in
     'cls'.  The result will be ‘1’ when at least one of the checks
     returns ‘1’, otherwise it will be ‘0’.

     If 'cls' has a *note __instancecheck__(): 25bc. method, it will be
     called to determine the subclass status as described in PEP
     3119(2).  Otherwise, 'inst' is an instance of 'cls' if its class is
     a subclass of 'cls'.

     An instance 'inst' can override what is considered its class by
     having a *note __class__: 184f. attribute.

     An object 'cls' can override if it is considered a class, and what
     its base classes are, by having a *note __bases__: 184e. attribute
     (which must be a tuple of base classes).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_hash_t: 1608. PyObject_Hash (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Compute and return the hash value of an object 'o'.  On failure,
     return ‘-1’.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘hash(o)’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The return type is now Py_hash_t.  This is
     a signed integer the same size as *note Py_ssize_t: e24.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_hash_t: 1608. PyObject_HashNotImplemented
          (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set a *note TypeError: 291.
     indicating that ‘type(o)’ is not *note hashable: 183. and return
     ‘-1’.  This function receives special treatment when stored in a
     ‘tp_hash’ slot, allowing a type to explicitly indicate to the
     interpreter that it is not hashable.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_IsTrue (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Returns ‘1’ if the object 'o'
     is considered to be true, and ‘0’ otherwise.  This is equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘not not o’.  On failure, return ‘-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_Not (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Returns ‘0’ if the object 'o'
     is considered to be true, and ‘1’ otherwise.  This is equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘not o’.  On failure, return ‘-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_Type (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     When 'o' is non-‘NULL’, returns a type object corresponding to the
     object type of object 'o'.  On failure, raises *note SystemError:
     3ea. and returns ‘NULL’.  This is equivalent to the Python
     expression ‘type(o)’.  This function creates a new *note strong
     reference: 7da. to the return value.  There’s really no reason to
     use this function instead of the *note Py_TYPE(): 5f5. function,
     which returns a pointer of type *note PyTypeObject: e6b.*, except
     when a new strong reference is needed.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_TypeCheck (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject
          *type)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' is of type 'type' or a subtype of
     'type', and ‘0’ otherwise.  Both parameters must be non-‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyObject_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyObject_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Return the length of object 'o'.  If the object 'o' provides either
     the sequence and mapping protocols, the sequence length is
     returned.  On error, ‘-1’ is returned.  This is the equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘len(o)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyObject_LengthHint (PyObject
          *o, Py_ssize_t defaultvalue)

     Return an estimated length for the object 'o'.  First try to return
     its actual length, then an estimate using *note __length_hint__():
     12bc, and finally return the default value.  On error return ‘-1’.
     This is the equivalent to the Python expression
     ‘operator.length_hint(o, defaultvalue)’.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_GetItem (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *key)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return element of 'o' corresponding to the object 'key' or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o[key]’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_SetItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key,
          PyObject *v)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Map the object 'key' to the
     value 'v'.  Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ on failure; return
     ‘0’ on success.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement
     ‘o[key] = v’.  This function 'does not' steal a reference to 'v'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_DelItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Remove the mapping for the
     object 'key' from the object 'o'.  Return ‘-1’ on failure.  This is
     equivalent to the Python statement ‘del o[key]’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_DelItemString (PyObject *o, const char
          *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_DelItem(): 53c2, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_Dir (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘dir(o)’,
     returning a (possibly empty) list of strings appropriate for the
     object argument, or ‘NULL’ if there was an error.  If the argument
     is ‘NULL’, this is like the Python ‘dir()’, returning the names of
     the current locals; in this case, if no execution frame is active
     then ‘NULL’ is returned but *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. will
     return false.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_GetIter (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘iter(o)’.  It
     returns a new iterator for the object argument, or the object
     itself if the object is already an iterator.  Raises *note
     TypeError: 291. and returns ‘NULL’ if the object cannot be
     iterated.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_SelfIter (PyObject *obj)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  This is equivalent to the Python ‘__iter__(self): return
     self’ method.  It is intended for *note iterator: 6ce. types, to be
     used in the *note PyTypeObject.tp_iter: 1891. slot.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_GetAIter (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  This is the equivalent to the Python
     expression ‘aiter(o)’.  Takes an ‘AsyncIterable’ object and returns
     an ‘AsyncIterator’ for it.  This is typically a new iterator but if
     the argument is an ‘AsyncIterator’, this returns itself.  Raises
     *note TypeError: 291. and returns ‘NULL’ if the object cannot be
     iterated.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyObject_GetTypeData (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject
          *cls)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Get a
     pointer to subclass-specific data reserved for 'cls'.

     The object 'o' must be an instance of 'cls', and 'cls' must have
     been created using negative *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 199.
     Python does not check this.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyType_GetTypeDataSize
          (PyTypeObject *cls)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Return
     the size of the instance memory space reserved for 'cls', i.e.  the
     size of the memory *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 19a. returns.

     This may be larger than requested using *note
     -PyType_Spec.basicsize: 199.; it is safe to use this larger size
     (e.g.  with ‘memset()’).

     The type 'cls' 'must' have been created using negative *note
     PyType_Spec.basicsize: 199.  Python does not check this.

     On error, set an exception and return a negative value.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyObject_GetItemData (PyObject *o)

     Get a pointer to per-item data for a class with *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 956.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.  *note TypeError:
     291. is raised if 'o' does not have *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END:
     956. set.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_VisitManagedDict (PyObject *obj, visitproc
          visit, void *arg)

     Visit the managed dictionary of 'obj'.

     This function must only be called in a traverse function of the
     type which has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. flag set.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyObject_ClearManagedDict (PyObject *obj)

     Clear the managed dictionary of 'obj'.

     This function must only be called in a clear function of the type
     which has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. flag set.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_Object_EnableDeferredRefcount (PyObject
          *obj)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Enable deferred reference counting(3) on 'obj', if supported by the
     runtime.  In the *note free-threaded: 487. build, this allows the
     interpreter to avoid reference count adjustments to 'obj', which
     may improve multi-threaded performance.  The tradeoff is that 'obj'
     will only be deallocated by the tracing garbage collector, and not
     when the interpreter no longer has any references to it.

     This function returns ‘1’ if deferred reference counting is enabled
     on 'obj', and ‘0’ if deferred reference counting is not supported
     or if the hint was ignored by the interpreter, such as when
     deferred reference counting is already enabled on 'obj'.  This
     function is thread-safe, and cannot fail.

     This function does nothing on builds with the *note GIL: 411.
     enabled, which do not support deferred reference counting.  This
     also does nothing if 'obj' is not an object tracked by the garbage
     collector (see *note gc.is_tracked(): 16b2. and *note
     PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): d3e.).

     This function is intended to be used soon after 'obj' is created,
     by the code that creates it, such as in the object’s *note tp_new:
     981. slot.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_Object_IsUniqueReferencedTemporary
          (PyObject *obj)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Check if 'obj' is a unique temporary object.  Returns ‘1’ if 'obj'
     is known to be a unique temporary object, and ‘0’ otherwise.  This
     function cannot fail, but the check is conservative, and may return
     ‘0’ in some cases even if 'obj' is a unique temporary object.

     If an object is a unique temporary, it is guaranteed that the
     current code has the only reference to the object.  For arguments
     to C functions, this should be used instead of checking if the
     reference count is ‘1’.  Starting with Python 3.14, the interpreter
     internally avoids some reference count modifications when loading
     objects onto the operands stack by *note borrowing: 603. references
     when possible, which means that a reference count of ‘1’ by itself
     does not guarantee that a function argument uniquely referenced.

     In the example below, ‘my_func’ is called with a unique temporary
     object as its argument:

          my_func([1, 2, 3])

     In the example below, ‘my_func’ is 'not' called with a unique
     temporary object as its argument, even if its refcount is ‘1’:

          my_list = [1, 2, 3]
          my_func(my_list)

     See also the function *note Py_REFCNT(): 54b.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_IsImmortal (PyObject *obj)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     This function returns non-zero if 'obj' is *note immortal: 398, and
     zero otherwise.  This function cannot fail.

          Σημείωση: Objects that are immortal in one CPython version are
          not guaranteed to be immortal in another.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_TryIncRef (PyObject *obj)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Increments the reference count of 'obj' if it is not zero.  Returns
     ‘1’ if the object’s reference count was successfully incremented.
     Otherwise, this function returns ‘0’.

     *note PyUnstable_EnableTryIncRef(): 1aeb. must have been called
     earlier on 'obj' or this function may spuriously return ‘0’ in the
     *note free-threaded build: 198.

     This function is logically equivalent to the following C code,
     except that it behaves atomically in the *note free-threaded build:
     198.:

          if (Py_REFCNT(op) > 0) {
             Py_INCREF(op);
             return 1;
          }
          return 0;

     This is intended as a building block for managing weak references
     without the overhead of a Python *note weak reference object: 55f1.

     Typically, correct use of this function requires support from
     'obj'’s deallocator (*note tp_dealloc: 51d3.).  For example, the
     following sketch could be adapted to implement a «weakmap» that
     works like a *note WeakValueDictionary: 1b45. for a specific type:

          PyMutex mutex;

          PyObject *
          add_entry(weakmap_key_type *key, PyObject *value)
          {
              PyUnstable_EnableTryIncRef(value);
              weakmap_type weakmap = ...;
              PyMutex_Lock(&mutex);
              weakmap_add_entry(weakmap, key, value);
              PyMutex_Unlock(&mutex);
              Py_RETURN_NONE;
          }

          PyObject *
          get_value(weakmap_key_type *key)
          {
              weakmap_type weakmap = ...;
              PyMutex_Lock(&mutex);
              PyObject *result = weakmap_find(weakmap, key);
              if (PyUnstable_TryIncRef(result)) {
                  // `result` is safe to use
                  PyMutex_Unlock(&mutex);
                  return result;
              }
              // if we get here, `result` is starting to be garbage-collected,
              // but has not been removed from the weakmap yet
              PyMutex_Unlock(&mutex);
              return NULL;
          }

          // tp_dealloc function for weakmap values
          void
          value_dealloc(PyObject *value)
          {
              weakmap_type weakmap = ...;
              PyMutex_Lock(&mutex);
              weakmap_remove_value(weakmap, value);

              ...
              PyMutex_Unlock(&mutex);
          }

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyUnstable_EnableTryIncRef (PyObject *obj)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Enables subsequent uses of *note PyUnstable_TryIncRef(): 1aea. on
     'obj'.  The caller must hold a *note strong reference: 7da. to
     'obj' when calling this.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_Object_IsUniquelyReferenced (PyObject
          *op)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Determine if 'op' only has one reference.

     On GIL-enabled builds, this function is equivalent to *note
     Py_REFCNT: 54b.(*note op: 5f2.) == 1.

     On a *note free-threaded build: 198, this checks if 'op'’s *note
     reference count: 2c5. is equal to one and additionally checks if
     'op' is only used by this thread.  *note Py_REFCNT: 54b.(*note op:
     5f2.) == 1 is 'not' thread-safe on free-threaded builds; prefer
     this function.

     The caller must hold an *note attached thread state: 1a1, despite
     the fact that this function doesn’t call into the Python
     interpreter.  This function cannot fail.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_SetImmortal (PyObject *op)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Marks the object 'op' *note immortal: 398.  The argument should be
     uniquely referenced by the calling thread.  This is intended to be
     used for reducing reference counting contention in the *note
     free-threaded build: 198. for objects which are shared across
     threads.

     This is a one-way process: objects can only be made immortal; they
     cannot be made mortal once again.  Immortal objects do not
     participate in reference counting and will never be garbage
     collected.  If the object is GC-tracked, it is untracked.

     This function is intended to be used soon after 'op' is created, by
     the code that creates it, such as in the object’s *note tp_new:
     981. slot.  Returns 1 if the object was made immortal and returns 0
     if it was not.  This function cannot fail.

     Added in version 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/#deferred-reference-counting


File: python.info,  Node: Call Protocol,  Next: Number Protocol,  Prev: Object Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.9.2 Call Protocol
-------------------

CPython supports two different calling protocols: 'tp_call' and
vectorcall.

* Menu:

* The tp_call Protocol::
* The Vectorcall Protocol::
* Object Calling API::
* Call Support API::


File: python.info,  Node: The tp_call Protocol,  Next: The Vectorcall Protocol,  Up: Call Protocol

7.9.2.1 The 'tp_call' Protocol
..............................

Instances of classes that set *note tp_call: 962. are callable.  The
signature of the slot is:

     PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *callable, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs);

A call is made using a tuple for the positional arguments and a dict for
the keyword arguments, similarly to ‘callable(*args, **kwargs)’ in
Python code.  'args' must be non-NULL (use an empty tuple if there are
no arguments) but 'kwargs' may be 'NULL' if there are no keyword
arguments.

This convention is not only used by 'tp_call': *note tp_new: 981. and
*note tp_init: 983. also pass arguments this way.

To call an object, use *note PyObject_Call(): 82f. or another *note call
API: 55f6.


File: python.info,  Node: The Vectorcall Protocol,  Next: Object Calling API,  Prev: The tp_call Protocol,  Up: Call Protocol

7.9.2.2 The Vectorcall Protocol
...............................

Added in version 3.9.

The vectorcall protocol was introduced in PEP 590(1) as an additional
protocol for making calls more efficient.

As rule of thumb, CPython will prefer the vectorcall for internal calls
if the callable supports it.  However, this is not a hard rule.
Additionally, some third-party extensions use 'tp_call' directly (rather
than using *note PyObject_Call(): 82f.).  Therefore, a class supporting
vectorcall must also implement *note tp_call: 962.  Moreover, the
callable must behave the same regardless of which protocol is used.  The
recommended way to achieve this is by setting ‘tp_call’ to *note
PyVectorcall_Call(): 95f.  This bears repeating:

     Προειδοποίηση: A class supporting vectorcall 'must' also implement
     *note tp_call: 962. with the same semantics.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 95d. flag
is now removed from a class when the class’s *note __call__(): 961.
method is reassigned.  (This internally sets *note tp_call: 962. only,
and thus may make it behave differently than the vectorcall function.)
In earlier Python versions, vectorcall should only be used with *note
immutable: 5fb. or static types.

A class should not implement vectorcall if that would be slower than
'tp_call'.  For example, if the callee needs to convert the arguments to
an args tuple and kwargs dict anyway, then there is no point in
implementing vectorcall.

Classes can implement the vectorcall protocol by enabling the *note
Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 95d. flag and setting *note
tp_vectorcall_offset: 55f8. to the offset inside the object structure
where a 'vectorcallfunc' appears.  This is a pointer to a function with
the following signature:

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*vectorcallfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 19b. *callable, *note PyObject: 19b. *const *args,
          size_t nargsf, *note PyObject: 19b. *kwnames)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'

   - 'callable' is the object being called.

   - 
     'args' is a C array consisting of the positional arguments followed by the

          values of the keyword arguments.  This can be 'NULL' if there
          are no arguments.

   - 
     'nargsf' is the number of positional arguments plus possibly the

          *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 965. flag.  To get the
          actual number of positional arguments from 'nargsf', use *note
          PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 95e.

   - 
     'kwnames' is a tuple containing the names of the keyword arguments;

          in other words, the keys of the kwargs dict.  These names must
          be strings (instances of ‘str’ or a subclass) and they must be
          unique.  If there are no keyword arguments, then 'kwnames' can
          instead be 'NULL'.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  If this
     flag is set in a vectorcall 'nargsf' argument, the callee is
     allowed to temporarily change ‘args[-1]’.  In other words, 'args'
     points to argument 1 (not 0) in the allocated vector.  The callee
     must restore the value of ‘args[-1]’ before returning.

     For *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 964, this flag means instead
     that ‘args[0]’ may be changed.

     Whenever they can do so cheaply (without additional allocation),
     callers are encouraged to use *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET:
     965.  Doing so will allow callables such as bound methods to make
     their onward calls (which include a prepended 'self' argument) very
     efficiently.

     Added in version 3.8.

To call an object that implements vectorcall, use a *note call API:
55f6. function as with any other callable.  *note PyObject_Vectorcall():
963. will usually be most efficient.

* Menu:

* Recursion Control: Recursion Control<2>.
* Vectorcall Support API::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/


File: python.info,  Node: Recursion Control<2>,  Next: Vectorcall Support API,  Up: The Vectorcall Protocol

7.9.2.3 Recursion Control
.........................

When using 'tp_call', callees do not need to worry about *note
recursion: 5549.: CPython uses *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 5fe. and
*note Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): d3c. for calls made using 'tp_call'.

For efficiency, this is not the case for calls done using vectorcall:
the callee should use 'Py_EnterRecursiveCall' and
'Py_LeaveRecursiveCall' if needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Vectorcall Support API,  Prev: Recursion Control<2>,  Up: The Vectorcall Protocol

7.9.2.4 Vectorcall Support API
..............................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyVectorcall_NARGS (size_t
          nargsf)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Given a
     vectorcall 'nargsf' argument, return the actual number of
     arguments.  Currently equivalent to:

          (Py_ssize_t)(nargsf & ~PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET)

     However, the function ‘PyVectorcall_NARGS’ should be used to allow
     for future extensions.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note vectorcallfunc: 960. PyVectorcall_Function
          (PyObject *op)

     If 'op' does not support the vectorcall protocol (either because
     the type does not or because the specific instance does not),
     return 'NULL'. Otherwise, return the vectorcall function pointer
     stored in 'op'.  This function never raises an exception.

     This is mostly useful to check whether or not 'op' supports
     vectorcall, which can be done by checking
     ‘PyVectorcall_Function(op) != NULL’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyVectorcall_Call (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *tuple, PyObject *dict)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Call
     'callable'’s *note vectorcallfunc: 960. with positional and keyword
     arguments given in a tuple and dict, respectively.

     This is a specialized function, intended to be put in the *note
     tp_call: 962. slot or be used in an implementation of ‘tp_call’.
     It does not check the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 95d. flag
     and it does not fall back to ‘tp_call’.

     Added in version 3.8.


File: python.info,  Node: Object Calling API,  Next: Call Support API,  Prev: The Vectorcall Protocol,  Up: Call Protocol

7.9.2.5 Object Calling API
..........................

Various functions are available for calling a Python object.  Each
converts its arguments to a convention supported by the called object –
either 'tp_call' or vectorcall.  In order to do as little conversion as
possible, pick one that best fits the format of data you have available.

The following table summarizes the available functions; please see
individual documentation for details.

Function                                       callable               args                     kwargs
                                                                                               
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_Call(): 82f.                    ‘PyObject *’           tuple                    dict/‘NULL’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 82e.              ‘PyObject *’           —                        —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallOneArg(): d40.              ‘PyObject *’           1 object                 —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallObject(): 51c2.             ‘PyObject *’           tuple/‘NULL’             —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallFunction(): 831.            ‘PyObject *’           format                   —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethod(): 3b6.              obj + ‘char*’          format                   —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 53c1.    ‘PyObject *’           variadic                 —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 1fce.      obj + name             variadic                 —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs(): 55fd.       obj + name             —                        —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_CallMethodOneArg(): 55fe.       obj + name             1 object                 —
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 963.              ‘PyObject *’           vectorcall               vectorcall
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_VectorcallDict(): 55ff.         ‘PyObject *’           vectorcall               dict/‘NULL’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
*note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 964.        arg + name             vectorcall               vectorcall
                                                                                               

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_Call (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Call a callable Python object 'callable', with arguments
     given by the tuple 'args', and named arguments given by the
     dictionary 'kwargs'.

     'args' must not be 'NULL'; use an empty tuple if no arguments are
     needed.  If no named arguments are needed, 'kwargs' can be 'NULL'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘callable(*args,
     **kwargs)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_CallNoArgs (PyObject
          *callable)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Call a callable Python object
     'callable' without any arguments.  It is the most efficient way to
     call a callable Python object without any argument.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_CallOneArg (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *arg)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Call a callable Python object
     'callable' with exactly 1 positional argument 'arg' and no keyword
     arguments.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_CallObject (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *args)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Call a callable Python object 'callable', with arguments
     given by the tuple 'args'.  If no arguments are needed, then 'args'
     can be 'NULL'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘callable(*args)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_CallFunction (PyObject
          *callable, const char *format, ...)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Call a callable Python object 'callable', with a variable
     number of C arguments.  The C arguments are described using a *note
     Py_BuildValue(): 5ee. style format string.  The format can be
     'NULL', indicating that no arguments are provided.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘callable(*args)’.

     Note that if you only pass *note PyObject: 19b.* args, *note
     PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 53c1. is a faster alternative.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The type of 'format' was changed from ‘char
     *’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_CallMethod (PyObject
          *obj, const char *name, const char *format, ...)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Call the method named 'name' of object 'obj' with a variable
     number of C arguments.  The C arguments are described by a *note
     Py_BuildValue(): 5ee. format string that should produce a tuple.

     The format can be 'NULL', indicating that no arguments are
     provided.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘obj.name(arg1,
     arg2, ...)’.

     Note that if you only pass *note PyObject: 19b.* args, *note
     PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 1fce. is a faster alternative.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The types of 'name' and 'format' were
     changed from ‘char *’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs
          (PyObject *callable, ...)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Call a callable Python object 'callable', with a variable
     number of *note PyObject: 19b.* arguments.  The arguments are
     provided as a variable number of parameters followed by 'NULL'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘callable(arg1,
     arg2, ...)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs
          (PyObject *obj, PyObject *name, ...)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Call a method of the Python object 'obj', where the name of
     the method is given as a Python string object in 'name'.  It is
     called with a variable number of *note PyObject: 19b.* arguments.
     The arguments are provided as a variable number of parameters
     followed by 'NULL'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs
          (PyObject *obj, PyObject *name)

     Call a method of the Python object 'obj' without arguments, where
     the name of the method is given as a Python string object in
     'name'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_CallMethodOneArg
          (PyObject *obj, PyObject *name, PyObject *arg)

     Call a method of the Python object 'obj' with a single positional
     argument 'arg', where the name of the method is given as a Python
     string object in 'name'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_Vectorcall (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject
          *kwnames)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Call a
     callable Python object 'callable'.  The arguments are the same as
     for *note vectorcallfunc: 960.  If 'callable' supports *note
     vectorcall: 95b, this directly calls the vectorcall function stored
     in 'callable'.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Added in version 3.8: as ‘_PyObject_Vectorcall’

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Renamed to the current name, without the
     leading underscore.  The old provisional name is *note soft
     deprecated: 1a7.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_VectorcallDict (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject
          *kwdict)

     Call 'callable' with positional arguments passed exactly as in the
     *note vectorcall: 95b. protocol, but with keyword arguments passed
     as a dictionary 'kwdict'.  The 'args' array contains only the
     positional arguments.

     Regardless of which protocol is used internally, a conversion of
     arguments needs to be done.  Therefore, this function should only
     be used if the caller already has a dictionary ready to use for the
     keyword arguments, but not a tuple for the positional arguments.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_VectorcallMethod
          (PyObject *name, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf,
          PyObject *kwnames)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Call a
     method using the vectorcall calling convention.  The name of the
     method is given as a Python string 'name'.  The object whose method
     is called is 'args[0]', and the 'args' array starting at 'args[1]'
     represents the arguments of the call.  There must be at least one
     positional argument.  'nargsf' is the number of positional
     arguments including 'args[0]', plus *note
     PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 965. if the value of ‘args[0]’ may
     temporarily be changed.  Keyword arguments can be passed just like
     in *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 963.

     If the object has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR: 547c.
     feature, this will call the unbound method object with the full
     'args' vector as arguments.

     Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and
     return 'NULL' on failure.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: Call Support API,  Prev: Object Calling API,  Up: Call Protocol

7.9.2.6 Call Support API
........................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCallable_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Determine if the object 'o'
     is callable.  Return ‘1’ if the object is callable and ‘0’
     otherwise.  This function always succeeds.


File: python.info,  Node: Number Protocol,  Next: Sequence Protocol,  Prev: Call Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.9.3 Number Protocol
---------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyNumber_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Returns ‘1’ if the object 'o'
     provides numeric protocols, and false otherwise.  This function
     always succeeds.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Returns ‘1’ if 'o' is an index integer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Add (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the result of adding 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 +
     o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Subtract (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the result of subtracting 'o2' from 'o1', or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 -
     o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Multiply (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the result of multiplying 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 *
     o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Returns the result of matrix
     multiplication on 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 @ o2’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_FloorDivide (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the floor of 'o1' divided by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 //
     o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_TrueDivide (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value
     of 'o1' divided by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The return value is
     «approximate» because binary floating-point numbers are
     approximate; it is not possible to represent all real numbers in
     base two.  This function can return a floating-point value when
     passed two integers.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o1 / o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Remainder (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the remainder of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 %
     o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Divmod (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     See the built-in function *note divmod(): d6a.  Returns ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘divmod(o1, o2)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Power (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     See the built-in function *note pow(): 441.  Returns ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘pow(o1,
     o2, o3)’, where 'o3' is optional.  If 'o3' is to be ignored, pass
     *note Py_None: 5606. in its place (passing ‘NULL’ for 'o3' would
     cause an illegal memory access).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Negative (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the negation of 'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘-o’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Positive (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns 'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python expression ‘+o’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Absolute (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     Returns the absolute value of 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python expression ‘abs(o)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Invert (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the bitwise negation of 'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘~o’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Lshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the result of left shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on success,
     or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o1 << o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Rshift (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the result of right shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
     Python expression ‘o1 >> o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_And (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the «bitwise and» of 'o1' and 'o2' on success and
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o1 & o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Xor (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the «bitwise exclusive or» of 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the
     Python expression ‘o1 ^ o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Or (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the «bitwise or» of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o1 | o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the result of adding 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 += o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the result of subtracting 'o2' from 'o1', or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports
     it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 -= o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the result of multiplying 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports
     it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 *= o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Returns the result of matrix
     multiplication on 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The
     operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.  This is the
     equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 @= o2’.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the mathematical floor of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1
     //= o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value
     of 'o1' divided by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The return value is
     «approximate» because binary floating-point numbers are
     approximate; it is not possible to represent all real numbers in
     base two.  This function can return a floating-point value when
     passed two integers.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 /=
     o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the remainder of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 %= o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_InPlacePower (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     See the built-in function *note pow(): 441.  Returns ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it.
     This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 **= o2’ when o3
     is *note Py_None: 5606, or an in-place variant of ‘pow(o1, o2, o3)’
     otherwise.  If 'o3' is to be ignored, pass ‘Py_None’ in its place
     (passing ‘NULL’ for 'o3' would cause an illegal memory access).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the result of left shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on success,
     or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1
     <<= o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the result of right shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place'
     when 'o1' supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     statement ‘o1 >>= o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the «bitwise and» of 'o1' and 'o2' on success and
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 &=
     o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_InPlaceXor (PyObject
          *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the «bitwise exclusive or» of 'o1' by 'o2' on
     success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place'
     when 'o1' supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     statement ‘o1 ^= o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_InPlaceOr (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the «bitwise or» of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 |=
     o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Long (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     Returns the 'o' converted to an integer object on success, or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘int(o)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Float (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     Returns the 'o' converted to a float object on success, or ‘NULL’
     on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘float(o)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_Index (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the 'o' converted to a Python int on success or
     ‘NULL’ with a *note TypeError: 291. exception raised on failure.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The result always has exact type *note
     int: 326.  Previously, the result could have been an instance of a
     subclass of ‘int’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyNumber_ToBase (PyObject *n, int
          base)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Returns the integer 'n' converted to base 'base' as a
     string.  The 'base' argument must be one of 2, 8, 10, or 16.  For
     base 2, 8, or 16, the returned string is prefixed with a base
     marker of ‘'0b'’, ‘'0o'’, or ‘'0x'’, respectively.  If 'n' is not a
     Python int, it is converted with *note PyNumber_Index(): c69.
     first.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyNumber_AsSsize_t (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *exc)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Returns 'o' converted to a
     *note Py_ssize_t: e24. value if 'o' can be interpreted as an
     integer.  If the call fails, an exception is raised and ‘-1’ is
     returned.

     If 'o' can be converted to a Python int but the attempt to convert
     to a *note Py_ssize_t: e24. value would raise an *note
     OverflowError: c57, then the 'exc' argument is the type of
     exception that will be raised (usually *note IndexError: 18d7. or
     ‘OverflowError’).  If 'exc' is ‘NULL’, then the exception is
     cleared and the value is clipped to ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’ for a negative
     integer or ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ for a positive integer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyIndex_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.8.'  Returns
     ‘1’ if 'o' is an index integer (has the ‘nb_index’ slot of the
     ‘tp_as_number’ structure filled in), and ‘0’ otherwise.  This
     function always succeeds.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Protocol,  Next: Mapping Protocol,  Prev: Number Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.9.4 Sequence Protocol
-----------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySequence_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return ‘1’ if the object
     provides the sequence protocol, and ‘0’ otherwise.  Note that it
     returns ‘1’ for Python classes with a *note __getitem__(): 787.
     method, unless they are *note dict: 188. subclasses, since in
     general it is impossible to determine what type of keys the class
     supports.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PySequence_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PySequence_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Returns the number of objects in sequence 'o' on success, and ‘-1’
     on failure.  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘len(o)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySequence_Concat (PyObject *o1,
          PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the concatenation of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, and
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o1 + o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySequence_Repeat (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t count)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the result of repeating sequence object 'o' 'count'
     times, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o * count’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySequence_InPlaceConcat
          (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the concatenation of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, and
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1'
     supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1
     += o2’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySequence_InPlaceRepeat
          (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t count)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the result of repeating sequence object 'o' 'count'
     times, or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The operation is done 'in-place' when
     'o' supports it.  This is the equivalent of the Python expression
     ‘o *= count’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySequence_GetItem (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the 'i'th element of 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This
     is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o[i]’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySequence_GetSlice (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the slice of sequence object 'o' between 'i1' and
     'i2', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of the Python
     expression ‘o[i1:i2]’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySequence_SetItem (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i,
          PyObject *v)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Assign object 'v' to the
     'i'th element of 'o'.  Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ on
     failure; return ‘0’ on success.  This is the equivalent of the
     Python statement ‘o[i] = v’.  This function 'does not' steal a
     reference to 'v'.

     If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the element is deleted, but this feature is
     deprecated in favour of using *note PySequence_DelItem(): 2023.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySequence_DelItem (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Delete the 'i'th element of
     object 'o'.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.  This is the equivalent of
     the Python statement ‘del o[i]’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySequence_SetSlice (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1,
          Py_ssize_t i2, PyObject *v)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Assign the sequence object
     'v' to the slice in sequence object 'o' from 'i1' to 'i2'.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o[i1:i2] = v’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySequence_DelSlice (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1,
          Py_ssize_t i2)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Delete the slice in sequence
     object 'o' from 'i1' to 'i2'.  Returns ‘-1’ on failure.  This is
     the equivalent of the Python statement ‘del o[i1:i2]’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PySequence_Count (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the number of
     occurrences of 'value' in 'o', that is, return the number of keys
     for which ‘o[key] == value’.  On failure, return ‘-1’.  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘o.count(value)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySequence_Contains (PyObject *o, PyObject *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Determine if 'o' contains
     'value'.  If an item in 'o' is equal to 'value', return ‘1’,
     otherwise return ‘0’.  On error, return ‘-1’.  This is equivalent
     to the Python expression ‘value in o’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySequence_In (PyObject *o, PyObject *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Alias for *note
     PySequence_Contains(): 605.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.14: The function should
     no longer be used to write new code.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PySequence_Index (PyObject *o,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the first index 'i'
     for which ‘o[i] == value’.  On error, return ‘-1’.  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘o.index(value)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySequence_List (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a list object with the same contents as the sequence
     or iterable 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  The returned list is
     guaranteed to be new.  This is equivalent to the Python expression
     ‘list(o)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySequence_Tuple (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     Return a tuple object with the same contents as the sequence or
     iterable 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  If 'o' is a tuple, a new
     reference will be returned, otherwise a tuple will be constructed
     with the appropriate contents.  This is equivalent to the Python
     expression ‘tuple(o)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySequence_Fast (PyObject *o,
          const char *m)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return the sequence or iterable 'o' as an object usable by
     the other ‘PySequence_Fast*’ family of functions.  If the object is
     not a sequence or iterable, raises *note TypeError: 291. with 'm'
     as the message text.  Returns ‘NULL’ on failure.

     The ‘PySequence_Fast*’ functions are thus named because they assume
     'o' is a *note PyTupleObject: 5580. or a *note PyListObject: 2929.
     and access the data fields of 'o' directly.

     As a CPython implementation detail, if 'o' is already a sequence or
     list, it will be returned.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE
          (PyObject *o)

     Returns the length of 'o', assuming that 'o' was returned by *note
     PySequence_Fast(): 1ac6. and that 'o' is not ‘NULL’.  The size can
     also be retrieved by calling *note PySequence_Size(): 2020. on 'o',
     but *note PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE(): 5f6. is faster because it can
     assume 'o' is a list or tuple.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM
          (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Return the 'i'th element
     of 'o', assuming that 'o' was returned by *note PySequence_Fast():
     1ac6, 'o' is not ‘NULL’, and that 'i' is within bounds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. **PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (PyObject
          *o)

     Return the underlying array of PyObject pointers.  Assumes that 'o'
     was returned by *note PySequence_Fast(): 1ac6. and 'o' is not
     ‘NULL’.

     Note, if a list gets resized, the reallocation may relocate the
     items array.  So, only use the underlying array pointer in contexts
     where the sequence cannot change.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySequence_ITEM (PyObject *o,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return the 'i'th element of
     'o' or ‘NULL’ on failure.  Faster form of *note
     PySequence_GetItem(): 2021. but without checking that *note
     PySequence_Check(): 53d7. on 'o' is true and without adjustment for
     negative indices.


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Protocol,  Next: Iterator Protocol,  Prev: Sequence Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.9.5 Mapping Protocol
----------------------

See also *note PyObject_GetItem(): 7e2, *note PyObject_SetItem(): 525f.
and *note PyObject_DelItem(): 53c2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMapping_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return ‘1’ if the object
     provides the mapping protocol or supports slicing, and ‘0’
     otherwise.  Note that it returns ‘1’ for Python classes with a
     *note __getitem__(): 787. method, since in general it is impossible
     to determine what type of keys the class supports.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyMapping_Size (PyObject *o)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyMapping_Length (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Returns the number of keys in object 'o' on success, and ‘-1’ on
     failure.  This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘len(o)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMapping_GetItemString (PyObject
          *o, const char *key)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  This is the same as *note PyObject_GetItem(): 7e2, but 'key'
     is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather
     than a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMapping_GetOptionalItem (PyObject *obj, PyObject
          *key, PyObject **result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Variant
     of *note PyObject_GetItem(): 7e2. which doesn’t raise *note
     KeyError: 7df. if the key is not found.

     If the key is found, return ‘1’ and set '*result' to a new *note
     strong reference: 7da. to the corresponding value.  If the key is
     not found, return ‘0’ and set '*result' to ‘NULL’; the *note
     KeyError: 7df. is silenced.  If an error other than ‘KeyError’ is
     raised, return ‘-1’ and set '*result' to ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString (PyObject *obj,
          const char *key, PyObject **result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  This is
     the same as *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 7e0, but 'key' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMapping_SetItemString (PyObject *o, const char
          *key, PyObject *v)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is the same as *note
     PyObject_SetItem(): 525f, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMapping_DelItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)

     This is an alias of *note PyObject_DelItem(): 53c2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMapping_DelItemString (PyObject *o, const char
          *key)

     This is the same as *note PyObject_DelItem(): 53c2, but 'key' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMapping_HasKeyWithError (PyObject *o, PyObject
          *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Return
     ‘1’ if the mapping object has the key 'key' and ‘0’ otherwise.
     This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘key in o’.  On
     failure, return ‘-1’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError (PyObject *o, const
          char *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  This is
     the same as *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 813, but 'key' is
     specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than
     a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMapping_HasKey (PyObject *o, PyObject *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return ‘1’ if the mapping
     object has the key 'key' and ‘0’ otherwise.  This is equivalent to
     the Python expression ‘key in o’.  This function always succeeds.

          Σημείωση: Exceptions which occur when this calls the *note
          __getitem__(): 787. method are silently ignored.  For proper
          error handling, use *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 813,
          *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 7e0. or *note
          PyObject_GetItem(): 7e2. instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMapping_HasKeyString (PyObject *o, const char
          *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is the same as *note
     PyMapping_HasKey(): 814, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

          Σημείωση: Exceptions that occur when this calls the *note
          __getitem__(): 787. method or while creating the temporary
          *note str: 1df. object are silently ignored.  For proper error
          handling, use *note PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 815,
          *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString(): 7e1. or *note
          PyMapping_GetItemString(): 7e3. instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMapping_Keys (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  On success, return a list of the keys in object 'o'.  On
     failure, return ‘NULL’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Previously, the function returned a list or
     a tuple.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMapping_Values (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  On success, return a list of the values in object 'o'.  On
     failure, return ‘NULL’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Previously, the function returned a list or
     a tuple.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMapping_Items (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  On success, return a list of the items in object 'o', where
     each item is a tuple containing a key-value pair.  On failure,
     return ‘NULL’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Previously, the function returned a list or
     a tuple.


File: python.info,  Node: Iterator Protocol,  Next: Buffer Protocol,  Prev: Mapping Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.9.6 Iterator Protocol
-----------------------

There are two functions specifically for working with iterators.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyIter_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.8.'  Return
     non-zero if the object 'o' can be safely passed to *note
     PyIter_NextItem(): 5c5. and ‘0’ otherwise.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyAIter_Check (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Return
     non-zero if the object 'o' provides the ‘AsyncIterator’ protocol,
     and ‘0’ otherwise.  This function always succeeds.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyIter_NextItem (PyObject *iter, PyObject **item)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Return
     ‘1’ and set 'item' to a *note strong reference: 7da. of the next
     value of the iterator 'iter' on success.  Return ‘0’ and set 'item'
     to ‘NULL’ if there are no remaining values.  Return ‘-1’, set
     'item' to ‘NULL’ and set an exception on error.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyIter_Next (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  This is an older version of ‘PyIter_NextItem()’, which is
     retained for backwards compatibility.  Prefer *note
     PyIter_NextItem(): 5c5.

     Return the next value from the iterator 'o'.  The object must be an
     iterator according to *note PyIter_Check(): 1ea8. (it is up to the
     caller to check this).  If there are no remaining values, returns
     ‘NULL’ with no exception set.  If an error occurs while retrieving
     the item, returns ‘NULL’ and passes along the exception.

 -- C Τύπος: type PySendResult

     The enum value used to represent different results of *note
     PyIter_Send(): c6e.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PySendResult: 5616. PyIter_Send (PyObject *iter,
          PyObject *arg, PyObject **presult)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Sends
     the 'arg' value into the iterator 'iter'.  Returns:

        - ‘PYGEN_RETURN’ if iterator returns.  Return value is returned
          via 'presult'.

        - ‘PYGEN_NEXT’ if iterator yields.  Yielded value is returned
          via 'presult'.

        - ‘PYGEN_ERROR’ if iterator has raised an exception.  'presult'
          is set to ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer Protocol,  Prev: Iterator Protocol,  Up: Abstract Objects Layer

7.9.7 Buffer Protocol
---------------------

Certain objects available in Python wrap access to an underlying memory
array or 'buffer'.  Such objects include the built-in *note bytes: 1c7.
and *note bytearray: 1c6, and some extension types like *note
array.array: 6c5.  Third-party libraries may define their own types for
special purposes, such as image processing or numeric analysis.

While each of these types have their own semantics, they share the
common characteristic of being backed by a possibly large memory buffer.
It is then desirable, in some situations, to access that buffer directly
and without intermediate copying.

Python provides such a facility at the C and Python level in the form of
the *note buffer protocol: 311.  This protocol has two sides:

   - on the producer side, a type can export a «buffer interface» which
     allows objects of that type to expose information about their
     underlying buffer.  This interface is described in the section
     *note Buffer Object Structures: 561a.; for Python see *note
     Εξομοίωση τύπων buffer: 2605.

   - on the consumer side, several means are available to obtain a
     pointer to the raw underlying data of an object (for example a
     method parameter).  For Python see *note memoryview: 1d2.

Simple objects such as *note bytes: 1c7. and *note bytearray: 1c6.
expose their underlying buffer in byte-oriented form.  Other forms are
possible; for example, the elements exposed by an *note array.array:
6c5. can be multi-byte values.

An example consumer of the buffer interface is the *note write(): 1099.
method of file objects: any object that can export a series of bytes
through the buffer interface can be written to a file.  While ‘write()’
only needs read-only access to the internal contents of the object
passed to it, other methods such as *note readinto(): 1ab9. need write
access to the contents of their argument.  The buffer interface allows
objects to selectively allow or reject exporting of read-write and
read-only buffers.

There are two ways for a consumer of the buffer interface to acquire a
buffer over a target object:

   * call *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c. with the right parameters;

   * call *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. (or one of its siblings) with
     one of the ‘y*’, ‘w*’ or ‘s*’ *note format codes: 601.

In both cases, *note PyBuffer_Release(): 82d. must be called when the
buffer isn’t needed anymore.  Failure to do so could lead to various
issues such as resource leaks.

Added in version 3.12: The buffer protocol is now accessible in Python,
see *note Εξομοίωση τύπων buffer: 2605. and *note memoryview: 1d2.

* Menu:

* Buffer structure::
* Buffer request types::
* Complex arrays::
* Buffer-related functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer structure,  Next: Buffer request types,  Up: Buffer Protocol

7.9.7.1 Buffer structure
........................

Buffer structures (or simply «buffers») are useful as a way to expose
the binary data from another object to the Python programmer.  They can
also be used as a zero-copy slicing mechanism.  Using their ability to
reference a block of memory, it is possible to expose any data to the
Python programmer quite easily.  The memory could be a large, constant
array in a C extension, it could be a raw block of memory for
manipulation before passing to an operating system library, or it could
be used to pass around structured data in its native, in-memory format.

Contrary to most data types exposed by the Python interpreter, buffers
are not *note PyObject: 19b. pointers but rather simple C structures.
This allows them to be created and copied very simply.  When a generic
wrapper around a buffer is needed, a *note memoryview: 561d. object can
be created.

For short instructions how to write an exporting object, see *note
Buffer Object Structures: 561a.  For obtaining a buffer, see *note
PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c.

 -- C Τύπος: type Py_buffer
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των
     μελών) από την έκδοση 3.11.'
      -- C Μέλος: void *buf

          A pointer to the start of the logical structure described by
          the buffer fields.  This can be any location within the
          underlying physical memory block of the exporter.  For
          example, with negative *note strides: 561f. the value may
          point to the end of the memory block.

          For *note contiguous: 287e. arrays, the value points to the
          beginning of the memory block.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyObject: 19b. *obj

          A new reference to the exporting object.  The reference is
          owned by the consumer and automatically released (i.e.
          reference count decremented) and set to ‘NULL’ by *note
          PyBuffer_Release(): 82d.  The field is the equivalent of the
          return value of any standard C-API function.

          As a special case, for 'temporary' buffers that are wrapped by
          *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): b43. or *note
          PyBuffer_FillInfo(): b42. this field is ‘NULL’.  In general,
          exporting objects MUST NOT use this scheme.

      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. len

          ‘product(shape) * itemsize’.  For contiguous arrays, this is
          the length of the underlying memory block.  For non-contiguous
          arrays, it is the length that the logical structure would have
          if it were copied to a contiguous representation.

          Accessing ‘((char *)buf)[0] up to ((char *)buf)[len-1]’ is
          only valid if the buffer has been obtained by a request that
          guarantees contiguity.  In most cases such a request will be
          *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 5296. or *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1758.

      -- C Μέλος: int readonly

          An indicator of whether the buffer is read-only.  This field
          is controlled by the *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1758. flag.

      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. itemsize

          Item size in bytes of a single element.  Same as the value of
          *note struct.calcsize(): 1f9a. called on non-‘NULL’ *note
          format: 5624. values.

          Important exception: If a consumer requests a buffer without
          the *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 528e. flag, *note format: 5624. will
          be set to ‘NULL’, but *note itemsize: 5623. still has the
          value for the original format.

          If *note shape: 5625. is present, the equality ‘product(shape)
          * itemsize == len’ still holds and the consumer can use *note
          itemsize: 5623. to navigate the buffer.

          If *note shape: 5625. is ‘NULL’ as a result of a *note
          PyBUF_SIMPLE: 5296. or a *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1758. request,
          the consumer must disregard *note itemsize: 5623. and assume
          ‘itemsize == 1’.

      -- C Μέλος: char *format

          A 'NULL' terminated string in *note struct: de. module style
          syntax describing the contents of a single item.  If this is
          ‘NULL’, ‘"B"’ (unsigned bytes) is assumed.

          This field is controlled by the *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 528e.
          flag.

      -- C Μέλος: int ndim

          The number of dimensions the memory represents as an
          n-dimensional array.  If it is ‘0’, *note buf: 561e. points to
          a single item representing a scalar.  In this case, *note
          shape: 5625, *note strides: 561f. and *note suboffsets: 5627.
          MUST be ‘NULL’.  The maximum number of dimensions is given by
          *note PyBUF_MAX_NDIM: 5292.

      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. *shape

          An array of *note Py_ssize_t: e24. of length *note ndim: 5626.
          indicating the shape of the memory as an n-dimensional array.
          Note that ‘shape[0] * ... * shape[ndim-1] * itemsize’ MUST be
          equal to *note len: 5621.

          Shape values are restricted to ‘shape[n] >= 0’.  The case
          ‘shape[n] == 0’ requires special attention.  See *note complex
          arrays: 5628. for further information.

          The shape array is read-only for the consumer.

      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. *strides

          An array of *note Py_ssize_t: e24. of length *note ndim: 5626.
          giving the number of bytes to skip to get to a new element in
          each dimension.

          Stride values can be any integer.  For regular arrays, strides
          are usually positive, but a consumer MUST be able to handle
          the case ‘strides[n] <= 0’.  See *note complex arrays: 5628.
          for further information.

          The strides array is read-only for the consumer.

      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. *suboffsets

          An array of *note Py_ssize_t: e24. of length *note ndim: 5626.
          If ‘suboffsets[n] >= 0’, the values stored along the nth
          dimension are pointers and the suboffset value dictates how
          many bytes to add to each pointer after de-referencing.  A
          suboffset value that is negative indicates that no
          de-referencing should occur (striding in a contiguous memory
          block).

          If all suboffsets are negative (i.e.  no de-referencing is
          needed), then this field must be ‘NULL’ (the default value).

          This type of array representation is used by the Python
          Imaging Library (PIL). See *note complex arrays: 5628. for
          further information how to access elements of such an array.

          The suboffsets array is read-only for the consumer.

      -- C Μέλος: void *internal

          This is for use internally by the exporting object.  For
          example, this might be re-cast as an integer by the exporter
          and used to store flags about whether or not the shape,
          strides, and suboffsets arrays must be freed when the buffer
          is released.  The consumer MUST NOT alter this value.

Constants:

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_MAX_NDIM
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  The
     maximum number of dimensions the memory represents.  Exporters MUST
     respect this limit, consumers of multi-dimensional buffers SHOULD
     be able to handle up to ‘PyBUF_MAX_NDIM’ dimensions.  Currently set
     to 64.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer request types,  Next: Complex arrays,  Prev: Buffer structure,  Up: Buffer Protocol

7.9.7.2 Buffer request types
............................

Buffers are usually obtained by sending a buffer request to an exporting
object via *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c.  Since the complexity of the
logical structure of the memory can vary drastically, the consumer uses
the 'flags' argument to specify the exact buffer type it can handle.

All *note Py_buffer: b3a. fields are unambiguously defined by the
request type.

* Menu:

* request-independent fields::
* readonly, format: readonly format.
* shape, strides, suboffsets: shape strides suboffsets.
* contiguity requests::
* compound requests::


File: python.info,  Node: request-independent fields,  Next: readonly format,  Up: Buffer request types

7.9.7.3 request-independent fields
..................................

The following fields are not influenced by 'flags' and must always be
filled in with the correct values: *note obj: 5620, *note buf: 561e,
*note len: 5621, *note itemsize: 5623, *note ndim: 5626.


File: python.info,  Node: readonly format,  Next: shape strides suboffsets,  Prev: request-independent fields,  Up: Buffer request types

7.9.7.4 readonly, format
........................

      -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_WRITABLE
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'
          Controls the *note readonly: 5622. field.  If set, the
          exporter MUST provide a writable buffer or else report
          failure.  Otherwise, the exporter MAY provide either a
          read-only or writable buffer, but the choice MUST be
          consistent for all consumers.  For example, *note
          PyBUF_SIMPLE: 5296. | *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1758. can be used
          to request a simple writable buffer.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_WRITEABLE

          This is an alias to *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1758.

          *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.13.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_FORMAT
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'
          Controls the *note format: 5624. field.  If set, this field
          MUST be filled in correctly.  Otherwise, this field MUST be
          ‘NULL’.

*note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1758. can be |”d to any of the flags in the next
section.  Since *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 5296. is defined as 0,
‘PyBUF_WRITABLE’ can be used as a stand-alone flag to request a simple
writable buffer.

*note PyBUF_FORMAT: 528e. must be |”d to any of the flags except *note
PyBUF_SIMPLE: 5296, because the latter already implies format ‘B’
(unsigned bytes).  ‘PyBUF_FORMAT’ cannot be used on its own.


File: python.info,  Node: shape strides suboffsets,  Next: contiguity requests,  Prev: readonly format,  Up: Buffer request types

7.9.7.5 shape, strides, suboffsets
..................................

The flags that control the logical structure of the memory are listed in
decreasing order of complexity.  Note that each flag contains all bits
of the flags below it.

Request                           shape       strides       suboffsets
                                                            
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
 -- C Μακροεντολή:                yes         yes           if needed
          PyBUF_INDIRECT                                    
     ' Μέρος του
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.
     από την έκδοση 3.11.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή:                yes         yes           NULL
          PyBUF_STRIDES                                     
     ' Μέρος του
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.
     από την έκδοση 3.11.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_ND       yes         NULL          NULL
     ' Μέρος του                                            
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.
     από την έκδοση 3.11.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_SIMPLE   NULL        NULL          NULL
     ' Μέρος του                                            
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.
     από την έκδοση 3.11.'


File: python.info,  Node: contiguity requests,  Next: compound requests,  Prev: shape strides suboffsets,  Up: Buffer request types

7.9.7.6 contiguity requests
...........................

C or Fortran *note contiguity: 287e. can be explicitly requested, with
and without stride information.  Without stride information, the buffer
must be C-contiguous.

Request                                 shape       strides       suboffsets       contig
                                                                                   
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                   
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS   yes         yes           NULL             C
     ' Μέρος του                                                                   
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.11.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS   yes         yes           NULL             F
     ' Μέρος του                                                                   
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.11.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή:                      yes         yes           NULL             C or F
          PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS                                                     
     ' Μέρος του
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την
     έκδοση 3.11.'

*note PyBUF_ND: 5293.                   yes         NULL          NULL             C
                                                                                   


File: python.info,  Node: compound requests,  Prev: contiguity requests,  Up: Buffer request types

7.9.7.7 compound requests
.........................

All possible requests are fully defined by some combination of the flags
in the previous section.  For convenience, the buffer protocol provides
frequently used combinations as single flags.

In the following table 'U' stands for undefined contiguity.  The
consumer would have to call *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): b40. to
determine contiguity.

Request                             shape       strides       suboffsets       contig       readonly       format
                                                                                                           
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                           
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_FULL       yes         yes           if needed        U            0              yes
     ' Μέρος του                                                                                           
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.11.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_FULL_RO    yes         yes           if needed        U            1 or 0         yes
     ' Μέρος του                                                                                           
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.11.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_RECORDS    yes         yes           NULL             U            0              yes
     ' Μέρος του                                                                                           
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.11.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή:                  yes         yes           NULL             U            1 or 0         yes
          PyBUF_RECORDS_RO                                                                                 
     ' Μέρος του
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.11.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_STRIDED    yes         yes           NULL             U            0              NULL
     ' Μέρος του                                                                                           
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.11.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή:                  yes         yes           NULL             U            1 or 0         NULL
          PyBUF_STRIDED_RO                                                                                 
     ' Μέρος του
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.11.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_CONTIG     yes         NULL          NULL             C            0              NULL
     ' Μέρος του                                                                                           
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.11.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή:                  yes         NULL          NULL             C            1 or 0         NULL
          PyBUF_CONTIG_RO                                                                                  
     ' Μέρος του
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.11.'


File: python.info,  Node: Complex arrays,  Next: Buffer-related functions,  Prev: Buffer request types,  Up: Buffer Protocol

7.9.7.8 Complex arrays
......................

* Menu:

* NumPy-style; shape and strides: NumPy-style shape and strides.
* PIL-style; shape, strides and suboffsets: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets.


File: python.info,  Node: NumPy-style shape and strides,  Next: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets,  Up: Complex arrays

7.9.7.9 NumPy-style: shape and strides
......................................

The logical structure of NumPy-style arrays is defined by *note
itemsize: 5623, *note ndim: 5626, *note shape: 5625. and *note strides:
561f.

If ‘ndim == 0’, the memory location pointed to by *note buf: 561e. is
interpreted as a scalar of size *note itemsize: 5623.  In that case,
both *note shape: 5625. and *note strides: 561f. are ‘NULL’.

If *note strides: 561f. is ‘NULL’, the array is interpreted as a
standard n-dimensional C-array.  Otherwise, the consumer must access an
n-dimensional array as follows:

     ptr = (char *)buf + indices[0] * strides[0] + ... + indices[n-1] * strides[n-1];
     item = *((typeof(item) *)ptr);

As noted above, *note buf: 561e. can point to any location within the
actual memory block.  An exporter can check the validity of a buffer
with this function:

     def verify_structure(memlen, itemsize, ndim, shape, strides, offset):
         """Verify that the parameters represent a valid array within
            the bounds of the allocated memory:
                char *mem: start of the physical memory block
                memlen: length of the physical memory block
                offset: (char *)buf - mem
         """
         if offset % itemsize:
             return False
         if offset < 0 or offset+itemsize > memlen:
             return False
         if any(v % itemsize for v in strides):
             return False

         if ndim <= 0:
             return ndim == 0 and not shape and not strides
         if 0 in shape:
             return True

         imin = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
                    if strides[j] <= 0)
         imax = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim)
                    if strides[j] > 0)

         return 0 <= offset+imin and offset+imax+itemsize <= memlen


File: python.info,  Node: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets,  Prev: NumPy-style shape and strides,  Up: Complex arrays

7.9.7.10 PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets
.................................................

In addition to the regular items, PIL-style arrays can contain pointers
that must be followed in order to get to the next element in a
dimension.  For example, the regular three-dimensional C-array ‘char
v[2][2][3]’ can also be viewed as an array of 2 pointers to 2
two-dimensional arrays: ‘char (*v[2])[2][3]’.  In suboffsets
representation, those two pointers can be embedded at the start of *note
buf: 561e, pointing to two ‘char x[2][3]’ arrays that can be located
anywhere in memory.

Here is a function that returns a pointer to the element in an N-D array
pointed to by an N-dimensional index when there are both non-‘NULL’
strides and suboffsets:

     void *get_item_pointer(int ndim, void *buf, Py_ssize_t *strides,
                            Py_ssize_t *suboffsets, Py_ssize_t *indices) {
         char *pointer = (char*)buf;
         int i;
         for (i = 0; i < ndim; i++) {
             pointer += strides[i] * indices[i];
             if (suboffsets[i] >=0 ) {
                 pointer = *((char**)pointer) + suboffsets[i];
             }
         }
         return (void*)pointer;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer-related functions,  Prev: Complex arrays,  Up: Buffer Protocol

7.9.7.11 Buffer-related functions
.................................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_CheckBuffer (PyObject *obj)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Return
     ‘1’ if 'obj' supports the buffer interface otherwise ‘0’.  When ‘1’
     is returned, it doesn’t guarantee that *note PyObject_GetBuffer():
     82c. will succeed.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_GetBuffer (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer
          *view, int flags)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Send a
     request to 'exporter' to fill in 'view' as specified by 'flags'.
     If the exporter cannot provide a buffer of the exact type, it MUST
     raise *note BufferError: 1998, set ‘view->obj’ to ‘NULL’ and return
     ‘-1’.

     On success, fill in 'view', set ‘view->obj’ to a new reference to
     'exporter' and return 0.  In the case of chained buffer providers
     that redirect requests to a single object, ‘view->obj’ MAY refer to
     this object instead of 'exporter' (See *note Buffer Object
     Structures: 561a.).

     Successful calls to *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c. must be paired
     with calls to *note PyBuffer_Release(): 82d, similar to ‘malloc()’
     and ‘free()’.  Thus, after the consumer is done with the buffer,
     ‘PyBuffer_Release()’ must be called exactly once.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyBuffer_Release (Py_buffer *view)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Release
     the buffer 'view' and release the *note strong reference: 7da.
     (i.e.  decrement the reference count) to the view’s supporting
     object, ‘view->obj’.  This function MUST be called when the buffer
     is no longer being used, otherwise reference leaks may occur.

     It is an error to call this function on a buffer that was not
     obtained via *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (const
          char *format)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Return
     the implied *note itemsize: 5623. from *note format: 5624.  On
     error, raise an exception and return -1.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyBuffer_IsContiguous (const Py_buffer *view, char
          order)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Return
     ‘1’ if the memory defined by the 'view' is C-style ('order' is
     ‘'C'’) or Fortran-style ('order' is ‘'F'’) *note contiguous: 287e.
     or either one ('order' is ‘'A'’).  Return ‘0’ otherwise.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyBuffer_GetPointer (const Py_buffer *view, const
          Py_ssize_t *indices)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Get the
     memory area pointed to by the 'indices' inside the given 'view'.
     'indices' must point to an array of ‘view->ndim’ indices.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyBuffer_FromContiguous (const Py_buffer *view,
          const void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, char order)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Copy
     contiguous 'len' bytes from 'buf' to 'view'.  'order' can be ‘'C'’
     or ‘'F'’ or ‘'A'’ (for C-style or Fortran-style ordering or either
     one).  ‘0’ is returned on success, ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyBuffer_ToContiguous (void *buf, const Py_buffer
          *src, Py_ssize_t len, char order)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Copy
     'len' bytes from 'src' to its contiguous representation in 'buf'.
     'order' can be ‘'C'’ or ‘'F'’ or ‘'A'’ (for C-style or
     Fortran-style ordering or either one).  ‘0’ is returned on success,
     ‘-1’ on error.

     This function fails if 'len' != 'src->len'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_CopyData (PyObject *dest, PyObject *src)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Copy
     data from 'src' to 'dest' buffer.  Can convert between C-style and
     or Fortran-style buffers.

     ‘0’ is returned on success, ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (int ndims,
          Py_ssize_t *shape, Py_ssize_t *strides, int itemsize, char
          order)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Fill the
     'strides' array with byte-strides of a *note contiguous: 287e.
     (C-style if 'order' is ‘'C'’ or Fortran-style if 'order' is ‘'F'’)
     array of the given shape with the given number of bytes per
     element.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyBuffer_FillInfo (Py_buffer *view, PyObject
          *exporter, void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, int readonly, int flags)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Handle
     buffer requests for an exporter that wants to expose 'buf' of size
     'len' with writability set according to 'readonly'.  'buf' is
     interpreted as a sequence of unsigned bytes.

     The 'flags' argument indicates the request type.  This function
     always fills in 'view' as specified by flags, unless 'buf' has been
     designated as read-only and *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1758. is set in
     'flags'.

     On success, set ‘view->obj’ to a new reference to 'exporter' and
     return 0.  Otherwise, raise *note BufferError: 1998, set
     ‘view->obj’ to ‘NULL’ and return ‘-1’;

     If this function is used as part of a *note getbufferproc: 561a,
     'exporter' MUST be set to the exporting object and 'flags' must be
     passed unmodified.  Otherwise, 'exporter' MUST be ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Concrete Objects Layer,  Next: Interpreter initialization and finalization,  Prev: Abstract Objects Layer,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.10 Concrete Objects Layer
===========================

The functions in this chapter are specific to certain Python object
types.  Passing them an object of the wrong type is not a good idea; if
you receive an object from a Python program and you are not sure that it
has the right type, you must perform a type check first; for example, to
check that an object is a dictionary, use *note PyDict_Check(): 5638.
The chapter is structured like the «family tree» of Python object types.

     Προειδοποίηση: While the functions described in this chapter
     carefully check the type of the objects which are passed in, many
     of them do not check for ‘NULL’ being passed instead of a valid
     object.  Allowing ‘NULL’ to be passed in can cause memory access
     violations and immediate termination of the interpreter.

* Menu:

* Fundamental Objects::
* Numeric Objects::
* Sequence Objects::
* Container Objects::
* Function Objects: Function Objects<2>.
* Other Objects::
* C API for extension modules::


File: python.info,  Node: Fundamental Objects,  Next: Numeric Objects,  Up: Concrete Objects Layer

7.10.1 Fundamental Objects
--------------------------

This section describes Python type objects and the singleton object
‘None’.

* Menu:

* Type Objects::
* The None Object::


File: python.info,  Node: Type Objects,  Next: The None Object,  Up: Fundamental Objects

7.10.1.1 Type Objects
.....................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyTypeObject
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (ως μια αδιαφανής κατασκευή).'
     The C structure of the objects used to describe built-in types.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyType_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is the type object for
     type objects; it is the same object as *note type: 186. in the
     Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' is a type object, including
     instances of types derived from the standard type object.  Return 0
     in all other cases.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return non-zero if the object 'o' is a type object, but not a
     subtype of the standard type object.  Return 0 in all other cases.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: unsigned int PyType_ClearCache ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Clear the internal lookup
     cache.  Return the current version tag.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: unsigned long PyType_GetFlags (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the *note tp_flags:
     1e68. member of 'type'.  This function is primarily meant for use
     with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’; the individual flag bits are guaranteed to
     be stable across Python releases, but access to ‘tp_flags’ itself
     is not part of the *note limited API: 829.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The return type is now ‘unsigned long’
     rather than ‘long’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_GetDict (PyTypeObject
          *type)

     Return the type object’s internal namespace, which is otherwise
     only exposed via a read-only proxy (*note cls.__dict__: 101b.).
     This is a replacement for accessing *note tp_dict: 1c92. directly.
     The returned dictionary must be treated as read-only.

     This function is meant for specific embedding and language-binding
     cases, where direct access to the dict is necessary and indirect
     access (e.g.  via the proxy or *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 3b7.)
     isn’t adequate.

     Extension modules should continue to use ‘tp_dict’, directly or
     indirectly, when setting up their own types.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyType_Modified (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Invalidate the internal
     lookup cache for the type and all of its subtypes.  This function
     must be called after any manual modification of the attributes or
     base classes of the type.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_AddWatcher (PyType_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a type watcher.  Return a non-negative
     integer ID which must be passed to future calls to *note
     PyType_Watch(): 96b.  In case of error (e.g.  no more watcher IDs
     available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     In free-threaded builds, *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 96a. is not
     thread-safe, so it must be called at start up (before spawning the
     first thread).

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' (previously returned from
     *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 96a.).  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on
     error (e.g.  if 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     An extension should never call ‘PyType_ClearWatcher’ with a
     'watcher_id' that was not returned to it by a previous call to
     *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 96a.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_Watch (int watcher_id, PyObject *type)

     Mark 'type' as watched.  The callback granted 'watcher_id' by *note
     PyType_AddWatcher(): 96a. will be called whenever *note
     PyType_Modified(): 1d77. reports a change to 'type'.  (The callback
     may be called only once for a series of consecutive modifications
     to 'type', if ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ is not called on 'type' between
     the modifications; this is an implementation detail and subject to
     change.)

     The callback is also invoked when a watched heap type is
     deallocated.

     An extension should never call ‘PyType_Watch’ with a 'watcher_id'
     that was not returned to it by a previous call to *note
     PyType_AddWatcher(): 96a.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The callback is now also invoked when a
     watched heap type is deallocated.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_Unwatch (int watcher_id, PyObject *type)

     Mark 'type' as not watched.  This undoes a previous call to *note
     PyType_Watch(): 96b.  'type' must not be ‘NULL’.

     An extension should never call this function with a 'watcher_id'
     that was not returned to it by a previous call to *note
     PyType_AddWatcher(): 96a.

     On success, this function returns ‘0’.  On failure, this function
     returns ‘-1’ with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*PyType_WatchCallback)(*note PyObject: 19b.
          *type)

     Type of a type-watcher callback function.

     The callback must not modify 'type' or cause *note
     PyType_Modified(): 1d77. to be called on 'type' or any type in its
     MRO; violating this rule could cause infinite recursion.

     The callback may be called during type deallocation.  In this case,
     the type object is temporarily resurrected (its reference count is
     at least 1) and all its attributes are still valid.  However, the
     callback should not store new strong references to the type, as
     this would resurrect the object and prevent its deallocation.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The callback may now be called during
     deallocation of a watched heap type.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_HasFeature (PyTypeObject *o, int feature)

     Return non-zero if the type object 'o' sets the feature 'feature'.
     Type features are denoted by single bit flags.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_FastSubclass (PyTypeObject *type, int flag)

     Return non-zero if the type object 'type' sets the subclass flag
     'flag'.  Subclass flags are denoted by *note Py_TPFLAGS_*_SUBCLASS:
     5641.  This function is used by many ‘_Check’ functions for common
     types.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note PyObject_TypeCheck(): 1eab, which is used as a slower
     alternative in ‘_Check’ functions for types that don’t come with
     subclass flags.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_IS_GC (PyTypeObject *o)

     Return true if the type object includes support for the cycle
     detector; this tests the type flag *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_IsSubtype (PyTypeObject *a, PyTypeObject *b)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return true if 'a' is a
     subtype of 'b'.

     This function only checks for actual subtypes, which means that
     *note __subclasscheck__(): 25bd. is not called on 'b'.  Call *note
     PyObject_IsSubclass(): 1258. to do the same check that *note
     issubclass(): 2f0. would do.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_GenericAlloc (PyTypeObject
          *type, Py_ssize_t nitems)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Generic handler for the *note tp_alloc: 51e6. slot of a type
     object.  Uses Python’s default memory allocation mechanism to
     allocate memory for a new instance, zeros the memory, then
     initializes the memory as if by calling *note PyObject_Init(): e2f.
     or *note PyObject_InitVar(): 1f34.

     Do not call this directly to allocate memory for an object; call
     the type’s *note tp_alloc: 51e6. slot instead.

     For types that support garbage collection (i.e., the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag is set), this function behaves like
     *note PyObject_GC_New: e68. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: e69.
     (except the memory is guaranteed to be zeroed before
     initialization), and should be paired with *note PyObject_GC_Del():
     18a5. in *note tp_free: 51e5.  Otherwise, it behaves like *note
     PyObject_New: d4d. or *note PyObject_NewVar: d4e. (except the
     memory is guaranteed to be zeroed before initialization) and should
     be paired with *note PyObject_Free(): 1023. in ‘tp_free’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_GenericNew (PyTypeObject
          *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Generic handler for the *note tp_new: 981. slot of a type
     object.  Creates a new instance using the type’s *note tp_alloc:
     51e6. slot and returns the resulting object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_Ready (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Finalize a type object.  This
     should be called on all type objects to finish their
     initialization.  This function is responsible for adding inherited
     slots from a type’s base class.  Return ‘0’ on success, or return
     ‘-1’ and sets an exception on error.

          Σημείωση: If some of the base classes implements the GC
          protocol and the provided type does not include the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. in its flags, then the GC protocol
          will be automatically implemented from its parents.  On the
          contrary, if the type being created does include
          ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC’ in its flags then it 'must' implement the
          GC protocol itself by at least implementing the *note
          tp_traverse: 36b. handle.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_GetName (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Return the type’s name.  Equivalent to
     getting the type’s *note __name__: 184d. attribute.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_GetQualName (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Return the type’s qualified name.
     Equivalent to getting the type’s *note __qualname__: 2565.
     attribute.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName
          (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Return
     the type’s fully qualified name.  Equivalent to
     ‘f"{type.__module__}.{type.__qualname__}"’, or *note
     type.__qualname__: 2565. if *note type.__module__: 80b. is not a
     string or is equal to ‘"builtins"’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_GetModuleName
          (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Return
     the type’s module name.  Equivalent to getting the *note
     type.__module__: 80b. attribute.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyType_GetSlot (PyTypeObject *type, int slot)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.4.'  Return
     the function pointer stored in the given slot.  If the result is
     ‘NULL’, this indicates that either the slot is ‘NULL’, or that the
     function was called with invalid parameters.  Callers will
     typically cast the result pointer into the appropriate function
     type.

     See *note PyType_Slot.slot: 5643. for possible values of the 'slot'
     argument.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: *note PyType_GetSlot(): c72. can now
     accept all types.  Previously, it was limited to *note heap types:
     d2f.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_GetModule (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Return the module object
     associated with the given type when the type was created using
     *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390.

     The returned reference is *note borrowed: 603. from 'type', and
     will be valid as long as you hold a reference to 'type'.  Do not
     release it with *note Py_DECREF(): 975. or similar.

     If no module is associated with the given type, sets *note
     TypeError: 291. and returns ‘NULL’.

     This function is usually used to get the module in which a method
     is defined.  Note that in such a method,
     ‘PyType_GetModule(Py_TYPE(self))’ may not return the intended
     result.  ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ may be a 'subclass' of the intended class,
     and subclasses are not necessarily defined in the same module as
     their superclass.  See *note PyCMethod: b46. to get the class that
     defines the method.  See *note PyType_GetModuleByToken(): 5419. for
     cases when ‘PyCMethod’ cannot be used.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyType_GetModuleState (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Return
     the state of the module object associated with the given type.
     This is a shortcut for calling *note PyModule_GetState(): d48. on
     the result of *note PyType_GetModule(): d37.

     If no module is associated with the given type, sets *note
     TypeError: 291. and returns ‘NULL’.

     If the 'type' has an associated module but its state is ‘NULL’,
     returns ‘NULL’ without setting an exception.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_GetModuleByToken
          (PyTypeObject *type, const void *mod_token)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Find the first superclass whose module
     has the given *note module token: 5644, and return that module.

     If no module is found, raises a *note TypeError: 291. and returns
     ‘NULL’.

     This function is intended to be used together with *note
     PyModule_GetState(): d48. to get module state from slot methods
     (such as *note tp_init: 983. or *note nb_add: 5645.) and other
     places where a method’s defining class cannot be passed using the
     *note PyCMethod: b46. calling convention.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_GetModuleByDef
          (PyTypeObject *type, struct PyModuleDef *def)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Find the first superclass whose
     module was created from the given *note PyModuleDef: d45. 'def', or
     whose *note module token: 5644. is equal to 'def', and return that
     module.

     Note that modules created from a *note PyModuleDef: d45. always
     have their token set to the ‘PyModuleDef’’s address.  In other
     words, this function is equivalent to *note
     PyType_GetModuleByToken(): 5419, except that it:

        - returns a borrowed reference, and

        - has a non-‘void*’ argument type (which is a cosmetic
          difference in C).

     The returned reference is *note borrowed: 603. from 'type', and
     will be valid as long as you hold a reference to 'type'.  Do not
     release it with *note Py_DECREF(): 975. or similar.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_GetBaseByToken (PyTypeObject *type, void
          *tp_token, PyTypeObject **result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Find the
     first superclass in 'type'’s *note method resolution order: 2784.
     whose *note Py_tp_token: 5de. token is equal to 'tp_token'.

        * If found, set '*result' to a new *note strong reference: 7da.
          to it and return ‘1’.

        * If not found, set '*result' to ‘NULL’ and return ‘0’.

        * On error, set '*result' to ‘NULL’ and return ‘-1’ with an
          exception set.

     The 'result' argument may be ‘NULL’, in which case '*result' is not
     set.  Use this if you need only the return value.

     The 'tp_token' argument may not be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag (PyTypeObject
          *type)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Attempt to assign a version tag to the given type.

     Returns 1 if the type already had a valid version tag or a new one
     was assigned, or 0 if a new tag could not be assigned.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_SUPPORTS_WEAKREFS (PyTypeObject *type)

     Return true if instances of 'type' support creating weak
     references, false otherwise.  This function always succeeds.
     'type' must not be ‘NULL’.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * *note Weak Reference Objects: 55f1.

        * *note weakref: 11d.

* Menu:

* Creating Heap-Allocated Types::
* Soft-deprecated API::


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Heap-Allocated Types,  Next: Soft-deprecated API,  Up: Type Objects

7.10.1.2 Creating Heap-Allocated Types
......................................

The following function is used to create *note heap types: d2f.:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_FromSlots (const PySlot
          *slots)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Create
     and return a *note heap type: d2f. from a ‘PySlot’ array.  See
     *note Definition slots: 375. for general information on slots, and
     *note Type slot IDs: 556b. for slots specific to type creation.

     This function calls *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. on the new type.

     Note that this function does 'not' fully match the behavior of
     calling *note type(): 186. or using the *note class: 167c.
     statement.  With user-provided base types or metaclasses, prefer
     *note calling: 55f6. ‘type’ (or the metaclass) over ‘PyType_From*’
     functions.  Specifically:

        * *note __new__(): 982. is not called on the new class (and it
          must be set to ‘type.__new__’).

        * *note __init__(): 2fa. is not called on the new class.

        * *note __init_subclass__(): a22. is not called on any bases.

        * *note __set_name__(): 100c. is not called on new descriptors.

     Slots are typically defined as a global static constant arrays.
     However, sometimes slot values are not statically known at compile
     time.  For example, slots like *note Py_tp_bases: 54cc, *note
     Py_tp_metaclass: 381. and *note Py_tp_module: 382. require live
     Python objects.  In this case, it is recommended to put such slots
     on the stack, and use *note Py_slot_subslots: 379. to refer to an
     array of static slots.  For example:

          static const PySlot my_slots[] = {
             PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_tp_name, "MyClass"),
             PySlot_FUNC(Py_tp_repr, my_repr_func),
             ...
             PySlot_END
          };

          PyObject *make_my_class(PyObject *module) {
             PySlot all_slots[] = {
                PySlot_STATIC_DATA(Py_slot_subslots, my_slots),
                PySlot_DATA(Py_tp_module, module),
                PySlot_END
             };
             return PyType_FromSlots(all_slots);
          }

Heap types created without the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 5fb. flag
may be modified, for example by setting attributes on them, as with
classes defined in Python code.  Sometimes, such modifications are
necessary to fully initialize a type, but you may wish to prevent users
from changing the type after the initialization is done:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_Freeze (PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Make a
     type immutable: set the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 5fb. flag.

     All base classes of 'type' must be immutable.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception and return
     ‘-1’.

     The type must not be used before it’s made immutable.  For example,
     type instances must not be created before the type is made
     immutable.

     Added in version 3.14.

* Menu:

* Type slot IDs::


File: python.info,  Node: Type slot IDs,  Up: Creating Heap-Allocated Types

7.10.1.3 Type slot IDs
......................

Most type slot IDs are named like the field names of the structures
*note PyTypeObject: e6b, *note PyNumberMethods: 17c0, *note
PySequenceMethods: 5209, *note PyMappingMethods: 520a. and *note
PyAsyncMethods: 564a. with an added ‘Py_’ prefix.  For example, use:

   * *note Py_tp_dealloc: 54cf. to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc:
     51d3.

   * *note Py_nb_add: 54a0. to set *note PyNumberMethods.nb_add: 5645.

   * *note Py_sq_length: 54c8. to set *note PySequenceMethods.sq_length:
     564b.

The following slots need additional considerations when specified as
slots:

   * *note Py_tp_name: 37c.

   * *note Py_tp_basicsize: 37d. and *note Py_tp_extra_basicsize: 37e.

   * *note Py_tp_itemsize: 37f.

   * *note Py_tp_flags: 380.

Additional slots do not directly correspond to a ‘PyTypeObject’ struct
field:

   * *note Py_tp_token: 5de.

   * *note Py_tp_metaclass: 381.

   * *note Py_tp_module: 382.

The following “offset” fields cannot be set using *note PyType_Slot:
541b.:

   * *note tp_weaklistoffset: d50. (use *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 39d. instead if possible)

   * *note tp_dictoffset: 564c. (use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c.
     instead if possible)

   * *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 55f8. (use ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’ in
     *note PyMemberDef: 564d.)

If it is not possible to switch to a ‘MANAGED’ flag (for example, for
vectorcall or to support Python older than 3.12), specify the offset in
*note Py_tp_members: 54de.  See *note PyMemberDef documentation: 564d.
for details.

The following internal fields cannot be set at all when creating a heap
type:

   * *note tp_dict: 1c92, *note tp_mro: 564e, *note tp_cache: 564f,
     *note tp_subclasses: 977, and *note tp_weaklist: 5650.

The *note Py_tp_base: 54cb. slot is equivalent to *note Py_tp_bases:
54cc.; both may be set either to a type or a tuple of types.  If both
are specified, the value of ‘Py_tp_bases’ is used.

Slot values may not be ‘NULL’, except for the following:

   * *note Py_tp_doc: 54d3.

   * *note Py_tp_token: 5de. (for clarity, prefer *note Py_TP_USE_SPEC:
     547d. rather than ‘NULL’)

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Slots in *note PyBufferProcs: 5651. may be set
in the unlimited API.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: *note bf_getbuffer: b44. and *note
bf_releasebuffer: b45. are now available under the *note limited API:
829.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The field *note tp_vectorcall: 1b9a. can now be
set using *note Py_tp_vectorcall: 54e7.  See the field’s documentation
for details.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The *note Py_tp_bases: 54cc. slot may be set to
a single type object, making it equivalent to the *note Py_tp_base:
54cb. slot.  Previously, a tuple of types was required.

The following slots correspond to fields in the underlying type
structure, but need extra remarks for use as slots:

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_tp_name
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for the name of the type, used to set *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_name: 1ea6.

     This slot (or *note PyType_Spec.name(): 5652.) is required to
     create a type.

     This may not be used in *note PyType_Spec.slots: 5653.  Use *note
     PyType_Spec.name(): 5652. instead.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' CPython processes slots in order.
     It is recommended to put ‘Py_tp_name’ at the beginning of the slots
     array, so that if processing of a later slots fails, error messages
     can include the name.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_tp_basicsize
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for the size of the instance in bytes.  It is used
     to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: d4f.

     The value must be positive.

     This may not be used in *note PyType_Spec.slots: 5653.  Use *note
     PyType_Spec.basicsize(): 199. instead.

     This slot may not be used with *note PyType_GetSlot(): c72.  Use
     *note PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: d4f. instead if needed, but be
     aware that a type’s size is often considered an implementation
     detail.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_tp_extra_basicsize
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for type data size in bytes, that is, how much space
     instances of the class need 'in addition' to space needed for
     superclasses.

     The value is used, together with the size of superclasses, to set
     *note PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: d4f.  Python will insert padding
     as needed to meet ‘tp_basicsize’’s alignment requirements.

     Use *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 19a. to get a pointer to
     subclass-specific memory reserved this way.

     The value must be positive.  To specify that instances need no
     additional size (that is, size should be inherited), omit the
     ‘Py_tp_extra_basicsize’ slot rather than set it to zero.

     Specifying both *note Py_tp_basicsize: 37d. and
     ‘Py_tp_extra_basicsize’ is an error.

     This may not be used in *note PyType_Spec.slots: 5653.  Use
     negative *note PyType_Spec.basicsize(): 199. instead.

     This slot may not be used with *note PyType_GetSlot(): c72.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_tp_itemsize
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for the size of one element of a variable-size type,
     in bytes.  Used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize: 25b0.  See
     ‘tp_itemsize’ documentation for caveats.

     The value must be positive.

     If this slot is missing, *note tp_itemsize: 25b0. is inherited.
     Extending arbitrary variable-sized classes is dangerous, since some
     types use a fixed offset for variable-sized memory, which can then
     overlap fixed-sized memory used by a subclass.  To help prevent
     mistakes, inheriting ‘itemsize’ is only possible in the following
     situations:

        - The base is not variable-sized (its *note tp_itemsize: 25b0.).

        - The requested *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 199. is positive,
          suggesting that the memory layout of the base class is known.

        - The requested *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 199. is zero,
          suggesting that the subclass does not access the instance’s
          memory directly.

        - With the *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 956. flag.

     This may not be used in *note PyType_Spec.slots: 5653.  Use *note
     PyType_Spec.itemsize(): 5654. instead.

     This slot may not be used with *note PyType_GetSlot(): c72.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_tp_flags
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for type flags, used to set *note
     PyTypeObject.tp_flags: 1e68.

     The ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE’ flag is not set, *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 38f. sets it automatically.

     This may not be used in *note PyType_Spec.slots: 5653.  Use
     negative *note PyType_Spec.basicsize(): 199. instead.

     This slot may not be used with *note PyType_GetSlot(): c72.  Use
     *note PyType_GetFlags(): 1f31. instead.

     Added in version 3.15.

The following slots do not correspond to public fields in the underlying
structures:

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_tp_metaclass
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for the metaclass used to construct the resulting
     type object.  When omitted the metaclass is derived from bases
     (*note Py_tp_bases: 54cc. or the 'bases' argument of *note
     PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391.).

     Metaclasses that override *note tp_new: 981. are not supported,
     except if ‘tp_new’ is ‘NULL’.

     This may not be used in *note PyType_Spec.slots: 5653.  Use *note
     PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391. to specify a metaclass with
     ‘PyType_Spec’.

     This slot may not be used with *note PyType_GetSlot(): c72.  Use
     *note Py_TYPE(): 5f5. on the type object instead.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_tp_module
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for recording the module in which the new class is
     defined.

     The value must be a module object.  The module is associated with
     the new type and can later be retrieved with *note
     PyType_GetModule(): d37.  The associated module is not inherited by
     subclasses; it must be specified for each class individually.

     This may not be used in *note PyType_Spec.slots: 5653.  Use *note
     PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391. to specify a module with
     ‘PyType_Spec’.

     This slot may not be used with *note PyType_GetSlot(): c72.  Use
     *note PyType_GetModule(): d37. instead.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_tp_token
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for recording a static memory layout ID for a class.

     If the class is defined using a *note PyType_Spec: 1c8f, and that
     spec is statically allocated, the token can be set to the spec
     using the special value *note Py_TP_USE_SPEC: 547d.:

          static PyType_Slot foo_slots[] = {
             {Py_tp_token, Py_TP_USE_SPEC},

     It can also be set to an arbitrary pointer, but you must ensure
     that:

        * The pointer outlives the class, so it’s not reused for
          something else while the class exists.

        * It «belongs» to the extension module where the class lives, so
          it will not clash with other extensions.

     Use *note PyType_GetBaseByToken(): 5dd. to check if a class’s
     superclass has a given token – that is, check whether the memory
     layout is compatible.

     To get the token for a given class (without considering
     superclasses), use *note PyType_GetSlot(): c72. with ‘Py_tp_token’.

     Added in version 3.14.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TP_USE_SPEC
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'
          Used as a value with *note Py_tp_token: 5de. to set the token
          to the class’s *note PyType_Spec: 1c8f.  May only be used for
          classes defined using ‘PyType_Spec’.

          Expands to ‘NULL’.

          Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_tp_slots
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. that works like *note Py_slot_subslots: 379, except
     it specifies an array of *note PyType_Slot: 541b. structures.

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Soft-deprecated API,  Prev: Creating Heap-Allocated Types,  Up: Type Objects

7.10.1.4 Soft-deprecated API
............................

The following functions are *note soft deprecated: 1a7.  They will
continue to work, but new features will be added as slots for *note
PyType_FromSlots(): 376, not as arguments to new ‘PyType_From*’
functions.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_FromMetaclass
          (PyTypeObject *metaclass, PyObject *module, PyType_Spec *spec,
          PyObject *bases)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Create
     and return a *note heap type: d2f. from the 'spec' (see *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: c82.).

     A non-‘NULL’ 'metaclass' argument corresponds to the *note
     Py_tp_metaclass: 381. slot.

     A non-‘NULL’ 'bases' argument corresponds to the *note Py_tp_bases:
     54cc. slot, and takes precedence over ‘Py_tp_bases’ and
     ‘Py_tp_bases’ slots.

     A non-‘NULL’ 'module' argument corresponds to the *note
     Py_tp_module: 382. slot.

     This function calls *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. on the new type.

     Note that this function does 'not' fully match the behavior of
     calling *note type(): 186. or using the *note class: 167c.
     statement.  See the note in *note PyType_FromSlots(): 376.
     documentation for details.

     Added in version 3.12.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.16.0a0 (unreleased):
     Prefer *note PyType_FromSlots(): 376. in new code.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_FromModuleAndSpec
          (PyObject *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Equivalent to
     ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, module, spec, bases)’.

     Added in version 3.9.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The function now accepts a single class as
     the 'bases' argument and ‘NULL’ as the ‘tp_doc’ slot.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The function now finds and uses a
     metaclass corresponding to the provided base classes.  Previously,
     only *note type: 186. instances were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 981. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides ‘tp_new’ is deprecated.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Creating classes whose metaclass overrides
     *note tp_new: 981. is no longer allowed.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.16.0a0 (unreleased):
     Prefer *note PyType_FromSlots(): 376. in new code.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_FromSpecWithBases
          (PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.3.'  Equivalent to
     ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec, bases)’.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The function now finds and uses a
     metaclass corresponding to the provided base classes.  Previously,
     only *note type: 186. instances were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 981. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides ‘tp_new’ is deprecated.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Creating classes whose metaclass overrides
     *note tp_new: 981. is no longer allowed.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.16.0a0 (unreleased):
     Prefer *note PyType_FromSlots(): 376. in new code.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_FromSpec (PyType_Spec
          *spec)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Equivalent to ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec,
     NULL)’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The function now finds and uses a
     metaclass corresponding to the base classes provided in
     'Py_tp_base[s]' slots.  Previously, only *note type: 186. instances
     were returned.

     The *note tp_new: 981. of the metaclass is 'ignored'.  which may
     result in incomplete initialization.  Creating classes whose
     metaclass overrides ‘tp_new’ is deprecated.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Creating classes whose metaclass overrides
     *note tp_new: 981. is no longer allowed.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.16.0a0 (unreleased):
     Prefer *note PyType_FromSlots(): 376. in new code.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyType_Spec
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των
     μελών).'  Structure defining a type’s behavior, used for
     soft-deprecated functions like *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391.

     This structure contains several members that can instead be
     specified as *note slots: 556b. for *note PyType_FromSlots(): 376,
     and an array of slot entries with a simpler structure.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *name

          Corresponds to *note Py_tp_name: 37c.

      -- C Μέλος: int basicsize

          If positive, corresponds to *note Py_tp_basicsize: 37d.

          If negative, corresponds to *note Py_tp_extra_basicsize: 37e.
          set to the absolute value.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Previously, this field could not be
          negative.

      -- C Μέλος: int itemsize

          Corresponds to *note Py_tp_itemsize: 37f.

      -- C Μέλος: unsigned int flags

          Corresponds to *note Py_tp_flags: 380.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyType_Slot: 541b. *slots

          Array of *note PyType_Slot: 541b. (not *note PySlot: 19d.)
          structures.

          Terminated by the special slot value ‘{0, NULL}’.  Each slot
          ID should be specified at most once.

           -- C Τύπος: type PyType_Slot
               ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων
               όλων των μελών).'  Structure defining optional
               functionality of a type, used for soft-deprecated
               functions like *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391.

               Note that a ‘PyType_Slot’ array may be included in a
               ‘PySlot’ array using *note Py_tp_slots: 37a, and vice
               versa using *note Py_slot_subslots: 379.

               Each ‘PyType_Slot’ structure ‘tpslot’ is interpreted as
               the following *note PySlot: 19d. structure:

                    (PySlot){
                       .sl_id=tpslot.slot,
                       .sl_flags=PySlot_INTPTR | sub_static,
                       .sl_ptr=tpslot.func
                    }

               where ‘sub_static’ is ‘PySlot_STATIC’ if the slot
               requires the flag (such as for *note Py_tp_methods:
               54df.), or if this flag is present on the «parent»
               ‘Py_tp_slots’ slot (if any).

                -- C Μέλος: int slot

                    Corresponds to *note PySlot.sl_id: 5568.

                -- C Μέλος: void *pfunc

                    Corresponds to *note PySlot.sl_ptr: 556c.


File: python.info,  Node: The None Object,  Prev: Type Objects,  Up: Fundamental Objects

7.10.1.5 The ‘None’ Object
..........................

Note that the *note PyTypeObject: e6b. for ‘None’ is not directly
exposed in the Python/C API. Since ‘None’ is a singleton, testing for
object identity (using ‘==’ in C) is sufficient.  There is no
‘PyNone_Check()’ function for the same reason.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_None

     The Python ‘None’ object, denoting lack of value.  This object has
     no methods and is *note immortal: 398.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: *note Py_None: 5606. is *note immortal:
     398.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_RETURN_NONE

     Return *note Py_None: 5606. from a function.


File: python.info,  Node: Numeric Objects,  Next: Sequence Objects,  Prev: Fundamental Objects,  Up: Concrete Objects Layer

7.10.2 Numeric Objects
----------------------

* Menu:

* Integer Objects::
* Boolean Objects::
* Floating-Point Objects::
* Complex Number Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Integer Objects,  Next: Boolean Objects,  Up: Numeric Objects

7.10.2.1 Integer Objects
........................

All integers are implemented as «long» integer objects of arbitrary
size.

On error, most ‘PyLong_As*’ APIs return ‘(return type)-1’ which cannot
be distinguished from a number.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to
disambiguate.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyLongObject
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (ως μια αδιαφανής κατασκευή).'
     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. represents a Python integer
     object.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyLong_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python integer type.  This is the
     same object as *note int: 326. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyLong_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyLongObject: 5cb. or a
     subtype of ‘PyLongObject’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyLong_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyLongObject: 5cb, but not a
     subtype of ‘PyLongObject’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromLong (long v)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 5cb. object from 'v', or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' CPython keeps an array of integer
     objects for all integers between ‘-5’ and ‘1024’.  When you create
     an int in that range you actually just get back a reference to the
     existing object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (unsigned
          long v)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 5cb. object from a C
     unsigned long, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromSsize_t (Py_ssize_t v)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 5cb. object from a C *note
     Py_ssize_t: e24, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromSize_t (size_t v)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 5cb. object from a C
     ‘size_t’, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromLongLong (long long v)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 5cb. object from a C long
     long, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromInt32 (int32_t value)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromInt64 (int64_t value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Return a
     new *note PyLongObject: 5cb. object from a signed C int32_t or
     int64_t, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong
          (unsigned long long v)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 5cb. object from a C
     unsigned long long, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromUInt32 (uint32_t
          value)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromUInt64 (uint64_t
          value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Return a
     new *note PyLongObject: 5cb. object from an unsigned C uint32_t or
     uint64_t, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromDouble (double v)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 5cb. object from the
     integer part of 'v', or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromString (const char
          *str, char **pend, int base)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a new *note PyLongObject: 5cb. based on the string
     value in 'str', which is interpreted according to the radix in
     'base', or ‘NULL’ on failure.  If 'pend' is non-‘NULL’, '*pend'
     will point to the end of 'str' on success or to the first character
     that could not be processed on error.  If 'base' is ‘0’, 'str' is
     interpreted using the *note Λεκτικά ακεραίων: 24fc. definition; in
     this case, leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number raises a
     *note ValueError: 277.  If 'base' is not ‘0’, it must be between
     ‘2’ and ‘36’, inclusive.  Leading and trailing whitespace and
     single underscores after a base specifier and between digits are
     ignored.  If there are no digits or 'str' is not NULL-terminated
     following the digits and trailing whitespace, ‘ValueError’ will be
     raised.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 7fc. and *note
     PyLong_FromNativeBytes(): 7fd. functions can be used to convert a
     *note PyLongObject: 5cb. to/from an array of bytes in base ‘256’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromUnicodeObject
          (PyObject *u, int base)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Convert a sequence of Unicode
     digits in the string 'u' to a Python integer value.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromVoidPtr (void *p)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Python integer from the pointer 'p'.  The pointer
     value can be retrieved from the resulting value using *note
     PyLong_AsVoidPtr(): 537d.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromNativeBytes (const
          void *buffer, size_t n_bytes, int flags)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Create a
     Python integer from the value contained in the first 'n_bytes' of
     'buffer', interpreted as a two’s-complement signed number.

     'flags' are as for *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 7fc.  Passing ‘-1’
     will select the native endian that CPython was compiled with and
     assume that the most-significant bit is a sign bit.  Passing
     ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’ will produce the same result as
     calling *note PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(): 7fe.  Other flags
     are ignored.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes
          (const void *buffer, size_t n_bytes, int flags)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Create a
     Python integer from the value contained in the first 'n_bytes' of
     'buffer', interpreted as an unsigned number.

     'flags' are as for *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 7fc.  Passing ‘-1’
     will select the native endian that CPython was compiled with and
     assume that the most-significant bit is not a sign bit.  Flags
     other than endian are ignored.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyLong_FromPid (pid)

     Macro for creating a Python integer from a process identifier.

     This can be defined as an alias to *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1dca.
     or *note PyLong_FromLongLong(): 1dcb, depending on the size of the
     system’s PID type.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: long PyLong_AsLong (PyObject *obj)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Return a C long representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an
     instance of *note PyLongObject: 5cb, first call its *note
     __index__(): 43d. method (if present) to convert it to a
     ‘PyLongObject’.

     Raise *note OverflowError: c57. if the value of 'obj' is out of
     range for a long.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to
     disambiguate.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 43d. if available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 43c.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: long PyLong_AS_LONG (PyObject *obj)

          Exactly equivalent to the preferred ‘PyLong_AsLong’.  In
          particular, it can fail with *note OverflowError: c57. or
          another exception.

          *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyLong_AsInt (PyObject *obj)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Similar
     to *note PyLong_AsLong(): 7fb, but store the result in a C int
     instead of a C long.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: long PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (PyObject *obj, int
          *overflow)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return a C long
     representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 5cb, first call its *note __index__(): 43d. method
     (if present) to convert it to a ‘PyLongObject’.

     If the value of 'obj' is greater than ‘LONG_MAX’ or less than
     ‘LONG_MIN’, set '*overflow' to ‘1’ or ‘-1’, respectively, and
     return ‘-1’; otherwise, set '*overflow' to ‘0’.  If any other
     exception occurs set '*overflow' to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’ as usual.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to
     disambiguate.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 43d. if available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 43c.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: long long PyLong_AsLongLong (PyObject *obj)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Return a C long long representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an
     instance of *note PyLongObject: 5cb, first call its *note
     __index__(): 43d. method (if present) to convert it to a
     ‘PyLongObject’.

     Raise *note OverflowError: c57. if the value of 'obj' is out of
     range for a long long.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to
     disambiguate.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 43d. if available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 43c.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: long long PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (PyObject *obj,
          int *overflow)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return a C long long
     representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 5cb, first call its *note __index__(): 43d. method
     (if present) to convert it to a ‘PyLongObject’.

     If the value of 'obj' is greater than ‘LLONG_MAX’ or less than
     ‘LLONG_MIN’, set '*overflow' to ‘1’ or ‘-1’, respectively, and
     return ‘-1’; otherwise, set '*overflow' to ‘0’.  If any other
     exception occurs set '*overflow' to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’ as usual.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to
     disambiguate.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 43d. if available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 43c.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyLong_AsSsize_t (PyObject
          *pylong)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Return a C *note Py_ssize_t: e24. representation of 'pylong'.
     'pylong' must be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 5cb.

     Raise *note OverflowError: c57. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a *note Py_ssize_t: e24.

     Returns ‘-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Return a C unsigned long representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong' must
     be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 5cb.

     Raise *note OverflowError: c57. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a unsigned long.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long)-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred():
     1ea5. to disambiguate.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: size_t PyLong_AsSize_t (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Return a C ‘size_t’ representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong' must be
     an instance of *note PyLongObject: 5cb.

     Raise *note OverflowError: c57. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a ‘size_t’.

     Returns ‘(size_t)-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5.
     to disambiguate.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (PyObject
          *pylong)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Return a C unsigned long long representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong'
     must be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 5cb.

     Raise *note OverflowError: c57. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for an unsigned long long.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long long)-1’ on error.  Use *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to disambiguate.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.1: A negative 'pylong' now raises *note
     OverflowError: c57, not *note TypeError: 291.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (PyObject *obj)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return a C unsigned long
     representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 5cb, first call its *note __index__(): 43d. method
     (if present) to convert it to a ‘PyLongObject’.

     If the value of 'obj' is out of range for an unsigned long, return
     the reduction of that value modulo ‘ULONG_MAX + 1’.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long)-1’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred():
     1ea5. to disambiguate.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 43d. if available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 43c.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask
          (PyObject *obj)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return a C unsigned long long
     representation of 'obj'.  If 'obj' is not an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 5cb, first call its *note __index__(): 43d. method
     (if present) to convert it to a ‘PyLongObject’.

     If the value of 'obj' is out of range for an unsigned long long,
     return the reduction of that value modulo ‘ULLONG_MAX + 1’.

     Returns ‘(unsigned long long)-1’ on error.  Use *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to disambiguate.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 43d. if available.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This function will no longer use *note
     __int__(): 43c.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyLong_AsInt32 (PyObject *obj, int32_t *value)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyLong_AsInt64 (PyObject *obj, int64_t *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Set
     '*value' to a signed C int32_t or int64_t representation of 'obj'.

     If 'obj' is not an instance of *note PyLongObject: 5cb, first call
     its *note __index__(): 43d. method (if present) to convert it to a
     ‘PyLongObject’.

     If the 'obj' value is out of range, raise an *note OverflowError:
     c57.

     Set '*value' and return ‘0’ on success.  Set an exception and
     return ‘-1’ on error.

     'value' must not be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyLong_AsUInt32 (PyObject *obj, uint32_t *value)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyLong_AsUInt64 (PyObject *obj, uint64_t *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Set
     '*value' to an unsigned C uint32_t or uint64_t representation of
     'obj'.

     If 'obj' is not an instance of *note PyLongObject: 5cb, first call
     its *note __index__(): 43d. method (if present) to convert it to a
     ‘PyLongObject’.

        * If 'obj' is negative, raise a *note ValueError: 277.

        * If the 'obj' value is out of range, raise an *note
          OverflowError: c57.

     Set '*value' and return ‘0’ on success.  Set an exception and
     return ‘-1’ on error.

     'value' must not be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double PyLong_AsDouble (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return a C double
     representation of 'pylong'.  'pylong' must be an instance of *note
     PyLongObject: 5cb.

     Raise *note OverflowError: c57. if the value of 'pylong' is out of
     range for a double.

     Returns ‘-1.0’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyLong_AsVoidPtr (PyObject *pylong)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Convert a Python integer
     'pylong' to a C void pointer.  If 'pylong' cannot be converted, an
     *note OverflowError: c57. will be raised.  This is only assured to
     produce a usable void pointer for values created with *note
     PyLong_FromVoidPtr(): 537f.

     Returns ‘NULL’ on error.  Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyLong_AsNativeBytes (PyObject
          *pylong, void *buffer, Py_ssize_t n_bytes, int flags)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Copy the
     Python integer value 'pylong' to a native 'buffer' of size
     'n_bytes'.  The 'flags' can be set to ‘-1’ to behave similarly to a
     C cast, or to values documented below to control the behavior.

     Returns ‘-1’ with an exception raised on error.  This may happen if
     'pylong' cannot be interpreted as an integer, or if 'pylong' was
     negative and the ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE’ flag was set.

     Otherwise, returns the number of bytes required to store the value.
     If this is equal to or less than 'n_bytes', the entire value was
     copied.  All 'n_bytes' of the buffer are written: remaining bytes
     filled by copies of the sign bit.

     If the returned value is greater than 'n_bytes', the value was
     truncated: as many of the lowest bits of the value as could fit are
     written, and the higher bits are ignored.  This matches the typical
     behavior of a C-style downcast.

          Σημείωση: Overflow is not considered an error.  If the
          returned value is larger than 'n_bytes', most significant bits
          were discarded.

     ‘0’ will never be returned.

     Values are always copied as two’s-complement.

     Usage example:

          int32_t value;
          Py_ssize_t bytes = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, &value, sizeof(value), -1);
          if (bytes < 0) {
              // Failed. A Python exception was set with the reason.
              return NULL;
          }
          else if (bytes <= (Py_ssize_t)sizeof(value)) {
              // Success!
          }
          else {
              // Overflow occurred, but 'value' contains the truncated
              // lowest bits of pylong.
          }

     Passing zero to 'n_bytes' will return the size of a buffer that
     would be large enough to hold the value.  This may be larger than
     technically necessary, but not unreasonably so.  If 'n_bytes=0',
     'buffer' may be ‘NULL’.

          Σημείωση: Passing 'n_bytes=0' to this function is not an
          accurate way to determine the bit length of the value.

     To get at the entire Python value of an unknown size, the function
     can be called twice: first to determine the buffer size, then to
     fill it:

          // Ask how much space we need.
          Py_ssize_t expected = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, NULL, 0, -1);
          if (expected < 0) {
              // Failed. A Python exception was set with the reason.
              return NULL;
          }
          assert(expected != 0);  // Impossible per the API definition.
          uint8_t *bignum = malloc(expected);
          if (!bignum) {
              PyErr_SetString(PyExc_MemoryError, "bignum malloc failed.");
              return NULL;
          }
          // Safely get the entire value.
          Py_ssize_t bytes = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, bignum, expected, -1);
          if (bytes < 0) {  // Exception has been set.
              free(bignum);
              return NULL;
          }
          else if (bytes > expected) {  // This should not be possible.
              PyErr_SetString(PyExc_RuntimeError,
                  "Unexpected bignum truncation after a size check.");
              free(bignum);
              return NULL;
          }
          // The expected success given the above pre-check.
          // ... use bignum ...
          free(bignum);

     'flags' is either ‘-1’ (‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS’) to select
     defaults that behave most like a C cast, or a combination of the
     other flags in the table below.  Note that ‘-1’ cannot be combined
     with other flags.

     Currently, ‘-1’ corresponds to ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN |
     Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’.

     Flag                                              Value
                                                       
     -------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS      ‘-1’
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από      
          την έκδοση 3.14.'

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_BIG_ENDIAN    ‘0’
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από      
          την έκδοση 3.14.'

      -- C Μακροεντολή:                                ‘1’
               Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_LITTLE_ENDIAN          
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
          την έκδοση 3.14.'

      -- C Μακροεντολή:                                ‘3’
               Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN          
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
          την έκδοση 3.14.'

      -- C Μακροεντολή:                                ‘4’
               Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER        
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
          την έκδοση 3.14.'

      -- C Μακροεντολή:                                ‘8’
               Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE        
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
          την έκδοση 3.14.'

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX   ‘16’
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από      
          την έκδοση 3.14.'

     Specifying ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN’ will override any other
     endian flags.  Passing ‘2’ is reserved.

     By default, sufficient buffer will be requested to include a sign
     bit.  For example, when converting 128 with 'n_bytes=1', the
     function will return 2 (or more) in order to store a zero sign bit.

     If ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’ is specified, a zero sign bit
     will be omitted from size calculations.  This allows, for example,
     128 to fit in a single-byte buffer.  If the destination buffer is
     later treated as signed, a positive input value may become
     negative.  Note that the flag does not affect handling of negative
     values: for those, space for a sign bit is always requested.

     Specifying ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE’ causes an exception
     to be set if 'pylong' is negative.  Without this flag, negative
     values will be copied provided there is enough space for at least
     one sign bit, regardless of whether
     ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’ was specified.

     If ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX’ is specified and a non-integer
     value is passed, its *note __index__(): 43d. method will be called
     first.  This may result in Python code executing and other threads
     being allowed to run, which could cause changes to other objects or
     values in use.  When 'flags' is ‘-1’, this option is not set, and
     non-integer values will raise *note TypeError: 291.

          Σημείωση: With the default 'flags' (‘-1’, or 'UNSIGNED_BUFFER'
          without 'REJECT_NEGATIVE'), multiple Python integers can map
          to a single value without overflow.  For example, both ‘255’
          and ‘-1’ fit a single-byte buffer and set all its bits.  This
          matches typical C cast behavior.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyLong_AsPid (pid)

     Macro for converting a Python integer into a process identifier.

     This can be defined as an alias to *note PyLong_AsLong(): 7fb,
     *note PyLong_FromLongLong(): 1dcb, or *note PyLong_AsInt(): 7fa,
     depending on the size of the system’s PID type.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyLong_GetSign (PyObject *obj, int *sign)

     Get the sign of the integer object 'obj'.

     On success, set '*sign' to the integer sign (0, -1 or +1 for zero,
     negative or positive integer, respectively) and return 0.

     On failure, return -1 with an exception set.  This function always
     succeeds if 'obj' is a *note PyLongObject: 5cb. or its subtype.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyLong_IsPositive (PyObject *obj)

     Check if the integer object 'obj' is positive (‘obj > 0’).

     If 'obj' is an instance of *note PyLongObject: 5cb. or its subtype,
     return ‘1’ when it’s positive and ‘0’ otherwise.  Else set an
     exception and return ‘-1’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyLong_IsNegative (PyObject *obj)

     Check if the integer object 'obj' is negative (‘obj < 0’).

     If 'obj' is an instance of *note PyLongObject: 5cb. or its subtype,
     return ‘1’ when it’s negative and ‘0’ otherwise.  Else set an
     exception and return ‘-1’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyLong_IsZero (PyObject *obj)

     Check if the integer object 'obj' is zero.

     If 'obj' is an instance of *note PyLongObject: 5cb. or its subtype,
     return ‘1’ when it’s zero and ‘0’ otherwise.  Else set an exception
     and return ‘-1’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLong_GetInfo (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  On success, return a read
     only *note named tuple: a3d, that holds information about Python’s
     internal representation of integers.  See *note sys.int_info: 1638.
     for description of individual fields.

     On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact (const PyLongObject *op)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Return 1 if 'op' is compact, 0 otherwise.

     This function makes it possible for performance-critical code to
     implement a “fast path” for small integers.  For compact values use
     *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 989.; for others fall back to
     a *note PyLong_As*: 5379. function or *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes():
     7fc.

     The speedup is expected to be negligible for most users.

     Exactly what values are considered compact is an implementation
     detail and is subject to change.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue
          (const PyLongObject *op)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     If 'op' is compact, as determined by *note
     PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 988, return its value.

     Otherwise, the return value is undefined.

     Added in version 3.12.

* Menu:

* Export API::
* PyLongWriter API::
* Deprecated API::


File: python.info,  Node: Export API,  Next: PyLongWriter API,  Up: Integer Objects

7.10.2.2 Export API
...................

Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyLongLayout
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των
     μελών) από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Layout of an array of «digits»
     («limbs» in the GMP terminology), used to represent absolute value
     for arbitrary precision integers.

     Use *note PyLong_GetNativeLayout(): 5d4. to get the native layout
     of Python *note int: 326. objects, used internally for integers
     with «big enough» absolute value.

     See also *note sys.int_info: 1638. which exposes similar
     information in Python.

      -- C Μέλος: uint8_t bits_per_digit

          Bits per digit.  For example, a 15 bit digit means that bits
          0-14 contain meaningful information.

      -- C Μέλος: uint8_t digit_size

          Digit size in bytes.  For example, a 15 bit digit will require
          at least 2 bytes.

      -- C Μέλος: int8_t digits_order

          Digits order:

             - ‘1’ for most significant digit first

             - ‘-1’ for least significant digit first

      -- C Μέλος: int8_t digit_endianness

          Digit endianness:

             - ‘1’ for most significant byte first (big endian)

             - ‘-1’ for least significant byte first (little endian)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const *note PyLongLayout: 196f. *PyLong_GetNativeLayout
          (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Get the
     native layout of Python *note int: 326. objects.

     See the *note PyLongLayout: 196f. structure.

     The function must not be called before Python initialization nor
     after Python finalization.  The returned layout is valid until
     Python is finalized.  The layout is the same for all Python
     sub-interpreters in a process, and so it can be cached.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyLongExport
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των
     μελών) από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Export of a Python *note int: 326.
     object.

     There are two cases:

        * If *note digits: 566a. is ‘NULL’, only use the *note value:
          566b. member.

        * If *note digits: 566a. is not ‘NULL’, use *note negative:
          566c, *note ndigits: 566d. and ‘digits’ members.

      -- C Μέλος: int64_t value

          The native integer value of the exported *note int: 326.
          object.  Only valid if *note digits: 566a. is ‘NULL’.

      -- C Μέλος: uint8_t negative

          ‘1’ if the number is negative, ‘0’ otherwise.  Only valid if
          *note digits: 566a. is not ‘NULL’.

      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. ndigits

          Number of digits in *note digits: 566a. array.  Only valid if
          ‘digits’ is not ‘NULL’.

      -- C Μέλος: const void *digits

          Read-only array of unsigned digits.  Can be ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyLong_Export (PyObject *obj, PyLongExport
          *export_long)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Export a
     Python *note int: 326. object.

     'export_long' must point to a *note PyLongExport: 1970. structure
     allocated by the caller.  It must not be ‘NULL’.

     On success, fill in '*export_long' and return ‘0’.  On error, set
     an exception and return ‘-1’.

     *note PyLong_FreeExport(): 5d6. must be called when the export is
     no longer needed.

          'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This function always
          succeeds if 'obj' is a Python *note int: 326. object or a
          subclass.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyLong_FreeExport (PyLongExport *export_long)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Release
     the export 'export_long' created by *note PyLong_Export(): 5d5.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Calling *note
     PyLong_FreeExport(): 5d6. is optional if 'export_long->digits' is
     ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: PyLongWriter API,  Next: Deprecated API,  Prev: Export API,  Up: Integer Objects

7.10.2.3 PyLongWriter API
.........................

The *note PyLongWriter: 1971. API can be used to import an integer.

Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyLongWriter
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (ως μια αδιαφανής κατασκευή)
     από την έκδοση 3.15.'  A Python *note int: 326. writer instance.

     The instance must be destroyed by *note PyLongWriter_Finish(): 5d8.
     or *note PyLongWriter_Discard(): 5d9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyLongWriter: 1971. *PyLongWriter_Create (int
          negative, Py_ssize_t ndigits, void **digits)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Create a
     *note PyLongWriter: 1971.

     On success, allocate '*digits' and return a writer.  On error, set
     an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     'negative' is ‘1’ if the number is negative, or ‘0’ otherwise.

     'ndigits' is the number of digits in the 'digits' array.  It must
     be greater than 0.

     'digits' must not be NULL.

     After a successful call to this function, the caller should fill in
     the array of digits 'digits' and then call *note
     PyLongWriter_Finish(): 5d8. to get a Python *note int: 326.  The
     layout of 'digits' is described by *note PyLong_GetNativeLayout():
     5d4.

     Digits must be in the range [‘0’; ‘(1 << bits_per_digit) - 1’]
     (where the *note bits_per_digit: 5666. is the number of bits per
     digit).  Any unused most significant digits must be set to ‘0’.

     Alternately, call *note PyLongWriter_Discard(): 5d9. to destroy the
     writer instance without creating an *note int: 326. object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyLongWriter_Finish (PyLongWriter
          *writer)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Finish a *note PyLongWriter: 1971.
     created by *note PyLongWriter_Create(): 5d7.

     On success, return a Python *note int: 326. object.  On error, set
     an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     The function takes care of normalizing the digits and converts the
     object to a compact integer if needed.

     The writer instance and the 'digits' array are invalid after the
     call.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyLongWriter_Discard (PyLongWriter *writer)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Discard
     a *note PyLongWriter: 1971. created by *note PyLongWriter_Create():
     5d7.

     If 'writer' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.

     The writer instance and the 'digits' array are invalid after the
     call.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated API,  Prev: PyLongWriter API,  Up: Integer Objects

7.10.2.4 Deprecated API
.......................

These macros are *note soft deprecated: 1a7.  They describe parameters
of the internal representation of *note PyLongObject: 5cb. instances.

Use *note PyLong_GetNativeLayout(): 5d4. instead, along with *note
PyLong_Export(): 5d5. to read integer data or *note PyLongWriter: 1971.
to write it.  These currently use the same layout, but are designed to
continue working correctly even if CPython’s internal integer
representation changes.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyLong_SHIFT

     This is equivalent to *note bits_per_digit: 5666. in the output of
     *note PyLong_GetNativeLayout(): 5d4.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyLong_BASE

     This is currently equivalent to 1 << *note PyLong_SHIFT: 5670.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyLong_MASK

     This is currently equivalent to (1 << *note PyLong_SHIFT: 5670.) -
     1


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean Objects,  Next: Floating-Point Objects,  Prev: Integer Objects,  Up: Numeric Objects

7.10.2.5 Boolean Objects
........................

Booleans in Python are implemented as a subclass of integers.  There are
only two booleans, *note Py_False: 5676. and *note Py_True: 5677.  As
such, the normal creation and deletion functions don’t apply to
booleans.  The following macros are available, however.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyBool_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python boolean type; it is the
     same object as *note bool: 5ef. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyBool_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyBool_Type: 529c.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_False

     The Python ‘False’ object.  This object has no methods and is *note
     immortal: 398.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: *note Py_False: 5676. is *note immortal:
     398.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_True

     The Python ‘True’ object.  This object has no methods and is *note
     immortal: 398.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: *note Py_True: 5677. is *note immortal:
     398.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_RETURN_FALSE

     Return *note Py_False: 5676. from a function.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_RETURN_TRUE

     Return *note Py_True: 5677. from a function.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyBool_FromLong (long v)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return *note Py_True: 5677. or *note Py_False: 5676,
     depending on the truth value of 'v'.


File: python.info,  Node: Floating-Point Objects,  Next: Complex Number Objects,  Prev: Boolean Objects,  Up: Numeric Objects

7.10.2.6 Floating-Point Objects
...............................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyFloatObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. represents a Python
     floating-point object.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyFloat_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python floating-point type.  This
     is the same object as *note float: 327. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFloat_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyFloatObject: 567d. or a
     subtype of ‘PyFloatObject’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFloat_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyFloatObject: 567d, but not
     a subtype of ‘PyFloatObject’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFloat_FromString (PyObject
          *str)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a *note PyFloatObject: 567d. object based on the
     string value in 'str', or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFloat_FromDouble (double v)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a *note PyFloatObject: 567d. object from 'v', or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double PyFloat_AsDouble (PyObject *pyfloat)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return a C double
     representation of the contents of 'pyfloat'.  If 'pyfloat' is not a
     Python floating-point object but has a *note __float__(): d92.
     method, this method will first be called to convert 'pyfloat' into
     a float.  If ‘__float__()’ is not defined then it falls back to
     *note __index__(): 43d.  This method returns ‘-1.0’ upon failure,
     so one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to check for
     errors.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 43d. if available.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (PyObject *pyfloat)

     Return a C double representation of the contents of 'pyfloat', but
     without error checking.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFloat_GetInfo (void)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a structseq instance which contains information about
     the precision, minimum and maximum values of a float.  It’s a thin
     wrapper around the header file ‘float.h’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double PyFloat_GetMax ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the maximum
     representable finite float 'DBL_MAX' as C double.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double PyFloat_GetMin ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the minimum normalized
     positive float 'DBL_MIN' as C double.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_INFINITY

     This macro expands to a constant expression of type double, that
     represents the positive infinity.

     It is equivalent to the ‘INFINITY’ macro from the C11 standard
     ‘<math.h>’ header.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_NAN

     This macro expands to a constant expression of type double, that
     represents a quiet not-a-number (qNaN) value.

     On most platforms, this is equivalent to the ‘NAN’ macro from the
     C11 standard ‘<math.h>’ header.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_HUGE_VAL

     Equivalent to ‘INFINITY’.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.14.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MATH_E

     The definition (accurate for a double type) of the *note math.e:
     2c94. constant.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MATH_El

     High precision (long double) definition of *note e: 2c94. constant.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.20.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MATH_PI

     The definition (accurate for a double type) of the *note math.pi:
     2c93. constant.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MATH_PIl

     High precision (long double) definition of *note pi: 2c93.
     constant.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση 3.20.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MATH_TAU

     The definition (accurate for a double type) of the *note math.tau:
     2c95. constant.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_RETURN_NAN

     Return *note math.nan: a53. from a function.

     On most platforms, this is equivalent to ‘return
     PyFloat_FromDouble(NAN)’.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_RETURN_INF (sign)

     Return *note math.inf: 1043. or ‘-math.inf’ from a function,
     depending on the sign of 'sign'.

     On most platforms, this is equivalent to the following:

          return PyFloat_FromDouble(copysign(INFINITY, sign));

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_IS_FINITE (X)

     Return ‘1’ if the given floating-point number 'X' is finite, that
     is, it is normal, subnormal or zero, but not infinite or NaN.
     Return ‘0’ otherwise.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.14: Use ‘isfinite’
     instead.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_IS_INFINITY (X)

     Return ‘1’ if the given floating-point number 'X' is positive or
     negative infinity.  Return ‘0’ otherwise.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.14: Use ‘isinf’
     instead.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_IS_NAN (X)

     Return ‘1’ if the given floating-point number 'X' is a not-a-number
     (NaN) value.  Return ‘0’ otherwise.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.14: Use ‘isnan’
     instead.

* Menu:

* Pack and Unpack functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Pack and Unpack functions,  Up: Floating-Point Objects

7.10.2.7 Pack and Unpack functions
..................................

The pack and unpack functions provide an efficient platform-independent
way to store floating-point values as byte strings.  The Pack routines
produce a bytes string from a C double, and the Unpack routines produce
a C double from such a bytes string.  The suffix (2, 4 or 8) specifies
the number of bytes in the bytes string:

   * The 2-byte format is the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format.

   * The 4-byte format is the IEEE 754 binary32 single-precision format.

   * The 8-byte format is the IEEE 754 binary64 double-precision format.

The NaN type may not be preserved on some platforms while unpacking
(signaling NaNs become quiet NaNs), for example on x86 systems in 32-bit
mode.

It’s assumed that the double type has the IEEE 754 binary64 double
precision format.  What happens if it’s not true is partly accidental
(alas).  On non-IEEE platforms with more precision, or larger dynamic
range, than IEEE 754 supports, not all values can be packed; on non-IEEE
platforms with less precision, or smaller dynamic range, not all values
can be unpacked.  The packing of special numbers like INFs and NaNs (if
such things exist on the platform) may not be handled correctly, and
attempting to unpack a bytes string containing an IEEE INF or NaN may
raise an exception.

Added in version 3.11.

* Menu:

* Pack functions::
* Unpack functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Pack functions,  Next: Unpack functions,  Up: Pack and Unpack functions

7.10.2.8 Pack functions
.......................

The pack routines write 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at 'p'.  'le' is an
int argument, non-zero if you want the bytes string in little-endian
format (exponent last, at ‘p+1’, ‘p+3’, or ‘p+6’ and ‘p+7’), zero if you
want big-endian format (exponent first, at 'p').  Use the
‘PY_LITTLE_ENDIAN’ constant to select the native endian: it is equal to
‘0’ on big endian processor, or ‘1’ on little endian processor.

Return value: ‘0’ if all is OK, ‘-1’ if error (and an exception is set,
most likely *note OverflowError: c57.).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFloat_Pack2 (double x, char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFloat_Pack4 (double x, char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFloat_Pack8 (double x, char *p, int le)

     Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' This function always succeeds in
     CPython.


File: python.info,  Node: Unpack functions,  Prev: Pack functions,  Up: Pack and Unpack functions

7.10.2.9 Unpack functions
.........................

The unpack routines read 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at 'p'.  'le' is an
int argument, non-zero if the bytes string is in little-endian format
(exponent last, at ‘p+1’, ‘p+3’ or ‘p+6’ and ‘p+7’), zero if big-endian
(exponent first, at 'p').  Use the ‘PY_LITTLE_ENDIAN’ constant to select
the native endian: it is equal to ‘0’ on big endian processor, or ‘1’ on
little endian processor.

Return value: The unpacked double.  On error, this is ‘-1.0’ and *note
PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. is true (and an exception is set, most likely
*note OverflowError: c57.).

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' These functions always succeed in
CPython.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double PyFloat_Unpack2 (const char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format as a C double.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double PyFloat_Unpack4 (const char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format as a C double.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double PyFloat_Unpack8 (const char *p, int le)

     Unpack the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format as a C double.


File: python.info,  Node: Complex Number Objects,  Prev: Floating-Point Objects,  Up: Numeric Objects

7.10.2.10 Complex Number Objects
................................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyComplexObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. represents a Python complex
     number object.

      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_complex: 3bc. cval

          The complex number value, using the C *note Py_complex: 3bc.
          representation.

          Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση
          3.20: Use *note PyComplex_AsCComplex(): 3ba. and *note
          PyComplex_FromCComplex(): 3bb. to convert a Python complex
          number to/from the C *note Py_complex: 3bc. representation.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyComplex_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python complex number type.  It
     is the same object as *note complex: 328. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyComplex_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyComplexObject: 3b9. or a
     subtype of ‘PyComplexObject’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyComplex_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if its argument is a *note PyComplexObject: 3b9, but
     not a subtype of ‘PyComplexObject’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyComplex_FromDoubles (double
          real, double imag)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a new *note PyComplexObject: 3b9. object from 'real'
     and 'imag'.  Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double PyComplex_RealAsDouble (PyObject *op)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the real part of 'op'
     as a C double.

     If 'op' is not a Python complex number object but has a *note
     __complex__(): 9de. method, this method will first be called to
     convert 'op' to a Python complex number object.  If ‘__complex__()’
     is not defined then it falls back to call *note PyFloat_AsDouble():
     e2e. and returns its result.

     Upon failure, this method returns ‘-1.0’ with an exception set, so
     one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to check for errors.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Use *note __complex__(): 9de. if
     available.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (PyObject *op)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the imaginary part of
     'op' as a C double.

     If 'op' is not a Python complex number object but has a *note
     __complex__(): 9de. method, this method will first be called to
     convert 'op' to a Python complex number object.  If ‘__complex__()’
     is not defined then it falls back to call *note PyFloat_AsDouble():
     e2e. and returns ‘0.0’ on success.

     Upon failure, this method returns ‘-1.0’ with an exception set, so
     one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to check for errors.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Use *note __complex__(): 9de. if
     available.

 -- C Τύπος: type Py_complex

     This C structure defines an export format for a Python complex
     number object.

      -- C Μέλος: double real
      -- C Μέλος: double imag

     The structure is defined as:

          typedef struct {
              double real;
              double imag;
          } Py_complex;

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyComplex_FromCComplex
          (Py_complex v)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create a new Python complex
     number object from a C *note Py_complex: 3bc. value.  Return ‘NULL’
     with an exception set on error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_complex: 3bc. PyComplex_AsCComplex (PyObject
          *op)

     Return the *note Py_complex: 3bc. value of the complex number 'op'.

     If 'op' is not a Python complex number object but has a *note
     __complex__(): 9de. method, this method will first be called to
     convert 'op' to a Python complex number object.  If ‘__complex__()’
     is not defined then it falls back to *note __float__(): d92.  If
     ‘__float__()’ is not defined then it falls back to *note
     __index__(): 43d.

     Upon failure, this method returns *note Py_complex: 3bc. with *note
     real: 5696. set to ‘-1.0’ and with an exception set, so one should
     call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to check for errors.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 43d. if available.

* Menu:

* Complex Numbers as C Structures::


File: python.info,  Node: Complex Numbers as C Structures,  Up: Complex Number Objects

7.10.2.11 Complex Numbers as C Structures
.........................................

The API also provides functions for working with complex numbers, using
the *note Py_complex: 3bc. representation.  Note that the functions
which accept these structures as parameters and return them as results
do so 'by value' rather than dereferencing them through pointers.

Please note, that these functions are *note soft deprecated: 1a7. since
Python 3.15.  Avoid using this API in a new code to do complex
arithmetic: either use the Number Protocol(1) API or use native complex
types, like double complex.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_complex: 3bc. _Py_c_sum (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     Return the sum of two complex numbers, using the C *note
     Py_complex: 3bc. representation.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_complex: 3bc. _Py_c_diff (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     Return the difference between two complex numbers, using the C
     *note Py_complex: 3bc. representation.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_complex: 3bc. _Py_c_neg (Py_complex num)

     Return the negation of the complex number 'num', using the C *note
     Py_complex: 3bc. representation.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_complex: 3bc. _Py_c_prod (Py_complex left,
          Py_complex right)

     Return the product of two complex numbers, using the C *note
     Py_complex: 3bc. representation.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_complex: 3bc. _Py_c_quot (Py_complex dividend,
          Py_complex divisor)

     Return the quotient of two complex numbers, using the C *note
     Py_complex: 3bc. representation.

     If 'divisor' is null, this method returns zero and sets ‘errno’ to
     ‘EDOM’.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_complex: 3bc. _Py_c_pow (Py_complex num,
          Py_complex exp)

     Return the exponentiation of 'num' by 'exp', using the C *note
     Py_complex: 3bc. representation.

     If 'num' is null and 'exp' is not a positive real number, this
     method returns zero and sets ‘errno’ to ‘EDOM’.

     Set ‘errno’ to ‘ERANGE’ on overflows.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double _Py_c_abs (Py_complex num)

     Return the absolute value of the complex number 'num'.

     Set ‘errno’ to ‘ERANGE’ on overflows.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) number


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Objects,  Next: Container Objects,  Prev: Numeric Objects,  Up: Concrete Objects Layer

7.10.3 Sequence Objects
-----------------------

Generic operations on sequence objects were discussed in the previous
chapter; this section deals with the specific kinds of sequence objects
that are intrinsic to the Python language.

* Menu:

* Bytes Objects::
* PyBytesWriter::
* Byte Array Objects::
* Unicode Objects and Codecs::
* Tuple Objects::
* Struct Sequence Objects::
* List Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Bytes Objects,  Next: PyBytesWriter,  Up: Sequence Objects

7.10.3.1 Bytes Objects
......................

These functions raise *note TypeError: 291. when expecting a bytes
parameter and called with a non-bytes parameter.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyBytesObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. represents a Python bytes
     object.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyBytes_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python bytes type; it is the same
     object as *note bytes: 1c7. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyBytes_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if the object 'o' is a bytes object or an instance of a
     subtype of the bytes type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyBytes_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if the object 'o' is a bytes object, but not an
     instance of a subtype of the bytes type.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyBytes_FromString (const char
          *v)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return a new bytes
     object with a copy of the string 'v' as value on success, and
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  The parameter 'v' must not be ‘NULL’; it will
     not be checked.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (const
          char *v, Py_ssize_t len)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return a new bytes
     object with a copy of the string 'v' as value and length 'len' on
     success, and ‘NULL’ on failure.  If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the contents of
     the bytes object are uninitialized.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15: Use the *note
     PyBytesWriter: 3b4. API instead of ‘PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL,
     len)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyBytes_FromFormat (const char
          *format, ...)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Take a C
     ‘printf()’-style 'format' string and a variable number of
     arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python bytes object
     and return a bytes object with the values formatted into it.  The
     variable arguments must be C types and must correspond exactly to
     the format characters in the 'format' string.  The following format
     characters are allowed:

     Format Characters       Type                Comment
                                                 
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 
     ‘%%’                    'n/a'               The literal % character.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%c’                    int                 A single byte, represented as a C
                                                 int.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%d’                    int                 Equivalent to ‘printf("%d")’.  (1)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%u’                    unsigned int        Equivalent to ‘printf("%u")’.  (2)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%ld’                   long                Equivalent to ‘printf("%ld")’.
                                                 (3)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%lu’                   unsigned long       Equivalent to ‘printf("%lu")’.
                                                 (4)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%zd’                   *note Py_ssize_t: e24.Equivalent to ‘printf("%zd")’.
                                                 (5)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%zu’                   size_t              Equivalent to ‘printf("%zu")’.
                                                 (6)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%i’                    int                 Equivalent to ‘printf("%i")’.  (7)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%x’                    int                 Equivalent to ‘printf("%x")’.  (8)
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%s’                    const char*         A null-terminated C character
                                                 array.
                                                 
                                                 
     ‘%p’                    const void*         The hex representation of a C
                                                 pointer.  Mostly equivalent to
                                                 ‘printf("%p")’ except that it is
                                                 guaranteed to start with the
                                                 literal ‘0x’ regardless of what
                                                 the platform’s ‘printf’ yields.
                                                 

     An unrecognized format character causes all the rest of the format
     string to be copied as-is to the result object, and any extra
     arguments discarded.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyBytes_FromFormatV (const char
          *format, va_list vargs)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Identical to *note
     PyBytes_FromFormat(): 1ffa. except that it takes exactly two
     arguments.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyBytes_FromObject (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe for concurrent use on the same
     object: 2926.'  Return the bytes representation of object 'o' that
     implements the buffer protocol.

          Σημείωση: If the object implements the buffer protocol, then
          the buffer must not be mutated while the bytes object is being
          created.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyBytes_Size (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'  Return the length of the bytes in bytes object 'o'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyBytes_GET_SIZE (PyObject *o)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Similar to *note
     PyBytes_Size(): 52ac, but without error checking.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: char *PyBytes_AsString (PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call from multiple threads with external synchronization only:
     291f.'  Return a pointer to the contents of 'o'.  The pointer
     refers to the internal buffer of 'o', which consists of ‘len(o) +
     1’ bytes.  The last byte in the buffer is always null, regardless
     of whether there are any other null bytes.  The data must not be
     modified in any way, unless the object was just created using
     ‘PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’.  It must not be
     deallocated.  If 'o' is not a bytes object at all, *note
     PyBytes_AsString(): c5d. returns ‘NULL’ and raises *note TypeError:
     291.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: char *PyBytes_AS_STRING (PyObject *string)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple threads with
     external synchronization only: 291f.'  Similar to *note
     PyBytes_AsString(): c5d, but without error checking.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (PyObject *obj, char
          **buffer, Py_ssize_t *length)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call from multiple threads with external synchronization only:
     291f.'  Return the null-terminated contents of the object 'obj'
     through the output variables 'buffer' and 'length'.  Returns ‘0’ on
     success.

     If 'length' is ‘NULL’, the bytes object may not contain embedded
     null bytes; if it does, the function returns ‘-1’ and a *note
     ValueError: 277. is raised.

     The buffer refers to an internal buffer of 'obj', which includes an
     additional null byte at the end (not counted in 'length').  The
     data must not be modified in any way, unless the object was just
     created using ‘PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’.  It must not
     be deallocated.  If 'obj' is not a bytes object at all, *note
     PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 52a4. returns ‘-1’ and raises *note
     TypeError: 291.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Previously, *note TypeError: 291. was
     raised when embedded null bytes were encountered in the bytes
     object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyBytes_Concat (PyObject **bytes, PyObject
          *newpart)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Create a new bytes
     object in '*bytes' containing the contents of 'newpart' appended to
     'bytes'; the caller will own the new reference.  The reference to
     the old value of 'bytes' will be stolen.  If the new object cannot
     be created, the old reference to 'bytes' will still be discarded
     and the value of '*bytes' will be set to ‘NULL’; the appropriate
     exception will be set.

          Σημείωση: If 'newpart' implements the buffer protocol, then
          the buffer must not be mutated while the new bytes object is
          being created.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (PyObject **bytes, PyObject
          *newpart)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Create a new bytes
     object in '*bytes' containing the contents of 'newpart' appended to
     'bytes'.  This version releases the *note strong reference: 7da. to
     'newpart' (i.e.  decrements its reference count).

          Σημείωση: If 'newpart' implements the buffer protocol, then
          the buffer must not be mutated while the new bytes object is
          being created.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyBytes_Join (PyObject *sep,
          PyObject *iterable)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe for concurrent use on the same object:
     2926.'  Similar to ‘sep.join(iterable)’ in Python.

     'sep' must be Python *note bytes: 1c7. object.  (Note that *note
     PyUnicode_Join(): 154b. accepts ‘NULL’ separator and treats it as a
     space, whereas *note PyBytes_Join(): 5b0. doesn’t accept ‘NULL’
     separator.)

     'iterable' must be an iterable object yielding objects that
     implement the *note buffer protocol: 311.

     On success, return a new *note bytes: 1c7. object.  On error, set
     an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.14.

          Σημείωση: If 'iterable' objects implement the buffer protocol,
          then the buffers must not be mutated while the new bytes
          object is being created.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int _PyBytes_Resize (PyObject **bytes, Py_ssize_t
          newsize)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe to call without external
     synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'  Resize a bytes object.
     'newsize' will be the new length of the bytes object.  You can
     think of it as creating a new bytes object and destroying the old
     one, only more efficiently.  Pass the address of an existing bytes
     object as an lvalue (it may be written into), and the new size
     desired.  On success, '*bytes' holds the resized bytes object and
     ‘0’ is returned; the address in '*bytes' may differ from its input
     value.  If the reallocation fails, the original bytes object at
     '*bytes' is deallocated, '*bytes' is set to ‘NULL’, *note
     MemoryError: 18fa. is set, and ‘-1’ is returned.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15: Use the *note
     PyBytesWriter: 3b4. API instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyBytes_Repr (PyObject *bytes,
          int smartquotes)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'  Get the string representation of 'bytes'.  This function is
     currently used to implement ‘bytes.__repr__()’ in Python.

     This function does not do type checking; it is undefined behavior
     to pass 'bytes' as a non-bytes object or ‘NULL’.

     If 'smartquotes' is true, the representation will use a
     double-quoted string instead of single-quoted string when
     single-quotes are present in 'bytes'.  For example, the byte string
     ‘'Python'’ would be represented as ‘b"'Python'"’ when 'smartquotes'
     is true, or ‘b'\'Python\''’ when it is false.

     On success, this function returns a *note strong reference: 7da. to
     a *note str: 1df. object containing the representation.  On
     failure, this returns ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyBytes_DecodeEscape (const char
          *s, Py_ssize_t len, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t unicode,
          const char *recode_encoding)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'  Unescape a backslash-escaped string 's'.  's' must not be
     ‘NULL’.  'len' must be the size of 's'.

     'errors' must be one of ‘"strict"’, ‘"replace"’, or ‘"ignore"’.  If
     'errors' is ‘NULL’, then ‘"strict"’ is used by default.

     On success, this function returns a *note strong reference: 7da. to
     a Python *note bytes: 1c7. object containing the unescaped string.
     On failure, this function returns ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: 'unicode' and 'recode_encoding' are now
     unused.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (2) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (3) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (4) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (5) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (6) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (7) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.

   (8) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the
0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.


File: python.info,  Node: PyBytesWriter,  Next: Byte Array Objects,  Prev: Bytes Objects,  Up: Sequence Objects

7.10.3.2 PyBytesWriter
......................

The *note PyBytesWriter: 3b4. API can be used to create a Python *note
bytes: 1c7. object.

Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyBytesWriter

     A bytes writer instance.

     The API is 'not thread safe': a writer should only be used by a
     single thread at the same time.

     The instance must be destroyed by *note PyBytesWriter_Finish():
     360. on success, or *note PyBytesWriter_Discard(): 35d. on error.

* Menu:

* Create, Finish, Discard: Create Finish Discard.
* High-level API::
* Getters::
* Low-level API::


File: python.info,  Node: Create Finish Discard,  Next: High-level API,  Up: PyBytesWriter

7.10.3.3 Create, Finish, Discard
................................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyBytesWriter: 3b4. *PyBytesWriter_Create
          (Py_ssize_t size)

     Create a *note PyBytesWriter: 3b4. to write 'size' bytes.

     If 'size' is greater than zero, allocate 'size' bytes, and set the
     writer size to 'size'.  The caller is responsible to write 'size'
     bytes using *note PyBytesWriter_GetData(): 362.  This function does
     not overallocate.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     'size' must be positive or zero.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyBytesWriter_Finish
          (PyBytesWriter *writer)

     Finish a *note PyBytesWriter: 3b4. created by *note
     PyBytesWriter_Create(): 35c.

     On success, return a Python *note bytes: 1c7. object.  On error,
     set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     The writer instance is invalid after the call in any case.  No API
     can be called on the writer after *note PyBytesWriter_Finish():
     360.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyBytesWriter_FinishWithSize
          (PyBytesWriter *writer, Py_ssize_t size)

     Similar to *note PyBytesWriter_Finish(): 360, but resize the writer
     to 'size' bytes before creating the *note bytes: 1c7. object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyBytesWriter_FinishWithPointer
          (PyBytesWriter *writer, void *buf)

     Similar to *note PyBytesWriter_Finish(): 360, but resize the writer
     using 'buf' pointer before creating the *note bytes: 1c7. object.

     Set an exception and return ‘NULL’ if 'buf' pointer is outside the
     internal buffer bounds.

     Function pseudo-code:

          Py_ssize_t size = (char*)buf - (char*)PyBytesWriter_GetData(writer);
          return PyBytesWriter_FinishWithSize(writer, size);

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyBytesWriter_Discard (PyBytesWriter *writer)

     Discard a *note PyBytesWriter: 3b4. created by *note
     PyBytesWriter_Create(): 35c.

     Do nothing if 'writer' is ‘NULL’.

     The writer instance is invalid after the call.  No API can be
     called on the writer after *note PyBytesWriter_Discard(): 35d.


File: python.info,  Node: High-level API,  Next: Getters,  Prev: Create Finish Discard,  Up: PyBytesWriter

7.10.3.4 High-level API
.......................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyBytesWriter_WriteBytes (PyBytesWriter *writer,
          const void *bytes, Py_ssize_t size)

     Grow the 'writer' internal buffer by 'size' bytes, write 'size'
     bytes of 'bytes' at the 'writer' end, and add 'size' to the
     'writer' size.

     If 'size' is equal to ‘-1’, call ‘strlen(bytes)’ to get the string
     length.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception and return
     ‘-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyBytesWriter_Format (PyBytesWriter *writer, const
          char *format, ...)

     Similar to *note PyBytes_FromFormat(): 1ffa, but write the output
     directly at the writer end.  Grow the writer internal buffer on
     demand.  Then add the written size to the writer size.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception and return
     ‘-1’.


File: python.info,  Node: Getters,  Next: Low-level API,  Prev: High-level API,  Up: PyBytesWriter

7.10.3.5 Getters
................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyBytesWriter_GetSize
          (PyBytesWriter *writer)

     Get the writer size.

     The function cannot fail.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyBytesWriter_GetData (PyBytesWriter *writer)

     Get the writer data: start of the internal buffer.

     The pointer is valid until *note PyBytesWriter_Finish(): 360. or
     *note PyBytesWriter_Discard(): 35d. is called on 'writer'.

     The function cannot fail.


File: python.info,  Node: Low-level API,  Prev: Getters,  Up: PyBytesWriter

7.10.3.6 Low-level API
......................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyBytesWriter_Resize (PyBytesWriter *writer,
          Py_ssize_t size)

     Resize the writer to 'size' bytes.  It can be used to enlarge or to
     shrink the writer.  This function typically overallocates to
     achieve amortized performance when resizing multiple times.

     Newly allocated bytes are left uninitialized.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception and return
     ‘-1’.

     'size' must be positive or zero.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyBytesWriter_Grow (PyBytesWriter *writer,
          Py_ssize_t grow)

     Resize the writer by adding 'grow' bytes to the current writer
     size.  This function typically overallocates to achieve amortized
     performance when resizing multiple times.

     Newly allocated bytes are left uninitialized.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception and return
     ‘-1’.

     'size' can be negative to shrink the writer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyBytesWriter_GrowAndUpdatePointer (PyBytesWriter
          *writer, Py_ssize_t size, void *buf)

     Similar to *note PyBytesWriter_Grow(): 365, but update also the
     'buf' pointer.

     The 'buf' pointer is moved if the internal buffer is moved in
     memory.  The 'buf' relative position within the internal buffer is
     left unchanged.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     'buf' must not be ‘NULL’.

     Function pseudo-code:

          Py_ssize_t pos = (char*)buf - (char*)PyBytesWriter_GetData(writer);
          if (PyBytesWriter_Grow(writer, size) < 0) {
              return NULL;
          }
          return (char*)PyBytesWriter_GetData(writer) + pos;


File: python.info,  Node: Byte Array Objects,  Next: Unicode Objects and Codecs,  Prev: PyBytesWriter,  Up: Sequence Objects

7.10.3.7 Byte Array Objects
...........................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyByteArrayObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. represents a Python bytearray
     object.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyByteArray_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python bytearray type; it is the
     same object as *note bytearray: 1c6. in the Python layer.

* Menu:

* Type check macros::
* Direct API functions::
* Macros::


File: python.info,  Node: Type check macros,  Next: Direct API functions,  Up: Byte Array Objects

7.10.3.8 Type check macros
..........................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyByteArray_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if the object 'o' is a bytearray object or an instance
     of a subtype of the bytearray type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyByteArray_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if the object 'o' is a bytearray object, but not an
     instance of a subtype of the bytearray type.  This function always
     succeeds.


File: python.info,  Node: Direct API functions,  Next: Macros,  Prev: Type check macros,  Up: Byte Array Objects

7.10.3.9 Direct API functions
.............................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyByteArray_FromObject (PyObject
          *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe for concurrent use on the same
     object: 2926.'  Return a new bytearray object from any object, 'o',
     that implements the *note buffer protocol: 311.

     On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

          Σημείωση: If the object implements the buffer protocol, then
          the buffer must not be mutated while the bytearray object is
          being created.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize
          (const char *string, Py_ssize_t len)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Create a new bytearray
     object from 'string' and its length, 'len'.

     On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyByteArray_Concat (PyObject *a,
          PyObject *b)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe for concurrent use on the same
     object: 2926.'  Concat bytearrays 'a' and 'b' and return a new
     bytearray with the result.

     On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

          Σημείωση: If the object implements the buffer protocol, then
          the buffer must not be mutated while the bytearray object is
          being created.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyByteArray_Size (PyObject
          *bytearray)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'  Return the size of 'bytearray' after checking for a ‘NULL’
     pointer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: char *PyByteArray_AsString (PyObject *bytearray)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call from multiple threads with external synchronization only:
     291f.'  Return the contents of 'bytearray' as a char array after
     checking for a ‘NULL’ pointer.  The returned array always has an
     extra null byte appended.

          Σημείωση: It is not thread-safe to mutate the bytearray object
          while using the returned char array.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyByteArray_Resize (PyObject *bytearray, Py_ssize_t
          len)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Resize the internal buffer of
     'bytearray' to 'len'.  Failure is a ‘-1’ return with an exception
     set.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: A negative 'len' will now result in an
     exception being set and -1 returned.


File: python.info,  Node: Macros,  Prev: Direct API functions,  Up: Byte Array Objects

7.10.3.10 Macros
................

These macros trade safety for speed and they don’t check pointers.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: char *PyByteArray_AS_STRING (PyObject *bytearray)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple threads with
     external synchronization only: 291f.'  Similar to *note
     PyByteArray_AsString(): 529e, but without error checking.

          Σημείωση: It is not thread-safe to mutate the bytearray object
          while using the returned char array.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (PyObject
          *bytearray)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Similar to *note
     PyByteArray_Size(): 52a1, but without error checking.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Objects and Codecs,  Next: Tuple Objects,  Prev: Byte Array Objects,  Up: Sequence Objects

7.10.3.11 Unicode Objects and Codecs
....................................

* Menu:

* Unicode Objects::
* Built-in Codecs::
* Methods and Slot Functions::
* PyUnicodeWriter::
* Deprecated API: Deprecated API<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Objects,  Next: Built-in Codecs,  Up: Unicode Objects and Codecs

7.10.3.12 Unicode Objects
.........................

Since the implementation of PEP 393(1) in Python 3.3, Unicode objects
internally use a variety of representations, in order to allow handling
the complete range of Unicode characters while staying memory efficient.
There are special cases for strings where all code points are below 128,
256, or 65536; otherwise, code points must be below 1114112 (which is
the full Unicode range).

UTF-8 representation is created on demand and cached in the Unicode
object.

     Σημείωση: The *note Py_UNICODE: b7a. representation has been
     removed since Python 3.12 with deprecated APIs.  See PEP 623(2) for
     more information.

* Menu:

* Unicode Type::
* Unicode Character Properties::
* Creating and accessing Unicode strings::
* Locale Encoding::
* File System Encoding::
* wchar_t Support::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Type,  Next: Unicode Character Properties,  Up: Unicode Objects

7.10.3.13 Unicode Type
......................

These are the basic Unicode object types used for the Unicode
implementation in Python:

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyUnicode_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python Unicode type.  It is
     exposed to Python code as *note str: 1df.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyUnicodeIter_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python Unicode iterator type.  It
     is used to iterate over Unicode string objects.

 -- C Τύπος: type Py_UCS4
 -- C Τύπος: type Py_UCS2
 -- C Τύπος: type Py_UCS1
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  These types are typedefs for
     unsigned integer types wide enough to contain characters of 32
     bits, 16 bits and 8 bits, respectively.  When dealing with single
     Unicode characters, use *note Py_UCS4: 301.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyASCIIObject
 -- C Τύπος: type PyCompactUnicodeObject
 -- C Τύπος: type PyUnicodeObject

     These subtypes of *note PyObject: 19b. represent a Python Unicode
     object.  In almost all cases, they shouldn’t be used directly,
     since all API functions that deal with Unicode objects take and
     return ‘PyObject’ pointers.

     Added in version 3.3.

     The structure of a particular object can be determined using the
     following macros.  The macros cannot fail; their behavior is
     undefined if their argument is not a Python Unicode object.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT (o)

          True if 'o' uses the *note PyCompactUnicodeObject: 151f.
          structure.

          Added in version 3.3.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT_ASCII (o)

          True if 'o' uses the *note PyASCIIObject: 151e. structure.

          Added in version 3.3.

The following APIs are C macros and static inlined functions for fast
checks and access to internal read-only data of Unicode objects:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return true if the object 'obj' is a Unicode object or an instance
     of a Unicode subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_CheckExact (PyObject *obj)

     Return true if the object 'obj' is a Unicode object, but not an
     instance of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (PyObject
          *unicode)

     Return the length of the Unicode string, in code points.  'unicode'
     has to be a Unicode object in the «canonical» representation (not
     checked).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS1: 151c. *PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS2: 151d. *PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS4: 301. *PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA (PyObject
          *unicode)

     Return a pointer to the canonical representation cast to UCS1, UCS2
     or UCS4 integer types for direct character access.  No checks are
     performed if the canonical representation has the correct character
     size; use *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 1526. to select the right
     function.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND

     Return values of the *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 1526. macro.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’ has been removed.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_KIND (PyObject *unicode)

     Return one of the PyUnicode kind constants (see above) that
     indicate how many bytes per character this Unicode object uses to
     store its data.  'unicode' has to be a Unicode object in the
     «canonical» representation (not checked).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyUnicode_DATA (PyObject *unicode)

     Return a void pointer to the raw Unicode buffer.  'unicode' has to
     be a Unicode object in the «canonical» representation (not
     checked).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyUnicode_WRITE (int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t
          index, Py_UCS4 value)

     Write the code point 'value' to the given zero-based 'index' in a
     string.

     The 'kind' value and 'data' pointer must have been obtained from a
     string using *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 1526. and *note
     PyUnicode_DATA(): 1522. respectively.  You must hold a reference to
     that string while calling ‘PyUnicode_WRITE()’.  All requirements of
     *note PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 151b. also apply.

     The function performs no checks for any of its requirements, and is
     intended for usage in loops.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS4: 301. PyUnicode_READ (int kind, void
          *data, Py_ssize_t index)

     Read a code point from a canonical representation 'data' (as
     obtained with *note PyUnicode_DATA(): 1522.).  No checks or ready
     calls are performed.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS4: 301. PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_ssize_t index)

     Read a character from a Unicode object 'unicode', which must be in
     the «canonical» representation.  This is less efficient than *note
     PyUnicode_READ(): 152a. if you do multiple consecutive reads.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS4: 301. PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (PyObject
          *unicode)

     Return the maximum code point that is suitable for creating another
     string based on 'unicode', which must be in the «canonical»
     representation.  This is always an approximation but more efficient
     than iterating over the string.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_IsIdentifier (PyObject *unicode)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return ‘1’ if the string is a
     valid identifier according to the language definition, section
     *note Ονόματα (αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά): 2491.  Return ‘0’
     otherwise.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The function does not call *note
     Py_FatalError(): d4b. anymore if the string is not ready.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: unsigned int PyUnicode_IS_ASCII (PyObject *unicode)

     Return true if the string only contains ASCII characters.
     Equivalent to *note str.isascii(): eb7.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_hash_t: 1608.
          PyUnstable_Unicode_GET_CACHED_HASH (PyObject *str)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     If the hash of 'str', as returned by *note PyObject_Hash(): 649,
     has been cached and is immediately available, return it.
     Otherwise, return ‘-1’ 'without' setting an exception.

     If 'str' is not a string (that is, if ‘PyUnicode_Check(obj)’ is
     false), the behavior is undefined.

     This function never fails with an exception.

     Note that there are no guarantees on when an object’s hash is
     cached, and the (non-)existence of a cached hash does not imply
     that the string has any other properties.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Character Properties,  Next: Creating and accessing Unicode strings,  Prev: Unicode Type,  Up: Unicode Objects

7.10.3.14 Unicode Character Properties
......................................

Unicode provides many different character properties.  The most often
needed ones are available through these macros which are mapped to C
functions depending on the Python configuration.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a whitespace
     character.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a lowercase
     character.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an uppercase
     character.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a titlecase
     character.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a linebreak
     character.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a decimal character.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a digit character.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a numeric character.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an alphabetic
     character.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an alphanumeric
     character.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a printable
     character, in the sense of *note str.isprintable(): 1191.

These APIs can be used for fast direct character conversions:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS4: 301. Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to lower case.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS4: 301. Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to upper case.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS4: 301. Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to title case.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to a decimal positive integer.
     Return ‘-1’ if this is not possible.  This function does not raise
     exceptions.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to a single digit integer.
     Return ‘-1’ if this is not possible.  This function does not raise
     exceptions.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: double Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Return the character 'ch' converted to a double.  Return ‘-1.0’ if
     this is not possible.  This function does not raise exceptions.

These APIs can be used to work with surrogates:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Check if 'ch' is a surrogate (‘0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDFFF’).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Check if 'ch' is a high surrogate (‘0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDBFF’).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch)

     Check if 'ch' is a low surrogate (‘0xDC00 <= ch <= 0xDFFF’).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS4: 301. Py_UNICODE_HIGH_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4
          ch)

     Return the high UTF-16 surrogate (‘0xD800’ to ‘0xDBFF’) for a
     Unicode code point in the range ‘[0x10000; 0x10FFFF]’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS4: 301. Py_UNICODE_LOW_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4
          ch)

     Return the low UTF-16 surrogate (‘0xDC00’ to ‘0xDFFF’) for a
     Unicode code point in the range ‘[0x10000; 0x10FFFF]’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS4: 301. Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (Py_UCS4
          high, Py_UCS4 low)

     Join two surrogate code points and return a single *note Py_UCS4:
     301. value.  'high' and 'low' are respectively the leading and
     trailing surrogates in a surrogate pair.  'high' must be in the
     range ‘[0xD800; 0xDBFF]’ and 'low' must be in the range ‘[0xDC00;
     0xDFFF]’.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating and accessing Unicode strings,  Next: Locale Encoding,  Prev: Unicode Character Properties,  Up: Unicode Objects

7.10.3.15 Creating and accessing Unicode strings
................................................

To create Unicode objects and access their basic sequence properties,
use these APIs:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_New (Py_ssize_t size,
          Py_UCS4 maxchar)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create a new Unicode object.
     'maxchar' should be the true maximum code point to be placed in the
     string.  As an approximation, it can be rounded up to the nearest
     value in the sequence 127, 255, 65535, 1114111.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     After creation, the string can be filled by *note
     PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 151b, *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): c88,
     *note PyUnicode_Fill(): 1536, *note PyUnicode_WRITE(): 152c. or
     similar.  Since strings are supposed to be immutable, take care to
     not “use” the result while it is being modified.  In particular,
     before it’s filled with its final contents, a string:

        - must not be hashed,

        - must not be *note converted to UTF-8: c6f, or another
          non-«canonical» representation,

        - must not have its reference count changed,

        - must not be shared with code that might do one of the above.

     This list is not exhaustive.  Avoiding these uses is your
     responsibility; Python does not always check these requirements.

     To avoid accidentally exposing a partially-written string object,
     prefer using the *note PyUnicodeWriter: 5e0. API, or one of the
     ‘PyUnicode_From*’ functions below.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (int
          kind, const void *buffer, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create a new Unicode object
     with the given 'kind' (possible values are *note
     PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1527. etc., as returned by *note
     PyUnicode_KIND(): 1526.).  The 'buffer' must point to an array of
     'size' units of 1, 2 or 4 bytes per character, as given by the
     kind.

     If necessary, the input 'buffer' is copied and transformed into the
     canonical representation.  For example, if the 'buffer' is a UCS4
     string (*note PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: 1529.) and it consists only of
     codepoints in the UCS1 range, it will be transformed into UCS1
     (*note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1527.).

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Unicode object from the char buffer 'str'.  The
     bytes will be interpreted as being UTF-8 encoded.  The buffer is
     copied into the new object.  The return value might be a shared
     object, i.e.  modification of the data is not allowed.

     This function raises *note SystemError: 3ea. when:

        * 'size' < 0,

        * 'str' is ‘NULL’ and 'size' > 0

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: 'str' == ‘NULL’ with 'size' > 0 is not
     allowed anymore.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_FromString (const char
          *str)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Unicode object from a UTF-8 encoded null-terminated
     char buffer 'str'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_FromFormat (const char
          *format, ...)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Take a C ‘printf()’-style 'format' string and a variable
     number of arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python
     Unicode string and return a string with the values formatted into
     it.  The variable arguments must be C types and must correspond
     exactly to the format characters in the 'format' ASCII-encoded
     string.

     A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the
     following components, which must occur in this order:

       1. The ‘'%'’ character, which marks the start of the specifier.

       2. Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some
          conversion types.

       3. Minimum field width (optional).  If specified as an ‘'*'’
          (asterisk), the actual width is given in the next argument,
          which must be of type int, and the object to convert comes
          after the minimum field width and optional precision.

       4. Precision (optional), given as a ‘'.'’ (dot) followed by the
          precision.  If specified as ‘'*'’ (an asterisk), the actual
          precision is given in the next argument, which must be of type
          int, and the value to convert comes after the precision.

       5. Length modifier (optional).

       6. Conversion type.

     The conversion flag characters are:

     Flag        Meaning
                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                 
     ‘0’         The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values.
                 
                 
     ‘-’         The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the ‘0’ flag if
                 both are given).
                 

     The length modifiers for following integer conversions (‘d’, ‘i’,
     ‘o’, ‘u’, ‘x’, or ‘X’) specify the type of the argument (int by
     default):

     Modifier       Types
                    
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------
                    
     ‘l’            long or unsigned long
                    
                    
     ‘ll’           long long or unsigned long long
                    
                    
     ‘j’            ‘intmax_t’ or ‘uintmax_t’
                    
                    
     ‘z’            ‘size_t’ or ‘ssize_t’
                    
                    
     ‘t’            ‘ptrdiff_t’
                    

     The length modifier ‘l’ for following conversions ‘s’ or ‘V’
     specify that the type of the argument is const wchar_t*.

     The conversion specifiers are:

     Conversion Specifier                  Type                                  Comment
                                                                                 
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                 
     ‘%’                                   'n/a'                                 The literal ‘%’ character.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘d’, ‘i’                              Specified by the length modifier      The decimal representation of a
                                                                                 signed C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘u’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The decimal representation of an
                                                                                 unsigned C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘o’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The octal representation of an
                                                                                 unsigned C integer.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘x’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The hexadecimal representation of
                                                                                 an unsigned C integer (lowercase).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘X’                                   Specified by the length modifier      The hexadecimal representation of
                                                                                 an unsigned C integer (uppercase).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘c’                                   int                                   A single character.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘s’                                   const char* or const wchar_t*         A null-terminated C character
                                                                                 array.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘p’                                   const void*                           The hex representation of a C
                                                                                 pointer.  Mostly equivalent to
                                                                                 ‘printf("%p")’ except that it is
                                                                                 guaranteed to start with the
                                                                                 literal ‘0x’ regardless of what the
                                                                                 platform’s ‘printf’ yields.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘A’                                   *note PyObject: 19b.*                 The result of calling
                                                                                 *note ascii(): 1789.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘U’                                   *note PyObject: 19b.*                 A Unicode object.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘V’                                   *note PyObject: 19b.*, const char*    A Unicode object (which may be
                                           or const wchar_t*                     ‘NULL’) and a null-terminated C
                                                                                 character array as a second
                                                                                 parameter (which will be used, if
                                                                                 the first parameter is ‘NULL’).
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘S’                                   *note PyObject: 19b.*                 The result of calling
                                                                                 *note PyObject_Str(): 13d8.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘R’                                   *note PyObject: 19b.*                 The result of calling
                                                                                 *note PyObject_Repr(): 13d7.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘T’                                   *note PyObject: 19b.*                 Get the fully qualified name of an
                                                                                 object type; call
                                                                                 *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 80a.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘#T’                                  *note PyObject: 19b.*                 Similar to ‘T’ format, but use a
                                                                                 colon (‘:’) as separator between
                                                                                 the module name and the qualified
                                                                                 name.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘N’                                   *note PyTypeObject: e6b.*             Get the fully qualified name of a
                                                                                 type; call
                                                                                 *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 80a.
                                                                                 
                                                                                 
     ‘#N’                                  *note PyTypeObject: e6b.*             Similar to ‘N’ format, but use a
                                                                                 colon (‘:’) as separator between
                                                                                 the module name and the qualified
                                                                                 name.
                                                                                 

          Σημείωση: The width formatter unit is number of characters
          rather than bytes.  The precision formatter unit is number of
          bytes or ‘wchar_t’ items (if the length modifier ‘l’ is used)
          for ‘"%s"’ and ‘"%V"’ (if the ‘PyObject*’ argument is ‘NULL’),
          and a number of characters for ‘"%A"’, ‘"%U"’, ‘"%S"’, ‘"%R"’
          and ‘"%V"’ (if the ‘PyObject*’ argument is not ‘NULL’).

          Σημείωση: Unlike to C ‘printf()’ the ‘0’ flag has effect even
          when a precision is given for integer conversions (‘d’, ‘i’,
          ‘u’, ‘o’, ‘x’, or ‘X’).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Support for ‘"%lld"’ and ‘"%llu"’ added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: Support for ‘"%li"’, ‘"%lli"’ and ‘"%zi"’
     added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: Support width and precision formatter for
     ‘"%s"’, ‘"%A"’, ‘"%U"’, ‘"%V"’, ‘"%S"’, ‘"%R"’ added.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Support for conversion specifiers ‘o’ and
     ‘X’.  Support for length modifiers ‘j’ and ‘t’.  Length modifiers
     are now applied to all integer conversions.  Length modifier ‘l’ is
     now applied to conversion specifiers ‘s’ and ‘V’.  Support for
     variable width and precision ‘*’.  Support for flag ‘-’.

     An unrecognized format character now sets a *note SystemError: 3ea.
     In previous versions it caused all the rest of the format string to
     be copied as-is to the result string, and any extra arguments
     discarded.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Support for ‘%T’, ‘%#T’, ‘%N’ and ‘%#N’
     formats added.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_FromFormatV (const char
          *format, va_list vargs)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Identical to *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e. except that
     it takes exactly two arguments.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_FromObject (PyObject
          *obj)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Copy an instance of a Unicode subtype to a new true Unicode
     object if necessary.  If 'obj' is already a true Unicode object
     (not a subtype), return a new *note strong reference: 7da. to the
     object.

     Objects other than Unicode or its subtypes will cause a *note
     TypeError: 291.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_FromOrdinal (int
          ordinal)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Unicode Object from the given Unicode code point
     'ordinal'.

     The ordinal must be in ‘range(0x110000)’.  A *note ValueError: 277.
     is raised in the case it is not.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject
          (PyObject *obj, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Decode an encoded object 'obj' to a Unicode object.

     *note bytes: 1c7, *note bytearray: 1c6. and other *note bytes-like
     objects: 436. are decoded according to the given 'encoding' and
     using the error handling defined by 'errors'.  Both can be ‘NULL’
     to have the interface use the default values (see *note Built-in
     Codecs: 56d4. for details).

     All other objects, including Unicode objects, cause a *note
     TypeError: 291. to be set.

     The API returns ‘NULL’ if there was an error.  The caller is
     responsible for decref’ing the returned objects.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyUnicode_Append (PyObject **p_left, PyObject
          *right)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Append the string 'right' to
     the end of 'p_left'.  'p_left' must point to a *note strong
     reference: 7da. to a Unicode object; ‘PyUnicode_Append()’ releases
     («steals») this reference.

     On error, set '*p_left' to ‘NULL’ and set an exception.

     On success, set '*p_left' to a new strong reference to the result.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyUnicode_AppendAndDel (PyObject **p_left,
          PyObject *right)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The function is similar to
     *note PyUnicode_Append(): 5433, with the only difference being that
     it decrements the reference count of 'right' by one.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap
          (PyObject *string)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a mapping suitable for decoding a custom single-byte
     encoding.  Given a Unicode string 'string' of up to 256 characters
     representing an encoding table, returns either a compact internal
     mapping object or a dictionary mapping character ordinals to byte
     values.  Raises a *note TypeError: 291. and return ‘NULL’ on
     invalid input.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the name of the
     default string encoding, ‘"utf-8"’.  See *note
     sys.getdefaultencoding(): 4bf9.

     The returned string does not need to be freed, and is valid until
     interpreter shutdown.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyUnicode_GetLength (PyObject
          *unicode)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Return
     the length of the Unicode object, in code points.

     On error, set an exception and return ‘-1’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyUnicode_CopyCharacters
          (PyObject *to, Py_ssize_t to_start, PyObject *from, Py_ssize_t
          from_start, Py_ssize_t how_many)

     Copy characters from one Unicode object into another.  This
     function performs character conversion when necessary and falls
     back to ‘memcpy()’ if possible.  Returns ‘-1’ and sets an exception
     on error, otherwise returns the number of copied characters.

     The string must not have been “used” yet.  See *note
     PyUnicode_New(): c7f. for details.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_Resize (PyObject **unicode, Py_ssize_t
          length);
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Resize a Unicode object
     '*unicode' to the new 'length' in code points.

     Try to resize the string in place (which is usually faster than
     allocating a new string and copying characters), or create a new
     string.

     '*unicode' is modified to point to the new (resized) object and ‘0’
     is returned on success.  Otherwise, ‘-1’ is returned and an
     exception is set, and '*unicode' is left untouched.

     The function doesn’t check string content, the result may not be a
     string in canonical representation.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyUnicode_Fill (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4
          fill_char)

     Fill a string with a character: write 'fill_char' into
     ‘unicode[start:start+length]’.

     Fail if 'fill_char' is bigger than the string maximum character, or
     if the string has more than 1 reference.

     The string must not have been “used” yet.  See *note
     PyUnicode_New(): c7f. for details.

     Return the number of written characters, or return ‘-1’ and raise
     an exception on error.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_WriteChar (PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t
          index, Py_UCS4 character)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Write a
     'character' to the string 'unicode' at the zero-based 'index'.
     Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on error with an exception set.

     This function checks that 'unicode' is a Unicode object, that the
     index is not out of bounds, and that the object’s reference count
     is one.  See *note PyUnicode_WRITE(): 152c. for a version that
     skips these checks, making them your responsibility.

     The string must not have been “used” yet.  See *note
     PyUnicode_New(): c7f. for details.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS4: 301. PyUnicode_ReadChar (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_ssize_t index)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Read a
     character from a string.  This function checks that 'unicode' is a
     Unicode object and the index is not out of bounds, in contrast to
     *note PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(): 152b, which performs no error
     checking.

     Return character on success, ‘-1’ on error with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_Substring (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Return a substring of 'unicode', from
     character index 'start' (included) to character index 'end'
     (excluded).  Negative indices are not supported.  On error, set an
     exception and return ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS4: 301. *PyUnicode_AsUCS4 (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_UCS4 *buffer, Py_ssize_t buflen, int copy_null)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Copy the
     string 'unicode' into a UCS4 buffer, including a null character, if
     'copy_null' is set.  Returns ‘NULL’ and sets an exception on error
     (in particular, a *note SystemError: 3ea. if 'buflen' is smaller
     than the length of 'unicode').  'buffer' is returned on success.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_UCS4: 301. *PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy (PyObject
          *unicode)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Copy the
     string 'unicode' into a new UCS4 buffer that is allocated using
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024.  If this fails, ‘NULL’ is returned with
     a *note MemoryError: 18fa. set.  The returned buffer always has an
     extra null code point appended.

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: Locale Encoding,  Next: File System Encoding,  Prev: Creating and accessing Unicode strings,  Up: Unicode Objects

7.10.3.16 Locale Encoding
.........................

The current locale encoding can be used to decode text from the
operating system.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t length, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Decode a string from UTF-8 on Android
     and VxWorks, or from the current locale encoding on other
     platforms.  The supported error handlers are ‘"strict"’ and
     ‘"surrogateescape"’ ( PEP 383(1)).  The decoder uses ‘"strict"’
     error handler if 'errors' is ‘NULL’.  'str' must end with a null
     character but cannot contain embedded null characters.

     Use *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 543e. to decode a
     string from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948.

     This function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85. function.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The function now also uses the current
     locale encoding for the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, except on
     Android.  Previously, *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85. was used for
     the ‘surrogateescape’, and the current locale encoding was used for
     ‘strict’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeLocale (const
          char *str, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): f87, but compute the string length
     using ‘strlen()’.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (PyObject
          *unicode, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Encode a Unicode object to UTF-8 on
     Android and VxWorks, or to the current locale encoding on other
     platforms.  The supported error handlers are ‘"strict"’ and
     ‘"surrogateescape"’ ( PEP 383(2)).  The encoder uses ‘"strict"’
     error handler if 'errors' is ‘NULL’.  Return a *note bytes: 1c7.
     object.  'unicode' cannot contain embedded null characters.

     Use *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 201e. to encode a string to
     the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948.

     This function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note Py_EncodeLocale(): f86. function.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The function now also uses the current
     locale encoding for the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, except on
     Android.  Previously, *note Py_EncodeLocale(): f86. was used for
     the ‘surrogateescape’, and the current locale encoding was used for
     ‘strict’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/


File: python.info,  Node: File System Encoding,  Next: wchar_t Support,  Prev: Locale Encoding,  Up: Unicode Objects

7.10.3.17 File System Encoding
..............................

Functions encoding to and decoding from the *note filesystem encoding
and error handler: 948. ( PEP 383(1) and PEP 529(2)).

To encode file names to *note bytes: 1c7. during argument parsing, the
‘"O&"’ converter should be used, passing ‘PyUnicode_FSConverter()’ as
the conversion function:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_FSConverter (PyObject *obj, void *result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  *note PyArg_Parse* converter:
     601.: encode *note str: 1df. objects – obtained directly or through
     the *note os.PathLike: 100f. interface – to *note bytes: 1c7. using
     *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 201e.; ‘bytes’ objects are
     output as-is.  'result' must be an address of a C variable of type
     *note PyObject: 19b.* (or *note PyBytesObject: b71.*).  On success,
     set the variable to a new *note strong reference: 7da. to a *note
     bytes object: 569d. which must be released when it is no longer
     used and return a non-zero value (*note Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED:
     55a3.).  Embedded null bytes are not allowed in the result.  On
     failure, return ‘0’ with an exception set.

     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, the function releases a strong reference stored
     in the variable referred by 'result' and returns ‘1’.

     Added in version 3.1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

To decode file names to *note str: 1df. during argument parsing, the
‘"O&"’ converter should be used, passing ‘PyUnicode_FSDecoder()’ as the
conversion function:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_FSDecoder (PyObject *obj, void *result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  *note PyArg_Parse* converter:
     601.: decode *note bytes: 1c7. objects – obtained either directly
     or indirectly through the *note os.PathLike: 100f. interface – to
     *note str: 1df. using *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize():
     543e.; ‘str’ objects are output as-is.  'result' must be an address
     of a C variable of type *note PyObject: 19b.* (or *note
     PyUnicodeObject: b73.*).  On success, set the variable to a new
     *note strong reference: 7da. to a *note Unicode object: 56b4. which
     must be released when it is no longer used and return a non-zero
     value (*note Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED: 55a3.).  Embedded null
     characters are not allowed in the result.  On failure, return ‘0’
     with an exception set.

     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, release the strong reference to the object
     referred to by 'result' and return ‘1’.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 79f.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Decode a string from the *note filesystem encoding and error
     handler: 948.

     If you need to decode a string from the current locale encoding,
     use *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): f87.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85. function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The *note filesystem error handler: 948. is
     now used.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (const
          char *str)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Decode a null-terminated string from the *note filesystem
     encoding and error handler: 948.

     If the string length is known, use *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 543e.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The *note filesystem error handler: 948. is
     now used.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault
          (PyObject *unicode)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Encode a Unicode object to the *note filesystem encoding and
     error handler: 948, and return *note bytes: 1c7.  Note that the
     resulting ‘bytes’ object can contain null bytes.

     If you need to encode a string to the current locale encoding, use
     *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): f88.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note Py_EncodeLocale(): f86. function.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The *note filesystem error handler: 948. is
     now used.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/


File: python.info,  Node: wchar_t Support,  Prev: File System Encoding,  Up: Unicode Objects

7.10.3.18 wchar_t Support
.........................

‘wchar_t’ support for platforms which support it:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_FromWideChar (const
          wchar_t *wstr, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Unicode object from the ‘wchar_t’ buffer 'wstr' of
     the given 'size'.  Passing ‘-1’ as the 'size' indicates that the
     function must itself compute the length, using ‘wcslen()’.  Return
     ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyUnicode_AsWideChar (PyObject
          *unicode, wchar_t *wstr, Py_ssize_t size)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Copy the Unicode object
     contents into the ‘wchar_t’ buffer 'wstr'.  At most 'size'
     ‘wchar_t’ characters are copied (excluding a possibly trailing null
     termination character).  Return the number of ‘wchar_t’ characters
     copied or ‘-1’ in case of an error.

     When 'wstr' is ‘NULL’, instead return the 'size' that would be
     required to store all of 'unicode' including a terminating null.

     Note that the resulting wchar_t* string may or may not be
     null-terminated.  It is the responsibility of the caller to make
     sure that the wchar_t* string is null-terminated in case this is
     required by the application.  Also, note that the wchar_t* string
     might contain null characters, which would cause the string to be
     truncated when used with most C functions.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: wchar_t *PyUnicode_AsWideCharString (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t *size)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Convert
     the Unicode object to a wide character string.  The output string
     always ends with a null character.  If 'size' is not ‘NULL’, write
     the number of wide characters (excluding the trailing null
     termination character) into '*size'.  Note that the resulting
     ‘wchar_t’ string might contain null characters, which would cause
     the string to be truncated when used with most C functions.  If
     'size' is ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains null characters a
     *note ValueError: 277. is raised.

     Returns a buffer allocated by *note PyMem_New: 18c6. (use *note
     PyMem_Free(): 17e4. to free it) on success.  On error, returns
     ‘NULL’ and '*size' is undefined.  Raises a *note MemoryError: 18fa.
     if memory allocation is failed.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: Raises a *note ValueError: 277. if 'size'
     is ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains null characters.


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in Codecs,  Next: Methods and Slot Functions,  Prev: Unicode Objects,  Up: Unicode Objects and Codecs

7.10.3.19 Built-in Codecs
.........................

Python provides a set of built-in codecs which are written in C for
speed.  All of these codecs are directly usable via the following
functions.

Many of the following APIs take two arguments encoding and errors, and
they have the same semantics as the ones of the built-in *note str():
1df. string object constructor.

Setting encoding to ‘NULL’ causes the default encoding to be used which
is UTF-8.  The file system calls should use *note
PyUnicode_FSConverter(): 10d3. for encoding file names.  This uses the
*note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948. internally.

Error handling is set by errors which may also be set to ‘NULL’ meaning
to use the default handling defined for the codec.  Default error
handling for all built-in codecs is «strict» (*note ValueError: 277. is
raised).

The codecs all use a similar interface.  Only deviations from the
following generic ones are documented for simplicity.

* Menu:

* Generic Codecs::
* UTF-8 Codecs::
* UTF-32 Codecs::
* UTF-16 Codecs::
* UTF-7 Codecs::
* Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs::
* Latin-1 Codecs::
* ASCII Codecs::
* Character Map Codecs::
* MBCS codecs for Windows::


File: python.info,  Node: Generic Codecs,  Next: UTF-8 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.10.3.20 Generic Codecs
........................

The following macro is provided:

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_UNICODE_REPLACEMENT_CHARACTER

     The Unicode code point ‘U+FFFD’ (replacement character).

     This Unicode character is used as the replacement character during
     decoding if the 'errors' argument is set to «replace».

These are the generic codec APIs:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_Decode (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *encoding, const char
          *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     encoded string 'str'.  'encoding' and 'errors' have the same
     meaning as the parameters of the same name in the *note str(): 1df.
     built-in function.  The codec to be used is looked up using the
     Python codec registry.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by
     the codec.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_AsEncodedString
          (PyObject *unicode, const char *encoding, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Encode a Unicode object and return the result as Python
     bytes object.  'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as the
     parameters of the same name in the Unicode *note encode(): ca7.
     method.  The codec to be used is looked up using the Python codec
     registry.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-8 Codecs,  Next: UTF-32 Codecs,  Prev: Generic Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.10.3.21 UTF-8 Codecs
......................

These are the UTF-8 codec APIs:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     UTF-8 encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors,
          Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(): 544a.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’,
     trailing incomplete UTF-8 byte sequences will not be treated as an
     error.  Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes
     that have been decoded will be stored in 'consumed'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_AsUTF8String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Encode a Unicode object using UTF-8 and return the result as
     Python bytes object.  Error handling is «strict».  Return ‘NULL’ if
     an exception was raised by the codec.

     The function fails if the string contains surrogate code points
     (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize (PyObject *unicode,
          Py_ssize_t *size)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Return a
     pointer to the UTF-8 encoding of the Unicode object, and store the
     size of the encoded representation (in bytes) in 'size'.  The
     'size' argument can be ‘NULL’; in this case no size will be stored.
     The returned buffer always has an extra null byte appended (not
     included in 'size'), regardless of whether there are any other null
     code points.

     On error, set an exception, set 'size' to ‘-1’ (if it’s not NULL)
     and return ‘NULL’.

     The function fails if the string contains surrogate code points
     (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’).

     This caches the UTF-8 representation of the string in the Unicode
     object, and subsequent calls will return a pointer to the same
     buffer.  The caller is not responsible for deallocating the buffer.
     The buffer is deallocated and pointers to it become invalid when
     the Unicode object is garbage collected.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The return type is now ‘const char *’
     rather than ‘char *’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This function is a part of the *note
     limited API: 829.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8 (PyObject *unicode)

     As *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): c6f, but does not store the
     size.

          Προειδοποίηση: This function does not have any special
          behavior for null characters(1) embedded within 'unicode'.  As
          a result, strings containing null characters will remain in
          the returned string, which some C functions might interpret as
          the end of the string, leading to truncation.  If truncation
          is an issue, it is recommended to use *note
          PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): c6f. instead.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The return type is now ‘const char *’
     rather than ‘char *’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_character


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-32 Codecs,  Next: UTF-16 Codecs,  Prev: UTF-8 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.10.3.22 UTF-32 Codecs
.......................

These are the UTF-32 codec APIs:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Decode 'size' bytes from a UTF-32 encoded buffer string and
     return the corresponding Unicode object.  'errors' (if non-‘NULL’)
     defines the error handling.  It defaults to «strict».

     If 'byteorder' is non-‘NULL’, the decoder starts decoding using the
     given byte order:

          *byteorder == -1: little endian
          *byteorder == 0:  native order
          *byteorder == 1:  big endian

     If ‘*byteorder’ is zero, and the first four bytes of the input data
     are a byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte
     order and the BOM is not copied into the resulting Unicode string.
     If ‘*byteorder’ is ‘-1’ or ‘1’, any byte order mark is copied to
     the output.

     After completion, '*byteorder' is set to the current byte order at
     the end of input data.

     If 'byteorder' is ‘NULL’, the codec starts in native order mode.

     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int
          *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(): 5446.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(): 5447. will not treat trailing
     incomplete UTF-32 byte sequences (such as a number of bytes not
     divisible by four) as an error.  Those bytes will not be decoded
     and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in
     'consumed'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_AsUTF32String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a Python byte string using the UTF-32 encoding in
     native byte order.  The string always starts with a BOM mark.
     Error handling is «strict».  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-16 Codecs,  Next: UTF-7 Codecs,  Prev: UTF-32 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.10.3.23 UTF-16 Codecs
.......................

These are the UTF-16 codec APIs:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Decode 'size' bytes from a UTF-16 encoded buffer string and
     return the corresponding Unicode object.  'errors' (if non-‘NULL’)
     defines the error handling.  It defaults to «strict».

     If 'byteorder' is non-‘NULL’, the decoder starts decoding using the
     given byte order:

          *byteorder == -1: little endian
          *byteorder == 0:  native order
          *byteorder == 1:  big endian

     If ‘*byteorder’ is zero, and the first two bytes of the input data
     are a byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte
     order and the BOM is not copied into the resulting Unicode string.
     If ‘*byteorder’ is ‘-1’ or ‘1’, any byte order mark is copied to
     the output (where it will result in either a ‘\ufeff’ or a ‘\ufffe’
     character).

     After completion, ‘*byteorder’ is set to the current byte order at
     the end of input data.

     If 'byteorder' is ‘NULL’, the codec starts in native order mode.

     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int
          *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(): 5444.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(): 5445. will not treat trailing
     incomplete UTF-16 byte sequences (such as an odd number of bytes or
     a split surrogate pair) as an error.  Those bytes will not be
     decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be
     stored in 'consumed'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_AsUTF16String (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a Python byte string using the UTF-16 encoding in
     native byte order.  The string always starts with a BOM mark.
     Error handling is «strict».  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: UTF-7 Codecs,  Next: Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Prev: UTF-16 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.10.3.24 UTF-7 Codecs
......................

These are the UTF-7 codec APIs:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     UTF-7 encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors,
          Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(): 5448.  If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’,
     trailing incomplete UTF-7 base-64 sections will not be treated as
     an error.  Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes
     that have been decoded will be stored in 'consumed'.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Next: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Prev: UTF-7 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.10.3.25 Unicode-Escape Codecs
...............................

These are the «Unicode Escape» codec APIs:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     Unicode-Escape encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception
     was raised by the codec.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString
          (PyObject *unicode)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Encode a Unicode object using Unicode-Escape and return the
     result as a bytes object.  Error handling is «strict».  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Next: Latin-1 Codecs,  Prev: Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.10.3.26 Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs
...................................

These are the «Raw Unicode Escape» codec APIs:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     Raw-Unicode-Escape encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an
     exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b.
          *PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString (PyObject *unicode)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Encode a Unicode object using Raw-Unicode-Escape and return
     the result as a bytes object.  Error handling is «strict».  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: Latin-1 Codecs,  Next: ASCII Codecs,  Prev: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.10.3.27 Latin-1 Codecs
........................

These are the Latin-1 codec APIs: Latin-1 corresponds to the first 256
Unicode ordinals and only these are accepted by the codecs during
encoding.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1 (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     Latin-1 encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_AsLatin1String
          (PyObject *unicode)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Encode a Unicode object using Latin-1 and return the result
     as Python bytes object.  Error handling is «strict».  Return ‘NULL’
     if an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: ASCII Codecs,  Next: Character Map Codecs,  Prev: Latin-1 Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.10.3.28 ASCII Codecs
......................

These are the ASCII codec APIs.  Only 7-bit ASCII data is accepted.  All
other codes generate errors.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeASCII (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     ASCII encoded string 'str'.  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was
     raised by the codec.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_AsASCIIString (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Encode a Unicode object using ASCII and return the result as
     Python bytes object.  Error handling is «strict».  Return ‘NULL’ if
     an exception was raised by the codec.


File: python.info,  Node: Character Map Codecs,  Next: MBCS codecs for Windows,  Prev: ASCII Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.10.3.29 Character Map Codecs
..............................

This codec is special in that it can be used to implement many different
codecs (and this is in fact what was done to obtain most of the standard
codecs included in the ‘encodings’ package).  The codec uses mappings to
encode and decode characters.  The mapping objects provided must support
the *note __getitem__(): 787. mapping interface; dictionaries and
sequences work well.

These are the mapping codec APIs:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap (const
          char *str, Py_ssize_t length, PyObject *mapping, const char
          *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the
     encoded string 'str' using the given 'mapping' object.  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

     If 'mapping' is ‘NULL’, Latin-1 decoding will be applied.  Else
     'mapping' must map bytes ordinals (integers in the range from 0 to
     255) to Unicode strings, integers (which are then interpreted as
     Unicode ordinals) or ‘None’.  Unmapped data bytes – ones which
     cause a *note LookupError: 25da, as well as ones which get mapped
     to ‘None’, ‘0xFFFE’ or ‘'\ufffe'’, are treated as undefined
     mappings and cause an error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_AsCharmapString
          (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *mapping)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Encode a Unicode object using the given 'mapping' object and
     return the result as a bytes object.  Error handling is «strict».
     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

     The 'mapping' object must map Unicode ordinal integers to bytes
     objects, integers in the range from 0 to 255 or ‘None’.  Unmapped
     character ordinals (ones which cause a *note LookupError: 25da.) as
     well as mapped to ‘None’ are treated as «undefined mapping» and
     cause an error.

The following codec API is special in that maps Unicode to Unicode.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_Translate (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *table, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Translate a string by applying a character mapping table to
     it and return the resulting Unicode object.  Return ‘NULL’ if an
     exception was raised by the codec.

     The mapping table must map Unicode ordinal integers to Unicode
     ordinal integers or ‘None’ (causing deletion of the character).

     Mapping tables need only provide the *note __getitem__(): 787.
     interface; dictionaries and sequences work well.  Unmapped
     character ordinals (ones which cause a *note LookupError: 25da.)
     are left untouched and are copied as-is.

     'errors' has the usual meaning for codecs.  It may be ‘NULL’ which
     indicates to use the default error handling.


File: python.info,  Node: MBCS codecs for Windows,  Prev: Character Map Codecs,  Up: Built-in Codecs

7.10.3.30 MBCS codecs for Windows
.................................

These are the MBCS codec APIs.  They are currently only available on
Windows and use the Win32 MBCS converters to implement the conversions.
Note that MBCS (or DBCS) is a class of encodings, not just one.  The
target encoding is defined by the user settings on the machine running
the codec.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS (const char
          *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. on Windows από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Create a Unicode object by
     decoding 'size' bytes of the MBCS encoded string 'str'.  Return
     ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful
          (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors,
          Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. on Windows από την έκδοση 3.7.'  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’,
     behave like *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(): 5441.  If 'consumed' is
     not ‘NULL’, *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 5442. will not
     decode trailing lead byte and the number of bytes that have been
     decoded will be stored in 'consumed'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful
          (int code_page, const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char
          *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. on Windows από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Similar to *note
     PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 5442, except uses the code page
     specified by 'code_page'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_AsMBCSString (PyObject
          *unicode)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. on Windows από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Encode a Unicode object using
     MBCS and return the result as Python bytes object.  Error handling
     is «strict».  Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the
     codec.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (int
          code_page, PyObject *unicode, const char *errors)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. on Windows από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Encode the Unicode object
     using the specified code page and return a Python bytes object.
     Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.  Use
     ‘CP_ACP’ code page to get the MBCS encoder.

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods and Slot Functions,  Next: PyUnicodeWriter,  Prev: Built-in Codecs,  Up: Unicode Objects and Codecs

7.10.3.31 Methods and Slot Functions
....................................

The following APIs are capable of handling Unicode objects and strings
on input (we refer to them as strings in the descriptions) and return
Unicode objects or integers as appropriate.

They all return ‘NULL’ or ‘-1’ if an exception occurs.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_Concat (PyObject *left,
          PyObject *right)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Concat two strings giving a new Unicode string.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_Split (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Split a string giving a list of Unicode strings.  If 'sep'
     is ‘NULL’, splitting will be done at all whitespace substrings.
     Otherwise, splits occur at the given separator.  At most 'maxsplit'
     splits will be done.  If negative, no limit is set.  Separators are
     not included in the resulting list.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Equivalent to *note str.split(): 125b.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_RSplit (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Similar to *note PyUnicode_Split(): 5457, but splitting will
     be done beginning at the end of the string.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Equivalent to *note str.rsplit(): 15fa.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_Splitlines (PyObject
          *unicode, int keepends)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Split a Unicode string at line breaks, returning a list of
     Unicode strings.  CRLF is considered to be one line break.  If
     'keepends' is ‘0’, the Line break characters are not included in
     the resulting strings.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_Partition (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *sep)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Split a Unicode string at the first occurrence of 'sep', and
     return a 3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the
     separator itself, and the part after the separator.  If the
     separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing the string
     itself, followed by two empty strings.

     'sep' must not be empty.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Equivalent to *note str.partition(): 125c.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_RPartition (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *sep)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Similar to *note PyUnicode_Partition(): 1abc, but split a
     Unicode string at the last occurrence of 'sep'.  If the separator
     is not found, return a 3-tuple containing two empty strings,
     followed by the string itself.

     'sep' must not be empty.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Equivalent to *note str.rpartition(): 15fd.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_Join (PyObject
          *separator, PyObject *seq)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Join a sequence of strings using the given 'separator' and
     return the resulting Unicode string.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyUnicode_Tailmatch (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end,
          int direction)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return ‘1’ if 'substr'
     matches ‘unicode[start:end]’ at the given tail end ('direction' ==
     ‘-1’ means to do a prefix match, 'direction' == ‘1’ a suffix
     match), ‘0’ otherwise.  Return ‘-1’ if an error occurred.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyUnicode_Find (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end,
          int direction)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the first position of
     'substr' in ‘unicode[start:end]’ using the given 'direction'
     ('direction' == ‘1’ means to do a forward search, 'direction' ==
     ‘-1’ a backward search).  The return value is the index of the
     first match; a value of ‘-1’ indicates that no match was found, and
     ‘-2’ indicates that an error occurred and an exception has been
     set.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyUnicode_FindChar (PyObject
          *unicode, Py_UCS4 ch, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int
          direction)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Return
     the first position of the character 'ch' in ‘unicode[start:end]’
     using the given 'direction' ('direction' == ‘1’ means to do a
     forward search, 'direction' == ‘-1’ a backward search).  The return
     value is the index of the first match; a value of ‘-1’ indicates
     that no match was found, and ‘-2’ indicates that an error occurred
     and an exception has been set.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: 'start' and 'end' are now adjusted to
     behave like ‘unicode[start:end]’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyUnicode_Count (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the number of
     non-overlapping occurrences of 'substr' in ‘unicode[start:end]’.
     Return ‘-1’ if an error occurred.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_Replace (PyObject
          *unicode, PyObject *substr, PyObject *replstr, Py_ssize_t
          maxcount)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Replace at most 'maxcount' occurrences of 'substr' in
     'unicode' with 'replstr' and return the resulting Unicode object.
     'maxcount' == ‘-1’ means replace all occurrences.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_Compare (PyObject *left, PyObject *right)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Compare two strings and
     return ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’ for less than, equal, and greater than,
     respectively.

     This function returns ‘-1’ upon failure, so one should call *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to check for errors.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note PyUnicode_Equal(): 5df. function.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_Equal (PyObject *a, PyObject *b)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Test if
     two strings are equal:

        * Return ‘1’ if 'a' is equal to 'b'.

        * Return ‘0’ if 'a' is not equal to 'b'.

        * Set a *note TypeError: 291. exception and return ‘-1’ if 'a'
          or 'b' is not a *note str: 1df. object.

     The function always succeeds if 'a' and 'b' are *note str: 1df.
     objects.

     The function works for *note str: 1df. subclasses, but does not
     honor custom ‘__eq__()’ method.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The *note PyUnicode_Compare(): c8a. function.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize (PyObject *unicode,
          const char *string, Py_ssize_t size)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Compare
     a Unicode object with a char buffer which is interpreted as being
     UTF-8 or ASCII encoded and return true (‘1’) if they are equal, or
     false (‘0’) otherwise.  If the Unicode object contains surrogate
     code points (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’) or the C string is not valid
     UTF-8, false (‘0’) is returned.

     This function does not raise exceptions.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8 (PyObject *unicode, const
          char *string)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Similar
     to *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 80d, but compute 'string'
     length using ‘strlen()’.  If the Unicode object contains null
     characters, false (‘0’) is returned.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString (PyObject
          *unicode, const char *string)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Compare a Unicode object,
     'unicode', with 'string' and return ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’ for less than,
     equal, and greater than, respectively.  It is best to pass only
     ASCII-encoded strings, but the function interprets the input string
     as ISO-8859-1 if it contains non-ASCII characters.

     This function does not raise exceptions.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_RichCompare (PyObject
          *left, PyObject *right, int op)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Rich compare two Unicode strings and return one of the
     following:

        * ‘NULL’ in case an exception was raised

        * *note Py_True: 5677. or *note Py_False: 5676. for successful
          comparisons

        * *note Py_NotImplemented: 55e8. in case the type combination is
          unknown

     Possible values for 'op' are *note Py_GT: 55ef, *note Py_GE: 55f0,
     *note Py_EQ: 55ed, *note Py_NE: 55ee, *note Py_LT: 55eb, and *note
     Py_LE: 55ec.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_Format (PyObject
          *format, PyObject *args)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a new string object from 'format' and 'args'; this is
     analogous to ‘format % args’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_Contains (PyObject *unicode, PyObject
          *substr)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Check whether 'substr' is
     contained in 'unicode' and return true or false accordingly.

     'substr' has to coerce to a one element Unicode string.  ‘-1’ is
     returned if there was an error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyUnicode_InternInPlace (PyObject **p_unicode)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Intern the argument **note
     p_unicode: c84. in place.  The argument must be the address of a
     pointer variable pointing to a Python Unicode string object.  If
     there is an existing interned string that is the same as
     *p_unicode, it sets *p_unicode to it (releasing the reference to
     the old string object and creating a new *note strong reference:
     7da. to the interned string object), otherwise it leaves *p_unicode
     alone and interns it.

     (Clarification: even though there is a lot of talk about
     references, think of this function as reference-neutral.  You must
     own the object you pass in; after the call you no longer own the
     passed-in reference, but you newly own the result.)

     This function never raises an exception.  On error, it leaves its
     argument unchanged without interning it.

     Instances of subclasses of *note str: 1df. may not be interned,
     that is, *note PyUnicode_CheckExact: 56ba.(**note p_unicode: c84.)
     must be true.  If it is not, then – as with any other error – the
     argument is left unchanged.

     Note that interned strings are not “immortal”.  You must keep a
     reference to the result to benefit from interning.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicode_InternFromString (const
          char *str)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  A combination of *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 5451. and
     *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): c84, meant for statically
     allocated strings.

     Return a new («owned») reference to either a new Unicode string
     object that has been interned, or an earlier interned string object
     with the same value.

     Python may keep a reference to the result, or make it *note
     immortal: 398, preventing it from being garbage-collected promptly.
     For interning an unbounded number of different strings, such as
     ones coming from user input, prefer calling *note
     PyUnicode_FromString(): 5451. and *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace():
     c84. directly.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: unsigned int PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED (PyObject *str)

     Return a non-zero value if 'str' is interned, zero if not.  The
     'str' argument must be a string; this is not checked.  This
     function always succeeds.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' A non-zero return value may carry
     additional information about 'how' the string is interned.  The
     meaning of such non-zero values, as well as each specific string’s
     intern-related details, may change between CPython versions.


File: python.info,  Node: PyUnicodeWriter,  Next: Deprecated API<2>,  Prev: Methods and Slot Functions,  Up: Unicode Objects and Codecs

7.10.3.32 PyUnicodeWriter
.........................

The *note PyUnicodeWriter: 5e0. API can be used to create a Python *note
str: 1df. object.

Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyUnicodeWriter

     A Unicode writer instance.

     The instance must be destroyed by *note PyUnicodeWriter_Finish():
     5e4. on success, or *note PyUnicodeWriter_Discard(): 5e3. on error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyUnicodeWriter: 5e0. *PyUnicodeWriter_Create
          (Py_ssize_t length)

     Create a Unicode writer instance.

     'length' must be greater than or equal to ‘0’.

     If 'length' is greater than ‘0’, preallocate an internal buffer of
     'length' characters.

     Set an exception and return ‘NULL’ on error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyUnicodeWriter_Finish
          (PyUnicodeWriter *writer)

     Return the final Python *note str: 1df. object and destroy the
     writer instance.

     Set an exception and return ‘NULL’ on error.

     The writer instance is invalid after this call.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyUnicodeWriter_Discard (PyUnicodeWriter *writer)

     Discard the internal Unicode buffer and destroy the writer
     instance.

     If 'writer' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.

     The writer instance is invalid after this call.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar (PyUnicodeWriter *writer,
          Py_UCS4 ch)

     Write the single Unicode character 'ch' into 'writer'.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception, leave the
     writer unchanged, and return ‘-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8 (PyUnicodeWriter *writer,
          const char *str, Py_ssize_t size)

     Decode the string 'str' from UTF-8 in strict mode and write the
     output into 'writer'.

     'size' is the string length in bytes.  If 'size' is equal to ‘-1’,
     call ‘strlen(str)’ to get the string length.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception, leave the
     writer unchanged, and return ‘-1’.

     See also *note PyUnicodeWriter_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 5e2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII (PyUnicodeWriter
          *writer, const char *str, Py_ssize_t size)

     Write the ASCII string 'str' into 'writer'.

     'size' is the string length in bytes.  If 'size' is equal to ‘-1’,
     call ‘strlen(str)’ to get the string length.

     'str' must only contain ASCII characters.  The behavior is
     undefined if 'str' contains non-ASCII characters.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception, leave the
     writer unchanged, and return ‘-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteWideChar (PyUnicodeWriter
          *writer, const wchar_t *str, Py_ssize_t size)

     Write the wide string 'str' into 'writer'.

     'size' is a number of wide characters.  If 'size' is equal to ‘-1’,
     call ‘wcslen(str)’ to get the string length.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception, leave the
     writer unchanged, and return ‘-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUCS4 (PyUnicodeWriter *writer,
          const Py_UCS4 *str, Py_ssize_t size)

     Writer the UCS4 string 'str' into 'writer'.

     'size' is a number of UCS4 characters.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception, leave the
     writer unchanged, and return ‘-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr (PyUnicodeWriter *writer,
          PyObject *obj)

     Call *note PyObject_Str(): 13d8. on 'obj' and write the output into
     'writer'.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception, leave the
     writer unchanged, and return ‘-1’.

     To write a *note str: 1df. subclass which overrides the *note
     __str__(): a0f. method, *note PyUnicode_FromObject(): 544f. can be
     used to get the original string.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteRepr (PyUnicodeWriter *writer,
          PyObject *obj)

     Call *note PyObject_Repr(): 13d7. on 'obj' and write the output
     into 'writer'.

     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, write the string ‘"<NULL>"’ into 'writer'.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception, leave the
     writer unchanged, and return ‘-1’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14.4: Added support for ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring (PyUnicodeWriter
          *writer, PyObject *str, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end)

     Write the substring ‘str[start:end]’ into 'writer'.

     'str' must be Python *note str: 1df. object.  'start' must be
     greater than or equal to 0, and less than or equal to 'end'.  'end'
     must be less than or equal to 'str' length.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception, leave the
     writer unchanged, and return ‘-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeWriter_Format (PyUnicodeWriter *writer,
          const char *format, ...)

     Similar to *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 81e, but write the output
     directly into 'writer'.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception, leave the
     writer unchanged, and return ‘-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicodeWriter_DecodeUTF8Stateful (PyUnicodeWriter
          *writer, const char *string, Py_ssize_t length, const char
          *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed)

     Decode the string 'str' from UTF-8 with 'errors' error handler and
     write the output into 'writer'.

     'size' is the string length in bytes.  If 'size' is equal to ‘-1’,
     call ‘strlen(str)’ to get the string length.

     'errors' is an *note error handler: 1d6c. name, such as
     ‘"replace"’.  If 'errors' is ‘NULL’, use the strict error handler.

     If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, set '*consumed' to the number of
     decoded bytes on success.  If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, treat trailing
     incomplete UTF-8 byte sequences as an error.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, set an exception, leave the
     writer unchanged, and return ‘-1’.

     See also *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(): 5ec.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated API<2>,  Prev: PyUnicodeWriter,  Up: Unicode Objects and Codecs

7.10.3.33 Deprecated API
........................

The following API is deprecated.

 -- C Τύπος: type Py_UNICODE

     This is a typedef of ‘wchar_t’, which is a 16-bit type or 32-bit
     type depending on the platform.  Please use ‘wchar_t’ directly
     instead.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: In previous versions, this was a 16-bit
     type or a 32-bit type depending on whether you selected a «narrow»
     or «wide» Unicode version of Python at build time.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.13, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnicode_READY (PyObject *unicode)

     Do nothing and return ‘0’.  This API is kept only for backward
     compatibility, but there are no plans to remove it.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.10: This API does nothing since Python
     3.12.  Previously, this needed to be called for each string created
     using the old API (‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’ or similar).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: unsigned int PyUnicode_IS_READY (PyObject *unicode)

     Do nothing and return ‘1’.  This API is kept only for backward
     compatibility, but there are no plans to remove it.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14: This API does nothing since Python
     3.12.  Previously, this could be called to check if *note
     PyUnicode_READY(): 647. is necessary.


File: python.info,  Node: Tuple Objects,  Next: Struct Sequence Objects,  Prev: Unicode Objects and Codecs,  Up: Sequence Objects

7.10.3.34 Tuple Objects
.......................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyTupleObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. represents a Python tuple
     object.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyTuple_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python tuple type; it is the same
     object as *note tuple: 1ce. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTuple_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a tuple object or an instance of a subtype of
     the tuple type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTuple_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a tuple object, but not an instance of a
     subtype of the tuple type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyTuple_New (Py_ssize_t len)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return a new tuple
     object of size 'len', or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyTuple_FromArray (PyObject
          *const *array, Py_ssize_t size)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Create a tuple of 'size'
     items and copy references from 'array' to the new tuple.

     'array' can be NULL if 'size' is ‘0’.

     On success, return a new reference.  On error, set an exception and
     return ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyTuple_Pack (Py_ssize_t n, ...)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return a new tuple
     object of size 'n', or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.
     The tuple values are initialized to the subsequent 'n' C arguments
     pointing to Python objects.  ‘PyTuple_Pack(2, a, b)’ is equivalent
     to ‘Py_BuildValue("(OO)", a, b)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyTuple_Size (PyObject *p)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'  Take a pointer to a tuple object, and return the size of
     that tuple.  On error, return ‘-1’ with an exception set.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyTuple_GET_SIZE (PyObject *p)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Like *note PyTuple_Size():
     5416, but without error checking.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyTuple_GetItem (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t pos)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple
     threads with external synchronization only: 291f.'  Return the
     object at position 'pos' in the tuple pointed to by 'p'.  If 'pos'
     is negative or out of bounds, return ‘NULL’ and set an *note
     IndexError: 18d7. exception.

     The returned reference is borrowed from the tuple 'p' (that is: it
     is only valid as long as you hold a reference to 'p').  To get a
     *note strong reference: 7da, use *note
     Py_NewRef(PyTuple_GetItem(...)): c70. or *note
     PySequence_GetItem(): 2021.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyTuple_GET_ITEM (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t pos)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Thread safety: *note
     Safe to call from multiple threads with external synchronization
     only: 291f.'  Like *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 51ce, but does no
     checking of its arguments.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyTuple_GetSlice (PyObject *p,
          Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return the slice of
     the tuple pointed to by 'p' between 'low' and 'high', or ‘NULL’
     with an exception set on failure.

     This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘p[low:high]’.
     Indexing from the end of the tuple is not supported.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTuple_SetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos,
          PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call from multiple threads with external synchronization only:
     291f.'  Insert a reference to object 'o' at position 'pos' of the
     tuple pointed to by 'p'.  Return ‘0’ on success.  If 'pos' is out
     of bounds, return ‘-1’ and set an *note IndexError: 18d7.
     exception.  This function should only be used to fill in brand new
     tuples; using it on an existing tuple is thread-unsafe.

          Σημείωση: This function «steals» a reference to 'o' and
          discards a reference to an item already in the tuple at the
          affected position.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyTuple_SET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos,
          PyObject *o)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple threads with
     external synchronization only: 291f.'  Like *note
     PyTuple_SetItem(): 51cf, but does no error checking, and should
     'only' be used to fill in brand new tuples, using it on an existing
     tuple is thread-unsafe.

     Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in
     *note debug mode: 3dc. or *note with assertions: 820.

          Σημείωση: This function «steals» a reference to 'o', and,
          unlike *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 51cf, does 'not' discard a
          reference to any item that is being replaced; any reference in
          the tuple at position 'pos' will be leaked.

          Προειδοποίηση: This macro should 'only' be used on tuples that
          are newly created.  Using this macro on a tuple that is
          already in use (or in other words, has a refcount > 1) could
          lead to undefined behavior.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int _PyTuple_Resize (PyObject **p, Py_ssize_t newsize)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple threads with
     external synchronization only: 291f.'  Can be used to resize a
     tuple.  'newsize' will be the new length of the tuple.  Because
     tuples are 'supposed' to be immutable, this should only be used if
     there is only one reference to the object.  Do 'not' use this if
     the tuple may already be known to some other part of the code.  The
     tuple will always grow or shrink at the end.  Think of this as
     destroying the old tuple and creating a new one, only more
     efficiently.  Returns ‘0’ on success.  Client code should never
     assume that the resulting value of ‘*p’ will be the same as before
     calling this function.  If the object referenced by ‘*p’ is
     replaced, the original ‘*p’ is destroyed.  On failure, returns ‘-1’
     and sets ‘*p’ to ‘NULL’, and raises *note MemoryError: 18fa. or
     *note SystemError: 3ea.


File: python.info,  Node: Struct Sequence Objects,  Next: List Objects,  Prev: Tuple Objects,  Up: Sequence Objects

7.10.3.35 Struct Sequence Objects
.................................

A struct sequence object is a *note named tuple: a3d, that is, a
sequence whose items can also be accessed through attributes.  It is
similar to *note collections.namedtuple(): 1cf, but provides a slightly
different interface.

To create a struct sequence, you first have to create a specific struct
sequence type.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. *PyStructSequence_NewType
          (PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Create a new struct
     sequence type from the data in 'desc', described below.  Instances
     of the resulting type can be created with *note
     PyStructSequence_New(): 53f2.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyStructSequence_InitType (PyTypeObject *type,
          PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe to call without external
     synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'  Initializes a struct
     sequence type 'type' from 'desc' in place.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyStructSequence_InitType2 (PyTypeObject *type,
          PyStructSequence_Desc *desc)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe to call without external
     synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'  Like *note
     PyStructSequence_InitType(): 13ac, but returns ‘0’ on success and
     ‘-1’ with an exception set on failure.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyStructSequence_Desc
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των
     μελών).'  Contains the meta information of a struct sequence type
     to create.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *name

          Fully qualified name of the type; null-terminated UTF-8
          encoded.  The name must contain the module name.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *doc

          Pointer to docstring for the type or ‘NULL’ to omit.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyStructSequence_Field: f78. *fields

          Pointer to ‘NULL’-terminated array with field names of the new
          type.

      -- C Μέλος: int n_in_sequence

          Number of fields visible to the Python side (if used as
          tuple).

 -- C Τύπος: type PyStructSequence_Field
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των
     μελών).'  Describes a field of a struct sequence.  As a struct
     sequence is modeled as a tuple, all fields are typed as *note
     PyObject: 19b.*.  The index in the *note fields: 56f6. array of the
     *note PyStructSequence_Desc: f79. determines which field of the
     struct sequence is described.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *name

          Name for the field or ‘NULL’ to end the list of named fields,
          set to *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: d4a. to leave
          unnamed.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *doc

          Field docstring or ‘NULL’ to omit.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: const char *const PyStructSequence_UnnamedField
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Special
     value for a field name to leave it unnamed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The type was changed from ‘char *’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyStructSequence_New
          (PyTypeObject *type)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Creates an instance of
     'type', which must have been created with *note
     PyStructSequence_NewType(): 53f3.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyStructSequence_GetItem
          (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple
     threads with external synchronization only: 291f.'  Return the
     object at position 'pos' in the struct sequence pointed to by 'p'.
     The returned reference is borrowed from the struct sequence 'p'
     (that is: it is only valid as long as you hold a reference to 'p').

     Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in
     *note debug mode: 3dc. or *note with assertions: 820.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM
          (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Thread safety: *note
     Safe to call from multiple threads with external synchronization
     only: 291f.'  Alias to *note PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 53f1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Now implemented as an alias to *note
     PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 53f1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyStructSequence_SetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t
          pos, PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call from multiple threads with external synchronization only:
     291f.'  Sets the field at index 'pos' of the struct sequence 'p' to
     value 'o'.  Like *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 821, this should only be
     used to fill in brand new instances.

     Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in
     *note debug mode: 3dc. or *note with assertions: 820.

          Σημείωση: This function «steals» a reference to 'o'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t
          *pos, PyObject *o)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple threads with
     external synchronization only: 291f.'  Alias to *note
     PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 53f4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Now implemented as an alias to *note
     PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 53f4.


File: python.info,  Node: List Objects,  Prev: Struct Sequence Objects,  Up: Sequence Objects

7.10.3.36 List Objects
......................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyListObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. represents a Python list
     object.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyList_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python list type.  This is the
     same object as *note list: 4d9. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyList_Check (PyObject *p)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return true if 'p' is a list
     object or an instance of a subtype of the list type.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyList_CheckExact (PyObject *p)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return true if 'p' is a list
     object, but not an instance of a subtype of the list type.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyList_New (Py_ssize_t len)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return a new list of
     length 'len' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

          Σημείωση: If 'len' is greater than zero, the returned list
          object’s items are set to ‘NULL’.  Thus you cannot use
          abstract API functions such as *note PySequence_SetItem():
          2022. or expose the object to Python code before setting all
          items to a real object with *note PyList_SetItem(): 1adb. or
          *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 822.  The following APIs are safe
          APIs before the list is fully initialized: ‘PyList_SetItem()’
          and ‘PyList_SET_ITEM()’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyList_Size (PyObject *list)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'

     Return the length of the list object in 'list'; this is equivalent
     to ‘len(list)’ on a list object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyList_GET_SIZE (PyObject *list)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Similar to *note
     PyList_Size(): 17bc, but without error checking.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyList_GetItemRef (PyObject
          *list, Py_ssize_t index)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'
     Return the object at position 'index' in the list pointed to by
     'list'.  The position must be non-negative; indexing from the end
     of the list is not supported.  If 'index' is out of bounds (‘<0 or
     >=len(list)’), return ‘NULL’ and set an *note IndexError: 18d7.
     exception.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyList_GetItem (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t index)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple
     threads with external synchronization only: 291f.'  Like *note
     PyList_GetItemRef(): 7f4, but returns a *note borrowed reference:
     603. instead of a *note strong reference: 7da.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded build: 198, the returned
          *note borrowed reference: 603. may become invalid if another
          thread modifies the list concurrently.  Prefer *note
          PyList_GetItemRef(): 7f4, which returns a *note strong
          reference: 7da.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyList_GET_ITEM (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t i)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Thread safety: *note
     Safe to call from multiple threads with external synchronization
     only: 291f.'  Similar to *note PyList_GetItem(): 7f5, but without
     error checking.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded build: 198, the returned
          *note borrowed reference: 603. may become invalid if another
          thread modifies the list concurrently.  Prefer *note
          PyList_GetItemRef(): 7f4, which returns a *note strong
          reference: 7da.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyList_SetItem (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index,
          PyObject *item)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'  Set the item at index 'index' in list to 'item'.  Return
     ‘0’ on success.  If 'index' is out of bounds, return ‘-1’ and set
     an *note IndexError: 18d7. exception.

          Σημείωση: This function «steals» a reference to 'item' and
          discards a reference to an item already in the list at the
          affected position.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyList_SET_ITEM (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i,
          PyObject *o)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple threads with
     external synchronization only: 291f.'  Macro form of *note
     PyList_SetItem(): 1adb. without error checking.  This is normally
     only used to fill in new lists where there is no previous content.

     Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in
     *note debug mode: 3dc. or *note with assertions: 820.

          Σημείωση: This macro «steals» a reference to 'item', and,
          unlike *note PyList_SetItem(): 1adb, does 'not' discard a
          reference to any item that is being replaced; any reference in
          'list' at position 'i' will be leaked.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded build: 198, this macro
          has no internal synchronization.  It is normally only used to
          fill in new lists where no other thread has a reference to the
          list.  If the list may be shared, use *note PyList_SetItem():
          1adb. instead, which uses a *note per-object lock: 2927.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyList_Insert (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index,
          PyObject *item)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Insert the item
     'item' into list 'list' in front of index 'index'.  Return ‘0’ if
     successful; return ‘-1’ and set an exception if unsuccessful.
     Analogous to ‘list.insert(index, item)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyList_Append (PyObject *list, PyObject *item)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'  Append the object 'item' at the end of list 'list'.  Return
     ‘0’ if successful; return ‘-1’ and set an exception if
     unsuccessful.  Analogous to ‘list.append(item)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyList_GetSlice (PyObject *list,
          Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return a list of the
     objects in 'list' containing the objects 'between' 'low' and
     'high'.  Return ‘NULL’ and set an exception if unsuccessful.
     Analogous to ‘list[low:high]’.  Indexing from the end of the list
     is not supported.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyList_SetSlice (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t low,
          Py_ssize_t high, PyObject *itemlist)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Set the slice of
     'list' between 'low' and 'high' to the contents of 'itemlist'.
     Analogous to ‘list[low:high] = itemlist’.  The 'itemlist' may be
     ‘NULL’, indicating the assignment of an empty list (slice
     deletion).  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.  Indexing from
     the end of the list is not supported.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded build: 198, when
          'itemlist' is a *note list: 4d9, both 'list' and 'itemlist'
          are locked for the duration of the operation.  For other
          iterables (or ‘NULL’), only 'list' is locked.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyList_Extend (PyObject *list, PyObject *iterable)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe for concurrent use on the same object:
     2926.'  Extend 'list' with the contents of 'iterable'.  This is the
     same as ‘PyList_SetSlice(list, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX,
     iterable)’ and analogous to ‘list.extend(iterable)’ or ‘list +=
     iterable’.

     Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ if 'list' is not a *note list:
     4d9. object.  Return 0 on success.

     Added in version 3.13.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded build: 198, when
          'iterable' is a *note list: 4d9, *note set: 42b, *note dict:
          188, or dict view, both 'list' and 'iterable' (or its
          underlying dict) are locked for the duration of the operation.
          For other iterables, only 'list' is locked; 'iterable' may be
          concurrently modified by another thread.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyList_Clear (PyObject *list)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Remove all items from
     'list'.  This is the same as ‘PyList_SetSlice(list, 0,
     PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, NULL)’ and analogous to ‘list.clear()’ or ‘del
     list[:]’.

     Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ if 'list' is not a *note list:
     4d9. object.  Return 0 on success.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyList_Sort (PyObject *list)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Sort the items of
     'list' in place.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.  This is
     equivalent to ‘list.sort()’.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded build: 198, element
          comparison via *note __lt__(): 1645. can execute arbitrary
          Python code, during which the *note per-object lock: 2927. may
          be temporarily released.  For built-in types (*note str: 1df,
          *note int: 326, *note float: 327.), the lock is not released
          during comparison.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyList_Reverse (PyObject *list)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Reverse the items of
     'list' in place.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.  This is
     the equivalent of ‘list.reverse()’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyList_AsTuple (PyObject *list)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'

     Return a new tuple object containing the contents of 'list';
     equivalent to ‘tuple(list)’.


File: python.info,  Node: Container Objects,  Next: Function Objects<2>,  Prev: Sequence Objects,  Up: Concrete Objects Layer

7.10.4 Container Objects
------------------------

* Menu:

* Dictionary objects::
* Set Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionary objects,  Next: Set Objects,  Up: Container Objects

7.10.4.1 Dictionary objects
...........................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyDictObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. represents a Python dictionary
     object.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDict_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python dictionary type.  This is
     the same object as *note dict: 188. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_Check (PyObject *p)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return true if 'p' is a dict
     object or an instance of a subtype of the dict type.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_CheckExact (PyObject *p)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return true if 'p' is a dict
     object, but not an instance of a subtype of the dict type.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDict_New ()
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return a new empty
     dictionary, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDictProxy_New (PyObject
          *mapping)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a *note types.MappingProxyType: 189. object for a
     mapping which enforces read-only behavior.  This is normally used
     to create a view to prevent modification of the dictionary for
     non-dynamic class types.

     The first argument can be a *note dict: 188, a *note frozendict:
     182, or a mapping.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDictProxy_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type object for mapping
     proxy objects created by *note PyDictProxy_New(): 52e1. and for the
     read-only ‘__dict__’ attribute of many built-in types.  A *note
     PyDictProxy_Type: 52e2. instance provides a dynamic, read-only view
     of an underlying dictionary: changes to the underlying dictionary
     are reflected in the proxy, but the proxy itself does not support
     mutation operations.  This corresponds to *note
     types.MappingProxyType: 189. in Python.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyDict_Clear (PyObject *p)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'  Empty an existing dictionary of all key-value pairs.

     Do nothing if the argument is not a *note dict: 188. or a ‘dict’
     subclass.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_Contains (PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Determine if
     dictionary 'p' contains 'key'.  If an item in 'p' matches 'key',
     return ‘1’, otherwise return ‘0’.  On error, return ‘-1’.  This is
     equivalent to the Python expression ‘key in p’.

     The first argument can be a *note dict: 188. or a *note frozendict:
     182.

          Σημείωση: The operation is atomic on *note free threading:
          198. when 'key' is *note str: 1df, *note int: 326, *note
          float: 327, *note bool: 5ef. or *note bytes: 1c7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_ContainsString (PyObject *p, const char
          *key)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  This is the same as *note
     PyDict_Contains(): 7d7, but 'key' is specified as a const char*
     UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

     The first argument can be a *note dict: 188. or a *note frozendict:
     182.

     Added in version 3.13.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDict_Copy (PyObject *p)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return a new
     dictionary that contains the same key-value pairs as 'p'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_SetItem (PyObject *p, PyObject *key,
          PyObject *val)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Insert 'val' into
     the dictionary 'p' with a key of 'key'.  'key' must be *note
     hashable: 183.; if it isn’t, *note TypeError: 291. will be raised.
     Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure.  This function 'does not'
     steal a reference to 'val'.

          Σημείωση: The operation is atomic on *note free threading:
          198. when 'key' is *note str: 1df, *note int: 326, *note
          float: 327, *note bool: 5ef. or *note bytes: 1c7.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_SetItemString (PyObject *p, const char *key,
          PyObject *val)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'  This is the same as *note PyDict_SetItem(): 51d0, but 'key'
     is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather
     than a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_DelItem (PyObject *p, PyObject *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Remove the entry in
     dictionary 'p' with key 'key'.  'key' must be *note hashable: 183.;
     if it isn’t, *note TypeError: 291. is raised.  If 'key' is not in
     the dictionary, *note KeyError: 7df. is raised.  Return ‘0’ on
     success or ‘-1’ on failure.

          Σημείωση: The operation is atomic on *note free threading:
          198. when 'key' is *note str: 1df, *note int: 326, *note
          float: 327, *note bool: 5ef. or *note bytes: 1c7.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_DelItemString (PyObject *p, const char *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'  This is the same as *note PyDict_DelItem(): 52e8, but 'key'
     is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather
     than a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_GetItemRef (PyObject *p, PyObject *key,
          PyObject **result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.''  Thread
     safety: *note Safe for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'
     Return a new *note strong reference: 7da. to the object from
     dictionary 'p' which has a key 'key':

        * If the key is present, set '*result' to a new *note strong
          reference: 7da. to the value and return ‘1’.

        * If the key is missing, set '*result' to ‘NULL’ and return ‘0’.

        * On error, raise an exception, set '*result' to ‘NULL’ and
          return ‘-1’.

     The first argument can be a *note dict: 188. or a *note frozendict:
     182.

          Σημείωση: The operation is atomic on *note free threading:
          198. when 'key' is *note str: 1df, *note int: 326, *note
          float: 327, *note bool: 5ef. or *note bytes: 1c7.

     Added in version 3.13.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

     See also the *note PyObject_GetItem(): 7e2. function.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDict_GetItem (PyObject *p,
          PyObject *key)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple
     threads with external synchronization only: 291f.'  Return a *note
     borrowed reference: 603. to the object from dictionary 'p' which
     has a key 'key'.  Return ‘NULL’ if the key 'key' is missing
     'without' setting an exception.

     The first argument can be a *note dict: 188. or a *note frozendict:
     182.

          Σημείωση: Exceptions that occur while this calls *note
          __hash__(): ec1. and *note __eq__(): ec0. methods are silently
          ignored.  Prefer the *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 7d9.
          function instead.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded build: 198, the returned
          *note borrowed reference: 603. may become invalid if another
          thread modifies the dictionary concurrently.  Prefer *note
          PyDict_GetItemRef(): 7d8, which returns a *note strong
          reference: 7da.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: Calling this API without an *note attached
     thread state: 1a1. had been allowed for historical reason.  It is
     no longer allowed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDict_GetItemWithError (PyObject
          *p, PyObject *key)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple
     threads with external synchronization only: 291f.'  Variant of
     *note PyDict_GetItem(): 81c. that does not suppress exceptions.
     Return ‘NULL’ 'with' an exception set if an exception occurred.
     Return ‘NULL’ 'without' an exception set if the key wasn’t present.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded build: 198, the returned
          *note borrowed reference: 603. may become invalid if another
          thread modifies the dictionary concurrently.  Prefer *note
          PyDict_GetItemRef(): 7d8, which returns a *note strong
          reference: 7da.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDict_GetItemString (PyObject
          *p, const char *key)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple
     threads with external synchronization only: 291f.'  This is the
     same as *note PyDict_GetItem(): 81c, but 'key' is specified as a
     const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note
     PyObject: 19b.*.

          Σημείωση: Exceptions that occur while this calls *note
          __hash__(): ec1. and *note __eq__(): ec0. methods or while
          creating the temporary *note str: 1df. object are silently
          ignored.  Prefer using the *note PyDict_GetItemWithError():
          7d9. function with your own *note PyUnicode_FromString():
          5451. 'key' instead.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded build: 198, the returned
          *note borrowed reference: 603. may become invalid if another
          thread modifies the dictionary concurrently.  Prefer *note
          PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 634, which returns a *note strong
          reference: 7da.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_GetItemStringRef (PyObject *p, const char
          *key, PyObject **result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.''  Thread
     safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Similar to *note PyDict_GetItemRef():
     7d8, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes
     string, rather than a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

     Added in version 3.13.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDict_SetDefault (PyObject *p,
          PyObject *key, PyObject *defaultobj)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Thread safety: *note
     Safe to call from multiple threads with external synchronization
     only: 291f.'  This is the same as the Python-level *note
     dict.setdefault(): 1421.  If present, it returns the value
     corresponding to 'key' from the dictionary 'p'.  If the key is not
     in the dict, it is inserted with value 'defaultobj' and
     'defaultobj' is returned.  This function evaluates the hash
     function of 'key' only once, instead of evaluating it independently
     for the lookup and the insertion.

     Added in version 3.4.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded build: 198, the returned
          *note borrowed reference: 603. may become invalid if another
          thread modifies the dictionary concurrently.  Prefer *note
          PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 7db, which returns a *note strong
          reference: 7da.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_SetDefaultRef (PyObject *p, PyObject *key,
          PyObject *default_value, PyObject **result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.''  Thread
     safety: *note Safe for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'
     Inserts 'default_value' into the dictionary 'p' with a key of 'key'
     if the key is not already present in the dictionary.  If 'result'
     is not ‘NULL’, then '*result' is set to a *note strong reference:
     7da. to either 'default_value', if the key was not present, or the
     existing value, if 'key' was already present in the dictionary.
     Returns ‘1’ if the key was present and 'default_value' was not
     inserted, or ‘0’ if the key was not present and 'default_value' was
     inserted.  On failure, returns ‘-1’, sets an exception, and sets
     ‘*result’ to ‘NULL’.

     For clarity: if you have a strong reference to 'default_value'
     before calling this function, then after it returns, you hold a
     strong reference to both 'default_value' and '*result' (if it’s not
     ‘NULL’).  These may refer to the same object: in that case you hold
     two separate references to it.

          Σημείωση: The operation is atomic on *note free threading:
          198. when 'key' is *note str: 1df, *note int: 326, *note
          float: 327, *note bool: 5ef. or *note bytes: 1c7.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_Pop (PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject
          **result)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe for concurrent use on the same object:
     2926.'  Remove 'key' from dictionary 'p' and optionally return the
     removed value.  Do not raise *note KeyError: 7df. if the key is
     missing.

        - If the key is present, set '*result' to a new reference to the
          removed value if 'result' is not ‘NULL’, and return ‘1’.

        - If the key is missing, set '*result' to ‘NULL’ if 'result' is
          not ‘NULL’, and return ‘0’.

        - On error, raise an exception and return ‘-1’.

     Similar to *note dict.pop(): 7de, but without the default value and
     not raising *note KeyError: 7df. if the key is missing.

          Σημείωση: The operation is atomic on *note free threading:
          198. when 'key' is *note str: 1df, *note int: 326, *note
          float: 327, *note bool: 5ef. or *note bytes: 1c7.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_PopString (PyObject *p, const char *key,
          PyObject **result)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Similar to *note
     PyDict_Pop(): 635, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8
     encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDict_Items (PyObject *p)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return a *note
     PyListObject: 2929. containing all the items from the dictionary.

     The first argument can be a *note dict: 188. or a *note frozendict:
     182.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDict_Keys (PyObject *p)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return a *note
     PyListObject: 2929. containing all the keys from the dictionary.

     The first argument can be a *note dict: 188. or a *note frozendict:
     182.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDict_Values (PyObject *p)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return a *note
     PyListObject: 2929. containing all the values from the dictionary
     'p'.

     The first argument can be a *note dict: 188. or a *note frozendict:
     182.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyDict_Size (PyObject *p)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'

     Return the number of items in the dictionary.  This is equivalent
     to ‘len(p)’ on a dictionary.

     The argument can be a *note dict: 188. or a *note frozendict: 182.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyDict_GET_SIZE (PyObject *p)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Similar to *note
     PyDict_Size(): 52ef, but without error checking.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_Next (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *ppos,
          PyObject **pkey, PyObject **pvalue)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call from multiple threads with external synchronization only:
     291f.'  Iterate over all key-value pairs in the dictionary 'p'.
     The *note Py_ssize_t: e24. referred to by 'ppos' must be
     initialized to ‘0’ prior to the first call to this function to
     start the iteration; the function returns true for each pair in the
     dictionary, and false once all pairs have been reported.  The
     parameters 'pkey' and 'pvalue' should either point to *note
     PyObject: 19b.* variables that will be filled in with each key and
     value, respectively, or may be ‘NULL’.  Any references returned
     through them are borrowed.  'ppos' should not be altered during
     iteration.  Its value represents offsets within the internal
     dictionary structure, and since the structure is sparse, the
     offsets are not consecutive.

     The first argument can be a *note dict: 188. or a *note frozendict:
     182.

     For example:

          PyObject *key, *value;
          Py_ssize_t pos = 0;

          while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
              /* do something interesting with the values... */
              ...
          }

     The dictionary 'p' should not be mutated during iteration.  It is
     safe to modify the values of the keys as you iterate over the
     dictionary, but only so long as the set of keys does not change.
     For example:

          PyObject *key, *value;
          Py_ssize_t pos = 0;

          while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
              long i = PyLong_AsLong(value);
              if (i == -1 && PyErr_Occurred()) {
                  return -1;
              }
              PyObject *o = PyLong_FromLong(i + 1);
              if (o == NULL)
                  return -1;
              if (PyDict_SetItem(self->dict, key, o) < 0) {
                  Py_DECREF(o);
                  return -1;
              }
              Py_DECREF(o);
          }

     The function is not thread-safe in the *note free-threaded: 487.
     build without external synchronization for a mutable *note dict:
     188.  You can use *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION: 5469. to lock
     the dictionary while iterating over it:

          Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(self->dict);
          while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
              ...
          }
          Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();

     The function is thread-safe on a *note frozendict: 182.

          Σημείωση: On the free-threaded build, this function can be
          used safely inside a critical section.  However, the
          references returned for 'pkey' and 'pvalue' are *note
          borrowed: 603. and are only valid while the critical section
          is held.  If you need to use these objects outside the
          critical section or when the critical section can be
          suspended, create a *note strong reference: 7da. (for example,
          using *note Py_NewRef(): c70.).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Also accept *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_Merge (PyObject *a, PyObject *b, int
          override)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Iterate over mapping
     object 'b' adding key-value pairs to dictionary 'a'.  'b' may be a
     dictionary, or any object supporting *note PyMapping_Keys(): f7a.
     and *note PyObject_GetItem(): 7e2.  If 'override' is true, existing
     pairs in 'a' will be replaced if a matching key is found in 'b',
     otherwise pairs will only be added if there is not a matching key
     in 'a'.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ if an exception was raised.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded build: 198, when 'b' is a
          *note dict: 188. (with the standard iterator), both 'a' and
          'b' are locked for the duration of the operation.  When 'b' is
          a non-dict mapping, only 'a' is locked; 'b' may be
          concurrently modified by another thread.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_Update (PyObject *a, PyObject *b)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  This is the same as
     ‘PyDict_Merge(a, b, 1)’ in C, and is similar to ‘a.update(b)’ in
     Python except that *note PyDict_Update(): 52f1. doesn’t fall back
     to the iterating over a sequence of key value pairs if the second
     argument has no «keys» attribute.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ if
     an exception was raised.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded build: 198, when 'b' is a
          *note dict: 188. (with the standard iterator), both 'a' and
          'b' are locked for the duration of the operation.  When 'b' is
          a non-dict mapping, only 'a' is locked; 'b' may be
          concurrently modified by another thread.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (PyObject *a, PyObject *seq2,
          int override)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Update or merge into
     dictionary 'a', from the key-value pairs in 'seq2'.  'seq2' must be
     an iterable object producing iterable objects of length 2, viewed
     as key-value pairs.  In case of duplicate keys, the last wins if
     'override' is true, else the first wins.  Return ‘0’ on success or
     ‘-1’ if an exception was raised.  Equivalent Python (except for the
     return value):

          def PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(a, seq2, override):
              for key, value in seq2:
                  if override or key not in a:
                      a[key] = value

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded: 487. build, only 'a' is
          locked.  The iteration over 'seq2' is not synchronized; 'seq2'
          may be concurrently modified by another thread.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_AddWatcher (PyDict_WatchCallback callback)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple threads with
     external synchronization only: 291f.'  Register 'callback' as a
     dictionary watcher.  Return a non-negative integer id which must be
     passed to future calls to *note PyDict_Watch(): 969.  In case of
     error (e.g.  no more watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an
     exception.

          Σημείωση: This function is not internally synchronized.  In
          the *note free-threaded: 487. build, callers should ensure no
          concurrent calls to *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 5fc. or *note
          PyDict_ClearWatcher(): 570a. are in progress.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe to call from multiple threads with
     external synchronization only: 291f.'  Clear watcher identified by
     'watcher_id' previously returned from *note PyDict_AddWatcher():
     5fc.  Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on error (e.g.  if the given
     'watcher_id' was never registered.)

          Σημείωση: This function is not internally synchronized.  In
          the *note free-threaded: 487. build, callers should ensure no
          concurrent calls to *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 5fc. or *note
          PyDict_ClearWatcher(): 570a. are in progress.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_Watch (int watcher_id, PyObject *dict)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe to call without external
     synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'  Mark dictionary 'dict'
     as watched.  The callback granted 'watcher_id' by *note
     PyDict_AddWatcher(): 5fc. will be called when 'dict' is modified or
     deallocated.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on error.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDict_Unwatch (int watcher_id, PyObject *dict)
     ' Thread safety: *note Safe to call without external
     synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'  Mark dictionary 'dict'
     as no longer watched.  The callback granted 'watcher_id' by *note
     PyDict_AddWatcher(): 5fc. will no longer be called when 'dict' is
     modified or deallocated.  The dict must previously have been
     watched by this watcher.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on error.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyDict_WatchEvent

     Enumeration of possible dictionary watcher events:
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED’,
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_DELETED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’,
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED’, or ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*PyDict_WatchCallback)(*note
          PyDict_WatchEvent: 570b. event, *note PyObject: 19b. *dict,
          *note PyObject: 19b. *key, *note PyObject: 19b. *new_value)

     Type of a dict watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED’ or ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’,
     both 'key' and 'new_value' will be ‘NULL’.  If 'event' is
     ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’ or ‘PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED’, 'new_value' will
     be the new value for 'key'.  If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_DELETED’,
     'key' is being deleted from the dictionary and 'new_value' will be
     ‘NULL’.

     ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’ occurs when 'dict' was previously empty and
     another dict is merged into it.  To maintain efficiency of this
     operation, per-key ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’ events are not issued in
     this case; instead a single ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’ is issued, and
     'key' will be the source dictionary.

     The callback may inspect but must not modify 'dict'; doing so could
     have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion.  Do not
     trigger Python code execution in the callback, as it could modify
     the dict as a side effect.

     If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’, taking a new reference in
     the callback to the about-to-be-destroyed dictionary will resurrect
     it and prevent it from being freed at this time.  When the
     resurrected object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active
     at that time will be called again.

     Callbacks occur before the notified modification to 'dict' takes
     place, so the prior state of 'dict' can be inspected.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 7e8.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     Added in version 3.12.

* Menu:

* Dictionary view objects::
* Frozen dictionary objects::
* Ordered dictionaries::


File: python.info,  Node: Dictionary view objects,  Next: Frozen dictionary objects,  Up: Dictionary objects

7.10.4.2 Dictionary view objects
................................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDictViewSet_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if 'op' is a view of a set inside a dictionary.  This
     is currently equivalent to *note PyDictKeys_Check: 570f.(*note op:
     570e.) || *note PyDictItems_Check: 5710.(op).  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDictKeys_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Type object for a view of
     dictionary keys.  In Python, this is the type of the object
     returned by *note dict.keys(): bad.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDictKeys_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if 'op' is an instance of a dictionary keys view.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDictValues_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Type object for a view of
     dictionary values.  In Python, this is the type of the object
     returned by *note dict.values(): bae.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDictValues_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if 'op' is an instance of a dictionary values view.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDictItems_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Type object for a view of
     dictionary items.  In Python, this is the type of the object
     returned by *note dict.items(): baf.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDictItems_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if 'op' is an instance of a dictionary items view.
     This function always succeeds.


File: python.info,  Node: Frozen dictionary objects,  Next: Ordered dictionaries,  Prev: Dictionary view objects,  Up: Dictionary objects

7.10.4.3 Frozen dictionary objects
..................................

Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyFrozenDict_Type

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python
     frozen dictionary type.  This is the same object as *note
     frozendict: 182. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyAnyDict_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note dict: 188. object, a *note
     frozendict: 182. object, or an instance of a subtype of the ‘dict’
     or ‘frozendict’ type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyAnyDict_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note dict: 188. object or a *note
     frozendict: 182. object, but not an instance of a subtype of the
     ‘dict’ or ‘frozendict’ type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFrozenDict_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note frozendict: 182. object or an
     instance of a subtype of the ‘frozendict’ type.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFrozenDict_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note frozendict: 182. object, but not an
     instance of a subtype of the ‘frozendict’ type.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFrozenDict_New (PyObject
          *iterable)

     Return a new *note frozendict: 182. from an iterable, or ‘NULL’ on
     failure with an exception set.

     Create an empty dictionary if 'iterable' is ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Ordered dictionaries,  Prev: Frozen dictionary objects,  Up: Dictionary objects

7.10.4.4 Ordered dictionaries
.............................

Python’s C API provides interface for *note collections.OrderedDict:
9d5. from C. Since Python 3.7, dictionaries are ordered by default, so
there is usually little need for these functions; prefer ‘PyDict*’ where
possible.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyODict_Type

     Type object for ordered dictionaries.  This is the same object as
     *note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyODict_Check (PyObject *od)

     Return true if 'od' is an ordered dictionary object or an instance
     of a subtype of the *note OrderedDict: 9d5. type.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyODict_CheckExact (PyObject *od)

     Return true if 'od' is an ordered dictionary object, but not an
     instance of a subtype of the *note OrderedDict: 9d5. type.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyODictKeys_Type

     Analogous to *note PyDictKeys_Type: 52e0. for ordered dictionaries.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyODictValues_Type

     Analogous to *note PyDictValues_Type: 52e6. for ordered
     dictionaries.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyODictItems_Type

     Analogous to *note PyDictItems_Type: 52dc. for ordered
     dictionaries.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyODict_New (void)

     Return a new empty ordered dictionary, or ‘NULL’ on failure.

     This is analogous to *note PyDict_New(): 52ee.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyODict_SetItem (PyObject *od, PyObject *key,
          PyObject *value)

     Insert 'value' into the ordered dictionary 'od' with a key of
     'key'.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ with an exception set on
     failure.

     This is analogous to *note PyDict_SetItem(): 51d0.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyODict_DelItem (PyObject *od, PyObject *key)

     Remove the entry in the ordered dictionary 'od' with key 'key'.
     Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ with an exception set on failure.

     This is analogous to *note PyDict_DelItem(): 52e8.

These are *note soft deprecated: 1a7. aliases to ‘PyDict’ APIs:

‘PyODict’                                              ‘PyDict’
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyODict_GetItem (od, key)           *note PyDict_GetItem(): 81c.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyODict_GetItemWithError (od,       *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 7d9.
          key)                                         

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyODict_GetItemString (od, key)     *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 81d.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyODict_Contains (od, key)          *note PyDict_Contains(): 7d7.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyODict_Size (od)                   *note PyDict_Size(): 52ef.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyODict_SIZE (od)                   *note PyDict_GET_SIZE(): 5709.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Set Objects,  Prev: Dictionary objects,  Up: Container Objects

7.10.4.5 Set Objects
....................

This section details the public API for *note set: 42b. and *note
frozenset: 9d4. objects.  Any functionality not listed below is best
accessed using either the abstract object protocol (including *note
PyObject_CallMethod(): 3b6, *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 1f7e,
*note PyObject_Hash(): 649, *note PyObject_Repr(): 13d7, *note
PyObject_IsTrue(): 53cb, *note PyObject_Print(): 18fe, and *note
PyObject_GetIter(): 53ca.) or the abstract number protocol (including
*note PyNumber_And(): 539e, *note PyNumber_Subtract(): 53b7, *note
PyNumber_Or(): 53b2, *note PyNumber_Xor(): 53b9, *note
PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(): 53a3, *note PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(): 53ab,
*note PyNumber_InPlaceOr(): 53a7, and *note PyNumber_InPlaceXor():
53ad.).

 -- C Τύπος: type PySetObject

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. is used to hold the internal
     data for both *note set: 42b. and *note frozenset: 9d4. objects.
     It is like a *note PyDictObject: 83e. in that it is a fixed size
     for small sets (much like tuple storage) and will point to a
     separate, variable sized block of memory for medium and large sized
     sets (much like list storage).  None of the fields of this
     structure should be considered public and all are subject to
     change.  All access should be done through the documented API
     rather than by manipulating the values in the structure.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PySet_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is an instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. representing the Python *note set: 42b. type.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyFrozenSet_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is an instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. representing the Python *note frozenset: 9d4.
     type.

The following type check macros work on pointers to any Python object.
Likewise, the constructor functions work with any iterable Python
object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySet_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 42b. object or an instance of a
     subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFrozenSet_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note frozenset: 9d4. object or an instance
     of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyAnySet_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 42b. object, a *note frozenset:
     9d4. object, or an instance of a subtype.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 42b. object but not an instance
     of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyAnySet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 42b. object or a *note
     frozenset: 9d4. object but not an instance of a subtype.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a *note frozenset: 9d4. object but not an
     instance of a subtype.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySet_New (PyObject *iterable)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe for concurrent use on the same
     object: 2926.'  Return a new *note set: 42b. containing objects
     returned by the 'iterable'.  The 'iterable' may be ‘NULL’ to create
     a new empty set.  Return the new set on success or ‘NULL’ on
     failure.  Raise *note TypeError: 291. if 'iterable' is not actually
     iterable.  The constructor is also useful for copying a set
     (‘c=set(s)’).

          Σημείωση: The operation is atomic on *note free threading:
          198. when 'iterable' is a *note set: 42b, *note frozenset:
          9d4, *note dict: 188. or *note frozendict: 182.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFrozenSet_New (PyObject
          *iterable)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe for concurrent use on the same
     object: 2926.'  Return a new *note frozenset: 9d4. containing
     objects returned by the 'iterable'.  The 'iterable' may be ‘NULL’
     to create a new empty frozenset.  Return the new set on success or
     ‘NULL’ on failure.  Raise *note TypeError: 291. if 'iterable' is
     not actually iterable.

          Σημείωση: The operation is atomic on *note free threading:
          198. when 'iterable' is a *note set: 42b, *note frozenset:
          9d4, *note dict: 188. or *note frozendict: 182.

The following functions and macros are available for instances of *note
set: 42b. or *note frozenset: 9d4. or instances of their subtypes.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PySet_Size (PyObject *anyset)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'

     Return the length of a *note set: 42b. or *note frozenset: 9d4.
     object.  Equivalent to ‘len(anyset)’.  Raises a *note SystemError:
     3ea. if 'anyset' is not a ‘set’, ‘frozenset’, or an instance of a
     subtype.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PySet_GET_SIZE (PyObject
          *anyset)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Macro form of *note
     PySet_Size(): 17eb. without error checking.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySet_Contains (PyObject *anyset, PyObject *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Return ‘1’ if found,
     ‘0’ if not found, and ‘-1’ if an error is encountered.  Unlike the
     Python *note __contains__(): 175c. method, this function does not
     automatically convert unhashable sets into temporary frozensets.
     Raise a *note TypeError: 291. if the 'key' is unhashable.  Raise
     *note SystemError: 3ea. if 'anyset' is not a *note set: 42b, *note
     frozenset: 9d4, or an instance of a subtype.

          Σημείωση: The operation is atomic on *note free threading:
          198. when 'key' is *note str: 1df, *note int: 326, *note
          float: 327, *note bool: 5ef. or *note bytes: 1c7.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySet_Add (PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Add 'key' to a *note
     set: 42b. instance.  Also works with *note frozenset: 9d4.
     instances (like *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 51cf. it can be used to
     fill in the values of brand new frozensets before they are exposed
     to other code).  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure.  Raise a
     *note TypeError: 291. if the 'key' is unhashable.  Raise a *note
     MemoryError: 18fa. if there is no room to grow.  Raise a *note
     SystemError: 3ea. if 'set' is not an instance of ‘set’ or its
     subtype.

          Σημείωση: The operation is atomic on *note free threading:
          198. when 'key' is *note str: 1df, *note int: 326, *note
          float: 327, *note bool: 5ef. or *note bytes: 1c7.

The following functions are available for instances of *note set: 42b.
or its subtypes but not for instances of *note frozenset: 9d4. or its
subtypes.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySet_Discard (PyObject *set, PyObject *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe
     for concurrent use on the same object: 2926.'  Return ‘1’ if found
     and removed, ‘0’ if not found (no action taken), and ‘-1’ if an
     error is encountered.  Does not raise *note KeyError: 7df. for
     missing keys.  Raise a *note TypeError: 291. if the 'key' is
     unhashable.  Unlike the Python *note discard(): 2899. method, this
     function does not automatically convert unhashable sets into
     temporary frozensets.  Raise *note SystemError: 3ea. if 'set' is
     not an instance of *note set: 42b. or its subtype.

          Σημείωση: The operation is atomic on *note free threading:
          198. when 'key' is *note str: 1df, *note int: 326, *note
          float: 327, *note bool: 5ef. or *note bytes: 1c7.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySet_Pop (PyObject *set)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return a new reference
     to an arbitrary object in the 'set', and removes the object from
     the 'set'.  Return ‘NULL’ on failure.  Raise *note KeyError: 7df.
     if the set is empty.  Raise a *note SystemError: 3ea. if 'set' is
     not an instance of *note set: 42b. or its subtype.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySet_Clear (PyObject *set)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic:
     292b.'  Empty an existing set of all elements.  Return ‘0’ on
     success.  Return ‘-1’ and raise *note SystemError: 3ea. if 'set' is
     not an instance of *note set: 42b. or its subtype.

          Σημείωση: In the *note free-threaded build: 198, the set is
          emptied before its entries are cleared, so other threads will
          observe an empty set rather than intermediate states.

* Menu:

* Deprecated API: Deprecated API<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated API<3>,  Up: Set Objects

7.10.4.6 Deprecated API
.......................

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PySet_MINSIZE

     A constant representing the size of an internal preallocated table
     inside *note PySetObject: 5728. instances.

     This is documented solely for completeness, as there are no
     guarantees that a given version of CPython uses preallocated tables
     with a fixed size.  In code that does not deal with unstable set
     internals, ‘PySet_MINSIZE’ can be replaced with a small constant
     like ‘8’.

     If looking for the size of a set, use *note PySet_Size(): 17eb.
     instead.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Function Objects<2>,  Next: Other Objects,  Prev: Container Objects,  Up: Concrete Objects Layer

7.10.5 Function Objects
-----------------------

* Menu:

* Function Objects: Function Objects<3>.
* Instance Method Objects::
* Method Objects::
* Cell Objects::
* Code Objects::
* Code Object Flags::
* Extra information::


File: python.info,  Node: Function Objects<3>,  Next: Instance Method Objects,  Up: Function Objects<2>

7.10.5.1 Function Objects
.........................

There are a few functions specific to Python functions.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyFunctionObject

     The C structure used for functions.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyFunction_Type

     This is an instance of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. and represents the
     Python function type.  It is exposed to Python programmers as
     ‘types.FunctionType’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFunction_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is a function object (has type *note
     PyFunction_Type: 5736.).  The parameter must not be ‘NULL’.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_New (PyObject *code,
          PyObject *globals)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a new function object
     associated with the code object 'code'.  'globals' must be a
     dictionary with the global variables accessible to the function.

     The function’s docstring and name are retrieved from the code
     object.  *note __module__: 253b. is retrieved from 'globals'.  The
     argument defaults, annotations and closure are set to ‘NULL’.
     *note __qualname__: 253a. is set to the same value as the code
     object’s *note co_qualname: 257a. field.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_NewWithQualName
          (PyObject *code, PyObject *globals, PyObject *qualname)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  As *note PyFunction_New():
     5738, but also allows setting the function object’s *note
     __qualname__: 253a. attribute.  'qualname' should be a unicode
     object or ‘NULL’; if ‘NULL’, the ‘__qualname__’ attribute is set to
     the same value as the code object’s *note co_qualname: 257a. field.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GetCode (PyObject *op)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Return the code object
     associated with the function object 'op'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GetGlobals (PyObject
          *op)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Return the globals
     dictionary associated with the function object 'op'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GetModule (PyObject
          *op)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Return a *note borrowed
     reference: 603. to the *note __module__: 253b. attribute of the
     *note function object: 79b. 'op'.  It can be 'NULL'.

     This is normally a *note string: 1df. containing the module name,
     but can be set to any other object by Python code.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GetDefaults (PyObject
          *op)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Return the argument
     default values of the function object 'op'.  This can be a tuple of
     arguments or ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFunction_SetDefaults (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *defaults)

     Set the argument default values for the function object 'op'.
     'defaults' must be ‘Py_None’ or a tuple.

     Raises *note SystemError: 3ea. and returns ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyFunction_SetVectorcall (PyFunctionObject *func,
          vectorcallfunc vectorcall)

     Set the vectorcall field of a given function object 'func'.

     Warning: extensions using this API must preserve the behavior of
     the unaltered (default) vectorcall function!

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GetKwDefaults
          (PyObject *op)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Return the keyword-only
     argument default values of the function object 'op'.  This can be a
     dictionary of arguments or ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFunction_SetKwDefaults (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *defaults)

     Set the keyword-only argument default values of the function object
     'op'.  'defaults' must be a dictionary of keyword-only arguments or
     ‘Py_None’.

     This function returns ‘0’ on success, and returns ‘-1’ with an
     exception set on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GetClosure (PyObject
          *op)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Return the closure
     associated with the function object 'op'.  This can be ‘NULL’ or a
     tuple of cell objects.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFunction_SetClosure (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *closure)

     Set the closure associated with the function object 'op'.
     'closure' must be ‘Py_None’ or a tuple of cell objects.

     Raises *note SystemError: 3ea. and returns ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GetAnnotations
          (PyObject *op)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Return the annotations
     of the function object 'op'.  This can be a mutable dictionary or
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFunction_SetAnnotations (PyObject *op, PyObject
          *annotations)

     Set the annotations for the function object 'op'.  'annotations'
     must be a dictionary or ‘Py_None’.

     Raises *note SystemError: 3ea. and returns ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GET_CODE (PyObject
          *op)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GET_GLOBALS (PyObject
          *op)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GET_MODULE (PyObject
          *op)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GET_DEFAULTS (PyObject
          *op)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GET_KW_DEFAULTS
          (PyObject *op)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GET_CLOSURE (PyObject
          *op)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFunction_GET_ANNOTATIONS
          (PyObject *op)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  These functions are
     similar to their ‘PyFunction_Get*’ counterparts, but do not do type
     checking.  Passing anything other than an instance of *note
     PyFunction_Type: 5736. is undefined behavior.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFunction_AddWatcher (PyFunction_WatchCallback
          callback)

     Register 'callback' as a function watcher for the current
     interpreter.  Return an ID which may be passed to *note
     PyFunction_ClearWatcher(): 574c.  In case of error (e.g.  no more
     watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFunction_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyFunction_AddWatcher(): 574b. for the current interpreter.
     Return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ and set an exception on error (e.g.
     if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyFunction_WatchEvent

          Enumeration of possible function watcher events:

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_CODE’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_DEFAULTS’

             - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_KWDEFAULTS’

     Added in version 3.12:

        - ‘PyFunction_PYFUNC_EVENT_MODIFY_QUALNAME’

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*PyFunction_WatchCallback)(*note
          PyFunction_WatchEvent: 574d. event, *note PyFunctionObject:
          968. *func, *note PyObject: 19b. *new_value)

     Type of a function watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’ or
     ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’ then 'new_value' will be ‘NULL’.
     Otherwise, 'new_value' will hold a *note borrowed reference: 603.
     to the new value that is about to be stored in 'func' for the
     attribute that is being modified.

     The callback may inspect but must not modify 'func'; doing so could
     have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’, then the callback is
     invoked after 'func' has been fully initialized.  Otherwise, the
     callback is invoked before the modification to 'func' takes place,
     so the prior state of 'func' can be inspected.  The runtime is
     permitted to optimize away the creation of function objects when
     possible.  In such cases no event will be emitted.  Although this
     creates the possibility of an observable difference of runtime
     behavior depending on optimization decisions, it does not change
     the semantics of the Python code being executed.

     If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’, taking a reference in the
     callback to the about-to-be-destroyed function will resurrect it,
     preventing it from being freed at this time.  When the resurrected
     object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that
     time will be called again.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 7e8.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Instance Method Objects,  Next: Method Objects,  Prev: Function Objects<3>,  Up: Function Objects<2>

7.10.5.2 Instance Method Objects
................................

An instance method is a wrapper for a *note PyCFunction: 181a. and the
new way to bind a ‘PyCFunction’ to a class object.  It replaces the
former call ‘PyMethod_New(func, NULL, class)’.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyInstanceMethod_Type

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python
     instance method type.  It is not exposed to Python programs.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyInstanceMethod_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is an instance method object (has type *note
     PyInstanceMethod_Type: 5753.).  The parameter must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyInstanceMethod_New (PyObject
          *func)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a new instance method
     object, with 'func' being any callable object.  'func' is the
     function that will be called when the instance method is called.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyInstanceMethod_Function
          (PyObject *im)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Return the function
     object associated with the instance method 'im'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION
          (PyObject *im)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Macro version of *note
     PyInstanceMethod_Function(): 5756. which avoids error checking.


File: python.info,  Node: Method Objects,  Next: Cell Objects,  Prev: Instance Method Objects,  Up: Function Objects<2>

7.10.5.3 Method Objects
.......................

Methods are bound function objects.  Methods are always bound to an
instance of a user-defined class.  Unbound methods (methods bound to a
class object) are no longer available.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyMethod_Type

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python
     method type.  This is exposed to Python programs as
     ‘types.MethodType’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMethod_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is a method object (has type *note
     PyMethod_Type: 575a.).  The parameter must not be ‘NULL’.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMethod_New (PyObject *func,
          PyObject *self)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a new method object,
     with 'func' being any callable object and 'self' the instance the
     method should be bound.  'func' is the function that will be called
     when the method is called.  'self' must not be ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMethod_Function (PyObject
          *meth)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Return the function
     object associated with the method 'meth'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION (PyObject
          *meth)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Macro version of *note
     PyMethod_Function(): 575d. which avoids error checking.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMethod_Self (PyObject *meth)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Return the instance
     associated with the method 'meth'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMethod_GET_SELF (PyObject
          *meth)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Macro version of *note
     PyMethod_Self(): 575f. which avoids error checking.


File: python.info,  Node: Cell Objects,  Next: Code Objects,  Prev: Method Objects,  Up: Function Objects<2>

7.10.5.4 Cell Objects
.....................

«Cell» objects are used to implement variables referenced by multiple
scopes.  For each such variable, a cell object is created to store the
value; the local variables of each stack frame that references the value
contain a reference to the cells from outer scopes which also use that
variable.  When the value is accessed, the value contained in the cell
is used instead of the cell object itself.  This de-referencing of the
cell object requires support from the generated byte-code; these are not
automatically de-referenced when accessed.  Cell objects are not likely
to be useful elsewhere.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyCellObject

     The C structure used for cell objects.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyCell_Type

     The type object corresponding to cell objects.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCell_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a cell object; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCell_New (PyObject *ob)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create and return a new cell
     object containing the value 'ob'.  The parameter may be ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCell_Get (PyObject *cell)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return the contents of the
     cell 'cell', which can be ‘NULL’.  If 'cell' is not a cell object,
     returns ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCell_GET (PyObject *cell)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.'  Return the contents of
     the cell 'cell', but without checking that 'cell' is non-‘NULL’ and
     a cell object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCell_Set (PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)

     Set the contents of the cell object 'cell' to 'value'.  This
     releases the reference to any current content of the cell.  'value'
     may be ‘NULL’.  'cell' must be non-‘NULL’.

     On success, return ‘0’.  If 'cell' is not a cell object, set an
     exception and return ‘-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyCell_SET (PyObject *cell, PyObject *value)

     Sets the value of the cell object 'cell' to 'value'.  No reference
     counts are adjusted, and no checks are made for safety; 'cell' must
     be non-‘NULL’ and must be a cell object.


File: python.info,  Node: Code Objects,  Next: Code Object Flags,  Prev: Cell Objects,  Up: Function Objects<2>

7.10.5.5 Code Objects
.....................

Code objects are a low-level detail of the CPython implementation.  Each
one represents a chunk of executable code that hasn’t yet been bound
into a function.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyCodeObject

     The C structure of the objects used to describe code objects.  The
     fields of this type are subject to change at any time.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyCode_Type

     This is an instance of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. representing the
     Python *note code object: 6eb.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCode_Check (PyObject *co)

     Return true if 'co' is a *note code object: 6eb.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyCode_GetNumFree (PyCodeObject
          *co)

     Return the number of *note free (closure) variables: 1ab7. in a
     code object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree (PyCodeObject *co)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Return the position of the first *note free (closure) variable:
     1ab7. in a code object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: Renamed from ‘PyCode_GetFirstFree’ as part
     of *note Unstable C API: 954.  The old name is deprecated, but will
     remain available until the signature changes again.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyCodeObject: b59. *PyUnstable_Code_New (int
          argcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int stacksize, int
          flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names,
          PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars, PyObject *cellvars,
          PyObject *filename, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname, int
          firstlineno, PyObject *linetable, PyObject *exceptiontable)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Return a new code object.  If you need a dummy code object to
     create a frame, use *note PyCode_NewEmpty(): 16f5. instead.

     Since the definition of the bytecode changes often, calling *note
     PyUnstable_Code_New(): 5771. directly can bind you to a precise
     Python version.

     The many arguments of this function are inter-dependent in complex
     ways, meaning that subtle changes to values are likely to result in
     incorrect execution or VM crashes.  Use this function only with
     extreme care.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added ‘qualname’ and ‘exceptiontable’
     parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Renamed from ‘PyCode_New’ as part of *note
     Unstable C API: 954.  The old name is deprecated, but will remain
     available until the signature changes again.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyCodeObject: b59.
          *PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (int argcount, int
          posonlyargcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int
          stacksize, int flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts,
          PyObject *names, PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars,
          PyObject *cellvars, PyObject *filename, PyObject *name,
          PyObject *qualname, int firstlineno, PyObject *linetable,
          PyObject *exceptiontable)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Similar to *note PyUnstable_Code_New(): 5771, but with an extra
     «posonlyargcount» for positional-only arguments.  The same caveats
     that apply to ‘PyUnstable_Code_New’ also apply to this function.

     Added in version 3.8: as ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Added ‘qualname’ and ‘exceptiontable’
     parameters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Renamed to
     ‘PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’.  The old name is deprecated,
     but will remain available until the signature changes again.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyCodeObject: b59. *PyCode_NewEmpty (const char
          *filename, const char *funcname, int firstlineno)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a new empty code
     object with the specified filename, function name, and first line
     number.  The resulting code object will raise an ‘Exception’ if
     executed.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCode_Addr2Line (PyCodeObject *co, int
          byte_offset)

     Return the line number of the instruction that occurs on or before
     ‘byte_offset’ and ends after it.  If you just need the line number
     of a frame, use *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): b6a. instead.

     For efficiently iterating over the line numbers in a code object,
     use the API described in PEP 626(1).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCode_Addr2Location (PyObject *co, int
          byte_offset, int *start_line, int *start_column, int
          *end_line, int *end_column)

     Sets the passed ‘int’ pointers to the source code line and column
     numbers for the instruction at ‘byte_offset’.  Sets the value to
     ‘0’ when information is not available for any particular element.

     Returns ‘1’ if the function succeeds and 0 otherwise.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCode_GetCode (PyCodeObject *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_code')’.  Returns a
     strong reference to a *note PyBytesObject: b71. representing the
     bytecode in a code object.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an
     exception is raised.

     This ‘PyBytesObject’ may be created on-demand by the interpreter
     and does not necessarily represent the bytecode actually executed
     by CPython.  The primary use case for this function is debuggers
     and profilers.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCode_GetVarnames (PyCodeObject
          *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_varnames')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 5580. containing
     the names of the local variables.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and
     an exception is raised.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCode_GetCellvars (PyCodeObject
          *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_cellvars')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 5580. containing
     the names of the local variables that are referenced by nested
     functions.  On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is
     raised.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCode_GetFreevars (PyCodeObject
          *co)

     Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_freevars')’.
     Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 5580. containing
     the names of the *note free (closure) variables: 1ab7.  On error,
     ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is raised.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCode_AddWatcher (PyCode_WatchCallback callback)

     Register 'callback' as a code object watcher for the current
     interpreter.  Return an ID which may be passed to *note
     PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 96d.  In case of error (e.g.  no more
     watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCode_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 96c. for the current interpreter.
     Return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ and set an exception on error (e.g.
     if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyCodeEvent

     Enumeration of possible code object watcher events: -
     ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE’ - ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY’

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*PyCode_WatchCallback)(*note PyCodeEvent:
          5774. event, *note PyCodeObject: b59. *co)

     Type of a code object watcher callback function.

     If 'event' is ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE’, then the callback is invoked
     after 'co' has been fully initialized.  Otherwise, the callback is
     invoked before the destruction of 'co' takes place, so the prior
     state of 'co' can be inspected.

     If 'event' is ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY’, taking a reference in the
     callback to the about-to-be-destroyed code object will resurrect it
     and prevent it from being freed at this time.  When the resurrected
     object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that
     time will be called again.

     Users of this API should not rely on internal runtime
     implementation details.  Such details may include, but are not
     limited to, the exact order and timing of creation and destruction
     of code objects.  While changes in these details may result in
     differences observable by watchers (including whether a callback is
     invoked or not), it does not change the semantics of the Python
     code being executed.

     If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this
     exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note
     PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 7e8.  Otherwise it should return ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCode_Optimize (PyObject *code,
          PyObject *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject *lnotab_obj)

     This is a function that does nothing.

     Prior to Python 3.10, this function would perform basic
     optimizations to a code object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: This function now does nothing.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers


File: python.info,  Node: Code Object Flags,  Next: Extra information,  Prev: Code Objects,  Up: Function Objects<2>

7.10.5.6 Code Object Flags
..........................

Code objects contain a bit-field of flags, which can be retrieved as the
*note co_flags: 1afc. Python attribute (for example using *note
PyObject_GetAttrString(): 7e6.), and set using a 'flags' argument to
*note PyUnstable_Code_New(): 5771. and similar functions.

Flags whose names start with ‘CO_FUTURE_’ correspond to features
normally selectable by *note future statements: 670.  These flags can be
used in *note PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags: 5523.  Note that many
‘CO_FUTURE_’ flags are mandatory in current versions of Python, and
setting them has no effect.

The following flags are available.  For their meaning, see the linked
documentation of their Python equivalents.

Flag                                                   Meaning
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_OPTIMIZED                        *note inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED: 4d30.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_NEWLOCALS                        *note inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS: 4d31.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_VARARGS                          *note inspect.CO_VARARGS: 4d32.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_VARKEYWORDS                      *note inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS: 4d33.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_NESTED                           *note inspect.CO_NESTED: 4d34.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_GENERATOR                        *note inspect.CO_GENERATOR: 4d35.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_COROUTINE                        *note inspect.CO_COROUTINE: 4d36.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE               *note inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE: 4d37.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR                  *note inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR: 4d38.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_HAS_DOCSTRING                    *note inspect.CO_HAS_DOCSTRING: 2588.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_METHOD                           *note inspect.CO_METHOD: 4d39.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_FUTURE_DIVISION                  no effect (*note __future__.division: 4cde.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_FUTURE_ABSOLUTE_IMPORT           no effect (*note __future__.absolute_import: 4cdf.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_FUTURE_WITH_STATEMENT            no effect (*note __future__.with_statement: 4ce0.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_FUTURE_PRINT_FUNCTION            no effect (*note __future__.print_function: 4ce1.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_FUTURE_UNICODE_LITERALS          no effect (*note __future__.unicode_literals: 4ce2.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_FUTURE_GENERATOR_STOP            no effect (*note __future__.generator_stop: 4ce3.)
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS               *note __future__.annotations: 4ce4.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Extra information,  Prev: Code Object Flags,  Up: Function Objects<2>

7.10.5.7 Extra information
..........................

To support low-level extensions to frame evaluation, such as external
just-in-time compilers, it is possible to attach arbitrary extra data to
code objects.

These functions are part of the unstable C API tier: this functionality
is a CPython implementation detail, and the API may change without
deprecation warnings.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24.
          PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (freefunc free)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Return a new opaque index value used to adding data to code
     objects.

     You generally call this function once (per interpreter) and use the
     result with ‘PyCode_GetExtra’ and ‘PyCode_SetExtra’ to manipulate
     data on individual code objects.

     If 'free' is not ‘NULL’: when a code object is deallocated, 'free'
     will be called on non-‘NULL’ data stored under the new index.  Use
     *note Py_DecRef(): 546c. when storing *note PyObject: 19b.

     Added in version 3.6: as ‘_PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Renamed to
     ‘PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’.  The old private name is
     deprecated, but will be available until the API changes.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra (PyObject *code,
          Py_ssize_t index, void **extra)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Set 'extra' to the extra data stored under the given index.  Return
     0 on success.  Set an exception and return -1 on failure.

     If no data was set under the index, set 'extra' to ‘NULL’ and
     return 0 without setting an exception.

     Added in version 3.6: as ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Renamed to ‘PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra’.
     The old private name is deprecated, but will be available until the
     API changes.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra (PyObject *code,
          Py_ssize_t index, void *extra)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Set the extra data stored under the given index to 'extra'.  Return
     0 on success.  Set an exception and return -1 on failure.

     Added in version 3.6: as ‘_PyCode_SetExtra’

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Renamed to ‘PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra’.
     The old private name is deprecated, but will be available until the
     API changes.


File: python.info,  Node: Other Objects,  Next: C API for extension modules,  Prev: Function Objects<2>,  Up: Concrete Objects Layer

7.10.6 Other Objects
--------------------

* Menu:

* File objects::
* Module Objects::
* Iterator Objects::
* Descriptor Objects::
* Slice Objects::
* MemoryView objects::
* Pickle buffer objects::
* Weak Reference Objects: Weak Reference Objects<2>.
* Capsules: Capsules<2>.
* Sentinel objects::
* Frame objects::
* Generator Objects::
* Coroutine Objects::
* Context Variables Objects::
* Objects for Type Hinting::


File: python.info,  Node: File objects,  Next: Module Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.1 File objects
.....................

These APIs are a minimal emulation of the Python 2 C API for built-in
file objects, which used to rely on the buffered I/O (FILE*) support
from the C standard library.  In Python 3, files and streams use the new
*note io: 82. module, which defines several layers over the low-level
unbuffered I/O of the operating system.  The functions described below
are convenience C wrappers over these new APIs, and meant mostly for
internal error reporting in the interpreter; third-party code is advised
to access the ‘io’ APIs instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFile_FromFd (int fd, const char
          *name, const char *mode, int buffering, const char *encoding,
          const char *errors, const char *newline, int closefd)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a Python file object from the file descriptor of an
     already opened file 'fd'.  The arguments 'name', 'encoding',
     'errors' and 'newline' can be ‘NULL’ to use the defaults;
     'buffering' can be '-1' to use the default.  'name' is ignored and
     kept for backward compatibility.  Return ‘NULL’ on failure.  For a
     more comprehensive description of the arguments, please refer to
     the *note io.open(): 92b. function documentation.

          Προειδοποίηση: Since Python streams have their own buffering
          layer, mixing them with OS-level file descriptors can produce
          various issues (such as unexpected ordering of data).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Ignore 'name' attribute.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (PyObject *p)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the file descriptor
     associated with 'p' as an int.  If the object is an integer, its
     value is returned.  If not, the object’s *note fileno(): 19b2.
     method is called if it exists; the method must return an integer,
     which is returned as the file descriptor value.  Sets an exception
     and returns ‘-1’ on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFile_GetLine (PyObject *p, int
          n)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     Equivalent to ‘p.readline([n])’, this function reads one line from
     the object 'p'.  'p' may be a file object or any object with a
     *note readline(): 16ce. method.  If 'n' is ‘0’, exactly one line is
     read, regardless of the length of the line.  If 'n' is greater than
     ‘0’, no more than 'n' bytes will be read from the file; a partial
     line can be returned.  In both cases, an empty string is returned
     if the end of the file is reached immediately.  If 'n' is less than
     ‘0’, however, one line is read regardless of length, but *note
     EOFError: 167e. is raised if the end of the file is reached
     immediately.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook (Py_OpenCodeHookFunction
          handler)

     Overrides the normal behavior of *note io.open_code(): 1943. to
     pass its parameter through the provided handler.

     The 'handler' is a function of type:

      -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b.
               *(*Py_OpenCodeHookFunction)(*note PyObject: 19b.*, void*)

          Equivalent of *note PyObject: 19b. *(*)(PyObject *path, void
          *userData), where 'path' is guaranteed to be *note
          PyUnicodeObject: b73.

     The 'userData' pointer is passed into the hook function.  Since
     hook functions may be called from different runtimes, this pointer
     should not refer directly to Python state.

     As this hook is intentionally used during import, avoid importing
     new modules during its execution unless they are known to be frozen
     or available in ‘sys.modules’.

     Once a hook has been set, it cannot be removed or replaced, and
     later calls to *note PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 1c9e. will fail.  On
     failure, the function returns -1 and sets an exception if the
     interpreter has been initialized.

     This function is safe to call before *note Py_Initialize(): 673.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘setopencodehook’ with no
     arguments.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFile_OpenCodeObject (PyObject
          *path)

     Open 'path' with the mode ‘'rb'’.  'path' must be a Python *note
     str: 1df. object.  The behavior of this function may be overridden
     by *note PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 1c9e. to allow for some
     preprocessing of the text.

     This is analogous to *note io.open_code(): 1943. in Python.

     On success, this function returns a *note strong reference: 7da. to
     a Python file object.  On failure, this function returns ‘NULL’
     with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFile_OpenCode (const char
          *path)

     Similar to *note PyFile_OpenCodeObject(): 5792, but 'path' is a
     UTF-8 encoded const char*.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFile_WriteObject (PyObject *obj, PyObject *p, int
          flags)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Write object 'obj' to file object 'p'.  The only supported flag for
     'flags' is *note Py_PRINT_RAW: 55e9.; if given, the *note str():
     1df. of the object is written instead of the *note repr(): 45b.

     If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, write the string ‘"<NULL>"’.

     Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure; the appropriate exception
     will be set.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFile_WriteString (const char *s, PyObject *p)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Write string 's' to file
     object 'p'.  Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure; the
     appropriate exception will be set.

* Menu:

* Soft-deprecated API: Soft-deprecated API<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Soft-deprecated API<2>,  Up: File objects

7.10.6.2 Soft-deprecated API
............................

*note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15.

These are APIs that were included in Python’s C API by mistake.  They
are documented solely for completeness; use other ‘PyFile*’ APIs
instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFile_NewStdPrinter (int fd)

     Use *note PyFile_FromFd(): 534e. with defaults (‘fd, NULL, "w", -1,
     NULL, NULL, NULL, 0’) instead.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyStdPrinter_Type

     Type of file-like objects used internally at Python startup when
     *note io: 82. is not yet available.  Use Python *note open(): 32b.
     or *note PyFile_FromFd(): 534e. to create file objects instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Module Objects,  Next: Iterator Objects,  Prev: File objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.3 Module Objects
.......................

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyModule_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python
     module type.  This is exposed to Python programs as *note
     types.ModuleType: 11c7.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_Check (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a module object, or a subtype of a module
     object.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_CheckExact (PyObject *p)

     Return true if 'p' is a module object, but not a subtype of *note
     PyModule_Type: 539b.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyModule_NewObject (PyObject
          *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'

     Return a new module object with *note module.__name__: 172f. set to
     'name'.  The module’s ‘__name__’, *note __doc__: 1de7, *note
     __package__: 58c. and *note __loader__: 2ff. attributes are filled
     in (all but ‘__name__’ are set to ‘None’).  The caller is
     responsible for setting a *note __file__: 255a. attribute.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

     Added in version 3.3.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: *note __package__: 58c. and *note
     __loader__: 2ff. are now set to ‘None’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyModule_New (const char *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Similar to *note PyModule_NewObject(): 5399, but the name is
     a UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyModule_GetDict (PyObject
          *module)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.'

     Return the dictionary object that implements 'module'’s namespace;
     this object is the same as the *note __dict__: 1bf. attribute of
     the module object.  If 'module' is not a module object (or a
     subtype of a module object), *note SystemError: 3ea. is raised and
     ‘NULL’ is returned.

     It is recommended extensions use other ‘PyModule_*’ and
     ‘PyObject_*’ functions rather than directly manipulate a module’s
     *note __dict__: 1bf.

     The returned reference is borrowed from the module; it is valid
     until the module is destroyed.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyModule_GetNameObject (PyObject
          *module)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'

     Return 'module'’s *note __name__: 172f. value.  If the module does
     not provide one, or if it is not a string, *note SystemError: 3ea.
     is raised and ‘NULL’ is returned.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *PyModule_GetName (PyObject *module)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Similar to *note
     PyModule_GetNameObject(): 5395. but return the name encoded to
     ‘'utf-8'’.

     The returned buffer is only valid until the module is renamed or
     destroyed.  Note that Python code may rename a module by setting
     its *note __name__: 172f. attribute.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyModuleDef: d45. *PyModule_GetDef (PyObject
          *module)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return a pointer to the *note
     PyModuleDef: d45. struct from which the module was created, or
     ‘NULL’ if the module wasn’t created from a definition.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.  Use *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to tell this case apart from a missing
     ‘PyModuleDef’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyModule_GetFilenameObject
          (PyObject *module)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

     Return the name of the file from which 'module' was loaded using
     'module'’s *note __file__: 255a. attribute.  If this is not
     defined, or if it is not a string, raise *note SystemError: 3ea.
     and return ‘NULL’; otherwise return a reference to a Unicode
     object.

     Added in version 3.2.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *PyModule_GetFilename (PyObject *module)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Similar to *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 641. but return the filename encoded
     to “utf-8”.

     The returned buffer is only valid until the module’s *note
     __file__: 255a. attribute is reassigned or the module is destroyed.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.2: *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 640.
     raises *note UnicodeEncodeError: a67. on unencodable filenames, use
     *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 641. instead.

* Menu:

* Module definition::
* Module state::
* Creating extension modules dynamically::
* Module definition struct::
* Support functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Module definition,  Next: Module state,  Up: Module Objects

7.10.6.4 Module definition
..........................

Modules created using the C API are typically defined using an array of
*note PySlot: 19d. structs, which provides a «description» of how a
module should be created.  See *note Definition slots: 375. for more
information on slots in general.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Previously, a *note PyModuleDef: d45. struct
was necessary to define modules.  The older way of defining modules is
still available: consult either the *note Module definition struct:
579e. section or earlier versions of this documentation if you plan to
support earlier Python versions.

The slots array is usually used to define an extension module’s “main”
module object (see *note Defining extension modules: 5212. for details).
It can also be used to *note create extension modules dynamically: 579f.

Unless specified otherwise, the same slot ID may not be repeated in an
array of slots.

* Menu:

* Metadata slots::
* Feature slots::
* Creation and initialization slots::


File: python.info,  Node: Metadata slots,  Next: Feature slots,  Up: Module definition

7.10.6.5 Metadata slots
.......................

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_name
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for the name of the new module, as a NUL-terminated
     UTF8-encoded ‘const char *’.

     Note that modules are typically created using a *note ModuleSpec:
     245d, and when they are, the name from the spec will be used
     instead of ‘Py_mod_name’.  However, it is still recommended to
     include this slot for introspection and debugging purposes.

     Added in version 3.15: Use *note PyModuleDef.m_name: 57a1. instead
     to support previous versions.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_doc
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for the docstring of the new module, as a
     NUL-terminated UTF8-encoded ‘const char *’.

     Usually it is set to a variable created with *note PyDoc_STRVAR:
     1f4f.

     Added in version 3.15: Use *note PyModuleDef.m_doc: 57a2. instead
     to support previous versions.


File: python.info,  Node: Feature slots,  Next: Creation and initialization slots,  Prev: Metadata slots,  Up: Module definition

7.10.6.6 Feature slots
......................

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_abi
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. whose value points to a *note PyABIInfo: 527a.
     structure describing the ABI that the extension is using.

     A suitable ‘PyABIInfo’ variable can be defined using the *note
     PyABIInfo_VAR: 35a. macro, as in:

          PyABIInfo_VAR(abi_info);

          static PySlot mymodule_slots[] = {
             PySlot_DATA(Py_mod_abi, &abi_info),
             ...
          };

     When creating a module, Python checks the value of this slot using
     *note PyABIInfo_Check(): 359.

     This slot is required, except for modules created from *note
     PyModuleDef: d45.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_multiple_interpreters
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. whose value is one of:

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED

          The module does not support being imported in subinterpreters.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED

          The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, but
          only when they share the main interpreter’s GIL. (See *note
          Isolating Extension Modules: 412.)

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED

          The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, even
          when they have their own GIL. (See *note Isolating Extension
          Modules: 412.)

     This slot determines whether or not importing this module in a
     subinterpreter will fail.

     If ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ is not specified, the import
     machinery defaults to ‘Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED’.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_gil
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. whose value is one of:

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MOD_GIL_USED

          The module depends on the presence of the global interpreter
          lock (GIL), and may access global state without
          synchronization.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED

          The module is safe to run without an active GIL.

     This slot is ignored by Python builds not configured with *note
     -disable-gil: 6a5.  Otherwise, it determines whether or not
     importing this module will cause the GIL to be automatically
     enabled.  See *note Free-threaded CPython: 67f. for more detail.

     If ‘Py_mod_gil’ is not specified, the import machinery defaults to
     ‘Py_MOD_GIL_USED’.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Creation and initialization slots,  Prev: Feature slots,  Up: Module definition

7.10.6.7 Creation and initialization slots
..........................................

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_create
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.5.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for a function that creates the module object
     itself.  The function must have the signature:

      -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *create_module (PyObject
               *spec, PyModuleDef *def)

     The function will be called with:

        - 'spec': a ‘ModuleSpec’-like object, meaning that any
          attributes defined for *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec:
          245d. have matching semantics.  However, any of the attributes
          may be missing.

        - 'def': ‘NULL’, or the module definition if the module is
          created from one.

     The function should return a new module object, or set an error and
     return ‘NULL’.

     This function should be kept minimal.  In particular, it should not
     call arbitrary Python code, as trying to import the same module
     again may result in an infinite loop.

     If ‘Py_mod_create’ is not specified, the import machinery will
     create a normal module object using *note PyModule_New(): 5398.
     The name is taken from 'spec', not the definition, to allow
     extension modules to dynamically adjust to their place in the
     module hierarchy and be imported under different names through
     symlinks, all while sharing a single module definition.

     There is no requirement for the returned object to be an instance
     of *note PyModule_Type: 539b.  However, some slots may only be used
     with ‘PyModule_Type’ instances; in particular:

        - *note Py_mod_exec: d46,

        - *note module state slots: 57ab. (‘Py_mod_state_*’),

        - *note Py_mod_token: 549b.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: The 'slots' argument may be a
     ‘ModuleSpec’-like object, rather than a true *note ModuleSpec:
     245d. instance.  Note that previous versions of CPython did not
     enforce this.

     The 'def' argument may now be ‘NULL’, since modules are not
     necessarily made from definitions.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_exec
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.5.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for a function that will 'execute', or initialize,
     the module.  This function does the equivalent to executing the
     code of a Python module: typically, it adds classes and constants
     to the module.  The signature of the function is:

      -- C Συνάρτηση: int exec_module (PyObject *module)

     See the *note Support functions: 57ad. section for some useful
     functions to call.

     For backwards compatibility, the *note PyModuleDef.m_slots: 196c.
     array may contain multiple ‘Py_mod_exec’ slots; these are processed
     in the order they appear in the array.  Elsewhere (that is, in
     arguments to *note PyModule_FromSlotsAndSpec(): 38c. and in return
     values of ‘PyModExport_<NAME>’), repeating the slot is not allowed.

     Added in version 3.5.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: Repeated ‘Py_mod_exec’ slots are
     disallowed, except in *note PyModuleDef.m_slots: 196c.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_methods
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for a table of module-level functions, as an array
     of *note PyMethodDef: 1879. values suitable as the 'functions'
     argument to *note PyModule_AddFunctions(): 538f.

     Like other slot IDs, a slots array may only contain one
     ‘Py_mod_methods’ entry.  To add functions from multiple *note
     PyMethodDef: 1879. arrays, call *note PyModule_AddFunctions():
     538f. in the *note Py_mod_exec: d46. function.

     The table must be statically allocated (or otherwise guaranteed to
     outlive the module object).

     Added in version 3.15: Use *note PyModuleDef.m_methods: 57ae.
     instead to support previous versions.


File: python.info,  Node: Module state,  Next: Creating extension modules dynamically,  Prev: Module definition,  Up: Module Objects

7.10.6.8 Module state
.....................

Extension modules can have 'module state' – a piece of memory that is
allocated on module creation, and freed when the module object is
deallocated.  The module state is specified using *note dedicated slots:
57ab.

A typical use of module state is storing an exception type – or indeed
'any' type object defined by the module –

Unlike the module’s Python attributes, Python code cannot replace or
delete data stored in module state.

Keeping per-module information in attributes and module state, rather
than in static globals, makes module objects 'isolated' and safer for
use in multiple sub-interpreters.  It also helps Python do an orderly
clean-up when it shuts down.

Extensions that keep references to Python objects as part of module
state must implement *note Py_mod_state_traverse: 549a. and *note
Py_mod_state_clear: 5497. functions to avoid reference leaks.

To retrieve the state from a given module, use the following functions:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyModule_GetState (PyObject *module)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the «state» of the
     module, that is, a pointer to the block of memory allocated at
     module creation time, or ‘NULL’.  See *note Py_mod_state_size:
     5499.

     On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set.  Use *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to tell this case apart from missing module
     state.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_GetStateSize (PyObject *module, Py_ssize_t
          *result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Set
     '*result' to the size of 'module'’s state, as specified using *note
     Py_mod_state_size: 5499. (or *note PyModuleDef.m_size: d47.), and
     return 0.

     On error, set '*result' to -1, and return -1 with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.15.

* Menu:

* Slots for defining module state::
* Module token::


File: python.info,  Node: Slots for defining module state,  Next: Module token,  Up: Module state

7.10.6.9 Slots for defining module state
........................................

The following *note slot IDs: 5568. are available for defining the
module state.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_state_size
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for the size of the module state, in bytes.

     Setting the value to a non-negative value means that the module can
     be re-initialized and specifies the additional amount of memory it
     requires for its state.

     See PEP 3121(1) for more details.

     Use *note PyModule_GetStateSize(): 5396. to retrieve the size of a
     given module.

     Added in version 3.15: Use *note PyModuleDef.m_size: d47. instead
     to support previous versions.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_state_traverse
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for a traversal function to call during GC traversal
     of the module object.

     The signature of the function, and meanings of the arguments, is
     similar as for *note PyTypeObject.tp_traverse: 36b.:

      -- C Συνάρτηση: int traverse_module_state (PyObject *module,
               visitproc visit, void *arg)

     This function is not called if the module state was requested but
     is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after the
     module is created and before the module is executed (*note
     Py_mod_exec: d46. function).  More precisely, this function is not
     called if the state size (*note Py_mod_state_size: 5499.) is
     greater than 0 and the module state (as returned by *note
     PyModule_GetState(): d48.) is ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.15: Use *note PyModuleDef.m_size: d47. instead
     to support previous versions.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_state_clear
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for a clear function to call during GC clearing of
     the module object.

     The signature of the function is:

      -- C Συνάρτηση: int clear_module_state (PyObject *module)

     This function is not called if the module state was requested but
     is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after the
     module is created and before the module is executed (*note
     Py_mod_exec: d46. function).  More precisely, this function is not
     called if the state size (*note Py_mod_state_size: 5499.) is
     greater than 0 and the module state (as returned by *note
     PyModule_GetState(): d48.) is ‘NULL’.

     Like *note PyTypeObject.tp_clear: 51f7, this function is not
     'always' called before a module is deallocated.  For example, when
     reference counting is enough to determine that an object is no
     longer used, the cyclic garbage collector is not involved and the
     *note Py_mod_state_free: 5498. function is called directly.

     Added in version 3.15: Use *note PyModuleDef.m_clear: d43. instead
     to support previous versions.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_state_free
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for a function to call during deallocation of the
     module object.

     The signature of the function is:

      -- C Συνάρτηση: int free_module_state (PyObject *module)

     This function is not called if the module state was requested but
     is not allocated yet.  This is the case immediately after the
     module is created and before the module is executed (*note
     Py_mod_exec: d46. function).  More precisely, this function is not
     called if the state size (*note Py_mod_state_size: 5499.) is
     greater than 0 and the module state (as returned by *note
     PyModule_GetState(): d48.) is ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.15: Use *note PyModuleDef.m_free: d44. instead
     to support previous versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/


File: python.info,  Node: Module token,  Prev: Slots for defining module state,  Up: Module state

7.10.6.10 Module token
......................

Each module may have an associated 'token': a pointer-sized value
intended to identify of the module state’s memory layout.  This means
that if you have a module object, but you are not sure if it “belongs”
to your extension, you can check using code like this:

     PyObject *module = <the module in question>

     void *module_token;
     if (PyModule_GetToken(module, &module_token) < 0) {
         return NULL;
     }
     if (module_token != your_token) {
         PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "unexpected module")
         return NULL;
     }

     // This module's state has the expected memory layout; it's safe to cast
     struct my_state state = (struct my_state*)PyModule_GetState(module)

A module’s token – and the 'your_token' value to use in the above code –
is:

   - For modules created with *note PyModuleDef: d45.: the address of
     that ‘PyModuleDef’;

   - For modules defined with the *note Py_mod_token: 549b. slot: the
     value of that slot;

   - For modules created from an ‘PyModExport_*’ *note export hook:
     38d.: the slots array that the export hook returned (unless
     overridden with *note Py_mod_token: 549b.).

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_token
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. for the module token.

     If you use this slot to set the module token (rather than rely on
     the default), you must ensure that:

        * The pointer outlives the class, so it’s not reused for
          something else while the class exists.

        * It «belongs» to the extension module where the class lives, so
          it will not clash with other extensions.

        * If the token points to a *note PyModuleDef: d45. struct, the
          module should behave as if it was created from that
          ‘PyModuleDef’.  In particular, the module state must have
          matching layout and semantics.

     Modules created from *note PyModuleDef: d45. always use the address
     of the ‘PyModuleDef’ as the token.  This means that ‘Py_mod_token’
     cannot be used in *note PyModuleDef.m_slots: 196c.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_GetToken (PyObject *module, void **result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Set
     '*result' to the module token for 'module' and return 0.

     On error, set '*result' to NULL, and return -1 with an exception
     set.

     Added in version 3.15.

See also *note PyType_GetModuleByToken(): 5419.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating extension modules dynamically,  Next: Module definition struct,  Prev: Module state,  Up: Module Objects

7.10.6.11 Creating extension modules dynamically
................................................

The following functions may be used to create an extension module
dynamically, rather than from an extension’s *note export hook: 38d.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyModule_FromSlotsAndSpec (const
          PySlot *slots, PyObject *spec)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Create a new module object, given an
     array of *note slots: 579d. and the *note ModuleSpec: 245d. 'spec'.

     The 'slots' argument must point to an array of *note PySlot: 19d.
     structures, terminated by an entry with slot ID of 0 (typically
     written as *note PySlot_END: 389.).  The array must include a *note
     Py_mod_abi: 358. entry.

     The 'spec' argument may be any ‘ModuleSpec’-like object, as
     described in *note Py_mod_create: 5495. documentation.  Currently,
     the 'spec' must have a ‘name’ attribute.

     On success, return the new module.  On error, return ‘NULL’ with an
     exception set.

     Note that this does not process the module’s execution slot (*note
     Py_mod_exec: d46.).  Both ‘PyModule_FromSlotsAndSpec()’ and *note
     PyModule_Exec(): 5391. must be called to fully initialize a module.
     (See also *note Multi-phase initialization: 555b.)

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_Exec (PyObject *module)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Execute
     the *note Py_mod_exec: d46. slot(s) of 'module'.

     On success, return 0.  On error, return -1 with an exception set.

     For clarity: If 'module' has no slots, for example if it uses *note
     legacy single-phase initialization: 555c, this function does
     nothing and returns 0.

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Module definition struct,  Next: Support functions,  Prev: Creating extension modules dynamically,  Up: Module Objects

7.10.6.12 Module definition struct
..................................

Traditionally, extension modules were defined using a 'module
definition' as the “description» of how a module should be created.
Rather than using an array of *note slots: 579d. directly, the
definition has dedicated members for most common functionality, and
allows additional slots as an extension mechanism.

This way of defining modules is still available and there are no plans
to remove it.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyModuleDef
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (see below).'  The module
     definition struct, which holds information needed to create a
     module object.

     This structure must be statically allocated (or be otherwise
     guaranteed to be valid while any modules created from it exist).
     Usually, there is only one variable of this type for each extension
     module defined this way.

     The struct, including all members, is part of the *note Stable ABI:
     197. for non-free-threaded builds (‘abi3’).  In the Stable ABI for
     free-threaded builds (‘abi3t’), this struct is opaque, and unusable
     in practice; see *note Module definition: 579d. for a replacement.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyModuleDef_Base: 538b. m_base

          Always initialize this member to *note PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT:
          57b9.:

           -- C Τύπος: type PyModuleDef_Base
               ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (see below).'  The
               type of ‘PyModuleDef.m_base’.

               The struct is part of the *note Stable ABI: 197. for
               non-free-threaded builds (‘abi3’).  In the Stable ABI for
               Free-Threaded Builds (‘abi3t’), this struct is opaque,
               and unusable in practice.

           -- C Μακροεντολή: PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT

               The required initial value for ‘PyModuleDef.m_base’.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *m_name

          Corresponds to the *note Py_mod_name: 51a0. slot.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *m_doc

          These members correspond to the *note Py_mod_doc: 51a1. slot.
          Setting this to NULL is equivalent to omitting the slot.

      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. m_size

          Corresponds to the *note Py_mod_state_size: 5499. slot.
          Setting this to zero is equivalent to omitting the slot.

          When using *note legacy single-phase initialization: 555c. or
          when creating modules dynamically using *note
          PyModule_Create(): 5562. or *note PyModule_Create2(): 5390,
          ‘m_size’ may be set to -1.  This indicates that the module
          does not support sub-interpreters, because it has global
          state.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyMethodDef: 1879. *m_methods

          Corresponds to the *note Py_mod_methods: 51a6. slot.  Setting
          this to NULL is equivalent to omitting the slot.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyModuleDef_Slot: 538d. *m_slots

          An array of additional slots, terminated by a ‘{0, NULL}’
          entry.  Note that the entries use the older *note
          PyModuleDef_Slot: 538d. structure, rather than *note PySlot:
          19d.

          If the array contains slots corresponding to *note
          PyModuleDef: d45. members, the values must match.  For
          example, if you use *note Py_mod_name: 51a0. in ‘m_slots’,
          *note PyModuleDef.m_name: 57a1. must be set to the same
          pointer (not just an equal string).

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Prior to version 3.5, this member was
          always set to ‘NULL’, and was defined as:

                -- C Μέλος: *note inquiry: 54f4. m_reload

           -- C Τύπος: type PyModuleDef_Slot
               ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων
               όλων των μελών) από την έκδοση 3.5.'  Older structure
               defining additional slots of a module.

               Note that a ‘PyModuleDef_Slot’ array may be included in a
               ‘PySlot’ array using *note Py_mod_slots: 37b, and vice
               versa using *note Py_slot_subslots: 379.

               Each ‘PyModuleDef_Slot’ structure ‘modslot’ is
               interpreted as the following *note PySlot: 19d.
               structure:

                    (PySlot){
                       .sl_id=modslot.slot,
                       .sl_flags=PySlot_INTPTR | sub_static,
                       .sl_ptr=modslot.value
                    }

               where ‘sub_static’ is ‘PySlot_STATIC’ if the slot
               requires the flag (such as for *note Py_mod_methods:
               51a6.), or if this flag is present on the «parent»
               ‘Py_mod_slots’ slot (if any).

                -- C Μέλος: int slot

                    Corresponds to *note PySlot.sl_id: 5568.

                -- C Μέλος: void *value

                    Corresponds to *note PySlot.sl_ptr: 556c.

               Added in version 3.5.

      -- C Μέλος: *note traverseproc: 5503. m_traverse
      -- C Μέλος: *note inquiry: 54f4. m_clear
      -- C Μέλος: *note freefunc: 57bd. m_free

          These members correspond to the *note Py_mod_state_traverse:
          549a, *note Py_mod_state_clear: 5497, and *note
          Py_mod_state_free: 5498. slots, respectively.

          Setting these members to NULL is equivalent to omitting the
          corresponding slots.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: *note m_traverse: d42, *note m_clear:
          d43. and *note m_free: d44. functions are no longer called
          before the module state is allocated.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyModuleDef_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.5.'  The type
     of ‘PyModuleDef’ objects.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_mod_slots
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  *note
     Slot ID: 5568. that works like *note Py_slot_subslots: 379, except
     it specifies an array of *note PyModuleDef_Slot: 538d. structures.

     Added in version 3.15.

The following API can be used to create modules from a ‘PyModuleDef’
struct:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyModule_Create (PyModuleDef
          *def)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create a new module object,
     given the definition in 'def'.  This is a macro that calls *note
     PyModule_Create2(): 5390. with 'module_api_version' set to *note
     PYTHON_API_VERSION: 4c12, or to *note PYTHON_ABI_VERSION: 57bf. if
     using the *note limited API: 829.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyModule_Create2 (PyModuleDef
          *def, int module_api_version)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a new module object, given the definition in 'def',
     assuming the API version 'module_api_version'.  If that version
     does not match the version of the running interpreter, a *note
     RuntimeWarning: 6dd. is emitted.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

     This function does not support slots.  The *note m_slots: 196c.
     member of 'def' must be ‘NULL’.

          Σημείωση: Most uses of this function should be using *note
          PyModule_Create(): 5562. instead; only use this if you are
          sure you need it.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec
          (PyModuleDef *def, PyObject *spec)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  This macro calls *note
     PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): 393. with 'module_api_version' set to
     *note PYTHON_API_VERSION: 4c12, or to *note PYTHON_ABI_VERSION:
     57bf. if using the *note limited API: 829.

     Added in version 3.5.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.16.0a0 (unreleased):
     Prefer *note PyModule_FromSlotsAndSpec(): 38c. in new code.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2
          (PyModuleDef *def, PyObject *spec, int module_api_version)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Create a new module object, given the
     definition in 'def' and the ModuleSpec 'spec', assuming the API
     version 'module_api_version'.  If that version does not match the
     version of the running interpreter, a *note RuntimeWarning: 6dd. is
     emitted.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error.

     Note that this does not process execution slots (*note Py_mod_exec:
     d46.).  Both ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’ and ‘PyModule_ExecDef’ must
     be called to fully initialize a module.

          Σημείωση: Most uses of this function should be using *note
          PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): 392. instead; only use this if you
          are sure you need it.

     Added in version 3.5.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.16.0a0 (unreleased):
     Prefer *note PyModule_FromSlotsAndSpec(): 38c. in new code.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_ExecDef (PyObject *module, PyModuleDef
          *def)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Process
     any execution slots (*note Py_mod_exec: d46.) given in 'def'.

     Added in version 3.5.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.16.0a0 (unreleased): To
     run a module’s own execution slots, prefer *note PyModule_Exec():
     5391, which works on modules that were not created from a *note
     PyModuleDef: d45. structure.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PYTHON_API_VERSION
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PYTHON_API_STRING

     The C API version, as an integer (‘1013’) and string (‘"1013"’),
     respectively.  Defined for backwards compatibility.

     Currently, this constant is not updated in new Python versions, and
     is not useful for versioning.  This may change in the future.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PYTHON_ABI_VERSION
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PYTHON_ABI_STRING

     Defined as ‘3’ and ‘"3"’, respectively, for backwards
     compatibility.

     Currently, this constant is not updated in new Python versions, and
     is not useful for versioning.  This may change in the future.


File: python.info,  Node: Support functions,  Prev: Module definition struct,  Up: Module Objects

7.10.6.13 Support functions
...........................

The following functions are provided to help initialize a module object.
They are intended for a module’s execution slot (*note Py_mod_exec:
d46.), the initialization function for legacy *note single-phase
initialization: 555c, or code that creates modules dynamically.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_AddObjectRef (PyObject *module, const char
          *name, PyObject *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Add an
     object to 'module' as 'name'.  This is a convenience function which
     can be used from the module’s initialization function.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On error, raise an exception and return
     ‘-1’.

     Example usage:

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              if (obj == NULL) {
                  return -1;
              }
              int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj);
              Py_DECREF(obj);
              return res;
           }

     To be convenient, the function accepts ‘NULL’ 'value' with an
     exception set.  In this case, return ‘-1’ and just leave the raised
     exception unchanged.

     The example can also be written without checking explicitly if
     'obj' is ‘NULL’:

          static int
          add_spam(PyObject *module, int value)
          {
              PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value);
              int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj);
              Py_XDECREF(obj);
              return res;
           }

     Note that ‘Py_XDECREF()’ should be used instead of ‘Py_DECREF()’ in
     this case, since 'obj' can be ‘NULL’.

     The number of different 'name' strings passed to this function
     should be kept small, usually by only using statically allocated
     strings as 'name'.  For names that aren’t known at compile time,
     prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 5451. and *note
     PyObject_SetAttr(): 1927. directly.  For more details, see *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 3b5, which may be used internally to
     create a key object.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_Add (PyObject *module, const char *name,
          PyObject *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Similar
     to *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 800, but «steals» a reference to
     'value'.  It can be called with a result of function that returns a
     new reference without bothering to check its result or even saving
     it to a variable.

     Example usage:

          if (PyModule_Add(module, "spam", PyBytes_FromString(value)) < 0) {
              goto error;
          }

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_AddObject (PyObject *module, const char
          *name, PyObject *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Similar to *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 800, but steals a reference to 'value' on
     success (if it returns ‘0’).

     The new *note PyModule_Add(): 7ff. or *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 800. functions are recommended, since it
     is easy to introduce reference leaks by misusing the *note
     PyModule_AddObject(): 801. function.

          Σημείωση: Unlike other functions that steal references,
          ‘PyModule_AddObject()’ only releases the reference to 'value'
          'on success'.

          This means that its return value must be checked, and calling
          code must *note Py_XDECREF(): b6e. 'value' manually on error.

     Example usage:

          PyObject *obj = PyBytes_FromString(value);
          if (PyModule_AddObject(module, "spam", obj) < 0) {
              // If 'obj' is not NULL and PyModule_AddObject() failed,
              // 'obj' strong reference must be deleted with Py_XDECREF().
              // If 'obj' is NULL, Py_XDECREF() does nothing.
              Py_XDECREF(obj);
              goto error;
          }
          // PyModule_AddObject() stole a reference to obj:
          // Py_XDECREF(obj) is not needed here.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_AddIntConstant (PyObject *module, const
          char *name, long value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Add an integer constant to
     'module' as 'name'.  This convenience function can be used from the
     module’s initialization function.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception
     set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     This is a convenience function that calls *note PyLong_FromLong():
     1dca. and *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 800.; see their
     documentation for details.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_AddStringConstant (PyObject *module, const
          char *name, const char *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Add a string constant to
     'module' as 'name'.  This convenience function can be used from the
     module’s initialization function.  The string 'value' must be
     ‘NULL’-terminated.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’
     on success.

     This is a convenience function that calls *note
     PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 3b5. and *note
     PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 800.; see their documentation for details.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyModule_AddIntMacro (module, macro)

     Add an int constant to 'module'.  The name and the value are taken
     from 'macro'.  For example ‘PyModule_AddIntMacro(module, AF_INET)’
     adds the int constant 'AF_INET' with the value of 'AF_INET' to
     'module'.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on
     success.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyModule_AddStringMacro (module, macro)

     Add a string constant to 'module'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_AddType (PyObject *module, PyTypeObject
          *type)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Add a
     type object to 'module'.  The type object is finalized by calling
     internally *note PyType_Ready(): b5e.  The name of the type object
     is taken from the last component of *note tp_name: 1ea6. after dot.
     Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_AddFunctions (PyObject *module,
          PyMethodDef *functions)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Add the
     functions from the ‘NULL’ terminated 'functions' array to 'module'.
     Refer to the *note PyMethodDef: 1879. documentation for details on
     individual entries (due to the lack of a shared module namespace,
     module level «functions» implemented in C typically receive the
     module as their first parameter, making them similar to instance
     methods on Python classes).

     This function is called automatically when creating a module from
     ‘PyModuleDef’ (such as when using *note Multi-phase initialization:
     555b, ‘PyModule_Create’, or ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’).  Some
     module authors may prefer defining functions in multiple *note
     PyMethodDef: 1879. arrays; in that case they should call this
     function directly.

     The 'functions' array must be statically allocated (or otherwise
     guaranteed to outlive the module object).

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_SetDocString (PyObject *module, const char
          *docstring)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Set the
     docstring for 'module' to 'docstring'.  This function is called
     automatically when creating a module from ‘PyModuleDef’ (such as
     when using *note Multi-phase initialization: 555b,
     ‘PyModule_Create’, or ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’).

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL (PyObject *module, void
          *gil)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Indicate that 'module' does or does not support running without the
     global interpreter lock (GIL), using one of the values from *note
     Py_mod_gil: 691.  It must be called during 'module'’s
     initialization function when using *note Legacy single-phase
     initialization: 555c.  If this function is not called during module
     initialization, the import machinery assumes the module does not
     support running without the GIL. This function is only available in
     Python builds configured with *note -disable-gil: 6a5.  Return ‘-1’
     with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     Added in version 3.13.

* Menu:

* Module lookup (single-phase initialization): Module lookup single-phase initialization.


File: python.info,  Node: Module lookup single-phase initialization,  Up: Support functions

7.10.6.14 Module lookup (single-phase initialization)
.....................................................

The legacy *note single-phase initialization: 555c. initialization
scheme creates singleton modules that can be looked up in the context of
the current interpreter.  This allows the module object to be retrieved
later with only a reference to the module definition.

These functions will not work on modules created using multi-phase
initialization, since multiple such modules can be created from a single
definition.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyState_FindModule (PyModuleDef
          *def)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.'  Returns the module object that was created from 'def'
     for the current interpreter.  This method requires that the module
     object has been attached to the interpreter state with *note
     PyState_AddModule(): 53ee. beforehand.  In case the corresponding
     module object is not found or has not been attached to the
     interpreter state yet, it returns ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyState_AddModule (PyObject *module, PyModuleDef
          *def)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.3.'  Attaches
     the module object passed to the function to the interpreter state.
     This allows the module object to be accessible via *note
     PyState_FindModule(): 53ef.

     Only effective on modules created using single-phase
     initialization.

     Python calls ‘PyState_AddModule’ automatically after importing a
     module that uses *note single-phase initialization: 555c, so it is
     unnecessary (but harmless) to call it from module initialization
     code.  An explicit call is needed only if the module’s own init
     code subsequently calls ‘PyState_FindModule’.  The function is
     mainly intended for implementing alternative import mechanisms
     (either by calling it directly, or by referring to its
     implementation for details of the required state updates).

     If a module was attached previously using the same 'def', it is
     replaced by the new 'module'.

     The caller must have an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

     Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyState_RemoveModule (PyModuleDef *def)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.3.'  Removes
     the module object created from 'def' from the interpreter state.
     Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     The caller must have an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

     Added in version 3.3.


File: python.info,  Node: Iterator Objects,  Next: Descriptor Objects,  Prev: Module Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.15 Iterator Objects
..........................

Python provides two general-purpose iterator objects.  The first, a
sequence iterator, works with an arbitrary sequence supporting the *note
__getitem__(): 787. method.  The second works with a callable object and
a sentinel value, calling the callable for each item in the sequence,
and ending the iteration when the sentinel value is returned.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PySeqIter_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Type object for iterator
     objects returned by *note PySeqIter_New(): 53d5. and the
     one-argument form of the *note iter(): bb4. built-in function for
     built-in sequence types.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySeqIter_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if the type of 'op' is *note PySeqIter_Type: 53d6.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySeqIter_New (PyObject *seq)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return an iterator that works with a general sequence
     object, 'seq'.  The iteration ends when the sequence raises *note
     IndexError: 18d7. for the subscripting operation.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyCallIter_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Type object for iterator
     objects returned by *note PyCallIter_New(): 52b5. and the
     two-argument form of the *note iter(): bb4. built-in function.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCallIter_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if the type of 'op' is *note PyCallIter_Type: 52b6.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCallIter_New (PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *sentinel)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a new iterator.  The first parameter, 'callable', can
     be any Python callable object that can be called with no
     parameters; each call to it should return the next item in the
     iteration.  When 'callable' returns a value equal to 'sentinel',
     the iteration will be terminated.

* Menu:

* Range Objects::
* Builtin Iterator Types::
* Other Iterator Objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Range Objects,  Next: Builtin Iterator Types,  Up: Iterator Objects

7.10.6.16 Range Objects
.......................

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyRange_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type object for *note
     range: d0f. objects.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRange_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if the object 'o' is an instance of a *note range: d0f.
     object.  This function always succeeds.


File: python.info,  Node: Builtin Iterator Types,  Next: Other Iterator Objects,  Prev: Range Objects,  Up: Iterator Objects

7.10.6.17 Builtin Iterator Types
................................

These are built-in iteration types that are included in Python’s C API,
but provide no additional functions.  They are here for completeness.

C type                                                 Python type
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b.              *note enumerate: 1823.
          PyEnum_Type                                  
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b.              *note filter: c3b.
          PyFilter_Type                                
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyMap_Type   *note map: 43e.
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'              

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b.              *note reversed: c3c.
          PyReversed_Type                              
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyZip_Type   *note zip: 43f.
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'              


File: python.info,  Node: Other Iterator Objects,  Prev: Builtin Iterator Types,  Up: Iterator Objects

7.10.6.18 Other Iterator Objects
................................

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyByteArrayIter_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyBytesIter_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyListIter_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyListRevIter_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PySetIter_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyTupleIter_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyRangeIter_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyLongRangeIter_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDictIterKey_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDictRevIterKey_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.8.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDictIterValue_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDictRevIterValue_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.8.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDictIterItem_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDictRevIterItem_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.8.'

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyODictIter_Type

     Type objects for iterators of various built-in objects.

     Do not create instances of these directly; prefer calling *note
     PyObject_GetIter(): 53ca. instead.

     Note that there is no guarantee that a given built-in type uses a
     given iterator type.  For example, iterating over *note range: d0f.
     will use one of two iterator types depending on the size of the
     range.  Other types may start using a similar scheme in the future,
     without warning.


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor Objects,  Next: Slice Objects,  Prev: Iterator Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.19 Descriptor Objects
............................

«Descriptors» are objects that describe some attribute of an object.
They are found in the dictionary of type objects.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDescr_NewGetSet (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct PyGetSetDef *getset)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a new get-set descriptor for extension type 'type'
     from the *note PyGetSetDef: f77. structure 'getset'.

     Get-set descriptors expose attributes implemented by C getter and
     setter functions rather than stored directly in the instance.  This
     is the same kind of descriptor created for entries in *note
     tp_getset: 51ec, and it appears in Python as a *note
     types.GetSetDescriptorType: 2bfc. object.

     On success, return a *note strong reference: 7da. to the
     descriptor.  Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDescr_NewMember (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct PyMemberDef *member)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a new member descriptor for extension type 'type'
     from the *note PyMemberDef: 95a. structure 'member'.

     Member descriptors expose fields in the type’s C struct as Python
     attributes.  This is the same kind of descriptor created for
     entries in *note tp_members: 51e7, and it appears in Python as a
     *note types.MemberDescriptorType: 2bfd. object.

     On success, return a *note strong reference: 7da. to the
     descriptor.  Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyMemberDescr_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type object for member
     descriptor objects created from *note PyMemberDef: 95a. structures.
     These descriptors expose fields of a C struct as attributes on a
     type, and correspond to *note types.MemberDescriptorType: 2bfd.
     objects in Python.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyGetSetDescr_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type object for get/set
     descriptor objects created from *note PyGetSetDef: f77. structures.
     These descriptors implement attributes whose value is computed by C
     getter and setter functions, and are used for many built-in type
     attributes.  They correspond to *note types.GetSetDescriptorType:
     2bfc. objects in Python.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDescr_NewMethod (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct PyMethodDef *meth)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a new method descriptor for extension type 'type'
     from the *note PyMethodDef: 1879. structure 'meth'.

     Method descriptors expose C functions as methods on a type.  This
     is the same kind of descriptor created for entries in *note
     tp_methods: 51e9, and it appears in Python as a *note
     types.MethodDescriptorType: f59. object.

     On success, return a *note strong reference: 7da. to the
     descriptor.  Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyMethodDescr_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type object for method
     descriptor objects created from *note PyMethodDef: 1879.
     structures.  These descriptors expose C functions as methods on a
     type, and correspond to *note types.MethodDescriptorType: f59.
     objects in Python.

 -- C Struct: struct wrapperbase

     Describes a slot wrapper used by *note PyDescr_NewWrapper(): 57d4.

     Each ‘wrapperbase’ record stores the Python-visible name and
     metadata for a special method implemented by a type slot, together
     with the wrapper function used to adapt that slot to Python’s
     calling convention.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDescr_NewWrapper (PyTypeObject
          *type, struct wrapperbase *base, void *wrapped)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create a new wrapper
     descriptor for extension type 'type' from the *note wrapperbase:
     57d3. structure 'base' and the wrapped slot function pointer
     'wrapped'.

     Wrapper descriptors expose special methods implemented by type
     slots.  This is the same kind of descriptor that CPython creates
     for slot-based special methods such as ‘__repr__’ or ‘__add__’, and
     it appears in Python as a *note types.WrapperDescriptorType: f58.
     object.

     On success, return a *note strong reference: 7da. to the
     descriptor.  Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyWrapperDescr_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type object for wrapper
     descriptor objects created by *note PyDescr_NewWrapper(): 57d4. and
     *note PyWrapper_New(): 545f.  Wrapper descriptors are used
     internally to expose special methods implemented via wrapper
     structures, and appear in Python as *note
     types.WrapperDescriptorType: f58. objects.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDescr_NewClassMethod
          (PyTypeObject *type, PyMethodDef *method)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a new class method descriptor for extension type
     'type' from the *note PyMethodDef: 1879. structure 'method'.

     Class method descriptors expose C methods that receive the class
     rather than an instance when accessed.  This is the same kind of
     descriptor created for ‘METH_CLASS’ entries in *note tp_methods:
     51e9, and it appears in Python as a *note
     types.ClassMethodDescriptorType: f5a. object.

     On success, return a *note strong reference: 7da. to the
     descriptor.  Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDescr_IsData (PyObject *descr)

     Return non-zero if the descriptor object 'descr' describes a data
     attribute, or ‘0’ if it describes a method.  'descr' must be a
     descriptor object; there is no error checking.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyWrapper_New (PyObject *d,
          PyObject *self)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a new bound wrapper object from the wrapper
     descriptor 'd' and the instance 'self'.

     This is the bound form of a wrapper descriptor created by *note
     PyDescr_NewWrapper(): 57d4.  CPython creates these objects when a
     slot wrapper is accessed through an instance, and they appear in
     Python as *note types.MethodWrapperType: a3a. objects.

     On success, return a *note strong reference: 7da. to the wrapper
     object.  Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyDescr_COMMON

     This is a macro including the common fields for a descriptor
     object.

     This was included in Python’s C API by mistake; do not use it in
     extensions.  For creating custom descriptor objects, create a class
     implementing the descriptor protocol (*note tp_descr_get: 57d6. and
     *note tp_descr_set: 1eaa.).

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15.

* Menu:

* Built-in descriptors::


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in descriptors,  Up: Descriptor Objects

7.10.6.20 Built-in descriptors
..............................

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyProperty_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type object for property
     objects.  This is the same object as *note property: 6bb. in the
     Python layer.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PySuper_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type object for super
     objects.  This is the same object as *note super: 443. in the
     Python layer.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyClassMethod_Type

     The type of class method objects.  This is the same object as *note
     classmethod: 69a. in the Python layer.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyClassMethodDescr_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type object for C-level
     class method descriptor objects.  This is the type of the
     descriptors created for *note classmethod(): 69a. defined in C
     extension types, and corresponds to *note
     types.ClassMethodDescriptorType: f5a. objects in Python.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyClassMethod_New (PyObject
          *callable)

     Create a new *note classmethod: 69a. object wrapping 'callable'.
     'callable' must be a callable object and must not be ‘NULL’.

     On success, this function returns a *note strong reference: 7da. to
     a new class method descriptor.  On failure, this function returns
     ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyStaticMethod_Type

     The type of static method objects.  This is the same object as
     *note staticmethod: 666. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyStaticMethod_New (PyObject
          *callable)

     Create a new *note staticmethod: 666. object wrapping 'callable'.
     'callable' must be a callable object and must not be ‘NULL’.

     On success, this function returns a *note strong reference: 7da. to
     a new static method descriptor.  On failure, this function returns
     ‘NULL’ with an exception set.


File: python.info,  Node: Slice Objects,  Next: MemoryView objects,  Prev: Descriptor Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.21 Slice Objects
.......................

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PySlice_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type object for slice
     objects.  This is the same as *note slice: 1d0. in the Python
     layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySlice_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a slice object; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySlice_New (PyObject *start,
          PyObject *stop, PyObject *step)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a new slice object with the given values.  The
     'start', 'stop', and 'step' parameters are used as the values of
     the slice object attributes of the same names.  Any of the values
     may be ‘NULL’, in which case the ‘None’ will be used for the
     corresponding attribute.

     Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set if the new object could not be
     allocated.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySlice_GetIndices (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t
          length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Retrieve the start, stop and
     step indices from the slice object 'slice', assuming a sequence of
     length 'length'.  Treats indices greater than 'length' as errors.

     Returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on error with no exception set
     (unless one of the indices was not ‘None’ and failed to be
     converted to an integer, in which case ‘-1’ is returned with an
     exception set).

     You probably do not want to use this function.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The parameter type for the 'slice'
     parameter was ‘PySliceObject*’ before.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySlice_GetIndicesEx (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t
          length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step,
          Py_ssize_t *slicelength)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Usable replacement for *note
     PySlice_GetIndices(): 53e8.  Retrieve the start, stop, and step
     indices from the slice object 'slice' assuming a sequence of length
     'length', and store the length of the slice in 'slicelength'.  Out
     of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent with the
     handling of normal slices.

     Return ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on error with an exception set.

          Σημείωση: This function is considered not safe for resizable
          sequences.  Its invocation should be replaced by a combination
          of *note PySlice_Unpack(): 645. and *note
          PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 646. where

               if (PySlice_GetIndicesEx(slice, length, &start, &stop, &step, &slicelength) < 0) {
                   // return error
               }

          is replaced by

               if (PySlice_Unpack(slice, &start, &stop, &step) < 0) {
                   // return error
               }
               slicelength = PySlice_AdjustIndices(length, &start, &stop, step);

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: The parameter type for the 'slice'
     parameter was ‘PySliceObject*’ before.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6.1: If ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is not set or set to
     the value between ‘0x03050400’ and ‘0x03060000’ (not including) or
     ‘0x03060100’ or higher ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’ is implemented as a
     macro using ‘PySlice_Unpack()’ and ‘PySlice_AdjustIndices()’.
     Arguments 'start', 'stop' and 'step' are evaluated more than once.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.6.1: If ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is set to the
     value less than ‘0x03050400’ or between ‘0x03060000’ and
     ‘0x03060100’ (not including) ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’ is a
     deprecated function.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySlice_Unpack (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t *start,
          Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Extract
     the start, stop and step data members from a slice object as C
     integers.  Silently reduce values larger than ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ to
     ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’, silently boost the start and stop values less
     than ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’ to ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’, and silently boost the
     step values less than ‘-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ to ‘-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’.

     Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PySlice_AdjustIndices
          (Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop,
          Py_ssize_t step)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Adjust
     start/end slice indices assuming a sequence of the specified
     length.  Out of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent
     with the handling of normal slices.

     Return the length of the slice.  Always successful.  Doesn’t call
     Python code.

     Added in version 3.6.1.

* Menu:

* Ellipsis Object::


File: python.info,  Node: Ellipsis Object,  Up: Slice Objects

7.10.6.22 Ellipsis Object
.........................

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyEllipsis_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type of Python *note
     Ellipsis: 2519. object.  Same as *note types.EllipsisType: c29. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_Ellipsis

     The Python ‘Ellipsis’ object.  This object has no methods.  Like
     *note Py_None: 5606, it is an *note immortal: 398. singleton
     object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: *note Py_Ellipsis: 57e2. is immortal.


File: python.info,  Node: MemoryView objects,  Next: Pickle buffer objects,  Prev: Slice Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.23 MemoryView objects
............................

A *note memoryview: 1d2. object exposes the C level *note buffer
interface: 311. as a Python object which can then be passed around like
any other object.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyMemoryView_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This instance of *note
     PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python memoryview type.  This is
     the same object as *note memoryview: 1d2. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMemoryView_FromObject (PyObject
          *obj)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a memoryview object from an object that provides the
     buffer interface.  If 'obj' supports writable buffer exports, the
     memoryview object will be read/write, otherwise it may be either
     read-only or read/write at the discretion of the exporter.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_READ
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Flag to
     request a readonly buffer.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyBUF_WRITE
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Flag to
     request a writable buffer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMemoryView_FromMemory (char
          *mem, Py_ssize_t size, int flags)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Create a memoryview object using 'mem'
     as the underlying buffer.  'flags' can be one of *note PyBUF_READ:
     1c13. or *note PyBUF_WRITE: 1c14.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMemoryView_FromBuffer (const
          Py_buffer *view)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  Create a memoryview object wrapping the
     given buffer structure 'view'.  For simple byte buffers, *note
     PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1519. is the preferred function.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMemoryView_GetContiguous
          (PyObject *obj, int buffertype, char order)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Create a memoryview object to a *note contiguous: 287e.
     chunk of memory (in either “C” or “F’ortran 'order') from an object
     that defines the buffer interface.  If memory is contiguous, the
     memoryview object points to the original memory.  Otherwise, a copy
     is made and the memoryview points to a new bytes object.

     'buffertype' can be one of *note PyBUF_READ: 1c13. or *note
     PyBUF_WRITE: 1c14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMemoryView_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return true if the object 'obj' is a memoryview object.  It is not
     currently allowed to create subclasses of *note memoryview: 1d2.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_buffer: b3a. *PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER
          (PyObject *mview)

     Return a pointer to the memoryview’s private copy of the exporter’s
     buffer.  'mview' 'must' be a memoryview instance; this macro
     doesn’t check its type, you must do it yourself or you will risk
     crashes.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMemoryView_GET_BASE (PyObject
          *mview)

     Return either a pointer to the exporting object that the memoryview
     is based on or ‘NULL’ if the memoryview has been created by one of
     the functions *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1519. or *note
     PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): b43.  'mview' 'must' be a memoryview
     instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Pickle buffer objects,  Next: Weak Reference Objects<2>,  Prev: MemoryView objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.24 Pickle buffer objects
...............................

Added in version 3.8.

A *note pickle.PickleBuffer: 1908. object wraps a *note buffer-providing
object: 311. for out-of-band data transfer with the *note pickle: ab.
module.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyPickleBuffer_Type

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python
     pickle buffer type.  This is the same object as *note
     pickle.PickleBuffer: 1908. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyPickleBuffer_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if 'op' is a pickle buffer instance.  This function
     always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyPickleBuffer_FromObject
          (PyObject *obj)

     Create a pickle buffer from the object 'obj'.

     This function will fail if 'obj' doesn’t support the *note buffer
     protocol: 311.

     On success, return a new pickle buffer instance.  On failure, set
     an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     Analogous to calling *note pickle.PickleBuffer: 1908. with 'obj' in
     Python.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const *note Py_buffer: b3a. *PyPickleBuffer_GetBuffer
          (PyObject *picklebuf)

     Get a pointer to the underlying *note Py_buffer: b3a. that the
     pickle buffer wraps.

     The returned pointer is valid as long as 'picklebuf' is alive and
     has not been released.  The caller must not modify or free the
     returned *note Py_buffer: b3a.  If the pickle buffer has been
     released, raise *note ValueError: 277.

     On success, return a pointer to the buffer view.  On failure, set
     an exception and return ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyPickleBuffer_Release (PyObject *picklebuf)

     Release the underlying buffer held by the pickle buffer.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  On failure, set an exception and return
     ‘-1’.

     Analogous to calling *note pickle.PickleBuffer.release(): 2f40. in
     Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Weak Reference Objects<2>,  Next: Capsules<2>,  Prev: Pickle buffer objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.25 Weak Reference Objects
................................

Python supports 'weak references' as first-class objects.  There are two
specific object types which directly implement weak references.  The
first is a simple reference object, and the second acts as a proxy for
the original object as much as it can.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyWeakref_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return non-zero if 'ob' is either a reference or proxy object.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyWeakref_CheckRef (PyObject *ob)

     Return non-zero if 'ob' is a reference object or a subclass of the
     reference type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyWeakref_CheckRefExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return non-zero if 'ob' is a reference object, but not a subclass
     of the reference type.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyWeakref_CheckProxy (PyObject *ob)

     Return non-zero if 'ob' is a proxy object.  This function always
     succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyWeakref_NewRef (PyObject *ob,
          PyObject *callback)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a weak reference object for the object 'ob'.  This
     will always return a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create
     a new object; an existing reference object may be returned.  The
     second parameter, 'callback', can be a callable object that
     receives notification when 'ob' is garbage collected; it should
     accept a single parameter, which will be the weak reference object
     itself.  'callback' may also be ‘None’ or ‘NULL’.  If 'ob' is not a
     weakly referenceable object, or if 'callback' is not callable,
     ‘None’, or ‘NULL’, this will return ‘NULL’ and raise *note
     TypeError: 291.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note PyType_SUPPORTS_WEAKREFS(): 5647. for checking if 'ob' is
     weakly referenceable.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyWeakref_NewProxy (PyObject *ob,
          PyObject *callback)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Return a weak reference proxy object for the object 'ob'.
     This will always return a new reference, but is not guaranteed to
     create a new object; an existing proxy object may be returned.  The
     second parameter, 'callback', can be a callable object that
     receives notification when 'ob' is garbage collected; it should
     accept a single parameter, which will be the weak reference object
     itself.  'callback' may also be ‘None’ or ‘NULL’.  If 'ob' is not a
     weakly referenceable object, or if 'callback' is not callable,
     ‘None’, or ‘NULL’, this will return ‘NULL’ and raise *note
     TypeError: 291.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note PyType_SUPPORTS_WEAKREFS(): 5647. for checking if 'ob' is
     weakly referenceable.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyWeakref_GetRef (PyObject *ref, PyObject **pobj)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Get a
     *note strong reference: 7da. to the referenced object from a weak
     reference, 'ref', into '*pobj'.

        * On success, set '*pobj' to a new *note strong reference: 7da.
          to the referenced object and return 1.

        * If the reference is dead, set '*pobj' to ‘NULL’ and return 0.

        * On error, raise an exception and return -1.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyWeakref_IsDead (PyObject *ref)

     Test if the weak reference 'ref' is dead.  Returns 1 if the
     reference is dead, 0 if it is alive, and -1 with an error set if
     'ref' is not a weak reference object.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyObject_ClearWeakRefs (PyObject *object)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This function is called by
     the *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. handler to clear weak references.

     This iterates through the weak references for 'object' and calls
     callbacks for those references which have one.  It returns when all
     callbacks have been attempted.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks
          (PyObject *object)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Clears the weakrefs for 'object' without calling the callbacks.

     This function is called by the *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. handler for
     types with finalizers (i.e., *note __del__(): 13a6.).  The handler
     for those objects first calls *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 97a.
     to clear weakrefs and call their callbacks, then the finalizer, and
     finally this function to clear any weakrefs that may have been
     created by the finalizer.

     In most circumstances, it’s more appropriate to use *note
     PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 97a. to clear weakrefs instead of this
     function.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Capsules<2>,  Next: Sentinel objects,  Prev: Weak Reference Objects<2>,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.26 Capsules
..................

Refer to *note Providing a C API for an Extension Module: 1702. for more
information on using these objects.

Added in version 3.1.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyCapsule

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. represents an opaque value,
     useful for C extension modules which need to pass an opaque value
     (as a void* pointer) through Python code to other C code.  It is
     often used to make a C function pointer defined in one module
     available to other modules, so the regular import mechanism can be
     used to access C APIs defined in dynamically loaded modules.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyCapsule_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type object corresponding
     to capsule objects.  This is the same object as *note
     types.CapsuleType: 2c03. in the Python layer.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyCapsule_Destructor
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type of a destructor
     callback for a capsule.  Defined as:

          typedef void (*PyCapsule_Destructor)(PyObject *);

     See *note PyCapsule_New(): 51da. for the semantics of
     PyCapsule_Destructor callbacks.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCapsule_CheckExact (PyObject *p)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Return true if its argument
     is a *note PyCapsule: 1617.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCapsule_New (void *pointer,
          const char *name, PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.''  Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Create a *note
     PyCapsule: 1617. encapsulating the 'pointer'.  The 'pointer'
     argument may not be ‘NULL’.

     On failure, set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     The 'name' string may either be ‘NULL’ or a pointer to a valid C
     string.  If non-‘NULL’, this string must outlive the capsule.
     (Though it is permitted to free it inside the 'destructor'.)

     If the 'destructor' argument is not ‘NULL’, it will be called with
     the capsule as its argument when it is destroyed.

     If this capsule will be stored as an attribute of a module, the
     'name' should be specified as ‘modulename.attributename’.  This
     will enable other modules to import the capsule using *note
     PyCapsule_Import(): 1e07.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyCapsule_GetPointer (PyObject *capsule, const
          char *name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call without external synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'
     Retrieve the 'pointer' stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an
     exception and return ‘NULL’.

     The 'name' parameter must compare exactly to the name stored in the
     capsule.  If the name stored in the capsule is ‘NULL’, the 'name'
     passed in must also be ‘NULL’.  Python uses the C function
     ‘strcmp()’ to compare capsule names.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyCapsule_Destructor: 52b8.
          PyCapsule_GetDestructor (PyObject *capsule)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call without external synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'
     Return the current destructor stored in the capsule.  On failure,
     set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ destructor.  This makes
     a ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1701. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyCapsule_GetContext (PyObject *capsule)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call without external synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'
     Return the current context stored in the capsule.  On failure, set
     an exception and return ‘NULL’.

     It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ context.  This makes a
     ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1701. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *PyCapsule_GetName (PyObject *capsule)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call without external synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'
     Return the current name stored in the capsule.  On failure, set an
     exception and return ‘NULL’.

     It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ name.  This makes a
     ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note
     PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1701. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5. to
     disambiguate.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyCapsule_Import (const char *name, int no_block)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call from multiple threads with external synchronization only:
     291f.'  Import a pointer to a C object from a capsule attribute in
     a module.  The 'name' parameter should specify the full name to the
     attribute, as in ‘module.attribute’.  The 'name' stored in the
     capsule must match this string exactly.

     This function splits 'name' on the ‘.’ character, and imports the
     first element.  It then processes further elements using attribute
     lookups.

     Return the capsule’s internal 'pointer' on success.  On failure,
     set an exception and return ‘NULL’.

          Σημείωση: If 'name' points to an attribute of some submodule
          or subpackage, this submodule or subpackage must be previously
          imported using other means (for example, by using *note
          PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3.) for the attribute lookups to
          succeed.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.3: 'no_block' has no effect anymore.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCapsule_IsValid (PyObject *capsule, const char
          *name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call without external synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'
     Determines whether or not 'capsule' is a valid capsule.  A valid
     capsule is non-‘NULL’, passes *note PyCapsule_CheckExact(): 57fc,
     has a non-‘NULL’ pointer stored in it, and its internal name
     matches the 'name' parameter.  (See *note PyCapsule_GetPointer():
     52bc. for information on how capsule names are compared.)

     In other words, if *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1701. returns a true
     value, calls to any of the accessors (any function starting with
     ‘PyCapsule_Get’) are guaranteed to succeed.

     Return a nonzero value if the object is valid and matches the name
     passed in.  Return ‘0’ otherwise.  This function will not fail.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCapsule_SetContext (PyObject *capsule, void
          *context)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call without external synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'
     Set the context pointer inside 'capsule' to 'context'.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCapsule_SetDestructor (PyObject *capsule,
          PyCapsule_Destructor destructor)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call without external synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'
     Set the destructor inside 'capsule' to 'destructor'.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCapsule_SetName (PyObject *capsule, const char
          *name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call without external synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'
     Set the name inside 'capsule' to 'name'.  If non-‘NULL’, the name
     must outlive the capsule.  If the previous 'name' stored in the
     capsule was not ‘NULL’, no attempt is made to free it.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCapsule_SetPointer (PyObject *capsule, void
          *pointer)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.''  Thread safety: *note Safe to
     call without external synchronization on distinct objects: 2924.'
     Set the void pointer inside 'capsule' to 'pointer'.  The pointer
     may not be ‘NULL’.

     Return ‘0’ on success.  Return nonzero and set an exception on
     failure.


File: python.info,  Node: Sentinel objects,  Next: Frame objects,  Prev: Capsules<2>,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.27 Sentinel objects
..........................

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PySentinel_Type

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python
     *note sentinel: 18b. type.  This is the same object as ‘sentinel’.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PySentinel_Check (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is a *note sentinel: 18b. object.  The
     ‘sentinel’ type does not allow subclasses, so this check is exact.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PySentinel_New (const char *name,
          const char *module_name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a new *note sentinel:
     18b. object with *note __name__: 27d7. set to 'name' and *note
     __module__: 27d8. set to 'module_name'.  'name' must not be ‘NULL’.
     If 'module_name' is ‘NULL’, ‘__module__’ is set to ‘None’.  Return
     ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

     For pickling to work, 'module_name' must be the name of an
     importable module, and the sentinel must be accessible from that
     module under a path matching 'name'.  Pickle treats 'name' as a
     global variable name in 'module_name' (see *note
     object.__reduce__(): d97.).

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Frame objects,  Next: Generator Objects,  Prev: Sentinel objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.28 Frame objects
.......................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyFrameObject
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (ως μια αδιαφανής κατασκευή).'
     The C structure of the objects used to describe frame objects.

     There are no public members in this structure.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The members of this structure were removed
     from the public C API. Refer to the *note What’s New entry: b67.
     for details.

The *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 1d37. and *note PyThreadState_GetFrame():
b6d. functions can be used to get a frame object.

See also *note Reflection: 55c4.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyFrame_Type

     The type of frame objects.  It is the same object as *note
     types.FrameType: 1de6. in the Python layer.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Previously, this type was only available
     after including ‘<frameobject.h>’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyFrameObject: b68. *PyFrame_New (PyThreadState
          *tstate, PyCodeObject *code, PyObject *globals, PyObject
          *locals)

     Create a new frame object.  This function returns a *note strong
     reference: 7da. to the new frame object on success, and returns
     ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFrame_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return non-zero if 'obj' is a frame object.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Previously, this function was only
     available after including ‘<frameobject.h>’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyFrameObject: b68. *PyFrame_GetBack
          (PyFrameObject *frame)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Get the 'frame' next outer
     frame.

     Return a *note strong reference: 7da, or ‘NULL’ if 'frame' has no
     outer frame.  This raises no exceptions.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFrame_GetBuiltins
          (PyFrameObject *frame)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Get the 'frame'’s *note
     f_builtins: 258f. attribute.

     Return a *note strong reference: 7da.  The result cannot be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyCodeObject: b59. *PyFrame_GetCode
          (PyFrameObject *frame)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Get the 'frame' code.

     Return a *note strong reference: 7da.

     The result (frame code) cannot be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFrame_GetGenerator
          (PyFrameObject *frame)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Get the generator, coroutine,
     or async generator that owns this frame, or ‘NULL’ if this frame is
     not owned by a generator.  Does not raise an exception, even if the
     return value is ‘NULL’.

     Return a *note strong reference: 7da, or ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFrame_GetGlobals (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Get the 'frame'’s *note
     f_globals: 258e. attribute.

     Return a *note strong reference: 7da.  The result cannot be ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFrame_GetLasti (PyFrameObject *frame)

     Get the 'frame'’s *note f_lasti: c5e. attribute.

     Returns -1 if ‘frame.f_lasti’ is ‘None’.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFrame_GetVar (PyFrameObject
          *frame, PyObject *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Get the variable 'name' of
     'frame'.

        * Return a *note strong reference: 7da. to the variable value on
          success.

        * Raise *note NameError: 665. and return ‘NULL’ if the variable
          does not exist.

        * Raise an exception and return ‘NULL’ on error.

     'name' type must be a *note str: 1df.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFrame_GetVarString
          (PyFrameObject *frame, const char *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Similar to *note
     PyFrame_GetVar(): 96e, but the variable name is a C string encoded
     in UTF-8.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyFrame_GetLocals (PyFrameObject
          *frame)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Get the 'frame'’s *note
     f_locals: 28d. attribute.  If the frame refers to an *note
     optimized scope: 6ad, this returns a write-through proxy object
     that allows modifying the locals.  In all other cases (classes,
     modules, *note exec(): 185, *note eval(): 184.) it returns the
     mapping representing the frame locals directly (as described for
     *note locals(): 28b.).

     Return a *note strong reference: 7da.

     Added in version 3.11.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: As part of PEP 667(1), return an instance
     of *note PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type: 5807.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFrame_GetLineNumber (PyFrameObject *frame)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Return
     the line number that 'frame' is currently executing.

* Menu:

* Frame locals proxies::
* Legacy local variable APIs::
* Internal frames::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/


File: python.info,  Node: Frame locals proxies,  Next: Legacy local variable APIs,  Up: Frame objects

7.10.6.29 Frame locals proxies
..............................

Added in version 3.13.

The *note f_locals: 28d. attribute on a *note frame object: acd. is an
instance of a «frame-locals proxy».  The proxy object exposes a
write-through view of the underlying locals dictionary for the frame.
This ensures that the variables exposed by ‘f_locals’ are always up to
date with the live local variables in the frame itself.

See PEP 667(1) for more information.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type

     The type of frame *note locals(): 28b. proxy objects.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFrameLocalsProxy_Check (PyObject *obj)

     Return non-zero if 'obj' is a frame *note locals(): 28b. proxy.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy local variable APIs,  Next: Internal frames,  Prev: Frame locals proxies,  Up: Frame objects

7.10.6.30 Legacy local variable APIs
....................................

These APIs are *note soft deprecated: 1a7.  As of Python 3.13, they do
nothing.  They exist solely for backwards compatibility.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyFrame_LocalsToFast (PyFrameObject *f, int clear)

     Prior to Python 3.13, this function would copy the *note f_locals:
     28d. attribute of 'f' to the internal «fast» array of local
     variables, allowing changes in frame objects to be visible to the
     interpreter.  If 'clear' was true, this function would process
     variables that were unset in the locals dictionary.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.13: This function now
     does nothing.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyFrame_FastToLocals (PyFrameObject *f)

     Prior to Python 3.13, this function would copy the internal «fast»
     array of local variables (which is used by the interpreter) to the
     *note f_locals: 28d. attribute of 'f', allowing changes in local
     variables to be visible to frame objects.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.13: This function now
     does nothing.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError (PyFrameObject *f)

     Prior to Python 3.13, this function was similar to *note
     PyFrame_FastToLocals(): 580c, but would return ‘0’ on success, and
     ‘-1’ with an exception set on failure.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.13: This function now
     does nothing.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 667(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/


File: python.info,  Node: Internal frames,  Prev: Legacy local variable APIs,  Up: Frame objects

7.10.6.31 Internal frames
.........................

Unless using PEP 523(1), you will not need this.

 -- C Struct: struct _PyInterpreterFrame

     The interpreter’s internal frame representation.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b.
          *PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode (struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
          Return a *note strong reference: 7da. to the code object for
          the frame.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti (struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Return the byte offset into the last executed instruction.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine (struct
          _PyInterpreterFrame *frame);

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Return the currently executing line number, or -1 if there is no
     line number.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: Generator Objects,  Next: Coroutine Objects,  Prev: Frame objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.32 Generator Objects
...........................

Generator objects are what Python uses to implement generator iterators.
They are normally created by iterating over a function that yields
values, rather than explicitly calling *note PyGen_New(): 5816. or *note
PyGen_NewWithQualName(): 5817.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyGenObject

     The C structure used for generator objects.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyGen_Type

     The type object corresponding to generator objects.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyGen_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is a generator object; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyGen_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob'’s type is *note PyGen_Type: 5819.; 'ob' must
     not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyGen_New (PyFrameObject *frame)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create and return a new
     generator object based on the 'frame' object.  A reference to
     'frame' is stolen by this function.  The argument must not be
     ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyGen_NewWithQualName
          (PyFrameObject *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create and return a new
     generator object based on the 'frame' object, with ‘__name__’ and
     ‘__qualname__’ set to 'name' and 'qualname'.  A reference to
     'frame' is stolen by this function.  The 'frame' argument must not
     be ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyCodeObject: b59. *PyGen_GetCode (PyGenObject
          *gen)

     Return a new *note strong reference: 7da. to the code object
     wrapped by 'gen'.  This function always succeeds.

* Menu:

* Asynchronous Generator Objects::
* Deprecated API: Deprecated API<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous Generator Objects,  Next: Deprecated API<4>,  Up: Generator Objects

7.10.6.33 Asynchronous Generator Objects
........................................

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 525(1)

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyAsyncGen_Type

     The type object corresponding to asynchronous generator objects.
     This is available as *note types.AsyncGeneratorType: 2bf8. in the
     Python layer.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyAsyncGen_New (PyFrameObject
          *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)

     Create a new asynchronous generator wrapping 'frame', with
     ‘__name__’ and ‘__qualname__’ set to 'name' and 'qualname'.
     'frame' is stolen by this function and must not be ‘NULL’.

     On success, this function returns a *note strong reference: 7da. to
     the new asynchronous generator.  On failure, this function returns
     ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyAsyncGen_CheckExact (PyObject *op)

     Return true if 'op' is an asynchronous generator object, false
     otherwise.  This function always succeeds.

     Added in version 3.6.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated API<4>,  Prev: Asynchronous Generator Objects,  Up: Generator Objects

7.10.6.34 Deprecated API
........................

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyAsyncGenASend_CheckExact (op)

     This is an API that was included in Python’s C API by mistake.

     It is solely here for completeness; do not use this API.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Coroutine Objects,  Next: Context Variables Objects,  Prev: Generator Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.35 Coroutine Objects
...........................

Added in version 3.5.

Coroutine objects are what functions declared with an ‘async’ keyword
return.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyCoroObject

     The C structure used for coroutine objects.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyCoro_Type

     The type object corresponding to coroutine objects.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCoro_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob'’s type is *note PyCoro_Type: 5827.; 'ob' must
     not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCoro_New (PyFrameObject *frame,
          PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create and return a new
     coroutine object based on the 'frame' object, with ‘__name__’ and
     ‘__qualname__’ set to 'name' and 'qualname'.  A reference to
     'frame' is stolen by this function.  The 'frame' argument must not
     be ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Context Variables Objects,  Next: Objects for Type Hinting,  Prev: Coroutine Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.36 Context Variables Objects
...................................

Added in version 3.7.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7.1:

     Σημείωση: In Python 3.7.1 the signatures of all context variables C
     APIs were 'changed' to use *note PyObject: 19b. pointers instead of
     *note PyContext: 582d, *note PyContextVar: 582e, and *note
     PyContextToken: 582f, e.g.:

          // in 3.7.0:
          PyContext *PyContext_New(void);

          // in 3.7.1+:
          PyObject *PyContext_New(void);

     See bpo-34762(1) for more details.

This section details the public C API for the *note contextvars: 28.
module.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyContext

     The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.Context: 421.
     object.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyContextVar

     The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.ContextVar:
     1a9d. object.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyContextToken

     The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.Token: 479.
     object.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyContext_Type

     The type object representing the 'context' type.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyContextVar_Type

     The type object representing the 'context variable' type.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyContextToken_Type

     The type object representing the 'context variable token' type.

Type-check macros:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyContext_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContext_Type: 5830.  'o' must
     not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyContextVar_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContextVar_Type: 5831.  'o'
     must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyContextToken_CheckExact (PyObject *o)

     Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContextToken_Type: 5832.  'o'
     must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

Context object management functions:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyContext_New (void)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create a new empty context
     object.  Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyContext_Copy (PyObject *ctx)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create a shallow copy of the
     passed 'ctx' context object.  Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has
     occurred.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyContext_CopyCurrent (void)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create a shallow copy of the
     current thread context.  Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyContext_Enter (PyObject *ctx)

     Set 'ctx' as the current context for the current thread.  Returns
     ‘0’ on success, and ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyContext_Exit (PyObject *ctx)

     Deactivate the 'ctx' context and restore the previous context as
     the current context for the current thread.  Returns ‘0’ on
     success, and ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyContext_AddWatcher (PyContext_WatchCallback
          callback)

     Register 'callback' as a context object watcher for the current
     interpreter.  Return an ID which may be passed to *note
     PyContext_ClearWatcher(): 1ba0.  In case of error (e.g.  no more
     watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyContext_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id)

     Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from
     *note PyContext_AddWatcher(): 1b9f. for the current interpreter.
     Return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ and set an exception on error (e.g.
     if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.)

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyContextEvent

     Enumeration of possible context object watcher events:

        - ‘Py_CONTEXT_SWITCHED’: The *note current context: 1b77. has
          switched to a different context.  The object passed to the
          watch callback is the now-current *note contextvars.Context:
          421. object, or None if no context is current.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*PyContext_WatchCallback)(*note
          PyContextEvent: 583b. event, *note PyObject: 19b. *obj)

     Context object watcher callback function.  The object passed to the
     callback is event-specific; see *note PyContextEvent: 583b. for
     details.

     If the callback returns with an exception set, it must return ‘-1’;
     this exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using
     *note PyErr_FormatUnraisable(): 7e7.  Otherwise it should return
     ‘0’.

     There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the
     callback.  In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the
     same exception still set.  This means the callback may not call any
     other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the
     exception state first, and restores it before returning.

     Added in version 3.14.

Context variable functions:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyContextVar_New (const char
          *name, PyObject *def)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create a new ‘ContextVar’
     object.  The 'name' parameter is used for introspection and debug
     purposes.  The 'def' parameter specifies a default value for the
     context variable, or ‘NULL’ for no default.  If an error has
     occurred, this function returns ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyContextVar_Get (PyObject *var, PyObject
          *default_value, PyObject **value)

     Get the value of a context variable.  Returns ‘-1’ if an error has
     occurred during lookup, and ‘0’ if no error occurred, whether or
     not a value was found.

     If the context variable was found, 'value' will be a pointer to it.
     If the context variable was 'not' found, 'value' will point to:

        - 'default_value', if not ‘NULL’;

        - the default value of 'var', if not ‘NULL’;

        - ‘NULL’

     Except for ‘NULL’, the function returns a new reference.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyContextVar_Set (PyObject *var,
          PyObject *value)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Set the value of 'var' to
     'value' in the current context.  Returns a new token object for
     this change, or ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyContextVar_Reset (PyObject *var, PyObject *token)

     Reset the state of the 'var' context variable to that it was in
     before *note PyContextVar_Set(): 583f. that returned the 'token'
     was called.  This function returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on
     error.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762


File: python.info,  Node: Objects for Type Hinting,  Prev: Context Variables Objects,  Up: Other Objects

7.10.6.37 Objects for Type Hinting
..................................

Various built-in types for type hinting are provided.  Currently, two
types exist – *note GenericAlias: a9f. and *note Union: ba2.  Only
‘GenericAlias’ is exposed to C.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *Py_GenericAlias (PyObject
          *origin, PyObject *args)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.9.'  Create a
     *note GenericAlias: a9f. object.  Equivalent to calling the Python
     class *note types.GenericAlias: bc7.  The 'origin' and 'args'
     arguments set the ‘GenericAlias’“s ‘__origin__’ and ‘__args__’
     attributes respectively.  'origin' should be a *note PyTypeObject:
     e6b.*, and 'args' can be a *note PyTupleObject: 5580.* or any
     ‘PyObject*’.  If 'args' passed is not a tuple, a 1-tuple is
     automatically constructed and ‘__args__’ is set to ‘(args,)’.
     Minimal checking is done for the arguments, so the function will
     succeed even if 'origin' is not a type.  The ‘GenericAlias’“s
     ‘__parameters__’ attribute is constructed lazily from ‘__args__’.
     On failure, an exception is raised and ‘NULL’ is returned.

     Here’s an example of how to make an extension type generic:

          ...
          static PyMethodDef my_obj_methods[] = {
              // Other methods.
              ...
              {"__class_getitem__", Py_GenericAlias, METH_O|METH_CLASS, "See PEP 585"}
              ...
          }

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     The data model method *note __class_getitem__(): b21.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. Py_GenericAliasType
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.9.'  The C
     type of the object returned by *note Py_GenericAlias(): 546f.
     Equivalent to *note types.GenericAlias: bc7. in Python.

     Added in version 3.9.


File: python.info,  Node: C API for extension modules,  Prev: Other Objects,  Up: Concrete Objects Layer

7.10.7 C API for extension modules
----------------------------------

* Menu:

* Curses C API::
* Internal data::
* DateTime Objects: DateTime Objects<2>.
* Internal data: Internal data<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Curses C API,  Next: Internal data,  Up: C API for extension modules

7.10.7.1 Curses C API
.....................

*note curses: 2e. exposes a small C interface for extension modules.
Consumers must include the header file ‘py_curses.h’ (which is not
included by default by ‘Python.h’) and *note import_curses(): 5848. must
be invoked, usually as part of the module initialisation function, to
populate *note PyCurses_API: 5849.

     Προειδοποίηση: Neither the C API nor the pure Python *note curses:
     2e. module are compatible with subinterpreters.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: import_curses ()

     Import the curses C API. The macro does not need a semi-colon to be
     called.

     On success, populate the *note PyCurses_API: 5849. pointer.

     On failure, set *note PyCurses_API: 5849. to NULL and set an
     exception.  The caller must check if an error occurred via *note
     PyErr_Occurred(): 1ea5.:

          import_curses();  // semi-colon is optional but recommended
          if (PyErr_Occurred()) { /* cleanup */ }

 -- C Μεταβλητή: void **PyCurses_API

     Dynamically allocated object containing the curses C API. This
     variable is only available once *note import_curses: 5848.
     succeeds.

     ‘PyCurses_API[0]’ corresponds to *note PyCursesWindow_Type: 584a.

     ‘PyCurses_API[1]’, ‘PyCurses_API[2]’, and ‘PyCurses_API[3]’ are
     pointers to predicate functions of type ‘int (*)(void)’.

     When called, these predicates return whether *note
     curses.setupterm(): 36fb, *note curses.initscr(): 1a1b, and *note
     curses.start_color(): 36fc. have been called respectively.

     See also the convenience macros *note PyCursesSetupTermCalled:
     584b, *note PyCursesInitialised: 584c, and *note
     PyCursesInitialisedColor: 584d.

          Σημείωση: The number of entries in this structure is subject
          to changes.  Consider using *note PyCurses_API_pointers: 584e.
          to check if new fields are available or not.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyCurses_API_pointers

     The number of accessible fields (‘4’) in *note PyCurses_API: 5849.
     This number is incremented whenever new fields are added.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyCursesWindow_Type

     The *note heap type: d2f. corresponding to *note curses.window:
     1442.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCursesWindow_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if 'op' is a *note curses.window: 1442. instance, false
     otherwise.

The following macros are convenience macros expanding into C statements.
In particular, they can only be used as ‘macro;’ or ‘macro’, but not
‘macro()’ or ‘macro();’.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyCursesSetupTermCalled

     Macro checking if *note curses.setupterm(): 36fb. has been called.

     The macro expansion is roughly equivalent to:

          {
              typedef int (*predicate_t)(void);
              predicate_t was_setupterm_called = (predicate_t)PyCurses_API[1];
              if (!was_setupterm_called()) {
                  return NULL;
              }
          }

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyCursesInitialised

     Macro checking if *note curses.initscr(): 1a1b. has been called.

     The macro expansion is roughly equivalent to:

          {
              typedef int (*predicate_t)(void);
              predicate_t was_initscr_called = (predicate_t)PyCurses_API[2];
              if (!was_initscr_called()) {
                  return NULL;
              }
          }

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyCursesInitialisedColor

     Macro checking if *note curses.start_color(): 36fc. has been
     called.

     The macro expansion is roughly equivalent to:

          {
              typedef int (*predicate_t)(void);
              predicate_t was_start_color_called = (predicate_t)PyCurses_API[3];
              if (!was_start_color_called()) {
                  return NULL;
              }
          }


File: python.info,  Node: Internal data,  Next: DateTime Objects<2>,  Prev: Curses C API,  Up: C API for extension modules

7.10.7.2 Internal data
......................

The following objects are exposed by the C API but should be considered
internal-only.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyCurses_CAPSULE_NAME

     Name of the curses capsule to pass to *note PyCapsule_Import():
     1e07.

     Internal usage only.  Use *note import_curses: 5848. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: DateTime Objects<2>,  Next: Internal data<2>,  Prev: Internal data,  Up: C API for extension modules

7.10.7.3 DateTime Objects
.........................

Various date and time objects are supplied by the *note datetime: 33.
module.  Before using any of these functions, the header file
‘datetime.h’ must be included in your source (note that this is not
included by ‘Python.h’), and the macro *note PyDateTime_IMPORT: 39f.
must be invoked, usually as part of the module initialisation function.
The macro puts a pointer to a C structure into a static variable, *note
PyDateTimeAPI: 5855, that is used by the following macros.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyDateTime_IMPORT ()

     Import the datetime C API.

     On success, populate the *note PyDateTimeAPI: 5855. pointer.  On
     failure, set ‘PyDateTimeAPI’ to ‘NULL’ and set an exception.  The
     caller must check if an error occurred via *note PyErr_Occurred():
     1ea5.:

          PyDateTime_IMPORT;
          if (PyErr_Occurred()) { /* cleanup */ }

          Προειδοποίηση: This is not compatible with subinterpreters.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: This macro is now thread safe.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyDateTime_CAPI

     Structure containing the fields for the datetime C API.

     The fields of this structure are private and subject to change.

     Do not use this directly; prefer ‘PyDateTime_*’ APIs instead.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyDateTime_CAPI: 5856. *PyDateTimeAPI

     Dynamically allocated object containing the datetime C API.

     This variable is only available once *note PyDateTime_IMPORT: 39f.
     succeeds.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: This variable should not be accessed
     directly as direct access is not thread-safe.  Use *note
     PyDateTime_IMPORT(): 39f. instead.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyDateTime_Date

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. represents a Python date
     object.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyDateTime_DateTime

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. represents a Python datetime
     object.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyDateTime_Time

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. represents a Python time
     object.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyDateTime_Delta

     This subtype of *note PyObject: 19b. represents the difference
     between two datetime values.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDateTime_DateType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python
     date type; it is the same object as *note datetime.date: 48d. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDateTime_DateTimeType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python
     datetime type; it is the same object as *note datetime.datetime:
     6e7. in the Python layer.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDateTime_TimeType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python
     time type; it is the same object as *note datetime.time: 48e. in
     the Python layer.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDateTime_DeltaType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python
     type for the difference between two datetime values; it is the same
     object as *note datetime.timedelta: d94. in the Python layer.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyDateTime_TZInfoType

     This instance of *note PyTypeObject: e6b. represents the Python
     time zone info type; it is the same object as *note
     datetime.tzinfo: 9d8. in the Python layer.

Macro for access to the UTC singleton:

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC

     Returns the time zone singleton representing UTC, the same object
     as *note datetime.timezone.utc: a07.

     Added in version 3.7.

Type-check macros:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDate_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateType: 585b. or
     a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_DateType’.  'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDate_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateType: 585b.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateTimeType: 585c.
     or a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_DateTimeType’.  'ob' must not be
     ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateTimeType: 585c.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTime_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TimeType: 585d. or
     a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_TimeType’.  'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This
     function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTime_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TimeType: 585d.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDelta_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DeltaType: 585e. or
     a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_DeltaType’.  'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDelta_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DeltaType: 585e.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTZInfo_Check (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TZInfoType: 585f.
     or a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_TZInfoType’.  'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.
     This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTZInfo_CheckExact (PyObject *ob)

     Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TZInfoType: 585f.
     'ob' must not be ‘NULL’.  This function always succeeds.

Macros to create objects:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDate_FromDate (int year, int
          month, int day)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a *note datetime.date:
     48d. object with the specified year, month and day.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (int
          year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second,
          int usecond)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a *note
     datetime.datetime: 6e7. object with the specified year, month, day,
     hour, minute, second and microsecond.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold
          (int year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int
          second, int usecond, int fold)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a *note
     datetime.datetime: 6e7. object with the specified year, month, day,
     hour, minute, second, microsecond and fold.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyTime_FromTime (int hour, int
          minute, int second, int usecond)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a *note datetime.time:
     48e. object with the specified hour, minute, second and
     microsecond.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (int hour,
          int minute, int second, int usecond, int fold)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a *note datetime.time:
     48e. object with the specified hour, minute, second, microsecond
     and fold.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDelta_FromDSU (int days, int
          seconds, int useconds)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a *note
     datetime.timedelta: d94. object representing the given number of
     days, seconds and microseconds.  Normalization is performed so that
     the resulting number of microseconds and seconds lie in the ranges
     documented for ‘datetime.timedelta’ objects.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyTimeZone_FromOffset (PyObject
          *offset)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a *note
     datetime.timezone: 146c. object with an unnamed fixed offset
     represented by the 'offset' argument.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName
          (PyObject *offset, PyObject *name)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Return a *note
     datetime.timezone: 146c. object with a fixed offset represented by
     the 'offset' argument and with tzname 'name'.

     Added in version 3.7.

Macros to extract fields from date objects.  The argument must be an
instance of *note PyDateTime_Date: 5857, including subclasses (such as
*note PyDateTime_DateTime: 5858.).  The argument must not be ‘NULL’, and
the type is not checked:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     Return the year, as a positive int.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     Return the month, as an int from 1 through 12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_GET_DAY (PyDateTime_Date *o)

     Return the day, as an int from 1 through 31.

Macros to extract fields from datetime objects.  The argument must be an
instance of *note PyDateTime_DateTime: 5858, including subclasses.  The
argument must not be ‘NULL’, and the type is not checked:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the hour, as an int from 0 through 23.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the minute, as an int from 0 through 59.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the second, as an int from 0 through 59.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND
          (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the microsecond, as an int from 0 through 999999.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the fold, as an int from 0 through 1.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO
          (PyDateTime_DateTime *o)

     Return the tzinfo (which may be ‘None’).

     Added in version 3.10.

Macros to extract fields from time objects.  The argument must be an
instance of *note PyDateTime_Time: 5859, including subclasses.  The
argument must not be ‘NULL’, and the type is not checked:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the hour, as an int from 0 through 23.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the minute, as an int from 0 through 59.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the second, as an int from 0 through 59.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (PyDateTime_Time
          *o)

     Return the microsecond, as an int from 0 through 999999.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the fold, as an int from 0 through 1.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO
          (PyDateTime_Time *o)

     Return the tzinfo (which may be ‘None’).

     Added in version 3.10.

Macros to extract fields from time delta objects.  The argument must be
an instance of *note PyDateTime_Delta: 585a, including subclasses.  The
argument must not be ‘NULL’, and the type is not checked:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (PyDateTime_Delta *o)

     Return the number of days, as an int from -999999999 to 999999999.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (PyDateTime_Delta *o)

     Return the number of seconds, as an int from 0 through 86399.

     Added in version 3.3.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (PyDateTime_Delta
          *o)

     Return the number of microseconds, as an int from 0 through 999999.

     Added in version 3.3.

Macros for the convenience of modules implementing the DB API:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDateTime_FromTimestamp
          (PyObject *args)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create and return a new *note
     datetime.datetime: 6e7. object given an argument tuple suitable for
     passing to *note datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 8fb.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyDate_FromTimestamp (PyObject
          *args)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'  Create and return a new *note
     datetime.date: 48d. object given an argument tuple suitable for
     passing to *note datetime.date.fromtimestamp(): f92.


File: python.info,  Node: Internal data<2>,  Prev: DateTime Objects<2>,  Up: C API for extension modules

7.10.7.4 Internal data
......................

The following symbols are exposed by the C API but should be considered
internal-only.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyDateTime_CAPSULE_NAME

     Name of the datetime capsule to pass to *note PyCapsule_Import():
     1e07.

     Internal usage only.  Use *note PyDateTime_IMPORT: 39f. instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter initialization and finalization,  Next: Thread states and the global interpreter lock,  Prev: Concrete Objects Layer,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.11 Interpreter initialization and finalization
================================================

See *note Python Initialization Configuration: 837. for details on how
to configure the interpreter prior to initialization.

* Menu:

* Before Python initialization::
* Global configuration variables::
* Initializing and finalizing the interpreter::
* Cautions regarding interpreter finalization::
* Interpreter views::
* Process-wide parameters::


File: python.info,  Node: Before Python initialization,  Next: Global configuration variables,  Up: Interpreter initialization and finalization

7.11.1 Before Python initialization
-----------------------------------

In an application embedding Python, the *note Py_Initialize(): 673.
function must be called before using any other Python/C API functions;
with the exception of a few functions and the *note global configuration
variables: 5888.

The following functions can be safely called before Python is
initialized:

   * Functions that initialize the interpreter:

        * *note Py_Initialize(): 673.

        * *note Py_InitializeEx(): 5477.

        * *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a.

        * *note Py_BytesMain(): d89.

        * *note Py_Main(): fe2.

        * the runtime pre-initialization functions covered in *note
          Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

   * Configuration functions:

        * *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 1d1a.

        * *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 1d1b.

        * ‘PyInitFrozenExtensions()’

        * *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 98a.

        * *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): 1028.

        * *note PyObject_SetArenaAllocator(): 5889.

        * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 1bc0.

        * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 1bbf.

        * the configuration functions covered in *note Python
          Initialization Configuration: 837.

   * Informative functions:

        * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 191f.

        * *note PyMem_GetAllocator(): 588a.

        * *note PyObject_GetArenaAllocator(): 588b.

        * *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 17d4.

        * *note Py_GetCompiler(): 5471.

        * *note Py_GetCopyright(): 5472.

        * *note Py_GetPlatform(): 5473.

        * *note Py_GetVersion(): 5475.

        * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 191f.

   * Utilities:

        * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85.

        * the status reporting and utility functions covered in *note
          Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

   * Memory allocators:

        * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf.

        * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 825.

        * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 824.

        * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 826.

   * Synchronization:

        * *note PyMutex_Lock(): 7c9.

        * *note PyMutex_Unlock(): 7ca.

     Σημείωση: Despite their apparent similarity to some of the
     functions listed above, the following functions 'should not be
     called' before the interpreter has been initialized: *note
     Py_EncodeLocale(): f86, *note PyEval_InitThreads(): 1bc3, and *note
     Py_RunMain(): d8d.


File: python.info,  Node: Global configuration variables,  Next: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter,  Prev: Before Python initialization,  Up: Interpreter initialization and finalization

7.11.2 Global configuration variables
-------------------------------------

Python has variables for the global configuration to control different
features and options.  By default, these flags are controlled by *note
command line options: 230a.

When a flag is set by an option, the value of the flag is the number of
times that the option was set.  For example, ‘-b’ sets *note
Py_BytesWarningFlag: 61a. to 1 and ‘-bb’ sets ‘Py_BytesWarningFlag’ to
2.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_BytesWarningFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3c4. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Issue a warning when comparing *note bytes: 1c7. or *note
     bytearray: 1c6. with *note str: 1df. or ‘bytes’ with *note int:
     326.  Issue an error if greater or equal to ‘2’.

     Set by the *note -b: 2ed. option.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_DebugFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.parser_debug: 60d. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only, depending on
     compilation options).

     Set by the *note -d: 2312. option and the *note PYTHONDEBUG: 2313.
     environment variable.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.write_bytecode: 620. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

     If set to non-zero, Python won’t try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the
     import of source modules.

     Set by the *note -B: 1770. option and the *note
     PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1771. environment variable.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_FrozenFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 61c. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Private flag used by ‘_freeze_module’ and ‘frozenmain’ programs.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_HashRandomizationFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.hash_seed: 627. and *note PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 626.
     should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization
     Configuration: 837.

     Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1425. environment variable
     is set to a non-empty string.

     If the flag is non-zero, read the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1425.
     environment variable to initialize the secret hash seed.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.use_environment: 61e. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Ignore all ‘PYTHON*’ environment variables, e.g.  *note PYTHONPATH:
     13c6. and *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad, that might be set.

     Set by the *note -E: d27. and *note -I: d28. options.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_InspectFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.inspect: 615. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 837.

     When a script is passed as first argument or the *note -c: 445.
     option is used, enter interactive mode after executing the script
     or the command, even when *note sys.stdin: 94a. does not appear to
     be a terminal.

     Set by the *note -i: 187d. option and the *note PYTHONINSPECT:
     187c. environment variable.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_InteractiveFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.interactive: 613. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Set by the *note -i: 187d. option.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_IsolatedFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.isolated: 629. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Run Python in isolated mode.  In isolated mode *note sys.path: 194.
     contains neither the script’s directory nor the user’s
     site-packages directory.

     Set by the *note -I: d28. option.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 62b. should be used
     instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

     If the flag is non-zero, use the ‘mbcs’ encoding with ‘replace’
     error handler, instead of the UTF-8 encoding with ‘surrogatepass’
     error handler, for the *note filesystem encoding and error handler:
     948.

     Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 30f.
     environment variable is set to a non-empty string.

     See PEP 529(1) for more details.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 62d. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

     If the flag is non-zero, use *note io.FileIO: 16b4. instead of
     ‘io._WindowsConsoleIO’ for *note sys: e2. standard streams.

     Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: 1019. environment
     variable is set to a non-empty string.

     See PEP 528(2) for more details.

     *note Διαθεσιμότητα: 232d.: Windows.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_NoSiteFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.site_import: 619. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Disable the import of the module *note site: cf. and the
     site-dependent manipulations of *note sys.path: 194. that it
     entails.  Also disable these manipulations if ‘site’ is explicitly
     imported later (call *note site.main(): 2316. if you want them to
     be triggered).

     Set by the *note -S: 1551. option.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_NoUserSiteDirectory

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.user_site_directory: 622. should be used instead, see
     *note Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Don’t add the *note user site-packages directory: 2315. to *note
     sys.path: 194.

     Set by the *note -s: 1732. and *note -I: d28. options, and the
     *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1733. environment variable.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_OptimizeFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.optimization_level: 617. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Set by the *note -O: 431. option and the *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE:
     2314. environment variable.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_QuietFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.quiet: 611. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Don’t display the copyright and version messages even in
     interactive mode.

     Set by the *note -q: 1994. option.

     Added in version 3.2.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 624. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Force the stdout and stderr streams to be unbuffered.

     Set by the *note -u: 1f7f. option and the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED:
     1f80. environment variable.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int Py_VerboseFlag

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.verbose: 60f. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Print a message each time a module is initialized, showing the
     place (filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded.  If
     greater or equal to ‘2’, print a message for each file that is
     checked for when searching for a module.  Also provides information
     on module cleanup at exit.

     Set by the *note -v: 17c7. option and the *note PYTHONVERBOSE:
     2317. environment variable.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.12, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter,  Next: Cautions regarding interpreter finalization,  Prev: Global configuration variables,  Up: Interpreter initialization and finalization

7.11.3 Initializing and finalizing the interpreter
--------------------------------------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_Initialize ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Initialize the Python interpreter.  In an application embedding
     Python, this should be called before using any other Python/C API
     functions; see *note Before Python Initialization: f83. for the few
     exceptions.

     This initializes the table of loaded modules (‘sys.modules’), and
     creates the fundamental modules *note builtins: 13, *note __main__:
     1. and *note sys: e2.  It also initializes the module search path
     (‘sys.path’).  It does not set ‘sys.argv’; use the *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 837. API for that.  This is a no-op
     when called for a second time (without calling *note
     Py_FinalizeEx(): 10cf. first).  There is no return value; it is a
     fatal error if the initialization fails.

     Use *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. to customize the *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

          Σημείωση: On Windows, changes the console mode from ‘O_TEXT’
          to ‘O_BINARY’, which will also affect non-Python uses of the
          console using the C Runtime.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_InitializeEx (int initsigs)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This function works like
     *note Py_Initialize(): 673. if 'initsigs' is ‘1’.  If 'initsigs' is
     ‘0’, it skips initialization registration of signal handlers, which
     may be useful when CPython is embedded as part of a larger
     application.

     Use *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. to customize the *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. Py_InitializeFromConfig (const
          PyConfig *config)

     Initialize Python from 'config' configuration, as described in
     *note Initialization with PyConfig: 588e.

     See the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 837. section for
     details on pre-initializing the interpreter, populating the runtime
     configuration structure, and querying the returned status
     structure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_IsInitialized ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return true (nonzero) when
     the Python interpreter has been initialized, false (zero) if not.
     After *note Py_FinalizeEx(): 10cf. is called, this returns false
     until *note Py_Initialize(): 673. is called again.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: This function no longer returns true until
     initialization has fully completed, including import of the *note
     site: cf. module.  Previously it could return true while *note
     Py_Initialize(): 673. was still running.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_IsFinalizing ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Return
     true (non-zero) if the main Python interpreter is *note shutting
     down: 1a0.  Return false (zero) otherwise.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_FinalizeEx ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.6.'  Undo all
     initializations made by *note Py_Initialize(): 673. and subsequent
     use of Python/C API functions, and destroy all sub-interpreters
     (see *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 1d2f. below) that were created and
     not yet destroyed since the last call to ‘Py_Initialize()’.  This
     is a no-op when called for a second time (without calling
     ‘Py_Initialize()’ again first).

     Since this is the reverse of *note Py_Initialize(): 673, it should
     be called in the same thread with the same interpreter active.
     That means the main thread and the main interpreter.  This should
     never be called while *note Py_RunMain(): d8d. is running.

     Normally the return value is ‘0’.  If there were errors during
     finalization (flushing buffered data), ‘-1’ is returned.

     Note that Python will do a best effort at freeing all memory
     allocated by the Python interpreter.  Therefore, any C-Extension
     should make sure to correctly clean up all of the previously
     allocated PyObjects before using them in subsequent calls to *note
     Py_Initialize(): 673.  Otherwise it could introduce vulnerabilities
     and incorrect behavior.

     This function is provided for a number of reasons.  An embedding
     application might want to restart Python without having to restart
     the application itself.  An application that has loaded the Python
     interpreter from a dynamically loadable library (or DLL) might want
     to free all memory allocated by Python before unloading the DLL.
     During a hunt for memory leaks in an application a developer might
     want to free all memory allocated by Python before exiting from the
     application.

     'Bugs and caveats:' The destruction of modules and objects in
     modules is done in random order; this may cause destructors (*note
     __del__(): 13a6. methods) to fail when they depend on other objects
     (even functions) or modules.  Dynamically loaded extension modules
     loaded by Python are not unloaded.  Small amounts of memory
     allocated by the Python interpreter may not be freed (if you find a
     leak, please report it).  Memory tied up in circular references
     between objects is not freed.  Interned strings will all be
     deallocated regardless of their reference count.  Some memory
     allocated by extension modules may not be freed.  Some extensions
     may not work properly if their initialization routine is called
     more than once; this can happen if an application calls *note
     Py_Initialize(): 673. and *note Py_FinalizeEx(): 10cf. more than
     once.  ‘Py_FinalizeEx()’ must not be called recursively from within
     itself.  Therefore, it must not be called by any code that may be
     run as part of the interpreter shutdown process, such as *note
     atexit: d. handlers, object finalizers, or any code that may be run
     while flushing the stdout and stderr files.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks’ with no arguments.

     Added in version 3.6.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_Finalize ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is a
     backwards-compatible version of *note Py_FinalizeEx(): 10cf. that
     disregards the return value.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_BytesMain (int argc, char **argv)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.8.'  Similar
     to *note Py_Main(): fe2. but 'argv' is an array of bytes strings,
     allowing the calling application to delegate the text decoding step
     to the CPython runtime.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_Main (int argc, wchar_t **argv)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The main program for the
     standard interpreter, encapsulating a full
     initialization/finalization cycle, as well as additional behaviour
     to implement reading configurations settings from the environment
     and command line, and then executing ‘__main__’ in accordance with
     *note Command line: 13b0.

     This is made available for programs which wish to support the full
     CPython command line interface, rather than just embedding a Python
     runtime in a larger application.

     The 'argc' and 'argv' parameters are similar to those which are
     passed to a C program’s ‘main()’ function, except that the 'argv'
     entries are first converted to ‘wchar_t’ using *note
     Py_DecodeLocale(): f85.  It is also important to note that the
     argument list entries may be modified to point to strings other
     than those passed in (however, the contents of the strings pointed
     to by the argument list are not modified).

     The return value is ‘2’ if the argument list does not represent a
     valid Python command line, and otherwise the same as *note
     Py_RunMain(): d8d.

     In terms of the CPython runtime configuration APIs documented in
     the *note runtime configuration: 837. section (and without
     accounting for error handling), ‘Py_Main’ is approximately
     equivalent to:

          PyConfig config;
          PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
          PyConfig_SetArgv(&config, argc, argv);
          Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
          PyConfig_Clear(&config);

          Py_RunMain();

     In normal usage, an embedding application will call this function
     'instead' of calling *note Py_Initialize(): 673, *note
     Py_InitializeEx(): 5477. or *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a.
     directly, and all settings will be applied as described elsewhere
     in this documentation.  If this function is instead called 'after'
     a preceding runtime initialization API call, then exactly which
     environmental and command line configuration settings will be
     updated is version dependent (as it depends on which settings
     correctly support being modified after they have already been set
     once when the runtime was first initialized).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_RunMain (void)

     Executes the main module in a fully configured CPython runtime.

     Executes the command (*note PyConfig.run_command: 588f.), the
     script (*note PyConfig.run_filename: 5890.) or the module (*note
     PyConfig.run_module: 5891.) specified on the command line or in the
     configuration.  If none of these values are set, runs the
     interactive Python prompt (REPL) using the ‘__main__’ module’s
     global namespace.

     If *note PyConfig.inspect: 615. is not set (the default), the
     return value will be ‘0’ if the interpreter exits normally (that
     is, without raising an exception), the exit status of an unhandled
     *note SystemExit: 10f7, or ‘1’ for any other unhandled exception.

     If *note PyConfig.inspect: 615. is set (such as when the *note -i:
     187d. option is used), rather than returning when the interpreter
     exits, execution will instead resume in an interactive Python
     prompt (REPL) using the ‘__main__’ module’s global namespace.  If
     the interpreter exited with an exception, it is immediately raised
     in the REPL session.  The function return value is then determined
     by the way the 'REPL session' terminates: ‘0’, ‘1’, or the status
     of a *note SystemExit: 10f7, as specified above.

     This function always finalizes the Python interpreter before it
     returns.

     See *note Python Configuration: 5892. for an example of a
     customized Python that always runs in isolated mode using *note
     Py_RunMain(): d8d.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_AtExit (PyInterpreterState *interp, void
          (*func)(void*), void *data)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Register an *note atexit: d. callback for the target interpreter
     'interp'.  This is similar to *note Py_AtExit(): 5468, but takes an
     explicit interpreter and data pointer for the callback.

     There must be an *note attached thread state: 1a1. for 'interp'.

     Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Cautions regarding interpreter finalization,  Next: Interpreter views,  Prev: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter,  Up: Interpreter initialization and finalization

7.11.4 Cautions regarding interpreter finalization
--------------------------------------------------

In the late stage of *note interpreter shutdown: 1a0, after attempting
to wait for non-daemon threads to exit (though this can be interrupted
by *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96.) and running the *note atexit: d.
functions, the runtime is marked as finalizing, meaning that *note
Py_IsFinalizing(): 7f3. and *note sys.is_finalizing(): e4f. return true.
At this point, only the finalization thread (the thread that initiated
finalization; this is typically the main thread) is allowed to *note
attach: 1a1. a thread state.

Other threads that attempt to attach during finalization, either
explicitly (such as via *note PyThreadState_Ensure(): 53fd. or *note
Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: e4e.) or implicitly (such as in-between bytecode
instructions), will enter a 'permanently blocked state'.  Generally,
this is harmless, but this can result in deadlocks.  For example, a
thread may be permanently blocked while holding a lock, meaning that the
finalization thread can never acquire that lock.

Prior to CPython 3.13, the thread would exit instead of hanging, which
led to other issues (see the warning note at *note
PyThread_exit_thread(): 5407.).

Gross?  Yes.  Starting in Python 3.15, there are a number of C APIs that
make it possible to avoid these issues by temporarily preventing
finalization:

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 788(1) explains the design, motivation and rationale for these APIs.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyInterpreterGuard
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (ως μια αδιαφανής κατασκευή)
     από την έκδοση 3.15.'  An opaque interpreter guard structure.

     By holding an interpreter guard, the caller can ensure that the
     interpreter will not finalize until the guard is closed (through
     *note PyInterpreterGuard_Close(): 5366.).

     When a guard is held, a thread attempting to finalize the
     interpreter will block until the guard is closed before starting
     finalization.  After finalization has started, threads are forever
     unable to acquire guards for that interpreter.  This means that if
     you forget to close an interpreter guard, the process will
     'permanently hang' during finalization!

     Holding a guard for an interpreter is similar to holding a *note
     strong reference: 7da. to a Python object, except finalization does
     not happen automatically after all guards are released: it requires
     an explicit *note Py_EndInterpreter(): 1a6f. call.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyInterpreterGuard: 5365.
          *PyInterpreterGuard_FromCurrent (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Create a
     finalization guard for the current interpreter.  This will prevent
     finalization until the guard is closed.

     For example:

          // Temporarily prevent finalization.
          PyInterpreterGuard *guard = PyInterpreterGuard_FromCurrent();
          if (guard == NULL) {
             // Finalization has already started or we're out of memory.
             return NULL;
          }

          Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS;
          // Do some critical processing here. For example, we can safely acquire
          // locks that might be acquired by the finalization thread.
          Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS;

          // Now that we're done with our critical processing, the interpreter is
          // allowed to finalize again.
          PyInterpreterGuard_Close(guard);

     On success, this function returns a guard for the current
     interpreter; on failure, it returns ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     This function will fail only if the current interpreter has already
     started finalizing, or if the process is out of memory.

     The guard pointer returned by this function must be eventually
     closed with *note PyInterpreterGuard_Close(): 5366.; failing to do
     so will result in the Python process infinitely hanging.

     The caller must hold an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyInterpreterGuard: 5365.
          *PyInterpreterGuard_FromView (PyInterpreterView *view)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Create a
     finalization guard for an interpreter through a view.

     On success, this function returns a guard to the interpreter
     represented by 'view'.  The view is still valid after calling this
     function.  The guard must eventually be closed with *note
     PyInterpreterGuard_Close(): 5366.

     If the interpreter no longer exists, is already finalizing, or out
     of memory, then this function returns ‘NULL’ without setting an
     exception.

     The caller does not need to hold an *note attached thread state:
     1a1.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyInterpreterGuard_Close (PyInterpreterGuard
          *guard)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Close an
     interpreter guard, allowing the interpreter to start finalization
     if no other guards remain.  If an interpreter guard is never
     closed, the interpreter will infinitely wait when trying to enter
     finalization!

     After an interpreter guard is closed, it may not be used in *note
     PyThreadState_Ensure(): 53fd.  Doing so will result in undefined
     behavior.

     This function cannot fail, and the caller doesn’t need to hold an
     *note attached thread state: 1a1.

     Added in version 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0788/


File: python.info,  Node: Interpreter views,  Next: Process-wide parameters,  Prev: Cautions regarding interpreter finalization,  Up: Interpreter initialization and finalization

7.11.5 Interpreter views
------------------------

In some cases, it may be necessary to access an interpreter that may
have been deleted.  This can be done using interpreter views.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyInterpreterView
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (ως μια αδιαφανής κατασκευή)
     από την έκδοση 3.15.'  An opaque view of an interpreter.

     This is a thread-safe way to access an interpreter that may have be
     finalizing or already destroyed.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyInterpreterView: 536b.
          *PyInterpreterView_FromCurrent (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Create a
     view to the current interpreter.

     This function is generally meant to be used alongside *note
     PyInterpreterGuard_FromView(): 5368. or *note
     PyThreadState_EnsureFromView(): 53fe.

     On success, this function returns a view to the current
     interpreter; on failure, it returns ‘NULL’ with an exception set.

     The caller must hold an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyInterpreterView_Close (PyInterpreterView *view)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Close an
     interpreter view.

     If an interpreter view is never closed, the view’s memory will
     never be freed, but there are no other consequences.  (In contrast,
     forgetting to close a guard will infinitely hang the main thread
     during finalization.)

     This function cannot fail, and the caller doesn’t need to hold an
     *note attached thread state: 1a1.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyInterpreterView: 536b.
          *PyInterpreterView_FromMain (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Create a
     view for the main interpreter (the first and default interpreter in
     a Python process; see *note PyInterpreterState_Main(): 5896.).

     On success, this function returns a view to the main interpreter;
     on failure, it returns ‘NULL’ without an exception set.  Failure
     indicates that the process is out of memory.

     Use this function when an interpreter pointer or view cannot be
     supplied by the caller, such as when a native threading library
     does not provide a ‘void *arg’ parameter that could carry a *note
     PyInterpreterGuard: 5365. or *note PyInterpreterView: 536b.  In
     code that supports subinterpreters, prefer *note
     PyInterpreterView_FromCurrent(): 536d. so the guard tracks the
     calling interpreter rather than the main one.

     The caller does not need to hold an *note attached thread state:
     1a1.

     Added in version 3.15.


File: python.info,  Node: Process-wide parameters,  Prev: Interpreter views,  Up: Interpreter initialization and finalization

7.11.6 Process-wide parameters
------------------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_SetProgramName (const wchar_t *name)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.program_name: 608. should be used instead, see *note
     Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

     This function should be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 673.
     is called for the first time, if it is called at all.  It tells the
     interpreter the value of the ‘argv[0]’ argument to the ‘main()’
     function of the program (converted to wide characters).  This is
     used by some other functions below to find the Python run-time
     libraries relative to the interpreter executable.  The default
     value is ‘'python'’.  The argument should point to a
     zero-terminated wide character string in static storage whose
     contents will not change for the duration of the program’s
     execution.  No code in the Python interpreter will change the
     contents of this storage.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *Py_GetVersion ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the version of this
     Python interpreter.  This is a string that looks something like

          "3.0a5+ (py3k:63103M, May 12 2008, 00:53:55) \n[GCC 4.2.3]"

     The first word (up to the first space character) is the current
     Python version; the first characters are the major and minor
     version separated by a period.  The returned string points into
     static storage; the caller should not modify its value.  The value
     is available to Python code as *note sys.version: 6a8.

     See also the *note Py_Version: 5ae. constant.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *Py_GetPlatform ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Return the platform identifier for the current platform.  On Unix,
     this is formed from the «official» name of the operating system,
     converted to lower case, followed by the major revision number;
     e.g., for Solaris 2.x, which is also known as SunOS 5.x, the value
     is ‘'sunos5'’.  On macOS, it is ‘'darwin'’.  On Windows, it is
     ‘'win'’.  The returned string points into static storage; the
     caller should not modify its value.  The value is available to
     Python code as ‘sys.platform’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *Py_GetCopyright ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the official copyright
     string for the current Python version, for example

     ‘'Copyright 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam'’

     The returned string points into static storage; the caller should
     not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as
     ‘sys.copyright’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *Py_GetCompiler ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return an indication of the
     compiler used to build the current Python version, in square
     brackets, for example:

          "[GCC 2.7.2.2]"

     The returned string points into static storage; the caller should
     not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as
     part of the variable ‘sys.version’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: const char *Py_GetBuildInfo ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return information about the
     sequence number and build date and time of the current Python
     interpreter instance, for example

          "#67, Aug  1 1997, 22:34:28"

     The returned string points into static storage; the caller should
     not modify its value.  The value is available to Python code as
     part of the variable ‘sys.version’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PySys_SetArgvEx (int argc, wchar_t **argv, int
          updatepath)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note
     PyConfig.argv: 607, *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1ee6. and *note
     PyConfig.safe_path: b55. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Set *note sys.argv: 1609. based on 'argc' and 'argv'.  These
     parameters are similar to those passed to the program’s ‘main()’
     function with the difference that the first entry should refer to
     the script file to be executed rather than the executable hosting
     the Python interpreter.  If there isn’t a script that will be run,
     the first entry in 'argv' can be an empty string.  If this function
     fails to initialize ‘sys.argv’, a fatal condition is signalled
     using *note Py_FatalError(): d4b.

     If 'updatepath' is zero, this is all the function does.  If
     'updatepath' is non-zero, the function also modifies *note
     sys.path: 194. according to the following algorithm:

        - If the name of an existing script is passed in ‘argv[0]’, the
          absolute path of the directory where the script is located is
          prepended to *note sys.path: 194.

        - Otherwise (that is, if 'argc' is ‘0’ or ‘argv[0]’ doesn’t
          point to an existing file name), an empty string is prepended
          to *note sys.path: 194, which is the same as prepending the
          current working directory (‘"."’).

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: c6a. and *note PyConfig.argv:
     607. members of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

          Σημείωση: It is recommended that applications embedding the
          Python interpreter for purposes other than executing a single
          script pass ‘0’ as 'updatepath', and update *note sys.path:
          194. themselves if desired.  See CVE 2008-5983(1).

          On versions before 3.1.3, you can achieve the same effect by
          manually popping the first *note sys.path: 194. element after
          having called *note PySys_SetArgv(): 1bc2, for example using:

               PyRun_SimpleString("import sys; sys.path.pop(0)\n");

     Added in version 3.1.3.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PySys_SetArgv (int argc, wchar_t **argv)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This API is kept for backward
     compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.argv: 607. and *note
     PyConfig.parse_argv: 1ee6. should be used instead, see *note Python
     Initialization Configuration: 837.

     This function works like *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 1bc1. with
     'updatepath' set to ‘1’ unless the ‘python’ interpreter was started
     with the *note -I: d28.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: c6a. and *note PyConfig.argv:
     607. members of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The 'updatepath' value depends on *note -I:
     d28.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_SetPythonHome (const wchar_t *home)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This API is kept for backward
     compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.home: 609. should be used
     instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 837.

     Set the default «home» directory, that is, the location of the
     standard Python libraries.  See *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. for the
     meaning of the argument string.

     The argument should point to a zero-terminated character string in
     static storage whose contents will not change for the duration of
     the program’s execution.  No code in the Python interpreter will
     change the contents of this storage.

     Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85. to decode a bytes string to get a
     wchar_t* string.

     Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.11, αφαιρέθηκε στην έκδοση 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983


File: python.info,  Node: Thread states and the global interpreter lock,  Next: Asynchronous notifications,  Prev: Interpreter initialization and finalization,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.12 Thread states and the global interpreter lock
==================================================

Unless on a *note free-threaded build: 198. of *note CPython: ae3, the
Python interpreter is generally not thread-safe.  In order to support
multi-threaded Python programs, there’s a global lock, called the *note
global interpreter lock: 685. or *note GIL: 411, that must be held by a
thread before accessing Python objects.  Without the lock, even the
simplest operations could cause problems in a multi-threaded program:
for example, when two threads simultaneously increment the reference
count of the same object, the reference count could end up being
incremented only once instead of twice.

As such, only a thread that holds the GIL may operate on Python objects
or invoke Python’s C API.

In order to emulate concurrency, the interpreter regularly tries to
switch threads between bytecode instructions (see *note
sys.setswitchinterval(): d16.).  This is why locks are also necessary
for thread-safety in pure-Python code.

Additionally, the global interpreter lock is released around blocking
I/O operations, such as reading or writing to a file.  From the C API,
this is done by *note detaching the thread state: 589c.

The Python interpreter keeps some thread-local information inside a data
structure called *note PyThreadState: b6c, known as a *note thread
state: 1a70.  Each thread has a thread-local pointer to a
‘PyThreadState’; a thread state referenced by this pointer is considered
to be *note attached: 1a1.

A thread can only have one *note attached thread state: 1a1. at a time.
An attached thread state is typically analogous with holding the GIL,
except on free-threaded builds.  On builds with the GIL enabled,
attaching a thread state will block until the GIL can be acquired.
However, even on builds with the GIL disabled, it is still required to
have an attached thread state, as the interpreter needs to keep track of
which threads may access Python objects.

     Σημείωση: Even on the free-threaded build, attaching a thread state
     may block, as the GIL can be re-enabled or threads might be
     temporarily suspended (such as during a garbage collection).

Generally, there will always be an attached thread state when using
Python’s C API, including during embedding and when implementing
methods, so it’s uncommon to need to set up a thread state on your own.
Only in some specific cases, such as in a *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS:
51d4. block or in a fresh thread, will the thread not have an attached
thread state.  If uncertain, check if *note
PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 636. returns ‘NULL’.

If it turns out that you do need to create a thread state, it is
recommended to use *note PyThreadState_Ensure(): 53fd. or *note
PyThreadState_EnsureFromView(): 53fe, which will manage the thread state
for you.

* Menu:

* Detaching the thread state from extension code::
* Using the C API from foreign threads::
* GIL-state APIs::
* Cautions about fork(): Cautions about fork.
* High-level APIs::
* Low-level APIs::


File: python.info,  Node: Detaching the thread state from extension code,  Next: Using the C API from foreign threads,  Up: Thread states and the global interpreter lock

7.12.1 Detaching the thread state from extension code
-----------------------------------------------------

Most extension code manipulating the *note thread state: 1a70. has the
following simple structure:

     Save the thread state in a local variable.
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     Restore the thread state from the local variable.

This is so common that a pair of macros exists to simplify it:

     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS

The *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 51d4. macro opens a new block and
declares a hidden local variable; the *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: e4e.
macro closes the block.

The block above expands to the following code:

     PyThreadState *_save;

     _save = PyEval_SaveThread();
     ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
     PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);

Here is how these functions work:

The attached thread state implies that the GIL is held for the
interpreter.  To detach it, *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 838. is called
and the result is stored in a local variable.

By detaching the thread state, the GIL is released, which allows other
threads to attach to the interpreter and execute while the current
thread performs blocking I/O. When the I/O operation is complete, the
old thread state is reattached by calling *note PyEval_RestoreThread():
839, which will wait until the GIL can be acquired.

     Σημείωση: Performing blocking I/O is the most common use case for
     detaching the thread state, but it is also useful to call it over
     long-running native code that doesn’t need access to Python objects
     or Python’s C API. For example, the standard *note zlib: 13c. and
     *note hashlib: 6b. modules detach the *note thread state: 1a1. when
     compressing or hashing data.

On a *note free-threaded build: 198, the *note GIL: 411. is usually out
of the question, but 'detaching the thread state is still required',
because the interpreter periodically needs to block all threads to get a
consistent view of Python objects without the risk of race conditions.
For example, CPython currently suspends all threads for a short period
of time while running the garbage collector.

     Προειδοποίηση: Detaching the thread state can lead to unexpected
     behavior during interpreter finalization.  See *note Cautions
     regarding interpreter finalization: 5894. for more details.

* Menu:

* APIs::


File: python.info,  Node: APIs,  Up: Detaching the thread state from extension code

7.12.1.1 APIs
.............

The following macros are normally used without a trailing semicolon;
look for example usage in the Python source distribution.

     Σημείωση: These macros are still necessary on the *note
     free-threaded build: 198. to prevent deadlocks.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This macro expands to ‘{
     PyThreadState *_save; _save = PyEval_SaveThread();’.  Note that it
     contains an opening brace; it must be matched with a following
     *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: e4e. macro.  See above for further
     discussion of this macro.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This macro expands to
     ‘PyEval_RestoreThread(_save); }’.  Note that it contains a closing
     brace; it must be matched with an earlier *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 51d4. macro.  See above for further
     discussion of this macro.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_BLOCK_THREADS
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This macro expands to
     ‘PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);’: it is equivalent to *note
     Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: e4e. without the closing brace.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This macro expands to ‘_save
     = PyEval_SaveThread();’: it is equivalent to *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 51d4. without the opening brace and
     variable declaration.


File: python.info,  Node: Using the C API from foreign threads,  Next: GIL-state APIs,  Prev: Detaching the thread state from extension code,  Up: Thread states and the global interpreter lock

7.12.2 Using the C API from foreign threads
-------------------------------------------

When threads are created using the dedicated Python APIs (such as the
*note threading: f6. module), a thread state is automatically associated
with them, However, when a thread is created from native code (for
example, by a third-party library with its own thread management), it
doesn’t hold an attached thread state.

If you need to call Python code from these threads (often this will be
part of a callback API provided by the aforementioned third-party
library), you must first register these threads with the interpreter by
creating a new thread state and attaching it.

The easiest way to do this is through *note PyThreadState_Ensure():
53fd. or *note PyThreadState_EnsureFromView(): 53fe.

     Σημείωση: These functions require an argument pointing to the
     desired interpreter; such a pointer can be acquired via a call to
     *note PyInterpreterGuard_FromCurrent(): 5367. (for
     ‘PyThreadState_Ensure’) or *note PyInterpreterView_FromCurrent():
     536d. (for ‘PyThreadState_EnsureFromView’) from the function that
     creates the thread.  If no pointer is available (such as when the
     given native thread library doesn’t provide a data argument), *note
     PyInterpreterView_FromMain(): 536e. can be used to get a view for
     the main interpreter, but note that this will make the code
     incompatible with subinterpreters.

For example:

     // The return value of PyInterpreterGuard_FromCurrent() from the
     // function that created this thread.
     PyInterpreterGuard *guard = thread_data->guard;

     // Create a new thread state for the interpreter.
     PyThreadStateToken *token = PyThreadState_Ensure(guard);
     if (token == NULL) {
        PyInterpreterGuard_Close(guard);
        return;
     }

     // We have a valid thread state -- perform Python actions here.
     result = CallSomeFunction();
     // Evaluate result or handle exceptions.

     // Release the thread state. No calls to the C API are allowed beyond this
     // point.
     PyThreadState_Release(token);
     PyInterpreterGuard_Close(guard);

Keep in mind that calling ‘PyThreadState_Ensure’ might not always create
a new thread state, and calling ‘PyThreadState_Release’ might not always
detach it.  These functions may reuse an existing attached thread state,
or may re-attach a thread state that was previously attached for the
current thread.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 788(1)

* Menu:

* Attaching/detaching thread states::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0788/


File: python.info,  Node: Attaching/detaching thread states,  Up: Using the C API from foreign threads

7.12.2.1 Attaching/detaching thread states
..........................................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyThreadStateToken: 53fc. *PyThreadState_Ensure
          (PyInterpreterGuard *guard)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Ensure
     that the thread has an attached thread state for the interpreter
     protected by 'guard', and thus can safely invoke that interpreter.

     It is OK to call this function if the thread already has an
     attached thread state, as long as there is a subsequent call to
     *note PyThreadState_Release(): 5401. that matches this one (meaning
     that «nested» calls to this function are permitted).

     The function’s effect (if any) will be reversed by the matching
     call to *note PyThreadState_Release(): 5401.

     On error, this function returns ‘NULL’ 'without' an exception set.
     Do not call ‘PyThreadState_Release()’ in this case.

     On success, this function returns a pointer value that must be
     passed to the matching call to ‘PyThreadState_Release()’.

     The conditions in which this function creates a new *note thread
     state: 1a70. are considered unstable and implementation-dependent.
     If you need to control the exact lifetime of a thread state,
     consider using *note PyThreadState_New(): 5400.  However, do not
     avoid this function solely on the basis that the lifetime of the
     thread state may be inconsistent across versions; changes to this
     function will be done with caution and in a backwards-compatible
     manner.  In particular, the saving of thread-local variables and
     similar state will be retained across Python versions.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' The exact behavior of whether
     this function creates a new thread state is described below, but be
     aware that this may change in the future.

     First, this function checks if an attached thread state is present.
     If there is, this function then checks if the interpreter of that
     thread state matches the interpreter guarded by 'guard'.  If that
     is the case, this function simply marks the thread state as being
     used by a ‘PyThreadState_Ensure’ call and returns.

     If there is no attached thread state, then this function checks if
     any thread state has been used by the current OS thread.  (This is
     returned by *note PyGILState_GetThisThreadState(): 5357.)  If there
     was, then this function checks if that thread state’s interpreter
     matches 'guard'.  If it does, it is re-attached and marked as used.

     Otherwise, if both of the above cases fail, a new thread state is
     created for 'guard'.  It is then attached and marked as owned by
     ‘PyThreadState_Ensure’.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyThreadStateToken: 53fc.
          *PyThreadState_EnsureFromView (PyInterpreterView *view)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Get an
     attached thread state for the interpreter referenced by 'view'.

     The behavior and return value are the same as for *note
     PyThreadState_Ensure(): 53fd.; additionally, if the function
     succeeds, the interpreter referenced by 'view' will be implicitly
     guarded.  The guard will be released upon the corresponding *note
     PyThreadState_Release(): 5401. call.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThreadState_Release (PyThreadStateToken *token)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Undo a
     *note PyThreadState_Ensure(): 53fd. or *note
     PyThreadState_EnsureFromView(): 53fe. call.

     This must be called exactly once for each successful 'Ensure' call,
     with 'token' set to that call’s return value.

     The state that was attached before the corresponding 'Ensure' call
     (if any) will be attached when *note PyThreadState_Release(): 5401.
     returns.

     The exact behavior of whether this function deletes a thread state
     is considered unstable and implementation-dependent.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Currently, this function will
     decrement an internal counter on the attached thread state.  If
     this counter ever reaches below zero, this function emits a fatal
     error (via *note Py_FatalError(): d4b.).

     If the attached thread state is owned by ‘PyThreadState_Ensure’,
     then the attached thread state will be deallocated and deleted upon
     the internal counter reaching zero.  Otherwise, nothing happens
     when the counter reaches zero.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyThreadStateToken
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (ως μια αδιαφανής κατασκευή)
     από την έκδοση 3.15.'  An opaque token retrieved from a *note
     PyThreadState_Ensure(): 53fd. call and passed to a corresponding
     *note PyThreadState_Release(): 5401. call.


File: python.info,  Node: GIL-state APIs,  Next: Cautions about fork,  Prev: Using the C API from foreign threads,  Up: Thread states and the global interpreter lock

7.12.3 GIL-state APIs
---------------------

The following APIs are generally not compatible with subinterpreters and
will hang the process during interpreter finalization (see *note
Cautions regarding interpreter finalization: 5894.).  As such, these
APIs were *note soft deprecated: 1a7. in Python 3.15 in favor of the
*note new APIs: 58a0.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyGILState_STATE
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type of the value
     returned by *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5. and passed to *note
     PyGILState_Release(): 1a6.

      -- C Enumerator: enumerator PyGILState_LOCKED

          The GIL was already held when *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5.
          was called.

      -- C Enumerator: enumerator PyGILState_UNLOCKED

          The GIL was not held when *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5. was
          called.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyGILState_STATE: 5358. PyGILState_Ensure ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Ensure that the current
     thread is ready to call the Python C API regardless of the current
     state of Python, or of the *note attached thread state: 1a1.  This
     may be called as many times as desired by a thread as long as each
     call is matched with a call to *note PyGILState_Release(): 1a6.  In
     general, other thread-related APIs may be used between *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5. and ‘PyGILState_Release()’ calls as long
     as the thread state is restored to its previous state before the
     Release().  For example, normal usage of the *note
     Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 51d4. and *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: e4e.
     macros is acceptable.

     The return value is an opaque «handle» to the *note attached thread
     state: 1a1. when *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5. was called, and
     must be passed to *note PyGILState_Release(): 1a6. to ensure Python
     is left in the same state.  Even though recursive calls are
     allowed, these handles 'cannot' be shared - each unique call to
     ‘PyGILState_Ensure()’ must save the handle for its call to
     ‘PyGILState_Release()’.

     When the function returns, there will be an *note attached thread
     state: 1a1. and the thread will be able to call arbitrary Python
     code.

     This function has no way to return an error.  As such, errors are
     either fatal (that is, they send ‘SIGABRT’ and crash the process;
     see *note Py_FatalError(): d4b.), or the thread will be permanently
     blocked (such as during interpreter finalization).

          Προειδοποίηση: Calling this function when the interpreter is
          finalizing will infinitely hang the thread, which may cause
          deadlocks.  *note Cautions regarding interpreter finalization:
          5894. for more details.

          In addition, this function generally does not work with
          subinterpreters when used from foreign threads, because this
          function has no way of knowing which interpreter created the
          thread (and as such, will implicitly pick the main
          interpreter).

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Hangs the current thread, rather than
     terminating it, if called while the interpreter is finalizing.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15: Use *note
     PyThreadState_Ensure(): 53fd. or *note
     PyThreadState_EnsureFromView(): 53fe. instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyGILState_Release (PyGILState_STATE)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Release any resources
     previously acquired.  After this call, Python’s state will be the
     same as it was prior to the corresponding *note
     PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5. call (but generally this state will be
     unknown to the caller, hence the use of the GIL-state API).

     Every call to *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5. must be matched by a
     call to *note PyGILState_Release(): 1a6. on the same thread.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15: Use *note
     PyThreadState_Release(): 5401. instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyThreadState: b6c.
          *PyGILState_GetThisThreadState ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Get the *note thread state:
     1a70. that was most recently *note attached: 1a1. for this thread.
     (If the most recent thread state has been deleted, this returns
     ‘NULL’.)

     If the caller has an attached thread state, it is returned.

     In other terms, this function returns the thread state that will be
     used by *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5.  If this returns ‘NULL’,
     then ‘PyGILState_Ensure’ will create a new thread state.

     This function cannot fail.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15: Use *note
     PyThreadState_Get(): 809. or *note PyThreadState_GetUnchecked():
     636. instead.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyGILState_Check ()

     Return ‘1’ if the current thread has an *note attached thread
     state: 1a1. that matches the thread state returned by *note
     PyGILState_GetThisThreadState(): 5357.  If the caller has no
     attached thread state or it otherwise doesn’t match, then this
     returns ‘0’.

     If the current Python process has ever created a subinterpreter,
     this function will 'always' return ‘1’.

     This is mainly a helper/diagnostic function.

     Added in version 3.4.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15: Use
     ‘PyThreadState_GetUnchecked() != NULL’ instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Cautions about fork,  Next: High-level APIs,  Prev: GIL-state APIs,  Up: Thread states and the global interpreter lock

7.12.4 Cautions about fork()
----------------------------

Another important thing to note about threads is their behaviour in the
face of the C ‘fork()’ call.  On most systems with ‘fork()’, after a
process forks only the thread that issued the fork will exist.  This has
a concrete impact both on how locks must be handled and on all stored
state in CPython’s runtime.

The fact that only the «current» thread remains means any locks held by
other threads will never be released.  Python solves this for *note
os.fork(): 6bd. by acquiring the locks it uses internally before the
fork, and releasing them afterwards.  In addition, it resets any *note
Lock objects: 386c. in the child.  When extending or embedding Python,
there is no way to inform Python of additional (non-Python) locks that
need to be acquired before or reset after a fork.  OS facilities such as
‘pthread_atfork()’ would need to be used to accomplish the same thing.
Additionally, when extending or embedding Python, calling ‘fork()’
directly rather than through ‘os.fork()’ (and returning to or calling
into Python) may result in a deadlock by one of Python’s internal locks
being held by a thread that is defunct after the fork.  *note
PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 643. tries to reset the necessary locks, but is
not always able to.

The fact that all other threads go away also means that CPython’s
runtime state there must be cleaned up properly, which *note os.fork():
6bd. does.  This means finalizing all other *note PyThreadState: b6c.
objects belonging to the current interpreter and all other *note
PyInterpreterState: c90. objects.  Due to this and the special nature of
the *note «main» interpreter: 410, ‘fork()’ should only be called in
that interpreter’s «main» thread, where the CPython global runtime was
originally initialized.  The only exception is if ‘exec()’ will be
called immediately after.


File: python.info,  Node: High-level APIs,  Next: Low-level APIs,  Prev: Cautions about fork,  Up: Thread states and the global interpreter lock

7.12.5 High-level APIs
----------------------

These are the most commonly used types and functions when writing
multi-threaded C extensions.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyThreadState
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (ως μια αδιαφανής κατασκευή).'
     This data structure represents the state of a single thread.  The
     only public data member is:

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyInterpreterState: c90. *interp

          This thread’s interpreter state.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyEval_InitThreads ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Deprecated function which does nothing.

     In Python 3.6 and older, this function created the GIL if it didn’t
     exist.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The function now does nothing.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: This function is now called by *note
     Py_Initialize(): 673, so you don’t have to call it yourself
     anymore.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: This function cannot be called before *note
     Py_Initialize(): 673. anymore.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyThreadState: b6c. *PyEval_SaveThread ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Detach the *note attached
     thread state: 1a1. and return it.  The thread will have no *note
     thread state: 1a70. upon returning.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyEval_RestoreThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the *note attached thread
     state: 1a1. to 'tstate'.  The passed *note thread state: 1a70.
     'should not' be attached, otherwise deadlock ensues.  'tstate' will
     be attached upon returning.

          Σημείωση: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime
          is finalizing will hang the thread until the program exits,
          even if the thread was not created by Python.  Refer to *note
          Cautions regarding interpreter finalization: 5894. for more
          details.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Hangs the current thread, rather than
     terminating it, if called while the interpreter is finalizing.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyThreadState: b6c. *PyThreadState_Get ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the *note attached
     thread state: 1a1.  If the thread has no attached thread state,
     (such as when inside of *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 51d4. block),
     then this issues a fatal error (so that the caller needn’t check
     for ‘NULL’).

     See also *note PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 636.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyThreadState: b6c. *PyThreadState_GetUnchecked
          ()

     Similar to *note PyThreadState_Get(): 809, but don’t kill the
     process with a fatal error if it is NULL. The caller is responsible
     to check if the result is NULL.

     Added in version 3.13: In Python 3.5 to 3.12, the function was
     private and known as ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyThreadState: b6c. *PyThreadState_Swap
          (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the *note attached thread
     state: 1a1. to 'tstate', and return the *note thread state: 1a70.
     that was attached prior to calling.

     This function is safe to call without an *note attached thread
     state: 1a1.; it will simply return ‘NULL’ indicating that there was
     no prior thread state.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note PyEval_ReleaseThread(): 5308.

          Σημείωση: Similar to *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5, this
          function will hang the thread if the runtime is finalizing.


File: python.info,  Node: Low-level APIs,  Prev: High-level APIs,  Up: Thread states and the global interpreter lock

7.12.6 Low-level APIs
---------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyThreadState: b6c. *PyThreadState_New
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Create a new thread state
     object belonging to the given interpreter object.  An *note
     attached thread state: 1a1. is not needed.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThreadState_Clear (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Reset all information in a
     *note thread state: 1a70. object.  'tstate' must be *note attached:
     1a1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: This function now calls the
     ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ callback.  Previously, that happened in
     *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 1f7b.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: The ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ callback was
     removed.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThreadState_Delete (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Destroy a *note thread state:
     1a70. object.  'tstate' should not be *note attached: 1a1. to any
     thread.  'tstate' must have been reset with a previous call to
     *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1b9e.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent (void)

     Detach the *note attached thread state: 1a1. (which must have been
     reset with a previous call to *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1b9e.)
     and then destroy it.

     No *note thread state: 1a70. will be *note attached: 1a1. upon
     returning.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyFrameObject: b68. *PyThreadState_GetFrame
          (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Get the
     current frame of the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     Return a *note strong reference: 7da.  Return ‘NULL’ if no frame is
     currently executing.

     See also *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 1d37.

     'tstate' must not be ‘NULL’, and must be *note attached: 1a1.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: uint64_t PyThreadState_GetID (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Get the
     unique *note thread state: 1a70. identifier of the Python thread
     state 'tstate'.

     'tstate' must not be ‘NULL’, and must be *note attached: 1a1.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyInterpreterState: c90.
          *PyThreadState_GetInterpreter (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Get the
     interpreter of the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     'tstate' must not be ‘NULL’, and must be *note attached: 1a1.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThreadState_EnterTracing (PyThreadState *tstate)

     Suspend tracing and profiling in the Python thread state 'tstate'.

     Resume them using the *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): b39.
     function.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing (PyThreadState *tstate)

     Resume tracing and profiling in the Python thread state 'tstate'
     suspended by the *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): b38. function.

     See also *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 850. and *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 189f. functions.

     Added in version 3.11.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection
          (PyThreadState *tstate, void *stack_start_addr, size_t
          stack_size)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Set the stack protection start address and stack protection size of
     a Python thread state.

     On success, return ‘0’.  On failure, set an exception and return
     ‘-1’.

     CPython implements *note recursion control: 5549. for C code by
     raising *note RecursionError: 1121. when it notices that the
     machine execution stack is close to overflow.  See for example the
     *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 5fe. function.  For this, it needs
     to know the location of the current thread’s stack, which it
     normally gets from the operating system.  When the stack is
     changed, for example using context switching techniques like the
     Boost library’s ‘boost::context’, you must call *note
     PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection(): 395. to inform CPython
     of the change.

     Call *note PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection(): 395. either
     before or after changing the stack.  Do not call any other Python C
     API between the call and the stack change.

     See *note PyUnstable_ThreadState_ResetStackProtection(): 396. for
     undoing this operation.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyUnstable_ThreadState_ResetStackProtection
          (PyThreadState *tstate)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Reset the stack protection start address and stack protection size
     of a Python thread state to the operating system defaults.

     See *note PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection(): 395. for an
     explanation.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyThreadState_GetDict ()
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.'  Return a dictionary in which extensions can store
     thread-specific state information.  Each extension should use a
     unique key to use to store state in the dictionary.  It is okay to
     call this function when no *note thread state: 1a70. is *note
     attached: 1a1.  If this function returns ‘NULL’, no exception has
     been raised and the caller should assume no thread state is
     attached.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyEval_AcquireThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  *note Attach: 1a1. 'tstate'
     to the current thread, which must not be ‘NULL’ or already
     attached.

     The calling thread must not already have an *note attached thread
     state: 1a1.

          Σημείωση: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime
          is finalizing will hang the thread until the program exits,
          even if the thread was not created by Python.  Refer to *note
          Cautions regarding interpreter finalization: 5894. for more
          details.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Updated to be consistent with *note
     PyEval_RestoreThread(): 839, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): e4e, and
     *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5, and terminate the current thread if
     called while the interpreter is finalizing.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Hangs the current thread, rather than
     terminating it, if called while the interpreter is finalizing.

     *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 839. is a higher-level function which
     is always available (even when threads have not been initialized).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyEval_ReleaseThread (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Detach the *note attached
     thread state: 1a1.  The 'tstate' argument, which must not be
     ‘NULL’, is only used to check that it represents the attached
     thread state — if it isn’t, a fatal error is reported.

     *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 838. is a higher-level function which is
     always available (even when threads have not been initialized).


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous notifications,  Next: Operating system thread APIs,  Prev: Thread states and the global interpreter lock,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.13 Asynchronous notifications
===============================

A mechanism is provided to make asynchronous notifications to the main
interpreter thread.  These notifications take the form of a function
pointer and a void pointer argument.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_AddPendingCall (int (*func)(void*), void *arg)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Schedule a function to be
     called from the main interpreter thread.  On success, ‘0’ is
     returned and 'func' is queued for being called in the main thread.
     On failure, ‘-1’ is returned without setting any exception.

     When successfully queued, 'func' will be 'eventually' called from
     the main interpreter thread with the argument 'arg'.  It will be
     called asynchronously with respect to normally running Python code,
     but with both these conditions met:

        * on a *note bytecode: 6b3. boundary;

        * with the main thread holding an *note attached thread state:
          1a1. ('func' can therefore use the full C API).

     'func' must return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ on failure with an
     exception set.  'func' won’t be interrupted to perform another
     asynchronous notification recursively, but it can still be
     interrupted to switch threads if the *note thread state: 1a1. is
     detached.

     This function doesn’t need an *note attached thread state: 1a1.
     However, to call this function in a subinterpreter, the caller must
     have an attached thread state.  Otherwise, the function 'func' can
     be scheduled to be called from the wrong interpreter.

          Προειδοποίηση: This is a low-level function, only useful for
          very special cases.  There is no guarantee that 'func' will be
          called as quick as possible.  If the main thread is busy
          executing a system call, 'func' won’t be called before the
          system call returns.  This function is generally 'not'
          suitable for calling Python code from arbitrary C threads.
          Instead, use *note PyThreadState_EnsureFromView(): 53fe.

     Added in version 3.1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: If this function is called in a
     subinterpreter, the function 'func' is now scheduled to be called
     from the subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main
     interpreter.  Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled
     calls.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This function now always schedules 'func'
     to be run in the main interpreter.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_MakePendingCalls (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Execute all pending calls.
     This is usually executed automatically by the interpreter.

     This function returns ‘0’ on success, and returns ‘-1’ with an
     exception set on failure.

     If this is not called in the main thread of the main interpreter,
     this function does nothing and returns ‘0’.  The caller must hold
     an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

     Added in version 3.1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This function only runs pending calls in
     the main interpreter.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (unsigned long id,
          PyObject *exc)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Schedule an exception to be
     raised asynchronously in a thread.  If the thread has a previously
     scheduled exception, it is overwritten.

     The 'id' argument is the thread id of the target thread, as
     returned by *note PyThread_get_thread_ident(): 540a.  'exc' is the
     class of the exception to be raised, or ‘NULL’ to clear the pending
     exception (if any).

     Return the number of affected thread states.  This is normally ‘1’
     if 'id' is found, even when no change was made (the given 'exc' was
     already pending, or 'exc' is ‘NULL’ but no exception is pending).
     If the thread id isn’t found, return ‘0’.  This raises no
     exceptions.

     To prevent naive misuse, you must write your own C extension to
     call this.  This function must be called with an *note attached
     thread state: 1a1.  This function does not steal any references to
     'exc'.  This function does not necessarily interrupt system calls
     such as *note sleep(): a8c.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: The type of the 'id' parameter changed from
     long to unsigned long.


File: python.info,  Node: Operating system thread APIs,  Next: Synchronization primitives<2>,  Prev: Asynchronous notifications,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.14 Operating system thread APIs
=================================

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PYTHREAD_INVALID_THREAD_ID

     Sentinel value for an invalid thread ID.

     This is currently equivalent to ‘(unsigned long)-1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: unsigned long PyThread_start_new_thread (void
          (*func)(void*), void *arg)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Start function 'func' in a
     new thread with argument 'arg'.  The resulting thread is not
     intended to be joined.

     'func' must not be ‘NULL’, but 'arg' may be ‘NULL’.

     On success, this function returns the identifier of the new thread;
     on failure, this returns *note PYTHREAD_INVALID_THREAD_ID: 58af.

     The caller does not need to hold an *note attached thread state:
     1a1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: unsigned long PyThread_get_thread_ident (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the identifier of the
     current thread, which will never be zero.

     This function cannot fail, and the caller does not need to hold an
     *note attached thread state: 1a1.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note threading.get_ident(): 1505. and *note
     threading.Thread.ident: 3390. expose this identifier to Python.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyThread_GetInfo (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.3.'  Get
     general information about the current thread in the form of a *note
     struct sequence: 1568. object.  This information is accessible as
     *note sys.thread_info: 14fb. in Python.

     On success, this returns a new *note strong reference: 7da. to the
     thread information; on failure, this returns ‘NULL’ with an
     exception set.

     The caller must hold an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_HAVE_THREAD_NATIVE_ID

     This macro is defined when the system supports native thread IDs.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: unsigned long PyThread_get_thread_native_id (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. on platforms with native thread
     IDs.'  Get the native identifier of the current thread as it was
     assigned by the operating system’s kernel, which will never be less
     than zero.

     This function is only available when *note
     PY_HAVE_THREAD_NATIVE_ID: 58b0. is defined.

     This function cannot fail, and the caller does not need to hold an
     *note attached thread state: 1a1.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note threading.get_native_id(): e01.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThread_exit_thread (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Terminate the current thread.
     This function is generally considered unsafe and should be avoided.
     It is kept solely for backwards compatibility.

     This function is only safe to call if all functions in the full
     call stack are written to safely allow it.

          Προειδοποίηση: If the current system uses POSIX threads (also
          known as «pthreads»), this calls ‘pthread_exit(3)(1)’, which
          attempts to unwind the stack and call C++ destructors on some
          libc implementations.  However, if a ‘noexcept’ function is
          reached, it may terminate the process.  Other systems, such as
          macOS, do unwinding.

          On Windows, this function calls ‘_endthreadex()’, which kills
          the thread without calling C++ destructors.

          In any case, there is a risk of corruption on the thread’s
          stack.

     Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThread_init_thread (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Initialize ‘PyThread*’ APIs.
     Python executes this function automatically, so there’s little need
     to call it from an extension module.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyThread_set_stacksize (size_t size)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the stack size of the
     current thread to 'size' bytes.

     This function returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ if 'size' is invalid, or
     ‘-2’ if the system does not support changing the stack size.  This
     function does not set exceptions.

     The caller does not need to hold an *note attached thread state:
     1a1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: size_t PyThread_get_stacksize (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the stack size of the
     current thread in bytes, or ‘0’ if the system’s default stack size
     is in use.

     The caller does not need to hold an *note attached thread state:
     1a1.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://manpages.debian.org/pthread_exit(3)


File: python.info,  Node: Synchronization primitives<2>,  Next: Thread-local storage support,  Prev: Operating system thread APIs,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.15 Synchronization primitives
===============================

The C-API provides a basic mutual exclusion lock.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyMutex

     A mutual exclusion lock.  The ‘PyMutex’ should be initialized to
     zero to represent the unlocked state.  For example:

          PyMutex mutex = {0};

     Instances of ‘PyMutex’ should not be copied or moved.  Both the
     contents and address of a ‘PyMutex’ are meaningful, and it must
     remain at a fixed, writable location in memory.

          Σημείωση: A ‘PyMutex’ currently occupies one byte, but the
          size should be considered unstable.  The size may change in
          future Python releases without a deprecation period.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyMutex_Lock (PyMutex *m)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Lock mutex 'm'.  If another
     thread has already locked it, the calling thread will block until
     the mutex is unlocked.  While blocked, the thread will temporarily
     detach the *note thread state: 1a1. if one exists.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyMutex_Unlock (PyMutex *m)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Unlock mutex 'm'.  The mutex
     must be locked — otherwise, the function will issue a fatal error.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMutex_IsLocked (PyMutex *m)
     ' Thread safety: *note Atomic: 292b.'  Returns non-zero if the
     mutex 'm' is currently locked, zero otherwise.

          Σημείωση: This function is intended for use in assertions and
          debugging only and should not be used to make concurrency
          control decisions, as the lock state may change immediately
          after the check.

     Added in version 3.14.

* Menu:

* Python critical section API::
* Legacy locking APIs::


File: python.info,  Node: Python critical section API,  Next: Legacy locking APIs,  Up: Synchronization primitives<2>

7.15.1 Python critical section API
----------------------------------

The critical section API provides a deadlock avoidance layer on top of
per-object locks for *note free-threaded: 487. CPython.  They are
intended to replace reliance on the *note global interpreter lock: 685,
and are no-ops in versions of Python with the global interpreter lock.

Critical sections are intended to be used for custom types implemented
in C-API extensions.  They should generally not be used with built-in
types like *note list: 4d9. and *note dict: 188. because their public
C-APIs already use critical sections internally, with the notable
exception of *note PyDict_Next(): 1b9c, which requires critical section
to be acquired externally.

Critical sections avoid deadlocks by implicitly suspending active
critical sections, hence, they do not provide exclusive access such as
provided by traditional locks like *note PyMutex: 693.  When a critical
section is started, the per-object lock for the object is acquired.  If
the code executed inside the critical section calls C-API functions then
it can suspend the critical section thereby releasing the per-object
lock, so other threads can acquire the per-object lock for the same
object.

Variants that accept *note PyMutex: 693. pointers rather than Python
objects are also available.  Use these variants to start a critical
section in a situation where there is no *note PyObject: 19b. – for
example, when working with a C type that does not extend or wrap
‘PyObject’ but still needs to call into the C API in a manner that might
lead to deadlocks.

     Σημείωση: Operations that need to lock two objects at once must use
     *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2: 546a.  You 'cannot' use nested
     critical sections to lock more than one object at once, because the
     inner critical section may suspend the outer critical sections.
     This API does not provide a way to lock more than two objects at
     once.

Example usage:

     static PyObject *
     set_field(MyObject *self, PyObject *value)
     {
        Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(self);
        Py_SETREF(self->field, Py_XNewRef(value));
        Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();
        Py_RETURN_NONE;
     }

In the above example, *note Py_SETREF: 97d. calls *note Py_DECREF: 975,
which can call arbitrary code through an object’s deallocation function.
The critical section API avoids potential deadlocks due to reentrancy
and lock ordering by allowing the runtime to temporarily suspend the
critical section if the code triggered by the finalizer blocks and calls
*note PyEval_SaveThread(): 838.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION (op)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Acquires
     the per-object lock for the object 'op' and begins a critical
     section.

     In the free-threaded build, and when building for the *note Stable
     ABI: 197, this macro expands to:

          {
              PyCriticalSection _py_cs;
              PyCriticalSection_Begin(&_py_cs, (PyObject*)(op))

     In the default build, this macro expands to ‘{’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION_MUTEX (m)

     Locks the mutex 'm' and begins a critical section.

     In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

          {
               PyCriticalSection _py_cs;
               PyCriticalSection_BeginMutex(&_py_cs, m)

     Note that unlike *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION: 5469, there is no
     cast for the argument of the macro - it must be a *note PyMutex:
     693. pointer.

     On the default build, this macro expands to ‘{’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Ends the
     critical section and releases the per-object lock.

     In the free-threaded build, and when building for the *note Stable
     ABI: 197, this macro expands to:

              PyCriticalSection_End(&_py_cs);
          }

     In the default build, this macro expands to ‘}’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2 (a, b)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Acquires
     the per-object locks for the objects 'a' and 'b' and begins a
     critical section.  The locks are acquired in a consistent order
     (lowest address first) to avoid lock ordering deadlocks.

     In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to:

          {
              PyCriticalSection2 _py_cs2;
              PyCriticalSection2_Begin(&_py_cs2, (PyObject*)(a), (PyObject*)(b))

     In the default build, this macro expands to ‘{’.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2_MUTEX (m1, m2)

     Locks the mutexes 'm1' and 'm2' and begins a critical section.

     In the free-threaded build, and when building for the *note Stable
     ABI: 197, this macro expands to:

          {
               PyCriticalSection2 _py_cs2;
               PyCriticalSection2_BeginMutex(&_py_cs2, m1, m2)

     Note that unlike *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2: 546a, there is
     no cast for the arguments of the macro - they must be *note
     PyMutex: 693. pointers.

     On the default build, this macro expands to ‘{’.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION2 ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Ends the
     critical section and releases the per-object locks.

     In the free-threaded build, and when building for the *note Stable
     ABI: 197, this macro expands to:

              PyCriticalSection2_End(&_py_cs2);
          }

     In the default build, this macro expands to ‘}’.

     Added in version 3.13.

* Menu:

* Low-level critical section API::


File: python.info,  Node: Low-level critical section API,  Up: Python critical section API

7.15.1.1 Low-level critical section API
.......................................

The following functions and structs are exposed for cases where C macros
are not available.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyCriticalSection_Begin (PyCriticalSection *c,
          PyObject *op)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyCriticalSection_End (PyCriticalSection *c)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyCriticalSection2_Begin (PyCriticalSection2 *c,
          PyObject *a, PyObject *b)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyCriticalSection2_End (PyCriticalSection2 *c);
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  To be
     used only as in the macro expansions listed *note earlier in this
     section: 58b6.

     In non-*note free-threaded: 487. builds of CPython, these functions
     do nothing.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyCriticalSection
 -- C Τύπος: type PyCriticalSection2
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των
     μελών) από την έκδοση 3.15.'  To be used only as in the macro
     expansions listed *note earlier in this section: 58b6.  Note that
     the contents of the structures are private and their meaning may
     change in future Python versions.

     Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyCriticalSection_BeginMutex (PyCriticalSection
          *c, PyMutex *m);
 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyCriticalSection2_BeginMutex (PyCriticalSection2
          *c, PyMutex *m1, PyMutex *m2);

     To be used only as in the macro expansions listed *note earlier in
     this section: 58b6.

     In non-*note free-threaded: 487. builds of CPython, these functions
     do nothing.

     Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy locking APIs,  Prev: Python critical section API,  Up: Synchronization primitives<2>

7.15.2 Legacy locking APIs
--------------------------

These APIs are obsolete since Python 3.13 with the introduction of *note
PyMutex: 693.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: These APIs are now a simple wrapper around
‘PyMutex’.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyThread_type_lock

     A pointer to a mutual exclusion lock.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyLockStatus

     The result of acquiring a lock with a timeout.

      -- C Enumerator: enumerator PY_LOCK_FAILURE

          Failed to acquire the lock.

      -- C Enumerator: enumerator PY_LOCK_ACQUIRED

          The lock was successfully acquired.

      -- C Enumerator: enumerator PY_LOCK_INTR

          The lock was interrupted by a signal.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyThread_type_lock: 58bd. PyThread_allocate_lock
          (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Allocate a new lock.

     On success, this function returns a lock; on failure, this function
     returns ‘0’ without an exception set.

     The caller does not need to hold an *note attached thread state:
     1a1.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: This function now always uses *note
     PyMutex: 693.  In prior versions, this would use a lock provided by
     the operating system.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThread_free_lock (PyThread_type_lock lock)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Destroy 'lock'.  The lock
     should not be held by any thread when calling this.

     The caller does not need to hold an *note attached thread state:
     1a1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyLockStatus: 58be. PyThread_acquire_lock_timed
          (PyThread_type_lock lock, long long microseconds, int
          intr_flag)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Acquire 'lock' with a
     timeout.

     This will wait for 'microseconds' microseconds to acquire the lock.
     If the timeout expires, this function returns *note
     PY_LOCK_FAILURE: 58bf.  If 'microseconds' is ‘-1’, this will wait
     indefinitely until the lock has been released.

     If 'intr_flag' is ‘1’, acquiring the lock may be interrupted by a
     signal, in which case this function returns *note PY_LOCK_INTR:
     58c1.  Upon interruption, it’s generally expected that the caller
     makes a call to *note Py_MakePendingCalls(): 5478. to propagate an
     exception to Python code.

     If the lock is successfully acquired, this function returns *note
     PY_LOCK_ACQUIRED: 58c0.

     The caller does not need to hold an *note attached thread state:
     1a1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyThread_acquire_lock (PyThread_type_lock lock, int
          waitflag)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Acquire 'lock'.

     If 'waitflag' is ‘1’ and another thread currently holds the lock,
     this function will wait until the lock can be acquired and will
     always return ‘1’.

     If 'waitflag' is ‘0’ and another thread holds the lock, this
     function will not wait and instead return ‘0’.  If the lock is not
     held by any other thread, then this function will acquire it and
     return ‘1’.

     Unlike *note PyThread_acquire_lock_timed(): 5405, acquiring the
     lock cannot be interrupted by a signal.

     The caller does not need to hold an *note attached thread state:
     1a1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyThread_release_lock (PyThread_type_lock lock)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Release 'lock'.  If 'lock' is
     not held, then this function issues a fatal error.

     The caller does not need to hold an *note attached thread state:
     1a1.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread-local storage support,  Next: Multiple interpreters in a Python process,  Prev: Synchronization primitives<2>,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.16 Thread-local storage support
=================================

The Python interpreter provides low-level support for thread-local
storage (TLS) which wraps the underlying native TLS implementation to
support the Python-level thread-local storage API (*note
threading.local: 1a87.).  The CPython C level APIs are similar to those
offered by pthreads and Windows: use a thread key and functions to
associate a void* value per thread.

A *note thread state: 1a70. does 'not' need to be *note attached: 1a1.
when calling these functions; they supply their own locking.

Note that ‘Python.h’ does not include the declaration of the TLS APIs,
you need to include ‘pythread.h’ to use thread-local storage.

     Σημείωση: None of these API functions handle memory management on
     behalf of the void* values.  You need to allocate and deallocate
     them yourself.  If the void* values happen to be *note PyObject:
     19b.*, these functions don’t do refcount operations on them either.

* Menu:

* Thread-specific storage API::
* Dynamic allocation::
* Methods::
* Legacy APIs::


File: python.info,  Node: Thread-specific storage API,  Next: Dynamic allocation,  Up: Thread-local storage support

7.16.1 Thread-specific storage API
----------------------------------

The thread-specific storage (TSS) API was introduced to supersede the
use of the existing TLS API within the CPython interpreter.  This API
uses a new type *note Py_tss_t: ea4. instead of int to represent thread
keys.

Added in version 3.7.

Δείτε επίσης
............

«A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython» ( PEP 539(1))

 -- C Τύπος: type Py_tss_t

     This data structure represents the state of a thread key, the
     definition of which may depend on the underlying TLS
     implementation, and it has an internal field representing the key’s
     initialization state.  There are no public members in this
     structure.

     When *note Py_LIMITED_API: 95c. is not defined, static allocation
     of this type by *note Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 58c7. is allowed.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT

     This macro expands to the initializer for *note Py_tss_t: ea4.
     variables.  Note that this macro won’t be defined with *note
     Py_LIMITED_API: 95c.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/


File: python.info,  Node: Dynamic allocation,  Next: Methods,  Prev: Thread-specific storage API,  Up: Thread-local storage support

7.16.2 Dynamic allocation
-------------------------

Dynamic allocation of the *note Py_tss_t: ea4, required in extension
modules built with *note Py_LIMITED_API: 95c, where static allocation of
this type is not possible due to its implementation being opaque at
build time.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_tss_t: ea4. *PyThread_tss_alloc ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Return a
     value which is the same state as a value initialized with *note
     Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 58c7, or ‘NULL’ in the case of dynamic
     allocation failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThread_tss_free (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Free the
     given 'key' allocated by *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 64b, after
     first calling *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 653. to ensure any
     associated thread locals have been unassigned.  This is a no-op if
     the 'key' argument is ‘NULL’.

          Σημείωση: A freed key becomes a dangling pointer.  You should
          reset the key to ‘NULL’.


File: python.info,  Node: Methods,  Next: Legacy APIs,  Prev: Dynamic allocation,  Up: Thread-local storage support

7.16.3 Methods
--------------

The parameter 'key' of these functions must not be ‘NULL’.  Moreover,
the behaviors of *note PyThread_tss_set(): 64f. and *note
PyThread_tss_get(): 651. are undefined if the given *note Py_tss_t: ea4.
has not been initialized by *note PyThread_tss_create(): 540e.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyThread_tss_is_created (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Return a
     non-zero value if the given *note Py_tss_t: ea4. has been
     initialized by *note PyThread_tss_create(): 540e.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyThread_tss_create (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Return a
     zero value on successful initialization of a TSS key.  The behavior
     is undefined if the value pointed to by the 'key' argument is not
     initialized by *note Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 58c7.  This function can be
     called repeatedly on the same key – calling it on an already
     initialized key is a no-op and immediately returns success.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThread_tss_delete (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Destroy a
     TSS key to forget the values associated with the key across all
     threads, and change the key’s initialization state to
     uninitialized.  A destroyed key is able to be initialized again by
     *note PyThread_tss_create(): 540e.  This function can be called
     repeatedly on the same key – calling it on an already destroyed key
     is a no-op.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyThread_tss_set (Py_tss_t *key, void *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Return a
     zero value to indicate successfully associating a void* value with
     a TSS key in the current thread.  Each thread has a distinct
     mapping of the key to a void* value.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyThread_tss_get (Py_tss_t *key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Return
     the void* value associated with a TSS key in the current thread.
     This returns ‘NULL’ if no value is associated with the key in the
     current thread.


File: python.info,  Node: Legacy APIs,  Prev: Methods,  Up: Thread-local storage support

7.16.4 Legacy APIs
------------------

Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.7: This API is superseded by the *note
thread-specific storage (TSS) API: ea3.

     Σημείωση: This version of the API does not support platforms where
     the native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot be safely cast
     to ‘int’.  On such platforms, *note PyThread_create_key(): 64a.
     will return immediately with a failure status, and the other TLS
     functions will all be no-ops on such platforms.

Due to the compatibility problem noted above, this version of the API
should not be used in new code.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyThread_create_key ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThread_delete_key (int key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyThread_set_key_value (int key, void *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyThread_get_key_value (int key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThread_delete_key_value (int key)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyThread_ReInitTLS ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'


File: python.info,  Node: Multiple interpreters in a Python process,  Next: Profiling and tracing,  Prev: Thread-local storage support,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.17 Multiple interpreters in a Python process
==============================================

While in most uses, you will only embed a single Python interpreter,
there are cases where you need to create several independent
interpreters in the same process and perhaps even in the same thread.
Sub-interpreters allow you to do that.

The «main» interpreter is the first one created when the runtime
initializes.  It is usually the only Python interpreter in a process.
Unlike sub-interpreters, the main interpreter has unique process-global
responsibilities like signal handling.  It is also responsible for
execution during runtime initialization and is usually the active
interpreter during runtime finalization.  The *note
PyInterpreterState_Main(): 5896. function returns a pointer to its
state.

You can switch between sub-interpreters using the *note
PyThreadState_Swap(): 5402. function.  You can create and destroy them
using the following functions:

 -- C Τύπος: type PyInterpreterConfig

     Structure containing most parameters to configure a
     sub-interpreter.  Its values are used only in *note
     Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 876. and never modified by the
     runtime.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Μέλος: int use_main_obmalloc

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter will use its own
          «object» allocator state.  Otherwise it will use (share) the
          main interpreter’s.

          If this is ‘0’ then *note check_multi_interp_extensions: 58ce.
          must be ‘1’ (non-zero).  If this is ‘1’ then *note gil: 58cf.
          must not be *note PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL: 58d0.

      -- C Μέλος: int allow_fork

          If this is ‘0’ then the runtime will not support forking the
          process in any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently
          active.  Otherwise fork is unrestricted.

          Note that the *note subprocess: df. module still works when
          fork is disallowed.

      -- C Μέλος: int allow_exec

          If this is ‘0’ then the runtime will not support replacing the
          current process via exec (e.g.  *note os.execv(): 323e.) in
          any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently active.
          Otherwise exec is unrestricted.

          Note that the *note subprocess: df. module still works when
          exec is disallowed.

      -- C Μέλος: int allow_threads

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter’s *note threading: f6.
          module won’t create threads.  Otherwise threads are allowed.

      -- C Μέλος: int allow_daemon_threads

          If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter’s *note threading: f6.
          module won’t create daemon threads.  Otherwise daemon threads
          are allowed (as long as *note allow_threads: 58d3. is
          non-zero).

      -- C Μέλος: int check_multi_interp_extensions

          If this is ‘0’ then all extension modules may be imported,
          including legacy (single-phase init) modules, in any thread
          where the sub-interpreter is currently active.  Otherwise only
          multi-phase init extension modules (see PEP 489(1)) may be
          imported.  (Also see *note Py_mod_multiple_interpreters:
          5496.)

          This must be ‘1’ (non-zero) if *note use_main_obmalloc: 4bfb.
          is ‘0’.

      -- C Μέλος: int gil

          This determines the operation of the GIL for the
          sub-interpreter.  It may be one of the following:

           -- C Μακροεντολή: PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL

               Use the default selection (*note
               PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL: 58d6.).

           -- C Μακροεντολή: PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL

               Use (share) the main interpreter’s GIL.

           -- C Μακροεντολή: PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL

               Use the sub-interpreter’s own GIL.

          If this is *note PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL: 58d0. then *note
          PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc: 4bfb. must be ‘0’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig
          (PyThreadState **tstate_p, const PyInterpreterConfig *config)

     Create a new sub-interpreter.  This is an (almost) totally separate
     environment for the execution of Python code.  In particular, the
     new interpreter has separate, independent versions of all imported
     modules, including the fundamental modules *note builtins: 13,
     *note __main__: 1. and *note sys: e2.  The table of loaded modules
     (‘sys.modules’) and the module search path (‘sys.path’) are also
     separate.  The new environment has no ‘sys.argv’ variable.  It has
     new standard I/O stream file objects ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ and
     ‘sys.stderr’ (however these refer to the same underlying file
     descriptors).

     The given 'config' controls the options with which the interpreter
     is initialized.

     Upon success, 'tstate_p' will be set to the first *note thread
     state: 1a70. created in the new sub-interpreter.  This thread state
     is *note attached: 1a1.  Note that no actual thread is created; see
     the discussion of thread states below.  If creation of the new
     interpreter is unsuccessful, 'tstate_p' is set to ‘NULL’; no
     exception is set since the exception state is stored in the
     attached thread state, which might not exist.

     Like all other Python/C API functions, an *note attached thread
     state: 1a1. must be present before calling this function, but it
     might be detached upon returning.  On success, the returned thread
     state will be attached.  If the sub-interpreter is created with its
     own *note GIL: 411. then the attached thread state of the calling
     interpreter will be detached.  When the function returns, the new
     interpreter’s *note thread state: 1a70. will be attached to the
     current thread and the previous interpreter’s attached thread state
     will remain detached.

     Added in version 3.12.

     Sub-interpreters are most effective when isolated from each other,
     with certain functionality restricted:

          PyInterpreterConfig config = {
              .use_main_obmalloc = 0,
              .allow_fork = 0,
              .allow_exec = 0,
              .allow_threads = 1,
              .allow_daemon_threads = 0,
              .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1,
              .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL,
          };
          PyThreadState *tstate = NULL;
          PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config);
          if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
              Py_ExitStatusException(status);
          }

     Note that the config is used only briefly and does not get
     modified.  During initialization the config’s values are converted
     into various *note PyInterpreterState: c90. values.  A read-only
     copy of the config may be stored internally on the
     ‘PyInterpreterState’.

     Extension modules are shared between (sub-)interpreters as follows:

        * For modules using multi-phase initialization, e.g.  *note
          PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): 392, a separate module object is
          created and initialized for each interpreter.  Only C-level
          static and global variables are shared between these module
          objects.

        * For modules using legacy *note single-phase initialization:
          555c, e.g.  *note PyModule_Create(): 5562, the first time a
          particular extension is imported, it is initialized normally,
          and a (shallow) copy of its module’s dictionary is squirreled
          away.  When the same extension is imported by another
          (sub-)interpreter, a new module is initialized and filled with
          the contents of this copy; the extension’s ‘init’ function is
          not called.  Objects in the module’s dictionary thus end up
          shared across (sub-)interpreters, which might cause unwanted
          behavior (see *note Bugs and caveats: 58d7. below).

          Note that this is different from what happens when an
          extension is imported after the interpreter has been
          completely re-initialized by calling *note Py_FinalizeEx():
          10cf. and *note Py_Initialize(): 673.; in that case, the
          extension’s ‘initmodule’ function 'is' called again.  As with
          multi-phase initialization, this means that only C-level
          static and global variables are shared between these modules.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyThreadState: b6c. *Py_NewInterpreter (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Create a new sub-interpreter.  This is essentially just a wrapper
     around *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 876. with a config that
     preserves the existing behavior.  The result is an unisolated
     sub-interpreter that shares the main interpreter’s GIL, allows
     fork/exec, allows daemon threads, and allows single-phase init
     modules.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_EndInterpreter (PyThreadState *tstate)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Destroy the (sub-)interpreter represented by the given *note thread
     state: 1a70.  The given thread state must be *note attached: 1a1.
     When the call returns, there will be no attached thread state.  All
     thread states associated with this interpreter are destroyed.

     *note Py_FinalizeEx(): 10cf. will destroy all sub-interpreters that
     haven’t been explicitly destroyed at that point.

* Menu:

* A per-interpreter GIL::
* Bugs and caveats::
* High-level APIs: High-level APIs<2>.
* Low-level APIs: Low-level APIs<2>.
* Advanced debugger support::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/


File: python.info,  Node: A per-interpreter GIL,  Next: Bugs and caveats,  Up: Multiple interpreters in a Python process

7.17.1 A per-interpreter GIL
----------------------------

Added in version 3.12.

Using *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 876. you can create a
sub-interpreter that is completely isolated from other interpreters,
including having its own GIL. The most important benefit of this
isolation is that such an interpreter can execute Python code without
being blocked by other interpreters or blocking any others.  Thus a
single Python process can truly take advantage of multiple CPU cores
when running Python code.  The isolation also encourages a different
approach to concurrency than that of just using threads.  (See PEP
554(1) and PEP 684(2).)

Using an isolated interpreter requires vigilance in preserving that
isolation.  That especially means not sharing any objects or mutable
state without guarantees about thread-safety.  Even objects that are
otherwise immutable (e.g.  ‘None’, ‘(1, 5)’) can’t normally be shared
because of the refcount.  One simple but less-efficient approach around
this is to use a global lock around all use of some state (or object).
Alternately, effectively immutable objects (like integers or strings)
can be made safe in spite of their refcounts by making them *note
immortal: 398.  In fact, this has been done for the builtin singletons,
small integers, and a number of other builtin objects.

If you preserve isolation then you will have access to proper multi-core
computing without the complications that come with free-threading.
Failure to preserve isolation will expose you to the full consequences
of free-threading, including races and hard-to-debug crashes.

Aside from that, one of the main challenges of using multiple isolated
interpreters is how to communicate between them safely (not break
isolation) and efficiently.  The runtime and stdlib do not provide any
standard approach to this yet.  A future stdlib module would help
mitigate the effort of preserving isolation and expose effective tools
for communicating (and sharing) data between interpreters.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/


File: python.info,  Node: Bugs and caveats,  Next: High-level APIs<2>,  Prev: A per-interpreter GIL,  Up: Multiple interpreters in a Python process

7.17.2 Bugs and caveats
-----------------------

Because sub-interpreters (and the main interpreter) are part of the same
process, the insulation between them isn’t perfect — for example, using
low-level file operations like *note os.close(): f31. they can
(accidentally or maliciously) affect each other’s open files.  Because
of the way extensions are shared between (sub-)interpreters, some
extensions may not work properly; this is especially likely when using
single-phase initialization or (static) global variables.  It is
possible to insert objects created in one sub-interpreter into a
namespace of another (sub-)interpreter; this should be avoided if
possible.

Special care should be taken to avoid sharing user-defined functions,
methods, instances or classes between sub-interpreters, since import
operations executed by such objects may affect the wrong
(sub-)interpreter’s dictionary of loaded modules.  It is equally
important to avoid sharing objects from which the above are reachable.

Also note that combining this functionality with ‘PyGILState_*’ APIs is
delicate, because these APIs assume a bijection between Python thread
states and OS-level threads, an assumption broken by the presence of
sub-interpreters.  It is highly recommended that you don’t switch
sub-interpreters between a pair of matching *note PyGILState_Ensure():
1a5. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 1a6. calls.  Furthermore,
extensions (such as *note ctypes: 2d.) using these APIs to allow calling
of Python code from non-Python created threads will probably be broken
when using sub-interpreters.


File: python.info,  Node: High-level APIs<2>,  Next: Low-level APIs<2>,  Prev: Bugs and caveats,  Up: Multiple interpreters in a Python process

7.17.3 High-level APIs
----------------------

 -- C Τύπος: type PyInterpreterState
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (ως μια αδιαφανής κατασκευή).'
     This data structure represents the state shared by a number of
     cooperating threads.  Threads belonging to the same interpreter
     share their module administration and a few other internal items.
     There are no public members in this structure.

     Threads belonging to different interpreters initially share
     nothing, except process state like available memory, open file
     descriptors and such.  The global interpreter lock is also shared
     by all threads, regardless of to which interpreter they belong.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: PEP 684(1) introduced the possibility of a
     *note per-interpreter GIL: 58d9.  See *note
     Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 876.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyInterpreterState: c90. *PyInterpreterState_Get
          (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.9.'  Get the
     current interpreter.

     Issue a fatal error if there is no *note attached thread state:
     1a1.  It cannot return NULL.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int64_t PyInterpreterState_GetID (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Return
     the interpreter’s unique ID. If there was any error in doing so
     then ‘-1’ is returned and an error is set.

     The caller must have an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyInterpreterState_GetDict
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.8.'  Return a dictionary in which
     interpreter-specific data may be stored.  If this function returns
     ‘NULL’ then no exception has been raised and the caller should
     assume no interpreter-specific dict is available.

     This is not a replacement for *note PyModule_GetState(): d48, which
     extensions should use to store interpreter-specific state
     information.

     The returned dictionary is borrowed from the interpreter and is
     valid until interpreter shutdown.

     Added in version 3.8.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*_PyFrameEvalFunction)(*note
          PyThreadState: b6c. *tstate, *note _PyInterpreterFrame: 1b81.
          *frame, int throwflag)

     Type of a frame evaluation function.

     The 'throwflag' parameter is used by the ‘throw()’ method of
     generators: if non-zero, handle the current exception.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The function now takes a 'tstate'
     parameter.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: The 'frame' parameter changed from
     ‘PyFrameObject*’ to ‘_PyInterpreterFrame*’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note _PyFrameEvalFunction: b58.
          _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)

     Get the frame evaluation function.

     See the PEP 523(2) «Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython».

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc
          (PyInterpreterState *interp, _PyFrameEvalFunction eval_frame)

     Set the frame evaluation function.

     See the PEP 523(3) «Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython».

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void
          _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameAllowSpecialization
          (PyInterpreterState *interp, int allow_specialization)

     Enables or disables specialization why a custom frame evaluator is
     in place.

     If 'allow_specialization' is non-zero, the adaptive specializer
     will continue to specialize bytecodes even though a custom eval
     frame function is set.  When 'allow_specialization' is zero,
     setting a custom eval frame disables specialization.  The standard
     interpreter loop will continue to deopt while a frame evaluation
     API is in place - the frame evaluation function needs to handle the
     specialized opcodes to take advantage of this.

     Added in version 3.15.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int _PyInterpreterState_IsSpecializationEnabled
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)

     Return non-zero if adaptive specialization is enabled for the
     interpreter.  Specialization is enabled when no custom eval frame
     function is set, or when one is set with 'allow_specialization'
     enabled.

     Added in version 3.15.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/


File: python.info,  Node: Low-level APIs<2>,  Next: Advanced debugger support,  Prev: High-level APIs<2>,  Up: Multiple interpreters in a Python process

7.17.4 Low-level APIs
---------------------

All of the following functions must be called after *note
Py_Initialize(): 673.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.7: *note Py_Initialize(): 673. now initializes the
*note GIL: 411. and sets an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyInterpreterState: c90. *PyInterpreterState_New
          ()
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Create a new interpreter
     state object.  An *note attached thread state: 1a1. is not needed,
     but may optionally exist if it is necessary to serialize calls to
     this function.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_New’ with no arguments.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyInterpreterState_Clear (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Reset all information in an
     interpreter state object.  There must be an *note attached thread
     state: 1a1. for the interpreter.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65.
     ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear’ with no arguments.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyInterpreterState_Delete (PyInterpreterState
          *interp)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Destroy an interpreter state
     object.  There 'should not' be an *note attached thread state: 1a1.
     for the target interpreter.  The interpreter state must have been
     reset with a previous call to *note PyInterpreterState_Clear():
     49aa.


File: python.info,  Node: Advanced debugger support,  Prev: Low-level APIs<2>,  Up: Multiple interpreters in a Python process

7.17.5 Advanced debugger support
--------------------------------

These functions are only intended to be used by advanced debugging
tools.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyInterpreterState: c90. *PyInterpreterState_Head
          ()

     Return the interpreter state object at the head of the list of all
     such objects.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyInterpreterState: c90. *PyInterpreterState_Main
          ()

     Return the main interpreter state object.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyInterpreterState: c90. *PyInterpreterState_Next
          (PyInterpreterState *interp)

     Return the next interpreter state object after 'interp' from the
     list of all such objects.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyThreadState: b6c.
          *PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead (PyInterpreterState *interp)

     Return the pointer to the first *note PyThreadState: b6c. object in
     the list of threads associated with the interpreter 'interp'.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyThreadState: b6c. *PyThreadState_Next
          (PyThreadState *tstate)

     Return the next thread state object after 'tstate' from the list of
     all such objects belonging to the same *note PyInterpreterState:
     c90. object.


File: python.info,  Node: Profiling and tracing,  Next: Reference tracing,  Prev: Multiple interpreters in a Python process,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.18 Profiling and tracing
==========================

The Python interpreter provides some low-level support for attaching
profiling and execution tracing facilities.  These are used for
profiling, debugging, and coverage analysis tools.

This C interface allows the profiling or tracing code to avoid the
overhead of calling through Python-level callable objects, making a
direct C function call instead.  The essential attributes of the
facility have not changed; the interface allows trace functions to be
installed per-thread, and the basic events reported to the trace
function are the same as had been reported to the Python-level trace
functions in previous versions.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*Py_tracefunc)(*note PyObject: 19b. *obj,
          *note PyFrameObject: b68. *frame, int what, *note PyObject:
          19b. *arg)

     The type of the trace function registered using *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 189f. and *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 850.  The
     first parameter is the object passed to the registration function
     as 'obj', 'frame' is the frame object to which the event pertains,
     'what' is one of the constants *note PyTrace_CALL: 58e5, *note
     PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 58e6, *note PyTrace_LINE: 58e7, *note
     PyTrace_RETURN: 58e8, *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 58e9, *note
     PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION: 58ea, *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 58eb, or *note
     PyTrace_OPCODE: 58ec, and 'arg' depends on the value of 'what':

     Value of 'what'                     Meaning of 'arg'
                                         
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                         
     *note PyTrace_CALL: 58e5.           Always *note Py_None: 5606.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 58e6.      Exception information as returned by
                                         *note sys.exc_info(): a7a.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_LINE: 58e7.           Always *note Py_None: 5606.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_RETURN: 58e8.         Value being returned to the caller, or
                                         ‘NULL’ if caused by an exception.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 58e9.         Function object being called.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION: 58ea.    Function object being called.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 58eb.       Function object being called.
                                         
                                         
     *note PyTrace_OPCODE: 58ec.         Always *note Py_None: 5606.
                                         

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int PyTrace_CALL

     The value of the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc: 58e4.
     function when a new call to a function or method is being reported,
     or a new entry into a generator.  Note that the creation of the
     iterator for a generator function is not reported as there is no
     control transfer to the Python bytecode in the corresponding frame.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int PyTrace_EXCEPTION

     The value of the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc: 58e4.
     function when an exception has been raised.  The callback function
     is called with this value for 'what' when after any bytecode is
     processed after which the exception becomes set within the frame
     being executed.  The effect of this is that as exception
     propagation causes the Python stack to unwind, the callback is
     called upon return to each frame as the exception propagates.  Only
     trace functions receive these events; they are not needed by the
     profiler.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int PyTrace_LINE

     The value passed as the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc:
     58e4. function (but not a profiling function) when a line-number
     event is being reported.  It may be disabled for a frame by setting
     *note f_trace_lines: f9b. to '0' on that frame.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int PyTrace_RETURN

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 58e4.
     functions when a call is about to return.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int PyTrace_C_CALL

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 58e4.
     functions when a C function is about to be called.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 58e4.
     functions when a C function has raised an exception.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int PyTrace_C_RETURN

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 58e4.
     functions when a C function has returned.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int PyTrace_OPCODE

     The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 58e4.
     functions (but not profiling functions) when a new opcode is about
     to be executed.  This event is not emitted by default: it must be
     explicitly requested by setting *note f_trace_opcodes: f9c. to '1'
     on the frame.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyEval_SetProfile (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject
          *obj)

     Set the profiler function to 'func'.  The 'obj' parameter is passed
     to the function as its first parameter, and may be any Python
     object, or ‘NULL’.  If the profile function needs to maintain
     state, using a different value for 'obj' for each thread provides a
     convenient and thread-safe place to store it.  The profile function
     is called for all monitored events except *note PyTrace_LINE: 58e7.
     *note PyTrace_OPCODE: 58ec. and *note PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 58e6.

     See also the *note sys.setprofile(): 18a0. function.

     The caller must have an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads (Py_tracefunc func,
          PyObject *obj)

     Like *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 189f. but sets the profile function
     in all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead
     of the setting it only on the current thread.

     The caller must have an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

     As *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 189f, this function ignores any
     exceptions raised while setting the profile functions in all
     threads.

Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyEval_SetTrace (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj)

     Set the tracing function to 'func'.  This is similar to *note
     PyEval_SetProfile(): 189f, except the tracing function does receive
     line-number events and per-opcode events, but does not receive any
     event related to C function objects being called.  Any trace
     function registered using *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 850. will not
     receive *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 58e9, *note PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION:
     58ea. or *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 58eb. as a value for the 'what'
     parameter.

     See also the *note sys.settrace(): 55c. function.

     The caller must have an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads (Py_tracefunc func,
          PyObject *obj)

     Like *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 850. but sets the tracing function in
     all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead of
     the setting it only on the current thread.

     The caller must have an *note attached thread state: 1a1.

     As *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 850, this function ignores any
     exceptions raised while setting the trace functions in all threads.

Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: Reference tracing,  Next: Python Initialization Configuration,  Prev: Profiling and tracing,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.19 Reference tracing
======================

Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*PyRefTracer)(*note PyObject: 19b.*, int
          event, void *data)

     The type of the trace function registered using *note
     PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 805.  The first parameter is a Python
     object that has been just created (when 'event' is set to *note
     PyRefTracer_CREATE: 58ef.) or about to be destroyed (when 'event'
     is set to *note PyRefTracer_DESTROY: 58f0.).  The 'data' argument
     is the opaque pointer that was provided when
     ‘PyRefTracer_SetTracer()’ was called.

     If a new tracing function is registered replacing the current one,
     a call to the trace function will be made with the object set to
     'NULL' and 'event' set to *note PyRefTracer_TRACKER_REMOVED: 1a4b.
     This will happen just before the new function is registered.

Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int PyRefTracer_CREATE

     The value for the 'event' parameter to *note PyRefTracer: 58ee.
     functions when a Python object has been created.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int PyRefTracer_DESTROY

     The value for the 'event' parameter to *note PyRefTracer: 58ee.
     functions when a Python object has been destroyed.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: int PyRefTracer_TRACKER_REMOVED

     The value for the 'event' parameter to *note PyRefTracer: 58ee.
     functions when the current tracer is about to be replaced by a new
     one.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyRefTracer_SetTracer (PyRefTracer tracer, void
          *data)

     Register a reference tracer function.  The function will be called
     when a new Python object has been created or when an object is
     going to be destroyed.  If 'data' is provided it must be an opaque
     pointer that will be provided when the tracer function is called.
     Return ‘0’ on success.  Set an exception and return ‘-1’ on error.

     Note that tracer functions 'must not' create Python objects inside
     or otherwise the call will be re-entrant.  The tracer also 'must
     not' clear any existing exception or set an exception.  A *note
     thread state: 1a70. will be active every time the tracer function
     is called.

     There must be an *note attached thread state: 1a1. when calling
     this function.

     If another tracer function was already registered, the old function
     will be called with 'event' set to *note
     PyRefTracer_TRACKER_REMOVED: 1a4b. just before the new function is
     registered.

Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyRefTracer: 58ee. PyRefTracer_GetTracer (void
          **data)

     Get the registered reference tracer function and the value of the
     opaque data pointer that was registered when *note
     PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 805. was called.  If no tracer was
     registered this function will return NULL and will set the 'data'
     pointer to NULL.

     There must be an *note attached thread state: 1a1. when calling
     this function.

Added in version 3.13.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Initialization Configuration,  Next: Memory Management,  Prev: Reference tracing,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.20 Python Initialization Configuration
========================================

* Menu:

* PyInitConfig C API::
* Configuration Options::
* Runtime Python configuration API::
* PyConfig C API::
* Py_GetArgcArgv(): Py_GetArgcArgv.
* Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API::


File: python.info,  Node: PyInitConfig C API,  Next: Configuration Options,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.20.1 PyInitConfig C API
-------------------------

Added in version 3.14.

Python can be initialized with *note Py_InitializeFromInitConfig(): 5b3.

The *note Py_RunMain(): d8d. function can be used to write a customized
Python program.

See also *note Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: 5884.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 741(1) «Python Configuration C API».

* Menu:

* Example: Example<15>.
* Create Config::
* Error Handling::
* Get Options::
* Set Options::
* Module::
* Initialize Python::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0741/


File: python.info,  Node: Example<15>,  Next: Create Config,  Up: PyInitConfig C API

7.20.1.1 Example
................

Example of customized Python always running with the *note Python
Development Mode: 70d. enabled; return ‘-1’ on error:

     int init_python(void)
     {
         PyInitConfig *config = PyInitConfig_Create();
         if (config == NULL) {
             printf("PYTHON INIT ERROR: memory allocation failed\n");
             return -1;
         }

         // Enable the Python Development Mode
         if (PyInitConfig_SetInt(config, "dev_mode", 1) < 0) {
             goto error;
         }

         // Initialize Python with the configuration
         if (Py_InitializeFromInitConfig(config) < 0) {
             goto error;
         }
         PyInitConfig_Free(config);
         return 0;

     error:
         {
             // Display the error message.
             //
             // This uncommon braces style is used, because you cannot make
             // goto targets point to variable declarations.
             const char *err_msg;
             (void)PyInitConfig_GetError(config, &err_msg);
             printf("PYTHON INIT ERROR: %s\n", err_msg);
             PyInitConfig_Free(config);
             return -1;
         }
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Create Config,  Next: Error Handling,  Prev: Example<15>,  Up: PyInitConfig C API

7.20.1.2 Create Config
......................

 -- C Struct: struct PyInitConfig

     Opaque structure to configure the Python initialization.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyInitConfig: 58f7. *PyInitConfig_Create (void)

     Create a new initialization configuration using *note Isolated
     Configuration: 58f8. default values.

     It must be freed by *note PyInitConfig_Free(): 5b5.

     Return ‘NULL’ on memory allocation failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyInitConfig_Free (PyInitConfig *config)

     Free memory of the initialization configuration 'config'.

     If 'config' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.


File: python.info,  Node: Error Handling,  Next: Get Options,  Prev: Create Config,  Up: PyInitConfig C API

7.20.1.3 Error Handling
.......................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyInitConfig_GetError (PyInitConfig *config, const
          char **err_msg)

     Get the 'config' error message.

        * Set '*err_msg' and return ‘1’ if an error is set.

        * Set '*err_msg' to ‘NULL’ and return ‘0’ otherwise.

     An error message is a UTF-8 encoded string.

     If 'config' has an exit code, format the exit code as an error
     message.

     The error message remains valid until another ‘PyInitConfig’
     function is called with 'config'.  The caller doesn’t have to free
     the error message.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyInitConfig_GetExitCode (PyInitConfig *config, int
          *exitcode)

     Get the 'config' exit code.

        * Set '*exitcode' and return ‘1’ if 'config' has an exit code
          set.

        * Return ‘0’ if 'config' has no exit code set.

     Only the ‘Py_InitializeFromInitConfig()’ function can set an exit
     code if the ‘parse_argv’ option is non-zero.

     An exit code can be set when parsing the command line failed (exit
     code ‘2’) or when a command line option asks to display the command
     line help (exit code ‘0’).


File: python.info,  Node: Get Options,  Next: Set Options,  Prev: Error Handling,  Up: PyInitConfig C API

7.20.1.4 Get Options
....................

The configuration option 'name' parameter must be a non-NULL
null-terminated UTF-8 encoded string.  See *note Configuration Options:
58fb.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyInitConfig_HasOption (PyInitConfig *config, const
          char *name)

     Test if the configuration has an option called 'name'.

     Return ‘1’ if the option exists, or return ‘0’ otherwise.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyInitConfig_GetInt (PyInitConfig *config, const
          char *name, int64_t *value)

     Get an integer configuration option.

        * Set '*value', and return ‘0’ on success.

        * Set an error in 'config' and return ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyInitConfig_GetStr (PyInitConfig *config, const
          char *name, char **value)

     Get a string configuration option as a null-terminated UTF-8
     encoded string.

        * Set '*value', and return ‘0’ on success.

        * Set an error in 'config' and return ‘-1’ on error.

     '*value' can be set to ‘NULL’ if the option is an optional string
     and the option is unset.

     On success, the string must be released with ‘free(value)’ if it’s
     not ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyInitConfig_GetStrList (PyInitConfig *config,
          const char *name, size_t *length, char ***items)

     Get a string list configuration option as an array of
     null-terminated UTF-8 encoded strings.

        * Set '*length' and '*value', and return ‘0’ on success.

        * Set an error in 'config' and return ‘-1’ on error.

     On success, the string list must be released with
     ‘PyInitConfig_FreeStrList(length, items)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyInitConfig_FreeStrList (size_t length, char
          **items)

     Free memory of a string list created by
     ‘PyInitConfig_GetStrList()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Set Options,  Next: Module,  Prev: Get Options,  Up: PyInitConfig C API

7.20.1.5 Set Options
....................

The configuration option 'name' parameter must be a non-NULL
null-terminated UTF-8 encoded string.  See *note Configuration Options:
58fb.

Some configuration options have side effects on other options.  This
logic is only implemented when ‘Py_InitializeFromInitConfig()’ is
called, not by the «Set» functions below.  For example, setting
‘dev_mode’ to ‘1’ does not set ‘faulthandler’ to ‘1’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyInitConfig_SetInt (PyInitConfig *config, const
          char *name, int64_t value)

     Set an integer configuration option.

        * Return ‘0’ on success.

        * Set an error in 'config' and return ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyInitConfig_SetStr (PyInitConfig *config, const
          char *name, const char *value)

     Set a string configuration option from a null-terminated UTF-8
     encoded string.  The string is copied.

        * Return ‘0’ on success.

        * Set an error in 'config' and return ‘-1’ on error.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyInitConfig_SetStrList (PyInitConfig *config,
          const char *name, size_t length, char *const *items)

     Set a string list configuration option from an array of
     null-terminated UTF-8 encoded strings.  The string list is copied.

        * Return ‘0’ on success.

        * Set an error in 'config' and return ‘-1’ on error.


File: python.info,  Node: Module,  Next: Initialize Python,  Prev: Set Options,  Up: PyInitConfig C API

7.20.1.6 Module
...............

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyInitConfig_AddModule (PyInitConfig *config, const
          char *name, PyObject *(*initfunc)(void))

     Add a built-in extension module to the table of built-in modules.

     The new module can be imported by the name 'name', and uses the
     function 'initfunc' as the initialization function called on the
     first attempted import.

        * Return ‘0’ on success.

        * Set an error in 'config' and return ‘-1’ on error.

     If Python is initialized multiple times, ‘PyInitConfig_AddModule()’
     must be called at each Python initialization.

     Similar to the *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 1d1a. function.


File: python.info,  Node: Initialize Python,  Prev: Module,  Up: PyInitConfig C API

7.20.1.7 Initialize Python
..........................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_InitializeFromInitConfig (PyInitConfig *config)

     Initialize Python from the initialization configuration.

        * Return ‘0’ on success.

        * Set an error in 'config' and return ‘-1’ on error.

        * Set an exit code in 'config' and return ‘-1’ if Python wants
          to exit.

     See ‘PyInitConfig_GetExitcode()’ for the exit code case.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration Options,  Next: Runtime Python configuration API,  Prev: PyInitConfig C API,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.20.2 Configuration Options
----------------------------

Option                        PyConfig/PyPreConfig member   Type                          Visibility
                                                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          
‘"allocator"’                 *note allocator: 5900.        ‘int’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"argv"’                      *note argv: 607.              ‘list[str]’                   Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"base_exec_prefix"’          *note base_exec_prefix: 5901. ‘str’                         Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"base_executable"’           *note base_executable: 5902.  ‘str’                         Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"base_prefix"’               *note base_prefix: 5903.      ‘str’                         Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"buffered_stdio"’            *note buffered_stdio: 624.    ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"bytes_warning"’             *note bytes_warning: 3c4.     ‘int’                         Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"check_hash_pycs_mode"’      *note check_hash_pycs_mode: 5904.‘str’                      Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"code_debug_ranges"’         *note code_debug_ranges: 5905.‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"coerce_c_locale"’           *note coerce_c_locale: 5906.  ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"coerce_c_locale_warn"’      *note coerce_c_locale_warn: 5907.‘bool’                     Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"configure_c_stdio"’         *note configure_c_stdio: 5908.‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"configure_locale"’          *note configure_locale: 5909. ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"cpu_count"’                 *note cpu_count: 590a.        ‘int’                         Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"dev_mode"’                  *note dev_mode: 590b.         ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"dump_refs"’                 *note dump_refs: 590c.        ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"dump_refs_file"’            *note dump_refs_file: 590d.   ‘str’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"exec_prefix"’               *note exec_prefix: 590e.      ‘str’                         Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"executable"’                *note executable: 836.        ‘str’                         Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"faulthandler"’              *note faulthandler: 590f.     ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"filesystem_encoding"’       *note filesystem_encoding: 62e.‘str’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"filesystem_errors"’         *note filesystem_errors: 62f. ‘str’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"hash_seed"’                 *note hash_seed: 627.         ‘int’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"home"’                      *note home: 609.              ‘str’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"import_time"’               *note import_time: 5910.      ‘int’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"inspect"’                   *note inspect: 615.           ‘bool’                        Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"install_signal_handlers"’   *note install_signal_handlers: c91.‘bool’                   Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"int_max_str_digits"’        *note int_max_str_digits: 5911.‘int’                        Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"interactive"’               *note interactive: 613.       ‘bool’                        Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"isolated"’                  *note isolated: 629.          ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"legacy_windows_fs_encoding"’*note legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 62b.‘bool’                Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"legacy_windows_stdio"’      *note legacy_windows_stdio: 62d.‘bool’                      Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"malloc_stats"’              *note malloc_stats: 5912.     ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"module_search_paths"’       *note module_search_paths: 834.‘list[str]’                  Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"optimization_level"’        *note optimization_level: 617.‘int’                         Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"orig_argv"’                 *note orig_argv: c6a.         ‘list[str]’                   Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"parse_argv"’                *note parse_argv: 1ee6.       ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"parser_debug"’              *note parser_debug: 60d.      ‘bool’                        Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"pathconfig_warnings"’       *note pathconfig_warnings: 61c.‘bool’                       Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"perf_profiling"’            *note perf_profiling: 5913.   ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"platlibdir"’                *note platlibdir: 1f16.       ‘str’                         Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"prefix"’                    *note prefix: 5914.           ‘str’                         Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"program_name"’              *note program_name: 608.      ‘str’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"pycache_prefix"’            *note pycache_prefix: 5915.   ‘str’                         Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"quiet"’                     *note quiet: 611.             ‘bool’                        Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"run_command"’               *note run_command: 588f.      ‘str’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"run_filename"’              *note run_filename: 5890.     ‘str’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"run_module"’                *note run_module: 5891.       ‘str’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"run_presite"’               *note run_presite: 5916.      ‘str’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"safe_path"’                 *note safe_path: b55.         ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"show_ref_count"’            *note show_ref_count: 5917.   ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"site_import"’               *note site_import: 619.       ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"skip_source_first_line"’    *note skip_source_first_line: 5918.‘bool’                   Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"stdio_encoding"’            *note stdio_encoding: 835.    ‘str’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"stdio_errors"’              *note stdio_errors: 4c0c.     ‘str’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"stdlib_dir"’                *note stdlib_dir: 5919.       ‘str’                         Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"tracemalloc"’               *note tracemalloc: 591a.      ‘int’                         Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"use_environment"’           *note use_environment: 61e.   ‘bool’                        Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"use_frozen_modules"’        *note use_frozen_modules: 591b.‘bool’                       Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"use_hash_seed"’             *note use_hash_seed: 626.     ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"use_system_logger"’         *note use_system_logger: 2462.‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"user_site_directory"’       *note user_site_directory: 622.‘bool’                       Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"utf8_mode"’                 *note utf8_mode: 630.         ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"verbose"’                   *note verbose: 60f.           ‘int’                         Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"warn_default_encoding"’     *note warn_default_encoding: 591c.‘bool’                    Read-only
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"warnoptions"’               *note warnoptions: 832.       ‘list[str]’                   Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"write_bytecode"’            *note write_bytecode: 620.    ‘bool’                        Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"xoptions"’                  *note xoptions: 833.          ‘dict[str, str]’              Public
                                                                                          
                                                                                          
‘"_pystats"’                  *note _pystats: 591d.         ‘bool’                        Read-only
                                                                                          

Visibility:

   * Public: Can be retrieved by *note PyConfig_Get(): 3a6. and set by
     *note PyConfig_Set(): 5aa.

   * Read-only: Can be retrieved by *note PyConfig_Get(): 3a6, but
     cannot be set by *note PyConfig_Set(): 5aa.


File: python.info,  Node: Runtime Python configuration API,  Next: PyConfig C API,  Prev: Configuration Options,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.20.3 Runtime Python configuration API
---------------------------------------

At runtime, it’s possible to get and set configuration options using
*note PyConfig_Get(): 3a6. and *note PyConfig_Set(): 5aa. functions.

The configuration option 'name' parameter must be a non-NULL
null-terminated UTF-8 encoded string.  See *note Configuration Options:
58fb.

Some options are read from the *note sys: e2. attributes.  For example,
the option ‘"argv"’ is read from *note sys.argv: 1609.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyConfig_Get (const char *name)

     Get the current runtime value of a configuration option as a Python
     object.

        * Return a new reference on success.

        * Set an exception and return ‘NULL’ on error.

     The object type depends on the configuration option.  It can be:

        * ‘bool’

        * ‘int’

        * ‘str’

        * ‘list[str]’

        * ‘dict[str, str]’

     The caller must have an *note attached thread state: 1a1.  The
     function cannot be called before Python initialization nor after
     Python finalization.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyConfig_GetInt (const char *name, int *value)

     Similar to *note PyConfig_Get(): 3a6, but get the value as a C int.

        * Return ‘0’ on success.

        * Set an exception and return ‘-1’ on error.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyConfig_Names (void)

     Get all configuration option names as a ‘frozenset’.

        * Return a new reference on success.

        * Set an exception and return ‘NULL’ on error.

     The caller must have an *note attached thread state: 1a1.  The
     function cannot be called before Python initialization nor after
     Python finalization.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyConfig_Set (const char *name, PyObject *value)

     Set the current runtime value of a configuration option.

        * Raise a *note ValueError: 277. if there is no option 'name'.

        * Raise a *note ValueError: 277. if 'value' is an invalid value.

        * Raise a *note ValueError: 277. if the option is read-only
          (cannot be set).

        * Raise a *note TypeError: 291. if 'value' has not the proper
          type.

     The caller must have an *note attached thread state: 1a1.  The
     function cannot be called before Python initialization nor after
     Python finalization.

     Raises an *note auditing event: 1e65. ‘cpython.PyConfig_Set’ with
     arguments ‘name’, ‘value’.

     Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: PyConfig C API,  Next: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Prev: Runtime Python configuration API,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.20.4 PyConfig C API
---------------------

Added in version 3.8.

Python can be initialized with *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. and
the *note PyConfig: 60b. structure.  It can be preinitialized with *note
Py_PreInitialize(): 631. and the *note PyPreConfig: d74. structure.

There are two kinds of configuration:

   * The *note Python Configuration: 5892. can be used to build a
     customized Python which behaves as the regular Python.  For
     example, environment variables and command line arguments are used
     to configure Python.

   * The *note Isolated Configuration: 58f8. can be used to embed Python
     into an application.  It isolates Python from the system.  For
     example, environment variables are ignored, the LC_CTYPE locale is
     left unchanged and no signal handler is registered.

The *note Py_RunMain(): d8d. function can be used to write a customized
Python program.

See also *note Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: 5884.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 587(1) «Python Initialization Configuration».

* Menu:

* Example: Example<16>.
* PyWideStringList::
* PyStatus::
* PyPreConfig::
* Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig::
* PyConfig::
* Initialization with PyConfig::
* Isolated Configuration::
* Python Configuration::
* Python Path Configuration::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/


File: python.info,  Node: Example<16>,  Next: PyWideStringList,  Up: PyConfig C API

7.20.4.1 Example
................

Example of customized Python always running in isolated mode:

     int main(int argc, char **argv)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
         config.isolated = 1;

         /* Decode command line arguments.
            Implicitly preinitialize Python (in isolated mode). */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(&config, argc, argv);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);

         return Py_RunMain();

     exception:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         if (PyStatus_IsExit(status)) {
             return status.exitcode;
         }
         /* Display the error message and exit the process with
            non-zero exit code */
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }


File: python.info,  Node: PyWideStringList,  Next: PyStatus,  Prev: Example<16>,  Up: PyConfig C API

7.20.4.2 PyWideStringList
.........................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyWideStringList

     List of ‘wchar_t*’ strings.

     If 'length' is non-zero, 'items' must be non-‘NULL’ and all strings
     must be non-‘NULL’.

     Methods:

      -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. PyWideStringList_Append
               (PyWideStringList *list, const wchar_t *item)

          Append 'item' to 'list'.

          Python must be preinitialized to call this function.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. PyWideStringList_Insert
               (PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t index, const wchar_t
               *item)

          Insert 'item' into 'list' at 'index'.

          If 'index' is greater than or equal to 'list' length, append
          'item' to 'list'.

          'index' must be greater than or equal to ‘0’.

          Python must be preinitialized to call this function.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. length

          List length.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t **items

          List items.


File: python.info,  Node: PyStatus,  Next: PyPreConfig,  Prev: PyWideStringList,  Up: PyConfig C API

7.20.4.3 PyStatus
.................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyStatus

     Structure to store an initialization function status: success,
     error or exit.

     For an error, it can store the C function name which created the
     error.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Μέλος: int exitcode

          Exit code.  Argument passed to ‘exit()’.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *err_msg

          Error message.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *func

          Name of the function which created an error, can be ‘NULL’.

     Functions to create a status:

      -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. PyStatus_Ok (void)

          Success.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. PyStatus_Error (const char
               *err_msg)

          Initialization error with a message.

          'err_msg' must not be ‘NULL’.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. PyStatus_NoMemory (void)

          Memory allocation failure (out of memory).

      -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. PyStatus_Exit (int exitcode)

          Exit Python with the specified exit code.

     Functions to handle a status:

      -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyStatus_Exception (PyStatus status)

          Is the status an error or an exit?  If true, the exception
          must be handled; by calling *note Py_ExitStatusException():
          d8a. for example.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyStatus_IsError (PyStatus status)

          Is the result an error?

      -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyStatus_IsExit (PyStatus status)

          Is the result an exit?

      -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_ExitStatusException (PyStatus status)

          Call ‘exit(exitcode)’ if 'status' is an exit.  Print the error
          message and exit with a non-zero exit code if 'status' is an
          error.  Must only be called if ‘PyStatus_Exception(status)’ is
          non-zero.

     Σημείωση: Internally, Python uses macros which set ‘PyStatus.func’,
     whereas functions to create a status set ‘func’ to ‘NULL’.

Example:

     PyStatus alloc(void **ptr, size_t size)
     {
         *ptr = PyMem_RawMalloc(size);
         if (*ptr == NULL) {
             return PyStatus_NoMemory();
         }
         return PyStatus_Ok();
     }

     int main(int argc, char **argv)
     {
         void *ptr;
         PyStatus status = alloc(&ptr, 16);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }
         PyMem_Free(ptr);
         return 0;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: PyPreConfig,  Next: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Prev: PyStatus,  Up: PyConfig C API

7.20.4.4 PyPreConfig
....................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyPreConfig

     Structure used to preinitialize Python.

     Function to initialize a preconfiguration:

      -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig (PyPreConfig
               *preconfig)

          Initialize the preconfiguration with *note Python
          Configuration: 5892.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (PyPreConfig
               *preconfig)

          Initialize the preconfiguration with *note Isolated
          Configuration: 58f8.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Μέλος: int allocator

          Name of the Python memory allocators:

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’ (‘0’): don’t change memory
               allocators (use defaults).

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEFAULT’ (‘1’): *note default memory
               allocators: 2329.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEBUG’ (‘2’): *note default memory
               allocators: 2329. with *note debug hooks: 232c.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC’ (‘3’): use ‘malloc()’ of the C
               library.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘4’): force usage of
               ‘malloc()’ with *note debug hooks: 232c.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC’ (‘5’): *note Python pymalloc
               memory allocator: 3da.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘6’): *note Python
               pymalloc memory allocator: 3da. with *note debug hooks:
               232c.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC’ (‘6’): use ‘mimalloc’, a fast
               malloc replacement.

             * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘7’): use ‘mimalloc’, a
               fast malloc replacement with *note debug hooks: 232c.

          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC’ and
          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ are not supported if Python
          is *note configured using -without-pymalloc: 238d.

          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC’ and
          ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC_DEBUG’ are not supported if Python
          is *note configured using -without-mimalloc: 238c. or if the
          underlying atomic support isn’t available.

          See *note Memory Management: 5929.

          Default: ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’.

      -- C Μέλος: int configure_locale

          Set the LC_CTYPE locale to the user preferred locale.

          If equals to ‘0’, set *note coerce_c_locale: 5906. and *note
          coerce_c_locale_warn: 5907. members to ‘0’.

          See the *note locale encoding: 74d.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Μέλος: int coerce_c_locale

          If equals to ‘2’, coerce the C locale.

          If equals to ‘1’, read the LC_CTYPE locale to decide if it
          should be coerced.

          See the *note locale encoding: 74d.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Μέλος: int coerce_c_locale_warn

          If non-zero, emit a warning if the C locale is coerced.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Μέλος: int dev_mode

          *note Python Development Mode: 70d.: see *note
          PyConfig.dev_mode: 590b.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Μέλος: int isolated

          Isolated mode: see *note PyConfig.isolated: 629.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python mode, ‘1’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Μέλος: int legacy_windows_fs_encoding

          If non-zero:

             * Set *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 630. to ‘0’,

             * Set *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 62e. to ‘"mbcs"’,

             * Set *note PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 62f. to
               ‘"replace"’.

          Initialized from the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 30f.
          environment variable value.

          Only available on Windows.  ‘#ifdef MS_WINDOWS’ macro can be
          used for Windows specific code.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Μέλος: int parse_argv

          If non-zero, *note Py_PreInitializeFromArgs(): d8b. and *note
          Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs(): d8c. parse their ‘argv’
          argument the same way the regular Python parses command line
          arguments: see *note Command Line Arguments: 13b0.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Μέλος: int use_environment

          Use *note environment variables: 9e8.?  See *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 61e.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Μέλος: int utf8_mode

          If non-zero, enable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46.

          Set to ‘0’ or ‘1’ by the *note -X utf8: 178. command line
          option and the *note PYTHONUTF8: 1ad. environment variable.

          Default: ‘1’.


File: python.info,  Node: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Next: PyConfig,  Prev: PyPreConfig,  Up: PyConfig C API

7.20.4.5 Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig
..............................................

The preinitialization of Python:

   * Set the Python memory allocators (*note PyPreConfig.allocator:
     5900.)

   * Configure the LC_CTYPE locale (*note locale encoding: 74d.)

   * Set the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46. (*note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode:
     630.)

The current preconfiguration (‘PyPreConfig’ type) is stored in
‘_PyRuntime.preconfig’.

Functions to preinitialize Python:

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. Py_PreInitialize (const
          PyPreConfig *preconfig)

     Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration.

     'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs
          (const PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, char *const *argv)

     Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration.

     Parse 'argv' command line arguments (bytes strings) if *note
     parse_argv: 592c. of 'preconfig' is non-zero.

     'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. Py_PreInitializeFromArgs (const
          PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv)

     Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration.

     Parse 'argv' command line arguments (wide strings) if *note
     parse_argv: 592c. of 'preconfig' is non-zero.

     'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’.

The caller is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using
*note PyStatus_Exception(): d81. and *note Py_ExitStatusException():
d8a.

For *note Python Configuration: 5892. (*note
PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): d7f.), if Python is initialized with
command line arguments, the command line arguments must also be passed
to preinitialize Python, since they have an effect on the
pre-configuration like encodings.  For example, the *note -X utf8: 178.
command line option enables the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: a46.

‘PyMem_SetAllocator()’ can be called after *note Py_PreInitialize():
631. and before *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. to install a
custom memory allocator.  It can be called before ‘Py_PreInitialize()’
if *note PyPreConfig.allocator: 5900. is set to
‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’.

Python memory allocation functions like *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf.
must not be used before the Python preinitialization, whereas calling
directly ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ is always safe.  *note
Py_DecodeLocale(): f85. must not be called before the Python
preinitialization.

Example using the preinitialization to enable the *note Python UTF-8
Mode: a46.:

     PyStatus status;
     PyPreConfig preconfig;
     PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(&preconfig);

     preconfig.utf8_mode = 1;

     status = Py_PreInitialize(&preconfig);
     if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

     /* at this point, Python speaks UTF-8 */

     Py_Initialize();
     /* ... use Python API here ... */
     Py_Finalize();


File: python.info,  Node: PyConfig,  Next: Initialization with PyConfig,  Prev: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig,  Up: PyConfig C API

7.20.4.6 PyConfig
.................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyConfig

     Structure containing most parameters to configure Python.

     When done, the *note PyConfig_Clear(): d77. function must be used
     to release the configuration memory.

     Structure methods:

      -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyConfig_InitPythonConfig (PyConfig *config)

          Initialize configuration with the *note Python Configuration:
          5892.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (PyConfig
               *config)

          Initialize configuration with the *note Isolated
          Configuration: 58f8.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. PyConfig_SetString (PyConfig
               *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const wchar_t *str)

          Copy the wide character string 'str' into ‘*config_str’.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 4516. if needed.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. PyConfig_SetBytesString
               (PyConfig *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const char
               *str)

          Decode 'str' using *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85. and set the
          result into ‘*config_str’.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 4516. if needed.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. PyConfig_SetArgv (PyConfig
               *config, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv)

          Set command line arguments (*note argv: 607. member of
          'config') from the 'argv' list of wide character strings.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 4516. if needed.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. PyConfig_SetBytesArgv
               (PyConfig *config, int argc, char *const *argv)

          Set command line arguments (*note argv: 607. member of
          'config') from the 'argv' list of bytes strings.  Decode bytes
          using *note Py_DecodeLocale(): f85.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 4516. if needed.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. PyConfig_SetWideStringList
               (PyConfig *config, PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t
               length, wchar_t **items)

          Set the list of wide strings 'list' to 'length' and 'items'.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 4516. if needed.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. PyConfig_Read (PyConfig
               *config)

          Read all Python configuration.

          Fields which are already initialized are left unchanged.

          Fields for *note path configuration: c80. are no longer
          calculated or modified when calling this function, as of
          Python 3.11.

          The *note PyConfig_Read(): b6f. function only parses *note
          PyConfig.argv: 607. arguments once: *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          1ee6. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed.  Since Python
          arguments are stripped from ‘PyConfig.argv’, parsing arguments
          twice would parse the application options as Python options.

          *note Preinitialize Python: 4516. if needed.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The *note PyConfig.argv: 607.
          arguments are now only parsed once, *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          1ee6. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed, and arguments
          are only parsed if ‘PyConfig.parse_argv’ equals ‘1’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: *note PyConfig_Read(): b6f. no longer
          calculates all paths, and so fields listed under *note Python
          Path Configuration: c80. may no longer be updated until *note
          Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. is called.

      -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyConfig_Clear (PyConfig *config)

          Release configuration memory.

     Most ‘PyConfig’ methods *note preinitialize Python: 4516. if
     needed.  In that case, the Python preinitialization configuration
     (*note PyPreConfig: d74.) is based on the *note PyConfig: 60b.  If
     configuration fields which are in common with ‘PyPreConfig’ are
     tuned, they must be set before calling a ‘PyConfig’ method:

        * *note PyConfig.dev_mode: 590b.

        * *note PyConfig.isolated: 629.

        * *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1ee6.

        * *note PyConfig.use_environment: 61e.

     Moreover, if *note PyConfig_SetArgv(): d7a. or *note
     PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(): d7b. is used, this method must be called
     before other methods, since the preinitialization configuration
     depends on command line arguments (if *note parse_argv: 1ee6. is
     non-zero).

     The caller of these methods is responsible to handle exceptions
     (error or exit) using ‘PyStatus_Exception()’ and
     ‘Py_ExitStatusException()’.

     Structure fields:

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyWideStringList: d76. argv

          Set *note sys.argv: 1609. command line arguments based on
          *note argv: 607.  These parameters are similar to those passed
          to the program’s ‘main()’ function with the difference that
          the first entry should refer to the script file to be executed
          rather than the executable hosting the Python interpreter.  If
          there isn’t a script that will be run, the first entry in
          ‘argv’ can be an empty string.

          Set *note parse_argv: 1ee6. to ‘1’ to parse *note argv: 607.
          the same way the regular Python parses Python command line
          arguments and then to strip Python arguments from ‘argv’.

          If *note argv: 607. is empty, an empty string is added to
          ensure that *note sys.argv: 1609. always exists and is never
          empty.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          See also the *note orig_argv: c6a. member.

      -- C Μέλος: int safe_path

          If equals to zero, ‘Py_RunMain()’ prepends a potentially
          unsafe path to *note sys.path: 194. at startup:

             * If *note argv[0]: 607. is equal to ‘L"-m"’ (‘python -m
               module’), prepend the current working directory.

             * If running a script (‘python script.py’), prepend the
               script’s directory.  If it’s a symbolic link, resolve
               symbolic links.

             * Otherwise (‘python -c code’ and ‘python’), prepend an
               empty string, which means the current working directory.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -P: 9a3. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 9a4. environment variable.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python config, ‘1’ in isolated config.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *base_exec_prefix

          *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3a7.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: c80. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.exec_prefix: 590e.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *base_executable

          Python base executable: ‘sys._base_executable’.

          Set by the ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable.

          Set from *note PyConfig.executable: 836. if ‘NULL’.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: c80. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.executable: 836.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *base_prefix

          *note sys.base_prefix: 3aa.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: c80. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.prefix: 5914.

      -- C Μέλος: int buffered_stdio

          If equals to ‘0’ and *note configure_c_stdio: 5908. is
          non-zero, disable buffering on the C streams stdout and
          stderr.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -u: 1f7f. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 1f80. environment variable.

          stdin is always opened in buffered mode.

          Default: ‘1’.

      -- C Μέλος: int bytes_warning

          If equals to ‘1’, issue a warning when comparing *note bytes:
          1c7. or *note bytearray: 1c6. with *note str: 1df, or
          comparing ‘bytes’ with *note int: 326.

          If equal or greater to ‘2’, raise a *note BytesWarning: 2ee.
          exception in these cases.

          Incremented by the *note -b: 2ed. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

          Καταργήθηκε από την έκδοση 3.15, θα αφαιρεθεί στην έκδοση
          3.17: The *note -b: 2ed. and ‘-bb’ options will become no-op
          in 3.17.  *note bytes_warning: 3c4. member will be removed in
          3.17.

      -- C Μέλος: int warn_default_encoding

          If non-zero, emit a *note EncodingWarning: 231d. warning when
          *note io.TextIOWrapper: b9c. uses its default encoding.  See
          *note Opt-in EncodingWarning: 1ac. for details.

          Default: ‘0’.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C Μέλος: int code_debug_ranges

          If equals to ‘0’, disables the inclusion of the end line and
          column mappings in code objects.  Also disables traceback
          printing carets to specific error locations.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 9b5. environment
          variable and by the *note -X no_debug_ranges: 178. command
          line option.

          Default: ‘1’.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *check_hash_pycs_mode

          Control the validation behavior of hash-based ‘.pyc’ files:
          value of the *note -check-hash-based-pycs: 2311. command line
          option.

          Valid values:

             - ‘L"always"’: Hash the source file for invalidation
               regardless of value of the “check_source” flag.

             - ‘L"never"’: Assume that hash-based pycs always are valid.

             - ‘L"default"’: The “check_source” flag in hash-based pycs
               determines invalidation.

          Default: ‘L"default"’.

          See also PEP 552(1) «Deterministic pycs».

      -- C Μέλος: int configure_c_stdio

          If non-zero, configure C standard streams:

             * On Windows, set the binary mode (‘O_BINARY’) on stdin,
               stdout and stderr.

             * If *note buffered_stdio: 624. equals zero, disable
               buffering of stdin, stdout and stderr streams.

             * If *note interactive: 613. is non-zero, enable stream
               buffering on stdin and stdout (only stdout on Windows).

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Μέλος: int dev_mode

          If non-zero, enable the *note Python Development Mode: 70d.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -X dev: 178. option and the *note
          PYTHONDEVMODE: eb5. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Μέλος: int dump_refs

          Dump Python references?

          If non-zero, dump all objects which are still alive at exit.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: d6f. environment
          variable.

          Needs a special build of Python with the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro
          defined: see the *note configure -with-trace-refs option: 828.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *dump_refs_file

          Filename where to dump Python references.

          Set by the *note PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE: 1e36. environment
          variable.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *exec_prefix

          The site-specific directory prefix where the
          platform-dependent Python files are installed: *note
          sys.exec_prefix: 3a8.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: c80. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.base_exec_prefix: 5901.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *executable

          The absolute path of the executable binary for the Python
          interpreter: *note sys.executable: 3ac.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: c80. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.base_executable: 5902.

      -- C Μέλος: int faulthandler

          Enable faulthandler?

          If non-zero, call *note faulthandler.enable(): 219. at
          startup.

          Set to ‘1’ by *note -X faulthandler: 178. and the *note
          PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 142d. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *filesystem_encoding

          *note Filesystem encoding: 948.: *note
          sys.getfilesystemencoding(): 1017.

          On macOS, Android and VxWorks: use ‘"utf-8"’ by default.

          On Windows: use ‘"utf-8"’ by default, or ‘"mbcs"’ if *note
          legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 62b. of *note PyPreConfig: d74. is
          non-zero.

          Default encoding on other platforms:

             * ‘"utf-8"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 630. is
               non-zero.

             * ‘"ascii"’ if Python detects that ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’
               announces the ASCII encoding, whereas the ‘mbstowcs()’
               function decodes from a different encoding (usually
               Latin1).

             * ‘"utf-8"’ if ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ returns an empty
               string.

             * Otherwise, use the *note locale encoding: 74d.:
               ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ result.

          At Python startup, the encoding name is normalized to the
          Python codec name.  For example, ‘"ANSI_X3.4-1968"’ is
          replaced with ‘"ascii"’.

          See also the *note filesystem_errors: 62f. member.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *filesystem_errors

          *note Filesystem error handler: 948.: *note
          sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): 10a3.

          On Windows: use ‘"surrogatepass"’ by default, or ‘"replace"’
          if *note legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 62b. of *note
          PyPreConfig: d74. is non-zero.

          On other platforms: use ‘"surrogateescape"’ by default.

          Supported error handlers:

             * ‘"strict"’

             * ‘"surrogateescape"’

             * ‘"surrogatepass"’ (only supported with the UTF-8
               encoding)

          See also the *note filesystem_encoding: 62e. member.

      -- C Μέλος: int use_frozen_modules

          If non-zero, use frozen modules.

          Set by the *note PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: 6b6. environment
          variable.

          Default: ‘1’ in a release build, or ‘0’ in a *note debug
          build: 3dc.

      -- C Μέλος: unsigned long hash_seed

      -- C Μέλος: int use_hash_seed

          Randomized hash function seed.

          If *note use_hash_seed: 626. is zero, a seed is chosen
          randomly at Python startup, and *note hash_seed: 627. is
          ignored.

          Set by the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1425. environment variable.

          Default 'use_hash_seed' value: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in
          isolated mode.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *home

          Set the default Python «home» directory, that is, the location
          of the standard Python libraries (see *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad.).

          Set by the *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. environment variable.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: c80. input.

      -- C Μέλος: int import_time

               If ‘1’, profile import time.  If ‘2’, include additional
               output that indicates when an imported module has already
               been loaded.

               Set by the *note -X importtime: 178. option and the *note
               PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: ebb. environment variable.

               Default: ‘0’.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: Added support for ‘import_time = 2’

      -- C Μέλος: int inspect

          Enter interactive mode after executing a script or a command.

          If greater than ‘0’, enable inspect: when a script is passed
          as first argument or the -c option is used, enter interactive
          mode after executing the script or the command, even when
          *note sys.stdin: 94a. does not appear to be a terminal.

          Incremented by the *note -i: 187d. command line option.  Set
          to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONINSPECT: 187c. environment variable
          is non-empty.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Μέλος: int install_signal_handlers

          Install Python signal handlers?

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Μέλος: int interactive

          If greater than ‘0’, enable the interactive mode (REPL).

          Incremented by the *note -i: 187d. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Μέλος: int int_max_str_digits

          Configures the *note integer string conversion length
          limitation: 9ec.  An initial value of ‘-1’ means the value
          will be taken from the command line or environment or
          otherwise default to 4300 (*note
          sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 28d8.).  A value of ‘0’
          disables the limitation.  Values greater than zero but less
          than 640 (*note sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold:
          4c08.) are unsupported and will produce an error.

          Configured by the *note -X int_max_str_digits: 178. command
          line flag or the *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 1d38.
          environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode.  4300 (*note
          sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 28d8.) in isolated mode.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- C Μέλος: int cpu_count

          If the value of *note cpu_count: 590a. is not ‘-1’ then it
          will override the return values of *note os.cpu_count(): 6e1,
          *note os.process_cpu_count(): 6e0, and *note
          multiprocessing.cpu_count(): 1319.

          Configured by the ‘-X cpu_count=N|DEFAULT’ command line flag
          or the *note PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 721. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- C Μέλος: int isolated

          If greater than ‘0’, enable isolated mode:

             * Set *note safe_path: b55. to ‘1’: don’t prepend a
               potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 194. at Python
               startup, such as the current directory, the script’s
               directory or an empty string.

             * Set *note use_environment: 61e. to ‘0’: ignore ‘PYTHON’
               environment variables.

             * Set *note user_site_directory: 622. to ‘0’: don’t add the
               user site directory to *note sys.path: 194.

             * Python REPL doesn’t import *note readline: c2. nor enable
               default readline configuration on interactive prompts.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -I: d28. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’ in Python mode, ‘1’ in isolated mode.

          See also the *note Isolated Configuration: 58f8. and *note
          PyPreConfig.isolated: 592b.

      -- C Μέλος: int legacy_windows_stdio

          If non-zero, use *note io.FileIO: 16b4. instead of
          ‘io._WindowsConsoleIO’ for *note sys.stdin: 94a, *note
          sys.stdout: e9c. and *note sys.stderr: d05.

          Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: 1019.
          environment variable is set to a non-empty string.

          Only available on Windows.  ‘#ifdef MS_WINDOWS’ macro can be
          used for Windows specific code.

          Default: ‘0’.

          See also the PEP 528(2) (Change Windows console encoding to
          UTF-8).

      -- C Μέλος: int malloc_stats

          If non-zero, dump statistics on *note Python pymalloc memory
          allocator: 3da. at exit.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 2124. environment
          variable.

          The option is ignored if Python is *note configured using the
          -without-pymalloc option: 238d.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *platlibdir

          Platform library directory name: *note sys.platlibdir: 2a9.

          Set by the *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 1f18. environment variable.

          Default: value of the ‘PLATLIBDIR’ macro which is set by the
          *note configure -with-platlibdir option: 19bd. (default:
          ‘"lib"’, or ‘"DLLs"’ on Windows).

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: c80. input.

          Added in version 3.9.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: This macro is now used on Windows to
          locate the standard library extension modules, typically under
          ‘DLLs’.  However, for compatibility, note that this value is
          ignored for any non-standard layouts, including in-tree builds
          and virtual environments.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *pythonpath_env

          Module search paths (*note sys.path: 194.) as a string
          separated by ‘DELIM’ (*note os.pathsep: 2322.).

          Set by the *note PYTHONPATH: 13c6. environment variable.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: c80. input.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyWideStringList: d76. module_search_paths

      -- C Μέλος: int module_search_paths_set

          Module search paths: *note sys.path: 194.

          If *note module_search_paths_set: 9e6. is equal to ‘0’, *note
          Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. will replace *note
          module_search_paths: 834. and sets ‘module_search_paths_set’
          to ‘1’.

          Default: empty list (‘module_search_paths’) and ‘0’
          (‘module_search_paths_set’).

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: c80. output.

      -- C Μέλος: int optimization_level

          Compilation optimization level:

             * ‘0’: Peephole optimizer, set ‘__debug__’ to ‘True’.

             * ‘1’: Level 0, remove assertions, set ‘__debug__’ to
               ‘False’.

             * ‘2’: Level 1, strip docstrings.

          Incremented by the *note -O: 431. command line option.  Set to
          the *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE: 2314. environment variable value.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyWideStringList: d76. orig_argv

          The list of the original command line arguments passed to the
          Python executable: *note sys.orig_argv: c19.

          If *note orig_argv: c6a. list is empty and *note argv: 607. is
          not a list only containing an empty string, *note
          PyConfig_Read(): b6f. copies ‘argv’ into ‘orig_argv’ before
          modifying ‘argv’ (if *note parse_argv: 1ee6. is non-zero).

          See also the *note argv: 607. member and the *note
          Py_GetArgcArgv(): 1f35. function.

          Default: empty list.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C Μέλος: int parse_argv

          Parse command line arguments?

          If equals to ‘1’, parse *note argv: 607. the same way the
          regular Python parses *note command line arguments: 13b0, and
          strip Python arguments from ‘argv’.

          The *note PyConfig_Read(): b6f. function only parses *note
          PyConfig.argv: 607. arguments once: *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          1ee6. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed.  Since Python
          arguments are stripped from ‘PyConfig.argv’, parsing arguments
          twice would parse the application options as Python options.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The *note PyConfig.argv: 607.
          arguments are now only parsed if *note PyConfig.parse_argv:
          1ee6. equals to ‘1’.

      -- C Μέλος: int parser_debug

          Parser debug mode.  If greater than ‘0’, turn on parser
          debugging output (for expert only, depending on compilation
          options).

          Incremented by the *note -d: 2312. command line option.  Set
          to the *note PYTHONDEBUG: 2313. environment variable value.

          Needs a *note debug build of Python: 3dc. (the ‘Py_DEBUG’
          macro must be defined).

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Μέλος: int pathconfig_warnings

          If non-zero, calculation of path configuration is allowed to
          log warnings into ‘stderr’.  If equals to ‘0’, suppress these
          warnings.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: c80. input.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: Now also applies on Windows.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *prefix

          The site-specific directory prefix where the platform
          independent Python files are installed: *note sys.prefix: 3ab.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: c80. output.

          See also *note PyConfig.base_prefix: 5903.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *program_name

          Program name used to initialize *note executable: 836. and in
          early error messages during Python initialization.

             * On macOS, use *note PYTHONEXECUTABLE: 2326. environment
               variable if set.

             * If the ‘WITH_NEXT_FRAMEWORK’ macro is defined, use
               ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable if set.

             * Use ‘argv[0]’ of *note argv: 607. if available and
               non-empty.

             * Otherwise, use ‘L"python"’ on Windows, or ‘L"python3"’ on
               other platforms.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: c80. input.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *pycache_prefix

          Directory where cached ‘.pyc’ files are written: *note
          sys.pycache_prefix: d6d.

          Set by the *note -X pycache_prefix=PATH: 178. command line
          option and the *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: d6c. environment
          variable.  The command-line option takes precedence.

          If ‘NULL’, *note sys.pycache_prefix: d6d. is set to ‘None’.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Μέλος: int quiet

          Quiet mode.  If greater than ‘0’, don’t display the copyright
          and version at Python startup in interactive mode.

          Incremented by the *note -q: 1994. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *run_command

          Value of the *note -c: 445. command line option.

          Used by *note Py_RunMain(): d8d.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *run_filename

          Filename passed on the command line: trailing command line
          argument without *note -c: 445. or *note -m: 4ca.  It is used
          by the *note Py_RunMain(): d8d. function.

          For example, it is set to ‘script.py’ by the ‘python3
          script.py arg’ command line.

          See also the *note PyConfig.skip_source_first_line: 5918.
          option.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *run_module

          Value of the *note -m: 4ca. command line option.

          Used by *note Py_RunMain(): d8d.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *run_presite

          ‘module’ or ‘module:func’ entry point that should be executed
          before the *note site: cf. module is imported.

          Set by the *note -X presite=module;func: 178. command-line
          option and the *note PYTHON_PRESITE: 18ff. environment
          variable.  The command-line option takes precedence.

          Needs a *note debug build of Python: 3dc. (the ‘Py_DEBUG’
          macro must be defined).

          Default: ‘NULL’.

      -- C Μέλος: int show_ref_count

          Show total reference count at exit (excluding *note immortal:
          398. objects)?

          Set to ‘1’ by *note -X showrefcount: 178. command line option.

          Needs a *note debug build of Python: 3dc. (the ‘Py_REF_DEBUG’
          macro must be defined).

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Μέλος: int site_import

          Import the *note site: cf. module at startup?

          If equal to zero, disable the import of the module site and
          the site-dependent manipulations of *note sys.path: 194. that
          it entails.

          Also disable these manipulations if the *note site: cf. module
          is explicitly imported later (call *note site.main(): 2316. if
          you want them to be triggered).

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -S: 1551. command line option.

          *note sys.flags.no_site: a7c. is set to the inverted value of
          *note site_import: 619.

          Default: ‘1’.

      -- C Μέλος: int skip_source_first_line

          If non-zero, skip the first line of the *note
          PyConfig.run_filename: 5890. source.

          It allows the usage of non-Unix forms of ‘#!cmd’.  This is
          intended for a DOS specific hack only.

          Set to ‘1’ by the *note -x: 231a. command line option.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *stdio_encoding

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *stdio_errors

          Encoding and encoding errors of *note sys.stdin: 94a, *note
          sys.stdout: e9c. and *note sys.stderr: d05. (but ‘sys.stderr’
          always uses ‘"backslashreplace"’ error handler).

          Use the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: 13b3. environment variable if
          it is non-empty.

          Default encoding:

             * ‘"UTF-8"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 630. is
               non-zero.

             * Otherwise, use the *note locale encoding: 74d.

          Default error handler:

             * On Windows: use ‘"surrogateescape"’.

             * ‘"surrogateescape"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 630.
               is non-zero, or if the LC_CTYPE locale is «C» or «POSIX».

             * ‘"strict"’ otherwise.

          See also *note PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 62d.

      -- C Μέλος: int tracemalloc

          Enable tracemalloc?

          If non-zero, call *note tracemalloc.start(): 231b. at startup.

          Set by *note -X tracemalloc=N: 178. command line option and by
          the *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 231c. environment variable.

          Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Μέλος: int perf_profiling

          Enable the Linux ‘perf’ profiler support?

          If equals to ‘1’, enable support for the Linux ‘perf’
          profiler.

          If equals to ‘2’, enable support for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler
          with DWARF JIT support.

          Set to ‘1’ by *note -X perf: 178. command-line option and the
          *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 884. environment variable.

          Set to ‘2’ by the *note -X perf_jit: 178. command-line option
          and the *note PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 6b8. environment
          variable.

          Default: ‘-1’.

          Δείτε επίσης
          ............

          See *note Python support for the perf map compatible
          profilers: 6b7. for more information.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- C Μέλος: wchar_t *stdlib_dir

          Directory of the Python standard library.

          Default: ‘NULL’.

          Added in version 3.11.

      -- C Μέλος: int use_environment

          Use *note environment variables: 9e8.?

          If equals to zero, ignore the *note environment variables:
          9e8.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -E: d27. environment variable.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.

      -- C Μέλος: int use_system_logger

          If non-zero, ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’ will be redirected to the
          system log.

          Only available on macOS 10.12 and later, and on iOS.

          Default: ‘0’ (don’t use the system log) on macOS; ‘1’ on iOS
          (use the system log).

          Added in version 3.14.

      -- C Μέλος: int user_site_directory

          If non-zero, add the user site directory to *note sys.path:
          194.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -s: 1732. and *note -I: d28. command
          line options.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1733. environment
          variable.

          Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode.

      -- C Μέλος: int verbose

          Verbose mode.  If greater than ‘0’, print a message each time
          a module is imported, showing the place (filename or built-in
          module) from which it is loaded.

          If greater than or equal to ‘2’, print a message for each file
          that is checked for when searching for a module.  Also
          provides information on module cleanup at exit.

          Incremented by the *note -v: 17c7. command line option.

          Set by the *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 2317. environment variable
          value.

          Default: ‘0’.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyWideStringList: d76. warnoptions

          Options of the *note warnings: 11b. module to build warnings
          filters, lowest to highest priority: *note sys.warnoptions:
          3a5.

          The *note warnings: 11b. module adds *note sys.warnoptions:
          3a5. in the reverse order: the last *note
          PyConfig.warnoptions: 832. item becomes the first item of
          ‘warnings.filters’ which is checked first (highest priority).

          The *note -W: 1c0. command line options adds its value to
          *note warnoptions: 832, it can be used multiple times.

          The *note PYTHONWARNINGS: 1c1. environment variable can also
          be used to add warning options.  Multiple options can be
          specified, separated by commas (‘,’).

          Default: empty list.

      -- C Μέλος: int write_bytecode

          If equal to ‘0’, Python won’t try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the
          import of source modules.

          Set to ‘0’ by the *note -B: 1770. command line option and the
          *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1771. environment variable.

          *note sys.dont_write_bytecode: 4bd5. is initialized to the
          inverted value of *note write_bytecode: 620.

          Default: ‘1’.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyWideStringList: d76. xoptions

          Values of the *note -X: 178. command line options: *note
          sys._xoptions: 231f.

          Default: empty list.

      -- C Μέλος: int _pystats

          If non-zero, write performance statistics at Python exit.

          Need a special build with the ‘Py_STATS’ macro: see *note
          -enable-pystats: 1d36.

          Default: ‘0’.

If *note parse_argv: 1ee6. is non-zero, *note argv: 607. arguments are
parsed the same way the regular Python parses *note command line
arguments: 13b0, and Python arguments are stripped from ‘argv’.

The *note xoptions: 833. options are parsed to set other options: see
the *note -X: 178. command line option.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The ‘show_alloc_count’ field has been removed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/


File: python.info,  Node: Initialization with PyConfig,  Next: Isolated Configuration,  Prev: PyConfig,  Up: PyConfig C API

7.20.4.7 Initialization with PyConfig
.....................................

Initializing the interpreter from a populated configuration struct is
handled by calling *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a.

The caller is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using
*note PyStatus_Exception(): d81. and *note Py_ExitStatusException():
d8a.

If *note PyImport_FrozenModules(): 3572, *note PyImport_AppendInittab():
1d1a. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 1d1b. are used, they must be
set or called after Python preinitialization and before the Python
initialization.  If Python is initialized multiple times,
‘PyImport_AppendInittab()’ or ‘PyImport_ExtendInittab()’ must be called
before each Python initialization.

The current configuration (‘PyConfig’ type) is stored in
‘PyInterpreterState.config’.

Example setting the program name:

     void init_python(void)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* Set the program name. Implicitly preinitialize Python. */
         status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.program_name,
                                     L"/path/to/my_program");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto exception;
         }
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         return;

     exception:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         Py_ExitStatusException(status);
     }

More complete example modifying the default configuration, read the
configuration, and then override some parameters.  Note that since 3.11,
many parameters are not calculated until initialization, and so values
cannot be read from the configuration structure.  Any values set before
initialize is called will be left unchanged by initialization:

     PyStatus init_python(const char *program_name)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);

         /* Set the program name before reading the configuration
            (decode byte string from the locale encoding).

            Implicitly preinitialize Python. */
         status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name,
                                          program_name);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Read all configuration at once */
         status = PyConfig_Read(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Specify sys.path explicitly */
         /* If you want to modify the default set of paths, finish
            initialization first and then use PySys_GetAttrString("path") */
         config.module_search_paths_set = 1;
         status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths,
                                          L"/path/to/stdlib");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }
         status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths,
                                          L"/path/to/more/modules");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         /* Override executable computed by PyConfig_Read() */
         status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.executable,
                                     L"/path/to/my_executable");
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             goto done;
         }

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);

     done:
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         return status;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Isolated Configuration,  Next: Python Configuration,  Prev: Initialization with PyConfig,  Up: PyConfig C API

7.20.4.8 Isolated Configuration
...............................

*note PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): d7e. and *note
PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): d78. functions create a configuration to
isolate Python from the system.  For example, to embed Python into an
application.

This configuration ignores global configuration variables, environment
variables, command line arguments (*note PyConfig.argv: 607. is not
parsed) and user site directory.  The C standard streams (ex: ‘stdout’)
and the LC_CTYPE locale are left unchanged.  Signal handlers are not
installed.

Configuration files are still used with this configuration to determine
paths that are unspecified.  Ensure *note PyConfig.home: 609. is
specified to avoid computing the default path configuration.


File: python.info,  Node: Python Configuration,  Next: Python Path Configuration,  Prev: Isolated Configuration,  Up: PyConfig C API

7.20.4.9 Python Configuration
.............................

*note PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): d7f. and *note
PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(): d79. functions create a configuration to
build a customized Python which behaves as the regular Python.

Environments variables and command line arguments are used to configure
Python, whereas global configuration variables are ignored.

This function enables C locale coercion ( PEP 538(1)) and *note Python
UTF-8 Mode: a46. ( PEP 540(2)) depending on the LC_CTYPE locale, *note
PYTHONUTF8: 1ad. and *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: e9b. environment
variables.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/


File: python.info,  Node: Python Path Configuration,  Prev: Python Configuration,  Up: PyConfig C API

7.20.4.10 Python Path Configuration
...................................

*note PyConfig: 60b. contains multiple fields for the path
configuration:

   * Path configuration inputs:

        * *note PyConfig.home: 609.

        * *note PyConfig.platlibdir: 1f16.

        * *note PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 61c.

        * *note PyConfig.program_name: 608.

        * *note PyConfig.pythonpath_env: 5930.

        * current working directory: to get absolute paths

        * ‘PATH’ environment variable to get the program full path (from
          *note PyConfig.program_name: 608.)

        * ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable

        * (Windows only) Application paths in the registry under
          «SoftwarePythonPythonCoreX.YPythonPath» of HKEY_CURRENT_USER
          and HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (where X.Y is the Python version).

   * Path configuration output fields:

        * *note PyConfig.base_exec_prefix: 5901.

        * *note PyConfig.base_executable: 5902.

        * *note PyConfig.base_prefix: 5903.

        * *note PyConfig.exec_prefix: 590e.

        * *note PyConfig.executable: 836.

        * *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 9e6, *note
          PyConfig.module_search_paths: 834.

        * *note PyConfig.prefix: 5914.

If at least one «output field» is not set, Python calculates the path
configuration to fill unset fields.  If *note module_search_paths_set:
9e6. is equal to ‘0’, *note module_search_paths: 834. is overridden and
‘module_search_paths_set’ is set to ‘1’.

It is possible to completely ignore the function calculating the default
path configuration by setting explicitly all path configuration output
fields listed above.  A string is considered as set even if it is
non-empty.  ‘module_search_paths’ is considered as set if
‘module_search_paths_set’ is set to ‘1’.  In this case,
‘module_search_paths’ will be used without modification.

Set *note pathconfig_warnings: 61c. to ‘0’ to suppress warnings when
calculating the path configuration (Unix only, Windows does not log any
warning).

If *note base_prefix: 5903. or *note base_exec_prefix: 5901. fields are
not set, they inherit their value from *note prefix: 5914. and *note
exec_prefix: 590e. respectively.

*note Py_RunMain(): d8d. and *note Py_Main(): fe2. modify *note
sys.path: 194.:

   * If *note run_filename: 5890. is set and is a directory which
     contains a ‘__main__.py’ script, prepend ‘run_filename’ to *note
     sys.path: 194.

   * If *note isolated: 629. is zero:

        * If *note run_module: 5891. is set, prepend the current
          directory to *note sys.path: 194.  Do nothing if the current
          directory cannot be read.

        * If *note run_filename: 5890. is set, prepend the directory of
          the filename to *note sys.path: 194.

        * Otherwise, prepend an empty string to *note sys.path: 194.

If *note site_import: 619. is non-zero, *note sys.path: 194. can be
modified by the *note site: cf. module.  If *note user_site_directory:
622. is non-zero and the user’s site-package directory exists, the
‘site’ module appends the user’s site-package directory to ‘sys.path’.

The following configuration files are used by the path configuration:

   * ‘pyvenv.cfg’

   * ‘._pth’ file (ex: ‘python._pth’)

   * ‘pybuilddir.txt’ (Unix only)

If a ‘._pth’ file is present:

   * Set *note isolated: 629. to ‘1’.

   * Set *note use_environment: 61e. to ‘0’.

   * Set *note site_import: 619. to ‘0’.

   * Set *note user_site_directory: 622. to ‘0’ (since 3.15).

   * Set *note safe_path: b55. to ‘1’.

If *note home: 609. is not set and a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file is present in the
same directory as *note executable: 836, or its parent, *note prefix:
5914. and *note exec_prefix: 590e. are set that location.  When this
happens, *note base_prefix: 5903. and *note base_exec_prefix: 5901.
still keep their value, pointing to the base installation.  See *note
Virtual Environments: 4b93. for more information.

The ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable is used to set *note
PyConfig.base_executable: 5902.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: *note prefix: 5914, and *note exec_prefix:
590e, are now set to the ‘pyvenv.cfg’ directory.  This was previously
done by *note site: cf, therefore affected by *note -S: 1551.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.15: *note user_site_directory: 622. is now set to
‘0’ when a ‘._pth’ file is present.


File: python.info,  Node: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Next: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API,  Prev: PyConfig C API,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.20.5 Py_GetArgcArgv()
-----------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_GetArgcArgv (int *argc, wchar_t ***argv)

     Get the original command line arguments, before Python modified
     them.

     See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: c6a. member.


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API,  Prev: Py_GetArgcArgv,  Up: Python Initialization Configuration

7.20.6 Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API
---------------------------------------------------------

This section is a private provisional API introducing multi-phase
initialization, the core feature of PEP 432(1):

   * «Core» initialization phase, «bare minimum Python»:

        * Builtin types;

        * Builtin exceptions;

        * Builtin and frozen modules;

        * The *note sys: e2. module is only partially initialized (ex:
          *note sys.path: 194. doesn’t exist yet).

   * «Main» initialization phase, Python is fully initialized:

        * Install and configure *note importlib: 7a.;

        * Apply the *note Path Configuration: c80.;

        * Install signal handlers;

        * Finish *note sys: e2. module initialization (ex: create *note
          sys.stdout: e9c. and *note sys.path: 194.);

        * Enable optional features like *note faulthandler: 5b. and
          *note tracemalloc: 108.;

        * Import the *note site: cf. module;

        * etc.

Private provisional API:

 -- C Μέλος: int *note PyConfig: 60b._init_main

     If set to ‘0’, *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. stops at the
     «Core» initialization phase.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyStatus: d75. _Py_InitializeMain (void)

     Move to the «Main» initialization phase, finish the Python
     initialization.

No module is imported during the «Core» phase and the ‘importlib’ module
is not configured: the *note Path Configuration: c80. is only applied
during the «Main» phase.  It may allow to customize Python in Python to
override or tune the *note Path Configuration: c80, maybe install a
custom *note sys.meta_path: 10e3. importer or an import hook, etc.

It may become possible to calculate the *note Path Configuration: c80.
in Python, after the Core phase and before the Main phase, which is one
of the PEP 432(2) motivation.

The «Core» phase is not properly defined: what should be and what should
not be available at this phase is not specified yet.  The API is marked
as private and provisional: the API can be modified or even be removed
anytime until a proper public API is designed.

Example running Python code between «Core» and «Main» initialization
phases:

     void init_python(void)
     {
         PyStatus status;

         PyConfig config;
         PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config);
         config._init_main = 0;

         /* ... customize 'config' configuration ... */

         status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config);
         PyConfig_Clear(&config);
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }

         /* Use sys.stderr because sys.stdout is only created
            by _Py_InitializeMain() */
         int res = PyRun_SimpleString(
             "import sys; "
             "print('Run Python code before _Py_InitializeMain', "
                    "file=sys.stderr)");
         if (res < 0) {
             exit(1);
         }

         /* ... put more configuration code here ... */

         status = _Py_InitializeMain();
         if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) {
             Py_ExitStatusException(status);
         }
     }

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/


File: python.info,  Node: Memory Management,  Next: Object Implementation Support,  Prev: Python Initialization Configuration,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.21 Memory Management
======================

* Menu:

* Overview: Overview<4>.
* Allocator Domains::
* Raw Memory Interface::
* Memory Interface::
* Object allocators::
* Default Memory Allocators::
* Customize Memory Allocators::
* Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators::
* The pymalloc allocator::
* The mimalloc allocator::
* tracemalloc C API::
* Examples: Examples<32>.


File: python.info,  Node: Overview<4>,  Next: Allocator Domains,  Up: Memory Management

7.21.1 Overview
---------------

Memory management in Python involves a private heap containing all
Python objects and data structures.  The management of this private heap
is ensured internally by the 'Python memory manager'.  The Python memory
manager has different components which deal with various dynamic storage
management aspects, like sharing, segmentation, preallocation or
caching.

At the lowest level, a raw memory allocator ensures that there is enough
room in the private heap for storing all Python-related data by
interacting with the memory manager of the operating system.  On top of
the raw memory allocator, several object-specific allocators operate on
the same heap and implement distinct memory management policies adapted
to the peculiarities of every object type.  For example, integer objects
are managed differently within the heap than strings, tuples or
dictionaries because integers imply different storage requirements and
speed/space tradeoffs.  The Python memory manager thus delegates some of
the work to the object-specific allocators, but ensures that the latter
operate within the bounds of the private heap.

It is important to understand that the management of the Python heap is
performed by the interpreter itself and that the user has no control
over it, even if they regularly manipulate object pointers to memory
blocks inside that heap.  The allocation of heap space for Python
objects and other internal buffers is performed on demand by the Python
memory manager through the Python/C API functions listed in this
document.

To avoid memory corruption, extension writers should never try to
operate on Python objects with the functions exported by the C library:
‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’.  This will result in
mixed calls between the C allocator and the Python memory manager with
fatal consequences, because they implement different algorithms and
operate on different heaps.  However, one may safely allocate and
release memory blocks with the C library allocator for individual
purposes, as shown in the following example:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     ...Do some I/O operation involving buf...
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     free(buf); /* malloc'ed */
     return res;

In this example, the memory request for the I/O buffer is handled by the
C library allocator.  The Python memory manager is involved only in the
allocation of the bytes object returned as a result.

In most situations, however, it is recommended to allocate memory from
the Python heap specifically because the latter is under control of the
Python memory manager.  For example, this is required when the
interpreter is extended with new object types written in C. Another
reason for using the Python heap is the desire to 'inform' the Python
memory manager about the memory needs of the extension module.  Even
when the requested memory is used exclusively for internal, highly
specific purposes, delegating all memory requests to the Python memory
manager causes the interpreter to have a more accurate image of its
memory footprint as a whole.  Consequently, under certain circumstances,
the Python memory manager may or may not trigger appropriate actions,
like garbage collection, memory compaction or other preventive
procedures.  Note that by using the C library allocator as shown in the
previous example, the allocated memory for the I/O buffer escapes
completely the Python memory manager.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note PYTHONMALLOC: 1022. environment variable can be used to
configure the memory allocators used by Python.

The *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 2124. environment variable can be used to
print statistics of the *note pymalloc memory allocator: 3da. every time
a new pymalloc object arena is created, and on shutdown.


File: python.info,  Node: Allocator Domains,  Next: Raw Memory Interface,  Prev: Overview<4>,  Up: Memory Management

7.21.2 Allocator Domains
------------------------

All allocating functions belong to one of three different «domains» (see
also *note PyMemAllocatorDomain: 5940.).  These domains represent
different allocation strategies and are optimized for different
purposes.  The specific details on how every domain allocates memory or
what internal functions each domain calls is considered an
implementation detail, but for debugging purposes a simplified table can
be found at *note Default Memory Allocators: 2329.  The APIs used to
allocate and free a block of memory must be from the same domain.  For
example, *note PyMem_Free(): 17e4. must be used to free memory allocated
using *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024.

The three allocation domains are:

   * Raw domain: intended for allocating memory for general-purpose
     memory buffers where the allocation 'must' go to the system
     allocator or where the allocator can operate without an *note
     attached thread state: 1a1.  The memory is requested directly from
     the system.  See *note Raw Memory Interface: 5941.

   * «Mem» domain: intended for allocating memory for Python buffers and
     general-purpose memory buffers where the allocation must be
     performed with an *note attached thread state: 1a1.  The memory is
     taken from the Python private heap.  See *note Memory Interface:
     5942.

   * Object domain: intended for allocating memory for Python objects.
     The memory is taken from the Python private heap.  See *note Object
     allocators: 5943.

     Σημείωση: The *note free-threaded: 487. build requires that only
     Python objects are allocated using the «object» domain and that all
     Python objects are allocated using that domain.  This differs from
     the prior Python versions, where this was only a best practice and
     not a hard requirement.

     For example, buffers (non-Python objects) should be allocated using
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024, *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf, or
     ‘malloc()’, but not *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026.

     See *note Memory Allocation APIs: 5944.


File: python.info,  Node: Raw Memory Interface,  Next: Memory Interface,  Prev: Allocator Domains,  Up: Memory Management

7.21.3 Raw Memory Interface
---------------------------

The following function sets are wrappers to the system allocator.  These
functions are thread-safe, so a *note thread state: 1a70. does not need
to be *note attached: 1a1.

The *note default raw memory allocator: 2329. uses the following
functions: ‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’; call
‘malloc(1)’ (or ‘calloc(1, 1)’) when requesting zero bytes.

Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyMem_RawMalloc (size_t n)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'
     Allocates 'n' bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the
     allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the request fails.

     Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if
     possible, as if ‘PyMem_RawMalloc(1)’ had been called instead.  The
     memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyMem_RawCalloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'
     Allocates 'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.  The memory is initialized to zeros.

     Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
     distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyMem_RawCalloc(1,
     1)’ had been called instead.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyMem_RawRealloc (void *p, size_t n)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Resizes
     the memory block pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes.  The contents will
     be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyMem_RawMalloc(n)’;
     else if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is
     not freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’.

     Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 825. or
     *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 824.

     If the request fails, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 825. returns ‘NULL’
     and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyMem_RawFree (void *p)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Frees
     the memory block pointed to by 'p', which must have been returned
     by a previous call to *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf, *note
     PyMem_RawRealloc(): 825. or *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 824.
     Otherwise, or if ‘PyMem_RawFree(p)’ has been called before,
     undefined behavior occurs.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.


File: python.info,  Node: Memory Interface,  Next: Object allocators,  Prev: Raw Memory Interface,  Up: Memory Management

7.21.4 Memory Interface
-----------------------

The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but
specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for
allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap.

In the GIL-enabled build (default build) the *note default memory
allocator: 2329. uses the *note pymalloc memory allocator: 3da, whereas
in the *note free-threaded build: 198, the default is the *note mimalloc
memory allocator: 232b. instead.

     Προειδοποίηση: There must be an *note attached thread state: 1a1.
     when using these functions.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The default allocator is now pymalloc instead of
system ‘malloc()’.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.13: In the *note free-threaded: 487. build, the
default allocator is now *note mimalloc: 232b.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyMem_Malloc (size_t n)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Allocates 'n' bytes and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.

     Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if
     possible, as if ‘PyMem_Malloc(1)’ had been called instead.  The
     memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyMem_Calloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Allocates
     'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and returns a
     pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the
     request fails.  The memory is initialized to zeros.

     Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
     distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyMem_Calloc(1, 1)’
     had been called instead.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyMem_Realloc (void *p, size_t n)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Resizes the memory block
     pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes.  The contents will be unchanged to
     the minimum of the old and the new sizes.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyMem_Malloc(n)’; else
     if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not
     freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’.

     Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 13da. or
     *note PyMem_Calloc(): 125e.

     If the request fails, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 13da. returns ‘NULL’
     and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyMem_Free (void *p)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Frees the memory block
     pointed to by 'p', which must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 13da. or
     *note PyMem_Calloc(): 125e.  Otherwise, or if ‘PyMem_Free(p)’ has
     been called before, undefined behavior occurs.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.

The following type-oriented macros are provided for convenience.  Note
that 'TYPE' refers to any C type.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyMem_New (TYPE, n)

     Same as *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024, but allocates ‘(n *
     sizeof(TYPE))’ bytes of memory.  Returns a pointer cast to ‘TYPE*’.
     The memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyMem_Resize (p, TYPE, n)

     Same as *note PyMem_Realloc(): 13da, but the memory block is
     resized to ‘(n * sizeof(TYPE))’ bytes.  Returns a pointer cast to
     ‘TYPE*’.  On return, 'p' will be a pointer to the new memory area,
     or ‘NULL’ in the event of failure.

     This is a C preprocessor macro; 'p' is always reassigned.  Save the
     original value of 'p' to avoid losing memory when handling errors.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyMem_Del (void *p)

     Same as *note PyMem_Free(): 17e4.

* Menu:

* Deprecated aliases: Deprecated aliases<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecated aliases<2>,  Up: Memory Interface

7.21.4.1 Deprecated aliases
...........................

These are *note soft deprecated: 1a7. aliases to existing functions and
macros.  They exist solely for backwards compatibility.

Deprecated alias                                       Corresponding function or macro
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyMem_MALLOC (size)                 *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyMem_NEW (type, size)              *note PyMem_New: 18c6.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyMem_REALLOC (ptr, size)           *note PyMem_Realloc(): 13da.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyMem_RESIZE (ptr, type, size)      *note PyMem_Resize: 5947.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyMem_FREE (ptr)                    *note PyMem_Free(): 17e4.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyMem_DEL (ptr)                     *note PyMem_Free(): 17e4.
                                                       

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.4: The macros are now aliases of the corresponding
functions and macros.  Previously, their behavior was the same, but
their use did not necessarily preserve binary compatibility across
Python versions.

Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 2.0.


File: python.info,  Node: Object allocators,  Next: Default Memory Allocators,  Prev: Memory Interface,  Up: Memory Management

7.21.5 Object allocators
------------------------

The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but
specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for
allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap.

     Σημείωση: There is no guarantee that the memory returned by these
     allocators can be successfully cast to a Python object when
     intercepting the allocating functions in this domain by the methods
     described in the *note Customize Memory Allocators: 5950. section.

The *note default object allocator: 2329. uses the *note pymalloc memory
allocator: 3da.  In the *note free-threaded: 487. build, the default is
the *note mimalloc memory allocator: 232b. instead.

     Προειδοποίηση: There must be an *note attached thread state: 1a1.
     when using these functions.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyObject_Malloc (size_t n)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Allocates 'n' bytes and
     returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’
     if the request fails.

     Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if
     possible, as if ‘PyObject_Malloc(1)’ had been called instead.  The
     memory will not have been initialized in any way.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyObject_Calloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Allocates
     'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and returns a
     pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the
     request fails.  The memory is initialized to zeros.

     Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a
     distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyObject_Calloc(1,
     1)’ had been called instead.

     Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyObject_Realloc (void *p, size_t n)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Resizes the memory block
     pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes.  The contents will be unchanged to
     the minimum of the old and the new sizes.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyObject_Malloc(n)’;
     else if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is
     not freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’.

     Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 17e5.
     or *note PyObject_Calloc(): 125f.

     If the request fails, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 17e5. returns
     ‘NULL’ and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyObject_Free (void *p)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Frees the memory block
     pointed to by 'p', which must have been returned by a previous call
     to *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 17e5.
     or *note PyObject_Calloc(): 125f.  Otherwise, or if
     ‘PyObject_Free(p)’ has been called before, undefined behavior
     occurs.

     If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.

     Do not call this directly to free an object’s memory; call the
     type’s *note tp_free: 51e5. slot instead.

     Do not use this for memory allocated by *note PyObject_GC_New: e68.
     or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: e69.; use *note PyObject_GC_Del():
     18a5. instead.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5. is the equivalent of this
          function for memory allocated by types that support garbage
          collection.

        * *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026.

        * *note PyObject_Realloc(): 17e5.

        * *note PyObject_Calloc(): 125f.

        * *note PyObject_New: d4d.

        * *note PyObject_NewVar: d4e.

        * *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30.

        * *note tp_free: 51e5.


File: python.info,  Node: Default Memory Allocators,  Next: Customize Memory Allocators,  Prev: Object allocators,  Up: Memory Management

7.21.6 Default Memory Allocators
--------------------------------

Default memory allocators:

Configuration                           Name                        PyMem_RawMalloc          PyMem_Malloc               PyObject_Malloc
                                                                                                                        
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                        
Release build                           ‘"pymalloc"’                ‘malloc’                 ‘pymalloc’                 ‘pymalloc’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
Debug build                             ‘"pymalloc_debug"’          ‘malloc’ + debug         ‘pymalloc’ + debug         ‘pymalloc’ + debug
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
Release build, without pymalloc         ‘"malloc"’                  ‘malloc’                 ‘malloc’                   ‘malloc’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
Debug build, without pymalloc           ‘"malloc_debug"’            ‘malloc’ + debug         ‘malloc’ + debug           ‘malloc’ + debug
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
Free-threaded build                     ‘"mimalloc"’                ‘mimalloc’               ‘mimalloc’                 ‘mimalloc’
                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                        
Free-threaded debug build               ‘"mimalloc_debug"’          ‘mimalloc’ + debug       ‘mimalloc’ + debug         ‘mimalloc’ + debug
                                                                                                                        

Legend:

   * Name: value for *note PYTHONMALLOC: 1022. environment variable.

   * ‘malloc’: system allocators from the standard C library, C
     functions: ‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’.

   * ‘pymalloc’: *note pymalloc memory allocator: 3da.

   * ‘mimalloc’: *note mimalloc memory allocator: 232b.

   * «+ debug»: with *note debug hooks on the Python memory allocators:
     232c.

   * «Debug build»: *note Python build in debug mode: 3dc.


File: python.info,  Node: Customize Memory Allocators,  Next: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators,  Prev: Default Memory Allocators,  Up: Memory Management

7.21.7 Customize Memory Allocators
----------------------------------

Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyMemAllocatorEx

     Structure used to describe a memory block allocator.  The structure
     has the following fields:

     Field                                                          Meaning
                                                                    
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
     ‘void *ctx’                                                    user context passed as first argument
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* malloc(void *ctx, size_t size)’                         allocate a memory block
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* calloc(void *ctx, size_t nelem, size_t elsize)’         allocate a memory block initialized with
                                                                    zeros
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void* realloc(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t new_size)’         allocate or resize a memory block
                                                                    
                                                                    
     ‘void free(void *ctx, void *ptr)’                              free a memory block
                                                                    

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The ‘PyMemAllocator’ structure was renamed
     to *note PyMemAllocatorEx: 127c. and a new ‘calloc’ field was
     added.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyMemAllocatorDomain

     Enum used to identify an allocator domain.  Domains:

      -- C Μακροεντολή: PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW

          Functions:

             * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf.

             * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 825.

             * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 824.

             * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 826.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM

          Functions:

             * *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024,

             * *note PyMem_Realloc(): 13da.

             * *note PyMem_Calloc(): 125e.

             * *note PyMem_Free(): 17e4.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ

          Functions:

             * *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026.

             * *note PyObject_Realloc(): 17e5.

             * *note PyObject_Calloc(): 125f.

             * *note PyObject_Free(): 1023.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyMem_GetAllocator (PyMemAllocatorDomain domain,
          PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

     Get the memory block allocator of the specified domain.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyMem_SetAllocator (PyMemAllocatorDomain domain,
          PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator)

     Set the memory block allocator of the specified domain.

     The new allocator must return a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer when
     requesting zero bytes.

     For the *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 232a. domain, the allocator must be
     thread-safe: a *note thread state: 1a70. is not *note attached:
     1a1. when the allocator is called.

     For the remaining domains, the allocator must also be thread-safe:
     the allocator may be called in different interpreters that do not
     share a *note GIL: 411.

     If the new allocator is not a hook (does not call the previous
     allocator), the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): 1028. function must
     be called to reinstall the debug hooks on top on the new allocator.

     See also *note PyPreConfig.allocator: 5900. and *note Preinitialize
     Python with PyPreConfig: 4516.

          Προειδοποίηση: *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 98a. does have the
          following contract:

             * It can be called after *note Py_PreInitialize(): 631. and
               before *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. to install a
               custom memory allocator.  There are no restrictions over
               the installed allocator other than the ones imposed by
               the domain (for instance, the Raw Domain allows the
               allocator to be called without an *note attached thread
               state: 1a1.).  See *note the section on allocator
               domains: 593f. for more information.

             * If called after Python has finish initializing (after
               *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. has been called)
               the allocator 'must' wrap the existing allocator.
               Substituting the current allocator for some other
               arbitrary one is 'not supported'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: All allocators must be thread-safe.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyMem_SetupDebugHooks (void)

     Setup *note debug hooks in the Python memory allocators: 232c. to
     detect memory errors.


File: python.info,  Node: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators,  Next: The pymalloc allocator,  Prev: Customize Memory Allocators,  Up: Memory Management

7.21.8 Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators
--------------------------------------------------

When *note Python is built in debug mode: 3dc, the *note
PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): 1028. function is called at the *note Python
preinitialization: 4516. to setup debug hooks on Python memory
allocators to detect memory errors.

The *note PYTHONMALLOC: 1022. environment variable can be used to
install debug hooks on a Python compiled in release mode (ex:
‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’).

The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): 1028. function can be used to set
debug hooks after calling *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 98a.

These debug hooks fill dynamically allocated memory blocks with special,
recognizable bit patterns.  Newly allocated memory is filled with the
byte ‘0xCD’ (‘PYMEM_CLEANBYTE’), freed memory is filled with the byte
‘0xDD’ (‘PYMEM_DEADBYTE’).  Memory blocks are surrounded by «forbidden
bytes» filled with the byte ‘0xFD’ (‘PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE’).  Strings of
these bytes are unlikely to be valid addresses, floats, or ASCII
strings.

Runtime checks:

   - Detect API violations.  For example, detect if *note
     PyObject_Free(): 1023. is called on a memory block allocated by
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024.

   - Detect write before the start of the buffer (buffer underflow).

   - Detect write after the end of the buffer (buffer overflow).

   - Check that there is an *note attached thread state: 1a1. when
     allocator functions of *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: 1025. (ex: *note
     PyObject_Malloc(): 1026.) and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: 1027. (ex:
     *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024.) domains are called.

On error, the debug hooks use the *note tracemalloc: 108. module to get
the traceback where a memory block was allocated.  The traceback is only
displayed if ‘tracemalloc’ is tracing Python memory allocations and the
memory block was traced.

Let 'S' = ‘sizeof(size_t)’.  ‘2*S’ bytes are added at each end of each
block of 'N' bytes requested.  The memory layout is like so, where p
represents the address returned by a malloc-like or realloc-like
function (‘p[i:j]’ means the slice of bytes from ‘*(p+i)’ inclusive up
to ‘*(p+j)’ exclusive; note that the treatment of negative indices
differs from a Python slice):

‘p[-2*S:-S]’

     Number of bytes originally asked for.  This is a size_t, big-endian
     (easier to read in a memory dump).

‘p[-S]’

     API identifier (ASCII character):

        * ‘'r'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 232a.

        * ‘'m'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: 1027.

        * ‘'o'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: 1025.

‘p[-S+1:0]’

     Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch under- writes and
     reads.

‘p[0:N]’

     The requested memory, filled with copies of PYMEM_CLEANBYTE, used
     to catch reference to uninitialized memory.  When a realloc-like
     function is called requesting a larger memory block, the new excess
     bytes are also filled with PYMEM_CLEANBYTE. When a free-like
     function is called, these are overwritten with PYMEM_DEADBYTE, to
     catch reference to freed memory.  When a realloc- like function is
     called requesting a smaller memory block, the excess old bytes are
     also filled with PYMEM_DEADBYTE.

‘p[N:N+S]’

     Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch over- writes and
     reads.

‘p[N+S:N+2*S]’

     Only used if the ‘PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO’ macro is defined (not
     defined by default).

     A serial number, incremented by 1 on each call to a malloc-like or
     realloc-like function.  Big-endian ‘size_t’.  If «bad memory» is
     detected later, the serial number gives an excellent way to set a
     breakpoint on the next run, to capture the instant at which this
     block was passed out.  The static function bumpserialno() in
     obmalloc.c is the only place the serial number is incremented, and
     exists so you can set such a breakpoint easily.

A realloc-like or free-like function first checks that the
PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE bytes at each end are intact.  If they’ve been
altered, diagnostic output is written to stderr, and the program is
aborted via Py_FatalError().  The other main failure mode is provoking a
memory error when a program reads up one of the special bit patterns and
tries to use it as an address.  If you get in a debugger then and look
at the object, you’re likely to see that it’s entirely filled with
PYMEM_DEADBYTE (meaning freed memory is getting used) or PYMEM_CLEANBYTE
(meaning uninitialized memory is getting used).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.6: The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): 1028.
function now also works on Python compiled in release mode.  On error,
the debug hooks now use *note tracemalloc: 108. to get the traceback
where a memory block was allocated.  The debug hooks now also check if
there is an *note attached thread state: 1a1. when functions of *note
PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: 1025. and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: 1027. domains are
called.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Byte patterns ‘0xCB’ (‘PYMEM_CLEANBYTE’), ‘0xDB’
(‘PYMEM_DEADBYTE’) and ‘0xFB’ (‘PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE’) have been replaced
with ‘0xCD’, ‘0xDD’ and ‘0xFD’ to use the same values than Windows CRT
debug ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’.


File: python.info,  Node: The pymalloc allocator,  Next: The mimalloc allocator,  Prev: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators,  Up: Memory Management

7.21.9 The pymalloc allocator
-----------------------------

Python has a 'pymalloc' allocator optimized for small objects (smaller
or equal to 512 bytes) with a short lifetime.  It uses memory mappings
called «arenas» with a fixed size of either 256 KiB on 32-bit platforms
or 1 MiB on 64-bit platforms.  When Python is configured with *note
-with-pymalloc-hugepages: 3d9, the arena size on 64-bit platforms is
increased to 2 MiB to match the huge page size, and arena allocation
will attempt to use huge pages (‘MAP_HUGETLB’ on Linux,
‘MEM_LARGE_PAGES’ on Windows) with automatic fallback to regular pages.
It falls back to *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 2bf. and *note
PyMem_RawRealloc(): 825. for allocations larger than 512 bytes.

'pymalloc' is the *note default allocator: 2329. of the *note
PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: 1027. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024.) and *note
PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: 1025. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026.) domains.

The arena allocator uses the following functions:

   * ‘VirtualAlloc()’ and ‘VirtualFree()’ on Windows,

   * ‘mmap()’ and ‘munmap()’ if available,

   * ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ otherwise.

This allocator is disabled if Python is configured with the *note
-without-pymalloc: 238d. option.  It can also be disabled at runtime
using the *note PYTHONMALLOC: 1022. environment variable (ex:
‘PYTHONMALLOC=malloc’).

Typically, it makes sense to disable the pymalloc allocator when
building Python with AddressSanitizer (*note -with-address-sanitizer:
2396.) which helps uncover low level bugs within the C code.

* Menu:

* Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator::


File: python.info,  Node: Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator,  Up: The pymalloc allocator

7.21.9.1 Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator
...........................................

Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyObjectArenaAllocator

     Structure used to describe an arena allocator.  The structure has
     three fields:

     Field                                                  Meaning
                                                            
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
     ‘void *ctx’                                            user context passed as first argument
                                                            
                                                            
     ‘void* alloc(void *ctx, size_t size)’                  allocate an arena of size bytes
                                                            
                                                            
     ‘void free(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t size)’         free an arena
                                                            

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (PyObjectArenaAllocator
          *allocator)

     Get the arena allocator.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (PyObjectArenaAllocator
          *allocator)

     Set the arena allocator.


File: python.info,  Node: The mimalloc allocator,  Next: tracemalloc C API,  Prev: The pymalloc allocator,  Up: Memory Management

7.21.10 The mimalloc allocator
------------------------------

Added in version 3.13.

Python supports the mimalloc(1) allocator when the underlying platform
support is available.  mimalloc is a general purpose allocator with
excellent performance characteristics, initially developed by Daan
Leijen for the runtime systems of the Koka and Lean languages.

Unlike *note pymalloc: 3da, which is optimized for small objects (512
bytes or fewer), mimalloc handles allocations of any size.

In the *note free-threaded: 487. build, mimalloc is the default and
'required' allocator for the *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: 1027. and *note
PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: 1025. domains.  It cannot be disabled in free-threaded
builds.  The free-threaded build uses per-thread mimalloc heaps, which
allows allocation and deallocation to proceed without locking in most
cases.

In the default (non-free-threaded) build, mimalloc is available but not
the default allocator.  It can be selected at runtime using *note
PYTHONMALLOC: 1022.‘=mimalloc’ (or ‘mimalloc_debug’ to include *note
debug hooks: 232c.).  It can be disabled at build time using the *note
-without-mimalloc: 238c. configure option, but this option cannot be
combined with *note -disable-gil: 6a5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/microsoft/mimalloc/


File: python.info,  Node: tracemalloc C API,  Next: Examples<32>,  Prev: The mimalloc allocator,  Up: Memory Management

7.21.11 tracemalloc C API
-------------------------

Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTraceMalloc_Track (unsigned int domain, uintptr_t
          ptr, size_t size)

     Track an allocated memory block in the *note tracemalloc: 108.
     module.

     Return ‘0’ on success, return ‘-1’ on error (failed to allocate
     memory to store the trace).  Return ‘-2’ if tracemalloc is
     disabled.

     If memory block is already tracked, update the existing trace.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyTraceMalloc_Untrack (unsigned int domain,
          uintptr_t ptr)

     Untrack an allocated memory block in the *note tracemalloc: 108.
     module.  Do nothing if the block was not tracked.

     Return ‘-2’ if tracemalloc is disabled, otherwise return ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<32>,  Prev: tracemalloc C API,  Up: Memory Management

7.21.12 Examples
----------------

Here is the example from section *note Overview: 593c, rewritten so that
the I/O buffer is allocated from the Python heap by using the first
function set:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     PyMem_Free(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_Malloc */
     return res;

The same code using the type-oriented function set:

     PyObject *res;
     char *buf = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */

     if (buf == NULL)
         return PyErr_NoMemory();
     /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */
     res = PyBytes_FromString(buf);
     PyMem_Free(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_New */
     return res;

Note that in the two examples above, the buffer is always manipulated
via functions belonging to the same set.  Indeed, it is required to use
the same memory API family for a given memory block, so that the risk of
mixing different allocators is reduced to a minimum.  The following code
sequence contains two errors, one of which is labeled as 'fatal' because
it mixes two different allocators operating on different heaps.

     char *buf1 = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ);
     char *buf2 = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ);
     char *buf3 = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ);
     ...
     PyMem_Del(buf3);  /* Wrong -- should be PyMem_Free() */
     free(buf2);       /* Right -- allocated via malloc() */
     free(buf1);       /* Fatal -- should be PyMem_Free()  */

In addition to the functions aimed at handling raw memory blocks from
the Python heap, objects in Python are allocated and released with *note
PyObject_New: d4d, *note PyObject_NewVar: d4e. and *note
PyObject_Free(): 1023.

These will be explained in the next chapter on defining and implementing
new object types in C.


File: python.info,  Node: Object Implementation Support,  Next: API and ABI Versioning,  Prev: Memory Management,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.22 Object Implementation Support
==================================

This chapter describes the functions, types, and macros used when
defining new object types.

* Menu:

* Allocating objects on the heap::
* Object Life Cycle::
* Common Object Structures::
* Type Object Structures::
* Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection::


File: python.info,  Node: Allocating objects on the heap,  Next: Object Life Cycle,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.22.1 Allocating objects on the heap
-------------------------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *_PyObject_New (PyTypeObject
          *type)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyVarObject: 492d. *_PyObject_NewVar
          (PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.'

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyObject_Init (PyObject *op,
          PyTypeObject *type)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.'  Initialize a newly allocated object 'op' with its type
     and initial reference.  Returns the initialized object.  Other
     fields of the object are not initialized.  Despite its name, this
     function is unrelated to the object’s *note __init__(): 2fa. method
     (*note tp_init: 983. slot).  Specifically, this function does 'not'
     call the object’s ‘__init__()’ method.

     In general, consider this function to be a low-level routine.  Use
     *note tp_alloc: 51e6. where possible.  For implementing ‘tp_alloc’
     for your type, prefer *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30. or *note
     PyObject_New(): d4d.

          Σημείωση: This function only initializes the object’s memory
          corresponding to the initial *note PyObject: 19b. structure.
          It does not zero the rest.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyVarObject: 492d. *PyObject_InitVar (PyVarObject
          *op, PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c.'  Αυτό κάνει τα πάντα που κάνει η *note PyObject_Init():
     e2f, και επίσης αρχικοποιεί τις πληροφορίες μήκους για ένα
     αντικείμενο μεταβλητού μεγέθους.

          Σημείωση: This function only initializes some of the object’s
          memory.  It does not zero the rest.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_New (TYPE, typeobj)

     Allocates a new Python object using the C structure type 'TYPE' and
     the Python type object 'typeobj' (‘PyTypeObject*’) by calling *note
     PyObject_Malloc(): 1026. to allocate memory and initializing it
     like *note PyObject_Init(): e2f.  The caller will own the only
     reference to the object (i.e.  its reference count will be one).

     Avoid calling this directly to allocate memory for an object; call
     the type’s *note tp_alloc: 51e6. slot instead.

     When populating a type’s *note tp_alloc: 51e6. slot, *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30. is preferred over a custom function
     that simply calls this macro.

     This macro does not call *note tp_alloc: 51e6, *note tp_new: 981.
     (*note __new__(): 982.), or *note tp_init: 983. (*note __init__():
     2fa.).

     This cannot be used for objects with *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e.
     set in *note tp_flags: 1e68.; use *note PyObject_GC_New: e68.
     instead.

     Memory allocated by this macro must be freed with *note
     PyObject_Free(): 1023. (usually called via the object’s *note
     tp_free: 51e5. slot).

          Σημείωση: The returned memory is not guaranteed to have been
          completely zeroed before it was initialized.

          Σημείωση: This macro does not construct a fully initialized
          object of the given type; it merely allocates memory and
          prepares it for further initialization by *note tp_init: 983.
          To construct a fully initialized object, call 'typeobj'
          instead.  For example:

               PyObject *foo = PyObject_CallNoArgs((PyObject *)&PyFoo_Type);

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * *note PyObject_Free(): 1023.

        * *note PyObject_GC_New: e68.

        * *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30.

        * *note tp_alloc: 51e6.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_NewVar (TYPE, typeobj, size)

     Like *note PyObject_New: d4d. except:

        * It allocates enough memory for the 'TYPE' structure plus
          'size' (‘Py_ssize_t’) fields of the size given by the *note
          tp_itemsize: 25b0. field of 'typeobj'.

        * The memory is initialized like *note PyObject_InitVar(): 1f34.

     This is useful for implementing objects like tuples, which are able
     to determine their size at construction time.  Embedding the array
     of fields into the same allocation decreases the number of
     allocations, improving the memory management efficiency.

     Avoid calling this directly to allocate memory for an object; call
     the type’s *note tp_alloc: 51e6. slot instead.

     When populating a type’s *note tp_alloc: 51e6. slot, *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30. is preferred over a custom function
     that simply calls this macro.

     This cannot be used for objects with *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e.
     set in *note tp_flags: 1e68.; use *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: e69.
     instead.

     Memory allocated by this function must be freed with *note
     PyObject_Free(): 1023. (usually called via the object’s *note
     tp_free: 51e5. slot).

          Σημείωση: The returned memory is not guaranteed to have been
          completely zeroed before it was initialized.

          Σημείωση: This macro does not construct a fully initialized
          object of the given type; it merely allocates memory and
          prepares it for further initialization by *note tp_init: 983.
          To construct a fully initialized object, call 'typeobj'
          instead.  For example:

               PyObject *list_instance = PyObject_CallNoArgs((PyObject *)&PyList_Type);

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * *note PyObject_Free(): 1023.

        * *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: e69.

        * *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30.

        * *note tp_alloc: 51e6.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyObject: 19b. _Py_NoneStruct

     Αντικείμενο που είναι ορατό στην Python ως ‘None’.  Αυτό θα πρέπει
     να προσπελαύνεται μόνο χρησιμοποιώντας τη μακροεντολή *note
     Py_None: 5606, η οποία αξιολογείται σε έναν δείκτη σε αυτό το
     αντικείμενο.

Δείτε επίσης
............

*note Module Objects: 5566.

     Για να δεσμεύσετε και να δημιουργήσετε επεκτάσεις modules.

* Menu:

* Soft-deprecated aliases::


File: python.info,  Node: Soft-deprecated aliases,  Up: Allocating objects on the heap

7.22.1.1 Soft-deprecated aliases
................................

*note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.15.

These are aliases to existing functions and macros.  They exist solely
for backwards compatibility.

Soft-deprecated alias                                  Function
                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_NEW (type, typeobj)        *note PyObject_New: d4d.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_NEW_VAR (type, typeobj,    *note PyObject_NewVar: d4e.
          n)                                           

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_INIT (op, typeobj)         *note PyObject_Init(): e2f.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_INIT_VAR (op, typeobj,     *note PyObject_InitVar(): 1f34.
          n)                                           

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_MALLOC (n)                 *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_REALLOC (p, n)             *note PyObject_Realloc(): 17e5.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_FREE (p)                   *note PyObject_Free(): 1023.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_DEL (p)                    *note PyObject_Free(): 1023.
                                                       
                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_Del (p)                    *note PyObject_Free(): 1023.
                                                       


File: python.info,  Node: Object Life Cycle,  Next: Common Object Structures,  Prev: Allocating objects on the heap,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.22.2 Object Life Cycle
------------------------

This section explains how a type’s slots relate to each other throughout
the life of an object.  It is not intended to be a complete canonical
reference for the slots; instead, refer to the slot-specific
documentation in *note Type Object Structures: d55. for details about a
particular slot.

* Menu:

* Life Events::
* Cyclic Isolate Destruction::
* Functions: Functions<14>.


File: python.info,  Node: Life Events,  Next: Cyclic Isolate Destruction,  Up: Object Life Cycle

7.22.2.1 Life Events
....................

The figure below illustrates the order of events that can occur
throughout an object’s life.  An arrow from 'A' to 'B' indicates that
event 'B' can occur after event 'A' has occurred, with the arrow’s label
indicating the condition that must be true for 'B' to occur after 'A'.

[image src="python-figures/lifecycle.dot.svg" alt="Diagram showing events in an object's life. Explained in detail below."]


Explanation:

   * When a new object is constructed by calling its type:

       1. *note tp_new: 981. is called to create a new object.

       2. *note tp_alloc: 51e6. is directly called by *note tp_new: 981.
          to allocate the memory for the new object.

       3. *note tp_init: 983. initializes the newly created object.
          ‘tp_init’ can be called again to re-initialize an object, if
          desired.  The ‘tp_init’ call can also be skipped entirely, for
          example by Python code calling *note __new__(): 982.

   * After ‘tp_init’ completes, the object is ready to use.

   * Some time after the last reference to an object is removed:

       1. If an object is not marked as 'finalized', it might be
          finalized by marking it as 'finalized' and calling its *note
          tp_finalize: e6c. function.  Python does 'not' finalize an
          object when the last reference to it is deleted; use *note
          PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(): 351. to ensure that
          ‘tp_finalize’ is always called.

       2. If the object is marked as finalized, *note tp_clear: 51f7.
          might be called by the garbage collector to clear references
          held by the object.  It is 'not' called when the object’s
          reference count reaches zero.

       3. *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. is called to destroy the object.  To
          avoid code duplication, ‘tp_dealloc’ typically calls into
          *note tp_clear: 51f7. to free up the object’s references.

       4. When *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. finishes object destruction, it
          directly calls *note tp_free: 51e5. (usually set to *note
          PyObject_Free(): 1023. or *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5.
          automatically as appropriate for the type) to deallocate the
          memory.

   * The *note tp_finalize: e6c. function is permitted to add a
     reference to the object if desired.  If it does, the object is
     'resurrected', preventing its pending destruction.  (Only
     ‘tp_finalize’ is allowed to resurrect an object; *note tp_clear:
     51f7. and *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. cannot without calling into
     ‘tp_finalize’.)  Resurrecting an object may or may not cause the
     object’s 'finalized' mark to be removed.  Currently, Python does
     not remove the 'finalized' mark from a resurrected object if it
     supports garbage collection (i.e., the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC:
     39e. flag is set) but does remove the mark if the object does not
     support garbage collection; either or both of these behaviors may
     change in the future.

   * *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. can optionally call *note tp_finalize: e6c.
     via *note PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(): 351. if it wishes to
     reuse that code to help with object destruction.  This is
     recommended because it guarantees that ‘tp_finalize’ is always
     called before destruction.  See the ‘tp_dealloc’ documentation for
     example code.

   * If the object is a member of a *note cyclic isolate: 5971. and
     either *note tp_clear: 51f7. fails to break the reference cycle or
     the cyclic isolate is not detected (perhaps *note gc.disable():
     4cec. was called, or the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag was
     erroneously omitted in one of the involved types), the objects
     remain indefinitely uncollectable (they «leak»).  See *note
     gc.garbage: 156a.

If the object is marked as supporting garbage collection (the *note
Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag is set in *note tp_flags: 1e68.), the
following events are also possible:

   * The garbage collector occasionally calls *note tp_traverse: 36b. to
     identify *note cyclic isolates: 5971.

   * When the garbage collector discovers a *note cyclic isolate: 5971,
     it finalizes one of the objects in the group by marking it as
     'finalized' and calling its *note tp_finalize: e6c. function, if it
     has one.  This repeats until the cyclic isolate doesn’t exist or
     all of the objects have been finalized.

   * *note tp_finalize: e6c. is permitted to resurrect the object by
     adding a reference from outside the *note cyclic isolate: 5971.
     The new reference causes the group of objects to no longer form a
     cyclic isolate (the reference cycle may still exist, but if it does
     the objects are no longer isolated).

   * When the garbage collector discovers a *note cyclic isolate: 5971.
     and all of the objects in the group have already been marked as
     'finalized', the garbage collector clears one or more of the
     uncleared objects in the group (possibly concurrently) by calling
     each’s *note tp_clear: 51f7. function.  This repeats as long as the
     cyclic isolate still exists and not all of the objects have been
     cleared.


File: python.info,  Node: Cyclic Isolate Destruction,  Next: Functions<14>,  Prev: Life Events,  Up: Object Life Cycle

7.22.2.2 Cyclic Isolate Destruction
...................................

Listed below are the stages of life of a hypothetical *note cyclic
isolate: 5971. that continues to exist after each member object is
finalized or cleared.  It is a memory leak if a cyclic isolate
progresses through all of these stages; it should vanish once all
objects are cleared, if not sooner.  A cyclic isolate can vanish either
because the reference cycle is broken or because the objects are no
longer isolated due to finalizer resurrection (see *note tp_finalize:
e6c.).

  0. 'Reachable' (not yet a cyclic isolate): All objects are in their
     normal, reachable state.  A reference cycle could exist, but an
     external reference means the objects are not yet isolated.

  1. 'Unreachable but consistent:' The final reference from outside the
     cyclic group of objects has been removed, causing the objects to
     become isolated (thus a cyclic isolate is born).  None of the
     group’s objects have been finalized or cleared yet.  The cyclic
     isolate remains at this stage until some future run of the garbage
     collector (not necessarily the next run because the next run might
     not scan every object).

  2. 'Mix of finalized and not finalized:' Objects in a cyclic isolate
     are finalized one at a time, which means that there is a period of
     time when the cyclic isolate is composed of a mix of finalized and
     non-finalized objects.  Finalization order is unspecified, so it
     can appear random.  A finalized object must behave in a sane manner
     when non-finalized objects interact with it, and a non-finalized
     object must be able to tolerate the finalization of an arbitrary
     subset of its referents.

  3. 'All finalized:' All objects in a cyclic isolate are finalized
     before any of them are cleared.

  4. 'Mix of finalized and cleared:' The objects can be cleared serially
     or concurrently (but with the *note GIL: 411. held); either way,
     some will finish before others.  A finalized object must be able to
     tolerate the clearing of a subset of its referents.  PEP 442(1)
     calls this stage «cyclic trash».

  5. 'Leaked:' If a cyclic isolate still exists after all objects in the
     group have been finalized and cleared, then the objects remain
     indefinitely uncollectable (see *note gc.garbage: 156a.).  It is a
     bug if a cyclic isolate reaches this stage—it means the *note
     tp_clear: 51f7. methods of the participating objects have failed to
     break the reference cycle as required.

If *note tp_clear: 51f7. did not exist, then Python would have no way to
safely break a reference cycle.  Simply destroying an object in a cyclic
isolate would result in a dangling pointer, triggering undefined
behavior when an object referencing the destroyed object is itself
destroyed.  The clearing step makes object destruction a two-phase
process: first ‘tp_clear’ is called to partially destroy the objects
enough to detangle them from each other, then *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. is
called to complete the destruction.

Unlike clearing, finalization is not a phase of destruction.  A
finalized object must still behave properly by continuing to fulfill its
design contracts.  An object’s finalizer is allowed to execute arbitrary
Python code, and is even allowed to prevent the impending destruction by
adding a reference.  The finalizer is only related to destruction by
call order—if it runs, it runs before destruction, which starts with
*note tp_clear: 51f7. (if called) and concludes with *note tp_dealloc:
51d3.

The finalization step is not necessary to safely reclaim the objects in
a cyclic isolate, but its existence makes it easier to design types that
behave in a sane manner when objects are cleared.  Clearing an object
might necessarily leave it in a broken, partially destroyed state—it
might be unsafe to call any of the cleared object’s methods or access
any of its attributes.  With finalization, only finalized objects can
possibly interact with cleared objects; non-finalized objects are
guaranteed to interact with only non-cleared (but potentially finalized)
objects.

To summarize the possible interactions:

   * A non-finalized object might have references to or from
     non-finalized and finalized objects, but not to or from cleared
     objects.

   * A finalized object might have references to or from non-finalized,
     finalized, and cleared objects.

   * A cleared object might have references to or from finalized and
     cleared objects, but not to or from non-finalized objects.

Without any reference cycles, an object can be simply destroyed once its
last reference is deleted; the finalization and clearing steps are not
necessary to safely reclaim unused objects.  However, it can be useful
to automatically call *note tp_finalize: e6c. and *note tp_clear: 51f7.
before destruction anyway because type design is simplified when all
objects always experience the same series of events regardless of
whether they participated in a cyclic isolate.  Python currently only
calls ‘tp_finalize’ and ‘tp_clear’ as needed to destroy a cyclic
isolate; this may change in a future version.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: Functions<14>,  Prev: Cyclic Isolate Destruction,  Up: Object Life Cycle

7.22.2.3 Functions
..................

To allocate and free memory, see *note Allocating objects on the heap:
5960.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyObject_CallFinalizer (PyObject *op)

     Finalizes the object as described in *note tp_finalize: e6c.  Call
     this function (or *note PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(): 351.)
     instead of calling ‘tp_finalize’ directly because this function may
     deduplicate multiple calls to ‘tp_finalize’.  Currently, calls are
     only deduplicated if the type supports garbage collection (i.e.,
     the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag is set); this may change in
     the future.

     Added in version 3.4.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc (PyObject *op)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Same as
     *note PyObject_CallFinalizer(): 5974. but meant to be called at the
     beginning of the object’s destructor (*note tp_dealloc: 51d3.).
     There must not be any references to the object.  If the object’s
     finalizer resurrects the object, this function returns -1; no
     further destruction should happen.  Otherwise, this function
     returns 0 and destruction can continue normally.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. for example code.


File: python.info,  Node: Common Object Structures,  Next: Type Object Structures,  Prev: Object Life Cycle,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.22.3 Common Object Structures
-------------------------------

There are a large number of structures which are used in the definition
of object types for Python.  This section describes these structures and
how they are used.

* Menu:

* Base object types and macros::
* Implementing functions and methods::
* Accessing attributes of extension types::


File: python.info,  Node: Base object types and macros,  Next: Implementing functions and methods,  Up: Common Object Structures

7.22.3.1 Base object types and macros
.....................................

All Python objects ultimately share a small number of fields at the
beginning of the object’s representation in memory.  These are
represented by the *note PyObject: 19b. and *note PyVarObject: 492d.
types, which are defined, in turn, by the expansions of some macros also
used, whether directly or indirectly, in the definition of all other
Python objects.  Additional macros can be found under *note reference
counting: 5530.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyObject
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (see below).'  All object types
     are extensions of this type.  This is a type which contains the
     information Python needs to treat a pointer to an object as an
     object.  In a normal «release» build, it contains only the object’s
     reference count and a pointer to the corresponding type object.
     Nothing is actually declared to be a *note PyObject: 19b, but every
     pointer to a Python object can be cast to a *note PyObject: 19b.*.

     The members must not be accessed directly; instead use macros such
     as *note Py_REFCNT: 54b. and *note Py_TYPE: 5f5.

     In the *note Stable ABI: 197. for Free-Threaded Builds (‘abi3t’),
     this struct is opaque; its size and layout may change between
     Python versions.  In Stable ABI for non-free-threaded builds
     (‘abi3’), the ‘ob_refcnt’ and ‘ob_type’ fields are available, but
     using them directly is discouraged.

      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. ob_refcnt
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The object’s reference
          count, as returned by *note Py_REFCNT: 54b.  Do not use this
          field directly; instead use functions and macros such as
          ‘Py_REFCNT’, *note Py_INCREF(): 974. and *note Py_DecRef():
          546c.

          The field type may be different from ‘Py_ssize_t’, depending
          on build configuration and platform.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. *ob_type
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The object’s type.  Do
          not use this field directly; use *note Py_TYPE: 5f5. and *note
          Py_SET_TYPE(): b60. instead.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyMutex: 693. ob_mutex

          A *note per-object lock: 597b, present only in the *note
          free-threaded: 487. build (when *note Py_GIL_DISABLED: 191e.
          is defined).

          This field is 'reserved for use by the critical section API'
          (*note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION: 5469. / *note
          Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION: 546d.).  Do 'not' lock it directly
          with ‘PyMutex_Lock’; doing so can cause deadlocks.  If you
          need your own lock, add a separate *note PyMutex: 693. field
          to your object struct.

          Added in version 3.13.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyVarObject
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (see below).'  An extension of
     *note PyObject: 19b. that adds the *note ob_size: 545c. field.
     This is intended for objects that have some notion of 'length'.

     As with ‘PyObject’, the members must not be accessed directly;
     instead use macros such as *note Py_SIZE: b61, *note Py_REFCNT:
     54b. and *note Py_TYPE: 5f5.

     In the *note Stable ABI: 197. for Free-Threaded Builds (‘abi3t’),
     this struct is opaque; its size and layout may change between
     Python versions.  In Stable ABI for non-free-threaded builds
     (‘abi3’), the ‘ob_base’ and ‘ob_size’ fields are available, but
     using them directly is discouraged.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyObject: 19b. ob_base
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Common object header.
          Typically, this field is not accessed directly; instead
          ‘PyVarObject’ can be cast to *note PyObject: 19b.

      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. ob_size
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  A size field, whose
          contents should be considered an object’s internal
          implementation detail.

          Do not use this field directly; use *note Py_SIZE: b61.
          instead.

          Object creation functions such as *note PyObject_NewVar():
          d4e. will generally set this field to the requested size
          (number of items).  After creation, arbitrary values can be
          stored in ‘ob_size’ using *note Py_SET_SIZE: b62.

          To get an object’s publicly exposed length, as returned by the
          Python function *note len(): a1f, use *note PyObject_Length():
          53cc. instead.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_HEAD

     This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent
     objects without a varying length.  The PyObject_HEAD macro expands
     to:

          PyObject ob_base;

     See documentation of *note PyObject: 19b. above.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_VAR_HEAD

     This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent
     objects with a length that varies from instance to instance.  The
     PyObject_VAR_HEAD macro expands to:

          PyVarObject ob_base;

     See documentation of *note PyVarObject: 492d. above.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyBaseObject_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The base class of all other
     objects, the same as *note object: e4d. in Python.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_Is (PyObject *x, PyObject *y)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Test if
     the 'x' object is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in Python.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_IsNone (PyObject *x)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Test if
     an object is the ‘None’ singleton, the same as ‘x is None’ in
     Python.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_IsTrue (PyObject *x)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Test if
     an object is the ‘True’ singleton, the same as ‘x is True’ in
     Python.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_IsFalse (PyObject *x)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Test if
     an object is the ‘False’ singleton, the same as ‘x is False’ in
     Python.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. *Py_TYPE (PyObject *o)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Get the type of the Python object
     'o'.

     The returned reference is *note borrowed: 603. from 'o'.  Do not
     release it with *note Py_DECREF(): 975. or similar.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: *note Py_TYPE(): 5f5. is changed to an
     inline static function.  The parameter type is no longer const
     *note PyObject: 19b.*.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int Py_IS_TYPE (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Return
     non-zero if the object 'o' type is 'type'.  Return zero otherwise.
     Equivalent to: ‘Py_TYPE(o) == type’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_SET_TYPE (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type)

     Set the type of object 'o' to 'type', without any checking or
     reference counting.

     This is a very low-level operation.  Consider instead setting the
     Python attribute *note __class__: 184f. using *note
     PyObject_SetAttrString(): 1a6c. or similar.

     Note that assigning an incompatible type can lead to undefined
     behavior.

     If 'type' is a *note heap type: d2f, the caller must create a new
     reference to it.  Similarly, if the old type of 'o' is a heap type,
     the caller must release a reference to that type.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. Py_SIZE (PyVarObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Get the
     *note ob_size: 545c. field of 'o'.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11: *note Py_SIZE(): b61. is changed to an
     inline static function.  The parameter type is no longer const
     *note PyVarObject: 492d.*.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void Py_SET_SIZE (PyVarObject *o, Py_ssize_t size)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  Set the
     *note ob_size: 545c. field of 'o' to 'size'.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_HEAD_INIT (type)

     This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new
     *note PyObject: 19b. type.  This macro expands to:

          _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
          1, type,

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (type, size)

     This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new
     *note PyVarObject: 492d. type, including the *note ob_size: 545c.
     field.  This macro expands to:

          _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT
          1, type, size,


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing functions and methods,  Next: Accessing attributes of extension types,  Prev: Base object types and macros,  Up: Common Object Structures

7.22.3.2 Implementing functions and methods
...........................................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyCFunction
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Type of the functions used to
     implement most Python callables in C. Functions of this type take
     two *note PyObject: 19b.* parameters and return one such value.  If
     the return value is ‘NULL’, an exception shall have been set.  If
     not ‘NULL’, the return value is interpreted as the return value of
     the function as exposed in Python.  The function must return a new
     reference.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCFunction(PyObject *self,
                                PyObject *args);

 -- C Τύπος: type PyCFunctionWithKeywords
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Type of the functions used to
     implement Python callables in C with signature *note METH_VARARGS |
     METH_KEYWORDS: 5980.  The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCFunctionWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                            PyObject *args,
                                            PyObject *kwargs);

 -- C Τύπος: type PyCFunctionFast
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Type of
     the functions used to implement Python callables in C with
     signature *note METH_FASTCALL: 34b.  The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCFunctionFast(PyObject *self,
                                    PyObject *const *args,
                                    Py_ssize_t nargs);

 -- C Τύπος: type PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.13.'  Type of
     the functions used to implement Python callables in C with
     signature *note METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 5981.  The function
     signature is:

          PyObject *PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
                                                PyObject *const *args,
                                                Py_ssize_t nargs,
                                                PyObject *kwnames);

 -- C Τύπος: type PyCMethod

     Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with
     signature *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 1c11.
     The function signature is:

          PyObject *PyCMethod(PyObject *self,
                              PyTypeObject *defining_class,
                              PyObject *const *args,
                              Py_ssize_t nargs,
                              PyObject *kwnames)

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyMethodDef
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των
     μελών).'  Structure used to describe a method of an extension type.
     This structure has four fields:

      -- C Μέλος: const char *ml_name

          Name of the method.

          A ‘NULL’ 'ml_name' marks the end of a ‘PyMethodDef’ array.

      -- C Μέλος: *note PyCFunction: 181a. ml_meth

          Pointer to the C implementation.

      -- C Μέλος: int ml_flags

          Flags bits indicating how the call should be constructed.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *ml_doc

          Points to the contents of the docstring.

The *note ml_meth: 5982. is a C function pointer.  The functions may be
of different types, but they always return *note PyObject: 19b.*.  If
the function is not of the *note PyCFunction: 181a, the compiler will
require a cast in the method table.  Even though ‘PyCFunction’ defines
the first parameter as PyObject*, it is common that the method
implementation uses the specific C type of the 'self' object.

The *note ml_flags: 51bf. field is a bitfield which can include the
following flags.  The individual flags indicate either a calling
convention or a binding convention.

There are these calling conventions:

 -- C Μακροεντολή: METH_VARARGS
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is the typical calling
     convention, where the methods have the type *note PyCFunction:
     181a.  The function expects two *note PyObject: 19b.* values.  The
     first one is the 'self' object for methods; for module functions,
     it is the module object.  The second parameter (often called
     'args') is a tuple object representing all arguments.  This
     parameter is typically processed using *note PyArg_ParseTuple():
     3b1. or *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 18a8.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: METH_KEYWORDS

     Can only be used in certain combinations with other flags: *note
     METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS: 5980, *note METH_FASTCALL |
     METH_KEYWORDS: 5981. and *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL |
     METH_KEYWORDS: 1c11.

*note METH_VARARGS: 18aa. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 51c6.

     Methods with these flags must be of type *note
     PyCFunctionWithKeywords: 52b0.  The function expects three
     parameters: 'self', 'args', 'kwargs' where 'kwargs' is a dictionary
     of all the keyword arguments or possibly ‘NULL’ if there are no
     keyword arguments.  The parameters are typically processed using
     *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 818.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: METH_FASTCALL
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Fast
     calling convention supporting only positional arguments.  The
     methods have the type *note PyCFunctionFast: 52ae.  The first
     parameter is 'self', the second parameter is a C array of *note
     PyObject: 19b.* values indicating the arguments and the third
     parameter is the number of arguments (the length of the array).

     Added in version 3.7.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: ‘METH_FASTCALL’ is now part of the *note
     stable ABI: 197.

*note METH_FASTCALL: 34b. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 51c6.

     Extension of *note METH_FASTCALL: 34b. supporting also keyword
     arguments, with methods of type *note PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords:
     52af.  Keyword arguments are passed the same way as in the *note
     vectorcall protocol: 95b.: there is an additional fourth *note
     PyObject: 19b.* parameter which is a tuple representing the names
     of the keyword arguments (which are guaranteed to be strings) or
     possibly ‘NULL’ if there are no keywords.  The values of the
     keyword arguments are stored in the 'args' array, after the
     positional arguments.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: METH_METHOD
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.7.'  Can only
     be used in the combination with other flags: *note METH_METHOD |
     METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 1c11.

*note METH_METHOD: d39. | *note METH_FASTCALL: 34b. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 51c6.

     Extension of *note METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 5981. supporting
     the 'defining class', that is, the class that contains the method
     in question.  The defining class might be a superclass of
     ‘Py_TYPE(self)’.

     The method needs to be of type *note PyCMethod: b46, the same as
     for ‘METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS’ with ‘defining_class’ argument
     added after ‘self’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: METH_NOARGS
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Methods without parameters
     don’t need to check whether arguments are given if they are listed
     with the *note METH_NOARGS: 1876. flag.  They need to be of type
     *note PyCFunction: 181a.  The first parameter is typically named
     'self' and will hold a reference to the module or object instance.
     In all cases the second parameter will be ‘NULL’.

     The function must have 2 parameters.  Since the second parameter is
     unused, *note Py_UNUSED: 1c90. can be used to prevent a compiler
     warning.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: METH_O
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Methods with a single object
     argument can be listed with the *note METH_O: 18a9. flag, instead
     of invoking *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1. with a ‘"O"’ argument.
     They have the type *note PyCFunction: 181a, with the 'self'
     parameter, and a *note PyObject: 19b.* parameter representing the
     single argument.

These two constants are not used to indicate the calling convention but
the binding when used with methods of classes.  These may not be used
for functions defined for modules.  At most one of these flags may be
set for any given method.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: METH_CLASS
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     The method will be passed the type object as the first parameter
     rather than an instance of the type.  This is used to create 'class
     methods', similar to what is created when using the *note
     classmethod(): 69a. built-in function.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: METH_STATIC
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     The method will be passed ‘NULL’ as the first parameter rather than
     an instance of the type.  This is used to create 'static methods',
     similar to what is created when using the *note staticmethod():
     666. built-in function.

One other constant controls whether a method is loaded in place of
another definition with the same method name.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: METH_COEXIST
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The method will be loaded in
     place of existing definitions.  Without 'METH_COEXIST', the default
     is to skip repeated definitions.  Since slot wrappers are loaded
     before the method table, the existence of a 'sq_contains' slot, for
     example, would generate a wrapped method named *note
     __contains__(): 175c. and preclude the loading of a corresponding
     PyCFunction with the same name.  With the flag defined, the
     PyCFunction will be loaded in place of the wrapper object and will
     co-exist with the slot.  This is helpful because calls to
     PyCFunctions are optimized more than wrapper object calls.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyCMethod_Type

     The type object corresponding to Python C method objects.  This is
     available as *note types.BuiltinMethodType: 2bfb. in the Python
     layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCMethod_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if 'op' is an instance of the *note PyCMethod_Type:
     5984. type or a subtype of it.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCMethod_CheckExact (PyObject *op)

     This is the same as *note PyCMethod_Check(): 5985, but does not
     account for subtypes.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCMethod_New (PyMethodDef *ml,
          PyObject *self, PyObject *module, PyTypeObject *cls)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.9.'  Turn 'ml' into a Python *note callable:
     2fa4. object.  The caller must ensure that 'ml' outlives the
     callable.  Typically, 'ml' is defined as a static variable.

     The 'self' parameter will be passed as the 'self' argument to the C
     function in ‘ml->ml_meth’ when invoked.  'self' can be ‘NULL’.

     The *note callable: 2fa4. object’s ‘__module__’ attribute can be
     set from the given 'module' argument.  'module' should be a Python
     string, which will be used as name of the module the function is
     defined in.  If unavailable, it can be set to *note None: a65. or
     ‘NULL’.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note function.__module__: 253b.

     The 'cls' parameter will be passed as the 'defining_class' argument
     to the C function.  Must be set if *note METH_METHOD: d39. is set
     on ‘ml->ml_flags’.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Μεταβλητή: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. PyCFunction_Type
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The type object corresponding
     to Python C function objects.  This is available as *note
     types.BuiltinFunctionType: 2bfa. in the Python layer.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCFunction_Check (PyObject *op)

     Return true if 'op' is an instance of the *note PyCFunction_Type:
     52b4. type or a subtype of it.  This function always succeeds.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCFunction_CheckExact (PyObject *op)

     This is the same as *note PyCFunction_Check(): 5987, but does not
     account for subtypes.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCFunction_NewEx (PyMethodDef
          *ml, PyObject *self, PyObject *module)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'  Equivalent to ‘PyCMethod_New(ml, self, module, NULL)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCFunction_New (PyMethodDef *ml,
          PyObject *self)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: New reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.4.'  Equivalent to ‘PyCMethod_New(ml, self,
     NULL, NULL)’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCFunction_GetFlags (PyObject *func)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Get the function’s flags on
     'func' as they were passed to *note ml_flags: 51bf.

     If 'func' is not a C function object, this fails with an exception.
     'func' must not be ‘NULL’.

     This function returns the function’s flags on success, and ‘-1’
     with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCFunction_GET_FLAGS (PyObject *func)

     This is the same as *note PyCFunction_GetFlags(): 52b1, but without
     error or type checking.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyCFunction: 181a. PyCFunction_GetFunction
          (PyObject *func)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Get the function pointer on
     'func' as it was passed to *note ml_meth: 5982.

     If 'func' is not a C function object, this fails with an exception.
     'func' must not be ‘NULL’.

     This function returns the function pointer on success, and ‘NULL’
     with an exception set on failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyCFunction_GET_FUNCTION (PyObject *func)

     This is the same as *note PyCFunction_GetFunction(): 52b2, but
     without error or type checking.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCFunction_GetSelf (PyObject
          *func)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Get the «self» object on
     'func'.  This is the object that would be passed to the first
     argument of a *note PyCFunction: 181a.  For C function objects
     created through a *note PyMethodDef: 1879. on a *note PyModuleDef:
     d45, this is the resulting module object.

     If 'func' is not a C function object, this fails with an exception.
     'func' must not be ‘NULL’.

     This function returns a *note borrowed reference: 603. to the
     «self» object on success, and ‘NULL’ with an exception set on
     failure.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyCFunction_GET_SELF (PyObject
          *func)

     This is the same as *note PyCFunction_GetSelf(): 52b3, but without
     error or type checking.


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing attributes of extension types,  Prev: Implementing functions and methods,  Up: Common Object Structures

7.22.3.3 Accessing attributes of extension types
................................................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyMemberDef
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των
     μελών).'  Structure which describes an attribute of a type which
     corresponds to a C struct member.  When defining a class, put a
     NULL-terminated array of these structures in the *note tp_members:
     51e7. slot.

     Its fields are, in order:

      -- C Μέλος: const char *name

          Name of the member.  A NULL value marks the end of a
          ‘PyMemberDef[]’ array.

          The string should be static, no copy is made of it.

      -- C Μέλος: int type

          The type of the member in the C struct.  See *note Member
          types: 1bf9. for the possible values.

      -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. offset

          The offset in bytes that the member is located on the type’s
          object struct.

      -- C Μέλος: int flags

          Zero or more of the *note Member flags: 598f, combined using
          bitwise OR.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *doc

          The docstring, or NULL. The string should be static, no copy
          is made of it.  Typically, it is defined using *note
          PyDoc_STR: 1d92.

     By default (when *note flags: 5200. is ‘0’), members allow both
     read and write access.  Use the *note Py_READONLY: 990. flag for
     read-only access.  Certain types, like *note Py_T_STRING: 5486,
     imply ‘Py_READONLY’.  Only *note Py_T_OBJECT_EX: 993. (and legacy
     *note T_OBJECT: 992.) members can be deleted.  For heap-allocated
     types (created using *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e. or similar),
     ‘PyMemberDef’ may contain a definition for the special member
     ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’, corresponding to *note
     tp_vectorcall_offset: 55f8. in type objects.  This member must be
     defined with ‘Py_T_PYSSIZET’, and either ‘Py_READONLY’ or
     ‘Py_READONLY | Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET’.  For example:

          static PyMemberDef spam_type_members[] = {
              {"__vectorcalloffset__", Py_T_PYSSIZET,
               offsetof(Spam_object, vectorcall), Py_READONLY},
              {NULL}  /* Sentinel */
          };

     (You may need to ‘#include <stddef.h>’ for ‘offsetof()’.)

     The legacy offsets *note tp_dictoffset: 564c. and *note
     tp_weaklistoffset: d50. can be defined similarly using
     ‘"__dictoffset__"’ and ‘"__weaklistoffset__"’ members, but
     extensions are strongly encouraged to use *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     39d. instead.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘PyMemberDef’ is always available.
     Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: *note Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET: 959. is now
     allowed for ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’, ‘"__dictoffset__"’ and
     ‘"__weaklistoffset__"’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyMember_GetOne (const char
          *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef *m)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Get an attribute belonging to
     the object at address 'obj_addr'.  The attribute is described by
     ‘PyMemberDef’ 'm'.  Returns ‘NULL’ on error.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘PyMember_GetOne’ is always available.
     Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMember_SetOne (char *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef
          *m, PyObject *o)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set an attribute belonging to
     the object at address 'obj_addr' to object 'o'.  The attribute to
     set is described by ‘PyMemberDef’ 'm'.  Returns ‘0’ if successful
     and a negative value on failure.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: ‘PyMember_SetOne’ is always available.
     Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’.

* Menu:

* Member flags::
* Member types::
* Defining Getters and Setters::


File: python.info,  Node: Member flags,  Next: Member types,  Up: Accessing attributes of extension types

7.22.3.4 Member flags
.....................

The following flags can be used with *note PyMemberDef.flags: 5200.:

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_READONLY
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Not
     writable.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_AUDIT_READ
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'  Emit an
     ‘object.__getattr__’ *note audit event: 1e0a. before reading.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'
     Indicates that the *note offset: 598e. of this ‘PyMemberDef’ entry
     indicates an offset from the subclass-specific data, rather than
     from ‘PyObject’.

     Can only be used as part of the *note Py_tp_members: 54de. *note
     slot: 541b. when creating a class using negative *note basicsize:
     199.  It is mandatory in that case.  When setting *note tp_members:
     51e7. from the slot during class creation, Python clears the flag
     and sets *note PyMemberDef.offset: 598e. to the offset from the
     ‘PyObject’ struct.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.10: The ‘RESTRICTED’, ‘READ_RESTRICTED’ and
‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ macros available with ‘#include "structmember.h"’ are
deprecated.  ‘READ_RESTRICTED’ and ‘RESTRICTED’ are equivalent to *note
Py_AUDIT_READ: 991.; ‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ does nothing.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: The ‘READONLY’ macro was renamed to *note
Py_READONLY: 990.  The ‘PY_AUDIT_READ’ macro was renamed with the ‘Py_’
prefix.  The new names are now always available.  Previously, these
required ‘#include "structmember.h"’.  The header is still available and
it provides the old names.


File: python.info,  Node: Member types,  Next: Defining Getters and Setters,  Prev: Member flags,  Up: Accessing attributes of extension types

7.22.3.5 Member types
.....................

*note PyMemberDef.type: 51ff. can be one of the following macros
corresponding to various C types.  When the member is accessed in
Python, it will be converted to the equivalent Python type.  When it is
set from Python, it will be converted back to the C type.  If that is
not possible, an exception such as *note TypeError: 291. or *note
ValueError: 277. is raised.

Unless marked (D), attributes defined this way cannot be deleted using
e.g.  *note del: 1d1d. or *note delattr(): 1aa.

Macro name                           C type                            Python type
                                                                       
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                       
 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_BYTE         char                              *note int: 326.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_SHORT        short                             *note int: 326.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_INT          int                               *note int: 326.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_LONG         long                              *note int: 326.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_LONGLONG     long long                         *note int: 326.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_UBYTE        unsigned char                     *note int: 326.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_UINT         unsigned int                      *note int: 326.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_USHORT       unsigned short                    *note int: 326.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_ULONG        unsigned long                     *note int: 326.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_ULONGLONG    unsigned long long                *note int: 326.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_PYSSIZET     *note Py_ssize_t: e24.            *note int: 326.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_FLOAT        float                             *note float: 327.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_DOUBLE       double                            *note float: 327.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_BOOL         char (written as 0 or 1)          *note bool: 5ef.
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_STRING       const char* (*)                   *note str: 1df. (RO)
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή:                   const char[] (*)                  *note str: 1df. (RO)
          Py_T_STRING_INPLACE                                          
     ' Μέρος του
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_CHAR         char (0-127)                      *note str: 1df. (**)
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_T_OBJECT_EX    *note PyObject: 19b.*             *note object: e4d. (D)
     ' Μέρος του                                                       
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από
     την έκδοση 3.12.'

     (*): Zero-terminated, UTF8-encoded C string.  With ‘Py_T_STRING’
     the C representation is a pointer; with ‘Py_T_STRING_INPLACE’ the
     string is stored directly in the structure.

     (**): String of length 1.  Only ASCII is accepted.

     (RO): Implies *note Py_READONLY: 990.

     (D): Can be deleted, in which case the pointer is set to ‘NULL’.
     Reading a ‘NULL’ pointer raises *note AttributeError: 1a9.

Added in version 3.12: In previous versions, the macros were only
available with ‘#include "structmember.h"’ and were named without the
‘Py_’ prefix (e.g.  as ‘T_INT’).  The header is still available and
contains the old names, along with the following deprecated types:

 -- C Μακροεντολή: T_OBJECT

     Like ‘Py_T_OBJECT_EX’, but ‘NULL’ is converted to ‘None’.  This
     results in surprising behavior in Python: deleting the attribute
     effectively sets it to ‘None’.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: T_NONE

     Always ‘None’.  Must be used with *note Py_READONLY: 990.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Getters and Setters,  Prev: Member types,  Up: Accessing attributes of extension types

7.22.3.6 Defining Getters and Setters
.....................................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyGetSetDef
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. (συμπεριλαμβανομένων όλων των
     μελών).'  Structure to define property-like access for a type.  See
     also description of the *note PyTypeObject.tp_getset: 51ec. slot.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *name

          attribute name

      -- C Μέλος: *note getter: 54f1. get

          C function to get the attribute.

      -- C Μέλος: *note setter: 54ff. set

          Optional C function to set or delete the attribute.  If
          ‘NULL’, the attribute is read-only.

      -- C Μέλος: const char *doc

          optional docstring

      -- C Μέλος: void *closure

          Optional user data pointer, providing additional data for
          getter and setter.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*getter)(*note PyObject:
          19b.*, void*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The ‘get’ function takes one
     *note PyObject: 19b.* parameter (the instance) and a user data
     pointer (the associated ‘closure’):

     It should return a new reference on success or ‘NULL’ with a set
     exception on failure.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*setter)(*note PyObject: 19b.*, *note
          PyObject: 19b.*, void*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  ‘set’ functions take two
     *note PyObject: 19b.* parameters (the instance and the value to be
     set) and a user data pointer (the associated ‘closure’):

     In case the attribute should be deleted the second parameter is
     ‘NULL’.  Should return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ with a set exception
     on failure.


File: python.info,  Node: Type Object Structures,  Next: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection,  Prev: Common Object Structures,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.22.4 Type Object Structures
-----------------------------

Perhaps one of the most important structures of the Python object system
is the structure that defines a new type: the *note PyTypeObject: e6b.
structure.  Type objects can be handled using any of the ‘PyObject_*’ or
‘PyType_*’ functions, but do not offer much that’s interesting to most
Python applications.  These objects are fundamental to how objects
behave, so they are very important to the interpreter itself and to any
extension module that implements new types.

Type objects are fairly large compared to most of the standard types.
The reason for the size is that each type object stores a large number
of values, mostly C function pointers, each of which implements a small
part of the type’s functionality.  The fields of the type object are
examined in detail in this section.  The fields will be described in the
order in which they occur in the structure.

In addition to the following quick reference, the *note Examples: 599c.
section provides at-a-glance insight into the meaning and use of *note
PyTypeObject: e6b.

* Menu:

* Quick Reference::
* PyTypeObject Definition::
* PyObject Slots::
* PyVarObject Slots::
* PyTypeObject Slots::
* Static Types::
* Heap Types::
* Number Object Structures::
* Mapping Object Structures::
* Sequence Object Structures::
* Buffer Object Structures::
* Async Object Structures::
* Slot Type typedefs::
* Examples: Examples<33>.


File: python.info,  Node: Quick Reference,  Next: PyTypeObject Definition,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.1 Quick Reference
........................

* Menu:

* «tp slots»::
* sub-slots::
* slot typedefs::


File: python.info,  Node: «tp slots»,  Next: sub-slots,  Up: Quick Reference

7.22.4.2 «tp slots»
...................

PyTypeObject Slot      *note Type: 59a0.      special                Info
(1)                                           methods/attrs          (2)
                                                                     
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                     
O                      T                      D                      I
                                                                     
                                                                                       
<R>                    const char *           __name__               X     X
*note tp_name: 1ea6.                                                       

*note tp_basicsize: d4f.*note Py_ssize_t: e24.                       X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_itemsize: 25b0.*note Py_ssize_t: e24.                             X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_dealloc: 51d3.*note destructor: 54ec.                       X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_vectorcall_offset: 55f8.*note Py_ssize_t: e24.                    X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_getattr: 5202.)*note getattrfunc: 54ed.__getattribute__,                     G
                                              __getattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
(*note tp_setattr: 5203.)*note setattrfunc: 54fd.__setattr__,                          G
                                              __delattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_async: 127d.*note PyAsyncMethods: 564a.*note sub-slots: 59a1.              %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_repr: 51f9.   *note reprfunc: 54fb.  __repr__               X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_number: d53.*note PyNumberMethods: 17c0.*note sub-slots: 59a1.             %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_sequence: 59a2.*note PySequenceMethods: 5209.*note sub-slots: 59a1.        %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_mapping: 59a3.*note PyMappingMethods: 520a.*note sub-slots: 59a1.          %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_hash: 520b.   *note hashfunc: 54f2.  __hash__               X                 G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_call: 962.    *note ternaryfunc: 5502.__call__                    X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_str: 51fa.    *note reprfunc: 54fb.  __str__                X                 X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_getattro: 1c6a.*note getattrofunc: 54ee.__getattribute__,   X     X           G
                                              __getattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_setattro: 51fd.*note setattrofunc: 54fe.__setattr__,        X     X           G
                                              __delattr__                              
                                              
                                                                                       
*note tp_as_buffer: d51.*note PyBufferProcs: 5651.*note sub-slots: 59a1.               %
                       *                                                               
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_flags: 1e68.  unsigned long                                 X     X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_doc: 51e1.    const char *           __doc__                X     X
                                                                           
                                                                                       
*note tp_traverse: 36b.*note traverseproc: 5503.                           X           G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_clear: 51f7.  *note inquiry: 54f4.                                X           G
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_richcompare: 5205.*note richcmpfunc: 54fc.__lt__, __le__,   X                 G
                                              __eq__, __ne__,                          
                                              __gt__, __ge__
                                              
                                                                                       
(*note tp_weaklistoffset: d50.)*note Py_ssize_t: e24.                      X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_iter: 1891.   *note getiterfunc: 54f0.__iter__                                X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_iternext: 1892.*note iternextfunc: 54f5.__next__                              X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_methods: 51e9.*note PyMethodDef: 1879.                      X     X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_members: 51e7.*note PyMemberDef: 95a.                             X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_getset: 51ec. *note PyGetSetDef: f77.                       X     X
                       []                                                  
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_base: 2567.   *note PyTypeObject: e6b.__base__                          X
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_dict: 1c92.   *note PyObject: 19b.   __dict__                           ?
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_descr_get: 57d6.*note descrgetfunc: 54ea.__get__                              X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_descr_set: 1eaa.*note descrsetfunc: 54eb.__set__, __delete__                  X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_dictoffset: 564c.)*note Py_ssize_t: e24.                         X           ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_init: 983.    *note initproc: 54f3.  __init__               X     X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_alloc: 51e6.  *note allocfunc: 54e8.                        X           ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_new: 981.     *note newfunc: 54f7.   __new__                X     X     ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_free: 51e5.   *note freefunc: 57bd.                         X     X     ?     ?
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_is_gc: 59a4.  *note inquiry: 54f4.                                X           X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
<*note tp_bases: 59a5.>*note PyObject: 19b.   __bases__                          ~
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
<*note tp_mro: 564e.>  *note PyObject: 19b.   __mro__                            ~
                       *                                                         
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_cache: 564f.]*note PyObject: 19b.
                       *
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_subclasses: 977.]void *             __subclasses__
                                              
                                                                                       
[*note tp_weaklist: 5650.]*note PyObject: 19b.
                       *
                       
                                                                                       
(*note tp_del: 59a6.)  *note destructor: 54ec.
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_version_tag: 59a7.]unsigned int
                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_finalize: e6c.*note destructor: 54ec.__del__                                  X
                                                                                       
                                                                                       
*note tp_vectorcall: 1b9a.*note vectorcallfunc: 960.
                       
                                                                                       
[*note tp_watched: 59a8.]unsigned char
                       

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) '()': A slot name in parentheses indicates it is (effectively)
deprecated.

'<>': Names in angle brackets should be initially set to ‘NULL’ and
treated as read-only.

'[]': Names in square brackets are for internal use only.

'<R>' (as a prefix) means the field is required (must be non-‘NULL’).

   (2) Columns:

'«O»': set on *note PyBaseObject_Type: 529a.

'«T»': set on *note PyType_Type: 958.

'«D»': default (if slot is set to ‘NULL’)

     X - PyType_Ready sets this value if it is NULL
     ~ - PyType_Ready always sets this value (it should be NULL)
     ? - PyType_Ready may set this value depending on other slots

     Also see the inheritance column ("I").

'«I»': inheritance

     X - type slot is inherited via *PyType_Ready* if defined with a *NULL* value
     % - the slots of the sub-struct are inherited individually
     G - inherited, but only in combination with other slots; see the slot's description
     ? - it's complicated; see the slot's description

Note that some slots are effectively inherited through the normal
attribute lookup chain.


File: python.info,  Node: sub-slots,  Next: slot typedefs,  Prev: «tp slots»,  Up: Quick Reference

7.22.4.3 sub-slots
..................

Slot                           *note Type: 59a0.     special
                                                     methods
                                                     
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                     
*note am_await: 59aa.          *note unaryfunc: 5504.__await__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_aiter: 59ab.          *note unaryfunc: 5504.__aiter__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_anext: 59ac.          *note unaryfunc: 5504.__anext__
                                                     
                                                     
*note am_send: 59ad.           *note sendfunc: 59ae.
                               
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_add: 5645.            *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__add__
                                                     __radd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_add: 59af.    *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__iadd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_subtract: 59b0.       *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__sub__
                                                     __rsub__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_subtract: 59b1.*note binaryfunc: 54e9.__isub__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_multiply: 59b2.       *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__mul__
                                                     __rmul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_multiply: 59b3.*note binaryfunc: 54e9.__imul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_remainder: 59b4.      *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__mod__
                                                     __rmod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_remainder: 59b5.*note binaryfunc: 54e9.__imod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_divmod: 59b6.         *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__divmod__
                                                     __rdivmod__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_power: 59b7.          *note ternaryfunc: 5502.__pow__
                                                     __rpow__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_power: 59b8.  *note ternaryfunc: 5502.__ipow__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_negative: 59b9.       *note unaryfunc: 5504.__neg__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_positive: 59ba.       *note unaryfunc: 5504.__pos__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_absolute: 59bb.       *note unaryfunc: 5504.__abs__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_bool: 59bc.           *note inquiry: 54f4.  __bool__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_invert: 59bd.         *note unaryfunc: 5504.__invert__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_lshift: 59be.         *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__lshift__
                                                     __rlshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_lshift: 59bf. *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__ilshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_rshift: 59c0.         *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__rshift__
                                                     __rrshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_rshift: 59c1. *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__irshift__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_and: 59c2.            *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__and__
                                                     __rand__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_and: 59c3.    *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__iand__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_xor: 59c4.            *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__xor__
                                                     __rxor__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_xor: 59c5.    *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__ixor__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_or: 59c6.             *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__or__ __ror__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_or: 59c7.     *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__ior__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_int: 59c8.            *note unaryfunc: 5504.__int__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_reserved: 59c9.       void *
                               
                                                     
*note nb_float: 59ca.          *note unaryfunc: 5504.__float__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_floor_divide: 59cb.   *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__floordiv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_floor_divide: 59cc.*note binaryfunc: 54e9.__ifloordiv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_true_divide: 59cd.    *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__truediv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_true_divide: 59ce.*note binaryfunc: 54e9.__itruediv__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_index: 17bf.          *note unaryfunc: 5504.__index__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_matrix_multiply: 59cf.*note binaryfunc: 54e9.__matmul__
                                                     __rmatmul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note nb_inplace_matrix_multiply: 59d0.*note binaryfunc: 54e9.__imatmul__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_length: 59d1.         *note lenfunc: 54f6.  __len__
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_subscript: 1eeb.      *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__getitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note mp_ass_subscript: 59d2.  *note objobjargproc: 54f8.__setitem__,
                                                     __delitem__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_length: 564b.         *note lenfunc: 54f6.  __len__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_concat: 59d3.         *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__add__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_repeat: 59d4.         *note ssizeargfunc: 5500.__mul__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_item: 1eea.           *note ssizeargfunc: 5500.__getitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_ass_item: 59d5.       *note ssizeobjargproc: 5501.__setitem__
                                                     __delitem__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_contains: 59d6.       *note objobjproc: 54f9.__contains__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_inplace_concat: 59d7. *note binaryfunc: 54e9.__iadd__
                                                     
                                                     
*note sq_inplace_repeat: 59d8. *note ssizeargfunc: 5500.__imul__
                                                     
                                                     
                                                     
*note bf_getbuffer: b44.       *note getbufferproc(): 54ef.__buffer__
                                                     
                                                     
*note bf_releasebuffer: b45.   *note releasebufferproc(): 54fa.__release_buffer__
                                                     


File: python.info,  Node: slot typedefs,  Prev: sub-slots,  Up: Quick Reference

7.22.4.4 slot typedefs
......................

typedef                           Parameter Types                   Return Type
                                                                    
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    
*note allocfunc: 54e8.                 *note PyTypeObject: e6b. *   *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: e24.       
                                  
                                                                    
*note destructor: 54ec.           *note PyObject: 19b. *            void
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note freefunc: 57bd.             void *                            void
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note traverseproc: 5503.              *note PyObject: 19b. *       int
                                       *note visitproc: 5505.       
                                       void *
                                  
                                                                    
*note newfunc: 54f7.                   *note PyTypeObject: e6b. *   *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note initproc: 54f3.                  *note PyObject: 19b. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note reprfunc: 54fb.             *note PyObject: 19b. *            *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note getattrfunc: 54ed.               *note PyObject: 19b. *       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                       const char *                 
                                  
                                                                    
*note setattrfunc: 54fd.               *note PyObject: 19b. *       int
                                       const char *                 
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note getattrofunc: 54ee.              *note PyObject: 19b. *       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note setattrofunc: 54fe.              *note PyObject: 19b. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note descrgetfunc: 54ea.              *note PyObject: 19b. *       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note descrsetfunc: 54eb.              *note PyObject: 19b. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note hashfunc: 54f2.             *note PyObject: 19b. *            Py_hash_t
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note richcmpfunc: 54fc.               *note PyObject: 19b. *       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *       
                                       int
                                  
                                                                    
*note getiterfunc: 54f0.          *note PyObject: 19b. *            *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note iternextfunc: 54f5.         *note PyObject: 19b. *            *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note lenfunc: 54f6.              *note PyObject: 19b. *            *note Py_ssize_t: e24.
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note getbufferproc: 54ef.             *note PyObject: 19b. *       int
                                       *note Py_buffer: b3a. *      
                                       int
                                  
                                                                    
*note releasebufferproc: 54fa.         *note PyObject: 19b. *       void
                                       *note Py_buffer: b3a. *      
                                  
                                                                    
*note inquiry: 54f4.              *note PyObject: 19b. *            int
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note unaryfunc: 5504.                 *note PyObject: 19b. *       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                                                    
                                                                    
*note binaryfunc: 54e9.                *note PyObject: 19b. *       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note ternaryfunc: 5502.               *note PyObject: 19b. *       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note ssizeargfunc: 5500.              *note PyObject: 19b. *       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: e24.       
                                  
                                                                    
*note ssizeobjargproc: 5501.           *note PyObject: 19b. *       int
                                       *note Py_ssize_t: e24.       
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                  
                                                                    
*note objobjproc: 54f9.                *note PyObject: 19b. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *       
                                  
                                                                    
*note objobjargproc: 54f8.             *note PyObject: 19b. *       int
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *       
                                       *note PyObject: 19b. *
                                  

See *note Slot Type typedefs: 59da. below for more detail.


File: python.info,  Node: PyTypeObject Definition,  Next: PyObject Slots,  Prev: Quick Reference,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.5 PyTypeObject Definition
................................

The structure definition for *note PyTypeObject: e6b. can be found in
‘Include/cpython/object.h’.  For convenience of reference, this repeats
the definition found there:

     typedef struct _typeobject {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *tp_name; /* For printing, in format "<module>.<name>" */
         Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */

         /* Methods to implement standard operations */

         destructor tp_dealloc;
         Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset;
         getattrfunc tp_getattr;
         setattrfunc tp_setattr;
         PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2)
                                         or tp_reserved (Python 3) */
         reprfunc tp_repr;

         /* Method suites for standard classes */

         PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number;
         PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence;
         PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping;

         /* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */

         hashfunc tp_hash;
         ternaryfunc tp_call;
         reprfunc tp_str;
         getattrofunc tp_getattro;
         setattrofunc tp_setattro;

         /* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */
         PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer;

         /* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */
         unsigned long tp_flags;

         const char *tp_doc; /* Documentation string */

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.0 */
         /* call function for all accessible objects */
         traverseproc tp_traverse;

         /* delete references to contained objects */
         inquiry tp_clear;

         /* Assigned meaning in release 2.1 */
         /* rich comparisons */
         richcmpfunc tp_richcompare;

         /* weak reference enabler */
         Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset;

         /* Iterators */
         getiterfunc tp_iter;
         iternextfunc tp_iternext;

         /* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */
         PyMethodDef *tp_methods;
         PyMemberDef *tp_members;
         PyGetSetDef *tp_getset;
         // Strong reference on a heap type, borrowed reference on a static type
         PyTypeObject *tp_base;
         PyObject *tp_dict;
         descrgetfunc tp_descr_get;
         descrsetfunc tp_descr_set;
         Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset;
         initproc tp_init;
         allocfunc tp_alloc;
         newfunc tp_new;
         freefunc tp_free; /* Low-level free-memory routine */
         inquiry tp_is_gc; /* For PyObject_IS_GC */
         PyObject *tp_bases;
         PyObject *tp_mro; /* method resolution order */
         PyObject *tp_cache; /* no longer used */
         void *tp_subclasses;  /* for static builtin types this is an index */
         PyObject *tp_weaklist; /* not used for static builtin types */
         destructor tp_del;

         /* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6.
          * If zero, the cache is invalid and must be initialized.
          */
         unsigned int tp_version_tag;

         destructor tp_finalize;
         vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall;

         /* bitset of which type-watchers care about this type */
         unsigned char tp_watched;

         /* Number of tp_version_tag values used.
          * Set to _Py_ATTR_CACHE_UNUSED if the attribute cache is
          * disabled for this type (e.g. due to custom MRO entries).
          * Otherwise, limited to MAX_VERSIONS_PER_CLASS (defined elsewhere).
          */
         uint16_t tp_versions_used;
     } PyTypeObject;


File: python.info,  Node: PyObject Slots,  Next: PyVarObject Slots,  Prev: PyTypeObject Definition,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.6 PyObject Slots
.......................

The type object structure extends the *note PyVarObject: 492d.
structure.  The *note ob_size: 545c. field is used for dynamic types
(created by ‘type_new()’, usually called from a class statement).  Note
that *note PyType_Type: 958. (the metatype) initializes *note
tp_itemsize: 25b0, which means that its instances (i.e.  type objects)
'must' have the ‘ob_size’ field.

*note PyObject.ob_refcnt: c75.

     The type object’s reference count is initialized to ‘1’ by the
     ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro.  Note that for *note statically
     allocated type objects: b5f, the type’s instances (objects whose
     *note ob_type: 51e3. points back to the type) do 'not' count as
     references.  But for *note dynamically allocated type objects: d2f,
     the instances 'do' count as references.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes.

*note PyObject.ob_type: 51e3.

     This is the type’s type, in other words its metatype.  It is
     initialized by the argument to the ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro, and
     its value should normally be ‘&PyType_Type’.  However, for
     dynamically loadable extension modules that must be usable on
     Windows (at least), the compiler complains that this is not a valid
     initializer.  Therefore, the convention is to pass ‘NULL’ to the
     ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro and to initialize this field explicitly
     at the start of the module’s initialization function, before doing
     anything else.  This is typically done like this:

          Foo_Type.ob_type = &PyType_Type;

     This should be done before any instances of the type are created.
     *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. checks if *note ob_type: 51e3. is
     ‘NULL’, and if so, initializes it to the ‘ob_type’ field of the
     base class.  ‘PyType_Ready()’ will not change this field if it is
     non-zero.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.


File: python.info,  Node: PyVarObject Slots,  Next: PyTypeObject Slots,  Prev: PyObject Slots,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.7 PyVarObject Slots
..........................

*note PyVarObject.ob_size: 545c.

     For *note statically allocated type objects: b5f, this should be
     initialized to zero.  For *note dynamically allocated type objects:
     d2f, this field has a special internal meaning.

     This field should be accessed using the *note Py_SIZE(): b61.
     macro.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes.


File: python.info,  Node: PyTypeObject Slots,  Next: Static Types,  Prev: PyVarObject Slots,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.8 PyTypeObject Slots
...........................

Each slot has a section describing inheritance.  If *note
PyType_Ready(): b5e. may set a value when the field is set to ‘NULL’
then there will also be a «Default» section.  (Note that many fields set
on *note PyBaseObject_Type: 529a. and *note PyType_Type: 958.
effectively act as defaults.)

 -- C Μέλος: const char **note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_name

     See *note Py_tp_name: 37c. for the corresponding *note Slot ID:
     5568.

     Pointer to a NUL-terminated string containing the name of the type.
     For types that are accessible as module globals, the string should
     be the full module name, followed by a dot, followed by the type
     name; for built-in types, it should be just the type name.  If the
     module is a submodule of a package, the full package name is part
     of the full module name.  For example, a type named ‘T’ defined in
     module ‘M’ in subpackage ‘Q’ in package ‘P’ should have the *note
     tp_name: 1ea6. initializer ‘"P.Q.M.T"’.

     For *note dynamically allocated type objects: d2f, this should just
     be the type name, and the module name explicitly stored in the type
     dict as the value for key ‘'__module__'’.

     For *note statically allocated type objects: b5f, the 'tp_name'
     field should contain a dot.  Everything before the last dot is made
     accessible as the *note __module__: 80b. attribute, and everything
     after the last dot is made accessible as the *note __name__: 184d.
     attribute.

     If no dot is present, the entire *note tp_name: 1ea6. field is made
     accessible as the *note __name__: 184d. attribute, and the *note
     __module__: 80b. attribute is undefined (unless explicitly set in
     the dictionary, as explained above).  This means your type will be
     impossible to pickle.  Additionally, it will not be listed in
     module documentations created with pydoc.

     This field must not be ‘NULL’.  It is the only required field in
     *note PyTypeObject(): e6b. (other than potentially *note
     tp_itemsize: 25b0.).

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_basicsize
 -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_itemsize

     These fields allow calculating the size in bytes of instances of
     the type.

     See *note Py_tp_basicsize: 37d, *note Py_tp_extra_basicsize: 37e.
     and *note Py_tp_itemsize: 37f. for the corresponding *note Slot
     IDs: 5568.

     There are two kinds of types: types with fixed-length instances
     have a zero ‘tp_itemsize’ field, types with variable-length
     instances have a non-zero ‘tp_itemsize’ field.  For a type with
     fixed-length instances, all instances have the same size, given in
     ‘tp_basicsize’.  (Exceptions to this rule can be made using *note
     PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData(): 1cab.)

     For a type with variable-length instances, the instances must have
     an *note ob_size: 545c. field, and the instance size is
     ‘tp_basicsize’ plus N times ‘tp_itemsize’, where N is the «length»
     of the object.

     Functions like *note PyObject_NewVar(): d4e. will take the value of
     N as an argument, and store in the instance’s *note ob_size: 545c.
     field.  Note that the ‘ob_size’ field may later be used for other
     purposes.  For example, *note int: 326. instances use the bits of
     ‘ob_size’ in an implementation-defined way; the underlying storage
     and its size should be accessed using *note PyLong_Export(): 5d5.

          Σημείωση: The *note ob_size: 545c. field should be accessed
          using the *note Py_SIZE(): b61. and *note Py_SET_SIZE(): b62.
          macros.

     Also, the presence of an *note ob_size: 545c. field in the instance
     layout doesn’t mean that the instance structure is variable-length.
     For example, the *note list: 4d9. type has fixed-length instances,
     yet those instances have a ‘ob_size’ field.  (As with *note int:
     326, avoid reading lists” ‘ob_size’ directly.  Call *note
     PyList_Size(): 17bc. instead.)

     The ‘tp_basicsize’ includes size needed for data of the type’s
     *note tp_base: 2567, plus any extra data needed by each instance.

     The correct way to set ‘tp_basicsize’ is to use the ‘sizeof’
     operator on the struct used to declare the instance layout.  This
     struct must include the struct used to declare the base type.  In
     other words, ‘tp_basicsize’ must be greater than or equal to the
     base’s ‘tp_basicsize’.

     Since every type is a subtype of *note object: e4d, this struct
     must include *note PyObject: 19b. or *note PyVarObject: 492d.
     (depending on whether *note ob_size: 545c. should be included).
     These are usually defined by the macro *note PyObject_HEAD: 1682.
     or *note PyObject_VAR_HEAD: 597c, respectively.

     The basic size does not include the GC header size, as that header
     is not part of *note PyObject_HEAD: 1682.

     For cases where struct used to declare the base type is unknown,
     see *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 199. and *note
     PyType_FromMetaclass(): 391.

     Notes about alignment:

        - ‘tp_basicsize’ must be a multiple of ‘_Alignof(PyObject)’.
          When using ‘sizeof’ on a ‘struct’ that includes *note
          PyObject_HEAD: 1682, as recommended, the compiler ensures
          this.  When not using a C ‘struct’, or when using compiler
          extensions like ‘__attribute__((packed))’, it is up to you.

        - If the variable items require a particular alignment,
          ‘tp_basicsize’ and ‘tp_itemsize’ must each be a multiple of
          that alignment.  For example, if a type’s variable part stores
          a ‘double’, it is your responsibility that both fields are a
          multiple of ‘_Alignof(double)’.

     'Inheritance:'

     These fields are inherited separately by subtypes.  (That is, if
     the field is set to zero, *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. will copy the
     value from the base type, indicating that the instances do not need
     additional storage.)

     If the base type has a non-zero *note tp_itemsize: 25b0, it is
     generally not safe to set ‘tp_itemsize’ to a different non-zero
     value in a subtype (though this depends on the implementation of
     the base type).

 -- C Μέλος: *note destructor: 54ec. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_dealloc

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_dealloc’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     A pointer to the instance destructor function.  The function
     signature is:

          void tp_dealloc(PyObject *self);

     The destructor function should remove all references which the
     instance owns (e.g., call *note Py_CLEAR(): 97c.), free all memory
     buffers owned by the instance, and call the type’s *note tp_free:
     51e5. function to free the object itself.

     If you may call functions that may set the error indicator, you
     must use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c. and *note
     PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 63f. to ensure you don’t clobber a
     preexisting error indicator (the deallocation could have occurred
     while processing a different error):

          static void
          foo_dealloc(foo_object *self)
          {
              PyObject *et, *ev, *etb;
              PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();
              ...
              PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
          }

     The dealloc handler itself must not raise an exception; if it hits
     an error case it should call *note PyErr_FormatUnraisable(): 7e7.
     to log (and clear) an unraisable exception.

     No guarantees are made about when an object is destroyed, except:

        * Python will destroy an object immediately or some time after
          the final reference to the object is deleted, unless its
          finalizer (*note tp_finalize: e6c.) subsequently resurrects
          the object.

        * An object will not be destroyed while it is being
          automatically finalized (*note tp_finalize: e6c.) or
          automatically cleared (*note tp_clear: 51f7.).

     CPython currently destroys an object immediately from *note
     Py_DECREF(): 975. when the new reference count is zero, but this
     may change in a future version.

     It is recommended to call *note
     PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(): 351. at the beginning of
     ‘tp_dealloc’ to guarantee that the object is always finalized
     before destruction.

     If the type supports garbage collection (the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag is set), the destructor should call
     *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 18a7. before clearing any member
     fields.

     It is permissible to call *note tp_clear: 51f7. from ‘tp_dealloc’
     to reduce code duplication and to guarantee that the object is
     always cleared before destruction.  Beware that ‘tp_clear’ might
     have already been called.

     If the type is heap allocated (*note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: c82.),
     the deallocator should release the owned reference to its type
     object (via *note Py_DECREF(): 975.) after calling the type
     deallocator.  See the example code below.:

          static void
          foo_dealloc(PyObject *op)
          {
             foo_object *self = (foo_object *) op;
             PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
             Py_CLEAR(self->ref);
             Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free(self);
          }

     ‘tp_dealloc’ must leave the exception status unchanged.  If it
     needs to call something that might raise an exception, the
     exception state must be backed up first and restored later (after
     logging any exceptions with *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 7e8.).

     Example:

          static void
          foo_dealloc(PyObject *self)
          {
              PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();

              if (PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(self) < 0) {
                  // self was resurrected.
                  goto done;
              }

              PyTypeObject *tp = Py_TYPE(self);

              if (tp->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC) {
                  PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
              }

              // Optional, but convenient to avoid code duplication.
              if (tp->tp_clear && tp->tp_clear(self) < 0) {
                  PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self);
              }

              // Any additional destruction goes here.

              tp->tp_free(self);
              self = NULL;  // In case PyErr_WriteUnraisable() is called below.

              if (tp->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
                  Py_CLEAR(tp);
              }

          done:
              // Optional, if something was called that might have raised an
              // exception.
              if (PyErr_Occurred()) {
                  PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self);
              }
              PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
          }

     ‘tp_dealloc’ may be called from any Python thread, not just the
     thread which created the object (if the object becomes part of a
     refcount cycle, that cycle might be collected by a garbage
     collection on any thread).  This is not a problem for Python API
     calls, since the thread on which ‘tp_dealloc’ is called with an
     *note attached thread state: 1a1.  However, if the object being
     destroyed in turn destroys objects from some other C library, care
     should be taken to ensure that destroying those objects on the
     thread which called ‘tp_dealloc’ will not violate any assumptions
     of the library.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note Object Life Cycle: 596d. for details about how this slot
     relates to other slots.

 -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. *note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_vectorcall_offset

     An optional offset to a per-instance function that implements
     calling the object using the *note vectorcall protocol: 95b, a more
     efficient alternative of the simpler *note tp_call: 962.

     This field is only used if the flag *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 95d. is set.  If so, this must be a
     positive integer containing the offset in the instance of a *note
     vectorcallfunc: 960. pointer.

     The 'vectorcallfunc' pointer may be ‘NULL’, in which case the
     instance behaves as if *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 95d. was
     not set: calling the instance falls back to *note tp_call: 962.

     Any class that sets ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’ must also set
     *note tp_call: 962. and make sure its behaviour is consistent with
     the 'vectorcallfunc' function.  This can be done by setting
     'tp_call' to *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 95f.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Before version 3.8, this slot was named
     ‘tp_print’.  In Python 2.x, it was used for printing to a file.  In
     Python 3.0 to 3.7, it was unused.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Before version 3.12, it was not
     recommended for *note mutable heap types: d2f. to implement the
     vectorcall protocol.  When a user sets *note __call__: 961. in
     Python code, only 'tp_call' is updated, likely making it
     inconsistent with the vectorcall function.  Since 3.12, setting
     ‘__call__’ will disable vectorcall optimization by clearing the
     *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 95d. flag.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is always inherited.  However, the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 95d. flag is not always inherited.  If
     it’s not set, then the subclass won’t use *note vectorcall: 95b,
     except when *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 95f. is explicitly called.

 -- C Μέλος: *note getattrfunc: 54ed. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_getattr

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_getattr’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to the get-attribute-string function.

     This field is deprecated.  When it is defined, it should point to a
     function that acts the same as the *note tp_getattro: 1c6a.
     function, but taking a C string instead of a Python string object
     to give the attribute name.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_getattr: 5202, *note tp_getattro: 1c6a.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_getattro: 1c6a.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_getattr: 5202.
     and ‘tp_getattro’ from its base type when the subtype’s
     ‘tp_getattr’ and ‘tp_getattro’ are both ‘NULL’.

 -- C Μέλος: *note setattrfunc: 54fd. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_setattr

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_setattr’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting
     attributes.

     This field is deprecated.  When it is defined, it should point to a
     function that acts the same as the *note tp_setattro: 51fd.
     function, but taking a C string instead of a Python string object
     to give the attribute name.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_setattr: 5203, *note tp_setattro: 51fd.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_setattro: 51fd.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_setattr: 5203.
     and ‘tp_setattro’ from its base type when the subtype’s
     ‘tp_setattr’ and ‘tp_setattro’ are both ‘NULL’.

 -- C Μέλος: *note PyAsyncMethods: 564a. **note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_as_async

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement *note awaitable: 6cf. and *note
     asynchronous iterator: 6cd. protocols at the C-level.  See *note
     Async Object Structures: 59df. for details.

     Added in version 3.5: Formerly known as ‘tp_compare’ and
     ‘tp_reserved’.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_async: 127d. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Μέλος: *note reprfunc: 54fb. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_repr

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_repr’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in
     function *note repr(): 45b.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Repr(): 13d7.:

          PyObject *tp_repr(PyObject *self);

     The function must return a string or a Unicode object.  Ideally,
     this function should return a string that, when passed to *note
     eval(): 184, given a suitable environment, returns an object with
     the same value.  If this is not feasible, it should return a string
     starting with ‘'<'’ and ending with ‘'>'’ from which both the type
     and the value of the object can be deduced.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     'Default:'

     When this field is not set, a string of the form ‘<%s object at
     %p>’ is returned, where ‘%s’ is replaced by the type name, and ‘%p’
     by the object’s memory address.

 -- C Μέλος: *note PyNumberMethods: 17c0. **note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_as_number

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the number protocol.  These fields
     are documented in *note Number Object Structures: 59e0.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_number: d53. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Μέλος: *note PySequenceMethods: 5209. **note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_as_sequence

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the sequence protocol.  These
     fields are documented in *note Sequence Object Structures: 59e1.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_sequence: 59a2. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Μέλος: *note PyMappingMethods: 520a. **note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_as_mapping

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the mapping protocol.  These fields
     are documented in *note Mapping Object Structures: 59e2.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_mapping: 59a3. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Μέλος: *note hashfunc: 54f2. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_hash

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_hash’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in
     function *note hash(): 9e2.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Hash(): 649.:

          Py_hash_t tp_hash(PyObject *);

     The value ‘-1’ should not be returned as a normal return value;
     when an error occurs during the computation of the hash value, the
     function should set an exception and return ‘-1’.

     When this field is not set ('and' *note tp_richcompare: 5205. is
     not set), an attempt to take the hash of the object raises *note
     TypeError: 291.  This is the same as setting it to *note
     PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1769.

     This field can be set explicitly to *note
     PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1769. to block inheritance of the
     hash method from a parent type.  This is interpreted as the
     equivalent of ‘__hash__ = None’ at the Python level, causing
     ‘isinstance(o, collections.Hashable)’ to correctly return ‘False’.
     Note that the converse is also true - setting ‘__hash__ = None’ on
     a class at the Python level will result in the ‘tp_hash’ slot being
     set to ‘PyObject_HashNotImplemented()’.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_hash: 520b, *note tp_richcompare: 5205.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_richcompare: 5205.: a subtype inherits both of ‘tp_richcompare’
     and *note tp_hash: 520b, when the subtype’s ‘tp_richcompare’ and
     ‘tp_hash’ are both ‘NULL’.

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 529a. uses *note PyObject_GenericHash():
     802.

 -- C Μέλος: *note ternaryfunc: 5502. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_call

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_call’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a function that implements calling the
     object.  This should be ‘NULL’ if the object is not callable.  The
     signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Call(): 82f.:

          PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Μέλος: *note reprfunc: 54fb. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_str

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_str’ is part of the
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in
     operation *note str(): 1df.  (Note that *note str: 1df. is a type
     now, and ‘str()’ calls the constructor for that type.  This
     constructor calls *note PyObject_Str(): 13d8. to do the actual
     work, and ‘PyObject_Str()’ will call this handler.)

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Str(): 13d8.:

          PyObject *tp_str(PyObject *self);

     The function must return a string or a Unicode object.  It should
     be a «friendly» string representation of the object, as this is the
     representation that will be used, among other things, by the *note
     print(): 131f. function.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     'Default:'

     When this field is not set, *note PyObject_Repr(): 13d7. is called
     to return a string representation.

 -- C Μέλος: *note getattrofunc: 54ee. *note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_getattro

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_getattro’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to the get-attribute function.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 3b7.:

          PyObject *tp_getattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr);

     It is usually convenient to set this field to *note
     PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 53c6, which implements the normal way of
     looking for object attributes.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_getattr: 5202, *note tp_getattro: 1c6a.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_getattr:
     5202.: a subtype inherits both ‘tp_getattr’ and *note tp_getattro:
     1c6a. from its base type when the subtype’s ‘tp_getattr’ and
     ‘tp_getattro’ are both ‘NULL’.

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 529a. uses *note
     PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 53c6.

 -- C Μέλος: *note setattrofunc: 54fe. *note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_setattro

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_setattro’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting
     attributes.

     The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 1927.:

          int tp_setattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr, PyObject *value);

     In addition, setting 'value' to ‘NULL’ to delete an attribute must
     be supported.  It is usually convenient to set this field to *note
     PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 53c7, which implements the normal way of
     setting object attributes.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_setattr: 5203, *note tp_setattro: 51fd.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_setattr:
     5203.: a subtype inherits both ‘tp_setattr’ and *note tp_setattro:
     51fd. from its base type when the subtype’s ‘tp_setattr’ and
     ‘tp_setattro’ are both ‘NULL’.

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 529a. uses *note
     PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 53c7.

 -- C Μέλος: *note PyBufferProcs: 5651. **note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_as_buffer

     Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant
     only to objects which implement the buffer interface.  These fields
     are documented in *note Buffer Object Structures: 561a.

     'Inheritance:'

     The *note tp_as_buffer: d51. field is not inherited, but the
     contained fields are inherited individually.

 -- C Μέλος: unsigned long *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_flags

     See *note Py_tp_flags: 380. for the corresponding *note Slot ID:
     5568.

     This field is a bit mask of various flags.  Some flags indicate
     variant semantics for certain situations; others are used to
     indicate that certain fields in the type object (or in the
     extension structures referenced via *note tp_as_number: d53, *note
     tp_as_sequence: 59a2, *note tp_as_mapping: 59a3, and *note
     tp_as_buffer: d51.) that were historically not always present are
     valid; if such a flag bit is clear, the type fields it guards must
     not be accessed and must be considered to have a zero or ‘NULL’
     value instead.

     'Inheritance:'

     Inheritance of this field is complicated.  Most flag bits are
     inherited individually, i.e.  if the base type has a flag bit set,
     the subtype inherits this flag bit.  The flag bits that pertain to
     extension structures are strictly inherited if the extension
     structure is inherited, i.e.  the base type’s value of the flag bit
     is copied into the subtype together with a pointer to the extension
     structure.  The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag bit is
     inherited together with the *note tp_traverse: 36b. and *note
     tp_clear: 51f7. fields, i.e.  if the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC’ flag bit
     is clear in the subtype and the ‘tp_traverse’ and ‘tp_clear’ fields
     in the subtype exist and have ‘NULL’ values.

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 529a. uses ‘Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT |
     Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE’.

     'Bit Masks:'

     The following bit masks are currently defined; these can be ORed
     together using the ‘|’ operator to form the value of the *note
     tp_flags: 1e68. field.  The macro *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1f30.
     takes a type and a flags value, 'tp' and 'f', and checks whether
     ‘tp->tp_flags & f’ is non-zero.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE

          This bit is set when the type object itself is allocated on
          the heap, for example, types created dynamically using *note
          PyType_FromSpec(): 38e.  In this case, the *note ob_type:
          51e3. field of its instances is considered a reference to the
          type, and the type object is INCREF’ed when a new instance is
          created, and DECREF’ed when an instance is destroyed (this
          does not apply to instances of subtypes; only the type
          referenced by the instance’s ob_type gets INCREF’ed or
          DECREF’ed).  Heap types should also *note support garbage
          collection: 59e3. as they can form a reference cycle with
          their own module object.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This bit is set when the
          type can be used as the base type of another type.  If this
          bit is clear, the type cannot be subtyped (similar to a
          «final» class in Java).

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_READY

          This bit is set when the type object has been fully
          initialized by *note PyType_Ready(): b5e.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_READYING

          This bit is set while *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. is in the
          process of initializing the type object.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This bit is set when the
          object supports garbage collection.  If this bit is set,
          memory for new instances (see *note tp_alloc: 51e6.) must be
          allocated using *note PyObject_GC_New: e68. or *note
          PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30. and deallocated (see *note
          tp_free: 51e5.) using *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5.  More
          information in section *note Supporting Cyclic Garbage
          Collection: 59e3.

          'Inheritance:'

          Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e, *note tp_traverse: 36b,
          *note tp_clear: 51f7.

          The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag bit is inherited
          together with the *note tp_traverse: 36b. and *note tp_clear:
          51f7. fields, i.e.  if the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC’ flag bit is
          clear in the subtype and the ‘tp_traverse’ and ‘tp_clear’
          fields in the subtype exist and have ‘NULL’ values.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  This is a bitmask of all
          the bits that pertain to the existence of certain fields in
          the type object and its extension structures.  Currently, it
          includes the following bits: *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_STACKLESS_EXTENSION: 59e6.

          'Inheritance:'

          ???

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.8.'  This
          bit indicates that objects behave like unbound methods.

          If this flag is set for ‘type(meth)’, then:

             - ‘meth.__get__(obj, cls)(*args, **kwds)’ (with ‘obj’ not
               None) must be equivalent to ‘meth(obj, *args, **kwds)’.

             - ‘meth.__get__(None, cls)(*args, **kwds)’ must be
               equivalent to ‘meth(*args, **kwds)’.

          This flag enables an optimization for typical method calls
          like ‘obj.meth()’: it avoids creating a temporary «bound
          method» object for ‘obj.meth’.

          Added in version 3.8.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is never inherited by types without the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 5fb. flag set.  For extension types,
          it is inherited whenever *note tp_descr_get: 57d6. is
          inherited.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT

          This bit indicates that instances of the class have a *note
          __dict__: 1bf. attribute, and that the space for the
          dictionary is managed by the VM.

          If this flag is set, *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. must also
          be set.

          The type traverse function must call *note
          PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 803. and its clear function must
          call *note PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 804.

          Added in version 3.12.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited unless the *note tp_dictoffset: 564c.
          field is set in a superclass.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF

          This bit indicates that instances of the class should be
          weakly referenceable.

          If this flag is set, *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. must also
          be set.

          Added in version 3.12.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited unless the *note tp_weaklistoffset:
          d50. field is set in a superclass.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_PREHEADER

          These bits indicate that the VM will manage some fields by
          storing them before the object.  Currently, this macro is
          equivalent to *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. | *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 39d.

          This macro value relies on the implementation of the VM, so
          its value is not stable and may change in a future version.
          Prefer using individual flags instead.

          Added in version 3.12.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'
          Only usable with variable-size types, i.e.  ones with non-zero
          *note tp_itemsize: 25b0.

          Indicates that the variable-sized portion of an instance of
          this type is at the end of the instance’s memory area, at an
          offset of ‘Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_basicsize’ (which may be different
          in each subclass).

          When setting this flag, be sure that all superclasses either
          use this memory layout, or are not variable-sized.  Python
          does not check this.

          Added in version 3.12.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS

          Functions such as *note PyLong_Check(): 5661. will call *note
          PyType_FastSubclass(): 5640. with one of these flags to
          quickly determine if a type is a subclass of a built-in type;
          such specific checks are faster than a generic check, like
          *note PyObject_IsInstance(): 1257.  Custom types that inherit
          from built-ins should have their *note tp_flags: 1e68. set
          appropriately, or the code that interacts with such types will
          behave differently depending on what kind of check is used.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE

          This bit is set when the *note tp_finalize: e6c. slot is
          present in the type structure.

          Added in version 3.4.

          Αποσύρθηκε στην έκδοση 3.8: This flag isn’t necessary anymore,
          as the interpreter assumes the *note tp_finalize: e6c. slot is
          always present in the type structure.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL
          ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'
          This bit is set when the class implements the *note vectorcall
          protocol: 95b.  See *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 55f8. for
          details.

          'Inheritance:'

          This bit is inherited if *note tp_call: 962. is also
          inherited.

          Added in version 3.8: as ‘_Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Renamed to the current name, without
          the leading underscore.  The old provisional name is *note
          soft deprecated: 1a7.

          Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: This flag is now removed from a class
          when the class’s *note __call__(): 961. method is reassigned.

          This flag can now be inherited by mutable classes.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE

          This bit is set for type objects that are immutable: type
          attributes cannot be set nor deleted.

          *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. automatically applies this flag to
          *note static types: b5f.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is not inherited.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION

          Disallow creating instances of the type: set *note tp_new:
          981. to NULL and don’t create the ‘__new__’ key in the type
          dictionary.

          The flag must be set before creating the type, not after.  For
          example, it must be set before *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. is
          called on the type.

          The flag is set automatically on *note static types: b5f. if
          *note tp_base: 2567. is NULL or ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’ and *note
          tp_new: 981. is NULL.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is not inherited.  However, subclasses will not be
          instantiable unless they provide a non-NULL *note tp_new: 981.
          (which is only possible via the C API).

               Σημείωση: To disallow instantiating a class directly but
               allow instantiating its subclasses (e.g.  for an *note
               abstract base class: 155f.), do not use this flag.
               Instead, make *note tp_new: 981. only succeed for
               subclasses.

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING

          This bit indicates that instances of the class may match
          mapping patterns when used as the subject of a *note match:
          1d4. block.  It is automatically set when registering or
          subclassing *note collections.abc.Mapping: c9c, and unset when
          registering *note collections.abc.Sequence: 156d.

               Σημείωση: *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1e4f. and *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1e50. are mutually exclusive; it is
               an error to enable both flags simultaneously.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited by types that do not already set *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1e50.

          Δείτε επίσης
          ............

          PEP 634(1) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE

          This bit indicates that instances of the class may match
          sequence patterns when used as the subject of a *note match:
          1d4. block.  It is automatically set when registering or
          subclassing *note collections.abc.Sequence: 156d, and unset
          when registering *note collections.abc.Mapping: c9c.

               Σημείωση: *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1e4f. and *note
               Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 1e50. are mutually exclusive; it is
               an error to enable both flags simultaneously.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is inherited by types that do not already set *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 1e4f.

          Δείτε επίσης
          ............

          PEP 634(2) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification

          Added in version 3.10.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG

          Internal.  Do not set or unset this flag.  To indicate that a
          class has changed call *note PyType_Modified(): 1d77.

               Προειδοποίηση: This flag is present in header files, but
               is not be used.  It will be removed in a future version
               of CPython

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG

          This macro does nothing.  Historically, this would indicate
          that the *note tp_version_tag: 59a7. field was available and
          initialized.

          *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.13.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_INLINE_VALUES

          This bit indicates that instances of this type will have an
          «inline values» array (containing the object’s attributes)
          placed directly after the end of the object.

          This requires that *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. is set.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is not inherited.

          Added in version 3.13.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_IS_ABSTRACT

          This bit indicates that this is an abstract type and therefore
          cannot be instantiated.

          'Inheritance:'

          This flag is not inherited.

          Δείτε επίσης
          ............

          *note abc: 4.

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_STACKLESS_EXTENSION

          Internal.  Do not set or unset this flag.  Historically, this
          was a reserved flag for use in Stackless Python.

               Προειδοποίηση: This flag is present in header files, but
               is not be used.  This may be removed in a future version
               of CPython.

 -- C Μέλος: const char **note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_doc

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_doc’ is part of the
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a NUL-terminated C string giving the
     docstring for this type object.  This is exposed as the *note
     __doc__: 2284. attribute on the type and instances of the type.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is 'not' inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Μέλος: *note traverseproc: 5503. *note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_traverse

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_traverse’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a traversal function for the garbage
     collector.  This is only used if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e.
     flag bit is set.

     See *note Traversal: 59f3. for documentation.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e, *note tp_traverse: 36b, *note
     tp_clear: 51f7.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_clear:
     51f7. and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag bit: the flag
     bit, *note tp_traverse: 36b, and ‘tp_clear’ are all inherited from
     the base type if they are all zero in the subtype.

 -- C Μέλος: *note inquiry: 54f4. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_clear

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_clear’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a clear function.  The signature is:

          int tp_clear(PyObject *);

     The purpose of this function is to break reference cycles that are
     causing a *note cyclic isolate: 5971. so that the objects can be
     safely destroyed.  A cleared object is a partially destroyed
     object; the object is not obligated to satisfy design invariants
     held during normal use.

     ‘tp_clear’ does not need to delete references to objects that can’t
     participate in reference cycles, such as Python strings or Python
     integers.  However, it may be convenient to clear all references,
     and write the type’s *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. function to invoke
     ‘tp_clear’ to avoid code duplication.  (Beware that ‘tp_clear’
     might have already been called.  Prefer calling idempotent
     functions like *note Py_CLEAR(): 97c.)

     Any non-trivial cleanup should be performed in *note tp_finalize:
     e6c. instead of ‘tp_clear’.

          Σημείωση: If ‘tp_clear’ fails to break a reference cycle then
          the objects in the *note cyclic isolate: 5971. may remain
          indefinitely uncollectable («leak»).  See *note gc.garbage:
          156a.

          Σημείωση: Referents (direct and indirect) might have already
          been cleared; they are not guaranteed to be in a consistent
          state.

          Σημείωση: The *note tp_clear: 51f7. function can be called
          from any thread.

          Σημείωση: An object is not guaranteed to be automatically
          cleared before its destructor (*note tp_dealloc: 51d3.) is
          called.

     This function differs from the destructor (*note tp_dealloc: 51d3.)
     in the following ways:

        * The purpose of clearing an object is to remove references to
          other objects that might participate in a reference cycle.
          The purpose of the destructor, on the other hand, is a
          superset: it must release 'all' resources it owns, including
          references to objects that cannot participate in a reference
          cycle (e.g., integers) as well as the object’s own memory (by
          calling *note tp_free: 51e5.).

        * When ‘tp_clear’ is called, other objects might still hold
          references to the object being cleared.  Because of this,
          ‘tp_clear’ must not deallocate the object’s own memory (*note
          tp_free: 51e5.).  The destructor, on the other hand, is only
          called when no (strong) references exist, and as such, must
          safely destroy the object itself by deallocating it.

        * ‘tp_clear’ might never be automatically called.  An object’s
          destructor, on the other hand, will be automatically called
          some time after the object becomes unreachable (i.e., either
          there are no references to the object or the object is a
          member of a *note cyclic isolate: 5971.).

     No guarantees are made about when, if, or how often Python
     automatically clears an object, except:

        * Python will not automatically clear an object if it is
          reachable, i.e., there is a reference to it and it is not a
          member of a *note cyclic isolate: 5971.

        * Python will not automatically clear an object if it has not
          been automatically finalized (see *note tp_finalize: e6c.).
          (If the finalizer resurrected the object, the object may or
          may not be automatically finalized again before it is
          cleared.)

        * If an object is a member of a *note cyclic isolate: 5971,
          Python will not automatically clear it if any member of the
          cyclic isolate has not yet been automatically finalized (*note
          tp_finalize: e6c.).

        * Python will not destroy an object until after any automatic
          calls to its ‘tp_clear’ function have returned.  This ensures
          that the act of breaking a reference cycle does not invalidate
          the ‘self’ pointer while ‘tp_clear’ is still executing.

        * Python will not automatically call ‘tp_clear’ multiple times
          concurrently.

     CPython currently only automatically clears objects as needed to
     break reference cycles in a *note cyclic isolate: 5971, but future
     versions might clear objects regularly before their destruction.

     Taken together, all *note tp_clear: 51f7. functions in the system
     must combine to break all reference cycles.  This is subtle, and if
     in any doubt supply a ‘tp_clear’ function.  For example, the tuple
     type does not implement a ‘tp_clear’ function, because it’s
     possible to prove that no reference cycle can be composed entirely
     of tuples.  Therefore the ‘tp_clear’ functions of other types are
     responsible for breaking any cycle containing a tuple.  This isn’t
     immediately obvious, and there’s rarely a good reason to avoid
     implementing ‘tp_clear’.

     Implementations of *note tp_clear: 51f7. should drop the instance’s
     references to those of its members that may be Python objects, and
     set its pointers to those members to ‘NULL’, as in the following
     example:

          static int
          local_clear(PyObject *op)
          {
              localobject *self = (localobject *) op;
              Py_CLEAR(self->key);
              Py_CLEAR(self->args);
              Py_CLEAR(self->kw);
              Py_CLEAR(self->dict);
              return 0;
          }

     The *note Py_CLEAR(): 97c. macro should be used, because clearing
     references is delicate: the reference to the contained object must
     not be released (via *note Py_DECREF(): 975.) until after the
     pointer to the contained object is set to ‘NULL’.  This is because
     releasing the reference may cause the contained object to become
     trash, triggering a chain of reclamation activity that may include
     invoking arbitrary Python code (due to finalizers, or weakref
     callbacks, associated with the contained object).  If it’s possible
     for such code to reference 'self' again, it’s important that the
     pointer to the contained object be ‘NULL’ at that time, so that
     'self' knows the contained object can no longer be used.  The
     ‘Py_CLEAR()’ macro performs the operations in a safe order.

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. bit is set in the *note
     tp_flags: 1e68. field, the clear function must call *note
     PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 804. like this:

          PyObject_ClearManagedDict((PyObject*)self);

     More information about Python’s garbage collection scheme can be
     found in section *note Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection: 59e3.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e, *note tp_traverse: 36b, *note
     tp_clear: 51f7.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note
     tp_traverse: 36b. and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag bit:
     the flag bit, ‘tp_traverse’, and *note tp_clear: 51f7. are all
     inherited from the base type if they are all zero in the subtype.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note Object Life Cycle: 596d. for details about how this slot
     relates to other slots.

 -- C Μέλος: *note richcmpfunc: 54fc. *note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_richcompare

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_richcompare’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to the rich comparison function, whose
     signature is:

          PyObject *tp_richcompare(PyObject *self, PyObject *other, int op);

     The first parameter is guaranteed to be an instance of the type
     that is defined by *note PyTypeObject: e6b.

     The function should return the result of the comparison (usually
     ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’).  If the comparison is undefined, it must
     return ‘Py_NotImplemented’, if another error occurred it must
     return ‘NULL’ and set an exception condition.

     The following constants are defined to be used as the third
     argument for *note tp_richcompare: 5205. and for *note
     PyObject_RichCompare(): 5206.:

     Constant                 Comparison
                              
     ------------------------------------------
                              
      -- C Μακροεντολή:       ‘<’
               Py_LT          

      -- C Μακροεντολή:       ‘<=’
               Py_LE          

      -- C Μακροεντολή:       ‘==’
               Py_EQ          

      -- C Μακροεντολή:       ‘!=’
               Py_NE          

      -- C Μακροεντολή:       ‘>’
               Py_GT          

      -- C Μακροεντολή:       ‘>=’
               Py_GE          

     The following macro is defined to ease writing rich comparison
     functions:

      -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (VAL_A, VAL_B, op)

          Return ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’ from the function, depending on
          the result of a comparison.  VAL_A and VAL_B must be orderable
          by C comparison operators (for example, they may be C ints or
          floats).  The third argument specifies the requested
          operation, as for *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 5206.

          The returned value is a new *note strong reference: 7da.

          On error, sets an exception and returns ‘NULL’ from the
          function.

          Added in version 3.7.

     'Inheritance:'

     Group: *note tp_hash: 520b, *note tp_richcompare: 5205.

     This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_hash:
     520b.: a subtype inherits *note tp_richcompare: 5205. and ‘tp_hash’
     when the subtype’s ‘tp_richcompare’ and ‘tp_hash’ are both ‘NULL’.

     'Default:'

     *note PyBaseObject_Type: 529a. provides a *note tp_richcompare:
     5205. implementation, which may be inherited.  However, if only
     *note tp_hash: 520b. is defined, not even the inherited function is
     used and instances of the type will not be able to participate in
     any comparisons.

 -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. *note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_weaklistoffset

     While this field is still supported, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 39d. should be used instead, if at all
     possible.

     If the instances of this type are weakly referenceable, this field
     is greater than zero and contains the offset in the instance
     structure of the weak reference list head (ignoring the GC header,
     if present); this offset is used by *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs():
     97a. and the ‘PyWeakref_*’ functions.  The instance structure needs
     to include a field of type *note PyObject: 19b.* which is
     initialized to ‘NULL’.

     Do not confuse this field with *note tp_weaklist: 5650.; that is
     the list head for weak references to the type object itself.

     It is an error to set both the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF:
     39d. bit and *note tp_weaklistoffset: d50.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes, but see the rules listed
     below.  A subtype may override this offset; this means that the
     subtype uses a different weak reference list head than the base
     type.  Since the list head is always found via *note
     tp_weaklistoffset: d50, this should not be a problem.

     'Default:'

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 39d. bit is set in the
     *note tp_flags: 1e68. field, then *note tp_weaklistoffset: d50.
     will be set to a negative value, to indicate that it is unsafe to
     use this field.

 -- C Μέλος: *note getiterfunc: 54f0. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_iter

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_iter’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a function that returns an *note iterator:
     6ce. for the object.  Its presence normally signals that the
     instances of this type are *note iterable: 15ce. (although
     sequences may be iterable without this function).

     This function has the same signature as *note PyObject_GetIter():
     53ca.:

          PyObject *tp_iter(PyObject *self);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Μέλος: *note iternextfunc: 54f5. *note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_iternext

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_iternext’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a function that returns the next item in an
     *note iterator: 6ce.  The signature is:

          PyObject *tp_iternext(PyObject *self);

     When the iterator is exhausted, it must return ‘NULL’; a *note
     StopIteration: fba. exception may or may not be set.  When another
     error occurs, it must return ‘NULL’ too.  Its presence signals that
     the instances of this type are iterators.

     Iterator types should also define the *note tp_iter: 1891.
     function, and that function should return the iterator instance
     itself (not a new iterator instance).

     This function has the same signature as *note PyIter_Next(): 5c6.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Μέλος: struct *note PyMethodDef: 1879. **note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_methods

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_methods’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note
     PyMethodDef: 1879. structures, declaring regular methods of this
     type.

     For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type’s
     dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 1c92. below) containing a method
     descriptor.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (methods are inherited
     through a different mechanism).

 -- C Μέλος: struct *note PyMemberDef: 95a. **note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_members

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_members’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note
     PyMemberDef: 95a. structures, declaring regular data members
     (fields or slots) of instances of this type.

     For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type’s
     dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 1c92. below) containing a member
     descriptor.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (members are inherited
     through a different mechanism).

 -- C Μέλος: struct *note PyGetSetDef: f77. **note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_getset

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_getset’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note
     PyGetSetDef: f77. structures, declaring computed attributes of
     instances of this type.

     For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type’s
     dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 1c92. below) containing a getset
     descriptor.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (computed attributes are
     inherited through a different mechanism).

 -- C Μέλος: *note PyTypeObject: e6b. **note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_base

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_base’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a base type from which type properties are
     inherited.  At this level, only single inheritance is supported;
     multiple inheritance require dynamically creating a type object by
     calling the metatype.

          Σημείωση: 
          Slot initialization is subject to the rules of initializing
          globals.  C99 requires the initializers to be «address
          constants».  Function designators like *note
          PyType_GenericNew(): 51e2, with implicit conversion to a
          pointer, are valid C99 address constants.

          However, the unary “&” operator applied to a non-static
          variable like *note PyBaseObject_Type: 529a. is not required
          to produce an address constant.  Compilers may support this
          (gcc does), MSVC does not.  Both compilers are strictly
          standard conforming in this particular behavior.

          Consequently, *note tp_base: 2567. should be set in the
          extension module’s init function.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (obviously).

     'Default:'

     This field defaults to ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’ (which to Python
     programmers is known as the type *note object: e4d.).

 -- C Μέλος: *note PyObject: 19b. **note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_dict

     The type’s dictionary is stored here by *note PyType_Ready(): b5e.

     This field should normally be initialized to ‘NULL’ before
     PyType_Ready is called; it may also be initialized to a dictionary
     containing initial attributes for the type.  Once *note
     PyType_Ready(): b5e. has initialized the type, extra attributes for
     the type may be added to this dictionary only if they don’t
     correspond to overloaded operations (like *note __add__(): 25d2.).
     Once initialization for the type has finished, this field should be
     treated as read-only.

     Some types may not store their dictionary in this slot.  Use *note
     PyType_GetDict(): 1c91. to retrieve the dictionary for an arbitrary
     type.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Internals detail: For static builtin
     types, this is always ‘NULL’.  Instead, the dict for such types is
     stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Use *note PyType_GetDict(): 1c91.
     to get the dict for an arbitrary type.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited by subtypes (though the attributes
     defined in here are inherited through a different mechanism).

     'Default:'

     If this field is ‘NULL’, *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. will assign a
     new dictionary to it.

          Προειδοποίηση: It is not safe to use *note PyDict_SetItem():
          51d0. on or otherwise modify *note tp_dict: 1c92. with the
          dictionary C-API.

 -- C Μέλος: *note descrgetfunc: 54ea. *note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_descr_get

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_descr_get’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a «descriptor get» function.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject * tp_descr_get(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *type);

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Μέλος: *note descrsetfunc: 54eb. *note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_descr_set

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_descr_set’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a function for setting and deleting a
     descriptor’s value.

     The function signature is:

          int tp_descr_set(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *value);

     The 'value' argument is set to ‘NULL’ to delete the value.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

 -- C Μέλος: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. *note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_dictoffset

     While this field is still supported, *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT:
     39c. should be used instead, if at all possible.

     If the instances of this type have a dictionary containing instance
     variables, this field is non-zero and contains the offset in the
     instances of the type of the instance variable dictionary; this
     offset is used by *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 53c6.

     Do not confuse this field with *note tp_dict: 1c92.; that is the
     dictionary for attributes of the type object itself.

     The value specifies the offset of the dictionary from the start of
     the instance structure.

     The *note tp_dictoffset: 564c. should be regarded as write-only.
     To get the pointer to the dictionary call *note
     PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 1efa.  Calling
     ‘PyObject_GenericGetDict()’ may need to allocate memory for the
     dictionary, so it is may be more efficient to call *note
     PyObject_GetAttr(): 3b7. when accessing an attribute on the object.

     It is an error to set both the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c.
     bit and *note tp_dictoffset: 564c.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.  A subtype should not override
     this offset; doing so could be unsafe, if C code tries to access
     the dictionary at the previous offset.  To properly support
     inheritance, use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c.

     'Default:'

     This slot has no default.  For *note static types: b5f, if the
     field is ‘NULL’ then no *note __dict__: 1bf. gets created for
     instances.

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. bit is set in the *note
     tp_flags: 1e68. field, then *note tp_dictoffset: 564c. will be set
     to ‘-1’, to indicate that it is unsafe to use this field.

 -- C Μέλος: *note initproc: 54f3. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_init

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_init’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to an instance initialization function.

     This function corresponds to the *note __init__(): 2fa. method of
     classes.  Like ‘__init__()’, it is possible to create an instance
     without calling ‘__init__()’, and it is possible to reinitialize an
     instance by calling its ‘__init__()’ method again.

     The function signature is:

          int tp_init(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds);

     The self argument is the instance to be initialized; the 'args' and
     'kwds' arguments represent positional and keyword arguments of the
     call to *note __init__(): 2fa.

     The *note tp_init: 983. function, if not ‘NULL’, is called when an
     instance is created normally by calling its type, after the type’s
     *note tp_new: 981. function has returned an instance of the type.
     If the ‘tp_new’ function returns an instance of some other type
     that is not a subtype of the original type, no ‘tp_init’ function
     is called; if ‘tp_new’ returns an instance of a subtype of the
     original type, the subtype’s ‘tp_init’ is called.

     Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ and sets an exception on error.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     'Default:'

     For *note static types: b5f. this field does not have a default.

 -- C Μέλος: *note allocfunc: 54e8. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_alloc

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_alloc’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to an instance allocation function.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject *tp_alloc(PyTypeObject *self, Py_ssize_t nitems);

     'Inheritance:'

     Static subtypes inherit this slot, which will be *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30. if inherited from *note object: e4d.

     *note Heap subtypes: d2f. do not inherit this slot.

     'Default:'

     For heap subtypes, this field is always set to *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30.

     For static subtypes, this slot is inherited (see above).

 -- C Μέλος: *note newfunc: 54f7. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_new

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_new’ is part of the
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to an instance creation function.

     The function signature is:

          PyObject *tp_new(PyTypeObject *subtype, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds);

     The 'subtype' argument is the type of the object being created; the
     'args' and 'kwds' arguments represent positional and keyword
     arguments of the call to the type.  Note that 'subtype' doesn’t
     have to equal the type whose *note tp_new: 981. function is called;
     it may be a subtype of that type (but not an unrelated type).

     The *note tp_new: 981. function should call
     ‘subtype->tp_alloc(subtype, nitems)’ to allocate space for the
     object, and then do only as much further initialization as is
     absolutely necessary.  Initialization that can safely be ignored or
     repeated should be placed in the *note tp_init: 983. handler.  A
     good rule of thumb is that for immutable types, all initialization
     should take place in ‘tp_new’, while for mutable types, most
     initialization should be deferred to ‘tp_init’.

     Set the *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 984. flag to
     disallow creating instances of the type in Python.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes, except it is not inherited by
     *note static types: b5f. whose *note tp_base: 2567. is ‘NULL’ or
     ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’.

     'Default:'

     For *note static types: b5f. this field has no default.  This means
     if the slot is defined as ‘NULL’, the type cannot be called to
     create new instances; presumably there is some other way to create
     instances, like a factory function.

 -- C Μέλος: *note freefunc: 57bd. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_free

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_free’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to an instance deallocation function.  Its
     signature is:

          void tp_free(void *self);

     This function must free the memory allocated by *note tp_alloc:
     51e6.

     'Inheritance:'

     Static subtypes inherit this slot, which will be *note
     PyObject_Free(): 1023. if inherited from *note object: e4d.
     Exception: If the type supports garbage collection (i.e., the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag is set in *note tp_flags: 1e68.) and
     it would inherit ‘PyObject_Free()’, then this slot is not inherited
     but instead defaults to *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5.

     *note Heap subtypes: d2f. do not inherit this slot.

     'Default:'

     For *note heap subtypes: d2f, this slot defaults to a deallocator
     suitable to match *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30. and the value
     of the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag.

     For static subtypes, this slot is inherited (see above).

 -- C Μέλος: *note inquiry: 54f4. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_is_gc

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_is_gc’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     An optional pointer to a function called by the garbage collector.

     The garbage collector needs to know whether a particular object is
     collectible or not.  Normally, it is sufficient to look at the
     object’s type’s *note tp_flags: 1e68. field, and check the *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag bit.  But some types have a mixture
     of statically and dynamically allocated instances, and the
     statically allocated instances are not collectible.  Such types
     should define this function; it should return ‘1’ for a collectible
     instance, and ‘0’ for a non-collectible instance.  The signature
     is:

          int tp_is_gc(PyObject *self);

     (The only example of this are types themselves.  The metatype,
     *note PyType_Type: 958, defines this function to distinguish
     between statically and *note dynamically allocated types: d2f.)

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     'Default:'

     This slot has no default.  If this field is ‘NULL’, *note
     Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. is used as the functional equivalent.

 -- C Μέλος: *note PyObject: 19b. **note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_bases

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_bases’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     Tuple of base types.

     This field should be set to ‘NULL’ and treated as read-only.
     Python will fill it in when the type is *note initialized: b5e.

     For dynamically created classes, the *note Py_tp_bases: 54cc. *note
     slot: 541b. can be used instead of the 'bases' argument of *note
     PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 38f.  The argument form is preferred.

          Προειδοποίηση: Multiple inheritance does not work well for
          statically defined types.  If you set ‘tp_bases’ to a tuple,
          Python will not raise an error, but some slots will only be
          inherited from the first base.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Μέλος: *note PyObject: 19b. **note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_mro

     Tuple containing the expanded set of base types, starting with the
     type itself and ending with *note object: e4d, in Method Resolution
     Order.

     This field should be set to ‘NULL’ and treated as read-only.
     Python will fill it in when the type is *note initialized: b5e.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited; it is calculated fresh by *note
     PyType_Ready(): b5e.

 -- C Μέλος: *note PyObject: 19b. **note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_cache

     Unused.  Internal use only.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Μέλος: void **note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_subclasses

     A collection of subclasses.  Internal use only.  May be an invalid
     pointer.

     To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method *note
     __subclasses__(): 978.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: For some types, this field does not hold a
     valid *note PyObject: 19b.*.  The type was changed to void* to
     indicate this.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Μέλος: *note PyObject: 19b. **note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_weaklist

     Weak reference list head, for weak references to this type object.
     Not inherited.  Internal use only.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Internals detail: For the static builtin
     types this is always ‘NULL’, even if weakrefs are added.  Instead,
     the weakrefs for each are stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’.  Use the
     public C-API or the internal ‘_PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’
     macro to avoid the distinction.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Μέλος: *note destructor: 54ec. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_del

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_del’ is part of the
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This field is deprecated.  Use *note tp_finalize: e6c. instead.

 -- C Μέλος: unsigned int *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_version_tag

     Used to index into the method cache.  Internal use only.

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is not inherited.

 -- C Μέλος: *note destructor: 54ec. *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_finalize

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_finalize’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.5.'

     An optional pointer to an instance finalization function.  This is
     the C implementation of the *note __del__(): 13a6. special method.
     Its signature is:

          void tp_finalize(PyObject *self);

     The primary purpose of finalization is to perform any non-trivial
     cleanup that must be performed before the object is destroyed,
     while the object and any other objects it directly or indirectly
     references are still in a consistent state.  The finalizer is
     allowed to execute arbitrary Python code.

     Before Python automatically finalizes an object, some of the
     object’s direct or indirect referents might have themselves been
     automatically finalized.  However, none of the referents will have
     been automatically cleared (*note tp_clear: 51f7.) yet.

     Other non-finalized objects might still be using a finalized
     object, so the finalizer must leave the object in a sane state
     (e.g., invariants are still met).

          Σημείωση: After Python automatically finalizes an object,
          Python might start automatically clearing (*note tp_clear:
          51f7.) the object and its referents (direct and indirect).
          Cleared objects are not guaranteed to be in a consistent
          state; a finalized object must be able to tolerate cleared
          referents.

          Σημείωση: An object is not guaranteed to be automatically
          finalized before its destructor (*note tp_dealloc: 51d3.) is
          called.  It is recommended to call *note
          PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(): 351. at the beginning of
          ‘tp_dealloc’ to guarantee that the object is always finalized
          before destruction.

          Σημείωση: The *note tp_finalize: e6c. function can be called
          from any thread, although the *note GIL: 411. will be held.

          Σημείωση: The ‘tp_finalize’ function can be called during
          shutdown, after some global variables have been deleted.  See
          the documentation of the *note __del__(): 13a6. method for
          details.

     When Python finalizes an object, it behaves like the following
     algorithm:

       1. Python might mark the object as 'finalized'.  Currently,
          Python always marks objects whose type supports garbage
          collection (i.e., the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag is
          set in *note tp_flags: 1e68.) and never marks other types of
          objects; this might change in a future version.

       2. If the object is not marked as 'finalized' and its
          ‘tp_finalize’ finalizer function is non-‘NULL’, the finalizer
          function is called.

       3. If the finalizer function was called and the finalizer made
          the object reachable (i.e., there is a reference to the object
          and it is not a member of a *note cyclic isolate: 5971.), then
          the finalizer is said to have 'resurrected' the object.  It is
          unspecified whether the finalizer can also resurrect the
          object by adding a new reference to the object that does not
          make it reachable, i.e., the object is (still) a member of a
          cyclic isolate.

       4. If the finalizer resurrected the object, the object’s pending
          destruction is canceled and the object’s 'finalized' mark
          might be removed if present.  Currently, Python never removes
          the 'finalized' mark; this might change in a future version.

     'Automatic finalization' refers to any finalization performed by
     Python except via calls to *note PyObject_CallFinalizer(): 5974. or
     *note PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(): 351.  No guarantees are
     made about when, if, or how often an object is automatically
     finalized, except:

        * Python will not automatically finalize an object if it is
          reachable, i.e., there is a reference to it and it is not a
          member of a *note cyclic isolate: 5971.

        * Python will not automatically finalize an object if finalizing
          it would not mark the object as 'finalized'.  Currently, this
          applies to objects whose type does not support garbage
          collection, i.e., the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag is
          not set.  Such objects can still be manually finalized by
          calling *note PyObject_CallFinalizer(): 5974. or *note
          PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(): 351.

        * Python will not automatically finalize any two members of a
          *note cyclic isolate: 5971. concurrently.

        * Python will not automatically finalize an object after it has
          automatically cleared (*note tp_clear: 51f7.) the object.

        * If an object is a member of a *note cyclic isolate: 5971,
          Python will not automatically finalize it after automatically
          clearing (see *note tp_clear: 51f7.) any other member.

        * Python will automatically finalize every member of a *note
          cyclic isolate: 5971. before it automatically clears (see
          *note tp_clear: 51f7.) any of them.

        * If Python is going to automatically clear an object (*note
          tp_clear: 51f7.), it will automatically finalize the object
          first.

     Python currently only automatically finalizes objects that are
     members of a *note cyclic isolate: 5971, but future versions might
     finalize objects regularly before their destruction.

     To manually finalize an object, do not call this function directly;
     call *note PyObject_CallFinalizer(): 5974. or *note
     PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(): 351. instead.

     *note tp_finalize: e6c. should leave the current exception status
     unchanged.  The recommended way to write a non-trivial finalizer is
     to back up the exception at the beginning by calling *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c. and restore the exception at the
     end by calling *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 63f.  If an
     exception is encountered in the middle of the finalizer, log and
     clear it with *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 7e8. or *note
     PyErr_FormatUnraisable(): 7e7.  For example:

          static void
          foo_finalize(PyObject *self)
          {
              // Save the current exception, if any.
              PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException();

              // ...

              if (do_something_that_might_raise() != success_indicator) {
                  PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self);
                  goto done;
              }

          done:
              // Restore the saved exception.  This silently discards any exception
              // raised above, so be sure to call PyErr_WriteUnraisable first if
              // necessary.
              PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc);
          }

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is inherited by subtypes.

     Added in version 3.4.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: Before version 3.8 it was necessary to set
     the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 63a. flags bit in order for
     this field to be used.  This is no longer required.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * PEP 442(3): «Safe object finalization»

        * *note Object Life Cycle: 596d. for details about how this slot
          relates to other slots.

        * *note PyObject_CallFinalizer(): 5974.

        * *note PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc(): 351.

 -- C Μέλος: *note vectorcallfunc: 960. *note PyTypeObject:
          e6b.tp_vectorcall

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_tp_vectorcall’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'

     A *note vectorcall function: 95b. to use for calls of this type
     object (rather than instances).  In other words, ‘tp_vectorcall’
     can be used to optimize ‘type.__call__’, which typically returns a
     new instance of 'type'.

     As with any vectorcall function, if ‘tp_vectorcall’ is ‘NULL’, the
     'tp_call' protocol (‘Py_TYPE(type)->tp_call’) is used instead.

          Σημείωση: The *note vectorcall protocol: 95b. requires that
          the vectorcall function has the same behavior as the
          corresponding ‘tp_call’.  This means that
          ‘type->tp_vectorcall’ must match the behavior of
          ‘Py_TYPE(type)->tp_call’.

          Specifically, if 'type' uses the default metaclass,
          ‘type->tp_vectorcall’ must behave the same as *note
          PyType_Type: 958.->tp_call, which:

             - calls ‘type->tp_new’,

             - if the result is a subclass of 'type', calls
               ‘type->tp_init’ on the result of ‘tp_new’, and

             - returns the result of ‘tp_new’.

          Typically, ‘tp_vectorcall’ is overridden to optimize this
          process for specific *note tp_new: 981. and *note tp_init:
          983.  When doing this for user-subclassable types, note that
          both can be overridden (using *note __new__(): 982. and *note
          __init__(): 2fa, respectively).

     'Inheritance:'

     This field is never inherited.

     Added in version 3.9: (the field exists since 3.8 but it’s only
     used since 3.9)

 -- C Μέλος: unsigned char *note PyTypeObject: e6b.tp_watched

     Internal.  Do not use.

     Added in version 3.12.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/


File: python.info,  Node: Static Types,  Next: Heap Types,  Prev: PyTypeObject Slots,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.9 Static Types
.....................

Traditionally, types defined in C code are 'static', that is, a static
*note PyTypeObject: e6b. structure is defined directly in code and
initialized using *note PyType_Ready(): b5e.

This results in types that are limited relative to types defined in
Python:

   * Static types are limited to one base, i.e.  they cannot use
     multiple inheritance.

   * Static type objects (but not necessarily their instances) are
     immutable.  It is not possible to add or modify the type object’s
     attributes from Python.

   * Static type objects are shared across *note sub-interpreters: 410,
     so they should not include any subinterpreter-specific state.

Also, since *note PyTypeObject: e6b. is only part of the *note Limited
API: 829. as an opaque struct, any extension modules using static types
must be compiled for a specific Python minor version.


File: python.info,  Node: Heap Types,  Next: Number Object Structures,  Prev: Static Types,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.10 Heap Types
....................

An alternative to *note static types: b5f. is 'heap-allocated types', or
'heap types' for short, which correspond closely to classes created by
Python’s ‘class’ statement.  Heap types have the *note
Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: c82. flag set.

This is done by filling a *note PyType_Spec: 1c8f. structure and calling
*note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e, *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 38f,
*note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390, or *note PyType_FromMetaclass():
391.


File: python.info,  Node: Number Object Structures,  Next: Mapping Object Structures,  Prev: Heap Types,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.11 Number Object Structures
..................................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyNumberMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses
     to implement the number protocol.  Each function is used by the
     function of similar name documented in the *note Number Protocol:
     5603. section.

     Here is the structure definition:

          typedef struct {
               binaryfunc nb_add;
               binaryfunc nb_subtract;
               binaryfunc nb_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_remainder;
               binaryfunc nb_divmod;
               ternaryfunc nb_power;
               unaryfunc nb_negative;
               unaryfunc nb_positive;
               unaryfunc nb_absolute;
               inquiry nb_bool;
               unaryfunc nb_invert;
               binaryfunc nb_lshift;
               binaryfunc nb_rshift;
               binaryfunc nb_and;
               binaryfunc nb_xor;
               binaryfunc nb_or;
               unaryfunc nb_int;
               void *nb_reserved;
               unaryfunc nb_float;

               binaryfunc nb_inplace_add;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_subtract;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_remainder;
               ternaryfunc nb_inplace_power;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_lshift;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_rshift;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_and;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_xor;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_or;

               binaryfunc nb_floor_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_true_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_floor_divide;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_true_divide;

               unaryfunc nb_index;

               binaryfunc nb_matrix_multiply;
               binaryfunc nb_inplace_matrix_multiply;
          } PyNumberMethods;

          Σημείωση: Binary and ternary functions must check the type of
          all their operands, and implement the necessary conversions
          (at least one of the operands is an instance of the defined
          type).  If the operation is not defined for the given
          operands, binary and ternary functions must return
          ‘Py_NotImplemented’, if another error occurred they must
          return ‘NULL’ and set an exception.

          Σημείωση: The *note nb_reserved: 59c9. field should always be
          ‘NULL’.  It was previously called ‘nb_long’, and was renamed
          in Python 3.0.1.

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods: 17c0.nb_add

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_add’ is part of the
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_subtract

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_subtract’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_multiply

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_multiply’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_remainder

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_remainder’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_divmod

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_divmod’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note ternaryfunc: 5502. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_power

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_power’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note unaryfunc: 5504. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_negative

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_negative’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note unaryfunc: 5504. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_positive

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_positive’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note unaryfunc: 5504. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_absolute

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_absolute’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note inquiry: 54f4. *note PyNumberMethods: 17c0.nb_bool

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_bool’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note unaryfunc: 5504. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_invert

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_invert’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_lshift

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_lshift’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_rshift

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_rshift’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods: 17c0.nb_and

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_and’ is part of the
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods: 17c0.nb_xor

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_xor’ is part of the
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods: 17c0.nb_or

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_or’ is part of the
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note unaryfunc: 5504. *note PyNumberMethods: 17c0.nb_int

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_int’ is part of the
     *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: void **note PyNumberMethods: 17c0.nb_reserved

 -- C Μέλος: *note unaryfunc: 5504. *note PyNumberMethods: 17c0.nb_float

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_float’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_inplace_add

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_inplace_add’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_inplace_subtract

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_inplace_subtract’
     is part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_inplace_multiply

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_inplace_multiply’
     is part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_inplace_remainder

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_inplace_remainder’
     is part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note ternaryfunc: 5502. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_inplace_power

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_inplace_power’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_inplace_lshift

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_inplace_lshift’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_inplace_rshift

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_inplace_rshift’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_inplace_and

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_inplace_and’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_inplace_xor

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_inplace_xor’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_inplace_or

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_inplace_or’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_floor_divide

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_floor_divide’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_true_divide

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_true_divide’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_inplace_floor_divide

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b.
     ‘Py_nb_inplace_floor_divide’ is part of the *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_inplace_true_divide

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b.
     ‘Py_nb_inplace_true_divide’ is part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note unaryfunc: 5504. *note PyNumberMethods: 17c0.nb_index

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_index’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_matrix_multiply

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_nb_matrix_multiply’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.5.'

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyNumberMethods:
          17c0.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b.
     ‘Py_nb_inplace_matrix_multiply’ is part of the *note Σταθερό ABI:
     95c. από την έκδοση 3.5.'


File: python.info,  Node: Mapping Object Structures,  Next: Sequence Object Structures,  Prev: Number Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.12 Mapping Object Structures
...................................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyMappingMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses
     to implement the mapping protocol.  It has three members:

 -- C Μέλος: *note lenfunc: 54f6. *note PyMappingMethods: 520a.mp_length

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_mp_length’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This function is used by *note PyMapping_Size(): 2024. and *note
     PyObject_Size(): 53cf, and has the same signature.  This slot may
     be set to ‘NULL’ if the object has no defined length.

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PyMappingMethods:
          520a.mp_subscript

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_mp_subscript’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This function is used by *note PyObject_GetItem(): 7e2. and *note
     PySequence_GetSlice(): 53db, and has the same signature as
     ‘PyObject_GetItem()’.  This slot must be filled for the *note
     PyMapping_Check(): 5383. function to return ‘1’, it can be ‘NULL’
     otherwise.

 -- C Μέλος: *note objobjargproc: 54f8. *note PyMappingMethods:
          520a.mp_ass_subscript

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_mp_ass_subscript’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This function is used by *note PyObject_SetItem(): 525f, *note
     PyObject_DelItem(): 53c2, *note PySequence_SetSlice(): 53e2. and
     *note PySequence_DelSlice(): 53da.  It has the same signature as
     ‘PyObject_SetItem()’, but 'v' can also be set to ‘NULL’ to delete
     an item.  If this slot is ‘NULL’, the object does not support item
     assignment and deletion.


File: python.info,  Node: Sequence Object Structures,  Next: Buffer Object Structures,  Prev: Mapping Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.13 Sequence Object Structures
....................................

 -- C Τύπος: type PySequenceMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses
     to implement the sequence protocol.

 -- C Μέλος: *note lenfunc: 54f6. *note PySequenceMethods:
          5209.sq_length

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_sq_length’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This function is used by *note PySequence_Size(): 2020. and *note
     PyObject_Size(): 53cf, and has the same signature.  It is also used
     for handling negative indices via the *note sq_item: 1eea. and the
     *note sq_ass_item: 59d5. slots.

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PySequenceMethods:
          5209.sq_concat

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_sq_concat’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This function is used by *note PySequence_Concat(): 53d8. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by the ‘+’ operator, after
     trying the numeric addition via the *note nb_add: 5645. slot.

 -- C Μέλος: *note ssizeargfunc: 5500. *note PySequenceMethods:
          5209.sq_repeat

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_sq_repeat’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This function is used by *note PySequence_Repeat(): 53e1. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by the ‘*’ operator, after
     trying numeric multiplication via the *note nb_multiply: 59b2.
     slot.

 -- C Μέλος: *note ssizeargfunc: 5500. *note PySequenceMethods:
          5209.sq_item

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_sq_item’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This function is used by *note PySequence_GetItem(): 2021. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by *note PyObject_GetItem():
     7e2, after trying the subscription via the *note mp_subscript:
     1eeb. slot.  This slot must be filled for the *note
     PySequence_Check(): 53d7. function to return ‘1’, it can be ‘NULL’
     otherwise.

     Negative indexes are handled as follows: if the *note sq_length:
     564b. slot is filled, it is called and the sequence length is used
     to compute a positive index which is passed to *note sq_item: 1eea.
     If ‘sq_length’ is ‘NULL’, the index is passed as is to the
     function.

 -- C Μέλος: *note ssizeobjargproc: 5501. *note PySequenceMethods:
          5209.sq_ass_item

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_sq_ass_item’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This function is used by *note PySequence_SetItem(): 2022. and has
     the same signature.  It is also used by *note PyObject_SetItem():
     525f. and *note PyObject_DelItem(): 53c2, after trying the item
     assignment and deletion via the *note mp_ass_subscript: 59d2. slot.
     This slot may be left to ‘NULL’ if the object does not support item
     assignment and deletion.

 -- C Μέλος: *note objobjproc: 54f9. *note PySequenceMethods:
          5209.sq_contains

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_sq_contains’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This function may be used by *note PySequence_Contains(): 605. and
     has the same signature.  This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this
     case ‘PySequence_Contains()’ simply traverses the sequence until it
     finds a match.

 -- C Μέλος: *note binaryfunc: 54e9. *note PySequenceMethods:
          5209.sq_inplace_concat

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_sq_inplace_concat’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This function is used by *note PySequence_InPlaceConcat(): 53dc.
     and has the same signature.  It should modify its first operand,
     and return it.  This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this case
     ‘PySequence_InPlaceConcat()’ will fall back to *note
     PySequence_Concat(): 53d8.  It is also used by the augmented
     assignment ‘+=’, after trying numeric in-place addition via the
     *note nb_inplace_add: 59af. slot.

 -- C Μέλος: *note ssizeargfunc: 5500. *note PySequenceMethods:
          5209.sq_inplace_repeat

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_sq_inplace_repeat’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

     This function is used by *note PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(): 53dd.
     and has the same signature.  It should modify its first operand,
     and return it.  This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this case
     ‘PySequence_InPlaceRepeat()’ will fall back to *note
     PySequence_Repeat(): 53e1.  It is also used by the augmented
     assignment ‘*=’, after trying numeric in-place multiplication via
     the *note nb_inplace_multiply: 59b3. slot.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffer Object Structures,  Next: Async Object Structures,  Prev: Sequence Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.14 Buffer Object Structures
..................................

 -- C Τύπος: type PyBufferProcs

     This structure holds pointers to the functions required by the
     *note Buffer protocol: 311.  The protocol defines how an exporter
     object can expose its internal data to consumer objects.

 -- C Μέλος: *note getbufferproc: 54ef. *note PyBufferProcs:
          5651.bf_getbuffer

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_bf_getbuffer’ is part
     of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'

     The signature of this function is:

          int (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags);

     Handle a request to 'exporter' to fill in 'view' as specified by
     'flags'.  Except for point (3), an implementation of this function
     MUST take these steps:

       1. Check if the request can be met.  If not, raise *note
          BufferError: 1998, set view->obj to ‘NULL’ and return ‘-1’.

       2. Fill in the requested fields.

       3. Increment an internal counter for the number of exports.

       4. Set view->obj to 'exporter' and increment view->obj.

       5. Return ‘0’.

     'Thread safety:'

     In the *note free-threaded build: 198, implementations must ensure:

        * The export counter increment in step (3) is atomic.

        * The underlying buffer data remains valid and at a stable
          memory location for the lifetime of all exports.

        * For objects that support resizing or reallocation (such as
          *note bytearray: 1c6.), the export counter is checked
          atomically before such operations, and *note BufferError:
          1998. is raised if exports exist.

        * The function is safe to call concurrently from multiple
          threads.

     See also *note Thread safety for memoryview objects: 2606. for the
     Python-level thread safety guarantees of *note memoryview: 1d2.
     objects.

     If 'exporter' is part of a chain or tree of buffer providers, two
     main schemes can be used:

        * Re-export: Each member of the tree acts as the exporting
          object and sets view->obj to a new reference to itself.

        * Redirect: The buffer request is redirected to the root object
          of the tree.  Here, view->obj will be a new reference to the
          root object.

     The individual fields of 'view' are described in section *note
     Buffer structure: 561b, the rules how an exporter must react to
     specific requests are in section *note Buffer request types: 4d3b.

     All memory pointed to in the *note Py_buffer: b3a. structure
     belongs to the exporter and must remain valid until there are no
     consumers left.  *note format: 5624, *note shape: 5625, *note
     strides: 561f, *note suboffsets: 5627. and *note internal: 5629.
     are read-only for the consumer.

     *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): b42. provides an easy way of exposing a
     simple bytes buffer while dealing correctly with all request types.

     *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 82c. is the interface for the consumer
     that wraps this function.

 -- C Μέλος: *note releasebufferproc: 54fa. *note PyBufferProcs:
          5651.bf_releasebuffer

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_bf_releasebuffer’ is
     part of the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'

     The signature of this function is:

          void (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view);

     Handle a request to release the resources of the buffer.  If no
     resources need to be released, *note
     PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer: b45. may be ‘NULL’.  Otherwise, a
     standard implementation of this function will take these optional
     steps:

       1. Decrement an internal counter for the number of exports.

       2. If the counter is ‘0’, free all memory associated with 'view'.

     'Thread safety:'

     In the *note free-threaded build: 198.:

        * The export counter decrement in step (1) must be atomic.

        * Resource cleanup when the counter reaches zero must be done
          atomically, as the final release may race with concurrent
          releases from other threads and dellocation must only happen
          once.

     The exporter MUST use the *note internal: 5629. field to keep track
     of buffer-specific resources.  This field is guaranteed to remain
     constant, while a consumer MAY pass a copy of the original buffer
     as the 'view' argument.

     This function MUST NOT decrement view->obj, since that is done
     automatically in *note PyBuffer_Release(): 82d. (this scheme is
     useful for breaking reference cycles).

     *note PyBuffer_Release(): 82d. is the interface for the consumer
     that wraps this function.


File: python.info,  Node: Async Object Structures,  Next: Slot Type typedefs,  Prev: Buffer Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.15 Async Object Structures
.................................

Added in version 3.5.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyAsyncMethods

     This structure holds pointers to the functions required to
     implement *note awaitable: 6cf. and *note asynchronous iterator:
     6cd. objects.

     Here is the structure definition:

          typedef struct {
              unaryfunc am_await;
              unaryfunc am_aiter;
              unaryfunc am_anext;
              sendfunc am_send;
          } PyAsyncMethods;

 -- C Μέλος: *note unaryfunc: 5504. *note PyAsyncMethods: 564a.am_await

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_am_await’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.5.'

     The signature of this function is:

          PyObject *am_await(PyObject *self);

     The returned object must be an *note iterator: 6ce, i.e.  *note
     PyIter_Check(): 1ea8. must return ‘1’ for it.

     This slot may be set to ‘NULL’ if an object is not an *note
     awaitable: 6cf.

 -- C Μέλος: *note unaryfunc: 5504. *note PyAsyncMethods: 564a.am_aiter

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_am_aiter’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.5.'

     The signature of this function is:

          PyObject *am_aiter(PyObject *self);

     Must return an *note asynchronous iterator: 6cd. object.  See *note
     __anext__(): 1aa7. for details.

     This slot may be set to ‘NULL’ if an object does not implement
     asynchronous iteration protocol.

 -- C Μέλος: *note unaryfunc: 5504. *note PyAsyncMethods: 564a.am_anext

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_am_anext’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.5.'

     The signature of this function is:

          PyObject *am_anext(PyObject *self);

     Must return an *note awaitable: 6cf. object.  See *note
     __anext__(): 1aa7. for details.  This slot may be set to ‘NULL’.

 -- C Μέλος: *note sendfunc: 59ae. *note PyAsyncMethods: 564a.am_send

     ' The corresponding *note slot ID: 541b. ‘Py_am_send’ is part of
     the *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'

     The signature of this function is:

          PySendResult am_send(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg, PyObject **result);

     See *note PyIter_Send(): c6e. for details.  This slot may be set to
     ‘NULL’.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Slot Type typedefs,  Next: Examples<33>,  Prev: Async Object Structures,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.16 Slot Type typedefs
............................

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*allocfunc)(*note
          PyTypeObject: e6b. *cls, *note Py_ssize_t: e24. nitems)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  The purpose of this function
     is to separate memory allocation from memory initialization.  It
     should return a pointer to a block of memory of adequate length for
     the instance, suitably aligned, and initialized to zeros, but with
     *note ob_refcnt: c75. set to ‘1’ and *note ob_type: 51e3. set to
     the type argument.  If the type’s *note tp_itemsize: 25b0. is
     non-zero, the object’s *note ob_size: 545c. field should be
     initialized to 'nitems' and the length of the allocated memory
     block should be ‘tp_basicsize + nitems*tp_itemsize’, rounded up to
     a multiple of ‘sizeof(void*)’; otherwise, 'nitems' is not used and
     the length of the block should be *note tp_basicsize: d4f.

     This function should not do any other instance initialization, not
     even to allocate additional memory; that should be done by *note
     tp_new: 981.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef void (*destructor)(*note PyObject: 19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Τύπος: typedef void (*freefunc)(void*)

     See *note tp_free: 51e5.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*newfunc)(*note
          PyTypeObject: e6b.*, *note PyObject: 19b.*, *note PyObject:
          19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  See *note tp_new: 981.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*initproc)(*note PyObject: 19b.*, *note
          PyObject: 19b.*, *note PyObject: 19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  See *note tp_init: 983.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*reprfunc)(*note PyObject:
          19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  See *note tp_repr: 51f9.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*getattrfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 19b. *self, char *attr)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the value of the named
     attribute for the object.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*setattrfunc)(*note PyObject: 19b. *self, char
          *attr, *note PyObject: 19b. *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the value of the named
     attribute for the object.  The value argument is set to ‘NULL’ to
     delete the attribute.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*getattrofunc)(*note
          PyObject: 19b. *self, *note PyObject: 19b. *attr)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Return the value of the named
     attribute for the object.

     See *note tp_getattro: 1c6a.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*setattrofunc)(*note PyObject: 19b. *self,
          *note PyObject: 19b. *attr, *note PyObject: 19b. *value)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Set the value of the named
     attribute for the object.  The value argument is set to ‘NULL’ to
     delete the attribute.

     See *note tp_setattro: 51fd.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*descrgetfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 19b.*, *note PyObject: 19b.*, *note PyObject: 19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  See *note tp_descr_get: 57d6.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*descrsetfunc)(*note PyObject: 19b.*, *note
          PyObject: 19b.*, *note PyObject: 19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  See *note tp_descr_set: 1eaa.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note Py_hash_t: 1608. (*hashfunc)(*note PyObject:
          19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  See *note tp_hash: 520b.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*richcmpfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 19b.*, *note PyObject: 19b.*, int)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  See *note tp_richcompare:
     5205.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*getiterfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  See *note tp_iter: 1891.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*iternextfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  See *note tp_iternext: 1892.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note Py_ssize_t: e24. (*lenfunc)(*note PyObject:
          19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*getbufferproc)(*note PyObject: 19b.*, *note
          Py_buffer: b3a.*, int)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Τύπος: typedef void (*releasebufferproc)(*note PyObject: 19b.*,
          *note Py_buffer: b3a.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.12.'

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*unaryfunc)(*note PyObject:
          19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*binaryfunc)(*note PyObject:
          19b.*, *note PyObject: 19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PySendResult: 5616. (*sendfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 19b.*, *note PyObject: 19b.*, *note PyObject:
          19b.**)

     See *note am_send: 59ad.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*ternaryfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 19b.*, *note PyObject: 19b.*, *note PyObject: 19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Τύπος: typedef *note PyObject: 19b. *(*ssizeargfunc)(*note
          PyObject: 19b.*, *note Py_ssize_t: e24.)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*ssizeobjargproc)(*note PyObject: 19b.*, *note
          Py_ssize_t: e24, *note PyObject: 19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*objobjproc)(*note PyObject: 19b.*, *note
          PyObject: 19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*objobjargproc)(*note PyObject: 19b.*, *note
          PyObject: 19b.*, *note PyObject: 19b.*)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<33>,  Prev: Slot Type typedefs,  Up: Type Object Structures

7.22.4.17 Examples
..................

The following are simple examples of Python type definitions.  They
include common usage you may encounter.  Some demonstrate tricky corner
cases.  For more examples, practical info, and a tutorial, see *note
Defining Extension Types; Tutorial: 51dc. and *note Defining Extension
Types; Assorted Topics: 51f3.

A basic *note static type: b5f.:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         const char *data;
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject),
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"),
         .tp_new = myobj_new,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
     };

You may also find older code (especially in the CPython code base) with
a more verbose initializer:

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         "mymod.MyObject",               /* tp_name */
         sizeof(MyObject),               /* tp_basicsize */
         0,                              /* tp_itemsize */
         (destructor)myobj_dealloc,      /* tp_dealloc */
         0,                              /* tp_vectorcall_offset */
         0,                              /* tp_getattr */
         0,                              /* tp_setattr */
         0,                              /* tp_as_async */
         (reprfunc)myobj_repr,           /* tp_repr */
         0,                              /* tp_as_number */
         0,                              /* tp_as_sequence */
         0,                              /* tp_as_mapping */
         0,                              /* tp_hash */
         0,                              /* tp_call */
         0,                              /* tp_str */
         0,                              /* tp_getattro */
         0,                              /* tp_setattro */
         0,                              /* tp_as_buffer */
         0,                              /* tp_flags */
         PyDoc_STR("My objects"),        /* tp_doc */
         0,                              /* tp_traverse */
         0,                              /* tp_clear */
         0,                              /* tp_richcompare */
         0,                              /* tp_weaklistoffset */
         0,                              /* tp_iter */
         0,                              /* tp_iternext */
         0,                              /* tp_methods */
         0,                              /* tp_members */
         0,                              /* tp_getset */
         0,                              /* tp_base */
         0,                              /* tp_dict */
         0,                              /* tp_descr_get */
         0,                              /* tp_descr_set */
         0,                              /* tp_dictoffset */
         0,                              /* tp_init */
         0,                              /* tp_alloc */
         myobj_new,                      /* tp_new */
     };

A type that supports weakrefs, instance dicts, and hashing:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
         const char *data;
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject),
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"),
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE |
              Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC | Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT |
              Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF,
         .tp_new = myobj_new,
         .tp_traverse = (traverseproc)myobj_traverse,
         .tp_clear = (inquiry)myobj_clear,
         .tp_alloc = PyType_GenericNew,
         .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
         .tp_hash = (hashfunc)myobj_hash,
         .tp_richcompare = PyBaseObject_Type.tp_richcompare,
     };

A str subclass that cannot be subclassed and cannot be called to create
instances (e.g.  uses a separate factory func) using *note
Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 984. flag:

     typedef struct {
         PyUnicodeObject raw;
         char *extra;
     } MyStr;

     static PyTypeObject MyStr_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyStr",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyStr),
         .tp_base = NULL,  // set to &PyUnicode_Type in module init
         .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("my custom str"),
         .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION,
         .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr,
     };

The simplest *note static type: b5f. with fixed-length instances:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_HEAD
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
     };

The simplest *note static type: b5f. with variable-length instances:

     typedef struct {
         PyObject_VAR_HEAD
         const char *data[1];
     } MyObject;

     static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = {
         PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0)
         .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject",
         .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject) - sizeof(char *),
         .tp_itemsize = sizeof(char *),
     };


File: python.info,  Node: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection,  Prev: Type Object Structures,  Up: Object Implementation Support

7.22.5 Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection
-------------------------------------------

Python’s support for detecting and collecting garbage which involves
circular references requires support from object types which are
«containers» for other objects which may also be containers.  Types
which do not store references to other objects, or which only store
references to atomic types (such as numbers or strings), do not need to
provide any explicit support for garbage collection.

To create a container type, the *note tp_flags: 1e68. field of the type
object must include the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. and provide an
implementation of the *note tp_traverse: 36b. handler.  If instances of
the type are mutable, a *note tp_clear: 51f7. implementation must also
be provided.

*note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e.

     Objects with a type with this flag set must conform with the rules
     documented here.  For convenience these objects will be referred to
     as container objects.

Constructors for container types must conform to two rules:

  1. The memory for the object must be allocated using *note
     PyObject_GC_New: e68. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: e69.

  2. Once all the fields which may contain references to other
     containers are initialized, it must call *note PyObject_GC_Track():
     18a6.

Similarly, the deallocator for the object must conform to a similar pair
of rules:

  1. Before fields which refer to other containers are invalidated,
     *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 18a7. must be called.

  2. The object’s memory must be deallocated using *note
     PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5.

          Προειδοποίηση: If a type adds the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, then it
          'must' implement at least a *note tp_traverse: 36b. handler or
          explicitly use one from its subclass or subclasses.

          When calling *note PyType_Ready(): b5e. or some of the APIs
          that indirectly call it like *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases():
          38f. or *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e. the interpreter will
          automatically populate the *note tp_flags: 1e68, *note
          tp_traverse: 36b. and *note tp_clear: 51f7. fields if the type
          inherits from a class that implements the garbage collector
          protocol and the child class does 'not' include the *note
          Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_GC_New (TYPE, typeobj)

     Analogous to *note PyObject_New: d4d. but for container objects
     with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag set.

     Do not call this directly to allocate memory for an object; call
     the type’s *note tp_alloc: 51e6. slot instead.

     When populating a type’s *note tp_alloc: 51e6. slot, *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30. is preferred over a custom function
     that simply calls this macro.

     Memory allocated by this macro must be freed with *note
     PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5. (usually called via the object’s *note
     tp_free: 51e5. slot).

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5.

        * *note PyObject_New: d4d.

        * *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30.

        * *note tp_alloc: 51e6.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_GC_NewVar (TYPE, typeobj, size)

     Analogous to *note PyObject_NewVar: d4e. but for container objects
     with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag set.

     Do not call this directly to allocate memory for an object; call
     the type’s *note tp_alloc: 51e6. slot instead.

     When populating a type’s *note tp_alloc: 51e6. slot, *note
     PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30. is preferred over a custom function
     that simply calls this macro.

     Memory allocated by this macro must be freed with *note
     PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5. (usually called via the object’s *note
     tp_free: 51e5. slot).

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5.

        * *note PyObject_NewVar: d4e.

        * *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30.

        * *note tp_alloc: 51e6.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b.
          *PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData (PyTypeObject *type,
          size_t extra_size)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Analogous to *note PyObject_GC_New: e68. but allocates 'extra_size'
     bytes at the end of the object (at offset *note tp_basicsize:
     d4f.).  The allocated memory is initialized to zeros, except for
     the *note Python object header: 19b.

     The extra data will be deallocated with the object, but otherwise
     it is not managed by Python.

     Memory allocated by this function must be freed with *note
     PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5. (usually called via the object’s *note
     tp_free: 51e5. slot).

          Προειδοποίηση: The function is marked as unstable because the
          final mechanism for reserving extra data after an instance is
          not yet decided.  For allocating a variable number of fields,
          prefer using *note PyVarObject: 492d. and *note tp_itemsize:
          25b0. instead.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PyObject_GC_Resize (TYPE, op, newsize)

     Resize an object allocated by *note PyObject_NewVar: d4e.  Returns
     the resized object of type ‘TYPE*’ (refers to any C type) or ‘NULL’
     on failure.

     'op' must be of type *note PyVarObject: 492d.* and must not be
     tracked by the collector yet.  'newsize' must be of type *note
     Py_ssize_t: e24.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyObject_GC_Track (PyObject *op)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Adds the object 'op' to the
     set of container objects tracked by the collector.  The collector
     can run at unexpected times so objects must be valid while being
     tracked.  This should be called once all the fields followed by the
     *note tp_traverse: 36b. handler become valid, usually near the end
     of the constructor.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_IS_GC (PyObject *obj)

     Returns non-zero if the object implements the garbage collector
     protocol, otherwise returns 0.

     The object cannot be tracked by the garbage collector if this
     function returns 0.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_GC_IsTracked (PyObject *op)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.9.'  Returns 1
     if the object type of 'op' implements the GC protocol and 'op' is
     being currently tracked by the garbage collector and 0 otherwise.

     This is analogous to the Python function *note gc.is_tracked():
     16b2.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyObject_GC_IsFinalized (PyObject *op)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.9.'  Returns 1
     if the object type of 'op' implements the GC protocol and 'op' has
     been already finalized by the garbage collector and 0 otherwise.

     This is analogous to the Python function *note gc.is_finalized():
     ccd.

     Added in version 3.9.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyObject_GC_Del (void *op)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Releases memory allocated to
     an object using *note PyObject_GC_New: e68. or *note
     PyObject_GC_NewVar: e69.

     Do not call this directly to free an object’s memory; call the
     type’s *note tp_free: 51e5. slot instead.

     Do not use this for memory allocated by *note PyObject_New: d4d,
     *note PyObject_NewVar: d4e, or related allocation functions; use
     *note PyObject_Free(): 1023. instead.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

        * *note PyObject_Free(): 1023. is the non-GC equivalent of this
          function.

        * *note PyObject_GC_New: e68.

        * *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: e69.

        * *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): e30.

        * *note tp_free: 51e5.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyObject_GC_UnTrack (void *op)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Remove the object 'op' from
     the set of container objects tracked by the collector.  Note that
     *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 18a6. can be called again on this object
     to add it back to the set of tracked objects.  The deallocator
     (*note tp_dealloc: 51d3. handler) should call this for the object
     before any of the fields used by the *note tp_traverse: 36b.
     handler become invalid.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.8: The ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’ and
‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’ macros have been removed from the public C API.

The *note tp_traverse: 36b. handler accepts a function parameter of this
type:

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*visitproc)(*note PyObject: 19b. *object, void
          *arg)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Type of the visitor function
     passed to the *note tp_traverse: 36b. handler.  The function should
     be called with an object to traverse as 'object' and the third
     parameter to the ‘tp_traverse’ handler as 'arg'.  The Python core
     uses several visitor functions to implement cyclic garbage
     detection; it’s not expected that users will need to write their
     own visitor functions.

The *note tp_clear: 51f7. handler must be of the *note inquiry: 54f4.
type, or ‘NULL’ if the object is immutable.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*inquiry)(*note PyObject: 19b. *self)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Drop references that may have
     created reference cycles.  Immutable objects do not have to define
     this method since they can never directly create reference cycles.
     Note that the object must still be valid after calling this method
     (don’t just call *note Py_DECREF(): 975. on a reference).  The
     collector will call this method if it detects that this object is
     involved in a reference cycle.

* Menu:

* Traversal::
* Controlling the Garbage Collector State::
* Querying Garbage Collector State::


File: python.info,  Node: Traversal,  Next: Controlling the Garbage Collector State,  Up: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

7.22.5.1 Traversal
..................

The *note tp_traverse: 36b. handler must have the following type:

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*traverseproc)(*note PyObject: 19b. *self,
          *note visitproc: 5505. visit, void *arg)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Traversal function for a
     garbage-collected object, used by the garbage collector to detect
     reference cycles.  Implementations must call the 'visit' function
     for each object directly contained by 'self', with the parameters
     to 'visit' being the contained object and the 'arg' value passed to
     the handler.  The 'visit' function must not be called with a ‘NULL’
     object argument.  If 'visit' returns a non-zero value, that value
     should be returned immediately.

     A typical ‘tp_traverse’ function calls the *note Py_VISIT(): 51ee.
     convenience macro on each of the instance’s members that are Python
     objects that the instance owns.  For example, this is a (slightly
     outdated) traversal function for the *note threading.local: 1a87.
     class:

          static int
          local_traverse(PyObject *op, visitproc visit, void *arg)
          {
              localobject *self = (localobject *) op;
              Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
              Py_VISIT(self->args);
              Py_VISIT(self->kw);
              Py_VISIT(self->dict);
              return 0;
          }

          Σημείωση: *note Py_VISIT(): 51ee. requires the 'visit' and
          'arg' parameters to ‘local_traverse()’ to have these specific
          names; don’t name them just anything.

     Instances of *note heap-allocated types: d2f. hold a reference to
     their type.  Their traversal function must therefore visit the
     type:

          Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));

     Alternately, the type may delegate this responsibility by calling
     ‘tp_traverse’ of a heap-allocated superclass (or another
     heap-allocated type, if applicable).  If they do not, the type
     object may not be garbage-collected.

     If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 39c. bit is set in the *note
     tp_flags: 1e68. field, the traverse function must call *note
     PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 803. like this:

          int err = PyObject_VisitManagedDict((PyObject*)self, visit, arg);
          if (err) {
              return err;
          }

     Only the members that the instance 'owns' (by having *note strong
     references: 7da. to them) must be visited.  For instance, if an
     object supports weak references via the *note tp_weaklist: 5650.
     slot, the pointer supporting the linked list (what 'tp_weaklist'
     points to) must 'not' be visited as the instance does not directly
     own the weak references to itself.

     The traversal function has a limitation:

          Προειδοποίηση: The traversal function must not have any side
          effects.  Implementations may not modify the reference counts
          of any Python objects nor create or destroy any Python
          objects, directly or indirectly.

     This means that 'most' Python C API functions may not be used,
     since they can raise a new exception, return a new reference to a
     result object, have internal logic that uses side effects.  Also,
     unless documented otherwise, functions that happen to not have side
     effects may start having them in future versions, without warning.

     For a list of safe functions, see a *note separate section: 5a01.
     below.

          Σημείωση: The *note Py_VISIT(): 51ee. call may be skipped for
          those members that provably cannot participate in reference
          cycles.  In the ‘local_traverse’ example above, there is also
          a ‘self->key’ member, but it can only be ‘NULL’ or a Python
          string and therefore cannot be part of a reference cycle.

          On the other hand, even if you know a member can never be part
          of a cycle, as a debugging aid you may want to visit it anyway
          just so the *note gc: 63. module’s *note get_referents(): bdf.
          function will include it.

          Σημείωση: The *note tp_traverse: 36b. function can be called
          from any thread.

          'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Garbage collection is a
          «stop-the-world» operation: even in *note free threading: 487.
          builds, only one thread state is *note attached: 1a1. when
          ‘tp_traverse’ handlers run.

     Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: Heap-allocated types are expected to visit
     ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ in ‘tp_traverse’.  In earlier versions of Python,
     due to bug 40217(1), doing this may lead to crashes in subclasses.

To simplify writing *note tp_traverse: 36b. handlers, a *note
Py_VISIT(): 51ee. macro is provided.  In order to use this macro, the
‘tp_traverse’ implementation must name its arguments exactly 'visit' and
'arg':

 -- C Μακροεντολή: Py_VISIT (o)

     If the *note PyObject: 19b.* 'o' is not ‘NULL’, call the 'visit'
     callback, with arguments 'o' and 'arg'.  If 'visit' returns a
     non-zero value, then return it.

     This corresponds roughly to:

          #define Py_VISIT(o)                             \
             if (op) {                                    \
                int visit_result = visit(o, arg);         \
                if (visit_result != 0) {                  \
                   return visit_result;                   \
                }                                         \
             }

* Menu:

* Traversal-safe functions::
* «DuringGC» functions::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue40217


File: python.info,  Node: Traversal-safe functions,  Next: «DuringGC» functions,  Up: Traversal

7.22.5.2 Traversal-safe functions
.................................

The following functions and macros are safe to use in a *note
tp_traverse: 36b. handler:

   * the 'visit' function passed to ‘tp_traverse’

   * *note Py_VISIT(): 51ee.

   * *note Py_SIZE(): b61.

   * *note Py_TYPE(): 5f5.: if called from a ‘tp_traverse’ handler,
     ‘Py_TYPE()’”s result will be valid for the duration of the handler
     call

   * *note PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 803.

   * *note PyObject_TypeCheck(): 1eab, *note PyType_IsSubtype(): 541a,
     *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1f30.

   * ‘Py<TYPE>_Check’ and ‘Py<TYPE>_CheckExact’ – for example, *note
     PyTuple_Check(): 56ef.

   * *note «DuringGC» functions: 5a01.


File: python.info,  Node: «DuringGC» functions,  Prev: Traversal-safe functions,  Up: Traversal

7.22.5.3 «DuringGC» functions
.............................

The following functions should 'only' be used in a *note tp_traverse:
36b. handler; calling them in other contexts may have unintended
consequences.

These functions act like their counterparts without the ‘_DuringGC’
suffix, but they are guaranteed to not have side effects, they do not
set an exception on failure, and they return/set *note borrowed
references: 603. as detailed in the individual documentation.

Note that these functions may fail (return ‘NULL’ or ‘-1’), but as they
do not set an exception, no error information is available.  In some
cases, failure is not distinguishable from a successful ‘NULL’ result.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyObject_GetTypeData_DuringGC (PyObject *o,
          PyTypeObject *cls)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyObject_GetItemData_DuringGC (PyObject *o)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyType_GetModuleState_DuringGC (PyTypeObject
          *type)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: void *PyModule_GetState_DuringGC (PyObject *module)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyModule_GetToken_DuringGC (PyObject *module, void
          **result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  See
     *note «DuringGC» functions: 5a01. for common information.

     Added in version 3.15.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 19a, *note PyObject_GetItemData():
     957, *note PyType_GetModuleState(): d38, *note PyModule_GetState():
     d48, *note PyModule_GetToken(): 5397, *note
     PyType_GetBaseByToken(): 5dd.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyType_GetBaseByToken_DuringGC (PyTypeObject *type,
          void *tp_token, PyTypeObject **result)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  See
     *note «DuringGC» functions: 5a01. for common information.

     Sets '*result' to a *note borrowed reference: 603. rather than a
     strong one.  The reference is valid for the duration of the
     ‘tp_traverse’ handler call.

     Added in version 3.15.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note PyType_GetBaseByToken(): 5dd.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_GetModule_DuringGC
          (PyTypeObject *type)
 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note PyObject: 19b. *PyType_GetModuleByToken_DuringGC
          (PyTypeObject *type, const void *mod_token)
     'Επιστρεφόμενη τιμή: Borrowed reference.''  Μέρος του *note Σταθερό
     ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.15.'  See *note «DuringGC» functions:
     5a01. for common information.

     These functions return a *note borrowed reference: 603, which is
     valid for the duration of the ‘tp_traverse’ handler call.

     Added in version 3.15.

     Δείτε επίσης
     ............

     *note PyType_GetModule(): d37, *note PyType_GetModuleByToken():
     5419.


File: python.info,  Node: Controlling the Garbage Collector State,  Next: Querying Garbage Collector State,  Prev: Traversal,  Up: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

7.22.5.4 Controlling the Garbage Collector State
................................................

The C-API provides the following functions for controlling garbage
collection runs.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: *note Py_ssize_t: e24. PyGC_Collect (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c.'  Perform a full garbage
     collection, if the garbage collector is enabled.  (Note that *note
     gc.collect(): 44f. runs it unconditionally.)

     Returns the number of collected + unreachable objects which cannot
     be collected.  If the garbage collector is disabled or already
     collecting, returns ‘0’ immediately.  Errors during garbage
     collection are passed to *note sys.unraisablehook: 70c.  This
     function does not raise exceptions.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyGC_Enable (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Enable
     the garbage collector: similar to *note gc.enable(): 4ceb.  Returns
     the previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyGC_Disable (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Disable
     the garbage collector: similar to *note gc.disable(): 4cec.
     Returns the previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled.

     Added in version 3.10.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyGC_IsEnabled (void)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.10.'  Query
     the state of the garbage collector: similar to *note
     gc.isenabled(): 4ced.  Returns the current state, 0 for disabled
     and 1 for enabled.

     Added in version 3.10.


File: python.info,  Node: Querying Garbage Collector State,  Prev: Controlling the Garbage Collector State,  Up: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection

7.22.5.5 Querying Garbage Collector State
.........................................

The C-API provides the following interface for querying information
about the garbage collector.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects (gcvisitobjects_t
          callback, void *arg)

          Αυτό είναι Ασταθές API. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις. 'Αυτό είναι *note Ασταθές API: 954. Μπορεί να αλλάξει χωρίς προειδοποίηση σε μικρές εκδόσεις.': 
     Run supplied 'callback' on all live GC-capable objects.  'arg' is
     passed through to all invocations of 'callback'.

          Προειδοποίηση: If new objects are (de)allocated by the
          callback it is undefined if they will be visited.

          Garbage collection is disabled during operation.  Explicitly
          running a collection in the callback may lead to undefined
          behaviour e.g.  visiting the same objects multiple times or
          not at all.

     Added in version 3.12.

 -- C Τύπος: typedef int (*gcvisitobjects_t)(*note PyObject: 19b.
          *object, void *arg)

     Type of the visitor function to be passed to *note
     PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects(): 5a06.  'arg' is the same as the 'arg'
     passed to ‘PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects’.  Return ‘1’ to continue
     iteration, return ‘0’ to stop iteration.  Other return values are
     reserved for now so behavior on returning anything else is
     undefined.

     Added in version 3.12.


File: python.info,  Node: API and ABI Versioning,  Next: Monitoring C API,  Prev: Object Implementation Support,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.23 API and ABI Versioning
===========================

* Menu:

* Build-time version constants::
* Run-time version::
* Bit-packing macros::


File: python.info,  Node: Build-time version constants,  Next: Run-time version,  Up: API and ABI Versioning

7.23.1 Build-time version constants
-----------------------------------

CPython exposes its version number in the following macros.  Note that
these correspond to the version code is 'built' with.  See *note
Py_Version: 5ae. for the version used at 'run time'.

See *note C API and ABI Stability: 95c. for a discussion of API and ABI
stability across versions.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MAJOR_VERSION

     The ‘3’ in ‘3.4.1a2’.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MINOR_VERSION

     The ‘4’ in ‘3.4.1a2’.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MICRO_VERSION

     The ‘1’ in ‘3.4.1a2’.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_RELEASE_LEVEL

     The ‘a’ in ‘3.4.1a2’.  This can be ‘0xA’ for alpha, ‘0xB’ for beta,
     ‘0xC’ for release candidate or ‘0xF’ for final.

     For completeness, the values are available as macros:
     ‘PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_ALPHA’ (‘0xA’), ‘PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_BETA’ (‘0xB’),
     ‘PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_GAMMA’ (‘0xC’), and ‘PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_FINAL’
     (‘0xF’).

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_RELEASE_SERIAL

     The ‘2’ in ‘3.4.1a2’.  Zero for final releases.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_VERSION_HEX

     The Python version number encoded in a single integer.  See *note
     Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION(): 5ad. for the encoding details.

     Use this for numeric comparisons, for example, ‘#if PY_VERSION_HEX
     >= ...’.

 -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_VERSION

     The Python version as a string, for example, ‘"3.4.1a2"’.

These macros are defined in Include/patchlevel.h(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Include/patchlevel.h


File: python.info,  Node: Run-time version,  Next: Bit-packing macros,  Prev: Build-time version constants,  Up: API and ABI Versioning

7.23.2 Run-time version
-----------------------

 -- C Μεταβλητή: const unsigned long Py_Version
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.11.'  The
     Python runtime version number encoded in a single constant integer.
     See *note Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION(): 5ad. for the encoding details.
     This contains the Python version used at run time.

     Use this for numeric comparisons, for example, ‘if (Py_Version >=
     ...)’.

     Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Bit-packing macros,  Prev: Run-time version,  Up: API and ABI Versioning

7.23.3 Bit-packing macros
-------------------------

 -- C Συνάρτηση: uint32_t Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION (int major, int minor,
          int micro, int release_level, int release_serial)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'  Return
     the given version, encoded as a single 32-bit integer with the
     following structure:

     Argument               No.  of     Bit mask             Bit shift       Example values
                            bits                                             
                            
     -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                            
     ‘3.4.1a2’              ‘3.10.0’
                            
                                                                                               
     'major'                8           ‘0xFF000000’         24              ‘0x03’            ‘0x03’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
     'minor'                8           ‘0x00FF0000’         16              ‘0x04’            ‘0x0A’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
     'micro'                8           ‘0x0000FF00’         8               ‘0x01’            ‘0x00’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
     'release_level'        4           ‘0x000000F0’         4               ‘0xA’             ‘0xF’
                                                                                               
                                                                                               
     'release_serial'       4           ‘0x0000000F’         0               ‘0x2’             ‘0x0’
                                                                                               

     For example:

     Version           ‘Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION’ arguments         Encoded version
                                                                
     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                
     ‘3.4.1a2’         ‘(3, 4, 1, 0xA, 2)’                      ‘0x030401a2’
                                                                
                                                                
     ‘3.10.0’          ‘(3, 10, 0, 0xF, 0)’                     ‘0x030a00f0’
                                                                

     Out-of range bits in the arguments are ignored.  That is, the macro
     can be defined as:

          #ifndef Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION
          #define Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION(X, Y, Z, LEVEL, SERIAL) ( \
             (((X) & 0xff) << 24) |                              \
             (((Y) & 0xff) << 16) |                              \
             (((Z) & 0xff) << 8) |                               \
             (((LEVEL) & 0xf) << 4) |                            \
             (((SERIAL) & 0xf) << 0))
          #endif

     ‘Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION’ is primarily a macro, intended for use in
     ‘#if’ directives, but it is also available as an exported function.

     Added in version 3.14.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: uint32_t Py_PACK_VERSION (int major, int minor)
     ' Μέρος του *note Σταθερό ABI: 95c. από την έκδοση 3.14.'
     Equivalent to ‘Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION(major, minor, 0, 0, 0)’.  The
     result does not correspond to any Python release, but is useful in
     numeric comparisons.

     Added in version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Monitoring C API,  Next: Generating Execution Events,  Prev: API and ABI Versioning,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.24 Monitoring C API
=====================

Added in version 3.13.

An extension may need to interact with the event monitoring system.
Subscribing to events and registering callbacks can be done via the
Python API exposed in *note sys.monitoring: e3.


File: python.info,  Node: Generating Execution Events,  Prev: Monitoring C API,  Up: Python/C API reference manual

7.25 Generating Execution Events
================================

The functions below make it possible for an extension to fire monitoring
events as it emulates the execution of Python code.  Each of these
functions accepts a ‘PyMonitoringState’ struct which contains concise
information about the activation state of events, as well as the event
arguments, which include a ‘PyObject*’ representing the code object, the
instruction offset and sometimes additional, event-specific arguments
(see *note sys.monitoring: e3. for details about the signatures of the
different event callbacks).  The ‘codelike’ argument should be an
instance of *note types.CodeType: 2e1. or of a type that emulates it.

The VM disables tracing when firing an event, so there is no need for
user code to do that.

Monitoring functions should not be called with an exception set, except
those listed below as working with the current exception.

 -- C Τύπος: type PyMonitoringState

     Representation of the state of an event type.  It is allocated by
     the user while its contents are maintained by the monitoring API
     functions described below.

All of the functions below return 0 on success and -1 (with an exception
set) on error.

See *note sys.monitoring: e3. for descriptions of the events.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘PY_START’ event.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘PY_RESUME’ event.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval)

     Fire a ‘PY_RETURN’ event.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval)

     Fire a ‘PY_YIELD’ event.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject
          *callable, PyObject *arg0)

     Fire a ‘CALL’ event.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, int lineno)

     Fire a ‘LINE’ event.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject
          *target_offset)

     Fire a ‘JUMP’ event.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FireBranchLeftEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject
          *target_offset)

     Fire a ‘BRANCH_LEFT’ event.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FireBranchRightEvent
          (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset,
          PyObject *target_offset)

     Fire a ‘BRANCH_RIGHT’ event.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval)

     Fire a ‘C_RETURN’ event.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘PY_THROW’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c.).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘RAISE’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c.).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘C_RAISE’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c.).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘RERAISE’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c.).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent
          (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire an ‘EXCEPTION_HANDLED’ event with the current exception (as
     returned by *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c.).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent (PyMonitoringState
          *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset)

     Fire a ‘PY_UNWIND’ event with the current exception (as returned by
     *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c.).

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent
          (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset,
          PyObject *value)

     Fire a ‘STOP_ITERATION’ event.  If ‘value’ is an instance of *note
     StopIteration: fba, it is used.  Otherwise, a new ‘StopIteration’
     instance is created with ‘value’ as its argument.

* Menu:

* Managing the Monitoring State::


File: python.info,  Node: Managing the Monitoring State,  Up: Generating Execution Events

7.25.1 Managing the Monitoring State
------------------------------------

Monitoring states can be managed with the help of monitoring scopes.  A
scope would typically correspond to a Python function.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_EnterScope (PyMonitoringState
          *state_array, uint64_t *version, const uint8_t *event_types,
          Py_ssize_t length)

     Enter a monitored scope.  ‘event_types’ is an array of the event
     IDs for events that may be fired from the scope.  For example, the
     ID of a ‘PY_START’ event is the value
     ‘PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START’, which is numerically equal to the
     base-2 logarithm of ‘sys.monitoring.events.PY_START’.
     ‘state_array’ is an array with a monitoring state entry for each
     event in ‘event_types’, it is allocated by the user but populated
     by ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’ with information about the
     activation state of the event.  The size of ‘event_types’ (and
     hence also of ‘state_array’) is given in ‘length’.

     The ‘version’ argument is a pointer to a value which should be
     allocated by the user together with ‘state_array’ and initialized
     to 0, and then set only by ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’ itself.  It
     allows this function to determine whether event states have changed
     since the previous call, and to return quickly if they have not.

     The scopes referred to here are lexical scopes: a function, class
     or method.  ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’ should be called whenever
     the lexical scope is entered.  Scopes can be reentered, reusing the
     same 'state_array' and 'version', in situations like when emulating
     a recursive Python function.  When a code-like’s execution is
     paused, such as when emulating a generator, the scope needs to be
     exited and re-entered.

     The macros for 'event_types' are:

     Macro                                                  Event
                                                            
     -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH_LEFT     *note BRANCH_LEFT: 51b.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH_RIGHT    *note BRANCH_RIGHT: 51c.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_CALL            *note CALL: 1bc7.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RAISE         *note C_RAISE: 4c1e.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RETURN        *note C_RETURN: 4c1f.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή:                                     *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED: 274.
               PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED        

      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_INSTRUCTION     *note INSTRUCTION: 4c20.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_JUMP            *note JUMP: 4c21.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE            *note LINE: 4c22.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME       *note PY_RESUME: 4c23.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RETURN       *note PY_RETURN: 4c24.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START        *note PY_START: 4c25.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW        *note PY_THROW: 271.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND       *note PY_UNWIND: 272.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD        *note PY_YIELD: 4c26.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE           *note RAISE: 273.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE         *note RERAISE: 275.
                                                            
                                                            
      -- C Μακροεντολή:                                     *note STOP_ITERATION: 4c27.
               PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION           

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyMonitoring_ExitScope (void)

     Exit the last scope that was entered with
     ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’.

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT (uint8_t ev)

     Return true if the event corresponding to the event ID 'ev' is a
     *note local event: 4c2b.

     Added in version 3.13.

     *note Soft deprecated: 1a7. since version 3.14.


File: python.info,  Node: Installing Python modules,  Next: Python HOWTOs,  Prev: Python/C API reference manual,  Up: Top

8 Installing Python modules
***************************

As a popular open source development project, Python has an active
supporting community of contributors and users that also make their
software available for other Python developers to use under open-source
license terms.

This allows Python users to share and collaborate effectively,
benefiting from the solutions others have already created to common (and
sometimes even rare!)  problems, as well as potentially contributing
their own solutions to the common pool.

This guide covers the installation part of the process.  For a guide to
creating and sharing your own Python projects, refer to the Python
packaging user guide(1).

     Σημείωση: For corporate and other institutional users, be aware
     that many organisations have their own policies around using and
     contributing to open source software.  Please take such policies
     into account when making use of the distribution and installation
     tools provided with Python.

* Menu:

* Key terms::
* Basic usage: Basic usage<2>.
* How do I …?::
* Common installation issues::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/


File: python.info,  Node: Key terms,  Next: Basic usage<2>,  Up: Installing Python modules

8.1 Key terms
=============

   * ‘pip’ is the preferred installer program.  It is included by
     default with the Python binary installers.

   * A 'virtual environment' is a semi-isolated Python environment that
     allows packages to be installed for use by a particular
     application, rather than being installed system wide.

   * ‘venv’ is the standard tool for creating virtual environments.  It
     defaults to installing ‘pip’ into all created virtual environments.

   * ‘virtualenv’ is a third-party alternative (and predecessor) to
     ‘venv’.

   * The Python Package Index (PyPI)(1) is a public repository of open
     source licensed packages made available for use by other Python
     users.

   * The Python Packaging Authority(2) is the group of developers and
     documentation authors responsible for the maintenance and evolution
     of the standard packaging tools and the associated metadata and
     file format standards.  They maintain a variety of tools,
     documentation, and issue trackers on GitHub(3).

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The use of ‘venv’ is now recommended for
creating virtual environments.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments(4)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) https://www.pypa.io/

   (3) https://github.com/pypa

   (4) 
https://packaging.python.org/installing/#creating-virtual-environments


File: python.info,  Node: Basic usage<2>,  Next: How do I …?,  Prev: Key terms,  Up: Installing Python modules

8.2 Basic usage
===============

The standard packaging tools are all designed to be used from the
command line.

The following command will install the latest version of a module and
its dependencies from PyPI:

     python -m pip install SomePackage

     Σημείωση: For POSIX users (including macOS and Linux users), the
     examples in this guide assume the use of a *note virtual
     environment: 22dd.

     For Windows users, the examples in this guide assume that the
     option to adjust the system PATH environment variable was selected
     when installing Python.

It’s also possible to specify an exact or minimum version directly on
the command line.  When using comparator operators such as ‘>’, ‘<’ or
some other special character which get interpreted by shell, the package
name and the version should be enclosed within double quotes:

     python -m pip install SomePackage==1.0.4    # specific version
     python -m pip install "SomePackage>=1.0.4"  # minimum version

Normally, if a suitable module is already installed, attempting to
install it again will have no effect.  Upgrading existing modules must
be requested explicitly:

     python -m pip install --upgrade SomePackage

More information and resources regarding ‘pip’ and its capabilities can
be found in the Python Packaging User Guide(1).

Creation of virtual environments is done through the *note venv: 11a.
module.  Installing packages into an active virtual environment uses the
commands shown above.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Python Packaging User Guide: Installing Python Distribution Packages(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/installing/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I …?,  Next: Common installation issues,  Prev: Basic usage<2>,  Up: Installing Python modules

8.3 How do I …?
===============

These are quick answers or links for some common tasks.

* Menu:

* … install packages just for the current user?::
* … install scientific Python packages?::
* … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?::


File: python.info,  Node: … install packages just for the current user?,  Next: … install scientific Python packages?,  Up: How do I …?

8.3.1 … install packages just for the current user?
---------------------------------------------------

Passing the ‘--user’ option to ‘python -m pip install’ will install a
package just for the current user, rather than for all users of the
system.


File: python.info,  Node: … install scientific Python packages?,  Next: … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?,  Prev: … install packages just for the current user?,  Up: How do I …?

8.3.2 … install scientific Python packages?
-------------------------------------------

A number of scientific Python packages have complex binary dependencies,
and aren’t currently easy to install using ‘pip’ directly.  It will
often be easier for users to install these packages by other means(1)
rather than attempting to install them with ‘pip’.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Python Packaging User Guide: Installing Scientific Packages(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org/science/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/science/


File: python.info,  Node: … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?,  Prev: … install scientific Python packages?,  Up: How do I …?

8.3.3 … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?
--------------------------------------------------------------------

On Linux, macOS, and other POSIX systems, use the versioned Python
commands in combination with the ‘-m’ switch to run the appropriate copy
of ‘pip’:

     python3    -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
     python3.14 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.14

Appropriately versioned ‘pip’ commands may also be available.

On Windows, use the ‘py’ Python launcher in combination with the ‘-m’
switch:

     py -3    -m pip install SomePackage  # default Python 3
     py -3.14 -m pip install SomePackage  # specifically Python 3.14


File: python.info,  Node: Common installation issues,  Prev: How do I …?,  Up: Installing Python modules

8.4 Common installation issues
==============================

* Menu:

* Installing into the system Python on Linux::
* Pip not installed::
* Installing binary extensions::


File: python.info,  Node: Installing into the system Python on Linux,  Next: Pip not installed,  Up: Common installation issues

8.4.1 Installing into the system Python on Linux
------------------------------------------------

On Linux systems, a Python installation will typically be included as
part of the distribution.  Installing into this Python installation
requires root access to the system, and may interfere with the operation
of the system package manager and other components of the system if a
component is unexpectedly upgraded using ‘pip’.

On such systems, it is often better to use a virtual environment or a
per-user installation when installing packages with ‘pip’.


File: python.info,  Node: Pip not installed,  Next: Installing binary extensions,  Prev: Installing into the system Python on Linux,  Up: Common installation issues

8.4.2 Pip not installed
-----------------------

It is possible that ‘pip’ does not get installed by default.  One
potential fix is:

     python -m ensurepip --default-pip

There are also additional resources for installing pip(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/#ensure-pip-setuptools-and-wheel-are-up-to-date


File: python.info,  Node: Installing binary extensions,  Prev: Pip not installed,  Up: Common installation issues

8.4.3 Installing binary extensions
----------------------------------

Python once relied heavily on source-based distribution, with end users
being expected to compile extension modules from source as part of the
installation process.

With the introduction of the binary wheel format, and the ability to
publish wheels through PyPI, this problem is diminishing, as users are
more regularly able to install pre-built extensions rather than needing
to build them themselves.

Some of the solutions for installing scientific software(1) that are not
yet available as pre-built wheel files may also help with obtaining
other binary extensions without needing to build them locally.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions(2)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://packaging.python.org/science/

   (2) https://packaging.python.org/extensions/


File: python.info,  Node: Python HOWTOs,  Next: Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python,  Prev: Installing Python modules,  Up: Top

9 Python HOWTOs
***************

Τα HOWTOs της Python είναι έγγραφα που καλύπτουν ένα συγκεκριμένο θέμα
σε βάθος.  Με πρότυπο τη συλλογή HOWTO του Linux Documentation Project,
αυτή η συλλογή είναι μια προσπάθεια να προωθηθεί η τεκμηρίωση που είναι
πιο λεπτομερής από την Αναφορά της Βιβλιοθήκης Python.

* Menu:

* A conceptual overview of asyncio::
* Porting Extension Modules to Python 3::
* Curses Programming with Python::
* Descriptor Guide::
* Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB::
* Enum HOWTO::
* Functional Programming HOWTO::
* Logging HOWTO::
* Logging Cookbook::
* Regular expression HOWTO::
* Socket Programming HOWTO::
* Sorting Techniques::
* Unicode HOWTO::
* HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package::
* An introduction to the ipaddress module::
* Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap::
* Python support for the perf map compatible profilers::
* Annotations Best Practices::
* Isolating Extension Modules::
* timer file descriptor HOWTO::
* The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order.
* Python support for free threading::
* C API Extension Support for Free Threading::
* Remote debugging attachment protocol::
* Permission requirements::
* Locating the PyRuntime structure::
* Reading _Py_DebugOffsets::
* Locating the interpreter and thread state::
* Writing control information::
* Summary::
* Security and threat model::


File: python.info,  Node: A conceptual overview of asyncio,  Next: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.1 A conceptual overview of ‘asyncio’
======================================

This *note HOWTO: 5a3e. article seeks to help you build a sturdy mental
model of how *note asyncio: b. fundamentally works, helping you
understand the how and why behind the recommended patterns.

You might be curious about some key ‘asyncio’ concepts.  By the end of
this article, you’ll be able to comfortably answer these questions:

   - What’s happening behind the scenes when an object is awaited?

   - How does ‘asyncio’ differentiate between a task which doesn’t need
     CPU time (such as a network request or file read) as opposed to a
     task that does (such as computing n-factorial)?

   - How to write an asynchronous variant of an operation, such as an
     async sleep or database request.

Δείτε επίσης
............

   * The guide(1) that inspired this HOWTO article, by Alexander Nordin.

   * This in-depth YouTube tutorial series(2) on ‘asyncio’ created by
     Python core team member, Łukasz Langa.

   * 500 Lines or Less: A Web Crawler With asyncio Coroutines(3) by A.
     Jesse Jiryu Davis and Guido van Rossum.

* Menu:

* A conceptual overview part 1; the high-level: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level.
* A conceptual overview part 2; the nuts and bolts: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/anordin95/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio/tree/main

   (2) 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xbl7XjFYsN4&list=PLhNSoGM2ik6SIkVGXWBwerucXjgP1rHmB

   (3) 
https://aosabook.org/en/500L/a-web-crawler-with-asyncio-coroutines.html


File: python.info,  Node: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level,  Next: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts,  Up: A conceptual overview of asyncio

9.1.1 A conceptual overview part 1: the high-level
--------------------------------------------------

In part 1, we’ll cover the main, high-level building blocks of
‘asyncio’: the event loop, coroutine functions, coroutine objects,
tasks, and ‘await’.

* Menu:

* Event loop: Event loop<2>.
* Asynchronous functions and coroutines::
* Tasks: Tasks<2>.
* await::


File: python.info,  Node: Event loop<2>,  Next: Asynchronous functions and coroutines,  Up: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level

9.1.1.1 Event loop
..................

Everything in ‘asyncio’ happens relative to the event loop.  It’s the
star of the show, but prefers to work behind the scenes, managing and
coordinating resources.  It’s like an orchestra conductor.  Some power
is explicitly granted to it, but a lot of its ability to get things done
comes from the respect and cooperation of its band members.

In more technical terms, the event loop contains a collection of jobs to
be run.  Some jobs are added directly by you, and some indirectly by
‘asyncio’.  The event loop takes a job from its backlog of work and
invokes it (or «gives it control»), similar to calling a function, and
then that job runs.  Once it pauses or completes, it returns control to
the event loop.  The event loop will then select another job from its
pool and invoke it.  You can 'roughly' think of the collection of jobs
as a queue: jobs are added and then processed one at a time, generally
(but not always) in order.  This process repeats indefinitely, with the
event loop cycling endlessly onwards.  If there are no more jobs pending
execution, the event loop is smart enough to rest and avoid needlessly
wasting CPU cycles, and will come back when there’s more work to be
done, such as when I/O operations complete or timers expire.

Effective execution relies on jobs sharing well and cooperating; a
greedy job could hog control and leave the other jobs to starve,
rendering the overall event loop approach rather useless.

     import asyncio

     # This creates an event loop and indefinitely cycles through
     # its collection of jobs.
     event_loop = asyncio.new_event_loop()
     event_loop.run_forever()


File: python.info,  Node: Asynchronous functions and coroutines,  Next: Tasks<2>,  Prev: Event loop<2>,  Up: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level

9.1.1.2 Asynchronous functions and coroutines
.............................................

This is a basic, boring Python function:

     def hello_printer():
         print(
             "Hi, I am a lowly, simple printer, though I have all I "
             "need in life -- \nfresh paper and my dearly beloved octopus "
             "partner in crime."
         )

Calling a regular function invokes its logic or body:

     >>> hello_printer()
     Hi, I am a lowly, simple printer, though I have all I need in life --
     fresh paper and my dearly beloved octopus partner in crime.

The *note async def: 9cf, as opposed to just a plain ‘def’, makes this
an asynchronous function (or «coroutine function»).  Calling it creates
and returns a *note coroutine: 39fe. object.

     async def loudmouth_penguin(magic_number: int):
         print(
          "I am a super special talking penguin. Far cooler than that printer. "
          f"By the way, my lucky number is: {magic_number}."
         )

Calling the async function, ‘loudmouth_penguin’, does not execute the
print statement; instead, it creates a coroutine object:

     >>> loudmouth_penguin(magic_number=3)
     <coroutine object loudmouth_penguin at 0x104ed2740>

The terms «coroutine function» and «coroutine object» are often
conflated as coroutine.  That can be confusing!  In this article,
coroutine specifically refers to a coroutine object, or more precisely,
an instance of *note types.CoroutineType: 123a. (native coroutine).
Note that coroutines can also exist as instances of *note
collections.abc.Coroutine: 1195. – a distinction that matters for type
checking.

A coroutine represents the function’s body or logic.  A coroutine has to
be explicitly started; again, merely creating the coroutine does not
start it.  Notably, the coroutine can be paused and resumed at various
points within the function’s body.  That pausing and resuming ability is
what allows for asynchronous behavior!

Coroutines and coroutine functions were built by leveraging the
functionality of *note generators: f9e. and *note generator functions:
1409.  Recall, a generator function is a function that *note yield:
d93.s, like this one:

     def get_random_number():
         # This would be a bad random number generator!
         print("Hi")
         yield 1
         print("Hello")
         yield 7
         print("Howdy")
         yield 4
         ...

Similar to a coroutine function, calling a generator function does not
run it.  Instead, it creates a generator object:

     >>> get_random_number()
     <generator object get_random_number at 0x1048671c0>

You can proceed to the next ‘yield’ of a generator by using the built-in
function *note next(): bb5.  In other words, the generator runs, then
pauses.  For example:

     >>> generator = get_random_number()
     >>> next(generator)
     Hi
     1
     >>> next(generator)
     Hello
     7


File: python.info,  Node: Tasks<2>,  Next: await,  Prev: Asynchronous functions and coroutines,  Up: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level

9.1.1.3 Tasks
.............

Roughly speaking, *note tasks: 3a2e. are coroutines (not coroutine
functions) tied to an event loop.  A task also maintains a list of
callback functions whose importance will become clear in a moment when
we discuss *note await: 432.

Creating a task automatically schedules it for execution (by adding a
callback to run it in the event loop’s to-do list, that is, collection
of jobs).  The recommended way to create tasks is via *note
asyncio.create_task(): 462.

‘asyncio’ automatically associates tasks with the event loop for you.
This automatic association was purposely designed into ‘asyncio’ for the
sake of simplicity.  Without it, you’d have to keep track of the event
loop object and pass it to any coroutine function that wants to create
tasks, adding redundant clutter to your code.

     coroutine = loudmouth_penguin(magic_number=5)
     # This creates a Task object and schedules its execution via the event loop.
     task = asyncio.create_task(coroutine)

Earlier, we manually created the event loop and set it to run forever.
In practice, it’s recommended to use (and common to see) *note
asyncio.run(): 309, which takes care of managing the event loop and
ensuring the provided coroutine finishes before advancing.  For example,
many async programs follow this setup:

     import asyncio

     async def main():
         # Perform all sorts of wacky, wild asynchronous things...
         ...

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         asyncio.run(main())
         # The program will not reach the following print statement until the
         # coroutine main() finishes.
         print("coroutine main() is done!")

It’s important to be aware that the task itself is not added to the
event loop, only a callback to the task is.  This matters if the task
object you created is garbage collected before it’s called by the event
loop.  For example, consider this program:

     async def hello():
         print("hello!")

     async def main():
         asyncio.create_task(hello())
         # Other asynchronous instructions which run for a while
         # and cede control to the event loop...
         ...

     asyncio.run(main())

Because there’s no reference to the task object created on line 5, it
'might' be garbage collected before the event loop invokes it.  Later
instructions in the coroutine ‘main()’ hand control back to the event
loop so it can invoke other jobs.  When the event loop eventually tries
to run the task, it might fail and discover the task object does not
exist!  This can also happen even if a coroutine keeps a reference to a
task but completes before that task finishes.  When the coroutine exits,
local variables go out of scope and may be subject to garbage
collection.  In practice, ‘asyncio’ and Python’s garbage collector work
pretty hard to ensure this sort of thing doesn’t happen.  But that’s no
reason to be reckless!


File: python.info,  Node: await,  Prev: Tasks<2>,  Up: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level

9.1.1.4 await
.............

*note await: 432. is a Python keyword that’s commonly used in one of two
different ways:

     await task
     await coroutine

In a crucial way, the behavior of ‘await’ depends on the type of object
being awaited.

* Menu:

* Awaiting tasks::
* Awaiting coroutines::


File: python.info,  Node: Awaiting tasks,  Next: Awaiting coroutines,  Up: await

9.1.1.5 Awaiting tasks
......................

Awaiting a task will cede control from the current task or coroutine to
the event loop.  In the process of relinquishing control, a few
important things happen.  We’ll use the following code example to
illustrate:

     async def plant_a_tree():
         dig_the_hole_task = asyncio.create_task(dig_the_hole())
         await dig_the_hole_task

         # Other instructions associated with planting a tree.
         ...

In this example, imagine the event loop has passed control to the start
of the coroutine ‘plant_a_tree()’.  As seen above, the coroutine creates
a task and then awaits it.  The ‘await dig_the_hole_task’ instruction
adds a callback (which will resume ‘plant_a_tree()’) to the
‘dig_the_hole_task’ object’s list of callbacks.  And then, the
instruction cedes control to the event loop.  Some time later, the event
loop will pass control to ‘dig_the_hole_task’ and the task will finish
whatever it needs to do.  Once the task finishes, it will add its
various callbacks to the event loop, in this case, a call to resume
‘plant_a_tree()’.

Generally speaking, when the awaited task finishes
(‘dig_the_hole_task’), the original task or coroutine (‘plant_a_tree()’)
is added back to the event loop’s to-do list to be resumed.

This is a basic, yet reliable mental model.  In practice, the control
handoffs are slightly more complex, but not by much.  In part 2, we’ll
walk through the details that make this possible.


File: python.info,  Node: Awaiting coroutines,  Prev: Awaiting tasks,  Up: await

9.1.1.6 Awaiting coroutines
...........................

'Unlike tasks, awaiting a coroutine does not hand control back to the
event loop!'  Wrapping a coroutine in a task first, then awaiting that
would cede control.  The behavior of ‘await coroutine’ is effectively
the same as invoking a regular, synchronous Python function.  Consider
this program:

     import asyncio

     async def coro_a():
        print("I am coro_a(). Hi!")

     async def coro_b():
        print("I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop...")

     async def main():
        task_b = asyncio.create_task(coro_b())
        num_repeats = 3
        for _ in range(num_repeats):
           await coro_a()
        await task_b

     asyncio.run(main())

The first statement in the coroutine ‘main()’ creates ‘task_b’ and
schedules it for execution via the event loop.  Then, ‘coro_a()’ is
repeatedly awaited.  Control never cedes to the event loop, which is why
we see the output of all three ‘coro_a()’ invocations before
‘coro_b()’”s output:

     I am coro_a(). Hi!
     I am coro_a(). Hi!
     I am coro_a(). Hi!
     I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop...

If we change ‘await coro_a()’ to ‘await asyncio.create_task(coro_a())’,
the behavior changes.  The coroutine ‘main()’ cedes control to the event
loop with that statement.  The event loop then proceeds through its
backlog of work, calling ‘task_b’ and then the task which wraps
‘coro_a()’ before resuming the coroutine ‘main()’.

     I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop...
     I am coro_a(). Hi!
     I am coro_a(). Hi!
     I am coro_a(). Hi!

This behavior of ‘await coroutine’ can trip a lot of people up!  That
example highlights how using only ‘await coroutine’ could
unintentionally hog control from other tasks and effectively stall the
event loop.  *note asyncio.run(): 309. can help you detect such
occurrences via the ‘debug=True’ flag, which enables *note debug mode:
2328.  Among other things, it will log any coroutines that monopolize
execution for 100ms or longer.

The design intentionally trades off some conceptual clarity around usage
of ‘await’ for improved performance.  Each time a task is awaited,
control needs to be passed all the way up the call stack to the event
loop.  Then, the event loop needs to manage its internal state and work
through its processing logic to resume the next job.  That might sound
minor, but in a large program with many ‘await’s, that overhead can add
up to a non-negligible performance drag.


File: python.info,  Node: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts,  Prev: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level,  Up: A conceptual overview of asyncio

9.1.2 A conceptual overview part 2: the nuts and bolts
------------------------------------------------------

Part 2 goes into detail on the mechanisms ‘asyncio’ uses to manage
control flow.  This is where the magic happens.  You’ll come away from
this section knowing what ‘await’ does behind the scenes and how to make
your own asynchronous operators.

* Menu:

* The inner workings of coroutines::
* Futures: Futures<2>.
* A homemade asyncio.sleep: A homemade asyncio sleep.


File: python.info,  Node: The inner workings of coroutines,  Next: Futures<2>,  Up: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts

9.1.2.1 The inner workings of coroutines
........................................

‘asyncio’ leverages four components of Python to pass around control.

*note coroutine.send(arg): 260f. is the method used to start or resume a
coroutine.  If the coroutine was paused and is now being resumed, the
argument ‘arg’ will be sent in as the return value of the ‘yield’
statement which originally paused it.  If the coroutine is being used
for the first time (as opposed to being resumed), ‘arg’ must be ‘None’.

     class Rock:
         def __await__(self):
             value_sent_in = yield 7
             print(f"Rock.__await__ resuming with value: {value_sent_in}.")
             return value_sent_in

     async def main():
         print("Beginning coroutine main().")
         rock = Rock()
         print("Awaiting rock...")
         value_from_rock = await rock
         print(f"Coroutine received value: {value_from_rock} from rock.")
         return 23

     coroutine = main()
     intermediate_result = coroutine.send(None)
     print(f"Coroutine paused and returned intermediate value: {intermediate_result}.")

     print(f"Resuming coroutine and sending in value: 42.")
     try:
         coroutine.send(42)
     except StopIteration as e:
         returned_value = e.value
     print(f"Coroutine main() finished and provided value: {returned_value}.")

*note yield: 268f, as usual, pauses execution and returns control to the
caller.  In the example above, the ‘yield’, on line 3, is called by ‘...
= await rock’ on line 11.  More broadly speaking, ‘await’ calls the
*note __await__(): 112e. method of the given object.  ‘await’ also does
one more very special thing: it propagates (or «passes along») any
‘yield’s it receives up the call chain.  In this case, that’s back to
‘... = coroutine.send(None)’ on line 16.

The coroutine is resumed via the ‘coroutine.send(42)’ call on line 21.
The coroutine picks back up from where it ‘yield’ed (or paused) on line
3 and executes the remaining statements in its body.  When a coroutine
finishes, it raises a *note StopIteration: fba. exception with the
return value attached in the *note value: 260c. attribute.

That snippet produces this output:

     Beginning coroutine main().
     Awaiting rock...
     Coroutine paused and returned intermediate value: 7.
     Resuming coroutine and sending in value: 42.
     Rock.__await__ resuming with value: 42.
     Coroutine received value: 42 from rock.
     Coroutine main() finished and provided value: 23.

It’s worth pausing for a moment here and making sure you followed the
various ways that control flow and values were passed.  A lot of
important ideas were covered and it’s worth ensuring your understanding
is firm.

The only way to yield (or effectively cede control) from a coroutine is
to ‘await’ an object that ‘yield’s in its ‘__await__’ method.  That
might sound odd to you.  You might be thinking:

     1.  What about a ‘yield’ directly within the coroutine function?
     The coroutine function becomes an *note async generator function:
     2693, a different beast entirely.

     2.  What about a *note yield from: 268f. within the coroutine
     function to a (plain) generator?  That causes the error:
     ‘SyntaxError: yield from not allowed in a coroutine.’ This was
     intentionally designed for the sake of simplicity – mandating only
     one way of using coroutines.  Despite that, ‘yield from’ and
     ‘await’ effectively do the same thing.  Initially ‘yield’ was
     barred as well, but was re-accepted to allow for async generators.


File: python.info,  Node: Futures<2>,  Next: A homemade asyncio sleep,  Prev: The inner workings of coroutines,  Up: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts

9.1.2.2 Futures
...............

A *note future: 3b09. is an object meant to represent a computation’s
status and result.  The term is a nod to the idea of something still to
come or not yet happened, and the object is a way to keep an eye on that
something.

A future has a few important attributes.  One is its state, which can be
either «pending», «cancelled», or «done».  Another is its result, which
is set when the state transitions to done.  Unlike a coroutine, a future
does not represent the actual computation to be done; instead, it
represents the status and result of that computation, kind of like a
status light (red, yellow, or green) or indicator.

*note asyncio.Task: 460. subclasses *note asyncio.Future: f8b. in order
to gain these various capabilities.  The prior section said tasks store
a list of callbacks, which wasn’t entirely accurate.  It’s actually the
‘Future’ class that implements this logic, which ‘Task’ inherits.

Futures may also be used directly (not via tasks).  Tasks mark
themselves as done when their coroutine is complete.  Futures are much
more versatile and will be marked as done when you say so.  In this way,
they’re the flexible interface for you to make your own conditions for
waiting and resuming.


File: python.info,  Node: A homemade asyncio sleep,  Prev: Futures<2>,  Up: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts

9.1.2.3 A homemade asyncio.sleep
................................

We’ll go through an example of how you could leverage a future to create
your own variant of asynchronous sleep (‘async_sleep’) which mimics
*note asyncio.sleep(): e33.

This snippet registers a few tasks with the event loop and then awaits
the task created by ‘asyncio.create_task’, which wraps the
‘async_sleep(3)’ coroutine.  We want that task to finish only after
three seconds have elapsed, but without preventing other tasks from
running.

     async def other_work():
         print("I like work. Work work.")

     async def main():
         # Add a few other tasks to the event loop, so there's something
         # to do while asynchronously sleeping.
         work_tasks = [
             asyncio.create_task(other_work()),
             asyncio.create_task(other_work()),
             asyncio.create_task(other_work())
         ]
         print(
             "Beginning asynchronous sleep at time: "
             f"{datetime.datetime.now().strftime("%H:%M:%S")}."
         )
         await asyncio.create_task(async_sleep(3))
         print(
             "Done asynchronous sleep at time: "
             f"{datetime.datetime.now().strftime("%H:%M:%S")}."
         )
         # asyncio.gather effectively awaits each task in the collection.
         await asyncio.gather(*work_tasks)

Below, we use a future to enable custom control over when that task will
be marked as done.  If *note future.set_result(): 3a31. (the method
responsible for marking that future as done) is never called, then this
task will never finish.  We’ve also enlisted the help of another task,
which we’ll see in a moment, that will monitor how much time has elapsed
and, accordingly, call ‘future.set_result()’.

     async def async_sleep(seconds: float):
         future = asyncio.Future()
         time_to_wake = time.time() + seconds
         # Add the watcher-task to the event loop.
         watcher_task = asyncio.create_task(_sleep_watcher(future, time_to_wake))
         # Block until the future is marked as done.
         await future

Below, we use a rather bare ‘YieldToEventLoop()’ object to ‘yield’ from
its ‘__await__’ method, ceding control to the event loop.  This is
effectively the same as calling ‘asyncio.sleep(0)’, but this approach
offers more clarity, not to mention it’s somewhat cheating to use
‘asyncio.sleep’ when showcasing how to implement it!

As usual, the event loop cycles through its tasks, giving them control
and receiving control back when they pause or finish.  The
‘watcher_task’, which runs the coroutine ‘_sleep_watcher(...)’, will be
invoked once per full cycle of the event loop.  On each resumption,
it’ll check the time and if not enough has elapsed, then it’ll pause
once again and hand control back to the event loop.  Once enough time
has elapsed, ‘_sleep_watcher(...)’ marks the future as done and
completes by exiting its infinite ‘while’ loop.  Given this helper task
is only invoked once per cycle of the event loop, you’d be correct to
note that this asynchronous sleep will sleep 'at least' three seconds,
rather than exactly three seconds.  Note this is also true of
‘asyncio.sleep’.

     class YieldToEventLoop:
         def __await__(self):
             yield

     async def _sleep_watcher(future, time_to_wake):
         while True:
             if time.time() >= time_to_wake:
                 # This marks the future as done.
                 future.set_result(None)
                 break
             else:
                 await YieldToEventLoop()

Here is the full program’s output:

     $ python custom-async-sleep.py
     Beginning asynchronous sleep at time: 14:52:22.
     I like work. Work work.
     I like work. Work work.
     I like work. Work work.
     Done asynchronous sleep at time: 14:52:25.

You might feel this implementation of asynchronous sleep was
unnecessarily convoluted.  And, well, it was.  The example was meant to
showcase the versatility of futures with a simple example that could be
mimicked for more complex needs.  For reference, you could implement it
without futures, like so:

     async def simpler_async_sleep(seconds):
         time_to_wake = time.time() + seconds
         while True:
             if time.time() >= time_to_wake:
                 return
             else:
                 await YieldToEventLoop()

But that’s all for now.  Hopefully you’re ready to more confidently dive
into some async programming or check out advanced topics in the *note
rest of the documentation: b.


File: python.info,  Node: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3,  Next: Curses Programming with Python,  Prev: A conceptual overview of asyncio,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.2 Porting Extension Modules to Python 3
=========================================

We recommend the following resources for porting extension modules to
Python 3:

   * The Migrating C extensions(1) chapter from 'Supporting Python 3: An
     in-depth guide', a book on moving from Python 2 to Python 3 in
     general, guides the reader through porting an extension module.

   * The Porting guide(2) from the 'py3c' project provides opinionated
     suggestions with supporting code.

   * *note Recommended third party tools: 5198. offer abstractions over
     the Python’s C API. Extensions generally need to be re-written to
     use one of them, but the library then handles differences between
     various Python versions and implementations.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://python3porting.com/cextensions.html

   (2) https://py3c.readthedocs.io/en/latest/guide.html


File: python.info,  Node: Curses Programming with Python,  Next: Descriptor Guide,  Prev: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.3 Curses Programming with Python
==================================


Author: A.M. Kuchling, Eric S. Raymond


Release: 2.04

Abstract
........

This document describes how to use the *note curses: 2e. extension
module to control text-mode displays.

* Menu:

* What is curses?::
* Starting and ending a curses application::
* Windows and Pads::
* Displaying Text::
* User Input::
* For More Information::


File: python.info,  Node: What is curses?,  Next: Starting and ending a curses application,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.3.1 What is curses?
---------------------

The curses library supplies a terminal-independent screen-painting and
keyboard-handling facility for text-based terminals; such terminals
include VT100s, the Linux console, and the simulated terminal provided
by various programs.  Display terminals support various control codes to
perform common operations such as moving the cursor, scrolling the
screen, and erasing areas.  Different terminals use widely differing
codes, and often have their own minor quirks.

In a world of graphical displays, one might ask «why bother»?  It’s true
that character-cell display terminals are an obsolete technology, but
there are niches in which being able to do fancy things with them are
still valuable.  One niche is on small-footprint or embedded Unixes that
don’t run an X server.  Another is tools such as OS installers and
kernel configurators that may have to run before any graphical support
is available.

The curses library provides fairly basic functionality, providing the
programmer with an abstraction of a display containing multiple
non-overlapping windows of text.  The contents of a window can be
changed in various ways—adding text, erasing it, changing its
appearance—and the curses library will figure out what control codes
need to be sent to the terminal to produce the right output.  curses
doesn’t provide many user-interface concepts such as buttons,
checkboxes, or dialogs; if you need such features, consider a user
interface library such as Urwid(1).

The curses library was originally written for BSD Unix; the later System
V versions of Unix from AT&T added many enhancements and new functions.
BSD curses is no longer maintained, having been replaced by ncurses,
which is an open-source implementation of the AT&T interface.  If you’re
using an open-source Unix such as Linux or FreeBSD, your system almost
certainly uses ncurses.  Since most current commercial Unix versions are
based on System V code, all the functions described here will probably
be available.  The older versions of curses carried by some proprietary
Unixes may not support everything, though.

The Windows version of Python doesn’t include the *note curses: 2e.
module.  A ported version called UniCurses(2) is available.

* Menu:

* The Python curses module::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/UniCurses/


File: python.info,  Node: The Python curses module,  Up: What is curses?

9.3.1.1 The Python curses module
................................

The Python module is a fairly simple wrapper over the C functions
provided by curses; if you’re already familiar with curses programming
in C, it’s really easy to transfer that knowledge to Python.  The
biggest difference is that the Python interface makes things simpler by
merging different C functions such as ‘addstr()’, ‘mvaddstr()’, and
‘mvwaddstr()’ into a single *note addstr(): 1a27. method.  You’ll see
this covered in more detail later.

This HOWTO is an introduction to writing text-mode programs with curses
and Python.  It doesn’t attempt to be a complete guide to the curses
API; for that, see the Python library guide’s section on ncurses, and
the C manual pages for ncurses.  It will, however, give you the basic
ideas.


File: python.info,  Node: Starting and ending a curses application,  Next: Windows and Pads,  Prev: What is curses?,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.3.2 Starting and ending a curses application
----------------------------------------------

Before doing anything, curses must be initialized.  This is done by
calling the *note initscr(): 1a1b. function, which will determine the
terminal type, send any required setup codes to the terminal, and create
various internal data structures.  If successful, ‘initscr()’ returns a
window object representing the entire screen; this is usually called
‘stdscr’ after the name of the corresponding C variable.

     import curses
     stdscr = curses.initscr()

Usually curses applications turn off automatic echoing of keys to the
screen, in order to be able to read keys and only display them under
certain circumstances.  This requires calling the *note noecho(): 36f2.
function.

     curses.noecho()

Applications will also commonly need to react to keys instantly, without
requiring the Enter key to be pressed; this is called cbreak mode, as
opposed to the usual buffered input mode.

     curses.cbreak()

Terminals usually return special keys, such as the cursor keys or
navigation keys such as Page Up and Home, as a multibyte escape
sequence.  While you could write your application to expect such
sequences and process them accordingly, curses can do it for you,
returning a special value such as *note curses.KEY_LEFT: 375d.  To get
curses to do the job, you’ll have to enable keypad mode.

     stdscr.keypad(True)

Terminating a curses application is much easier than starting one.
You’ll need to call:

     curses.nocbreak()
     stdscr.keypad(False)
     curses.echo()

to reverse the curses-friendly terminal settings.  Then call the *note
endwin(): 36d0. function to restore the terminal to its original
operating mode.

     curses.endwin()

A common problem when debugging a curses application is to get your
terminal messed up when the application dies without restoring the
terminal to its previous state.  In Python this commonly happens when
your code is buggy and raises an uncaught exception.  Keys are no longer
echoed to the screen when you type them, for example, which makes using
the shell difficult.

In Python you can avoid these complications and make debugging much
easier by importing the *note curses.wrapper(): e42. function and using
it like this:

     from curses import wrapper

     def main(stdscr):
         # Clear screen
         stdscr.clear()

         # This raises ZeroDivisionError when i == 10.
         for i in range(0, 11):
             v = i-10
             stdscr.addstr(i, 0, '10 divided by {} is {}'.format(v, 10/v))

             stdscr.refresh()
             stdscr.getkey()

     wrapper(main)

The *note wrapper(): e42. function takes a callable object and does the
initializations described above, also initializing colors if color
support is present.  ‘wrapper()’ then runs your provided callable.  Once
the callable returns, ‘wrapper()’ will restore the original state of the
terminal.  The callable is called inside a *note try: ad6.…*note except:
447. that catches exceptions, restores the state of the terminal, and
then re-raises the exception.  Therefore your terminal won’t be left in
a funny state on exception and you’ll be able to read the exception’s
message and traceback.


File: python.info,  Node: Windows and Pads,  Next: Displaying Text,  Prev: Starting and ending a curses application,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.3.3 Windows and Pads
----------------------

Windows are the basic abstraction in curses.  A window object represents
a rectangular area of the screen, and supports methods to display text,
erase it, allow the user to input strings, and so forth.

The ‘stdscr’ object returned by the *note initscr(): 1a1b. function is a
window object that covers the entire screen.  Many programs may need
only this single window, but you might wish to divide the screen into
smaller windows, in order to redraw or clear them separately.  The *note
newwin(): 36f1. function creates a new window of a given size, returning
the new window object.

     begin_x = 20; begin_y = 7
     height = 5; width = 40
     win = curses.newwin(height, width, begin_y, begin_x)

Note that the coordinate system used in curses is unusual.  Coordinates
are always passed in the order 'y,x', and the top-left corner of a
window is coordinate (0,0).  This breaks the normal convention for
handling coordinates where the 'x' coordinate comes first.  This is an
unfortunate difference from most other computer applications, but it’s
been part of curses since it was first written, and it’s too late to
change things now.

Your application can determine the size of the screen by using the *note
curses.LINES: 11a4. and *note curses.COLS: 11a5. variables to obtain the
'y' and 'x' sizes.  Legal coordinates will then extend from ‘(0,0)’ to
‘(curses.LINES - 1, curses.COLS - 1)’.

When you call a method to display or erase text, the effect doesn’t
immediately show up on the display.  Instead you must call the *note
refresh(): 1a21. method of window objects to update the screen.

This is because curses was originally written with slow 300-baud
terminal connections in mind; with these terminals, minimizing the time
required to redraw the screen was very important.  Instead curses
accumulates changes to the screen and displays them in the most
efficient manner when you call ‘refresh()’.  For example, if your
program displays some text in a window and then clears the window,
there’s no need to send the original text because they’re never visible.

In practice, explicitly telling curses to redraw a window doesn’t really
complicate programming with curses much.  Most programs go into a flurry
of activity, and then pause waiting for a keypress or some other action
on the part of the user.  All you have to do is to be sure that the
screen has been redrawn before pausing to wait for user input, by first
calling ‘stdscr.refresh()’ or the ‘refresh()’ method of some other
relevant window.

A pad is a special case of a window; it can be larger than the actual
display screen, and only a portion of the pad displayed at a time.
Creating a pad requires the pad’s height and width, while refreshing a
pad requires giving the coordinates of the on-screen area where a
subsection of the pad will be displayed.

     pad = curses.newpad(100, 100)
     # These loops fill the pad with letters; addch() is
     # explained in the next section
     for y in range(0, 99):
         for x in range(0, 99):
             pad.addch(y,x, ord('a') + (x*x+y*y) % 26)

     # Displays a section of the pad in the middle of the screen.
     # (0,0) : coordinate of upper-left corner of pad area to display.
     # (5,5) : coordinate of upper-left corner of window area to be filled
     #         with pad content.
     # (20, 75) : coordinate of lower-right corner of window area to be
     #          : filled with pad content.
     pad.refresh( 0,0, 5,5, 20,75)

The ‘refresh()’ call displays a section of the pad in the rectangle
extending from coordinate (5,5) to coordinate (20,75) on the screen; the
upper left corner of the displayed section is coordinate (0,0) on the
pad.  Beyond that difference, pads are exactly like ordinary windows and
support the same methods.

If you have multiple windows and pads on screen there is a more
efficient way to update the screen and prevent annoying screen flicker
as each part of the screen gets updated.  ‘refresh()’ actually does two
things:

  1. Calls the *note noutrefresh(): 1a22. method of each window to
     update an underlying data structure representing the desired state
     of the screen.

  2. Calls the function *note doupdate(): 36cf. function to change the
     physical screen to match the desired state recorded in the data
     structure.

Instead you can call ‘noutrefresh()’ on a number of windows to update
the data structure, and then call ‘doupdate()’ to update the screen.


File: python.info,  Node: Displaying Text,  Next: User Input,  Prev: Windows and Pads,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.3.4 Displaying Text
---------------------

From a C programmer’s point of view, curses may sometimes look like a
twisty maze of functions, all subtly different.  For example, ‘addstr()’
displays a string at the current cursor location in the ‘stdscr’ window,
while ‘mvaddstr()’ moves to a given y,x coordinate first before
displaying the string.  ‘waddstr()’ is just like ‘addstr()’, but allows
specifying a window to use instead of using ‘stdscr’ by default.
‘mvwaddstr()’ allows specifying both a window and a coordinate.

Fortunately the Python interface hides all these details.  ‘stdscr’ is a
window object like any other, and methods such as *note addstr(): 1a27.
accept multiple argument forms.  Usually there are four different forms.

Form                                  Description
                                      
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
'str' or 'ch'                         Display the string 'str' or character 'ch' at the
                                      current position
                                      
                                      
'str' or 'ch', 'attr'                 Display the string 'str' or character 'ch', using
                                      attribute 'attr' at the current position
                                      
                                      
'y', 'x', 'str' or 'ch'               Move to position 'y,x' within the window, and
                                      display 'str' or 'ch'
                                      
                                      
'y', 'x', 'str' or 'ch', 'attr'       Move to position 'y,x' within the window, and
                                      display 'str' or 'ch', using attribute 'attr'
                                      

Attributes allow displaying text in highlighted forms such as boldface,
underline, reverse code, or in color.  They’ll be explained in more
detail in the next subsection.

The *note addstr(): 1a27. method takes a Python string or bytestring as
the value to be displayed.  The contents of bytestrings are sent to the
terminal as-is.  Strings are encoded to bytes using the value of the
window’s *note encoding: 1443. attribute; this defaults to the default
system encoding as returned by *note locale.getencoding(): a45.

The *note addch(): 1a25. methods take a character, which can be either a
string of length 1, a bytestring of length 1, or an integer.

Constants are provided for extension characters; these constants are
integers greater than 255.  For example, *note ACS_PLMINUS: 37ca. is a
+/- symbol, and *note ACS_ULCORNER: 370f. is the upper left corner of a
box (handy for drawing borders).  You can also use the appropriate
Unicode character.

Windows remember where the cursor was left after the last operation, so
if you leave out the 'y,x' coordinates, the string or character will be
displayed wherever the last operation left off.  You can also move the
cursor with the ‘move(y,x)’ method.  Because some terminals always
display a flashing cursor, you may want to ensure that the cursor is
positioned in some location where it won’t be distracting; it can be
confusing to have the cursor blinking at some apparently random
location.

If your application doesn’t need a blinking cursor at all, you can call
‘curs_set(False)’ to make it invisible.  For compatibility with older
curses versions, there’s a ‘leaveok(bool)’ function that’s a synonym for
*note curs_set(): 36c9.  When 'bool' is true, the curses library will
attempt to suppress the flashing cursor, and you won’t need to worry
about leaving it in odd locations.

* Menu:

* Attributes and Color::


File: python.info,  Node: Attributes and Color,  Up: Displaying Text

9.3.4.1 Attributes and Color
............................

Characters can be displayed in different ways.  Status lines in a
text-based application are commonly shown in reverse video, or a text
viewer may need to highlight certain words.  curses supports this by
allowing you to specify an attribute for each cell on the screen.

An attribute is an integer, each bit representing a different attribute.
You can try to display text with multiple attribute bits set, but curses
doesn’t guarantee that all the possible combinations are available, or
that they’re all visually distinct.  That depends on the ability of the
terminal being used, so it’s safest to stick to the most commonly
available attributes, listed here.

Attribute                  Description
                           
----------------------------------------------------------------------
                           
*note A_BLINK: 3749.       Blinking text
                           
                           
*note A_BOLD: 374a.        Extra bright or bold text
                           
                           
*note A_DIM: 374b.         Half bright text
                           
                           
*note A_REVERSE: 36c7.     Reverse-video text
                           
                           
*note A_STANDOUT: 36c6.    The best highlighting mode available
                           
                           
*note A_UNDERLINE: 374f.   Underlined text
                           

So, to display a reverse-video status line on the top line of the
screen, you could code:

     stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Current mode: Typing mode",
                   curses.A_REVERSE)
     stdscr.refresh()

The curses library also supports color on those terminals that provide
it.  The most common such terminal is probably the Linux console,
followed by color xterms.

To use color, you must call the *note start_color(): 36fc. function soon
after calling *note initscr(): 1a1b, to initialize the default color set
(the *note curses.wrapper(): e42. function does this automatically).
Once that’s done, the *note has_colors(): 36e3. function returns TRUE if
the terminal in use can actually display color.  (Note: curses uses the
American spelling “color”, instead of the Canadian/British spelling
“colour”.  If you’re used to the British spelling, you’ll have to resign
yourself to misspelling it for the sake of these functions.)

The curses library maintains a finite number of color pairs, containing
a foreground (or text) color and a background color.  You can get the
attribute value corresponding to a color pair with the *note
color_pair(): 36c5. function; this can be bitwise-OR’ed with other
attributes such as *note A_REVERSE: 36c7, but again, such combinations
are not guaranteed to work on all terminals.

An example, which displays a line of text using color pair 1:

     stdscr.addstr("Pretty text", curses.color_pair(1))
     stdscr.refresh()

As I said before, a color pair consists of a foreground and background
color.  The ‘init_pair(n, f, b)’ function changes the definition of
color pair 'n', to foreground color f and background color b.  Color
pair 0 is hard-wired to white on black, and cannot be changed.

Colors are numbered, and *note start_color(): 36fc. initializes 8 basic
colors when it activates color mode.  They are: 0:black, 1:red, 2:green,
3:yellow, 4:blue, 5:magenta, 6:cyan, and 7:white.  The *note curses: 2e.
module defines named constants for each of these colors: *note
curses.COLOR_BLACK: 37dc, *note curses.COLOR_RED: 37e1, and so forth.

Let’s put all this together.  To change color 1 to red text on a white
background, you would call:

     curses.init_pair(1, curses.COLOR_RED, curses.COLOR_WHITE)

When you change a color pair, any text already displayed using that
color pair will change to the new colors.  You can also display new text
in this color with:

     stdscr.addstr(0,0, "RED ALERT!", curses.color_pair(1))

Very fancy terminals can change the definitions of the actual colors to
a given RGB value.  This lets you change color 1, which is usually red,
to purple or blue or any other color you like.  Unfortunately, the Linux
console doesn’t support this, so I’m unable to try it out, and can’t
provide any examples.  You can check if your terminal can do this by
calling *note can_change_color(): 36c4, which returns ‘True’ if the
capability is there.  If you’re lucky enough to have such a talented
terminal, consult your system’s man pages for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: User Input,  Next: For More Information,  Prev: Displaying Text,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.3.5 User Input
----------------

The C curses library offers only very simple input mechanisms.  Python’s
*note curses: 2e. module adds a basic text-input widget.  (Other
libraries such as Urwid(1) have more extensive collections of widgets.)

There are two methods for getting input from a window:

   * *note getch(): 1a30. refreshes the screen and then waits for the
     user to hit a key, displaying the key if *note echo(): 1a19. has
     been called earlier.  You can optionally specify a coordinate to
     which the cursor should be moved before pausing.

   * *note getkey(): 3720. does the same thing but converts the integer
     to a string.  Individual characters are returned as 1-character
     strings, and special keys such as function keys return longer
     strings containing a key name such as ‘KEY_UP’ or ‘^G’.

It’s possible to not wait for the user using the *note nodelay(): 3731.
window method.  After ‘nodelay(True)’, ‘getch()’ and ‘getkey()’ for the
window become non-blocking.  To signal that no input is ready, ‘getch()’
returns ‘curses.ERR’ (a value of -1) and ‘getkey()’ raises an exception.
There’s also a *note halfdelay(): 36e7. function, which can be used to
(in effect) set a timer on each ‘getch()’; if no input becomes available
within a specified delay (measured in tenths of a second), curses raises
an exception.

The ‘getch()’ method returns an integer; if it’s between 0 and 255, it
represents the ASCII code of the key pressed.  Values greater than 255
are special keys such as Page Up, Home, or the cursor keys.  You can
compare the value returned to constants such as *note curses.KEY_PPAGE:
376e, *note curses.KEY_HOME: 375f, or *note curses.KEY_LEFT: 375d.  The
main loop of your program may look something like this:

     while True:
         c = stdscr.getch()
         if c == ord('p'):
             PrintDocument()
         elif c == ord('q'):
             break  # Exit the while loop
         elif c == curses.KEY_HOME:
             x = y = 0

The *note curses.ascii: 2f. module supplies ASCII class membership
functions that take either integer or 1-character string arguments;
these may be useful in writing more readable tests for such loops.  It
also supplies conversion functions that take either integer or
1-character-string arguments and return the same type.  For example,
*note curses.ascii.ctrl(): 3824. returns the control character
corresponding to its argument.

There’s also a method to retrieve an entire string, *note getstr():
1a34.  It isn’t used very often, because its functionality is quite
limited; the only editing keys available are the backspace key and the
Enter key, which terminates the string.  It can optionally be limited to
a fixed number of characters.

     curses.echo()            # Enable echoing of characters

     # Get a 15-character string, with the cursor on the top line
     s = stdscr.getstr(0,0, 15)

The *note curses.textpad: 31. module supplies a text box that supports
an Emacs-like set of keybindings.  Various methods of the *note Textbox:
37e5. class support editing with input validation and gathering the edit
results either with or without trailing spaces.  Here’s an example:

     import curses
     from curses.textpad import Textbox, rectangle

     def main(stdscr):
         stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Enter IM message: (hit Ctrl-G to send)")

         editwin = curses.newwin(5,30, 2,1)
         rectangle(stdscr, 1,0, 1+5+1, 1+30+1)
         stdscr.refresh()

         box = Textbox(editwin)

         # Let the user edit until Ctrl-G is struck.
         box.edit()

         # Get resulting contents
         message = box.gather()

See the library documentation on *note curses.textpad: 31. for more
details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/


File: python.info,  Node: For More Information,  Prev: User Input,  Up: Curses Programming with Python

9.3.6 For More Information
--------------------------

This HOWTO doesn’t cover some advanced topics, such as reading the
contents of the screen or capturing mouse events from an xterm instance,
but the Python library page for the *note curses: 2e. module is now
reasonably complete.  You should browse it next.

If you’re in doubt about the detailed behavior of the curses functions,
consult the manual pages for your curses implementation, whether it’s
ncurses or a proprietary Unix vendor’s.  The manual pages will document
any quirks, and provide complete lists of all the functions, attributes,
and *note ACS_*: 37b6. characters available to you.

Because the curses API is so large, some functions aren’t supported in
the Python interface.  Often this isn’t because they’re difficult to
implement, but because no one has needed them yet.  Also, Python doesn’t
yet support the menu library associated with ncurses.  Patches adding
support for these would be welcome; see the Python Developer's Guide(1)
to learn more about submitting patches to Python.

   * Writing Programs with NCURSES(2): a lengthy tutorial for C
     programmers.

   * The ncurses man page(3)

   * The ncurses FAQ(4)

   * "Use curses...  don't swear"(5): video of a PyCon 2013 talk on
     controlling terminals using curses or Urwid.

   * "Console Applications with Urwid"(6): video of a PyCon CA 2012 talk
     demonstrating some applications written using Urwid.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/

   (2) https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses-intro.html

   (3) https://linux.die.net/man/3/ncurses

   (4) https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses.faq.html

   (5) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eN1eZtjLEnU

   (6) https://pyvideo.org/video/1568/console-applications-with-urwid


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor Guide,  Next: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB,  Prev: Curses Programming with Python,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.4 Descriptor Guide
====================


Author: Raymond Hettinger


Contact: <python at rcn dot com>

*note Descriptors: 21f. let objects customize attribute lookup, storage,
and deletion.

This guide has four major sections:

  1. The «primer» gives a basic overview, moving gently from simple
     examples, adding one feature at a time.  Start here if you’re new
     to descriptors.

  2. The second section shows a complete, practical descriptor example.
     If you already know the basics, start there.

  3. The third section provides a more technical tutorial that goes into
     the detailed mechanics of how descriptors work.  Most people don’t
     need this level of detail.

  4. The last section has pure Python equivalents for built-in
     descriptors that are written in C. Read this if you’re curious
     about how functions turn into bound methods or about the
     implementation of common tools like *note classmethod(): 69a, *note
     staticmethod(): 666, *note property(): 6bb, and *note __slots__:
     9d9.

* Menu:

* Primer::
* Complete Practical Example::
* Technical Tutorial::
* Pure Python Equivalents::


File: python.info,  Node: Primer,  Next: Complete Practical Example,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.4.1 Primer
------------

In this primer, we start with the most basic possible example and then
we’ll add new capabilities one by one.

* Menu:

* Simple example; A descriptor that returns a constant: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant.
* Dynamic lookups::
* Managed attributes::
* Customized names::
* Closing thoughts::


File: python.info,  Node: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant,  Next: Dynamic lookups,  Up: Primer

9.4.1.1 Simple example: A descriptor that returns a constant
............................................................

The ‘Ten’ class is a descriptor whose *note __get__(): 188a. method
always returns the constant ‘10’:

     class Ten:
         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return 10

To use the descriptor, it must be stored as a class variable in another
class:

     class A:
         x = 5                       # Regular class attribute
         y = Ten()                   # Descriptor instance

An interactive session shows the difference between normal attribute
lookup and descriptor lookup:

     >>> a = A()                     # Make an instance of class A
     >>> a.x                         # Normal attribute lookup
     5
     >>> a.y                         # Descriptor lookup
     10

In the ‘a.x’ attribute lookup, the dot operator finds ‘'x': 5’ in the
class dictionary.  In the ‘a.y’ lookup, the dot operator finds a
descriptor instance, recognized by its ‘__get__’ method.  Calling that
method returns ‘10’.

Note that the value ‘10’ is not stored in either the class dictionary or
the instance dictionary.  Instead, the value ‘10’ is computed on demand.

This example shows how a simple descriptor works, but it isn’t very
useful.  For retrieving constants, normal attribute lookup would be
better.

In the next section, we’ll create something more useful, a dynamic
lookup.


File: python.info,  Node: Dynamic lookups,  Next: Managed attributes,  Prev: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant,  Up: Primer

9.4.1.2 Dynamic lookups
.......................

Interesting descriptors typically run computations instead of returning
constants:

     import os

     class DirectorySize:

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return len(os.listdir(obj.dirname))

     class Directory:

         size = DirectorySize()              # Descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, dirname):
             self.dirname = dirname          # Regular instance attribute

An interactive session shows that the lookup is dynamic — it computes
different, updated answers each time:

     >>> s = Directory('songs')
     >>> g = Directory('games')
     >>> s.size                              # The songs directory has twenty files
     20
     >>> g.size                              # The games directory has three files
     3
     >>> os.remove('games/chess')            # Delete a game
     >>> g.size                              # File count is automatically updated
     2

Besides showing how descriptors can run computations, this example also
reveals the purpose of the parameters to *note __get__(): 188a.  The
'self' parameter is 'size', an instance of 'DirectorySize'.  The 'obj'
parameter is either 'g' or 's', an instance of 'Directory'.  It is the
'obj' parameter that lets the ‘__get__()’ method learn the target
directory.  The 'objtype' parameter is the class 'Directory'.


File: python.info,  Node: Managed attributes,  Next: Customized names,  Prev: Dynamic lookups,  Up: Primer

9.4.1.3 Managed attributes
..........................

A popular use for descriptors is managing access to instance data.  The
descriptor is assigned to a public attribute in the class dictionary
while the actual data is stored as a private attribute in the instance
dictionary.  The descriptor’s *note __get__(): 188a. and *note
__set__(): 25aa. methods are triggered when the public attribute is
accessed.

In the following example, 'age' is the public attribute and '_age' is
the private attribute.  When the public attribute is accessed, the
descriptor logs the lookup or update:

     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class LoggedAgeAccess:

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             value = obj._age
             logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', 'age', value)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             logging.info('Updating %r to %r', 'age', value)
             obj._age = value

     class Person:

         age = LoggedAgeAccess()             # Descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, name, age):
             self.name = name                # Regular instance attribute
             self.age = age                  # Calls __set__()

         def birthday(self):
             self.age += 1                   # Calls both __get__() and __set__()

An interactive session shows that all access to the managed attribute
'age' is logged, but that the regular attribute 'name' is not logged:

     >>> mary = Person('Mary M', 30)         # The initial age update is logged
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 30
     >>> dave = Person('David D', 40)
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 40

     >>> vars(mary)                          # The actual data is in a private attribute
     {'name': 'Mary M', '_age': 30}
     >>> vars(dave)
     {'name': 'David D', '_age': 40}

     >>> mary.age                            # Access the data and log the lookup
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30
     30
     >>> mary.birthday()                     # Updates are logged as well
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 31

     >>> dave.name                           # Regular attribute lookup isn't logged
     'David D'
     >>> dave.age                            # Only the managed attribute is logged
     INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 40
     40

One major issue with this example is that the private name '_age' is
hardwired in the 'LoggedAgeAccess' class.  That means that each instance
can only have one logged attribute and that its name is unchangeable.
In the next example, we’ll fix that problem.


File: python.info,  Node: Customized names,  Next: Closing thoughts,  Prev: Managed attributes,  Up: Primer

9.4.1.4 Customized names
........................

When a class uses descriptors, it can inform each descriptor about which
variable name was used.

In this example, the ‘Person’ class has two descriptor instances, 'name'
and 'age'.  When the ‘Person’ class is defined, it makes a callback to
*note __set_name__(): 100c. in 'LoggedAccess' so that the field names
can be recorded, giving each descriptor its own 'public_name' and
'private_name':

     import logging

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

     class LoggedAccess:

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.public_name = name
             self.private_name = '_' + name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             value = getattr(obj, self.private_name)
             logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', self.public_name, value)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             logging.info('Updating %r to %r', self.public_name, value)
             setattr(obj, self.private_name, value)

     class Person:

         name = LoggedAccess()                # First descriptor instance
         age = LoggedAccess()                 # Second descriptor instance

         def __init__(self, name, age):
             self.name = name                 # Calls the first descriptor
             self.age = age                   # Calls the second descriptor

         def birthday(self):
             self.age += 1

An interactive session shows that the ‘Person’ class has called *note
__set_name__(): 100c. so that the field names would be recorded.  Here
we call *note vars(): 2011. to look up the descriptor without triggering
it:

     >>> vars(vars(Person)['name'])
     {'public_name': 'name', 'private_name': '_name'}
     >>> vars(vars(Person)['age'])
     {'public_name': 'age', 'private_name': '_age'}

The new class now logs access to both 'name' and 'age':

     >>> pete = Person('Peter P', 10)
     INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Peter P'
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 10
     >>> kate = Person('Catherine C', 20)
     INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Catherine C'
     INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 20

The two 'Person' instances contain only the private names:

     >>> vars(pete)
     {'_name': 'Peter P', '_age': 10}
     >>> vars(kate)
     {'_name': 'Catherine C', '_age': 20}


File: python.info,  Node: Closing thoughts,  Prev: Customized names,  Up: Primer

9.4.1.5 Closing thoughts
........................

A *note descriptor: 21f. is what we call any object that defines *note
__get__(): 188a, *note __set__(): 25aa, or *note __delete__(): 1b64.

Optionally, descriptors can have a *note __set_name__(): 100c. method.
This is only used in cases where a descriptor needs to know either the
class where it was created or the name of class variable it was assigned
to.  (This method, if present, is called even if the class is not a
descriptor.)

Descriptors get invoked by the dot operator during attribute lookup.  If
a descriptor is accessed indirectly with
‘vars(some_class)[descriptor_name]’, the descriptor instance is returned
without invoking it.

Descriptors only work when used as class variables.  When put in
instances, they have no effect.

The main motivation for descriptors is to provide a hook allowing
objects stored in class variables to control what happens during
attribute lookup.

Traditionally, the calling class controls what happens during lookup.
Descriptors invert that relationship and allow the data being looked-up
to have a say in the matter.

Descriptors are used throughout the language.  It is how functions turn
into bound methods.  Common tools like *note classmethod(): 69a, *note
staticmethod(): 666, *note property(): 6bb, and *note
functools.cached_property(): 94e. are all implemented as descriptors.


File: python.info,  Node: Complete Practical Example,  Next: Technical Tutorial,  Prev: Primer,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.4.2 Complete Practical Example
--------------------------------

In this example, we create a practical and powerful tool for locating
notoriously hard to find data corruption bugs.

* Menu:

* Validator class::
* Custom validators::
* Practical application::


File: python.info,  Node: Validator class,  Next: Custom validators,  Up: Complete Practical Example

9.4.2.1 Validator class
.......................

A validator is a descriptor for managed attribute access.  Prior to
storing any data, it verifies that the new value meets various type and
range restrictions.  If those restrictions aren’t met, it raises an
exception to prevent data corruption at its source.

This ‘Validator’ class is both an *note abstract base class: 155f. and a
managed attribute descriptor:

     from abc import ABC, abstractmethod

     class Validator(ABC):

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.private_name = '_' + name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return getattr(obj, self.private_name)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             self.validate(value)
             setattr(obj, self.private_name, value)

         @abstractmethod
         def validate(self, value):
             pass

Custom validators need to inherit from ‘Validator’ and must supply a
‘validate()’ method to test various restrictions as needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom validators,  Next: Practical application,  Prev: Validator class,  Up: Complete Practical Example

9.4.2.2 Custom validators
.........................

Here are three practical data validation utilities:

  1. ‘OneOf’ verifies that a value is one of a restricted set of
     options.

  2. ‘Number’ verifies that a value is either an *note int: 326. or
     *note float: 327.  Optionally, it verifies that a value is between
     a given minimum or maximum.

  3. ‘String’ verifies that a value is a *note str: 1df.  Optionally, it
     validates a given minimum or maximum length.  It can validate a
     user-defined predicate(1) as well.

     class OneOf(Validator):

         def __init__(self, *options):
             self.options = set(options)

         def validate(self, value):
             if value not in self.options:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be one of {self.options!r}'
                 )

     class Number(Validator):

         def __init__(self, minvalue=None, maxvalue=None):
             self.minvalue = minvalue
             self.maxvalue = maxvalue

         def validate(self, value):
             if not isinstance(value, (int, float)):
                 raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be an int or float')
             if self.minvalue is not None and value < self.minvalue:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be at least {self.minvalue!r}'
                 )
             if self.maxvalue is not None and value > self.maxvalue:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no more than {self.maxvalue!r}'
                 )

     class String(Validator):

         def __init__(self, minsize=None, maxsize=None, predicate=None):
             self.minsize = minsize
             self.maxsize = maxsize
             self.predicate = predicate

         def validate(self, value):
             if not isinstance(value, str):
                 raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be a str')
             if self.minsize is not None and len(value) < self.minsize:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no smaller than {self.minsize!r}'
                 )
             if self.maxsize is not None and len(value) > self.maxsize:
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {value!r} to be no bigger than {self.maxsize!r}'
                 )
             if self.predicate is not None and not self.predicate(value):
                 raise ValueError(
                     f'Expected {self.predicate} to be true for {value!r}'
                 )

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)


File: python.info,  Node: Practical application,  Prev: Custom validators,  Up: Complete Practical Example

9.4.2.3 Practical application
.............................

Here’s how the data validators can be used in a real class:

     class Component:

         name = String(minsize=3, maxsize=10, predicate=str.isupper)
         kind = OneOf('wood', 'metal', 'plastic')
         quantity = Number(minvalue=0)

         def __init__(self, name, kind, quantity):
             self.name = name
             self.kind = kind
             self.quantity = quantity

The descriptors prevent invalid instances from being created:

     >>> Component('Widget', 'metal', 5)      # Blocked: 'Widget' is not all uppercase
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected <method 'isupper' of 'str' objects> to be true for 'Widget'

     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metle', 5)      # Blocked: 'metle' is misspelled
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected 'metle' to be one of {'metal', 'plastic', 'wood'}

     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', -5)     # Blocked: -5 is negative
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     ValueError: Expected -5 to be at least 0

     >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 'V')    # Blocked: 'V' isn't a number
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     TypeError: Expected 'V' to be an int or float

     >>> c = Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 5)  # Allowed:  The inputs are valid


File: python.info,  Node: Technical Tutorial,  Next: Pure Python Equivalents,  Prev: Complete Practical Example,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.4.3 Technical Tutorial
------------------------

What follows is a more technical tutorial for the mechanics and details
of how descriptors work.

* Menu:

* Abstract::
* Definition and introduction::
* Descriptor protocol::
* Overview of descriptor invocation::
* Invocation from an instance::
* Invocation from a class::
* Invocation from super::
* Summary of invocation logic::
* Automatic name notification::
* ORM example::


File: python.info,  Node: Abstract,  Next: Definition and introduction,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.4.3.1 Abstract
................

Defines descriptors, summarizes the protocol, and shows how descriptors
are called.  Provides an example showing how object relational mappings
work.

Learning about descriptors not only provides access to a larger toolset,
it creates a deeper understanding of how Python works.


File: python.info,  Node: Definition and introduction,  Next: Descriptor protocol,  Prev: Abstract,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.4.3.2 Definition and introduction
...................................

In general, a descriptor is an attribute value that has one of the
methods in the descriptor protocol.  Those methods are *note __get__():
188a, *note __set__(): 25aa, and *note __delete__(): 1b64.  If any of
those methods are defined for an attribute, it is said to be a *note
descriptor: 21f.

The default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete the
attribute from an object’s dictionary.  For instance, ‘a.x’ has a lookup
chain starting with ‘a.__dict__['x']’, then ‘type(a).__dict__['x']’, and
continuing through the method resolution order of ‘type(a)’.  If the
looked-up value is an object defining one of the descriptor methods,
then Python may override the default behavior and invoke the descriptor
method instead.  Where this occurs in the precedence chain depends on
which descriptor methods were defined.

Descriptors are a powerful, general purpose protocol.  They are the
mechanism behind properties, methods, static methods, class methods, and
*note super(): 443.  They are used throughout Python itself.
Descriptors simplify the underlying C code and offer a flexible set of
new tools for everyday Python programs.


File: python.info,  Node: Descriptor protocol,  Next: Overview of descriptor invocation,  Prev: Definition and introduction,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.4.3.3 Descriptor protocol
...........................

‘descr.__get__(self, obj, type=None)’

‘descr.__set__(self, obj, value)’

‘descr.__delete__(self, obj)’

That is all there is to it.  Define any of these methods and an object
is considered a descriptor and can override default behavior upon being
looked up as an attribute.

If an object defines *note __set__(): 25aa. or *note __delete__(): 1b64,
it is considered a data descriptor.  Descriptors that only define *note
__get__(): 188a. are called non-data descriptors (they are often used
for methods but other uses are possible).

Data and non-data descriptors differ in how overrides are calculated
with respect to entries in an instance’s dictionary.  If an instance’s
dictionary has an entry with the same name as a data descriptor, the
data descriptor takes precedence.  If an instance’s dictionary has an
entry with the same name as a non-data descriptor, the dictionary entry
takes precedence.

To make a read-only data descriptor, define both *note __get__(): 188a.
and *note __set__(): 25aa. with the ‘__set__()’ raising an *note
AttributeError: 1a9. when called.  Defining the ‘__set__()’ method with
an exception raising placeholder is enough to make it a data descriptor.


File: python.info,  Node: Overview of descriptor invocation,  Next: Invocation from an instance,  Prev: Descriptor protocol,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.4.3.4 Overview of descriptor invocation
.........................................

A descriptor can be called directly with ‘desc.__get__(obj)’ or
‘desc.__get__(None, cls)’.

But it is more common for a descriptor to be invoked automatically from
attribute access.

The expression ‘obj.x’ looks up the attribute ‘x’ in the chain of
namespaces for ‘obj’.  If the search finds a descriptor outside of the
instance *note __dict__: 1bf, its *note __get__(): 188a. method is
invoked according to the precedence rules listed below.

The details of invocation depend on whether ‘obj’ is an object, class,
or instance of super.


File: python.info,  Node: Invocation from an instance,  Next: Invocation from a class,  Prev: Overview of descriptor invocation,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.4.3.5 Invocation from an instance
...................................

Instance lookup scans through a chain of namespaces giving data
descriptors the highest priority, followed by instance variables, then
non-data descriptors, then class variables, and lastly *note
__getattr__(): 8e3. if it is provided.

If a descriptor is found for ‘a.x’, then it is invoked with:
‘desc.__get__(a, type(a))’.

The logic for a dotted lookup is in *note object.__getattribute__():
f90.  Here is a pure Python equivalent:

     def find_name_in_mro(cls, name, default):
         "Emulate _PyType_Lookup() in Objects/typeobject.c"
         for base in cls.__mro__:
             if name in vars(base):
                 return vars(base)[name]
         return default

     def object_getattribute(obj, name):
         "Emulate PyObject_GenericGetAttr() in Objects/object.c"
         null = sentinel('null')
         objtype = type(obj)
         cls_var = find_name_in_mro(objtype, name, null)
         descr_get = getattr(type(cls_var), '__get__', null)
         if descr_get is not null:
             if (hasattr(type(cls_var), '__set__')
                 or hasattr(type(cls_var), '__delete__')):
                 return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype)     # data descriptor
         if hasattr(obj, '__dict__') and name in vars(obj):
             return vars(obj)[name]                          # instance variable
         if descr_get is not null:
             return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype)         # non-data descriptor
         if cls_var is not null:
             return cls_var                                  # class variable
         raise AttributeError(name)

Note, there is no *note __getattr__(): 8e3. hook in the *note
__getattribute__(): f90. code.  That is why calling ‘__getattribute__()’
directly or with ‘super().__getattribute__’ will bypass ‘__getattr__()’
entirely.

Instead, it is the dot operator and the *note getattr(): f8f. function
that are responsible for invoking *note __getattr__(): 8e3. whenever
*note __getattribute__(): f90. raises an *note AttributeError: 1a9.
Their logic is encapsulated in a helper function:

     def getattr_hook(obj, name):
         "Emulate slot_tp_getattr_hook() in Objects/typeobject.c"
         try:
             return obj.__getattribute__(name)
         except AttributeError:
             if not hasattr(type(obj), '__getattr__'):
                 raise
         return type(obj).__getattr__(obj, name)             # __getattr__


File: python.info,  Node: Invocation from a class,  Next: Invocation from super,  Prev: Invocation from an instance,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.4.3.6 Invocation from a class
...............................

The logic for a dotted lookup such as ‘A.x’ is in
‘type.__getattribute__()’.  The steps are similar to those for
‘object.__getattribute__()’ but the instance dictionary lookup is
replaced by a search through the class’s *note method resolution order:
2784.

If a descriptor is found, it is invoked with ‘desc.__get__(None, A)’.

The full C implementation can be found in ‘type_getattro()’ and
‘_PyType_Lookup()’ in Objects/typeobject.c(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Objects/typeobject.c


File: python.info,  Node: Invocation from super,  Next: Summary of invocation logic,  Prev: Invocation from a class,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.4.3.7 Invocation from super
.............................

The logic for super’s dotted lookup is in the *note __getattribute__():
f90. method for object returned by *note super(): 443.

A dotted lookup such as ‘super(A, obj).m’ searches
‘obj.__class__.__mro__’ for the base class ‘B’ immediately following ‘A’
and then returns ‘B.__dict__['m'].__get__(obj, A)’.  If not a
descriptor, ‘m’ is returned unchanged.

The full C implementation can be found in ‘super_getattro()’ in
Objects/typeobject.c(1).  A pure Python equivalent can be found in
Guido's Tutorial(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Objects/typeobject.c

   (2) 
https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.3/descrintro/#cooperation


File: python.info,  Node: Summary of invocation logic,  Next: Automatic name notification,  Prev: Invocation from super,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.4.3.8 Summary of invocation logic
...................................

The mechanism for descriptors is embedded in the *note
__getattribute__(): f90. methods for *note object: e4d, *note type: 186,
and *note super(): 443.

The important points to remember are:

   * Descriptors are invoked by the *note __getattribute__(): f90.
     method.

   * Classes inherit this machinery from *note object: e4d, *note type:
     186, or *note super(): 443.

   * Overriding *note __getattribute__(): f90. prevents automatic
     descriptor calls because all the descriptor logic is in that
     method.

   * ‘object.__getattribute__()’ and ‘type.__getattribute__()’ make
     different calls to *note __get__(): 188a.  The first includes the
     instance and may include the class.  The second puts in ‘None’ for
     the instance and always includes the class.

   * Data descriptors always override instance dictionaries.

   * Non-data descriptors may be overridden by instance dictionaries.


File: python.info,  Node: Automatic name notification,  Next: ORM example,  Prev: Summary of invocation logic,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.4.3.9 Automatic name notification
...................................

Sometimes it is desirable for a descriptor to know what class variable
name it was assigned to.  When a new class is created, the *note type:
186. metaclass scans the dictionary of the new class.  If any of the
entries are descriptors and if they define *note __set_name__(): 100c,
that method is called with two arguments.  The 'owner' is the class
where the descriptor is used, and the 'name' is the class variable the
descriptor was assigned to.

The implementation details are in ‘type_new()’ and ‘set_names()’ in
Objects/typeobject.c(1).

Since the update logic is in ‘type.__new__()’, notifications only take
place at the time of class creation.  If descriptors are added to the
class afterwards, *note __set_name__(): 100c. will need to be called
manually.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Objects/typeobject.c


File: python.info,  Node: ORM example,  Prev: Automatic name notification,  Up: Technical Tutorial

9.4.3.10 ORM example
....................

The following code is a simplified skeleton showing how data descriptors
could be used to implement an object relational mapping(1).

The essential idea is that the data is stored in an external database.
The Python instances only hold keys to the database’s tables.
Descriptors take care of lookups or updates:

     class Field:

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.fetch = f'SELECT {name} FROM {owner.table} WHERE {owner.key}=?;'
             self.store = f'UPDATE {owner.table} SET {name}=? WHERE {owner.key}=?;'

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return conn.execute(self.fetch, [obj.key]).fetchone()[0]

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             conn.execute(self.store, [value, obj.key])
             conn.commit()

We can use the ‘Field’ class to define models(2) that describe the
schema for each table in a database:

     class Movie:
         table = 'Movies'                    # Table name
         key = 'title'                       # Primary key
         director = Field()
         year = Field()

         def __init__(self, key):
             self.key = key

     class Song:
         table = 'Music'
         key = 'title'
         artist = Field()
         year = Field()
         genre = Field()

         def __init__(self, key):
             self.key = key

To use the models, first connect to the database:

     >>> import sqlite3
     >>> conn = sqlite3.connect('entertainment.db')

An interactive session shows how data is retrieved from the database and
how it can be updated:

     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director
     'George Lucas'
     >>> jaws = Movie('Jaws')
     >>> f'Released in {jaws.year} by {jaws.director}'
     'Released in 1975 by Steven Spielberg'

     >>> Song('Country Roads').artist
     'John Denver'

     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director = 'J.J. Abrams'
     >>> Movie('Star Wars').director
     'J.J. Abrams'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object%E2%80%93relational_mapping

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_model


File: python.info,  Node: Pure Python Equivalents,  Prev: Technical Tutorial,  Up: Descriptor Guide

9.4.4 Pure Python Equivalents
-----------------------------

The descriptor protocol is simple and offers exciting possibilities.
Several use cases are so common that they have been prepackaged into
built-in tools.  Properties, bound methods, static methods, class
methods, and __slots__ are all based on the descriptor protocol.

* Menu:

* Properties::
* Functions and methods::
* Kinds of methods::
* Static methods::
* Class methods::
* Member objects and __slots__::


File: python.info,  Node: Properties,  Next: Functions and methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.4.4.1 Properties
..................

Calling *note property(): 6bb. is a succinct way of building a data
descriptor that triggers a function call upon access to an attribute.
Its signature is:

     property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None) -> property

The documentation shows a typical use to define a managed attribute ‘x’:

     class C:
         def getx(self): return self.__x
         def setx(self, value): self.__x = value
         def delx(self): del self.__x
         x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

To see how *note property(): 6bb. is implemented in terms of the
descriptor protocol, here is a pure Python equivalent that implements
most of the core functionality:

     class Property:
         "Emulate PyProperty_Type() in Objects/descrobject.c"

         def __init__(self, fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None):
             self.fget = fget
             self.fset = fset
             self.fdel = fdel
             if doc is None and fget is not None:
                 doc = fget.__doc__
             self.__doc__ = doc

         def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
             self.__name__ = name

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             if self.fget is None:
                 raise AttributeError
             return self.fget(obj)

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             if self.fset is None:
                 raise AttributeError
             self.fset(obj, value)

         def __delete__(self, obj):
             if self.fdel is None:
                 raise AttributeError
             self.fdel(obj)

         def getter(self, fget):
             return type(self)(fget, self.fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)

         def setter(self, fset):
             return type(self)(self.fget, fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__)

         def deleter(self, fdel):
             return type(self)(self.fget, self.fset, fdel, self.__doc__)

The *note property(): 6bb. builtin helps whenever a user interface has
granted attribute access and then subsequent changes require the
intervention of a method.

For instance, a spreadsheet class may grant access to a cell value
through ‘Cell('b10').value’.  Subsequent improvements to the program
require the cell to be recalculated on every access; however, the
programmer does not want to affect existing client code accessing the
attribute directly.  The solution is to wrap access to the value
attribute in a property data descriptor:

     class Cell:
         ...

         @property
         def value(self):
             "Recalculate the cell before returning value"
             self.recalc()
             return self._value

Either the built-in *note property(): 6bb. or our ‘Property()’
equivalent would work in this example.


File: python.info,  Node: Functions and methods,  Next: Kinds of methods,  Prev: Properties,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.4.4.2 Functions and methods
.............................

Python’s object oriented features are built upon a function based
environment.  Using non-data descriptors, the two are merged seamlessly.

Functions stored in class dictionaries get turned into methods when
invoked.  Methods only differ from regular functions in that the object
instance is prepended to the other arguments.  By convention, the
instance is called 'self' but could be called 'this' or any other
variable name.

Methods can be created manually with *note types.MethodType: 1d7f. which
is roughly equivalent to:

     class MethodType:
         "Emulate PyMethod_Type in Objects/classobject.c"

         def __init__(self, func, obj):
             self.__func__ = func
             self.__self__ = obj

         def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             func = self.__func__
             obj = self.__self__
             return func(obj, *args, **kwargs)

         def __getattribute__(self, name):
             "Emulate method_getset() in Objects/classobject.c"
             if name == '__doc__':
                 return self.__func__.__doc__
             return object.__getattribute__(self, name)

         def __getattr__(self, name):
             "Emulate method_getattro() in Objects/classobject.c"
             return getattr(self.__func__, name)

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             "Emulate method_descr_get() in Objects/classobject.c"
             return self

To support automatic creation of methods, functions include the *note
__get__(): 188a. method for binding methods during attribute access.
This means that functions are non-data descriptors that return bound
methods during dotted lookup from an instance.  Here’s how it works:

     class Function:
         ...

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             "Simulate func_descr_get() in Objects/funcobject.c"
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             return MethodType(self, obj)

Running the following class in the interpreter shows how the function
descriptor works in practice:

     class D:
         def f(self):
              return self

     class D2:
         pass

The function has a *note qualified name: 1f19. attribute to support
introspection:

     >>> D.f.__qualname__
     'D.f'

Accessing the function through the class dictionary does not invoke
*note __get__(): 188a.  Instead, it just returns the underlying function
object:

     >>> D.__dict__['f']
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

Dotted access from a class calls *note __get__(): 188a. which just
returns the underlying function unchanged:

     >>> D.f
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

The interesting behavior occurs during dotted access from an instance.
The dotted lookup calls *note __get__(): 188a. which returns a bound
method object:

     >>> d = D()
     >>> d.f
     <bound method D.f of <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>>

Internally, the bound method stores the underlying function and the
bound instance:

     >>> d.f.__func__
     <function D.f at 0x00C45070>

     >>> d.f.__self__
     <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>

If you have ever wondered where 'self' comes from in regular methods or
where 'cls' comes from in class methods, this is it!


File: python.info,  Node: Kinds of methods,  Next: Static methods,  Prev: Functions and methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.4.4.3 Kinds of methods
........................

Non-data descriptors provide a simple mechanism for variations on the
usual patterns of binding functions into methods.

To recap, functions have a *note __get__(): 188a. method so that they
can be converted to a method when accessed as attributes.  The non-data
descriptor transforms an ‘obj.f(*args)’ call into ‘f(obj, *args)’.
Calling ‘cls.f(*args)’ becomes ‘f(*args)’.

This chart summarizes the binding and its two most useful variants:

     Transformation        Called from an object      Called from a class
                                                      
     ------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                      
     function              f(obj, *args)              f(*args)
                                                      
                                                      
     staticmethod          f(*args)                   f(*args)
                                                      
                                                      
     classmethod           f(type(obj), *args)        f(cls, *args)
                                                      


File: python.info,  Node: Static methods,  Next: Class methods,  Prev: Kinds of methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.4.4.4 Static methods
......................

Static methods return the underlying function without changes.  Calling
either ‘c.f’ or ‘C.f’ is the equivalent of a direct lookup into
‘object.__getattribute__(c, "f")’ or ‘object.__getattribute__(C, "f")’.
As a result, the function becomes identically accessible from either an
object or a class.

Good candidates for static methods are methods that do not reference the
‘self’ variable.

For instance, a statistics package may include a container class for
experimental data.  The class provides normal methods for computing the
average, mean, median, and other descriptive statistics that depend on
the data.  However, there may be useful functions which are conceptually
related but do not depend on the data.  For instance, ‘erf(x)’ is handy
conversion routine that comes up in statistical work but does not
directly depend on a particular dataset.  It can be called either from
an object or the class: ‘s.erf(1.5) --> 0.9332’ or ‘Sample.erf(1.5) -->
0.9332’.

Since static methods return the underlying function with no changes, the
example calls are unexciting:

     class E:
         @staticmethod
         def f(x):
             return x * 10

     >>> E.f(3)
     30
     >>> E().f(3)
     30

Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of *note
staticmethod(): 666. would look like this:

     import functools

     class StaticMethod:
         "Emulate PyStaticMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"

         def __init__(self, f):
             self.f = f
             functools.update_wrapper(self, f)

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             return self.f

         def __call__(self, *args, **kwds):
             return self.f(*args, **kwds)

         @property
         def __annotations__(self):
             return self.f.__annotations__

The *note functools.update_wrapper(): 13cb. call adds a ‘__wrapped__’
attribute that refers to the underlying function.  Also it carries
forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like the
wrapped function, including *note __name__: 1679, *note __qualname__:
253a, and *note __doc__: 1582.


File: python.info,  Node: Class methods,  Next: Member objects and __slots__,  Prev: Static methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.4.4.5 Class methods
.....................

Unlike static methods, class methods prepend the class reference to the
argument list before calling the function.  This format is the same for
whether the caller is an object or a class:

     class F:
         @classmethod
         def f(cls, x):
             return cls.__name__, x

     >>> F.f(3)
     ('F', 3)
     >>> F().f(3)
     ('F', 3)

This behavior is useful whenever the method only needs to have a class
reference and does not rely on data stored in a specific instance.  One
use for class methods is to create alternate class constructors.  For
example, the classmethod *note dict.fromkeys(): 4da. creates a new
dictionary from a list of keys.  The pure Python equivalent is:

     class Dict(dict):
         @classmethod
         def fromkeys(cls, iterable, value=None):
             "Emulate dict_fromkeys() in Objects/dictobject.c"
             d = cls()
             for key in iterable:
                 d[key] = value
             return d

Now a new dictionary of unique keys can be constructed like this:

     >>> d = Dict.fromkeys('abracadabra')
     >>> type(d) is Dict
     True
     >>> d
     {'a': None, 'b': None, 'r': None, 'c': None, 'd': None}

Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of *note
classmethod(): 69a. would look like this:

     import functools

     class ClassMethod:
         "Emulate PyClassMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c"

         def __init__(self, f):
             self.f = f
             functools.update_wrapper(self, f)

         def __get__(self, obj, cls=None):
             if cls is None:
                 cls = type(obj)
             return MethodType(self.f, cls)

The *note functools.update_wrapper(): 13cb. call in ‘ClassMethod’ adds a
‘__wrapped__’ attribute that refers to the underlying function.  Also it
carries forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like
the wrapped function: *note __name__: 1679, *note __qualname__: 253a,
*note __doc__: 1582, and *note __annotations__: 1581.


File: python.info,  Node: Member objects and __slots__,  Prev: Class methods,  Up: Pure Python Equivalents

9.4.4.6 Member objects and __slots__
....................................

When a class defines ‘__slots__’, it replaces instance dictionaries with
a fixed-length array of slot values.  From a user point of view that has
several effects:

1.  Provides immediate detection of bugs due to misspelled attribute
assignments.  Only attribute names specified in ‘__slots__’ are allowed:

     class Vehicle:
         __slots__ = ('id_number', 'make', 'model')

     >>> auto = Vehicle()
     >>> auto.id_nubmer = 'VYE483814LQEX'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'Vehicle' object has no attribute 'id_nubmer'

2.  Helps create immutable objects where descriptors manage access to
private attributes stored in ‘__slots__’:

     class Immutable:

         __slots__ = ('_dept', '_name')          # Replace the instance dictionary

         def __init__(self, dept, name):
             self._dept = dept                   # Store to private attribute
             self._name = name                   # Store to private attribute

         @property                               # Read-only descriptor
         def dept(self):
             return self._dept

         @property
         def name(self):                         # Read-only descriptor
             return self._name

     >>> mark = Immutable('Botany', 'Mark Watney')
     >>> mark.dept
     'Botany'
     >>> mark.dept = 'Space Pirate'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: property 'dept' of 'Immutable' object has no setter
     >>> mark.location = 'Mars'
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'Immutable' object has no attribute 'location'

3.  Saves memory.  On a 64-bit Linux build, an instance with two
attributes takes 48 bytes with ‘__slots__’ and 152 bytes without.  This
flyweight design pattern(1) likely only matters when a large number of
instances are going to be created.

4.  Improves speed.  Reading instance variables is 35% faster with
‘__slots__’ (as measured with Python 3.10 on an Apple M1 processor).

5.  Blocks tools like *note functools.cached_property(): 94e. which
require an instance dictionary to function correctly:

     from functools import cached_property

     class CP:
         __slots__ = ()                          # Eliminates the instance dict

         @cached_property                        # Requires an instance dict
         def pi(self):
             return 4 * sum((-1.0)**n / (2.0*n + 1.0)
                            for n in reversed(range(100_000)))

     >>> CP().pi
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: No '__dict__' attribute on 'CP' instance to cache 'pi' property.

It is not possible to create an exact drop-in pure Python version of
‘__slots__’ because it requires direct access to C structures and
control over object memory allocation.  However, we can build a mostly
faithful simulation where the actual C structure for slots is emulated
by a private ‘_slotvalues’ list.  Reads and writes to that private
structure are managed by member descriptors:

     null = sentinel('null')

     class Member:

         def __init__(self, name, clsname, offset):
             'Emulate PyMemberDef in Include/descrobject.h'
             # Also see descr_new() in Objects/descrobject.c
             self.name = name
             self.clsname = clsname
             self.offset = offset

         def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None):
             'Emulate member_get() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             # Also see PyMember_GetOne() in Python/structmember.c
             if obj is None:
                 return self
             value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset]
             if value is null:
                 raise AttributeError(self.name)
             return value

         def __set__(self, obj, value):
             'Emulate member_set() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = value

         def __delete__(self, obj):
             'Emulate member_delete() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset]
             if value is null:
                 raise AttributeError(self.name)
             obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = null

         def __repr__(self):
             'Emulate member_repr() in Objects/descrobject.c'
             return f'<Member {self.name!r} of {self.clsname!r}>'

The ‘type.__new__()’ method takes care of adding member objects to class
variables:

     class Type(type):
         'Simulate how the type metaclass adds member objects for slots'

         def __new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs):
             'Emulate type_new() in Objects/typeobject.c'
             # type_new() calls PyTypeReady() which calls add_methods()
             slot_names = mapping.get('slot_names', [])
             for offset, name in enumerate(slot_names):
                 mapping[name] = Member(name, clsname, offset)
             return type.__new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs)

The *note object.__new__(): 982. method takes care of creating instances
that have slots instead of an instance dictionary.  Here is a rough
simulation in pure Python:

     class Object:
         'Simulate how object.__new__() allocates memory for __slots__'

         def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
             'Emulate object_new() in Objects/typeobject.c'
             inst = super().__new__(cls)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names'):
                 empty_slots = [null] * len(cls.slot_names)
                 object.__setattr__(inst, '_slotvalues', empty_slots)
             return inst

         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c'
             cls = type(self)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}'
                 )
             super().__setattr__(name, value)

         def __delattr__(self, name):
             'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c'
             cls = type(self)
             if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names:
                 raise AttributeError(
                     f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}'
                 )
             super().__delattr__(name)

To use the simulation in a real class, just inherit from ‘Object’ and
set the *note metaclass: 25c5. to ‘Type’:

     class H(Object, metaclass=Type):
         'Instance variables stored in slots'

         slot_names = ['x', 'y']

         def __init__(self, x, y):
             self.x = x
             self.y = y

At this point, the metaclass has loaded member objects for 'x' and 'y':

     >>> from pprint import pp
     >>> pp(dict(vars(H)))
     {'__module__': '__main__',
      '__doc__': 'Instance variables stored in slots',
      'slot_names': ['x', 'y'],
      '__init__': <function H.__init__ at 0x7fb5d302f9d0>,
      'x': <Member 'x' of 'H'>,
      'y': <Member 'y' of 'H'>}

When instances are created, they have a ‘slot_values’ list where the
attributes are stored:

     >>> h = H(10, 20)
     >>> vars(h)
     {'_slotvalues': [10, 20]}
     >>> h.x = 55
     >>> vars(h)
     {'_slotvalues': [55, 20]}

Misspelled or unassigned attributes will raise an exception:

     >>> h.xz
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     AttributeError: 'H' object has no attribute 'xz'

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyweight_pattern


File: python.info,  Node: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB,  Next: Enum HOWTO,  Prev: Descriptor Guide,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.5 Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB
=============================================================

This document explains how the Python GDB extension, ‘python-gdb.py’,
can be used with the GDB debugger to debug CPython extensions and the
CPython interpreter itself.

When debugging low-level problems such as crashes or deadlocks, a
low-level debugger, such as GDB, is useful to diagnose and correct the
issue.  By default, GDB (or any of its front-ends) doesn’t support
high-level information specific to the CPython interpreter.

The ‘python-gdb.py’ extension adds CPython interpreter information to
GDB. The extension helps introspect the stack of currently executing
Python functions.  Given a Python object represented by a *note
PyObject: 19b.* pointer, the extension surfaces the type and value of
the object.

Developers who are working on CPython extensions or tinkering with parts
of CPython that are written in C can use this document to learn how to
use the ‘python-gdb.py’ extension with GDB.

     Σημείωση: This document assumes that you are familiar with the
     basics of GDB and the CPython C API. It consolidates guidance from
     the devguide(1) and the Python wiki(2).

* Menu:

* Prerequisites::
* Using the Debug build and Development mode::
* Using the python-gdb extension::
* Use with GDB commands::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/DebuggingWithGdb


File: python.info,  Node: Prerequisites,  Next: Using the Debug build and Development mode,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.5.1 Prerequisites
-------------------

You need to have:

   - GDB 7 or later.  (For earlier versions of GDB, see ‘Misc/gdbinit’
     in the sources of Python 3.11 or earlier.)

   - GDB-compatible debugging information for Python and any extension
     you are debugging.

   - The ‘python-gdb.py’ extension.

The extension is built with Python, but might be distributed separately
or not at all.  Below, we include tips for a few common systems as
examples.  Note that even if the instructions match your system, they
might be outdated.

* Menu:

* Setup with Python built from source::
* Setup for Python from a Linux distro::


File: python.info,  Node: Setup with Python built from source,  Next: Setup for Python from a Linux distro,  Up: Prerequisites

9.5.1.1 Setup with Python built from source
...........................................

When you build CPython from source, debugging information should be
available, and the build should add a ‘python-gdb.py’ file to the root
directory of your repository.

To activate support, you must add the directory containing
‘python-gdb.py’ to GDB’s «auto-load-safe-path».  If you haven’t done
this, recent versions of GDB will print out a warning with instructions
on how to do this.

     Σημείωση: If you do not see instructions for your version of GDB,
     put this in your configuration file (‘~/.gdbinit’ or
     ‘~/.config/gdb/gdbinit’):

          add-auto-load-safe-path /path/to/cpython

     You can also add multiple paths, separated by ‘:’.


File: python.info,  Node: Setup for Python from a Linux distro,  Prev: Setup with Python built from source,  Up: Prerequisites

9.5.1.2 Setup for Python from a Linux distro
............................................

Most Linux systems provide debug information for the system Python in a
package called ‘python-debuginfo’, ‘python-dbg’ or similar.  For
example:

   - Fedora:

               sudo dnf install gdb
               sudo dnf debuginfo-install python3

   - Ubuntu:

               sudo apt install gdb python3-dbg

On several recent Linux systems, GDB can download debugging symbols
automatically using 'debuginfod'.  However, this will not install the
‘python-gdb.py’ extension; you generally do need to install the debug
info package separately.


File: python.info,  Node: Using the Debug build and Development mode,  Next: Using the python-gdb extension,  Prev: Prerequisites,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.5.2 Using the Debug build and Development mode
------------------------------------------------

For easier debugging, you might want to:

   - Use a *note debug build: 3dc. of Python.  (When building from
     source, use ‘configure --with-pydebug’.  On Linux distros, install
     and run a package like ‘python-debug’ or ‘python-dbg’, if
     available.)

   - Use the runtime *note development mode: 70d. (‘-X dev’).

Both enable extra assertions and disable some optimizations.  Sometimes
this hides the bug you are trying to find, but in most cases they make
the process easier.


File: python.info,  Node: Using the python-gdb extension,  Next: Use with GDB commands,  Prev: Using the Debug build and Development mode,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.5.3 Using the ‘python-gdb’ extension
--------------------------------------

When the extension is loaded, it provides two main features: pretty
printers for Python values, and additional commands.

* Menu:

* Pretty-printers::
* py-list::
* py-up and py-down::
* py-bt::
* py-print::
* py-locals::


File: python.info,  Node: Pretty-printers,  Next: py-list,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.5.3.1 Pretty-printers
.......................

This is what a GDB backtrace looks like (truncated) when this extension
is enabled:

     #0  0x000000000041a6b1 in PyObject_Malloc (nbytes=Cannot access memory at address 0x7fffff7fefe8
     ) at Objects/obmalloc.c:748
     #1  0x000000000041b7c0 in _PyObject_DebugMallocApi (id=111 'o', nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1445
     #2  0x000000000041b717 in _PyObject_DebugMalloc (nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1412
     #3  0x000000000044060a in _PyUnicode_New (length=11) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:346
     #4  0x00000000004466aa in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8Stateful (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0, consumed=
         0x0) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2531
     #5  0x0000000000446647 in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8 (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0)
         at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2495
     #6  0x0000000000440d1b in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromStringAndSize (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11)
         at Objects/unicodeobject.c:551
     #7  0x0000000000440d94 in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromString (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/unicodeobject.c:569
     #8  0x0000000000584abd in PyDict_GetItemString (v=
         {'Yuck': <type at remote 0xad4730>, '__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fd5ee8>, '__file__': 'Lib/test/crashers/nasty_eq_vs_dict.py', '__package__': None, 'y': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaacd80>, 'dict': {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 2, 3: 3}, '__name__': '__main__', 'z': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaace60>, '__doc__': None}, key=
         0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/dictobject.c:2171

Notice how the dictionary argument to ‘PyDict_GetItemString’ is
displayed as its ‘repr()’, rather than an opaque ‘PyObject *’ pointer.

The extension works by supplying a custom printing routine for values of
type ‘PyObject *’.  If you need to access lower-level details of an
object, then cast the value to a pointer of the appropriate type.  For
example:

     (gdb) p globals
     $1 = {'__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>, '__name__':
     '__main__', 'ctypes': <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>, '__doc__': None,
     '__package__': None}

     (gdb) p *(PyDictObject*)globals
     $2 = {ob_refcnt = 3, ob_type = 0x3dbdf85820, ma_fill = 5, ma_used = 5,
     ma_mask = 7, ma_table = 0x63d0f8, ma_lookup = 0x3dbdc7ea70
     <lookdict_string>, ma_smalltable = {{me_hash = 7065186196740147912,
     me_key = '__builtins__', me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>},
     {me_hash = -368181376027291943, me_key = '__name__',
     me_value ='__main__'}, {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0},
     {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0},
     {me_hash = -9177857982131165996, me_key = 'ctypes',
     me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>},
     {me_hash = -8518757509529533123, me_key = '__doc__', me_value = None},
     {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0}, {
       me_hash = 6614918939584953775, me_key = '__package__', me_value = None}}}

Note that the pretty-printers do not actually call ‘repr()’.  For basic
types, they try to match its result closely.

An area that can be confusing is that the custom printer for some types
look a lot like GDB’s built-in printer for standard types.  For example,
the pretty-printer for a Python ‘int’ (*note PyLongObject: 5cb.*) gives
a representation that is not distinguishable from one of a regular
machine-level integer:

     (gdb) p some_machine_integer
     $3 = 42

     (gdb) p some_python_integer
     $4 = 42

The internal structure can be revealed with a cast to *note
PyLongObject: 5cb.*:

     (gdb) p *(PyLongObject*)some_python_integer
     $5 = {ob_base = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 8, ob_type = 0x3dad39f5e0}, ob_size = 1},
     ob_digit = {42}}

A similar confusion can arise with the ‘str’ type, where the output
looks a lot like gdb’s built-in printer for ‘char *’:

     (gdb) p ptr_to_python_str
     $6 = '__builtins__'

The pretty-printer for ‘str’ instances defaults to using single-quotes
(as does Python’s ‘repr’ for strings) whereas the standard printer for
‘char *’ values uses double-quotes and contains a hexadecimal address:

     (gdb) p ptr_to_char_star
     $7 = 0x6d72c0 "hello world"

Again, the implementation details can be revealed with a cast to *note
PyUnicodeObject: b73.*:

     (gdb) p *(PyUnicodeObject*)$6
     $8 = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 33, ob_type = 0x3dad3a95a0}, length = 12,
     str = 0x7ffff2128500, hash = 7065186196740147912, state = 1, defenc = 0x0}


File: python.info,  Node: py-list,  Next: py-up and py-down,  Prev: Pretty-printers,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.5.3.2 ‘py-list’
.................

     The extension adds a ‘py-list’ command, which lists the Python
     source code (if any) for the current frame in the selected thread.
     The current line is marked with a «>»:

          (gdb) py-list
           901        if options.profile:
           902            options.profile = False
           903            profile_me()
           904            return
           905
          >906        u = UI()
           907        if not u.quit:
           908            try:
           909                gtk.main()
           910            except KeyboardInterrupt:
           911                # properly quit on a keyboard interrupt...

     Use ‘py-list START’ to list at a different line number within the
     Python source, and ‘py-list START,END’ to list a specific range of
     lines within the Python source.


File: python.info,  Node: py-up and py-down,  Next: py-bt,  Prev: py-list,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.5.3.3 ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’
.............................

     The ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’ commands are analogous to GDB’s regular
     ‘up’ and ‘down’ commands, but try to move at the level of CPython
     frames, rather than C frames.

     GDB is not always able to read the relevant frame information,
     depending on the optimization level with which CPython was
     compiled.  Internally, the commands look for C frames that are
     executing the default frame evaluation function (that is, the core
     bytecode interpreter loop within CPython) and look up the value of
     the related ‘PyFrameObject *’.

     They emit the frame number (at the C level) within the thread.

     For example:

          (gdb) py-up
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/
          gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          (gdb) py-up
          #40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/
          gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game(main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>)
              main.start_game()
          (gdb) py-up
          Unable to find an older python frame

     so we’re at the top of the Python stack.

     The frame numbers correspond to those displayed by GDB’s standard
     ‘backtrace’ command.  The command skips C frames which are not
     executing Python code.

     Going back down:

          (gdb) py-down
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          (gdb) py-down
          #34 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #23 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #19 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          #14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated)
                      swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog)
          (gdb) py-down
          #11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>)
                      gtk.main()
          (gdb) py-down
          #8 (unable to read python frame information)
          (gdb) py-down
          Unable to find a newer python frame

     and we’re at the bottom of the Python stack.

     Note that in Python 3.12 and newer, the same C stack frame can be
     used for multiple Python stack frames.  This means that ‘py-up’ and
     ‘py-down’ may move multiple Python frames at once.  For example:

          (gdb) py-up
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb62b0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 5, in recursive_function (n=0)
             time.sleep(5)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6240, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=1)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb61d0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=2)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6160, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=3)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb60f0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=4)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6080, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=5)
             recursive_function(n-1)
          #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6020, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 9, in <module> ()
             recursive_function(5)
          (gdb) py-up
          Unable to find an older python frame


File: python.info,  Node: py-bt,  Next: py-print,  Prev: py-up and py-down,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.5.3.4 ‘py-bt’
...............

     The ‘py-bt’ command attempts to display a Python-level backtrace of
     the current thread.

     For example:

          (gdb) py-bt
          #8 (unable to read python frame information)
          #11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>)
                      gtk.main()
          #14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated)
                      swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog)
          #19 (unable to read python frame information)
          #23 (unable to read python frame information)
          #34 (unable to read python frame information)
          #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game ()
              u = UI()
          #40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game (main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>)
              main.start_game()

     The frame numbers correspond to those displayed by GDB’s standard
     ‘backtrace’ command.


File: python.info,  Node: py-print,  Next: py-locals,  Prev: py-bt,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.5.3.5 ‘py-print’
..................

     The ‘py-print’ command looks up a Python name and tries to print
     it.  It looks in locals within the current thread, then globals,
     then finally builtins:

          (gdb) py-print self
          local 'self' = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>,
          main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>
          (gdb) py-print __name__
          global '__name__' = 'gnome_sudoku.dialog_swallower'
          (gdb) py-print len
          builtin 'len' = <built-in function len>
          (gdb) py-print scarlet_pimpernel
          'scarlet_pimpernel' not found

     If the current C frame corresponds to multiple Python frames,
     ‘py-print’ only considers the first one.


File: python.info,  Node: py-locals,  Prev: py-print,  Up: Using the python-gdb extension

9.5.3.6 ‘py-locals’
...................

     The ‘py-locals’ command looks up all Python locals within the
     current Python frame in the selected thread, and prints their
     representations:

          (gdb) py-locals
          self = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>,
          main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>
          d = <gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>

     If the current C frame corresponds to multiple Python frames,
     locals from all of them will be shown:

          (gdb) py-locals
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 0
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 1
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 2
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 3
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 4
          Locals for recursive_function
          n = 5
          Locals for <module>


File: python.info,  Node: Use with GDB commands,  Prev: Using the python-gdb extension,  Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB

9.5.4 Use with GDB commands
---------------------------

The extension commands complement GDB’s built-in commands.  For example,
you can use a frame numbers shown by ‘py-bt’ with the ‘frame’ command to
go a specific frame within the selected thread, like this:

     (gdb) py-bt
     (output snipped)
     #68 Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> ()
             main()
     (gdb) frame 68
     #68 0x00000000004cd1e6 in PyEval_EvalFrameEx (f=Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> (), throwflag=0) at Python/ceval.c:2665
     2665                            x = call_function(&sp, oparg);
     (gdb) py-list
     1543        # Run the tests in a context manager that temporary changes the CWD to a
     1544        # temporary and writable directory. If it's not possible to create or
     1545        # change the CWD, the original CWD will be used. The original CWD is
     1546        # available from test_support.SAVEDCWD.
     1547        with test_support.temp_cwd(TESTCWD, quiet=True):
     >1548            main()

The ‘info threads’ command will give you a list of the threads within
the process, and you can use the ‘thread’ command to select a different
one:

     (gdb) info threads
       105 Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260)  sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86
       104 Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259)  sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86
     * 1 Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145)  0x00000038e46d73e3 in select () at ../sysdeps/unix/syscall-template.S:82

You can use ‘thread apply all COMMAND’ or (‘t a a COMMAND’ for short) to
run a command on all threads.  With ‘py-bt’, this lets you see what
every thread is doing at the Python level:

     (gdb) t a a py-bt

     Thread 105 (Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260)):
     #5 Frame 0x7fffd00019d0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140737213728528), count=1, owner=140737213728528)
             self.__block.acquire()
     #8 Frame 0x7fffac001640, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858a90>, saved_state=(1, 140737213728528))
                 self._acquire_restore(saved_state)
     #12 Frame 0x7fffb8001a10, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f ()
                 cond.wait()
     #16 Frame 0x7fffb8001c40, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140737213728528)
                     f()

     Thread 104 (Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259)):
     #5 Frame 0x7fffe4001580, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140736940992272), count=1, owner=140736940992272)
             self.__block.acquire()
     #8 Frame 0x7fffc8002090, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858860>, saved_state=(1, 140736940992272))
                 self._acquire_restore(saved_state)
     #12 Frame 0x7fffac001c90, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f ()
                 cond.wait()
     #16 Frame 0x7fffac0011c0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140736940992272)
                     f()

     Thread 1 (Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145)):
     #5 Frame 0xcb5380, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 16, in _wait ()
         time.sleep(0.01)
     #8 Frame 0x7fffd00024a0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 378, in _check_notify (self=<ConditionTests(_testMethodName='test_notify', _resultForDoCleanups=<TestResult(_original_stdout=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc191e0>, skipped=[], _mirrorOutput=False, testsRun=39, buffer=False, _original_stderr=<file at remote 0x7ffff7fc6340>, _stdout_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c7f8>, _stderr_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c790>, _moduleSetUpFailed=False, expectedFailures=[], errors=[], _previousTestClass=<type at remote 0x928310>, unexpectedSuccesses=[], failures=[], shouldStop=False, failfast=False) at remote 0xc185a0>, _threads=(0,), _cleanups=[], _type_equality_funcs={<type at remote 0x7eba00>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd750e0>, <type at remote 0x7e7820>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75160>, <type at remote 0x7e30e0>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75060>, <type at remote 0x7e7d20>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd751e0>, <type at remote 0x7f19e0...(truncated)
             _wait()


File: python.info,  Node: Enum HOWTO,  Next: Functional Programming HOWTO,  Prev: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.6 Enum HOWTO
==============

An *note Enum: a21. is a set of symbolic names bound to unique values.
They are similar to global variables, but they offer a more useful *note
repr(): 45b, grouping, type-safety, and a few other features.

They are most useful when you have a variable that can take one of a
limited selection of values.  For example, the days of the week:

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Weekday(Enum):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
     ...     THURSDAY = 4
     ...     FRIDAY = 5
     ...     SATURDAY = 6
     ...     SUNDAY = 7

Or perhaps the RGB primary colors:

     >>> from enum import Enum
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3

As you can see, creating an *note Enum: a21. is as simple as writing a
class that inherits from ‘Enum’ itself.

     Σημείωση: Case of Enum Members

     Because Enums are used to represent constants, and to help avoid
     issues with name clashes between mixin-class methods/attributes and
     enum names, we strongly recommend using UPPER_CASE names for
     members, and will be using that style in our examples.

Depending on the nature of the enum a member’s value may or may not be
important, but either way that value can be used to get the
corresponding member:

     >>> Weekday(3)
     <Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 3>

As you can see, the ‘repr()’ of a member shows the enum name, the member
name, and the value.  The ‘str()’ of a member shows only the enum name
and member name:

     >>> print(Weekday.THURSDAY)
     Weekday.THURSDAY

The 'type' of an enumeration member is the enum it belongs to:

     >>> type(Weekday.MONDAY)
     <enum 'Weekday'>
     >>> isinstance(Weekday.FRIDAY, Weekday)
     True

Enum members have an attribute that contains just their ‘name’:

     >>> print(Weekday.TUESDAY.name)
     TUESDAY

Likewise, they have an attribute for their ‘value’:

     >>> Weekday.WEDNESDAY.value
     3

Unlike many languages that treat enumerations solely as name/value
pairs, Python Enums can have behavior added.  For example, *note
datetime.date: 48d. has two methods for returning the weekday: *note
weekday(): 2ad3. and *note isoweekday(): 2ad4.  The difference is that
one of them counts from 0-6 and the other from 1-7.  Rather than keep
track of that ourselves we can add a method to the ‘Weekday’ enum to
extract the day from the ‘date’ instance and return the matching enum
member:

     @classmethod
     def from_date(cls, date):
         return cls(date.isoweekday())

The complete ‘Weekday’ enum now looks like this:

     >>> class Weekday(Enum):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 3
     ...     THURSDAY = 4
     ...     FRIDAY = 5
     ...     SATURDAY = 6
     ...     SUNDAY = 7
     ...     #
     ...     @classmethod
     ...     def from_date(cls, date):
     ...         return cls(date.isoweekday())

Now we can find out what today is!  Observe:

     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> Weekday.from_date(dt.date.today())
     <Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>

Of course, if you’re reading this on some other day, you’ll see that day
instead.

This ‘Weekday’ enum is great if our variable only needs one day, but
what if we need several?  Maybe we’re writing a function to plot chores
during a week, and don’t want to use a *note list: 4d9. – we could use a
different type of *note Enum: a21.:

     >>> from enum import Flag
     >>> class Weekday(Flag):
     ...     MONDAY = 1
     ...     TUESDAY = 2
     ...     WEDNESDAY = 4
     ...     THURSDAY = 8
     ...     FRIDAY = 16
     ...     SATURDAY = 32
     ...     SUNDAY = 64

We’ve changed two things: we’re inherited from *note Flag: a14, and the
values are all powers of 2.

Just like the original ‘Weekday’ enum above, we can have a single
selection:

     >>> first_week_day = Weekday.MONDAY
     >>> first_week_day
     <Weekday.MONDAY: 1>

But *note Flag: a14. also allows us to combine several members into a
single variable:

     >>> weekend = Weekday.SATURDAY | Weekday.SUNDAY
     >>> weekend
     <Weekday.SATURDAY|SUNDAY: 96>

You can even iterate over a *note Flag: a14. variable:

     >>> for day in weekend:
     ...     print(day)
     Weekday.SATURDAY
     Weekday.SUNDAY

Okay, let’s get some chores set up:

     >>> chores_for_ethan = {
     ...     'feed the cat': Weekday.MONDAY | Weekday.WEDNESDAY | Weekday.FRIDAY,
     ...     'do the dishes': Weekday.TUESDAY | Weekday.THURSDAY,
     ...     'answer SO questions': Weekday.SATURDAY,
     ...     }

And a function to display the chores for a given day:

     >>> def show_chores(chores, day):
     ...     for chore, days in chores.items():
     ...         if day in days:
     ...             print(chore)
     ...
     >>> show_chores(chores_for_ethan, Weekday.SATURDAY)
     answer SO questions

In cases where the actual values of the members do not matter, you can
save yourself some work and use *note auto(): 105e. for the values:

     >>> from enum import auto
     >>> class Weekday(Flag):
     ...     MONDAY = auto()
     ...     TUESDAY = auto()
     ...     WEDNESDAY = auto()
     ...     THURSDAY = auto()
     ...     FRIDAY = auto()
     ...     SATURDAY = auto()
     ...     SUNDAY = auto()
     ...     WEEKEND = SATURDAY | SUNDAY

* Menu:

* Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes::
* Duplicating enum members and values::
* Ensuring unique enumeration values::
* Using automatic values::
* Iteration: Iteration<2>.
* Comparisons: Comparisons<2>.
* Allowed members and attributes of enumerations::
* Restricted Enum subclassing::
* Dataclass support::
* Pickling::
* Functional API: Functional API<2>.
* Derived Enumerations::
* When to use __new__() vs. __init__(): When to use __new__ vs __init__.
* Finer Points::
* How are Enums and Flags different?::
* Enum Cookbook::
* Subclassing EnumType::


File: python.info,  Node: Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes,  Next: Duplicating enum members and values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.1 Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes
---------------------------------------------------------------------

Sometimes it’s useful to access members in enumerations programmatically
(i.e.  situations where ‘Color.RED’ won’t do because the exact color is
not known at program-writing time).  ‘Enum’ allows such access:

     >>> Color(1)
     <Color.RED: 1>
     >>> Color(3)
     <Color.BLUE: 3>

If you want to access enum members by 'name', use item access:

     >>> Color['RED']
     <Color.RED: 1>
     >>> Color['GREEN']
     <Color.GREEN: 2>

If you have an enum member and need its ‘name’ or ‘value’:

     >>> member = Color.RED
     >>> member.name
     'RED'
     >>> member.value
     1


File: python.info,  Node: Duplicating enum members and values,  Next: Ensuring unique enumeration values,  Prev: Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.2 Duplicating enum members and values
-----------------------------------------

Having two enum members with the same name is invalid:

     >>> class Shape(Enum):
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...     SQUARE = 3
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: 'SQUARE' already defined as 2

However, an enum member can have other names associated with it.  Given
two entries ‘A’ and ‘B’ with the same value (and ‘A’ defined first), ‘B’
is an alias for the member ‘A’.  By-value lookup of the value of ‘A’
will return the member ‘A’.  By-name lookup of ‘A’ will return the
member ‘A’.  By-name lookup of ‘B’ will also return the member ‘A’:

     >>> class Shape(Enum):
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...     DIAMOND = 1
     ...     CIRCLE = 3
     ...     ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape.SQUARE
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>
     >>> Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>
     >>> Shape(2)
     <Shape.SQUARE: 2>

     Σημείωση: Attempting to create a member with the same name as an
     already defined attribute (another member, a method, etc.)  or
     attempting to create an attribute with the same name as a member is
     not allowed.


File: python.info,  Node: Ensuring unique enumeration values,  Next: Using automatic values,  Prev: Duplicating enum members and values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.3 Ensuring unique enumeration values
----------------------------------------

By default, enumerations allow multiple names as aliases for the same
value.  When this behavior isn’t desired, you can use the *note
unique(): 2c3d. decorator:

     >>> from enum import Enum, unique
     >>> @unique
     ... class Mistake(Enum):
     ...     ONE = 1
     ...     TWO = 2
     ...     THREE = 3
     ...     FOUR = 3
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE


File: python.info,  Node: Using automatic values,  Next: Iteration<2>,  Prev: Ensuring unique enumeration values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.4 Using automatic values
----------------------------

If the exact value is unimportant you can use *note auto: 105e.:

     >>> from enum import Enum, auto
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> [member.value for member in Color]
     [1, 2, 3]

The values are chosen by *note _generate_next_value_(): 2c50, which can
be overridden:

     >>> class AutoName(Enum):
     ...     @staticmethod
     ...     def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values):
     ...         return name
     ...
     >>> class Ordinal(AutoName):
     ...     NORTH = auto()
     ...     SOUTH = auto()
     ...     EAST = auto()
     ...     WEST = auto()
     ...
     >>> [member.value for member in Ordinal]
     ['NORTH', 'SOUTH', 'EAST', 'WEST']

     Σημείωση: The *note _generate_next_value_(): 2c50. method must be
     defined before any members.


File: python.info,  Node: Iteration<2>,  Next: Comparisons<2>,  Prev: Using automatic values,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.5 Iteration
---------------

Iterating over the members of an enum does not provide the aliases:

     >>> list(Shape)
     [<Shape.SQUARE: 2>, <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>, <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>]
     >>> list(Weekday)
     [<Weekday.MONDAY: 1>, <Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>, <Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 4>, <Weekday.THURSDAY: 8>, <Weekday.FRIDAY: 16>, <Weekday.SATURDAY: 32>, <Weekday.SUNDAY: 64>]

Note that the aliases ‘Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE’ and ‘Weekday.WEEKEND’
aren’t shown.

The special attribute ‘__members__’ is a read-only ordered mapping of
names to members.  It includes all names defined in the enumeration,
including the aliases:

     >>> for name, member in Shape.__members__.items():
     ...     name, member
     ...
     ('SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)
     ('DIAMOND', <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>)
     ('CIRCLE', <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>)
     ('ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>)

The ‘__members__’ attribute can be used for detailed programmatic access
to the enumeration members.  For example, finding all the aliases:

     >>> [name for name, member in Shape.__members__.items() if member.name != name]
     ['ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE']

     Σημείωση: Aliases for flags include values with multiple flags set,
     such as ‘3’, and no flags set, i.e.  ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: Comparisons<2>,  Next: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations,  Prev: Iteration<2>,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.6 Comparisons
-----------------

Enumeration members are compared by identity:

     >>> Color.RED is Color.RED
     True
     >>> Color.RED is Color.BLUE
     False
     >>> Color.RED is not Color.BLUE
     True

Ordered comparisons between enumeration values are 'not' supported.
Enum members are not integers (but see *note IntEnum: 5a95. below):

     >>> Color.RED < Color.BLUE
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'Color' and 'Color'

Equality comparisons are defined though:

     >>> Color.BLUE == Color.RED
     False
     >>> Color.BLUE != Color.RED
     True
     >>> Color.BLUE == Color.BLUE
     True

Equality comparisons against non-enumeration values will always return
‘False’ (again, *note IntEnum: 109d. was explicitly designed to behave
differently, see below):

     >>> Color.BLUE == 2
     False

     Προειδοποίηση: It is possible to reload modules – if a reloaded
     module contains enums, they will be recreated, and the new members
     may not compare identical/equal to the original members.


File: python.info,  Node: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations,  Next: Restricted Enum subclassing,  Prev: Comparisons<2>,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.7 Allowed members and attributes of enumerations
----------------------------------------------------

Most of the examples above use integers for enumeration values.  Using
integers is short and handy (and provided by default by the *note
Functional API: 5a97.), but not strictly enforced.  In the vast majority
of use-cases, one doesn’t care what the actual value of an enumeration
is.  But if the value 'is' important, enumerations can have arbitrary
values.

Enumerations are Python classes, and can have methods and special
methods as usual.  If we have this enumeration:

     >>> class Mood(Enum):
     ...     FUNKY = 1
     ...     HAPPY = 3
     ...
     ...     def describe(self):
     ...         # self is the member here
     ...         return self.name, self.value
     ...
     ...     def __str__(self):
     ...         return 'my custom str! {0}'.format(self.value)
     ...
     ...     @classmethod
     ...     def favorite_mood(cls):
     ...         # cls here is the enumeration
     ...         return cls.HAPPY
     ...

Then:

     >>> Mood.favorite_mood()
     <Mood.HAPPY: 3>
     >>> Mood.HAPPY.describe()
     ('HAPPY', 3)
     >>> str(Mood.FUNKY)
     'my custom str! 1'

The rules for what is allowed are as follows: names that start and end
with a single underscore are reserved by enum and cannot be used; all
other attributes defined within an enumeration will become members of
this enumeration, with the exception of special methods (*note
__str__(): a0f, *note __add__(): 25d2, etc.), descriptors (methods are
also descriptors), and variable names listed in *note _ignore_: 2c4e.

Note: if your enumeration defines *note __new__(): 982. and/or *note
__init__(): 2fa, any value(s) given to the enum member will be passed
into those methods.  See *note Planet: 5a98. for an example.

     Σημείωση: The *note __new__(): 982. method, if defined, is used
     during creation of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum’s
     ‘__new__()’ which is used after class creation for lookup of
     existing members.  See *note When to use __new__() vs.  __init__():
     5a99. for more details.


File: python.info,  Node: Restricted Enum subclassing,  Next: Dataclass support,  Prev: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.8 Restricted Enum subclassing
---------------------------------

A new *note Enum: a21. class must have one base enum class, up to one
concrete data type, and as many *note object: e4d.-based mixin classes
as needed.  The order of these base classes is:

     class EnumName([mix-in, ...,] [data-type,] base-enum):
         pass

Also, subclassing an enumeration is allowed only if the enumeration does
not define any members.  So this is forbidden:

     >>> class MoreColor(Color):
     ...     PINK = 17
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
     ...
     TypeError: <enum 'MoreColor'> cannot extend <enum 'Color'>

But this is allowed:

     >>> class Foo(Enum):
     ...     def some_behavior(self):
     ...         pass
     ...
     >>> class Bar(Foo):
     ...     HAPPY = 1
     ...     SAD = 2
     ...

Allowing subclassing of enums that define members would lead to a
violation of some important invariants of types and instances.  On the
other hand, it makes sense to allow sharing some common behavior between
a group of enumerations.  (See *note OrderedEnum: 5a9b. for an example.)


File: python.info,  Node: Dataclass support,  Next: Pickling,  Prev: Restricted Enum subclassing,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.9 Dataclass support
-----------------------

When inheriting from a *note dataclass: 6e6, the *note __repr__(): 1cf9.
omits the inherited class” name.  For example:

     >>> from dataclasses import dataclass, field
     >>> @dataclass
     ... class CreatureDataMixin:
     ...     size: str
     ...     legs: int
     ...     tail: bool = field(repr=False, default=True)
     ...
     >>> class Creature(CreatureDataMixin, Enum):
     ...     BEETLE = 'small', 6
     ...     DOG = 'medium', 4
     ...
     >>> Creature.DOG
     <Creature.DOG: size='medium', legs=4>

Use the *note dataclass(): 6e6. argument ‘repr=False’ to use the
standard *note repr(): 45b.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.12: Only the dataclass fields are shown in the
value area, not the dataclass” name.

     Σημείωση: Adding *note dataclass(): 6e6. decorator to *note Enum:
     a21. and its subclasses is not supported.  It will not raise any
     errors, but it will produce very strange results at runtime, such
     as members being equal to each other:

          >>> @dataclass               # don't do this: it does not make any sense
          ... class Color(Enum):
          ...    RED = 1
          ...    BLUE = 2
          ...
          >>> Color.RED is Color.BLUE
          False
          >>> Color.RED == Color.BLUE  # problem is here: they should not be equal
          True


File: python.info,  Node: Pickling,  Next: Functional API<2>,  Prev: Dataclass support,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.10 Pickling
---------------

Enumerations can be pickled and unpickled:

     >>> from test.test_enum import Fruit
     >>> from pickle import dumps, loads
     >>> Fruit.TOMATO is loads(dumps(Fruit.TOMATO))
     True

The usual restrictions for pickling apply: picklable enums must be
defined in the top level of a module, since unpickling requires them to
be importable from that module.

     Σημείωση: With pickle protocol version 4 it is possible to easily
     pickle enums nested in other classes.

It is possible to modify how enum members are pickled/unpickled by
defining *note __reduce_ex__(): 1b7e. in the enumeration class.  The
default method is by-value, but enums with complicated values may want
to use by-name:

     >>> import enum
     >>> class MyEnum(enum.Enum):
     ...     __reduce_ex__ = enum.pickle_by_enum_name

     Σημείωση: Using by-name for flags is not recommended, as unnamed
     aliases will not unpickle.


File: python.info,  Node: Functional API<2>,  Next: Derived Enumerations,  Prev: Pickling,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.11 Functional API
---------------------

The *note Enum: a21. class is callable, providing the following
functional API:

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG')
     >>> Animal
     <enum 'Animal'>
     >>> Animal.ANT
     <Animal.ANT: 1>
     >>> list(Animal)
     [<Animal.ANT: 1>, <Animal.BEE: 2>, <Animal.CAT: 3>, <Animal.DOG: 4>]

The semantics of this API resemble *note namedtuple: 1cf.  The first
argument of the call to *note Enum: a21. is the name of the enumeration.

The second argument is the 'source' of enumeration member names.  It can
be a whitespace-separated string of names, a sequence of names, a
sequence of 2-tuples with key/value pairs, or a mapping (e.g.
dictionary) of names to values.  The last two options enable assigning
arbitrary values to enumerations; the others auto-assign increasing
integers starting with 1 (use the ‘start’ parameter to specify a
different starting value).  A new class derived from *note Enum: a21. is
returned.  In other words, the above assignment to ‘Animal’ is
equivalent to:

     >>> class Animal(Enum):
     ...     ANT = 1
     ...     BEE = 2
     ...     CAT = 3
     ...     DOG = 4
     ...

The reason for defaulting to ‘1’ as the starting number and not ‘0’ is
that ‘0’ is ‘False’ in a boolean sense, but by default enum members all
evaluate to ‘True’.

Pickling enums created with the functional API can be tricky as frame
stack implementation details are used to try and figure out which module
the enumeration is being created in (e.g.  it will fail if you use a
utility function in a separate module, and also may not work on
IronPython or Jython).  The solution is to specify the module name
explicitly as follows:

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', module=__name__)

     Προειδοποίηση: If ‘module’ is not supplied, and Enum cannot
     determine what it is, the new Enum members will not be unpicklable;
     to keep errors closer to the source, pickling will be disabled.

The new pickle protocol 4 also, in some circumstances, relies on *note
__qualname__: 2565. being set to the location where pickle will be able
to find the class.  For example, if the class was made available in
class SomeData in the global scope:

     >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', qualname='SomeData.Animal')

The complete signature is:

     Enum(
         value='NewEnumName',
         names=<...>,
         *,
         module='...',
         qualname='...',
         type=<mixed-in class>,
         start=1,
         )

   * 'value': What the new enum class will record as its name.

   * 'names': The enum members.  This can be a whitespace- or
     comma-separated string (values will start at 1 unless otherwise
     specified):

          'RED GREEN BLUE' | 'RED,GREEN,BLUE' | 'RED, GREEN, BLUE'

     or an iterator of names:

          ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE']

     or an iterator of (name, value) pairs:

          [('CYAN', 4), ('MAGENTA', 5), ('YELLOW', 6)]

     or a mapping:

          {'CHARTREUSE': 7, 'SEA_GREEN': 11, 'ROSEMARY': 42}

   * 'module': name of module where new enum class can be found.

   * 'qualname': where in module new enum class can be found.

   * 'type': type to mix in to new enum class.

   * 'start': number to start counting at if only names are passed in.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: The 'start' parameter was added.


File: python.info,  Node: Derived Enumerations,  Next: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Prev: Functional API<2>,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.12 Derived Enumerations
---------------------------

* Menu:

* IntEnum::
* StrEnum::
* IntFlag::
* Flag::
* Others: Others<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: IntEnum,  Next: StrEnum,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.6.12.1 IntEnum
................

The first variation of *note Enum: a21. that is provided is also a
subclass of *note int: 326.  Members of an *note IntEnum: 109d. can be
compared to integers; by extension, integer enumerations of different
types can also be compared to each other:

     >>> from enum import IntEnum
     >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
     ...     CIRCLE = 1
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> class Request(IntEnum):
     ...     POST = 1
     ...     GET = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape == 1
     False
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == 1
     True
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Request.POST
     True

However, they still can’t be compared to standard *note Enum: a21.
enumerations:

     >>> class Shape(IntEnum):
     ...     CIRCLE = 1
     ...     SQUARE = 2
     ...
     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...
     >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Color.RED
     False

*note IntEnum: 109d. values behave like integers in other ways you’d
expect:

     >>> int(Shape.CIRCLE)
     1
     >>> ['a', 'b', 'c'][Shape.CIRCLE]
     'b'
     >>> [i for i in range(Shape.SQUARE)]
     [0, 1]


File: python.info,  Node: StrEnum,  Next: IntFlag,  Prev: IntEnum,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.6.12.2 StrEnum
................

The second variation of *note Enum: a21. that is provided is also a
subclass of *note str: 1df.  Members of a *note StrEnum: a0d. can be
compared to strings; by extension, string enumerations of different
types can also be compared to each other.

Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: IntFlag,  Next: Flag,  Prev: StrEnum,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.6.12.3 IntFlag
................

The next variation of *note Enum: a21. provided, *note IntFlag: 105d, is
also based on *note int: 326.  The difference being ‘IntFlag’ members
can be combined using the bitwise operators (&, |, ^, ~) and the result
is still an ‘IntFlag’ member, if possible.  Like *note IntEnum: 109d,
‘IntFlag’ members are also integers and can be used wherever an ‘int’ is
used.

     Σημείωση: Any operation on an *note IntFlag: 105d. member besides
     the bit-wise operations will lose the ‘IntFlag’ membership.

     Bit-wise operations that result in invalid *note IntFlag: 105d.
     values will lose the ‘IntFlag’ membership.  See *note FlagBoundary:
     a15. for details.

Added in version 3.6.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11.

Sample *note IntFlag: 105d. class:

     >>> from enum import IntFlag
     >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
     ...     R = 4
     ...     W = 2
     ...     X = 1
     ...
     >>> Perm.R | Perm.W
     <Perm.R|W: 6>
     >>> Perm.R + Perm.W
     6
     >>> RW = Perm.R | Perm.W
     >>> Perm.R in RW
     True

It is also possible to name the combinations:

     >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
     ...     R = 4
     ...     W = 2
     ...     X = 1
     ...     RWX = 7
     ...
     >>> Perm.RWX
     <Perm.RWX: 7>
     >>> ~Perm.RWX
     <Perm: 0>
     >>> Perm(7)
     <Perm.RWX: 7>

     Σημείωση: Named combinations are considered aliases.  Aliases do
     not show up during iteration, but can be returned from by-value
     lookups.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11.

Another important difference between *note IntFlag: 105d. and *note
Enum: a21. is that if no flags are set (the value is 0), its boolean
evaluation is *note False: ef5.:

     >>> Perm.R & Perm.X
     <Perm: 0>
     >>> bool(Perm.R & Perm.X)
     False

Because *note IntFlag: 105d. members are also subclasses of *note int:
326. they can be combined with them (but may lose ‘IntFlag’ membership:

     >>> Perm.X | 4
     <Perm.R|X: 5>

     >>> Perm.X + 8
     9

     Σημείωση: The negation operator, ‘~’, always returns an *note
     IntFlag: 105d. member with a positive value:

          >>> (~Perm.X).value == (Perm.R|Perm.W).value == 6
          True

*note IntFlag: 105d. members can also be iterated over:

     >>> list(RW)
     [<Perm.R: 4>, <Perm.W: 2>]

Added in version 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Flag,  Next: Others<2>,  Prev: IntFlag,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.6.12.4 Flag
.............

The last variation is *note Flag: a14.  Like *note IntFlag: 105d, ‘Flag’
members can be combined using the bitwise operators (&, |, ^, ~).
Unlike ‘IntFlag’, they cannot be combined with, nor compared against,
any other ‘Flag’ enumeration, nor *note int: 326.  While it is possible
to specify the values directly it is recommended to use *note auto:
105e. as the value and let ‘Flag’ select an appropriate value.

Added in version 3.6.

Like *note IntFlag: 105d, if a combination of *note Flag: a14. members
results in no flags being set, the boolean evaluation is *note False:
ef5.:

     >>> from enum import Flag, auto
     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.RED & Color.GREEN
     <Color: 0>
     >>> bool(Color.RED & Color.GREEN)
     False

Individual flags should have values that are powers of two (1, 2, 4, 8,
…), while combinations of flags will not:

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...     WHITE = RED | BLUE | GREEN
     ...
     >>> Color.WHITE
     <Color.WHITE: 7>

Giving a name to the «no flags set» condition does not change its
boolean value:

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     BLACK = 0
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.BLACK
     <Color.BLACK: 0>
     >>> bool(Color.BLACK)
     False

*note Flag: a14. members can also be iterated over:

     >>> purple = Color.RED | Color.BLUE
     >>> list(purple)
     [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 2>]

Added in version 3.11.

     Σημείωση: For the majority of new code, *note Enum: a21. and *note
     Flag: a14. are strongly recommended, since *note IntEnum: 109d. and
     *note IntFlag: 105d. break some semantic promises of an enumeration
     (by being comparable to integers, and thus by transitivity to other
     unrelated enumerations).  ‘IntEnum’ and ‘IntFlag’ should be used
     only in cases where ‘Enum’ and ‘Flag’ will not do; for example,
     when integer constants are replaced with enumerations, or for
     interoperability with other systems.


File: python.info,  Node: Others<2>,  Prev: Flag,  Up: Derived Enumerations

9.6.12.5 Others
...............

While *note IntEnum: 109d. is part of the *note enum: 59. module, it
would be very simple to implement independently:

     class IntEnum(int, ReprEnum):   # or Enum instead of ReprEnum
         pass

This demonstrates how similar derived enumerations can be defined; for
example a ‘FloatEnum’ that mixes in *note float: 327. instead of *note
int: 326.

Some rules:

  1. When subclassing *note Enum: a21, mix-in types must appear before
     the ‘Enum’ class itself in the sequence of bases, as in the *note
     IntEnum: 109d. example above.

  2. Mix-in types must be subclassable.  For example, *note bool: 5ef.
     and *note range: d0f. are not subclassable and will throw an error
     during Enum creation if used as the mix-in type.

  3. While *note Enum: a21. can have members of any type, once you mix
     in an additional type, all the members must have values of that
     type, e.g.  *note int: 326. above.  This restriction does not apply
     to mix-ins which only add methods and don’t specify another type.

  4. When another data type is mixed in, the *note value: 2c49.
     attribute is 'not the same' as the enum member itself, although it
     is equivalent and will compare equal.

  5. A ‘data type’ is a mixin that defines *note __new__(): 982, or a
     *note dataclass: 6e6.

  6. %-style formatting: ‘%s’ and ‘%r’ call the *note Enum: a21. class’s
     *note __str__(): a0f. and *note __repr__(): 1bc. respectively;
     other codes (such as ‘%i’ or ‘%h’ for IntEnum) treat the enum
     member as its mixed-in type.

  7. *note Formatted string literals: 43a, *note str.format(): a12, and
     *note format(): 439. will use the enum’s *note __str__(): a0f.
     method.

     Σημείωση: Because *note IntEnum: 109d, *note IntFlag: 105d, and
     *note StrEnum: a0d. are designed to be drop-in replacements for
     existing constants, their *note __str__(): a0f. method has been
     reset to their data types” ‘__str__()’ method.


File: python.info,  Node: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Next: Finer Points,  Prev: Derived Enumerations,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.13 When to use ‘__new__()’ vs. ‘__init__()’
-----------------------------------------------

*note __new__(): 982. must be used whenever you want to customize the
actual value of the *note Enum: a21. member.  Any other modifications
may go in either ‘__new__()’ or *note __init__(): 2fa, with ‘__init__()’
being preferred.

For example, if you want to pass several items to the constructor, but
only want one of them to be the value:

     >>> class Coordinate(bytes, Enum):
     ...     """
     ...     Coordinate with binary codes that can be indexed by the int code.
     ...     """
     ...     def __new__(cls, value, label, unit):
     ...         obj = bytes.__new__(cls, [value])
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         obj.label = label
     ...         obj.unit = unit
     ...         return obj
     ...     PX = (0, 'P.X', 'km')
     ...     PY = (1, 'P.Y', 'km')
     ...     VX = (2, 'V.X', 'km/s')
     ...     VY = (3, 'V.Y', 'km/s')
     ...

     >>> print(Coordinate['PY'])
     Coordinate.PY

     >>> print(Coordinate(3))
     Coordinate.VY

     Προειδοποίηση: 'Do not' call ‘super().__new__()’, as the
     lookup-only ‘__new__’ is the one that is found; instead, use the
     data type directly.


File: python.info,  Node: Finer Points,  Next: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Prev: When to use __new__ vs __init__,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.14 Finer Points
-------------------

* Menu:

* Supported __dunder__ and _sunder_ names::
* _Private__names::
* Enum member type::
* Creating members that are mixed with other data types::
* Boolean value of Enum classes and members::
* Enum classes with methods::
* Combining members of Flag::
* Flag and IntFlag minutia::


File: python.info,  Node: Supported __dunder__ and _sunder_ names,  Next: _Private__names,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.14.1 Supported ‘__dunder__’ and ‘_sunder_’ names
....................................................

The supported ‘__dunder__’ and ‘_sunder_’ names can be found in the
*note Enum API documentation: 2c64.


File: python.info,  Node: _Private__names,  Next: Enum member type,  Prev: Supported __dunder__ and _sunder_ names,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.14.2 _Private__names
........................

*note Private names: 2293. are not converted to enum members, but remain
normal attributes.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.11.


File: python.info,  Node: Enum member type,  Next: Creating members that are mixed with other data types,  Prev: _Private__names,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.14.3 ‘Enum’ member type
...........................

Enum members are instances of their enum class, and are normally
accessed as ‘EnumClass.member’.  In certain situations, such as writing
custom enum behavior, being able to access one member directly from
another is useful, and is supported; however, in order to avoid name
clashes between member names and attributes/methods from mixed-in
classes, upper-case names are strongly recommended.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating members that are mixed with other data types,  Next: Boolean value of Enum classes and members,  Prev: Enum member type,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.14.4 Creating members that are mixed with other data types
..............................................................

When subclassing other data types, such as *note int: 326. or *note str:
1df, with an *note Enum: a21, all values after the ‘=’ are passed to
that data type’s constructor.  For example:

     >>> class MyEnum(IntEnum):      # help(int) -> int(x, base=10) -> integer
     ...     example = '11', 16      # so x='11' and base=16
     ...
     >>> MyEnum.example.value        # and hex(11) is...
     17


File: python.info,  Node: Boolean value of Enum classes and members,  Next: Enum classes with methods,  Prev: Creating members that are mixed with other data types,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.14.5 Boolean value of ‘Enum’ classes and members
....................................................

Enum classes that are mixed with non-*note Enum: a21. types (such as
*note int: 326, *note str: 1df, etc.)  are evaluated according to the
mixed-in type’s rules; otherwise, all members evaluate as *note True:
fcc.  To make your own enum’s boolean evaluation depend on the member’s
value add the following to your class:

     def __bool__(self):
         return bool(self.value)

Plain *note Enum: a21. classes always evaluate as *note True: fcc.


File: python.info,  Node: Enum classes with methods,  Next: Combining members of Flag,  Prev: Boolean value of Enum classes and members,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.14.6 ‘Enum’ classes with methods
....................................

If you give your enum subclass extra methods, like the *note Planet:
5a98. class below, those methods will show up in a *note dir(): a23. of
the member, but not of the class:

     >>> dir(Planet)
     ['EARTH', 'JUPITER', 'MARS', 'MERCURY', 'NEPTUNE', 'SATURN', 'URANUS', 'VENUS', '__class__', '__doc__', '__members__', '__module__']
     >>> dir(Planet.EARTH)
     ['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'mass', 'name', 'radius', 'surface_gravity', 'value']


File: python.info,  Node: Combining members of Flag,  Next: Flag and IntFlag minutia,  Prev: Enum classes with methods,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.14.7 Combining members of ‘Flag’
....................................

Iterating over a combination of *note Flag: a14. members will only
return the members that are comprised of a single bit:

     >>> class Color(Flag):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     MAGENTA = RED | BLUE
     ...     YELLOW = RED | GREEN
     ...     CYAN = GREEN | BLUE
     ...
     >>> Color(3)  # named combination
     <Color.YELLOW: 3>
     >>> Color(7)      # not named combination
     <Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>


File: python.info,  Node: Flag and IntFlag minutia,  Prev: Combining members of Flag,  Up: Finer Points

9.6.14.8 ‘Flag’ and ‘IntFlag’ minutia
.....................................

Using the following snippet for our examples:

     >>> class Color(IntFlag):
     ...     BLACK = 0
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 4
     ...     PURPLE = RED | BLUE
     ...     WHITE = RED | GREEN | BLUE
     ...

the following are true:

   - single-bit flags are canonical

   - multi-bit and zero-bit flags are aliases

   - only canonical flags are returned during iteration:

          >>> list(Color.WHITE)
          [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

   - negating a flag or flag set returns a new flag/flag set with the
     corresponding positive integer value:

          >>> Color.BLUE
          <Color.BLUE: 4>

          >>> ~Color.BLUE
          <Color.RED|GREEN: 3>

   - names of pseudo-flags are constructed from their members” names:

          >>> (Color.RED | Color.GREEN).name
          'RED|GREEN'

          >>> class Perm(IntFlag):
          ...     R = 4
          ...     W = 2
          ...     X = 1
          ...
          >>> (Perm.R & Perm.W).name is None  # effectively Perm(0)
          True

   - multi-bit flags, aka aliases, can be returned from operations:

          >>> Color.RED | Color.BLUE
          <Color.PURPLE: 5>

          >>> Color(7)  # or Color(-1)
          <Color.WHITE: 7>

          >>> Color(0)
          <Color.BLACK: 0>

   - membership / containment checking: zero-valued flags are always
     considered to be contained:

          >>> Color.BLACK in Color.WHITE
          True

     otherwise, only if all bits of one flag are in the other flag will
     True be returned:

          >>> Color.PURPLE in Color.WHITE
          True

          >>> Color.GREEN in Color.PURPLE
          False

There is a new boundary mechanism that controls how out-of-range /
invalid bits are handled: ‘STRICT’, ‘CONFORM’, ‘EJECT’, and ‘KEEP’:

   * STRICT –> raises an exception when presented with invalid values

   * CONFORM –> discards any invalid bits

   * EJECT –> lose Flag status and become a normal int with the given
     value

   * KEEP –> keep the extra bits

        - keeps Flag status and extra bits

        - extra bits do not show up in iteration

        - extra bits do show up in repr() and str()

The default for Flag is ‘STRICT’, the default for ‘IntFlag’ is ‘EJECT’,
and the default for ‘_convert_’ is ‘KEEP’ (see ‘ssl.Options’ for an
example of when ‘KEEP’ is needed).


File: python.info,  Node: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Next: Enum Cookbook,  Prev: Finer Points,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.15 How are Enums and Flags different?
-----------------------------------------

Enums have a custom metaclass that affects many aspects of both derived
*note Enum: a21. classes and their instances (members).

* Menu:

* Enum Classes::
* Flag Classes::
* Enum Members (aka instances): Enum Members aka instances.
* Flag Members::


File: python.info,  Node: Enum Classes,  Next: Flag Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.6.15.1 Enum Classes
.....................

The *note EnumType: 6fc. metaclass is responsible for providing the
*note __contains__(): 175c, *note __dir__(): 1935, *note __iter__():
102d. and other methods that allow one to do things with an *note Enum:
a21. class that fail on a typical class, such as ‘list(Color)’ or
‘some_enum_var in Color’.  ‘EnumType’ is responsible for ensuring that
various other methods on the final ‘Enum’ class are correct (such as
*note __new__(): 982, *note __getnewargs__(): 118d, *note __str__():
a0f. and *note __repr__(): 1bc.).


File: python.info,  Node: Flag Classes,  Next: Enum Members aka instances,  Prev: Enum Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.6.15.2 Flag Classes
.....................

Flags have an expanded view of aliasing: to be canonical, the value of a
flag needs to be a power-of-two value, and not a duplicate name.  So, in
addition to the *note Enum: a21. definition of alias, a flag with no
value (a.k.a.  ‘0’) or with more than one power-of-two value (e.g.  ‘3’)
is considered an alias.


File: python.info,  Node: Enum Members aka instances,  Next: Flag Members,  Prev: Flag Classes,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.6.15.3 Enum Members (aka instances)
.....................................

The most interesting thing about enum members is that they are
singletons.  *note EnumType: 6fc. creates them all while it is creating
the enum class itself, and then puts a custom *note __new__(): 982. in
place to ensure that no new ones are ever instantiated by returning only
the existing member instances.


File: python.info,  Node: Flag Members,  Prev: Enum Members aka instances,  Up: How are Enums and Flags different?

9.6.15.4 Flag Members
.....................

Flag members can be iterated over just like the *note Flag: a14. class,
and only the canonical members will be returned.  For example:

     >>> list(Color)
     [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>]

(Note that ‘BLACK’, ‘PURPLE’, and ‘WHITE’ do not show up.)

Inverting a flag member returns the corresponding positive value, rather
than a negative value — for example:

     >>> ~Color.RED
     <Color.GREEN|BLUE: 6>

Flag members have a length corresponding to the number of power-of-two
values they contain.  For example:

     >>> len(Color.PURPLE)
     2


File: python.info,  Node: Enum Cookbook,  Next: Subclassing EnumType,  Prev: How are Enums and Flags different?,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.16 Enum Cookbook
--------------------

While *note Enum: a21, *note IntEnum: 109d, *note StrEnum: a0d, *note
Flag: a14, and *note IntFlag: 105d. are expected to cover the majority
of use-cases, they cannot cover them all.  Here are recipes for some
different types of enumerations that can be used directly, or as
examples for creating one’s own.

* Menu:

* Omitting values::
* OrderedEnum::
* DuplicateFreeEnum::
* MultiValueEnum::
* Planet::
* TimePeriod::


File: python.info,  Node: Omitting values,  Next: OrderedEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.6.16.1 Omitting values
........................

In many use-cases, one doesn’t care what the actual value of an
enumeration is.  There are several ways to define this type of simple
enumeration:

   - use instances of *note auto: 105e. for the value

   - use instances of *note object: e4d. as the value

   - use a descriptive string as the value

   - use a tuple as the value and a custom *note __new__(): 982. to
     replace the tuple with an *note int: 326. value

Using any of these methods signifies to the user that these values are
not important, and also enables one to add, remove, or reorder members
without having to renumber the remaining members.

* Menu:

* Using auto::
* Using object::
* Using a descriptive string::
* Using a custom __new__(): Using a custom __new__.


File: python.info,  Node: Using auto,  Next: Using object,  Up: Omitting values

9.6.16.2 Using ‘auto’
.....................

Using *note auto: 105e. would look like:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = auto()
     ...     BLUE = auto()
     ...     GREEN = auto()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 3>


File: python.info,  Node: Using object,  Next: Using a descriptive string,  Prev: Using auto,  Up: Omitting values

9.6.16.3 Using ‘object’
.......................

Using *note object: e4d. would look like:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = object()
     ...     GREEN = object()
     ...     BLUE = object()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: <object object at 0x...>>

This is also a good example of why you might want to write your own
*note __repr__(): 1bc.:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = object()
     ...     GREEN = object()
     ...     BLUE = object()
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return "<%s.%s>" % (self.__class__.__name__, self._name_)
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN>


File: python.info,  Node: Using a descriptive string,  Next: Using a custom __new__,  Prev: Using object,  Up: Omitting values

9.6.16.4 Using a descriptive string
...................................

Using a string as the value would look like:

     >>> class Color(Enum):
     ...     RED = 'stop'
     ...     GREEN = 'go'
     ...     BLUE = 'too fast!'
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 'go'>


File: python.info,  Node: Using a custom __new__,  Prev: Using a descriptive string,  Up: Omitting values

9.6.16.5 Using a custom ‘__new__()’
...................................

Using an auto-numbering *note __new__(): 982. would look like:

     >>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
     ...     def __new__(cls):
     ...         value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
     ...         obj = object.__new__(cls)
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         return obj
     ...
     >>> class Color(AutoNumber):
     ...     RED = ()
     ...     GREEN = ()
     ...     BLUE = ()
     ...
     >>> Color.GREEN
     <Color.GREEN: 2>

To make a more general purpose ‘AutoNumber’, add ‘*args’ to the
signature:

     >>> class AutoNumber(Enum):
     ...     def __new__(cls, *args):      # this is the only change from above
     ...         value = len(cls.__members__) + 1
     ...         obj = object.__new__(cls)
     ...         obj._value_ = value
     ...         return obj
     ...

Then when you inherit from ‘AutoNumber’ you can write your own
‘__init__’ to handle any extra arguments:

     >>> class Swatch(AutoNumber):
     ...     def __init__(self, pantone='unknown'):
     ...         self.pantone = pantone
     ...     AUBURN = '3497'
     ...     SEA_GREEN = '1246'
     ...     BLEACHED_CORAL = () # New color, no Pantone code yet!
     ...
     >>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN
     <Swatch.SEA_GREEN: 2>
     >>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN.pantone
     '1246'
     >>> Swatch.BLEACHED_CORAL.pantone
     'unknown'

     Σημείωση: The *note __new__(): 982. method, if defined, is used
     during creation of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum’s
     ‘__new__()’ which is used after class creation for lookup of
     existing members.

     Προειδοποίηση: 'Do not' call ‘super().__new__()’, as the
     lookup-only ‘__new__’ is the one that is found; instead, use the
     data type directly – e.g.:

          obj = int.__new__(cls, value)


File: python.info,  Node: OrderedEnum,  Next: DuplicateFreeEnum,  Prev: Omitting values,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.6.16.6 OrderedEnum
....................

An ordered enumeration that is not based on *note IntEnum: 109d. and so
maintains the normal *note Enum: a21. invariants (such as not being
comparable to other enumerations):

     >>> class OrderedEnum(Enum):
     ...     def __ge__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value >= other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __gt__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value > other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __le__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value <= other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...     def __lt__(self, other):
     ...         if self.__class__ is other.__class__:
     ...             return self.value < other.value
     ...         return NotImplemented
     ...
     >>> class Grade(OrderedEnum):
     ...     A = 5
     ...     B = 4
     ...     C = 3
     ...     D = 2
     ...     F = 1
     ...
     >>> Grade.C < Grade.A
     True


File: python.info,  Node: DuplicateFreeEnum,  Next: MultiValueEnum,  Prev: OrderedEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.6.16.7 DuplicateFreeEnum
..........................

Raises an error if a duplicate member value is found instead of creating
an alias:

     >>> class DuplicateFreeEnum(Enum):
     ...     def __init__(self, *args):
     ...         cls = self.__class__
     ...         if any(self.value == e.value for e in cls):
     ...             a = self.name
     ...             e = cls(self.value).name
     ...             raise ValueError(
     ...                 "aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  %r --> %r"
     ...                 % (a, e))
     ...
     >>> class Color(DuplicateFreeEnum):
     ...     RED = 1
     ...     GREEN = 2
     ...     BLUE = 3
     ...     GRENE = 2
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum:  'GRENE' --> 'GREEN'

     Σημείωση: This is a useful example for subclassing Enum to add or
     change other behaviors as well as disallowing aliases.  If the only
     desired change is disallowing aliases, the *note unique(): 2c3d.
     decorator can be used instead.


File: python.info,  Node: MultiValueEnum,  Next: Planet,  Prev: DuplicateFreeEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.6.16.8 MultiValueEnum
.......................

Supports having more than one value per member:

     >>> class MultiValueEnum(Enum):
     ...     def __new__(cls, value, *values):
     ...         self = object.__new__(cls)
     ...         self._value_ = value
     ...         for v in values:
     ...             self._add_value_alias_(v)
     ...         return self
     ...
     >>> class DType(MultiValueEnum):
     ...     float32 = 'f', 8
     ...     double64 = 'd', 9
     ...
     >>> DType('f')
     <DType.float32: 'f'>
     >>> DType(9)
     <DType.double64: 'd'>


File: python.info,  Node: Planet,  Next: TimePeriod,  Prev: MultiValueEnum,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.6.16.9 Planet
...............

If *note __new__(): 982. or *note __init__(): 2fa. is defined, the value
of the enum member will be passed to those methods:

     >>> class Planet(Enum):
     ...     MERCURY = (3.303e+23, 2.4397e6)
     ...     VENUS   = (4.869e+24, 6.0518e6)
     ...     EARTH   = (5.976e+24, 6.37814e6)
     ...     MARS    = (6.421e+23, 3.3972e6)
     ...     JUPITER = (1.9e+27,   7.1492e7)
     ...     SATURN  = (5.688e+26, 6.0268e7)
     ...     URANUS  = (8.686e+25, 2.5559e7)
     ...     NEPTUNE = (1.024e+26, 2.4746e7)
     ...     def __init__(self, mass, radius):
     ...         self.mass = mass       # in kilograms
     ...         self.radius = radius   # in meters
     ...     @property
     ...     def surface_gravity(self):
     ...         # universal gravitational constant  (m3 kg-1 s-2)
     ...         G = 6.67300E-11
     ...         return G * self.mass / (self.radius * self.radius)
     ...
     >>> Planet.EARTH.value
     (5.976e+24, 6378140.0)
     >>> Planet.EARTH.surface_gravity
     9.802652743337129


File: python.info,  Node: TimePeriod,  Prev: Planet,  Up: Enum Cookbook

9.6.16.10 TimePeriod
....................

An example to show the *note _ignore_: 2c4e. attribute in use:

     >>> import datetime as dt
     >>> class Period(dt.timedelta, Enum):
     ...     "different lengths of time"
     ...     _ignore_ = 'Period i'
     ...     Period = vars()
     ...     for i in range(367):
     ...         Period['day_%d' % i] = i
     ...
     >>> list(Period)[:2]
     [<Period.day_0: datetime.timedelta(0)>, <Period.day_1: datetime.timedelta(days=1)>]
     >>> list(Period)[-2:]
     [<Period.day_365: datetime.timedelta(days=365)>, <Period.day_366: datetime.timedelta(days=366)>]


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing EnumType,  Prev: Enum Cookbook,  Up: Enum HOWTO

9.6.17 Subclassing EnumType
---------------------------

While most enum needs can be met by customizing *note Enum: a21.
subclasses, either with class decorators or custom functions, *note
EnumType: 6fc. can be subclassed to provide a different Enum experience.


File: python.info,  Node: Functional Programming HOWTO,  Next: Logging HOWTO,  Prev: Enum HOWTO,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.7 Functional Programming HOWTO
================================


Author: A. M. Kuchling


Release: 0.32

In this document, we’ll take a tour of Python’s features suitable for
implementing programs in a functional style.  After an introduction to
the concepts of functional programming, we’ll look at language features
such as *note iterator: 6ce.s and *note generator: 1409.s and relevant
library modules such as *note itertools: 84. and *note functools: 62.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<13>.
* Iterators::
* Generator expressions and list comprehensions::
* Generators::
* Built-in functions::
* The itertools module::
* The functools module::
* Small functions and the lambda expression::
* Revision History and Acknowledgements::
* References::


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<13>,  Next: Iterators,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.7.1 Introduction
------------------

This section explains the basic concept of functional programming; if
you’re just interested in learning about Python language features, skip
to the next section on *note Iterators: 5ac1.

Programming languages support decomposing problems in several different
ways:

   * Most programming languages are 'procedural': programs are lists of
     instructions that tell the computer what to do with the program’s
     input.  C, Pascal, and even Unix shells are procedural languages.

   * In 'declarative' languages, you write a specification that
     describes the problem to be solved, and the language implementation
     figures out how to perform the computation efficiently.  SQL is the
     declarative language you’re most likely to be familiar with; a SQL
     query describes the data set you want to retrieve, and the SQL
     engine decides whether to scan tables or use indexes, which
     subclauses should be performed first, etc.

   * 'Object-oriented' programs manipulate collections of objects.
     Objects have internal state and support methods that query or
     modify this internal state in some way.  Smalltalk and Java are
     object-oriented languages.  C++ and Python are languages that
     support object-oriented programming, but don’t force the use of
     object-oriented features.

   * 'Functional' programming decomposes a problem into a set of
     functions.  Ideally, functions only take inputs and produce
     outputs, and don’t have any internal state that affects the output
     produced for a given input.  Well-known functional languages
     include the ML family (Standard ML, OCaml, and other variants) and
     Haskell.

The designers of some computer languages choose to emphasize one
particular approach to programming.  This often makes it difficult to
write programs that use a different approach.  Other languages are
multi-paradigm languages that support several different approaches.
Lisp, C++, and Python are multi-paradigm; you can write programs or
libraries that are largely procedural, object-oriented, or functional in
all of these languages.  In a large program, different sections might be
written using different approaches; the GUI might be object-oriented
while the processing logic is procedural or functional, for example.

In a functional program, input flows through a set of functions.  Each
function operates on its input and produces some output.  Functional
style discourages functions with side effects that modify internal state
or make other changes that aren’t visible in the function’s return
value.  Functions that have no side effects at all are called 'purely
functional'.  Avoiding side effects means not using data structures that
get updated as a program runs; every function’s output must only depend
on its input.

Some languages are very strict about purity and don’t even have
assignment statements such as ‘a=3’ or ‘c = a + b’, but it’s difficult
to avoid all side effects, such as printing to the screen or writing to
a disk file.  Another example is a call to the *note print(): 131f. or
*note time.sleep(): a8c. function, neither of which returns a useful
value.  Both are called only for their side effects of sending some text
to the screen or pausing execution for a second.

Python programs written in functional style usually won’t go to the
extreme of avoiding all I/O or all assignments; instead, they’ll provide
a functional-appearing interface but will use non-functional features
internally.  For example, the implementation of a function will still
use assignments to local variables, but won’t modify global variables or
have other side effects.

Functional programming can be considered the opposite of object-oriented
programming.  Objects are little capsules containing some internal state
along with a collection of method calls that let you modify this state,
and programs consist of making the right set of state changes.
Functional programming wants to avoid state changes as much as possible
and works with data flowing between functions.  In Python you might
combine the two approaches by writing functions that take and return
instances representing objects in your application (e-mail messages,
transactions, etc.).

Functional design may seem like an odd constraint to work under.  Why
should you avoid objects and side effects?  There are theoretical and
practical advantages to the functional style:

   * Formal provability.

   * Modularity.

   * Composability.

   * Ease of debugging and testing.

* Menu:

* Formal provability::
* Modularity::
* Ease of debugging and testing::
* Composability::


File: python.info,  Node: Formal provability,  Next: Modularity,  Up: Introduction<13>

9.7.1.1 Formal provability
..........................

A theoretical benefit is that it’s easier to construct a mathematical
proof that a functional program is correct.

For a long time researchers have been interested in finding ways to
mathematically prove programs correct.  This is different from testing a
program on numerous inputs and concluding that its output is usually
correct, or reading a program’s source code and concluding that the code
looks right; the goal is instead a rigorous proof that a program
produces the right result for all possible inputs.

The technique used to prove programs correct is to write down
'invariants', properties of the input data and of the program’s
variables that are always true.  For each line of code, you then show
that if invariants X and Y are true 'before' the line is executed, the
slightly different invariants X” and Y” are true 'after' the line is
executed.  This continues until you reach the end of the program, at
which point the invariants should match the desired conditions on the
program’s output.

Functional programming’s avoidance of assignments arose because
assignments are difficult to handle with this technique; assignments can
break invariants that were true before the assignment without producing
any new invariants that can be propagated onward.

Unfortunately, proving programs correct is largely impractical and not
relevant to Python software.  Even trivial programs require proofs that
are several pages long; the proof of correctness for a moderately
complicated program would be enormous, and few or none of the programs
you use daily (the Python interpreter, your XML parser, your web
browser) could be proven correct.  Even if you wrote down or generated a
proof, there would then be the question of verifying the proof; maybe
there’s an error in it, and you wrongly believe you’ve proved the
program correct.


File: python.info,  Node: Modularity,  Next: Ease of debugging and testing,  Prev: Formal provability,  Up: Introduction<13>

9.7.1.2 Modularity
..................

A more practical benefit of functional programming is that it forces you
to break apart your problem into small pieces.  Programs are more
modular as a result.  It’s easier to specify and write a small function
that does one thing than a large function that performs a complicated
transformation.  Small functions are also easier to read and to check
for errors.


File: python.info,  Node: Ease of debugging and testing,  Next: Composability,  Prev: Modularity,  Up: Introduction<13>

9.7.1.3 Ease of debugging and testing
.....................................

Testing and debugging a functional-style program is easier.

Debugging is simplified because functions are generally small and
clearly specified.  When a program doesn’t work, each function is an
interface point where you can check that the data are correct.  You can
look at the intermediate inputs and outputs to quickly isolate the
function that’s responsible for a bug.

Testing is easier because each function is a potential subject for a
unit test.  Functions don’t depend on system state that needs to be
replicated before running a test; instead you only have to synthesize
the right input and then check that the output matches expectations.


File: python.info,  Node: Composability,  Prev: Ease of debugging and testing,  Up: Introduction<13>

9.7.1.4 Composability
.....................

As you work on a functional-style program, you’ll write a number of
functions with varying inputs and outputs.  Some of these functions will
be unavoidably specialized to a particular application, but others will
be useful in a wide variety of programs.  For example, a function that
takes a directory path and returns all the XML files in the directory,
or a function that takes a filename and returns its contents, can be
applied to many different situations.

Over time you’ll form a personal library of utilities.  Often you’ll
assemble new programs by arranging existing functions in a new
configuration and writing a few functions specialized for the current
task.


File: python.info,  Node: Iterators,  Next: Generator expressions and list comprehensions,  Prev: Introduction<13>,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.7.2 Iterators
---------------

I’ll start by looking at a Python language feature that’s an important
foundation for writing functional-style programs: iterators.

An iterator is an object representing a stream of data; this object
returns the data one element at a time.  A Python iterator must support
a method called *note __next__(): 1672. that takes no arguments and
always returns the next element of the stream.  If there are no more
elements in the stream, ‘__next__()’ must raise the *note StopIteration:
fba. exception.  Iterators don’t have to be finite, though; it’s
perfectly reasonable to write an iterator that produces an infinite
stream of data.

The built-in *note iter(): bb4. function takes an arbitrary object and
tries to return an iterator that will return the object’s contents or
elements, raising *note TypeError: 291. if the object doesn’t support
iteration.  Several of Python’s built-in data types support iteration,
the most common being lists and dictionaries.  An object is called *note
iterable: 15ce. if you can get an iterator for it.

You can experiment with the iteration interface manually:

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> it = iter(L)
     >>> it
     <...iterator object at ...>
     >>> it.__next__()  # same as next(it)
     1
     >>> next(it)
     2
     >>> next(it)
     3
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     StopIteration
     >>>

Python expects iterable objects in several different contexts, the most
important being the *note for: 321. statement.  In the statement ‘for X
in Y’, Y must be an iterator or some object for which *note iter(): bb4.
can create an iterator.  These two statements are equivalent:

     for i in iter(obj):
         print(i)

     for i in obj:
         print(i)

Iterators can be materialized as lists or tuples by using the *note
list(): 4d9. or *note tuple(): 1ce. constructor functions:

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> iterator = iter(L)
     >>> t = tuple(iterator)
     >>> t
     (1, 2, 3)

Sequence unpacking also supports iterators: if you know an iterator will
return N elements, you can unpack them into an N-tuple:

     >>> L = [1, 2, 3]
     >>> iterator = iter(L)
     >>> a, b, c = iterator
     >>> a, b, c
     (1, 2, 3)

Built-in functions such as *note max(): 12ba. and *note min(): 12b9. can
take a single iterator argument and will return the largest or smallest
element.  The ‘"in"’ and ‘"not in"’ operators also support iterators: ‘X
in iterator’ is true if X is found in the stream returned by the
iterator.  You’ll run into obvious problems if the iterator is infinite;
‘max()’, ‘min()’ will never return, and if the element X never appears
in the stream, the ‘"in"’ and ‘"not in"’ operators won’t return either.

Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there’s no way to get
the previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it.
Iterator objects can optionally provide these additional capabilities,
but the iterator protocol only specifies the *note __next__(): 1672.
method.  Functions may therefore consume all of the iterator’s output,
and if you need to do something different with the same stream, you’ll
have to create a new iterator.

* Menu:

* Data Types That Support Iterators::


File: python.info,  Node: Data Types That Support Iterators,  Up: Iterators

9.7.2.1 Data Types That Support Iterators
.........................................

We’ve already seen how lists and tuples support iterators.  In fact, any
Python sequence type, such as strings, will automatically support
creation of an iterator.

Calling *note iter(): bb4. on a dictionary returns an iterator that will
loop over the dictionary’s keys:

     >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6,
     ...      'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12}
     >>> for key in m:
     ...     print(key, m[key])
     Jan 1
     Feb 2
     Mar 3
     Apr 4
     May 5
     Jun 6
     Jul 7
     Aug 8
     Sep 9
     Oct 10
     Nov 11
     Dec 12

Note that starting with Python 3.7, dictionary iteration order is
guaranteed to be the same as the insertion order.  In earlier versions,
the behaviour was unspecified and could vary between implementations.

Applying *note iter(): bb4. to a dictionary always loops over the keys,
but dictionaries have methods that return other iterators.  If you want
to iterate over values or key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the
*note values(): bae. or *note items(): baf. methods to get an
appropriate iterator.

The *note dict(): 188. constructor can accept an iterator that returns a
finite stream of ‘(key, value)’ tuples:

     >>> L = [('Italy', 'Rome'), ('France', 'Paris'), ('US', 'Washington DC')]
     >>> dict(iter(L))
     {'Italy': 'Rome', 'France': 'Paris', 'US': 'Washington DC'}

Files also support iteration by calling the *note readline(): 2296.
method until there are no more lines in the file.  This means you can
read each line of a file like this:

     for line in file:
         # do something for each line
         ...

Sets can take their contents from an iterable and let you iterate over
the set’s elements:

     >>> S = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}
     >>> for i in S:
     ...     print(i)
     2
     3
     5
     7
     11
     13


File: python.info,  Node: Generator expressions and list comprehensions,  Next: Generators,  Prev: Iterators,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.7.3 Generator expressions and list comprehensions
---------------------------------------------------

Two common operations on an iterator’s output are 1) performing some
operation for every element, 2) selecting a subset of elements that meet
some condition.  For example, given a list of strings, you might want to
strip off trailing whitespace from each line or extract all the strings
containing a given substring.

List comprehensions and generator expressions (short form: «listcomps»
and «genexps») are a concise notation for such operations, borrowed from
the functional programming language Haskell
(‘https://www.haskell.org/’).  You can strip all the whitespace from a
stream of strings with the following code:

     >>> line_list = ['  line 1\n', 'line 2  \n', ' \n', '']

     >>> # Generator expression -- returns iterator
     >>> stripped_iter = (line.strip() for line in line_list)

     >>> # List comprehension -- returns list
     >>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list]

You can select only certain elements by adding an ‘"if"’ condition:

     >>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list
     ...                  if line != ""]

With a list comprehension, you get back a Python list; ‘stripped_list’
is a list containing the resulting lines, not an iterator.  Generator
expressions return an iterator that computes the values as necessary,
not needing to materialize all the values at once.  This means that list
comprehensions aren’t useful if you’re working with iterators that
return an infinite stream or a very large amount of data.  Generator
expressions are preferable in these situations.

Generator expressions are surrounded by parentheses («()») and list
comprehensions are surrounded by square brackets («[]»).  Generator
expressions have the form:

     ( expression for expr in sequence1
                  if condition1
                  for expr2 in sequence2
                  if condition2
                  for expr3 in sequence3
                  if condition3
                  ...
                  for exprN in sequenceN
                  if conditionN )

Again, for a list comprehension only the outside brackets are different
(square brackets instead of parentheses).

The elements of the generated output will be the successive values of
‘expression’.  The ‘if’ clauses are all optional; if present,
‘expression’ is only evaluated and added to the result when ‘condition’
is true.

Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, but
the parentheses signalling a function call also count.  If you want to
create an iterator that will be immediately passed to a function you can
write:

     obj_total = sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects())

The ‘for...in’ clauses contain the sequences to be iterated over.  The
sequences do not have to be the same length, because they are iterated
over from left to right, 'not' in parallel.  For each element in
‘sequence1’, ‘sequence2’ is looped over from the beginning.  ‘sequence3’
is then looped over for each resulting pair of elements from ‘sequence1’
and ‘sequence2’.

To put it another way, a list comprehension or generator expression is
equivalent to the following Python code:

     for expr1 in sequence1:
         if not (condition1):
             continue   # Skip this element
         for expr2 in sequence2:
             if not (condition2):
                 continue   # Skip this element
             ...
             for exprN in sequenceN:
                 if not (conditionN):
                     continue   # Skip this element

                 # Output the value of
                 # the expression.

This means that when there are multiple ‘for...in’ clauses but no ‘if’
clauses, the length of the resulting output will be equal to the product
of the lengths of all the sequences.  If you have two lists of length 3,
the output list is 9 elements long:

     >>> seq1 = 'abc'
     >>> seq2 = (1, 2, 3)
     >>> [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3),
      ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3),
      ('c', 1), ('c', 2), ('c', 3)]

To avoid introducing an ambiguity into Python’s grammar, if ‘expression’
is creating a tuple, it must be surrounded with parentheses.  The first
list comprehension below is a syntax error, while the second one is
correct:

     # Syntax error
     [x, y for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
     # Correct
     [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]


File: python.info,  Node: Generators,  Next: Built-in functions,  Prev: Generator expressions and list comprehensions,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.7.4 Generators
----------------

Generators are a special class of functions that simplify the task of
writing iterators.  Regular functions compute a value and return it, but
generators return an iterator that returns a stream of values.

You’re doubtless familiar with how regular function calls work in Python
or C. When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its
local variables are created.  When the function reaches a ‘return’
statement, the local variables are destroyed and the value is returned
to the caller.  A later call to the same function creates a new private
namespace and a fresh set of local variables.  But, what if the local
variables weren’t thrown away on exiting a function?  What if you could
later resume the function where it left off?  This is what generators
provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions.

Here’s the simplest example of a generator function:

     >>> def generate_ints(N):
     ...    for i in range(N):
     ...        yield i

Any function containing a *note yield: d93. keyword is a generator
function; this is detected by Python’s *note bytecode: 6b3. compiler
which compiles the function specially as a result.

When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value;
instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator
protocol.  On executing the ‘yield’ expression, the generator outputs
the value of ‘i’, similar to a ‘return’ statement.  The big difference
between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on reaching a ‘yield’
the generator’s state of execution is suspended and local variables are
preserved.  On the next call to the generator’s *note __next__(): 229e.
method, the function will resume executing.

Here’s a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator:

     >>> gen = generate_ints(3)
     >>> gen
     <generator object generate_ints at ...>
     >>> next(gen)
     0
     >>> next(gen)
     1
     >>> next(gen)
     2
     >>> next(gen)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "stdin", line 1, in <module>
       File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints
     StopIteration

You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a, b, c =
generate_ints(3)’.

Inside a generator function, ‘return value’ causes
‘StopIteration(value)’ to be raised from the *note __next__(): 229e.
method.  Once this happens, or the bottom of the function is reached,
the procession of values ends and the generator cannot yield any further
values.

You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own
class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance
variables.  For example, returning a list of integers could be done by
setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note __next__(): 1672. method
increment ‘self.count’ and return it.  However, for a moderately
complicated generator, writing a corresponding class can be much
messier.

The test suite included with Python’s library,
Lib/test/test_generators.py(1), contains a number of more interesting
examples.  Here’s one generator that implements an in-order traversal of
a tree using generators recursively.

     # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order.
     def inorder(t):
         if t:
             for x in inorder(t.left):
                 yield x

             yield t.label

             for x in inorder(t.right):
                 yield x

Two other examples in ‘test_generators.py’ produce solutions for the
N-Queens problem (placing N queens on an NxN chess board so that no
queen threatens another) and the Knight’s Tour (finding a route that
takes a knight to every square of an NxN chessboard without visiting any
square twice).

* Menu:

* Passing values into a generator::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Lib/test/test_generators.py


File: python.info,  Node: Passing values into a generator,  Up: Generators

9.7.4.1 Passing values into a generator
.......................................

In Python 2.4 and earlier, generators only produced output.  Once a
generator’s code was invoked to create an iterator, there was no way to
pass any new information into the function when its execution is
resumed.  You could hack together this ability by making the generator
look at a global variable or by passing in some mutable object that
callers then modify, but these approaches are messy.

In Python 2.5 there’s a simple way to pass values into a generator.
*note yield: d93. became an expression, returning a value that can be
assigned to a variable or otherwise operated on:

     val = (yield i)

I recommend that you 'always' put parentheses around a ‘yield’
expression when you’re doing something with the returned value, as in
the above example.  The parentheses aren’t always necessary, but it’s
easier to always add them instead of having to remember when they’re
needed.

( PEP 342(1) explains the exact rules, which are that a
‘yield’-expression must always be parenthesized except when it occurs at
the top-level expression on the right-hand side of an assignment.  This
means you can write ‘val = yield i’ but have to use parentheses when
there’s an operation, as in ‘val = (yield i) + 12’.)

Values are sent into a generator by calling its *note send(value): 260f.
method.  This method resumes the generator’s code and the ‘yield’
expression returns the specified value.  If the regular *note
__next__(): 229e. method is called, the ‘yield’ returns ‘None’.

Here’s a simple counter that increments by 1 and allows changing the
value of the internal counter.

     def counter(maximum):
         i = 0
         while i < maximum:
             val = (yield i)
             # If value provided, change counter
             if val is not None:
                 i = val
             else:
                 i += 1

And here’s an example of changing the counter:

     >>> it = counter(10)
     >>> next(it)
     0
     >>> next(it)
     1
     >>> it.send(8)
     8
     >>> next(it)
     9
     >>> next(it)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "t.py", line 15, in <module>
         it.next()
     StopIteration

Because ‘yield’ will often be returning ‘None’, you should always check
for this case.  Don’t just use its value in expressions unless you’re
sure that the *note send(): 260f. method will be the only method used to
resume your generator function.

In addition to *note send(): 260f, there are two other methods on
generators:

   * *note throw(value): 905. is used to raise an exception inside the
     generator; the exception is raised by the ‘yield’ expression where
     the generator’s execution is paused.

   * *note close(): 199e. sends a *note GeneratorExit: 176a. exception
     to the generator to terminate the iteration.  On receiving this
     exception, the generator’s code must either raise ‘GeneratorExit’
     or *note StopIteration: fba.; catching the exception and doing
     anything else is illegal and will trigger a *note RuntimeError:
     30d.  ‘close()’ will also be called by Python’s garbage collector
     when the generator is garbage-collected.

     If you need to run cleanup code when a *note GeneratorExit: 176a.
     occurs, I suggest using a ‘try: ... finally:’ suite instead of
     catching ‘GeneratorExit’.

The cumulative effect of these changes is to turn generators from
one-way producers of information into both producers and consumers.

Generators also become 'coroutines', a more generalized form of
subroutines.  Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another
point (the top of the function, and a ‘return’ statement), but
coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points
(the ‘yield’ statements).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: Built-in functions,  Next: The itertools module,  Prev: Generators,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.7.5 Built-in functions
------------------------

Let’s look in more detail at built-in functions often used with
iterators.

Two of Python’s built-in functions, *note map(): 43e. and *note
filter(): c3b. duplicate the features of generator expressions:

*note map(f, iterA, iterB, ...): 43e. returns an iterator over the sequence

     ‘f(iterA[0], iterB[0]), f(iterA[1], iterB[1]), f(iterA[2],
     iterB[2]), ...’.

          >>> def upper(s):
          ...     return s.upper()

          >>> list(map(upper, ['sentence', 'fragment']))
          ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']
          >>> [upper(s) for s in ['sentence', 'fragment']]
          ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT']

You can of course achieve the same effect with a list comprehension.

*note filter(predicate, iter): c3b. returns an iterator over all the
sequence elements that meet a certain condition, and is similarly
duplicated by list comprehensions.  A 'predicate' is a function that
returns the truth value of some condition; for use with ‘filter()’, the
predicate must take a single value.

     >>> def is_even(x):
     ...     return (x % 2) == 0

     >>> list(filter(is_even, range(10)))
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

This can also be written as a list comprehension:

     >>> list(x for x in range(10) if is_even(x))
     [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

*note enumerate(iter, start=0): 1823. counts off the elements in the
iterable returning 2-tuples containing the count (from 'start') and each
element.

     >>> for item in enumerate(['subject', 'verb', 'object']):
     ...     print(item)
     (0, 'subject')
     (1, 'verb')
     (2, 'object')

*note enumerate(): 1823. is often used when looping through a list and
recording the indexes at which certain conditions are met:

     f = open('data.txt', 'r')
     for i, line in enumerate(f):
         if line.strip() == '':
             print('Blank line at line #%i' % i)

*note sorted(iterable, key=None, reverse=False): f8c. collects all the
elements of the iterable into a list, sorts the list, and returns the
sorted result.  The 'key' and 'reverse' arguments are passed through to
the constructed list’s *note sort(): f8d. method.

     >>> import random
     >>> # Generate 8 random numbers between [0, 10000)
     >>> rand_list = random.sample(range(10000), 8)
     >>> rand_list
     [769, 7953, 9828, 6431, 8442, 9878, 6213, 2207]
     >>> sorted(rand_list)
     [769, 2207, 6213, 6431, 7953, 8442, 9828, 9878]
     >>> sorted(rand_list, reverse=True)
     [9878, 9828, 8442, 7953, 6431, 6213, 2207, 769]

(For a more detailed discussion of sorting, see the *note Sorting
Techniques: 27d9.)

The *note any(iter): 17c3. and *note all(iter): 17c4. built-ins look at
the truth values of an iterable’s contents.  ‘any()’ returns ‘True’ if
any element in the iterable is a true value, and ‘all()’ returns ‘True’
if all of the elements are true values:

     >>> any([0, 1, 0])
     True
     >>> any([0, 0, 0])
     False
     >>> any([1, 1, 1])
     True
     >>> all([0, 1, 0])
     False
     >>> all([0, 0, 0])
     False
     >>> all([1, 1, 1])
     True

*note zip(iterA, iterB, ...): 43f. takes one element from each iterable
and returns them in a tuple:

     zip(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       ('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)

It doesn’t construct an in-memory list and exhaust all the input
iterators before returning; instead tuples are constructed and returned
only if they’re requested.  (The technical term for this behaviour is
lazy evaluation(1).)

This iterator is intended to be used with iterables that are all of the
same length.  If the iterables are of different lengths, the resulting
stream will be the same length as the shortest iterable.

     zip(['a', 'b'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       ('a', 1), ('b', 2)

You should avoid doing this, though, because an element may be taken
from the longer iterators and discarded.  This means you can’t go on to
use the iterators further because you risk skipping a discarded element.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_evaluation


File: python.info,  Node: The itertools module,  Next: The functools module,  Prev: Built-in functions,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.7.6 The itertools module
--------------------------

The *note itertools: 84. module contains a number of commonly used
iterators as well as functions for combining several iterators.  This
section will introduce the module’s contents by showing small examples.

The module’s functions fall into a few broad classes:

   * Functions that create a new iterator based on an existing iterator.

   * Functions for treating an iterator’s elements as function
     arguments.

   * Functions for selecting portions of an iterator’s output.

   * A function for grouping an iterator’s output.

* Menu:

* Creating new iterators::
* Calling functions on elements::
* Selecting elements::
* Combinatoric functions::
* Grouping elements::


File: python.info,  Node: Creating new iterators,  Next: Calling functions on elements,  Up: The itertools module

9.7.6.1 Creating new iterators
..............................

*note itertools.count(start, step): 1628. returns an infinite stream of
evenly spaced values.  You can optionally supply the starting number,
which defaults to 0, and the interval between numbers, which defaults to
1:

     itertools.count() =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...
     itertools.count(10) =>
       10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...
     itertools.count(10, 5) =>
       10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, ...

*note itertools.cycle(iter): 1a41. saves a copy of the contents of a
provided iterable and returns a new iterator that returns its elements
from first to last.  The new iterator will repeat these elements
infinitely.

     itertools.cycle([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...

*note itertools.repeat(elem, [n]): 1a81. returns the provided element
'n' times, or returns the element endlessly if 'n' is not provided.

     itertools.repeat('abc') =>
       abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, ...
     itertools.repeat('abc', 5) =>
       abc, abc, abc, abc, abc

*note itertools.chain(iterA, iterB, ...): 190. takes an arbitrary number
of iterables as input, and returns all the elements of the first
iterator, then all the elements of the second, and so on, until all of
the iterables have been exhausted.

     itertools.chain(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) =>
       a, b, c, 1, 2, 3

*note itertools.islice(iter, [start], stop, [step]): f09. returns a
stream that’s a slice of the iterator.  With a single 'stop' argument,
it will return the first 'stop' elements.  If you supply a starting
index, you’ll get 'stop-start' elements, and if you supply a value for
'step', elements will be skipped accordingly.  Unlike Python’s string
and list slicing, you can’t use negative values for 'start', 'stop', or
'step'.

     itertools.islice(range(10), 8) =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
     itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8) =>
       2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
     itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8, 2) =>
       2, 4, 6

*note itertools.tee(iter, [n]): 2dc2. replicates an iterator; it returns
'n' independent iterators that will all return the contents of the
source iterator.  If you don’t supply a value for 'n', the default is 2.
Replicating iterators requires saving some of the contents of the source
iterator, so this can consume significant memory if the iterator is
large and one of the new iterators is consumed more than the others.

     itertools.tee( itertools.count() ) =>
        iterA, iterB

     where iterA ->
        0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...

     and   iterB ->
        0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...


File: python.info,  Node: Calling functions on elements,  Next: Selecting elements,  Prev: Creating new iterators,  Up: The itertools module

9.7.6.2 Calling functions on elements
.....................................

The *note operator: a3. module contains a set of functions corresponding
to Python’s operators.  Some examples are *note operator.add(a, b):
2de9. (adds two values), *note operator.ne(a, b): 2dd9. (same as ‘a !=
b’), and *note operator.attrgetter('id'): 11e6. (returns a callable that
fetches the ‘.id’ attribute).

*note itertools.starmap(func, iter): 1490. assumes that the iterable
will return a stream of tuples, and calls 'func' using these tuples as
the arguments:

     itertools.starmap(os.path.join,
                       [('/bin', 'python'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'java'),
                        ('/usr', 'bin', 'perl'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'ruby')])
     =>
       /bin/python, /usr/bin/java, /usr/bin/perl, /usr/bin/ruby


File: python.info,  Node: Selecting elements,  Next: Combinatoric functions,  Prev: Calling functions on elements,  Up: The itertools module

9.7.6.3 Selecting elements
..........................

Another group of functions chooses a subset of an iterator’s elements
based on a predicate.

*note itertools.filterfalse(predicate, iter): 27c7. is the opposite of
*note filter(): c3b, returning all elements for which the predicate
returns false:

     itertools.filterfalse(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, ...

*note itertools.takewhile(predicate, iter): 2dc1. returns elements for
as long as the predicate returns true.  Once the predicate returns
false, the iterator will signal the end of its results.

     def less_than_10(x):
         return x < 10

     itertools.takewhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
       0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

     itertools.takewhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       0

*note itertools.dropwhile(predicate, iter): 2dc0. discards elements
while the predicate returns true, and then returns the rest of the
iterable’s results.

     itertools.dropwhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) =>
       10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ...

     itertools.dropwhile(is_even, itertools.count()) =>
       1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ...

*note itertools.compress(data, selectors): 1627. takes two iterators and
returns only those elements of 'data' for which the corresponding
element of 'selectors' is true, stopping whenever either one is
exhausted:

     itertools.compress([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], [True, True, False, False, True]) =>
        1, 2, 5


File: python.info,  Node: Combinatoric functions,  Next: Grouping elements,  Prev: Selecting elements,  Up: The itertools module

9.7.6.4 Combinatoric functions
..............................

The *note itertools.combinations(iterable, r): 16b6. returns an iterator
giving all possible 'r'-tuple combinations of the elements contained in
'iterable'.

     itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 5)

     itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 3) =>
       (1, 2, 3), (1, 2, 4), (1, 2, 5), (1, 3, 4), (1, 3, 5), (1, 4, 5),
       (2, 3, 4), (2, 3, 5), (2, 4, 5),
       (3, 4, 5)

The elements within each tuple remain in the same order as 'iterable'
returned them.  For example, the number 1 is always before 2, 3, 4, or 5
in the examples above.  A similar function, *note
itertools.permutations(iterable, r=None): 1961, removes this constraint
on the order, returning all possible arrangements of length 'r':

     itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5),
       (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)

     itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), (1, 2, 3, 5, 4), (1, 2, 4, 3, 5),
       ...
       (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)

If you don’t supply a value for 'r' the length of the iterable is used,
meaning that all the elements are permuted.

Note that these functions produce all of the possible combinations by
position and don’t require that the contents of 'iterable' are unique:

     itertools.permutations('aba', 3) =>
       ('a', 'b', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('b', 'a', 'a'),
       ('b', 'a', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('a', 'b', 'a')

The identical tuple ‘('a', 'a', 'b')’ occurs twice, but the two “a”
strings came from different positions.

The *note itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r): 1626.
function relaxes a different constraint: elements can be repeated within
a single tuple.  Conceptually an element is selected for the first
position of each tuple and then is replaced before the second element is
selected.

     itertools.combinations_with_replacement([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) =>
       (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5),
       (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5),
       (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5),
       (4, 4), (4, 5),
       (5, 5)


File: python.info,  Node: Grouping elements,  Prev: Combinatoric functions,  Up: The itertools module

9.7.6.5 Grouping elements
.........................

The last function I’ll discuss, *note itertools.groupby(iter,
key_func=None): 192a, is the most complicated.  ‘key_func(elem)’ is a
function that can compute a key value for each element returned by the
iterable.  If you don’t supply a key function, the key is simply each
element itself.

*note groupby(): 192a. collects all the consecutive elements from the
underlying iterable that have the same key value, and returns a stream
of 2-tuples containing a key value and an iterator for the elements with
that key.

     city_list = [('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL'),
                  ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK'),
                  ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ'),
                  ...
                 ]

     def get_state(city_state):
         return city_state[1]

     itertools.groupby(city_list, get_state) =>
       ('AL', iterator-1),
       ('AK', iterator-2),
       ('AZ', iterator-3), ...

     where
     iterator-1 =>
       ('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL')
     iterator-2 =>
       ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK')
     iterator-3 =>
       ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ')

*note groupby(): 192a. assumes that the underlying iterable’s contents
will already be sorted based on the key.  Note that the returned
iterators also use the underlying iterable, so you have to consume the
results of iterator-1 before requesting iterator-2 and its corresponding
key.


File: python.info,  Node: The functools module,  Next: Small functions and the lambda expression,  Prev: The itertools module,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.7.7 The functools module
--------------------------

The *note functools: 62. module contains some higher-order functions.  A
'higher-order function' takes one or more functions as input and returns
a new function.  The most useful tool in this module is the *note
functools.partial(): 4a6. function.

For programs written in a functional style, you’ll sometimes want to
construct variants of existing functions that have some of the
parameters filled in.  Consider a Python function ‘f(a, b, c)’; you may
wish to create a new function ‘g(b, c)’ that’s equivalent to ‘f(1, b,
c)’; you’re filling in a value for one of ‘f()’”s parameters.  This is
called «partial function application».

The constructor for *note partial(): 4a6. takes the arguments
‘(function, arg1, arg2, ..., kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2)’.  The
resulting object is callable, so you can just call it to invoke
‘function’ with the filled-in arguments.

Here’s a small but realistic example:

     import functools

     def log(message, subsystem):
         """Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem."""
         print('%s: %s' % (subsystem, message))
         ...

     server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server')
     server_log('Unable to open socket')

*note functools.reduce(func, iter, [initial_value]): 153. cumulatively
performs an operation on all the iterable’s elements and, therefore,
can’t be applied to infinite iterables.  'func' must be a function that
takes two elements and returns a single value.  ‘functools.reduce()’
takes the first two elements A and B returned by the iterator and
calculates ‘func(A, B)’.  It then requests the third element, C,
calculates ‘func(func(A, B), C)’, combines this result with the fourth
element returned, and continues until the iterable is exhausted.  If the
iterable returns no values at all, a *note TypeError: 291. exception is
raised.  If the initial value is supplied, it’s used as a starting point
and ‘func(initial_value, A)’ is the first calculation.

     >>> import operator, functools
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, ['A', 'BB', 'C'])
     'ABBC'
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, [])
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: reduce() of empty sequence with no initial value
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)
     6
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [], 1)
     1

If you use *note operator.add(): 2de9. with *note functools.reduce():
153, you’ll add up all the elements of the iterable.  This case is so
common that there’s a special built-in called *note sum(): 881. to
compute it:

     >>> import functools, operator
     >>> functools.reduce(operator.add, [1, 2, 3, 4], 0)
     10
     >>> sum([1, 2, 3, 4])
     10
     >>> sum([])
     0

For many uses of *note functools.reduce(): 153, though, it can be
clearer to just write the obvious *note for: 321. loop:

     import functools
     # Instead of:
     product = functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1)

     # You can write:
     product = 1
     for i in [1, 2, 3]:
         product *= i

A related function is *note itertools.accumulate(iterable,
func=operator.add): dbf.  It performs the same calculation, but instead
of returning only the final result, ‘accumulate()’ returns an iterator
that also yields each partial result:

     itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) =>
       1, 3, 6, 10, 15

     itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], operator.mul) =>
       1, 2, 6, 24, 120

* Menu:

* The operator module::


File: python.info,  Node: The operator module,  Up: The functools module

9.7.7.1 The operator module
...........................

The *note operator: a3. module was mentioned earlier.  It contains a set
of functions corresponding to Python’s operators.  These functions are
often useful in functional-style code because they save you from writing
trivial functions that perform a single operation.

Some of the functions in this module are:

   * Math operations: ‘add()’, ‘sub()’, ‘mul()’, ‘floordiv()’, ‘abs()’,
     …

   * Logical operations: ‘not_()’, ‘truth()’.

   * Bitwise operations: ‘and_()’, ‘or_()’, ‘invert()’.

   * Comparisons: ‘eq()’, ‘ne()’, ‘lt()’, ‘le()’, ‘gt()’, and ‘ge()’.

   * Object identity: ‘is_()’, ‘is_not()’.

Consult the operator module’s documentation for a complete list.


File: python.info,  Node: Small functions and the lambda expression,  Next: Revision History and Acknowledgements,  Prev: The functools module,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.7.8 Small functions and the lambda expression
-----------------------------------------------

When writing functional-style programs, you’ll often need little
functions that act as predicates or that combine elements in some way.

If there’s a Python built-in or a module function that’s suitable, you
don’t need to define a new function at all:

     stripped_lines = [line.strip() for line in lines]
     existing_files = filter(os.path.exists, file_list)

If the function you need doesn’t exist, you need to write it.  One way
to write small functions is to use the *note lambda: 1642. expression.
‘lambda’ takes a number of parameters and an expression combining these
parameters, and creates an anonymous function that returns the value of
the expression:

     adder = lambda x, y: x+y

     print_assign = lambda name, value: name + '=' + str(value)

An alternative is to just use the ‘def’ statement and define a function
in the usual way:

     def adder(x, y):
         return x + y

     def print_assign(name, value):
         return name + '=' + str(value)

Which alternative is preferable?  That’s a style question; my usual
course is to avoid using ‘lambda’.

One reason for my preference is that ‘lambda’ is quite limited in the
functions it can define.  The result has to be computable as a single
expression, which means you can’t have multiway ‘if... elif... else’
comparisons or ‘try... except’ statements.  If you try to do too much in
a ‘lambda’ statement, you’ll end up with an overly complicated
expression that’s hard to read.  Quick, what’s the following code doing?

     import functools
     total = functools.reduce(lambda a, b: (0, a[1] + b[1]), items)[1]

You can figure it out, but it takes time to disentangle the expression
to figure out what’s going on.  Using a short nested ‘def’ statements
makes things a little bit better:

     import functools
     def combine(a, b):
         return 0, a[1] + b[1]

     total = functools.reduce(combine, items)[1]

But it would be best of all if I had simply used a ‘for’ loop:

     total = 0
     for a, b in items:
         total += b

Or the *note sum(): 881. built-in and a generator expression:

     total = sum(b for a, b in items)

Many uses of *note functools.reduce(): 153. are clearer when written as
‘for’ loops.

Fredrik Lundh once suggested the following set of rules for refactoring
uses of ‘lambda’:

  1. Write a lambda function.

  2. Write a comment explaining what the heck that lambda does.

  3. Study the comment for a while, and think of a name that captures
     the essence of the comment.

  4. Convert the lambda to a def statement, using that name.

  5. Remove the comment.

I really like these rules, but you’re free to disagree about whether
this lambda-free style is better.


File: python.info,  Node: Revision History and Acknowledgements,  Next: References,  Prev: Small functions and the lambda expression,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.7.9 Revision History and Acknowledgements
-------------------------------------------

The author would like to thank the following people for offering
suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this
article: Ian Bicking, Nick Coghlan, Nick Efford, Raymond Hettinger, Jim
Jewett, Mike Krell, Leandro Lameiro, Jussi Salmela, Collin Winter, Blake
Winton.

Version 0.1: posted June 30 2006.

Version 0.11: posted July 1 2006.  Typo fixes.

Version 0.2: posted July 10 2006.  Merged genexp and listcomp sections
into one.  Typo fixes.

Version 0.21: Added more references suggested on the tutor mailing list.

Version 0.30: Adds a section on the ‘functional’ module written by
Collin Winter; adds short section on the operator module; a few other
edits.


File: python.info,  Node: References,  Prev: Revision History and Acknowledgements,  Up: Functional Programming HOWTO

9.7.10 References
-----------------

* Menu:

* General::
* Python-specific::
* Python documentation::


File: python.info,  Node: General,  Next: Python-specific,  Up: References

9.7.10.1 General
................

'Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs', by Harold Abelson
and Gerald Jay Sussman with Julie Sussman.  The book can be found at
‘https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp’.  In this classic textbook of computer
science, chapters 2 and 3 discuss the use of sequences and streams to
organize the data flow inside a program.  The book uses Scheme for its
examples, but many of the design approaches described in these chapters
are applicable to functional-style Python code.

‘https://defmacro.org/2006/06/19/fp.html’: A general introduction to
functional programming that uses Java examples and has a lengthy
historical introduction.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming’: General
Wikipedia entry describing functional programming.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine’: Entry for coroutines.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_application’: Entry for the
concept of partial function application.

‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying’: Entry for the concept of
currying.


File: python.info,  Node: Python-specific,  Next: Python documentation,  Prev: General,  Up: References

9.7.10.2 Python-specific
........................

‘https://gnosis.cx/TPiP/’: The first chapter of David Mertz’s book ‘Text
Processing in Python’ discusses functional programming for text
processing, in the section titled «Utilizing Higher-Order Functions in
Text Processing».

Mertz also wrote a 3-part series of articles on functional programming
for IBM’s DeveloperWorks site; see part 1(1), part 2(2), and part 3(3),

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://developer.ibm.com/articles/l-prog/

   (2) https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog2/

   (3) https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog3/


File: python.info,  Node: Python documentation,  Prev: Python-specific,  Up: References

9.7.10.3 Python documentation
.............................

Documentation for the *note itertools: 84. module.

Documentation for the *note functools: 62. module.

Documentation for the *note operator: a3. module.

PEP 289(1): «Generator Expressions»

PEP 342(2): «Coroutines via Enhanced Generators» describes the new
generator features in Python 2.5.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/


File: python.info,  Node: Logging HOWTO,  Next: Logging Cookbook,  Prev: Functional Programming HOWTO,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.8 Logging HOWTO
=================


Author: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>

This page contains tutorial information.  For links to reference
information and a logging cookbook, please see *note Other resources:
5ade.

* Menu:

* Basic Logging Tutorial::
* Advanced Logging Tutorial::
* Logging Levels: Logging Levels<2>.
* Useful Handlers::
* Exceptions raised during logging::
* Using arbitrary objects as messages::
* Optimization::
* Other resources::


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Logging Tutorial,  Next: Advanced Logging Tutorial,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.8.1 Basic Logging Tutorial
----------------------------

Logging is a means of tracking events that happen when some software
runs.  The software’s developer adds logging calls to their code to
indicate that certain events have occurred.  An event is described by a
descriptive message which can optionally contain variable data (i.e.
data that is potentially different for each occurrence of the event).
Events also have an importance which the developer ascribes to the
event; the importance can also be called the 'level' or 'severity'.

* Menu:

* When to use logging::
* A simple example::
* Logging to a file::
* Logging variable data::
* Changing the format of displayed messages::
* Displaying the date/time in messages::
* Next Steps::


File: python.info,  Node: When to use logging,  Next: A simple example,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.8.1.1 When to use logging
...........................

You can access logging functionality by creating a logger via ‘logger =
logging.getLogger(__name__)’, and then calling the logger’s *note
debug(): 11de, *note info(): 33b6, *note warning(): 1c7a, *note error():
33b8. and *note critical(): 11dd. methods.  To determine when to use
logging, and to see which logger methods to use when, see the table
below.  It states, for each of a set of common tasks, the best tool to
use for that task.

Task you want to perform                  The best tool for the task
                                          
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                          
Display console output for ordinary       *note print(): 131f.
usage of a command line script or         
program

Report events that occur during normal    A logger’s *note info(): 33b6. (or
operation of a program (e.g.  for         *note debug(): 11de. method for very
status monitoring or fault                detailed output for diagnostic purposes)
investigation)                            

Issue a warning regarding a particular    *note warnings.warn(): 18bb. in library
runtime event                             code if the issue is avoidable and the
                                          client application should be modified to
                                          eliminate the warning
                                          
                                          A logger’s *note warning(): 1c7a. method
                                          if there is nothing the client
                                          application can do about the situation,
                                          but the event should still be noted
                                          
                                          
Report an error regarding a particular    Raise an exception
runtime event                             

Report suppression of an error without    A logger’s *note error(): 33b8,
raising an exception (e.g.  error         *note exception(): 11dc. or
handler in a long-running server          *note critical(): 11dd. method as
process)                                  appropriate for the specific error and
                                          application domain
                                          

The logger methods are named after the level or severity of the events
they are used to track.  The standard levels and their applicability are
described below (in increasing order of severity):

Level              When it’s used
                   
---------------------------------------------------------------------
                   
‘DEBUG’            Detailed information, typically of interest
                   only when diagnosing problems.
                   
                   
‘INFO’             Confirmation that things are working as
                   expected.
                   
                   
‘WARNING’          An indication that something unexpected
                   happened, or indicative of some problem in the
                   near future (e.g.  “disk space low”).  The
                   software is still working as expected.
                   
                   
‘ERROR’            Due to a more serious problem, the software has
                   not been able to perform some function.
                   
                   
‘CRITICAL’         A serious error, indicating that the program
                   itself may be unable to continue running.
                   

The default level is ‘WARNING’, which means that only events of this
severity and higher will be tracked, unless the logging package is
configured to do otherwise.

Events that are tracked can be handled in different ways.  The simplest
way of handling tracked events is to print them to the console.  Another
common way is to write them to a disk file.


File: python.info,  Node: A simple example,  Next: Logging to a file,  Prev: When to use logging,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.8.1.2 A simple example
........................

A very simple example is:

     import logging
     logging.warning('Watch out!')  # will print a message to the console
     logging.info('I told you so')  # will not print anything

If you type these lines into a script and run it, you’ll see:

     WARNING:root:Watch out!

printed out on the console.  The ‘INFO’ message doesn’t appear because
the default level is ‘WARNING’.  The printed message includes the
indication of the level and the description of the event provided in the
logging call, i.e.  “Watch out!”.  The actual output can be formatted
quite flexibly if you need that; formatting options will also be
explained later.

Notice that in this example, we use functions directly on the ‘logging’
module, like ‘logging.debug’, rather than creating a logger and calling
functions on it.  These functions operate on the root logger, but can be
useful as they will call *note basicConfig(): dc2. for you if it has not
been called yet, like in this example.  In larger programs you’ll
usually want to control the logging configuration explicitly however -
so for that reason as well as others, it’s better to create loggers and
call their methods.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to a file,  Next: Logging variable data,  Prev: A simple example,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.8.1.3 Logging to a file
.........................

A very common situation is that of recording logging events in a file,
so let’s look at that next.  Be sure to try the following in a newly
started Python interpreter, and don’t just continue from the session
described above:

     import logging
     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', encoding='utf-8', level=logging.DEBUG)
     logger.debug('This message should go to the log file')
     logger.info('So should this')
     logger.warning('And this, too')
     logger.error('And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö')

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.9: The 'encoding' argument was added.  In earlier
Python versions, or if not specified, the encoding used is the default
value used by *note open(): 32b.  While not shown in the above example,
an 'errors' argument can also now be passed, which determines how
encoding errors are handled.  For available values and the default, see
the documentation for ‘open()’.

And now if we open the file and look at what we have, we should find the
log messages:

     DEBUG:__main__:This message should go to the log file
     INFO:__main__:So should this
     WARNING:__main__:And this, too
     ERROR:__main__:And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö

This example also shows how you can set the logging level which acts as
the threshold for tracking.  In this case, because we set the threshold
to ‘DEBUG’, all of the messages were printed.

If you want to set the logging level from a command-line option such as:

     --log=INFO

and you have the value of the parameter passed for ‘--log’ in some
variable 'loglevel', you can use:

     getattr(logging, loglevel.upper())

to get the value which you’ll pass to *note basicConfig(): dc2. via the
'level' argument.  You may want to error check any user input value,
perhaps as in the following example:

     # assuming loglevel is bound to the string value obtained from the
     # command line argument. Convert to upper case to allow the user to
     # specify --log=DEBUG or --log=debug
     numeric_level = getattr(logging, loglevel.upper(), None)
     if not isinstance(numeric_level, int):
         raise ValueError('Invalid log level: %s' % loglevel)
     logging.basicConfig(level=numeric_level, ...)

The call to *note basicConfig(): dc2. should come 'before' any calls to
a logger’s methods such as *note debug(): 11de, *note info(): 33b6, etc.
Otherwise, that logging event may not be handled in the desired manner.

If you run the above script several times, the messages from successive
runs are appended to the file 'example.log'.  If you want each run to
start afresh, not remembering the messages from earlier runs, you can
specify the 'filemode' argument, by changing the call in the above
example to:

     logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', filemode='w', level=logging.DEBUG)

The output will be the same as before, but the log file is no longer
appended to, so the messages from earlier runs are lost.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging variable data,  Next: Changing the format of displayed messages,  Prev: Logging to a file,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.8.1.4 Logging variable data
.............................

To log variable data, use a format string for the event description
message and append the variable data as arguments.  For example:

     import logging
     logging.warning('%s before you %s', 'Look', 'leap!')

will display:

     WARNING:root:Look before you leap!

As you can see, merging of variable data into the event description
message uses the old, %-style of string formatting.  This is for
backwards compatibility: the logging package pre-dates newer formatting
options such as *note str.format(): a12. and *note string.Template: a77.
These newer formatting options 'are' supported, but exploring them is
outside the scope of this tutorial: see *note Using particular
formatting styles throughout your application: 33d5. for more
information.


File: python.info,  Node: Changing the format of displayed messages,  Next: Displaying the date/time in messages,  Prev: Logging variable data,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.8.1.5 Changing the format of displayed messages
.................................................

To change the format which is used to display messages, you need to
specify the format you want to use:

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(levelname)s:%(message)s', level=logging.DEBUG)
     logging.debug('This message should appear on the console')
     logging.info('So should this')
     logging.warning('And this, too')

which would print:

     DEBUG:This message should appear on the console
     INFO:So should this
     WARNING:And this, too

Notice that the “root” which appeared in earlier examples has
disappeared.  For a full set of things that can appear in format
strings, you can refer to the documentation for *note LogRecord
attributes: 33b5, but for simple usage, you just need the 'levelname'
(severity), 'message' (event description, including variable data) and
perhaps to display when the event occurred.  This is described in the
next section.


File: python.info,  Node: Displaying the date/time in messages,  Next: Next Steps,  Prev: Changing the format of displayed messages,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.8.1.6 Displaying the date/time in messages
............................................

To display the date and time of an event, you would place “%(asctime)s”
in your format string:

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s')
     logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')

which should print something like this:

     2010-12-12 11:41:42,612 is when this event was logged.

The default format for date/time display (shown above) is like ISO8601
or RFC 3339(1).  If you need more control over the formatting of the
date/time, provide a 'datefmt' argument to ‘basicConfig’, as in this
example:

     import logging
     logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s', datefmt='%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p')
     logging.warning('is when this event was logged.')

which would display something like this:

     12/12/2010 11:46:36 AM is when this event was logged.

The format of the 'datefmt' argument is the same as supported by *note
time.strftime(): 1592.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3339.html


File: python.info,  Node: Next Steps,  Prev: Displaying the date/time in messages,  Up: Basic Logging Tutorial

9.8.1.7 Next Steps
..................

That concludes the basic tutorial.  It should be enough to get you up
and running with logging.  There’s a lot more that the logging package
offers, but to get the best out of it, you’ll need to invest a little
more of your time in reading the following sections.  If you’re ready
for that, grab some of your favourite beverage and carry on.

If your logging needs are simple, then use the above examples to
incorporate logging into your own scripts, and if you run into problems
or don’t understand something, please post a question in the Help
category of the Python discussion forum(1) and you should receive help
before too long.

Still here?  You can carry on reading the next few sections, which
provide a slightly more advanced/in-depth tutorial than the basic one
above.  After that, you can take a look at the *note Logging Cookbook:
15a0.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://discuss.python.org/c/help/7


File: python.info,  Node: Advanced Logging Tutorial,  Next: Logging Levels<2>,  Prev: Basic Logging Tutorial,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.8.2 Advanced Logging Tutorial
-------------------------------

The logging library takes a modular approach and offers several
categories of components: loggers, handlers, filters, and formatters.

   * Loggers expose the interface that application code directly uses.

   * Handlers send the log records (created by loggers) to the
     appropriate destination.

   * Filters provide a finer grained facility for determining which log
     records to output.

   * Formatters specify the layout of log records in the final output.

Log event information is passed between loggers, handlers, filters and
formatters in a *note LogRecord: 138f. instance.

Logging is performed by calling methods on instances of the *note
Logger: f0c. class (hereafter called 'loggers').  Each instance has a
name, and they are conceptually arranged in a namespace hierarchy using
dots (periods) as separators.  For example, a logger named “scan” is the
parent of loggers “scan.text”, “scan.html” and “scan.pdf”.  Logger names
can be anything you want, and indicate the area of an application in
which a logged message originates.

A good convention to use when naming loggers is to use a module-level
logger, in each module which uses logging, named as follows:

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

This means that logger names track the package/module hierarchy, and
it’s intuitively obvious where events are logged just from the logger
name.

The root of the hierarchy of loggers is called the root logger.  That’s
the logger used by the functions *note debug(): 33b7, *note info():
33e0, *note warning(): 331, *note error(): 33f4. and *note critical():
33f5, which just call the same-named method of the root logger.  The
functions and the methods have the same signatures.  The root logger’s
name is printed as “root” in the logged output.

It is, of course, possible to log messages to different destinations.
Support is included in the package for writing log messages to files,
HTTP GET/POST locations, email via SMTP, generic sockets, queues, or
OS-specific logging mechanisms such as syslog or the Windows NT event
log.  Destinations are served by 'handler' classes.  You can create your
own log destination class if you have special requirements not met by
any of the built-in handler classes.

By default, no destination is set for any logging messages.  You can
specify a destination (such as console or file) by using *note
basicConfig(): dc2. as in the tutorial examples.  If you call the
functions *note debug(): 33b7, *note info(): 33e0, *note warning(): 331,
*note error(): 33f4. and *note critical(): 33f5, they will check to see
if no destination is set; and if one is not set, they will set a
destination of the console (‘sys.stderr’) and a default format for the
displayed message before delegating to the root logger to do the actual
message output.

The default format set by *note basicConfig(): dc2. for messages is:

     severity:logger name:message

You can change this by passing a format string to *note basicConfig():
dc2. with the 'format' keyword argument.  For all options regarding how
a format string is constructed, see *note Formatter Objects: 33d2.

* Menu:

* Logging Flow::
* Loggers::
* Handlers::
* Formatters::
* Configuring Logging::
* What happens if no configuration is provided::
* Configuring Logging for a Library::


File: python.info,  Node: Logging Flow,  Next: Loggers,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.8.2.1 Logging Flow
....................

The flow of log event information in loggers and handlers is illustrated
in the following diagram.

[image src="python-figures/logging_flow.png"]



File: python.info,  Node: Loggers,  Next: Handlers,  Prev: Logging Flow,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.8.2.2 Loggers
...............

*note Logger: f0c. objects have a threefold job.  First, they expose
several methods to application code so that applications can log
messages at runtime.  Second, logger objects determine which log
messages to act upon based upon severity (the default filtering
facility) or filter objects.  Third, logger objects pass along relevant
log messages to all interested log handlers.

The most widely used methods on logger objects fall into two categories:
configuration and message sending.

These are the most common configuration methods:

   * *note Logger.setLevel(): 1835. specifies the lowest-severity log
     message a logger will handle, where debug is the lowest built-in
     severity level and critical is the highest built-in severity.  For
     example, if the severity level is INFO, the logger will handle only
     INFO, WARNING, ERROR, and CRITICAL messages and will ignore DEBUG
     messages.

   * *note Logger.addHandler(): 33b0. and *note Logger.removeHandler():
     33b1. add and remove handler objects from the logger object.
     Handlers are covered in more detail in *note Handlers: 5aeb.

   * *note Logger.addFilter(): 33b9. and *note Logger.removeFilter():
     33ba. add and remove filter objects from the logger object.
     Filters are covered in more detail in *note Filter Objects: 33dd.

You don’t need to always call these methods on every logger you create.
See the last two paragraphs in this section.

With the logger object configured, the following methods create log
messages:

   * *note Logger.debug(): 11de, *note Logger.info(): 33b6, *note
     Logger.warning(): 1c7a, *note Logger.error(): 33b8, and *note
     Logger.critical(): 11dd. all create log records with a message and
     a level that corresponds to their respective method names.  The
     message is actually a format string, which may contain the standard
     string substitution syntax of ‘%s’, ‘%d’, ‘%f’, and so on.  The
     rest of their arguments is a list of objects that correspond with
     the substitution fields in the message.  With regard to ‘**kwargs’,
     the logging methods care only about a keyword of ‘exc_info’ and use
     it to determine whether to log exception information.

   * *note Logger.exception(): 11dc. creates a log message similar to
     *note Logger.error(): 33b8.  The difference is that
     ‘Logger.exception()’ dumps a stack trace along with it.  Call this
     method only from an exception handler.

   * *note Logger.log(): 11db. takes a log level as an explicit
     argument.  This is a little more verbose for logging messages than
     using the log level convenience methods listed above, but this is
     how to log at custom log levels.

*note getLogger(): d2a. returns a reference to a logger instance with
the specified name if it is provided, or ‘root’ if not.  The names are
period-separated hierarchical structures.  Multiple calls to
‘getLogger()’ with the same name will return a reference to the same
logger object.  Loggers that are further down in the hierarchical list
are children of loggers higher up in the list.  For example, given a
logger with a name of ‘foo’, loggers with names of ‘foo.bar’,
‘foo.bar.baz’, and ‘foo.bam’ are all descendants of ‘foo’.

Loggers have a concept of 'effective level'.  If a level is not
explicitly set on a logger, the level of its parent is used instead as
its effective level.  If the parent has no explicit level set, 'its'
parent is examined, and so on - all ancestors are searched until an
explicitly set level is found.  The root logger always has an explicit
level set (‘WARNING’ by default).  When deciding whether to process an
event, the effective level of the logger is used to determine whether
the event is passed to the logger’s handlers.

Child loggers propagate messages up to the handlers associated with
their ancestor loggers.  Because of this, it is unnecessary to define
and configure handlers for all the loggers an application uses.  It is
sufficient to configure handlers for a top-level logger and create child
loggers as needed.  (You can, however, turn off propagation by setting
the 'propagate' attribute of a logger to ‘False’.)


File: python.info,  Node: Handlers,  Next: Formatters,  Prev: Loggers,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.8.2.3 Handlers
................

*note Handler: 1838. objects are responsible for dispatching the
appropriate log messages (based on the log messages” severity) to the
handler’s specified destination.  *note Logger: f0c. objects can add
zero or more handler objects to themselves with an *note addHandler():
33b0. method.  As an example scenario, an application may want to send
all log messages to a log file, all log messages of error or higher to
stdout, and all messages of critical to an email address.  This scenario
requires three individual handlers where each handler is responsible for
sending messages of a specific severity to a specific location.

The standard library includes quite a few handler types (see *note
Useful Handlers: 5aed.); the tutorials use mainly *note StreamHandler:
15a1. and *note FileHandler: 1e4a. in its examples.

There are very few methods in a handler for application developers to
concern themselves with.  The only handler methods that seem relevant
for application developers who are using the built-in handler objects
(that is, not creating custom handlers) are the following configuration
methods:

   * The *note setLevel(): 33c7. method, just as in logger objects,
     specifies the lowest severity that will be dispatched to the
     appropriate destination.  Why are there two ‘setLevel()’ methods?
     The level set in the logger determines which severity of messages
     it will pass to its handlers.  The level set in each handler
     determines which messages that handler will send on.

   * *note setFormatter(): 33c8. selects a Formatter object for this
     handler to use.

   * *note addFilter(): 33c9. and *note removeFilter(): 33ca.
     respectively configure and deconfigure filter objects on handlers.

Application code should not directly instantiate and use instances of
*note Handler: 1838.  Instead, the ‘Handler’ class is a base class that
defines the interface that all handlers should have and establishes some
default behavior that child classes can use (or override).


File: python.info,  Node: Formatters,  Next: Configuring Logging,  Prev: Handlers,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.8.2.4 Formatters
..................

Formatter objects configure the final order, structure, and contents of
the log message.  Unlike the base *note logging.Handler: 1838. class,
application code may instantiate formatter classes, although you could
likely subclass the formatter if your application needs special
behavior.  The constructor takes three optional arguments – a message
format string, a date format string and a style indicator.

 -- Μέθοδος: logging.Formatter.__init__ (fmt=None, datefmt=None,
          style='%')

If there is no message format string, the default is to use the raw
message.  If there is no date format string, the default date format is:

     %Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S

with the milliseconds tacked on at the end.  The ‘style’ is one of
‘'%'’, ‘'{'’, or ‘'$'’.  If one of these is not specified, then ‘'%'’
will be used.

If the ‘style’ is ‘'%'’, the message format string uses ‘%(<dictionary
key>)s’ styled string substitution; the possible keys are documented in
*note LogRecord attributes: 33b5.  If the style is ‘'{'’, the message
format string is assumed to be compatible with *note str.format(): a12.
(using keyword arguments), while if the style is ‘'$'’ then the message
format string should conform to what is expected by *note
string.Template.substitute(): 22c5.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: Added the ‘style’ parameter.

The following message format string will log the time in a
human-readable format, the severity of the message, and the contents of
the message, in that order:

     '%(asctime)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'

Formatters use a user-configurable function to convert the creation time
of a record to a tuple.  By default, *note time.localtime(): 189b. is
used; to change this for a particular formatter instance, set the
‘converter’ attribute of the instance to a function with the same
signature as ‘time.localtime()’ or *note time.gmtime(): 1569.  To change
it for all formatters, for example if you want all logging times to be
shown in GMT, set the ‘converter’ attribute in the Formatter class (to
‘time.gmtime’ for GMT display).


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring Logging,  Next: What happens if no configuration is provided,  Prev: Formatters,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.8.2.5 Configuring Logging
...........................

Programmers can configure logging in three ways:

  1. Creating loggers, handlers, and formatters explicitly using Python
     code that calls the configuration methods listed above.

  2. Creating a logging config file and reading it using the *note
     fileConfig(): f0e. function.

  3. Creating a dictionary of configuration information and passing it
     to the *note dictConfig(): 1559. function.

For the reference documentation on the last two options, see *note
Configuration functions: 1696.  The following example configures a very
simple logger, a console handler, and a simple formatter using Python
code:

     import logging

     # create logger
     logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # create console handler and set level to debug
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # create formatter
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')

     # add formatter to ch
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)

     # add ch to logger
     logger.addHandler(ch)

     # 'application' code
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

Running this module from the command line produces the following output:

     $ python simple_logging_module.py
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,618 - simple_example - DEBUG - debug message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,620 - simple_example - INFO - info message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,695 - simple_example - WARNING - warn message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,697 - simple_example - ERROR - error message
     2005-03-19 15:10:26,773 - simple_example - CRITICAL - critical message

The following Python module creates a logger, handler, and formatter
nearly identical to those in the example listed above, with the only
difference being the names of the objects:

     import logging
     import logging.config

     logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')

     # create logger
     logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')

     # 'application' code
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

Here is the logging.conf file:

     [loggers]
     keys=root,simpleExample

     [handlers]
     keys=consoleHandler

     [formatters]
     keys=simpleFormatter

     [logger_root]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=consoleHandler

     [logger_simpleExample]
     level=DEBUG
     handlers=consoleHandler
     qualname=simpleExample
     propagate=0

     [handler_consoleHandler]
     class=StreamHandler
     level=DEBUG
     formatter=simpleFormatter
     args=(sys.stdout,)

     [formatter_simpleFormatter]
     format=%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s

The output is nearly identical to that of the non-config-file-based
example:

     $ python simple_logging_config.py
     2005-03-19 15:38:55,977 - simpleExample - DEBUG - debug message
     2005-03-19 15:38:55,979 - simpleExample - INFO - info message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,054 - simpleExample - WARNING - warn message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,055 - simpleExample - ERROR - error message
     2005-03-19 15:38:56,130 - simpleExample - CRITICAL - critical message

You can see that the config file approach has a few advantages over the
Python code approach, mainly separation of configuration and code and
the ability of noncoders to easily modify the logging properties.

     Προειδοποίηση: The *note fileConfig(): f0e. function takes a
     default parameter, ‘disable_existing_loggers’, which defaults to
     ‘True’ for reasons of backward compatibility.  This may or may not
     be what you want, since it will cause any non-root loggers existing
     before the ‘fileConfig()’ call to be disabled unless they (or an
     ancestor) are explicitly named in the configuration.  Please refer
     to the reference documentation for more information, and specify
     ‘False’ for this parameter if you wish.

     The dictionary passed to *note dictConfig(): 1559. can also specify
     a Boolean value with key ‘disable_existing_loggers’, which if not
     specified explicitly in the dictionary also defaults to being
     interpreted as ‘True’.  This leads to the logger-disabling
     behaviour described above, which may not be what you want - in
     which case, provide the key explicitly with a value of ‘False’.

Note that the class names referenced in config files need to be either
relative to the logging module, or absolute values which can be resolved
using normal import mechanisms.  Thus, you could use either *note
WatchedFileHandler: 3434. (relative to the logging module) or
‘mypackage.mymodule.MyHandler’ (for a class defined in package
‘mypackage’ and module ‘mymodule’, where ‘mypackage’ is available on the
Python import path).

In Python 3.2, a new means of configuring logging has been introduced,
using dictionaries to hold configuration information.  This provides a
superset of the functionality of the config-file-based approach outlined
above, and is the recommended configuration method for new applications
and deployments.  Because a Python dictionary is used to hold
configuration information, and since you can populate that dictionary
using different means, you have more options for configuration.  For
example, you can use a configuration file in JSON format, or, if you
have access to YAML processing functionality, a file in YAML format, to
populate the configuration dictionary.  Or, of course, you can construct
the dictionary in Python code, receive it in pickled form over a socket,
or use whatever approach makes sense for your application.

Here’s an example of the same configuration as above, in YAML format for
the new dictionary-based approach:

     version: 1
     formatters:
       simple:
         format: '%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s'
     handlers:
       console:
         class: logging.StreamHandler
         level: DEBUG
         formatter: simple
         stream: ext://sys.stdout
     loggers:
       simpleExample:
         level: DEBUG
         handlers: [console]
         propagate: no
     root:
       level: DEBUG
       handlers: [console]

For more information about logging using a dictionary, see *note
Configuration functions: 1696.


File: python.info,  Node: What happens if no configuration is provided,  Next: Configuring Logging for a Library,  Prev: Configuring Logging,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.8.2.6 What happens if no configuration is provided
....................................................

If no logging configuration is provided, it is possible to have a
situation where a logging event needs to be output, but no handlers can
be found to output the event.

The event is output using a “handler of last resort”, stored in *note
lastResort: 15a3.  This internal handler is not associated with any
logger, and acts like a *note StreamHandler: 15a1. which writes the
event description message to the current value of ‘sys.stderr’
(therefore respecting any redirections which may be in effect).  No
formatting is done on the message - just the bare event description
message is printed.  The handler’s level is set to ‘WARNING’, so all
events at this and greater severities will be output.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.2: For versions of Python prior to 3.2, the
behaviour is as follows:

   * If *note raiseExceptions: 15a2. is ‘False’ (production mode), the
     event is silently dropped.

   * If *note raiseExceptions: 15a2. is ‘True’ (development mode), a
     message “No handlers could be found for logger X.Y.Z” is printed
     once.

To obtain the pre-3.2 behaviour, *note lastResort: 15a3. can be set to
‘None’.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring Logging for a Library,  Prev: What happens if no configuration is provided,  Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial

9.8.2.7 Configuring Logging for a Library
.........................................

When developing a library which uses logging, you should take care to
document how the library uses logging - for example, the names of
loggers used.  Some consideration also needs to be given to its logging
configuration.  If the using application does not use logging, and
library code makes logging calls, then (as described in the previous
section) events of severity ‘WARNING’ and greater will be printed to
‘sys.stderr’.  This is regarded as the best default behaviour.

If for some reason you 'don’t' want these messages printed in the
absence of any logging configuration, you can attach a do-nothing
handler to the top-level logger for your library.  This avoids the
message being printed, since a handler will always be found for the
library’s events: it just doesn’t produce any output.  If the library
user configures logging for application use, presumably that
configuration will add some handlers, and if levels are suitably
configured then logging calls made in library code will send output to
those handlers, as normal.

A do-nothing handler is included in the logging package: *note
NullHandler: 1629. (since Python 3.1).  An instance of this handler
could be added to the top-level logger of the logging namespace used by
the library ('if' you want to prevent your library’s logged events being
output to ‘sys.stderr’ in the absence of logging configuration).  If all
logging by a library 'foo' is done using loggers with names matching
“foo.x”, “foo.x.y”, etc.  then the code:

     import logging
     logging.getLogger('foo').addHandler(logging.NullHandler())

should have the desired effect.  If an organisation produces a number of
libraries, then the logger name specified can be “orgname.foo” rather
than just “foo”.

     Σημείωση: It is strongly advised that you 'do not log to the root
     logger' in your library.  Instead, use a logger with a unique and
     easily identifiable name, such as the ‘__name__’ for your library’s
     top-level package or module.  Logging to the root logger will make
     it difficult or impossible for the application developer to
     configure the logging verbosity or handlers of your library as they
     wish.

     Σημείωση: It is strongly advised that you 'do not add any handlers
     other than' *note NullHandler: 1629. 'to your library’s loggers'.
     This is because the configuration of handlers is the prerogative of
     the application developer who uses your library.  The application
     developer knows their target audience and what handlers are most
     appropriate for their application: if you add handlers “under the
     hood”, you might well interfere with their ability to carry out
     unit tests and deliver logs which suit their requirements.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging Levels<2>,  Next: Useful Handlers,  Prev: Advanced Logging Tutorial,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.8.3 Logging Levels
--------------------

The numeric values of logging levels are given in the following table.
These are primarily of interest if you want to define your own levels,
and need them to have specific values relative to the predefined levels.
If you define a level with the same numeric value, it overwrites the
predefined value; the predefined name is lost.

Level              Numeric value
                   
---------------------------------------
                   
‘CRITICAL’         50
                   
                   
‘ERROR’            40
                   
                   
‘WARNING’          30
                   
                   
‘INFO’             20
                   
                   
‘DEBUG’            10
                   
                   
‘NOTSET’           0
                   

Levels can also be associated with loggers, being set either by the
developer or through loading a saved logging configuration.  When a
logging method is called on a logger, the logger compares its own level
with the level associated with the method call.  If the logger’s level
is higher than the method call’s, no logging message is actually
generated.  This is the basic mechanism controlling the verbosity of
logging output.

Logging messages are encoded as instances of the *note LogRecord: 138f.
class.  When a logger decides to actually log an event, a ‘LogRecord’
instance is created from the logging message.

Logging messages are subjected to a dispatch mechanism through the use
of 'handlers', which are instances of subclasses of the *note Handler:
1838. class.  Handlers are responsible for ensuring that a logged
message (in the form of a *note LogRecord: 138f.) ends up in a
particular location (or set of locations) which is useful for the target
audience for that message (such as end users, support desk staff, system
administrators, developers).  Handlers are passed ‘LogRecord’ instances
intended for particular destinations.  Each logger can have zero, one or
more handlers associated with it (via the *note addHandler(): 33b0.
method of *note Logger: f0c.).  In addition to any handlers directly
associated with a logger, 'all handlers associated with all ancestors of
the logger' are called to dispatch the message (unless the 'propagate'
flag for a logger is set to a false value, at which point the passing to
ancestor handlers stops).

Just as for loggers, handlers can have levels associated with them.  A
handler’s level acts as a filter in the same way as a logger’s level
does.  If a handler decides to actually dispatch an event, the *note
emit(): 33d0. method is used to send the message to its destination.
Most user-defined subclasses of *note Handler: 1838. will need to
override this ‘emit()’.

* Menu:

* Custom Levels::


File: python.info,  Node: Custom Levels,  Up: Logging Levels<2>

9.8.3.1 Custom Levels
.....................

Defining your own levels is possible, but should not be necessary, as
the existing levels have been chosen on the basis of practical
experience.  However, if you are convinced that you need custom levels,
great care should be exercised when doing this, and it is possibly 'a
very bad idea to define custom levels if you are developing a library'.
That’s because if multiple library authors all define their own custom
levels, there is a chance that the logging output from such multiple
libraries used together will be difficult for the using developer to
control and/or interpret, because a given numeric value might mean
different things for different libraries.


File: python.info,  Node: Useful Handlers,  Next: Exceptions raised during logging,  Prev: Logging Levels<2>,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.8.4 Useful Handlers
---------------------

In addition to the base *note Handler: 1838. class, many useful
subclasses are provided:

  1. *note StreamHandler: 15a1. instances send messages to streams
     (file-like objects).

  2. *note FileHandler: 1e4a. instances send messages to disk files.

  3. *note BaseRotatingHandler: 3438. is the base class for handlers
     that rotate log files at a certain point.  It is not meant to be
     instantiated directly.  Instead, use *note RotatingFileHandler:
     1b59. or *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: 130b.

  4. *note RotatingFileHandler: 1b59. instances send messages to disk
     files, with support for maximum log file sizes and log file
     rotation.

  5. *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: 130b. instances send messages to
     disk files, rotating the log file at certain timed intervals.

  6. *note SocketHandler: 130c. instances send messages to TCP/IP
     sockets.  Since 3.4, Unix domain sockets are also supported.

  7. *note DatagramHandler: 130d. instances send messages to UDP
     sockets.  Since 3.4, Unix domain sockets are also supported.

  8. *note SMTPHandler: 1ad3. instances send messages to a designated
     email address.

  9. *note SysLogHandler: a4c. instances send messages to a Unix syslog
     daemon, possibly on a remote machine.

  10. *note NTEventLogHandler: 1985. instances send messages to a
     Windows NT/2000/XP event log.

  11. *note MemoryHandler: 3417. instances send messages to a buffer in
     memory, which is flushed whenever specific criteria are met.

  12. *note HTTPHandler: 11df. instances send messages to an HTTP server
     using either ‘GET’ or ‘POST’ semantics.

  13. *note WatchedFileHandler: 3434. instances watch the file they are
     logging to.  If the file changes, it is closed and reopened using
     the file name.  This handler is only useful on Unix-like systems;
     Windows does not support the underlying mechanism used.

  14. *note QueueHandler: 1d5f. instances send messages to a queue, such
     as those implemented in the *note queue: be. or *note
     multiprocessing: 98. modules.

  15. *note NullHandler: 1629. instances do nothing with error messages.
     They are used by library developers who want to use logging, but
     want to avoid the “No handlers could be found for logger 'XXX'”
     message which can be displayed if the library user has not
     configured logging.  See *note Configuring Logging for a Library:
     3431. for more information.

Added in version 3.1: The *note NullHandler: 1629. class.

Added in version 3.2: The *note QueueHandler: 1d5f. class.

The *note NullHandler: 1629, *note StreamHandler: 15a1. and *note
FileHandler: 1e4a. classes are defined in the core logging package.  The
other handlers are defined in a sub-module, *note logging.handlers: 8c.
(There is also another sub-module, *note logging.config: 8b, for
configuration functionality.)

Logged messages are formatted for presentation through instances of the
*note Formatter: 1839. class.  They are initialized with a format string
suitable for use with the % operator and a dictionary.

For formatting multiple messages in a batch, instances of *note
BufferingFormatter: 33d9. can be used.  In addition to the format string
(which is applied to each message in the batch), there is provision for
header and trailer format strings.

When filtering based on logger level and/or handler level is not enough,
instances of *note Filter: 15a4. can be added to both *note Logger: f0c.
and *note Handler: 1838. instances (through their *note addFilter():
33c9. method).  Before deciding to process a message further, both
loggers and handlers consult all their filters for permission.  If any
filter returns a false value, the message is not processed further.

The basic *note Filter: 15a4. functionality allows filtering by specific
logger name.  If this feature is used, messages sent to the named logger
and its children are allowed through the filter, and all others dropped.


File: python.info,  Node: Exceptions raised during logging,  Next: Using arbitrary objects as messages,  Prev: Useful Handlers,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.8.5 Exceptions raised during logging
--------------------------------------

The logging package is designed to swallow exceptions which occur while
logging in production.  This is so that errors which occur while
handling logging events - such as logging misconfiguration, network or
other similar errors - do not cause the application using logging to
terminate prematurely.

*note SystemExit: 10f7. and *note KeyboardInterrupt: d96. exceptions are
never swallowed.  Other exceptions which occur during the *note emit():
33d0. method of a *note Handler: 1838. subclass are passed to its *note
handleError(): 33cf. method.

The default implementation of *note handleError(): 33cf. in *note
Handler: 1838. checks to see if a module-level variable, *note
raiseExceptions: 15a2, is set.  If set, a traceback is printed to *note
sys.stderr: d05.  If not set, the exception is swallowed.

     Σημείωση: The default value of *note raiseExceptions: 15a2. is
     ‘True’.  This is because during development, you typically want to
     be notified of any exceptions that occur.  It’s advised that you
     set ‘raiseExceptions’ to ‘False’ for production usage.


File: python.info,  Node: Using arbitrary objects as messages,  Next: Optimization,  Prev: Exceptions raised during logging,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.8.6 Using arbitrary objects as messages
-----------------------------------------

In the preceding sections and examples, it has been assumed that the
message passed when logging the event is a string.  However, this is not
the only possibility.  You can pass an arbitrary object as a message,
and its *note __str__(): a0f. method will be called when the logging
system needs to convert it to a string representation.  In fact, if you
want to, you can avoid computing a string representation altogether -
for example, the *note SocketHandler: 130c. emits an event by pickling
it and sending it over the wire.


File: python.info,  Node: Optimization,  Next: Other resources,  Prev: Using arbitrary objects as messages,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.8.7 Optimization
------------------

Formatting of message arguments is deferred until it cannot be avoided.
However, computing the arguments passed to the logging method can also
be expensive, and you may want to avoid doing it if the logger will just
throw away your event.  To decide what to do, you can call the *note
isEnabledFor(): 169b. method which takes a level argument and returns
true if the event would be created by the Logger for that level of call.
You can write code like this:

     if logger.isEnabledFor(logging.DEBUG):
         logger.debug('Message with %s, %s', expensive_func1(),
                                             expensive_func2())

so that if the logger’s threshold is set above ‘DEBUG’, the calls to
‘expensive_func1’ and ‘expensive_func2’ are never made.

     Σημείωση: In some cases, *note isEnabledFor(): 169b. can itself be
     more expensive than you’d like (e.g.  for deeply nested loggers
     where an explicit level is only set high up in the logger
     hierarchy).  In such cases (or if you want to avoid calling a
     method in tight loops), you can cache the result of a call to
     ‘isEnabledFor()’ in a local or instance variable, and use that
     instead of calling the method each time.  Such a cached value would
     only need to be recomputed when the logging configuration changes
     dynamically while the application is running (which is not all that
     common).

There are other optimizations which can be made for specific
applications which need more precise control over what logging
information is collected.  Here’s a list of things you can do to avoid
processing during logging which you don’t need:

What you don’t want to collect                            How to avoid collecting it
                                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                          
Information about where calls were made from.             Set ‘logging._srcfile’ to ‘None’.  This avoids
                                                          calling *note sys._getframe(): ace, which may help to
                                                          speed up your code in environments like PyPy (which
                                                          can’t speed up code that uses ‘sys._getframe()’).
                                                          
                                                          
Threading information.                                    Set ‘logging.logThreads’ to ‘False’.
                                                          
                                                          
Current process ID (*note os.getpid(): 3226.)             Set ‘logging.logProcesses’ to ‘False’.
                                                          
                                                          
Current process name when using ‘multiprocessing’ to      Set ‘logging.logMultiprocessing’ to ‘False’.
manage multiple processes.                                

Current *note asyncio.Task: 460. name when using          Set ‘logging.logAsyncioTasks’ to ‘False’.
‘asyncio’.                                                

Also note that the core logging module only includes the basic handlers.
If you don’t import *note logging.handlers: 8c. and *note
logging.config: 8b, they won’t take up any memory.


File: python.info,  Node: Other resources,  Prev: Optimization,  Up: Logging HOWTO

9.8.8 Other resources
---------------------

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note logging: 8a.

     API reference for the logging module.

Module *note logging.config: 8b.

     Configuration API for the logging module.

Module *note logging.handlers: 8c.

     Useful handlers included with the logging module.

*note A logging cookbook: 15a0.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging Cookbook,  Next: Regular expression HOWTO,  Prev: Logging HOWTO,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.9 Logging Cookbook
====================


Author: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com>

This page contains a number of recipes related to logging, which have
been found useful in the past.  For links to tutorial and reference
information, please see *note Other resources: 5afe.

* Menu:

* Using logging in multiple modules::
* Logging from multiple threads::
* Multiple handlers and formatters::
* Logging to multiple destinations::
* Custom handling of levels::
* Configuration server example::
* Dealing with handlers that block::
* Sending and receiving logging events across a network::
* Adding contextual information to your logging output::
* Use of contextvars::
* Imparting contextual information in handlers::
* Logging to a single file from multiple processes::
* Using file rotation::
* Use of alternative formatting styles::
* Customizing LogRecord::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example::
* Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example::
* An example dictionary-based configuration::
* Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing::
* A more elaborate multiprocessing example::
* Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler::
* Implementing structured logging::
* Customizing handlers with dictConfig(): Customizing handlers with dictConfig.
* Using particular formatting styles throughout your application::
* Configuring filters with dictConfig(): Configuring filters with dictConfig.
* Customized exception formatting::
* Speaking logging messages::
* Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally::
* Sending logging messages to email, with buffering: Sending logging messages to email with buffering.
* Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration.
* Using a context manager for selective logging::
* A CLI application starter template::
* A Qt GUI for logging::
* Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support::
* How to treat a logger like an output stream::
* How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output::
* Patterns to avoid::
* Other resources: Other resources<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Using logging in multiple modules,  Next: Logging from multiple threads,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.1 Using logging in multiple modules
---------------------------------------

Multiple calls to ‘logging.getLogger('someLogger')’ return a reference
to the same logger object.  This is true not only within the same
module, but also across modules as long as it is in the same Python
interpreter process.  It is true for references to the same object;
additionally, application code can define and configure a parent logger
in one module and create (but not configure) a child logger in a
separate module, and all logger calls to the child will pass up to the
parent.  Here is a main module:

     import logging
     import auxiliary_module

     # create logger with 'spam_application'
     logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create file handler which logs even debug messages
     fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
     fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create console handler with a higher log level
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
     # create formatter and add it to the handlers
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
     fh.setFormatter(formatter)
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handlers to the logger
     logger.addHandler(fh)
     logger.addHandler(ch)

     logger.info('creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
     a = auxiliary_module.Auxiliary()
     logger.info('created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary')
     logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
     a.do_something()
     logger.info('finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something')
     logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.some_function()')
     auxiliary_module.some_function()
     logger.info('done with auxiliary_module.some_function()')

Here is the auxiliary module:

     import logging

     # create logger
     module_logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary')

     class Auxiliary:
         def __init__(self):
             self.logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary')
             self.logger.info('creating an instance of Auxiliary')

         def do_something(self):
             self.logger.info('doing something')
             a = 1 + 1
             self.logger.info('done doing something')

     def some_function():
         module_logger.info('received a call to "some_function"')

The output looks like this:

     2005-03-23 23:47:11,663 - spam_application - INFO -
        creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        creating an instance of Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application - INFO -
        created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application - INFO -
        calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        doing something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,669 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO -
        done doing something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,670 - spam_application - INFO -
        finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,671 - spam_application - INFO -
        calling auxiliary_module.some_function()
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,672 - spam_application.auxiliary - INFO -
        received a call to 'some_function'
     2005-03-23 23:47:11,673 - spam_application - INFO -
        done with auxiliary_module.some_function()


File: python.info,  Node: Logging from multiple threads,  Next: Multiple handlers and formatters,  Prev: Using logging in multiple modules,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.2 Logging from multiple threads
-----------------------------------

Logging from multiple threads requires no special effort.  The following
example shows logging from the main (initial) thread and another thread:

     import logging
     import threading
     import time

     def worker(arg):
         while not arg['stop']:
             logging.debug('Hi from myfunc')
             time.sleep(0.5)

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(relativeCreated)6d %(threadName)s %(message)s')
         info = {'stop': False}
         thread = threading.Thread(target=worker, args=(info,))
         thread.start()
         while True:
             try:
                 logging.debug('Hello from main')
                 time.sleep(0.75)
             except KeyboardInterrupt:
                 info['stop'] = True
                 break
         thread.join()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

When run, the script should print something like the following:

        0 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
        3 MainThread Hello from main
      505 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
      755 MainThread Hello from main
     1007 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     1507 MainThread Hello from main
     1508 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     2010 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     2258 MainThread Hello from main
     2512 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3009 MainThread Hello from main
     3013 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3515 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     3761 MainThread Hello from main
     4017 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc
     4513 MainThread Hello from main
     4518 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc

This shows the logging output interspersed as one might expect.  This
approach works for more threads than shown here, of course.


File: python.info,  Node: Multiple handlers and formatters,  Next: Logging to multiple destinations,  Prev: Logging from multiple threads,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.3 Multiple handlers and formatters
--------------------------------------

Loggers are plain Python objects.  The *note addHandler(): 33b0. method
has no minimum or maximum quota for the number of handlers you may add.
Sometimes it will be beneficial for an application to log all messages
of all severities to a text file while simultaneously logging errors or
above to the console.  To set this up, simply configure the appropriate
handlers.  The logging calls in the application code will remain
unchanged.  Here is a slight modification to the previous simple
module-based configuration example:

     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example')
     logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create file handler which logs even debug messages
     fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log')
     fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     # create console handler with a higher log level
     ch = logging.StreamHandler()
     ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR)
     # create formatter and add it to the handlers
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s')
     ch.setFormatter(formatter)
     fh.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handlers to logger
     logger.addHandler(ch)
     logger.addHandler(fh)

     # 'application' code
     logger.debug('debug message')
     logger.info('info message')
     logger.warning('warn message')
     logger.error('error message')
     logger.critical('critical message')

Notice that the “application” code does not care about multiple
handlers.  All that changed was the addition and configuration of a new
handler named 'fh'.

The ability to create new handlers with higher- or lower-severity
filters can be very helpful when writing and testing an application.
Instead of using many ‘print’ statements for debugging, use
‘logger.debug’: Unlike the print statements, which you will have to
delete or comment out later, the logger.debug statements can remain
intact in the source code and remain dormant until you need them again.
At that time, the only change that needs to happen is to modify the
severity level of the logger and/or handler to debug.


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to multiple destinations,  Next: Custom handling of levels,  Prev: Multiple handlers and formatters,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.4 Logging to multiple destinations
--------------------------------------

Let’s say you want to log to console and file with different message
formats and in differing circumstances.  Say you want to log messages
with levels of DEBUG and higher to file, and those messages at level
INFO and higher to the console.  Let’s also assume that the file should
contain timestamps, but the console messages should not.  Here’s how you
can achieve this:

     import logging

     # set up logging to file - see previous section for more details
     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                         format='%(asctime)s %(name)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s',
                         datefmt='%m-%d %H:%M',
                         filename='/tmp/myapp.log',
                         filemode='w')
     # define a Handler which writes INFO messages or higher to the sys.stderr
     console = logging.StreamHandler()
     console.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     # set a format which is simpler for console use
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(name)-12s: %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
     # tell the handler to use this format
     console.setFormatter(formatter)
     # add the handler to the root logger
     logging.getLogger().addHandler(console)

     # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
     logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')

     # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
     # application:

     logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
     logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')

     logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
     logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
     logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
     logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')

When you run this, on the console you will see

     root        : INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
     myapp.area1 : INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
     myapp.area2 : WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
     myapp.area2 : ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

and in the file you will see something like

     10-22 22:19 root         INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area1  INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
     10-22 22:19 myapp.area2  ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

As you can see, the DEBUG message only shows up in the file.  The other
messages are sent to both destinations.

This example uses console and file handlers, but you can use any number
and combination of handlers you choose.

Note that the above choice of log filename ‘/tmp/myapp.log’ implies use
of a standard location for temporary files on POSIX systems.  On
Windows, you may need to choose a different directory name for the log -
just ensure that the directory exists and that you have the permissions
to create and update files in it.


File: python.info,  Node: Custom handling of levels,  Next: Configuration server example,  Prev: Logging to multiple destinations,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.5 Custom handling of levels
-------------------------------

Sometimes, you might want to do something slightly different from the
standard handling of levels in handlers, where all levels above a
threshold get processed by a handler.  To do this, you need to use
filters.  Let’s look at a scenario where you want to arrange things as
follows:

   * Send messages of severity ‘INFO’ and ‘WARNING’ to ‘sys.stdout’

   * Send messages of severity ‘ERROR’ and above to ‘sys.stderr’

   * Send messages of severity ‘DEBUG’ and above to file ‘app.log’

Suppose you configure logging with the following JSON:

     {
         "version": 1,
         "disable_existing_loggers": false,
         "formatters": {
             "simple": {
                 "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s"
             }
         },
         "handlers": {
             "stdout": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "INFO",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"
             },
             "stderr": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "ERROR",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"
             },
             "file": {
                 "class": "logging.FileHandler",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "filename": "app.log",
                 "mode": "w"
             }
         },
         "root": {
             "level": "DEBUG",
             "handlers": [
                 "stderr",
                 "stdout",
                 "file"
             ]
         }
     }

This configuration does 'almost' what we want, except that ‘sys.stdout’
would show messages of severity ‘ERROR’ and only events of this severity
and higher will be tracked as well as ‘INFO’ and ‘WARNING’ messages.  To
prevent this, we can set up a filter which excludes those messages and
add it to the relevant handler.  This can be configured by adding a
‘filters’ section parallel to ‘formatters’ and ‘handlers’:

     {
         "filters": {
             "warnings_and_below": {
                 "()" : "__main__.filter_maker",
                 "level": "WARNING"
             }
         }
     }

and changing the section on the ‘stdout’ handler to add it:

     {
         "stdout": {
             "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
             "level": "INFO",
             "formatter": "simple",
             "stream": "ext://sys.stdout",
             "filters": ["warnings_and_below"]
         }
     }

A filter is just a function, so we can define the ‘filter_maker’ (a
factory function) as follows:

     def filter_maker(level):
         level = getattr(logging, level)

         def filter(record):
             return record.levelno <= level

         return filter

This converts the string argument passed in to a numeric level, and
returns a function which only returns ‘True’ if the level of the passed
in record is at or below the specified level.  Note that in this example
I have defined the ‘filter_maker’ in a test script ‘main.py’ that I run
from the command line, so its module will be ‘__main__’ - hence the
‘__main__.filter_maker’ in the filter configuration.  You will need to
change that if you define it in a different module.

With the filter added, we can run ‘main.py’, which in full is:

     import json
     import logging
     import logging.config

     CONFIG = '''
     {
         "version": 1,
         "disable_existing_loggers": false,
         "formatters": {
             "simple": {
                 "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s"
             }
         },
         "filters": {
             "warnings_and_below": {
                 "()" : "__main__.filter_maker",
                 "level": "WARNING"
             }
         },
         "handlers": {
             "stdout": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "INFO",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stdout",
                 "filters": ["warnings_and_below"]
             },
             "stderr": {
                 "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                 "level": "ERROR",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"
             },
             "file": {
                 "class": "logging.FileHandler",
                 "formatter": "simple",
                 "filename": "app.log",
                 "mode": "w"
             }
         },
         "root": {
             "level": "DEBUG",
             "handlers": [
                 "stderr",
                 "stdout",
                 "file"
             ]
         }
     }
     '''

     def filter_maker(level):
         level = getattr(logging, level)

         def filter(record):
             return record.levelno <= level

         return filter

     logging.config.dictConfig(json.loads(CONFIG))
     logging.debug('A DEBUG message')
     logging.info('An INFO message')
     logging.warning('A WARNING message')
     logging.error('An ERROR message')
     logging.critical('A CRITICAL message')

And after running it like this:

     python main.py 2>stderr.log >stdout.log

We can see the results are as expected:

     $ more *.log
     ::::::::::::::
     app.log
     ::::::::::::::
     DEBUG    - A DEBUG message
     INFO     - An INFO message
     WARNING  - A WARNING message
     ERROR    - An ERROR message
     CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message
     ::::::::::::::
     stderr.log
     ::::::::::::::
     ERROR    - An ERROR message
     CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message
     ::::::::::::::
     stdout.log
     ::::::::::::::
     INFO     - An INFO message
     WARNING  - A WARNING message


File: python.info,  Node: Configuration server example,  Next: Dealing with handlers that block,  Prev: Custom handling of levels,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.6 Configuration server example
----------------------------------

Here is an example of a module using the logging configuration server:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import time
     import os

     # read initial config file
     logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf')

     # create and start listener on port 9999
     t = logging.config.listen(9999)
     t.start()

     logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample')

     try:
         # loop through logging calls to see the difference
         # new configurations make, until Ctrl+C is pressed
         while True:
             logger.debug('debug message')
             logger.info('info message')
             logger.warning('warn message')
             logger.error('error message')
             logger.critical('critical message')
             time.sleep(5)
     except KeyboardInterrupt:
         # cleanup
         logging.config.stopListening()
         t.join()

And here is a script that takes a filename and sends that file to the
server, properly preceded with the binary-encoded length, as the new
logging configuration:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     import socket, sys, struct

     with open(sys.argv[1], 'rb') as f:
         data_to_send = f.read()

     HOST = 'localhost'
     PORT = 9999
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     print('connecting...')
     s.connect((HOST, PORT))
     print('sending config...')
     s.send(struct.pack('>L', len(data_to_send)))
     s.send(data_to_send)
     s.close()
     print('complete')


File: python.info,  Node: Dealing with handlers that block,  Next: Sending and receiving logging events across a network,  Prev: Configuration server example,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.7 Dealing with handlers that block
--------------------------------------

Sometimes you have to get your logging handlers to do their work without
blocking the thread you’re logging from.  This is common in web
applications, though of course it also occurs in other scenarios.

A common culprit which demonstrates sluggish behaviour is the *note
SMTPHandler: 1ad3.: sending emails can take a long time, for a number of
reasons outside the developer’s control (for example, a poorly
performing mail or network infrastructure).  But almost any
network-based handler can block: Even a *note SocketHandler: 130c.
operation may do a DNS query under the hood which is too slow (and this
query can be deep in the socket library code, below the Python layer,
and outside your control).

One solution is to use a two-part approach.  For the first part, attach
only a *note QueueHandler: 1d5f. to those loggers which are accessed
from performance-critical threads.  They simply write to their queue,
which can be sized to a large enough capacity or initialized with no
upper bound to their size.  The write to the queue will typically be
accepted quickly, though you will probably need to catch the *note
queue.Full: 38b7. exception as a precaution in your code.  If you are a
library developer who has performance-critical threads in their code, be
sure to document this (together with a suggestion to attach only
‘QueueHandlers’ to your loggers) for the benefit of other developers who
will use your code.

The second part of the solution is *note QueueListener: 4cf, which has
been designed as the counterpart to *note QueueHandler: 1d5f.  A
‘QueueListener’ is very simple: it’s passed a queue and some handlers,
and it fires up an internal thread which listens to its queue for
LogRecords sent from ‘QueueHandlers’ (or any other source of
‘LogRecords’, for that matter).  The ‘LogRecords’ are removed from the
queue and passed to the handlers for processing.

The advantage of having a separate *note QueueListener: 4cf. class is
that you can use the same instance to service multiple ‘QueueHandlers’.
This is more resource-friendly than, say, having threaded versions of
the existing handler classes, which would eat up one thread per handler
for no particular benefit.

An example of using these two classes follows (imports omitted):

     que = queue.Queue(-1)  # no limit on size
     queue_handler = QueueHandler(que)
     handler = logging.StreamHandler()
     listener = QueueListener(que, handler)
     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.addHandler(queue_handler)
     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)s: %(message)s')
     handler.setFormatter(formatter)
     listener.start()
     # The log output will display the thread which generated
     # the event (the main thread) rather than the internal
     # thread which monitors the internal queue. This is what
     # you want to happen.
     root.warning('Look out!')
     listener.stop()

which, when run, will produce:

     MainThread: Look out!

     Σημείωση: Although the earlier discussion wasn’t specifically
     talking about async code, but rather about slow logging handlers,
     it should be noted that when logging from async code, network and
     even file handlers could lead to problems (blocking the event loop)
     because some logging is done from *note asyncio: b. internals.  It
     might be best, if any async code is used in an application, to use
     the above approach for logging, so that any blocking code runs only
     in the ‘QueueListener’ thread.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.5: Prior to Python 3.5, the *note QueueListener:
4cf. always passed every message received from the queue to every
handler it was initialized with.  (This was because it was assumed that
level filtering was all done on the other side, where the queue is
filled.)  From 3.5 onwards, this behaviour can be changed by passing a
keyword argument ‘respect_handler_level=True’ to the listener’s
constructor.  When this is done, the listener compares the level of each
message with the handler’s level, and only passes a message to a handler
if it’s appropriate to do so.

Άλλαξε στην έκδοση 3.14: The *note QueueListener: 4cf. can be started
(and stopped) via the *note with: 20a. statement.  For example:

     with QueueListener(que, handler) as listener:
         # The queue listener automatically starts
         # when the 'with' block is entered.
         pass
     # The queue listener automatically stops once
     # the 'with' block is exited.


File: python.info,  Node: Sending and receiving logging events across a network,  Next: Adding contextual information to your logging output,  Prev: Dealing with handlers that block,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.8 Sending and receiving logging events across a network
-----------------------------------------------------------

Let’s say you want to send logging events across a network, and handle
them at the receiving end.  A simple way of doing this is attaching a
*note SocketHandler: 130c. instance to the root logger at the sending
end:

     import logging, logging.handlers

     rootLogger = logging.getLogger()
     rootLogger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     socketHandler = logging.handlers.SocketHandler('localhost',
                         logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT)
     # don't bother with a formatter, since a socket handler sends the event as
     # an unformatted pickle
     rootLogger.addHandler(socketHandler)

     # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root...
     logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.')

     # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your
     # application:

     logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1')
     logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2')

     logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.')
     logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.')
     logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.')
     logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.')

At the receiving end, you can set up a receiver using the *note
socketserver: d5. module.  Here is a basic working example:

     import pickle
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import socketserver
     import struct


     class LogRecordStreamHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler):
         """Handler for a streaming logging request.

         This basically logs the record using whatever logging policy is
         configured locally.
         """

         def handle(self):
             """
             Handle multiple requests - each expected to be a 4-byte length,
             followed by the LogRecord in pickle format. Logs the record
             according to whatever policy is configured locally.
             """
             while True:
                 chunk = self.connection.recv(4)
                 if len(chunk) < 4:
                     break
                 slen = struct.unpack('>L', chunk)[0]
                 chunk = self.connection.recv(slen)
                 while len(chunk) < slen:
                     chunk = chunk + self.connection.recv(slen - len(chunk))
                 obj = self.unPickle(chunk)
                 record = logging.makeLogRecord(obj)
                 self.handleLogRecord(record)

         def unPickle(self, data):
             return pickle.loads(data)

         def handleLogRecord(self, record):
             # if a name is specified, we use the named logger rather than the one
             # implied by the record.
             if self.server.logname is not None:
                 name = self.server.logname
             else:
                 name = record.name
             logger = logging.getLogger(name)
             # N.B. EVERY record gets logged. This is because Logger.handle
             # is normally called AFTER logger-level filtering. If you want
             # to do filtering, do it at the client end to save wasting
             # cycles and network bandwidth!
             logger.handle(record)

     class LogRecordSocketReceiver(socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer):
         """
         Simple TCP socket-based logging receiver suitable for testing.
         """

         allow_reuse_address = True

         def __init__(self, host='localhost',
                      port=logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT,
                      handler=LogRecordStreamHandler):
             socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer.__init__(self, (host, port), handler)
             self.abort = 0
             self.timeout = 1
             self.logname = None

         def serve_until_stopped(self):
             import select
             abort = 0
             while not abort:
                 rd, wr, ex = select.select([self.socket.fileno()],
                                            [], [],
                                            self.timeout)
                 if rd:
                     self.handle_request()
                 abort = self.abort

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(
             format='%(relativeCreated)5d %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
         tcpserver = LogRecordSocketReceiver()
         print('About to start TCP server...')
         tcpserver.serve_until_stopped()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

First run the server, and then the client.  On the client side, nothing
is printed on the console; on the server side, you should see something
like:

     About to start TCP server...
        59 root            INFO     Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.
        59 myapp.area1     DEBUG    Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.
        69 myapp.area1     INFO     How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.
        69 myapp.area2     WARNING  Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.
        69 myapp.area2     ERROR    The five boxing wizards jump quickly.

Note that there are some security issues with pickle in some scenarios.
If these affect you, you can use an alternative serialization scheme by
overriding the *note makePickle(): 344f. method and implementing your
alternative there, as well as adapting the above script to use your
alternative serialization.

* Menu:

* Running a logging socket listener in production::


File: python.info,  Node: Running a logging socket listener in production,  Up: Sending and receiving logging events across a network

9.9.8.1 Running a logging socket listener in production
.......................................................

To run a logging listener in production, you may need to use a
process-management tool such as Supervisor(1).  Here is a Gist(2) which
provides the bare-bones files to run the above functionality using
Supervisor.  It consists of the following files:

File                          Purpose
                              
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                              
‘prepare.sh’                  A Bash script to prepare the environment for testing
                              
                              
‘supervisor.conf’             The Supervisor configuration file, which has entries
                              for the listener and a multi-process web application
                              
                              
‘ensure_app.sh’               A Bash script to ensure that Supervisor is running
                              with the above configuration
                              
                              
‘log_listener.py’             The socket listener program which receives log events
                              and records them to a file
                              
                              
‘main.py’                     A simple web application which performs logging via a
                              socket connected to the listener
                              
                              
‘webapp.json’                 A JSON configuration file for the web application
                              
                              
‘client.py’                   A Python script to exercise the web application
                              

The web application uses Gunicorn(3), which is a popular web application
server that starts multiple worker processes to handle requests.  This
example setup shows how the workers can write to the same log file
without conflicting with one another — they all go through the socket
listener.

To test these files, do the following in a POSIX environment:

  1. Download the Gist(4) as a ZIP archive using the Download ZIP
     button.

  2. Unzip the above files from the archive into a scratch directory.

  3. In the scratch directory, run ‘bash prepare.sh’ to get things
     ready.  This creates a ‘run’ subdirectory to contain
     Supervisor-related and log files, and a ‘venv’ subdirectory to
     contain a virtual environment into which ‘bottle’, ‘gunicorn’ and
     ‘supervisor’ are installed.

  4. Run ‘bash ensure_app.sh’ to ensure that Supervisor is running with
     the above configuration.

  5. Run ‘venv/bin/python client.py’ to exercise the web application,
     which will lead to records being written to the log.

  6. Inspect the log files in the ‘run’ subdirectory.  You should see
     the most recent log lines in files matching the pattern ‘app.log*’.
     They won’t be in any particular order, since they have been handled
     concurrently by different worker processes in a non-deterministic
     way.

  7. You can shut down the listener and the web application by running
     ‘venv/bin/supervisorctl -c supervisor.conf shutdown’.

You may need to tweak the configuration files in the unlikely event that
the configured ports clash with something else in your test environment.

The default configuration uses a TCP socket on port 9020.  You can use a
Unix Domain socket instead of a TCP socket by doing the following:

  1. In ‘listener.json’, add a ‘socket’ key with the path to the domain
     socket you want to use.  If this key is present, the listener
     listens on the corresponding domain socket and not on a TCP socket
     (the ‘port’ key is ignored).

  2. In ‘webapp.json’, change the socket handler configuration
     dictionary so that the ‘host’ value is the path to the domain
     socket, and set the ‘port’ value to ‘null’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) http://supervisord.org/

   (2) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b

   (3) https://gunicorn.org/

   (4) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b


File: python.info,  Node: Adding contextual information to your logging output,  Next: Use of contextvars,  Prev: Sending and receiving logging events across a network,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.9 Adding contextual information to your logging output
----------------------------------------------------------

Sometimes you want logging output to contain contextual information in
addition to the parameters passed to the logging call.  For example, in
a networked application, it may be desirable to log client-specific
information in the log (e.g.  remote client’s username, or IP address).
Although you could use the 'extra' parameter to achieve this, it’s not
always convenient to pass the information in this way.  While it might
be tempting to create *note Logger: f0c. instances on a per-connection
basis, this is not a good idea because these instances are not garbage
collected.  While this is not a problem in practice, when the number of
‘Logger’ instances is dependent on the level of granularity you want to
use in logging an application, it could be hard to manage if the number
of ‘Logger’ instances becomes effectively unbounded.

* Menu:

* Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information::
* Using Filters to impart contextual information::


File: python.info,  Node: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information,  Next: Using Filters to impart contextual information,  Up: Adding contextual information to your logging output

9.9.9.1 Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information
.............................................................

An easy way in which you can pass contextual information to be output
along with logging event information is to use the *note LoggerAdapter:
169a. class.  This class is designed to look like a *note Logger: f0c,
so that you can call *note debug(): 33b7, *note info(): 33e0, *note
warning(): 331, *note error(): 33f4, *note exception(): 1836, *note
critical(): 33f5. and *note log(): 33f6.  These methods have the same
signatures as their counterparts in ‘Logger’, so you can use the two
types of instances interchangeably.

When you create an instance of *note LoggerAdapter: 169a, you pass it a
*note Logger: f0c. instance and a dict-like object which contains your
contextual information.  When you call one of the logging methods on an
instance of ‘LoggerAdapter’, it delegates the call to the underlying
instance of ‘Logger’ passed to its constructor, and arranges to pass the
contextual information in the delegated call.  Here’s a snippet from the
code of ‘LoggerAdapter’:

     def debug(self, msg, /, *args, **kwargs):
         """
         Delegate a debug call to the underlying logger, after adding
         contextual information from this adapter instance.
         """
         msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
         self.logger.debug(msg, *args, **kwargs)

The *note process(): 33ed. method of *note LoggerAdapter: 169a. is where
the contextual information is added to the logging output.  It’s passed
the message and keyword arguments of the logging call, and it passes
back (potentially) modified versions of these to use in the call to the
underlying logger.  The default implementation of this method leaves the
message alone, but inserts an “extra” key in the keyword argument whose
value is the dict-like object passed to the constructor.  Of course, if
you had passed an “extra” keyword argument in the call to the adapter,
it will be silently overwritten.

The advantage of using “extra” is that the values in the dict-like
object are merged into the *note LogRecord: 138f. instance’s __dict__,
allowing you to use customized strings with your *note Formatter: 1839.
instances which know about the keys of the dict-like object.  If you
need a different method, e.g.  if you want to prepend or append the
contextual information to the message string, you just need to subclass
*note LoggerAdapter: 169a. and override *note process(): 33ed. to do
what you need.  Here is a simple example:

     class CustomAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
         """
         This example adapter expects the passed in dict-like object to have a
         'connid' key, whose value in brackets is prepended to the log message.
         """
         def process(self, msg, kwargs):
             return '[%s] %s' % (self.extra['connid'], msg), kwargs

which you can use like this:

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     adapter = CustomAdapter(logger, {'connid': some_conn_id})

Then any events that you log to the adapter will have the value of
‘some_conn_id’ prepended to the log messages.

* Menu:

* Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information::


File: python.info,  Node: Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information,  Up: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information

9.9.9.2 Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information
.....................................................................

You don’t need to pass an actual dict to a *note LoggerAdapter: 169a. -
you could pass an instance of a class which implements ‘__getitem__’ and
‘__iter__’ so that it looks like a dict to logging.  This would be
useful if you want to generate values dynamically (whereas the values in
a dict would be constant).


File: python.info,  Node: Using Filters to impart contextual information,  Prev: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information,  Up: Adding contextual information to your logging output

9.9.9.3 Using Filters to impart contextual information
......................................................

You can also add contextual information to log output using a
user-defined *note Filter: 15a4.  ‘Filter’ instances are allowed to
modify the ‘LogRecords’ passed to them, including adding additional
attributes which can then be output using a suitable format string, or
if needed a custom *note Formatter: 1839.

For example in a web application, the request being processed (or at
least, the interesting parts of it) can be stored in a threadlocal
(*note threading.local: 1a87.) variable, and then accessed from a
‘Filter’ to add, say, information from the request - say, the remote IP
address and remote user’s username - to the ‘LogRecord’, using the
attribute names “ip” and “user” as in the ‘LoggerAdapter’ example above.
In that case, the same format string can be used to get similar output
to that shown above.  Here’s an example script:

     import logging
     from random import choice

     class ContextFilter(logging.Filter):
         """
         This is a filter which injects contextual information into the log.

         Rather than use actual contextual information, we just use random
         data in this demo.
         """

         USERS = ['jim', 'fred', 'sheila']
         IPS = ['123.231.231.123', '127.0.0.1', '192.168.0.1']

         def filter(self, record):

             record.ip = choice(ContextFilter.IPS)
             record.user = choice(ContextFilter.USERS)
             return True

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL)
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                             format='%(asctime)-15s %(name)-5s %(levelname)-8s IP: %(ip)-15s User: %(user)-8s %(message)s')
         a1 = logging.getLogger('a.b.c')
         a2 = logging.getLogger('d.e.f')

         f = ContextFilter()
         a1.addFilter(f)
         a2.addFilter(f)
         a1.debug('A debug message')
         a1.info('An info message with %s', 'some parameters')
         for x in range(10):
             lvl = choice(levels)
             lvlname = logging.getLevelName(lvl)
             a2.log(lvl, 'A message at %s level with %d %s', lvlname, 2, 'parameters')

which, when run, produces something like:

     2010-09-06 22:38:15,292 a.b.c DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A debug message
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 a.b.c INFO     IP: 192.168.0.1     User: sheila   An info message with some parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: jim      A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 192.168.0.1     User: jim      A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f ERROR    IP: 127.0.0.1       User: sheila   A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f DEBUG    IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters
     2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f INFO     IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred     A message at INFO level with 2 parameters


File: python.info,  Node: Use of contextvars,  Next: Imparting contextual information in handlers,  Prev: Adding contextual information to your logging output,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.10 Use of ‘contextvars’
---------------------------

Since Python 3.7, the *note contextvars: 28. module has provided
context-local storage which works for both *note threading: f6. and
*note asyncio: b. processing needs.  This type of storage may thus be
generally preferable to thread-locals.  The following example shows how,
in a multi-threaded environment, logs can populated with contextual
information such as, for example, request attributes handled by web
applications.

For the purposes of illustration, say that you have different web
applications, each independent of the other but running in the same
Python process and using a library common to them.  How can each of
these applications have their own log, where all logging messages from
the library (and other request processing code) are directed to the
appropriate application’s log file, while including in the log
additional contextual information such as client IP, HTTP request method
and client username?

Let’s assume that the library can be simulated by the following code:

     # webapplib.py
     import logging
     import time

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def useful():
         # Just a representative event logged from the library
         logger.debug('Hello from webapplib!')
         # Just sleep for a bit so other threads get to run
         time.sleep(0.01)

We can simulate the multiple web applications by means of two simple
classes, ‘Request’ and ‘WebApp’.  These simulate how real threaded web
applications work - each request is handled by a thread:

     # main.py
     import argparse
     from contextvars import ContextVar
     import logging
     import os
     from random import choice
     import threading
     import webapplib

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     class Request:
         """
         A simple dummy request class which just holds dummy HTTP request method,
         client IP address and client username
         """
         def __init__(self, method, ip, user):
             self.method = method
             self.ip = ip
             self.user = user

     # A dummy set of requests which will be used in the simulation - we'll just pick
     # from this list randomly. Note that all GET requests are from 192.168.2.XXX
     # addresses, whereas POST requests are from 192.16.3.XXX addresses. Three users
     # are represented in the sample requests.

     REQUESTS = [
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.20', 'jim'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.20', 'fred'),
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.21', 'sheila'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.21', 'jim'),
         Request('GET', '192.168.2.22', 'fred'),
         Request('POST', '192.168.3.22', 'sheila'),
     ]

     # Note that the format string includes references to request context information
     # such as HTTP method, client IP and username

     formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)-11s %(appName)s %(name)-9s %(user)-6s %(ip)s %(method)-4s %(message)s')

     # Create our context variables. These will be filled at the start of request
     # processing, and used in the logging that happens during that processing

     ctx_request = ContextVar('request')
     ctx_appname = ContextVar('appname')

     class InjectingFilter(logging.Filter):
         """
         A filter which injects context-specific information into logs and ensures
         that only information for a specific webapp is included in its log
         """
         def __init__(self, app):
             self.app = app

         def filter(self, record):
             request = ctx_request.get()
             record.method = request.method
             record.ip = request.ip
             record.user = request.user
             record.appName = appName = ctx_appname.get()
             return appName == self.app.name

     class WebApp:
         """
         A dummy web application class which has its own handler and filter for a
         webapp-specific log.
         """
         def __init__(self, name):
             self.name = name
             handler = logging.FileHandler(name + '.log', 'w')
             f = InjectingFilter(self)
             handler.setFormatter(formatter)
             handler.addFilter(f)
             root.addHandler(handler)
             self.num_requests = 0

         def process_request(self, request):
             """
             This is the dummy method for processing a request. It's called on a
             different thread for every request. We store the context information into
             the context vars before doing anything else.
             """
             ctx_request.set(request)
             ctx_appname.set(self.name)
             self.num_requests += 1
             logger.debug('Request processing started')
             webapplib.useful()
             logger.debug('Request processing finished')

     def main():
         fn = os.path.splitext(os.path.basename(__file__))[0]
         adhf = argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter
         ap = argparse.ArgumentParser(formatter_class=adhf, prog=fn,
                                      description='Simulate a couple of web '
                                                  'applications handling some '
                                                  'requests, showing how request '
                                                  'context can be used to '
                                                  'populate logs')
         aa = ap.add_argument
         aa('--count', '-c', type=int, default=100, help='How many requests to simulate')
         options = ap.parse_args()

         # Create the dummy webapps and put them in a list which we can use to select
         # from randomly
         app1 = WebApp('app1')
         app2 = WebApp('app2')
         apps = [app1, app2]
         threads = []
         # Add a common handler which will capture all events
         handler = logging.FileHandler('app.log', 'w')
         handler.setFormatter(formatter)
         root.addHandler(handler)

         # Generate calls to process requests
         for i in range(options.count):
             try:
                 # Pick an app at random and a request for it to process
                 app = choice(apps)
                 request = choice(REQUESTS)
                 # Process the request in its own thread
                 t = threading.Thread(target=app.process_request, args=(request,))
                 threads.append(t)
                 t.start()
             except KeyboardInterrupt:
                 break

         # Wait for the threads to terminate
         for t in threads:
             t.join()

         for app in apps:
             print('%s processed %s requests' % (app.name, app.num_requests))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

If you run the above, you should find that roughly half the requests go
into ‘app1.log’ and the rest into ‘app2.log’, and the all the requests
are logged to ‘app.log’.  Each webapp-specific log will contain only log
entries for only that webapp, and the request information will be
displayed consistently in the log (i.e.  the information in each dummy
request will always appear together in a log line).  This is illustrated
by the following shell output:

     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ python main.py
     app1 processed 51 requests
     app2 processed 49 requests
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ wc -l *.log
       153 app1.log
       147 app2.log
       300 app.log
       600 total
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app1.log
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim    192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app2.log
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__  sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__  jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head app.log
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__  sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__  jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-2 (process_request) app2 webapplib jim    192.168.2.20 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim    192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-4 (process_request) app2 __main__  fred   192.168.2.22 GET  Request processing started
     Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     Thread-4 (process_request) app2 webapplib fred   192.168.2.22 GET  Hello from webapplib!
     Thread-6 (process_request) app1 __main__  jim    192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app1.log | wc -l
     153
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app2.log | wc -l
     147
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app.log | wc -l
     153
     ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app.log | wc -l
     147


File: python.info,  Node: Imparting contextual information in handlers,  Next: Logging to a single file from multiple processes,  Prev: Use of contextvars,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.11 Imparting contextual information in handlers
---------------------------------------------------

Each *note Handler: 1838. has its own chain of filters.  If you want to
add contextual information to a *note LogRecord: 138f. without leaking
it to other handlers, you can use a filter that returns a new
‘LogRecord’ instead of modifying it in-place, as shown in the following
script:

     import copy
     import logging

     def filter(record: logging.LogRecord):
         record = copy.copy(record)
         record.user = 'jim'
         return record

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger = logging.getLogger()
         logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
         handler = logging.StreamHandler()
         formatter = logging.Formatter('%(message)s from %(user)-8s')
         handler.setFormatter(formatter)
         handler.addFilter(filter)
         logger.addHandler(handler)

         logger.info('A log message')


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to a single file from multiple processes,  Next: Using file rotation,  Prev: Imparting contextual information in handlers,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.12 Logging to a single file from multiple processes
-------------------------------------------------------

Although logging is thread-safe, and logging to a single file from
multiple threads in a single process 'is' supported, logging to a single
file from 'multiple processes' is 'not' supported, because there is no
standard way to serialize access to a single file across multiple
processes in Python.  If you need to log to a single file from multiple
processes, one way of doing this is to have all the processes log to a
*note SocketHandler: 130c, and have a separate process which implements
a socket server which reads from the socket and logs to file.  (If you
prefer, you can dedicate one thread in one of the existing processes to
perform this function.)  *note This section: 5b08. documents this
approach in more detail and includes a working socket receiver which can
be used as a starting point for you to adapt in your own applications.

You could also write your own handler which uses the *note Lock: 1a7c.
class from the *note multiprocessing: 98. module to serialize access to
the file from your processes.  The stdlib *note FileHandler: 1e4a. and
subclasses do not make use of ‘multiprocessing’.

Alternatively, you can use a ‘Queue’ and a *note QueueHandler: 1d5f. to
send all logging events to one of the processes in your multi-process
application.  The following example script demonstrates how you can do
this; in the example a separate listener process listens for events sent
by other processes and logs them according to its own logging
configuration.  Although the example only demonstrates one way of doing
it (for example, you may want to use a listener thread rather than a
separate listener process – the implementation would be analogous) it
does allow for completely different logging configurations for the
listener and the other processes in your application, and can be used as
the basis for code meeting your own specific requirements:

     # You'll need these imports in your own code
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import multiprocessing

     # Next two import lines for this demo only
     from random import choice, random
     import time

     #
     # Because you'll want to define the logging configurations for listener and workers, the
     # listener and worker process functions take a configurer parameter which is a callable
     # for configuring logging for that process. These functions are also passed the queue,
     # which they use for communication.
     #
     # In practice, you can configure the listener however you want, but note that in this
     # simple example, the listener does not apply level or filter logic to received records.
     # In practice, you would probably want to do this logic in the worker processes, to avoid
     # sending events which would be filtered out between processes.
     #
     # The size of the rotated files is made small so you can see the results easily.
     def listener_configurer():
         root = logging.getLogger()
         h = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('mptest.log', 'a', 300, 10)
         f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(processName)-10s %(name)s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s')
         h.setFormatter(f)
         root.addHandler(h)

     # This is the listener process top-level loop: wait for logging events
     # (LogRecords)on the queue and handle them, quit when you get a None for a
     # LogRecord.
     def listener_process(queue, configurer):
         configurer()
         while True:
             try:
                 record = queue.get()
                 if record is None:  # We send this as a sentinel to tell the listener to quit.
                     break
                 logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
                 logger.handle(record)  # No level or filter logic applied - just do it!
             except Exception:
                 import sys, traceback
                 print('Whoops! Problem:', file=sys.stderr)
                 traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stderr)

     # Arrays used for random selections in this demo

     LEVELS = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING,
               logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL]

     LOGGERS = ['a.b.c', 'd.e.f']

     MESSAGES = [
         'Random message #1',
         'Random message #2',
         'Random message #3',
     ]

     # The worker configuration is done at the start of the worker process run.
     # Note that on Windows you can't rely on fork semantics, so each process
     # will run the logging configuration code when it starts.
     def worker_configurer(queue):
         h = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(queue)  # Just the one handler needed
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.addHandler(h)
         # send all messages, for demo; no other level or filter logic applied.
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # This is the worker process top-level loop, which just logs ten events with
     # random intervening delays before terminating.
     # The print messages are just so you know it's doing something!
     def worker_process(queue, configurer):
         configurer(queue)
         name = multiprocessing.current_process().name
         print('Worker started: %s' % name)
         for i in range(10):
             time.sleep(random())
             logger = logging.getLogger(choice(LOGGERS))
             level = choice(LEVELS)
             message = choice(MESSAGES)
             logger.log(level, message)
         print('Worker finished: %s' % name)

     # Here's where the demo gets orchestrated. Create the queue, create and start
     # the listener, create ten workers and start them, wait for them to finish,
     # then send a None to the queue to tell the listener to finish.
     def main():
         queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1)
         listener = multiprocessing.Process(target=listener_process,
                                            args=(queue, listener_configurer))
         listener.start()
         workers = []
         for i in range(10):
             worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process,
                                              args=(queue, worker_configurer))
             workers.append(worker)
             worker.start()
         for w in workers:
             w.join()
         queue.put_nowait(None)
         listener.join()

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

A variant of the above script keeps the logging in the main process, in
a separate thread:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import logging.handlers
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue
     import random
     import threading
     import time

     def logger_thread(q):
         while True:
             record = q.get()
             if record is None:
                 break
             logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)
             logger.handle(record)


     def worker_process(q):
         qh = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(q)
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         root.addHandler(qh)
         levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
                   logging.CRITICAL]
         loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
                    'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
         for i in range(100):
             lvl = random.choice(levels)
             logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
             logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         q = Queue()
         d = {
             'version': 1,
             'formatters': {
                 'detailed': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 }
             },
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'level': 'INFO',
                 },
                 'file': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
                 'foofile': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
                 'errors': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'level': 'ERROR',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                 },
             },
             'loggers': {
                 'foo': {
                     'handlers': ['foofile']
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'level': 'DEBUG',
                 'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors']
             },
         }
         workers = []
         for i in range(5):
             wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1), args=(q,))
             workers.append(wp)
             wp.start()
         logging.config.dictConfig(d)
         lp = threading.Thread(target=logger_thread, args=(q,))
         lp.start()
         # At this point, the main process could do some useful work of its own
         # Once it's done that, it can wait for the workers to terminate...
         for wp in workers:
             wp.join()
         # And now tell the logging thread to finish up, too
         q.put(None)
         lp.join()

This variant shows how you can e.g.  apply configuration for particular
loggers - e.g.  the ‘foo’ logger has a special handler which stores all
events in the ‘foo’ subsystem in a file ‘mplog-foo.log’.  This will be
used by the logging machinery in the main process (even though the
logging events are generated in the worker processes) to direct the
messages to the appropriate destinations.

* Menu:

* Using concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor.
* Deploying web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI::


File: python.info,  Node: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor,  Next: Deploying web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI,  Up: Logging to a single file from multiple processes

9.9.12.1 Using concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor
.....................................................

If you want to use *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. to
start your worker processes, you need to create the queue slightly
differently.  Instead of

     queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1)

you should use

     queue = multiprocessing.Manager().Queue(-1)  # also works with the examples above

and you can then replace the worker creation from this:

     workers = []
     for i in range(10):
         worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process,
                                          args=(queue, worker_configurer))
         workers.append(worker)
         worker.start()
     for w in workers:
         w.join()

to this (remembering to first import *note concurrent.futures: 24.):

     with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor(max_workers=10) as executor:
         for i in range(10):
             executor.submit(worker_process, queue, worker_configurer)


File: python.info,  Node: Deploying web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI,  Prev: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor,  Up: Logging to a single file from multiple processes

9.9.12.2 Deploying web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI
............................................................

When deploying web applications using Gunicorn(1) or uWSGI(2) (or
similar), multiple worker processes are created to handle client
requests.  In such environments, avoid creating file-based handlers
directly in your web application.  Instead, use a *note SocketHandler:
130c. to log from the web application to a listener in a separate
process.  This can be set up using a process management tool such as
Supervisor - see *note Running a logging socket listener in production:
5b0a. for more details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://gunicorn.org/

   (2) https://uwsgi-docs.readthedocs.io/en/latest/


File: python.info,  Node: Using file rotation,  Next: Use of alternative formatting styles,  Prev: Logging to a single file from multiple processes,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.13 Using file rotation
--------------------------

Sometimes you want to let a log file grow to a certain size, then open a
new file and log to that.  You may want to keep a certain number of
these files, and when that many files have been created, rotate the
files so that the number of files and the size of the files both remain
bounded.  For this usage pattern, the logging package provides a *note
RotatingFileHandler: 1b59.:

     import glob
     import logging
     import logging.handlers

     LOG_FILENAME = 'logging_rotatingfile_example.out'

     # Set up a specific logger with our desired output level
     my_logger = logging.getLogger('MyLogger')
     my_logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     # Add the log message handler to the logger
     handler = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler(
                   LOG_FILENAME, maxBytes=20, backupCount=5)

     my_logger.addHandler(handler)

     # Log some messages
     for i in range(20):
         my_logger.debug('i = %d' % i)

     # See what files are created
     logfiles = glob.glob('%s*' % LOG_FILENAME)

     for filename in logfiles:
         print(filename)

The result should be 6 separate files, each with part of the log history
for the application:

     logging_rotatingfile_example.out
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.1
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.2
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.3
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.4
     logging_rotatingfile_example.out.5

The most current file is always ‘logging_rotatingfile_example.out’, and
each time it reaches the size limit it is renamed with the suffix ‘.1’.
Each of the existing backup files is renamed to increment the suffix
(‘.1’ becomes ‘.2’, etc.)  and the ‘.6’ file is erased.

Obviously this example sets the log length much too small as an extreme
example.  You would want to set 'maxBytes' to an appropriate value.


File: python.info,  Node: Use of alternative formatting styles,  Next: Customizing LogRecord,  Prev: Using file rotation,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.14 Use of alternative formatting styles
-------------------------------------------

When logging was added to the Python standard library, the only way of
formatting messages with variable content was to use the %-formatting
method.  Since then, Python has gained two new formatting approaches:
*note string.Template: a77. (added in Python 2.4) and *note
str.format(): a12. (added in Python 2.6).

Logging (as of 3.2) provides improved support for these two additional
formatting styles.  The *note Formatter: 1839. class been enhanced to
take an additional, optional keyword parameter named ‘style’.  This
defaults to ‘'%'’, but other possible values are ‘'{'’ and ‘'$'’, which
correspond to the other two formatting styles.  Backwards compatibility
is maintained by default (as you would expect), but by explicitly
specifying a style parameter, you get the ability to specify format
strings which work with *note str.format(): a12. or *note
string.Template: a77.  Here’s an example console session to show the
possibilities:

     >>> import logging
     >>> root = logging.getLogger()
     >>> root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
     >>> handler = logging.StreamHandler()
     >>> bf = logging.Formatter('{asctime} {name} {levelname:8s} {message}',
     ...                        style='{')
     >>> handler.setFormatter(bf)
     >>> root.addHandler(handler)
     >>> logger = logging.getLogger('foo.bar')
     >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
     2010-10-28 15:11:55,341 foo.bar DEBUG    This is a DEBUG message
     >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
     2010-10-28 15:12:11,526 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
     >>> df = logging.Formatter('$asctime $name ${levelname} $message',
     ...                        style='$')
     >>> handler.setFormatter(df)
     >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message')
     2010-10-28 15:13:06,924 foo.bar DEBUG This is a DEBUG message
     >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message')
     2010-10-28 15:13:11,494 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message
     >>>

Note that the formatting of logging messages for final output to logs is
completely independent of how an individual logging message is
constructed.  That can still use %-formatting, as shown here:

     >>> logger.error('This is an%s %s %s', 'other,', 'ERROR,', 'message')
     2010-10-28 15:19:29,833 foo.bar ERROR This is another, ERROR, message
     >>>

Logging calls (‘logger.debug()’, ‘logger.info()’ etc.)  only take
positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with
keyword parameters used only for determining options for how to handle
the actual logging call (e.g.  the ‘exc_info’ keyword parameter to
indicate that traceback information should be logged, or the ‘extra’
keyword parameter to indicate additional contextual information to be
added to the log).  So you cannot directly make logging calls using
*note str.format(): a12. or *note string.Template: a77. syntax, because
internally the logging package uses %-formatting to merge the format
string and the variable arguments.  There would be no changing this
while preserving backward compatibility, since all logging calls which
are out there in existing code will be using %-format strings.

There is, however, a way that you can use {}- and $- formatting to
construct your individual log messages.  Recall that for a message you
can use an arbitrary object as a message format string, and that the
logging package will call ‘str()’ on that object to get the actual
format string.  Consider the following two classes:

     class BraceMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)

     class DollarMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             from string import Template
             return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)

Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or
$-formatting to be used to build the actual «message» part which appears
in the formatted log output in place of «%(message)s» or «{message}» or
«$message».  It’s a little unwieldy to use the class names whenever you
want to log something, but it’s quite palatable if you use an alias such
as __ (double underscore — not to be confused with _, the single
underscore used as a synonym/alias for *note gettext.gettext(): 180b. or
its brethren).

The above classes are not included in Python, though they’re easy enough
to copy and paste into your own code.  They can be used as follows
(assuming that they’re declared in a module called ‘wherever’):

     >>> from wherever import BraceMessage as __
     >>> print(__('Message with {0} {name}', 2, name='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>> class Point: pass
     ...
     >>> p = Point()
     >>> p.x = 0.5
     >>> p.y = 0.5
     >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})',
     ...       point=p))
     Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)
     >>> from wherever import DollarMessage as __
     >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>>

While the above examples use ‘print()’ to show how the formatting works,
you would of course use ‘logger.debug()’ or similar to actually log
using this approach.

One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty
with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the
logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to
be output to a log by a handler.  So the only slightly unusual thing
which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format
string and the arguments, not just the format string.  That’s because
the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of
the ‘XXXMessage’ classes.

If you prefer, you can use a *note LoggerAdapter: 169a. to achieve a
similar effect to the above, as in the following example:

     import logging

     class Message:
         def __init__(self, fmt, args):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args)

     class StyleAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter):
         def log(self, level, msg, /, *args, stacklevel=1, **kwargs):
             if self.isEnabledFor(level):
                 msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs)
                 self.logger.log(level, Message(msg, args), **kwargs,
                                 stacklevel=stacklevel+1)

     logger = StyleAdapter(logging.getLogger(__name__))

     def main():
         logger.debug('Hello, {}', 'world!')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
         main()

The above script should log the message ‘Hello, world!’ when run with
Python 3.8 or later.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing LogRecord,  Next: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Prev: Use of alternative formatting styles,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.15 Customizing ‘LogRecord’
------------------------------

Every logging event is represented by a *note LogRecord: 138f. instance.
When an event is logged and not filtered out by a logger’s level, a
‘LogRecord’ is created, populated with information about the event and
then passed to the handlers for that logger (and its ancestors, up to
and including the logger where further propagation up the hierarchy is
disabled).  Before Python 3.2, there were only two places where this
creation was done:

   * *note Logger.makeRecord(): 33be, which is called in the normal
     process of logging an event.  This invoked *note LogRecord: 138f.
     directly to create an instance.

   * *note makeLogRecord(): 33e4, which is called with a dictionary
     containing attributes to be added to the LogRecord.  This is
     typically invoked when a suitable dictionary has been received over
     the network (e.g.  in pickle form via a *note SocketHandler: 130c,
     or in JSON form via an *note HTTPHandler: 11df.).

This has usually meant that if you need to do anything special with a
*note LogRecord: 138f, you’ve had to do one of the following.

   * Create your own *note Logger: f0c. subclass, which overrides *note
     Logger.makeRecord(): 33be, and set it using *note setLoggerClass():
     33f3. before any loggers that you care about are instantiated.

   * Add a *note Filter: 15a4. to a logger or handler, which does the
     necessary special manipulation you need when its *note filter():
     33df. method is called.

The first approach would be a little unwieldy in the scenario where
(say) several different libraries wanted to do different things.  Each
would attempt to set its own *note Logger: f0c. subclass, and the one
which did this last would win.

The second approach works reasonably well for many cases, but does not
allow you to e.g.  use a specialized subclass of *note LogRecord: 138f.
Library developers can set a suitable filter on their loggers, but they
would have to remember to do this every time they introduced a new
logger (which they would do simply by adding new packages or modules and
doing

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

at module level).  It’s probably one too many things to think about.
Developers could also add the filter to a *note NullHandler: 1629.
attached to their top-level logger, but this would not be invoked if an
application developer attached a handler to a lower-level library logger
— so output from that handler would not reflect the intentions of the
library developer.

In Python 3.2 and later, *note LogRecord: 138f. creation is done through
a factory, which you can specify.  The factory is just a callable you
can set with *note setLogRecordFactory(): 33e8, and interrogate with
*note getLogRecordFactory(): 33e7.  The factory is invoked with the same
signature as the ‘LogRecord’ constructor, as *note LogRecord: 138f. is
the default setting for the factory.

This approach allows a custom factory to control all aspects of
LogRecord creation.  For example, you could return a subclass, or just
add some additional attributes to the record once created, using a
pattern similar to this:

     old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory()

     def record_factory(*args, **kwargs):
         record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs)
         record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad
         return record

     logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory)

This pattern allows different libraries to chain factories together, and
as long as they don’t overwrite each other’s attributes or
unintentionally overwrite the attributes provided as standard, there
should be no surprises.  However, it should be borne in mind that each
link in the chain adds run-time overhead to all logging operations, and
the technique should only be used when the use of a *note Filter: 15a4.
does not provide the desired result.


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Next: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Prev: Customizing LogRecord,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.16 Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example
-------------------------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Subclass QueueHandler::
* Subclass QueueListener::


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueHandler,  Next: Subclass QueueListener,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

9.9.16.1 Subclass ‘QueueHandler’
................................

You can use a *note QueueHandler: 1d5f. subclass to send messages to
other kinds of queues, for example a ZeroMQ “publish” socket.  In the
example below,the socket is created separately and passed to the handler
(as its “queue”):

     import zmq   # using pyzmq, the Python binding for ZeroMQ
     import json  # for serializing records portably

     ctx = zmq.Context()
     sock = zmq.Socket(ctx, zmq.PUB)  # or zmq.PUSH, or other suitable value
     sock.bind('tcp://*:5556')        # or wherever

     class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
         def enqueue(self, record):
             self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)


     handler = ZeroMQSocketHandler(sock)

Of course there are other ways of organizing this, for example passing
in the data needed by the handler to create the socket:

     class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler):
         def __init__(self, uri, socktype=zmq.PUB, ctx=None):
             self.ctx = ctx or zmq.Context()
             socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, socktype)
             socket.bind(uri)
             super().__init__(socket)

         def enqueue(self, record):
             self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__)

         def close(self):
             self.queue.close()


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueListener,  Prev: Subclass QueueHandler,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example

9.9.16.2 Subclass ‘QueueListener’
.................................

You can also subclass *note QueueListener: 4cf. to get messages from
other kinds of queues, for example a ZeroMQ “subscribe” socket.  Here’s
an example:

     class ZeroMQSocketListener(QueueListener):
         def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs):
             self.ctx = kwargs.get('ctx') or zmq.Context()
             socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, zmq.SUB)
             socket.setsockopt_string(zmq.SUBSCRIBE, '')  # subscribe to everything
             socket.connect(uri)
             super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs)

         def dequeue(self):
             msg = self.queue.recv_json()
             return logging.makeLogRecord(msg)


File: python.info,  Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Next: An example dictionary-based configuration,  Prev: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.17 Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ‘pynng’ example
--------------------------------------------------------------------

In a similar way to the above section, we can implement a listener and
handler using pynng(1), which is a Python binding to NNG(2), billed as a
spiritual successor to ZeroMQ. The following snippets illustrate – you
can test them in an environment which has ‘pynng’ installed.  Just for
variety, we present the listener first.

* Menu:

* Subclass QueueListener: Subclass QueueListener<2>.
* Subclass QueueHandler: Subclass QueueHandler<2>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pynng/

   (2) https://nng.nanomsg.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueListener<2>,  Next: Subclass QueueHandler<2>,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

9.9.17.1 Subclass ‘QueueListener’
.................................

     # listener.py
     import json
     import logging
     import logging.handlers

     import pynng

     DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232"

     interrupted = False

     class NNGSocketListener(logging.handlers.QueueListener):

         def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs):
             # Have a timeout for interruptability, and open a
             # subscriber socket
             socket = pynng.Sub0(listen=uri, recv_timeout=500)
             # The b'' subscription matches all topics
             topics = kwargs.pop('topics', None) or b''
             socket.subscribe(topics)
             # We treat the socket as a queue
             super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs)

         def dequeue(self, block):
             data = None
             # Keep looping while not interrupted and no data received over the
             # socket
             while not interrupted:
                 try:
                     data = self.queue.recv(block=block)
                     break
                 except pynng.Timeout:
                     pass
                 except pynng.Closed:  # sometimes happens when you hit Ctrl-C
                     break
             if data is None:
                 return None
             # Get the logging event sent from a publisher
             event = json.loads(data.decode('utf-8'))
             return logging.makeLogRecord(event)

         def enqueue_sentinel(self):
             # Not used in this implementation, as the socket isn't really a
             # queue
             pass

     logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False
     listener = NNGSocketListener(DEFAULT_ADDR, logging.StreamHandler(), topics=b'')
     listener.start()
     print('Press Ctrl-C to stop.')
     try:
         while True:
             pass
     except KeyboardInterrupt:
         interrupted = True
     finally:
         listener.stop()


File: python.info,  Node: Subclass QueueHandler<2>,  Prev: Subclass QueueListener<2>,  Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example

9.9.17.2 Subclass ‘QueueHandler’
................................

     # sender.py
     import json
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import time
     import random

     import pynng

     DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232"

     class NNGSocketHandler(logging.handlers.QueueHandler):

         def __init__(self, uri):
             socket = pynng.Pub0(dial=uri, send_timeout=500)
             super().__init__(socket)

         def enqueue(self, record):
             # Send the record as UTF-8 encoded JSON
             d = dict(record.__dict__)
             data = json.dumps(d)
             self.queue.send(data.encode('utf-8'))

         def close(self):
             self.queue.close()

     logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False
     handler = NNGSocketHandler(DEFAULT_ADDR)
     # Make sure the process ID is in the output
     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG,
                         handlers=[logging.StreamHandler(), handler],
                         format='%(levelname)-8s %(name)10s %(process)6s %(message)s')
     levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
               logging.CRITICAL)
     logger_names = ('myapp', 'myapp.lib1', 'myapp.lib2')
     msgno = 1
     while True:
         # Just randomly select some loggers and levels and log away
         level = random.choice(levels)
         logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(logger_names))
         logger.log(level, 'Message no. %5d' % msgno)
         msgno += 1
         delay = random.random() * 2 + 0.5
         time.sleep(delay)

You can run the above two snippets in separate command shells.  If we
run the listener in one shell and run the sender in two separate shells,
we should see something like the following.  In the first sender shell:

     $ python sender.py
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     1
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     3
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     4
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     5
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     7
     INFO     myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

In the second sender shell:

     $ python sender.py
     INFO     myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     1
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     3
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     4
     INFO     myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     5
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     7
     DEBUG    myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

In the listener shell:

     $ python listener.py
     Press Ctrl-C to stop.
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     1
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     2
     INFO     myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     1
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     3
     CRITICAL myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     2
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     3
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    613 Message no.     4
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     5
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     4
     INFO     myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     5
     DEBUG         myapp    613 Message no.     6
     WARNING  myapp.lib2    657 Message no.     6
     CRITICAL      myapp    657 Message no.     7
     CRITICAL myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     7
     INFO     myapp.lib1    613 Message no.     8
     DEBUG    myapp.lib1    657 Message no.     8
     (and so on)

As you can see, the logging from the two sender processes is interleaved
in the listener’s output.


File: python.info,  Node: An example dictionary-based configuration,  Next: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing,  Prev: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.18 An example dictionary-based configuration
------------------------------------------------

Below is an example of a logging configuration dictionary - it’s taken
from the documentation on the Django project(1).  This dictionary is
passed to *note dictConfig(): 1559. to put the configuration into
effect:

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'verbose': {
                 'format': '{levelname} {asctime} {module} {process:d} {thread:d} {message}',
                 'style': '{',
             },
             'simple': {
                 'format': '{levelname} {message}',
                 'style': '{',
             },
         },
         'filters': {
             'special': {
                 '()': 'project.logging.SpecialFilter',
                 'foo': 'bar',
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console': {
                 'level': 'INFO',
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'simple',
             },
             'mail_admins': {
                 'level': 'ERROR',
                 'class': 'django.utils.log.AdminEmailHandler',
                 'filters': ['special']
             }
         },
         'loggers': {
             'django': {
                 'handlers': ['console'],
                 'propagate': True,
             },
             'django.request': {
                 'handlers': ['mail_admins'],
                 'level': 'ERROR',
                 'propagate': False,
             },
             'myproject.custom': {
                 'handlers': ['console', 'mail_admins'],
                 'level': 'INFO',
                 'filters': ['special']
             }
         }
     }

For more information about this configuration, you can see the relevant
section(2) of the Django documentation.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging

   (2) 
https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging


File: python.info,  Node: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing,  Next: A more elaborate multiprocessing example,  Prev: An example dictionary-based configuration,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.19 Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing
---------------------------------------------------------------------

An example of how you can define a namer and rotator is given in the
following runnable script, which shows gzip compression of the log file:

     import gzip
     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import os
     import shutil

     def namer(name):
         return name + ".gz"

     def rotator(source, dest):
         with open(source, 'rb') as f_in:
             with gzip.open(dest, 'wb') as f_out:
                 shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out)
         os.remove(source)


     rh = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('rotated.log', maxBytes=128, backupCount=5)
     rh.rotator = rotator
     rh.namer = namer

     root = logging.getLogger()
     root.setLevel(logging.INFO)
     root.addHandler(rh)
     f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(message)s')
     rh.setFormatter(f)
     for i in range(1000):
         root.info(f'Message no. {i + 1}')

After running this, you will see six new files, five of which are
compressed:

     $ ls rotated.log*
     rotated.log       rotated.log.2.gz  rotated.log.4.gz
     rotated.log.1.gz  rotated.log.3.gz  rotated.log.5.gz
     $ zcat rotated.log.1.gz
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 996
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 997
     2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 998


File: python.info,  Node: A more elaborate multiprocessing example,  Next: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler,  Prev: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.20 A more elaborate multiprocessing example
-----------------------------------------------

The following working example shows how logging can be used with
multiprocessing using configuration files.  The configurations are
fairly simple, but serve to illustrate how more complex ones could be
implemented in a real multiprocessing scenario.

In the example, the main process spawns a listener process and some
worker processes.  Each of the main process, the listener and the
workers have three separate configurations (the workers all share the
same configuration).  We can see logging in the main process, how the
workers log to a QueueHandler and how the listener implements a
QueueListener and a more complex logging configuration, and arranges to
dispatch events received via the queue to the handlers specified in the
configuration.  Note that these configurations are purely illustrative,
but you should be able to adapt this example to your own scenario.

Here’s the script - the docstrings and the comments hopefully explain
how it works:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import logging.handlers
     from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, Event, current_process
     import os
     import random
     import time

     class MyHandler:
         """
         A simple handler for logging events. It runs in the listener process and
         dispatches events to loggers based on the name in the received record,
         which then get dispatched, by the logging system, to the handlers
         configured for those loggers.
         """

         def handle(self, record):
             if record.name == "root":
                 logger = logging.getLogger()
             else:
                 logger = logging.getLogger(record.name)

             if logger.isEnabledFor(record.levelno):
                 # The process name is transformed just to show that it's the listener
                 # doing the logging to files and console
                 record.processName = '%s (for %s)' % (current_process().name, record.processName)
                 logger.handle(record)

     def listener_process(q, stop_event, config):
         """
         This could be done in the main process, but is just done in a separate
         process for illustrative purposes.

         This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
         starts the listener and waits for the main process to signal completion
         via the event. The listener is then stopped, and the process exits.
         """
         logging.config.dictConfig(config)
         listener = logging.handlers.QueueListener(q, MyHandler())
         listener.start()
         if os.name == 'posix':
             # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
             # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
             # dictConfig call.
             # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
             # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
             # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
             logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
             logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
         stop_event.wait()
         listener.stop()

     def worker_process(config):
         """
         A number of these are spawned for the purpose of illustration. In
         practice, they could be a heterogeneous bunch of processes rather than
         ones which are identical to each other.

         This initialises logging according to the specified configuration,
         and logs a hundred messages with random levels to randomly selected
         loggers.

         A small sleep is added to allow other processes a chance to run. This
         is not strictly needed, but it mixes the output from the different
         processes a bit more than if it's left out.
         """
         logging.config.dictConfig(config)
         levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
                   logging.CRITICAL]
         loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz',
                    'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs']
         if os.name == 'posix':
             # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the
             # parent process, but should have been disabled following the
             # dictConfig call.
             # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't
             # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message
             # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause.
             logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
             logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...')
         for i in range(100):
             lvl = random.choice(levels)
             logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers))
             logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i)
             time.sleep(0.01)

     def main():
         q = Queue()
         # The main process gets a simple configuration which prints to the console.
         config_initial = {
             'version': 1,
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'level': 'INFO'
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['console'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # The worker process configuration is just a QueueHandler attached to the
         # root logger, which allows all messages to be sent to the queue.
         # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
         # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
         # be there in the child following a fork().
         config_worker = {
             'version': 1,
             'disable_existing_loggers': True,
             'handlers': {
                 'queue': {
                     'class': 'logging.handlers.QueueHandler',
                     'queue': q
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['queue'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # The listener process configuration shows that the full flexibility of
         # logging configuration is available to dispatch events to handlers however
         # you want.
         # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the
         # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will
         # be there in the child following a fork().
         config_listener = {
             'version': 1,
             'disable_existing_loggers': True,
             'formatters': {
                 'detailed': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 },
                 'simple': {
                     'class': 'logging.Formatter',
                     'format': '%(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s'
                 }
             },
             'handlers': {
                 'console': {
                     'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                     'formatter': 'simple',
                     'level': 'INFO'
                 },
                 'file': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed'
                 },
                 'foofile': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-foo.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed'
                 },
                 'errors': {
                     'class': 'logging.FileHandler',
                     'filename': 'mplog-errors.log',
                     'mode': 'w',
                     'formatter': 'detailed',
                     'level': 'ERROR'
                 }
             },
             'loggers': {
                 'foo': {
                     'handlers': ['foofile']
                 }
             },
             'root': {
                 'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors'],
                 'level': 'DEBUG'
             }
         }
         # Log some initial events, just to show that logging in the parent works
         # normally.
         logging.config.dictConfig(config_initial)
         logger = logging.getLogger('setup')
         logger.info('About to create workers ...')
         workers = []
         for i in range(5):
             wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1),
                          args=(config_worker,))
             workers.append(wp)
             wp.start()
             logger.info('Started worker: %s', wp.name)
         logger.info('About to create listener ...')
         stop_event = Event()
         lp = Process(target=listener_process, name='listener',
                      args=(q, stop_event, config_listener))
         lp.start()
         logger.info('Started listener')
         # We now hang around for the workers to finish their work.
         for wp in workers:
             wp.join()
         # Workers all done, listening can now stop.
         # Logging in the parent still works normally.
         logger.info('Telling listener to stop ...')
         stop_event.set()
         lp.join()
         logger.info('All done.')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler,  Next: Implementing structured logging,  Prev: A more elaborate multiprocessing example,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.21 Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
------------------------------------------------------------

RFC 5424(1) requires that a Unicode message be sent to a syslog daemon
as a set of bytes which have the following structure: an optional
pure-ASCII component, followed by a UTF-8 Byte Order Mark (BOM),
followed by Unicode encoded using UTF-8.  (See the relevant section of
the specification(2).)

In Python 3.1, code was added to *note SysLogHandler: a4c. to insert a
BOM into the message, but unfortunately, it was implemented incorrectly,
with the BOM appearing at the beginning of the message and hence not
allowing any pure-ASCII component to appear before it.

As this behaviour is broken, the incorrect BOM insertion code is being
removed from Python 3.2.4 and later.  However, it is not being replaced,
and if you want to produce RFC 5424(3)-compliant messages which include
a BOM, an optional pure-ASCII sequence before it and arbitrary Unicode
after it, encoded using UTF-8, then you need to do the following:

  1. Attach a *note Formatter: 1839. instance to your *note
     SysLogHandler: a4c. instance, with a format string such as:

          'ASCII section\ufeffUnicode section'

     The Unicode code point U+FEFF, when encoded using UTF-8, will be
     encoded as a UTF-8 BOM – the byte-string ‘b'\xef\xbb\xbf'’.

  2. Replace the ASCII section with whatever placeholders you like, but
     make sure that the data that appears in there after substitution is
     always ASCII (that way, it will remain unchanged after UTF-8
     encoding).

  3. Replace the Unicode section with whatever placeholders you like; if
     the data which appears there after substitution contains characters
     outside the ASCII range, that’s fine – it will be encoded using
     UTF-8.

The formatted message 'will' be encoded using UTF-8 encoding by
‘SysLogHandler’.  If you follow the above rules, you should be able to
produce RFC 5424(4)-compliant messages.  If you don’t, logging may not
complain, but your messages will not be RFC 5424-compliant, and your
syslog daemon may complain.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html#section-6

   (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html


File: python.info,  Node: Implementing structured logging,  Next: Customizing handlers with dictConfig,  Prev: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.22 Implementing structured logging
--------------------------------------

Although most logging messages are intended for reading by humans, and
thus not readily machine-parseable, there might be circumstances where
you want to output messages in a structured format which 'is' capable of
being parsed by a program (without needing complex regular expressions
to parse the log message).  This is straightforward to achieve using the
logging package.  There are a number of ways in which this could be
achieved, but the following is a simple approach which uses JSON to
serialise the event in a machine-parseable manner:

     import json
     import logging

     class StructuredMessage:
         def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs):
             self.message = message
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, json.dumps(self.kwargs))

     _ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability

     logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
     logging.info(_('message 1', foo='bar', bar='baz', num=123, fnum=123.456))

If the above script is run, it prints:

     message 1 >>> {"fnum": 123.456, "num": 123, "bar": "baz", "foo": "bar"}

Note that the order of items might be different according to the version
of Python used.

If you need more specialised processing, you can use a custom JSON
encoder, as in the following complete example:

     import json
     import logging


     class Encoder(json.JSONEncoder):
         def default(self, o):
             if isinstance(o, set):
                 return tuple(o)
             elif isinstance(o, str):
                 return o.encode('unicode_escape').decode('ascii')
             return super().default(o)

     class StructuredMessage:
         def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs):
             self.message = message
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             s = Encoder().encode(self.kwargs)
             return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, s)

     _ = StructuredMessage   # optional, to improve readability

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s')
         logging.info(_('message 1', set_value={1, 2, 3}, snowman='\u2603'))

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

When the above script is run, it prints:

     message 1 >>> {"snowman": "\u2603", "set_value": [1, 2, 3]}

Note that the order of items might be different according to the version
of Python used.


File: python.info,  Node: Customizing handlers with dictConfig,  Next: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application,  Prev: Implementing structured logging,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.23 Customizing handlers with ‘dictConfig()’
-----------------------------------------------

There are times when you want to customize logging handlers in
particular ways, and if you use *note dictConfig(): 1559. you may be
able to do this without subclassing.  As an example, consider that you
may want to set the ownership of a log file.  On POSIX, this is easily
done using *note shutil.chown(): 74b, but the file handlers in the
stdlib don’t offer built-in support.  You can customize handler creation
using a plain function such as:

     def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
         if owner:
             if not os.path.exists(filename):
                 open(filename, 'a').close()
             shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
         return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)

You can then specify, in a logging configuration passed to *note
dictConfig(): 1559, that a logging handler be created by calling this
function:

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'default': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'file':{
                 # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
                 # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
                 # its formatter.
                 '()': owned_file_handler,
                 'level':'DEBUG',
                 'formatter': 'default',
                 # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
                 # as keyword arguments.
                 'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
                 'filename': 'chowntest.log',
                 'mode': 'w',
                 'encoding': 'utf-8',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['file'],
             'level': 'DEBUG',
         },
     }

In this example I am setting the ownership using the ‘pulse’ user and
group, just for the purposes of illustration.  Putting it together into
a working script, ‘chowntest.py’:

     import logging, logging.config, os, shutil

     def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None):
         if owner:
             if not os.path.exists(filename):
                 open(filename, 'a').close()
             shutil.chown(filename, *owner)
         return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding)

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'default': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s'
             },
         },
         'handlers': {
             'file':{
                 # The values below are popped from this dictionary and
                 # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and
                 # its formatter.
                 '()': owned_file_handler,
                 'level':'DEBUG',
                 'formatter': 'default',
                 # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable
                 # as keyword arguments.
                 'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'],
                 'filename': 'chowntest.log',
                 'mode': 'w',
                 'encoding': 'utf-8',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['file'],
             'level': 'DEBUG',
         },
     }

     logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
     logger = logging.getLogger('mylogger')
     logger.debug('A debug message')

To run this, you will probably need to run as ‘root’:

     $ sudo python3.3 chowntest.py
     $ cat chowntest.log
     2013-11-05 09:34:51,128 DEBUG mylogger A debug message
     $ ls -l chowntest.log
     -rw-r--r-- 1 pulse pulse 55 2013-11-05 09:34 chowntest.log

Note that this example uses Python 3.3 because that’s where *note
shutil.chown(): 74b. makes an appearance.  This approach should work
with any Python version that supports *note dictConfig(): 1559. -
namely, Python 2.7, 3.2 or later.  With pre-3.3 versions, you would need
to implement the actual ownership change using e.g.  *note os.chown():
149a.

In practice, the handler-creating function may be in a utility module
somewhere in your project.  Instead of the line in the configuration:

     '()': owned_file_handler,

you could use e.g.:

     '()': 'ext://project.util.owned_file_handler',

where ‘project.util’ can be replaced with the actual name of the package
where the function resides.  In the above working script, using
‘'ext://__main__.owned_file_handler'’ should work.  Here, the actual
callable is resolved by *note dictConfig(): 1559. from the ‘ext://’
specification.

This example hopefully also points the way to how you could implement
other types of file change - e.g.  setting specific POSIX permission
bits - in the same way, using *note os.chmod(): 72c.

Of course, the approach could also be extended to types of handler other
than a *note FileHandler: 1e4a. - for example, one of the rotating file
handlers, or a different type of handler altogether.


File: python.info,  Node: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application,  Next: Configuring filters with dictConfig,  Prev: Customizing handlers with dictConfig,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.24 Using particular formatting styles throughout your application
---------------------------------------------------------------------

In Python 3.2, the *note Formatter: 1839. gained a ‘style’ keyword
parameter which, while defaulting to ‘%’ for backward compatibility,
allowed the specification of ‘{’ or ‘$’ to support the formatting
approaches supported by *note str.format(): a12. and *note
string.Template: a77.  Note that this governs the formatting of logging
messages for final output to logs, and is completely orthogonal to how
an individual logging message is constructed.

Logging calls (*note debug(): 11de, *note info(): 33b6. etc.)  only take
positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with
keyword parameters used only for determining options for how to handle
the logging call (e.g.  the ‘exc_info’ keyword parameter to indicate
that traceback information should be logged, or the ‘extra’ keyword
parameter to indicate additional contextual information to be added to
the log).  So you cannot directly make logging calls using *note
str.format(): a12. or *note string.Template: a77. syntax, because
internally the logging package uses %-formatting to merge the format
string and the variable arguments.  There would be no changing this
while preserving backward compatibility, since all logging calls which
are out there in existing code will be using %-format strings.

There have been suggestions to associate format styles with specific
loggers, but that approach also runs into backward compatibility
problems because any existing code could be using a given logger name
and using %-formatting.

For logging to work interoperably between any third-party libraries and
your code, decisions about formatting need to be made at the level of
the individual logging call.  This opens up a couple of ways in which
alternative formatting styles can be accommodated.

* Menu:

* Using LogRecord factories::
* Using custom message objects::


File: python.info,  Node: Using LogRecord factories,  Next: Using custom message objects,  Up: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

9.9.24.1 Using LogRecord factories
..................................

In Python 3.2, along with the *note Formatter: 1839. changes mentioned
above, the logging package gained the ability to allow users to set
their own *note LogRecord: 138f. subclasses, using the *note
setLogRecordFactory(): 33e8. function.  You can use this to set your own
subclass of ‘LogRecord’, which does the Right Thing by overriding the
*note getMessage(): 33e6. method.  The base class implementation of this
method is where the ‘msg % args’ formatting happens, and where you can
substitute your alternate formatting; however, you should be careful to
support all formatting styles and allow %-formatting as the default, to
ensure interoperability with other code.  Care should also be taken to
call ‘str(self.msg)’, just as the base implementation does.

Refer to the reference documentation on *note setLogRecordFactory():
33e8. and *note LogRecord: 138f. for more information.


File: python.info,  Node: Using custom message objects,  Prev: Using LogRecord factories,  Up: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application

9.9.24.2 Using custom message objects
.....................................

There is another, perhaps simpler way that you can use {}- and $-
formatting to construct your individual log messages.  You may recall
(from *note Using arbitrary objects as messages: 33e5.) that when
logging you can use an arbitrary object as a message format string, and
that the logging package will call *note str(): 1df. on that object to
get the actual format string.  Consider the following two classes:

     class BraceMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.args = args
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs)

     class DollarMessage:
         def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs):
             self.fmt = fmt
             self.kwargs = kwargs

         def __str__(self):
             from string import Template
             return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs)

Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or
$-formatting to be used to build the actual «message» part which appears
in the formatted log output in place of “%(message)s” or “{message}” or
“$message”.  If you find it a little unwieldy to use the class names
whenever you want to log something, you can make it more palatable if
you use an alias such as ‘M’ or ‘_’ for the message (or perhaps ‘__’, if
you are using ‘_’ for localization).

Examples of this approach are given below.  Firstly, formatting with
*note str.format(): a12.:

     >>> __ = BraceMessage
     >>> print(__('Message with {0} {1}', 2, 'placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>> class Point: pass
     ...
     >>> p = Point()
     >>> p.x = 0.5
     >>> p.y = 0.5
     >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})', point=p))
     Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50)

Secondly, formatting with *note string.Template: a77.:

     >>> __ = DollarMessage
     >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders'))
     Message with 2 placeholders
     >>>

One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty
with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the
logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to
be output to a log by a handler.  So the only slightly unusual thing
which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format
string and the arguments, not just the format string.  That’s because
the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of
the ‘XXXMessage’ classes shown above.


File: python.info,  Node: Configuring filters with dictConfig,  Next: Customized exception formatting,  Prev: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.25 Configuring filters with ‘dictConfig()’
----------------------------------------------

You 'can' configure filters using *note dictConfig(): 1559, though it
might not be obvious at first glance how to do it (hence this recipe).
Since *note Filter: 15a4. is the only filter class included in the
standard library, and it is unlikely to cater to many requirements (it’s
only there as a base class), you will typically need to define your own
‘Filter’ subclass with an overridden *note filter(): 33df. method.  To
do this, specify the ‘()’ key in the configuration dictionary for the
filter, specifying a callable which will be used to create the filter (a
class is the most obvious, but you can provide any callable which
returns a ‘Filter’ instance).  Here is a complete example:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import sys

     class MyFilter(logging.Filter):
         def __init__(self, param=None):
             self.param = param

         def filter(self, record):
             if self.param is None:
                 allow = True
             else:
                 allow = self.param not in record.msg
             if allow:
                 record.msg = 'changed: ' + record.msg
             return allow

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'filters': {
             'myfilter': {
                 '()': MyFilter,
                 'param': 'noshow',
             }
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'filters': ['myfilter']
             }
         },
         'root': {
             'level': 'DEBUG',
             'handlers': ['console']
         },
     }

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
         logging.debug('hello')
         logging.debug('hello - noshow')

This example shows how you can pass configuration data to the callable
which constructs the instance, in the form of keyword parameters.  When
run, the above script will print:

     changed: hello

which shows that the filter is working as configured.

A couple of extra points to note:

   * If you can’t refer to the callable directly in the configuration
     (e.g.  if it lives in a different module, and you can’t import it
     directly where the configuration dictionary is), you can use the
     form ‘ext://...’ as described in *note Access to external objects:
     3414.  For example, you could have used the text
     ‘'ext://__main__.MyFilter'’ instead of ‘MyFilter’ in the above
     example.

   * As well as for filters, this technique can also be used to
     configure custom handlers and formatters.  See *note User-defined
     objects: 3408. for more information on how logging supports using
     user-defined objects in its configuration, and see the other
     cookbook recipe *note Customizing handlers with dictConfig(): 5b27.
     above.


File: python.info,  Node: Customized exception formatting,  Next: Speaking logging messages,  Prev: Configuring filters with dictConfig,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.26 Customized exception formatting
--------------------------------------

There might be times when you want to do customized exception formatting
- for argument’s sake, let’s say you want exactly one line per logged
event, even when exception information is present.  You can do this with
a custom formatter class, as shown in the following example:

     import logging

     class OneLineExceptionFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         def formatException(self, exc_info):
             """
             Format an exception so that it prints on a single line.
             """
             result = super().formatException(exc_info)
             return repr(result)  # or format into one line however you want to

         def format(self, record):
             s = super().format(record)
             if record.exc_text:
                 s = s.replace('\n', '') + '|'
             return s

     def configure_logging():
         fh = logging.FileHandler('output.txt', 'w')
         f = OneLineExceptionFormatter('%(asctime)s|%(levelname)s|%(message)s|',
                                       '%d/%m/%Y %H:%M:%S')
         fh.setFormatter(f)
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         root.addHandler(fh)

     def main():
         configure_logging()
         logging.info('Sample message')
         try:
             x = 1 / 0
         except ZeroDivisionError as e:
             logging.exception('ZeroDivisionError: %s', e)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()

When run, this produces a file with exactly two lines:

     28/01/2015 07:21:23|INFO|Sample message|
     28/01/2015 07:21:23|ERROR|ZeroDivisionError: division by zero|'Traceback (most recent call last):\n  File "logtest7.py", line 30, in main\n    x = 1 / 0\nZeroDivisionError: division by zero'|

While the above treatment is simplistic, it points the way to how
exception information can be formatted to your liking.  The *note
traceback: 107. module may be helpful for more specialized needs.


File: python.info,  Node: Speaking logging messages,  Next: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally,  Prev: Customized exception formatting,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.27 Speaking logging messages
--------------------------------

There might be situations when it is desirable to have logging messages
rendered in an audible rather than a visible format.  This is easy to do
if you have text-to-speech (TTS) functionality available in your system,
even if it doesn’t have a Python binding.  Most TTS systems have a
command line program you can run, and this can be invoked from a handler
using *note subprocess: df.  It’s assumed here that TTS command line
programs won’t expect to interact with users or take a long time to
complete, and that the frequency of logged messages will be not so high
as to swamp the user with messages, and that it’s acceptable to have the
messages spoken one at a time rather than concurrently, The example
implementation below waits for one message to be spoken before the next
is processed, and this might cause other handlers to be kept waiting.
Here is a short example showing the approach, which assumes that the
‘espeak’ TTS package is available:

     import logging
     import subprocess
     import sys

     class TTSHandler(logging.Handler):
         def emit(self, record):
             msg = self.format(record)
             # Speak slowly in a female English voice
             cmd = ['espeak', '-s150', '-ven+f3', msg]
             p = subprocess.Popen(cmd, stdout=subprocess.PIPE,
                                  stderr=subprocess.STDOUT)
             # wait for the program to finish
             p.communicate()

     def configure_logging():
         h = TTSHandler()
         root = logging.getLogger()
         root.addHandler(h)
         # the default formatter just returns the message
         root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)

     def main():
         logging.info('Hello')
         logging.debug('Goodbye')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         configure_logging()
         sys.exit(main())

When run, this script should say «Hello» and then «Goodbye» in a female
voice.

The above approach can, of course, be adapted to other TTS systems and
even other systems altogether which can process messages via external
programs run from a command line.


File: python.info,  Node: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally,  Next: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Prev: Speaking logging messages,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.28 Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
-------------------------------------------------------------------

There might be situations where you want to log messages in a temporary
area and only output them if a certain condition occurs.  For example,
you may want to start logging debug events in a function, and if the
function completes without errors, you don’t want to clutter the log
with the collected debug information, but if there is an error, you want
all the debug information to be output as well as the error.

Here is an example which shows how you could do this using a decorator
for your functions where you want logging to behave this way.  It makes
use of the *note logging.handlers.MemoryHandler: 3417, which allows
buffering of logged events until some condition occurs, at which point
the buffered events are ‘flushed’ - passed to another handler (the
‘target’ handler) for processing.  By default, the ‘MemoryHandler’
flushed when its buffer gets filled up or an event whose level is
greater than or equal to a specified threshold is seen.  You can use
this recipe with a more specialised subclass of ‘MemoryHandler’ if you
want custom flushing behavior.

The example script has a simple function, ‘foo’, which just cycles
through all the logging levels, writing to ‘sys.stderr’ to say what
level it’s about to log at, and then actually logging a message at that
level.  You can pass a parameter to ‘foo’ which, if true, will log at
ERROR and CRITICAL levels - otherwise, it only logs at DEBUG, INFO and
WARNING levels.

The script just arranges to decorate ‘foo’ with a decorator which will
do the conditional logging that’s required.  The decorator takes a
logger as a parameter and attaches a memory handler for the duration of
the call to the decorated function.  The decorator can be additionally
parameterised using a target handler, a level at which flushing should
occur, and a capacity for the buffer (number of records buffered).
These default to a *note StreamHandler: 15a1. which writes to
‘sys.stderr’, ‘logging.ERROR’ and ‘100’ respectively.

Here’s the script:

     import logging
     from logging.handlers import MemoryHandler
     import sys

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
     logger.addHandler(logging.NullHandler())

     def log_if_errors(logger, target_handler=None, flush_level=None, capacity=None):
         if target_handler is None:
             target_handler = logging.StreamHandler()
         if flush_level is None:
             flush_level = logging.ERROR
         if capacity is None:
             capacity = 100
         handler = MemoryHandler(capacity, flushLevel=flush_level, target=target_handler)

         def decorator(fn):
             def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
                 logger.addHandler(handler)
                 try:
                     return fn(*args, **kwargs)
                 except Exception:
                     logger.exception('call failed')
                     raise
                 finally:
                     super(MemoryHandler, handler).flush()
                     logger.removeHandler(handler)
             return wrapper

         return decorator

     def write_line(s):
         sys.stderr.write('%s\n' % s)

     def foo(fail=False):
         write_line('about to log at DEBUG ...')
         logger.debug('Actually logged at DEBUG')
         write_line('about to log at INFO ...')
         logger.info('Actually logged at INFO')
         write_line('about to log at WARNING ...')
         logger.warning('Actually logged at WARNING')
         if fail:
             write_line('about to log at ERROR ...')
             logger.error('Actually logged at ERROR')
             write_line('about to log at CRITICAL ...')
             logger.critical('Actually logged at CRITICAL')
         return fail

     decorated_foo = log_if_errors(logger)(foo)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         write_line('Calling undecorated foo with False')
         assert not foo(False)
         write_line('Calling undecorated foo with True')
         assert foo(True)
         write_line('Calling decorated foo with False')
         assert not decorated_foo(False)
         write_line('Calling decorated foo with True')
         assert decorated_foo(True)

When this script is run, the following output should be observed:

     Calling undecorated foo with False
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     Calling undecorated foo with True
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     about to log at ERROR ...
     about to log at CRITICAL ...
     Calling decorated foo with False
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     Calling decorated foo with True
     about to log at DEBUG ...
     about to log at INFO ...
     about to log at WARNING ...
     about to log at ERROR ...
     Actually logged at DEBUG
     Actually logged at INFO
     Actually logged at WARNING
     Actually logged at ERROR
     about to log at CRITICAL ...
     Actually logged at CRITICAL

As you can see, actual logging output only occurs when an event is
logged whose severity is ERROR or greater, but in that case, any
previous events at lower severities are also logged.

You can of course use the conventional means of decoration:

     @log_if_errors(logger)
     def foo(fail=False):
         ...


File: python.info,  Node: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Next: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration,  Prev: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.29 Sending logging messages to email, with buffering
--------------------------------------------------------

To illustrate how you can send log messages via email, so that a set
number of messages are sent per email, you can subclass *note
BufferingHandler: 3469.  In the following example, which you can adapt
to suit your specific needs, a simple test harness is provided which
allows you to run the script with command line arguments specifying what
you typically need to send things via SMTP. (Run the downloaded script
with the ‘-h’ argument to see the required and optional arguments.)

     import logging
     import logging.handlers
     import smtplib

     class BufferingSMTPHandler(logging.handlers.BufferingHandler):
         def __init__(self, mailhost, port, username, password, fromaddr, toaddrs,
                      subject, capacity):
             logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.__init__(self, capacity)
             self.mailhost = mailhost
             self.mailport = port
             self.username = username
             self.password = password
             self.fromaddr = fromaddr
             if isinstance(toaddrs, str):
                 toaddrs = [toaddrs]
             self.toaddrs = toaddrs
             self.subject = subject
             self.setFormatter(logging.Formatter("%(asctime)s %(levelname)-5s %(message)s"))

         def flush(self):
             if len(self.buffer) > 0:
                 try:
                     smtp = smtplib.SMTP(self.mailhost, self.mailport)
                     smtp.starttls()
                     smtp.login(self.username, self.password)
                     msg = "From: %s\r\nTo: %s\r\nSubject: %s\r\n\r\n" % (self.fromaddr, ','.join(self.toaddrs), self.subject)
                     for record in self.buffer:
                         s = self.format(record)
                         msg = msg + s + "\r\n"
                     smtp.sendmail(self.fromaddr, self.toaddrs, msg)
                     smtp.quit()
                 except Exception:
                     if logging.raiseExceptions:
                         raise
                 self.buffer = []

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         import argparse

         ap = argparse.ArgumentParser()
         aa = ap.add_argument
         aa('host', metavar='HOST', help='SMTP server')
         aa('--port', '-p', type=int, default=587, help='SMTP port')
         aa('user', metavar='USER', help='SMTP username')
         aa('password', metavar='PASSWORD', help='SMTP password')
         aa('to', metavar='TO', help='Addressee for emails')
         aa('sender', metavar='SENDER', help='Sender email address')
         aa('--subject', '-s',
            default='Test Logging email from Python logging module (buffering)',
            help='Subject of email')
         options = ap.parse_args()
         logger = logging.getLogger()
         logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         h = BufferingSMTPHandler(options.host, options.port, options.user,
                                  options.password, options.sender,
                                  options.to, options.subject, 10)
         logger.addHandler(h)
         for i in range(102):
             logger.info("Info index = %d", i)
         h.flush()
         h.close()

If you run this script and your SMTP server is correctly set up, you
should find that it sends eleven emails to the addressee you specify.
The first ten emails will each have ten log messages, and the eleventh
will have two messages.  That makes up 102 messages as specified in the
script.


File: python.info,  Node: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration,  Next: Using a context manager for selective logging,  Prev: Sending logging messages to email with buffering,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.30 Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
---------------------------------------------------------

Sometimes you want to format times using UTC, which can be done using a
class such as ‘UTCFormatter’, shown below:

     import logging
     import time

     class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         converter = time.gmtime

and you can then use the ‘UTCFormatter’ in your code instead of *note
Formatter: 1839.  If you want to do that via configuration, you can use
the *note dictConfig(): 1559. API with an approach illustrated by the
following complete example:

     import logging
     import logging.config
     import time

     class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         converter = time.gmtime

     LOGGING = {
         'version': 1,
         'disable_existing_loggers': False,
         'formatters': {
             'utc': {
                 '()': UTCFormatter,
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
             },
             'local': {
                 'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s',
             }
         },
         'handlers': {
             'console1': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'utc',
             },
             'console2': {
                 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler',
                 'formatter': 'local',
             },
         },
         'root': {
             'handlers': ['console1', 'console2'],
        }
     }

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING)
         logging.warning('The local time is %s', time.asctime())

When this script is run, it should print something like:

     2015-10-17 12:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015
     2015-10-17 13:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015

showing how the time is formatted both as local time and UTC, one for
each handler.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a context manager for selective logging,  Next: A CLI application starter template,  Prev: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.31 Using a context manager for selective logging
----------------------------------------------------

There are times when it would be useful to temporarily change the
logging configuration and revert it back after doing something.  For
this, a context manager is the most obvious way of saving and restoring
the logging context.  Here is a simple example of such a context
manager, which allows you to optionally change the logging level and add
a logging handler purely in the scope of the context manager:

     import logging
     import sys

     class LoggingContext:
         def __init__(self, logger, level=None, handler=None, close=True):
             self.logger = logger
             self.level = level
             self.handler = handler
             self.close = close

         def __enter__(self):
             if self.level is not None:
                 self.old_level = self.logger.level
                 self.logger.setLevel(self.level)
             if self.handler:
                 self.logger.addHandler(self.handler)

         def __exit__(self, et, ev, tb):
             if self.level is not None:
                 self.logger.setLevel(self.old_level)
             if self.handler:
                 self.logger.removeHandler(self.handler)
             if self.handler and self.close:
                 self.handler.close()
             # implicit return of None => don't swallow exceptions

If you specify a level value, the logger’s level is set to that value in
the scope of the with block covered by the context manager.  If you
specify a handler, it is added to the logger on entry to the block and
removed on exit from the block.  You can also ask the manager to close
the handler for you on block exit - you could do this if you don’t need
the handler any more.

To illustrate how it works, we can add the following block of code to
the above:

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logger = logging.getLogger('foo')
         logger.addHandler(logging.StreamHandler())
         logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
         logger.info('1. This should appear just once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('2. This should not appear.')
         with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG):
             logger.debug('3. This should appear once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('4. This should not appear.')
         h = logging.StreamHandler(sys.stdout)
         with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG, handler=h, close=True):
             logger.debug('5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.')
         logger.info('6. This should appear just once on stderr.')
         logger.debug('7. This should not appear.')

We initially set the logger’s level to ‘INFO’, so message #1 appears and
message #2 doesn’t.  We then change the level to ‘DEBUG’ temporarily in
the following ‘with’ block, and so message #3 appears.  After the block
exits, the logger’s level is restored to ‘INFO’ and so message #4
doesn’t appear.  In the next ‘with’ block, we set the level to ‘DEBUG’
again but also add a handler writing to ‘sys.stdout’.  Thus, message #5
appears twice on the console (once via ‘stderr’ and once via ‘stdout’).
After the ‘with’ statement’s completion, the status is as it was before
so message #6 appears (like message #1) whereas message #7 doesn’t (just
like message #2).

If we run the resulting script, the result is as follows:

     $ python logctx.py
     1. This should appear just once on stderr.
     3. This should appear once on stderr.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     6. This should appear just once on stderr.

If we run it again, but pipe ‘stderr’ to ‘/dev/null’, we see the
following, which is the only message written to ‘stdout’:

     $ python logctx.py 2>/dev/null
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.

Once again, but piping ‘stdout’ to ‘/dev/null’, we get:

     $ python logctx.py >/dev/null
     1. This should appear just once on stderr.
     3. This should appear once on stderr.
     5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.
     6. This should appear just once on stderr.

In this case, the message #5 printed to ‘stdout’ doesn’t appear, as
expected.

Of course, the approach described here can be generalised, for example
to attach logging filters temporarily.  Note that the above code works
in Python 2 as well as Python 3.


File: python.info,  Node: A CLI application starter template,  Next: A Qt GUI for logging,  Prev: Using a context manager for selective logging,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.32 A CLI application starter template
-----------------------------------------

Here’s an example which shows how you can:

   * Use a logging level based on command-line arguments

   * Dispatch to multiple subcommands in separate files, all logging at
     the same level in a consistent way

   * Make use of simple, minimal configuration

Suppose we have a command-line application whose job is to stop, start
or restart some services.  This could be organised for the purposes of
illustration as a file ‘app.py’ that is the main script for the
application, with individual commands implemented in ‘start.py’,
‘stop.py’ and ‘restart.py’.  Suppose further that we want to control the
verbosity of the application via a command-line argument, defaulting to
‘logging.INFO’.  Here’s one way that ‘app.py’ could be written:

     import argparse
     import importlib
     import logging
     import os
     import sys

     def main(args=None):
         scriptname = os.path.basename(__file__)
         parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(scriptname)
         levels = ('DEBUG', 'INFO', 'WARNING', 'ERROR', 'CRITICAL')
         parser.add_argument('--log-level', default='INFO', choices=levels)
         subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='command',
                                            help='Available commands:')
         start_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('start', help='Start a service')
         start_cmd.add_argument('name', metavar='NAME',
                                help='Name of service to start')
         stop_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('stop',
                                          help='Stop one or more services')
         stop_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+',
                               help='Name of service to stop')
         restart_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('restart',
                                             help='Restart one or more services')
         restart_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+',
                                  help='Name of service to restart')
         options = parser.parse_args()
         # the code to dispatch commands could all be in this file. For the purposes
         # of illustration only, we implement each command in a separate module.
         try:
             mod = importlib.import_module(options.command)
             cmd = getattr(mod, 'command')
         except (ImportError, AttributeError):
             print('Unable to find the code for command \'%s\'' % options.command)
             return 1
         # Could get fancy here and load configuration from file or dictionary
         logging.basicConfig(level=options.log_level,
                             format='%(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s')
         cmd(options)

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         sys.exit(main())

And the ‘start’, ‘stop’ and ‘restart’ commands can be implemented in
separate modules, like so for starting:

     # start.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         logger.debug('About to start %s', options.name)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Started the \'%s\' service.', options.name)

and thus for stopping:

     # stop.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         n = len(options.names)
         if n == 1:
             plural = ''
             services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0]
         else:
             plural = 's'
             services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names)
             i = services.rfind(', ')
             services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:]
         logger.debug('About to stop %s', services)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Stopped the %s service%s.', services, plural)

and similarly for restarting:

     # restart.py
     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     def command(options):
         n = len(options.names)
         if n == 1:
             plural = ''
             services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0]
         else:
             plural = 's'
             services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names)
             i = services.rfind(', ')
             services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:]
         logger.debug('About to restart %s', services)
         # actually do the command processing here ...
         logger.info('Restarted the %s service%s.', services, plural)

If we run this application with the default log level, we get output
like this:

     $ python app.py start foo
     INFO start Started the 'foo' service.

     $ python app.py stop foo bar
     INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services.

     $ python app.py restart foo bar baz
     INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services.

The first word is the logging level, and the second word is the module
or package name of the place where the event was logged.

If we change the logging level, then we can change the information sent
to the log.  For example, if we want more information:

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG start foo
     DEBUG start About to start foo
     INFO start Started the 'foo' service.

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG stop foo bar
     DEBUG stop About to stop 'foo' and 'bar'
     INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services.

     $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG restart foo bar baz
     DEBUG restart About to restart 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz'
     INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services.

And if we want less:

     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING start foo
     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING stop foo bar
     $ python app.py --log-level WARNING restart foo bar baz

In this case, the commands don’t print anything to the console, since
nothing at ‘WARNING’ level or above is logged by them.


File: python.info,  Node: A Qt GUI for logging,  Next: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Prev: A CLI application starter template,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.33 A Qt GUI for logging
---------------------------

A question that comes up from time to time is about how to log to a GUI
application.  The Qt(1) framework is a popular cross-platform UI
framework with Python bindings using PySide2(2) or PyQt5(3) libraries.

The following example shows how to log to a Qt GUI. This introduces a
simple ‘QtHandler’ class which takes a callable, which should be a slot
in the main thread that does GUI updates.  A worker thread is also
created to show how you can log to the GUI from both the UI itself (via
a button for manual logging) as well as a worker thread doing work in
the background (here, just logging messages at random levels with random
short delays in between).

The worker thread is implemented using Qt’s ‘QThread’ class rather than
the *note threading: f6. module, as there are circumstances where one
has to use ‘QThread’, which offers better integration with other ‘Qt’
components.

The code should work with recent releases of any of ‘PySide6’, ‘PyQt6’,
‘PySide2’ or ‘PyQt5’.  You should be able to adapt the approach to
earlier versions of Qt.  Please refer to the comments in the code
snippet for more detailed information.

     import logging
     import random
     import sys
     import time

     # Deal with minor differences between different Qt packages
     try:
         from PySide6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
         Signal = QtCore.Signal
         Slot = QtCore.Slot
     except ImportError:
         try:
             from PyQt6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
             Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal
             Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot
         except ImportError:
             try:
                 from PySide2 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
                 Signal = QtCore.Signal
                 Slot = QtCore.Slot
             except ImportError:
                 from PyQt5 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets
                 Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal
                 Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)


     #
     # Signals need to be contained in a QObject or subclass in order to be correctly
     # initialized.
     #
     class Signaller(QtCore.QObject):
         signal = Signal(str, logging.LogRecord)

     #
     # Output to a Qt GUI is only supposed to happen on the main thread. So, this
     # handler is designed to take a slot function which is set up to run in the main
     # thread. In this example, the function takes a string argument which is a
     # formatted log message, and the log record which generated it. The formatted
     # string is just a convenience - you could format a string for output any way
     # you like in the slot function itself.
     #
     # You specify the slot function to do whatever GUI updates you want. The handler
     # doesn't know or care about specific UI elements.
     #
     class QtHandler(logging.Handler):
         def __init__(self, slotfunc, *args, **kwargs):
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
             self.signaller = Signaller()
             self.signaller.signal.connect(slotfunc)

         def emit(self, record):
             s = self.format(record)
             self.signaller.signal.emit(s, record)

     #
     # This example uses QThreads, which means that the threads at the Python level
     # are named something like "Dummy-1". The function below gets the Qt name of the
     # current thread.
     #
     def ctname():
         return QtCore.QThread.currentThread().objectName()


     #
     # Used to generate random levels for logging.
     #
     LEVELS = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR,
               logging.CRITICAL)

     #
     # This worker class represents work that is done in a thread separate to the
     # main thread. The way the thread is kicked off to do work is via a button press
     # that connects to a slot in the worker.
     #
     # Because the default threadName value in the LogRecord isn't much use, we add
     # a qThreadName which contains the QThread name as computed above, and pass that
     # value in an "extra" dictionary which is used to update the LogRecord with the
     # QThread name.
     #
     # This example worker just outputs messages sequentially, interspersed with
     # random delays of the order of a few seconds.
     #
     class Worker(QtCore.QObject):
         @Slot()
         def start(self):
             extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() }
             logger.debug('Started work', extra=extra)
             i = 1
             # Let the thread run until interrupted. This allows reasonably clean
             # thread termination.
             while not QtCore.QThread.currentThread().isInterruptionRequested():
                 delay = 0.5 + random.random() * 2
                 time.sleep(delay)
                 try:
                     if random.random() < 0.1:
                         raise ValueError('Exception raised: %d' % i)
                     else:
                         level = random.choice(LEVELS)
                         logger.log(level, 'Message after delay of %3.1f: %d', delay, i, extra=extra)
                 except ValueError as e:
                     logger.exception('Failed: %s', e, extra=extra)
                 i += 1

     #
     # Implement a simple UI for this cookbook example. This contains:
     #
     # * A read-only text edit window which holds formatted log messages
     # * A button to start work and log stuff in a separate thread
     # * A button to log something from the main thread
     # * A button to clear the log window
     #
     class Window(QtWidgets.QWidget):

         COLORS = {
             logging.DEBUG: 'black',
             logging.INFO: 'blue',
             logging.WARNING: 'orange',
             logging.ERROR: 'red',
             logging.CRITICAL: 'purple',
         }

         def __init__(self, app):
             super().__init__()
             self.app = app
             self.textedit = te = QtWidgets.QPlainTextEdit(self)
             # Set whatever the default monospace font is for the platform
             f = QtGui.QFont('nosuchfont')
             if hasattr(f, 'Monospace'):
                 f.setStyleHint(f.Monospace)
             else:
                 f.setStyleHint(f.StyleHint.Monospace)  # for Qt6
             te.setFont(f)
             te.setReadOnly(True)
             PB = QtWidgets.QPushButton
             self.work_button = PB('Start background work', self)
             self.log_button = PB('Log a message at a random level', self)
             self.clear_button = PB('Clear log window', self)
             self.handler = h = QtHandler(self.update_status)
             # Remember to use qThreadName rather than threadName in the format string.
             fs = '%(asctime)s %(qThreadName)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s'
             formatter = logging.Formatter(fs)
             h.setFormatter(formatter)
             logger.addHandler(h)
             # Set up to terminate the QThread when we exit
             app.aboutToQuit.connect(self.force_quit)

             # Lay out all the widgets
             layout = QtWidgets.QVBoxLayout(self)
             layout.addWidget(te)
             layout.addWidget(self.work_button)
             layout.addWidget(self.log_button)
             layout.addWidget(self.clear_button)
             self.setFixedSize(900, 400)

             # Connect the non-worker slots and signals
             self.log_button.clicked.connect(self.manual_update)
             self.clear_button.clicked.connect(self.clear_display)

             # Start a new worker thread and connect the slots for the worker
             self.start_thread()
             self.work_button.clicked.connect(self.worker.start)
             # Once started, the button should be disabled
             self.work_button.clicked.connect(lambda : self.work_button.setEnabled(False))

         def start_thread(self):
             self.worker = Worker()
             self.worker_thread = QtCore.QThread()
             self.worker.setObjectName('Worker')
             self.worker_thread.setObjectName('WorkerThread')  # for qThreadName
             self.worker.moveToThread(self.worker_thread)
             # This will start an event loop in the worker thread
             self.worker_thread.start()

         def kill_thread(self):
             # Just tell the worker to stop, then tell it to quit and wait for that
             # to happen
             self.worker_thread.requestInterruption()
             if self.worker_thread.isRunning():
                 self.worker_thread.quit()
                 self.worker_thread.wait()
             else:
                 print('worker has already exited.')

         def force_quit(self):
             # For use when the window is closed
             if self.worker_thread.isRunning():
                 self.kill_thread()

         # The functions below update the UI and run in the main thread because
         # that's where the slots are set up

         @Slot(str, logging.LogRecord)
         def update_status(self, status, record):
             color = self.COLORS.get(record.levelno, 'black')
             s = '<pre><font color="%s">%s</font></pre>' % (color, status)
             self.textedit.appendHtml(s)

         @Slot()
         def manual_update(self):
             # This function uses the formatted message passed in, but also uses
             # information from the record to format the message in an appropriate
             # color according to its severity (level).
             level = random.choice(LEVELS)
             extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() }
             logger.log(level, 'Manually logged!', extra=extra)

         @Slot()
         def clear_display(self):
             self.textedit.clear()


     def main():
         QtCore.QThread.currentThread().setObjectName('MainThread')
         logging.getLogger().setLevel(logging.DEBUG)
         app = QtWidgets.QApplication(sys.argv)
         example = Window(app)
         example.show()
         if hasattr(app, 'exec'):
             rc = app.exec()
         else:
             rc = app.exec_()
         sys.exit(rc)

     if __name__=='__main__':
         main()

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.qt.io/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/PySide2/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/PyQt5/


File: python.info,  Node: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Next: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Prev: A Qt GUI for logging,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.34 Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support
---------------------------------------------

Although RFC 5424(1) dates from 2009, most syslog servers are configured
by default to use the older RFC 3164(2), which hails from 2001.  When
‘logging’ was added to Python in 2003, it supported the earlier (and
only existing) protocol at the time.  Since RFC 5424 came out, as there
has not been widespread deployment of it in syslog servers, the *note
SysLogHandler: a4c. functionality has not been updated.

RFC 5424 contains some useful features such as support for structured
data, and if you need to be able to log to a syslog server with support
for it, you can do so with a subclassed handler which looks something
like this:

     import datetime as dt
     import logging.handlers
     import re
     import socket
     import time

     class SysLogHandler5424(logging.handlers.SysLogHandler):

         tz_offset = re.compile(r'([+-]\d{2})(\d{2})$')
         escaped = re.compile(r'([\]"\\])')

         def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
             self.msgid = kwargs.pop('msgid', None)
             self.appname = kwargs.pop('appname', None)
             super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

         def format(self, record):
             version = 1
             asctime = dt.datetime.fromtimestamp(record.created).isoformat()
             m = self.tz_offset.prefixmatch(time.strftime('%z'))
             has_offset = False
             if m and time.timezone:
                 hrs, mins = m.groups()
                 if int(hrs) or int(mins):
                     has_offset = True
             if not has_offset:
                 asctime += 'Z'
             else:
                 asctime += f'{hrs}:{mins}'
             try:
                 hostname = socket.gethostname()
             except Exception:
                 hostname = '-'
             appname = self.appname or '-'
             procid = record.process
             msgid = '-'
             msg = super().format(record)
             sdata = '-'
             if hasattr(record, 'structured_data'):
                 sd = record.structured_data
                 # This should be a dict where the keys are SD-ID and the value is a
                 # dict mapping PARAM-NAME to PARAM-VALUE (refer to the RFC for what these
                 # mean)
                 # There's no error checking here - it's purely for illustration, and you
                 # can adapt this code for use in production environments
                 parts = []

                 def replacer(m):
                     g = m.groups()
                     return '\\' + g[0]

                 for sdid, dv in sd.items():
                     part = f'[{sdid}'
                     for k, v in dv.items():
                         s = str(v)
                         s = self.escaped.sub(replacer, s)
                         part += f' {k}="{s}"'
                     part += ']'
                     parts.append(part)
                 sdata = ''.join(parts)
             return f'{version} {asctime} {hostname} {appname} {procid} {msgid} {sdata} {msg}'

You’ll need to be familiar with RFC 5424 to fully understand the above
code, and it may be that you have slightly different needs (e.g.  for
how you pass structural data to the log).  Nevertheless, the above
should be adaptable to your speciric needs.  With the above handler,
you’d pass structured data using something like this:

     sd = {
         'foo@12345': {'bar': 'baz', 'baz': 'bozz', 'fizz': r'buzz'},
         'foo@54321': {'rab': 'baz', 'zab': 'bozz', 'zzif': r'buzz'}
     }
     extra = {'structured_data': sd}
     i = 1
     logger.debug('Message %d', i, extra=extra)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3164.html


File: python.info,  Node: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Next: How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output,  Prev: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.35 How to treat a logger like an output stream
--------------------------------------------------

Sometimes, you need to interface to a third-party API which expects a
file-like object to write to, but you want to direct the API’s output to
a logger.  You can do this using a class which wraps a logger with a
file-like API. Here’s a short script illustrating such a class:

     import logging

     class LoggerWriter:
         def __init__(self, logger, level):
             self.logger = logger
             self.level = level

         def write(self, message):
             if message != '\n':  # avoid printing bare newlines, if you like
                 self.logger.log(self.level, message)

         def flush(self):
             # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like
             # object - so optional depending on your situation
             pass

         def close(self):
             # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like
             # object - so optional depending on your situation. You might want
             # to set a flag so that later calls to write raise an exception
             pass

     def main():
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG)
         logger = logging.getLogger('demo')
         info_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO)
         debug_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.DEBUG)
         print('An INFO message', file=info_fp)
         print('A DEBUG message', file=debug_fp)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main()

When this script is run, it prints

     INFO:demo:An INFO message
     DEBUG:demo:A DEBUG message

You could also use ‘LoggerWriter’ to redirect ‘sys.stdout’ and
‘sys.stderr’ by doing something like this:

     import sys

     sys.stdout = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO)
     sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING)

You should do this 'after' configuring logging for your needs.  In the
above example, the *note basicConfig(): dc2. call does this (using the
‘sys.stderr’ value 'before' it is overwritten by a ‘LoggerWriter’
instance).  Then, you’d get this kind of result:

     >>> print('Foo')
     INFO:demo:Foo
     >>> print('Bar', file=sys.stderr)
     WARNING:demo:Bar
     >>>

Of course, the examples above show output according to the format used
by *note basicConfig(): dc2, but you can use a different formatter when
you configure logging.

Note that with the above scheme, you are somewhat at the mercy of
buffering and the sequence of write calls which you are intercepting.
For example, with the definition of ‘LoggerWriter’ above, if you have
the snippet

     sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING)
     1 / 0

then running the script results in

     WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last):

     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 53, in <module>

     WARNING:demo:
     WARNING:demo:main()
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 49, in main

     WARNING:demo:
     WARNING:demo:1 / 0
     WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError
     WARNING:demo::
     WARNING:demo:division by zero

As you can see, this output isn’t ideal.  That’s because the underlying
code which writes to ‘sys.stderr’ makes multiple writes, each of which
results in a separate logged line (for example, the last three lines
above).  To get around this problem, you need to buffer things and only
output log lines when newlines are seen.  Let’s use a slightly better
implementation of ‘LoggerWriter’:

     class BufferingLoggerWriter(LoggerWriter):
         def __init__(self, logger, level):
             super().__init__(logger, level)
             self.buffer = ''

         def write(self, message):
             if '\n' not in message:
                 self.buffer += message
             else:
                 parts = message.split('\n')
                 if self.buffer:
                     s = self.buffer + parts.pop(0)
                     self.logger.log(self.level, s)
                 self.buffer = parts.pop()
                 for part in parts:
                     self.logger.log(self.level, part)

This just buffers up stuff until a newline is seen, and then logs
complete lines.  With this approach, you get better output:

     WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last):
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 55, in <module>
     WARNING:demo:    main()
     WARNING:demo:  File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 52, in main
     WARNING:demo:    1/0
     WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError: division by zero


File: python.info,  Node: How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output,  Next: Patterns to avoid,  Prev: How to treat a logger like an output stream,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.36 How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output
---------------------------------------------------------

Usually, messages that are logged (say to console or file) consist of a
single line of text.  However, sometimes there is a need to handle
messages with multiple lines - whether because a logging format string
contains newlines, or logged data contains newlines.  If you want to
handle such messages uniformly, so that each line in the logged message
appears uniformly formatted as if it was logged separately, you can do
this using a handler mixin, as in the following snippet:

     # Assume this is in a module mymixins.py
     import copy

     class MultilineMixin:
         def emit(self, record):
             s = record.getMessage()
             if '\n' not in s:
                 super().emit(record)
             else:
                 lines = s.splitlines()
                 rec = copy.copy(record)
                 rec.args = None
                 for line in lines:
                     rec.msg = line
                     super().emit(rec)

You can use the mixin as in the following script:

     import logging

     from mymixins import MultilineMixin

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     class StreamHandler(MultilineMixin, logging.StreamHandler):
         pass

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(asctime)s %(levelname)-9s %(message)s',
                             handlers = [StreamHandler()])
         logger.debug('Single line')
         logger.debug('Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...')
         logger.debug('Another single line')
         logger.debug('Multiple lines:\n%s', 'fool me ...\ncan\'t get fooled again')

The script, when run, prints something like:

     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     Single line
     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     Multiple lines:
     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     fool me once ...
     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     Another single line
     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     Multiple lines:
     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     fool me ...
     2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG     can't get fooled again

If, on the other hand, you are concerned about log injection(1), you can
use a formatter which escapes newlines, as per the following example:

     import logging

     logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)

     class EscapingFormatter(logging.Formatter):
         def format(self, record):
             s = super().format(record)
             return s.replace('\n', r'\n')

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         h = logging.StreamHandler()
         h.setFormatter(EscapingFormatter('%(asctime)s %(levelname)-9s %(message)s'))
         logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, handlers = [h])
         logger.debug('Single line')
         logger.debug('Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...')
         logger.debug('Another single line')
         logger.debug('Multiple lines:\n%s', 'fool me ...\ncan\'t get fooled again')

You can, of course, use whatever escaping scheme makes the most sense
for you.  The script, when run, should produce output like this:

     2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG     Single line
     2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG     Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...
     2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG     Another single line
     2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG     Multiple lines:\nfool me ...\ncan't get fooled again

Escaping behaviour can’t be the stdlib default , as it would break
backwards compatibility.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://owasp.org/www-community/attacks/Log_Injection


File: python.info,  Node: Patterns to avoid,  Next: Other resources<2>,  Prev: How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.37 Patterns to avoid
------------------------

Although the preceding sections have described ways of doing things you
might need to do or deal with, it is worth mentioning some usage
patterns which are 'unhelpful', and which should therefore be avoided in
most cases.  The following sections are in no particular order.

* Menu:

* Opening the same log file multiple times::
* Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters::
* Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library::
* Creating a lot of loggers::


File: python.info,  Node: Opening the same log file multiple times,  Next: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.9.37.1 Opening the same log file multiple times
.................................................

On Windows, you will generally not be able to open the same file
multiple times as this will lead to a «file is in use by another
process» error.  However, on POSIX platforms you’ll not get any errors
if you open the same file multiple times.  This could be done
accidentally, for example by:

   * Adding a file handler more than once which references the same file
     (e.g.  by a copy/paste/forget-to-change error).

   * Opening two files that look different, as they have different
     names, but are the same because one is a symbolic link to the
     other.

   * Forking a process, following which both parent and child have a
     reference to the same file.  This might be through use of the *note
     multiprocessing: 98. module, for example.

Opening a file multiple times might 'appear' to work most of the time,
but can lead to a number of problems in practice:

   * Logging output can be garbled because multiple threads or processes
     try to write to the same file.  Although logging guards against
     concurrent use of the same handler instance by multiple threads,
     there is no such protection if concurrent writes are attempted by
     two different threads using two different handler instances which
     happen to point to the same file.

   * An attempt to delete a file (e.g.  during file rotation) silently
     fails, because there is another reference pointing to it.  This can
     lead to confusion and wasted debugging time - log entries end up in
     unexpected places, or are lost altogether.  Or a file that was
     supposed to be moved remains in place, and grows in size
     unexpectedly despite size-based rotation being supposedly in place.

Use the techniques outlined in *note Logging to a single file from
multiple processes: 5b12. to circumvent such issues.


File: python.info,  Node: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Next: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Prev: Opening the same log file multiple times,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.9.37.2 Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters
.............................................................................

While there might be unusual cases where you’ll need to do this, in
general there is no point because loggers are singletons.  Code can
always access a given logger instance by name using
‘logging.getLogger(name)’, so passing instances around and holding them
as instance attributes is pointless.  Note that in other languages such
as Java and C#, loggers are often static class attributes.  However,
this pattern doesn’t make sense in Python, where the module (and not the
class) is the unit of software decomposition.


File: python.info,  Node: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Next: Creating a lot of loggers,  Prev: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.9.37.3 Adding handlers other than ‘NullHandler’ to a logger in a library
..........................................................................

Configuring logging by adding handlers, formatters and filters is the
responsibility of the application developer, not the library developer.
If you are maintaining a library, ensure that you don’t add handlers to
any of your loggers other than a *note NullHandler: 1629. instance.


File: python.info,  Node: Creating a lot of loggers,  Prev: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library,  Up: Patterns to avoid

9.9.37.4 Creating a lot of loggers
..................................

Loggers are singletons that are never freed during a script execution,
and so creating lots of loggers will use up memory which can’t then be
freed.  Rather than create a logger per e.g.  file processed or network
connection made, use the *note existing mechanisms: 33ec. for passing
contextual information into your logs and restrict the loggers created
to those describing areas within your application (generally modules,
but occasionally slightly more fine-grained than that).


File: python.info,  Node: Other resources<2>,  Prev: Patterns to avoid,  Up: Logging Cookbook

9.9.38 Other resources
----------------------

Δείτε επίσης
............

Module *note logging: 8a.

     API reference for the logging module.

Module *note logging.config: 8b.

     Configuration API for the logging module.

Module *note logging.handlers: 8c.

     Useful handlers included with the logging module.

*note Basic Tutorial: 159e.

*note Advanced Tutorial: 159f.


File: python.info,  Node: Regular expression HOWTO,  Next: Socket Programming HOWTO,  Prev: Logging Cookbook,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.10 Regular expression HOWTO
=============================


Author: A.M. Kuchling <<amk@amk.ca>>

Abstract
........

This document is an introductory tutorial to using regular expressions
in Python with the *note re: c1. module.  It provides a gentler
introduction than the corresponding section in the Library Reference.

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<14>.
* Simple patterns::
* Using regular expressions::
* More pattern power::
* Modifying strings::
* Common problems::
* Feedback::


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<14>,  Next: Simple patterns,  Up: Regular expression HOWTO

9.10.1 Introduction
-------------------

Regular expressions (called REs, or regexes, or regex patterns) are
essentially a tiny, highly specialized programming language embedded
inside Python and made available through the *note re: c1. module.
Using this little language, you specify the rules for the set of
possible strings that you want to match; this set might contain English
sentences, or e-mail addresses, or TeX commands, or anything you like.
You can then ask questions such as «Does this string match the
pattern?», or «Is there a match for the pattern anywhere in this
string?».  You can also use REs to modify a string or to split it apart
in various ways.

Regular expression patterns are compiled into a series of bytecodes
which are then executed by a matching engine written in C. For advanced
use, it may be necessary to pay careful attention to how the engine will
execute a given RE, and write the RE in a certain way in order to
produce bytecode that runs faster.  Optimization isn’t covered in this
document, because it requires that you have a good understanding of the
matching engine’s internals.

The regular expression language is relatively small and restricted, so
not all possible string processing tasks can be done using regular
expressions.  There are also tasks that 'can' be done with regular
expressions, but the expressions turn out to be very complicated.  In
these cases, you may be better off writing Python code to do the
processing; while Python code will be slower than an elaborate regular
expression, it will also probably be more understandable.


File: python.info,  Node: Simple patterns,  Next: Using regular expressions,  Prev: Introduction<14>,  Up: Regular expression HOWTO

9.10.2 Simple patterns
----------------------

We’ll start by learning about the simplest possible regular expressions.
Since regular expressions are used to operate on strings, we’ll begin
with the most common task: matching characters.

For a detailed explanation of the computer science underlying regular
expressions (deterministic and non-deterministic finite automata), you
can refer to almost any textbook on writing compilers.

* Menu:

* Matching characters::
* Repeating things::


File: python.info,  Node: Matching characters,  Next: Repeating things,  Up: Simple patterns

9.10.2.1 Matching characters
............................

Most letters and characters will simply match themselves.  For example,
the regular expression ‘test’ will match the string ‘test’ exactly.
(You can enable a case-insensitive mode that would let this RE match
‘Test’ or ‘TEST’ as well; more about this later.)

There are exceptions to this rule; some characters are special
'metacharacters', and don’t match themselves.  Instead, they signal that
some out-of-the-ordinary thing should be matched, or they affect other
portions of the RE by repeating them or changing their meaning.  Much of
this document is devoted to discussing various metacharacters and what
they do.

Here’s a complete list of the metacharacters; their meanings will be
discussed in the rest of this HOWTO.

     . ^ $ * + ? { } [ ] \ | ( )

The first metacharacters we’ll look at are ‘[’ and ‘]’.  They’re used
for specifying a character class, which is a set of characters that you
wish to match.  Characters can be listed individually, or a range of
characters can be indicated by giving two characters and separating them
by a ‘'-'’.  For example, ‘[abc]’ will match any of the characters ‘a’,
‘b’, or ‘c’; this is the same as ‘[a-c]’, which uses a range to express
the same set of characters.  If you wanted to match only lowercase
letters, your RE would be ‘[a-z]’.

Metacharacters (except ‘\’) are not active inside classes.  For example,
‘[akm$]’ will match any of the characters ‘'a'’, ‘'k'’, ‘'m'’, or ‘'$'’;
‘'$'’ is usually a metacharacter, but inside a character class it’s
stripped of its special nature.

You can match the characters not listed within the class by
'complementing' the set.  This is indicated by including a ‘'^'’ as the
first character of the class.  For example, ‘[^5]’ will match any
character except ‘'5'’.  If the caret appears elsewhere in a character
class, it does not have special meaning.  For example: ‘[5^]’ will match
either a ‘'5'’ or a ‘'^'’.

Perhaps the most important metacharacter is the backslash, ‘\’.  As in
Python string literals, the backslash can be followed by various
characters to signal various special sequences.  It’s also used to
escape all the metacharacters so you can still match them in patterns;
for example, if you need to match a ‘[’ or ‘\’, you can precede them
with a backslash to remove their special meaning: ‘\[’ or ‘\\’.

Some of the special sequences beginning with ‘'\'’ represent predefined
sets of characters that are often useful, such as the set of digits, the
set of letters, or the set of anything that isn’t whitespace.

Let’s take an example: ‘\w’ matches any alphanumeric character.  If the
regex pattern is expressed in bytes, this is equivalent to the class
‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’.  If the regex pattern is a string, ‘\w’ will match all
the characters marked as letters in the Unicode database provided by the
*note unicodedata: 10e. module.  You can use the more restricted
definition of ‘\w’ in a string pattern by supplying the *note re.ASCII:
a1d. flag when compiling the regular expression.

The following list of special sequences isn’t complete.  For a complete
list of sequences and expanded class definitions for Unicode string
patterns, see the last part of *note Regular Expression Syntax: b0c. in
the Standard Library reference.  In general, the Unicode versions match
any character that’s in the appropriate category in the Unicode
database.

‘\d’

     Matches any decimal digit; this is equivalent to the class ‘[0-9]’.

‘\D’

     Matches any non-digit character; this is equivalent to the class
     ‘[^0-9]’.

‘\s’

     Matches any whitespace character; this is equivalent to the class
     ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’.

‘\S’

     Matches any non-whitespace character; this is equivalent to the
     class ‘[^ \t\n\r\f\v]’.

‘\w’

     Matches any alphanumeric character; this is equivalent to the class
     ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’.

‘\W’

     Matches any non-alphanumeric character; this is equivalent to the
     class ‘[^a-zA-Z0-9_]’.

These sequences can be included inside a character class.  For example,
‘[\s,.]’ is a character class that will match any whitespace character,
or ‘','’ or ‘'.'’.

The final metacharacter in this section is ‘.’.  It matches anything
except a newline character, and there’s an alternate mode (*note
re.DOTALL: 297d.) where it will match even a newline.  ‘.’ is often used
where you want to match «any character».


File: python.info,  Node: Repeating things,  Prev: Matching characters,  Up: Simple patterns

9.10.2.2 Repeating things
.........................

Being able to match varying sets of characters is the first thing
regular expressions can do that isn’t already possible with the methods
available on strings.  However, if that was the only additional
capability of regexes, they wouldn’t be much of an advance.  Another
capability is that you can specify that portions of the RE must be
repeated a certain number of times.

The first metacharacter for repeating things that we’ll look at is ‘*’.
‘*’ doesn’t match the literal character ‘'*'’; instead, it specifies
that the previous character can be matched zero or more times, instead
of exactly once.

For example, ‘ca*t’ will match ‘'ct'’ (0 ‘'a'’ characters), ‘'cat'’ (1
‘'a'’), ‘'caaat'’ (3 ‘'a'’ characters), and so forth.

Repetitions such as ‘*’ are 'greedy'; when repeating a RE, the matching
engine will try to repeat it as many times as possible.  If later
portions of the pattern don’t match, the matching engine will then back
up and try again with fewer repetitions.

A step-by-step example will make this more obvious.  Let’s consider the
expression ‘a[bcd]*b’.  This matches the letter ‘'a'’, zero or more
letters from the class ‘[bcd]’, and finally ends with a ‘'b'’.  Now
imagine matching this RE against the string ‘'abcbd'’.

Step       Matched         Explanation
                           
-----------------------------------------------------------------
                           
1          ‘a’             The ‘a’ in the RE matches.
                           
                           
2          ‘abcbd’         The engine matches ‘[bcd]*’, going
                           as far as it can, which is to the
                           end of the string.
                           
                           
3          'Failure'       The engine tries to match ‘b’, but
                           the current position is at the end
                           of the string, so it fails.
                           
                           
4          ‘abcb’          Back up, so that ‘[bcd]*’ matches
                           one less character.
                           
                           
5          'Failure'       Try ‘b’ again, but the current
                           position is at the last character,
                           which is a ‘'d'’.
                           
                           
6          ‘abc’           Back up again, so that ‘[bcd]*’ is
                           only matching ‘bc’.
                           
                           
7          ‘abcb’          Try ‘b’ again.  This time the
                           character at the current position
                           is ‘'b'’, so it succeeds.
                           

The end of the RE has now been reached, and it has matched ‘'abcb'’.
This demonstrates how the matching engine goes as far as it can at
first, and if no match is found it will then progressively back up and
retry the rest of the RE again and again.  It will back up until it has
tried zero matches for ‘[bcd]*’, and if that subsequently fails, the
engine will conclude that the string doesn’t match the RE at all.

Another repeating metacharacter is ‘+’, which matches one or more times.
Pay careful attention to the difference between ‘*’ and ‘+’; ‘*’ matches
'zero' or more times, so whatever’s being repeated may not be present at
all, while ‘+’ requires at least 'one' occurrence.  To use a similar
example, ‘ca+t’ will match ‘'cat'’ (1 ‘'a'’), ‘'caaat'’ (3 ‘'a'’s), but
won’t match ‘'ct'’.

There are two more repeating operators or quantifiers.  The question
mark character, ‘?’, matches either once or zero times; you can think of
it as marking something as being optional.  For example, ‘home-?brew’
matches either ‘'homebrew'’ or ‘'home-brew'’.

The most complicated quantifier is ‘{m,n}’, where 'm' and 'n' are
decimal integers.  This quantifier means there must be at least 'm'
repetitions, and at most 'n'.  For example, ‘a/{1,3}b’ will match
‘'a/b'’, ‘'a//b'’, and ‘'a///b'’.  It won’t match ‘'ab'’, which has no
slashes, or ‘'a////b'’, which has four.

You can omit either 'm' or 'n'; in that case, a reasonable value is
assumed for the missing value.  Omitting 'm' is interpreted as a lower
limit of 0, while omitting 'n' results in an upper bound of infinity.

The simplest case ‘{m}’ matches the preceding item exactly 'm' times.
For example, ‘a/{2}b’ will only match ‘'a//b'’.

Readers of a reductionist bent may notice that the three other
quantifiers can all be expressed using this notation.  ‘{0,}’ is the
same as ‘*’, ‘{1,}’ is equivalent to ‘+’, and ‘{0,1}’ is the same as
‘?’.  It’s better to use ‘*’, ‘+’, or ‘?’ when you can, simply because
they’re shorter and easier to read.


File: python.info,  Node: Using regular expressions,  Next: More pattern power,  Prev: Simple patterns,  Up: Regular expression HOWTO

9.10.3 Using regular expressions
--------------------------------

Now that we’ve looked at some simple regular expressions, how do we
actually use them in Python?  The *note re: c1. module provides an
interface to the regular expression engine, allowing you to compile REs
into objects and then perform matches with them.

* Menu:

* Compiling regular expressions::
* The backslash plague::
* Performing matches::
* Module-level functions::
* Compilation flags::


File: python.info,  Node: Compiling regular expressions,  Next: The backslash plague,  Up: Using regular expressions

9.10.3.1 Compiling regular expressions
......................................

Regular expressions are compiled into pattern objects, which have
methods for various operations such as searching for pattern matches or
performing string substitutions.

     >>> import re
     >>> p = re.compile('ab*')
     >>> p
     re.compile('ab*')

*note re.compile(): f93. also accepts an optional 'flags' argument, used
to enable various special features and syntax variations.  We’ll go over
the available settings later, but for now a single example will do:

     >>> p = re.compile('ab*', re.IGNORECASE)

The RE is passed to *note re.compile(): f93. as a string.  REs are
handled as strings because regular expressions aren’t part of the core
Python language, and no special syntax was created for expressing them.
(There are applications that don’t need REs at all, so there’s no need
to bloat the language specification by including them.)  Instead, the
*note re: c1. module is simply a C extension module included with
Python, just like the *note socket: d4. or *note zlib: 13c. modules.

Putting REs in strings keeps the Python language simpler, but has one
disadvantage which is the topic of the next section.


File: python.info,  Node: The backslash plague,  Next: Performing matches,  Prev: Compiling regular expressions,  Up: Using regular expressions

9.10.3.2 The backslash plague
.............................

As stated earlier, regular expressions use the backslash character
(‘'\'’) to indicate special forms or to allow special characters to be
used without invoking their special meaning.  This conflicts with
Python’s usage of the same character for the same purpose in string
literals.

Let’s say you want to write a RE that matches the string ‘\section’,
which might be found in a LaTeX file.  To figure out what to write in
the program code, start with the desired string to be matched.  Next,
you must escape any backslashes and other metacharacters by preceding
them with a backslash, resulting in the string ‘\\section’.  The
resulting string that must be passed to *note re.compile(): f93. must be
‘\\section’.  However, to express this as a Python string literal, both
backslashes must be escaped 'again'.

Characters              Stage
                        
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
                        
‘\section’              Text string to be matched
                        
                        
‘\\section’             Escaped backslash for
                        *note re.compile(): f93.
                        
                        
‘"\\\\section"’         Escaped backslashes for a string literal
                        

In short, to match a literal backslash, one has to write ‘'\\\\'’ as the
RE string, because the regular expression must be ‘\\’, and each
backslash must be expressed as ‘\\’ inside a regular Python string
literal.  In REs that feature backslashes repeatedly, this leads to lots
of repeated backslashes and makes the resulting strings difficult to
understand.

The solution is to use Python’s raw string notation for regular
expressions; backslashes are not handled in any special way in a string
literal prefixed with ‘'r'’, so ‘r"\n"’ is a two-character string
containing ‘'\'’ and ‘'n'’, while ‘"\n"’ is a one-character string
containing a newline.  Regular expressions will often be written in
Python code using this raw string notation.

In addition, special escape sequences that are valid in regular
expressions, but not valid as Python string literals, now result in a
*note SyntaxWarning: 44a. and will eventually become a *note
SyntaxError: 17e, which means the sequences will be invalid if raw
string notation or escaping the backslashes isn’t used.

Regular String          Raw string
                        
-----------------------------------------------
                        
‘"ab*"’                 ‘r"ab*"’
                        
                        
‘"\\\\section"’         ‘r"\\section"’
                        
                        
‘"\\w+\\s+\\1"’         ‘r"\w+\s+\1"’
                        


File: python.info,  Node: Performing matches,  Next: Module-level functions,  Prev: The backslash plague,  Up: Using regular expressions

9.10.3.3 Performing matches
...........................

Once you have an object representing a compiled regular expression, what
do you do with it?  Pattern objects have several methods and attributes.
Only the most significant ones will be covered here; consult the *note
re: c1. docs for a complete listing.

Method/Attribute       Purpose
                       
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘search()’             Scan through a string, looking for any location
                       where this RE matches.
                       
                       
‘prefixmatch()’        Determine if the RE matches at the beginning of
                       the string.  Previously named *note match(): 2f9.
                       
                       
‘findall()’            Find all substrings where the RE matches, and
                       return them as a list.
                       
                       
‘finditer()’           Find all substrings where the RE matches, and
                       return them as an *note iterator: 6ce.
                       

*note search(): 298e. and *note prefixmatch(): 24b. return ‘None’ if no
match can be found.  If they’re successful, a *note match object: 1332.
instance is returned, containing information about the match: where it
starts and ends, the substring it matched, and more.

You can learn about this by interactively experimenting with the *note
re: c1. module.

This HOWTO uses the standard Python interpreter for its examples.
First, run the Python interpreter, import the *note re: c1. module, and
compile a RE:

     >>> import re
     >>> p = re.compile('[a-z]+')
     >>> p
     re.compile('[a-z]+')

Now, you can try matching various strings against the RE ‘[a-z]+’.  An
empty string shouldn’t match at all, since ‘+’ means “one or more
repetitions”.  *note search(): 298e. should return ‘None’ in this case,
which will cause the interpreter to print no output.  You can explicitly
print the result of ‘search()’ to make this clear.

     >>> p.search("")
     >>> print(p.search(""))
     None

Now, let’s try it on a string that it should match, such as ‘tempo’.  In
this case, *note search(): 298e. will return a *note match object: 1332,
so you should store the result in a variable for later use.

     >>> m = p.search('tempo')
     >>> m
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='tempo'>

Now you can query the *note match object: 1332. for information about
the matching string.  Match object instances also have several methods
and attributes; the most important ones are:

Method/Attribute       Purpose
                       
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘group()’              Return the string matched by the RE
                       
                       
‘start()’              Return the starting position of the match
                       
                       
‘end()’                Return the ending position of the match
                       
                       
‘span()’               Return a tuple containing the (start, end)
                       positions of the match
                       

Trying these methods will soon clarify their meaning:

     >>> m.group()
     'tempo'
     >>> m.start(), m.end()
     (0, 5)
     >>> m.span()
     (0, 5)

*note group(): 13d3. returns the substring that was matched by the RE.
*note start(): 29a0. and *note end(): 29a1. return the starting and
ending index of the match.  *note span(): 29a2. returns both start and
end indexes in a single tuple.  The *note search(): 298e. method of
patterns scans through the string, so the match may not start at zero.
However, the *note prefixmatch(): 24b. method only checks if the RE
matches at the start of a string, so ‘start()’ will always be zero in
that case.

     >>> m = p.search('::: message'); print(m)
     <re.Match object; span=(4, 11), match='message'>
     >>> m.group()
     'message'
     >>> m.span()
     (4, 11)
     >>> print(p.prefixmatch('::: message'))
     None

In actual programs, the most common style is to store the *note match
object: 1332. in a variable, and then check if it was ‘None’.  This
usually looks like:

     p = re.compile( ... )
     m = p.search( 'string goes here' )
     if m:
         print('Match found: ', m.group())
     else:
         print('No match')

Two pattern methods return all of the matches for a pattern.  *note
findall(): 2994. returns a list of matching strings:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
     >>> p.findall('12 drummers drumming, 11 pipers piping, 10 lords a-leaping')
     ['12', '11', '10']

The ‘r’ prefix, making the literal a raw string literal, is needed in
this example because escape sequences in a normal «cooked» string
literal that are not recognized by Python, as opposed to regular
expressions, now result in a *note SyntaxWarning: 44a. and will
eventually become a *note SyntaxError: 17e.  See *note The backslash
plague: 5b51.

*note findall(): 2994. has to create the entire list before it can be
returned as the result.  The *note finditer(): 2995. method returns a
sequence of *note match object: 1332. instances as an *note iterator:
6ce.:

     >>> iterator = p.finditer('12 drummers drumming, 11 ... 10 ...')
     >>> iterator
     <callable_iterator object at 0x...>
     >>> for match in iterator:
     ...     print(match.span())
     ...
     (0, 2)
     (22, 24)
     (29, 31)


File: python.info,  Node: Module-level functions,  Next: Compilation flags,  Prev: Performing matches,  Up: Using regular expressions

9.10.3.4 Module-level functions
...............................

You don’t have to create a pattern object and call its methods; the
*note re: c1. module also provides top-level functions called *note
search(): 15d3, *note prefixmatch(): 24a, *note findall(): 13d2, *note
sub(): 7a1, and so forth.  These functions take the same arguments as
the corresponding pattern method with the RE string added as the first
argument, and still return either ‘None’ or a *note match object: 1332.
instance.

     >>> print(re.prefixmatch(r'From\s+', 'Fromage amk'))
     None
     >>> re.prefixmatch(r'From\s+', 'From amk Thu May 14 19:12:10 1998')
     <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='From '>

Under the hood, these functions simply create a pattern object for you
and call the appropriate method on it.  They also store the compiled
object in a cache, so future calls using the same RE won’t need to parse
the pattern again and again.

Should you use these module-level functions, or should you get the
pattern and call its methods yourself?  If you’re accessing a regex
within a loop, pre-compiling it will save a few function calls.  Outside
of loops, there’s not much difference thanks to the internal cache.


File: python.info,  Node: Compilation flags,  Prev: Module-level functions,  Up: Using regular expressions

9.10.3.5 Compilation flags
..........................

Compilation flags let you modify some aspects of how regular expressions
work.  Flags are available in the *note re: c1. module under two names,
a long name such as *note IGNORECASE: 1c9b. and a short, one-letter form
such as *note I: 2980.  (If you’re familiar with Perl’s pattern
modifiers, the one-letter forms use the same letters; the short form of
*note re.VERBOSE: 298c. is *note re.X: 2985, for example.)  Multiple
flags can be specified by bitwise OR-ing them; ‘re.I | re.M’ sets both
the ‘I’ and *note M: 2982. flags, for example.

Here’s a table of the available flags, followed by a more detailed
explanation of each one.

Flag                                  Meaning
                                      
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      
*note ASCII: a1d, *note A: 297f.      Makes several escapes like ‘\w’, ‘\b’, ‘\s’
                                      and ‘\d’ match only on ASCII characters with
                                      the respective property.
                                      
                                      
*note DOTALL: 297d, *note S: 2983.    Make ‘.’ match any character, including
                                      newlines.
                                      
                                      
*note IGNORECASE: 1c9b,               Do case-insensitive matches.
*note I: 2980.                        

*note LOCALE: f29, *note L: 2981.     Do a locale-aware match.
                                      
                                      
*note MULTILINE: 297e,                Multi-line matching, affecting ‘^’ and ‘$’.
*note M: 2982.                        

*note VERBOSE: 298c, *note X: 2985.   Enable verbose REs, which can be organized
(for “extended”)                      more cleanly and understandably.
                                      

 -- Δεδομένα: re.I

 -- Δεδομένα: re.IGNORECASE

     Perform case-insensitive matching; character class and literal
     strings will match letters by ignoring case.  For example, ‘[A-Z]’
     will match lowercase letters, too.  Full Unicode matching also
     works unless the *note ASCII: a1d. flag is used to disable
     non-ASCII matches.  When the Unicode patterns ‘[a-z]’ or ‘[A-Z]’
     are used in combination with the *note IGNORECASE: 1c9b. flag, they
     will match the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters:
     “İ” (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), “ı” (U+0131,
     Latin small letter dotless i), “ſ” (U+017F, Latin small letter long
     s) and “K” (U+212A, Kelvin sign).  ‘Spam’ will match ‘'Spam'’,
     ‘'spam'’, ‘'spAM'’, or ‘'ſpam'’ (the latter is matched only in
     Unicode mode).  This lowercasing doesn’t take the current locale
     into account; it will if you also set the *note LOCALE: f29. flag.

 -- Δεδομένα: re.L

 -- Δεδομένα: re.LOCALE

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’ and case-insensitive matching dependent
     on the current locale instead of the Unicode database.

     Locales are a feature of the C library intended to help in writing
     programs that take account of language differences.  For example,
     if you’re processing encoded French text, you’d want to be able to
     write ‘\w+’ to match words, but ‘\w’ only matches the character
     class ‘[A-Za-z]’ in bytes patterns; it won’t match bytes
     corresponding to ‘é’ or ‘ç’.  If your system is configured properly
     and a French locale is selected, certain C functions will tell the
     program that the byte corresponding to ‘é’ should also be
     considered a letter.  Setting the *note LOCALE: f29. flag when
     compiling a regular expression will cause the resulting compiled
     object to use these C functions for ‘\w’; this is slower, but also
     enables ‘\w+’ to match French words as you’d expect.  The use of
     this flag is discouraged in Python 3 as the locale mechanism is
     very unreliable, it only handles one «culture» at a time, and it
     only works with 8-bit locales.  Unicode matching is already enabled
     by default in Python 3 for Unicode (str) patterns, and it is able
     to handle different locales/languages.

 -- Δεδομένα: re.M

 -- Δεδομένα: re.MULTILINE

     (‘^’ and ‘$’ haven’t been explained yet; they’ll be introduced in
     section *note More metacharacters: 5b55.)

     Usually ‘^’ matches only at the beginning of the string, and ‘$’
     matches only at the end of the string and immediately before the
     newline (if any) at the end of the string.  When this flag is
     specified, ‘^’ matches at the beginning of the string and at the
     beginning of each line within the string, immediately following
     each newline.  Similarly, the ‘$’ metacharacter matches either at
     the end of the string and at the end of each line (immediately
     preceding each newline).

 -- Δεδομένα: re.S

 -- Δεδομένα: re.DOTALL

     Makes the ‘'.'’ special character match any character at all,
     including a newline; without this flag, ‘'.'’ will match anything
     'except' a newline.

 -- Δεδομένα: re.A

 -- Δεδομένα: re.ASCII

     Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’, ‘\s’ and ‘\S’ perform ASCII-only
     matching instead of full Unicode matching.  This is only meaningful
     for Unicode patterns, and is ignored for byte patterns.

 -- Δεδομένα: re.X

 -- Δεδομένα: re.VERBOSE

     This flag allows you to write regular expressions that are more
     readable by granting you more flexibility in how you can format
     them.  When this flag has been specified, whitespace within the RE
     string is ignored, except when the whitespace is in a character
     class or preceded by an unescaped backslash; this lets you organize
     and indent the RE more clearly.  This flag also lets you put
     comments within a RE that will be ignored by the engine; comments
     are marked by a ‘'#'’ that’s neither in a character class nor
     preceded by an unescaped backslash.

     For example, here’s a RE that uses *note re.VERBOSE: 298c.; see how
     much easier it is to read?

          charref = re.compile(r"""
           &[#]                # Start of a numeric entity reference
           (
               0[0-7]+         # Octal form
             | [0-9]+          # Decimal form
             | x[0-9a-fA-F]+   # Hexadecimal form
           )
           ;                   # Trailing semicolon
          """, re.VERBOSE)

     Without the verbose setting, the RE would look like this:

          charref = re.compile("&#(0[0-7]+"
                               "|[0-9]+"
                               "|x[0-9a-fA-F]+);")

     In the above example, Python’s automatic concatenation of string
     literals has been used to break up the RE into smaller pieces, but
     it’s still more difficult to understand than the version using
     *note re.VERBOSE: 298c.


File: python.info,  Node: More pattern power,  Next: Modifying strings,  Prev: Using regular expressions,  Up: Regular expression HOWTO

9.10.4 More pattern power
-------------------------

So far we’ve only covered a part of the features of regular expressions.
In this section, we’ll cover some new metacharacters, and how to use
groups to retrieve portions of the text that was matched.

* Menu:

* More metacharacters::
* Grouping::
* Non-capturing and named groups::
* Lookahead assertions::


File: python.info,  Node: More metacharacters,  Next: Grouping,  Up: More pattern power

9.10.4.1 More metacharacters
............................

There are some metacharacters that we haven’t covered yet.  Most of them
will be covered in this section.

Some of the remaining metacharacters to be discussed are 'zero-width
assertions'.  They don’t cause the engine to advance through the string;
instead, they consume no characters at all, and simply succeed or fail.
For example, ‘\b’ is an assertion that the current position is located
at a word boundary; the position isn’t changed by the ‘\b’ at all.  This
means that zero-width assertions should never be repeated, because if
they match once at a given location, they can obviously be matched an
infinite number of times.

‘|’

     Alternation, or the «or» operator.  If 'A' and 'B' are regular
     expressions, ‘A|B’ will match any string that matches either 'A' or
     'B'. ‘|’ has very low precedence in order to make it work
     reasonably when you’re alternating multi-character strings.
     ‘Crow|Servo’ will match either ‘'Crow'’ or ‘'Servo'’, not ‘'Cro'’,
     a ‘'w'’ or an ‘'S'’, and ‘'ervo'’.

     To match a literal ‘'|'’, use ‘\|’, or enclose it inside a
     character class, as in ‘[|]’.

‘^’

     Matches at the beginning of lines.  Unless the *note MULTILINE:
     297e. flag has been set, this will only match at the beginning of
     the string.  In ‘MULTILINE’ mode, this also matches immediately
     after each newline within the string.

     For example, if you wish to match the word ‘From’ only at the
     beginning of a line, the RE to use is ‘^From’.

          >>> print(re.search('^From', 'From Here to Eternity'))
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match='From'>
          >>> print(re.search('^From', 'Reciting From Memory'))
          None

     To match a literal ‘'^'’, use ‘\^’.

‘$’

     Matches at the end of a line, which is defined as either the end of
     the string, or any location followed by a newline character.

          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}'))
          <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>
          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block} '))
          None
          >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}\n'))
          <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'>

     To match a literal ‘'$'’, use ‘\$’ or enclose it inside a character
     class, as in ‘[$]’.

‘\A’

     Matches only at the start of the string.  When not in *note
     MULTILINE: 297e. mode, ‘\A’ and ‘^’ are effectively the same.  In
     ‘MULTILINE’ mode, they’re different: ‘\A’ still matches only at the
     beginning of the string, but ‘^’ may match at any location inside
     the string that follows a newline character.

‘\z’

     Matches only at the end of the string.

‘\Z’

     The same as ‘\z’.  For compatibility with old Python versions.

‘\b’

     Word boundary.  This is a zero-width assertion that matches only at
     the beginning or end of a word.  A word is defined as a sequence of
     alphanumeric characters, so the end of a word is indicated by
     whitespace or a non-alphanumeric character.

     The following example matches ‘class’ only when it’s a complete
     word; it won’t match when it’s contained inside another word.

          >>> p = re.compile(r'\bclass\b')
          >>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
          <re.Match object; span=(3, 8), match='class'>
          >>> print(p.search('the declassified algorithm'))
          None
          >>> print(p.search('one subclass is'))
          None

     There are two subtleties you should remember when using this
     special sequence.  First, this is the worst collision between
     Python’s string literals and regular expression sequences.  In
     Python’s string literals, ‘\b’ is the backspace character, ASCII
     value 8.  If you’re not using raw strings, then Python will convert
     the ‘\b’ to a backspace, and your RE won’t match as you expect it
     to.  The following example looks the same as our previous RE, but
     omits the ‘'r'’ in front of the RE string.

          >>> p = re.compile('\bclass\b')
          >>> print(p.search('no class at all'))
          None
          >>> print(p.search('\b' + 'class' + '\b'))
          <re.Match object; span=(0, 7), match='\x08class\x08'>

     Second, inside a character class, where there’s no use for this
     assertion, ‘\b’ represents the backspace character, for
     compatibility with Python’s string literals.

‘\B’

     Another zero-width assertion, this is the opposite of ‘\b’, only
     matching when the current position is not at a word boundary.


File: python.info,  Node: Grouping,  Next: Non-capturing and named groups,  Prev: More metacharacters,  Up: More pattern power

9.10.4.2 Grouping
.................

Frequently you need to obtain more information than just whether the RE
matched or not.  Regular expressions are often used to dissect strings
by writing a RE divided into several subgroups which match different
components of interest.  For example, an RFC-822 header line is divided
into a header name and a value, separated by a ‘':'’, like this:

     From: author@example.com
     User-Agent: Thunderbird 1.5.0.9 (X11/20061227)
     MIME-Version: 1.0
     To: editor@example.com

This can be handled by writing a regular expression which matches an
entire header line, and has one group which matches the header name, and
another group which matches the header’s value.

Groups are marked by the ‘'('’, ‘')'’ metacharacters.  ‘'('’ and ‘')'’
have much the same meaning as they do in mathematical expressions; they
group together the expressions contained inside them, and you can repeat
the contents of a group with a quantifier, such as ‘*’, ‘+’, ‘?’, or
‘{m,n}’.  For example, ‘(ab)*’ will match zero or more repetitions of
‘ab’.

     >>> p = re.compile('(ab)*')
     >>> print(p.search('ababababab').span())
     (0, 10)

Groups indicated with ‘'('’, ‘')'’ also capture the starting and ending
index of the text that they match; this can be retrieved by passing an
argument to *note group(): 13d3, *note start(): 29a0, *note end(): 29a1,
and *note span(): 29a2.  Groups are numbered starting with 0.  Group 0
is always present; it’s the whole RE, so *note match object: 1332.
methods all have group 0 as their default argument.  Later we’ll see how
to express groups that don’t capture the span of text that they match.

     >>> p = re.compile('(a)b')
     >>> m = p.search('ab')
     >>> m.group()
     'ab'
     >>> m.group(0)
     'ab'

Subgroups are numbered from left to right, from 1 upward.  Groups can be
nested; to determine the number, just count the opening parenthesis
characters, going from left to right.

     >>> p = re.compile('(a(b)c)d')
     >>> m = p.search('abcd')
     >>> m.group(0)
     'abcd'
     >>> m.group(1)
     'abc'
     >>> m.group(2)
     'b'

*note group(): 13d3. can be passed multiple group numbers at a time, in
which case it will return a tuple containing the corresponding values
for those groups.

     >>> m.group(2,1,2)
     ('b', 'abc', 'b')

The *note groups(): 13d4. method returns a tuple containing the strings
for all the subgroups, from 1 up to however many there are.

     >>> m.groups()
     ('abc', 'b')

Backreferences in a pattern allow you to specify that the contents of an
earlier capturing group must also be found at the current location in
the string.  For example, ‘\1’ will succeed if the exact contents of
group 1 can be found at the current position, and fails otherwise.
Remember that Python’s string literals also use a backslash followed by
numbers to allow including arbitrary characters in a string, so be sure
to use a raw string when incorporating backreferences in a RE.

For example, the following RE detects doubled words in a string.

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(\w+)\s+\1\b')
     >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
     'the the'

Backreferences like this aren’t often useful for just searching through
a string — there are few text formats which repeat data in this way —
but you’ll soon find out that they’re 'very' useful when performing
string substitutions.


File: python.info,  Node: Non-capturing and named groups,  Next: Lookahead assertions,  Prev: Grouping,  Up: More pattern power

9.10.4.3 Non-capturing and named groups
.......................................

Elaborate REs may use many groups, both to capture substrings of
interest, and to group and structure the RE itself.  In complex REs, it
becomes difficult to keep track of the group numbers.  There are two
features which help with this problem.  Both of them use a common syntax
for regular expression extensions, so we’ll look at that first.

Perl 5 is well known for its powerful additions to standard regular
expressions.  For these new features the Perl developers couldn’t choose
new single-keystroke metacharacters or new special sequences beginning
with ‘\’ without making Perl’s regular expressions confusingly different
from standard REs.  If they chose ‘&’ as a new metacharacter, for
example, old expressions would be assuming that ‘&’ was a regular
character and wouldn’t have escaped it by writing ‘\&’ or ‘[&]’.

The solution chosen by the Perl developers was to use ‘(?...)’ as the
extension syntax.  ‘?’ immediately after a parenthesis was a syntax
error because the ‘?’ would have nothing to repeat, so this didn’t
introduce any compatibility problems.  The characters immediately after
the ‘?’ indicate what extension is being used, so ‘(?=foo)’ is one thing
(a positive lookahead assertion) and ‘(?:foo)’ is something else (a
non-capturing group containing the subexpression ‘foo’).

Python supports several of Perl’s extensions and adds an extension
syntax to Perl’s extension syntax.  If the first character after the
question mark is a ‘P’, you know that it’s an extension that’s specific
to Python.

Now that we’ve looked at the general extension syntax, we can return to
the features that simplify working with groups in complex REs.

Sometimes you’ll want to use a group to denote a part of a regular
expression, but aren’t interested in retrieving the group’s contents.
You can make this fact explicit by using a non-capturing group:
‘(?:...)’, where you can replace the ‘...’ with any other regular
expression.

     >>> m = re.search("([abc])+", "abc")
     >>> m.groups()
     ('c',)
     >>> m = re.search("(?:[abc])+", "abc")
     >>> m.groups()
     ()

Except for the fact that you can’t retrieve the contents of what the
group matched, a non-capturing group behaves exactly the same as a
capturing group; you can put anything inside it, repeat it with a
repetition metacharacter such as ‘*’, and nest it within other groups
(capturing or non-capturing).  ‘(?:...)’ is particularly useful when
modifying an existing pattern, since you can add new groups without
changing how all the other groups are numbered.  It should be mentioned
that there’s no performance difference in searching between capturing
and non-capturing groups; neither form is any faster than the other.

A more significant feature is named groups: instead of referring to them
by numbers, groups can be referenced by a name.

The syntax for a named group is one of the Python-specific extensions:
‘(?P<name>...)’.  'name' is, obviously, the name of the group.  Named
groups behave exactly like capturing groups, and additionally associate
a name with a group.  The *note match object: 1332. methods that deal
with capturing groups all accept either integers that refer to the group
by number or strings that contain the desired group’s name.  Named
groups are still given numbers, so you can retrieve information about a
group in two ways:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'(?P<word>\b\w+\b)')
     >>> m = p.search( '(((( Lots of punctuation )))' )
     >>> m.group('word')
     'Lots'
     >>> m.group(1)
     'Lots'

Additionally, you can retrieve named groups as a dictionary with *note
groupdict(): 299f.:

     >>> m = re.search(r'(?P<first>\w+) (?P<last>\w+)', 'Jane Doe')
     >>> m.groupdict()
     {'first': 'Jane', 'last': 'Doe'}

Named groups are handy because they let you use easily remembered names,
instead of having to remember numbers.  Here’s an example RE from the
*note imaplib: 77. module:

     InternalDate = re.compile(r'INTERNALDATE "'
             r'(?P<day>[ 123][0-9])-(?P<mon>[A-Z][a-z][a-z])-'
             r'(?P<year>[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9])'
             r' (?P<hour>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<min>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<sec>[0-9][0-9])'
             r' (?P<zonen>[-+])(?P<zoneh>[0-9][0-9])(?P<zonem>[0-9][0-9])'
             r'"')

It’s obviously much easier to retrieve ‘m.group('zonem')’, instead of
having to remember to retrieve group 9.

The syntax for backreferences in an expression such as ‘(...)\1’ refers
to the number of the group.  There’s naturally a variant that uses the
group name instead of the number.  This is another Python extension:
‘(?P=name)’ indicates that the contents of the group called 'name'
should again be matched at the current point.  The regular expression
for finding doubled words, ‘\b(\w+)\s+\1\b’ can also be written as
‘\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b’:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b')
     >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group()
     'the the'


File: python.info,  Node: Lookahead assertions,  Prev: Non-capturing and named groups,  Up: More pattern power

9.10.4.4 Lookahead assertions
.............................

Another zero-width assertion is the lookahead assertion.  Lookahead
assertions are available in both positive and negative form, and look
like this:

‘(?=...)’

     Positive lookahead assertion.  This succeeds if the contained
     regular expression, represented here by ‘...’, successfully matches
     at the current location, and fails otherwise.  But, once the
     contained expression has been tried, the matching engine doesn’t
     advance at all; the rest of the pattern is tried right where the
     assertion started.

‘(?!...)’

     Negative lookahead assertion.  This is the opposite of the positive
     assertion; it succeeds if the contained expression 'doesn’t' match
     at the current position in the string.

To make this concrete, let’s look at a case where a lookahead is useful.
Consider a simple pattern to match a filename and split it apart into a
base name and an extension, separated by a ‘.’.  For example, in
‘news.rc’, ‘news’ is the base name, and ‘rc’ is the filename’s
extension.

The pattern to match this is quite simple:

‘.*[.].*$’

Notice that the ‘.’ needs to be treated specially because it’s a
metacharacter, so it’s inside a character class to only match that
specific character.  Also notice the trailing ‘$’; this is added to
ensure that all the rest of the string must be included in the
extension.  This regular expression matches ‘foo.bar’ and ‘autoexec.bat’
and ‘sendmail.cf’ and ‘printers.conf’.

Now, consider complicating the problem a bit; what if you want to match
filenames where the extension is not ‘bat’?  Some incorrect attempts:

‘.*[.][^b].*$’

The first attempt above tries to exclude ‘bat’ by requiring that the
first character of the extension is not a ‘b’.  This is wrong, because
the pattern also doesn’t match ‘foo.bar’.

‘.*[.]([^b]..|.[^a].|..[^t])$’

The expression gets messier when you try to patch up the first solution
by requiring one of the following cases to match: the first character of
the extension isn’t ‘b’; the second character isn’t ‘a’; or the third
character isn’t ‘t’.  This accepts ‘foo.bar’ and rejects ‘autoexec.bat’,
but it requires a three-letter extension and won’t accept a filename
with a two-letter extension such as ‘sendmail.cf’.  We’ll complicate the
pattern again in an effort to fix it.

‘.*[.]([^b].?.?|.[^a]?.?|..?[^t]?)$’

In the third attempt, the second and third letters are all made optional
in order to allow matching extensions shorter than three characters,
such as ‘sendmail.cf’.

The pattern’s getting really complicated now, which makes it hard to
read and understand.  Worse, if the problem changes and you want to
exclude both ‘bat’ and ‘exe’ as extensions, the pattern would get even
more complicated and confusing.

A negative lookahead cuts through all this confusion:

‘.*[.](?!bat$)[^.]*$’

The negative lookahead means: if the expression ‘bat’ doesn’t match at
this point, try the rest of the pattern; if ‘bat$’ does match, the whole
pattern will fail.  The trailing ‘$’ is required to ensure that
something like ‘sample.batch’, where the extension only starts with
‘bat’, will be allowed.  The ‘[^.]*’ makes sure that the pattern works
when there are multiple dots in the filename.

Excluding another filename extension is now easy; simply add it as an
alternative inside the assertion.  The following pattern excludes
filenames that end in either ‘bat’ or ‘exe’:

‘.*[.](?!bat$|exe$)[^.]*$’


File: python.info,  Node: Modifying strings,  Next: Common problems,  Prev: More pattern power,  Up: Regular expression HOWTO

9.10.5 Modifying strings
------------------------

Up to this point, we’ve simply performed searches against a static
string.  Regular expressions are also commonly used to modify strings in
various ways, using the following pattern methods:

Method/Attribute       Purpose
                       
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       
‘split()’              Split the string into a list, splitting it
                       wherever the RE matches
                       
                       
‘sub()’                Find all substrings where the RE matches, and
                       replace them with a different string
                       
                       
‘subn()’               Does the same thing as ‘sub()’, but returns the
                       new string and the number of replacements
                       

* Menu:

* Splitting strings::
* Search and replace::


File: python.info,  Node: Splitting strings,  Next: Search and replace,  Up: Modifying strings

9.10.5.1 Splitting strings
..........................

The *note split(): 2993. method of a pattern splits a string apart
wherever the RE matches, returning a list of the pieces.  It’s similar
to the *note split(): 125b. method of strings but provides much more
generality in the delimiters that you can split by; string ‘split()’
only supports splitting by whitespace or by a fixed string.  As you’d
expect, there’s a module-level *note re.split(): 7a0. function, too.

 -- Μέθοδος: .split (string[, maxsplit=0])

     Split 'string' by the matches of the regular expression.  If
     capturing parentheses are used in the RE, then their contents will
     also be returned as part of the resulting list.  If 'maxsplit' is
     nonzero, at most 'maxsplit' splits are performed.

You can limit the number of splits made, by passing a value for
'maxsplit'.  When 'maxsplit' is nonzero, at most 'maxsplit' splits will
be made, and the remainder of the string is returned as the final
element of the list.  In the following example, the delimiter is any
sequence of non-alphanumeric characters.

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
     >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().')
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', 'short', 'and', 'sweet', 'of', 'split', '']
     >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().', 3)
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test, short and sweet, of split().']

Sometimes you’re not only interested in what the text between delimiters
is, but also need to know what the delimiter was.  If capturing
parentheses are used in the RE, then their values are also returned as
part of the list.  Compare the following calls:

     >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+')
     >>> p2 = re.compile(r'(\W+)')
     >>> p.split('This... is a test.')
     ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', '']
     >>> p2.split('This... is a test.')
     ['This', '... ', 'is', ' ', 'a', ' ', 'test', '.', '']

The module-level function *note re.split(): 7a0. adds the RE to be used
as the first argument, but is otherwise the same.

     >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.')
     ['Words', 'words', 'words', '']
     >>> re.split(r'([\W]+)', 'Words, words, words.')
     ['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', '']
     >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.', 1)
     ['Words', 'words, words.']


File: python.info,  Node: Search and replace,  Prev: Splitting strings,  Up: Modifying strings

9.10.5.2 Search and replace
...........................

Another common task is to find all the matches for a pattern, and
replace them with a different string.  The *note sub(): 2996. method
takes a replacement value, which can be either a string or a function,
and the string to be processed.

 -- Μέθοδος: .sub (replacement, string[, count=0])

     Returns the string obtained by replacing the leftmost
     non-overlapping occurrences of the RE in 'string' by the
     replacement 'replacement'.  If the pattern isn’t found, 'string' is
     returned unchanged.

     The optional argument 'count' is the maximum number of pattern
     occurrences to be replaced; 'count' must be a non-negative integer.
     The default value of 0 means to replace all occurrences.

Here’s a simple example of using the *note sub(): 2996. method.  It
replaces colour names with the word ‘colour’:

     >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
     >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
     'colour socks and colour shoes'
     >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes', count=1)
     'colour socks and red shoes'

The *note subn(): 2997. method does the same work, but returns a 2-tuple
containing the new string value and the number of replacements that were
performed:

     >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)')
     >>> p.subn('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes')
     ('colour socks and colour shoes', 2)
     >>> p.subn('colour', 'no colours at all')
     ('no colours at all', 0)

Empty matches are replaced only when they’re not adjacent to a previous
empty match.

     >>> p = re.compile('x*')
     >>> p.sub('-', 'abxd')
     '-a-b--d-'

If 'replacement' is a string, any backslash escapes in it are processed.
That is, ‘\n’ is converted to a single newline character, ‘\r’ is
converted to a carriage return, and so forth.  Unknown escapes such as
‘\&’ are left alone.  Backreferences, such as ‘\6’, are replaced with
the substring matched by the corresponding group in the RE. This lets
you incorporate portions of the original text in the resulting
replacement string.

This example matches the word ‘section’ followed by a string enclosed in
‘{’, ‘}’, and changes ‘section’ to ‘subsection’:

     >>> p = re.compile('section{ ( [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First} section{second}')
     'subsection{First} subsection{second}'

There’s also a syntax for referring to named groups as defined by the
‘(?P<name>...)’ syntax.  ‘\g<name>’ will use the substring matched by
the group named ‘name’, and ‘\g<number>’ uses the corresponding group
number.  ‘\g<2>’ is therefore equivalent to ‘\2’, but isn’t ambiguous in
a replacement string such as ‘\g<2>0’.  (‘\20’ would be interpreted as a
reference to group 20, not a reference to group 2 followed by the
literal character ‘'0'’.)  The following substitutions are all
equivalent, but use all three variations of the replacement string.

     >>> p = re.compile('section{ (?P<name> [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE)
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<1>}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'
     >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<name>}','section{First}')
     'subsection{First}'

'replacement' can also be a function, which gives you even more control.
If 'replacement' is a function, the function is called for every
non-overlapping occurrence of 'pattern'.  On each call, the function is
passed a *note match object: 1332. argument for the match and can use
this information to compute the desired replacement string and return
it.

In the following example, the replacement function translates decimals
into hexadecimal:

     >>> def hexrepl(match):
     ...     "Return the hex string for a decimal number"
     ...     value = int(match.group())
     ...     return hex(value)
     ...
     >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+')
     >>> p.sub(hexrepl, 'Call 65490 for printing, 49152 for user code.')
     'Call 0xffd2 for printing, 0xc000 for user code.'

When using the module-level *note re.sub(): 7a1. function, the pattern
is passed as the first argument.  The pattern may be provided as an
object or as a string; if you need to specify regular expression flags,
you must either use a pattern object as the first parameter, or use
embedded modifiers in the pattern string, e.g.  ‘sub("(?i)b+", "x",
"bbbb BBBB")’ returns ‘'x x'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Common problems,  Next: Feedback,  Prev: Modifying strings,  Up: Regular expression HOWTO

9.10.6 Common problems
----------------------

Regular expressions are a powerful tool for some applications, but in
some ways their behaviour isn’t intuitive and at times they don’t behave
the way you may expect them to.  This section will point out some of the
most common pitfalls.

* Menu:

* Use string methods::
* prefixmatch() (aka match) versus search(): prefixmatch aka match versus search.
* Greedy versus non-greedy::
* Using re.VERBOSE: Using re VERBOSE.


File: python.info,  Node: Use string methods,  Next: prefixmatch aka match versus search,  Up: Common problems

9.10.6.1 Use string methods
...........................

Sometimes using the *note re: c1. module is a mistake.  If you’re
matching a fixed string, or a single character class, and you’re not
using any ‘re’ features such as the *note IGNORECASE: 1c9b. flag, then
the full power of regular expressions may not be required.  Strings have
several methods for performing operations with fixed strings and they’re
usually much faster, because the implementation is a single small C loop
that’s been optimized for the purpose, instead of the large, more
generalized regular expression engine.

One example might be replacing a single fixed string with another one;
for example, you might replace ‘word’ with ‘deed’.  *note re.sub(): 7a1.
seems like the function to use for this, but consider the *note
replace(): 6c0. method.  Note that ‘replace()’ will also replace ‘word’
inside words, turning ‘swordfish’ into ‘sdeedfish’, but the naive RE
‘word’ would have done that, too.  (To avoid performing the substitution
on parts of words, the pattern would have to be ‘\bword\b’, in order to
require that ‘word’ have a word boundary on either side.  This takes the
job beyond ‘replace()’”s abilities.)

Another common task is deleting every occurrence of a single character
from a string or replacing it with another single character.  You might
do this with something like ‘re.sub('\n', ' ', S)’, but *note
translate(): 1979. is capable of doing both tasks and will be faster
than any regular expression operation can be.

In short, before turning to the *note re: c1. module, consider whether
your problem can be solved with a faster and simpler string method.


File: python.info,  Node: prefixmatch aka match versus search,  Next: Greedy versus non-greedy,  Prev: Use string methods,  Up: Common problems

9.10.6.2 prefixmatch() (aka match) versus search()
..................................................

*note prefixmatch(): 24a. was added in Python 3.15 as the *note
preferred name: 2f9. for *note match(): 24c.  Before this, it was only
known as ‘match()’ and the distinction with *note search(): 15d3. was
often misunderstood.

‘prefixmatch()’ aka ‘match()’ only checks if the RE matches at the
beginning of the string while ‘search()’ scans forward through the
string for a match.

     >>> print(re.prefixmatch('super', 'superstition').span())
     (0, 5)
     >>> print(re.prefixmatch('super', 'insuperable'))
     None

On the other hand, *note search(): 15d3. scans forward through the
string, reporting the first match it finds.

     >>> print(re.search('super', 'superstition').span())
     (0, 5)
     >>> print(re.search('super', 'insuperable').span())
     (2, 7)

This distinction is important to remember when using the old *note
match(): 24c. name in code requiring compatibility with older Python
versions.


File: python.info,  Node: Greedy versus non-greedy,  Next: Using re VERBOSE,  Prev: prefixmatch aka match versus search,  Up: Common problems

9.10.6.3 Greedy versus non-greedy
.................................

When repeating a regular expression, as in ‘a*’, the resulting action is
to consume as much of the pattern as possible.  This fact often bites
you when you’re trying to match a pair of balanced delimiters, such as
the angle brackets surrounding an HTML tag.  The naive pattern for
matching a single HTML tag doesn’t work because of the greedy nature of
‘.*’.

     >>> s = '<html><head><title>Title</title>'
     >>> len(s)
     32
     >>> print(re.prefixmatch('<.*>', s).span())
     (0, 32)
     >>> print(re.prefixmatch('<.*>', s).group())
     <html><head><title>Title</title>

The RE matches the ‘'<'’ in ‘'<html>'’, and the ‘.*’ consumes the rest
of the string.  There’s still more left in the RE, though, and the ‘>’
can’t match at the end of the string, so the regular expression engine
has to backtrack character by character until it finds a match for the
‘>’.  The final match extends from the ‘'<'’ in ‘'<html>'’ to the ‘'>'’
in ‘'</title>'’, which isn’t what you want.

In this case, the solution is to use the non-greedy quantifiers ‘*?’,
‘+?’, ‘??’, or ‘{m,n}?’, which match as 'little' text as possible.  In
the above example, the ‘'>'’ is tried immediately after the first ‘'<'’
matches, and when it fails, the engine advances a character at a time,
retrying the ‘'>'’ at every step.  This produces just the right result:

     >>> print(re.prefixmatch('<.*?>', s).group())
     <html>

(Note that parsing HTML or XML with regular expressions is painful.
Quick-and-dirty patterns will handle common cases, but HTML and XML have
special cases that will break the obvious regular expression; by the
time you’ve written a regular expression that handles all of the
possible cases, the patterns will be 'very' complicated.  Use an HTML or
XML parser module for such tasks.)


File: python.info,  Node: Using re VERBOSE,  Prev: Greedy versus non-greedy,  Up: Common problems

9.10.6.4 Using re.VERBOSE
.........................

By now you’ve probably noticed that regular expressions are a very
compact notation, but they’re not terribly readable.  REs of moderate
complexity can become lengthy collections of backslashes, parentheses,
and metacharacters, making them difficult to read and understand.

For such REs, specifying the *note re.VERBOSE: 298c. flag when compiling
the regular expression can be helpful, because it allows you to format
the regular expression more clearly.

The ‘re.VERBOSE’ flag has several effects.  Whitespace in the regular
expression that 'isn’t' inside a character class is ignored.  This means
that an expression such as ‘dog | cat’ is equivalent to the less
readable ‘dog|cat’, but ‘[a b]’ will still match the characters ‘'a'’,
‘'b'’, or a space.  In addition, you can also put comments inside a RE;
comments extend from a ‘#’ character to the next newline.  When used
with triple-quoted strings, this enables REs to be formatted more
neatly:

     pat = re.compile(r"""
      \s*                 # Skip leading whitespace
      (?P<header>[^:]+)   # Header name
      \s* :               # Whitespace, and a colon
      (?P<value>.*?)      # The header's value -- *? used to
                          # lose the following trailing whitespace
      \s*$                # Trailing whitespace to end-of-line
     """, re.VERBOSE)

This is far more readable than:

     pat = re.compile(r"\s*(?P<header>[^:]+)\s*:(?P<value>.*?)\s*$")


File: python.info,  Node: Feedback,  Prev: Common problems,  Up: Regular expression HOWTO

9.10.7 Feedback
---------------

Regular expressions are a complicated topic.  Did this document help you
understand them?  Were there parts that were unclear, or problems you
encountered that weren’t covered here?  If so, please send suggestions
for improvements to the *note issue tracker: 758.

The most complete book on regular expressions is almost certainly
Jeffrey Friedl’s Mastering Regular Expressions, published by O’Reilly.
Unfortunately, it exclusively concentrates on Perl and Java’s flavours
of regular expressions, and doesn’t contain any Python material at all,
so it won’t be useful as a reference for programming in Python.  (The
first edition covered Python’s now-removed ‘regex’ module, which won’t
help you much.)  Consider checking it out from your library.


File: python.info,  Node: Socket Programming HOWTO,  Next: Sorting Techniques,  Prev: Regular expression HOWTO,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.11 Socket Programming HOWTO
=============================


Author: Gordon McMillan

Abstract
........

Sockets are used nearly everywhere, but are one of the most severely
misunderstood technologies around.  This is a 10,000 foot overview of
sockets.  It’s not really a tutorial - you’ll still have work to do in
getting things operational.  It doesn’t cover the fine points (and there
are a lot of them), but I hope it will give you enough background to
begin using them decently.

* Menu:

* Sockets::
* Creating a Socket::
* Using a Socket::
* Disconnecting::
* Non-blocking Sockets::


File: python.info,  Node: Sockets,  Next: Creating a Socket,  Up: Socket Programming HOWTO

9.11.1 Sockets
--------------

I’m only going to talk about INET (i.e.  IPv4) sockets, but they account
for at least 99% of the sockets in use.  And I’ll only talk about STREAM
(i.e.  TCP) sockets - unless you really know what you’re doing (in which
case this HOWTO isn’t for you!), you’ll get better behavior and
performance from a STREAM socket than anything else.  I will try to
clear up the mystery of what a socket is, as well as some hints on how
to work with blocking and non-blocking sockets.  But I’ll start by
talking about blocking sockets.  You’ll need to know how they work
before dealing with non-blocking sockets.

Part of the trouble with understanding these things is that «socket» can
mean a number of subtly different things, depending on context.  So
first, let’s make a distinction between a «client» socket - an endpoint
of a conversation, and a «server» socket, which is more like a
switchboard operator.  The client application (your browser, for
example) uses «client» sockets exclusively; the web server it’s talking
to uses both «server» sockets and «client» sockets.

* Menu:

* History::


File: python.info,  Node: History,  Up: Sockets

9.11.1.1 History
................

Of the various forms of IPC (Inter Process Communication), sockets are
by far the most popular.  On any given platform, there are likely to be
other forms of IPC that are faster, but for cross-platform
communication, sockets are about the only game in town.

They were invented in Berkeley as part of the BSD flavor of Unix.  They
spread like wildfire with the internet.  With good reason — the
combination of sockets with INET makes talking to arbitrary machines
around the world unbelievably easy (at least compared to other schemes).


File: python.info,  Node: Creating a Socket,  Next: Using a Socket,  Prev: Sockets,  Up: Socket Programming HOWTO

9.11.2 Creating a Socket
------------------------

Roughly speaking, when you clicked on the link that brought you to this
page, your browser did something like the following:

     # create an INET, STREAMing socket
     s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     # now connect to the web server on port 80 - the normal http port
     s.connect(("www.python.org", 80))

When the ‘connect’ completes, the socket ‘s’ can be used to send in a
request for the text of the page.  The same socket will read the reply,
and then be destroyed.  That’s right, destroyed.  Client sockets are
normally only used for one exchange (or a small set of sequential
exchanges).

What happens in the web server is a bit more complex.  First, the web
server creates a «server socket»:

     # create an INET, STREAMing socket
     serversocket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     # bind the socket to a public host, and a well-known port
     serversocket.bind((socket.gethostname(), 80))
     # become a server socket
     serversocket.listen(5)

A couple things to notice: we used ‘socket.gethostname()’ so that the
socket would be visible to the outside world.  If we had used
‘s.bind(('localhost', 80))’ or ‘s.bind(('127.0.0.1', 80))’ we would
still have a «server» socket, but one that was only visible within the
same machine.  ‘s.bind(('', 80))’ specifies that the socket is reachable
by any address the machine happens to have.

A second thing to note: low number ports are usually reserved for «well
known» services (HTTP, SNMP etc).  If you’re playing around, use a nice
high number (4 digits).

Finally, the argument to ‘listen’ tells the socket library that we want
it to queue up as many as 5 connect requests (the normal max) before
refusing outside connections.  If the rest of the code is written
properly, that should be plenty.

Now that we have a «server» socket, listening on port 80, we can enter
the mainloop of the web server:

     while True:
         # accept connections from outside
         (clientsocket, address) = serversocket.accept()
         # now do something with the clientsocket
         # in this case, we'll pretend this is a threaded server
         ct = make_client_thread(clientsocket)
         ct.start()

There’s actually 3 general ways in which this loop could work -
dispatching a thread to handle ‘clientsocket’, create a new process to
handle ‘clientsocket’, or restructure this app to use non-blocking
sockets, and multiplex between our «server» socket and any active
‘clientsocket’s using ‘select’.  More about that later.  The important
thing to understand now is this: this is 'all' a «server» socket does.
It doesn’t send any data.  It doesn’t receive any data.  It just
produces «client» sockets.  Each ‘clientsocket’ is created in response
to some 'other' «client» socket doing a ‘connect()’ to the host and port
we’re bound to.  As soon as we’ve created that ‘clientsocket’, we go
back to listening for more connections.  The two «clients» are free to
chat it up - they are using some dynamically allocated port which will
be recycled when the conversation ends.

* Menu:

* IPC::


File: python.info,  Node: IPC,  Up: Creating a Socket

9.11.2.1 IPC
............

If you need fast IPC between two processes on one machine, you should
look into pipes or shared memory.  If you do decide to use AF_INET
sockets, bind the «server» socket to ‘'localhost'’.  On most platforms,
this will take a shortcut around a couple of layers of network code and
be quite a bit faster.

Δείτε επίσης
............

The *note multiprocessing: 98. integrates cross-platform IPC into a
higher-level API.


File: python.info,  Node: Using a Socket,  Next: Disconnecting,  Prev: Creating a Socket,  Up: Socket Programming HOWTO

9.11.3 Using a Socket
---------------------

The first thing to note, is that the web browser’s «client» socket and
the web server’s «client» socket are identical beasts.  That is, this is
a «peer to peer» conversation.  Or to put it another way, 'as the
designer, you will have to decide what the rules of etiquette are for a
conversation'.  Normally, the ‘connect’ing socket starts the
conversation, by sending in a request, or perhaps a signon.  But that’s
a design decision - it’s not a rule of sockets.

Now there are two sets of verbs to use for communication.  You can use
‘send’ and ‘recv’, or you can transform your client socket into a
file-like beast and use ‘read’ and ‘write’.  The latter is the way Java
presents its sockets.  I’m not going to talk about it here, except to
warn you that you need to use ‘flush’ on sockets.  These are buffered
«files», and a common mistake is to ‘write’ something, and then ‘read’
for a reply.  Without a ‘flush’ in there, you may wait forever for the
reply, because the request may still be in your output buffer.

Now we come to the major stumbling block of sockets - ‘send’ and ‘recv’
operate on the network buffers.  They do not necessarily handle all the
bytes you hand them (or expect from them), because their major focus is
handling the network buffers.  In general, they return when the
associated network buffers have been filled (‘send’) or emptied
(‘recv’).  They then tell you how many bytes they handled.  It is 'your'
responsibility to call them again until your message has been completely
dealt with.

When a ‘recv’ returns 0 bytes, it means the other side has closed (or is
in the process of closing) the connection.  You will not receive any
more data on this connection.  Ever.  You may be able to send data
successfully; I’ll talk more about this later.

A protocol like HTTP uses a socket for only one transfer.  The client
sends a request, then reads a reply.  That’s it.  The socket is
discarded.  This means that a client can detect the end of the reply by
receiving 0 bytes.

But if you plan to reuse your socket for further transfers, you need to
realize that 'there is no' EOT (End of Transfer) 'on a socket.'  I
repeat: if a socket ‘send’ or ‘recv’ returns after handling 0 bytes, the
connection has been broken.  If the connection has 'not' been broken,
you may wait on a ‘recv’ forever, because the socket will 'not' tell you
that there’s nothing more to read (for now).  Now if you think about
that a bit, you’ll come to realize a fundamental truth of sockets:
'messages must either be fixed length' (yuck), 'or be delimited'
(shrug), 'or indicate how long they are' (much better), 'or end by
shutting down the connection'.  The choice is entirely yours, (but some
ways are righter than others).

Assuming you don’t want to end the connection, the simplest solution is
a fixed length message:

     class MySocket:
         """demonstration class only
           - coded for clarity, not efficiency
         """

         def __init__(self, sock=None):
             if sock is None:
                 self.sock = socket.socket(
                                 socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
             else:
                 self.sock = sock

         def connect(self, host, port):
             self.sock.connect((host, port))

         def mysend(self, msg):
             totalsent = 0
             while totalsent < MSGLEN:
                 sent = self.sock.send(msg[totalsent:])
                 if sent == 0:
                     raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
                 totalsent = totalsent + sent

         def myreceive(self):
             chunks = []
             bytes_recd = 0
             while bytes_recd < MSGLEN:
                 chunk = self.sock.recv(min(MSGLEN - bytes_recd, 2048))
                 if chunk == b'':
                     raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken")
                 chunks.append(chunk)
                 bytes_recd = bytes_recd + len(chunk)
             return b''.join(chunks)

The sending code here is usable for almost any messaging scheme - in
Python you send strings, and you can use ‘len()’ to determine its length
(even if it has embedded ‘\0’ characters).  It’s mostly the receiving
code that gets more complex.  (And in C, it’s not much worse, except you
can’t use ‘strlen’ if the message has embedded ‘\0’s.)

The easiest enhancement is to make the first character of the message an
indicator of message type, and have the type determine the length.  Now
you have two ‘recv’s - the first to get (at least) that first character
so you can look up the length, and the second in a loop to get the rest.
If you decide to go the delimited route, you’ll be receiving in some
arbitrary chunk size, (4096 or 8192 is frequently a good match for
network buffer sizes), and scanning what you’ve received for a
delimiter.

One complication to be aware of: if your conversational protocol allows
multiple messages to be sent back to back (without some kind of reply),
and you pass ‘recv’ an arbitrary chunk size, you may end up reading the
start of a following message.  You’ll need to put that aside and hold
onto it, until it’s needed.

Prefixing the message with its length (say, as 5 numeric characters)
gets more complex, because (believe it or not), you may not get all 5
characters in one ‘recv’.  In playing around, you’ll get away with it;
but in high network loads, your code will very quickly break unless you
use two ‘recv’ loops - the first to determine the length, the second to
get the data part of the message.  Nasty.  This is also when you’ll
discover that ‘send’ does not always manage to get rid of everything in
one pass.  And despite having read this, you will eventually get bit by
it!

In the interests of space, building your character, (and preserving my
competitive position), these enhancements are left as an exercise for
the reader.  Lets move on to cleaning up.

* Menu:

* Binary Data::


File: python.info,  Node: Binary Data,  Up: Using a Socket

9.11.3.1 Binary Data
....................

It is perfectly possible to send binary data over a socket.  The major
problem is that not all machines use the same formats for binary data.
For example, network byte order(1) is big-endian, with the most
significant byte first, so a 16 bit integer with the value ‘1’ would be
the two hex bytes ‘00 01’.  However, most common processors (x86/AMD64,
ARM, RISC-V), are little-endian, with the least significant byte first -
that same ‘1’ would be ‘01 00’.

Socket libraries have calls for converting 16 and 32 bit integers -
‘ntohl, htonl, ntohs, htons’ where «n» means 'network' and «h» means
'host', «s» means 'short' and «l» means 'long'.  Where network order is
host order, these do nothing, but where the machine is byte-reversed,
these swap the bytes around appropriately.

In these days of 64-bit machines, the ASCII representation of binary
data is frequently smaller than the binary representation.  That’s
because a surprising amount of the time, most integers have the value 0,
or maybe 1.  The string ‘"0"’ would be two bytes, while a full 64-bit
integer would be 8.  Of course, this doesn’t fit well with fixed-length
messages.  Decisions, decisions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness#Networking


File: python.info,  Node: Disconnecting,  Next: Non-blocking Sockets,  Prev: Using a Socket,  Up: Socket Programming HOWTO

9.11.4 Disconnecting
--------------------

Strictly speaking, you’re supposed to use ‘shutdown’ on a socket before
you ‘close’ it.  The ‘shutdown’ is an advisory to the socket at the
other end.  Depending on the argument you pass it, it can mean «I’m not
going to send anymore, but I’ll still listen», or «I’m not listening,
good riddance!».  Most socket libraries, however, are so used to
programmers neglecting to use this piece of etiquette that normally a
‘close’ is the same as ‘shutdown(); close()’.  So in most situations, an
explicit ‘shutdown’ is not needed.

One way to use ‘shutdown’ effectively is in an HTTP-like exchange.  The
client sends a request and then does a ‘shutdown(1)’.  This tells the
server «This client is done sending, but can still receive.» The server
can detect «EOF» by a receive of 0 bytes.  It can assume it has the
complete request.  The server sends a reply.  If the ‘send’ completes
successfully then, indeed, the client was still receiving.

Python takes the automatic shutdown a step further, and says that when a
socket is garbage collected, it will automatically do a ‘close’ if it’s
needed.  But relying on this is a very bad habit.  If your socket just
disappears without doing a ‘close’, the socket at the other end may hang
indefinitely, thinking you’re just being slow.  'Please' ‘close’ your
sockets when you’re done.

* Menu:

* When Sockets Die::


File: python.info,  Node: When Sockets Die,  Up: Disconnecting

9.11.4.1 When Sockets Die
.........................

Probably the worst thing about using blocking sockets is what happens
when the other side comes down hard (without doing a ‘close’).  Your
socket is likely to hang.  TCP is a reliable protocol, and it will wait
a long, long time before giving up on a connection.  If you’re using
threads, the entire thread is essentially dead.  There’s not much you
can do about it.  As long as you aren’t doing something dumb, like
holding a lock while doing a blocking read, the thread isn’t really
consuming much in the way of resources.  Do 'not' try to kill the thread
- part of the reason that threads are more efficient than processes is
that they avoid the overhead associated with the automatic recycling of
resources.  In other words, if you do manage to kill the thread, your
whole process is likely to be screwed up.


File: python.info,  Node: Non-blocking Sockets,  Prev: Disconnecting,  Up: Socket Programming HOWTO

9.11.5 Non-blocking Sockets
---------------------------

If you’ve understood the preceding, you already know most of what you
need to know about the mechanics of using sockets.  You’ll still use the
same calls, in much the same ways.  It’s just that, if you do it right,
your app will be almost inside-out.

In Python, you use ‘socket.setblocking(False)’ to make it non-blocking.
In C, it’s more complex, (for one thing, you’ll need to choose between
the BSD flavor ‘O_NONBLOCK’ and the almost indistinguishable POSIX
flavor ‘O_NDELAY’, which is completely different from ‘TCP_NODELAY’),
but it’s the exact same idea.  You do this after creating the socket,
but before using it.  (Actually, if you’re nuts, you can switch back and
forth.)

The major mechanical difference is that ‘send’, ‘recv’, ‘connect’ and
‘accept’ can return without having done anything.  You have (of course)
a number of choices.  You can check return code and error codes and
generally drive yourself crazy.  If you don’t believe me, try it
sometime.  Your app will grow large, buggy and suck CPU. So let’s skip
the brain-dead solutions and do it right.

Use ‘select’.

In C, coding ‘select’ is fairly complex.  In Python, it’s a piece of
cake, but it’s close enough to the C version that if you understand
‘select’ in Python, you’ll have little trouble with it in C:

     ready_to_read, ready_to_write, in_error = \
                    select.select(
                       potential_readers,
                       potential_writers,
                       potential_errs,
                       timeout)

You pass ‘select’ three lists: the first contains all sockets that you
might want to try reading; the second all the sockets you might want to
try writing to, and the last (normally left empty) those that you want
to check for errors.  You should note that a socket can go into more
than one list.  The ‘select’ call is blocking, but you can give it a
timeout.  This is generally a sensible thing to do - give it a nice long
timeout (say a minute) unless you have good reason to do otherwise.

In return, you will get three lists.  They contain the sockets that are
actually readable, writable and in error.  Each of these lists is a
subset (possibly empty) of the corresponding list you passed in.

If a socket is in the output readable list, you can be
as-close-to-certain-as-we-ever-get-in-this-business that a ‘recv’ on
that socket will return 'something'.  Same idea for the writable list.
You’ll be able to send 'something'.  Maybe not all you want to, but
'something' is better than nothing.  (Actually, any reasonably healthy
socket will return as writable - it just means outbound network buffer
space is available.)

If you have a «server» socket, put it in the potential_readers list.  If
it comes out in the readable list, your ‘accept’ will (almost certainly)
work.  If you have created a new socket to ‘connect’ to someone else,
put it in the potential_writers list.  If it shows up in the writable
list, you have a decent chance that it has connected.

Actually, ‘select’ can be handy even with blocking sockets.  It’s one
way of determining whether you will block - the socket returns as
readable when there’s something in the buffers.  However, this still
doesn’t help with the problem of determining whether the other end is
done, or just busy with something else.

'Portability alert': On Unix, ‘select’ works both with the sockets and
files.  Don’t try this on Windows.  On Windows, ‘select’ works with
sockets only.  Also note that in C, many of the more advanced socket
options are done differently on Windows.  In fact, on Windows I usually
use threads (which work very, very well) with my sockets.


File: python.info,  Node: Sorting Techniques,  Next: Unicode HOWTO,  Prev: Socket Programming HOWTO,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.12 Sorting Techniques
=======================


Author: Andrew Dalke and Raymond Hettinger

Python lists have a built-in *note list.sort(): f8d. method that
modifies the list in-place.  There is also a *note sorted(): f8c.
built-in function that builds a new sorted list from an iterable.

In this document, we explore the various techniques for sorting data
using Python.

* Menu:

* Sorting Basics::
* Key Functions::
* Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation::
* Ascending and Descending::
* Sort Stability and Complex Sorts::
* Decorate-Sort-Undecorate::
* Comparison Functions::
* Strategies For Unorderable Types and Values::
* Odds and Ends::
* Partial Sorts::


File: python.info,  Node: Sorting Basics,  Next: Key Functions,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.12.1 Sorting Basics
---------------------

A simple ascending sort is very easy: just call the *note sorted(): f8c.
function.  It returns a new sorted list:

     >>> sorted([5, 2, 3, 1, 4])
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

You can also use the *note list.sort(): f8d. method.  It modifies the
list in-place (and returns ‘None’ to avoid confusion).  Usually it’s
less convenient than *note sorted(): f8c. - but if you don’t need the
original list, it’s slightly more efficient.

     >>> a = [5, 2, 3, 1, 4]
     >>> a.sort()
     >>> a
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Another difference is that the *note list.sort(): f8d. method is only
defined for lists.  In contrast, the *note sorted(): f8c. function
accepts any iterable.

     >>> sorted({1: 'D', 2: 'B', 3: 'B', 4: 'E', 5: 'A'})
     [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]


File: python.info,  Node: Key Functions,  Next: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation,  Prev: Sorting Basics,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.12.2 Key Functions
--------------------

The *note list.sort(): f8d. method and the functions *note sorted():
f8c, *note min(): 12b9, *note max(): 12ba, *note heapq.nsmallest():
2bb9, and *note heapq.nlargest(): 2bb8. have a 'key' parameter to
specify a function (or other callable) to be called on each list element
prior to making comparisons.

For example, here’s a case-insensitive string comparison using *note
str.casefold(): 118f.:

     >>> sorted("This is a test string from Andrew".split(), key=str.casefold)
     ['a', 'Andrew', 'from', 'is', 'string', 'test', 'This']

The value of the 'key' parameter should be a function (or other
callable) that takes a single argument and returns a key to use for
sorting purposes.  This technique is fast because the key function is
called exactly once for each input record.

A common pattern is to sort complex objects using some of the object’s
indices as keys.  For example:

     >>> student_tuples = [
     ...     ('john', 'A', 15),
     ...     ('jane', 'B', 12),
     ...     ('dave', 'B', 10),
     ... ]
     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=lambda student: student[2])   # sort by age
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

The same technique works for objects with named attributes.  For
example:

     >>> class Student:
     ...     def __init__(self, name, grade, age):
     ...         self.name = name
     ...         self.grade = grade
     ...         self.age = age
     ...     def __repr__(self):
     ...         return repr((self.name, self.grade, self.age))

     >>> student_objects = [
     ...     Student('john', 'A', 15),
     ...     Student('jane', 'B', 12),
     ...     Student('dave', 'B', 10),
     ... ]
     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=lambda student: student.age)   # sort by age
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

Objects with named attributes can be made by a regular class as shown
above, or they can be instances of *note dataclass: 6e6. or a *note
named tuple: a3d.


File: python.info,  Node: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation,  Next: Ascending and Descending,  Prev: Key Functions,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.12.3 Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation
----------------------------------------------------------------

The *note key function: 11ba. patterns shown above are very common, so
Python provides convenience functions to make accessor functions easier
and faster.  The *note operator: a3. module has *note itemgetter(): e26,
*note attrgetter(): 11e6, and a *note methodcaller(): 11e7. function.

Using those functions, the above examples become simpler and faster:

     >>> from operator import itemgetter, attrgetter

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

The operator module functions allow multiple levels of sorting.  For
example, to sort by 'grade' then by 'age':

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(1,2))
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('grade', 'age'))
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)]

The *note functools: 62. module provides another helpful tool for making
key-functions.  The *note partial(): 4a6. function can reduce the
arity(1) of a multi-argument function making it suitable for use as a
key-function.

     >>> from functools import partial
     >>> from unicodedata import normalize

     >>> names = 'Zoë Åbjørn Núñez Élana Zeke Abe Nubia Eloise'.split()

     >>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFD'))
     ['Abe', 'Åbjørn', 'Eloise', 'Élana', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë']

     >>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFC'))
     ['Abe', 'Eloise', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë', 'Åbjørn', 'Élana']

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arity


File: python.info,  Node: Ascending and Descending,  Next: Sort Stability and Complex Sorts,  Prev: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.12.4 Ascending and Descending
-------------------------------

Both *note list.sort(): f8d. and *note sorted(): f8c. accept a 'reverse'
parameter with a boolean value.  This is used to flag descending sorts.
For example, to get the student data in reverse 'age' order:

     >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2), reverse=True)
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]

     >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'), reverse=True)
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]


File: python.info,  Node: Sort Stability and Complex Sorts,  Next: Decorate-Sort-Undecorate,  Prev: Ascending and Descending,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.12.5 Sort Stability and Complex Sorts
---------------------------------------

Sorts are guaranteed to be stable(1).  That means that when multiple
records have the same key, their original order is preserved.

     >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
     >>> sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0))
     [('blue', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 1), ('red', 2)]

Notice how the two records for 'blue' retain their original order so
that ‘('blue', 1)’ is guaranteed to precede ‘('blue', 2)’.

This wonderful property lets you build complex sorts in a series of
sorting steps.  For example, to sort the student data by descending
'grade' and then ascending 'age', do the 'age' sort first and then sort
again using 'grade':

     >>> s = sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'))     # sort on secondary key
     >>> sorted(s, key=attrgetter('grade'), reverse=True)       # now sort on primary key, descending
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

This can be abstracted out into a wrapper function that can take a list
and tuples of field and order to sort them on multiple passes.

     >>> def multisort(xs, specs):
     ...     for key, reverse in reversed(specs):
     ...         xs.sort(key=attrgetter(key), reverse=reverse)
     ...     return xs

     >>> multisort(list(student_objects), (('grade', True), ('age', False)))
     [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

The Timsort(2) algorithm used in Python does multiple sorts efficiently
because it can take advantage of any ordering already present in a
dataset.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorting_algorithm#Stability

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort


File: python.info,  Node: Decorate-Sort-Undecorate,  Next: Comparison Functions,  Prev: Sort Stability and Complex Sorts,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.12.6 Decorate-Sort-Undecorate
-------------------------------

This idiom is called Decorate-Sort-Undecorate after its three steps:

   * First, the initial list is decorated with new values that control
     the sort order.

   * Second, the decorated list is sorted.

   * Finally, the decorations are removed, creating a list that contains
     only the initial values in the new order.

For example, to sort the student data by 'grade' using the DSU approach:

     >>> decorated = [(student.grade, i, student) for i, student in enumerate(student_objects)]
     >>> decorated.sort()
     >>> [student for grade, i, student in decorated]               # undecorate
     [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]

This idiom works because tuples are compared lexicographically; the
first items are compared; if they are the same then the second items are
compared, and so on.

It is not strictly necessary in all cases to include the index 'i' in
the decorated list, but including it gives two benefits:

   * The sort is stable – if two items have the same key, their order
     will be preserved in the sorted list.

   * The original items do not have to be comparable because the
     ordering of the decorated tuples will be determined by at most the
     first two items.  So for example the original list could contain
     complex numbers which cannot be sorted directly.

Another name for this idiom is Schwartzian transform(1), after Randal L.
Schwartz, who popularized it among Perl programmers.

Now that Python sorting provides key-functions, this technique is not
often needed.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwartzian_transform


File: python.info,  Node: Comparison Functions,  Next: Strategies For Unorderable Types and Values,  Prev: Decorate-Sort-Undecorate,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.12.7 Comparison Functions
---------------------------

Unlike key functions that return an absolute value for sorting, a
comparison function computes the relative ordering for two inputs.

For example, a balance scale(1) compares two samples giving a relative
ordering: lighter, equal, or heavier.  Likewise, a comparison function
such as ‘cmp(a, b)’ will return a negative value for less-than, zero if
the inputs are equal, or a positive value for greater-than.

It is common to encounter comparison functions when translating
algorithms from other languages.  Also, some libraries provide
comparison functions as part of their API. For example, *note
locale.strcoll(): 4518. is a comparison function.

To accommodate those situations, Python provides *note
functools.cmp_to_key: 1583. to wrap the comparison function to make it
usable as a key function:

     sorted(words, key=cmp_to_key(strcoll))  # locale-aware sort order

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Balance_à_tabac_1850.JPG


File: python.info,  Node: Strategies For Unorderable Types and Values,  Next: Odds and Ends,  Prev: Comparison Functions,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.12.8 Strategies For Unorderable Types and Values
--------------------------------------------------

A number of type and value issues can arise when sorting.  Here are some
strategies that can help:

   * Convert non-comparable input types to strings prior to sorting:

     >>> data = ['twelve', '11', 10]
     >>> sorted(map(str, data))
     ['10', '11', 'twelve']

This is needed because most cross-type comparisons raise a *note
TypeError: 291.

   * Remove special values prior to sorting:

     >>> from math import isnan
     >>> from itertools import filterfalse
     >>> data = [3.3, float('nan'), 1.1, 2.2]
     >>> sorted(filterfalse(isnan, data))
     [1.1, 2.2, 3.3]

This is needed because the IEEE-754 standard(1) specifies that, «Every
NaN shall compare unordered with everything, including itself.»

Likewise, ‘None’ can be stripped from datasets as well:

     >>> data = [3.3, None, 1.1, 2.2]
     >>> sorted(x for x in data if x is not None)
     [1.1, 2.2, 3.3]

This is needed because ‘None’ is not comparable to other types.

   * Convert mapping types into sorted item lists before sorting:

     >>> data = [{'a': 1}, {'b': 2}]
     >>> sorted(data, key=lambda d: sorted(d.items()))
     [{'a': 1}, {'b': 2}]

This is needed because dict-to-dict comparisons raise a *note TypeError:
291.

   * Convert set types into sorted lists before sorting:

     >>> data = [{'a', 'b', 'c'}, {'b', 'c', 'd'}]
     >>> sorted(map(sorted, data))
     [['a', 'b', 'c'], ['b', 'c', 'd']]

This is needed because the elements contained in set types do not have a
deterministic order.  For example, ‘list({'a', 'b'})’ may produce either
‘['a', 'b']’ or ‘['b', 'a']’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754


File: python.info,  Node: Odds and Ends,  Next: Partial Sorts,  Prev: Strategies For Unorderable Types and Values,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.12.9 Odds and Ends
--------------------

   * For locale aware sorting, use *note locale.strxfrm(): 19f7. for a
     key function or *note locale.strcoll(): 4518. for a comparison
     function.  This is necessary because «alphabetical» sort orderings
     can vary across cultures even if the underlying alphabet is the
     same.

   * The 'reverse' parameter still maintains sort stability (so that
     records with equal keys retain the original order).  Interestingly,
     that effect can be simulated without the parameter by using the
     builtin *note reversed(): c3c. function twice:

          >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
          >>> standard_way = sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0), reverse=True)
          >>> double_reversed = list(reversed(sorted(reversed(data), key=itemgetter(0))))
          >>> assert standard_way == double_reversed
          >>> standard_way
          [('red', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 1), ('blue', 2)]

   * The sort routines use ‘<’ when making comparisons between two
     objects.  So, it is easy to add a standard sort order to a class by
     defining an *note __lt__(): 1645. method:

          >>> Student.__lt__ = lambda self, other: self.age < other.age
          >>> sorted(student_objects)
          [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]

     However, note that ‘<’ can fall back to using *note __gt__(): 16b0.
     if *note __lt__(): 1645. is not implemented (see *note
     object.__lt__(): 1645. for details on the mechanics).  To avoid
     surprises, PEP 8(1) recommends that all six comparison methods be
     implemented.  The *note total_ordering(): 12ed. decorator is
     provided to make that task easier.

   * Key functions need not depend directly on the objects being sorted.
     A key function can also access external resources.  For instance,
     if the student grades are stored in a dictionary, they can be used
     to sort a separate list of student names:

          >>> students = ['dave', 'john', 'jane']
          >>> newgrades = {'john': 'F', 'jane':'A', 'dave': 'C'}
          >>> sorted(students, key=newgrades.__getitem__)
          ['jane', 'dave', 'john']

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Partial Sorts,  Prev: Odds and Ends,  Up: Sorting Techniques

9.12.10 Partial Sorts
---------------------

Some applications require only some of the data to be ordered.  The
standard library provides several tools that do less work than a full
sort:

   * *note min(): 12b9. and *note max(): 12ba. return the smallest and
     largest values, respectively.  These functions make a single pass
     over the input data and require almost no auxiliary memory.

   * *note heapq.nsmallest(): 2bb9. and *note heapq.nlargest(): 2bb8.
     return the 'n' smallest and largest values, respectively.  These
     functions make a single pass over the data keeping only 'n'
     elements in memory at a time.  For values of 'n' that are small
     relative to the number of inputs, these functions make far fewer
     comparisons than a full sort.

   * *note heapq.heappush(): 185e. and *note heapq.heappop(): 185f.
     create and maintain a partially sorted arrangement of data that
     keeps the smallest element at position ‘0’.  These functions are
     suitable for implementing priority queues which are commonly used
     for task scheduling.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode HOWTO,  Next: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package,  Prev: Sorting Techniques,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.13 Unicode HOWTO
==================


Release: 1.12

This HOWTO discusses Python’s support for the Unicode specification for
representing textual data, and explains various problems that people
commonly encounter when trying to work with Unicode.

* Menu:

* Introduction to Unicode::
* Python’s Unicode Support::
* Reading and Writing Unicode Data::
* Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<10>.


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction to Unicode,  Next: Python’s Unicode Support,  Up: Unicode HOWTO

9.13.1 Introduction to Unicode
------------------------------

* Menu:

* Definitions::
* Encodings::
* References: References<2>.


File: python.info,  Node: Definitions,  Next: Encodings,  Up: Introduction to Unicode

9.13.1.1 Definitions
....................

Today’s programs need to be able to handle a wide variety of characters.
Applications are often internationalized to display messages and output
in a variety of user-selectable languages; the same program might need
to output an error message in English, French, Japanese, Hebrew, or
Russian.  Web content can be written in any of these languages and can
also include a variety of emoji symbols.  Python’s string type uses the
Unicode Standard for representing characters, which lets Python programs
work with all these different possible characters.

Unicode (‘https://www.unicode.org/’) is a specification that aims to
list every character used by human languages and give each character its
own unique code.  The Unicode specifications are continually revised and
updated to add new languages and symbols.

A 'character' is the smallest possible component of a text.  “A”, “B”,
“C”, etc., are all different characters.  So are “È” and “Í”.
Characters vary depending on the language or context you’re talking
about.  For example, there’s a character for «Roman Numeral One», “Ⅰ”,
that’s separate from the uppercase letter “I”.  They’ll usually look the
same, but these are two different characters that have different
meanings.

The Unicode standard describes how characters are represented by 'code
points'.  A code point value is an integer in the range 0 to 0x10FFFF
(about 1.1 million values, the actual number assigned(1) is less than
that).  In the standard and in this document, a code point is written
using the notation ‘U+265E’ to mean the character with value ‘0x265e’
(9,822 in decimal).

The Unicode standard contains a lot of tables listing characters and
their corresponding code points:

     0061    'a'; LATIN SMALL LETTER A
     0062    'b'; LATIN SMALL LETTER B
     0063    'c'; LATIN SMALL LETTER C
     ...
     007B    '{'; LEFT CURLY BRACKET
     ...
     2167    'Ⅷ'; ROMAN NUMERAL EIGHT
     2168    'Ⅸ'; ROMAN NUMERAL NINE
     ...
     265E    '♞'; BLACK CHESS KNIGHT
     265F    '♟'; BLACK CHESS PAWN
     ...
     1F600   '😀'; GRINNING FACE
     1F609   '😉'; WINKING FACE
     ...

Strictly, these definitions imply that it’s meaningless to say “this is
character ‘U+265E’”.  ‘U+265E’ is a code point, which represents some
particular character; in this case, it represents the character “BLACK
CHESS KNIGHT”, “♞”.  In informal contexts, this distinction between code
points and characters will sometimes be forgotten.

A character is represented on a screen or on paper by a set of graphical
elements that’s called a 'glyph'.  The glyph for an uppercase A, for
example, is two diagonal strokes and a horizontal stroke, though the
exact details will depend on the font being used.  Most Python code
doesn’t need to worry about glyphs; figuring out the correct glyph to
display is generally the job of a GUI toolkit or a terminal’s font
renderer.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/latest/#Summary


File: python.info,  Node: Encodings,  Next: References<2>,  Prev: Definitions,  Up: Introduction to Unicode

9.13.1.2 Encodings
..................

To summarize the previous section: a Unicode string is a sequence of
code points, which are numbers from 0 through ‘0x10FFFF’ (1,114,111
decimal).  This sequence of code points needs to be represented in
memory as a set of 'code units', and 'code units' are then mapped to
8-bit bytes.  The rules for translating a Unicode string into a sequence
of bytes are called a 'character encoding', or just an 'encoding'.

The first encoding you might think of is using 32-bit integers as the
code unit, and then using the CPU’s representation of 32-bit integers.
In this representation, the string «Python» might look like this:

        P           y           t           h           o           n
     0x50 00 00 00 79 00 00 00 74 00 00 00 68 00 00 00 6f 00 00 00 6e 00 00 00
        0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

This representation is straightforward but using it presents a number of
problems.

  1. It’s not portable; different processors order the bytes
     differently.

  2. It’s very wasteful of space.  In most texts, the majority of the
     code points are less than 127, or less than 255, so a lot of space
     is occupied by ‘0x00’ bytes.  The above string takes 24 bytes
     compared to the 6 bytes needed for an ASCII representation.
     Increased RAM usage doesn’t matter too much (desktop computers have
     gigabytes of RAM, and strings aren’t usually that large), but
     expanding our usage of disk and network bandwidth by a factor of 4
     is intolerable.

  3. It’s not compatible with existing C functions such as ‘strlen()’,
     so a new family of wide string functions would need to be used.

Therefore this encoding isn’t used very much, and people instead choose
other encodings that are more efficient and convenient, such as UTF-8.

UTF-8 is one of the most commonly used encodings, and Python often
defaults to using it.  UTF stands for «Unicode Transformation Format»,
and the “8” means that 8-bit values are used in the encoding.  (There
are also UTF-16 and UTF-32 encodings, but they are less frequently used
than UTF-8.)  UTF-8 uses the following rules:

  1. If the code point is < 128, it’s represented by the corresponding
     byte value.

  2. If the code point is >= 128, it’s turned into a sequence of two,
     three, or four bytes, where each byte of the sequence is between
     128 and 255.

UTF-8 has several convenient properties:

  1. It can handle any Unicode code point.

  2. A Unicode string is turned into a sequence of bytes that contains
     embedded zero bytes only where they represent the null character
     (U+0000).  This means that UTF-8 strings can be processed by C
     functions such as ‘strcpy()’ and sent through protocols that can’t
     handle zero bytes for anything other than end-of-string markers.

  3. A string of ASCII text is also valid UTF-8 text.

  4. UTF-8 is fairly compact; the majority of commonly used characters
     can be represented with one or two bytes.

  5. If bytes are corrupted or lost, it’s possible to determine the
     start of the next UTF-8-encoded code point and resynchronize.  It’s
     also unlikely that random 8-bit data will look like valid UTF-8.

  6. UTF-8 is a byte oriented encoding.  The encoding specifies that
     each character is represented by a specific sequence of one or more
     bytes.  This avoids the byte-ordering issues that can occur with
     integer and word oriented encodings, like UTF-16 and UTF-32, where
     the sequence of bytes varies depending on the hardware on which the
     string was encoded.


File: python.info,  Node: References<2>,  Prev: Encodings,  Up: Introduction to Unicode

9.13.1.3 References
...................

The Unicode Consortium site(1) has character charts, a glossary, and PDF
versions of the Unicode specification.  Be prepared for some difficult
reading.  A chronology(2) of the origin and development of Unicode is
also available on the site.

On the Computerphile Youtube channel, Tom Scott briefly discusses the
history of Unicode and UTF-8(3) (9 minutes 36 seconds).

To help understand the standard, Jukka Korpela has written an
introductory guide(4) to reading the Unicode character tables.

Another good introductory article(5) was written by Joel Spolsky.  If
this introduction didn’t make things clear to you, you should try
reading this alternate article before continuing.

Wikipedia entries are often helpful; see the entries for «character
encoding(6)» and UTF-8(7), for example.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org

   (2) https://www.unicode.org/history/

   (3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MijmeoH9LT4

   (4) https://jkorpela.fi/unicode/guide.html

   (5) 
https://www.joelonsoftware.com/2003/10/08/the-absolute-minimum-every-software-developer-absolutely-positively-must-know-about-unicode-and-character-sets-no-excuses/

   (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding

   (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8


File: python.info,  Node: Python’s Unicode Support,  Next: Reading and Writing Unicode Data,  Prev: Introduction to Unicode,  Up: Unicode HOWTO

9.13.2 Python’s Unicode Support
-------------------------------

Now that you’ve learned the rudiments of Unicode, we can look at
Python’s Unicode features.

* Menu:

* The String Type::
* Converting to Bytes::
* Unicode Literals in Python Source Code::
* Unicode Properties::
* Comparing Strings::
* Unicode Regular Expressions::
* References: References<3>.


File: python.info,  Node: The String Type,  Next: Converting to Bytes,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.13.2.1 The String Type
........................

Since Python 3.0, the language’s *note str: 1df. type contains Unicode
characters, meaning any string created using ‘"unicode rocks!"’,
‘'unicode rocks!'’, or the triple-quoted string syntax is stored as
Unicode.

The default encoding for Python source code is UTF-8, so you can simply
include a Unicode character in a string literal:

     try:
         with open('/tmp/input.txt', 'r') as f:
             ...
     except OSError:
         # 'File not found' error message.
         print("Fichier non trouvé")

Side note: Python 3 also supports using Unicode characters in
identifiers:

     répertoire = "/tmp/records.log"
     with open(répertoire, "w") as f:
         f.write("test\n")

If you can’t enter a particular character in your editor or want to keep
the source code ASCII-only for some reason, you can also use escape
sequences in string literals.  (Depending on your system, you may see
the actual capital-delta glyph instead of a u escape.)

     >>> "\N{GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA}"  # Using the character name
     '\u0394'
     >>> "\u0394"                          # Using a 16-bit hex value
     '\u0394'
     >>> "\U00000394"                      # Using a 32-bit hex value
     '\u0394'

In addition, one can create a string using the *note decode(): ca8.
method of *note bytes: 1c7.  This method takes an 'encoding' argument,
such as ‘UTF-8’, and optionally an 'errors' argument.

The 'errors' argument specifies the response when the input string can’t
be converted according to the encoding’s rules.  Legal values for this
argument are ‘'strict'’ (raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError: dd7.
exception), ‘'replace'’ (use ‘U+FFFD’, ‘REPLACEMENT CHARACTER’),
‘'ignore'’ (just leave the character out of the Unicode result), or
‘'backslashreplace'’ (inserts a ‘\xNN’ escape sequence).  The following
examples show the differences:

     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "strict")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     UnicodeDecodeError: 'utf-8' codec can't decode byte 0x80 in position 0:
       invalid start byte
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "replace")
     '\ufffdabc'
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "backslashreplace")
     '\\x80abc'
     >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "ignore")
     'abc'

Encodings are specified as strings containing the encoding’s name.
Python comes with roughly 100 different encodings; see the Python
Library Reference at *note Standard Encodings: 1171. for a list.  Some
encodings have multiple names; for example, ‘'latin-1'’, ‘'iso_8859_1'’
and ‘'8859’” are all synonyms for the same encoding.

One-character Unicode strings can also be created with the *note chr():
1bf8. built-in function, which takes integers and returns a Unicode
string of length 1 that contains the corresponding code point.  The
reverse operation is the built-in *note ord(): 252c. function that takes
a one-character Unicode string and returns the code point value:

     >>> chr(57344)
     '\ue000'
     >>> ord('\ue000')
     57344


File: python.info,  Node: Converting to Bytes,  Next: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code,  Prev: The String Type,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.13.2.2 Converting to Bytes
............................

The opposite method of *note bytes.decode(): ca8. is *note str.encode():
ca7, which returns a *note bytes: 1c7. representation of the Unicode
string, encoded in the requested 'encoding'.

The 'errors' parameter is the same as the parameter of the *note
decode(): ca8. method but supports a few more possible handlers.  As
well as ‘'strict'’, ‘'ignore'’, and ‘'replace'’ (which in this case
inserts a question mark instead of the unencodable character), there is
also ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ (inserts an XML character reference),
‘backslashreplace’ (inserts a ‘\uNNNN’ escape sequence) and
‘namereplace’ (inserts a ‘\N{...}’ escape sequence).

The following example shows the different results:

     >>> u = chr(40960) + 'abcd' + chr(1972)
     >>> u.encode('utf-8')
     b'\xea\x80\x80abcd\xde\xb4'
     >>> u.encode('ascii')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
         ...
     UnicodeEncodeError: 'ascii' codec can't encode character '\ua000' in
       position 0: ordinal not in range(128)
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'ignore')
     b'abcd'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'replace')
     b'?abcd?'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'xmlcharrefreplace')
     b'&#40960;abcd&#1972;'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')
     b'\\ua000abcd\\u07b4'
     >>> u.encode('ascii', 'namereplace')
     b'\\N{YI SYLLABLE IT}abcd\\u07b4'

The low-level routines for registering and accessing the available
encodings are found in the *note codecs: 1c. module.  Implementing new
encodings also requires understanding the ‘codecs’ module.  However, the
encoding and decoding functions returned by this module are usually more
low-level than is comfortable, and writing new encodings is a
specialized task, so the module won’t be covered in this HOWTO.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code,  Next: Unicode Properties,  Prev: Converting to Bytes,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.13.2.3 Unicode Literals in Python Source Code
...............................................

In Python source code, specific Unicode code points can be written using
the ‘\u’ escape sequence, which is followed by four hex digits giving
the code point.  The ‘\U’ escape sequence is similar, but expects eight
hex digits, not four:

     >>> s = "a\xac\u1234\u20ac\U00008000"
     ... #     ^^^^ two-digit hex escape
     ... #         ^^^^^^ four-digit Unicode escape
     ... #                     ^^^^^^^^^^ eight-digit Unicode escape
     >>> [ord(c) for c in s]
     [97, 172, 4660, 8364, 32768]

Using escape sequences for code points greater than 127 is fine in small
doses, but becomes an annoyance if you’re using many accented
characters, as you would in a program with messages in French or some
other accent-using language.  You can also assemble strings using the
*note chr(): 1bf8. built-in function, but this is even more tedious.

Ideally, you’d want to be able to write literals in your language’s
natural encoding.  You could then edit Python source code with your
favorite editor which would display the accented characters naturally,
and have the right characters used at runtime.

Python supports writing source code in UTF-8 by default, but you can use
almost any encoding if you declare the encoding being used.  This is
done by including a special comment as either the first or second line
of the source file:

     #!/usr/bin/env python
     # -*- coding: latin-1 -*-

     u = 'abcdé'
     print(ord(u[-1]))

The syntax is inspired by Emacs’s notation for specifying variables
local to a file.  Emacs supports many different variables, but Python
only supports “coding”.  The ‘-*-’ symbols indicate to Emacs that the
comment is special; they have no significance to Python but are a
convention.  Python looks for ‘coding: name’ or ‘coding=name’ in the
comment.

If you don’t include such a comment, the default encoding used will be
UTF-8 as already mentioned.  See also PEP 263(1) for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Properties,  Next: Comparing Strings,  Prev: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.13.2.4 Unicode Properties
...........................

The Unicode specification includes a database of information about code
points.  For each defined code point, the information includes the
character’s name, its category, the numeric value if applicable (for
characters representing numeric concepts such as the Roman numerals,
fractions such as one-third and four-fifths, etc.).  There are also
display-related properties, such as how to use the code point in
bidirectional text.

The following program displays some information about several
characters, and prints the numeric value of one particular character:

     import unicodedata

     u = chr(233) + chr(0x0bf2) + chr(3972) + chr(6000) + chr(13231)

     for i, c in enumerate(u):
         print(i, '%04x' % ord(c), unicodedata.category(c), end=" ")
         print(unicodedata.name(c))

     # Get numeric value of second character
     print(unicodedata.numeric(u[1]))

When run, this prints:

     0 00e9 Ll LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE
     1 0bf2 No TAMIL NUMBER ONE THOUSAND
     2 0f84 Mn TIBETAN MARK HALANTA
     3 1770 Lo TAGBANWA LETTER SA
     4 33af So SQUARE RAD OVER S SQUARED
     1000.0

The category codes are abbreviations describing the nature of the
character.  These are grouped into categories such as «Letter»,
«Number», «Punctuation», or «Symbol», which in turn are broken up into
subcategories.  To take the codes from the above output, ‘'Ll'’ means
“Letter, lowercase”, ‘'No'’ means «Number, other», ‘'Mn'’ is «Mark,
nonspacing», and ‘'So'’ is «Symbol, other».  See the General Category
Values section of the Unicode Character Database documentation(1) for a
list of category codes.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/#General_Category_Values


File: python.info,  Node: Comparing Strings,  Next: Unicode Regular Expressions,  Prev: Unicode Properties,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.13.2.5 Comparing Strings
..........................

Unicode adds some complication to comparing strings, because the same
set of characters can be represented by different sequences of code
points.  For example, a letter like “ê” can be represented as a single
code point U+00EA, or as U+0065 U+0302, which is the code point for “e”
followed by a code point for “COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT”.  These will
produce the same output when printed, but one is a string of length 1
and the other is of length 2.

One tool for a case-insensitive comparison is the *note casefold():
118f. string method that converts a string to a case-insensitive form
following an algorithm described by the Unicode Standard.  This
algorithm has special handling for characters such as the German letter
“ß” (code point U+00DF), which becomes the pair of lowercase letters
“ss”.

     >>> street = 'Gürzenichstraße'
     >>> street.casefold()
     'gürzenichstrasse'

A second tool is the *note unicodedata: 10e. module’s *note normalize():
ac2. function that converts strings to one of several normal forms,
where letters followed by a combining character are replaced with single
characters.  ‘normalize()’ can be used to perform string comparisons
that won’t falsely report inequality if two strings use combining
characters differently:

     import unicodedata

     def compare_strs(s1, s2):
         def NFD(s):
             return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)

         return NFD(s1) == NFD(s2)

     single_char = 'ê'
     multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'
     print('length of first string=', len(single_char))
     print('length of second string=', len(multiple_chars))
     print(compare_strs(single_char, multiple_chars))

When run, this outputs:

     $ python compare-strs.py
     length of first string= 1
     length of second string= 2
     True

The first argument to the *note normalize(): ac2. function is a string
giving the desired normalization form, which can be one of “NFC”,
“NFKC”, “NFD”, and “NFKD”.

The Unicode Standard also specifies how to do caseless comparisons:

     import unicodedata

     def compare_caseless(s1, s2):
         def NFD(s):
             return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s)

         return NFD(NFD(s1).casefold()) == NFD(NFD(s2).casefold())

     # Example usage
     single_char = 'ê'
     multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}'

     print(compare_caseless(single_char, multiple_chars))

This will print ‘True’.  (Why is ‘NFD()’ invoked twice?  Because there
are a few characters that make *note casefold(): 118f. return a
non-normalized string, so the result needs to be normalized again.  See
section 3.13 of the Unicode Standard for a discussion and an example.)


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode Regular Expressions,  Next: References<3>,  Prev: Comparing Strings,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.13.2.6 Unicode Regular Expressions
....................................

The regular expressions supported by the *note re: c1. module can be
provided either as bytes or strings.  Some of the special character
sequences such as ‘\d’ and ‘\w’ have different meanings depending on
whether the pattern is supplied as bytes or a string.  For example, ‘\d’
will match the characters ‘[0-9]’ in bytes but in strings will match any
character that’s in the ‘'Nd'’ category.

The string in this example has the number 57 written in both Thai and
Arabic numerals:

     import re
     p = re.compile(r'\d+')

     s = "Over \u0e55\u0e57 57 flavours"
     m = p.search(s)
     print(repr(m.group()))

When executed, ‘\d+’ will match the Thai numerals and print them out.
If you supply the *note re.ASCII: a1d. flag to *note compile(): f93,
‘\d+’ will match the substring «57» instead.

Similarly, ‘\w’ matches a wide variety of Unicode characters but only
‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’ in bytes or if *note re.ASCII: a1d. is supplied, and ‘\s’
will match either Unicode whitespace characters or ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’.


File: python.info,  Node: References<3>,  Prev: Unicode Regular Expressions,  Up: Python’s Unicode Support

9.13.2.7 References
...................

Some good alternative discussions of Python’s Unicode support are:

   * Processing Text Files in Python 3(1), by Nick Coghlan.

   * Pragmatic Unicode(2), a PyCon 2012 presentation by Ned Batchelder.

The *note str: 1df. type is described in the Python library reference at
*note Τύπος Ακολουθίας (Sequence) Κειμένου — str: 21cd.

The documentation for the *note unicodedata: 10e. module.

The documentation for the *note codecs: 1c. module.

Marc-André Lemburg gave a presentation titled "Python and Unicode" (PDF
slides)(3) at EuroPython 2002.  The slides are an excellent overview of
the design of Python 2’s Unicode features (where the Unicode string type
is called ‘unicode’ and literals start with ‘u’).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://python-notes.curiousefficiency.org/en/latest/python3/text_file_processing.html

   (2) https://nedbatchelder.com/text/unipain.html

   (3) https://downloads.egenix.com/python/Unicode-EPC2002-Talk.pdf


File: python.info,  Node: Reading and Writing Unicode Data,  Next: Acknowledgements<10>,  Prev: Python’s Unicode Support,  Up: Unicode HOWTO

9.13.3 Reading and Writing Unicode Data
---------------------------------------

Once you’ve written some code that works with Unicode data, the next
problem is input/output.  How do you get Unicode strings into your
program, and how do you convert Unicode into a form suitable for storage
or transmission?

It’s possible that you may not need to do anything depending on your
input sources and output destinations; you should check whether the
libraries used in your application support Unicode natively.  XML
parsers often return Unicode data, for example.  Many relational
databases also support Unicode-valued columns and can return Unicode
values from an SQL query.

Unicode data is usually converted to a particular encoding before it
gets written to disk or sent over a socket.  It’s possible to do all the
work yourself: open a file, read an 8-bit bytes object from it, and
convert the bytes with ‘bytes.decode(encoding)’.  However, the manual
approach is not recommended.

One problem is the multi-byte nature of encodings; one Unicode character
can be represented by several bytes.  If you want to read the file in
arbitrary-sized chunks (say, 1024 or 4096 bytes), you need to write
error-handling code to catch the case where only part of the bytes
encoding a single Unicode character are read at the end of a chunk.  One
solution would be to read the entire file into memory and then perform
the decoding, but that prevents you from working with files that are
extremely large; if you need to read a 2 GiB file, you need 2 GiB of
RAM.  (More, really, since for at least a moment you’d need to have both
the encoded string and its Unicode version in memory.)

The solution would be to use the low-level decoding interface to catch
the case of partial coding sequences.  The work of implementing this has
already been done for you: the built-in *note open(): 32b. function can
return a file-like object that assumes the file’s contents are in a
specified encoding and accepts Unicode parameters for methods such as
*note read(): 225b. and *note write(): 224a.  This works through
‘open()’'s 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters which are interpreted just
like those in *note str.encode(): ca7. and *note bytes.decode(): ca8.

Reading Unicode from a file is therefore simple:

     with open('unicode.txt', encoding='utf-8') as f:
         for line in f:
             print(repr(line))

It’s also possible to open files in update mode, allowing both reading
and writing:

     with open('test', encoding='utf-8', mode='w+') as f:
         f.write('\u4500 blah blah blah\n')
         f.seek(0)
         print(repr(f.readline()[:1]))

The Unicode character ‘U+FEFF’ is used as a byte-order mark (BOM), and
is often written as the first character of a file in order to assist
with autodetection of the file’s byte ordering.  Some encodings, such as
UTF-16, expect a BOM to be present at the start of a file; when such an
encoding is used, the BOM will be automatically written as the first
character and will be silently dropped when the file is read.  There are
variants of these encodings, such as “utf-16-le” and “utf-16-be” for
little-endian and big-endian encodings, that specify one particular byte
ordering and don’t skip the BOM.

In some areas, it is also convention to use a «BOM» at the start of
UTF-8 encoded files; the name is misleading since UTF-8 is not
byte-order dependent.  The mark simply announces that the file is
encoded in UTF-8.  For reading such files, use the “utf-8-sig” codec to
automatically skip the mark if present.

* Menu:

* Unicode filenames::
* Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs::
* References: References<4>.


File: python.info,  Node: Unicode filenames,  Next: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs,  Up: Reading and Writing Unicode Data

9.13.3.1 Unicode filenames
..........................

Most of the operating systems in common use today support filenames that
contain arbitrary Unicode characters.  Usually this is implemented by
converting the Unicode string into some encoding that varies depending
on the system.  Today Python is converging on using UTF-8: Python on
MacOS has used UTF-8 for several versions, and Python 3.6 switched to
using UTF-8 on Windows as well.  On Unix systems, there will only be a
*note filesystem encoding: 948.  if you’ve set the ‘LANG’ or ‘LC_CTYPE’
environment variables; if you haven’t, the default encoding is again
UTF-8.

The *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): 1017. function returns the
encoding to use on your current system, in case you want to do the
encoding manually, but there’s not much reason to bother.  When opening
a file for reading or writing, you can usually just provide the Unicode
string as the filename, and it will be automatically converted to the
right encoding for you:

     filename = 'filename\u4500abc'
     with open(filename, 'w') as f:
         f.write('blah\n')

Functions in the *note os: a5. module such as *note os.stat(): 4f5. will
also accept Unicode filenames.

The *note os.listdir(): 14a6. function returns filenames, which raises
an issue: should it return the Unicode version of filenames, or should
it return bytes containing the encoded versions?  ‘os.listdir()’ can do
both, depending on whether you provided the directory path as bytes or a
Unicode string.  If you pass a Unicode string as the path, filenames
will be decoded using the filesystem’s encoding and a list of Unicode
strings will be returned, while passing a byte path will return the
filenames as bytes.  For example, assuming the default *note filesystem
encoding: 948. is UTF-8, running the following program:

     fn = 'filename\u4500abc'
     f = open(fn, 'w')
     f.close()

     import os
     print(os.listdir(b'.'))
     print(os.listdir('.'))

will produce the following output:

     $ python listdir-test.py
     [b'filename\xe4\x94\x80abc', ...]
     ['filename\u4500abc', ...]

The first list contains UTF-8-encoded filenames, and the second list
contains the Unicode versions.

Note that on most occasions, you should can just stick with using
Unicode with these APIs.  The bytes APIs should only be used on systems
where undecodable file names can be present; that’s pretty much only
Unix systems now.


File: python.info,  Node: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs,  Next: References<4>,  Prev: Unicode filenames,  Up: Reading and Writing Unicode Data

9.13.3.2 Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs
................................................

This section provides some suggestions on writing software that deals
with Unicode.

The most important tip is:

     Software should only work with Unicode strings internally, decoding
     the input data as soon as possible and encoding the output only at
     the end.

If you attempt to write processing functions that accept both Unicode
and byte strings, you will find your program vulnerable to bugs wherever
you combine the two different kinds of strings.  There is no automatic
encoding or decoding: if you do e.g.  ‘str + bytes’, a *note TypeError:
291. will be raised.

When using data coming from a web browser or some other untrusted
source, a common technique is to check for illegal characters in a
string before using the string in a generated command line or storing it
in a database.  If you’re doing this, be careful to check the decoded
string, not the encoded bytes data; some encodings may have interesting
properties, such as not being bijective or not being fully
ASCII-compatible.  This is especially true if the input data also
specifies the encoding, since the attacker can then choose a clever way
to hide malicious text in the encoded bytestream.

* Menu:

* Converting Between File Encodings::
* Files in an Unknown Encoding::


File: python.info,  Node: Converting Between File Encodings,  Next: Files in an Unknown Encoding,  Up: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs

9.13.3.3 Converting Between File Encodings
..........................................

The *note StreamRecoder: 1fc3. class can transparently convert between
encodings, taking a stream that returns data in encoding #1 and behaving
like a stream returning data in encoding #2.

For example, if you have an input file 'f' that’s in Latin-1, you can
wrap it with a *note StreamRecoder: 1fc3. to return bytes encoded in
UTF-8:

     new_f = codecs.StreamRecoder(f,
         # en/decoder: used by read() to encode its results and
         # by write() to decode its input.
         codecs.getencoder('utf-8'), codecs.getdecoder('utf-8'),

         # reader/writer: used to read and write to the stream.
         codecs.getreader('latin-1'), codecs.getwriter('latin-1') )


File: python.info,  Node: Files in an Unknown Encoding,  Prev: Converting Between File Encodings,  Up: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs

9.13.3.4 Files in an Unknown Encoding
.....................................

What can you do if you need to make a change to a file, but don’t know
the file’s encoding?  If you know the encoding is ASCII-compatible and
only want to examine or modify the ASCII parts, you can open the file
with the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler:

     with open(fname, 'r', encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
         data = f.read()

     # make changes to the string 'data'

     with open(fname + '.new', 'w',
               encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f:
         f.write(data)

The ‘surrogateescape’ error handler will decode any non-ASCII bytes as
code points in a special range running from U+DC80 to U+DCFF. These code
points will then turn back into the same bytes when the
‘surrogateescape’ error handler is used to encode the data and write it
back out.


File: python.info,  Node: References<4>,  Prev: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs,  Up: Reading and Writing Unicode Data

9.13.3.5 References
...................

One section of Mastering Python 3 Input/Output(1), a PyCon 2010 talk by
David Beazley, discusses text processing and binary data handling.

The PDF slides for Marc-André Lemburg's presentation "Writing
Unicode-aware Applications in Python"(2) discuss questions of character
encodings as well as how to internationalize and localize an
application.  These slides cover Python 2.x only.

The Guts of Unicode in Python(3) is a PyCon 2013 talk by Benjamin
Peterson that discusses the internal Unicode representation in Python
3.3.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pyvideo.org/video/289/pycon-2010-mastering-python-3-i-o

   (2) 
https://downloads.egenix.com/python/LSM2005-Developing-Unicode-aware-applications-in-Python.pdf

   (3) https://pyvideo.org/video/1768/the-guts-of-unicode-in-python


File: python.info,  Node: Acknowledgements<10>,  Prev: Reading and Writing Unicode Data,  Up: Unicode HOWTO

9.13.4 Acknowledgements
-----------------------

The initial draft of this document was written by Andrew Kuchling.  It
has since been revised further by Alexander Belopolsky, Georg Brandl,
Andrew Kuchling, and Ezio Melotti.

Thanks to the following people who have noted errors or offered
suggestions on this article: Éric Araujo, Nicholas Bastin, Nick Coghlan,
Marius Gedminas, Kent Johnson, Ken Krugler, Marc-André Lemburg, Martin
von Löwis, Terry J. Reedy, Serhiy Storchaka, Eryk Sun, Chad Whitacre,
Graham Wideman.


File: python.info,  Node: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package,  Next: An introduction to the ipaddress module,  Prev: Unicode HOWTO,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.14 HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package
============================================================


Author: Michael Foord(1)

* Menu:

* Introduction: Introduction<15>.
* Fetching URLs::
* Handling Exceptions::
* info and geturl::
* Openers and Handlers::
* Basic Authentication::
* Proxies::
* Sockets and Layers::
* Footnotes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://agileabstractions.com/


File: python.info,  Node: Introduction<15>,  Next: Fetching URLs,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.14.1 Introduction
-------------------

Related Articles
................

You may also find useful the following article on fetching web resources
with Python:

   * Basic Authentication(1)

          A tutorial on 'Basic Authentication', with examples in Python.

'urllib.request' is a Python module for fetching URLs (Uniform Resource
Locators).  It offers a very simple interface, in the form of the
'urlopen' function.  This is capable of fetching URLs using a variety of
different protocols.  It also offers a slightly more complex interface
for handling common situations - like basic authentication, cookies,
proxies and so on.  These are provided by objects called handlers and
openers.

urllib.request supports fetching URLs for many «URL schemes» (identified
by the string before the ‘":"’ in URL - for example ‘"ftp"’ is the URL
scheme of ‘"ftp://python.org/"’) using their associated network
protocols (e.g.  FTP, HTTP). This tutorial focuses on the most common
case, HTTP.

For straightforward situations 'urlopen' is very easy to use.  But as
soon as you encounter errors or non-trivial cases when opening HTTP
URLs, you will need some understanding of the HyperText Transfer
Protocol.  The most comprehensive and authoritative reference to HTTP is
RFC 2616(2).  This is a technical document and not intended to be easy
to read.  This HOWTO aims to illustrate using 'urllib', with enough
detail about HTTP to help you through.  It is not intended to replace
the *note urllib.request: 114. docs, but is supplementary to them.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml

   (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: Fetching URLs,  Next: Handling Exceptions,  Prev: Introduction<15>,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.14.2 Fetching URLs
--------------------

The simplest way to use urllib.request is as follows:

     import urllib.request
     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
        html = response.read()

If you wish to retrieve a resource via URL and store it in a temporary
location, you can do so via the *note shutil.copyfileobj(): e21. and
*note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(): 8d6. functions:

     import shutil
     import tempfile
     import urllib.request

     with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response:
         with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False) as tmp_file:
             shutil.copyfileobj(response, tmp_file)

     with open(tmp_file.name) as html:
         pass

Many uses of urllib will be that simple (note that instead of an “http:”
URL we could have used a URL starting with “ftp:”, “file:”, etc.).
However, it’s the purpose of this tutorial to explain the more
complicated cases, concentrating on HTTP.

HTTP is based on requests and responses - the client makes requests and
servers send responses.  urllib.request mirrors this with a ‘Request’
object which represents the HTTP request you are making.  In its
simplest form you create a Request object that specifies the URL you
want to fetch.  Calling ‘urlopen’ with this Request object returns a
response object for the URL requested.  This response is a file-like
object, which means you can for example call ‘.read()’ on the response:

     import urllib.request

     req = urllib.request.Request('http://python.org/')
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

Note that urllib.request makes use of the same Request interface to
handle all URL schemes.  For example, you can make an FTP request like
so:

     req = urllib.request.Request('ftp://example.com/')

In the case of HTTP, there are two extra things that Request objects
allow you to do: First, you can pass data to be sent to the server.
Second, you can pass extra information («metadata») 'about' the data or
about the request itself, to the server - this information is sent as
HTTP «headers».  Let’s look at each of these in turn.

* Menu:

* Data::
* Headers::


File: python.info,  Node: Data,  Next: Headers,  Up: Fetching URLs

9.14.2.1 Data
.............

Sometimes you want to send data to a URL (often the URL will refer to a
CGI (Common Gateway Interface) script or other web application).  With
HTTP, this is often done using what’s known as a 'POST' request.  This
is often what your browser does when you submit a HTML form that you
filled in on the web.  Not all POSTs have to come from forms: you can
use a POST to transmit arbitrary data to your own application.  In the
common case of HTML forms, the data needs to be encoded in a standard
way, and then passed to the Request object as the ‘data’ argument.  The
encoding is done using a function from the *note urllib.parse: 113.
library.

     import urllib.parse
     import urllib.request

     url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
     values = {'name' : 'Michael Foord',
               'location' : 'Northampton',
               'language' : 'Python' }

     data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
     data = data.encode('ascii') # data should be bytes
     req = urllib.request.Request(url, data)
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

Note that other encodings are sometimes required (e.g.  for file upload
from HTML forms - see HTML Specification, Form Submission(1) for more
details).

If you do not pass the ‘data’ argument, urllib uses a 'GET' request.
One way in which GET and POST requests differ is that POST requests
often have «side-effects»: they change the state of the system in some
way (for example by placing an order with the website for a
hundredweight of tinned spam to be delivered to your door).  Though the
HTTP standard makes it clear that POSTs are intended to 'always' cause
side-effects, and GET requests 'never' to cause side-effects, nothing
prevents a GET request from having side-effects, nor a POST requests
from having no side-effects.  Data can also be passed in an HTTP GET
request by encoding it in the URL itself.

This is done as follows:

     >>> import urllib.request
     >>> import urllib.parse
     >>> data = {}
     >>> data['name'] = 'Somebody Here'
     >>> data['location'] = 'Northampton'
     >>> data['language'] = 'Python'
     >>> url_values = urllib.parse.urlencode(data)
     >>> print(url_values)  # The order may differ from below.
     name=Somebody+Here&language=Python&location=Northampton
     >>> url = 'http://www.example.com/example.cgi'
     >>> full_url = url + '?' + url_values
     >>> data = urllib.request.urlopen(full_url)

Notice that the full URL is created by adding a ‘?’ to the URL, followed
by the encoded values.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/interact/forms.html#h-17.13


File: python.info,  Node: Headers,  Prev: Data,  Up: Fetching URLs

9.14.2.2 Headers
................

We’ll discuss here one particular HTTP header, to illustrate how to add
headers to your HTTP request.

Some websites (1) dislike being browsed by programs, or send different
versions to different browsers (2).  By default urllib identifies itself
as ‘Python-urllib/x.y’ (where ‘x’ and ‘y’ are the major and minor
version numbers of the Python release, e.g.  ‘Python-urllib/2.5’), which
may confuse the site, or just plain not work.  The way a browser
identifies itself is through the ‘User-Agent’ header (3).  When you
create a Request object you can pass a dictionary of headers in.  The
following example makes the same request as above, but identifies itself
as a version of Internet Explorer (4).

     import urllib.parse
     import urllib.request

     url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi'
     user_agent = 'Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1; Win64; x64)'
     values = {'name': 'Michael Foord',
               'location': 'Northampton',
               'language': 'Python' }
     headers = {'User-Agent': user_agent}

     data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values)
     data = data.encode('ascii')
     req = urllib.request.Request(url, data, headers)
     with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response:
        the_page = response.read()

The response also has two useful methods.  See the section on *note info
and geturl: 5b9b. which comes after we have a look at what happens when
things go wrong.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Google for example.

   (2) Browser sniffing is a very bad practice for website design -
building sites using web standards is much more sensible.  Unfortunately
a lot of sites still send different versions to different browsers.

   (3) The user agent for MSIE 6 is '“Mozilla/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 6.0;
Windows NT 5.1; SV1; .NET CLR 1.1.4322)”'

   (4) For details of more HTTP request headers, see Quick Reference to
HTTP Headers (https://jkorpela.fi/http.html).


File: python.info,  Node: Handling Exceptions,  Next: info and geturl,  Prev: Fetching URLs,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.14.3 Handling Exceptions
--------------------------

'urlopen' raises *note URLError: 53a. when it cannot handle a response
(though as usual with Python APIs, built-in exceptions such as *note
ValueError: 277, *note TypeError: 291. etc.  may also be raised).

*note HTTPError: 1387. is the subclass of *note URLError: 53a. raised in
the specific case of HTTP URLs.

The exception classes are exported from the *note urllib.error: 112.
module.

* Menu:

* URLError::
* HTTPError::
* Wrapping it Up::


File: python.info,  Node: URLError,  Next: HTTPError,  Up: Handling Exceptions

9.14.3.1 URLError
.................

Often, URLError is raised because there is no network connection (no
route to the specified server), or the specified server doesn’t exist.
In this case, the exception raised will have a “reason” attribute, which
is a tuple containing an error code and a text error message.

e.g.

     >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.pretend_server.org')
     >>> try: urllib.request.urlopen(req)
     ... except urllib.error.URLError as e:
     ...     print(e.reason)
     ...
     (4, 'getaddrinfo failed')


File: python.info,  Node: HTTPError,  Next: Wrapping it Up,  Prev: URLError,  Up: Handling Exceptions

9.14.3.2 HTTPError
..................

Every HTTP response from the server contains a numeric «status code».
Sometimes the status code indicates that the server is unable to fulfil
the request.  The default handlers will handle some of these responses
for you (for example, if the response is a «redirection» that requests
the client fetch the document from a different URL, urllib will handle
that for you).  For those it can’t handle, urlopen will raise an *note
HTTPError: 1387.  Typical errors include “404” (page not found), “403”
(request forbidden), and “401” (authentication required).

See section 10 of RFC 2616(1) for a reference on all the HTTP error
codes.

The *note HTTPError: 1387. instance raised will have an integer “code”
attribute, which corresponds to the error sent by the server.

* Menu:

* Error Codes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: Error Codes,  Up: HTTPError

9.14.3.3 Error Codes
....................

Because the default handlers handle redirects (codes in the 300 range),
and codes in the 100–299 range indicate success, you will usually only
see error codes in the 400–599 range.

*note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses: 41f8. is a useful
dictionary of response codes that shows all the response codes used by
RFC 2616(1).  An excerpt from the dictionary is shown below

     responses = {
         ...
         <HTTPStatus.OK: 200>: ('OK', 'Request fulfilled, document follows'),
         ...
         <HTTPStatus.FORBIDDEN: 403>: ('Forbidden',
                                       'Request forbidden -- authorization will '
                                       'not help'),
         <HTTPStatus.NOT_FOUND: 404>: ('Not Found',
                                       'Nothing matches the given URI'),
         ...
         <HTTPStatus.IM_A_TEAPOT: 418>: ("I'm a Teapot",
                                         'Server refuses to brew coffee because '
                                         'it is a teapot'),
         ...
         <HTTPStatus.SERVICE_UNAVAILABLE: 503>: ('Service Unavailable',
                                                 'The server cannot process the '
                                                 'request due to a high load'),
         ...
         }

When an error is raised the server responds by returning an HTTP error
code 'and' an error page.  You can use the *note HTTPError: 1387.
instance as a response on the page returned.  This means that as well as
the code attribute, it also has read, geturl, and info, methods as
returned by the ‘urllib.response’ module:

     >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.python.org/fish.html')
     >>> try:
     ...     urllib.request.urlopen(req)
     ... except urllib.error.HTTPError as e:
     ...     print(e.code)
     ...     print(e.read())
     ...
     404
     b'<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
       "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">\n\n\n<html
       ...
       <title>Page Not Found</title>\n
       ...

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html


File: python.info,  Node: Wrapping it Up,  Prev: HTTPError,  Up: Handling Exceptions

9.14.3.4 Wrapping it Up
.......................

So if you want to be prepared for *note HTTPError: 1387. 'or' *note
URLError: 53a. there are two basic approaches.  I prefer the second
approach.

* Menu:

* Number 1::
* Number 2::


File: python.info,  Node: Number 1,  Next: Number 2,  Up: Wrapping it Up

9.14.3.5 Number 1
.................

     from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
     from urllib.error import URLError, HTTPError
     req = Request(someurl)
     try:
         response = urlopen(req)
     except HTTPError as e:
         print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
         print('Error code: ', e.code)
     except URLError as e:
         print('We failed to reach a server.')
         print('Reason: ', e.reason)
     else:
         # everything is fine

     Σημείωση: The ‘except HTTPError’ 'must' come first, otherwise
     ‘except URLError’ will 'also' catch an *note HTTPError: 1387.


File: python.info,  Node: Number 2,  Prev: Number 1,  Up: Wrapping it Up

9.14.3.6 Number 2
.................

     from urllib.request import Request, urlopen
     from urllib.error import URLError
     req = Request(someurl)
     try:
         response = urlopen(req)
     except URLError as e:
         if hasattr(e, 'reason'):
             print('We failed to reach a server.')
             print('Reason: ', e.reason)
         elif hasattr(e, 'code'):
             print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.')
             print('Error code: ', e.code)
     else:
         # everything is fine


File: python.info,  Node: info and geturl,  Next: Openers and Handlers,  Prev: Handling Exceptions,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.14.4 info and geturl
----------------------

The response returned by urlopen (or the *note HTTPError: 1387.
instance) has two useful methods ‘info()’ and ‘geturl()’ and is defined
in the module *note urllib.response: 115.

   * 'geturl' - this returns the real URL of the page fetched.  This is
     useful because ‘urlopen’ (or the opener object used) may have
     followed a redirect.  The URL of the page fetched may not be the
     same as the URL requested.

   * 'info' - this returns a dictionary-like object that describes the
     page fetched, particularly the headers sent by the server.  It is
     currently an *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 4211. instance.

Typical headers include “Content-length”, “Content-type”, and so on.
See the Quick Reference to HTTP Headers(1) for a useful listing of HTTP
headers with brief explanations of their meaning and use.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://jkorpela.fi/http.html


File: python.info,  Node: Openers and Handlers,  Next: Basic Authentication,  Prev: info and geturl,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.14.5 Openers and Handlers
---------------------------

When you fetch a URL you use an opener (an instance of the perhaps
confusingly named *note urllib.request.OpenerDirector: 199b.).  Normally
we have been using the default opener - via ‘urlopen’ - but you can
create custom openers.  Openers use handlers.  All the «heavy lifting»
is done by the handlers.  Each handler knows how to open URLs for a
particular URL scheme (http, ftp, etc.), or how to handle an aspect of
URL opening, for example HTTP redirections or HTTP cookies.

You will want to create openers if you want to fetch URLs with specific
handlers installed, for example to get an opener that handles cookies,
or to get an opener that does not handle redirections.

To create an opener, instantiate an ‘OpenerDirector’, and then call
‘.add_handler(some_handler_instance)’ repeatedly.

Alternatively, you can use ‘build_opener’, which is a convenience
function for creating opener objects with a single function call.
‘build_opener’ adds several handlers by default, but provides a quick
way to add more and/or override the default handlers.

Other sorts of handlers you might want to can handle proxies,
authentication, and other common but slightly specialised situations.

‘install_opener’ can be used to make an ‘opener’ object the (global)
default opener.  This means that calls to ‘urlopen’ will use the opener
you have installed.

Opener objects have an ‘open’ method, which can be called directly to
fetch urls in the same way as the ‘urlopen’ function: there’s no need to
call ‘install_opener’, except as a convenience.


File: python.info,  Node: Basic Authentication,  Next: Proxies,  Prev: Openers and Handlers,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.14.6 Basic Authentication
---------------------------

To illustrate creating and installing a handler we will use the
‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’.  For a more detailed discussion of this subject
– including an explanation of how Basic Authentication works - see the
Basic Authentication Tutorial(1).

When authentication is required, the server sends a header (as well as
the 401 error code) requesting authentication.  This specifies the
authentication scheme and a “realm”.  The header looks like:
‘WWW-Authenticate: SCHEME realm="REALM"’.

e.g.

     WWW-Authenticate: Basic realm="cPanel Users"

The client should then retry the request with the appropriate name and
password for the realm included as a header in the request.  This is
“basic authentication”.  In order to simplify this process we can create
an instance of ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ and an opener to use this handler.

The ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ uses an object called a password manager to
handle the mapping of URLs and realms to passwords and usernames.  If
you know what the realm is (from the authentication header sent by the
server), then you can use a ‘HTTPPasswordMgr’.  Frequently one doesn’t
care what the realm is.  In that case, it is convenient to use
‘HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm’.  This allows you to specify a default
username and password for a URL. This will be supplied in the absence of
you providing an alternative combination for a specific realm.  We
indicate this by providing ‘None’ as the realm argument to the
‘add_password’ method.

The top-level URL is the first URL that requires authentication.  URLs
«deeper» than the URL you pass to .add_password() will also match.

     # create a password manager
     password_mgr = urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm()

     # Add the username and password.
     # If we knew the realm, we could use it instead of None.
     top_level_url = "http://example.com/foo/"
     password_mgr.add_password(None, top_level_url, username, password)

     handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr)

     # create "opener" (OpenerDirector instance)
     opener = urllib.request.build_opener(handler)

     # use the opener to fetch a URL
     opener.open(a_url)

     # Install the opener.
     # Now all calls to urllib.request.urlopen use our opener.
     urllib.request.install_opener(opener)

     Σημείωση: In the above example we only supplied our
     ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ to ‘build_opener’.  By default openers have
     the handlers for normal situations – ‘ProxyHandler’ (if a proxy
     setting such as an ‘http_proxy’ environment variable is set),
     ‘UnknownHandler’, ‘HTTPHandler’, ‘HTTPDefaultErrorHandler’,
     ‘HTTPRedirectHandler’, ‘FTPHandler’, ‘FileHandler’, ‘DataHandler’,
     ‘HTTPErrorProcessor’.

‘top_level_url’ is in fact 'either' a full URL (including the “http:”
scheme component and the hostname and optionally the port number) e.g.
‘"http://example.com/"’ 'or' an «authority» (i.e.  the hostname,
optionally including the port number) e.g.  ‘"example.com"’ or
‘"example.com:8080"’ (the latter example includes a port number).  The
authority, if present, must NOT contain the «userinfo» component - for
example ‘"joe:password@example.com"’ is not correct.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml


File: python.info,  Node: Proxies,  Next: Sockets and Layers,  Prev: Basic Authentication,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.14.7 Proxies
--------------

'urllib' will auto-detect your proxy settings and use those.  This is
through the ‘ProxyHandler’, which is part of the normal handler chain
when a proxy setting is detected.  Normally that’s a good thing, but
there are occasions when it may not be helpful (1).  One way to do this
is to setup our own ‘ProxyHandler’, with no proxies defined.  This is
done using similar steps to setting up a *note Basic Authentication:
5ba4. handler:

     >>> proxy_support = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({})
     >>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_support)
     >>> urllib.request.install_opener(opener)

     Σημείωση: Currently ‘urllib.request’ 'does not' support fetching of
     ‘https’ locations through a proxy.  However, this can be enabled by
     extending urllib.request as shown in the recipe (2).

     Σημείωση: ‘HTTP_PROXY’ will be ignored if a variable
     ‘REQUEST_METHOD’ is set; see the documentation on *note
     getproxies(): 415f.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) In my case I have to use a proxy to access the internet at work.
If you attempt to fetch 'localhost' URLs through this proxy it blocks
them.  IE is set to use the proxy, which urllib picks up on.  In order
to test scripts with a localhost server, I have to prevent urllib from
using the proxy.

   (2) urllib opener for SSL proxy (CONNECT method): ASPN Cookbook
Recipe
(https://code.activestate.com/recipes/456195-urrlib2-opener-for-ssl-proxy-connect-method/).


File: python.info,  Node: Sockets and Layers,  Next: Footnotes,  Prev: Proxies,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.14.8 Sockets and Layers
-------------------------

The Python support for fetching resources from the web is layered.
urllib uses the *note http.client: 72. library, which in turn uses the
socket library.

As of Python 2.3 you can specify how long a socket should wait for a
response before timing out.  This can be useful in applications which
have to fetch web pages.  By default the socket module has 'no timeout'
and can hang.  Currently, the socket timeout is not exposed at the
http.client or urllib.request levels.  However, you can set the default
timeout globally for all sockets using

     import socket
     import urllib.request

     # timeout in seconds
     timeout = 10
     socket.setdefaulttimeout(timeout)

     # this call to urllib.request.urlopen now uses the default timeout
     # we have set in the socket module
     req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.voidspace.org.uk')
     response = urllib.request.urlopen(req)

__________________________________________________________________


File: python.info,  Node: Footnotes,  Prev: Sockets and Layers,  Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package

9.14.9 Footnotes
----------------

This document was reviewed and revised by John Lee.


File: python.info,  Node: An introduction to the ipaddress module,  Next: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap,  Prev: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.15 An introduction to the ipaddress module
============================================


author: Peter Moody


author: Nick Coghlan

Overview
........

This document aims to provide a gentle introduction to the *note
ipaddress: 83. module.  It is aimed primarily at users that aren’t
already familiar with IP networking terminology, but may also be useful
to network engineers wanting an overview of how ‘ipaddress’ represents
IP network addressing concepts.

* Menu:

* Creating Address/Network/Interface objects::
* Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects::
* Networks as lists of Addresses::
* Comparisons: Comparisons<3>.
* Using IP Addresses with other modules::
* Getting more detail when instance creation fails::


File: python.info,  Node: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects,  Next: Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects,  Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module

9.15.1 Creating Address/Network/Interface objects
-------------------------------------------------

Since *note ipaddress: 83. is a module for inspecting and manipulating
IP addresses, the first thing you’ll want to do is create some objects.
You can use ‘ipaddress’ to create objects from strings and integers.

* Menu:

* A Note on IP Versions::
* IP Host Addresses::
* Defining Networks::
* Host Interfaces::


File: python.info,  Node: A Note on IP Versions,  Next: IP Host Addresses,  Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

9.15.1.1 A Note on IP Versions
..............................

For readers that aren’t particularly familiar with IP addressing, it’s
important to know that the Internet Protocol (IP) is currently in the
process of moving from version 4 of the protocol to version 6.  This
transition is occurring largely because version 4 of the protocol
doesn’t provide enough addresses to handle the needs of the whole world,
especially given the increasing number of devices with direct
connections to the internet.

Explaining the details of the differences between the two versions of
the protocol is beyond the scope of this introduction, but readers need
to at least be aware that these two versions exist, and it will
sometimes be necessary to force the use of one version or the other.


File: python.info,  Node: IP Host Addresses,  Next: Defining Networks,  Prev: A Note on IP Versions,  Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

9.15.1.2 IP Host Addresses
..........................

Addresses, often referred to as «host addresses» are the most basic unit
when working with IP addressing.  The simplest way to create addresses
is to use the *note ipaddress.ip_address(): 4411. factory function,
which automatically determines whether to create an IPv4 or IPv6 address
based on the passed in value:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:DB8::1')
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')

Addresses can also be created directly from integers.  Values that will
fit within 32 bits are assumed to be IPv4 addresses:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985)
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(42540766411282592856903984951653826561)
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')

To force the use of IPv4 or IPv6 addresses, the relevant classes can be
invoked directly.  This is particularly useful to force creation of IPv6
addresses for small integers:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address(1)
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(1)
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.1')
     >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address(1)
     IPv6Address('::1')


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Networks,  Next: Host Interfaces,  Prev: IP Host Addresses,  Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

9.15.1.3 Defining Networks
..........................

Host addresses are usually grouped together into IP networks, so *note
ipaddress: 83. provides a way to create, inspect and manipulate network
definitions.  IP network objects are constructed from strings that
define the range of host addresses that are part of that network.  The
simplest form for that information is a «network address/network prefix»
pair, where the prefix defines the number of leading bits that are
compared to determine whether or not an address is part of the network
and the network address defines the expected value of those bits.

As for addresses, a factory function is provided that determines the
correct IP version automatically:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')

Network objects cannot have any host bits set.  The practical effect of
this is that ‘192.0.2.1/24’ does not describe a network.  Such
definitions are referred to as interface objects since the
ip-on-a-network notation is commonly used to describe network interfaces
of a computer on a given network and are described further in the next
section.

By default, attempting to create a network object with host bits set
will result in *note ValueError: 277. being raised.  To request that the
additional bits instead be coerced to zero, the flag ‘strict=False’ can
be passed to the constructor:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24')
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     ValueError: 192.0.2.1/24 has host bits set
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24', strict=False)
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')

While the string form offers significantly more flexibility, networks
can also be defined with integers, just like host addresses.  In this
case, the network is considered to contain only the single address
identified by the integer, so the network prefix includes the entire
network address:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network(3221225984)
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_network(42540766411282592856903984951653826560)
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/128')

As with addresses, creation of a particular kind of network can be
forced by calling the class constructor directly instead of using the
factory function.


File: python.info,  Node: Host Interfaces,  Prev: Defining Networks,  Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects

9.15.1.4 Host Interfaces
........................

As mentioned just above, if you need to describe an address on a
particular network, neither the address nor the network classes are
sufficient.  Notation like ‘192.0.2.1/24’ is commonly used by network
engineers and the people who write tools for firewalls and routers as
shorthand for «the host ‘192.0.2.1’ on the network ‘192.0.2.0/24’»,
Accordingly, *note ipaddress: 83. provides a set of hybrid classes that
associate an address with a particular network.  The interface for
creation is identical to that for defining network objects, except that
the address portion isn’t constrained to being a network address.

     >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     IPv4Interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
     IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1/96')

Integer inputs are accepted (as with networks), and use of a particular
IP version can be forced by calling the relevant constructor directly.


File: python.info,  Node: Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects,  Next: Networks as lists of Addresses,  Prev: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects,  Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module

9.15.2 Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects
---------------------------------------------------

You’ve gone to the trouble of creating an
IPv(4|6)(Address|Network|Interface) object, so you probably want to get
information about it.  *note ipaddress: 83. tries to make doing this
easy and intuitive.

Extracting the IP version:

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> addr6 = ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::1')
     >>> addr6.version
     6
     >>> addr4.version
     4

Obtaining the network from an interface:

     >>> host4 = ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24')
     >>> host4.network
     IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> host6 = ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96')
     >>> host6.network
     IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96')

Finding out how many individual addresses are in a network:

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> net4.num_addresses
     256
     >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     >>> net6.num_addresses
     4294967296

Iterating through the «usable» addresses on a network:

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> for x in net4.hosts():
     ...     print(x)
     192.0.2.1
     192.0.2.2
     192.0.2.3
     192.0.2.4
     ...
     192.0.2.252
     192.0.2.253
     192.0.2.254

Obtaining the netmask (i.e.  set bits corresponding to the network
prefix) or the hostmask (any bits that are not part of the netmask):

     >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     >>> net4.netmask
     IPv4Address('255.255.255.0')
     >>> net4.hostmask
     IPv4Address('0.0.0.255')
     >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96')
     >>> net6.netmask
     IPv6Address('ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::')
     >>> net6.hostmask
     IPv6Address('::ffff:ffff')

Exploding or compressing the address:

     >>> addr6.exploded
     '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001'
     >>> addr6.compressed
     '2001:db8::1'
     >>> net6.exploded
     '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000/96'
     >>> net6.compressed
     '2001:db8::/96'

While IPv4 doesn’t support explosion or compression, the associated
objects still provide the relevant properties so that version neutral
code can easily ensure the most concise or most verbose form is used for
IPv6 addresses while still correctly handling IPv4 addresses.


File: python.info,  Node: Networks as lists of Addresses,  Next: Comparisons<3>,  Prev: Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects,  Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module

9.15.3 Networks as lists of Addresses
-------------------------------------

It’s sometimes useful to treat networks as lists.  This means it is
possible to index them like this:

     >>> net4[1]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> net4[-1]
     IPv4Address('192.0.2.255')
     >>> net6[1]
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::1')
     >>> net6[-1]
     IPv6Address('2001:db8::ffff:ffff')

It also means that network objects lend themselves to using the list
membership test syntax like this:

     if address in network:
         # do something

Containment testing is done efficiently based on the network prefix:

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24')
     True
     >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.3.0/24')
     False


File: python.info,  Node: Comparisons<3>,  Next: Using IP Addresses with other modules,  Prev: Networks as lists of Addresses,  Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module

9.15.4 Comparisons
------------------

*note ipaddress: 83. provides some simple, hopefully intuitive ways to
compare objects, where it makes sense:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') < ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.2')
     True

A *note TypeError: 291. exception is raised if you try to compare
objects of different versions or different types.


File: python.info,  Node: Using IP Addresses with other modules,  Next: Getting more detail when instance creation fails,  Prev: Comparisons<3>,  Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module

9.15.5 Using IP Addresses with other modules
--------------------------------------------

Other modules that use IP addresses (such as *note socket: d4.) usually
won’t accept objects from this module directly.  Instead, they must be
coerced to an integer or string that the other module will accept:

     >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1')
     >>> str(addr4)
     '192.0.2.1'
     >>> int(addr4)
     3221225985


File: python.info,  Node: Getting more detail when instance creation fails,  Prev: Using IP Addresses with other modules,  Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module

9.15.6 Getting more detail when instance creation fails
-------------------------------------------------------

When creating address/network/interface objects using the
version-agnostic factory functions, any errors will be reported as *note
ValueError: 277. with a generic error message that simply says the
passed in value was not recognized as an object of that type.  The lack
of a specific error is because it’s necessary to know whether the value
is 'supposed' to be IPv4 or IPv6 in order to provide more detail on why
it has been rejected.

To support use cases where it is useful to have access to this
additional detail, the individual class constructors actually raise the
*note ValueError: 277. subclasses *note ipaddress.AddressValueError:
4416. and *note ipaddress.NetmaskValueError: 4437. to indicate exactly
which part of the definition failed to parse correctly.

The error messages are significantly more detailed when using the class
constructors directly.  For example:

     >>> ipaddress.ip_address("192.168.0.256")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: '192.168.0.256' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 address
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address("192.168.0.256")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ipaddress.AddressValueError: Octet 256 (> 255) not permitted in '192.168.0.256'

     >>> ipaddress.ip_network("192.168.0.1/64")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ValueError: '192.168.0.1/64' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 network
     >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network("192.168.0.1/64")
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     ipaddress.NetmaskValueError: '64' is not a valid netmask

However, both of the module specific exceptions have *note ValueError:
277. as their parent class, so if you’re not concerned with the
particular type of error, you can still write code like the following:

     try:
         network = ipaddress.IPv4Network(address)
     except ValueError:
         print('address/netmask is invalid for IPv4:', address)


File: python.info,  Node: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap,  Next: Python support for the perf map compatible profilers,  Prev: An introduction to the ipaddress module,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.16 Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap
====================================================


author: David Malcolm


author: Łukasz Langa

DTrace and SystemTap are monitoring tools, each providing a way to
inspect what the processes on a computer system are doing.  They both
use domain-specific languages allowing a user to write scripts which:

   - filter which processes are to be observed

   - gather data from the processes of interest

   - generate reports on the data

As of Python 3.6, CPython can be built with embedded «markers», also
known as «probes», that can be observed by a DTrace or SystemTap script,
making it easier to monitor what the CPython processes on a system are
doing.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' DTrace markers are implementation
details of the CPython interpreter.  No guarantees are made about probe
compatibility between versions of CPython.  DTrace scripts can stop
working or work incorrectly without warning when changing CPython
versions.

* Menu:

* Enabling the static markers::
* Static DTrace probes::
* Static SystemTap markers::
* Available static markers::
* SystemTap Tapsets::
* Examples: Examples<34>.


File: python.info,  Node: Enabling the static markers,  Next: Static DTrace probes,  Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

9.16.1 Enabling the static markers
----------------------------------

macOS comes with built-in support for DTrace.  On Linux, in order to
build CPython with the embedded markers for SystemTap, the SystemTap
development tools must be installed.

On a Linux machine, this can be done via:

     $ yum install systemtap-sdt-devel

or:

     $ sudo apt-get install systemtap-sdt-dev

CPython must then be *note configured with the -with-dtrace option:
2395.:

     checking for --with-dtrace... yes

On macOS, you can list available DTrace probes by running a Python
process in the background and listing all probes made available by the
Python provider:

     $ python3.6 -q &
     $ sudo dtrace -l -P python$!  # or: dtrace -l -m python3.6

        ID   PROVIDER            MODULE                          FUNCTION NAME
     29564 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-entry
     29565 python18035        python3.6             dtrace_function_entry function-entry
     29566 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-return
     29567 python18035        python3.6            dtrace_function_return function-return
     29568 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-done
     29569 python18035        python3.6                           collect gc-start
     29570 python18035        python3.6          _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault line
     29571 python18035        python3.6                 maybe_dtrace_line line

On Linux, you can verify if the SystemTap static markers are present in
the built binary by seeing if it contains a «.note.stapsdt» section.

     $ readelf -S ./python | grep .note.stapsdt
     [30] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00308d78

If you’ve built Python as a shared library (with the *note
-enable-shared: c3a. configure option), you need to look instead within
the shared library.  For example:

     $ readelf -S libpython3.3dm.so.1.0 | grep .note.stapsdt
     [29] .note.stapsdt        NOTE         0000000000000000 00365b68

Sufficiently modern readelf can print the metadata:

     $ readelf -n ./python

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000254 with length 0x00000020:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         GNU                  0x00000010          NT_GNU_ABI_TAG (ABI version tag)
             OS: Linux, ABI: 2.6.32

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000274 with length 0x00000024:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         GNU                  0x00000014          NT_GNU_BUILD_ID (unique build ID bitstring)
             Build ID: df924a2b08a7e89f6e11251d4602022977af2670

     Displaying notes found at file offset 0x002d6c30 with length 0x00000144:
         Owner                 Data size          Description
         stapsdt              0x00000031          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: gc__start
             Location: 0x00000000004371c3, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf6
             Arguments: -4@%ebx
         stapsdt              0x00000030          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: gc__done
             Location: 0x00000000004374e1, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf8
             Arguments: -8@%rax
         stapsdt              0x00000045          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: function__entry
             Location: 0x000000000053db6c, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6be8
             Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax
         stapsdt              0x00000046          NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors)
             Provider: python
             Name: function__return
             Location: 0x000000000053dba8, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bea
             Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax

The above metadata contains information for SystemTap describing how it
can patch strategically placed machine code instructions to enable the
tracing hooks used by a SystemTap script.


File: python.info,  Node: Static DTrace probes,  Next: Static SystemTap markers,  Prev: Enabling the static markers,  Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

9.16.2 Static DTrace probes
---------------------------

The following example DTrace script can be used to show the call/return
hierarchy of a Python script, only tracing within the invocation of a
function called «start».  In other words, import-time function
invocations are not going to be listed:

     self int indent;

     python$target:::function-entry
     /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
     {
             self->trace = 1;
     }

     python$target:::function-entry
     /self->trace/
     {
             printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
             printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
             printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
             self->indent++;
     }

     python$target:::function-return
     /self->trace/
     {
             self->indent--;
             printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename);
             printf("%*s", self->indent, "");
             printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2);
     }

     python$target:::function-return
     /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/
     {
             self->trace = 0;
     }

It can be invoked like this:

     $ sudo dtrace -q -s call_stack.d -c "python3.6 script.py"

The output looks like this:

     156641360502280  function-entry:call_stack.py:start:23
     156641360518804  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_1:1
     156641360532797  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360546807 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360563367 function-return: call_stack.py:function_1:2
     156641360578365  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_2:5
     156641360591757  function-entry:  call_stack.py:function_1:1
     156641360605556  function-entry:   call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360617482 function-return:   call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360629814 function-return:  call_stack.py:function_1:2
     156641360642285 function-return: call_stack.py:function_2:6
     156641360656770  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_3:9
     156641360669707 function-return: call_stack.py:function_3:10
     156641360687853  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_4:13
     156641360700719 function-return: call_stack.py:function_4:14
     156641360719640  function-entry: call_stack.py:function_5:18
     156641360732567 function-return: call_stack.py:function_5:21
     156641360747370 function-return:call_stack.py:start:28


File: python.info,  Node: Static SystemTap markers,  Next: Available static markers,  Prev: Static DTrace probes,  Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

9.16.3 Static SystemTap markers
-------------------------------

The low-level way to use the SystemTap integration is to use the static
markers directly.  This requires you to explicitly state the binary file
containing them.

For example, this SystemTap script can be used to show the call/return
hierarchy of a Python script:

     probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {
          filename = user_string($arg1);
          funcname = user_string($arg2);
          lineno = $arg3;

          printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\\n",
                 thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

     probe process("python").mark("function__return") {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;

         printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\\n",
                thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

It can be invoked like this:

     $ stap \
       show-call-hierarchy.stp \
       -c "./python test.py"

The output looks like this:

     11408 python(8274):        => __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:362
     11414 python(8274):         => __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:425
     11418 python(8274):          => encode in Lib/os.py:490
     11424 python(8274):          <= encode in Lib/os.py:493
     11428 python(8274):         <= __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:426
     11433 python(8274):        <= __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:366

where the columns are:

   - time in microseconds since start of script

   - name of executable

   - PID of process

and the remainder indicates the call/return hierarchy as the script
executes.

For a *note -enable-shared: c3a. build of CPython, the markers are
contained within the libpython shared library, and the probe’s dotted
path needs to reflect this.  For example, this line from the above
example:

     probe process("python").mark("function__entry") {

should instead read:

     probe process("python").library("libpython3.6dm.so.1.0").mark("function__entry") {

(assuming a *note debug build: 3dc. of CPython 3.6)


File: python.info,  Node: Available static markers,  Next: SystemTap Tapsets,  Prev: Static SystemTap markers,  Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

9.16.4 Available static markers
-------------------------------

 -- Object: function__entry(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     This marker indicates that execution of a Python function has
     begun.  It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions.

     The filename, function name, and line number are provided back to
     the tracing script as positional arguments, which must be accessed
     using ‘$arg1’, ‘$arg2’, ‘$arg3’:

             * ‘$arg1’ : ‘(const char *)’ filename, accessible using
               ‘user_string($arg1)’

             * ‘$arg2’ : ‘(const char *)’ function name, accessible
               using ‘user_string($arg2)’

             * ‘$arg3’ : ‘int’ line number

 -- Object: function__return(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     This marker is the converse of ‘function__entry()’, and indicates
     that execution of a Python function has ended (either via ‘return’,
     or via an exception).  It is only triggered for pure-Python
     (bytecode) functions.

     The arguments are the same as for ‘function__entry()’

 -- Object: line(str filename, str funcname, int lineno)

     This marker indicates a Python line is about to be executed.  It is
     the equivalent of line-by-line tracing with a Python profiler.  It
     is not triggered within C functions.

     The arguments are the same as for ‘function__entry()’.

 -- Object: gc__start(int generation)

     Fires when the Python interpreter starts a garbage collection
     cycle.  ‘arg0’ is the generation to scan, like *note gc.collect():
     44f.

 -- Object: gc__done(long collected)

     Fires when the Python interpreter finishes a garbage collection
     cycle.  ‘arg0’ is the number of collected objects.

 -- Object: import__find__load__start(str modulename)

     Fires before *note importlib: 7a. attempts to find and load the
     module.  ‘arg0’ is the module name.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Object: import__find__load__done(str modulename, int found)

     Fires after *note importlib: 7a.’s find_and_load function is
     called.  ‘arg0’ is the module name, ‘arg1’ indicates if module was
     successfully loaded.

     Added in version 3.7.

 -- Object: audit(str event, void *tuple)

     Fires when *note sys.audit(): 1b36. or *note PySys_Audit(): 808. is
     called.  ‘arg0’ is the event name as C string, ‘arg1’ is a *note
     PyObject: 19b. pointer to a tuple object.

     Added in version 3.8.

* Menu:

* C Entry Points::
* C Probing Checks::


File: python.info,  Node: C Entry Points,  Next: C Probing Checks,  Up: Available static markers

9.16.4.1 C Entry Points
.......................

To simplify triggering of DTrace markers, Python’s C API comes with a
number of helper functions that mirror each static marker.  On builds of
Python without DTrace enabled, these do nothing.

In general, it is not necessary to call these yourself, as Python will
do it for you.

C API Function                                         Static Marker                 Notes
                                                                                     
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                     
 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyDTrace_LINE (const char        ‘line()’
          *arg0, const char *arg1, int arg2)           

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyDTrace_FUNCTION_ENTRY (const   ‘function__entry()’
          char *arg0, const char *arg1, int arg2)      

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyDTrace_FUNCTION_RETURN         ‘function__return()’
          (const char *arg0, const char *arg1, int     
          arg2)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyDTrace_GC_START (int arg0)     ‘gc__start()’
                                                       
                                                                                     
 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyDTrace_GC_DONE (Py_ssize_t     ‘gc__done()’
          arg0)                                        

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_START      ‘instance__new__start()’      Not used by Python
          (int arg0)                                                                 

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_DONE       ‘instance__new__done()’       Not used by Python
          (int arg0)                                                                 

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_START   ‘instance__delete__start()’   Not used by Python
          (int arg0)                                                                 

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_DONE    ‘instance__delete__done()’    Not used by Python
          (int arg0)                                                                 

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void                                  ‘import__find__load__start()’
          PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_START (const       
          char *arg0)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_DONE   ‘import__find__load__done()’
          (const char *arg0, int arg1)                 

 -- C Συνάρτηση: void PyDTrace_AUDIT (const char       ‘audit()’
          *arg0, void *arg1)                           


File: python.info,  Node: C Probing Checks,  Prev: C Entry Points,  Up: Available static markers

9.16.4.2 C Probing Checks
.........................

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDTrace_LINE_ENABLED (void)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDTrace_FUNCTION_ENTRY_ENABLED (void)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDTrace_FUNCTION_RETURN_ENABLED (void)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDTrace_GC_START_ENABLED (void)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDTrace_GC_DONE_ENABLED (void)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_START_ENABLED (void)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_DONE_ENABLED (void)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_START_ENABLED (void)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_DONE_ENABLED (void)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_START_ENABLED (void)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_DONE_ENABLED (void)

 -- C Συνάρτηση: int PyDTrace_AUDIT_ENABLED (void)

     All calls to ‘PyDTrace’ functions must be guarded by a call to one
     of these functions.  This allows Python to minimize performance
     impact when probing is disabled.

     On builds without DTrace enabled, these functions do nothing and
     return ‘0’.


File: python.info,  Node: SystemTap Tapsets,  Next: Examples<34>,  Prev: Available static markers,  Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

9.16.5 SystemTap Tapsets
------------------------

The higher-level way to use the SystemTap integration is to use a
«tapset»: SystemTap’s equivalent of a library, which hides some of the
lower-level details of the static markers.

Here is a tapset file, based on a non-shared build of CPython:

     /*
        Provide a higher-level wrapping around the function__entry and
        function__return markers:
      \*/
     probe python.function.entry = process("python").mark("function__entry")
     {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;
         frameptr = $arg4
     }
     probe python.function.return = process("python").mark("function__return")
     {
         filename = user_string($arg1);
         funcname = user_string($arg2);
         lineno = $arg3;
         frameptr = $arg4
     }

If this file is installed in SystemTap’s tapset directory (e.g.
‘/usr/share/systemtap/tapset’), then these additional probepoints become
available:

 -- Object: python.function.entry(str filename, str funcname, int
          lineno, frameptr)

     This probe point indicates that execution of a Python function has
     begun.  It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions.

 -- Object: python.function.return(str filename, str funcname, int
          lineno, frameptr)

     This probe point is the converse of ‘python.function.return’, and
     indicates that execution of a Python function has ended (either via
     ‘return’, or via an exception).  It is only triggered for
     pure-Python (bytecode) functions.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<34>,  Prev: SystemTap Tapsets,  Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap

9.16.6 Examples
---------------

This SystemTap script uses the tapset above to more cleanly implement
the example given above of tracing the Python function-call hierarchy,
without needing to directly name the static markers:

     probe python.function.entry
     {
       printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\n",
              thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

     probe python.function.return
     {
       printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\n",
              thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno);
     }

The following script uses the tapset above to provide a top-like view of
all running CPython code, showing the top 20 most frequently entered
bytecode frames, each second, across the whole system:

     global fn_calls;

     probe python.function.entry
     {
         fn_calls[pid(), filename, funcname, lineno] += 1;
     }

     probe timer.ms(1000) {
         printf("\033[2J\033[1;1H") /* clear screen \*/
         printf("%6s %80s %6s %30s %6s\n",
                "PID", "FILENAME", "LINE", "FUNCTION", "CALLS")
         foreach ([pid, filename, funcname, lineno] in fn_calls- limit 20) {
             printf("%6d %80s %6d %30s %6d\n",
                 pid, filename, lineno, funcname,
                 fn_calls[pid, filename, funcname, lineno]);
         }
         delete fn_calls;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Python support for the perf map compatible profilers,  Next: Annotations Best Practices,  Prev: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.17 Python support for the ‘perf map’ compatible profilers
===========================================================


author: Pablo Galindo

The Linux perf profiler(1) and samply(2) are powerful tools that allow
you to profile and obtain information about the performance of your
application.  Both tools have vibrant ecosystems that aid with the
analysis of the data they produce.

The main problem with using these profilers with Python applications is
that they only get information about native symbols, that is, the names
of functions and procedures written in C. This means that the names and
file names of Python functions in your code will not appear in the
profiler output.

Since Python 3.12, the interpreter can run in a special mode that allows
Python functions to appear in the output of compatible profilers.  When
this mode is enabled, the interpreter will interpose a small piece of
code compiled on the fly before the execution of every Python function
and it will teach the profiler the relationship between this piece of
code and the associated Python function using *note perf map files:
55d4.

     Σημείωση: Support for profiling is available on Linux and macOS on
     select architectures.  Perf is available on Linux, while samply can
     be used on both Linux and macOS. samply support on macOS is
     available starting from Python 3.15.  Check the output of the
     ‘configure’ build step or check the output of ‘python -m sysconfig
     | grep HAVE_PERF_TRAMPOLINE’ to see if your system is supported.

For example, consider the following script:

     def foo(n):
         result = 0
         for _ in range(n):
             result += 1
         return result

     def bar(n):
         foo(n)

     def baz(n):
         bar(n)

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         baz(1000000)

We can run ‘perf’ to sample CPU stack traces at 9999 hertz:

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python my_script.py

Then we can use ‘perf report’ to analyze the data:

     $ perf report --stdio -n -g

     # Children      Self       Samples  Command     Shared Object       Symbol
     # ........  ........  ............  ..........  ..................  ..........................................
     #
         91.08%     0.00%             0  python.exe  python.exe          [.] _start
                 |
                 ---_start
                 |
                     --90.71%--__libc_start_main
                             Py_BytesMain
                             |
                             |--56.88%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0
                             |          |
                             |          |--56.13%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject
                             |          |          _PyRun_SimpleFileObject
                             |          |          |
                             |          |          |--55.02%--run_mod
                             |          |          |          |
                             |          |          |           --54.65%--PyEval_EvalCode
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     |
                             |          |          |                     |--51.67%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |--11.52%--_PyCompactLong_Add
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |--2.97%--_PyObject_Malloc
     ...

As you can see, the Python functions are not shown in the output, only
‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault’ (the function that evaluates the Python
bytecode) shows up.  Unfortunately that’s not very useful because all
Python functions use the same C function to evaluate bytecode so we
cannot know which Python function corresponds to which
bytecode-evaluating function.

Instead, if we run the same experiment with ‘perf’ support enabled we
get:

     $ perf report --stdio -n -g

     # Children      Self       Samples  Command     Shared Object       Symbol
     # ........  ........  ............  ..........  ..................  .....................................................................
     #
         90.58%     0.36%             1  python.exe  python.exe          [.] _start
                 |
                 ---_start
                 |
                     --89.86%--__libc_start_main
                             Py_BytesMain
                             |
                             |--55.43%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0
                             |          |
                             |          |--54.71%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject
                             |          |          _PyRun_SimpleFileObject
                             |          |          |
                             |          |          |--53.62%--run_mod
                             |          |          |          |
                             |          |          |           --53.26%--PyEval_EvalCode
                             |          |          |                     py::<module>:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::baz:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::bar:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     PyObject_Vectorcall
                             |          |          |                     _PyEval_Vector
                             |          |          |                     py::foo:/src/script.py
                             |          |          |                     |
                             |          |          |                     |--51.81%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault
                             |          |          |                     |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |--13.77%--_PyCompactLong_Add
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |
                             |          |          |                     |          |          |--3.26%--_PyObject_Malloc

* Menu:

* Using the samply profiler::
* How to enable perf profiling support::
* How to obtain the best results::
* How to work without frame pointers::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://perf.wiki.kernel.org

   (2) https://github.com/mstange/samply


File: python.info,  Node: Using the samply profiler,  Next: How to enable perf profiling support,  Up: Python support for the perf map compatible profilers

9.17.1 Using the samply profiler
--------------------------------

samply is a modern profiler that can be used as an alternative to perf.
It uses the same perf map files that Python generates, making it
compatible with Python’s profiling support.  samply is particularly
useful on macOS where perf is not available.

To use samply with Python, first install it following the instructions
at ‘https://github.com/mstange/samply’, then run:

     $ samply record PYTHONPERFSUPPORT=1 python my_script.py

This will open a web interface where you can analyze the profiling data
interactively.  The advantage of samply is that it provides a modern
web-based interface for analyzing profiling data and works on both Linux
and macOS.

On macOS, samply support requires Python 3.15 or later.  Also on macOS,
samply can’t profile signed Python executables due to restrictions by
macOS. You can profile with Python binaries that you’ve compiled
yourself, or which are unsigned or locally-signed (such as anything
installed by Homebrew).  In order to attach to running processes on
macOS, run ‘samply setup’ once (and every time samply is updated) to
self-sign the samply binary.


File: python.info,  Node: How to enable perf profiling support,  Next: How to obtain the best results,  Prev: Using the samply profiler,  Up: Python support for the perf map compatible profilers

9.17.2 How to enable ‘perf’ profiling support
---------------------------------------------

‘perf’ profiling support can be enabled either from the start using the
environment variable *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 884. or the *note -X perf:
178. option, or dynamically using *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline():
885. and *note sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 886.

The ‘sys’ functions take precedence over the ‘-X’ option, the ‘-X’
option takes precedence over the environment variable.

Example, using the environment variable:

     $ PYTHONPERFSUPPORT=1 perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python my_script.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data

Example, using the ‘-X’ option:

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python -X perf my_script.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data

Example, using the *note sys: e2. APIs in file ‘example.py’:

     import sys

     sys.activate_stack_trampoline("perf")
     do_profiled_stuff()
     sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline()

     non_profiled_stuff()

…then:

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python ./example.py
     $ perf report -g -i perf.data


File: python.info,  Node: How to obtain the best results,  Next: How to work without frame pointers,  Prev: How to enable perf profiling support,  Up: Python support for the perf map compatible profilers

9.17.3 How to obtain the best results
-------------------------------------

For best results, keep frame pointers enabled.  On supported
GCC-compatible toolchains, CPython builds itself with
‘-fno-omit-frame-pointer’ and similar flags (see *note
-without-frame-pointers: 3dd. for details).  These flags allow profilers
to unwind using only the frame pointer and not on DWARF debug
information.  This is because as the code that is interposed to allow
‘perf’ support is dynamically generated it doesn’t have any DWARF
debugging information available.

You can check if your system has been compiled with this flag by
running:

     $ python -m sysconfig | grep 'no-omit-frame-pointer'

If you don’t see any output it means that your interpreter has not been
compiled with frame pointers and therefore it may not be able to show
Python functions in the output of ‘perf’.


File: python.info,  Node: How to work without frame pointers,  Prev: How to obtain the best results,  Up: Python support for the perf map compatible profilers

9.17.4 How to work without frame pointers
-----------------------------------------

If you are working with a Python interpreter that has been compiled
without frame pointers, you can still use the ‘perf’ profiler, but the
overhead will be a bit higher because Python needs to generate unwinding
information for every Python function call on the fly.  Additionally,
‘perf’ will take more time to process the data because it will need to
use the DWARF debugging information to unwind the stack and this is a
slow process.

To enable this mode, you can use the environment variable *note
PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 6b8. or the *note -X perf_jit: 178. option,
which will enable the JIT mode for the ‘perf’ profiler.

     Σημείωση: Due to a bug in the ‘perf’ tool, only ‘perf’ versions
     higher than v6.8 will work with the JIT mode.  The fix was also
     backported to the v6.7.2 version of the tool.

     Note that when checking the version of the ‘perf’ tool (which can
     be done by running ‘perf version’) you must take into account that
     some distros add some custom version numbers including a ‘-’
     character.  This means that ‘perf 6.7-3’ is not necessarily ‘perf
     6.7.3’.

When using the perf JIT mode, you need an extra step before you can run
‘perf report’.  You need to call the ‘perf inject’ command to inject the
JIT information into the ‘perf.data’ file.:

     $ perf record -F 9999 -g -k 1 --call-graph dwarf -o perf.data python -Xperf_jit my_script.py
     $ perf inject -i perf.data --jit --output perf.jit.data
     $ perf report -g -i perf.jit.data

or using the environment variable:

     $ PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT=1 perf record -F 9999 -g --call-graph dwarf -o perf.data python my_script.py
     $ perf inject -i perf.data --jit --output perf.jit.data
     $ perf report -g -i perf.jit.data

‘perf inject --jit’ command will read ‘perf.data’, automatically pick up
the perf dump file that Python creates (in ‘/tmp/perf-$PID.dump’), and
then create ‘perf.jit.data’ which merges all the JIT information
together.  It should also create a lot of ‘jitted-XXXX-N.so’ files in
the current directory which are ELF images for all the JIT trampolines
that were created by Python.

     Προειδοποίηση: When using ‘--call-graph dwarf’, the ‘perf’ tool
     will take snapshots of the stack of the process being profiled and
     save the information in the ‘perf.data’ file.  By default, the size
     of the stack dump is 8192 bytes, but you can change the size by
     passing it after a comma like ‘--call-graph dwarf,16384’.

     The size of the stack dump is important because if the size is too
     small ‘perf’ will not be able to unwind the stack and the output
     will be incomplete.  On the other hand, if the size is too big,
     then ‘perf’ won’t be able to sample the process as frequently as it
     would like as the overhead will be higher.

     The stack size is particularly important when profiling Python code
     compiled with low optimization levels (like ‘-O0’), as these builds
     tend to have larger stack frames.  If you are compiling Python with
     ‘-O0’ and not seeing Python functions in your profiling output, try
     increasing the stack dump size to 65528 bytes (the maximum):

          $ perf record -F 9999 -g -k 1 --call-graph dwarf,65528 -o perf.data python -Xperf_jit my_script.py

     Different compilation flags can significantly impact stack sizes:

        - Builds with ‘-O0’ typically have much larger stack frames than
          those with ‘-O1’ or higher

        - Adding optimizations (‘-O1’, ‘-O2’, etc.)  typically reduces
          stack size

        - Frame pointers (‘-fno-omit-frame-pointer’) generally provide
          more reliable stack unwinding


File: python.info,  Node: Annotations Best Practices,  Next: Isolating Extension Modules,  Prev: Python support for the perf map compatible profilers,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.18 Annotations Best Practices
===============================


author: Larry Hastings

Abstract
........

This document is designed to encapsulate the best practices for working
with annotations dicts.  If you write Python code that examines
‘__annotations__’ on Python objects, we encourage you to follow the
guidelines described below.

The document is organized into four sections: best practices for
accessing the annotations of an object in Python versions 3.10 and
newer, best practices for accessing the annotations of an object in
Python versions 3.9 and older, other best practices for
‘__annotations__’ that apply to any Python version, and quirks of
‘__annotations__’.

Note that this document is specifically about working with
‘__annotations__’, not uses 'for' annotations.  If you’re looking for
information on how to use «type hints» in your code, please see the
*note typing: 10d. module.

* Menu:

* Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.10 And Newer: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer.
* Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.9 And Older: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older.
* Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations::
* Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version::
* __annotations__ Quirks::


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer,  Next: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.18.1 Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.10 And Newer
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Python 3.10 adds a new function to the standard library: *note
inspect.get_annotations(): bec.  In Python versions 3.10 through 3.13,
calling this function is the best practice for accessing the annotations
dict of any object that supports annotations.  This function can also
«un-stringize» stringized annotations for you.

In Python 3.14, there is a new *note annotationlib: 6. module with
functionality for working with annotations.  This includes a *note
annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. function, which supersedes *note
inspect.get_annotations(): bec.

If for some reason *note inspect.get_annotations(): bec. isn’t viable
for your use case, you may access the ‘__annotations__’ data member
manually.  Best practice for this changed in Python 3.10 as well: as of
Python 3.10, ‘o.__annotations__’ is guaranteed to 'always' work on
Python functions, classes, and modules.  If you’re certain the object
you’re examining is one of these three 'specific' objects, you may
simply use ‘o.__annotations__’ to get at the object’s annotations dict.

However, other types of callables–for example, callables created by
*note functools.partial(): 4a6.–may not have an ‘__annotations__’
attribute defined.  When accessing the ‘__annotations__’ of a possibly
unknown object, best practice in Python versions 3.10 and newer is to
call *note getattr(): f8f. with three arguments, for example ‘getattr(o,
'__annotations__', None)’.

Before Python 3.10, accessing ‘__annotations__’ on a class that defines
no annotations but that has a parent class with annotations would return
the parent’s ‘__annotations__’.  In Python 3.10 and newer, the child
class’s annotations will be an empty dict instead.


File: python.info,  Node: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older,  Next: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations,  Prev: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.18.2 Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.9 And Older
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

In Python 3.9 and older, accessing the annotations dict of an object is
much more complicated than in newer versions.  The problem is a design
flaw in these older versions of Python, specifically to do with class
annotations.

Best practice for accessing the annotations dict of other
objects–functions, other callables, and modules–is the same as best
practice for 3.10, assuming you aren’t calling *note
inspect.get_annotations(): bec.: you should use three-argument *note
getattr(): f8f. to access the object’s ‘__annotations__’ attribute.

Unfortunately, this isn’t best practice for classes.  The problem is
that, since ‘__annotations__’ is optional on classes, and because
classes can inherit attributes from their base classes, accessing the
‘__annotations__’ attribute of a class may inadvertently return the
annotations dict of a 'base class.'  As an example:

     class Base:
         a: int = 3
         b: str = 'abc'

     class Derived(Base):
         pass

     print(Derived.__annotations__)

This will print the annotations dict from ‘Base’, not ‘Derived’.

Your code will have to have a separate code path if the object you’re
examining is a class (‘isinstance(o, type)’).  In that case, best
practice relies on an implementation detail of Python 3.9 and before: if
a class has annotations defined, they are stored in the class’s *note
__dict__: 101b. dictionary.  Since the class may or may not have
annotations defined, best practice is to call the *note get(): 2223.
method on the class dict.

To put it all together, here is some sample code that safely accesses
the ‘__annotations__’ attribute on an arbitrary object in Python 3.9 and
before:

     if isinstance(o, type):
         ann = o.__dict__.get('__annotations__', None)
     else:
         ann = getattr(o, '__annotations__', None)

After running this code, ‘ann’ should be either a dictionary or ‘None’.
You’re encouraged to double-check the type of ‘ann’ using *note
isinstance(): 2ef. before further examination.

Note that some exotic or malformed type objects may not have a *note
__dict__: 101b. attribute, so for extra safety you may also wish to use
*note getattr(): f8f. to access ‘__dict__’.


File: python.info,  Node: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations,  Next: Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version,  Prev: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.18.3 Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations
-----------------------------------------------------

In situations where some annotations may be «stringized», and you wish
to evaluate those strings to produce the Python values they represent,
it really is best to call *note inspect.get_annotations(): bec. to do
this work for you.

If you’re using Python 3.9 or older, or if for some reason you can’t use
*note inspect.get_annotations(): bec, you’ll need to duplicate its
logic.  You’re encouraged to examine the implementation of
‘inspect.get_annotations()’ in the current Python version and follow a
similar approach.

In a nutshell, if you wish to evaluate a stringized annotation on an
arbitrary object ‘o’:

   * If ‘o’ is a module, use ‘o.__dict__’ as the ‘globals’ when calling
     *note eval(): 184.

   * If ‘o’ is a class, use ‘sys.modules[o.__module__].__dict__’ as the
     ‘globals’, and ‘dict(vars(o))’ as the ‘locals’, when calling *note
     eval(): 184.

   * If ‘o’ is a wrapped callable using *note
     functools.update_wrapper(): 13cb, *note functools.wraps(): 1307, or
     *note functools.partial(): 4a6, iteratively unwrap it by accessing
     either ‘o.__wrapped__’ or ‘o.func’ as appropriate, until you have
     found the root unwrapped function.

   * If ‘o’ is a callable (but not a class), use *note o.__globals__:
     1678. as the globals when calling *note eval(): 184.

However, not all string values used as annotations can be successfully
turned into Python values by *note eval(): 184.  String values could
theoretically contain any valid string, and in practice there are valid
use cases for type hints that require annotating with string values that
specifically 'can’t' be evaluated.  For example:

   * PEP 604(1) union types using ‘|’, before support for this was added
     to Python 3.10.

   * Definitions that aren’t needed at runtime, only imported when *note
     typing.TYPE_CHECKING: 10b0. is true.

If *note eval(): 184. attempts to evaluate such values, it will fail and
raise an exception.  So, when designing a library API that works with
annotations, it’s recommended to only attempt to evaluate string values
when explicitly requested to by the caller.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/


File: python.info,  Node: Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version,  Next: __annotations__ Quirks,  Prev: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.18.4 Best Practices For ‘__annotations__’ In Any Python Version
-----------------------------------------------------------------

   * You should avoid assigning to the ‘__annotations__’ member of
     objects directly.  Let Python manage setting ‘__annotations__’.

   * If you do assign directly to the ‘__annotations__’ member of an
     object, you should always set it to a ‘dict’ object.

   * You should avoid accessing ‘__annotations__’ directly on any
     object.  Instead, use *note annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c.
     (Python 3.14+) or *note inspect.get_annotations(): bec. (Python
     3.10+).

   * If you do directly access the ‘__annotations__’ member of an
     object, you should ensure that it’s a dictionary before attempting
     to examine its contents.

   * You should avoid modifying ‘__annotations__’ dicts.

   * You should avoid deleting the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of an
     object.


File: python.info,  Node: __annotations__ Quirks,  Prev: Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version,  Up: Annotations Best Practices

9.18.5 ‘__annotations__’ Quirks
-------------------------------

In all versions of Python 3, function objects lazy-create an annotations
dict if no annotations are defined on that object.  You can delete the
‘__annotations__’ attribute using ‘del fn.__annotations__’, but if you
then access ‘fn.__annotations__’ the object will create a new empty dict
that it will store and return as its annotations.  Deleting the
annotations on a function before it has lazily created its annotations
dict will throw an ‘AttributeError’; using ‘del fn.__annotations__’
twice in a row is guaranteed to always throw an ‘AttributeError’.

Everything in the above paragraph also applies to class and module
objects in Python 3.10 and newer.

In all versions of Python 3, you can set ‘__annotations__’ on a function
object to ‘None’.  However, subsequently accessing the annotations on
that object using ‘fn.__annotations__’ will lazy-create an empty
dictionary as per the first paragraph of this section.  This is 'not'
true of modules and classes, in any Python version; those objects permit
setting ‘__annotations__’ to any Python value, and will retain whatever
value is set.

If Python stringizes your annotations for you (using ‘from __future__
import annotations’), and you specify a string as an annotation, the
string will itself be quoted.  In effect the annotation is quoted
'twice.'  For example:

     from __future__ import annotations
     def foo(a: "str"): pass

     print(foo.__annotations__)

This prints ‘{'a': "'str'"}’.  This shouldn’t really be considered a
«quirk»; it’s mentioned here simply because it might be surprising.

If you use a class with a custom metaclass and access ‘__annotations__’
on the class, you may observe unexpected behavior; see 749(1) for some
examples.  You can avoid these quirks by using *note
annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. on Python 3.14+ or *note
inspect.get_annotations(): bec. on Python 3.10+.  On earlier versions of
Python, you can avoid these bugs by accessing the annotations from the
class’s *note __dict__: 101b. (for example,
‘cls.__dict__.get('__annotations__', None)’).

In some versions of Python, instances of classes may have an
‘__annotations__’ attribute.  However, this is not supported
functionality.  If you need the annotations of an instance, you can use
*note type(): 186. to access its class (for example,
‘annotationlib.get_annotations(type(myinstance))’ on Python 3.14+).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0749/#pep749-metaclasses


File: python.info,  Node: Isolating Extension Modules,  Next: timer file descriptor HOWTO,  Prev: Annotations Best Practices,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.19 Isolating Extension Modules
================================

Abstract
........

Traditionally, state belonging to Python extension modules was kept in C
‘static’ variables, which have process-wide scope.  This document
describes problems of such per-process state and shows a safer way:
per-module state.

The document also describes how to switch to per-module state where
possible.  This transition involves allocating space for that state,
potentially switching from static types to heap types, and—perhaps most
importantly—accessing per-module state from code.

* Menu:

* Who should read this::
* Background: Background<2>.
* Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters::
* Heap Types: Heap Types<2>.
* Open Issues::


File: python.info,  Node: Who should read this,  Next: Background<2>,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.19.1 Who should read this
---------------------------

This guide is written for maintainers of *note C-API: 21ab. extensions
who would like to make that extension safer to use in applications where
Python itself is used as a library.


File: python.info,  Node: Background<2>,  Next: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Prev: Who should read this,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.19.2 Background
-----------------

An 'interpreter' is the context in which Python code runs.  It contains
configuration (e.g.  the import path) and runtime state (e.g.  the set
of imported modules).

Python supports running multiple interpreters in one process.  There are
two cases to think about—users may run interpreters:

   - in sequence, with several *note Py_InitializeEx(): 5477./*note
     Py_FinalizeEx(): 10cf. cycles, and

   - in parallel, managing «sub-interpreters» using *note
     Py_NewInterpreter(): 1d2f./*note Py_EndInterpreter(): 1a6f.

Both cases (and combinations of them) would be most useful when
embedding Python within a library.  Libraries generally shouldn’t make
assumptions about the application that uses them, which include assuming
a process-wide «main Python interpreter».

Historically, Python extension modules don’t handle this use case well.
Many extension modules (and even some stdlib modules) use 'per-process'
global state, because C ‘static’ variables are extremely easy to use.
Thus, data that should be specific to an interpreter ends up being
shared between interpreters.  Unless the extension developer is careful,
it is very easy to introduce edge cases that lead to crashes when a
module is loaded in more than one interpreter in the same process.

Unfortunately, 'per-interpreter' state is not easy to achieve.
Extension authors tend to not keep multiple interpreters in mind when
developing, and it is currently cumbersome to test the behavior.

* Menu:

* Enter Per-Module State::
* Isolated Module Objects::
* Surprising Edge Cases::


File: python.info,  Node: Enter Per-Module State,  Next: Isolated Module Objects,  Up: Background<2>

9.19.2.1 Enter Per-Module State
...............................

Instead of focusing on per-interpreter state, Python’s C API is evolving
to better support the more granular 'per-module' state.  This means that
C-level data should be attached to a 'module object'.  Each interpreter
creates its own module object, keeping the data separate.  For testing
the isolation, multiple module objects corresponding to a single
extension can even be loaded in a single interpreter.

Per-module state provides an easy way to think about lifetime and
resource ownership: the extension module will initialize when a module
object is created, and clean up when it’s freed.  In this regard, a
module is just like any other *note PyObject: 19b.*; there are no «on
interpreter shutdown» hooks to think—or forget—about.

Note that there are use cases for different kinds of «globals»:
per-process, per-interpreter, per-thread or per-task state.  With
per-module state as the default, these are still possible, but you
should treat them as exceptional cases: if you need them, you should
give them additional care and testing.  (Note that this guide does not
cover them.)


File: python.info,  Node: Isolated Module Objects,  Next: Surprising Edge Cases,  Prev: Enter Per-Module State,  Up: Background<2>

9.19.2.2 Isolated Module Objects
................................

The key point to keep in mind when developing an extension module is
that several module objects can be created from a single shared library.
For example:

     >>> import sys
     >>> import binascii
     >>> old_binascii = binascii
     >>> del sys.modules['binascii']
     >>> import binascii  # create a new module object
     >>> old_binascii == binascii
     False

As a rule of thumb, the two modules should be completely independent.
All objects and state specific to the module should be encapsulated
within the module object, not shared with other module objects, and
cleaned up when the module object is deallocated.  Since this just is a
rule of thumb, exceptions are possible (see *note Managing Global State:
5bed.), but they will need more thought and attention to edge cases.

While some modules could do with less stringent restrictions, isolated
modules make it easier to set clear expectations and guidelines that
work across a variety of use cases.


File: python.info,  Node: Surprising Edge Cases,  Prev: Isolated Module Objects,  Up: Background<2>

9.19.2.3 Surprising Edge Cases
..............................

Note that isolated modules do create some surprising edge cases.  Most
notably, each module object will typically not share its classes and
exceptions with other similar modules.  Continuing from the *note
example above: 5bec, note that ‘old_binascii.Error’ and ‘binascii.Error’
are separate objects.  In the following code, the exception is 'not'
caught:

     >>> old_binascii.Error == binascii.Error
     False
     >>> try:
     ...     old_binascii.unhexlify(b'qwertyuiop')
     ... except binascii.Error:
     ...     print('boo')
     ...
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 2, in <module>
     binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found

This is expected.  Notice that pure-Python modules behave the same way:
it is a part of how Python works.

The goal is to make extension modules safe at the C level, not to make
hacks behave intuitively.  Mutating ‘sys.modules’ «manually» counts as a
hack.


File: python.info,  Node: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Next: Heap Types<2>,  Prev: Background<2>,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.19.3 Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters
-----------------------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Managing Global State::
* Managing Per-Module State::
* Opt-Out; Limiting to One Module Object per Process: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process.
* Module State Access from Functions::


File: python.info,  Node: Managing Global State,  Next: Managing Per-Module State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.19.3.1 Managing Global State
..............................

Sometimes, the state associated with a Python module is not specific to
that module, but to the entire process (or something else «more global»
than a module).  For example:

   - The ‘readline’ module manages 'the' terminal.

   - A module running on a circuit board wants to control 'the' on-board
     LED.

In these cases, the Python module should provide 'access' to the global
state, rather than 'own' it.  If possible, write the module so that
multiple copies of it can access the state independently (along with
other libraries, whether for Python or other languages).  If that is not
possible, consider explicit locking.

If it is necessary to use process-global state, the simplest way to
avoid issues with multiple interpreters is to explicitly prevent a
module from being loaded more than once per process—see *note Opt-Out;
Limiting to One Module Object per Process: 555e.


File: python.info,  Node: Managing Per-Module State,  Next: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Prev: Managing Global State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.19.3.2 Managing Per-Module State
..................................

To use per-module state, use *note multi-phase extension module
initialization: 555b.  This signals that your module supports multiple
interpreters correctly.

Set ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’ to a positive number to request that many bytes
of storage local to the module.  Usually, this will be set to the size
of some module-specific ‘struct’, which can store all of the module’s
C-level state.  In particular, it is where you should put pointers to
classes (including exceptions, but excluding static types) and settings
(e.g.  ‘csv’’s *note field_size_limit: 1d8d.) which the C code needs to
function.

     Σημείωση: Another option is to store state in the module’s
     ‘__dict__’, but you must avoid crashing when users modify
     ‘__dict__’ from Python code.  This usually means error- and
     type-checking at the C level, which is easy to get wrong and hard
     to test sufficiently.

     However, if module state is not needed in C code, storing it in
     ‘__dict__’ only is a good idea.

If the module state includes ‘PyObject’ pointers, the module object must
hold references to those objects and implement the module-level hooks
‘m_traverse’, ‘m_clear’ and ‘m_free’.  These work like ‘tp_traverse’,
‘tp_clear’ and ‘tp_free’ of a class.  Adding them will require some work
and make the code longer; this is the price for modules which can be
unloaded cleanly.

An example of a module with per-module state is currently available as
xxlimited(1); example module initialization shown at the bottom of the
file.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/master/Modules/xxlimited.c


File: python.info,  Node: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Next: Module State Access from Functions,  Prev: Managing Per-Module State,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.19.3.3 Opt-Out: Limiting to One Module Object per Process
...........................................................

A non-negative ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’ signals that a module supports
multiple interpreters correctly.  If this is not yet the case for your
module, you can explicitly make your module loadable only once per
process.  For example:

     // A process-wide flag
     static int loaded = 0;

     // Mutex to provide thread safety (only needed for free-threaded Python)
     static PyMutex modinit_mutex = {0};

     static int
     exec_module(PyObject* module)
     {
         PyMutex_Lock(&modinit_mutex);
         if (loaded) {
             PyMutex_Unlock(&modinit_mutex);
             PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ImportError,
                             "cannot load module more than once per process");
             return -1;
         }
         loaded = 1;
         PyMutex_Unlock(&modinit_mutex);
         // ... rest of initialization
     }

If your module’s *note PyModuleDef.m_clear: d43. function is able to
prepare for future re-initialization, it should clear the ‘loaded’ flag.
In this case, your module won’t support multiple instances existing
'concurrently', but it will, for example, support being loaded after
Python runtime shutdown (*note Py_FinalizeEx(): 10cf.) and
re-initialization (*note Py_Initialize(): 673.).


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Functions,  Prev: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process,  Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters

9.19.3.4 Module State Access from Functions
...........................................

Accessing the state from module-level functions is straightforward.
Functions get the module object as their first argument; for extracting
the state, you can use ‘PyModule_GetState’:

     static PyObject *
     func(PyObject *module, PyObject *args)
     {
         my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module);
         if (state == NULL) {
             return NULL;
         }
         // ... rest of logic
     }

     Σημείωση: ‘PyModule_GetState’ may return ‘NULL’ without setting an
     exception if there is no module state, i.e.  ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’
     was zero.  In your own module, you’re in control of ‘m_size’, so
     this is easy to prevent.


File: python.info,  Node: Heap Types<2>,  Next: Open Issues,  Prev: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.19.4 Heap Types
-----------------

Traditionally, types defined in C code are 'static'; that is, ‘static
PyTypeObject’ structures defined directly in code and initialized using
‘PyType_Ready()’.

Such types are necessarily shared across the process.  Sharing them
between module objects requires paying attention to any state they own
or access.  To limit the possible issues, static types are immutable at
the Python level: for example, you can’t set ‘str.myattribute = 123’.

'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' Sharing truly immutable objects
between interpreters is fine, as long as they don’t provide access to
mutable objects.  However, in CPython, every Python object has a mutable
implementation detail: the reference count.  Changes to the refcount are
guarded by the GIL. Thus, code that shares any Python objects across
interpreters implicitly depends on CPython’s current, process-wide GIL.

Because they are immutable and process-global, static types cannot
access «their» module state.  If any method of such a type requires
access to module state, the type must be converted to a 'heap-allocated
type', or 'heap type' for short.  These correspond more closely to
classes created by Python’s ‘class’ statement.

For new modules, using heap types by default is a good rule of thumb.

* Menu:

* Changing Static Types to Heap Types::
* Defining Heap Types::
* Garbage-Collection Protocol::
* Module State Access from Classes::
* Module State Access from Regular Methods::
* Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters.
* Lifetime of the Module State::


File: python.info,  Node: Changing Static Types to Heap Types,  Next: Defining Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.19.4.1 Changing Static Types to Heap Types
............................................

Static types can be converted to heap types, but note that the heap type
API was not designed for «lossless» conversion from static types—that
is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static type.  So,
when rewriting the class definition in a new API, you are likely to
unintentionally change a few details (e.g.  pickleability or inherited
slots).  Always test the details that are important to you.

Watch out for the following two points in particular (but note that this
is not a comprehensive list):

   * Unlike static types, heap type objects are mutable by default.  Use
     the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 5fb. flag to prevent
     mutability.

   * Heap types inherit *note tp_new: 981. by default, so it may become
     possible to instantiate them from Python code.  You can prevent
     this with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 984. flag.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining Heap Types,  Next: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Prev: Changing Static Types to Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.19.4.2 Defining Heap Types
............................

Heap types can be created by filling a *note PyType_Spec: 1c8f.
structure, a description or «blueprint» of a class, and calling *note
PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390. to construct a new class object.

     Σημείωση: Other functions, like *note PyType_FromSpec(): 38e, can
     also create heap types, but *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390.
     associates the module with the class, allowing access to the module
     state from methods.

The class should generally be stored in 'both' the module state (for
safe access from C) and the module’s ‘__dict__’ (for access from Python
code).


File: python.info,  Node: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Next: Module State Access from Classes,  Prev: Defining Heap Types,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.19.4.3 Garbage-Collection Protocol
....................................

Instances of heap types hold a reference to their type.  This ensures
that the type isn’t destroyed before all its instances are, but may
result in reference cycles that need to be broken by the garbage
collector.

To avoid memory leaks, instances of heap types must implement the
garbage collection protocol.  That is, heap types should:

   - Have the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. flag.

   - Define a traverse function using *note Py_tp_traverse: 54e6, which
     visits the type (e.g.  using ‘Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self))’).

Please refer to the documentation of *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 39e. and
*note tp_traverse: 36b. for additional considerations.

The API for defining heap types grew organically, leaving it somewhat
awkward to use in its current state.  The following sections will guide
you through common issues.

* Menu:

* tp_traverse in Python 3.8 and lower: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower.
* Delegating tp_traverse::
* Defining tp_dealloc::
* Not overriding tp_free::
* Avoiding PyObject_New::


File: python.info,  Node: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower,  Next: Delegating tp_traverse,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.19.4.4 ‘tp_traverse’ in Python 3.8 and lower
..............................................

The requirement to visit the type from ‘tp_traverse’ was added in Python
3.9.  If you support Python 3.8 and lower, the traverse function must
'not' visit the type, so it must be more complicated:

     static int my_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
     {
         if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) {
             Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
         }
         return 0;
     }

Unfortunately, *note Py_Version: 5ae. was only added in Python 3.11.  As
a replacement, use:

   * *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 5af, if not using the stable ABI, or

   * *note sys.version_info: 2fc. (via *note PySys_GetObject(): 356. and
     *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 3b1.).


File: python.info,  Node: Delegating tp_traverse,  Next: Defining tp_dealloc,  Prev: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.19.4.5 Delegating ‘tp_traverse’
.................................

If your traverse function delegates to the *note tp_traverse: 36b. of
its base class (or another type), ensure that ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ is visited
only once.  Note that only heap type are expected to visit the type in
‘tp_traverse’.

For example, if your traverse function includes:

     base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg)

…and ‘base’ may be a static type, then it should also include:

     if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) {
         // a heap type's tp_traverse already visited Py_TYPE(self)
     } else {
         if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) {
             Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self));
         }
     }

It is not necessary to handle the type’s reference count in *note
tp_new: 981. and *note tp_clear: 51f7.


File: python.info,  Node: Defining tp_dealloc,  Next: Not overriding tp_free,  Prev: Delegating tp_traverse,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.19.4.6 Defining ‘tp_dealloc’
..............................

If your type has a custom *note tp_dealloc: 51d3. function, it needs to:

   - call *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 18a7. before any fields are
     invalidated, and

   - decrement the reference count of the type.

To keep the type valid while ‘tp_free’ is called, the type’s refcount
needs to be decremented 'after' the instance is deallocated.  For
example:

     static void my_dealloc(PyObject *self)
     {
         PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self);
         ...
         PyTypeObject *type = Py_TYPE(self);
         type->tp_free(self);
         Py_DECREF(type);
     }

The default ‘tp_dealloc’ function does this, so if your type does 'not'
override ‘tp_dealloc’ you don’t need to add it.


File: python.info,  Node: Not overriding tp_free,  Next: Avoiding PyObject_New,  Prev: Defining tp_dealloc,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.19.4.7 Not overriding ‘tp_free’
.................................

The *note tp_free: 51e5. slot of a heap type must be set to *note
PyObject_GC_Del(): 18a5.  This is the default; do not override it.


File: python.info,  Node: Avoiding PyObject_New,  Prev: Not overriding tp_free,  Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol

9.19.4.8 Avoiding ‘PyObject_New’
................................

GC-tracked objects need to be allocated using GC-aware functions.

If you use *note PyObject_New(): d4d. or *note PyObject_NewVar(): d4e.:

   - Get and call type’s *note tp_alloc: 51e6. slot, if possible.  That
     is, replace ‘TYPE *o = PyObject_New(TYPE, typeobj)’ with:

          TYPE *o = typeobj->tp_alloc(typeobj, 0);

     Replace ‘o = PyObject_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size)’ with the same,
     but use size instead of the 0.

   - If the above is not possible (e.g.  inside a custom ‘tp_alloc’),
     call *note PyObject_GC_New(): e68. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar():
     e69.:

          TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_New(TYPE, typeobj);

          TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size);


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Classes,  Next: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Prev: Garbage-Collection Protocol,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.19.4.9 Module State Access from Classes
.........................................

If you have a type object defined with *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec():
390, you can call *note PyType_GetModule(): d37. to get the associated
module, and then *note PyModule_GetState(): d48. to get the module’s
state.

To save a some tedious error-handling boilerplate code, you can combine
these two steps with *note PyType_GetModuleState(): d38, resulting in:

     my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(type);
     if (state == NULL) {
         return NULL;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Next: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Prev: Module State Access from Classes,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.19.4.10 Module State Access from Regular Methods
..................................................

Accessing the module-level state from methods of a class is somewhat
more complicated, but is possible thanks to API introduced in Python
3.9.  To get the state, you need to first get the 'defining class', and
then get the module state from it.

The largest roadblock is getting 'the class a method was defined in', or
that method’s «defining class» for short.  The defining class can have a
reference to the module it is part of.

Do not confuse the defining class with ‘Py_TYPE(self)’.  If the method
is called on a 'subclass' of your type, ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ will refer to
that subclass, which may be defined in different module than yours.

     Σημείωση: The following Python code can illustrate the concept.
     ‘Base.get_defining_class’ returns ‘Base’ even if ‘type(self) ==
     Sub’:

          class Base:
              def get_type_of_self(self):
                  return type(self)

              def get_defining_class(self):
                  return __class__

          class Sub(Base):
              pass

For a method to get its «defining class», it must use the *note
METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 1c11. *note calling
convention: 1879. and the corresponding *note PyCMethod: b46. signature:

     PyObject *PyCMethod(
         PyObject *self,               // object the method was called on
         PyTypeObject *defining_class, // defining class
         PyObject *const *args,        // C array of arguments
         Py_ssize_t nargs,             // length of "args"
         PyObject *kwnames)            // NULL, or dict of keyword arguments

Once you have the defining class, call *note PyType_GetModuleState():
d38. to get the state of its associated module.

For example:

     static PyObject *
     example_method(PyObject *self,
             PyTypeObject *defining_class,
             PyObject *const *args,
             Py_ssize_t nargs,
             PyObject *kwnames)
     {
         my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(defining_class);
         if (state == NULL) {
             return NULL;
         }
         ... // rest of logic
     }

     PyDoc_STRVAR(example_method_doc, "...");

     static PyMethodDef my_methods[] = {
         {"example_method",
           (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))example_method,
           METH_METHOD|METH_FASTCALL|METH_KEYWORDS,
           example_method_doc}
         {NULL},
     }


File: python.info,  Node: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Next: Lifetime of the Module State,  Prev: Module State Access from Regular Methods,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.19.4.11 Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters
....................................................................

     Σημείωση: This is new in Python 3.11.

Slot methods—the fast C equivalents for special methods, such as *note
nb_add: 5645. for *note __add__: 25d2. or *note tp_new: 981. for
initialization—have a very simple API that doesn’t allow passing in the
defining class, unlike with *note PyCMethod: b46.  The same goes for
getters and setters defined with *note PyGetSetDef: f77.

To access the module state in these cases, use the *note
PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 827. function, and pass in the module
definition.  Once you have the module, call *note PyModule_GetState():
d48. to get the state:

     PyObject *module = PyType_GetModuleByDef(Py_TYPE(self), &module_def);
     my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module);
     if (state == NULL) {
         return NULL;
     }

‘PyType_GetModuleByDef()’ works by searching the *note method resolution
order: 2784. (i.e.  all superclasses) for the first superclass that has
a corresponding module.

     Σημείωση: In very exotic cases (inheritance chains spanning
     multiple modules created from the same definition),
     ‘PyType_GetModuleByDef()’ might not return the module of the true
     defining class.  However, it will always return a module with the
     same definition, ensuring a compatible C memory layout.


File: python.info,  Node: Lifetime of the Module State,  Prev: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters,  Up: Heap Types<2>

9.19.4.12 Lifetime of the Module State
......................................

When a module object is garbage-collected, its module state is freed.
For each pointer to (a part of) the module state, you must hold a
reference to the module object.

Usually this is not an issue, because types created with *note
PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 390, and their instances, hold a reference
to the module.  However, you must be careful in reference counting when
you reference module state from other places, such as callbacks for
external libraries.


File: python.info,  Node: Open Issues,  Prev: Heap Types<2>,  Up: Isolating Extension Modules

9.19.5 Open Issues
------------------

Several issues around per-module state and heap types are still open.

Discussions about improving the situation are best held on the discuss
forum under c-api tag(1).

* Menu:

* Per-Class Scope::
* Lossless Conversion to Heap Types::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://discuss.python.org/c/core-dev/c-api/30


File: python.info,  Node: Per-Class Scope,  Next: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types,  Up: Open Issues

9.19.5.1 Per-Class Scope
........................

It is currently (as of Python 3.11) not possible to attach state to
individual 'types' without relying on CPython implementation details
(which may change in the future—perhaps, ironically, to allow a proper
solution for per-class scope).


File: python.info,  Node: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types,  Prev: Per-Class Scope,  Up: Open Issues

9.19.5.2 Lossless Conversion to Heap Types
..........................................

The heap type API was not designed for «lossless» conversion from static
types; that is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static
type.


File: python.info,  Node: timer file descriptor HOWTO,  Next: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order,  Prev: Isolating Extension Modules,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.20 timer file descriptor HOWTO
================================


Release: 1.13

This HOWTO discusses Python’s support for the linux timer file
descriptor.

* Menu:

* Examples: Examples<35>.


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<35>,  Up: timer file descriptor HOWTO

9.20.1 Examples
---------------

The following example shows how to use a timer file descriptor to
execute a function twice a second:

     # Practical scripts should use really use a non-blocking timer,
     # we use a blocking timer here for simplicity.
     import os, time

     # Create the timer file descriptor
     fd = os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME)

     # Start the timer in 1 second, with an interval of half a second
     os.timerfd_settime(fd, initial=1, interval=0.5)

     try:
         # Process timer events four times.
         for _ in range(4):
             # read() will block until the timer expires
             _ = os.read(fd, 8)
             print("Timer expired")
     finally:
         # Remember to close the timer file descriptor!
         os.close(fd)

To avoid the precision loss caused by the *note float: 327. type, timer
file descriptors allow specifying initial expiration and interval in
integer nanoseconds with ‘_ns’ variants of the functions.

This example shows how *note epoll(): 133d. can be used with timer file
descriptors to wait until the file descriptor is ready for reading:

     import os, time, select, socket, sys

     # Create an epoll object
     ep = select.epoll()

     # In this example, use loopback address to send "stop" command to the server.
     #
     # $ telnet 127.0.0.1 1234
     # Trying 127.0.0.1...
     # Connected to 127.0.0.1.
     # Escape character is '^]'.
     # stop
     # Connection closed by foreign host.
     #
     sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     sock.bind(("127.0.0.1", 1234))
     sock.setblocking(False)
     sock.listen(1)
     ep.register(sock, select.EPOLLIN)

     # Create timer file descriptors in non-blocking mode.
     num = 3
     fds = []
     for _ in range(num):
         fd = os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME, flags=os.TFD_NONBLOCK)
         fds.append(fd)
         # Register the timer file descriptor for read events
         ep.register(fd, select.EPOLLIN)

     # Start the timer with os.timerfd_settime_ns() in nanoseconds.
     # Timer 1 fires every 0.25 seconds; timer 2 every 0.5 seconds; etc
     for i, fd in enumerate(fds, start=1):
         one_sec_in_nsec = 10**9
         i = i * one_sec_in_nsec
         os.timerfd_settime_ns(fd, initial=i//4, interval=i//4)

     timeout = 3
     try:
         conn = None
         is_active = True
         while is_active:
             # Wait for the timer to expire for 3 seconds.
             # epoll.poll() returns a list of (fd, event) pairs.
             # fd is a file descriptor.
             # sock and conn[=returned value of socket.accept()] are socket objects, not file descriptors.
             # So use sock.fileno() and conn.fileno() to get the file descriptors.
             events = ep.poll(timeout)

             # If more than one timer file descriptors are ready for reading at once,
             # epoll.poll() returns a list of (fd, event) pairs.
             #
             # In this example settings,
             #    1st timer fires every 0.25 seconds in 0.25 seconds. (0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, ...)
             #    2nd timer every 0.5 seconds in 0.5 seconds. (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, ...)
             #    3rd timer every 0.75 seconds in 0.75 seconds. (0.75, 1.5, 2.25, 3.0, ...)
             #
             #    In 0.25 seconds, only 1st timer fires.
             #    In 0.5 seconds, 1st timer and 2nd timer fires at once.
             #    In 0.75 seconds, 1st timer and 3rd timer fires at once.
             #    In 1.5 seconds, 1st timer, 2nd timer and 3rd timer fires at once.
             #
             # If a timer file descriptor is signaled more than once since
             # the last os.read() call, os.read() returns the number of signaled
             # as host order of class bytes.
             print(f"Signaled events={events}")
             for fd, event in events:
                 if event & select.EPOLLIN:
                     if fd == sock.fileno():
                         # Check if there is a connection request.
                         print(f"Accepting connection {fd}")
                         conn, addr = sock.accept()
                         conn.setblocking(False)
                         print(f"Accepted connection {conn} from {addr}")
                         ep.register(conn, select.EPOLLIN)
                     elif conn and fd == conn.fileno():
                         # Check if there is data to read.
                         print(f"Reading data {fd}")
                         data = conn.recv(1024)
                         if data:
                             # You should catch UnicodeDecodeError exception for safety.
                             cmd = data.decode()
                             if cmd.startswith("stop"):
                                 print(f"Stopping server")
                                 is_active = False
                             else:
                                 print(f"Unknown command: {cmd}")
                         else:
                             # No more data, close connection
                             print(f"Closing connection {fd}")
                             ep.unregister(conn)
                             conn.close()
                             conn = None
                     elif fd in fds:
                         print(f"Reading timer {fd}")
                         count = int.from_bytes(os.read(fd, 8), byteorder=sys.byteorder)
                         print(f"Timer {fds.index(fd) + 1} expired {count} times")
                     else:
                         print(f"Unknown file descriptor {fd}")
     finally:
         for fd in fds:
             ep.unregister(fd)
             os.close(fd)
         ep.close()

This example shows how *note select(): 1159. can be used with timer file
descriptors to wait until the file descriptor is ready for reading:

     import os, time, select, socket, sys

     # In this example, use loopback address to send "stop" command to the server.
     #
     # $ telnet 127.0.0.1 1234
     # Trying 127.0.0.1...
     # Connected to 127.0.0.1.
     # Escape character is '^]'.
     # stop
     # Connection closed by foreign host.
     #
     sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
     sock.bind(("127.0.0.1", 1234))
     sock.setblocking(False)
     sock.listen(1)

     # Create timer file descriptors in non-blocking mode.
     num = 3
     fds = [os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME, flags=os.TFD_NONBLOCK)
            for _ in range(num)]
     select_fds = fds + [sock]

     # Start the timers with os.timerfd_settime() in seconds.
     # Timer 1 fires every 0.25 seconds; timer 2 every 0.5 seconds; etc
     for i, fd in enumerate(fds, start=1):
        os.timerfd_settime(fd, initial=i/4, interval=i/4)

     timeout = 3
     try:
         conn = None
         is_active = True
         while is_active:
            # Wait for the timer to expire for 3 seconds.
            # select.select() returns a list of file descriptors or objects.
            rfd, wfd, xfd = select.select(select_fds, select_fds, select_fds, timeout)
            for fd in rfd:
                if fd == sock:
                    # Check if there is a connection request.
                    print(f"Accepting connection {fd}")
                    conn, addr = sock.accept()
                    conn.setblocking(False)
                    print(f"Accepted connection {conn} from {addr}")
                    select_fds.append(conn)
                elif conn and fd == conn:
                    # Check if there is data to read.
                    print(f"Reading data {fd}")
                    data = conn.recv(1024)
                    if data:
                        # You should catch UnicodeDecodeError exception for safety.
                        cmd = data.decode()
                        if cmd.startswith("stop"):
                            print(f"Stopping server")
                            is_active = False
                        else:
                            print(f"Unknown command: {cmd}")
                    else:
                        # No more data, close connection
                        print(f"Closing connection {fd}")
                        select_fds.remove(conn)
                        conn.close()
                        conn = None
                elif fd in fds:
                    print(f"Reading timer {fd}")
                    count = int.from_bytes(os.read(fd, 8), byteorder=sys.byteorder)
                    print(f"Timer {fds.index(fd) + 1} expired {count} times")
                else:
                    print(f"Unknown file descriptor {fd}")
     finally:
         for fd in fds:
            os.close(fd)
         sock.close()
         sock = None


File: python.info,  Node: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order,  Next: Python support for free threading,  Prev: timer file descriptor HOWTO,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.21 The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order
===========================================

     Σημείωση: This is a historical document, provided as an appendix to
     the official documentation.  The Method Resolution Order discussed
     here was 'introduced' in Python 2.3, but it is still used in later
     versions – including Python 3.

By Michele Simionato(1).


Abstract: 'This document is intended for Python programmers who want to
understand the C3 Method Resolution Order used in Python 2.3.  Although
it is not intended for newbies, it is quite pedagogical with many worked
out examples.  I am not aware of other publicly available documents with
the same scope, therefore it should be useful.'

Disclaimer:

     'I donate this document to the Python Software Foundation, under
     the Python 2.3 license.  As usual in these circumstances, I warn
     the reader that what follows' should 'be correct, but I don’t give
     any warranty.  Use it at your own risk and peril!'

Acknowledgments:

     'All the people of the Python mailing list who sent me their
     support.  Paul Foley who pointed out various imprecisions and made
     me to add the part on local precedence ordering.  David Goodger for
     help with the formatting in reStructuredText.  David Mertz for help
     with the editing.  Finally, Guido van Rossum who enthusiastically
     added this document to the official Python 2.3 home-page.'

* Menu:

* The beginning::
* The C3 Method Resolution Order::
* Examples: Examples<36>.
* Bad Method Resolution Orders::
* The end::
* Resources::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~micheles/


File: python.info,  Node: The beginning,  Next: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.21.1 The beginning
--------------------

     'Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas' – Virgilius

Everything started with a post by Samuele Pedroni to the Python
development mailing list (1).  In his post, Samuele showed that the
Python 2.2 method resolution order is not monotonic and he proposed to
replace it with the C3 method resolution order.  Guido agreed with his
arguments and therefore now Python 2.3 uses C3.  The C3 method itself
has nothing to do with Python, since it was invented by people working
on Dylan and it is described in a paper intended for lispers (2).  The
present paper gives a (hopefully) readable discussion of the C3
algorithm for Pythonistas who want to understand the reasons for the
change.

First of all, let me point out that what I am going to say only applies
to the 'new style classes' introduced in Python 2.2: 'classic classes'
maintain their old method resolution order, depth first and then left to
right.  Therefore, there is no breaking of old code for classic classes;
and even if in principle there could be breaking of code for Python 2.2
new style classes, in practice the cases in which the C3 resolution
order differs from the Python 2.2 method resolution order are so rare
that no real breaking of code is expected.  Therefore:

     'Don’t be scared!'

Moreover, unless you make strong use of multiple inheritance and you
have non-trivial hierarchies, you don’t need to understand the C3
algorithm, and you can easily skip this paper.  On the other hand, if
you really want to know how multiple inheritance works, then this paper
is for you.  The good news is that things are not as complicated as you
might expect.

Let me begin with some basic definitions.

  1. Given a class C in a complicated multiple inheritance hierarchy, it
     is a non-trivial task to specify the order in which methods are
     overridden, i.e.  to specify the order of the ancestors of C.

  2. The list of the ancestors of a class C, including the class itself,
     ordered from the nearest ancestor to the furthest, is called the
     class precedence list or the 'linearization' of C.

  3. The 'Method Resolution Order' (MRO) is the set of rules that
     construct the linearization.  In the Python literature, the idiom
     «the MRO of C» is also used as a synonymous for the linearization
     of the class C.

  4. For instance, in the case of single inheritance hierarchy, if C is
     a subclass of C1, and C1 is a subclass of C2, then the
     linearization of C is simply the list [C, C1 , C2].  However, with
     multiple inheritance hierarchies, the construction of the
     linearization is more cumbersome, since it is more difficult to
     construct a linearization that respects 'local precedence ordering'
     and 'monotonicity'.

  5. I will discuss the local precedence ordering later, but I can give
     the definition of monotonicity here.  A MRO is monotonic when the
     following is true: 'if C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of C,
     then C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of any subclass of C'.
     Otherwise, the innocuous operation of deriving a new class could
     change the resolution order of methods, potentially introducing
     very subtle bugs.  Examples where this happens will be shown later.

  6. Not all classes admit a linearization.  There are cases, in
     complicated hierarchies, where it is not possible to derive a class
     such that its linearization respects all the desired properties.

Here I give an example of this situation.  Consider the hierarchy

     >>> O = object
     >>> class X(O): pass
     >>> class Y(O): pass
     >>> class A(X,Y): pass
     >>> class B(Y,X): pass

which can be represented with the following inheritance graph, where I
have denoted with O the ‘object’ class, which is the beginning of any
hierarchy for new style classes:

           -----------
          |           |
          |    O      |
          |  /   \    |
           - X    Y  /
             |  / | /
             | /  |/
             A    B
             \   /
               ?

In this case, it is not possible to derive a new class C from A and B,
since X precedes Y in A, but Y precedes X in B, therefore the method
resolution order would be ambiguous in C.

Python 2.3 raises an exception in this situation (TypeError: MRO
conflict among bases Y, X) forbidding the naive programmer from creating
ambiguous hierarchies.  Python 2.2 instead does not raise an exception,
but chooses an 'ad hoc' ordering (CABXYO in this case).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) The thread on python-dev started by Samuele Pedroni:
‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html’

   (2) The paper 'A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan':
‘https://doi.org/10.1145/236337.236343’


File: python.info,  Node: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Next: Examples<36>,  Prev: The beginning,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.21.2 The C3 Method Resolution Order
-------------------------------------

Let me introduce a few simple notations which will be useful for the
following discussion.  I will use the shortcut notation:

     C1 C2 ... CN

to indicate the list of classes [C1, C2, … , CN].

The 'head' of the list is its first element:

     head = C1

whereas the 'tail' is the rest of the list:

     tail = C2 ... CN.

I shall also use the notation:

     C + (C1 C2 ... CN) = C C1 C2 ... CN

to denote the sum of the lists [C] + [C1, C2, … ,CN].

Now I can explain how the MRO works in Python 2.3.

Consider a class C in a multiple inheritance hierarchy, with C
inheriting from the base classes B1, B2, … , BN. We want to compute the
linearization L[C] of the class C. The rule is the following:

     'the linearization of C is the sum of C plus the merge of the
     linearizations of the parents and the list of the parents.'

In symbolic notation:

     L[C(B1 ... BN)] = C + merge(L[B1] ... L[BN], B1 ... BN)

In particular, if C is the ‘object’ class, which has no parents, the
linearization is trivial:

     L[object] = object.

However, in general one has to compute the merge according to the
following prescription:

     'take the head of the first list, i.e L[B1][0]; if this head is not
     in the tail of any of the other lists, then add it to the
     linearization of C and remove it from the lists in the merge,
     otherwise look at the head of the next list and take it, if it is a
     good head.  Then repeat the operation until all the class are
     removed or it is impossible to find good heads.  In this case, it
     is impossible to construct the merge, Python 2.3 will refuse to
     create the class C and will raise an exception.'

This prescription ensures that the merge operation 'preserves' the
ordering, if the ordering can be preserved.  On the other hand, if the
order cannot be preserved (as in the example of serious order
disagreement discussed above) then the merge cannot be computed.

The computation of the merge is trivial if C has only one parent (single
inheritance); in this case:

     L[C(B)] = C + merge(L[B],B) = C + L[B]

However, in the case of multiple inheritance things are more cumbersome
and I don’t expect you can understand the rule without a couple of
examples ;-)


File: python.info,  Node: Examples<36>,  Next: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Prev: The C3 Method Resolution Order,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.21.3 Examples
---------------

First example.  Consider the following hierarchy:

     >>> O = object
     >>> class F(O): pass
     >>> class E(O): pass
     >>> class D(O): pass
     >>> class C(D,F): pass
     >>> class B(D,E): pass
     >>> class A(B,C): pass

In this case the inheritance graph can be drawn as:

                                    6
                                   ---
          Level 3                 | O |                  (more general)
                                /  ---  \
                               /    |    \                      |
                              /     |     \                     |
                             /      |      \                    |
                            ---    ---    ---                   |
          Level 2        3 | D | 4| E |  | F | 5                |
                            ---    ---    ---                   |
                             \  \ _ /       |                   |
                              \    / \ _    |                   |
                               \  /      \  |                   |
                                ---      ---                    |
          Level 1            1 | B |    | C | 2                 |
                                ---      ---                    |
                                  \      /                      |
                                   \    /                      \ /
                                     ---
          Level 0                 0 | A |                (more specialized)
                                     ---

The linearizations of O,D,E and F are trivial:

     L[O] = O
     L[D] = D O
     L[E] = E O
     L[F] = F O

The linearization of B can be computed as:

     L[B] = B + merge(DO, EO, DE)

We see that D is a good head, therefore we take it and we are reduced to
compute ‘merge(O,EO,E)’.  Now O is not a good head, since it is in the
tail of the sequence EO. In this case the rule says that we have to skip
to the next sequence.  Then we see that E is a good head; we take it and
we are reduced to compute ‘merge(O,O)’ which gives O. Therefore:

     L[B] =  B D E O

Using the same procedure one finds:

     L[C] = C + merge(DO,FO,DF)
          = C + D + merge(O,FO,F)
          = C + D + F + merge(O,O)
          = C D F O

Now we can compute:

     L[A] = A + merge(BDEO,CDFO,BC)
          = A + B + merge(DEO,CDFO,C)
          = A + B + C + merge(DEO,DFO)
          = A + B + C + D + merge(EO,FO)
          = A + B + C + D + E + merge(O,FO)
          = A + B + C + D + E + F + merge(O,O)
          = A B C D E F O

In this example, the linearization is ordered in a pretty nice way
according to the inheritance level, in the sense that lower levels (i.e.
more specialized classes) have higher precedence (see the inheritance
graph).  However, this is not the general case.

I leave as an exercise for the reader to compute the linearization for
my second example:

     >>> O = object
     >>> class F(O): pass
     >>> class E(O): pass
     >>> class D(O): pass
     >>> class C(D,F): pass
     >>> class B(E,D): pass
     >>> class A(B,C): pass

The only difference with the previous example is the change B(D,E) –>
B(E,D); however even such a little modification completely changes the
ordering of the hierarchy:

                                     6
                                    ---
          Level 3                  | O |
                                 /  ---  \
                                /    |    \
                               /     |     \
                              /      |      \
                            ---     ---    ---
          Level 2        2 | E | 4 | D |  | F | 5
                            ---     ---    ---
                             \      / \     /
                              \    /   \   /
                               \  /     \ /
                                ---     ---
          Level 1            1 | B |   | C | 3
                                ---     ---
                                 \       /
                                  \     /
                                    ---
          Level 0                0 | A |
                                    ---

Notice that the class E, which is in the second level of the hierarchy,
precedes the class C, which is in the first level of the hierarchy, i.e.
E is more specialized than C, even if it is in a higher level.

A lazy programmer can obtain the MRO directly from Python 2.2, since in
this case it coincides with the Python 2.3 linearization.  It is enough
to invoke the *note mro(): 256b. method of class A:

     >>> A.mro()
     [<class 'A'>, <class 'B'>, <class 'E'>,
     <class 'C'>, <class 'D'>, <class 'F'>,
     <class 'object'>]

Finally, let me consider the example discussed in the first section,
involving a serious order disagreement.  In this case, it is
straightforward to compute the linearizations of O, X, Y, A and B:

          L[O] = 0
          L[X] = X O
          L[Y] = Y O
          L[A] = A X Y O
          L[B] = B Y X O

However, it is impossible to compute the linearization for a class C
that inherits from A and B:

     L[C] = C + merge(AXYO, BYXO, AB)
          = C + A + merge(XYO, BYXO, B)
          = C + A + B + merge(XYO, YXO)

At this point we cannot merge the lists XYO and YXO, since X is in the
tail of YXO whereas Y is in the tail of XYO: therefore there are no good
heads and the C3 algorithm stops.  Python 2.3 raises an error and
refuses to create the class C.


File: python.info,  Node: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Next: The end,  Prev: Examples<36>,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.21.4 Bad Method Resolution Orders
-----------------------------------

A MRO is 'bad' when it breaks such fundamental properties as local
precedence ordering and monotonicity.  In this section, I will show that
both the MRO for classic classes and the MRO for new style classes in
Python 2.2 are bad.

It is easier to start with the local precedence ordering.  Consider the
following example:

     >>> F=type('Food',(),{'remember2buy':'spam'})
     >>> E=type('Eggs',(F,),{'remember2buy':'eggs'})
     >>> G=type('GoodFood',(F,E),{}) # under Python 2.3 this is an error!

with inheritance diagram

                       O
                       |
          (buy spam)   F
                       | \
                       | E   (buy eggs)
                       | /
                       G

                (buy eggs or spam ?)

We see that class G inherits from F and E, with F 'before' E: therefore
we would expect the attribute 'G.remember2buy' to be inherited by
'F.remember2buy' and not by 'E.remember2buy': nevertheless Python 2.2
gives

     >>> G.remember2buy
     'eggs'

This is a breaking of local precedence ordering since the order in the
local precedence list, i.e.  the list of the parents of G, is not
preserved in the Python 2.2 linearization of G:

     L[G,P22]= G E F object   # F *follows* E

One could argue that the reason why F follows E in the Python 2.2
linearization is that F is less specialized than E, since F is the
superclass of E; nevertheless the breaking of local precedence ordering
is quite non-intuitive and error prone.  This is particularly true since
it is a different from old style classes:

     >>> class F: remember2buy='spam'
     >>> class E(F): remember2buy='eggs'
     >>> class G(F,E): pass
     >>> G.remember2buy
     'spam'

In this case the MRO is GFEF and the local precedence ordering is
preserved.

As a general rule, hierarchies such as the previous one should be
avoided, since it is unclear if F should override E or vice-versa.
Python 2.3 solves the ambiguity by raising an exception in the creation
of class G, effectively stopping the programmer from generating
ambiguous hierarchies.  The reason for that is that the C3 algorithm
fails when the merge:

     merge(FO,EFO,FE)

cannot be computed, because F is in the tail of EFO and E is in the tail
of FE.

The real solution is to design a non-ambiguous hierarchy, i.e.  to
derive G from E and F (the more specific first) and not from F and E; in
this case the MRO is GEF without any doubt.

                     O
                     |
                     F (spam)
                   / |
          (eggs)   E |
                   \ |
                     G
                       (eggs, no doubt)

Python 2.3 forces the programmer to write good hierarchies (or, at
least, less error-prone ones).

On a related note, let me point out that the Python 2.3 algorithm is
smart enough to recognize obvious mistakes, as the duplication of
classes in the list of parents:

     >>> class A(object): pass
     >>> class C(A,A): pass # error
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in ?
     TypeError: duplicate base class A

Python 2.2 (both for classic classes and new style classes) in this
situation, would not raise any exception.

Finally, I would like to point out two lessons we have learned from this
example:

  1. despite the name, the MRO determines the resolution order of
     attributes, not only of methods;

  2. the default food for Pythonistas is spam !  (but you already knew
     that ;-)

Having discussed the issue of local precedence ordering, let me now
consider the issue of monotonicity.  My goal is to show that neither the
MRO for classic classes nor that for Python 2.2 new style classes is
monotonic.

To prove that the MRO for classic classes is non-monotonic is rather
trivial, it is enough to look at the diamond diagram:

             C
            / \
           /   \
          A     B
           \   /
            \ /
             D

One easily discerns the inconsistency:

     L[B,P21] = B C        # B precedes C : B's methods win
     L[D,P21] = D A C B C  # B follows C  : C's methods win!

On the other hand, there are no problems with the Python 2.2 and 2.3
MROs, they give both:

     L[D] = D A B C

Guido points out in his essay (1) that the classic MRO is not so bad in
practice, since one can typically avoids diamonds for classic classes.
But all new style classes inherit from ‘object’, therefore diamonds are
unavoidable and inconsistencies shows up in every multiple inheritance
graph.

The MRO of Python 2.2 makes breaking monotonicity difficult, but not
impossible.  The following example, originally provided by Samuele
Pedroni, shows that the MRO of Python 2.2 is non-monotonic:

     >>> class A(object): pass
     >>> class B(object): pass
     >>> class C(object): pass
     >>> class D(object): pass
     >>> class E(object): pass
     >>> class K1(A,B,C): pass
     >>> class K2(D,B,E): pass
     >>> class K3(D,A):   pass
     >>> class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass

Here are the linearizations according to the C3 MRO (the reader should
verify these linearizations as an exercise and draw the inheritance
diagram ;-)

     L[A] = A O
     L[B] = B O
     L[C] = C O
     L[D] = D O
     L[E] = E O
     L[K1]= K1 A B C O
     L[K2]= K2 D B E O
     L[K3]= K3 D A O
     L[Z] = Z K1 K2 K3 D A B C E O

Python 2.2 gives exactly the same linearizations for A, B, C, D, E, K1,
K2 and K3, but a different linearization for Z:

     L[Z,P22] = Z K1 K3 A K2 D B C E O

It is clear that this linearization is 'wrong', since A comes before D
whereas in the linearization of K3 A comes 'after' D. In other words, in
K3 methods derived by D override methods derived by A, but in Z, which
still is a subclass of K3, methods derived by A override methods derived
by D! This is a violation of monotonicity.  Moreover, the Python 2.2
linearization of Z is also inconsistent with local precedence ordering,
since the local precedence list of the class Z is [K1, K2, K3] (K2
precedes K3), whereas in the linearization of Z K2 'follows' K3.  These
problems explain why the 2.2 rule has been dismissed in favor of the C3
rule.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) Guido van Rossum’s essay, 'Unifying types and classes in Python
2.2':
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20140210194412/http://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.2/descrintro’


File: python.info,  Node: The end,  Next: Resources,  Prev: Bad Method Resolution Orders,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.21.5 The end
--------------

This section is for the impatient reader, who skipped all the previous
sections and jumped immediately to the end.  This section is for the
lazy programmer too, who didn’t want to exercise her/his brain.
Finally, it is for the programmer with some hubris, otherwise s/he would
not be reading a paper on the C3 method resolution order in multiple
inheritance hierarchies ;-) These three virtues taken all together (and
'not' separately) deserve a prize: the prize is a short Python 2.2
script that allows you to compute the 2.3 MRO without risk to your
brain.  Simply change the last line to play with the various examples I
have discussed in this paper.:

     #<mro.py>

     """C3 algorithm by Samuele Pedroni (with readability enhanced by me)."""

     class __metaclass__(type):
         "All classes are metamagically modified to be nicely printed"
         __repr__ = lambda cls: cls.__name__

     class ex_2:
         "Serious order disagreement" #From Guido
         class O: pass
         class X(O): pass
         class Y(O): pass
         class A(X,Y): pass
         class B(Y,X): pass
         try:
             class Z(A,B): pass #creates Z(A,B) in Python 2.2
         except TypeError:
             pass # Z(A,B) cannot be created in Python 2.3

     class ex_5:
         "My first example"
         class O: pass
         class F(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class C(D,F): pass
         class B(D,E): pass
         class A(B,C): pass

     class ex_6:
         "My second example"
         class O: pass
         class F(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class C(D,F): pass
         class B(E,D): pass
         class A(B,C): pass

     class ex_9:
         "Difference between Python 2.2 MRO and C3" #From Samuele
         class O: pass
         class A(O): pass
         class B(O): pass
         class C(O): pass
         class D(O): pass
         class E(O): pass
         class K1(A,B,C): pass
         class K2(D,B,E): pass
         class K3(D,A): pass
         class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass

     def merge(seqs):
         print '\n\nCPL[%s]=%s' % (seqs[0][0],seqs),
         res = []; i=0
         while 1:
           nonemptyseqs=[seq for seq in seqs if seq]
           if not nonemptyseqs: return res
           i+=1; print '\n',i,'round: candidates...',
           for seq in nonemptyseqs: # find merge candidates among seq heads
               cand = seq[0]; print ' ',cand,
               nothead=[s for s in nonemptyseqs if cand in s[1:]]
               if nothead: cand=None #reject candidate
               else: break
           if not cand: raise "Inconsistent hierarchy"
           res.append(cand)
           for seq in nonemptyseqs: # remove cand
               if seq[0] == cand: del seq[0]

     def mro(C):
         "Compute the class precedence list (mro) according to C3"
         return merge([[C]]+map(mro,C.__bases__)+[list(C.__bases__)])

     def print_mro(C):
         print '\nMRO[%s]=%s' % (C,mro(C))
         print '\nP22 MRO[%s]=%s' % (C,C.mro())

     print_mro(ex_9.Z)

     #</mro.py>

That’s all folks,

     enjoy !


File: python.info,  Node: Resources,  Prev: The end,  Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order

9.21.6 Resources
----------------


File: python.info,  Node: Python support for free threading,  Next: C API Extension Support for Free Threading,  Prev: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.22 Python support for free threading
======================================

Starting with the 3.13 release, CPython has support for a build of
Python called *note free threading: 487. where the *note global
interpreter lock: 685. (GIL) is disabled.  Free-threaded execution
allows for full utilization of the available processing power by running
threads in parallel on available CPU cores.  While not all software will
benefit from this automatically, programs designed with threading in
mind will run faster on multi-core hardware.

Some third-party packages, in particular ones with an *note extension
module: 2442, may not be ready for use in a free-threaded build, and
will re-enable the *note GIL: 411.

This document describes the implications of free threading for Python
code.  See *note C API Extension Support for Free Threading: 5c14. for
information on how to write C extensions that support the free-threaded
build.

Δείτε επίσης
............

PEP 703(1) – Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython for
an overall description of free-threaded Python.

* Menu:

* Installation::
* Identifying free-threaded Python::
* The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python::
* Thread safety::
* Known limitations::
* Behavioral changes::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/


File: python.info,  Node: Installation,  Next: Identifying free-threaded Python,  Up: Python support for free threading

9.22.1 Installation
-------------------

Starting with Python 3.13, the official macOS and Windows installers
optionally support installing free-threaded Python binaries.  The
installers are available at ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’.

For information on other platforms, see the Installing a Free-Threaded
Python(1), a community-maintained installation guide for installing
free-threaded Python.

When building CPython from source, the *note -disable-gil: 6a5.
configure option should be used to build a free-threaded Python
interpreter.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://py-free-threading.github.io/installing-cpython/


File: python.info,  Node: Identifying free-threaded Python,  Next: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python,  Prev: Installation,  Up: Python support for free threading

9.22.2 Identifying free-threaded Python
---------------------------------------

To check if the current interpreter supports free-threading, *note
python -VV: 6a7. and *note sys.version: 6a8. contain «free-threading
build».  The new *note sys._is_gil_enabled(): 4c09. function can be used
to check whether the GIL is actually disabled in the running process.

The ‘sysconfig.get_config_var("Py_GIL_DISABLED")’ configuration variable
can be used to determine whether the build supports free threading.  If
the variable is set to ‘1’, then the build supports free threading.
This is the recommended mechanism for decisions related to the build
configuration.


File: python.info,  Node: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python,  Next: Thread safety,  Prev: Identifying free-threaded Python,  Up: Python support for free threading

9.22.3 The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python
----------------------------------------------------------

Free-threaded builds of CPython support optionally running with the GIL
enabled at runtime using the environment variable *note PYTHON_GIL: 6a6.
or the command-line option *note -X gil: 178.

The GIL may also automatically be enabled when importing a C-API
extension module that is not explicitly marked as supporting free
threading.  A warning will be printed in this case.

In addition to individual package documentation, the following websites
track the status of popular packages support for free threading:

   * ‘https://py-free-threading.github.io/tracking/’

   * ‘https://hugovk.github.io/free-threaded-wheels/’


File: python.info,  Node: Thread safety,  Next: Known limitations,  Prev: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python,  Up: Python support for free threading

9.22.4 Thread safety
--------------------

The free-threaded build of CPython aims to provide similar thread-safety
behavior at the Python level to the default GIL-enabled build.  Built-in
types like *note dict: 188, *note list: 4d9, and *note set: 42b. use
internal locks to protect against concurrent modifications in ways that
behave similarly to the GIL. However, Python has not historically
guaranteed specific behavior for concurrent modifications to these
built-in types, so this should be treated as a description of the
current implementation, not a guarantee of current or future behavior.

     Σημείωση: It’s recommended to use the *note threading.Lock: 1a10.
     or other synchronization primitives instead of relying on the
     internal locks of built-in types, when possible.


File: python.info,  Node: Known limitations,  Next: Behavioral changes,  Prev: Thread safety,  Up: Python support for free threading

9.22.5 Known limitations
------------------------

This section describes known limitations of the free-threaded CPython
build.

* Menu:

* Immortalization::
* Frame objects: Frame objects<2>.
* Iterators: Iterators<2>.
* Single-threaded performance::


File: python.info,  Node: Immortalization,  Next: Frame objects<2>,  Up: Known limitations

9.22.5.1 Immortalization
........................

In the free-threaded build, some objects are *note immortal: 398.
Immortal objects are not deallocated and have reference counts that are
never modified.  This is done to avoid reference count contention that
would prevent efficient multi-threaded scaling.

As of the 3.14 release, immortalization is limited to:

   * Code constants: numeric literals, string literals, and tuple
     literals composed of other constants.

   * Strings interned by *note sys.intern(): 1680.


File: python.info,  Node: Frame objects<2>,  Next: Iterators<2>,  Prev: Immortalization,  Up: Known limitations

9.22.5.2 Frame objects
......................

It is not safe to access *note frame.f_locals: 28d. from a *note frame:
acd. object if that frame is currently executing in another thread, and
doing so may crash the interpreter.


File: python.info,  Node: Iterators<2>,  Next: Single-threaded performance,  Prev: Frame objects<2>,  Up: Known limitations

9.22.5.3 Iterators
..................

It is generally not thread-safe to access the same iterator object from
multiple threads concurrently, and threads may see duplicate or missing
elements.


File: python.info,  Node: Single-threaded performance,  Prev: Iterators<2>,  Up: Known limitations

9.22.5.4 Single-threaded performance
....................................

The free-threaded build has additional overhead when executing Python
code compared to the default GIL-enabled build.  The amount of overhead
depends on the workload and hardware.  On the pyperformance benchmark
suite, the average overhead ranges from about 1% on macOS aarch64 to 8%
on x86-64 Linux systems.


File: python.info,  Node: Behavioral changes,  Prev: Known limitations,  Up: Python support for free threading

9.22.6 Behavioral changes
-------------------------

This section describes CPython behavioural changes with the
free-threaded build.

* Menu:

* Context variables::
* Warning filters::


File: python.info,  Node: Context variables,  Next: Warning filters,  Up: Behavioral changes

9.22.6.1 Context variables
..........................

In the free-threaded build, the flag *note thread_inherit_context: 41f.
is set to true by default which causes threads created with *note
threading.Thread: 420. to start with a copy of the *note Context(): 421.
of the caller of *note start(): 422.  In the default GIL-enabled build,
the flag defaults to false so threads start with an empty ‘Context()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Warning filters,  Prev: Context variables,  Up: Behavioral changes

9.22.6.2 Warning filters
........................

In the free-threaded build, the flag *note context_aware_warnings: 42f.
is set to true by default.  In the default GIL-enabled build, the flag
defaults to false.  If the flag is true then the *note
warnings.catch_warnings: 423. context manager uses a context variable
for warning filters.  If the flag is false then ‘catch_warnings’
modifies the global filters list, which is not thread-safe.  See the
*note warnings: 11b. module for more details.


File: python.info,  Node: C API Extension Support for Free Threading,  Next: Remote debugging attachment protocol,  Prev: Python support for free threading,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.23 C API Extension Support for Free Threading
===============================================

Starting with the 3.13 release, CPython has support for running with the
*note global interpreter lock: 685. (GIL) disabled in a configuration
called *note free threading: 487.  This document describes how to adapt
C API extensions to support free threading.

* Menu:

* Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C::
* Module Initialization::
* General API Guidelines::
* Borrowed References::
* Memory Allocation APIs::
* Thread State and GIL APIs::
* Protecting Internal Extension State::
* Critical Sections::
* Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build::


File: python.info,  Node: Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C,  Next: Module Initialization,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.1 Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C
-----------------------------------------------

The CPython C API exposes the ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’ macro: in the
free-threaded build it’s defined to ‘1’, and in the regular build it’s
not defined.  You can use it to enable code that only runs under the
free-threaded build:

     #ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED
     /* code that only runs in the free-threaded build */
     #endif

     Σημείωση: On Windows, this macro is not defined automatically, but
     must be specified to the compiler when building.  The *note
     sysconfig.get_config_var(): 41e. function can be used to determine
     whether the current running interpreter had the macro defined.


File: python.info,  Node: Module Initialization,  Next: General API Guidelines,  Prev: Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.2 Module Initialization
----------------------------

Extension modules need to explicitly indicate that they support running
with the GIL disabled; otherwise importing the extension will raise a
warning and enable the GIL at runtime.

There are two ways to indicate that an extension module supports running
with the GIL disabled depending on whether the extension uses
multi-phase or single-phase initialization.

* Menu:

* Multi-Phase Initialization::
* Single-Phase Initialization::


File: python.info,  Node: Multi-Phase Initialization,  Next: Single-Phase Initialization,  Up: Module Initialization

9.23.2.1 Multi-Phase Initialization
...................................

Extensions that use *note multi-phase initialization: 555b. (functions
like *note PyModuleDef_Init(): 538c, *note PyModExport_*: 19c. export
hook, *note PyModule_FromSlotsAndSpec(): 38c.) should add a *note
Py_mod_gil: 691. slot in the module definition.  If your extension
supports older versions of CPython, you should guard the slot with a
*note PY_VERSION_HEX: 5af. check.

     static struct PyModuleDef_Slot module_slots[] = {
         ...
     #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030D0000
         {Py_mod_gil, Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED},
     #endif
         {0, NULL}
     };


File: python.info,  Node: Single-Phase Initialization,  Prev: Multi-Phase Initialization,  Up: Module Initialization

9.23.2.2 Single-Phase Initialization
....................................

Extensions that use legacy *note single-phase initialization: 555c.
(that is, *note PyModule_Create(): 5562.) should call *note
PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(): 6a9. to indicate that they support running
with the GIL disabled.  The function is only defined in the
free-threaded build, so you should guard the call with ‘#ifdef
Py_GIL_DISABLED’ to avoid compilation errors in the regular build.

     static struct PyModuleDef moduledef = {
         PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT,
         ...
     };

     PyMODINIT_FUNC
     PyInit_mymodule(void)
     {
         PyObject *m = PyModule_Create(&moduledef);
         if (m == NULL) {
             return NULL;
         }
     #ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED
         PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(m, Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED);
     #endif
         return m;
     }


File: python.info,  Node: General API Guidelines,  Next: Borrowed References,  Prev: Module Initialization,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.3 General API Guidelines
-----------------------------

Most of the C API is thread-safe, but there are some exceptions.

   * 'Struct Fields': Accessing fields in Python C API objects or
     structs directly is not thread-safe if the field may be
     concurrently modified.

   * 'Macros': Accessor macros like *note PyList_GET_ITEM: 5275, *note
     PyList_SET_ITEM: 822, and macros like *note
     PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE: 5f6. that use the object returned by
     *note PySequence_Fast(): 1ac6. do not perform any error checking or
     locking.  These macros are not thread-safe if the container object
     may be modified concurrently.

   * 'Borrowed References': C API functions that return *note borrowed
     references: 603. may not be thread-safe if the containing object is
     modified concurrently.  See the section on *note borrowed
     references: 5c29. for more information.

* Menu:

* Container Thread Safety::


File: python.info,  Node: Container Thread Safety,  Up: General API Guidelines

9.23.3.1 Container Thread Safety
................................

Containers like *note PyListObject: 2929, *note PyDictObject: 83e, and
*note PySetObject: 5728. perform internal locking in the free-threaded
build.  For example, the *note PyList_Append(): 5371. will lock the list
before appending an item.

* Menu:

* PyDict_Next::


File: python.info,  Node: PyDict_Next,  Up: Container Thread Safety

9.23.3.2 ‘PyDict_Next’
......................

A notable exception is *note PyDict_Next(): 1b9c, which does not lock
the dictionary.  You should use *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION: 5469.
to protect the dictionary while iterating over it if the dictionary may
be concurrently modified:

     Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(dict);
     PyObject *key, *value;
     Py_ssize_t pos = 0;
     while (PyDict_Next(dict, &pos, &key, &value)) {
         ...
     }
     Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();


File: python.info,  Node: Borrowed References,  Next: Memory Allocation APIs,  Prev: General API Guidelines,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.4 Borrowed References
--------------------------

Some C API functions return *note borrowed references: 603.  These APIs
are not thread-safe if the containing object is modified concurrently.
For example, it’s not safe to use *note PyList_GetItem(): 7f5. if the
list may be modified concurrently.

The following table lists some borrowed reference APIs and their
replacements that return *note strong references: 7da.

Borrowed reference API                  Strong reference API
                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                        
*note PyList_GetItem(): 7f5.            *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 7f4.
                                        
                                        
*note PyList_GET_ITEM(): 5275.          *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 7f4.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_GetItem(): 81c.            *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 7d8.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 7d9.   *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 7d8.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_GetItemString(): 81d.      *note PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 634.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_SetDefault(): 7dc.         *note PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 7db.
                                        
                                        
*note PyDict_Next(): 1b9c.              none (see *note PyDict_Next: 5c2c.)
                                        
                                        
‘PyWeakref_GetObject()’                 *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 3a4.
                                        
                                        
‘PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT()’                *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 3a4.
                                        
                                        
*note PyImport_AddModule(): 7f2.        *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 7f1.
                                        
                                        
*note PyCell_GET(): 5769.               *note PyCell_Get(): 5768.
                                        

Not all APIs that return borrowed references are problematic.  For
example, *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 51ce. is safe because tuples are
immutable.  Similarly, not all uses of the above APIs are problematic.
For example, *note PyDict_GetItem(): 81c. is often used for parsing
keyword argument dictionaries in function calls; those keyword argument
dictionaries are effectively private (not accessible by other threads),
so using borrowed references in that context is safe.

Some of these functions were added in Python 3.13.  You can use the
pythoncapi-compat(1) package to provide implementations of these
functions for older Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat


File: python.info,  Node: Memory Allocation APIs,  Next: Thread State and GIL APIs,  Prev: Borrowed References,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.5 Memory Allocation APIs
-----------------------------

Python’s memory management C API provides functions in three different
*note allocation domains: 593f.: «raw», «mem», and «object».  For
thread-safety, the free-threaded build requires that only Python objects
are allocated using the object domain, and that all Python objects are
allocated using that domain.  This differs from the prior Python
versions, where this was only a best practice and not a hard
requirement.

     Σημείωση: Search for uses of *note PyObject_Malloc(): 1026. in your
     extension and check that the allocated memory is used for Python
     objects.  Use *note PyMem_Malloc(): 1024. to allocate buffers
     instead of ‘PyObject_Malloc()’.


File: python.info,  Node: Thread State and GIL APIs,  Next: Protecting Internal Extension State,  Prev: Memory Allocation APIs,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.6 Thread State and GIL APIs
--------------------------------

Python provides a set of functions and macros to manage thread state and
the GIL, such as:

   * *note PyThreadState_Ensure(): 53fd, *note
     PyThreadState_EnsureFromView(): 53fe, and *note
     PyThreadState_Release(): 5401.

   * *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 1a5. and *note PyGILState_Release():
     1a6.

   * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 838. and *note PyEval_RestoreThread():
     839.

   * *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 51d4. and *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS:
     e4e.

These functions should still be used in the free-threaded build to
manage thread state even when the *note GIL: 411. is disabled.  For
example, if you create a thread outside of Python, you must call *note
PyThreadState_Ensure(): 53fd. before calling into the Python API to
ensure that the thread has a valid Python thread state.

You should continue to call *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 838. or *note
Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 51d4. around blocking operations, such as I/O or
lock acquisitions, to allow other threads to run the *note cyclic
garbage collector: 19de.


File: python.info,  Node: Protecting Internal Extension State,  Next: Critical Sections,  Prev: Thread State and GIL APIs,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.7 Protecting Internal Extension State
------------------------------------------

Your extension may have internal state that was previously protected by
the GIL. You may need to add locking to protect this state.  The
approach will depend on your extension, but some common patterns
include:

   * 'Caches': global caches are a common source of shared state.
     Consider using a lock to protect the cache or disabling it in the
     free-threaded build if the cache is not critical for performance.

   * 'Global State': global state may need to be protected by a lock or
     moved to thread local storage.  C11 and C++11 provide the
     ‘thread_local’ or ‘_Thread_local’ for thread-local storage(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/language/storage_duration


File: python.info,  Node: Critical Sections,  Next: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build,  Prev: Protecting Internal Extension State,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.8 Critical Sections
------------------------

In the free-threaded build, CPython provides a mechanism called
«critical sections» to protect data that would otherwise be protected by
the GIL. While extension authors may not interact with the internal
critical section implementation directly, understanding their behavior
is crucial when using certain C API functions or managing shared state
in the free-threaded build.

* Menu:

* What Are Critical Sections?::
* Using Critical Sections::
* How Critical Sections Work::
* Deadlock Avoidance::
* Important Considerations::
* Per-Object Locks (ob_mutex): Per-Object Locks ob_mutex.


File: python.info,  Node: What Are Critical Sections?,  Next: Using Critical Sections,  Up: Critical Sections

9.23.8.1 What Are Critical Sections?
....................................

Conceptually, critical sections act as a deadlock avoidance layer built
on top of simple mutexes.  Each thread maintains a stack of active
critical sections.  When a thread needs to acquire a lock associated
with a critical section (e.g., implicitly when calling a thread-safe C
API function like *note PyDict_SetItem(): 51d0, or explicitly using
macros), it attempts to acquire the underlying mutex.


File: python.info,  Node: Using Critical Sections,  Next: How Critical Sections Work,  Prev: What Are Critical Sections?,  Up: Critical Sections

9.23.8.2 Using Critical Sections
................................

The primary APIs for using critical sections are:

   * *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION: 5469. and *note
     Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION: 546d. - For locking a single object

   * *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2: 546a. and *note
     Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION2: 546e. - For locking two objects
     simultaneously

These macros must be used in matching pairs and must appear in the same
C scope, since they establish a new local scope.  These macros are
no-ops in non-free-threaded builds, so they can be safely added to code
that needs to support both build types.

A common use of a critical section would be to lock an object while
accessing an internal attribute of it.  For example, if an extension
type has an internal count field, you could use a critical section while
reading or writing that field:

     // read the count, returns new reference to internal count value
     PyObject *result;
     Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(obj);
     result = Py_NewRef(obj->count);
     Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();
     return result;

     // write the count, consumes reference from new_count
     Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(obj);
     obj->count = new_count;
     Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();


File: python.info,  Node: How Critical Sections Work,  Next: Deadlock Avoidance,  Prev: Using Critical Sections,  Up: Critical Sections

9.23.8.3 How Critical Sections Work
...................................

Unlike traditional locks, critical sections do not guarantee exclusive
access throughout their entire duration.  If a thread would block while
holding a critical section (e.g., by acquiring another lock or
performing I/O), the critical section is temporarily suspended—all locks
are released—and then resumed when the blocking operation completes.

This behavior is similar to what happens with the GIL when a thread
makes a blocking call.  The key differences are:

   * Critical sections operate on a per-object basis rather than
     globally

   * Critical sections follow a stack discipline within each thread (the
     «begin» and «end» macros enforce this since they must be paired and
     within the same scope)

   * Critical sections automatically release and reacquire locks around
     potential blocking operations


File: python.info,  Node: Deadlock Avoidance,  Next: Important Considerations,  Prev: How Critical Sections Work,  Up: Critical Sections

9.23.8.4 Deadlock Avoidance
...........................

Critical sections help avoid deadlocks in two ways:

  1. If a thread tries to acquire a lock that’s already held by another
     thread, it first suspends all of its active critical sections,
     temporarily releasing their locks

  2. When the blocking operation completes, only the top-most critical
     section is reacquired first

This means you cannot rely on nested critical sections to lock multiple
objects at once, as the inner critical section may suspend the outer
ones.  Instead, use *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2: 546a. to lock two
objects simultaneously.

Note that the locks described above are only *note PyMutex: 693. based
locks.  The critical section implementation does not know about or
affect other locking mechanisms that might be in use, like POSIX
mutexes.  Also note that while blocking on any ‘PyMutex’ causes the
critical sections to be suspended, only the mutexes that are part of the
critical sections are released.  If ‘PyMutex’ is used without a critical
section, it will not be released and therefore does not get the same
deadlock avoidance.


File: python.info,  Node: Important Considerations,  Next: Per-Object Locks ob_mutex,  Prev: Deadlock Avoidance,  Up: Critical Sections

9.23.8.5 Important Considerations
.................................

   * Critical sections may temporarily release their locks, allowing
     other threads to modify the protected data.  Be careful about
     making assumptions about the state of the data after operations
     that might block.

   * Because locks can be temporarily released (suspended), entering a
     critical section does not guarantee exclusive access to the
     protected resource throughout the section’s duration.  If code
     within a critical section calls another function that blocks (e.g.,
     acquires another lock, performs blocking I/O), all locks held by
     the thread via critical sections will be released.  This is similar
     to how the GIL can be released during blocking calls.

   * Only the lock(s) associated with the most recently entered
     (top-most) critical section are guaranteed to be held at any given
     time.  Locks for outer, nested critical sections might have been
     suspended.

   * You can lock at most two objects simultaneously with these APIs.
     If you need to lock more objects, you’ll need to restructure your
     code.

   * While critical sections will not deadlock if you attempt to lock
     the same object twice, they are less efficient than purpose-built
     reentrant locks for this use case.

   * When using *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2: 546a, the order of the
     objects doesn’t affect correctness (the implementation handles
     deadlock avoidance), but it’s good practice to always lock objects
     in a consistent order.

   * Remember that the critical section macros are primarily for
     protecting access to 'Python objects' that might be involved in
     internal CPython operations susceptible to the deadlock scenarios
     described above.  For protecting purely internal extension state,
     standard mutexes or other synchronization primitives might be more
     appropriate.


File: python.info,  Node: Per-Object Locks ob_mutex,  Prev: Important Considerations,  Up: Critical Sections

9.23.8.6 Per-Object Locks (‘ob_mutex’)
......................................

In the free-threaded build, each Python object contains a *note
ob_mutex: 597a. field of type *note PyMutex: 693.  This mutex is
'reserved for use by the critical section API' (*note
Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION: 5469. / *note Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION:
546d.).

     Προειδοποίηση: Do 'not' lock ‘ob_mutex’ directly with
     ‘PyMutex_Lock(&obj->ob_mutex)’.  Mixing direct ‘PyMutex_Lock’ calls
     with the critical section API on the same mutex can cause
     deadlocks.

Even if your own code never uses critical sections on a particular
object type, 'CPython internals may use the critical section API on any
Python object'.

If your extension type needs its own lock, add a separate *note PyMutex:
693. field (or another synchronization primitive) to your object struct.
‘PyMutex’ is very lightweight, so there is negligible cost to having an
additional one.


File: python.info,  Node: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build,  Prev: Critical Sections,  Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading

9.23.9 Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build
------------------------------------------------------

C API extensions need to be built specifically for the free-threaded
build.  The wheels, shared libraries, and binaries are indicated by a
‘t’ suffix.

   * pypa/manylinux(1) supports the free-threaded build, with the ‘t’
     suffix, such as ‘python3.14t’.

   * pypa/cibuildwheel(2) supports building wheels for the free-threaded
     build of Python 3.14 and newer.

* Menu:

* Limited C API and Stable ABI::
* Windows: Windows<84>.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/pypa/manylinux

   (2) https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel


File: python.info,  Node: Limited C API and Stable ABI,  Next: Windows<84>,  Up: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build

9.23.9.1 Limited C API and Stable ABI
.....................................

The free-threaded build does not currently support the *note Limited C
API: 829. or the stable ABI. If you use setuptools(1) to build your
extension and currently set ‘py_limited_api=True’ you can use
‘py_limited_api=not sysconfig.get_config_var("Py_GIL_DISABLED")’ to opt
out of the limited API when building with the free-threaded build.

     Σημείωση: You will need to build separate wheels specifically for
     the free-threaded build.  If you currently use the stable ABI, you
     can continue to build a single wheel for multiple non-free-threaded
     Python versions.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/setuptools.html


File: python.info,  Node: Windows<84>,  Prev: Limited C API and Stable ABI,  Up: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build

9.23.9.2 Windows
................

Due to a limitation of the official Windows installer, you will need to
manually define ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED=1’ when building extensions from
source.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Porting Extension Modules to Support Free-Threading(1): A
community-maintained porting guide for extension authors.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://py-free-threading.github.io/porting/


File: python.info,  Node: Remote debugging attachment protocol,  Next: Permission requirements,  Prev: C API Extension Support for Free Threading,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.24 Remote debugging attachment protocol
=========================================

This protocol enables external tools to attach to a running CPython
process and execute Python code remotely.

Most platforms require elevated privileges to attach to another Python
process.

* Menu:

* Disabling remote debugging::


File: python.info,  Node: Disabling remote debugging,  Up: Remote debugging attachment protocol

9.24.1 Disabling remote debugging
---------------------------------

To disable remote debugging support, use any of the following:

   * Set the *note PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG: 419. environment
     variable to ‘1’ before starting the interpreter.

   * Use the *note -X disable_remote_debug: 178. command-line option.

   * Compile Python with the *note -without-remote-debug: 41a. build
     flag.


File: python.info,  Node: Permission requirements,  Next: Locating the PyRuntime structure,  Prev: Remote debugging attachment protocol,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.25 Permission requirements
============================

Attaching to a running Python process for remote debugging requires
elevated privileges on most platforms.  The specific requirements and
troubleshooting steps depend on your operating system:

Linux
.....

The tracer process must have the ‘CAP_SYS_PTRACE’ capability or
equivalent privileges.  You can only trace processes you own and can
signal.  Tracing may fail if the process is already being traced, or if
it is running with set-user-ID or set-group-ID. Security modules like
Yama may further restrict tracing.

To temporarily relax ptrace restrictions (until reboot), run:

     ‘echo 0 | sudo tee /proc/sys/kernel/yama/ptrace_scope’

     Σημείωση: Disabling ‘ptrace_scope’ reduces system hardening and
     should only be done in trusted environments.

If running inside a container, use ‘--cap-add=SYS_PTRACE’ or
‘--privileged’, and run as root if needed.

Try re-running the command with elevated privileges:

     ‘sudo -E !!’

macOS
.....

To attach to another process, you typically need to run your debugging
tool with elevated privileges.  This can be done by using ‘sudo’ or
running as root.

Even when attaching to processes you own, macOS may block debugging
unless the debugger is run with root privileges due to system security
restrictions.

Windows
.......

To attach to another process, you usually need to run your debugging
tool with administrative privileges.  Start the command prompt or
terminal as Administrator.

Some processes may still be inaccessible even with Administrator rights,
unless you have the ‘SeDebugPrivilege’ privilege enabled.

To resolve file or folder access issues, adjust the security
permissions:

       1. Right-click the file or folder and select 'Properties'.

       2. Go to the 'Security' tab to view users and groups with access.

       3. Click 'Edit' to modify permissions.

       4. Select your user account.

       5. In 'Permissions', check 'Read' or 'Full control' as needed.

       6. Click 'Apply', then 'OK' to confirm.

     Σημείωση: Ensure you’ve satisfied all *note Permission
     requirements: 5c41. before proceeding.

This section describes the low-level protocol that enables external
tools to inject and execute a Python script within a running CPython
process.

This mechanism forms the basis of the *note sys.remote_exec(): 418.
function, which instructs a remote Python process to execute a ‘.py’
file.  However, this section does not document the usage of that
function.  Instead, it provides a detailed explanation of the underlying
protocol, which takes as input the ‘pid’ of a target Python process and
the path to a Python source file to be executed.  This information
supports independent reimplementation of the protocol, regardless of
programming language.

     Προειδοποίηση: The execution of the injected script depends on the
     interpreter reaching a safe evaluation point.  As a result,
     execution may be delayed depending on the runtime state of the
     target process.

Once injected, the script is executed by the interpreter within the
target process the next time a safe evaluation point is reached.  This
approach enables remote execution capabilities without modifying the
behavior or structure of the running Python application.

Subsequent sections provide a step-by-step description of the protocol,
including techniques for locating interpreter structures in memory,
safely accessing internal fields, and triggering code execution.
Platform-specific variations are noted where applicable, and example
implementations are included to clarify each operation.


File: python.info,  Node: Locating the PyRuntime structure,  Next: Reading _Py_DebugOffsets,  Prev: Permission requirements,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.26 Locating the PyRuntime structure
=====================================

CPython places the ‘PyRuntime’ structure in a dedicated binary section
to help external tools find it at runtime.  The name and format of this
section vary by platform.  For example, ‘.PyRuntime’ is used on ELF
systems, and ‘__DATA,__PyRuntime’ is used on macOS. Tools can find the
offset of this structure by examining the binary on disk.

The ‘PyRuntime’ structure contains CPython’s global interpreter state
and provides access to other internal data, including the list of
interpreters, thread states, and debugger support fields.

To work with a remote Python process, a debugger must first find the
memory address of the ‘PyRuntime’ structure in the target process.  This
address can’t be hardcoded or calculated from a symbol name, because it
depends on where the operating system loaded the binary.

The method for finding ‘PyRuntime’ depends on the platform, but the
steps are the same in general:

  1. Find the base address where the Python binary or shared library was
     loaded in the target process.

  2. Use the on-disk binary to locate the offset of the ‘.PyRuntime’
     section.

  3. Add the section offset to the base address to compute the address
     in memory.

The sections below explain how to do this on each supported platform and
include example code.

Linux (ELF)
...........

To find the ‘PyRuntime’ structure on Linux:

  1. Read the process’s memory map (for example, ‘/proc/<pid>/maps’) to
     find the address where the Python executable or ‘libpython’ was
     loaded.

  2. Parse the ELF section headers in the binary to get the offset of
     the ‘.PyRuntime’ section.

  3. Add that offset to the base address from step 1 to get the memory
     address of ‘PyRuntime’.

The following is an example implementation:

     def find_py_runtime_linux(pid: int) -> int:
         # Step 1: Try to find the Python executable in memory
         binary_path, base_address = find_mapped_binary(
             pid, name_contains="python"
         )

         # Step 2: Fallback to shared library if executable is not found
         if binary_path is None:
             binary_path, base_address = find_mapped_binary(
                 pid, name_contains="libpython"
             )

         # Step 3: Parse ELF headers to get .PyRuntime section offset
         section_offset = parse_elf_section_offset(
             binary_path, ".PyRuntime"
         )

         # Step 4: Compute PyRuntime address in memory
         return base_address + section_offset

On Linux systems, there are two main approaches to read memory from
another process.  The first is through the ‘/proc’ filesystem,
specifically by reading from ‘/proc/[pid]/mem’ which provides direct
access to the process’s memory.  This requires appropriate permissions -
either being the same user as the target process or having root access.
The second approach is using the ‘process_vm_readv()’ system call which
provides a more efficient way to copy memory between processes.  While
ptrace’s ‘PTRACE_PEEKTEXT’ operation can also be used to read memory, it
is significantly slower as it only reads one word at a time and requires
multiple context switches between the tracer and tracee processes.

For parsing ELF sections, the process involves reading and interpreting
the ELF file format structures from the binary file on disk.  The ELF
header contains a pointer to the section header table.  Each section
header contains metadata about a section including its name (stored in a
separate string table), offset, and size.  To find a specific section
like .PyRuntime, you need to walk through these headers and match the
section name.  The section header then provides the offset where that
section exists in the file, which can be used to calculate its runtime
address when the binary is loaded into memory.

You can read more about the ELF file format in the ELF specification(1).

macOS (Mach-O)
..............

To find the ‘PyRuntime’ structure on macOS:

  1. Call ‘task_for_pid()’ to get the ‘mach_port_t’ task port for the
     target process.  This handle is needed to read memory using APIs
     like ‘mach_vm_read_overwrite’ and ‘mach_vm_region’.

  2. Scan the memory regions to find the one containing the Python
     executable or ‘libpython’.

  3. Load the binary file from disk and parse the Mach-O headers to find
     the section named ‘PyRuntime’ in the ‘__DATA’ segment.  On macOS,
     symbol names are automatically prefixed with an underscore, so the
     ‘PyRuntime’ symbol appears as ‘_PyRuntime’ in the symbol table, but
     the section name is not affected.

The following is an example implementation:

     def find_py_runtime_macos(pid: int) -> int:
         # Step 1: Get access to the process's memory
         handle = get_memory_access_handle(pid)

         # Step 2: Try to find the Python executable in memory
         binary_path, base_address = find_mapped_binary(
             handle, name_contains="python"
         )

         # Step 3: Fallback to libpython if the executable is not found
         if binary_path is None:
             binary_path, base_address = find_mapped_binary(
                 handle, name_contains="libpython"
             )

         # Step 4: Parse Mach-O headers to get __DATA,__PyRuntime section offset
         section_offset = parse_macho_section_offset(
             binary_path, "__DATA", "__PyRuntime"
         )

         # Step 5: Compute the PyRuntime address in memory
         return base_address + section_offset

On macOS, accessing another process’s memory requires using Mach-O
specific APIs and file formats.  The first step is obtaining a
‘task_port’ handle via ‘task_for_pid()’, which provides access to the
target process’s memory space.  This handle enables memory operations
through APIs like ‘mach_vm_read_overwrite()’.

The process memory can be examined using ‘mach_vm_region()’ to scan
through the virtual memory space, while ‘proc_regionfilename()’ helps
identify which binary files are loaded at each memory region.  When the
Python binary or library is found, its Mach-O headers need to be parsed
to locate the ‘PyRuntime’ structure.

The Mach-O format organizes code and data into segments and sections.
The ‘PyRuntime’ structure lives in a section named ‘__PyRuntime’ within
the ‘__DATA’ segment.  The actual runtime address calculation involves
finding the ‘__TEXT’ segment which serves as the binary’s base address,
then locating the ‘__DATA’ segment containing our target section.  The
final address is computed by combining the base address with the
appropriate section offsets from the Mach-O headers.

Note that accessing another process’s memory on macOS typically requires
elevated privileges - either root access or special security
entitlements granted to the debugging process.

Windows (PE)
............

To find the ‘PyRuntime’ structure on Windows:

  1. Use the ToolHelp API to enumerate all modules loaded in the target
     process.  This is done using functions such as
     CreateToolhelp32Snapshot(2), Module32First(3), and Module32Next(4).

  2. Identify the module corresponding to ‘python.exe’ or
     ‘python`XY'.dll’, where ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are the major and minor version
     numbers of the Python version, and record its base address.

  3. Locate the ‘PyRuntim’ section.  Due to the PE format’s 8-character
     limit on section names (defined as ‘IMAGE_SIZEOF_SHORT_NAME’), the
     original name ‘PyRuntime’ is truncated.  This section contains the
     ‘PyRuntime’ structure.

  4. Retrieve the section’s relative virtual address (RVA) and add it to
     the base address of the module.

The following is an example implementation:

     def find_py_runtime_windows(pid: int) -> int:
         # Step 1: Try to find the Python executable in memory
         binary_path, base_address = find_loaded_module(
             pid, name_contains="python"
         )

         # Step 2: Fallback to shared pythonXY.dll if the executable is not
         # found
         if binary_path is None:
             binary_path, base_address = find_loaded_module(
                 pid, name_contains="python3"
             )

         # Step 3: Parse PE section headers to get the RVA of the PyRuntime
         # section. The section name appears as "PyRuntim" due to the
         # 8-character limit defined by the PE format (IMAGE_SIZEOF_SHORT_NAME).
         section_rva = parse_pe_section_offset(binary_path, "PyRuntim")

         # Step 4: Compute PyRuntime address in memory
         return base_address + section_rva

On Windows, accessing another process’s memory requires using the
Windows API functions like ‘CreateToolhelp32Snapshot()’ and
‘Module32First()/Module32Next()’ to enumerate loaded modules.  The
‘OpenProcess()’ function provides a handle to access the target
process’s memory space, enabling memory operations through
‘ReadProcessMemory()’.

The process memory can be examined by enumerating loaded modules to find
the Python binary or DLL. When found, its PE headers need to be parsed
to locate the ‘PyRuntime’ structure.

The PE format organizes code and data into sections.  The ‘PyRuntime’
structure lives in a section named «PyRuntim» (truncated from
«PyRuntime» due to PE’s 8-character name limit).  The actual runtime
address calculation involves finding the module’s base address from the
module entry, then locating our target section in the PE headers.  The
final address is computed by combining the base address with the
section’s virtual address from the PE section headers.

Note that accessing another process’s memory on Windows typically
requires appropriate privileges - either administrative access or the
‘SeDebugPrivilege’ privilege granted to the debugging process.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable_and_Linkable_Format

   (2) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/api/tlhelp32/nf-tlhelp32-createtoolhelp32snapshot

   (3) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/api/tlhelp32/nf-tlhelp32-module32first

   (4) 
https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/api/tlhelp32/nf-tlhelp32-module32next


File: python.info,  Node: Reading _Py_DebugOffsets,  Next: Locating the interpreter and thread state,  Prev: Locating the PyRuntime structure,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.27 Reading _Py_DebugOffsets
=============================

Once the address of the ‘PyRuntime’ structure has been determined, the
next step is to read the ‘_Py_DebugOffsets’ structure located at the
beginning of the ‘PyRuntime’ block.

This structure provides version-specific field offsets that are needed
to safely read interpreter and thread state memory.  These offsets vary
between CPython versions and must be checked before use to ensure they
are compatible.

To read and check the debug offsets, follow these steps:

  1. Read memory from the target process starting at the ‘PyRuntime’
     address, covering the same number of bytes as the
     ‘_Py_DebugOffsets’ structure.  This structure is located at the
     very start of the ‘PyRuntime’ memory block.  Its layout is defined
     in CPython’s internal headers and stays the same within a given
     minor version, but may change in major versions.

  2. Check that the structure contains valid data:

        - The ‘cookie’ field must match the expected debug marker.

        - The ‘version’ field must match the version of the Python
          interpreter used by the debugger.

        - If either the debugger or the target process is using a
          pre-release version (for example, an alpha, beta, or release
          candidate), the versions must match exactly.

        - The ‘free_threaded’ field must have the same value in both the
          debugger and the target process.

  3. If the structure is valid, the offsets it contains can be used to
     locate fields in memory.  If any check fails, the debugger should
     stop the operation to avoid reading memory in the wrong format.

The following is an example implementation that reads and checks
‘_Py_DebugOffsets’:

     def read_debug_offsets(pid: int, py_runtime_addr: int) -> DebugOffsets:
         # Step 1: Read memory from the target process at the PyRuntime address
         data = read_process_memory(
             pid, address=py_runtime_addr, size=DEBUG_OFFSETS_SIZE
         )

         # Step 2: Deserialize the raw bytes into a _Py_DebugOffsets structure
         debug_offsets = parse_debug_offsets(data)

         # Step 3: Validate the contents of the structure
         if debug_offsets.cookie != EXPECTED_COOKIE:
             raise RuntimeError("Invalid or missing debug cookie")
         if debug_offsets.version != LOCAL_PYTHON_VERSION:
             raise RuntimeError(
                 "Mismatch between caller and target Python versions"
             )
         if debug_offsets.free_threaded != LOCAL_FREE_THREADED:
             raise RuntimeError("Mismatch in free-threaded configuration")

         return debug_offsets

     Προειδοποίηση: 'Process suspension recommended'

     To avoid race conditions and ensure memory consistency, it is
     strongly recommended that the target process be suspended before
     performing any operations that read or write internal interpreter
     state.  The Python runtime may concurrently mutate interpreter data
     structures—such as creating or destroying threads—during normal
     execution.  This can result in invalid memory reads or writes.

     A debugger may suspend execution by attaching to the process with
     ‘ptrace’ or by sending a ‘SIGSTOP’ signal.  Execution should only
     be resumed after debugger-side memory operations are complete.

          Σημείωση: Some tools, such as profilers or sampling-based
          debuggers, may operate on a running process without
          suspension.  In such cases, tools must be explicitly designed
          to handle partially updated or inconsistent memory.  For most
          debugger implementations, suspending the process remains the
          safest and most robust approach.


File: python.info,  Node: Locating the interpreter and thread state,  Next: Writing control information,  Prev: Reading _Py_DebugOffsets,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.28 Locating the interpreter and thread state
==============================================

Before code can be injected and executed in a remote Python process, the
debugger must choose a thread in which to schedule execution.  This is
necessary because the control fields used to perform remote code
injection are located in the ‘_PyRemoteDebuggerSupport’ structure, which
is embedded in a ‘PyThreadState’ object.  These fields are modified by
the debugger to request execution of injected scripts.

The ‘PyThreadState’ structure represents a thread running inside a
Python interpreter.  It maintains the thread’s evaluation context and
contains the fields required for debugger coordination.  Locating a
valid ‘PyThreadState’ is therefore a key prerequisite for triggering
execution remotely.

A thread is typically selected based on its role or ID. In most cases,
the main thread is used, but some tools may target a specific thread by
its native thread ID. Once the target thread is chosen, the debugger
must locate both the interpreter and the associated thread state
structures in memory.

The relevant internal structures are defined as follows:

   - ‘PyInterpreterState’ represents an isolated Python interpreter
     instance.  Each interpreter maintains its own set of imported
     modules, built-in state, and thread state list.  Although most
     Python applications use a single interpreter, CPython supports
     multiple interpreters in the same process.

   - ‘PyThreadState’ represents a thread running within an interpreter.
     It contains execution state and the control fields used by the
     debugger.

To locate a thread:

  1. Use the offset ‘runtime_state.interpreters_head’ to obtain the
     address of the first interpreter in the ‘PyRuntime’ structure.
     This is the entry point to the linked list of active interpreters.

  2. Use the offset ‘interpreter_state.threads_main’ to access the main
     thread state associated with the selected interpreter.  This is
     typically the most reliable thread to target.

  3. Optionally, use the offset ‘interpreter_state.threads_head’ to
     iterate through the linked list of all thread states.  Each
     ‘PyThreadState’ structure contains a ‘native_thread_id’ field,
     which may be compared to a target thread ID to find a specific
     thread.

  4. Once a valid ‘PyThreadState’ has been found, its address can be
     used in later steps of the protocol, such as writing debugger
     control fields and scheduling execution.

The following is an example implementation that locates the main thread
state:

     def find_main_thread_state(
         pid: int, py_runtime_addr: int, debug_offsets: DebugOffsets,
     ) -> int:
         # Step 1: Read interpreters_head from PyRuntime
         interp_head_ptr = (
             py_runtime_addr + debug_offsets.runtime_state.interpreters_head
         )
         interp_addr = read_pointer(pid, interp_head_ptr)
         if interp_addr == 0:
             raise RuntimeError("No interpreter found in the target process")

         # Step 2: Read the threads_main pointer from the interpreter
         threads_main_ptr = (
             interp_addr + debug_offsets.interpreter_state.threads_main
         )
         thread_state_addr = read_pointer(pid, threads_main_ptr)
         if thread_state_addr == 0:
             raise RuntimeError("Main thread state is not available")

         return thread_state_addr

The following example demonstrates how to locate a thread by its native
thread ID:

     def find_thread_by_id(
         pid: int,
         interp_addr: int,
         debug_offsets: DebugOffsets,
         target_tid: int,
     ) -> int:
         # Start at threads_head and walk the linked list
         thread_ptr = read_pointer(
             pid,
             interp_addr + debug_offsets.interpreter_state.threads_head
         )

         while thread_ptr:
             native_tid_ptr = (
                 thread_ptr + debug_offsets.thread_state.native_thread_id
             )
             native_tid = read_int(pid, native_tid_ptr)
             if native_tid == target_tid:
                 return thread_ptr
             thread_ptr = read_pointer(
                 pid,
                 thread_ptr + debug_offsets.thread_state.next
             )

         raise RuntimeError("Thread with the given ID was not found")

Once a valid thread state has been located, the debugger can proceed
with modifying its control fields and scheduling execution, as described
in the next section.


File: python.info,  Node: Writing control information,  Next: Summary,  Prev: Locating the interpreter and thread state,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.29 Writing control information
================================

Once a valid ‘PyThreadState’ structure has been identified, the debugger
may modify control fields within it to schedule the execution of a
specified Python script.  These control fields are checked periodically
by the interpreter, and when set correctly, they trigger the execution
of remote code at a safe point in the evaluation loop.

Each ‘PyThreadState’ contains a ‘_PyRemoteDebuggerSupport’ structure
used for communication between the debugger and the interpreter.  The
locations of its fields are defined by the ‘_Py_DebugOffsets’ structure
and include the following:

   - ‘debugger_script_path’: A fixed-size buffer that holds the full
     path to a Python source file (‘.py’).  This file must be accessible
     and readable by the target process when execution is triggered.

   - ‘debugger_pending_call’: An integer flag.  Setting this to ‘1’
     tells the interpreter that a script is ready to be executed.

   - ‘eval_breaker’: A field checked by the interpreter during
     execution.  Setting bit 5 (‘_PY_EVAL_PLEASE_STOP_BIT’, value ‘1U <<
     5’) in this field causes the interpreter to pause and check for
     debugger activity.

To complete the injection, the debugger must perform the following
steps:

  1. Write the full script path into the ‘debugger_script_path’ buffer.

  2. Set ‘debugger_pending_call’ to ‘1’.

  3. Read the current value of ‘eval_breaker’, set bit 5
     (‘_PY_EVAL_PLEASE_STOP_BIT’), and write the updated value back.
     This signals the interpreter to check for debugger activity.

The following is an example implementation:

     def inject_script(
         pid: int,
         thread_state_addr: int,
         debug_offsets: DebugOffsets,
         script_path: str
     ) -> None:
         # Compute the base offset of _PyRemoteDebuggerSupport
         support_base = (
             thread_state_addr +
             debug_offsets.debugger_support.remote_debugger_support
         )

         # Step 1: Write the script path into debugger_script_path
         script_path_ptr = (
             support_base +
             debug_offsets.debugger_support.debugger_script_path
         )
         write_string(pid, script_path_ptr, script_path)

         # Step 2: Set debugger_pending_call to 1
         pending_ptr = (
             support_base +
             debug_offsets.debugger_support.debugger_pending_call
         )
         write_int(pid, pending_ptr, 1)

         # Step 3: Set _PY_EVAL_PLEASE_STOP_BIT (bit 5, value 1 << 5) in
         # eval_breaker
         eval_breaker_ptr = (
             thread_state_addr +
             debug_offsets.debugger_support.eval_breaker
         )
         breaker = read_int(pid, eval_breaker_ptr)
         breaker |= (1 << 5)
         write_int(pid, eval_breaker_ptr, breaker)

Once these fields are set, the debugger may resume the process (if it
was suspended).  The interpreter will process the request at the next
safe evaluation point, load the script from disk, and execute it.

It is the responsibility of the debugger to ensure that the script file
remains present and accessible to the target process during execution.

     Σημείωση: Script execution is asynchronous.  The script file cannot
     be deleted immediately after injection.  The debugger should wait
     until the injected script has produced an observable effect before
     removing the file.  This effect depends on what the script is
     designed to do.  For example, a debugger might wait until the
     remote process connects back to a socket before removing the
     script.  Once such an effect is observed, it is safe to assume the
     file is no longer needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Summary,  Next: Security and threat model,  Prev: Writing control information,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.30 Summary
============

To inject and execute a Python script in a remote process:

  1. Locate the ‘PyRuntime’ structure in the target process’s memory.

  2. Read and validate the ‘_Py_DebugOffsets’ structure at the beginning
     of ‘PyRuntime’.

  3. Use the offsets to locate a valid ‘PyThreadState’.

  4. Write the path to a Python script into ‘debugger_script_path’.

  5. Set the ‘debugger_pending_call’ flag to ‘1’.

  6. Set ‘_PY_EVAL_PLEASE_STOP_BIT’ in the ‘eval_breaker’ field.

  7. Resume the process (if suspended).  The script will execute at the
     next safe evaluation point.


File: python.info,  Node: Security and threat model,  Prev: Summary,  Up: Python HOWTOs

9.31 Security and threat model
==============================

The remote debugging protocol relies on the same operating system
primitives used by native debuggers such as GDB and LLDB. Attaching to a
process requires the 'same privileges' that those debuggers require, for
example ‘ptrace’ / Yama LSM on Linux, ‘task_for_pid’ on macOS, and
‘SeDebugPrivilege’ on Windows.  Python does not introduce any new
privilege escalation path; if an attacker already possesses the
permissions needed to attach to a process, they could equally use GDB to
read memory or inject code.

The following principles define what is, and is not, considered a
security vulnerability in this feature:

Attaching requires OS-level privileges

     On every supported platform the operating system gates
     cross-process memory access behind privilege checks
     (‘CAP_SYS_PTRACE’, root, or administrator rights).  A report that
     demonstrates an issue only after these privileges have already been
     obtained is 'not' a vulnerability in CPython, since the OS security
     boundary was already crossed.

Crashes or memory errors when reading a compromised process are not vulnerabilities

     A tool that reads internal interpreter state from a target process
     must trust that memory to be well-formed.  If the target process
     has been corrupted or is controlled by an attacker, the debugger or
     profiler may crash, produce garbage output, or behave
     unpredictably.  This is the same risk accepted by every
     ‘ptrace’-based debugger.  Bugs in this category (buffer overflows,
     segmentation faults, or undefined behaviour triggered by reading
     corrupted state) are 'not' treated as security issues, though fixes
     that improve robustness are welcome.

Vulnerabilities in the target process are not in scope

     If the Python process being debugged has already been compromised,
     the attacker already controls execution in that process.
     Demonstrating further impact from that starting point does not
     constitute a vulnerability in the remote debugging protocol.

* Menu:

* When to use PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG::


File: python.info,  Node: When to use PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG,  Up: Security and threat model

9.31.1 When to use ‘PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG’
------------------------------------------------

The environment variable *note PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG: 419. (and
the equivalent *note -X disable_remote_debug: 178. flag) allows
operators to disable the in-process side of the protocol as a
'defence-in-depth' measure.  This may be useful in hardened or sandboxed
deployment environments where no debugging or profiling of the process
is expected and reducing attack surface is a priority, even though the
OS-level privilege checks already prevent unprivileged access.

Setting this variable does 'not' affect other OS-level debugging
interfaces (‘ptrace’, ‘/proc’, ‘task_for_pid’, etc.), which remain
available according to their own permission models.

Γενικά:

   * *note A conceptual overview of asyncio: 39fd.

   * *note Annotations Best Practices: bb6.

   * *note Argparse Tutorial: 35cb.

   * *note Descriptor Guide: 188f.

   * *note Enum HOWTO: 5a8c.

   * *note Functional Programming HOWTO: 5abd.

   * *note An introduction to the ipaddress module: 440f.

   * *note Logging HOWTO: 5adc.

   * *note Logging Cookbook: 15a0.

   * *note Regular expression HOWTO: 297c.

   * *note Sorting Techniques: 27d9.

   * *note Unicode HOWTO: 1649.

   * *note HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package:
     41d3.

Προχωρημένη ανάπτυξη:

   * *note Curses Programming with Python: 36bf.

   * *note Python support for free threading: 2919.

   * *note C API Extension Support for Free Threading: 5c14.

   * *note Isolating Extension Modules: 412.

   * *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 184c.

   * *note Socket Programming HOWTO: 3bea.

   * *note timer file descriptor HOWTO: 5c05.

   * *note Porting Extension Modules to Python 3: 1685.

Αποσφαλμάτωση και σκιαγράφηση:

   * *note Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB:
     5a7d.

   * *note Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap: 102a.

   * *note Python support for the perf map compatible profilers: 6b7.

   * *note Remote debugging attachment protocol: 4c0b.


File: python.info,  Node: Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python,  Next: Deprecations,  Prev: Python HOWTOs,  Up: Top

10 Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python
**********************************

* Menu:

* General Python FAQ::
* FAQ Προγραμματισμού::
* Design and History FAQ::
* Συχνές ερωτήσεις βιβλιοθήκης και επέκτασης::
* Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης::
* Python στα Windows FAQ::
* Graphic User Interface FAQ::
* «Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;» FAQ::


File: python.info,  Node: General Python FAQ,  Next: FAQ Προγραμματισμού,  Up: Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python

10.1 General Python FAQ
=======================

* Menu:

* General Information::
* Python in the real world::


File: python.info,  Node: General Information,  Next: Python in the real world,  Up: General Python FAQ

10.1.1 General Information
--------------------------

* Menu:

* What is Python?::
* What is the Python Software Foundation?::
* Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?::
* Why was Python created in the first place?::
* What is Python good for?::
* How does the Python version numbering scheme work?::
* How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?::
* How do I get documentation on Python?::
* I’ve never programmed before. Is there a Python tutorial?: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?.
* Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?::
* How do I get a beta test version of Python?::
* How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?::
* Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?::
* Are there any books on Python?::
* Where in the world is www.python.org located?: Where in the world is www python org located?.
* Why is it called Python?::
* Do I have to like «Monty Python’s Flying Circus»?::


File: python.info,  Node: What is Python?,  Next: What is the Python Software Foundation?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.1 What is Python?
........................

Python is an interpreted, interactive, object-oriented programming
language.  It incorporates modules, exceptions, dynamic typing, very
high level dynamic data types, and classes.  It supports multiple
programming paradigms beyond object-oriented programming, such as
procedural and functional programming.  Python combines remarkable power
with very clear syntax.  It has interfaces to many system calls and
libraries, as well as to various window systems, and is extensible in C
or C++.  It is also usable as an extension language for applications
that need a programmable interface.  Finally, Python is portable: it
runs on many Unix variants including Linux and macOS, and on Windows.

To find out more, start with *note Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python: 21a9.  The
Beginner's Guide to Python(1) links to other introductory tutorials and
resources for learning Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


File: python.info,  Node: What is the Python Software Foundation?,  Next: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?,  Prev: What is Python?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.2 What is the Python Software Foundation?
................................................

The Python Software Foundation is an independent non-profit organization
that holds the copyright on Python versions 2.1 and newer.  The PSF’s
mission is to advance open source technology related to the Python
programming language and to publicize the use of Python.  The PSF’s home
page is at ‘https://www.python.org/psf/’.

Donations to the PSF are tax-exempt in the US. If you use Python and
find it helpful, please contribute via the PSF donation page(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/psf/donations/


File: python.info,  Node: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?,  Next: Why was Python created in the first place?,  Prev: What is the Python Software Foundation?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.3 Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?
...............................................................

You can do anything you want with the source, as long as you leave the
copyrights in and display those copyrights in any documentation about
Python that you produce.  If you honor the copyright rules, it’s OK to
use Python for commercial use, to sell copies of Python in source or
binary form (modified or unmodified), or to sell products that
incorporate Python in some form.  We would still like to know about all
commercial use of Python, of course.

See the license page(1) to find further explanations and the full text
of the PSF License.

The Python logo is trademarked, and in certain cases permission is
required to use it.  Consult the Trademark Usage Policy(2) for more
information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.python.org/3/license.html

   (2) https://www.python.org/psf/trademarks/


File: python.info,  Node: Why was Python created in the first place?,  Next: What is Python good for?,  Prev: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.4 Why was Python created in the first place?
...................................................

Here’s a 'very' brief summary of what started it all, written by Guido
van Rossum:

     I had extensive experience with implementing an interpreted
     language in the ABC group at CWI, and from working with this group
     I had learned a lot about language design.  This is the origin of
     many Python features, including the use of indentation for
     statement grouping and the inclusion of very-high-level data types
     (although the details are all different in Python).

     I had a number of gripes about the ABC language, but also liked
     many of its features.  It was impossible to extend the ABC language
     (or its implementation) to remedy my complaints – in fact its lack
     of extensibility was one of its biggest problems.  I had some
     experience with using Modula-2+ and talked with the designers of
     Modula-3 and read the Modula-3 report.  Modula-3 is the origin of
     the syntax and semantics used for exceptions, and some other Python
     features.

     I was working in the Amoeba distributed operating system group at
     CWI. We needed a better way to do system administration than by
     writing either C programs or Bourne shell scripts, since Amoeba had
     its own system call interface which wasn’t easily accessible from
     the Bourne shell.  My experience with error handling in Amoeba made
     me acutely aware of the importance of exceptions as a programming
     language feature.

     It occurred to me that a scripting language with a syntax like ABC
     but with access to the Amoeba system calls would fill the need.  I
     realized that it would be foolish to write an Amoeba-specific
     language, so I decided that I needed a language that was generally
     extensible.

     During the 1989 Christmas holidays, I had a lot of time on my hand,
     so I decided to give it a try.  During the next year, while still
     mostly working on it in my own time, Python was used in the Amoeba
     project with increasing success, and the feedback from colleagues
     made me add many early improvements.

     In February 1991, after just over a year of development, I decided
     to post to USENET. The rest is in the ‘Misc/HISTORY’ file.


File: python.info,  Node: What is Python good for?,  Next: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?,  Prev: Why was Python created in the first place?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.5 What is Python good for?
.................................

Python is a high-level general-purpose programming language that can be
applied to many different classes of problems.

The language comes with a large standard library that covers areas such
as string processing (regular expressions, Unicode, calculating
differences between files), internet protocols (HTTP, FTP, SMTP,
XML-RPC, POP, IMAP), software engineering (unit testing, logging,
profiling, parsing Python code), and operating system interfaces (system
calls, filesystems, TCP/IP sockets).  Look at the table of contents for
*note The Python Standard Library: 3f7. to get an idea of what’s
available.  A wide variety of third-party extensions are also available.
Consult the Python Package Index(1) to find packages of interest to you.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org


File: python.info,  Node: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?,  Next: How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?,  Prev: What is Python good for?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.6 How does the Python version numbering scheme work?
...........................................................

Python versions are numbered «A.B.C» or «A.B»:

   * 'A' is the major version number – it is only incremented for really
     major changes in the language.

   * 'B' is the minor version number – it is incremented for less
     earth-shattering changes.

   * 'C' is the micro version number – it is incremented for each bugfix
     release.

Not all releases are bugfix releases.  In the run-up to a new feature
release, a series of development releases are made, denoted as alpha,
beta, or release candidate.  Alphas are early releases in which
interfaces aren’t yet finalized; it’s not unexpected to see an interface
change between two alpha releases.  Betas are more stable, preserving
existing interfaces but possibly adding new modules, and release
candidates are frozen, making no changes except as needed to fix
critical bugs.

Alpha, beta and release candidate versions have an additional suffix:

   * The suffix for an alpha version is «aN» for some small number 'N'.

   * The suffix for a beta version is «bN» for some small number 'N'.

   * The suffix for a release candidate version is «rcN» for some small
     number 'N'.

In other words, all versions labeled '2.0aN' precede the versions
labeled '2.0bN', which precede versions labeled '2.0rcN', and 'those'
precede 2.0.

You may also find version numbers with a «+» suffix, e.g.  «2.2+».
These are unreleased versions, built directly from the CPython
development repository.  In practice, after a final minor release is
made, the version is incremented to the next minor version, which
becomes the «a0» version, e.g.  «2.4a0».

See the Developer's Guide(1) for more information about the development
cycle, and PEP 387(2) to learn more about Python’s backward
compatibility policy.  See also the documentation for *note sys.version:
6a8, *note sys.hexversion: 4c04, and *note sys.version_info: 2fc.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/developer-workflow/development-cycle/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?,  Next: How do I get documentation on Python?,  Prev: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.7 How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?
.....................................................

The latest Python source distribution is always available from
python.org, at ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’.  The latest
development sources can be obtained at
‘https://github.com/python/cpython/’.

The source distribution is a gzipped tar file containing the complete C
source, Sphinx-formatted documentation, Python library modules, example
programs, and several useful pieces of freely distributable software.
The source will compile and run out of the box on most UNIX platforms.

Consult the Getting Started section of the Python Developer's Guide(1)
for more information on getting the source code and compiling it.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/setup/


File: python.info,  Node: How do I get documentation on Python?,  Next: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?,  Prev: How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.8 How do I get documentation on Python?
..............................................

The standard documentation for the current stable version of Python is
available at ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’.  EPUB, plain text, and
downloadable HTML versions are also available at
‘https://docs.python.org/3/download.html’.

The documentation is written in reStructuredText and processed by the
Sphinx documentation tool(1).  The reStructuredText source for the
documentation is part of the Python source distribution.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/


File: python.info,  Node: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?,  Next: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?,  Prev: How do I get documentation on Python?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.9 I’ve never programmed before. Is there a Python tutorial?
..................................................................

There are numerous tutorials and books available.  The standard
documentation includes *note Οδηγός εκμάθησης Python: 21a9.

Consult the Beginner's Guide(1) to find information for beginning Python
programmers, including lists of tutorials.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


File: python.info,  Node: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?,  Next: How do I get a beta test version of Python?,  Prev: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.10 Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?
.................................................................

There is a newsgroup, ‘comp.lang.python’, and a mailing list,
python-list(1).  The newsgroup and mailing list are gatewayed into each
other – if you can read news it’s unnecessary to subscribe to the
mailing list.  ‘comp.lang.python’ is high-traffic, receiving hundreds of
postings every day, and Usenet readers are often more able to cope with
this volume.

Announcements of new software releases and events can be found in
comp.lang.python.announce, a low-traffic moderated list that receives
about five postings per day.  It’s available as the python-announce
mailing list(2).

More info about other mailing lists and newsgroups can be found at
‘https://www.python.org/community/lists/’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-list

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-announce-list.python.org/


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10.1.1.11 How do I get a beta test version of Python?
.....................................................

Alpha and beta releases are available from
‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’.  All releases are announced on the
comp.lang.python and comp.lang.python.announce newsgroups and on the
Python home page at ‘https://www.python.org/’; an RSS feed of news is
available.

You can also access the development version of Python through Git.  See
The Python Developer's Guide(1) for details.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/


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10.1.1.12 How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?
.............................................................

To report a bug or submit a patch, use the issue tracker at
‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues’.

For more information on how Python is developed, consult the Python
Developer's Guide(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/


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10.1.1.13 Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?
.............................................................................

It’s probably best to cite your favorite book about Python.

The very first article(1) about Python was written in 1991 and is now
quite outdated.

     Guido van Rossum and Jelke de Boer, «Interactively Testing Remote
     Servers Using the Python Programming Language», CWI Quarterly,
     Volume 4, Issue 4 (December 1991), Amsterdam, pp 283–303.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/18204


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10.1.1.14 Are there any books on Python?
........................................

Yes, there are many, and more are being published.  See the python.org
wiki at ‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonBooks’ for a list.

You can also search online bookstores for «Python» and filter out the
Monty Python references; or perhaps search for «Python» and «language».


File: python.info,  Node: Where in the world is www python org located?,  Next: Why is it called Python?,  Prev: Are there any books on Python?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.15 Where in the world is www.python.org located?
.......................................................

The Python project’s infrastructure is located all over the world and is
managed by the Python Infrastructure Team.  Details here(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://infra.psf.io


File: python.info,  Node: Why is it called Python?,  Next: Do I have to like «Monty Python’s Flying Circus»?,  Prev: Where in the world is www python org located?,  Up: General Information

10.1.1.16 Why is it called Python?
..................................

When he began implementing Python, Guido van Rossum was also reading the
published scripts from "Monty Python's Flying Circus"(1), a BBC comedy
series from the 1970s.  Van Rossum thought he needed a name that was
short, unique, and slightly mysterious, so he decided to call the
language Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python


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10.1.1.17 Do I have to like «Monty Python’s Flying Circus»?
...........................................................

No, but it helps.  :)


File: python.info,  Node: Python in the real world,  Prev: General Information,  Up: General Python FAQ

10.1.2 Python in the real world
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* How stable is Python?::
* How many people are using Python?::
* Have any significant projects been done in Python?::
* What new developments are expected for Python in the future?::
* Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?::
* Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?::


File: python.info,  Node: How stable is Python?,  Next: How many people are using Python?,  Up: Python in the real world

10.1.2.1 How stable is Python?
..............................

Very stable.  New, stable releases have been coming out roughly every 6
to 18 months since 1991, and this seems likely to continue.  As of
version 3.9, Python will have a new feature release every 12 months (
PEP 602(1)).

The developers issue bugfix releases of older versions, so the stability
of existing releases gradually improves.  Bugfix releases, indicated by
a third component of the version number (e.g.  3.5.3, 3.6.2), are
managed for stability; only fixes for known problems are included in a
bugfix release, and it’s guaranteed that interfaces will remain the same
throughout a series of bugfix releases.

The latest stable releases can always be found on the Python download
page(2).  Python 3.x is the recommended version and supported by most
widely used libraries.  Python 2.x is not maintained anymore(3).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/

   (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/


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10.1.2.2 How many people are using Python?
..........................................

There are probably millions of users, though it’s difficult to obtain an
exact count.

Python is available for free download, so there are no sales figures,
and it’s available from many different sites and packaged with many
Linux distributions, so download statistics don’t tell the whole story
either.

The comp.lang.python newsgroup is very active, but not all Python users
post to the group or even read it.


File: python.info,  Node: Have any significant projects been done in Python?,  Next: What new developments are expected for Python in the future?,  Prev: How many people are using Python?,  Up: Python in the real world

10.1.2.3 Have any significant projects been done in Python?
...........................................................

See ‘https://www.python.org/about/success’ for a list of projects that
use Python.  Consulting the proceedings for past Python conferences(1)
will reveal contributions from many different companies and
organizations.

High-profile Python projects include the Mailman mailing list manager(2)
and the Zope application server(3).  Several Linux distributions, most
notably Red Hat(4), have written part or all of their installer and
system administration software in Python.  Companies that use Python
internally include Google, Yahoo, and Lucasfilm Ltd.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/community/workshops/

   (2) https://www.list.org

   (3) https://www.zope.dev

   (4) https://www.redhat.com


File: python.info,  Node: What new developments are expected for Python in the future?,  Next: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?,  Prev: Have any significant projects been done in Python?,  Up: Python in the real world

10.1.2.4 What new developments are expected for Python in the future?
.....................................................................

See ‘https://peps.python.org/’ for the Python Enhancement Proposals
(PEPs).  PEPs are design documents describing a suggested new feature
for Python, providing a concise technical specification and a rationale.
Look for a PEP titled «Python X.Y Release Schedule», where X.Y is a
version that hasn’t been publicly released yet.

New development is discussed on the python-dev mailing list(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-dev.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?,  Next: Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?,  Prev: What new developments are expected for Python in the future?,  Up: Python in the real world

10.1.2.5 Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?
....................................................................

In general, no.  There are already millions of lines of Python code
around the world, so any change in the language that invalidates more
than a very small fraction of existing programs has to be frowned upon.
Even if you can provide a conversion program, there’s still the problem
of updating all documentation; many books have been written about
Python, and we don’t want to invalidate them all at a single stroke.

Providing a gradual upgrade path is necessary if a feature has to be
changed.  PEP 5(1) describes the procedure followed for introducing
backward-incompatible changes while minimizing disruption for users.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0005/


File: python.info,  Node: Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?,  Prev: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?,  Up: Python in the real world

10.1.2.6 Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?
.............................................................

Yes.

It is still common to start students with a procedural and statically
typed language such as Pascal, C, or a subset of C++ or Java.  Students
may be better served by learning Python as their first language.  Python
has a very simple and consistent syntax and a large standard library
and, most importantly, using Python in a beginning programming course
lets students concentrate on important programming skills such as
problem decomposition and data type design.  With Python, students can
be quickly introduced to basic concepts such as loops and procedures.
They can probably even work with user-defined objects in their very
first course.

For a student who has never programmed before, using a statically typed
language seems unnatural.  It presents additional complexity that the
student must master and slows the pace of the course.  The students are
trying to learn to think like a computer, decompose problems, design
consistent interfaces, and encapsulate data.  While learning to use a
statically typed language is important in the long term, it is not
necessarily the best topic to address in the students” first programming
course.

Many other aspects of Python make it a good first language.  Like Java,
Python has a large standard library so that students can be assigned
programming projects very early in the course that 'do' something.
Assignments aren’t restricted to the standard four-function calculator
and check balancing programs.  By using the standard library, students
can gain the satisfaction of working on realistic applications as they
learn the fundamentals of programming.  Using the standard library also
teaches students about code reuse.  Third-party modules such as PyGame
are also helpful in extending the students” reach.

Python’s interactive interpreter enables students to test language
features while they’re programming.  They can keep a window with the
interpreter running while they enter their program’s source in another
window.  If they can’t remember the methods for a list, they can do
something like this:

     >>> L = []
     >>> dir(L)
     ['__add__', '__class__', '__contains__', '__delattr__', '__delitem__',
     '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__',
     '__getattribute__', '__getitem__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__iadd__',
     '__imul__', '__init__', '__iter__', '__le__', '__len__', '__lt__',
     '__mul__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__',
     '__repr__', '__reversed__', '__rmul__', '__setattr__', '__setitem__',
     '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', 'append', 'clear',
     'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove',
     'reverse', 'sort']
     >>> [d for d in dir(L) if '__' not in d]
     ['append', 'clear', 'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove', 'reverse', 'sort']

     >>> help(L.append)
     Help on built-in function append:

     append(...)
         L.append(object) -> None -- append object to end

     >>> L.append(1)
     >>> L
     [1]

With the interpreter, documentation is never far from the student as
they are programming.

There are also good IDEs for Python.  IDLE is a cross-platform IDE for
Python that is written in Python using Tkinter.  Emacs users will be
happy to know that there is a very good Python mode for Emacs.  All of
these programming environments provide syntax highlighting,
auto-indenting, and access to the interactive interpreter while coding.
Consult the Python wiki(1) for a full list of Python editing
environments.

If you want to discuss Python’s use in education, you may be interested
in joining the edu-sig mailing list(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors

   (2) https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/edu-sig


File: python.info,  Node: FAQ Προγραμματισμού,  Next: Design and History FAQ,  Prev: General Python FAQ,  Up: Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python

10.2 FAQ Προγραμματισμού
========================

* Menu:

* General questions::
* Core language::
* Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές::
* Απόδοση::
* Sequences (tuples/lists): Sequences tuples/lists.
* Αντικείμενα::
* Modules: Modules<5>.


File: python.info,  Node: General questions,  Next: Core language,  Up: FAQ Προγραμματισμού

10.2.1 General questions
------------------------

* Menu:

* Is there a source code-level debugger with breakpoints and single-stepping?::
* Υπάρχουν εργαλεία που βοηθούν στην εύρεση σφαλμάτων ή στην εκτέλεση στατικής ανάλυσης;::
* Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα stand-alone binary από ένα Python script;::
* Υπάρχουν πρότυπα κωδικοποίησης ή οδηγός στυλ για προγράμματα Python;::


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10.2.1.1 Is there a source code-level debugger with breakpoints and single-stepping?
....................................................................................

Ναι.

Πολλοί εντοπιστές σφαλμάτων για την Python περιγράφονται παρακάτω και η
ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note breakpoint(): 4f9. σάς επιτρέπει να
μεταβείτε σε οποιοδήποτε από αυτά.

Το pdb module είναι ένα απλό αλλά επαρκές πρόγραμμα εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων
σε λειτουργία κονσόλας για την Python.  Είναι μέρος της τυπικής
βιβλιοθήκης Python και είναι *note documented in the Library Reference
Manual: aa.  Μπορείτε επίσης να γράψετε το δικό σας πρόγραμμα σφαλμάτων
χρησιμοποιώντας τον κώδικα για το pdb ως παράδειγμα.

The IDLE interactive development environment, which is part of the
standard Python distribution (normally available as *note idlelib: 76.),
includes a graphical debugger.

Το PythonWin είναι ένα Python IDE που περιλαμβάνει ένα πρόγραμμα
εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων GUI που βασίζεται σε pdb.  Το πρόγραμμα εντοπισμού
σφαλμάτων PythonWin χρωματίζει τα σημεία διακοπής και έχει αρκετά ωραία
χαρακτηριστικά, όπως τον εντοπισμό σφαλμάτων σε προγράμματα που δεν
είναι PythonWin.  Το PythonWin είναι διαθέσιμο ως μέρος του pywin32(1)
έργου και ως μέρος της διανομής ActivePython(2) .

Το Eric(3) είναι ένα IDE που βασίζεται στο PyQt και το component
επεξεργασίας Scintilla.

Το trepan3k(4) είναι ένα πρόγραμμα εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων παρόμοιο με το
gdb.

Το Visual Studio Code(5) είναι ένας IDE με εργαλεία εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων
που ενσωματώνεται με λογισμικό ελέγχου έκδοσης.

Υπάρχει ένας αριθμός εμπορικών Python IDEs που περιλαμβάνουν γραφικούς
εντοπισμούς σφαλμάτων.  Αυτά περιλαμβάνουν:

   * Wing IDE(6)

   * PyCharm(7)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/mhammond/pywin32

   (2) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/

   (3) https://eric-ide.python-projects.org/

   (4) https://github.com/rocky/python3-trepan/

   (5) https://code.visualstudio.com/

   (6) https://wingware.com/

   (7) https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/


File: python.info,  Node: Υπάρχουν εργαλεία που βοηθούν στην εύρεση σφαλμάτων ή στην εκτέλεση στατικής ανάλυσης;,  Next: Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα stand-alone binary από ένα Python script;,  Prev: Is there a source code-level debugger with breakpoints and single-stepping?,  Up: General questions

10.2.1.2 Υπάρχουν εργαλεία που βοηθούν στην εύρεση σφαλμάτων ή στην εκτέλεση στατικής ανάλυσης;
...............................................................................................

Ναι.

Ruff(1), Pylint(2) and Pyflakes(3) do basic checking that will help you
catch bugs sooner.

Static type checkers such as mypy(4), ty(5), Pyrefly(6), and pytype(7)
can check type hints in Python source code.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docs.astral.sh/ruff/

   (2) https://pylint.readthedocs.io/

   (3) https://github.com/PyCQA/pyflakes

   (4) https://mypy-lang.org/

   (5) https://docs.astral.sh/ty/

   (6) https://pyrefly.org/

   (7) https://github.com/google/pytype


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10.2.1.3 Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα stand-alone binary από ένα Python script;
...............................................................................

Δεν χρειάζεστε την δυνατότητα μεταγλώττισης κώδικα Python σε C, εάν το
μόνο που θέλετε είναι ένα stand-alone πρόγραμμα που οι χρήστες μπορούν
να κατεβάσουν και να εκτελέσουν χωρίς να χρειάζεται να εγκαταστήσουν
πρώτα την διανομή της Python.  Υπάρχει μια σειρά από εργαλεία που
καθορίζουν το σύνολο των modules που απαιτούνται από ένα πρόγραμμα και
συνδέουν αυτά τα modules μαζί με ένα δυαδικό αρχείο Python για να
παραχθεί ένα μόνο εκτελέσιμο.

One is to use the freeze tool, which is included in the Python source
tree as Tools/freeze(1).  It converts Python byte code to C arrays; with
a C compiler you can embed all your modules into a new program, which is
then linked with the standard Python modules.

Λειτουργεί σαρώνοντας τον πηγαίο κώδικα αναδρομικά για δηλώσεις
εισαγωγής (και στις δύο μορφές) και αναζητώντας τα modules στην τυπική
διαδρομή Python καθώς και στον κατάλογο προέλευσης (για ενσωματωμένα
modules).  Στην συνέχεια γυρίζει τα bytecode για modules που είναι
γραμμένες σε Python σε κώδικα C (initializers πίνακα που μπορούν να
μετατραπούν σε αντικείμενα κώδικα χρησιμοποιώντας το marshal module) και
δημιουργεί ένα προσαρμοσμένο αρχείο διαμόρφωσης που περιέχει μόνο εκείνα
τα ενσωματωμένα modules που χρησιμοποιούνται πραγματικά στο πρόγραμμα
και το συνδέει με τον υπόλοιπο διερμηνέα Python για να σχηματίσει ένα
αυτόνομο δυαδικό αρχείο που λειτουργεί ακριβώς όπως το σενάριο σας.

Τα παρακάτω πακέτα μπορούν να σας βοηθήσουν για την δημιουργία
εκτελέσιμων κονσόλας και GUI:

   * Nuitka(2) (Cross-platform)

   * PyInstaller(3) (Cross-platform)

   * PyOxidizer(4) (Cross-platform)

   * cx_Freeze(5) (Cross-platform)

   * py2app(6) (macOS μόνο)

   * py2exe(7) (Windows μόνο)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Tools/freeze

   (2) https://nuitka.net/

   (3) https://pyinstaller.org/

   (4) https://pyoxidizer.readthedocs.io/en/stable/

   (5) https://marcelotduarte.github.io/cx_Freeze/

   (6) https://github.com/ronaldoussoren/py2app

   (7) https://www.py2exe.org/


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10.2.1.4 Υπάρχουν πρότυπα κωδικοποίησης ή οδηγός στυλ για προγράμματα Python;
.............................................................................

Ναι.  Το στυλ κωδικοποίησης που απαιτείται για τα τυπικά modules
βιβλιοθήκης τεκμηριώνεται ως PEP 8(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Core language,  Next: Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές,  Prev: General questions,  Up: FAQ Προγραμματισμού

10.2.2 Core language
--------------------

* Menu:

* Γιατί λαμβάνω ένα UnboundLocalError όταν η μεταβλητή έχει μια τιμή;::
* Ποιοι είναι οι κανόνες για τις τοπικές και τις καθολικές μεταβλητές στην Python;::
* Γιατί τα lambdas που ορίζονται σε έναν βρόχο με διαφορετικές τιμές επιστρέφουν όλα το ίδιο αποτέλεσμα;::
* Πως μοιράζομαι καθολικές μεταβλητές σε modules;::
* Ποιες είναι οι «βέλτιστες πρακτικές» για τη χρήση import σε ένα module;::
* Γιατί μοιράζονται οι προεπιλεγμένες τιμές μεταξύ των αντικειμένων;::
* Πώς μπορώ να μεταβιβάσω προαιρετικές παραμέτρους ή παραμέτρους λέξεων-κλειδιών από τη μια συνάρτηση στην άλλη;::
* Ποια είναι η διαφορά μεταξύ ορισμάτων και παραμέτρων;::
* Γιατί η αλλαγή της λίστας “y” αλλάζει επίσης και τη λίστα “x”;::
* Πως μπορώ να γράψω μια συνάρτηση με παραμέτρους εξόδου (κλήση με αναφορά);: Πως μπορώ να γράψω μια συνάρτηση με παραμέτρους εξόδου κλήση με αναφορά ;.
* Πως δημιουργείτε μια συνάρτηση υψηλότερης τάξης στην Python;::
* Πως μπορώ να αντιγράψω ένα αντικείμενο στην Python;::
* Πως μπορώ να βρω τις μεθόδους ή τα χαρακτηριστικά ενός αντικειμένου;::
* Πως μπορεί ο κώδικας μου να ανακαλύψει το όνομα ενός αντικειμένου;::
* Τι συμβαίνει με την προτεραιότητα του τελεστή κόμματος;::
* Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο του τριαδικού τελεστή «?;» της C;: Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο του τριαδικού τελεστή «? » της C;.
* Είναι δυνατόν να γράψουμε ασαφή one-liners στην Python;::
* Τι σημαίνει η κάθετος(/) στη λίστα παραμέτρων μιας συνάρτησης;: Τι σημαίνει η κάθετος / στη λίστα παραμέτρων μιας συνάρτησης;.


File: python.info,  Node: Γιατί λαμβάνω ένα UnboundLocalError όταν η μεταβλητή έχει μια τιμή;,  Next: Ποιοι είναι οι κανόνες για τις τοπικές και τις καθολικές μεταβλητές στην Python;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.1 Γιατί λαμβάνω ένα UnboundLocalError όταν η μεταβλητή έχει μια τιμή;
............................................................................

Μπορεί να είναι έκπληξη να λάβετε το *note UnboundLocalError: 18d8. σε
κώδικα που λειτουργούσε προηγουμένως όταν τροποποιείται προσθέτοντας μια
δήλωση εκχώρησης κάπου στο σώμα μιας συνάρτησης.

Αυτό ο κώδικας:

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def bar():
     ...     print(x)
     ...
     >>> bar()
     10

δουλεύει, αλλά αυτός ο κώδικας:

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def foo():
     ...     print(x)
     ...     x += 1

καταλήγει σε ένα ‘UnboundLocalError’:

     >>> foo()
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     UnboundLocalError: cannot access local variable 'x' where it is not associated with a value

Αυτό συμβαίνει επειδή όταν κάνετε μια ανάθεση σε μια μεταβλητή σε ένα
εύρος, αυτή η μεταβλητή γίνεται τοπική σε αυτό το εύρος και σκιάζει
οποιαδήποτε μεταβλητή με παρόμοιο όνομα στο εξωτερικό εύρος.  Εφόσον η
τελευταία πρόταση στο foo εκχωρεί μια νέα τιμή στο ‘x’, ο μεταγλωττιστής
την αναγνωρίζει ως τοπική μεταβλητή.  Κατά συνέπεια όταν η προηγούμενη
‘print(x)’ επιχειρεί να εκτυπώσει την uninitialized τοπική μεταβλητή και
προκύπτει σφάλμα.

Στο παραπάνω παράδειγμα, μπορείτε να αποκτήσετε πρόσβαση στη μεταβλητή
εξωτερικού εύρους δηλώνοντας την ως καθολική:

     >>> x = 10
     >>> def foobar():
     ...     global x
     ...     print(x)
     ...     x += 1
     ...
     >>> foobar()
     10

Αυτή η ρητή δήλωση απαιτείται για να σας υπενθυμίσει ότι (σε αντίθεση με
την επιφανειακά ανάλογη κατάσταση με τις μεταβλητές κλάσης και
στιγμιότυπου) στην πραγματικότητα τροποποιείτε την τιμή της μεταβλητής
στο εξωτερικό πεδίο:

     >>> print(x)
     11

Μπορείτε να κάνετε κάτι παρόμοιο σε ένα ένθετο πεδίο χρησιμοποιώντας τη
λέξη κλειδί *note nonlocal: 164c.:

     >>> def foo():
     ...    x = 10
     ...    def bar():
     ...        nonlocal x
     ...        print(x)
     ...        x += 1
     ...    bar()
     ...    print(x)
     ...
     >>> foo()
     10
     11


File: python.info,  Node: Ποιοι είναι οι κανόνες για τις τοπικές και τις καθολικές μεταβλητές στην Python;,  Next: Γιατί τα lambdas που ορίζονται σε έναν βρόχο με διαφορετικές τιμές επιστρέφουν όλα το ίδιο αποτέλεσμα;,  Prev: Γιατί λαμβάνω ένα UnboundLocalError όταν η μεταβλητή έχει μια τιμή;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.2 Ποιοι είναι οι κανόνες για τις τοπικές και τις καθολικές μεταβλητές στην Python;
.........................................................................................

Στην Python, οι μεταβλητές που αναφέρονται μόνο μέσα σε μια συνάρτηση
είναι έμμεσα καθολικές.  Εάν σε μια μεταβλητή εκχωρηθεί μια τιμή
οπουδήποτε μέσα στο σώμα της συνάρτησης, θεωρείται ότι είναι τοπική,
εκτός αν δηλωθεί ρητά ως καθολική.

Αν και είναι λίγο έκπληξη στην αρχή, αυτό το εξηγεί μια στιγμή.  Από τη
μία πλευρά η απαίτηση *note global: 6b5. για εκχωρημένες μεταβλητές
παρέχει μια γραμμή έναντι ανεπιθύμητων παρενεργειών.  Από την άλλη, εάν
απαιτείται ‘global’ για όλες τις καθολικές αναφορές, θα χρησιμοποιούσατε
‘global’ όλη την ώρα.  Θα έπρεπε να δηλώσετε ως καθολική κάθε αναφορά σε
μια ενσωματωμένη λειτουργία ή σε ένα στοιχείο ενός εισαγόμενου module.
Αυτή η ακαταστασία θα νικήσει την χρησιμότητα της δήλωσης ‘global’ για
τον εντοπισμό παρενεργειών.


File: python.info,  Node: Γιατί τα lambdas που ορίζονται σε έναν βρόχο με διαφορετικές τιμές επιστρέφουν όλα το ίδιο αποτέλεσμα;,  Next: Πως μοιράζομαι καθολικές μεταβλητές σε modules;,  Prev: Ποιοι είναι οι κανόνες για τις τοπικές και τις καθολικές μεταβλητές στην Python;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.3 Γιατί τα lambdas που ορίζονται σε έναν βρόχο με διαφορετικές τιμές επιστρέφουν όλα το ίδιο αποτέλεσμα;
...............................................................................................................

Assume you use a for loop to define a few different lambdas (or even
plain functions), for example:

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(5):
     ...     squares.append(lambda: x**2)

Αυτό σας δίνει μια λίστα που περιέχει 5 lambdas που υπολογίζουν το
‘x**2’.  Μπορεί να περιμένετε ότι, όταν καλέσετε, θα επέστρεφαν,
αντίστοιχα, ‘0’, ‘1’, ‘4’, ‘9’ και ‘16’.  Ωστόσο, όταν δοκιμάσετε
πραγματικά θα δείτε ότι όλα επιστρέφουν ‘16’:

     >>> squares[2]()
     16
     >>> squares[4]()
     16

This happens because ‘x’ is not local to the lambdas, but is defined in
the outer scope, and it is accessed when the lambda is called — not when
it is defined.  At the end of the loop, the value of ‘x’ is ‘4’, so all
the functions now return ‘4**2’, that is ‘16’.  You can also verify this
by changing the value of ‘x’ and see how the results of the lambdas
change:

     >>> x = 8
     >>> squares[2]()
     64

Για να το αποφύγετε αυτό, πρέπει να αποθηκεύσετε τις τιμές σε μεταβλητές
τοπικές στο lambda, έτσι ώστε να μην βασίζονται στην τιμή του καθολικού
‘x’:

     >>> squares = []
     >>> for x in range(5):
     ...     squares.append(lambda n=x: n**2)

Εδώ, το ‘n=x’ δημιουργεί μια νέα μεταβλητή ‘n’ τοπική στο lambda και
υπολογίζεται όταν το lambda ορίζεται έτσι ώστε να έχει την ίδια τιμή που
είχε το ‘x’ σε εκείνο το σημείο βρόχου.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι η τιμή του
‘n’ θα είναι ‘0’ στο πρώτο lambda, ‘1’ στο δεύτερο , ‘2’ στο τρίτο και
ούτω καθεξής.  Επομένως κάθε lambda θα επιστρέψει τώρα το σωστό
αποτέλεσμα:

     >>> squares[2]()
     4
     >>> squares[4]()
     16

Σημειώστε ότι αυτή η συμπεριφορά δεν είναι ιδιόμορφη για το lambdas,
αλλά ισχύει και για κανονικές λειτουργίες.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μοιράζομαι καθολικές μεταβλητές σε modules;,  Next: Ποιες είναι οι «βέλτιστες πρακτικές» για τη χρήση import σε ένα module;,  Prev: Γιατί τα lambdas που ορίζονται σε έναν βρόχο με διαφορετικές τιμές επιστρέφουν όλα το ίδιο αποτέλεσμα;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.4 Πως μοιράζομαι καθολικές μεταβλητές σε modules;
........................................................

Ο κανονικός τρόπος για να μοιράζεστε πληροφορίες μεταξύ των λειτουργικών
μονάδων μέσα σε ένα μόνο πρόγραμμα είναι η δημιουργία ενός ειδικού
module (συχνά ονομάζεται config ή cfg).  Απλώς εισαγάγετε το module
διαμόρφωσης σε όλες τα modules της εφαρμογής σας∙ το module στην
συνέχεια γίνεται διαθέσιμο ως παγκόσμιο όνομα.  Επειδή υπάρχει μόνο ένα
παράδειγμα για κάθε module , οι αλλαγές που γίνονται στο αντικείμενο του
module αντικατοπτρίζονται παντού.  Για παράδειγμα:

config.py:

     x = 0   # Default value of the 'x' configuration setting

mod.py:

     import config
     config.x = 1

main.py:

     import config
     import mod
     print(config.x)

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι η χρήση ενός module είναι επίσης η βάση για την
εφαρμογή του μοτίβου σχεδιασμού singleton, για τον ίδιο λόγο.


File: python.info,  Node: Ποιες είναι οι «βέλτιστες πρακτικές» για τη χρήση import σε ένα module;,  Next: Γιατί μοιράζονται οι προεπιλεγμένες τιμές μεταξύ των αντικειμένων;,  Prev: Πως μοιράζομαι καθολικές μεταβλητές σε modules;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.5 Ποιες είναι οι «βέλτιστες πρακτικές» για τη χρήση import σε ένα module;
................................................................................

Γενικά, μην χρησιμοποιείτε ‘from modulename import *’.  Κάτι τέτοιο
δημιουργεί μια ακαταστασία στο importer’s namespace, και καθιστά πιο
δύσκολο για τα linters να εντοπίσουν απροσδιόριστα ονόματα.

Εισαγωγή modules στην κορυφή ενός αρχείου.  Με αυτόν τον τρόπο καθιστά
σαφές ποια άλλα modules απαιτεί ο κώδικας σας και αποφεύγονται ερωτήσεις
σχετικά με το αν το όνομα της μονάδας είναι εντός πεδίου.
Χρησιμοποιώντας ένα import ανά γραμμή καθιστά εύκολη την προσθήκη και τη
διαγραφή module imports, αλλά χρησιμοποιώντας πολλαπλά imports ανά
γραμμής καταναλώνεται λιγότερος χώρος στην οθόνη.

Είναι καλή πρακτική εάν εισάγετε module με την ακόλουθη σειρά:

  1. standard library modules – such as *note sys: e2, *note os: a5,
     *note argparse: 7, *note re: c1.

  2. third-party library modules (anything installed in Python’s
     site-packages directory) – such as dateutil(1), requests(2),
     tzdata(3)

  3. τοπικά αναπτυγμένα modules

Μερικές φορές είναι απαραίτητο να μετακινηθούν οι εισαγωγές σε μια
συνάρτηση ή κλάση για να αποφευχθούν προβλήματα με τις κυκλικές
εισαγωγές.  Ο Gordon McMillan λέει:

     Οι κυκλικές εισαγωγές είναι καλές όταν και τα δύο modules
     χρησιμοποιούν τη μορφή εισαγωγής «import <module>».  Αποτυγχάνουν
     όταν το 2ο module θέλει να πάρει ένα όνομα από το πρώτο («from
     module import name») και η εισαγωγή είναι στο κορυφαίο επίπεδο.
     Αυτό συμβαίνει επειδή το πρώτο module είναι απασχολημένο με την
     εισαγωγή του 2ου.

Σε αυτήν την περίπτωση, εάν το δεύτερο module χρησιμοποιείται μόνο σε
μια συνάρτηση, τότε η εισαγωγή μπορεί εύκολα να μεταφερθεί μέσα σε αυτήν
την συνάρτηση.  Από τη στιγμή που καλείται η εισαγωγή, το πρώτο module
θα έχει ολοκληρώσει την αρχικοποίηση, και το δεύτερο module μπορεί να
κάνει την εισαγωγή του.

Μπορεί επίσης να είναι απαραίτητο να μετακινήσετε τις εισαγωγές από το
ανώτερο επίπεδο κώδικα, εάν ορισμένα από τα module είναι συγκεκριμένα
για την πλατφόρμα.  Σε αυτήν την περίπτωση, ενδέχεται να μην είναι καν
δυνατή η εισαγωγή όλων των modules στο επάνω μέρος του αρχείου.  Σε
αυτήν την περίπτωση, η εισαγωγή των σωστών modules στον αντίστοιχο
κώδικα για συγκεκριμένη πλατφόρμα είναι μια καλή επιλογή.

Μετακινήστε τις εισαγωγές σε τοπικό πεδίο, όπως μέσα σε έναν ορισμό
συνάρτησης, μόνο εάν είναι απαραίτητο να λυθεί ένα πρόβλημα όπως η
αποφυγή μιας κυκλικής εισαγωγής ή εάν προσπαθείτε να μειώσετε τον χρόνο
προετοιμασίας μιας μονάδας.  Αυτή η τεχνική είναι ιδιαίτερα χρήσιμη εάν
πολλές από τις εισαγωγές δεν είναι απαραίτητες ανάλογα με τον τρόπο
εκτέλεσης του προγράμματος.  Μπορείτε επίσης να θέλετε να μετακινήσετε
τις εισαγωγές σε μια συνάρτηση εάν τα modules χρησιμοποιούνται μόνο σε
αυτήν τη συνάρτηση.  Λάβετε υπόψη ότι η φόρτωση ενός module την πρώτη
φορά μπορεί να είναι δαπανηρή λόγω της μιας φοράς της αρχικοποίησης του
module, αλλά η φόρτωση ενός module πολλές φορές είναι σχεδόν δωρεάν,
κοστίζοντας μόνο μερικές αναζητήσεις σε λεξικό.  Ακόμα και αν το όνομα
του module έχει ξεφύγει από το πεδίο εφαρμογής του, το module είναι
πιθανώς διαθέσιμο στο *note sys.modules: 19ba.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/dateutil/

   (2) https://pypi.org/project/requests/

   (3) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/


File: python.info,  Node: Γιατί μοιράζονται οι προεπιλεγμένες τιμές μεταξύ των αντικειμένων;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να μεταβιβάσω προαιρετικές παραμέτρους ή παραμέτρους λέξεων-κλειδιών από τη μια συνάρτηση στην άλλη;,  Prev: Ποιες είναι οι «βέλτιστες πρακτικές» για τη χρήση import σε ένα module;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.6 Γιατί μοιράζονται οι προεπιλεγμένες τιμές μεταξύ των αντικειμένων;
...........................................................................

Αυτός ο τύπος σφάλματος συνήθως δαγκώνει νεοφυείς προγραμματιστές.
Σκεφτείτε αυτήν τη συνάρτηση:

     def foo(mydict={}):  # Danger: shared reference to one dict for all calls
         ... compute something ...
         mydict[key] = value
         return mydict

Την πρώτη φορά που καλείτε αυτήν την συνάρτηση, το ‘mydict’ περιέχει ένα
μεμονωμένο στοιχείο.  Τη δεύτερη φορά, το ‘mydict’ περιέχει δύο στοιχεία
γιατί όταν το ‘foo()’ ξεκινά την εκτέλεση, το ‘mydict’ ξεκινά με ένα
αντικείμενο ήδη μέσα.

Συχνά αναμένεται ότι μια κλήση συνάρτησης δημιουργεί νέα αντικείμενα για
προεπιλεγμένες τιμές.  Δεν συμβαίνει αυτό.  Οι προεπιλεγμένες τιμές
δημιουργούνται ακριβώς μία φορά, όταν ορίζεται η συνάρτηση.  Εάν αυτό το
αντικείμενο αλλάξει, όπως το λεξικό σε αυτό το παράδειγμα, επόμενες
κλήσεις στην συνάρτηση θα αναφέρονται σε αυτό το αλλαγμένο αντικείμενο.

Εξ ορισμού, αμετάβλητα αντικείμενα όπως αριθμοί, συμβολοσειρές, πλειάδες
και ‘None’ , είναι ασφαλή από αλλαγές.  Οι αλλαγές σε μεταβλητά
αντικείμενα όπως λεξικά, λίστες και παρουσίες κλάσεων μπορεί να
οδηγήσουν σε σύγχυση.

Λόγω αυτής της δυνατότητας, είναι καλή πρακτική προγραμματισμού να μην
χρησιμοποιείτε μεταβλητά αντικείμενα ως προεπιλεγμένες τιμές.  Αντίθετα,
χρησιμοποιείστε ‘None’ ως προεπιλεγμένη τιμή και μέσα στην συνάρτηση,
ελέγξτε εάν η παράμετρος είναι ‘None’ και δημιουργήστε μια νέα
λίστα/λεξικά/ό,τι και αν είναι.  Για παράδειγμα μην γράψετε:

     def foo(mydict={}):
         ...

αλλά:

     def foo(mydict=None):
         if mydict is None:
             mydict = {}  # create a new dict for local namespace

Αυτή η δυνατότητα μπορεί να είναι χρήσιμη.  Όταν έχετε μια συνάρτηση που
είναι χρονοβόρα για τον υπολογισμό, μια κοινή τεχνική είναι να
αποθηκεύσετε προσωρινά τις παραμέτρους και την επιστρεφόμενη τιμή κάθε
κλήσης στη συνάρτηση και να επιστρέφετε την προσωρινά αποθηκευμένη τιμή
εάν ζητηθεί ξανά η ίδια τιμή.  Αυτό ονομάζεται «memoizing», και μπορεί
να εφαρμοστεί ως εξής:

     # Callers can only provide two parameters and optionally pass _cache by keyword
     def expensive(arg1, arg2, *, _cache={}):
         if (arg1, arg2) in _cache:
             return _cache[(arg1, arg2)]

         # Calculate the value
         result = ... expensive computation ...
         _cache[(arg1, arg2)] = result           # Store result in the cache
         return result

Θα μπορούσατε να χρησιμοποιήσετε μια καθολική μεταβλητή που περιέχει ένα
λεξικό αντί για την προεπιλεγμένη τιμή∙ Είναι θέμα γούστου.


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορώ να μεταβιβάσω προαιρετικές παραμέτρους ή παραμέτρους λέξεων-κλειδιών από τη μια συνάρτηση στην άλλη;,  Next: Ποια είναι η διαφορά μεταξύ ορισμάτων και παραμέτρων;,  Prev: Γιατί μοιράζονται οι προεπιλεγμένες τιμές μεταξύ των αντικειμένων;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.7 Πώς μπορώ να μεταβιβάσω προαιρετικές παραμέτρους ή παραμέτρους λέξεων-κλειδιών από τη μια συνάρτηση στην άλλη;
.......................................................................................................................

Συλλέξτε τα ορίσματα χρησιμοποιώντας τους specifiers ‘*’ και ‘**’ στη
λίστα παραμέτρων της συνάρτησης∙ Αυτό σας δίνει τα ορίσματα θέσης ως
πλειάδα και τα ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών ως λεξικό.  Στη συνέχεια,
μπορείτε να μεταβιβάσετε αυτά τα ορίσματα κατά την κλήση άλλης
συνάρτησης με τη χρήση των ‘*’ και ‘**’:

     def f(x, *args, **kwargs):
         ...
         kwargs['width'] = '14.3c'
         ...
         g(x, *args, **kwargs)


File: python.info,  Node: Ποια είναι η διαφορά μεταξύ ορισμάτων και παραμέτρων;,  Next: Γιατί η αλλαγή της λίστας “y” αλλάζει επίσης και τη λίστα “x”;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να μεταβιβάσω προαιρετικές παραμέτρους ή παραμέτρους λέξεων-κλειδιών από τη μια συνάρτηση στην άλλη;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.8 Ποια είναι η διαφορά μεταξύ ορισμάτων και παραμέτρων;
..............................................................

*note Παράμετροι: 253c. ορίζονται από τα ονόματα που εμφανίζονται στον
ορισμό μιας συνάρτησης, ενώ τα *note ορίσματα: 867. είναι οι τιμές που
πραγματικά μεταβιβάζονται σε μια συνάρτηση κατά την κλήση της.  Οι
παράμετροι ορίζουν τι kind of arguments μπορεί να δεχτεί μια συνάρτηση.
Για παράδειγμα δεδομένου του ορισμού της συνάρτησης:

     def func(foo, bar=None, **kwargs):
         pass

'foo', 'bar' και 'kwargs' είναι παράμετροι της ‘func’.  Ωστόσο, όταν
καλείται η ‘func’, για παράδειγμα:

     func(42, bar=314, extra=somevar)

οι τιμές ‘42’, ‘314’, και ‘somevar’ είναι ορίσματα.


File: python.info,  Node: Γιατί η αλλαγή της λίστας “y” αλλάζει επίσης και τη λίστα “x”;,  Next: Πως μπορώ να γράψω μια συνάρτηση με παραμέτρους εξόδου κλήση με αναφορά ;,  Prev: Ποια είναι η διαφορά μεταξύ ορισμάτων και παραμέτρων;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.9 Γιατί η αλλαγή της λίστας “y” αλλάζει επίσης και τη λίστα “x”;
.......................................................................

Αν γράψατε κώδικα όπως:

     >>> x = []
     >>> y = x
     >>> y.append(10)
     >>> y
     [10]
     >>> x
     [10]

μπορεί να αναρωτιέστε γιατί η προσθήκη ενός στοιχείου στο ‘y’ άλλαξε
επίσης το ‘x’.

Υπάρχουν δύο παράγοντες που παράγουν αυτό το αποτέλεσμα:

  1. Οι μεταβλητές είναι απλά ονόματα που αναφέρονται σε αντικείμενα.
     Κανόνας ‘y = x’ δεν δημιουργείται αντίγραφο της λίστας – δημιουργεί
     μια νέα μεταβλητή ‘y’ που αναφέρεται στο ίδιο αντικείμενο που
     αναφέρεται το ‘x’.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι υπάρχει μόνο ένα αντικείμενο
     (η λίστα), και το ‘x’ και το ‘y’ αναφέρονται σε αυτό.

  2. Οι λίστες είναι *note mutable: 21d1, που σημαίνει ότι μπορείτε να
     αλλάξετε το περιεχόμενό τους.

Μετά την κλήση στο *note append(): 25cb, το περιεχόμενο του μεταβλητού
αντικειμένου έχει αλλάξει από ‘[]’ σε ‘[10]’.  Επειδή και οι δύο
μεταβλητές αναφέρονται στο ίδιο αντικείμενο, χρησιμοποιώντας οποιοδήποτε
όνομα αποκτά πρόσβαση στην τροποποιημένη τιμή ‘[10]’.

Αν αντιστοιχίσουμε ένα αμετάβλητο αντικείμενο σε ‘x’:

     >>> x = 5  # ints are immutable
     >>> y = x
     >>> x = x + 1  # 5 can't be mutated, we are creating a new object here
     >>> x
     6
     >>> y
     5

μπορούμε να δούμε ότι σε αυτήν την περίπτωση ‘x’ και ‘y’ δεν είναι πλέον
ίσα.  Αυτό συμβαίνει επειδή οι ακέραιοι αριθμοί είναι *note immutable:
181, και όταν κάνουμε ‘x = x + 1’ δεν μεταλλάσσεται το int ‘5’
αυξάνοντας την τιμή του∙ αντίθετα, δημιουργούμε ένα νέο αντικείμενο (το
int ‘6’) και το εκχωρούμε στο ‘x’ (δηλαδή, αλλάζοντας το αντικείμενο στο
οποίο αναφέρεται το ‘x’).  Μετά από αυτήν την ανάθεση έχουμε δύο
αντικείμενα (τα ints ‘6’ and ‘5’) και δύο μεταβλητές που αναφέρονται σε
αυτά (‘x’ τώρα αναφέρεται σε ‘6’ αλλά ‘y’ ακόμα αναφέρεται στο ‘5’).

Ορισμένες λειτουργίες (για παράδειγμα ‘y.append(10)’ και ‘y.sort()’)
μεταλλάσσουν το αντικείμενο, ενώ επιφανειακά παρόμοιες πράξεις (για
παράδειγμα ‘y = y + [10]’ και *note sorted(y): f8c.) δημιουργούν ένα νέο
αντικείμενο.  Γενικά στην Python (και σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις στην
τυπική βιβλιοθήκη) μια μέθοδος που μεταλλάσσει ένα αντικείμενο θα
επιστρέψει ‘None’ για να αποφύγει τη σύγχυση των δύο τύπων πράξεων.
Επομένως, εάν γράψετε κατά λάθος ‘y.sort()’ νομίζοντας ότι θα σας δώσει
ένα ταξινομημένο αντίγραφο του ‘y’, θα καταλήξετε με ‘None’, το οποίο
πιθανότατα θα προκαλέσει το πρόγραμμά σας να δημιουργήσει ένα λάθος το
οποίο διαγιγνώσκεται εύκολα.

Ωστόσο, υπάρχει μία κατηγορία λειτουργιών όπου η ίδια πράξη έχει μερικές
φορές διαφορετικές συμπεριφορές με διαφορετικούς τύπους: οι επαυξημένοι
τελεστές ανάθεσης.  Για παράδειγμα, ‘+=’ μεταλλάσσει τις λίστες αλλά όχι
τις πλειάδες ή τους ints (‘a_list += [1, 2, 3]’ είναι ίσο με
‘a_list.extend([1, 2, 3])’ και μεταλλάσσει ‘a_list’, ενώ το ‘some_tuple
+= (1, 2, 3)’ και ‘some_int += 1’ δημιουργεί νέα αντικείμενα).

Με άλλα λόγια:

   * If we have a mutable object (such as *note list: 4d9, *note dict:
     188, *note set: 42b.), we can use some specific operations to
     mutate it and all the variables that refer to it will see the
     change.

   * If we have an immutable object (such as *note str: 1df, *note int:
     326, *note tuple: 1ce.), all the variables that refer to it will
     always see the same value, but operations that transform that value
     into a new value always return a new object.

Εάν θέλετε να γνωρίζετε εάν δύο μεταβλητές αναφέρονται στο ίδιο
αντικείμενο ή όχι, μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε τον *note is: 324.
operator, ή την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note id(): 17c5.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να γράψω μια συνάρτηση με παραμέτρους εξόδου κλήση με αναφορά ;,  Next: Πως δημιουργείτε μια συνάρτηση υψηλότερης τάξης στην Python;,  Prev: Γιατί η αλλαγή της λίστας “y” αλλάζει επίσης και τη λίστα “x”;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.10 Πως μπορώ να γράψω μια συνάρτηση με παραμέτρους εξόδου (κλήση με αναφορά);
....................................................................................

Remember that arguments are passed by assignment in Python.  Since
assignment just creates references to objects, there’s no alias between
an argument name in the caller and callee, and consequently no
call-by-reference.  You can achieve the desired effect in a number of
ways.

  1. Επιστρέφοντας μια πλειάδα των αποτελεσμάτων:

          >>> def func1(a, b):
          ...     a = 'new-value'        # a and b are local names
          ...     b = b + 1              # assigned to new objects
          ...     return a, b            # return new values
          ...
          >>> x, y = 'old-value', 99
          >>> func1(x, y)
          ('new-value', 100)

     Αυτή είναι σχεδόν πάντα η πιο ξεκάθαρη λύση.

  2. Χρησιμοποιώντας καθολικές μεταβλητές.  Αυτό δεν είναι ασφαλές για
     νήμα και δεν συνίσταται.

  3. Περνώντας ένα μεταβλητό (με δυνατότητα αλλαγής επί τόπου)
     αντικείμενο:

          >>> def func2(a):
          ...     a[0] = 'new-value'     # 'a' references a mutable list
          ...     a[1] = a[1] + 1        # changes a shared object
          ...
          >>> args = ['old-value', 99]
          >>> func2(args)
          >>> args
          ['new-value', 100]

  4. Περνώντας σε ένα λεξικό που μεταλλάσσεται:

          >>> def func3(args):
          ...     args['a'] = 'new-value'     # args is a mutable dictionary
          ...     args['b'] = args['b'] + 1   # change it in-place
          ...
          >>> args = {'a': 'old-value', 'b': 99}
          >>> func3(args)
          >>> args
          {'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100}

  5. Ή ομαδοποιήστε τιμές σε μια παρουσία κλάσης:

          >>> class Namespace:
          ...     def __init__(self, /, **args):
          ...         for key, value in args.items():
          ...             setattr(self, key, value)
          ...
          >>> def func4(args):
          ...     args.a = 'new-value'        # args is a mutable Namespace
          ...     args.b = args.b + 1         # change object in-place
          ...
          >>> args = Namespace(a='old-value', b=99)
          >>> func4(args)
          >>> vars(args)
          {'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100}

     Δεν υπάρχει σχεδόν ποτέ καλός λόγος να γίνει αυτό περίπλοκο.

Η καλύτερη επιλογή σας είναι να επιστρέψετε μια πλειάδα που περιέχει
πολλαπλά αποτελέσματα.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως δημιουργείτε μια συνάρτηση υψηλότερης τάξης στην Python;,  Next: Πως μπορώ να αντιγράψω ένα αντικείμενο στην Python;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να γράψω μια συνάρτηση με παραμέτρους εξόδου κλήση με αναφορά ;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.11 Πως δημιουργείτε μια συνάρτηση υψηλότερης τάξης στην Python;
......................................................................

Έχετε δύο επιλογές: μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε ένθετα πεδία ή μπορείτε
να χρησιμοποιήσετε callable αντικείμενα.  Για παράδειγμα, ας υποθέσουμε
ότι θέλετε να ορίσετε το ‘linear(a,b)’ που επιστρέφει μια συνάρτηση
‘f(x)’ που υπολογίζει την τιμή ‘a*x+b’.  Χρησιμοποιώντας ένθετα πεδία:

     def linear(a, b):
         def result(x):
             return a * x + b
         return result

Ή χρησιμοποιώντας ένα callable αντικείμενο:

     class linear:

         def __init__(self, a, b):
             self.a, self.b = a, b

         def __call__(self, x):
             return self.a * x + self.b

Και στις δύο περιπτώσεις:

     taxes = linear(0.3, 2)

δίνει ένα callable αντικείμενο όπου ‘taxes(10e6) == 0.3 * 10e6 + 2’.

Η προσέγγιση του callable αντικειμένου έχει το μειονέκτημα ότι είναι
λίγο πιο αργή και οδηγεί σε ελαφρώς μεγαλύτερο κώδικα.  Ωστόσο,
σημειώστε ότι μια συλλογή από callables μπορεί να μοιραστεί την υπογραφή
τους μέσω κληρονομικότητας:

     class exponential(linear):
         # __init__ inherited
         def __call__(self, x):
             return self.a * (x ** self.b)

Το αντικείμενο μπορεί να ενθυλακώσει την κατάσταση για πολλές μεθόδους:

     class counter:

         value = 0

         def set(self, x):
             self.value = x

         def up(self):
             self.value = self.value + 1

         def down(self):
             self.value = self.value - 1

     count = counter()
     inc, dec, reset = count.up, count.down, count.set

Εδώ ‘inc()’, ‘dec()’ και ‘reset()’ λειτουργούν σαν συναρτήσεις που
μοιράζονται την ίδια μεταβλητή μέτρησης.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να αντιγράψω ένα αντικείμενο στην Python;,  Next: Πως μπορώ να βρω τις μεθόδους ή τα χαρακτηριστικά ενός αντικειμένου;,  Prev: Πως δημιουργείτε μια συνάρτηση υψηλότερης τάξης στην Python;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.12 Πως μπορώ να αντιγράψω ένα αντικείμενο στην Python;
.............................................................

Γενικά, δοκιμάστε *note copy.copy(): 942. ή *note copy.deepcopy(): f2b.
για τη γενική περίπτωση.  Δεν μπορούν να αντιγραφούν όλα τα αντικείμενα,
αλλά τα περισσότερα μπορούν.

Ορισμένα αντικείμενα μπορούν να αντιγραφούν πιο εύκολα.  Τα λεξικά έχουν
μία μέθοδο *note copy(): f8e.:

     newdict = olddict.copy()

Οι ακολουθίες μπορούν να αντιγραφούν με τεμαχισμό:

     new_l = l[:]


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να βρω τις μεθόδους ή τα χαρακτηριστικά ενός αντικειμένου;,  Next: Πως μπορεί ο κώδικας μου να ανακαλύψει το όνομα ενός αντικειμένου;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να αντιγράψω ένα αντικείμενο στην Python;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.13 Πως μπορώ να βρω τις μεθόδους ή τα χαρακτηριστικά ενός αντικειμένου;
..............................................................................

Για παράδειγμα μια κλάση ‘x’ που ορίζεται από το χρήστη, *note dir(x):
a23. επιστρέφει μια αλφαβητική λίστα με τα ονόματα που περιέχει τα
χαρακτηριστικά της οντότητας και τις μεθόδους και τα χαρακτηριστικά που
ορίζονται από την κλάση του.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορεί ο κώδικας μου να ανακαλύψει το όνομα ενός αντικειμένου;,  Next: Τι συμβαίνει με την προτεραιότητα του τελεστή κόμματος;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να βρω τις μεθόδους ή τα χαρακτηριστικά ενός αντικειμένου;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.14 Πως μπορεί ο κώδικας μου να ανακαλύψει το όνομα ενός αντικειμένου;
............................................................................

Γενικά μιλώντας, δεν μπορεί, επειδή τα αντικείμενα δεν έχουνε πραγματικά
ονόματα.  Ουσιαστικά, η εκχώρηση δεσμεύει πάντα ένα όνομα σε μια τιμή∙
το ίδιο ισχύει για τις δηλώσεις ‘def’ και ‘class’, αλλά σε αυτή την
περίπτωση η τιμή είναι callable.  Λάβετε υπόψη τον ακόλουθο κώδικα:

     >>> class A:
     ...     pass
     ...
     >>> B = A
     >>> a = B()
     >>> b = a
     >>> print(b)
     <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>
     >>> print(a)
     <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC>

Αναμφισβήτητα η κλάση έχει ένα όνομα: παρόλο που είναι δεσμευμένη σε δύο
ονόματα και καλείται μέσω του ονόματος ‘B’ η δημιουργημένη οντότητα
εξακολουθεί να αναφέρεται ως οντότητα της κλάσης ‘A’.  Ωστόσο, είναι
αδύνατο να πούμε είτε το όνομα της οντότητας είναι ‘a’ ή ‘b’, καθώς και
τα δύο ονόματα συνδέονται με την ίδια τιμή.

Γενικά μιλώντας, δεν θα πρέπει να είναι απαραίτητο ο κώδικας σας να
«γνωρίζει τα ονόματα» συγκεκριμένων τιμών.  Αν δεν γράφετε εσκεμμένα
ενδοσκοπικά (introspective) προγράμματα, αυτό είναι συνήθως μια ένδειξη
ότι μια αλλαγή προσέγγισης μπορεί να είναι επωφελής.

Στο comp.lang.python, ο Fredrik Lundh έδωσε μια εξαιρετική αναλογία ως
απάντηση σε αυτήν την ερώτηση:

     Με το ίδιο τρόπο που παίρνετε το όνομα αυτής της γάτας που βρήκατε
     στη βεράντα σας: ή ίδια γάτα (αντικείμενο) δεν μπορεί να σας πει το
     όνομά της και δεν την ενδιαφέρει πραγματικά - έτσι ο μόνος τρόπος
     για να μάθετε πως λέγεται είναι να ρωτήσετε όλους τους γείτονές σας
     (namespaces) αν είναι η γάτα τους (αντικείμενο)…

     ….και μην εκπλαγείτε αν διαπιστώσετε ότι είναι γνωστό με πολλά
     ονόματα, ή κανένα όνομα!


File: python.info,  Node: Τι συμβαίνει με την προτεραιότητα του τελεστή κόμματος;,  Next: Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο του τριαδικού τελεστή «? » της C;,  Prev: Πως μπορεί ο κώδικας μου να ανακαλύψει το όνομα ενός αντικειμένου;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.15 Τι συμβαίνει με την προτεραιότητα του τελεστή κόμματος;
.................................................................

Το κόμμα δεν είναι τελεστής στην Python.  Σκεφτείτε αυτήν την συνεδρία:

     >>> "a" in "b", "a"
     (False, 'a')

Δεδομένου ότι το κόμμα δεν είναι τελεστής, αλλά διαχωριστικό μεταξύ των
εκφράσεων, τα παραπάνω αξιολογούνται σαν να είχατε εισαγάγει:

     ("a" in "b"), "a"

δεν:

     "a" in ("b", "a")

The same is true of the various assignment operators (‘=’, ‘+=’, and so
on).  They are not truly operators but syntactic delimiters in
assignment statements.


File: python.info,  Node: Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο του τριαδικού τελεστή «? » της C;,  Next: Είναι δυνατόν να γράψουμε ασαφή one-liners στην Python;,  Prev: Τι συμβαίνει με την προτεραιότητα του τελεστή κόμματος;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.16 Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο του τριαδικού τελεστή «?:» της C;
.............................................................

Ναι υπάρχει, Η σύνταξη έχει ως εξής:

     [on_true] if [expression] else [on_false]

     x, y = 50, 25
     small = x if x < y else y

Πριν εισαχθεί αυτή η σύνταξη στην Python 2.5, ένα κοινό ιδίωμα ήταν η
χρήση λογικών τελεστών:

     [έκφραση] and [αληθές] or [ψευδές]

Ωστόσο, αυτό το ιδίωμα δεν είναι ασφαλές, καθώς μπορεί να δώσει
λανθασμένα αποτελέσματα όταν το 'on_true' έχει ψευδή δυαδική τιμή.
Επομένως, είναι πάντα καλύτερο να χρησιμοποιήσετε τη φόρμα ‘... if ...
else ...’.


File: python.info,  Node: Είναι δυνατόν να γράψουμε ασαφή one-liners στην Python;,  Next: Τι σημαίνει η κάθετος / στη λίστα παραμέτρων μιας συνάρτησης;,  Prev: Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο του τριαδικού τελεστή «? » της C;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.17 Είναι δυνατόν να γράψουμε ασαφή one-liners στην Python;
.................................................................

Ναι.  Συνήθως αυτό γίνεται με ένθεση του *note lambda: 1642. εντός του
‘lambda’.  Δείτε τα ακόλουθα τρία παραδείγματα, ελαφρώς προσαρμοσμένα
από τον Ulf Bartelt:

     from functools import reduce

     # Primes < 1000
     print(list(filter(None,map(lambda y:y*reduce(lambda x,y:x*y!=0,
     map(lambda x,y=y:y%x,range(2,int(pow(y,0.5)+1))),1),range(2,1000)))))

     # First 10 Fibonacci numbers
     print(list(map(lambda x,f=lambda x,f:(f(x-1,f)+f(x-2,f)) if x>1 else 1:
     f(x,f), range(10))))

     # Mandelbrot set
     print((lambda Ru,Ro,Iu,Io,IM,Sx,Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+'\n'+y,map(lambda y,
     Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,Sy=Sy,L=lambda yc,Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,i=IM,
     Sx=Sx,Sy=Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,map(lambda x,xc=Ru,yc=yc,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,
     i=i,Sx=Sx,F=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f:(k<=0)or (x*x+y*y
     >=4.0) or 1+f(xc,yc,x*x-y*y+xc,2.0*x*y+yc,k-1,f):f(xc,yc,x,y,k,f):chr(
     64+F(Ru+x*(Ro-Ru)/Sx,yc,0,0,i)),range(Sx))):L(Iu+y*(Io-Iu)/Sy),range(Sy
     ))))(-2.1, 0.7, -1.2, 1.2, 30, 80, 24))
     #    \___ ___/  \___ ___/  |   |   |__ lines on screen
     #        V          V      |   |______ columns on screen
     #        |          |      |__________ maximum of "iterations"
     #        |          |_________________ range on y axis
     #        |____________________________ range on x axis

Μην το δοκιμάσετε στο σπίτι, παιδιά!


File: python.info,  Node: Τι σημαίνει η κάθετος / στη λίστα παραμέτρων μιας συνάρτησης;,  Prev: Είναι δυνατόν να γράψουμε ασαφή one-liners στην Python;,  Up: Core language

10.2.2.18 Τι σημαίνει η κάθετος(/) στη λίστα παραμέτρων μιας συνάρτησης;
........................................................................

Μια κάθετος στη λίστα ορισμάτων μιας συνάρτησης υποδηλώνει ότι οι
παράμετροι πριν από αυτήν είναι μόνο θέσης.  Οι παράμετροι μόνο θέσης
είναι εκείνες χωρίς εξωτερικά χρησιμοποιήσιμο όνομα.  Κατά την κλήση
μιας συνάρτησης που δέχεται παραμέτρους μόνο θέσης, τα ορίσματα
αντιστοιχίζονται σε παραμέτρους που βασίζονται αποκλειστικά στη θέση
τους.  Για παράδειγμα η *note divmod(): d6a. είναι μια συνάρτηση που
δέχεται μόνο παραμέτρους θέσης.  Η τεκμηρίωσή τους μοιάζει με αυτό:

     >>> help(divmod)
     Help on built-in function divmod in module builtins:

     divmod(x, y, /)
         Return the tuple (x//y, x%y).  Invariant: div*y + mod == x.

Η κάθετος στο τέλος της λίστας παραμέτρων σημαίνει ότι και οι δύο
παράμετροι είναι μόνο θέσης.  Επομένως, η κλήση της *note divmod(): d6a.
με ορίσματα λέξεων κλειδιών θα οδηγούσε σε σφάλμα:

     >>> divmod(x=3, y=4)
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
     TypeError: divmod() takes no keyword arguments


File: python.info,  Node: Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές,  Next: Απόδοση,  Prev: Core language,  Up: FAQ Προγραμματισμού

10.2.3 Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* Πώς προσδιορίζω δεκαεξαδικούς ή οκταδικούς ακέραιους αριθμούς;::
* Γιατί το -22 // 10 επιστρέφει -3;::
* Πώς μπορώ να πάρω το literal χαρακτηριστικό int αντί για το SyntaxError;::
* Πως μετατρέπω μια συμβολοσειρά σε έναν αριθμό;::
* Πως μετατρέπω έναν αριθμό σε συμβολοσειρά;::
* Πώς μπορώ να τροποποιήσω μια συμβολοσειρά στη θέση της;::
* Πως μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω συμβολοσειρές για να καλέσω συναρτήσεις/μεθόδους;::
* Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο με το Perl’s chomp() για την αφαίρεση των νέων γραμμών από τις συμβολοσειρές;: Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο με το Perl’s chomp για την αφαίρεση των νέων γραμμών από τις συμβολοσειρές;.
* Υπάρχει αντίστοιχο scanf() ή sscanf();: Υπάρχει αντίστοιχο scanf ή sscanf ;.
* Τι σημαίνει το σφάλμα UnicodeDecodeError ή UnicodeEncodeError;::
* Μπορώ να τερματίσω μια ακατέργαστη συμβολοσειρά με περιττό αριθμό backslashes;::


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10.2.3.1 Πώς προσδιορίζω δεκαεξαδικούς ή οκταδικούς ακέραιους αριθμούς;
.......................................................................

Για να καθορίσετε έναν οκταδικό ψηφίο, προηγείται την οκταδικής τιμής με
ένα μηδέν, ¨και μετά ένα πεζό ή κεφαλαίο «o».  Για παράδειγμα, για να
ορίσετε τη μεταβλητή «a» στην οκταδική τιμή «10» (8 σε δεκαδικό),
πληκτρολογήστε:

     >>> a = 0o10
     >>> a
     8

Το δεκαεξαδικό είναι εξίσου εύκολο.  Απλώς προηγείται του δεκαεξαδικού
αριθμού με ένα μηδέν, και μετά ένα πεζό ή κεφαλαίο «x».  Τα δεκαεξαδικά
ψηφία μπορούν να καθοριστούν με πεζά ή κεφαλαία.  Για παράδειγμα, στον
διερμηνέα Python:

     >>> a = 0xa5
     >>> a
     165
     >>> b = 0XB2
     >>> b
     178


File: python.info,  Node: Γιατί το -22 // 10 επιστρέφει -3;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να πάρω το literal χαρακτηριστικό int αντί για το SyntaxError;,  Prev: Πώς προσδιορίζω δεκαεξαδικούς ή οκταδικούς ακέραιους αριθμούς;,  Up: Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές

10.2.3.2 Γιατί το -22 // 10 επιστρέφει -3;
..........................................

Οφείλεται κυρίως στην επιθυμία που το ‘i % j’ να έχει το ίδιο πρόσημο με
το ‘j’.  Εάν το θέλετε αυτό, και θέλετε επίσης:

     i == (i // j) * j + (i % j)

τότε η διαίρεση ακεραίου αριθμού πρέπει να επιστρέψει το υπόλοιπο.  Η C
απαιτεί επίσης να διατηρείται αυτή η ταυτότητα και, στη συνέχεια, οι
μεταγλωττιστές που περικόπτουν το ‘i // j’ πρέπει να κάνουν το ‘i % j’
να έχει το ίδιο πρόσημο με το ‘i’.

Υπάρχουν λίγες πραγματικές περιπτώσεις χρήσης για το ‘i % j’ όταν το ‘j’
είναι αρνητικό.  Όταν το ‘j’ είναι θετικό, υπάρχουν πολλές, και σχεδόν
όλες είναι πιο χρήσιμες για ‘i % j’ να είναι ‘>= 0’.  Εάν το ρολόι λέει
10 τι έλεγε πριν από 200 ώρες; ‘-190 % 12 == 2’ είναι χρήσιμο∙ το ‘-190
% 12 == -10’ είναι ένα σφάλμα που περιμένει να δαγκώσει.


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορώ να πάρω το literal χαρακτηριστικό int αντί για το SyntaxError;,  Next: Πως μετατρέπω μια συμβολοσειρά σε έναν αριθμό;,  Prev: Γιατί το -22 // 10 επιστρέφει -3;,  Up: Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές

10.2.3.3 Πώς μπορώ να πάρω το literal χαρακτηριστικό int αντί για το SyntaxError;
.................................................................................

Η προσπάθεια αναζήτησης ενός literal χαρακτηριστικού ‘int’ με τον
κανονικό τρόπο δίνει ένα *note SyntaxError: 17e. επειδή η περίοδος
θεωρείται ως υποδιαστολή:

     >>> 1.__class__
       File "<stdin>", line 1
       1.__class__
        ^
     SyntaxError: invalid decimal literal

Η λύση είναι να διαχωριστεί το literal από την τελεία είτε με κενό είτε
με παρένθεση.

     >>> 1 .__class__
     <class 'int'>
     >>> (1).__class__
     <class 'int'>


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μετατρέπω μια συμβολοσειρά σε έναν αριθμό;,  Next: Πως μετατρέπω έναν αριθμό σε συμβολοσειρά;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να πάρω το literal χαρακτηριστικό int αντί για το SyntaxError;,  Up: Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές

10.2.3.4 Πως μετατρέπω μια συμβολοσειρά σε έναν αριθμό;
.......................................................

For integers, use the built-in *note int(): 326. type constructor, for
example, ‘int('144') == 144’.  Similarly, *note float(): 327. converts
to a floating-point number, for example, ‘float('144') == 144.0’.

Από προεπιλογή, αυτά ερμηνεύουν τον αριθμό ως δεκαδικό, έτσι ώστε
‘int('0144') == 144’ να είναι αληθές, και το ‘int('0x144')’ να εγείρει
*note ValueError: 277.  Το ‘int(string, base)’ παίρνει τη βάση για
μετατροπή ως δεύτερο προαιρετικό όρισμα, οπότε το ‘int( '0x144', 16) ==
324’.  Εάν η βάση έχει καθοριστεί ως 0, ο αριθμός ερμηνεύεται
χρησιμοποιώντας κανόνες της Python: ένα αρχικό “0o” υποδηλώνει οκταδικό
, και το “0x” δείχνει έναν δεκαεξαδικό αριθμό.

Μην χρησιμοποιείτε την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note eval(): 184. εάν το
μόνο που χρειάζεστε είναι να μετατρέψετε συμβολοσειρές σε αριθμούς.
‘eval()’ θα είναι σημαντικά πιο αργή και παρουσιάζει κίνδυνο ασφαλείας:
κάποιος θα μπορούσε να σας μεταβιβάσει μια έκφραση Python που μπορεί να
έχει ανεπιθύμητες παρενέργειες.  Για παράδειγμα κάποιος θα μπορούσε να
περάσει το ‘__import__('os').system("rm -rf $HOME")’ το οποίο θα
διαγράψει το home φάκελο.

*note eval(): 184. also has the effect of interpreting numbers as Python
expressions, so that, for example, ‘eval('09')’ gives a syntax error
because Python does not allow leading “0” in a decimal number (except
“0”).


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μετατρέπω έναν αριθμό σε συμβολοσειρά;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να τροποποιήσω μια συμβολοσειρά στη θέση της;,  Prev: Πως μετατρέπω μια συμβολοσειρά σε έναν αριθμό;,  Up: Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές

10.2.3.5 Πως μετατρέπω έναν αριθμό σε συμβολοσειρά;
...................................................

For example, to convert the number ‘144’ to the string ‘'144'’, use the
built-in type constructor *note str(): 1df.  If you want a hexadecimal
or octal representation, use the built-in functions *note hex(): 1674.
or *note oct(): 1673.  For fancy formatting, see the *note f-strings:
43a. and *note Format string syntax: 173f. sections.  For example,
‘"{:04d}".format(144)’ yields ‘'0144'’ and ‘"{:.3f}".format(1.0/3.0)’
yields ‘'0.333'’.


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορώ να τροποποιήσω μια συμβολοσειρά στη θέση της;,  Next: Πως μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω συμβολοσειρές για να καλέσω συναρτήσεις/μεθόδους;,  Prev: Πως μετατρέπω έναν αριθμό σε συμβολοσειρά;,  Up: Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές

10.2.3.6 Πώς μπορώ να τροποποιήσω μια συμβολοσειρά στη θέση της;
................................................................

You can’t, because strings are immutable.  In most situations, you
should simply construct a new string from the various parts you want to
assemble it from.  However, if you need an object with the ability to
modify in-place Unicode data, try using an *note io.StringIO: 12d4.
object or the *note array: 8. module:

     >>> import io
     >>> s = "Hello, world"
     >>> sio = io.StringIO(s)
     >>> sio.getvalue()
     'Hello, world'
     >>> sio.seek(7)
     7
     >>> sio.write("there!")
     6
     >>> sio.getvalue()
     'Hello, there!'

     >>> import array
     >>> a = array.array('w', s)
     >>> print(a)
     array('w', 'Hello, world')
     >>> a[0] = 'y'
     >>> print(a)
     array('w', 'yello, world')
     >>> a.tounicode()
     'yello, world'


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω συμβολοσειρές για να καλέσω συναρτήσεις/μεθόδους;,  Next: Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο με το Perl’s chomp για την αφαίρεση των νέων γραμμών από τις συμβολοσειρές;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να τροποποιήσω μια συμβολοσειρά στη θέση της;,  Up: Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές

10.2.3.7 Πως μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω συμβολοσειρές για να καλέσω συναρτήσεις/μεθόδους;
.....................................................................................

Υπάρχουν διάφορες τεχνικές.

   * Το καλύτερο είναι να χρησιμοποιήσετε ένα λεξικό που αντιστοιχίζει
     συμβολοσειρές σε συναρτήσεις.  Το κύριο πλεονέκτημα αυτής της
     τεχνικής είναι ότι οι συμβολοσειρές δεν χρειάζεται να ταιριάζουν με
     τα ονόματα των συναρτήσεων.  Αυτή είναι επίσης η κύρια τεχνική που
     χρησιμοποιείται για την εξομοίωση μιας κατασκευής πεζών-κεφαλαίων:

          def a():
              pass

          def b():
              pass

          dispatch = {'go': a, 'stop': b}  # Note lack of parens for funcs

          dispatch[get_input()]()  # Note trailing parens to call function

   * Χρησιμοποιείστε την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note getattr(): f8f.:

          import foo
          getattr(foo, 'bar')()

     Σημειώστε ότι το *note getattr(): f8f. λειτουργεί σε οποιοδήποτε
     αντικείμενο, συμπεριλαμβανομένων κλάσεων, οντοτήτων κλάσεων,
     modules, και ούτω καθεξής.

     Αυτό χρησιμοποιείται σε πολλά σημεία της τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης, όπως
     αυτό:

          class Foo:
              def do_foo(self):
                  ...

              def do_bar(self):
                  ...

          f = getattr(foo_instance, 'do_' + opname)
          f()

   * Χρησιμοποιήστε το *note locals(): 28b. για να επιλύσετε το όνομα
     της συνάρτησης:

          def myFunc():
              print("hello")

          fname = "myFunc"

          f = locals()[fname]
          f()


File: python.info,  Node: Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο με το Perl’s chomp για την αφαίρεση των νέων γραμμών από τις συμβολοσειρές;,  Next: Υπάρχει αντίστοιχο scanf ή sscanf ;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω συμβολοσειρές για να καλέσω συναρτήσεις/μεθόδους;,  Up: Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές

10.2.3.8 Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο με το Perl’s ‘chomp()’ για την αφαίρεση των νέων γραμμών από τις συμβολοσειρές;
..........................................................................................................

Μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε το ‘S.rstrip("\r\n")’ για να αφαιρέσετε όλες
τις εμφανίσεις οποιουδήποτε terminator γραμμής από το τέλος της
συμβολοσειράς ‘S’ χωρίς να αφαιρέσετε άλλα κενά.  Η συμβολοσειρά ‘S’
αντιπροσωπεύει περισσότερες από μία γραμμές στο τέλος, οι terminators
γραμμής για όλες τις κενές γραμμές θα αφαιρεθούν:

     >>> lines = ("line 1 \r\n"
     ...          "\r\n"
     ...          "\r\n")
     >>> lines.rstrip("\n\r")
     'line 1 '

Δεδομένου ότι αυτό είναι συνήθως επιθυμητό μόνο κατά την ανάγνωση
κειμένου μία γραμμή τη φορά, η χρήση του ‘S.rstrip()’ λειτουργεί καλά.


File: python.info,  Node: Υπάρχει αντίστοιχο scanf ή sscanf ;,  Next: Τι σημαίνει το σφάλμα UnicodeDecodeError ή UnicodeEncodeError;,  Prev: Υπάρχει ισοδύναμο με το Perl’s chomp για την αφαίρεση των νέων γραμμών από τις συμβολοσειρές;,  Up: Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές

10.2.3.9 Υπάρχει αντίστοιχο ‘scanf()’ ή ‘sscanf()’;
...................................................

Όχι ως τέτοιο.

Για απλή ανάλυση εισόδου, η ευκολότερη προσέγγιση είναι συνήθως ο
διαχωρισμός της γραμμής σε λέξεις οριοθετημένες με κενά διαστήματα
χρησιμοποιώντας τη μέθοδο *note split(): 125b. αντικειμένων
συμβολοσειρών και στη συνέχεια μετατροπή δεκαδικών συμβολοσειρών σε
αριθμητικές τιμές χρησιμοποιώντας *note int(): 326. ή *note float():
327.  ‘split()’ υποστηρίζει μια προαιρετική παράμετρο «sep» που είναι
χρήσιμη εάν η γραμμή χρησιμοποιεί κάτι διαφορετικό από κενό διάστημα ως
διαχωριστικό.

Για πιο περίπλοκη ανάλυση εισόδου, τα regular expressions είναι πιο
ισχυρά από τις ‘sscanf’ της C και είναι πιο κατάλληλες για την εργασία.


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10.2.3.10 Τι σημαίνει το σφάλμα ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ ή ‘UnicodeEncodeError’;
............................................................................

Βλ το *note Unicode HOWTO: 1649.


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10.2.3.11 Μπορώ να τερματίσω μια ακατέργαστη συμβολοσειρά με περιττό αριθμό backslashes;
........................................................................................

Μια ακατέργαστη συμβολοσειρά που τελειώνει με περιττό αριθμό backslashes
θα ξεφύγει από το απόσπασμα της συμβολοσειράς:

     >>> r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
       File "<stdin>", line 1
         r'C:\this\will\not\work\'
         ^
     SyntaxError: unterminated string literal (detected at line 1)

Υπάρχουν αρκετές λύσεις για αυτό.  Ο ένας είναι να χρησιμοποιήσετε
κανονικές συμβολοσειρές και να διπλασιάσετε τα backslashes:

     >>> 'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

Ένα άλλο είναι να συνδέσετε μια κανονική συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει ένα
escaped backslash στην ακατέργαστη συμβολοσειρά:

     >>> r'C:\this\will\work' '\\'
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

Είναι επίσης δυνατό να χρησιμοποιήσετε το *note os.path.join(): 1a42.
για να προσθέσετε ένα backslash στα Windows:

     >>> os.path.join(r'C:\this\will\work', '')
     'C:\\this\\will\\work\\'

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι ενώ ένα backslash θα «escape» από ένα εισαγωγικό για
τον προσδιορισμό του σημείου που τελειώνει η ακατέργαστη συμβολοσειρά,
δεν υπάρχει διαφυγή κατά την ερμηνεία της τιμής της ακατέργαστης
συμβολοσειράς.  Δηλαδή, το backslash παραμένει παρόν στην τιμή της
ακατέργαστης συμβολοσειράς:

     >>> r'backslash\'preserved'
     "backslash\\'preserved"

Δείτε επίσης την προδιαγραφή στην *note language reference: 2490.


File: python.info,  Node: Απόδοση,  Next: Sequences tuples/lists,  Prev: Αριθμοί και συμβολοσειρές,  Up: FAQ Προγραμματισμού

10.2.4 Απόδοση
--------------

* Menu:

* Το πρόγραμμα μου είναι πολύ αργό. Πως μπορώ να το επιταχύνω;: Το πρόγραμμα μου είναι πολύ αργό Πως μπορώ να το επιταχύνω;.
* Ποιος είναι ο πιο αποτελεσματικός τρόπος για να συνδέσετε πολλές συμβολοσειρές μεταξύ τους;::


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10.2.4.1 Το πρόγραμμα μου είναι πολύ αργό. Πως μπορώ να το επιταχύνω;
.....................................................................

That’s a tough one, in general.  First, here is a list of things to
remember before diving further:

   * Τα χαρακτηριστικά απόδοσης διαφέρουν μεταξύ των υλοποιήσεων Python.
     Αυτή η FAQ εστιάζει στο *note CPython: ae3.

   * Η συμπεριφορά μπορεί να διαφέρει μεταξύ των λειτουργικών
     συστημάτων, ειδικά όταν μιλάμε για I/O ή multi-threading.

   * Θα πρέπει πάντα να βρίσκετε τα hot spot στο πρόγραμμά σας 'πριν'
     επιχειρήσετε να βελτιστοποιήσετε οποιονδήποτε κώδικα (βλ.  το
     module *note profile: b4.).

   * Η σύνταξη σεναρίων συγκριτικής αξιολόγησης θα σας επιτρέψει να
     κάνετε iterate γρήγορα κατά την αναζήτηση βελτιώσεων (βλ.  το
     module *note timeit: f8.).

   * Συνίσταται ανεπιφύλακτα να έχετε καλή κάλυψη κώδικα (μέσω unit
     testing ή οποιασδήποτε άλλης τεχνικής) πριν από την πιθανή εισαγωγή
     κρυμμένων παλινδρομήσεων (regressions) σε εξελιγμένες
     βελτιστοποιήσεις.

Τούτου λεχθέντος, υπάρχουν πολλά κόλπα για την επιτάχυνση του κώδικα
Python.  Ακολουθούν ορισμένες γενικές αρχές που βοηθούν πολύ στην
επίτευξη αποδεκτών επιπέδων απόδοσης:

   * Το να κάνετε τους αλγορίθμους σας πιο γρήγορους (ή να αλλάξετε σε
     ταχύτερους) μπορεί να αποφέρει πολύ μεγαλύτερα οφέλη από το να
     προσπαθείτε να σκορπίσετε κόλπα μικρό βελτιστοποίησης σε όλο τον
     κώδικά σας.

   * Χρησιμοποιήστε τις σωστές δομές δεδομένων.  Μελετήστε την
     τεκμηρίωση για το *note Τύποι Built-in: 27e3. και το module *note
     collections: 1e.

   * Όταν η τυπική βιβλιοθήκη παρέχει ένα πρωτόγονο για να κάνετε κάτι,
     είναι πιθανό (αν και δεν είναι εγγυημένο) να είναι πιο γρήγορο από
     οποιαδήποτε εναλλακτική λύση που μπορείτε να βρείτε.  Αυτό ισχύει
     διπλά για πρωτόγονα γραμμένα σε C, όπως ενσωματωμένα και ορισμένους
     τύπους επεκτάσεων.  Για παράδειγμα, φροντίστε να χρησιμοποιήσετε
     είτε την ενσωματωμένη μέθοδο *note list.sort(): f8d. είτε τη
     σχετική συνάρτηση *note sorted(): f8c. για να κάνετε ταξινόμηση
     (και δείτε το *note Sorting Techniques: 27d9. για παραδείγματα
     μέτριος προηγμένης χρήσης).

   * Οι αφαιρέσεις τείνουν να δημιουργούν έμμεσες κατευθύνσεις και
     αναγκάζουν τον διερμηνέα να εργαστεί περισσότερο.  Εάν τα επίπεδα
     της έμμεσης κατεύθυνσης υπερτερούν του όγκου της χρήσιμης εργασίας
     που γίνεται, το πρόγραμμα σας θα είναι πιο αργό.  Θα πρέπει να
     αποφύγετε την υπερβολική αφαίρεση, ειδικά με τη μορφή μικροσκοπικών
     συναρτήσεων ή μεθόδων (που είναι επίσης συχνά επιζήμια για την
     αναγνωσιμότητα).

Εάν έχετε φτάσει στο όριο του τι μπορεί να επιτρέπει η καθαρή Python,
υπάρχουν εργαλεία που θα σας απομακρύνουν.  Για παράδειγμα, το Cython(1)
μπορεί να μεταγλωττίσει μια ελαφρώς τροποποιημένη έκδοση του κώδικα
Python σε μια επέκταση C, και μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί σε πολλές
διαφορετικές πλατφόρμες.  Η Cython μπορεί να εκμεταλλευτεί την
μεταγλώττιση (και τους προαιρετικούς σχολιασμούς) για να κάνει τον
κώδικα σας πολύ πιο γρήγορο από όταν ερμηνεύεται.  Εάν είστε σίγουροι
για τις δεξιότητές σας στον προγραμματισμό C, μπορείτε επίσης να *note
write a C extension module: 21aa. μόνοι σας.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Η σελίδα wiki που είναι αφιερωμένη σε συμβουλές απόδοσης(2).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org

   (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonSpeed/PerformanceTips


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10.2.4.2 Ποιος είναι ο πιο αποτελεσματικός τρόπος για να συνδέσετε πολλές συμβολοσειρές μεταξύ τους;
....................................................................................................

Τα αντικείμενα *note str: 1df. και *note bytes: 1c7. είναι αμετάβλητα,
επομένως η σύνδεση πολλών συμβολοσειρών μεταξύ τους είναι
αναποτελεσματική καθώς κάθε συνένωση δημιουργεί ένα νέο αντικείμενο.
Στη γενική περίπτωση, το συνολικό κόστος χρόνου εκτέλεσης είναι
τετραγωνικό στο συνολικό μήκος συμβολοσειράς.

Για να συγκεντρώσετε πολλά αντικείμενα *note str: 1df, το προτεινόμενο
ιδίωμα είναι να τα τοποθετήσετε σε μια λίστα και να καλέσετε το στο
*note str.join(): 2803. τέλος:

     chunks = []
     for s in my_strings:
         chunks.append(s)
     result = ''.join(chunks)

(Another reasonably efficient idiom is to use *note io.StringIO: 12d4.)

Για τη συγκέντρωση πολλών αντικειμένων *note bytes: 1c7, το συνιστώμενο
ιδίωμα είναι η επέκταση ενός αντικειμένου *note bytearray: 1c6.
χρησιμοποιώντας επιτόπια συνένωση (ο τελεστής ‘+=’):

     result = bytearray()
     for b in my_bytes_objects:
         result += b


File: python.info,  Node: Sequences tuples/lists,  Next: Αντικείμενα,  Prev: Απόδοση,  Up: FAQ Προγραμματισμού

10.2.5 Sequences (tuples/lists)
-------------------------------

* Menu:

* Πως μπορώ να κάνω μετατροπή μεταξύ πλειάδων και λιστών;::
* Τι είναι αρνητικός δείκτης;::
* Πώς μπορώ να επαναλάβω μια ακολουθία με αντίστροφη σειρά;::
* Πως αφαιρείτε διπλότυπα από μια λίστα;::
* How do you remove multiple items from a list?::
* Πως μπορείτε να φτιάξετε έναν πίνακα στην Python;::
* Πως φτιάχνω μια πολυδιάστατη λίστα;::
* Πώς μπορώ να εφαρμόσω μια μέθοδο ή μια συνάρτηση σε μια ακολουθία αντικειμένων;::
* Γιατί το a_tuple[i] += [“item”] δημιουργεί μια εξαίρεση όταν λειτουργεί η προσθήκη;::
* Θέλω να κάνω μια περίπλοκη ταξινόμηση; μπορείτε να κάνετε ένα Schwartzian Transform στην Python;: Θέλω να κάνω μια περίπλοκη ταξινόμηση μπορείτε να κάνετε ένα Schwartzian Transform στην Python;.
* Πως μπορώ να ταξινομήσω μια λίστα με βάση τις τιμές από μια άλλη λίστα;::


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10.2.5.1 Πως μπορώ να κάνω μετατροπή μεταξύ πλειάδων και λιστών;
................................................................

Ο κατασκευαστής τύπου ‘tuple(seq)’ μετατρέπει οποιαδήποτε ακολουθία
(στην πραγματικότητα οποιοδήποτε iterable) σε πλειάδα με τα ίδια
στοιχεία στην ίδια σειρά.

Για παράδειγμα, το ‘tuple([1, 2, 3])’ αποδίδει ‘(1, 2, 3)’ και το
‘tuple('abc')’ αποδίδει ‘('a', 'b', 'c')’.  Εάν το όρισμα είναι πλειάδα,
δεν δημιουργεί αντίγραφο αλλά επιστρέφει το ίδιο αντικείμενο, επομένως
είναι φτηνό να καλέσετε το *note tuple(): 1ce. όταν δεν είστε σίγουροι
ότι ένα αντικείμενο είναι ήδη πλειάδα.

Ο κατασκευαστής τύπων ‘list(seq)’ μετατρέπει οποιαδήποτε ακολουθία ή
iterable σε μια λίστα με τα ίδια στοιχεία στην ίδια σειρά.  Για
παράδειγμα, το ‘list((1, 2, 3))’ αποδίδει ‘[1, 2, 3]’ και ‘list('abc')’
αποδίδει ‘['a', 'b', 'c']’.  Αν το όρισμα είναι λίστα, δημιουργεί απλώς
ένα αντίγραφο όπως θα έκανε το ‘seq[:]’.


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10.2.5.2 Τι είναι αρνητικός δείκτης;
....................................

Οι ακολουθίες Python indexed με θετικούς αριθμούς και αρνητικούς
αριθμούς.  Για θετικούς αριθμούς το 0 είναι ο πρώτος δείκτης 1 είναι ο
δεύτερος δείκτης και ούτω καθεξής.  Για αρνητικούς δείκτες το -1 είναι ο
τελευταίος δείκτης και το -2 είναι ο προτελευταίος (δίπλα στο τελευταίο)
δείκτης και ούτω καθεξής.  Σκεφτείτε το ‘seq[-n]’ ως το ίδιο με το
‘seq[len(seq)-n]’.

Η χρήση αρνητικών δεικτών μπορεί ναι είναι πολύ βολική.  Για παράδειγμα
‘S[:-1]’ είναι όλη η συμβολοσειρά εκτός από τον τελευταίο χαρακτήρα της,
ο οποίος είναι χρήσιμος για την αφαίρεση της νέας γραμμής που ακολουθεί
μια συμβολοσειρά.


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10.2.5.3 Πώς μπορώ να επαναλάβω μια ακολουθία με αντίστροφη σειρά;
..................................................................

Χρησιμοποιείστε την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note reversed(): c3c.:

     for x in reversed(sequence):
         ...  # do something with x ...

Αυτό δεν θα επηρεάσει την αρχική σας ακολουθία, αλλά δημιουργήστε ένα
νέο αντίγραφο με αντίστροφη σειρά για επανάληψη.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως αφαιρείτε διπλότυπα από μια λίστα;,  Next: How do you remove multiple items from a list?,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να επαναλάβω μια ακολουθία με αντίστροφη σειρά;,  Up: Sequences tuples/lists

10.2.5.4 Πως αφαιρείτε διπλότυπα από μια λίστα;
...............................................

Δείτε το Python Cookbook για μια μακρά συζήτηση σχετικά με πολλούς
τρόπους για να το κάνετε αυτό:

     ‘https://code.activestate.com/recipes/52560/’

Εάν δεν σας πειράζει να αναδιατάξετε τη λίστα, ταξινομήστε την και μετά
σαρώστε από το τέλος της λίστας, διαγράφοντας τα διπλότυπα καθώς
προχωράτε:

     if mylist:
         mylist.sort()
         last = mylist[-1]
         for i in range(len(mylist)-2, -1, -1):
             if last == mylist[i]:
                 del mylist[i]
             else:
                 last = mylist[i]

If all elements of the list may be used as set keys (that is, they are
all *note hashable: 183.) this is often faster:

     mylist = list(set(mylist))

Αυτό μετατρέπει τη λίστα σε ένα σύνολο, αφαιρώντας έτσι τα διπλότυπα και
στη συνέχεια ξανά σε λίστα.


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10.2.5.5 How do you remove multiple items from a list?
......................................................

As with removing duplicates, explicitly iterating in reverse with a
delete condition is one possibility.  However, it is easier and faster
to use slice replacement with an implicit or explicit forward iteration.
Here are three variations:

     mylist[:] = filter(keep_function, mylist)
     mylist[:] = (x for x in mylist if keep_condition)
     mylist[:] = [x for x in mylist if keep_condition]

Το comprehension της λίστας μπορεί να είναι ταχύτερο.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορείτε να φτιάξετε έναν πίνακα στην Python;,  Next: Πως φτιάχνω μια πολυδιάστατη λίστα;,  Prev: How do you remove multiple items from a list?,  Up: Sequences tuples/lists

10.2.5.6 Πως μπορείτε να φτιάξετε έναν πίνακα στην Python;
..........................................................

Χρησιμοποιήστε μια λίστα:

     ["αυτή", 1, "είναι", "μια", "λίστα"]

Οι λίστες είναι ισοδύναμες με τους πίνακες της C ή Pascal στην χρονική
τους πολυπλοκότητα∙ η κύρια διαφορά είναι ότι μια λίστα Python μπορεί να
περιέχει αντικείμενα πολλών διαφορετικών τύπων.

The ‘array’ module also provides methods for creating arrays of fixed
types with compact representations, but they are slower to index than
lists.  Also note that NumPy(1) and other third-party packages define
array-like structures with various characteristics as well.

Για να λάβετε συνδεδεμένες λίστες τύπου Lisp, μπορείτε να εξομοιώσετε
'cons κελιά' χρησιμοποιώντας πλειάδες:

     lisp_list = ("όπως",  ("αυτό",  ("το παράδειγμα", None) ) )

Εάν είναι επιθυμητή η μεταβλητότητα, μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε λίστες
αντί για πλειάδες.  Εδώ το ανάλογο ενός Lisp 'car' είναι ‘lisp_list[0]’
και το ανάλογο του 'cdr' είναι ‘lisp_list[1]’.  Μόνο κάντε το αν είστε
βέβαιοι ότι πραγματικά χρειάζεται, γιατί είναι συνήθως πιο αργό και από
τη χρήση λιστών Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://numpy.org/


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10.2.5.7 Πως φτιάχνω μια πολυδιάστατη λίστα;
............................................

Μάλλον προσπαθήσατε να φτιάξετε έναν πολυδιάστατο πίνακα σαν αυτόν:

     >>> A = [[None] * 2] * 3

Αυτό φαίνεται σωστό αν το εκτυπώσετε:

     >>> A
     [[None, None], [None, None], [None, None]]

Αλλά όταν εκχωρείτε μια τιμή, εμφανίζεται σε πολλά σημεία:

     >>> A[0][0] = 5
     >>> A
     [[5, None], [5, None], [5, None]]

Ο λόγος είναι ότι η αναπαραγωγή μιας λίστα με ‘*’ δεν δημιουργεί
αντίγραφα, δημιουργεί μόνο αναφορές στα υπάρχοντα αντικείμενα.  Το ‘*3’
δημιουργεί μια λίστα που περιέχει 3 αναφορές στην ίδια λίστα μήκους δύο.
Οι αλλαγές σε μία σειρά θα εμφανίζονται σε όλες τις σειρές, κάτι που
σχεδόν σίγουρα δεν είναι αυτό που θέλετε.

Η προτεινόμενη προσέγγιση είναι να δημιουργήσετε πρώτα μια λίστα με το
επιθυμητό μήκος και στη συνέχεια να συμπληρώσετε κάθε στοιχείο με μια
νέα λίστα:

     A = [None] * 3
     for i in range(3):
         A[i] = [None] * 2

Αυτό δημιουργεί μια λίστα που περιέχει 3 διαφορετικές λίστες με μήκος
δύο.  Μπορείτε επίσης να χρησιμοποιήσετε ένα comprehension λίστας:

     w, h = 2, 3
     A = [[None] * w for i in range(h)]

Εναλλακτικά, μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε μια επέκταση που παρέχει έναν
τύπο δεδομένων μήτρας (matrix)∙ Το NumPy(1) είναι το πιο γνωστό.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://numpy.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορώ να εφαρμόσω μια μέθοδο ή μια συνάρτηση σε μια ακολουθία αντικειμένων;,  Next: Γιατί το a_tuple[i] += [“item”] δημιουργεί μια εξαίρεση όταν λειτουργεί η προσθήκη;,  Prev: Πως φτιάχνω μια πολυδιάστατη λίστα;,  Up: Sequences tuples/lists

10.2.5.8 Πώς μπορώ να εφαρμόσω μια μέθοδο ή μια συνάρτηση σε μια ακολουθία αντικειμένων;
........................................................................................

To call a method or function and accumulate the return values in a list,
a *note list comprehension: abb. is an elegant solution:

     result = [obj.method() for obj in mylist]

     result = [function(obj) for obj in mylist]

Για να εκτελέσετε απλώς τη μέθοδο ή τη συνάρτηση χωρίς να αποθηκεύσετε
τις επιστρεφόμενες τιμές, αρκεί ένας απλός βρόχος *note for: 321.:

     for obj in mylist:
         obj.method()

     for obj in mylist:
         function(obj)


File: python.info,  Node: Γιατί το a_tuple[i] += [“item”] δημιουργεί μια εξαίρεση όταν λειτουργεί η προσθήκη;,  Next: Θέλω να κάνω μια περίπλοκη ταξινόμηση μπορείτε να κάνετε ένα Schwartzian Transform στην Python;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να εφαρμόσω μια μέθοδο ή μια συνάρτηση σε μια ακολουθία αντικειμένων;,  Up: Sequences tuples/lists

10.2.5.9 Γιατί το a_tuple[i] += [“item”] δημιουργεί μια εξαίρεση όταν λειτουργεί η προσθήκη;
............................................................................................

Αυτό οφείλεται σε έναν συνδυασμό του γεγονότος ότι οι επαυξημένοι
τελεστές εκχώρησης είναι τελεστές 'εκχώρησης' και της διαφοράς μεταξύ
μεταβλητών και αμετάβλητων αντικειμένων στην Python.

Αυτή η συζήτηση ισχύει γενικά όταν οι επαυξημένοι τελεστές εκχώρησης
εφαρμόζονται σε στοιχεία μιας πλειάδας που δείχνουν σε μεταβλητά
αντικείμενα, αλλά θα χρησιμοποιήσουμε ‘list’ και ‘+=’ ως υπόδειγμά μας.

Εάν γράψετε:

     >>> a_tuple = (1, 2)
     >>> a_tuple[0] += 1
     Traceback (most recent call last):
        ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

Ο λόγος για την εξαίρεση θα πρέπει να είναι αμέσως σαφής: το ‘1’
προστίθεται στο αντικείμενο ‘a_tuple[0]’ δείχνει στο (‘1’), παράγοντας
το αντικείμενο αποτελέσματος, ‘2’, αλλά όταν προσπαθούμε να
αντιστοιχίσουμε το αποτέλεσμα του υπολογισμού, ‘2’, στο στοιχείο ‘0’ της
πλειάδας, λαμβάνουμε ένα σφάλμα επειδή δεν μπορούμε να αλλάξουμε αυτό
που δείχνει ένα στοιχείο μιας πλειάδας.

Κάτω από τα καλύμματα, αυτό που κάνει αυτή η επαυξημένη δήλωση ανάθεσης
είναι περίπου το εξής:

     >>> result = a_tuple[0] + 1
     >>> a_tuple[0] = result
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

Είναι το τμήμα ανάθεσης της λειτουργίας που παράγει το σφάλμα, αφού μια
πλειάδα είναι αμετάβλητη.

Όταν γράφετε κάτι σαν:

     >>> a_tuple = (['foo'], 'bar')
     >>> a_tuple[0] += ['item']
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

Η εξαίρεση είναι λίγο πιο εκπληκτική, και ακόμη πιο εκπληκτικό είναι το
γεγονός ότι παρόλο που υπήρχε ένα σφάλμα, το παράρτημα λειτούργησε:

     >>> a_tuple[0]
     ['foo', 'item']

Για να δείτε γιατί συμβαίνει αυτό, πρέπει να γνωρίζετε ότι (α) εάν ένα
αντικείμενο υλοποιεί μια μαγική μέθοδο *note __iadd__(): 25d4, που
καλείται όταν εκτελείται η επαυξημένη ανάθεση ‘+=’ και η τιμή επιστροφής
είναι αυτή που χρησιμοποιείται στη δήλωση εκχώρησης∙ και (β) για λίστες,
‘__iadd__()’ ισοδυναμεί με την κλήση του *note extend(): 25ce. στη λίστα
και επιστρέφει τη λίστα.  Για αυτό λέμε ότι για λίστες ‘+=’ είναι μια
«συντομογραφία» για *note list.extend(): 7f8.:

     >>> a_list = []
     >>> a_list += [1]
     >>> a_list
     [1]

Αυτό ισοδυναμεί με:

     >>> result = a_list.__iadd__([1])
     >>> a_list = result

Το αντικείμενο στο οποίο υποδεικνύεται από το a_list έχει μεταλλαχθεί
και ο δείκτης στο μεταλλαγμένο αντικείμενο έχει εκχωρηθεί πίσω στο
‘a_list’.  Το τελικό αποτέλεσμα της ανάθεσης είναι ένα no-op, καθώς
είναι ένας δείκτης στο ίδιο αντικείμενο που το ‘a_list’ έδειχνε
προηγουμένως, αλλά η ανάθεση εξακολουθεί να γίνεται.

Έτσι, στο παράδειγμά μας, αυτό που συμβαίνει είναι ισοδύναμο με:

     >>> result = a_tuple[0].__iadd__(['item'])
     >>> a_tuple[0] = result
     Traceback (most recent call last):
       ...
     TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

Το ‘__iadd__()’ πετυχαίνει, και έτσι η λίστα επεκτείνεται, αλλά παρόλο
που το ‘αποτέλεσμα’ δείχνει στο ίδιο αντικείμενο που δείχνει ήδη το
‘a_tuple[0]’, αυτή η τελική ανάθεση εξακολουθεί να έχει ως αποτέλεσμα
ένα λάθος, γιατί οι πλειάδες είναι αμετάβλητες.


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10.2.5.10 Θέλω να κάνω μια περίπλοκη ταξινόμηση: μπορείτε να κάνετε ένα Schwartzian Transform στην Python;
..........................................................................................................

Η τεχνική, που αποδίδεται στον Randal Schwartz της κοινότητας Perl,
ταξινομεί τα στοιχεία μιας λίστας με βάση μια μέτρηση που αντιστοιχίζει
κάθε στοιχείο στην « τιμή ταξινόμησης» του.  Στην Python, χρησιμοποιήστε
το όρισμα ‘key’ για τη μέθοδο *note list.sort(): f8d.:

     Isorted = L[:]
     Isorted.sort(key=lambda s: int(s[10:15]))


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να ταξινομήσω μια λίστα με βάση τις τιμές από μια άλλη λίστα;,  Prev: Θέλω να κάνω μια περίπλοκη ταξινόμηση μπορείτε να κάνετε ένα Schwartzian Transform στην Python;,  Up: Sequences tuples/lists

10.2.5.11 Πως μπορώ να ταξινομήσω μια λίστα με βάση τις τιμές από μια άλλη λίστα;
.................................................................................

Merge them into an iterator of tuples, sort the resulting list, and then
pick out the element you want.

     >>> list1 = ["what", "I'm", "sorting", "by"]
     >>> list2 = ["something", "else", "to", "sort"]
     >>> pairs = zip(list1, list2)
     >>> pairs = sorted(pairs)
     >>> pairs
     [("I'm", 'else'), ('by', 'sort'), ('sorting', 'to'), ('what', 'something')]
     >>> result = [x[1] for x in pairs]
     >>> result
     ['else', 'sort', 'to', 'something']


File: python.info,  Node: Αντικείμενα,  Next: Modules<5>,  Prev: Sequences tuples/lists,  Up: FAQ Προγραμματισμού

10.2.6 Αντικείμενα
------------------

* Menu:

* Τι είναι μια κλάση;::
* Τι είναι μια μέθοδος;::
* Τι είναι το self;::
* Πώς μπορώ να ελέγξω εάν ένα αντικείμενο είναι μια οντότητα μιας δεδομένης κλάσης ή μιας υποκλάσης της;::
* Τι είναι το delegation;::
* Πώς μπορώ να καλέσω μια μέθοδο που ορίζεται σε μια βασική κλάση από μια παράγωγη κλάση που την επεκτείνει;::
* Πως μπορώ να οργανώσω τον κώδικα μου προκειμένου να διευκολύνω την αλλαγή της βασικής κλάσης;::
* Πως δημιουργώ δεδομένα στατικής κλάσης και μεθόδους στατικής κλάσης;::
* Πως μπορώ να υπερφορτώσω κατασκευαστές (ή μεθόδους) στην Python;: Πως μπορώ να υπερφορτώσω κατασκευαστές ή μεθόδους στην Python;.
* Προσπαθώ να χρησιμοποιήσω __spam και λαμβάνω ένα σφάλμα σχετικά με το _SomeClassName__spam.: Προσπαθώ να χρησιμοποιήσω __spam και λαμβάνω ένα σφάλμα σχετικά με το _SomeClassName__spam.
* Η κλάση μου ορίζει __del__ αλλά δεν καλείται όταν διαγράφω το αντικείμενο.: Η κλάση μου ορίζει __del__ αλλά δεν καλείται όταν διαγράφω το αντικείμενο.
* Πως μπορώ να λάβω μια λίστα με όλες τις οντότητες μιας δεδομένης κλάσης;::
* Γιατί το αποτέλεσμα του id() φαίνεται να μην είναι μοναδικό;: Γιατί το αποτέλεσμα του id φαίνεται να μην είναι μοναδικό;.
* Πότε μπορώ να βασιστώ σε δοκιμές ταυτότητας με τον τελεστή is;::
* Πώς μπορεί μια υποκλάση να ελέγξει ποια δεδομένα αποθηκεύονται σε μια αμετάβλητη παρουσία;::
* Πώς μπορώ να αποθηκεύσω τις κλήσεις μεθόδου στην κρυφή μνήμη;::


File: python.info,  Node: Τι είναι μια κλάση;,  Next: Τι είναι μια μέθοδος;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.1 Τι είναι μια κλάση;
............................

Μια κλάση είναι ο συγκεκριμένος τύπος αντικειμένου που δημιουργείται με
την εκτέλεση μιας δήλωσης κλάσης.  Τα αντικείμενα κλάσης
χρησιμοποιούνται ως πρότυπα για τη δημιουργία αντικειμένων παρουσίας, τα
οποία ενσωματώνουν τόσο τα δεδομένα (χαρακτηριστικά) όσο και τον κώδικα
(μεθόδους) ειδικά για έναν τύπο δεδομένων.

Μια κλάση μπορεί να βασίζεται σε μία ή περισσότερες άλλες κλάσεις, που
ονομάζονται βασικές κλάσεις της.  Στη συνέχεια κληρονομεί τα
χαρακτηριστικά και τις μεθόδους των βασικών κλάσεων.  Αυτό επιτρέπει σε
ένα μοντέλο αντικειμένου να βελτιωθεί διαδοχικά με κληρονομικότητα.
Μπορεί να έχετε μια γενική κλάση ‘Mailbox’ που παρέχει βασικές μεθόδους
πρόσβασης για ένα γραμματοκιβώτιο και υποκλάσεις όπως ‘MboxMailbox’,
‘MaildirMailbox’, ‘OutlookMailbox’ που χειρίζονται διάφορες
συγκεκριμένες μορφές γραμματοκιβωτίου.


File: python.info,  Node: Τι είναι μια μέθοδος;,  Next: Τι είναι το self;,  Prev: Τι είναι μια κλάση;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.2 Τι είναι μια μέθοδος;
..............................

Μια μέθοδος είναι μια συνάρτηση σε κάποιο αντικείμενο ‘x’ που συνήθως
καλείτε ως ‘x.name(ορίσματα...)’.  Οι μέθοδοι ορίζονται ως συναρτήσεις
εντός του ορισμού κλάσης:

     class C:
         def meth(self, arg):
             return arg * 2 + self.attribute


File: python.info,  Node: Τι είναι το self;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να ελέγξω εάν ένα αντικείμενο είναι μια οντότητα μιας δεδομένης κλάσης ή μιας υποκλάσης της;,  Prev: Τι είναι μια μέθοδος;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.3 Τι είναι το self;
..........................

Το self είναι απλώς ένα συμβατικό όνομα για το πρώτο όρισμα μιας
μεθόδου.  Μια μέθοδος που ορίζεται ως ‘meth(self, a, b, c)’ πρέπει να
ονομάζεται ‘x.meth(a, b, c)’ για κάποιο παράδειγμα ‘x’ της κλάσης στην
οποία εμφανίζεται ο ορισμός∙ η καλούμενη μέθοδος θα ονομάζεται ‘meth(x,
a, b, c)’.

Βλ.  επίσης *note Why must “self” be used explicitly in method
definitions and calls?: 5ca6.


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορώ να ελέγξω εάν ένα αντικείμενο είναι μια οντότητα μιας δεδομένης κλάσης ή μιας υποκλάσης της;,  Next: Τι είναι το delegation;,  Prev: Τι είναι το self;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.4 Πώς μπορώ να ελέγξω εάν ένα αντικείμενο είναι μια οντότητα μιας δεδομένης κλάσης ή μιας υποκλάσης της;
...............................................................................................................

Use the built-in function *note isinstance(obj, cls): 2ef.  You can
check if an object is an instance of any of a number of classes by
providing a tuple instead of a single class, for example,
‘isinstance(obj, (class1, class2, ...))’, and can also check whether an
object is one of Python’s built-in types, for example, ‘isinstance(obj,
str)’ or ‘isinstance(obj, (int, float, complex))’.

Note that *note isinstance(): 2ef. also checks for virtual inheritance
from an *note abstract base class: 155f.  So, the test will return
‘True’ for a registered class even if hasn’t directly or indirectly
inherited from it.  To test for «true inheritance», scan the *note
method resolution order: 2784. (MRO) of the class:

     from collections.abc import Mapping

     class P:
          pass

     class C(P):
         pass

     Mapping.register(P)

     >>> c = C()
     >>> isinstance(c, C)        # direct
     True
     >>> isinstance(c, P)        # indirect
     True
     >>> isinstance(c, Mapping)  # virtual
     True

     # Actual inheritance chain
     >>> type(c).__mro__
     (<class 'C'>, <class 'P'>, <class 'object'>)

     # Test for "true inheritance"
     >>> Mapping in type(c).__mro__

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι τα περισσότερα προγράμματα δεν χρησιμοποιούν το *note
isinstance(): 2ef. σε κλάσεις που ορίζονται από τη χρήστη πολύ συχνά.
Εάν αναπτύσσετε μόνοι σας τις κλάσεις, ένα πιο σωστό αντικειμενοστρεφής
στυλ είναι να ορίζετε μεθόδους στις κλάσεις που ενσωματώνουν μια
συγκεκριμένη συμπεριφορά, αντί να ελέγχετε την κλάση του αντικειμένου
και να κάνετε κάτι διαφορετικό με βάση την κλάση που είναι, για
παράδειγμα, εάν έχετε μια συνάρτηση που κάνει κάτι:

     def search(obj):
         if isinstance(obj, Mailbox):
             ...  # code to search a mailbox
         elif isinstance(obj, Document):
             ...  # code to search a document
         elif ...

Μια καλύτερη προσέγγιση είναι να ορίσετε μια μέθοδο ‘search()’ σε όλες
τις κλάσεις και απλώς να την καλέσετε:

     class Mailbox:
         def search(self):
             ...  # code to search a mailbox

     class Document:
         def search(self):
             ...  # code to search a document

     obj.search()


File: python.info,  Node: Τι είναι το delegation;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να καλέσω μια μέθοδο που ορίζεται σε μια βασική κλάση από μια παράγωγη κλάση που την επεκτείνει;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να ελέγξω εάν ένα αντικείμενο είναι μια οντότητα μιας δεδομένης κλάσης ή μιας υποκλάσης της;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.5 Τι είναι το delegation;
................................

Delegation is an object-oriented technique (also called a design
pattern).  Let’s say you have an object ‘x’ and want to change the
behaviour of just one of its methods.  You can create a new class that
provides a new implementation of the method you’re interested in
changing and delegates all other methods to the corresponding method of
‘x’.

Οι προγραμματιστές Python μπορούν εύκολα να υλοποιήσουν την ανάθεση.
Για παράδειγμα, η ακόλουθη κλάση υλοποιεί μια κλάση που συμπεριφέρεται
σαν αρχείο αλλά μετατρέπει όλα τα γραπτά δεδομένα σε κεφαλαία:

     class UpperOut:

         def __init__(self, outfile):
             self._outfile = outfile

         def write(self, s):
             self._outfile.write(s.upper())

         def __getattr__(self, name):
             return getattr(self._outfile, name)

Εδώ η κλάση ‘UpperOut’ επαναπροσδιορίζει τη μέθοδο ‘write()’ για να
μετατρέψει τη συμβολοσειρά ορίσματος σε κεφαλαία πριν καλέσει την
υποκείμενη μέθοδο ‘self._outfile.write()’.  Όλες οι άλλες μέθοδοι
εκχωρούνται στο υποκείμενο αντικείμενο ‘self._outfile’.  Το delegation
ολοκληρώνεται μέσω της μεθόδου *note __getattr__(): 8e3.  Συμβουλευτείτε
το *note the language reference: 25a4. για περισσότερες πληροφορίες
σχετικά με τον έλεγχο της πρόσβασης.

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι για πιο γενικές περιπτώσεις η ανάθεση μπορεί να γίνει
πιο δύσκολη.  Όταν τα χαρακτηριστικά πρέπει να οριστούν καθώς και να
ανακτηθούν, η κλάση πρέπει να ορίσει μια μέθοδο *note __setattr__():
256d. επίσης, και πρέπει να το κάνει προσεκτικά.  Η βασική υλοποίηση του
‘__setattr__()’ είναι περίπου ισοδύναμο με το εξής:

     class X:
         ...
         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             self.__dict__[name] = value
         ...

Πολλές υλοποιήσεις *note __setattr__(): 256d. καλούν την
:‘object.__setattr__()’ για να θέσουν μια μεταβλητή στον εαυτό τους
χωρίς να προκαλούν άπειρη αναδρομή.

     class X:
         def __setattr__(self, name, value):
             # Custom logic here...
             object.__setattr__(self, name, value)

Εναλλακτικά, είναι δυνατό να ορίσετε χαρακτηριστικά εισάγοντας
καταχωρήσεις στο *note self.__dict__: 1bf. απευθείας.


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορώ να καλέσω μια μέθοδο που ορίζεται σε μια βασική κλάση από μια παράγωγη κλάση που την επεκτείνει;,  Next: Πως μπορώ να οργανώσω τον κώδικα μου προκειμένου να διευκολύνω την αλλαγή της βασικής κλάσης;,  Prev: Τι είναι το delegation;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.6 Πώς μπορώ να καλέσω μια μέθοδο που ορίζεται σε μια βασική κλάση από μια παράγωγη κλάση που την επεκτείνει;
...................................................................................................................

Χρησιμοποιήστε την ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note super(): 443.:

     class Derived(Base):
         def meth(self):
             super().meth()  # calls Base.meth

Στο παράδειγμα, το *note super(): 443. θα προσδιορίσει αυτόματα το
στιγμιότυπο από το οποίο κλήθηκε (η τιμή ‘self’), αναζητήστε τη *note
method resolution order: 2784. (MRO) με ‘type(self).__mro__’, και
επιστρέψτε το επόμενο στη σειρά μετά το ‘Derived’ στο MRO: ‘Base’.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να οργανώσω τον κώδικα μου προκειμένου να διευκολύνω την αλλαγή της βασικής κλάσης;,  Next: Πως δημιουργώ δεδομένα στατικής κλάσης και μεθόδους στατικής κλάσης;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να καλέσω μια μέθοδο που ορίζεται σε μια βασική κλάση από μια παράγωγη κλάση που την επεκτείνει;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.7 Πως μπορώ να οργανώσω τον κώδικα μου προκειμένου να διευκολύνω την αλλαγή της βασικής κλάσης;
......................................................................................................

You could assign the base class to an alias and derive from the alias.
Then all you have to change is the value assigned to the alias.
Incidentally, this trick is also handy if you want to decide dynamically
(such as depending on availability of resources) which base class to
use.  Example:

     class Base:
         ...

     BaseAlias = Base

     class Derived(BaseAlias):
         ...


File: python.info,  Node: Πως δημιουργώ δεδομένα στατικής κλάσης και μεθόδους στατικής κλάσης;,  Next: Πως μπορώ να υπερφορτώσω κατασκευαστές ή μεθόδους στην Python;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να οργανώσω τον κώδικα μου προκειμένου να διευκολύνω την αλλαγή της βασικής κλάσης;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.8 Πως δημιουργώ δεδομένα στατικής κλάσης και μεθόδους στατικής κλάσης;
.............................................................................

Τόσο τα στατιστικά δεδομένα όσο και οι στατικές μέθοδοι (με την έννοια
της C++ ή της Java) υποστηρίζονται στην Python.

Για στατικά δεδομένα, απλώς ορίστε ένα χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης.  Για να
εκχωρήσετε μια νέα τιμή στο χαρακτηριστικό, πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσετε
ρητά το όνομα κλάσης στην εκχώρηση:

     class C:
         count = 0   # number of times C.__init__ called

         def __init__(self):
             C.count = C.count + 1

         def getcount(self):
             return C.count  # or return self.count

Το ‘c.count’ αναφέρεται επίσης στο ‘C.count’ για οποιοδήποτε ‘c’, έτσι
ώστε να ισχύει το ‘isinstance(c, C)’, εκτός εάν παρακαμφθεί από το ίδιο
το ‘c’ ή από κάποια κλάση στη διαδρομή αναζήτησης της βασικής κλάσης από
το ‘c.__class__’ πίσω στο ‘C’.

Προσοχή: σε μια μέθοδο του C, μια ανάθεση όπως ‘self.count = 42’
δημιουργεί μια νέα και άσχετη παρουσία με το όνομα «count» στο δικό του
dict του ‘self’.  Επανασύνδεση μιας κλάσης-στατικής όνομα δεδομένων
πρέπει πάντα να προσδιορίζει την κλάση είτε βρίσκεται μέσα σε μια μέθοδο
είτε όχι:

     C.count = 314

Οι στατικές μέθοδοι είναι δυνατές:

     class C:
         @staticmethod
         def static(arg1, arg2, arg3):
             # No 'self' parameter!
             ...

Ωστόσο, ένας πολύ πιο απλός τρόπος για να λάβετε το αποτέλεσμα μιας
στατικής μεθόδου είναι μέσω μιας απλής συνάρτησης σε επίπεδο μονάδας:

     def getcount():
         return C.count

Εάν ο κώδικας σας είναι δομημένος έτσι ώστε να ορίζει μία κλάση (ή στενά
συνδεδεμένη ιεραρχίας κλάσεων) ανά module, αυτό παρέχει την επιθυμητή
ενθυλάκωση.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να υπερφορτώσω κατασκευαστές ή μεθόδους στην Python;,  Next: Προσπαθώ να χρησιμοποιήσω __spam και λαμβάνω ένα σφάλμα σχετικά με το _SomeClassName__spam,  Prev: Πως δημιουργώ δεδομένα στατικής κλάσης και μεθόδους στατικής κλάσης;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.9 Πως μπορώ να υπερφορτώσω κατασκευαστές (ή μεθόδους) στην Python;
.........................................................................

Αυτή η απάντηση ισχύει στην πραγματικότητα για όλες τις μεθόδους, αλλά η
ερώτηση συνήθως εμφανίζεται πρώτη στο πλαίσιο των κατασκευαστών.

In C++ you’d write:

     class C {
         C() { cout << "No arguments\n"; }
         C(int i) { cout << "Argument is " << i << "\n"; }
     }

Στην Python πρέπει να γράψετε έναν μοναδικό κατασκευαστή που να πιάνει
όλες τις περιπτώσεις χρησιμοποιώντας προεπιλεγμένα ορίσματα.  Για
παράδειγμα:

     class C:
         def __init__(self, i=None):
             if i is None:
                 print("No arguments")
             else:
                 print("Argument is", i)

Αυτό δεν είναι εντελώς ισοδύναμο, αλλά αρκετά κοντά στην πράξη.

You could also try a variable-length argument list, for example:

     def __init__(self, *args):
         ...

Η ίδια προσέγγιση λειτουργεί για όλους τους ορισμούς μεθόδων.


File: python.info,  Node: Προσπαθώ να χρησιμοποιήσω __spam και λαμβάνω ένα σφάλμα σχετικά με το _SomeClassName__spam,  Next: Η κλάση μου ορίζει __del__ αλλά δεν καλείται όταν διαγράφω το αντικείμενο,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να υπερφορτώσω κατασκευαστές ή μεθόδους στην Python;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.10 Προσπαθώ να χρησιμοποιήσω __spam και λαμβάνω ένα σφάλμα σχετικά με το _SomeClassName__spam.
.....................................................................................................

Τα ονόματα μεταβλητών με διπλή υπογράμμιση στην αρχή είναι «mangled» για
να παρέχουν έναν απλό αλλά αποτελεσματικό τρόπο ορισμού των ιδιωτικών
μεταβλητών κλάσης.  Οποιοδήποτε αναγνωριστικό της φόρμας ‘__spam’
(τουλάχιστον δύο προπορευόμενες κάτω παύλες, το πολύ ένα τέλος
υπογράμμισης) αντικαθίσταται μέσω κειμένου το ‘_classname__spam’, όπου
το ‘classname’ είναι το τρέχον όνομα κλάσης με απογυμνωμένες τυχόν
προηγούμενες παύλες.

Το αναγνωριστικό μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί αμετάβλητο εντός της κλάσης,
αλλά για πρόσβαση σε αυτό εκτός της κλάσης, πρέπει να χρησιμοποιηθεί το
παραμορφωμένο όνομα:

     class A:
         def __one(self):
             return 1
         def two(self):
             return 2 * self.__one()

     class B(A):
         def three(self):
             return 3 * self._A__one()

     four = 4 * A()._A__one()

Συγκεκριμένα, αυτό δεν εγγυάται το απόρρητο καθώς ένας εξωτερικός
χρήστης μπορεί ακόμα να έχει σκόπιμα πρόσβαση στο ιδιωτικό
χαρακτηριστικό∙ πολλοί προγραμματιστές Python δεν μπαίνουν ποτέ στον
κόπο να χρησιμοποιήσουν ονόματα μεταβλητών.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Οι *note προδιαφραφές παραποίησης ιδιωτικού ονόματος: 2293. για
λεπτομέρειες και ειδικές περιπτώσεις.”


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10.2.6.11 Η κλάση μου ορίζει __del__ αλλά δεν καλείται όταν διαγράφω το αντικείμενο.
....................................................................................

Υπάρχουν διάφοροι πιθανοί λόγοι για αυτό.

Η πρόταση *note del: 1d1d. δεν καλεί απαραιτήτως το *note __del__():
13a6. – απλώς μειώνει τον αριθμό αναφοράς του αντικειμένου, και αν αυτό
φτάσει στο μηδέν καλείται το ‘__del__()’.

If your data structures contain circular links (for example, a tree
where each child has a parent reference and each parent has a list of
children) the reference counts will never go back to zero.  Once in a
while Python runs an algorithm to detect such cycles, but the garbage
collector might run some time after the last reference to your data
structure vanishes, so your ‘__del__()’ method may be called at an
inconvenient and random time.  This is inconvenient if you’re trying to
reproduce a problem.  Worse, the order in which object’s ‘__del__()’
methods are executed is arbitrary.  You can run *note gc.collect(): 44f.
to force a collection, but there 'are' pathological cases where objects
will never be collected.

Παρά τον συλλέκτη κύκλου, εξακολουθεί να είναι καλή ιδέα να ορίσετε μια
ρητή μέθοδο ‘close()’ σε αντικείμενα που θα καλούνται κάθε φορά που
τελειώνετε με αυτά.  Η μέθοδος ‘close()’ μπορεί στη συνέχει να αφαιρέσει
χαρακτηριστικά που αναφέρονται σε υποαντικείμενα.  Μην καλείτε το
‘__del__()’ απευθείας – ‘__del__()’ θα πρέπει να καλείτε το ‘close()’
και το ‘close()’ θα πρέπει να βεβαιωθεί ότι μπορεί να κληθεί
περισσότερες από μία φορές για το ίδιο αντικείμενο.

Ένα άλλος τρόπος για να αποφύγετε τις κυκλικές αναφορές είναι να
χρησιμοποιήσετε το module *note weakref: 11d, το οποίο σας επιτρέπει να
αυξάνετε τον αριθμό των αναφορών τους.  Οι δομές δεδομένων δέντρων, για
παράδειγμα, θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούν αδύναμες αναφορές για τις
αναφορές γονέων και αδελφών ( αν τα χρειαστούν!).

Τέλος, εάν η μέθοδος ‘__del__()’ εγείρει μια εξαίρεση, εκτυπώνεται ένα
προειδοποιητικό μήνυμα στη διεύθυνση *note sys.stderr: d05.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να λάβω μια λίστα με όλες τις οντότητες μιας δεδομένης κλάσης;,  Next: Γιατί το αποτέλεσμα του id φαίνεται να μην είναι μοναδικό;,  Prev: Η κλάση μου ορίζει __del__ αλλά δεν καλείται όταν διαγράφω το αντικείμενο,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.12 Πως μπορώ να λάβω μια λίστα με όλες τις οντότητες μιας δεδομένης κλάσης;
..................................................................................

Η Python δεν παρακολουθεί όλες τις παρουσίες μιας κλάσης (ή ενός
ενσωματωμένου τύπου).  Μπορείτε να προγραμματίσετε τον κατασκευαστή της
κλάσης να παρακολουθεί όλες τις οντότητες διατηρώντας μια λίστα αδύναμων
αναφορών σε κάθε παρουσία.


File: python.info,  Node: Γιατί το αποτέλεσμα του id φαίνεται να μην είναι μοναδικό;,  Next: Πότε μπορώ να βασιστώ σε δοκιμές ταυτότητας με τον τελεστή is;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να λάβω μια λίστα με όλες τις οντότητες μιας δεδομένης κλάσης;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.13 Γιατί το αποτέλεσμα του ‘id()’ φαίνεται να μην είναι μοναδικό;
........................................................................

Το ενσωματωμένο *note id(): 17c5. επιστρέφει έναν ακέραιο που είναι
εγγυημένο ότι είναι μοναδικός κατά τη διάρκεια ζωής του αντικειμένου.
Εφόσον στο CPython, αυτή είναι διεύθυνση μνήμης του αντικειμένου,
συμβαίνει συχνά ότι μετά τη διαγραφή ενός αντικειμένου από τη μνήμη, το
επόμενο πρόσφατα δημιουργημένο αντικείμενο εκχωρείται στην ίδια θέση στη
μνήμη.  Αυτό φαίνεται από αυτό το παράδειγμα:

     >>> id(1000)
     13901272
     >>> id(2000)
     13901272

Τα δύο αναγνωριστικά ανήκουν σε διαφορετικά ακέραια αντικείμενα που
δημιουργούνται πριν και διαγράφονται αμέσως μετά την εκτέλεση της κλήσης
‘id()’.  Για να βεβαιωθείτε ότι τα αντικείμενα των οποίων το
αναγνωριστικό θέλετε να εξετάσετε είναι ακόμα ζωντανά, δημιουργήστε μια
άλλη αναφορά στο αντικείμενο:

     >>> a = 1000; b = 2000
     >>> id(a)
     13901272
     >>> id(b)
     13891296


File: python.info,  Node: Πότε μπορώ να βασιστώ σε δοκιμές ταυτότητας με τον τελεστή is;,  Next: Πώς μπορεί μια υποκλάση να ελέγξει ποια δεδομένα αποθηκεύονται σε μια αμετάβλητη παρουσία;,  Prev: Γιατί το αποτέλεσμα του id φαίνεται να μην είναι μοναδικό;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.14 Πότε μπορώ να βασιστώ σε δοκιμές ταυτότητας με τον τελεστή 'is';
..........................................................................

Ο τελεστής ‘is’ ελέγχει την ταυτότητα του αντικειμένου.  Η δοκιμή ‘a is
b’ ισοδυναμεί με ‘id(a) == id(b)’.

Η πιο σημαντική ιδιότητα ενός τεστ ταυτότητας είναι ότι ένα αντικείμενο
είναι πάντα πανομοιότυπο με τον εαυτό του, το ‘a is a’ επιστρέφει πάντα
‘True’.  Τα τεστ ταυτότητας είναι συνήθως ταχύτερα από τα τεστ ισότητας.
Και σε αντίθεση με τα τεστ ισότητας, τα τεστ ταυτότητας είναι εγγυημένα
ότι θα επιστρέψουν ένα boolean ‘True’ ή ‘False’.

Ωστόσο, τα τεστ ταυτότητας μπορούν μόνο να αντικαταστήσουν τα τεστ
ισότητας όταν είναι εξασφαλισμένη η ταυτότητα αντικειμένου.  Γενικά,
υπάρχουν τρεις περιπτώσεις όπου η ταυτότητα είναι εγγυημένη:

  1. Οι εκχωρήσεις δημιουργούν νέα ονόματα αλλά δεν αλλάζουν την
     ταυτότητα αντικειμένου.  Μετά την ανάθεση ‘new = old’, είναι
     εγγυημένο ότι το ‘new is old’.

  2. Η τοποθέτηση ενός αντικειμένου σε ένα κοντέινερ που αποθηκεύει
     αναφορές αντικειμένων δεν αλλάζει την ταυτότητα αντικειμένου.  Μετά
     την ανάθεση λίστας ‘s[0] = x’, είναι εγγυημένο ότι το ‘s[0] is x’.

  3. Εάν ένα αντικείμενο είναι singleton, σημαίνει ότι μόνο ένα
     στιγμιότυπο αυτού του αντικειμένου μπορεί να υπάρχει.  Μετά τις
     εκχωρήσεις ‘a = None’ και ‘b = None’, είναι εγγυημένο ότι το ‘a is
     b’ επειδή το ‘None’ είναι singleton.

Στις περισσότερες άλλες περιπτώσεις, τα τεστ ταυτότητας δεν ενδείκνυνται
και προτιμώνται τα τεστ ισότητας.  Ειδικότερα, τα τεστ ταυτότητας δεν θα
πρέπει να χρησιμοποιούνται για τον έλεγχο σταθερών όπως *note int: 326.
και *note str: 1df. που δεν είναι εγγυημένα singletons:

     >>> a = 10_000_000
     >>> b = 5_000_000
     >>> c = b + 5_000_000
     >>> a is c
     False

     >>> a = 'Python'
     >>> b = 'Py'
     >>> c = b + 'thon'
     >>> a is c
     False

Ομοίως, τα νέα στιγμιότυπα μεταβλητών κοντέινερ δεν είναι ποτέ
πανομοιότυπα:

     >>> a = []
     >>> b = []
     >>> a is b
     False

Στον τυπικό κώδικα βιβλιοθήκης, θα δείτε πολλά κοινά μοτίβα για τη σωστή
χρήση των δοκιμών ταυτότητας:

  1. Όπως προτείνεται από το PEP 8(1), ένας έλεγχος ταυτότητας είναι ο
     προτιμώμενος τρόπος για να ελέγξετε το ‘None’.  Αυτό είναι σαν απλά
     αγγλικά στον κώδικα και αποφεύγεται η σύγχυση με άλλα αντικείμενα
     που μπορεί να έχουν τιμές boolean που αξιολογούνται ως ψευδείς.

  2. Ο εντοπισμός προαιρετικών ορισμάτων μπορεί να είναι δύσκολος όταν
     το ‘None’ είναι μια έγκυρη τιμή εισόδου.  Σε αυτές τις περιπτώσεις,
     μπορείτε να δημιουργήσετε ένα αντικείμενο μεμονωμένου φρουρού που
     είναι εγγυημένο ότι θα διαφέρει από άλλα αντικείμενα.  Για
     παράδειγμα, δείτε πως μπορείτε να εφαρμόσετε μια μέθοδο που
     συμπεριφέρεται σαν *note dict.pop(): 7de.:

          _sentinel = sentinel('_sentinel')

          def pop(self, key, default=_sentinel):
              if key in self:
                  value = self[key]
                  del self[key]
                  return value
              if default is _sentinel:
                  raise KeyError(key)
              return default

  3. Οι υλοποιήσεις κοντέινερ μερικές φορές χρειάζεται να αυξήσουν τα
     τεστ ισότητας με δοκιμές ταυτότητας.  Αυτό αποτρέπει τη σύγχυση του
     κώδικα από αντικείμενα όπως το ‘float('NaN')’ που είναι ίσα με τα
     ίδια.

Για παράδειγμα, εδώ είναι η υλοποίηση του
‘collections.abc.Sequence.__contains__()’:

     def __contains__(self, value):
         for v in self:
             if v is value or v == value:
                 return True
         return False

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορεί μια υποκλάση να ελέγξει ποια δεδομένα αποθηκεύονται σε μια αμετάβλητη παρουσία;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να αποθηκεύσω τις κλήσεις μεθόδου στην κρυφή μνήμη;,  Prev: Πότε μπορώ να βασιστώ σε δοκιμές ταυτότητας με τον τελεστή is;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.15 Πώς μπορεί μια υποκλάση να ελέγξει ποια δεδομένα αποθηκεύονται σε μια αμετάβλητη παρουσία;
....................................................................................................

Κατά την υποκλάση ενός αμετάβλητου τύπου, παρακάμψετε τη μέθοδο *note
__new__(): 982. αντί για τη μέθοδο *note __init__(): 2fa.  Η τελευταία
εκτελείται μόνο αφού δημιουργηθεί μια παρουσία, η οποία είναι πολύ αργά
για να αλλάζει δεδομένα σε μια αμετάβλητη περίπτωση.

Όλες αυτές οι αμετάβλητες κλάσεις έχουν διαφορετική υπογραφή από τη
μητρική τους κλάση:

     import datetime as dt

     class FirstOfMonthDate(dt.date):
         "Always choose the first day of the month"
         def __new__(cls, year, month, day):
             return super().__new__(cls, year, month, 1)

     class NamedInt(int):
         "Allow text names for some numbers"
         xlat = {'zero': 0, 'one': 1, 'ten': 10}
         def __new__(cls, value):
             value = cls.xlat.get(value, value)
             return super().__new__(cls, value)

     class TitleStr(str):
         "Convert str to name suitable for a URL path"
         def __new__(cls, s):
             s = s.lower().replace(' ', '-')
             s = ''.join([c for c in s if c.isalnum() or c == '-'])
             return super().__new__(cls, s)

Οι κλάσεις μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν έτσι:

     >>> FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 14)
     FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 1)
     >>> NamedInt('ten')
     10
     >>> NamedInt(20)
     20
     >>> TitleStr('Blog: Why Python Rocks')
     'blog-why-python-rocks'


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορώ να αποθηκεύσω τις κλήσεις μεθόδου στην κρυφή μνήμη;,  Prev: Πώς μπορεί μια υποκλάση να ελέγξει ποια δεδομένα αποθηκεύονται σε μια αμετάβλητη παρουσία;,  Up: Αντικείμενα

10.2.6.16 Πώς μπορώ να αποθηκεύσω τις κλήσεις μεθόδου στην κρυφή μνήμη;
.......................................................................

Τα δύο βασικά εργαλεία για τις μεθόδους αποθήκευσης στην προσωρινή μνήμη
είναι τα *note functools.cached_property(): 94e. και *note
functools.lru_cache(): db3.  Το πρώτο αποθηκεύει τα αποτελέσματα σε
επίπεδο παρουσίας και το δεύτερο σε επίπεδο κλάσης.

The ‘cached_property’ approach only works with methods that do not take
any arguments.  It does not create a reference to the instance.  The
cached method result will be kept only as long as the instance is alive.

Το πλεονέκτημα είναι ότι όταν ένα στιγμιότυπο δεν χρησιμοποιείται πλέον,
το αποτέλεσμα της αποθηκευμένης μεθόδου θα απελευθερωθεί αμέσως.  Το
μειονέκτημα είναι ότι εάν συσσωρευτούν στιγμιότυπα, θα είναι και τα
αποτελέσματα της συσσωρευμένης μεθόδου.  Μπορούν να αναπτυχθούν χωρίς
περιορισμούς.

The ‘lru_cache’ approach works with methods that have *note hashable:
183. arguments.  It creates a reference to the instance unless special
efforts are made to pass in weak references.

Το πλεονέκτημα του αλγορίθμου που χρησιμοποιήθηκε λιγότερο πρόσφατα
είναι ότι η κρυφή μνήμη οριοθετείται από το καθορισμένο 'maxsize'.  Το
μειονέκτημα είναι ότι τα στιγμιότυπα διατηρούνται ζωντανά έως ότου
παλαιώσουν από την κρυφή μνήμη ή μέχρι να διαγραφεί η κρυφή μνήμη.

Αυτό το παράδειγμα δείχνει τις διάφορες τεχνικές:

     class Weather:
         "Lookup weather information on a government website"

         def __init__(self, station_id):
             self._station_id = station_id
             # The _station_id is private and immutable

         def current_temperature(self):
             "Latest hourly observation"
             # Do not cache this because old results
             # can be out of date.

         @cached_property
         def location(self):
             "Return the longitude/latitude coordinates of the station"
             # Result only depends on the station_id

         @lru_cache(maxsize=20)
         def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='mm'):
             "Rainfall on a given date"
             # Depends on the station_id, date, and units.

The above example assumes that the 'station_id' never changes.  If the
relevant instance attributes are mutable, the ‘cached_property’ approach
can’t be made to work because it cannot detect changes to the
attributes.

To make the ‘lru_cache’ approach work when the 'station_id' is mutable,
the class needs to define the *note __eq__(): ec0. and *note __hash__():
ec1. methods so that the cache can detect relevant attribute updates:

     class Weather:
         "Example with a mutable station identifier"

         def __init__(self, station_id):
             self.station_id = station_id

         def change_station(self, station_id):
             self.station_id = station_id

         def __eq__(self, other):
             return self.station_id == other.station_id

         def __hash__(self):
             return hash(self.station_id)

         @lru_cache(maxsize=20)
         def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='cm'):
             'Rainfall on a given date'
             # Depends on the station_id, date, and units.


File: python.info,  Node: Modules<5>,  Prev: Αντικείμενα,  Up: FAQ Προγραμματισμού

10.2.7 Modules
--------------

* Menu:

* Πως δημιουργώ ένα .pyc αρχείο;: Πως δημιουργώ ένα pyc αρχείο;.
* Πως μπορώ να βρω το όνομα του τρέχοντος module;::
* Πως μπορώ να έχω modules που εισάγουν αμοιβαία το ένα το άλλο;::
* __import__(“x.y.z”) επιστρέφει <module “x”>∙ πως μπορώ να πάρω το z?: __import__ “x y z” επιστρέφει <module “x”>∙ πως μπορώ να πάρω το z?.
* Όταν επεξεργάζομαι ένα module που έχει εισαχθεί και την επανεισάγω, οι αλλαγές δεν εμφανίζονται. Γιατί συμβαίνει αυτό;: Όταν επεξεργάζομαι ένα module που έχει εισαχθεί και την επανεισάγω οι αλλαγές δεν εμφανίζονται Γιατί συμβαίνει αυτό;.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως δημιουργώ ένα pyc αρχείο;,  Next: Πως μπορώ να βρω το όνομα του τρέχοντος module;,  Up: Modules<5>

10.2.7.1 Πως δημιουργώ ένα .pyc αρχείο;
.......................................

Όταν ένα module εισάγεται για πρώτη φορά (ή όταν το αρχείο προέλευσης
έχει αλλάξει από τη δημιουργία του τρέχοντος μεταγλωττισμένου αρχείου),
ένα αρχείο ‘.pyc’ που παρέχει τον μεταγλωττισμένο κώδικα θα πρέπει να
δημιουργηθεί σε έναν υποκατάλογο ‘__pycache__’ ο κατάλογος που περιέχει
το ‘.py’.  Το αρχείο ‘.pyc’ θα έχει ένα όνομα αρχείου που ξεκινά με το
ίδιο όνομα με το αρχείο ‘.py’ και τελειώνει σε ‘.pyc’, με ένα μεσαίο
στοιχείο που εξαρτάται από το συγκεκριμένο δυαδικό αρχείο ‘python’ που
το δημιούργησε.  (Βλ.  PEP 3147(1) για λεπτομέρειες.)

Ένας λόγος για τον οποίο ενδέχεται να μην δημιουργηθεί ένα αρχείο ‘.pyc’
είναι ένα πρόβλημα δικαιωμάτων στον κατάλογο που περιέχει το αρχείο
προέλευσης, που σημαίνει ότι δεν μπορεί να δημιουργηθεί ο υποκατάλογος
‘__pycache__’.  Αυτό μπορεί να συμβεί, για παράδειγμα, εάν αναπτυχθεί ως
ένας χρήστης αλλά εκτελείται ως άλλος, όπως εάν δοκιμάζετε με έναν
διακομιστή ιστού.

Unless the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 1771. environment variable is
set, creation of a .pyc file is automatic if you’re importing a module
and Python has the ability (permissions, free space, and so on) to
create a ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory and write the compiled module to
that subdirectory.

Running Python on a top-level script is not considered an import and no
‘.pyc’ will be created.  For example, if you have a top-level module
‘foo.py’ that imports another module ‘xyz.py’, when you run ‘foo’ (by
typing ‘python foo.py’ as a shell command), a ‘.pyc’ will be created for
‘xyz’ because ‘xyz’ is imported, but no ‘.pyc’ file will be created for
‘foo’ since ‘foo.py’ isn’t being imported.

Εάν χρειάζεται να δημιουργήσετε ένα αρχείο ‘.pyc’ για το ‘foo’ – δηλαδή,
να δημιουργήσετε ένα αρχείο ‘.pyc’ για ένα module που δεν έχει εισαχθεί
– μπορείτε, χρησιμοποιώντας τα modules *note py_compile: bb. και *note
compileall: 21.

Το module *note py_compile: bb. μπορεί να μεταγλωττίσει χειροκίνητα
οποιαδήποτε module.  Ένας τρόπος είναι να χρησιμοποιήσετε τη συνάρτηση
‘compile()’ σε αυτήν την ενότητα διαδραστικά:

     >>> import py_compile
     >>> py_compile.compile('foo.py')

This will write the ‘.pyc’ to a ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory in the same
location as ‘foo.py’ (or you can override that with the optional
parameter 'cfile').

Μπορείτε επίσης να μεταγλωττίσετε αυτόματα όλα τα αρχεία σε έναν
κατάλογο ή καταλόγους χρησιμοποιώντας το module *note compileall: 21.
Μπορείτε να κάνετε από το shell prompt εκτελώντας το ‘compileall.py’ και
παρέχοντας τη διαδρομή ενός καταλόγου που περιέχει αρχεία Python για
μεταγλώττιση:

     python -m compileall .

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να βρω το όνομα του τρέχοντος module;,  Next: Πως μπορώ να έχω modules που εισάγουν αμοιβαία το ένα το άλλο;,  Prev: Πως δημιουργώ ένα pyc αρχείο;,  Up: Modules<5>

10.2.7.2 Πως μπορώ να βρω το όνομα του τρέχοντος module;
........................................................

Ένα module μπορεί να βρει το δικό του όνομα module κοιτάζοντας την
προκαθορισμένη καθολική μεταβλητή ‘__name__’.  Εάν αυτή έχει την τιμή
‘__main__’, το πρόγραμμα εκτελείται ως σενάριο.  Πολλά modules που
χρησιμοποιούνται συνήθως με την εισαγωγή τους παρέχουν επίσης μια
διεπαφή γραμμής εντολών ή έναν αυτοέλεγχο και εκτελέστε αυτόν τον κώδικα
μόνο αφού ελέγξετε το ‘__name__’:

     def main():
         print('Running test...')
         ...

     if __name__ == '__main__':
         main()


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να έχω modules που εισάγουν αμοιβαία το ένα το άλλο;,  Next: __import__ “x y z” επιστρέφει <module “x”>∙ πως μπορώ να πάρω το z?,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να βρω το όνομα του τρέχοντος module;,  Up: Modules<5>

10.2.7.3 Πως μπορώ να έχω modules που εισάγουν αμοιβαία το ένα το άλλο;
.......................................................................

Υποθέστε ότι έχετε τα ακόλουθα modules:

‘foo.py’:

     from bar import bar_var
     foo_var = 1

‘bar.py’:

     from foo import foo_var
     bar_var = 2

Το πρόβλημα είναι ότι ο διερμηνέας θα εκτελέσει τα ακόλουθα βήματα:

   * main εισάγει ‘foo’

   * Δημιουργούνται κενά καθολικά για το ‘foo’

   * Το ‘foo’ μεταγλωττίζεται και ξεκινά η εκτέλεση

   * ‘foo’ εισάγει ‘bar’

   * Δημιουργούνται κενά καθολικά για ‘bar’

   * Το ‘bar’ μεταγλωττίζεται και αρχίζει να εκτελείται

   * Το ‘bar’ εισάγει το ‘foo’ (το οποίο είναι απαγορευτικό, καθώς
     υπάρχει ήδη ένα module με το όνομα ‘foo’)

   * Ο μηχανισμός εισαγωγής προσπαθεί να διαβάσει το ‘foo_var’ από τα
     παγκόσμια ‘foo’, για να ορίσει το ‘bar.foo_var = foo.foo_var’

Το τελευταίο βήμα αποτυγχάνει, επειδή η Python δεν έχει τελειώσει ακόμα
με την ερμηνεία του ‘foo’ και το global λεξικό συμβόλων για το ‘foo’
είναι ακόμα κενό.

Το ίδιο συμβαίνει όταν χρησιμοποιείτε το ‘import foo’ και, στη συνέχεια,
προσπαθείτε να αποκτήσετε πρόσβαση στο ‘foo.foo_var’ σε καθολικό κώδικα.

Υπάρχουν (τουλάχιστον) τρεις πιθανοί τρόποι αντιμετώπισης αυτού του
προβλήματος.

Ο Guido van Rossum συνιστά την αποφυγή όλων των χρήσεων του ‘from
<module> import ...’ και την τοποθέτηση όλου του κώδικα μέσα σε
συναρτήσεις.  Τα initializations καθολικών μεταβλητών και μεταβλητών
κλάσης θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιηθούν μόνο σταθερές ή ενσωματωμένες
συναρτήσεις.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι ένα εισαγόμενο module αναφέρεται ως
‘<module>.<name>’.

Ο Jim Roskind προτείνει να εκτελέσετε τα βήματα με την ακόλουθη σειρά σε
κάθε module:

   * εξαγωγές (globals, συναρτήσεις, και κλάσεις που δεν χρειάζονται
     εισαγόμενες βασικές κλάσεις)

   * δηλώσεις ‘import’

   * ενεργός κώδικας (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των καθολικών που
     αρχικοποιούνται από εισαγόμενες τιμές).

Ο Van Rossum δεν αρέσει πολύ αυτή η προσέγγιση επειδή οι εισαγωγές
εμφανίζονται σε ένα περίεργο μέρος, αλλά λειτουργεί.

Ο Matthias Urlichs συνιστά την αναδιάρθρωση του κώδικά σας έτσι ώστε η
αναδρομική εισαγωγή να μην είναι απαραίτητη εξαρχής.

Αυτές οι λύσεις δεν αλληλοαποκλείονται.


File: python.info,  Node: __import__ “x y z” επιστρέφει <module “x”>∙ πως μπορώ να πάρω το z?,  Next: Όταν επεξεργάζομαι ένα module που έχει εισαχθεί και την επανεισάγω οι αλλαγές δεν εμφανίζονται Γιατί συμβαίνει αυτό;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να έχω modules που εισάγουν αμοιβαία το ένα το άλλο;,  Up: Modules<5>

10.2.7.4 __import__(“x.y.z”) επιστρέφει <module “x”>∙ πως μπορώ να πάρω το z?
.............................................................................

Σκεφτείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε τη συνάρτηση ευκολίας *note
import_module(): 927. από το *note importlib: 7a. αντί:

     z = importlib.import_module('x.y.z')


File: python.info,  Node: Όταν επεξεργάζομαι ένα module που έχει εισαχθεί και την επανεισάγω οι αλλαγές δεν εμφανίζονται Γιατί συμβαίνει αυτό;,  Prev: __import__ “x y z” επιστρέφει <module “x”>∙ πως μπορώ να πάρω το z?,  Up: Modules<5>

10.2.7.5 Όταν επεξεργάζομαι ένα module που έχει εισαχθεί και την επανεισάγω, οι αλλαγές δεν εμφανίζονται. Γιατί συμβαίνει αυτό;
...............................................................................................................................

Για λόγους αποτελεσματικότητας καθώς και συνέπειας, η Python διαβάζει το
αρχείο της ενότητας μόνο την πρώτη φορά που εισάγεται μια λειτουργική
μονάδα.  Εάν δεν το έκανε, σε ένα πρόγραμμα που αποτελείται από πολλές
ενότητες όπου η καθεμία εισάγει το ίδιο βασικό module, το βασικό module
θα αναλυθεί και θα αναλυθεί ξανά πολλές φορές.  Για να αναγκάσετε τη εκ
νέου ανάγνωση μιας αλλαγμένης ενότητας , κάντε το εξής:

     import importlib
     import modname
     importlib.reload(modname)

Warning: this technique is not 100% fool-proof.  In particular, modules
containing statements like:

     from modname import some_objects

θα συνεχίσει να λειτουργεί με την παλιά έκδοση των εισαγόμενων
αντικειμένων.  Εάν η λειτουργική μονάδα περιέχει ορισμούς κλάσεων, οι
υπάρχουσες παρουσίες κλάσεων 'δεν' θα ενημερωθούν για να χρησιμοποιούν
τον ορισμό της νέας κλάσης.  Αυτό μπορεί να οδηγήσει στην ακόλουθη
παράδοξη συμπεριφορά:

     >>> import importlib
     >>> import cls
     >>> c = cls.C()                # Create an instance of C
     >>> importlib.reload(cls)
     <module 'cls' from 'cls.py'>
     >>> isinstance(c, cls.C)       # isinstance is false?!?
     False

Η φύση του προβλήματος καθίσταται σαφής εάν εκτυπώσετε την «ταυτότητα»
των αντικειμένων κλάσης:

     >>> hex(id(c.__class__))
     '0x7352a0'
     >>> hex(id(cls.C))
     '0x4198d0'


File: python.info,  Node: Design and History FAQ,  Next: Συχνές ερωτήσεις βιβλιοθήκης και επέκτασης,  Prev: FAQ Προγραμματισμού,  Up: Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python

10.3 Design and History FAQ
===========================

* Menu:

* Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?::
* Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?::
* Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?::
* Why are Python strings immutable?::
* Why must “self” be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?::
* Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?::
* Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?.
* Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?.
* How fast are exceptions?::
* Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?::
* Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?::
* Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?::
* Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?.
* How does Python manage memory?::
* Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?::
* Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?::
* Why are there separate tuple and list data types?::
* How are lists implemented in CPython?::
* How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?::
* Why must dictionary keys be immutable?::
* Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?.
* How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?::
* Why is there no goto?::
* Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?.
* Why doesn’t Python have a «with» statement for attribute assignments?::
* Why don’t generators support the with statement?::
* Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?::
* Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?::


File: python.info,  Node: Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?,  Next: Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.1 Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?
------------------------------------------------------------------

Guido van Rossum believes that using indentation for grouping is
extremely elegant and contributes a lot to the clarity of the average
Python program.  Most people learn to love this feature after a while.

Since there are no begin/end brackets there cannot be a disagreement
between grouping perceived by the parser and the human reader.
Occasionally C programmers will encounter a fragment of code like this:

     if (x <= y)
             x++;
             y--;
     z++;

Only the ‘x++’ statement is executed if the condition is true, but the
indentation leads many to believe otherwise.  Even experienced C
programmers will sometimes stare at it a long time wondering as to why
‘y’ is being decremented even for ‘x > y’.

Because there are no begin/end brackets, Python is much less prone to
coding-style conflicts.  In C there are many different ways to place the
braces.  After becoming used to reading and writing code using a
particular style, it is normal to feel somewhat uneasy when reading (or
being required to write) in a different one.

Many coding styles place begin/end brackets on a line by themselves.
This makes programs considerably longer and wastes valuable screen
space, making it harder to get a good overview of a program.  Ideally, a
function should fit on one screen (say, 20–30 lines).  20 lines of
Python can do a lot more work than 20 lines of C. This is not solely due
to the lack of begin/end brackets – the lack of declarations and the
high-level data types are also responsible – but the indentation-based
syntax certainly helps.


File: python.info,  Node: Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?,  Next: Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?,  Prev: Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.2 Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

See the next question.


File: python.info,  Node: Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?,  Next: Why are Python strings immutable?,  Prev: Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.3 Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?
---------------------------------------------------------

Users are often surprised by results like this:

     >>> 1.2 - 1.0
     0.19999999999999996

and think it is a bug in Python.  It’s not.  This has little to do with
Python, and much more to do with how the underlying platform handles
floating-point numbers.

The *note float: 327. type in CPython uses a C ‘double’ for storage.  A
‘float’ object’s value is stored in binary floating-point with a fixed
precision (typically 53 bits) and Python uses C operations, which in
turn rely on the hardware implementation in the processor, to perform
floating-point operations.  This means that as far as floating-point
operations are concerned, Python behaves like many popular languages
including C and Java.

Many numbers that can be written easily in decimal notation cannot be
expressed exactly in binary floating point.  For example, after:

     >>> x = 1.2

the value stored for ‘x’ is a (very good) approximation to the decimal
value ‘1.2’, but is not exactly equal to it.  On a typical machine, the
actual stored value is:

     1.0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011 (binary)

which is exactly:

     1.1999999999999999555910790149937383830547332763671875 (decimal)

The typical precision of 53 bits provides Python floats with 15–16
decimal digits of accuracy.

For a fuller explanation, please see the *note floating-point
arithmetic: 22f0. chapter in the Python tutorial.


File: python.info,  Node: Why are Python strings immutable?,  Next: Why must “self” be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?,  Prev: Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.4 Why are Python strings immutable?
----------------------------------------

There are several advantages.

One is performance: knowing that a string is immutable means we can
allocate space for it at creation time, and the storage requirements are
fixed and unchanging.  This is also one of the reasons for the
distinction between tuples and lists.

Another advantage is that strings in Python are considered as
«elemental» as numbers.  No amount of activity will change the value 8
to anything else, and in Python, no amount of activity will change the
string «eight» to anything else.


File: python.info,  Node: Why must “self” be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?,  Next: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?,  Prev: Why are Python strings immutable?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.5 Why must “self” be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

The idea was borrowed from Modula-3.  It turns out to be very useful,
for a variety of reasons.

First, it’s more obvious that you are using a method or instance
attribute instead of a local variable.  Reading ‘self.x’ or
‘self.meth()’ makes it absolutely clear that an instance variable or
method is used even if you don’t know the class definition by heart.  In
C++, you can sort of tell by the lack of a local variable declaration
(assuming globals are rare or easily recognizable) – but in Python,
there are no local variable declarations, so you’d have to look up the
class definition to be sure.  Some C++ and Java coding standards call
for instance attributes to have an ‘m_’ prefix, so this explicitness is
still useful in those languages, too.

Second, it means that no special syntax is necessary if you want to
explicitly reference or call the method from a particular class.  In
C++, if you want to use a method from a base class which is overridden
in a derived class, you have to use the ‘::’ operator – in Python you
can write ‘baseclass.methodname(self, <argument list>)’.  This is
particularly useful for *note __init__(): 2fa. methods, and in general
in cases where a derived class method wants to extend the base class
method of the same name and thus has to call the base class method
somehow.

Finally, for instance variables it solves a syntactic problem with
assignment: since local variables in Python are (by definition!)  those
variables to which a value is assigned in a function body (and that
aren’t explicitly declared global), there has to be some way to tell the
interpreter that an assignment was meant to assign to an instance
variable instead of to a local variable, and it should preferably be
syntactic (for efficiency reasons).  C++ does this through declarations,
but Python doesn’t have declarations and it would be a pity having to
introduce them just for this purpose.  Using the explicit ‘self.var’
solves this nicely.  Similarly, for using instance variables, having to
write ‘self.var’ means that references to unqualified names inside a
method don’t have to search the instance’s directories.  To put it
another way, local variables and instance variables live in two
different namespaces, and you need to tell Python which namespace to
use.


File: python.info,  Node: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?,  Next: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?,  Prev: Why must “self” be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.6 Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?
------------------------------------------------------

Starting in Python 3.8, you can!

Assignment expressions using the walrus operator ‘:=’ assign a variable
in an expression:

     while chunk := fp.read(200):
        print(chunk)

See PEP 572(1) for more information.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/


File: python.info,  Node: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?,  Next: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?,  Prev: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.7 Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

As Guido said:

     (a) For some operations, prefix notation just reads better than
     postfix – prefix (and infix!)  operations have a long tradition in
     mathematics which likes notations where the visuals help the
     mathematician thinking about a problem.  Compare the easy with
     which we rewrite a formula like x*(a+b) into x*a + x*b to the
     clumsiness of doing the same thing using a raw OO notation.

     (b) When I read code that says len(x) I 'know' that it is asking
     for the length of something.  This tells me two things: the result
     is an integer, and the argument is some kind of container.  To the
     contrary, when I read x.len(), I have to already know that x is
     some kind of container implementing an interface or inheriting from
     a class that has a standard len().  Witness the confusion we
     occasionally have when a class that is not implementing a mapping
     has a get() or keys() method, or something that isn’t a file has a
     write() method.

-- ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-3000/2006-November/004643.html’


File: python.info,  Node: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?,  Next: How fast are exceptions?,  Prev: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.8 Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Strings became much more like other standard types starting in Python
1.6, when methods were added which give the same functionality that has
always been available using the functions of the string module.  Most of
these new methods have been widely accepted, but the one which appears
to make some programmers feel uncomfortable is:

     ", ".join(['1', '2', '4', '8', '16'])

which gives the result:

     "1, 2, 4, 8, 16"

There are two common arguments against this usage.

The first runs along the lines of: «It looks really ugly using a method
of a string literal (string constant)», to which the answer is that it
might, but a string literal is just a fixed value.  If the methods are
to be allowed on names bound to strings there is no logical reason to
make them unavailable on literals.

The second objection is typically cast as: «I am really telling a
sequence to join its members together with a string constant».  Sadly,
you aren’t.  For some reason there seems to be much less difficulty with
having *note split(): 125b. as a string method, since in that case it is
easy to see that

     "1, 2, 4, 8, 16".split(", ")

is an instruction to a string literal to return the substrings delimited
by the given separator (or, by default, arbitrary runs of white space).

*note join(): 2803. is a string method because in using it you are
telling the separator string to iterate over a sequence of strings and
insert itself between adjacent elements.  This method can be used with
any argument which obeys the rules for sequence objects, including any
new classes you might define yourself.  Similar methods exist for bytes
and bytearray objects.


File: python.info,  Node: How fast are exceptions?,  Next: Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?,  Prev: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.9 How fast are exceptions?
-------------------------------

A *note try: ad6./*note except: 447. block is extremely efficient if no
exceptions are raised.  Actually catching an exception is expensive.  In
versions of Python prior to 2.0 it was common to use this idiom:

     try:
         value = mydict[key]
     except KeyError:
         mydict[key] = getvalue(key)
         value = mydict[key]

This only made sense when you expected the dict to have the key almost
all the time.  If that wasn’t the case, you coded it like this:

     if key in mydict:
         value = mydict[key]
     else:
         value = mydict[key] = getvalue(key)

For this specific case, you could also use ‘value = dict.setdefault(key,
getvalue(key))’, but only if the ‘getvalue()’ call is cheap enough
because it is evaluated in all cases.


File: python.info,  Node: Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?,  Next: Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?,  Prev: How fast are exceptions?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.10 Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?
-------------------------------------------------------------

In general, structured switch statements execute one block of code when
an expression has a particular value or set of values.  Since Python
3.10 one can easily match literal values, or constants within a
namespace, with a ‘match ... case’ statement.  An older alternative is a
sequence of ‘if... elif... elif... else’.

For cases where you need to choose from a very large number of
possibilities, you can create a dictionary mapping case values to
functions to call.  For example:

     functions = {'a': function_1,
                  'b': function_2,
                  'c': self.method_1}

     func = functions[value]
     func()

For calling methods on objects, you can simplify yet further by using
the *note getattr(): f8f. built-in to retrieve methods with a particular
name:

     class MyVisitor:
         def visit_a(self):
             ...

         def dispatch(self, value):
             method_name = 'visit_' + str(value)
             method = getattr(self, method_name)
             method()

It’s suggested that you use a prefix for the method names, such as
‘visit_’ in this example.  Without such a prefix, if values are coming
from an untrusted source, an attacker would be able to call any method
on your object.

Imitating switch with fallthrough, as with C’s switch-case-default, is
possible, much harder, and less needed.


File: python.info,  Node: Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?,  Next: Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?,  Prev: Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.11 Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Answer 1: Unfortunately, the interpreter pushes at least one C stack
frame for each Python stack frame.  Also, extensions can call back into
Python at almost random moments.  Therefore, a complete threads
implementation requires thread support for C.

Answer 2: Fortunately, there is Stackless Python(1), which has a
completely redesigned interpreter loop that avoids the C stack.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/stackless-dev/stackless/wiki


File: python.info,  Node: Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?,  Next: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?,  Prev: Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.12 Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?
--------------------------------------------------------

Python lambda expressions cannot contain statements because Python’s
syntactic framework can’t handle statements nested inside expressions.
However, in Python, this is not a serious problem.  Unlike lambda forms
in other languages, where they add functionality, Python lambdas are
only a shorthand notation if you’re too lazy to define a function.

Functions are already first class objects in Python, and can be declared
in a local scope.  Therefore the only advantage of using a lambda
instead of a locally defined function is that you don’t need to invent a
name for the function – but that’s just a local variable to which the
function object (which is exactly the same type of object that a lambda
expression yields) is assigned!


File: python.info,  Node: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?,  Next: How does Python manage memory?,  Prev: Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.13 Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

Cython(1) compiles a modified version of Python with optional
annotations into C extensions.  Nuitka(2) is an up-and-coming compiler
of Python into C++ code, aiming to support the full Python language.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://cython.org/

   (2) https://nuitka.net/


File: python.info,  Node: How does Python manage memory?,  Next: Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?,  Prev: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.14 How does Python manage memory?
--------------------------------------

The details of Python memory management depend on the implementation.
The standard implementation of Python, *note CPython: ae3, uses
reference counting to detect inaccessible objects, and another mechanism
to collect reference cycles, periodically executing a cycle detection
algorithm which looks for inaccessible cycles and deletes the objects
involved.  The *note gc: 63. module provides functions to perform a
garbage collection, obtain debugging statistics, and tune the
collector’s parameters.

Other implementations (such as Jython(1) or PyPy(2)), however, can rely
on a different mechanism such as a full-blown garbage collector.  This
difference can cause some subtle porting problems if your Python code
depends on the behavior of the reference counting implementation.

In some Python implementations, the following code (which is fine in
CPython) will probably run out of file descriptors:

     for file in very_long_list_of_files:
         f = open(file)
         c = f.read(1)

Indeed, using CPython’s reference counting and destructor scheme, each
new assignment to ‘f’ closes the previous file.  With a traditional GC,
however, those file objects will only get collected (and closed) at
varying and possibly long intervals.

If you want to write code that will work with any Python implementation,
you should explicitly close the file or use the *note with: 20a.
statement; this will work regardless of memory management scheme:

     for file in very_long_list_of_files:
         with open(file) as f:
             c = f.read(1)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.jython.org

   (2) https://pypy.org


File: python.info,  Node: Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?,  Next: Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?,  Prev: How does Python manage memory?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.15 Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

For one thing, this is not a C standard feature and hence it’s not
portable.  (Yes, we know about the Boehm GC library.  It has bits of
assembler code for 'most' common platforms, not for all of them, and
although it is mostly transparent, it isn’t completely transparent;
patches are required to get Python to work with it.)

Traditional GC also becomes a problem when Python is embedded into other
applications.  While in a standalone Python it’s fine to replace the
standard ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ with versions provided by the GC
library, an application embedding Python may want to have its 'own'
substitute for ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, and may not want Python’s.
Right now, CPython works with anything that implements ‘malloc()’ and
‘free()’ properly.


File: python.info,  Node: Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?,  Next: Why are there separate tuple and list data types?,  Prev: Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.16 Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?
------------------------------------------------------

Objects referenced from the global namespaces of Python modules are not
always deallocated when Python exits.  This may happen if there are
circular references.  There are also certain bits of memory that are
allocated by the C library that are impossible to free (e.g.  a tool
like Purify will complain about these).  Python is, however, aggressive
about cleaning up memory on exit and does try to destroy every single
object.

If you want to force Python to delete certain things on deallocation use
the *note atexit: d. module to run a function that will force those
deletions.


File: python.info,  Node: Why are there separate tuple and list data types?,  Next: How are lists implemented in CPython?,  Prev: Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.17 Why are there separate tuple and list data types?
---------------------------------------------------------

Lists and tuples, while similar in many respects, are generally used in
fundamentally different ways.  Tuples can be thought of as being similar
to Pascal ‘records’ or C ‘structs’; they’re small collections of related
data which may be of different types which are operated on as a group.
For example, a Cartesian coordinate is appropriately represented as a
tuple of two or three numbers.

Lists, on the other hand, are more like arrays in other languages.  They
tend to hold a varying number of objects all of which have the same type
and which are operated on one-by-one.  For example, *note
os.listdir('.'): 14a6. returns a list of strings representing the files
in the current directory.  Functions which operate on this output would
generally not break if you added another file or two to the directory.

Tuples are *note immutable: 181, meaning that once a tuple has been
created, you can’t replace any of its elements with a new value.  Lists
are *note mutable: 21d1, meaning that you can always change a list’s
elements.  Only *note hashable: 183. objects can be used as dictionary
keys.  Most immutable types are hashable, which is why tuples, but not
lists, can be used as keys.  Note, however, that a tuple is only
hashable if all of its elements are hashable.


File: python.info,  Node: How are lists implemented in CPython?,  Next: How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?,  Prev: Why are there separate tuple and list data types?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.18 How are lists implemented in CPython?
---------------------------------------------

CPython’s lists are really variable-length arrays, not Lisp-style linked
lists.  The implementation uses a contiguous array of references to
other objects, and keeps a pointer to this array and the array’s length
in a list head structure.

This makes indexing a list ‘a[i]’ an operation whose cost is independent
of the size of the list or the value of the index.

When items are appended or inserted, the array of references is resized.
Some cleverness is applied to improve the performance of appending items
repeatedly; when the array must be grown, some extra space is allocated
so the next few times don’t require an actual resize.


File: python.info,  Node: How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?,  Next: Why must dictionary keys be immutable?,  Prev: How are lists implemented in CPython?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.19 How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?
----------------------------------------------------

CPython’s dictionaries are implemented as resizable hash tables.
Compared to B-trees, this gives better performance for lookup (the most
common operation by far) under most circumstances, and the
implementation is simpler.

Dictionaries work by computing a hash code for each key stored in the
dictionary using the *note hash(): 9e2. built-in function.  The hash
code varies widely depending on the key and a per-process seed; for
example, ‘'Python'’ could hash to ‘-539294296’ while ‘'python'’, a
string that differs by a single bit, could hash to ‘1142331976’.  The
hash code is then used to calculate a location in an internal array
where the value will be stored.  Assuming that you’re storing keys that
all have different hash values, this means that dictionaries take
constant time – 'O'(1), in Big-O notation – to retrieve a key.


File: python.info,  Node: Why must dictionary keys be immutable?,  Next: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?,  Prev: How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.20 Why must dictionary keys be immutable?
----------------------------------------------

The hash table implementation of dictionaries uses a hash value
calculated from the key value to find the key.  If the key were a
mutable object, its value could change, and thus its hash could also
change.  But since whoever changes the key object can’t tell that it was
being used as a dictionary key, it can’t move the entry around in the
dictionary.  Then, when you try to look up the same object in the
dictionary it won’t be found because its hash value is different.  If
you tried to look up the old value it wouldn’t be found either, because
the value of the object found in that hash bin would be different.

If you want a dictionary indexed with a list, simply convert the list to
a tuple first; the function ‘tuple(L)’ creates a tuple with the same
entries as the list ‘L’.  Tuples are immutable and can therefore be used
as dictionary keys.

Some unacceptable solutions that have been proposed:

   - Hash lists by their address (object ID). This doesn’t work because
     if you construct a new list with the same value it won’t be found;
     e.g.:

          mydict = {[1, 2]: '12'}
          print(mydict[[1, 2]])

     would raise a *note KeyError: 7df. exception because the id of the
     ‘[1, 2]’ used in the second line differs from that in the first
     line.  In other words, dictionary keys should be compared using
     ‘==’, not using *note is: 324.

   - Make a copy when using a list as a key.  This doesn’t work because
     the list, being a mutable object, could contain a reference to
     itself, and then the copying code would run into an infinite loop.

   - Allow lists as keys but tell the user not to modify them.  This
     would allow a class of hard-to-track bugs in programs when you
     forgot or modified a list by accident.  It also invalidates an
     important invariant of dictionaries: every value in ‘d.keys()’ is
     usable as a key of the dictionary.

   - Mark lists as read-only once they are used as a dictionary key.
     The problem is that it’s not just the top-level object that could
     change its value; you could use a tuple containing a list as a key.
     Entering anything as a key into a dictionary would require marking
     all objects reachable from there as read-only – and again,
     self-referential objects could cause an infinite loop.

There is a trick to get around this if you need to, but use it at your
own risk: You can wrap a mutable structure inside a class instance which
has both a *note __eq__(): ec0. and a *note __hash__(): ec1. method.
You must then make sure that the hash value for all such wrapper objects
that reside in a dictionary (or other hash based structure), remain
fixed while the object is in the dictionary (or other structure).

     class ListWrapper:
         def __init__(self, the_list):
             self.the_list = the_list

         def __eq__(self, other):
             return self.the_list == other.the_list

         def __hash__(self):
             l = self.the_list
             result = 98767 - len(l)*555
             for i, el in enumerate(l):
                 try:
                     result = result + (hash(el) % 9999999) * 1001 + i
                 except Exception:
                     result = (result % 7777777) + i * 333
             return result

Note that the hash computation is complicated by the possibility that
some members of the list may be unhashable and also by the possibility
of arithmetic overflow.

Furthermore it must always be the case that if ‘o1 == o2’ (ie
‘o1.__eq__(o2) is True’) then ‘hash(o1) == hash(o2)’ (ie, ‘o1.__hash__()
== o2.__hash__()’), regardless of whether the object is in a dictionary
or not.  If you fail to meet these restrictions dictionaries and other
hash based structures will misbehave.

In the case of ‘ListWrapper’, whenever the wrapper object is in a
dictionary the wrapped list must not change to avoid anomalies.  Don’t
do this unless you are prepared to think hard about the requirements and
the consequences of not meeting them correctly.  Consider yourself
warned.


File: python.info,  Node: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?,  Next: How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?,  Prev: Why must dictionary keys be immutable?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.21 Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?
-------------------------------------------------------

In situations where performance matters, making a copy of the list just
to sort it would be wasteful.  Therefore, *note list.sort(): f8d. sorts
the list in place.  In order to remind you of that fact, it does not
return the sorted list.  This way, you won’t be fooled into accidentally
overwriting a list when you need a sorted copy but also need to keep the
unsorted version around.

If you want to return a new list, use the built-in *note sorted(): f8c.
function instead.  This function creates a new list from a provided
iterable, sorts it and returns it.  For example, here’s how to iterate
over the keys of a dictionary in sorted order:

     for key in sorted(mydict):
         ...  # do whatever with mydict[key]...


File: python.info,  Node: How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?,  Next: Why is there no goto?,  Prev: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.22 How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?
-------------------------------------------------------------------

An interface specification for a module as provided by languages such as
C++ and Java describes the prototypes for the methods and functions of
the module.  Many feel that compile-time enforcement of interface
specifications helps in the construction of large programs.

Python 2.6 adds an *note abc: 4. module that lets you define Abstract
Base Classes (ABCs).  You can then use *note isinstance(): 2ef. and
*note issubclass(): 2f0. to check whether an instance or a class
implements a particular ABC. The *note collections.abc: 1f. module
defines a set of useful ABCs such as *note Iterable: 28aa, *note
Container: 28ac, and *note MutableMapping: 1459.

For Python, many of the advantages of interface specifications can be
obtained by an appropriate test discipline for components.

A good test suite for a module can both provide a regression test and
serve as a module interface specification and a set of examples.  Many
Python modules can be run as a script to provide a simple «self test.»
Even modules which use complex external interfaces can often be tested
in isolation using trivial «stub» emulations of the external interface.
The *note doctest: 3d. and *note unittest: 10f. modules or third-party
test frameworks can be used to construct exhaustive test suites that
exercise every line of code in a module.

An appropriate testing discipline can help build large complex
applications in Python as well as having interface specifications would.
In fact, it can be better because an interface specification cannot test
certain properties of a program.  For example, the *note list.append():
aba. method is expected to add new elements to the end of some internal
list; an interface specification cannot test that your ‘list.append()’
implementation will actually do this correctly, but it’s trivial to
check this property in a test suite.

Writing test suites is very helpful, and you might want to design your
code to make it easily tested.  One increasingly popular technique,
test-driven development, calls for writing parts of the test suite
first, before you write any of the actual code.  Of course Python allows
you to be sloppy and not write test cases at all.


File: python.info,  Node: Why is there no goto?,  Next: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?,  Prev: How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.23 Why is there no goto?
-----------------------------

In the 1970s people realized that unrestricted goto could lead to messy
«spaghetti» code that was hard to understand and revise.  In a
high-level language, it is also unneeded as long as there are ways to
branch (in Python, with *note if: 322. statements and *note or: 325,
*note and: 31f, and ‘if’/*note else: 320. expressions) and loop (with
*note while: 1b86. and *note for: 321. statements, possibly containing
*note continue: 429. and *note break: 428.).

One can also use exceptions to provide a «structured goto» that works
even across function calls.  Many feel that exceptions can conveniently
emulate all reasonable uses of the ‘go’ or ‘goto’ constructs of C,
Fortran, and other languages.  For example:

     class label(Exception): pass  # declare a label

     try:
         ...
         if condition: raise label()  # goto label
         ...
     except label:  # where to goto
         pass
     ...

This doesn’t allow you to jump into the middle of a loop, but that’s
usually considered an abuse of ‘goto’ anyway.  Use sparingly.


File: python.info,  Node: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?,  Next: Why doesn’t Python have a «with» statement for attribute assignments?,  Prev: Why is there no goto?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.24 Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?
---------------------------------------------------------------

More precisely, they can’t end with an odd number of backslashes: the
unpaired backslash at the end escapes the closing quote character,
leaving an unterminated string.

Raw strings were designed to ease creating input for processors (chiefly
regular expression engines) that want to do their own backslash escape
processing.  Such processors consider an unmatched trailing backslash to
be an error anyway, so raw strings disallow that.  In return, they allow
you to pass on the string quote character by escaping it with a
backslash.  These rules work well when r-strings are used for their
intended purpose.

If you’re trying to build Windows pathnames, note that all Windows
system calls accept forward slashes too:

     f = open("/mydir/file.txt")  # works fine!

If you’re trying to build a pathname for a DOS command, try e.g.  one of

     dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir" "\\"
     dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir\ "[:-1]
     dir = "\\this\\is\\my\\dos\\dir\\"


File: python.info,  Node: Why doesn’t Python have a «with» statement for attribute assignments?,  Next: Why don’t generators support the with statement?,  Prev: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.25 Why doesn’t Python have a «with» statement for attribute assignments?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Python has a *note with: 20a. statement that wraps the execution of a
block, calling code on the entrance and exit from the block.  Some
languages have a construct that looks like this:

     with obj:
         a = 1               # equivalent to obj.a = 1
         total = total + 1   # obj.total = obj.total + 1

In Python, such a construct would be ambiguous.

Other languages, such as Object Pascal, Delphi, and C++, use static
types, so it’s possible to know, in an unambiguous way, what member is
being assigned to.  This is the main point of static typing – the
compiler 'always' knows the scope of every variable at compile time.

Python uses dynamic types.  It is impossible to know in advance which
attribute will be referenced at runtime.  Member attributes may be added
or removed from objects on the fly.  This makes it impossible to know,
from a simple reading, what attribute is being referenced: a local one,
a global one, or a member attribute?

For instance, take the following incomplete snippet:

     def foo(a):
         with a:
             print(x)

The snippet assumes that ‘a’ must have a member attribute called ‘x’.
However, there is nothing in Python that tells the interpreter this.
What should happen if ‘a’ is, let us say, an integer?  If there is a
global variable named ‘x’, will it be used inside the *note with: 20a.
block?  As you see, the dynamic nature of Python makes such choices much
harder.

The primary benefit of *note with: 20a. and similar language features
(reduction of code volume) can, however, easily be achieved in Python by
assignment.  Instead of:

     function(args).mydict[index][index].a = 21
     function(args).mydict[index][index].b = 42
     function(args).mydict[index][index].c = 63

write this:

     ref = function(args).mydict[index][index]
     ref.a = 21
     ref.b = 42
     ref.c = 63

This also has the side-effect of increasing execution speed because name
bindings are resolved at run-time in Python, and the second version only
needs to perform the resolution once.

Similar proposals that would introduce syntax to further reduce code
volume, such as using a “leading dot”, have been rejected in favour of
explicitness (see
‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-ideas/2016-May/040070.html’).


File: python.info,  Node: Why don’t generators support the with statement?,  Next: Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?,  Prev: Why doesn’t Python have a «with» statement for attribute assignments?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.26 Why don’t generators support the with statement?
--------------------------------------------------------

For technical reasons, a generator used directly as a context manager
would not work correctly.  When, as is most common, a generator is used
as an iterator run to completion, no closing is needed.  When it is,
wrap it as *note contextlib.closing(generator): 3ec. in the *note with:
20a. statement.


File: python.info,  Node: Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?,  Next: Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?,  Prev: Why don’t generators support the with statement?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.27 Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?
----------------------------------------------------------------------

The colon is required primarily to enhance readability (one of the
results of the experimental ABC language).  Consider this:

     if a == b
         print(a)

versus

     if a == b:
         print(a)

Notice how the second one is slightly easier to read.  Notice further
how a colon sets off the example in this FAQ answer; it’s a standard
usage in English.

Another minor reason is that the colon makes it easier for editors with
syntax highlighting; they can look for colons to decide when indentation
needs to be increased instead of having to do a more elaborate parsing
of the program text.


File: python.info,  Node: Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?,  Prev: Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?,  Up: Design and History FAQ

10.3.28 Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?
--------------------------------------------------------------------

Python lets you add a trailing comma at the end of lists, tuples, and
dictionaries:

     [1, 2, 3,]
     ('a', 'b', 'c',)
     d = {
         "A": [1, 5],
         "B": [6, 7],  # last trailing comma is optional but good style
     }

There are several reasons to allow this.

When you have a literal value for a list, tuple, or dictionary spread
across multiple lines, it’s easier to add more elements because you
don’t have to remember to add a comma to the previous line.  The lines
can also be reordered without creating a syntax error.

Accidentally omitting the comma can lead to errors that are hard to
diagnose.  For example:

     x = [
       "fee",
       "fie"
       "foo",
       "fum"
     ]

This list looks like it has four elements, but it actually contains
three: «fee», «fiefoo» and «fum».  Always adding the comma avoids this
source of error.

Allowing the trailing comma may also make programmatic code generation
easier.


File: python.info,  Node: Συχνές ερωτήσεις βιβλιοθήκης και επέκτασης,  Next: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης,  Prev: Design and History FAQ,  Up: Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python

10.4 Συχνές ερωτήσεις βιβλιοθήκης και επέκτασης
===============================================

* Menu:

* Γενικές Ερωτήσεις Βιβλιοθήκης::
* Κοινές εργασίες::
* Νήματα (Threads): Νήματα Threads.
* Είσοδος και Έξοδος: Είσοδος και Έξοδος<2>.
* Προγραμματισμός Δικτύου/Διαδικτύου::
* Βάσεις Δεδομένων::
* Μαθηματικά και Αριθμητικά::


File: python.info,  Node: Γενικές Ερωτήσεις Βιβλιοθήκης,  Next: Κοινές εργασίες,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις βιβλιοθήκης και επέκτασης

10.4.1 Γενικές Ερωτήσεις Βιβλιοθήκης
------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Πως μπορώ να βρω ένα module ή μια εφαρμογή για να εκτελέσω την εργασία Χ;::
* Που βρίσκεται το πηγαίο αρχείο math.py (socket.py, regex.py, κ.λπ.);: Που βρίσκεται το πηγαίο αρχείο math py socket py regex py κ λπ ;.
* Πως δημιουργώ ένα εκτελέσιμο Python script στο Unix;::
* Υπάρχει ένα curses/termcap πακέτο για την Python;::
* Υπάρχει κάτι ισοδύναμο με την onexit() της C στην Python;: Υπάρχει κάτι ισοδύναμο με την onexit της C στην Python;.
* Γιατί δεν λειτουργούν οι χειριστές σήματος μου;::


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να βρω ένα module ή μια εφαρμογή για να εκτελέσω την εργασία Χ;,  Next: Που βρίσκεται το πηγαίο αρχείο math py socket py regex py κ λπ ;,  Up: Γενικές Ερωτήσεις Βιβλιοθήκης

10.4.1.1 Πως μπορώ να βρω ένα module ή μια εφαρμογή για να εκτελέσω την εργασία Χ;
..................................................................................

Ελέγξτε την *note the Library Reference: 3f7. για να δείτε αν υπάρχει
ένα σχετικό τυπικό module.  (Τελικά θα μάθετε τι υπάρχει στην τυπική
βιβλιοθήκη και θα μπορείτε να παραλείψετε αυτό το βήμα.)

Για πακέτα τρίτων, πραγματοποιήστε αναζήτηση στο Python Package Index(1)
ή δοκιμάστε στο Google(2) ή σε κάποια άλλη μηχανή αναζήτησης ιστού.  Η
αναζήτηση με τον όρο «Python» μαζί με μια ή δύο λέξεις κλειδιά για το
θέμα που σας ενδιαφέρει συνήθως θα βγάλει κάποιο χρήσιμο αποτέλεσμα.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org

   (2) https://www.google.com


File: python.info,  Node: Που βρίσκεται το πηγαίο αρχείο math py socket py regex py κ λπ ;,  Next: Πως δημιουργώ ένα εκτελέσιμο Python script στο Unix;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να βρω ένα module ή μια εφαρμογή για να εκτελέσω την εργασία Χ;,  Up: Γενικές Ερωτήσεις Βιβλιοθήκης

10.4.1.2 Που βρίσκεται το πηγαίο αρχείο math.py (socket.py, regex.py, κ.λπ.);
.............................................................................

Εάν δεν μπορείτε να βρείτε ένα πηγαίο αρχείο για ένα module, μπορεί να
είναι ένα ενσωματωμένο (built-in) module ή ένα module που φορτώνεται
δυναμικά υλοποιημένο σε C, C++ ή άλλη μεταγλωττισμένη γλώσσα.  Σε αυτή
την περίπτωση μπορεί να μην έχετε το αρχείο προέλευσης ή μπορεί να είναι
κάτι σαν ‘mathmodule.c’, κάπου σε έναν κατάλογο προέλευσης C (όχι στην
διαδρομή της Python).

Υπάρχουν (το λιγότερο) τριών ειδών modules στην Python:

  1. modules γραμμένα σε Python (.py):

  2. modules γραμμένα σε C και φορτώνονται δυναμικά (.dll, .pyd, .so,
     .sl, κ.λπ.):

  3. modules γραμμένα σε C και συνδεδεμένα με τον διερμηνέα: για να
     λάβετε μια λίστα από αυτά, πληκτρολογήστε:

          import sys
          print(sys.builtin_module_names)


File: python.info,  Node: Πως δημιουργώ ένα εκτελέσιμο Python script στο Unix;,  Next: Υπάρχει ένα curses/termcap πακέτο για την Python;,  Prev: Που βρίσκεται το πηγαίο αρχείο math py socket py regex py κ λπ ;,  Up: Γενικές Ερωτήσεις Βιβλιοθήκης

10.4.1.3 Πως δημιουργώ ένα εκτελέσιμο Python script στο Unix;
.............................................................

Θα πρέπει να κάνετε δύο πράγματα: η λειτουργία του script αρχείου πρέπει
να είναι εκτελέσιμη και η πρώτη γραμμή θα πρέπει αν ξεκινά με ‘#!’
ακολουθούμενη από τη διαδρομή του διερμηνέα της Python.

Το πρώτο γίνεται με την εκτέλεση του ‘chmod +x scriptfile’ ή ίσως ‘chmod
755 scriptfile’.

Το δεύτερο μπορεί να γίνει με ποικίλους τρόπους.  Ο πιο απλός τρόπος
είναι να γράψετε

     #!/usr/local/bin/python

ως η πρώτη γραμμή του αρχείου σας, χρησιμοποιώντας το pathname για το
πού είναι εγκατεστημένος ο διερμηνέας Python στην πλατφόρμα σας.

Εάν θέλετε το script να είναι ανεξάρτητο, από το που ζει ο διερμηνέας
της Python, μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε το πρόγραμμα ‘env’.  Σχεδόν όλες
οι παραλλαγές Unix υποστηρίζουν τα ακόλουθα, υποθέτοντας ότι ο
διερμηνέας Python βρίσκεται σε έναν κατάλογο στο ‘PATH’ του χρήστη:

     #!/usr/bin/env python

'Μην' το κάνετε αυτό για CGI scripts.  Η μεταβλητή ‘PATH’ για τα CGI
scripts είναι συχνά πολύ ελάχιστη, επομένως πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσετε το
πραγματικό απόλυτο όνομα διαδρομής του διερμηνέα.

Περιστασιακά, το περιβάλλον ενός χρήστη είναι τόσο γεμάτο που το
πρόγραμμα ‘/usr/bin/env’ αποτυγχάνει ή δεν υπάρχει καθόλου πρόγραμμα
env.  Σε αυτήν την περίπτωση, μπορείτε να δοκιμάσετε το ακόλουθο hack
(λόγω του Alex Rezinsky):

     #! /bin/sh
     """:"
     exec python $0 ${1+"$@"}
     """

Το, ελάχιστης σημασίας, μειονέκτημα είναι ότι αυτό καθορίζει τη
συμβολοσειρά __doc__ του script.  Ωστόσο, μπορείτε να το διορθώσετε
προσθέτοντας

     __doc__ = """...Οτιδήποτε..."""


File: python.info,  Node: Υπάρχει ένα curses/termcap πακέτο για την Python;,  Next: Υπάρχει κάτι ισοδύναμο με την onexit της C στην Python;,  Prev: Πως δημιουργώ ένα εκτελέσιμο Python script στο Unix;,  Up: Γενικές Ερωτήσεις Βιβλιοθήκης

10.4.1.4 Υπάρχει ένα curses/termcap πακέτο για την Python;
..........................................................

Για παραλλαγές Unix: Η τυπική διανομή του πηγαίου της Python συνοδεύεται
από ένα curses module στον υποκατάλογο Modules(1), αν και δεν έχει
μεταγλωττιστεί από προεπιλογή.  (Λάβετε υπόψη ότι αυτό δεν είναι
διαθέσιμο στη διανομή των Windows – δεν υπάρχει curses module για
Windows.)

Το module *note curses: 2e. υποστηρίζει βασικές curses λειτουργίες καθώς
και πολλές πρόσθετες λειτουργίες από ncurses και SYSV curses, όπως
χρώμα, υποστήριξη εναλλακτικού συνόλου χαρακτήρων, pads και υποστήριξη
ποντικιού.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι το module δεν είναι συμβατό με λειτουργικά
συστήματα που έχουνε μόνο BSD curses, αλλά δεν φαίνεται να υπάρχουν επί
του παρόντος διατηρημένα λειτουργικά συστήματα που να εμπίπτουν σε αυτήν
την κατηγορία.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Modules


File: python.info,  Node: Υπάρχει κάτι ισοδύναμο με την onexit της C στην Python;,  Next: Γιατί δεν λειτουργούν οι χειριστές σήματος μου;,  Prev: Υπάρχει ένα curses/termcap πακέτο για την Python;,  Up: Γενικές Ερωτήσεις Βιβλιοθήκης

10.4.1.5 Υπάρχει κάτι ισοδύναμο με την onexit() της C στην Python;
..................................................................

Το module *note atexit: d. παρέχει μια συνάρτηση καταχωρητή παρόμοια με
τη συνάρτηση ‘onexit()’ της C.


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10.4.1.6 Γιατί δεν λειτουργούν οι χειριστές σήματος μου;
........................................................

Το πιο συνηθισμένο πρόβλημα είναι ότι ο χειριστής σήματος δηλώνεται με
λάθος λίστα ορισμάτων.  Ονομάζεται ως

     handler(signum, frame)

οπότε θα πρέπει να δηλωθεί με δύο παραμέτρους:

     def handler(signum, frame):
         ...


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10.4.2 Κοινές εργασίες
----------------------

* Menu:

* Πως μπορώ να τεστάρω ένα Python πρόγραμμα ή ένα Python component;::
* Πως δημιουργώ τεκμηρίωση από doc strings;::
* Πως μπορώ να λάβω μόνο ένα πάτημα κουμπιού κάθε φορά;::


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10.4.2.1 Πως μπορώ να τεστάρω ένα Python πρόγραμμα ή ένα Python component;
..........................................................................

Η Python συνοδεύεται από δύο frameworks για τεστ.  To module *note
doctest: 3d. βρίσκει παραδείγματα στα docstrings για ένα module και τα
εκτελεί, συγκρίνοντας την έξοδο με την αναμενόμενη έξοδο που δίνεται στο
docstring.

Το module *note unittest: 10f. είναι ένα πιο εντυπωσιακό framework που
έχει σχεδιαστεί με βάση τα frameworks για τεστ της Java και του
Smalltalk.

Για να κάνετε τα τεστ σας ευκολότερα θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιείτε μια
καλή αρθρωτή σχεδίαση στο πρόγραμμα σας.  Το πρόγραμμα σας θα πρέπει να
έχει όλες σχεδόν τις λειτουργίες ενσωματωμένες είτε σε συναρτήσεις είτε
σε μεθόδους κλάσης - και αυτό μερικές φορές έχει το εκπληκτικό και
ευχάριστο αποτέλεσμα να κάνει το πρόγραμμα να τρέχει πιο γρήγορα (γιατί
οι τοπικές προσβάσεις μεταβλητών είναι πιο γρήγορες από τις καθολικές
προσβάσεις).  Επιπλέον, το πρόγραμμα θα πρέπει να αποφεύγει την εξάρτηση
από μεταλλάξεις παγκόσμιων μεταβλητών, καθώς αυτό κάνει τη δοκιμή πολύ
πιο δύσκολη.

Η «παγκόσμια κύρια λογική» του προγράμματος σας μπορεί να είναι τόσο
απλή όσο

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         main_logic()

στο κάτω μέρος του κύριου module του προγράμματος σας.

Από τη στιγμή που το πρόγραμμα σας οργανωθεί ως μια συλλογή από
συναρτήσεις και κλάσεις που υλοποιούν μια διαδικασία, θα πρέπει να
γράψετε τεστ συναρτήσεις που εκτελούν τις αντίστοιχες διαδικασίες.  Μια
τεστ σουίτα που αυτοματοποιεί μια ακολουθία από tests μπορεί να
συσχετιστεί με κάθε module.  Αυτό ακούγεται σαν πολλή δουλειά, αλλά
επειδή η Python είναι τόσο σύντομη και ευέλικτη, αυτό είναι εκπληκτικά
εύκολο.  Μπορείτε να κάνετε την συγγραφή κώδικα πολύ πιο ευχάριστη και
διασκεδαστική γράφοντας τις δοκιμαστικές συναρτήσεις σας παράλληλα με
τον «κώδικα παραγωγής», καθώς αυτό διευκολύνει την εύρεση σφαλμάτων και
ακόμη και ελαττώματα σχεδιασμού νωρίτερα.

«Modules υποστήριξης» που δεν προορίζονται να είναι το κύριο module ενός
προγράμματος μπορεί να περιλαμβάνουν αυτοέλεγχο της ενότητας:

     if __name__ == "__main__":
         self_test()

Ακόμη και προγράμματα που αλληλεπιδρούν με πολύπλοκες εξωτερικές
διεπαφές μπορούν να δοκιμαστούν όταν οι εξωτερικές διεπαφές δεν είναι
διαθέσιμες χρησιμοποιώντας «τεχνητές» διεπαφές υλοποιημένες στην Python.


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10.4.2.2 Πως δημιουργώ τεκμηρίωση από doc strings;
..................................................

Το module *note pydoc: bd. μπορεί να δημιουργήσει HTML από τα doc
strings στον πηγαίο κώδικα Python σας.  Μια εναλλακτική λύση για τη
δημιουργία μιας τεκμηρίωσης API αποκλειστικά με docstrings είναι το
epydoc(1).  Sphinx(2) μπορεί επίσης να περιλαμβάνει docstring
περιεχόμενο.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://epydoc.sourceforge.net/

   (2) https://www.sphinx-doc.org


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10.4.2.3 Πως μπορώ να λάβω μόνο ένα πάτημα κουμπιού κάθε φορά;
..............................................................

Για τις παραλλαγές του Unix υπάρχουν πολλές λύσεις.  Είναι απλό να
κάνετε αυτό χρησιμοποιώντας curses, αλλά τα curses είναι ένα αρκετά
μεγάλο module για εκμάθηση.


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10.4.3 Νήματα (Threads)
-----------------------

* Menu:

* Πώς μπορώ να προγραμματίσω χρησιμοποιώντας νήματα(threads);: Πώς μπορώ να προγραμματίσω χρησιμοποιώντας νήματα threads ;.
* Κανένα από τα νήματα (threads) μου δεν φαίνεται να εκτελείται; γιατί;: Κανένα από τα νήματα threads μου δεν φαίνεται να εκτελείται γιατί;.
* Πως μπορώ να μοιράσω την εργασία σε ένα σωρό από νήματα για αυτήν την εργασία;::
* Ποια είδη global μετάλλαξης τιμής είναι ασφαλή για νήμα(thread);: Ποια είδη global μετάλλαξης τιμής είναι ασφαλή για νήμα thread ;.
* Μπορούμε να απαλλαγούμε από ένα Global Interpreter Lock;::


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10.4.3.1 Πώς μπορώ να προγραμματίσω χρησιμοποιώντας νήματα(threads);
....................................................................

Βεβαιωθείτε ότι χρησιμοποιείτε το module *note threading: f6. και όχι το
module *note _thread: 2.  Το module ‘threading’ παρέχει ένα πιο βολικό
και υψηλού επιπέδου τρόπο διαχείρισης νημάτων, χτίζοντας πάνω στις
βασικές λειτουργίες του module ‘_thread’.


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10.4.3.2 Κανένα από τα νήματα (threads) μου δεν φαίνεται να εκτελείται: γιατί;
..............................................................................

Μόλις γίνει έξοδος από το κύριο νήμα, τερματίζονται όλα τα νήματα.  Το
κύριο νήμα τρέχει πολύ γρήγορα, χωρίς να δίνεται χρόνος στα νήματα να
κάνουν οποιαδήποτε εργασία.

Μια απλή λύση είναι να προσθέσετε ένα sleep στο τέλος που προγράμματος
που είναι αρκετό για να τερματιστούν όλα τα νήματα:

     import threading, time

     def thread_task(name, n):
         for i in range(n):
             print(name, i)

     for i in range(10):
         T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
         T.start()

     time.sleep(10)  # <---------------------------!

Αλλά τώρα (σε πολλές πλατφόρμες) τα νήματα δεν εκτελούνται παράλληλα,
αλλά φαίνεται να εκτελούνται διαδοχικά, ένα κάθε φορά!  Ο λόγος είναι
ότι ο προγραμματιστής νημάτων του λειτουργικού συστήματος δεν ξεκινά ένα
νέο νήμα μέχρι να αποκλειστεί το προηγούμενο νήμα.

Μια απλή λύση είναι να προσθέσετε ένα μικρό sleep στην αρχή της
λειτουργίας εκτέλεσης:

     def thread_task(name, n):
         time.sleep(0.001)  # <--------------------!
         for i in range(n):
             print(name, i)

     for i in range(10):
         T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i))
         T.start()

     time.sleep(10)

Αντί να προσπαθείτε να μαντέψετε μια καλή τιμή καθυστέρησης για την
*note time.sleep(): a8c, είναι καλύτερα να χρησιμοποιείτε κάποιο είδος
μηχανισμού σηματοφόρου.  Μια ιδέα είναι να χρησιμοποιήσετε το module
*note queue: be. για να δημιουργήσετε ένα αντικείμενο ουράς, αφήνοντας
το κάθε νήμα να προσθέτει ένα token στην ουρά όταν ολοκληρωθεί, και να
αφήνει στο κύριο νήμα να διαβάσει τόσα tokens από την ουρά όσα είναι και
τα νήματα.


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10.4.3.3 Πως μπορώ να μοιράσω την εργασία σε ένα σωρό από νήματα για αυτήν την εργασία;
.......................................................................................

Ο πιο εύκολος τρόπος είναι να χρησιμοποιήσετε το module *note
concurrent.futures: 24, ειδικά την κλάση *note ThreadPoolExecutor: b27.

Ή, ένα θέλετε καλό έλεγχο στον αλγόριθμο αποστολής, μπορείτε να γράψετε
τη δική σας λογική με μη αυτόματο τρόπο.  Χρησιμοποιήστε το module *note
queue: be. για να δημιουργήσετε μια ουρά που περιέχει μια λίστα
εργασιών.  Η κλάση *note Queue: 1738. διατηρεί μια λίστα αντικειμένων
και έχει μια μέθοδο ‘.put(obj)’ που προσθέτει στοιχεία στην ουρά και μια
μέθοδο ‘.get()’ για επιστροφή.  Η κλάση θα φροντίσει για το κλείδωμα που
είναι απαραίτητο για να διασφαλίσει ότι κάθε εργασία θα παραδοθεί
ακριβώς μία φορά.

Ένα απλό παράδειγμα:

     import threading, queue, time

     # The worker thread gets jobs off the queue.  When the queue is empty, it
     # assumes there will be no more work and exits.
     # (Realistically workers will run until terminated.)
     def worker():
         print('Running worker')
         time.sleep(0.1)
         while True:
             try:
                 arg = q.get(block=False)
             except queue.Empty:
                 print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ')
                 print('queue empty')
                 break
             else:
                 print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ')
                 print('running with argument', arg)
                 time.sleep(0.5)

     # Create queue
     q = queue.Queue()

     # Start a pool of 5 workers
     for i in range(5):
         t = threading.Thread(target=worker, name='worker %i' % (i+1))
         t.start()

     # Begin adding work to the queue
     for i in range(50):
         q.put(i)

     # Give threads time to run
     print('Main thread sleeping')
     time.sleep(5)

Κατά την εκτέλεση, αυτό θα παράγει την ακόλουθη έξοδο:

     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Running worker
     Main thread sleeping
     Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 0
     Worker <Thread(worker 2, started 130283824404752)> running with argument 1
     Worker <Thread(worker 3, started 130283816012048)> running with argument 2
     Worker <Thread(worker 4, started 130283807619344)> running with argument 3
     Worker <Thread(worker 5, started 130283799226640)> running with argument 4
     Worker <Thread(worker 1, started 130283832797456)> running with argument 5
     ...

Συμβουλευτείτε την τεκμηρίωση του module για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες·
η κλάση *note Queue: 1738. παρέχει μια χαρακτηριστική διεπαφή.


File: python.info,  Node: Ποια είδη global μετάλλαξης τιμής είναι ασφαλή για νήμα thread ;,  Next: Μπορούμε να απαλλαγούμε από ένα Global Interpreter Lock;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να μοιράσω την εργασία σε ένα σωρό από νήματα για αυτήν την εργασία;,  Up: Νήματα Threads

10.4.3.4 Ποια είδη global μετάλλαξης τιμής είναι ασφαλή για νήμα(thread);
.........................................................................

Ένα *note global interpreter lock: 685. (GIL) χρησιμοποιείται εσωτερικά
για να διασφαλιστεί ότι μόνο ένα νήμα εκτελείται στο Python VM κάθε
φορά.  Γενικά, η Python προσφέρει εναλλαγή μεταξύ νημάτων μόνο μεταξύ
εντολών bytecode· το πόσο συχνά γίνεται αυτή η εναλλαγή καθορίζεται από
την *note sys.setswitchinterval(): d16.  Κάθε εντολή bytecode και
επομένως όλος ο κώδικας υλοποίησης C που φτάνει από κάθε εντολή είναι
επομένως ατομικός από την άποψη ενός προγράμματος Python.

Θεωρητικά, αυτό σημαίνει ότι μια ακριβώς λογιστική απαιτεί ακριβή
κατανόηση της εφαρμογής bytecode PVM. Στην πράξη, σημαίνει ότι οι
λειτουργίες σε κοινόχρηστες μεταβλητές ενσωματωμένων δεδομένων
(ακέραιοι, λίστες, λεξικά, κ.λπ.)  που «φαίνονται ατομικά» πραγματικά
είναι.

Για παράδειγμα, οι ακόλουθες πράξεις είναι όλες ατομικές (L, L1, L2
είναι λίστες, D, D1, D2 είναι λεξικά, x, y είναι αντικείμενα, i, j είναι
ακέραιοι):

     L.append(x)
     L1.extend(L2)
     x = L[i]
     x = L.pop()
     L1[i:j] = L2
     L.sort()
     x = y
     x.field = y
     D[x] = y
     D1.update(D2)
     D.keys()

Αυτά δεν είναι:

     i = i+1
     L.append(L[-1])
     L[i] = L[j]
     D[x] = D[x] + 1

Οι λειτουργίες που αντικαθιστούν άλλα αντικείμενα ενδέχεται να καλέσουν
αυτά τα άλλα αντικείμενα της *note __del__(): 13a6. όταν ο αριθμός
αναφοράς τους φτάσει στο μηδέν και αυτό μπορεί να επηρεάσει πράγματα.
Αυτό ισχύει ιδιαίτερα για τις μαζικές ενημερώσεις σε λεξικά και λίστες.
Σε περίπτωση αμφιβολίας, χρησιμοποιήστε ένα mutex!


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10.4.3.5 Μπορούμε να απαλλαγούμε από ένα Global Interpreter Lock;
.................................................................

Το *note global interpreter lock: 685. (GIL) θεωρείται συχνά ως εμπόδιο
για την ανάπτυξη της Python σε υψηλής τεχνολογίας μηχανήματα διακομιστών
με πολυεπεξεργαστές, επειδή ένα πρόγραμμα Python με πολλά νήματα
χρησιμοποιεί αποτελεσματικά μόνο μία CPU, λόγω της επιμονής ότι (σχεδόν)
όλος ο κώδικας της Python μπορεί να εκτελεστεί μόνο όσο διατηρείται το
GIL.

Με την έγκριση του PEP 703(1) έχει ξεκινήσει η εργασία για την αφαίρεση
του GIL από την υλοποίηση CPython της Python.  Αρχικά θα υλοποιηθεί ως
μια προαιρετική σημαία μεταγλωττιστή κατά την κατασκευή του διερμηνευτή,
και έτσι θα είναι διαθέσιμες ξεχωριστές κατασκευές με και χωρίς το GIL.
Μακροπρόθεσμα, η ελπίδα είναι να καταλήξουμε σε μια ενιαία κατασκευή,
μόλις οι επιπτώσεις στην απόδοση της αφαίρεσης του GIL να γίνουν πλήρως
κατανοητές.  Η Python 3.13 είναι πιθανό να είναι η πρώτη έκδοση που θα
περιέχει αυτήν την εργασία, αν και μπορεί να μην είναι πλήρως
λειτουργική σε αυτήν την έκδοση.

Η τρέχουσα εργασία για την αφαίρεση του GIL βασίζεται σε ένα fork της
Python 3.9 με το GIL αφαιρεμένο(2) από τον Sam Gross.  Πριν από αυτό,
στις ημέρες της Python 1.5, ο Greg Stein υλοποίησε στην πραγματικότητα
ένα ολοκληρωμένο σύνολο διορθώσεων (τα «free threading» patches) που
αφαίρεσαν το GIL και το αντικατέστησαν με λεπτομερή κλείδωμα.  Ο Adam
Olsen έκανε ένα παρόμοιο πείραμα στο έργο του python-safethread(3).
Δυστυχώς, και τα δύο αυτά προηγούμενα πειράματα παρουσίασαν απότομη
πτώση στην απόδοση ενός νήματος (τουλάχιστον 30% πιο αργά), λόγω της
ποσότητας λεπτομερούς κλειδώματος που απαιτείται για να αντισταθμιστεί η
αφαίρεση του GIL. Το fork της Python 3.9 είναι η πρώτη προσπάθεια
αφαίρεσης του GIL με αποδεκτή επίδραση στην απόδοση.

Η παρουσία του GIL στις τρέχουσες εκδόσεις της Python δεν σημαίνει ότι
δεν μπορείτε να κάνετε καλή χρήση της Python σε μηχανές με πολλαπλές
CPU!  Απλώς πρέπει να είστε δημιουργικοί με τον διαχωρισμό της εργασίας
μεταξύ πολλαπλών 'processes' αντί για πολλαπλά 'threads'.  Η κλάση *note
ProcessPoolExecutor: 206. στο νέο module *note concurrent.futures: 24.
παρέχει έναν εύκολο τρόπο για να το κάνετε αυτό· το module *note
multiprocessing: 98. παρέχει μια χαμηλότερου επιπέδου API σε περίπτωση
που θέλετε περισσότερο έλεγχο στην αποστολή εργασιών.

Η συνετή χρήση των επεκτάσεων C βοηθάει επίσης· εάν χρησιμοποιείτε μια
επέκταση C για να εκτελέσετε μια χρονοβόρα εργασία, η επέκταση μπορεί να
απελευθερώσει το GIL ενώ το νήμα εκτέλεσης βρίσκεται στον κώδικα C και
να επιτρέψει σε άλλα νήματα να ολοκληρώσουν κάποια εργασία.  Ορισμένα
τυπικά module βιβλιοθήκης όπως *note zlib: 13c. και *note hashlib: 6b.
το κάνουν ήδη αυτό.

Μια εναλλακτική προσέγγιση για τη μείωση της επίδρασης του GIL είναι να
γίνει το GIL ένα κλείδωμα ανά κατάσταση διερμηνευτή αντί για πραγματικά
παγκόσμιο.  Αυτό *note υλοποιήθηκε πρώτα στην Python 3.12: 85d. και
είναι διαθέσιμο στο C API. Μια διεπαφή Python σε αυτό αναμένεται στην
Python 3.13.  Ο κύριος περιορισμός προς το παρόν είναι πιθανό να είναι
τα 3rd party extension modules, καθώς αυτά πρέπει να γράφονται με
πολλαπλούς διερμηνευτές στο μυαλό για να είναι χρησιμοποιήσιμα, οπότε
πολλά παλαιότερα extension modules δεν θα είναι χρησιμοποιήσιμα.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (2) https://github.com/colesbury/nogil

   (3) https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-safethread


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10.4.4 Είσοδος και Έξοδος
-------------------------

* Menu:

* Πώς μπορώ να διαγράψω ένα αρχείο; (Και άλλες ερωτήσεις για το αρχείο…): Πώς μπορώ να διαγράψω ένα αρχείο; Και άλλες ερωτήσεις για το αρχείο….
* Πως αντιγράφω ένα αρχείο;::
* Πώς διαβάζω (ή γράφω) δυαδικά δεδομένα;: Πώς διαβάζω ή γράφω δυαδικά δεδομένα;.
* Δεν μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω το os.read() σε ένα pipe που δημιουργήθηκε με το os.popen()∙ γιατί;: Δεν μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω το os read σε ένα pipe που δημιουργήθηκε με το os popen ∙ γιατί;.
* Πώς μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση στη σειριακή θύρα (RS232);: Πώς μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση στη σειριακή θύρα RS232 ;.
* Γιατί το κλείσιμο του sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) δεν το κλείνει πραγματικά;: Γιατί το κλείσιμο του sys stdout stdin stderr δεν το κλείνει πραγματικά;.


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10.4.4.1 Πώς μπορώ να διαγράψω ένα αρχείο; (Και άλλες ερωτήσεις για το αρχείο…)
...............................................................................

Χρησιμοποιήστε τα ‘os.remove(filename)’ ή ‘os.unlink(filename)’ ∙ για
τεκμηρίωση, ανατρέξτε στο module *note os: a5.  Οι δύο συναρτήσεις είναι
ίδιες∙ η *note unlink(): 14a1. είναι απλώς το όνομα της κλήσης
συστήματος Unix για αυτήν τη λειτουργία.

Για να καταργήσετε έναν κατάλογο, χρησιμοποιήστε τη *note os.rmdir():
149f. ∙ χρησιμοποιήστε τη *note os.mkdir(): 72e. για να δημιουργήσετε
έναν.  Το ‘os.makedirs(path)’ θα δημιουργήσει τυχόν ενδιάμεσους
καταλόγους στο ‘path’ που δεν υπάρχουν.  Το ‘os.removedirs(path)’ θα
αφαιρέσει τους ενδιάμεσους καταλόγους εφόσον είναι κενοί∙ εάν θέλετε να
διαγράψετε ολόκληρο δέντρο καταλόγου και τα περιεχόμενα του,
χρησιμοποιήστε τη *note shutil.rmtree(): 335.

Για να μετονομάσετε ένα αρχείο, χρησιμοποιήστε το ‘os.rename(old_path,
new_path)’.

Για να περικόψετε ένα αρχείο, ανοίξτε το χρησιμοποιώντας ‘f =
open(filename, "rb+")’, και χρησιμοποιήστε το ‘f.truncate(offset)’ ∙ το
offset προεπιλέγεται στη τρέχουσα θέση αναζήτησης.  Υπάρχει επίσης το
‘os.ftruncate(fd, offset)’ για αρχεία που έχουν ανοιχτεί με *note
os.open(): 114b, όπου 'fd' είναι ο περιγραφέας αρχείου (ένας μικρός
ακέραιος).

Το module *note shutil: cd. περιέχει επίσης έναν αριθμό λειτουργιών για
εργασία σε αρχεία, όπως *note copyfile(): e1d, *note copytree(): ded,
και *note rmtree(): 335.


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10.4.4.2 Πως αντιγράφω ένα αρχείο;
..................................

Το module *note shutil: cd. περιέχει μια συνάρτηση *note copyfile():
e1d.  Σημειώστε ότι στους τόμους NTFS των Windows, δεν αντιγράφει
alternate data streams(1) ούτε resource forks(2) σε τόμους macOS HFS+,
αν και οι δύο χρησιμοποιούνται πλέον σπάνια.  Επίσης δεν αντιγράφει
δικαιώματα αρχείων και μεταδεδομένα, αν και η χρήση *note
shutil.copy2(): e1f. θα διατηρήσει το μεγαλύτερο μέρος (αν και όχι όλο)
από αυτό.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTFS#Alternate_data_stream_(ADS)

   (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_fork


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς διαβάζω ή γράφω δυαδικά δεδομένα;,  Next: Δεν μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω το os read σε ένα pipe που δημιουργήθηκε με το os popen ∙ γιατί;,  Prev: Πως αντιγράφω ένα αρχείο;,  Up: Είσοδος και Έξοδος<2>

10.4.4.3 Πώς διαβάζω (ή γράφω) δυαδικά δεδομένα;
................................................

Για να διαβάσετε ή να γράψετε σύνθετες μορφές δυαδικών δεδομένων, είναι
καλύτερο να χρησιμοποιήσετε το module *note struct: de.  Σας επιτρέπει
να πάρετε μια συμβολοσειρά που περιέχει δυαδικά δεδομένα (συνήθως
αριθμούς) και να τη μετατρέψετε σε αντικείμενα Python και αντίστροφα.

Για παράδειγμα, ο παρακάτω κώδικας διαβάζει δύο ακέραιους αριθμούς 2
byte και έναν ακέραιο αριθμό 4 byte σε μορφή big-endian από ένα αρχείο:

     import struct

     with open(filename, "rb") as f:
         s = f.read(8)
         x, y, z = struct.unpack(">hhl", s)

Το “>” στη συμβολοσειρά μορφής αναγκάζει δεδομένα big-endian∙ το γράμμα
“h” διαβάζει έναν «short integer» (2 bytes), και το “l” διαβάζει έναν
«long integer» (4 byte) από την συμβολοσειρά.

Για δεδομένα που είναι πιο κανονικά (π.χ.  μια ομοιογενής λίστα ακεραίων
ή αριθμούς με υποδιαστολή), μπορείτε επίσης να χρησιμοποιήσετε το module
*note array: 8.

     Σημείωση: Για να διαβάσετε και να γράψετε δυαδικά δεδομένα, είναι
     υποχρεωτικό να ανοίξετε το αρχείο σε δυαδική λειτουργία (εδώ,
     περνώντας το ‘"rb"’ στη *note open(): 32b.).  Εάν χρησιμοποιήσετε
     το ‘"r"’ αντί αυτού (προεπιλεγμένο) το αρχείο θα είναι ανοιχτό σε
     λειτουργία κειμένου και το ‘f.read()’ θα επιστρέψει αντικείμενα
     *note str: 1df. αντί για αντικείμενα *note bytes: 1c7.


File: python.info,  Node: Δεν μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω το os read σε ένα pipe που δημιουργήθηκε με το os popen ∙ γιατί;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση στη σειριακή θύρα RS232 ;,  Prev: Πώς διαβάζω ή γράφω δυαδικά δεδομένα;,  Up: Είσοδος και Έξοδος<2>

10.4.4.4 Δεν μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω το os.read() σε ένα pipe που δημιουργήθηκε με το os.popen()∙ γιατί;
.......................................................................................................

Η *note os.read(): 114e. είναι μια συνάρτηση χαμηλού επιπέδου που
παίρνει έναν περιγραφέα αρχείου, έναν μικρό ακέραιο που αντιπροσωπεύει
το ανοιχτό αρχείο.  Η *note os.popen(): 585. δημιουργεί ένα αντικείμενο
αρχείου υψηλού επιπέδου, του ίδιου τύπου που επιστρέφεται από την
ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note open(): 32b.  Έτσι, για να διαβάσετε 'n'
byte από ένα pipe 'p' που δημιουργήθηκε με τη ‘os.popen()’, πρέπει να
χρησιμοποιήσετε το ‘p.read(n)’.


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10.4.4.5 Πώς μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση στη σειριακή θύρα (RS232);
..................................................................

Για Win32, OSX, Linux, BSD, Jython, IronPython:

     pyserial(1)

Για το Unix, δείτε μια ανάρτηση στο Usenet από τον Mitch Chapman:

     ‘https://groups.google.com/groups?selm=34A04430.CF9@ohioee.com’

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://pypi.org/project/pyserial/


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10.4.4.6 Γιατί το κλείσιμο του sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) δεν το κλείνει πραγματικά;
....................................................................................

Το Python *note file objects: 156c. είναι ένα επίπεδο αφαίρεσης υψηλού
επιπέδου σε χαμηλού επιπέδου περιγραφείς αρχείων C.

Για τα περισσότερα αντικείμενα αρχείων που δημιουργείτε στην Python μέσω
της ενσωματωμένης συνάρτησης *note open(): 32b, η ‘f.close()’
επισημαίνει το αντικείμενο αρχείου Python ως κλειστό από την άποψη της
Python και επίσης κανονίζει να κλείσει ο υποκείμενος περιγραφέας αρχείου
C. Αυτό συμβαίνει επίσης αυτόματα στον καταστροφέα του ‘f’, όταν το ‘f’
γίνεται σκουπίδια.

Αλλά τα stdin, stdout και stderr αντιμετωπίζονται ειδικά από την Python,
λόγω της ειδικής κατάστασης που τους δίνεται επίσης από τη C. Εκτελώντας
το ‘sys.stdout.close()’ επισημαίνει το αντικείμενο αρχείου σε επίπεδο
Python ως κλειστό, αλλά 'δεν' κλείνει το συσχετισμένο περιγραφικό
αρχείου C.

Για να κλείσετε τον υποκείμενο περιγραφέα αρχείου C για ένα από αυτά τα
τρία, θα πρέπει πρώτα να βεβαιωθείτε ότι αυτό θέλετε πραγματικά να
κάνετε (π.χ., μπορείτε να μπερδέψετε τα modules επέκτασης που προσπαθούν
να κάνουν I/O). Εάν είναι, χρησιμοποιήστε τη *note os.close(): f31.:

     os.close(stdin.fileno())
     os.close(stdout.fileno())
     os.close(stderr.fileno())

Ή μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε τις αριθμητικές σταθερές 0, 1 και 2,
αντίστοιχα.


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10.4.5 Προγραμματισμός Δικτύου/Διαδικτύου
-----------------------------------------

* Menu:

* Ποια εργαλεία WWW υπάρχουν για την Python;::
* Τι module πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσω για να βοηθήσω στην δημιουργία HTML;::
* Πώς μπορώ να στείλω αλληλογραφία από ένα Python script;::
* Πώς μπορώ να αποφύγω τον αποκλεισμό στη μέθοδο connect() ενός socket;: Πώς μπορώ να αποφύγω τον αποκλεισμό στη μέθοδο connect ενός socket;.


File: python.info,  Node: Ποια εργαλεία WWW υπάρχουν για την Python;,  Next: Τι module πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσω για να βοηθήσω στην δημιουργία HTML;,  Up: Προγραμματισμός Δικτύου/Διαδικτύου

10.4.5.1 Ποια εργαλεία WWW υπάρχουν για την Python;
...................................................

Δείτε τα κεφάλαια με τίτλο *note Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη:
4107. και *note Internet Data Handling: 3cfc. στο Εγχειρίδιο Αναφοράς
Βιβλιοθήκης.  Η Python έχει πολλά modules που θα σας βοηθήσουν να
δημιουργήσετε συστήματα ιστού από την πλευρά του διακομιστή και του
πελάτη.

Μια σύνοψη των διαθέσιμων πλαισίων διατηρείται από τον Paul Boddie στη
διεύθυνση ‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming’.


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10.4.5.2 Τι module πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσω για να βοηθήσω στην δημιουργία HTML;
...............................................................................

Μπορείτε να βρείτε μια συλλογή από χρήσιμους συνδέσμους στη σελίδα Web
Programming wiki page(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming


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10.4.5.3 Πώς μπορώ να στείλω αλληλογραφία από ένα Python script;
................................................................

Χρησιμοποιήστε την τυπική module βιβλιοθήκη *note smtplib: d2.

Εδώ είναι ένας πολύ απλός διαδραστικός αποστολέας αλληλογραφίας που τον
χρησιμοποιεί.  Αυτή η μέθοδος θα λειτουργήσει σε οποιονδήποτε κεντρικό
υπολογιστή υποστηρίζει το πρόγραμμα ακρόασης SMTP.

     import sys, smtplib

     fromaddr = input("From: ")
     toaddrs  = input("To: ").split(',')
     print("Enter message, end with ^D:")
     msg = ''
     while True:
         line = sys.stdin.readline()
         if not line:
             break
         msg += line

     # The actual mail send
     server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
     server.sendmail(fromaddr, toaddrs, msg)
     server.quit()

Μια εναλλακτική λύση μόνο για Unix χρησιμοποιεί sendmail.  Η τοποθεσία
του προγράμματος sendmail ποικίλλει μεταξύ των συστημάτων∙ μερικές φορές
είναι ‘/usr/lib/sendmail’, μερικές φορές ‘/usr/sbin/sendmail’.  Η σελίδα
εγχειριδίου sendmail θα σας βοηθήσει.  Ορίστε ένα δείγμα κώδικα:

     import os

     SENDMAIL = "/usr/sbin/sendmail"  # sendmail location
     p = os.popen("%s -t -i" % SENDMAIL, "w")
     p.write("To: receiver@example.com\n")
     p.write("Subject: test\n")
     p.write("\n")  # blank line separating headers from body
     p.write("Some text\n")
     p.write("some more text\n")
     sts = p.close()
     if sts != 0:
         print("Sendmail exit status", sts)


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10.4.5.4 Πώς μπορώ να αποφύγω τον αποκλεισμό στη μέθοδο connect() ενός socket;
..............................................................................

Το module *note select: c9. χρησιμοποιείται συνήθως για να βοηθήσει με
ασύγχρονες I/O σε sockets.

Για να αποτρέψετε τον αποκλεισμό της σύνδεσης TCP, μπορείτε να ρυθμίσετε
την υποδοχή σε λειτουργία μη αποκλεισμού.  Στην συνέχεια, όταν κάνετε τη
*note connect(): 115c, είτε θα συνδεθείτε αμέσως (απίθανο), είτε θα
λάβετε μια εξαίρεση που περιέχει τον αριθμό σφάλματος ως ‘.errno’.  Το
‘errno.EINPROGRESS’ υποδηλώνει ότι η σύνδεση είναι σε εξέλιξη, αλλά δεν
έχει ολοκληρωθεί ακόμα.  Διαφορετικά λειτουργικά συστήματα θα
επιστρέψουν διαφορετικές τιμές, επομένως θα πρέπει να ελέγξετε τι
επιστρέφεται στο σύστημα σας.

Μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε τη μέθοδο *note connect_ex(): 18db. για να
αποφύγετε τη δημιουργία εξαίρεσης.  Απλώς θα επιστρέψει την τιμή errno.
Για δημοσκόπηση, μπορείτε να καλέσετε το ‘connect_ex()’ ξανά αργότερα –
‘0’ ή ‘errno.EISCONN’ υποδηλώνει ότι είστε συνδεδεμένοι – ή μπορείτε να
περάσετε αυτό το socket στη *note select.select(): 1159. για να ελέγξτε
αν είναι εγγράψιμο.

     Σημείωση: Το module *note asyncio: b. παρέχει μια γενικού σκοπού
     απλή και ταυτόχρονη ασύγχρονη βιβλιοθήκη, η οποία μπορεί να
     χρησιμοποιηθεί για τη σύνταξη κώδικα δικτύου χωρίς αποκλεισμό.  Η
     βιβλιοθήκη Twisted(1) είναι μια δημοφιλής και με πολλές λειτουργίες
     εναλλακτική λύση.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://twisted.org/


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10.4.6 Βάσεις Δεδομένων
-----------------------

* Menu:

* Υπάρχουν διεπαφές σε πακέτα βάσεων δεδομένων στην Python;::
* Πως υλοποιείτε persistent αντικείμενα στην Python;::


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10.4.6.1 Υπάρχουν διεπαφές σε πακέτα βάσεων δεδομένων στην Python;
..................................................................

Ναι.

Διεπαφές σε κατακερματισμούς που βασίζονται σε δίσκο, όπως *note DBM:
37. και *note GDBM: 36. περιλαμβάνονται επίσης στην τυπική Python.
Υπάρχει επίσης το module *note sqlite3: d7, το οποίο παρέχει μια ελαφριά
σχεσιακή βάση δεδομένων που βασίζεται στο δίσκο.

Υποστήριξη για τις περισσότερες σχεσιακές βάσεις δεδομένων είναι
διαθέσιμη.  Δείτε τη σελίδα DatabaseProgramming wiki page(1) για
λεπτομέρειες.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/DatabaseProgramming


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10.4.6.2 Πως υλοποιείτε persistent αντικείμενα στην Python;
...........................................................

To module βιβλιοθήκης *note pickle: ab. το λύνει αυτό με πολύ γενικό
τρόπο (αν και δεν μπορείτε ακόμα να αποθηκεύσετε πράγματα όπως ανοιχτά
αρχεία, sockets ή παράθυρα), και το module βιβλιοθήκης *note shelve: cb.
χρησιμοποιεί pickle και (g)dbm για τη δημιουργία επίμονων αντιστοιχίσεων
που περιέχουν αυθαίρετα αντικείμενα Python.


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10.4.7 Μαθηματικά και Αριθμητικά
--------------------------------

* Menu:

* Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τυχαίους αριθμούς στην Python;::


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10.4.7.1 Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τυχαίους αριθμούς στην Python;
................................................................

Το τυπικό module *note random: c0. υλοποιεί μια γεννήτρια τυχαίων
αριθμών.  Η χρήση είναι απλή:

     import random
     random.random()

Αυτό επιστρέφει έναν τυχαίο αριθμό κινητής υποδιαστολής στο εύρος [0,
1).

Υπάρχουν επίσης πολλές άλλες εξειδικευμένες γεννήτριες σε αυτό το
module, όπως:

   * Το ‘randrange(a, b)’ επιλέγει έναν ακέραιο στο εύρος [a, b).

   * Το ‘uniform(a, b)’ επιλέγει έναν αριθμό κινητής υποδιαστολής στο
     εύρος [a, b).

   * Το ‘normalvariate(mean, sdev)’ λαμβάνει δείγματα της κανονικής
     (Gaussian) κατανομής.

Ορισμένες συναρτήσεις υψηλότερου επιπέδου λειτουργούν απευθείας σε
ακολουθίες, όπως:

   * To ‘choice(S)’ επιλέγει ένα τυχαίο στοιχείο από μια δεδομένη
     ακολουθία.

   * Το ‘shuffle(L)’ ανακατεύει μια λίστα επιτόπου, δηλαδή τη μεταθέτει
     τυχαία.

Υπάρχει επίσης μια κλάση ‘Random’ που μπορείτε να επιβεβαιώσετε για να
δημιουργήσετε ανεξάρτητες γεννήτριες πολλαπλών τυχαίων αριθμών.


File: python.info,  Node: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης,  Next: Python στα Windows FAQ,  Prev: Συχνές ερωτήσεις βιβλιοθήκης και επέκτασης,  Up: Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python

10.5 Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης
===========================================

* Menu:

* Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τις δικές μου συναρτήσεις στη C;::
* Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τις δικές μου συναρτήσεις στη C++;::
* Το να γράψει C κάποιος είναι δύσκολο· υπάρχουν άλλες εναλλακτικές;::
* Πως μπορώ να εκτελέσω αυθαίρετες δηλώσεις Python από το C;::
* Πώς μπορώ να αξιολογήσω μια αυθαίρετη έκφραση Python από τη C;::
* Πως μπορώ να εξάγω τιμές C από ένα αντικείμενο Python;::
* Πώς μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω την Py_BuildValue() για να δημιουργήσω μια πλειάδα (tuple) αυθαίρετου μήκους;: Πώς μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω την Py_BuildValue για να δημιουργήσω μια πλειάδα tuple αυθαίρετου μήκους;.
* Πώς καλώ τη μέθοδο ενός αντικειμένου από τη C;::
* Πώς μπορώ να κάνω catch την έξοδο από την PyErr_Print() (ή οτιδήποτε εκτυπώνεται σε stdout/stderr);: Πώς μπορώ να κάνω catch την έξοδο από την PyErr_Print ή οτιδήποτε εκτυπώνεται σε stdout/stderr ;.
* Πως μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση σε ένα module γραμμένο σε Python από τη C;::
* Πως διασυνδέομαι με αντικείμενα C++ από την Python;::
* Πρόσθεσα ένα module χρησιμοποιώντας το αρχείο Setup και το make αποτυγχάνει· γιατί;::
* Πως κάνω debug μια επέκταση;::
* Θέλω να κάνω compile ένα Python module στο σύστημα Linux μου, αλλά λείπουν ορισμένα αρχεία. Γιατί;: Θέλω να κάνω compile ένα Python module στο σύστημα Linux μου αλλά λείπουν ορισμένα αρχεία Γιατί;.
* Πώς μπορώ να ξεχωρίσω την «ελλιπή εισαγωγή» από την «έγκυρη εισαγωγή»;::
* Πώς μπορώ να βρω απροσδιόριστα σύμβολα g++ __builtin_new ή __pure_virtual;::
* Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω μια κλάση αντικειμένου με ορισμένες μεθόδους που υλοποιούνται στη C και άλλες στη Python (π.χ. μέσω κληρονομικότητας);: Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω μια κλάση αντικειμένου με ορισμένες μεθόδους που υλοποιούνται στη C και άλλες στη Python π χ μέσω κληρονομικότητας ;.


File: python.info,  Node: Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τις δικές μου συναρτήσεις στη C;,  Next: Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τις δικές μου συναρτήσεις στη C++;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.1 Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τις δικές μου συναρτήσεις στη C;
------------------------------------------------------------

Ναι, μπορείτε να δημιουργήσετε ενσωματωμένα (built-in) modules που
περιέχουν συναρτήσεις, μεταβλητές, εξαιρέσεις και ακόμη και νέους τύπους
στην C. Αυτό εξηγείται στο έγγραφο *note Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του
Διερμηνέα της Python: 21aa.

Τα περισσότερα βιβλία μεσαίας ή προηγμένης Python θα καλύπτουν επίσης
αυτό το θέμα.


File: python.info,  Node: Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τις δικές μου συναρτήσεις στη C++;,  Next: Το να γράψει C κάποιος είναι δύσκολο· υπάρχουν άλλες εναλλακτικές;,  Prev: Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τις δικές μου συναρτήσεις στη C;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.2 Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τις δικές μου συναρτήσεις στη C++;
--------------------------------------------------------------

Ναι, χρησιμοποιώντας τις δυνατότητες συμβατότητας C που βρίσκονται στη
C++.  Τοποθετήστε το ‘extern "C" { ... }’ γύρω από την Python να
περιλαμβάνει αρχεία και τοποθετήστε το ‘extern "C"’ πριν από κάθε
συνάρτηση που πρόκειται να κληθεί από τον διερμηνέα της Python.  Τα
καθολικά ή τα στατικά αντικείμενα C++ με constructors μάλλον δεν είναι
καλή ιδέα.


File: python.info,  Node: Το να γράψει C κάποιος είναι δύσκολο· υπάρχουν άλλες εναλλακτικές;,  Next: Πως μπορώ να εκτελέσω αυθαίρετες δηλώσεις Python από το C;,  Prev: Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τις δικές μου συναρτήσεις στη C++;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.3 Το να γράψει C κάποιος είναι δύσκολο· υπάρχουν άλλες εναλλακτικές;
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

Υπάρχουν αρκετές εναλλακτικές λύσεις για τη σύνταξη των δικών σας
επεκτάσεων C, ανάλογα με το τι προσπαθείτε να κάνετε.  Το *note
Recommended third party tools: 5198. προσφέρουν απλούστερες και πιο
εξελιγμένες προσεγγίσεις για τη δημιουργία επεκτάσεων C και C++ για
Python.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να εκτελέσω αυθαίρετες δηλώσεις Python από το C;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να αξιολογήσω μια αυθαίρετη έκφραση Python από τη C;,  Prev: Το να γράψει C κάποιος είναι δύσκολο· υπάρχουν άλλες εναλλακτικές;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.4 Πως μπορώ να εκτελέσω αυθαίρετες δηλώσεις Python από το C;
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Η συνάρτηση υψηλότερου επιπέδου για να γίνει αυτό είναι η *note
PyRun_SimpleString(): 5221. η οποία εκτελεί ένα όρισμα συμβολοσειράς στο
πλαίσιο της ενότητας ‘__main__’ και επιστρέφει ‘0’ για επιτυχία και ‘-1’
όταν συμβαίνει μια εξαίρεση (συμπεριλαμβανομένου του *note SyntaxError:
17e.).  Εάν θέλετε περισσότερο έλεγχο, χρησιμοποιήστε *note
PyRun_String(): 1fb0. · δείτε τον πηγαίο κώδικα ‘PyRun_SimpleString()’
στο ‘Python/pythonrun.c’.


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορώ να αξιολογήσω μια αυθαίρετη έκφραση Python από τη C;,  Next: Πως μπορώ να εξάγω τιμές C από ένα αντικείμενο Python;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να εκτελέσω αυθαίρετες δηλώσεις Python από το C;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.5 Πώς μπορώ να αξιολογήσω μια αυθαίρετη έκφραση Python από τη C;
---------------------------------------------------------------------

Καλέστε τη συνάρτηση *note PyRun_String(): 1fb0. από την προηγούμενη
ερώτηση με το σύμβολο έναρξης *note Py_eval_input: 550a.· αναλύει μια
παράσταση, την αξιολογεί και επιστρέφει την τιμή της.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να εξάγω τιμές C από ένα αντικείμενο Python;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω την Py_BuildValue για να δημιουργήσω μια πλειάδα tuple αυθαίρετου μήκους;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να αξιολογήσω μια αυθαίρετη έκφραση Python από τη C;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.6 Πως μπορώ να εξάγω τιμές C από ένα αντικείμενο Python;
-------------------------------------------------------------

Αυτό εξαρτάται από τον τύπο του αντικειμένου.  Εάν είναι μια πλειάδα
(tuple), *note PyTuple_Size(): 5416. επιστρέφει το μήκος του και το
*note PyTuple_GetItem(): 51ce. επιστρέφει το στοιχείο σε ένα καθορισμένο
index.  Οι λίστες έχουν παρόμοιες συναρτήσεις, *note PyList_Size():
17bc. και *note PyList_GetItem(): 7f5.

Για bytes, *note PyBytes_Size(): 52ac. επιστρέφει το μήκος του και το
*note PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 52a4. παρέχει έναν δείκτη στην τιμή και
το μήκος του.  Λάβετε υπόψη ότι τα αντικείμενα byte της Python μπορεί να
περιέχουν null byte, επομένως η ‘strlen()’ της C δεν πρέπει να
χρησιμοποιείται.

Για να ελέγξετε τον τύπο ενός αντικειμένου, πρώτα βεβαιωθείτε ότι δεν
είναι ‘NULL’, και μετά χρησιμοποιήστε τα *note PyBytes_Check(): 1743,
*note PyTuple_Check(): 56ef, *note PyList_Check(): 5700, κλπ.

Υπάρχει επίσης ένα API υψηλού επιπέδου για αντικείμενα Python που
παρέχεται από τη λεγόμενη “abstract” διεπαφή (interface) – διαβάστε
‘Include/abstract.h’ για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.  Επιτρέπει τη
διασύνδεση με κάθε είδους ακολουθίας Python χρησιμοποιώντας κλήσεις όπως
*note PySequence_Length(): 53df, *note PySequence_GetItem(): 2021, κλπ.
καθώς και πολλά άλλα χρήσιμα πρωτόκολλα όπως αριθμοί (*note
PyNumber_Index(): c69. et al.)  και αντιστοιχίσεις στον PyMapping APIs.


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω την Py_BuildValue για να δημιουργήσω μια πλειάδα tuple αυθαίρετου μήκους;,  Next: Πώς καλώ τη μέθοδο ενός αντικειμένου από τη C;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να εξάγω τιμές C από ένα αντικείμενο Python;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.7 Πώς μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω την Py_BuildValue() για να δημιουργήσω μια πλειάδα (tuple) αυθαίρετου μήκους;
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Δεν μπορείς.  Χρησιμοποιήστε το *note PyTuple_Pack(): 5415.


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς καλώ τη μέθοδο ενός αντικειμένου από τη C;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να κάνω catch την έξοδο από την PyErr_Print ή οτιδήποτε εκτυπώνεται σε stdout/stderr ;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω την Py_BuildValue για να δημιουργήσω μια πλειάδα tuple αυθαίρετου μήκους;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.8 Πώς καλώ τη μέθοδο ενός αντικειμένου από τη C;
-----------------------------------------------------

Η συνάρτηση *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 3b6. μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί
για την κλήση μιας αυθαίρετης μεθόδου ενός αντικειμένου.  Οι παράμετροι
είναι το αντικείμενο, το όνομα της μεθόδου προς κλήση, μια συμβολοσειρά
μορφής όπως αυτή που χρησιμοποιείται με τη *note Py_BuildValue(): 5ee,
και τις τιμές ορίσματος:

     PyObject *
     PyObject_CallMethod(PyObject *object, const char *method_name,
                         const char *arg_format, ...);

Αυτό λειτουργεί για κάθε αντικείμενο που έχει μεθόδους – είτε είναι
ενσωματωμένες είτε καθορίζονται από το χρήστη.  Είστε υπεύθυνοι εάν
τελικά χρησιμοποιήσετε *note Py_DECREF(): 975. στην τιμή επιστροφής.

Για να καλέσετε, π.χ., τη μέθοδο «seek» ενός αντικειμένου αρχείου με
ορίσματα 10, 0 (υποθέτοντας ότι ο δείκτης του αντικειμένου αρχείου είναι
«f»):

     res = PyObject_CallMethod(f, "seek", "(ii)", 10, 0);
     if (res == NULL) {
             ... an exception occurred ...
     }
     else {
             Py_DECREF(res);
     }

Σημειώστε ότι επειδή το *note PyObject_CallObject(): 51c2. 'πάντα' θέλει
μια πλειάδα (tuple) για τη λίστα ορισμάτων, για να καλέσει μια συνάρτηση
χωρίς ορίσματα, να περάσει «()» για τη μορφή και να καλέσει μια
συνάρτηση με ένα όρισμα, περιβάλλουν το όρισμα σε παρένθεση, π.χ.
«(i)».


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορώ να κάνω catch την έξοδο από την PyErr_Print ή οτιδήποτε εκτυπώνεται σε stdout/stderr ;,  Next: Πως μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση σε ένα module γραμμένο σε Python από τη C;,  Prev: Πώς καλώ τη μέθοδο ενός αντικειμένου από τη C;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.9 Πώς μπορώ να κάνω catch την έξοδο από την PyErr_Print() (ή οτιδήποτε εκτυπώνεται σε stdout/stderr);
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Στον κώδικα Python, ορίστε ένα αντικείμενο που υποστηρίζει τη μέθοδο
‘write()’.  Αντιστοιχίστε αυτό το αντικείμενο στα *note sys.stdout: e9c.
και *note sys.stderr: d05.  Καλέστε το print_error, ή απλώς επιτρέψτε
στον τυπικό μηχανισμό ανίχνευσης να λειτουργήσει.  Στη συνέχεια, η
έξοδος θα πάει οπουδήποτε την στείλει η μέθοδος ‘write()’.

Ο ευκολότερος τρόπος για να το κάνετε αυτό είναι να χρησιμοποιήσετε την
κλάση *note io.StringIO: 12d4.:

     >>> import io, sys
     >>> sys.stdout = io.StringIO()
     >>> print('foo')
     >>> print('hello world!')
     >>> sys.stderr.write(sys.stdout.getvalue())
     foo
     hello world!

Ένα προσαρμοσμένο αντικείμενο για να κάνει το ίδιο θα μοιάζει με αυτό:

     >>> import io, sys
     >>> class StdoutCatcher(io.TextIOBase):
     ...     def __init__(self):
     ...         self.data = []
     ...     def write(self, stuff):
     ...         self.data.append(stuff)
     ...
     >>> import sys
     >>> sys.stdout = StdoutCatcher()
     >>> print('foo')
     >>> print('hello world!')
     >>> sys.stderr.write(''.join(sys.stdout.data))
     foo
     hello world!


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση σε ένα module γραμμένο σε Python από τη C;,  Next: Πως διασυνδέομαι με αντικείμενα C++ από την Python;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να κάνω catch την έξοδο από την PyErr_Print ή οτιδήποτε εκτυπώνεται σε stdout/stderr ;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.10 Πως μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση σε ένα module γραμμένο σε Python από τη C;
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Μπορείτε να λάβετε έναν δείκτη στο αντικείμενο του module ως εξής:

     module = PyImport_ImportModule("<modulename>");

Εάν το module δεν έχει εισαχθεί ακόμα (δηλαδή δεν υπάρχει ακόμα στο
*note sys.modules: 19ba.), αυτό αρχικοποιεί το module· διαφορετικά απλώς
επιστρέφει την τιμή του ‘sys.modules["<modulename>"]’.  Σημειώστε ότι
δεν εισάγει το module σε κανένα namespace – διασφαλίζει μόνο ότι έχει
αρχικοποιηθεί και ότι είναι αποθηκευμένη στο ‘sys.modules’.

Μπορείτε στη συνέχεια να αποκτήσετε πρόσβαση στα χαρακτηριστικά του
module (δηλαδή οποιοδήποτε όνομα ορίζεται στο module) ως εξής:

     attr = PyObject_GetAttrString(module, "<attrname>");

Η κλήση *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 1a6c. για αντιστοίχιση σε
μεταβλητές στο module λειτουργεί επίσης.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως διασυνδέομαι με αντικείμενα C++ από την Python;,  Next: Πρόσθεσα ένα module χρησιμοποιώντας το αρχείο Setup και το make αποτυγχάνει· γιατί;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση σε ένα module γραμμένο σε Python από τη C;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.11 Πως διασυνδέομαι με αντικείμενα C++ από την Python;
-----------------------------------------------------------

Ανάλογα με τις απαιτήσεις σας, υπάρχουν πολλές προσεγγίσεις.  Για να το
κάνετε αυτό χειροκίνητα, ξεκινήστε διαβάζοντας το *note the «Extending
and Embedding» document: 21aa. .  Συνειδητοποιήστε ότι για το σύστημα
χρόνου εκτελεστή Python, δεν υπάρχει μεγάλη διαφορά μεταξύ C και C++ –
επομένως η στρατηγική της δημιουργίας ενός νέου τύπου Python γύρω από
έναν τύπο δομής C (δείκτη) θα λειτουργήσει επίσης για αντικείμενα C++.

Για βιβλιοθήκες C++, δείτε *note Το να γράψει C κάποιος είναι δύσκολο·
υπάρχουν άλλες εναλλακτικές;: 5d03.


File: python.info,  Node: Πρόσθεσα ένα module χρησιμοποιώντας το αρχείο Setup και το make αποτυγχάνει· γιατί;,  Next: Πως κάνω debug μια επέκταση;,  Prev: Πως διασυνδέομαι με αντικείμενα C++ από την Python;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.12 Πρόσθεσα ένα module χρησιμοποιώντας το αρχείο Setup και το make αποτυγχάνει· γιατί;
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Το setup πρέπει να τελειώνει σε μια νέα γραμμή, αν δεν υπάρχει νέα
γραμμή, η διαδικασία build αποτυγχάνει.  (Για να διορθωθεί αυτό απαιτεί
κάποιο κακόβουλο script shell, και αυτό το σφάλμα είναι τόσο μικρό που
δεν φαίνεται να αξίζει τον κόπο.)


File: python.info,  Node: Πως κάνω debug μια επέκταση;,  Next: Θέλω να κάνω compile ένα Python module στο σύστημα Linux μου αλλά λείπουν ορισμένα αρχεία Γιατί;,  Prev: Πρόσθεσα ένα module χρησιμοποιώντας το αρχείο Setup και το make αποτυγχάνει· γιατί;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.13 Πως κάνω debug μια επέκταση;
------------------------------------

Όταν χρησιμοποιείτε το GDB με δυναμικά φορτωμένες επεκτάσεις, δεν
μπορείτε να ορίσετε σημείο διακοπής στην επέκταση σας μέχρι να φορτωθεί
η επέκτασής σας.

Στο αρχείο σας ‘.gdbinit’ (ή διαδραστικά), προσθέστε την εντολή:

     br _PyImport_LoadDynamicModule

Στη συνέχεια, όταν εκτελείτε το GDB:

     $ gdb /local/bin/python
     gdb) run myscript.py
     gdb) continue # repeat until your extension is loaded
     gdb) finish   # so that your extension is loaded
     gdb) br myfunction.c:50
     gdb) continue


File: python.info,  Node: Θέλω να κάνω compile ένα Python module στο σύστημα Linux μου αλλά λείπουν ορισμένα αρχεία Γιατί;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να ξεχωρίσω την «ελλιπή εισαγωγή» από την «έγκυρη εισαγωγή»;,  Prev: Πως κάνω debug μια επέκταση;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.14 Θέλω να κάνω compile ένα Python module στο σύστημα Linux μου, αλλά λείπουν ορισμένα αρχεία. Γιατί;
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Οι περισσότερες συσκευασμένες εκδόσεις της Python παραλείπουν ορισμένα
αρχεία που απαιτούνται για τη μεταγλώττιση των επεκτάσεων Python.

Για το Red Hat, εγκαταστήστε το RPM της python3-devel για να λάβετε τα
απαραίτητα αρχεία.

Για το Debian, εκτελέστε το ‘apt-get install python3-dev’.


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορώ να ξεχωρίσω την «ελλιπή εισαγωγή» από την «έγκυρη εισαγωγή»;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να βρω απροσδιόριστα σύμβολα g++ __builtin_new ή __pure_virtual;,  Prev: Θέλω να κάνω compile ένα Python module στο σύστημα Linux μου αλλά λείπουν ορισμένα αρχεία Γιατί;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.15 Πώς μπορώ να ξεχωρίσω την «ελλιπή εισαγωγή» από την «έγκυρη εισαγωγή»;
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Μερικές φορές θέλετε να μιμηθείτε τη συμπεριφορά του διαδραστικού
διερμηνέα Python, όπου σας δίνει ένα συνεχόμενο prompt όταν η είσοδος
είναι ελλιπής (π.χ.  πληκτρολογήσατε την αρχή μιας δήλωσης «if» ή δεν
κλείσατε τις παρενθέσεις ή τα τριπλά εισαγωγικά συμβολοσειρών), αλλά σας
δίνει ένα μήνυμα συντακτικού σφάλματος αμέσως όταν η εισαγωγή δεν είναι
έγκυρη.

Στην Python μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε το module *note codeop: 1d, η
οποία προσεγγίζει επαρκώς τη συμπεριφορά του parser.  Το IDLE
χρησιμοποιεί αυτό, για παράδειγμα.

Ο ευκολότερος τρόπος για να το κάνετε στη C είναι να καλέσετε τη *note
PyRun_InteractiveLoop(): 5512. (ίσως σε ξεχωριστό νήμα (thread)) και να
αφήσετε τον διερμηνέα Python να χειριστεί την είσοδο για εσάς.  Μπορείτε
επίσης να ορίσετε *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 987. για να
δείξετε την δικιάς προσαρμοσμένη συνάρτηση εισαγωγής.  Δείτε τα
‘Modules/readline.c’ και ‘Parser/myreadline.c’ για περισσότερες
συμβουλές.


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορώ να βρω απροσδιόριστα σύμβολα g++ __builtin_new ή __pure_virtual;,  Next: Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω μια κλάση αντικειμένου με ορισμένες μεθόδους που υλοποιούνται στη C και άλλες στη Python π χ μέσω κληρονομικότητας ;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να ξεχωρίσω την «ελλιπή εισαγωγή» από την «έγκυρη εισαγωγή»;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.16 Πώς μπορώ να βρω απροσδιόριστα σύμβολα g++ __builtin_new ή __pure_virtual;
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Για δυναμική φόρτωση module επέκτασης g++, πρέπει να κάνετε recompile
την Python, να τη συνδέσετε ξανά χρησιμοποιώντας g++ (αλλάξτε το LINKCC
στο Python Modules Makefile), και να συνδέσετε το module επέκτασης σας
χρησιμοποιώντας g++ (π.χ.  ‘g++ -shared -o mymodule.so mymodule.o’).


File: python.info,  Node: Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω μια κλάση αντικειμένου με ορισμένες μεθόδους που υλοποιούνται στη C και άλλες στη Python π χ μέσω κληρονομικότητας ;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να βρω απροσδιόριστα σύμβολα g++ __builtin_new ή __pure_virtual;,  Up: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης

10.5.17 Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω μια κλάση αντικειμένου με ορισμένες μεθόδους που υλοποιούνται στη C και άλλες στη Python (π.χ. μέσω κληρονομικότητας);
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Ναι, μπορείτε να κληρονομήσετε από ενσωματωμένες (built-in) κλάσεις όπως
*note int: 326, *note list: 4d9, *note dict: 188, κ.λπ.

Η βιβλιοθήκη Boost Python Library (BPL,
‘https://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html’) παρέχει ένα τρόπο
για να γίνει αυτό από την C++ (δηλαδή μπορείτε να κληρονομήσετε από μια
κλάση επέκτασης γραμμένη σε C++ χρησιμοποιώντας το BPL).


File: python.info,  Node: Python στα Windows FAQ,  Next: Graphic User Interface FAQ,  Prev: Συχνές ερωτήσεις επέκτασης/ενσωμάτωσης,  Up: Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python

10.6 Python στα Windows FAQ
===========================

* Menu:

* Πως μπορώ να εκτελέσω ένα πρόγραμμα Python στα Windows;::
* Πως κάνω τα Python scripts εκτελέσιμα;::
* Γιατί μερικές φορές η Python αργεί τόσο πολύ να ξεκινήσει;::
* Πώς μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα εκτελέσιμο από ένα σενάριο Python;::
* Είναι ένα αρχείο *.pyd ίδιο με ένα αρχείο DLL;: Είναι ένα αρχείο * pyd ίδιο με ένα αρχείο DLL;.
* Πώς μπορώ να ενσωματώσω την Python σε μια εφαρμογή Windows;::
* Πως μπορώ να εμποδίσω τους editors να εισάγουν tabs στον πηγαίο της Python μου;::
* Πώς μπορώ να ελέγξω για ένα πάτημα πλήκτρων χωρίς αποκλεισμό;::
* Πως μπορώ να διορθώσω το σφάλμα που λείπει το api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll;: Πως μπορώ να διορθώσω το σφάλμα που λείπει το api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll;.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να εκτελέσω ένα πρόγραμμα Python στα Windows;,  Next: Πως κάνω τα Python scripts εκτελέσιμα;,  Up: Python στα Windows FAQ

10.6.1 Πως μπορώ να εκτελέσω ένα πρόγραμμα Python στα Windows;
--------------------------------------------------------------

Αυτό δεν είναι απαραίτητα μια απλή ερώτηση.  Εάν είστε ήδη εξοικειωμένοι
με την εκτέλεση προγραμμάτων από τη γραμμή εντολών των Windows τότε όλα
θα φαίνονται προφανή” διαφορετικά, μπορεί να χρειαστεί λίγη περισσότερη
καθοδήγηση.

Εκτός και αν χρησιμοποιείτε κάποιο είδος ενσωματωμένου περιβάλλοντος
ανάπτυξης, θα καταλήξετε πληκτρολογώντας εντολές των Windows σε αυτό που
αναφέρεται ως «Command prompt window».  Συνήθως μπορείτε να
δημιουργήσετε ένα τέτοιο παράθυρο από τη γραμμή αναζήτησης σας κάνοντας
αναζήτηση για ‘cmd’.  Θα πρέπει να μπορείτε να αναγνωρίσετε πότε έχετε
ξεκινήσει ένα τέτοιο παράθυρο επειδή θα δείτε ένα «command prompt» των
Windows, η οποία συνήθως μοιάζει με αυτό:

     C:\>

Το γράμμα μπορεί να είναι διαφορετικό, και μπορεί να υπάρχουνε άλλα
πράγματα μετά από αυτό, έτσι μπορείτε να δείτε εξίσου εύκολα κάτι σαν:

     D:\YourName\Projects\Python>

ανάλογα με το πως έχει ρυθμιστεί ο υπολογιστής σας και τι άλλο έχετε
κάνει με αυτόν.  Μόλις ξεκινήσετε ένα τέτοιο παράθυρο, είστε σε καλό
δρόμο για την εκτέλεση προγραμμάτων Python.

Πρέπει να συνειδητοποιήσετε ότι τα Python σενάρια σας πρέπει να
επεξεργαστούν από άλλο πρόγραμμα που ονομάζεται Python 'interpreter'.  Ο
interpreter διαβάζει το σενάριο σας, το κάνει compile σε bytecodes και
στη συνέχεια εκτελεί τα bytecodes για να τρέξει το πρόγραμμά σας.
Λοιπόν, πως ρυθμίζετε τον interpreter για να χειριστεί την Python σας;

Πρώτα από όλα, πρέπει να σιγουρευτείτε ότι το παράθυρο εντολών σας
αναγνωρίζει την λέξη «py» ως οδηγία για την έναρξη του interpreter.  Εάν
έχετε ανοίξει ένα παράθυρο εντολών, θα πρέπει να δοκιμάσετε να
εισαγάγετε την εντολή ‘py’ και να πατήσετε return:

     C:\Users\YourName> py

Στη συνέχεια, θα πρέπει να δείτε κάτι σαν:

     Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit (Intel)] on win32
     Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
     >>>

Έχετε ξεκινήσει τον interpreter σε «interactive mode».  Αυτό σημαίνει
ότι μπορείτε να εισάγετε δηλώσεις ή εκφράσεις Python διαδραστικά και να
τις εκτελείτε ή να τις αξιολογείτε ενώ περιμένετε.  Αυτό είναι ένα από
τα ισχυρότερα χαρακτηριστικά της Python.  Ελέγξτε το εισάγοντας μερικές
εκφράσεις της επιλογή σας και βλέποντας τα αποτελέσματα:

     >>> print("Hello")
     Hello
     >>> "Hello" * 3
     'HelloHelloHello'

Πολλοί άνθρωποι χρησιμοποιούν τη διαδραστική λειτουργία ως μια βολική
αλλά εξαιρετικά προγραμματιζόμενη αριθμομηχανή.  Όταν θέλετε να
τερματίσετε τη διαδραστική συνεδρία Python, καλέστε τη συνάρτηση *note
exit(): 27e1. ή κρατήστε πατημένο το πλήκτρο ‘Ctrl’ ενώ εισάγετε ένα
‘Z’, και μετά πατήστε το πλήκτρο «‘Enter’» για να επιστρέψετε στο
command prompt των Windows.

Μπορεί επίσης να διαπιστώσετε ότι έχετε μια καταχώρηση στο Start-menu
όπως Start ‣ Programs ‣ Python 3.x ‣ Python (command line) που έχει ως
αποτέλεσμα να βλέπετε το ‘>>>’ σε ένα νέο παράθυρο, το παράθυρο θα
εξαφανιστεί αφού καλέσετε τη συνάρτηση *note exit(): 27e1. ή εισαγάγετε
τον χαρακτήρα ‘Ctrl’-‘Z’” τα Windows εκτελούν μία μόνο εντολή «python»
στο παράθυρο και την κλείνουν όταν τερματίζετε τον interpreter.

Τώρα που γνωρίζουμε ότι η εντολή ‘py’ αναγνωρίζεται, μπορείτε να της
δώσετε το σενάριο Python σας.  Θα πρέπει να δώσετε είτε μια απόλυτη είτε
μια σχετική διαδρομή προς στο σενάριο Python.  Ας υποθέσουμε ότι το
σενάριο Python σας βρίσκεται στην επιφάνεια εργασίας σας και ονομάζεται
‘hello.py’, και η γραμμή εντολών σας ανοίγει όμορφα στον αρχικό σας
κατάλογο, ώστε να βλέπετε κάτι παρόμοιο με:

     C:\Users\YourName>

Λοιπόν τώρα θα ζητήσετε από την εντολή ‘py’ να δώσει το σενάριο σας στην
Python πληκτρολογώντας ‘py’ ακολουθούμενη από τη διαδρομή του σεναρίου
σας:

     C:\Users\YourName> py Desktop\hello.py
     hello


File: python.info,  Node: Πως κάνω τα Python scripts εκτελέσιμα;,  Next: Γιατί μερικές φορές η Python αργεί τόσο πολύ να ξεκινήσει;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να εκτελέσω ένα πρόγραμμα Python στα Windows;,  Up: Python στα Windows FAQ

10.6.2 Πως κάνω τα Python scripts εκτελέσιμα;
---------------------------------------------

Στα Windows, το τυπικό πρόγραμμα εγκατάστασης Python ήδη συσχετίζει την
επέκταση .py με έναν τύπο αρχείου μια ανοιχτή εντολή που εκτελεί τον
διερμηνέα (‘D:\Program Files\Python\python.exe "%1" %*’).  Αυτό είναι
αρκετό για να κάνετε τα scripts εκτελέσιμα από τη γραμμή εντολών ως
“foo.py”.  Εάν προτιμάτε να μπορείτε να εκτελέσετε το σενάριο
πληκτρολογώντας απλά “foo” χωρίς επέκταση, πρέπει να προσθέσετε .py στη
μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος PATHTEXT.


File: python.info,  Node: Γιατί μερικές φορές η Python αργεί τόσο πολύ να ξεκινήσει;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα εκτελέσιμο από ένα σενάριο Python;,  Prev: Πως κάνω τα Python scripts εκτελέσιμα;,  Up: Python στα Windows FAQ

10.6.3 Γιατί μερικές φορές η Python αργεί τόσο πολύ να ξεκινήσει;
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Συνήθως η Python ξεκινά πολύ γρήγορα στα Windows, αλλά περιστασιακά
υπάρχουν αναφορές σφαλμάτων ότι η Python αρχίζει ξαφνικά να παίρνει πολύ
χρόνο για να ξεκινήσει.  Αυτό γίνεται ακόμα πιο αινιγματικό, επειδή η
Python θα λειτουργεί καλά σε άλλα συστήματα Windows που φαίνεται να
έχουν διαμορφωθεί με τον ίδιο τρόπο.

Το πρόβλημα μπορεί να οφείλεται σε εσφαλμένη διαμόρφωση του λογισμικού
ελέγχου ιών στο προβληματικό μηχάνημα.  Ορισμένοι σαρωτές ιών είναι
γνωστό ότι εισάγουν επιβάρυνση εκκίνησης δύο τάξεων μεγέθους όταν ο
σαρωτής έχει ρυθμιστεί να παρακολουθεί όλες τις αναγνώσεις από το
σύστημα αρχείων.  Δοκιμάστε να ελέγξετε τη διαμόρφωση του λογισμικού ιών
στα συστήματά σας για να βεβαιωθείτε ότι έχουν όντως διαμορφωθεί
πανομοιότυπα.  Το McAfee, όταν έχει ρυθμιστεί να σαρώνει όλη τη
δραστηριότητα ανάγνωσης του συστήματος αρχείων , είναι ένας
συγκεκριμένος φταίχτης.


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10.6.4 Πώς μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα εκτελέσιμο από ένα σενάριο Python;
----------------------------------------------------------------------

Βλ.  *note Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα stand-alone binary από ένα
Python script;: 5c6f. για μια λίστα εργαλείων που μπορούν να
χρησιμοποιηθούν για τη δημιουργία εκτελέσιμων αρχείων.


File: python.info,  Node: Είναι ένα αρχείο * pyd ίδιο με ένα αρχείο DLL;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να ενσωματώσω την Python σε μια εφαρμογή Windows;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα εκτελέσιμο από ένα σενάριο Python;,  Up: Python στα Windows FAQ

10.6.5 Είναι ένα αρχείο ‘*.pyd’ ίδιο με ένα αρχείο DLL;
-------------------------------------------------------

Ναι, τα αρχεία .pyd είναι dll, αλλά υπάρχουν μερικές διαφορές.  Εάν
έχετε ένα DLL με το όνομα ‘foo.pyd’, τότε πρέπει να έχει μια συνάρτηση
‘PyInit_foo()’.  Στη συνέχεια μπορείτε να γράψετε Python «import foo»,
και η Python θα αναζητήσει το foo.pyd (καθώς και το foo.py, foo.pyc) και
να το βρει, θα προσπαθήσει να καλέσει το ‘PyInit_foo()’ για να το
αρχικοποιήσει.  Δεν συνδέετε το .exe σας με το foo.lib, καθώς αυτό θα
έκανα τα Windows να απαιτήσουν την παρουσία DLL.

Λάβετε υπόψη ότι η διαδρομή αναζήτησης για το foo.pyd είναι το
PYTHONPATH, δεν είναι ίδια με τη διαδρομή που χρησιμοποιούν τα Windows
για την αναζήτηση του foo.dll.  Επίσης, το foo.pyd δεν χρειάζεται να
υπάρχει για την εκτέλεση του προγράμματος σας, ενώ εάν συνδέσετε το
πρόγραμμά σας με ένα dll, απαιτείται το dll.  Φυσικά, απαιτείται το
foo.pyd εάν θέλετε να πείτε ‘import foo’.  Σε ένα DLL, η σύνδεση
δηλώνεται στον πηγαίο κώδικα με το ‘__declspec(dllexport)’.  Σε ένα
.pyd, η σύνδεση ορίζεται σε μια λίστα διαθέσιμων συναρτήσεων.


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10.6.6 Πώς μπορώ να ενσωματώσω την Python σε μια εφαρμογή Windows;
------------------------------------------------------------------

Η ενσωμάτωση του Python interpreter σε μια Windows εφαρμογή μπορεί να
συνοψιστεί ως εξής:

  1. Να 'μην' δημιουργείτε απευθείας την Python στο αρχείο σας .exe.
     Στα Windows, η Python πρέπει να είναι DLL για να χειρίζεται την
     εισαγωγή λειτουργικών μονάδων που είναι τα ίδια DLL. (Αυτό είναι το
     πρώτο κλειδί που δεν τεκμηριώνεται.)  Αντίθετα, συνδέστε το
     ‘python`NN'.dll’” είναι συνήθως εγκατεστημένο στο
     ‘C:\Windows\System’.  'NN' είναι η έκδοση Python, ένας αριθμός όπως
     «33» για Python 3.3.

     Μπορείτε να συνδεθείτε με την Python με δύο διαφορετικούς τρόπους.
     Σύνδεση χρόνου φόρτωσης σημαίνει σύνδεση ενάντια στο
     ‘python`NN'.lib’, ενώ η σύνδεση χρόνου εκτέλεσης σημαίνει σύνδεση
     ενάντια στο ‘python`NN'.dll’.  (Γενική σημείωση: ‘python`NN'.lib’
     είναι το λεγόμενο «import lib» που αντιστοιχεί στο
     ‘python`NN'.dll’.  Απλώς ορίζει σύμβολα για το σύνδεσμο.)

     Η σύνδεση χρόνου εκτέλεσης απλοποιεί σημαντικά τις επιλογές
     συνδέσμων.  Όλα συμβαίνουν κατά την εκτέλεση.  Ο κώδικα σας πρέπει
     να φορτώσει ‘python`NN'.dll’ χρησιμοποιώντας την ρουτίνα
     ‘LoadLibraryEx()’ των Windows.  Ο κώδικας πρέπει επίσης να
     χρησιμοποιεί ρουτίνες πρόσβασης και δεδομένα στο ‘python`NN'.dll’
     (δηλαδή, το C API της Python) χρησιμοποιώντας δείκτες που
     λαμβάνονται από τη ρουτίνα των Windows ‘GetProcAddress()’.  Οι
     μακροεντολές μπορούν να κάνουν χρησιμοποιώντας αυτούς τους δείκτες
     διαφανείς σε οποιονδήποτε κώδικα C που καλεί ρουτίνες στο C API της
     Python.

  2. Εάν χρησιμοποιείτε SWIG, είναι εύκολο να δημιουργήσετε ένα Python
     «extension module» που θα κάνει τα δεδομένα και τις μεθόδους της
     εφαρμογής διαθέσιμα στην Python.  Το SWIG θα χειριστεί σχεδόν όλες
     τις grungy λεπτομέρειες για εσάς.  Το αποτέλεσμα είναι ο κώδικας C
     που συνδέεστε 'στο' αρχείο σας .exe (!)  'Δεν' χρειάζεται να
     δημιουργήσετε ένα αρχείο DLL και αυτό απλοποιεί επίσης τη σύνδεση.

  3. Το SWIG θα δημιουργήσει μια συνάρτηση init (μια συνάρτηση C) της
     οποία το όνομα εξαρτάται από το όνομα της μονάδας επέκτασης.  Για
     παράδειγμα, εάν το όνομά του module είναι leo, η συνάρτησης init θα
     ονομάζεται initleo().  Εάν χρησιμοποιείτε τη σκιά SWIG κλάσεις,
     όπως θα έπρεπε, η συνάρτηση init θα ονομάζεται initleoc().  Αυτό
     εκκινεί μια κυρίως κρυφή βοηθητική κλάση που χρησιμοποιείται από
     την κλάση σκιά.

     Ο λόγος για τον οποίο μπορείτε να συνδέσετε τον κώδικα C στο βήμα 2
     στο αρχείο σας .exe είναι ότι η κλήση της συνάρτησης αρχικοποίησης
     ισοδυναμεί με την εισαγωγή του module στην Python!  (Αυτό είναι το
     δεύτερο κλειδί που δεν τεκμηριώνεται.)

  4. Με λίγα λόγια, μπορείτε να χρησιμοποιήσετε τον ακόλουθο κώδικα για
     να αρχικοποιήσετε τον Python interpreter με το module επέκτασης.

          #include <Python.h>
          ...
          Py_Initialize();  // Initialize Python.
          initmyAppc();  // Initialize (import) the helper class.
          PyRun_SimpleString("import myApp");  // Import the shadow class.

  5. Υπάρχουν δύο προβλήματα με το C API της Python, τα οποία θα γίνουν
     εμφανή εάν χρησιμοποιήσετε έναν compiler διαφορετικό από τον MSVC,
     τον compiler που χρησιμοποιήθηκε για τη δημιουργία του
     pythonNN.dll.

     Πρόβλημα 1: Οι λεγόμενες συναρτήσεις «Πολύ Υψηλού Επιπέδου» που
     λαμβάνουν ορίσματα ‘FILE *’ δεν θα λειτουργούν σε multi-compiler
     περιβάλλον, επειδή η έννοια κάθε μεταγλωττιστή για ένα ‘struct
     FILE’ θα είναι διαφορετική.  Από την άποψη της εφαρμογής, πρόκειται
     για λειτουργίες πολύ χαμηλού επιπέδου.

     Πρόβλημα 2: Το SWIG δημιουργεί τον ακόλουθο κώδικα όταν δημιουργεί
     wrappers σε void συναρτήσεις:

          Py_INCREF(Py_None);
          _resultobj = Py_None;
          return _resultobj;

     Δυστυχώς, το Py_None είναι μια μακροεντολή που επεκτείνεται σε μια
     αναφορά σε μια σύνθετη δομή δεδομένων που ονομάζεται _Py_NoneStruct
     μέσα στο pythonNN.dll.  Και πάλι, αυτός ο κώδικας θα αποτύχει σε
     ένα mult-compiler περιβάλλον.  Αντικαταστήστε αυτόν τον κώδικα με:

          return Py_BuildValue("");

     Μπορεί να είναι δυνατή η χρήση της εντολής ‘%typemap’ της SWIG για
     να γίνει αυτόματα η αλλαγή, αν και δεν κατάφερα να το κάνω αυτό να
     λειτουργήσει (είμαι εντελώς αρχάριος της SWIG).

  6. Η χρήση ενός Python shell script για να δημιουργήσετε ένα Python
     interpreter παράθυρο μέσα από την εφαρμογή σας Windows δεν είναι
     καλή ιδέα” το παράθυρο που θα προκύψει θα είναι ανεξάρτητο από το
     σύστημα παραθύρου της εφαρμογής σας.  Αντίθετα, εσείς (ή η κλάση
     wxPythonWindow) θα πρέπει να δημιουργήσετε ένα «εγγενές» (native)
     interpreter παράθυρο.  Είναι εύκολο να συνδέσετε αυτό το παράθυρο
     με τον Python interpreter.  Μπορείτε να ανακατευθύνετε το i/o της
     Python στο _any_ αντικείμενο που υποστηρίζει ανάγνωση και εγγραφή,
     επομένως το μόνο που χρειάζεστε είναι ένα αντικείμενο Python (που
     ορίζεται στο module επέκτασης) που περιέχει τις μεθόδους read() και
     write().


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να εμποδίσω τους editors να εισάγουν tabs στον πηγαίο της Python μου;,  Next: Πώς μπορώ να ελέγξω για ένα πάτημα πλήκτρων χωρίς αποκλεισμό;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να ενσωματώσω την Python σε μια εφαρμογή Windows;,  Up: Python στα Windows FAQ

10.6.7 Πως μπορώ να εμποδίσω τους editors να εισάγουν tabs στον πηγαίο της Python μου;
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Το FAQ δεν συνιστούν την χρήση καρτελών και ο οδηγός στυλ Python, PEP
8(1), συνιστά 4 κενά για τον κατανεμημένο κώδικα Python” αυτή είναι
επίσης η προεπιλεγμένη λειτουργία python του Emacs.

Σε οποιονδήποτε editor, η μίξη tabs και spaces είναι κακή ιδέα.  Το MSVC
δεν διαφέρει από αυτή την άποψη και ρυθμίζεται εύκολα για να
χρησιμοποιεί κενά: Πάρτε Tools ‣ Options ‣ Tabs, και για τον τύπο
αρχείου «Default» ορίστε το «Tab size» και το «Indent size» στο 4, και
επιλέξτε το κουμπί επιλογής «Insert spaces».

Η Python εγείρει το *note IndentationError: b89. ή *note TabError: 950.
εάν τα μικτά tabs και spaces προκαλούν προβλήματα στο leading
whitespace.  Μπορείτε επίσης να εκτελέσετε το module *note tabnanny: e6.
για να ελέγξετε εάν δέντρο καταλόγου σε λειτουργία batch.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/


File: python.info,  Node: Πώς μπορώ να ελέγξω για ένα πάτημα πλήκτρων χωρίς αποκλεισμό;,  Next: Πως μπορώ να διορθώσω το σφάλμα που λείπει το api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll;,  Prev: Πως μπορώ να εμποδίσω τους editors να εισάγουν tabs στον πηγαίο της Python μου;,  Up: Python στα Windows FAQ

10.6.8 Πώς μπορώ να ελέγξω για ένα πάτημα πλήκτρων χωρίς αποκλεισμό;
--------------------------------------------------------------------

Χρησιμοποιείστε το module *note msvcrt: 97.  Αυτή είναι ένα τυπικό
module επέκτασης ειδικά για τα Windows.  Ορίζει μια συνάρτηση ‘kbhit()’
η οποία ελέγχει εάν υπάρχει ένα χτύπημα πληκτρολογίου, και το ‘getch()’
παίρνει έναν χαρακτήρα χωρίς να τον επαναλαμβάνει.


File: python.info,  Node: Πως μπορώ να διορθώσω το σφάλμα που λείπει το api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll;,  Prev: Πώς μπορώ να ελέγξω για ένα πάτημα πλήκτρων χωρίς αποκλεισμό;,  Up: Python στα Windows FAQ

10.6.9 Πως μπορώ να διορθώσω το σφάλμα που λείπει το api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll;
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Αυτό μπορεί να συμβεί σε Python 3.5 και νεότερες εκδόσεις όταν
χρησιμοποιείτε Windows 8.1 ή νεότερη έκδοση χωρίς να έχουν εγκατασταθεί
όλες οι ενημερώσεις.  Πρώτα βεβαιωθείτε ότι το λειτουργικό σας σύστημα
υποστηρίζεται και είναι ενημερωμένο και εάν αυτό δεν επιλύσει το
πρόβλημα, επισκεφθείτε τη σελίδα υποστήριξης της Microsoft(1) για
καθοδήγηση σχετικά με τη μη αυτόματη εγκατάσταση της ενημέρωσης C
Runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/3118401/


File: python.info,  Node: Graphic User Interface FAQ,  Next: «Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;» FAQ,  Prev: Python στα Windows FAQ,  Up: Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python

10.7 Graphic User Interface FAQ
===============================

* Menu:

* General GUI Questions::
* What GUI toolkits exist for Python?::
* Tkinter questions::


File: python.info,  Node: General GUI Questions,  Next: What GUI toolkits exist for Python?,  Up: Graphic User Interface FAQ

10.7.1 General GUI Questions
----------------------------


File: python.info,  Node: What GUI toolkits exist for Python?,  Next: Tkinter questions,  Prev: General GUI Questions,  Up: Graphic User Interface FAQ

10.7.2 What GUI toolkits exist for Python?
------------------------------------------

Standard builds of Python include an object-oriented interface to the
Tcl/Tk widget set, called *note tkinter: 452f.  This is probably the
easiest to install (since it comes included with most binary
distributions(1) of Python) and use.  For more info about Tk, including
pointers to the source, see the Tcl/Tk home page(2).  Tcl/Tk is fully
portable to the macOS, Windows, and Unix platforms.

Depending on what platform(s) you are aiming at, there are also several
alternatives.  A list of cross-platform(3) and platform-specific(4) GUI
frameworks can be found on the python wiki.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/

   (2) https://www.tcl.tk

   (3) 
https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Cross-Platform_Frameworks

   (4) 
https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Platform-specific_Frameworks


File: python.info,  Node: Tkinter questions,  Prev: What GUI toolkits exist for Python?,  Up: Graphic User Interface FAQ

10.7.3 Tkinter questions
------------------------

* Menu:

* How do I freeze Tkinter applications?::
* Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?::
* I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter; why?: I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter why?.


File: python.info,  Node: How do I freeze Tkinter applications?,  Next: Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?,  Up: Tkinter questions

10.7.3.1 How do I freeze Tkinter applications?
..............................................

Freeze is a tool to create stand-alone applications.  When freezing
Tkinter applications, the applications will not be truly stand-alone, as
the application will still need the Tcl and Tk libraries.

One solution is to ship the application with the Tcl and Tk libraries,
and point to them at run-time using the ‘TCL_LIBRARY’ and ‘TK_LIBRARY’
environment variables.

Various third-party freeze libraries such as py2exe and cx_Freeze have
handling for Tkinter applications built-in.


File: python.info,  Node: Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?,  Next: I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter why?,  Prev: How do I freeze Tkinter applications?,  Up: Tkinter questions

10.7.3.2 Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?
............................................................

On platforms other than Windows, yes, and you don’t even need threads!
But you’ll have to restructure your I/O code a bit.  Tk has the
equivalent of Xt’s ‘XtAddInput()’ call, which allows you to register a
callback function which will be called from the Tk mainloop when I/O is
possible on a file descriptor.  See *note File Handlers: 454c.


File: python.info,  Node: I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter why?,  Prev: Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?,  Up: Tkinter questions

10.7.3.3 I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter: why?
..........................................................

An often-heard complaint is that event handlers *note bound: 4547. to
events with the ‘bind()’ method don’t get handled even when the
appropriate key is pressed.

The most common cause is that the widget to which the binding applies
doesn’t have «keyboard focus».  Check out the Tk documentation for the
focus command.  Usually a widget is given the keyboard focus by clicking
in it (but not for labels; see the takefocus option).


File: python.info,  Node: «Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;» FAQ,  Prev: Graphic User Interface FAQ,  Up: Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python

10.8 «Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;» FAQ
==================================================================

* Menu:

* Τι είναι η Python;::
* Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;::
* Μπορώ να διαγράψω την Python;::


File: python.info,  Node: Τι είναι η Python;,  Next: Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;,  Up: «Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;» FAQ

10.8.1 Τι είναι η Python;
-------------------------

Η Python είναι μια γλώσσα προγραμματισμού.  Χρησιμοποιείται για πολλές
διαφορετικές εφαρμογές.  Χρησιμοποιείται σε ορισμένα λύκεια και κολέγια
ως εισαγωγική γλώσσα προγραμματισμού επειδή η Python είναι εύκολη στην
εκμάθηση, αλλά χρησιμοποιείται επίσης από επαγγελματίες προγραμματιστές
λογισμικού σε μέρη όπως στην Google, στην NASA και στην Lucasfilm Ltd.

Αν θέλετε να μάθετε περισσότερα για την Python, ξεκινήστε με τον Οδηγό
για αρχάριους στην Python(1).

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide


File: python.info,  Node: Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;,  Next: Μπορώ να διαγράψω την Python;,  Prev: Τι είναι η Python;,  Up: «Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;» FAQ

10.8.2 Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;
--------------------------------------------------------------

Αν βρείτε την Python εγκατεστημένη στο σύστημά σας, αλλά δεν θυμάστε να
την έχετε εγκαταστήσει υπάρχουν διάφοροι πιθανοί τρόποι με τους οποίους
θα μπορούσε να έχει φτάσει εκεί.

   * Ίσως κάποιος άλλος χρήστης του υπολογιστή ήθελε να μάθει
     προγραμματισμό και το εγκατέστησε.  Θα πρέπει να βρείτε ποιος
     χρησιμοποιούσε τον υπολογιστή και μπορεί να το εγκατέστησε.

   * Μια εφαρμογή τρίτου μέρους που έχει εγκατασταθεί στον υπολογιστή
     μπορεί να έχει γραφτεί σε Python και να περιελάμβανε μια
     εγκατάσταση της Python.  Υπάρχουν πολλές τέτοιες εφαρμογές, από
     προγράμματα GUI μέχρι διακομιστές δικτύου και διαχειριστικά
     scripts.

   * Ορισμένες συσκευές με Windows έχουν επίσης εγκατεστημένη την
     Python.  Αυτή τη στιγμή γνωρίζουμε υπολογιστές της Hewlett-Packard
     και της Compaq που περιλαμβάνουν την Python.  Προφανώς ορισμένα από
     τα εργαλεία διαχείρισης της HP/Compaq είναι γραμμένα σε Python.

   * Πολλά λειτουργικά συστήματα συμβατά με Unix, όπως το macOS και
     ορισμένες διανομές Linux, έχουν από προεπιλογή εγκατεστημένη την
     Python, η οποία περιλαμβάνεται στη βασική εγκατάσταση.


File: python.info,  Node: Μπορώ να διαγράψω την Python;,  Prev: Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;,  Up: «Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;» FAQ

10.8.3 Μπορώ να διαγράψω την Python;
------------------------------------

Αυτό εξαρτάται από το πού προήλθε η Python.

Αν κάποιος το εγκατέστησε σκόπιμα, μπορείτε να το αφαιρέσετε χωρίς να
βλάψετε τίποτα.  Στα Windows, χρησιμοποιήστε το εικονίδιο
Προσθήκη/Αφαίρεση προγραμμάτων στον Πίνακα Ελέγχου.

Αν η Python εγκαταστάθηκε από μια εφαρμογή τρίτου μέρους, μπορείτε
επίσης να την αφαιρέσετε, αλλά η εφαρμογή αυτή δεν θα λειτουργεί πλέον.
Θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσετε το πρόγραμμα απεγκατάστασης αυτής της
εφαρμογής αντί να αφαιρέσετε απευθείας την Python.

Εάν η Python περιλαμβάνεται στο λειτουργικό σας σύστημα, δεν συνιστάται
η αφαίρεσή της.  Αν την αφαιρέσετε, όποια εργαλεία ήταν γραμμένα σε
Python δεν θα λειτουργούν πλέον, και κάποια από αυτά μπορεί να είναι
σημαντικά για εσάς.  Στη συνέχεια, θα απαιτηθεί επανεγκατάσταση
ολόκληρου του συστήματος για να διορθώσετε ξανά τα πράγματα.


File: python.info,  Node: Deprecations,  Next: Γλωσσάρι,  Prev: Συχνές Ερωτήσεις για την Python,  Up: Top

11 Deprecations
***************

* Menu:

* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<7>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<8>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.17: Pending removal in Python 3 17<5>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18<6>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.19: Pending removal in Python 3 19<5>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.20: Pending removal in Python 3 20<5>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<8>.
* Soft deprecations: Soft deprecations<2>.
* C API deprecations::


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 15<7>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<8>,  Up: Deprecations

11.1 Pending removal in Python 3.15
===================================

   * The import system:

        * Setting ‘__cached__’ on a module while failing to set *note
          __spec__.cached: 58b. is deprecated.  In Python 3.15,
          ‘__cached__’ will cease to be set or take into consideration
          by the import system or standard library.  (gh-97879(1))

        * Setting *note __package__: 58c. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.parent: 58d. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.15, ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or take into
          consideration by the import system or standard library.
          (gh-97879(2))

   * *note ctypes: 2d.:

        * The undocumented ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note http.server: 75.:

        * The obsolete and rarely used ‘CGIHTTPRequestHandler’ has been
          deprecated since Python 3.13.  No direct replacement exists.
          'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web server with a
          request handler.

        * The ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line
          interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note importlib: 7a.:

        * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead.

   * *note pathlib: a8.:

        * ‘.PurePath.is_reserved()’ has been deprecated since Python
          3.13.  Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 2d9. to detect reserved
          paths on Windows.

   * *note platform: af.:

        * ‘platform.java_ver()’ has been deprecated since Python 3.13.
          This function is only useful for Jython support, has a
          confusing API, and is largely untested.

   * *note sysconfig: e4.:

        * The 'check_home' argument of *note
          sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2dd. has been deprecated since
          Python 3.12.

   * *note threading: f6.:

        * *note RLock(): 2df. will take no arguments in Python 3.15.
          Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14,
          as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C
          version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments,
          ignoring every argument.

   * *note types: 10c.:

        * *note types.CodeType: 2e1.: Accessing ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’
          was deprecated in PEP 626(3) since 3.10 and was planned to be
          removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note
          DeprecationWarning: 2c9. in 3.12.  May be removed in 3.15.
          (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(4).)

   * *note typing: 10d.:

        * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note
          NamedTuple: 2e4. classes (for example, ‘Point =
          NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)’) has been deprecated since
          Python 3.13.  Use the class-based syntax or the functional
          syntax instead.

        * When using the functional syntax of *note TypedDict: 290.s,
          failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘TD =
          TypedDict("TD")’) or passing ‘None’ (‘TD = TypedDict("TD",
          None)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use ‘class
          TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’ to create a
          TypedDict with zero field.

        * The ‘typing.no_type_check_decorator()’ decorator function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  After eight years in the
          *note typing: 10d. module, it has yet to be supported by any
          major type checker.

   * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules.

   * *note wave: 11c.:

        * The ‘getmark()’, ‘setmark()’ and ‘getmarkers()’ methods of the
          *note Wave_read: 2e6. and *note Wave_write: 2e7. classes have
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   * *note zipimport: 13b.:

        * ‘zipimport.zipimporter.load_module()’ has been deprecated
          since Python 3.10.  Use *note exec_module(): 2e9. instead.
          (gh-125746(5).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125746


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<8>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 17<5>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 15<7>,  Up: Deprecations

11.2 Pending removal in Python 3.16
===================================

   * The import system:

        * Setting *note __loader__: 2ff. on a module while failing to
          set *note __spec__.loader: 300. is deprecated.  In Python
          3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into
          consideration by the import system or the standard library.

   * *note array: 8.:

        * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in
          documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python
          3.13.  Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 301.) for
          Unicode characters instead.

   * *note asyncio: b.:

        * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16; use *note
          inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 302. instead.  (Contributed by
          Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).)

        * *note asyncio: b. policy system is deprecated and will be
          removed in Python 3.16.  In particular, the following classes
          and functions are deprecated:

             * *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy: 303.

             * *note asyncio.DefaultEventLoopPolicy: 304.

             * *note asyncio.WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy: 305.

             * *note asyncio.WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy: 306.

             * *note asyncio.get_event_loop_policy(): 307.

             * *note asyncio.set_event_loop_policy(): 308.

          Users should use *note asyncio.run(): 309. or *note
          asyncio.Runner: 30a. with 'loop_factory' to use the desired
          event loop implementation.

          For example, to use *note asyncio.SelectorEventLoop: 30b. on
          Windows:

               import asyncio

               async def main():
                   ...

               asyncio.run(main(), loop_factory=asyncio.SelectorEventLoop)

          (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-127949(2).)

   * *note builtins: 13.:

        * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has
          been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising
          and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’).  Use ‘not x’ instead
          for the logical negation of a Boolean.  In the rare case that
          you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer,
          convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’).

   * *note functools: 62.:

        * Calling the Python implementation of *note functools.reduce():
          153. with 'function' or 'sequence' as keyword arguments has
          been deprecated since Python 3.14.

   * *note logging: 8a.:

        * Support for custom logging handlers with the 'strm' argument
          is deprecated and scheduled for removal in Python 3.16.
          Define handlers with the 'stream' argument instead.
          (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-115032(3).)

   * *note mimetypes: 93.:

        * Valid extensions start with a “.” or are empty for *note
          mimetypes.MimeTypes.add_type(): 30c.  Undotted extensions are
          deprecated and will raise a *note ValueError: 277. in Python
          3.16.  (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-75223(4).)

   * *note shutil: cd.:

        * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python
          3.14.  It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since
          Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 30d.

   * *note symtable: e1.:

        * The ‘symtable.Class.get_methods()’ method has been deprecated
          since Python 3.14.

   * *note sys: e2.:

        * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 30e. function has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.  Use the *note
          PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 30f. environment variable
          instead.

   * *note sysconfig: e4.:

        * The ‘sysconfig.expand_makefile_vars()’ function has been
          deprecated since Python 3.14.  Use the ‘vars’ argument of
          *note sysconfig.get_paths(): 156. instead.

   * *note tarfile: e7.:

        * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has
          been deprecated since Python 3.13.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127949

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115032

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75223


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 17<5>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 18<6>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<8>,  Up: Deprecations

11.3 Pending removal in Python 3.17
===================================

   * *note datetime: 33.:

        * *note strptime(): 2d2. calls using a format string containing
          ‘%e’ (day of month) without a year.  This has been deprecated
          since Python 3.15.  (Contributed by Stan Ulbrych in
          gh-70647(1).)

   * *note collections.abc: 1f.:

        - *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2cb. is scheduled for
          removal in Python 3.17.

          Use ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)’ to test if ‘obj’
          implements the *note buffer protocol: 311. at runtime.  For
          use in type annotations, either use *note Buffer: 312. or a
          union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports
          (e.g., ‘bytes | bytearray | memoryview’).

          ‘ByteString’ was originally intended to be an abstract class
          that would serve as a supertype of both *note bytes: 1c7. and
          *note bytearray: 1c6.  However, since the ABC never had any
          methods, knowing that an object was an instance of
          ‘ByteString’ never actually told you anything useful about the
          object.  Other common buffer types such as *note memoryview:
          1d2. were also never understood as subtypes of ‘ByteString’
          (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

          See PEP 688(2) for more details.  (Contributed by Shantanu
          Jain in gh-91896(3).)

   * *note encodings: 54.:

        - Passing non-ascii 'encoding' names to *note
          encodings.normalize_encoding(): 313. is deprecated and
          scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.  (Contributed by Stan
          Ulbrych in gh-136702(4).)

   * *note webbrowser: 11e.:

        - ‘webbrowser.MacOSXOSAScript’ is deprecated in favour of
          ‘webbrowser.MacOS’.  (gh-137586(5))

   * *note typing: 10d.:

        - Before Python 3.14, old-style unions were implemented using
          the private class ‘typing._UnionGenericAlias’.  This class is
          no longer needed for the implementation, but it has been
          retained for backward compatibility, with removal scheduled
          for Python 3.17.  Users should use documented introspection
          helpers like *note typing.get_origin(): 314. and *note
          typing.get_args(): 315. instead of relying on private
          implementation details.

        - *note typing.ByteString: 2e3, deprecated since Python 3.9, is
          scheduled for removal in Python 3.17.

          Use ‘isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Buffer)’ to test if ‘obj’
          implements the *note buffer protocol: 311. at runtime.  For
          use in type annotations, either use *note Buffer: 312. or a
          union that explicitly specifies the types your code supports
          (e.g., ‘bytes | bytearray | memoryview’).

          ‘ByteString’ was originally intended to be an abstract class
          that would serve as a supertype of both *note bytes: 1c7. and
          *note bytearray: 1c6.  However, since the ABC never had any
          methods, knowing that an object was an instance of
          ‘ByteString’ never actually told you anything useful about the
          object.  Other common buffer types such as *note memoryview:
          1d2. were also never understood as subtypes of ‘ByteString’
          (either at runtime or by static type checkers).

          See PEP 688(6) for more details.  (Contributed by Shantanu
          Jain in gh-91896(7).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70647

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136702

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137586

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/#current-options

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 18<6>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 19<5>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 17<5>,  Up: Deprecations

11.4 Pending removal in Python 3.18
===================================

   * No longer accept a boolean value when a file descriptor is
     expected.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-82626(1).)

   * *note decimal: 39.:

        * The non-standard and undocumented *note Decimal: 1c2. format
          specifier ‘'N'’, which is only supported in the ‘decimal’
          module’s C implementation, has been deprecated since Python
          3.13.  (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89902(2).)

   * Deprecations defined by PEP 829(3):

        * ‘import’ lines in ‘`name'.pth’ files are silently ignored.

     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-148641(4).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82626

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148641


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 19<5>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 20<5>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 18<6>,  Up: Deprecations

11.5 Pending removal in Python 3.19
===================================

   * *note ctypes: 2d.:

        * Implicitly switching to the MSVC-compatible struct layout by
          setting *note _pack_: 318. but not *note _layout_: 319. on
          non-Windows platforms.

   * *note hashlib: 6b.:

        - In hash function constructors such as *note new(): 2f1. or the
          direct hash-named constructors such as *note md5(): 2f2. and
          *note sha256(): 2f3, their optional initial data parameter
          could also be passed a keyword argument named ‘data=’ or
          ‘string=’ in various ‘hashlib’ implementations.

          Support for the ‘string’ keyword argument name is now
          deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.19.

          Before Python 3.13, the ‘string’ keyword parameter was not
          correctly supported depending on the backend implementation of
          hash functions.  Prefer passing the initial data as a
          positional argument for maximum backwards compatibility.

   * *note http.cookies: 74.:

        * *note http.cookies.Morsel.js_output(): 2f4. is deprecated and
          will be removed in Python 3.19.

        * *note http.cookies.BaseCookie.js_output(): 2f5. is deprecated
          and will be removed in Python 3.19.

   * *note imaplib: 77.:

        * Altering *note IMAP4.file: 2f8. is now deprecated and slated
          for removal in Python 3.19.  This property is now unused and
          changing its value does not automatically close the current
          file.

          Before Python 3.14, this property was used to implement the
          corresponding ‘read()’ and ‘readline()’ methods for *note
          IMAP4: 31a. but this is no longer the case since then.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 20<5>,  Next: Pending removal in future versions<8>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 19<5>,  Up: Deprecations

11.6 Pending removal in Python 3.20
===================================

   * Calling the ‘__new__()’ method of *note struct.Struct: 2fb. without
     the 'format' argument is deprecated and will be removed in Python
     3.20.  Calling *note __init__(): 2fa. method on initialized
     ‘Struct’ objects is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.20.

     (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev and Serhiy Storchaka in
     gh-143715(1).)

   * The ‘__version__’, ‘version’ and ‘VERSION’ attributes have been
     deprecated in these standard library modules and will be removed in
     Python 3.20.  Use *note sys.version_info: 2fc. instead.

        - *note argparse: 7.

        - *note csv: 2c.

        - *note ctypes: 2d.

        - ‘ctypes.macholib’

        - *note decimal: 39. (use *note decimal.SPEC_VERSION: 2fd.
          instead)

        - *note http.server: 75.

        - *note imaplib: 77.

        - *note ipaddress: 83.

        - *note json: 85.

        - *note logging: 8a. (‘__date__’ also deprecated)

        - *note optparse: a4.

        - *note pickle: ab.

        - *note platform: af.

        - *note re: c1.

        - *note socketserver: d5.

        - *note tabnanny: e6.

        - *note tarfile: e7.

        - *note tkinter.font: fe.

        - *note tkinter.ttk: 102.

        - *note wsgiref.simple_server: 124.

        - *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.

        - ‘xml.sax.expatreader’

        - *note xml.sax.handler: 133.

        - *note zlib: 13c.

     (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade and Stan Ulbrych in gh-76007(2).)

   * Deprecations defined by PEP 829(3):

        * Warnings are produced for ‘import’ lines found in ‘`name'.pth’
          files.

        * ‘`name'.pth’ files are no longer decoded in the locale
          encoding by default.  They 'MUST' be encoded in ‘utf-8-sig’.

     (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-148641(4).)

   * *note ast: 9.:

        * Creating instances of abstract AST nodes (such as *note
          ast.AST: 2ec. or ‘ast.expr’) is deprecated and will raise an
          error in Python 3.20.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/143715

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76007

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0829/

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148641


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in future versions<8>,  Next: Soft deprecations<2>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 20<5>,  Up: Deprecations

11.7 Pending removal in future versions
=======================================

The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note argparse: 7.:

        * Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive groups
          are deprecated.

        * Passing the undocumented keyword argument 'prefix_chars' to
          *note add_argument_group(): 31d. is now deprecated.

        * The *note argparse.FileType: 31e. type converter is
          deprecated.

   * *note builtins: 13.:

        * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’
          signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’
          instead, the single argument signature.

        * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed
          by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’.  It
          allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in
          y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f
          or x in y]’).  A syntax warning is raised if the numeric
          literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and:
          31f, *note else: 320, *note for: 321, *note if: 322, *note in:
          323, *note is: 324. and *note or: 325.  In a future release it
          will be changed to a syntax error.  (gh-87999(1))

        * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning
          non-int type: these methods will be required to return an
          instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 326.

        * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note float: 327.: these methods will be required to return
          an instance of ‘float’.

        * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass
          of *note complex: 328.: these methods will be required to
          return an instance of ‘complex’.

        * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in
          the *note complex(): 328. constructor is now deprecated; it
          should only be passed as a single positional argument.
          (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(2).)

   * *note calendar: 15.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’
     constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY:
     329. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 32a.  (Contributed by Prince
     Roshan in gh-103636(3).)

   * *note codecs: 1c.: use *note open(): 32b. instead of *note
     codecs.open(): 32c.  (gh-133038(4))

   * ‘codeobject.co_lnotab’: use the *note codeobject.co_lines(): 32d.
     method instead.

   * *note datetime: 33.:

        * *note utcnow(): 32e.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’.

        * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 32f.: use
          ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’.

   * *note gettext: 66.: Plural value must be an integer.

   * *note importlib: 7a.:

        * *note cache_from_source(): 330. 'debug_override' parameter is
          deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead.

   * *note importlib.metadata: 7d.:

        * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface.

        * Implicit ‘None’ on return values.

   * *note logging: 8a.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since
     Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 331. instead.

   * *note mailbox: 8e.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is
     deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead.

   * *note os: a5.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 332. in a
     multi-threaded process.

   * *note os.path: a6.: *note os.path.commonprefix(): 333. is
     deprecated, use *note os.path.commonpath(): 334. for path prefixes.
     The ‘os.path.commonprefix()’ function is being deprecated due to
     having a misleading name and module.  The function is not safe to
     use for path prefixes despite being included in a module about path
     manipulation, meaning it is easy to accidentally introduce path
     traversal vulnerabilities into Python programs by using this
     function.

   * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter
     is deprecated, use an exception instance.

   * *note re: c1.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical
     group references and group names in regular expressions.  Only
     sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference.
     The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now
     only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore.  (Contributed
     by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).)

   * *note shutil: cd.: *note rmtree(): 335.”s 'onerror' parameter is
     deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead.

   * *note ssl: d8. options and protocols:

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 336. without protocol argument is
          deprecated.

        * *note ssl.SSLContext: 336.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 337.
          and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN
          instead.

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options

        * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’

        * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’

        * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’

   * *note threading: f6. methods:

        * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all():
          338.

        * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 339.

        * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 33a.: use *note
          threading.Thread.daemon: 33b. attribute.

        * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note
          threading.Thread.setName(): 33c.: use *note
          threading.Thread.name: 33d. attribute.

        * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note
          threading.current_thread(): 33e.

        * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count():
          33f.

   * *note typing.Text: 340. (gh-92332(6)).

   * The internal class ‘typing._UnionGenericAlias’ is no longer used to
     implement *note typing.Union: 341.  To preserve compatibility with
     users using this private class, a compatibility shim will be
     provided until at least Python 3.17.  (Contributed by Jelle
     Zijlstra in gh-105499(7).)

   * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 342.: it is deprecated to
     return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case.

   * *note urllib.parse: 113. deprecated functions: *note urlparse():
     2a4. instead

        * ‘splitattr()’

        * ‘splithost()’

        * ‘splitnport()’

        * ‘splitpasswd()’

        * ‘splitport()’

        * ‘splitquery()’

        * ‘splittag()’

        * ‘splittype()’

        * ‘splituser()’

        * ‘splitvalue()’

        * ‘to_bytes()’

   * *note wsgiref: 121.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do
     partial writes.

   * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e.: Testing the truth value of an
     *note Element: 343. is deprecated.  In a future release it will
     always return ‘True’.  Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not
     None’ tests instead.

   * *note sys._clear_type_cache(): 344. is deprecated: use *note
     sys._clear_internal_caches(): 345. instead.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218

   (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636

   (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133038

   (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760

   (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332

   (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105499


File: python.info,  Node: Soft deprecations<2>,  Next: C API deprecations,  Prev: Pending removal in future versions<8>,  Up: Deprecations

11.8 Soft deprecations
======================

There are no plans to remove *note soft deprecated: 1a7. APIs.

   * *note re.match(): 24c. and *note re.Pattern.match(): 24d. are now
     *note soft deprecated: 1a7. in favor of the new *note
     re.prefixmatch(): 24a. and *note re.Pattern.prefixmatch(): 24b.
     APIs, which have been added as alternate, more explicit names.
     These are intended to be used to alleviate confusion around what
     'match' means by following the Zen of Python’s '«Explicit is better
     than implicit»' mantra.  Most other language regular expression
     libraries use an API named 'match' to mean what Python has always
     called 'search'.

     We 'do not' plan to remove the older ‘match()’ name, as it has been
     used in code for over 30 years.  Code supporting older versions of
     Python should continue to use ‘match()’, while new code should
     prefer ‘prefixmatch()’.  See *note prefixmatch() vs.  match(): 2f9.

     (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-86519(1) and Hugo van
     Kemenade in gh-148100(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86519

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/148100


File: python.info,  Node: C API deprecations,  Prev: Soft deprecations<2>,  Up: Deprecations

11.9 C API deprecations
=======================

* Menu:

* Pending removal in Python 3.15: Pending removal in Python 3 15<8>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<9>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.18: Pending removal in Python 3 18<7>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.19: Pending removal in Python 3 19<6>.
* Pending removal in Python 3.20: Pending removal in Python 3 20<6>.
* Pending removal in future versions: Pending removal in future versions<9>.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 15<8>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<9>,  Up: C API deprecations

11.9.1 Pending removal in Python 3.15
-------------------------------------

   * The ‘PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock()’: Use *note
     PyImport_ImportModule(): 3a3. instead.

   * ‘PyWeakref_GetObject()’ and ‘PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT()’: Use *note
     PyWeakref_GetRef(): 3a4. instead.  The pythoncapi-compat project(1)
     can be used to get ‘PyWeakref_GetRef()’ on Python 3.12 and older.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3a1.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3a1.
     instead; Note that some codecs (for example, «base64») may return a
     type other than *note str: 1df, such as *note bytes: 1c7.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3a2.
     instead.

   * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3a2.
     instead; Note that some codecs (for example, «base64») may return a
     type other than *note bytes: 1c7, such as *note str: 1df.

   * Python initialization functions, deprecated in Python 3.13:

        * ‘Py_GetPath()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("module_search_paths"):
          3a6. (*note sys.path: 194.) instead.

        * ‘Py_GetPrefix()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("base_prefix"): 3a6.
          (*note sys.base_prefix: 3aa.) instead.  Use
          ‘PyConfig_Get("prefix")’ (*note sys.prefix: 3ab.) if *note
          virtual environments: 3a9. need to be handled.

        * ‘Py_GetExecPrefix()’: Use *note
          PyConfig_Get("base_exec_prefix"): 3a6. (*note
          sys.base_exec_prefix: 3a7.) instead.  Use
          ‘PyConfig_Get("exec_prefix")’ (*note sys.exec_prefix: 3a8.) if
          *note virtual environments: 3a9. need to be handled.

        * ‘Py_GetProgramFullPath()’: Use *note
          PyConfig_Get("executable"): 3a6. (*note sys.executable: 3ac.)
          instead.

        * ‘Py_GetProgramName()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("executable"):
          3a6. (*note sys.executable: 3ac.) instead.

        * ‘Py_GetPythonHome()’: Use *note PyConfig_Get("home"): 3a6. or
          the *note PYTHONHOME: 3ad. environment variable instead.

     The pythoncapi-compat project(2) can be used to get *note
     PyConfig_Get(): 3a6. on Python 3.13 and older.

   * Functions to configure Python’s initialization, deprecated in
     Python 3.11:

        * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 607. instead.

        * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 607. instead.

        * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 608.
          instead.

        * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 609. instead.

        * ‘PySys_ResetWarnOptions()’: Clear *note sys.warnoptions: 3a5.
          and ‘warnings.filters’ instead.

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 60b. instead.

   * Global configuration variables:

        * *note Py_DebugFlag: 60c.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug:
          60d. or *note PyConfig_Get("parser_debug"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 60e.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 60f.
          or *note PyConfig_Get("verbose"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_QuietFlag: 610.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 611. or
          *note PyConfig_Get("quiet"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 612.: Use *note
          PyConfig.interactive: 613. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("interactive"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_InspectFlag: 614.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 615.
          or *note PyConfig_Get("inspect"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 616.: Use *note
          PyConfig.optimization_level: 617. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("optimization_level"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 618.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import:
          619. or *note PyConfig_Get("site_import"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 61a.: Use *note
          PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3c4. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("bytes_warning"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 61b.: Use *note
          PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 61c. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("pathconfig_warnings"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 61d.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_environment: 61e. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("use_environment"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 61f.: Use *note
          PyConfig.write_bytecode: 620. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("write_bytecode"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 621.: Use *note
          PyConfig.user_site_directory: 622. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("user_site_directory"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 623.: Use *note
          PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 624. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("buffered_stdio"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 625.: Use *note
          PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 626. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed:
          627. or *note PyConfig_Get("hash_seed"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 628.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 629.
          or *note PyConfig_Get("isolated"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 62a.: Use *note
          PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 62b. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_fs_encoding"): 3a6. instead.

        * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 62c.: Use *note
          PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 62d. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("legacy_windows_stdio"): 3a6. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’,
          ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 62e. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("filesystem_encoding"): 3a6. instead.

        * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note
          PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 62f. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("filesystem_errors"): 3a6. instead.

        * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 630. or *note
          PyConfig_Get("utf8_mode"): 3a6. instead.  (see *note
          Py_PreInitialize(): 631.)

     The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 60a. API should be used with
     *note PyConfig: 60b. to set these options.  Or *note
     PyConfig_Get(): 3a6. can be used to get these options at runtime.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (2) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<9>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 18<7>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 15<8>,  Up: C API deprecations

11.9.2 Pending removal in Python 3.16
-------------------------------------

   * The bundled copy of ‘libmpdec’.


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 18<7>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 19<6>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<9>,  Up: C API deprecations

11.9.3 Pending removal in Python 3.18
-------------------------------------

   * The following private functions are deprecated and planned for
     removal in Python 3.18:

        * ‘_PyBytes_Join()’: use *note PyBytes_Join(): 5b0.

        * ‘_PyDict_GetItemStringWithError()’: use *note
          PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 634.

        * ‘_PyDict_Pop()’: use *note PyDict_Pop(): 635.

        * ‘_PyLong_Sign()’: use *note PyLong_GetSign(): 5c7.

        * ‘_PyLong_FromDigits()’ and ‘_PyLong_New()’: use *note
          PyLongWriter_Create(): 5d7.

        * ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’: use *note
          PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 636.

        * ‘_PyUnicode_AsString()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): 637.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Init()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Init(&writer)’ with *note writer =
          PyUnicodeWriter_Create(0): 5e1.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(&writer)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_Finish(writer): 5e4.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Dealloc(&writer)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_Discard(writer): 5e3.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(&writer, ch)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar(writer, ch): 5e7.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(&writer, str)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr(writer, str): 5e9.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(&writer, str, start, end)’
          with *note PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring(writer, str, start,
          end): 5ea.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCIIString(&writer, str)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII(writer, str): 5e6.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String()’: replace
          ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_WriteLatin1String(&writer, str)’ with *note
          PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8(writer, str): 5ec.

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_Prepare()’: (no replacement).

        * ‘_PyUnicodeWriter_PrepareKind()’: (no replacement).

        * ‘_Py_HashPointer()’: use *note Py_HashPointer(): 638.

        * ‘_Py_fopen_obj()’: use *note Py_fopen(): 5c0.

     The pythoncapi-compat project(1) can be used to get these new
     public functions on Python 3.13 and older.  (Contributed by Victor
     Stinner in gh-128863(2).)

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128863


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 19<6>,  Next: Pending removal in Python 3 20<6>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 18<7>,  Up: C API deprecations

11.9.4 Pending removal in Python 3.19
-------------------------------------

   * PEP 456(1) embedders support for the string hashing scheme
     definition.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in Python 3 20<6>,  Next: Pending removal in future versions<9>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 19<6>,  Up: C API deprecations

11.9.5 Pending removal in Python 3.20
-------------------------------------

   * ‘_PyObject_CallMethodId()’, ‘_PyObject_GetAttrId()’ and
     ‘_PyUnicode_FromId()’ are deprecated since 3.15 and will be removed
     in 3.20.  Instead, use *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 3b5. and
     cache the result in the module state, then call *note
     PyObject_CallMethod(): 3b6. or *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 3b7.
     (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-141049(1).)

   * The ‘cval’ field in *note PyComplexObject: 3b9. (gh-128813(2)).
     Use *note PyComplex_AsCComplex(): 3ba. and *note
     PyComplex_FromCComplex(): 3bb. to convert a Python complex number
     to/from the C *note Py_complex: 3bc. representation.

   * Macros ‘Py_MATH_PIl’ and ‘Py_MATH_El’.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/141049

   (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128813


File: python.info,  Node: Pending removal in future versions<9>,  Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 20<6>,  Up: C API deprecations

11.9.6 Pending removal in future versions
-----------------------------------------

The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is
currently no date scheduled for their removal.

   * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 63a.: Unneeded since Python 3.8.

   * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 63b.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException():
     63c. instead.

   * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 63d.: Use *note
     PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 63c. instead.

   * *note PyErr_Restore(): 63e.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException():
     63f. instead.

   * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 640.: Use *note
     PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 641. instead.

   * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 642.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child():
     643. instead.

   * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 644.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack():
     645. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 646. instead.

   * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 647.: Unneeded since Python 3.12

   * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 648.
     instead.

   * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’
     instead.

   * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 649.
     instead.

   * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API:

        * *note PyThread_create_key(): 64a.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_alloc(): 64b. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 64c.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_free(): 64d. instead.

        * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 64e.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_set(): 64f. instead.

        * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 650.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_get(): 651. instead.

        * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 652.: Use *note
          PyThread_tss_delete(): 653. instead.

        * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 654.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.


File: python.info,  Node: Γλωσσάρι,  Next: Σχετικά με την τεκμηρίωση,  Prev: Deprecations,  Up: Top

12 Γλωσσάρι
***********

‘>>>’

     Η προεπιλεγμένη Python εντολή του *note interactive: 451. shell.
     Συχνά εμφανίζεται για παραδείγματα κώδικα που μπορούν να
     εκτελεστούν διαδραστικά στον interpreter.

‘...’

     Μπορεί να αναφέρεται σε:

        * Η προεπιλεγμένη Python εντολή του *note interactive: 451.
          shell κατά την εισαγωγή του κώδικα για ένα μπλοκ κώδικα με
          εσοχή, όταν βρίσκεται μέσα σε ένα ζεύγος ταιριασμένων
          αριστερών και δεξιών delimiters (παρενθέσεις, αγκύλες,
          άγκιστρα ή τριπλά εισαγωγικά), ή μετά τον καθορισμό ενός
          decorator.

        * Η μορφή με τις τρεις τελείες του αντικειμένου *note Ellipsis:
          21ea.

αφηρημένη βασική κλάση

     Οι αφηρημένες βασικές κλάσεις συμπληρώνουν το *note duck-typing:
     5d45. παρέχοντας έναν τρόπο ορισμού interfaces όταν άλλες τεχνικές
     όπως η *note hasattr(): 8e2. θα ήταν αδέξιες ή ανεπαίσθητα
     λανθασμένες (για παράδειγμα με *note magic methods: 25a6.).  Τα ABC
     (abstract base class) εισάγουν εικονικές υποκλάσεις, οι οποίες
     είναι κλάσεις που δεν κληρονομούνται από μια κλάση, αλλά
     εξακολουθούν να αναγνωρίζονται από το *note isinstance(): 2ef. και
     από το *note issubclass(): 2f0.” βλ.  την τεκμηρίωση του module
     *note abc: 4.  Η Python διαθέτει πολλά ενσωματωμένα ABC για δομές
     δεδομένων (στο module *note collections.abc: 1f.), αριθμούς (στο
     module *note numbers: a2.), ροές (στο module μονάδα *note io: 82.),
     εισαγωγή finders και loaders (στο module *note importlib.abc: 7b.).
     Μπορείτε να δημιουργήσετε τα δικά σας ABC με το module ‘abc’.

συνάρτηση annotate

     A callable that can be called to retrieve the *note annotations:
     409. of an object.  Annotate functions are usually *note functions:
     26ae, automatically generated as the *note __annotate__: 1b95.
     attribute of functions, classes, and modules.  Annotate functions
     are a subset of *note evaluate functions: 473c.

annotation

     Μια ετικέτα που σχετίζεται με μια μεταβλητή, ένα χαρακτηριστικό
     κλάσης ή μια παράμετρος συνάρτησης ή τιμή που επιστρέφεται, που
     χρησιμοποιείται κατά σύμβαση ως *note type hint: 25c1.

     Δεν είναι δυνατή η πρόσβαση στα annotations των τοπικών μεταβλητών
     κατά το χρόνο εκτέλεσης, αλλά τα annotations των global μεταβλητών,
     των χαρακτηριστικών κλάσης και των συναρτήσεων μπορούν να
     ανακτηθούν καλώντας την εντολή *note
     annotationlib.get_annotations(): 66c. σε modules, κλάσεις και
     συναρτήσεις, αντίστοιχα.

     Βλ.  τα *note variable annotation: 110a, *note function annotation:
     2207, PEP 484(1), PEP 526(2) και PEP 649(3), τα οποία περιγράφουν
     την λειτουργικότητα.  Δείτε επίσης τα *note Annotations Best
     Practices: bb6. για τις βέλτιστες πρακτικές δουλεύοντας με
     annotations.

όρισμα

     Μια τιμή μεταβιβάζεται σε μία *note function: 26ae. (ή *note
     method: 1a8c.) κατά την κλήση της συνάρτησης.  Υπάρχουν δύο είδη
     ορισμάτων:

        * 'keyword argument': ένα όρισμα πριν από ένα αναγνωριστικό
          (π.χ.  ‘name=’) σε μια κλήση συνάρτησης ή περνώντας το ως τιμή
          σε ένα λεξικό πριν από ‘**’.  Για παράδειγμα, το ‘3’ και το
          ‘5’ αποτελούν ορίσματα λέξεων-κλειδιών στις ακόλουθες κλήσεις
          προς *note complex(): 328.:

               complex(real=3, imag=5)
               complex(**{'real': 3, 'imag': 5})

        * 'positional argument': ένα όρισμα που δεν είναι όρισμα
          keyword.  Τα ορίσματα θέσης μπορούν να εμφανίζονται στην αρχής
          μιας λίστας ορισμάτων ή/και να μεταβιβάζονται ως στοιχεία ενός
          *note iterable: 15ce. πριν από ‘*’.  Για παράδειγμα, το ‘3’
          και το ‘5’ αποτελούν ορίσματα θέσης στις παρακάτω κλήσεις:

               complex(3, 5)
               complex(*(3, 5))

     Τα ορίσματα εκχωρούνται στις ονομασμένες τοπικές μεταβλητές στο
     σώμα μια συνάρτησης.  Βλ.  την ενότητα *note Calls: 1136. για τους
     κανόνες που διέπουν αυτήν την εκχώρηση.  Συντακτικά, οποιαδήποτε
     έκφραση μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για να αναπαραστήσει ένα όρισμα” η
     αξιολογούμενη τιμή εκχωρείται σε μια τοπική μεταβλητή.

     Βλ.  επίσης την εγγραφή του γλωσσαρίου για το *note parameter:
     253c, την FAQ ερώτηση στο *note η διαφορά μεταξύ ορισμάτων και
     παραμέτρων: 5c7a, και PEP 362(4).

ασύγχρονος διαχειριστής context

     Ένα αντικείμενο που ελέγχει το ορατό περιβάλλον σε μια δήλωση *note
     async with: 20b. ορίζοντας τις μεθόδους *note __aenter__(): 2613.
     και *note __aexit__(): 1bad.  Που εισήχθη από PEP 492(5).

ασύγχρονος generator

     Μια συνάρτηση που επιστρέφει έναν *note asynchronous generator
     iterator: 3b87.  Μοιάζει με μια συνάρτηση coroutine που ορίζεται με
     *note async def: 9cf. εκτός από ότι περιέχει εκφράσεις *note yield:
     d93. για την παραγωγή μιας σειράς τιμών που μπορούν να
     χρησιμοποιηθούν σε έναν *note async for: e70. βρόχο.

     Συνήθως αναφέρεται σε μια συνάρτηση ασύγχρονου generator, αλλά
     μπορεί να αναφέρεται σε έναν 'ασύγχρονο generator iterator' σε
     ορισμένα contexts.  Σε περιπτώσεις όπου το επιδιωκόμενο νόημα δεν
     είναι σαφές, με την χρήση των πλήρων όρων αποφεύγεται η ασάφεια.

     Μια συνάρτηση ασύγχρονου generator μπορεί να περιέχει εκφράσεις
     *note await: 432. , καθώς και δηλώσεις *note async for: e70, και
     *note async with: 20b.

ασύγχρονος generator iterator

     Ένα αντικείμενο που δημιουργήθηκε από μια συνάρτηση *note
     asynchronous generator: 2692.

     Αυτός είναι ένας *note asynchronous iterator: 6cd. που όταν
     καλείται χρησιμοποιώντας την μέθοδο *note __anext__(): 1aa7.
     επιστρέφει ένα αναμενόμενο αντικείμενο που θα εκτελέσει στο σώμα
     της συνάρτησης του ασύγχρονου generator μέχρι την επόμενη *note
     yield: d93. έκφραση.

     Κάθε *note yield: d93. αναστέλλει προσωρινά την επεξεργασία,
     θυμάται την κατάσταση εκτέλεσης (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των τοπικών
     μεταβλητών και των δηλώσεων ‘try’ σε εκκρεμότητα).  Όταν ο
     'ασύγχρονος generator iterator' συνεχίσει αποτελεσματικά με άλλο
     αναμενόμενο που επιστρέφεται από *note __anext__(): 1aa7, συνεχίζει
     από εκεί που σταμάτησε.  Βλ.  PEP 492(6) και PEP 525(7).

ασύγχρονος iterable

     Ένα αντικείμενο, που μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί σε μια δήλωση *note
     async for: e70.  Πρέπει να επιστρέφει ένα *note asynchronous
     iterator: 6cd. από την μέθοδο *note __aiter__(): fbb.  Που εισήχθη
     από PEP 492(8).

ασύγχρονος iterator

     Ένα αντικείμενο που υλοποιεί τις μεθόδους *note __aiter__(): fbb.
     και *note __anext__(): 1aa7.  Η μέθοδος ‘__anext__()’ πρέπει να
     επιστρέφει ένα *note awaitable: 6cf. αντικείμενο.  Το *note async
     for: e70. επιλύει τα αναμενόμενα που επιστρέφονται από τη μέθοδο
     ‘__anext__()’ ενός ασύγχρονου iterator έως ότου εγείρει μια
     εξαίρεση *note StopAsyncIteration: 1ffe.  Εισήχθη από PEP 492(9).

atomic operation

     An operation that appears to execute as a single, indivisible step:
     no other thread can observe it half-done, and its effects become
     visible all at once.  Python does not guarantee that high-level
     statements are atomic (for example, ‘x += 1’ performs multiple
     bytecode operations and is not atomic).  Atomicity is only
     guaranteed where explicitly documented.  See also *note race
     condition: 2921. and *note data race: 2922.

κατάσταση συνδεδεμένου νήματος

     Ένα *note thread state: 1a70. που είναι ενεργή για το τρέχον νήμα
     του λειτουργικού συστήματος.

     Όταν επισυνάπτεται ένας *note thread state: 1a70, το νήμα του
     λειτουργικού συστήματος έχει πρόσβαση στο πλήρες Python C API και
     μπορεί να καλέσει με ασφάλεια τον διερμηνέα bytecode.

     Εκτός εάν μια συνάρτηση αναφέρει ρητά το αντίθετο, η προσπάθεια
     κλήσης του C API χωρίς μια συνημμένη κατάσταση νήματος θα οδηγήσει
     ένα μοιραίο σφάλμα ή σε απροσδιόριστη συμπεριφορά.  Μια κατάσταση
     νήματος μπορεί να συνδεθεί και να αποσυνδεθεί ρητά από τον χρήση
     μέσω του C API ή έμμεσα από τον χρόνο εκτέλεσης,
     συμπεριλαμβανομένων των κλήσεων αποκλεισμού C και από τον διερμηνέα
     bytecode μεταξύ των κλήσεων.

     On most builds of Python, having an attached thread state implies
     that the caller holds the *note GIL: 411. for the current
     interpreter, so only one OS thread can have an attached thread
     state at a given moment.  In *note free-threaded builds: 198. of
     Python, threads can concurrently hold an attached thread state,
     allowing for true parallelism of the bytecode interpreter.

χαρακτηριστικό

     Μια τιμή που σχετίζεται με ένα αντικείμενο που συνήθως αναφέρεται
     με όνομα χρησιμοποιώντας εκφράσεις με κουκκίδες.  Για παράδειγμα,
     εάν ένα αντικείμενο 'o' έχει ένα χαρακτηριστικό 'a' θα αναφέρεται
     ως 'o.a'.

     Είναι δυνατό να δώσουμε σε ένα αντικείμενο ένα χαρακτηριστικό που
     το όνομα του δεν είναι αναγνωριστικό όπως ορίζεται από *note
     Ονόματα (αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά): 2491, για παράδειγμα
     χρησιμοποιώντας *note setattr(): 27b7, αν επιτρέπεται από το
     αντικείμενο.  Ένα τέτοιο χαρακτηριστικό δεν θα είναι προσβάσιμο
     χρησιμοποιώντας τις τελείες, και αντί αυτού θα πρέπει να ανακτηθεί
     χρησιμοποιώντας *note getattr(): f8f.

awaitable

     Ένα αντικείμενο που μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί στην έκφραση *note
     await: 432.  Μπορεί να είναι *note coroutine: 8a2. ή ένα
     αντικείμενο με μια *note __await__(): 112e. μέθοδο.  Βλ.  επίσης
     PEP 492(10).

BDFL

     Ακρωνύμιο του 'Benevolent Dictator For Life', καλοκάγαθος
     δικτάτορας της ζωής, δηλαδή Guido van Rossum(11), ο δημιουργός της
     Python.

δυαδικό αρχείο

     Ένα *note file object: 156c. ικανό να διαβάζει και να γράφει *note
     δυαδικού τύπου αντικείμενα: 436.  Παραδείγματα δυαδικών αρχείων
     είναι αρχεία που ανοίγουν σε δυαδική λειτουργία (‘'rb'’, ‘'wb'’ ή
     ‘'rb+'’), *note sys.stdin.buffer: 94a, *note sys.stdout.buffer:
     e9c, και στιγμιοτύπων των *note io.BytesIO: 1255. και *note
     gzip.GzipFile: 849.

     Βλ.  επίσης *note text file: 225c. για ένα αντικείμενο τύπου αρχείο
     ικανό να διαβάσει και να γράψει *note str: 1df. αντικείμενα.

δανεική αναφορά

     Στο C API της Python, μια δανεική αναφορά είναι μια αναφορά σε ένα
     αντικείμενο, όπου ο κώδικας που χρησιμοποιεί το αντικείμενο δεν
     κατέχει την αναφορά.  Γίνεται ένας αχρησιμοποίητος δείκτης εάν το
     αντικείμενο καταστραφεί.  Για παράδειγμα, μια διαδικασία garbage
     collection μπορεί να αφαιρέσει το τελευταίο *note strong reference:
     7da. από το αντικείμενο και έτσι να το καταστρέψει.

     Συνίσταται η κλήση του *note Py_INCREF(): 974. στο *note δανεική
     αναφορά: 603. με σκοπό να μετατραπεί σε ένα *note ισχυρή αναφορά:
     7da. επιτόπου, εκτός όταν το αντικείμενο δεν μπορεί να καταστραφεί
     πριν από την τελευταία χρήση της δανεικής αναφοράς.  Η συνάρτηση
     *note Py_NewRef(): c70. μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί ώστε να
     δημιουργηθεί ένα ισχυρή αναφορά.

bytes-like αντικείμενα

     Ένα αντικείμενο που υποστηρίζει το *note Buffer Protocol: 311. και
     μπορεί να εξάγει ένα C-*note contiguous: 287e. buffer.  Αυτό
     περιλαμβάνει όλα τα αντικείμενα *note bytes: 1c7, *note bytearray:
     1c6, και *note array.array: 6c5, καθώς και πολλά κοινά *note
     memoryview: 1d2. αντικείμενα.  Τα δυαδικού τύπου (bytes-like)
     αντικείμενα μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για διάφορες λειτουργίες που
     διαχειρίζονται δυαδικά δεδομένα” αυτά περιλαμβάνουν συμπίεση
     αποθήκευση σε δυαδικό αρχείο και αποστολή μέσω socket.

     Ορισμένες λειτουργίες χρειάζονται τα δυαδικά δεδομένα να είναι
     μεταβλητά.  Η τεκμηρίωση συχνά αναφέρεται σε αυτά ως «δυαδικά
     αντικείμενα ανάγνωσης-εγγραφής» (read-write bytes-like objects).
     Παραδείγματα μεταβλητών αντικειμένων προσωρινής αποθήκευσης
     περιέχουν *note bytearray: 1c6. και ένα *note memoryview: 1d2. ενός
     ‘bytearray’.  Άλλες λειτουργίες απαιτούν την αποθήκευσης των
     δυαδικών δεδομένα σε αμετάβλητα αντικείμενα («δυαδικά αντικείμενα
     μόνο ανάγνωσης»” (read-only bytes-like objects) παραδείγματα αυτών
     περιέχουν *note bytes: 1c7. και ένα ‘memoryview’ ενός ‘bytes’
     αντικειμένου.

bytecode

     Ο πηγαίος κώδικα της Python μεταγλωττίζεται σε 'bytecode', η
     εσωτερική αναπαράσταση ενός προγράμματος Python στον διερμηνέα
     CPython.  Το 'bytecode' αποθηκεύεται επίσης προσωρινά ως ‘.pyc’
     αρχεία ώστε η εκτέλεση του ίδιου αρχείου να είναι γρηγορότερη την
     δεύτερη φορά εκτέλεσης (μπορεί να αποφευχθεί η εκ νέου μεταγλώττιση
     από τον πηγαίο κώδικα σε 'bytcode').  Αυτή η «ενδιάμεση γλώσσα»
     λέγεται ότι τρέχει σε μια *note virtual machine: 3ca3. που εκτελεί
     τον κώδικα μηχανής που αντιστοιχεί σε κάθε 'bytecode'.  Λάβετε
     υπόψη ότι τα 'bytecode' δεν αναμένεται να λειτουργούν μεταξύ
     διαφορετικών εικονικών μηχανών Python, ούτε να είναι σταθερά μεταξύ
     των εκδόσεων της Python.

     Μια λίστα από οδηγίες σχετικά με τα bytecode μπορεί να βρεθεί στην
     τεκμηρίωση για *note το module dis: 9b1.

callable

     Ένα callable είναι ένα αντικείμενο που μπορεί να καλεστεί, πιθανά
     με ένα σύνολο ορισμάτων (βλ.  *note argument: 867.), με την
     παρακάτω σύνταξη:

          callable(argument1, argument2, argumentN)

     Μια *note function: 26ae, και κατ” επέκταση μια *note method: 1a8c.
     είναι callable.  Ένα στιγμιότυπο μια κλάσης που υλοποιεί τη μέθοδο
     *note __call__(): 961. είναι επίσης callable.

callback

     Μια subroutine συνάρτηση η οποία μεταβιβάζεται ως όρισμα που θα
     εκτελεστεί κάποια στιγμή στο μέλλον.

κλάση

     Ένα πρότυπο για τη δημιουργία αντικειμένων που ορίζονται από το
     χρήστη.  Οι ορισμοί κλάσεων συνήθως περιέχουν ορισμούς μεθόδων που
     λειτουργούν σε στιγμιότυπα της κλάσης.

μεταβλητή κλάσης

     Μια μεταβλητή που ορίζεται σε μια κλάση και προορίζεται να
     τροποποιηθεί μόνο σε επίπεδο κλάσης (δηλ.  όχι σε ένα στιγμιότυπο
     μιας κλάσης).

μεταβλητή κλεισίματος

     Ένας *note free variable: 261e. που αναφέρεται από ένα *note nested
     scope: 2581. και ορίζεται σε μια εξωτερική περιοχή, αντί να
     επιλύεται δυναμικά κατά την εκτέλεση από τα καθολικά ή ενσωματωμένα
     namespaces.  Μπορεί να δηλωθεί ρητά με τη δεσμευμένη λέξη-κλειδί
     *note nonlocal: 164c. ώστε να επιτραπεί η εγγραφή, ή να θεωρηθεί
     ότι ορίζεται έμμεσα όταν η μεταβλητή χρησιμοποιείται μόνο για
     ανάγνωση.

     Για παράδειγμα, η συνάρτηση ‘inner’ του παρακάτω κώδικα, τόσο η ‘x’
     όσο και η ‘print’ είναι *note free variables: 261e, αλλά μόνο η ‘x’
     είναι μια 'μεταβλητή κλεισίματος':

          def outer():
              x = 0
              def inner():
                  nonlocal x
                  x += 1
                  print(x)
              return inner

     Λόγο του χαρακτηριστικού *note codeobject.co_freevars: 2538. (το
     οποίο, παρά την ονομασία του, περιλαμβάνει μόνο τα ονόματα των
     μεταβλητών κλεισίματος και όχι όλες τις αναφερόμενες ελεύθερες
     μεταβλητές), χρησιμοποιείται μερικές φορές ο πιο γενικός όρος *note
     free variable: 261e. ακόμη και όταν γίνεται ειδική αναφορά σε
     μεταβλητές κλεισίματος.

μιγαδικός αριθμός

     Μια επέκταση του γνωστού συστήματος πραγματικών αριθμών στο οποίο
     όλοι οι αριθμοί εκφράζονται ως άθροισμα ενός πραγματικού μέρους και
     ενός φανταστικού μέρους.  Οι φανταστικοί αριθμοί είναι πραγματικά
     πολλαπλάσια της φανταστικής μονάδα (η τετραγωνική ρίζα του ‘-1’),
     που συχνά γράφονται ‘i’ στα μαθηματικά ή ‘j’ στη μηχανική.  Η
     Python έχει ενσωματωμένη υποστήριξη για μιγαδικούς αριθμούς, οι
     οποίοι γράφονται με αυτόν τον τελευταίο συμβολισμό” το φανταστικό
     μέρος γράφεται με το επίθημα ‘j’, π.χ., ‘3+1j’.  Για να αποκτήσετε
     πρόσβαση σε σύνθετα ισοδύναμα το module *note math: 91,
     χρησιμοποιήστε το *note cmath: 19.  Η χρήση μιγαδικών αριθμών είναι
     ένα αρκετά προηγμένο μαθηματικό χαρακτηριστικό.  εάν δεν γνωρίζετε
     την ανάγκη τους, είναι σχεδόν σίγουρο ότι μπορείτε να τα αγνοήσετε
     με ασφάλεια.

concurrency

     The ability of a computer program to perform multiple tasks at the
     same time.  Python provides libraries for writing programs that
     make use of different forms of concurrency.  *note asyncio: b. is a
     library for dealing with asynchronous tasks and coroutines.  *note
     threading: f6. provides access to operating system threads and
     *note multiprocessing: 98. to operating system processes.
     Multi-core processors can execute threads and processes on
     different CPU cores at the same time (see *note parallelism:
     5d4a.).

concurrent modification

     When multiple threads modify shared data at the same time.
     Concurrent modification without proper synchronization can cause
     *note race conditions: 2921, and might also trigger a *note data
     race: 2922, data corruption, or both.

context

     Αυτό ο όρος έχει διαφορετικές σημασίες ανάλογα με το πού και πώς
     χρησιμοποιείται.  Μερικές κοινές έννοιες:

        * Η προσωρινή κατάσταση ή το περιβάλλον που δημιουργείται από
          έναν *note context manager: 478. μέσω μιας δήλωσης *note with:
          20a.

        * Το σύνολο των δεσμευμένων κλειδιού-τιμής που σχετίζονται με
          ένα συγκεκριμένο αντικείμενο *note contextvars.Context: 421.
          και προσπελάζονται μέσω αντικειμένων *note ContextVar: 1a9d.
          Βλ.  επίσης *note context variable: 5d4c.

        * Ένα αντικείμενο *note contextvars.Context: 421.  Βλ.  επίσης
          *note current context: 1b77.

πρωτόκολλο διαχείρισης περιβάλλοντος

     Οι μέθοδοι *note __enter__(): 9c6. και *note __exit__(): 16a5.
     καλούνται από τη δήλωση *note with: 20a.  Βλ.  PEP 343(12).

διαχειριστής context

     Ένα αντικείμενο που υλοποιεί το *note context management protocol:
     1b78. και ελέγχει το περιβάλλον που είσαι ορατό μέσα σε μια δήλωση
     *note with: 20a.  Βλ.  PEP 343(13).

context μεταβλητή

     Μια μεταβλητή της οποίας η τιμή εξαρτάται από το ποιο είναι το
     *note current context: 1b77.  Οι τιμές προσπελάζονται μέσω των
     αντικειμένων *note contextvars.ContextVar: 1a9d.  Οι μεταβλητές
     συμφραζόμενων χρησιμοποιούνται κυρίως για να απομονώσουν την
     κατάσταση μεταξύ ταυτόχρονων ασύγχρονων εργασιών.

contiguous

     Ένα buffer θεωρείται contiguous ακριβώς εάν είναι είτε
     'C-contiguous' είτε 'Fortran contriguous'.  Το buffer μηδενικών
     διαστάσεων είναι C και Fortran contiguous.  Σε μονοδιάστατους
     πίνακες, τα στοιχεία πρέπει να τοποθετούνται στη μνήμη το ένα δίπλα
     στο άλλο, με σειρά αύξησης των δεικτών ξεκινώντας από το μηδέν.  Σε
     πολυδιάστατους C-contiguous πίνακες, ο τελευταίος δείκτης
     μεταβάλλεται ταχύτερα όταν επισκέπτονται τα στοιχεία σε σειρά
     διεύθυνσης μνήμης.  Ωστόσο, σε Fortran contiguous πίνακες, ο πρώτος
     δείκτης μεταβάλλεται πιο γρήγορα.

coroutine

     Οι coroutines είναι μια πιο γενικευμένη μορφή subroutines.  Οι
     subroutines εισάγονται σε ένα σημείο και εξάγονται σε άλλο σημείο.
     Οι coroutines μπορεί να εισαχθούν, να εξαχθούν και να συνεχιστούν
     σε πολλά διαφορετικά σημεία.  Μπορούν να υλοποιήσουν με την δήλωση
     *note async def: 9cf.  Βλ.  επίσης PEP 492(14).

coroutine συνάρτηση

     Μια συνάρτηση που επιστρέφει ένα *note coroutine: 8a2. αντικείμενο.
     Μια συνάρτηση coroutine μπορεί να ορίζεται από τη δήλωση *note
     async def: 9cf, και μπορεί να περιέχει *note await: 432, *note
     async for: e70, και *note async with: 20b. λέξεις κλειδιά.  Αυτές
     εισήχθησαν από το PEP 492(15).

CPython

     Η κανονική υλοποίηση της γλώσσας προγραμματισμού Python, όπως
     διανέμεται στο python.org(16).  Ο όρος «CPython» χρησιμοποιείται
     όταν είναι απαραίτητο για την διάκριση αυτής της υλοποίησης από
     άλλες όπως η 'Jython' ή η 'IronPython'.

τρέχον πλαίσιο

     Το *note context: 1b76. (*note contextvars.Context: 421.
     αντικείμενο) που χρησιμοποιείται αυτή τη στιγμή από τα αντικείμενα
     *note ContextVar: 1a9d. για να προσπελάσει (να πάρει ή να ορίσει)
     τις τιμές των *note context variables: 5d4c.  Κάθε νήμα έχει το
     δικό του τρέχον συμφραζόμενο Τα πλαίσια για την εκτέλεση ασύγχρονων
     εργασιών (βλ.  *note asyncio: b.) συνδέουν κάθε εργασία με ένα
     συμφραζόμενο, το οποίο γίνεται το τρέχον συμφραζόμενο όποτε η
     εργασία ξεκινά ή συνεχίζει την εκτέλεση.

κυκλική απομόνωση

     Μια υποομάδα ενός ή περισσότερων αντικειμένων που αναφέρονται
     μεταξύ τους σχηματίζοντας έναν κύκλο αναφορών, αλλά δεν αναφέρονται
     από άλλα αντικείμενα εκτός της ομάδας.  Ο σκοπός του *note cyclic
     garbage collector: 19de. είναι να εντοπίζει αυτές τις ομάδες και να
     σπάει του κύκλος αναφορών ώστε να μπορεί να αποδεσμευτεί η μνήμη.

data race

     A situation where multiple threads access the same memory location
     concurrently, at least one of the accesses is a write, and the
     threads do not use any synchronization to control their access.
     Data races lead to *note non-deterministic: 5d4d. behavior and can
     cause data corruption.  Proper use of *note locks: 2920. and other
     *note synchronization primitives: 5d4e. prevents data races.  Note
     that data races can only happen in native code, but that *note
     native code: 5d4f. might be exposed in a Python API. See also *note
     race condition: 2921. and *note thread-safe: 5d50.

deadlock

     A situation in which two or more tasks (threads, processes, or
     coroutines) wait indefinitely for each other to release resources
     or complete actions, preventing any from making progress.  For
     example, if thread A holds lock 1 and waits for lock 2, while
     thread B holds lock 2 and waits for lock 1, both threads will wait
     indefinitely.  In Python this often arises from acquiring multiple
     locks in conflicting orders or from circular join/await
     dependencies.  Deadlocks can be avoided by always acquiring
     multiple *note locks: 2920. in a consistent order.  See also lock
     and *note reentrant: 5d52.

decorator

     Μια συνάρτηση που επιστρέφει μια άλλη συνάρτηση, συνήθως
     εφαρμόζεται ως μετασχηματισμός συνάρτησης χρησιμοποιώντας την
     ‘@wrapper’ σύνταξη.  Συνηθισμένα παραδείγματα για τους decorators
     είναι *note classmethod(): 69a. και *note staticmethod(): 666.

     Η σύνταξη του decorator είναι απλώς καλλωπιστική, οι ακόλουθοι δύο
     ορισμοί συναρτήσεων είναι σημασιολογικά ισοδύναμοι:

          def f(arg):
              ...
          f = staticmethod(f)

          @staticmethod
          def f(arg):
              ...

     Η ίδια έννοια υπάρχει για τις κλάσεις, αλλά χρησιμοποιείται
     λιγότερο συχνά εκεί.  Βλ.  την τεκμηρίωση για *note function
     definitions: 2206. και *note class definitions: 167c. για
     περισσότερα σχετικά με τους decorators.

descriptor

     Κάθε αντικείμενο που ορίζει τις μεθόδους *note __get__(): 188a,
     *note __set__(): 25aa, ή *note __delete__(): 1b64.  Όταν ένα
     χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης είναι descriptor, η ειδική δεσμευτική του
     συμπεριφορά ενεργοποιείται κατά την αναζήτηση χαρακτηριστικών.
     Κανονικά, χρησιμοποιώντας 'a.b' για να λάβετε, να ορίσετε ή να
     διαγράψετε ένα χαρακτηριστικό αναζητά το αντικείμενο με το όνομα
     'b' στο λεξικό της κλάσης για 'a', αλλά εάν το 'b' είναι
     descriptor, καλείται η αντίστοιχη μέθοδος descriptor.  Η κατανόηση
     των descriptors είναι το κλειδί για την καλύτερη κατανόηση της
     Python γιατί αυτό αποτελεί την βάση για πολλά χαρακτηριστικά όπως
     συναρτήσεις, μεθόδους, ιδιότητες, μέθοδοι κλάσης στατικές μέθοδοι,
     και αναφορά σε σούπερ κλάσεις.

     Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες αναφορικά με τις μεθόδους των
     descriptors, βλ.  see *note Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων: 100d. ή το *note
     Πρακτικός οδηγός για τη χρήση του Descriptor: 188f.

λεξικό

     Ένα προσεταιριστικός πίνακα, όπου αυθαίρετα κλειδιά
     αντιστοιχίζονται σε τιμές.  Τα κλειδιά μπορεί να είναι οποιοδήποτε
     αντικείμενο με μεθόδους *note __hash__(): ec1. και *note __eq__():
     ec0.  Ονομάζεται ως hash στο Perl.

κατανόηση λεξικού

     Ένα συμπαγής τρόπος για να επεξεργαστείτε όλα ή μέρος των στοιχείων
     σε ένα επαναληπτικό και να επιστραφεί ένα με λεξικό με τα
     αποτελέσματα.  ‘results = {n: n ** 2 for n in range(10)}’
     δημιουργεί ένα λεξικό που περιέχει το κλειδί ‘n’ που
     αντιστοιχίζεται με την τιμή ‘n ** 2’.  Βλ.  *note Displays for
     lists, sets and dictionaries: 9ce.

όψη λεξικού

     Τα αντικείμενα που επιστρέφονται από *note dict.keys(): bad, *note
     dict.values(): bae, και *note dict.items(): baf. καλούνται όψεις
     λεξικού.  Αυτές παρέχουν μια δυναμική όψη των των εγγραφών του
     λεξικού, που σημαίνει ότι όταν το λεξικό μεταβάλλεται, η όψη
     αντικατοπτρίζει αυτές τις αλλαγές.  Για να αναγκάσετε την όψη
     λεξικού να γίνει μια πλήρης λίστα χρησιμοποιήστε το
     ‘list(dictview)’.  Βλ.  *note Αντικείμενα όψης λεξικού: 289e.

docstring

     Μια literal συμβολοσειρά που εμφανίζεται ως η πρώτη έκφραση σε μια
     κλάση, συνάρτηση ή module.  Ενώ αγνοείται κατά την εκτέλεση της
     σουίτας, αναγνωρίζεται από τον μεταγλωττιστή και τοποθετείται στο
     χαρακτηριστικό *note __doc__: cf4. της κλάσης, της συνάρτησης ή του
     module που περικλείει.  Δεδομένου ότι είναι διαθέσιμο μέσω
     ενδοσκόπησης, το κανονικό μέρος για την τεκμηρίωση του
     αντικειμένου.

duck-typing

     Ένα στυλ προγραμματισμού που δεν εξετάζει τον τύπο ενός
     αντικειμένου για να προσδιορίσει αν έχει τη σωστή διεπαφή”
     αντίθετα, η μέθοδος ή το χαρακτηριστικό καλείται απλώς ή
     χρησιμοποιείται («If it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck,
     it must be a duck.») Δίνοντας έμφαση στις διεπαφές και όχι σε
     συγκεκριμένους τύπους, ο καλά σχεδιασμένος κώδικας βελτιώνει την
     ευελιξία του επιτρέποντας την πολυμορφική υποκατάσταση.  Ο τύπος
     duck-typing αποφεύγει δοκιμές χρησιμοποιώντας *note type(): 186. ή
     *note isinstance(): 2ef.  (Σημείωση, ωστόσο, ότι ο τύπος πάπιας
     'duck-typing' μπορεί να συμπληρωθεί με *note abstract base classes:
     155f.)  Αντί αυτού, συνήθως χρησιμοποιεί δοκιμές *note hasattr():
     8e2. ή προγραμματισμό *note EAFP: 329e.

dunder

     Ένας ανεπίσημος συντομογραφικός όρος για το «double underscore»,
     που χρησιμοποιείται όταν μιλάμε για μια *note special method: 1e57.
     Για παράδειγμα, ‘__init__’ προφέρεται συχνά ως «dunder init».

EAFP

     Πιο εύκολο να ζητήσεις συγχώρεση παρά άδεια.  Αυτό το κοινό στυλ
     προγραμματισμού σε Python προϋποθέτει την ύπαρξη έγκυρων κλειδιών ή
     χαρακτηριστικών και συλλαμβάνει εξαιρέσεις εάν η υπόθεση αποδεχθεί
     εσφαλμένη.  Αυτό το καθαρό και γρήγορο στυλ χαρακτηρίζεται από την
     παρουσία πολλών δηλώσεων *note try: ad6. και *note except: 447.  Η
     τεχνική έρχεται σε αντίθεση με το στυλ που είναι *note LBYL: 5d55.
     κοινό σε πολλές άλλες γλώσσες, όπως η C.

αξιολόγηση συνάρτησης

     Μια συνάρτηση που μπορεί να κληθεί για να αξιολογήσει ένα αδρανές
     χαρακτηριστικό ενός αντικειμένου, όπως η τιμή των ψευδωνύμων τύπου
     που δημιουργούνται με την πρόταση *note type: 85a.

έκφραση

     Ένα κομμάτι σύνταξης που μπορεί να αξιολογηθεί σε κάποια τιμή.  Με
     άλλα λόγια, μια έκφραση είναι μια συσσώρευση στοιχείων έκφρασης
     όπως κυριολεξία, ονόματα, πρόσβαση χαρακτηριστικών, τελεστές ή
     κλήσεις συναρτήσεων που όλες επιστρέφουν μια τιμή.  Σε αντίθεση με
     πολλές άλλες γλώσσες, δεν είναι όλες οι γλωσσικές δομές εκφράσεις.
     Υπάρχουνε επίσης *note statement: 2e17.s που δεν μπορούν να
     χρησιμοποιηθούν ως εκφράσεις, όπως το *note while: 1b86.  Οι
     αναθέσεις τιμών είναι επίσης δηλώσεις όχι εκφράσεις.

module επέκτασης

     Ένα module γραμμένο σε C ή C++, που χρησιμοποιείται από το C API
     της Python για να αλληλεπιδράσουν με τον πυρήνα και με τον κώδικα
     του χρήστη.

f-string

f-strings

     Οι κυριολεκτικές συμβολοσειρές χρησιμοποιούνται με πρόθεμα ‘'f'’ ή
     ‘'F'’ ονομάζονται συνήθως «f-strings» που είναι συντομογραφία του
     *note formatted string literals: 43a.  Βλ.  επίσης PEP 498(17).

αντικείμενο αρχείου

     Ένα αντικείμενο που εκθέτει ένα API προσανατολισμένο σε αρχείο (με
     μεθόδους όπως ‘read()’ ή ‘write()’) σε έναν υποκείμενο πόρο.
     Ανάλογα με τον τρόπο που δημιουργήθηκε, ένα αντικείμενο αρχείου
     μπορεί να μεσολαβήσει στην πρόσβαση σε ένα πραγματικό αρχείο στο
     δίσκο ή σε άλλο τύπο συσκευής αποθήκευσης ή επικοινωνίας (για
     παράδειγμα τυπική είσοδος/ έξοδος, in-memory buffers, sockets,
     pipes, κλπ.).  Αντικείμενο αρχείου ονομάζονται επίσης 'file-like
     objects' ή 'streams'.

     Στην πραγματικότητα υπάρχουν τρεις κατηγορίες αντικειμένων αρχείου
     raw *note δυαδικά αρχεία: 225d, buffered δυαδικά αρχεία και *note
     αρχεία κειμένου: 225c.  Οι διεπαφές τους ορίζονται στην ενότητα
     *note io: 82.  Ο κανονικός τρόπος για να δημιουργήσετε ένα
     αντικείμενο αρχείου είναι χρησιμοποιώντας την συνάρτηση *note
     open(): 32b.

αντικείμενο που μοιάζει με αρχείο

     Ένα συνώνυμο με το *note file object: 156c.

κωδικοποίηση συστήματος αρχείων και χειριστής σφαλμάτων

     Η κωδικοποίηση και ο χειριστής σφαλμάτων χρησιμοποιείται από την
     Python για την αποκωδικοποίηση των bytes από το λειτουργικό σύστημα
     και την κωδικοποίηση σε Unicode για το λειτουργικό σύστημα.

     Η κωδικοποίηση συστήματος αρχείων μπορεί να εγγυηθεί την
     επιτυχημένη αποκωδικοποίηση όλων των bytes κάτω από 128.  Εάν η
     κωδικοποίηση συστήματος αρχείων δεν παρέχει αυτήν την εγγύηση, οι
     συναρτήσεις API μπορούν να εγείρουν ένα *note UnicodeError: 675.

     Οι συναρτήσεις *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): 1017. και *note
     sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): 10a3. μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν
     για να λάβετε την κωδικοποίηση του συστήματος αρχείων και του
     χειριστή σφαλμάτων.

     Ο *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948. διαμορφώνονται
     κατά την εκκίνηση της Python από τη συνάρτηση *note
     PyConfig_Read(): b6f. βλ.  *note filesystem_encoding: 62e. και
     *note filesystem_errors: 62f. μέλη του *note PyConfig: 60b.

     Βλ.  επίσης το *note locale encoding: 74d.

finder

     Ένα αντικείμενο που προσπαθεί να βρει το *note loader: 1c30. για
     ένα module που εισήχθη.

     Υπάρχουν δύο τύποι finder: *note finders μετα διαδρομής: 1418. για
     χρήση με *note sys.meta_path: 10e3, και *note finders εισόδου
     διαδρομής: 1419. για χρήση με *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd.

     Βλ.  *note Finders και loaders: 263c. και *note importlib: 7a. για
     περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.

ακέραια διαίρεση

     Η μαθηματική διαίρεση που στρογγυλοποιεί προς τα κάτω στον
     κοντινότερο ακέραιο.  Ο τελεστής ακέραιας διαίρεσης είναι ‘//’.
     Για παράδειγμα, η έκφραση ‘11 // 4’ αξιολογείται σε ‘2’ σε αντίθεση
     με την τιμή ‘2.75’ που επιστρέφεται από την διαίρεση με
     υποδιαστολή.  Σημείωση ότι ‘(-11) // 4’ κάνει ‘-3’ επειδή αυτή
     είναι η στρογγυλοποίηση 'προς τα κάτω' του ‘-2.75’.  Βλ.  PEP
     238(18).

δωρεάν νήμα

     Ένα μοντέλο νημάτων όπου πολλά νήματα μπορούν να εκτελούν Python
     bytecode ταυτόχρονα μέσα στον ίδιο διερμηνέα.  Αυτό έρχεται σε
     αντίθεση με το *note global interpreter lock: 685, το οποίο
     επιτρέπει σε ένα μόνο νήμα να εκτελεί Python bytecode κάθε φορά.
     Δείτε το PEP 703(19).

free-threaded build

     A build of *note CPython: ae3. that supports *note free threading:
     487, configured using the *note -disable-gil: 6a5. option before
     compilation.

     See *note Python support for free threading: 2919.

δωρεάν μεταβλητή

     Τυπικά, όπως ορίζεται στο *note language execution model: 261b, μια
     ελεύθερη μεταβλητή είναι οποιαδήποτε μεταβλητή χρησιμοποιείται σε
     ένα namespace που δεν είναι τοπική μεταβλητή σε εκείνο το
     namespace.  Δείτε το *note closure variable: 1ab7. για παράδειγμα.
     Πρακτικά, λόγω του ονόματος του χαρακτηριστικού *note
     codeobject.co_freevars: 2538, ο όρος χρησιμοποιείται επίσης μερικές
     φορές ως συνώνυμο της closure variable.

συνάρτηση

     Μια σειρά από δηλώσεις που επιστρέφουν κάποια τιμή σε αυτόν που την
     κάλεσε.  Σε αυτές μπορούν να περαστούν κανένα ή περισσότερα *note
     ορίσματα: 867. που μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την εκτέλεση.  Βλ.
     επίσης τις ενότητες *note parameter: 253c, *note method: 1a8c, και
     the *note Function definitions: 2206.

συνάρτηση annotation

     Ένας *note annotation: 409. μιας παραμέτρου συνάρτησης ή μιας τιμής
     επιστροφής.

     Οι συναρτήσεις annotations συχνά χρησιμοποιούνται για *note
     υποδείξεις τύπου: 25c1.: για παράδειγμα, αυτή η συνάρτηση
     αναμένεται να πάρει δύο ορίσματα *note int: 326. και επίσης
     αναμένεται να έχει μία επιστρεφόμενη τιμή ‘int’:

          def sum_two_numbers(a: int, b: int) -> int:
             return a + b

     Η σύνταξη συνάρτησης annotation αναλύεται στην ενότητα *note
     Function definitions: 2206.

     Βλ.  *note variable annotation: 110a. και PEP 484(20), που
     περιγράφει αυτή την λειτουργικότητα.  Επίσης βλ.  *note Annotations
     Best Practices: bb6. για τις καλύτερες πρακτικές δουλεύοντας με
     annotations.

__future__

     Ένα *note future statement: 670, ‘from __future__ import
     <feature>’, καθοδηγεί τον μεταγλωττιστή να μεταγλωττίσει το τρέχον
     module χρησιμοποιώντας σύνταξη ή σημασιολογία που θα γίνει η τυπική
     σε μελλοντική έκδοση της Python.  Το module *note __future__: 0.
     τεκμηριώνει τις πιθανές τιμές του 'feature'.  Με την εισαγωγή αυτής
     της λειτουργικής μονάδας και την αξιολόγηση των μεταβλητών της,
     μπορείτε να δείτε πότε μια νέα δυνατότητα προστέθηκε για πρώτη φορά
     στην γλώσσα και πότε θα γίνει (ή έγινε) η προεπιλογή:

          >>> import __future__
          >>> __future__.division
          _Feature((2, 2, 0, 'alpha', 2), (3, 0, 0, 'alpha', 0), 8192)

συλλογή απορριμάτων

     Η διαδικασία απελευθέρωσης της μνήμης όταν δεν χρησιμοποιείται
     άλλο.  Η Python εκτελεί συλλογή απορριμάτων μέσω καταμέτρησης
     αναφορών και ενός κυκλικού συλλέκτη σκουπιδιών που είναι σε θέση να
     ανιχνεύει και να σπάει τους κύκλους αναφοράς.  Ο συλλέκτης
     απορριμάτων μπορεί να ελεγχθεί χρησιμοποιώντας το module *note gc:
     63.

generator

     Μια συνάρτηση που επιστρέφει ένα *note generator iterator: f9e.
     Μοιάζει με μια κανονική συνάρτηση εκτός από το ότι περιέχει
     εκφράσεις *note yield: d93. για την παραγωγή μιας σειράς τιμών που
     μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν σε έναν βρόχο 'for' ή που μπορούν να
     ανακτηθούν μία τη φορά με την συνάρτηση *note next(): bb5.
     function.

     Συνήθως αναφέρεται σε μια συνάρτηση generator, αλλά μπορεί να
     αναφέρεται σε έναν 'generator iterator' σε μερικά contexts.  Σε
     περιπτώσεις όπου το επιδιωκόμενο νόημα δεν είναι σαφές, η χρήση των
     πλήρων όρων αποφεύγει την ασάφεια.

generator iterator

     Ένα αντικείμενο που δημιουργείται από μια συνάρτηση *note
     generator: 1409.

     Κάθε *note yield: d93. αναστέλλει προσωρινά την επεξεργασία,
     θυμάται την κατάσταση εκτέλεσης (συμπεριλαμβανομένων των τοπικών
     μεταβλητών και των δηλώσεων δοκιμής σε εκκρεμότητα).  Όταν ο
     'generator iterator' συνεχίσει, συνεχίζει από εκεί που σταμάτησε
     (σε αντίθεση με τις συναρτήσεις που ξεκινούν από την αρχή σε κάθε
     επίκληση).

generator έκφραση

     Μια *note expression: 25c4. που επιστρέφει έναν *note iterator:
     6ce.  Μοιάζει με κανονική έκφραση που ακολουθείται από μια πρόταση
     ‘for’ που ορίζει μια μεταβλητή βρόχου, ένα εύρος και μια
     προαιρετική πρόταση ‘if’.  Η συνδυασμένη έκφραση δημιουργεί τιμές
     για μια συνάρτηση εγκλεισμού:

          >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10))         # sum of squares 0, 1, 4, ... 81
          285

γενική συνάρτηση

     Μια συνάρτηση που αποτελείται από πολλαπλές συναρτήσεις που
     υλοποιούν την ίδια λειτουργία για διαφορετικούς τύπους.  Ποια
     υλοποίηση πρέπει να χρησιμοποιηθεί κατά τη διάρκεια μια κλήσης
     καθορίζεται από τον αλγόριθμο αποστολής.

     Βλ.  επίσης την καταχώρηση του *note single dispatch: db5, τον
     decorator *note functools.singledispatch(): a2a. και PEP 443(21).

γενικός τύπος

     Ένας *note type: 1ef3. που μπορεί να παραμετροποιηθεί” συνήθως μια
     *note container class: 25c9, όπως *note list: 4d9. ή *note dict:
     188.  Χρησιμοποιείται για *note type hints: 25c1. και *note
     annotations: 409.

     Για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες, βλ.  *note generic alias types: a9f.
     PEP 483(22), PEP 484(23), PEP 585(24), και το module *note typing:
     10d.

GIL

     Βλ.  *note global interpreter lock: 685.

global interpreter lock

     Ο μηχανισμός που χρησιμοποιείται από τον διερμηνέα *note CPython:
     ae3. για να διασφαλίσει ότι μόνο ένα νήμα εκτελεί Python *note
     bytecode: 6b3. κάθε φορά.  Αυτό απλοποιεί την υλοποίηση CPython
     δημιουργώντας το μοντέλο αντικειμένου (συμπεριλαμβανομένων κρίσιμων
     ενσωματωμένων τύπων όπως π.χ.  *note dict: 188.) έμμεσα ασφαλές
     έναντι ταυτόχρονης πρόσβασης.  Το κλείδωμα ολόκληρου του διερμηνέα
     διευκολύνει τον διερμηνέα να είναι πολλαπλών νημάτων, εις βάρος του
     μεγάλου μέρους του παραλληλισμού που παρέχουν οι μηχανές πολλαπλών
     επεξεργαστών.

     Ωστόσο, ορισμένες λειτουργικές μονάδες επέκτασης, είτε τυπικές είτε
     τρίτων, έχουν σχεδιαστεί έτσι ώστε να απελευθερώνουν το GIL όταν
     εκτελούν εργασίες εντατικών υπολογισμών όπως συμπίεση ή
     κατακερματισμός.  Επίσης, το GIL απελευθερώνεται πάντα όταν
     εκτελείτε I/O.

     Από την έκδοση Python 3.13, ο GIL μπορεί να απενεργοποιηθεί
     χρησιμοποιώντας τη ρύθμιση *note -disable-gil: 6a5. κατά τη
     διαμόρφωση της κατασκευής.  Μετά την κατασκευή της Python με αυτήν
     με αυτήν την επιλογή, ο κώδικας πρέπει να εκτελείται με την επιλογή
     *note -X gil=0: 178. ή αφού ρυθμιστεί η μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος
     *note PYTHON_GIL=0: 6a6.  Αυτή η δυνατότητα επιτρέπει βελτιωμένη
     απόδοση για εφαρμογές πολλαπλών νημάτων και διευκολύνει τη χρήση
     των επεξεργαστών πολλαπλών πυρήνων με αποδοτικό τρόπο.  Για
     περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες, δείτε το PEP 703(25).

     Σε προηγούμενες εκδόσεις του C API της Python, μια συνάρτηση μπορεί
     να δηλώνει ότι απαιτεί την τήρηση του GIL για να χρησιμοποιηθεί.
     Αυτό αναφέρεται στην ύπαρξη μιας κατάστασης *note attached thread
     state: 1a1.

global state

     Data that is accessible throughout a program, such as module-level
     variables, class variables, or C static variables in *note
     extension modules: 2442.  In multi-threaded programs, global state
     shared between threads typically requires synchronization to avoid
     *note race conditions: 2921. and *note data races: 2922.

hash-based pyc

     Ένα αρχείο κρυφής μνήμης 'bytecode' που χρησιμοποιεί τον
     κατακερματισμό και όχι τον χρόνο τροποποίησης του αντίστοιχου
     αρχείου προέλευσης για να προσδιορίσει την εγκυρότητα του.  Βλ.
     *note Ακύρωση cached bytecode: 9e3.

hashable

     Ένα αντικείμενο είναι 'hashable' εάν έχει μια τιμή κατακερματισμού
     που δεν αλλάζει ποτέ κατά τη διάρκεια της ζωής του (χρειάζεται μια
     μέθοδο *note __hash__(): ec1.) , και μπορεί να συγκριθεί με άλλα
     αντικείμενα (χρειάζεται μια μέθοδο *note __eq__(): ec0.) .  Τα
     'hashable' αντικείμενα που συγκρίνονται ως προς την ισότητα τους
     πρέπει να έχουν την ίδια τιμή κατακερματισμού.

     Η ύπαρξη 'hashable' κάνει ένα αντικείμενο να μπορεί να
     χρησιμοποιηθεί ως κλειδί λεξικού και ως μέλος ενός συνόλου, επειδή
     αυτές οι δομές δεδομένων χρησιμοποιούν τιμές κατακερματισμού.

     Τα περισσότερα από τα αμετάβλητα ενσωματωμένα αντικείμενα της
     Python μπορούν να κατακερματιστούν” τα μεταβλητά κοντέινερ (όπως οι
     λίστες ή τα λεξικά) δεν είναι” τα αμετάβλητα κοντέινερ (όπως
     πλειάδες και τα frozesets) μπορούν να κατακερματιστούν μόνο εάν τα
     στοιχεία τους είναι κατακερματισμένα.  Τα αντικείμενα που είναι
     στιγμιότυπα κλάσεων που ορίζονται από το χρήστη μπορούν να
     κατακερματιστούν από προεπιλογή.  Όλα συγκρίνονται άνισα εκτός από
     τον εαυτό τους) και η τιμή κατακερματισμού τους προέρχεται από το
     *note id(): 17c5.

IDLE

     Ένα ολοκληρωμένο περιβάλλον ανάπτυξης και μάθησης για την Python.
     *note IDLE — Python editor and shell: 13be. είναι ένα βασικό
     περιβάλλον επεξεργασίας και διερμηνέα που συνοδεύεται από την
     τυπική διανομή της Python.

Αθάνατο

     'Αθάνατα αντικείμενα' είναι μια λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης της CPython
     που εισήχθη στην PEP 683(26).

     Εάν ένα αντικείμενο είναι αθάνατο, ο *note reference count: 2c5.
     του δεν τροποποιείται, και επομένως δεν εκχωρείται ποτέ ενώ
     εκτελείται ο διερμηνέας.  Για παράδειγμα, *note True: fcc. και
     *note None: a65. είναι αθάνατα στην CPython.

     Τα αθάνατα αντικείμενα μπορούν να αναγνωριστούν μέσω της *note
     sys._is_immortal(): 517, ή μέσω της *note PyUnstable_IsImmortal():
     5f0. στο C API.

immutable

     An object with a fixed value.  Immutable objects include numbers,
     strings and tuples.  Such an object cannot be altered.  A new
     object has to be created if a different value has to be stored.
     They play an important role in places where a constant hash value
     is needed, for example as a key in a dictionary.  Immutable objects
     are inherently *note thread-safe: 5d50. because their state cannot
     be modified after creation, eliminating concerns about improperly
     synchronized *note concurrent modification: 5d4b.

εισαγόμενο path

     Μια λίστα από τοποθεσίες (ή *note καταχωρίσεις διαδρομής: 264e.)
     που μπορούν να αναζητηθούν *note path based finder: 2643. για να
     εισαχθούν modules.  Κατά την διαδικασία εισαγωγής, αυτή η λίστα με
     τοποθεσίες συνήθως έρχεται από *note sys.path: 194, αλλά για τα
     υποπακέτα μπορεί επίσης να έρθει από το χαρακτηριστικό του πακέτου
     γονέα ‘__path__’.

εισαγωγή

     Η διαδικασία κατά την οποία ο κώδικας της Python σε ένα module
     είναι διαθέσιμη στον κώδικα Python ενός άλλου module.

εισαγωγέας

     Ένα αντικείμενο μπορεί και να αναζητεί και να φορτώνει ένα module”
     και ένα *note finder: 263e. και *note loader: 1c30. αντικείμενο.

index

     A numeric value that represents the position of an element in a
     *note sequence: 8ff.

     In Python, indexing starts at zero.  For example, ‘things[0]’ names
     the 'first' element of ‘things’; ‘things[1]’ names the second one.

     In some contexts, Python allows negative indexes for counting from
     the end of a sequence, and indexing using *note slices: 26a5.

     See also *note subscript: 5d5b.

διαδραστικός

     Η Python έχει έναν διαδραστικό διερμηνέα όπου σημαίνει ότι μπορείς
     να εισάγεις δηλώσεις και εκφράσεις στην εισαγωγή εντολών του
     διερμηνέα, εκτελώντας τες άμεσα και εμφανίζοντας τα αποτελέσματα.
     Απλώς εκκινήστε την ‘python’ χωρίς ορίσματα (πιθανώς επιλέγοντας το
     από το κύριο μενού του υπολογιστή σας).  Αποτελεί έναν αποδοτικό
     τρόπο για να δοκιμάστε νέες ιδέες ή να εξετάστε modules και πακέτα
     (θυμηθείτε ‘help(x)’).  Για περισσότερα σχετικά με τη διαδραστική
     λειτουργία, δείτε *note Διαδραστική Λειτουργία: 6a0.

interpreted

     Η Python είναι μια interpreted γλώσσα, σε αντίθεση με μια
     μεταγλωττισμένη, αν και η διάκριση μπορεί να είναι και θολή λόγω
     της παρουσία του bytecode μεταγλωττιστή.  Αυτό σημαίνει ότι τα
     αρχεία προέλευσης μπορούν να εκτελεστούν απευθείας χωρίς να
     δημιουργηθεί ρητά ένα εκτελέσιμο αρχείο που στην συνέχεια
     εκτελείται.  Οι interpreted γλώσσες συνήθως έχουν μικρότερο κύκλο
     ανάπτυξης/ εντοπισμού σφαλμάτων από τις μεταγλωττισμένες, αν και τα
     προγράμματά τους γενικά εκτελούνται πιο αργά.  Βλ.  επίσης *note
     interactive: 451.

τερματισμός λειτουργίας διερμηνέα

     Όταν ζητείται τερματισμός λειτουργίας, ο διερμηνέας της Python
     εισέρχεται σε μια ειδική φάση όπου απελευθερώνει σταδιακά όλους
     τους διατιθέμενους πόρους, όπως λειτουργικές μονάδες και πολλαπλές
     κρίσιμες εσωτερικές δομές.  Επίσης πραγματοποιεί αρκετές κλήσεις
     στο *note συλλέκτης σκουπιδιών: 19de.  Αυτό μπορεί να ενεργοποιήσει
     την εκτέλεση κώδικα σε καταστροφείς που ορίζονται από το χρήστη ή
     σε callbacks ασθενούς ανταποκρίσεις.  Ο κώδικας που εκτελείται κατά
     τη φάση τερματισμού λειτουργίας μπορεί να συναντήσει διάφορες
     εξαιρέσεις, καθώς οι πόροι στους οποίους βασίζεται ενδέχεται να μην
     λειτουργούν πλέον (συνήθη παραδείγματα είναι οι λειτουργικές
     μονάδες βιβλιοθήκης ή ο μηχανισμός ειδοποιήσεων).

     Ο βασικός λόγος τερματισμού λειτουργίας του διερμηνέα είναι ότι το
     ‘__main__’ module ή ολοκληρώθηκε η εκτέλεση του κώδικα που έτρεχε.

iterable

     Ένα αντικείμενο ικανό να επιστρέψει τα μέλη του ένα κάθε φορά.
     Παραδείγματα iterables περιλαμβάνουν όλους του τύπους ακολουθιών
     (όπως *note list: 4d9, *note str: 1df, και *note tuple: 1ce.) και
     μερικούς τύπους μη ακολουθίας όπως *note dict: 188, *note
     αντικείμενο αρχείου: 156c, και αντικείμενα οποιονδήποτε κλάσεων που
     μπορούν να οριστούν με μια μέθοδο *note __iter__(): 102d. ή με μία
     μέθοδο *note __getitem__(): 787. που υλοποιεί τη σημασιολογία *note
     sequence: 8ff.

     Τα iterables μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν σε ένα *note for: 321.
     βρόχο και σε πολλά άλλα σημεία όπου χρειάζεται μια ακολουθία (*note
     zip(): 43f, *note map(): 43e, …).  Όταν ένα iterable αντικείμενο
     μεταβιβάζεται ως όρισμα στην ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note iter():
     bb4, επιστρέφει έναν iterator για αντικείμενο.  Αυτός ο iterator
     είναι καλός για ένα πέρασμα από ένα σύνολο τιμών.  Όταν
     χρησιμοποιείται επαναληπτικά, συνήθως δεν είναι απαραίτητο να
     καλέσετε το ‘iter()’ ή να ασχοληθείτε μόνοι σας με αντικείμενα
     iterator.  Η δήλωση ‘for’ το κάνει αυτόματα για εσάς, δημιουργώντας
     μια προσωρινή μεταβλητή χωρίς όνομα για να κρατά τον iterator για
     την διάρκεια του βρόχου.  Βλ.  επίσης *note iterator: 6ce, *note
     sequence: 8ff, και *note generator: 1409.

iterator

     Ένα αντικείμενο που αντιπροσωπεύει μια ροή δεδομένων.
     Επαναλαμβανόμενες κλήσεις προς τη μέθοδο *note __next__(): 1672.
     του iterator (ή μεταβίβαση του στην ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση *note
     next(): bb5.) επιστρέφουν διαδοχικά στοιχεία στην ροή.  Όταν όχι
     περισσότερα δεδομένα είναι διαθέσιμα εγείρεται μια εξαίρεση *note
     StopIteration: fba.  Σε αυτό το σημείο, το αντικείμενο iterator
     εξαντλείται και τυχόν περαιτέρω κλήσεις στη μέθοδο ‘__next__()’
     απλώς απλά εγείρουν ξανά το ‘StopIteration’.  Οι iterators πρέπει
     να έχουν μια μέθοδο *note __iter__(): 229d. που επιστρέφει το ίδιο
     το αντικείμενο iterator, έτσι ώστε κάθε iterator να είναι επίσης
     iterable και μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί στα περισσότερα μέρη όπου
     γίνονται αποδεκτοί και άλλοι iterators.  Μια αξιοσημείωτη εξαίρεση
     είναι ο κώδικας που επιχειρεί πολλαπλά περάσματα iteration.  Ένα
     αντικείμενο κοντέινερ (όπως ένα *note list: 4d9.) παράγει έναν
     καθαρά νέο iterator κάθε φορά που κάθε φορά που μεταβιβάζεται στην
     συνάρτηση *note iter(): bb4. ή τον χρησιμοποιείται σε έναν *note
     for: 321. βρόχο.  Εάν επιχειρήσετε αυτό με έναν iterator απλώς θα
     επιστρέψετε το ίδιο εξαντλημένο αντικείμενο iterator που
     χρησιμοποιήθηκε στο προηγούμενο πέρασμα iteration , κάνοντας το να
     φαίνεται σαν ένα άδειο κοντέινερ.

     Περισσότερες πληροφορίες μπορούν να βρεθούν στο *note Τύποι
     Iterator: 27d0.

     'Λεπτομέρεια υλοποίησης CPython:' CPython does not consistently
     apply the requirement that an iterator define *note __iter__():
     229d.  And also please note that *note free-threaded: 487. CPython
     does not guarantee *note thread-safe: 5d50. behavior of iterator
     operations.

key

     A value that identifies an entry in a *note mapping: 1564.  See
     also *note subscript: 5d5b.

συνάρτηση key

     Μια συνάρτηση κλειδί ή μια συνάρτηση ταξινόμησης είναι μια
     δυνατότητα κλήσης που επιστρέφει μια τιμή που χρησιμοποιείται για
     ταξινόμηση ή διάταξη.  Για παράδειγμα, *note locale.strxfrm():
     19f7. χρησιμοποιείται για την παραγωγή ενός κλειδιού ταξινόμησης
     που γνωρίζει τις συμβάσεις ταξινόμησης για συγκεκριμένες τοπικές
     ρυθμίσεις.

     Ένα αριθμός εργαλείων στην Python δέχεται βασικές συναρτήσεις για
     τον έλεγχο του τρόπου με τον οποίο τα στοιχεία ταξινομούνται ή
     ομαδοποιούνται.  Αυτά περιέχουν *note min(): 12b9, *note max():
     12ba, *note sorted(): f8c, *note list.sort(): f8d, *note
     heapq.merge(): 11b9, *note heapq.nsmallest(): 2bb9, *note
     heapq.nlargest(): 2bb8, και *note itertools.groupby(): 192a.

     There are several ways to create a key function.  For example.  the
     *note str.casefold(): 118f. method can serve as a key function for
     case insensitive sorts.  Alternatively, a key function can be built
     from a *note lambda: 1642. expression such as ‘lambda r: (r[0],
     r[2])’.  Also, *note operator.attrgetter(): 11e6, *note
     operator.itemgetter(): e26, and *note operator.methodcaller():
     11e7. are three key function constructors.  See the *note Sorting
     HOW TO: 27d9. for examples of how to create and use key functions.

όρισμα keyword

     Βλ.  *note argument: 867.

lambda

     Μια ανώνυμη ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση που αποτελείται από μια μοναδική
     *note expression: 25c4. η οποία αξιολογείται όταν καλείται η
     συνάρτηση.  Η σύνταξη για τη δημιουργία μιας συνάρτησης lambda
     είναι ‘lambda [parameters]: expression’

LBYL

     Look before you leap.  Αυτό το στυλ κωδικοποίησης ελέγχει ρητά τις
     προϋποθέσεις πριν πραγματοποιήσει κλήσεις ή αναζητήσεις.  Αυτό το
     στυλ έρχεται σε αντίθεση με την προσέγγιση *note EAFP: 329e. και
     χαρακτηρίζεται από την παρουσία πολλών δηλώσεων *note if: 322.

     In a multi-threaded environment, the LBYL approach can risk
     introducing a *note race condition: 2921. between «the looking» and
     «the leaping».  For example, the code, ‘if key in mapping: return
     mapping[key]’ can fail if another thread removes 'key' from
     'mapping' after the test, but before the lookup.  This issue can be
     solved with *note locks: 2920. or by using the *note EAFP: 329e.
     approach.  See also *note thread-safe: 5d50.

λεξικός αναλυτής

     Επίσημη ονομασία για τον 'tokenizer' · βλ.  *note token: 2479.

λίστα

     Ένα ενσωματωμένο Python *note sequence: 8ff.  Παρά το όνομα του,
     μοιάζει περισσότερο με έναν πίνακα σε άλλες γλώσσες παρά με μια
     συνδεδεμένη λίστα, καθώς η πρόσβαση στα στοιχεί είναι 'O'(1).

list comprehension

     Ένα συμπαγής τρόπος για να επεξεργαστείτε όλα ή μέρος των στοιχείων
     σε μια ακολουθία και να επιστρέψετε μια λίστα με τα αποτελέσματα.
     ‘result = ['{:#04x}'.format(x) for x in range(256) if x % 2 == 0]’
     δημιουργεί μια λίστα συμβολοσειρών που περιέχουν ζυγούς
     δεκαεξαδικούς αριθμούς (0x..)  στο εύρος από 0 έως 255.  Η πρόταση
     *note if: 322. είναι προαιρετική.  Εάν παραλειφθεί, όλα τα στοιχεία
     στο ‘range(256)’ υποβάλλονται σε επεξεργασία.

lock

     A *note synchronization primitive: 5d4e. that allows only one
     thread at a time to access a shared resource.  A thread must
     acquire a lock before accessing the protected resource and release
     it afterward.  If a thread attempts to acquire a lock that is
     already held by another thread, it will block until the lock
     becomes available.  Python’s *note threading: f6. module provides
     *note Lock: 1a10. (a basic lock) and *note RLock: 2df. (a *note
     reentrant: 5d52. lock).  Locks are used to prevent *note race
     conditions: 2921. and ensure *note thread-safe: 5d50. access to
     shared data.  Alternative design patterns to locks exist such as
     queues, producer/consumer patterns, and thread-local state.  See
     also *note deadlock: 5d51, and reentrant.

lock-free

     An operation that does not acquire any *note lock: 2920. and uses
     atomic CPU instructions to ensure correctness.  Lock-free
     operations can execute concurrently without blocking each other and
     cannot be blocked by operations that hold locks.  In *note
     free-threaded: 487. Python, built-in types like *note dict: 188.
     and *note list: 4d9. provide lock-free read operations, which means
     other threads may observe intermediate states during multi-step
     modifications even when those modifications hold the *note
     per-object lock: 2927.

loader

     Ένα αντικείμενο που φορτώνει ένα module.  Πρέπει να ορίζει τις
     μεθόδους ‘exec_module()’ και ‘create_module()’ για την υλοποίηση
     της διεπαφής *note Loader: 1275.  Ένας loader συνήθως επιστρέφεται
     με ένα *note finder: 263e.  Δείτε επίσης:

        * *note Finders και loaders: 263c.

        * *note importlib.abc.Loader: 1275.

        * PEP 302(27)

τοπική κωδικοποίηση

     Στο Unix, είναι η κωδικοποίηση της τοπική ρύθμισης LC_CTYPE. Μπορεί
     να ρυθμιστεί με *note locale.setlocale(locale.LC_CTYPE,
     new_locale): 231.

     Στα Windows, είναι η code page ANSI (π.χ.  ‘"cp1252"’).

     Στο Android και το VxWorks, η Python χρησιμοποιεί το ‘"utf-8"’ ως
     τοπική κωδικοποίηση.

     *note locale.getencoding(): a45. μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την
     ανάκτηση της τοπικής κωδικοποίησης.

     Βλ.  επίσης το *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 948.

μαγική μέθοδος

     Ένα άτυπο συνώνυμο για *note special method: 1e57.

mapping

     Ένα αντικείμενο κοντέινερ που υποστηρίζει αυθαίρετες αναζητήσεις
     κλειδιών και υλοποιεί τις μεθόδους που καθορίζονται στο *note
     collections.abc.Mapping: c9c. ή *note
     collections.abc.MutableMapping: 1459. *note abstract base classes:
     c4e.  Τα παραδείγματα περιλαμβάνουν *note dict: 188, *note
     collections.defaultdict: 1565, *note collections.OrderedDict: 9d5.
     και *note collections.Counter: 204.

meta path finder

     Ένας *note finder: 263e. που επιστράφηκε με αναζήτηση στο *note
     sys.meta_path: 10e3.  Οι finders μετα-διαδρομής σχετίζονται, αλλά
     διαφέρουν από τα *note finders entry διαδρομής: 1419.

     Βλ.  *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: c44. για τις μεθόδους που
     υλοποιούν οι meta path finders.

μετα-κλάση

     Η κλάση μιας κλάσης.  Οι ορισμοί κλάσης δημιουργούν ένα όνομα
     κλάσης, ένα λεξικό κλάσης και μια λίστα βασικών κλάσεων.  Η
     μετα-κλάση είναι υπεύθυνη για την απόκτηση αυτών των τριών
     ορισμάτων και την δημιουργία της κλάσης.  Οι περισσότερες
     αντικειμενοστρεφείς γλώσσες προγραμματισμού παρέχουν μια
     προεπιλεγμένη υλοποίηση.  Αυτό που κάνει την Python ξεχωριστή είναι
     ότι είναι δυνατή η δημιουργία προσαρμοσμένων μετακλάσεων.  Οι
     περισσότεροι χρήστες δεν χρειάζονται ποτέ αυτό το εργαλείο, αλλά
     όταν παραστεί ανάγκη, αυτό το εργαλείο, οι μετα-κλάσεις μπορούν να
     παρέχουν ισχυρές, κομψές λύσεις.  Έχουν χρησιμοποιηθεί για την
     καταγραφή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών, την προσθήκη ασφάλειας
     νημάτων, την παρακολούθηση δημιουργίας αντικειμένων, την υλοποίηση
     'singletons', και πολλές άλλες εργασίες.

     Περισσότερες πληροφορίες μπορούν να βρεθούν στο *note Μετα-κλάσεις:
     25b3.

μέθοδος

     Μια συνάρτηση που ορίζεται μέσα στο σώμα μιας κλάσης.  Εάν καλείται
     ως χαρακτηριστικό μιας περίπτωσης αυτής της κλάσης, η μέθοδος θα
     λάβει αντικείμενο περίπτωσης ως πρώτο της *note argument: 867. (το
     οποίο συνήθως ονομάζεται ‘self’).  Βλ.  *note function: 26ae. και
     *note nested scope: 2581.

σειρά ανάλυσης μεθόδων

     Η Σειρά Ανάλυσης Μεθόδων είναι η σειρά με την οποία οι βασικές
     κλάσεις αναζητούνται για ένα μέλος κατά την αναζήτησης.  Βλ.  *note
     The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 184c. για λεπτομέρειες του
     αλγορίθμου που χρησιμοποιείται από τον διερμηνέα της Python από την
     έκδοση 2.3.

module

     Ένα αντικείμενο που χρησιμεύει ως οργανωτική μονάδα του κώδικα της
     Python.  Τα modules έχουν έναν χώρο ονομάτων που περιέχει αυθαίρετα
     αντικείμενα Python.  Τα modules φορτώνονται στην Python με την
     διαδικασία *note importing: 2632.

     Βλ.  επίσης *note package: 4c1.

τεχνικές προδιαγραφές module

     Ένα namespace που περιέχει τις πληροφορίες που σχετίζονται με την
     εισαγωγή που χρησιμοποιούνται για την φόρτωση ενός module.  Μια
     περίπτωση του *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 245d.

     Βλ.  επίσης *note Module specs: 2557.

MRO

     Βλ.  *note method resolution order: 2784.

mutable

     An *note object: 5d5e. with state that is allowed to change during
     the course of the program.  In multi-threaded programs, mutable
     objects that are shared between threads require careful
     synchronization to avoid *note race conditions: 2921.  See also
     *note immutable: 181, *note thread-safe: 5d50, and *note concurrent
     modification: 5d4b.

named tuple

     Ο όρος «named tuple» εφαρμόζεται για οποιονδήποτε τύπο ή κλάση που
     κληρονομείται από την πλειάδα και των οποίων τα στοιχεία μπορούν να
     ευρετηριοποιηθούν είναι προσβάσιμα χρησιμοποιώντας επώνυμα
     χαρακτηριστικά.  Ο τύπος ή η κλάση μπορεί να έχει και άλλα
     χαρακτηριστικά.

     Πολλοί ενσωματωμένοι τύποι είναι named tuples, συμπεριλαμβανομένων
     των τιμών που επιστρέφονται από *note time.localtime(): 189b. και
     *note os.stat(): 4f5.  Ένα άλλο παράδειγμα είναι το *note
     sys.float_info: 1fbf.:

          >>> sys.float_info[1]                   # indexed access
          1024
          >>> sys.float_info.max_exp              # named field access
          1024
          >>> isinstance(sys.float_info, tuple)   # kind of tuple
          True

     Ορισμένες αναγνωρισμένες πλειάδες είναι ενσωματωμένοι τύποι (όπως
     τα παραπάνω παραδείγματα).  Εναλλακτικά, μια αναγνωρισμένη πλειάδα
     μπορεί να δημιουργηθεί από έναν ορισμό κανονικής κλάσης που
     κληρονομεί από *note tuple: 1ce. και που ορίζει έγκυρα πεδία.  Μια
     τέτοια κλάση μπορεί να είναι γραμμένη με το χέρι ή μπορεί να
     δημιουργηθεί κληρονομώντας το *note typing.NamedTuple: 2e4, ή με
     την factory συνάρτηση *note collections.namedtuple(): 1cf.  Οι
     τελευταίες τεχνικές προσθέτουν επίσης μερικές επιπλέον μεθόδους που
     μπορεί να μην βρεθούν σε χειρόγραφες ή ενσωματωμένες πλειάδες με
     όνομα.

namespace

     Το μέρος όπου αποθηκεύεται μια μεταβλητή.  Τα namespaces
     υλοποιούνται ως λεξικά.  Υπάρχουν οι τοπικοί, οι καθολικοί και οι
     ενσωματωμένοι namespaces καθώς και οι ένθετοι namespaces σε
     αντικείμενα (σε μεθόδους).  Για παράδειγμα οι συναρτήσεις *note
     builtins.open: 32b. και *note os.open(): 114b. διακρίνονται από
     τους χώρους ονομάτων τους.  Οι χώροι ονομάτων βοηθούν επίσης την
     αναγνωσιμότητα και τη συντηρησιμότητα καθιστώντας σαφές ποιο module
     υλοποιεί μια λειτουργία.  Για παράδειγμα, γράφοντας *note
     random.seed(): 1618. ή *note itertools.islice(): f09. καθιστά σαφές
     ότι αυτές οι συναρτήσεις υλοποιούνται από τα module *note random:
     c0. και *note itertools: 84, αντίστοιχα.

πακέτο namespace

     Ένα *note package: 4c1. που χρησιμεύει μόνο ως κοντέινερ για
     υποπακέτα.  Τα πακέτα χώρου ονομάτων μπορεί να μην έχουν φυσική
     αναπαράσταση και συγκεκριμένα να μην είναι σαν ένα *note regular
     package: 2636. επειδή δεν έχουν το ‘__init__.py’ αρχείο.

     Τα πακέτα χώρου ονομάτων επιτρέπουν σε πολλά πακέτα με δυνατότητα
     εγκατάστασης μεμονωμένα να έχουν ένα κοινό γονικό πακέτο.
     Διαφορετικά, συνίσταται η χρήση ενός *note regular package: 2636.

     Για περισσότερες πληροφορίες, δείτε το PEP 420(28) και το *note
     Namespace πακέτα: 2638.

     Βλ.  επίσης *note module: 1be7.

native code

     Code that is compiled to machine instructions and runs directly on
     the processor, as opposed to code that is interpreted or runs in a
     virtual machine.  In the context of Python, native code typically
     refers to C, C++, Rust or Fortran code in *note extension modules:
     2442. that can be called from Python.  See also extension module.

nested scope

     Η δυνατότητα αναφοράς σε μια μεταβλητή σε έναν περικλειόμενο
     ορισμό.  Για παράδειγμα μια συνάρτηση που ορίζεται μέσα σε μια άλλη
     συνάρτηση μπορεί να αναφέρεται σε μεταβλητές στην εξωτερική
     συνάρτηση.  Σημειώστε ότι τα ένθετα πεδία από προεπιλογή
     λειτουργούν μόνο για αναφορά και όχι για εκχώρηση.  Οι τοπικές
     μεταβλητές διαβάζονται και γράφονται στο εσωτερικό πεδίο εφαρμογής.
     Ομοίως, οι καθολικές μεταβλητές διαβάζουν και γράφουν στον καθολικό
     χώρο ονομάτων.  Το *note nonlocal: 164c. επιτρέπει την εγγραφή σε
     εξωτερικά πεδία.

κλάση νέου στυλ

     Το παλιό όνομα για το είδος των κλάσεων χρησιμοποιείται πλέον για
     όλα τα αντικείμενα.  Σε παλιότερες εκδόσεις της Python, μόνο οι
     κλάσεις νέου στυλ μπορούσαν να χρησιμοποιήσουν τις νεότερες,
     ευέλικτες δυνατότητες της Python όπως *note __slots__: 188d,
     descriptors, ιδιότητες *note __getattribute__(): f90, μέθοδοι
     κλάσης, και στατικές μέθοδοι.

non-deterministic

     Behavior where the outcome of a program can vary between executions
     with the same inputs.  In multi-threaded programs,
     non-deterministic behavior often results from *note race
     conditions: 2921. where the relative timing or interleaving of
     threads affects the result.  Proper synchronization using *note
     locks: 2920. and other *note synchronization primitives: 5d4e.
     helps ensure deterministic behavior.

αντικείμενο

     Οποιαδήποτε δεδομένα με κατάσταση (χαρακτηριστικά ή τιμή) και
     καθορισμένη συμπεριφορά (μέθοδοι).  Επίσης, η τελική βασική κλάση
     οποιασδήποτε *note new-style class: 2f2f.

βελτιστοποιημένο πεδίο ορατότητας (scope)

     Ένα πεδίο ορατότητας (scope) όπου τα ονόματα των τοπικών μεταβλητών
     είναι γνωστό με βεβαιότητα στον μεταγλωττιστή κατά τη μεταγλώττιση
     του κώδικα, επιτρέποντας τη βελτιστοποίηση της πρόσβασης για
     ανάγνωση και εγγραφή σε αυτά τα ονόματα.  Οι τοπικοί χώροι ονομάτων
     για συναρτήσεις, γεννήτριες, συναρτήσεις coroutine, συμπτύξεις
     (comprehensions) και εκφράσεις γεννητριών βελτιστοποιούνται με
     αυτόν τον τρόπο.  Σημείωση: οι περισσότερες βελτιστοποιήσεις του
     διερμηνέα εφαρμόζονται σε όλα τα πεδία ορατότητας· μόνο εκείνες που
     βασίζονται σε γνωστό σύνολο τοπικών και μη τοπικών μεταβλητών
     περιορίζονται σε βελτιστοποιημένα πεδία ορατότητας.

προαιρετικό module

     Ένα *note extension module: 2442. που αποτελεί μέρος της *note
     standard library: 3d8, αλλά μπορεί να απουσιάζει σε ορισμένες
     εκδόσεις του *note CPython: ae3, συνήθως λόγω απουσίας βιβλιοθηκών
     τρίτων ή επειδή το module δεν είναι διαθέσιμο για μια δεδομένη
     πλατφόρμα.

     Δείτε το *note Requirements for optional modules: 2345. για μια
     λίστα με προαιρετικά modules που απαιτούν βιβλιοθήκες τρίτων.

πακέτο

     Ένα Python *note module: 1be7. που μπορεί να περιέχει submodules ή
     αναδρομικά, υποπακέτα.  Τεχνικά, ένα πακέτο είναι μια λειτουργική
     μονάδα Python με ένα ‘__path__’ χαρακτηριστικό.

     Βλ.  επίσης *note regular package: 2636. και *note namespace
     package: 52e.

parallelism

     Executing multiple operations at the same time (e.g.  on multiple
     CPU cores).  In Python builds with the *note global interpreter
     lock (GIL): 685, only one thread runs Python bytecode at a time, so
     taking advantage of multiple CPU cores typically involves multiple
     processes (e.g.  *note multiprocessing: 98.) or native extensions
     that release the GIL. In *note free-threaded: 487. Python, multiple
     Python threads can run Python code simultaneously on different
     cores.

παράμετρος

     Μια έγκυρη οντότητα σε έναν ορισμό *note function: 26ae. (ή
     μέθοδος) που καθορίζει ένα *note argument: 867. (ή σε ορισμένες
     περιπτώσεις, ορίσματα) που μπορεί να δεχθεί η συνάρτηση.  Υπάρχουν
     πέντε είδη παραμέτρων:

        * 'λέξη-κλειδί ή θέση': καθορίζει ένα όρισμα που μπορεί να
          μεταβιβαστεί είτε *note θέσεως: 867. ή ως όρισμα
          λέξης-κλειδιού.  Αυτό είναι το προεπιλεγμένο είδος παραμέτρου,
          για παράδειγμα 'foo' και 'bar' στα ακόλουθα:

               def func(foo, bar=None): ...

        * 'θέσεως μόνο': καθορίζει ένα όρισμα που μπορεί να παρέχεται
          μόνο από τη θέση.  Οι παράμετροι μόνο θέσης μπορούν να
          οριστούν συμπεριλαμβάνοντας έναν χαρακτήρα ‘/’ στη λίστα
          παραμέτρων του ορισμού συνάρτησης μετά από αυτές, για
          παράδειγμα 'posonly1' και 'posonly2' στα εξής:

               def func(posonly1, posonly2, /, positional_or_keyword): ...

        * 'λέξης-κλειδί μόνο': καθορίζει ένα όρισμα που μπορεί να
          παρέχεται μόνο με λέξη κλειδί.  Οι παράμετροι μόνο για
          λέξη-κλειδί μπορούν να οριστούν συμπεριλαμβάνοντας μια
          παράμετρο θέσης ή σκέτο ‘*’ στη λίστα παραμέτρων του ορισμού
          συνάρτησης πριν από αυτές, για παράδειγμα 'kw_only1' και
          'kw_only2' στα ακόλουθα:

               def func(arg, *, kw_only1, kw_only2): ...

        * 'μεταβλητή θέσης': καθορίζει ότι μπορεί να παρασχεθεί μια
          αυθαίρετη ακολουθία ορισμάτων θέσης (επιπλέον των ορισμάτων
          θέσης που είναι ήδη αποδεκτά από άλλες παραμέτρους).  Μια
          τέτοια παράμετρος μπορεί να οριστεί προσαρτώντας το όνομα της
          παραμέτρου με ‘*’, για παράδειγμα 'args' στα ακόλουθα:

               def func(*args, **kwargs): ...

        * 'μεταβλητή λέξη-κλειδί': καθορίζει ότι μπορούν να παρέχονται
          αυθαίρετα πολλά ορίσματα λέξης-κλειδιού (επιπλέον των
          ορισμάτων λέξης κλειδιού που είναι αποδεκτά από άλλες
          παραμέτρους).  Μια τέτοια παράμετρος μπορεί να οριστεί
          προσαρτώντας το όνομα της παραμέτρου με ‘**’, για παράδειγμα
          'kwargs' όπως παραπάνω.

     Οι παράμετροι μπορούν να καθορίσουν τόσο τα προαιρετικά όσο και τα
     απαιτούμενα ορίσματα , καθώς και προεπιλεγμένες τιμές για ορισμένα
     προαιρετικά ορίσματα.

     Βλ.  επίσης την *note argument: 867. καταχώριση ευρετηρίου, την
     ερώτηση FAQ σχετικά με *note η διαφορά μεταξύ ορισμάτων και
     παραμέτρων: 5c7a, την κλάση *note inspect.Parameter: 6e9, την
     ενότητα *note Function definitions: 2206. και PEP 362(29).

per-object lock

     A *note lock: 2920. associated with an individual object instance
     rather than a global lock shared across all objects.  In *note
     free-threaded: 487. Python, built-in types like *note dict: 188.
     and *note list: 4d9. use per-object locks to allow concurrent
     operations on different objects while serializing operations on the
     same object.  Operations that hold the per-object lock prevent
     other locking operations on the same object from proceeding, but do
     not block *note lock-free: 292e. operations.

path entry

     Μια μεμονωμένη τοποθεσία στο *note import path: 2640. την οποία
     συμβουλεύεται ο *note path based finder: 2643. για να βρει modules
     για εισαγωγή.

path entry finder

     Ένας *note finder: 263e. που επιστρέφεται από έναν καλούμενο στο
     *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd. (δηλαδή ένα *note path entry hook:
     2650.) που ξέρει πως να εντοπίζει modules με *note path entry:
     264e.

     Βλ.  *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: c45. για τις μεθόδους που
     ο entry finder διαδρομής υλοποιεί.

path entry hook

     Ένα καλούμενο στη λίστα *note sys.path_hooks: 13cd, το οποίο
     επιστρέφει ένα *note path entry finder: 1419. εάν ξέρει πως να
     βρίσκει module σε μια συγκεκριμένη *note path entry: 264e.

path based finder

     Ένα από τα προεπιλεγμένα *note meta path finders: 1418. που αναζητά
     ένα *note import path: 2640. για modules.

path-like αντικείμενο

     Ένα αντικείμενο που αντιπροσωπεύει ένα path συστήματος αρχείων.
     Ένα αντικείμενο path είναι είτε ένα αντικείμενο *note str: 1df. ή
     *note bytes: 1c7. που αντιπροσωπεύει ένα path ή ένα αντικείμενο που
     υλοποιεί το πρωτόκολλο *note os.PathLike: 100f.  Ένα αντικείμενο
     που υποστηρίζει το πρωτόκολλο ‘os.PathLike’ μπορεί να μετατραπεί σε
     path συστήματος αρχείων ‘str’ ή ‘bytes’ καλώντας την συνάρτηση
     *note os.fspath(): 1011.” τα *note os.fsdecode(): 1012. και *note
     os.fsencode(): 1013. μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την εγγύηση
     ενός αποτελέσματος ‘str’ ή ‘bytes’, αντίστοιχα.  Εισήχθη από τον
     PEP 519(30).

PEP

     Πρόταση Βελτίωσης Python.  Ένα PEP είναι ένα έγγραφο σχεδιασμού που
     παρέχει πληροφορίες στην κοινότητα Python ή περιγράφει μια νέα
     δυνατότητα για την Python ή τις διαδικασίες ή το περιβάλλον της.
     Τα PEP θα πρέπει να παρέχουν μια συνοπτική τεχνική προδιαγραφή και
     μια λογική για τα προτεινόμενα χαρακτηριστικά.

     Τα PEP προορίζονται να είναι οι κύριοι μηχανισμοί για την πρόταση
     σημαντικών νέων χαρακτηριστικών, για τη συλλογή πληροφοριών της
     κοινότητας για ένα ζήτημα και για την τεκμηρίωση των αποφάσεων
     σχεδιασμού που έχουν εισαχθεί στην Python.  Ο συγγραφέας του PEP
     είναι υπεύθυνος για την οικοδόμηση συναίνεσης εντός της κοινότητας
     και την τεκμηρίωση αντίθετων απόψεων.

     Βλ.  PEP 1(31).

τμήμα

     Ένα σύνολο από αρχεία σε έναν μόνο κατάλογο (ενδεχομένως
     αποθηκευμένο σε αρχείο 'zip') που συμβάλλουν σε ένα namespace
     πακέτο, όπως ορίζεται στο PEP 420(32).

όρισμα θέσης

     Βλ.  *note argument: 867.

provisional API

     Ένα provisional API είναι αυτό που έχει εσκεμμένα εξαιρεθεί από τις
     backwards εγγυήσεις συμβατότητας της τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης.  Αν και
     δεν αναμένονται σημαντικές αλλαγές σε τέτοιες διεπαφές, εφόσον
     επισημαίνονται ως προσωρινές, αλλαγές μη backwards συμβατότητας
     (μέχρι και κατάργηση της διεπαφής) μπορεί να προκύψουν εάν κριθεί
     απαραίτητο από τους βασικούς προγραμματιστές.  Τέτοιες αλλαγές δεν
     θα γίνουν άσκοπα – θα συμβούν μόνο εάν αποκαλυφθούν σοβαρά
     θεμελιώδη ελαττώματα που παραλείφθηκαν πριν από τη συμπερίληψη του
     API.

     Ακόμη και για provisional API, οι μη backwards συμβατές αλλαγές
     θεωρούνται «λύση έσχατης ανάγκης»- θα εξακολουθεί να γίνεται κάθε
     προσπάθεια για να βρεθεί μια λύση backwards συμβατή σε τυχόν
     εντοπισμένα προβλήματα.

     Αυτή η διαδικασία επιτρέπει στην τυπική βιβλιοθήκη να συνεχίσει να
     εξελίσσεται με την πάροδο του χρόνου, χωρίς να κλειδώνει
     προβληματικά σφάλματα σχεδιασμού για εκτεταμένες χρονικές
     περιόδους.  Βλ.  PEP 411(33) για περισσότερες λεπτομέρειες.

provisional πακέτο

     Βλ.  *note provisional API: 5fd.

Python 3000

     Ψευδώνυμο για το σύνολο εκδόσεων Python 3.x (επινοήθηκε πριν από
     πολύ καιρό όταν η κυκλοφορία της έκδοσης 3 ήταν κάτι στο μακρινό
     μέλλον.)  Αυτό ονομάζεται επίσης ως συντομογραφία «Py3k».

Pythonic

     Μια ιδέα ή ένα κομμάτι κώδικα που ακολουθεί πιστά τα πιο κοινά
     ιδιώματα της γλώσσας Python, αντί να υλοποιεί κώδικα
     χρησιμοποιώντας έννοιες κοινές σε άλλες γλώσσες.  Για παράδειγμα,
     ένα κοινό ιδίωμα στην Python είναι να κάνει μια επανάληψη πάνω από
     όλα τα στοιχεία ενός iterable χρησιμοποιώντας μια δήλωση *note for:
     321.  Πολλές άλλες γλώσσες που δεν έχουν αυτόν τον τύπο κατασκευής,
     έτσι οι άνθρωποι που δεν είναι εξοικειωμένοι με την Python
     χρησιμοποιούν μερικές φορές έναν αριθμητικό μετρητή:

          for i in range(len(food)):
              print(food[i])

     Αντίθετα, μια πιο καθαρή μέθοδος Pythonic:

          for piece in food:
              print(piece)

αναγνωρισμένο όνομα

     Ένα όνομα με κουκκίδες που δείχνει τη «διαδρομή» από το καθολικό
     εύρος ενός module σε μια κλάση, συνάρτηση ή μέθοδο που ορίζεται σε
     αυτήν την ενότητα, όπως ορίζεται στο PEP 3155(34).  Για συναρτήσεις
     και κλάσεις ανώτατου επιπέδου, το αναγνωρισμένο όνομα είναι ίδιο με
     το όνομα του αντικειμένου:

          >>> class C:
          ...     class D:
          ...         def meth(self):
          ...             pass
          ...
          >>> C.__qualname__
          'C'
          >>> C.D.__qualname__
          'C.D'
          >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
          'C.D.meth'

     Όταν χρησιμοποιείται για αναφορά σε modules , το 'πλήρως
     αναγνωρισμένο όνομα' σημαίνει ολόκληρο το διακεκομμένο path προς το
     module, συμπεριλαμβανομένων τυχόν γονικών πακέτων π.χ.
     ‘email.mime.text’:

          >>> import email.mime.text
          >>> email.mime.text.__name__
          'email.mime.text'

race condition

     A condition of a program where the behavior depends on the relative
     timing or ordering of events, particularly in multi-threaded
     programs.  Race conditions can lead to *note non-deterministic:
     5d4d. behavior and bugs that are difficult to reproduce.  A *note
     data race: 2922. is a specific type of race condition involving
     unsynchronized access to shared memory.  The *note LBYL: 5d55.
     coding style is particularly susceptible to race conditions in
     multi-threaded code.  Using *note locks: 2920. and other *note
     synchronization primitives: 5d4e. helps prevent race conditions.

πλήθος αναφοράς

     Ο αριθμός των αναφορών σε ένα αντικείμενο.  Όταν το πλήθος αναφορών
     ενός αντικειμένου πέσει στο μηδέν, κατανέμεται.  Μερικά αντικείμενα
     είναι *note immortal: 398. και έχουν πλήθος αναφορών που δεν
     τροποποιούνται ποτέ και επομένως τα αντικείμενα δεν κατανέμονται
     ποτέ.  Η καταμέτρηση αναφορών γενικά δεν είναι ορατή στον κώδικα
     της Python, αλλά είναι βασικό στοιχείο της υλοποίησης *note
     CPython: ae3.  Οι προγραμματιστές μπορούν να καλέσουν τη συνάρτηση
     *note sys.getrefcount(): 54a. για να επιστρέψουν το πλήθος αναφοράς
     για ένα συγκεκριμένο αντικείμενο.

     Στο *note CPython: ae3, τα πλήθη αναφοράς δεν θεωρούνται σταθερές ή
     καλά ορισμένες τιμές· ο αριθμός των αναφορών σε ένα αντικείμενο και
     το πώς αυτός ο αριθμός επηρεάζεται από τον κώδικα Python, μπορεί να
     διαφέρει μεταξύ εκδόσεων.

κανονικό πακέτο

     Ένα παραδοσιακό *note package: 4c1, όπως ένας κατάλογος που
     περιέχει ένα ‘__init__.py’ αρχείο.

     Βλ.  επίσης *note namespace package: 52e.

reentrant

     A property of a function or *note lock: 2920. that allows it to be
     called or acquired multiple times by the same thread without
     causing errors or a *note deadlock: 5d51.

     For functions, reentrancy means the function can be safely called
     again before a previous invocation has completed, which is
     important when functions may be called recursively or from signal
     handlers.  Thread-unsafe functions may be *note non-deterministic:
     5d4d. if they’re called reentrantly in a multithreaded program.

     For locks, Python’s *note threading.RLock: 2df. (reentrant lock) is
     reentrant, meaning a thread that already holds the lock can acquire
     it again without blocking.  In contrast, *note threading.Lock:
     1a10. is not reentrant - attempting to acquire it twice from the
     same thread will cause a deadlock.

     See also *note lock: 2920. and *note deadlock: 5d51.

REPL

     Ακρωνύμιο του «read–eval–print loop», άλλη ονομασία για το *note
     interactive: 451. περιβάλλον του διερμηνέα.

__slots__

     Μια δήλωση μέσα σε μια κλάση που εξοικονομεί μνήμη δηλώνοντας εκ
     των προτέρων χώρο για παράδειγμα χαρακτηριστικά και εξαλείφοντας
     λεξικά στιγμιοτύπων.  Αν και δημοφιλής, η τεχνική είναι κάπως
     δύσκολο να γίνει σωστή και προορίζεται καλύτερα για σπάνιες
     περιπτώσεις όπου υπάρχει μεγάλος αριθμός στιγμιοτύπων σε μια
     εφαρμογή κρίσιμης-μνήμης.

ακολουθία

     Ένας *note iterable: 15ce. που υποστηρίζει την αποτελεσματική
     πρόσβαση στο στοιχείο χρησιμοποιώντας ακέραιους δείκτες μέσω της
     ειδική μεθόδου *note __getitem__(): 787. και ορίζει μια μέθοδο
     *note __len__(): 1989. που επιστρέφει το μήκος της ακολουθίας.
     Ορισμένοι ενσωματωμένοι τύποι ακολουθιών είναι *note list: 4d9,
     *note str: 1df, *note tuple: 1ce, και *note bytes: 1c7.  Σημειώστε
     ότι το *note dict: 188. υποστηρίζει επίσης ‘__getitem__()’ και
     ‘__len__()’, αλλά θεωρείται αντιστοίχιση και όχι ακολουθία επειδή
     οι αναζητήσεις χρησιμοποιούν αυθαίρετα *note hashable: 183. κλειδιά
     παρά ακέραιοι.

     Η αφηρημένη βασική κλάση *note collections.abc.Sequence: 156d.
     ορίζει μια πολύ πιο πλούσια διεπαφή που ξεπερνά τα απλά *note
     __getitem__(): 787. και *note __len__(): 1989, adding *note
     count(): 25cd, *note index(): 1b8b, *note __contains__(): 175c, και
     *note __reversed__(): 1049.  Οι τύποι που υλοποιούν αυτήν την
     διευρυμένη διεπαφή μπορούν να καταχωρηθούν ρητά χρησιμοποιώντας
     *note register(): 1436.  Για περισσότερη τεκμηρίωση σχετικά με τις
     μεθόδους ακολουθίας γενικά, ανατρέξτε στο *note Common Sequence
     Operations: 2801.

set comprehension

     Ένας συμπαγής τρόπος για να επεξεργαστείτε όλα ή μέρος των
     στοιχείων σε ένα iterable και να επιστραφεί ένα σύνολο με τα
     αποτελέσματα.  ‘results = {c for c in 'abracadabra' if c not in
     'abc'}’ δημιουργεί το σύνολο συμβολοσειρών ‘{'r', 'd'}’.  Βλ.
     *note Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries: 9ce.

μοναδικό dispatch

     Μια μορφή dispatch *note generic function: db4. όπου η υλοποίηση
     επιλέγεται με βάση τον τύπο ενός μεμονωμένου ορίσματος.

slice

     An object of type *note slice: 1d0, used to describe a portion of a
     *note sequence: 8ff.  A slice object is created when using the
     *note slicing: 26a4. form of *note subscript notation: 2599, with
     colons inside square brackets, such as in ‘variable_name[1:3:5]’.

απαρχαιωμένη με ήπιο τρόπο

     Ένα απαρχαιωμένο με ήπιο τρόπο API δεν θα πρέπει να χρησιμοποιείται
     σε νέο κώδικα, αλλά είναι ασφαλές σε ήδη υπάρχοντα κώδικα να το
     χρησιμοποιεί.  Το API παραμένει τεκμηριωμένο και δοκιμασμένο, αλλά
     δεν θα ενισχυθεί περαιτέρω.

     Η κατάργηση με ήπιο τρόπο, σε αντίθεση με την κανονική κατάργηση,
     δεν σχεδιάζει την κατάργηση του API και δεν θα εκπέμπει
     ειδοποιήσεις

     Δείτε PEP 387: Soft Deprecation(35).

ειδική μέθοδος

     Μια μέθοδος που καλείται σιωπηρά από την Python για να εκτελέσει
     μια συγκεκριμένη λειτουργία σε έναν τύπο, όπως η προσθήκη.  Τέτοιες
     μέθοδοι έχουνε ονόματα που ξεκινούν και τελειώνουν με διπλές κάτω
     παύλες.  Οι ειδικές μέθοδοι τεκμηριώνονται στο *note Ειδικά ονόματα
     μεθόδων: 102c.

τυπική βιβλιοθήκη

     Η συλλογή από *note packages: 4c1, *note modules: 1be7. και *note
     extension modules: 2442. που διανέμεται ως μέρος του επίσημου
     πακέτου διερμηνέα Python.  Η ακριβής συμμετοχή της συλλογής μπορεί
     να διαφέρει ανάλογα με την πλατφόρμα, τις διαθέσιμες βιβλιοθήκες
     συστήματος ή άλλα κριτήρια.  Η τεκμηρίωση μπορεί να βρεθεί στο
     *note The Python Standard Library: 3f7.

     Βλ.  επίσης *note sys.stdlib_module_names: c1a. για μια λίστα με
     όλα τα πιθανά ονόματα module της τυπικής βιβλιοθήκης.

δήλωση

     Μια πρόταση είναι μέρος μιας σουίτας (ένα «μπλοκ» κώδικα).  Μια
     πρόταση είναι είτε ένας *note expression: 25c4. είτε μια από πολλές
     δομές με μια λέξη-κλειδί όπως *note if: 322, *note while: 1b86. ή
     *note for: 321.

ελεγκτής στατικού τύπου

     Ένα εξωτερικό εργαλείο όπου διαβάζει τον Python κώδικα και τον
     αναλύει, αναζητώντας προβλήματα όπως λανθασμένοι τύποι.  Βλ.
     επίσης *note type hints: 25c1. και το module *note typing: 10d.

stdlib

     Μια συντομογραφία του *note standard library: 3d8.

strong reference

     Στο C API της Python, μια ισχυρή αναφορά είναι μια αναφορά σε ένα
     αντικείμενο που ανήκει στον κώδικα που περιέχει την αναφορά.  Η
     ισχυρή αναφορά λαμβάνεται καλώντας το *note Py_INCREF(): 974. όταν
     η αναφορά δημιουργείται και απελευθερώνεται με *note Py_DECREF():
     975. όταν διαγραφεί η αναφορά.

     Η συνάρτηση *note Py_NewRef(): c70. μπορεί να χρησιμοποιηθεί για τη
     δημιουργία ισχυρής αναφοράς σε ένα αντικείμενο.  Συνήθως, η
     συνάρτηση *note Py_DECREF(): 975. πρέπει να καλείται στην ισχυρή
     αναφορά πριν βγει από το εύρος της ισχυρής αναφοράς, για να
     αποφευχθεί η διαρροή μιας αναφοράς.

     Βλ.  επίσης *note borrowed reference: 603.

subscript

     The expression in square brackets of a *note subscription
     expression: 2599, for example, the ‘3’ in ‘items[3]’.  Usually used
     to select an element of a container.  Also called a *note key:
     25d9. when subscripting a *note mapping: 1564, or an *note index:
     25d8. when subscripting a *note sequence: 8ff.

synchronization primitive

     A basic building block for coordinating (synchronizing) the
     execution of multiple threads to ensure *note thread-safe: 5d50.
     access to shared resources.  Python’s *note threading: f6. module
     provides several synchronization primitives including *note Lock:
     1a10, *note RLock: 2df, *note Semaphore: 1501, *note Condition:
     1500, *note Event: 1503, and *note Barrier: 158c.  Additionally,
     the *note queue: be. module provides multi-producer, multi-consumer
     queues that are especially useful in multithreaded programs.  These
     primitives help prevent *note race conditions: 2921. and coordinate
     thread execution.  See also *note lock: 2920.

t-string

t-strings

     Οι κυριολεκτικές συμβολοσειρές που χρησιμοποιούνται με πρόθεμα ‘t’
     or ‘T’ ονομάζονται συνήθως «t-strings» που είναι συντομογραφία του
     *note template string literals: 1a50.

κωδικοποίηση κειμένου

     Μια συμβολοσειρά στην Python είναι μια ακολουθία σημείων κώδικα
     Unicode (στο εύρος ‘U+0000’–‘U+10FFFF’).  Για να αποθηκεύσετε ή να
     μεταφέρετε μια συμβολοσειρά, πρέπει να σειριοποιηθεί ως δυαδική
     ακολουθία.

     Η σειριοποίηση μιας συμβολοσειράς σε μια δυαδική ακολουθία είναι
     γνωστή ως «κωδικοποίηση» , και η αναδημιουργία της συμβολοσειράς
     από την δυαδική ακολουθία είναι γνωστή ως «αποκωδικοποίηση».

     Υπάρχει μια ποικιλία διαφορετικής σειριοποίησης κειμένου *note
     codecs: 1171, οι οποίοι συλλογικά αναφέρονται ως «κωδικοποιήσεις
     κειμένου».

αρχείο κειμένου

     Ένα *note file object: 156c. ικανό να διαβάζει και να γράφει
     αντικείμενα *note str: 1df.  Συχνά, ένα αρχείο κειμένου αποκτά
     πραγματικά πρόσβαση σε μια ροή δυαδική ροή δεδομένων και χειρίζεται
     αυτόματα την *note text encoding: 27d4.  Παραδείγματα αρχείων
     κειμένου είναι αρχεία που ανοίγουν σε λειτουργία κειμένου (‘'r'’ ή
     ‘'w'’), *note sys.stdin: 94a, *note sys.stdout: e9c, και
     στιγμιότυπα του *note io.StringIO: 12d4.

     Βλ.  επίσης *note binary file: 225d. για ένα αντικείμενο αρχείου με
     δυνατότητα ανάγνωσης και εγγραφής *note δυαδικά αντικείμενα: 436.

κατάσταση νήματος

     Οι πληροφορίες που χρησιμοποιούνται από τη ροή εκτέλεσης της *note
     CPython: ae3. για την εκτέλεση σε ένα νήμα λειτουργικού συστήματος.
     Για παράδειγμα, αυτό περιλαμβάνει την τρέχουσα εξαίρεση, εάν
     υπάρχει, και την κατάσταση του διερμηνέα bytecode.

     Κάθε κατάσταση νήματος είναι συνδεδεμένη με ένα μόνο νήμα
     λειτουργικού συστήματος, αλλά τα νήματα μπορεί να έχουν πολλές
     διαθέσιμες καταστάσεις νήματος.  Το πολύ, μία από αυτές μπορεί να
     είναι *note attached: 1a1. ταυτόχρονα.

     Απαιτείται ένα *note attached thread state: 1a1. για την κλήση του
     μεγαλύτερου μέρους του C API της Python, εκτός εάν μια συνάρτηση
     τεκμηριώνεται ρητά από το αντίθετο.  Ο διερμηνέας bytecode
     εκτελείται μόνο υπό κατάσταση συνημμένου νήματος.

     Κάθε κατάσταση νήματος ανήκει σε έναν μόνο διερμηνέα, αλλά κάθε
     διερμηνέα μπορεί να έχει πολλές καταστάσεις νήματος,
     συμπεριλαμβανομένων πολλαπλών για το ίδιο νήμα λειτουργικού
     συστήματος.  Οι καταστάσεις νήματος από πολλαπλούς διερμηνείς
     μπορεί να είναι συνδεδεμένος με το ίδιο νήμα, αλλά μόνο μία μπορεί
     να είναι *note attached: 1a1. σε αυτό το νήμα σε οποιαδήποτε
     δεδομένη στιγμή.

     Δείτε το *note Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock: 589a.
     για περισσότερες πληροφορίες.

thread-safe

     A module, function, or class that behaves correctly when used by
     multiple threads concurrently.  Thread-safe code uses appropriate
     *note synchronization primitives: 5d4e. like *note locks: 2920. to
     protect shared mutable state, or is designed to avoid shared
     mutable state entirely.  In the *note free-threaded: 487. build,
     built-in types like *note dict: 188, *note list: 4d9, and *note
     set: 42b. use internal locking to make many operations thread-safe,
     although thread safety is not necessarily guaranteed.  Code that is
     not thread-safe may experience *note race conditions: 2921. and
     *note data races: 2922. when used in multi-threaded programs.

λεκτικό σύμβολο (token)

     Μια μικρή μονάδα πηγαίου κώδικα, που παράγεται από τον *note
     lexical analyzer: 2486. (γνωστό και ως 'αναλυτή (tokenizer)').
     Ονόματα, αριθμοί, συμβολοσειρές, τελεστές αλλαγές γραμμής και
     παρόμοια στοιχεία αναπαρίστανται ως λεκτικά σύμβολα (tokens).

     Το module *note tokenize: 104. εκθέτει τον λεξικό αναλυτή της
     Python.  Το module *note token: 103. περιέχει πληροφορίες για τους
     διάφορους τύπους λεκτικών συμβόλων (tokens).

συμβολοσειρά τριπλών εισαγωγικών

     Μια συμβολοσειρά που δεσμεύεται από τρεις περιπτώσεις είτε ενός
     εισαγωγικού (») ή μιας αποστρόφου (“).  Αν και δεν παρέχουν καμία
     λειτουργικότητα που δεν είναι διαθέσιμη με συμβολοσειρές με μονά
     εισαγωγικά, είναι χρήσιμες για διαφόρους λόγους.  Σας επιτρέπουν να
     συμπεριλάβετε μονά και διπλά εισαγωγικά χωρίς διαφυγή σε μια
     συμβολοσειρά και μπορούν να εκτείνονται σε πολλές γραμμές χωρίς τη
     χρήση του χαρακτήρα συνέχεια, καθιστώντας τα ιδιαίτερα χρήσιμα κατά
     τη σύνταξη εγγράφων με συμβολοσειρές.

τύπος

     Ο τύπος ενός Python αντικειμένου καθορίζει τι είδους αντικείμενο
     είναι∙ κάθε αντικείμενο έχει έναν τύπο.  Ο τύπος ενός αντικειμένου
     είναι προσβάσιμος ως το χαρακτηριστικό *note __class__: 184f. ή
     μπορεί να ανακτηθεί με ‘type(obj)’.

type alias

     Ένα συνώνυμο για έναν τύπο, που δημιουργείται με την ανάθεση τύπου
     σε ένα αναγνωριστικό.

     Τα type aliases είναι χρήσιμα για την απλοποίηση *note type alias:
     25c1.  Για παράδειγμα:

          def remove_gray_shades(
                  colors: list[tuple[int, int, int]]) -> list[tuple[int, int, int]]:
              pass

     μπορεί να γίνει πιο ευανάγνωστο όπως:

          Color = tuple[int, int, int]

          def remove_gray_shades(colors: list[Color]) -> list[Color]:
              pass

     Βλ.  *note typing: 10d. και PEP 484(36), που περιγράφει αυτήν την
     λειτουργικότητα.

type hint

     Ένας *note annotation: 409. που καθορίζει τον αναμενόμενο τύπο για
     μια μεταβλητή, ένα χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης ή μια παράμετρο συνάρτησης
     ή τιμή επιστροφής.

     Οι υποδείξεις τύπων (type hints) είναι προαιρετικές και δεν
     επιβάλλονται από την Python, αλλά είναι χρήσιμες για *note static
     type checkers: 775.  Μπορούν επίσης να βοηθήσουν τους IDEs με τη
     συμπλήρωση και την αναδιαμόρφωση κώδικα.

     Υποδείξεις τύπου (type hints) για καθολικές μεταβλητές,
     χαρακτηριστικά κλάσης και συναρτήσεις , αλλά όχι τοπικές
     μεταβλητές, μπορούν να προσπελαστούν χρησιμοποιώντας το *note
     typing.get_type_hints(): a9e.

     Βλ.  *note typing: 10d. και PEP 484(37), που περιγράφει αυτήν την
     λειτουργικότητα.

καθολικές νέες γραμμές

     Ένα τρόπος ερμηνείας ροών κειμένου στον οποίο όλα τα ακόλουθα
     αναγνωρίζονται ως λήξεις μιας γραμμής: η σύμβαση τέλους γραμμής του
     Unix ‘'\n'’, η σύμβαση των Windows ‘'\r\n'’, και την παλιά σύμβαση
     Macintosh ‘'\r'’.  Βλ.  PEP 278(38) και PEP 3116(39), καθώς και
     *note bytes.splitlines(): 281c. για πρόσθετη χρήση.

annotation μεταβλητής

     Ένας *note annotation: 409. μια μεταβλητής ή ενός χαρακτηριστικού
     κλάσης.

     Όταν annotating μια μεταβλητή ή ένα χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης, η
     ανάθεση είναι προαιρετική:

          class C:
              field: 'annotation'

     Τα annotations μεταβλητών χρησιμοποιούνται συνήθως για *note type
     hints: 25c1.: για παράδειγμα αυτή η μεταβλητή αναμένεται να λάβει
     τιμές *note int: 326.:

          count: int = 0

     Η σύνταξη annotation μεταβλητής περιγράφεται στην ενότητα *note
     Εντολές ανάθεσης με σχολιασμό: 2701.

     Βλ.  *note function annotation: 2207, PEP 484(40) και PEP 526(41),
     που περιγράφουν αυτή τη λειτουργία.  Δείτε επίσης *note Annotations
     Best Practices: bb6. για βέλτιστες πρακτικές σχετικά με την εργασία
     με σχολιασμούς.

virtual environment

     Ένα συνεργατικά απομονωμένο περιβάλλον χρόνου εκτέλεσης που
     επιτρέπει στους χρήστες και τις εφαρμογές της Python να
     εγκαταστήσουν και να αναβαθμίσουν πακέτα διανομής Python χωρίς να
     παρεμβαίνουν στη συμπεριφορά άλλων εφαρμογών Python που εκτελούνται
     στο ίδιο σύστημα.

     Βλ.  επίσης *note venv: 11a.

virtual machine

     Ένας υπολογιστής ορίζεται εξ ολοκλήρου από το λογισμικό.  Η
     εικονική μηχανή της Python εκτελεί το *note bytecode: 6b3. που
     εκπέμπεται από τον μεταγλωττιστή bytecode.

τελεστής walrus

     Μια ελαφρώς χιουμοριστική αναφορά στον *note τελεστή εκχώρησης:
     26d4. ‘:=’ επειδή μοιάζει λίγο με έναν θαλάσσιο ίππο αν γυρίσετε το
     κεφάλι σας.

Zen της Python

     Κατάλογος σχεδιαστικών αρχών και φιλοσοφιών που είναι χρήσιμες για
     την κατανόηση και τη χρήση της γλώσσας.  Ο κατάλογος μπορεί να
     βρεθεί πληκτρολογώντας «‘import this’» στην διαδραστική κονσόλα.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/

   (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/

   (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/

   (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/

   (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (11) https://gvanrossum.github.io/

   (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/

   (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/

   (16) https://www.python.org

   (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/

   (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/

   (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/

   (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/

   (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/

   (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/

   (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/

   (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/

   (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/

   (30) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/

   (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/

   (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/

   (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/

   (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/

   (35) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/#soft-deprecation

   (36) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (38) https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/

   (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/

   (40) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/

   (41) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/


File: python.info,  Node: Σχετικά με την τεκμηρίωση,  Next: Αντιμετώπιση Σφαλμάτων,  Prev: Γλωσσάρι,  Up: Top

13 Σχετικά με την τεκμηρίωση
****************************

Η τεκμηρίωση της Python έχει δημιουργηθεί από τα reStructuredText(1)
sources του Sphinx(2), έναν επεξεργαστή εγγράφων που έχει δημιουργηθεί
ειδικά για τα έγγραφα της Python.

Η ανάπτυξη των εγγράφων και των εργαλείων τους είναι εξ” ολοκλήρου
εθελοντική προσπάθεια, όπως και η ίδια η Python.  Εάν θέλετε να
συνεισφέρετε, ρίξτε μια ματιά στη σελίδα *note Αντιμετώπιση Σφαλμάτων:
522f. για πληροφορίες σχετικές με το πως να το κάνετε.  Καινούριοι
εθελοντές είναι πάντα ευπρόσδεκτοι!

Πολλές ευχαριστίες πηγαίνουν στους:

   * Fred L. Drake, Jr., τον δημιουργό των αρχικών εργαλείων της
     τεκμηρίωσης της Python και συντάκτη αρκετού περιεχομένου·

   * το Docutils(3) πρότζεκτ για την δημιουργία των εφαρμογών
     reStructuredText και Docutils·

   * Fredrik Lundh για το δικό του Alternative Python Reference πρότζεκτ
     από το οποίο το Sphinx πήρε πολύ καλές ιδέες.

* Menu:

* Συντελεστές στη τεκμηρίωση της Python::

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://docutils.sourceforge.io/rst.html

   (2) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/

   (3) https://docutils.sourceforge.io/


File: python.info,  Node: Συντελεστές στη τεκμηρίωση της Python,  Up: Σχετικά με την τεκμηρίωση

13.1 Συντελεστές στη τεκμηρίωση της Python
==========================================

Many people have contributed to the Python language, the Python standard
library, and the Python documentation.  See the CPython GitHub
repository(1) for a partial list of contributors.

Μόνο με τη συμβολή και τις συνεισφορές της κοινότητας της Python, η
Python έχει τέτοια υπέροχα έγγραφα – Σας ευχαριστούμε!

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/graphs/contributors


File: python.info,  Node: Αντιμετώπιση Σφαλμάτων,  Next: Copyright,  Prev: Σχετικά με την τεκμηρίωση,  Up: Top

14 Αντιμετώπιση Σφαλμάτων
*************************

Η Python είναι μια ώριμη γλώσσα προγραμματισμού που έχει δημιουργήσει
μια φήμη σταθερότητας.  Για να διατηρήσουν αυτή τη φήμη, οι
προγραμματιστές θα ήθελαν να γνωρίζουν τυχόν ελλείψεις που βρίσκετε στην
Python.

It can be sometimes faster to fix bugs yourself and contribute patches
to Python as it streamlines the process and involves fewer people.
Learn how to *note contribute: 5d6f.

* Menu:

* Σφάλματα Τεκμηρίωσης::
* Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Python issue tracker::
* Ξεκινήστε να συνεισφέρετε και εσείς στην Python::


File: python.info,  Node: Σφάλματα Τεκμηρίωσης,  Next: Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Python issue tracker,  Up: Αντιμετώπιση Σφαλμάτων

14.1 Σφάλματα Τεκμηρίωσης
=========================

Εάν βρείτε ένα σφάλμα σε αυτήν την τεκμηρίωση ή θέλετε να προτείνετε μια
βελτίωση, υποβάλετε μια αναφορά σφάλματος στο *note issue tracker: 758.
Εάν έχετε μια πρόταση για το πώς να το διορθώσετε, συμπεριλάβετε και
αυτήν.

Αν το σφάλμα ή η προτεινόμενη βελτίωση αφορά τη μετάφραση αυτή της
τεκμηρίωσης, υποβάλετε την αναφορά στο translation’s repository(1) αντί
γι” αυτό.

Μπορείτε επίσης να ανοίξετε ένα θέμα συζήτησης στο Φόρουμ της συζήτησης
για την τεκμηρίωση(2).

Εάν εντοπίσετε ένα σφάλμα στο θέμα (HTML / CSS / JavaScript) της
τεκμηρίωσης , υποβάλετε μια αναφορά σφαλμάτων σχετικά με το πρόγραμμα
παρακολούθησης σφαλμάτων python-doc-theme bug tracker(3).

Δείτε επίσης
............

Documentation bugs(4)

     Μια λίστα σφαλμάτων τεκμηρίωσης που έχουν υποβληθεί στον Python
     issue tracker.

Παρακολούθηση Issue(5)

     Επισκόπηση της διαδικασίας που περιλαμβάνει η αναφορά μιας
     βελτίωσης στον tracker.

Βοηθώντας με την Τεκμηρίωση(6)

     Ολοκληρωμένος οδηγός για άτομα που ενδιαφέρονται να συνεισφέρουν
     στην Τεκμηρίωση της Python.

Documentation Translations(7)

     A list of GitHub pages for documentation translation and their
     coordination teams.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/python/python-docs-el

   (2) https://discuss.python.org/c/documentation/26

   (3) https://github.com/python/python-docs-theme

   (4) 
https://github.com/python/cpython/issues?q=is%3Aissue+is%3Aopen+label%3Adocs

   (5) https://devguide.python.org/tracker/

   (6) 
https://devguide.python.org/docquality/#helping-with-documentation

   (7) 
https://devguide.python.org/documentation/translations/translating/#translation-coordinators


File: python.info,  Node: Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Python issue tracker,  Next: Ξεκινήστε να συνεισφέρετε και εσείς στην Python,  Prev: Σφάλματα Τεκμηρίωσης,  Up: Αντιμετώπιση Σφαλμάτων

14.2 Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Python issue tracker
=============================================

Οι αναφορές issues για την ίδια την Python θα πρέπει να υποβάλλονται
μέσω του GitHub issues tracker
(‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues’).  Ο GitHub issues tracker
προσφέρει μια web φόρμα που επιτρέπει την εισαγωγή και υποβολή σχετικών
πληροφοριών στους προγραμματιστές.

Το πρώτο βήμα για την υποβολή αναφοράς είναι να προσδιοριστεί εάν το
πρόβλημα έχει ήδη αναφερθεί.  Το πλεονέκτημα με αυτόν τον τρόπο, εκτός
από το ότι σώζει τον χρόνο των προγραμματιστών, είναι να μάθετε τι έχει
γίνει για να το διορθώσετε” μπορεί να είναι ότι το πρόβλημα έχει ήδη
επιδιορθωθεί για την επόμενη έκδοση ή επιπλέον απαιτούνται πληροφορίες
(σε οποιαδήποτε περίπτωση μπορείτε να τις παρέχετε και εσείς!).  Για να
το κάνετε αυτό, αναζητήστε στον tracker χρησιμοποιώντας το πλαίσιο
αναζήτησης στο επάνω μέρος της σελίδας.

Εάν το πρόβλημα που αναφέρετε δεν είναι ήδη στη λίστα, συνδεθείτε στο
GitHub.  Εάν δεν έχετε ήδη λογαριασμό GitHub, δημιουργήστε έναν νέο
λογαριασμό χρησιμοποιώντας τον σύνδεσμο «Sign up».  Δεν είναι δυνατή η
υποβολή αναφοράς σφαλμάτων ανώνυμα.

Όταν πλέον είστε συνδεδεμένοι, μπορείτε να υποβάλετε ένα issue.  Κάντε
κλικ στο κουμπί «New issue» στην επάνω γραμμή για να αναφέρετε ένα νέο
issue.

Η φόρμα υποβολής έχει δύο πεδία, «Title» και «Comment».

Για το πεδίο «Title», εισαγάγετε μια 'πολύ' σύντομη περιγραφή του
προβλήματος” λιγότερες από δέκα λέξεις είναι καλές.

Στο πεδίο «Comment», περιγράψτε το πρόβλημα λεπτομερώς,
συμπεριλαμβανομένου αυτού που αναμενόταν να συμβεί και τι συνέβη.
Φροντίστε να συμπεριλάβετε τυχόν extension modules τα οποία
χρησιμοποιήσατε όπως και ποια πλατφόρμα υλικού και λογισμικού
(συμπεριλαμβανομένων των πληροφοριών έκδοσης ανάλογα με την περίπτωση).

Κάθε αναφορά προβλήματος θα εξετάζεται από έναν προγραμματιστή που θα
καθορίσει τι πρέπει να γίνει για να διορθωθεί το πρόβλημα.  Θα λαμβάνετε
μια ενημέρωση κάθε φορά που γίνεται κάποια ενέργεια για το πρόβλημα.

Δείτε επίσης
............

Πως να Αναφέρεται Σφάλματα Αποτελεσματικά(1)

     Άρθρο που περιλαμβάνει κάποιες λεπτομέρειες σχετικά με τον τρόπο
     δημιουργίας μιας χρήσιμης αναφοράς σφάλματος.  Περιγράφει τι είδους
     πληροφορίες είναι χρήσιμες και γιατί είναι χρήσιμες.

Οδηγίες Συγγραφής Αναφορών Σφαλμάτων(2)

     Πληροφορίες σχετικά με τη σύνταξη μιας καλής αναφοράς σφαλμάτων.
     Κάποια από αυτά αφορούν ειδικά το πρότζεκτ Mozilla, αλλά
     περιγράφουν και γενικές καλές πρακτικές.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/bugs.html

   (2) https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/page.cgi?id=bug-writing.html


File: python.info,  Node: Ξεκινήστε να συνεισφέρετε και εσείς στην Python,  Prev: Χρησιμοποιώντας τον Python issue tracker,  Up: Αντιμετώπιση Σφαλμάτων

14.3 Ξεκινήστε να συνεισφέρετε και εσείς στην Python
====================================================

Πέρα από την απλή αναφορά σφαλμάτων που βρίσκετε, μπορείτε επίσης να
υποβάλετε ενημερώσεις για να τα διορθώσετε.  Μπορείτε να βρείτε
περισσότερες πληροφορίες για το πώς να ξεκινήσετε μια ενημέρωση της
Python στον Python Developer's Guide(1).  Εάν έχετε ερωτήσεις, το
core-mentorship mailing list(2) είναι ένα φιλικό μέρος για να λάβετε
απαντήσεις για οποιασδήποτε ή και όλες τις ερωτήσεις που σχετίζονται με
τη διαδικασία επίλυσης προβλημάτων στην Python.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://devguide.python.org/

   (2) 
https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/core-mentorship.python.org/


File: python.info,  Node: Copyright,  Next: Ιστορία και Άδεια,  Prev: Αντιμετώπιση Σφαλμάτων,  Up: Top

15 Copyright
************

Η Python και αυτή η τεκμηρίωση είναι:

Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation.  All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2000 BeOpen.com.  Όλα τα δικαιώματα διατηρούνται.

Copyright © 1995-2000 Corporation for National Research Initiatives.
Όλα τα δικαιώματα διατηρούνται.

Copyright © 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum.  Όλα τα δικαιώματα
διατηρούνται.

__________________________________________________________________

Ανατρέξτε στο *note Ιστορία και Άδεια: 5d76. για πλήρης πληροφόρηση
σχετικά με την άδεια χρήσης και τις εξουσιοδοτήσεις.


File: python.info,  Node: Ιστορία και Άδεια,  Next: Ευρετήριο Μονάδων της Python,  Prev: Copyright,  Up: Top

16 Ιστορία και Άδεια
********************

* Menu:

* Η ιστορία του λογισμικού::
* Όροι και προϋποθέσεις για την πρόσβαση ή την χρήση της Python με άλλους τρόπους::
* Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό::


File: python.info,  Node: Η ιστορία του λογισμικού,  Next: Όροι και προϋποθέσεις για την πρόσβαση ή την χρήση της Python με άλλους τρόπους,  Up: Ιστορία και Άδεια

16.1 Η ιστορία του λογισμικού
=============================

Η Python δημιουργήθηκε στις αρχές του 1990 από τον Guido van Rossum στο
Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, βλ.  ‘https://www.cwi.nl’) στην
Ολλανδία ως διάδοχος μια γλώσσας που ονομάζεται ABC. Ο Guido παραμένει ο
κύριος συγγραφέας της Python, παρόλα αυτά περιλαμβάνει συνεισφορές και
από άλλα άτομα.

Το 1995, ο Guido συνέχισε το έργο του για την Python στο Corporation for
National Research Initiatives (CNRI, βλ.
‘https://www.cnri.reston.va.us’) στο Reston της Virginia, όπου
κυκλοφόρησε πολλές εκδόσεις του λογισμικού.

Τον Μάιο του 2000, ο Guido και η βασική ομάδα ανάπτυξης της Python
μετακόμισαν στο BeOpen.com για να σχηματίσουν την ομάδα BeOpen
PythonLabs.  Τον Οκτώβριο του ίδιου έτους, η ομάδα του PythonLabs
μετακόμισε στην Digital Creations, η οποία μετατράπηκε σε Zope
Corporation.  Το 2001, το Python Software Foundation (PSF, βλ.
‘https://www.python.org/psf’) δημιουργήθηκε ως ένας μη κερδοσκοπικός
οργανισμός με στόχο να κατέχει την πνευματική ιδιοκτησία που σχετίζεται
με την Python.  Η Zope Corporation ήταν μέλος-χορηγός του PSF.

Όλες οι εκδόσεις της Python είναι Ανοιχτού Κώδικα (βλ.
‘https://opensource.org’ για τον ορισμό του Ανοιχτού Κώδικα).  Ιστορικά
οι περισσότερες, αλλά όχι όλες, εκδόσεις της Python ήταν επίσης συμβατές
με την άδεια GPL: ο παρακάτω πίνακας συνοψίζει τις διάφορες εκδόσεις.

Έκδοση               Προερχόμενη από    Έτος             Ιδιοκτησία       Συμβατότητα GPL; (1)
                                                                          
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          
0.9.0 έως 1.2        δ/υ                1991-1995        CWI              ναι
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.3 έως 1.5.2        1.2                1995-1999        CNRI             ναι
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.6                  1.5.2              2000             CNRI             όχι
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.0                  1.6                2000             BeOpen.com       όχι
                                                                          
                                                                          
1.6.1                1.6                2001             CNRI             ναι (2)
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1                  2.0+1.6.1          2001             PSF              όχι
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.0.1                2.0+1.6.1          2001             PSF              ναι
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.1                2.1+2.0.1          2001             PSF              ναι
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.2                2.1.1              2002             PSF              ναι
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.1.3                2.1.2              2002             PSF              ναι
                                                                          
                                                                          
2.2 και πάνω         2.1.1              2001-σήμερα      PSF              ναι
                                                                          

     Σημείωση: 
       1. Η συμβατότητα με GPL δεν σημαίνει ότι διανέμεται η Python κάτω
          από την άδεια GPL. Όλες οι άδειες της Python, σε αντίθεση με
          την GPL, σας επιτρέπουν να διανείμετε μια τροποποιημένη έκδοση
          χωρίς να κάνετε τις αλλαγές σας, ανοιχτού κώδικα.  Οι άδειες
          με συμβατότητα GPL καθιστούν δυνατό τον συνδυασμό της Python
          με άλλο λογισμικό που κυκλοφορεί με βάσει της GPL, ενώ οι
          άλλες όχι.

       2. Σύμφωνα με τον Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 δεν είναι συμβατή με
          την GPL, επειδή η άδεια της έχει νομική ρήτρα επιλογής,
          Σύμφωνα με το CNRI, ωστόσο, ο δικηγόρος του Stallman είπε στον
          δικηγόρο της CNRI ότι η 1.6.1 «δεν είναι συμβατή» με την GPL.

Χάρη, στους πολλούς εξωτερικούς εθελοντές που εργάστηκαν κάτω από τις
οδηγίες του Guido, αυτές οι εκδόσεις έγιναν εφικτές.


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16.2 Όροι και προϋποθέσεις για την πρόσβαση ή την χρήση της Python με άλλους τρόπους
====================================================================================

Το λογισμικό της Python και η τεκμηρίωση αδειοδοτούνται σύμφωνα με την
άδεια χρήσης Python Software Foundation Έκδοση 2.

Ξεκινώντας από την Python 3.8.6, παραδείγματα, συνταγές και ο άλλος
κώδικας στην τεκμηρίωση έχουν διπλή άδεια χρήσης, σύμφωνα με την Άδεια
PSF Έκδοση 2 και της *note Zero-Clause BSD άδεια: 5d7c.

Κάποιο λογισμικό που είναι ενσωματωμένο στην Python είναι υπό
διαφορετικές άδειες χρήσης.  Οι άδειες παρατίθενται με κώδικα που
εμπίπτει σε αυτήν την άδεια.  Δείτε *note Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για
Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό: 5d7d. για μια ελλιπή λίστα αυτών των αδειών.

* Menu:

* PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2::
* ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ BEOPEN.COM ΓΙΑ PYTHON 2.0: ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ BEOPEN COM ΓΙΑ PYTHON 2 0.
* ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ CNRI ΓΙΑ PYTHON 1.6.1: ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ CNRI ΓΙΑ PYTHON 1 6 1.
* ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ CWI ΓΙΑ PYTHON 0.9.0 ΕΩΣ 1.2: ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ CWI ΓΙΑ PYTHON 0 9 0 ΕΩΣ 1 2.
* ZERO-CLAUSE BSD ΑΔΕΙΑ ΓΙΑ ΤΟΝ ΚΩΔΙΚΑ ΣΤΗΝ ΤΕΚΜΗΡΙΩΣΗ ΤΗΣ PYTHON::


File: python.info,  Node: PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2,  Next: ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ BEOPEN COM ΓΙΑ PYTHON 2 0,  Up: Όροι και προϋποθέσεις για την πρόσβαση ή την χρήση της Python με άλλους τρόπους

16.2.1 PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2
---------------------------------------------------

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and
        the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this
        software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation.

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby
        grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
        analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
        distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative
        version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of
        copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001 Python Software Foundation; All Rights
        Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version
        prepared by Licensee.

     3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
        incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the
        derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby
        agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python.

     4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
        PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
        EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
        WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
        USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON
        FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
        MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
        THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     7. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship
        of agency, partnership, or joint venture between PSF and Licensee.  This License
        Agreement does not grant permission to use PSF trademarks or trade name in a
        trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
        third party.

     8. By copying, installing or otherwise using Python, Licensee agrees
        to be bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.


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16.2.2 ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ BEOPEN.COM ΓΙΑ PYTHON 2.0
------------------------------------------------

ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ ΑΝΟΙΧΤΟΥ ΚΩΔΙΚΑ BEOPEN PYTHON ΕΚΔΟΣΗ 1

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at
        160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization
        ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary
        form and its associated documentation ("the Software").

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement,
        BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license
        to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative
        works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative
        version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the
        Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee.

     3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.
        BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF
        EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR
        WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE
        USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR
        ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING,
        MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF
        ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects
        by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions.
        Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of
        agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee.  This License
        Agreement does not grant permission to use BeOpen trademarks or trade names in a
        trademark sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any
        third party.  As an exception, the "BeOpen Python" logos available at
        ‘http://www.pythonlabs.com/logos.html’ may be used according to the permissions
        granted on that web page.

     7. By copying, installing or otherwise using the software, Licensee agrees to be
        bound by the terms and conditions of this License Agreement.


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16.2.3 ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ CNRI ΓΙΑ PYTHON 1.6.1
--------------------------------------------

     1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Corporation for National Research
        Initiatives, having an office at 1895 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191
        ("CNRI"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and
        otherwise using Python 1.6.1 software in source or binary form and its
        associated documentation.

     2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, CNRI hereby
        grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce,
        analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works,
        distribute, and otherwise use Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version,
        provided, however, that CNRI's License Agreement and CNRI's notice of copyright,
        i.e., "Copyright © 1995-2001 Corporation for National Research Initiatives; All
        Rights Reserved" are retained in Python 1.6.1 alone or in any derivative version
        prepared by Licensee.  Alternately, in lieu of CNRI's License Agreement,
        Licensee may substitute the following text (omitting the quotes): "Python 1.6.1
        is made available subject to the terms and conditions in CNRI's License
        Agreement.  This Agreement together with Python 1.6.1 may be located on the
        internet using the following unique, persistent identifier (known as a handle):
        1895.22/1013.  This Agreement may also be obtained from a proxy server on the
        internet using the following URL: ‘http://hdl.handle.net/1895.22/1013’".

     3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or
        incorporates Python 1.6.1 or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative
        work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to
        include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python 1.6.1.

     4. CNRI is making Python 1.6.1 available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis.  CNRI
        MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED.  BY WAY OF EXAMPLE,
        BUT NOT LIMITATION, CNRI MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY
        OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF
        PYTHON 1.6.1 WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.

     5. CNRI SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON 1.6.1 FOR
        ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF
        MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON 1.6.1, OR ANY DERIVATIVE
        THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF.

     6. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of
        its terms and conditions.

     7. This License Agreement shall be governed by the federal intellectual property
        law of the United States, including without limitation the federal copyright
        law, and, to the extent such U.S. federal law does not apply, by the law of the
        Commonwealth of Virginia, excluding Virginia's conflict of law provisions.
        Notwithstanding the foregoing, with regard to derivative works based on Python
        1.6.1 that incorporate non-separable material that was previously distributed
        under the GNU General Public License (GPL), the law of the Commonwealth of
        Virginia shall govern this License Agreement only as to issues arising under or
        with respect to Paragraphs 4, 5, and 7 of this License Agreement.  Nothing in
        this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency,
        partnership, or joint venture between CNRI and Licensee.  This License Agreement
        does not grant permission to use CNRI trademarks or trade name in a trademark
        sense to endorse or promote products or services of Licensee, or any third
        party.

     8. By clicking on the "ACCEPT" button where indicated, or by copying, installing
        or otherwise using Python 1.6.1, Licensee agrees to be bound by the terms and
        conditions of this License Agreement.


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16.2.4 ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ CWI ΓΙΑ PYTHON 0.9.0 ΕΩΣ 1.2
---------------------------------------------------

     Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The
     Netherlands.  All rights reserved.

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
     documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that
     the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright
     notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that
     the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or
     publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
     SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO
     EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT
     OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE,
     DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS
     SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: ZERO-CLAUSE BSD ΑΔΕΙΑ ΓΙΑ ΤΟΝ ΚΩΔΙΚΑ ΣΤΗΝ ΤΕΚΜΗΡΙΩΣΗ ΤΗΣ PYTHON,  Prev: ΣΥΜΦΩΝΙΑ ΑΔΕΙΑΣ CWI ΓΙΑ PYTHON 0 9 0 ΕΩΣ 1 2,  Up: Όροι και προϋποθέσεις για την πρόσβαση ή την χρήση της Python με άλλους τρόπους

16.2.5 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD ΑΔΕΙΑ ΓΙΑ ΤΟΝ ΚΩΔΙΚΑ ΣΤΗΝ ΤΕΚΜΗΡΙΩΣΗ ΤΗΣ PYTHON
----------------------------------------------------------------------

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any
     purpose with or without fee is hereby granted.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
     REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
     AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
     INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM
     LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR
     OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
     PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


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16.3 Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό
======================================================

Αυτή η ενότητα είναι μια ημιτελής, αλλά αυξανόμενη λίστα αδειών και
ευχαριστιών για λογισμικό τρίτων, που ενσωματώνεται στην διανομή της
Python.

* Menu:

* Mersenne Twister::
* Sockets: Sockets<2>.
* Ασύγχρονες socket υπηρεσίες::
* Διαχείριση Cookie::
* Ανίχνευση εκτέλεσης::
* Συναρτήσεις UUencode και UUdecode::
* Κλήσεις Απομακρυσμένης Διαδικασίας XML::
* test_epoll::
* Επιλογή kqueue::
* SipHash24::
* strtod και dtoa::
* OpenSSL: OpenSSL<2>.
* expat::
* libffi::
* zlib: zlib<5>.
* cfuhash::
* libmpdec::
* W3C C14N σουίτα δοκιμής::
* mimalloc::
* asyncio: asyncio<16>.
* Καθολικές Απεριόριστες Ακολουθίες (ΚΑΑ): Καθολικές Απεριόριστες Ακολουθίες ΚΑΑ.
* Δεσμεύσεις Zstandard::
* Profiling module::
* Pixi packages::


File: python.info,  Node: Mersenne Twister,  Next: Sockets<2>,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.1 Mersenne Twister
-----------------------

Η επέκταση ‘_random’ C που βρίσκεται κάτω από την ενότητα *note random:
c0. περιλαμβάνει έναν κώδικα με βάση μια λήψη από
‘http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html’.
Ακολουθούν κατά λέξη τα σχόλια από το αρχικό κώδικα:

     A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26.
     Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto.

     Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed)
     or init_by_array(init_key, key_length).

     Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura,
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

      1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

      2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
         documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

      3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote
         products derived from this software without specific prior written
         permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
     A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR
     CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL,
     EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
     PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR
     PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
     LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
     NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
     SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


     Any feedback is very welcome.
     http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html
     email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space)


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16.3.2 Sockets
--------------

Η ενότητα *note socket: d4. χρησιμοποιεί τις συναρτήσεις,
‘getaddrinfo()’, και ‘getnameinfo()’, τα οποία έχουν υλοποιηθεί σε
διαφορετικά αρχεία από το WIDE Έργο, ‘https://www.wide.ad.jp/’.

     Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project.
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:
     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
     3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors
        may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
        without specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: Ασύγχρονες socket υπηρεσίες,  Next: Διαχείριση Cookie,  Prev: Sockets<2>,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.3 Ασύγχρονες socket υπηρεσίες
----------------------------------

Οι ενότητες ‘test.support.asynchat’ και ‘test.support.asyncore’
περιέχουν την παρακάτω ειδοποίηση:

     Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing

                             All Rights Reserved

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
     its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
     copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam
     Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
     distribution of the software without specific, written prior
     permission.

     SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE,
     INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN
     NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR
     CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
     OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
     NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN
     CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: Διαχείριση Cookie,  Next: Ανίχνευση εκτέλεσης,  Prev: Ασύγχρονες socket υπηρεσίες,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.4 Διαχείριση Cookie
------------------------

Η ενότητα *note http.cookies: 74. περιέχει την παρακάτω ειδοποίηση:

     Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley <timo@alum.mit.edu>

                    All Rights Reserved

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software
     and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all
     copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
     Timothy O'Malley  not be used in advertising or publicity
     pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS
     SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY
     AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR
     ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
     WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR
     PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: Ανίχνευση εκτέλεσης,  Next: Συναρτήσεις UUencode και UUdecode,  Prev: Διαχείριση Cookie,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.5 Ανίχνευση εκτέλεσης
--------------------------

Η ενότητα *note trace: 106. περιέχει την παρακάτω ειδοποίηση:

     portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights...
     err...  reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the
     Python 2.2 license.
     Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx
     http://zooko.com/
     mailto:zooko@zooko.com

     Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Skip Montanaro

     Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Andrew Dalke

     Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved.
     Author: Skip Montanaro

     Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved.


     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and
     its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby
     granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies,
     and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
     supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix,
     Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to
     distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission.


File: python.info,  Node: Συναρτήσεις UUencode και UUdecode,  Next: Κλήσεις Απομακρυσμένης Διαδικασίας XML,  Prev: Ανίχνευση εκτέλεσης,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.6 Συναρτήσεις UUencode και UUdecode
----------------------------------------

Ο ‘uu’ κωδικοποιητής περιέχει την παρακάτω ειδοποίηση:

     Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse
     Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America.
                            All Rights Reserved
     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
     documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted,
     provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that
     both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in
     supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse
     not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution
     of the software without specific, written prior permission.
     LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO
     THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
     FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
     WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
     ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT
     OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.

     Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995:
     - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion
       between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C
       version is still 5 times faster, though.
     - Arguments more compliant with Python standard


File: python.info,  Node: Κλήσεις Απομακρυσμένης Διαδικασίας XML,  Next: test_epoll,  Prev: Συναρτήσεις UUencode και UUdecode,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.7 Κλήσεις Απομακρυσμένης Διαδικασίας XML
---------------------------------------------

Η ενότητα *note xmlrpc.client: 137. περιέχει την παρακάτω ειδοποίηση:

         The XML-RPC client interface is

     Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB
     Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh

     By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its
     associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood,
     and will comply with the following terms and conditions:

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and
     its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is
     hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in
     all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission
     notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of
     Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity
     pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written
     prior permission.

     SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD
     TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT-
     ABILITY AND FITNESS.  IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR
     BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY
     DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS
     ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE
     OF THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: test_epoll,  Next: Επιλογή kqueue,  Prev: Κλήσεις Απομακρυσμένης Διαδικασίας XML,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.8 test_epoll
-----------------

Η ενότητα ‘test.test_epoll’ περιέχει την παρακάτω ειδοποίηση:

     Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories.

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
     included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
     LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
     OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
     WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: Επιλογή kqueue,  Next: SipHash24,  Prev: test_epoll,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.9 Επιλογή kqueue
---------------------

Η ενότητα *note select: c9. περιέχει την παρακάτω ειδοποίηση για την
kqueue διεπαφή:

     Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:
     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: SipHash24,  Next: strtod και dtoa,  Prev: Επιλογή kqueue,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.10 SipHash24
-----------------

Το αρχείο ‘Python/pyhash.c’ περιέχει την υλοποίηση του Marek Majkowski
του αλγορίθμου τού Dan Bernstein, SipHash24.  Αυτό περιέχει την παρακάτω
σημείωση:

     <MIT License>
     Copyright (c) 2013  Marek Majkowski <marek@popcount.org>

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
     of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
     in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
     to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
     copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
     furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in
     all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
     </MIT License>

     Original location:
        https://github.com/majek/csiphash/

     Solution inspired by code from:
        Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little)
        djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2)
        Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c)


File: python.info,  Node: strtod και dtoa,  Next: OpenSSL<2>,  Prev: SipHash24,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.11 strtod και dtoa
-----------------------

Το αρχείο ‘Python/dtoa.c’, που παρέχει τις συναρτήσεις dtoa και strtod
της C για μετατροπή των C doubles προς και από strings, προέρχεται από
το ομώνυμο αρχείο του David M. Gay, προς το παρόν διαθέσιμο από
‘https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c’.
Το αρχικό αρχείο, όπως ανακτήθηκε στις 16 Μαρτίου, 2009, περιέχει τα
ακόλουθα πνευματικά δικαιώματα και την ειδοποίηση αδειοδότησης:

     /****************************************************************
      *
      * The author of this software is David M. Gay.
      *
      * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies.
      *
      * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any
      * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice
      * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy
      * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting
      * documentation for such software.
      *
      * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
      * WARRANTY.  IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY
      * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY
      * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
      *
      ***************************************************************/


File: python.info,  Node: OpenSSL<2>,  Next: expat,  Prev: strtod και dtoa,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.12 OpenSSL
---------------

Οι μονάδες *note hashlib: 6b, *note posix: b2. και *note ssl: d8.
χρησιμοποιούν την βιβλιοθήκη OpenSSL για επιπλέον απόδοση, εάν
διατίθενται από το λειτουργικό σύστημα.  Επιπλέον, τα προγράμματα
εγκατάστασης για την Python για Windows και macOS, ενδέχεται να
περιλαμβάνουν ένα αντίγραφο των βιβλιοθηκών OpenSSL, επομένως
συμπεριλαμβάνουμε ένα αντίγραφο της άδειας OpenSSL εδώ.  Για την έκδοση
OpenSSL 3.0 και για νεότερες εκδόσεις που προέρχονται από αυτή, ισχύει η
άδεια Apache v2:

                                   Apache License
                             Version 2.0, January 2004
                          https://www.apache.org/licenses/

     TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION

     1. Definitions.

        "License" shall mean the terms and conditions for use, reproduction,
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        for use, reproduction, or distribution of Your modifications, or
        for any such Derivative Works as a whole, provided Your use,
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     5. Submission of Contributions. Unless You explicitly state otherwise,
        any Contribution intentionally submitted for inclusion in the Work
        by You to the Licensor shall be under the terms and conditions of
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        names, trademarks, service marks, or product names of the Licensor,
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        whether in tort (including negligence), contract, or otherwise,
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        liable to You for damages, including any direct, indirect, special,
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File: python.info,  Node: expat,  Next: libffi,  Prev: OpenSSL<2>,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.13 expat
-------------

The *note pyexpat: 12f. extension is built using an included copy of the
expat sources unless the build is configured *note -with-system-expat:
1d2b.:

     Copyright (c) 1998-2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper
     Copyright (c) 2001-2025 Expat maintainers

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
     in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.
     IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
     CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
     TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE
     SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: libffi,  Next: zlib<5>,  Prev: expat,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.14 libffi
--------------

Η επέκταση της C ‘_ctypes’ που βρίσκεται κάτω από την ενότητα *note
ctypes: 2d. δημιουργείται χρησιμοποιώντας ένα συμπεριλαμβανόμενο
αντίγραφο των πηγών libffi, εκτός εάν η έκδοση έχει την ρύθμιση
‘--with-system-libffi’:

     Copyright (c) 1996-2008  Red Hat, Inc and others.

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
     in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT
     HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY,
     WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
     OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER
     DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: zlib<5>,  Next: cfuhash,  Prev: libffi,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.15 zlib
------------

Η επέκταση *note zlib: 13c. δημιουργείται χρησιμοποιώντας ένα
συμπεριλαμβανόμενου αντίγραφο των πηγών zlib, εάν η έκδοση του zlib που
βρίσκεται στο σύστημα είναι πολύ παλιά για να χρησιμοποιηθεί για την
κατασκευή:

     Copyright (C) 1995-2011 Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler

     This software is provided 'as-is', without any express or implied
     warranty.  In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
     arising from the use of this software.

     Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
     including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
     freely, subject to the following restrictions:

     1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
        claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
        in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
        appreciated but is not required.

     2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be
        misrepresented as being the original software.

     3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution.

     Jean-loup Gailly        Mark Adler
     jloup@gzip.org          madler@alumni.caltech.edu


File: python.info,  Node: cfuhash,  Next: libmpdec,  Prev: zlib<5>,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.16 cfuhash
---------------

Η υλοποίηση του πίνακα κατακερματισμού που χρησιμοποιείται από το *note
tracemalloc: 108. βασίζεται στο έργο cfuhash:

     Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens
     All rights reserved.

     This code is released under the BSD license:

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

       * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
         notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

       * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above
         copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following
         disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided
         with the distribution.

       * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its
         contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived
         from this software without specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS
     FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
     COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
     INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
     (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
     SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT,
     STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE)
     ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED
     OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: libmpdec,  Next: W3C C14N σουίτα δοκιμής,  Prev: cfuhash,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.17 libmpdec
----------------

Η επέκταση ‘_decimal’ που βρίσκεται κάτω από την ενότητα *note decimal:
39. είναι φτιαγμένη χρησιμοποιώντας ένα συμπεριλαμβανόμενο αντίγραφο της
βιβλιοθήκης libmpdec, εκτός αν ή έκδοση έχει ρύθμιση
‘--with-system-libmpdec’:

     Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND
     ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
     OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
     HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
     SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: W3C C14N σουίτα δοκιμής,  Next: mimalloc,  Prev: libmpdec,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.18 W3C C14N σουίτα δοκιμής
-------------------------------

Η σουίτα δοκιμής C14N 2.0 στο πακέτο *note test: eb.
(‘Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/’) ανακτήθηκε από τον ιστότοπο του W3C
‘https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/’ και διανέμεται με την άδεια
3 ρήτρων BSD:

     Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang),
     All Rights Reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:

     * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice,
       this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
     * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright
       notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
       documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
     * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be
       used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without
       specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
     "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
     A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
     OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
     SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
     LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
     DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
     THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
     (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
     OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: mimalloc,  Next: asyncio<16>,  Prev: W3C C14N σουίτα δοκιμής,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.19 mimalloc
----------------

MIT Άδεια:

     Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
     of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
     in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
     to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
     copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
     furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
     copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
     IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
     FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
     AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
     LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
     OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
     SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: asyncio<16>,  Next: Καθολικές Απεριόριστες Ακολουθίες ΚΑΑ,  Prev: mimalloc,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.20 asyncio
---------------

Μέρη της ενότητας *note asyncio: b. ενσωματώνονται από το uvloop
0.16(1), η οποία διανέμεται με άδεια MIT:

     Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc.  http://magic.io

     Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
     a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
     "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
     without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
     distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
     permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
     the following conditions:

     The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be
     included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
     EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
     MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND
     NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE
     LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION
     OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION
     WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop/tree/v0.16.0


File: python.info,  Node: Καθολικές Απεριόριστες Ακολουθίες ΚΑΑ,  Next: Δεσμεύσεις Zstandard,  Prev: asyncio<16>,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.21 Καθολικές Απεριόριστες Ακολουθίες (ΚΑΑ)
-----------------------------------------------

Το αρχείο ‘Python/qsbr.c’ είναι προσαρμοσμένο από το σύστημα ασφαλούς
ανάκτησης μνήμης «Global Unbounded Sequences» του FreeBSD, που
υλοποιείται στο subr_smr.c(1).  Το αρχείο διανέμεται υπό την Άδεια
2-Clause BSD:

     Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson <jeff@FreeBSD.org>

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
     are met:
     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
        notice unmodified, this list of conditions, and the following
        disclaimer.
     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
        notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
        documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES
     OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.
     IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT,
     INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT
     NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
     DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
     THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
     (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF
     THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) 
https://github.com/freebsd/freebsd-src/blob/main/sys/kern/subr_smr.c


File: python.info,  Node: Δεσμεύσεις Zstandard,  Next: Profiling module,  Prev: Καθολικές Απεριόριστες Ακολουθίες ΚΑΑ,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.22 Δεσμεύσεις Zstandard
----------------------------

Οι δεσμεύσεις Zstandard στα ‘Modules/_zstd’ και ‘Lib/compression/zstd’
βασίζονται σε κώδικα από τη βιβλιοθήκη pyzstd library(1), πνευματικής
ιδιοκτησίας του Ma Lin και των συνεργατών του.  Ο κώδικας της pyzstd
διανέμεται υπό την άδεια 3-Clause BSD.

     Copyright (c) 2020-present, Ma Lin and contributors.
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:

     1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this
        list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

     2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,
        this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
        and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

     3. Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its
        contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
        this software without specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS"
     AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
     DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
     FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
     SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER
     CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY,
     OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
     OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

   ---------- Footnotes ----------

   (1) https://github.com/Rogdham/pyzstd/


File: python.info,  Node: Profiling module,  Next: Pixi packages,  Prev: Δεσμεύσεις Zstandard,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.23 Profiling module
------------------------

The ‘profiling’ module includes vendored third-party libraries in
‘Lib/profiling/sampling/_vendor/’ with the following licenses:

'd3-flamegraph'

The d3-flamegraph library is distributed under the Apache License,
Version 2.0.  See the OpenSSL section above for the full text of the
Apache License Version 2.0.

'd3.js'

The d3.js library contains the following notice:

     Copyright 2010-2021 Mike Bostock

     Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose
     with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice
     and this permission notice appear in all copies.

     THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH
     REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
     FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT,
     INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS
     OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER
     TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF
     THIS SOFTWARE.


File: python.info,  Node: Pixi packages,  Prev: Profiling module,  Up: Άδειες και Ευχαριστίες για Ενσωματωμένο Λογισμικό

16.3.24 Pixi packages
---------------------

The Pixi package definitions found in ‘Tools/pixi-packages’ are derived
from ‘https://github.com/conda-forge/python-feedstock’ which contains
the following license:

     BSD-3-Clause license
     Copyright (c) 2015-2026, conda-forge contributors
     All rights reserved.

     Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
     modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:

       1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice,
          this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
       2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
          notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
          documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
       3. Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its
          contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
          this software without specific prior written permission.

     THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS"
     AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
     IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
     ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR
     ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
     DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
     SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER
     CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
     LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
     OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
     DAMAGE.


File: python.info,  Node: Ευρετήριο Μονάδων της Python,  Next: Ευρετήριο,  Prev: Ιστορία και Άδεια,  Up: Top

Ευρετήριο Μονάδων της Python
****************************

* Menu:

* __future__: 0. Future statement definitions
* __main__: 1. The environment where top-level code is run. Covers
                        command-line interfaces, import-time
                        behavior, and ''__name__ ==
                        '__main__'''.
* _thread: 2. Low-level threading API.
* _tkinter: 3. A binary module that contains the low-level interface
                        to Tcl/Tk.
* abc: 4. Abstract base classes according to :pep:'3119'.
* aifc: 5. Removed in 3.13.
* annotationlib: 6. Functionality for introspecting annotations
* argparse: 7. Command-line option and argument parsing library.
* array: 8. Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric
                        values.
* ast: 9. Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation.
* asynchat: a. Removed in 3.12.
* asyncio: b. Asynchronous I/O.
* asyncore: c. Removed in 3.12.
* atexit: d. Register and execute cleanup functions.
* audioop: e. Removed in 3.13.
* base64: f. RFC 4648: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data
                        Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85
* bdb: 10. Debugger framework.
* binascii: 11. Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII-
                        encoded binary representations.
* bisect: 12. Array bisection algorithms for binary searching.
* builtins: 13. The module that provides the built-in namespace.
* bz2: 14. Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression.
* calendar: 15. Functions for working with calendars, including
                        some emulation of the Unix cal program.
* cgi: 16. Removed in 3.13.
* cgitb: 17. Removed in 3.13.
* chunk: 18. Removed in 3.13.
* cmath: 19. Mathematical functions for complex numbers.
* cmd: 1a. Build line-oriented command interpreters.
* code: 1b. Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops.
* codecs: 1c. Encode and decode data and streams.
* codeop: 1d. Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code.
* collections: 1e. Container datatypes
* collections.abc: 1f. Abstract base classes for containers
* colorsys: 20. Conversion functions between RGB and other color
                        systems.
* compileall: 21. Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a
                        directory tree.
* compression: 22.
* compression.zstd: 23. Low-level interface to compression and decompression
                        routines in the zstd library.
* concurrent.futures: 24. Execute computations concurrently using threads or
                        processes.
* concurrent.interpreters: 25. Multiple interpreters in the same process
* configparser: 26. Configuration file parser.
* contextlib: 27. Utilities for with-statement contexts.
* contextvars: 28. Context Variables
* copy: 29. Shallow and deep copy operations.
* copyreg: 2a. Register pickle support functions.
* crypt: 2b. Removed in 3.13.
* csv: 2c. Write and read tabular data to and from delimited
                        files.
* ctypes: 2d. A foreign function library for Python.
* curses: 2e. An interface to the curses library, providing
                        portable terminal handling.
* curses.ascii: 2f. Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII
                        characters.
* curses.panel: 30. A panel stack extension that adds depth to curses
                        windows.
* curses.textpad: 31. Emacs-like input editing in a curses window.
* dataclasses: 32. Generate special methods on user-defined classes.
* datetime: 33. Basic date and time types.
* dbm: 34. Interfaces to various Unix "database" formats.
* dbm.dumb: 35. Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface.
* dbm.gnu: 36. GNU database manager
* dbm.ndbm: 37. The New Database Manager
* dbm.sqlite3: 38. SQLite backend for dbm
* decimal: 39. Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic
                        Specification.
* difflib: 3a. Helpers for computing differences between objects.
* dis: 3b. Disassembler for Python bytecode.
* distutils: 3c. Removed in 3.12.
* doctest: 3d. Test pieces of code within docstrings.
* email: 3e. Package supporting the parsing,
                        manipulating, and generating email messages.
* email.charset: 3f. Character Sets
* email.contentmanager: 40. Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts
* email.encoders: 41. Encoders for email message payloads.
* email.errors: 42. The exception classes used by the email package.
* email.generator: 43. Generate flat text email messages from a message
                        structure.
* email.header: 44. Representing non-ASCII headers
* email.headerregistry: 45. Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name
* email.iterators: 46. Iterate over a message object tree.
* email.message: 47. The base class representing email messages.
* email.mime: 48. Build MIME messages.
* email.mime.application: 49.
* email.mime.audio: 4a.
* email.mime.base: 4b.
* email.mime.image: 4c.
* email.mime.message: 4d.
* email.mime.multipart: 4e.
* email.mime.nonmultipart: 4f.
* email.mime.text: 50.
* email.parser: 51. Parse flat text email messages to produce a message
                        object structure.
* email.policy: 52. Controlling the parsing and generating of messages
* email.utils: 53. Miscellaneous email package utilities.
* encodings: 54. Encodings package
* encodings.idna: 55. Internationalized Domain Names implementation
* encodings.mbcs: 56. Windows ANSI codepage
* encodings.utf_8_sig: 57. UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
* ensurepip: 58. Bootstrapping the "pip" installer into an existing
                        Python installation or virtual environment.
* enum: 59. Implementation of an enumeration class.
* errno: 5a. Standard errno system symbols.
* faulthandler: 5b. Dump the Python traceback.
* fcntl: 5c. The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls.
* filecmp: 5d. Compare files efficiently.
* fileinput: 5e. Loop over standard input or a list of files.
* fnmatch: 5f. Unix shell style filename pattern matching.
* fractions: 60. Rational numbers.
* ftplib: 61. FTP protocol client (requires sockets).
* functools: 62. Higher-order functions and operations on callable
                        objects.
* gc: 63. Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector.
* getopt: 64. Portable parser for command line options; support both
                        short and long option names.
* getpass: 65. Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the
                        userid.
* gettext: 66. Multilingual internationalization services.
* glob: 67. Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion.
* graphlib: 68. Functionality to operate with graph-like structures
* grp: 69. The group database (getgrnam() and friends).
* gzip: 6a. Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression
                        using file objects.
* hashlib: 6b. Secure hash and message digest algorithms.
* heapq: 6c. Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue).
* hmac: 6d. Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC)
                        implementation
* html: 6e. Helpers for manipulating HTML.
* html.entities: 6f. Definitions of HTML general entities.
* html.parser: 70. A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML.
* http: 71. HTTP status codes and messages
* http.client: 72. HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets).
* http.cookiejar: 73. Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies.
* http.cookies: 74. Support for HTTP state management (cookies).
* http.server: 75. HTTP server and request handlers.
* idlelib: 76. Implementation package for the IDLE shell/editor.
* imaplib: 77. IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets).
* imghdr: 78. Removed in 3.13.
* imp: 79. Removed in 3.12.
* importlib: 7a. The implementation of the import machinery.
* importlib.abc: 7b. Abstract base classes related to import
* importlib.machinery: 7c. Importers and path hooks
* importlib.metadata: 7d. Accessing package metadata
* importlib.resources: 7e. Package resource reading, opening, and
                        access
* importlib.resources.abc: 7f. Abstract base classes for resources
* importlib.util: 80. Utility code for importers
* inspect: 81. Extract information and source code from live objects.
* io: 82. Core tools for working with streams.
* ipaddress: 83. IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library.
* itertools: 84. Functions creating iterators for efficient looping.
* json: 85. Encode and decode the JSON format.
* json.tool: 86. A command-line interface to validate and pretty-print
                        JSON.
* keyword: 87. Test whether a string is a keyword in Python.
* linecache: 88. Provides random access to individual lines from text
                        files.
* locale: 89. Internationalization services.
* logging: 8a. Flexible event logging system for applications.
* logging.config: 8b. Configuration of the logging module.
* logging.handlers: 8c. Handlers for the logging module.
* lzma: 8d. A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library.
* mailbox: 8e. Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
* mailcap: 8f. Removed in 3.13.
* marshal: 90. Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back
                        (with different constraints).
* math: 91. Mathematical functions (sin() etc.).
* math.integer: 92. Integer-specific mathematics functions.
* mimetypes: 93. Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types.
* mmap: 94. Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows.
* modulefinder: 95. Find modules used by a script.
* msilib: 96. Removed in 3.13.
* msvcrt: 97. Miscellaneous useful routines from the MS VC++
                        runtime.
* multiprocessing: 98. Process-based parallelism.
* multiprocessing.connection: 99. API for dealing with sockets.
* multiprocessing.dummy: 9a. Dumb wrapper around threading.
* multiprocessing.managers: 9b. Share data between process with shared objects.
* multiprocessing.pool: 9c. Create pools of processes.
* multiprocessing.shared_memory: 9d. Provides shared memory for direct access
                                 across processes.
* multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 9e. Allocate ctypes objects from shared memory.
* netrc: 9f. Loading of .netrc files.
* nis: a0. Removed in 3.13.
* nntplib: a1. Removed in 3.13.
* numbers: a2. Numeric abstract base classes (Complex,
                        Real, Integral, etc.).
* operator: a3. Functions corresponding to the standard operators.
* optparse: a4. Command-line option parsing library.
* os: a5. Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
* os.path: a6. Operations on pathnames.
* ossaudiodev: a7. Removed in 3.13.
* pathlib: a8. Object-oriented filesystem paths
* pathlib.types: a9. pathlib types for static type checking
* pdb: aa. The Python debugger for interactive interpreters.
* pickle: ab. Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back.
* pickletools: ac. Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols
                        and pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some
                        useful functions.
* pipes: ad. Removed in 3.13.
* pkgutil: ae. Utilities for the import system.
* platform: af. Retrieves as much platform identifying data as
                        possible.
* plistlib: b0. Generate and parse Apple plist files.
* poplib: b1. POP3 protocol client (requires sockets).
* posix: b2. The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via
                        module os).
* pprint: b3. Data pretty printer.
* profile: b4. Pure Python profiler (deprecated).
* profiling: b5. Python profiling tools for performance analysis.
* profiling.sampling: b6. Statistical sampling profiler for Python processes.
* profiling.tracing: b7. Deterministic tracing profiler for Python programs.
* pstats: b8. Statistics object for analyzing profiler output.
* pty: b9. Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Unix.
* pwd: ba. The password database (getpwnam() and friends).
* py_compile: bb. Generate byte-code files from Python source files.
* pyclbr: bc. Supports information extraction for a Python module
                        browser.
* pydoc: bd. Documentation generator and online help system.
* queue: be. A synchronized queue class.
* quopri: bf. Encode and decode files using the MIME quoted-
                        printable encoding.
* random: c0. Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common
                        distributions.
* re: c1. Regular expression operations.
* readline: c2. GNU readline support for Python.
* reprlib: c3. Alternate repr() implementation with size limits.
* resource: c4. An interface to provide resource usage information on
                        the current process.
* rlcompleter: c5. Python identifier completion, suitable for the
                        GNU readline library.
* runpy: c6. Locate and run Python modules without importing them
                        first.
* sched: c7. General purpose event scheduler.
* secrets: c8. Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
* select: c9. Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams.
* selectors: ca. High-level I/O multiplexing.
* shelve: cb. Python object persistence.
* shlex: cc. Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages.
* shutil: cd. High-level file operations, including copying.
* signal: ce. Set handlers for asynchronous events.
* site: cf. Module responsible for site-specific configuration.
* sitecustomize: d0.
* smtpd: d1. Removed in 3.12.
* smtplib: d2. SMTP protocol client (requires sockets).
* sndhdr: d3. Removed in 3.13.
* socket: d4. Low-level networking interface.
* socketserver: d5. A framework for network servers.
* spwd: d6. Removed in 3.13.
* sqlite3: d7. A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x.
* ssl: d8. TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
* stat: d9. Utilities for interpreting the results of
                        os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat().
* statistics: da. Mathematical statistics functions
* string: db. Common string operations.
* string.templatelib: dc. Support for template string literals.
* stringprep: dd. String preparation, as per RFC 3453
* struct: de. Interpret bytes as packed binary data.
* subprocess: df. Subprocess management.
* sunau: e0. Removed in 3.13.
* symtable: e1. Interface to the compiler's internal symbol tables.
* sys: e2. Access system-specific parameters and functions.
* sys.monitoring: e3. Access and control event monitoring
* sysconfig: e4. Python's configuration information
* syslog: e5. An interface to the Unix syslog library routines.
* tabnanny: e6. Tool for detecting white space related problems in
                        Python source files in a directory tree.
* tarfile: e7. Read and write tar-format archive files.
* telnetlib: e8. Removed in 3.13.
* tempfile: e9. Generate temporary files and directories.
* termios: ea. POSIX style tty control.
* test: eb. Regression tests package containing the testing suite
                        for Python.
* test.regrtest: ec. Drives the regression test suite.
* test.support: ed. Support for Python's regression test suite.
* test.support.bytecode_helper: ee. Support tools for testing correct bytecode
                                generation.
* test.support.import_helper: ef. Support for import tests.
* test.support.os_helper: f0. Support for os tests.
* test.support.script_helper: f1. Support for Python's script execution tests.
* test.support.socket_helper: f2. Support for socket tests.
* test.support.threading_helper: f3. Support for threading tests.
* test.support.warnings_helper: f4. Support for warnings tests.
* textwrap: f5. Text wrapping and filling
* threading: f6. Thread-based parallelism.
* time: f7. Time access and conversions.
* timeit: f8. Measure the execution time of small code snippets.
* tkinter: f9. Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces
* tkinter.colorchooser: fa. Color choosing dialog
* tkinter.commondialog: fb. Tkinter base class for dialogs
* tkinter.dnd: fc. Tkinter drag-and-drop interface
* tkinter.filedialog: fd. Dialog classes for file selection
* tkinter.font: fe. Tkinter font-wrapping class
* tkinter.messagebox: ff. Various types of alert dialogs
* tkinter.scrolledtext: 100. Text widget with a vertical scroll bar.
* tkinter.simpledialog: 101. Simple dialog windows
* tkinter.ttk: 102. Tk themed widget set
* token: 103. Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse
                        tree.
* tokenize: 104. Lexical scanner for Python source code.
* tomllib: 105. Parse TOML files.
* trace: 106. Trace or track Python statement execution.
* traceback: 107. Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
* tracemalloc: 108. Trace memory allocations.
* tty: 109. Utility functions that perform common terminal control
                        operations.
* turtle: 10a. An educational framework for simple graphics
                        applications
* turtledemo: 10b. A viewer for example turtle scripts
* types: 10c. Names for built-in types.
* typing: 10d. Support for type hints (see :pep:'484').
* unicodedata: 10e. Access the Unicode Database.
* unittest: 10f. Unit testing framework for Python.
* unittest.mock: 110. Mock object library.
* urllib: 111.
* urllib.error: 112. Exception classes raised by urllib.request.
* urllib.parse: 113. Parse URLs into or assemble them from components.
* urllib.request: 114. Extensible library for opening URLs.
* urllib.response: 115. Response classes used by urllib.
* urllib.robotparser: 116. Load a robots.txt file and answer questions about
                        fetchability of other URLs.
* usercustomize: 117.
* uu: 118. Removed in 3.13.
* uuid: 119. UUID objects (universally unique identifiers)
                        according to RFC 9562
* venv: 11a. Creation of virtual environments.
* warnings: 11b. Issue warning messages and control their disposition.
* wave: 11c. Provide an interface to the WAV sound format.
* weakref: 11d. Support for weak references and weak dictionaries.
* webbrowser: 11e. Easy-to-use controller for web browsers.
* winreg: 11f. Routines and objects for manipulating the Windows
                        registry.
* winsound: 120. Access to the sound-playing machinery for Windows.
* wsgiref: 121. WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
* wsgiref.handlers: 122. WSGI server/gateway base classes.
* wsgiref.headers: 123. WSGI response header tools.
* wsgiref.simple_server: 124. A simple WSGI HTTP server.
* wsgiref.types: 125. WSGI types for static type checking
* wsgiref.util: 126. WSGI environment utilities.
* wsgiref.validate: 127. WSGI conformance checker.
* xdrlib: 128. Removed in 3.13.
* xml: 129. Package containing XML processing modules
* xml.dom: 12a. Document Object Model API for Python.
* xml.dom.minidom: 12b. Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation.
* xml.dom.pulldom: 12c. Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX
                        events.
* xml.etree.ElementInclude: 12d.
* xml.etree.ElementTree: 12e. Implementation of the ElementTree API.
* xml.parsers.expat: 12f. An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser.
* xml.parsers.expat.errors: 130.
* xml.parsers.expat.model: 131.
* xml.sax: 132. Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience
                        functions.
* xml.sax.handler: 133. Base classes for SAX event handlers.
* xml.sax.saxutils: 134. Convenience functions and classes for use with SAX.
* xml.sax.xmlreader: 135. Interface which SAX-compliant XML parsers must
                        implement.
* xmlrpc: 136. Server and client modules implementing XML-RPC.
* xmlrpc.client: 137. XML-RPC client access.
* xmlrpc.server: 138. Basic XML-RPC server implementations.
* zipapp: 139. Manage executable Python zip archives
* zipfile: 13a. Read and write ZIP-format archive files.
* zipimport: 13b. Support for importing Python modules from ZIP
                        archives.
* zlib: 13c. Low-level interface to compression and decompression
                        routines compatible with gzip.
* zoneinfo: 13d. IANA time zone support


File: python.info,  Node: Ευρετήριο,  Prev: Ευρετήριο Μονάδων της Python,  Up: Top

Ευρετήριο
*********

[index]
* Menu:

* _ (underscore);gettext:                GNU gettext API.    (line   32)
* _ (underscore);in string formatting:   Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line  135)
* _ (κάτω παύλα);σε αριθμητικό λεκτικό:  Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line   21)
* _ (κάτω παύλα);σε αριθμητικό λεκτικό <1>: Λεκτικά ακεραίων.
                                                             (line   68)
* __, αναγνωριστικά:                     Ήπιες λέξεις-κλειδιά.
                                                             (line   29)
* __abs__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  121)
* __abs__() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   85)
* __add__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __add__() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   90)
* __aenter__() (μέθοδος της object):     Ασύγχρονοι Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος.
                                                             (line   15)
* __aexit__() (μέθοδος της object):      Ασύγχρονοι Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος.
                                                             (line   20)
* __aiter__() (μέθοδος της object):      Ασύγχρονοι Iterators.
                                                             (line   14)
* __all__:                               Εισάγοντας * από ένα Πακέτο.
                                                             (line    6)
* __all__ (package variable):            Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* __all__ (ιδιότητα της module):         Η εντολή import.    (line   93)
* __all__ (προαιρετικό χαρακτηριστικό module): Η εντολή import.
                                                             (line   93)
* __and__() (μέθοδος της enum.Flag):     Data types.         (line  544)
* __and__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __and__() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   95)
* __anext__() (μέθοδος της agen):        Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   10)
* __anext__() (μέθοδος της object):      Ασύγχρονοι Iterators.
                                                             (line   18)
* __annotate__ (ιδιότητα της function):  Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   56)
* __annotate__ (ιδιότητα της module):    Άλλα εγγράφως χαρακτηριστικά σε αντικείμενα μονάδων.
                                                             (line   25)
* __annotate__ (χαρακτηριστικό module):  Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __annotate__ (χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης):  Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __annotate__ (χαρακτηριστικό συνάρτησης): Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __annotate__() (μέθοδος της object):   Annotations.        (line   22)
* __annotate__() (μέθοδος της type):     Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   72)
* __annotations__ (ιδιότητα της function): Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   46)
* __annotations__ (ιδιότητα της module): Άλλα εγγράφως χαρακτηριστικά σε αντικείμενα μονάδων.
                                                             (line   15)
* __annotations__ (ιδιότητα της object): Annotations.        (line   10)
* __annotations__ (ιδιότητα της type):   Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   43)
* __annotations__ (χαρακτηριστικό module): Modules<3>.       (line   22)
* __annotations__ (χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __annotations__ (χαρακτηριστικό συνάρτησης): Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __args__ (ιδιότητα της genericalias):  Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά αντικειμένων GenericAlias.
                                                             (line   17)
* __await__() (μέθοδος της object):      Awaitable Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   15)
* __base__ (ιδιότητα της type):          Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   33)
* __base__ (χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης):      Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __bases__ (ιδιότητα της type):         Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   27)
* __bases__ (χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης):     Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __bool__() (μέθοδος αντικειμένου):     Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ.
                                                             (line   50)
* __bool__() (μέθοδος της object):       Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  353)
* __bound__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  175)
* __breakpointhook__ (στη μονάδα sys):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  460)
* __buffer__() (μέθοδος της object):     Εξομοίωση τύπων buffer.
                                                             (line   15)
* __builtins__ (function attribute):     Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση.
                                                             (line    6)
* __builtins__ (ιδιότητα της function):  Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση.
                                                             (line   10)
* __bytes__() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  129)
* __bytes__() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  139)
* __bytes__() (μέθοδος της object):      Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  162)
* __call__() (object method):            Calls.              (line  158)
* __call__() (μέθοδος της argparse.Action): Action classes.  (line   28)
* __call__() (μέθοδος της email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  392)
* __call__() (μέθοδος της enum.EnumType): Data types.        (line   20)
* __call__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αντικειμένων με δυνατότητα κλήσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* __call__() (μέθοδος της weakref.finalize): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  293)
* __call__() (στη μονάδα operator):      operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  233)
* __callback__ (ιδιότητα της weakref.ref): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  124)
* __cause__ (exception attribute):       Exception context.  (line    6)
* __cause__ (ιδιότητα της BaseException): Exception context. (line    9)
* __cause__ (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* __cause__ (χαρακτηριστικό εξαίρεσης):  Η εντολή raise.     (line   33)
* __ceil__() (μέθοδος της fractions.Fraction): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  196)
* __ceil__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  152)
* __class__ (ιδιότητα της module):       Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών module.
                                                             (line   26)
* __class__ (ιδιότητα της object):       Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (ιδιότητα της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  558)
* __class__ (κελί που περιέχει μέθοδο):  Δημιουργία αντικειμένου κλάσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (χαρακτηριστικό module):     Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών module.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class__ (χαρακτηριστικό στιγμιοτύπου): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __class_getitem__() (μέθοδος κλάσης της object): Εξομοίωση γενικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   33)
* __classcell__ (καταχώρηση στο namespace της κλάσης): Δημιουργία αντικειμένου κλάσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* __closed__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypedDict): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  512)
* __closure__ (ιδιότητα της function):   Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση.
                                                             (line   22)
* __closure__ (χαρακτηριστικό συνάρτησης): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση.
                                                             (line    6)
* __code__ (ιδιότητα της function):      Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   37)
* __code__ (χαρακτηριστικό αντικείμενου συνάρτησης): Αντικείμενα Κώδικα.
                                                             (line    6)
* __code__ (χαρακτηριστικό συνάρτησης):  Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __complex__() (μέθοδος της object):    Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  129)
* __concat__() (στη μονάδα operator):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  188)
* __constraints__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  196)
* __contains__() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  179)
* __contains__() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  302)
* __contains__() (μέθοδος της enum.EnumType): Data types.    (line   65)
* __contains__() (μέθοδος της enum.Flag): Data types.        (line  482)
* __contains__() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.
                                                             (line  211)
* __contains__() (μέθοδος της object):   Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ.
                                                             (line  180)
* __contains__() (στη μονάδα operator):  operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  193)
* __context__ (exception attribute):     Exception context.  (line    6)
* __context__ (ιδιότητα της BaseException): Exception context.
                                                             (line    9)
* __context__ (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* __context__ (χαρακτηριστικό εξαίρεσης): Η εντολή raise.    (line   33)
* __contravariant__ (ιδιότητα της typing.ParamSpec): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  514)
* __contravariant__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  163)
* __contravariant__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeVarTuple): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  372)
* __copy__() (copy protocol):            copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   80)
* __covariant__ (ιδιότητα της typing.ParamSpec): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  509)
* __covariant__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  159)
* __covariant__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeVarTuple): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  365)
* __debug__:                             Η εντολή assert.    (line   22)
* __debug__ (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή):    Built-in Constants. (line   70)
* __deepcopy__() (copy protocol):        copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   80)
* __default__ (ιδιότητα της typing.ParamSpec): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  526)
* __default__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  219)
* __default__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeVarTuple): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  386)
* __defaults__ (ιδιότητα της function):  Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   31)
* __defaults__ (χαρακτηριστικό συνάρτησης): Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __del__() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):     I/O Base Classes.   (line  163)
* __del__() (μέθοδος της object):        Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line   58)
* __delattr__() (μέθοδος της object):    Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών.
                                                             (line   74)
* __delete__() (μέθοδος της object):     Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων.
                                                             (line   47)
* __delitem__() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  226)
* __delitem__() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  336)
* __delitem__() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* __delitem__() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH): MH objects.        (line   79)
* __delitem__() (μέθοδος της object):    Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ.
                                                             (line  135)
* __delitem__() (στη μονάδα operator):   operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  203)
* __dict__ (module attribute):           Module Objects.     (line   49)
* __dict__ (ιδιότητα της function):      Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   41)
* __dict__ (ιδιότητα της module):        Λεξικά Modules.     (line    9)
* __dict__ (ιδιότητα της object):        Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* __dict__ (ιδιότητα της type):          Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   21)
* __dict__ (χαρακτηριστικό module):      Λεξικά Modules.     (line    9)
* __dict__ (χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης):      Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dict__ (χαρακτηριστικό στιγμιοτύπου): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dict__ (χαρακτηριστικό συνάρτησης):  Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dir__ (χαρακτηριστικό module):       Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών module.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dir__() (μέθοδος της enum.Enum):     Data types.         (line  200)
* __dir__() (μέθοδος της enum.EnumType): Data types.         (line   78)
* __dir__() (μέθοδος της module):        Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών module.
                                                             (line    6)
* __dir__() (μέθοδος της object):        Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών.
                                                             (line   84)
* __dir__() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  298)
* __displayhook__ (στη μονάδα sys):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  460)
* __divmod__() (μέθοδος της object):     Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __doc__ (module attribute):            Module Objects.     (line   26)
* __doc__ (ιδιότητα της definition):     Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   26)
* __doc__ (ιδιότητα της function):       Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   13)
* __doc__ (ιδιότητα της method):         Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου.
                                                             (line   19)
* __doc__ (ιδιότητα της module):         Άλλα εγγράφως χαρακτηριστικά σε αντικείμενα μονάδων.
                                                             (line   10)
* __doc__ (ιδιότητα της type):           Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   39)
* __doc__ (χαρακτηριστικό module):       Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __doc__ (χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης):       Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __doc__ (χαρακτηριστικό μεθόδου):      Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου.
                                                             (line   10)
* __doc__ (χαρακτηριστικό συνάρτησης):   Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __enter__() (μέθοδος της contextmanager): Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου.
                                                             (line   13)
* __enter__() (μέθοδος της object):      Με τους Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης.
                                                             (line   24)
* __enter__() (μέθοδος της winreg.PyHKEY): Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   57)
* __eq__() (μέθοδος στιγμιοτύπου):       Συγκρίσεις.         (line   51)
* __eq__() (μέθοδος της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line  165)
* __eq__() (μέθοδος της email.header.Header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  168)
* __eq__() (μέθοδος της memoryview):     Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  121)
* __eq__() (μέθοδος της object):         Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  198)
* __eq__() (στη μονάδα operator):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* __excepthook__ (στη μονάδα sys):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  460)
* __excepthook__ (στη μονάδα threading): Reference<2>.       (line   65)
* __exit__() (μέθοδος της contextmanager): Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου.
                                                             (line   36)
* __exit__() (μέθοδος της object):       Με τους Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης.
                                                             (line   31)
* __exit__() (μέθοδος της winreg.PyHKEY): Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   57)
* __extra_items__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypedDict): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  517)
* __file__ (module attribute):           Module Objects.     (line   26)
* __file__ (module attribute) <1>:       Module Objects.     (line   97)
* __file__ (ιδιότητα της module):        Χαρακτηριστικά που σχετίζονται με εισαγωγή σε αντικείμενα modules.
                                                             (line  151)
* __file__ (χαρακτηριστικό module):      Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __firstlineno__ (ιδιότητα της type):   Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   94)
* __firstlineno__ (χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __float__() (μέθοδος της object):      Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  129)
* __floor__() (μέθοδος της fractions.Fraction): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  186)
* __floor__() (μέθοδος της object):      Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  152)
* __floordiv__() (μέθοδος της object):   Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __floordiv__() (στη μονάδα operator):  operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  100)
* __format__:                            Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  860)
* __format__() (μέθοδος της datetime.date): date objects.    (line  339)
* __format__() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  769)
* __format__() (μέθοδος της datetime.time): time objects.    (line  244)
* __format__() (μέθοδος της enum.Enum):  Data types.         (line  360)
* __format__() (μέθοδος της fractions.Fraction): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  213)
* __format__() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  199)
* __format__() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  331)
* __format__() (μέθοδος της object):     Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  169)
* __forward_arg__ (ιδιότητα της annotationlib.ForwardRef): Classes<2>.
                                                             (line   59)
* __fspath__() (μέθοδος της os.PathLike): Process Parameters.
                                                             (line  149)
* __func__ (ιδιότητα της method):        Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου.
                                                             (line   16)
* __func__ (χαρακτηριστικό μεθόδου):     Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου.
                                                             (line   10)
* __future__:                            Γλωσσάρι.           (line  757)
* __future__;μελλοντική δήλωση:          Μελλοντικές δηλώσεις.
                                                             (line    6)
* __ge__() (μέθοδος στιγμιοτύπου):       Συγκρίσεις.         (line   51)
* __ge__() (μέθοδος της object):         Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  198)
* __ge__() (στη μονάδα operator):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* __get__() (μέθοδος της object):        Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων.
                                                             (line   15)
* __getattr__ (χαρακτηριστικό module):   Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών module.
                                                             (line    6)
* __getattr__() (μέθοδος της module):    Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών module.
                                                             (line    6)
* __getattr__() (μέθοδος της object):    Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών.
                                                             (line   10)
* __getattribute__() (μέθοδος της object): Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών.
                                                             (line   35)
* __getitem__() (μέθοδος αντικειμένου αντιστοίχισης): Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων.
                                                             (line    6)
* __getitem__() (μέθοδος της email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  387)
* __getitem__() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  189)
* __getitem__() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  311)
* __getitem__() (μέθοδος της enum.EnumType): Data types.     (line   86)
* __getitem__() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.
                                                             (line  156)
* __getitem__() (μέθοδος της object):    Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ.
                                                             (line   77)
* __getitem__() (μέθοδος της re.Match):  Match objects.      (line   88)
* __getitem__() (στη μονάδα operator):   operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  208)
* __getnewargs__() (μέθοδος της object): Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line   47)
* __getnewargs_ex__() (μέθοδος της object): Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line   29)
* __getstate__() (copy protocol):        Handling Stateful Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* __getstate__() (μέθοδος της object):   Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line   61)
* __globals__ (ιδιότητα της function):   Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση.
                                                             (line   16)
* __globals__ (χαρακτηριστικό συνάρτησης): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση.
                                                             (line    6)
* __gt__() (μέθοδος στιγμιοτύπου):       Συγκρίσεις.         (line   51)
* __gt__() (μέθοδος της object):         Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  198)
* __gt__() (στη μονάδα operator):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* __hash__() (μέθοδος της object):       Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  264)
* __iadd__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   88)
* __iadd__() (στη μονάδα operator):      In-place Operators. (line   36)
* __iand__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   88)
* __iand__() (στη μονάδα operator):      In-place Operators. (line   41)
* __iconcat__() (στη μονάδα operator):   In-place Operators. (line   46)
* __ifloordiv__() (μέθοδος της object):  Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   88)
* __ifloordiv__() (στη μονάδα operator): In-place Operators. (line   52)
* __ilshift__() (μέθοδος της object):    Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   88)
* __ilshift__() (στη μονάδα operator):   In-place Operators. (line   57)
* __imatmul__() (μέθοδος της object):    Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   88)
* __imatmul__() (στη μονάδα operator):   In-place Operators. (line   72)
* __imod__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   88)
* __imod__() (στη μονάδα operator):      In-place Operators. (line   62)
* __import__() (στη μονάδα importlib):   Functions<11>.      (line    6)
* __imul__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   88)
* __imul__() (στη μονάδα operator):      In-place Operators. (line   67)
* __index__() (μέθοδος της object):      Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  137)
* __index__() (στη μονάδα operator):     operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  105)
* __infer_variance__ (ιδιότητα της typing.ParamSpec): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  519)
* __infer_variance__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  168)
* __infer_variance__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeVarTuple): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  379)
* __init__() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Future): Future and Task private constructors.
                                                             (line   17)
* __init__() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task): Future and Task private constructors.
                                                             (line   23)
* __init__() (μέθοδος της difflib.HtmlDiff): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line   91)
* __init__() (μέθοδος της enum.Enum):    Data types.         (line  265)
* __init__() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects. (line   13)
* __init__() (μέθοδος της logging.logging.Formatter): Formatters.
                                                             (line   13)
* __init__() (μέθοδος της object):       Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line   40)
* __init_subclass__() (μέθοδος κλάσης της object): Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης.
                                                             (line   14)
* __init_subclass__() (μέθοδος της enum.Enum): Data types.   (line  278)
* __instancecheck__() (μέθοδος της type): Προσαρμογή ελέγχων παρουσίας και υποκλάσης.
                                                             (line   16)
* __int__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  129)
* __interactivehook__ (στη μονάδα sys):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1288)
* __inv__() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  114)
* __invert__() (μέθοδος της object):     Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  121)
* __invert__() (στη μονάδα operator):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  114)
* __ior__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   88)
* __ior__() (στη μονάδα operator):       In-place Operators. (line   79)
* __ipow__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   88)
* __ipow__() (στη μονάδα operator):      In-place Operators. (line   84)
* __irshift__() (μέθοδος της object):    Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   88)
* __irshift__() (στη μονάδα operator):   In-place Operators. (line   89)
* __isub__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   88)
* __isub__() (στη μονάδα operator):      In-place Operators. (line   94)
* __iter__() (μέθοδος της container):    Τύποι Iterator.     (line   16)
* __iter__() (μέθοδος της enum.EnumType): Data types.        (line   94)
* __iter__() (μέθοδος της iterator):     Τύποι Iterator.     (line   33)
* __iter__() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects. (line  124)
* __iter__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ.
                                                             (line  151)
* __iter__() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestSuite): Grouping tests.
                                                             (line   58)
* __itruediv__() (μέθοδος της object):   Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   88)
* __itruediv__() (στη μονάδα operator):  In-place Operators. (line   99)
* __ixor__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   88)
* __ixor__() (στη μονάδα operator):      In-place Operators. (line  104)
* __kwdefaults__ (ιδιότητα της function): Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   63)
* __kwdefaults__ (χαρακτηριστικό συνάρτησης): Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __lazy_modules__:                      Compatibility via __lazy_modules__.
                                                             (line    6)
* __lazy_modules__ (module attribute):   Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __lazy_modules__ (ιδιότητα της module): Άλλα εγγράφως χαρακτηριστικά σε αντικείμενα μονάδων.
                                                             (line   33)
* __le__() (μέθοδος στιγμιοτύπου):       Συγκρίσεις.         (line   51)
* __le__() (μέθοδος της object):         Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  198)
* __le__() (στη μονάδα operator):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* __len__() (μέθοδος αντιστοίχισης αντικειμένου): Βασική προσαρμογή.
                                                             (line  355)
* __len__() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  175)
* __len__() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  298)
* __len__() (μέθοδος της enum.EnumType): Data types.         (line  101)
* __len__() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.  (line  216)
* __len__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ.
                                                             (line   48)
* __length_hint__() (μέθοδος της object): Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ.
                                                             (line   64)
* __loader__ (module attribute):         Module Objects.     (line   26)
* __loader__ (ιδιότητα της module):      Χαρακτηριστικά που σχετίζονται με εισαγωγή σε αντικείμενα modules.
                                                             (line  108)
* __loader__ (χαρακτηριστικό module):    Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __lshift__() (μέθοδος της object):     Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __lshift__() (στη μονάδα operator):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  122)
* __lt__() (μέθοδος στιγμιοτύπου):       Συγκρίσεις.         (line   51)
* __lt__() (μέθοδος της object):         Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  198)
* __lt__() (στη μονάδα operator):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* __matmul__() (μέθοδος της object):     Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __matmul__() (στη μονάδα operator):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  137)
* __members__ (ιδιότητα της enum.EnumType): Data types.      (line  108)
* __missing__():                         Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line  122)
* __missing__() (μέθοδος της collections.defaultdict): defaultdict objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* __missing__() (μέθοδος της object):    Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ.
                                                             (line  145)
* __mod__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __mod__() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  127)
* __module__ (ιδιότητα της definition):  Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   22)
* __module__ (ιδιότητα της function):    Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   27)
* __module__ (ιδιότητα της method):      Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου.
                                                             (line   29)
* __module__ (ιδιότητα της sentinel):    Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1982)
* __module__ (ιδιότητα της type):        Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   18)
* __module__ (ιδιότητα της typing.NewType): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  108)
* __module__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeAliasType): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  637)
* __module__ (χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης):    Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __module__ (χαρακτηριστικό μεθόδου):   Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου.
                                                             (line   10)
* __module__ (χαρακτηριστικό συνάρτησης): Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __mro__ (ιδιότητα της type):           Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line  103)
* __mro_entries__() (μέθοδος της object): Επίλυση εγγραφών MRO.
                                                             (line    6)
* __mul__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __mul__() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  132)
* __mutable_keys__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypedDict): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  504)
* __name__ (module attribute):           Module Objects.     (line   26)
* __name__ (module attribute) <1>:       Module Objects.     (line   67)
* __name__ (ιδιότητα της definition):    Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   10)
* __name__ (ιδιότητα της function):      Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   17)
* __name__ (ιδιότητα της method):        Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου.
                                                             (line   25)
* __name__ (ιδιότητα της module):        Χαρακτηριστικά που σχετίζονται με εισαγωγή σε αντικείμενα modules.
                                                             (line   39)
* __name__ (ιδιότητα της property):      Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1814)
* __name__ (ιδιότητα της sentinel):      Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1978)
* __name__ (ιδιότητα της type):          Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   10)
* __name__ (ιδιότητα της typing.NewType): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  112)
* __name__ (ιδιότητα της typing.ParamSpec): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  505)
* __name__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeAliasType): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  617)
* __name__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  155)
* __name__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeVarTuple): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  361)
* __name__ (χαρακτηριστικό module):      Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __name__ (χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης):      Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __name__ (χαρακτηριστικό μεθόδου):     Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου.
                                                             (line   10)
* __name__ (χαρακτηριστικό συνάρτησης):  Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __ne__() (μέθοδος στιγμιοτύπου):       Συγκρίσεις.         (line   51)
* __ne__() (μέθοδος της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line  170)
* __ne__() (μέθοδος της email.header.Header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  173)
* __ne__() (μέθοδος της object):         Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  198)
* __ne__() (στη μονάδα operator):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* __neg__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  121)
* __neg__() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  144)
* __new__() (μέθοδος της enum.Enum):     Data types.         (line  308)
* __new__() (μέθοδος της object):        Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line    6)
* __new__() (μέθοδος της string.templatelib.Interpolation): Types.
                                                             (line  280)
* __new__() (μέθοδος της string.templatelib.Template): Types.
                                                             (line  106)
* __next__() (μέθοδος της csv.csvreader): Αντικείμενα Αναγνώστη.
                                                             (line   10)
* __next__() (μέθοδος της generator):    Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   12)
* __next__() (μέθοδος της iterator):     Τύποι Iterator.     (line   41)
* __not__() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   49)
* __notes__ (ιδιότητα της BaseException): Base classes.      (line   58)
* __notes__ (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* __objclass__ (ιδιότητα της object):    Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων.
                                                             (line   55)
* __optional_keys__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypedDict): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  457)
* __or__() (μέθοδος της enum.Flag):      Data types.         (line  537)
* __or__() (μέθοδος της object):         Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __or__() (στη μονάδα operator):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  149)
* __origin__ (ιδιότητα της genericalias): Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά αντικειμένων GenericAlias.
                                                             (line    9)
* __package__ (module attribute):        Module Objects.     (line   26)
* __package__ (ιδιότητα της module):     Χαρακτηριστικά που σχετίζονται με εισαγωγή σε αντικείμενα modules.
                                                             (line   60)
* __package__ (χαρακτηριστικό module):   Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __parameters__ (ιδιότητα της genericalias): Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά αντικειμένων GenericAlias.
                                                             (line   26)
* __path__ (ιδιότητα της module):        Χαρακτηριστικά που σχετίζονται με εισαγωγή σε αντικείμενα modules.
                                                             (line  139)
* __path__ (χαρακτηριστικό module):      Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __pointer_type__ (ιδιότητα της ctypes._CData): Data types<2>.
                                                             (line   71)
* __pos__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  121)
* __pos__() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  154)
* __post_init__() (στη μονάδα dataclasses): Post-init processing.
                                                             (line    6)
* __pow__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __pow__() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  159)
* __prepare__ (μέθοδος μετακλάσης):      Προετοιμασία του χώρου ονομάτων της κλάσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__:                   PyConfig.           (line  184)
* __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ <1>:               PyConfig.           (line  730)
* __qualname__ (ιδιότητα της definition): Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   15)
* __qualname__ (ιδιότητα της function):  Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   21)
* __qualname__ (ιδιότητα της type):      Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   14)
* __qualname__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeAliasType): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  625)
* __radd__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __rand__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __rdivmod__() (μέθοδος της object):    Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __readonly_keys__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypedDict): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  496)
* __reduce__() (μέθοδος της object):     Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line  125)
* __reduce_ex__() (μέθοδος της object):  Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line  181)
* __release_buffer__() (μέθοδος της object): Εξομοίωση τύπων buffer.
                                                             (line   34)
* __replace__() (replace protocol):      copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   98)
* __repr__() (μέθοδος της enum.Enum):    Data types.         (line  325)
* __repr__() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line  144)
* __repr__() (μέθοδος της netrc.netrc):  netrc Objects.      (line   16)
* __repr__() (μέθοδος της object):       Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  126)
* __required_keys__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypedDict): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  453)
* __reversed__() (μέθοδος της enum.EnumType): Data types.    (line  113)
* __reversed__() (μέθοδος της object):   Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ.
                                                             (line  159)
* __rfloordiv__() (μέθοδος της object):  Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __rlshift__() (μέθοδος της object):    Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __rmatmul__() (μέθοδος της object):    Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __rmod__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __rmul__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __ror__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __round__() (μέθοδος της fractions.Fraction): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  202)
* __round__() (μέθοδος της object):      Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  152)
* __rpow__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __rrshift__() (μέθοδος της object):    Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __rshift__() (μέθοδος της object):     Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __rshift__() (στη μονάδα operator):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  164)
* __rsub__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __rtruediv__() (μέθοδος της object):   Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __rxor__() (μέθοδος της object):       Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   44)
* __self__ (ιδιότητα της method):        Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου.
                                                             (line   12)
* __self__ (χαρακτηριστικό μεθόδου):     Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου.
                                                             (line   10)
* __set__() (μέθοδος της object):        Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων.
                                                             (line   37)
* __set_name__() (μέθοδος της object):   Προσαρμογή δημιουργίας κλάσης.
                                                             (line   50)
* __setattr__() (μέθοδος της object):    Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών.
                                                             (line   58)
* __setitem__() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  204)
* __setitem__() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  322)
* __setitem__() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.
                                                             (line   98)
* __setitem__() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.
                                                             (line  193)
* __setitem__() (μέθοδος της object):    Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ.
                                                             (line  125)
* __setitem__() (στη μονάδα operator):   operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  217)
* __setstate__() (copy protocol):        Handling Stateful Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* __setstate__() (μέθοδος της object):   Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line   88)
* __slots__:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1718)
* __spec__ (ιδιότητα της module):        Χαρακτηριστικά που σχετίζονται με εισαγωγή σε αντικείμενα modules.
                                                             (line   49)
* __spec__ (χαρακτηριστικό module):      Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* __static_attributes__ (ιδιότητα της type): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   86)
* __static_attributes__ (χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __stderr__ (στη μονάδα sys):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2177)
* __stdin__ (στη μονάδα sys):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2177)
* __stdout__ (στη μονάδα sys):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2177)
* __str__() (μέθοδος της datetime.date): date objects.       (line  312)
* __str__() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  739)
* __str__() (μέθοδος της datetime.time): time objects.       (line  234)
* __str__() (μέθοδος της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line  159)
* __str__() (μέθοδος της email.header.Header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  157)
* __str__() (μέθοδος της email.headerregistry.Address): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  449)
* __str__() (μέθοδος της email.headerregistry.Group): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  484)
* __str__() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   95)
* __str__() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  102)
* __str__() (μέθοδος της enum.Enum):     Data types.         (line  343)
* __str__() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line  148)
* __str__() (μέθοδος της object):        Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  146)
* __sub__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __sub__() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  169)
* __subclasscheck__() (μέθοδος της type): Προσαρμογή ελέγχων παρουσίας και υποκλάσης.
                                                             (line   22)
* __subclasses__() (μέθοδος της type):   Ειδικές μέθοδοι.    (line   16)
* __subclasshook__() (μέθοδος της abc.ABCMeta): abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   92)
* __supertype__ (ιδιότητα της typing.NewType): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  116)
* __suppress_context__ (exception attribute): Exception context.
                                                             (line    6)
* __suppress_context__ (ιδιότητα της BaseException): Exception context.
                                                             (line    9)
* __suppress_context__ (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* __test__ (ιδιότητα της module):        Which Docstrings Are Examined?.
                                                             (line    9)
* __total__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypedDict): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  428)
* __traceback__ (ιδιότητα της BaseException): Base classes.  (line   44)
* __traceback__ (χαρακτηριστικό εξαίρεσης): Η εντολή raise.  (line    6)
* __truediv__() (μέθοδος της importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  139)
* __truediv__() (μέθοδος της object):    Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __truediv__() (στη μονάδα operator):   operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  174)
* __trunc__() (μέθοδος της object):      Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  152)
* __type_params__ (ιδιότητα της definition): Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   31)
* __type_params__ (ιδιότητα της function): Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   67)
* __type_params__ (ιδιότητα της type):   Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   79)
* __type_params__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeAliasType): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  649)
* __type_params__ (χαρακτηριστικό κλάσης): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __type_params__ (χαρακτηριστικό συνάρτησης): Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line    6)
* __unpacked__ (ιδιότητα της genericalias): Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά αντικειμένων GenericAlias.
                                                             (line   44)
* __unraisablehook__ (στη μονάδα sys):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  460)
* __value__ (ιδιότητα της typing.TypeAliasType): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  661)
* __xor__() (μέθοδος της enum.Flag):     Data types.         (line  553)
* __xor__() (μέθοδος της object):        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   12)
* __xor__() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  180)
* _, αναγνωριστικά:                      Ήπιες λέξεις-κλειδιά.
                                                             (line   30)
* _add_alias_() (μέθοδος της enum.Enum): Data types.         (line  382)
* _add_value_alias_() (μέθοδος της enum.Enum): Data types.   (line  395)
* _align_ (ιδιότητα της ctypes.Structure): Structured data types.
                                                             (line  110)
* _anonymous_ (ιδιότητα της ctypes.Structure): Structured data types.
                                                             (line  162)
* _asdict() (μέθοδος της collections.somenamedtuple): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
                                                             (line  110)
* _b_base_ (ιδιότητα της ctypes._CData): Data types<2>.      (line   81)
* _b_needsfree_ (ιδιότητα της ctypes._CData): Data types<2>. (line   88)
* _callmethod() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* _CData (κλάση σε ctypes):              Data types<2>.      (line    6)
* _CFuncPtr (κλάση σε ctypes):           Foreign functions.  (line   22)
* _clear_internal_caches() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  234)
* _clear_type_cache() (στη μονάδα sys):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  222)
* _current_exceptions() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  262)
* _current_frames() (στη μονάδα sys):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  242)
* _debugmallocstats() (στη μονάδα sys):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  318)
* _emscripten_info (στη μονάδα sys):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  383)
* _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2083)
* _enter_task() (στη μονάδα asyncio):    Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   22)
* _exit() (στη μονάδα os):               Process Management. (line  120)
* _Feature (κλάση σε __future__):        Module Contents<2>. (line   54)
* _field_defaults (ιδιότητα της collections.somenamedtuple): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
                                                             (line  159)
* _field_types (ιδιότητα της ast.AST):   Node classes.       (line   39)
* _fields (ιδιότητα της ast.AST):        Node classes.       (line   22)
* _fields (ιδιότητα της collections.somenamedtuple): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
                                                             (line  146)
* _fields_ (ιδιότητα της ctypes.Structure): Structured data types.
                                                             (line   46)
* _flush() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  116)
* _for_archive() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipInfo): zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   83)
* _frozen (C struct):                    Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  260)
* _generate_next_value_() (μέθοδος της enum.Enum): Data types.
                                                             (line  222)
* _get_child_mock() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  307)
* _get_preferred_schemes() (στη μονάδα sysconfig): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   41)
* _getframe() (στη μονάδα sys):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  979)
* _getframemodulename() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  994)
* _getvalue() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line  137)
* _handle (ιδιότητα της ctypes.CDLL):    Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  130)
* _ignore_ (ιδιότητα της enum.Enum):     Data types.         (line  189)
* _incompatible_extension_module_restrictions() (στη μονάδα importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  164)
* _inittab (C struct):                   Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  297)
* _inittab.initfunc (C member):          Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  309)
* _inittab.name (C member):              Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  305)
* _is_gil_enabled() (στη μονάδα sys):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1318)
* _is_immortal() (στη μονάδα sys):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1406)
* _is_interned() (στη μονάδα sys):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1422)
* _jit (στη μονάδα sys):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1337)
* _jit.is_active() (στη μονάδα sys):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1365)
* _jit.is_available() (στη μονάδα sys):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1348)
* _jit.is_enabled() (στη μονάδα sys):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1356)
* _layout_ (ιδιότητα της ctypes.Structure): Structured data types.
                                                             (line  131)
* _leave_task() (στη μονάδα asyncio):    Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   30)
* _length_ (ιδιότητα της ctypes.Array):  Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   18)
* _log (ιδιότητα της logging.LoggerAdapter): LoggerAdapter Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* _make() (μέθοδος κλάσης της collections.somenamedtuple): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
                                                             (line  101)
* _makeResult() (μέθοδος της unittest.TextTestRunner): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  490)
* _missing_() (μέθοδος της enum.Enum):   Data types.         (line  283)
* _name (ιδιότητα της ctypes.CDLL):      Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  134)
* _name_ (ιδιότητα της enum.Enum):       Data types.         (line  153)
* _numeric_repr_() (μέθοδος της enum.Flag): Data types.      (line  573)
* _objects (ιδιότητα της ctypes._CData): Data types<2>.      (line   93)
* _order_ (ιδιότητα της enum.Enum):      Data types.         (line  161)
* _pack_ (ιδιότητα της ctypes.Structure): Structured data types.
                                                             (line   87)
* _parse() (μέθοδος της gettext.NullTranslations): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   21)
* _Pointer (κλάση σε ctypes):            Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   39)
* _Py_c_abs (C function):                Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   71)
* _Py_c_diff (C function):               Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   24)
* _Py_c_neg (C function):                Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   32)
* _Py_c_pow (C function):                Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   58)
* _Py_c_prod (C function):               Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   39)
* _Py_c_quot (C function):               Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   47)
* _Py_c_sum (C function):                Complex Numbers as C Structures.
                                                             (line   16)
* _Py_InitializeMain (C function):       Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API.
                                                             (line   45)
* _Py_NoneStruct (C var):                Allocating objects on the heap.
                                                             (line  144)
* _Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line  859)
* _PyBytes_Resize (C function):          Bytes Objects.      (line  232)
* _PyCode_GetExtra (C function):         Extra information.  (line   35)
* _PyCode_SetExtra (C function):         Extra information.  (line   51)
* _PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (C function): Extra information.
                                                             (line   14)
* _PyFrameEvalFunction (C type):         High-level APIs<2>. (line   59)
* _PyInterpreterFrame (C struct):        Internal frames.    (line    8)
* _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc (C function): High-level APIs<2>.
                                                             (line   74)
* _PyInterpreterState_IsSpecializationEnabled (C function): High-level APIs<2>.
                                                             (line  110)
* _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameAllowSpecialization (C function): High-level APIs<2>.
                                                             (line   93)
* _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc (C function): High-level APIs<2>.
                                                             (line   84)
* _PyObject_GetDictPtr (C function):     Object Protocol.    (line  336)
* _PyObject_New (C function):            Allocating objects on the heap.
                                                             (line    6)
* _PyObject_NewVar (C function):         Allocating objects on the heap.
                                                             (line   10)
* _PyObject_Vectorcall (C function):     Object Calling API. (line  198)
* _PyTuple_Resize (C function):          Tuple Objects.      (line  127)
* _register_task() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   10)
* _replace() (μέθοδος της collections.somenamedtuple): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
                                                             (line  128)
* _setroot() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* _SimpleCData (κλάση σε ctypes):        Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* _structure() (στη μονάδα email.iterators): email iterators Iterators.
                                                             (line   44)
* _type_ (ιδιότητα της ctypes._Pointer): Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   54)
* _type_ (ιδιότητα της ctypes._SimpleCData): Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   32)
* _type_ (ιδιότητα της ctypes.Array):    Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   24)
* _unregister_task() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Task lifetime support.
                                                             (line   16)
* _value_ (ιδιότητα της enum.Enum):      Data types.         (line  157)
* _write() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  108)
* _xoptions (στη μονάδα sys):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2368)
* - (minus);binary operator:             Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   91)
* - (minus);in doctests:                 Option Flags.       (line  163)
* - (minus);in glob-style wildcards:     glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   10)
* - (minus);in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   15)
* - (minus);in regular expressions:      Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  178)
* - (minus);in string formatting:        Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line   77)
* - (minus);unary operator:              Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   10)
* - (πλην);δυαδικός τελεστής:            Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* - (πλην);σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   77)
* - (πλην);σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf <1>: Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line   68)
* - (πλην);τελεστής unary:               Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* -=;επαυξημένη ανάθεση:                 Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* ->;function annotations:               Annotations Συναρτήσεων.
                                                             (line    6)
* ->;function annotations <1>:           Function definitions.
                                                             (line  109)
* , (comma):                             Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line   20)
* , (comma);argument list:               Formal subscription grammar.
                                                             (line   16)
* , (comma);expression list:             List displays.      (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <1>:         Set displays.       (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <2>:         Expression lists.   (line    6)
* , (comma);expression list <3>:         Class definitions.  (line    6)
* , (comma);in dictionary displays:      Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);in string formatting:        Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line  135)
* , (comma);parameter list:              Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* , (comma);slicing:                     Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line   70)
* , (comma);with statement:              The with statement. (line    6)
* , (κόμμα);εντολή εισαγωγής:            Η εντολή import.    (line    6)
* , (κόμμα);λίστα αναγνωριστικών:        Η εντολή global.    (line    6)
* , (κόμμα);λίστα αναγνωριστικών <1>:    Η εντολή nonlocal.  (line    6)
* , (κόμμα);λίστα εκφράσεων:             Η εντολή assert.    (line    6)
* , (κόμμα);στη λίστα προορισμού:        Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line   36)
* ; (colon);compound statement:          The if statement.   (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <1>:      The while statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <2>:      The for statement.  (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <3>:      The try statement.  (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <4>:      The with statement. (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <5>:      The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <6>:      Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);compound statement <7>:      Class definitions.  (line    6)
* ; (colon);function annotations:        Annotations Συναρτήσεων.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);function annotations <1>:    Function definitions.
                                                             (line  109)
* ; (colon);in dictionary expressions:   Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (colon);in SQL statements:           Cursor objects.     (line   23)
* ; (colon);in string formatting:        Format string syntax.
                                                             (line   13)
* ; (colon);lambda expression:           Lambdas.            (line    6)
* ; (colon);path separator (POSIX):      Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  137)
* ; (colon);slicing:                     Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line   70)
* ; (semicolon):                         Compound statements.
                                                             (line   18)
* ; (semicolon) <1>:                     Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  137)
* ; (άνω και κάτω τελεία);σχολιασμένη μεταβλητή: Εντολές ανάθεσης με σχολιασμό.
                                                             (line    6)
* ; (άνω κάτω τελεία);μέσα σε μορφοποιημένη συμβολοσειρά: Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1038)
* ; (άνω-κάτω τελεία);σε λεκτικό μορφοποιημένης συμβολοσειράς: Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς.
                                                             (line   28)
* ;= (colon equals):                     Boolean operations. (line   38)
* ! (exclamation);in a command interpreter: Cmd Objects.     (line   27)
* ! (exclamation);in curses module:      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  228)
* ! (exclamation);in glob-style wildcards: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   10)
* ! (exclamation);in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   15)
* ! (exclamation);in string formatting:  Format string syntax.
                                                             (line   13)
* ! (pdb command):                       Debugger commands.  (line  410)
* ! (Θαυμαστικό);μέσα σε μορφοποιημένη συμβολοσειρά: Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1038)
* ! (θαυμαστικό);σε λεκτικό μορφοποιημένης συμβολοσειράς: Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς.
                                                             (line   28)
* ! (θαυμαστικό);στις συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης struct: Διάταξη Byte Μέγεθος και Στοίχιση.
                                                             (line   15)
* ! f-string:                            Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1038)
* ! patterns:                            Patterns.           (line    6)
* ! μορφοποιημένη συμβολοσειρά κυριολεκτικής μορφής: Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1038)
* ? (question mark);in a command interpreter: Cmd Objects.   (line   27)
* ? (question mark);in argparse module:  nargs.              (line   24)
* ? (question mark);in AST grammar:      Node classes.       (line   22)
* ? (question mark);in glob-style wildcards: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   10)
* ? (question mark);in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   15)
* ? (question mark);in regular expressions: Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line   81)
* ? (question mark);in SQL statements:   Cursor objects.     (line   23)
* ? (question mark);replacement character: Error Handlers.   (line   15)
* ? (ερωτηματικό);στις συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης struct: Χαρακτήρες μορφής.
                                                             (line  113)
* ? (ερωτηματικό);στις συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης struct <1>: Χαρακτήρες μορφής.
                                                             (line  212)
* ??;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line   86)
* ?+;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line   96)
* . (dot);attribute reference:           Attribute references.
                                                             (line    6)
* . (dot);in glob-style wildcards:       glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   10)
* . (dot);in pathnames:                  Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  103)
* . (dot);in pathnames <1>:              Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  131)
* . (dot);in regular expressions:        Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line   46)
* . (dot);in string formatting:          Format string syntax.
                                                             (line   13)
* . (τελεία);σε αριθμητικό λεκτικό:      Λεκτικά ακεραίων.   (line   69)
* . (τελεία);σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   35)
* . (τελεία);σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf <1>: Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line   26)
* ..;in pathnames:                       Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  109)
* ...:                                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line   10)
* ...;ellipsis literal:                  else Ρήτρες στους βρόχους.
                                                             (line   60)
* ...;ellipsis literal <1>:              Ellipsis.           (line    6)
* ...;ellipsis literal <2>:              Built-in Constants. (line   62)
* ...;ellipsis literal <3>:              Το Αντικείμενο Null.
                                                             (line   12)
* ...;ellipsis literal <4>:              Annotating callable objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* ...;ellipsis literal <5>:              Annotating tuples.  (line   42)
* ...;ellipsis literal <6>:              Special forms.      (line   85)
* ...;ellipsis literal <7>:              Γλωσσάρι.           (line   23)
* ...;in doctests:                       Option Flags.       (line   47)
* ...;interpreter prompt:                How are Docstring Examples Recognized?.
                                                             (line   26)
* ...;interpreter prompt <1>:            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1687)
* ...;placeholder:                       textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  299)
* ...;placeholder <1>:                   PrettyPrinter objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* ...;placeholder <2>:                   reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   61)
* .ini;file:                             configparser — Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* .pdbrc;file:                           Debugger commands.  (line   63)
* ' (μονό εισαγωγικό);λεκτικό συμβολοσειράς: Λεκτικά.        (line   16)
* ''';λεκτικό συμβολοσειράς:             Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes.
                                                             (line   35)
* " (διπλό εισαγωγικό);λεκτικό συμβολοσειράς: Λεκτικά.       (line   15)
* """;λεκτικό συμβολοσειράς:             Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes.
                                                             (line   35)
* (?;;in regular expressions:            Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  287)
* (?;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  248)
* (?!;in regular expressions:            Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  405)
* (?(;in regular expressions:            Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  448)
* (?#;in regular expressions:            Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  394)
* (?<!;in regular expressions:           Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  439)
* (?<=;in regular expressions:           Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  411)
* (?=;in regular expressions:            Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  398)
* (?P<;in regular expressions:           Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  350)
* (?P=;in regular expressions:           Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  389)
* () (parentheses);call:                 Formal subscription grammar.
                                                             (line   16)
* () (parentheses);class definition:     Class definitions.  (line    6)
* () (parentheses);function definition:  Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* () (parentheses);generator expression: Generator expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* () (parentheses);in regular expressions: Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  239)
* () (parentheses);tuple display:        Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line    6)
* () (παρενθέσεις);σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   35)
* () (παρενθέσεις);σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf <1>: Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line   26)
* () (παρενθέσεις);στη λίστα προορισμού ανάθεσης: Εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line   36)
* [] (square brackets);in glob-style wildcards: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   10)
* [] (square brackets);in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   15)
* [] (square brackets);in regular expressions: Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  171)
* [] (square brackets);in string formatting: Format string syntax.
                                                             (line   13)
* [] (square brackets);list expression:  List displays.      (line    6)
* [] (square brackets);subscription:     Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line    6)
* [] (αγκύλες);στη λίστα προορισμού ανάθεσης: Εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line   36)
* {} (curly brackets);dictionary expression: Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* {} (curly brackets);in regular expressions: Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  115)
* {} (curly brackets);in string formatting: Format string syntax.
                                                             (line   13)
* {} (curly brackets);set expression:    Set displays.       (line    6)
* {} (άγκιστρα);σε λεκτικό μορφοποιημένης συμβολοσειράς: Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς.
                                                             (line   28)
* {} (αγκύλες);μέσα σε μορφοποιημένη συμβολοσειρά: Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1038)
* @ (at);class definition:               Class definitions.  (line   47)
* @ (at);function definition:            Function definitions.
                                                             (line   35)
* @ (παπάκι);στις συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης struct: Διάταξη Byte Μέγεθος και Στοίχιση.
                                                             (line   15)
* * (asterisk);function definition:      Function definitions.
                                                             (line   93)
* * (asterisk);in argparse module:       nargs.              (line   55)
* * (asterisk);in AST grammar:           Node classes.       (line   22)
* * (asterisk);in expression lists:      Expression lists.   (line   18)
* * (asterisk);in function calls:        Calls.              (line   73)
* * (asterisk);in glob-style wildcards:  glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   10)
* * (asterisk);in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   15)
* * (asterisk);in regular expressions:   Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line   69)
* * (αστερίσκος);in function calls:      Λίστες Αυθαίρετων Ορισμάτων.
                                                             (line    6)
* * (αστερίσκος);εντολή εισαγωγής:       Η εντολή import.    (line   88)
* * (αστερίσκος);σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   35)
* * (αστερίσκος);σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf <1>: Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line   26)
* * (αστερίσκος);στη λίστα προορισμού ανάθεσης: Εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line   36)
* *?;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line   86)
* **;function definition:                Function definitions.
                                                             (line   93)
* **;in dictionary displays:             Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   23)
* **;in function calls:                  Unpacking Λίστες Ορισμάτων.
                                                             (line   20)
* **;in function calls <1>:              Calls.              (line  100)
* **;in glob-style wildcards:            glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   51)
* **=;επαυξημένη ανάθεση:                Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* *+;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line   96)
* *=;επαυξημένη ανάθεση:                 Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* / (slash);function definition:         Function definitions.
                                                             (line   93)
* / (slash);in pathnames:                Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  115)
* / (slash);in pathnames <1>:            Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  124)
* //=;επαυξημένη ανάθεση:                Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* /=;επαυξημένη ανάθεση:                 Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* \ (backslash);escape sequence:         Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* \ (backslash);in pathnames (Windows):  Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  115)
* \ (backslash);in regular expressions:  Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  156)
* \ (backslash);in regular expressions <1>: Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  190)
* \ (backslash);in regular expressions <2>: Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  467)
* \ (ανάστροφη κάθετος);ακολουθία διαφυγής: Τυπική γραμματική.
                                                             (line   28)
* \\;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  598)
* \\;ακολουθία διαφυγής:                 Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* \A;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  479)
* \a;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  598)
* \a;ακολουθία διαφυγής:                 Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* \b;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  483)
* \B;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  502)
* \b;in regular expressions <1>:         Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  598)
* \b;ακολουθία διαφυγής:                 Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* \d;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  515)
* \D;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  530)
* \f;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  598)
* \f;ακολουθία διαφυγής:                 Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* \g;in regular expressions:             Functions.          (line  229)
* \N;escape sequence:                    Error Handlers.     (line   54)
* \n;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  598)
* \N;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  598)
* \n;ακολουθία διαφυγής:                 Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* \N;ακολουθία διαφυγής:                 Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* \r;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  598)
* \r;ακολουθία διαφυγής:                 Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* \s;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  537)
* \S;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  553)
* \t;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  598)
* \t;ακολουθία διαφυγής:                 Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* \u;escape sequence:                    Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* \U;escape sequence:                    Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* \u;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  598)
* \U;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  598)
* \u;ακολουθία διαφυγής:                 Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* \U;ακολουθία διαφυγής:                 Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   27)
* \v;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  598)
* \v;ακολουθία διαφυγής:                 Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* \w;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  560)
* \W;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  577)
* \x;escape sequence:                    Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* \x;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  598)
* \x;ακολουθία διαφυγής:                 Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* \z;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  588)
* \Z;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  588)
* &=;επαυξημένη ανάθεση:                 Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* # (hash);comment:                      site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   58)
* # (hash);in doctests:                  Option Flags.       (line  164)
* # (hash);in regular expressions:       Flags.              (line  130)
* # (hash);in string formatting:         Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line   99)
* # (hash);σχόλιο:                       Μία Άτυπη Εισαγωγή στην Python.
                                                             (line   15)
* # (δίεση);δήλωση κωδικοποίησης πηγής:  Δηλώσεις κωδικοποίησης.
                                                             (line    6)
* # (δίεση);σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   77)
* # (δίεση);σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf <1>: Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line   68)
* # (δίεση);σχόλιο:                      Σχόλια.             (line    6)
* % (percent);datetime format:           timezone objects.   (line   71)
* % (percent);environment variables expansion (Windows): os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  171)
* % (percent);environment variables expansion (Windows) <1>: Functions<12>.
                                                             (line  247)
* % (percent);interpolation in configuration files: Interpolation of values.
                                                             (line   10)
* % (ποσοστό);μορφή ημερομηνίας και ώρας: Συναρτήσεις<2>.    (line  358)
* % (ποσοστό);μορφή ημερομηνίας και ώρας <1>: Συναρτήσεις<2>.
                                                             (line  526)
* % (τοις εκατό);μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* % (τοις εκατό);μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf <1>: Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* %=;επαυξημένη ανάθεση:                 Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* ^ (caret);in curses module:            curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  228)
* ^ (caret);in regular expressions:      Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line   53)
* ^ (caret);in regular expressions <1>:  Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  200)
* ^ (caret);in string formatting:        Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line   47)
* ^ (caret);marker:                      What About Exceptions?.
                                                             (line   93)
* ^ (caret);marker <1>:                  Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   36)
* ^=;επαυξημένη ανάθεση:                 Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* + (plus);binary operator:              Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   79)
* + (plus);in argparse module:           nargs.              (line   67)
* + (plus);in doctests:                  Option Flags.       (line  164)
* + (plus);in regular expressions:       Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line   75)
* + (plus);in string formatting:         Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line   77)
* + (plus);unary operator:               Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   14)
* + (συν);δυαδικός τελεστής:             Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* + (συν);σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   77)
* + (συν);σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf <1>: Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line   68)
* + (συν);τελεστής unary:                Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* +?;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line   86)
* ++;in regular expressions:             Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line   96)
* +=;επαυξημένη ανάθεση:                 Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* < (less);in string formatting:         Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line   47)
* < (μικρότερο);στις συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης struct: Διάταξη Byte Μέγεθος και Στοίχιση.
                                                             (line   15)
* <<=;επαυξημένη ανάθεση:                Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* <BLANKLINE>:                           Option Flags.       (line   28)
* = (equals);function definition:        Function definitions.
                                                             (line   68)
* = (equals);in function calls:          Formal subscription grammar.
                                                             (line   15)
* = (equals);in string formatting:       Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line   47)
* = (ίσο);για βοήθεια στην αποσφαλμάτωση μέσω κυριολεκτικών συμβολοσειρών: Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1037)
* = (ίσο);στις συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης struct: Διάταξη Byte Μέγεθος και Στοίχιση.
                                                             (line   15)
* = (ισοδυναμεί);ορισμός κλάσης:         Μετα-κλάσεις.       (line    6)
* = (ίσον);για βοήθεια στο debugging με χρήση λεκτικών συμβολοσειράς: Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς.
                                                             (line   28)
* = (ισούται);εντολή ανάθεσης:           Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line    6)
* > (greater);in string formatting:      Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line   47)
* > (μεγαλύτερο);στις συμβολοσειρές μορφοποίησης struct: Διάταξη Byte Μέγεθος και Στοίχιση.
                                                             (line   15)
* >>=;επαυξημένη ανάθεση:                Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* >>>:                                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line    6)
* >>>;interpreter prompt:                How are Docstring Examples Recognized?.
                                                             (line   26)
* >>>;interpreter prompt <1>:            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1687)
* | (vertical bar);in regular expressions: Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line  226)
* |=;επαυξημένη ανάθεση:                 Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* ~ (tilde);home directory expansion:    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  147)
* $ (dollar);environment variables expansion: os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  171)
* $ (dollar);in regular expressions:     Regular expression syntax.
                                                             (line   58)
* $ (dollar);in template strings:        Template strings $-strings.
                                                             (line   23)
* $ (dollar);interpolation in configuration files: Interpolation of values.
                                                             (line   41)
* 0b;λεκτικό ακεραίου:                   Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line   21)
* 0o;λεκτικό ακεραίου:                   Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line   21)
* 0x;λεκτικό ακεραίου:                   Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line   21)
* A (στη μονάδα re):                     Flags.              (line   16)
* A_ALTCHARSET (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line   65)
* A_ATTRIBUTES (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  126)
* A_BLINK (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line   68)
* A_BOLD (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line   71)
* A_CHARTEXT (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  129)
* A_COLOR (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line  132)
* A_DIM (στη μονάδα curses):             Constants<6>.       (line   74)
* A_HORIZONTAL (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line   99)
* A_INVIS (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line   77)
* A_ITALIC (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line   80)
* A_LEFT (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  102)
* A_LOW (στη μονάδα curses):             Constants<6>.       (line  105)
* A_NORMAL (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line   83)
* A_PROTECT (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line   86)
* A_REVERSE (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line   89)
* A_RIGHT (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line  108)
* A_STANDOUT (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line   93)
* A_TOP (στη μονάδα curses):             Constants<6>.       (line  111)
* A_UNDERLINE (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line   96)
* A_VERTICAL (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  114)
* a2b_ascii85() (στη μονάδα binascii):   binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  115)
* a2b_base32() (στη μονάδα binascii):    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  219)
* a2b_base64() (στη μονάδα binascii):    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   40)
* a2b_base85() (στη μονάδα binascii):    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  174)
* a2b_hex() (στη μονάδα binascii):       binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  350)
* a2b_qp() (στη μονάδα binascii):        binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  276)
* a2b_uu() (στη μονάδα binascii):        binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   25)
* a85decode() (στη μονάδα base64):       Base85 Encodings.   (line   52)
* a85encode() (στη μονάδα base64):       Base85 Encodings.   (line   28)
* ABC (κλάση σε abc):                    abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   27)
* ABCMeta (κλάση σε abc):                abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   52)
* ABDAY_1 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  241)
* ABDAY_2 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  241)
* ABDAY_3 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  241)
* ABDAY_4 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  241)
* ABDAY_5 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  241)
* ABDAY_6 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  241)
* ABDAY_7 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  241)
* abi_info (στη μονάδα sys):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* abiflags (στη μονάδα sys):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   54)
* ABMON_1 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  266)
* ABMON_10 (στη μονάδα locale):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  266)
* ABMON_11 (στη μονάδα locale):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  266)
* ABMON_12 (στη μονάδα locale):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  266)
* ABMON_2 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  266)
* ABMON_3 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  266)
* ABMON_4 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  266)
* ABMON_5 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  266)
* ABMON_6 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  266)
* ABMON_7 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  266)
* ABMON_8 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  266)
* ABMON_9 (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  266)
* abort (C function):                    Process Control.    (line    7)
* ABORT (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  147)
* abort_clients() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Server): Server objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* abort() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Barrier): Barrier.            (line   86)
* abort() (μέθοδος της asyncio.DatagramTransport): Datagram Transports.
                                                             (line   20)
* abort() (μέθοδος της asyncio.WriteTransport): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* abort() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):      FTP objects.        (line  151)
* abort() (μέθοδος της threading.Barrier): Barrier objects.  (line   81)
* abort() (στη μονάδα os):               Process Management. (line   16)
* ABORTRETRYIGNORE (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  162)
* ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   68)
* above() (μέθοδος της curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.   (line   13)
* abs() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context):   Context objects.    (line  269)
* abs() (στη μονάδα operator):           operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   85)
* absolute_import (στη μονάδα __future__): Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   26)
* absolute() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   38)
* AbsoluteLinkError:                     tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  306)
* AbsolutePathError:                     tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  292)
* abspath() (στη μονάδα os.path):        os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line   49)
* AbstractAsyncContextManager (κλάση σε contextlib): Utilities.
                                                             (line   19)
* AbstractBasicAuthHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  381)
* abstractclassmethod() (στη μονάδα abc): abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  238)
* AbstractContextManager (κλάση σε contextlib): Utilities.   (line    8)
* AbstractDigestAuthHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  420)
* AbstractEventLoop (κλάση σε asyncio):  Event loop implementations.
                                                             (line   53)
* AbstractEventLoopPolicy (κλάση σε asyncio): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* abstractmethod() (στη μονάδα abc):     abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  161)
* abstractproperty() (στη μονάδα abc):   abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  282)
* AbstractSet (κλάση σε typing):         Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* abstractstaticmethod() (στη μονάδα abc): abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  260)
* accept() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.connection.Listener): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   84)
* accept() (μέθοδος της socket.socket):  Socket Objects.     (line   13)
* access() (στη μονάδα os):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line   51)
* accumulate() (στη μονάδα itertools):   Itertool Functions. (line   10)
* ACK (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   36)
* aclose() (μέθοδος της agen):           Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   61)
* aclose() (μέθοδος της contextlib.AsyncExitStack): Utilities.
                                                             (line  695)
* aclosing() (στη μονάδα contextlib):    Utilities.          (line  184)
* acos() (στη μονάδα cmath):             Trigonometric functions<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* acos() (στη μονάδα math):              Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* acosh() (στη μονάδα cmath):            Hyperbolic functions<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* acosh() (στη μονάδα math):             Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line    9)
* acquire() (μέθοδος της _thread.lock):  _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  147)
* acquire() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Condition): Condition.      (line   47)
* acquire() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Lock):  Lock.               (line   35)
* acquire() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Semaphore): Semaphore.      (line   42)
* acquire() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects.  (line   26)
* acquire() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Lock): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   85)
* acquire() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.RLock): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  149)
* acquire() (μέθοδος της threading.Condition): Condition objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* acquire() (μέθοδος της threading.Lock): Lock objects.      (line   42)
* acquire() (μέθοδος της threading.RLock): RLock objects.    (line   44)
* acquire() (μέθοδος της threading.Semaphore): Semaphore objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* ACS_BBSS (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  470)
* ACS_BLOCK (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  473)
* ACS_BOARD (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  476)
* ACS_BSBS (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  479)
* ACS_BSSB (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  482)
* ACS_BSSS (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  485)
* ACS_BTEE (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  488)
* ACS_BULLET (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  491)
* ACS_CKBOARD (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  494)
* ACS_DARROW (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  497)
* ACS_DEGREE (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  500)
* ACS_DIAMOND (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  503)
* ACS_GEQUAL (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  506)
* ACS_HLINE (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  509)
* ACS_LANTERN (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  512)
* ACS_LARROW (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  515)
* ACS_LEQUAL (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  518)
* ACS_LLCORNER (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  521)
* ACS_LRCORNER (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  524)
* ACS_LTEE (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  527)
* ACS_NEQUAL (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  530)
* ACS_PI (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  533)
* ACS_PLMINUS (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  536)
* ACS_PLUS (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  539)
* ACS_RARROW (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  542)
* ACS_RTEE (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  545)
* ACS_S1 (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  548)
* ACS_S3 (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  551)
* ACS_S7 (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  554)
* ACS_S9 (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  557)
* ACS_SBBS (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  560)
* ACS_SBSB (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  563)
* ACS_SBSS (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  566)
* ACS_SSBB (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  569)
* ACS_SSBS (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  572)
* ACS_SSSB (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  575)
* ACS_SSSS (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  578)
* ACS_STERLING (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  581)
* ACS_TTEE (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  584)
* ACS_UARROW (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  587)
* ACS_ULCORNER (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  590)
* ACS_URCORNER (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  593)
* ACS_VLINE (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  596)
* action (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option): Option attributes.  (line   19)
* Action (κλάση σε argparse):            Action classes.     (line   11)
* ACTIONS (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option): Adding new actions.
                                                             (line   30)
* activate_stack_trampoline() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2009)
* active_children() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* active_count() (στη μονάδα threading): Reference<2>.       (line    8)
* actual() (μέθοδος της tkinter.font.Font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   47)
* Add (κλάση σε ast):                    Expressions<2>.     (line   53)
* add_alias() (στη μονάδα email.charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line  211)
* add_alternative() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  640)
* add_argument_group() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Argument groups.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_argument() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): The add_argument method.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_attachment() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  652)
* add_cgi_vars() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  134)
* add_charset() (στη μονάδα email.charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line  179)
* add_codec() (στη μονάδα email.charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line  220)
* add_cookie_header() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* add_dll_directory() (στη μονάδα os):   Process Management. (line   24)
* add_done_callback() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Future): Future Object.
                                                             (line   81)
* add_done_callback() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task): Task object.
                                                             (line  101)
* add_done_callback() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* add_fallback() (μέθοδος της gettext.NullTranslations): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   28)
* add_flag() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects. (line  129)
* add_flag() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* add_flag() (μέθοδος της mailbox.mboxMessage): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* add_flag() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MMDFMessage): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* add_folder() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* add_folder() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH): MH objects.         (line   45)
* add_get_handler() (μέθοδος της email.contentmanager.ContentManager): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   75)
* add_handler() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.OpenerDirector): OpenerDirector Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* add_header() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  260)
* add_header() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  369)
* add_header() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* add_header() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.headers.Headers): wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line   60)
* add_history() (στη μονάδα readline):   History list.       (line   38)
* add_label() (μέθοδος της mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* add_mutually_exclusive_group() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Mutual exclusion.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_note() (μέθοδος της BaseException): Base classes.      (line   50)
* add_option() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Defining options.
                                                             (line   14)
* add_parent() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.BaseHandler): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* add_parser() (μέθοδος της argparse._SubParsersAction): Subcommands.
                                                             (line  203)
* add_password() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr): HTTPPasswordMgr Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* add_password() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* add_reader() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Watching file descriptors.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_related() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  627)
* add_section() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  121)
* add_section() (μέθοδος της configparser.RawConfigParser): RawConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* add_sequence() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MHMessage): MHMessage objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* add_set_handler() (μέθοδος της email.contentmanager.ContentManager): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   80)
* add_signal_handler() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Unix signals.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_subparsers() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Subcommands.
                                                             (line    6)
* add_type() (μέθοδος της mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes objects.
                                                             (line  104)
* add_type() (στη μονάδα mimetypes):     mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  122)
* add_unredirected_header() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* add_writer() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Watching file descriptors.
                                                             (line   20)
* add() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context):   Context objects.    (line  273)
* add() (μέθοδος της graphlib.TopologicalSorter): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line   81)
* add() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox):   Mailbox objects.    (line   68)
* add() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir):   Maildir objects.    (line  193)
* add() (μέθοδος της pstats.Stats):      The Stats class.    (line   34)
* add() (μέθοδος της set):               Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  210)
* add() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarFile):   TarFile Objects.    (line  273)
* add() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.    (line    8)
* add() (στη μονάδα operator):           operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   90)
* addAsyncCleanup() (μέθοδος της unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  975)
* addaudithook() (στη μονάδα sys):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   67)
* addch() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line   11)
* addClassCleanup() (μέθοδος κλάσης της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  896)
* addCleanup() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.  (line  857)
* addcomponent() (μέθοδος της turtle.Shape): Public classes. (line   66)
* addDuration() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  437)
* addError() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  367)
* addExpectedFailure() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  403)
* addFailure() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  378)
* addfile() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarFile): TarFile Objects.  (line  291)
* addFilter() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* addFilter() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.  (line  325)
* addHandler() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects. (line  342)
* addinfourl (κλάση σε urllib.response): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   12)
* addition:                              Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   79)
* addLevelName() (στη μονάδα logging):   Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  128)
* addModuleCleanup() (στη μονάδα unittest): setUpModule and tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   22)
* addnstr() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line   25)
* AddPackagePath() (στη μονάδα modulefinder): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   16)
* addr_spec (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.Address): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  443)
* address (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  221)
* address (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.connection.Listener): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   99)
* address (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  137)
* Address (κλάση σε email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  405)
* address_exclude() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  160)
* address_exclude() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  343)
* address_family (ιδιότητα της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* address_string() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  383)
* addresses (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.AddressHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  194)
* addresses (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.Group): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  479)
* AddressHeader (κλάση σε email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  179)
* addressof() (στη μονάδα ctypes):       Utility functions.  (line    6)
* AddressValueError:                     Custom Exceptions.  (line    9)
* addshape() (στη μονάδα turtle):        Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   71)
* addsitedir() (στη μονάδα site):        Module contents<7>. (line   52)
* addSkip() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  395)
* addstr() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line   33)
* addSubTest() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  421)
* addSuccess() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  389)
* addTest() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestSuite): Grouping tests.
                                                             (line   25)
* addTests() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestSuite): Grouping tests.
                                                             (line   29)
* addTypeEqualityFunc() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  674)
* addUnexpectedSuccess() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  413)
* adjust_int_max_str_digits() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  775)
* adjusted() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects. (line  113)
* adler32_combine() (στη μονάδα zlib):   zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line   44)
* adler32() (στη μονάδα zlib):           zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line   29)
* AF_ALG (στη μονάδα socket):            Constants<8>.       (line  272)
* AF_BLUETOOTH (στη μονάδα socket):      Constants<8>.       (line  307)
* AF_CAN (στη μονάδα socket):            Constants<8>.       (line  135)
* AF_DIVERT (στη μονάδα socket):         Constants<8>.       (line  211)
* AF_HYPERV (στη μονάδα socket):         Constants<8>.       (line  445)
* AF_INET (στη μονάδα socket):           Constants<8>.       (line   11)
* AF_INET6 (στη μονάδα socket):          Constants<8>.       (line   11)
* AF_LINK (στη μονάδα socket):           Constants<8>.       (line  296)
* AF_PACKET (στη μονάδα socket):         Constants<8>.       (line  221)
* AF_QIPCRTR (στη μονάδα socket):        Constants<8>.       (line  406)
* AF_RDS (στη μονάδα socket):            Constants<8>.       (line  243)
* AF_UNIX (στη μονάδα socket):           Constants<8>.       (line   11)
* AF_UNSPEC (στη μονάδα socket):         Constants<8>.       (line   21)
* AF_VSOCK (στη μονάδα socket):          Constants<8>.       (line  283)
* alarm() (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line  299)
* ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.
                                                             (line  522)
* ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.
                                                             (line  522)
* AlertDescription (κλάση σε ssl):       Constants<9>.       (line  536)
* algorithm (ιδιότητα της sys.hash_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1154)
* algorithms_available (στη μονάδα hashlib): Attributes.     (line   17)
* algorithms_guaranteed (στη μονάδα hashlib): Attributes.    (line    8)
* alias (pdb command):                   Debugger commands.  (line  382)
* alias (κλάση σε ast):                  Imports.            (line   40)
* alignment() (στη μονάδα ctypes):       Utility functions.  (line   14)
* alive (ιδιότητα της weakref.finalize): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  310)
* ALL_BUT_LAST (στη μονάδα os.path):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  439)
* ALL_COMPLETED (στη μονάδα asyncio):    Waiting primitives. (line   45)
* ALL_COMPLETED (στη μονάδα concurrent.futures): Module Functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* all_errors (στη μονάδα ftplib):        Module variables.   (line   27)
* all_features (στη μονάδα xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line  102)
* all_frames (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Filter): Filter.      (line   58)
* all_properties (στη μονάδα xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line  134)
* all_suffixes() (στη μονάδα importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   57)
* all_tasks() (στη μονάδα asyncio):      Introspection.      (line   16)
* allocate_lock() (στη μονάδα _thread):  _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   83)
* allocfunc (C type):                    Slot Type typedefs. (line    6)
* ALLOW_MISSING (στη μονάδα os.path):    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  446)
* allow_reuse_address (ιδιότητα της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   95)
* allowed_domains() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* ALT_DIGITS (στη μονάδα locale):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  346)
* alt() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):       curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  220)
* altsep (στη μονάδα os):                Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  124)
* altzone (στη μονάδα time):             Σταθερές ζώνης ώρας.
                                                             (line    6)
* ALWAYS_EQ (στη μονάδα test.support):   test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  191)
* ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option): Adding new actions.
                                                             (line   42)
* AmbiguousOptionError:                  Exceptions<11>.     (line   25)
* AMPER (στη μονάδα token):              token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  244)
* AMPEREQUAL (στη μονάδα token):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  310)
* anchor (ιδιότητα της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line   65)
* Anchor (κλάση σε importlib.resources): importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων.
                                                             (line   49)
* And (κλάση σε ast):                    Expressions<2>.     (line   86)
* and_() (στη μονάδα operator):          operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   95)
* android_ver() (στη μονάδα platform):   Πλατφόρμα Android.  (line    6)
* AnnAssign (κλάση σε ast):              Statements.         (line   41)
* Annotated (στη μονάδα typing):         Special forms.      (line  296)
* annotation:                            Γλωσσάρι.           (line   48)
* annotation (ιδιότητα της inspect.Parameter): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  242)
* ANNOTATION (ιδιότητα της symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   26)
* annotation μεταβλητής:                 Γλωσσάρι.           (line 2012)
* annotation;type annotation; type hint: Τύποι Annotation τύπου — Generic Alias Union.
                                                             (line    6)
* annotations (στη μονάδα __future__):   Module Contents<2>. (line   47)
* annotations_to_string() (στη μονάδα annotationlib): Functions<10>.
                                                             (line    6)
* anonymous;function:                    Lambdas.            (line    6)
* answer_challenge() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing.connection): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   25)
* anticipate_failure() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  473)
* Any (στη μονάδα typing):               Special types.      (line    9)
* ANY (στη μονάδα unittest.mock):        ANY.                (line    6)
* ANY_CONTIGUOUS (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.
                                                             (line   29)
* AnyStr (στη μονάδα typing):            Special types.      (line   21)
* api_version (στη μονάδα sys):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2324)
* apilevel (στη μονάδα sqlite3):         Module constants.   (line   65)
* apop() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line   42)
* append_history_file() (στη μονάδα readline): History file. (line   27)
* append() (μέθοδος της array.array):    array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  157)
* append() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.   (line   35)
* append() (μέθοδος της email.header.Header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   95)
* append() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line   33)
* append() (μέθοδος της sequence):       Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   75)
* append() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* appendChild() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.    (line  115)
* appendleft() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* AppleFrameworkLoader (κλάση σε importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  460)
* application_uri() (στη μονάδα wsgiref.util): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   34)
* apply_async() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Process Pools.
                                                             (line   77)
* apply_defaults() (μέθοδος της inspect.BoundArguments): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  387)
* apply() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Process Pools.
                                                             (line   69)
* APRIL (στη μονάδα calendar):           calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* architecture() (στη μονάδα platform):  Cross Platform.     (line    6)
* archive (ιδιότητα της zipimport.zipimporter): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* AREGTYPE (στη μονάδα tarfile):         tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  331)
* aRepr (στη μονάδα reprlib):            reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   44)
* arg (κλάση σε ast):                    Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line   68)
* args (pdb command):                    Debugger commands.  (line  272)
* args (ιδιότητα της BaseException):     Base classes.       (line   17)
* args (ιδιότητα της functools.partial): partial Objects.    (line   15)
* args (ιδιότητα της inspect.BoundArguments): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  372)
* args (ιδιότητα της subprocess.CompletedProcess): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  105)
* args (ιδιότητα της subprocess.Popen):  Popen Objects.      (line  123)
* args (ιδιότητα της typing.ParamSpec):  Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  490)
* args_from_interpreter_flags() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  339)
* argtypes (ιδιότητα της ctypes._CFuncPtr): Foreign functions.
                                                             (line   46)
* argument;call semantics:               Formal subscription grammar.
                                                             (line   16)
* argument;function definition:          Function definitions.
                                                             (line   68)
* ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter (κλάση σε argparse): formatter_class.
                                                             (line   10)
* ArgumentError:                         Exceptions<9>.      (line    6)
* ArgumentError <1>:                     Exceptions<10>.     (line    6)
* ArgumentParser (κλάση σε argparse):    ArgumentParser objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* arguments (ιδιότητα της inspect.BoundArguments): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  353)
* arguments (κλάση σε ast):              Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line   49)
* ArgumentTypeError:                     Exceptions<10>.     (line   14)
* argv (in module sys):                  Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   90)
* argv (in module sys) <1>:              PyConfig.           (line  128)
* argv (στη μονάδα sys):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  111)
* arithmetic;conversion:                 Arithmetic conversions.
                                                             (line    6)
* ArithmeticError:                       Base classes.       (line   72)
* array (κλάση σε array):                array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  123)
* Array (κλάση σε ctypes):               Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line    6)
* Array() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  213)
* ARRAY() (στη μονάδα ctypes):           Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   31)
* Array() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing.sharedctypes): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line   51)
* Array() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing):  Shared ctypes Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* arrays:                                array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line    6)
* arraysize (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.   (line  173)
* AS pattern, OR pattern, capture pattern, wildcard pattern: Patterns.
                                                             (line    6)
* as_bytes() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  107)
* as_bytes() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  107)
* as_completed() (στη μονάδα asyncio):   Waiting primitives. (line   60)
* as_completed() (στη μονάδα concurrent.futures): Module Functions.
                                                             (line   44)
* as_digested_dict (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.ZstdDict): Zstandard dictionaries.
                                                             (line  143)
* as_file() (στη μονάδα importlib.resources): importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων.
                                                             (line   80)
* as_integer_ratio():                    fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line   15)
* as_integer_ratio() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  121)
* as_integer_ratio() (μέθοδος της float): Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Float.
                                                             (line   27)
* as_integer_ratio() (μέθοδος της fractions.Fraction): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  122)
* as_integer_ratio() (μέθοδος της int):  Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι των Ακέραιων Τύπων.
                                                             (line  170)
* as_posix() (μέθοδος της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  181)
* as_string() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   61)
* as_string() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line   60)
* as_tuple() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects. (line  135)
* as_undigested_dict (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.ZstdDict): Zstandard dictionaries.
                                                             (line  147)
* as_uri() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):   Parsing and generating URIs.
                                                             (line   47)
* as;except clause:                      except clause.      (line   31)
* as;match statement:                    The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* as;with statement:                     The with statement. (line    6)
* as;εντολή εισαγωγής:                   Η εντολή import.    (line   43)
* ASCII:                                 Λεκτικά.            (line   16)
* ASCII (στη μονάδα re):                 Flags.              (line   16)
* ascii_letters (στη μονάδα string):     String constants.   (line    8)
* ascii_lowercase (στη μονάδα string):   String constants.   (line   14)
* ascii_uppercase (στη μονάδα string):   String constants.   (line   19)
* ascii() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):     curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  211)
* ASCII85_ALPHABET (στη μονάδα binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  417)
* asctime() (στη μονάδα time):           Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line    6)
* asdict() (στη μονάδα dataclasses):     Module contents<6>. (line  346)
* asend() (μέθοδος της agen):            Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   28)
* asin() (στη μονάδα cmath):             Trigonometric functions<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* asin() (στη μονάδα math):              Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   11)
* asinh() (στη μονάδα cmath):            Hyperbolic functions<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* asinh() (στη μονάδα math):             Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* askcolor() (στη μονάδα tkinter.colorchooser): tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog.
                                                             (line   17)
* askdirectory() (στη μονάδα tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   54)
* askfloat() (στη μονάδα tkinter.simpledialog): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line   14)
* askinteger() (στη μονάδα tkinter.simpledialog): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line   14)
* askokcancel() (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  119)
* askopenfile() (στη μονάδα tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   31)
* askopenfilename() (στη μονάδα tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   42)
* askopenfilenames() (στη μονάδα tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   42)
* askopenfiles() (στη μονάδα tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   31)
* askquestion() (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  113)
* askretrycancel() (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  126)
* asksaveasfile() (στη μονάδα tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   37)
* asksaveasfilename() (στη μονάδα tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   49)
* askstring() (στη μονάδα tkinter.simpledialog): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line   14)
* askyesno() (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  133)
* askyesnocancel() (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  139)
* Assert (κλάση σε ast):                 Statements.         (line  126)
* assert_any_await() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.AsyncMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  840)
* assert_any_call() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  149)
* assert_awaited_once_with() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.AsyncMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  823)
* assert_awaited_once() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.AsyncMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  790)
* assert_awaited_with() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.AsyncMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  806)
* assert_awaited() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.AsyncMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  770)
* assert_called_once_with() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  134)
* assert_called_once() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  106)
* assert_called_with() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  124)
* assert_called() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line   95)
* assert_has_awaits() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.AsyncMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  857)
* assert_has_calls() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  164)
* assert_never() (στη μονάδα typing):    Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line   44)
* assert_not_awaited() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.AsyncMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  884)
* assert_not_called() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  185)
* assert_python_failure() (στη μονάδα test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   57)
* assert_python_ok() (στη μονάδα test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   40)
* assert_type() (στη μονάδα typing):     Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line   15)
* assertAlmostEqual() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  569)
* assertCountEqual() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  624)
* assertDictEqual() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  762)
* assertEndsWith() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  649)
* assertEqual() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases. (line  180)
* assertFalse() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases. (line  205)
* assertGreater() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  593)
* assertGreaterEqual() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  593)
* assertHasAttr() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  659)
* assertIn() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.    (line  232)
* assertInBytecode() (μέθοδος της test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase): test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line   22)
* AssertionError:                        Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line    8)
* assertIs() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.    (line  217)
* assertIsInstance() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  239)
* assertIsNone() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  225)
* assertIsNot() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases. (line  217)
* assertIsNotNone() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  225)
* assertIsSubclass() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  249)
* assertLess() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.  (line  593)
* assertLessEqual() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  593)
* assertListEqual() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  739)
* assertLogs() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.  (line  445)
* assertMultiLineEqual() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  714)
* assertNoLogs() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  496)
* assertNotAlmostEqual() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  569)
* assertNotEndsWith() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  651)
* assertNotEqual() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  200)
* assertNotHasAttr() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  661)
* assertNotIn() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases. (line  232)
* assertNotInBytecode() (μέθοδος της test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase): test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line   28)
* assertNotIsInstance() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  239)
* assertNotIsSubclass() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  249)
* assertNotRegex() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  606)
* assertNotStartsWith() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  641)
* assertRaises() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  289)
* assertRaisesRegex() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  330)
* assertRegex() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases. (line  606)
* assertSequenceEqual() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  724)
* assertSetEqual() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  750)
* assertStartsWith() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  639)
* assertTrue() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.  (line  205)
* assertTupleEqual() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  739)
* assertWarns() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases. (line  357)
* assertWarnsRegex() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  409)
* Assign (κλάση σε ast):                 Statements.         (line    6)
* assignment expression:                 Boolean operations. (line   38)
* assignment;expression:                 Boolean operations. (line   37)
* assume_default_colors() (στη μονάδα curses): Functions<4>. (line   18)
* AST (κλάση σε ast):                    Node classes.       (line    6)
* ast command line option; -a:           Command-line usage<5>.
                                                             (line   32)
* ast command line option; -feature-version: Command-line usage<5>.
                                                             (line   41)
* ast command line option; -h:           Command-line usage<5>.
                                                             (line   18)
* ast command line option; -help:        Command-line usage<5>.
                                                             (line   18)
* ast command line option; -i:           Command-line usage<5>.
                                                             (line   36)
* ast command line option; -include-attributes: Command-line usage<5>.
                                                             (line   32)
* ast command line option; -indent:      Command-line usage<5>.
                                                             (line   36)
* ast command line option; -m:           Command-line usage<5>.
                                                             (line   22)
* ast command line option; -mode:        Command-line usage<5>.
                                                             (line   22)
* ast command line option; -no-type-comments: Command-line usage<5>.
                                                             (line   28)
* ast command line option; -O:           Command-line usage<5>.
                                                             (line   48)
* ast command line option; -optimize:    Command-line usage<5>.
                                                             (line   48)
* ast command line option; -show-empty:  Command-line usage<5>.
                                                             (line   55)
* astimezone() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  484)
* astuple() (στη μονάδα dataclasses):    Module contents<6>. (line  378)
* async for;in comprehensions:           Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   14)
* AsyncContextDecorator (κλάση σε contextlib): Utilities.    (line  480)
* AsyncContextManager (κλάση σε typing): Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line   24)
* asynccontextmanager() (στη μονάδα contextlib): Utilities.  (line   92)
* AsyncExitStack (κλάση σε contextlib):  Utilities.          (line  660)
* AsyncFor (κλάση σε ast):               Async and await.    (line   34)
* AsyncFunctionDef (κλάση σε ast):       Async and await.    (line    6)
* AsyncGenerator (κλάση σε collections.abc): Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  198)
* AsyncGenerator (κλάση σε typing):      Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   21)
* AsyncGeneratorType (στη μονάδα types): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line   51)
* asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line   23)
* asyncio.subprocess.PIPE (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line    6)
* asyncio.subprocess.Process (ενσωματωμένη κλάση): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   11)
* asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή): Constants<7>.
                                                             (line   17)
* AsyncIterable (κλάση σε collections.abc): Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  183)
* AsyncIterable (κλάση σε typing):       Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   39)
* AsyncIterator (κλάση σε collections.abc): Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  190)
* AsyncIterator (κλάση σε typing):       Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   49)
* AsyncMock (κλάση σε unittest.mock):    The Mock Class.     (line  699)
* AsyncResult (κλάση σε multiprocessing.pool): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  197)
* asyncSetUp() (μέθοδος της unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  951)
* asyncTearDown() (μέθοδος της unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  960)
* AsyncWith (κλάση σε ast):              Async and await.    (line   34)
* AT (στη μονάδα token):                 token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  334)
* at_eof() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamReader): StreamReader. (line   85)
* AT_NO_AUTOMOUNT (στη μονάδα os):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1744)
* AT_STATX_DONT_SYNC (στη μονάδα os):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1722)
* AT_STATX_FORCE_SYNC (στη μονάδα os):   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1711)
* AT_STATX_SYNC_AS_STAT (στη μονάδα os): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1731)
* at() (στατική μέθοδος της importlib.metadata.Distribution): Distributions.
                                                             (line   43)
* atan() (στη μονάδα cmath):             Trigonometric functions<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* atan() (στη μονάδα math):              Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   16)
* atan2() (στη μονάδα math):             Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   21)
* atanh() (στη μονάδα cmath):            Hyperbolic functions<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* atanh() (στη μονάδα math):             Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   17)
* ATEQUAL (στη μονάδα token):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  337)
* atexit (ιδιότητα της weakref.finalize): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  315)
* athrow() (μέθοδος της agen):           Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   43)
* atof() (στη μονάδα locale):            locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  525)
* atoi() (στη μονάδα locale):            locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  531)
* atom:                                  Atoms.              (line    6)
* atomic operation:                      Γλωσσάρι.           (line  158)
* attach_mock() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  256)
* attach() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  168)
* attempted (ιδιότητα της doctest.TestResults): TestResults objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* AttlistDeclHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  396)
* attrgetter() (στη μονάδα operator):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  246)
* attrib (ιδιότητα της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* Attribute (κλάση σε ast):              Expressions<2>.     (line  169)
* attribute;reference:                   Attribute references.
                                                             (line    6)
* AttributeError:                        Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   12)
* attributes (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.      (line   26)
* AttributesImpl (κλάση σε xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   68)
* AttributesNSImpl (κλάση σε xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   79)
* attroff() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line   55)
* attron() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line   60)
* attrset() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line   65)
* audit events:                          Debugging and profiling.
                                                             (line   15)
* audit() (στη μονάδα sys):              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  132)
* auditing:                              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  134)
* AugAssign (κλάση σε ast):              Statements.         (line   94)
* AUGUST (στη μονάδα calendar):          calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* auth() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP_TLS):   FTP_TLS objects.    (line   83)
* auth() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP):     SMTP Objects.       (line  143)
* authenticate() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects. (line   37)
* AuthenticationError:                   Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  292)
* authenticators() (μέθοδος της netrc.netrc): netrc Objects. (line    8)
* authkey (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  174)
* auto (κλάση σε enum):                  Utilities and decorators.
                                                             (line    6)
* autocommit (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  726)
* autorange() (μέθοδος της timeit.Timer): Python interface.  (line  101)
* available_timezones() (στη μονάδα zoneinfo): Functions<2>. (line    6)
* avoids_symlink_attacks (ιδιότητα της shutil.rmtree): Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  337)
* Await (κλάση σε ast):                  Async and await.    (line   14)
* await_args (ιδιότητα της unittest.mock.AsyncMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  913)
* await_args_list (ιδιότητα της unittest.mock.AsyncMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  931)
* await_count (ιδιότητα της unittest.mock.AsyncMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  897)
* await;in comprehensions:               Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   46)
* awaitable:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line  207)
* Awaitable (κλάση σε collections.abc):  Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  139)
* Awaitable (κλάση σε typing):           Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   59)
* b';λεκτικό bytes:                      Μη αναγνωρισμένες ακολουθίες διαφυγής.
                                                             (line   26)
* b";λεκτικό bytes:                      Μη αναγνωρισμένες ακολουθίες διαφυγής.
                                                             (line   25)
* b16decode() (στη μονάδα base64):       RFC 4648 Encodings. (line  210)
* b16encode() (στη μονάδα base64):       RFC 4648 Encodings. (line  199)
* b2a_ascii85() (στη μονάδα binascii):   binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  150)
* b2a_base32() (στη μονάδα binascii):    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  256)
* b2a_base64() (στη μονάδα binascii):    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   93)
* b2a_base85() (στη μονάδα binascii):    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  201)
* b2a_hex() (στη μονάδα binascii):       binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  320)
* b2a_qp() (στη μονάδα binascii):        binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  283)
* b2a_uu() (στη μονάδα binascii):        binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   31)
* b32decode() (στη μονάδα base64):       RFC 4648 Encodings. (line  135)
* b32encode() (στη μονάδα base64):       RFC 4648 Encodings. (line  119)
* b32hexdecode() (στη μονάδα base64):    RFC 4648 Encodings. (line  183)
* b32hexencode() (στη μονάδα base64):    RFC 4648 Encodings. (line  173)
* b64decode() (στη μονάδα base64):       RFC 4648 Encodings. (line   33)
* b64encode() (στη μονάδα base64):       RFC 4648 Encodings. (line   10)
* b85decode() (στη μονάδα base64):       Base85 Encodings.   (line   97)
* b85encode() (στη μονάδα base64):       Base85 Encodings.   (line   80)
* Babyl (κλάση σε mailbox):              Babyl objects.      (line    6)
* BabylMessage (κλάση σε mailbox):       BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* back() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Turtle motion.      (line   24)
* backend (στη μονάδα readline):         readline — GNU readline interface.
                                                             (line   56)
* backslashreplace_errors() (στη μονάδα codecs): Error Handlers.
                                                             (line  161)
* backslashreplace;error handler's name: Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* backup() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  524)
* backward() (στη μονάδα turtle):        Turtle motion.      (line   24)
* BadGzipFile:                           gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip.
                                                             (line   76)
* BadOptionError:                        Exceptions<11>.     (line   21)
* BadStatusLine:                         http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  188)
* BadZipFile:                            zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   30)
* BadZipfile:                            zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   36)
* Barrier (κλάση σε asyncio):            Barrier.            (line    6)
* Barrier (κλάση σε multiprocessing):    Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   13)
* Barrier (κλάση σε threading):          Barrier objects.    (line   35)
* Barrier() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  160)
* base_exec_prefix (στη μονάδα sys):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  163)
* base_prefix (στη μονάδα sys):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  176)
* BASE32_ALPHABET (στη μονάδα binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  429)
* BASE32HEX_ALPHABET (στη μονάδα binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  435)
* BASE64_ALPHABET (στη μονάδα binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  378)
* base64;encoding:                       base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line    8)
* BASE85_ALPHABET (στη μονάδα binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  411)
* BaseCGIHandler (κλάση σε wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   53)
* BaseCookie (κλάση σε http.cookies):    http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   39)
* BaseException:                         Base classes.       (line    9)
* BaseExceptionGroup:                    Exception groups.   (line   14)
* BaseHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  321)
* BaseHandler (κλάση σε wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   88)
* BaseHeader (κλάση σε email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* BaseHTTPRequestHandler (κλάση σε http.server): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   98)
* BaseManager (κλάση σε multiprocessing.managers): Managers. (line   23)
* basename() (στη μονάδα os.path):       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line   62)
* BaseProtocol (κλάση σε asyncio):       Base Protocols.     (line    6)
* BaseProxy (κλάση σε multiprocessing.managers): Proxy Objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* BaseRequestHandler (κλάση σε socketserver): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* BaseRotatingHandler (κλάση σε logging.handlers): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   12)
* BaseSelector (κλάση σε selectors):     Classes.            (line   53)
* BaseServer (κλάση σε socketserver):    Server Objects.     (line    6)
* BaseTransport (κλάση σε asyncio):      Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line    6)
* basicConfig() (στη μονάδα logging):    Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  204)
* BasicContext (στη μονάδα decimal):     Context objects.    (line   73)
* BasicInterpolation (κλάση σε configparser): Interpolation of values.
                                                             (line   10)
* batched() (στη μονάδα itertools):      Itertool Functions. (line   71)
* baudrate() (στη μονάδα curses):        Functions<4>.       (line   33)
* bbox() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.   (line    8)
* BDADDR_ANY (στη μονάδα socket):        Constants<8>.       (line  315)
* BDADDR_BREDR (στη μονάδα socket):      Constants<8>.       (line  323)
* BDADDR_LE_PUBLIC (στη μονάδα socket):  Constants<8>.       (line  323)
* BDADDR_LE_RANDOM (στη μονάδα socket):  Constants<8>.       (line  323)
* BDADDR_LOCAL (στη μονάδα socket):      Constants<8>.       (line  315)
* Bdb (κλάση σε bdb):                    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  124)
* BdbQuit:                               bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   15)
* BDFL:                                  Γλωσσάρι.           (line  214)
* beep() (στη μονάδα curses):            Functions<4>.       (line   41)
* Beep() (στη μονάδα winsound):          Functions<13>.      (line    6)
* begin_fill() (στη μονάδα turtle):      Filling.            (line   35)
* begin_poly() (στη μονάδα turtle):      Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   18)
* BEL (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   39)
* BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   75)
* below() (μέθοδος της curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.   (line   17)
* betavariate() (στη μονάδα random):     Πραγματικές κατανομές.
                                                             (line   34)
* bgcolor() (στη μονάδα turtle):         Window control.     (line    6)
* bgpic() (στη μονάδα turtle):           Window control.     (line   48)
* bidirectional() (στη μονάδα unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   90)
* bigaddrspacetest() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  593)
* BigEndianStructure (κλάση σε ctypes):  Structured data types.
                                                             (line   25)
* BigEndianUnion (κλάση σε ctypes):      Structured data types.
                                                             (line   13)
* bigmemtest() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  577)
* bin() (στη μονάδα enum):               Utilities and decorators.
                                                             (line  109)
* Binary (κλάση σε xmlrpc.client):       Binary Objects.     (line    6)
* binary semaphores:                     _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* BINARY_OP (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  256)
* BINARY_SLICE (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  287)
* binary;arithmetic;operation:           Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* binary;bitwise;operation:              Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* binaryfunc (C type):                   Slot Type typedefs. (line  111)
* BinaryIO (κλάση σε typing):            ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O.
                                                             (line    6)
* bind (widgets):                        Bindings and Events.
                                                             (line    6)
* bind_partial() (μέθοδος της inspect.Signature): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  138)
* bind_port() (στη μονάδα test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   37)
* bind_textdomain_codeset() (στη μονάδα locale): Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line   16)
* bind_unix_socket() (στη μονάδα test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   54)
* bind() (μέθοδος της inspect.Signature): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  131)
* bind() (μέθοδος της socket.socket):    Socket Objects.     (line   30)
* bindtextdomain() (στη μονάδα gettext): GNU gettext API.    (line   14)
* bindtextdomain() (στη μονάδα locale):  Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line   14)
* BINHEX_ALPHABET (στη μονάδα binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  404)
* binomialvariate() (στη μονάδα random): Διακριτές κατανομές.
                                                             (line    8)
* BinOp (κλάση σε ast):                  Expressions<2>.     (line   41)
* bisect_left() (στη μονάδα bisect):     bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   32)
* bisect_right() (στη μονάδα bisect):    bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   57)
* bisect() (στη μονάδα bisect):          bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   57)
* bit_count() (μέθοδος της int):         Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι των Ακέραιων Τύπων.
                                                             (line   37)
* bit_length() (μέθοδος της int):        Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι των Ακέραιων Τύπων.
                                                             (line    9)
* bit_offset (ιδιότητα της ctypes.CField): Structured data types.
                                                             (line  284)
* bit_size (ιδιότητα της ctypes.CField): Structured data types.
                                                             (line  284)
* BitAnd (κλάση σε ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line   53)
* BitOr (κλάση σε ast):                  Expressions<2>.     (line   53)
* bits_per_digit (ιδιότητα της sys.int_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1262)
* bitwise;and:                           Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   12)
* bitwise;or:                            Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   20)
* bitwise;xor:                           Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* BitXor (κλάση σε ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line   53)
* bk() (στη μονάδα turtle):              Turtle motion.      (line   24)
* bkgd() (μέθοδος της curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line   70)
* bkgdset() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line   82)
* blake2b, blake2s:                      BLAKE2.             (line    6)
* blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (στη μονάδα hashlib): Constants<5>.
                                                             (line   24)
* blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE (στη μονάδα hashlib): Constants<5>.   (line   18)
* blake2b.PERSON_SIZE (στη μονάδα hashlib): Constants<5>.    (line   12)
* blake2b.SALT_SIZE (στη μονάδα hashlib): Constants<5>.      (line    6)
* blake2b() (στη μονάδα hashlib):        Creating hash objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (στη μονάδα hashlib): Constants<5>.
                                                             (line   26)
* blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE (στη μονάδα hashlib): Constants<5>.   (line   20)
* blake2s.PERSON_SIZE (στη μονάδα hashlib): Constants<5>.    (line   14)
* blake2s.SALT_SIZE (στη μονάδα hashlib): Constants<5>.      (line    8)
* blake2s() (στη μονάδα hashlib):        Creating hash objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* BLKTYPE (στη μονάδα tarfile):          tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  348)
* Blob (κλάση σε sqlite3):               Blob objects.       (line    6)
* blobopen() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* block_on_close (ιδιότητα της socketserver.ThreadingMixIn): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   44)
* block_size (ιδιότητα της hmac.HMAC):   hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   98)
* block() (στη μονάδα unicodedata):      unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  114)
* blocked_domains() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* BlockingIOError:                       OS exceptions.      (line    9)
* BlockingIOError <1>:                   High-level Module Interface.
                                                             (line   67)
* blocksize (ιδιότητα της http.client.HTTPConnection): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  161)
* BNF:                                   Σημειογραφία.       (line    6)
* BNF <1>:                               Expressions.        (line    6)
* body_encode() (μέθοδος της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line  148)
* body_encoding (ιδιότητα της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line   74)
* body_line_iterator() (στη μονάδα email.iterators): email iterators Iterators.
                                                             (line   14)
* body() (μέθοδος της tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line   25)
* BOLD (στη μονάδα tkinter.font):        tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   15)
* BOM (στη μονάδα codecs):               codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  279)
* BOM_BE (στη μονάδα codecs):            codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  279)
* BOM_LE (στη μονάδα codecs):            codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  279)
* BOM_UTF16 (στη μονάδα codecs):         codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  279)
* BOM_UTF16_BE (στη μονάδα codecs):      codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  279)
* BOM_UTF16_LE (στη μονάδα codecs):      codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  279)
* BOM_UTF32 (στη μονάδα codecs):         codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  279)
* BOM_UTF32_BE (στη μονάδα codecs):      codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  279)
* BOM_UTF32_LE (στη μονάδα codecs):      codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  279)
* BOM_UTF8 (στη μονάδα codecs):          codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  279)
* bool (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):             Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  141)
* BOOLEAN_STATES (ιδιότητα της configparser.ConfigParser): Customizing Parser Behaviour.
                                                             (line  245)
* Boolean;operation:                     Boolean operations. (line    6)
* Boolean;λειτουργίες:                   Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής.
                                                             (line    6)
* Boolean;λειτουργίες <1>:               Λογικές Boolean Πράξεις — and or not.
                                                             (line    6)
* Boolean;τιμές:                         Τύπος Boolean - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* Boolean;τύπος:                         Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  152)
* BooleanOptionalAction (κλάση σε argparse): Action classes. (line   64)
* BoolOp (κλάση σε ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line   69)
* bootstrap() (στη μονάδα ensurepip):    Module API.         (line   13)
* border() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line   93)
* bottom_panel() (στη μονάδα curses.panel): Functions<5>.    (line    8)
* bottom() (μέθοδος της curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.  (line   21)
* BoundArguments (κλάση σε inspect):     Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  347)
* BoundaryError:                         email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line   40)
* BoundedSemaphore (κλάση σε asyncio):   BoundedSemaphore.   (line    6)
* BoundedSemaphore (κλάση σε multiprocessing): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   22)
* BoundedSemaphore (κλάση σε threading): Semaphore objects.  (line   75)
* BoundedSemaphore() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  167)
* bounds() (μέθοδος της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line   28)
* bounds() (μέθοδος της compression.zstd.DecompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  278)
* box() (μέθοδος της curses.window):     Window Objects.     (line  132)
* bpbynumber (ιδιότητα της bdb.Breakpoint): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  107)
* bpformat() (μέθοδος της bdb.Breakpoint): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   56)
* bplist (ιδιότητα της bdb.Breakpoint):  bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  111)
* bpprint() (μέθοδος της bdb.Breakpoint): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   75)
* BRANCH_LEFT (monitoring event):        Events.             (line    8)
* BRANCH_RIGHT (monitoring event):       Events.             (line   17)
* break (pdb command):                   Debugger commands.  (line  106)
* Break (κλάση σε ast):                  Control flow.       (line   99)
* break_anywhere() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  277)
* break_here() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  268)
* break_long_words (ιδιότητα της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  269)
* break_on_hyphens (ιδιότητα της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  279)
* Breakpoint (κλάση σε bdb):             bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   22)
* breakpointhook() (στη μονάδα sys):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  281)
* breakpoints:                           Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   29)
* broadcast_address (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* broadcast_address (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  312)
* broken (ιδιότητα της asyncio.Barrier): Barrier.            (line  102)
* broken (ιδιότητα της threading.Barrier): Barrier objects.  (line  100)
* BrokenBarrierError:                    Barrier objects.    (line  105)
* BrokenBarrierError <1>:                Barrier.            (line  107)
* BrokenExecutor:                        Exception classes.  (line   18)
* BrokenInterpreterPool:                 Exception classes.  (line   41)
* BrokenPipeError:                       OS exceptions.      (line   38)
* BrokenProcessPool:                     Exception classes.  (line   49)
* BrokenThreadPool:                      Exception classes.  (line   33)
* BROWSER:                               webbrowser<2>.      (line    6)
* BROWSER <1>:                           webbrowser<2>.      (line   10)
* BROWSER <2>:                           Library<29>.        (line  418)
* BROWSER <3>:                           Library<29>.        (line  422)
* BROWSER <4>:                           webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   20)
* BROWSER <5>:                           webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   30)
* BROWSER <6>:                           webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   41)
* BROWSER <7>:                           Command-line interface<5>.
                                                             (line   86)
* BS (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   42)
* BsdDbShelf (κλάση σε shelve):          Restrictions.       (line   71)
* btlazy2 (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.Strategy): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  318)
* btopt (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.Strategy): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  320)
* BTPROTO_HCI (στη μονάδα socket):       Constants<8>.       (line  307)
* BTPROTO_L2CAP (στη μονάδα socket):     Constants<8>.       (line  307)
* BTPROTO_RFCOMM (στη μονάδα socket):    Constants<8>.       (line  307)
* BTPROTO_SCO (στη μονάδα socket):       Constants<8>.       (line  307)
* btultra (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.Strategy): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  322)
* btultra2 (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.Strategy): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  324)
* buf (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  116)
* buffer (ιδιότητα της io.TextIOBase):   Text I/O<2>.        (line   30)
* buffer (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  292)
* Buffer (κλάση σε collections.abc):     Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  209)
* buffer interface;(see buffer protocol): Iterator Protocol. (line   65)
* buffer object;(see buffer protocol):   Iterator Protocol.  (line   64)
* buffer protocol:                       Iterator Protocol.  (line   65)
* buffer_info() (μέθοδος της array.array): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  162)
* buffer_size (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  263)
* buffer_text (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  270)
* buffer_updated() (μέθοδος της asyncio.BufferedProtocol): Buffered Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   33)
* buffer_used (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  282)
* BufferedIOBase (κλάση σε io):          I/O Base Classes.   (line  223)
* BufferedProtocol (κλάση σε asyncio):   Base Protocols.     (line   15)
* BufferedRandom (κλάση σε io):          Buffered Streams.   (line  135)
* BufferedReader (κλάση σε io):          Buffered Streams.   (line   58)
* BufferedRWPair (κλάση σε io):          Buffered Streams.   (line  149)
* BufferedWriter (κλάση σε io):          Buffered Streams.   (line   95)
* BufferError:                           Base classes.       (line   78)
* BufferFlags (κλάση σε inspect):        Buffer flags.       (line    6)
* BufferingFormatter (κλάση σε logging): Formatter Objects.  (line  131)
* BufferingHandler (κλάση σε logging.handlers): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   19)
* BufferTooShort:                        Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  284)
* BUILD_INTERPOLATION (opcode):          Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  665)
* BUILD_LIST (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  706)
* BUILD_MAP (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  714)
* build_opener() (στη μονάδα urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  119)
* BUILD_SET (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  710)
* BUILD_SLICE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1184)
* BUILD_STRING (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  724)
* BUILD_TEMPLATE (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  653)
* BUILD_TUPLE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  693)
* built-in function; __import__():       Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2426)
* built-in function; abs():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line   45)
* built-in function; aiter():            Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line   52)
* built-in function; all():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line   63)
* built-in function; anext():            Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line   74)
* built-in function; any():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line   94)
* built-in function; ascii():            Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  106)
* built-in function; bin():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  115)
* built-in function; breakpoint():       Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  155)
* built-in function; callable():         Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  241)
* built-in function; chr():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  254)
* built-in function; classmethod():      Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  266)
* built-in function; compile():          Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  306)
* built-in function; delattr():          Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  485)
* built-in function; dir():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  509)
* built-in function; divmod():           Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  574)
* built-in function; enumerate():        Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  588)
* built-in function; eval():             Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  612)
* built-in function; exec():             Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  692)
* built-in function; filter():           Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  769)
* built-in function; format():           Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  860)
* built-in function; getattr():          Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  897)
* built-in function; globals():          Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  917)
* built-in function; hasattr():          Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  924)
* built-in function; hash():             Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  932)
* built-in function; help():             Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  946)
* built-in function; hex():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  973)
* built-in function; id():               Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1007)
* built-in function; input():            Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1020)
* built-in function; isinstance():       Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1124)
* built-in function; issubclass():       Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1142)
* built-in function; iter():             Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1155)
* built-in function; len():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1187)
* built-in function; locals():           Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1205)
* built-in function; map():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1269)
* built-in function; max():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1284)
* built-in function; min():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1321)
* built-in function; multiprocessing.Manager(): Managers.    (line   12)
* built-in function; next():             Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1352)
* built-in function; oct():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1373)
* built-in function; open():             Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1399)
* built-in function; ord():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1636)
* built-in function; pow():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1650)
* built-in function; print():            Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1695)
* built-in function; property.deleter(): Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1777)
* built-in function; property.getter():  Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1773)
* built-in function; property.setter():  Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1775)
* built-in function; repr():             Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1830)
* built-in function; reversed():         Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1856)
* built-in function; round():            Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1864)
* built-in function; setattr():          Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1903)
* built-in function; sorted():           Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2016)
* built-in function; staticmethod():     Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2055)
* built-in function; sum():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2117)
* built-in function; vars():             Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2299)
* built-in function; zip():              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2326)
* built-in function;__import__:          Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* built-in function;abs:                 Number Protocol.    (line  100)
* built-in function;ascii:               Object Protocol.    (line  396)
* built-in function;bytes:               Object Protocol.    (line  423)
* built-in function;call:                Calls.              (line  142)
* built-in function;classmethod:         Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  196)
* built-in function;compile:             Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  117)
* built-in function;divmod:              Number Protocol.    (line   71)
* built-in function;eval:                Functions<3>.       (line   83)
* built-in function;eval <1>:            PrettyPrinter objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* built-in function;float:               Number Protocol.    (line  265)
* built-in function;hash:                Object Protocol.    (line  477)
* built-in function;hash <1>:            PyTypeObject Slots. (line  453)
* built-in function;int:                 Number Protocol.    (line  257)
* built-in function;len:                 Object Protocol.    (line  525)
* built-in function;len <1>:             Sequence Protocol.  (line   16)
* built-in function;len <2>:             Mapping Protocol.   (line   19)
* built-in function;len <3>:             List Objects.       (line   42)
* built-in function;len <4>:             Dictionary objects. (line  353)
* built-in function;len <5>:             Set Objects.        (line  111)
* built-in function;pow:                 Number Protocol.    (line   80)
* built-in function;pow <1>:             Number Protocol.    (line  206)
* built-in function;range:               The for statement.  (line   37)
* built-in function;repr:                Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   94)
* built-in function;repr <1>:            Object Protocol.    (line  381)
* built-in function;repr <2>:            PyTypeObject Slots. (line  388)
* built-in function;slice:               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1186)
* built-in function;staticmethod:        Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  204)
* built-in function;tuple:               Sequence Protocol.  (line  127)
* built-in function;tuple <1>:           List Objects.       (line  211)
* built-in function;type:                Object Protocol.    (line  506)
* built-in method;call:                  Calls.              (line  142)
* built-in συνάρτηση;compile:            Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line   61)
* built-in;μέθοδος:                      Ενσωματωμένες μεθόδους.
                                                             (line    6)
* builtin_module_names (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  196)
* BuiltinFunctionType (στη μονάδα types): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line   87)
* BuiltinImporter (κλάση σε importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   67)
* BuiltinMethodType (στη μονάδα types):  Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line   87)
* burst() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4.Idler): IMAP4 Objects.  (line  161)
* busy_retry() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  213)
* BUTTON_ALT (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  627)
* BUTTON_CTRL (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  624)
* BUTTON_SHIFT (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  621)
* buttonbox() (μέθοδος της tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line   30)
* BUTTONn_CLICKED (στη μονάδα curses):   Constants<6>.       (line  612)
* BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED (στη μονάδα curses): Constants<6>.  (line  615)
* BUTTONn_PRESSED (στη μονάδα curses):   Constants<6>.       (line  606)
* BUTTONn_RELEASED (στη μονάδα curses):  Constants<6>.       (line  609)
* BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED (στη μονάδα curses): Constants<6>.  (line  618)
* bye() (στη μονάδα turtle):             Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line    6)
* byref() (στη μονάδα ctypes):           Utility functions.  (line   19)
* byte:                                  Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   45)
* byte_offset (ιδιότητα της ctypes.CField): Structured data types.
                                                             (line  255)
* byte_size (ιδιότητα της ctypes.CField): Structured data types.
                                                             (line  263)
* bytearray (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):        Αντικείμενα Bytearray.
                                                             (line    9)
* bytearray;μέθοδοι:                     Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytearray;μεταβολή:                    Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytearray;μορφοποίηση:                 Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytecode:                              Αντικείμενα κώδικα. (line    6)
* bytecode <1>:                          Γλωσσάρι.           (line  270)
* Bytecode (κλάση σε dis):               Bytecode analysis.  (line   12)
* BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (στη μονάδα importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   40)
* Bytecode.codeobj (στη μονάδα dis):     Bytecode analysis.  (line   54)
* Bytecode.first_line (στη μονάδα dis):  Bytecode analysis.  (line   58)
* BytecodeTestCase (κλάση σε test.support.bytecode_helper): test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line   13)
* byteorder (ιδιότητα της sys.abi_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   48)
* byteorder (στη μονάδα sys):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  189)
* bytes:                                 Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   45)
* bytes (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):            Αντικείμενα Bytes.  (line   13)
* bytes (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):        uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line   88)
* bytes_le (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line   93)
* bytes_warning (ιδιότητα της sys.flags): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  606)
* bytes-like αντικείμενα:                Γλωσσάρι.           (line  248)
* bytes;str (ενσωματωμένη (built-in) κλάση): Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str.
                                                             (line   68)
* bytes;μέθοδοι:                         Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes;μεταβολή:                        Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* bytes;μορφοποίηση:                     Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* BytesFeedParser (κλάση σε email.parser): FeedParser API.   (line   27)
* BytesGenerator (κλάση σε email.generator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line   42)
* BytesHeaderParser (κλάση σε email.parser): Parser API.     (line   67)
* BytesIO (κλάση σε io):                 Buffered Streams.   (line    9)
* BytesParser (κλάση σε email.parser):   Parser API.         (line   17)
* ByteString (κλάση σε collections.abc): Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line   69)
* ByteString (κλάση σε typing):          Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   14)
* byteswap() (μέθοδος της array.array):  array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  182)
* BytesWarning:                          Warnings.           (line   80)
* BZ2Compressor (κλάση σε bz2):          Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line    6)
* BZ2Decompressor (κλάση σε bz2):        Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   33)
* BZ2File (κλάση σε bz2):                De compression of files.
                                                             (line   40)
* C:                                     Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* c_bool (κλάση σε ctypes):              Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  258)
* c_byte (κλάση σε ctypes):              Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   69)
* c_char (κλάση σε ctypes):              Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* c_char_p (κλάση σε ctypes):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   82)
* C_CONTIGUOUS (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.
                                                             (line   25)
* c_contiguous (ιδιότητα της memoryview): Όψεις Μνήμης.      (line  514)
* c_double (κλάση σε ctypes):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   89)
* c_double_complex (κλάση σε ctypes):    Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  105)
* c_float (κλάση σε ctypes):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  100)
* c_float_complex (κλάση σε ctypes):     Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  112)
* c_int (κλάση σε ctypes):               Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  126)
* c_int16 (κλάση σε ctypes):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  138)
* c_int32 (κλάση σε ctypes):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  143)
* c_int64 (κλάση σε ctypes):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  148)
* c_int8 (κλάση σε ctypes):              Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  133)
* c_long (κλάση σε ctypes):              Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  153)
* c_longdouble (κλάση σε ctypes):        Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   94)
* c_longdouble_complex (κλάση σε ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  119)
* c_longlong (κλάση σε ctypes):          Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  158)
* C_RAISE (monitoring event):            Events.             (line   25)
* C_RETURN (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   30)
* c_short (κλάση σε ctypes):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  165)
* c_size_t (κλάση σε ctypes):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  170)
* c_ssize_t (κλάση σε ctypes):           Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  175)
* c_time_t (κλάση σε ctypes):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  183)
* c_ubyte (κλάση σε ctypes):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  190)
* c_uint (κλάση σε ctypes):              Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  196)
* c_uint16 (κλάση σε ctypes):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  208)
* c_uint32 (κλάση σε ctypes):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  213)
* c_uint64 (κλάση σε ctypes):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  218)
* c_uint8 (κλάση σε ctypes):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  203)
* c_ulong (κλάση σε ctypes):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  223)
* c_ulonglong (κλάση σε ctypes):         Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  228)
* c_ushort (κλάση σε ctypes):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  235)
* c_void_p (κλάση σε ctypes):            Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  240)
* c_wchar (κλάση σε ctypes):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  245)
* c_wchar_p (κλάση σε ctypes):           Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  252)
* C-contiguous:                          shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   36)
* C-contiguous <1>:                      Γλωσσάρι.           (line  420)
* C;language:                            Comparisons.        (line    6)
* C;γλώσσα:                              Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου.
                                                             (line    6)
* C;γλώσσα <1>:                          numbers Real float. (line    6)
* C;γλώσσα <2>:                          Ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line    6)
* C;γλώσσα <3>:                          Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* C;δομές:                               struct — Ερμηνεία bytes ως πακετοποιημένα δυαδικά δεδομένα.
                                                             (line    8)
* C14NWriterTarget (κλάση σε xml.etree.ElementTree): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   94)
* CACHE (opcode):                        Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  191)
* cache_clear() (μέθοδος της functools.lru_cache): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  206)
* cache_from_source() (στη μονάδα importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   21)
* cache_info() (μέθοδος της functools.lru_cache): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  201)
* cache() (στη μονάδα functools):        functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* cached (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  439)
* cached_property() (στη μονάδα functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* CacheFTPHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  482)
* calcobjsize() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  456)
* calcsize() (στη μονάδα struct):        Συναρτήσεις και εξαιρέσεις.
                                                             (line   61)
* calcvobjsize() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  462)
* Calendar (κλάση σε calendar):          calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   27)
* calendar command line option; -c:      Command-line usage. (line  124)
* calendar command line option; -css:    Command-line usage. (line  124)
* calendar command line option; -e:      Command-line usage. (line   66)
* calendar command line option; -encoding: Command-line usage.
                                                             (line   66)
* calendar command line option; -f:      Command-line usage. (line   75)
* calendar command line option; -first-weekday: Command-line usage.
                                                             (line   75)
* calendar command line option; -h:      Command-line usage. (line   57)
* calendar command line option; -help:   Command-line usage. (line   57)
* calendar command line option; -L:      Command-line usage. (line   61)
* calendar command line option; -l:      Command-line usage. (line  100)
* calendar command line option; -lines:  Command-line usage. (line  100)
* calendar command line option; -locale: Command-line usage. (line   61)
* calendar command line option; -m:      Command-line usage. (line  111)
* calendar command line option; -months: Command-line usage. (line  111)
* calendar command line option; -s:      Command-line usage. (line  106)
* calendar command line option; -spacing: Command-line usage.
                                                             (line  106)
* calendar command line option; -t:      Command-line usage. (line   71)
* calendar command line option; -type:   Command-line usage. (line   71)
* calendar command line option; -w:      Command-line usage. (line   94)
* calendar command line option; -width:  Command-line usage. (line   94)
* calendar command line option; month:   Command-line usage. (line   86)
* calendar command line option; year:    Command-line usage. (line   82)
* calendar() (στη μονάδα calendar):      calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  416)
* call:                                  Formal subscription grammar.
                                                             (line   16)
* CALL (monitoring event):               Events.             (line   21)
* CALL (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1072)
* Call (κλάση σε ast):                   Expressions<2>.     (line  121)
* call_annotate_function() (στη μονάδα annotationlib): Functions<10>.
                                                             (line   26)
* call_args (ιδιότητα της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  436)
* call_args_list (ιδιότητα της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  480)
* call_at() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop):  Scheduling delayed callbacks.
                                                             (line   41)
* call_count (ιδιότητα της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  329)
* call_evaluate_function() (στη μονάδα annotationlib): Functions<10>.
                                                             (line   55)
* call_exception_handler() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Error handling API.
                                                             (line   44)
* CALL_FUNCTION_EX (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1124)
* call_in_thread() (μέθοδος της concurrent.interpreters.Interpreter): Interpreter objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* CALL_INTRINSIC_1 (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1334)
* CALL_INTRINSIC_2 (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1395)
* CALL_KW (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1097)
* call_later() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Scheduling delayed callbacks.
                                                             (line   10)
* call_list() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.call): call.        (line   19)
* call_soon_threadsafe() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Scheduling callbacks.
                                                             (line   24)
* call_soon() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Scheduling callbacks.
                                                             (line    6)
* call_tracing() (στη μονάδα sys):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  205)
* call() (μέθοδος της concurrent.interpreters.Interpreter): Interpreter objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* call() (στη μονάδα operator):          operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  233)
* call() (στη μονάδα subprocess):        Older high-level API.
                                                             (line   10)
* call() (στη μονάδα unittest.mock):     call.               (line    6)
* callable:                              Γλωσσάρι.           (line  287)
* Callable (κλάση σε collections.abc):   Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line   18)
* Callable (στη μονάδα typing):          Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   22)
* CallableProxyType (στη μονάδα weakref): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  338)
* callback:                              Γλωσσάρι.           (line  299)
* callback (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option): Option attributes.
                                                             (line   68)
* callback_args (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option): Option attributes.
                                                             (line   74)
* callback_kwargs (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option): Option attributes.
                                                             (line   74)
* callback() (μέθοδος της contextlib.ExitStack): Utilities.  (line  621)
* callbacks (στη μονάδα gc):             gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  281)
* called (ιδιότητα της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.  (line  317)
* CalledProcessError:                    Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  205)
* calloc (C function):                   Overview<4>.        (line   33)
* CALLS (ιδιότητα της pstats.SortKey):   The Stats class.    (line  198)
* CAN (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   96)
* CAN_BCM (στη μονάδα socket):           Constants<8>.       (line  154)
* can_change_color() (στη μονάδα curses): Functions<4>.      (line   45)
* can_fetch() (μέθοδος της urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   32)
* CAN_ISOTP (στη μονάδα socket):         Constants<8>.       (line  193)
* CAN_J1939 (στη μονάδα socket):         Constants<8>.       (line  202)
* CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.       (line  169)
* CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.    (line  182)
* can_symlink() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   77)
* can_write_eof() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamWriter): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   50)
* can_write_eof() (μέθοδος της asyncio.WriteTransport): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   14)
* can_xattr() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   81)
* CANCEL (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  155)
* cancel_command() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   82)
* cancel_dump_traceback_later() (στη μονάδα faulthandler): Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout.
                                                             (line   31)
* cancel_join_thread() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Queue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  202)
* cancel() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Future): Future Object.      (line  113)
* cancel() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Handle): Callback handles.   (line   18)
* cancel() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task):   Task object.        (line  199)
* cancel() (μέθοδος της asyncio.TaskGroup): Task groups.     (line   31)
* cancel() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* cancel() (μέθοδος της sched.scheduler): Scheduler Objects. (line   41)
* cancel() (μέθοδος της threading.Timer): Timer objects.     (line   35)
* cancel() (μέθοδος της tkinter.dnd.DndHandler): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   48)
* cancelled() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Future): Future Object.   (line   71)
* cancelled() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Handle): Callback handles.
                                                             (line   23)
* cancelled() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task): Task object.       (line  267)
* cancelled() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* CancelledError:                        Exception classes.  (line    6)
* CancelledError <1>:                    Exceptions<14>.     (line   18)
* cancelling() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task): Task object.      (line  324)
* CannotSendHeader:                      http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  180)
* CannotSendRequest:                     http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  176)
* canonic() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):       bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  155)
* canonical() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  277)
* canonical() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  140)
* canonicalize() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line    6)
* capa() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line   24)
* capitalize() (μέθοδος της bytearray):  Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  511)
* capitalize() (μέθοδος της bytes):      Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  511)
* capitalize() (μέθοδος της str):        Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line   24)
* capitals (ιδιότητα της decimal.Context): Context objects.  (line  154)
* CapsuleType (κλάση σε types):          Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  344)
* capture_call_graph() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Call Graph Introspection.
                                                             (line   77)
* captured_stderr() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  349)
* captured_stdin() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  349)
* captured_stdout() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  349)
* captureWarnings() (στη μονάδα logging): Integration with the warnings module.
                                                             (line    9)
* capwords() (στη μονάδα string):        Helper functions.   (line    6)
* case block:                            Irrefutable Case Blocks.
                                                             (line    6)
* casefold() (μέθοδος της str):          Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line   34)
* cast() (μέθοδος της memoryview):       Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  294)
* cast() (στη μονάδα ctypes):            Utility functions.  (line   50)
* cast() (στη μονάδα typing):            Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line    6)
* catch_threading_exception() (στη μονάδα test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   47)
* catch_unraisable_exception() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  632)
* catch_warnings (κλάση σε warnings):    Διαθέσιμοι Context Managers.
                                                             (line    6)
* category() (στη μονάδα unicodedata):   unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   80)
* cbreak() (στη μονάδα curses):          Functions<4>.       (line   50)
* cbrt() (στη μονάδα math):              Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* CC:                                    New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   58)
* ccc() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP_TLS):    FTP_TLS objects.    (line   91)
* cdf() (μέθοδος της statistics.NormalDist): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* CDLL (κλάση σε ctypes):                Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line    9)
* cdll (στη μονάδα ctypes):              Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  213)
* ceil() (στη μονάδα math):              Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line    6)
* ceil() (στο module math):              Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line  131)
* CellType (στη μονάδα types):           Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line   74)
* center() (μέθοδος της bytearray):      Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  318)
* center() (μέθοδος της bytes):          Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  318)
* center() (μέθοδος της str):            Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line   56)
* CERT_NONE (στη μονάδα ssl):            Constants<9>.       (line   11)
* CERT_OPTIONAL (στη μονάδα ssl):        Constants<9>.       (line   24)
* CERT_REQUIRED (στη μονάδα ssl):        Constants<9>.       (line   40)
* cert_store_stats() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line   88)
* cert_time_to_seconds() (στη μονάδα ssl): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line    6)
* CertificateError:                      Exceptions<17>.     (line   94)
* certificates:                          SSL contexts.       (line  836)
* CField (κλάση σε ctypes):              Structured data types.
                                                             (line  213)
* CFLAGS:                                New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* CFLAGS <1>:                            Performance options.
                                                             (line   28)
* CFLAGS <2>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   26)
* CFLAGS <3>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   28)
* CFLAGS <4>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   32)
* CFLAGS <5>:                            Compiler flags.     (line   54)
* CFLAGS <6>:                            Linker flags.       (line   18)
* CFLAGS_NODIST:                         Compiler flags.     (line   24)
* CFLAGS_NODIST <1>:                     Compiler flags.     (line   61)
* CFLAGS_NODIST <2>:                     Linker flags.       (line   26)
* cfmakecbreak() (στη μονάδα tty):       tty — Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line   28)
* cfmakeraw() (στη μονάδα tty):          tty — Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line   20)
* CFUNCTYPE() (στη μονάδα ctypes):       Function prototypes.
                                                             (line   15)
* cget() (μέθοδος της tkinter.font.Font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   51)
* CGIHandler (κλάση σε wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   11)
* CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (κλάση σε xmlrpc.server): xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers.
                                                             (line   50)
* chain_log (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line   72)
* chain() (στη μονάδα itertools):        Itertool Functions. (line  105)
* chaining;comparisons:                  Comparisons.        (line   19)
* ChainMap (κλάση σε collections):       ChainMap objects.   (line   16)
* ChainMap (κλάση σε typing):            Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   28)
* change_cwd() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   85)
* CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.      (line  483)
* CHAR_MAX (στη μονάδα locale):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  593)
* character:                             unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line    6)
* CharacterDataHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  430)
* characters_written (ιδιότητα της BlockingIOError): OS exceptions.
                                                             (line   19)
* characters() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): ContentHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line  140)
* charmap_build() (στη μονάδα codecs):   codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   45)
* Charset (κλάση σε email.charset):      email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line   25)
* charset() (μέθοδος της gettext.NullTranslations): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   68)
* chdir() (στη μονάδα contextlib):       Utilities.          (line  362)
* chdir() (στη μονάδα os):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  116)
* check (ιδιότητα της lzma.LZMADecompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>.
                                                             (line  157)
* check__all__() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  712)
* check_call() (στη μονάδα subprocess):  Older high-level API.
                                                             (line   43)
* check_disallow_instantiation() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  767)
* CHECK_EG_MATCH (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  470)
* CHECK_EXC_MATCH (opcode):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  462)
* check_free_after_iterating() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  700)
* check_hostname (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  567)
* check_impl_detail() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  313)
* check_no_resource_warning() (στη μονάδα test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line   26)
* check_output() (μέθοδος της doctest.OutputChecker): OutputChecker objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* check_output() (στη μονάδα subprocess): Older high-level API.
                                                             (line   80)
* check_returncode() (μέθοδος της subprocess.CompletedProcess): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  134)
* check_syntax_error() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  606)
* check_syntax_warning() (στη μονάδα test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line   33)
* check_unused_args() (μέθοδος της string.Formatter): Custom string formatting.
                                                             (line   93)
* check_warnings() (στη μονάδα test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line   48)
* check() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line   58)
* check() (στη μονάδα tabnanny):         tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   17)
* checkcache() (στη μονάδα linecache):   linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   49)
* CHECKED_HASH (ιδιότητα της py_compile.PycInvalidationMode): py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line  109)
* checkfuncname() (στη μονάδα bdb):      bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  491)
* checksizeof() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  468)
* checksum_flag (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  204)
* checksum;Cyclic Redundancy Check:      zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  138)
* chflags() (στη μονάδα os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  135)
* chgat() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  138)
* childNodes (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.      (line   49)
* ChildProcessError:                     OS exceptions.      (line   25)
* children (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Class):  Class Objects.      (line   35)
* children (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Function): Function Objects. (line   34)
* children (ιδιότητα της tkinter.Tk):    Tkinter Modules.    (line   86)
* chksum (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.    (line  137)
* chmod() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):    Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line   36)
* chmod() (στη μονάδα os):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  176)
* choice() (στη μονάδα random):          Συναρτήσεις για ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line    6)
* choice() (στη μονάδα secrets):         Random numbers.     (line   15)
* choices (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option): Option attributes. (line   63)
* choices() (στη μονάδα random):         Συναρτήσεις για ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   11)
* Chooser (κλάση σε tkinter.colorchooser): tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog.
                                                             (line   15)
* chown() (στη μονάδα os):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  246)
* chown() (στη μονάδα shutil):           Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  409)
* chroot() (στη μονάδα os):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  273)
* CHRTYPE (στη μονάδα tarfile):          tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  344)
* cipher() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket):  SSL sockets.        (line  237)
* circle() (στη μονάδα turtle):          Turtle motion.      (line  211)
* CIRCUMFLEX (στη μονάδα token):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  283)
* CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL (στη μονάδα token):    token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  316)
* clamp (ιδιότητα της decimal.Context):  Context objects.    (line  160)
* Clamped (κλάση σε decimal):            Signals.            (line   20)
* CLASS (ιδιότητα της symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   19)
* Class (κλάση σε pyclbr):               Class Objects.      (line    6)
* Class (κλάση σε symtable):             Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  157)
* class instance;call:                   Calls.              (line  152)
* class object;call:                     Calls.              (line  148)
* class;definition:                      Class definitions.  (line    6)
* class;name:                            Class definitions.  (line    6)
* ClassDef (κλάση σε ast):               Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  169)
* ClassMethodDescriptorType (στη μονάδα types): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  123)
* ClassVar (στη μονάδα typing):          Special forms.      (line  200)
* clause:                                Compound statements.
                                                             (line   18)
* CLD_CONTINUED (στη μονάδα os):         Process Management. (line 1056)
* CLD_DUMPED (στη μονάδα os):            Process Management. (line 1056)
* CLD_EXITED (στη μονάδα os):            Process Management. (line 1056)
* CLD_KILLED (στη μονάδα os):            Process Management. (line 1056)
* CLD_STOPPED (στη μονάδα os):           Process Management. (line 1056)
* CLD_TRAPPED (στη μονάδα os):           Process Management. (line 1056)
* clean() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.    (line   86)
* cleandoc() (στη μονάδα inspect):       Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   89)
* CleanImport (κλάση σε test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   87)
* cleanup functions:                     Process Control.    (line   33)
* CLEANUP_THROW (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  360)
* cleanup() (μέθοδος της tempfile.TemporaryDirectory): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  202)
* clear (pdb command):                   Debugger commands.  (line  135)
* Clear Breakpoint:                      Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* clear_all_breaks() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  383)
* clear_all_file_breaks() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  378)
* clear_bpbynumber() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  372)
* clear_break() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):   bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  367)
* clear_cache() (μέθοδος κλάσης της zoneinfo.ZoneInfo): The ZoneInfo class.
                                                             (line   61)
* clear_cache() (στη μονάδα filecmp):    filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons.
                                                             (line   56)
* clear_content() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  672)
* clear_flags() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  191)
* clear_frames() (στη μονάδα traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  177)
* clear_history() (στη μονάδα readline): History list.       (line    8)
* clear_memo() (μέθοδος της pickle.Pickler): Module Interface.
                                                             (line  231)
* clear_overloads() (στη μονάδα typing): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  303)
* clear_session_cookies() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* clear_tool_id() (στη μονάδα sys.monitoring): Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line   13)
* clear_traces() (στη μονάδα tracemalloc): Functions<9>.     (line    6)
* clear_traps() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  195)
* clear() (μέθοδος της array.array):     array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  263)
* clear() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Event):   Event.              (line   58)
* clear() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.    (line   43)
* clear() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  154)
* clear() (μέθοδος της dict):            Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line  172)
* clear() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  668)
* clear() (μέθοδος της frame):           Μέθοδοι αντικειμένων πλαισίου.
                                                             (line    8)
* clear() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* clear() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.    (line  220)
* clear() (μέθοδος της sequence):        Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   80)
* clear() (μέθοδος της set):             Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  228)
* clear() (μέθοδος της threading.Event): Event objects.      (line   36)
* clear() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* clear() (στη μονάδα turtle):           More drawing control.
                                                             (line   23)
* clearcache() (στη μονάδα linecache):   linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   44)
* clearok() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line  159)
* clearscreen() (στη μονάδα turtle):     Window control.     (line   73)
* clearstamp() (στη μονάδα turtle):      Turtle motion.      (line  290)
* clearstamps() (στη μονάδα turtle):     Turtle motion.      (line  309)
* client_address (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  117)
* client_address (ιδιότητα της socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* client_sigalg() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.  (line  262)
* Client() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing.connection): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   34)
* CLOCK_BOOTTIME (στη μονάδα time):      Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού.
                                                             (line    9)
* clock_getres() (στη μονάδα time):      Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line   44)
* clock_gettime_ns() (στη μονάδα time):  Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line   68)
* clock_gettime() (στη μονάδα time):     Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line   54)
* CLOCK_HIGHRES (στη μονάδα time):       Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού.
                                                             (line   25)
* CLOCK_MONOTONIC (στη μονάδα time):     Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού.
                                                             (line   36)
* CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW (στη μονάδα time): Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού.
                                                             (line   45)
* CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW_APPROX (στη μονάδα time): Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού.
                                                             (line   55)
* CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID (στη μονάδα time): Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού.
                                                             (line   65)
* CLOCK_PROF (στη μονάδα time):          Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού.
                                                             (line   73)
* CLOCK_REALTIME (στη μονάδα time):      Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού.
                                                             (line  134)
* clock_seq (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):    uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  137)
* clock_seq_hi_variant (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  118)
* clock_seq_low (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  122)
* clock_settime_ns() (στη μονάδα time):  Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line   94)
* clock_settime() (στη μονάδα time):     Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line   77)
* CLOCK_TAI (στη μονάδα time):           Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού.
                                                             (line   81)
* CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID (στη μονάδα time): Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού.
                                                             (line   93)
* CLOCK_UPTIME (στη μονάδα time):        Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού.
                                                             (line  101)
* CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW (στη μονάδα time):    Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού.
                                                             (line  111)
* CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW_APPROX (στη μονάδα time): Σταθερές αναγνωριστικού ρολογιού.
                                                             (line  121)
* CLONE_FILES (στη μονάδα os):           Process Parameters. (line  647)
* CLONE_FS (στη μονάδα os):              Process Parameters. (line  647)
* CLONE_NEWCGROUP (στη μονάδα os):       Process Parameters. (line  647)
* CLONE_NEWIPC (στη μονάδα os):          Process Parameters. (line  647)
* CLONE_NEWNET (στη μονάδα os):          Process Parameters. (line  647)
* CLONE_NEWNS (στη μονάδα os):           Process Parameters. (line  647)
* CLONE_NEWPID (στη μονάδα os):          Process Parameters. (line  647)
* CLONE_NEWTIME (στη μονάδα os):         Process Parameters. (line  647)
* CLONE_NEWUSER (στη μονάδα os):         Process Parameters. (line  647)
* CLONE_NEWUTS (στη μονάδα os):          Process Parameters. (line  647)
* CLONE_SIGHAND (στη μονάδα os):         Process Parameters. (line  647)
* CLONE_SYSVSEM (στη μονάδα os):         Process Parameters. (line  647)
* CLONE_THREAD (στη μονάδα os):          Process Parameters. (line  647)
* CLONE_VM (στη μονάδα os):              Process Parameters. (line  647)
* clone() (μέθοδος της email.generator.BytesGenerator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  111)
* clone() (μέθοδος της email.generator.Generator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  205)
* clone() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  223)
* clone() (στη μονάδα turtle):           Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   44)
* cloneNode() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.      (line  147)
* close (in module os):                  Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  197)
* close_clients() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Server): Server objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* close_connection (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  126)
* close() (μέθοδος της asyncio.BaseTransport): Base Transport.
                                                             (line    6)
* close() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop):    Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   43)
* close() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Runner):  Runner context manager.
                                                             (line   56)
* close() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Server):  Server objects.     (line   32)
* close() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamWriter): StreamWriter.  (line   40)
* close() (μέθοδος της asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   59)
* close() (μέθοδος της concurrent.interpreters.Interpreter): Interpreter objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* close() (μέθοδος της contextlib.ExitStack): Utilities.     (line  653)
* close() (μέθοδος της coroutine):       Coroutine Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   52)
* close() (μέθοδος της dbm.dumb.dumbdbm): dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line   84)
* close() (μέθοδος της dbm.gnu.gdbm):    dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   96)
* close() (μέθοδος της dbm.ndbm.ndbm):   dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   82)
* close() (μέθοδος της dbm.sqlite3.sqlite3): dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm.
                                                             (line   54)
* close() (μέθοδος της email.parser.BytesFeedParser): FeedParser API.
                                                             (line   64)
* close() (μέθοδος της file):            Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line   32)
* close() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):      FTP objects.        (line  368)
* close() (μέθοδος της generator):       Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   64)
* close() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   15)
* close() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPConnection): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  157)
* close() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line   62)
* close() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):       I/O Base Classes.   (line   47)
* close() (μέθοδος της logging.FileHandler): FileHandler.    (line   26)
* close() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects.    (line   74)
* close() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.MemoryHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   56)
* close() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   29)
* close() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SocketHandler): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   20)
* close() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SysLogHandler): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   52)
* close() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.    (line  277)
* close() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.    (line  215)
* close() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH):      MH objects.         (line  107)
* close() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):       mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  192)
* close() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* close() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.connection.Listener): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   91)
* close() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  174)
* close() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  248)
* close() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Queue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  178)
* close() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   93)
* close() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.SimpleQueue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  232)
* close() (μέθοδος της os.scandir):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  886)
* close() (μέθοδος της select.devpoll):  /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* close() (μέθοδος της select.epoll):    Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* close() (μέθοδος της select.kqueue):   Kqueue Objects.     (line    6)
* close() (μέθοδος της selectors.BaseSelector): Classes.     (line  137)
* close() (μέθοδος της shelve.Shelf):    shelve — Python object persistence.
                                                             (line  105)
* close() (μέθοδος της socket.socket):   Socket Objects.     (line   41)
* close() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Blob):    Blob objects.       (line   37)
* close() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   88)
* close() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Cursor):  Cursor objects.     (line  156)
* close() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarFile): TarFile Objects.    (line  324)
* close() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.BaseHandler): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* close() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_read):  Wave_read Objects.  (line   13)
* close() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects. (line   29)
* Close() (μέθοδος της winreg.PyHKEY):   Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* close() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* close() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser): XMLParser Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* close() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser): XMLPullParser Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* close() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser): IncrementalParser Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* close() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects.    (line  110)
* close() (στη μονάδα fileinput):        fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  132)
* close() (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   21)
* close() (στη μονάδα socket):           Other functions<2>. (line    8)
* CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect:           email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line   90)
* closed (ιδιότητα της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* closed (ιδιότητα της io.IOBase):       I/O Base Classes.   (line   57)
* closed (ιδιότητα της mmap.mmap):       mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  198)
* closed (ιδιότητα της select.devpoll):  /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* closed (ιδιότητα της select.epoll):    Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* closed (ιδιότητα της select.kqueue):   Kqueue Objects.     (line   10)
* CloseKey() (στη μονάδα winreg):        Functions<12>.      (line    8)
* closelog() (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line   76)
* closerange() (στη μονάδα os):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   32)
* closing() (στη μονάδα contextlib):     Utilities.          (line  149)
* clrtobot() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  164)
* clrtoeol() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  170)
* cmd (ιδιότητα της subprocess.CalledProcessError): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  216)
* cmd (ιδιότητα της subprocess.TimeoutExpired): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  173)
* Cmd (κλάση σε cmd):                    cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters.
                                                             (line   15)
* cmdloop() (μέθοδος της cmd.Cmd):       Cmd Objects.        (line    8)
* cmdqueue (ιδιότητα της cmd.Cmd):       Cmd Objects.        (line  142)
* cmp_op (στη μονάδα dis):               Opcode collections. (line   21)
* cmp_to_key() (στη μονάδα functools):   functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  122)
* cmp() (στη μονάδα filecmp):            filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons.
                                                             (line   16)
* cmpfiles() (στη μονάδα filecmp):       filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons.
                                                             (line   36)
* CMSG_LEN() (στη μονάδα socket):        Other functions<2>. (line  344)
* CMSG_SPACE() (στη μονάδα socket):      Other functions<2>. (line  361)
* co_argcount (ιδιότητα της codeobject): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* co_argcount (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR (C macro):          Code Object Flags.  (line   48)
* CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR (στη μονάδα inspect): Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   52)
* co_cellvars (ιδιότητα της codeobject): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   40)
* co_cellvars (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* co_code (ιδιότητα της codeobject):     Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   56)
* co_code (χαρακτηριστικό code object):  Αντικείμενα κώδικα. (line   18)
* co_consts (ιδιότητα της codeobject):   Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   60)
* co_consts (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* CO_COROUTINE (C macro):                Code Object Flags.  (line   42)
* CO_COROUTINE (στη μονάδα inspect):     Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   35)
* co_filename (ιδιότητα της codeobject): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   70)
* co_filename (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* co_firstlineno (ιδιότητα της codeobject): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   74)
* co_firstlineno (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* co_flags (ιδιότητα της codeobject):    Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   81)
* co_flags (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα. (line   18)
* co_freevars (ιδιότητα της codeobject): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   46)
* co_freevars (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* CO_FUTURE_ABSOLUTE_IMPORT (C macro):   Code Object Flags.  (line   60)
* CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS (C macro):       Code Object Flags.  (line   75)
* CO_FUTURE_DIVISION (C macro):          Code Object Flags.  (line   57)
* CO_FUTURE_GENERATOR_STOP (C macro):    Code Object Flags.  (line   72)
* CO_FUTURE_PRINT_FUNCTION (C macro):    Code Object Flags.  (line   66)
* CO_FUTURE_UNICODE_LITERALS (C macro):  Code Object Flags.  (line   69)
* CO_FUTURE_WITH_STATEMENT (C macro):    Code Object Flags.  (line   63)
* CO_GENERATOR (C macro):                Code Object Flags.  (line   39)
* CO_GENERATOR (στη μονάδα inspect):     Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   30)
* CO_HAS_DOCSTRING (C macro):            Code Object Flags.  (line   51)
* CO_HAS_DOCSTRING (στη μονάδα inspect): Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   60)
* CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE (C macro):       Code Object Flags.  (line   45)
* CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE (στη μονάδα inspect): Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   43)
* co_kwonlyargcount (ιδιότητα της codeobject): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   25)
* co_kwonlyargcount (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* co_lines() (μέθοδος της codeobject):   Μέθοδοι σε αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   45)
* CO_METHOD (C macro):                   Code Object Flags.  (line   54)
* CO_METHOD (στη μονάδα inspect):        Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   68)
* co_name (ιδιότητα της codeobject):     Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* co_name (χαρακτηριστικό code object):  Αντικείμενα κώδικα. (line   18)
* co_names (ιδιότητα της codeobject):    Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   65)
* co_names (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα. (line   18)
* CO_NESTED (C macro):                   Code Object Flags.  (line   36)
* CO_NESTED (στη μονάδα inspect):        Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   26)
* CO_NEWLOCALS (C macro):                Code Object Flags.  (line   27)
* CO_NEWLOCALS (στη μονάδα inspect):     Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   13)
* co_nlocals (ιδιότητα της codeobject):  Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* co_nlocals (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* CO_OPTIMIZED (C macro):                Code Object Flags.  (line   24)
* CO_OPTIMIZED (στη μονάδα inspect):     Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line    9)
* co_positions() (μέθοδος της codeobject): Μέθοδοι σε αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line    6)
* co_posonlyargcount (ιδιότητα της codeobject): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   20)
* co_posonlyargcount (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* co_qualname (ιδιότητα της codeobject): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* co_qualname (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* co_stacksize (ιδιότητα της codeobject): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   77)
* co_stacksize (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* CO_VARARGS (C macro):                  Code Object Flags.  (line   30)
* CO_VARARGS (στη μονάδα inspect):       Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   18)
* CO_VARKEYWORDS (C macro):              Code Object Flags.  (line   33)
* CO_VARKEYWORDS (στη μονάδα inspect):   Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   22)
* co_varnames (ιδιότητα της codeobject): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   35)
* co_varnames (χαρακτηριστικό code object): Αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* code (ιδιότητα της SystemExit):        Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  425)
* code (ιδιότητα της urllib.error.HTTPError): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   41)
* code (ιδιότητα της urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   40)
* code (ιδιότητα της xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError): Exceptions<20>.
                                                             (line   14)
* code (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError): Εξαιρέσεις ExpatError.
                                                             (line    9)
* code object:                           Αντικείμενα κώδικα. (line    6)
* code object <1>:                       marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   36)
* code object <2>:                       Cell Objects.       (line   57)
* code_context (ιδιότητα της inspect.FrameInfo): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   32)
* code_context (ιδιότητα της inspect.Traceback): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   72)
* code_info() (στη μονάδα dis):          Analysis functions. (line   11)
* Codec (κλάση σε codecs):               Stateless Encoding and Decoding.
                                                             (line    9)
* CodecInfo (κλάση σε codecs):           codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   75)
* CodecRegistryError:                    encodings — Encodings package.
                                                             (line   53)
* Codecs:                                codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* Codecs;decode:                         codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* Codecs;encode:                         codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* codecs.escape_decode() (στη μονάδα codecs): Standalone Codec Functions.
                                                             (line   22)
* codecs.escape_encode() (στη μονάδα codecs): Standalone Codec Functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* coded_value (ιδιότητα της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line   67)
* codepoint2name (στη μονάδα html.entities): html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line   35)
* codes (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   16)
* CODESET (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  199)
* CodeType (κλάση σε types):             Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line   59)
* coding;style:                          Intermezzo Στυλ Κώδικα.
                                                             (line    6)
* col_offset (ιδιότητα της ast.AST):     Node classes.       (line   50)
* collapse_addresses() (στη μονάδα ipaddress): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line   43)
* collapse_rfc2231_value() (στη μονάδα email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  199)
* collect() (στη μονάδα gc):             gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   34)
* collectedDurations (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  276)
* Collection (κλάση σε collections.abc): Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line   37)
* Collection (κλάση σε typing):          Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   37)
* colno (ιδιότητα της json.JSONDecodeError): Exceptions<18>. (line   27)
* colno (ιδιότητα της re.PatternError):  Exceptions.         (line   32)
* colno (ιδιότητα της tomllib.TOMLDecodeError): tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   89)
* colno (ιδιότητα της traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   57)
* colon (ιδιότητα της mailbox.Maildir):  Maildir objects.    (line   45)
* COLON (στη μονάδα token):              token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  220)
* COLONEQUAL (στη μονάδα token):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  346)
* COLOR_BLACK (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  639)
* COLOR_BLUE (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  642)
* color_content() (στη μονάδα curses):   Functions<4>.       (line   60)
* COLOR_CYAN (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  645)
* COLOR_GREEN (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  648)
* COLOR_MAGENTA (στη μονάδα curses):     Constants<6>.       (line  651)
* color_pair() (στη μονάδα curses):      Functions<4>.       (line   68)
* COLOR_PAIRS (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line   39)
* COLOR_RED (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  654)
* COLOR_WHITE (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  657)
* COLOR_YELLOW (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  660)
* color() (στη μονάδα turtle):           Color control.      (line  112)
* colormode() (στη μονάδα turtle):       Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   34)
* COLORS (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line   34)
* COLS (στη μονάδα curses):              Constants<6>.       (line   44)
* column() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview. (line   35)
* columnize() (μέθοδος της cmd.Cmd):     Cmd Objects.        (line   87)
* COLUMNS:                               Functions<4>.       (line  610)
* COLUMNS <1>:                           Functions<4>.       (line  613)
* columns (ιδιότητα της os.terminal_size): Querying the size of a terminal.
                                                             (line   30)
* comb() (στη μονάδα math.integer):      math integer — integer-specific mathematics functions.
                                                             (line   18)
* comb() (στη μονάδα math):              Number-theoretic functions.
                                                             (line    9)
* combinations_with_replacement() (στη μονάδα itertools): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  170)
* combinations() (στη μονάδα itertools): Itertool Functions. (line  128)
* combine() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  186)
* combining() (στη μονάδα unicodedata):  unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  101)
* Combobox (κλάση σε tkinter.ttk):       ttk Combobox.       (line    6)
* COMError:                              Exceptions<9>.      (line   11)
* comma:                                 Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line   20)
* COMMA (στη μονάδα token):              token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  223)
* command (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  139)
* command line option; -?:               Generic options.    (line    6)
* command line option; -b:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line    6)
* command line option; -B:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   22)
* command line option; -build:           Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   12)
* command line option; -c:               Interface options.  (line   36)
* command line option; -check-hash-based-pycs: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   27)
* command line option; -d:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   41)
* command line option; -disable-epoll:   General Options.    (line  291)
* command line option; -disable-gil:     General Options.    (line  240)
* command line option; -disable-ipv6:    General Options.    (line   16)
* command line option; -disable-safety:  Security Options.   (line   57)
* command line option; -disable-test-modules: Install Options.
                                                             (line   24)
* command line option; -E:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   49)
* command line option; -enable-big-digits: General Options.  (line   21)
* command line option; -enable-bolt:     Performance options.
                                                             (line   62)
* command line option; -enable-experimental-jit: General Options.
                                                             (line  252)
* command line option; -enable-framework: macOS Options.     (line   15)
* command line option; -enable-framework <1>: macOS Options. (line   17)
* command line option; -enable-framework <2>: iOS Options.   (line    8)
* command line option; -enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions: General Options.
                                                             (line    6)
* command line option; -enable-optimizations: Performance options.
                                                             (line   10)
* command line option; -enable-profiling: Performance options.
                                                             (line  205)
* command line option; -enable-pystats:  General Options.    (line  147)
* command line option; -enable-shared:   Linker options<2>.  (line    6)
* command line option; -enable-slower-safety: Security Options.
                                                             (line   76)
* command line option; -enable-static-libpython-for-interpreter: Linker options<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* command line option; -enable-universalsdk: macOS Options.  (line    8)
* command line option; -enable-universalsdk <1>: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   10)
* command line option; -enable-wasm-dynamic-linking: WebAssembly Options.
                                                             (line    6)
* command line option; -enable-wasm-pthreads: WebAssembly Options.
                                                             (line   16)
* command line option; -exec-prefix:     Install Options.    (line   16)
* command line option; -h:               Generic options.    (line    6)
* command line option; -help:            Generic options.    (line    6)
* command line option; -help-all:        Generic options.    (line   27)
* command line option; -help-env:        Generic options.    (line   13)
* command line option; -help-xoptions:   Generic options.    (line   20)
* command line option; -host:            Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   16)
* command line option; -i:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   56)
* command line option; -I:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   77)
* command line option; -m:               Interface options.  (line   53)
* command line option; -O:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   89)
* command line option; -OO:              Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   99)
* command line option; -P:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  108)
* command line option; -prefix:          Install Options.    (line    6)
* command line option; -q:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  127)
* command line option; -R:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  134)
* command line option; -s:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  160)
* command line option; -S:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  172)
* command line option; -u:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  180)
* command line option; -V:               Generic options.    (line   33)
* command line option; -v:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  190)
* command line option; -version:         Generic options.    (line   33)
* command line option; -W:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  203)
* command line option; -with-address-sanitizer: Debug options.
                                                             (line   59)
* command line option; -with-app-store-compliance: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   56)
* command line option; -with-app-store-compliance <1>: macOS Options.
                                                             (line   58)
* command line option; -with-assertions: Debug options.      (line   34)
* command line option; -with-build-python: Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   20)
* command line option; -with-builtin-hashlib-hashes: Security Options.
                                                             (line   21)
* command line option; -with-computed-gotos: Performance options.
                                                             (line   99)
* command line option; -with-dbmliborder: General Options.   (line   68)
* command line option; -with-dtrace:     Debug options.      (line   51)
* command line option; -with-ensurepip:  Install Options.    (line   32)
* command line option; -with-framework-name: macOS Options.  (line   51)
* command line option; -with-framework-name <1>: iOS Options.
                                                             (line   13)
* command line option; -with-hash-algorithm: Security Options.
                                                             (line    6)
* command line option; -with-libc:       Libraries options.  (line   64)
* command line option; -with-libm:       Libraries options.  (line   59)
* command line option; -with-libs:       Libraries options.  (line    6)
* command line option; -with-lto:        Performance options.
                                                             (line   46)
* command line option; -with-memory-sanitizer: Debug options.
                                                             (line   69)
* command line option; -with-missing-stdlib-config: General Options.
                                                             (line  125)
* command line option; -with-openssl:    Libraries options.  (line   69)
* command line option; -with-openssl-rpath: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   75)
* command line option; -with-pkg-config: General Options.    (line  112)
* command line option; -with-platlibdir: General Options.    (line   90)
* command line option; -with-pydebug:    Debug options.      (line    6)
* command line option; -with-pymalloc-hugepages: Performance options.
                                                             (line  165)
* command line option; -with-readline:   Libraries options.  (line   41)
* command line option; -with-ssl-default-suites: Security Options.
                                                             (line   40)
* command line option; -with-strict-overflow: Performance options.
                                                             (line  209)
* command line option; -with-suffix:     General Options.    (line   32)
* command line option; -with-system-expat: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   10)
* command line option; -with-system-libmpdec: Libraries options.
                                                             (line   15)
* command line option; -with-tail-call-interp: Performance options.
                                                             (line  104)
* command line option; -with-thread-sanitizer: Debug options.
                                                             (line   83)
* command line option; -with-trace-refs: Debug options.      (line   11)
* command line option; -with-tzpath:     General Options.    (line   44)
* command line option; -with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer: Debug options.
                                                             (line   76)
* command line option; -with-universal-archs: macOS Options. (line   23)
* command line option; -with-valgrind:   Debug options.      (line   47)
* command line option; -with-wheel-pkg-dir: General Options. (line  100)
* command line option; -without-c-locale-coercion: General Options.
                                                             (line   81)
* command line option; -without-decimal-contextvar: General Options.
                                                             (line   57)
* command line option; -without-doc-strings: Performance options.
                                                             (line  195)
* command line option; -without-frame-pointers: Performance options.
                                                             (line  114)
* command line option; -without-mimalloc: Performance options.
                                                             (line  148)
* command line option; -without-pymalloc: Performance options.
                                                             (line  158)
* command line option; -without-readline: Libraries options. (line   51)
* command line option; -without-remote-debug: Performance options.
                                                             (line  214)
* command line option; -without-static-libpython: Linker options<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* command line option; -x:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  273)
* command line option; -X:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  278)
* command line option; BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS: Performance options.
                                                             (line   87)
* command line option; BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS: Performance options.
                                                             (line   93)
* command line option; BZIP2_CFLAGS:     Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line    8)
* command line option; BZIP2_LIBS:       Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   10)
* command line option; CC:               C compiler options. (line    6)
* command line option; CFLAGS:           C compiler options. (line   10)
* command line option; CONFIG_SITE:      Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   26)
* command line option; CPP:              C compiler options. (line   14)
* command line option; CPPFLAGS:         C compiler options. (line   18)
* command line option; CURSES_CFLAGS:    Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   15)
* command line option; CURSES_LIBS:      Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   17)
* command line option; GDBM_CFLAGS:      Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   22)
* command line option; GDBM_LIBS:        Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   24)
* command line option; HOSTRUNNER:       Cross Compiling Options.
                                                             (line   38)
* command line option; LDFLAGS:          Linker options.     (line    6)
* command line option; LIBEDIT_CFLAGS:   Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   28)
* command line option; LIBEDIT_LIBS:     Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   30)
* command line option; LIBFFI_CFLAGS:    Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   35)
* command line option; LIBFFI_LIBS:      Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   37)
* command line option; LIBLZMA_CFLAGS:   Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   52)
* command line option; LIBLZMA_LIBS:     Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   54)
* command line option; LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS:  Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   42)
* command line option; LIBMPDEC_LIBS:    Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   44)
* command line option; LIBREADLINE_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   59)
* command line option; LIBREADLINE_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   61)
* command line option; LIBS:             Linker options.     (line   10)
* command line option; LIBSQLITE3_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   66)
* command line option; LIBSQLITE3_LIBS:  Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   68)
* command line option; LIBUUID_CFLAGS:   Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   73)
* command line option; LIBUUID_LIBS:     Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   75)
* command line option; LIBZSTD_CFLAGS:   Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   80)
* command line option; LIBZSTD_LIBS:     Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   82)
* command line option; MACHDEP:          Linker options.     (line   14)
* command line option; PANEL_CFLAGS:     Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   89)
* command line option; PANEL_LIBS:       Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   91)
* command line option; PKG_CONFIG:       General Options.    (line  281)
* command line option; PKG_CONFIG_LIBDIR: General Options.   (line  285)
* command line option; PKG_CONFIG_PATH:  General Options.    (line  287)
* command line option; TCLTK_CFLAGS:     Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line   98)
* command line option; TCLTK_LIBS:       Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line  100)
* command line option; ZLIB_CFLAGS:      Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line  104)
* command line option; ZLIB_LIBS:        Options for third-party dependencies.
                                                             (line  106)
* CommandCompiler (κλάση σε codeop):     codeop — Compile Python code.
                                                             (line   65)
* commands (pdb command):                Debugger commands.  (line  169)
* comment (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   61)
* comment (ιδιότητα της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* comment (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects.   (line  369)
* comment (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.   (line  103)
* COMMENT (στη μονάδα token):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   70)
* comment_url (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   66)
* comment() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* comment() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler): LexicalHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   20)
* Comment() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line   72)
* commenters (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.      (line   85)
* CommentHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  494)
* commit() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* common (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp):  The dircmp class.   (line   63)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983: Build and C API Changes<8>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983 <1>: Build and C API Changes<9>.
                                                             (line   47)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983 <2>: Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  128)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876 <1>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876 <2>: Security<57>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2013-0340: Security<28>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2013-1753: Library<212>.
                                                             (line  193)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2014-0224: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   30)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2014-4616: Library<212>.
                                                             (line 1122)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2015-1283: Security<54>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2015-1283 <1>: Security<59>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <1>: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <2>: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <3>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <4>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <5>: Security<52>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <6>: Security<57>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <7>: Security<57>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <8>: Security<57>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0772: Security<54>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0772 <1>: Security<59>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-1000110: Library<191>.
                                                             (line   82)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-1000110 <1>: Library<198>.
                                                             (line  267)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-2183: Library<190>.
                                                             (line  178)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-2183 <1>: Library<198>.
                                                             (line  205)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-3189: Windows<30>.
                                                             (line   25)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472 <1>: Security<52>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472 <2>: Security<57>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   24)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300 <1>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300 <2>: Security<57>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063 <1>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063 <2>: Security<57>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-1000158: Security<56>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233: Security<48>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233 <1>: Security<51>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233 <2>: Security<57>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060: Security<45>.
                                                             (line   48)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060 <1>: Security<46>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060 <2>: Security<49>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061: Security<45>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061 <1>: Security<46>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061 <2>: Security<49>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-14647: Security<45>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-25032: Windows<30>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-8970: Security<45>.
                                                             (line   38)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-8970 <1>: Security<46>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-12900: Windows<30>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-15903: Security<41>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-18348: Security<38>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-20907: Library<155>.
                                                             (line  186)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-5010: Security<45>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-9740: Security<43>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-9948: Security<42>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735: Other CPython Implementation Changes.
                                                             (line   56)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <1>: Notable security feature in 3 10 7.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <2>: Notable security feature in 3 9 14.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <3>: Notable security feature in 3 8 14.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <4>: Notable security feature in 3 7 14.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <5>: Περιορισμός μήκους μετατροπής συμβολοσειράς ακέραιου αριθμού.
                                                             (line   23)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-15523: Security<35>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-15801: Security<35>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-8492: Security<37>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2021-3426: Security<30>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-26488: Windows<30>.
                                                             (line   28)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-37434: Windows<27>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-42919: Security<26>.
                                                             (line   24)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-4303: Security<22>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-4303 <1>: Security<22>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-0286: Security<22>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-24329: Security<21>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-27043: email<3>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-27043 <1>: Library<67>.
                                                             (line  429)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-40217: Security<20>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425: xml<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425 <1>: Security<17>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425 <2>: Documentation<17>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425 <3>: XML security.
                                                             (line   57)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718: tarfile.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718 <1>: tarfile.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718 <2>: tarfile<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718 <3>: tarfile<2>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718 <4>: Security<8>.
                                                             (line   71)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030: os<3>.
                                                             (line   38)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030 <1>: tempfile.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030 <2>: Security<15>.
                                                             (line   54)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4138: tarfile.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4138 <1>: tarfile<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4138 <2>: Security<8>.
                                                             (line   71)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4330: tarfile.
                                                             (line   19)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4330 <1>: tarfile<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4330 <2>: Security<8>.
                                                             (line   71)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4435: tarfile.
                                                             (line   24)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4435 <1>: tarfile<2>.
                                                             (line   24)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4517: os path.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4517 <1>: os path<2>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4517 <2>: Security<8>.
                                                             (line   72)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2026-2297: Security<4>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2026-3219: Library<2>.
                                                             (line  111)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2026-3644: Security<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2026-4224: Security<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 257:  Recipes and best practices.
                                                             (line   16)
* Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 295:  ssl<4>.             (line   21)
* Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 295 <1>: Library<92>.     (line  514)
* common_dirs (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   75)
* common_files (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   79)
* common_funny (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   83)
* common_types (στη μονάδα mimetypes):   mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  159)
* commonpath() (στη μονάδα os.path):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line   73)
* commonprefix() (στη μονάδα os.path):   os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line   89)
* communicate() (μέθοδος της asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   51)
* communicate() (μέθοδος της subprocess.Popen): Popen Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* Compare (κλάση σε ast):                Expressions<2>.     (line   91)
* compare_digest() (στη μονάδα hmac):    hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line  116)
* compare_digest() (στη μονάδα secrets): Other functions.    (line    6)
* compare_networks() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  237)
* compare_networks() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  353)
* COMPARE_OP (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  819)
* compare_signal() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  285)
* compare_signal() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  157)
* compare_to() (μέθοδος της tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot. (line   13)
* compare_total_mag() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  293)
* compare_total_mag() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  189)
* compare_total() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  289)
* compare_total() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  164)
* compare() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.  (line  281)
* compare() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.  (line  146)
* compare() (μέθοδος της difflib.Differ): Differ objects.    (line   38)
* compare() (στη μονάδα ast):            ast helpers.        (line  322)
* comparison:                            Comparisons.        (line    6)
* COMPARISON_FLAGS (στη μονάδα doctest): Option Flags.       (line  102)
* Compat32 (κλάση σε email.policy):      email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  579)
* compat32 (στη μονάδα email.policy):    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  634)
* Compile (κλάση σε codeop):             codeop — Compile Python code.
                                                             (line   56)
* compile_command() (στη μονάδα code):   code — Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line   60)
* compile_command() (στη μονάδα codeop): codeop — Compile Python code.
                                                             (line   29)
* compile_dir() (στη μονάδα compileall): Public functions.   (line    6)
* compile_file() (στη μονάδα compileall): Public functions.  (line   96)
* compile_path() (στη μονάδα compileall): Public functions.  (line  161)
* compile() (στη μονάδα py_compile):     py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   24)
* compile() (στη μονάδα re):             Functions.          (line    6)
* compileall command line option; -b:    Command-line use.   (line   66)
* compileall command line option; -d:    Command-line use.   (line   32)
* compileall command line option; -e:    Command-line use.   (line  107)
* compileall command line option; -f:    Command-line use.   (line   22)
* compileall command line option; -hardlink-dupes: Command-line use.
                                                             (line  111)
* compileall command line option; -i:    Command-line use.   (line   60)
* compileall command line option; -invalidation-mode: Command-line use.
                                                             (line   87)
* compileall command line option; -j:    Command-line use.   (line   81)
* compileall command line option; -l:    Command-line use.   (line   17)
* compileall command line option; -o:    Command-line use.   (line  101)
* compileall command line option; -p:    Command-line use.   (line   47)
* compileall command line option; -q:    Command-line use.   (line   26)
* compileall command line option; -r:    Command-line use.   (line   74)
* compileall command line option; -s:    Command-line use.   (line   40)
* compileall command line option; -x:    Command-line use.   (line   54)
* compileall command line option; directory: Command-line use.
                                                             (line    9)
* compileall command line option; file:  Command-line use.   (line    9)
* compiler_flag (ιδιότητα της __future__._Feature): Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   91)
* complete_statement() (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module functions.
                                                             (line  103)
* complete() (μέθοδος της rlcompleter.Completer): rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline.
                                                             (line   43)
* completedefault() (μέθοδος της cmd.Cmd): Cmd Objects.      (line   81)
* CompletedProcess (κλάση σε subprocess): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  100)
* Completer (κλάση σε rlcompleter):      rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline.
                                                             (line   39)
* complex (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):          Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  398)
* Complex (κλάση σε numbers):            The numeric tower.  (line    6)
* complex;αριθμός:                       numbers Complex complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* compound;statement:                    Compound statements.
                                                             (line    6)
* comprehension (κλάση σε ast):          Comprehensions.     (line   58)
* comprehensions:                        Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line    6)
* compress_size (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.
                                                             (line  154)
* compress_type (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.
                                                             (line   99)
* compress() (μέθοδος της bz2.BZ2Compressor): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   15)
* compress() (μέθοδος της compression.zstd.ZstdCompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line   78)
* compress() (μέθοδος της lzma.LZMACompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>.
                                                             (line   80)
* compress() (μέθοδος της zlib.Compress): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  233)
* compress() (στη μονάδα bz2):           One-shot de compression.
                                                             (line    6)
* compress() (στη μονάδα compression.zstd): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line    6)
* compress() (στη μονάδα gzip):          gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip.
                                                             (line  222)
* compress() (στη μονάδα itertools):     Itertool Functions. (line  212)
* compress() (στη μονάδα lzma):          Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>.
                                                             (line  181)
* compress() (στη μονάδα zlib):          zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line   59)
* compressed (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line   62)
* compressed (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* compressed (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  255)
* compressed (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  320)
* compression_level (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line   39)
* COMPRESSION_LEVEL_DEFAULT (στη μονάδα compression.zstd): Miscellaneous.
                                                             (line   28)
* compression() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.    (line  279)
* CompressionError:                      tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  262)
* CompressionParameter (κλάση σε compression.zstd): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line    6)
* compressobj() (στη μονάδα zlib):       zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line   96)
* COMSPEC:                               Process Management. (line  782)
* COMSPEC <1>:                           Popen Constructor.  (line  112)
* concat() (στη μονάδα operator):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  188)
* Concatenate (στη μονάδα typing):       Special forms.      (line   81)
* concatenation;λειτουργία:              Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   22)
* concurrency:                           Γλωσσάρι.           (line  361)
* concurrent modification:               Γλωσσάρι.           (line  373)
* concurrent_tee() (στη μονάδα threading): Iterator synchronization.
                                                             (line  107)
* cond (ιδιότητα της bdb.Breakpoint):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   94)
* condition (pdb command):               Debugger commands.  (line  162)
* Condition (κλάση σε asyncio):          Condition.          (line    6)
* Condition (κλάση σε multiprocessing):  Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   45)
* Condition (κλάση σε threading):        Condition objects.  (line   72)
* Condition() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  172)
* Conditional;expression:                Boolean operations. (line    6)
* conditional;expression:                Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* config() (μέθοδος της tkinter.font.Font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   55)
* ConfigParser (κλάση σε configparser):  ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* configuration information:             sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information.
                                                             (line   10)
* configuration;file:                    configparser — Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* configure_mock() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  263)
* configure() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Style): Ttk Styling.  (line   24)
* CONFORM (ιδιότητα της enum.FlagBoundary): Data types.      (line  734)
* confstr_names (στη μονάδα os):         Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   28)
* confstr() (στη μονάδα os):             Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line    6)
* conjugate() (μέθοδος μιγαδικών αριθμών): Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line  117)
* conjugate() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  201)
* conjugate() (μέθοδος της numbers.Complex): The numeric tower.
                                                             (line   23)
* connect_accepted_socket() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Creating network servers.
                                                             (line  145)
* connect_ex() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.  (line   85)
* connect_read_pipe() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Working with pipes.
                                                             (line    6)
* connect_write_pipe() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Working with pipes.
                                                             (line   22)
* connect() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):    FTP objects.        (line   88)
* connect() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPConnection): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  148)
* connect() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager): Managers.
                                                             (line   77)
* connect() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP):  SMTP Objects.       (line   33)
* connect() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.     (line   61)
* connect() (στη μονάδα sqlite3):        Module functions.   (line    6)
* connection (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.  (line  182)
* Connection (κλάση σε multiprocessing.connection): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* Connection (κλάση σε sqlite3):         Connection objects. (line    6)
* connection_lost() (μέθοδος της asyncio.BaseProtocol): Base Protocol.
                                                             (line   23)
* connection_made() (μέθοδος της asyncio.BaseProtocol): Base Protocol.
                                                             (line   15)
* ConnectionAbortedError:                OS exceptions.      (line   45)
* ConnectionError:                       OS exceptions.      (line   30)
* ConnectionRefusedError:                OS exceptions.      (line   51)
* ConnectionResetError:                  OS exceptions.      (line   57)
* ConnectRegistry() (στη μονάδα winreg): Functions<12>.      (line   17)
* const (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option):  Option attributes.  (line   58)
* Constant (κλάση σε ast):               Literals<2>.        (line    6)
* constructor() (στη μονάδα copyreg):    copyreg — Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line   17)
* consumed (ιδιότητα της asyncio.LimitOverrunError): Exceptions<14>.
                                                             (line   66)
* Container (κλάση σε collections.abc):  Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line    6)
* Container (κλάση σε typing):           Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   47)
* container;iteration over:              Τύποι Iterator.     (line    6)
* CONTAINS_OP (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  834)
* contains() (στη μονάδα operator):      operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  193)
* content (ιδιότητα της urllib.error.ContentTooShortError): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   70)
* content_disposition (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  287)
* content_manager (ιδιότητα της email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  435)
* content_size_flag (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  178)
* content_type (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  274)
* ContentDispositionHeader (κλάση σε email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  282)
* ContentHandler (κλάση σε xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line   18)
* ContentManager (κλάση σε email.contentmanager): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   12)
* contents (ιδιότητα της ctypes._Pointer): Arrays and pointers.
                                                             (line   58)
* contents() (μέθοδος της importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   71)
* contents() (στη μονάδα importlib.resources): Λειτουργικό API.
                                                             (line  158)
* ContentTooShortError:                  urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   64)
* ContentTransferEncodingHeader (κλάση σε email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  292)
* ContentTypeHeader (κλάση σε email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  269)
* context:                               Γλωσσάρι.           (line  380)
* context (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLSocket):  SSL sockets.        (line  372)
* Context (κλάση σε contextvars):        Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line   20)
* Context (κλάση σε decimal):            Context objects.    (line  123)
* context μεταβλητή:                     Γλωσσάρι.           (line  408)
* context_aware_warnings (ιδιότητα της sys.flags): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  639)
* context_diff() (στη μονάδα difflib):   difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  153)
* ContextDecorator (κλάση σε contextlib): Utilities.         (line  380)
* ContextManager (κλάση σε typing):      Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line    6)
* contextmanager() (στη μονάδα contextlib): Utilities.       (line   30)
* ContextVar (κλάση σε contextvars):     Context Variables.  (line    6)
* CONTIG (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.   (line   33)
* CONTIG_RO (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.
                                                             (line   35)
* contiguous:                            shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   36)
* contiguous <1>:                        Γλωσσάρι.           (line  416)
* contiguous (ιδιότητα της memoryview):  Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  528)
* continue (pdb command):                Debugger commands.  (line  235)
* CONTINUE (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.ZstdCompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  130)
* Continue (κλάση σε ast):               Control flow.       (line   99)
* CONTINUOUS (ιδιότητα της enum.EnumCheck): Data types.      (line  673)
* control() (μέθοδος της select.kqueue): Kqueue Objects.     (line   22)
* controlnames (στη μονάδα curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  239)
* CONTTYPE (στη μονάδα tarfile):         tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  360)
* conversion (ιδιότητα της string.templatelib.Interpolation): Types.
                                                             (line  240)
* convert_arg_line_to_args() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Customizing file parsing.
                                                             (line    6)
* convert_field() (μέθοδος της string.Formatter): Custom string formatting.
                                                             (line  110)
* CONVERT_VALUE (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1210)
* convert() (στη μονάδα string.templatelib): Helper functions<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Cookie (κλάση σε http.cookiejar):      http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  111)
* CookieError:                           http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   34)
* cookiejar (ιδιότητα της urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor): HTTPCookieProcessor Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* CookieJar (κλάση σε http.cookiejar):   http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   45)
* CookiePolicy (κλάση σε http.cookiejar): http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   76)
* Copy:                                  Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* COPY (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  173)
* copy_abs() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects. (line  298)
* copy_abs() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects. (line  206)
* copy_context() (στη μονάδα contextvars): Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line    6)
* copy_decimal() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  205)
* copy_file_range() (στη μονάδα os):     File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   44)
* COPY_FREE_VARS (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1051)
* copy_into() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Copying moving and deleting.
                                                             (line   32)
* copy_location() (στη μονάδα ast):      ast helpers.        (line  164)
* copy_negate() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  302)
* copy_negate() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  212)
* copy_sign() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  306)
* copy_sign() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  218)
* copy;protocol:                         Pickling Class Instances.
                                                             (line  112)
* copy() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.     (line   47)
* copy() (μέθοδος της contextvars.Context): Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line  103)
* copy() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context):  Context objects.    (line  201)
* copy() (μέθοδος της dict):             Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line  176)
* copy() (μέθοδος της frozenset):        Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  136)
* copy() (μέθοδος της hashlib.hash):     Hash Objects.       (line   51)
* copy() (μέθοδος της hmac.HMAC):        hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   86)
* copy() (μέθοδος της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.  (line  119)
* copy() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line   68)
* copy() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):     Copying moving and deleting.
                                                             (line    6)
* copy() (μέθοδος της sequence):         Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   87)
* copy() (μέθοδος της set):              Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  136)
* copy() (μέθοδος της tkinter.font.Font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   59)
* copy() (μέθοδος της types.MappingProxyType): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  305)
* copy() (μέθοδος της zlib.Compress):    zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  255)
* copy() (μέθοδος της zlib.Decompress):  zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  328)
* copy() (στη μονάδα copy):              copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   18)
* copy() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing.sharedctypes): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line   91)
* copy() (στη μονάδα shutil):            Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  136)
* copy2() (στη μονάδα shutil):           Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  168)
* CopyComPointer() (στη μονάδα ctypes):  Utility functions.  (line   33)
* copyfile() (στη μονάδα shutil):        Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line   25)
* copyfileobj() (στη μονάδα shutil):     Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* copying files:                         shutil — High-level file operations.
                                                             (line    8)
* copymode() (στη μονάδα shutil):        Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line   74)
* copyright (in module sys):             Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   62)
* copyright (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή):    Constants added by the site module.
                                                             (line   26)
* copyright (στη μονάδα sys):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  217)
* copysign() (στη μονάδα math):          Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* copystat() (στη μονάδα shutil):        Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line   92)
* copytree() (στη μονάδα shutil):        Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  206)
* coroutine:                             Αναζήτηση ειδικής μεθόδου.
                                                             (line   78)
* coroutine <1>:                         Yield expressions.  (line   54)
* coroutine <2>:                         Γλωσσάρι.           (line  428)
* Coroutine (κλάση σε collections.abc):  Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  158)
* Coroutine (κλάση σε typing):           Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* coroutine συνάρτηση:                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line  436)
* coroutine;συνάρτηση:                   Coroutine συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line    6)
* coroutine() (στη μονάδα types):        Βοηθητικές Συναρτήσεις Coroutine.
                                                             (line    6)
* CoroutineType (στη μονάδα types):      Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line   44)
* correlation() (στη μονάδα statistics): Function details.   (line  581)
* cos() (στη μονάδα cmath):              Trigonometric functions<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* cos() (στη μονάδα math):               Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   30)
* cosh() (στη μονάδα cmath):             Hyperbolic functions<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* cosh() (στη μονάδα math):              Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   21)
* count (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Statistic): Statistic.     (line   15)
* count (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.StatisticDiff): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   15)
* count_diff (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.StatisticDiff): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   20)
* count() (μέθοδος της array.array):     array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  192)
* count() (μέθοδος της bytearray):       Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line   39)
* count() (μέθοδος της bytes):           Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line   39)
* count() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.    (line   53)
* count() (μέθοδος της memoryview):      Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  391)
* count() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  332)
* count() (μέθοδος της sequence):        Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line  185)
* count() (μέθοδος της str):             Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line   71)
* count() (στη μονάδα itertools):        Itertool Functions. (line  225)
* Counter (κλάση σε collections):        Counter objects.    (line   24)
* Counter (κλάση σε typing):             Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   39)
* countOf() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  199)
* countTestCases() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  823)
* countTestCases() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestSuite): Grouping tests.
                                                             (line   53)
* covariance() (στη μονάδα statistics):  Function details.   (line  559)
* CoverageResults (κλάση σε trace):      Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή.
                                                             (line   52)
* CPPFLAGS:                              New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* CPPFLAGS <1>:                          Preprocessor flags. (line    8)
* CPPFLAGS <2>:                          Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* CPPFLAGS <3>:                          Linker flags.       (line   50)
* cpu_count() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* cpu_count() (στη μονάδα os):           Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   37)
* CPython:                               Γλωσσάρι.           (line  444)
* cpython_only() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  550)
* CR (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   63)
* crawl_delay() (μέθοδος της urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   49)
* CRC (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo):    ZipInfo objects.    (line  150)
* crc_hqx() (στη μονάδα binascii):       binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  297)
* crc32_combine() (στη μονάδα zlib):     zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  150)
* crc32() (στη μονάδα binascii):         binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  304)
* crc32() (στη μονάδα zlib):             zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  136)
* create_aggregate() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  156)
* create_archive() (στη μονάδα zipapp):  Διεπαφή Python.     (line    8)
* create_autospec() (στη μονάδα unittest.mock): create_autospec.
                                                             (line    6)
* CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line  140)
* create_collation() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  299)
* create_configuration() (μέθοδος της venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.
                                                             (line  154)
* create_connection() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Opening network connections.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_connection() (στη μονάδα socket): Creating sockets. (line   82)
* create_datagram_endpoint() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Opening network connections.
                                                             (line  157)
* create_decimal_from_float() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  233)
* create_decimal() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  209)
* create_default_context() (στη μονάδα ssl): Context creation.
                                                             (line    9)
* CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line  130)
* create_eager_task_factory() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Eager task factory.
                                                             (line   32)
* create_empty_file() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   94)
* create_function() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* create_future() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Creating futures and tasks.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_git_ignore_file() (μέθοδος της venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.
                                                             (line  221)
* create_module() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.Loader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  151)
* create_module() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  332)
* create_module() (μέθοδος της zipimport.zipimporter): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   54)
* CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   59)
* CREATE_NO_WINDOW (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line  115)
* create_queue() (στη μονάδα concurrent.interpreters): Reference<4>.
                                                             (line   30)
* create_server() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Creating network servers.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_server() (στη μονάδα socket):   Creating sockets.   (line  114)
* create_stats() (μέθοδος της profile.Profile): profile and profiling tracing module reference.
                                                             (line   92)
* create_stats() (μέθοδος της profiling.tracing.Profile): Module reference.
                                                             (line   61)
* create_string_buffer() (στη μονάδα ctypes): Utility functions.
                                                             (line   57)
* create_subprocess_exec() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Creating Subprocesses.
                                                             (line    6)
* create_subprocess_shell() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Creating Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   26)
* create_system (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.
                                                             (line  114)
* create_task() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Creating futures and tasks.
                                                             (line   17)
* create_task() (μέθοδος της asyncio.TaskGroup): Task groups.
                                                             (line   17)
* create_task() (στη μονάδα asyncio):    Creating tasks.     (line   10)
* create_unicode_buffer() (στη μονάδα ctypes): Utility functions.
                                                             (line   99)
* create_unix_connection() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Opening network connections.
                                                             (line  242)
* create_unix_server() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Creating network servers.
                                                             (line  115)
* create_version (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.
                                                             (line  118)
* create_window_function() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  210)
* create() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line   72)
* create() (μέθοδος της venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.            (line   62)
* create() (στη μονάδα concurrent.interpreters): Reference<4>.
                                                             (line   25)
* create() (στη μονάδα venv):            API<2>.             (line  241)
* createAttribute() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Document): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* createAttributeNS() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Document): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* createComment() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Document): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* createDocument() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.DOMImplementation): DOMImplementation Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* createDocumentType() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.DOMImplementation): DOMImplementation Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* createElement() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Document): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* createElementNS() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Document): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* createfilehandler() (μέθοδος της _tkinter.Widget.tk): File Handlers.
                                                             (line   27)
* CreateKey() (στη μονάδα winreg):       Functions<12>.      (line   35)
* CreateKeyEx() (στη μονάδα winreg):     Functions<12>.      (line   63)
* createLock() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* createLock() (μέθοδος της logging.NullHandler): NullHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* createProcessingInstruction() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Document): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* createSocket() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SocketHandler): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   72)
* createSocket() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SysLogHandler): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   56)
* createTextNode() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Document): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* credits (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή):      Constants added by the site module.
                                                             (line   26)
* CRITICAL (στη μονάδα logging):         Logging Levels.     (line   45)
* critical() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.   (line  307)
* critical() (στη μονάδα logging):       Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   86)
* CRNCYSTR (στη μονάδα locale):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  307)
* CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION (στη μονάδα msvcrt): Other Functions. (line   89)
* CRT_ASSERT (στη μονάδα msvcrt):        Other Functions.    (line   66)
* CRT_ERROR (στη μονάδα msvcrt):         Other Functions.    (line   61)
* CRT_WARN (στη μονάδα msvcrt):          Other Functions.    (line   56)
* CRTDBG_MODE_DEBUG (στη μονάδα msvcrt): Other Functions.    (line   70)
* CRTDBG_MODE_FILE (στη μονάδα msvcrt):  Other Functions.    (line   74)
* CRTDBG_MODE_WNDW (στη μονάδα msvcrt):  Other Functions.    (line   80)
* CRTDBG_REPORT_MODE (στη μονάδα msvcrt): Other Functions.   (line   85)
* CrtSetReportFile() (στη μονάδα msvcrt): Other Functions.   (line   48)
* CrtSetReportMode() (στη μονάδα msvcrt): Other Functions.   (line   40)
* CRYPT_ALPHABET (στη μονάδα binascii):  binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  397)
* cryptography:                          Cryptographic Services.
                                                             (line    6)
* cssclass_month (ιδιότητα της calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  297)
* cssclass_month_head (ιδιότητα της calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  290)
* cssclass_noday (ιδιότητα της calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  276)
* cssclass_year (ιδιότητα της calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  304)
* cssclass_year_head (ιδιότητα της calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  311)
* cssclasses (ιδιότητα της calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  263)
* cssclasses_weekday_head (ιδιότητα της calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  283)
* csv:                                   csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV.
                                                             (line    8)
* cte (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncodingHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  296)
* cte_type (ιδιότητα της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  160)
* ctermid() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line    9)
* ctime() (μέθοδος της datetime.date):   date objects.       (line  316)
* ctime() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects. (line  744)
* ctime() (στη μονάδα time):             Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  103)
* CTRL_BREAK_EVENT (στη μονάδα signal):  Module contents<4>. (line  230)
* CTRL_C_EVENT (στη μονάδα signal):      Module contents<4>. (line  221)
* ctrl() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):      curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  215)
* CUMULATIVE (ιδιότητα της pstats.SortKey): The Stats class. (line  202)
* curdir (στη μονάδα os):                Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  103)
* currency() (στη μονάδα locale):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  490)
* current_process() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   35)
* current_task() (στη μονάδα asyncio):   Introspection.      (line    6)
* current_thread() (στη μονάδα threading): Reference<2>.     (line   16)
* current() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Combobox): ttk Combobox.
                                                             (line    8)
* CurrentByteIndex (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  344)
* CurrentColumnNumber (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  348)
* currentframe() (στη μονάδα inspect):   The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line  161)
* CurrentLineNumber (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  352)
* curs_set() (στη μονάδα curses):        Functions<4>.       (line   76)
* Cursor (κλάση σε sqlite3):             Cursor objects.     (line   19)
* cursor() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* cursyncup() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.   (line  174)
* Cut:                                   Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* cutoff (ιδιότητα της sys.hash_info):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1167)
* cwd() (μέθοδος κλάσης της pathlib.Path): Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   30)
* cwd() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):        FTP objects.        (line  335)
* cycle() (στη μονάδα itertools):        Itertool Functions. (line  247)
* CycleError:                            Exceptions<2>.      (line    8)
* Cyclic Redundancy Check:               zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  138)
* D_FMT (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  210)
* D_T_FMT (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  204)
* daemon (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  134)
* daemon (ιδιότητα της threading.Thread): Thread objects.    (line  240)
* daemon_threads (ιδιότητα της socketserver.ThreadingMixIn): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   60)
* dangling;else:                         Compound statements.
                                                             (line   55)
* data (ιδιότητα της collections.UserDict): UserDict objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* data (ιδιότητα της collections.UserList): UserList objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* data (ιδιότητα της collections.UserString): UserString objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* data (ιδιότητα της plistlib.UID):      plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  148)
* data (ιδιότητα της select.kevent):     Kevent Objects.     (line  175)
* data (ιδιότητα της selectors.SelectorKey): Classes.        (line   48)
* data (ιδιότητα της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* data (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Comment):   Comment Objects.    (line    9)
* data (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction): ProcessingInstruction Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* data (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Text):      Text and CDATASection Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* data (ιδιότητα της xmlrpc.client.Binary): Binary Objects.  (line   12)
* data race:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line  470)
* data_filter() (στη μονάδα tarfile):    Default named filters.
                                                             (line   36)
* data_open() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.DataHandler): DataHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* data_received() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Protocol): Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   13)
* data() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* DatabaseError:                         Exceptions<6>.      (line   44)
* databases:                             dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line    8)
* dataclass_transform() (στη μονάδα typing): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  114)
* dataclass() (στη μονάδα dataclasses):  Module contents<6>. (line    6)
* DataError:                             Exceptions<6>.      (line   51)
* datagram_received() (μέθοδος της asyncio.DatagramProtocol): Datagram Protocols.
                                                             (line    9)
* DatagramHandler (κλάση σε logging.handlers): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* DatagramProtocol (κλάση σε asyncio):   Base Protocols.     (line   20)
* DatagramRequestHandler (κλάση σε socketserver): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* DatagramTransport (κλάση σε asyncio):  Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   43)
* DataHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  472)
* date (κλάση σε datetime):              date objects.       (line   13)
* date_time (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects. (line   55)
* date_time_string() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  370)
* date() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.  (line  447)
* DateHeader (κλάση σε email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  136)
* datetime (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.DateHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  145)
* datetime (κλάση σε datetime):          datetime objects.   (line   17)
* DateTime (κλάση σε xmlrpc.client):     DateTime Objects.   (line    6)
* day (ιδιότητα της datetime.date):      date objects.       (line  156)
* day (ιδιότητα της datetime.datetime):  datetime objects.   (line  319)
* Day (κλάση σε calendar):               calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  463)
* DAY_1 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  227)
* DAY_2 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  227)
* DAY_3 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  227)
* DAY_4 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  227)
* DAY_5 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  227)
* DAY_6 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  227)
* DAY_7 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  227)
* day_abbr (στη μονάδα calendar):        calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  441)
* day_name (στη μονάδα calendar):        calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  432)
* daylight (στη μονάδα time):            Σταθερές ζώνης ώρας.
                                                             (line   15)
* days (ιδιότητα της datetime.timedelta): timedelta objects. (line  115)
* DbfilenameShelf (κλάση σε shelve):     Restrictions.       (line   87)
* DC1 (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   75)
* DC2 (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   78)
* DC3 (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   81)
* DC4 (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   84)
* dcgettext() (στη μονάδα locale):       Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line   10)
* deactivate_stack_trampoline() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2028)
* deadlock:                              Γλωσσάρι.           (line  482)
* deallocation, object:                  Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line    6)
* debug (pdb command):                   Debugger commands.  (line  452)
* debug (ιδιότητα της imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  480)
* debug (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex):      shlex Objects.      (line  162)
* debug (ιδιότητα της sys.abi_info):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   41)
* debug (ιδιότητα της sys.flags):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  576)
* debug (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipFile):  ZipFile objects.    (line  363)
* DEBUG (στη μονάδα logging):            Logging Levels.     (line   24)
* DEBUG (στη μονάδα re):                 Flags.              (line   32)
* DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (στη μονάδα importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   20)
* DEBUG_COLLECTABLE (στη μονάδα gc):     gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  334)
* DEBUG_LEAK (στη μονάδα gc):            gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  354)
* DEBUG_SAVEALL (στη μονάδα gc):         gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  348)
* debug_src() (στη μονάδα doctest):      Debugging.          (line  147)
* DEBUG_STATS (στη μονάδα gc):           gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  329)
* DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE (στη μονάδα gc):   gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  338)
* debug() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger):  Logger Objects.     (line  186)
* debug() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.       (line  118)
* debug() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestSuite): Grouping tests.  (line   46)
* debug() (στη μονάδα doctest):          Debugging.          (line  124)
* debug() (στη μονάδα logging):          Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   46)
* debugger:                              Reference<2>.       (line  134)
* debugger <1>:                          Debug menu Shell window only.
                                                             (line   15)
* debugger <2>:                          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1042)
* debugger <3>:                          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1864)
* debugger;configuration;file:           Debugger commands.  (line   63)
* debugging:                             pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line    8)
* debuglevel (ιδιότητα της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* DebugRunner (κλάση σε doctest):        Debugging.          (line  168)
* DECEMBER (στη μονάδα calendar):        calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* Decimal (κλάση σε decimal):            Decimal objects.    (line    6)
* decimal() (στη μονάδα unicodedata):    unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   51)
* DecimalException (κλάση σε decimal):   Signals.            (line   29)
* decode (ιδιότητα της codecs.CodecInfo): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   86)
* decode_header() (στη μονάδα email.header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  181)
* decode_params() (στη μονάδα email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  215)
* decode_rfc2231() (στη μονάδα email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  186)
* decode_source() (στη μονάδα importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   68)
* decode() (μέθοδος της bytearray):      Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  101)
* decode() (μέθοδος της bytes):          Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  101)
* decode() (μέθοδος της codecs.Codec):   Stateless Encoding and Decoding.
                                                             (line   29)
* decode() (μέθοδος της codecs.IncrementalDecoder): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* decode() (μέθοδος της json.JSONDecoder): Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line   94)
* decode() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.client.Binary): Binary Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* decode() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.client.DateTime): DateTime Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* decode() (στη μονάδα base64):          Legacy Interface.   (line    6)
* decode() (στη μονάδα codecs):          codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   34)
* decode() (στη μονάδα quopri):          quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   19)
* decodebytes() (στη μονάδα base64):     Legacy Interface.   (line   13)
* DecodedGenerator (κλάση σε email.generator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  228)
* decodestring() (στη μονάδα quopri):    quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   41)
* decomposition() (στη μονάδα unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  159)
* decompress() (μέθοδος της bz2.BZ2Decompressor): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   45)
* decompress() (μέθοδος της compression.zstd.ZstdDecompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  184)
* decompress() (μέθοδος της lzma.LZMADecompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>.
                                                             (line  130)
* decompress() (μέθοδος της zlib.Decompress): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  293)
* decompress() (στη μονάδα bz2):         One-shot de compression.
                                                             (line   16)
* decompress() (στη μονάδα compression.zstd): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line   31)
* decompress() (στη μονάδα gzip):        gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip.
                                                             (line  258)
* decompress() (στη μονάδα lzma):        Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>.
                                                             (line  190)
* decompress() (στη μονάδα zlib):        zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  165)
* decompressed_size (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.FrameInfo): Miscellaneous.
                                                             (line   16)
* DecompressionParameter (κλάση σε compression.zstd): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  258)
* decompressobj() (στη μονάδα zlib):     zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  210)
* decorator:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line  495)
* DEDENT (στη μονάδα token):             token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   90)
* DEDENT token:                          Compound statements.
                                                             (line   55)
* dedent() (στη μονάδα textwrap):        textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line   81)
* deepcopy() (στη μονάδα copy):          copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   22)
* DEF_BUF_SIZE (στη μονάδα zlib):        zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  354)
* DEF_MEM_LEVEL (στη μονάδα zlib):       zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  350)
* def_prog_mode() (στη μονάδα curses):   Functions<4>.       (line   85)
* def_shell_mode() (στη μονάδα curses):  Functions<4>.       (line   92)
* default (ιδιότητα της inspect.Parameter): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  236)
* default (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option): Option attributes. (line   44)
* default (στη μονάδα email.policy):     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  520)
* DEFAULT (στη μονάδα unittest.mock):    DEFAULT.            (line    6)
* DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE (στη μονάδα io):   High-level Module Interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* default_bufsize (στη μονάδα xml.dom.pulldom): xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line  102)
* default_content_type (ιδιότητα της http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  418)
* DEFAULT_ENTROPY (στη μονάδα secrets):  How many bytes should tokens use?.
                                                             (line   21)
* default_exception_handler() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Error handling API.
                                                             (line   33)
* default_factory (ιδιότητα της collections.defaultdict): defaultdict objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* DEFAULT_FORMAT (στη μονάδα tarfile):   tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  392)
* DEFAULT_IGNORES (στη μονάδα filecmp):  The dircmp class.   (line  114)
* default_loader() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementInclude): Functions<8>.
                                                             (line    6)
* default_max_str_digits (ιδιότητα της sys.int_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1271)
* DEFAULT_MODE (στη μονάδα ctypes):      Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  184)
* default_open() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.BaseHandler): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* default_port (ιδιότητα της smtplib.SMTP_SSL): smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  103)
* default_port (ιδιότητα της smtplib.SMTP): smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   67)
* DEFAULT_PROTOCOL (στη μονάδα pickle):  Module Interface.   (line   21)
* DEFAULT_TIMEOUT (ιδιότητα της unittest.mock.ThreadingMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  995)
* default_timer() (στη μονάδα timeit):   Python interface.   (line   35)
* default;parameter;value:               Function definitions.
                                                             (line   68)
* default() (μέθοδος της cmd.Cmd):       Cmd Objects.        (line   75)
* default() (μέθοδος της json.JSONEncoder): Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line  209)
* DefaultContext (στη μονάδα decimal):   Context objects.    (line   98)
* DefaultCookiePolicy (κλάση σε http.cookiejar): http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   81)
* defaultdict (κλάση σε collections):    defaultdict objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* DefaultDict (κλάση σε typing):         Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line    6)
* DefaultEventLoopPolicy (κλάση σε asyncio): Policy Objects. (line   38)
* DefaultHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  510)
* DefaultHandlerExpand() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  517)
* defaults() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  112)
* DefaultSelector (κλάση σε selectors):  Classes.            (line  161)
* defaultTestLoader (στη μονάδα unittest): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  456)
* defaultTestResult() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  828)
* defects (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.BaseHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* defects (ιδιότητα της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  711)
* defects (ιδιότητα της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  726)
* DEFLATED (στη μονάδα zlib):            zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  341)
* defpath (στη μονάδα os):               Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  143)
* DefragResult (κλάση σε urllib.parse):  Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   44)
* DefragResultBytes (κλάση σε urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   69)
* degrees() (στη μονάδα math):           Angular conversion. (line    6)
* degrees() (στη μονάδα turtle):         Settings for measurement.
                                                             (line    6)
* Del (κλάση σε ast):                    Variables.          (line   11)
* DEL (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  123)
* del_param() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  383)
* del_param() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  544)
* delay_output() (στη μονάδα curses):    Functions<4>.       (line  100)
* delay() (στη μονάδα turtle):           Animation control.  (line   19)
* delayload (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  158)
* delch() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  179)
* dele() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line   68)
* Delete (κλάση σε ast):                 Statements.         (line  138)
* DELETE_ATTR (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  600)
* DELETE_DEREF (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1041)
* DELETE_FAST (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1002)
* DELETE_GLOBAL (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  614)
* DELETE_NAME (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  554)
* DELETE_SUBSCR (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  279)
* delete() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):     FTP objects.        (line  328)
* delete() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line   76)
* delete() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview. (line   73)
* deleteacl() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.    (line   80)
* deletefilehandler() (μέθοδος της _tkinter.Widget.tk): File Handlers.
                                                             (line   37)
* DeleteKey() (στη μονάδα winreg):       Functions<12>.      (line  102)
* DeleteKeyEx() (στη μονάδα winreg):     Functions<12>.      (line  124)
* deleteln() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  183)
* deleteMe() (μέθοδος της bdb.Breakpoint): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   42)
* DeleteTree() (στη μονάδα winreg):      Functions<12>.      (line  160)
* DeleteValue() (στη μονάδα winreg):     Functions<12>.      (line  179)
* delimiter (ιδιότητα της csv.Dialect):  Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης.
                                                             (line   20)
* delitem() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  203)
* deliver_challenge() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing.connection): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   15)
* delocalize() (στη μονάδα locale):      locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  511)
* demo_app() (στη μονάδα wsgiref.simple_server): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   36)
* denominator (ιδιότητα της fractions.Fraction): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  117)
* denominator (ιδιότητα της numbers.Rational): The numeric tower.
                                                             (line   55)
* deprecated() (στη μονάδα warnings):    Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες.
                                                             (line  166)
* DeprecationWarning:                    Warnings.           (line   17)
* deque (κλάση σε collections):          deque objects.      (line    6)
* Deque (κλάση σε typing):               Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   49)
* dequeue() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.QueueListener): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   55)
* DER_cert_to_PEM_cert() (στη μονάδα ssl): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   52)
* derive() (μέθοδος της BaseExceptionGroup): Exception groups.
                                                             (line   79)
* derwin() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line  188)
* descrgetfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   70)
* description (ιδιότητα της inspect.Parameter.kind): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  302)
* description (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects. (line  195)
* descriptor:                            Γλωσσάρι.           (line  518)
* descrsetfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   74)
* deserialize() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  692)
* dest (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option):   Option attributes.  (line   35)
* destructor:                            Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line   60)
* destructor (C type):                   Slot Type typedefs. (line   24)
* detach() (μέθοδος της io.BufferedIOBase): I/O Base Classes.
                                                             (line  256)
* detach() (μέθοδος της io.TextIOBase):  Text I/O<2>.        (line   37)
* detach() (μέθοδος της socket.socket):  Socket Objects.     (line   99)
* detach() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview. (line   79)
* detach() (μέθοδος της weakref.finalize): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  299)
* Detach() (μέθοδος της winreg.PyHKEY):  Registry Handle Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* DETACHED_PROCESS (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line  122)
* details (ιδιότητα της ctypes.COMError): Exceptions<9>.     (line   23)
* detect_api_mismatch() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  674)
* detect_encoding() (στη μονάδα tokenize): Tokenizing input. (line   73)
* deterministic profiling:               profiling — Python profilers.
                                                             (line   12)
* dev_mode (ιδιότητα της sys.flags):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  615)
* device_encoding() (στη μονάδα os):     File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   81)
* devmajor (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.  (line  141)
* devminor (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.  (line  145)
* devnull (στη μονάδα os):               Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  158)
* DEVNULL (στη μονάδα subprocess):       Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  141)
* devpoll() (στη μονάδα select):         select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   36)
* DevpollSelector (κλάση σε selectors):  Classes.            (line  184)
* dfast (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.Strategy): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  310)
* dgettext() (στη μονάδα gettext):       GNU gettext API.    (line   39)
* dgettext() (στη μονάδα locale):        Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line    8)
* dialect (ιδιότητα της csv.csvreader):  Αντικείμενα Αναγνώστη.
                                                             (line   20)
* dialect (ιδιότητα της csv.csvwriter):  Αντικείμενα Εγγραφέα.
                                                             (line   36)
* Dialect (κλάση σε csv):                Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  204)
* Dialog (κλάση σε tkinter.commondialog): tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates.
                                                             (line   13)
* Dialog (κλάση σε tkinter.simpledialog): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line   21)
* dict (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):             Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line   20)
* Dict (κλάση σε ast):                   Literals<2>.        (line  172)
* Dict (κλάση σε typing):                Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line    6)
* dict_content (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.ZstdDict): Zstandard dictionaries.
                                                             (line  121)
* dict_id (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.ZstdDict): Zstandard dictionaries.
                                                             (line  128)
* dict_id_flag (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  214)
* DICT_MERGE (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  764)
* DICT_UPDATE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  753)
* dict() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  222)
* DictComp (κλάση σε ast):               Comprehensions.     (line    6)
* dictConfig() (στη μονάδα logging.config): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* dictionary_id (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.FrameInfo): Miscellaneous.
                                                             (line   20)
* dictionary;comprehensions:             Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* dictionary;display:                    Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* DictReader (κλάση σε csv):             Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  116)
* DictWriter (κλάση σε csv):             Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  165)
* diff_bytes() (στη μονάδα difflib):     difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  342)
* diff_files (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   94)
* Differ (κλάση σε difflib):             difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line   50)
* difference_update() (μέθοδος της set): Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  197)
* difference() (μέθοδος της frozenset):  Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  120)
* difference() (μέθοδος της set):        Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  120)
* dig (ιδιότητα της sys.float_info):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  696)
* digest_size (ιδιότητα της hmac.HMAC):  hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   94)
* digest() (μέθοδος της hashlib.hash):   Hash Objects.       (line   38)
* digest() (μέθοδος της hashlib.shake):  SHAKE variable length digests.
                                                             (line   15)
* digest() (μέθοδος της hmac.HMAC):      hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   60)
* digest() (στη μονάδα hmac):            hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   33)
* digit() (στη μονάδα unicodedata):      unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   62)
* digits (στη μονάδα string):            String constants.   (line   24)
* dir() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):        FTP objects.        (line  310)
* dircmp (κλάση σε filecmp):             The dircmp class.   (line    6)
* Directory (κλάση σε tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   71)
* directory;changing:                    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  118)
* directory;creating:                    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  548)
* directory;deleting:                    Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  279)
* directory;deleting <1>:                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  743)
* directory;traversal:                   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2021)
* directory;traversal <1>:               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2121)
* directory;walking:                     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2021)
* directory;walking <1>:                 Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2121)
* DirEntry (κλάση σε os):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  926)
* dirname() (στη μονάδα os.path):        os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  118)
* dirs_double_event() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   86)
* dirs_select_event() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   90)
* DirsOnSysPath (κλάση σε test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   97)
* DIRTYPE (στη μονάδα tarfile):          tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  352)
* dis command line option; -C:           Command-line interface<15>.
                                                             (line   16)
* dis command line option; -h:           Command-line interface<15>.
                                                             (line   12)
* dis command line option; -help:        Command-line interface<15>.
                                                             (line   12)
* dis command line option; -O:           Command-line interface<15>.
                                                             (line   22)
* dis command line option; -P:           Command-line interface<15>.
                                                             (line   28)
* dis command line option; -S:           Command-line interface<15>.
                                                             (line   34)
* dis command line option; -show-caches: Command-line interface<15>.
                                                             (line   16)
* dis command line option; -show-offsets: Command-line interface<15>.
                                                             (line   22)
* dis command line option; -show-positions: Command-line interface<15>.
                                                             (line   28)
* dis command line option; -specialized: Command-line interface<15>.
                                                             (line   34)
* dis() (μέθοδος της dis.Bytecode):      Bytecode analysis.  (line   62)
* dis() (στη μονάδα dis):                Analysis functions. (line   40)
* dis() (στη μονάδα pickletools):        Programmatic interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* disable (pdb command):                 Debugger commands.  (line  142)
* DISABLE (στη μονάδα sys.monitoring):   Disabling events.   (line    6)
* disable_current_event() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  420)
* disable_faulthandler() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  373)
* disable_gc() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  385)
* disable_interspersed_args() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   10)
* disable() (μέθοδος της bdb.Breakpoint): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   52)
* disable() (μέθοδος της profile.Profile): profile and profiling tracing module reference.
                                                             (line   87)
* disable() (μέθοδος της profiling.tracing.Profile): Module reference.
                                                             (line   57)
* disable() (στη μονάδα faulthandler):   Fault handler state.
                                                             (line   42)
* disable() (στη μονάδα gc):             gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   26)
* disable() (στη μονάδα logging):        Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  105)
* disabled (ιδιότητα της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.    (line   97)
* DisableReflectionKey() (στη μονάδα winreg): Functions<12>. (line  502)
* disassemble() (στη μονάδα dis):        Analysis functions. (line  104)
* discard (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   57)
* discard() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.  (line   85)
* discard() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH):    MH objects.         (line   79)
* discard() (μέθοδος της set):           Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  219)
* disco() (στη μονάδα dis):              Analysis functions. (line  104)
* discover() (μέθοδος κλάσης της importlib.metadata.Distribution): Distributions.
                                                             (line   50)
* discover() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   58)
* discover() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  113)
* discover() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestLoader): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  116)
* disjoint_base() (στη μονάδα typing):   Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  399)
* disk_usage() (στη μονάδα shutil):      Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  390)
* dispatch_call() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  225)
* dispatch_exception() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  245)
* dispatch_line() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  215)
* dispatch_return() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  235)
* dispatch_table (ιδιότητα της pickle.Pickler): Module Interface.
                                                             (line  183)
* DISPLAY:                               Tkinter Modules.    (line   25)
* display (pdb command):                 Debugger commands.  (line  300)
* display_name (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.Address): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  428)
* display_name (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.Group): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  473)
* displayhook() (στη μονάδα sys):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  339)
* dist() (στη μονάδα math):              Summation and product functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* distance() (στη μονάδα turtle):        Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line   68)
* distb() (στη μονάδα dis):              Analysis functions. (line   85)
* Distribution (κλάση σε importlib.metadata): Distributions. (line   35)
* distribution() (στη μονάδα importlib.metadata): Distributions.
                                                             (line   18)
* DistributionFinder (κλάση σε importlib.metadata): Distribution Discovery.
                                                             (line   19)
* DistributionFinder.Context (κλάση σε importlib.metadata): Distribution Discovery.
                                                             (line   27)
* distributions() (στη μονάδα importlib.metadata): Distribution Discovery.
                                                             (line   65)
* Div (κλάση σε ast):                    Expressions<2>.     (line   53)
* divide_int() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  314)
* divide() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.   (line  310)
* division:                              Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   37)
* division (στη μονάδα __future__):      Module Contents<2>. (line   22)
* DivisionByZero (κλάση σε decimal):     Signals.            (line   34)
* divmod() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.   (line  318)
* DLE (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   72)
* DllCanUnloadNow() (στη μονάδα ctypes): Utility functions.  (line  113)
* DllGetClassObject() (στη μονάδα ctypes): Utility functions.
                                                             (line  121)
* dllhandle (στη μονάδα sys):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  333)
* dllist() (στη μονάδα ctypes.util):     Utility functions.  (line  129)
* dnd_start() (στη μονάδα tkinter.dnd):  tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   65)
* DndHandler (κλάση σε tkinter.dnd):     tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   43)
* dngettext() (στη μονάδα gettext):      GNU gettext API.    (line   58)
* dnpgettext() (στη μονάδα gettext):     GNU gettext API.    (line   69)
* do_clear() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):      bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  308)
* do_command() (μέθοδος της curses.textpad.Textbox): Textbox objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* do_GET() (μέθοδος της http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  457)
* do_handshake() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.   (line  130)
* do_HEAD() (μέθοδος της http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  450)
* do_help() (μέθοδος της cmd.Cmd):       Cmd Objects.        (line   48)
* doc (ιδιότητα της json.JSONDecodeError): Exceptions<18>.   (line   15)
* doc (ιδιότητα της tomllib.TOMLDecodeError): tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   77)
* doc_header (ιδιότητα της cmd.Cmd):     Cmd Objects.        (line  154)
* DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (κλάση σε xmlrpc.server): Documenting XMLRPC server.
                                                             (line   22)
* DocFileSuite() (στη μονάδα doctest):   Unittest API.       (line   24)
* doClassCleanups() (μέθοδος κλάσης της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  920)
* doCleanups() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.  (line  880)
* docmd() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP):    SMTP Objects.       (line   17)
* docstring:                             Class definitions.  (line    6)
* docstring <1>:                         Γλωσσάρι.           (line  563)
* docstring (ιδιότητα της doctest.DocTest): DocTest Objects. (line   48)
* docstrings:                            Καθορισμός Συναρτήσεων.
                                                             (line   21)
* docstrings <1>:                        Συμβολοσειρές Τεκμηρίωσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* DocTest (κλάση σε doctest):            DocTest Objects.    (line    6)
* doctest command line option; -f:       Command-line Usage. (line   34)
* doctest command line option; -fail-fast: Command-line Usage.
                                                             (line   34)
* doctest command line option; -o:       Command-line Usage. (line   27)
* doctest command line option; -option:  Command-line Usage. (line   27)
* doctest command line option; -v:       Command-line Usage. (line   10)
* doctest command line option; -verbose: Command-line Usage. (line   10)
* DocTestFailure:                        Debugging.          (line  186)
* DocTestFinder (κλάση σε doctest):      DocTestFinder objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* DocTestParser (κλάση σε doctest):      DocTestParser objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* DocTestRunner (κλάση σε doctest):      DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* DocTestSuite() (στη μονάδα doctest):   Unittest API.       (line  104)
* doctype() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   67)
* documentation strings:                 Καθορισμός Συναρτήσεων.
                                                             (line   21)
* documentation strings <1>:             Συμβολοσειρές Τεκμηρίωσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* documentation;generation:              pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line    8)
* documentation;online:                  pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line    8)
* documentElement (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Document): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* DocXMLRPCRequestHandler (κλάση σε xmlrpc.server): Documenting XMLRPC server.
                                                             (line   27)
* DocXMLRPCServer (κλάση σε xmlrpc.server): Documenting XMLRPC server.
                                                             (line   11)
* does_esmtp (ιδιότητα της smtplib.SMTP): SMTP Objects.      (line  364)
* domain (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.Address): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  439)
* domain (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   40)
* domain (ιδιότητα της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects. (line   13)
* domain (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.DomainFilter): DomainFilter.
                                                             (line   20)
* domain (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Filter): Filter.          (line   31)
* domain (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Trace): Trace.            (line   15)
* domain_initial_dot (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   88)
* domain_return_ok() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* domain_specified (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   84)
* DomainFilter (κλάση σε tracemalloc):   DomainFilter.       (line    6)
* DomainLiberal (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  156)
* DomainRFC2965Match (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  149)
* DomainStrict (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  161)
* DomainStrictNoDots (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  136)
* DomainStrictNonDomain (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  142)
* DOMEventStream (κλάση σε xml.dom.pulldom): DOMEventStream Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* DOMException:                          Exceptions<21>.     (line   18)
* doModuleCleanups() (στη μονάδα unittest): setUpModule and tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   45)
* DomstringSizeErr:                      Exceptions<21>.     (line   23)
* done() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Future):   Future Object.      (line   63)
* done() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task):     Task object.        (line   66)
* done() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* done() (μέθοδος της graphlib.TopologicalSorter): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  142)
* done() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Using screen events.
                                                             (line  106)
* DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE (στη μονάδα doctest): Option Flags.  (line   28)
* DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1 (στη μονάδα doctest): Option Flags. (line   16)
* dont_write_bytecode (ιδιότητα της sys.flags): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  591)
* dont_write_bytecode (στη μονάδα sys):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  375)
* doRollover() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* doRollover() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  106)
* DOT (στη μονάδα token):                token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  256)
* dot() (στη μονάδα turtle):             Turtle motion.      (line  252)
* DOTALL (στη μονάδα re):                Flags.              (line  108)
* doublequote (ιδιότητα της csv.Dialect): Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης.
                                                             (line   25)
* DOUBLESLASH (στη μονάδα token):        token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  328)
* DOUBLESLASHEQUAL (στη μονάδα token):   token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  331)
* DOUBLESTAR (στη μονάδα token):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  292)
* DOUBLESTAREQUAL (στη μονάδα token):    token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  325)
* doupdate() (στη μονάδα curses):        Functions<4>.       (line  104)
* down (pdb command):                    Debugger commands.  (line   96)
* down() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Drawing state.      (line    6)
* dpgettext() (στη μονάδα gettext):      GNU gettext API.    (line   65)
* drain() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamWriter): StreamWriter.  (line   69)
* drive (ιδιότητα της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line   15)
* drop_whitespace (ιδιότητα της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  219)
* dropwhile() (στη μονάδα itertools):    Itertool Functions. (line  268)
* dst() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.   (line  543)
* dst() (μέθοδος της datetime.time):     time objects.       (line  262)
* dst() (μέθοδος της datetime.timezone): timezone objects.   (line   57)
* dst() (μέθοδος της datetime.tzinfo):   tzinfo objects.     (line   63)
* DTDHandler (κλάση σε xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line   24)
* duck-typing:                           Γλωσσάρι.           (line  573)
* dump_c_stack() (στη μονάδα faulthandler): Dumping the C stack.
                                                             (line    8)
* dump_stats() (μέθοδος της profile.Profile): profile and profiling tracing module reference.
                                                             (line  110)
* dump_stats() (μέθοδος της profiling.tracing.Profile): Module reference.
                                                             (line   77)
* dump_stats() (μέθοδος της pstats.Stats): The Stats class.  (line   41)
* dump_traceback_later() (στη μονάδα faulthandler): Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout.
                                                             (line    6)
* dump_traceback() (στη μονάδα faulthandler): Dumping the traceback.
                                                             (line    6)
* dump() (μέθοδος της pickle.Pickler):   Module Interface.   (line  159)
* dump() (μέθοδος της tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot.       (line   29)
* dump() (στη μονάδα ast):               ast helpers.        (line  272)
* dump() (στη μονάδα json):              Basic Usage.        (line    6)
* dump() (στη μονάδα marshal):           marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   75)
* dump() (στη μονάδα pickle):            Module Interface.   (line   39)
* dump() (στη μονάδα plistlib):          plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line   94)
* dump() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.   (line   86)
* dumps() (στη μονάδα json):             Basic Usage.        (line   92)
* dumps() (στη μονάδα marshal):          marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line  117)
* dumps() (στη μονάδα pickle):           Module Interface.   (line   51)
* dumps() (στη μονάδα plistlib):         plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  131)
* dumps() (στη μονάδα xmlrpc.client):    Convenience Functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* dunder:                                Γλωσσάρι.           (line  588)
* dup() (μέθοδος της socket.socket):     Socket Objects.     (line  107)
* dup() (στη μονάδα os):                 File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line   93)
* dup2() (στη μονάδα os):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  107)
* DuplicateOptionError:                  Exceptions<8>.      (line   24)
* DuplicateSectionError:                 Exceptions<8>.      (line   14)
* dwFlags (ιδιότητα της subprocess.STARTUPINFO): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   19)
* DynamicClassAttribute() (στη μονάδα types): Πρόσθετες βοηθητικές κλάσεις και συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line   57)
* e (στη μονάδα cmath):                  Constants<3>.       (line   10)
* e (στη μονάδα math):                   Constants<2>.       (line   10)
* e;σε αριθμητικό λεκτικό:               Λεκτικά ακεραίων.   (line   69)
* E2BIG (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   54)
* EACCES (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   80)
* EADDRINUSE (στη μονάδα errno):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  432)
* EADDRNOTAVAIL (στη μονάδα errno):      errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  436)
* EADV (στη μονάδα errno):               errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  306)
* EAFNOSUPPORT (στη μονάδα errno):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  428)
* EAFP:                                  Γλωσσάρι.           (line  594)
* EAGAIN (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   71)
* eager_task_factory() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Eager task factory.
                                                             (line    6)
* EALREADY (στη μονάδα errno):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  507)
* east_asian_width() (στη μονάδα unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  108)
* EAUTH (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  587)
* EBADARCH (στη μονάδα errno):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  593)
* EBADE (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  242)
* EBADEXEC (στη μονάδα errno):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  599)
* EBADF (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   62)
* EBADFD (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  342)
* EBADMACHO (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  605)
* EBADMSG (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  330)
* EBADR (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  246)
* EBADRPC (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  671)
* EBADRQC (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  258)
* EBADSLT (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  262)
* EBFONT (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  270)
* EBUSY (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   93)
* ECANCELED (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  698)
* ECHILD (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   66)
* echo() (στη μονάδα curses):            Functions<4>.       (line  120)
* echochar() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  197)
* ECHRNG (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  210)
* ECOMM (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  314)
* ECONNABORTED (στη μονάδα errno):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  452)
* ECONNREFUSED (στη μονάδα errno):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  488)
* ECONNRESET (στη μονάδα errno):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  457)
* EDEADLK (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  173)
* EDEADLOCK (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  266)
* EDESTADDRREQ (στη μονάδα errno):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  390)
* EDEVERR (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  611)
* edit() (μέθοδος της curses.textpad.Textbox): Textbox objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* EDOM (στη μονάδα errno):               errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  165)
* EDOTDOT (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  326)
* EDQUOT (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  541)
* EEXIST (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   97)
* EFAULT (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   85)
* EFBIG (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  140)
* EFD_CLOEXEC (στη μονάδα os):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2295)
* EFD_NONBLOCK (στη μονάδα os):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2304)
* EFD_SEMAPHORE (στη μονάδα os):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2313)
* effective() (στη μονάδα bdb):          bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  502)
* EFTYPE (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  617)
* ehlo_or_helo_if_needed() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP): SMTP Objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* ehlo_resp (ιδιότητα της smtplib.SMTP): SMTP Objects.       (line  360)
* ehlo() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP):     SMTP Objects.       (line   61)
* EHOSTDOWN (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  493)
* EHOSTUNREACH (στη μονάδα errno):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  497)
* EHWPOISON (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  501)
* EIDRM (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  206)
* EILSEQ (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  370)
* EINPROGRESS (στη μονάδα errno):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  512)
* EINTR (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   41)
* EINVAL (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  120)
* EIO (στη μονάδα errno):                errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   46)
* EISCONN (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  466)
* EISDIR (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  115)
* EISNAM (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  533)
* EJECT (ιδιότητα της enum.FlagBoundary): Data types.        (line  748)
* EKEYEXPIRED (στη μονάδα errno):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  563)
* EKEYREJECTED (στη μονάδα errno):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  571)
* EKEYREVOKED (στη μονάδα errno):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  567)
* EL2HLT (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  238)
* EL2NSYNC (στη μονάδα errno):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  214)
* EL3HLT (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  218)
* EL3RST (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  222)
* Element (κλάση σε xml.etree.ElementTree): Element Objects. (line    6)
* element_create() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Style): Ttk Styling.
                                                             (line  131)
* element_names() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Style): Ttk Styling.
                                                             (line  252)
* element_options() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Style): Ttk Styling.
                                                             (line  256)
* ElementDeclHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  390)
* elements() (μέθοδος της collections.Counter): Counter objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* ElementTree (κλάση σε xml.etree.ElementTree): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* ELIBACC (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  350)
* ELIBBAD (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  354)
* ELIBEXEC (στη μονάδα errno):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  366)
* ELIBMAX (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  362)
* ELIBSCN (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  358)
* Ellipsis (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή):     Built-in Constants. (line   62)
* ELLIPSIS (στη μονάδα doctest):         Option Flags.       (line   47)
* ELLIPSIS (στη μονάδα token):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  343)
* EllipsisType (στη μονάδα types):       Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  154)
* ELNRNG (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  226)
* ELOCKUNMAPPED (στη μονάδα errno):      errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  579)
* ELOOP (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  193)
* else;conditional expression:           Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* EM (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   99)
* EmailMessage (κλάση σε email.message): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   52)
* EmailPolicy (κλάση σε email.policy):   email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  359)
* Emax (ιδιότητα της decimal.Context):   Context objects.    (line  147)
* EMEDIUMTYPE (στη μονάδα errno):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  555)
* EMFILE (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  128)
* Emin (ιδιότητα της decimal.Context):   Context objects.    (line  147)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.FileHandler): FileHandler.     (line   30)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler):  Handler Objects.    (line  109)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.BufferingHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.DatagramHandler): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   29)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.HTTPHandler): HTTPHandler.
                                                             (line   36)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   38)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.QueueHandler): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   42)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   47)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SMTPHandler): SMTPHandler.
                                                             (line   34)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SocketHandler): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SysLogHandler): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   67)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  110)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler): WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   50)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.NullHandler): NullHandler.     (line   16)
* emit() (μέθοδος της logging.StreamHandler): StreamHandler. (line   17)
* EMLINK (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  156)
* Empty:                                 queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   80)
* empty (ιδιότητα της inspect.Parameter): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  219)
* empty (ιδιότητα της inspect.Signature): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  109)
* EMPTY_NAMESPACE (στη μονάδα xml.dom):  Module Contents.    (line   35)
* empty;list:                            List displays.      (line    6)
* empty;tuple:                           Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line   16)
* empty;πλειάδα:                         Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   35)
* empty() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Queue):   Ουρά.               (line   28)
* empty() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Queue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  120)
* empty() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.SimpleQueue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  242)
* empty() (μέθοδος της queue.Queue):     Queue Objects.      (line   15)
* empty() (μέθοδος της queue.SimpleQueue): SimpleQueue Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* empty() (μέθοδος της sched.scheduler): Scheduler Objects.  (line   47)
* emptyline() (μέθοδος της cmd.Cmd):     Cmd Objects.        (line   69)
* emscripten_version (ιδιότητα της sys._emscripten_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  389)
* EMSGSIZE (στη μονάδα errno):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  394)
* EMULTIHOP (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  322)
* enable (pdb command):                  Debugger commands.  (line  149)
* enable_callback_tracebacks() (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module functions.
                                                             (line  124)
* enable_interspersed_args() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   31)
* enable_load_extension() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  420)
* enable_long_distance_matching (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  131)
* enable_traversal() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.
                                                             (line   75)
* ENABLE_USER_SITE (στη μονάδα site):    Module contents<7>. (line   10)
* enable() (μέθοδος της bdb.Breakpoint): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   48)
* enable() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line   84)
* enable() (μέθοδος της profile.Profile): profile and profiling tracing module reference.
                                                             (line   82)
* enable() (μέθοδος της profiling.tracing.Profile): Module reference.
                                                             (line   53)
* enable() (στη μονάδα faulthandler):    Fault handler state.
                                                             (line    6)
* enable() (στη μονάδα gc):              gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   22)
* EnableControlFlowGuard:                Build<42>.          (line   47)
* enabled (ιδιότητα της bdb.Breakpoint): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  103)
* EnableReflectionKey() (στη μονάδα winreg): Functions<12>.  (line  520)
* ENAMETOOLONG (στη μονάδα errno):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  177)
* ENAVAIL (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  529)
* enclose() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line  202)
* encode (ιδιότητα της codecs.CodecInfo): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   86)
* encode_7or8bit() (στη μονάδα email.encoders): email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line   57)
* encode_base64() (στη μονάδα email.encoders): email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line   49)
* encode_noop() (στη μονάδα email.encoders): email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line   63)
* encode_quopri() (στη μονάδα email.encoders): email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line   42)
* encode_rfc2231() (στη μονάδα email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  190)
* encode() (μέθοδος της codecs.Codec):   Stateless Encoding and Decoding.
                                                             (line   11)
* encode() (μέθοδος της codecs.IncrementalEncoder): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* encode() (μέθοδος της email.header.Header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  124)
* encode() (μέθοδος της json.JSONEncoder): Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line  228)
* encode() (μέθοδος της str):            Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line   93)
* encode() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.client.Binary): Binary Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* encode() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.client.DateTime): DateTime Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* encode() (στη μονάδα base64):          Legacy Interface.   (line   21)
* encode() (στη μονάδα codecs):          codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   23)
* encode() (στη μονάδα quopri):          quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   29)
* encodebytes() (στη μονάδα base64):     Legacy Interface.   (line   31)
* EncodedFile() (στη μονάδα codecs):     codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  219)
* encodePriority() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SysLogHandler): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line  101)
* encodestring() (στη μονάδα quopri):    quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   46)
* encoding (ιδιότητα της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line  212)
* encoding (ιδιότητα της io.TextIOBase): Text I/O<2>.        (line   15)
* encoding (ιδιότητα της UnicodeError):  Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  463)
* ENCODING (στη μονάδα tarfile):         tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  326)
* ENCODING (στη μονάδα token):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  158)
* encodings_map (ιδιότητα της mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* encodings_map (στη μονάδα mimetypes):  mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  151)
* EncodingWarning:                       Warnings.           (line   72)
* end (ιδιότητα της UnicodeError):       Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  483)
* END_ASYNC_FOR (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  347)
* end_col_offset (ιδιότητα της ast.AST): Node classes.       (line   50)
* end_colno (ιδιότητα της traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   62)
* end_fill() (στη μονάδα turtle):        Filling.            (line   39)
* END_FOR (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  159)
* end_headers() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  326)
* end_lineno (ιδιότητα της ast.AST):     Node classes.       (line   50)
* end_lineno (ιδιότητα της SyntaxError): Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  355)
* end_lineno (ιδιότητα της traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* end_lineno (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   99)
* end_ns() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* end_offset (ιδιότητα της SyntaxError): Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  361)
* end_offset (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* end_poly() (στη μονάδα turtle):        Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   23)
* END_SEND (opcode):                     Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  166)
* end() (μέθοδος της re.Match):          Match objects.      (line  145)
* end() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* endCDATA() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler): LexicalHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   41)
* EndCdataSectionHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  506)
* EndDoctypeDeclHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  385)
* endDocument() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): ContentHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   43)
* endDTD() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler): LexicalHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   30)
* endElement() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): ContentHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line  103)
* EndElementHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  422)
* endElementNS() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): ContentHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line  132)
* endheaders() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPConnection): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  197)
* ENDMARKER (στη μονάδα token):          token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  153)
* EndNamespaceDeclHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  484)
* endpos (ιδιότητα της re.Match):        Match objects.      (line  184)
* endPrefixMapping() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): ContentHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   79)
* endswith() (μέθοδος της bytearray):    Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  133)
* endswith() (μέθοδος της bytes):        Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  133)
* endswith() (μέθοδος της str):          Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  126)
* endwin() (στη μονάδα curses):          Functions<4>.       (line  125)
* ENEEDAUTH (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  623)
* ENETDOWN (στη μονάδα errno):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  440)
* ENETRESET (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  448)
* ENETUNREACH (στη μονάδα errno):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  444)
* ENFILE (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  124)
* ENOANO (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  254)
* ENOATTR (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  629)
* ENOBUFS (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  462)
* ENOCSI (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  234)
* ENODATA (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  278)
* ENODEV (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  106)
* ENOENT (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   31)
* ENOEXEC (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   58)
* ENOKEY (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  559)
* ENOLCK (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  181)
* ENOLINK (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  302)
* ENOMEDIUM (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  551)
* ENOMEM (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   76)
* ENOMSG (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  202)
* ENONET (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  290)
* ENOPKG (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  294)
* ENOPOLICY (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  635)
* ENOPROTOOPT (στη μονάδα errno):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  402)
* ENOSPC (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  144)
* ENOSR (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  286)
* ENOSTR (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  274)
* ENOSYS (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  185)
* ENOTACTIVE (στη μονάδα errno):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  583)
* ENOTBLK (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   89)
* ENOTCAPABLE (στη μονάδα errno):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  689)
* ENOTCONN (στη μονάδα errno):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  470)
* ENOTDIR (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  110)
* ENOTEMPTY (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  189)
* ENOTNAM (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  525)
* ENOTRECOVERABLE (στη μονάδα errno):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  710)
* ENOTSOCK (στη μονάδα errno):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  386)
* ENOTSUP (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  418)
* ENOTTY (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  132)
* ENOTUNIQ (στη μονάδα errno):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  338)
* ENQ (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   33)
* enqueue_sentinel() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.QueueListener): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   99)
* enqueue() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.QueueHandler): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   85)
* ensure_directories() (μέθοδος της venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.
                                                             (line   90)
* ensure_future() (στη μονάδα asyncio):  Future Functions.   (line   19)
* ensurepip command line option; -altinstall: Command-line interface<12>.
                                                             (line   42)
* ensurepip command line option; -default-pip: Command-line interface<12>.
                                                             (line   47)
* ensurepip command line option; -root:  Command-line interface<12>.
                                                             (line   25)
* ensurepip command line option; -user:  Command-line interface<12>.
                                                             (line   31)
* enter_async_context() (μέθοδος της contextlib.AsyncExitStack): Utilities.
                                                             (line  670)
* enter_context() (μέθοδος της contextlib.ExitStack): Utilities.
                                                             (line  579)
* enter() (μέθοδος της sched.scheduler): Scheduler Objects.  (line   30)
* enterabs() (μέθοδος της sched.scheduler): Scheduler Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* enterAsyncContext() (μέθοδος της unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  980)
* enterClassContext() (μέθοδος κλάσης της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  911)
* enterContext() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  871)
* enterModuleContext() (στη μονάδα unittest): setUpModule and tearDownModule.
                                                             (line   36)
* entities (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.DocumentType): DocumentType Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* EntityDeclHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  454)
* entitydefs (στη μονάδα html.entities): html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line   25)
* EntityResolver (κλάση σε xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line   31)
* entry_points (ιδιότητα της importlib.metadata.Distribution): Distributions.
                                                             (line  100)
* entry_points() (στη μονάδα importlib.metadata): Entry points.
                                                             (line    6)
* EntryPoint (κλάση σε importlib.metadata): Entry points.    (line   26)
* EntryPoints (κλάση σε importlib.metadata): Entry points.   (line   18)
* Enum (κλάση σε enum):                  Data types.         (line  120)
* enum_certificates() (στη μονάδα ssl):  Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   87)
* enum_crls() (στη μονάδα ssl):          Certificate handling.
                                                             (line  110)
* EnumCheck (κλάση σε enum):             Data types.         (line  652)
* EnumDict (κλάση σε enum):              Data types.         (line  779)
* enumerate() (στη μονάδα threading):    Reference<2>.       (line  100)
* EnumKey() (στη μονάδα winreg):         Functions<12>.      (line  191)
* EnumType (κλάση σε enum):              Data types.         (line    6)
* EnumValue() (στη μονάδα winreg):       Functions<12>.      (line  210)
* EnvBuilder (κλάση σε venv):            API<2>.             (line   11)
* environ (στη μονάδα os):               Process Parameters. (line   16)
* environ (στη μονάδα posix):            Notable Module Contents.
                                                             (line    9)
* environb (στη μονάδα os):              Process Parameters. (line   63)
* environment variables;deleting:        Process Parameters. (line  605)
* environment variables;setting:         Process Parameters. (line  372)
* EnvironmentError:                      Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  523)
* Environments;virtual:                  venv — Creation of virtual environments.
                                                             (line   10)
* EnvironmentVarGuard (κλάση σε test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   48)
* ENXIO (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   50)
* eof (ιδιότητα της bz2.BZ2Decompressor): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   72)
* eof (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.ZstdDecompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  214)
* eof (ιδιότητα της lzma.LZMADecompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>.
                                                             (line  163)
* eof (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex):        shlex Objects.      (line  178)
* eof (ιδιότητα της ssl.MemoryBIO):      Memory BIO support. (line  143)
* eof (ιδιότητα της zlib.Decompress):    zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  283)
* eof_received() (μέθοδος της asyncio.BufferedProtocol): Buffered Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   40)
* eof_received() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Protocol): Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   30)
* EOFError:                              Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   33)
* EOFError (built-in exception):         File objects.       (line   44)
* EOPNOTSUPP (στη μονάδα errno):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  414)
* EOT (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   30)
* EOVERFLOW (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  334)
* EOWNERDEAD (στη μονάδα errno):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  704)
* EPERM (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   26)
* EPFNOSUPPORT (στη μονάδα errno):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  424)
* epilogue (ιδιότητα της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  703)
* epilogue (ιδιότητα της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  716)
* EPIPE (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  160)
* epoch:                                 time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου.
                                                             (line   21)
* epoll() (στη μονάδα select):           select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   55)
* EpollSelector (κλάση σε selectors):    Classes.            (line  175)
* EPROCLIM (στη μονάδα errno):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  641)
* EPROCUNAVAIL (στη μονάδα errno):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  647)
* EPROGMISMATCH (στη μονάδα errno):      errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  653)
* EPROGUNAVAIL (στη μονάδα errno):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  659)
* EPROTO (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  318)
* EPROTONOSUPPORT (στη μονάδα errno):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  406)
* EPROTOTYPE (στη μονάδα errno):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  398)
* epsilon (ιδιότητα της sys.float_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  689)
* EPWROFF (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  665)
* Eq (κλάση σε ast):                     Expressions<2>.     (line  108)
* eq() (στη μονάδα operator):            operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* EQEQUAL (στη μονάδα token):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  268)
* EQFULL (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  545)
* EQUAL (στη μονάδα token):              token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  253)
* ERA (στη μονάδα locale):               locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  314)
* ERA_D_FMT (στη μονάδα locale):         locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  336)
* ERA_D_T_FMT (στη μονάδα locale):       locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  331)
* ERA_T_FMT (στη μονάδα locale):         locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  341)
* ERANGE (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  169)
* erase() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  222)
* erasechar() (στη μονάδα curses):       Functions<4>.       (line  129)
* EREMCHG (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  346)
* EREMOTE (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  298)
* EREMOTEIO (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  537)
* ERESTART (στη μονάδα errno):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  374)
* erf() (στη μονάδα math):               Special functions.  (line    6)
* erfc() (στη μονάδα math):              Special functions.  (line   19)
* ERFKILL (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  575)
* EROFS (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  152)
* ERPCMISMATCH (στη μονάδα errno):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  677)
* ERR (στη μονάδα curses):               Constants<6>.       (line    8)
* errcheck (ιδιότητα της ctypes._CFuncPtr): Foreign functions.
                                                             (line   69)
* errcode (ιδιότητα της xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* errmsg (ιδιότητα της xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* errno (ιδιότητα της OSError):          Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  180)
* error:                                 Συναρτήσεις και εξαιρέσεις.
                                                             (line    8)
* Error:                                 copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   33)
* Error <1>:                             Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  482)
* error <1>:                             dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases».
                                                             (line   27)
* error <2>:                             dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   24)
* error <3>:                             dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   30)
* error <4>:                             dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line   21)
* Error <2>:                             Exceptions<6>.      (line   15)
* error <5>:                             zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line   25)
* Error <3>:                             Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  361)
* Error <4>:                             Exceptions<8>.      (line    6)
* error <6>:                             os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
                                                             (line   51)
* error <7>:                             Functions<4>.       (line    8)
* error <8>:                             _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   21)
* error <9>:                             Exceptions<16>.     (line    6)
* error <10>:                            select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   29)
* Error <5>:                             Exceptions<19>.     (line    8)
* Error <6>:                             binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  368)
* error <11>:                            xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat.
                                                             (line   31)
* Error <7>:                             Command-line interface<5>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Error <8>:                             wave — Read and write WAV files.
                                                             (line   59)
* Error <9>:                             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   21)
* error <12>:                            resource — Resource usage information.
                                                             (line   19)
* error <13>:                            getopt — C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line  108)
* ERROR (στη μονάδα logging):            Logging Levels.     (line   40)
* ERROR (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  192)
* error_body (ιδιότητα της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  263)
* error_content_type (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  203)
* error_headers (ιδιότητα της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  256)
* error_leader() (μέθοδος της shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.   (line   69)
* error_message_format (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  195)
* error_output() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  226)
* error_perm:                            Module variables.   (line   16)
* error_proto:                           Module variables.   (line   21)
* error_proto <1>:                       poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   88)
* error_received() (μέθοδος της asyncio.DatagramProtocol): Datagram Protocols.
                                                             (line   15)
* error_reply:                           Module variables.   (line    6)
* error_status (ιδιότητα της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  250)
* error_temp:                            Module variables.   (line   11)
* error() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Exiting methods.
                                                             (line   19)
* error() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger):  Logger Objects.     (line  302)
* error() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.OpenerDirector): OpenerDirector Objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* error() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler): ErrorHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   18)
* error() (στη μονάδα logging):          Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   80)
* ErrorByteIndex (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  317)
* ErrorCode (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  321)
* errorcode (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   13)
* ErrorColumnNumber (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  328)
* ErrorHandler (κλάση σε xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line   38)
* errorlevel (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarFile): TarFile Objects.
                                                             (line  225)
* ErrorLineNumber (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  332)
* errors (ιδιότητα της io.TextIOBase):   Text I/O<2>.        (line   20)
* errors (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestLoader): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line   17)
* errors (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  245)
* Errors;logging:                        logging — Logging facility for Python.
                                                             (line    8)
* ErrorStream (κλάση σε wsgiref.types):  wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   28)
* ErrorString() (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat): xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat.
                                                             (line   42)
* ERRORTOKEN (στη μονάδα token):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  191)
* ESC (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  105)
* escape (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex):     shlex Objects.      (line  110)
* escape() (στη μονάδα glob):            glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line  112)
* escape() (στη μονάδα html):            html — HyperText Markup Language support.
                                                             (line   12)
* escape() (στη μονάδα re):              Functions.          (line  272)
* escape() (στη μονάδα xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   14)
* escapechar (ιδιότητα της csv.Dialect): Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης.
                                                             (line   37)
* escapedquotes (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.   (line  122)
* ESHLIBVERS (στη μονάδα errno):         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  683)
* ESHUTDOWN (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  474)
* esmtp_features (ιδιότητα της smtplib.SMTP): SMTP Objects.  (line  369)
* ESOCKTNOSUPPORT (στη μονάδα errno):    errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  410)
* ESPIPE (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  148)
* ESRCH (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line   36)
* ESRMNT (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  310)
* ESTALE (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  517)
* ESTRPIPE (στη μονάδα errno):           errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  378)
* ETB (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   93)
* ETH_P_ALL (στη μονάδα socket):         Constants<8>.       (line  231)
* ETHERTYPE_ARP (στη μονάδα socket):     Constants<8>.       (line  465)
* ETHERTYPE_IP (στη μονάδα socket):      Constants<8>.       (line  465)
* ETHERTYPE_IPV6 (στη μονάδα socket):    Constants<8>.       (line  465)
* ETHERTYPE_VLAN (στη μονάδα socket):    Constants<8>.       (line  465)
* ETIME (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  282)
* ETIMEDOUT (στη μονάδα errno):          errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  483)
* Etiny() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.    (line  252)
* ETOOMANYREFS (στη μονάδα errno):       errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  479)
* Etop() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context):  Context objects.    (line  258)
* ETX (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   27)
* ETXTBSY (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  136)
* EUCLEAN (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  521)
* EUNATCH (στη μονάδα errno):            errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  230)
* EUSERS (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  382)
* evaluate_bound() (μέθοδος της typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  184)
* evaluate_constraints() (μέθοδος της typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  207)
* evaluate_default() (μέθοδος της typing.ParamSpec): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  533)
* evaluate_default() (μέθοδος της typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  226)
* evaluate_default() (μέθοδος της typing.TypeVarTuple): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  393)
* evaluate_forward_ref() (στη μονάδα typing): Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line  185)
* evaluate_value() (μέθοδος της typing.TypeAliasType): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  678)
* evaluate() (μέθοδος της annotationlib.ForwardRef): Classes<2>.
                                                             (line   65)
* evaluation;order:                      Evaluation order.   (line    6)
* Event (κλάση σε asyncio):              Event.              (line    6)
* Event (κλάση σε multiprocessing):      Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   58)
* Event (κλάση σε threading):            Event objects.      (line   14)
* event scheduling:                      sched — Event scheduler.
                                                             (line    8)
* EVENT_READ (στη μονάδα selectors):     Classes.            (line   23)
* EVENT_WRITE (στη μονάδα selectors):    Classes.            (line   26)
* Event() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  183)
* eventfd_read() (στη μονάδα os):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2275)
* eventfd_write() (στη μονάδα os):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2285)
* eventfd() (στη μονάδα os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2222)
* EventLoop (κλάση σε asyncio):          Event loop implementations.
                                                             (line   43)
* events (widgets):                      Bindings and Events.
                                                             (line    6)
* events (ιδιότητα της selectors.SelectorKey): Classes.      (line   44)
* EWOULDBLOCK (στη μονάδα errno):        errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  197)
* EX_CANTCREAT (στη μονάδα os):          Process Management. (line  204)
* EX_CONFIG (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line  240)
* EX_DATAERR (στη μονάδα os):            Process Management. (line  153)
* EX_IOERR (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line  211)
* EX_NOHOST (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line  172)
* EX_NOINPUT (στη μονάδα os):            Process Management. (line  159)
* EX_NOPERM (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line  233)
* EX_NOTFOUND (στη μονάδα os):           Process Management. (line  247)
* EX_NOUSER (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line  166)
* EX_OK (στη μονάδα os):                 Process Management. (line  138)
* EX_OSERR (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line  190)
* EX_OSFILE (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line  197)
* EX_PROTOCOL (στη μονάδα os):           Process Management. (line  226)
* EX_SOFTWARE (στη μονάδα os):           Process Management. (line  184)
* EX_TEMPFAIL (στη μονάδα os):           Process Management. (line  218)
* EX_UNAVAILABLE (στη μονάδα os):        Process Management. (line  178)
* EX_USAGE (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line  146)
* EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES (στη μονάδα token):  token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  358)
* example (ιδιότητα της doctest.DocTestFailure): Debugging.  (line  200)
* example (ιδιότητα της doctest.UnexpectedException): Debugging.
                                                             (line  221)
* Example (κλάση σε doctest):            Example Objects.    (line    6)
* examples (ιδιότητα της doctest.DocTest): DocTest Objects.  (line   16)
* exc_info (in module sys):              Exceptions<22>.     (line   45)
* exc_info (ιδιότητα της doctest.UnexpectedException): Debugging.
                                                             (line  225)
* exc_info (στο module sys):             Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* exc_info() (στη μονάδα sys):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  488)
* exc_msg (ιδιότητα της doctest.Example): Example Objects.   (line   30)
* exc_type (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* exc_type_str (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* excel (κλάση σε csv):                  Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  224)
* excel_tab (κλάση σε csv):              Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  230)
* ExceptHandler (κλάση σε ast):          Control flow.       (line  201)
* excepthook() (στη μονάδα sys):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  432)
* excepthook() (στη μονάδα threading):   Reference<2>.       (line   26)
* Exception:                             Base classes.       (line   66)
* EXCEPTION (στη μονάδα _tkinter):       File Handlers.      (line   41)
* EXCEPTION_HANDLED (monitoring event):  Events.             (line   35)
* exception;AttributeError:              Attribute references.
                                                             (line   10)
* exception;chaining:                    Exception context.  (line    6)
* exception;GeneratorExit:               Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   64)
* exception;GeneratorExit <1>:           Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   61)
* exception;NameError:                   Identifiers Names.  (line   11)
* exception;StopAsyncIteration:          Asynchronous generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   10)
* exception;StopIteration:               Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   12)
* exception;TypeError:                   Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   23)
* exception;ValueError:                  Shifting operations.
                                                             (line   20)
* exception;ZeroDivisionError:           Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   37)
* exception;χειριστής:                   Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* exception() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Future): Future Object.   (line  127)
* exception() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task): Task object.       (line   87)
* exception() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* exception() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.  (line  318)
* exception() (στη μονάδα logging):      Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   92)
* exception() (στη μονάδα sys):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  476)
* ExceptionGroup:                        Exception groups.   (line   12)
* exceptions (pdb command):              Debugger commands.  (line  462)
* exceptions (ιδιότητα της BaseExceptionGroup): Exception groups.
                                                             (line   41)
* exceptions (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* excinfo (ιδιότητα της concurrent.interpreters.ExecutionFailed): Exceptions<12>.
                                                             (line   21)
* EXCLAMATION (στη μονάδα token):        token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  349)
* exclusive;or:                          Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* EXDEV (στη μονάδα errno):              errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  102)
* EXE_LDFLAGS:                           Linker flags.       (line  102)
* exec_module() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.InspectLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  269)
* exec_module() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.Loader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  162)
* exec_module() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  406)
* exec_module() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  339)
* exec_module() (μέθοδος της zipimport.zipimporter): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* exec_prefix (στη μονάδα sys):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  507)
* exec() (μέθοδος της concurrent.interpreters.Interpreter): Interpreter objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* execl() (στη μονάδα os):               Process Management. (line   53)
* execle() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line   53)
* execlp() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line   53)
* execlpe() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line   53)
* executable (στη μονάδα sys):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  532)
* execute() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* execute() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.    (line   23)
* executemany() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  103)
* executemany() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* executescript() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  109)
* executescript() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.
                                                             (line  100)
* execution;frame:                       Class definitions.  (line    6)
* execution;stack:                       Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* ExecutionFailed:                       Exceptions<12>.     (line   16)
* ExecutionLoader (κλάση σε importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  275)
* Executor (κλάση σε concurrent.futures): Executor Objects.  (line    6)
* execv() (στη μονάδα os):               Process Management. (line   53)
* execve() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line   53)
* execvp() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line   53)
* execvpe() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line   53)
* EXFULL (στη μονάδα errno):             errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line  250)
* exists() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):   Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   43)
* exists() (μέθοδος της pathlib.types.PathInfo): Protocols.  (line   16)
* exists() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview. (line   89)
* exists() (μέθοδος της zipfile.Path):   Path objects.       (line   74)
* exists() (στη μονάδα os.path):         os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  126)
* exit (C function):                     Process Control.    (line   23)
* exit (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή):         Constants added by the site module.
                                                             (line   11)
* exit() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Exiting methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* exit() (στη μονάδα _thread):           _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   78)
* exit() (στη μονάδα sys):               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  539)
* exitcode (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  159)
* exitonclick() (στη μονάδα turtle):     Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line   10)
* ExitStack (κλάση σε contextlib):       Utilities.          (line  536)
* exp() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context):   Context objects.    (line  323)
* exp() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal):   Decimal objects.    (line  231)
* exp() (στη μονάδα cmath):              Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* exp() (στη μονάδα math):               Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* exp2() (στη μονάδα math):              Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   18)
* expand_tabs (ιδιότητα της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  182)
* expand() (μέθοδος της re.Match):       Match objects.      (line   22)
* ExpandEnvironmentStrings() (στη μονάδα winreg): Functions<12>.
                                                             (line  247)
* expandNode() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream): DOMEventStream Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* expandtabs() (μέθοδος της bytearray):  Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  523)
* expandtabs() (μέθοδος της bytes):      Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  523)
* expandtabs() (μέθοδος της str):        Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  148)
* expanduser() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   18)
* expanduser() (στη μονάδα os.path):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  147)
* expandvars() (στη μονάδα os.path):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  171)
* Expat:                                 xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat.
                                                             (line   11)
* ExpatError:                            xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat.
                                                             (line   25)
* expected (ιδιότητα της asyncio.IncompleteReadError): Exceptions<14>.
                                                             (line   51)
* expectedFailure() (στη μονάδα unittest): Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line   98)
* expectedFailures (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  265)
* expired() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Timeout): Timeouts.         (line   76)
* expires (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   52)
* expires (ιδιότητα της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* exploded (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* exploded (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  109)
* exploded (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  263)
* exploded (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  322)
* expm1() (στη μονάδα math):             Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* expovariate() (στη μονάδα random):     Πραγματικές κατανομές.
                                                             (line   40)
* Expr (κλάση σε ast):                   Expressions<2>.     (line    6)
* expression:                            Expressions.        (line    6)
* expression (ιδιότητα της string.templatelib.Interpolation): Types.
                                                             (line  222)
* Expression (κλάση σε ast):             Root nodes.         (line   26)
* expression;list:                       Expression lists.   (line    6)
* expunge() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.      (line   93)
* extend_path() (στη μονάδα pkgutil):    pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   19)
* extend() (μέθοδος της array.array):    array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  196)
* extend() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.   (line   59)
* extend() (μέθοδος της sequence):       Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   98)
* extend() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   98)
* EXTENDED_ARG (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1202)
* extended_pictographic() (στη μονάδα unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  182)
* ExtendedContext (στη μονάδα decimal):  Context objects.    (line   84)
* ExtendedInterpolation (κλάση σε configparser): Interpolation of values.
                                                             (line   41)
* extendleft() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* EXTENSION_SUFFIXES (στη μονάδα importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   50)
* ExtensionFileLoader (κλάση σε importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  306)
* extensions_map (ιδιότητα της http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  427)
* External Data Representation:          Data stream format. (line    6)
* external_attr (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.
                                                             (line  142)
* ExternalClashError:                    Exceptions<19>.     (line   24)
* ExternalEntityParserCreate() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line   47)
* ExternalEntityRefHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  534)
* extra (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo):  ZipInfo objects.    (line  108)
* extra_response_headers (ιδιότητα της http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  437)
* extract_cookies() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* extract_stack() (στη μονάδα traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   94)
* extract_tb() (στη μονάδα traceback):   Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   82)
* extract_version (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.
                                                             (line  122)
* extract() (μέθοδος κλάσης της traceback.StackSummary): StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* extract() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarFile): TarFile Objects.  (line  178)
* extract() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects.  (line  190)
* extractall() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarFile): TarFile Objects.
                                                             (line  138)
* extractall() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects.
                                                             (line  217)
* ExtractError:                          tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  272)
* extractfile() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarFile): TarFile Objects.
                                                             (line  209)
* extraction_filter (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarFile): TarFile Objects.
                                                             (line  245)
* extsep (στη μονάδα os):                Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  131)
* f_back (ιδιότητα της frame):           Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* f_back (χαρακτηριστικό frame):         Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων.
                                                             (line   10)
* f_builtins (ιδιότητα της frame):       Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>.
                                                             (line   32)
* f_builtins (χαρακτηριστικό frame):     Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων.
                                                             (line   10)
* f_code (ιδιότητα της frame):           Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>.
                                                             (line   11)
* f_code (χαρακτηριστικό frame):         Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων.
                                                             (line   10)
* F_CONTIGUOUS (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.
                                                             (line   27)
* f_contiguous (ιδιότητα της memoryview): Όψεις Μνήμης.      (line  521)
* f_generator (ιδιότητα της frame):      Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>.
                                                             (line   42)
* f_generator (χαρακτηριστικό frame):    Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων.
                                                             (line   10)
* f_globals (ιδιότητα της frame):        Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>.
                                                             (line   28)
* f_globals (χαρακτηριστικό frame):      Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων.
                                                             (line   10)
* f_lasti (ιδιότητα της frame):          Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>.
                                                             (line   36)
* f_lasti (χαρακτηριστικό frame):        Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων.
                                                             (line   10)
* f_lineno (ιδιότητα της frame):         Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά<2>.
                                                             (line   28)
* f_lineno (χαρακτηριστικό frame):       Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>.
                                                             (line   48)
* f_locals (ιδιότητα της frame):         Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>.
                                                             (line   18)
* f_locals (χαρακτηριστικό frame):       Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων.
                                                             (line   10)
* F_LOCK (στη μονάδα os):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  280)
* F_OK (στη μονάδα os):                  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  107)
* F_TEST (στη μονάδα os):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  280)
* F_TLOCK (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  280)
* f_trace (ιδιότητα της frame):          Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* f_trace (χαρακτηριστικό frame):        Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>.
                                                             (line   49)
* f_trace_lines (ιδιότητα της frame):    Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* f_trace_lines (χαρακτηριστικό frame):  Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>.
                                                             (line   49)
* f_trace_opcodes (ιδιότητα της frame):  Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* f_trace_opcodes (χαρακτηριστικό frame): Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<3>.
                                                             (line   49)
* F_ULOCK (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  280)
* f-string:                              Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου.
                                                             (line   99)
* f-string <1>:                          Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς.
                                                             (line   28)
* f-string <2>:                          Γλωσσάρι.           (line  627)
* f-strings:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line  630)
* f';λεκτικό μορφοποιημένης συμβολοσειράς: Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς.
                                                             (line   28)
* f";λεκτικό μορφοποιημένης συμβολοσειράς: Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς.
                                                             (line   28)
* fabs() (στη μονάδα math):              Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   13)
* factorial() (στη μονάδα math.integer): math integer — integer-specific mathematics functions.
                                                             (line   32)
* factorial() (στη μονάδα math):         Number-theoretic functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* factory() (μέθοδος κλάσης της importlib.util.LazyLoader): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  219)
* FAIL_FAST (στη μονάδα doctest):        Option Flags.       (line  138)
* fail() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.        (line  774)
* failed (ιδιότητα της doctest.TestResults): TestResults objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* failfast (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  303)
* failureException (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  779)
* failures (ιδιότητα της doctest.DocTestRunner): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line  150)
* failures (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  251)
* FakePath (κλάση σε test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   59)
* False:                                 numbers Integral.   (line   28)
* false:                                 Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής.
                                                             (line    6)
* False <1>:                             Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής.
                                                             (line   26)
* False <2>:                             Τύπος Boolean - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* False (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή):        Built-in Constants. (line    8)
* False (Ενσωματωμένο (Built-in) αντικείμενο): Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής.
                                                             (line   18)
* families() (στη μονάδα tkinter.font):  tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   88)
* family (ιδιότητα της socket.socket):   Socket Objects.     (line  615)
* fast (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.Strategy): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  308)
* fast (ιδιότητα της pickle.Pickler):    Module Interface.   (line  220)
* fatalError() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler): ErrorHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   27)
* Fault (κλάση σε xmlrpc.client):        Fault Objects.      (line    6)
* faultCode (ιδιότητα της xmlrpc.client.Fault): Fault Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* faultString (ιδιότητα της xmlrpc.client.Fault): Fault Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* fchdir() (στη μονάδα os):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  281)
* fchmod() (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  121)
* fchown() (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  137)
* fcntl() (στη μονάδα fcntl):            fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line   70)
* fd (ιδιότητα της selectors.SelectorKey): Classes.          (line   40)
* fd_count() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   99)
* fd() (στη μονάδα turtle):              Turtle motion.      (line    6)
* fdatasync() (στη μονάδα os):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  152)
* fdopen() (στη μονάδα os):              File Object Creation.
                                                             (line    9)
* feature_external_ges (στη μονάδα xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line   82)
* feature_external_pes (στη μονάδα xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line   95)
* feature_namespace_prefixes (στη μονάδα xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line   61)
* feature_namespaces (στη μονάδα xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line   54)
* feature_string_interning (στη μονάδα xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line   68)
* feature_validation (στη μονάδα xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line   75)
* FEBRUARY (στη μονάδα calendar):        calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* feed_eof() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamReader): StreamReader.
                                                             (line   16)
* feed() (μέθοδος της email.parser.BytesFeedParser): FeedParser API.
                                                             (line   55)
* feed() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line    8)
* feed() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser): XMLParser Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* feed() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser): XMLPullParser Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* feed() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser): IncrementalParser Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* FeedParser (κλάση σε email.parser):    FeedParser API.     (line   70)
* fetch() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line   99)
* fetchall() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.   (line  149)
* fetchmany() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.  (line  129)
* fetchone() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.   (line  122)
* FF (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   60)
* fflags (ιδιότητα της select.kevent):   Kevent Objects.     (line   90)
* Field (κλάση σε dataclasses):          Module contents<6>. (line  310)
* field_size_limit() (στη μονάδα csv):   Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  107)
* field() (στη μονάδα dataclasses):      Module contents<6>. (line  205)
* fieldnames (ιδιότητα της csv.DictReader): Αντικείμενα Αναγνώστη.
                                                             (line   33)
* fields (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):       uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line   98)
* fields() (στη μονάδα dataclasses):     Module contents<6>. (line  338)
* FIFOTYPE (στη μονάδα tarfile):         tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  356)
* file (imaplib.IMAP4 property):         IMAP4 Objects.      (line  494)
* file (ιδιότητα της bdb.Breakpoint):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   82)
* file (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Class):      Class Objects.      (line   12)
* file (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Function):   Function Objects.   (line   11)
* file object;io module:                 Overview<2>.        (line    6)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  452)
* file_digest() (στη μονάδα hashlib):    File hashing.       (line    9)
* file_open() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.FileHandler): FileHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* file_size (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects. (line  158)
* file;byte-code:                        py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line    8)
* file;copying:                          shutil — High-level file operations.
                                                             (line    8)
* file;large files:                      Large File Support. (line    6)
* file;mime.types:                       mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  139)
* fileConfig() (στη μονάδα logging.config): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line   61)
* FileCookieJar (κλάση σε http.cookiejar): http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   56)
* FileDialog (κλάση σε tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   78)
* FileExistsError:                       OS exceptions.      (line   63)
* FileFinder (κλάση σε importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  153)
* FileHandler (κλάση σε logging):        FileHandler.        (line   10)
* FileHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  468)
* FileInput (κλάση σε fileinput):        fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  139)
* FileIO (κλάση σε io):                  Raw File I/O.       (line    6)
* filelineno() (στη μονάδα fileinput):   fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  104)
* FileLoader (κλάση σε importlib.abc):   importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  294)
* filemode() (στη μονάδα stat):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  121)
* filename (ιδιότητα της doctest.DocTest): DocTest Objects.  (line   35)
* filename (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  153)
* filename (ιδιότητα της inspect.FrameInfo): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   17)
* filename (ιδιότητα της inspect.Traceback): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   57)
* filename (ιδιότητα της netrc.NetrcParseError): netrc — netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   56)
* filename (ιδιότητα της OSError):       Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  202)
* FILENAME (ιδιότητα της pstats.SortKey): The Stats class.   (line  206)
* filename (ιδιότητα της SyntaxError):   Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  336)
* filename (ιδιότητα της traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* filename (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* filename (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Frame): Frame.          (line   12)
* filename (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects.  (line  359)
* filename (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.  (line   51)
* filename_only (στη μονάδα tabnanny):   tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   31)
* filename_pattern (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Filter): Filter.
                                                             (line   54)
* filename() (στη μονάδα fileinput):     fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line   86)
* filename2 (ιδιότητα της OSError):      Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  202)
* filenames;pathname expansion:          glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line    8)
* filenames;wildcard expansion:          fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line    8)
* fileno() (μέθοδος της bz2.BZ2File):    De compression of files.
                                                             (line   86)
* fileno() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* fileno() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):      I/O Base Classes.   (line   61)
* fileno() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* fileno() (μέθοδος της select.devpoll): /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* fileno() (μέθοδος της select.epoll):   Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* fileno() (μέθοδος της select.kqueue):  Kqueue Objects.     (line   14)
* fileno() (μέθοδος της selectors.DevpollSelector): Classes. (line  188)
* fileno() (μέθοδος της selectors.EpollSelector): Classes.   (line  179)
* fileno() (μέθοδος της selectors.KqueueSelector): Classes.  (line  199)
* fileno() (μέθοδος της socket.socket):  Socket Objects.     (line  117)
* fileno() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* fileno() (στη μονάδα fileinput):       fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line   91)
* FileNotFoundError:                     OS exceptions.      (line   68)
* fileobj (ιδιότητα της selectors.SelectorKey): Classes.     (line   36)
* files (ιδιότητα της importlib.metadata.Distribution): Distributions.
                                                             (line  104)
* files_double_event() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   94)
* files_select_event() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   98)
* files() (μέθοδος της importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  172)
* files() (στη μονάδα importlib.metadata): Distribution files.
                                                             (line    6)
* files() (στη μονάδα importlib.resources): importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων.
                                                             (line   55)
* FileType (κλάση σε argparse):          FileType objects.   (line    6)
* FileWrapper (κλάση σε wsgiref.types):  wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   32)
* FileWrapper (κλάση σε wsgiref.util):   wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line  117)
* fill() (μέθοδος της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  319)
* fill() (στη μονάδα textwrap):          textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line   35)
* fill() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Filling.            (line   16)
* fillcolor() (στη μονάδα turtle):       Color control.      (line   62)
* filling() (στη μονάδα turtle):         Filling.            (line    6)
* fillvalue (ιδιότητα της reprlib.Repr): Repr Objects.       (line   10)
* filter (ιδιότητα της select.kevent):   Kevent Objects.     (line   15)
* Filter (κλάση σε logging):             Filter Objects.     (line   13)
* Filter (κλάση σε tracemalloc):         Filter.             (line    6)
* filter_command() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  102)
* FILTER_DIR (στη μονάδα unittest.mock): FILTER_DIR.         (line    6)
* filter_traces() (μέθοδος της tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot.
                                                             (line   35)
* filter() (μέθοδος της logging.Filter): Filter Objects.     (line   20)
* filter() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects.   (line   61)
* filter() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.     (line  333)
* filter() (στη μονάδα curses):          Functions<4>.       (line  136)
* filter() (στη μονάδα fnmatch):         fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   75)
* FilterError:                           tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  283)
* filterfalse() (στη μονάδα fnmatch):    fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   82)
* filterfalse() (στη μονάδα itertools):  Itertool Functions. (line  289)
* filterwarnings() (στη μονάδα warnings): Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες.
                                                             (line  135)
* Final (στη μονάδα typing):             Special forms.      (line  230)
* final() (στη μονάδα typing):           Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  311)
* finalization, of objects:              Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line    6)
* finalize (κλάση σε weakref):           weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  266)
* finalize_dict() (στη μονάδα compression.zstd): Zstandard dictionaries.
                                                             (line   28)
* finalizer:                             Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line   60)
* find_class() (pickle protocol):        Restricting Globals.
                                                             (line    6)
* find_class() (μέθοδος της pickle.Unpickler): Module Interface.
                                                             (line  303)
* find_library() (στη μονάδα ctypes.util): Finding shared libraries.
                                                             (line   26)
* find_longest_match() (μέθοδος της difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* find_msvcrt() (στη μονάδα ctypes.util): Finding shared libraries.
                                                             (line   85)
* find_spec() (μέθοδος κλάσης της importlib.machinery.PathFinder): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  116)
* find_spec() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   34)
* find_spec() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   93)
* find_spec() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.FileFinder): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  183)
* find_spec() (μέθοδος της zipimport.zipimporter): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* find_spec() (στη μονάδα importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   97)
* find_unused_port() (στη μονάδα test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   15)
* find_user_password() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr): HTTPPasswordMgr Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* find_user_password() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* find() (μέθοδος της bytearray):        Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  146)
* find() (μέθοδος της bytes):            Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  146)
* find() (μέθοδος της doctest.DocTestFinder): DocTestFinder objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* find() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):        mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  204)
* find() (μέθοδος της str):              Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  174)
* find() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* find() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* find() (στη μονάδα gettext):           Class-based API.    (line   14)
* findall() (μέθοδος της re.Pattern):    Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* findall() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  114)
* findall() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* findall() (στη μονάδα re):             Functions.          (line  147)
* findCaller() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects. (line  350)
* finder:                                Finders και loaders.
                                                             (line    6)
* finder <1>:                            Γλωσσάρι.           (line  680)
* finder;find_spec:                      Το meta path.       (line    6)
* findfile() (στη μονάδα test.support):  test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  292)
* finditer() (μέθοδος της re.Pattern):   Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line  111)
* finditer() (στη μονάδα re):            Functions.          (line  173)
* findlabels() (στη μονάδα dis):         Analysis functions. (line  190)
* findlinestarts() (στη μονάδα dis):     Analysis functions. (line  173)
* findtext() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  123)
* findtext() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* finish_request() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  128)
* finish() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* finish() (μέθοδος της tkinter.dnd.DndHandler): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   52)
* FIRST_COMPLETED (στη μονάδα asyncio):  Waiting primitives. (line   35)
* FIRST_COMPLETED (στη μονάδα concurrent.futures): Module Functions.
                                                             (line   30)
* FIRST_EXCEPTION (στη μονάδα asyncio):  Waiting primitives. (line   39)
* FIRST_EXCEPTION (στη μονάδα concurrent.futures): Module Functions.
                                                             (line   34)
* firstChild (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.      (line   54)
* FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect:   email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line   97)
* firstkey() (μέθοδος της dbm.gnu.gdbm): dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line  100)
* firstweekday (ιδιότητα της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   39)
* firstweekday() (στη μονάδα calendar):  calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  364)
* fix_missing_locations() (στη μονάδα ast): ast helpers.     (line  148)
* fix_sentence_endings (ιδιότητα της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  241)
* Flag (κλάση σε enum):                  Data types.         (line  475)
* flag_bits (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects. (line  130)
* FlagBoundary (κλάση σε enum):          Data types.         (line  711)
* flags (ιδιότητα της decimal.Context):  Context objects.    (line  141)
* flags (ιδιότητα της re.Pattern):       Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line  127)
* flags (ιδιότητα της select.kevent):    Kevent Objects.     (line   52)
* flags (στη μονάδα sys):                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  570)
* flash() (στη μονάδα curses):           Functions<4>.       (line  147)
* flatten() (μέθοδος της email.generator.BytesGenerator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line   79)
* flatten() (μέθοδος της email.generator.Generator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  172)
* flattening;objects:                    pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* float (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):            Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  787)
* float_info (στη μονάδα sys):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  674)
* float_repr_style (στη μονάδα sys):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  782)
* FloatingPointError:                    Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   40)
* FloatOperation (κλάση σε decimal):     Signals.            (line  102)
* flock() (στη μονάδα fcntl):            fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  174)
* floor() (στη μονάδα math):             Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   17)
* floor() (στο module math):             Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line  131)
* FloorDiv (κλάση σε ast):               Expressions<2>.     (line   53)
* floordiv() (στη μονάδα operator):      operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  100)
* FLUSH_BLOCK (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.ZstdCompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  137)
* FLUSH_FRAME (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.ZstdCompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  144)
* flush_headers() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  335)
* flush_std_streams() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  424)
* flush() (μέθοδος της bz2.BZ2Compressor): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   25)
* flush() (μέθοδος της compression.zstd.ZstdCompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line   98)
* flush() (μέθοδος της io.BufferedWriter): Buffered Streams. (line  121)
* flush() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):       I/O Base Classes.   (line   67)
* flush() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects.    (line   69)
* flush() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.BufferingHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   30)
* flush() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.MemoryHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   61)
* flush() (μέθοδος της logging.StreamHandler): StreamHandler.
                                                             (line   25)
* flush() (μέθοδος της lzma.LZMACompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>.
                                                             (line   89)
* flush() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.    (line  257)
* flush() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.    (line  204)
* flush() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH):      MH objects.         (line  102)
* flush() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):       mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  214)
* flush() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser): XMLParser Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* flush() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser): XMLPullParser Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* flush() (μέθοδος της zlib.Compress):   zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  241)
* flush() (μέθοδος της zlib.Decompress): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  318)
* flushinp() (στη μονάδα curses):        Functions<4>.       (line  154)
* FlushKey() (στη μονάδα winreg):        Functions<12>.      (line  258)
* fma() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context):   Context objects.    (line  327)
* fma() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal):   Decimal objects.    (line  283)
* fma() (στη μονάδα math):               Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   23)
* fmax() (στη μονάδα math):              Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   38)
* fmean() (στη μονάδα statistics):       Function details.   (line   49)
* fmin() (στη μονάδα math):              Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   51)
* fmod() (στη μονάδα math):              Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   64)
* FMT_BINARY (στη μονάδα plistlib):      plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  163)
* FMT_XML (στη μονάδα plistlib):         plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  157)
* fnmatch() (στη μονάδα fnmatch):        fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   50)
* fnmatchcase() (στη μονάδα fnmatch):    fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   69)
* focus() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.  (line   93)
* fold (ιδιότητα της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.   (line  345)
* fold (ιδιότητα της datetime.time):     time objects.       (line   71)
* fold_binary() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Compat32): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  624)
* fold_binary() (μέθοδος της email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  503)
* fold_binary() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  350)
* fold() (μέθοδος της email.headerregistry.BaseHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* fold() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Compat32): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  616)
* fold() (μέθοδος της email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  483)
* fold() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  335)
* Font (κλάση σε tkinter.font):          tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   20)
* For (κλάση σε ast):                    Control flow.       (line   44)
* FOR_ITER (opcode):                     Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  920)
* for;in comprehensions:                 Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   14)
* forget() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook. (line   18)
* forget() (στη μονάδα test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* fork() (στη μονάδα os):                Process Management. (line  253)
* fork() (στη μονάδα pty):               pty — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού.
                                                             (line   23)
* ForkingMixIn (κλάση σε socketserver):  Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   27)
* ForkingTCPServer (κλάση σε socketserver): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   72)
* ForkingUDPServer (κλάση σε socketserver): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   72)
* ForkingUnixDatagramServer (κλάση σε socketserver): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   72)
* ForkingUnixStreamServer (κλάση σε socketserver): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   72)
* forkpty() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line  298)
* FORMAT (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.   (line   19)
* format (ιδιότητα της memoryview):      Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  461)
* format (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  341)
* format (ιδιότητα της struct.Struct):   Κλάσεις<3>.         (line   60)
* Format (κλάση σε annotationlib):       Classes<2>.         (line    6)
* format_call_graph() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Call Graph Introspection.
                                                             (line   70)
* format_datetime() (στη μονάδα email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  172)
* format_exc() (στη μονάδα traceback):   Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  164)
* format_exception_only() (μέθοδος της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  155)
* format_exception_only() (στη μονάδα traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  118)
* format_exception() (στη μονάδα traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  148)
* format_field() (μέθοδος της string.Formatter): Custom string formatting.
                                                             (line  104)
* format_frame_summary() (μέθοδος της traceback.StackSummary): StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* format_help() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Printing help.
                                                             (line   30)
* format_list() (στη μονάδα traceback):  Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  108)
* format_map() (μέθοδος της str):        Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  234)
* FORMAT_SIMPLE (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1228)
* format_spec (ιδιότητα της string.templatelib.Interpolation): Types.
                                                             (line  258)
* format_stack_entry() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  450)
* format_stack() (στη μονάδα traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  173)
* format_string() (στη μονάδα locale):   locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  473)
* format_tb() (στη μονάδα traceback):    Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  169)
* format_usage() (μέθοδος της argparse.Action): Action classes.
                                                             (line   57)
* format_usage() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Printing help.
                                                             (line   25)
* FORMAT_WITH_SPEC (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1240)
* format() (ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση);__str__() (μέθοδος αντικειμένου): Βασική προσαρμογή.
                                                             (line  146)
* format() (μέθοδος της inspect.Signature): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  166)
* format() (μέθοδος της logging.BufferingFormatter): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  154)
* format() (μέθοδος της logging.Formatter): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* format() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects.   (line  104)
* format() (μέθοδος της pprint.PrettyPrinter): PrettyPrinter objects.
                                                             (line  106)
* format() (μέθοδος της str):            Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  197)
* format() (μέθοδος της string.Formatter): Custom string formatting.
                                                             (line   17)
* format() (μέθοδος της traceback.StackSummary): StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* format() (μέθοδος της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  143)
* format() (μέθοδος της tracemalloc.Traceback): Traceback.   (line   37)
* formataddr() (στη μονάδα email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   71)
* formatargvalues() (στη μονάδα inspect): Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line   84)
* formatdate() (στη μονάδα email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  151)
* formatday() (μέθοδος της calendar.TextCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  160)
* FormatError:                           Exceptions<19>.     (line   31)
* FormatError() (στη μονάδα ctypes):     Utility functions.  (line  145)
* formatException() (μέθοδος της logging.Formatter): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  116)
* formatFooter() (μέθοδος της logging.BufferingFormatter): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  147)
* formatHeader() (μέθοδος της logging.BufferingFormatter): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  140)
* formatmonth() (μέθοδος της calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  233)
* formatmonth() (μέθοδος της calendar.TextCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  189)
* formatmonthname() (μέθοδος της calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  254)
* formatmonthname() (μέθοδος της calendar.TextCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  198)
* formatStack() (μέθοδος της logging.Formatter): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line  124)
* FormattedValue (κλάση σε ast):         Literals<2>.        (line   25)
* Formatter (κλάση σε logging):          Formatter Objects.  (line    6)
* Formatter (κλάση σε string):           Custom string formatting.
                                                             (line   13)
* formatTime() (μέθοδος της logging.Formatter): Formatter Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* formatwarning() (στη μονάδα warnings): Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες.
                                                             (line  124)
* formatweek() (μέθοδος της calendar.TextCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  167)
* formatweekday() (μέθοδος της calendar.TextCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  175)
* formatweekheader() (μέθοδος της calendar.TextCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  182)
* formatyear() (μέθοδος της calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  239)
* formatyear() (μέθοδος της calendar.TextCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  212)
* formatyearpage() (μέθοδος της calendar.HTMLCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  244)
* Fortran contiguous:                    shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   35)
* Fortran contiguous <1>:                Γλωσσάρι.           (line  420)
* forward() (στη μονάδα turtle):         Turtle motion.      (line    6)
* FORWARDREF (ιδιότητα της annotationlib.Format): Classes<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* ForwardRef (κλάση σε annotationlib):   Classes<2>.         (line   49)
* ForwardRef (κλάση σε typing):          Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line  164)
* fp (ιδιότητα της urllib.error.HTTPError): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   60)
* fpathconf() (στη μονάδα os):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  161)
* Fraction (κλάση σε fractions):         fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line   15)
* frame (ιδιότητα της inspect.FrameInfo): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   13)
* frame (ιδιότητα της tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText): tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget.
                                                             (line   26)
* Frame (κλάση σε tracemalloc):          Frame.              (line    6)
* FrameInfo (κλάση σε compression.zstd): Miscellaneous.      (line   12)
* FrameInfo (κλάση σε inspect):          The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   11)
* FrameLocalsProxyType (στη μονάδα types): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  217)
* FrameSummary (κλάση σε traceback):     FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* FrameType (στη μονάδα types):          Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  211)
* free (C function):                     Overview<4>.        (line   33)
* free_threaded (ιδιότητα της sys.abi_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   34)
* free_tool_id() (στη μονάδα sys.monitoring): Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line   18)
* free-threaded build:                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line  710)
* freedesktop_os_release() (στη μονάδα platform): Πλατφόρμες Linux.
                                                             (line    6)
* freefunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   27)
* freeze utility:                        Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  262)
* freeze_support() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   50)
* freeze() (στη μονάδα gc):              gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  228)
* frexp() (στη μονάδα math):             Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* FRIDAY (στη μονάδα calendar):          calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  450)
* from_address() (μέθοδος της ctypes._CData): Data types<2>. (line   42)
* from_buffer_copy() (μέθοδος της ctypes._CData): Data types<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* from_buffer() (μέθοδος της ctypes._CData): Data types<2>.  (line   19)
* from_bytes() (μέθοδος κλάσης της int): Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι των Ακέραιων Τύπων.
                                                             (line  117)
* from_callable() (μέθοδος κλάσης της inspect.Signature): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  187)
* from_decimal() (μέθοδος κλάσης της fractions.Fraction): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  146)
* from_exception() (μέθοδος κλάσης της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  126)
* from_file() (μέθοδος κλάσης της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* from_file() (μέθοδος κλάσης της zoneinfo.ZoneInfo): The ZoneInfo class.
                                                             (line   28)
* from_float() (μέθοδος κλάσης της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  242)
* from_float() (μέθοδος κλάσης της fractions.Fraction): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  136)
* from_iterable() (μέθοδος κλάσης της itertools.chain): Itertool Functions.
                                                             (line  117)
* from_list() (μέθοδος κλάσης της traceback.StackSummary): StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* from_name() (μέθοδος κλάσης της importlib.metadata.Distribution): Distributions.
                                                             (line   45)
* from_number() (μέθοδος κλάσης της complex): Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Μιγαδικούς.
                                                             (line   10)
* from_number() (μέθοδος κλάσης της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  268)
* from_number() (μέθοδος κλάσης της float): Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Float.
                                                             (line   10)
* from_number() (μέθοδος κλάσης της fractions.Fraction): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  155)
* from_param() (μέθοδος της ctypes._CData): Data types<2>.   (line   51)
* from_samples() (μέθοδος κλάσης της statistics.NormalDist): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* from_traceback() (μέθοδος κλάσης της dis.Bytecode): Bytecode analysis.
                                                             (line   48)
* from_uri() (μέθοδος κλάσης της pathlib.Path): Parsing and generating URIs.
                                                             (line   12)
* from;yield from expression:            Yield expressions.  (line   66)
* from;εντολή εισαγωγής:                 Η εντολή import.    (line   57)
* frombuf() (μέθοδος κλάσης της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* frombytes() (μέθοδος της array.array): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  204)
* fromfd() (μέθοδος της select.epoll):   Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* fromfd() (μέθοδος της select.kqueue):  Kqueue Objects.     (line   18)
* fromfd() (στη μονάδα socket):          Creating sockets.   (line  160)
* fromfile() (μέθοδος της array.array):  array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  214)
* fromhex() (μέθοδος κλάσης της bytearray): Αντικείμενα Bytearray.
                                                             (line   39)
* fromhex() (μέθοδος κλάσης της bytes):  Αντικείμενα Bytes.  (line   74)
* fromhex() (μέθοδος κλάσης της float):  Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Float.
                                                             (line   60)
* fromisocalendar() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.date): date objects.
                                                             (line   94)
* fromisocalendar() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  252)
* fromisoformat() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.date): date objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* fromisoformat() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  203)
* fromisoformat() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.time): time objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* fromkeys() (μέθοδος κλάσης της dict):  Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line  180)
* fromkeys() (μέθοδος της collections.Counter): Counter objects.
                                                             (line  125)
* fromlist() (μέθοδος της array.array):  array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  222)
* fromordinal() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.date): date objects.
                                                             (line   57)
* fromordinal() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  177)
* fromshare() (στη μονάδα socket):       Creating sockets.   (line  177)
* fromstring() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line   99)
* fromstringlist() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  107)
* fromtarfile() (μέθοδος κλάσης της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* fromtimestamp() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.date): date objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* fromtimestamp() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  101)
* fromunicode() (μέθοδος της array.array): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  228)
* fromutc() (μέθοδος της datetime.timezone): timezone objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* fromutc() (μέθοδος της datetime.tzinfo): tzinfo objects.   (line  164)
* frozendict (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):       Frozen dictionaries.
                                                             (line    6)
* FrozenImporter (κλάση σε importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   80)
* FrozenInstanceError:                   Module contents<6>. (line  522)
* frozenset (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):        Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   36)
* FrozenSet (κλάση σε typing):           Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   42)
* FS (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  108)
* fs_is_case_insensitive() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  103)
* FS_NONASCII (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   10)
* fsdecode() (στη μονάδα os):            Process Parameters. (line  118)
* fsencode() (στη μονάδα os):            Process Parameters. (line  105)
* fspath() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Parameters. (line  131)
* fstat() (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  183)
* fstatvfs() (στη μονάδα os):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  195)
* fstring:                               Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου.
                                                             (line   99)
* fstring <1>:                           Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς.
                                                             (line   28)
* fstring <2>:                           Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1038)
* FSTRING_END (στη μονάδα token):        token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  114)
* FSTRING_MIDDLE (στη μονάδα token):     token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  104)
* FSTRING_START (στη μονάδα token):      token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   95)
* fsum() (στη μονάδα math):              Summation and product functions.
                                                             (line   18)
* fsync() (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  203)
* FTP:                                   urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line   37)
* FTP (κλάση σε ftplib):                 FTP objects.        (line    6)
* ftp_open() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.FTPHandler): FTPHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* FTP_TLS (κλάση σε ftplib):             FTP_TLS objects.    (line    6)
* FTP;ftplib (standard module):          ftplib — FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* FTP;protocol:                          urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line    6)
* FTP;protocol <1>:                      ftplib — FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* FTPHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request):  urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  478)
* ftruncate() (στη μονάδα os):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  216)
* Full:                                  queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   86)
* FULL (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.     (line   45)
* full_match() (μέθοδος της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  249)
* FULL_RO (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.  (line   47)
* full_url (ιδιότητα της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* full() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Queue):    Ουρά.               (line   32)
* full() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Queue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  129)
* full() (μέθοδος της queue.Queue):      Queue Objects.      (line   22)
* fullmatch() (μέθοδος της re.Pattern):  Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* fullmatch() (στη μονάδα re):           Functions.          (line   83)
* fully_trusted_filter() (στη μονάδα tarfile): Default named filters.
                                                             (line    9)
* func (ιδιότητα της functools.partial): partial Objects.    (line    9)
* funcname (ιδιότητα της bdb.Breakpoint): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   98)
* function (ιδιότητα της inspect.FrameInfo): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   27)
* function (ιδιότητα της inspect.Traceback): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   67)
* FUNCTION (ιδιότητα της symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   15)
* Function (κλάση σε pyclbr):            Function Objects.   (line    6)
* Function (κλάση σε symtable):          Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  122)
* function;annotations:                  Annotations Συναρτήσεων.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;annotations <1>:              Function definitions.
                                                             (line  109)
* function;call:                         Calls.              (line  132)
* function;call <1>:                     Calls.              (line  142)
* function;definition:                   Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;name:                         Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* function;name <1>:                     Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* FunctionDef (κλάση σε ast):            Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* FunctionTestCase (κλάση σε unittest):  Test cases.         (line 1039)
* FunctionType (κλάση σε ast):           Root nodes.         (line   57)
* FunctionType (στη μονάδα types):       Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line   26)
* funny_files (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   99)
* Future (κλάση σε asyncio):             Future Object.      (line    6)
* Future (κλάση σε concurrent.futures):  Future Objects.     (line   10)
* future_add_to_awaited_by() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Low level utility functions.
                                                             (line   14)
* future_discard_from_awaited_by() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Low level utility functions.
                                                             (line   26)
* FutureWarning:                         Warnings.           (line   55)
* fwalk() (στη μονάδα os):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2118)
* gaierror:                              Exceptions<16>.     (line   27)
* gamma() (στη μονάδα math):             Special functions.  (line   28)
* gammavariate() (στη μονάδα random):    Πραγματικές κατανομές.
                                                             (line   52)
* garbage (στη μονάδα gc):               gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  262)
* gather() (μέθοδος της curses.textpad.Textbox): Textbox objects.
                                                             (line  109)
* gather() (στη μονάδα asyncio):         Running tasks concurrently.
                                                             (line    6)
* gauss() (στη μονάδα random):           Πραγματικές κατανομές.
                                                             (line   65)
* gc_collect() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  377)
* gcd() (στη μονάδα math.integer):       math integer — integer-specific mathematics functions.
                                                             (line   36)
* gcd() (στη μονάδα math):               Number-theoretic functions.
                                                             (line   16)
* gcvisitobjects_t (C type):             Querying Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   26)
* ge() (στη μονάδα operator):            operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* generate_tokens() (στη μονάδα tokenize): Tokenizing input. (line   36)
* generator:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line  783)
* generator <1>:                         Γλωσσάρι.           (line  783)
* Generator (κλάση σε collections.abc):  Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line   56)
* Generator (κλάση σε email.generator):  email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  137)
* Generator (κλάση σε typing):           Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   37)
* generator iterator:                    Γλωσσάρι.           (line  795)
* generator έκφραση:                     Γλωσσάρι.           (line  809)
* generator έκφραση <1>:                 Γλωσσάρι.           (line  809)
* generator_stop (στη μονάδα __future__): Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* generator;expression:                  Generator expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* generator;function:                    Yield expressions.  (line    6)
* generator;iterator:                    Η εντολή yield.     (line    6)
* generator;συνάρτηση:                   Η εντολή yield.     (line    6)
* GeneratorExit:                         Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   44)
* GeneratorExp (κλάση σε ast):           Comprehensions.     (line    6)
* generators (στη μονάδα __future__):    Module Contents<2>. (line   18)
* GeneratorType (στη μονάδα types):      Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line   39)
* Generic (κλάση σε typing):             Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line   15)
* generic_visit() (μέθοδος της ast.NodeVisitor): ast helpers.
                                                             (line  204)
* Generic;Alias:                         Τύπος Generic Alias.
                                                             (line    6)
* GenericAlias (κλάση σε types):         Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  160)
* genops() (στη μονάδα pickletools):     Programmatic interface.
                                                             (line   22)
* geometric_mean() (στη μονάδα statistics): Function details.
                                                             (line   77)
* GET_AITER (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  331)
* get_all_breaks() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  412)
* get_all_start_methods() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   76)
* get_all() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  254)
* get_all() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  363)
* get_all() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.headers.Headers): wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line   50)
* GET_ANEXT (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  340)
* get_annotate_from_class_namespace() (στη μονάδα annotationlib): Functions<10>.
                                                             (line  105)
* get_annotations() (στη μονάδα annotationlib): Functions<10>.
                                                             (line  118)
* get_annotations() (στη μονάδα inspect): Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line  167)
* get_app() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   68)
* get_archive_formats() (στη μονάδα shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   73)
* get_args() (στη μονάδα typing):        Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line   97)
* get_asyncgen_hooks() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1103)
* get_attribute() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  627)
* GET_AWAITABLE (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  312)
* get_begidx() (στη μονάδα readline):    Completion.         (line   40)
* get_blocking() (στη μονάδα os):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  229)
* get_body_encoding() (μέθοδος της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line  105)
* get_body() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  518)
* get_boundary() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  403)
* get_boundary() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  581)
* get_bpbynumber() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  388)
* get_break() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):     bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  397)
* get_breaks() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  402)
* get_buffer() (μέθοδος της asyncio.BufferedProtocol): Buffered Streaming Protocols.
                                                             (line   21)
* get_bytes() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.
                                                             (line  175)
* get_bytes() (μέθοδος της mailbox.mbox): mbox objects.      (line   32)
* get_bytes() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MMDF): MMDF objects.      (line   29)
* get_ca_certs() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts. (line  178)
* get_cache_token() (στη μονάδα abc):    abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  326)
* get_cells() (μέθοδος της symtable.Function): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  150)
* get_channel_binding() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.
                                                             (line  290)
* get_charset() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  267)
* get_charsets() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  431)
* get_charsets() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  615)
* get_children() (μέθοδος της symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  118)
* get_children() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line   19)
* get_ciphers() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.  (line  192)
* get_clock_info() (στη μονάδα time):    Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  120)
* get_close_matches() (στη μονάδα difflib): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  203)
* get_code() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.InspectLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  209)
* get_code() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  401)
* get_code() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  351)
* get_code() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  296)
* get_code() (μέθοδος της zipimport.zipimporter): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* get_completer_delims() (στη μονάδα readline): Completion.  (line   50)
* get_completer() (στη μονάδα readline): Completion.         (line   29)
* get_completion_type() (στη μονάδα readline): Completion.   (line   34)
* get_config_h_filename() (στη μονάδα sysconfig): Other functions<3>.
                                                             (line   70)
* get_config_var() (στη μονάδα sysconfig): Configuration variables.
                                                             (line   26)
* get_config_vars() (στη μονάδα sysconfig): Configuration variables.
                                                             (line   16)
* get_content_charset() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  424)
* get_content_charset() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  604)
* get_content_disposition() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  455)
* get_content_disposition() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  629)
* get_content_maintype() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  324)
* get_content_maintype() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  433)
* get_content_subtype() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  330)
* get_content_subtype() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  439)
* get_content_type() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  308)
* get_content_type() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  417)
* get_content() (μέθοδος της email.contentmanager.ContentManager): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   19)
* get_content() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  582)
* get_content() (στη μονάδα email.contentmanager): Content Manager Instances.
                                                             (line   24)
* get_context() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Handle): Callback handles.
                                                             (line   11)
* get_context() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task): Task object.     (line  170)
* get_context() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   85)
* get_coro() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task): Task object.        (line  157)
* get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1117)
* get_count() (στη μονάδα gc):           gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  139)
* get_current_history_length() (στη μονάδα readline): History list.
                                                             (line   14)
* get_current() (στη μονάδα concurrent.interpreters): Reference<4>.
                                                             (line   13)
* get_data() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.FileLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  321)
* get_data() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.ResourceLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  189)
* get_data() (μέθοδος της zipimport.zipimporter): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* get_data() (στη μονάδα pkgutil):       pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  147)
* get_date() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* get_debug() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Enabling debug mode.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_debug() (στη μονάδα gc):           gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   64)
* get_default_backend() (στη μονάδα pdb): Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line  167)
* get_default_scheme() (στη μονάδα sysconfig): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   14)
* get_default_type() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  335)
* get_default_type() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  444)
* get_default_verify_paths() (στη μονάδα ssl): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   62)
* get_default() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Parser defaults.
                                                             (line   35)
* get_dialect() (στη μονάδα csv):        Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line   96)
* get_disassembly_as_string() (μέθοδος της test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase): test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line   18)
* get_docstring() (στη μονάδα ast):      ast helpers.        (line  125)
* get_doctest() (μέθοδος της doctest.DocTestParser): DocTestParser objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* get_endidx() (στη μονάδα readline):    Completion.         (line   40)
* get_environ() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   90)
* get_errno() (στη μονάδα ctypes):       Utility functions.  (line  161)
* get_escdelay() (στη μονάδα curses):    Functions<4>.       (line  463)
* get_event_loop_policy() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Getting and Setting the Policy.
                                                             (line    9)
* get_event_loop() (μέθοδος της asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* get_event_loop() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Event loop.         (line   39)
* get_events() (στη μονάδα sys.monitoring): Setting events globally.
                                                             (line    9)
* get_examples() (μέθοδος της doctest.DocTestParser): DocTestParser objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_exception_handler() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Error handling API.
                                                             (line   26)
* get_exec_path() (στη μονάδα os):       Process Parameters. (line  186)
* get_extra_info() (μέθοδος της asyncio.BaseTransport): Base Transport.
                                                             (line   21)
* get_extra_info() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamWriter): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   64)
* get_field() (μέθοδος της string.Formatter): Custom string formatting.
                                                             (line   57)
* get_file_breaks() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  407)
* get_file() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Babyl): Babyl objects.     (line   49)
* get_file() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects. (line  191)
* get_file() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects. (line  221)
* get_file() (μέθοδος της mailbox.mbox): mbox objects.       (line   39)
* get_file() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH):   MH objects.         (line   96)
* get_file() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MMDF): MMDF objects.       (line   36)
* get_filename() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  393)
* get_filename() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  571)
* get_filename() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  281)
* get_filename() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.FileLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  317)
* get_filename() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  359)
* get_filename() (μέθοδος της zipimport.zipimporter): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* get_filter() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  106)
* get_flags() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* get_flags() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_flags() (μέθοδος της mailbox.mboxMessage): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* get_flags() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MMDFMessage): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_folder() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* get_folder() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH): MH objects.         (line   39)
* get_frame_info() (στη μονάδα compression.zstd): Miscellaneous.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_frees() (μέθοδος της symtable.Function): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  145)
* get_freeze_count() (στη μονάδα gc):    gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  253)
* get_from() (μέθοδος της mailbox.mboxMessage): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* get_from() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MMDFMessage): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* get_full_url() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  106)
* get_globals() (μέθοδος της symtable.Function): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  136)
* get_grouped_opcodes() (μέθοδος της difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher objects.
                                                             (line  168)
* get_groups() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.   (line  229)
* get_handle_inheritable() (στη μονάδα os): Inheritance of File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   36)
* get_header() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  120)
* get_history_item() (στη μονάδα readline): History list.    (line   20)
* get_history_length() (στη μονάδα readline): History file.  (line   40)
* get_id() (μέθοδος της symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   69)
* get_ident() (στη μονάδα _thread):      _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   88)
* get_ident() (στη μονάδα threading):    Reference<2>.       (line   73)
* get_identifiers() (μέθοδος της string.Template): Template strings $-strings.
                                                             (line   85)
* get_identifiers() (μέθοδος της symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  103)
* get_importer() (στη μονάδα pkgutil):   pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   54)
* get_info() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects. (line  155)
* get_info() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* get_inheritable() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  126)
* get_inheritable() (στη μονάδα os):     Inheritance of File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   27)
* get_instructions() (στη μονάδα dis):   Analysis functions. (line  146)
* get_int_max_str_digits() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  887)
* get_interpreter() (στη μονάδα zipapp): Διεπαφή Python.     (line   90)
* GET_ITER (opcode):                     Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  228)
* get_key() (μέθοδος της selectors.BaseSelector): Classes.   (line  145)
* get_labels() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Babyl): Babyl objects.   (line   35)
* get_labels() (μέθοδος της mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* get_last_error() (στη μονάδα ctypes):  Utility functions.  (line  169)
* get_lazy_imports_filter() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  911)
* get_lazy_imports() (στη μονάδα sys):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  895)
* GET_LEN (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  509)
* get_line_buffer() (στη μονάδα readline): Line buffer.      (line    8)
* get_lineno() (μέθοδος της symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   85)
* get_local_events() (στη μονάδα sys.monitoring): Per code object events.
                                                             (line   11)
* get_locals() (μέθοδος της symtable.Function): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  132)
* get_logger() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing): Logging<2>.     (line   11)
* get_loop() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Future): Future Object.    (line  140)
* get_loop() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Runner): Runner context manager.
                                                             (line   64)
* get_loop() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Server): Server objects.   (line   69)
* get_main() (στη μονάδα concurrent.interpreters): Reference<4>.
                                                             (line   18)
* get_makefile_filename() (στη μονάδα sysconfig): Other functions<3>.
                                                             (line   74)
* get_map() (μέθοδος της selectors.BaseSelector): Classes.   (line  153)
* get_matching_blocks() (μέθοδος της difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher objects.
                                                             (line  107)
* get_message() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.
                                                             (line  168)
* get_method() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   68)
* get_mixed_type_key() (στη μονάδα ipaddress): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line   56)
* get_name() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task): Task object.        (line  177)
* get_name() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  167)
* get_name() (μέθοδος της symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   73)
* get_namespace() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  285)
* get_namespaces() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  281)
* get_native_id() (στη μονάδα _thread):  _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   96)
* get_native_id() (στη μονάδα threading): Reference<2>.      (line   83)
* get_nonlocals() (μέθοδος της symtable.Function): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  140)
* get_nonstandard_attr() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  100)
* get_nowait() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Queue): Ουρά.            (line   50)
* get_nowait() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Queue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  170)
* get_nowait() (μέθοδος της queue.Queue): Queue Objects.     (line   66)
* get_nowait() (μέθοδος της queue.SimpleQueue): SimpleQueue Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* get_object_traceback() (στη μονάδα tracemalloc): Functions<9>.
                                                             (line   12)
* get_objects() (στη μονάδα gc):         gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   68)
* get_opcodes() (μέθοδος της difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher objects.
                                                             (line  125)
* get_option_group() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Grouping Options.
                                                             (line  103)
* get_option() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   37)
* get_origin() (στη μονάδα typing):      Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line   74)
* get_original_bases() (στη μονάδα types): Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων.
                                                             (line   79)
* get_original_stdout() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  334)
* get_osfhandle() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):   File Operations.    (line   58)
* get_output_charset() (μέθοδος της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line  122)
* get_overloads() (στη μονάδα typing):   Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  286)
* get_pagesize() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  301)
* get_param() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  479)
* get_parameters() (μέθοδος της symtable.Function): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  127)
* get_params() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  458)
* get_path_names() (στη μονάδα sysconfig): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   57)
* get_path() (στη μονάδα sysconfig):     Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   62)
* get_paths() (στη μονάδα sysconfig):    Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   92)
* get_payload() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  180)
* get_pid() (μέθοδος της asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_pipe_transport() (μέθοδος της asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   10)
* get_platform() (στη μονάδα sysconfig): Other functions<3>. (line   11)
* get_poly() (στη μονάδα turtle):        Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   29)
* get_pre_input_hook() (στη μονάδα readline): Startup hooks. (line   25)
* get_preferred_scheme() (στη μονάδα sysconfig): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* get_protocol_members() (στη μονάδα typing): Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line  115)
* get_protocol() (μέθοδος της asyncio.BaseTransport): Base Transport.
                                                             (line   88)
* get_proxy_response_headers() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPConnection): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  139)
* get_python_version() (στη μονάδα sysconfig): Other functions<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_ready() (μέθοδος της graphlib.TopologicalSorter): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  156)
* get_referents() (στη μονάδα gc):       gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  170)
* get_referrers() (στη μονάδα gc):       gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  149)
* get_request() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  134)
* get_resource_value() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  267)
* get_returncode() (μέθοδος της asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   29)
* get_running_loop() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Event loop.       (line   29)
* get_scheme_names() (στη μονάδα sysconfig): Installation path functions.
                                                             (line    9)
* get_scheme() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  189)
* get_selection() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  110)
* get_sequences() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH): MH objects.      (line   56)
* get_sequences() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MHMessage): MHMessage objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* get_server_certificate() (στη μονάδα ssl): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   29)
* get_server() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager): Managers.
                                                             (line   64)
* get_shapepoly() (στη μονάδα turtle):   Appearance.         (line  169)
* get_sigalgs() (στη μονάδα ssl):        Signature algorithms.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_source_segment() (στη μονάδα ast): ast helpers.        (line  136)
* get_source() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.InspectLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  223)
* get_source() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  412)
* get_source() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  355)
* get_source() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  301)
* get_source() (μέθοδος της zipimport.zipimporter): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* get_stack() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task): Task object.       (line  121)
* get_stack() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):     bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  441)
* get_start_method() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line  100)
* get_starttag_text() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   32)
* get_stats_profile() (μέθοδος της pstats.Stats): The Stats class.
                                                             (line  183)
* get_stats() (στη μονάδα gc):           gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   84)
* get_stderr() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  128)
* get_stderr() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line  100)
* get_stdin() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  122)
* get_string() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.
                                                             (line  183)
* get_string() (μέθοδος της mailbox.mbox): mbox objects.     (line   50)
* get_subdir() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* get_symbols() (μέθοδος της symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  113)
* get_tabsize() (στη μονάδα curses):     Functions<4>.       (line  478)
* get_task_factory() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Creating futures and tasks.
                                                             (line   80)
* get_terminal_size() (στη μονάδα os):   Querying the size of a terminal.
                                                             (line    8)
* get_terminal_size() (στη μονάδα shutil): Querying the size of the output terminal.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_threshold() (στη μονάδα gc):       gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  144)
* get_token() (μέθοδος της shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.      (line    8)
* get_tool() (στη μονάδα sys.monitoring): Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line   23)
* get_traceback_limit() (στη μονάδα tracemalloc): Functions<9>.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_traced_memory() (στη μονάδα tracemalloc): Functions<9>.
                                                             (line   32)
* get_tracemalloc_memory() (στη μονάδα tracemalloc): Functions<9>.
                                                             (line   55)
* get_type_hints() (στη μονάδα typing):  Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line    6)
* get_type() (μέθοδος της symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   53)
* get_unixfrom() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  152)
* get_unixfrom() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  163)
* get_unpack_formats() (στη μονάδα shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  203)
* get_unverified_chain() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.
                                                             (line  230)
* get_usage() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Other methods.
                                                             (line   22)
* get_value() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Semaphore): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  217)
* get_value() (μέθοδος της string.Formatter): Custom string formatting.
                                                             (line   68)
* get_verified_chain() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.
                                                             (line  221)
* get_version() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Printing a version string.
                                                             (line   34)
* get_visible() (μέθοδος της mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* get_wch() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line  242)
* get_write_buffer_limits() (μέθοδος της asyncio.WriteTransport): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   23)
* get_write_buffer_size() (μέθοδος της asyncio.WriteTransport): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   19)
* GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER (opcode):          Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  232)
* get() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Queue):     Ουρά.               (line   40)
* get() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  223)
* get() (μέθοδος της contextvars.Context): Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line  118)
* get() (μέθοδος της contextvars.ContextVar): Context Variables.
                                                             (line   30)
* get() (μέθοδος της dict):              Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line  193)
* get() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  245)
* get() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  355)
* get() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox):   Mailbox objects.    (line  156)
* get() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  202)
* get() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Queue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  155)
* get() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.SimpleQueue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  249)
* get() (μέθοδος της queue.Queue):       Queue Objects.      (line   46)
* get() (μέθοδος της queue.SimpleQueue): SimpleQueue Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* get() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Combobox): ttk Combobox.    (line   15)
* get() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Spinbox): ttk Spinbox.      (line    8)
* get() (μέθοδος της types.MappingProxyType): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  309)
* get() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* get() (στη μονάδα webbrowser):         Command-line interface<5>.
                                                             (line   68)
* getacl() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line  106)
* getaddresses() (στη μονάδα email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   85)
* getaddrinfo() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): DNS.             (line    6)
* getaddrinfo() (στη μονάδα socket):     Other functions<2>. (line   16)
* getallocatedblocks() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  794)
* getandroidapilevel() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  814)
* getannotation() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.
                                                             (line  111)
* getargvalues() (στη μονάδα inspect):   Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line   73)
* getasyncgenlocals() (στη μονάδα inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line  100)
* getasyncgenstate() (στη μονάδα inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   47)
* getatime() (στη μονάδα os.path):       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  183)
* getattr_static() (στη μονάδα inspect): Fetching attributes statically.
                                                             (line   16)
* getattrfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   44)
* getAttribute() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* getAttributeNode() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* getAttributeNodeNS() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   47)
* getAttributeNS() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   41)
* getattrofunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   55)
* GetBase() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line   33)
* getbegyx() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  226)
* getbkgd() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line  230)
* getblocking() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects. (line  164)
* getboolean() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  257)
* getbuffer() (μέθοδος της io.BytesIO):  Buffered Streams.   (line   24)
* getbufferproc (C type):                Slot Type typedefs. (line   99)
* getByteStream() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* getcallargs() (στη μονάδα inspect):    Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line  103)
* getcanvas() (στη μονάδα turtle):       Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   55)
* getch() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  235)
* getch() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):           Console I/O.        (line   11)
* getCharacterStream() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* getche() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):          Console I/O.        (line   26)
* getChild() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.   (line  162)
* getChildren() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.
                                                             (line  174)
* getclasstree() (στη μονάδα inspect):   Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* getclosurevars() (στη μονάδα inspect): Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line  134)
* getcode() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   88)
* getcode() (μέθοδος της urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   45)
* getColumnNumber() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* getcomments() (στη μονάδα inspect):    Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   36)
* getcompname() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_read): Wave_read Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* getcompname() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   87)
* getcomptype() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_read): Wave_read Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* getcomptype() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* getconfig() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  642)
* getContentHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* getcontext() (στη μονάδα decimal):     Context objects.    (line   14)
* getcoroutinelocals() (στη μονάδα inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   92)
* getcoroutinestate() (στη μονάδα inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   28)
* getctime() (στη μονάδα os.path):       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  199)
* getcwd() (στη μονάδα os):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  293)
* getcwdb() (στη μονάδα os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  297)
* getdecoder() (στη μονάδα codecs):      codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  124)
* getdefaultencoding() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  825)
* getdefaultlocale() (στη μονάδα locale): locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  361)
* getdefaulttimeout() (στη μονάδα socket): Other functions<2>.
                                                             (line  382)
* getdlopenflags() (στη μονάδα sys):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  830)
* getdoc() (στη μονάδα inspect):         Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line    6)
* getDOMImplementation() (στη μονάδα xml.dom): Module Contents.
                                                             (line   17)
* getDTDHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* getEffectiveLevel() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.
                                                             (line  152)
* getegid() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line  196)
* getElementsByTagName() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Document): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* getElementsByTagName() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* getElementsByTagNameNS() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Document): Document Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* getElementsByTagNameNS() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* getencoder() (στη μονάδα codecs):      codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  116)
* getEncoding() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* getencoding() (στη μονάδα locale):     locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  425)
* getEntityResolver() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* getenv() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Parameters. (line  156)
* getenvb() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line  171)
* getErrorHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* geteuid() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line  204)
* getEvent() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream): DOMEventStream Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* getEventCategory() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* getEventType() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   49)
* getException() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.SAXException): SAXException Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* getFeature() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* getfile() (στη μονάδα inspect):        Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   45)
* getFilesToDelete() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  115)
* getfilesystemencodeerrors() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  870)
* getfilesystemencoding() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  839)
* getfirstweekday() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   47)
* getfloat() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  250)
* getformat() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_read): Wave_read Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* getformat() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line  101)
* getfqdn() (στη μονάδα socket):         Other functions<2>. (line  108)
* getframeinfo() (στη μονάδα inspect):   The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line  123)
* getframerate() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_read): Wave_read Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* getframerate() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* getfullargspec() (στη μονάδα inspect): Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* getgeneratorlocals() (στη μονάδα inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   72)
* getgeneratorstate() (στη μονάδα inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   12)
* getgid() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Parameters. (line  210)
* getgrall() (στη μονάδα grp):           grp — The group database.
                                                             (line   58)
* getgrgid() (στη μονάδα grp):           grp — The group database.
                                                             (line   44)
* getgrnam() (στη μονάδα grp):           grp — The group database.
                                                             (line   53)
* getgrouplist() (στη μονάδα os):        Process Parameters. (line  219)
* getgroups() (στη μονάδα os):           Process Parameters. (line  230)
* getHandlerByName() (στη μονάδα logging): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  183)
* getHandlerNames() (στη μονάδα logging): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  190)
* getheader() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* getheaders() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* gethostbyaddr() (in module socket):    Process Parameters. (line  570)
* gethostbyaddr() (στη μονάδα socket):   Other functions<2>. (line  165)
* gethostbyname_ex() (στη μονάδα socket): Other functions<2>.
                                                             (line  135)
* gethostbyname() (στη μονάδα socket):   Other functions<2>. (line  120)
* gethostname() (in module socket):      Process Parameters. (line  570)
* gethostname() (στη μονάδα socket):     Other functions<2>. (line  152)
* getincrementaldecoder() (στη μονάδα codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  140)
* getincrementalencoder() (στη μονάδα codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  132)
* getinfo() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects.  (line  115)
* getinnerframes() (στη μονάδα inspect): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line  146)
* GetInputContext() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line   39)
* getint() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  243)
* getitem() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  208)
* getiterfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   87)
* getitimer() (στη μονάδα signal):       Module contents<4>. (line  471)
* getkey() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line  250)
* GetLastError() (στη μονάδα ctypes):    Utility functions.  (line  153)
* getLength() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   11)
* getLevelName() (στη μονάδα logging):   Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  150)
* getLevelNamesMapping() (στη μονάδα logging): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  141)
* getlimit() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  586)
* getline() (στη μονάδα linecache):      linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   23)
* getLineNumber() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* getloadavg() (στη μονάδα os):          Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   52)
* getlocale() (στη μονάδα locale):       locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  386)
* getLogger() (στη μονάδα logging):      Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line    9)
* getLoggerClass() (στη μονάδα logging): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   23)
* getlogin() (στη μονάδα os):            Process Parameters. (line  253)
* getLogRecordFactory() (στη μονάδα logging): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   34)
* getMandatoryRelease() (μέθοδος της __future__._Feature): Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   77)
* getmaxyx() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  257)
* getmember() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarFile): TarFile Objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* getmembers_static() (στη μονάδα inspect): Types and members.
                                                             (line  396)
* getmembers() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarFile): TarFile Objects.
                                                             (line  111)
* getmembers() (στη μονάδα inspect):     Types and members.  (line  383)
* getMessage() (μέθοδος της logging.LogRecord): LogRecord Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* getMessage() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.SAXException): SAXException Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* getMessageID() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   60)
* getmodule() (στη μονάδα inspect):      Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   51)
* getmodulename() (στη μονάδα inspect):  Types and members.  (line  412)
* getmouse() (στη μονάδα curses):        Functions<4>.       (line  160)
* getmro() (στη μονάδα inspect):         Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line   95)
* getmtime() (στη μονάδα os.path):       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  190)
* getName() (μέθοδος της threading.Thread): Thread objects.  (line  197)
* getNameByQName() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   16)
* getnameinfo() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): DNS.             (line   11)
* getnameinfo() (στη μονάδα socket):     Other functions<2>. (line  181)
* getnames() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarFile): TarFile Objects. (line  117)
* getNames() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   15)
* getnchannels() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_read): Wave_read Objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* getnchannels() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* getnframes() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_read): Wave_read Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* getnframes() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* getnode() (στη μονάδα uuid):           uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  176)
* getobjects() (στη μονάδα sys):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1011)
* getopt() (στη μονάδα getopt):          getopt — C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line   33)
* GetoptError:                           getopt — C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line   97)
* getOptionalRelease() (μέθοδος της __future__._Feature): Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   72)
* getouterframes() (στη μονάδα inspect): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line  131)
* getoutput() (στη μονάδα subprocess):   Legacy Shell Invocation Functions.
                                                             (line   45)
* getpagesize() (στη μονάδα resource):   Resource Usage.     (line  101)
* getparams() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_read): Wave_read Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* getparams() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* getparyx() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  261)
* getpass() (στη μονάδα getpass):        getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   17)
* GetPassWarning:                        getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   70)
* getpeercert() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.    (line  152)
* getpeername() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects. (line  134)
* getpen() (στη μονάδα turtle):          Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   52)
* getpgid() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line  264)
* getpgrp() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line  272)
* getpid() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Parameters. (line  278)
* getpos() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   28)
* getppid() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line  285)
* getpreferredencoding() (στη μονάδα locale): locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  401)
* getpriority() (στη μονάδα os):         Process Parameters. (line  296)
* getprofile() (στη μονάδα sys):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1036)
* getprofile() (στη μονάδα threading):   Reference<2>.       (line  154)
* getProperty() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* getprotobyname() (στη μονάδα socket):  Other functions<2>. (line  201)
* getproxies() (στη μονάδα urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  209)
* getPublicId() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* getPublicId() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* getpwall() (στη μονάδα pwd):           pwd — Η βάση δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης.
                                                             (line   72)
* getpwnam() (στη μονάδα pwd):           pwd — Η βάση δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης.
                                                             (line   67)
* getpwuid() (στη μονάδα pwd):           pwd — Η βάση δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης.
                                                             (line   62)
* getQNameByName() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   20)
* getQNames() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   24)
* getquota() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.     (line  116)
* getquotaroot() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects. (line  121)
* getrandbits() (μέθοδος της random.Random): Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια.
                                                             (line   47)
* getrandbits() (στη μονάδα random):     Συναρτήσεις για ακέραιους.
                                                             (line   39)
* getrandom() (στη μονάδα os):           Random numbers<2>.  (line    6)
* getreader() (στη μονάδα codecs):       codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  148)
* getrecursionlimit() (στη μονάδα sys):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  943)
* getrefcount() (στη μονάδα sys):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  923)
* GetReparseDeferralEnabled() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  117)
* getresgid() (στη μονάδα os):           Process Parameters. (line  342)
* getresponse() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPConnection): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* getresuid() (στη μονάδα os):           Process Parameters. (line  333)
* getrlimit() (στη μονάδα resource):     Resource Limits.    (line   37)
* getroot() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* getrusage() (στη μονάδα resource):     Resource Usage.     (line    8)
* getsampwidth() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_read): Wave_read Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* getsampwidth() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* getscreen() (στη μονάδα turtle):       Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   63)
* getservbyname() (στη μονάδα socket):   Other functions<2>. (line  212)
* getservbyport() (στη μονάδα socket):   Other functions<2>. (line  223)
* GetSetDescriptorType (στη μονάδα types): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  243)
* getshapes() (στη μονάδα turtle):       Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   64)
* getsid() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Parameters. (line  528)
* getsignal() (στη μονάδα signal):       Module contents<4>. (line  314)
* getsitepackages() (στη μονάδα site):   Module contents<7>. (line   74)
* getsize() (στη μονάδα os.path):        os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  210)
* getsizeof() (στη μονάδα sys):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  950)
* getsockname() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects. (line  142)
* getsockopt() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.  (line  149)
* getsource() (στη μονάδα inspect):      Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   77)
* getsourcefile() (στη μονάδα inspect):  Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   56)
* getsourcelines() (στη μονάδα inspect): Retrieving source code.
                                                             (line   63)
* getstate() (μέθοδος της codecs.IncrementalDecoder): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* getstate() (μέθοδος της codecs.IncrementalEncoder): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* getstate() (μέθοδος της random.Random): Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια.
                                                             (line   26)
* getstate() (στη μονάδα random):        Συναρτήσεις καταγραφής.
                                                             (line   33)
* getstatusoutput() (στη μονάδα subprocess): Legacy Shell Invocation Functions.
                                                             (line   11)
* getstr() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line  267)
* getSubject() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SMTPHandler): SMTPHandler.
                                                             (line   38)
* getswitchinterval() (στη μονάδα sys):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  972)
* getSystemId() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* getSystemId() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator): Locator Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* getsyx() (στη μονάδα curses):          Functions<4>.       (line  178)
* gettarinfo() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarFile): TarFile Objects.
                                                             (line  302)
* gettempdir() (στη μονάδα tempfile):    tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  319)
* gettempdirb() (στη μονάδα tempfile):   tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  351)
* gettempprefix() (στη μονάδα tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  357)
* gettempprefixb() (στη μονάδα tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  362)
* getter (C type):                       Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   33)
* getTestCaseNames() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestLoader): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  110)
* gettext() (μέθοδος της gettext.GNUTranslations): The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   38)
* gettext() (μέθοδος της gettext.NullTranslations): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   35)
* gettext() (στη μονάδα gettext):        GNU gettext API.    (line   32)
* gettext() (στη μονάδα locale):         Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line    6)
* gettimeout() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.  (line  173)
* gettrace() (στη μονάδα sys):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1040)
* gettrace() (στη μονάδα threading):     Reference<2>.       (line  132)
* getturtle() (στη μονάδα turtle):       Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   52)
* getType() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   19)
* getuid() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Parameters. (line  351)
* getunicodeinternedsize() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  808)
* geturl() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* geturl() (μέθοδος της urllib.parse.urllib.parse.SplitResult): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   12)
* geturl() (μέθοδος της urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   30)
* getuser() (στη μονάδα getpass):        getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   75)
* getuserbase() (στη μονάδα site):       Module contents<7>. (line   80)
* getusersitepackages() (στη μονάδα site): Module contents<7>.
                                                             (line   88)
* getvalue() (μέθοδος της io.BytesIO):   Buffered Streams.   (line   41)
* getvalue() (μέθοδος της io.StringIO):  Text I/O<2>.        (line  268)
* getValue() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes): The Attributes Interface.
                                                             (line   24)
* getValueByQName() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS): The AttributesNS Interface.
                                                             (line   12)
* getwch() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):          Console I/O.        (line   21)
* getwche() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):         Console I/O.        (line   31)
* getweakrefcount() (στη μονάδα weakref): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  154)
* getweakrefs() (στη μονάδα weakref):    weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  159)
* getwelcome() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP): FTP objects.        (line  120)
* getwelcome() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3): POP3 Objects.      (line   20)
* getwin() (στη μονάδα curses):          Functions<4>.       (line  184)
* getwindowsversion() (στη μονάδα sys):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1050)
* getwriter() (στη μονάδα codecs):       codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  156)
* getxattr() (στη μονάδα os):            Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   10)
* getyx() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  281)
* gid (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo):    TarInfo Objects.    (line  113)
* GIL:                                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line  839)
* gil (ιδιότητα της sys.flags):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  632)
* glob() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):     Reading directories.
                                                             (line   30)
* glob() (στη μονάδα glob):              glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   29)
* Global (κλάση σε ast):                 Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  145)
* global interpreter lock:               Thread states and the global interpreter lock.
                                                             (line    6)
* global interpreter lock <1>:           Γλωσσάρι.           (line  843)
* global state:                          Γλωσσάρι.           (line  876)
* global_enum() (στη μονάδα enum):       Utilities and decorators.
                                                             (line   92)
* global;όνομα;δέσμευση:                 Η εντολή global.    (line    6)
* global;πεδίο ονομάτων:                 Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση.
                                                             (line    6)
* globs (ιδιότητα της doctest.DocTest):  DocTest Objects.    (line   21)
* gmtime() (στη μονάδα time):            Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  155)
* gname (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo):  TarInfo Objects.    (line  129)
* GNOME:                                 The Catalog constructor.
                                                             (line    6)
* GNU_FORMAT (στη μονάδα tarfile):       tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  384)
* gnu_getopt() (στη μονάδα getopt):      getopt — C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line   75)
* GNUTranslations (κλάση σε gettext):    The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   33)
* GNUTYPE_LONGLINK (στη μονάδα tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  368)
* GNUTYPE_LONGNAME (στη μονάδα tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  364)
* GNUTYPE_SPARSE (στη μονάδα tarfile):   tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  372)
* go() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  114)
* got (ιδιότητα της doctest.DocTestFailure): Debugging.      (line  204)
* goto() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Turtle motion.      (line   74)
* grantpt() (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  248)
* grapheme_cluster_break() (στη μονάδα unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  168)
* GREATER (στη μονάδα token):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  250)
* GREATEREQUAL (στη μονάδα token):       token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  277)
* greedy (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.Strategy): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  312)
* GRND_NONBLOCK (στη μονάδα os):         Random numbers<2>.  (line   76)
* GRND_RANDOM (στη μονάδα os):           Random numbers<2>.  (line   89)
* Group (κλάση σε email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  459)
* group() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):    Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line   21)
* group() (μέθοδος της re.Match):        Match objects.      (line   35)
* group() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket):   SSL sockets.        (line  255)
* groupby() (στη μονάδα itertools):      Itertool Functions. (line  306)
* groupdict() (μέθοδος της re.Match):    Match objects.      (line  134)
* groupindex (ιδιότητα της re.Pattern):  Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line  138)
* groups (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.AddressHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  187)
* groups (ιδιότητα της re.Pattern):      Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line  134)
* groups() (μέθοδος της re.Match):       Match objects.      (line  111)
* GS (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  111)
* Gt (κλάση σε ast):                     Expressions<2>.     (line  108)
* gt() (στη μονάδα operator):            operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* GtE (κλάση σε ast):                    Expressions<2>.     (line  108)
* guard:                                 Guards.             (line    6)
* guess_all_extensions() (μέθοδος της mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* guess_all_extensions() (στη μονάδα mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   65)
* guess_extension() (μέθοδος της mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* guess_extension() (στη μονάδα mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   77)
* guess_file_type() (μέθοδος της mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* guess_file_type() (στη μονάδα mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   56)
* guess_scheme() (στη μονάδα wsgiref.util): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   14)
* guess_type() (μέθοδος της mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* guess_type() (στη μονάδα mimetypes):   mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   23)
* GUI:                                   Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* gzip command line option; -best:       Επιλογές γραμμής εντολών.
                                                             (line   15)
* gzip command line option; -d:          Επιλογές γραμμής εντολών.
                                                             (line   19)
* gzip command line option; -decompress: Επιλογές γραμμής εντολών.
                                                             (line   19)
* gzip command line option; -fast:       Επιλογές γραμμής εντολών.
                                                             (line   11)
* gzip command line option; -h:          Επιλογές γραμμής εντολών.
                                                             (line   23)
* gzip command line option; -help:       Επιλογές γραμμής εντολών.
                                                             (line   23)
* gzip command line option; file:        Επιλογές γραμμής εντολών.
                                                             (line    6)
* GzipFile (κλάση σε gzip):              gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip.
                                                             (line   85)
* halfdelay() (στη μονάδα curses):       Functions<4>.       (line  226)
* Handle (κλάση σε asyncio):             Callback handles.   (line    6)
* handle_charref() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   91)
* handle_comment() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line  100)
* handle_data() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   79)
* handle_decl() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line  113)
* handle_defect() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  234)
* handle_endtag() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   64)
* handle_entityref() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   84)
* handle_error() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  140)
* handle_expect_100() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  250)
* handle_one_request() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  244)
* handle_pi() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line  121)
* handle_request() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* handle_request() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   50)
* handle_startendtag() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   71)
* handle_starttag() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   45)
* handle_timeout() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  150)
* handle() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  237)
* handle() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects.   (line   83)
* handle() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.QueueListener): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   72)
* handle() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.     (line  365)
* handle() (μέθοδος της logging.NullHandler): NullHandler.   (line   20)
* handle() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* handle() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line  105)
* handleError() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* handleError() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SocketHandler): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   33)
* Handler (κλάση σε logging):            Handler Objects.    (line   11)
* handlers (ιδιότητα της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.    (line   87)
* Handlers (κλάση σε signal):            Module contents<4>. (line   24)
* hardlink_to() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Creating files and directories.
                                                             (line   73)
* harmonic_mean() (στη μονάδα statistics): Function details. (line   97)
* HAS_ALPN (στη μονάδα ssl):             Constants<9>.       (line  381)
* has_children() (μέθοδος της symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   98)
* has_colors() (στη μονάδα curses):      Functions<4>.       (line  191)
* has_default() (μέθοδος της typing.ParamSpec): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  545)
* has_default() (μέθοδος της typing.TypeVar): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  238)
* has_default() (μέθοδος της typing.TypeVarTuple): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  405)
* has_dualstack_ipv6() (στη μονάδα socket): Creating sockets.
                                                             (line  153)
* HAS_ECDH (στη μονάδα ssl):             Constants<9>.       (line  397)
* has_extended_color_support() (στη μονάδα curses): Functions<4>.
                                                             (line  196)
* has_extn() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP): SMTP Objects.       (line   88)
* has_header() (μέθοδος της csv.Sniffer): Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  260)
* has_header() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   94)
* has_ic() (στη μονάδα curses):          Functions<4>.       (line  207)
* has_il() (στη μονάδα curses):          Functions<4>.       (line  214)
* has_ipv6 (στη μονάδα socket):          Constants<8>.       (line  302)
* has_key() (στη μονάδα curses):         Functions<4>.       (line  221)
* has_location (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  453)
* HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.
                                                             (line  389)
* has_nonstandard_attr() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   96)
* HAS_NPN (στη μονάδα ssl):              Constants<9>.       (line  412)
* has_option() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  141)
* has_option() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   42)
* HAS_PHA (στη μονάδα ssl):              Constants<9>.       (line  477)
* HAS_PSK (στη μονάδα ssl):              Constants<9>.       (line  464)
* HAS_PSK_TLS13 (στη μονάδα ssl):        Constants<9>.       (line  470)
* has_section() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  132)
* HAS_SNI (στη μονάδα ssl):              Constants<9>.       (line  405)
* HAS_SSLv2 (στη μονάδα ssl):            Constants<9>.       (line  422)
* HAS_SSLv3 (στη μονάδα ssl):            Constants<9>.       (line  429)
* has_ticket (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLSession): SSL session.     (line   20)
* HAS_TLSv1 (στη μονάδα ssl):            Constants<9>.       (line  436)
* HAS_TLSv1_1 (στη μονάδα ssl):          Constants<9>.       (line  443)
* HAS_TLSv1_2 (στη μονάδα ssl):          Constants<9>.       (line  450)
* HAS_TLSv1_3 (στη μονάδα ssl):          Constants<9>.       (line  457)
* hasarg (στη μονάδα dis):               Opcode collections. (line   25)
* hasAttribute() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* hasAttributeNS() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   26)
* hasAttributes() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.  (line   94)
* hasChildNodes() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.  (line   98)
* hascompare (στη μονάδα dis):           Opcode collections. (line   58)
* hasconst (στη μονάδα dis):             Opcode collections. (line   31)
* hasexc (στη μονάδα dis):               Opcode collections. (line   62)
* hasFeature() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.DOMImplementation): DOMImplementation Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* hasfree (στη μονάδα dis):              Opcode collections. (line   35)
* hash_bits (ιδιότητα της sys.hash_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1159)
* hash_info (στη μονάδα sys):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1128)
* hash_log (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line   63)
* hash_randomization (ιδιότητα της sys.flags): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  612)
* hash-based pyc:                        Γλωσσάρι.           (line  884)
* hash.block_size (στη μονάδα hashlib):  Hash Objects.       (line   13)
* hash.digest_size (στη μονάδα hashlib): Hash Objects.       (line    9)
* hashable:                              Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   48)
* hashable <1>:                          Γλωσσάρι.           (line  891)
* Hashable (κλάση σε collections.abc):   Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line   10)
* Hashable (κλάση σε typing):            Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   53)
* hasHandlers() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.
                                                             (line  380)
* hashfunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   78)
* hasjabs (στη μονάδα dis):              Opcode collections. (line   75)
* hasjrel (στη μονάδα dis):              Opcode collections. (line   68)
* hasjump (στη μονάδα dis):              Opcode collections. (line   47)
* haslocal (στη μονάδα dis):             Opcode collections. (line   54)
* hasname (στη μονάδα dis):              Opcode collections. (line   43)
* HAVE_ARGUMENT (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1314)
* HAVE_CONTEXTVAR (στη μονάδα decimal):  Constants<4>.       (line   44)
* HAVE_DOCSTRINGS (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  179)
* HAVE_THREADS (στη μονάδα decimal):     Constants<4>.       (line   37)
* HCI_CHANNEL_CONTROL (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.     (line  393)
* HCI_CHANNEL_LOGGING (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.     (line  393)
* HCI_CHANNEL_MONITOR (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.     (line  393)
* HCI_CHANNEL_RAW (στη μονάδα socket):   Constants<8>.       (line  393)
* HCI_CHANNEL_USER (στη μονάδα socket):  Constants<8>.       (line  393)
* HCI_DATA_DIR (στη μονάδα socket):      Constants<8>.       (line  371)
* HCI_DEV_NONE (στη μονάδα socket):      Constants<8>.       (line  384)
* HCI_FILTER (στη μονάδα socket):        Constants<8>.       (line  371)
* HCI_TIME_STAMP (στη μονάδα socket):    Constants<8>.       (line  371)
* Header (κλάση σε email.header):        email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   59)
* header_encode_lines() (μέθοδος της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line  136)
* header_encode() (μέθοδος της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line  129)
* header_encoding (ιδιότητα της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line   65)
* header_factory (ιδιότητα της email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  424)
* header_fetch_parse() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Compat32): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  610)
* header_fetch_parse() (μέθοδος της email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  474)
* header_fetch_parse() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  318)
* header_items() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  125)
* header_max_count() (μέθοδος της email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  451)
* header_max_count() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  259)
* header_offset (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.
                                                             (line  146)
* header_source_parse() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Compat32): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  598)
* header_source_parse() (μέθοδος της email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  457)
* header_source_parse() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  281)
* header_store_parse() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Compat32): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  606)
* header_store_parse() (μέθοδος της email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  465)
* header_store_parse() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  302)
* HeaderDefect:                          email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line   63)
* HeaderError:                           tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  278)
* HeaderParseError:                      email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line   27)
* HeaderParser (κλάση σε email.parser):  Parser API.         (line  106)
* HeaderRegistry (κλάση σε email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  301)
* headers (ιδιότητα της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* headers (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  155)
* headers (ιδιότητα της urllib.error.HTTPError): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   53)
* headers (ιδιότητα της urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   19)
* headers (ιδιότητα της xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* Headers (κλάση σε wsgiref.headers):    wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line    9)
* HeaderWriteError:                      email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line   52)
* heading() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line   99)
* heading() (στη μονάδα turtle):         Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line   58)
* heapify_max() (στη μονάδα heapq):      heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   97)
* heapify() (στη μονάδα heapq):          heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   55)
* heapmin() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):         Other Functions.    (line    6)
* heappop_max() (στη μονάδα heapq):      heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line  110)
* heappop() (στη μονάδα heapq):          heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   64)
* heappush_max() (στη μονάδα heapq):     heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line  103)
* heappush() (στη μονάδα heapq):         heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   59)
* heappushpop_max() (στη μονάδα heapq):  heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line  119)
* heappushpop() (στη μονάδα heapq):      heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   71)
* heapreplace_max() (στη μονάδα heapq):  heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line  128)
* heapreplace() (στη μονάδα heapq):      heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line   78)
* helo_resp (ιδιότητα της smtplib.SMTP): SMTP Objects.       (line  356)
* helo() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP):     SMTP Objects.       (line   50)
* help (pdb command):                    Debugger commands.  (line   77)
* help (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option):   Option attributes.  (line   80)
* help;online:                           pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line    8)
* herror:                                Exceptions<16>.     (line   13)
* hex (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):          uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  141)
* hex() (μέθοδος της bytearray):         Αντικείμενα Bytearray.
                                                             (line   61)
* hex() (μέθοδος της bytes):             Αντικείμενα Bytes.  (line   96)
* hex() (μέθοδος της float):             Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Float.
                                                             (line   53)
* hex() (μέθοδος της memoryview):        Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  200)
* hexdigest() (μέθοδος της hashlib.hash): Hash Objects.      (line   44)
* hexdigest() (μέθοδος της hashlib.shake): SHAKE variable length digests.
                                                             (line   21)
* hexdigest() (μέθοδος της hmac.HMAC):   hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   73)
* hexdigits (στη μονάδα string):         String constants.   (line   28)
* hexlify() (στη μονάδα binascii):       binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  320)
* hexversion (στη μονάδα sys):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1177)
* hidden() (μέθοδος της curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.  (line   25)
* hide_cookie2 (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* hide() (μέθοδος της curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.    (line   30)
* hide() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.   (line   23)
* hideturtle() (στη μονάδα turtle):      Visibility.         (line    6)
* HierarchyRequestErr:                   Exceptions<21>.     (line   29)
* HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   82)
* HIGHEST_PROTOCOL (στη μονάδα pickle):  Module Interface.   (line   14)
* hits (ιδιότητα της bdb.Breakpoint):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  120)
* HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT (στη μονάδα winreg): HKEY_* Constants.   (line    6)
* HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG (στη μονάδα winreg): HKEY_* Constants. (line   38)
* HKEY_CURRENT_USER (στη μονάδα winreg): HKEY_* Constants.   (line   12)
* HKEY_DYN_DATA (στη μονάδα winreg):     HKEY_* Constants.   (line   43)
* HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (στη μονάδα winreg): HKEY_* Constants.  (line   19)
* HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA (στη μονάδα winreg): HKEY_* Constants.
                                                             (line   31)
* HKEY_USERS (στη μονάδα winreg):        HKEY_* Constants.   (line   25)
* hline() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  286)
* hls_to_rgb() (στη μονάδα colorsys):    colorsys — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων.
                                                             (line   40)
* HMAC (κλάση σε hmac):                  hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   47)
* HOME:                                  os path<6>.         (line   15)
* HOME <1>:                              Changes in the Python API<6>.
                                                             (line  118)
* HOME <2>:                              Windows<47>.        (line   15)
* HOME <3>:                              Windows<47>.        (line   18)
* HOME <4>:                              os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  152)
* HOME <5>:                              os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  169)
* HOME <6>:                              Tkinter Modules.    (line   64)
* home() (μέθοδος κλάσης της pathlib.Path): Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line    6)
* home() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Turtle motion.      (line  195)
* HOMEDRIVE:                             os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  159)
* HOMEPATH:                              os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  159)
* hook_compressed() (στη μονάδα fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  195)
* hook_encoded() (στη μονάδα fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  215)
* hooks διαδρομής:                       Εισαγωγή hooks.     (line    6)
* hooks εισαγωγής:                       Εισαγωγή hooks.     (line    6)
* hooks;meta:                            Εισαγωγή hooks.     (line    6)
* hooks;διαδρομή:                        Εισαγωγή hooks.     (line    6)
* hooks;εισαγωγή:                        Εισαγωγή hooks.     (line    6)
* host (ιδιότητα της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* hostmask (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* hostmask (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  314)
* hostname_checks_common_name (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  688)
* hosts (ιδιότητα της netrc.netrc):      netrc Objects.      (line   23)
* hosts() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  136)
* hosts() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  332)
* hour (ιδιότητα της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.   (line  324)
* hour (ιδιότητα της datetime.time):     time objects.       (line   50)
* hresult (ιδιότητα της ctypes.COMError): Exceptions<9>.     (line   15)
* HRESULT (κλάση σε ctypes):             Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  264)
* hStdError (ιδιότητα της subprocess.STARTUPINFO): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   41)
* hStdInput (ιδιότητα της subprocess.STARTUPINFO): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   27)
* hStdOutput (ιδιότητα της subprocess.STARTUPINFO): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   34)
* hsv_to_rgb() (στη μονάδα colorsys):    colorsys — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων.
                                                             (line   48)
* HT (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   48)
* ht() (στη μονάδα turtle):              Visibility.         (line    6)
* HTML:                                  html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTML <1>:                              urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line   29)
* html5 (στη μονάδα html.entities):      html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line   14)
* HTMLCalendar (κλάση σε calendar):      calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  227)
* HtmlDiff (κλάση σε difflib):           difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line   81)
* HTMLParser (κλάση σε html.parser):     html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
                                                             (line   14)
* htonl() (στη μονάδα socket):           Other functions<2>. (line  251)
* htons() (στη μονάδα socket):           Other functions<2>. (line  258)
* HTTP (στη μονάδα email.policy):        email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  541)
* http_error_301() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* http_error_302() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* http_error_303() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* http_error_307() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* http_error_308() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* http_error_401() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler): HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_401() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler): HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_407() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler): ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_407() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler): ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_auth_reqed() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler): AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_auth_reqed() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler): AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_error_default() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.BaseHandler): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* http_open() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPHandler): HTTPHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTP_PORT (στη μονάδα http.client):    http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  211)
* http_response() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor): HTTPErrorProcessor Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* http_version (ιδιότητα της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  304)
* HTTP;http (standard module):           http — HTTP modules.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;http.client (standard module):    http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol:                         urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTP;protocol <1>:                     urllib request Restrictions.
                                                             (line   29)
* HTTP;protocol <2>:                     http — HTTP modules.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol <3>:                     http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTP;protocol <4>:                     http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    8)
* http.server command line option; -b:   Command-line interface<6>.
                                                             (line   21)
* http.server command line option; -bind: Command-line interface<6>.
                                                             (line   21)
* http.server command line option; -content-type: Command-line interface<6>.
                                                             (line   54)
* http.server command line option; -d:   Command-line interface<6>.
                                                             (line   34)
* http.server command line option; -directory: Command-line interface<6>.
                                                             (line   34)
* http.server command line option; -H:   Command-line interface<6>.
                                                             (line   93)
* http.server command line option; -header: Command-line interface<6>.
                                                             (line   93)
* http.server command line option; -p:   Command-line interface<6>.
                                                             (line   44)
* http.server command line option; -protocol: Command-line interface<6>.
                                                             (line   44)
* http.server command line option; -tls-cert: Command-line interface<6>.
                                                             (line   64)
* http.server command line option; -tls-key: Command-line interface<6>.
                                                             (line   72)
* http.server command line option; -tls-password-file: Command-line interface<6>.
                                                             (line   80)
* http.server command line option; port: Command-line interface<6>.
                                                             (line   14)
* http.server;security:                  Security considerations<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTPBasicAuthHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  404)
* HTTPConnection (κλάση σε http.client): http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   31)
* HTTPCookieProcessor (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  335)
* httpd:                                 http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    8)
* HTTPDefaultErrorHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  326)
* HTTPDigestAuthHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  431)
* HTTPError:                             urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   29)
* HTTPErrorProcessor (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  491)
* HTTPException:                         http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  142)
* HTTPHandler (κλάση σε logging.handlers): HTTPHandler.      (line   10)
* HTTPHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  455)
* HTTPMessage (κλάση σε http.client):    HTTPMessage Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTPMethod (κλάση σε http):            HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   38)
* httponly (ιδιότητα της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* HTTPPasswordMgr (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  361)
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  365)
* HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  371)
* HTTPRedirectHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  331)
* HTTPResponse (κλάση σε http.client):   http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  110)
* https_open() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPSHandler): HTTPSHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* HTTPS_PORT (στη μονάδα http.client):   http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  215)
* https_response() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor): HTTPErrorProcessor Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* HTTPSConnection (κλάση σε http.client): http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   69)
* HTTPServer (κλάση σε http.server):     http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   30)
* HTTPSHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  459)
* HTTPSServer (κλάση σε http.server):    http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   47)
* HTTPStatus (κλάση σε http):            http — HTTP modules.
                                                             (line   27)
* HV_GUID_BROADCAST (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.       (line  445)
* HV_GUID_CHILDREN (στη μονάδα socket):  Constants<8>.       (line  445)
* HV_GUID_LOOPBACK (στη μονάδα socket):  Constants<8>.       (line  445)
* HV_GUID_PARENT (στη μονάδα socket):    Constants<8>.       (line  445)
* HV_GUID_WILDCARD (στη μονάδα socket):  Constants<8>.       (line  445)
* HV_GUID_ZERO (στη μονάδα socket):      Constants<8>.       (line  445)
* HV_PROTOCOL_RAW (στη μονάδα socket):   Constants<8>.       (line  445)
* HVSOCKET_ADDRESS_FLAG_PASSTHRU (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.
                                                             (line  445)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.
                                                             (line  445)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT_MAX (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.
                                                             (line  445)
* HVSOCKET_CONNECTED_SUSPEND (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.
                                                             (line  445)
* hypot() (στη μονάδα math):             Summation and product functions.
                                                             (line   33)
* I (στη μονάδα re):                     Flags.              (line   38)
* I/O control;buffering:                 Socket Objects.     (line  211)
* iadd() (στη μονάδα operator):          In-place Operators. (line   36)
* iand() (στη μονάδα operator):          In-place Operators. (line   41)
* iconcat() (στη μονάδα operator):       In-place Operators. (line   46)
* id (ιδιότητα της concurrent.interpreters.Interpreter): Interpreter objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* id (ιδιότητα της concurrent.interpreters.Queue): Communicating Between Interpreters.
                                                             (line   16)
* id (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLSession):      SSL session.        (line   12)
* id() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase):  Test cases.         (line  838)
* idcok() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  293)
* ident (ιδιότητα της select.kevent):    Kevent Objects.     (line    8)
* ident (ιδιότητα της threading.Thread): Thread objects.     (line  205)
* identchars (ιδιότητα της cmd.Cmd):     Cmd Objects.        (line  134)
* identifier:                            Identifiers Names.  (line    6)
* identify_column() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  143)
* identify_element() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  172)
* identify_region() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  150)
* identify_row() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  139)
* identify() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.
                                                             (line   32)
* identify() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  133)
* identify() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Widget): ttk Widget.   (line   11)
* identity;test:                         Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   39)
* IDLE:                                  IDLE — Python editor and shell.
                                                             (line    8)
* IDLE <1>:                              Γλωσσάρι.           (line  914)
* idle command line option; -:           Command-line usage<3>.
                                                             (line   49)
* idle command line option; -c:          Command-line usage<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* idle command line option; -d:          Command-line usage<3>.
                                                             (line   19)
* idle command line option; -e:          Command-line usage<3>.
                                                             (line   23)
* idle command line option; -h:          Command-line usage<3>.
                                                             (line   27)
* idle command line option; -i:          Command-line usage<3>.
                                                             (line   31)
* idle command line option; -r:          Command-line usage<3>.
                                                             (line   35)
* idle command line option; -s:          Command-line usage<3>.
                                                             (line   39)
* idle command line option; -t:          Command-line usage<3>.
                                                             (line   45)
* IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   89)
* idle() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  126)
* IDLESTARTUP:                           IDLE<38>.           (line  176)
* IDLESTARTUP <1>:                       IDLE<42>.           (line    9)
* IDLESTARTUP <2>:                       IDLE<48>.           (line    9)
* IDLESTARTUP <3>:                       Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* IDLESTARTUP <4>:                       Command-line usage<3>.
                                                             (line   41)
* idlok() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  301)
* IEEE_CONTEXT_MAX_BITS (στη μονάδα decimal): Constants<4>.  (line   34)
* IEEEContext() (στη μονάδα decimal):    Context objects.    (line   61)
* If (κλάση σε ast):                     Control flow.       (line    9)
* if_indextoname() (στη μονάδα socket):  Other functions<2>. (line  454)
* if_nameindex() (στη μονάδα socket):    Other functions<2>. (line  411)
* if_nametoindex() (στη μονάδα socket):  Other functions<2>. (line  436)
* if;conditional expression:             Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* if;in comprehensions:                  Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   14)
* IfExp (κλάση σε ast):                  Expressions<2>.     (line  156)
* ifloordiv() (στη μονάδα operator):     In-place Operators. (line   52)
* iglob() (στη μονάδα glob):             glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line   84)
* ignorableWhitespace() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): ContentHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line  165)
* ignore (pdb command):                  Debugger commands.  (line  153)
* ignore (ιδιότητα της bdb.Breakpoint):  bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  116)
* IGNORE (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  151)
* ignore_environment (ιδιότητα της sys.flags): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  600)
* ignore_errors() (στη μονάδα codecs):   Error Handlers.     (line  147)
* IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL (στη μονάδα doctest): Option Flags.
                                                             (line   56)
* ignore_patterns() (στη μονάδα shutil): Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  199)
* ignore_warnings() (στη μονάδα test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* ignore;error handler's name:           Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* IGNORECASE (στη μονάδα re):            Flags.              (line   38)
* IISCGIHandler (κλάση σε wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   24)
* IllegalMonthError:                     calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  551)
* IllegalWeekdayError:                   calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  565)
* ilshift() (στη μονάδα operator):       In-place Operators. (line   57)
* imag (ιδιότητα της numbers.Complex):   The numeric tower.  (line   19)
* imag (ιδιότητα της sys.hash_info):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1150)
* imap_unordered() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  147)
* imap() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  132)
* IMAP4 (κλάση σε imaplib):              imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   25)
* IMAP4_SSL (κλάση σε imaplib):          imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   74)
* IMAP4_SSL;protocol:                    imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4_stream (κλάση σε imaplib):       imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  104)
* IMAP4_stream;protocol:                 imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4;protocol:                        imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* IMAP4.abort:                           imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   58)
* IMAP4.error:                           imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   53)
* IMAP4.readonly:                        imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   65)
* imatmul() (στη μονάδα operator):       In-place Operators. (line   72)
* immedok() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line  307)
* immutable:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line  935)
* immutable;data;type:                   Literals.           (line   31)
* immutable;object:                      Literals.           (line   31)
* immutable;object <1>:                  Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   48)
* imod() (στη μονάδα operator):          In-place Operators. (line   62)
* impl_detail() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  554)
* implementation (στη μονάδα sys):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1200)
* Import (κλάση σε ast):                 Imports.            (line    6)
* import_curses (C macro):               Curses C API.       (line   15)
* import_fresh_module() (στη μονάδα test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   16)
* IMPORT_FROM (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  849)
* import_module() (στη μονάδα importlib): Functions<11>.     (line   14)
* import_module() (στη μονάδα test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   52)
* IMPORT_NAME (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  840)
* ImportCycleError:                      Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   80)
* ImportError:                           Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   52)
* ImportFrom (κλάση σε ast):             Imports.            (line   21)
* ImportWarning:                         Warnings.           (line   61)
* ImproperConnectionState:               http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  172)
* imul() (στη μονάδα operator):          In-place Operators. (line   67)
* In (κλάση σε ast):                     Expressions<2>.     (line  108)
* in_dll() (μέθοδος της ctypes._CData):  Data types<2>.      (line   63)
* in_table_a1() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   39)
* in_table_b1() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   44)
* in_table_c11_c12() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   68)
* in_table_c11() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   59)
* in_table_c12() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   63)
* in_table_c21_c22() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   83)
* in_table_c21() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   73)
* in_table_c22() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   78)
* in_table_c3() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   88)
* in_table_c4() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   92)
* in_table_c5() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   97)
* in_table_c6() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  101)
* in_table_c7() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  106)
* in_table_c8() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  111)
* in_table_c9() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  116)
* in_table_d1() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  120)
* in_table_d2() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line  125)
* in_transaction (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  760)
* inch() (μέθοδος της curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  315)
* include() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementInclude): Functions<8>.
                                                             (line   17)
* inclusive (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.DomainFilter): DomainFilter.
                                                             (line   12)
* inclusive (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Filter): Filter.       (line   39)
* inclusive;or:                          Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   20)
* Incomplete:                            binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  372)
* IncompleteRead:                        http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  168)
* IncompleteReadError:                   Exceptions<14>.     (line   43)
* incr_item():                           Exceptions<22>.     (line   78)
* incr_item() <1>:                       Exceptions<22>.     (line  123)
* increment_lineno() (στη μονάδα ast):   ast helpers.        (line  158)
* incrementaldecoder (ιδιότητα της codecs.CodecInfo): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   95)
* IncrementalDecoder (κλάση σε codecs):  IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* incrementalencoder (ιδιότητα της codecs.CodecInfo): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   95)
* IncrementalEncoder (κλάση σε codecs):  IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* IncrementalNewlineDecoder (κλάση σε io): Text I/O<2>.      (line  290)
* IncrementalParser (κλάση σε xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   20)
* indent (ιδιότητα της doctest.Example): Example Objects.    (line   46)
* indent (ιδιότητα της reprlib.Repr):    Repr Objects.       (line   54)
* INDENT (στη μονάδα token):             token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   85)
* indent() (στη μονάδα textwrap):        textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  112)
* indent() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>. (line  118)
* IndentationError:                      Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  376)
* index:                                 Γλωσσάρι.           (line  965)
* index (ιδιότητα της inspect.FrameInfo): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   37)
* index (ιδιότητα της inspect.Traceback): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   77)
* index() (μέθοδος της array.array):     array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  236)
* index() (μέθοδος της bytearray):       Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  170)
* index() (μέθοδος της bytes):           Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  170)
* index() (μέθοδος της collections.abc.ByteString): Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line   86)
* index() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.    (line   70)
* index() (μέθοδος της memoryview):      Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  397)
* index() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  336)
* index() (μέθοδος της sequence):        Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line  190)
* index() (μέθοδος της str):             Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  250)
* index() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.  (line   37)
* index() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.  (line  178)
* index() (στη μονάδα operator):         operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  105)
* IndexError:                            Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   88)
* indexOf() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  213)
* IndexSizeErr:                          Exceptions<21>.     (line   34)
* indic_conjunct_break() (στη μονάδα unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  175)
* indices() (μέθοδος της slice):         Αντικείμενα τμηματοποίησης.
                                                             (line   21)
* INDIRECT (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags. (line   31)
* inet_aton() (στη μονάδα socket):       Other functions<2>. (line  268)
* inet_ntoa() (στη μονάδα socket):       Other functions<2>. (line  287)
* inet_ntop() (στη μονάδα socket):       Other functions<2>. (line  322)
* inet_pton() (στη μονάδα socket):       Other functions<2>. (line  304)
* Inexact (κλάση σε decimal):            Signals.            (line   43)
* inf (ιδιότητα της sys.hash_info):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1142)
* inf (στη μονάδα cmath):                Constants<3>.       (line   20)
* inf (στη μονάδα math):                 Constants<2>.       (line   24)
* infile (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex):     shlex Objects.      (line  140)
* infj (στη μονάδα cmath):               Constants<3>.       (line   26)
* info (ιδιότητα της pathlib.Path):      Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  165)
* INFO (στη μονάδα logging):             Logging Levels.     (line   29)
* INFO (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox):  tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  194)
* info() (μέθοδος της dis.Bytecode):     Bytecode analysis.  (line   68)
* info() (μέθοδος της gettext.NullTranslations): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   63)
* info() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* info() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger):   Logger Objects.     (line  288)
* info() (μέθοδος της urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   35)
* info() (στη μονάδα logging):           Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   64)
* infolist() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects. (line  122)
* inheritance:                           Class definitions.  (line    6)
* ini file:                              configparser — Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* init_color() (στη μονάδα curses):      Functions<4>.       (line  235)
* init_pair() (στη μονάδα curses):       Functions<4>.       (line  246)
* init() (στη μονάδα mimetypes):         mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   93)
* inited (στη μονάδα mimetypes):         mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  132)
* initgroups() (στη μονάδα os):          Process Parameters. (line  360)
* initial_indent (ιδιότητα της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  228)
* initproc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   36)
* initscr() (στη μονάδα curses):         Functions<4>.       (line  260)
* InitVar (κλάση σε dataclasses):        Module contents<6>. (line  329)
* inode() (μέθοδος της os.DirEntry):     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  976)
* input_charset (ιδιότητα της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line   58)
* input_codec (ιδιότητα της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line   89)
* input() (στη μονάδα fileinput):        fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line   56)
* InputSource (κλάση σε xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   51)
* InputStream (κλάση σε wsgiref.types):  wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   24)
* inquiry (C type):                      Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  235)
* insch() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  321)
* insdelln() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  328)
* insert_text() (στη μονάδα readline):   Line buffer.        (line   13)
* insert() (μέθοδος της array.array):    array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  247)
* insert() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.   (line   78)
* insert() (μέθοδος της sequence):       Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line  104)
* insert() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook. (line   42)
* insert() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview. (line  183)
* insert() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  134)
* insertBefore() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.   (line  121)
* insertln() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  336)
* insnstr() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line  341)
* insort_left() (στη μονάδα bisect):     bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   71)
* insort_right() (στη μονάδα bisect):    bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   89)
* insort() (στη μονάδα bisect):          bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line   89)
* inspect (ιδιότητα της sys.flags):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  579)
* inspect command line option; -details: Command-line interface<13>.
                                                             (line   13)
* InspectLoader (κλάση σε importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  204)
* insstr() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line  352)
* install_opener() (στη μονάδα urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  110)
* install_scripts() (μέθοδος της venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.   (line  189)
* install() (μέθοδος της gettext.NullTranslations): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   72)
* install() (στη μονάδα gettext):        Class-based API.    (line   68)
* installHandler() (στη μονάδα unittest): Signal Handling.   (line   29)
* instance;call:                         Calls.              (line  158)
* instate() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Widget): ttk Widget.    (line   18)
* instr() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  362)
* instream (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex):   shlex Objects.      (line  146)
* INSTRUCTION (monitoring event):        Events.             (line   39)
* Instruction (κλάση σε dis):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   10)
* Instruction.arg (στη μονάδα dis):      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   34)
* Instruction.argrepr (στη μονάδα dis):  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   46)
* Instruction.argval (στη μονάδα dis):   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   42)
* Instruction.baseopcode (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   24)
* Instruction.baseopname (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   29)
* Instruction.cache_info (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   92)
* Instruction.cache_offset (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   61)
* Instruction.end_offset (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   65)
* Instruction.is_jump_target (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   78)
* Instruction.jump_target (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   82)
* Instruction.line_number (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   73)
* Instruction.offset (στη μονάδα dis):   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   51)
* Instruction.oparg (στη μονάδα dis):    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   38)
* Instruction.opcode (στη μονάδα dis):   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   14)
* Instruction.opname (στη μονάδα dis):   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   20)
* Instruction.positions (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   87)
* Instruction.start_offset (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   55)
* Instruction.starts_line (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line   69)
* int (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):              Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1045)
* int (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):          uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  145)
* int_info (στη μονάδα sys):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1257)
* int_max_str_digits (ιδιότητα της sys.flags): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  625)
* Int2AP() (στη μονάδα imaplib):         imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  118)
* Integral (κλάση σε numbers):           The numeric tower.  (line   59)
* Integrated Development Environment:    IDLE — Python editor and shell.
                                                             (line    8)
* IntegrityError:                        Exceptions<6>.      (line   65)
* IntEnum (κλάση σε enum):               Data types.         (line  408)
* interact (pdb command):                Debugger commands.  (line  361)
* interact() (μέθοδος της code.InteractiveConsole): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* interact() (στη μονάδα code):          code — Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line   42)
* interactive (ιδιότητα της sys.flags):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  582)
* Interactive (κλάση σε ast):            Root nodes.         (line   37)
* InteractiveConsole (κλάση σε code):    code — Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line   30)
* InteractiveInterpreter (κλάση σε code): code — Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line   15)
* InterfaceError:                        Exceptions<6>.      (line   37)
* intern() (στη μονάδα sys):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1302)
* internal_attr (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.
                                                             (line  138)
* Internaldate2tuple() (στη μονάδα imaplib): imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  112)
* InternalError:                         Exceptions<6>.      (line   71)
* internalSubset (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.DocumentType): DocumentType Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* Internet:                              Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη.
                                                             (line    6)
* INTERNET_TIMEOUT (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   82)
* Interpolation (κλάση σε ast):          Literals<2>.        (line   99)
* Interpolation (κλάση σε string.templatelib): Types.        (line  193)
* InterpolationDepthError:               Exceptions<8>.      (line   42)
* InterpolationError:                    Exceptions<8>.      (line   37)
* InterpolationMissingOptionError:       Exceptions<8>.      (line   49)
* interpolations (ιδιότητα της string.templatelib.Template): Types.
                                                             (line   74)
* InterpolationSyntaxError:              Exceptions<8>.      (line   54)
* interpreted:                           Γλωσσάρι.           (line  989)
* Interpreter (κλάση σε concurrent.interpreters): Interpreter objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpreter lock:                      Thread states and the global interpreter lock.
                                                             (line    6)
* interpreter prompts:                   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1687)
* interpreter_requires_environment() (στη μονάδα test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line    9)
* InterpreterError:                      Exceptions<12>.     (line    6)
* InterpreterNotFoundError:              Exceptions<12>.     (line   11)
* InterpreterPoolExecutor (κλάση σε concurrent.futures): InterpreterPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line   54)
* interrupt_main() (στη μονάδα _thread): _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   56)
* interrupt() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  204)
* interrupt() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  337)
* InterruptedError:                      OS exceptions.      (line   73)
* intersection_update() (μέθοδος της set): Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  190)
* intersection() (μέθοδος της frozenset): Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  112)
* intersection() (μέθοδος της set):      Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  112)
* IntFlag (κλάση σε enum):               Data types.         (line  588)
* intro (ιδιότητα της cmd.Cmd):          Cmd Objects.        (line  149)
* InuseAttributeErr:                     Exceptions<21>.     (line   39)
* inv_cdf() (μέθοδος της statistics.NormalDist): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* inv() (στη μονάδα operator):           operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  114)
* InvalidAccessErr:                      Exceptions<21>.     (line   44)
* invalidate_caches() (μέθοδος κλάσης της importlib.machinery.PathFinder): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  139)
* invalidate_caches() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   48)
* invalidate_caches() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  106)
* invalidate_caches() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.FileFinder): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  190)
* invalidate_caches() (μέθοδος της zipimport.zipimporter): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* invalidate_caches() (στη μονάδα importlib): Functions<11>. (line   42)
* invalidate_caches() (στη μονάδα platform): Cross Platform. (line  187)
* InvalidBase64CharactersDefect:         email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line  135)
* InvalidBase64LengthDefect:             email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line  142)
* InvalidBase64PaddingDefect:            email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line  128)
* InvalidCharacterErr:                   Exceptions<21>.     (line   49)
* InvalidDateDefect:                     email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line  149)
* InvalidFileException:                  plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  171)
* InvalidModificationErr:                Exceptions<21>.     (line   57)
* InvalidOperation (κλάση σε decimal):   Signals.            (line   51)
* InvalidStateErr:                       Exceptions<21>.     (line   61)
* InvalidStateError:                     Exception classes.  (line   26)
* InvalidStateError <1>:                 Exceptions<14>.     (line   29)
* InvalidTZPathWarning:                  Exceptions and warnings.
                                                             (line   12)
* InvalidURL:                            http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  151)
* InvalidWriteError:                     Exceptions<8>.      (line   87)
* inversion:                             Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   18)
* Invert (κλάση σε ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line   27)
* invert() (στη μονάδα operator):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  114)
* IO (κλάση σε typing):                  ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O.
                                                             (line    6)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  476)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  476)
* IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  476)
* IOBase (κλάση σε io):                  I/O Base Classes.   (line    6)
* IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.
                                                             (line  283)
* ioctl() (μέθοδος της socket.socket):   Socket Objects.     (line  179)
* ioctl() (στη μονάδα fcntl):            fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  112)
* IOError:                               Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  525)
* ior() (στη μονάδα operator):           In-place Operators. (line   79)
* ios_ver() (στη μονάδα platform):       Πλατφόρμα iOS.      (line    6)
* ip (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Interface): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* ip (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Interface): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* ip_address() (στη μονάδα ipaddress):   Convenience factory functions.
                                                             (line    9)
* ip_interface() (στη μονάδα ipaddress): Convenience factory functions.
                                                             (line   37)
* ip_network() (στη μονάδα ipaddress):   Convenience factory functions.
                                                             (line   23)
* ipow() (στη μονάδα operator):          In-place Operators. (line   84)
* ipv4_mapped (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  303)
* IPv4Address (κλάση σε ipaddress):      Address objects.    (line   13)
* IPv4Interface (κλάση σε ipaddress):    Interface objects.  (line    9)
* IPv4Network (κλάση σε ipaddress):      Network objects.    (line   13)
* IPV6_ENABLED (στη μονάδα test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* ipv6_mapped (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  192)
* IPv6Address (κλάση σε ipaddress):      Address objects.    (line  224)
* IPv6Interface (κλάση σε ipaddress):    Interface objects.  (line   64)
* IPv6Network (κλάση σε ipaddress):      Network objects.    (line  253)
* irrefutable case block:                Irrefutable Case Blocks.
                                                             (line    6)
* irshift() (στη μονάδα operator):       In-place Operators. (line   89)
* Is (κλάση σε ast):                     Expressions<2>.     (line  108)
* is_() (στη μονάδα operator):           operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   63)
* is_absolute() (μέθοδος της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  192)
* is_active() (μέθοδος της graphlib.TopologicalSorter): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  118)
* is_alive() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  126)
* is_alive() (μέθοδος της threading.Thread): Thread objects. (line  231)
* is_android (στη μονάδα test.support):  test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   40)
* is_annotated() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  207)
* is_anonymous (ιδιότητα της ctypes.CField): Structured data types.
                                                             (line  298)
* is_apple (στη μονάδα test.support):    test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   56)
* is_apple_mobile (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   52)
* is_assigned() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  245)
* is_async (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Function): Function Objects. (line   41)
* is_attachment() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  445)
* is_authenticated() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* is_bitfield (ιδιότητα της ctypes.CField): Structured data types.
                                                             (line  280)
* is_block_device() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  132)
* is_blocked() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* is_canonical() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  331)
* is_canonical() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  291)
* is_cell() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  218)
* is_char_device() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  139)
* IS_CHARACTER_JUNK() (στη μονάδα difflib): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  368)
* is_check_supported() (στη μονάδα lzma): Miscellaneous<2>.  (line    6)
* is_closed() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   39)
* is_closing() (μέθοδος της asyncio.BaseTransport): Base Transport.
                                                             (line   17)
* is_closing() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamWriter): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line  110)
* is_comp_cell() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  256)
* is_comp_iter() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  249)
* is_dataclass() (στη μονάδα dataclasses): Module contents<6>.
                                                             (line  479)
* is_declared_global() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  198)
* is_dir() (μέθοδος της importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  106)
* is_dir() (μέθοδος της os.DirEntry):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  987)
* is_dir() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):   Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   76)
* is_dir() (μέθοδος της pathlib.types.PathInfo): Protocols.  (line   25)
* is_dir() (μέθοδος της zipfile.Path):   Path objects.       (line   57)
* is_dir() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.   (line   43)
* is_emscripten (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   44)
* is_enabled() (στη μονάδα faulthandler): Fault handler state.
                                                             (line   47)
* is_expired() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  111)
* is_fifo() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):  Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  125)
* is_file() (μέθοδος της importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  110)
* is_file() (μέθοδος της os.DirEntry):   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1016)
* is_file() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):  Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   64)
* is_file() (μέθοδος της pathlib.types.PathInfo): Protocols. (line   36)
* is_file() (μέθοδος της zipfile.Path):  Path objects.       (line   61)
* is_finalized() (στη μονάδα gc):        gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  208)
* is_finalizing() (στη μονάδα sys):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1328)
* is_finite() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  335)
* is_finite() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  297)
* is_free_class() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  225)
* is_free() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  213)
* is_global (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  139)
* is_global (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  283)
* is_global() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  190)
* is_hop_by_hop() (στη μονάδα wsgiref.util): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line  112)
* is_imported() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  175)
* is_infinite() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  339)
* is_infinite() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  302)
* is_integer() (μέθοδος της float):      Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι για Float.
                                                             (line   34)
* is_integer() (μέθοδος της fractions.Fraction): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  130)
* is_integer() (μέθοδος της int):        Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι των Ακέραιων Τύπων.
                                                             (line  179)
* is_junction() (μέθοδος της os.DirEntry): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1051)
* is_junction() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   96)
* is_jython (στη μονάδα test.support):   test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   36)
* IS_LINE_JUNK() (στη μονάδα difflib):   difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  361)
* is_linetouched() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.
                                                             (line  375)
* is_link_local (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  187)
* is_link_local (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* is_link_local (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  293)
* is_link_local (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  308)
* is_local() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  203)
* is_loopback (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  182)
* is_loopback (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* is_loopback (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  291)
* is_loopback (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  306)
* is_mount() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  103)
* is_multicast (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* is_multicast (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line   70)
* is_multicast (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  279)
* is_multicast (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  298)
* is_multipart() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  134)
* is_multipart() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  146)
* is_namespace() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  263)
* is_nan() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.   (line  343)
* is_nan() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.   (line  307)
* is_nested() (μέθοδος της symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   94)
* is_none() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   71)
* is_nonlocal() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  194)
* is_normal() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  348)
* is_normal() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  312)
* is_normalized() (στη μονάδα unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  225)
* is_not_allowed() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* is_not_none() (στη μονάδα operator):   operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   77)
* is_not() (στη μονάδα operator):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   67)
* IS_OP (opcode):                        Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  828)
* is_optimized() (μέθοδος της symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   90)
* is_package() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.InspectLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  236)
* is_package() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  417)
* is_package() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  346)
* is_package() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  254)
* is_package() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  291)
* is_package() (μέθοδος της zipimport.zipimporter): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* is_parameter() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  180)
* is_private (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  101)
* is_private (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* is_private (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  281)
* is_private (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  300)
* is_protocol() (στη μονάδα typing):     Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line  130)
* is_python_build() (στη μονάδα sysconfig): Other functions<3>.
                                                             (line   52)
* is_qnan() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.  (line  353)
* is_qnan() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.  (line  318)
* is_reading() (μέθοδος της asyncio.ReadTransport): Read-only Transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* is_referenced() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  171)
* is_relative_to() (μέθοδος της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  211)
* is_reserved (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  167)
* is_reserved (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* is_reserved (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  289)
* is_reserved (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  304)
* is_resource_enabled() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  261)
* is_resource() (μέθοδος της importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   62)
* is_resource() (στη μονάδα importlib.resources): Λειτουργικό API.
                                                             (line  144)
* is_running() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   35)
* is_running() (μέθοδος της concurrent.interpreters.Interpreter): Interpreter objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* is_safe (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):      uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  167)
* is_serving() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Server): Server objects. (line  117)
* is_set() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Event):  Event.              (line   65)
* is_set() (μέθοδος της threading.Event): Event objects.     (line   24)
* is_signed() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  358)
* is_signed() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  323)
* is_site_local (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  295)
* is_site_local (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  358)
* is_skipped_module() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  259)
* is_snan() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.  (line  362)
* is_snan() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.  (line  329)
* is_socket() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  118)
* is_stack_trampoline_active() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2038)
* is_subnormal() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  367)
* is_subnormal() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  334)
* is_symlink() (μέθοδος της os.DirEntry): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1032)
* is_symlink() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   88)
* is_symlink() (μέθοδος της pathlib.types.PathInfo): Protocols.
                                                             (line   47)
* is_symlink() (μέθοδος της zipfile.Path): Path objects.     (line   65)
* is_tarfile() (στη μονάδα tarfile):     tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  243)
* is_term_resized() (στη μονάδα curses): Functions<4>.       (line  268)
* is_tracing() (στη μονάδα tracemalloc): Functions<9>.       (line   60)
* is_tracked() (στη μονάδα gc):          gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  185)
* is_type_parameter() (μέθοδος της symtable.Symbol): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  184)
* is_typeddict() (στη μονάδα typing):    Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line  145)
* is_unspecified (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  162)
* is_unspecified (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* is_unspecified (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  287)
* is_unspecified (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  302)
* is_valid_name() (στη μονάδα xml):      XML Processing Modules.
                                                             (line   41)
* is_valid_text() (στη μονάδα xml):      XML Processing Modules.
                                                             (line   54)
* is_valid() (μέθοδος της string.Template): Template strings $-strings.
                                                             (line   77)
* is_wasi (στη μονάδα test.support):     test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   48)
* is_wintouched() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.
                                                             (line  382)
* is_zero() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.  (line  371)
* is_zero() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.  (line  339)
* is_zipfile() (στη μονάδα zipfile):     zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   93)
* isabs() (στη μονάδα os.path):          os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  217)
* isabstract() (στη μονάδα inspect):     Types and members.  (line  593)
* IsADirectoryError:                     OS exceptions.      (line   83)
* isalnum() (μέθοδος της bytearray):     Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  551)
* isalnum() (μέθοδος της bytes):         Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  551)
* isalnum() (μέθοδος της str):           Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  266)
* isalnum() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):   curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  133)
* isalpha() (μέθοδος της bytearray):     Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  569)
* isalpha() (μέθοδος της bytes):         Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  569)
* isalpha() (μέθοδος της str):           Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  283)
* isalpha() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):   curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  138)
* isascii() (μέθοδος της bytearray):     Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  585)
* isascii() (μέθοδος της bytes):         Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  585)
* isascii() (μέθοδος της str):           Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  303)
* isascii() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):   curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  143)
* isasyncgen() (στη μονάδα inspect):     Types and members.  (line  553)
* isasyncgenfunction() (στη μονάδα inspect): Types and members.
                                                             (line  532)
* isatty() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):      I/O Base Classes.   (line   72)
* isatty() (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  260)
* isawaitable() (στη μονάδα inspect):    Types and members.  (line  511)
* isblank() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):   curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  147)
* isblk() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.    (line  210)
* isbuiltin() (στη μονάδα inspect):      Types and members.  (line  573)
* ischr() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.    (line  206)
* isclass() (στη μονάδα inspect):        Types and members.  (line  432)
* isclose() (στη μονάδα cmath):          Classification functions.
                                                             (line   23)
* isclose() (στη μονάδα math):           Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   25)
* iscntrl() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):   curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  151)
* iscode() (στη μονάδα inspect):         Types and members.  (line  569)
* iscoroutine() (στη μονάδα asyncio):    Introspection.      (line   26)
* iscoroutine() (στη μονάδα inspect):    Types and members.  (line  504)
* iscoroutinefunction() (στη μονάδα inspect): Types and members.
                                                             (line  468)
* isctrl() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):    curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  192)
* isDaemon() (μέθοδος της threading.Thread): Thread objects. (line  253)
* isdatadescriptor() (στη μονάδα inspect): Types and members.
                                                             (line  620)
* isdecimal() (μέθοδος της str):         Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  317)
* isdev() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.    (line  218)
* isdevdrive() (στη μονάδα os.path):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  285)
* isdigit() (μέθοδος της bytearray):     Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  594)
* isdigit() (μέθοδος της bytes):         Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  594)
* isdigit() (μέθοδος της str):           Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  334)
* isdigit() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):   curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  156)
* isdir() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.    (line  194)
* isdir() (στη μονάδα os.path):          os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  241)
* isdisjoint() (μέθοδος της frozenset):  Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   73)
* isdisjoint() (μέθοδος της set):        Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   73)
* isdown() (στη μονάδα turtle):          Drawing state.      (line   86)
* iselement() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  130)
* isenabled() (στη μονάδα gc):           gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   30)
* isEnabledFor() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.
                                                             (line  144)
* isendwin() (στη μονάδα curses):        Functions<4>.       (line  273)
* ISEOF() (στη μονάδα token):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   39)
* isfifo() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.   (line  214)
* isfile() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.   (line  185)
* isfile() (στη μονάδα os.path):         os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  233)
* isfinite() (στη μονάδα cmath):         Classification functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* isfinite() (στη μονάδα math):          Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   60)
* isfirstline() (στη μονάδα fileinput):  fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  111)
* isframe() (στη μονάδα inspect):        Types and members.  (line  565)
* isfunction() (στη μονάδα inspect):     Types and members.  (line  447)
* isfuture() (στη μονάδα asyncio):       Future Functions.   (line    6)
* isgenerator() (στη μονάδα inspect):    Types and members.  (line  464)
* isgeneratorfunction() (στη μονάδα inspect): Types and members.
                                                             (line  452)
* isgetsetdescriptor() (στη μονάδα inspect): Types and members.
                                                             (line  633)
* isgraph() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):   curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  161)
* isidentifier() (μέθοδος της str):      Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  345)
* isinf() (στη μονάδα cmath):            Classification functions.
                                                             (line   13)
* isinf() (στη μονάδα math):             Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   83)
* isjunction() (στη μονάδα os.path):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  249)
* iskeyword() (στη μονάδα keyword):      keyword — Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line   13)
* isleap() (στη μονάδα calendar):        calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  368)
* islice() (στη μονάδα itertools):       Itertool Functions. (line  368)
* islink() (στη μονάδα os.path):         os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  257)
* islnk() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.    (line  202)
* islower() (μέθοδος της bytearray):     Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  609)
* islower() (μέθοδος της bytes):         Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  609)
* islower() (μέθοδος της str):           Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  364)
* islower() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):   curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  165)
* ismemberdescriptor() (στη μονάδα inspect): Types and members.
                                                             (line  642)
* ismeta() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):    curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  196)
* ismethod() (στη μονάδα inspect):       Types and members.  (line  437)
* ismethoddescriptor() (στη μονάδα inspect): Types and members.
                                                             (line  597)
* ismethodwrapper() (στη μονάδα inspect): Types and members. (line  578)
* ismodule() (στη μονάδα inspect):       Types and members.  (line  428)
* ismount() (στη μονάδα os.path):        os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  265)
* isnan() (στη μονάδα cmath):            Classification functions.
                                                             (line   18)
* isnan() (στη μονάδα math):             Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   88)
* ISNONTERMINAL() (στη μονάδα token):    token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   35)
* isnormal() (στη μονάδα math):          Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   67)
* IsNot (κλάση σε ast):                  Expressions<2>.     (line  108)
* isnumeric() (μέθοδος της str):         Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  370)
* isocalendar() (μέθοδος της datetime.date): date objects.   (line  276)
* isocalendar() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  657)
* isoformat() (μέθοδος της datetime.date): date objects.     (line  303)
* isoformat() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  662)
* isoformat() (μέθοδος της datetime.time): time objects.     (line  180)
* isolated (ιδιότητα της sys.flags):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  585)
* IsolatedAsyncioTestCase (κλάση σε unittest): Test cases.   (line  936)
* isolation_level (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  770)
* isoweekday() (μέθοδος της datetime.date): date objects.    (line  269)
* isoweekday() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  651)
* ispackage() (στη μονάδα inspect):      Types and members.  (line  441)
* isprint() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):   curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  169)
* isprintable() (μέθοδος της str):       Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  392)
* ispunct() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):   curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  173)
* isqrt() (στη μονάδα math.integer):     math integer — integer-specific mathematics functions.
                                                             (line   44)
* isqrt() (στη μονάδα math):             Number-theoretic functions.
                                                             (line   19)
* isreadable() (μέθοδος της pprint.PrettyPrinter): PrettyPrinter objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* isreadable() (στη μονάδα pprint):      Functions<3>.       (line   81)
* isrecursive() (μέθοδος της pprint.PrettyPrinter): PrettyPrinter objects.
                                                             (line   98)
* isrecursive() (στη μονάδα pprint):     Functions<3>.       (line   90)
* isreg() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.    (line  190)
* isreserved() (στη μονάδα os.path):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  304)
* isReservedKey() (μέθοδος της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* isroutine() (στη μονάδα inspect):      Types and members.  (line  588)
* isSameNode() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.     (line  102)
* issoftkeyword() (στη μονάδα keyword):  keyword — Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line   24)
* isspace() (μέθοδος της bytearray):     Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  628)
* isspace() (μέθοδος της bytes):         Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  628)
* isspace() (μέθοδος της str):           Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  421)
* isspace() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):   curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  178)
* isstdin() (στη μονάδα fileinput):      fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  116)
* issubnormal() (στη μονάδα math):       Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   75)
* issubset() (μέθοδος της frozenset):    Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   80)
* issubset() (μέθοδος της set):          Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   80)
* issuperset() (μέθοδος της frozenset):  Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   92)
* issuperset() (μέθοδος της set):        Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   92)
* issym() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.    (line  198)
* ISTERMINAL() (στη μονάδα token):       token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   31)
* istitle() (μέθοδος της bytearray):     Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  637)
* istitle() (μέθοδος της bytes):         Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  637)
* istitle() (μέθοδος της str):           Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  445)
* istraceback() (στη μονάδα inspect):    Types and members.  (line  561)
* isub() (στη μονάδα operator):          In-place Operators. (line   94)
* isupper() (μέθοδος της bytearray):     Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  653)
* isupper() (μέθοδος της bytes):         Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  653)
* isupper() (μέθοδος της str):           Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  464)
* isupper() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):   curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  183)
* isvisible() (στη μονάδα turtle):       Visibility.         (line   22)
* isxdigit() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):  curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  187)
* isxidcontinue() (στη μονάδα unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  146)
* isxidstart() (στη μονάδα unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  133)
* ITALIC (στη μονάδα tkinter.font):      tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   15)
* item() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.   (line  202)
* item() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.NamedNodeMap): NamedNodeMap Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* item() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.NodeList): NodeList Objects.   (line   15)
* itemgetter() (στη μονάδα operator):    operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  283)
* items() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  270)
* items() (μέθοδος της contextvars.Context): Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line  141)
* items() (μέθοδος της dict):            Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line  200)
* items() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  240)
* items() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  350)
* items() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.    (line  150)
* items() (μέθοδος της types.MappingProxyType): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  316)
* items() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* itemsize (ιδιότητα της array.array):   array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  152)
* itemsize (ιδιότητα της memoryview):    Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  474)
* ItemsView (κλάση σε collections.abc):  Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  131)
* ItemsView (κλάση σε typing):           Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   55)
* iter_attachments() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  560)
* iter_child_nodes() (στη μονάδα ast):   ast helpers.        (line  175)
* iter_fields() (στη μονάδα ast):        ast helpers.        (line  170)
* iter_graphemes() (στη μονάδα unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  233)
* iter_importers() (στη μονάδα pkgutil): pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   68)
* iter_modules() (στη μονάδα pkgutil):   pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   86)
* iter_parts() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  576)
* iter_unpack() (μέθοδος της struct.Struct): Κλάσεις<3>.     (line   51)
* iter_unpack() (στη μονάδα struct):     Συναρτήσεις και εξαιρέσεις.
                                                             (line   46)
* iter() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  140)
* iter() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* iterable:                              Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1019)
* Iterable (κλάση σε collections.abc):   Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line   26)
* Iterable (κλάση σε typing):            Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line    6)
* iterable;unpacking:                    Expression lists.   (line   18)
* iterator:                              Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1042)
* Iterator (κλάση σε collections.abc):   Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line   43)
* Iterator (κλάση σε typing):            Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   14)
* iterdecode() (στη μονάδα codecs):      codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  251)
* iterdir() (μέθοδος της importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  102)
* iterdir() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):  Reading directories.
                                                             (line    6)
* iterdir() (μέθοδος της zipfile.Path):  Path objects.       (line   53)
* iterdump() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  495)
* iterencode() (μέθοδος της json.JSONEncoder): Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line  236)
* iterencode() (στη μονάδα codecs):      codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  238)
* iterfind() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  151)
* iterfind() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* iteritems() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.
                                                             (line  141)
* iterkeys() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects. (line  115)
* itermonthdates() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   66)
* itermonthdays() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   74)
* itermonthdays2() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   82)
* itermonthdays3() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   90)
* itermonthdays4() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  100)
* iternextfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   91)
* iterparse() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  136)
* itertext() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  160)
* itervalues() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.
                                                             (line  124)
* iterweekdays() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   60)
* ITIMER_PROF (στη μονάδα signal):       Module contents<4>. (line  254)
* ITIMER_REAL (στη μονάδα signal):       Module contents<4>. (line  244)
* ITIMER_VIRTUAL (στη μονάδα signal):    Module contents<4>. (line  249)
* ItimerError:                           Module contents<4>. (line  287)
* itruediv() (στη μονάδα operator):      In-place Operators. (line   99)
* ixor() (στη μονάδα operator):          In-place Operators. (line  104)
* j;σε αριθμητικό λεκτικό:               Λεκτικά κινητής υποδιαστολής.
                                                             (line   58)
* JANUARY (στη μονάδα calendar):         calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* Java;γλώσσα:                           numbers Real float. (line    6)
* job_size (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  232)
* join_thread() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Queue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  190)
* join_thread() (στη μονάδα test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   11)
* join() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Queue):    Ουρά.               (line   55)
* join() (μέθοδος της bytearray):        Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  183)
* join() (μέθοδος της bytes):            Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  183)
* join() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.JoinableQueue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  281)
* join() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  186)
* join() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line   99)
* join() (μέθοδος της queue.Queue):      Queue Objects.      (line   88)
* join() (μέθοδος της str):              Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  479)
* join() (μέθοδος της threading.Thread): Thread objects.     (line  145)
* join() (στη μονάδα os.path):           os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  326)
* join() (στη μονάδα shlex):             shlex — Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line   29)
* JoinableQueue (κλάση σε multiprocessing): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  257)
* JoinedStr (κλάση σε ast):              Literals<2>.        (line   49)
* joinpath() (μέθοδος της importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  114)
* joinpath() (μέθοδος της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  235)
* joinpath() (μέθοδος της zipfile.Path): Path objects.       (line  114)
* js_output() (μέθοδος της http.cookies.BaseCookie): Cookie Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* js_output() (μέθοδος της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* json command line option; -compact:    Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   48)
* json command line option; -h:          Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   54)
* json command line option; -help:       Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   54)
* json command line option; -indent:     Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   48)
* json command line option; -json-lines: Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   42)
* json command line option; -no-ensure-ascii: Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   35)
* json command line option; -no-indent:  Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   48)
* json command line option; -sort-keys:  Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   29)
* json command line option; -tab:        Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   48)
* json command line option; infile:      Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* json command line option; outfile:     Command-line options<3>.
                                                             (line   24)
* JSONDecodeError:                       Exceptions<18>.     (line    6)
* JSONDecoder (κλάση σε json):           Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line    6)
* JSONEncoder (κλάση σε json):           Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line  111)
* JULY (στη μονάδα calendar):            calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* JUMP (monitoring event):               Events.             (line   43)
* JUMP (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1479)
* jump (pdb command):                    Debugger commands.  (line  239)
* JUMP_BACKWARD (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  859)
* JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT (opcode):   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  865)
* JUMP_FORWARD (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  855)
* JUMP_IF_FALSE (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1485)
* JUMP_IF_TRUE (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1485)
* JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1479)
* JUNE (στη μονάδα calendar):            calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* kbhit() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):           Console I/O.        (line    6)
* kde_random() (στη μονάδα statistics):  Function details.   (line  185)
* kde() (στη μονάδα statistics):         Function details.   (line  137)
* KEEP (ιδιότητα της enum.FlagBoundary): Data types.         (line  762)
* kevent() (στη μονάδα select):          select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  112)
* key:                                   Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* key <1>:                               Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1074)
* key (ιδιότητα της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.    (line   71)
* key (ιδιότητα της zoneinfo.ZoneInfo):  The ZoneInfo class. (line   78)
* KEY_A1 (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  234)
* KEY_A3 (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  237)
* KEY_ALL_ACCESS (στη μονάδα winreg):    Access Rights.      (line    8)
* KEY_B2 (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  240)
* KEY_BACKSPACE (στη μονάδα curses):     Constants<6>.       (line  164)
* KEY_BEG (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line  252)
* KEY_BREAK (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  146)
* KEY_BTAB (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  249)
* KEY_C1 (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  243)
* KEY_C3 (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  246)
* KEY_CANCEL (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  255)
* KEY_CATAB (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  216)
* KEY_CLEAR (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  189)
* KEY_CLOSE (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  258)
* KEY_COMMAND (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  261)
* KEY_COPY (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  264)
* KEY_CREATE (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  267)
* KEY_CREATE_LINK (στη μονάδα winreg):   Access Rights.      (line   51)
* KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY (στη μονάδα winreg): Access Rights.     (line   38)
* KEY_CTAB (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  213)
* KEY_DC (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  180)
* KEY_DL (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  174)
* KEY_DOWN (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  149)
* KEY_EIC (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line  186)
* KEY_END (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line  270)
* KEY_ENTER (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  219)
* KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS (στη μονάδα winreg): Access Rights. (line   42)
* KEY_EOL (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line  195)
* KEY_EOS (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line  192)
* KEY_EXECUTE (στη μονάδα winreg):       Access Rights.      (line   26)
* KEY_EXIT (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  273)
* KEY_F0 (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  167)
* KEY_FIND (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  276)
* KEY_Fn (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  171)
* KEY_HELP (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  279)
* KEY_HOME (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  161)
* KEY_IC (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  183)
* KEY_IL (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  177)
* KEY_LEFT (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  155)
* KEY_LL (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  231)
* KEY_MARK (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  282)
* KEY_MAX (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line  423)
* KEY_MESSAGE (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  285)
* KEY_MIN (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line  143)
* KEY_MOUSE (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  417)
* KEY_MOVE (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  288)
* KEY_NEXT (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  291)
* KEY_NOTIFY (στη μονάδα winreg):        Access Rights.      (line   46)
* KEY_NPAGE (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  204)
* KEY_OPEN (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  294)
* KEY_OPTIONS (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  297)
* KEY_PPAGE (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  207)
* KEY_PREVIOUS (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  300)
* KEY_PRINT (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  228)
* KEY_QUERY_VALUE (στη μονάδα winreg):   Access Rights.      (line   30)
* KEY_READ (στη μονάδα winreg):          Access Rights.      (line   20)
* KEY_REDO (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  303)
* KEY_REFERENCE (στη μονάδα curses):     Constants<6>.       (line  306)
* KEY_REFRESH (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  309)
* KEY_REPLACE (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  312)
* KEY_RESET (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  225)
* KEY_RESIZE (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  420)
* KEY_RESTART (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  315)
* KEY_RESUME (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  318)
* KEY_RIGHT (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  158)
* KEY_SAVE (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  321)
* KEY_SBEG (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  324)
* KEY_SCANCEL (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  327)
* KEY_SCOMMAND (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  330)
* KEY_SCOPY (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  333)
* KEY_SCREATE (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  336)
* KEY_SDC (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line  339)
* KEY_SDL (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line  342)
* KEY_SELECT (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  345)
* KEY_SEND (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  348)
* KEY_SEOL (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  351)
* KEY_SET_VALUE (στη μονάδα winreg):     Access Rights.      (line   34)
* KEY_SEXIT (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  354)
* KEY_SF (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  198)
* KEY_SFIND (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  357)
* KEY_SHELP (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  360)
* KEY_SHOME (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  363)
* KEY_SIC (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line  366)
* KEY_SLEFT (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  369)
* KEY_SMESSAGE (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  372)
* KEY_SMOVE (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  375)
* KEY_SNEXT (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  378)
* KEY_SOPTIONS (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  381)
* KEY_SPREVIOUS (στη μονάδα curses):     Constants<6>.       (line  384)
* KEY_SPRINT (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  387)
* KEY_SR (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  201)
* KEY_SREDO (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  390)
* KEY_SREPLACE (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  393)
* KEY_SRESET (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  222)
* KEY_SRIGHT (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  396)
* KEY_SRSUME (στη μονάδα curses):        Constants<6>.       (line  399)
* KEY_SSAVE (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  402)
* KEY_SSUSPEND (στη μονάδα curses):      Constants<6>.       (line  405)
* KEY_STAB (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  210)
* KEY_SUNDO (στη μονάδα curses):         Constants<6>.       (line  408)
* KEY_SUSPEND (στη μονάδα curses):       Constants<6>.       (line  411)
* KEY_UNDO (στη μονάδα curses):          Constants<6>.       (line  414)
* KEY_UP (στη μονάδα curses):            Constants<6>.       (line  152)
* KEY_WOW64_32KEY (στη μονάδα winreg):   64-bit Specific.    (line   14)
* KEY_WOW64_64KEY (στη μονάδα winreg):   64-bit Specific.    (line    8)
* KEY_WRITE (στη μονάδα winreg):         Access Rights.      (line   15)
* key/value pair:                        Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* KeyboardInterrupt:                     Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   99)
* KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception): Signal Handling<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception) <1>: Signal Handling<2>.
                                                             (line   57)
* KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception) <2>: Signal Handling<2>.
                                                             (line   67)
* KeyError:                              Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   94)
* keylog_filename (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  602)
* keyname() (στη μονάδα curses):         Functions<4>.       (line  278)
* keypad() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line  387)
* keyrefs() (μέθοδος της weakref.WeakKeyDictionary): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  208)
* keys() (μέθοδος της contextvars.Context): Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line  133)
* keys() (μέθοδος της dict):             Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line  206)
* keys() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  232)
* keys() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  342)
* keys() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox):  Mailbox objects.    (line  119)
* keys() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Row):      Row objects.        (line   19)
* keys() (μέθοδος της types.MappingProxyType): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  321)
* keys() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* KeysView (κλάση σε collections.abc):   Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  131)
* KeysView (κλάση σε typing):            Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   64)
* keyword (κλάση σε ast):                Expressions<2>.     (line  150)
* keyword;as:                            The try statement.  (line    6)
* keyword;as <1>:                        The with statement. (line    6)
* keyword;as <2>:                        The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;async:                         Coroutine function definition.
                                                             (line    9)
* keyword;await:                         Calls.              (line  160)
* keyword;await <1>:                     Coroutine function definition.
                                                             (line    9)
* keyword;case:                          The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;elif:                          The if statement.   (line    6)
* keyword;else:                          The if statement.   (line    6)
* keyword;else <1>:                      The while statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;else <2>:                      The for statement.  (line    6)
* keyword;else <3>:                      The try statement.  (line    6)
* keyword;else <4>:                      except* clause.     (line   66)
* keyword;except:                        The try statement.  (line    6)
* keyword;except_star:                   except clause.      (line   83)
* keyword;finally:                       The try statement.  (line    6)
* keyword;finally <1>:                   else clause.        (line   11)
* keyword;from:                          Yield expressions.  (line    6)
* keyword;if:                            The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* keyword;in:                            The for statement.  (line    6)
* keyword;yield:                         Yield expressions.  (line    6)
* keywords (ιδιότητα της functools.partial): partial Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* kill_python() (στη μονάδα test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   77)
* kill_workers() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor): ProcessPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line  110)
* kill() (μέθοδος της asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  107)
* kill() (μέθοδος της asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   35)
* kill() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  241)
* kill() (μέθοδος της subprocess.Popen): Popen Objects.      (line  114)
* kill() (στη μονάδα os):                Process Management. (line  329)
* killchar() (στη μονάδα curses):        Functions<4>.       (line  288)
* killpg() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line  351)
* kind (ιδιότητα της inspect.Parameter): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  248)
* knownfiles (στη μονάδα mimetypes):     mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  137)
* kqueue() (στη μονάδα select):          select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  101)
* KqueueSelector (κλάση σε selectors):   Classes.            (line  195)
* KW_ONLY (στη μονάδα dataclasses):      Module contents<6>. (line  495)
* kwargs (ιδιότητα της inspect.BoundArguments): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  377)
* kwargs (ιδιότητα της typing.ParamSpec): Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  492)
* kwlist (στη μονάδα keyword):           keyword — Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line   17)
* L (στη μονάδα re):                     Flags.              (line   58)
* L2CAP_LM (στη μονάδα socket):          Constants<8>.       (line  346)
* lambda:                                Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1108)
* Lambda (κλάση σε ast):                 Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line   32)
* lambda;expression:                     Lambdas.            (line    6)
* lambda;expression <1>:                 Function definitions.
                                                             (line  122)
* lambda;form:                           Lambdas.            (line    6)
* LambdaType (στη μονάδα types):         Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line   26)
* LANG:                                  GNU gettext API.    (line   21)
* LANG <1>:                              Class-based API.    (line   26)
* LANG <2>:                              locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   62)
* LANG <3>:                              locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  369)
* LANG <4>:                              locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  373)
* LANGUAGE:                              GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* LANGUAGE <1>:                          Class-based API.    (line   25)
* large files:                           Large File Support. (line    6)
* LARGEST (στη μονάδα test.support):     test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  201)
* LargeZipFile:                          zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   43)
* last_accepted (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.connection.Listener): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line  103)
* last_exc (στη μονάδα sys):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1393)
* last_mode (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.ZstdCompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  150)
* last_traceback (στη μονάδα sys):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1432)
* last_traceback (στο module sys):       Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* last_type (στη μονάδα sys):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1432)
* last_value (στη μονάδα sys):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1432)
* lastChild (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.       (line   59)
* lastcmd (ιδιότητα της cmd.Cmd):        Cmd Objects.        (line  138)
* lastgroup (ιδιότητα της re.Match):     Match objects.      (line  199)
* lastindex (ιδιότητα της re.Match):     Match objects.      (line  191)
* lastResort (στη μονάδα logging):       Module-Level Attributes.
                                                             (line    6)
* lastrowid (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.   (line  205)
* layout() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Style): Ttk Styling.     (line   96)
* lazy (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.Strategy): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  314)
* lazy import:                           Lazy imports.       (line    6)
* lazy;εισαγωγή:                         Lazy imports.       (line    6)
* lazy2 (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.Strategy): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  316)
* lazycache() (στη μονάδα linecache):    linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   56)
* LazyImportType (στη μονάδα types):     Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  229)
* LazyLoader (κλάση σε importlib.util):  importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  189)
* LBRACE (στη μονάδα token):             token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  262)
* LBYL:                                  Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1115)
* LC_ALL:                                GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* LC_ALL <1>:                            Class-based API.    (line   25)
* LC_ALL (στη μονάδα locale):            locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  584)
* LC_COLLATE (στη μονάδα locale):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  550)
* LC_CTYPE (στη μονάδα locale):          locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  536)
* LC_MESSAGES:                           GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* LC_MESSAGES <1>:                       Class-based API.    (line   26)
* LC_MESSAGES (στη μονάδα locale):       locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  566)
* LC_MONETARY (στη μονάδα locale):       locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  561)
* LC_NUMERIC (στη μονάδα locale):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  576)
* LC_TIME (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  556)
* lchflags() (στη μονάδα os):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  305)
* lchmod() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):   Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line   54)
* lchmod() (στη μονάδα os):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  319)
* lchown() (στη μονάδα os):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  340)
* lcm() (στη μονάδα math.integer):       math integer — integer-specific mathematics functions.
                                                             (line   55)
* lcm() (στη μονάδα math):               Number-theoretic functions.
                                                             (line   22)
* ldexp() (στη μονάδα math):             Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   93)
* LDFLAGS:                               New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* LDFLAGS <1>:                           Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* LDFLAGS <2>:                           Linker flags.       (line   15)
* LDFLAGS <3>:                           Linker flags.       (line   18)
* LDFLAGS <4>:                           Linker flags.       (line   28)
* LDFLAGS <5>:                           Linker flags.       (line   31)
* LDFLAGS <6>:                           Linker flags.       (line   35)
* LDFLAGS <7>:                           Linker flags.       (line   50)
* LDFLAGS_NODIST:                        Linker flags.       (line   26)
* LDFLAGS_NODIST <1>:                    Linker flags.       (line   40)
* ldm_bucket_size_log (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  161)
* ldm_hash_log (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  146)
* ldm_hash_rate_log (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  169)
* ldm_min_match (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  154)
* le() (στη μονάδα operator):            operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* leapdays() (στη μονάδα calendar):      calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  373)
* leaveok() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line  394)
* left (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp):    The dircmp class.   (line   45)
* left_list (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class. (line   53)
* left_only (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class. (line   67)
* left() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Turtle motion.      (line   57)
* LEFTSHIFT (στη μονάδα token):          token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  286)
* LEFTSHIFTEQUAL (στη μονάδα token):     token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  319)
* LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* lenfunc (C type):                      Slot Type typedefs. (line   95)
* length (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.NamedNodeMap): NamedNodeMap Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* length (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.NodeList): NodeList Objects.  (line   21)
* length_hint() (στη μονάδα operator):   operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  222)
* LESS (στη μονάδα token):               token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  247)
* LESSEQUAL (στη μονάδα token):          token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  274)
* level (ιδιότητα της logging.Logger):   Logger Objects.     (line   33)
* LexicalHandler (κλάση σε xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line   45)
* lexists() (στη μονάδα os.path):        os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  139)
* LF (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   51)
* lgamma() (στη μονάδα math):            Special functions.  (line   34)
* libc_ver() (στη μονάδα platform):      Πλατφόρμες Unix.    (line    6)
* LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX (στη μονάδα msvcrt): Other Functions.
                                                             (line   98)
* library (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLError):   Exceptions<17>.     (line   19)
* library (στη μονάδα dbm.ndbm):         dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   36)
* LibraryLoader (κλάση σε ctypes):       Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  195)
* license (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή):      Constants added by the site module.
                                                             (line   32)
* LifoQueue (κλάση σε asyncio):          Ουρά LIFO.          (line    6)
* LifoQueue (κλάση σε queue):            queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   40)
* light-weight processes:                _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* limit_denominator() (μέθοδος της fractions.Fraction): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  164)
* LimitOverrunError:                     Exceptions<14>.     (line   60)
* LINE (monitoring event):               Events.             (line   47)
* line (ιδιότητα της bdb.Breakpoint):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   86)
* LINE (ιδιότητα της pstats.SortKey):    The Stats class.    (line  210)
* line (ιδιότητα της traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* line_buffering (ιδιότητα της io.TextIOWrapper): Text I/O<2>.
                                                             (line  174)
* line_num (ιδιότητα της csv.csvreader): Αντικείμενα Αναγνώστη.
                                                             (line   25)
* linear_regression() (στη μονάδα statistics): Function details.
                                                             (line  629)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της ast.AST):         Node classes.       (line   50)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της doctest.DocTest): DocTest Objects.    (line   41)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της doctest.Example): Example Objects.    (line   40)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της inspect.FrameInfo): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   22)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της inspect.Traceback): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   62)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της json.JSONDecodeError): Exceptions<18>.
                                                             (line   23)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της netrc.NetrcParseError): netrc — netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   60)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Class):    Class Objects.      (line   24)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Function): Function Objects.   (line   23)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της re.PatternError): Exceptions.         (line   28)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex):     shlex Objects.      (line  169)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της SyntaxError):     Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  340)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της tomllib.TOMLDecodeError): tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   85)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   95)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Filter): Filter.          (line   49)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Frame): Frame.            (line   16)
* lineno (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError): Εξαιρέσεις ExpatError.
                                                             (line   28)
* lineno() (στη μονάδα fileinput):       fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line   97)
* LINES:                                 Functions<4>.       (line  140)
* LINES <1>:                             Functions<4>.       (line  610)
* LINES <2>:                             Functions<4>.       (line  612)
* lines (ιδιότητα της os.terminal_size): Querying the size of a terminal.
                                                             (line   34)
* LINES (στη μονάδα curses):             Constants<6>.       (line   51)
* linesep (ιδιότητα της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  153)
* linesep (στη μονάδα os):               Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  149)
* lineterminator (ιδιότητα της csv.Dialect): Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης.
                                                             (line   58)
* LineTooLong:                           http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  193)
* link() (στη μονάδα os):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  354)
* linked_to_musl() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  597)
* LinkFallbackError:                     tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  315)
* linkname (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.  (line   95)
* LinkOutsideDestinationError:           tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  310)
* list (pdb command):                    Debugger commands.  (line  249)
* list (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):             Λίστες<2>.          (line   10)
* List (κλάση σε ast):                   Literals<2>.        (line  136)
* List (κλάση σε typing):                Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   18)
* list comprehension:                    Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1140)
* list_all() (στη μονάδα concurrent.interpreters): Reference<4>.
                                                             (line    8)
* LIST_APPEND (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  381)
* list_dialects() (στη μονάδα csv):      Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  103)
* LIST_EXTEND (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  731)
* list_folders() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* list_folders() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH): MH objects.       (line   35)
* list;comprehensions:                   List displays.      (line    6)
* list;display:                          List displays.      (line    6)
* list() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  205)
* list() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  231)
* list() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line   57)
* list() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarFile):  TarFile Objects.    (line  122)
* ListComp (κλάση σε ast):               Comprehensions.     (line    6)
* listdir() (στη μονάδα os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  377)
* listdrives() (στη μονάδα os):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  417)
* listen() (μέθοδος της socket.socket):  Socket Objects.     (line  196)
* listen() (στη μονάδα logging.config):  Configuration functions.
                                                             (line  118)
* listen() (στη μονάδα turtle):          Using screen events.
                                                             (line    6)
* listener (ιδιότητα της logging.handlers.QueueHandler): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   91)
* Listener (κλάση σε multiprocessing.connection): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line   50)
* listMethods() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system): ServerProxy Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* listmounts() (στη μονάδα os):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  436)
* listvolumes() (στη μονάδα os):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  460)
* listxattr() (στη μονάδα os):           Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   26)
* literal:                               Literals.           (line    6)
* Literal (στη μονάδα typing):           Special forms.      (line  139)
* literal_eval() (στη μονάδα ast):       ast helpers.        (line   87)
* LiteralString (στη μονάδα typing):     Special types.      (line   67)
* LittleEndianStructure (κλάση σε ctypes): Structured data types.
                                                             (line   29)
* LittleEndianUnion (κλάση σε ctypes):   Structured data types.
                                                             (line   19)
* ljust() (μέθοδος της bytearray):       Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  332)
* ljust() (μέθοδος της bytes):           Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  332)
* ljust() (μέθοδος της str):             Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  495)
* LK_LOCK (στη μονάδα msvcrt):           File Operations.    (line   19)
* LK_NBLCK (στη μονάδα msvcrt):          File Operations.    (line   27)
* LK_NBRLCK (στη μονάδα msvcrt):         File Operations.    (line   27)
* LK_RLCK (στη μονάδα msvcrt):           File Operations.    (line   19)
* LK_UNLCK (στη μονάδα msvcrt):          File Operations.    (line   33)
* ll (pdb command):                      Debugger commands.  (line  265)
* LMTP (κλάση σε smtplib):               smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  122)
* ln() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context):    Context objects.    (line  375)
* ln() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal):    Decimal objects.    (line  344)
* LNKTYPE (στη μονάδα tarfile):          tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  336)
* Load (κλάση σε ast):                   Variables.          (line   11)
* LOAD_ATTR (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  771)
* LOAD_BUILD_CLASS (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  504)
* load_cert_chain() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  101)
* LOAD_CLOSURE (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1491)
* LOAD_COMMON_CONSTANT (opcode):         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  495)
* LOAD_CONST (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  618)
* load_default_certs() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  132)
* LOAD_DEREF (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1013)
* load_dh_params() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  428)
* load_extension() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  468)
* LOAD_FAST (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  937)
* LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR (opcode):          Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  975)
* LOAD_FAST_BORROW (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  946)
* LOAD_FAST_BORROW_LOAD_FAST_BORROW (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  960)
* LOAD_FAST_CHECK (opcode):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  967)
* LOAD_FAST_LOAD_FAST (opcode):          Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  953)
* LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF (opcode):      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1021)
* LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS (opcode):    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  643)
* LOAD_GLOBAL (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  930)
* LOAD_LOCALS (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  634)
* LOAD_NAME (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  628)
* load_package_tests() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  659)
* LOAD_SMALL_INT (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  622)
* LOAD_SPECIAL (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1433)
* LOAD_SUPER_ATTR (opcode):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  789)
* load_verify_locations() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  149)
* load() (μέθοδος κλάσης της tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot.
                                                             (line   50)
* load() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  126)
* load() (μέθοδος της http.cookies.BaseCookie): Cookie Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* load() (μέθοδος της pickle.Unpickler): Module Interface.   (line  281)
* load() (στη μονάδα json):              Basic Usage.        (line  108)
* load() (στη μονάδα marshal):           marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   95)
* load() (στη μονάδα pickle):            Module Interface.   (line   62)
* load() (στη μονάδα plistlib):          plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line   47)
* load() (στη μονάδα tomllib):           tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   40)
* loader:                                Finders και loaders.
                                                             (line    6)
* loader <1>:                            Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1177)
* loader (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  404)
* Loader (κλάση σε importlib.abc):       importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  137)
* loader_state (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  433)
* LoadError:                             http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   34)
* LoadFileDialog (κλάση σε tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  135)
* LoadKey() (στη μονάδα winreg):         Functions<12>.      (line  276)
* LoadLibrary() (μέθοδος της ctypes.LibraryLoader): Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  206)
* loads() (στη μονάδα json):             Basic Usage.        (line  198)
* loads() (στη μονάδα marshal):          marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line  134)
* loads() (στη μονάδα pickle):           Module Interface.   (line   80)
* loads() (στη μονάδα plistlib):         plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line   83)
* loads() (στη μονάδα tomllib):          tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   56)
* loads() (στη μονάδα xmlrpc.client):    Convenience Functions.
                                                             (line   19)
* loadTestsFromModule() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestLoader): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line   40)
* loadTestsFromName() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestLoader): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line   69)
* loadTestsFromNames() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestLoader): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  103)
* loadTestsFromTestCase() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestLoader): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line   29)
* local (κλάση σε threading):            Thread-local data.  (line  127)
* LOCAL_CREDS (στη μονάδα socket):       Constants<8>.       (line  413)
* LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.  (line  413)
* localcontext() (στη μονάδα decimal):   Context objects.    (line   25)
* LOCALE (στη μονάδα re):                Flags.              (line   58)
* localeconv() (στη μονάδα locale):      locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   68)
* LocaleHTMLCalendar (κλάση σε calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  340)
* LocaleTextCalendar (κλάση σε calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  334)
* localize() (στη μονάδα locale):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  518)
* localName (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Attr): Attr Objects.       (line   13)
* localName (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.       (line   64)
* localtime() (στη μονάδα email.utils):  email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   13)
* localtime() (στη μονάδα time):         Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  169)
* locate_file() (μέθοδος της importlib.metadata.Distribution): Distributions.
                                                             (line  114)
* locate() (μέθοδος της importlib.metadata.PackagePath): Distribution files.
                                                             (line   24)
* Locator (κλάση σε xml.sax.xmlreader):  xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   43)
* lock:                                  Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1150)
* lock (ιδιότητα της sys.thread_info):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2235)
* Lock (κλάση σε asyncio):               Lock.               (line    6)
* Lock (κλάση σε multiprocessing):       Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   65)
* Lock (κλάση σε threading):             Lock objects.       (line   32)
* LOCK_EX (στη μονάδα fcntl):            fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  202)
* LOCK_NB (στη μονάδα fcntl):            fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  206)
* LOCK_SH (στη μονάδα fcntl):            fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  198)
* LOCK_UN (στη μονάδα fcntl):            fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  194)
* lock-free:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1165)
* lock, interpreter:                     Thread states and the global interpreter lock.
                                                             (line    6)
* lock() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Babyl):    Babyl objects.      (line   60)
* lock() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox):  Mailbox objects.    (line  264)
* lock() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir):  Maildir objects.    (line  209)
* lock() (μέθοδος της mailbox.mbox):     mbox objects.       (line   57)
* lock() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH):       MH objects.         (line   87)
* lock() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MMDF):     MMDF objects.       (line   47)
* Lock() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  188)
* locked() (μέθοδος της _thread.lock):   _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  180)
* locked() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Condition): Condition.       (line   63)
* locked() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Lock):   Lock.               (line   58)
* locked() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Semaphore): Semaphore.       (line   50)
* locked() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.BoundedSemaphore): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line   34)
* locked() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Lock): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  123)
* locked() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.RLock): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  198)
* locked() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Semaphore): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  225)
* locked() (μέθοδος της threading.Condition): Condition objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* locked() (μέθοδος της threading.Lock): Lock objects.       (line   91)
* locked() (μέθοδος της threading.RLock): RLock objects.     (line  113)
* lockf() (στη μονάδα fcntl):            fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line  187)
* lockf() (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  265)
* locking() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):         File Operations.    (line    6)
* LockType (στη μονάδα _thread):         _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   28)
* LOG_ALERT (στη μονάδα syslog):         syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  110)
* LOG_AUTH (στη μονάδα syslog):          syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_AUTHPRIV (στη μονάδα syslog):      syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_CONS (στη μονάδα syslog):          syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  156)
* LOG_CRIT (στη μονάδα syslog):          syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  110)
* LOG_CRON (στη μονάδα syslog):          syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_DAEMON (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* log_date_time_string() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  379)
* LOG_DEBUG (στη μονάδα syslog):         syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  110)
* LOG_EMERG (στη μονάδα syslog):         syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  110)
* LOG_ERR (στη μονάδα syslog):           syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  110)
* log_error() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  349)
* log_exception() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  210)
* LOG_FTP (στη μονάδα syslog):           syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_INFO (στη μονάδα syslog):          syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  110)
* LOG_INSTALL (στη μονάδα syslog):       syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_KERN (στη μονάδα syslog):          syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_LAUNCHD (στη μονάδα syslog):       syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_LOCAL0 (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_LOCAL1 (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_LOCAL2 (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_LOCAL3 (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_LOCAL4 (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_LOCAL5 (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_LOCAL6 (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_LOCAL7 (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_LPR (στη μονάδα syslog):           syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_MAIL (στη μονάδα syslog):          syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* log_message() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  355)
* LOG_NDELAY (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  156)
* LOG_NETINFO (στη μονάδα syslog):       syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_NEWS (στη μονάδα syslog):          syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_NOTICE (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  110)
* LOG_NOWAIT (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  156)
* LOG_ODELAY (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  156)
* LOG_PERROR (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  156)
* LOG_PID (στη μονάδα syslog):           syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  156)
* LOG_RAS (στη μονάδα syslog):           syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_REMOTEAUTH (στη μονάδα syslog):    syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* log_request() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  342)
* LOG_SYSLOG (στη μονάδα syslog):        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* log_to_stderr() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing): Logging<2>.  (line   24)
* LOG_USER (στη μονάδα syslog):          syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_UUCP (στη μονάδα syslog):          syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  121)
* LOG_WARNING (στη μονάδα syslog):       syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line  110)
* log() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger):    Logger Objects.     (line  313)
* log() (στη μονάδα cmath):              Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   11)
* log() (στη μονάδα logging):            Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   99)
* log() (στη μονάδα math):               Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* log10() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.    (line  379)
* log10() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.    (line  350)
* log10() (στη μονάδα cmath):            Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   17)
* log10() (στη μονάδα math):             Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   67)
* log1p() (στη μονάδα math):             Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   48)
* log2() (στη μονάδα math):              Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   53)
* logb() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context):  Context objects.    (line  383)
* logb() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal):  Decimal objects.    (line  356)
* Logger (κλάση σε logging):             Logger Objects.     (line   24)
* LoggerAdapter (κλάση σε logging):      LoggerAdapter Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* logical_and() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  387)
* logical_and() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  364)
* logical_invert() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  392)
* logical_invert() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  370)
* logical_or() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  396)
* logical_or() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  375)
* logical_xor() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  401)
* logical_xor() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  381)
* login_cram_md5() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.
                                                             (line  216)
* login_tty() (στη μονάδα os):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  291)
* login() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):      FTP objects.        (line  127)
* login() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line  211)
* login() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP):    SMTP Objects.       (line  105)
* LOGNAME:                               Process Parameters. (line  258)
* LOGNAME <1>:                           getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   79)
* lognormvariate() (στη μονάδα random):  Πραγματικές κατανομές.
                                                             (line   83)
* logout() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line  225)
* LogRecord (κλάση σε logging):          LogRecord Objects.  (line   11)
* LONG_MAX (C macro):                    Integer Objects.    (line  169)
* LONG_TIMEOUT (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  110)
* longMessage (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.  (line  788)
* longname() (στη μονάδα curses):        Functions<4>.       (line  295)
* lookup_error() (στη μονάδα codecs):    Error Handlers.     (line  130)
* lookup() (μέθοδος της symtable.SymbolTable): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  108)
* lookup() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Style): Ttk Styling.     (line   81)
* lookup() (στη μονάδα codecs):          codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   56)
* lookup() (στη μονάδα unicodedata):     unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   22)
* LookupError:                           Base classes.       (line   83)
* loop_factory (ιδιότητα της unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  943)
* loop;statement:                        The while statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* loop;statement <1>:                    The for statement.  (line    6)
* loop;πάνω από μεταβλητή ακολουθίας:    Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   70)
* LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   65)
* lower() (μέθοδος της bytearray):       Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  672)
* lower() (μέθοδος της bytes):           Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  672)
* lower() (μέθοδος της str):             Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  514)
* LPAR (στη μονάδα token):               token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  208)
* lpAttributeList (ιδιότητα της subprocess.STARTUPINFO): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   59)
* lru_cache() (στη μονάδα functools):    functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  147)
* lseek() (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  302)
* LShift (κλάση σε ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line   53)
* lshift() (στη μονάδα operator):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  122)
* LSQB (στη μονάδα token):               token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  214)
* lstat() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):    Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   37)
* lstat() (στη μονάδα os):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  481)
* lstrip() (μέθοδος της bytearray):      Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  346)
* lstrip() (μέθοδος της bytes):          Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  346)
* lstrip() (μέθοδος της str):            Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  525)
* lsub() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  232)
* Lt (κλάση σε ast):                     Expressions<2>.     (line  108)
* lt() (στη μονάδα operator):            operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* lt() (στη μονάδα turtle):              Turtle motion.      (line   57)
* LtE (κλάση σε ast):                    Expressions<2>.     (line  108)
* LWPCookieJar (κλάση σε http.cookiejar): FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers.
                                                             (line   28)
* LZMACompressor (κλάση σε lzma):        Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* LZMADecompressor (κλάση σε lzma):      Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* LZMAError:                             lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm.
                                                             (line   29)
* LZMAFile (κλάση σε lzma):              Reading and writing compressed files<2>.
                                                             (line   45)
* M (στη μονάδα re):                     Flags.              (line   82)
* mac_ver() (στη μονάδα platform):       Πλατφόρμα macOS.    (line    6)
* machine() (στη μονάδα platform):       Cross Platform.     (line   41)
* macros (ιδιότητα της netrc.netrc):     netrc Objects.      (line   29)
* MADV_AUTOSYNC (στη μονάδα mmap):       MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_CORE (στη μονάδα mmap):           MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DODUMP (στη μονάδα mmap):         MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DOFORK (στη μονάδα mmap):         MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DONTDUMP (στη μονάδα mmap):       MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DONTFORK (στη μονάδα mmap):       MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_DONTNEED (στη μονάδα mmap):       MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_FREE (στη μονάδα mmap):           MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_FREE_REUSABLE (στη μονάδα mmap):  MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_FREE_REUSE (στη μονάδα mmap):     MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_HUGEPAGE (στη μονάδα mmap):       MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_HWPOISON (στη μονάδα mmap):       MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_MERGEABLE (στη μονάδα mmap):      MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NOCORE (στη μονάδα mmap):         MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NOHUGEPAGE (στη μονάδα mmap):     MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NORMAL (στη μονάδα mmap):         MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_NOSYNC (στη μονάδα mmap):         MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_PROTECT (στη μονάδα mmap):        MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_RANDOM (στη μονάδα mmap):         MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_REMOVE (στη μονάδα mmap):         MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_SEQUENTIAL (στη μονάδα mmap):     MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE (στη μονάδα mmap):   MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_UNMERGEABLE (στη μονάδα mmap):    MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* MADV_WILLNEED (στη μονάδα mmap):       MADV_* Constants.   (line    6)
* madvise() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):     mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  247)
* MAGIC_NUMBER (στη μονάδα importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   13)
* magic;μέθοδος:                         Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1210)
* MagicMock (κλάση σε unittest.mock):    Magic Mock.         (line    9)
* Mailbox (κλάση σε mailbox):            Mailbox objects.    (line    6)
* Maildir (κλάση σε mailbox):            Maildir objects.    (line    6)
* MaildirMessage (κλάση σε mailbox):     MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* main_thread() (στη μονάδα threading):  Reference<2>.       (line  108)
* main():                                Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    7)
* main() <1>:                            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   90)
* main() <2>:                            PyConfig.           (line  128)
* main() (στη μονάδα site):              Module contents<7>. (line   42)
* main() (στη μονάδα unittest):          Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  513)
* mainloop() (στη μονάδα turtle):        Using screen events.
                                                             (line  106)
* maintype (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  278)
* major (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  246)
* major() (στη μονάδα os):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  626)
* make_alternative() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  607)
* make_archive() (στη μονάδα shutil):    Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   14)
* make_bad_fd() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  108)
* MAKE_CELL (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1006)
* make_cookies() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* make_dataclass() (στη μονάδα dataclasses): Module contents<6>.
                                                             (line  398)
* make_file() (μέθοδος της difflib.HtmlDiff): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  110)
* MAKE_FUNCTION (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1145)
* make_header() (στη μονάδα email.header): email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  218)
* make_legacy_pyc() (στη μονάδα test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   80)
* make_mixed() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  617)
* make_msgid() (στη μονάδα email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   27)
* make_parser() (στη μονάδα xml.sax):    xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line   27)
* make_pkg() (στη μονάδα test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   97)
* make_related() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  598)
* make_script() (στη μονάδα test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   82)
* make_server() (στη μονάδα wsgiref.simple_server): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   14)
* make_table() (μέθοδος της difflib.HtmlDiff): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  142)
* make_zip_pkg() (στη μονάδα test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line  103)
* make_zip_script() (στη μονάδα test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   89)
* makedev() (στη μονάδα os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  636)
* makedirs() (στη μονάδα os):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  546)
* makeelement() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  168)
* makefile() (μέθοδος socket):           Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line    6)
* makefile() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.    (line  208)
* makeLogRecord() (στη μονάδα logging):  Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  196)
* makePickle() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SocketHandler): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   45)
* makeRecord() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects. (line  374)
* makeSocket() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.DatagramHandler): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   37)
* makeSocket() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SocketHandler): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   39)
* maketrans() (στατική μέθοδος της bytearray): Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  194)
* maketrans() (στατική μέθοδος της bytes): Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  194)
* maketrans() (στατική μέθοδος της str): Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  548)
* MalformedHeaderDefect:                 email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line  113)
* malloc (C function):                   Overview<4>.        (line   33)
* manager (ιδιότητα της logging.LoggerAdapter): LoggerAdapter Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* mangle_from_ (ιδιότητα της email.policy.Compat32): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  591)
* mangle_from_ (ιδιότητα της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  187)
* MANPAGER:                              pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   46)
* MANPAGER <1>:                          pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   48)
* mant_dig (ιδιότητα της sys.float_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  701)
* MAP_32BIT (στη μονάδα mmap):           MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_ADD (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  390)
* MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER (στη μονάδα mmap):   MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_ANON (στη μονάδα mmap):            MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_ANONYMOUS (στη μονάδα mmap):       MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* map_async() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  113)
* MAP_CONCEAL (στη μονάδα mmap):         MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_DENYWRITE (στη μονάδα mmap):       MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_EXECUTABLE (στη μονάδα mmap):      MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_HASSEMAPHORE (στη μονάδα mmap):    MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_JIT (στη μονάδα mmap):             MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_NOCACHE (στη μονάδα mmap):         MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_NOEXTEND (στη μονάδα mmap):        MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_NORESERVE (στη μονάδα mmap):       MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_POPULATE (στη μονάδα mmap):        MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_PRIVATE (στη μονάδα mmap):         MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN (στη μονάδα mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line    6)
* MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA (στη μονάδα mmap): MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_SHARED (στη μονάδα mmap):          MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_STACK (στη μονάδα mmap):           MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* map_table_b2() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   49)
* map_table_b3() (στη μονάδα stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   54)
* map_to_type() (μέθοδος της email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  379)
* MAP_TPRO (στη μονάδα mmap):            MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE (στη μονάδα mmap): MAP_* Constants.
                                                             (line    6)
* MAP_UNIX03 (στη μονάδα mmap):          MAP_* Constants.    (line    6)
* map() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.Executor): Executor Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* map() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Process Pools.
                                                             (line   96)
* map() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Style): Ttk Styling.        (line   48)
* mapLogRecord() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.HTTPHandler): HTTPHandler.
                                                             (line   27)
* mapping:                               Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1210)
* Mapping (κλάση σε collections.abc):    Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  125)
* Mapping (κλάση σε typing):             Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   72)
* MappingProxyType (κλάση σε types):     Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  270)
* MappingView (κλάση σε collections.abc): Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  131)
* MappingView (κλάση σε typing):         Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   80)
* mapPriority() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SysLogHandler): SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line  206)
* maps (ιδιότητα της collections.ChainMap): ChainMap objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* MARCH (στη μονάδα calendar):           calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* markcoroutinefunction() (στη μονάδα inspect): Types and members.
                                                             (line  488)
* marshalling;objects:                   pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* master (ιδιότητα της tkinter.Tk):      Tkinter Modules.    (line   75)
* Match (κλάση σε ast):                  Pattern matching.   (line    6)
* Match (κλάση σε re):                   Match objects.      (line   14)
* Match (κλάση σε typing):               Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line    6)
* match_case (κλάση σε ast):             Pattern matching.   (line   15)
* MATCH_CLASS (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1253)
* MATCH_KEYS (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  535)
* MATCH_MAPPING (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  516)
* MATCH_SEQUENCE (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  525)
* match_value() (μέθοδος της test.support.Matcher): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  823)
* match;case:                            The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* match() (μέθοδος της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  280)
* match() (μέθοδος της re.Pattern):      Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* match() (στη μονάδα re):               Functions.          (line   73)
* MatchAs (κλάση σε ast):                Pattern matching.   (line  293)
* MatchClass (κλάση σε ast):             Pattern matching.   (line  230)
* Matcher (κλάση σε test.support):       test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  817)
* matches() (μέθοδος της test.support.Matcher): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  819)
* MatchMapping (κλάση σε ast):           Pattern matching.   (line  184)
* MatchOr (κλάση σε ast):                Pattern matching.   (line  333)
* MatchSequence (κλάση σε ast):          Pattern matching.   (line  114)
* MatchSingleton (κλάση σε ast):         Pattern matching.   (line   90)
* MatchStar (κλάση σε ast):              Pattern matching.   (line  144)
* MatchValue (κλάση σε ast):             Pattern matching.   (line   63)
* matmul() (στη μονάδα operator):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  137)
* MatMult (κλάση σε ast):                Expressions<2>.     (line   53)
* matrix multiplication:                 Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   29)
* max (ιδιότητα της datetime.date):      date objects.       (line  137)
* max (ιδιότητα της datetime.datetime):  datetime objects.   (line  299)
* max (ιδιότητα της datetime.time):      time objects.       (line   37)
* max (ιδιότητα της datetime.timedelta): timedelta objects.  (line   98)
* max (ιδιότητα της sys.float_info):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  706)
* MAX (στη μονάδα uuid):                 uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  322)
* max_10_exp (ιδιότητα της sys.float_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  715)
* max_children (ιδιότητα της socketserver.ThreadingMixIn): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   54)
* max_count (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.BaseHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* MAX_EMAX (στη μονάδα decimal):         Constants<4>.       (line   25)
* max_exp (ιδιότητα της sys.float_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  710)
* MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH (στη μονάδα configparser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  348)
* max_line_length (ιδιότητα της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  146)
* max_lines (ιδιότητα της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  291)
* max_mag() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.  (line  410)
* max_mag() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.  (line  394)
* max_memuse (στη μονάδα test.support):  test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  161)
* MAX_PREC (στη μονάδα decimal):         Constants<4>.       (line   22)
* max_prefixlen (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* max_prefixlen (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* max_prefixlen (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  277)
* max_prefixlen (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  296)
* MAX_Py_ssize_t (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  157)
* max_response_headers (ιδιότητα της http.client.HTTPConnection): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  167)
* MAX_WBITS (στη μονάδα zlib):           zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  345)
* max() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context):   Context objects.    (line  406)
* max() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal):   Decimal objects.    (line  387)
* maxarray (ιδιότητα της reprlib.Repr):  Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxdeque (ιδιότητα της reprlib.Repr):  Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxdict (ιδιότητα της reprlib.Repr):   Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxDiff (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.      (line  805)
* maxfrozenset (ιδιότητα της reprlib.Repr): Repr Objects.    (line   22)
* MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED (ιδιότητα της ssl.TLSVersion): Constants<9>.
                                                             (line  577)
* maximum_version (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  613)
* maxlen (ιδιότητα της collections.deque): deque objects.    (line  120)
* maxlevel (ιδιότητα της reprlib.Repr):  Repr Objects.       (line   17)
* maxlist (ιδιότητα της reprlib.Repr):   Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxlong (ιδιότητα της reprlib.Repr):   Repr Objects.       (line   34)
* maxother (ιδιότητα της reprlib.Repr):  Repr Objects.       (line   47)
* maxset (ιδιότητα της reprlib.Repr):    Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxsize (ιδιότητα της asyncio.Queue):  Ουρά.               (line   24)
* maxsize (στη μονάδα sys):              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1440)
* maxstring (ιδιότητα της reprlib.Repr): Repr Objects.       (line   39)
* maxtuple (ιδιότητα της reprlib.Repr):  Repr Objects.       (line   22)
* maxunicode (στη μονάδα sys):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1446)
* MAXYEAR (στη μονάδα datetime):         Constants.          (line   13)
* MAY (στη μονάδα calendar):             calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* MB_ICONASTERISK (στη μονάδα winsound): Constants<11>.      (line  124)
* MB_ICONERROR (στη μονάδα winsound):    Constants<11>.      (line  144)
* MB_ICONEXCLAMATION (στη μονάδα winsound): Constants<11>.   (line  128)
* MB_ICONHAND (στη μονάδα winsound):     Constants<11>.      (line  132)
* MB_ICONINFORMATION (στη μονάδα winsound): Constants<11>.   (line  150)
* MB_ICONQUESTION (στη μονάδα winsound): Constants<11>.      (line  136)
* MB_ICONSTOP (στη μονάδα winsound):     Constants<11>.      (line  156)
* MB_ICONWARNING (στη μονάδα winsound):  Constants<11>.      (line  162)
* MB_OK (στη μονάδα winsound):           Constants<11>.      (line  140)
* mbox (κλάση σε mailbox):               mbox objects.       (line    6)
* mboxMessage (κλάση σε mailbox):        mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* md5() (στη μονάδα hashlib):            Constructors.       (line   20)
* mean (ιδιότητα της statistics.NormalDist): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* mean() (στη μονάδα statistics):        Function details.   (line   10)
* measure() (μέθοδος της tkinter.font.Font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   63)
* median (ιδιότητα της statistics.NormalDist): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* median_grouped() (στη μονάδα statistics): Function details.
                                                             (line  274)
* median_high() (στη μονάδα statistics): Function details.   (line  256)
* median_low() (στη μονάδα statistics):  Function details.   (line  238)
* median() (στη μονάδα statistics):      Function details.   (line  211)
* member_names (ιδιότητα της enum.EnumDict): Data types.     (line  794)
* member() (στη μονάδα enum):            Utilities and decorators.
                                                             (line   80)
* MemberDescriptorType (στη μονάδα types): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  252)
* membership;test:                       Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* memfd_create() (στη μονάδα os):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2178)
* memmove() (στη μονάδα ctypes):         Utility functions.  (line  179)
* MemoryBIO (κλάση σε ssl):              Memory BIO support. (line  134)
* MemoryError:                           Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  115)
* MemoryHandler (κλάση σε logging.handlers): MemoryHandler.  (line   41)
* memoryview (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):       Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line   10)
* memoryview_at() (στη μονάδα ctypes):   Utility functions.  (line  276)
* memset() (στη μονάδα ctypes):          Utility functions.  (line  185)
* merge() (στη μονάδα heapq):            heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line  142)
* message (ιδιότητα της BaseExceptionGroup): Exception groups.
                                                             (line   36)
* Message (κλάση σε email.message):      email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line   49)
* Message (κλάση σε mailbox):            Message objects.    (line    6)
* Message (κλάση σε tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line   21)
* message digest, MD5:                   hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests.
                                                             (line    8)
* message_factory (ιδιότητα της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  196)
* message_from_binary_file() (στη μονάδα email): Parser API. (line  129)
* message_from_bytes() (στη μονάδα email): Parser API.       (line  116)
* message_from_file() (στη μονάδα email): Parser API.        (line  152)
* message_from_string() (στη μονάδα email): Parser API.      (line  142)
* MessageBeep() (στη μονάδα winsound):   Functions<13>.      (line   27)
* MessageClass (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  219)
* MessageDefect:                         email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line   57)
* MessageError:                          email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line   13)
* MessageParseError:                     email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line   19)
* messages (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   23)
* meta hooks:                            Εισαγωγή hooks.     (line    6)
* meta path finder:                      Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1220)
* meta_path (στη μονάδα sys):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1456)
* meta() (στη μονάδα curses):            Functions<4>.       (line  302)
* metadata (ιδιότητα της importlib.metadata.Distribution): Distributions.
                                                             (line   61)
* metadata() (στη μονάδα importlib.metadata): Distribution metadata.
                                                             (line    6)
* MetaPathFinder (κλάση σε importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   26)
* metavar (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option): Option attributes. (line   88)
* MetavarTypeHelpFormatter (κλάση σε argparse): formatter_class.
                                                             (line   10)
* METH_CLASS (C macro):                  Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  195)
* METH_COEXIST (C macro):                Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  214)
* METH_FASTCALL (C macro):               Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  125)
* METH_KEYWORDS (C macro):               Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  109)
* METH_METHOD (C macro):                 Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  152)
* METH_NOARGS (C macro):                 Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  170)
* METH_O (C macro):                      Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  182)
* METH_STATIC (C macro):                 Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  203)
* METH_VARARGS (C macro):                Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   99)
* method (ιδιότητα της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* method_calls (ιδιότητα της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  503)
* method;call:                           Calls.              (line  142)
* methodcaller() (στη μονάδα operator):  operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  333)
* MethodDescriptorType (στη μονάδα types): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  116)
* methodHelp() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system): ServerProxy Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* methods (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Class):   Class Objects.      (line   50)
* methodSignature() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system): ServerProxy Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* MethodType (in module types):          Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   14)
* MethodType (in module types) <1>:      Method Objects.     (line   12)
* MethodType (στη μονάδα types):         Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line   82)
* MethodWrapperType (στη μονάδα types):  Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  102)
* metrics() (μέθοδος της tkinter.font.Font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   69)
* MFD_ALLOW_SEALING (στη μονάδα os):     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_CLOEXEC (στη μονάδα os):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_16GB (στη μονάδα os):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_16MB (στη μονάδα os):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_1GB (στη μονάδα os):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_1MB (στη μονάδα os):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_256MB (στη μονάδα os):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_2GB (στη μονάδα os):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_2MB (στη μονάδα os):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_32MB (στη μονάδα os):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_512KB (στη μονάδα os):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_512MB (στη μονάδα os):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_64KB (στη μονάδα os):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_8MB (στη μονάδα os):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_MASK (στη μονάδα os):         Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGE_SHIFT (στη μονάδα os):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MFD_HUGETLB (στη μονάδα os):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2196)
* MH (κλάση σε mailbox):                 MH objects.         (line    6)
* MHMessage (κλάση σε mailbox):          MHMessage objects.  (line    6)
* microsecond (ιδιότητα της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  336)
* microsecond (ιδιότητα της datetime.time): time objects.    (line   62)
* microseconds (ιδιότητα της datetime.timedelta): timedelta objects.
                                                             (line  134)
* MIME;base64 encoding:                  base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIME;content type:                     mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIME;headers:                          mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   25)
* MIME;headers <1>:                      mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line   58)
* MIME;quoted-printable encoding:        quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line    8)
* MIMEApplication (κλάση σε email.mime.application): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   95)
* MIMEAudio (κλάση σε email.mime.audio): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  125)
* MIMEBase (κλάση σε email.mime.base):   email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   30)
* MIMEImage (κλάση σε email.mime.image): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  157)
* MIMEMessage (κλάση σε email.mime.message): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  190)
* MIMEMultipart (κλάση σε email.mime.multipart): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   66)
* MIMENonMultipart (κλάση σε email.mime.nonmultipart): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   55)
* MIMEPart (κλάση σε email.message):     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  717)
* MIMEText (κλάση σε email.mime.text):   email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  208)
* MimeTypes (κλάση σε mimetypes):        MimeTypes objects.  (line   10)
* mimetypes command line option; -e:     Command-line usage<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* mimetypes command line option; -extension: Command-line usage<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* mimetypes command line option; -h:     Command-line usage<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* mimetypes command line option; -help:  Command-line usage<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* mimetypes command line option; -l:     Command-line usage<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* mimetypes command line option; -lenient: Command-line usage<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* MIMEVersionHeader (κλάση σε email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  233)
* min (ιδιότητα της datetime.date):      date objects.       (line  133)
* min (ιδιότητα της datetime.datetime):  datetime objects.   (line  294)
* min (ιδιότητα της datetime.time):      time objects.       (line   33)
* min (ιδιότητα της datetime.timedelta): timedelta objects.  (line   93)
* min (ιδιότητα της sys.float_info):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  720)
* min_10_exp (ιδιότητα της sys.float_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  733)
* MIN_EMIN (στη μονάδα decimal):         Constants<4>.       (line   28)
* MIN_ETINY (στη μονάδα decimal):        Constants<4>.       (line   31)
* min_exp (ιδιότητα της sys.float_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  728)
* min_mag() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.  (line  418)
* min_mag() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.  (line  406)
* min_match (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line   92)
* min() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context):   Context objects.    (line  414)
* min() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal):   Decimal objects.    (line  399)
* MINEQUAL (στη μονάδα token):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  298)
* MINIMUM_SUPPORTED (ιδιότητα της ssl.TLSVersion): Constants<9>.
                                                             (line  575)
* minimum_version (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  631)
* minor (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  250)
* minor() (στη μονάδα os):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  631)
* minus:                                 Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   10)
* MINUS (στη μονάδα token):              token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  232)
* minus() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.    (line  422)
* minute (ιδιότητα της datetime.datetime): datetime objects. (line  328)
* minute (ιδιότητα της datetime.time):   time objects.       (line   54)
* MINYEAR (στη μονάδα datetime):         Constants.          (line    8)
* mirrored() (στη μονάδα unicodedata):   unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  123)
* misc_header (ιδιότητα της cmd.Cmd):    Cmd Objects.        (line  159)
* MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect:         email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line  101)
* MISSING (ιδιότητα της contextvars.Token): Context Variables.
                                                             (line  130)
* MISSING (στη μονάδα dataclasses):      Module contents<6>. (line  491)
* MISSING (στη μονάδα sys.monitoring):   Callback function arguments.
                                                             (line    6)
* MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  171)
* missing_compiler_executable() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  705)
* MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect:      email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line  105)
* MissingSectionHeaderError:             Exceptions<8>.      (line   60)
* mkd() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):        FTP objects.        (line  339)
* mkdir() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):    Creating files and directories.
                                                             (line   21)
* mkdir() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects.    (line  345)
* mkdir() (στη μονάδα os):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  513)
* mkdtemp() (στη μονάδα tempfile):       tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  289)
* mkfifo() (στη μονάδα os):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  585)
* mknod() (στη μονάδα os):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  606)
* mkstemp() (στη μονάδα tempfile):       tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  229)
* mktemp() (στη μονάδα tempfile):        Deprecated functions and variables.
                                                             (line   15)
* mktime_tz() (στη μονάδα email.utils):  email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  145)
* mktime() (στη μονάδα time):            Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  187)
* mlsd() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):       FTP objects.        (line  285)
* mmap (κλάση σε mmap):                  mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line   54)
* MMDF (κλάση σε mailbox):               MMDF objects.       (line    6)
* MMDFMessage (κλάση σε mailbox):        MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* Mock (κλάση σε unittest.mock):         The Mock Class.     (line   24)
* mock_add_spec() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  247)
* mock_calls (ιδιότητα της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  521)
* mock_open() (στη μονάδα unittest.mock): mock_open.         (line    6)
* Mod (κλάση σε ast):                    Expressions<2>.     (line   53)
* mod() (στη μονάδα operator):           operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  127)
* mode (ιδιότητα της bz2.BZ2File):       De compression of files.
                                                             (line  128)
* mode (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.ZstdFile): Reading and writing compressed files.
                                                             (line  106)
* mode (ιδιότητα της gzip.GzipFile):     gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip.
                                                             (line  168)
* mode (ιδιότητα της io.FileIO):         Raw File I/O.       (line   55)
* mode (ιδιότητα της lzma.LZMAFile):     Reading and writing compressed files<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* mode (ιδιότητα της statistics.NormalDist): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* mode (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo):   TarInfo Objects.    (line   78)
* mode() (στη μονάδα statistics):        Function details.   (line  323)
* mode() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* modf() (στη μονάδα math):              Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   81)
* modified() (μέθοδος της urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   44)
* modify() (μέθοδος της select.devpoll): /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* modify() (μέθοδος της select.epoll):   Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* modify() (μέθοδος της select.poll):    Polling Objects.    (line   60)
* modify() (μέθοδος της selectors.BaseSelector): Classes.    (line   94)
* module:                                Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1264)
* module (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Class):    Class Objects.      (line   16)
* module (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Function): Function Objects.   (line   15)
* MODULE (ιδιότητα της symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   11)
* Module (κλάση σε ast):                 Root nodes.         (line    6)
* Module browser:                        File menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   22)
* module spec:                           Finders και loaders.
                                                             (line    6)
* module επέκτασης:                      Γλωσσάρι.           (line  621)
* module_from_spec() (στη μονάδα importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  117)
* module; __future__:                    __future__ — Future statement definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; __main__:                      __main__ — Top-level code environment.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; __main__ <1>:                  Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* module; __main__ <2>:                  Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  112)
* module; __main__ <3>:                  Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  198)
* module; _thread:                       _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; _thread <1>:                   High-level APIs.    (line   37)
* module; _tkinter:                      Tkinter Modules.    (line  148)
* module; abc:                           abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; aifc:                          aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; annotationlib:                 annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; argparse:                      argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; array:                         array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ast:                           ast — Abstract syntax trees.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; asynchat:                      asynchat — Διαχειριστής εντολών/απαντήσεων ασύγχρονων υποδοχών.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; asyncio:                       asyncio — Asynchronous I/O.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; asyncore:                      asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; atexit:                        atexit — Exit handlers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; audioop:                       audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; base64:                        base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bdb:                           bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; binascii:                      binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; bisect:                        bisect — Array bisection algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; builtins:                      builtins — Built-in objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; builtins <1>:                  Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* module; builtins <2>:                  Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  112)
* module; builtins <3>:                  Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  198)
* module; bz2:                           bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; calendar:                      calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cgi:                           cgi — Common Gateway Interface support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cgitb:                         cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; chunk:                         chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cmath:                         cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; cmd:                           cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; code:                          code — Interpreter base classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; codecs:                        codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; codeop:                        codeop — Compile Python code.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; collections:                   collections — Container datatypes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; collections.abc:               collections abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; colorsys:                      colorsys — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; compileall:                    compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; compression:                   The compression package.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; compression.zstd:              compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; concurrent.futures:            concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; concurrent.interpreters:       concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; configparser:                  configparser — Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; contextlib:                    contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; contextvars:                   contextvars — Context Variables.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; copy:                          copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; copyreg:                       copyreg — Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; crypt:                         crypt — Function to check Unix passwords.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; csv:                           csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ctypes:                        ctypes — A foreign function library for Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses:                        curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.ascii:                  curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.panel:                  curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; curses.textpad:                curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dataclasses:                   dataclasses — Data Classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; datetime:                      datetime — Basic date and time types.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm:                           dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases».
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.dumb:                      dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.gnu:                       dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.ndbm:                      dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dbm.sqlite3:                   dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; decimal:                       decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; difflib:                       difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; dis:                           dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; distutils:                     distutils — Building and installing Python modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; doctest:                       doctest — Test interactive Python examples.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email:                         email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.charset:                 email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.contentmanager:          email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.encoders:                email encoders Encoders.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.errors:                  email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.generator:               email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.header:                  email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.headerregistry:          email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.iterators:               email iterators Iterators.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.message:                 email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.mime:                    email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.mime.application:        email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   95)
* module; email.mime.audio:              email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  125)
* module; email.mime.base:               email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   30)
* module; email.mime.image:              email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  157)
* module; email.mime.message:            email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  190)
* module; email.mime.multipart:          email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   66)
* module; email.mime.nonmultipart:       email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line   55)
* module; email.mime.text:               email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch.
                                                             (line  208)
* module; email.parser:                  email parser Parsing email messages.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.policy:                  email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; email.utils:                   email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings:                     encodings — Encodings package.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.idna:                encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.mbcs:                encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; encodings.utf_8_sig:           encodings utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ensurepip:                     ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; enum:                          enum — Support for enumerations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; errno:                         errno — Standard errno system symbols.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; faulthandler:                  faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fcntl:                         fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; filecmp:                       filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fileinput:                     fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fnmatch:                       fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; fractions:                     fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ftplib:                        ftplib — FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; functools:                     functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gc:                            gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; getopt:                        getopt — C-style parser for command line options.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; getpass:                       getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gettext:                       gettext — Multilingual internationalization services.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; glob:                          glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; graphlib:                      graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; grp:                           grp — The group database.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; gzip:                          gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; hashlib:                       hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; heapq:                         heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; hmac:                          hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html:                          html — HyperText Markup Language support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html.entities:                 html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; html.parser:                   html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http:                          http — HTTP modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.client:                   http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.cookiejar:                http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.cookies:                  http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; http.server:                   http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; idlelib:                       idlelib — implementation of IDLE application.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; imaplib:                       imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; imghdr:                        imghdr — Determine the type of an image.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; imp:                           imp — Access the import internals.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib:                     importlib — The implementation of import.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.abc:                 importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.machinery:           importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.metadata:            importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.resources:           importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.resources.abc:       importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; importlib.util:                importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; inspect:                       inspect — Inspect live objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; io:                            io — Core tools for working with streams.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ipaddress:                     ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; itertools:                     itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; json:                          json — JSON encoder and decoder.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; json.tool:                     Command-line interface<4>.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; keyword:                       keyword — Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; linecache:                     linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; locale:                        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging:                       logging — Logging facility for Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging.config:                logging config — Logging configuration.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; logging.handlers:              logging handlers — Logging handlers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; lzma:                          lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mailbox:                       mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mailcap:                       mailcap — Mailcap file handling.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; marshal:                       marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; math:                          math — Mathematical functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; math.integer:                  math integer — integer-specific mathematics functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mimetypes:                     mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; mmap:                          mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; modulefinder:                  modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; msilib:                        msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; msvcrt:                        msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing:               multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.connection:    Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.dummy:         The multiprocessing dummy module.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.managers:      Managers.           (line   19)
* module; multiprocessing.pool:          Process Pools.      (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.shared_memory: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; multiprocessing.sharedctypes:  The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; netrc:                         netrc — netrc file processing.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; nis:                           nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; nntplib:                       nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; numbers:                       numbers — Numeric abstract base classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; operator:                      operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; optparse:                      optparse — Parser for command line options.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; os:                            os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; os.path:                       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ossaudiodev:                   ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pathlib:                       pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pathlib.types:                 Protocols.          (line    6)
* module; pdb:                           pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pickle:                        pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pickletools:                   pickletools — Tools for pickle developers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pipes:                         pipes — Interface to shell pipelines.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pkgutil:                       pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; platform:                      platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; plistlib:                      plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; poplib:                        poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; posix:                         posix — The most common POSIX system calls.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pprint:                        pprint — Data pretty printer.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; profile:                       profile — Pure Python profiler.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; profiling:                     profiling — Python profilers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; profiling.sampling:            profiling sampling — Statistical profiler.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; profiling.tracing:             profiling tracing — Deterministic profiler.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pstats:                        pstats — Statistics for profilers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pty:                           pty — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pwd:                           pwd — Η βάση δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; py_compile:                    py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pyclbr:                        pyclbr — Python module browser support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; pydoc:                         pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; queue:                         queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; quopri:                        quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; random:                        random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; re:                            re — Regular expression operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; readline:                      readline — GNU readline interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; reprlib:                       reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; resource:                      resource — Resource usage information.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; rlcompleter:                   rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; runpy:                         runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sched:                         sched — Event scheduler.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; search; path:                  Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* module; secrets:                       secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; select:                        select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; selectors:                     selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shelve:                        shelve — Python object persistence.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shlex:                         shlex — Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; shutil:                        shutil — High-level file operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; signal:                        signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; site:                          site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sitecustomize:                 sitecustomize.      (line    6)
* module; smtpd:                         smtpd — SMTP Server.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; smtplib:                       smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sndhdr:                        sndhdr — Determine type of sound file.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; socket:                        socket — Low-level networking interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; socketserver:                  socketserver — A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; spwd:                          spwd — The shadow password database.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sqlite3:                       sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; ssl:                           ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; stat:                          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; statistics:                    statistics — Mathematical statistics functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; string:                        string — Common string operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; string.templatelib:            string templatelib — Support for template string literals.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; stringprep:                    stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; struct:                        struct — Ερμηνεία bytes ως πακετοποιημένα δυαδικά δεδομένα.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; subprocess:                    subprocess — Subprocess management.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sunau:                         sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; symtable:                      symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sys:                           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sys <1>:                       Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* module; sys <2>:                       Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  112)
* module; sys <3>:                       Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  198)
* module; sys.monitoring:                sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; sysconfig:                     sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; syslog:                        syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tabnanny:                      tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tarfile:                       tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; telnetlib:                     telnetlib — Telnet client.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tempfile:                      tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; termios:                       termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test:                          test — Regression tests package for Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.regrtest:                 Running tests using the command-line interface.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support:                  test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.bytecode_helper:  test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.import_helper:    test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.os_helper:        test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.script_helper:    test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.socket_helper:    test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.threading_helper: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; test.support.warnings_helper:  test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; textwrap:                      textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; threading:                     threading — Thread-based parallelism.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; time:                          time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; timeit:                        timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter:                       tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.colorchooser:          tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.commondialog:          tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.dnd:                   tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.filedialog:            tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.font:                  tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.messagebox:            tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.scrolledtext:          tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.simpledialog:          tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tkinter.ttk:                   tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; token:                         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tokenize:                      tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tomllib:                       tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; trace:                         trace — Ιχνηλάτηση ή παρακολούθηση εκτέλεσης εντολών Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; traceback:                     traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tracemalloc:                   tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; tty:                           tty — Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; turtle:                        turtle — Turtle graphics.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; turtledemo:                    turtledemo — Demo scripts.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; types:                         types — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; typing:                        typing — Support for type hints.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unicodedata:                   unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unittest:                      unittest — Unit testing framework.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; unittest.mock:                 unittest mock — mock object library.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib:                        urllib — URL handling modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.error:                  urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.parse:                  urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.request:                urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.response:               urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; urllib.robotparser:            urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; usercustomize:                 usercustomize.      (line    6)
* module; uu:                            uu — Encode and decode uuencode files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; uuid:                          uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line    8)
* module; venv:                          venv — Creation of virtual environments.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; warnings:                      warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wave:                          wave — Read and write WAV files.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; weakref:                       weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; webbrowser:                    webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; winreg:                        winreg — Windows registry access.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; winsound:                      winsound — Διεπαφή αναπαραγωγής ήχου για Windows.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref:                       wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.handlers:              wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.headers:               wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.simple_server:         wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.types:                 wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.util:                  wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; wsgiref.validate:              wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xdrlib:                        xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml:                           XML Processing Modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.dom:                       xml dom — The Document Object Model API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.dom.minidom:               xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.dom.pulldom:               xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.etree.ElementInclude:      Functions<8>.       (line    6)
* module; xml.etree.ElementTree:         xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat:             xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat.errors:      Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.parsers.expat.model:       Περιγραφές Μοντέλου Περιεχομένου.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax:                       xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.handler:               xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.saxutils:              xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xml.sax.xmlreader:             xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc:                        xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc.client:                 xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; xmlrpc.server:                 xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipapp:                        zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipfile:                       zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zipimport:                     zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zlib:                          zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line    6)
* module; zoneinfo:                      zoneinfo — IANA time zone support.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;__main__:                       Επίλυση ονομάτων.   (line   61)
* module;__main__ <1>:                   Πλήρη προγράμματα Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;__main__ <2>:                   Πλήρη προγράμματα Python.
                                                             (line   19)
* module;__main__ <3>:                   runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   29)
* module;__main__ <4>:                   runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  102)
* module;__main__ <5>:                   Embedding Python.   (line   12)
* module;_locale:                        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   16)
* module;base64:                         binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;bdb:                            pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line   17)
* module;builtins:                       Η συνάρτηση dir.    (line   48)
* module;builtins <1>:                   Πλήρη προγράμματα Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;builtins <2>:                   Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2429)
* module;builtins <3>:                   Embedding Python.   (line   12)
* module;cmd:                            pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line   17)
* module;copy:                           copyreg — Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;dbm.gnu:                        Λεξικά.             (line   26)
* module;dbm.gnu <1>:                    Restrictions.       (line    6)
* module;dbm.ndbm:                       Λεξικά.             (line   26)
* module;dbm.ndbm <1>:                   Restrictions.       (line    6)
* module;errno:                          Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  163)
* module;glob:                           fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   34)
* module;io:                             Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;json:                           Αποθήκευση δομημένων δεδομένων με json.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;math:                           Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line  131)
* module;math <1>:                       Constants<3>.       (line   47)
* module;os:                             posix — The most common POSIX system calls.
                                                             (line   14)
* module;pickle:                         copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   75)
* module;pickle <1>:                     copyreg — Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;pickle <2>:                     shelve — Python object persistence.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;pickle <3>:                     marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   15)
* module;pty:                            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  480)
* module;pwd:                            os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  152)
* module;pyexpat:                        xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat.
                                                             (line   19)
* module;re:                             Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;re <1>:                         fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;search;path:                    linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   30)
* module;search;path <1>:                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1516)
* module;search;path <2>:                site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   14)
* module;search;path <3>:                Embedding Python.   (line   12)
* module;shelve:                         marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   15)
* module;signal:                         _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  197)
* module;signal <1>:                     Signal Handling<2>. (line    7)
* module;signal <2>:                     Signal Handling<2>. (line   57)
* module;signal <3>:                     Signal Handling<2>. (line   67)
* module;socket:                         Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;stat:                           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1123)
* module;struct:                         Socket Objects.     (line  567)
* module;sys:                            Standard Modules.   (line    6)
* module;sys <1>:                        except clause.      (line   60)
* module;sys <2>:                        Πλήρη προγράμματα Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;sys <3>:                        Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1588)
* module;sys <4>:                        Embedding Python.   (line   12)
* module;urllib.request:                 http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* module;αναζήτηση;path:                 Το Search Path του Module.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;εισαγωγή:                       Η εντολή import.    (line    6)
* module;πεδίο ονομάτων:                 Modules<3>.         (line   22)
* module;πίνακας:                        Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   10)
* module;πίνακας <1>:                    Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* module;συλλογές:                       Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   11)
* module;τύποι:                          Τύποι Αντικειμένων. (line    6)
* ModuleFinder (κλάση σε modulefinder):  modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   26)
* ModuleInfo (κλάση σε pkgutil):         pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   13)
* ModuleNotFoundError:                   Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   72)
* modules (in module sys):               Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* modules (in module sys) <1>:           Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* modules (ιδιότητα της modulefinder.ModuleFinder): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   49)
* modules (στη μονάδα sys):              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1489)
* modules_cleanup() (στη μονάδα test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   71)
* modules_setup() (στη μονάδα test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   67)
* ModuleSpec (κλάση σε importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  382)
* ModuleType (in module types):          Module Objects.     (line    7)
* ModuleType (κλάση σε types):           Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  130)
* modulo:                                Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   50)
* modulus (ιδιότητα της sys.hash_info):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1138)
* MON_1 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* MON_10 (στη μονάδα locale):            locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* MON_11 (στη μονάδα locale):            locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* MON_12 (στη μονάδα locale):            locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* MON_2 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* MON_3 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* MON_4 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* MON_5 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* MON_6 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* MON_7 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* MON_8 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* MON_9 (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  251)
* MONDAY (στη μονάδα calendar):          calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  450)
* monotonic_ns() (στη μονάδα time):      Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  235)
* monotonic() (στη μονάδα time):         Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  201)
* month (ιδιότητα της calendar.IllegalMonthError): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  561)
* month (ιδιότητα της datetime.date):    date objects.       (line  152)
* month (ιδιότητα της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.  (line  315)
* Month (κλάση σε calendar):             calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  541)
* month_abbr (στη μονάδα calendar):      calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  490)
* month_name (στη μονάδα calendar):      calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  471)
* month() (στη μονάδα calendar):         calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  406)
* monthcalendar() (στη μονάδα calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  395)
* monthdatescalendar() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  110)
* monthdays2calendar() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  116)
* monthdayscalendar() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  122)
* monthrange() (στη μονάδα calendar):    calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  390)
* Morsel (κλάση σε http.cookies):        Morsel Objects.     (line    6)
* most_common() (μέθοδος της collections.Counter): Counter objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* mouseinterval() (στη μονάδα curses):   Functions<4>.       (line  307)
* mousemask() (στη μονάδα curses):       Functions<4>.       (line  314)
* move_into() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Copying moving and deleting.
                                                             (line  101)
* move_to_end() (μέθοδος της collections.OrderedDict): OrderedDict objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* move() (μέθοδος της curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.    (line   35)
* move() (μέθοδος της curses.window):    Window Objects.     (line  403)
* move() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):        mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  260)
* move() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):     Copying moving and deleting.
                                                             (line   84)
* move() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.   (line  211)
* move() (στη μονάδα shutil):            Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  346)
* MozillaCookieJar (κλάση σε http.cookiejar): FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers.
                                                             (line    9)
* MRO:                                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1281)
* mro() (μέθοδος της type):              Ειδικές μέθοδοι.    (line    9)
* MS_ASYNC (στη μονάδα mmap):            MS_* Constants.     (line    6)
* MS_INVALIDATE (στη μονάδα mmap):       MS_* Constants.     (line    6)
* MS_SYNC (στη μονάδα mmap):             MS_* Constants.     (line    6)
* msg (ιδιότητα της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* msg (ιδιότητα της json.JSONDecodeError): Exceptions<18>.   (line   11)
* msg (ιδιότητα της netrc.NetrcParseError): netrc — netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   52)
* msg (ιδιότητα της re.PatternError):    Exceptions.         (line   15)
* msg (ιδιότητα της tomllib.TOMLDecodeError): tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   73)
* msg (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  122)
* mtime (ιδιότητα της gzip.GzipFile):    gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip.
                                                             (line  175)
* mtime (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo):  TarInfo Objects.    (line   69)
* mtime() (μέθοδος της urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   38)
* mul() (στη μονάδα operator):           operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  132)
* Mult (κλάση σε ast):                   Expressions<2>.     (line   53)
* MultiCall (κλάση σε xmlrpc.client):    MultiCall Objects.  (line    9)
* MULTILINE (στη μονάδα re):             Flags.              (line   82)
* MultilineContinuationError:            Exceptions<8>.      (line   73)
* multimode() (στη μονάδα statistics):   Function details.   (line  357)
* MultipartConversionError:              email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line   44)
* MultipartInvariantViolationDefect:     email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line  121)
* multiplication:                        Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* multiply() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects. (line  427)
* mutable:                               Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1285)
* MutableMapping (κλάση σε collections.abc): Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  125)
* MutableMapping (κλάση σε typing):      Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   88)
* MutableSequence (κλάση σε collections.abc): Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line   69)
* MutableSequence (κλάση σε typing):     Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   96)
* MutableSet (κλάση σε collections.abc): Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  120)
* MutableSet (κλάση σε typing):          Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  104)
* mvderwin() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  407)
* mvwin() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  414)
* myrights() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.     (line  239)
* N_TOKENS (στη μονάδα token):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  354)
* n_waiting (ιδιότητα της asyncio.Barrier): Barrier.         (line   97)
* n_waiting (ιδιότητα της threading.Barrier): Barrier objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* NAK (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   87)
* name:                                  Identifiers Names.  (line    6)
* name (ιδιότητα της AttributeError):    Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   22)
* name (ιδιότητα της bz2.BZ2File):       De compression of files.
                                                             (line  134)
* name (ιδιότητα της codecs.CodecInfo):  codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line   82)
* name (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.ZstdFile): Reading and writing compressed files.
                                                             (line  110)
* name (ιδιότητα της contextvars.ContextVar): Context Variables.
                                                             (line   24)
* name (ιδιότητα της ctypes.CField):     Structured data types.
                                                             (line  247)
* name (ιδιότητα της doctest.DocTest):   DocTest Objects.    (line   29)
* name (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.BaseHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* name (ιδιότητα της enum.Enum):         Data types.         (line  124)
* name (ιδιότητα της gzip.GzipFile):     gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip.
                                                             (line  184)
* name (ιδιότητα της hashlib.hash):      Hash Objects.       (line   19)
* name (ιδιότητα της hmac.HMAC):         hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line  104)
* name (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* name (ιδιότητα της ImportError):       Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   61)
* name (ιδιότητα της importlib.abc.FileLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  309)
* name (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.AppleFrameworkLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  518)
* name (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  324)
* name (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  398)
* name (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  246)
* name (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  283)
* name (ιδιότητα της importlib.metadata.Distribution): Distributions.
                                                             (line   76)
* name (ιδιότητα της importlib.metadata.DistributionFinder.Context): Distribution Discovery.
                                                             (line   49)
* name (ιδιότητα της importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   97)
* name (ιδιότητα της inspect.Parameter): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  224)
* name (ιδιότητα της io.FileIO):         Raw File I/O.       (line   59)
* name (ιδιότητα της logging.Logger):    Logger Objects.     (line   26)
* name (ιδιότητα της lzma.LZMAFile):     Reading and writing compressed files<2>.
                                                             (line  104)
* name (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  115)
* name (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  120)
* name (ιδιότητα της NameError):         Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  134)
* name (ιδιότητα της os.DirEntry):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  951)
* name (ιδιότητα της pathlib.PurePath):  Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  122)
* NAME (ιδιότητα της pstats.SortKey):    The Stats class.    (line  214)
* name (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Class):      Class Objects.      (line   20)
* name (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Function):   Function Objects.   (line   19)
* name (ιδιότητα της sys.thread_info):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2222)
* name (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo):   TarInfo Objects.    (line   61)
* name (ιδιότητα της tempfile.TemporaryDirectory): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  194)
* name (ιδιότητα της threading.Thread):  Thread objects.     (line  180)
* name (ιδιότητα της traceback.FrameSummary): FrameSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* name (ιδιότητα της webbrowser.controller): Browser controller objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* name (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Attr):      Attr Objects.       (line    8)
* name (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.DocumentType): DocumentType Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* name (ιδιότητα της zipfile.Path):      Path objects.       (line   31)
* Name (κλάση σε ast):                   Variables.          (line    6)
* name (στη μονάδα os):                  os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces.
                                                             (line   55)
* NAME (στη μονάδα token):               token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   45)
* name;binding:                          Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* name;binding <1>:                      Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* name;binding <2>:                      Class definitions.  (line    6)
* name;mangling:                         Identifiers Names.  (line   15)
* name() (στη μονάδα unicodedata):       unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   40)
* name2codepoint (στη μονάδα html.entities): html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities.
                                                             (line   30)
* named expression:                      Boolean operations. (line   38)
* Named Shared Memory:                   multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   10)
* named tuple:                           Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1294)
* NAMED_FLAGS (ιδιότητα της enum.EnumCheck): Data types.     (line  688)
* NamedExpr (κλάση σε ast):              Expressions<2>.     (line  182)
* NamedTemporaryFile() (στη μονάδα tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line   74)
* NamedTuple (κλάση σε typing):          Other special directives.
                                                             (line   10)
* namedtuple() (στη μονάδα collections): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields.
                                                             (line   11)
* NameError:                             Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  126)
* NameError (ενσωματωμένη εξαίρεση):     Επίλυση ονομάτων.   (line   18)
* namelist() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects. (line  129)
* nameprep() (στη μονάδα encodings.idna): encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   49)
* namer (ιδιότητα της logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   17)
* namereplace_errors() (στη μονάδα codecs): Error Handlers.  (line  181)
* namereplace;error handler's name:      Error Handlers.     (line   54)
* names() (στη μονάδα tkinter.font):     tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   92)
* namespace:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1325)
* Namespace (κλάση σε argparse):         The Namespace object.
                                                             (line    6)
* Namespace (κλάση σε multiprocessing.managers): Managers.   (line  254)
* NAMESPACE_DNS (στη μονάδα uuid):       uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  274)
* NAMESPACE_OID (στη μονάδα uuid):       uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  283)
* NAMESPACE_URL (στη μονάδα uuid):       uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  279)
* NAMESPACE_X500 (στη μονάδα uuid):      uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  287)
* namespace() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.    (line  244)
* Namespace() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  193)
* NamespaceErr:                          Exceptions<21>.     (line   66)
* NamespaceLoader (κλάση σε importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  365)
* NamespacePath (κλάση σε importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  204)
* namespaceURI (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.    (line   74)
* nametofont() (στη μονάδα tkinter.font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   96)
* NaN:                                   Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  791)
* nan (ιδιότητα της sys.hash_info):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1146)
* nan (στη μονάδα cmath):                Constants<3>.       (line   33)
* nan (στη μονάδα math):                 Constants<2>.       (line   31)
* nanj (στη μονάδα cmath):               Constants<3>.       (line   40)
* NannyNag:                              tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   37)
* napms() (στη μονάδα curses):           Functions<4>.       (line  323)
* nargs (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option):  Option attributes.  (line   50)
* native code:                           Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1355)
* native_id (ιδιότητα της threading.Thread): Thread objects. (line  213)
* nb_workers (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  222)
* nbytes (ιδιότητα της memoryview):      Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  420)
* ncurses_version (στη μονάδα curses):   Constants<6>.       (line   22)
* ND (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.       (line   21)
* ndiff() (στη μονάδα difflib):          difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  231)
* ndim (ιδιότητα της memoryview):        Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  487)
* ne() (στη μονάδα operator):            operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   24)
* needs_input (ιδιότητα της bz2.BZ2Decompressor): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   85)
* needs_input (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.ZstdDecompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  224)
* needs_input (ιδιότητα της lzma.LZMADecompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>.
                                                             (line  173)
* neg() (στη μονάδα operator):           operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  144)
* negation:                              Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   10)
* nested scope:                          Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1363)
* nested_scopes (στη μονάδα __future__): Module Contents<2>. (line   14)
* netmask (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  101)
* netmask (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  316)
* NetmaskValueError:                     Custom Exceptions.  (line   13)
* netrc (κλάση σε netrc):                netrc — netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   13)
* NetrcParseError:                       netrc — netrc file processing.
                                                             (line   46)
* netscape (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   67)
* network (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Interface): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* network (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Interface): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* network_address (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* network_address (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  310)
* Never (στη μονάδα typing):             Special types.      (line   99)
* NEVER_EQ (στη μονάδα test.support):    test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  196)
* new_child() (μέθοδος της collections.ChainMap): ChainMap objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* new_class() (στη μονάδα types):        Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων.
                                                             (line    6)
* new_event_loop() (μέθοδος της asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* new_event_loop() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Event loop.         (line   71)
* new_panel() (στη μονάδα curses.panel): Functions<5>.       (line   12)
* new() (στη μονάδα hashlib):            Constructors.       (line    6)
* new() (στη μονάδα hmac):               hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   15)
* newfunc (C type):                      Slot Type typedefs. (line   31)
* NEWLINE (στη μονάδα token):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   75)
* NEWLINE token:                         Compound statements.
                                                             (line   55)
* newlines (ιδιότητα της io.TextIOBase): Text I/O<2>.        (line   24)
* newpad() (στη μονάδα curses):          Functions<4>.       (line  327)
* NewType (κλάση σε typing):             Other special directives.
                                                             (line   95)
* newwin() (στη μονάδα curses):          Functions<4>.       (line  347)
* next (pdb command):                    Debugger commands.  (line  212)
* next_minus() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  431)
* next_minus() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  411)
* next_plus() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  435)
* next_plus() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  417)
* next_toward() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  439)
* next_toward() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  423)
* next() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarFile):  TarFile Objects.    (line  132)
* next() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.   (line  222)
* nextafter() (στη μονάδα math):         Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   98)
* nextfile() (στη μονάδα fileinput):     fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams.
                                                             (line  121)
* nextkey() (μέθοδος της dbm.gnu.gdbm):  dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line  108)
* nextSibling (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.     (line   42)
* NFL (ιδιότητα της pstats.SortKey):     The Stats class.    (line  218)
* ngettext() (μέθοδος της gettext.GNUTranslations): The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   47)
* ngettext() (μέθοδος της gettext.NullTranslations): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   41)
* ngettext() (στη μονάδα gettext):       GNU gettext API.    (line   44)
* nice() (στη μονάδα os):                Process Management. (line  360)
* NIL (στη μονάδα uuid):                 uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  315)
* NL (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   54)
* NL (στη μονάδα token):                 token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   79)
* nl_langinfo() (στη μονάδα locale):     locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  187)
* nl() (στη μονάδα curses):              Functions<4>.       (line  357)
* nlargest() (στη μονάδα heapq):         heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line  169)
* nlst() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):       FTP objects.        (line  300)
* NO (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox):    tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  159)
* no_animation() (στη μονάδα turtle):    Animation control.  (line    6)
* no_cache() (μέθοδος κλάσης της zoneinfo.ZoneInfo): The ZoneInfo class.
                                                             (line   44)
* NO_EVENTS (monitoring event):          Events.             (line  105)
* no_proxy:                              urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  352)
* no_site (ιδιότητα της sys.flags):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  597)
* no_tracing() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  565)
* no_type_check() (στη μονάδα typing):   Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  348)
* no_user_site (ιδιότητα της sys.flags): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  594)
* NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect:           email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line   80)
* nocbreak() (στη μονάδα curses):        Functions<4>.       (line  363)
* NoDataAllowedErr:                      Exceptions<21>.     (line   83)
* node (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):         uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  126)
* node() (στη μονάδα platform):          Cross Platform.     (line   49)
* NoDefault (στη μονάδα typing):         Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line  208)
* nodelay() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line  418)
* nodeName (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Node):  Node Objects.       (line   79)
* NodeTransformer (κλάση σε ast):        ast helpers.        (line  227)
* nodeType (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Node):  Node Objects.       (line    8)
* NODEV (στη μονάδα os):                 Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  641)
* nodeValue (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.       (line   88)
* NodeVisitor (κλάση σε ast):            ast helpers.        (line  187)
* noecho() (στη μονάδα curses):          Functions<4>.       (line  368)
* NOEXPR (στη μονάδα locale):            locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  296)
* NoExtraItems (στη μονάδα typing):      Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line  222)
* NOFLAG (στη μονάδα re):                Flags.              (line   96)
* NoModificationAllowedErr:              Exceptions<21>.     (line   88)
* non-deterministic:                     Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1384)
* NonCallableMagicMock (κλάση σε unittest.mock): Magic Mock. (line   22)
* NonCallableMock (κλάση σε unittest.mock): The Mock Class.  (line  579)
* None (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή):         Built-in Constants. (line   18)
* None (Ενσωματωμένο (Built-in) αντικείμενο): Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής.
                                                             (line   18)
* NoneType (στη μονάδα types):           Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line   20)
* nonl() (στη μονάδα curses):            Functions<4>.       (line  372)
* Nonlocal (κλάση σε ast):               Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  145)
* nonmember() (στη μονάδα enum):         Utilities and decorators.
                                                             (line   86)
* noop() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  248)
* noop() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line   79)
* NoOptionError:                         Exceptions<8>.      (line   32)
* NOP (opcode):                          Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  134)
* noqiflush() (στη μονάδα curses):       Functions<4>.       (line  382)
* noraw() (στη μονάδα curses):           Functions<4>.       (line  390)
* NoReturn (στη μονάδα typing):          Special types.      (line   99)
* NORMAL (στη μονάδα tkinter.font):      tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   15)
* NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   96)
* NormalDist (κλάση σε statistics):      NormalDist objects. (line   13)
* normalize_encoding() (στη μονάδα encodings): encodings — Encodings package.
                                                             (line    8)
* NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE (στη μονάδα doctest): Option Flags.   (line   37)
* normalize() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  443)
* normalize() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  431)
* normalize() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.      (line  141)
* normalize() (στη μονάδα locale):       locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  447)
* normalize() (στη μονάδα unicodedata):  unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  189)
* normalvariate() (στη μονάδα random):   Πραγματικές κατανομές.
                                                             (line   90)
* normcase() (στη μονάδα os.path):       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  361)
* normpath() (στη μονάδα os.path):       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  370)
* NoSectionError:                        Exceptions<8>.      (line   10)
* NoSuchMailboxError:                    Exceptions<19>.     (line   12)
* Not (κλάση σε ast):                    Expressions<2>.     (line   27)
* not_() (στη μονάδα operator):          operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   49)
* NOT_TAKEN (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  139)
* NotADirectoryError:                    OS exceptions.      (line   89)
* notationDecl() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler): DTDHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line    8)
* NotationDeclHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  469)
* notations (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.DocumentType): DocumentType Objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* NotConnected:                          http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  147)
* Notebook (κλάση σε tkinter.ttk):       ttk Notebook.       (line    6)
* NotEmptyError:                         Exceptions<19>.     (line   19)
* NotEq (κλάση σε ast):                  Expressions<2>.     (line  108)
* NOTEQUAL (στη μονάδα token):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  271)
* NotFoundErr:                           Exceptions<21>.     (line   72)
* notify_all() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Condition): Condition.   (line   67)
* notify_all() (μέθοδος της threading.Condition): Condition objects.
                                                             (line  178)
* notify() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Condition): Condition.       (line   54)
* notify() (μέθοδος της threading.Condition): Condition objects.
                                                             (line  159)
* notimeout() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.   (line  422)
* NotImplemented (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή): Built-in Constants.
                                                             (line   25)
* NotImplementedError:                   Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  140)
* NotImplementedType (στη μονάδα types): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  110)
* NotIn (κλάση σε ast):                  Expressions<2>.     (line  108)
* NotRequired (στη μονάδα typing):       Special forms.      (line  266)
* NOTSET (στη μονάδα logging):           Logging Levels.     (line   16)
* NotShareableError:                     Exceptions<12>.     (line   26)
* NotStandaloneHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  523)
* NotSupportedErr:                       Exceptions<21>.     (line   78)
* NotSupportedError:                     Exceptions<6>.      (line   85)
* noutrefresh() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects. (line  430)
* NOVEMBER (στη μονάδα calendar):        calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* now() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* npgettext() (μέθοδος της gettext.GNUTranslations): The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   79)
* npgettext() (μέθοδος της gettext.NullTranslations): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   55)
* npgettext() (στη μονάδα gettext):      GNU gettext API.    (line   67)
* NSIG (στη μονάδα signal):              Module contents<4>. (line  239)
* nsmallest() (στη μονάδα heapq):        heapq — Heap queue algorithm.
                                                             (line  177)
* NTEventLogHandler (κλάση σε logging.handlers): NTEventLogHandler.
                                                             (line   11)
* ntohl() (στη μονάδα socket):           Other functions<2>. (line  234)
* ntohs() (στη μονάδα socket):           Other functions<2>. (line  241)
* ntransfercmd() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP): FTP objects.      (line  277)
* NUL (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   18)
* null;λειτουργία:                       Η έκφραση pass.     (line    6)
* null;λειτουργία <1>:                   Η έκφραση pass.     (line    6)
* nullcontext() (στη μονάδα contextlib): Utilities.          (line  217)
* NullHandler (κλάση σε logging):        NullHandler.        (line   12)
* NullTranslations (κλάση σε gettext):   The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   13)
* num_addresses (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  128)
* num_addresses (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  328)
* num_tickets (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.   (line  638)
* Number (κλάση σε numbers):             numbers — Numeric abstract base classes.
                                                             (line   15)
* NUMBER (στη μονάδα token):             token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   49)
* number_class() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  447)
* number_class() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  454)
* numerator (ιδιότητα της fractions.Fraction): fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line  113)
* numerator (ιδιότητα της numbers.Rational): The numeric tower.
                                                             (line   51)
* numeric() (στη μονάδα unicodedata):    unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line   71)
* numinput() (στη μονάδα turtle):        Input methods.      (line   22)
* O_APPEND (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  420)
* O_ASYNC (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  462)
* O_BINARY (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  442)
* O_CLOEXEC (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  430)
* O_CREAT (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  420)
* O_DIRECT (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  462)
* O_DIRECTORY (στη μονάδα os):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  462)
* O_DSYNC (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  430)
* O_EVTONLY (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  452)
* O_EXCL (στη μονάδα os):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  420)
* O_EXLOCK (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  462)
* O_FSYNC (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  452)
* O_NDELAY (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  430)
* O_NOATIME (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  462)
* O_NOCTTY (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  430)
* O_NOFOLLOW (στη μονάδα os):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  462)
* O_NOFOLLOW_ANY (στη μονάδα os):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  452)
* O_NOINHERIT (στη μονάδα os):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  442)
* O_NONBLOCK (στη μονάδα os):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  430)
* O_PATH (στη μονάδα os):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  462)
* O_RANDOM (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  442)
* O_RDONLY (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  420)
* O_RDWR (στη μονάδα os):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  420)
* O_RSYNC (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  430)
* O_SEQUENTIAL (στη μονάδα os):          File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  442)
* O_SHLOCK (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  462)
* O_SHORT_LIVED (στη μονάδα os):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  442)
* O_SYMLINK (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  452)
* O_SYNC (στη μονάδα os):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  430)
* O_TEMPORARY (στη μονάδα os):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  442)
* O_TEXT (στη μονάδα os):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  442)
* O_TMPFILE (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  462)
* O_TRUNC (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  420)
* O_WRONLY (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  420)
* obj (ιδιότητα της AttributeError):     Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   26)
* obj (ιδιότητα της memoryview):         Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  409)
* object (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):           Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1361)
* object (ιδιότητα της UnicodeError):    Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  471)
* object;asynchronous-generator:         Asynchronous generator functions.
                                                             (line   66)
* object;built-in function:              Calls.              (line  142)
* object;built-in method:                Calls.              (line  142)
* object;bytearray:                      Byte Array Objects. (line    6)
* object;bytes:                          Bytes Objects.      (line    9)
* object;callable:                       Formal subscription grammar.
                                                             (line   16)
* object;Capsule:                        Capsules<2>.        (line    6)
* object;class:                          Calls.              (line  148)
* object;class <1>:                      Class definitions.  (line    6)
* object;class instance:                 Calls.              (line  152)
* object;code:                           marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line   36)
* object;code <1>:                       Cell Objects.       (line   58)
* object;complex number:                 Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;deallocation:                   Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary:                     Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary <1>:                 Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;dictionary <2>:                 Dictionary objects. (line    6)
* object;file:                           Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;file <1>:                       File objects.       (line    6)
* object;finalization:                   Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;floating-point:                 Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;frozenset:                      Set Objects.        (line    6)
* object;function:                       Calls.              (line  132)
* object;function <1>:                   Calls.              (line  142)
* object;function <2>:                   Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;function <3>:                   Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;generator:                      Generator expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;generator <1>:                  Yield expressions.  (line  110)
* object;instance:                       Calls.              (line  152)
* object;instancemethod:                 Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;integer:                        Integer Objects.    (line    6)
* object;list:                           List displays.      (line    6)
* object;list <1>:                       Attribute references.
                                                             (line   10)
* object;list <2>:                       Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;list <3>:                       Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line   70)
* object;list <4>:                       List Objects.       (line    6)
* object;long integer:                   Integer Objects.    (line    6)
* object;mapping:                        Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;mapping <1>:                    Container Objects.  (line    6)
* object;memoryview:                     Ellipsis Object.    (line   19)
* object;method:                         Calls.              (line  142)
* object;method <1>:                     Method Objects.     (line    6)
* object;module:                         Attribute references.
                                                             (line   10)
* object;module <1>:                     Module Objects.     (line    6)
* object;None:                           The None Object.    (line    6)
* object;numeric:                        Numeric Objects.    (line    6)
* object;PickleBuffer:                   MemoryView objects. (line   82)
* object;sequence:                       Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;sequence <1>:                   Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line   70)
* object;sequence <2>:                   Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* object;sequence <3>:                   The for statement.  (line    6)
* object;sequence <4>:                   Sequence Objects.   (line    6)
* object;set:                            Set displays.       (line    6)
* object;set <1>:                        Set Objects.        (line    6)
* object;socket:                         socket — Low-level networking interface.
                                                             (line   22)
* object;string:                         Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;string <1>:                     Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line   70)
* object;traceback:                      except clause.      (line   60)
* object;traceback <1>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  499)
* object;traceback <2>:                  traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback.
                                                             (line   19)
* object;tuple:                          Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;tuple <1>:                      Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line   70)
* object;tuple <2>:                      Expression lists.   (line   13)
* object;tuple <3>:                      Tuple Objects.      (line    6)
* object;type:                           Objects Types and Reference Counts.
                                                             (line    6)
* object;type <1>:                       Type Objects.       (line    6)
* object;user-defined function:          Calls.              (line  132)
* object;user-defined function <1>:      Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* object.__match_args__ (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή): Προσαρμογή ορισμάτων θέσης στην αντιστοίχιση προτύπων κλάσης.
                                                             (line   12)
* object.__slots__ (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή): __slots__<2>.   (line   15)
* objobjargproc (C type):                Slot Type typedefs. (line  137)
* objobjproc (C type):                   Slot Type typedefs. (line  133)
* octdigits (στη μονάδα string):         String constants.   (line   32)
* OCTOBER (στη μονάδα calendar):         calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* offset (ιδιότητα της ctypes.CField):   Structured data types.
                                                             (line  255)
* offset (ιδιότητα της SyntaxError):     Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  345)
* offset (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.    (line  149)
* offset (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  110)
* offset (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError): Εξαιρέσεις ExpatError.
                                                             (line   33)
* offset_data (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.
                                                             (line  153)
* OK (στη μονάδα curses):                Constants<6>.       (line   13)
* OK (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox):    tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  153)
* ok_command() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.LoadFileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  140)
* ok_command() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.SaveFileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  150)
* ok_event() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  119)
* OKCANCEL (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  171)
* old_value (ιδιότητα της contextvars.Token): Context Variables.
                                                             (line  123)
* OleDLL (κλάση σε ctypes):              Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  138)
* oledll (στη μονάδα ctypes):            Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  223)
* on_motion() (μέθοδος της tkinter.dnd.DndHandler): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   56)
* on_release() (μέθοδος της tkinter.dnd.DndHandler): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support.
                                                             (line   61)
* onclick() (στη μονάδα turtle):         Using screen events.
                                                             (line   56)
* ondrag() (στη μονάδα turtle):          Using events.       (line   57)
* onecmd() (μέθοδος της cmd.Cmd):        Cmd Objects.        (line   58)
* onkey() (στη μονάδα turtle):           Using screen events.
                                                             (line   12)
* onkeypress() (στη μονάδα turtle):      Using screen events.
                                                             (line   35)
* onkeyrelease() (στη μονάδα turtle):    Using screen events.
                                                             (line   12)
* onrelease() (στη μονάδα turtle):       Using events.       (line   30)
* onscreenclick() (στη μονάδα turtle):   Using screen events.
                                                             (line   56)
* ontimer() (στη μονάδα turtle):         Using screen events.
                                                             (line   86)
* OP (στη μονάδα token):                 token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   61)
* OP_ALL (στη μονάδα ssl):               Constants<9>.       (line  210)
* OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.
                                                             (line  299)
* OP_ENABLE_KTLS (στη μονάδα ssl):       Constants<9>.       (line  357)
* OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>. (line  323)
* OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.   (line  349)
* OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.   (line  374)
* OP_NO_COMPRESSION (στη μονάδα ssl):    Constants<9>.       (line  332)
* OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION (στη μονάδα ssl):  Constants<9>.       (line  289)
* OP_NO_SSLv2 (στη μονάδα ssl):          Constants<9>.       (line  218)
* OP_NO_SSLv3 (στη μονάδα ssl):          Constants<9>.       (line  228)
* OP_NO_TICKET (στη μονάδα ssl):         Constants<9>.       (line  343)
* OP_NO_TLSv1 (στη μονάδα ssl):          Constants<9>.       (line  238)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_1 (στη μονάδα ssl):        Constants<9>.       (line  250)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_2 (στη μονάδα ssl):        Constants<9>.       (line  262)
* OP_NO_TLSv1_3 (στη μονάδα ssl):        Constants<9>.       (line  274)
* OP_SINGLE_DH_USE (στη μονάδα ssl):     Constants<9>.       (line  307)
* OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE (στη μονάδα ssl):   Constants<9>.       (line  315)
* Open (κλάση σε tkinter.filedialog):    Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   60)
* open_binary() (στη μονάδα importlib.resources): Λειτουργικό API.
                                                             (line   35)
* open_code() (στη μονάδα io):           High-level Module Interface.
                                                             (line   22)
* open_connection() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Streams.           (line   42)
* open_flags (στη μονάδα dbm.gnu):       dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   30)
* open_new_tab() (μέθοδος της webbrowser.controller): Browser controller objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* open_new_tab() (στη μονάδα webbrowser): Command-line interface<5>.
                                                             (line   60)
* open_new() (μέθοδος της webbrowser.controller): Browser controller objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* open_new() (στη μονάδα webbrowser):    Command-line interface<5>.
                                                             (line   52)
* open_osfhandle() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):  File Operations.    (line   44)
* open_resource() (μέθοδος της importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   47)
* open_text() (στη μονάδα importlib.resources): Λειτουργικό API.
                                                             (line   51)
* open_unix_connection() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Streams.      (line  118)
* open_urlresource() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  616)
* open() (μέθοδος κλάσης της tarfile.TarFile): TarFile Objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* open() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  252)
* open() (μέθοδος της importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  144)
* open() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):     Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.OpenerDirector): OpenerDirector Objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* open() (μέθοδος της webbrowser.controller): Browser controller objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* open() (μέθοδος της zipfile.Path):     Path objects.       (line   35)
* open() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile):  ZipFile objects.    (line  133)
* open() (στη μονάδα bz2):               De compression of files.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (στη μονάδα codecs):            codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  187)
* open() (στη μονάδα compression.zstd):  Reading and writing compressed files.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (στη μονάδα dbm.dumb):          dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line   27)
* open() (στη μονάδα dbm.gnu):           dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line   35)
* open() (στη μονάδα dbm.ndbm):          dbm ndbm — New Database Manager.
                                                             (line   40)
* open() (στη μονάδα dbm.sqlite3):       dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm.
                                                             (line   22)
* open() (στη μονάδα dbm):               dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases».
                                                             (line   54)
* open() (στη μονάδα gzip):              gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip.
                                                             (line   33)
* open() (στη μονάδα io):                High-level Module Interface.
                                                             (line   12)
* open() (στη μονάδα lzma):              Reading and writing compressed files<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* open() (στη μονάδα os):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  375)
* open() (στη μονάδα shelve):            shelve — Python object persistence.
                                                             (line   17)
* open() (στη μονάδα tarfile):           tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line   54)
* open() (στη μονάδα tokenize):          Tokenizing input.   (line   96)
* open() (στη μονάδα wave):              wave — Read and write WAV files.
                                                             (line   25)
* open() (στη μονάδα webbrowser):        Command-line interface<5>.
                                                             (line   32)
* OpenerDirector (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  315)
* OpenKey() (στη μονάδα winreg):         Functions<12>.      (line  304)
* OpenKeyEx() (στη μονάδα winreg):       Functions<12>.      (line  304)
* openlog() (στη μονάδα syslog):         syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line   50)
* openpty() (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  478)
* openpty() (στη μονάδα pty):            pty — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού.
                                                             (line   43)
* OPENSSL_VERSION (στη μονάδα ssl):      Constants<9>.       (line  491)
* OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.       (line  501)
* OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.     (line  511)
* OpenSSL;(use in module hashlib):       Hash algorithms.    (line   18)
* OpenSSL;(use in module ssl):           ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* OperationalError:                      Exceptions<6>.      (line   57)
* operator;- (minus):                    Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   10)
* operator;- (minus) <1>:                Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   91)
* operator;!=:                           Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator;@ (at):                       Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   29)
* operator;* (asterisk):                 Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* operator;**:                           The power operator. (line    6)
* operator;/ (slash):                    Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   37)
* operator;//:                           Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   37)
* operator;& (ampersand):                Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   12)
* operator;% (percent):                  Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   50)
* operator;^ (caret):                    Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   16)
* operator;+ (plus):                     Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   14)
* operator;+ (plus) <1>:                 Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   79)
* operator;< (less):                     Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator;<<:                           Shifting operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;<=:                           Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator;==:                           Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator;> (greater):                  Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator;>=:                           Comparisons.        (line    6)
* operator;>>:                           Shifting operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* operator;| (vertical bar):             Binary bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   20)
* operator;~ (tilde):                    Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   18)
* operator;and:                          Boolean operations. (line   21)
* operator;in:                           Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* operator;is:                           Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   39)
* operator;is not:                       Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   39)
* operator;not:                          Boolean operations. (line   18)
* operator;not in:                       Membership test operations.
                                                             (line   36)
* operator;or:                           Boolean operations. (line   25)
* operator;precedence:                   Operator precedence.
                                                             (line    6)
* opmap (στη μονάδα dis):                Opcode collections. (line   17)
* opname (στη μονάδα dis):               Opcode collections. (line   13)
* OPT:                                   Debug options.      (line   39)
* optim_args_from_interpreter_flags() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  344)
* optimize (ιδιότητα της sys.flags):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  588)
* optimize() (στη μονάδα pickletools):   Programmatic interface.
                                                             (line   31)
* OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (στη μονάδα importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   30)
* Option (κλάση σε optparse):            Option attributes.  (line    6)
* Optional (στη μονάδα typing):          Special forms.      (line   59)
* OptionConflictError:                   Exceptions<11>.     (line   11)
* OptionError:                           Exceptions<11>.     (line    6)
* OptionGroup (κλάση σε optparse):       Grouping Options.   (line   12)
* OptionParser (κλάση σε optparse):      Creating the parser.
                                                             (line    9)
* options (ιδιότητα της doctest.Example): Example Objects.   (line   52)
* options (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.       (line  646)
* Options (κλάση σε ssl):                Constants<9>.       (line  339)
* options() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  137)
* OptionValueError:                      Exceptions<11>.     (line   16)
* optionxform() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  323)
* Or (κλάση σε ast):                     Expressions<2>.     (line   86)
* or_() (στη μονάδα operator):           operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  149)
* ordered_attributes (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  289)
* OrderedDict (κλάση σε collections):    OrderedDict objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* OrderedDict (κλάση σε typing):         Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   17)
* orig_argv (στη μονάδα sys):            sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1501)
* origin (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  410)
* origin (ιδιότητα της importlib.metadata.Distribution): Distributions.
                                                             (line   87)
* origin_req_host (ιδιότητα της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* origin_server (ιδιότητα της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  292)
* os_environ (ιδιότητα της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  167)
* OSError:                               Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  158)
* OUT_TO_DEFAULT (στη μονάδα msvcrt):    Other Functions.    (line   20)
* OUT_TO_MSGBOX (στη μονάδα msvcrt):     Other Functions.    (line   30)
* OUT_TO_STDERR (στη μονάδα msvcrt):     Other Functions.    (line   25)
* output (ιδιότητα της subprocess.CalledProcessError): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  220)
* output (ιδιότητα της subprocess.TimeoutExpired): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  181)
* output (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.       (line  478)
* output_charset (ιδιότητα της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line   81)
* output_codec (ιδιότητα της email.charset.Charset): email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων.
                                                             (line   95)
* output_difference() (μέθοδος της doctest.OutputChecker): OutputChecker objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* output() (μέθοδος της http.cookies.BaseCookie): Cookie Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* output() (μέθοδος της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* OutputChecker (κλάση σε doctest):      OutputChecker objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* OutputString() (μέθοδος της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line  104)
* OutsideDestinationError:               tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  296)
* Overflow (κλάση σε decimal):           Signals.            (line   68)
* OverflowError:                         Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  223)
* OverflowError (built-in exception):    Integer Objects.    (line  169)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <1>: Integer Objects.   (line  223)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <2>: Integer Objects.   (line  265)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <3>: Integer Objects.   (line  277)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <4>: Integer Objects.   (line  289)
* OverflowError (built-in exception) <5>: Integer Objects.   (line  302)
* overlap_log (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  241)
* overlap() (μέθοδος της statistics.NormalDist): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* overlaps() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  155)
* overlaps() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  341)
* overlay() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line  437)
* overload() (στη μονάδα typing):        Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  247)
* override() (στη μονάδα typing):        Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  360)
* overwrite() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.   (line  450)
* owner() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):    Permissions and ownership.
                                                             (line    6)
* p (pdb command):                       Debugger commands.  (line  277)
* P_ALL (στη μονάδα os):                 Process Management. (line  968)
* P_DETACH (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line  699)
* P_NOWAIT (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line  679)
* P_NOWAITO (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line  679)
* P_OVERLAY (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line  699)
* P_PGID (στη μονάδα os):                Process Management. (line  968)
* P_PID (στη μονάδα os):                 Process Management. (line  968)
* P_PIDFD (στη μονάδα os):               Process Management. (line  968)
* P_WAIT (στη μονάδα os):                Process Management. (line  689)
* pack_into() (μέθοδος της struct.Struct): Κλάσεις<3>.       (line   33)
* pack_into() (στη μονάδα struct):       Συναρτήσεις και εξαιρέσεις.
                                                             (line   20)
* pack() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH):       MH objects.         (line   67)
* pack() (μέθοδος της struct.Struct):    Κλάσεις<3>.         (line   27)
* pack() (στη μονάδα struct):            Συναρτήσεις και εξαιρέσεις.
                                                             (line   13)
* package:                               Startup entry points start files.
                                                             (line   49)
* package variable;__all__:              Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* PackageMetadata (κλάση σε importlib.metadata): Distribution metadata.
                                                             (line   14)
* PackageNotFoundError:                  Overview<3>.        (line   35)
* PackagePath (κλάση σε importlib.metadata): Distribution files.
                                                             (line   18)
* packages_distributions() (στη μονάδα importlib.metadata): Mapping import to distribution packages.
                                                             (line    6)
* packed (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* packed (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  271)
* packing (widgets):                     The Packer.         (line    6)
* PAGER:                                 pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   46)
* pair_content() (στη μονάδα curses):    Functions<4>.       (line  395)
* pair_number() (στη μονάδα curses):     Functions<4>.       (line  401)
* pairwise() (στη μονάδα itertools):     Itertool Functions. (line  413)
* parallelism:                           Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1433)
* Parameter (κλάση σε inspect):          Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  209)
* parameter;call semantics:              Calls.              (line   25)
* parameter;function definition:         Class Patterns.     (line  140)
* ParameterizedMIMEHeader (κλάση σε email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  254)
* parameters (ιδιότητα της inspect.Signature): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  114)
* params (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  262)
* ParamSpec (κλάση σε ast):              Type parameters.    (line   35)
* ParamSpec (κλάση σε typing):           Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  432)
* ParamSpecArgs (στη μονάδα typing):     Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  582)
* ParamSpecKwargs (στη μονάδα typing):   Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  582)
* paramstyle (στη μονάδα sqlite3):       Module constants.   (line   70)
* pardir (στη μονάδα os):                Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  109)
* parent (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  446)
* parent (ιδιότητα της logging.Logger):  Logger Objects.     (line   42)
* parent (ιδιότητα της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line   94)
* parent (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Class):    Class Objects.      (line   28)
* parent (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Function): Function Objects.   (line   27)
* parent (ιδιότητα της urllib.request.BaseHandler): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* parent_process() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   42)
* parent() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview. (line  227)
* parenthesized form:                    Parenthesized forms.
                                                             (line    6)
* parentNode (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.      (line   17)
* parents (ιδιότητα της collections.ChainMap): ChainMap objects.
                                                             (line   62)
* parents (ιδιότητα της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line   78)
* paretovariate() (στη μονάδα random):   Πραγματικές κατανομές.
                                                             (line  106)
* parse_and_bind() (στη μονάδα readline): Init file.         (line    8)
* parse_args() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): The parse_args method.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_args() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Parsing arguments.
                                                             (line    9)
* PARSE_COLNAMES (στη μονάδα sqlite3):   Module constants.   (line   35)
* parse_config_h() (στη μονάδα sysconfig): Other functions<3>.
                                                             (line   59)
* PARSE_DECLTYPES (στη μονάδα sqlite3):  Module constants.   (line   13)
* parse_headers() (στη μονάδα http.client): http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  121)
* parse_intermixed_args() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Intermixed parsing.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_known_args() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Partial parsing.
                                                             (line    6)
* parse_known_intermixed_args() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Intermixed parsing.
                                                             (line    9)
* parse_qs() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse):  URL Parsing.        (line  176)
* parse_qsl() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse): URL Parsing.        (line  226)
* parse() (μέθοδος της doctest.DocTestParser): DocTestParser objects.
                                                             (line   29)
* parse() (μέθοδος της email.parser.BytesParser): Parser API.
                                                             (line   34)
* parse() (μέθοδος της email.parser.Parser): Parser API.     (line   86)
* parse() (μέθοδος της string.Formatter): Custom string formatting.
                                                             (line   40)
* parse() (μέθοδος της urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   28)
* parse() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* Parse() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line    8)
* parse() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* parse() (στη μονάδα ast):              ast helpers.        (line    9)
* parse() (στη μονάδα xml.dom.minidom):  xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation.
                                                             (line   35)
* parse() (στη μονάδα xml.dom.pulldom):  xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line   84)
* parse() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.  (line  180)
* parse() (στη μονάδα xml.sax):          xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line   38)
* parseaddr() (στη μονάδα email.utils):  email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   57)
* parsebytes() (μέθοδος της email.parser.BytesParser): Parser API.
                                                             (line   54)
* parsedate_to_datetime() (στη μονάδα email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  129)
* parsedate_tz() (στη μονάδα email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  118)
* parsedate() (στη μονάδα email.utils):  email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  107)
* ParseError (κλάση σε xml.etree.ElementTree): Exceptions<20>.
                                                             (line    6)
* ParseFile() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line   17)
* ParseFlags() (στη μονάδα imaplib):     imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  123)
* parser (ιδιότητα της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line    8)
* Parser (κλάση σε email.parser):        Parser API.         (line   75)
* ParserCreate() (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat): xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat.
                                                             (line   47)
* ParseResult (κλάση σε urllib.parse):   Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   52)
* ParseResultBytes (κλάση σε urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   77)
* parsestr() (μέθοδος της email.parser.Parser): Parser API.  (line   96)
* parseString() (στη μονάδα xml.dom.minidom): xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation.
                                                             (line   48)
* parseString() (στη μονάδα xml.dom.pulldom): xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line   97)
* parseString() (στη μονάδα xml.sax):    xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line   49)
* ParsingError:                          Exceptions<8>.      (line   65)
* partial (ιδιότητα της asyncio.IncompleteReadError): Exceptions<14>.
                                                             (line   55)
* partial() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.      (line  271)
* partial() (στη μονάδα functools):      functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  333)
* partialmethod (κλάση σε functools):    functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  403)
* parties (ιδιότητα της asyncio.Barrier): Barrier.           (line   93)
* parties (ιδιότητα της threading.Barrier): Barrier objects. (line   92)
* partition() (μέθοδος της bytearray):   Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  205)
* partition() (μέθοδος της bytes):       Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  205)
* partition() (μέθοδος της str):         Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  570)
* partitioned (ιδιότητα της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* parts (ιδιότητα της pathlib.PurePath): Accessing individual parts.
                                                             (line    9)
* Pass (κλάση σε ast):                   Statements.         (line  153)
* pass_() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):     POP3 Objects.       (line   36)
* Paste:                                 Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* patch.dict() (στη μονάδα unittest.mock): patch dict.       (line    6)
* patch.multiple() (στη μονάδα unittest.mock): patch multiple.
                                                             (line    6)
* patch.object() (στη μονάδα unittest.mock): patch object.   (line    6)
* patch.stopall() (στη μονάδα unittest.mock): patch methods start and stop.
                                                             (line   70)
* patch() (στη μονάδα test.support):     test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  687)
* patch() (στη μονάδα unittest.mock):    patch.              (line    9)
* PATH:                                  Changes in the Python API<6>.
                                                             (line  145)
* PATH <1>:                              Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* PATH <2>:                              Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* PATH <3>:                              Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* PATH <4>:                              macOS<10>.          (line   14)
* PATH <5>:                              Windows<28>.        (line   55)
* PATH <6>:                              Windows<32>.        (line   14)
* PATH <7>:                              Security<43>.       (line   16)
* PATH <8>:                              Security<43>.       (line   20)
* PATH <9>:                              Το Search Path του Module.
                                                             (line   17)
* PATH <10>:                             Εκτελέσιμα Python Scripts.
                                                             (line   11)
* PATH <11>:                             Environment variables.
                                                             (line   26)
* PATH <12>:                             Διάφορα.            (line   16)
* PATH <13>:                             Εγκατάσταση.        (line   20)
* PATH <14>:                             Εγκατάσταση.        (line   26)
* PATH <15>:                             Εγκατάσταση.        (line   36)
* PATH <16>:                             Διαμόρφωση.         (line  137)
* PATH <17>:                             Γραμμές Shebang.    (line   45)
* PATH <18>:                             Γραμμές Shebang.    (line   46)
* PATH <19>:                             Γραμμές Shebang.    (line   55)
* PATH <20>:                             Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση.
                                                             (line   11)
* PATH <21>:                             Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση.
                                                             (line   31)
* PATH <22>:                             Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση.
                                                             (line   35)
* PATH <23>:                             Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα.
                                                             (line   19)
* PATH <24>:                             Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων.
                                                             (line   36)
* PATH <25>:                             Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων.
                                                             (line   57)
* PATH <26>:                             Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων.
                                                             (line   75)
* PATH <27>:                             Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων.
                                                             (line  118)
* PATH <28>:                             Βήματα Εγκατάστασης.
                                                             (line   37)
* PATH <29>:                             Βήματα Εγκατάστασης.
                                                             (line   63)
* PATH <30>:                             Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη.
                                                             (line   84)
* PATH <31>:                             Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη.
                                                             (line   89)
* PATH <32>:                             Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο.
                                                             (line   19)
* PATH <33>:                             Από τη γραμμή εντολών.
                                                             (line    9)
* PATH <34>:                             Γραμμές Shebang<2>. (line   58)
* PATH <35>:                             Γραμμές Shebang<2>. (line   64)
* PATH <36>:                             Γραμμές Shebang<2>. (line   67)
* PATH <37>:                             Γραμμές Shebang<2>. (line   72)
* PATH <38>:                             Comparison to the os and os path modules.
                                                             (line   41)
* PATH <39>:                             Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  439)
* PATH <40>:                             Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  444)
* PATH <41>:                             Process Management. (line   45)
* PATH <42>:                             Process Management. (line   84)
* PATH <43>:                             Process Management. (line   88)
* PATH <44>:                             Process Management. (line   89)
* PATH <45>:                             Process Management. (line  549)
* PATH <46>:                             Process Management. (line  635)
* PATH <47>:                             Process Management. (line  639)
* PATH <48>:                             Process Management. (line  640)
* PATH <49>:                             Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  140)
* PATH <50>:                             Popen Constructor.  (line   35)
* PATH <51>:                             webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   59)
* PATH <52>:                             webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   32)
* PATH <53>:                             How venvs work.     (line   16)
* PATH <54>:                             How venvs work.     (line   61)
* PATH <55>:                             How venvs work.     (line   66)
* PATH <56>:                             Embedding Python.   (line   31)
* PATH <57>:                             Embedding Python.   (line   37)
* PATH <58>:                             Πως δημιουργώ ένα εκτελέσιμο Python script στο Unix;.
                                                             (line   24)
* PATH <59>:                             Πως δημιουργώ ένα εκτελέσιμο Python script στο Unix;.
                                                             (line   28)
* path (in module sys):                  Embedding Python.   (line   12)
* path (in module sys) <1>:              Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* path (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   44)
* path (ιδιότητα της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.   (line   13)
* path (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  143)
* path (ιδιότητα της ImportError):       Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   65)
* path (ιδιότητα της importlib.abc.FileLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  313)
* path (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.AppleFrameworkLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  522)
* path (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  328)
* path (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.FileFinder): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  179)
* path (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  250)
* path (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  287)
* path (ιδιότητα της importlib.metadata.DistributionFinder.Context): Distribution Discovery.
                                                             (line   56)
* path (ιδιότητα της os.DirEntry):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  961)
* Path (κλάση σε pathlib):               Concrete paths.     (line   11)
* Path (κλάση σε zipfile):               Path objects.       (line    6)
* path (στη μονάδα sys):                 sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1514)
* path based finder:                     Finder βασισμένος στη διαδρομή.
                                                             (line    6)
* path based finder <1>:                 Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1532)
* Path browser:                          File menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   22)
* path entry:                            Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1510)
* path entry finder:                     Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1516)
* path entry hook:                       Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1526)
* path_hook() (μέθοδος κλάσης της importlib.machinery.FileFinder): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  194)
* path_hooks (στη μονάδα sys):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1547)
* path_importer_cache (στη μονάδα sys):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1556)
* path_mtime() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  374)
* path_return_ok() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* path_stats() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  352)
* path_stats() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  259)
* path-like αντικείμενο:                 Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1537)
* path;configuration;file:               Startup entry points start files.
                                                             (line   48)
* path;operations:                       pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths.
                                                             (line   10)
* path;operations <1>:                   os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line    9)
* Path.stem (στη μονάδα zipfile):        Path objects.       (line   86)
* Path.suffix (στη μονάδα zipfile):      Path objects.       (line   79)
* Path.suffixes (στη μονάδα zipfile):    Path objects.       (line   92)
* path() (στη μονάδα importlib.resources): Λειτουργικό API.  (line  115)
* pathconf_names (στη μονάδα os):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  671)
* pathconf() (στη μονάδα os):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  647)
* PathEntryFinder (κλάση σε importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line   81)
* PATHEXT:                               Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* PATHEXT <1>:                           Library<140>.       (line  138)
* PATHEXT <2>:                           Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη.
                                                             (line   85)
* PATHEXT <3>:                           Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη.
                                                             (line   89)
* PATHEXT <4>:                           Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  454)
* PathFinder (κλάση σε importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  107)
* PathInfo (κλάση σε pathlib.types):     Protocols.          (line   10)
* PathLike (κλάση σε os):                Process Parameters. (line  142)
* pathname2url() (στη μονάδα urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  141)
* pathsep (στη μονάδα os):               Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  137)
* pattern (ιδιότητα της re.Pattern):     Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line  144)
* pattern (ιδιότητα της re.PatternError): Exceptions.        (line   19)
* Pattern (κλάση σε re):                 Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* Pattern (κλάση σε typing):             Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line    6)
* pattern matching:                      The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* PatternError:                          Exceptions.         (line    6)
* pause_reading() (μέθοδος της asyncio.ReadTransport): Read-only Transports.
                                                             (line   12)
* pause_writing() (μέθοδος της asyncio.BaseProtocol): Base Protocol.
                                                             (line   40)
* pause() (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line  342)
* PAX_FORMAT (στη μονάδα tarfile):       tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  388)
* pax_headers (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarFile): TarFile Objects.
                                                             (line  329)
* pax_headers (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.
                                                             (line  161)
* pbkdf2_hmac() (στη μονάδα hashlib):    Key derivation.     (line   11)
* PCALLS (ιδιότητα της pstats.SortKey):  The Stats class.    (line  222)
* pd() (στη μονάδα turtle):              Drawing state.      (line    6)
* Pdb (class in pdb):                    pdb — The Python Debugger.
                                                             (line   17)
* Pdb (κλάση σε pdb):                    Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line  178)
* pdb command line option; -c:           Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line   18)
* pdb command line option; -command:     Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line   18)
* pdb command line option; -m:           Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line   25)
* pdb command line option; -p:           Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line   33)
* pdb command line option; -pid:         Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line   33)
* pdf() (μέθοδος της statistics.NormalDist): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* peek() (μέθοδος της bz2.BZ2File):      De compression of files.
                                                             (line   73)
* peek() (μέθοδος της compression.zstd.ZstdFile): Reading and writing compressed files.
                                                             (line   93)
* peek() (μέθοδος της gzip.GzipFile):    gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip.
                                                             (line  154)
* peek() (μέθοδος της io.BufferedReader): Buffered Streams.  (line   76)
* peek() (μέθοδος της lzma.LZMAFile):    Reading and writing compressed files<2>.
                                                             (line   86)
* peek() (μέθοδος της weakref.finalize): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  305)
* PEM_cert_to_DER_cert() (στη μονάδα ssl): Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   57)
* pen() (στη μονάδα turtle):             Drawing state.      (line   33)
* pencolor() (στη μονάδα turtle):        Color control.      (line    6)
* pending (ιδιότητα της ssl.MemoryBIO):  Memory BIO support. (line  139)
* pending() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.        (line  367)
* PendingDeprecationWarning:             Warnings.           (line   28)
* pendown() (στη μονάδα turtle):         Drawing state.      (line    6)
* pensize() (στη μονάδα turtle):         Drawing state.      (line   18)
* penup() (στη μονάδα turtle):           Drawing state.      (line   12)
* PEP:                                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1550)
* per-object lock:                       Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1499)
* PERCENT (στη μονάδα token):            token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  259)
* PERCENTEQUAL (στη μονάδα token):       token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  307)
* perf_counter_ns() (στη μονάδα time):   Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  268)
* perf_counter() (στη μονάδα time):      Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  242)
* perm() (στη μονάδα math.integer):      math integer — integer-specific mathematics functions.
                                                             (line   63)
* perm() (στη μονάδα math):              Number-theoretic functions.
                                                             (line   25)
* PermissionError:                       OS exceptions.      (line   97)
* permutations() (στη μονάδα itertools): Itertool Functions. (line  436)
* persistence:                           pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* persistent_id (pickle protocol):       Persistence of External Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* persistent_id() (μέθοδος της pickle.Pickler): Module Interface.
                                                             (line  164)
* persistent_load (pickle protocol):     Persistence of External Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* persistent_load() (μέθοδος της pickle.Unpickler): Module Interface.
                                                             (line  288)
* persistent;objects:                    pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* PF_CAN (στη μονάδα socket):            Constants<8>.       (line  135)
* PF_DIVERT (στη μονάδα socket):         Constants<8>.       (line  211)
* PF_PACKET (στη μονάδα socket):         Constants<8>.       (line  221)
* PF_RDS (στη μονάδα socket):            Constants<8>.       (line  243)
* pformat() (μέθοδος της pprint.PrettyPrinter): PrettyPrinter objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* pformat() (στη μονάδα pprint):         Functions<3>.       (line   72)
* pgettext() (μέθοδος της gettext.GNUTranslations): The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   68)
* pgettext() (μέθοδος της gettext.NullTranslations): The NullTranslations class.
                                                             (line   47)
* pgettext() (στη μονάδα gettext):       GNU gettext API.    (line   63)
* PGO (στη μονάδα test.support):         test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  124)
* phase() (στη μονάδα cmath):            Conversions to and from polar coordinates.
                                                             (line   20)
* Philbrick, Geoff:                      Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions.
                                                             (line   35)
* pi (στη μονάδα cmath):                 Constants<3>.       (line    6)
* pi (στη μονάδα math):                  Constants<2>.       (line    6)
* pi() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* pickle command line option; pickle_file: Command-line interface.
                                                             (line   16)
* pickle() (στη μονάδα copyreg):         copyreg — Register pickle support functions.
                                                             (line   23)
* PickleBuffer (κλάση σε pickle):        Module Interface.   (line  318)
* PickleError:                           Module Interface.   (line   99)
* Pickler (κλάση σε pickle):             Module Interface.   (line  125)
* pickletools command line option; -a:   Command-line options<5>.
                                                             (line    6)
* pickletools command line option; -annotate: Command-line options<5>.
                                                             (line    6)
* pickletools command line option; -indentlevel: Command-line options<5>.
                                                             (line   14)
* pickletools command line option; -l:   Command-line options<5>.
                                                             (line   14)
* pickletools command line option; -m:   Command-line options<5>.
                                                             (line   18)
* pickletools command line option; -memo: Command-line options<5>.
                                                             (line   18)
* pickletools command line option; -o:   Command-line options<5>.
                                                             (line   10)
* pickletools command line option; -output: Command-line options<5>.
                                                             (line   10)
* pickletools command line option; -p:   Command-line options<5>.
                                                             (line   23)
* pickletools command line option; -preamble: Command-line options<5>.
                                                             (line   23)
* pickletools command line option; pickle_file: Command-line options<5>.
                                                             (line   28)
* pickling;objects:                      pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* PicklingError:                         Module Interface.   (line  104)
* pid (ιδιότητα της asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  139)
* pid (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  154)
* pid (ιδιότητα της subprocess.Popen):   Popen Objects.      (line  164)
* PIDFD_NONBLOCK (στη μονάδα os):        Process Management. (line  380)
* pidfd_open() (στη μονάδα os):          Process Management. (line  367)
* pidfd_send_signal() (στη μονάδα signal): Module contents<4>.
                                                             (line  360)
* PIP_USER:                              Windows<49>.        (line  102)
* PIPE (στη μονάδα subprocess):          Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  149)
* PIPE_BUF (στη μονάδα select):          select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  169)
* pipe_connection_lost() (μέθοδος της asyncio.SubprocessProtocol): Subprocess Protocols.
                                                             (line   19)
* pipe_data_received() (μέθοδος της asyncio.SubprocessProtocol): Subprocess Protocols.
                                                             (line   10)
* PIPE_MAX_SIZE (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  128)
* Pipe() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing):   Pipes and Queues.   (line   79)
* pipe() (στη μονάδα os):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  490)
* pipe2() (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  501)
* placeholder (ιδιότητα της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  299)
* Placeholder (στη μονάδα functools):    functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  325)
* platform (in module sys):              Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   45)
* platform (στη μονάδα sys):             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1566)
* platform command line option; -nonaliased: Χρήση από γραμμή εντολών.
                                                             (line   19)
* platform command line option; -terse:  Χρήση από γραμμή εντολών.
                                                             (line   13)
* platform() (στη μονάδα platform):      Cross Platform.     (line   55)
* platlibdir (στη μονάδα sys):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1638)
* PlaySound() (στη μονάδα winsound):     Functions<13>.      (line   15)
* plist;file:                            plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line    8)
* plock() (στη μονάδα os):               Process Management. (line  392)
* plus:                                  Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line   14)
* PLUS (στη μονάδα token):               token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  229)
* plus() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context):  Context objects.    (line  451)
* PLUSEQUAL (στη μονάδα token):          token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  295)
* pm() (στη μονάδα pdb):                 Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line  148)
* pointer_bits (ιδιότητα της sys.abi_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   29)
* POINTER() (στη μονάδα ctypes):         Utility functions.  (line  191)
* pointer() (στη μονάδα ctypes):         Utility functions.  (line  205)
* polar() (στη μονάδα cmath):            Conversions to and from polar coordinates.
                                                             (line   38)
* Policy (κλάση σε email.policy):        email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  129)
* poll() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* poll() (μέθοδος της select.devpoll):   /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* poll() (μέθοδος της select.epoll):     Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* poll() (μέθοδος της select.poll):      Polling Objects.    (line   77)
* poll() (μέθοδος της subprocess.Popen): Popen Objects.      (line    8)
* poll() (στη μονάδα select):            select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   93)
* PollSelector (κλάση σε selectors):     Classes.            (line  171)
* poly() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* Pool (κλάση σε multiprocessing.pool):  Process Pools.      (line    9)
* pop_all() (μέθοδος της contextlib.ExitStack): Utilities.   (line  633)
* POP_BLOCK (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1474)
* POP_EXCEPT (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  435)
* POP_ITER (opcode):                     Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  147)
* POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  887)
* POP_JUMP_IF_NONE (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  911)
* POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE (opcode):         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  902)
* POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  872)
* pop_source() (μέθοδος της shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.     (line   63)
* POP_TOP (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  153)
* pop() (μέθοδος της array.array):       array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  253)
* pop() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.      (line   87)
* pop() (μέθοδος της dict):              Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line  211)
* pop() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox):   Mailbox objects.    (line  224)
* pop() (μέθοδος της sequence):          Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line  110)
* pop() (μέθοδος της set):               Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  223)
* POP3 (κλάση σε poplib):                poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   34)
* POP3_SSL (κλάση σε poplib):            poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   54)
* POP3;protocol:                         poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* Popen (κλάση σε subprocess):           Popen Constructor.  (line   11)
* popen() (in module os):                select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  147)
* popen() (στη μονάδα os):               Process Management. (line  399)
* popen() (στο module os):               Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line    6)
* popitem() (μέθοδος της collections.OrderedDict): OrderedDict objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* popitem() (μέθοδος της collections.UserDict): UserDict objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* popitem() (μέθοδος της dict):          Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line  220)
* popitem() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.  (line  233)
* popleft() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.  (line   92)
* port (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   35)
* port_specified (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   79)
* pos (ιδιότητα της json.JSONDecodeError): Exceptions<18>.   (line   19)
* pos (ιδιότητα της re.Match):           Match objects.      (line  177)
* pos (ιδιότητα της re.PatternError):    Exceptions.         (line   23)
* pos (ιδιότητα της tomllib.TOMLDecodeError): tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   81)
* pos() (στη μονάδα operator):           operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  154)
* pos() (στη μονάδα turtle):             Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line    6)
* position (ιδιότητα της xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError): Exceptions<20>.
                                                             (line   20)
* position() (στη μονάδα turtle):        Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line    6)
* positions (ιδιότητα της inspect.FrameInfo): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   42)
* positions (ιδιότητα της inspect.Traceback): The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   82)
* Positions (κλάση σε dis):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  110)
* Positions.col_offset (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  119)
* Positions.end_col_offset (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  121)
* Positions.end_lineno (στη μονάδα dis): Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  117)
* Positions.lineno (στη μονάδα dis):     Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  115)
* POSIX Shared Memory:                   multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   10)
* POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED (στη μονάδα os):   File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  535)
* POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE (στη μονάδα os):    File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  535)
* POSIX_FADV_NORMAL (στη μονάδα os):     File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  535)
* POSIX_FADV_RANDOM (στη μονάδα os):     File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  535)
* POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL (στη μονάδα os): File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  535)
* POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED (στη μονάδα os):   File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  535)
* posix_fadvise() (στη μονάδα os):       File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  521)
* posix_fallocate() (στη μονάδα os):     File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  512)
* posix_openpt() (στη μονάδα os):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  562)
* POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE (στη μονάδα os):     Process Management. (line  468)
* POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM (στη μονάδα os): Process Management. (line  480)
* POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2 (στη μονάδα os):      Process Management. (line  474)
* POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN (στη μονάδα os):      Process Management. (line  462)
* posix_spawn() (στη μονάδα os):         Process Management. (line  439)
* posix_spawnp() (στη μονάδα os):        Process Management. (line  541)
* POSIX;I/O control:                     termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line    6)
* PosixPath (κλάση σε pathlib):          Concrete paths.     (line   22)
* post_handshake_auth (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  664)
* post_mortem() (στη μονάδα pdb):        Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line  139)
* post_setup() (μέθοδος της venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.        (line  183)
* postcmd() (μέθοδος της cmd.Cmd):       Cmd Objects.        (line  103)
* postloop() (μέθοδος της cmd.Cmd):      Cmd Objects.        (line  121)
* Pow (κλάση σε ast):                    Expressions<2>.     (line   53)
* pow() (στη μονάδα math):               Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   72)
* pow() (στη μονάδα operator):           operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  159)
* power;operation:                       The power operator. (line    6)
* power() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.    (line  457)
* pp (pdb command):                      Debugger commands.  (line  285)
* pp() (στη μονάδα pprint):              Functions<3>.       (line    6)
* pprint() (μέθοδος της pprint.PrettyPrinter): PrettyPrinter objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* pprint() (στη μονάδα pprint):          Functions<3>.       (line   64)
* prcal() (στη μονάδα calendar):         calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  411)
* pread() (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  549)
* preadv() (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  580)
* preamble (ιδιότητα της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  679)
* preamble (ιδιότητα της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  692)
* prec (ιδιότητα της decimal.Context):   Context objects.    (line  131)
* precmd() (μέθοδος της cmd.Cmd):        Cmd Objects.        (line   93)
* prefix (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Attr):    Attr Objects.       (line   18)
* prefix (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Node):    Node Objects.       (line   69)
* prefix (ιδιότητα της zipimport.zipimporter): zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* prefix (στη μονάδα sys):               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1663)
* PREFIXES (στη μονάδα site):            Module contents<7>. (line    6)
* prefixlen (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  132)
* prefixlen (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  330)
* prefixmatch() (μέθοδος της re.Pattern): Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* prefixmatch() (στη μονάδα re):         Functions.          (line   48)
* preloop() (μέθοδος της cmd.Cmd):       Cmd Objects.        (line  115)
* prepare_class() (στη μονάδα types):    Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων.
                                                             (line   26)
* prepare_input_source() (στη μονάδα xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   81)
* prepare_main() (μέθοδος της concurrent.interpreters.Interpreter): Interpreter objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* prepare() (μέθοδος της graphlib.TopologicalSorter): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  100)
* prepare() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.QueueHandler): QueueHandler.
                                                             (line   52)
* prepare() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.QueueListener): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   63)
* PrepareProtocol (κλάση σε sqlite3):    PrepareProtocol objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* PrettyPrinter (κλάση σε pprint):       PrettyPrinter objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* prev() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.   (line  232)
* previousSibling (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects. (line   32)
* primary:                               Primaries.          (line    6)
* print_call_graph() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Call Graph Introspection.
                                                             (line   17)
* print_callees() (μέθοδος της pstats.Stats): The Stats class.
                                                             (line  173)
* print_callers() (μέθοδος της pstats.Stats): The Stats class.
                                                             (line  158)
* print_exc() (μέθοδος της timeit.Timer): Python interface.  (line  150)
* print_exc() (στη μονάδα traceback):    Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* print_exception() (στη μονάδα traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   24)
* print_function (στη μονάδα __future__): Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   35)
* print_help() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Printing help.
                                                             (line   16)
* print_last() (στη μονάδα traceback):   Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   63)
* print_list() (στη μονάδα traceback):   Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  101)
* print_stack() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task): Task object.     (line  143)
* print_stack() (στη μονάδα traceback):  Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line   70)
* print_stats() (μέθοδος της profile.Profile): profile and profiling tracing module reference.
                                                             (line   97)
* print_stats() (μέθοδος της profiling.tracing.Profile): Module reference.
                                                             (line   66)
* print_stats() (μέθοδος της pstats.Stats): The Stats class. (line  134)
* print_tb() (στη μονάδα traceback):     Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* print_usage() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Printing help.
                                                             (line   10)
* print_usage() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Other methods.
                                                             (line   15)
* print_version() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Printing a version string.
                                                             (line   26)
* print_warning() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  432)
* print() (ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση);__str__() (μέθοδος αντικειμένου): Βασική προσαρμογή.
                                                             (line  146)
* print() (μέθοδος της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  136)
* printable (στη μονάδα string):         String constants.   (line   41)
* printdir() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects. (line  239)
* PRIO_DARWIN_BG (στη μονάδα os):        Process Parameters. (line  321)
* PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI (στη μονάδα os):     Process Parameters. (line  321)
* PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS (στη μονάδα os):   Process Parameters. (line  321)
* PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD (στη μονάδα os):    Process Parameters. (line  321)
* PRIO_PGRP (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line  310)
* PRIO_PROCESS (στη μονάδα os):          Process Parameters. (line  310)
* PRIO_USER (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line  310)
* PriorityQueue (κλάση σε asyncio):      Σειρά Προτεραιότητας.
                                                             (line    6)
* PriorityQueue (κλάση σε queue):        queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   48)
* private;names:                         Identifiers Names.  (line   15)
* prlimit() (στη μονάδα resource):       Resource Limits.    (line   68)
* prmonth() (μέθοδος της calendar.TextCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  207)
* prmonth() (στη μονάδα calendar):       calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  402)
* ProactorEventLoop (κλάση σε asyncio):  Event loop implementations.
                                                             (line   31)
* Process (κλάση σε multiprocessing):    Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* process_cpu_count() (στη μονάδα os):   Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   60)
* process_exited() (μέθοδος της asyncio.SubprocessProtocol): Subprocess Protocols.
                                                             (line   26)
* process_request() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  159)
* process_time_ns() (στη μονάδα time):   Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  290)
* process_time() (στη μονάδα time):      Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  275)
* process_tokens() (στη μονάδα tabnanny): tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   42)
* process;group:                         Process Parameters. (line  212)
* process;group <1>:                     Process Parameters. (line  274)
* process;id:                            Process Parameters. (line  280)
* process;id of parent:                  Process Parameters. (line  287)
* process;killing:                       Process Management. (line  331)
* process;killing <1>:                   Process Management. (line  353)
* process;scheduling priority:           Process Parameters. (line  298)
* process;scheduling priority <1>:       Process Parameters. (line  486)
* process;signalling:                    Process Management. (line  331)
* process;signalling <1>:                Process Management. (line  353)
* process() (μέθοδος της logging.LoggerAdapter): LoggerAdapter Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* ProcessError:                          Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  280)
* processes, light-weight:               _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* processingInstruction() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): ContentHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line  181)
* ProcessingInstruction() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  187)
* ProcessingInstructionHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  426)
* ProcessLookupError:                    OS exceptions.      (line  107)
* processor() (στη μονάδα platform):     Cross Platform.     (line   78)
* ProcessPoolExecutor (κλάση σε concurrent.futures): ProcessPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line   26)
* prod() (στη μονάδα math):              Summation and product functions.
                                                             (line   51)
* product() (στη μονάδα itertools):      Itertool Functions. (line  488)
* Profile (κλάση σε profile):            profile and profiling tracing module reference.
                                                             (line   35)
* Profile (κλάση σε profiling.tracing):  Module reference.   (line   35)
* profile function:                      Reference<2>.       (line  140)
* profile function <1>:                  Reference<2>.       (line  156)
* profile function <2>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1038)
* profile function <3>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1776)
* PROFILE_TASK:                          Build<22>.          (line   13)
* PROFILE_TASK <1>:                      Performance options.
                                                             (line   12)
* profiler:                              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1038)
* profiler <1>:                          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1776)
* profiling, deterministic:              profiling — Python profilers.
                                                             (line   12)
* profiling, statistical:                profiling — Python profilers.
                                                             (line   12)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -a: Dump options.  (line    8)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -a <1>: Sampling options.
                                                             (line   15)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -all-threads: Dump options.
                                                             (line    8)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -all-threads <1>: Sampling options.
                                                             (line   15)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -async-aware: Dump options.
                                                             (line   25)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -async-aware <1>: Sampling options.
                                                             (line   31)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -async-mode: Dump options.
                                                             (line   30)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -async-mode <1>: Mode options.
                                                             (line   12)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -binary: Output options.
                                                             (line   33)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -blocking: Dump options.
                                                             (line   36)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -blocking <1>: Sampling options.
                                                             (line   47)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -browser: Output options.
                                                             (line   51)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -collapsed: Output options.
                                                             (line   12)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -compression: Output options.
                                                             (line   38)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -d: Sampling options.
                                                             (line   11)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -diff-flamegraph: Output options.
                                                             (line   20)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -duration: Sampling options.
                                                             (line   11)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -flamegraph: Output options.
                                                             (line   16)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -gecko: Output options.
                                                             (line   25)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -heatmap: Output options.
                                                             (line   29)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -l: pstats display options.
                                                             (line   13)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -limit: pstats display options.
                                                             (line   13)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -live: Run command options.
                                                             (line   10)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -m: Run command options.
                                                             (line    6)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -mode: Mode options.
                                                             (line    6)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -module: Run command options.
                                                             (line    6)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -native: Dump options.
                                                             (line   13)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -native <1>: Sampling options.
                                                             (line   23)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -no-gc: Dump options.
                                                             (line   17)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -no-gc <1>: Sampling options.
                                                             (line   27)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -no-summary: pstats display options.
                                                             (line   17)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -o: Output options.
                                                             (line   43)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -opcodes: Dump options.
                                                             (line   21)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -opcodes <1>: Sampling options.
                                                             (line   35)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -output: Output options.
                                                             (line   43)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -pstats: Output options.
                                                             (line    6)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -r: Sampling options.
                                                             (line    6)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -realtime-stats: Sampling options.
                                                             (line   19)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -sampling-rate: Sampling options.
                                                             (line    6)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -sort: pstats display options.
                                                             (line    8)
* profiling.sampling command line option; -subprocesses: Sampling options.
                                                             (line   42)
* profiling.sampling command line option; attach: Global options.
                                                             (line   10)
* profiling.sampling command line option; dump: Global options.
                                                             (line   14)
* profiling.sampling command line option; replay: Global options.
                                                             (line   19)
* profiling.sampling command line option; run: Global options.
                                                             (line    6)
* profiling.tracing command line option; -m: Command-line interface<8>.
                                                             (line   27)
* profiling.tracing command line option; -o: Command-line interface<8>.
                                                             (line   14)
* profiling.tracing command line option; -s: Command-line interface<8>.
                                                             (line   20)
* ProgrammingError:                      Exceptions<6>.      (line   78)
* Progressbar (κλάση σε tkinter.ttk):    ttk Progressbar.    (line    6)
* prompt (ιδιότητα της cmd.Cmd):         Cmd Objects.        (line  130)
* prompts, interpreter:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1687)
* propagate (ιδιότητα της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.   (line   50)
* property (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):         Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1721)
* property list:                         plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line    8)
* property_declaration_handler (στη μονάδα xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line  113)
* property_dom_node (στη μονάδα xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line  120)
* property_lexical_handler (στη μονάδα xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line  106)
* property_xml_string (στη μονάδα xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX.
                                                             (line  127)
* property() (στη μονάδα enum):          Utilities and decorators.
                                                             (line   39)
* PropertyMock (κλάση σε unittest.mock): The Mock Class.     (line  648)
* prot_c() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP_TLS): FTP_TLS objects.    (line  103)
* prot_p() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP_TLS): FTP_TLS objects.    (line   99)
* proto (ιδιότητα της socket.socket):    Socket Objects.     (line  623)
* protocol (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.      (line  683)
* Protocol (κλάση σε asyncio):           Base Protocols.     (line   10)
* Protocol (κλάση σε typing):            Other special directives.
                                                             (line  125)
* PROTOCOL_SSLv23 (στη μονάδα ssl):      Constants<9>.       (line  161)
* PROTOCOL_SSLv3 (στη μονάδα ssl):       Constants<9>.       (line  167)
* PROTOCOL_TLS (στη μονάδα ssl):         Constants<9>.       (line  131)
* PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT (στη μονάδα ssl):  Constants<9>.       (line  144)
* PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER (στη μονάδα ssl):  Constants<9>.       (line  153)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1 (στη μονάδα ssl):       Constants<9>.       (line  183)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1 (στη μονάδα ssl):     Constants<9>.       (line  190)
* PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 (στη μονάδα ssl):     Constants<9>.       (line  200)
* protocol_version (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  208)
* PROTOCOL_VERSION (ιδιότητα της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.
                                                             (line  475)
* ProtocolError (κλάση σε xmlrpc.client): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* provisional API:                       Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1577)
* provisional πακέτο:                    Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1599)
* proxy() (στη μονάδα weakref):          weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  134)
* proxyauth() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.    (line  276)
* ProxyBasicAuthHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  413)
* ProxyDigestAuthHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  448)
* ProxyHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  339)
* ProxyType (στη μονάδα weakref):        weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  334)
* ProxyTypes (στη μονάδα weakref):       weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  342)
* prweek() (μέθοδος της calendar.TextCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  155)
* pryear() (μέθοδος της calendar.TextCalendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  222)
* ps1 (στη μονάδα sys):                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1684)
* ps2 (στη μονάδα sys):                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1684)
* pstdev() (στη μονάδα statistics):      Function details.   (line  371)
* pthread_getcpuclockid() (στη μονάδα time): Συναρτήσεις<2>. (line   23)
* pthread_kill() (στη μονάδα signal):    Module contents<4>. (line  375)
* pthread_sigmask() (στη μονάδα signal): Module contents<4>. (line  405)
* pthreads:                              _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   16)
* pthreads (ιδιότητα της sys._emscripten_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  399)
* ptsname() (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  658)
* pu() (στη μονάδα turtle):              Drawing state.      (line   12)
* publicId (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.DocumentType): DocumentType Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* PullDOM (κλάση σε xml.dom.pulldom):    xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line   76)
* punctuation (στη μονάδα string):       String constants.   (line   36)
* punctuation_chars (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.
                                                             (line  183)
* PurePath (κλάση σε pathlib):           Pure paths.         (line   10)
* PurePosixPath (κλάση σε pathlib):      Pure paths.         (line   72)
* PureWindowsPath (κλάση σε pathlib):    Pure paths.         (line   82)
* purge() (στη μονάδα re):               Functions.          (line  305)
* Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH (στη μονάδα ssl):  Constants<9>.       (line  552)
* Purpose.SERVER_AUTH (στη μονάδα ssl):  Constants<9>.       (line  543)
* push_async_callback() (μέθοδος της contextlib.AsyncExitStack): Utilities.
                                                             (line  690)
* push_async_exit() (μέθοδος της contextlib.AsyncExitStack): Utilities.
                                                             (line  682)
* PUSH_EXC_INFO (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  454)
* PUSH_NULL (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1138)
* push_source() (μέθοδος της shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.    (line   56)
* push_token() (μέθοδος της shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.     (line   16)
* push() (μέθοδος της code.InteractiveConsole): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* push() (μέθοδος της contextlib.ExitStack): Utilities.      (line  597)
* put_nowait() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Queue): Ουρά.            (line   77)
* put_nowait() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Queue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  151)
* put_nowait() (μέθοδος της queue.Queue): Queue Objects.     (line   42)
* put_nowait() (μέθοδος της queue.SimpleQueue): SimpleQueue Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* put() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Queue):     Ουρά.               (line   68)
* put() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Queue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  135)
* put() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.SimpleQueue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  253)
* put() (μέθοδος της queue.Queue):       Queue Objects.      (line   29)
* put() (μέθοδος της queue.SimpleQueue): SimpleQueue Objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* putch() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):           Console I/O.        (line   36)
* putenv() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Parameters. (line  370)
* putheader() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPConnection): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  190)
* putp() (στη μονάδα curses):            Functions<4>.       (line  407)
* putrequest() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPConnection): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  179)
* putwch() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):          Console I/O.        (line   40)
* putwin() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line  463)
* pvariance() (στη μονάδα statistics):   Function details.   (line  380)
* pwd() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):        FTP objects.        (line  343)
* pwrite() (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  672)
* pwritev() (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  683)
* Py_ABS (C macro):                      Numeric utilities.  (line    6)
* Py_AddPendingCall (C function):        Asynchronous notifications.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_ALIGNED (C macro):                  Outdated macros.    (line    9)
* Py_ALWAYS_INLINE (C macro):            Declaration utilities.
                                                             (line   11)
* Py_am_aiter (C macro):                 Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   41)
* Py_am_anext (C macro):                 Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   56)
* Py_am_await (C macro):                 Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   26)
* Py_am_send (C macro):                  Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   68)
* Py_ARITHMETIC_RIGHT_SHIFT (C macro):   Numeric utilities.  (line   32)
* Py_ARRAY_LENGTH (C macro):             Type size utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX (C macro): Integer Objects.   (line  538)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_BIG_ENDIAN (C macro): Integer Objects.    (line  514)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS (C macro):   Integer Objects.    (line  510)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_LITTLE_ENDIAN (C macro): Integer Objects. (line  518)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN (C macro): Integer Objects. (line  523)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE (C macro): Integer Objects.
                                                             (line  533)
* Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER (C macro): Integer Objects.
                                                             (line  528)
* Py_AtExit (C function):                Process Control.    (line   32)
* Py_AUDIT_READ (C macro):               Member flags.       (line   12)
* Py_AuditHookFunction (C type):         System Functions.   (line  195)
* Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro):      Detaching the thread state from extension code.
                                                             (line   19)
* Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro) <1>:  APIs.               (line   12)
* Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION (C macro):   Python critical section API.
                                                             (line   59)
* Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION_MUTEX (C macro): Python critical section API.
                                                             (line   75)
* Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2 (C macro):  Python critical section API.
                                                             (line  107)
* Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2_MUTEX (C macro): Python critical section API.
                                                             (line  123)
* Py_bf_getbuffer (C macro):             Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line   16)
* Py_bf_releasebuffer (C macro):         Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line   88)
* Py_BLOCK_THREADS (C macro):            APIs.               (line   26)
* Py_buffer (C type):                    Buffer structure.   (line   25)
* Py_buffer.buf (C member):              Buffer structure.   (line   27)
* Py_buffer.format (C member):           Buffer structure.   (line   89)
* Py_buffer.internal (C member):         Buffer structure.   (line  152)
* Py_buffer.itemsize (C member):         Buffer structure.   (line   69)
* Py_buffer.len (C member):              Buffer structure.   (line   52)
* Py_buffer.ndim (C member):             Buffer structure.   (line   98)
* Py_buffer.obj (C member):              Buffer structure.   (line   39)
* Py_buffer.readonly (C member):         Buffer structure.   (line   64)
* Py_buffer.shape (C member):            Buffer structure.   (line  107)
* Py_buffer.strides (C member):          Buffer structure.   (line  120)
* Py_buffer.suboffsets (C member):       Buffer structure.   (line  133)
* Py_BUILD_ASSERT (C macro):             Assertion utilities.
                                                             (line   51)
* Py_BUILD_ASSERT_EXPR (C macro):        Assertion utilities.
                                                             (line   65)
* Py_BuildValue (C function):            Building values.    (line    6)
* Py_BytesMain (C function):             Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line  131)
* Py_BytesWarningFlag (C var):           Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   15)
* Py_CAN_START_THREADS (C macro):        Useful macros.      (line   12)
* Py_CHARMASK (C macro):                 Numeric utilities.  (line   53)
* Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED (C macro):        Other objects.      (line   40)
* Py_CLEAR (C function):                 Reference Counting. (line  153)
* Py_CompileString (C function):         The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  229)
* Py_CompileString (C function) <1>:     Available start symbols.
                                                             (line    8)
* Py_CompileString (C function) <2>:     Available start symbols.
                                                             (line   13)
* Py_CompileString (C function) <3>:     Available start symbols.
                                                             (line   20)
* Py_CompileString (C function) <4>:     Available start symbols.
                                                             (line   26)
* Py_CompileStringExFlags (C function):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  262)
* Py_CompileStringFlags (C function):    The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  236)
* Py_CompileStringObject (C function):   The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  242)
* Py_complex (C type):                   Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* Py_complex.imag (C member):            Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* Py_complex.real (C member):            Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* Py_CONSTANT_ELLIPSIS (C macro):        Object Protocol.    (line   28)
* Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_BYTES (C macro):     Object Protocol.    (line   43)
* Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR (C macro):       Object Protocol.    (line   40)
* Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_TUPLE (C macro):     Object Protocol.    (line   46)
* Py_CONSTANT_FALSE (C macro):           Object Protocol.    (line   22)
* Py_CONSTANT_NONE (C macro):            Object Protocol.    (line   19)
* Py_CONSTANT_NOT_IMPLEMENTED (C macro): Object Protocol.    (line   31)
* Py_CONSTANT_ONE (C macro):             Object Protocol.    (line   37)
* Py_CONSTANT_TRUE (C macro):            Object Protocol.    (line   25)
* Py_CONSTANT_ZERO (C macro):            Object Protocol.    (line   34)
* PY_CORE_EXE_LDFLAGS:                   Linker flags.       (line   95)
* PY_CORE_LDFLAGS:                       Linker flags.       (line   96)
* PY_CXX_CONST (C macro):                API Functions.      (line  137)
* Py_DEBUG (C macro):                    Debugging Builds.   (line   17)
* Py_DEBUG (στη μονάδα test.support):    test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  133)
* Py_DebugFlag (C var):                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   29)
* Py_DecodeLocale (C function):          Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  133)
* Py_DECREF (C function):                Reference Counts<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_DECREF (C function) <1>:            Reference Counting. (line  113)
* Py_DecRef (C function):                Reference Counting. (line  176)
* Py_DEPRECATED (C macro):               Declaration utilities.
                                                             (line   54)
* Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag (C var):      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   43)
* Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0 (C macro):           String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  136)
* Py_DTSF_ALT (C macro):                 String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  140)
* Py_DTSF_NO_NEG_0 (C macro):            String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  145)
* Py_DTSF_SIGN (C macro):                String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  131)
* Py_DTST_FINITE (C macro):              String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  158)
* Py_DTST_INFINITE (C macro):            String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  161)
* Py_DTST_NAN (C macro):                 String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  164)
* Py_Ellipsis (C var):                   Ellipsis Object.    (line   11)
* Py_EncodeLocale (C function):          Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  187)
* Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro):        Detaching the thread state from extension code.
                                                             (line   19)
* Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro) <1>:    APIs.               (line   19)
* Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION (C macro):     Python critical section API.
                                                             (line   93)
* Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION2 (C macro):    Python critical section API.
                                                             (line  142)
* Py_EndInterpreter (C function):        Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  207)
* Py_EnterRecursiveCall (C function):    Recursion Control.  (line   13)
* Py_EQ (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1253)
* Py_eval_input (C var):                 Available start symbols.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_Exit (C function):                  Process Control.    (line   22)
* Py_ExitStatusException (C function):   PyStatus.           (line   65)
* Py_EXPORTED_SYMBOL (C macro):          Declaration utilities.
                                                             (line   85)
* Py_False (C var):                      Boolean Objects.    (line   21)
* Py_FatalError (C function):            Process Control.    (line    6)
* Py_FatalError():                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   90)
* Py_fclose (C function):                Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  250)
* Py_FdIsInteractive (C function):       Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_file_input (C var):                 Available start symbols.
                                                             (line   11)
* Py_Finalize (C function):              Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line  126)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function):            Process Control.    (line   23)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <1>:        Process Control.    (line   33)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <2>:        Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <3>:        Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   69)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <4>:        Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  170)
* Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <5>:        Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  208)
* Py_fopen (C function):                 Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  230)
* Py_FORCE_EXPANSION (C macro):          Macro definition utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* PY_FORMAT_SIZE_T (C macro):            Outdated macros.    (line   18)
* Py_FrozenFlag (C var):                 Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   57)
* Py_func_type_input (C var):            Available start symbols.
                                                             (line   24)
* Py_GCC_ATTRIBUTE (C macro):            General utility macros.
                                                             (line   16)
* Py_GE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1262)
* Py_GenericAlias (C function):          Objects for Type Hinting.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_GenericAliasType (C var):           Objects for Type Hinting.
                                                             (line   42)
* Py_GetArgcArgv (C function):           Py_GetArgcArgv.     (line    6)
* Py_GetBuildInfo (C function):          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   77)
* Py_GetCompiler (C function):           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   66)
* Py_GetConstant (C function):           Object Protocol.    (line    6)
* Py_GetConstantBorrowed (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line   57)
* Py_GetCopyright (C function):          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   56)
* Py_GETENV (C macro):                   Useful macros.      (line   23)
* Py_GetPlatform (C function):           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   44)
* Py_GetRecursionLimit (C function):     Recursion Control.  (line   70)
* Py_GetVersion (C function):            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_GIL_DISABLED (C macro):             General Options.    (line  242)
* Py_GT (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1259)
* Py_HASH_ALGORITHM (C macro):           PyHash API.         (line   21)
* Py_HASH_CUTOFF (C macro):              PyHash API.         (line   44)
* Py_HASH_FNV (C macro):                 PyHash API.         (line   31)
* Py_HASH_SIPHASH13 (C macro):           PyHash API.         (line   31)
* Py_HASH_SIPHASH24 (C macro):           PyHash API.         (line   31)
* Py_hash_t (C type):                    PyHash API.         (line    9)
* Py_HashBuffer (C function):            PyHash API.         (line  153)
* Py_HashPointer (C function):           PyHash API.         (line  144)
* Py_HashRandomizationFlag (C var):      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   67)
* PY_HAVE_THREAD_NATIVE_ID (C macro):    Operating system thread APIs.
                                                             (line   51)
* Py_hexdigits (C var):                  Codec utility variables.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_HUGE_VAL (C macro):                 Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag (C var):      Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   82)
* Py_IMPORTED_SYMBOL (C macro):          Declaration utilities.
                                                             (line   93)
* Py_INCREF (C function):                Reference Counts<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_INCREF (C function) <1>:            Reference Counting. (line   51)
* Py_IncRef (C function):                Reference Counting. (line  170)
* Py_INFINITY (C macro):                 Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   68)
* Py_Initialize (C function):            Embedding Python.   (line   12)
* Py_Initialize (C function) <1>:        Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_Initialize (C function) <2>:        Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  170)
* Py_Initialize():                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    7)
* Py_InitializeEx (C function):          Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_InitializeFromConfig (C function):  Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   40)
* Py_InitializeFromInitConfig (C function): Initialize Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_InspectFlag (C var):                Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   95)
* PY_INT32_T (C macro):                  Outdated macros.    (line   39)
* PY_INT64_T (C macro):                  Outdated macros.    (line   39)
* Py_InteractiveFlag (C var):            Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  111)
* PY_INVALID_STACK_EFFECT (C macro):     Stack Effects.      (line   11)
* Py_Is (C function):                    Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  123)
* Py_IS_FINITE (C macro):                Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line  138)
* Py_IS_INFINITY (C macro):              Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line  147)
* Py_IS_NAN (C macro):                   Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line  155)
* Py_IS_TYPE (C function):               Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  162)
* Py_ISALNUM (C macro):                  Character classification and conversion.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_ISALPHA (C macro):                  Character classification and conversion.
                                                             (line   14)
* Py_ISDIGIT (C macro):                  Character classification and conversion.
                                                             (line   19)
* Py_IsFalse (C function):               Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  143)
* Py_IsFinalizing (C function):          Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   62)
* Py_IsInitialized (C function):         Embedding Python.   (line   48)
* Py_IsInitialized (C function) <1>:     Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line   51)
* Py_ISLOWER (C macro):                  Character classification and conversion.
                                                             (line   23)
* Py_IsNone (C function):                Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  129)
* Py_IsolatedFlag (C var):               Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  121)
* Py_ISSPACE (C macro):                  Character classification and conversion.
                                                             (line   33)
* Py_IsTrue (C function):                Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  136)
* Py_ISUPPER (C macro):                  Character classification and conversion.
                                                             (line   28)
* Py_ISXDIGIT (C macro):                 Character classification and conversion.
                                                             (line   38)
* Py_LE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1250)
* Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (C function):    Recursion Control.  (line   34)
* Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag (C var): Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  137)
* Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag (C var):     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  157)
* Py_LIMITED_API (C macro):              Compiling for Stable ABI.
                                                             (line   44)
* Py_LL (C macro):                       Outdated macros.    (line   25)
* PY_LLONG_MAX (C macro):                Outdated macros.    (line   51)
* PY_LLONG_MIN (C macro):                Outdated macros.    (line   51)
* Py_LOCAL (C macro):                    Declaration utilities.
                                                             (line   65)
* Py_LOCAL_INLINE (C macro):             Declaration utilities.
                                                             (line   71)
* Py_LOCAL_SYMBOL (C macro):             Declaration utilities.
                                                             (line   76)
* PY_LOCK_ACQUIRED (C enumerator):       Legacy locking APIs.
                                                             (line   24)
* PY_LOCK_FAILURE (C enumerator):        Legacy locking APIs.
                                                             (line   20)
* PY_LOCK_INTR (C enumerator):           Legacy locking APIs.
                                                             (line   28)
* PY_LONG_LONG (C macro):                Outdated macros.    (line   39)
* Py_LT (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1247)
* Py_Main (C function):                  Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line  139)
* PY_MAJOR_VERSION (C macro):            Build-time version constants.
                                                             (line   13)
* Py_MakePendingCalls (C function):      Asynchronous notifications.
                                                             (line   56)
* Py_MARSHAL_VERSION (C macro):          Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   17)
* Py_MATH_E (C macro):                   Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   92)
* Py_MATH_El (C macro):                  Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* Py_MATH_PI (C macro):                  Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line  103)
* Py_MATH_PIl (C macro):                 Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line  108)
* Py_MATH_TAU (C macro):                 Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* Py_MAX (C macro):                      Numeric utilities.  (line   20)
* Py_MEMBER_SIZE (C macro):              Type size utilities.
                                                             (line   20)
* Py_MEMCPY (C macro):                   Outdated macros.    (line   64)
* PY_MICRO_VERSION (C macro):            Build-time version constants.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_MIN (C macro):                      Numeric utilities.  (line   20)
* PY_MINOR_VERSION (C macro):            Build-time version constants.
                                                             (line   17)
* Py_mod_abi (C macro):                  Feature slots.      (line    6)
* Py_mod_create (C macro):               Creation and initialization slots.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_mod_doc (C macro):                  Metadata slots.     (line   19)
* Py_mod_exec (C macro):                 Creation and initialization slots.
                                                             (line   58)
* Py_mod_gil (C macro):                  Feature slots.      (line   57)
* Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED (C macro):         Feature slots.      (line   67)
* Py_MOD_GIL_USED (C macro):             Feature slots.      (line   61)
* Py_mod_methods (C macro):              Creation and initialization slots.
                                                             (line   81)
* Py_mod_multiple_interpreters (C macro): Feature slots.     (line   29)
* Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED (C macro): Feature slots.
                                                             (line   33)
* Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED (C macro): Feature slots.
                                                             (line   37)
* Py_mod_name (C macro):                 Metadata slots.     (line    6)
* Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED (C macro): Feature slots.
                                                             (line   43)
* Py_mod_slots (C macro):                Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  145)
* Py_mod_state_clear (C macro):          Slots for defining module state.
                                                             (line   47)
* Py_mod_state_free (C macro):           Slots for defining module state.
                                                             (line   73)
* Py_mod_state_size (C macro):           Slots for defining module state.
                                                             (line    9)
* Py_mod_state_traverse (C macro):       Slots for defining module state.
                                                             (line   25)
* Py_mod_token (C macro):                Module token.       (line   38)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH_LEFT (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   44)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH_RIGHT (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   47)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RAISE (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   53)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RETURN (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   56)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_CALL (C macro):    Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   50)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   59)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_INSTRUCTION (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   62)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_JUMP (C macro):    Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   65)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE (C macro):    Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   68)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   71)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RETURN (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   74)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   77)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   80)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   83)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   86)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE (C macro):   Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   89)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   92)
* PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   95)
* PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT (C function): Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line  103)
* Py_mp_ass_subscript (C macro):         Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   36)
* Py_mp_length (C macro):                Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   14)
* Py_mp_subscript (C macro):             Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   24)
* Py_NAN (C macro):                      Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* Py_nb_absolute (C macro):              Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  121)
* Py_nb_add (C macro):                   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   73)
* Py_nb_and (C macro):                   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  149)
* Py_nb_bool (C macro):                  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  126)
* Py_nb_divmod (C macro):                Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   97)
* Py_nb_float (C macro):                 Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  171)
* Py_nb_floor_divide (C macro):          Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  237)
* Py_nb_index (C macro):                 Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  261)
* Py_nb_inplace_add (C macro):           Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  177)
* Py_nb_inplace_and (C macro):           Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  219)
* Py_nb_inplace_floor_divide (C macro):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  250)
* Py_nb_inplace_lshift (C macro):        Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  207)
* Py_nb_inplace_matrix_multiply (C macro): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  274)
* Py_nb_inplace_multiply (C macro):      Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  189)
* Py_nb_inplace_or (C macro):            Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  231)
* Py_nb_inplace_power (C macro):         Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  201)
* Py_nb_inplace_remainder (C macro):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  195)
* Py_nb_inplace_rshift (C macro):        Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  213)
* Py_nb_inplace_subtract (C macro):      Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  183)
* Py_nb_inplace_true_divide (C macro):   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  257)
* Py_nb_inplace_xor (C macro):           Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  225)
* Py_nb_int (C macro):                   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  164)
* Py_nb_invert (C macro):                Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  132)
* Py_nb_lshift (C macro):                Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  138)
* Py_nb_matrix_multiply (C macro):       Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  267)
* Py_nb_multiply (C macro):              Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   85)
* Py_nb_negative (C macro):              Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  109)
* Py_nb_or (C macro):                    Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  159)
* Py_nb_positive (C macro):              Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  115)
* Py_nb_power (C macro):                 Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  103)
* Py_nb_remainder (C macro):             Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   91)
* Py_nb_rshift (C macro):                Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  144)
* Py_nb_subtract (C macro):              Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   79)
* Py_nb_true_divide (C macro):           Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  243)
* Py_nb_xor (C macro):                   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  154)
* Py_NE (C macro):                       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1256)
* Py_NewInterpreter (C function):        Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  197)
* Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig (C function): Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  109)
* Py_NewRef (C function):                Reference Counting. (line   81)
* Py_NO_INLINE (C macro):                Declaration utilities.
                                                             (line   39)
* Py_NO_LINK_LIB (C macro):              Differences Between Unix and Windows.
                                                             (line   55)
* Py_None (C var):                       The None Object.    (line   11)
* Py_NoSiteFlag (C var):                 Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  175)
* Py_NotImplemented (C var):             Object Protocol.    (line   71)
* Py_NoUserSiteDirectory (C var):        Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  191)
* py_object (κλάση σε ctypes):           Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line  271)
* Py_OpenCodeHookFunction (C type):      File objects.       (line   65)
* Py_OptimizeFlag (C var):               Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  205)
* Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION (C function):     Bit-packing macros. (line    6)
* Py_PACK_VERSION (C function):          Bit-packing macros. (line   64)
* Py_PreInitialize (C function):         Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   21)
* Py_PreInitializeFromArgs (C function): Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   38)
* Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs (C function): Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line   28)
* Py_PRINT_RAW (C macro):                Object Protocol.    (line   82)
* Py_PRINT_RAW (C macro) <1>:            File objects.       (line  118)
* Py_QuietFlag (C var):                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  216)
* Py_READONLY (C macro):                 Member flags.       (line    8)
* Py_REFCNT (C function):                Reference Counting. (line    9)
* Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET (C macro):          Member flags.       (line   16)
* PY_RELEASE_LEVEL (C macro):            Build-time version constants.
                                                             (line   25)
* PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_ALPHA (C macro):      Build-time version constants.
                                                             (line   30)
* PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_BETA (C macro):       Build-time version constants.
                                                             (line   30)
* PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_FINAL (C macro):      Build-time version constants.
                                                             (line   30)
* PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_GAMMA (C macro):      Build-time version constants.
                                                             (line   30)
* PY_RELEASE_SERIAL (C macro):           Build-time version constants.
                                                             (line   35)
* Py_REMOTE_DEBUG (C macro):             Performance options.
                                                             (line  223)
* Py_ReprEnter (C function):             Recursion Control.  (line   48)
* Py_ReprLeave (C function):             Recursion Control.  (line   65)
* PY_RESUME (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   52)
* PY_RETURN (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   57)
* Py_RETURN_FALSE (C macro):             Boolean Objects.    (line   37)
* Py_RETURN_INF (C macro):               Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line  129)
* Py_RETURN_NAN (C macro):               Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line  122)
* Py_RETURN_NONE (C macro):              The None Object.    (line   19)
* Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED (C macro):    Object Protocol.    (line   76)
* Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (C macro):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1268)
* Py_RETURN_TRUE (C macro):              Boolean Objects.    (line   41)
* Py_RunMain (C function):               Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line  187)
* Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST (C macro):            Assertion utilities.
                                                             (line   34)
* Py_SET_REFCNT (C function):            Reference Counting. (line   38)
* Py_SET_SIZE (C function):              Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  195)
* Py_SET_TYPE (C function):              Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  169)
* Py_SetProgramName (C function):        Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_SetPythonHome (C function):         Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  161)
* Py_SetRecursionLimit (C function):     Recursion Control.  (line   84)
* Py_SETREF (C macro):                   Reference Counting. (line  182)
* Py_single_input (C var):               Available start symbols.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_SIZE (C function):                  Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  187)
* PY_SIZE_MAX (C macro):                 Outdated macros.    (line   51)
* Py_slot_end (C macro):                 Common slot IDs.    (line    8)
* Py_slot_invalid (C macro):             Common slot IDs.    (line   29)
* Py_slot_subslots (C macro):            Common slot IDs.    (line   14)
* Py_sq_ass_item (C macro):              Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   66)
* Py_sq_concat (C macro):                Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   26)
* Py_sq_contains (C macro):              Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   79)
* Py_sq_inplace_concat (C macro):        Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   90)
* Py_sq_inplace_repeat (C macro):        Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line  104)
* Py_sq_item (C macro):                  Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   47)
* Py_sq_length (C macro):                Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   15)
* Py_sq_repeat (C macro):                Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   36)
* Py_ssize_t (C type):                   Types<2>.           (line   14)
* PY_SSIZE_T_MAX (C macro):              Integer Objects.    (line  265)
* PY_START (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   62)
* Py_STRINGIFY (C macro):                Macro definition utilities.
                                                             (line   12)
* Py_T_BOOL (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   85)
* Py_T_BYTE (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   20)
* Py_T_CHAR (C macro):                   Member types.       (line  101)
* Py_T_DOUBLE (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   80)
* Py_T_FLOAT (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   75)
* Py_T_INT (C macro):                    Member types.       (line   30)
* Py_T_LONG (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   35)
* Py_T_LONGLONG (C macro):               Member types.       (line   40)
* Py_T_OBJECT_EX (C macro):              Member types.       (line  106)
* Py_T_PYSSIZET (C macro):               Member types.       (line   70)
* Py_T_SHORT (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   25)
* Py_T_STRING (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   90)
* Py_T_STRING_INPLACE (C macro):         Member types.       (line   95)
* Py_T_UBYTE (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   45)
* Py_T_UINT (C macro):                   Member types.       (line   50)
* Py_T_ULONG (C macro):                  Member types.       (line   60)
* Py_T_ULONGLONG (C macro):              Member types.       (line   65)
* Py_T_USHORT (C macro):                 Member types.       (line   55)
* Py_TARGET_ABI3T (C macro):             Compiling for Stable ABI.
                                                             (line   49)
* PY_THROW (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   67)
* Py_TOLOWER (C macro):                  Character classification and conversion.
                                                             (line   43)
* Py_TOUPPER (C macro):                  Character classification and conversion.
                                                             (line   47)
* Py_tp_alloc (C macro):                 PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1628)
* Py_tp_base (C macro):                  PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1440)
* Py_tp_bases (C macro):                 PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1759)
* Py_tp_basicsize (C macro):             Type slot IDs.      (line  109)
* Py_tp_call (C macro):                  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  495)
* Py_tp_clear (C macro):                 PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1063)
* Py_tp_dealloc (C macro):               PyTypeObject Slots. (line  142)
* Py_tp_del (C macro):                   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1835)
* Py_tp_descr_get (C macro):             PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1512)
* Py_tp_descr_set (C macro):             PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1528)
* Py_tp_doc (C macro):                   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1028)
* Py_tp_extra_basicsize (C macro):       Type slot IDs.      (line  126)
* Py_tp_finalize (C macro):              PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1850)
* Py_tp_flags (C macro):                 Type slot IDs.      (line  186)
* Py_tp_free (C macro):                  PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1695)
* Py_tp_getattr (C macro):               PyTypeObject Slots. (line  327)
* Py_tp_getattro (C macro):              PyTypeObject Slots. (line  540)
* Py_tp_getset (C macro):                PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1422)
* Py_tp_hash (C macro):                  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  451)
* Py_tp_init (C macro):                  PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1590)
* Py_tp_is_gc (C macro):                 PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1727)
* Py_tp_itemsize (C macro):              Type slot IDs.      (line  153)
* Py_tp_iter (C macro):                  PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1338)
* Py_tp_iternext (C macro):              PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1358)
* Py_tp_members (C macro):               PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1403)
* Py_tp_metaclass (C macro):             Type slot IDs.      (line  205)
* Py_tp_methods (C macro):               PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1384)
* Py_tp_module (C macro):                Type slot IDs.      (line  224)
* Py_tp_name (C macro):                  Type slot IDs.      (line   91)
* Py_tp_new (C macro):                   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1653)
* Py_tp_repr (C macro):                  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  386)
* Py_tp_richcompare (C macro):           PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1224)
* Py_tp_setattr (C macro):               PyTypeObject Slots. (line  348)
* Py_tp_setattro (C macro):              PyTypeObject Slots. (line  570)
* Py_tp_slots (C macro):                 Type slot IDs.      (line  282)
* Py_tp_str (C macro):                   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  510)
* Py_tp_token (C macro):                 Type slot IDs.      (line  243)
* Py_tp_traverse (C macro):              PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1042)
* Py_TP_USE_SPEC (C macro):              Type slot IDs.      (line  272)
* Py_tp_vectorcall (C macro):            PyTypeObject Slots. (line 2021)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  835)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  670)
* Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS (C macro):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  829)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT (C macro):          PyTypeObject Slots. (line  719)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  833)
* Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  895)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  848)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC (C macro):          PyTypeObject Slots. (line  698)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_STACKLESS_EXTENSION (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1016)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL (C macro):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  859)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line  980)
* Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  652)
* Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  881)
* Py_TPFLAGS_INLINE_VALUES (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  988)
* Py_TPFLAGS_IS_ABSTRACT (C macro):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1002)
* Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END (C macro):     PyTypeObject Slots. (line  803)
* Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  825)
* Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  823)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT (C macro):     PyTypeObject Slots. (line  755)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF (C macro):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  775)
* Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING (C macro):          PyTypeObject Slots. (line  923)
* Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  730)
* Py_TPFLAGS_PREHEADER (C macro):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line  790)
* Py_TPFLAGS_READY (C macro):            PyTypeObject Slots. (line  680)
* Py_TPFLAGS_READYING (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  689)
* Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE (C macro):         PyTypeObject Slots. (line  947)
* Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS (C macro):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  827)
* Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS (C macro):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  837)
* Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line  831)
* Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  971)
* Py_tracefunc (C type):                 Profiling and tracing.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_True (C var):                       Boolean Objects.    (line   29)
* Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT (C macro):           Thread-specific storage API.
                                                             (line   29)
* Py_tss_t (C type):                     Thread-specific storage API.
                                                             (line   18)
* Py_TYPE (C function):                  Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  150)
* Py_UCS1 (C type):                      Unicode Type.       (line   19)
* Py_UCS2 (C type):                      Unicode Type.       (line   19)
* Py_UCS4 (C type):                      Unicode Type.       (line   19)
* Py_uhash_t (C type):                   PyHash API.         (line   15)
* PY_UINT32_T (C macro):                 Outdated macros.    (line   39)
* PY_UINT64_T (C macro):                 Outdated macros.    (line   39)
* Py_ULL (C macro):                      Outdated macros.    (line   25)
* PY_ULLONG_MAX (C macro):               Outdated macros.    (line   51)
* Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS (C macro):          APIs.               (line   31)
* Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag (C var):        Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  231)
* Py_UNICODE (C type):                   Deprecated API<2>.  (line    8)
* Py_UNICODE_HIGH_SURROGATE (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  107)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   99)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  103)
* Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (C function):  Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   95)
* Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   52)
* Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   47)
* Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   35)
* Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   39)
* Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (C function):   Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   30)
* Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   15)
* Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   43)
* Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (C function):   Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   57)
* Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   10)
* Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   25)
* Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   20)
* Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  119)
* Py_UNICODE_LOW_SURROGATE (C function): Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line  113)
* Py_UNICODE_REPLACEMENT_CHARACTER (C macro): Generic Codecs.
                                                             (line    8)
* Py_UNICODE_SIZE (C macro):             Outdated macros.    (line   71)
* Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   76)
* Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   82)
* Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   64)
* Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (C function):     Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   88)
* Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   72)
* Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (C function):       Unicode Character Properties.
                                                             (line   68)
* Py_UNICODE_WIDE (C macro):             Outdated macros.    (line   81)
* Py_UNREACHABLE (C macro):              Assertion utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* Py_UNUSED (C macro):                   General utility macros.
                                                             (line    8)
* PY_UNWIND (monitoring event):          Events.             (line   71)
* Py_VA_COPY (C macro):                  Outdated macros.    (line   88)
* Py_VaBuildValue (C function):          Building values.    (line  214)
* PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET (C macro): The Vectorcall Protocol.
                                                             (line   69)
* Py_VerboseFlag (C var):                Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  244)
* PY_VERSION (C macro):                  Build-time version constants.
                                                             (line   47)
* Py_Version (C var):                    Run-time version.   (line    6)
* PY_VERSION_HEX (C macro):              Build-time version constants.
                                                             (line   39)
* Py_VISIT (C macro):                    Traversal.          (line  111)
* Py_XDECREF (C function):               Exceptions<22>.     (line  123)
* Py_XDECREF (C function) <1>:           Reference Counting. (line  147)
* Py_XINCREF (C function):               Reference Counting. (line   74)
* Py_XNewRef (C function):               Reference Counting. (line  105)
* Py_XSETREF (C macro):                  Reference Counting. (line  208)
* PY_YIELD (monitoring event):           Events.             (line   77)
* PyABIInfo (C type):                    ABI Checking.       (line   67)
* PyABIInfo_Check (C function):          ABI Checking.       (line   31)
* PyABIInfo_DEFAULT_ABI_VERSION (C macro): ABI Checking.     (line  153)
* PyABIInfo_DEFAULT_FLAGS (C macro):     ABI Checking.       (line   88)
* PyABIInfo_FREETHREADED (C macro):      ABI Checking.       (line  110)
* PyABIInfo_FREETHREADING_AGNOSTIC (C macro): ABI Checking.  (line  123)
* PyABIInfo_GIL (C macro):               ABI Checking.       (line  117)
* PyABIInfo_INTERNAL (C macro):          ABI Checking.       (line  103)
* PyABIInfo_STABLE (C macro):            ABI Checking.       (line   99)
* PyABIInfo_VAR (C macro):               ABI Checking.       (line   52)
* PyABIInfo.abi_version (C member):      ABI Checking.       (line  139)
* PyABIInfo.abiinfo_major_version (C member): ABI Checking.  (line   69)
* PyABIInfo.abiinfo_minor_version (C member): ABI Checking.  (line   78)
* PyABIInfo.build_version (C member):    ABI Checking.       (line  129)
* PyABIInfo.flags (C member):            ABI Checking.       (line   84)
* PyAIter_Check (C function):            Iterator Protocol.  (line   14)
* PyAnyDict_Check (C function):          Frozen dictionary objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyAnyDict_CheckExact (C function):     Frozen dictionary objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyAnySet_Check (C function):           Set Objects.        (line   54)
* PyAnySet_CheckExact (C function):      Set Objects.        (line   67)
* PyAPI_DATA (C macro):                  Declaration utilities.
                                                             (line  106)
* PyAPI_FUNC (C macro):                  Declaration utilities.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyArg_Parse (C function):              API Functions.      (line   55)
* PyArg_ParseArray (C function):         API Functions.      (line   75)
* PyArg_ParseArrayAndKeywords (C function): API Functions.   (line   85)
* PyArg_ParseTuple (C function):         Calling Python Functions from C.
                                                             (line  149)
* PyArg_ParseTuple (C function) <1>:     API Functions.      (line    6)
* PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (C function): Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (C function) <1>: API Functions.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyArg_UnpackTuple (C function):        API Functions.      (line   97)
* PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (C function): API Functions.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyArg_VaParse (C function):            API Functions.      (line   13)
* PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (C function): API Functions. (line   40)
* PyASCIIObject (C type):                Unicode Type.       (line   29)
* PyAsyncGen_CheckExact (C function):    Asynchronous Generator Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyAsyncGen_New (C function):           Asynchronous Generator Objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyAsyncGen_Type (C var):               Asynchronous Generator Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyAsyncGenASend_CheckExact (C macro):  Deprecated API<4>.  (line    6)
* PyAsyncMethods (C type):               Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter (C member):    Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_anext (C member):    Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_await (C member):    Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyAsyncMethods.am_send (C member):     Async Object Structures.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyBaseObject_Type (C var):             Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  119)
* PyBool_Check (C function):             Boolean Objects.    (line   16)
* PyBool_FromLong (C function):          Boolean Objects.    (line   45)
* PyBool_Type (C var):                   Boolean Objects.    (line   11)
* PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):        contiguity requests.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):          contiguity requests.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyBUF_CONTIG (C macro):                compound requests.  (line   50)
* PyBUF_CONTIG_RO (C macro):             compound requests.  (line   55)
* PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS (C macro):          contiguity requests.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyBUF_FORMAT (C macro):                readonly format.    (line   22)
* PyBUF_FULL (C macro):                  compound requests.  (line   18)
* PyBUF_FULL_RO (C macro):               compound requests.  (line   23)
* PyBUF_INDIRECT (C macro):              shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyBUF_MAX_NDIM (C macro):              Buffer structure.   (line  162)
* PyBUF_ND (C macro):                    shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyBUF_READ (C macro):                  MemoryView objects. (line   23)
* PyBUF_RECORDS (C macro):               compound requests.  (line   28)
* PyBUF_RECORDS_RO (C macro):            compound requests.  (line   33)
* PyBUF_SIMPLE (C macro):                shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyBUF_STRIDED (C macro):               compound requests.  (line   39)
* PyBUF_STRIDED_RO (C macro):            compound requests.  (line   44)
* PyBUF_STRIDES (C macro):               shape strides suboffsets.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyBUF_WRITABLE (C macro):              readonly format.    (line    6)
* PyBUF_WRITE (C macro):                 MemoryView objects. (line   27)
* PyBUF_WRITEABLE (C macro):             readonly format.    (line   16)
* PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (C function): Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyBuffer_FillInfo (C function):        Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   96)
* PyBuffer_FromContiguous (C function):  Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyBuffer_GetPointer (C function):      Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyBuffer_IsContiguous (C function):    Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyBuffer_Release (C function):         Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (C function):  Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyBuffer_ToContiguous (C function):    Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyBufferProcs (C type):                Buffer Protocol.    (line   20)
* PyBufferProcs (C type) <1>:            Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer (C member): Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer (C member): Buffer Object Structures.
                                                             (line   84)
* PyByteArray_AS_STRING (C function):    Macros.             (line    8)
* PyByteArray_AsString (C function):     Direct API functions.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyByteArray_Check (C function):        Type check macros.  (line    6)
* PyByteArray_CheckExact (C function):   Type check macros.  (line   11)
* PyByteArray_Concat (C function):       Direct API functions.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyByteArray_FromObject (C function):   Direct API functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize (C function): Direct API functions.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (C function):     Macros.             (line   16)
* PyByteArray_Resize (C function):       Direct API functions.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyByteArray_Size (C function):         Direct API functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyByteArray_Type (C var):              Byte Array Objects. (line   11)
* PyByteArrayIter_Type (C var):          Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyByteArrayObject (C type):            Byte Array Objects. (line    6)
* PyBytes_AS_STRING (C function):        Bytes Objects.      (line  154)
* PyBytes_AsString (C function):         Bytes Objects.      (line  141)
* PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (C function):  Bytes Objects.      (line  159)
* PyBytes_Check (C function):            Bytes Objects.      (line   19)
* PyBytes_CheckExact (C function):       Bytes Objects.      (line   24)
* PyBytes_Concat (C function):           Bytes Objects.      (line  183)
* PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (C function):     Bytes Objects.      (line  198)
* PyBytes_DecodeEscape (C function):     Bytes Objects.      (line  268)
* PyBytes_FromFormat (C function):       Bytes Objects.      (line   50)
* PyBytes_FromFormatV (C function):      Bytes Objects.      (line  116)
* PyBytes_FromObject (C function):       Bytes Objects.      (line  123)
* PyBytes_FromString (C function):       Bytes Objects.      (line   30)
* PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (C function): Bytes Objects.     (line   38)
* PyBytes_GET_SIZE (C function):         Bytes Objects.      (line  137)
* PyBytes_Join (C function):             Bytes Objects.      (line  210)
* PyBytes_Repr (C function):             Bytes Objects.      (line  249)
* PyBytes_Size (C function):             Bytes Objects.      (line  133)
* PyBytes_Type (C var):                  Bytes Objects.      (line   14)
* PyBytesIter_Type (C var):              Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyBytesObject (C type):                Bytes Objects.      (line    9)
* PyBytesWriter (C type):                PyBytesWriter.      (line   11)
* PyBytesWriter_Create (C function):     Create Finish Discard.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyBytesWriter_Discard (C function):    Create Finish Discard.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyBytesWriter_Finish (C function):     Create Finish Discard.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyBytesWriter_FinishWithPointer (C function): Create Finish Discard.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyBytesWriter_FinishWithSize (C function): Create Finish Discard.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyBytesWriter_Format (C function):     High-level API.     (line   19)
* PyBytesWriter_GetData (C function):    Getters.            (line   13)
* PyBytesWriter_GetSize (C function):    Getters.            (line    6)
* PyBytesWriter_Grow (C function):       Low-level API.      (line   20)
* PyBytesWriter_GrowAndUpdatePointer (C function): Low-level API.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyBytesWriter_Resize (C function):     Low-level API.      (line    6)
* PyBytesWriter_WriteBytes (C function): High-level API.     (line    6)
* pycache_prefix (στη μονάδα sys):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  411)
* PyCallable_Check (C function):         Call Support API.   (line    6)
* PyCallIter_Check (C function):         Iterator Objects.   (line   34)
* PyCallIter_New (C function):           Iterator Objects.   (line   39)
* PyCallIter_Type (C var):               Iterator Objects.   (line   29)
* PyCapsule (C type):                    Capsules<2>.        (line   11)
* PyCapsule_CheckExact (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line   34)
* PyCapsule_Destructor (C type):         Capsules<2>.        (line   25)
* PyCapsule_GetContext (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line   83)
* PyCapsule_GetDestructor (C function):  Capsules<2>.        (line   71)
* PyCapsule_GetName (C function):        Capsules<2>.        (line   94)
* PyCapsule_GetPointer (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line   59)
* PyCapsule_Import (C function):         Capsules<2>.        (line  105)
* PyCapsule_IsValid (C function):        Capsules<2>.        (line  128)
* PyCapsule_New (C function):            Capsules<2>.        (line   38)
* PyCapsule_SetContext (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line  145)
* PyCapsule_SetDestructor (C function):  Capsules<2>.        (line  154)
* PyCapsule_SetName (C function):        Capsules<2>.        (line  163)
* PyCapsule_SetPointer (C function):     Capsules<2>.        (line  174)
* PyCapsule_Type (C var):                Capsules<2>.        (line   20)
* PyCell_Check (C function):             Cell Objects.       (line   24)
* PyCell_Get (C function):               Cell Objects.       (line   33)
* PyCell_GET (C function):               Cell Objects.       (line   38)
* PyCell_New (C function):               Cell Objects.       (line   29)
* PyCell_Set (C function):               Cell Objects.       (line   43)
* PyCell_SET (C function):               Cell Objects.       (line   52)
* PyCell_Type (C var):                   Cell Objects.       (line   20)
* PyCellObject (C type):                 Cell Objects.       (line   16)
* PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT (C macro):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  345)
* PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT (στη μονάδα ast): Compiler flags<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyCF_ONLY_AST (C macro):               The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  345)
* PyCF_ONLY_AST (στη μονάδα ast):        Compiler flags<2>.  (line   16)
* PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST (C macro):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  345)
* PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST (στη μονάδα ast):   Compiler flags<2>.  (line   21)
* PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS (C macro):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  345)
* PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS (στη μονάδα ast):   Compiler flags<2>.  (line   28)
* PyCFunction (C type):                  Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyCFunction_Check (C function):        Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  274)
* PyCFunction_CheckExact (C function):   Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  279)
* PyCFunction_GET_FLAGS (C function):    Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  305)
* PyCFunction_GET_FUNCTION (C function): Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  321)
* PyCFunction_GET_SELF (C function):     Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  341)
* PyCFunction_GetFlags (C function):     Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  295)
* PyCFunction_GetFunction (C function):  Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  310)
* PyCFunction_GetSelf (C function):      Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  326)
* PyCFunction_New (C function):          Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  289)
* PyCFunction_NewEx (C function):        Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  284)
* PyCFunction_Type (C var):              Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  269)
* PyCFunctionFast (C type):              Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords (C type):  Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyCFunctionWithKeywords (C type):      Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   20)
* PycInvalidationMode (κλάση σε py_compile): py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   92)
* PyClassMethod_New (C function):        Built-in descriptors.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyClassMethod_Type (C var):            Built-in descriptors.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyClassMethodDescr_Type (C var):       Built-in descriptors.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyCMethod (C type):                    Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyCMethod_Check (C function):          Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  232)
* PyCMethod_CheckExact (C function):     Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  237)
* PyCMethod_New (C function):            Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  242)
* PyCMethod_Type (C var):                Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line  226)
* PyCode_Addr2Line (C function):         Code Objects.       (line   98)
* PyCode_Addr2Location (C function):     Code Objects.       (line  108)
* PyCode_AddWatcher (C function):        Code Objects.       (line  165)
* PyCode_Check (C function):             Code Objects.       (line   20)
* PyCode_ClearWatcher (C function):      Code Objects.       (line  174)
* PyCode_GetCellvars (C function):       Code Objects.       (line  144)
* PyCode_GetCode (C function):           Code Objects.       (line  120)
* PyCode_GetFreevars (C function):       Code Objects.       (line  155)
* PyCode_GetNumFree (C function):        Code Objects.       (line   25)
* PyCode_GetVarnames (C function):       Code Objects.       (line  134)
* PyCode_New (C function):               Code Objects.       (line   64)
* PyCode_NewEmpty (C function):          Code Objects.       (line   91)
* PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (C function): Code Objects.      (line   68)
* PyCode_Optimize (C function):          Code Objects.       (line  226)
* PyCode_Type (C var):                   Code Objects.       (line   15)
* PyCode_WatchCallback (C type):         Code Objects.       (line  190)
* PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyCodec_Decode (C function):           Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyCodec_Decoder (C function):          Codec lookup API.   (line   16)
* PyCodec_Encode (C function):           Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyCodec_Encoder (C function):          Codec lookup API.   (line   11)
* PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (C function):     Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (C function): Codec lookup API. (line   27)
* PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (C function): Codec lookup API. (line   21)
* PyCodec_KnownEncoding (C function):    Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyCodec_LookupError (C function):      Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   61)
* PyCodec_Register (C function):         Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyCodec_RegisterError (C function):    Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (C function):    Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   44)
* PyCodec_StreamReader (C function):     Codec lookup API.   (line   33)
* PyCodec_StreamWriter (C function):     Codec lookup API.   (line   39)
* PyCodec_StrictErrors (C function):     Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyCodec_Unregister (C function):       Codec registry and support functions.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyCodeEvent (C type):                  Code Objects.       (line  183)
* PyCodeObject (C type):                 Code Objects.       (line   10)
* PyCompactUnicodeObject (C type):       Unicode Type.       (line   29)
* PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffect (C function): Stack Effects.   (line   19)
* PyCompile_OpcodeStackEffectWithJump (C function): Stack Effects.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyCompileError:                        py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyCompilerFlags (C struct):            The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  317)
* PyCompilerFlags.cf_feature_version (C member): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  333)
* PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags (C member):   The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  329)
* PyComplex_AsCComplex (C function):     Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line   95)
* PyComplex_Check (C function):          Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyComplex_CheckExact (C function):     Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyComplex_FromCComplex (C function):   Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line   89)
* PyComplex_FromDoubles (C function):    Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (C function):   Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyComplex_RealAsDouble (C function):   Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyComplex_Type (C var):                Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyComplexObject (C type):              Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyComplexObject.cval (C member):       Complex Number Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyConfig (C type):                     PyConfig.           (line    6)
* PyConfig_Clear (C function):           PyConfig.           (line   96)
* PyConfig_Get (C function):             Runtime Python configuration API.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyConfig_GetInt (C function):          Runtime Python configuration API.
                                                             (line   43)
* PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (C function): PyConfig.        (line   20)
* PyConfig_InitPythonConfig (C function): PyConfig.          (line   15)
* PyConfig_Names (C function):           Runtime Python configuration API.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyConfig_Read (C function):            PyConfig.           (line   67)
* PyConfig_Set (C function):             Runtime Python configuration API.
                                                             (line   67)
* PyConfig_SetArgv (C function):         PyConfig.           (line   42)
* PyConfig_SetBytesArgv (C function):    PyConfig.           (line   50)
* PyConfig_SetBytesString (C function):  PyConfig.           (line   33)
* PyConfig_SetString (C function):       PyConfig.           (line   26)
* PyConfig_SetWideStringList (C function): PyConfig.         (line   59)
* PyConfig._init_main (C member):        Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyConfig._pystats (C member):          PyConfig.           (line 1020)
* PyConfig.argv (C member):              PyConfig.           (line  126)
* PyConfig.base_exec_prefix (C member):  PyConfig.           (line  170)
* PyConfig.base_executable (C member):   PyConfig.           (line  180)
* PyConfig.base_prefix (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  194)
* PyConfig.buffered_stdio (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  204)
* PyConfig.bytes_warning (C member):     PyConfig.           (line  217)
* PyConfig.check_hash_pycs_mode (C member): PyConfig.        (line  259)
* PyConfig.code_debug_ranges (C member): PyConfig.           (line  245)
* PyConfig.configure_c_stdio (C member): PyConfig.           (line  279)
* PyConfig.cpu_count (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  516)
* PyConfig.dev_mode (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  294)
* PyConfig.dump_refs (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  303)
* PyConfig.dump_refs_file (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  317)
* PyConfig.exec_prefix (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  328)
* PyConfig.executable (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  340)
* PyConfig.faulthandler (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  351)
* PyConfig.filesystem_encoding (C member): PyConfig.         (line  363)
* PyConfig.filesystem_errors (C member): PyConfig.           (line  396)
* PyConfig.hash_seed (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  428)
* PyConfig.home (C member):              PyConfig.           (line  443)
* PyConfig.import_time (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  454)
* PyConfig.inspect (C member):           PyConfig.           (line  467)
* PyConfig.install_signal_handlers (C member): PyConfig.     (line  482)
* PyConfig.int_max_str_digits (C member): PyConfig.          (line  496)
* PyConfig.interactive (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  488)
* PyConfig.isolated (C member):          PyConfig.           (line  530)
* PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio (C member): PyConfig.        (line  555)
* PyConfig.malloc_stats (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  572)
* PyConfig.module_search_paths (C member): PyConfig.         (line  616)
* PyConfig.module_search_paths_set (C member): PyConfig.     (line  618)
* PyConfig.optimization_level (C member): PyConfig.          (line  632)
* PyConfig.orig_argv (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  648)
* PyConfig.parse_argv (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  665)
* PyConfig.parser_debug (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  685)
* PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings (C member): PyConfig.         (line  699)
* PyConfig.perf_profiling (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  892)
* PyConfig.platlibdir (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  585)
* PyConfig.prefix (C member):            PyConfig.           (line  711)
* PyConfig.program_name (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  722)
* PyConfig.pycache_prefix (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  743)
* PyConfig.pythonpath_env (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  605)
* PyConfig.quiet (C member):             PyConfig.           (line  756)
* PyConfig.run_command (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  765)
* PyConfig.run_filename (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  773)
* PyConfig.run_module (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  787)
* PyConfig.run_presite (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  795)
* PyConfig.safe_path (C member):         PyConfig.           (line  148)
* PyConfig.show_ref_count (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  809)
* PyConfig.site_import (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  821)
* PyConfig.skip_source_first_line (C member): PyConfig.      (line  840)
* PyConfig.stdio_encoding (C member):    PyConfig.           (line  852)
* PyConfig.stdio_errors (C member):      PyConfig.           (line  854)
* PyConfig.stdlib_dir (C member):        PyConfig.           (line  919)
* PyConfig.tracemalloc (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  881)
* PyConfig.use_environment (C member):   PyConfig.           (line  927)
* PyConfig.use_frozen_modules (C member): PyConfig.          (line  418)
* PyConfig.use_hash_seed (C member):     PyConfig.           (line  430)
* PyConfig.use_system_logger (C member): PyConfig.           (line  938)
* PyConfig.user_site_directory (C member): PyConfig.         (line  950)
* PyConfig.verbose (C member):           PyConfig.           (line  963)
* PyConfig.warn_default_encoding (C member): PyConfig.       (line  235)
* PyConfig.warnoptions (C member):       PyConfig.           (line  980)
* PyConfig.write_bytecode (C member):    PyConfig.           (line 1000)
* PyConfig.xoptions (C member):          PyConfig.           (line 1013)
* PyContext (C type):                    Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyContext_AddWatcher (C function):     Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* PyContext_CheckExact (C function):     Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyContext_ClearWatcher (C function):   Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line  106)
* PyContext_Copy (C function):           Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyContext_CopyCurrent (C function):    Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyContext_Enter (C function):          Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyContext_Exit (C function):           Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* PyContext_New (C function):            Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyContext_Type (C var):                Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyContext_WatchCallback (C type):      Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line  126)
* PyContextEvent (C type):               Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* PyContextToken (C type):               Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyContextToken_CheckExact (C function): Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyContextToken_Type (C var):           Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyContextVar (C type):                 Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyContextVar_CheckExact (C function):  Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyContextVar_Get (C function):         Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line  156)
* PyContextVar_New (C function):         Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line  148)
* PyContextVar_Reset (C function):       Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line  180)
* PyContextVar_Set (C function):         Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line  174)
* PyContextVar_Type (C var):             Context Variables Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyCoro_CheckExact (C function):        Coroutine Objects.  (line   19)
* PyCoro_New (C function):               Coroutine Objects.  (line   24)
* PyCoro_Type (C var):                   Coroutine Objects.  (line   15)
* PyCoroObject (C type):                 Coroutine Objects.  (line   11)
* PyCriticalSection (C type):            Low-level critical section API.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyCriticalSection_Begin (C function):  Low-level critical section API.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyCriticalSection_BeginMutex (C function): Low-level critical section API.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyCriticalSection_End (C function):    Low-level critical section API.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyCriticalSection2 (C type):           Low-level critical section API.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyCriticalSection2_Begin (C function): Low-level critical section API.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyCriticalSection2_BeginMutex (C function): Low-level critical section API.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyCriticalSection2_End (C function):   Low-level critical section API.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyCurses_API (C var):                  Curses C API.       (line   29)
* PyCurses_API_pointers (C macro):       Curses C API.       (line   52)
* PyCurses_CAPSULE_NAME (C macro):       Internal data.      (line    9)
* PyCursesInitialised (C macro):         Curses C API.       (line   85)
* PyCursesInitialisedColor (C macro):    Curses C API.       (line   99)
* PyCursesSetupTermCalled (C macro):     Curses C API.       (line   71)
* PyCursesWindow_Check (C function):     Curses C API.       (line   62)
* PyCursesWindow_Type (C var):           Curses C API.       (line   57)
* PyDate_Check (C function):             DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  110)
* PyDate_CheckExact (C function):        DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  116)
* PyDate_FromDate (C function):          DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  167)
* PyDate_FromTimestamp (C function):     DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  342)
* PyDateTime_CAPI (C type):              DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyDateTime_CAPSULE_NAME (C macro):     Internal data<2>.   (line    9)
* PyDateTime_Check (C function):         DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  121)
* PyDateTime_CheckExact (C function):    DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  127)
* PyDateTime_Date (C type):              DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  264)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  247)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  259)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  251)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  255)
* PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  270)
* PyDateTime_DateTime (C type):          DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyDateTime_DateTimeType (C var):       DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyDateTime_DateType (C var):           DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyDateTime_Delta (C type):             DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  315)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  327)
* PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  321)
* PyDateTime_DeltaType (C var):          DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  172)
* PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  179)
* PyDateTime_FromTimestamp (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  336)
* PyDateTime_GET_DAY (C function):       DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  239)
* PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (C function):     DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  235)
* PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (C function):      DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  231)
* PyDateTime_IMPORT (C macro):           DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyDateTime_Time (C type):              DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  298)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  281)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  293)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  285)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  289)
* PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  304)
* PyDateTime_TimeType (C var):           DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC (C var):       DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  101)
* PyDateTime_TZInfoType (C var):         DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyDateTimeAPI (C var):                 DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyDelta_Check (C function):            DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  143)
* PyDelta_CheckExact (C function):       DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  149)
* PyDelta_FromDSU (C function):          DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  202)
* PyDescr_COMMON (C macro):              Descriptor Objects. (line  142)
* PyDescr_IsData (C function):           Descriptor Objects. (line  122)
* PyDescr_NewClassMethod (C function):   Descriptor Objects. (line  107)
* PyDescr_NewGetSet (C function):        Descriptor Objects. (line    9)
* PyDescr_NewMember (C function):        Descriptor Objects. (line   24)
* PyDescr_NewMethod (C function):        Descriptor Objects. (line   53)
* PyDescr_NewWrapper (C function):       Descriptor Objects. (line   83)
* PyDict_AddWatcher (C function):        Dictionary objects. (line  497)
* PyDict_Check (C function):             Dictionary objects. (line   16)
* PyDict_CheckExact (C function):        Dictionary objects. (line   21)
* PyDict_Clear (C function):             Dictionary objects. (line   54)
* PyDict_ClearWatcher (C function):      Dictionary objects. (line  512)
* PyDict_Contains (C function):          Dictionary objects. (line   61)
* PyDict_ContainsString (C function):    Dictionary objects. (line   77)
* PyDict_Copy (C function):              Dictionary objects. (line   90)
* PyDict_DelItem (C function):           Dictionary objects. (line  115)
* PyDict_DelItemString (C function):     Dictionary objects. (line  127)
* PyDict_GET_SIZE (C function):          Dictionary objects. (line  362)
* PyDict_GetItem (C function):           Dictionary objects. (line  161)
* PyDict_GetItemRef (C function):        Dictionary objects. (line  133)
* PyDict_GetItemString (C function):     Dictionary objects. (line  207)
* PyDict_GetItemStringRef (C function):  Dictionary objects. (line  231)
* PyDict_GetItemWithError (C function):  Dictionary objects. (line  190)
* PyDict_Items (C function):             Dictionary objects. (line  320)
* PyDict_Keys (C function):              Dictionary objects. (line  330)
* PyDict_Merge (C function):             Dictionary objects. (line  445)
* PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (C function):     Dictionary objects. (line  477)
* PyDict_New (C function):               Dictionary objects. (line   26)
* PyDict_Next (C function):              Dictionary objects. (line  368)
* PyDict_Pop (C function):               Dictionary objects. (line  288)
* PyDict_PopString (C function):         Dictionary objects. (line  312)
* PyDict_SetDefault (C function):        Dictionary objects. (line  242)
* PyDict_SetDefaultRef (C function):     Dictionary objects. (line  262)
* PyDict_SetItem (C function):           Dictionary objects. (line   95)
* PyDict_SetItemString (C function):     Dictionary objects. (line  108)
* PyDict_Size (C function):              Dictionary objects. (line  351)
* PyDict_Type (C var):                   Dictionary objects. (line   11)
* PyDict_Unwatch (C function):           Dictionary objects. (line  535)
* PyDict_Update (C function):            Dictionary objects. (line  462)
* PyDict_Values (C function):            Dictionary objects. (line  340)
* PyDict_Watch (C function):             Dictionary objects. (line  526)
* PyDict_WatchCallback (C type):         Dictionary objects. (line  554)
* PyDict_WatchEvent (C type):            Dictionary objects. (line  545)
* PyDictItems_Check (C function):        Dictionary view objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyDictItems_Type (C var):              Dictionary view objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyDictIterItem_Type (C var):           Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyDictIterKey_Type (C var):            Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyDictIterValue_Type (C var):          Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyDictKeys_Check (C function):         Dictionary view objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyDictKeys_Type (C var):               Dictionary view objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyDictObject (C type):                 Dictionary objects. (line    6)
* PyDictProxy_New (C function):          Dictionary objects. (line   31)
* PyDictProxy_Type (C var):              Dictionary objects. (line   44)
* PyDictRevIterItem_Type (C var):        Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyDictRevIterKey_Type (C var):         Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyDictRevIterValue_Type (C var):       Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyDictValues_Check (C function):       Dictionary view objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyDictValues_Type (C var):             Dictionary view objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyDictViewSet_Check (C function):      Dictionary view objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyDLL (κλάση σε ctypes):               Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  163)
* pydll (στη μονάδα ctypes):             Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  229)
* PyDoc_STR (C macro):                   Docstring macros.   (line   24)
* PyDoc_STRVAR (C macro):                Docstring macros.   (line    6)
* PyDoc_VAR (C macro):                   Docstring macros.   (line   37)
* PyDTrace_AUDIT (C function):           C Entry Points.     (line   52)
* PyDTrace_AUDIT_ENABLED (C function):   C Probing Checks.   (line   28)
* PyDTrace_FUNCTION_ENTRY (C function):  C Entry Points.     (line   20)
* PyDTrace_FUNCTION_ENTRY_ENABLED (C function): C Probing Checks.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyDTrace_FUNCTION_RETURN (C function): C Entry Points.     (line   23)
* PyDTrace_FUNCTION_RETURN_ENABLED (C function): C Probing Checks.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyDTrace_GC_DONE (C function):         C Entry Points.     (line   30)
* PyDTrace_GC_DONE_ENABLED (C function): C Probing Checks.   (line   14)
* PyDTrace_GC_START (C function):        C Entry Points.     (line   27)
* PyDTrace_GC_START_ENABLED (C function): C Probing Checks.  (line   12)
* PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_DONE (C function): C Entry Points.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_DONE_ENABLED (C function): C Probing Checks.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_START (C function): C Entry Points.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyDTrace_IMPORT_FIND_LOAD_START_ENABLED (C function): C Probing Checks.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_DONE (C function): C Entry Points.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_DONE_ENABLED (C function): C Probing Checks.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_START (C function): C Entry Points.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyDTrace_INSTANCE_DELETE_START_ENABLED (C function): C Probing Checks.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_DONE (C function): C Entry Points.   (line   36)
* PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_DONE_ENABLED (C function): C Probing Checks.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_START (C function): C Entry Points.  (line   33)
* PyDTrace_INSTANCE_NEW_START_ENABLED (C function): C Probing Checks.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyDTrace_LINE (C function):            C Entry Points.     (line   17)
* PyDTrace_LINE_ENABLED (C function):    C Probing Checks.   (line    6)
* PyEllipsis_Type (C var):               Ellipsis Object.    (line    6)
* PyEnum_Type (C var):                   Builtin Iterator Types.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyErr_BadArgument (C function):        Raising exceptions. (line   47)
* PyErr_BadInternalCall (C function):    Raising exceptions. (line  233)
* PyErr_CheckSignals (C function):       Signal Handling<2>. (line    6)
* PyErr_Clear (C function):              Exceptions<22>.     (line   25)
* PyErr_Clear (C function) <1>:          Exceptions<22>.     (line  123)
* PyErr_Clear (C function) <2>:          Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyErr_DisplayException (C function):   Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   66)
* PyErr_ExceptionMatches (C function):   Exceptions<22>.     (line  123)
* PyErr_ExceptionMatches (C function) <1>: Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyErr_Fetch (C function):              Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyErr_Fetch (C function) <1>:          Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyErr_Format (C function):             Raising exceptions. (line   25)
* PyErr_FormatUnraisable (C function):   Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyErr_FormatV (C function):            Raising exceptions. (line   34)
* PyErr_GetExcInfo (C function):         Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  179)
* PyErr_GetHandledException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  149)
* PyErr_GetRaisedException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyErr_NewException (C function):       Exception Classes.  (line    6)
* PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (C function): Exception Classes. (line   24)
* PyErr_NoMemory (C function):           Raising exceptions. (line   53)
* PyErr_NormalizeException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  126)
* PyErr_Occurred (C function):           Exceptions<22>.     (line   12)
* PyErr_Occurred (C function) <1>:       Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyErr_Print (C function):              Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyErr_PrintEx (C function):            Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyErr_ProgramText (C function):        Raising exceptions. (line  250)
* PyErr_ProgramTextObject (C function):  Raising exceptions. (line  240)
* PyErr_RangedSyntaxLocationObject (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  208)
* PyErr_ResourceWarning (C function):    Issuing warnings.   (line   79)
* PyErr_Restore (C function):            Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyErr_Restore (C function) <1>:        Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  103)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  121)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  167)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  143)
* PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  155)
* PyErr_SetExcInfo (C function):         Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  198)
* PyErr_SetFromErrno (C function):       Raising exceptions. (line   59)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line   97)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line   86)
* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (C function):  Raising exceptions. (line  104)
* PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  130)
* PyErr_SetHandledException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line  165)
* PyErr_SetImportError (C function):     Raising exceptions. (line  177)
* PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  188)
* PyErr_SetInterrupt (C function):       Signal Handling<2>. (line   56)
* PyErr_SetInterruptEx (C function):     Signal Handling<2>. (line   66)
* PyErr_SetNone (C function):            Raising exceptions. (line   43)
* PyErr_SetObject (C function):          Raising exceptions. (line   20)
* PyErr_SetRaisedException (C function): Querying the error indicator.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyErr_SetString (C function):          Exceptions<22>.     (line   25)
* PyErr_SetString (C function) <1>:      Raising exceptions. (line   10)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocation (C function):     Raising exceptions. (line  227)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (C function):   Raising exceptions. (line  218)
* PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (C function): Raising exceptions.
                                                             (line  198)
* PyErr_WarnEx (C function):             Issuing warnings.   (line   19)
* PyErr_WarnExplicit (C function):       Issuing warnings.   (line   53)
* PyErr_WarnExplicitFormat (C function): Issuing warnings.   (line   69)
* PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (C function): Issuing warnings.   (line   41)
* PyErr_WarnFormat (C function):         Issuing warnings.   (line   61)
* PyErr_WriteUnraisable (C function):    Printing and clearing.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyEval_AcquireThread (C function):     Low-level APIs.     (line  143)
* PyEval_AcquireThread():                High-level APIs.    (line   19)
* PyEval_EvalCode (C function):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  271)
* PyEval_EvalCodeEx (C function):        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  278)
* PyEval_EvalFrame (C function):         The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  291)
* PyEval_EvalFrameEx (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  297)
* PyEval_GetBuiltins (C function):       Reflection.         (line    6)
* PyEval_GetFrame (C function):          Reflection.         (line   60)
* PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins (C function):  Reflection.         (line   67)
* PyEval_GetFrameGlobals (C function):   Reflection.         (line   89)
* PyEval_GetFrameLocals (C function):    Reflection.         (line   75)
* PyEval_GetFuncDesc (C function):       Reflection.         (line  103)
* PyEval_GetFuncName (C function):       Reflection.         (line   98)
* PyEval_GetGlobals (C function):        Reflection.         (line   50)
* PyEval_GetLocals (C function):         Reflection.         (line   17)
* PyEval_InitThreads (C function):       High-level APIs.    (line   18)
* PyEval_InitThreads():                  Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line    7)
* PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  312)
* PyEval_ReleaseThread (C function):     Low-level APIs.     (line  168)
* PyEval_ReleaseThread():                High-level APIs.    (line   19)
* PyEval_RestoreThread (C function):     Detaching the thread state from extension code.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyEval_RestoreThread (C function) <1>: High-level APIs.    (line   42)
* PyEval_RestoreThread():                High-level APIs.    (line   19)
* PyEval_SaveThread (C function):        Detaching the thread state from extension code.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyEval_SaveThread (C function) <1>:    High-level APIs.    (line   37)
* PyEval_SaveThread():                   High-level APIs.    (line   19)
* PyEval_SetProfile (C function):        Profiling and tracing.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads (C function): Profiling and tracing.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyEval_SetTrace (C function):          Profiling and tracing.
                                                             (line  147)
* PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads (C function): Profiling and tracing.
                                                             (line  162)
* PyExc_ArithmeticError (C var):         Exception types.    (line   23)
* PyExc_AssertionError (C var):          Exception types.    (line   27)
* PyExc_AttributeError (C var):          Exception types.    (line   31)
* PyExc_BaseException (C var):           Exception types.    (line   10)
* PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup (C var):      Exception types.    (line   14)
* PyExc_BlockingIOError (C var):         Exception types.    (line   35)
* PyExc_BrokenPipeError (C var):         Exception types.    (line   40)
* PyExc_BufferError (C var):             Exception types.    (line   45)
* PyExc_BytesWarning (C var):            Warning types.      (line   13)
* PyExc_ChildProcessError (C var):       Exception types.    (line   49)
* PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError (C var):  Exception types.    (line   54)
* PyExc_ConnectionError (C var):         Exception types.    (line   59)
* PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError (C var):  Exception types.    (line   64)
* PyExc_ConnectionResetError (C var):    Exception types.    (line   69)
* PyExc_DeprecationWarning (C var):      Warning types.      (line   17)
* PyExc_EncodingWarning (C var):         Warning types.      (line   21)
* PyExc_EnvironmentError (C var):        OSError aliases.    (line   15)
* PyExc_EOFError (C var):                Exception types.    (line   74)
* PyExc_Exception (C var):               Exception types.    (line   19)
* PyExc_FileExistsError (C var):         Exception types.    (line   78)
* PyExc_FileNotFoundError (C var):       Exception types.    (line   83)
* PyExc_FloatingPointError (C var):      Exception types.    (line   88)
* PyExc_FutureWarning (C var):           Warning types.      (line   26)
* PyExc_GeneratorExit (C var):           Exception types.    (line   92)
* PyExc_ImportCycleError (C var):        Exception types.    (line   96)
* PyExc_ImportError (C var):             Exception types.    (line   99)
* PyExc_ImportWarning (C var):           Warning types.      (line   30)
* PyExc_IndentationError (C var):        Exception types.    (line  103)
* PyExc_IndexError (C var):              Exception types.    (line  107)
* PyExc_InterruptedError (C var):        Exception types.    (line  111)
* PyExc_IOError (C var):                 OSError aliases.    (line   21)
* PyExc_IsADirectoryError (C var):       Exception types.    (line  116)
* PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt (C var):       Exception types.    (line  125)
* PyExc_KeyError (C var):                Exception types.    (line  121)
* PyExc_LookupError (C var):             Exception types.    (line  129)
* PyExc_MemoryError (C var):             Exception types.    (line  133)
* PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError (C var):     Exception types.    (line  137)
* PyExc_NameError (C var):               Exception types.    (line  142)
* PyExc_NotADirectoryError (C var):      Exception types.    (line  146)
* PyExc_NotImplementedError (C var):     Exception types.    (line  151)
* PyExc_OSError (C var):                 Exception types.    (line  155)
* PyExc_OverflowError (C var):           Exception types.    (line  158)
* PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning (C var): Warning types.    (line   34)
* PyExc_PermissionError (C var):         Exception types.    (line  162)
* PyExc_ProcessLookupError (C var):      Exception types.    (line  167)
* PyExc_PythonFinalizationError (C var): Exception types.    (line  172)
* PyExc_RecursionError (C var):          Exception types.    (line  175)
* PyExc_ReferenceError (C var):          Exception types.    (line  180)
* PyExc_ResourceWarning (C var):         Warning types.      (line   38)
* PyExc_RuntimeError (C var):            Exception types.    (line  184)
* PyExc_RuntimeWarning (C var):          Warning types.      (line   43)
* PyExc_StopAsyncIteration (C var):      Exception types.    (line  188)
* PyExc_StopIteration (C var):           Exception types.    (line  193)
* PyExc_SyntaxError (C var):             Exception types.    (line  197)
* PyExc_SyntaxWarning (C var):           Warning types.      (line   47)
* PyExc_SystemError (C var):             Exception types.    (line  201)
* PyExc_SystemExit (C var):              Exception types.    (line  205)
* PyExc_TabError (C var):                Exception types.    (line  209)
* PyExc_TimeoutError (C var):            Exception types.    (line  213)
* PyExc_TypeError (C var):               Exception types.    (line  218)
* PyExc_UnboundLocalError (C var):       Exception types.    (line  222)
* PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError (C var):      Exception types.    (line  226)
* PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError (C var):      Exception types.    (line  230)
* PyExc_UnicodeError (C var):            Exception types.    (line  234)
* PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError (C var):   Exception types.    (line  238)
* PyExc_UnicodeWarning (C var):          Warning types.      (line   51)
* PyExc_UserWarning (C var):             Warning types.      (line   55)
* PyExc_ValueError (C var):              Exception types.    (line  242)
* PyExc_Warning (C var):                 Warning types.      (line   10)
* PyExc_WindowsError (C var):            OSError aliases.    (line   27)
* PyExc_ZeroDivisionError (C var):       Exception types.    (line  246)
* PyException_GetArgs (C function):      Exception Objects.  (line   62)
* PyException_GetCause (C function):     Exception Objects.  (line   44)
* PyException_GetContext (C function):   Exception Objects.  (line   28)
* PyException_GetTraceback (C function): Exception Objects.  (line   15)
* PyException_HEAD (C macro):            Exception Classes.  (line   43)
* PyException_SetArgs (C function):      Exception Objects.  (line   68)
* PyException_SetCause (C function):     Exception Objects.  (line   52)
* PyException_SetContext (C function):   Exception Objects.  (line   37)
* PyException_SetTraceback (C function): Exception Objects.  (line   23)
* PyExceptionClass_Check (C function):   Exception Classes.  (line   34)
* PyExceptionClass_Name (C function):    Exception Classes.  (line   39)
* PyExceptionInstance_Check (C function): Exception Objects. (line    6)
* PyExceptionInstance_Class (C macro):   Exception Objects.  (line   11)
* PyFile_FromFd (C function):            File objects.       (line   15)
* PyFile_GetLine (C function):           File objects.       (line   41)
* PyFile_NewStdPrinter (C function):     Soft-deprecated API<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyFile_OpenCode (C function):          File objects.       (line  108)
* PyFile_OpenCodeObject (C function):    File objects.       (line   92)
* PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook (C function):   File objects.       (line   57)
* PyFile_WriteObject (C function):       File objects.       (line  116)
* PyFile_WriteString (C function):       File objects.       (line  129)
* PyFilter_Type (C var):                 Builtin Iterator Types.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (C function):        Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyFloat_AsDouble (C function):         Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyFloat_Check (C function):            Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyFloat_CheckExact (C function):       Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyFloat_FromDouble (C function):       Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyFloat_FromString (C function):       Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyFloat_GetInfo (C function):          Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyFloat_GetMax (C function):           Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyFloat_GetMin (C function):           Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyFloat_Pack2 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   16)
* PyFloat_Pack4 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   20)
* PyFloat_Pack8 (C function):            Pack functions.     (line   24)
* PyFloat_Type (C var):                  Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyFloat_Unpack2 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   20)
* PyFloat_Unpack4 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   24)
* PyFloat_Unpack8 (C function):          Unpack functions.   (line   28)
* PyFloatObject (C type):                Floating-Point Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyFrame_Check (C function):            Frame objects.      (line   37)
* PyFrame_FastToLocals (C function):     Legacy local variable APIs.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError (C function): Legacy local variable APIs.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyFrame_GetBack (C function):          Frame objects.      (line   44)
* PyFrame_GetBuiltins (C function):      Frame objects.      (line   54)
* PyFrame_GetCode (C function):          Frame objects.      (line   63)
* PyFrame_GetGenerator (C function):     Frame objects.      (line   74)
* PyFrame_GetGlobals (C function):       Frame objects.      (line   85)
* PyFrame_GetLasti (C function):         Frame objects.      (line   94)
* PyFrame_GetLineNumber (C function):    Frame objects.      (line  144)
* PyFrame_GetLocals (C function):        Frame objects.      (line  127)
* PyFrame_GetVar (C function):           Frame objects.      (line  102)
* PyFrame_GetVarString (C function):     Frame objects.      (line  119)
* PyFrame_LocalsToFast (C function):     Legacy local variable APIs.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyFrame_New (C function):              Frame objects.      (line   29)
* PyFrame_Type (C var):                  Frame objects.      (line   21)
* PyFrameLocalsProxy_Check (C function): Frame locals proxies.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type (C var):       Frame locals proxies.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyFrameObject (C type):                Frame objects.      (line    6)
* PyFrozenDict_Check (C function):       Frozen dictionary objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyFrozenDict_CheckExact (C function):  Frozen dictionary objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyFrozenDict_New (C function):         Frozen dictionary objects.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyFrozenDict_Type (C var):             Frozen dictionary objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyFrozenSet_Check (C function):        Set Objects.        (line   49)
* PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (C function):   Set Objects.        (line   73)
* PyFrozenSet_New (C function):          Set Objects.        (line   92)
* PyFrozenSet_Type (C var):              Set Objects.        (line   35)
* PyFunction_AddWatcher (C function):    Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  151)
* PyFunction_Check (C function):         Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyFunction_ClearWatcher (C function):  Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  161)
* PyFunction_GET_ANNOTATIONS (C function): Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyFunction_GET_CLOSURE (C function):   Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyFunction_GET_CODE (C function):      Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyFunction_GET_DEFAULTS (C function):  Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyFunction_GET_GLOBALS (C function):   Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyFunction_GET_KW_DEFAULTS (C function): Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyFunction_GET_MODULE (C function):    Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyFunction_GetAnnotations (C function): Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  118)
* PyFunction_GetClosure (C function):    Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  104)
* PyFunction_GetCode (C function):       Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyFunction_GetDefaults (C function):   Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyFunction_GetGlobals (C function):    Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   50)
* PyFunction_GetKwDefaults (C function): Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   88)
* PyFunction_GetModule (C function):     Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyFunction_New (C function):           Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyFunction_NewWithQualName (C function): Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyFunction_SetAnnotations (C function): Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  124)
* PyFunction_SetClosure (C function):    Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  110)
* PyFunction_SetDefaults (C function):   Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyFunction_SetKwDefaults (C function): Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   94)
* PyFunction_SetVectorcall (C function): Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   78)
* PyFunction_Type (C var):               Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyFunction_WatchCallback (C type):     Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  190)
* PyFunction_WatchEvent (C type):        Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line  170)
* PyFunctionObject (C type):             Function Objects<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYFUNCTYPE() (στη μονάδα ctypes):      Function prototypes.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyGC_Collect (C function):             Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyGC_Disable (C function):             Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyGC_Enable (C function):              Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyGC_IsEnabled (C function):           Controlling the Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyGen_Check (C function):              Generator Objects.  (line   19)
* PyGen_CheckExact (C function):         Generator Objects.  (line   24)
* PyGen_GetCode (C function):            Generator Objects.  (line   43)
* PyGen_New (C function):                Generator Objects.  (line   29)
* PyGen_NewWithQualName (C function):    Generator Objects.  (line   35)
* PyGen_Type (C var):                    Generator Objects.  (line   15)
* PyGenObject (C type):                  Generator Objects.  (line   11)
* PyGetSetDef (C type):                  Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyGetSetDef.closure (C member):        Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyGetSetDef.doc (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyGetSetDef.get (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyGetSetDef.name (C member):           Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyGetSetDef.set (C member):            Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyGetSetDescr_Type (C var):            Descriptor Objects. (line   45)
* PyGILState_Check (C function):         GIL-state APIs.     (line  107)
* PyGILState_Ensure (C function):        GIL-state APIs.     (line   27)
* PyGILState_GetThisThreadState (C function): GIL-state APIs.
                                                             (line   88)
* PyGILState_Release (C function):       GIL-state APIs.     (line   75)
* PyGILState_STATE (C type):             GIL-state APIs.     (line   12)
* PyGILState_STATE.PyGILState_LOCKED (C enumerator): GIL-state APIs.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyGILState_STATE.PyGILState_UNLOCKED (C enumerator): GIL-state APIs.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyHASH_BITS (C macro):                 PyHash API.         (line   73)
* PyHash_FuncDef (C type):               PyHash API.         (line  101)
* PyHash_FuncDef.hash (C member):        PyHash API.         (line  105)
* PyHash_FuncDef.hash_bits (C member):   PyHash API.         (line  117)
* PyHash_FuncDef.name (C member):        PyHash API.         (line  110)
* PyHash_FuncDef.seed_bits (C member):   PyHash API.         (line  124)
* PyHash_GetFuncDef (C function):        PyHash API.         (line  133)
* PyHASH_IMAG (C macro):                 PyHash API.         (line   93)
* PyHASH_INF (C macro):                  PyHash API.         (line   85)
* PyHASH_MODULUS (C macro):              PyHash API.         (line   64)
* PyHASH_MULTIPLIER (C macro):           PyHash API.         (line   79)
* PyImport_AddModule (C function):       Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  108)
* PyImport_AddModuleObject (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyImport_AddModuleRef (C function):    Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyImport_AppendInittab (C function):   Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  287)
* PyImport_CreateModuleFromInitfunc (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  415)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModule (C function):  Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  114)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  155)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  164)
* PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  180)
* PyImport_ExtendInittab (C function):   Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  314)
* PyImport_FrozenModules (C var):        Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  278)
* PyImport_GetImporter (C function):     Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  228)
* PyImport_GetLazyImportsFilter (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  364)
* PyImport_GetLazyImportsMode (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  357)
* PyImport_GetMagicNumber (C function):  Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  196)
* PyImport_GetMagicTag (C function):     Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  204)
* PyImport_GetModule (C function):       Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  218)
* PyImport_GetModuleDict (C function):   Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  212)
* PyImport_Import (C function):          Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyImport_ImportFrozenModule (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  255)
* PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  241)
* PyImport_ImportModule (C function):    Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyImport_ImportModuleAttr (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  335)
* PyImport_ImportModuleAttrString (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  349)
* PyImport_ImportModuleEx (C function):  Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyImport_Inittab (C var):              Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  329)
* PyImport_LazyImportsMode (C type):     Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  395)
* PyImport_LazyImportsMode.PyImport_LAZY_ALL (C enumerator): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  404)
* PyImport_LazyImportsMode.PyImport_LAZY_NONE (C enumerator): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  408)
* PyImport_LazyImportsMode.PyImport_LAZY_NORMAL (C enumerator): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  399)
* PyImport_ReloadModule (C function):    Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyImport_SetLazyImportsFilter (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  381)
* PyImport_SetLazyImportsMode (C function): Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  371)
* PyIndex_Check (C function):            Number Protocol.    (line  305)
* PyInit_modulename (C function):        PyInit function.    (line   12)
* PyInitConfig (C struct):               Create Config.      (line    6)
* PyInitConfig_AddModule (C function):   Module.             (line    6)
* PyInitConfig_Create (C function):      Create Config.      (line   10)
* PyInitConfig_Free (C function):        Create Config.      (line   19)
* PyInitConfig_FreeStrList (C function): Get Options.        (line   55)
* PyInitConfig_GetError (C function):    Error Handling.     (line    6)
* PyInitConfig_GetExitCode (C function): Error Handling.     (line   24)
* PyInitConfig_GetInt (C function):      Get Options.        (line   17)
* PyInitConfig_GetStr (C function):      Get Options.        (line   26)
* PyInitConfig_GetStrList (C function):  Get Options.        (line   42)
* PyInitConfig_HasOption (C function):   Get Options.        (line   10)
* PyInitConfig_SetInt (C function):      Set Options.        (line   15)
* PyInitConfig_SetStr (C function):      Set Options.        (line   24)
* PyInitConfig_SetStrList (C function):  Set Options.        (line   34)
* PyInstanceMethod_Check (C function):   Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyInstanceMethod_Function (C function): Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function): Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyInstanceMethod_New (C function):     Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyInstanceMethod_Type (C var):         Instance Method Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* PyInterpreterConfig (C type):          Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL (C macro): Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL (C macro): Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  102)
* PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL (C macro): Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line   98)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_daemon_threads (C member): Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_exec (C member): Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line   54)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_fork (C member): Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyInterpreterConfig.allow_threads (C member): Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyInterpreterConfig.check_multi_interp_extensions (C member): Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyInterpreterConfig.gil (C member):    Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line   88)
* PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc (C member): Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyInterpreterGuard (C type):           Cautions regarding interpreter finalization.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyInterpreterGuard_Close (C function): Cautions regarding interpreter finalization.
                                                             (line  115)
* PyInterpreterGuard_FromCurrent (C function): Cautions regarding interpreter finalization.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyInterpreterGuard_FromView (C function): Cautions regarding interpreter finalization.
                                                             (line   96)
* PyInterpreterState (C type):           High-level APIs<2>. (line    6)
* PyInterpreterState_Clear (C function): Low-level APIs<2>.  (line   22)
* PyInterpreterState_Delete (C function): Low-level APIs<2>. (line   31)
* PyInterpreterState_Get (C function):   High-level APIs<2>. (line   22)
* PyInterpreterState_GetDict (C function): High-level APIs<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyInterpreterState_GetID (C function): High-level APIs<2>. (line   32)
* PyInterpreterState_Head (C function):  Advanced debugger support.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyInterpreterState_Main (C function):  Advanced debugger support.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyInterpreterState_New (C function):   Low-level APIs<2>.  (line   12)
* PyInterpreterState_Next (C function):  Advanced debugger support.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead (C function): Advanced debugger support.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyInterpreterView (C type):            Interpreter views.  (line    9)
* PyInterpreterView_Close (C function):  Interpreter views.  (line   34)
* PyInterpreterView_FromCurrent (C function): Interpreter views.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyInterpreterView_FromMain (C function): Interpreter views.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyIter_Check (C function):             Iterator Protocol.  (line    8)
* PyIter_Next (C function):              Iterator Protocol.  (line   30)
* PyIter_NextItem (C function):          Iterator Protocol.  (line   21)
* PyIter_Send (C function):              Iterator Protocol.  (line   49)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL:              Windows<16>.        (line   24)
* PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <1>:          Windows<30>.        (line   16)
* PyList_Append (C function):            List Objects.       (line  130)
* PyList_AsTuple (C function):           List Objects.       (line  209)
* PyList_Check (C function):             List Objects.       (line   16)
* PyList_CheckExact (C function):        List Objects.       (line   21)
* PyList_Clear (C function):             List Objects.       (line  179)
* PyList_Extend (C function):            List Objects.       (line  160)
* PyList_GET_ITEM (C function):          List Objects.       (line   77)
* PyList_GET_SIZE (C function):          List Objects.       (line   47)
* PyList_GetItem (C function):           Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyList_GetItem (C function) <1>:       List Objects.       (line   63)
* PyList_GetItemRef (C function):        List Objects.       (line   51)
* PyList_GetSlice (C function):          List Objects.       (line  136)
* PyList_Insert (C function):            List Objects.       (line  122)
* PyList_New (C function):               List Objects.       (line   26)
* PyList_Reverse (C function):           List Objects.       (line  203)
* PyList_SET_ITEM (C function):          List Objects.       (line  101)
* PyList_SetItem (C function):           Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyList_SetItem (C function) <1>:       List Objects.       (line   90)
* PyList_SetSlice (C function):          List Objects.       (line  145)
* PyList_Size (C function):              List Objects.       (line   40)
* PyList_Sort (C function):              List Objects.       (line  190)
* PyList_Type (C var):                   List Objects.       (line   11)
* PyListIter_Type (C var):               Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyListObject (C type):                 List Objects.       (line    6)
* PyListRevIter_Type (C var):            Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyLockStatus (C type):                 Legacy locking APIs.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyLong_AS_LONG (C function):           Integer Objects.    (line  187)
* PyLong_AsDouble (C function):          Integer Objects.    (line  392)
* PyLong_AsInt (C function):             Integer Objects.    (line  195)
* PyLong_AsInt32 (C function):           Integer Objects.    (line  351)
* PyLong_AsInt64 (C function):           Integer Objects.    (line  351)
* PyLong_AsLong (C function):            Integer Objects.    (line  168)
* PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (C function): Integer Objects.    (line  202)
* PyLong_AsLongLong (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line  222)
* PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (C function): Integer Objects.
                                                             (line  241)
* PyLong_AsNativeBytes (C function):     Integer Objects.    (line  413)
* PyLong_AsPid (C macro):                Integer Objects.    (line  577)
* PyLong_AsSize_t (C function):          Integer Objects.    (line  288)
* PyLong_AsSsize_t (C function):         Integer Objects.    (line  263)
* PyLong_AsUInt32 (C function):          Integer Objects.    (line  370)
* PyLong_AsUInt64 (C function):          Integer Objects.    (line  370)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (C function):    Integer Objects.    (line  276)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (C function): Integer Objects.   (line  300)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask (C function): Integer Objects.
                                                             (line  333)
* PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (C function): Integer Objects.   (line  316)
* PyLong_AsVoidPtr (C function):         Integer Objects.    (line  403)
* PyLong_BASE (C macro):                 Deprecated API.     (line   20)
* PyLong_Check (C function):             Integer Objects.    (line   23)
* PyLong_CheckExact (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line   28)
* PyLong_Export (C function):            Export API.         (line   91)
* PyLong_FreeExport (C function):        Export API.         (line  109)
* PyLong_FromDouble (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line   88)
* PyLong_FromInt32 (C function):         Integer Objects.    (line   64)
* PyLong_FromInt64 (C function):         Integer Objects.    (line   64)
* PyLong_FromLong (C function):          Integer Objects.    (line   33)
* PyLong_FromLongLong (C function):      Integer Objects.    (line   59)
* PyLong_FromNativeBytes (C function):   Integer Objects.    (line  130)
* PyLong_FromPid (C macro):              Integer Objects.    (line  158)
* PyLong_FromSize_t (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line   54)
* PyLong_FromSsize_t (C function):       Integer Objects.    (line   49)
* PyLong_FromString (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line   93)
* PyLong_FromUInt32 (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line   78)
* PyLong_FromUInt64 (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line   78)
* PyLong_FromUnicodeObject (C function): Integer Objects.    (line  117)
* PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (C function):  Integer Objects.    (line   43)
* PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong (C function): Integer Objects. (line   72)
* PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes (C function): Integer Objects.
                                                             (line  145)
* PyLong_FromVoidPtr (C function):       Integer Objects.    (line  124)
* PyLong_GetInfo (C function):           Integer Objects.    (line  629)
* PyLong_GetNativeLayout (C function):   Export API.         (line   47)
* PyLong_GetSign (C function):           Integer Objects.    (line  587)
* PyLong_IsNegative (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line  609)
* PyLong_IsPositive (C function):        Integer Objects.    (line  599)
* PyLong_IsZero (C function):            Integer Objects.    (line  619)
* PyLong_MASK (C macro):                 Deprecated API.     (line   24)
* PyLong_SHIFT (C macro):                Deprecated API.     (line   15)
* PyLong_Type (C var):                   Integer Objects.    (line   18)
* PyLongExport (C type):                 Export API.         (line   59)
* PyLongExport.digits (C member):        Export API.         (line   87)
* PyLongExport.ndigits (C member):       Export API.         (line   82)
* PyLongExport.negative (C member):      Export API.         (line   77)
* PyLongExport.value (C member):         Export API.         (line   72)
* PyLongLayout (C type):                 Export API.         (line    8)
* PyLongLayout.bits_per_digit (C member): Export API.        (line   21)
* PyLongLayout.digit_endianness (C member): Export API.      (line   39)
* PyLongLayout.digit_size (C member):    Export API.         (line   26)
* PyLongLayout.digits_order (C member):  Export API.         (line   31)
* PyLongObject (C type):                 Integer Objects.    (line   13)
* PyLongRangeIter_Type (C var):          Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyLongWriter (C type):                 PyLongWriter API.   (line   10)
* PyLongWriter_Create (C function):      PyLongWriter API.   (line   17)
* PyLongWriter_Discard (C function):     PyLongWriter API.   (line   60)
* PyLongWriter_Finish (C function):      PyLongWriter API.   (line   45)
* PyMap_Type (C var):                    Builtin Iterator Types.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyMapping_Check (C function):          Mapping Protocol.   (line    9)
* PyMapping_DelItem (C function):        Mapping Protocol.   (line   60)
* PyMapping_DelItemString (C function):  Mapping Protocol.   (line   64)
* PyMapping_GetItemString (C function):  Mapping Protocol.   (line   24)
* PyMapping_GetOptionalItem (C function): Mapping Protocol.  (line   31)
* PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString (C function): Mapping Protocol.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyMapping_HasKey (C function):         Mapping Protocol.   (line   89)
* PyMapping_HasKeyString (C function):   Mapping Protocol.   (line  100)
* PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError (C function): Mapping Protocol.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyMapping_HasKeyWithError (C function): Mapping Protocol.  (line   71)
* PyMapping_Items (C function):          Mapping Protocol.   (line  129)
* PyMapping_Keys (C function):           Mapping Protocol.   (line  113)
* PyMapping_Length (C function):         Mapping Protocol.   (line   17)
* PyMapping_SetItemString (C function):  Mapping Protocol.   (line   54)
* PyMapping_Size (C function):           Mapping Protocol.   (line   17)
* PyMapping_Values (C function):         Mapping Protocol.   (line  121)
* PyMappingMethods (C type):             Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript (C member): Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_length (C member): Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript (C member): Mapping Object Structures.
                                                             (line   20)
* PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   66)
* PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   91)
* PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString (C function): Data marshalling support.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyMem_Calloc (C function):             Memory Interface.   (line   33)
* PyMem_Del (C function):                Memory Interface.   (line   89)
* PyMem_DEL (C macro):                   Deprecated aliases<2>.
                                                             (line   28)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM (C macro):            Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   53)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ (C macro):            Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   65)
* PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW (C macro):            Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   41)
* PyMem_Free (C function):               Memory Interface.   (line   61)
* PyMem_FREE (C macro):                  Deprecated aliases<2>.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyMem_GetAllocator (C function):       Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyMem_Malloc (C function):             Memory Interface.   (line   24)
* PyMem_MALLOC (C macro):                Deprecated aliases<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyMem_New (C macro):                   Memory Interface.   (line   73)
* PyMem_NEW (C macro):                   Deprecated aliases<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyMem_RawCalloc (C function):          Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyMem_RawFree (C function):            Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyMem_RawMalloc (C function):          Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyMem_RawRealloc (C function):         Raw Memory Interface.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyMem_Realloc (C function):            Memory Interface.   (line   45)
* PyMem_REALLOC (C macro):               Deprecated aliases<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyMem_Resize (C macro):                Memory Interface.   (line   79)
* PyMem_RESIZE (C macro):                Deprecated aliases<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyMem_SetAllocator (C function):       Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyMem_SetupDebugHooks (C function):    Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line  125)
* PyMemAllocatorDomain (C type):         Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyMemAllocatorEx (C type):             Customize Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyMember_GetOne (C function):          Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyMember_SetOne (C function):          Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   86)
* PyMemberDef (C type):                  Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyMemberDef.doc (C member):            Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyMemberDef.flags (C member):          Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyMemberDef.name (C member):           Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyMemberDef.offset (C member):         Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyMemberDef.type (C member):           Accessing attributes of extension types.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyMemberDescr_Type (C var):            Descriptor Objects. (line   38)
* PyMemoryView_Check (C function):       MemoryView objects. (line   59)
* PyMemoryView_FromBuffer (C function):  MemoryView objects. (line   40)
* PyMemoryView_FromMemory (C function):  MemoryView objects. (line   31)
* PyMemoryView_FromObject (C function):  MemoryView objects. (line   15)
* PyMemoryView_GET_BASE (C function):    MemoryView objects. (line   73)
* PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER (C function):  MemoryView objects. (line   65)
* PyMemoryView_GetContiguous (C function): MemoryView objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyMemoryView_Type (C var):             MemoryView objects. (line   10)
* PyMethod_Check (C function):           Method Objects.     (line   16)
* PyMethod_Function (C function):        Method Objects.     (line   29)
* PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function):    Method Objects.     (line   34)
* PyMethod_GET_SELF (C function):        Method Objects.     (line   43)
* PyMethod_New (C function):             Method Objects.     (line   22)
* PyMethod_Self (C function):            Method Objects.     (line   39)
* PyMethod_Type (C var):                 Method Objects.     (line   10)
* PyMethodDef (C type):                  Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyMethodDef.ml_doc (C member):         Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyMethodDef.ml_flags (C member):       Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   78)
* PyMethodDef.ml_meth (C member):        Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyMethodDef.ml_name (C member):        Implementing functions and methods.
                                                             (line   68)
* PyMethodDescr_Type (C var):            Descriptor Objects. (line   67)
* PyMODEXPORT_FUNC (C macro):            Extension export hook.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyModExport_modulename (C function):   Extension export hook.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyMODINIT_FUNC (C macro):              PyInit function.    (line   25)
* PyModule_Add (C function):             Support functions.  (line   63)
* PyModule_AddFunctions (C function):    Support functions.  (line  157)
* PyModule_AddIntConstant (C function):  Support functions.  (line  112)
* PyModule_AddIntMacro (C macro):        Support functions.  (line  135)
* PyModule_AddObject (C function):       Support functions.  (line   79)
* PyModule_AddObjectRef (C function):    Support functions.  (line   11)
* PyModule_AddStringConstant (C function): Support functions.
                                                             (line  123)
* PyModule_AddStringMacro (C macro):     Support functions.  (line  143)
* PyModule_AddType (C function):         Support functions.  (line  147)
* PyModule_Check (C function):           Module Objects.     (line   13)
* PyModule_CheckExact (C function):      Module Objects.     (line   18)
* PyModule_Create (C function):          Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  155)
* PyModule_Create2 (C function):         Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  163)
* PyModule_Exec (C function):            Creating extension modules dynamically.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyModule_ExecDef (C function):         Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  216)
* PyModule_FromDefAndSpec (C function):  Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  180)
* PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2 (C function): Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  192)
* PyModule_FromSlotsAndSpec (C function): Creating extension modules dynamically.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyModule_GetDef (C function):          Module Objects.     (line   84)
* PyModule_GetDict (C function):         Module Objects.     (line   46)
* PyModule_GetFilename (C function):     Module Objects.     (line  107)
* PyModule_GetFilenameObject (C function): Module Objects.   (line   94)
* PyModule_GetName (C function):         Module Objects.     (line   75)
* PyModule_GetNameObject (C function):   Module Objects.     (line   64)
* PyModule_GetState (C function):        Module state.       (line   28)
* PyModule_GetState_DuringGC (C function): «DuringGC» functions.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyModule_GetStateSize (C function):    Module state.       (line   38)
* PyModule_GetToken (C function):        Module token.       (line   62)
* PyModule_GetToken_DuringGC (C function): «DuringGC» functions.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyModule_New (C function):             Module Objects.     (line   41)
* PyModule_NewObject (C function):       Module Objects.     (line   23)
* PyModule_SetDocString (C function):    Support functions.  (line  179)
* PyModule_Type (C var):                 Module Objects.     (line    6)
* PyModuleDef (C type):                  Module definition struct.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyModuleDef_Base (C type):             Module definition struct.
                                                             (line   35)
* PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT (C macro):       Module definition struct.
                                                             (line   44)
* PyModuleDef_Init (C function):         PyInit function.    (line   43)
* PyModuleDef_Slot (C type):             Module definition struct.
                                                             (line   92)
* PyModuleDef_Slot.slot (C member):      Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  116)
* PyModuleDef_Slot.value (C member):     Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  120)
* PyModuleDef_Type (C var):              Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  141)
* PyModuleDef.m_base (C member):         Module definition struct.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyModuleDef.m_clear (C member):        Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  126)
* PyModuleDef.m_doc (C member):          Module definition struct.
                                                             (line   52)
* PyModuleDef.m_free (C member):         Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  126)
* PyModuleDef.m_methods (C member):      Module definition struct.
                                                             (line   69)
* PyModuleDef.m_name (C member):         Module definition struct.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyModuleDef.m_size (C member):         Module definition struct.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyModuleDef.m_slots (C member):        Module definition struct.
                                                             (line   74)
* PyModuleDef.m_slots.m_reload (C member): Module definition struct.
                                                             (line   90)
* PyModuleDef.m_traverse (C member):     Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  126)
* PyMonitoring_EnterScope (C function):  Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyMonitoring_ExitScope (C function):   Managing the Monitoring State.
                                                             (line   98)
* PyMonitoring_FireBranchLeftEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyMonitoring_FireBranchRightEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line  111)
* PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   64)
* PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   59)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   43)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line  123)
* PyMonitoringState (C type):            Generating Execution Events.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyMutex (C type):                      Synchronization primitives<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyMutex_IsLocked (C function):         Synchronization primitives<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyMutex_Lock (C function):             Synchronization primitives<2>.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyMutex_Unlock (C function):           Synchronization primitives<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyNumber_Absolute (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   98)
* PyNumber_Add (C function):             Number Protocol.    (line   13)
* PyNumber_And (C function):             Number Protocol.    (line  124)
* PyNumber_AsSsize_t (C function):       Number Protocol.    (line  290)
* PyNumber_Check (C function):           Number Protocol.    (line    6)
* PyNumber_Divmod (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line   68)
* PyNumber_Float (C function):           Number Protocol.    (line  263)
* PyNumber_FloorDivide (C function):     Number Protocol.    (line   43)
* PyNumber_Index (C function):           Number Protocol.    (line  271)
* PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (C function):      Number Protocol.    (line  145)
* PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (C function):      Number Protocol.    (line  231)
* PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide (C function): Number Protocol. (line  176)
* PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (C function):   Number Protocol.    (line  215)
* PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply (C function): Number Protocol.
                                                             (line  166)
* PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply (C function): Number Protocol.    (line  159)
* PyNumber_InPlaceOr (C function):       Number Protocol.    (line  247)
* PyNumber_InPlacePower (C function):    Number Protocol.    (line  203)
* PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder (C function): Number Protocol.   (line  196)
* PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (C function):   Number Protocol.    (line  223)
* PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract (C function): Number Protocol.    (line  152)
* PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide (C function): Number Protocol.  (line  184)
* PyNumber_InPlaceXor (C function):      Number Protocol.    (line  239)
* PyNumber_Invert (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line  105)
* PyNumber_Long (C function):            Number Protocol.    (line  255)
* PyNumber_Lshift (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line  110)
* PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (C function):  Number Protocol.    (line   34)
* PyNumber_Multiply (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   27)
* PyNumber_Negative (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   88)
* PyNumber_Or (C function):              Number Protocol.    (line  138)
* PyNumber_Positive (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   93)
* PyNumber_Power (C function):           Number Protocol.    (line   77)
* PyNumber_Remainder (C function):       Number Protocol.    (line   61)
* PyNumber_Rshift (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line  117)
* PyNumber_Subtract (C function):        Number Protocol.    (line   20)
* PyNumber_ToBase (C function):          Number Protocol.    (line  280)
* PyNumber_TrueDivide (C function):      Number Protocol.    (line   50)
* PyNumber_Xor (C function):             Number Protocol.    (line  131)
* PyNumberMethods (C type):              Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_absolute (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_add (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_and (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  146)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_bool (C member):    Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  123)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_divmod (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_float (C member):   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  168)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_floor_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  233)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_index (C member):   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  258)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_add (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  173)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_and (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  215)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_floor_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  245)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_lshift (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  203)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  269)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  185)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_or (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  227)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_power (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  197)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_remainder (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  191)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_rshift (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  209)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_subtract (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  179)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_true_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  252)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_xor (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  221)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_int (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  161)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_invert (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  128)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_lshift (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  134)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_matrix_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  263)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_negative (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_or (C member):      Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  156)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_positive (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  111)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_power (C member):   Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_remainder (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_reserved (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  166)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_rshift (C member):  Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  140)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_subtract (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_true_divide (C member): Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  239)
* PyNumberMethods.nb_xor (C member):     Number Object Structures.
                                                             (line  151)
* PyObject (C type):                     Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyObject_ASCII (C function):           Object Protocol.    (line  394)
* PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (C function): File objects.      (line   33)
* PyObject_Bytes (C function):           Object Protocol.    (line  421)
* PyObject_Call (C function):            Object Calling API. (line   57)
* PyObject_CallFinalizer (C function):   Functions<14>.      (line    9)
* PyObject_CallFinalizerFromDealloc (C function): Functions<14>.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyObject_CallFunction (C function):    Object Calling API. (line  108)
* PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  149)
* PyObject_CallMethod (C function):      Object Calling API. (line  127)
* PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  174)
* PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  162)
* PyObject_CallMethodOneArg (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  186)
* PyObject_CallNoArgs (C function):      Object Calling API. (line   73)
* PyObject_CallObject (C function):      Calling Python Functions from C.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyObject_CallObject (C function) <1>:  Object Calling API. (line   96)
* PyObject_Calloc (C function):          Object allocators.  (line   31)
* PyObject_CallOneArg (C function):      Object Calling API. (line   85)
* PyObject_CheckBuffer (C function):     Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyObject_ClearManagedDict (C function): Object Protocol.   (line  654)
* PyObject_ClearWeakRefs (C function):   Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   93)
* PyObject_CopyData (C function):        Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   80)
* PyObject_DEL (C macro):                Soft-deprecated aliases.
                                                             (line   36)
* PyObject_Del (C macro):                Soft-deprecated aliases.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyObject_DelAttr (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line  290)
* PyObject_DelAttrString (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line  296)
* PyObject_DelItem (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line  557)
* PyObject_DelItemString (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line  562)
* PyObject_Dir (C function):             Object Protocol.    (line  568)
* PyObject_Dump (C function):            Object Protocol.    (line   97)
* PyObject_Format (C function):          Object Protocol.    (line  369)
* PyObject_Free (C function):            Object allocators.  (line   59)
* PyObject_FREE (C macro):               Soft-deprecated aliases.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyObject_GC_Del (C function):          Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  181)
* PyObject_GC_IsFinalized (C function):  Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  171)
* PyObject_GC_IsTracked (C function):    Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  161)
* PyObject_GC_New (C macro):             Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyObject_GC_NewVar (C macro):          Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line   83)
* PyObject_GC_Resize (C macro):          Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  135)
* PyObject_GC_Track (C function):        Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  145)
* PyObject_GC_UnTrack (C function):      Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  207)
* PyObject_GenericGetAttr (C function):  Object Protocol.    (line  222)
* PyObject_GenericGetDict (C function):  Object Protocol.    (line  311)
* PyObject_GenericHash (C function):     PyHash API.         (line  171)
* PyObject_GenericSetAttr (C function):  Object Protocol.    (line  278)
* PyObject_GenericSetDict (C function):  Object Protocol.    (line  328)
* PyObject_GetAIter (C function):        Object Protocol.    (line  592)
* PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (C function): Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyObject_GetAttr (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line  178)
* PyObject_GetAttrString (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line  188)
* PyObject_GetBuffer (C function):       Buffer-related functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyObject_GetItem (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line  543)
* PyObject_GetItemData (C function):     Object Protocol.    (line  633)
* PyObject_GetItemData_DuringGC (C function): «DuringGC» functions.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyObject_GetIter (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line  578)
* PyObject_GetOptionalAttr (C function): Object Protocol.    (line  198)
* PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString (C function): Object Protocol.
                                                             (line  213)
* PyObject_GetTypeData (C function):     Object Protocol.    (line  603)
* PyObject_GetTypeData_DuringGC (C function): «DuringGC» functions.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyObject_HasAttr (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line  150)
* PyObject_HasAttrString (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line  163)
* PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError (C function): Object Protocol.
                                                             (line  141)
* PyObject_HasAttrWithError (C function): Object Protocol.   (line  132)
* PyObject_Hash (C function):            Object Protocol.    (line  476)
* PyObject_HashNotImplemented (C function): Object Protocol. (line  486)
* PyObject_HEAD (C macro):               Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro):          Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  201)
* PyObject_Init (C function):            Allocating objects on the heap.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyObject_INIT (C macro):               Soft-deprecated aliases.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyObject_INIT_VAR (C macro):           Soft-deprecated aliases.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyObject_InitVar (C function):         Allocating objects on the heap.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyObject_IS_GC (C function):           Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  153)
* PyObject_IsInstance (C function):      Object Protocol.    (line  455)
* PyObject_IsSubclass (C function):      Object Protocol.    (line  434)
* PyObject_IsTrue (C function):          Object Protocol.    (line  494)
* PyObject_Length (C function):          Object Protocol.    (line  523)
* PyObject_LengthHint (C function):      Object Protocol.    (line  532)
* PyObject_Malloc (C function):          Object allocators.  (line   22)
* PyObject_MALLOC (C macro):             Soft-deprecated aliases.
                                                             (line   27)
* PyObject_New (C macro):                Allocating objects on the heap.
                                                             (line   43)
* PyObject_NEW (C macro):                Soft-deprecated aliases.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyObject_NEW_VAR (C macro):            Soft-deprecated aliases.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyObject_NewVar (C macro):             Allocating objects on the heap.
                                                             (line   92)
* PyObject_Not (C function):             Object Protocol.    (line  499)
* PyObject_Print (C function):           Object Protocol.    (line   89)
* PyObject_Realloc (C function):         Object allocators.  (line   43)
* PyObject_REALLOC (C macro):            Soft-deprecated aliases.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyObject_Repr (C function):            Object Protocol.    (line  379)
* PyObject_RichCompare (C function):     Object Protocol.    (line  346)
* PyObject_RichCompareBool (C function): Object Protocol.    (line  358)
* PyObject_SelfIter (C function):        Object Protocol.    (line  586)
* PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (C function): Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyObject_SetAttr (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line  234)
* PyObject_SetAttrString (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line  253)
* PyObject_SetItem (C function):         Object Protocol.    (line  550)
* PyObject_Size (C function):            Object Protocol.    (line  523)
* PyObject_Str (C function):             Object Protocol.    (line  407)
* PyObject_Type (C function):            Object Protocol.    (line  504)
* PyObject_TypeCheck (C function):       Object Protocol.    (line  517)
* PyObject_VAR_HEAD (C macro):           Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  109)
* PyObject_Vectorcall (C function):      Object Calling API. (line  198)
* PyObject_VectorcallDict (C function):  Object Calling API. (line  216)
* PyObject_VectorcallMethod (C function): Object Calling API.
                                                             (line  232)
* PyObject_VisitManagedDict (C function): Object Protocol.   (line  644)
* PyObject.ob_mutex (C member):          Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   47)
* PyObject.ob_refcnt (C member):         Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyObject.ob_type (C member):           Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyObjectArenaAllocator (C type):       Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyODict_Check (C function):            Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyODict_CheckExact (C function):       Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyODict_Contains (C macro):            Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   79)
* PyODict_DelItem (C function):          Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyODict_GetItem (C macro):             Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyODict_GetItemString (C macro):       Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyODict_GetItemWithError (C macro):    Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   73)
* PyODict_New (C function):              Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyODict_SetItem (C function):          Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyODict_Size (C macro):                Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyODict_SIZE (C macro):                Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyODict_Type (C var):                  Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyODictItems_Type (C var):             Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyODictIter_Type (C var):              Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyODictKeys_Type (C var):              Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyODictValues_Type (C var):            Ordered dictionaries.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyOS_AfterFork (C function):           Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyOS_AfterFork_Child (C function):     Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   57)
* PyOS_AfterFork_Parent (C function):    Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   42)
* PyOS_BeforeFork (C function):          Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyOS_CheckStack (C function):          Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   91)
* PyOS_double_to_string (C function):    String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  119)
* PyOS_FSPath (C function):              Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyOS_getsig (C function):              Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyOS_InputHook (C var):                The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  144)
* PyOS_InterruptOccurred (C function):   Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyOS_mystricmp (C function):           String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  173)
* PyOS_mystrnicmp (C function):          String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  173)
* PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer (C var):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  156)
* PyOS_setsig (C function):              Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  110)
* PyOS_sighandler_t (C type):            Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  102)
* PyOS_snprintf (C function):            String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyOS_stricmp (C function):             String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  192)
* PyOS_string_to_double (C function):    String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line   86)
* PyOS_strnicmp (C function):            String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line  192)
* PyOS_strtol (C function):              String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyOS_strtoul (C function):             String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line   50)
* PyOS_vsnprintf (C function):           String conversion and formatting.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyPickleBuffer_Check (C function):     Pickle buffer objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* PyPickleBuffer_FromObject (C function): Pickle buffer objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* PyPickleBuffer_GetBuffer (C function): Pickle buffer objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyPickleBuffer_Release (C function):   Pickle buffer objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* PyPickleBuffer_Type (C var):           Pickle buffer objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyPreConfig (C type):                  PyPreConfig.        (line    6)
* PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (C function): PyPreConfig.  (line   18)
* PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig (C function): PyPreConfig.    (line   12)
* PyPreConfig.allocator (C member):      PyPreConfig.        (line   26)
* PyPreConfig.coerce_c_locale (C member): PyPreConfig.       (line   82)
* PyPreConfig.coerce_c_locale_warn (C member): PyPreConfig.  (line   93)
* PyPreConfig.configure_locale (C member): PyPreConfig.      (line   71)
* PyPreConfig.dev_mode (C member):       PyPreConfig.        (line   99)
* PyPreConfig.isolated (C member):       PyPreConfig.        (line  106)
* PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding (C member): PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line  112)
* PyPreConfig.parse_argv (C member):     PyPreConfig.        (line  131)
* PyPreConfig.use_environment (C member): PyPreConfig.       (line  140)
* PyPreConfig.utf8_mode (C member):      PyPreConfig.        (line  147)
* PyProperty_Type (C var):               Built-in descriptors.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyRange_Check (C function):            Range Objects.      (line   10)
* PyRange_Type (C var):                  Range Objects.      (line    6)
* PyRangeIter_Type (C var):              Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyRefTracer (C type):                  Reference tracing.  (line    8)
* PyRefTracer_CREATE (C var):            Reference tracing.  (line   26)
* PyRefTracer_DESTROY (C var):           Reference tracing.  (line   31)
* PyRefTracer_GetTracer (C function):    Reference tracing.  (line   69)
* PyRefTracer_SetTracer (C function):    Reference tracing.  (line   44)
* PyRefTracer_TRACKER_REMOVED (C var):   Reference tracing.  (line   36)
* PyReversed_Type (C var):               Builtin Iterator Types.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyRun_AnyFile (C function):            The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyRun_AnyFileEx (C function):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (C function):     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   43)
* PyRun_AnyFileFlags (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyRun_File (C function):               The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  199)
* PyRun_FileEx (C function):             The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  205)
* PyRun_FileExFlags (C function):        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  219)
* PyRun_FileFlags (C function):          The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  212)
* PyRun_InteractiveLoop (C function):    The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  128)
* PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  135)
* PyRun_InteractiveOne (C function):     The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  114)
* PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  121)
* PyRun_InteractiveOneObject (C function): The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  100)
* PyRun_SimpleFile (C function):         The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyRun_SimpleFileEx (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (C function):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyRun_SimpleString (C function):       The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (C function):  The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line   61)
* PyRun_String (C function):             The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  180)
* PyRun_StringFlags (C function):        The Very High Level Layer.
                                                             (line  186)
* PySendResult (C type):                 Iterator Protocol.  (line   42)
* PySentinel_Check (C function):         Sentinel objects.   (line   13)
* PySentinel_New (C function):           Sentinel objects.   (line   20)
* PySentinel_Type (C var):               Sentinel objects.   (line    6)
* PySeqIter_Check (C function):          Iterator Objects.   (line   18)
* PySeqIter_New (C function):            Iterator Objects.   (line   23)
* PySeqIter_Type (C var):                Iterator Objects.   (line   12)
* PySequence_Check (C function):         Sequence Protocol.  (line    6)
* PySequence_Concat (C function):        Sequence Protocol.  (line   21)
* PySequence_Contains (C function):      Sequence Protocol.  (line   99)
* PySequence_Count (C function):         Sequence Protocol.  (line   92)
* PySequence_DelItem (C function):       Sequence Protocol.  (line   75)
* PySequence_DelSlice (C function):      Sequence Protocol.  (line   86)
* PySequence_Fast (C function):          Sequence Protocol.  (line  135)
* PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM (C function): Sequence Protocol.  (line  159)
* PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE (C function): Sequence Protocol.  (line  150)
* PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (C function):    Sequence Protocol.  (line  165)
* PySequence_GetItem (C function):       Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line  117)
* PySequence_GetItem (C function) <1>:   Sequence Protocol.  (line   51)
* PySequence_GetSlice (C function):      Sequence Protocol.  (line   57)
* PySequence_In (C function):            Sequence Protocol.  (line  105)
* PySequence_Index (C function):         Sequence Protocol.  (line  112)
* PySequence_InPlaceConcat (C function): Sequence Protocol.  (line   35)
* PySequence_InPlaceRepeat (C function): Sequence Protocol.  (line   43)
* PySequence_ITEM (C function):          Sequence Protocol.  (line  176)
* PySequence_Length (C function):        Sequence Protocol.  (line   14)
* PySequence_List (C function):          Sequence Protocol.  (line  118)
* PySequence_Repeat (C function):        Sequence Protocol.  (line   28)
* PySequence_SetItem (C function):       Sequence Protocol.  (line   64)
* PySequence_SetSlice (C function):      Sequence Protocol.  (line   80)
* PySequence_Size (C function):          Sequence Protocol.  (line   14)
* PySequence_Tuple (C function):         Sequence Protocol.  (line  125)
* PySequenceMethods (C type):            Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line    6)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   62)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_concat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   22)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_contains (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   75)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   86)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line  100)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_item (C member):  Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   43)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_length (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   11)
* PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat (C member): Sequence Object Structures.
                                                             (line   32)
* PySet_Add (C function):                Set Objects.        (line  137)
* PySet_Check (C function):              Set Objects.        (line   44)
* PySet_CheckExact (C function):         Set Objects.        (line   60)
* PySet_Clear (C function):              Set Objects.        (line  180)
* PySet_Contains (C function):           Set Objects.        (line  123)
* PySet_Discard (C function):            Set Objects.        (line  157)
* PySet_GET_SIZE (C function):           Set Objects.        (line  118)
* PySet_MINSIZE (C macro):               Deprecated API<3>.  (line    6)
* PySet_New (C function):                Set Objects.        (line   78)
* PySet_Pop (C function):                Set Objects.        (line  172)
* PySet_Size (C function):               Set Objects.        (line  109)
* PySet_Type (C var):                    Set Objects.        (line   31)
* PySetIter_Type (C var):                Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* PySetObject (C type):                  Set Objects.        (line   19)
* PySignal_SetWakeupFd (C function):     Signal Handling<2>. (line   92)
* PySlice_AdjustIndices (C function):    Slice Objects.      (line   99)
* PySlice_Check (C function):            Slice Objects.      (line   11)
* PySlice_GetIndices (C function):       Slice Objects.      (line   28)
* PySlice_GetIndicesEx (C function):     Slice Objects.      (line   44)
* PySlice_New (C function):              Slice Objects.      (line   16)
* PySlice_Type (C var):                  Slice Objects.      (line    6)
* PySlice_Unpack (C function):           Slice Objects.      (line   86)
* PySlot (C type):                       Definition slots.   (line   38)
* PySlot_DATA (C macro):                 Convenience macros. (line    6)
* PySlot_END (C macro):                  Convenience macros. (line   46)
* PySlot_FUNC (C macro):                 Convenience macros. (line    6)
* PySlot_INT64 (C macro):                Convenience macros. (line    6)
* PySlot_INTPTR (C macro):               Definition slots.   (line  107)
* PySlot_OPTIONAL (C macro):             Definition slots.   (line  116)
* PySlot_PTR (C macro):                  Convenience macros. (line   56)
* PySlot_PTR_STATIC (C macro):           Convenience macros. (line   56)
* PySlot_SIZE (C macro):                 Convenience macros. (line    6)
* PySlot_STATIC (C macro):               Definition slots.   (line   90)
* PySlot_STATIC_DATA (C macro):          Convenience macros. (line    6)
* PySlot_UINT64 (C macro):               Convenience macros. (line    6)
* PySlot.sl_flags (C member):            Definition slots.   (line   86)
* PySlot.sl_func (C member):             Definition slots.   (line   72)
* PySlot.sl_id (C member):               Definition slots.   (line   56)
* PySlot.sl_int64 (C member):            Definition slots.   (line   72)
* PySlot.sl_ptr (C member):              Definition slots.   (line   72)
* PySlot.sl_size (C member):             Definition slots.   (line   72)
* PySlot.sl_uint64 (C member):           Definition slots.   (line   72)
* PyState_AddModule (C function):        Module lookup single-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyState_FindModule (C function):       Module lookup single-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyState_RemoveModule (C function):     Module lookup single-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyStaticMethod_New (C function):       Built-in descriptors.
                                                             (line   43)
* PyStaticMethod_Type (C var):           Built-in descriptors.
                                                             (line   38)
* PyStatus (C type):                     PyStatus.           (line    6)
* PyStatus_Error (C function):           PyStatus.           (line   34)
* PyStatus_Exception (C function):       PyStatus.           (line   51)
* PyStatus_Exit (C function):            PyStatus.           (line   45)
* PyStatus_IsError (C function):         PyStatus.           (line   57)
* PyStatus_IsExit (C function):          PyStatus.           (line   61)
* PyStatus_NoMemory (C function):        PyStatus.           (line   41)
* PyStatus_Ok (C function):              PyStatus.           (line   30)
* PyStatus.err_msg (C member):           PyStatus.           (line   20)
* PyStatus.exitcode (C member):          PyStatus.           (line   16)
* PyStatus.func (C member):              PyStatus.           (line   24)
* PyStdPrinter_Type (C var):             Soft-deprecated API<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyStructSequence_Desc (C type):        Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.doc (C member):  Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   49)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.fields (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.n_in_sequence (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyStructSequence_Desc.name (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* PyStructSequence_Field (C type):       Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyStructSequence_Field.doc (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyStructSequence_Field.name (C member): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line  108)
* PyStructSequence_GetItem (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* PyStructSequence_InitType (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyStructSequence_InitType2 (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyStructSequence_New (C function):     Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyStructSequence_NewType (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line  130)
* PyStructSequence_SetItem (C function): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyStructSequence_UnnamedField (C var): Struct Sequence Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* PySuper_Type (C var):                  Built-in descriptors.
                                                             (line   11)
* PySys_AddAuditHook (C function):       System Functions.   (line  161)
* PySys_Audit (C function):              System Functions.   (line  119)
* PySys_AuditTuple (C function):         System Functions.   (line  152)
* PySys_FormatStderr (C function):       System Functions.   (line  104)
* PySys_FormatStdout (C function):       System Functions.   (line   96)
* PySys_GetAttr (C function):            System Functions.   (line   11)
* PySys_GetAttrString (C function):      System Functions.   (line   22)
* PySys_GetObject (C function):          System Functions.   (line   60)
* PySys_GetOptionalAttr (C function):    System Functions.   (line   34)
* PySys_GetOptionalAttrString (C function): System Functions.
                                                             (line   51)
* PySys_GetXOptions (C function):        System Functions.   (line  111)
* PySys_SetArgv (C function):            Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  140)
* PySys_SetArgvEx (C function):          Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   88)
* PySys_SetObject (C function):          System Functions.   (line   69)
* PySys_WriteStderr (C function):        System Functions.   (line   92)
* PySys_WriteStdout (C function):        System Functions.   (line   75)
* Python 3000:                           Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1603)
* Python Editor:                         IDLE — Python editor and shell.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0007#documentation-strings: Documentation<29>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0249#threadsafety: Module constants.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0453#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors: Bootstrapping pip By Default.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0477#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0564#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0626#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers: Code Objects.
                                                             (line  106)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0632#migration-advice: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0683: Reference Counting.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 1:   New Development Process.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 1 <1>: New Development Process.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 1 <2>: Γλωσσάρι.         (line 1567)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 100: Unicode<2>.         (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11:  Build changes<3>.   (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <1>: Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <2>: Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <3>: Build Changes.   (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <4>: Build Changes.   (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <5>: Build Changes.   (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <6>: Build Changes.   (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <7>: Build Changes<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <8>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <9>: Unsupported Operating Systems.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <10>: Library Changes.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <11>: Build<32>.      (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <12>: Build<32>.      (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <13>: Build<70>.      (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <14>: Build Requirements.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <15>: Υποστηριζόμενες εκδόσεις των Windows.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <16>: Useful macros.  (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-2: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  139)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-3: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   74)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-3 <1>: Build changes<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-3 <2>: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  134)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-3 <3>: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  137)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-3 <4>: Build Changes<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 201: New Development Process.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 205: PEP 205 Weak References.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 205 <1>: weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  351)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 207: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 207 <1>: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 208: PEP 208 New Coercion Model.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 217: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 218: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 218 <1>: Other Language Changes<17>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 218 <2>: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 227: PEP 227 Nested Scopes.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 227 <1>: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 227 <2>: Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 229: PEP 229 New Build System.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 230: PEP 230 Warning Framework.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 232: PEP 232 Function Attributes.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 234: PEP 234 Iterators.  (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 235: Introduction<11>.   (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <1>: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <2>: PEP 236 __future__ Directives.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <3>: Μελλοντικές δηλώσεις.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <4>: Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line  106)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237: Integers.           (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <1>: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <2>: Other Language Changes<17>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <3>: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <4>: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line  200)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <5>: Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line  199)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238: Integers.           (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <1>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <2>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <3>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator.
                                                             (line   68)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <4>: Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <5>: Γλωσσάρι.       (line  701)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 241: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 241 <1>: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 241 <2>: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 243: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 246: Documentation<28>.  (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 246 <1>: PrepareProtocol objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 247: hmac<4>.            (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249: sqlite3<4>.         (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <1>: The sqlite3 package.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <2>: The sqlite3 package.
                                                             (line  110)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <3>: Library<82>.    (line  123)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <4>: Library<97>.    (line  296)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <5>: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <6>: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <7>: Module functions.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <8>: Connection objects.
                                                             (line  728)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <9>: Connection objects.
                                                             (line  731)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <10>: Connection objects.
                                                             (line  743)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <11>: Exceptions<6>. (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <12>: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <13>: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <14>: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 252: Related Links.      (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 252 <1>: Related Links.  (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 252 <2>: Υλοποίηση Περιγραφέων.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253: Old and New Classes.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <1>: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <2>: Related Links.  (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <3>: Related Links.  (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <4>: Related Links.  (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255: PEP 255 Simple Generators.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <1>: PEP 255 Simple Generators.
                                                             (line  131)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <2>: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <3>: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <4>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line   90)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <5>: Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 261: Unicode Changes.    (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 261 <1>: Unicode Changes.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263: Other Language Changes<16>.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <1>: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <2>: Core and Builtins<109>.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <3>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <4>: Tokenizing input.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <5>: Tokenizing input.
                                                             (line   85)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <6>: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 264: Other Changes and Fixes<3>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273 <1>: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273 <2>: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273 <3>: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 274: New Syntax.         (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 277: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 278: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 278 <1>: Γλωσσάρι.       (line 2011)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 279: PEP 279 enumerate.  (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282: PEP 282 The logging Package.
                                                             (line  104)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282 <1>: PEP 282 The logging Package.
                                                             (line  110)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282 <2>: Archiving operations.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282 <3>: Integration with the warnings module.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 285: PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 285 <1>: PEP 285 A Boolean Type.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 288: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  146)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 289: PEP 289 Generator Expressions.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 289 <1>: Other Language Changes<17>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 289 <2>: Python documentation.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 292: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 292 <1>: Template strings $-strings.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 293: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3000: Python 3 0.        (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 301: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <1>: Visible Changes.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <2>: Porting Python code.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <3>: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  106)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <4>: New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  288)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <5>: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <6>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <7>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <8>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <9>: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <10>: Αναφορές.      (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <11>: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2438)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <12>: linecache — Random access to text lines.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <13>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1554)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <14>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1564)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <15>: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <16>: pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   65)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <17>: pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <18>: pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  104)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <19>: pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  144)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <20>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <21>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <22>: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  139)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <23>: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  180)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <24>: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  207)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <25>: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  279)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <26>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line 1190)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 305: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 305 <1>: csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307 <1>: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307 <2>: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307 <3>: Data stream format.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 308: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 308 <1>: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 308 <2>: Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 309: PEP 309 Partial Function Application.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3100: Python 3 0.        (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <1>: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <2>: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting.
                                                             (line  162)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <3>: Custom string formatting.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <4>: Custom string formatting.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3102: New Syntax.        (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3104: New Syntax.        (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3104 <1>: Η εντολή nonlocal.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3105: Print Is A Function.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3105 <1>: PEP 3105 print As a Function.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3105 <2>: Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3106: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <1>: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <2>: New Syntax.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <3>: Annotations Συναρτήσεων.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <4>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  141)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <5>: Annotation semantics.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <6>: Annotation semantics.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3108: Library Changes.   (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3108 <1>: Library Changes.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3108 <2>: Library Changes.
                                                             (line   94)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3109: Changed Syntax.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3109 <1>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3110: Changed Syntax.    (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3110 <1>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3110 <2>: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3111: Builtins.          (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3112: PEP 3112 Byte Literals.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3112 <1>: Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3113: Removed Syntax.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3114: Operators And Special Methods.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115: types<10>.         (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <1>: Changed Syntax.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <2>: Προετοιμασία του χώρου ονομάτων της κλάσης.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <3>: Class definitions.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <4>: Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <5>: Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  181)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3116: Optimizations<15>. (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3116 <1>: PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3116 <2>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line 2011)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <1>: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <2>: API changes.   (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <3>: Build and C API Changes<4>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <4>: Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <5>: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <6>: Library<178>.  (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <7>: Library<183>.  (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <8>: Library<212>.  (line  958)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <9>: Όψεις Μνήμης.  (line  123)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <10>: Module Interface.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  138)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <1>: Προσαρμογή ελέγχων παρουσίας και υποκλάσης.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <2>: Παραδείγματα και Συνταγές.
                                                             (line   79)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <3>: abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <4>: Object Protocol.
                                                             (line  445)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <5>: Object Protocol.
                                                             (line  465)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3120: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  105)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3120 <1>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3121: Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3121 <1>: Library<152>.  (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3121 <2>: Slots for defining module state.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3123: Build and C API Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3127: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3129: PEP 3129 Class Decorators.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3129 <1>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  163)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3129 <2>: Class definitions.
                                                             (line   92)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131 <1>: Library<167>.  (line  599)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131 <2>: Μη-ASCII χαρακτήρες στα ονόματα.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3132: New Syntax.        (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3132 <1>: Εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line  165)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134: Changed Syntax.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <1>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <2>: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <3>: Library<97>.   (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <4>: Base classes.  (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3135: Builtins.          (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3135 <1>: Δημιουργία αντικειμένου κλάσης.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3137: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3138: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.
                                                             (line  101)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 314: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3141: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3141 <1>: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3141 <2>: abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3144: ipaddress<6>.      (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <1>: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <2>: «Compiled» Python αρχεία.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <3>: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <4>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   85)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <5>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <6>: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <7>: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <8>: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <9>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <10>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <11>: Command-line use.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <12>: Public functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <13>: Public functions.
                                                             (line  122)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <14>: Importing Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  206)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <15>: Πως δημιουργώ ένα pyc αρχείο;.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3148: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3148 <1>: Module Functions.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3149: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3149 <1>: Core and Builtins<208>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3149 <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
                                                             (line   85)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <1>: OS exceptions. (line  123)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <2>: Exceptions<16>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <3>: select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <4>: resource — Resource usage information.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <5>: Exception types.
                                                             (line  258)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154 <1>: pickle<6>.     (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154 <2>: Library<167>.  (line 1279)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154 <3>: Data stream format.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3155: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3155 <1>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line 1634)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <2>: asyncio<15>.   (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <3>: asyncio<15>.   (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <4>: selectors<2>.  (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
                                                             (line  101)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <1>: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods.
                                                             (line  125)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <2>: Other Language Changes<17>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <3>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  160)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <4>: Class definitions.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 322: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 322 <1>: Other Language Changes<17>.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 324: PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 324 <1>: subprocess — Subprocess management.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 325: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  147)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 327: The Context type.   (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328: Porting Python code.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <1>: Removed Syntax. (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <2>: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <3>: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <4>: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <5>: Other Language Changes<17>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <6>: Αναφορές.       (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <7>: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2457)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <8>: Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <9>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 331: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 333: The wsgiref package.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 333 <1>: The wsgiref package.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333: New Modules<3>.    (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <1>: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <2>: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <3>: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <4>: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <5>: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <6>: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <7>: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <8>: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <9>: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <10>: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <11>: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <12>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  235)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <13>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  253)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <14>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  260)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <15>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  269)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <16>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  312)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <17>: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <18>: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#input-and-error-streams: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#input-and-error-streams <1>: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#optional-platform-specific-file-handling: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#the-start-response-callable: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338 <1>: Interface options.
                                                             (line  102)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338 <2>: Αναφορές.       (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338 <3>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  179)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 339: Build and C API Changes<10>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 341: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <1>: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  140)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <2>: Porting to Python 2 5.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <3>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <4>: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <5>: Passing values into a generator.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <6>: Python documentation.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343: The contextlib module.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <1>: PEP 342 New Generator Features.
                                                             (line  129)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <2>: The contextlib module<2>.
                                                             (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <3>: Με τους Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <4>: The with statement.
                                                             (line  114)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <5>: Using a context manager as a function decorator.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <6>: Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <7>: Γλωσσάρι.       (line  402)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <8>: Γλωσσάρι.       (line  408)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 347: Build and C API Changes<10>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 352: Changes To Exceptions.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 352 <1>: Deprecations and Removals.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 352 <2>: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353: Porting to Python 3 10<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <1>: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <2>: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <3>: Build and C API Changes<10>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <4>: C API<46>.      (line   80)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <5>: Types<2>.       (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 356: What’s New in Python 2 5.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 357: PEP 357 The “__index__” method.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 361: What’s New in Python 2 6.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362: PEP 362 Function Signature Object.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362 <1>: Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  418)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362 <2>: Γλωσσάρι.       (line  101)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362 <3>: Γλωσσάρι.       (line 1499)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366: Visible Changes.    (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <1>: Χαρακτηριστικά που σχετίζονται με εισαγωγή σε αντικείμενα modules.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <2>: Αναφορές.       (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <3>: Αναφορές.       (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <4>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  183)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <5>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <1>: Library<92>.    (line  602)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  170)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  203)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <4>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  218)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <5>: Command-line interface<14>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 371: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package.
                                                             (line  146)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 372: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 372 <1>: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 373: The Future for Python 2 x.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 373 <1>: How stable is Python?.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 378: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 378 <1>: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 378 <2>: Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line  155)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 380: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 380 <1>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line  100)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 380#use-of-stopiteration-to-return-values: The STOP_ITERATION event.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383: Documentation<29>.  (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <1>: Error Handlers. (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <2>: Socket families.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <3>: Locale Encoding.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <4>: Locale Encoding.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <5>: File System Encoding.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 384: Removed<9>.         (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 384 <1>: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 384 <2>: C API<40>.      (line  100)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 385: Code Repository.    (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387: Warnings.           (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <1>: Warnings.       (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <2>: C API and ABI Stability.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <3>: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 389: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module.
                                                             (line   92)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 389 <1>: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 391: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 391 <1>: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging.
                                                             (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 392: What’s New In Python 3 2.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393: Removed<9>.         (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <1>: Porting to Python 3 9<2>.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <2>: Removed<11>.    (line  101)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <3>: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <4>: Functionality.  (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <5>: Performance and resource usage.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <6>: Optimizations<13>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <7>: Build and C API Changes<4>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <8>: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <9>: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <10>: Porting C code.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <11>: C API<38>.     (line  143)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <12>: Encodings and Unicode.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <13>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1451)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <14>: Unicode Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 397: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 397 <1>: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 397 <2>: Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 398: What’s New In Python 3 3.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 4:   Library Changes.    (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 405: PEP 405 Virtual Environments.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 405 <1>: venv — Creation of virtual environments.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 409: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1115)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <1>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1125)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1986)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2006)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <4>: Γλωσσάρι.       (line 1599)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 412: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 412 <1>: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line   94)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 414: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 414 <1>: Προθέματα συμβολοσειράς.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 418: time<8>.            (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <1>: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <2>: Core and Builtins<193>.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <3>: Core and Builtins<198>.
                                                             (line  114)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <4>: Το σύστημα εισαγωγής.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <5>: Namespace πακέτα.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <6>: Χαρακτηριστικά __path__ στα modules.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <7>: Χαρακτηριστικά __path__ στα modules.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <8>: Αναφορές.       (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <9>: Αναφορές.       (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <10>: Αναφορές.      (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <11>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <12>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line 1352)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <13>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line 1573)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 421: SimpleNamespace.    (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 421 <1>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1246)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 421 <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1254)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 424: Other Language Changes<10>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 424 <1>: operator<4>.    (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 428: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 428 <1>: pathlib<15>.    (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 428 <2>: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 429: What’s New In Python 3 4.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432: Other CPython implementation changes.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432 <1>: Core and Builtins<176>.
                                                             (line  312)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432 <2>: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432 <3>: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 434: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 434 <1>: idlelib — implementation of IDLE application.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 435: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 435 <1>: enum<9>.        (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 435 <2>: enum<9>.        (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 436: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line  120)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 436 <1>: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 436 <2>: PEP 436 Argument Clinic.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 441: zipapp<2>.          (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 441 <1>: zipapp<2>.      (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442: Removed<10>.        (line   68)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <2>: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line  115)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <3>: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <4>: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <5>: C API<53>.      (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <6>: gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  277)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <7>: Thin Ice.       (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <8>: Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   93)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <9>: Cyclic Isolate Destruction.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <10>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 2008)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 443: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 443 <1>: functools<8>.   (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 443 <2>: Γλωσσάρι.       (line  828)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445 <1>: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445 <2>: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445 <3>: Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <2>: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <3>: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <4>: Core and Builtins<64>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <5>: Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line  244)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448: PEP 798 Unpacking in comprehensions.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <1>: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <2>: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <3>: Documentation<76>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <4>: Documentation<80>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <5>: Core and Builtins<201>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <6>: Core and Builtins<204>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <7>: Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <8>: Calls.          (line  122)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <9>: Expression lists.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 450: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 450 <1>: statistics<6>.  (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 450 <2>: statistics<6>.  (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451: zipimport<3>.       (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <1>: zipimport<4>.   (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <2>: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <3>: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <4>: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <5>: Library<92>.    (line  455)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <6>: Core and Builtins<193>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <7>: Αναφορές.       (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <8>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1483)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <9>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   89)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <10>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  167)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <11>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line  187)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <12>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <2>: Bootstrapping pip By Default.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <3>: Documentation Changes.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <4>: ensurepip<2>.   (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <5>: venv<8>.        (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <6>: Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <7>: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <8>: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <9>: Documentation Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <10>: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 454: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 454 <1>: tracemalloc<4>. (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 454 <2>: tracemalloc<4>. (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456: Deprecated C APIs<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights<3>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456 <2>: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456 <3>: Core and Builtins<4>.
                                                             (line  139)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456 <4>: PyHash API.     (line  140)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456 <5>: Pending removal in Python 3 19<6>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 461: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 461 <1>: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 461 <2>: Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line  208)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465 <1>: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465 <2>: Build and C API Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465 <3>: Tools/Demos<59>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466 <1>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466 <2>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466 <3>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 468: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 468 <1>: Library<185>.   (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 468 <2>: OrderedDict objects.
                                                             (line  109)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 471: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 471 <1>: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 471 <2>: Library<211>.   (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <1>: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <2>: Changes in the Python API<10>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <3>: Library<176>.   (line  228)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <4>: Library<209>.   (line  143)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <5>: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1621)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <6>: OS exceptions.  (line   80)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <7>: File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  409)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <8>: File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  772)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <9>: File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line 1009)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <10>: Process Management.
                                                             (line  937)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <11>: I/O Base Classes.
                                                             (line  279)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <12>: I/O Base Classes.
                                                             (line  298)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <13>: Συναρτήσεις<2>.
                                                             (line  345)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <14>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <15>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <16>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  243)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <17>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  258)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <18>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  334)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <19>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  408)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <20>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  427)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <21>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  446)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <22>: Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  490)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <23>: select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  163)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <24>: /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <25>: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line  110)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <26>: Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   94)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <27>: Kqueue Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <28>: Classes.       (line  133)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <29>: Module contents<4>.
                                                             (line  626)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <30>: Module contents<4>.
                                                             (line  645)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 476: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 477: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 478: What’s New In Python 3 5.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479: Changes in Python Behavior.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <1>: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <2>: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <3>: Library<167>.   (line 1267)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <4>: Library<171>.   (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <5>: Core and Builtins<172>.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <6>: Library<179>.   (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <7>: Library<192>.   (line   80)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <8>: Library<198>.   (line  326)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <9>: Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  311)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <10>: Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  313)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <11>: Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 483: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 483 <1>: Γλωσσάρι.       (line  838)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <1>: New Features Related to Type Hints.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <2>: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <3>: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <4>: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <5>: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <6>: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <7>: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <8>: ast<7>.         (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <9>: ast<7>.         (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <10>: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <11>: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <12>: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <13>: PEP 484 - Type Hints.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <14>: Annotations Συναρτήσεων.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <15>: Εξομοίωση γενικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <16>: Εντολές ανάθεσης με σχολιασμό.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <17>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  145)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <18>: Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά αντικειμένων GenericAlias.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <19>: NewType.       (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <20>: Nominal vs structural subtyping.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <21>: Nominal vs structural subtyping.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <22>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <23>: Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  280)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <24>: Root nodes.    (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <25>: ast helpers.   (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <26>: ast helpers.   (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <27>: Compiler flags<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <28>: Available start symbols.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <29>: Available start symbols.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <30>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <31>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line  754)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <32>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line  838)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <33>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line 1984)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <34>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line 2003)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <35>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line 2034)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484#annotating-instance-and-class-methods: PEP 673 Self type.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <1>: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <2>: Library<207>.   (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <3>: Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <4>: Classification functions.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 486: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 486 <1>: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 486 <2>: Windows<81>.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <1>: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <2>: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <3>: Changes in the Python API<9>.
                                                             (line  103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <4>: Documentation<66>.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <5>: Documentation<73>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <6>: Core and Builtins<190>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <1>: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <2>: Changes in the Python API<10>.
                                                             (line   80)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <3>: Core and Builtins<208>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <4>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   94)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <5>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <6>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <7>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  105)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <8>: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <9>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   79)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <10>: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <11>: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <12>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <1>: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <2>: Build and C API Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <3>: Library<51>.    (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <4>: C API<16>.      (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <5>: Library<60>.    (line  254)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <6>: Library<76>.    (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <7>: Library<131>.   (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <8>: Library<131>.   (line   79)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <9>: Library<133>.   (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <10>: Library<134>.  (line   68)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <11>: Library<134>.  (line  177)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <12>: Library<135>.  (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <13>: Library<138>.  (line  103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <14>: C API<44>.     (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <15>: C API<44>.     (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <16>: C API<44>.     (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <17>: C API<44>.     (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <18>: C API<44>.     (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <19>: C API<44>.     (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <20>: C API<44>.     (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <21>: C API<44>.     (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <22>: C API<44>.     (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <23>: C API<44>.     (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <24>: C API<44>.     (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <25>: Library<140>.  (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <26>: Library<141>.  (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <27>: Library<142>.  (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <28>: Library<142>.  (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <29>: Library<142>.  (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <30>: Library<142>.  (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <31>: Library<143>.  (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <32>: Library<143>.  (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <33>: Library<143>.  (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <34>: Library<145>.  (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <35>: Library<147>.  (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <36>: Library<148>.  (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <37>: Library<155>.  (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <38>: Library<155>.  (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <39>: Library<155>.  (line  423)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <40>: Core and Builtins<155>.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <41>: Core and Builtins<155>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <42>: Core and Builtins<155>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <43>: Core and Builtins<156>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <44>: Core and Builtins<156>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <45>: Core and Builtins<156>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <46>: Core and Builtins<156>.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <47>: Core and Builtins<156>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <48>: Core and Builtins<157>.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <49>: Core and Builtins<157>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <50>: Core and Builtins<157>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <51>: Core and Builtins<157>.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <52>: Core and Builtins<157>.
                                                             (line  109)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <53>: Core and Builtins<157>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <54>: Core and Builtins<158>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <55>: Core and Builtins<158>.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <56>: Core and Builtins<158>.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <57>: Core and Builtins<158>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <58>: Core and Builtins<158>.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <59>: Core and Builtins<159>.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <60>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <61>: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <62>: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  316)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <63>: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  335)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <64>: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  341)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <65>: importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  180)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <66>: Extension export hook.
                                                             (line   89)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <67>: Multi-phase initialization.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <68>: Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <1>: New Keywords.   (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <2>: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <3>: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <4>: New Keywords<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <5>: Changes in the C API<8>.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <6>: Core and Builtins<175>.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <7>: Library<193>.   (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <8>: Library<199>.   (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <9>: Core and Builtins<205>.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <10>: Awaitable Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <11>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <12>: The async with statement.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <13>: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  201)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <14>: Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <15>: Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <16>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <17>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line  142)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <18>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line  149)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <19>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line  158)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <20>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line  213)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <21>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line  436)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <22>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line  444)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 493: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 494: What’s New In Python 3 6.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495 <1>: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495 <2>: Library<191>.   (line   96)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495 <3>: Using ZoneInfo. (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <1>: PEP 498 Formatted string literals.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <2>: Core and Builtins<193>.
                                                             (line  283)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <3>: f-strings.      (line  151)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <4>: Γλωσσάρι.       (line  635)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 5:   PEP 230 Warning Framework.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 5 <1>: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 506: secrets.            (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 506 <1>: Library<194>.   (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 506 <2>: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 509: C API<16>.          (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 511: Changes in the Python API<9>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514: Windows py exe launcher improvements.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514 <1>: Windows<30>.    (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514 <2>: Windows<73>.    (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514 <3>: Από τη γραμμή εντολών.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515: fractions<4>.       (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <1>: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <2>: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <3>: Core and Builtins<189>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <4>: Core and Builtins<189>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <5>: Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line  157)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <6>: fractions — Rational numbers.
                                                             (line   93)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <1>: Library<191>.   (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <2>: Core and Builtins<192>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <3>: Library<193>.   (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <4>: Library<193>.   (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <5>: Library<193>.   (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <6>: C API<74>.      (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <7>: Γλωσσάρι.       (line 1549)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 520: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523: New Features<4>.    (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <1>: Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <2>: Porting to Python 3 9<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <3>: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <4>: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <5>: Core and Builtins<67>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <6>: Tools/Demos<41>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <7>: Tools/Demos<45>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <8>: Core and Builtins<189>.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <9>: Internal frames.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <10>: High-level APIs<2>.
                                                             (line   80)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <11>: High-level APIs<2>.
                                                             (line   89)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524: Summary – Release highlights<8>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <1>: os<10>.         (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <2>: os<10>.         (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <3>: Library<190>.   (line  150)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <4>: Library<190>.   (line  154)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <5>: Random numbers<2>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <1>: Core and Builtins<189>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <2>: Yield expressions.
                                                             (line  105)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <3>: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  201)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1112)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1981)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <6>: Code Objects Bit Flags.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <7>: Asynchronous Generator Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <8>: Γλωσσάρι.       (line  142)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526: Other Language Changes<4>.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <1>: ast<7>.         (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <2>: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <3>: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <4>: typing<12>.     (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <5>: Core and Builtins<189>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <6>: Εντολές ανάθεσης με σχολιασμό.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <7>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  149)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <8>: Special forms.  (line  204)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <9>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <10>: dataclasses — Data Classes.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <11>: Class variables.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <12>: Annotation semantics.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <13>: Annotation semantics.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <14>: ast helpers.   (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <15>: Compiler flags<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <16>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <17>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line 2034)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528 <1>: Λειτουργία UTF-8.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528 <2>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  169)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528 <3>: PyConfig.       (line  569)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529: Changes in the Python API<6>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <1>: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <2>: Documentation<29>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <3>: Library<162>.   (line  619)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <4>: Windows<68>.    (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <5>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  390)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <6>: Λειτουργία UTF-8.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <7>: Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  302)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <8>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  864)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <9>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2103)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <10>: File System Encoding.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <11>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  151)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530 <1>: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530 <2>: Core and Builtins<189>.
                                                             (line  145)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530 <3>: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <1>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <2>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <3>: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <4>: Core and Builtins<15>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <5>: Documentation<56>.
                                                             (line   68)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <6>: Documentation<57>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <7>: Core and Builtins<176>.
                                                             (line  134)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <8>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  459)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <9>: General Options.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <10>: locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  540)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <11>: Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539 <1>: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539 <2>: C API<63>.      (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539 <3>: Thread-specific storage API.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <1>: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <2>: Core and Builtins<173>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <3>: Python UTF-8 Mode.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <4>: locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  540)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <5>: Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 544: typing<11>.         (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 544 <1>: Nominal vs structural subtyping.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 544 <2>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  147)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 545: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 545 <1>: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552: Other CPython Implementation Changes.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <1>: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <2>: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <3>: Library<167>.   (line  794)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <4>: Core and Builtins<173>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <5>: Introduction<11>.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <6>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <7>: PyConfig.       (line  277)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 553: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 553 <1>: Core and Builtins<175>.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 554: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 554 <1>: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 554 <2>: A per-interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 557: dataclasses<4>.     (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 557 <1>: dataclasses — Data Classes.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <1>: types<7>.       (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <2>: Core and Builtins<173>.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <3>: Επίλυση εγγραφών MRO.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <4>: __class_getitem__ έναντι __getitem__.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <5>: Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων.
                                                             (line   65)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <6>: Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων.
                                                             (line   84)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <7>: Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων.
                                                             (line  123)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562 <1>: Library<174>.   (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562 <2>: Core and Builtins<173>.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562 <3>: Προσαρμογή πρόσβασης χαρακτηριστικών module.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563: from __future__ import annotations.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <1>: PEP 563 may not be the future.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <2>: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <3>: Library<124>.   (line  300)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <4>: Core and Builtins<139>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <5>: Μελλοντικές δηλώσεις.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <6>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  154)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <7>: Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <8>: Annotation semantics.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <9>: Annotation semantics.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564 <1>: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564 <2>: time<5>.        (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564 <3>: Library<176>.   (line  299)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 565: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 565 <1>: Warnings.       (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 566: Distribution metadata.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567: contextvars<2>.     (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <1>: asyncio<11>.    (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <2>: Documentation<56>.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <3>: Documentation<58>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <4>: Core and Builtins<172>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <5>: contextvars — Context Variables.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <6>: Scheduling callbacks.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <7>: Scheduling delayed callbacks.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <8>: Scheduling delayed callbacks.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <9>: Future Object.  (line  104)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570: Positional-only parameters.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570 <1>: Changes in the Python API<6>.
                                                             (line  161)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570 <2>: Core and Builtins<163>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570 <3>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572: Other Language Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <1>: Assignment expressions.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <2>: CPython bytecode changes<6>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <3>: Core and Builtins<74>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <4>: Documentation<47>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <5>: Core and Builtins<161>.
                                                             (line  184)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <6>: Core and Builtins<166>.
                                                             (line   92)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <7>: Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <8>: Assignment expressions<2>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <9>: Capture Patterns.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <10>: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573 <1>: New Features<10>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573 <2>: Core and Builtins<155>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573 <3>: C API<47>.      (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 574: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 574 <1>: Data stream format.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 574 <2>: Example<4>.     (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578 <1>: Security.       (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578 <2>: Audit events table.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578 <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578 <4>: System Functions.
                                                             (line  183)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <1>: Dictionary Merge & Update Operators.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <2>: Library<157>.   (line  193)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <3>: Library<157>.   (line  196)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <4>: Library<157>.   (line  210)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <5>: Library<158>.   (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <6>: Library<158>.   (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <7>: Library<158>.   (line  120)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <8>: Library<158>.   (line  142)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <9>: ChainMap objects.
                                                             (line   89)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <10>: defaultdict objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <11>: OrderedDict objects.
                                                             (line  114)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <12>: weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  199)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <13>: weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  219)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <14>: Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  280)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <15>: Process Parameters.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <16>: Process Parameters.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <1>: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <2>: Library<79>.    (line  158)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <3>: Library<110>.   (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <4>: Documentation<35>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <5>: Ειδικά Χαρακτηριστικά αντικειμένων GenericAlias.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <6>: collections abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <7>: Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  189)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <8>: Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line  173)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <9>: Deprecated aliases.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <10>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <11>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <12>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <13>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <14>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <15>: Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   71)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <16>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <17>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <18>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <19>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <20>: Aliases to types in collections.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <21>: Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <22>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <23>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <24>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <25>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <26>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <27>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <28>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   85)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <29>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   93)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <30>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  101)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <31>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  109)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <32>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  117)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <33>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  125)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <34>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <35>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <36>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <37>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <38>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <39>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <40>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <41>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <42>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <43>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   65)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <44>: Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <45>: Aliases to contextlib ABCs.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <46>: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <47>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line  838)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586: typing<8>.          (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586 <1>: typing<10>.     (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586 <2>: typing<11>.     (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586 <3>: Special forms.  (line  161)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587: Python configuration C API.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <1>: Python configuration C API.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <2>: Python configuration C API.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <3>: Removed C APIs<3>.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <4>: Removed C APIs<4>.
                                                             (line  104)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <5>: Deprecated<7>.  (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <6>: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <7>: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration.
                                                             (line   83)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <8>: C API<12>.      (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <9>: C API<38>.      (line  125)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <10>: Core and Builtins<161>.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <11>: C API<54>.     (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <12>: PyConfig C API.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 589: typing<11>.         (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590: Removed C APIs<4>.  (line  135)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <1>: Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <2>: Optimizations<7>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <3>: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <4>: Optimizations<8>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <5>: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <6>: Core and Builtins<57>.
                                                             (line  145)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <7>: Library<69>.    (line 1078)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <8>: C API<23>.      (line  146)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <9>: Core and Builtins<79>.
                                                             (line  112)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <10>: Library<97>.   (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <11>: Core and Builtins<101>.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <12>: Core and Builtins<110>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <13>: Core and Builtins<119>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <14>: Core and Builtins<125>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <15>: Core and Builtins<125>.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <16>: Core and Builtins<140>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <17>: Core and Builtins<140>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <18>: Core and Builtins<156>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <19>: Core and Builtins<156>.
                                                             (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <20>: Core and Builtins<157>.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <21>: Core and Builtins<157>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <22>: Core and Builtins<157>.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <23>: C API<54>.     (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <24>: The Vectorcall Protocol.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 591: typing<11>.         (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 591 <1>: Special forms.  (line  248)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 591 <2>: Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  335)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <1>: typing<9>.      (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <2>: Library<159>.   (line   91)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <3>: Special forms.  (line  437)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <4>: Introspection helpers.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <1>: PEP 594 Remove «dead batteries» from the standard library.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <2>: Pending removal in Python 3 13.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <3>: asynchat and asyncore.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <4>: smtpd.          (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <5>: Summary – Release highlights<4>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <6>: Modules.        (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <7>: Library<69>.    (line  844)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <8>: Library<69>.    (line  847)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <9>: Library<69>.    (line  850)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <10>: Library<69>.   (line  858)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <11>: Library<69>.   (line  862)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <12>: Library<69>.   (line  868)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <13>: Library<69>.   (line  871)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <14>: Library<69>.   (line  886)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <15>: Library<69>.   (line  889)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <16>: Library<69>.   (line  896)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <17>: Library<69>.   (line  899)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <18>: Library<69>.   (line  902)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <19>: Library<69>.   (line  905)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <20>: Library<69>.   (line  908)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <21>: Library<69>.   (line  963)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <22>: Library<69>.   (line  966)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <23>: Library<69>.   (line  969)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <24>: Library<69>.   (line  972)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <25>: Library<82>.   (line  105)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <26>: Library<92>.   (line  680)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <27>: Library<94>.   (line   93)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <28>: Library<97>.   (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <29>: Library<97>.   (line  150)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <30>: Tests<33>.     (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <31>: Superseded modules.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <32>: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <33>: asynchat — Διαχειριστής εντολών/απαντήσεων ασύγχρονων υποδοχών.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <34>: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <35>: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <36>: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <37>: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <38>: chunk — Read IFF chunked data.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <39>: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <40>: imghdr — Determine the type of an image.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <41>: mailcap — Mailcap file handling.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <42>: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <43>: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <44>: nntplib — NNTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <45>: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <46>: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <47>: smtpd — SMTP Server.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <48>: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <49>: spwd — The shadow password database.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <50>: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <51>: telnetlib — Telnet client.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <52>: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <53>: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 596: What’s New In Python 3 9.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 597: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 597 <1>: Library<126>.   (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 597 <2>: Opt-in EncodingWarning.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 602: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  164)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 602 <1>: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 602 <2>: How stable is Python?.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <1>: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <2>: Library<134>.   (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <3>: Documentation<44>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <4>: Τύπος Ένωσης.   (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <5>: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 610: Distributions.      (line   89)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <1>: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <2>: Library<121>.   (line  691)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <3>: Library<124>.   (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <4>: Library<133>.   (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <5>: Library<134>.   (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <6>: Library<134>.   (line  119)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <7>: Annotating callable objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <8>: User-defined generic types.
                                                             (line  179)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <9>: Special forms.  (line  132)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <10>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  575)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <11>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613 <1>: PEP 613 TypeAlias.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613 <2>: Library<140>.   (line   98)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613 <3>: Special types.  (line  228)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <1>: Other Language Changes<5>.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <2>: Core and Builtins<157>.
                                                             (line  112)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <3>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <4>: Class definitions.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615 <1>: zoneinfo.       (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615 <2>: Library<156>.   (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615 <3>: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 616: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 616 <1>: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 616 <2>: Core and Builtins<156>.
                                                             (line   82)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <1>: Modules.        (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <2>: Parenthesized context managers.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <3>: Summary – Release highlights<6>.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <4>: New Parser.     (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <5>: Deprecated<10>. (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <6>: Library<121>.   (line  178)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <7>: Library<157>.   (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <8>: Σημειογραφία.   (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 618: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 618 <1>: Other Language Changes<4>.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 618 <2>: Core and Builtins<151>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <1>: Optimizations<5>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <2>: Removed<5>.     (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <3>: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <4>: C API<31>.      (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <5>: Core and Builtins<126>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <6>: Documentation<39>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <7>: Unicode Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624: Summary – Release highlights<4>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624 <1>: Removed<7>.     (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624 <2>: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624 <3>: C API<38>.      (line  143)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624#alternative-apis: Removed<7>.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626: types<2>.           (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <1>: Pending removal in Python 3 15.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <2>: Pending removal in Python 3 15<3>.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <3>: Deprecated<4>.  (line  226)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <4>: Pending removal in Python 3 15<5>.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <5>: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <6>: Core and Builtins<2>.
                                                             (line  207)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <7>: Core and Builtins<87>.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <8>: Μέθοδοι σε αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   86)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <9>: Analysis functions.
                                                             (line  183)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <10>: Pending removal in Python 3 15<7>.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 628: cmath.              (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 628 <1>: math<9>.        (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 628 <2>: Library<191>.   (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 630: C API<16>.          (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 630#type-checking: New features in the C API.
                                                             (line  141)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632: Summary – Release highlights<3>.
                                                             (line  111)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <1>: distutils.      (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <2>: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <3>: distutils<2>.   (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <4>: Library<82>.    (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <5>: distutils — Building and installing Python modules.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <1>: Other Key Features.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <2>: Core and Builtins<91>.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <3>: Core and Builtins<122>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <4>: Core and Builtins<127>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <5>: Προσαρμογή ορισμάτων θέσης στην αντιστοίχιση προτύπων κλάσης.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <6>: The match statement.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <7>: Class Patterns. (line  136)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <8>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  943)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <9>: PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  967)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 635: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 635 <1>: Other Key Features.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <1>: Other Key Features.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <2>: Προτάσεις match.
                                                             (line  189)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <3>: The match statement.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <4>: Class Patterns. (line  138)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644: hashlib<2>.         (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <1>: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line   37)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <2>: hashlib<4>.     (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <3>: ssl<5>.         (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <4>: Build Changes<4>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <5>: Core and Builtins<64>.
                                                             (line  167)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <6>: Library<92>.    (line  523)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <7>: Build<43>.      (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <8>: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <1>: PEP 646 Variadic generics.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <2>: Library<9>.     (line  266)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <3>: «Starred» subscriptions.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <4>: Expression lists.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <5>: Function definitions.
                                                             (line  120)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <6>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  359)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647: Summary – Release highlights<5>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647 <1>: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647 <2>: Library<124>.   (line  182)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647 <3>: Special forms.  (line  580)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <1>: PEP 649 & PEP 749 Deferred evaluation of annotations.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <2>: PEP 649 & PEP 749 Deferred evaluation of annotations.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <3>: PEP 649 & PEP 749 Deferred evaluation of annotations.
                                                             (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <4>: typing<3>.      (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <5>: Changes in annotations PEP 649 and PEP 749.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <6>: Library<51>.    (line  790)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <7>: Core and Builtins<54>.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <8>: Core and Builtins<54>.
                                                             (line  115)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <9>: Core and Builtins<54>.
                                                             (line  134)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <10>: Ειδικά εγγράψιμα χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <11>: Άλλα εγγράφως χαρακτηριστικά σε αντικείμενα μονάδων.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <12>: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <13>: Annotations.   (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <14>: Σημειογραφία πεδία.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <15>: Constant.      (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <16>: Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line  131)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <17>: Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <18>: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations.
                                                             (line   56)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <19>: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <20>: Annotation semantics.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <21>: Annotation semantics.
                                                             (line   57)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <22>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line   64)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649#the-stringizer-and-the-fake-globals-environment: Functions<10>.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 652: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 652 <1>: C API<39>.      (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <1>: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <2>: New opcodes.    (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <3>: Core and Builtins<84>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <4>: Core and Builtins<107>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <5>: Core and Builtins<110>.
                                                             (line   88)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <1>: Library<94>.    (line  265)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <2>: Special forms.  (line  262)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <3>: Special forms.  (line  271)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <4>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  531)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
                                                             (line   55)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657 <1>: inspect<4>.     (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657 <2>: Library<94>.    (line  222)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657 <3>: Core and Builtins<118>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 659: Free-threaded mode improvements.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 659 <1>: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 659 <2>: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 661: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 661 <1>: PEP 661 Add sentinel built-in type.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 661 <2>: PEP 661 Add sentinel built-in type.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 661 <3>: Core and Builtins<2>.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667: types.              (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <1>: New deprecations<2>.
                                                             (line  116)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <2>: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <3>: Defined mutation semantics for locals.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <4>: Defined mutation semantics for locals.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <5>: Deprecated C APIs<4>.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <6>: Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <7>: Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <8>: Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <9>: Library<15>.    (line  551)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <10>: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1261)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <11>: Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  227)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <12>: Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <13>: Reflection.    (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <14>: Frame objects. (line  141)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <15>: Frame locals proxies.
                                                             (line   14)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <16>: Legacy local variable APIs.
                                                             (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  110)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669 <1>: New Features<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669 <2>: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669 <3>: Core and Builtins<68>.
                                                             (line   68)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 670: Summary – Release highlights<4>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 670 <1>: Porting to Python 3 11<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 672: Μη-ASCII χαρακτήρες στα ονόματα.
                                                             (line   98)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 673: PEP 673 Self type.  (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 673 <1>: Library<101>.   (line  134)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 673 <2>: Special types.  (line  194)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 675: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 675 <1>: Library<97>.    (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 675 <2>: Special types.  (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 676: Documentation<30>.  (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678: Other Language Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <1>: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <2>: Core and Builtins<68>.
                                                             (line   48)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <3>: Core and Builtins<70>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <4>: Core and Builtins<91>.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 680: Summary – Release highlights<4>.
                                                             (line   20)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 680 <1>: New Modules<3>. (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 680 <2>: Library<97>.    (line  205)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 681: PEP 681 Data class transforms.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 681 <1>: Library<94>.    (line  109)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 681 <2>: Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  243)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 682: Other Language Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 682 <1>: Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683: New Features<4>.    (line  147)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683 <1>: Core and Builtins<67>.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683 <2>: Reference Counting.
                                                             (line  131)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683 <3>: Γλωσσάρι.       (line  926)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 684: PEP 734 Multiple interpreters in the standard library.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 684 <1>: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 684 <2>: New Features<4>.
                                                             (line  182)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 684 <3>: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 684 <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1238)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 684 <5>: A per-interpreter GIL.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 684 <6>: High-level APIs<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 686: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   24)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 686 <1>: Other language changes<2>.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 686 <2>: Core and Builtins<26>.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 686 <3>: Λειτουργία UTF-8.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 686 <4>: Python UTF-8 Mode.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 686 <5>: Text Encoding.  (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687: Library<65>.        (line  137)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <1>: Core and Builtins<66>.
                                                             (line  326)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <2>: Library<72>.    (line  293)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <3>: Library<72>.    (line  300)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <4>: Library<72>.    (line  333)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <5>: Library<72>.    (line  336)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <6>: Library<72>.    (line  346)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <7>: Library<72>.    (line  403)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <8>: Library<74>.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <9>: Library<75>.    (line  111)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <10>: Library<75>.   (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688 <1>: Core and Builtins<68>.
                                                             (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688 <2>: Εξομοίωση τύπων buffer.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688 <3>: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  212)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688#current-options: Pending removal in Python 3 17.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688#current-options <1>: Pending removal in Python 3 17.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688#current-options <2>: Pending removal in Python 3 17<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688#current-options <3>: Pending removal in Python 3 17<2>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688#current-options <4>: Pending removal in Python 3 17<3>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688#current-options <5>: Pending removal in Python 3 17<3>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688#current-options <6>: Deprecated<4>.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688#current-options <7>: Pending removal in Python 3 17<4>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688#current-options <8>: Pending removal in Python 3 17<4>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688#current-options <9>: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  118)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688#current-options <10>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688#current-options <11>: Pending removal in Python 3 17<5>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688#current-options <12>: Pending removal in Python 3 17<5>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 689: C API<26>.          (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <1>: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing.
                                                             (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <2>: Library<72>.    (line  120)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <3>: Documentation<21>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <4>: Special forms.  (line  660)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 693: What’s New In Python 3 12.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <1>: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <2>: CPython bytecode changes<2>.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <3>: Library<51>.    (line  813)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <4>: Library<60>.    (line  123)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <5>: Library<69>.    (line   95)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <6>: Library<69>.    (line  660)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <7>: Library<69>.    (line  855)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <8>: Library<69>.    (line  948)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <9>: Core and Builtins<67>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <10>: Core and Builtins<67>.
                                                             (line  105)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <11>: Library<72>.   (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <12>: Σημειογραφία πεδία.
                                                             (line   63)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <13>: Η εντολή type. (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <14>: Special types. (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <15>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  113)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <16>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  249)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <17>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  424)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <18>: Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  564)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <19>: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 696: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  115)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 696 <1>: Core and Builtins<57>.
                                                             (line  165)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 696 <2>: Σημειογραφία πεδία.
                                                             (line   67)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 696 <3>: Type parameter lists.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 697: PEP 803 – Stable ABI for free-threaded builds.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 697 <1>: New Features<4>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 697 <2>: New Features<4>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 697 <3>: C API<24>.      (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 698: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing.
                                                             (line   30)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 698 <1>: Library<75>.    (line  100)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 698 <2>: Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  395)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699: Pending removal in Python 3 14<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <1>: Deprecated<5>.  (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <2>: Pending removal in Python 3 14<4>.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <3>: C API<16>.      (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <4>: Build<27>.      (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7:   Build and C API Changes<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <1>: Build Requirements.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <2>: Coding standards. (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <1>: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings.
                                                             (line   66)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <2>: tokenize<2>.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <3>: Optimizations<5>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <4>: Changes in the Python API<3>.
                                                             (line   75)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <5>: Changes in the Python API<3>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <6>: Changes in the Python API<3>.
                                                             (line   99)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <7>: f-strings.      (line  153)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 702: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  119)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 702 <1>: warnings<2>.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 702 <2>: Library<67>.    (line  469)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 702 <3>: Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες.
                                                             (line  216)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703: Free-threaded mode improvements.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <1>: New features in the C API.
                                                             (line  193)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <2>: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <3>: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <4>: Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <5>: C API<15>.      (line   21)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <6>: Core and Builtins<54>.
                                                             (line  169)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <7>: Core and Builtins<60>.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <8>: C API<22>.      (line  137)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <9>: Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <10>: Εγκατάσταση εκδόσεων Free-threaded.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <11>: GIL and performance considerations.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <12>: Python support for free threading.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <13>: Μπορούμε να απαλλαγούμε από ένα Global Interpreter Lock;.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <14>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line  710)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <15>: Γλωσσάρι.      (line  871)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 705: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  123)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 705 <1>: typing<4>.      (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 705 <2>: Library<65>.    (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 705 <3>: Special forms.  (line  292)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 705 <4>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  539)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706: Other Language Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   77)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <1>: tarfile<3>.     (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <2>: tarfile<4>.     (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <3>: tarfile<5>.     (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <4>: tarfile<7>.     (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <5>: Extraction filters.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709: Changes in the Python API<2>.
                                                             (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <1>: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <2>: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <3>: CPython bytecode changes<2>.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <4>: Core and Builtins<68>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <5>: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1258)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 719: What’s New In Python 3 13.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 728: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   29)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 728 <1>: typing.         (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 728 <2>: Library<15>.    (line  313)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 728 <3>: Other special directives.
                                                             (line  542)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 730: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  133)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 730 <1>: Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 730 <2>: Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 734: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 734 <1>: PEP 734 Multiple interpreters in the standard library.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 734 <2>: PEP 734 Multiple interpreters in the standard library.
                                                             (line   97)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 734 <3>: Library<15>.    (line  839)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 734 <4>: Library<47>.    (line  348)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 734 <5>: Library<60>.    (line  161)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 734 <6>: InterpreterPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 734 <7>: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 734 <8>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1238)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 737: Changed C APIs<2>.  (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 737 <1>: C API<18>.      (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 737 <2>: C API<18>.      (line   49)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 738: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  136)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 738 <1>: Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 738 <2>: Support for mobile platforms.
                                                             (line   25)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 738 <3>: Library<60>.    (line   54)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 739: build-details json. (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 739 <1>: Build<7>.       (line   52)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 739 <2>: Build<7>.       (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 739 <3>: Core and Builtins<34>.
                                                             (line  101)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 741: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 741 <1>: Python configuration C API.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 741 <2>: C API<12>.      (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 741 <3>: C API<16>.      (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 741 <4>: PyInitConfig C API.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 742: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line  127)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 742 <1>: typing<4>.      (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 742 <2>: Library<60>.    (line  239)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 742 <3>: Special forms.  (line  558)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 744: Binary releases for the experimental just-in-time compiler.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 744 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 744 <2>: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   50)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 744 <3>: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 745: What’s new in Python 3 14.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 747: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   31)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 747 <1>: typing.         (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 747 <2>: Library<4>.     (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 747 <3>: Special forms.  (line  468)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   32)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749 <1>: PEP 649 & PEP 749 Deferred evaluation of annotations.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749 <2>: PEP 649 & PEP 749 Deferred evaluation of annotations.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749 <3>: PEP 649 & PEP 749 Deferred evaluation of annotations.
                                                             (line   51)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749 <4>: Changes in annotations PEP 649 and PEP 749.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749 <5>: Library<51>.    (line  528)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749 <6>: Library<51>.    (line  790)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749 <7>: Σημειογραφία πεδία.
                                                             (line   70)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749 <8>: Annotations<2>. (line   42)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749 <9>: Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line  131)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749 <10>: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations.
                                                             (line   59)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749 <11>: Annotation semantics.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749#pep749-metaclasses: Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 749#pep749-metaclasses <1>: __annotations__ Quirks.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 750: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 750 <1>: PEP 750 Template string literals.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 750 <2>: PEP 750 Template string literals.
                                                             (line   72)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 750 <3>: Library<15>.    (line 1150)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 750 <4>: Core and Builtins<22>.
                                                             (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 750 <5>: Core and Builtins<30>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 750 <6>: string templatelib — Support for template string literals.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 757: New features in the C API.
                                                             (line  114)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 757 <1>: C API<12>.      (line   76)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 757 <2>: C API<14>.      (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 758: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 758 <1>: PEP 758 Allow except and except* expressions without brackets.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 758 <2>: Library<30>.    (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 758 <3>: Core and Builtins<32>.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 758 <4>: The try statement.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 761: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 761 <1>: Discontinuation of PGP signatures.
                                                             (line   11)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 765: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   43)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 765 <1>: PEP 765 Control flow in finally blocks.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 765 <2>: Core and Builtins<14>.
                                                             (line   80)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 765 <3>: Καθορισμός ενεργειών καθαρισμού.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 765 <4>: Καθορισμός ενεργειών καθαρισμού.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 765 <5>: finally clause. (line   47)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 768: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   45)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 768 <1>: PEP 768 Safe external debugger interface.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 768 <2>: PEP 768 Safe external debugger interface.
                                                             (line   53)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 768 <3>: Core and Builtins<24>.
                                                             (line   10)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 768 <4>: Core and Builtins<30>.
                                                             (line   36)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 768 <5>: Core and Builtins<32>.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 768 <6>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  398)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 768 <7>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  405)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 768 <8>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  530)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 768 <9>: Performance options.
                                                             (line  216)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 768 <10>: Performance options.
                                                             (line  219)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 768 <11>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2081)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 776: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   73)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 776 <1>: Build changes<3>.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 779: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   78)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 779 <1>: Free-threaded Python is officially supported.
                                                             (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 782: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 782 <1>: New features<4>.
                                                             (line   44)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 782 <2>: C API<8>.       (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 784: Summary – Release highlights<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 784 <1>: PEP 784 Zstandard support in the standard library.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 784 <2>: PEP 784 Zstandard support in the standard library.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 788: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 788 <1>: PEP 788 Protecting the C API from interpreter finalization.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 788 <2>: PEP 788 Protecting the C API from interpreter finalization.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 788 <3>: C API.          (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 788 <4>: Cautions regarding interpreter finalization.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 788 <5>: Using the C API from foreign threads.
                                                             (line   62)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 791: math integer.       (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 791 <1>: Library<9>.     (line  355)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 793: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 793 <1>: PEP 803 – Stable ABI for free-threaded builds.
                                                             (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 793 <2>: New features<4>.
                                                             (line   87)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 793 <3>: Core and Builtins<8>.
                                                             (line  122)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 793 <4>: C API<7>.       (line   23)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 798: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 798 <1>: PEP 798 Unpacking in comprehensions.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 798 <2>: PEP 798 Unpacking in comprehensions.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 798 <3>: Core and Builtins<5>.
                                                             (line  116)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 799: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 799 <1>: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 799 <2>: PEP 799 A dedicated profiling package.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 799 <3>: PEP 799 A dedicated profiling package.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 799 <4>: Library<15>.    (line  291)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8:   Library Changes.    (line   26)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <1>: Library<176>.     (line  124)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <2>: IDLE<64>.         (line   81)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <3>: Intermezzo Στυλ Κώδικα.
                                                             (line   13)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <4>: Επεξεργαστές Κειμένου και IDEs.
                                                             (line    8)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <5>: Value comparisons.
                                                             (line   61)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <6>: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2044)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <7>: Odds and Ends.    (line   35)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <8>: Υπάρχουν πρότυπα κωδικοποίησης ή οδηγός στυλ για προγράμματα Python;.
                                                             (line    7)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <9>: Πότε μπορώ να βασιστώ σε δοκιμές ταυτότητας με τον τελεστή is;.
                                                             (line   60)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <10>: Πως μπορώ να εμποδίσω τους editors να εισάγουν tabs στον πηγαίο της Python μου;.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 800: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 800 <1>: typing.         (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 800 <2>: Library<2>.     (line  218)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 803: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 803 <1>: PEP 803 – Stable ABI for free-threaded builds.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 803 <2>: PEP 803 – Stable ABI for free-threaded builds.
                                                             (line   40)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 803 <3>: C API.          (line   28)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 803 <4>: Stable Application Binary Interfaces.
                                                             (line   22)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 810: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line    6)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 810 <1>: PEP 810 Explicit lazy imports.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 810 <2>: PEP 810 Explicit lazy imports.
                                                             (line  107)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 810 <3>: Core and Builtins<4>.
                                                             (line  136)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 810 <4>: Lazy imports.   (line   41)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 810 <5>: Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  241)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 810 <6>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  907)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 810 <7>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1737)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 810 <8>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1770)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 814: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line    9)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 814 <1>: PEP 814 Add frozendict built-in type.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 814 <2>: PEP 814 Add frozendict built-in type.
                                                             (line   46)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 820: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   38)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 820 <1>: PEP 803 – Stable ABI for free-threaded builds.
                                                             (line   18)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 820 <2>: New features<4>.
                                                             (line  104)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 820 <3>: C API.          (line   17)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   27)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <1>: PEP 829 Package startup configuration files.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <2>: Pending removal in Python 3 18.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <3>: Pending removal in Python 3 20.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <4>: Pending removal in Python 3 18<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <5>: Pending removal in Python 3 20<2>.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <6>: Pending removal in Python 3 18<4>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <7>: Pending removal in Python 3 20<3>.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <8>: Pending removal in Python 3 20<4>.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <9>: Library<2>.     (line  214)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <10>: Startup entry points start files.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <11>: Migrating from import lines in pth files to start files.
                                                             (line   15)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <12>: Command-line interface<14>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <13>: Pending removal in Python 3 18<6>.
                                                             (line   16)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 829 <14>: Pending removal in Python 3 20<5>.
                                                             (line   69)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 831: Summary – Release highlights.
                                                             (line   19)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 831 <1>: PEP 831 Frame pointers enabled by default.
                                                             (line    3)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 831 <2>: PEP 831 Frame pointers enabled by default.
                                                             (line   33)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 831 <3>: Build changes<2>.
                                                             (line   34)
* Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 831 <4>: Performance options.
                                                             (line  116)
* PYTHON_ABI_STRING (C macro):           Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  237)
* PYTHON_ABI_VERSION (C macro):          Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  237)
* PYTHON_API_STRING (C macro):           Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  228)
* PYTHON_API_VERSION (C macro):          Module definition struct.
                                                             (line  228)
* PYTHON_BASIC_COMPLETER:                Default interactive shell.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL:                     Default interactive shell<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <1>:                 A better interactive interpreter.
                                                             (line   27)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <2>:                 Library<2>.         (line  103)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <3>:                 Library<51>.        (line   52)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <4>:                 Library<51>.        (line   55)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <5>:                 Core and Builtins<54>.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <6>:                 Διαδραστική Λειτουργία.
                                                             (line   24)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <7>:                 Example.            (line   79)
* PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <8>:                 asyncio — Asynchronous I/O.
                                                             (line   81)
* python_branch() (στη μονάδα platform): Cross Platform.     (line   98)
* python_build() (στη μονάδα platform):  Cross Platform.     (line   87)
* PYTHON_COLORS:                         Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   57)
* PYTHON_COLORS <1>:                     Improved error messages<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHON_COLORS <2>:                     doctest.            (line    7)
* PYTHON_COLORS <3>:                     Controlling color.  (line   22)
* python_compiler() (στη μονάδα platform): Cross Platform.   (line   93)
* PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS:         Library<29>.        (line  368)
* PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS <1>:     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  453)
* PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS <2>:     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  639)
* PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS <3>:     Συγχρονισμένη ασφάλεια των Context Managers.
                                                             (line   45)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT:                      os<3>.              (line   11)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <1>:                  Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  413)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <2>:                  Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   48)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <3>:                  Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   69)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <4>:                  Miscellaneous<3>.   (line   31)
* PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <5>:                  PyConfig.           (line  524)
* PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG:           PEP 768 Safe external debugger interface.
                                                             (line   40)
* PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG <1>:       Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  404)
* PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG <2>:       Disabling remote debugging.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG <3>:       When to use PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHON_DOM:                            Module Contents.    (line   23)
* PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES:                 Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   46)
* PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <1>:             Core and Builtins<65>.
                                                             (line  105)
* PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <2>:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  372)
* PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <3>:             PyConfig.           (line  422)
* PYTHON_GIL:                            Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   22)
* PYTHON_GIL <1>:                        Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHON_GIL <2>:                        Core and Builtins<50>.
                                                             (line   50)
* PYTHON_GIL <3>:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  435)
* PYTHON_GIL <4>:                        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  632)
* PYTHON_GIL <5>:                        The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHON_GIL <6>:                        Γλωσσάρι.           (line  867)
* PYTHON_HISTORY:                        Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   57)
* PYTHON_HISTORY <1>:                    Library<67>.        (line  544)
* python_implementation() (στη μονάδα platform): Cross Platform.
                                                             (line  103)
* python_is_optimized() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  272)
* PYTHON_JIT:                            Binary releases for the experimental just-in-time compiler.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHON_JIT <1>:                        General Options.    (line  260)
* PYTHON_JIT <2>:                        General Options.    (line  263)
* PYTHON_JIT <3>:                        General Options.    (line  268)
* PYTHON_JIT <4>:                        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1361)
* PYTHON_LAZY_IMPORTS:                   PEP 810 Explicit lazy imports.
                                                             (line   55)
* PYTHON_LAZY_IMPORTS <1>:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  477)
* PYTHON_LAZY_IMPORTS <2>:               Compatibility via __lazy_modules__.
                                                             (line   43)
* PYTHON_MANAGER_AUTOMATIC_INSTALL:      Εγκαθιστώντας χρόνους εκτέλεσης.
                                                             (line   52)
* PYTHON_MANAGER_DEFAULT:                Βασική χρήση.       (line   50)
* PYTHON_MANAGER_DEFAULT <1>:            Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων.
                                                             (line   83)
* PYTHON_PATHCONFIG_WARNINGS:            Core and Builtins<4>.
                                                             (line   35)
* PYTHON_PATHCONFIG_WARNINGS <1>:        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  461)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT:               Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   52)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <1>:           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  391)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <2>:           PyConfig.           (line  906)
* PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <3>:           How to work without frame pointers.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHON_PRESITE:                        Core and Builtins<2>.
                                                             (line  143)
* PYTHON_PRESITE <1>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  425)
* PYTHON_PRESITE <2>:                    PyConfig.           (line  801)
* PYTHON_PRESITE=package.module:         Core and Builtins<65>.
                                                             (line  154)
* PYTHON_PYMALLOC_HUGEPAGES:             Build changes<2>.   (line   24)
* PYTHON_PYMALLOC_HUGEPAGES <1>:         Performance options.
                                                             (line  174)
* python_revision() (στη μονάδα platform): Cross Platform.   (line  109)
* PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT:         Core and Builtins<31>.
                                                             (line  134)
* PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT <1>:     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  445)
* PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT <2>:     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  635)
* PYTHON_TLBC:                           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  469)
* python_version_tuple() (στη μονάδα platform): Cross Platform.
                                                             (line  123)
* python_version() (στη μονάδα platform): Cross Platform.    (line  114)
* python-m-py_compile command line option; -: Command-Line Interface<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* python-m-py_compile command line option; -q: Command-Line Interface<3>.
                                                             (line   19)
* python-m-py_compile command line option; -quiet: Command-Line Interface<3>.
                                                             (line   19)
* python-m-py_compile command line option; <file>: Command-Line Interface<3>.
                                                             (line   13)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] command line option; -h: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] command line option; -help: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   14)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] command line option; -v: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] command line option; -version: Command-line interface<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* pythonapi (στη μονάδα ctypes):         Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  233)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG:                    Enabling debug mode.
                                                             (line   10)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <1>:                Debug Mode.         (line   11)
* PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <2>:                Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   65)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT:                      PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <1>:                  Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  172)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <2>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  296)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <3>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  310)
* PYTHONBREAKPOINT <4>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  314)
* PYTHONCASEOK:                          Changes in the Python API<5>.
                                                             (line   29)
* PYTHONCASEOK <1>:                      PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
                                                             (line   17)
* PYTHONCASEOK <2>:                      Library<158>.       (line  144)
* PYTHONCASEOK <3>:                      Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2500)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE:                   PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <1>:               General Options.    (line   88)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <2>:               Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   59)
* PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <3>:               Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   15)
* PYTHONDEBUG:                           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   43)
* PYTHONDEBUG <1>:                       Python Debug Build. (line   20)
* PYTHONDEBUG <2>:                       Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHONDEBUG <3>:                       PyConfig.           (line  692)
* PYTHONDEVMODE:                         Python Development Mode -X dev.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <1>:                     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  331)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <2>:                     Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONDEVMODE <3>:                     PyConfig.           (line  298)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE:               Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <1>:           New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  626)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <2>:           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <3>:           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  380)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <4>:           Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   52)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <5>:           PyConfig.           (line 1005)
* PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <6>:           Πως δημιουργώ ένα pyc αρχείο;.
                                                             (line   22)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS:                        Debug build uses the same ABI as release build.
                                                             (line   15)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <1>:                    Build<59>.          (line   54)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <2>:                    Debug options.      (line   22)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <3>:                    Debug options.      (line   24)
* PYTHONDUMPREFS <4>:                    PyConfig.           (line  309)
* PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE:                    Core and Builtins<116>.
                                                             (line   16)
* PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE <1>:                PyConfig.           (line  321)
* PYTHONEXECUTABLE:                      PyConfig.           (line  727)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER:                    faulthandler<6>.    (line   12)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <1>:                Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  283)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <2>:                Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   59)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <3>:                faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback.
                                                             (line   15)
* PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <4>:                PyConfig.           (line  358)
* PythonFinalizationError:               Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  233)
* PYTHONHASHSEED:                        Builtin functions and types.
                                                             (line   17)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <1>:                    Porting Python code.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <2>:                    Core and Builtins<173>.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <3>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  136)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <4>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  153)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <5>:                    Environment variables.
                                                             (line  155)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <6>:                    Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  348)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <7>:                    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   74)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <8>:                    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   77)
* PYTHONHASHSEED <9>:                    PyConfig.           (line  438)
* PYTHONHOME:                            Removed C APIs<2>.  (line   68)
* PYTHONHOME <1>:                        Pending removal in Python 3 15<2>.
                                                             (line   51)
* PYTHONHOME <2>:                        Deprecated C APIs<4>.
                                                             (line   22)
* PYTHONHOME <3>:                        Pending removal in Python 3 15<4>.
                                                             (line   51)
* PYTHONHOME <4>:                        Pending removal in Python 3 15<6>.
                                                             (line   51)
* PYTHONHOME <5>:                        Summary – Release highlights<8>.
                                                             (line  107)
* PYTHONHOME <6>:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   52)
* PYTHONHOME <7>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line   19)
* PYTHONHOME <8>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line   21)
* PYTHONHOME <9>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line   37)
* PYTHONHOME <10>:                       Εύρεση modules.     (line   33)
* PYTHONHOME <11>:                       Εύρεση modules.     (line   52)
* PYTHONHOME <12>:                       Εύρεση modules.     (line   90)
* PYTHONHOME <13>:                       Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS.
                                                             (line   95)
* PYTHONHOME <14>:                       test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONHOME <15>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONHOME <16>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   56)
* PYTHONHOME <17>:                       Virtual Environments.
                                                             (line   19)
* PYTHONHOME <18>:                       Embedding Python.   (line   38)
* PYTHONHOME <19>:                       Embedding Python.   (line   44)
* PYTHONHOME <20>:                       Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   89)
* PYTHONHOME <21>:                       Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  167)
* PYTHONHOME <22>:                       PyConfig.           (line  446)
* PYTHONHOME <23>:                       PyConfig.           (line  448)
* PYTHONHOME <24>:                       Pending removal in Python 3 15<8>.
                                                             (line   51)
* Pythonic:                              Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1609)
* PYTHONINSPECT:                         Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* PYTHONINSPECT <1>:                     Core and Builtins<6>.
                                                             (line   77)
* PYTHONINSPECT <2>:                     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   74)
* PYTHONINSPECT <3>:                     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  106)
* PYTHONINSPECT <4>:                     PyConfig.           (line  477)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS:                 Core and Builtins<82>.
                                                             (line   74)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <1>:             Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  305)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <2>:             Διαμόρφωση ορίου.   (line   10)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <3>:             Διαμόρφωση ορίου.   (line   17)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <4>:             sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1279)
* PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <5>:             PyConfig.           (line  508)
* PYTHONIOENCODING:                      Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <1>:                  Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <2>:                  Environment variables.
                                                             (line  442)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <3>:                  Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   33)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <4>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2149)
* PYTHONIOENCODING <5>:                  PyConfig.           (line  860)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING:         Pending removal in Python 3 16.
                                                             (line  102)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <1>:     Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>.
                                                             (line  102)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <2>:     New Deprecations.   (line  131)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <3>:     Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>.
                                                             (line  102)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <4>:     Pending removal in Python 3 16<6>.
                                                             (line  102)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <5>:     PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   18)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <6>:     Windows<18>.        (line   37)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <7>:     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2089)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <8>:     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2100)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <9>:     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2105)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <10>:    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  148)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <11>:    PyPreConfig.        (line  123)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <12>:    Pending removal in Python 3 16<8>.
                                                             (line  102)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO:              PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   12)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <1>:          Environment variables.
                                                             (line  190)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <2>:          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2153)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <3>:          Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  166)
* PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <4>:          PyConfig.           (line  561)
* PYTHONMALLOC:                          PYTHONMALLOC environment variable.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONMALLOC <1>:                      Changes in the C API<7>.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONMALLOC <2>:                      Core and Builtins<193>.
                                                             (line   90)
* PYTHONMALLOC <3>:                      Environment variables.
                                                             (line  345)
* PYTHONMALLOC <4>:                      Performance options.
                                                             (line  156)
* PYTHONMALLOC <5>:                      Performance options.
                                                             (line  163)
* PYTHONMALLOC <6>:                      Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   46)
* PYTHONMALLOC <7>:                      Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   50)
* PYTHONMALLOC <8>:                      Overview<4>.        (line   75)
* PYTHONMALLOC <9>:                      Default Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   32)
* PYTHONMALLOC <10>:                     Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators.
                                                             (line   11)
* PYTHONMALLOC <11>:                     The pymalloc allocator.
                                                             (line   31)
* PYTHONMALLOC <12>:                     The mimalloc allocator.
                                                             (line   24)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS:                     Core and Builtins<193>.
                                                             (line   96)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <1>:                 PyConfig.           (line  577)
* PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <2>:                 Overview<4>.        (line   78)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES:                   PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
                                                             (line   63)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <1>:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  360)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <2>:               Μέθοδοι σε αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   42)
* PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <3>:               PyConfig.           (line  251)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE:                      PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <1>:                  Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  165)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <2>:                  Environment variables.
                                                             (line  212)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <3>:                  Module contents<7>. (line   15)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <4>:                  The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   66)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <5>:                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  200)
* PYTHONNOUSERSITE <6>:                  PyConfig.           (line  958)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   94)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE <1>:                    Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  211)
* PYTHONOPTIMIZE <2>:                    PyConfig.           (line  644)
* PYTHONPATH:                            Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHONPATH <1>:                        Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONPATH <2>:                        Το Search Path του Module.
                                                             (line   16)
* PYTHONPATH <3>:                        Standard Modules.   (line   36)
* PYTHONPATH <4>:                        Standard Modules.   (line   37)
* PYTHONPATH <5>:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   51)
* PYTHONPATH <6>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line   31)
* PYTHONPATH <7>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* PYTHONPATH <8>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line   41)
* PYTHONPATH <9>:                        Εύρεση modules.     (line   16)
* PYTHONPATH <10>:                       Εύρεση modules.     (line   43)
* PYTHONPATH <11>:                       Εύρεση modules.     (line   89)
* PYTHONPATH <12>:                       Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS.
                                                             (line   99)
* PYTHONPATH <13>:                       Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS.
                                                             (line  126)
* PYTHONPATH <14>:                       Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS.
                                                             (line  132)
* PYTHONPATH <15>:                       Finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής Path entry finders.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONPATH <16>:                       Finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής Path entry finders.
                                                             (line   26)
* PYTHONPATH <17>:                       test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   26)
* PYTHONPATH <18>:                       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1517)
* PYTHONPATH <19>:                       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1522)
* PYTHONPATH <20>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONPATH <21>:                       The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   18)
* PYTHONPATH <22>:                       Embedding Python.   (line   39)
* PYTHONPATH <23>:                       Embedding Python.   (line   45)
* PYTHONPATH <24>:                       Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   88)
* PYTHONPATH <25>:                       PyConfig.           (line  610)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT:                     Other Language Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   84)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <1>:                 Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  380)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <2>:                 PyConfig.           (line  902)
* PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <3>:                 How to enable perf profiling support.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR:                      Core and Builtins<152>.
                                                             (line   47)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <1>:                  The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   51)
* PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <2>:                  PyConfig.           (line  589)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME:               Other Language Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   47)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <1>:           Core and Builtins<175>.
                                                             (line   66)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <2>:           Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  321)
* PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <3>:           PyConfig.           (line  460)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX:                   Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <1>:               Core and Builtins<166>.
                                                             (line  402)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <2>:               Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  344)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <3>:               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  426)
* PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <4>:               PyConfig.           (line  749)
* PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD:          Tests<32>.          (line   13)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH:                        Summary – Release highlights<4>.
                                                             (line   27)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <1>:                    Other Language Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   37)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <2>:                    Security<27>.       (line    6)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <3>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  122)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <4>:                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1534)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <5>:                    Security Considerations<3>.
                                                             (line   47)
* PYTHONSAFEPATH <6>:                    PyConfig.           (line  163)
* PYTHONSTARTUP:                         Default interactive shell<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <1>:                     sys<13>.            (line   17)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <2>:                     sys<13>.            (line   21)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <3>:                     Library<2>.         (line  404)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <4>:                     Library<6>.         (line  148)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <5>:                     Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line   33)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <6>:                     IDLE<38>.           (line  176)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <7>:                     IDLE<42>.           (line    9)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <8>:                     IDLE<48>.           (line    9)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <9>:                     Το διαδραστικό αρχείο εκκίνησης.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <10>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   70)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <11>:                    Environment variables.
                                                             (line  116)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <12>:                    Example.            (line   10)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <13>:                    asyncio — Asynchronous I/O.
                                                             (line   91)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <14>:                    Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <15>:                    Command-line usage<3>.
                                                             (line   42)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <16>:                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1292)
* PYTHONSTARTUP <17>:                    Readline configuration.
                                                             (line   12)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC:                     Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  300)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <1>:                 tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <2>:                 tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line   32)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <3>:                 Functions<9>.       (line   89)
* PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <4>:                 PyConfig.           (line  888)
* PYTHONTZPATH:                          Exceptions and warnings.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED:                      Core and Builtins<159>.
                                                             (line  107)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <1>:                  Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  185)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <2>:                  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2160)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <3>:                  Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  239)
* PYTHONUNBUFFERED <4>:                  PyConfig.           (line  210)
* PYTHONUOPS:                            Core and Builtins<66>.
                                                             (line   27)
* PYTHONUOPS <1>:                        Core and Builtins<66>.
                                                             (line  179)
* PYTHONUOPS <2>:                        Core and Builtins<66>.
                                                             (line  258)
* PYTHONUOPS <3>:                        Core and Builtins<66>.
                                                             (line  317)
* PYTHONUOPS <4>:                        Core and Builtins<66>.
                                                             (line  381)
* PYTHONUSERBASE:                        PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   23)
* PYTHONUSERBASE <1>:                    Module contents<7>. (line   40)
* PYTHONUSERBASE <2>:                    Module contents<7>. (line   84)
* PYTHONUSERBASE <3>:                    The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   64)
* PYTHONUSERSITE:                        test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   26)
* PYTHONUTF8:                            Other language changes<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* PYTHONUTF8 <1>:                        PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONUTF8 <2>:                        Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  338)
* PYTHONUTF8 <3>:                        Environment variables.
                                                             (line  452)
* PYTHONUTF8 <4>:                        Λειτουργία UTF-8.   (line   26)
* PYTHONUTF8 <5>:                        Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line    9)
* PYTHONUTF8 <6>:                        Python UTF-8 Mode.  (line   52)
* PYTHONUTF8 <7>:                        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2151)
* PYTHONUTF8 <8>:                        PyPreConfig.        (line  152)
* PYTHONUTF8 <9>:                        Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   14)
* PYTHONVERBOSE:                         Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  201)
* PYTHONVERBOSE <1>:                     Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  256)
* PYTHONVERBOSE <2>:                     PyConfig.           (line  975)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING:             Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option.
                                                             (line   19)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <1>:         Library<126>.       (line   45)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <2>:         Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  350)
* PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <3>:         Opt-in EncodingWarning.
                                                             (line    9)
* PYTHONWARNINGS:                        Other language changes<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <1>:                    warnings<4>.        (line   21)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <2>:                    Other Language Changes<12>.
                                                             (line  159)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <3>:                    Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings.
                                                             (line   25)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <4>:                    Interpreter Changes.
                                                             (line    6)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <5>:                    Library<15>.        (line  285)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <6>:                    Documentation<28>.  (line   67)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <7>:                    Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  261)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <8>:                    Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   30)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <9>:                    Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων.
                                                             (line   54)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <10>:                   Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων.
                                                             (line   66)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <11>:                   Περιγραφή Φίλτρων Προειδοποιήσεων.
                                                             (line    7)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <12>:                   Περιγραφή Φίλτρων Προειδοποιήσεων.
                                                             (line   21)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <13>:                   Προεπιλεγμένο φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων.
                                                             (line    8)
* PYTHONWARNINGS <14>:                   PyConfig.           (line  994)
* PyThread_acquire_lock (C function):    Legacy locking APIs.
                                                             (line   76)
* PyThread_acquire_lock_timed (C function): Legacy locking APIs.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyThread_allocate_lock (C function):   Legacy locking APIs.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyThread_create_key (C function):      Legacy APIs.        (line   18)
* PyThread_delete_key (C function):      Legacy APIs.        (line   21)
* PyThread_delete_key_value (C function): Legacy APIs.       (line   30)
* PyThread_exit_thread (C function):     Operating system thread APIs.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyThread_free_lock (C function):       Legacy locking APIs.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyThread_get_key_value (C function):   Legacy APIs.        (line   27)
* PyThread_get_stacksize (C function):   Operating system thread APIs.
                                                             (line  111)
* PyThread_get_thread_ident (C function): Operating system thread APIs.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyThread_get_thread_native_id (C function): Operating system thread APIs.
                                                             (line   55)
* PyThread_GetInfo (C function):         Operating system thread APIs.
                                                             (line   39)
* PyThread_init_thread (C function):     Operating system thread APIs.
                                                             (line   95)
* PYTHREAD_INVALID_THREAD_ID (C macro):  Operating system thread APIs.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyThread_ReInitTLS (C function):       Legacy APIs.        (line   33)
* PyThread_release_lock (C function):    Legacy locking APIs.
                                                             (line   95)
* PyThread_set_key_value (C function):   Legacy APIs.        (line   24)
* PyThread_set_stacksize (C function):   Operating system thread APIs.
                                                             (line  100)
* PyThread_start_new_thread (C function): Operating system thread APIs.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyThread_tss_alloc (C function):       Dynamic allocation. (line   11)
* PyThread_tss_create (C function):      Methods.            (line   16)
* PyThread_tss_delete (C function):      Methods.            (line   24)
* PyThread_tss_free (C function):        Dynamic allocation. (line   17)
* PyThread_tss_get (C function):         Methods.            (line   39)
* PyThread_tss_is_created (C function):  Methods.            (line   11)
* PyThread_tss_set (C function):         Methods.            (line   33)
* PyThread_type_lock (C type):           Legacy locking APIs.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyThreadState (C type):                Thread states and the global interpreter lock.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyThreadState (C type) <1>:            High-level APIs.    (line    9)
* PyThreadState_Clear (C function):      Low-level APIs.     (line   12)
* PyThreadState_Delete (C function):     Low-level APIs.     (line   24)
* PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent (C function): Low-level APIs.  (line   30)
* PyThreadState_Ensure (C function):     Attaching/detaching thread states.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyThreadState_EnsureFromView (C function): Attaching/detaching thread states.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyThreadState_EnterTracing (C function): Low-level APIs.   (line   71)
* PyThreadState_Get (C function):        High-level APIs.    (line   57)
* PyThreadState_GetDict (C function):    Low-level APIs.     (line  133)
* PyThreadState_GetFrame (C function):   Low-level APIs.     (line   39)
* PyThreadState_GetID (C function):      Low-level APIs.     (line   53)
* PyThreadState_GetInterpreter (C function): Low-level APIs. (line   62)
* PyThreadState_GetUnchecked (C function): High-level APIs.  (line   66)
* PyThreadState_LeaveTracing (C function): Low-level APIs.   (line   80)
* PyThreadState_New (C function):        Low-level APIs.     (line    6)
* PyThreadState_Next (C function):       Advanced debugger support.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyThreadState_Release (C function):    Attaching/detaching thread states.
                                                             (line   71)
* PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (C function): Asynchronous notifications.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyThreadState_Swap (C function):       High-level APIs.    (line   76)
* PyThreadState.interp (C member):       High-level APIs.    (line   14)
* PyThreadStateToken (C type):           Attaching/detaching thread states.
                                                             (line   98)
* PyTime_AsSecondsDouble (C function):   Conversion functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyTime_Check (C function):             DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyTime_CheckExact (C function):        DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  138)
* PyTime_FromTime (C function):          DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  188)
* PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (C function):   DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  194)
* PyTime_MAX (C var):                    Types<3>.           (line   24)
* PyTime_MIN (C var):                    Types<3>.           (line   20)
* PyTime_Monotonic (C function):         Clock Functions.    (line   21)
* PyTime_MonotonicRaw (C function):      Raw Clock Functions.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyTime_PerfCounter (C function):       Clock Functions.    (line   26)
* PyTime_PerfCounterRaw (C function):    Raw Clock Functions.
                                                             (line   22)
* PyTime_t (C type):                     Types<3>.           (line    6)
* PyTime_Time (C function):              Clock Functions.    (line   31)
* PyTime_TimeRaw (C function):           Raw Clock Functions.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyTimeZone_FromOffset (C function):    DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  210)
* PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName (C function): DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  218)
* PyTrace_C_CALL (C var):                Profiling and tracing.
                                                             (line   94)
* PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION (C var):           Profiling and tracing.
                                                             (line   99)
* PyTrace_C_RETURN (C var):              Profiling and tracing.
                                                             (line  104)
* PyTrace_CALL (C var):                  Profiling and tracing.
                                                             (line   62)
* PyTrace_EXCEPTION (C var):             Profiling and tracing.
                                                             (line   70)
* PyTrace_LINE (C var):                  Profiling and tracing.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyTrace_OPCODE (C var):                Profiling and tracing.
                                                             (line  109)
* PyTrace_RETURN (C var):                Profiling and tracing.
                                                             (line   89)
* PyTraceBack_Check (C function):        Tracebacks.         (line   11)
* PyTraceBack_Here (C function):         Tracebacks.         (line   16)
* PyTraceBack_Print (C function):        Tracebacks.         (line   27)
* PyTraceBack_Type (C var):              Tracebacks.         (line    6)
* PyTraceMalloc_Track (C function):      tracemalloc C API.  (line    8)
* PyTraceMalloc_Untrack (C function):    tracemalloc C API.  (line   20)
* PyTuple_Check (C function):            Tuple Objects.      (line   16)
* PyTuple_CheckExact (C function):       Tuple Objects.      (line   21)
* PyTuple_FromArray (C function):        Tuple Objects.      (line   31)
* PyTuple_GET_ITEM (C function):         Tuple Objects.      (line   75)
* PyTuple_GET_SIZE (C function):         Tuple Objects.      (line   56)
* PyTuple_GetItem (C function):          Tuple Objects.      (line   60)
* PyTuple_GetSlice (C function):         Tuple Objects.      (line   82)
* PyTuple_New (C function):              Tuple Objects.      (line   26)
* PyTuple_Pack (C function):             Tuple Objects.      (line   43)
* PyTuple_SET_ITEM (C function):         Tuple Objects.      (line  106)
* PyTuple_SetItem (C function):          Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyTuple_SetItem (C function) <1>:      Tuple Objects.      (line   92)
* PyTuple_Size (C function):             Tuple Objects.      (line   51)
* PyTuple_Type (C var):                  Tuple Objects.      (line   11)
* PyTupleIter_Type (C var):              Other Iterator Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyTupleObject (C type):                Tuple Objects.      (line    6)
* PyType_AddWatcher (C function):        Type Objects.       (line   67)
* PyType_Check (C function):             Type Objects.       (line   15)
* PyType_CheckExact (C function):        Type Objects.       (line   21)
* PyType_ClearCache (C function):        Type Objects.       (line   27)
* PyType_ClearWatcher (C function):      Type Objects.       (line   80)
* PyType_FastSubclass (C function):      Type Objects.       (line  153)
* PyType_Freeze (C function):            Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line   62)
* PyType_FromMetaclass (C function):     Soft-deprecated API.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyType_FromModuleAndSpec (C function): Soft-deprecated API.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyType_FromSlots (C function):         Creating Heap-Allocated Types.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyType_FromSpec (C function):          Soft-deprecated API.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyType_FromSpecWithBases (C function): Soft-deprecated API.
                                                             (line   65)
* PyType_GenericAlloc (C function):      Type Objects.       (line  181)
* PyType_GenericNew (C function):        Type Objects.       (line  203)
* PyType_GetBaseByToken (C function):    Type Objects.       (line  358)
* PyType_GetBaseByToken_DuringGC (C function): «DuringGC» functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyType_GetDict (C function):           Type Objects.       (line   43)
* PyType_GetFlags (C function):          Type Objects.       (line   31)
* PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName (C function): Type Objects.   (line  243)
* PyType_GetModule (C function):         Type Objects.       (line  278)
* PyType_GetModule_DuringGC (C function): «DuringGC» functions.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyType_GetModuleByDef (C function):    Type Objects.       (line  334)
* PyType_GetModuleByToken (C function):  Type Objects.       (line  317)
* PyType_GetModuleByToken_DuringGC (C function): «DuringGC» functions.
                                                             (line   56)
* PyType_GetModuleName (C function):     Type Objects.       (line  253)
* PyType_GetModuleState (C function):    Type Objects.       (line  303)
* PyType_GetModuleState_DuringGC (C function): «DuringGC» functions.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyType_GetName (C function):           Type Objects.       (line  226)
* PyType_GetQualName (C function):       Type Objects.       (line  234)
* PyType_GetSlot (C function):           Type Objects.       (line  261)
* PyType_GetTypeDataSize (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line  616)
* PyType_HasFeature (C function):        Type Objects.       (line  148)
* PyType_IS_GC (C function):             Type Objects.       (line  167)
* PyType_IsSubtype (C function):         Type Objects.       (line  172)
* PyType_Modified (C function):          Type Objects.       (line   61)
* PyType_Ready (C function):             Type Objects.       (line  210)
* PyType_Slot (C type):                  Soft-deprecated API.
                                                             (line  147)
* PyType_Slot.pfunc (C member):          Soft-deprecated API.
                                                             (line  175)
* PyType_Slot.slot (C member):           Soft-deprecated API.
                                                             (line  171)
* PyType_Spec (C type):                  Soft-deprecated API.
                                                             (line  108)
* PyType_Spec.basicsize (C member):      Soft-deprecated API.
                                                             (line  121)
* PyType_Spec.flags (C member):          Soft-deprecated API.
                                                             (line  135)
* PyType_Spec.itemsize (C member):       Soft-deprecated API.
                                                             (line  131)
* PyType_Spec.name (C member):           Soft-deprecated API.
                                                             (line  117)
* PyType_Spec.slots (C member):          Soft-deprecated API.
                                                             (line  139)
* PyType_SUPPORTS_WEAKREFS (C function): Type Objects.       (line  390)
* PyType_Type (C var):                   Type Objects.       (line   10)
* PyType_Unwatch (C function):           Type Objects.       (line  114)
* PyType_Watch (C function):             Type Objects.       (line   92)
* PyType_WatchCallback (C type):         Type Objects.       (line  128)
* PyTypeObject (C type):                 Type Objects.       (line    6)
* PyTypeObject.tp_alloc (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1625)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_async (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  367)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  598)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_mapping (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line  436)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_number (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line  412)
* PyTypeObject.tp_as_sequence (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  424)
* PyTypeObject.tp_base (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1437)
* PyTypeObject.tp_bases (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1756)
* PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line   51)
* PyTypeObject.tp_cache (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1793)
* PyTypeObject.tp_call (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line  492)
* PyTypeObject.tp_clear (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1060)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  139)
* PyTypeObject.tp_del (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1832)
* PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1508)
* PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set (C member):  PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1524)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dict (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1472)
* PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1543)
* PyTypeObject.tp_doc (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1025)
* PyTypeObject.tp_finalize (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1847)
* PyTypeObject.tp_flags (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line  610)
* PyTypeObject.tp_free (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1692)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getattr (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  324)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getattro (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  536)
* PyTypeObject.tp_getset (C member):     PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1418)
* PyTypeObject.tp_hash (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line  448)
* PyTypeObject.tp_init (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1587)
* PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc (C member):      PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1724)
* PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line   51)
* PyTypeObject.tp_iter (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1335)
* PyTypeObject.tp_iternext (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1354)
* PyTypeObject.tp_members (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1399)
* PyTypeObject.tp_methods (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1380)
* PyTypeObject.tp_mro (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1779)
* PyTypeObject.tp_name (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line   12)
* PyTypeObject.tp_new (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1650)
* PyTypeObject.tp_repr (C member):       PyTypeObject Slots. (line  383)
* PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1220)
* PyTypeObject.tp_setattr (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line  345)
* PyTypeObject.tp_setattro (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line  566)
* PyTypeObject.tp_str (C member):        PyTypeObject Slots. (line  507)
* PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1801)
* PyTypeObject.tp_traverse (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1038)
* PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 2017)
* PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall_offset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line  284)
* PyTypeObject.tp_version_tag (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1839)
* PyTypeObject.tp_watched (C member):    PyTypeObject Slots. (line 2061)
* PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist (C member):   PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1817)
* PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots.
                                                             (line 1299)
* PyTZInfo_Check (C function):           DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  154)
* PyTZInfo_CheckExact (C function):      DateTime Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  160)
* PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   79)
* PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND (C macro):        Unicode Type.       (line   94)
* PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   79)
* PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND (C macro):        Unicode Type.       (line   94)
* PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   79)
* PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND (C macro):        Unicode Type.       (line   94)
* PyUnicode_Append (C function):         Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  318)
* PyUnicode_AppendAndDel (C function):   Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  329)
* PyUnicode_AsASCIIString (C function):  ASCII Codecs.       (line   16)
* PyUnicode_AsCharmapString (C function): Character Map Codecs.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyUnicode_AsEncodedString (C function): Generic Codecs.    (line   28)
* PyUnicode_AsLatin1String (C function): Latin-1 Codecs.     (line   17)
* PyUnicode_AsMBCSString (C function):   MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString (C function): Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyUnicode_AsUCS4 (C function):         Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  450)
* PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  460)
* PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString (C function): Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF16String (C function):  UTF-16 Codecs.      (line   48)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF32String (C function):  UTF-32 Codecs.      (line   47)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8 (C function):         UTF-8 Codecs.       (line   65)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize (C function):  UTF-8 Codecs.       (line   35)
* PyUnicode_AsUTF8String (C function):   UTF-8 Codecs.       (line   25)
* PyUnicode_AsWideChar (C function):     wchar_t Support.    (line   16)
* PyUnicode_AsWideCharString (C function): wchar_t Support.  (line   34)
* PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  335)
* PyUnicode_Check (C function):          Unicode Type.       (line   60)
* PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED (C function): Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  277)
* PyUnicode_CheckExact (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   65)
* PyUnicode_Compare (C function):        Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString (C function): Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  191)
* PyUnicode_Concat (C function):         Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyUnicode_Contains (C function):       Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  225)
* PyUnicode_CopyCharacters (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  364)
* PyUnicode_Count (C function):          Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  118)
* PyUnicode_DATA (C function):           Unicode Type.       (line  113)
* PyUnicode_Decode (C function):         Generic Codecs.     (line   17)
* PyUnicode_DecodeASCII (C function):    ASCII Codecs.       (line    9)
* PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap (C function):  Character Map Codecs.
                                                             (line   15)
* PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   29)
* PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (C function): File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   75)
* PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize (C function): File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   58)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1 (C function):   Latin-1 Codecs.     (line   10)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLocale (C function):   Locale Encoding.    (line   37)
* PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize (C function): Locale Encoding.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS (C function):     MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   12)
* PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape (C function): Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape (C function): Unicode-Escape Codecs.
                                                             (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16 (C function):    UTF-16 Codecs.      (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful (C function): UTF-16 Codecs. (line   36)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32 (C function):    UTF-32 Codecs.      (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful (C function): UTF-32 Codecs. (line   35)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (C function):     UTF-7 Codecs.       (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful (C function): UTF-7 Codecs.   (line   15)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (C function):     UTF-8 Codecs.       (line    8)
* PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful (C function): UTF-8 Codecs.   (line   15)
* PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows.
                                                             (line   45)
* PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault (C function): File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   87)
* PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (C function):   Locale Encoding.    (line   46)
* PyUnicode_Equal (C function):          Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  145)
* PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8 (C function):    Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  182)
* PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize (C function): Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  169)
* PyUnicode_Fill (C function):           Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  394)
* PyUnicode_Find (C function):           Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   91)
* PyUnicode_FindChar (C function):       Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  102)
* PyUnicode_Format (C function):         Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  219)
* PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  301)
* PyUnicode_FromFormat (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   83)
* PyUnicode_FromFormatV (C function):    Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  275)
* PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   43)
* PyUnicode_FromObject (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  281)
* PyUnicode_FromOrdinal (C function):    Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  292)
* PyUnicode_FromString (C function):     Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line   60)
* PyUnicode_FromWideChar (C function):   wchar_t Support.    (line    8)
* PyUnicode_FSConverter (C function):    File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   13)
* PyUnicode_FSDecoder (C function):      File System Encoding.
                                                             (line   37)
* PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (C function):     Unicode Type.       (line   70)
* PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  347)
* PyUnicode_GetLength (C function):      Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  355)
* PyUnicode_InternFromString (C function): Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  259)
* PyUnicode_InternInPlace (C function):  Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  233)
* PyUnicode_IS_ASCII (C function):       Unicode Type.       (line  175)
* PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT (C macro):        Unicode Type.       (line   44)
* PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT_ASCII (C macro):  Unicode Type.       (line   51)
* PyUnicode_IS_READY (C function):       Deprecated API<2>.  (line   31)
* PyUnicode_IsIdentifier (C function):   Unicode Type.       (line  166)
* PyUnicode_Join (C function):           Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyUnicode_KIND (C function):           Unicode Type.       (line  104)
* PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (C function): Unicode Type.       (line  156)
* PyUnicode_New (C function):            Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnicode_Partition (C function):      Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyUnicode_READ (C function):           Unicode Type.       (line  138)
* PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (C function):      Unicode Type.       (line  147)
* PyUnicode_ReadChar (C function):       Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  428)
* PyUnicode_READY (C function):          Deprecated API<2>.  (line   20)
* PyUnicode_Replace (C function):        Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  124)
* PyUnicode_Resize (C function):         Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  378)
* PyUnicode_RichCompare (C function):    Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line  201)
* PyUnicode_RPartition (C function):     Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   63)
* PyUnicode_RSplit (C function):         Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   30)
* PyUnicode_Split (C function):          Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyUnicode_Splitlines (C function):     Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   40)
* PyUnicode_Substring (C function):      Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  440)
* PyUnicode_Tailmatch (C function):      Methods and Slot Functions.
                                                             (line   83)
* PyUnicode_Translate (C function):      Character Map Codecs.
                                                             (line   46)
* PyUnicode_Type (C var):                Unicode Type.       (line    9)
* PyUnicode_WRITE (C function):          Unicode Type.       (line  121)
* PyUnicode_WriteChar (C function):      Creating and accessing Unicode strings.
                                                             (line  412)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   67)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   67)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyUnicodeIter_Type (C var):            Unicode Type.       (line   14)
* PyUnicodeObject (C type):              Unicode Type.       (line   29)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   67)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   96)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* PyUnicodeWriter (C type):              PyUnicodeWriter.    (line   11)
* PyUnicodeWriter_Create (C function):   PyUnicodeWriter.    (line   18)
* PyUnicodeWriter_DecodeUTF8Stateful (C function): PyUnicodeWriter.
                                                             (line  153)
* PyUnicodeWriter_Discard (C function):  PyUnicodeWriter.    (line   40)
* PyUnicodeWriter_Finish (C function):   PyUnicodeWriter.    (line   30)
* PyUnicodeWriter_Format (C function):   PyUnicodeWriter.    (line  144)
* PyUnicodeWriter_WriteASCII (C function): PyUnicodeWriter.  (line   71)
* PyUnicodeWriter_WriteChar (C function): PyUnicodeWriter.   (line   49)
* PyUnicodeWriter_WriteRepr (C function): PyUnicodeWriter.   (line  119)
* PyUnicodeWriter_WriteStr (C function): PyUnicodeWriter.    (line  106)
* PyUnicodeWriter_WriteSubstring (C function): PyUnicodeWriter.
                                                             (line  132)
* PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUCS4 (C function): PyUnicodeWriter.   (line   96)
* PyUnicodeWriter_WriteUTF8 (C function): PyUnicodeWriter.   (line   57)
* PyUnicodeWriter_WriteWideChar (C function): PyUnicodeWriter.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyUnstable:                            Unstable C API.     (line    6)
* PyUnstable_AtExit (C function):        Initializing and finalizing the interpreter.
                                                             (line  219)
* PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra (C function): Extra information.  (line   35)
* PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree (C function): Code Objects.   (line   31)
* PyUnstable_Code_New (C function):      Code Objects.       (line   41)
* PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (C function): Code Objects.
                                                             (line   68)
* PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra (C function): Extra information.  (line   51)
* PyUnstable_DumpTraceback (C function): Tracebacks.         (line   34)
* PyUnstable_DumpTracebackThreads (C function): Tracebacks.  (line   67)
* PyUnstable_EnableTryIncRef (C function): Object Protocol.  (line  809)
* PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (C function): Extra information.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar (C function): Exception Objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects (C function): Querying Garbage Collector State.
                                                             (line    9)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode (C function): Internal frames.
                                                             (line   14)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti (C function): Internal frames.
                                                             (line   24)
* PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine (C function): Internal frames.
                                                             (line   32)
* PyUnstable_IsImmortal (C function):    Object Protocol.    (line  725)
* PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue (C function): Integer Objects.
                                                             (line  657)
* PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact (C function): Integer Objects.   (line  639)
* PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL (C function): Support functions.  (line  191)
* PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks (C function): Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  101)
* PyUnstable_Object_EnableDeferredRefcount (C function): Object Protocol.
                                                             (line  663)
* PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData (C function): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  110)
* PyUnstable_Object_IsUniquelyReferenced (C function): Object Protocol.
                                                             (line  818)
* PyUnstable_Object_IsUniqueReferencedTemporary (C function): Object Protocol.
                                                             (line  692)
* PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini (C function): Support for Perf Maps.
                                                             (line   48)
* PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init (C function): Support for Perf Maps.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyUnstable_SetImmortal (C function):   Object Protocol.    (line  839)
* PyUnstable_ThreadState_ResetStackProtection (C function): Low-level APIs.
                                                             (line  121)
* PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection (C function): Low-level APIs.
                                                             (line   90)
* PyUnstable_TryIncRef (C function):     Object Protocol.    (line  736)
* PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag (C function): Type Objects.
                                                             (line  379)
* PyUnstable_Unicode_GET_CACHED_HASH (C function): Unicode Type.
                                                             (line  182)
* PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry (C function): Support for Perf Maps.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyVarObject (C type):                  Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   62)
* PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro):       Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line  209)
* PyVarObject.ob_base (C member):        Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   77)
* PyVarObject.ob_size (C member):        Base object types and macros.
                                                             (line   82)
* PyVectorcall_Call (C function):        Vectorcall Support API.
                                                             (line   33)
* PyVectorcall_Function (C function):    Vectorcall Support API.
                                                             (line   19)
* PyVectorcall_NARGS (C function):       Vectorcall Support API.
                                                             (line    6)
* PyWeakref_Check (C function):          Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* PyWeakref_CheckProxy (C function):     Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   26)
* PyWeakref_CheckRef (C function):       Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* PyWeakref_CheckRefExact (C function):  Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   21)
* PyWeakref_GetRef (C function):         Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   71)
* PyWeakref_IsDead (C function):         Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   85)
* PyWeakref_NewProxy (C function):       Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   51)
* PyWeakref_NewRef (C function):         Weak Reference Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* PyWideStringList (C type):             PyWideStringList.   (line    6)
* PyWideStringList_Append (C function):  PyWideStringList.   (line   15)
* PyWideStringList_Insert (C function):  PyWideStringList.   (line   22)
* PyWideStringList.items (C member):     PyWideStringList.   (line   41)
* PyWideStringList.length (C member):    PyWideStringList.   (line   37)
* PyWrapper_New (C function):            Descriptor Objects. (line  128)
* PyWrapperDescr_Type (C var):           Descriptor Objects. (line   99)
* PyZip_Type (C var):                    Builtin Iterator Types.
                                                             (line   28)
* PyZipFile (κλάση σε zipfile):          PyZipFile objects.  (line   10)
* qiflush() (στη μονάδα curses):         Functions<4>.       (line  413)
* QName (κλάση σε xml.etree.ElementTree): QName Objects.     (line    6)
* qsize() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Queue):   Ουρά.               (line   84)
* qsize() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Queue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  110)
* qsize() (μέθοδος της queue.Queue):     Queue Objects.      (line    9)
* qsize() (μέθοδος της queue.SimpleQueue): SimpleQueue Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* quantiles() (μέθοδος της statistics.NormalDist): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line  109)
* quantiles() (στη μονάδα statistics):   Function details.   (line  502)
* quantize() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects. (line  498)
* quantize() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects. (line  488)
* QueryInfoKey() (στη μονάδα winreg):    Functions<12>.      (line  338)
* QueryReflectionKey() (στη μονάδα winreg): Functions<12>.   (line  536)
* QueryValue() (στη μονάδα winreg):      Functions<12>.      (line  367)
* QueryValueEx() (στη μονάδα winreg):    Functions<12>.      (line  387)
* QUESTION (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  196)
* queue (ιδιότητα της sched.scheduler):  Scheduler Objects.  (line   73)
* Queue (κλάση σε asyncio):              Ουρά.               (line    6)
* Queue (κλάση σε concurrent.interpreters): Communicating Between Interpreters.
                                                             (line    6)
* Queue (κλάση σε multiprocessing):      Pipes and Queues.   (line   92)
* Queue (κλάση σε queue):                queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   32)
* Queue() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  198)
* QueueEmpty:                            Εξαιρέσεις<2>.      (line    6)
* QueueEmptyError:                       Communicating Between Interpreters.
                                                             (line   22)
* QueueFull:                             Εξαιρέσεις<2>.      (line   11)
* QueueFullError:                        Communicating Between Interpreters.
                                                             (line   28)
* QueueHandler (κλάση σε logging.handlers): QueueHandler.    (line   21)
* QueueListener (κλάση σε logging.handlers): QueueListener.  (line   24)
* QueueShutDown:                         Εξαιρέσεις<2>.      (line   16)
* quick_ratio() (μέθοδος της difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher objects.
                                                             (line  204)
* quiet (ιδιότητα της sys.flags):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  609)
* quit (pdb command):                    Debugger commands.  (line  438)
* quit (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή):         Constants added by the site module.
                                                             (line   11)
* quit() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):       FTP objects.        (line  359)
* quit() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line   83)
* quit() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP):     SMTP Objects.       (line  344)
* quit() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  123)
* quitting (bdb.Bdb attribute):          bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  351)
* QUOTE_ALL (στη μονάδα csv):            Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  292)
* quote_from_bytes() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse): URL Quoting. (line   53)
* QUOTE_MINIMAL (στη μονάδα csv):        Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  297)
* QUOTE_NONE (στη μονάδα csv):           Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  318)
* QUOTE_NONNUMERIC (στη μονάδα csv):     Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  304)
* QUOTE_NOTNULL (στη μονάδα csv):        Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  332)
* quote_plus() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse): URL Quoting.       (line   42)
* QUOTE_STRINGS (στη μονάδα csv):        Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  345)
* quote() (στη μονάδα email.utils):      email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   45)
* quote() (στη μονάδα shlex):            shlex — Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line   43)
* quote() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse):     URL Quoting.        (line   13)
* quoteattr() (στη μονάδα xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   38)
* quotechar (ιδιότητα της csv.Dialect):  Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης.
                                                             (line   69)
* quoted-printable;encoding:             quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line    8)
* quotes (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex):     shlex Objects.      (line  115)
* quoting (ιδιότητα της csv.Dialect):    Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης.
                                                             (line   81)
* R_OK (στη μονάδα os):                  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  107)
* r';λεκτικό raw συμβολοσειράς:          Λεκτικά bytes.      (line   20)
* r";λεκτικό raw συμβολοσειράς:          Λεκτικά bytes.      (line   19)
* race condition:                        Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1658)
* radians() (στη μονάδα math):           Angular conversion. (line   10)
* radians() (στη μονάδα turtle):         Settings for measurement.
                                                             (line   28)
* radix (ιδιότητα της sys.float_info):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  737)
* radix() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.    (line  503)
* radix() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.    (line  517)
* RADIXCHAR (στη μονάδα locale):         locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  281)
* RAISE (monitoring event):              Events.             (line   82)
* Raise (κλάση σε ast):                  Statements.         (line  112)
* raise_on_defect (ιδιότητα της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  181)
* raise_signal() (στη μονάδα signal):    Module contents<4>. (line  354)
* RAISE_VARARGS (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1059)
* raiseExceptions (στη μονάδα logging):  Module-Level Attributes.
                                                             (line   19)
* RAND_add() (στη μονάδα ssl):           Random generation.  (line   30)
* RAND_bytes() (στη μονάδα ssl):         Random generation.  (line    6)
* RAND_status() (στη μονάδα ssl):        Random generation.  (line   23)
* randbelow() (στη μονάδα secrets):      Random numbers.     (line   19)
* randbits() (στη μονάδα secrets):       Random numbers.     (line   23)
* randbytes() (μέθοδος της random.Random): Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια.
                                                             (line   53)
* randbytes() (στη μονάδα random):       Συναρτήσεις για bytes.
                                                             (line    6)
* randint() (στη μονάδα random):         Συναρτήσεις για ακέραιους.
                                                             (line   34)
* Random (κλάση σε random):              Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια.
                                                             (line    6)
* random command line option; -c:        Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών.
                                                             (line   18)
* random command line option; -choice:   Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών.
                                                             (line   18)
* random command line option; -f:        Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών.
                                                             (line   30)
* random command line option; -float:    Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών.
                                                             (line   30)
* random command line option; -h:        Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών.
                                                             (line   14)
* random command line option; -help:     Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών.
                                                             (line   14)
* random command line option; -i:        Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών.
                                                             (line   24)
* random command line option; -integer:  Χρήση από τη γραμμή εντολών.
                                                             (line   24)
* random() (μέθοδος της random.Random):  Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια.
                                                             (line   38)
* random() (στη μονάδα random):          Πραγματικές κατανομές.
                                                             (line   12)
* randrange() (στη μονάδα random):       Συναρτήσεις για ακέραιους.
                                                             (line    6)
* range (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):            Εύρη Ranges.        (line   10)
* RARROW (στη μονάδα token):             token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  340)
* ratio() (μέθοδος της difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher objects.
                                                             (line  180)
* Rational (κλάση σε numbers):           The numeric tower.  (line   41)
* raw (ιδιότητα της io.BufferedIOBase):  I/O Base Classes.   (line  249)
* raw_data_manager (στη μονάδα email.contentmanager): Content Manager Instances.
                                                             (line   11)
* raw_decode() (μέθοδος της json.JSONDecoder): Encoders and Decoders.
                                                             (line  102)
* raw_input() (μέθοδος της code.InteractiveConsole): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* raw() (μέθοδος της pickle.PickleBuffer): Module Interface. (line  334)
* raw() (στη μονάδα curses):             Functions<4>.       (line  420)
* RawArray() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing.sharedctypes): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line   16)
* RawConfigParser (κλάση σε configparser): RawConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* RawDescriptionHelpFormatter (κλάση σε argparse): formatter_class.
                                                             (line   10)
* RawIOBase (κλάση σε io):               I/O Base Classes.   (line  169)
* RawPen (κλάση σε turtle):              Public classes.     (line    6)
* RawTextHelpFormatter (κλάση σε argparse): formatter_class. (line   10)
* RawTurtle (κλάση σε turtle):           Public classes.     (line    6)
* RawValue() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing.sharedctypes): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line   33)
* RBRACE (στη μονάδα token):             token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  265)
* re (ιδιότητα της re.Match):            Match objects.      (line  204)
* READ (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.     (line   49)
* read_binary() (στη μονάδα importlib.resources): Λειτουργικό API.
                                                             (line   77)
* read_byte() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):   mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  277)
* read_bytes() (μέθοδος της importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  153)
* read_bytes() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   35)
* read_bytes() (μέθοδος της zipfile.Path): Path objects.     (line  110)
* read_dict() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  207)
* read_environ() (στη μονάδα wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  310)
* read_events() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser): XMLPullParser Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* read_file() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  185)
* read_history_file() (στη μονάδα readline): History file.   (line    8)
* read_init_file() (στη μονάδα readline): Init file.         (line   13)
* read_mime_types() (στη μονάδα mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  114)
* READ_RESTRICTED (C macro):             Member flags.       (line   29)
* read_string() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  197)
* read_text() (μέθοδος της importlib.metadata.Distribution): Distributions.
                                                             (line  120)
* read_text() (μέθοδος της importlib.resources.abc.Traversable): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  157)
* read_text() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   18)
* read_text() (μέθοδος της zipfile.Path): Path objects.      (line   98)
* read_text() (στη μονάδα importlib.resources): Λειτουργικό API.
                                                             (line   91)
* read_token() (μέθοδος της shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.     (line   20)
* read_windows_registry() (μέθοδος της mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes objects.
                                                             (line   93)
* read() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamReader): StreamReader.   (line   20)
* read() (μέθοδος της codecs.StreamReader): StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* read() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  148)
* read() (μέθοδος της file):             Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line   23)
* read() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* read() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  281)
* read() (μέθοδος της io.BufferedIOBase): I/O Base Classes.  (line  270)
* read() (μέθοδος της io.BufferedReader): Buffered Streams.  (line   83)
* read() (μέθοδος της io.RawIOBase):     I/O Base Classes.   (line  183)
* read() (μέθοδος της io.Reader):        Static Typing.      (line   18)
* read() (μέθοδος της io.TextIOBase):    Text I/O<2>.        (line   51)
* read() (μέθοδος της mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* read() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):        mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  267)
* read() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Blob):     Blob objects.       (line   45)
* read() (μέθοδος της ssl.MemoryBIO):    Memory BIO support. (line  148)
* read() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket):    SSL sockets.        (line   82)
* read() (μέθοδος της urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   24)
* read() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile):  ZipFile objects.    (line  248)
* read() (στη μονάδα os):                File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  753)
* read1() (μέθοδος της bz2.BZ2File):     De compression of files.
                                                             (line  110)
* read1() (μέθοδος της io.BufferedIOBase): I/O Base Classes. (line  294)
* read1() (μέθοδος της io.BufferedReader): Buffered Streams. (line   88)
* read1() (μέθοδος της io.BytesIO):      Buffered Streams.   (line   46)
* READABLE (στη μονάδα _tkinter):        File Handlers.      (line   41)
* readable() (μέθοδος της bz2.BZ2File):  De compression of files.
                                                             (line   92)
* readable() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):    I/O Base Classes.   (line   77)
* readall() (μέθοδος της io.RawIOBase):  I/O Base Classes.   (line  198)
* readbuffer_encode() (στη μονάδα codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  265)
* Reader (κλάση σε io):                  Static Typing.      (line   10)
* reader() (στη μονάδα csv):             Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line    8)
* ReadError:                             tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  257)
* readexactly() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamReader): StreamReader.
                                                             (line   46)
* readfp() (μέθοδος της mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* readframes() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_read): Wave_read Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* readinto() (μέθοδος της bz2.BZ2File):  De compression of files.
                                                             (line  120)
* readinto() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   17)
* readinto() (μέθοδος της io.BufferedIOBase): I/O Base Classes.
                                                             (line  306)
* readinto() (μέθοδος της io.RawIOBase): I/O Base Classes.   (line  203)
* readinto() (στη μονάδα os):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  775)
* readinto1() (μέθοδος της io.BufferedIOBase): I/O Base Classes.
                                                             (line  319)
* readinto1() (μέθοδος της io.BytesIO):  Buffered Streams.   (line   52)
* readline() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamReader): StreamReader.
                                                             (line   35)
* readline() (μέθοδος της codecs.StreamReader): StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* readline() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.     (line  286)
* readline() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):    I/O Base Classes.   (line   82)
* readline() (μέθοδος της io.TextIOBase): Text I/O<2>.       (line   57)
* readline() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):    mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  282)
* readlines() (μέθοδος της codecs.StreamReader): StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* readlines() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):   I/O Base Classes.   (line   91)
* readlink() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   80)
* readlink() (στη μονάδα os):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  680)
* readmodule_ex() (στη μονάδα pyclbr):   pyclbr — Python module browser support.
                                                             (line   31)
* readmodule() (στη μονάδα pyclbr):      pyclbr — Python module browser support.
                                                             (line   19)
* READONLY (C macro):                    Member flags.       (line   34)
* readonly (ιδιότητα της memoryview):    Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  457)
* ReadOnly (στη μονάδα typing):          Special forms.      (line  275)
* ReadTransport (κλάση σε asyncio):      Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   20)
* readuntil() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamReader): StreamReader.
                                                             (line   55)
* readv() (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  940)
* ready() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  215)
* real (ιδιότητα της numbers.Complex):   The numeric tower.  (line   15)
* Real (κλάση σε numbers):               The numeric tower.  (line   28)
* real_max_memuse (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  166)
* real_quick_ratio() (μέθοδος της difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher objects.
                                                             (line  209)
* realloc (C function):                  Overview<4>.        (line   33)
* realpath() (στη μονάδα os.path):       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  388)
* REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line  103)
* reap_children() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  620)
* reap_threads() (στη μονάδα test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   17)
* reason (ιδιότητα της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* reason (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLError):    Exceptions<17>.     (line   27)
* reason (ιδιότητα της UnicodeError):    Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  467)
* reason (ιδιότητα της urllib.error.HTTPError): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   48)
* reason (ιδιότητα της urllib.error.URLError): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   21)
* reattach() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  237)
* recent() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line  291)
* recipients (ιδιότητα της smtplib.SMTPRecipientsRefused): smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  179)
* reconfigure() (μέθοδος της io.TextIOWrapper): Text I/O<2>. (line  185)
* record_original_stdout() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  329)
* RECORDS (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.  (line   41)
* records (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.      (line  473)
* RECORDS_RO (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.
                                                             (line   43)
* rect() (στη μονάδα cmath):             Conversions to and from polar coordinates.
                                                             (line   44)
* rectangle() (στη μονάδα curses.textpad): curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs.
                                                             (line   15)
* RecursionError:                        Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  263)
* recursive_repr() (στη μονάδα reprlib): reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   61)
* recv_bytes_into() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* recv_bytes() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* recv_fds() (στη μονάδα socket):        Other functions<2>. (line  486)
* recv_into() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.   (line  385)
* recv() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* recv() (μέθοδος της socket.socket):    Socket Objects.     (line  231)
* recvfrom_into() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  375)
* recvfrom() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.    (line  245)
* recvmsg_into() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  336)
* recvmsg() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.     (line  264)
* redirect_request() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* redirect_stderr() (στη μονάδα contextlib): Utilities.      (line  353)
* redirect_stdout() (στη μονάδα contextlib): Utilities.      (line  312)
* redisplay() (στη μονάδα readline):     Line buffer.        (line   19)
* redrawln() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  469)
* redrawwin() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.   (line  475)
* reduce() (στη μονάδα functools):       functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  446)
* reducer_override() (μέθοδος της pickle.Pickler): Module Interface.
                                                             (line  206)
* reentrant:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1693)
* ref (κλάση σε weakref):                weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line   88)
* refcount_test() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  570)
* ReferenceError:                        Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  272)
* ReferenceType (στη μονάδα weakref):    weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  330)
* refold_source (ιδιότητα της email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  404)
* refresh() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line  480)
* REG_BINARY (στη μονάδα winreg):        Value Types.        (line    8)
* REG_DWORD (στη μονάδα winreg):         Value Types.        (line   12)
* REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN (στη μονάδα winreg): Value Types.     (line   21)
* REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (στη μονάδα winreg): Value Types.  (line   16)
* REG_EXPAND_SZ (στη μονάδα winreg):     Value Types.        (line   25)
* REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR (στη μονάδα winreg): Value Types.
                                                             (line   60)
* REG_LINK (στη μονάδα winreg):          Value Types.        (line   30)
* REG_MULTI_SZ (στη μονάδα winreg):      Value Types.        (line   34)
* REG_NONE (στη μονάδα winreg):          Value Types.        (line   39)
* REG_QWORD (στη μονάδα winreg):         Value Types.        (line   43)
* REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (στη μονάδα winreg): Value Types.  (line   49)
* REG_RESOURCE_LIST (στη μονάδα winreg): Value Types.        (line   56)
* REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST (στη μονάδα winreg): Value Types.
                                                             (line   64)
* REG_SZ (στη μονάδα winreg):            Value Types.        (line   68)
* RegexFlag (κλάση σε re):               Flags.              (line    9)
* register_adapter() (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module functions. (line  137)
* register_archive_format() (στη μονάδα shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  100)
* register_at_fork() (στη μονάδα os):    Process Management. (line  561)
* register_callback() (στη μονάδα sys.monitoring): Registering callback functions.
                                                             (line    6)
* register_converter() (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module functions.
                                                             (line  144)
* register_defect() (μέθοδος της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  245)
* register_dialect() (στη μονάδα csv):   Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line   78)
* register_error() (στη μονάδα codecs):  Error Handlers.     (line  101)
* register_function() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* register_function() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer): SimpleXMLRPCServer objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* register_instance() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   26)
* register_instance() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer): SimpleXMLRPCServer objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* register_introspection_functions() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   41)
* register_introspection_functions() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer): SimpleXMLRPCServer objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* register_multicall_functions() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   46)
* register_multicall_functions() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer): SimpleXMLRPCServer objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* register_namespace() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  202)
* register_optionflag() (στη μονάδα doctest): Option Flags.  (line  153)
* register_shape() (στη μονάδα turtle):  Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line   71)
* register_unpack_format() (στη μονάδα shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  175)
* register() (μέθοδος της abc.ABCMeta):  abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line   69)
* register() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Registering custom types or actions.
                                                             (line    6)
* register() (μέθοδος της functools.singledispatch): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  496)
* register() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager): Managers.
                                                             (line   93)
* register() (μέθοδος της select.devpoll): /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* register() (μέθοδος της select.epoll): Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   87)
* register() (μέθοδος της select.poll):  Polling Objects.    (line   15)
* register() (μέθοδος της selectors.BaseSelector): Classes.  (line   65)
* register() (στη μονάδα atexit):        atexit — Exit handlers.
                                                             (line   25)
* register() (στη μονάδα codecs):        codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  167)
* register() (στη μονάδα faulthandler):  Dumping the traceback on a user signal.
                                                             (line    6)
* register() (στη μονάδα webbrowser):    Command-line interface<5>.
                                                             (line   74)
* registerDOMImplementation() (στη μονάδα xml.dom): Module Contents.
                                                             (line    8)
* registerResult() (στη μονάδα unittest): Signal Handling.   (line   35)
* REGTYPE (στη μονάδα tarfile):          tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  331)
* relative_to() (μέθοδος της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  304)
* relative;URL:                          urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* release() (μέθοδος της _thread.lock):  _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  175)
* release() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Condition): Condition.      (line   78)
* release() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Lock):  Lock.               (line   49)
* release() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Semaphore): Semaphore.      (line   54)
* release() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects.  (line   31)
* release() (μέθοδος της memoryview):    Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  256)
* release() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Lock): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  113)
* release() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.RLock): Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  179)
* release() (μέθοδος της pickle.PickleBuffer): Module Interface.
                                                             (line  342)
* release() (μέθοδος της threading.Condition): Condition objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* release() (μέθοδος της threading.Lock): Lock objects.      (line   77)
* release() (μέθοδος της threading.RLock): RLock objects.    (line   97)
* release() (μέθοδος της threading.Semaphore): Semaphore objects.
                                                             (line   65)
* release() (στη μονάδα platform):       Cross Platform.     (line  132)
* releasebufferproc (C type):            Slot Type typedefs. (line  103)
* reload_environ() (στη μονάδα os):      Process Parameters. (line   79)
* reload() (στη μονάδα importlib):       Functions<11>.      (line   57)
* relpath() (στη μονάδα os.path):        os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  453)
* remainder_near() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  514)
* remainder_near() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  523)
* remainder() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  507)
* remainder() (στη μονάδα math):         Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line   91)
* remote_exec() (στη μονάδα sys):        sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2046)
* RemoteDisconnected:                    http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  198)
* remove_done_callback() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Future): Future Object.
                                                             (line  106)
* remove_done_callback() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task): Task object.
                                                             (line  111)
* remove_flag() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.
                                                             (line  142)
* remove_flag() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   84)
* remove_flag() (μέθοδος της mailbox.mboxMessage): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* remove_flag() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MMDFMessage): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   84)
* remove_folder() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* remove_folder() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH): MH objects.      (line   50)
* remove_header() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   99)
* remove_history_item() (στη μονάδα readline): History list. (line   26)
* remove_label() (μέθοδος της mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   59)
* remove_option() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  310)
* remove_option() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Querying and manipulating your option parser.
                                                             (line   47)
* remove_reader() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Watching file descriptors.
                                                             (line   15)
* remove_section() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  317)
* remove_sequence() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MHMessage): MHMessage objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* remove_signal_handler() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Unix signals.
                                                             (line   27)
* remove_writer() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Watching file descriptors.
                                                             (line   32)
* remove() (μέθοδος της array.array):    array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  259)
* remove() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.   (line   97)
* remove() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.   (line   85)
* remove() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH):     MH objects.         (line   79)
* remove() (μέθοδος της sequence):       Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line  116)
* remove() (μέθοδος της set):            Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  214)
* remove() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line  174)
* remove() (στη μονάδα os):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  717)
* removeAttribute() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   52)
* removeAttributeNode() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   57)
* removeAttributeNS() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   62)
* removeChild() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.    (line  128)
* removedirs() (στη μονάδα os):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  741)
* removeFilter() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   57)
* removeFilter() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.
                                                             (line  329)
* removeHandler() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.
                                                             (line  346)
* removeHandler() (στη μονάδα unittest): Signal Handling.    (line   52)
* removeprefix() (μέθοδος της bytearray): Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line   58)
* removeprefix() (μέθοδος της bytes):    Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line   58)
* removeprefix() (μέθοδος της str):      Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  590)
* removeResult() (στη μονάδα unittest):  Signal Handling.    (line   46)
* removesuffix() (μέθοδος της bytearray): Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line   79)
* removesuffix() (μέθοδος της bytes):    Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line   79)
* removesuffix() (μέθοδος της str):      Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  605)
* removexattr() (στη μονάδα os):         Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   45)
* rename() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):     FTP objects.        (line  324)
* rename() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line  296)
* rename() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):   Copying moving and deleting.
                                                             (line   42)
* rename() (στη μονάδα os):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  758)
* renames() (στη μονάδα os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  795)
* reopenIfNeeded() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler): WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   41)
* reorganize() (μέθοδος της dbm.dumb.dumbdbm): dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line   88)
* reorganize() (μέθοδος της dbm.gnu.gdbm): dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line  119)
* reorganize() (μέθοδος της dbm.sqlite3.sqlite3): dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm.
                                                             (line   58)
* reorganize() (μέθοδος της shelve.Shelf): shelve — Python object persistence.
                                                             (line   98)
* repeat() (μέθοδος της timeit.Timer):   Python interface.   (line  122)
* repeat() (στη μονάδα itertools):       Itertool Functions. (line  529)
* repeat() (στη μονάδα timeit):          Python interface.   (line   20)
* REPL:                                  Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1713)
* replace_errors() (στη μονάδα codecs):  Error Handlers.     (line  154)
* replace_header() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  301)
* replace_header() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  410)
* replace_history_item() (στη μονάδα readline): History list.
                                                             (line   32)
* replace_whitespace (ιδιότητα της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  197)
* replace;error handler's name:          Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* replace() (μέθοδος της bytearray):     Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  218)
* replace() (μέθοδος της bytes):         Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  218)
* replace() (μέθοδος της codeobject):    Μέθοδοι σε αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   90)
* replace() (μέθοδος της curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects. (line   39)
* replace() (μέθοδος της datetime.date): date objects.       (line  226)
* replace() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  469)
* replace() (μέθοδος της datetime.time): time objects.       (line  166)
* replace() (μέθοδος της inspect.Parameter): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  321)
* replace() (μέθοδος της inspect.Signature): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  146)
* replace() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):  Copying moving and deleting.
                                                             (line   70)
* replace() (μέθοδος της str):           Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  620)
* replace() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.  (line  166)
* replace() (στη μονάδα copy):           copy — Shallow and deep copy operations.
                                                             (line   26)
* replace() (στη μονάδα dataclasses):    Module contents<6>. (line  448)
* replace() (στη μονάδα os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  813)
* replaceChild() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Node): Node Objects.   (line  135)
* ReplacePackage() (στη μονάδα modulefinder): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   21)
* REPORT_CDIFF (στη μονάδα doctest):     Option Flags.       (line  113)
* REPORT_ERRMODE (στη μονάδα msvcrt):    Other Functions.    (line   35)
* report_failure() (μέθοδος της doctest.DocTestRunner): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line   88)
* report_full_closure() (μέθοδος της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   32)
* REPORT_NDIFF (στη μονάδα doctest):     Option Flags.       (line  118)
* REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE (στη μονάδα doctest): Option Flags.
                                                             (line  127)
* report_partial_closure() (μέθοδος της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   27)
* report_skip() (μέθοδος της doctest.DocTestRunner): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* report_start() (μέθοδος της doctest.DocTestRunner): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* report_success() (μέθοδος της doctest.DocTestRunner): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line   77)
* REPORT_UDIFF (στη μονάδα doctest):     Option Flags.       (line  108)
* report_unexpected_exception() (μέθοδος της doctest.DocTestRunner): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line   99)
* report() (μέθοδος της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class.   (line   22)
* report() (μέθοδος της modulefinder.ModuleFinder): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   38)
* REPORTING_FLAGS (στη μονάδα doctest):  Option Flags.       (line  146)
* Repr (κλάση σε reprlib):               reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   17)
* repr() (ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση);__repr__() (μέθοδος αντικειμένου): Βασική προσαρμογή.
                                                             (line  126)
* repr() (μέθοδος της reprlib.Repr):     Repr Objects.       (line  107)
* repr() (στη μονάδα reprlib):           reprlib — Alternate repr implementation.
                                                             (line   51)
* repr1() (μέθοδος της reprlib.Repr):    Repr Objects.       (line  112)
* ReprEnum (κλάση σε enum):              Data types.         (line  636)
* reprfunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line   40)
* request (ιδιότητα της socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* Request (κλάση σε urllib.request):     urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  230)
* request_queue_size (ιδιότητα της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  101)
* request_rate() (μέθοδος της urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   59)
* request_uri() (στη μονάδα wsgiref.util): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   27)
* request_version (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  150)
* request() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPConnection): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* RequestHandlerClass (ιδιότητα της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   74)
* requestline (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  132)
* Required (στη μονάδα typing):          Special forms.      (line  256)
* requires (ιδιότητα της importlib.metadata.Distribution): Distributions.
                                                             (line   78)
* requires_bz2() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  529)
* requires_docstrings() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  541)
* requires_freebsd_version() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  497)
* requires_gil_enabled() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  512)
* requires_gzip() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  525)
* requires_IEEE_754() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  517)
* requires_limited_api() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  545)
* requires_linux_version() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  502)
* requires_lzma() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  533)
* requires_mac_version() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  507)
* requires_resource() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  537)
* requires_zlib() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  521)
* requires() (στη μονάδα importlib.metadata): Distribution requirements.
                                                             (line    6)
* requires() (στη μονάδα test.support):  test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  280)
* RERAISE (monitoring event):            Events.             (line   87)
* RERAISE (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  443)
* reschedule() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Timeout): Timeouts.      (line   72)
* reserved (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.  (line  126)
* RESERVED_FUTURE (στη μονάδα uuid):     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  309)
* RESERVED_MICROSOFT (στη μονάδα uuid):  uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  305)
* RESERVED_NCS (στη μονάδα uuid):        uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  295)
* reset_mock() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.AsyncMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  891)
* reset_mock() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  200)
* reset_peak() (στη μονάδα tracemalloc): Functions<9>.       (line   37)
* reset_prog_mode() (στη μονάδα curses): Functions<4>.       (line  426)
* reset_shell_mode() (στη μονάδα curses): Functions<4>.      (line  431)
* reset_tzpath() (στη μονάδα zoneinfo):  Functions<2>.       (line   27)
* reset() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Barrier): Barrier.            (line   77)
* reset() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):         bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  179)
* reset() (μέθοδος της codecs.IncrementalDecoder): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* reset() (μέθοδος της codecs.IncrementalEncoder): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* reset() (μέθοδος της codecs.StreamReader): StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* reset() (μέθοδος της codecs.StreamWriter): StreamWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* reset() (μέθοδος της contextvars.ContextVar): Context Variables.
                                                             (line   84)
* reset() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line   23)
* reset() (μέθοδος της threading.Barrier): Barrier objects.  (line   70)
* reset() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream): DOMEventStream Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* reset() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser): IncrementalParser Objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* reset() (στη μονάδα turtle):           More drawing control.
                                                             (line    6)
* resetbuffer() (μέθοδος της code.InteractiveConsole): Interactive Console Objects.
                                                             (line   41)
* resetscreen() (στη μονάδα turtle):     Window control.     (line   86)
* resetty() (στη μονάδα curses):         Functions<4>.       (line  436)
* resetwarnings() (στη μονάδα warnings): Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες.
                                                             (line  159)
* resize_term() (στη μονάδα curses):     Functions<4>.       (line  441)
* resize() (μέθοδος της bytearray):      Αντικείμενα Bytearray.
                                                             (line   78)
* resize() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line  499)
* resize() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):      mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  288)
* resize() (στη μονάδα ctypes):          Utility functions.  (line  213)
* resizemode() (στη μονάδα turtle):      Appearance.         (line   24)
* resizeterm() (στη μονάδα curses):      Functions<4>.       (line  451)
* resolution (ιδιότητα της datetime.date): date objects.     (line  141)
* resolution (ιδιότητα της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  304)
* resolution (ιδιότητα της datetime.time): time objects.     (line   42)
* resolution (ιδιότητα της datetime.timedelta): timedelta objects.
                                                             (line  104)
* resolve_bases() (στη μονάδα types):    Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων.
                                                             (line   63)
* resolve_name() (στη μονάδα importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   76)
* resolve_name() (στη μονάδα pkgutil):   pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  195)
* resolve() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):  Expanding and resolving paths.
                                                             (line   49)
* resolveEntity() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver): EntityResolver Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line    6)
* resource_path() (μέθοδος της importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   55)
* ResourceDenied:                        test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   22)
* ResourceLoader (κλάση σε importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  175)
* ResourceReader (κλάση σε importlib.resources.abc): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   12)
* ResourceWarning:                       Warnings.           (line   85)
* response() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.     (line  300)
* ResponseNotReady:                      http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  184)
* responses (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  225)
* responses (στη μονάδα http.client):    http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  219)
* restart (pdb command):                 Debugger commands.  (line  425)
* restart_events() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  428)
* restart_events() (στη μονάδα sys.monitoring): Disabling events.
                                                             (line   26)
* restore() (μέθοδος της test.support.SaveSignals): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  812)
* restore() (στη μονάδα difflib):        difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  269)
* RESTRICTED (C macro):                  Member flags.       (line   29)
* restype (ιδιότητα της ctypes._CFuncPtr): Foreign functions.
                                                             (line   32)
* result() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Future): Future Object.      (line   32)
* result() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task):   Task object.        (line   73)
* result() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* results() (μέθοδος της trace.Trace):   Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή.
                                                             (line   44)
* RESUME (opcode):                       Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1269)
* resume_reading() (μέθοδος της asyncio.ReadTransport): Read-only Transports.
                                                             (line   21)
* resume_writing() (μέθοδος της asyncio.BaseProtocol): Base Protocol.
                                                             (line   44)
* retr() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line   63)
* retrbinary() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP): FTP objects.        (line  174)
* retrlines() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):  FTP objects.        (line  199)
* RETRY (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  149)
* RETRYCANCEL (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  176)
* return (pdb command):                  Debugger commands.  (line  231)
* Return (κλάση σε ast):                 Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  114)
* return_annotation (ιδιότητα της inspect.Signature): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  125)
* RETURN_GENERATOR (opcode):             Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1294)
* return_ok() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* RETURN_VALUE (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  410)
* return_value (ιδιότητα της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  342)
* returncode (ιδιότητα της asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  147)
* returncode (ιδιότητα της subprocess.CalledProcessError): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  211)
* returncode (ιδιότητα της subprocess.CompletedProcess): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  110)
* returncode (ιδιότητα της subprocess.Popen): Popen Objects. (line  171)
* retval (pdb command):                  Debugger commands.  (line  458)
* reveal_type() (στη μονάδα typing):     Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line   82)
* reverse_order() (μέθοδος της pstats.Stats): The Stats class.
                                                             (line  126)
* reverse_pointer (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line   81)
* reverse_pointer (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  273)
* reverse() (μέθοδος της array.array):   array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  269)
* reverse() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.  (line  102)
* reverse() (μέθοδος της sequence):      Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line  124)
* Reversible (κλάση σε collections.abc): Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line   49)
* Reversible (κλάση σε typing):          Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   60)
* revert() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  142)
* rewind() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_read): Wave_read Objects.  (line   65)
* RFC_4122 (στη μονάδα uuid):            uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  299)
* RFC; RFC 1123:                         Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  818)
* RFC; RFC 1123 <1>:                     Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  833)
* RFC; RFC 1123 <2>:                     Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  852)
* RFC; RFC 1321:                         hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 1422:                         Certificates.       (line   38)
* RFC; RFC 1422 <1>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   45)
* RFC; RFC 1494:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   39)
* RFC; RFC 1521:                         Security Considerations<2>.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 1521 <1>:                     quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 1521 <2>:                     quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 1522:                         binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  292)
* RFC; RFC 1522 <1>:                     quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 1522 <2>:                     quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data.
                                                             (line   39)
* RFC; RFC 1730:                         imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 1738:                         URL Parsing.        (line  301)
* RFC; RFC 1738 <1>:                     URL Quoting.        (line  191)
* RFC; RFC 1750:                         Random generation.  (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 1808:                         urllib<4>.          (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <1>:                     urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <2>:                     URL Parsing.        (line   52)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <3>:                     URL Parsing.        (line  301)
* RFC; RFC 1808 <4>:                     URL Quoting.        (line  185)
* RFC; RFC 1869:                         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 1869 <1>:                     smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  217)
* RFC; RFC 1870:                         smtpd<4>.           (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 1939:                         poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 1939 <1>:                     poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 2033:                         New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  568)
* RFC; RFC 2045:                         email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <1>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  316)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <2>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  317)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <3>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  321)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <4>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  238)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <5>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  299)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <6>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  423)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <7>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  427)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <8>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  430)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <9>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  527)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <10>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <11>:                    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <12>:                    base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <13>:                    Legacy Interface.   (line   29)
* RFC; RFC 2045 <14>:                    Legacy Interface.   (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 2045 Section 6.8:             Binary Objects.     (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2046:                         email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2046 <1>:                     Content Manager Instances.
                                                             (line   93)
* RFC; RFC 2046 <2>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 2047:                         PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <1>:                     email<8>.           (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <2>:                     Library<2>.         (line  445)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <3>:                     Library<2>.         (line  454)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <4>:                     Library<4>.         (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <5>:                     email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <6>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  363)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <7>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  369)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <8>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  382)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <9>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  390)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <10>:                    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  401)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <11>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <12>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  123)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <13>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  128)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <14>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <15>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   54)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <16>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  116)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <17>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  140)
* RFC; RFC 2047 <18>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   78)
* RFC; RFC 2060:                         imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 2060 <1>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line  399)
* RFC; RFC 2068:                         http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2104:                         hmac.               (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 2104 <1>:                     New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 2104 <2>:                     Library<34>.        (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 2104 <3>:                     hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 2109:                         http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <1>:                     http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <2>:                     http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   66)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <3>:                     Morsel Objects.     (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <4>:                     Morsel Objects.     (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <5>:                     Morsel Objects.     (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <6>:                     Morsel Objects.     (line  127)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <7>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <8>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  101)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <9>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  113)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <10>:                    http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  139)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <11>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <12>:                    Cookie Objects<2>.  (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <13>:                    Cookie Objects<2>.  (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 2109 <14>:                    Cookie Objects<2>.  (line   73)
* RFC; RFC 2177:                         imaplib.            (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 2177 <1>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line  129)
* RFC; RFC 2183:                         email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2183 <1>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  460)
* RFC; RFC 2183 <2>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  634)
* RFC; RFC 2231:                         Library<15>.        (line  906)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <1>:                     Library<60>.        (line  135)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <2>:                     email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <3>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  280)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <4>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  283)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <5>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  365)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <6>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  386)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <7>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  390)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <8>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  492)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <9>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  500)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <10>:                    email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  534)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <11>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <12>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  188)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <13>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  193)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <14>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  202)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <15>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  208)
* RFC; RFC 2231 <16>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  217)
* RFC; RFC 2295:                         HTTP status codes.  (line  184)
* RFC; RFC 2324:                         HTTP status codes.  (line  133)
* RFC; RFC 2342:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 2342 <1>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line  246)
* RFC; RFC 2361:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   57)
* RFC; RFC 2368:                         URL Quoting.        (line  181)
* RFC; RFC 2373:                         Address objects.    (line   99)
* RFC; RFC 2373 <1>:                     Address objects.    (line  165)
* RFC; RFC 2373 <2>:                     Address objects.    (line  185)
* RFC; RFC 2396:                         urllib parse<6>.    (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <1>:                     urllib<4>.          (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <2>:                     URL Quoting.        (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 2396 <3>:                     URL Quoting.        (line  176)
* RFC; RFC 2397:                         DataHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 2449:                         POP3 Objects.       (line   26)
* RFC; RFC 2487:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 2518:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 2595:                         poplib — POP3 protocol client.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 2595 <1>:                     POP3 Objects.       (line  116)
* RFC; RFC 2616:                         PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <1>:                     wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <2>:                     wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <3>:                     HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <4>:                     HTTPRedirectHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <5>:                     urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   43)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <6>:                     Introduction<15>.   (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <7>:                     HTTPError.          (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 2616 <8>:                     Error Codes.        (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 14.23:           HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 5.1.2:           HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 2616 Section 5.1.2 <1>:       HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 2640:                         Changes in the Python API<5>.
                                                             (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <1>:                     Tests<49>.          (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <2>:                     ftplib — FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <3>:                     FTP objects.        (line   63)
* RFC; RFC 2640 <4>:                     FTP_TLS objects.    (line   64)
* RFC; RFC 2732:                         urllib parse<7>.    (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 2732 <1>:                     New and Improved Modules.
                                                             (line  642)
* RFC; RFC 2732 <2>:                     URL Quoting.        (line  172)
* RFC; RFC 2774:                         HTTP status codes.  (line  193)
* RFC; RFC 2818:                         ssl<14>.            (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2821:                         email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 2822:                         New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <1>:                     Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  820)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <2>:                     Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  835)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <3>:                     Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  854)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <4>:                     email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  276)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <5>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <6>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   23)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <7>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <8>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   87)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <9>:                     email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <10>:                    email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line  133)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <11>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   29)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <12>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  109)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <13>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  112)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <14>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  235)
* RFC; RFC 2822 <15>:                    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line  154)
* RFC; RFC 2964:                         http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  152)
* RFC; RFC 2965:                         urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  275)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <1>:                     urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  283)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <2>:                     Request Objects.    (line   50)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <3>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <4>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  101)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <5>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  113)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <6>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  141)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <7>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  143)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <8>:                     http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients.
                                                             (line  150)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <9>:                     FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <10>:                    CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <11>:                    CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <12>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <13>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <14>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  101)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <15>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <16>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  114)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <17>:                    DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  151)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <18>:                    Cookie Objects<2>.  (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 2965 <19>:                    Examples<26>.       (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 3056:                         Address objects.    (line  320)
* RFC; RFC 3164:                         Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support.
                                                             (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3171:                         Address objects.    (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 3207:                         New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  573)
* RFC; RFC 3229:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   52)
* RFC; RFC 3280:                         SSL sockets.        (line  165)
* RFC; RFC 3330:                         Address objects.    (line  184)
* RFC; RFC 3339:                         Displaying the date/time in messages.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 3362:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   41)
* RFC; RFC 3454:                         Security<25>.       (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 3454 <1>:                     stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 3454 <2>:                     stringprep — Internet String Preparation.
                                                             (line   26)
* RFC; RFC 3490:                         Text Encodings.     (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <1>:                     encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <2>:                     encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   56)
* RFC; RFC 3490 <3>:                     encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   61)
* RFC; RFC 3490 Section 3.1:             encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 3491:                         Security<25>.       (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 3492:                         Text Encodings.     (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 3492 <1>:                     encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3493:                         Example<7>.         (line  227)
* RFC; RFC 3501:                         IMAP4 Objects.      (line  410)
* RFC; RFC 3542:                         Library<167>.       (line  350)
* RFC; RFC 3542 <1>:                     Other functions<2>. (line  349)
* RFC; RFC 3548:                         New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 3596 Section 2.5:             Library<51>.        (line  340)
* RFC; RFC 3659:                         FTP objects.        (line  288)
* RFC; RFC 3745:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   43)
* RFC; RFC 3879:                         Address objects.    (line  180)
* RFC; RFC 3879 <1>:                     Address objects.    (line  298)
* RFC; RFC 3927:                         Address objects.    (line  189)
* RFC; RFC 3950:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   46)
* RFC; RFC 3986:                         urllib parse<2>.    (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <1>:                     urllib parse<4>.    (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <2>:                     urllib parse<5>.    (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <3>:                     urllib parse<6>.    (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <4>:                     urllib<4>.          (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <5>:                     New and Improved Modules.
                                                             (line  621)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <6>:                     Porting to Python 2 7.
                                                             (line   80)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <7>:                     Library<47>.        (line  197)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <8>:                     urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line   35)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <9>:                     URL Parsing.        (line  132)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <10>:                    URL Parsing.        (line  158)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <11>:                    URL Parsing.        (line  304)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <12>:                    URL Parsing.        (line  365)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <13>:                    URL parsing security.
                                                             (line   26)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <14>:                    URL Quoting.        (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <15>:                    URL Quoting.        (line  164)
* RFC; RFC 3986 <16>:                    http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  147)
* RFC; RFC 4007:                         Address objects.    (line  241)
* RFC; RFC 4007 <1>:                     Address objects.    (line  312)
* RFC; RFC 4047:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   49)
* RFC; RFC 4086:                         TLS 1 3.            (line   49)
* RFC; RFC 4122:                         New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  415)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <1>:                     New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  420)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <2>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <3>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  182)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <4>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  301)
* RFC; RFC 4122 <5>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  302)
* RFC; RFC 4180:                         csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 4193:                         Address objects.    (line  300)
* RFC; RFC 4217:                         FTP_TLS objects.    (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 4291:                         Library<69>.        (line 1074)
* RFC; RFC 4291 <1>:                     Library<121>.       (line  653)
* RFC; RFC 4291 <2>:                     Address objects.    (line  195)
* RFC; RFC 4291 <3>:                     Address objects.    (line  235)
* RFC; RFC 4291 <4>:                     Address objects.    (line  306)
* RFC; RFC 4337:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   60)
* RFC; RFC 4380:                         Address objects.    (line  327)
* RFC; RFC 4627:                         json — JSON encoder and decoder.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 4627 <1>:                     Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4648:                         Library<3>.         (line  247)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <1>:                     Documentation<36>.  (line   32)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <2>:                     base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <3>:                     base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <4>:                     RFC 4648 Encodings. (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <5>:                     RFC 4648 Encodings. (line  145)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <6>:                     RFC 4648 Encodings. (line  176)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <7>:                     RFC 4648 Encodings. (line  187)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <8>:                     Security Considerations<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <9>:                     binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   74)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <10>:                    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   85)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <11>:                    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line   97)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <12>:                    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  225)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <13>:                    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  233)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <14>:                    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  250)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <15>:                    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  260)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <16>:                    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  380)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <17>:                    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  386)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <18>:                    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  431)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <19>:                    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  437)
* RFC; RFC 4648 <20>:                    Security Considerations<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 4918:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   46)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <1>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  142)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <2>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  145)
* RFC; RFC 4918 <3>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  187)
* RFC; RFC 4954:                         SMTP Objects.       (line  137)
* RFC; RFC 4954 <1>:                     SMTP Objects.       (line  160)
* RFC; RFC 5161:                         imaplib<3>.         (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5161 <1>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 5246:                         Constants<9>.       (line  527)
* RFC; RFC 5246 <1>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   57)
* RFC; RFC 5280:                         ssl<3>.             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <1>:                     Other Changes.      (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <2>:                     Changes in the Python API<10>.
                                                             (line   96)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <3>:                     Context creation.   (line   40)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <4>:                     Context creation.   (line   65)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <5>:                     Certificate handling.
                                                             (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 5280 <6>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   53)
* RFC; RFC 5321:                         smtpd<4>.           (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5321 <1>:                     email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  455)
* RFC; RFC 5322:                         Library<2>.         (line  466)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <1>:                     Batteries included. (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <2>:                     Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  821)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <3>:                     Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  836)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <4>:                     Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  508)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <5>:                     Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  855)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <6>:                     email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <7>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <8>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <9>:                     Parser API.         (line   41)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <10>:                    email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  101)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <11>:                    email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  192)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <12>:                    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  149)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <13>:                    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  342)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <14>:                    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  363)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <15>:                    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  369)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <16>:                    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  381)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <17>:                    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  431)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <18>:                    email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line   30)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <19>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <20>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <21>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  122)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <22>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  123)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <23>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  138)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <24>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  158)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <25>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  418)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <26>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  452)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <27>:                    email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  486)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <28>:                    email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <29>:                    Message objects.    (line   17)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <30>:                    http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  125)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <31>:                    SMTP Objects.       (line  317)
* RFC; RFC 5322 <32>:                    http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  162)
* RFC; RFC 5322 Section 2.2:             Library<33>.        (line  171)
* RFC; RFC 5334:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   62)
* RFC; RFC 5424:                         SysLogHandler.      (line   77)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <1>:                     Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <2>:                     Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <3>:                     Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* RFC; RFC 5424 <4>:                     Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 5424 Section 6:               Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 5735:                         Address objects.    (line  164)
* RFC; RFC 5789:                         HTTP methods.       (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 5842:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   49)
* RFC; RFC 5842 <1>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  190)
* RFC; RFC 5891:                         encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5894:                         Security<25>.       (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 5895:                         encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   11)
* RFC; RFC 5929:                         SSL sockets.        (line  299)
* RFC; RFC 6066:                         Constants<9>.       (line  408)
* RFC; RFC 6066 <1>:                     SSL contexts.       (line  365)
* RFC; RFC 6066 <2>:                     TLS 1 3.            (line   61)
* RFC; RFC 6152:                         smtpd<2>.           (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 6531:                         email<5>.           (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <1>:                     smtpd<2>.           (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <2>:                     smtplib<2>.         (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <3>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  103)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <4>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  386)
* RFC; RFC 6531 <5>:                     smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   76)
* RFC; RFC 6532:                         email<5>.           (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <1>:                     email — An email and MIME handling package.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <2>:                     email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line   20)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <3>:                     Parser API.         (line   42)
* RFC; RFC 6532 <4>:                     email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  383)
* RFC; RFC 6585:                         HTTP status codes.  (line  154)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <1>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  157)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <2>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  160)
* RFC; RFC 6585 <3>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line  196)
* RFC; RFC 6713:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   64)
* RFC; RFC 6855:                         imaplib<3>.         (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <1>:                     imaplib<3>.         (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <2>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line   88)
* RFC; RFC 6855 <3>:                     IMAP4 Objects.      (line   90)
* RFC; RFC 6856:                         poplib<2>.          (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 6856 <1>:                     POP3 Objects.       (line  109)
* RFC; RFC 7159:                         json — JSON encoder and decoder.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 7159 <1>:                     Standard Compliance and Interoperability.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 7159 <2>:                     Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values.
                                                             (line    9)
* RFC; RFC 7230:                         urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  245)
* RFC; RFC 7230 <1>:                     HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  205)
* RFC; RFC 7301:                         Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support.
                                                             (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 7301 <1>:                     Constants<9>.       (line  385)
* RFC; RFC 7301 <2>:                     SSL contexts.       (line  333)
* RFC; RFC 7525:                         TLS 1 3.            (line   69)
* RFC; RFC 7538:                         Library<111>.       (line  171)
* RFC; RFC 7616:                         urllib.             (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 7616 <1>:                     Library<43>.        (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 7693:                         BLAKE2.             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 7725:                         HTTP status codes.  (line  163)
* RFC; RFC 7903:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   51)
* RFC; RFC 7914:                         Key derivation.     (line   53)
* RFC; RFC 8081:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 8089:                         Parsing and generating URIs.
                                                             (line    7)
* RFC; RFC 8089 Section 3:               urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  182)
* RFC; RFC 821:                          smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 821 <1>:                      smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  212)
* RFC; RFC 822:                          New and Improved Modules<3>.
                                                             (line   98)
* RFC; RFC 822 <1>:                      Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  813)
* RFC; RFC 822 <2>:                      Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  816)
* RFC; RFC 822 <3>:                      Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  828)
* RFC; RFC 822 <4>:                      Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  831)
* RFC; RFC 822 <5>:                      Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  847)
* RFC; RFC 822 <6>:                      Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  850)
* RFC; RFC 822 <7>:                      email Examples.     (line   36)
* RFC; RFC 822 <8>:                      email header Internationalized headers.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 822 <9>:                      HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  192)
* RFC; RFC 822 <10>:                     SMTP Objects.       (line   97)
* RFC; RFC 822 <11>:                     SMTP Objects.       (line  231)
* RFC; RFC 822 <12>:                     SMTP Objects.       (line  232)
* RFC; RFC 822 <13>:                     SMTP Example.       (line   10)
* RFC; RFC 822 <14>:                     The GNUTranslations class.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 8297:                         HTTP status codes.  (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 8305:                         Opening network connections.
                                                             (line   77)
* RFC; RFC 8305 <1>:                     Opening network connections.
                                                             (line   86)
* RFC; RFC 8470:                         HTTP status codes.  (line  148)
* RFC; RFC 850:                          Library<45>.        (line  212)
* RFC; RFC 9110:                         Library<45>.        (line  212)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <1>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <2>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <3>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <4>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <5>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <6>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <7>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   37)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <8>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   40)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <9>:                     HTTP status codes.  (line   43)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <10>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   55)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <11>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   58)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <12>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   61)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <13>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   64)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <14>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   67)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <15>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   70)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <16>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   73)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <17>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   76)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <18>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   79)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <19>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   82)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <20>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   85)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <21>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   88)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <22>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   91)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <23>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   94)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <24>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line   97)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <25>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  100)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <26>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  103)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <27>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  106)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <28>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  109)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <29>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  112)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <30>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  115)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <31>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  118)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <32>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  121)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <33>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  124)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <34>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  127)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <35>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  130)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <36>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  136)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <37>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  139)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <38>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  151)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <39>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  166)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <40>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  169)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <41>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  172)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <42>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  175)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <43>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  178)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <44>:                    HTTP status codes.  (line  181)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <45>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <46>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   18)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <47>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   21)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <48>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   24)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <49>:                    HTTP status category.
                                                             (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <50>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <51>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   16)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <52>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   19)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <53>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   22)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <54>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   25)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <55>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   28)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <56>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   31)
* RFC; RFC 9110 <57>:                    HTTP methods.       (line   34)
* RFC; RFC 9239:                         Library<92>.        (line   74)
* RFC; RFC 9258:                         ssl.                (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 9258 <1>:                     Constants<9>.       (line  473)
* RFC; RFC 9309:                         Library<2>.         (line  157)
* RFC; RFC 9309 <1>:                     urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   13)
* RFC; RFC 9512:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   68)
* RFC; RFC 9512 <1>:                     Library<29>.        (line  273)
* RFC; RFC 9559:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   27)
* RFC; RFC 9559 <1>:                     Library<47>.        (line  105)
* RFC; RFC 9562:                         uuid.               (line    8)
* RFC; RFC 9562 <1>:                     uuid.               (line   12)
* RFC; RFC 9562 <2>:                     Library<35>.        (line  256)
* RFC; RFC 9562 <3>:                     Library<35>.        (line  259)
* RFC; RFC 9562 <4>:                     Library<38>.        (line  174)
* RFC; RFC 9562 <5>:                     Library<47>.        (line  373)
* RFC; RFC 9562 <6>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line    6)
* RFC; RFC 9562 <7>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line   14)
* RFC; RFC 9562 <8>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line   75)
* RFC; RFC 9562 <9>:                     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  151)
* RFC; RFC 9562 <10>:                    uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  303)
* RFC; RFC 9562 <11>:                    uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  332)
* RFC; RFC 9562 Section 5.1:             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  197)
* RFC; RFC 9562 Section 5.10:            uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  325)
* RFC; RFC 9562 Section 5.3:             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  211)
* RFC; RFC 9562 Section 5.4:             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  217)
* RFC; RFC 9562 Section 5.5:             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  223)
* RFC; RFC 9562 Section 5.6:             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  229)
* RFC; RFC 9562 Section 5.7:             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  246)
* RFC; RFC 9562 Section 5.8:             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  256)
* RFC; RFC 9562 Section 5.9:             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  318)
* RFC; RFC 9562 Section 6.10-3:          Library<15>.        (line  792)
* RFC; RFC 959:                          ftplib — FTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   15)
* RFC; RFC 9639:                         mimetypes<2>.       (line   66)
* rfc2109 (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   71)
* rfc2109_as_netscape (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   83)
* rfc2965 (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* rfile (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  164)
* rfile (ιδιότητα της socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* rfind() (μέθοδος της bytearray):       Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  236)
* rfind() (μέθοδος της bytes):           Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  236)
* rfind() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):       mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  310)
* rfind() (μέθοδος της str):             Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  635)
* rgb_to_hls() (στη μονάδα colorsys):    colorsys — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων.
                                                             (line   36)
* rgb_to_hsv() (στη μονάδα colorsys):    colorsys — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων.
                                                             (line   44)
* rgb_to_yiq() (στη μονάδα colorsys):    colorsys — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων.
                                                             (line   28)
* rglob() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):    Reading directories.
                                                             (line   86)
* richcmpfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   82)
* right (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp):   The dircmp class.   (line   49)
* right_list (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   58)
* right_only (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   71)
* right() (στη μονάδα turtle):           Turtle motion.      (line   40)
* RIGHTSHIFT (στη μονάδα token):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  289)
* RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL (στη μονάδα token):    token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  322)
* rindex() (μέθοδος της bytearray):      Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  252)
* rindex() (μέθοδος της bytes):          Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  252)
* rindex() (μέθοδος της str):            Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  649)
* rjust() (μέθοδος της bytearray):       Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  376)
* rjust() (μέθοδος της bytes):           Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  376)
* rjust() (μέθοδος της str):             Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  665)
* RLIM_INFINITY (στη μονάδα resource):   Resource Limits.    (line   20)
* RLIM_SAVED_CUR (στη μονάδα resource):  Resource Limits.    (line   27)
* RLIM_SAVED_MAX (στη μονάδα resource):  Resource Limits.    (line   29)
* RLIMIT_AS (στη μονάδα resource):       Resource Limits.    (line  161)
* RLIMIT_CORE (στη μονάδα resource):     Resource Limits.    (line  103)
* RLIMIT_CPU (στη μονάδα resource):      Resource Limits.    (line  110)
* RLIMIT_DATA (στη μονάδα resource):     Resource Limits.    (line  122)
* RLIMIT_FSIZE (στη μονάδα resource):    Resource Limits.    (line  118)
* RLIMIT_KQUEUES (στη μονάδα resource):  Resource Limits.    (line  237)
* RLIMIT_MEMLOCK (στη μονάδα resource):  Resource Limits.    (line  150)
* RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE (στη μονάδα resource): Resource Limits.    (line  166)
* RLIMIT_NICE (στη μονάδα resource):     Resource Limits.    (line  174)
* RLIMIT_NOFILE (στη μονάδα resource):   Resource Limits.    (line  141)
* RLIMIT_NPROC (στη μονάδα resource):    Resource Limits.    (line  137)
* RLIMIT_NPTS (στη μονάδα resource):     Resource Limits.    (line  229)
* RLIMIT_NTHR (στη μονάδα resource):     Resource Limits.    (line  245)
* RLIMIT_OFILE (στη μονάδα resource):    Resource Limits.    (line  146)
* RLIMIT_PIPEBUF (στη μονάδα resource):  Resource Limits.    (line  254)
* RLIMIT_RSS (στη μονάδα resource):      Resource Limits.    (line  132)
* RLIMIT_RTPRIO (στη μονάδα resource):   Resource Limits.    (line  183)
* RLIMIT_RTTIME (στη μονάδα resource):   Resource Limits.    (line  191)
* RLIMIT_SBSIZE (στη μονάδα resource):   Resource Limits.    (line  208)
* RLIMIT_SIGPENDING (στη μονάδα resource): Resource Limits.  (line  200)
* RLIMIT_STACK (στη μονάδα resource):    Resource Limits.    (line  126)
* RLIMIT_SWAP (στη μονάδα resource):     Resource Limits.    (line  218)
* RLIMIT_THREADS (στη μονάδα resource):  Resource Limits.    (line  263)
* RLIMIT_UMTXP (στη μονάδα resource):    Resource Limits.    (line  271)
* RLIMIT_VMEM (στη μονάδα resource):     Resource Limits.    (line  154)
* RLock (κλάση σε multiprocessing):      Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  130)
* RLock (κλάση σε threading):            RLock objects.      (line   32)
* RLock() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  203)
* rmd() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):        FTP objects.        (line  347)
* rmdir() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):    Copying moving and deleting.
                                                             (line  122)
* rmdir() (στη μονάδα os):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  835)
* rmdir() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  113)
* rmtree() (στη μονάδα shutil):          Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  276)
* rmtree() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  120)
* RobotFileParser (κλάση σε urllib.robotparser): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   15)
* robots.txt:                            urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    8)
* rollback() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* rollover() (μέθοδος της tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  162)
* ROMAN (στη μονάδα tkinter.font):       tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper.
                                                             (line   15)
* root (ιδιότητα της pathlib.PurePath):  Methods and properties.
                                                             (line   31)
* rotate() (μέθοδος της collections.deque): deque objects.   (line  109)
* rotate() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.   (line  520)
* rotate() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.   (line  542)
* rotate() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   74)
* RotatingFileHandler (κλάση σε logging.handlers): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line    9)
* rotation_filename() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   57)
* rotator (ιδιότητα της logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler): BaseRotatingHandler.
                                                             (line   49)
* ROUND_05UP (στη μονάδα decimal):       Rounding modes.     (line   34)
* ROUND_CEILING (στη μονάδα decimal):    Rounding modes.     (line    6)
* ROUND_DOWN (στη μονάδα decimal):       Rounding modes.     (line   10)
* ROUND_FLOOR (στη μονάδα decimal):      Rounding modes.     (line   14)
* ROUND_HALF_DOWN (στη μονάδα decimal):  Rounding modes.     (line   18)
* ROUND_HALF_EVEN (στη μονάδα decimal):  Rounding modes.     (line   22)
* ROUND_HALF_UP (στη μονάδα decimal):    Rounding modes.     (line   26)
* ROUND_UP (στη μονάδα decimal):         Rounding modes.     (line   30)
* Rounded (κλάση σε decimal):            Signals.            (line   79)
* rounding (ιδιότητα της decimal.Context): Context objects.  (line  136)
* rounds (ιδιότητα της sys.float_info):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  741)
* Row (κλάση σε sqlite3):                Row objects.        (line    6)
* row_factory (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  789)
* row_factory (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects. (line  232)
* rowcount (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.    (line  221)
* RPAR (στη μονάδα token):               token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  211)
* rpartition() (μέθοδος της bytearray):  Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  265)
* rpartition() (μέθοδος της bytes):      Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  265)
* rpartition() (μέθοδος της str):        Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  684)
* rpc_paths (ιδιότητα της xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler): SimpleXMLRPCServer objects.
                                                             (line   64)
* rpop() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line   47)
* RS (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  114)
* rset() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line   75)
* RShift (κλάση σε ast):                 Expressions<2>.     (line   53)
* rshift() (στη μονάδα operator):        operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  164)
* rsplit() (μέθοδος της bytearray):      Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  390)
* rsplit() (μέθοδος της bytes):          Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  390)
* rsplit() (μέθοδος της str):            Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  704)
* RSQB (στη μονάδα token):               token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  217)
* rstrip() (μέθοδος της bytearray):      Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  402)
* rstrip() (μέθοδος της bytes):          Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  402)
* rstrip() (μέθοδος της str):            Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  714)
* rt() (στη μονάδα turtle):              Turtle motion.      (line   40)
* RTLD_DEEPBIND (στη μονάδα os):         Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  163)
* RTLD_GLOBAL (στη μονάδα ctypes):       Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  174)
* RTLD_GLOBAL (στη μονάδα os):           Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  163)
* RTLD_LAZY (στη μονάδα os):             Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  163)
* RTLD_LOCAL (στη μονάδα ctypes):        Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  179)
* RTLD_LOCAL (στη μονάδα os):            Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  163)
* RTLD_NODELETE (στη μονάδα os):         Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  163)
* RTLD_NOLOAD (στη μονάδα os):           Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  163)
* RTLD_NOW (στη μονάδα os):              Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  163)
* ruler (ιδιότητα της cmd.Cmd):          Cmd Objects.        (line  171)
* run (pdb command):                     Debugger commands.  (line  425)
* Run script:                            Format menu Editor window only.
                                                             (line   53)
* run_concurrently() (στη μονάδα test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   83)
* run_coroutine_threadsafe() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Scheduling from other threads.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_docstring_examples() (στη μονάδα doctest): Basic API.  (line  127)
* run_forever() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   16)
* run_in_executor() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Executing code in thread or process pools.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_in_subinterp() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  695)
* run_module() (στη μονάδα runpy):       runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   26)
* run_path() (στη μονάδα runpy):         runpy — Locating and executing Python modules.
                                                             (line   99)
* run_python_until_end() (στη μονάδα test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   30)
* run_script() (μέθοδος της modulefinder.ModuleFinder): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script.
                                                             (line   44)
* run_until_complete() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line    6)
* run_with_locale() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  484)
* run_with_tz() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  492)
* run() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Runner):    Runner context manager.
                                                             (line   36)
* run() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):           bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  468)
* run() (μέθοδος της contextvars.Context): Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line   64)
* run() (μέθοδος της doctest.DocTestRunner): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line  112)
* run() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line   68)
* run() (μέθοδος της pdb.Pdb):           Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line  238)
* run() (μέθοδος της profile.Profile):   profile and profiling tracing module reference.
                                                             (line  114)
* run() (μέθοδος της profiling.tracing.Profile): Module reference.
                                                             (line   82)
* run() (μέθοδος της sched.scheduler):   Scheduler Objects.  (line   51)
* run() (μέθοδος της threading.Thread):  Thread objects.     (line  122)
* run() (μέθοδος της trace.Trace):       Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή.
                                                             (line   24)
* run() (μέθοδος της unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  989)
* run() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.         (line   81)
* run() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestSuite): Grouping tests.    (line   39)
* run() (μέθοδος της unittest.TextTestRunner): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  505)
* run() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   98)
* run() (στη μονάδα asyncio):            Running an asyncio Program.
                                                             (line    6)
* run() (στη μονάδα pdb):                Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line   83)
* run() (στη μονάδα profile):            profile and profiling tracing module reference.
                                                             (line    9)
* run() (στη μονάδα profiling.tracing):  Module reference.   (line    6)
* run() (στη μονάδα subprocess):         Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line   11)
* runcall() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):       bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  485)
* runcall() (μέθοδος της pdb.Pdb):       Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line  238)
* runcall() (μέθοδος της profile.Profile): profile and profiling tracing module reference.
                                                             (line  123)
* runcall() (μέθοδος της profiling.tracing.Profile): Module reference.
                                                             (line   91)
* runcall() (στη μονάδα pdb):            Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line  102)
* runcode() (μέθοδος της code.InteractiveInterpreter): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   33)
* runctx() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):        bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  480)
* runctx() (μέθοδος της profile.Profile): profile and profiling tracing module reference.
                                                             (line  118)
* runctx() (μέθοδος της profiling.tracing.Profile): Module reference.
                                                             (line   86)
* runctx() (μέθοδος της trace.Trace):    Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή.
                                                             (line   31)
* runctx() (στη μονάδα profile):         profile and profiling tracing module reference.
                                                             (line   23)
* runctx() (στη μονάδα profiling.tracing): Module reference. (line   24)
* runeval() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):       bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  474)
* runeval() (μέθοδος της pdb.Pdb):       Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line  238)
* runeval() (στη μονάδα pdb):            Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line   95)
* runfunc() (μέθοδος της trace.Trace):   Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή.
                                                             (line   38)
* Runner (κλάση σε asyncio):             Runner context manager.
                                                             (line    6)
* running() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* runsource() (μέθοδος της code.InteractiveInterpreter): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* runtime (ιδιότητα της sys._emscripten_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  394)
* runtime_checkable() (στη μονάδα typing): Other special directives.
                                                             (line  178)
* RuntimeError:                          Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  280)
* RuntimeWarning:                        Warnings.           (line   51)
* RUSAGE_BOTH (στη μονάδα resource):     Resource Usage.     (line  122)
* RUSAGE_CHILDREN (στη μονάδα resource): Resource Usage.     (line  116)
* RUSAGE_SELF (στη μονάδα resource):     Resource Usage.     (line  110)
* RUSAGE_THREAD (στη μονάδα resource):   Resource Usage.     (line  128)
* RWF_APPEND (στη μονάδα os):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  739)
* RWF_ATOMIC (στη μονάδα os):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  649)
* RWF_DONTCACHE (στη μονάδα os):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  641)
* RWF_DSYNC (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  719)
* RWF_HIPRI (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  628)
* RWF_NOWAIT (στη μονάδα os):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  613)
* RWF_SYNC (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  729)
* S (στη μονάδα re):                     Flags.              (line  108)
* S_ENFMT (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  317)
* S_IEXEC (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  331)
* S_IFBLK (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  206)
* S_IFCHR (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  214)
* S_IFDIR (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  210)
* S_IFDOOR (στη μονάδα stat):            stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  222)
* S_IFIFO (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  218)
* S_IFLNK (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  198)
* S_IFMT() (στη μονάδα stat):            stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   78)
* S_IFPORT (στη μονάδα stat):            stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  228)
* S_IFREG (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  202)
* S_IFSOCK (στη μονάδα stat):            stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  194)
* S_IFWHT (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  234)
* S_IMODE() (στη μονάδα stat):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   71)
* S_IREAD (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  323)
* S_IRGRP (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  289)
* S_IROTH (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  305)
* S_IRUSR (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  273)
* S_IRWXG (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  285)
* S_IRWXO (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  301)
* S_IRWXU (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  269)
* S_ISBLK() (στη μονάδα stat):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   30)
* S_ISCHR() (στη μονάδα stat):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   25)
* S_ISDIR() (στη μονάδα stat):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   21)
* S_ISDOOR() (στη μονάδα stat):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   50)
* S_ISFIFO() (στη μονάδα stat):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   38)
* S_ISGID (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  251)
* S_ISLNK() (στη μονάδα stat):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   42)
* S_ISPORT() (στη μονάδα stat):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   56)
* S_ISREG() (στη μονάδα stat):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   34)
* S_ISSOCK() (στη μονάδα stat):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   46)
* S_ISUID (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  247)
* S_ISVTX (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  262)
* S_ISWHT() (στη μονάδα stat):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line   62)
* S_IWGRP (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  293)
* S_IWOTH (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  309)
* S_IWRITE (στη μονάδα stat):            stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  327)
* S_IWUSR (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  277)
* S_IXGRP (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  297)
* S_IXOTH (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  313)
* S_IXUSR (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  281)
* safe (ιδιότητα της uuid.SafeUUID):     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line   35)
* safe_path (ιδιότητα της sys.flags):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  622)
* safe_substitute() (μέθοδος της string.Template): Template strings $-strings.
                                                             (line   60)
* saferepr() (στη μονάδα pprint):        Functions<3>.       (line   97)
* SafeUUID (κλάση σε uuid):              uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line   31)
* same_files (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class.
                                                             (line   89)
* same_quantum() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  524)
* same_quantum() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  554)
* samefile() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line  146)
* samefile() (στη μονάδα os.path):       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  466)
* SameFileError:                         Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line   67)
* sameopenfile() (στη μονάδα os.path):   os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  480)
* samesite (ιδιότητα της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* samestat() (στη μονάδα os.path):       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  489)
* sample() (στη μονάδα random):          Συναρτήσεις για ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   73)
* samples() (μέθοδος της statistics.NormalDist): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* SATURDAY (στη μονάδα calendar):        calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  450)
* save() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line  106)
* save() (μέθοδος της test.support.SaveSignals): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  807)
* save() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line   20)
* SaveAs (κλάση σε tkinter.filedialog):  Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line   60)
* SAVEDCWD (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   14)
* SaveFileDialog (κλάση σε tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  145)
* SaveKey() (στη μονάδα winreg):         Functions<12>.      (line  414)
* SaveSignals (κλάση σε test.support):   test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  802)
* savetty() (στη μονάδα curses):         Functions<4>.       (line  458)
* SAX2DOM (κλάση σε xml.dom.pulldom):    xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees.
                                                             (line   80)
* SAXException:                          xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line   85)
* SAXNotRecognizedException:             xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line  110)
* SAXNotSupportedException:              xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line  117)
* SAXParseException:                     xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers.
                                                             (line  102)
* scaleb() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.   (line  528)
* scaleb() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.   (line  564)
* scandir() (στη μονάδα os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  852)
* scanf (C function):                    Simulating scanf.   (line    6)
* SCHED_BATCH (στη μονάδα os):           Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   19)
* SCHED_DEADLINE (στη μονάδα os):        Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   24)
* SCHED_FIFO (στη μονάδα os):            Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   44)
* sched_get_priority_max() (στη μονάδα os): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   75)
* sched_get_priority_min() (στη μονάδα os): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   70)
* sched_getaffinity() (στη μονάδα os):   Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line  122)
* sched_getparam() (στη μονάδα os):      Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   99)
* sched_getscheduler() (στη μονάδα os):  Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   87)
* SCHED_IDLE (στη μονάδα os):            Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   30)
* SCHED_NORMAL (στη μονάδα os):          Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   34)
* SCHED_OTHER (στη μονάδα os):           Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   15)
* sched_param (κλάση σε os):             Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   58)
* sched_priority (ιδιότητα της os.sched_param): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   66)
* SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK (στη μονάδα os):   Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   52)
* SCHED_RR (στη μονάδα os):              Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   48)
* sched_rr_get_interval() (στη μονάδα os): Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line  105)
* sched_setaffinity() (στη μονάδα os):   Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line  115)
* sched_setparam() (στη μονάδα os):      Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   93)
* sched_setscheduler() (στη μονάδα os):  Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   80)
* SCHED_SPORADIC (στη μονάδα os):        Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line   40)
* sched_yield() (στη μονάδα os):         Interface to the scheduler.
                                                             (line  110)
* scheduler (κλάση σε sched):            sched — Event scheduler.
                                                             (line   13)
* SCM_CREDS2 (στη μονάδα socket):        Constants<8>.       (line  413)
* scope_id (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  310)
* Screen (κλάση σε turtle):              Public classes.     (line   30)
* screensize() (στη μονάδα turtle):      Window control.     (line   90)
* script_from_examples() (στη μονάδα doctest): Debugging.    (line   72)
* scroll() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line  507)
* ScrolledCanvas (κλάση σε turtle):      Public classes.     (line   34)
* ScrolledText (κλάση σε tkinter.scrolledtext): tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget.
                                                             (line   24)
* scrollok() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  511)
* scrypt() (στη μονάδα hashlib):         Key derivation.     (line   49)
* seal() (στη μονάδα unittest.mock):     Sealing mocks.      (line    6)
* search_function() (στη μονάδα encodings): encodings — Encodings package.
                                                             (line   23)
* search_log (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line   83)
* search() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line  305)
* search() (μέθοδος της re.Pattern):     Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* search() (στη μονάδα re):              Functions.          (line   36)
* second (ιδιότητα της datetime.datetime): datetime objects. (line  332)
* second (ιδιότητα της datetime.time):   time objects.       (line   58)
* seconds (ιδιότητα της datetime.timedelta): timedelta objects.
                                                             (line  119)
* SECTCRE (ιδιότητα της configparser.ConfigParser): Customizing Parser Behaviour.
                                                             (line  300)
* sections() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  116)
* secure (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   48)
* secure (ιδιότητα της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects. (line   13)
* secure hash algorithm, SHA1, SHA2, SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512, SHA3, Shake, Blake2: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests.
                                                             (line    8)
* Secure Sockets Layer:                  ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* security considerations:               xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data.
                                                             (line   15)
* security_level (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  700)
* see() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.    (line  241)
* seed_bits (ιδιότητα της sys.hash_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1163)
* seed() (μέθοδος της random.Random):    Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια.
                                                             (line   20)
* seed() (στη μονάδα random):            Συναρτήσεις καταγραφής.
                                                             (line    6)
* SEEK_CUR (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  326)
* SEEK_DATA (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  350)
* SEEK_END (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  326)
* SEEK_HOLE (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  350)
* SEEK_SET (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  326)
* seek() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):        I/O Base Classes.   (line  105)
* seek() (μέθοδος της io.TextIOBase):    Text I/O<2>.        (line   65)
* seek() (μέθοδος της io.TextIOWrapper): Text I/O<2>.        (line  208)
* seek() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):        mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  320)
* seek() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Blob):     Blob objects.       (line   63)
* seekable() (μέθοδος της bz2.BZ2File):  De compression of files.
                                                             (line   98)
* seekable() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):    I/O Base Classes.   (line  128)
* seekable() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):    mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  331)
* select() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line  322)
* select() (μέθοδος της selectors.BaseSelector): Classes.    (line  108)
* select() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook. (line   53)
* select() (στη μονάδα select):          select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  119)
* selected_alpn_protocol() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.
                                                             (line  305)
* selected_npn_protocol() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.
                                                             (line  315)
* selection_add() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  264)
* selection_remove() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  271)
* selection_set() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  257)
* selection_toggle() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  278)
* selection() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  249)
* selector (ιδιότητα της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* SelectorEventLoop (κλάση σε asyncio):  Event loop implementations.
                                                             (line   11)
* SelectorKey (κλάση σε selectors):      Classes.            (line   29)
* SelectSelector (κλάση σε selectors):   Classes.            (line  167)
* Self (στη μονάδα typing):              Special types.      (line  138)
* Semaphore (κλάση σε asyncio):          Semaphore.          (line    6)
* Semaphore (κλάση σε multiprocessing):  Synchronization primitives.
                                                             (line  205)
* Semaphore (κλάση σε threading):        Semaphore objects.  (line   19)
* Semaphore() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  208)
* semaphores, binary:                    _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line    6)
* SEMI (στη μονάδα token):               token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  226)
* SEND (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1303)
* send_bytes() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* send_error() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  262)
* send_fds() (στη μονάδα socket):        Other functions<2>. (line  472)
* send_header() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  298)
* send_message() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP): SMTP Objects.   (line  307)
* send_response_only() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  313)
* send_response() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  282)
* send_signal() (μέθοδος της asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   87)
* send_signal() (μέθοδος της asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   44)
* send_signal() (μέθοδος της subprocess.Popen): Popen Objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* send() (μέθοδος της coroutine):        Coroutine Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   23)
* send() (μέθοδος της generator):        Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   26)
* send() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPConnection): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  224)
* send() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  329)
* send() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.DatagramHandler): DatagramHandler.
                                                             (line   43)
* send() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.SocketHandler): SocketHandler.
                                                             (line   63)
* send() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.connection.Connection): Connection Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* send() (μέθοδος της socket.socket):    Socket Objects.     (line  394)
* sendall() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.     (line  410)
* sendcmd() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):    FTP objects.        (line  156)
* sendfile() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Transferring files. (line    6)
* sendfile() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.    (line  503)
* sendfile() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  279)
* sendfile() (στη μονάδα os):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  802)
* SendfileNotAvailableError:             Exceptions<14>.     (line   36)
* sendfunc (C type):                     Slot Type typedefs. (line  115)
* sendmail() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP): SMTP Objects.       (line  228)
* sendmsg_afalg() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  492)
* sendmsg() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.     (line  448)
* sendto() (μέθοδος της asyncio.DatagramTransport): Datagram Transports.
                                                             (line    6)
* sendto() (μέθοδος της socket.socket):  Socket Objects.     (line  429)
* sentinel (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):         Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1928)
* sentinel (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  188)
* sentinel (στη μονάδα unittest.mock):   sentinel.           (line    6)
* sep (στη μονάδα os):                   Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  115)
* SEPTEMBER (στη μονάδα calendar):       calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  523)
* Sequence (κλάση σε collections.abc):   Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line   69)
* Sequence (κλάση σε typing):            Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  112)
* sequence;item:                         Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line    6)
* sequence;iteration:                    Τύποι Iterator.     (line    6)
* SequenceMatcher (κλάση σε difflib):    SequenceMatcher objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* serialize_iterator (κλάση σε threading): Iterator synchronization.
                                                             (line   25)
* serialize() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  671)
* serializing;objects:                   pickle — Python object serialization.
                                                             (line    8)
* serve_forever() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Server): Server objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* serve_forever() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   32)
* server (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  122)
* server (ιδιότητα της socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* Server (κλάση σε asyncio):             Server objects.     (line   12)
* server_activate() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  167)
* server_address (ιδιότητα της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   79)
* server_bind() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  173)
* server_close() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* server_hostname (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets. (line  385)
* server_side (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.     (line  378)
* server_sigalg() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.  (line  271)
* server_software (ιδιότητα της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  177)
* server_version (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  181)
* server_version (ιδιότητα της http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  413)
* ServerProxy (κλάση σε xmlrpc.client):  xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access.
                                                             (line   29)
* service_actions() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* session (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLSocket):  SSL sockets.        (line  398)
* session_reused (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.  (line  408)
* session_stats() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  555)
* set (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):              Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line   36)
* Set (κλάση σε ast):                    Literals<2>.        (line  159)
* Set (κλάση σε collections.abc):        Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  120)
* Set (κλάση σε typing):                 Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   30)
* Set Breakpoint:                        Help menu Shell and Editor.
                                                             (line   30)
* set comprehension:                     Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1750)
* SET_ADD (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  372)
* set_all():                             Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line   98)
* set_allowed_domains() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   70)
* set_alpn_protocols() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  327)
* set_app() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   63)
* set_asyncgen_hooks() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1963)
* set_authorizer() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  343)
* set_auto_history() (στη μονάδα readline): History list.    (line   43)
* set_blocked_domains() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* set_blocking() (στη μονάδα os):        File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  863)
* set_boundary() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  411)
* set_boundary() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  589)
* set_break() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):     bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  359)
* set_charset() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  236)
* set_children() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line   25)
* set_ciphers() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.  (line  258)
* set_ciphersuites() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  274)
* set_client_sigalgs() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  301)
* set_completer_delims() (στη μονάδα readline): Completion.  (line   50)
* set_completer() (στη μονάδα readline): Completion.         (line   14)
* set_completion_display_matches_hook() (στη μονάδα readline): Completion.
                                                             (line   59)
* set_content() (μέθοδος της email.contentmanager.ContentManager): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content.
                                                             (line   40)
* set_content() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  590)
* set_content() (στη μονάδα email.contentmanager): Content Manager Instances.
                                                             (line   35)
* set_continue() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):  bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  344)
* set_cookie_if_ok() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   69)
* set_cookie() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   73)
* set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1988)
* set_data() (μέθοδος της importlib.abc.SourceLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  388)
* set_data() (μέθοδος της importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  264)
* set_date() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   97)
* set_debug() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Enabling debug mode.
                                                             (line   14)
* set_debug() (στη μονάδα gc):           gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line   57)
* set_debuglevel() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP): FTP objects.    (line   73)
* set_debuglevel() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPConnection): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line   93)
* set_debuglevel() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3): POP3 Objects.  (line   11)
* set_debuglevel() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP): SMTP Objects. (line    8)
* set_default_backend() (στη μονάδα pdb): Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line  153)
* set_default_executor() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Executing code in thread or process pools.
                                                             (line   82)
* set_default_type() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  342)
* set_default_type() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  451)
* set_default_verify_paths() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  249)
* set_defaults() (μέθοδος της argparse.ArgumentParser): Parser defaults.
                                                             (line    6)
* set_defaults() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Other methods.
                                                             (line   27)
* set_ecdh_curve() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  441)
* set_errno() (στη μονάδα ctypes):       Utility functions.  (line  221)
* set_error_mode() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):  Other Functions.    (line   12)
* set_escdelay() (στη μονάδα curses):    Functions<4>.       (line  469)
* set_event_loop_policy() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Getting and Setting the Policy.
                                                             (line   16)
* set_event_loop() (μέθοδος της asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* set_event_loop() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Event loop.         (line   67)
* set_events() (στη μονάδα sys.monitoring): Setting events globally.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_exception_handler() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Error handling API.
                                                             (line    8)
* set_exception() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Future): Future Object.
                                                             (line   56)
* set_exception() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* set_executable() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line  117)
* set_filter() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  127)
* set_flags() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.
                                                             (line  110)
* set_flags() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* set_flags() (μέθοδος της mailbox.mboxMessage): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* set_flags() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MMDFMessage): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   71)
* set_forkserver_preload() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line  132)
* set_from() (μέθοδος της mailbox.mboxMessage): mboxMessage objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* set_from() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MMDFMessage): MMDFMessage objects.
                                                             (line   52)
* SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE (opcode):       Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1159)
* set_groups() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.   (line  289)
* set_handle_inheritable() (στη μονάδα os): Inheritance of File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   42)
* set_history_length() (στη μονάδα readline): History file.  (line   40)
* set_info() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects. (line  172)
* set_info() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line  108)
* set_inheritable() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.
                                                             (line  520)
* set_inheritable() (στη μονάδα os):     Inheritance of File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   32)
* set_int_max_str_digits() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1708)
* set_labels() (μέθοδος της mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* set_last_error() (στη μονάδα ctypes):  Utility functions.  (line  230)
* set_lazy_imports_filter() (στη μονάδα sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1741)
* set_lazy_imports() (στη μονάδα sys):   sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1716)
* set_local_events() (στη μονάδα sys.monitoring): Per code object events.
                                                             (line   16)
* set_memlimit() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  324)
* set_name() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task): Task object.        (line  187)
* set_name() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):    mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  338)
* set_next() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):      bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  322)
* set_nonstandard_attr() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line  105)
* set_npn_protocols() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  342)
* set_ok() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy): CookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* set_param() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  351)
* set_param() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  519)
* set_pasv() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):   FTP objects.        (line  212)
* set_payload() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  225)
* set_pledged_input_size() (μέθοδος της compression.zstd.ZstdCompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  107)
* set_policy() (μέθοδος της http.cookiejar.CookieJar): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects.
                                                             (line   57)
* set_pre_input_hook() (στη μονάδα readline): Startup hooks. (line   14)
* set_progress_handler() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  375)
* set_protocol() (μέθοδος της asyncio.BaseTransport): Base Transport.
                                                             (line   81)
* set_proxy() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line  114)
* set_psk_client_callback() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  735)
* set_psk_server_callback() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  787)
* set_quit() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):      bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  349)
* set_result() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Future): Future Object.  (line   49)
* set_result() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* set_return() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  326)
* set_running_or_notify_cancel() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.Future): Future Objects.
                                                             (line   85)
* set_selection() (μέθοδος της tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs.
                                                             (line  131)
* set_seq1() (μέθοδος της difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* set_seq2() (μέθοδος της difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher objects.
                                                             (line   59)
* set_seqs() (μέθοδος της difflib.SequenceMatcher): SequenceMatcher objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* set_sequences() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH): MH objects.      (line   61)
* set_sequences() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MHMessage): MHMessage objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* set_server_documentation() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* set_server_documentation() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer): DocXMLRPCServer objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* set_server_name() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   18)
* set_server_name() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer): DocXMLRPCServer objects.
                                                             (line   18)
* set_server_sigalgs() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  314)
* set_server_title() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_server_title() (μέθοδος της xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer): DocXMLRPCServer objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* set_servername_callback() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  413)
* set_start_method() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line  159)
* set_startup_hook() (στη μονάδα readline): Startup hooks.   (line    6)
* set_step() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):      bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  318)
* set_subdir() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MaildirMessage): MaildirMessage objects.
                                                             (line   58)
* set_tabsize() (στη μονάδα curses):     Functions<4>.       (line  484)
* set_task_factory() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Creating futures and tasks.
                                                             (line   58)
* set_threshold() (στη μονάδα gc):       gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  111)
* set_trace_async() (στη μονάδα pdb):    Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line  125)
* set_trace_callback() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  392)
* set_trace() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):     bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  335)
* set_trace() (μέθοδος της pdb.Pdb):     Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line  238)
* set_trace() (στη μονάδα bdb):          bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  518)
* set_trace() (στη μονάδα pdb):          Command-line interface<7>.
                                                             (line  109)
* set_tunnel() (μέθοδος της http.client.HTTPConnection): HTTPConnection Objects.
                                                             (line  103)
* set_type() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  552)
* set_unittest_reportflags() (στη μονάδα doctest): Unittest API.
                                                             (line  175)
* set_unixfrom() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  146)
* set_unixfrom() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  158)
* set_until() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):     bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  330)
* SET_UPDATE (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  742)
* set_url() (μέθοδος της urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   20)
* set_usage() (μέθοδος της optparse.OptionParser): Other methods.
                                                             (line    8)
* set_userptr() (μέθοδος της curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* set_visible() (μέθοδος της mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   68)
* set_wakeup_fd() (στη μονάδα signal):   Module contents<4>. (line  478)
* set_write_buffer_limits() (μέθοδος της asyncio.WriteTransport): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   33)
* set;comprehensions:                    Set displays.       (line    6)
* set;display:                           Set displays.       (line    6)
* set() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Event):     Event.              (line   51)
* set() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  285)
* set() (μέθοδος της configparser.RawConfigParser): RawConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* set() (μέθοδος της contextvars.ContextVar): Context Variables.
                                                             (line   46)
* set() (μέθοδος της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.   (line   75)
* set() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  238)
* set() (μέθοδος της test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   65)
* set() (μέθοδος της threading.Event):   Event objects.      (line   30)
* set() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Combobox): ttk Combobox.    (line   19)
* set() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Spinbox): ttk Spinbox.      (line   12)
* set() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.    (line  285)
* set() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   86)
* setacl() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line  336)
* SetAllocTrackerActivationThreshold() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  198)
* SetAllocTrackerMaximumAmplification() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  220)
* setannotation() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.
                                                             (line  341)
* setattrfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line   49)
* setAttribute() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   67)
* setAttributeNode() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   71)
* setAttributeNodeNS() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   79)
* setAttributeNS() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   87)
* setattrofunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line   62)
* SetBase() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line   24)
* SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionActivationThreshold() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  127)
* SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionMaximumAmplification() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  156)
* setblocking() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects. (line  527)
* setByteStream() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   36)
* setcbreak() (στη μονάδα tty):          tty — Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line   54)
* setCharacterStream() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* SetComp (κλάση σε ast):                Comprehensions.     (line    6)
* setcomptype() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* setconfig() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  655)
* setContentHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   25)
* setcontext() (στη μονάδα decimal):     Context objects.    (line   18)
* setDaemon() (μέθοδος της threading.Thread): Thread objects.
                                                             (line  253)
* setdefault() (μέθοδος της dict):       Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line  242)
* setdefault() (μέθοδος της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line  125)
* setdefaulttimeout() (στη μονάδα socket): Other functions<2>.
                                                             (line  389)
* setdlopenflags() (στη μονάδα sys):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1695)
* setDocumentLocator() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): ContentHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   10)
* setDTDHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   34)
* setegid() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line  396)
* setEncoding() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* setEntityResolver() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* setErrorHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* seteuid() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line  402)
* setFeature() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* setfirstweekday() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line   53)
* setfirstweekday() (στη μονάδα calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  353)
* setformat() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   91)
* setFormatter() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   48)
* setframerate() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* setgid() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Parameters. (line  408)
* setgroups() (στη μονάδα os):           Process Parameters. (line  414)
* seth() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Turtle motion.      (line  166)
* setheading() (στη μονάδα turtle):      Turtle motion.      (line  166)
* sethostname() (στη μονάδα socket):     Other functions<2>. (line  399)
* setinputsizes() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.
                                                             (line  165)
* setitem() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  217)
* setitimer() (στη μονάδα signal):       Module contents<4>. (line  444)
* setLevel() (μέθοδος της logging.Handler): Handler Objects. (line   35)
* setLevel() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.   (line  105)
* setlimit() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  609)
* setLocale() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   60)
* setlocale() (στη μονάδα locale):       locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   26)
* setLoggerClass() (στη μονάδα logging): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  339)
* setlogmask() (στη μονάδα syslog):      syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line   96)
* setLogRecordFactory() (στη μονάδα logging): Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  350)
* setMaxConns() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler): CacheFTPHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* setmode() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):         File Operations.    (line   38)
* setName() (μέθοδος της threading.Thread): Thread objects.  (line  197)
* setnchannels() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* setnframes() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   67)
* setns() (στη μονάδα os):               Process Parameters. (line  429)
* setoutputsize() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Cursor): Cursor objects.
                                                             (line  169)
* SetParamEntityParsing() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line   58)
* setparams() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* setpassword() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects.
                                                             (line  243)
* setpgid() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line  476)
* setpgrp() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line  468)
* setpos() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_read): Wave_read Objects.  (line   72)
* setpos() (στη μονάδα turtle):          Turtle motion.      (line   74)
* setposition() (στη μονάδα turtle):     Turtle motion.      (line   74)
* setpriority() (στη μονάδα os):         Process Parameters. (line  484)
* setprofile_all_threads() (στη μονάδα threading): Reference<2>.
                                                             (line  144)
* setprofile() (στη μονάδα sys):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1774)
* setprofile() (στη μονάδα threading):   Reference<2>.       (line  138)
* setProperty() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader): XMLReader Objects.
                                                             (line   90)
* setPublicId() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* setquota() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.     (line  346)
* setraw() (στη μονάδα tty):             tty — Terminal control functions.
                                                             (line   43)
* setrecursionlimit() (στη μονάδα sys):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1831)
* setregid() (στη μονάδα os):            Process Parameters. (line  500)
* SetReparseDeferralEnabled() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line   87)
* setresgid() (στη μονάδα os):           Process Parameters. (line  506)
* setresuid() (στη μονάδα os):           Process Parameters. (line  514)
* setreuid() (στη μονάδα os):            Process Parameters. (line  522)
* setrlimit() (στη μονάδα resource):     Resource Limits.    (line   44)
* setsampwidth() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* setscrreg() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.   (line  521)
* setsid() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Parameters. (line  535)
* setsockopt() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.  (line  563)
* setstate() (μέθοδος της codecs.IncrementalDecoder): IncrementalDecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   59)
* setstate() (μέθοδος της codecs.IncrementalEncoder): IncrementalEncoder Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* setstate() (μέθοδος της random.Random): Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια.
                                                             (line   32)
* setstate() (στη μονάδα random):        Συναρτήσεις καταγραφής.
                                                             (line   39)
* setStream() (μέθοδος της logging.StreamHandler): StreamHandler.
                                                             (line   32)
* setswitchinterval (in module sys):     Thread states and the global interpreter lock.
                                                             (line   19)
* setswitchinterval() (στη μονάδα sys):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1849)
* setswitchinterval() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  307)
* setSystemId() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource): InputSource Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* setsyx() (στη μονάδα curses):          Functions<4>.       (line  492)
* setTarget() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.MemoryHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   68)
* setter (C type):                       Defining Getters and Setters.
                                                             (line   42)
* settimeout() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.  (line  544)
* setTimeout() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler): CacheFTPHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* settrace_all_threads() (στη μονάδα threading): Reference<2>.
                                                             (line  122)
* settrace() (στη μονάδα sys):           sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1862)
* settrace() (στη μονάδα threading):     Reference<2>.       (line  116)
* setuid() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Parameters. (line  542)
* setundobuffer() (στη μονάδα turtle):   Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   73)
* SETUP_ANNOTATIONS (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  426)
* SETUP_CLEANUP (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1456)
* setup_environ() (μέθοδος της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  197)
* SETUP_FINALLY (opcode):                Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1449)
* setup_python() (μέθοδος της venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.      (line  159)
* setup_scripts() (μέθοδος της venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.     (line  167)
* setup_testing_defaults() (στη μονάδα wsgiref.util): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   70)
* SETUP_WITH (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1464)
* setup() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   14)
* setUp() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.       (line   31)
* setup() (στη μονάδα turtle):           Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line   39)
* setUpClass() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.  (line   53)
* setUpModule() (στη μονάδα unittest):   setUpModule and tearDownModule.
                                                             (line    6)
* setupterm() (στη μονάδα curses):       Functions<4>.       (line  497)
* SetValue() (στη μονάδα winreg):        Functions<12>.      (line  438)
* SetValueEx() (στη μονάδα winreg):      Functions<12>.      (line  469)
* setworldcoordinates() (στη μονάδα turtle): Window control. (line  117)
* setx() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Turtle motion.      (line  138)
* setxattr() (στη μονάδα os):            Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   61)
* sety() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Turtle motion.      (line  152)
* SF_APPEND (στη μονάδα stat):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  414)
* SF_ARCHIVED (στη μονάδα stat):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  406)
* SF_DATALESS (στη μονάδα stat):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  438)
* SF_FIRMLINK (στη μονάδα stat):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  432)
* SF_IMMUTABLE (στη μονάδα stat):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  410)
* SF_MNOWAIT (στη μονάδα os):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  842)
* SF_NOCACHE (στη μονάδα os):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  853)
* SF_NODISKIO (στη μονάδα os):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  842)
* SF_NOUNLINK (στη μονάδα stat):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  424)
* SF_RESTRICTED (στη μονάδα stat):       stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  418)
* SF_SETTABLE (στη μονάδα stat):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  384)
* SF_SNAPSHOT (στη μονάδα stat):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  428)
* SF_SUPPORTED (στη μονάδα stat):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  390)
* SF_SYNC (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  842)
* SF_SYNTHETIC (στη μονάδα stat):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  398)
* sha1() (στη μονάδα hashlib):           Constructors.       (line   22)
* sha224() (στη μονάδα hashlib):         Constructors.       (line   24)
* sha256() (στη μονάδα hashlib):         Constructors.       (line   26)
* sha3_224() (στη μονάδα hashlib):       Constructors.       (line   32)
* sha3_256() (στη μονάδα hashlib):       Constructors.       (line   34)
* sha3_384() (στη μονάδα hashlib):       Constructors.       (line   36)
* sha3_512() (στη μονάδα hashlib):       Constructors.       (line   38)
* sha384() (στη μονάδα hashlib):         Constructors.       (line   28)
* sha512() (στη μονάδα hashlib):         Constructors.       (line   30)
* shake_128() (στη μονάδα hashlib):      SHAKE variable length digests.
                                                             (line    6)
* shake_256() (στη μονάδα hashlib):      SHAKE variable length digests.
                                                             (line    8)
* shape (ιδιότητα της memoryview):       Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  492)
* Shape (κλάση σε turtle):               Public classes.     (line   43)
* shape() (στη μονάδα turtle):           Appearance.         (line    6)
* shapesize() (στη μονάδα turtle):       Appearance.         (line   52)
* shapetransform() (στη μονάδα turtle):  Appearance.         (line  137)
* share() (μέθοδος της socket.socket):   Socket Objects.     (line  595)
* ShareableList (κλάση σε multiprocessing.shared_memory): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  272)
* ShareableList() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  232)
* Shared Memory:                         multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   10)
* shared_ciphers() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets. (line  244)
* shared_memory (ιδιότητα της sys._emscripten_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  403)
* SharedMemory (κλάση σε multiprocessing.shared_memory): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line   33)
* SharedMemory() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  227)
* SharedMemoryManager (κλάση σε multiprocessing.managers): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  200)
* shearfactor() (στη μονάδα turtle):     Appearance.         (line   83)
* Shelf (κλάση σε shelve):               Restrictions.       (line   32)
* ShelveError:                           Exceptions<5>.      (line    6)
* shield() (στη μονάδα asyncio):         Shielding from cancellation.
                                                             (line    6)
* shift_path_info() (στη μονάδα wsgiref.util): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities.
                                                             (line   40)
* shift() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.    (line  533)
* shift() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.    (line  570)
* shifting;operation:                    Shifting operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* shlex (κλάση σε shlex):                shlex — Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line   92)
* shm (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  346)
* SHORT_TIMEOUT (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   97)
* shortDescription() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line  844)
* shorten() (στη μονάδα textwrap):       textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line   51)
* shouldFlush() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.BufferingHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   36)
* shouldFlush() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.MemoryHandler): MemoryHandler.
                                                             (line   72)
* shouldRollover() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler): RotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   52)
* shouldRollover() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line  121)
* shouldStop (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  283)
* show_code() (στη μονάδα dis):          Analysis functions. (line   26)
* show_flag_values() (στη μονάδα enum):  Utilities and decorators.
                                                             (line  102)
* show() (μέθοδος της curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.    (line   49)
* show() (μέθοδος της tkinter.commondialog.Dialog): tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates.
                                                             (line   15)
* show() (μέθοδος της tkinter.messagebox.Message): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line   82)
* showerror() (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  105)
* showinfo() (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line   91)
* showsyntaxerror() (μέθοδος της code.InteractiveInterpreter): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   44)
* showtraceback() (μέθοδος της code.InteractiveInterpreter): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   53)
* showturtle() (στη μονάδα turtle):      Visibility.         (line   15)
* showwarning() (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line   99)
* showwarning() (στη μονάδα warnings):   Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες.
                                                             (line  111)
* shuffle() (στη μονάδα random):         Συναρτήσεις για ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   54)
* SHUT_RD (στη μονάδα socket):           Constants<8>.       (line  476)
* SHUT_RDWR (στη μονάδα socket):         Constants<8>.       (line  476)
* SHUT_WR (στη μονάδα socket):           Constants<8>.       (line  476)
* ShutDown:                              queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   92)
* shutdown_asyncgens() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   56)
* shutdown_default_executor() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   77)
* shutdown() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Queue): Ουρά.              (line   88)
* shutdown() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.Executor): Executor Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* shutdown() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.     (line  351)
* shutdown() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager): Managers.
                                                             (line   85)
* shutdown() (μέθοδος της queue.Queue):  Terminating queues. (line    9)
* shutdown() (μέθοδος της socket.socket): Socket Objects.    (line  586)
* shutdown() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   54)
* shutdown() (στη μονάδα logging):       Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line  328)
* SI (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   69)
* side_effect (ιδιότητα της unittest.mock.Mock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  368)
* SIG_BLOCK (στη μονάδα signal):         Module contents<4>. (line  262)
* SIG_DFL (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line   46)
* SIG_IGN (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line   54)
* SIG_SETMASK (στη μονάδα signal):       Module contents<4>. (line  277)
* SIG_UNBLOCK (στη μονάδα signal):       Module contents<4>. (line  269)
* SIGABRT (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line   59)
* SIGALRM (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line   63)
* SIGBREAK (στη μονάδα signal):          Module contents<4>. (line   69)
* SIGBUS (στη μονάδα signal):            Module contents<4>. (line   75)
* SIGCHLD (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line   81)
* SIGCLD (στη μονάδα signal):            Module contents<4>. (line   87)
* SIGCONT (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line   93)
* SIGFPE (στη μονάδα signal):            Module contents<4>. (line   99)
* SIGHUP (στη μονάδα signal):            Module contents<4>. (line  109)
* SIGILL (στη μονάδα signal):            Module contents<4>. (line  116)
* SIGINT (C macro):                      Signal Handling<2>. (line    7)
* SIGINT (C macro) <1>:                  Signal Handling<2>. (line   57)
* SIGINT (στη μονάδα signal):            Module contents<4>. (line  120)
* siginterrupt() (στη μονάδα signal):    Module contents<4>. (line  524)
* SIGKILL (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line  126)
* Sigmasks (κλάση σε signal):            Module contents<4>. (line   31)
* signal() (στη μονάδα signal):          Module contents<4>. (line  539)
* Signals (κλάση σε signal):             Module contents<4>. (line   17)
* signature (ιδιότητα της inspect.BoundArguments): Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line  383)
* Signature (κλάση σε inspect):          Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line   83)
* signature() (στη μονάδα inspect):      Introspecting callables with the Signature object.
                                                             (line   12)
* signbit() (στη μονάδα math):           Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line  124)
* sigpending() (στη μονάδα signal):      Module contents<4>. (line  567)
* SIGPIPE (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line  134)
* SIGPROF (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line  142)
* SIGQUIT (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line  148)
* SIGSEGV (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line  154)
* SIGSTKFLT (στη μονάδα signal):         Module contents<4>. (line  164)
* SIGSTOP (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line  158)
* SIGTERM (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line  176)
* sigtimedwait() (στη μονάδα signal):    Module contents<4>. (line  628)
* SIGUSR1 (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line  180)
* SIGUSR2 (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line  186)
* SIGVTALRM (στη μονάδα signal):         Module contents<4>. (line  192)
* sigwait() (στη μονάδα signal):         Module contents<4>. (line  582)
* sigwaitinfo() (στη μονάδα signal):     Module contents<4>. (line  599)
* SIGWINCH (στη μονάδα signal):          Module contents<4>. (line  198)
* SIGXCPU (στη μονάδα signal):           Module contents<4>. (line  204)
* SIMPLE (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.   (line   15)
* Simple Mail Transfer Protocol:         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* SimpleCookie (κλάση σε http.cookies):  http cookies — HTTP state management.
                                                             (line   49)
* simplefilter() (στη μονάδα warnings):  Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες.
                                                             (line  149)
* SimpleHandler (κλάση σε wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line   69)
* SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (κλάση σε http.server): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  391)
* SimpleNamespace (κλάση σε types):      Πρόσθετες βοηθητικές κλάσεις και συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line    6)
* SimplePath (κλάση σε importlib.metadata): Distribution files.
                                                             (line   30)
* SimpleQueue (κλάση σε multiprocessing): Pipes and Queues.  (line  224)
* SimpleQueue (κλάση σε queue):          queue — A synchronized queue class.
                                                             (line   73)
* SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler (κλάση σε xmlrpc.server): xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers.
                                                             (line   63)
* SimpleXMLRPCServer (κλάση σε xmlrpc.server): xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers.
                                                             (line   24)
* sin() (στη μονάδα cmath):              Trigonometric functions<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* sin() (στη μονάδα math):               Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   34)
* SingleAddressHeader (κλάση σε email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  216)
* singledispatch() (στη μονάδα functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  479)
* singledispatchmethod (κλάση σε functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  651)
* singleton;πλειάδα:                     Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   35)
* sinh() (στη μονάδα cmath):             Hyperbolic functions<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* sinh() (στη μονάδα math):              Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   25)
* SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.      (line  256)
* SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.  (line  256)
* SIO_RCVALL (στη μονάδα socket):        Constants<8>.       (line  256)
* site command line option; -user-base:  Command-line interface<14>.
                                                             (line   18)
* site command line option; -user-site:  Command-line interface<14>.
                                                             (line   22)
* site_maps() (μέθοδος της urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line   70)
* site-packages;directory:               site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   25)
* sitecustomize:                         Τα Modules Προσαρμογής.
                                                             (line    6)
* sitecustomize <1>:                     Τα Modules Προσαρμογής.
                                                             (line   20)
* sixtofour (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  317)
* size (ιδιότητα της ctypes.CField):     Structured data types.
                                                             (line  271)
* size (ιδιότητα της multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  125)
* size (ιδιότητα της struct.Struct):     Κλάσεις<3>.         (line   68)
* size (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo):   TarInfo Objects.    (line   65)
* size (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Statistic): Statistic.      (line   19)
* size (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.StatisticDiff): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   26)
* size (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Trace): Trace.              (line   23)
* size_diff (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.StatisticDiff): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   32)
* SIZE_MAX (C macro):                    Integer Objects.    (line  289)
* size() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):       FTP objects.        (line  351)
* size() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):        mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  352)
* Sized (κλάση σε collections.abc):      Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line   14)
* Sized (κλάση σε typing):               Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line   68)
* sizeof_digit (ιδιότητα της sys.int_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1267)
* sizeof() (στη μονάδα ctypes):          Utility functions.  (line  241)
* SKIP (στη μονάδα doctest):             Option Flags.       (line   90)
* skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  758)
* skip_unless_bind_unix_socket() (στη μονάδα test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   59)
* skip_unless_symlink() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  128)
* skip_unless_xattr() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  133)
* skip() (στη μονάδα unittest):          Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line   85)
* skipIf() (στη μονάδα unittest):        Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line   90)
* skipinitialspace (ιδιότητα της csv.Dialect): Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης.
                                                             (line   89)
* skipped (ιδιότητα της doctest.TestResults): TestResults objects.
                                                             (line   16)
* skipped (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  258)
* skippedEntity() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): ContentHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line  193)
* skips (ιδιότητα της doctest.DocTestRunner): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line  154)
* SkipTest:                              Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line  105)
* skipTest() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.    (line   95)
* skipUnless() (στη μονάδα unittest):    Skipping tests and expected failures.
                                                             (line   94)
* SLASH (στη μονάδα token):              token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  238)
* SLASHEQUAL (στη μονάδα token):         token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  304)
* sleep() (στη μονάδα asyncio):          Sleeping.           (line    6)
* sleep() (στη μονάδα time):             Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  297)
* sleeping_retry() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  235)
* slice:                                 Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line   70)
* slice <1>:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1763)
* slice (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):            Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1988)
* Slice (κλάση σε ast):                  Subscripting.       (line   25)
* slice;εκχώρηση:                        Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   17)
* slice;λειτουργία:                      Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   22)
* slicing:                               Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line   70)
* slow_callback_duration (ιδιότητα της asyncio.loop): Enabling debug mode.
                                                             (line   21)
* SMALLEST (στη μονάδα test.support):    test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  206)
* SMTP (κλάση σε smtplib):               smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   21)
* SMTP (στη μονάδα email.policy):        email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  526)
* smtp_code (ιδιότητα της smtplib.SMTPResponseException): smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  161)
* smtp_error (ιδιότητα της smtplib.SMTPResponseException): smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  165)
* SMTP_SSL (κλάση σε smtplib):           smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line   83)
* SMTP;protocol:                         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line    8)
* SMTPAuthenticationError:               smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  204)
* SMTPConnectError:                      smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  189)
* SMTPDataError:                         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  185)
* SMTPException:                         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  141)
* SMTPHandler (κλάση σε logging.handlers): SMTPHandler.      (line    9)
* SMTPHeloError:                         smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  194)
* SMTPNotSupportedError:                 smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  198)
* SMTPRecipientsRefused:                 smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  175)
* SMTPResponseException:                 smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  155)
* SMTPSenderRefused:                     smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  169)
* SMTPServerDisconnected:                smtplib — SMTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  149)
* SMTPUTF8 (στη μονάδα email.policy):    email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  532)
* Snapshot (κλάση σε tracemalloc):       Snapshot.           (line    6)
* SND_ALIAS (στη μονάδα winsound):       Constants<11>.      (line   11)
* SND_APPLICATION (στη μονάδα winsound): Constants<11>.      (line   97)
* SND_ASYNC (στη μονάδα winsound):       Constants<11>.      (line   76)
* SND_FILENAME (στη μονάδα winsound):    Constants<11>.      (line    6)
* SND_LOOP (στη μονάδα winsound):        Constants<11>.      (line   53)
* SND_MEMORY (στη μονάδα winsound):      Constants<11>.      (line   59)
* SND_NODEFAULT (στη μονάδα winsound):   Constants<11>.      (line   81)
* SND_NOSTOP (στη μονάδα winsound):      Constants<11>.      (line   86)
* SND_NOWAIT (στη μονάδα winsound):      Constants<11>.      (line   90)
* SND_PURGE (στη μονάδα winsound):       Constants<11>.      (line   69)
* SND_SENTRY (στη μονάδα winsound):      Constants<11>.      (line  104)
* SND_SYNC (στη μονάδα winsound):        Constants<11>.      (line  110)
* SND_SYSTEM (στη μονάδα winsound):      Constants<11>.      (line  117)
* sni_callback (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.  (line  360)
* sniff() (μέθοδος της csv.Sniffer):     Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  252)
* Sniffer (κλάση σε csv):                Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  245)
* SO (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   66)
* SO_HCI_EVT_FILTER (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.       (line  371)
* SO_HCI_PKT_FILTER (στη μονάδα socket): Constants<8>.       (line  371)
* SO_INCOMING_CPU (στη μονάδα socket):   Constants<8>.       (line  427)
* SO_REUSEPORT_LB (στη μονάδα socket):   Constants<8>.       (line  436)
* sock_accept() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line  107)
* SOCK_CLOEXEC (στη μονάδα socket):      Constants<8>.       (line   38)
* sock_connect() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   88)
* SOCK_DGRAM (στη μονάδα socket):        Constants<8>.       (line   27)
* SOCK_MAX_SIZE (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  140)
* SOCK_NONBLOCK (στη μονάδα socket):     Constants<8>.       (line   38)
* SOCK_RAW (στη μονάδα socket):          Constants<8>.       (line   27)
* SOCK_RDM (στη μονάδα socket):          Constants<8>.       (line   27)
* sock_recv_into() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   26)
* sock_recv() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   12)
* sock_recvfrom_into() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   48)
* sock_recvfrom() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   37)
* sock_sendall() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   59)
* sock_sendfile() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line  130)
* sock_sendto() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Working with socket objects directly.
                                                             (line   77)
* SOCK_SEQPACKET (στη μονάδα socket):    Constants<8>.       (line   27)
* SOCK_STREAM (στη μονάδα socket):       Constants<8>.       (line   27)
* socket (ιδιότητα της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line   88)
* socket (κλάση σε socket):              Creating sockets.   (line    8)
* socket_type (ιδιότητα της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  111)
* socket() (in module socket):           select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  147)
* socket() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line  356)
* SocketHandler (κλάση σε logging.handlers): SocketHandler.  (line   10)
* socketpair() (στη μονάδα socket):      Creating sockets.   (line   64)
* sockets (ιδιότητα της asyncio.Server): Server objects.     (line  128)
* SocketType (στη μονάδα socket):        Creating sockets.   (line  187)
* SOFT_KEYWORD (στη μονάδα token):       token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  183)
* softkwlist (στη μονάδα keyword):       keyword — Testing for Python keywords.
                                                             (line   30)
* SOH (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   21)
* SOL_ALG (στη μονάδα socket):           Constants<8>.       (line  272)
* SOL_BLUETOOTH (στη μονάδα socket):     Constants<8>.       (line  334)
* SOL_HCI (στη μονάδα socket):           Constants<8>.       (line  334)
* SOL_L2CAP (στη μονάδα socket):         Constants<8>.       (line  334)
* SOL_RDS (στη μονάδα socket):           Constants<8>.       (line  243)
* SOL_RFCOMM (στη μονάδα socket):        Constants<8>.       (line  334)
* SOL_SCO (στη μονάδα socket):           Constants<8>.       (line  334)
* SOMAXCONN (στη μονάδα socket):         Constants<8>.       (line   54)
* sort_stats() (μέθοδος της pstats.Stats): The Stats class.  (line   49)
* sort() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):    IMAP4 Objects.      (line  360)
* sort() (μέθοδος της list):             Λίστες<2>.          (line   42)
* sortdict() (στη μονάδα test.support):  test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  288)
* SortKey (κλάση σε pstats):             The Stats class.    (line  193)
* sortTestMethodsUsing (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestLoader): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  196)
* source (pdb command):                  Debugger commands.  (line  294)
* source (ιδιότητα της doctest.Example): Example Objects.    (line   16)
* source (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex):     shlex Objects.      (line  151)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH:                     zipfile.            (line   11)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <1>:                 py_compile<3>.      (line    7)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <2>:                 Library<167>.       (line  451)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <3>:                 Build<67>.          (line   15)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <4>:                 ZipFile objects.    (line  340)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <5>:                 py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   66)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <6>:                 py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   82)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <7>:                 py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   86)
* SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <8>:                 Command-line use.   (line   97)
* source_from_cache() (στη μονάδα importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line   54)
* source_hash() (στη μονάδα importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  156)
* SOURCE_SUFFIXES (στη μονάδα importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   13)
* source_to_code() (στατική μέθοδος της importlib.abc.InspectLoader): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  245)
* SourceFileLoader (κλάση σε importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  236)
* sourcehook() (μέθοδος της shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.     (line   26)
* SourcelessFileLoader (κλάση σε importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  269)
* SourceLoader (κλάση σε importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  325)
* SP (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  120)
* space;in string formatting:            Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line   77)
* span() (μέθοδος της re.Match):         Match objects.      (line  170)
* sparse (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.    (line  157)
* spawn_python() (στη μονάδα test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   69)
* spawn() (στη μονάδα pty):              pty — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού.
                                                             (line   50)
* spawnl() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line  597)
* spawnle() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line  597)
* spawnlp() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line  597)
* spawnlpe() (στη μονάδα os):            Process Management. (line  597)
* spawnv() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line  597)
* spawnve() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line  597)
* spawnvp() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line  597)
* spawnvpe() (στη μονάδα os):            Process Management. (line  597)
* spec_from_file_location() (στη μονάδα importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  144)
* spec_from_loader() (στη μονάδα importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers.
                                                             (line  133)
* SPEC_VERSION (στη μονάδα decimal):     Constants<4>.       (line    6)
* special;μέθοδος:                       Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1787)
* SpecialFileError:                      Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line   60)
* SpecialFileError <1>:                  tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  301)
* specified_attributes (ιδιότητα της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  300)
* speed() (στη μονάδα turtle):           Turtle motion.      (line  336)
* Spinbox (κλάση σε tkinter.ttk):        ttk Spinbox.        (line    6)
* SPLICE_F_MORE (στη μονάδα os):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  934)
* SPLICE_F_MOVE (στη μονάδα os):         File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  934)
* SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK (στη μονάδα os):     File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  934)
* splice() (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  883)
* split() (μέθοδος της BaseExceptionGroup): Exception groups.
                                                             (line   73)
* split() (μέθοδος της bytearray):       Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  433)
* split() (μέθοδος της bytes):           Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  433)
* split() (μέθοδος της re.Pattern):      Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line  100)
* split() (μέθοδος της str):             Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  738)
* split() (στη μονάδα os.path):          os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  499)
* split() (στη μονάδα re):               Functions.          (line   96)
* split() (στη μονάδα shlex):            shlex — Simple lexical analysis.
                                                             (line   17)
* splitdrive() (στη μονάδα os.path):     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  514)
* splitext() (στη μονάδα os.path):       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  569)
* splitlines() (μέθοδος της bytearray):  Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  692)
* splitlines() (μέθοδος της bytes):      Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  692)
* splitlines() (μέθοδος της str):        Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  800)
* SplitResult (κλάση σε urllib.parse):   Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   59)
* SplitResultBytes (κλάση σε urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results.
                                                             (line   86)
* splitroot() (στη μονάδα os.path):      os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  538)
* SpooledTemporaryFile (κλάση σε tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  152)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line  137)
* SQLITE_DENY (στη μονάδα sqlite3):      Module constants.   (line   49)
* sqlite_errorcode (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Error): Exceptions<6>.
                                                             (line   24)
* sqlite_errorname (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Error): Exceptions<6>.
                                                             (line   30)
* SQLITE_IGNORE (στη μονάδα sqlite3):    Module constants.   (line   49)
* SQLITE_KEYWORDS (στη μονάδα sqlite3):  Module constants.   (line   89)
* SQLITE_OK (στη μονάδα sqlite3):        Module constants.   (line   49)
* sqlite_version (στη μονάδα sqlite3):   Module constants.   (line   79)
* sqlite_version_info (στη μονάδα sqlite3): Module constants.
                                                             (line   84)
* sqrt() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context):  Context objects.    (line  537)
* sqrt() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal):  Decimal objects.    (line  581)
* sqrt() (στη μονάδα cmath):             Power and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   22)
* sqrt() (στη μονάδα math):              Power exponential and logarithmic functions.
                                                             (line   89)
* ssizeargfunc (C type):                 Slot Type typedefs. (line  125)
* ssizeobjargproc (C type):              Slot Type typedefs. (line  129)
* SSL:                                   ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* SSLCertVerificationError:              Exceptions<17>.     (line   79)
* SSLContext (κλάση σε ssl):             SSL contexts.       (line   14)
* SSLEOFError:                           Exceptions<17>.     (line   71)
* SSLError:                              Exceptions<17>.     (line    6)
* SSLErrorNumber (κλάση σε ssl):         Constants<9>.       (line  561)
* SSLKEYLOGFILE:                         Context creation.   (line   34)
* SSLKEYLOGFILE <1>:                     Context creation.   (line   83)
* SSLObject (κλάση σε ssl):              Memory BIO support. (line   30)
* sslobject_class (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  547)
* SSLSession (κλάση σε ssl):             SSL session.        (line    8)
* SSLSocket (κλάση σε ssl):              SSL sockets.        (line    6)
* sslsocket_class (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.
                                                             (line  521)
* SSLSyscallError:                       Exceptions<17>.     (line   62)
* SSLv3 (ιδιότητα της ssl.TLSVersion):   Constants<9>.       (line  583)
* SSLWantReadError:                      Exceptions<17>.     (line   44)
* SSLWantWriteError:                     Exceptions<17>.     (line   53)
* SSLZeroReturnError:                    Exceptions<17>.     (line   35)
* st_atime (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1197)
* ST_ATIME (στη μονάδα stat):            stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  163)
* st_atime_ns (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1214)
* st_birthtime (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1240)
* st_birthtime_ns (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1248)
* st_blksize (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1284)
* st_blocks (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1279)
* st_creator (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1320)
* st_ctime (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1205)
* ST_CTIME (στη μονάδα stat):            stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  171)
* st_ctime_ns (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1228)
* st_dev (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1173)
* ST_DEV (στη μονάδα stat):              stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  142)
* st_file_attributes (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1330)
* st_flags (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1294)
* st_fstype (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1309)
* st_gen (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1302)
* st_gid (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1185)
* ST_GID (στη μονάδα stat):              stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  154)
* st_ino (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1164)
* ST_INO (στη μονάδα stat):              stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  138)
* st_mode (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1160)
* ST_MODE (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  134)
* st_mtime (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1201)
* ST_MTIME (στη μονάδα stat):            stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  167)
* st_mtime_ns (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1221)
* st_nlink (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1177)
* ST_NLINK (στη μονάδα stat):            stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  146)
* st_rdev (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1290)
* st_reparse_tag (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1340)
* st_rsize (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1316)
* st_size (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1189)
* ST_SIZE (στη μονάδα stat):             stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  158)
* st_type (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1324)
* st_uid (ιδιότητα της os.stat_result):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1181)
* ST_UID (στη μονάδα stat):              stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  150)
* st() (στη μονάδα turtle):              Visibility.         (line   15)
* stack (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* stack viewer:                          Debug menu Shell window only.
                                                             (line   15)
* stack_effect() (στη μονάδα dis):       Analysis functions. (line  195)
* stack_size() (στη μονάδα _thread):     _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  113)
* stack_size() (στη μονάδα threading):   Reference<2>.       (line  160)
* stack;trace:                           Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* stack() (στη μονάδα inspect):          The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line  171)
* stackable;streams:                     codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* StackSummary (κλάση σε traceback):     StackSummary Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* stamp() (στη μονάδα turtle):           Turtle motion.      (line  280)
* standalone_month_abbr (στη μονάδα calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  515)
* standalone_month_name (στη μονάδα calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  507)
* Standard C:                            Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* standard_b64decode() (στη μονάδα base64): RFC 4648 Encodings.
                                                             (line   91)
* standard_b64encode() (στη μονάδα base64): RFC 4648 Encodings.
                                                             (line   86)
* standend() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  526)
* standout() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  531)
* STAR (στη μονάδα token):               token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  235)
* STAREQUAL (στη μονάδα token):          token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  301)
* starmap_async() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  165)
* starmap() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  154)
* starmap() (στη μονάδα itertools):      Itertool Functions. (line  551)
* Starred (κλάση σε ast):                Variables.          (line   40)
* start (ιδιότητα της range):            Εύρη Ranges.        (line   63)
* start (ιδιότητα της slice):            Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2003)
* start (ιδιότητα της UnicodeError):     Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  475)
* start (χαρακτηριστικό αντικειμένου slice): Ακολουθίες.     (line   20)
* start (χαρακτηριστικό αντικειμένου slice) <1>: Αντικείμενα τμηματοποίησης.
                                                             (line   14)
* start_color() (στη μονάδα curses):     Functions<4>.       (line  505)
* start_new_thread() (στη μονάδα _thread): _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   32)
* start_ns() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* start_server() (στη μονάδα asyncio):   Streams.            (line   76)
* start_serving() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Server): Server objects.
                                                             (line   75)
* start_threads() (στη μονάδα test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   22)
* start_tls() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): TLS upgrade.       (line    6)
* start_tls() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamWriter): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   84)
* start_trace() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):   bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  165)
* start_unix_server() (στη μονάδα asyncio): Streams.         (line  146)
* start() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.QueueListener): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   80)
* start() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager): Managers.
                                                             (line   58)
* start() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line   91)
* start() (μέθοδος της re.Match):        Match objects.      (line  145)
* start() (μέθοδος της threading.Thread): Thread objects.    (line  105)
* start() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Progressbar): ttk Progressbar.
                                                             (line    8)
* start() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line   43)
* start() (στη μονάδα tracemalloc):      Functions<9>.       (line   67)
* StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect:           email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων.
                                                             (line   85)
* startCDATA() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler): LexicalHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   34)
* StartCdataSectionHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  499)
* StartDoctypeDeclHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  374)
* startDocument() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): ContentHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   35)
* startDTD() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler): LexicalHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   25)
* startElement() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): ContentHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   88)
* StartElementHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  413)
* startElementNS() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): ContentHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line  111)
* STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   47)
* STARTF_FORCEONFEEDBACK (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   38)
* STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   33)
* STARTF_USESTDHANDLES (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   27)
* startfile() (στη μονάδα os):           Process Management. (line  711)
* StartNamespaceDeclHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  477)
* startPrefixMapping() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler): ContentHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   53)
* StartResponse (κλάση σε wsgiref.types): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   11)
* startswith() (μέθοδος της bytearray):  Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  278)
* startswith() (μέθοδος της bytes):      Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  278)
* startswith() (μέθοδος της str):        Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  876)
* startTest() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  346)
* startTestRun() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  355)
* starttls() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.     (line  379)
* starttls() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP): SMTP Objects.       (line  187)
* STARTUPINFO (κλάση σε subprocess):     Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line    9)
* stat_result (κλάση σε os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1152)
* stat() (μέθοδος της os.DirEntry):      Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1062)
* stat() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):     Querying file type and status.
                                                             (line   20)
* stat() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line   52)
* stat() (στη μονάδα os):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1097)
* state() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Widget): ttk Widget.      (line   25)
* statement;assert:                      Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line   10)
* statement;async def:                   Coroutines<2>.      (line    8)
* statement;async for:                   Coroutine function definition.
                                                             (line   28)
* statement;async with:                  The async for statement.
                                                             (line   42)
* statement;break:                       The while statement.
                                                             (line   17)
* statement;break <1>:                   The for statement.  (line   21)
* statement;break <2>:                   except* clause.     (line   66)
* statement;break <3>:                   finally clause.     (line   26)
* statement;class:                       Class definitions.  (line    6)
* statement;continue:                    The while statement.
                                                             (line   17)
* statement;continue <1>:                The for statement.  (line   21)
* statement;continue <2>:                except* clause.     (line   65)
* statement;continue <3>:                finally clause.     (line   26)
* statement;def:                         Function definitions.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;del:                         Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   17)
* statement;del <1>:                     Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;except:                      Built-in Exceptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;for:                         Προτάσεις for.      (line    6)
* statement;for <1>:                     The for statement.  (line    6)
* statement;if:                          The if statement.   (line    6)
* statement;if <1>:                      Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;import:                      site — Site-specific configuration hook.
                                                             (line   58)
* statement;match:                       The match statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;raise:                       Built-in Exceptions.
                                                             (line   14)
* statement;return:                      except* clause.     (line   66)
* statement;return <1>:                  finally clause.     (line   26)
* statement;try:                         The try statement.  (line    6)
* statement;try <1>:                     Built-in Exceptions.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;while:                       The while statement.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;while <1>:                   Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής.
                                                             (line    6)
* statement;with:                        The with statement. (line    6)
* static_order() (μέθοδος της graphlib.TopologicalSorter): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line  168)
* Statistic (κλάση σε tracemalloc):      Statistic.          (line    6)
* statistical profiling:                 profiling — Python profilers.
                                                             (line   12)
* StatisticDiff (κλάση σε tracemalloc):  StatisticDiff.      (line    6)
* statistics() (μέθοδος της tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot. (line   56)
* StatisticsError:                       Exceptions<3>.      (line    8)
* Stats (κλάση σε pstats):               The Stats class.    (line    6)
* status (ιδιότητα της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   61)
* status (ιδιότητα της urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   24)
* status() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line  392)
* statvfs() (στη μονάδα os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1755)
* STATX_ATIME (στη μονάδα os):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_ATTR_APPEND (στη μονάδα stat):   stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  488)
* STATX_ATTR_AUTOMOUNT (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  488)
* STATX_ATTR_COMPRESSED (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  488)
* STATX_ATTR_DAX (στη μονάδα stat):      stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  488)
* STATX_ATTR_ENCRYPTED (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  488)
* STATX_ATTR_IMMUTABLE (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  488)
* STATX_ATTR_MOUNT_ROOT (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  488)
* STATX_ATTR_NODUMP (στη μονάδα stat):   stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  488)
* STATX_ATTR_VERITY (στη μονάδα stat):   stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  488)
* STATX_ATTR_WRITE_ATOMIC (στη μονάδα stat): stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  488)
* STATX_BASIC_STATS (στη μονάδα os):     Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_BLOCKS (στη μονάδα os):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_BTIME (στη μονάδα os):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_CTIME (στη μονάδα os):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_DIO_READ_ALIGN (στη μονάδα os):  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_DIOALIGN (στη μονάδα os):        Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_GID (στη μονάδα os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_INO (στη μονάδα os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_MNT_ID (στη μονάδα os):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_MNT_ID_UNIQUE (στη μονάδα os):   Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_MODE (στη μονάδα os):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_MTIME (στη μονάδα os):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_NLINK (στη μονάδα os):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* statx_result (κλάση σε os):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1419)
* STATX_SIZE (στη μονάδα os):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_SUBVOL (στη μονάδα os):          Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_TYPE (στη μονάδα os):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_UID (στη μονάδα os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* STATX_WRITE_ATOMIC (στη μονάδα os):    Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1683)
* statx() (στη μονάδα os):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1391)
* STD_ERROR_HANDLE (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   18)
* STD_INPUT_HANDLE (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line    8)
* STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE (στη μονάδα subprocess): Windows Constants.
                                                             (line   13)
* stderr (in module sys):                Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  112)
* stderr (in module sys) <1>:            Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  198)
* stderr (ιδιότητα της asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  127)
* stderr (ιδιότητα της subprocess.CalledProcessError): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  229)
* stderr (ιδιότητα της subprocess.CompletedProcess): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  128)
* stderr (ιδιότητα της subprocess.Popen): Popen Objects.     (line  149)
* stderr (ιδιότητα της subprocess.TimeoutExpired): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  193)
* stderr (στη μονάδα sys):               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2108)
* stderr (στο module sys):               Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdev (ιδιότητα της statistics.NormalDist): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* stdev() (στη μονάδα statistics):       Function details.   (line  435)
* stdin (in module sys):                 Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  112)
* stdin (in module sys) <1>:             Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  198)
* stdin (ιδιότητα της asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  117)
* stdin (ιδιότητα της subprocess.Popen): Popen Objects.      (line  130)
* stdin (στη μονάδα sys):                sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2108)
* stdin (στο module sys):                Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdio:                                 Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line    6)
* stdlib:                                Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1816)
* stdlib_module_names (στη μονάδα sys):  sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2198)
* STDNAME (ιδιότητα της pstats.SortKey): The Stats class.    (line  226)
* stdout (in module sys):                Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  112)
* stdout (in module sys) <1>:            Multiple interpreters in a Python process.
                                                             (line  198)
* stdout (ιδιότητα της asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line  122)
* stdout (ιδιότητα της subprocess.CalledProcessError): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  225)
* stdout (ιδιότητα της subprocess.CompletedProcess): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  118)
* stdout (ιδιότητα της subprocess.Popen): Popen Objects.     (line  139)
* stdout (ιδιότητα της subprocess.TimeoutExpired): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  189)
* STDOUT (στη μονάδα subprocess):        Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  156)
* stdout (στη μονάδα sys):               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2108)
* stdout (στο module sys):               Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line    6)
* stem (ιδιότητα της pathlib.PurePath):  Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  167)
* step (pdb command):                    Debugger commands.  (line  206)
* step (ιδιότητα της range):             Εύρη Ranges.        (line   72)
* step (ιδιότητα της slice):             Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2003)
* step (χαρακτηριστικό αντικειμένου slice): Ακολουθίες.      (line   20)
* step (χαρακτηριστικό αντικειμένου slice) <1>: Αντικείμενα τμηματοποίησης.
                                                             (line   14)
* step() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Progressbar): ttk Progressbar.
                                                             (line   15)
* stls() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line  114)
* stop (ιδιότητα της range):             Εύρη Ranges.        (line   68)
* stop (ιδιότητα της slice):             Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2003)
* stop (χαρακτηριστικό αντικειμένου slice): Ακολουθίες.      (line   20)
* stop (χαρακτηριστικό αντικειμένου slice) <1>: Αντικείμενα τμηματοποίησης.
                                                             (line   14)
* stop_here() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):     bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  263)
* STOP_ITERATION (monitoring event):     Events.             (line   92)
* stop_trace() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):    bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  172)
* stop() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop):     Running and stopping the loop.
                                                             (line   31)
* stop() (μέθοδος της logging.handlers.QueueListener): QueueListener.
                                                             (line   90)
* stop() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Progressbar): ttk Progressbar.
                                                             (line   21)
* stop() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  326)
* stop() (στη μονάδα tracemalloc):       Functions<9>.       (line   97)
* StopAsyncIteration:                    Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  317)
* StopIteration:                         Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  286)
* stopListening() (στη μονάδα logging.config): Configuration functions.
                                                             (line  173)
* stopTest() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  350)
* stopTestRun() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  361)
* storbinary() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP): FTP objects.        (line  217)
* Store (κλάση σε ast):                  Variables.          (line   11)
* STORE_ACTIONS (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option): Adding new actions.
                                                             (line   34)
* STORE_ATTR (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  589)
* STORE_DEREF (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line 1033)
* STORE_FAST (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  983)
* STORE_FAST_LOAD_FAST (opcode):         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  994)
* STORE_FAST_STORE_FAST (opcode):        Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  987)
* STORE_GLOBAL (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  610)
* STORE_NAME (opcode):                   Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  547)
* STORE_SLICE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  298)
* STORE_SUBSCR (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  270)
* store() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line  396)
* storlines() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):  FTP objects.        (line  246)
* str (ενσωματωμένη (built-in) κλάση);(βλ. επίσης string): Εύρη Ranges.
                                                             (line  131)
* str (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):              Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str.
                                                             (line   48)
* str_digits_check_threshold (ιδιότητα της sys.int_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1276)
* str() (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  505)
* strategy (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  120)
* Strategy (κλάση σε compression.zstd):  Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  295)
* strcoll() (στη μονάδα locale):         locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  458)
* StreamError:                           tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  267)
* StreamHandler (κλάση σε logging):      StreamHandler.      (line   11)
* streamreader (ιδιότητα της codecs.CodecInfo): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  104)
* StreamReader (κλάση σε asyncio):       StreamReader.       (line    6)
* StreamReader (κλάση σε codecs):        StreamReader Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* StreamReaderWriter (κλάση σε codecs):  StreamReaderWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* StreamRecoder (κλάση σε codecs):       StreamRecoder Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* StreamRequestHandler (κλάση σε socketserver): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* streams:                               codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* streamwriter (ιδιότητα της codecs.CodecInfo): codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  104)
* StreamWriter (κλάση σε asyncio):       StreamWriter.       (line    6)
* StreamWriter (κλάση σε codecs):        StreamWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   10)
* StrEnum (κλάση σε enum):               Data types.         (line  438)
* strerror (C function):                 Raising exceptions. (line   62)
* strerror (ιδιότητα της OSError):       Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  196)
* strerror() (στη μονάδα os):            Process Parameters. (line  548)
* strftime() (μέθοδος της datetime.date): date objects.      (line  332)
* strftime() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  763)
* strftime() (μέθοδος της datetime.time): time objects.      (line  238)
* strftime() (στη μονάδα time):          Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  358)
* strict (ιδιότητα της csv.Dialect):     Διάλεκτοι και Παράμετροι Μορφοποίησης.
                                                             (line   96)
* STRICT (ιδιότητα της enum.FlagBoundary): Data types.       (line  716)
* strict (στη μονάδα email.policy):      email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  547)
* strict_domain (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line   95)
* strict_errors() (στη μονάδα codecs):   Error Handlers.     (line  141)
* strict_ns_domain (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* strict_ns_set_initial_dollar (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  122)
* strict_ns_set_path (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  127)
* strict_ns_unverifiable (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  112)
* strict_rfc2965_unverifiable (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects.
                                                             (line  103)
* strict;error handler's name:           Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* STRIDED (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.  (line   37)
* STRIDED_RO (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.
                                                             (line   39)
* STRIDES (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.  (line   23)
* strides (ιδιότητα της memoryview):     Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  500)
* string:                                Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1038)
* STRING (ιδιότητα της annotationlib.Format): Classes<2>.    (line   37)
* string (ιδιότητα της re.Match):        Match objects.      (line  209)
* STRING (στη μονάδα token):             token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   53)
* string_at() (στη μονάδα ctypes):       Utility functions.  (line  246)
* string;format() (ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση): Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  860)
* string;object representation:          Finalization and De-allocation.
                                                             (line   95)
* string;PyObject_Str (C function):      Object Protocol.    (line  407)
* string;str (ενσωματωμένη (built-in) κλάση): Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str.
                                                             (line   48)
* string;str() (ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση): Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2102)
* string;κυριολεκτικό με παρεμβολή:      Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1038)
* string;μέθοδοι:                        Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str.
                                                             (line   96)
* string;Μορφοποιημένα Literals:         Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου.
                                                             (line   99)
* string;μορφοποιημένη κυριολεξία:       Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1038)
* string;μορφοποίηση, printf:            printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* string;παρεμβαλλόμενα literal:         Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου.
                                                             (line   99)
* string;παρεμβολή, printf:              printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* string;τύπος ακολουθίας κειμένου:      Εύρη Ranges.        (line  131)
* StringIO (κλάση σε io):                Text I/O<2>.        (line  243)
* strings (ιδιότητα της string.templatelib.Template): Types. (line   45)
* strings, documentation:                Καθορισμός Συναρτήσεων.
                                                             (line   21)
* strings, documentation <1>:            Συμβολοσειρές Τεκμηρίωσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* strip_dirs() (μέθοδος της pstats.Stats): The Stats class.  (line   22)
* strip() (μέθοδος της bytearray):       Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  482)
* strip() (μέθοδος της bytes):           Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  482)
* strip() (μέθοδος της str):             Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  896)
* stripspaces (ιδιότητα της curses.textpad.Textbox): Textbox objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* strong reference:                      Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1820)
* strptime() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.date): date objects.
                                                             (line  102)
* strptime() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  262)
* strptime() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.time): time objects.
                                                             (line  147)
* strptime() (στη μονάδα time):          Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  526)
* strsignal() (στη μονάδα signal):       Module contents<4>. (line  325)
* Struct (κλάση σε struct):              Κλάσεις<3>.         (line    8)
* struct_time (κλάση σε time):           Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  564)
* structmember.h:                        Member types.       (line  122)
* Structure (κλάση σε ctypes):           Structured data types.
                                                             (line   36)
* strxfrm() (στη μονάδα locale):         locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  465)
* STX (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   24)
* stx_atime (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1425)
* stx_atime_ns (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1432)
* stx_atomic_write_segments_max (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1440)
* stx_atomic_write_unit_max (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1450)
* stx_atomic_write_unit_max_opt (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1460)
* stx_atomic_write_unit_min (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1471)
* stx_attributes (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1481)
* stx_attributes_mask (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1486)
* stx_blksize (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1491)
* stx_blocks (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1497)
* stx_btime (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1506)
* stx_btime_ns (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1513)
* stx_ctime (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1520)
* stx_ctime_ns (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1527)
* stx_dev (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1535)
* stx_dev_major (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1539)
* stx_dev_minor (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1543)
* stx_dio_mem_align (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1547)
* stx_dio_offset_align (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1557)
* stx_dio_read_offset_align (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1567)
* stx_gid (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1577)
* stx_ino (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1584)
* stx_mask (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1591)
* stx_mnt_id (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1597)
* stx_mode (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1607)
* stx_mtime (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1614)
* stx_mtime_ns (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1621)
* stx_nlink (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1629)
* stx_rdev (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1636)
* stx_rdev_major (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1640)
* stx_rdev_minor (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1644)
* stx_size (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1648)
* stx_subvol (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1657)
* stx_uid (ιδιότητα της os.statx_result): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1667)
* Style (κλάση σε tkinter.ttk):          Ttk Styling.        (line   20)
* Sub (κλάση σε ast):                    Expressions<2>.     (line   53)
* SUB (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  102)
* sub() (μέθοδος της re.Pattern):        Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* sub() (στη μονάδα operator):           operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  169)
* sub() (στη μονάδα re):                 Functions.          (line  187)
* subdirs (ιδιότητα της filecmp.dircmp): The dircmp class.   (line  104)
* SubElement() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  212)
* subgroup() (μέθοδος της BaseExceptionGroup): Exception groups.
                                                             (line   46)
* submit() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.Executor): Executor Objects.
                                                             (line   12)
* submodule_search_locations (ιδιότητα της importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line  420)
* subn() (μέθοδος της re.Pattern):       Regular expression objects.
                                                             (line  122)
* subn() (στη μονάδα re):                Functions.          (line  263)
* subnet_of() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  215)
* subnet_of() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  349)
* subnets() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  173)
* subnets() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  345)
* Subnormal (κλάση σε decimal):          Signals.            (line   88)
* suboffsets (ιδιότητα της memoryview):  Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  509)
* subpad() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line  535)
* subprocess_exec() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Running subprocesses.
                                                             (line   16)
* subprocess_shell() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop): Running subprocesses.
                                                             (line  118)
* SubprocessError:                       Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  162)
* SubprocessProtocol (κλάση σε asyncio): Base Protocols.     (line   24)
* SubprocessTransport (κλάση σε asyncio): Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   50)
* subscribe() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.    (line  420)
* subscript:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1836)
* Subscript (κλάση σε ast):              Subscripting.       (line    6)
* subscript;εκχώρηση:                    Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   17)
* subscript;λειτουργία:                  Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   22)
* subscription:                          Subscriptions and slicings.
                                                             (line    6)
* subsequent_indent (ιδιότητα της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  234)
* substitute() (μέθοδος της string.Template): Template strings $-strings.
                                                             (line   50)
* subTest() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.     (line  103)
* subtract() (μέθοδος της collections.Counter): Counter objects.
                                                             (line   93)
* subtract() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects. (line  541)
* subtraction:                           Binary arithmetic operations.
                                                             (line   91)
* subtype (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  280)
* subwin() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line  542)
* successful() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  219)
* suffix (ιδιότητα της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  137)
* suffix_map (ιδιότητα της mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes objects.
                                                             (line   23)
* suffix_map (στη μονάδα mimetypes):     mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  143)
* suffixes (ιδιότητα της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  153)
* suite:                                 Compound statements.
                                                             (line   18)
* suiteClass (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestLoader): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  202)
* sum_list():                            Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line  143)
* sum_sequence():                        Reference Count Details.
                                                             (line  170)
* sum_sequence() <1>:                    Exceptions<22>.     (line   65)
* summarize_address_range() (στη μονάδα ipaddress): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line   27)
* summarize() (μέθοδος της doctest.DocTestRunner): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line  134)
* sumprod() (στη μονάδα math):           Summation and product functions.
                                                             (line   62)
* SUNDAY (στη μονάδα calendar):          calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  450)
* super (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):            Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2143)
* super (ιδιότητα της pyclbr.Class):     Class Objects.      (line   42)
* supernet_of() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  226)
* supernet_of() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  351)
* supernet() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  199)
* supernet() (μέθοδος της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  347)
* supports_bytes_environ (στη μονάδα os): Process Parameters.
                                                             (line  554)
* supports_dir_fd (στη μονάδα os):       Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1798)
* supports_effective_ids (στη μονάδα os): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1823)
* supports_fd (στη μονάδα os):           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1842)
* supports_follow_symlinks (στη μονάδα os): Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1861)
* supports_unicode_filenames (στη μονάδα os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  599)
* SupportsAbs (κλάση σε typing):         Protocols<4>.       (line    9)
* SupportsBytes (κλάση σε typing):       Protocols<4>.       (line   14)
* SupportsComplex (κλάση σε typing):     Protocols<4>.       (line   18)
* SupportsFloat (κλάση σε typing):       Protocols<4>.       (line   22)
* SupportsIndex (κλάση σε typing):       Protocols<4>.       (line   26)
* SupportsInt (κλάση σε typing):         Protocols<4>.       (line   32)
* SupportsRound (κλάση σε typing):       Protocols<4>.       (line   36)
* suppress() (στη μονάδα contextlib):    Utilities.          (line  265)
* SuppressCrashReport (κλάση σε test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  787)
* surrogateescape;error handler's name:  Error Handlers.     (line   15)
* surrogatepass;error handler's name:    Error Handlers.     (line   73)
* SW_HIDE (στη μονάδα subprocess):       Windows Constants.  (line   23)
* SWAP (opcode):                         Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  183)
* swap_attr() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  390)
* swap_item() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  407)
* swapcase() (μέθοδος της bytearray):    Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  718)
* swapcase() (μέθοδος της bytes):        Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  718)
* swapcase() (μέθοδος της str):          Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  926)
* Symbol (κλάση σε symtable):            Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line  162)
* SymbolTable (κλάση σε symtable):       Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   49)
* SymbolTableType (κλάση σε symtable):   Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line    6)
* symlink_to() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Creating files and directories.
                                                             (line   45)
* symlink() (στη μονάδα os):             Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1884)
* symmetric_difference_update() (μέθοδος της set): Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  203)
* symmetric_difference() (μέθοδος της frozenset): Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  128)
* symmetric_difference() (μέθοδος της set): Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  128)
* symtable() (στη μονάδα symtable):      Generating Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line    6)
* SYMTYPE (στη μονάδα tarfile):          tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  340)
* SYN (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   90)
* sync() (μέθοδος της dbm.dumb.dumbdbm): dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation.
                                                             (line  100)
* sync() (μέθοδος της dbm.gnu.gdbm):     dbm gnu — GNU database manager.
                                                             (line  133)
* sync() (μέθοδος της shelve.Shelf):     shelve — Python object persistence.
                                                             (line   90)
* sync() (στη μονάδα os):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1933)
* syncdown() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  552)
* synchronization primitive:             Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1844)
* synchronized_iterator() (στη μονάδα threading): Iterator synchronization.
                                                             (line   70)
* synchronized() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing.sharedctypes): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line   96)
* SyncManager (κλάση σε multiprocessing.managers): Managers. (line  150)
* syncok() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line  558)
* syncup() (μέθοδος της curses.window):  Window Objects.     (line  563)
* SyntaxErr:                             Exceptions<21>.     (line   93)
* SyntaxError:                           Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  324)
* SyntaxWarning:                         Warnings.           (line   43)
* sys_version (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  188)
* sys.exc_info:                          Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.exception:                         Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.last_traceback:                    Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.meta_path:                         Το meta path.       (line    6)
* sys.modules:                           Η προσωρινή μνήμη του module.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.path:                              Finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής Path entry finders.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.path_hooks:                        Finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής Path entry finders.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.path_importer_cache:               Finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής Path entry finders.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.stderr:                            Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.stdin:                             Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line    6)
* sys.stdout:                            Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line    6)
* sysconf_names (στη μονάδα os):         Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   86)
* sysconf() (στη μονάδα os):             Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   76)
* syslog() (στη μονάδα syslog):          syslog — Unix syslog library routines.
                                                             (line   20)
* SysLogHandler (κλάση σε logging.handlers): SysLogHandler.  (line   10)
* system_alias() (στη μονάδα platform):  Cross Platform.     (line  149)
* system_must_validate_cert() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  479)
* system() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line  766)
* system() (στη μονάδα platform):        Cross Platform.     (line  138)
* SystemError:                           Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  386)
* SystemError (built-in exception):      Module Objects.     (line   67)
* SystemError (built-in exception) <1>:  Module Objects.     (line   97)
* SystemExit:                            Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  403)
* SystemExit (ενσωματωμένη εξαίρεση):    Εξαιρέσεις.         (line   29)
* systemId (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.DocumentType): DocumentType Objects.
                                                             (line   22)
* SystemRandom (κλάση σε random):        Εναλλακτική Γεννήτρια.
                                                             (line   59)
* SystemRandom (κλάση σε secrets):       Random numbers.     (line    9)
* T_BOOL (C macro):                      Member types.       (line  122)
* T_BYTE (C macro):                      Member types.       (line  122)
* T_CHAR (C macro):                      Member types.       (line  122)
* T_DOUBLE (C macro):                    Member types.       (line  122)
* T_FLOAT (C macro):                     Member types.       (line  122)
* T_FMT (στη μονάδα locale):             locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  216)
* T_FMT_AMPM (στη μονάδα locale):        locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  222)
* T_INT (C macro):                       Member types.       (line  122)
* T_LONG (C macro):                      Member types.       (line  122)
* T_LONGLONG (C macro):                  Member types.       (line  122)
* T_NONE (C macro):                      Member types.       (line  133)
* T_OBJECT (C macro):                    Member types.       (line  127)
* T_OBJECT_EX (C macro):                 Member types.       (line  122)
* T_PYSSIZET (C macro):                  Member types.       (line  122)
* T_SHORT (C macro):                     Member types.       (line  122)
* T_STRING (C macro):                    Member types.       (line  122)
* T_STRING_INPLACE (C macro):            Member types.       (line  122)
* T_UBYTE (C macro):                     Member types.       (line  122)
* T_UINT (C macro):                      Member types.       (line  122)
* T_ULONG (C macro):                     Member types.       (line  122)
* T_ULONGULONG (C macro):                Member types.       (line  122)
* T_USHORT (C macro):                    Member types.       (line  122)
* t-string:                              Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1857)
* t-strings:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1860)
* tab:                                   Εσοχή.              (line    6)
* TAB (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):         curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   45)
* tab() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.    (line   62)
* TabError:                              Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  381)
* tabs() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Notebook): ttk Notebook.   (line   71)
* tabsize (ιδιότητα της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  188)
* tag (ιδιότητα της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* tag_bind() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  293)
* tag_configure() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  299)
* tag_has() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.
                                                             (line  309)
* tagName (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Element): Element Objects<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* tail (ιδιότητα της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* take_bytes() (μέθοδος της bytearray):  Αντικείμενα Bytearray.
                                                             (line  112)
* take_snapshot() (στη μονάδα tracemalloc): Functions<9>.    (line  109)
* takewhile() (στη μονάδα itertools):    Itertool Functions. (line  567)
* tan() (στη μονάδα cmath):              Trigonometric functions<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* tan() (στη μονάδα math):               Trigonometric functions.
                                                             (line   38)
* tanh() (στη μονάδα cmath):             Hyperbolic functions<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* tanh() (στη μονάδα math):              Hyperbolic functions.
                                                             (line   29)
* tar_filter() (στη μονάδα tarfile):     Default named filters.
                                                             (line   15)
* TarError:                              tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  253)
* TarFile (κλάση σε tarfile):            TarFile Objects.    (line   22)
* tarfile command line option; -c:       Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* tarfile command line option; -create:  Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* tarfile command line option; -e:       Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* tarfile command line option; -extract: Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* tarfile command line option; -filter:  Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* tarfile command line option; -l:       Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* tarfile command line option; -list:    Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* tarfile command line option; -t:       Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* tarfile command line option; -test:    Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* tarfile command line option; -v:       Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* tarfile command line option; -verbose: Command-line options<2>.
                                                             (line   27)
* target (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction): ProcessingInstruction Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* target_length (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  104)
* target;list:                           The for statement.  (line    6)
* tarinfo (ιδιότητα της tarfile.FilterError): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  287)
* TarInfo (κλάση σε tarfile):            TarInfo Objects.    (line   33)
* Task (κλάση σε asyncio):               Task object.        (line    6)
* task_done() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Queue): Ουρά.             (line  126)
* task_done() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.JoinableQueue): Pipes and Queues.
                                                             (line  266)
* task_done() (μέθοδος της queue.Queue): Queue Objects.      (line   73)
* TaskGroup (κλάση σε asyncio):          Task groups.        (line    9)
* tau (στη μονάδα cmath):                Constants<3>.       (line   14)
* tau (στη μονάδα math):                 Constants<2>.       (line   14)
* tb_frame (ιδιότητα της traceback):     Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line   34)
* tb_frame (χαρακτηριστικό traceback):   Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line   32)
* tb_lasti (ιδιότητα της traceback):     Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line   45)
* tb_lasti (χαρακτηριστικό traceback):   Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line   32)
* tb_lineno (ιδιότητα της traceback):    Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line   42)
* tb_lineno (χαρακτηριστικό traceback):  Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line   32)
* tb_locals (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  310)
* tb_next (ιδιότητα της traceback):      Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line   53)
* tb_next (χαρακτηριστικό traceback):    Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line   53)
* tbreak (pdb command):                  Debugger commands.  (line  130)
* tcdrain() (στη μονάδα termios):        termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   65)
* tcflow() (στη μονάδα termios):         termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   76)
* tcflush() (στη μονάδα termios):        termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   70)
* tcgetattr() (στη μονάδα termios):      termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   28)
* tcgetpgrp() (στη μονάδα os):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  957)
* tcgetwinsize() (στη μονάδα termios):   termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   83)
* Tcl() (στη μονάδα tkinter):            Tkinter Modules.    (line   92)
* TCPServer (κλάση σε socketserver):     socketserver — A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line   20)
* TCSADRAIN (στη μονάδα termios):        termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   50)
* TCSAFLUSH (στη μονάδα termios):        termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   54)
* TCSANOW (στη μονάδα termios):          termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   46)
* tcsendbreak() (στη μονάδα termios):    termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   59)
* tcsetattr() (στη μονάδα termios):      termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   39)
* tcsetpgrp() (στη μονάδα os):           File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  964)
* tcsetwinsize() (στη μονάδα termios):   termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line   91)
* tearDown() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.    (line   39)
* tearDownClass() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestCase): Test cases.
                                                             (line   67)
* tearDownModule() (στη μονάδα unittest): setUpModule and tearDownModule.
                                                             (line    6)
* tee() (στη μονάδα itertools):          Itertool Functions. (line  586)
* teleport() (στη μονάδα turtle):        Turtle motion.      (line  104)
* tell() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):        I/O Base Classes.   (line  134)
* tell() (μέθοδος της io.TextIOBase):    Text I/O<2>.        (line   87)
* tell() (μέθοδος της io.TextIOWrapper): Text I/O<2>.        (line  237)
* tell() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):        mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  361)
* tell() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Blob):     Blob objects.       (line   59)
* tell() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_read):   Wave_read Objects.  (line   76)
* tell() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write):  Wave_write Objects. (line  123)
* TEMP:                                  tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  330)
* temp_cwd() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  137)
* temp_dir() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  152)
* temp_umask() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  162)
* tempdir (στη μονάδα tempfile):         tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  377)
* template (ιδιότητα της string.Template): Template strings $-strings.
                                                             (line   94)
* Template (κλάση σε string.templatelib): Types.             (line    6)
* Template (κλάση σε string):            Template strings $-strings.
                                                             (line   45)
* TemplateStr (κλάση σε ast):            Literals<2>.        (line   73)
* temporary (ιδιότητα της bdb.Breakpoint): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line   90)
* temporary;file:                        tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line    8)
* temporary;file name:                   tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line    8)
* TemporaryDirectory (κλάση σε tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  184)
* TemporaryFile() (στη μονάδα tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line   28)
* teredo (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  324)
* TERM:                                  Functions<4>.       (line  500)
* TERM <1>:                              Functions<4>.       (line  526)
* termattrs() (στη μονάδα curses):       Functions<4>.       (line  518)
* terminal_size (κλάση σε os):           Querying the size of a terminal.
                                                             (line   25)
* terminate_workers() (μέθοδος της concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor): ProcessPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line   97)
* terminate() (μέθοδος της asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   97)
* terminate() (μέθοδος της asyncio.SubprocessTransport): Subprocess Transports.
                                                             (line   49)
* terminate() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.Pool): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  180)
* terminate() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.Process): Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  224)
* terminate() (μέθοδος της subprocess.Popen): Popen Objects. (line  108)
* terminator (ιδιότητα της logging.StreamHandler): StreamHandler.
                                                             (line   47)
* termname() (στη μονάδα curses):        Functions<4>.       (line  524)
* ternary;operator:                      Conditional expressions.
                                                             (line    6)
* ternaryfunc (C type):                  Slot Type typedefs. (line  121)
* test (ιδιότητα της doctest.DocTestFailure): Debugging.     (line  195)
* test (ιδιότητα της doctest.UnexpectedException): Debugging.
                                                             (line  216)
* TEST_DATA_DIR (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  153)
* TEST_HOME_DIR (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  149)
* TEST_HTTP_URL (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  187)
* TEST_SUPPORT_DIR (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  145)
* TestCase (κλάση σε unittest):          Test cases.         (line    6)
* TestFailed:                            test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   16)
* testfile() (στη μονάδα doctest):       Basic API.          (line   12)
* TESTFN (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   18)
* TESTFN_NONASCII (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   24)
* TESTFN_UNDECODABLE (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   38)
* TESTFN_UNENCODABLE (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   32)
* TESTFN_UNICODE (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   44)
* TestLoader (κλάση σε unittest):        Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line    6)
* testMethodPrefix (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestLoader): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  188)
* testmod() (στη μονάδα doctest):        Basic API.          (line   90)
* testNamePatterns (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestLoader): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  210)
* TestResult (κλάση σε unittest):        Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  227)
* TestResults (κλάση σε doctest):        TestResults objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* testsource() (στη μονάδα doctest):     Debugging.          (line  106)
* testsRun (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  288)
* TestSuite (κλάση σε unittest):         Grouping tests.     (line    6)
* testzip() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects.  (line  266)
* text (ιδιότητα της ctypes.COMError):   Exceptions<9>.      (line   19)
* text (ιδιότητα της SyntaxError):       Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  351)
* text (ιδιότητα της traceback.TracebackException): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line  106)
* text (ιδιότητα της xml.etree.ElementTree.Element): Element Objects.
                                                             (line   26)
* Text (κλάση σε typing):                Aliases to other concrete types.
                                                             (line   21)
* text_encoding() (στη μονάδα io):       High-level Module Interface.
                                                             (line   38)
* text_factory (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  801)
* Textbox (κλάση σε curses.textpad):     Textbox objects.    (line    8)
* TextCalendar (κλάση σε calendar):      calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  149)
* textdomain() (στη μονάδα gettext):     GNU gettext API.    (line   26)
* textdomain() (στη μονάδα locale):      Access to message catalogs.
                                                             (line   12)
* textinput() (στη μονάδα turtle):       Input methods.      (line    6)
* TextIO (κλάση σε typing):              ABCs and Protocols for working with I/O.
                                                             (line    6)
* TextIOBase (κλάση σε io):              Text I/O<2>.        (line    6)
* TextIOWrapper (κλάση σε io):           Text I/O<2>.        (line   98)
* TextTestResult (κλάση σε unittest):    Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  445)
* TextTestRunner (κλάση σε unittest):    Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  462)
* TextWrapper (κλάση σε textwrap):       textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  153)
* TFD_CLOEXEC (στη μονάδα os):           Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  202)
* TFD_NONBLOCK (στη μονάδα os):          Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  191)
* TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME (στη μονάδα os):     Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  212)
* TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET (στη μονάδα os): Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  223)
* theme_create() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Style): Ttk Styling.
                                                             (line  260)
* theme_names() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Style): Ttk Styling.
                                                             (line  308)
* theme_settings() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Style): Ttk Styling.
                                                             (line  270)
* theme_use() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Style): Ttk Styling.  (line  312)
* THOUSEP (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  285)
* Thread (κλάση σε threading):           Thread objects.     (line   56)
* thread_info (στη μονάδα sys):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2217)
* thread_inherit_context (ιδιότητα της sys.flags): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  635)
* thread_time_ns() (στη μονάδα time):    Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  690)
* thread_time() (στη μονάδα time):       Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  671)
* thread_unsafe() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  560)
* thread-safe:                           Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1921)
* thread() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):  IMAP4 Objects.      (line  424)
* threading_cleanup() (στη μονάδα test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   31)
* threading_setup() (στη μονάδα test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   37)
* ThreadingHTTPServer (κλάση σε http.server): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   37)
* ThreadingHTTPSServer (κλάση σε http.server): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line   82)
* ThreadingMixIn (κλάση σε socketserver): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   27)
* ThreadingMock (κλάση σε unittest.mock): The Mock Class.    (line  951)
* ThreadingTCPServer (κλάση σε socketserver): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   72)
* ThreadingUDPServer (κλάση σε socketserver): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   72)
* ThreadingUnixDatagramServer (κλάση σε socketserver): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   72)
* ThreadingUnixStreamServer (κλάση σε socketserver): Server Creation Notes.
                                                             (line   72)
* ThreadPool (κλάση σε multiprocessing.pool): The multiprocessing dummy module.
                                                             (line   14)
* ThreadPoolExecutor (κλάση σε concurrent.futures): ThreadPoolExecutor.
                                                             (line   41)
* threads;POSIX:                         _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line   16)
* threadsafety (στη μονάδα sqlite3):     Module constants.   (line   98)
* throw() (μέθοδος της coroutine):       Coroutine Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   34)
* throw() (μέθοδος της generator):       Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   37)
* THURSDAY (στη μονάδα calendar):        calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  450)
* ticket_lifetime_hint (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLSession): SSL session.
                                                             (line   18)
* tigetflag() (στη μονάδα curses):       Functions<4>.       (line  529)
* tigetnum() (στη μονάδα curses):        Functions<4>.       (line  536)
* tigetstr() (στη μονάδα curses):        Functions<4>.       (line  543)
* TILDE (στη μονάδα token):              token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  280)
* tilt() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Appearance.         (line  101)
* tiltangle() (στη μονάδα turtle):       Appearance.         (line  117)
* TIME (ιδιότητα της pstats.SortKey):    The Stats class.    (line  230)
* time (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLSession):    SSL session.        (line   14)
* time (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):         uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  130)
* time (κλάση σε datetime):              time objects.       (line   10)
* time_hi_version (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  114)
* time_low (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  106)
* time_mid (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):     uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  110)
* time_ns() (στη μονάδα time):           Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  664)
* time() (μέθοδος της asyncio.loop):     Scheduling delayed callbacks.
                                                             (line   64)
* time() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.  (line  451)
* time() (στη μονάδα time):              Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  623)
* Time2Internaldate() (στη μονάδα imaplib): imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client.
                                                             (line  127)
* timedelta (κλάση σε datetime):         timedelta objects.  (line    9)
* TimedRotatingFileHandler (κλάση σε logging.handlers): TimedRotatingFileHandler.
                                                             (line   10)
* timegm() (στη μονάδα calendar):        calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  422)
* timeit command line option; -h:        Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   52)
* timeit command line option; -help:     Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   52)
* timeit command line option; -n:        Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   13)
* timeit command line option; -number:   Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   13)
* timeit command line option; -p:        Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   25)
* timeit command line option; -process:  Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   25)
* timeit command line option; -r:        Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   17)
* timeit command line option; -repeat:   Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   17)
* timeit command line option; -s:        Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   21)
* timeit command line option; -setup:    Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   21)
* timeit command line option; -t:        Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   40)
* timeit command line option; -target-time: Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   40)
* timeit command line option; -u:        Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   33)
* timeit command line option; -unit:     Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   33)
* timeit command line option; -v:        Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   47)
* timeit command line option; -verbose:  Command-line interface<11>.
                                                             (line   47)
* timeit() (μέθοδος της timeit.Timer):   Python interface.   (line   78)
* timeit() (στη μονάδα timeit):          Python interface.   (line    8)
* timeout:                               Exceptions<16>.     (line   40)
* timeout (ιδιότητα της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  117)
* timeout (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLSession): SSL session.        (line   16)
* timeout (ιδιότητα της subprocess.TimeoutExpired): Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  177)
* Timeout (κλάση σε asyncio):            Timeouts.           (line   50)
* timeout_at() (στη μονάδα asyncio):     Timeouts.           (line  102)
* TIMEOUT_MAX (στη μονάδα _thread):      _thread — Low-level threading API.
                                                             (line  137)
* TIMEOUT_MAX (στη μονάδα threading):    Reference<2>.       (line  186)
* timeout() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.     (line  568)
* timeout() (στη μονάδα asyncio):        Timeouts.           (line    6)
* TimeoutError:                          OS exceptions.      (line  112)
* TimeoutError <1>:                      Process and exceptions.
                                                             (line  296)
* TimeoutError <2>:                      Exception classes.  (line   10)
* TimeoutError <3>:                      Exceptions<14>.     (line   10)
* TimeoutExpired:                        Using the subprocess Module.
                                                             (line  168)
* Timer (κλάση σε threading):            Timer objects.      (line   25)
* Timer (κλάση σε timeit):               Python interface.   (line   45)
* timerfd_create() (στη μονάδα os):      Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   11)
* timerfd_gettime_ns() (στη μονάδα os):  Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  182)
* timerfd_gettime() (στη μονάδα os):     Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  162)
* timerfd_settime_ns() (στη μονάδα os):  Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line  151)
* timerfd_settime() (στη μονάδα os):     Timer File Descriptors.
                                                             (line   83)
* TimerHandle (κλάση σε asyncio):        Callback handles.   (line   29)
* times() (στη μονάδα os):               Process Management. (line  802)
* TIMESTAMP (ιδιότητα της py_compile.PycInvalidationMode): py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line  102)
* timestamp() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  605)
* timetuple() (μέθοδος της datetime.date): date objects.     (line  242)
* timetuple() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  559)
* timetz() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  460)
* timezone (κλάση σε datetime):          timezone objects.   (line   14)
* timezone (στη μονάδα time):            Σταθερές ζώνης ώρας.
                                                             (line   20)
* title() (μέθοδος της bytearray):       Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  744)
* title() (μέθοδος της bytes):           Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  744)
* title() (μέθοδος της str):             Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  942)
* title() (στη μονάδα turtle):           Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.
                                                             (line   68)
* Tk:                                    Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* tk (ιδιότητα της tkinter.Tk):          Tkinter Modules.    (line   68)
* Tk (κλάση σε tkinter):                 Tkinter Modules.    (line   13)
* Tk Option Data Types:                  Tk Option Data Types.
                                                             (line    6)
* Tkinter:                               Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* TLS:                                   ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* TLSv1 (ιδιότητα της ssl.TLSVersion):   Constants<9>.       (line  585)
* TLSv1_1 (ιδιότητα της ssl.TLSVersion): Constants<9>.       (line  587)
* TLSv1_2 (ιδιότητα της ssl.TLSVersion): Constants<9>.       (line  589)
* TLSv1_3 (ιδιότητα της ssl.TLSVersion): Constants<9>.       (line  591)
* TLSVersion (κλάση σε ssl):             Constants<9>.       (line  567)
* tm_gmtoff (ιδιότητα της time.struct_time): Συναρτήσεις<2>. (line  607)
* tm_hour (ιδιότητα της time.struct_time): Συναρτήσεις<2>.   (line  584)
* tm_isdst (ιδιότητα της time.struct_time): Συναρτήσεις<2>.  (line  601)
* tm_mday (ιδιότητα της time.struct_time): Συναρτήσεις<2>.   (line  581)
* tm_min (ιδιότητα της time.struct_time): Συναρτήσεις<2>.    (line  587)
* tm_mon (ιδιότητα της time.struct_time): Συναρτήσεις<2>.    (line  578)
* tm_sec (ιδιότητα της time.struct_time): Συναρτήσεις<2>.    (line  590)
* tm_wday (ιδιότητα της time.struct_time): Συναρτήσεις<2>.   (line  595)
* tm_yday (ιδιότητα της time.struct_time): Συναρτήσεις<2>.   (line  598)
* tm_year (ιδιότητα της time.struct_time): Συναρτήσεις<2>.   (line  575)
* tm_zone (ιδιότητα της time.struct_time): Συναρτήσεις<2>.   (line  604)
* TMP:                                   tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  332)
* TMPDIR:                                Library<15>.        (line 1027)
* TMPDIR <1>:                            Tests<31>.          (line   68)
* TMPDIR <2>:                            tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  328)
* TO_BOOL (opcode):                      Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  240)
* to_bytes() (μέθοδος της int):          Περαιτέρω Μέθοδοι των Ακέραιων Τύπων.
                                                             (line   58)
* to_eng_string() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  545)
* to_eng_string() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  585)
* to_integral_exact() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  555)
* to_integral_exact() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  604)
* to_integral_value() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  612)
* to_integral() (μέθοδος της decimal.Decimal): Decimal objects.
                                                             (line  598)
* to_sci_string() (μέθοδος της decimal.Context): Context objects.
                                                             (line  559)
* to_thread() (στη μονάδα asyncio):      Running in threads. (line    6)
* ToASCII() (στη μονάδα encodings.idna): encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   54)
* tobuf() (μέθοδος της tarfile.TarInfo): TarInfo Objects.    (line   49)
* tobytes() (μέθοδος της array.array):   array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  273)
* tobytes() (μέθοδος της memoryview):    Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  174)
* today() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.date): date objects.  (line   29)
* today() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* tofile() (μέθοδος της array.array):    array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  282)
* tok_name (στη μονάδα token):           token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line   25)
* token:                                 Λεξική ανάλυση.     (line    6)
* token (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex):      shlex Objects.      (line  173)
* Token (κλάση σε contextvars):          Context Variables.  (line  103)
* token DEDENT:                          Εσοχή.              (line   37)
* token INDENT:                          Εσοχή.              (line   37)
* token NEWLINE:                         Λογικές γραμμές.    (line    6)
* token_bytes() (στη μονάδα secrets):    Generating tokens.  (line   10)
* token_hex() (στη μονάδα secrets):      Generating tokens.  (line   20)
* token_urlsafe() (στη μονάδα secrets):  Generating tokens.  (line   31)
* TokenError:                            Tokenizing input.   (line  103)
* tokenize command line option; -e:      Command-line usage<6>.
                                                             (line   19)
* tokenize command line option; -exact:  Command-line usage<6>.
                                                             (line   19)
* tokenize command line option; -h:      Command-line usage<6>.
                                                             (line   15)
* tokenize command line option; -help:   Command-line usage<6>.
                                                             (line   15)
* tokenize() (στη μονάδα tokenize):      Tokenizing input.   (line    8)
* tolist() (μέθοδος της array.array):    array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  287)
* tolist() (μέθοδος της memoryview):     Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  219)
* TOMLDecodeError:                       tomllib — Parse TOML files.
                                                             (line   68)
* toordinal() (μέθοδος της datetime.date): date objects.     (line  257)
* toordinal() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  600)
* top_panel() (στη μονάδα curses.panel): Functions<5>.       (line   19)
* top() (μέθοδος της curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.     (line   53)
* top() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):       POP3 Objects.       (line   87)
* TopologicalSorter (κλάση σε graphlib): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures.
                                                             (line   10)
* toprettyxml() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.minidom.Node): DOM Objects.
                                                             (line   72)
* toreadonly() (μέθοδος της memoryview): Όψεις Μνήμης.       (line  236)
* tostring() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  231)
* tostringlist() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.
                                                             (line  253)
* total_changes (ιδιότητα της sqlite3.Connection): Connection objects.
                                                             (line  811)
* total_nframe (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Traceback): Traceback.
                                                             (line   28)
* total_ordering() (στη μονάδα functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  276)
* total_seconds() (μέθοδος της datetime.timedelta): timedelta objects.
                                                             (line  251)
* total() (μέθοδος της collections.Counter): Counter objects.
                                                             (line  112)
* touch() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):    Creating files and directories.
                                                             (line    6)
* touchline() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.   (line  578)
* touchwin() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.    (line  585)
* tounicode() (μέθοδος της array.array): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  291)
* ToUnicode() (στη μονάδα encodings.idna): encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications.
                                                             (line   59)
* towards() (στη μονάδα turtle):         Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line   15)
* toxml() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.minidom.Node): DOM Objects.   (line   52)
* tparm() (στη μονάδα curses):           Functions<4>.       (line  550)
* Trace (κλάση σε trace):                Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή.
                                                             (line    6)
* Trace (κλάση σε tracemalloc):          Trace.              (line    6)
* trace command line option; -c:         Κύριες επιλογές.    (line   12)
* trace command line option; -C:         Τροποποιητές.       (line   11)
* trace command line option; -count:     Κύριες επιλογές.    (line   12)
* trace command line option; -coverdir:  Τροποποιητές.       (line   11)
* trace command line option; -f:         Τροποποιητές.       (line    6)
* trace command line option; -file:      Τροποποιητές.       (line    6)
* trace command line option; -g:         Τροποποιητές.       (line   35)
* trace command line option; -help:      Οδηγίες χρήσης γραμμής εντολών.
                                                             (line   15)
* trace command line option; -ignore-dir: Φίλτρα.            (line   14)
* trace command line option; -ignore-module: Φίλτρα.         (line    8)
* trace command line option; -l:         Κύριες επιλογές.    (line   23)
* trace command line option; -listfuncs: Κύριες επιλογές.    (line   23)
* trace command line option; -m:         Τροποποιητές.       (line   17)
* trace command line option; -missing:   Τροποποιητές.       (line   17)
* trace command line option; -no-report: Τροποποιητές.       (line   28)
* trace command line option; -r:         Κύριες επιλογές.    (line   27)
* trace command line option; -R:         Τροποποιητές.       (line   28)
* trace command line option; -report:    Κύριες επιλογές.    (line   27)
* trace command line option; -s:         Τροποποιητές.       (line   22)
* trace command line option; -summary:   Τροποποιητές.       (line   22)
* trace command line option; -t:         Κύριες επιλογές.    (line   19)
* trace command line option; -T:         Κύριες επιλογές.    (line   34)
* trace command line option; -timing:    Τροποποιητές.       (line   35)
* trace command line option; -trace:     Κύριες επιλογές.    (line   19)
* trace command line option; -trackcalls: Κύριες επιλογές.   (line   34)
* trace command line option; -version:   Οδηγίες χρήσης γραμμής εντολών.
                                                             (line   19)
* trace function:                        Reference<2>.       (line  118)
* trace function <1>:                    Reference<2>.       (line  134)
* trace function <2>:                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1042)
* trace function <3>:                    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1864)
* trace_dispatch() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  185)
* trace() (στη μονάδα inspect):          The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line  184)
* traceback (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Statistic): Statistic. (line   23)
* traceback (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.StatisticDiff): StatisticDiff.
                                                             (line   38)
* traceback (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Trace): Trace.         (line   27)
* Traceback (κλάση σε inspect):          The interpreter stack.
                                                             (line   55)
* Traceback (κλάση σε tracemalloc):      Traceback.          (line    6)
* traceback_limit (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot.
                                                             (line   83)
* traceback_limit (ιδιότητα της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  220)
* TracebackException (κλάση σε traceback): TracebackException Objects.
                                                             (line   15)
* tracebacklimit (στη μονάδα sys):       sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2253)
* TracebackType (κλάση σε types):        Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  202)
* tracer() (στη μονάδα turtle):          Animation control.  (line   36)
* traces (ιδιότητα της tracemalloc.Snapshot): Snapshot.      (line   89)
* trailing;comma:                        Expression lists.   (line   29)
* train_dict() (στη μονάδα compression.zstd): Zstandard dictionaries.
                                                             (line    6)
* transfercmd() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP): FTP objects.       (line  256)
* transient_internet() (στη μονάδα test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests.
                                                             (line   64)
* translate() (μέθοδος της bytearray):   Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  290)
* translate() (μέθοδος της bytes):       Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  290)
* translate() (μέθοδος της str):         Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  979)
* translate() (στη μονάδα fnmatch):      fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching.
                                                             (line   91)
* translate() (στη μονάδα glob):         glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion.
                                                             (line  122)
* translation() (στη μονάδα gettext):    Class-based API.    (line   43)
* transport (ιδιότητα της asyncio.StreamWriter): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   60)
* Transport (κλάση σε asyncio):          Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   29)
* Transport Layer Security:              ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* traps (ιδιότητα της decimal.Context):  Context objects.    (line  141)
* Traversable (κλάση σε importlib.resources.abc): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line   89)
* TraversableResources (κλάση σε importlib.resources.abc): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources.
                                                             (line  161)
* traverseproc (C type):                 Traversal.          (line    8)
* TreeBuilder (κλάση σε xml.etree.ElementTree): TreeBuilder Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* Treeview (κλάση σε tkinter.ttk):       ttk Treeview.       (line    6)
* triangular() (στη μονάδα random):      Πραγματικές κατανομές.
                                                             (line   26)
* tries (ιδιότητα της doctest.DocTestRunner): DocTestRunner objects.
                                                             (line  146)
* True:                                  numbers Integral.   (line   28)
* true:                                  Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής.
                                                             (line   10)
* True <1>:                              Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής.
                                                             (line   26)
* True <2>:                              Τύπος Boolean - bool.
                                                             (line    9)
* True (ενσωματωμένη μεταβλητή):         Built-in Constants. (line   13)
* truediv() (στη μονάδα operator):       operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  174)
* trunc() (στη μονάδα math):             Floating point arithmetic.
                                                             (line  113)
* trunc() (στο module math):             Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line  131)
* truncate() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):    I/O Base Classes.   (line  138)
* truncate() (στη μονάδα os):            Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1941)
* truth() (στη μονάδα operator):         operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line   57)
* Try (κλάση σε ast):                    Control flow.       (line  130)
* TryStar (κλάση σε ast):                Control flow.       (line  173)
* TSTRING_END (στη μονάδα token):        token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  144)
* TSTRING_MIDDLE (στη μονάδα token):     token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  132)
* TSTRING_START (στη μονάδα token):      token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  121)
* ttk:                                   tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets.
                                                             (line    8)
* tty;I/O control:                       termios — POSIX style tty control.
                                                             (line    6)
* ttyname() (στη μονάδα os):             File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  972)
* TUESDAY (στη μονάδα calendar):         calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  450)
* tuple (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):            Πλειάδες Tuples.    (line   13)
* Tuple (κλάση σε ast):                  Literals<2>.        (line  136)
* Tuple (στη μονάδα typing):             Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   50)
* Turtle (κλάση σε turtle):              Public classes.     (line   16)
* turtles() (στη μονάδα turtle):         Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line  110)
* TurtleScreen (κλάση σε turtle):        Public classes.     (line   22)
* turtlesize() (στη μονάδα turtle):      Appearance.         (line   52)
* type (ενσωματωμένη κλάση):             Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2247)
* type (ιδιότητα της ctypes.CField):     Structured data types.
                                                             (line  251)
* type (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option):   Option attributes.  (line   27)
* type (ιδιότητα της socket.socket):     Socket Objects.     (line  619)
* type (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo):   TarInfo Objects.    (line   86)
* type (ιδιότητα της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   21)
* Type (κλάση σε typing):                Aliases to built-in types.
                                                             (line   61)
* type alias:                            Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1963)
* type hint:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1985)
* type parameters:                       Type parameter lists.
                                                             (line   11)
* TYPE_ALIAS (ιδιότητα της symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   31)
* type_check_only() (στη μονάδα typing): Functions and decorators.
                                                             (line  433)
* TYPE_CHECKER (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option): Adding new types.
                                                             (line   16)
* TYPE_CHECKING (στη μονάδα typing):     Constant.           (line    6)
* type_comment (ιδιότητα της ast.arg):   Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line   74)
* type_comment (ιδιότητα της ast.Assign): Statements.        (line   15)
* type_comment (ιδιότητα της ast.For):   Control flow.       (line   54)
* type_comment (ιδιότητα της ast.FunctionDef): Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line   25)
* type_comment (ιδιότητα της ast.With):  Control flow.       (line  236)
* TYPE_COMMENT (στη μονάδα token):       token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  177)
* TYPE_IGNORE (στη μονάδα token):        token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  170)
* TYPE_PARAMETERS (ιδιότητα της symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   35)
* type_repr() (στη μονάδα annotationlib): Functions<10>.     (line  226)
* TYPE_VARIABLE (ιδιότητα της symtable.SymbolTableType): Examining Symbol Tables.
                                                             (line   40)
* typeahead() (στη μονάδα curses):       Functions<4>.       (line  558)
* TypeAlias (κλάση σε ast):              Statements.         (line  162)
* TypeAlias (στη μονάδα typing):         Special types.      (line  198)
* TypeAliasType (κλάση σε typing):       Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  603)
* typecode (ιδιότητα της array.array):   array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  148)
* typecodes (στη μονάδα array):          array — Efficient arrays of numeric values.
                                                             (line  114)
* TYPED_ACTIONS (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option): Adding new actions.
                                                             (line   38)
* typed_subpart_iterator() (στη μονάδα email.iterators): email iterators Iterators.
                                                             (line   26)
* TypedDict (κλάση σε typing):           Other special directives.
                                                             (line  258)
* TypeError:                             Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  430)
* TypeForm (στη μονάδα typing):          Special forms.      (line  443)
* TypeGuard (στη μονάδα typing):         Special forms.      (line  562)
* TypeIgnore (κλάση σε ast):             Type annotations.   (line    6)
* TypeIs (στη μονάδα typing):            Special forms.      (line  472)
* TYPES (ιδιότητα της optparse.Option):  Adding new types.   (line   11)
* types_map (ιδιότητα της mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes objects.
                                                             (line   39)
* types_map (στη μονάδα mimetypes):      mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types.
                                                             (line  155)
* types_map_inv (ιδιότητα της mimetypes.MimeTypes): MimeTypes objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* TypeVar (κλάση σε ast):                Type parameters.    (line    9)
* TypeVar (κλάση σε typing):             Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line   54)
* TypeVarTuple (κλάση σε ast):           Type parameters.    (line   64)
* TypeVarTuple (κλάση σε typing):        Building generic types and type aliases.
                                                             (line  254)
* TZ:                                    Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  700)
* TZ <1>:                                Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  702)
* TZ <2>:                                Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  711)
* TZ <3>:                                Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  716)
* TZ <4>:                                Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  718)
* TZ <5>:                                Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  785)
* tzinfo (ιδιότητα της datetime.datetime): datetime objects. (line  340)
* tzinfo (ιδιότητα της datetime.time):   time objects.       (line   66)
* tzinfo (κλάση σε datetime):            tzinfo objects.     (line    6)
* tzname (στη μονάδα time):              Σταθερές ζώνης ώρας.
                                                             (line   27)
* tzname() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  553)
* tzname() (μέθοδος της datetime.time):  time objects.       (line  272)
* tzname() (μέθοδος της datetime.timezone): timezone objects.
                                                             (line   42)
* tzname() (μέθοδος της datetime.tzinfo): tzinfo objects.    (line  124)
* TZPATH (στη μονάδα zoneinfo):          Globals.            (line    6)
* tzset() (στη μονάδα time):             Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  697)
* U (στη μονάδα re):                     Flags.              (line  117)
* u';λεκτικό συμβολοσειράς:              Συμβολοσειρές τριπλού εισαγωγικού.
                                                             (line   24)
* u";λεκτικό συμβολοσειράς:              Συμβολοσειρές τριπλού εισαγωγικού.
                                                             (line   23)
* UAdd (κλάση σε ast):                   Expressions<2>.     (line   27)
* ucd_3_2_0 (στη μονάδα unicodedata):    unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  255)
* udata (ιδιότητα της select.kevent):    Kevent Objects.     (line  179)
* UDPServer (κλάση σε socketserver):     socketserver — A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line   33)
* UF_APPEND (στη μονάδα stat):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  352)
* UF_COMPRESSED (στη μονάδα stat):       stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  364)
* UF_DATAVAULT (στη μονάδα stat):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  374)
* UF_HIDDEN (στη μονάδα stat):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  380)
* UF_IMMUTABLE (στη μονάδα stat):        stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  348)
* UF_NODUMP (στη μονάδα stat):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  344)
* UF_NOUNLINK (στη μονάδα stat):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  360)
* UF_OPAQUE (στη μονάδα stat):           stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  356)
* UF_SETTABLE (στη μονάδα stat):         stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  338)
* UF_TRACKED (στη μονάδα stat):          stat — Interpreting stat results.
                                                             (line  368)
* uid (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo):    TarInfo Objects.    (line  105)
* UID (κλάση σε plistlib):               plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files.
                                                             (line  142)
* uid() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):     IMAP4 Objects.      (line  447)
* uidl() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line   99)
* ULONG_MAX (C macro):                   Integer Objects.    (line  277)
* ulp() (στη μονάδα math):               Floating point manipulation functions.
                                                             (line  133)
* umask() (στη μονάδα os):               Process Parameters. (line  561)
* unalias (pdb command):                 Debugger commands.  (line  406)
* uname (ιδιότητα της tarfile.TarInfo):  TarInfo Objects.    (line  121)
* uname() (στη μονάδα os):               Process Parameters. (line  568)
* uname() (στη μονάδα platform):         Cross Platform.     (line  166)
* UNARY_INVERT (opcode):                 Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  224)
* UNARY_NEGATIVE (opcode):               Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  213)
* UNARY_NOT (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  217)
* unary;arithmetic;operation:            Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* unary;bitwise;operation:               Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations.
                                                             (line    6)
* unaryfunc (C type):                    Slot Type typedefs. (line  107)
* UnaryOp (κλάση σε ast):                Expressions<2>.     (line   22)
* UnboundLocalError:                     Επίλυση ονομάτων.   (line   18)
* UnboundLocalError <1>:                 Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  448)
* unbuffered I/O:                        Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1588)
* UNC paths;and os.makedirs():           Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  548)
* uncancel() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Task): Task object.        (line  275)
* UNCHECKED_HASH (ιδιότητα της py_compile.PycInvalidationMode): py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line  115)
* unconsumed_tail (ιδιότητα της zlib.Decompress): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  274)
* unctrl() (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):    curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  228)
* unctrl() (στη μονάδα curses):          Functions<4>.       (line  570)
* Underflow (κλάση σε decimal):          Signals.            (line   95)
* undisplay (pdb command):               Debugger commands.  (line  354)
* undo() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Turtle motion.      (line  325)
* undobufferentries() (στη μονάδα turtle): Special Turtle methods.
                                                             (line   86)
* undoc_header (ιδιότητα της cmd.Cmd):   Cmd Objects.        (line  165)
* unescape() (στη μονάδα html):          html — HyperText Markup Language support.
                                                             (line   24)
* unescape() (στη μονάδα xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   28)
* UnexpectedException:                   Debugging.          (line  208)
* unexpectedSuccesses (ιδιότητα της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  271)
* unfreeze() (στη μονάδα gc):            gc — Garbage Collector interface.
                                                             (line  246)
* unget_wch() (στη μονάδα curses):       Functions<4>.       (line  591)
* ungetch() (στη μονάδα curses):         Functions<4>.       (line  577)
* ungetch() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):         Console I/O.        (line   45)
* ungetmouse() (στη μονάδα curses):      Functions<4>.       (line  600)
* ungetwch() (στη μονάδα msvcrt):        Console I/O.        (line   51)
* unhexlify() (στη μονάδα binascii):     binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  350)
* Unicode:                               Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   16)
* Unicode <1>:                           unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line    6)
* Unicode <2>:                           codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line    8)
* UNICODE (στη μονάδα re):               Flags.              (line  117)
* unicode_literals (στη μονάδα __future__): Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* Unicode;database:                      unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnicodeDecodeError:                    Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  496)
* UnicodeEncodeError:                    Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  491)
* UnicodeError:                          Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  454)
* UnicodeTranslateError:                 Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  501)
* UnicodeWarning:                        Warnings.           (line   68)
* unidata_version (στη μονάδα unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database.
                                                             (line  251)
* unified_diff() (στη μονάδα difflib):   difflib — Helpers for computing deltas.
                                                             (line  291)
* uniform() (στη μονάδα random):         Πραγματικές κατανομές.
                                                             (line   17)
* UnimplementedFileMode:                 http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  164)
* Union (κλάση σε ctypes):               Structured data types.
                                                             (line    6)
* Union (κλάση σε typing):               Special forms.      (line    9)
* union() (μέθοδος της frozenset):       Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  104)
* union() (μέθοδος της set):             Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  104)
* UnionType (κλάση σε types):            Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  193)
* UNIQUE (ιδιότητα της enum.EnumCheck):  Data types.         (line  658)
* unique() (στη μονάδα enum):            Utilities and decorators.
                                                             (line   53)
* unittest command line option; -b:      Command-line options<4>.
                                                             (line    8)
* unittest command line option; -buffer: Command-line options<4>.
                                                             (line    8)
* unittest command line option; -c:      Command-line options<4>.
                                                             (line   15)
* unittest command line option; -catch:  Command-line options<4>.
                                                             (line   15)
* unittest command line option; -durations: Command-line options<4>.
                                                             (line   49)
* unittest command line option; -f:      Command-line options<4>.
                                                             (line   24)
* unittest command line option; -failfast: Command-line options<4>.
                                                             (line   24)
* unittest command line option; -k:      Command-line options<4>.
                                                             (line   28)
* unittest command line option; -locals: Command-line options<4>.
                                                             (line   45)
* unittest-discover command line option; -p: Test Discovery. (line   35)
* unittest-discover command line option; -pattern: Test Discovery.
                                                             (line   35)
* unittest-discover command line option; -s: Test Discovery. (line   31)
* unittest-discover command line option; -start-directory: Test Discovery.
                                                             (line   31)
* unittest-discover command line option; -t: Test Discovery. (line   39)
* unittest-discover command line option; -top-level-directory: Test Discovery.
                                                             (line   39)
* unittest-discover command line option; -v: Test Discovery. (line   27)
* unittest-discover command line option; -verbose: Test Discovery.
                                                             (line   27)
* universal newlines;importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source method: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import.
                                                             (line  220)
* universal newlines;io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder class: Text I/O<2>.
                                                             (line  290)
* universal newlines;io.TextIOWrapper class: Text I/O<2>.    (line  126)
* universal newlines;subprocess module:  Frequently Used Arguments.
                                                             (line   33)
* universal newlines;What's new:         PEP 3116 New I/O Library.
                                                             (line   45)
* universal newlines;What's new <1>:     New Improved and Removed Modules.
                                                             (line  137)
* universal newlines;What's new <2>:     PEP 324 New subprocess Module.
                                                             (line   36)
* universal newlines;What's new <3>:     PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT.
                                                             (line   36)
* UNIX:                                  Πλήρη προγράμματα Python.
                                                             (line   25)
* unix_dialect (κλάση σε csv):           Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line  236)
* unix_shell (στη μονάδα test.support):  test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   61)
* UNIX;file control:                     fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line    6)
* UNIX;I/O control:                      fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnixDatagramServer (κλάση σε socketserver): socketserver — A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line   40)
* UnixStreamServer (κλάση σε socketserver): socketserver — A framework for network servers.
                                                             (line   40)
* unknown (ιδιότητα της uuid.SafeUUID):  uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line   44)
* unknown_decl() (μέθοδος της html.parser.HTMLParser): HTMLParser Methods.
                                                             (line  135)
* unknown_open() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.BaseHandler): BaseHandler Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* unknown_open() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.UnknownHandler): UnknownHandler Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* UnknownHandler (κλάση σε urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  487)
* UnknownProtocol:                       http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  156)
* UnknownTransferEncoding:               http client — HTTP protocol client.
                                                             (line  160)
* unlink() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes.
                                                             (line  103)
* unlink() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):   Copying moving and deleting.
                                                             (line  109)
* unlink() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.minidom.Node): DOM Objects.  (line   10)
* unlink() (στη μονάδα os):              Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1959)
* unlink() (στη μονάδα test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line  166)
* unload() (στη μονάδα test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests.
                                                             (line   76)
* unlock() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Babyl):  Babyl objects.      (line   60)
* unlock() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.   (line  273)
* unlock() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.   (line  209)
* unlock() (μέθοδος της mailbox.mbox):   mbox objects.       (line   57)
* unlock() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MH):     MH objects.         (line   87)
* unlock() (μέθοδος της mailbox.MMDF):   MMDF objects.       (line   47)
* unlockpt() (στη μονάδα os):            File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  980)
* UNNAMED_SECTION (στη μονάδα configparser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  343)
* UnnamedSectionDisabledError:           Exceptions<8>.      (line   80)
* Unpack (στη μονάδα typing):            Special forms.      (line  619)
* unpack_archive() (στη μονάδα shutil):  Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  133)
* UNPACK_EX (opcode):                    Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  568)
* unpack_from() (μέθοδος της struct.Struct): Κλάσεις<3>.     (line   44)
* unpack_from() (στη μονάδα struct):     Συναρτήσεις και εξαιρέσεις.
                                                             (line   37)
* UNPACK_SEQUENCE (opcode):              Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  559)
* unpack() (μέθοδος της struct.Struct):  Κλάσεις<3>.         (line   38)
* unpack() (στη μονάδα struct):          Συναρτήσεις και εξαιρέσεις.
                                                             (line   27)
* unpacking;dictionary:                  Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line   23)
* unpacking;in function calls:           Calls.              (line   73)
* unparse() (στη μονάδα ast):            ast helpers.        (line   71)
* unparsedEntityDecl() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler): DTDHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   12)
* UnparsedEntityDeclHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  445)
* Unpickler (κλάση σε pickle):           Module Interface.   (line  240)
* UnpicklingError:                       Module Interface.   (line  112)
* unquote_plus() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse): URL Quoting.     (line   81)
* unquote_to_bytes() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse): URL Quoting. (line   91)
* unquote() (στη μονάδα email.utils):    email utils Miscellaneous utilities.
                                                             (line   50)
* unquote() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse):   URL Quoting.        (line   61)
* unraisablehook() (στη μονάδα sys):     sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2261)
* unregister_archive_format() (στη μονάδα shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  128)
* unregister_dialect() (στη μονάδα csv): Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line   90)
* unregister_unpack_format() (στη μονάδα shutil): Archiving operations.
                                                             (line  199)
* unregister() (μέθοδος της select.devpoll): /dev/poll Polling Objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* unregister() (μέθοδος της select.epoll): Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects.
                                                             (line   95)
* unregister() (μέθοδος της select.poll): Polling Objects.   (line   67)
* unregister() (μέθοδος της selectors.BaseSelector): Classes.
                                                             (line   80)
* unregister() (στη μονάδα atexit):      atexit — Exit handlers.
                                                             (line   57)
* unregister() (στη μονάδα codecs):      codecs — Codec registry and base classes.
                                                             (line  175)
* unregister() (στη μονάδα faulthandler): Dumping the traceback on a user signal.
                                                             (line   26)
* unsafe (ιδιότητα της uuid.SafeUUID):   uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line   40)
* unselect() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.     (line  458)
* unset() (μέθοδος της test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests.
                                                             (line   70)
* unsetenv() (στη μονάδα os):            Process Parameters. (line  603)
* unshare() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Parameters. (line  623)
* UnstructuredHeader (κλάση σε email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  115)
* unsubscribe() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.  (line  454)
* UnsupportedOperation:                  Exceptions<4>.      (line    6)
* UnsupportedOperation <1>:              High-level Module Interface.
                                                             (line   72)
* until (pdb command):                   Debugger commands.  (line  220)
* untokenize() (στη μονάδα tokenize):    Tokenizing input.   (line   54)
* untouchwin() (μέθοδος της curses.window): Window Objects.  (line  590)
* unused_data (ιδιότητα της bz2.BZ2Decompressor): Incremental de compression.
                                                             (line   78)
* unused_data (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.ZstdDecompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  218)
* unused_data (ιδιότητα της lzma.LZMADecompressor): Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>.
                                                             (line  167)
* unused_data (ιδιότητα της zlib.Decompress): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  266)
* unverifiable (ιδιότητα της urllib.request.Request): Request Objects.
                                                             (line   47)
* unwrap() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket):  SSL sockets.        (line  326)
* unwrap() (στη μονάδα inspect):         Classes and functions<2>.
                                                             (line  150)
* unwrap() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse):    URL Parsing.        (line  396)
* up (pdb command):                      Debugger commands.  (line  101)
* up() (στη μονάδα turtle):              Drawing state.      (line   12)
* update_abstractmethods() (στη μονάδα abc): abc — Abstract Base Classes.
                                                             (line  337)
* update_authenticated() (μέθοδος της urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects.
                                                             (line   24)
* update_lines_cols() (στη μονάδα curses): Functions<4>.     (line  584)
* update_panels() (στη μονάδα curses.panel): Functions<5>.   (line   23)
* update_visible() (μέθοδος της mailbox.BabylMessage): BabylMessage objects.
                                                             (line   76)
* update_wrapper() (στη μονάδα functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  704)
* update() (μέθοδος της collections.Counter): Counter objects.
                                                             (line  129)
* update() (μέθοδος της dict):           Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line  248)
* update() (μέθοδος της hashlib.hash):   Hash Objects.       (line   31)
* update() (μέθοδος της hmac.HMAC):      hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication.
                                                             (line   51)
* update() (μέθοδος της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line  111)
* update() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.   (line  243)
* update() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Maildir): Maildir objects.   (line  193)
* update() (μέθοδος της set):            Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line  184)
* update() (μέθοδος της trace.CoverageResults): Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή.
                                                             (line   58)
* update() (στη μονάδα turtle):          Animation control.  (line   59)
* upgrade_dependencies() (μέθοδος της venv.EnvBuilder): API<2>.
                                                             (line  172)
* upper() (μέθοδος της bytearray):       Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  790)
* upper() (μέθοδος της bytes):           Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  790)
* upper() (μέθοδος της str):             Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1008)
* urandom() (στη μονάδα os):             Random numbers<2>.  (line   29)
* URL:                                   urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* URL <1>:                               urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    8)
* URL <2>:                               http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    8)
* url (ιδιότητα της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   51)
* url (ιδιότητα της urllib.error.HTTPError): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   37)
* url (ιδιότητα της urllib.response.addinfourl): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib.
                                                             (line   14)
* url (ιδιότητα της xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError): ProtocolError Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* URL;parsing:                           urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* url2pathname() (στη μονάδα urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  168)
* urlcleanup() (στη μονάδα urllib.request): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line   62)
* urldefrag() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse): URL Parsing.        (line  367)
* urlencode() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse): URL Quoting.        (line  104)
* URLError:                              urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request.
                                                             (line   16)
* urljoin() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse):   URL Parsing.        (line  330)
* urlopen() (στη μονάδα urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line   33)
* urlparse() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse):  URL Parsing.        (line  291)
* urlretrieve() (στη μονάδα urllib.request): Legacy interface.
                                                             (line   10)
* urlsafe_b64decode() (στη μονάδα base64): RFC 4648 Encodings.
                                                             (line  106)
* urlsafe_b64encode() (στη μονάδα base64): RFC 4648 Encodings.
                                                             (line   96)
* URLSAFE_BASE64_ALPHABET (στη μονάδα binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  384)
* urlsplit() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse):  URL Parsing.        (line    9)
* urlunparse() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse): URL Parsing.       (line  308)
* urlunsplit() (στη μονάδα urllib.parse): URL Parsing.       (line  270)
* urn (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):          uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  149)
* US (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line  117)
* use_default_colors() (στη μονάδα curses): Functions<4>.    (line  615)
* use_env() (στη μονάδα curses):         Functions<4>.       (line  605)
* use_rawinput (ιδιότητα της cmd.Cmd):   Cmd Objects.        (line  176)
* USE_STACKCHECK (C macro):              Operating System Utilities.
                                                             (line   93)
* use_tool_id() (στη μονάδα sys.monitoring): Registering and using tools.
                                                             (line    6)
* UseForeignDTD() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line   67)
* USER:                                  getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   79)
* USER_BASE (στη μονάδα site):           Module contents<7>. (line   31)
* user_call() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):     bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  284)
* user_exception() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb): bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  303)
* user_line() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):     bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  292)
* user_return() (μέθοδος της bdb.Bdb):   bdb — Debugger framework.
                                                             (line  298)
* USER_SITE (στη μονάδα site):           Module contents<7>. (line   19)
* user-defined;function;call:            Calls.              (line  132)
* user;effective id:                     Process Parameters. (line  206)
* user;id:                               Process Parameters. (line  353)
* user;id, setting:                      Process Parameters. (line  544)
* user() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line   31)
* usercustomize:                         Τα Modules Προσαρμογής.
                                                             (line    7)
* usercustomize <1>:                     Τα Modules Προσαρμογής.
                                                             (line   22)
* UserDict (κλάση σε collections):       UserDict objects.   (line   12)
* UserList (κλάση σε collections):       UserList objects.   (line   16)
* USERNAME:                              os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  161)
* USERNAME <1>:                          Process Parameters. (line  258)
* USERNAME <2>:                          getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   80)
* username (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.Address): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  434)
* USERPROFILE:                           os path<6>.         (line   14)
* USERPROFILE <1>:                       Changes in the Python API<6>.
                                                             (line  117)
* USERPROFILE <2>:                       Windows<47>.        (line   15)
* USERPROFILE <3>:                       os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  158)
* userptr() (μέθοδος της curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects. (line   57)
* UserString (κλάση σε collections):     UserString objects. (line   12)
* UserWarning:                           Warnings.           (line   13)
* USTAR_FORMAT (στη μονάδα tarfile):     tarfile — Read and write tar archive files.
                                                             (line  380)
* USub (κλάση σε ast):                   Expressions<2>.     (line   27)
* UTC:                                   time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου.
                                                             (line   42)
* utc (ιδιότητα της datetime.timezone):  timezone objects.   (line   68)
* UTC (στη μονάδα datetime):             Constants.          (line   18)
* utcfromtimestamp() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  135)
* utcnow() (μέθοδος κλάσης της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* utcoffset() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  533)
* utcoffset() (μέθοδος της datetime.time): time objects.     (line  252)
* utcoffset() (μέθοδος της datetime.timezone): timezone objects.
                                                             (line   30)
* utcoffset() (μέθοδος της datetime.tzinfo): tzinfo objects. (line   36)
* utctimetuple() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  578)
* utf8 (ιδιότητα της email.policy.EmailPolicy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  379)
* utf8_enabled (ιδιότητα της imaplib.IMAP4): IMAP4 Objects.  (line  486)
* utf8_mode (ιδιότητα της sys.flags):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  619)
* utf8() (μέθοδος της poplib.POP3):      POP3 Objects.       (line  106)
* utime() (στη μονάδα os):               Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 1973)
* UU_ALPHABET (στη μονάδα binascii):     binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  391)
* UUID (κλάση σε uuid):                  uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line   49)
* uuid command line option; -C:          Command-Line Usage. (line   40)
* uuid command line option; -count:      Command-Line Usage. (line   40)
* uuid command line option; -h:          Command-Line Usage. (line   14)
* uuid command line option; -help:       Command-Line Usage. (line   14)
* uuid command line option; -n:          Command-Line Usage. (line   26)
* uuid command line option; -N:          Command-Line Usage. (line   34)
* uuid command line option; -name:       Command-Line Usage. (line   34)
* uuid command line option; -namespace:  Command-Line Usage. (line   26)
* uuid command line option; -u:          Command-Line Usage. (line   18)
* uuid command line option; -uuid:       Command-Line Usage. (line   18)
* uuid1() (στη μονάδα uuid):             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  194)
* uuid3() (στη μονάδα uuid):             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  207)
* uuid4() (στη μονάδα uuid):             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  214)
* uuid5() (στη μονάδα uuid):             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  219)
* uuid6() (στη μονάδα uuid):             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  226)
* uuid7() (στη μονάδα uuid):             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  244)
* uuid8() (στη μονάδα uuid):             uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  254)
* v4_int_to_packed() (στη μονάδα ipaddress): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line    8)
* v6_int_to_packed() (στη μονάδα ipaddress): Other Module Level Functions.
                                                             (line   20)
* valid_signals() (στη μονάδα signal):   Module contents<4>. (line  334)
* validator() (στη μονάδα wsgiref.validate): wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker.
                                                             (line   22)
* value:                                 Dictionary displays.
                                                             (line    6)
* VALUE (ιδιότητα της annotationlib.Format): Classes<2>.     (line   14)
* value (ιδιότητα της ctypes._SimpleCData): Fundamental data types<2>.
                                                             (line   17)
* value (ιδιότητα της enum.Enum):        Data types.         (line  131)
* value (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* value (ιδιότητα της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.  (line   63)
* value (ιδιότητα της StopIteration):    Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  292)
* value (ιδιότητα της string.templatelib.Interpolation): Types.
                                                             (line  215)
* value (ιδιότητα της xml.dom.Attr):     Attr Objects.       (line   23)
* value_decode() (μέθοδος της http.cookies.BaseCookie): Cookie Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* value_encode() (μέθοδος της http.cookies.BaseCookie): Cookie Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS (ιδιότητα της annotationlib.Format): Classes<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* Value() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager): Managers.
                                                             (line  217)
* Value() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing.sharedctypes): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module.
                                                             (line   71)
* Value() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing):  Shared ctypes Objects.
                                                             (line    9)
* ValueError:                            Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  506)
* valuerefs() (μέθοδος της weakref.WeakValueDictionary): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  225)
* values (ιδιότητα της string.templatelib.Template): Types.  (line   90)
* Values (κλάση σε optparse):            Defining options.   (line   84)
* values() (μέθοδος της contextvars.Context): Manual Context Management.
                                                             (line  137)
* values() (μέθοδος της dict):           Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line  266)
* values() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  236)
* values() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  346)
* values() (μέθοδος της mailbox.Mailbox): Mailbox objects.   (line  136)
* values() (μέθοδος της types.MappingProxyType): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line  326)
* ValuesView (κλάση σε collections.abc): Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές.
                                                             (line  131)
* ValuesView (κλάση σε typing):          Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc.
                                                             (line  120)
* var (ιδιότητα της contextvars.Token):  Context Variables.  (line  118)
* variance (ιδιότητα της statistics.NormalDist): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line   40)
* variance() (στη μονάδα statistics):    Function details.   (line  444)
* variant (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):      uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  153)
* vbar (ιδιότητα της tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText): tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget.
                                                             (line   30)
* VBAR (στη μονάδα token):               token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  241)
* VBAREQUAL (στη μονάδα token):          token — Constants used with Python parse trees.
                                                             (line  313)
* VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN (στη μονάδα msvcrt): Other Functions.
                                                             (line   93)
* Vec2D (κλάση σε turtle):               Public classes.     (line   86)
* vectorcallfunc (C type):               The Vectorcall Protocol.
                                                             (line   41)
* venv command line option; -clear:      Creating virtual environments.
                                                             (line   64)
* venv command line option; -copies:     Creating virtual environments.
                                                             (line   59)
* venv command line option; -prompt:     Creating virtual environments.
                                                             (line   79)
* venv command line option; -symlinks:   Creating virtual environments.
                                                             (line   54)
* venv command line option; -system-site-packages: Creating virtual environments.
                                                             (line   49)
* venv command line option; -upgrade:    Creating virtual environments.
                                                             (line   69)
* venv command line option; -upgrade-deps: Creating virtual environments.
                                                             (line   83)
* venv command line option; -without-pip: Creating virtual environments.
                                                             (line   74)
* venv command line option; -without-scm-ignore-files: Creating virtual environments.
                                                             (line   87)
* venv command line option; ENV_DIR:     Creating virtual environments.
                                                             (line   44)
* verbose (ιδιότητα της sys.flags):      sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  603)
* VERBOSE (στη μονάδα re):               Flags.              (line  127)
* verbose (στη μονάδα tabnanny):         tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation.
                                                             (line   26)
* verbose (στη μονάδα test.support):     test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line   30)
* VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.   (line   98)
* verify_client_post_handshake() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.
                                                             (line  335)
* verify_code (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLCertVerificationError): Exceptions<17>.
                                                             (line   86)
* VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.     (line   84)
* VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.      (line   73)
* VERIFY_DEFAULT (στη μονάδα ssl):       Constants<9>.       (line   65)
* verify_flags (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.  (line  707)
* verify_generated_headers (ιδιότητα της email.policy.Policy): email policy Policy Objects.
                                                             (line  204)
* verify_message (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLCertVerificationError): Exceptions<17>.
                                                             (line   90)
* verify_mode (ιδιότητα της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.   (line  722)
* verify_request() (μέθοδος της socketserver.BaseServer): Server Objects.
                                                             (line  178)
* VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.  (line  114)
* VERIFY_X509_STRICT (στη μονάδα ssl):   Constants<9>.       (line   91)
* VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST (στη μονάδα ssl): Constants<9>.  (line  105)
* verify() (μέθοδος της smtplib.SMTP):   SMTP Objects.       (line   94)
* verify() (στη μονάδα enum):            Utilities and decorators.
                                                             (line   72)
* VerifyFlags (κλάση σε ssl):            Constants<9>.       (line  125)
* VerifyMode (κλάση σε ssl):             Constants<9>.       (line   59)
* version (in module sys):               Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   36)
* version (in module sys) <1>:           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   73)
* version (in module sys) <2>:           Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line   84)
* version (ιδιότητα της email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects.
                                                             (line  241)
* version (ιδιότητα της http.client.HTTPResponse): HTTPResponse Objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* version (ιδιότητα της http.cookiejar.Cookie): Cookie Objects<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* version (ιδιότητα της http.cookies.Morsel): Morsel Objects.
                                                             (line   13)
* version (ιδιότητα της importlib.metadata.Distribution): Distributions.
                                                             (line   80)
* version (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line   45)
* version (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* version (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Address): Address objects.
                                                             (line  275)
* version (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  294)
* version (ιδιότητα της sys.thread_info): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2246)
* version (ιδιότητα της uuid.UUID):      uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562.
                                                             (line  160)
* version (στη μονάδα curses):           Constants<6>.       (line   18)
* version (στη μονάδα marshal):          marshal — Internal Python object serialization.
                                                             (line  153)
* version (στη μονάδα sys):              sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2315)
* version_info (στη μονάδα sys):         sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2332)
* version_string() (μέθοδος της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  364)
* version() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket): SSL sockets.        (line  357)
* version() (στη μονάδα ensurepip):      Module API.         (line    8)
* version() (στη μονάδα importlib.metadata): Distribution versions.
                                                             (line    6)
* version() (στη μονάδα platform):       Cross Platform.     (line  156)
* vformat() (μέθοδος της string.Formatter): Custom string formatting.
                                                             (line   26)
* virtual environment:                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line 2037)
* virtual machine:                       Γλωσσάρι.           (line 2047)
* visit_Constant() (μέθοδος της ast.NodeVisitor): ast helpers.
                                                             (line  213)
* visit() (μέθοδος της ast.NodeVisitor): ast helpers.        (line  197)
* visitproc (C type):                    Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection.
                                                             (line  222)
* vline() (μέθοδος της curses.window):   Window Objects.     (line  595)
* voidcmd() (μέθοδος της ftplib.FTP):    FTP objects.        (line  164)
* volume (ιδιότητα της zipfile.ZipInfo): ZipInfo objects.    (line  134)
* vonmisesvariate() (στη μονάδα random): Πραγματικές κατανομές.
                                                             (line   98)
* VT (στη μονάδα curses.ascii):          curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters.
                                                             (line   57)
* W_OK (στη μονάδα os):                  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  107)
* wait_closed() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Server): Server objects.
                                                             (line  123)
* wait_closed() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamWriter): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line  117)
* wait_for() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Condition): Condition.     (line  102)
* wait_for() (μέθοδος της threading.Condition): Condition objects.
                                                             (line  135)
* wait_for() (στη μονάδα asyncio):       Timeouts.           (line  122)
* wait_process() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  440)
* wait_threads_exit() (στη μονάδα test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests.
                                                             (line   41)
* wait_until_any_call_with() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.ThreadingMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  981)
* wait_until_called() (μέθοδος της unittest.mock.ThreadingMock): The Mock Class.
                                                             (line  966)
* wait() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Barrier):  Barrier.            (line   51)
* wait() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Condition): Condition.         (line   85)
* wait() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Event):    Event.              (line   44)
* wait() (μέθοδος της asyncio.subprocess.Process): Interacting with Subprocesses.
                                                             (line   38)
* wait() (μέθοδος της multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult): Process Pools.
                                                             (line  210)
* wait() (μέθοδος της subprocess.Popen): Popen Objects.      (line   13)
* wait() (μέθοδος της threading.Barrier): Barrier objects.   (line   42)
* wait() (μέθοδος της threading.Condition): Condition objects.
                                                             (line  104)
* wait() (μέθοδος της threading.Event):  Event objects.      (line   42)
* wait() (στη μονάδα asyncio):           Waiting primitives. (line    6)
* wait() (στη μονάδα concurrent.futures): Module Functions.  (line    6)
* wait() (στη μονάδα multiprocessing.connection): Listeners and Clients.
                                                             (line  113)
* wait() (στη μονάδα os):                Process Management. (line  830)
* wait3() (στη μονάδα os):               Process Management. (line  940)
* wait4() (στη μονάδα os):               Process Management. (line  954)
* waitid() (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line  854)
* waitpid() (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line  893)
* waitstatus_to_exitcode() (στη μονάδα os): Process Management.
                                                             (line 1073)
* walk_packages() (στη μονάδα pkgutil):  pkgutil — Package extension utility.
                                                             (line  107)
* walk_stack() (στη μονάδα traceback):   Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  185)
* walk_tb() (στη μονάδα traceback):      Module-Level Functions<2>.
                                                             (line  199)
* walk() (μέθοδος της email.message.EmailMessage): email message Representing an email message.
                                                             (line  467)
* walk() (μέθοδος της email.message.Message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API.
                                                             (line  638)
* walk() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path):     Reading directories.
                                                             (line  118)
* walk() (στη μονάδα ast):               ast helpers.        (line  180)
* walk() (στη μονάδα os):                Files and Directories.
                                                             (line 2018)
* walrus operator:                       Boolean operations. (line   38)
* want (ιδιότητα της doctest.Example):   Example Objects.    (line   22)
* warn_default_encoding (ιδιότητα της sys.flags): sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  629)
* warn_explicit() (στη μονάδα warnings): Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες.
                                                             (line   68)
* warn() (στη μονάδα warnings):          Διαθέσιμες λειτουργίες.
                                                             (line    6)
* Warning:                               Warnings.           (line    9)
* Warning <1>:                           Exceptions<6>.      (line    8)
* WARNING (στη μονάδα logging):          Logging Levels.     (line   33)
* WARNING (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  198)
* warning() (μέθοδος της logging.Logger): Logger Objects.    (line  293)
* warning() (μέθοδος της xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler): ErrorHandler Αντικείμενα.
                                                             (line   33)
* warning() (στη μονάδα logging):        Module-Level Functions.
                                                             (line   70)
* WarningsRecorder (κλάση σε test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.
                                                             (line  117)
* warnoptions (στη μονάδα sys):          sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2345)
* wasSuccessful() (μέθοδος της unittest.TestResult): Loading and running tests.
                                                             (line  317)
* WatchedFileHandler (κλάση σε logging.handlers): WatchedFileHandler.
                                                             (line   24)
* WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE (στη μονάδα wave): wave — Read and write WAV files.
                                                             (line   72)
* WAVE_FORMAT_IEEE_FLOAT (στη μονάδα wave): wave — Read and write WAV files.
                                                             (line   68)
* WAVE_FORMAT_PCM (στη μονάδα wave):     wave — Read and write WAV files.
                                                             (line   64)
* Wave_read (κλάση σε wave):             Wave_read Objects.  (line    6)
* Wave_write (κλάση σε wave):            Wave_write Objects. (line    6)
* WCONTINUED (στη μονάδα os):            Process Management. (line  994)
* WCOREDUMP() (στη μονάδα os):           Process Management. (line 1113)
* WeakKeyDictionary (κλάση σε weakref):  weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  164)
* WeakMethod (κλάση σε weakref):         weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  234)
* WeakSet (κλάση σε weakref):            weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  229)
* WeakValueDictionary (κλάση σε weakref): weakref — Weak references.
                                                             (line  212)
* webbrowser command line option; -n:    Command-line interface<5>.
                                                             (line   10)
* webbrowser command line option; -new-tab: Command-line interface<5>.
                                                             (line   14)
* webbrowser command line option; -new-window: Command-line interface<5>.
                                                             (line   10)
* webbrowser command line option; -t:    Command-line interface<5>.
                                                             (line   14)
* WEDNESDAY (στη μονάδα calendar):       calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  450)
* weekday (ιδιότητα της calendar.IllegalWeekdayError): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  570)
* weekday() (μέθοδος της datetime.date): date objects.       (line  263)
* weekday() (μέθοδος της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.
                                                             (line  645)
* weekday() (στη μονάδα calendar):       calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  380)
* weekheader() (στη μονάδα calendar):    calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  385)
* weibullvariate() (στη μονάδα random):  Πραγματικές κατανομές.
                                                             (line  110)
* WEXITED (στη μονάδα os):               Process Management. (line 1003)
* WEXITSTATUS() (στη μονάδα os):         Process Management. (line 1159)
* wfile (ιδιότητα της http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler): http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line  169)
* wfile (ιδιότητα της socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler): Request Handler Objects.
                                                             (line   68)
* whatis (pdb command):                  Debugger commands.  (line  290)
* when() (μέθοδος της asyncio.Timeout):  Timeouts.           (line   67)
* when() (μέθοδος της asyncio.TimerHandle): Callback handles.
                                                             (line   36)
* whence (ιδιότητα της concurrent.interpreters.Interpreter): Interpreter objects.
                                                             (line   19)
* where (pdb command):                   Debugger commands.  (line   85)
* which() (στη μονάδα shutil):           Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  429)
* whichdb() (στη μονάδα dbm):            dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases».
                                                             (line   34)
* While (κλάση σε ast):                  Control flow.       (line   77)
* whitespace (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.      (line  104)
* whitespace (στη μονάδα string):        String constants.   (line   53)
* whitespace_split (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex): shlex Objects.
                                                             (line  128)
* Widget (κλάση σε tkinter.ttk):         ttk Widget.         (line    9)
* width (ιδιότητα της sys.hash_info):    sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1134)
* width (ιδιότητα της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  174)
* width() (στη μονάδα turtle):           Drawing state.      (line   18)
* WIFCONTINUED() (στη μονάδα os):        Process Management. (line 1123)
* WIFEXITED() (στη μονάδα os):           Process Management. (line 1151)
* WIFSIGNALED() (στη μονάδα os):         Process Management. (line 1144)
* WIFSTOPPED() (στη μονάδα os):          Process Management. (line 1133)
* win32_code_page_search_function() (στη μονάδα encodings): encodings — Encodings package.
                                                             (line   39)
* win32_edition() (στη μονάδα platform): Πλατφόρμα Windows.  (line   25)
* win32_is_iot() (στη μονάδα platform):  Πλατφόρμα Windows.  (line   34)
* win32_ver() (στη μονάδα platform):     Πλατφόρμα Windows.  (line    6)
* WinDLL (κλάση σε ctypes):              Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  154)
* windll (στη μονάδα ctypes):            Loading shared libraries.
                                                             (line  217)
* window (κλάση σε curses):              Window Objects.     (line    6)
* window manager (widgets):              The Window Manager. (line    6)
* window_height() (στη μονάδα turtle):   Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line  117)
* window_log (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.CompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line   53)
* window_log_max (ιδιότητα της compression.zstd.DecompressionParameter): Advanced parameter control.
                                                             (line  286)
* window_width() (στη μονάδα turtle):    Settings and special methods.
                                                             (line  124)
* window() (μέθοδος της curses.panel.Panel): Panel Objects.  (line   62)
* Windows:                               Πλήρη προγράμματα Python.
                                                             (line   25)
* Windows ini file:                      configparser — Configuration file parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* WindowsError:                          Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  527)
* WindowsPath (κλάση σε pathlib):        Concrete paths.     (line   36)
* WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy (κλάση σε asyncio): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   66)
* WindowsRegistryFinder (κλάση σε importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks.
                                                             (line   92)
* WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy (κλάση σε asyncio): Policy Objects.
                                                             (line   56)
* winerror (ιδιότητα της OSError):       Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  184)
* WinError() (στη μονάδα ctypes):        Utility functions.  (line  255)
* WINFUNCTYPE() (στη μονάδα ctypes):     Function prototypes.
                                                             (line   25)
* WinSock:                               select — Waiting for I/O completion.
                                                             (line  155)
* winver (στη μονάδα sys):               sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2351)
* With (κλάση σε ast):                   Control flow.       (line  230)
* WITH_EXCEPT_START (opcode):            Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  482)
* with_hostmask (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Interface): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   55)
* with_hostmask (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  123)
* with_hostmask (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Interface): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   82)
* with_hostmask (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  326)
* with_name() (μέθοδος της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  349)
* with_netmask (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Interface): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   46)
* with_netmask (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  118)
* with_netmask (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Interface): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   80)
* with_netmask (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  324)
* with_prefixlen (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Interface): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   37)
* with_prefixlen (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv4Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  105)
* with_prefixlen (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Interface): Interface objects.
                                                             (line   78)
* with_prefixlen (ιδιότητα της ipaddress.IPv6Network): Network objects.
                                                             (line  318)
* with_pymalloc() (στη μονάδα test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite.
                                                             (line  276)
* with_segments() (μέθοδος της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  409)
* with_statement (στη μονάδα __future__): Module Contents<2>.
                                                             (line   31)
* with_stem() (μέθοδος της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  365)
* with_suffix() (μέθοδος της pathlib.PurePath): Methods and properties.
                                                             (line  388)
* with_traceback() (μέθοδος της BaseException): Base classes.
                                                             (line   25)
* withitem (κλάση σε ast):               Control flow.       (line  241)
* WNOHANG (στη μονάδα os):               Process Management. (line 1038)
* WNOWAIT (στη μονάδα os):               Process Management. (line 1046)
* wordchars (ιδιότητα της shlex.shlex):  shlex Objects.      (line   91)
* World Wide Web:                        urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* World Wide Web <1>:                    urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    8)
* wrap_bio() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.     (line  530)
* wrap_future() (στη μονάδα asyncio):    Future Functions.   (line   53)
* wrap_socket() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLContext): SSL contexts.  (line  463)
* wrap() (μέθοδος της textwrap.TextWrapper): textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line  309)
* wrap() (στη μονάδα textwrap):          textwrap — Περιτύλιγμα και γέμισμα κειμένου.
                                                             (line   16)
* wrapper() (στη μονάδα curses):         Functions<4>.       (line  619)
* wrapperbase (C struct):                Descriptor Objects. (line   74)
* WrapperDescriptorType (στη μονάδα types): Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα.
                                                             (line   94)
* wraps() (στη μονάδα functools):        functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects.
                                                             (line  752)
* WRITABLE (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags. (line   17)
* WRITABLE (στη μονάδα _tkinter):        File Handlers.      (line   41)
* writable() (μέθοδος της bz2.BZ2File):  De compression of files.
                                                             (line  104)
* writable() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):    I/O Base Classes.   (line  151)
* WRITE (ιδιότητα της inspect.BufferFlags): Buffer flags.    (line   51)
* write_byte() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):  mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  381)
* write_bytes() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   67)
* write_docstringdict() (στη μονάδα turtle): Translation of docstrings into different languages.
                                                             (line   10)
* write_eof() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamWriter): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   55)
* write_eof() (μέθοδος της asyncio.WriteTransport): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   75)
* write_eof() (μέθοδος της ssl.MemoryBIO): Memory BIO support.
                                                             (line  161)
* write_history_file() (στη μονάδα readline): History file.  (line   17)
* WRITE_RESTRICTED (C macro):            Member flags.       (line   29)
* write_results() (μέθοδος της trace.CoverageResults): Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή.
                                                             (line   63)
* write_text() (μέθοδος της pathlib.Path): Reading and writing files.
                                                             (line   48)
* write_through (ιδιότητα της io.TextIOWrapper): Text I/O<2>.
                                                             (line  178)
* write() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamWriter): StreamWriter.  (line   15)
* write() (μέθοδος της asyncio.WriteTransport): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   61)
* write() (μέθοδος της code.InteractiveInterpreter): Interactive Interpreter Objects.
                                                             (line   63)
* write() (μέθοδος της codecs.StreamWriter): StreamWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   31)
* write() (μέθοδος της configparser.ConfigParser): ConfigParser Objects.
                                                             (line  292)
* write() (μέθοδος της email.generator.BytesGenerator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  117)
* write() (μέθοδος της email.generator.Generator): email generator Generating MIME documents.
                                                             (line  210)
* write() (μέθοδος της file):            Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line   28)
* write() (μέθοδος της io.BufferedIOBase): I/O Base Classes. (line  332)
* write() (μέθοδος της io.BufferedWriter): Buffered Streams. (line  127)
* write() (μέθοδος της io.RawIOBase):    I/O Base Classes.   (line  211)
* write() (μέθοδος της io.TextIOBase):   Text I/O<2>.        (line   93)
* write() (μέθοδος της io.Writer):       Static Typing.      (line   40)
* write() (μέθοδος της mmap.mmap):       mmap — Memory-mapped file support.
                                                             (line  365)
* write() (μέθοδος της sqlite3.Blob):    Blob objects.       (line   53)
* write() (μέθοδος της ssl.MemoryBIO):   Memory BIO support. (line  153)
* write() (μέθοδος της ssl.SSLSocket):   SSL sockets.        (line  101)
* write() (μέθοδος της xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree): ElementTree Objects.
                                                             (line   62)
* write() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects.    (line  276)
* write() (στη μονάδα os):               File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line  992)
* write() (στη μονάδα turtle):           More drawing control.
                                                             (line   29)
* writeframes() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line  136)
* writeframesraw() (μέθοδος της wave.Wave_write): Wave_write Objects.
                                                             (line  129)
* writeheader() (μέθοδος της csv.DictWriter): Αντικείμενα Εγγραφέα.
                                                             (line   43)
* writelines() (μέθοδος της asyncio.StreamWriter): StreamWriter.
                                                             (line   29)
* writelines() (μέθοδος της asyncio.WriteTransport): Write-only Transports.
                                                             (line   68)
* writelines() (μέθοδος της codecs.StreamWriter): StreamWriter Objects.
                                                             (line   35)
* writelines() (μέθοδος της io.IOBase):  I/O Base Classes.   (line  157)
* writepy() (μέθοδος της zipfile.PyZipFile): PyZipFile objects.
                                                             (line   20)
* Writer (κλάση σε io):                  Static Typing.      (line   32)
* writer() (στη μονάδα csv):             Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line   43)
* writerow() (μέθοδος της csv.csvwriter): Αντικείμενα Εγγραφέα.
                                                             (line   17)
* writerows() (μέθοδος της csv.csvwriter): Αντικείμενα Εγγραφέα.
                                                             (line   27)
* writestr() (μέθοδος της zipfile.ZipFile): ZipFile objects. (line  311)
* WriteTransport (κλάση σε asyncio):     Transports Hierarchy.
                                                             (line   11)
* writev() (στη μονάδα os):              File Descriptor Operations.
                                                             (line 1012)
* writexml() (μέθοδος της xml.dom.minidom.Node): DOM Objects.
                                                             (line   27)
* WrongDocumentErr:                      Exceptions<21>.     (line   97)
* wsgi_file_wrapper (ιδιότητα της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  272)
* wsgi_multiprocess (ιδιότητα της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  154)
* wsgi_multithread (ιδιότητα της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  147)
* wsgi_run_once (ιδιότητα της wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes.
                                                             (line  161)
* WSGIApplication (στη μονάδα wsgiref.types): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   20)
* WSGIEnvironment (στη μονάδα wsgiref.types): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking.
                                                             (line   16)
* WSGIRequestHandler (κλάση σε wsgiref.simple_server): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   77)
* WSGIServer (κλάση σε wsgiref.simple_server): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server.
                                                             (line   47)
* wShowWindow (ιδιότητα της subprocess.STARTUPINFO): Windows Popen Helpers.
                                                             (line   48)
* WSTOPPED (στη μονάδα os):              Process Management. (line 1015)
* WSTOPSIG() (στη μονάδα os):            Process Management. (line 1168)
* wstring_at() (στη μονάδα ctypes):      Utility functions.  (line  267)
* WTERMSIG() (στη μονάδα os):            Process Management. (line 1177)
* WUNTRACED (στη μονάδα os):             Process Management. (line 1027)
* WWW:                                   Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη.
                                                             (line    6)
* WWW <1>:                               urllib parse — Parse URLs into components.
                                                             (line    8)
* WWW <2>:                               urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt.
                                                             (line    8)
* WWW;server:                            http server — HTTP servers.
                                                             (line    8)
* X (στη μονάδα re):                     Flags.              (line  127)
* X_OK (στη μονάδα os):                  Files and Directories.
                                                             (line  107)
* X509 certificate:                      SSL contexts.       (line  835)
* xatom() (μέθοδος της imaplib.IMAP4):   IMAP4 Objects.      (line  468)
* XATTR_CREATE (στη μονάδα os):          Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   92)
* XATTR_REPLACE (στη μονάδα os):         Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   98)
* XATTR_SIZE_MAX (στη μονάδα os):        Linux extended attributes.
                                                             (line   87)
* xcor() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line   34)
* XHTML:                                 html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser.
                                                             (line    8)
* XHTML_NAMESPACE (στη μονάδα xml.dom):  Module Contents.    (line   53)
* XML_ERROR_ABORTED (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  184)
* XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  222)
* XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   30)
* XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   32)
* XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   38)
* XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   43)
* XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  139)
* XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   48)
* XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  129)
* XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  118)
* XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  131)
* XML_ERROR_FINISHED (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  188)
* XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  156)
* XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   53)
* XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  214)
* XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   55)
* XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   61)
* XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   65)
* XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  218)
* XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   70)
* XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   75)
* XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  121)
* XML_ERROR_NOT_STARTED (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  228)
* XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  179)
* XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   79)
* XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   83)
* XML_ERROR_PUBLICID (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  169)
* XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   87)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  208)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  197)
* XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  203)
* XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  195)
* XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  173)
* XML_ERROR_SYNTAX (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   92)
* XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line   96)
* XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  164)
* XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  146)
* XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  114)
* XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  101)
* XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  151)
* XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  106)
* XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  127)
* XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  110)
* XML_ERROR_XML_DECL (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat.errors): Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat.
                                                             (line  160)
* XML_NAMESPACE (στη μονάδα xml.dom):    Module Contents.    (line   42)
* XML() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.    (line  279)
* xmlcharrefreplace_errors() (στη μονάδα codecs): Error Handlers.
                                                             (line  172)
* xmlcharrefreplace;error handler's name: Error Handlers.    (line   54)
* XmlDeclHandler() (μέθοδος της xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser): Αντικείμενα XMLParser.
                                                             (line  363)
* XMLFilterBase (κλάση σε xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   72)
* XMLGenerator (κλάση σε xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities.
                                                             (line   56)
* XMLID() (στη μονάδα xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<7>.  (line  287)
* XMLNS_NAMESPACE (στη μονάδα xml.dom):  Module Contents.    (line   47)
* XMLParser (κλάση σε xml.etree.ElementTree): XMLParser Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* XMLParserType (στη μονάδα xml.parsers.expat): xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat.
                                                             (line   35)
* XMLPullParser (κλάση σε xml.etree.ElementTree): XMLPullParser Objects.
                                                             (line    6)
* XMLReader (κλάση σε xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers.
                                                             (line   16)
* xor() (στη μονάδα operator):           operator — Standard operators as functions.
                                                             (line  180)
* xview() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.  (line  317)
* ycor() (στη μονάδα turtle):            Tell Turtle’s state.
                                                             (line   46)
* year (ιδιότητα της datetime.date):     date objects.       (line  148)
* year (ιδιότητα της datetime.datetime): datetime objects.   (line  311)
* yeardatescalendar() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  127)
* yeardays2calendar() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  135)
* yeardayscalendar() (μέθοδος της calendar.Calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions.
                                                             (line  142)
* YES (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox):   tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  157)
* YESEXPR (στη μονάδα locale):           locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  290)
* YESNO (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  181)
* YESNOCANCEL (στη μονάδα tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts.
                                                             (line  186)
* Yield (κλάση σε ast):                  Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  124)
* YIELD_VALUE (opcode):                  Python Bytecode Instructions.
                                                             (line  414)
* yield;examples:                        Generator-iterator methods.
                                                             (line   81)
* yield;expression:                      Yield expressions.  (line    6)
* yield;yield from (in What's New):      PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy.
                                                             (line   88)
* YieldFrom (κλάση σε ast):              Function and class definitions.
                                                             (line  124)
* yiq_to_rgb() (στη μονάδα colorsys):    colorsys — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων.
                                                             (line   32)
* yview() (μέθοδος της tkinter.ttk.Treeview): ttk Treeview.  (line  321)
* Z_BEST_COMPRESSION (στη μονάδα zlib):  zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  368)
* Z_BEST_SPEED (στη μονάδα zlib):        zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  364)
* Z_BLOCK (στη μονάδα zlib):             zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  434)
* Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION (στη μονάδα zlib): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  372)
* Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY (στη μονάδα zlib):  zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  377)
* Z_FILTERED (στη μονάδα zlib):          zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  381)
* Z_FINISH (στη μονάδα zlib):            zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  429)
* Z_FIXED (στη μονάδα zlib):             zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  399)
* Z_FULL_FLUSH (στη μονάδα zlib):        zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  424)
* Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY (στη μονάδα zlib):      zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  385)
* Z_NO_COMPRESSION (στη μονάδα zlib):    zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  358)
* Z_NO_FLUSH (στη μονάδα zlib):          zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  409)
* Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH (στη μονάδα zlib):     zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  415)
* Z_RLE (στη μονάδα zlib):               zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  389)
* Z_SYNC_FLUSH (στη μονάδα zlib):        zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  419)
* Z_TREES (στη μονάδα zlib):             zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  443)
* z;in string formatting:                Format specification mini-language.
                                                             (line   93)
* Z85_ALPHABET (στη μονάδα binascii):    binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII.
                                                             (line  423)
* z85decode() (στη μονάδα base64):       Base85 Encodings.   (line  134)
* z85encode() (στη μονάδα base64):       Base85 Encodings.   (line  115)
* Zen της Python:                        Γλωσσάρι.           (line 2059)
* ZeroDivisionError:                     Concrete exceptions.
                                                             (line  513)
* zfill() (μέθοδος της bytearray):       Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  811)
* zfill() (μέθοδος της bytes):           Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  811)
* zfill() (μέθοδος της str):             Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1020)
* ZIP_BZIP2 (στη μονάδα zipfile):        zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line  110)
* ZIP_DEFLATED (στη μονάδα zipfile):     zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line  105)
* zip_longest() (στη μονάδα itertools):  Itertool Functions. (line  656)
* ZIP_LZMA (στη μονάδα zipfile):         zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line  117)
* ZIP_STORED (στη μονάδα zipfile):       zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line  101)
* ZIP_ZSTANDARD (στη μονάδα zipfile):    zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line  124)
* zipapp command line option; -c:        Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>.
                                                             (line   50)
* zipapp command line option; -compress: Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>.
                                                             (line   50)
* zipapp command line option; -h:        Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>.
                                                             (line   67)
* zipapp command line option; -help:     Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>.
                                                             (line   67)
* zipapp command line option; -info:     Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>.
                                                             (line   61)
* zipapp command line option; -m:        Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* zipapp command line option; -main:     Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>.
                                                             (line   39)
* zipapp command line option; -o:        Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* zipapp command line option; -output:   Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>.
                                                             (line   19)
* zipapp command line option; -p:        Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>.
                                                             (line   32)
* zipapp command line option; -python:   Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών<2>.
                                                             (line   32)
* ZipFile (κλάση σε zipfile):            ZipFile objects.    (line    6)
* zipfile command line option; -c:       Command-line options.
                                                             (line   11)
* zipfile command line option; -create:  Command-line options.
                                                             (line   11)
* zipfile command line option; -e:       Command-line options.
                                                             (line   16)
* zipfile command line option; -extract: Command-line options.
                                                             (line   16)
* zipfile command line option; -l:       Command-line options.
                                                             (line    6)
* zipfile command line option; -list:    Command-line options.
                                                             (line    6)
* zipfile command line option; -metadata-encoding: Command-line options.
                                                             (line   26)
* zipfile command line option; -t:       Command-line options.
                                                             (line   21)
* zipfile command line option; -test:    Command-line options.
                                                             (line   21)
* zipimporter (κλάση σε zipimport):      zipimporter Objects.
                                                             (line    8)
* ZipImportError:                        zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives.
                                                             (line   61)
* ZipInfo (κλάση σε zipfile):            zipfile — Work with ZIP archives.
                                                             (line   65)
* ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION (στη μονάδα zlib): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  463)
* ZLIB_VERSION (στη μονάδα zlib):        zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  456)
* ZLIBNG_VERSION (στη μονάδα zlib):      zlib — Compression compatible with gzip.
                                                             (line  470)
* ZoneInfo (κλάση σε zoneinfo):          The ZoneInfo class. (line    6)
* ZoneInfoNotFoundError:                 Exceptions and warnings.
                                                             (line    6)
* zscore() (μέθοδος της statistics.NormalDist): NormalDist objects.
                                                             (line  120)
* zstd_version_info (στη μονάδα compression.zstd): Miscellaneous.
                                                             (line   32)
* ZstdCompressor (κλάση σε compression.zstd): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line   50)
* ZstdDecompressor (κλάση σε compression.zstd): Compressing and decompressing data in memory.
                                                             (line  158)
* ZstdDict (κλάση σε compression.zstd):  Zstandard dictionaries.
                                                             (line   53)
* ZstdError:                             Exceptions<7>.      (line    6)
* ZstdFile (κλάση σε compression.zstd):  Reading and writing compressed files.
                                                             (line   49)
* Αθάνατο:                               Γλωσσάρι.           (line  921)
* ακέραια διαίρεση:                      Γλωσσάρι.           (line  692)
* ακέραιος;literals:                     Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* ακέραιος;αναπαράσταση:                 numbers Integral.   (line    9)
* ακολουθία:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1727)
* ακολουθία διαφυγής:                    Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* αληθές;τιμή:                           Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής.
                                                             (line    6)
* αλυσίδα;συγκρίσεις:                    Συγκρίσεις.         (line    6)
* αμετάβλητο αντικείμενο:                Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
                                                             (line   11)
* αμετάβλητο;sequence;τύποι:             Τύποι Αμετάβλητων Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line    6)
* αναγνωρισμένο όνομα:                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1629)
* αναγνωριστικό:                         Ονόματα αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά.
                                                             (line    6)
* ανάθεση;δήλωση:                        Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line    6)
* αναλυτής (parser):                     Λεξική ανάλυση.     (line    6)
* αντικείμενα κλάσης;κλήση:              Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις.
                                                             (line   21)
* αντικείμενα κλάσης;κλήση <1>:          Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις.
                                                             (line   34)
* αντικείμενα;συγκρίνοντας:              Συγκρίσεις.         (line   44)
* αντικείμενο:                           Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο <1>:                       Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1394)
* αντικείμενο αρχείου:                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line  635)
* αντικείμενο αρχείου;open() ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1399)
* αντικείμενο κώδικα:                    Μέθοδοι.            (line   47)
* αντικείμενο που μοιάζει με αρχείο:     Γλωσσάρι.           (line  653)
* αντικείμενο;Boolean:                   numbers Integral.   (line   28)
* αντικείμενο;Boolean <1>:               Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;bytearray:                 Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;bytearray <1>:             Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;bytearray <2>:             Αντικείμενα Bytearray.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;bytes:                     Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;bytes <1>:                 Αντικείμενα Bytes.  (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;code:                      Αντικείμενα κώδικα. (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;complex:                   numbers Complex complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;Ellipsis:                  Ellipsis.           (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;frame:                     Πλαίσιο αντικειμένων.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;GenericAlias:              Τύπος Generic Alias.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;io.StringIO:               Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str.
                                                             (line   38)
* αντικείμενο;memoryview:                Τύποι δυαδικής ακολουθίας — bytes bytearray memoryview.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;module:                    Modules<3>.         (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;None:                      None.               (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;NotImplemented:            NotImplemented.     (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;range:                     Εύρη Ranges.        (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;sequence:                  Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;set:                       Τύποι Συνόλου Set — set frozenset.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;slice:                     Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ.
                                                             (line  102)
* αντικείμενο;string:                    Εύρη Ranges.        (line  130)
* αντικείμενο;traceback:                 Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;ακέραιος:                  numbers Integral.   (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;ακέραιος <1>:              Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;ακολουθία:                 Ακολουθίες.         (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;ακολουθία <1>:             Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης. (line   29)
* αντικείμενο;ακολουθία <2>:             Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line  118)
* αντικείμενο;αμετάβλητη ακολουθία:      Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;αμετάβλητο:                Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;αμετάβλητο σύνολο:         Σύνολο τύπων.       (line   30)
* αντικείμενο;ανίχνευση:                 Η εντολή raise.     (line   23)
* αντικείμενο;αντιστοίχιση:              Αντιστοιχίσεις.     (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;αντιστοίχιση <1>:          Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης. (line   29)
* αντικείμενο;αντιστοίχιση <2>:          Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;αριθμητικό:                numbers Number.     (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;αριθμητικό <1>:            Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης. (line   29)
* αντικείμενο;αριθμητικό <2>:            Συγκρίσεις.         (line   44)
* αντικείμενο;αριθμητικό <3>:            Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;γεννήτρια:                 Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line   85)
* αντικείμενο;ενσωματωμένη μέθοδος:      Ενσωματωμένες μεθόδους.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση:    Ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;Ένωση:                     Τύπος Ένωσης.       (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;ευμετάβλητη ακολουθία:     Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;ευμετάβλητο:               Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;Κανένα:                    Εντολές έκφρασης.   (line   18)
* αντικείμενο;κινητής υποδιαστολής:      numbers Real float. (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;κινητής υποδιαστολής <1>:  Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;κλάση:                     Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις.
                                                             (line   21)
* αντικείμενο;κώδικας:                   Μέθοδοι.            (line   48)
* αντικείμενο;λεξικό:                    Λεξικά.             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;λεξικό <1>:                Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις.
                                                             (line   21)
* αντικείμενο;λεξικό <2>:                Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  266)
* αντικείμενο;λεξικό <3>:                Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line  128)
* αντικείμενο;λεξικό <4>:                Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;λίστα:                     Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   18)
* αντικείμενο;λίστα <1>:                 Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line  118)
* αντικείμενο;λίστα <2>:                 Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;λίστα <3>:                 Λίστες<2>.          (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;με δυνατότητα κλήσης:      Τύποι με δυνατότητα κλήσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;μέθοδος:                   Αντικείμενα Στιγμιοτύπων.
                                                             (line   28)
* αντικείμενο;μέθοδος <1>:               Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;μέθοδος <2>:               Ενσωματωμένες μεθόδους.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;μέθοδος <3>:               Μέθοδοι.            (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;μέθοδος ορισμένη από τον χρήστη: Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;μεταβλητός:                Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;μεταβλητός <1>:            Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line  108)
* αντικείμενο;μιγαδικός αριθμός:         Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;πλειάδα:                   Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   35)
* αντικείμενο;πλειάδα (tuple):           Τύποι Αμετάβλητων Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;πλειάδα (tuple) <1>:       Πλειάδες Tuples.    (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;στιγμιότυπο:               Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις.
                                                             (line   21)
* αντικείμενο;στιγμιότυπο <1>:           Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης. (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;στιγμιότυπο κλάσης:        Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις.
                                                             (line   21)
* αντικείμενο;στιγμιότυπο κλάσης <1>:    Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης. (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;συνάρτηση:                 Συναρτήσεις που ορίζονται από τον χρήστη.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;συνάρτηση <1>:             Ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;συνάρτηση ορισμένη από τον χρήστη: Συναρτήσεις που ορίζονται από τον χρήστη.
                                                             (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;σύνολο:                    Σύνολο τύπων.       (line   24)
* αντικείμενο;τύπος:                     Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2251)
* αντικείμενο;τύπος συνόλου:             Σύνολο τύπων.       (line    6)
* αντικείμενο;χαρτογράφηση:              Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line  128)
* αξιολόγηση συνάρτησης:                 Γλωσσάρι.           (line  604)
* απαρχαιωμένη με ήπιο τρόπο:            Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1770)
* Άπειρο:                                Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  791)
* απλό;δήλωση:                           Απλές εντολές.      (line    6)
* από;δήλωση εισαγωγής:                  Σύνδεση ονομάτων.   (line    9)
* αποδέσμευση;όνομα:                     Η εντολή del.       (line   15)
* Απόδοση:                               timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα.
                                                             (line    8)
* απρόσιτο αντικείμενο:                  Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
                                                             (line   40)
* αριθμητικό:                            Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* αριθμητικό λεκτικό:                    Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line    6)
* αριθμητικό;literals:                   Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* αριθμητικό;μετατροπές:                 Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line  131)
* αριθμός:                               Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line    6)
* αρχείο κειμένου:                       Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1880)
* αρχείο;λειτουργίες:                    Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1429)
* αρχικοί κενοί χαρακτήρες:              Εσοχή.              (line    6)
* ασύγχρονη γεννήτρια;ασύγχρονος iterator: Asynchronous generator συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line    6)
* ασύγχρονη γεννήτρια;συνάρτηση:         Asynchronous generator συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line    6)
* ασύγχρονος generator:                  Γλωσσάρι.           (line  107)
* ασύγχρονος generator iterator:         Γλωσσάρι.           (line  124)
* ασύγχρονος iterable:                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line  142)
* ασύγχρονος iterator:                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line  149)
* ασύγχρονος διαχειριστής context:       Γλωσσάρι.           (line  101)
* αφηρημένη βασική κλάση:                Γλωσσάρι.           (line   25)
* βελτιστοποιημένο πεδίο ορατότητας (scope): Γλωσσάρι.       (line 1400)
* βρόχος;δήλωση:                         Η εντολή break.     (line    6)
* βρόχος;δήλωση <1>:                     Η εντολή continue.  (line    6)
* γενική συνάρτηση:                      Γλωσσάρι.           (line  819)
* γενικό;ειδικό;χαρακτηριστικό:          Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου.
                                                             (line   13)
* γενικός τύπος:                         Γλωσσάρι.           (line  828)
* γεννήτρια;iterator:                    Generator Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line    6)
* γεννήτρια;συνάρτηση:                   Generator Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line    6)
* γραμματική:                            Σημειογραφία.       (line    6)
* γραμμή εντολών:                        Πλήρη προγράμματα Python.
                                                             (line   25)
* γραμμική προσωρινή μνήμη I/O:          Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1588)
* Γραφική Διεπαφή Χρήστη:                Γραφικές επαφές χρηστών με το Tk.
                                                             (line    6)
* δανεική αναφορά:                       Γλωσσάρι.           (line  232)
* δεδομένα:                              Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
                                                             (line    6)
* δεδομένα;πίνακας:                      csv — Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων CSV.
                                                             (line    8)
* δεδομένα;τύπος:                        Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου.
                                                             (line    6)
* δεκαδικό λεκτικό:                      Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line    6)
* δεκαεξαδικό λεκτικό:                   Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line    6)
* δεκαεξαδικό;literals:                  Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* δεσμευμένη λέξη:                       Λέξεις-κλειδιά.     (line    6)
* δέσμευση;όνομα:                        Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line    6)
* δευτερόλεπτα από το epoch:             time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου.
                                                             (line   25)
* δηλώσεις κωδικοποίησης (αρχείο πηγής): Δηλώσεις κωδικοποίησης.
                                                             (line    6)
* δήλωση:                                Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1803)
* δήλωση;assert:                         Η εντολή assert.    (line    6)
* δήλωση;break:                          Η εντολή break.     (line    6)
* δήλωση;continue:                       Η εντολή continue.  (line    6)
* δήλωση;del:                            Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line   60)
* δήλωση;del <1>:                        Η εντολή del.       (line    6)
* δήλωση;for:                            Η εντολή break.     (line    6)
* δήλωση;for <1>:                        Η εντολή continue.  (line    6)
* δήλωση;global:                         Η εντολή del.       (line   15)
* δήλωση;global <1>:                     Η εντολή global.    (line    6)
* δήλωση;import:                         Modules<3>.         (line    6)
* δήλωση;import <1>:                     Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2429)
* δήλωση;nonlocal:                       Η εντολή nonlocal.  (line    6)
* δήλωση;pass:                           Η έκφραση pass.     (line    6)
* δήλωση;raise:                          Η εντολή raise.     (line    6)
* δήλωση;try:                            Αντικείμενα ανίχνευσης.
                                                             (line   32)
* δήλωση;while:                          Η εντολή break.     (line    6)
* δήλωση;while <1>:                      Η εντολή continue.  (line    6)
* δήλωση;with:                           Με τους Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης.
                                                             (line   15)
* δήλωση;yield:                          Η εντολή yield.     (line    6)
* δήλωση;ανάθεση, επαυξημένη:            Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* δήλωση;ανάθεση, σχολιασμένη:           Εντολές ανάθεσης με σχολιασμό.
                                                             (line    6)
* δήλωση;εισαγωγή:                       Η εντολή import.    (line    6)
* δήλωση;επιστροφή:                      Η εντολή return.    (line    6)
* δήλωση;τύπος:                          Η εντολή type.      (line    6)
* δημιουργία υποκλάσης;αμετάβλητοι τύποι: Βασική προσαρμογή. (line    8)
* δημιουργία;εξαίρεση:                   Η εντολή raise.     (line    6)
* διαγραφή;στόχος:                       Η εντολή del.       (line    6)
* διαγραφή;στόχος;λίστα:                 Η εντολή del.       (line    6)
* διαδικασία;κλήση:                      Εντολές έκφρασης.   (line   18)
* διαδραστική λειτουργία:                Πλήρη προγράμματα Python.
                                                             (line   19)
* διαδραστικός:                          Γλωσσάρι.           (line  978)
* διάστημα;σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line   77)
* διάστημα;σε μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf <1>: Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line   68)
* διαχειρίζεται μια εξαίρεση:            Εξαιρέσεις.         (line    6)
* διαχείριση σφαλμάτων:                  Εξαιρέσεις.         (line    6)
* διαχειριστής context:                  Γλωσσάρι.           (line  402)
* διαχειριστής εξαιρέσεων:               Εξαιρέσεις.         (line    6)
* διαχειριστής περιβάλλοντος:            Με τους Διαχειριστές Περιβάλλοντος Δήλωσης.
                                                             (line   15)
* διαχειριστής περιεχομένου:             Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου.
                                                             (line    6)
* διερμηνέας:                            Συστατικά ανωτάτου επιπέδου.
                                                             (line    6)
* Δοκιμή απόδοσης:                       timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα.
                                                             (line    8)
* δομή γραμμών:                          Δομή γραμμών.       (line    6)
* δυαδικά;λειτουργίες:                   Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους.
                                                             (line    6)
* δυαδική (binary) λειτουργία:           Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1588)
* δυαδικό αρχείο:                        Γλωσσάρι.           (line  220)
* δυαδικό λεκτικό:                       Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line    6)
* δυαδικό;literals:                      Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* δωρεάν μεταβλητή:                      Γλωσσάρι.           (line  718)
* δωρεάν νήμα:                           Γλωσσάρι.           (line  702)
* εγγραφή:                               Ακολουθίες.         (line    6)
* εγγραφή <1>:                           Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line    6)
* εγγραφή <2>:                           Αντιστοιχίσεις.     (line    6)
* εγγραφή;τιμές:                         Εντολές έκφρασης.   (line   18)
* ειδική μέθοδος:                        Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1783)
* ειδικό;χαρακτηριστικό:                 Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου.
                                                             (line   13)
* εισαγόμενο path:                       Γλωσσάρι.           (line  946)
* εισαγωγέας:                            Γλωσσάρι.           (line  960)
* εισαγωγή:                              Γλωσσάρι.           (line  955)
* είσοδος:                               Είσοδος έκφρασης.   (line    6)
* εκτέλεση:                              Τύποι με δυνατότητα κλήσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* εκτέλεση;πλαίσιο:                      Δομή ενός προγράμματος.
                                                             (line   20)
* Εκτελέσιμα Αρχεία Zip:                 zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python.
                                                             (line   10)
* έκφραση:                               Γλωσσάρι.           (line  610)
* έκφραση;δήλωση:                        Εντολές έκφρασης.   (line    6)
* έκφραση;λίστα:                         Εντολές έκφρασης.   (line    6)
* έκφραση;λίστα <1>:                     Εντολές έκφρασης.   (line    6)
* εκχώρηση;δήλωση:                       Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line    6)
* ελεγκτής στατικού τύπου:               Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1810)
* Έλεγχος I/O;buffering:                 Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1588)
* έλεγχος βρόχου;στόχος:                 Η εντολή break.     (line   12)
* ελεύθερη;μεταβλητή:                    Σύνδεση ονομάτων.   (line   50)
* ενσωματωμένες (built-in) συναρτήσεις;compile: Αντικείμενα Κώδικα.
                                                             (line    6)
* ενσωματωμένες (built-in) συναρτήσεις;complex: Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* ενσωματωμένες (built-in) συναρτήσεις;eval: Αντικείμενα Κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* ενσωματωμένες (built-in) συναρτήσεις;exec: Αντικείμενα Κώδικα.
                                                             (line   18)
* ενσωματωμένες (built-in) συναρτήσεις;float: Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* ενσωματωμένες (built-in) συναρτήσεις;hash: Τύποι Αμετάβλητων Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line    6)
* ενσωματωμένες (built-in) συναρτήσεις;int: Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* ενσωματωμένες (built-in) συναρτήσεις;len: Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   22)
* ενσωματωμένες (built-in) συναρτήσεις;len <1>: Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line    6)
* ενσωματωμένες (built-in) συναρτήσεις;max: Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   22)
* ενσωματωμένες (built-in) συναρτήσεις;min: Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   22)
* ενσωματωμένες (built-in) συναρτήσεις;τύπος: Τύποι Αντικειμένων.
                                                             (line    6)
* ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις;βοήθεια:     Operating system interface.
                                                             (line   21)
* ενσωματωμένη (built-in) συνάρτηση;open: Ανάγνωση και Εγγραφή Αρχείων.
                                                             (line    6)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;abs:            Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  126)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;bytes:          Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  164)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;chr:            Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   16)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;complex:        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  133)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;divmod:         Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   27)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;divmod <1>:     Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   59)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;eval:           Η εντολή global.    (line   25)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;eval <1>:       Είσοδος έκφρασης.   (line    6)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;exec:           Η εντολή global.    (line   25)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;exec <1>:       Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  692)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;float:          Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  133)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;hash:           Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  266)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;int:            Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  133)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;len:            Ακολουθίες.         (line    6)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;len <1>:        Σύνολο τύπων.       (line    6)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;len <2>:        Αντιστοιχίσεις.     (line    6)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;len <3>:        Εξομοίωση τύπων κοντέινερ.
                                                             (line   50)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;open:           Αντικείμενα εισόδου/εξόδου γνωστά και ως αντικείμενα αρχείου.
                                                             (line    6)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;ord:            Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   16)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;pow:            Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   27)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;pow <1>:        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   27)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;pow <2>:        Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line   59)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;print:          Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  169)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;repr:           Εντολές έκφρασης.   (line   18)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;round:          Εξομοίωση αριθμητικών τύπων.
                                                             (line  157)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;slice:          Αντικείμενα τμηματοποίησης.
                                                             (line    6)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;αναγνωριστικό:  Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
                                                             (line   11)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;μεταγλώττιση:   Η εντολή global.    (line   25)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;τύπος:          Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
                                                             (line   11)
* ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση;τύπος <1>:      Μετα-κλάσεις.       (line    6)
* ενσωματωμένοι (built-in) τύποι;τύποι:  Τύποι Built-in.     (line    9)
* εντοπισμός σφαλμάτων;assertions:       Η εντολή assert.    (line    6)
* ένωση;τύπος:                           Τύπος Ένωσης.       (line    6)
* εξαίρεση:                              Εξαιρέσεις.         (line    6)
* εξαίρεση <1>:                          Η εντολή raise.     (line    6)
* εξαίρεση;AssertionError:               Η εντολή assert.    (line   22)
* εξαίρεση;ImportError:                  Η εντολή import.    (line    6)
* εξαίρεση;StopIteration:                Η εντολή yield.     (line    6)
* εξαίρεση;αλυσιδωτή:                    Η εντολή raise.     (line   33)
* έξοδος:                                Εντολές έκφρασης.   (line   18)
* επαναδέσμευση;όνομα:                   Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line    6)
* επανάληψη;λειτουργία:                  Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   22)
* επαυξημένος;ανάθεση:                   Επαυξημένες εντολές ανάθεσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* επέκταση;module:                       Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου.
                                                             (line    6)
* επιλογή αντικειμένου:                  Ακολουθίες.         (line    6)
* εσοχή:                                 Εσοχή.              (line    6)
* εσωτερικός τύπος:                      Εσωτερικοί τύποι.   (line    6)
* Έτη με 2 ψηφία:                        time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου.
                                                             (line   36)
* Έτος 2038:                             time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου.
                                                             (line   31)
* ευμετάβλητο αντικείμενο:               Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
                                                             (line   11)
* ευμετάβλητο;sequence;τύποι:            Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line    6)
* ήπια λέξη-κλειδί:                      Ήπιες λέξεις-κλειδιά.
                                                             (line    6)
* Θερινή Ώρα:                            time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου.
                                                             (line   48)
* καθολικές νέες γραμμές:                Γλωσσάρι.           (line 2004)
* καθολικές νέες γραμμές;bytearray.splitlines μέθοδος: Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  692)
* καθολικές νέες γραμμές;bytes.splitlines μέθοδος: Λειτουργίες Bytes και Bytearray.
                                                             (line  692)
* καθολικές νέες γραμμές;open() ενσωματωμένη συνάρτηση: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1519)
* καθολικές νέες γραμμές;μέθοδος str.splitlines: Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line  800)
* καθολικές νέες γραμμές;συνάρτηση csv.reader: Περιεχόμενα του Module.
                                                             (line    8)
* κάνει raise μια εξαίρεση:              Εξαιρέσεις.         (line    6)
* κανονικό πακέτο:                       Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1686)
* καταμέτρηση αναφοράς:                  Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
                                                             (line   40)
* κατανόηση λεξικού:                     Γλωσσάρι.           (line  544)
* κατάσταση νήματος:                     Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1893)
* κατάσταση συνδεδεμένου νήματος:        Γλωσσάρι.           (line  168)
* καταστροφέας:                          Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line   74)
* κείμενο τεκμηρίωσης:                   Ειδικά χαρακτηριστικά μόνο για ανάγνωση<2>.
                                                             (line  103)
* κενή γραμμή:                           Κενές γραμμές.      (line    6)
* κενό:                                  Εσοχή.              (line    6)
* κινητής υποδιαστολής;literals:         Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* κινητής υποδιαστολής;αριθμός:          numbers Real float. (line    6)
* κλάση:                                 Γλωσσάρι.           (line  304)
* κλάση νέου στυλ:                       Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1375)
* κλάση;constructor:                     Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line   42)
* κλάση;ορισμός:                         Η εντολή return.    (line    6)
* κλάση;στιγμιότυπο:                     Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης. (line    6)
* κλάση;σώμα:                            Εκτέλεση του σώματος της κλάσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* κλάση;χαρακτηριστικό:                  Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις.
                                                             (line   21)
* κλάση;χαρακτηριστικό;εκχώρηση:         Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις.
                                                             (line   31)
* κλήση;στιγμιότυπο:                     Εξομοίωση αντικειμένων με δυνατότητα κλήσης.
                                                             (line    8)
* κοντέινερ:                             Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
                                                             (line   71)
* κοντέινερ <1>:                         Προσαρμοσμένες κλάσεις.
                                                             (line   21)
* κυκλική απομόνωση:                     Γλωσσάρι.           (line  462)
* κώδικας;μπλοκ:                         Μοντέλο εκτέλεσης.  (line    6)
* κωδικοποίηση κειμένου:                 Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1865)
* κωδικοποίηση συστήματος αρχείων και χειριστής σφαλμάτων: Γλωσσάρι.
                                                             (line  657)
* λειτουργία ευρετηρίου:                 Ακολουθίες.         (line    6)
* λειτουργία κειμένου:                   Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1588)
* λειτουργίες on;sequence;τύποι:         Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   22)
* λειτουργίες on;sequence;τύποι <1>:     Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   17)
* λειτουργίες on;ακέραιος;τύποι:         Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους.
                                                             (line    6)
* λειτουργίες on;αντιστοίχιση;τύποι:     Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line    6)
* λειτουργίες on;αριθμητικό;τύποι:       Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line  117)
* λειτουργίες on;λεξικό;τύπος:           Mapping types — dict frozendict.
                                                             (line    6)
* λειτουργίες on;λίστα;τύπος:            Τύποι Μεταβλητών Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   17)
* λεκτικό:                               Λεκτικά.            (line    6)
* λεκτικό bytes:                         Λεκτικά.            (line   16)
* λεκτικό ακεραίου:                      Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line    6)
* λεκτικό κινητής υποδιαστολής:          Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line    6)
* λεκτικό μιγαδικού:                     Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line    6)
* λεκτικό μορφοποιημένης συμβολοσειράς:  Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς.
                                                             (line   28)
* λεκτικό παρεμβαλλόμενης (interpolated) συμβολοσειράς: Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς.
                                                             (line   28)
* λεκτικό σύμβολο (token):               Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1934)
* λεκτικό συμβολοσειράς:                 Λεκτικά.            (line   16)
* λεκτικό φανταστικού:                   Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line    6)
* λέξη-κλειδί:                           Λέξεις-κλειδιά.     (line    6)
* λέξη-κλειδί <1>:                       Ήπιες λέξεις-κλειδιά.
                                                             (line    6)
* λέξη-κλειδί;as:                        Η εντολή import.    (line    6)
* λέξη-κλειδί;else:                      Η εντολή break.     (line   12)
* λέξη-κλειδί;finally:                   Η εντολή return.    (line   18)
* λέξη-κλειδί;finally <1>:               Η εντολή break.     (line   18)
* λέξη-κλειδί;finally <2>:               Η εντολή continue.  (line    6)
* λέξη-κλειδί;from:                      Η εντολή import.    (line    6)
* λέξη-κλειδί;lazy:                      Η εντολή import.    (line    6)
* λεξική ανάλυση:                        Λεξική ανάλυση.     (line    6)
* λεξικό:                                Γλωσσάρι.           (line  537)
* λεξικός αναλυτής:                      Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1130)
* λεξιλογικοί ορισμοί:                   Σημειογραφία.       (line  114)
* λίστα:                                 Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1134)
* λογική γραμμή:                         Λογικές γραμμές.    (line    6)
* μαγική μέθοδος:                        Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1206)
* μέγεθος bugger, I/O:                   Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 1588)
* μέθοδος:                               Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1248)
* μελλοντικός;δήλωση:                    Μελλοντικές δηλώσεις.
                                                             (line    6)
* Μεσημβρινή Ώρα Γκρίνουιτς:             time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου.
                                                             (line   42)
* μετα-κλάση:                            Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1229)
* μεταβλητή ακολουθίας;loop over:        Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   70)
* μεταβλητή κλάσης:                      Γλωσσάρι.           (line  310)
* μεταβλητή κλεισίματος:                 Γλωσσάρι.           (line  316)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__: PyConfig.    (line  184)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ <1>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  730)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; BASECFLAGS:   Compiler flags.     (line   66)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; BASECPPFLAGS: Preprocessor flags. (line   22)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; BLDSHARED:    Linker flags.       (line   70)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; BROWSER:      webbrowser<2>.      (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; BROWSER <1>:  webbrowser<2>.      (line   10)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; BROWSER <2>:  Library<29>.        (line  418)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; BROWSER <3>:  Library<29>.        (line  422)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; BROWSER <4>:  webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   20)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; BROWSER <5>:  webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   30)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; BROWSER <6>:  webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   41)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; BROWSER <7>:  Command-line interface<5>.
                                                             (line   86)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CC:           New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   58)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CC <1>:       Compiler flags.     (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CCSHARED:     Compiler flags.     (line   87)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS:       New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS <1>:   Performance options.
                                                             (line   28)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS <2>:   Compiler flags.     (line   18)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS <3>:   Compiler flags.     (line   26)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS <4>:   Compiler flags.     (line   28)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS <5>:   Compiler flags.     (line   32)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS <6>:   Compiler flags.     (line   54)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS <7>:   Linker flags.       (line   18)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS_ALIASING: Compiler flags.  (line   74)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS_CEVAL: Compiler flags.     (line   81)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS_NODIST: Compiler flags.    (line   22)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS_NODIST <1>: Compiler flags.
                                                             (line   24)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS_NODIST <2>: Compiler flags.
                                                             (line   61)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGS_NODIST <3>: Linker flags.  (line   26)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CFLAGSFORSHARED: Compiler flags.  (line   93)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; COLUMNS:      Functions<4>.       (line  610)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; COLUMNS <1>:  Functions<4>.       (line  613)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; COMPILEALL_OPTS: Compiler flags.  (line   41)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; COMSPEC:      Process Management. (line  782)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; COMSPEC <1>:  Popen Constructor.  (line  112)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CONFIGURE_CFLAGS: Compiler flags. (line   52)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST: Compiler flags.
                                                             (line   59)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS: Preprocessor flags.
                                                             (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CONFIGURE_EXE_LDFLAGS: Linker flags.
                                                             (line  100)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS: Linker flags.  (line   13)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST: Linker flags.
                                                             (line   38)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CPPFLAGS:     New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CPPFLAGS <1>: Preprocessor flags. (line    8)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CPPFLAGS <2>: Preprocessor flags. (line   13)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CPPFLAGS <3>: Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CPPFLAGS <4>: Linker flags.       (line   50)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; CXX:          Compiler flags.     (line   12)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; DISPLAY:      Tkinter Modules.    (line   25)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; EnableControlFlowGuard: Build<42>.
                                                             (line   47)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; EXE_LDFLAGS:  Linker flags.       (line   92)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; EXE_LDFLAGS <1>: Linker flags.    (line  102)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; EXTRA_CFLAGS: Compiler flags.     (line   48)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; HOME:         os path<6>.         (line   15)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; HOME <1>:     Changes in the Python API<6>.
                                                             (line  118)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; HOME <2>:     Windows<47>.        (line   15)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; HOME <3>:     Windows<47>.        (line   18)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; HOME <4>:     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  152)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; HOME <5>:     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  169)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; HOME <6>:     Tkinter Modules.    (line   64)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; HOMEDRIVE:    os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  159)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; HOMEPATH:     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  159)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; IDLESTARTUP:  IDLE<38>.           (line  176)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; IDLESTARTUP <1>: IDLE<42>.        (line    9)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; IDLESTARTUP <2>: IDLE<48>.        (line    9)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; IDLESTARTUP <3>: Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; IDLESTARTUP <4>: Command-line usage<3>.
                                                             (line   41)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LANG:         GNU gettext API.    (line   21)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LANG <1>:     Class-based API.    (line   26)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LANG <2>:     locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line   62)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LANG <3>:     locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  369)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LANG <4>:     locale — Internationalization services.
                                                             (line  373)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LANGUAGE:     GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LANGUAGE <1>: Class-based API.    (line   25)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LC_ALL:       GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LC_ALL <1>:   Class-based API.    (line   25)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LC_MESSAGES:  GNU gettext API.    (line   20)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LC_MESSAGES <1>: Class-based API. (line   26)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LDFLAGS:      New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>.
                                                             (line   59)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LDFLAGS <1>:  Preprocessor flags. (line   18)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LDFLAGS <2>:  Linker flags.       (line   15)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LDFLAGS <3>:  Linker flags.       (line   18)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LDFLAGS <4>:  Linker flags.       (line   28)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LDFLAGS <5>:  Linker flags.       (line   31)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LDFLAGS <6>:  Linker flags.       (line   35)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LDFLAGS <7>:  Linker flags.       (line   45)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LDFLAGS <8>:  Linker flags.       (line   50)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LDFLAGS_NODIST: Linker flags.     (line   24)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LDFLAGS_NODIST <1>: Linker flags. (line   26)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LDFLAGS_NODIST <2>: Linker flags. (line   40)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LDSHARED:     Linker flags.       (line   64)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LIBS:         Linker flags.       (line   57)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LINES:        Functions<4>.       (line  140)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LINES <1>:    Functions<4>.       (line  610)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LINES <2>:    Functions<4>.       (line  612)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LINKCC:       Linker flags.       (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LOGNAME:      Process Parameters. (line  258)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; LOGNAME <1>:  getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   79)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; MANPAGER:     pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   46)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; MANPAGER <1>: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   48)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; no_proxy:     urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs.
                                                             (line  352)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; OPT:          Debug options.      (line   39)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; OPT <1>:      Compiler flags.     (line   70)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PAGER:        pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system.
                                                             (line   46)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH:         Changes in the Python API<6>.
                                                             (line  145)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <1>:     Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <2>:     Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   11)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <3>:     Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line   12)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <4>:     macOS<10>.          (line   14)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <5>:     Windows<28>.        (line   55)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <6>:     Windows<32>.        (line   14)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <7>:     Security<43>.       (line   16)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <8>:     Security<43>.       (line   20)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <9>:     Το Search Path του Module.
                                                             (line   17)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <10>:    Εκτελέσιμα Python Scripts.
                                                             (line   11)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <11>:    Environment variables.
                                                             (line   26)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <12>:    Διάφορα.            (line   16)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <13>:    Εγκατάσταση.        (line   20)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <14>:    Εγκατάσταση.        (line   26)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <15>:    Εγκατάσταση.        (line   36)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <16>:    Διαμόρφωση.         (line  137)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <17>:    Γραμμές Shebang.    (line   45)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <18>:    Γραμμές Shebang.    (line   46)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <19>:    Γραμμές Shebang.    (line   55)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <20>:    Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση.
                                                             (line   11)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <21>:    Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση.
                                                             (line   31)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <22>:    Προχωρημένη εγκατάσταση.
                                                             (line   35)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <23>:    Εγκατάσταση Δυαδικών Αρχείων με Ελεύθερα Νήματα.
                                                             (line   19)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <24>:    Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων.
                                                             (line   36)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <25>:    Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων.
                                                             (line   57)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <26>:    Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων.
                                                             (line   75)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <27>:    Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων.
                                                             (line  118)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <28>:    Βήματα Εγκατάστασης.
                                                             (line   37)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <29>:    Βήματα Εγκατάστασης.
                                                             (line   63)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <30>:    Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη.
                                                             (line   84)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <31>:    Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη.
                                                             (line   89)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <32>:    Το πρόγραμμα εκκίνησης Python για Windows Απαρχαιωμένο.
                                                             (line   19)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <33>:    Από τη γραμμή εντολών.
                                                             (line    9)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <34>:    Γραμμές Shebang<2>. (line   58)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <35>:    Γραμμές Shebang<2>. (line   64)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <36>:    Γραμμές Shebang<2>. (line   67)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <37>:    Γραμμές Shebang<2>. (line   72)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <38>:    Comparison to the os and os path modules.
                                                             (line   41)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <39>:    Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  439)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <40>:    Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  444)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <41>:    Process Management. (line   45)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <42>:    Process Management. (line   84)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <43>:    Process Management. (line   88)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <44>:    Process Management. (line   89)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <45>:    Process Management. (line  549)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <46>:    Process Management. (line  635)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <47>:    Process Management. (line  639)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <48>:    Process Management. (line  640)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <49>:    Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line  140)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <50>:    Popen Constructor.  (line   35)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <51>:    webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   59)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <52>:    webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller.
                                                             (line   32)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <53>:    How venvs work.     (line   16)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <54>:    How venvs work.     (line   61)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <55>:    How venvs work.     (line   66)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <56>:    Embedding Python.   (line   31)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <57>:    Embedding Python.   (line   37)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <58>:    Πως δημιουργώ ένα εκτελέσιμο Python script στο Unix;.
                                                             (line   24)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATH <59>:    Πως δημιουργώ ένα εκτελέσιμο Python script στο Unix;.
                                                             (line   28)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATHEXT:      Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   30)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATHEXT <1>:  Library<140>.       (line  138)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATHEXT <2>:  Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη.
                                                             (line   85)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATHEXT <3>:  Εγκατάσταση χωρίς περιβάλλον διεπαφής χρήστη.
                                                             (line   89)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PATHEXT <4>:  Directory and files operations.
                                                             (line  454)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PIP_USER:     Windows<49>.        (line  102)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PROFILE_TASK: Build<22>.          (line   13)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PROFILE_TASK <1>: Performance options.
                                                             (line   12)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PROFILE_TASK <2>: Performance options.
                                                             (line   34)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PURIFY:       Compiler flags.     (line  136)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PY_BUILTIN_MODULE_CFLAGS: Compiler flags.
                                                             (line  127)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PY_CFLAGS:    Compiler flags.     (line  100)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PY_CFLAGS_NODIST: Compiler flags. (line  105)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PY_CORE_CFLAGS: Compiler flags.   (line  121)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PY_CORE_EXE_LDFLAGS: Linker flags.
                                                             (line   95)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PY_CORE_EXE_LDFLAGS <1>: Linker flags.
                                                             (line  107)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PY_CORE_LDFLAGS: Linker flags.    (line   86)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PY_CORE_LDFLAGS <1>: Linker flags.
                                                             (line   96)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PY_CPPFLAGS:  Preprocessor flags. (line   26)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PY_LDFLAGS:   Linker flags.       (line   76)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PY_LDFLAGS_NODIST: Linker flags.  (line   80)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS: Compiler flags.
                                                             (line  112)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL: Windows<16>.
                                                             (line   24)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <1>: Windows<30>.
                                                             (line   16)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_BASIC_COMPLETER: Default interactive shell.
                                                             (line    7)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_BASIC_COMPLETER <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  581)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: Default interactive shell<2>.
                                                             (line    7)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <1>: A better interactive interpreter.
                                                             (line   27)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <2>: Library<2>.
                                                             (line  103)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <3>: Library<51>.
                                                             (line   52)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <4>: Library<51>.
                                                             (line   55)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <5>: Core and Builtins<54>.
                                                             (line   13)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <6>: Διαδραστική Λειτουργία.
                                                             (line   24)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <7>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  572)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <8>: Example.   (line   79)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <9>: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O.
                                                             (line   81)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_COLORS: Summary – Release Highlights.
                                                             (line   57)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_COLORS <1>: Improved error messages<3>.
                                                             (line    8)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_COLORS <2>: doctest.       (line    7)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_COLORS <3>: Controlling color.
                                                             (line   22)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_COLORS <4>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  564)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS: Library<29>.
                                                             (line  368)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  453)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  620)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  639)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_CONTEXT_AWARE_WARNINGS <4>: Συγχρονισμένη ασφάλεια των Context Managers.
                                                             (line   45)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: os<3>.          (line   11)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  413)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  540)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <3>: Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   48)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <4>: Miscellaneous System Information.
                                                             (line   69)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <5>: Miscellaneous<3>.
                                                             (line   31)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <6>: PyConfig.   (line  524)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG: PEP 768 Safe external debugger interface.
                                                             (line   40)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  404)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  527)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG <3>: Disabling remote debugging.
                                                             (line    8)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG <4>: When to use PYTHON_DISABLE_REMOTE_DEBUG.
                                                             (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_DOM:   Module Contents.    (line   23)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   46)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <1>: Core and Builtins<65>.
                                                             (line  105)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  372)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  550)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <4>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  422)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_GIL:   Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   22)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_GIL <1>: Free-threaded CPython.
                                                             (line   38)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_GIL <2>: Core and Builtins<50>.
                                                             (line   50)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_GIL <3>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  435)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_GIL <4>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  597)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_GIL <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  632)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_GIL <6>: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python.
                                                             (line    7)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_GIL <7>: Γλωσσάρι.         (line  867)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_HISTORY: Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   57)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_HISTORY <1>: Library<67>.  (line  544)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_HISTORY <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  589)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_JIT:   Binary releases for the experimental just-in-time compiler.
                                                             (line    8)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_JIT <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  639)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_JIT <2>: General Options.  (line  260)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_JIT <3>: General Options.  (line  263)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_JIT <4>: General Options.  (line  268)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_JIT <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1361)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_LAZY_IMPORTS: PEP 810 Explicit lazy imports.
                                                             (line   55)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_LAZY_IMPORTS <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  477)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_LAZY_IMPORTS <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  658)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_LAZY_IMPORTS <3>: Compatibility via __lazy_modules__.
                                                             (line   43)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_MANAGER_AUTOMATIC_INSTALL: Εγκαθιστώντας χρόνους εκτέλεσης.
                                                             (line   52)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_MANAGER_AUTOMATIC_INSTALL <1>: Διαμόρφωση.
                                                             (line   61)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_MANAGER_DEFAULT: Βασική χρήση.
                                                             (line   50)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_MANAGER_DEFAULT <1>: Διαμόρφωση.
                                                             (line   37)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_MANAGER_DEFAULT <2>: Αντιμετώπιση προβλημάτων.
                                                             (line   83)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PATHCONFIG_WARNINGS: Core and Builtins<4>.
                                                             (line   35)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PATHCONFIG_WARNINGS <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  461)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PATHCONFIG_WARNINGS <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  630)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: Other Language Changes.
                                                             (line   52)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  391)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  514)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <3>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  906)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <4>: How to work without frame pointers.
                                                             (line   14)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PRESITE: Core and Builtins<2>.
                                                             (line  143)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PRESITE <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  425)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PRESITE <2>: Debug-mode variables.
                                                             (line   25)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PRESITE <3>: PyConfig.     (line  801)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PRESITE=package.module: Core and Builtins<65>.
                                                             (line  154)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PYMALLOC_HUGEPAGES: Build changes<2>.
                                                             (line   24)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PYMALLOC_HUGEPAGES <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  354)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_PYMALLOC_HUGEPAGES <2>: Performance options.
                                                             (line  174)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT: Core and Builtins<31>.
                                                             (line  134)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  445)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  609)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_THREAD_INHERIT_CONTEXT <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  635)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_TLBC:  Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  469)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHON_TLBC <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  647)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  287)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <1>: Enabling debug mode.
                                                             (line   10)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <2>: Debug Mode.
                                                             (line   11)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <3>: Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   65)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONBREAKPOINT: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint.
                                                             (line   13)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   80)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <2>: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line  172)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  296)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  310)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  314)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONCASEOK: Changes in the Python API<5>.
                                                             (line   29)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONCASEOK <1>: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms.
                                                             (line   17)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONCASEOK <2>: Library<158>.   (line  144)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONCASEOK <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  130)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONCASEOK <4>: Ενσωματωμένες Built-in Συναρτήσεις.
                                                             (line 2500)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion.
                                                             (line   13)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  405)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <2>: General Options.
                                                             (line   88)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <3>: Python UTF-8 Mode.
                                                             (line   59)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <4>: Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   15)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDEBUG:  Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   43)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDEBUG <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   93)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDEBUG <2>: Python Debug Build.
                                                             (line   20)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDEBUG <3>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDEBUG <4>: PyConfig.        (line  692)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDEVMODE: Python Development Mode -X dev.
                                                             (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDEVMODE <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  331)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDEVMODE <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  461)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDEVMODE <3>: Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   14)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDEVMODE <4>: PyConfig.      (line  298)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <1>: New and Improved Modules<2>.
                                                             (line  626)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   25)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  135)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  380)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <5>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   52)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <6>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line 1005)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <7>: Πως δημιουργώ ένα pyc αρχείο;.
                                                             (line   22)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDUMPREFS: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build.
                                                             (line   15)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDUMPREFS <1>: Build<59>.    (line   54)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDUMPREFS <2>: Debug-mode variables.
                                                             (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDUMPREFS <3>: Debug options.
                                                             (line   22)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDUMPREFS <4>: Debug options.
                                                             (line   24)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDUMPREFS <5>: PyConfig.     (line  309)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE: Core and Builtins<116>.
                                                             (line   16)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE <1>: Debug-mode variables.
                                                             (line   14)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE <2>: PyConfig. (line  321)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONEXECUTABLE: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  220)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONEXECUTABLE <1>: PyConfig.   (line  727)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: faulthandler<6>.
                                                             (line   12)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  283)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  251)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <3>: Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   59)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <4>: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback.
                                                             (line   15)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <5>: PyConfig. (line  358)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHASHSEED: Builtin functions and types.
                                                             (line   17)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHASHSEED <1>: Porting Python code.
                                                             (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHASHSEED <2>: Core and Builtins<173>.
                                                             (line   30)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHASHSEED <3>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  136)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHASHSEED <4>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  153)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHASHSEED <5>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  150)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHASHSEED <6>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  155)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHASHSEED <7>: Βασική προσαρμογή.
                                                             (line  348)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHASHSEED <8>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   74)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHASHSEED <9>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   77)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHASHSEED <10>: PyConfig.    (line  438)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME:   Removed C APIs<2>.  (line   68)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <1>: Pending removal in Python 3 15<2>.
                                                             (line   51)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <2>: Deprecated C APIs<4>.
                                                             (line   22)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <3>: Pending removal in Python 3 15<4>.
                                                             (line   51)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <4>: Pending removal in Python 3 15<6>.
                                                             (line   51)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <5>: Summary – Release highlights<8>.
                                                             (line  107)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <6>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   52)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <7>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   11)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <8>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   19)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <9>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   21)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <10>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   37)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <11>: Εύρεση modules.  (line   33)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <12>: Εύρεση modules.  (line   52)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <13>: Εύρεση modules.  (line   90)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <14>: Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS.
                                                             (line   95)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <15>: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   25)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <16>: The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   30)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <17>: The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   56)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <18>: Virtual Environments.
                                                             (line   19)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <19>: Embedding Python.
                                                             (line   38)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <20>: Embedding Python.
                                                             (line   44)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <21>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   89)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <22>: Process-wide parameters.
                                                             (line  167)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <23>: PyConfig.        (line  446)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <24>: PyConfig.        (line  448)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONHOME <25>: Pending removal in Python 3 15<8>.
                                                             (line   51)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONINSPECT: Other Changes and Fixes<2>.
                                                             (line   13)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONINSPECT <1>: Core and Builtins<6>.
                                                             (line   77)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONINSPECT <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   74)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONINSPECT <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  102)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONINSPECT <4>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  106)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONINSPECT <5>: PyConfig.      (line  477)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: Core and Builtins<82>.
                                                             (line   74)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  305)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  168)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <3>: Διαμόρφωση ορίου.
                                                             (line   10)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <4>: Διαμόρφωση ορίου.
                                                             (line   17)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1279)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <6>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  508)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONIOENCODING: Other Improvements<2>.
                                                             (line   75)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONIOENCODING <1>: Interpreter Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   23)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONIOENCODING <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  176)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONIOENCODING <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  442)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONIOENCODING <4>: Python UTF-8 Mode.
                                                             (line   33)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONIOENCODING <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2149)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONIOENCODING <6>: PyConfig.   (line  860)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: Pending removal in Python 3 16.
                                                             (line  102)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <1>: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>.
                                                             (line  102)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <2>: New Deprecations.
                                                             (line  131)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <3>: Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>.
                                                             (line  102)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <4>: Pending removal in Python 3 16<6>.
                                                             (line  102)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <5>: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   18)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <6>: Windows<18>.
                                                             (line   37)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <7>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  378)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <8>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2089)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <9>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2100)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <10>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2105)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <11>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  148)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <12>: PyPreConfig.
                                                             (line  123)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <13>: Pending removal in Python 3 16<8>.
                                                             (line  102)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8.
                                                             (line   12)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  190)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  392)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2153)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <4>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  166)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <5>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  561)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable.
                                                             (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC <1>: Changes in the C API<7>.
                                                             (line    9)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC <2>: Core and Builtins<193>.
                                                             (line   90)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  294)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC <4>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  345)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC <5>: Performance options.
                                                             (line  156)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC <6>: Performance options.
                                                             (line  163)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC <7>: Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   46)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC <8>: Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   50)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC <9>: Overview<4>.    (line   75)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC <10>: Default Memory Allocators.
                                                             (line   32)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC <11>: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators.
                                                             (line   11)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC <12>: The pymalloc allocator.
                                                             (line   31)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOC <13>: The mimalloc allocator.
                                                             (line   24)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: Core and Builtins<193>.
                                                             (line   96)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  338)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <2>: PyConfig.  (line  577)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <3>: Overview<4>.
                                                             (line   78)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks.
                                                             (line   63)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  360)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  491)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <3>: Μέθοδοι σε αντικείμενα κώδικα.
                                                             (line   42)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <4>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  251)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONNOUSERSITE: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   30)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  165)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  194)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  212)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <4>: Module contents<7>.
                                                             (line   15)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <5>: The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   66)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <6>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  200)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <7>: PyConfig.   (line  958)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONOPTIMIZE: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   94)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   74)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <2>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  211)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <3>: PyConfig.     (line  644)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH:   Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    8)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <1>: Changes in “python” Command Behavior<2>.
                                                             (line    9)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <2>: Το Search Path του Module.
                                                             (line   16)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <3>: Standard Modules. (line   36)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <4>: Standard Modules. (line   37)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <5>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   51)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <6>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   23)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <7>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   31)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <8>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   38)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <9>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   41)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <10>: Εύρεση modules.  (line   16)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <11>: Εύρεση modules.  (line   43)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <12>: Εύρεση modules.  (line   89)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <13>: Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS.
                                                             (line   99)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <14>: Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS.
                                                             (line  126)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <15>: Προσθήκη Python σε ένα έργο iOS.
                                                             (line  132)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <16>: Finders καταχώρησης διαδρομής Path entry finders.
                                                             (line   26)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <17>: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   26)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <18>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1517)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <19>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1522)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <20>: The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   14)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <21>: The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   18)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <22>: Embedding Python.
                                                             (line   39)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <23>: Embedding Python.
                                                             (line   45)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <24>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line   88)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPATH <25>: PyConfig.        (line  610)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: Other Language Changes<2>.
                                                             (line   84)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  380)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  502)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <3>: PyConfig.  (line  902)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <4>: How to enable perf profiling support.
                                                             (line    7)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: Core and Builtins<152>.
                                                             (line   47)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   53)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <2>: The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   51)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <3>: PyConfig.   (line  589)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: Other Language Changes<7>.
                                                             (line   47)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <1>: Core and Builtins<175>.
                                                             (line   66)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  321)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  275)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <4>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  460)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files.
                                                             (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <1>: Core and Builtins<166>.
                                                             (line  402)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  344)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  141)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line  426)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <5>: PyConfig.
                                                             (line  749)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD: Tests<32>.
                                                             (line   13)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSAFEPATH: Summary – Release highlights<4>.
                                                             (line   27)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSAFEPATH <1>: Other Language Changes<3>.
                                                             (line   37)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSAFEPATH <2>: Security<27>. (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSAFEPATH <3>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  122)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSAFEPATH <4>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   45)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSAFEPATH <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1534)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSAFEPATH <6>: Security Considerations<3>.
                                                             (line   47)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSAFEPATH <7>: PyConfig.     (line  163)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP: Default interactive shell<2>.
                                                             (line   16)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <1>: sys<13>.       (line   17)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <2>: sys<13>.       (line   21)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <3>: Library<2>.    (line  404)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <4>: Library<6>.    (line  148)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <5>: Core and Builtins<19>.
                                                             (line   33)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <6>: IDLE<38>.      (line  176)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <7>: IDLE<42>.      (line    9)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <8>: IDLE<48>.      (line    9)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <9>: Το διαδραστικό αρχείο εκκίνησης.
                                                             (line    9)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <10>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line   70)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <11>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line   60)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <12>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  116)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <13>: Example.      (line   10)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <14>: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O.
                                                             (line   91)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <15>: Startup and Code Execution.
                                                             (line    7)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <16>: Command-line usage<3>.
                                                             (line   42)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <17>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 1292)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONSTARTUP <18>: Readline configuration.
                                                             (line   12)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  300)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  262)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <2>: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line   25)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <3>: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations.
                                                             (line   32)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <4>: Functions<9>.
                                                             (line   89)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <5>: PyConfig.  (line  888)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONTZPATH: Environment configuration.
                                                             (line   11)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONTZPATH <1>: Exceptions and warnings.
                                                             (line   14)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUNBUFFERED: Core and Builtins<159>.
                                                             (line  107)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <1>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  185)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <2>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  119)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2160)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <4>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  239)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <5>: PyConfig.   (line  210)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUOPS:   Core and Builtins<66>.
                                                             (line   27)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUOPS <1>: Core and Builtins<66>.
                                                             (line  179)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUOPS <2>: Core and Builtins<66>.
                                                             (line  258)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUOPS <3>: Core and Builtins<66>.
                                                             (line  317)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUOPS <4>: Core and Builtins<66>.
                                                             (line  381)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUSERBASE: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory.
                                                             (line   23)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUSERBASE <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  205)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUSERBASE <2>: Module contents<7>.
                                                             (line   40)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUSERBASE <3>: Module contents<7>.
                                                             (line   84)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUSERBASE <4>: The initialization of the sys path module search path.
                                                             (line   64)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUSERSITE: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests.
                                                             (line   26)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUTF8:   Other language changes<2>.
                                                             (line   22)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUTF8 <1>: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode.
                                                             (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUTF8 <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  338)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUTF8 <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  452)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUTF8 <4>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  470)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUTF8 <5>: Λειτουργία UTF-8. (line   26)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUTF8 <6>: Python UTF-8 Mode.
                                                             (line    9)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUTF8 <7>: Python UTF-8 Mode.
                                                             (line   52)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUTF8 <8>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions.
                                                             (line 2151)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUTF8 <9>: PyPreConfig.      (line  152)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONUTF8 <10>: Python Configuration.
                                                             (line   14)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONVERBOSE: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  201)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONVERBOSE <1>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  124)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONVERBOSE <2>: Global configuration variables.
                                                             (line  256)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONVERBOSE <3>: PyConfig.      (line  975)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option.
                                                             (line   19)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <1>: Library<126>.
                                                             (line   45)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <2>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  350)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <3>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  481)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <4>: Opt-in EncodingWarning.
                                                             (line    9)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS: Other language changes<2>.
                                                             (line   58)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <1>: warnings<4>.  (line   21)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <2>: Other Language Changes<12>.
                                                             (line  159)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <3>: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings.
                                                             (line   25)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <4>: Interpreter Changes.
                                                             (line    6)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <5>: Library<15>.  (line  285)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <6>: Documentation<28>.
                                                             (line   67)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <7>: Miscellaneous options.
                                                             (line  261)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <8>: Environment variables.
                                                             (line  226)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <9>: Effects of the Python Development Mode.
                                                             (line   30)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <10>: Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων.
                                                             (line   54)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <11>: Το Φίλτρο Προειδοποιήσεων.
                                                             (line   66)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <12>: Περιγραφή Φίλτρων Προειδοποιήσεων.
                                                             (line    7)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <13>: Περιγραφή Φίλτρων Προειδοποιήσεων.
                                                             (line   21)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <14>: Προεπιλεγμένο φίλτρο προειδοποιήσεων.
                                                             (line    8)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; PYTHONWARNINGS <15>: PyConfig.    (line  994)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH: zipfile.       (line   11)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <1>: py_compile<3>.
                                                             (line    7)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <2>: Library<167>.
                                                             (line  451)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <3>: Build<67>. (line   15)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <4>: ZipFile objects.
                                                             (line  340)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <5>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   66)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <6>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   82)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <7>: py_compile — Compile Python source files.
                                                             (line   86)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <8>: Command-line use.
                                                             (line   97)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; SSLKEYLOGFILE: Context creation.  (line   34)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; SSLKEYLOGFILE <1>: Context creation.
                                                             (line   83)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; TEMP:         tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  330)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; TERM:         Functions<4>.       (line  500)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; TERM <1>:     Functions<4>.       (line  526)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; TMP:          tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  332)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; TMPDIR:       Library<15>.        (line 1027)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; TMPDIR <1>:   Tests<31>.          (line   68)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; TMPDIR <2>:   tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories.
                                                             (line  328)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; TZ:           Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  700)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; TZ <1>:       Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  702)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; TZ <2>:       Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  711)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; TZ <3>:       Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  716)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; TZ <4>:       Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  718)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; TZ <5>:       Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  785)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; USER:         getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   79)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; USERNAME:     os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  161)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; USERNAME <1>: Process Parameters. (line  258)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; USERNAME <2>: getpass — Portable password input.
                                                             (line   80)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; USERPROFILE:  os path<6>.         (line   14)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; USERPROFILE <1>: Changes in the Python API<6>.
                                                             (line  117)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; USERPROFILE <2>: Windows<47>.     (line   15)
* μεταβλητή περιβάλλοντος; USERPROFILE <3>: os path — Common pathname manipulations.
                                                             (line  158)
* μεταβολή;bytearray (%):                Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* μεταβολή;bytes (%):                    Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* μετακλάση:                             Μετα-κλάσεις.       (line    6)
* μετατόπιση (shifting);λειτουργίες:     Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους.
                                                             (line    6)
* μετρήσεις απόδοσης:                    Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  244)
* μετρήσεις απόδοσης <1>:                Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  277)
* μετρήσεις απόδοσης <2>:                Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  673)
* μη αναγνωρισμένη ακολουθία διαφυγής:   Δεκαεξαδικοί χαρακτήρες Unicode.
                                                             (line   18)
* μηχανισμός εισαγωγής:                  Το σύστημα εισαγωγής.
                                                             (line    6)
* μιγαδικός αριθμός:                     Γλωσσάρι.           (line  345)
* μιγαδικός αριθμός;literals:            Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* μοναδικό dispatch:                     Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1758)
* μοντέλο εκτέλεσης:                     Μοντέλο εκτέλεσης.  (line    6)
* μοντέλο τερματισμού:                   Εξαιρέσεις.         (line   22)
* μορφοποιημένα String Literals:         Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου.
                                                             (line   99)
* μορφοποιημένες συμβολοσειρές κυριολεξίας: Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1038)
* μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf:            printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* μορφοποίηση σε στυλ printf <1>:        Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* μορφοποίηση σε στυλ sprintf:           printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* μορφοποίηση σε στυλ sprintf <1>:       Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* μορφοποίηση, string (%):               printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* μορφοποίηση;bytearray (%):             Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* μορφοποίηση;bytes (%):                 Μορφοποίηση Bytes τύπου printf.
                                                             (line    6)
* μπλοκ:                                 Δομή ενός προγράμματος.
                                                             (line    6)
* οκταδικό λεκτικό:                      Αριθμητικά λεκτικά. (line    6)
* οκταδικό;literals:                     Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   22)
* ομαδοποίηση:                           Εσοχή.              (line    6)
* ομαδοποίηση εντολών:                   Εσοχή.              (line    6)
* όνομα:                                 Ονόματα αναγνωριστικά και λέξεις-κλειδιά.
                                                             (line    6)
* όνομα <1>:                             Σύνδεση ονομάτων.   (line    6)
* όνομα;δέσμευση:                        Η εντολή import.    (line    6)
* όνομα;δέσμευση <1>:                    Η εντολή import.    (line   57)
* όνομα;συντριβή:                        Ιδιωτικές Μεταβλητές.
                                                             (line   15)
* οριοθέτες:                             Τελεστές και οριοθέτες.
                                                             (line    6)
* όρισμα:                                Γλωσσάρι.           (line   67)
* όρισμα keyword:                        Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1105)
* όρισμα θέσης:                          Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1573)
* όρισμα;διαφορά από παράμετρο:          Πώς μπορώ να μεταβιβάσω προαιρετικές παραμέτρους ή παραμέτρους λέξεων-κλειδιών από τη μια συνάρτηση στην άλλη;.
                                                             (line   18)
* ορισμένο από τον χρήστη;μέθοδος:       Μέθοδοι Στιγμιοτύπου.
                                                             (line    6)
* ορισμένο από τον χρήστη;συνάρτηση:     Συναρτήσεις που ορίζονται από τον χρήστη.
                                                             (line    6)
* όψη λεξικού:                           Γλωσσάρι.           (line  553)
* Παγκόσμιος Ιστός:                      Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη.
                                                             (line    6)
* πακετάρισμα;δυαδικό;δεδομένα:          struct — Ερμηνεία bytes ως πακετοποιημένα δυαδικά δεδομένα.
                                                             (line    8)
* πακέτο:                                Πακέτα<2>.          (line    6)
* πακέτο <1>:                            Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1424)
* πακέτο namespace:                      Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1339)
* πακέτο;namespace:                      Namespace πακέτα.   (line    6)
* πακέτο;κανονικό:                       Κανονικά πακέτα.    (line    6)
* πακέτο;τμήμα (portion):                Namespace πακέτα.   (line    6)
* παράμετρος:                            Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1444)
* παράμετρος;διαφορά από όρισμα:         Πώς μπορώ να μεταβιβάσω προαιρετικές παραμέτρους ή παραμέτρους λέξεων-κλειδιών από τη μια συνάρτηση στην άλλη;.
                                                             (line   17)
* παρεμβαλλόμενα String Literals:        Ομορφότερη Μορφοποίηση Εξόδου.
                                                             (line   99)
* παρεμβολή, string (%):                 printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line    6)
* πεδίο:                                 Ονομασία και σύνδεση.
                                                             (line    6)
* πεδίο <1>:                             Επίλυση ονομάτων.   (line    6)
* περιβάλλον:                            Επίλυση ονομάτων.   (line   13)
* περιορισμένη;εκτέλεση:                 Ενσωματωμένες συναρτήσεις και περιορισμένη εκτέλεση.
                                                             (line    6)
* πίνακας byte:                          Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   25)
* πλήθος αναφοράς:                       Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1669)
* προαιρετικό module:                    Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1413)
* πρόγραμμα:                             Πλήρη προγράμματα Python.
                                                             (line    6)
* προειδοποιήσεις:                       warnings — Έλεγχος προειδοποιήσεων.
                                                             (line    8)
* πρότυπο;έξοδος:                        Εντολές έκφρασης.   (line   18)
* πρωτόκολλο buffer;str (ενσωματωμένη (built-in) κλάση): Τύπος Ακολουθίας Sequence Κειμένου — str.
                                                             (line   68)
* πρωτόκολλο buffer;τύπος δυαδικών ακολουθιών: printf-style String Formatting.
                                                             (line  208)
* πρωτόκολλο iterator:                   Τύποι Iterator.     (line    6)
* πρωτόκολλο διαχείρισης περιβάλλοντος:  Γλωσσάρι.           (line  398)
* πρωτόκολλο διαχειριστή περιεχομένου:   Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου.
                                                             (line    6)
* πρωτόκολλο;iterator:                   Τύποι Iterator.     (line    6)
* πρωτόκολλο;διαχείριση περιεχομένου:    Τύποι Διαχείρισης Περιεχομένου.
                                                             (line    6)
* σειρά ανάλυσης μεθόδων:                Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1256)
* σημειογραφία:                          Σημειογραφία.       (line    6)
* σταθερά:                               Λεκτικά.            (line    6)
* στιγμιότυπο κλάσης;χαρακτηριστικό:     Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης. (line    6)
* στιγμιότυπο κλάσης;χαρακτηριστικό;εκχώρηση: Στιγμιότυπα κλάσης.
                                                             (line   24)
* στόχος:                                Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line   28)
* στόχος;λίστα:                          Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line   28)
* στόχος;λίστα;ανάθεση:                  Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line   36)
* συγκάλυψη (masking);λειτουργίες:       Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους.
                                                             (line    6)
* συγκρίσεις:                            Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  205)
* συλλογή απορριμάτων:                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line  773)
* συλλογή σκουπιδιών:                    Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
                                                             (line   40)
* συμβολοσειρά κυριολεξίας με παρεμβολή: Μέθοδοι Συμβολοσειράς String.
                                                             (line 1038)
* συμβολοσειρά τριπλού εισαγωγικού:      Λεκτικά συμβολοσειράς και Bytes.
                                                             (line   35)
* συμβολοσειρά τριπλών εισαγωγικών:      Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1945)
* συμβολοσειρά;__format__() (μέθοδος αντικειμένου): Βασική προσαρμογή.
                                                             (line  169)
* συμβολοσειρά;__str__() (μέθοδος αντικειμένου): Βασική προσαρμογή.
                                                             (line  146)
* συμβολοσειρά;item:                     Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   16)
* συμβολοσειρά;αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες:   Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   14)
* συμβολοσειρά;μετατροπή:                Βασική προσαρμογή.  (line  169)
* συμβολοσειρά;μετατροπή <1>:            Εντολές έκφρασης.   (line   18)
* συμβολοσειρά;μορφοποιημένο λεκτικό:    Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς.
                                                             (line   28)
* συμβολοσειρά;παρεμβαλλόμενο (interpolated) λεκτικό: Λεκτικά raw συμβολοσειράς.
                                                             (line   28)
* συνάρτηση:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line  728)
* συνάρτηση annotate:                    Γλωσσάρι.           (line   40)
* συνάρτηση annotation:                  Γλωσσάρι.           (line  736)
* συνάρτηση key:                         Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1079)
* συνάρτηση;generator:                   Η εντολή yield.     (line    6)
* συνάρτηση;κλήση:                       Τύποι με δυνατότητα κλήσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* συνάρτηση;ορισμός:                     Η εντολή return.    (line    6)
* συνάρτηση;παράμετρος:                  Τύποι με δυνατότητα κλήσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* σύνδεση;όνομα:                         Σύνδεση ονομάτων.   (line    6)
* συνδρομή;ανάθεση:                      Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line  108)
* συνένωση γραμμών:                      Λογικές γραμμές.    (line    6)
* συνένωση γραμμών <1>:                  Ρητή συνένωση γραμμών.
                                                             (line    6)
* συνέχιση γραμμής:                      Ρητή συνένωση γραμμών.
                                                             (line    6)
* σύνολο χαρακτήρων πηγής:               Δηλώσεις κωδικοποίησης.
                                                             (line    6)
* συντακτικό:                            Σημειογραφία.       (line    6)
* Συντονισμένη Παγκόσμια Ώρα:            time — Πρόσβαση και μετατροπές χρόνου.
                                                             (line   42)
* σφάλματα:                              Εξαιρέσεις.         (line    6)
* σχετικός;εισαγωγή:                     Η εντολή import.    (line  110)
* σχολιασμένο;ανάθεση:                   Εντολές ανάθεσης με σχολιασμό.
                                                             (line    6)
* σχόλιο:                                Σχόλια.             (line    6)
* ταυτότητα ενός αντικειμένου:           Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
                                                             (line   11)
* τελεστές:                              Τελεστές και οριοθέτες.
                                                             (line    6)
* τελεστής walrus:                       Γλωσσάρι.           (line 2053)
* τελεστής;- (πλην):                     Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* τελεστής;!=:                           Συγκρίσεις.         (line    6)
* τελεστής;* (αστερίσκος):               Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* τελεστής;**:                           Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* τελεστής;/ (κάθετος):                  Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* τελεστής;//:                           Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* τελεστής;& (ampersand):                Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους.
                                                             (line    6)
* τελεστής;% (τοις εκατό):               Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* τελεστής;^ (caret):                    Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους.
                                                             (line    6)
* τελεστής;+ (συν):                      Αριμθητικοί Τύποι — int float complex.
                                                             (line   36)
* τελεστής;< (μικρότερο):                Συγκρίσεις.         (line    6)
* τελεστής;<<:                           Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους.
                                                             (line    6)
* τελεστής;<=:                           Συγκρίσεις.         (line    6)
* τελεστής;==:                           Συγκρίσεις.         (line    6)
* τελεστής;> (μεγαλύτερο):               Συγκρίσεις.         (line    6)
* τελεστής;>=:                           Συγκρίσεις.         (line    6)
* τελεστής;>>:                           Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους.
                                                             (line    6)
* τελεστής;| (κάθετη μπάρα):             Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους.
                                                             (line    6)
* τελεστής;~ (περισπωμένη):              Bitwise Πράξεις σε Ακέραιους Τύπους.
                                                             (line    6)
* τελεστής;and:                          Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής.
                                                             (line   26)
* τελεστής;and <1>:                      Λογικές Boolean Πράξεις — and or not.
                                                             (line   25)
* τελεστής;in:                           Συγκρίσεις.         (line   65)
* τελεστής;in <1>:                       Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   22)
* τελεστής;is:                           Συγκρίσεις.         (line    6)
* τελεστής;is not:                       Συγκρίσεις.         (line    6)
* τελεστής;not:                          Λογικές Boolean Πράξεις — and or not.
                                                             (line   25)
* τελεστής;not in:                       Συγκρίσεις.         (line   65)
* τελεστής;not in <1>:                   Κοινές Λειτουργίες Ακολουθιών Sequences.
                                                             (line   22)
* τελεστής;or:                           Έλεγχος Έγκυρης Τιμής.
                                                             (line   26)
* τελεστής;or <1>:                       Λογικές Boolean Πράξεις — and or not.
                                                             (line   25)
* τελεστής;σύγκριση:                     Συγκρίσεις.         (line    6)
* τελεστής;υπερφόρτωση:                  Ειδικά ονόματα μεθόδων.
                                                             (line    6)
* τεμαχισμός;ανάθεση:                    Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line  137)
* τερματισμός λειτουργίας διερμηνέα:     Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1001)
* τεχνικές προδιαγραφές module:          Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1273)
* τιμή ενός αντικειμένου:                Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
                                                             (line   11)
* τμήμα:                                 Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1567)
* τμηματοποίηση:                         Ακολουθίες.         (line   20)
* τμηματοποίηση <1>:                     Μεταβλητές ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line    6)
* τοπική κωδικοποίηση:                   Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1191)
* τρέχον πλαίσιο:                        Γλωσσάρι.           (line  451)
* τυπική βιβλιοθήκη:                     Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1791)
* τυπική είσοδος:                        Πλήρη προγράμματα Python.
                                                             (line   25)
* τύποι, εσωτερικό:                      Εσωτερικοί τύποι.   (line    6)
* τύπος:                                 Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου.
                                                             (line    6)
* τύπος <1>:                             Γλωσσάρι.           (line 1956)
* τύπος ενός αντικειμένου:               Αντικείμενα τιμές και τύποι.
                                                             (line   11)
* τύπος;ιεραρχία:                        Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου.
                                                             (line    6)
* υπόδειξη μετακλάσης:                   Προσδιορισμός της κατάλληλης μετακλάσης.
                                                             (line    6)
* φυσική γραμμή:                         Λογικές γραμμές.    (line    6)
* φυσική γραμμή <1>:                     Ρητή συνένωση γραμμών.
                                                             (line    6)
* φυσική γραμμή <2>:                     Τυπική γραμματική.  (line   28)
* χαρακτήρας:                            Αμετάβλητες ακολουθίες.
                                                             (line   16)
* χαρακτήρας ανάστροφης καθέτου:         Ρητή συνένωση γραμμών.
                                                             (line    6)
* χαρακτήρας δίεσης:                     Σχόλια.             (line    6)
* χαρακτηριστικό:                        Η τυπική ιεραρχία τύπου.
                                                             (line   13)
* χαρακτηριστικό <1>:                    Γλωσσάρι.           (line  192)
* χαρακτηριστικό;ανάθεση:                Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line    6)
* χαρακτηριστικό;ανάθεση <1>:            Εντολές ανάθεσης.   (line   80)
* χαρακτηριστικό;διαγραφή:               Η εντολή del.       (line   21)
* χρόνος CPU:                            Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  277)
* χρόνος CPU <1>:                        Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  673)
* χρόνος επεξεργαστή:                    Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  277)
* χρόνος επεξεργαστή <1>:                Συναρτήσεις<2>.     (line  673)
* χώρος ονομάτων:                        Ονομασία και σύνδεση.
                                                             (line    6)

                                                                       
   



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Node: PEP 810 Explicit lazy imports299949
Ref: whatsnew/3 15 pep-810-explicit-lazy-imports300075
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Node: PEP 814 Add frozendict built-in type305277
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Node: New module importlib2550727
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 importlib-section2550837
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Node: New module sysconfig2552367
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Ref: whatsnew/2 7 ttk-themed-widgets-for-tk2553980
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Node: Updated module unittest2555200
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 unittest-section2555357
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Node: Updated module ElementTree 1 32565194
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Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows2581887
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Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X2584218
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Node: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD2585522
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Node: Other Changes and Fixes2586125
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 other-changes-and-fixes2586276
Ref: 17112586276
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Node: Porting to Python 2 72588794
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 porting-to-python-2-72588972
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Node: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases2595427
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 new-features-added-to-python-2-7-maintenance-releases2595598
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Node: Two new environment variables for debug mode2597063
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 two-new-environment-variables-for-debug-mode2597257
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Node: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches2598068
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-434-idle-enhancement-exception-for-all-branches2598323
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Node: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 72598885
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-466-network-security-enhancements-for-python-2-72599144
Ref: 17172599144
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Ref: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7-Footnote-112601923
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Node: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 72602055
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-477-backport-ensurepip-pep-453-to-python-2-72602342
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Ref: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7-Footnote-12602838
Ref: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7-Footnote-22602880
Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>2602922
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 bootstrapping-pip-by-default2603071
Ref: 171b2603071
Ref: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>-Footnote-12604740
Ref: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>-Footnote-22604782
Node: Documentation Changes<2>2604872
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 documentation-changes2605021
Ref: 171c2605021
Ref: Documentation Changes<2>-Footnote-12606037
Ref: Documentation Changes<2>-Footnote-22606074
Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>2606116
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-476-enabling-certificate-verification-by-default-for-stdlib-http-clients2606408
Ref: 171d2606408
Ref: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>-Footnote-12607505
Node: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 72607547
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-493-https-verification-migration-tools-for-python-2-72607825
Ref: 171e2607825
Ref: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7-Footnote-12608989
Node: New make regen-all build target<3>2609031
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 new-make-regen-all-build-target2609267
Ref: 171f2609267
Ref: New make regen-all build target<3>-Footnote-12610059
Ref: New make regen-all build target<3>-Footnote-22610127
Node: Removal of make touch build target<3>2610192
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 removal-of-make-touch-build-target2610362
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Ref: Removal of make touch build target<3>-Footnote-12610813
Node: Acknowledgements2610878
Ref: whatsnew/2 7 acknowledgements2611019
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Node: What’s New in Python 2 62611292
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Node: Python 3 02614571
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Node: Changes to the Development Process2616901
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 changes-to-the-development-process2617058
Ref: 17272617058
Node: New Issue Tracker Roundup2617576
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 new-issue-tracker-roundup2617735
Ref: 17282617735
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Node: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx2619995
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 new-documentation-format-restructuredtext-using-sphinx2620154
Ref: 17292620154
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Ref: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx-Footnote-32622397
Ref: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx-Footnote-42622433
Node: PEP 343 The “with” statement2622473
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-03432622672
Ref: 16532622672
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-343-the-with-statement2622672
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Node: Writing Context Managers2625967
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 new-26-context-managers2626090
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Node: The contextlib module2630605
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 new-module-contextlib2630728
Ref: 16552630728
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-contextlib-module2630728
Ref: 172d2630728
Ref: The contextlib module-Footnote-12633259
Node: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module2633301
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-03662633506
Ref: 16562633506
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-366-explicit-relative-imports-from-a-main-module2633506
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Node: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory2634265
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-03702634473
Ref: 16572634473
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-370-per-user-site-packages-directory2634473
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Node: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package2635996
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-03712636187
Ref: 16582636187
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-371-the-multiprocessing-package2636187
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Ref: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package-Footnote-12641419
Node: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting2641461
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31012641640
Ref: 16592641640
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3101-advanced-string-formatting2641640
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Node: PEP 3105 print As a Function2647416
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31052647595
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Node: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes2648780
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31102648946
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Node: PEP 3112 Byte Literals2650588
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31122650750
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Node: PEP 3116 New I/O Library2653860
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31162654019
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Node: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol2657884
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31182658051
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Node: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes2660237
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31192660423
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Node: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax2665871
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31272666050
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Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3127-integer-literal-support-and-syntax2666050
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Node: PEP 3129 Class Decorators2667462
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31292667648
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Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3129-class-decorators2667648
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Node: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers2668109
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31412668278
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Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3141-a-type-hierarchy-for-numbers2668278
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Ref: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers-Footnote-22670535
Ref: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers-Footnote-32670633
Node: The fractions Module2670739
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-fractions-module2670833
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Ref: whatsnew/2 6 other-language-changes2672611
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Node: Optimizations<17>2682482
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 optimizations2682593
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Ref: Optimizations<17>-Footnote-12685461
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Ref: whatsnew/2 6 interpreter-changes2685834
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Node: New and Improved Modules<2>2687411
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 new-and-improved-modules2687570
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Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-12730075
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Node: The ast module2734215
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-ast-module2734328
Ref: 17872734328
Node: The future_builtins module2736989
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-future-builtins-module2737153
Ref: 17882737153
Node: The json module JavaScript Object Notation2738253
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-json-module-javascript-object-notation2738445
Ref: 178a2738445
Node: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser2739457
Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-plistlib-module-a-property-list-parser2739642
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-263-source-code-encodings2957733
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-278-universal-newline-support2963312
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Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-293-codec-error-handling-callbacks2973868
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Ref: whatsnew/2 1 pep-236-future-directives3117770
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Ref: using/mac using-on-mac7875398
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Node: Asynchronous generator functions8529933
Ref: reference/expressions asynchronous-generator-functions8530084
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Ref: reference/expressions id48530084
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Ref: Asynchronous generator functions-Footnote-18533755
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Ref: reference/expressions asynchronous-generator-iterator-methods8533969
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Ref: reference/expressions asynchronous-generator-methods8533969
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Ref: reference/expressions agen __anext__8534211
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Ref: reference/expressions agen athrow8535987
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Ref: reference/expressions agen aclose8536897
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-primary8538116
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Node: Attribute references8538301
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Node: Subscriptions and slicings8539345
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Ref: reference/expressions subscriptions-and-slicings8539460
Ref: 26a28539460
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Ref: reference/expressions slicings8542242
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Node: Comma-separated subscripts8543729
Ref: reference/expressions comma-separated-subscripts8543869
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Node: «Starred» subscriptions8544719
Ref: reference/expressions starred-subscriptions8544878
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Ref: «Starred» subscriptions-Footnote-18545592
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-single_subscript8545990
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-tuple_subscript8546186
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Ref: Calls-Footnote-18554538
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Ref: reference/expressions await-expression8554689
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-await_expr8554879
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Node: The power operator8554949
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Ref: reference/expressions the-power-operator8555088
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Node: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations8556488
Ref: reference/expressions unary8556639
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Ref: reference/expressions unary-arithmetic-and-bitwise-operations8556639
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-u_expr8556801
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Node: Binary arithmetic operations8557610
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Ref: reference/expressions binary-arithmetic-operations8557762
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Ref: Binary arithmetic operations-Footnote-18562656
Ref: Binary arithmetic operations-Footnote-28563269
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Ref: reference/expressions shifting-operations8563690
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Ref: reference/expressions bitwise8564598
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-xor_expr8564824
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-or_expr8564911
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Node: Comparisons8565631
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-comp_operator8566138
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Node: Value comparisons8567222
Ref: reference/expressions expressions-value-comparisons8567322
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Ref: reference/expressions value-comparisons8567322
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Ref: reference/expressions not-in8575238
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Ref: Value comparisons-Footnote-18575276
Ref: Value comparisons-Footnote-28575318
Node: Membership test operations8576421
Ref: reference/expressions membership-test-details8576550
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Ref: reference/expressions membership-test-operations8576550
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Ref: Identity comparisons-Footnote-18578931
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-not_test8579582
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Node: Assignment expressions<2>8581047
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Ref: Assignment expressions<2>-Footnote-18582302
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-conditional_expression8582528
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Ref: 26d88583187
Ref: Conditional expressions-Footnote-18583225
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Ref: reference/expressions lambda8583379
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-lambda_expr8583410
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Ref: reference/expressions exprlists8584071
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-starred_expression8584120
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-flexible_expression8584201
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-starred_expression_list8584411
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Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-expression_list8584519
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Ref: Expression lists-Footnote-18585734
Ref: Expression lists-Footnote-28585776
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Ref: reference/expressions evalorder8585935
Ref: 26de8585935
Ref: reference/expressions evaluation-order8585935
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Node: Operator precedence8586450
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Ref: reference/expressions operator-summary8586542
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Ref: Operator precedence-Footnote-18591071
Ref: Operator precedence-Footnote-28591220
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts doc8591490
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Ref: Εντολές ανάθεσης-Footnote-18607512
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-annotated_assignment_stmt8612105
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Ref: Εντολές ανάθεσης με σχολιασμό-Footnote-18616008
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts assert8616247
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-assert_stmt8616513
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-return_stmt8620985
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts compatibility-via-lazy-modules8645543
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts lazy-modules-compat8645543
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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-feature8649005
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Ref: Μελλοντικές δηλώσεις-Footnote-18654309
Ref: Μελλοντικές δηλώσεις-Footnote-28654351
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Ref: Capture Patterns-Footnote-18695878
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Ref: library/datetime strftime-and-strptime-format-codes9982242
Ref: 2b0a9982242
Ref: strftime and strptime format codes-Footnote-19996088
Node: Technical detail9996136
Ref: library/datetime technical-detail9996262
Ref: 2b0b9996262
Node: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support10004717
Ref: library/zoneinfo doc10004902
Ref: 2b0c10004902
Ref: library/zoneinfo module-zoneinfo10004902
Ref: 13d10004902
Ref: library/zoneinfo translation-repo10004902
Ref: 2b0d10004902
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-iana-time-zone-support10004902
Ref: 2b0e10004902
Ref: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support-Footnote-110006155
Ref: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support-Footnote-210006220
Ref: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support-Footnote-310006262
Ref: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support-Footnote-410006303
Node: Using ZoneInfo10006344
Ref: library/zoneinfo using-zoneinfo10006451
Ref: 2b0f10006451
Ref: Using ZoneInfo-Footnote-110008386
Node: Data sources10008428
Ref: library/zoneinfo data-sources10008562
Ref: 2b1010008562
Ref: Data sources-Footnote-110009246
Node: Configuring the data sources10009287
Ref: library/zoneinfo configuring-the-data-sources10009364
Ref: 2b1110009364
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-configuration10009364
Ref: 2b1210009364
Node: Compile-time configuration10010117
Ref: library/zoneinfo compile-time-configuration10010242
Ref: 2b1510010242
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-compile-time-config10010242
Ref: 235410010242
Node: Environment configuration10010974
Ref: library/zoneinfo environment-configuration10011129
Ref: 2b1610011129
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-environment-var10011129
Ref: 2b1310011129
Ref: library/zoneinfo envvar-PYTHONTZPATH10011448
Ref: 2b1710011448
Node: Runtime configuration10012134
Ref: library/zoneinfo runtime-configuration10012254
Ref: 2b1910012254
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-runtime-config10012254
Ref: 2b1410012254
Node: The ZoneInfo class10012622
Ref: library/zoneinfo the-zoneinfo-class10012754
Ref: 2b1a10012754
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo10012817
Ref: cb110012817
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo from_file10013702
Ref: 197e10013702
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo no_cache10014347
Ref: 2b1c10014347
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo clear_cache10015084
Ref: 193410015084
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo key10015907
Ref: 2b1d10015907
Node: String representations10016782
Ref: library/zoneinfo string-representations10016888
Ref: 2b1f10016888
Node: Pickle serialization10017706
Ref: library/zoneinfo pickle-serialization10017812
Ref: 2b2010017812
Ref: library/zoneinfo pickling10017812
Ref: 2b1b10017812
Node: Functions<2>10020207
Ref: library/zoneinfo functions10020334
Ref: 2b2110020334
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo available_timezones10020373
Ref: 1f3c10020373
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo reset_tzpath10021394
Ref: 19ff10021394
Node: Globals10022094
Ref: library/zoneinfo globals10022226
Ref: 2b2210022226
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo TZPATH10022261
Ref: 235310022261
Node: Exceptions and warnings10023048
Ref: library/zoneinfo exceptions-and-warnings10023159
Ref: 2b2310023159
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfoNotFoundError10023226
Ref: 1a0f10023226
Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo InvalidTZPathWarning10023464
Ref: 2b1810023464
Node: calendar — General calendar-related functions10023648
Ref: library/calendar doc10023830
Ref: 2b2410023830
Ref: library/calendar calendar-general-calendar-related-functions10023830
Ref: 2b2510023830
Ref: library/calendar module-calendar10023830
Ref: 1510023830
Ref: library/calendar translation-repo10023830
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Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar10025028
Ref: 2b2810025028
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar firstweekday10025560
Ref: 2b2b10025560
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar getfirstweekday10025809
Ref: 2b2d10025809
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar setfirstweekday10026002
Ref: 2b2c10026002
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar iterweekdays10026231
Ref: 2b2e10026231
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdates10026487
Ref: fd810026487
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays10026867
Ref: 2b2f10026867
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays210027260
Ref: 2b3010027260
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays310027617
Ref: fd910027617
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays410028007
Ref: fda10028007
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdatescalendar10028417
Ref: 2b3110028417
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdays2calendar10028645
Ref: 2b3210028645
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdayscalendar10028881
Ref: 2b3310028881
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardatescalendar10029076
Ref: 2b3410029076
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardays2calendar10029478
Ref: 2b3510029478
Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardayscalendar10029802
Ref: 2b3610029802
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar10030095
Ref: 1a3e10030095
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar prweek10030277
Ref: 2b3710030277
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatday10030444
Ref: 2b3910030444
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweek10030760
Ref: 2b3810030760
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweekday10031113
Ref: 2b3a10031113
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweekheader10031425
Ref: 2b3b10031425
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatmonth10031707
Ref: 2b3c10031707
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatmonthname10032164
Ref: 2b3d10032164
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar prmonth10032576
Ref: 2b3e10032576
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatyear10032730
Ref: 2b3f10032730
Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar pryear10033275
Ref: 2b4010033275
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar10033438
Ref: 20210033438
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatmonth10033614
Ref: 2b4110033614
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatyear10033872
Ref: 2b4210033872
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatyearpage10034061
Ref: 2b4310034061
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatmonthname10034568
Ref: 2b4410034568
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclasses10034950
Ref: 2b4510034950
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_noday10035371
Ref: 2b4610035371
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclasses_weekday_head10035539
Ref: 2b4710035539
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_month_head10035761
Ref: 2b4810035761
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_month10035971
Ref: 2b4910035971
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_year10036187
Ref: 2b4a10036187
Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_year_head10036409
Ref: 2b4b10036409
Ref: library/calendar calendar LocaleTextCalendar10037325
Ref: b2910037325
Ref: library/calendar calendar LocaleHTMLCalendar10037571
Ref: b2a10037571
Ref: library/calendar calendar setfirstweekday10038172
Ref: 2b2710038172
Ref: library/calendar calendar firstweekday10038656
Ref: 2b5110038656
Ref: library/calendar calendar isleap10038776
Ref: 2b5210038776
Ref: library/calendar calendar leapdays10038914
Ref: 2b5310038914
Ref: library/calendar calendar weekday10039149
Ref: 2b5410039149
Ref: library/calendar calendar weekheader10039358
Ref: 2b5510039358
Ref: library/calendar calendar monthrange10039528
Ref: 2b5610039528
Ref: library/calendar calendar monthcalendar10039707
Ref: 2b5710039707
Ref: library/calendar calendar prmonth10039998
Ref: 2b5810039998
Ref: library/calendar calendar month10040140
Ref: 1b2710040140
Ref: library/calendar calendar prcal10040350
Ref: 2b5910040350
Ref: library/calendar calendar calendar10040504
Ref: 2b5a10040504
Ref: library/calendar calendar timegm10040736
Ref: 2b5b10040736
Ref: library/calendar calendar day_name10041199
Ref: 2b5c10041199
Ref: library/calendar calendar day_abbr10041510
Ref: 2b5d10041510
Ref: library/calendar calendar MONDAY10041801
Ref: 2b2910041801
Ref: library/calendar calendar TUESDAY10041839
Ref: 2b4c10041839
Ref: library/calendar calendar WEDNESDAY10041878
Ref: 2b4d10041878
Ref: library/calendar calendar THURSDAY10041919
Ref: 2b4e10041919
Ref: library/calendar calendar FRIDAY10041959
Ref: 2b4f10041959
Ref: library/calendar calendar SATURDAY10041997
Ref: 2b5010041997
Ref: library/calendar calendar SUNDAY10042037
Ref: 2b2a10042037
Ref: library/calendar calendar Day10042209
Ref: 89410042209
Ref: library/calendar calendar month_name10042461
Ref: 2b5e10042461
Ref: library/calendar calendar month_abbr10043390
Ref: 2b5f10043390
Ref: library/calendar calendar standalone_month_name10044150
Ref: 1a3f10044150
Ref: library/calendar calendar standalone_month_abbr10044422
Ref: 1a4010044422
Ref: library/calendar calendar JANUARY10044706
Ref: 32910044706
Ref: library/calendar calendar FEBRUARY10044745
Ref: 32a10044745
Ref: library/calendar calendar MARCH10044785
Ref: 2b6010044785
Ref: library/calendar calendar APRIL10044822
Ref: 2b6110044822
Ref: library/calendar calendar MAY10044859
Ref: 2b6210044859
Ref: library/calendar calendar JUNE10044894
Ref: 2b6310044894
Ref: library/calendar calendar JULY10044930
Ref: 2b6410044930
Ref: library/calendar calendar AUGUST10044966
Ref: 2b6510044966
Ref: library/calendar calendar SEPTEMBER10045004
Ref: 2b6610045004
Ref: library/calendar calendar OCTOBER10045045
Ref: 2b6710045045
Ref: library/calendar calendar NOVEMBER10045084
Ref: 2b6810045084
Ref: library/calendar calendar DECEMBER10045124
Ref: 2b6910045124
Ref: library/calendar calendar Month10045304
Ref: 89310045304
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalMonthError10045623
Ref: 191510045623
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalMonthError month10046025
Ref: 2b6a10046025
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalWeekdayError10046096
Ref: 2b6b10046096
Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalWeekdayError weekday10046284
Ref: 2b6c10046284
Ref: calendar — General calendar-related functions-Footnote-110046672
Node: Command-line usage10046740
Ref: library/calendar calendar-cli10046842
Ref: 20110046842
Ref: library/calendar command-line-usage10046842
Ref: 2b6d10046842
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-help10049581
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Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-h10049581
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Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-locale10049643
Ref: 2b7010049643
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-L10049643
Ref: 2b7110049643
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-encoding10049763
Ref: 2b7210049763
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-e10049763
Ref: 2b7310049763
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-type10049920
Ref: 2b7410049920
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-t10049920
Ref: 2b7510049920
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-first-weekday10050042
Ref: 2b7610050042
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-f10050042
Ref: 2b7710050042
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-arg-year10050244
Ref: 2b7810050244
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-arg-month10050335
Ref: 2b7910050335
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-width10050552
Ref: 2b7a10050552
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-w10050552
Ref: 2b7b10050552
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-lines10050750
Ref: 2b7c10050750
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-l10050750
Ref: 2b7d10050750
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-spacing10050941
Ref: 2b7e10050941
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-s10050941
Ref: 2b7f10050941
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-months10051084
Ref: 2b8010051084
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-m10051084
Ref: 2b8110051084
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-css10051576
Ref: 2b8210051576
Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-c10051576
Ref: 2b8310051576
Node: collections — Container datatypes10051773
Ref: library/collections doc10052008
Ref: 2b8410052008
Ref: library/collections collections-container-datatypes10052008
Ref: 2b8510052008
Ref: library/collections module-collections10052008
Ref: 1e10052008
Ref: library/collections translation-repo10052008
Ref: 2b8610052008
Ref: collections — Container datatypes-Footnote-110053999
Node: ChainMap objects10054080
Ref: library/collections chainmap-objects10054192
Ref: 2b8710054192
Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap10054582
Ref: fdb10054582
Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap maps10055602
Ref: 2b8810055602
Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap new_child10055912
Ref: 12d010055912
Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap parents10056760
Ref: 2b8910056760
Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-110058746
Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-210058788
Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-310058883
Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-410058930
Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-510059009
Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-610059106
Node: ChainMap Examples and Recipes10059159
Ref: library/collections chainmap-examples-and-recipes10059241
Ref: 2b8a10059241
Node: Counter objects10062355
Ref: library/collections counter-objects10062489
Ref: 2b8b10062489
Ref: library/collections collections Counter10063203
Ref: 20410063203
Ref: library/collections collections Counter elements10065305
Ref: 16a810065305
Ref: library/collections collections Counter most_common10065730
Ref: 16a710065730
Ref: library/collections collections Counter subtract10066194
Ref: 158710066194
Ref: library/collections collections Counter total10066862
Ref: 2b8c10066862
Ref: library/collections collections Counter fromkeys10067206
Ref: 2b8d10067206
Ref: library/collections collections Counter update10067327
Ref: 197f10067327
Ref: Counter objects-Footnote-110072919
Ref: Counter objects-Footnote-210072998
Ref: Counter objects-Footnote-310073045
Node: deque objects10073138
Ref: library/collections deque-objects10073275
Ref: 2b8e10073275
Ref: library/collections collections deque10073328
Ref: 9d610073328
Ref: library/collections collections deque append10074778
Ref: 2b8f10074778
Ref: library/collections collections deque appendleft10074875
Ref: 2b9010074875
Ref: library/collections collections deque clear10074975
Ref: 2b9110074975
Ref: library/collections collections deque copy10075082
Ref: 118b10075082
Ref: library/collections collections deque count10075196
Ref: 158910075196
Ref: library/collections collections deque extend10075336
Ref: 2b9210075336
Ref: library/collections collections deque extendleft10075489
Ref: 2b9310075489
Ref: library/collections collections deque index10075747
Ref: 118910075747
Ref: library/collections collections deque insert10076037
Ref: 118a10076037
Ref: library/collections collections deque pop10076312
Ref: 2b9410076312
Ref: library/collections collections deque popleft10076491
Ref: 2b9510076491
Ref: library/collections collections deque remove10076673
Ref: 1ec510076673
Ref: library/collections collections deque reverse10076825
Ref: 158a10076825
Ref: library/collections collections deque rotate10076987
Ref: 1e8610076987
Ref: library/collections collections deque maxlen10077407
Ref: 16a910077407
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Ref: library/collections deque-recipes10080136
Ref: 2b9610080136
Ref: deque Recipes-Footnote-110082600
Node: defaultdict objects10082661
Ref: library/collections defaultdict-objects10082839
Ref: 2b9710082839
Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict10082904
Ref: 156510082904
Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict __missing__10083863
Ref: 2b9910083863
Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict default_factory10085047
Ref: 2b9810085047
Ref: defaultdict objects-Footnote-110085492
Node: defaultdict Examples10085534
Ref: library/collections defaultdict-examples10085610
Ref: 2b9a10085610
Node: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields10088292
Ref: library/collections namedtuple-factory-function-for-tuples-with-named-fields10088476
Ref: 2b9b10088476
Ref: library/collections collections namedtuple10088857
Ref: 1cf10088857
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _make10092986
Ref: 2b9d10092986
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _asdict10093228
Ref: da510093228
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _replace10093948
Ref: 2b9e10093948
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _fields10094591
Ref: 2b9f10094591
Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _field_defaults10095094
Ref: 2b9c10095094
Node: OrderedDict objects10097922
Ref: library/collections ordereddict-objects10098103
Ref: 2ba010098103
Ref: library/collections collections OrderedDict10100526
Ref: 9d510100526
Ref: library/collections collections OrderedDict popitem10100859
Ref: 169210100859
Ref: library/collections collections OrderedDict move_to_end10101141
Ref: 158810101141
Ref: library/collections collections-ordereddict-eq10101868
Ref: 1b6010101868
Ref: OrderedDict objects-Footnote-110102840
Ref: OrderedDict objects-Footnote-210102882
Node: OrderedDict Examples and Recipes10102924
Ref: library/collections ordereddict-examples-and-recipes10103012
Ref: 2ba210103012
Node: UserDict objects10106061
Ref: library/collections userdict-objects10106202
Ref: 2ba310106202
Ref: library/collections collections UserDict10106568
Ref: 192d10106568
Ref: library/collections collections UserDict data10107177
Ref: 2ba410107177
Ref: library/collections collections UserDict popitem10107372
Ref: 190c10107372
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Ref: library/collections userlist-objects10107862
Ref: 2ba510107862
Ref: library/collections collections UserList10108377
Ref: 188610108377
Ref: library/collections collections UserList data10108961
Ref: 2ba610108961
Node: UserString objects10109755
Ref: library/collections userstring-objects10109870
Ref: 2ba710109870
Ref: library/collections collections UserString10110233
Ref: 118c10110233
Ref: library/collections collections UserString data10110820
Ref: 2ba810110820
Node: collections abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers10111137
Ref: library/collections abc doc10111355
Ref: 2ba910111355
Ref: library/collections abc collections-abc-abstract-base-classes-for-containers10111355
Ref: 2baa10111355
Ref: library/collections abc module-collections abc10111355
Ref: 1f10111355
Ref: library/collections abc translation-repo10111355
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Ref: collections abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers-Footnote-110117364
Ref: collections abc — Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις για Containers-Footnote-210117441
Node: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών10117483
Ref: library/collections abc collections-abstract-base-classes10117797
Ref: c4e10117797
Ref: library/collections abc id110117797
Ref: 2bac10117797
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-110127759
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-210128322
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-310128885
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-410129448
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-510130044
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-610130607
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-710131170
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-810131733
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-910132296
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-1010132859
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-1110133423
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-1210133987
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-1310134551
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-1410135115
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-1510135679
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών-Footnote-1610136243
Node: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές10136807
Ref: library/collections abc collections-abstract-base-classes-detailed-descriptions10137178
Ref: 2bae10137178
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Container10137369
Ref: 28ac10137369
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Hashable10137516
Ref: 90210137516
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Sized10137657
Ref: 90310137657
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Callable10137795
Ref: bc610137795
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Iterable10138155
Ref: 28aa10138155
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Collection10138911
Ref: 104710138911
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Iterator10139088
Ref: 28ab10139088
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Reversible10139348
Ref: 104810139348
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Generator10139582
Ref: 119310139582
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Sequence10140190
Ref: 156d10140190
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc MutableSequence10140231
Ref: 6c610140231
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc ByteString10140279
Ref: 2cb10140279
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc ByteString index10141284
Ref: 2bb010141284
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Set10143548
Ref: 28a110143548
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc MutableSet10143584
Ref: 28ad10143584
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Mapping10143717
Ref: c9c10143717
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc MutableMapping10143757
Ref: 145910143757
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc MappingView10143903
Ref: 28ae10143903
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc ItemsView10143947
Ref: 28b010143947
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc KeysView10143989
Ref: 28af10143989
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc ValuesView10144030
Ref: 28b110144030
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Awaitable10144197
Ref: 119410144197
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Coroutine10145357
Ref: 119510145357
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc AsyncIterable10147017
Ref: 119710147017
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc AsyncIterator10147277
Ref: 119610147277
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc AsyncGenerator10147568
Ref: 104a10147568
Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Buffer10148043
Ref: 31210148043
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές-Footnote-110148337
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές-Footnote-210148379
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές-Footnote-310148437
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές-Footnote-410148479
Ref: Αφηρημένες Βασικές Κλάσεις Συλλογών – Αναλυτικές Περιγραφές-Footnote-510148521
Node: Παραδείγματα και Συνταγές10148563
Ref: library/collections abc examples-and-recipes10148858
Ref: 2bb110148858
Ref: Παραδείγματα και Συνταγές-Footnote-110153555
Ref: Παραδείγματα και Συνταγές-Footnote-210153608
Node: heapq — Heap queue algorithm10153650
Ref: library/heapq doc10153869
Ref: 2bb210153869
Ref: library/heapq heapq-heap-queue-algorithm10153869
Ref: 2bb310153869
Ref: library/heapq module-heapq10153869
Ref: 6c10153869
Ref: library/heapq translation-repo10153869
Ref: 2bb410153869
Ref: library/heapq heapq heapify10156227
Ref: 2bb510156227
Ref: library/heapq heapq heappush10156338
Ref: 185e10156338
Ref: library/heapq heapq heappop10156477
Ref: 185f10156477
Ref: library/heapq heapq heappushpop10156756
Ref: 2bb610156756
Ref: library/heapq heapq heapreplace10157039
Ref: 2bb710157039
Ref: library/heapq heapq heapify_max10157879
Ref: 4af10157879
Ref: library/heapq heapq heappush_max10158023
Ref: 4b010158023
Ref: library/heapq heapq heappop_max10158204
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Ref: library/heapq heapq heappushpop_max10158530
Ref: 4b310158530
Ref: library/heapq heapq heapreplace_max10158858
Ref: 4b210158858
Ref: library/heapq heapq merge10159380
Ref: 11b910159380
Ref: library/heapq heapq nlargest10160570
Ref: 2bb810160570
Ref: library/heapq heapq nsmallest10160978
Ref: 2bb910160978
Ref: heapq — Heap queue algorithm-Footnote-110161882
Node: Basic Examples10161947
Ref: library/heapq basic-examples10162055
Ref: 2bba10162055
Ref: Basic Examples-Footnote-110163022
Node: Other Applications10163069
Ref: library/heapq other-applications10163221
Ref: 2bbb10163221
Ref: Other Applications-Footnote-110164483
Ref: Other Applications-Footnote-210164528
Node: Priority Queue Implementation Notes10164583
Ref: library/heapq priority-queue-implementation-notes10164727
Ref: 2bbc10164727
Ref: Priority Queue Implementation Notes-Footnote-110167663
Node: Theory10167716
Ref: library/heapq theory10167833
Ref: 2bbd10167833
Ref: Theory-Footnote-110171796
Node: bisect — Array bisection algorithm10172450
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Ref: 2bbf10172625
Ref: library/bisect module-bisect10172625
Ref: 1210172625
Ref: library/bisect translation-repo10172625
Ref: 2bc010172625
Ref: library/bisect bisect-functions10174049
Ref: 2bc210174049
Ref: library/bisect bisect bisect_left10174088
Ref: 2bc310174088
Ref: library/bisect bisect bisect_right10175310
Ref: 2bc410175310
Ref: library/bisect bisect bisect10175391
Ref: 2bc510175391
Ref: library/bisect bisect insort_left10175951
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Ref: library/bisect bisect insort_right10176629
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Ref: library/bisect bisect insort10176710
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Ref: bisect — Array bisection algorithm-Footnote-110177572
Node: Performance Notes10177638
Ref: library/bisect performance-notes10177759
Ref: 2bc810177759
Ref: Performance Notes-Footnote-110179155
Ref: Performance Notes-Footnote-210179210
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Ref: library/bisect searching-sorted-lists10179421
Ref: 2bc910179421
Node: Examples<2>10180643
Ref: library/bisect examples10180758
Ref: 2bca10180758
Ref: library/bisect bisect-example10180793
Ref: 2bcb10180793
Node: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values10183272
Ref: library/array doc10183444
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Ref: library/array array-efficient-arrays-of-numeric-values10183444
Ref: 2bcd10183444
Ref: library/array module-array10183444
Ref: 810183444
Ref: library/array translation-repo10183444
Ref: 2bce10183444
Ref: library/array array typecodes10190214
Ref: 1de10190214
Ref: library/array array array10190449
Ref: 6c510190449
Ref: library/array array array typecode10191733
Ref: 2bd210191733
Ref: library/array array array itemsize10191830
Ref: 2bcf10191830
Ref: library/array array array append10191958
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Ref: library/array array array buffer_info10192091
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Ref: library/array array array byteswap10193228
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Ref: library/array array array count10193720
Ref: 2bd610193720
Ref: library/array array array extend10193832
Ref: 2bd110193832
Ref: library/array array array frombytes10194227
Ref: 161610194227
Ref: library/array array array fromfile10194610
Ref: 166510194610
Ref: library/array array array fromlist10194961
Ref: 196410194961
Ref: library/array array array fromunicode10195183
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Ref: library/array array array index10195551
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Ref: library/array array array insert10196038
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Ref: library/array array array pop10196256
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Ref: library/array array array remove10196501
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Ref: library/array array array clear10196611
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Ref: library/array array array reverse10196727
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Ref: library/array array array tobytes10196820
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Ref: library/array array array tofile10197173
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Ref: library/array array array tolist10197307
Ref: 2bdb10197307
Ref: library/array array array tounicode10197413
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Ref: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values-Footnote-110198688
Ref: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values-Footnote-210198749
Ref: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values-Footnote-310198846
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Ref: library/weakref doc10199140
Ref: 2bdd10199140
Ref: library/weakref mod-weakref10199140
Ref: 12bb10199140
Ref: library/weakref module-weakref10199140
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Ref: library/weakref translation-repo10199140
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Ref: library/weakref weakref-weak-references10199140
Ref: 2bdf10199140
Ref: library/weakref weakref ref10203210
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Ref: library/weakref weakref ref __callback__10205020
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Ref: library/weakref weakref proxy10205409
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Ref: library/weakref weakref getweakrefcount10206431
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Ref: library/weakref weakref getweakrefs10206574
Ref: 2be210206574
Ref: library/weakref weakref WeakKeyDictionary10206718
Ref: 1b4410206718
Ref: library/weakref weakref WeakKeyDictionary keyrefs10208586
Ref: 2be310208586
Ref: library/weakref weakref WeakValueDictionary10208697
Ref: 1b4510208697
Ref: library/weakref weakref WeakValueDictionary valuerefs10209190
Ref: 2be410209190
Ref: library/weakref weakref WeakSet10209307
Ref: 9d710209307
Ref: library/weakref weakref WeakMethod10209496
Ref: 139810209496
Ref: library/weakref weakref finalize10210549
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Ref: library/weakref weakref finalize __call__10211857
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Ref: library/weakref weakref finalize detach10212076
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Ref: library/weakref weakref finalize peek10212285
Ref: 2be710212285
Ref: library/weakref weakref finalize alive10212462
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Ref: library/weakref weakref finalize atexit10212584
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Ref: library/weakref weakref ReferenceType10213204
Ref: 1d5b10213204
Ref: library/weakref weakref ProxyType10213300
Ref: 1d5c10213300
Ref: library/weakref weakref CallableProxyType10213410
Ref: 1d5d10213410
Ref: library/weakref weakref ProxyTypes10213514
Ref: 2bea10213514
Ref: weakref — Weak references-Footnote-110214175
Ref: weakref — Weak references-Footnote-210214242
Ref: weakref — Weak references-Footnote-310214284
Ref: weakref — Weak references-Footnote-410214326
Node: Weak Reference Objects10214368
Ref: library/weakref weak-reference-objects10214473
Ref: 2beb10214473
Ref: library/weakref weakref-objects10214473
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Ref: library/weakref example10217129
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Ref: library/weakref weakref-example10217129
Ref: 2bee10217129
Node: Finalizer Objects10217670
Ref: library/weakref finalize-examples10217820
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Ref: library/weakref finalizer-objects10217820
Ref: 2bf010217820
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Ref: library/weakref comparing-finalizers-with-del-methods10219802
Ref: 2bf110219802
Node: types — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους10222641
Ref: library/types doc10222905
Ref: 2bf210222905
Ref: library/types module-types10222905
Ref: 10c10222905
Ref: library/types translation-repo10222905
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Ref: library/types types-dynamic-type-creation-and-names-for-built-in-types10222905
Ref: 2bf410222905
Ref: types — Δημιουργία δυναμικών τύπων και ονόματα για ενσωματωμένους τύπους-Footnote-110224330
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Ref: 2bf510224666
Ref: library/types types new_class10224763
Ref: 150c10224763
Ref: library/types types prepare_class10226023
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Ref: library/types types resolve_bases10228043
Ref: f5b10228043
Ref: library/types types get_original_bases10229042
Ref: 8de10229042
Ref: Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων-Footnote-110231028
Ref: Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων-Footnote-210231070
Ref: Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων-Footnote-310231112
Ref: Δημιουργία Δυναμικών Τύπων-Footnote-410231154
Node: Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα10231196
Ref: library/types standard-interpreter-types10231560
Ref: 2bf610231560
Ref: library/types types NoneType10232603
Ref: c2a10232603
Ref: library/types types FunctionType10232714
Ref: c5910232714
Ref: library/types types LambdaType10232755
Ref: 2bf710232755
Ref: library/types types GeneratorType10233415
Ref: 1bb510233415
Ref: library/types types CoroutineType10233636
Ref: 123a10233636
Ref: library/types types AsyncGeneratorType10233874
Ref: 2bf810233874
Ref: library/types types CodeType10234167
Ref: 2e110234167
Ref: library/types types CellType10235101
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Ref: library/types types MethodType10235409
Ref: 1d7f10235409
Ref: library/types types BuiltinFunctionType10235597
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Ref: library/types types BuiltinMethodType10235645
Ref: 2bfb10235645
Ref: library/types types WrapperDescriptorType10235981
Ref: f5810235981
Ref: library/types types MethodWrapperType10236290
Ref: a3a10236290
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Ref: c2b10236618
Ref: library/types types MethodDescriptorType10236749
Ref: f5910236749
Ref: library/types types ClassMethodDescriptorType10236979
Ref: f5a10236979
Ref: library/types types ModuleType10237246
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Ref: library/types types EllipsisType10238595
Ref: c2910238595
Ref: library/types types GenericAlias10238715
Ref: bc710238715
Ref: library/types types UnionType10239970
Ref: 52710239970
Ref: library/types types TracebackType10240251
Ref: eb810240251
Ref: library/types types FrameType10240786
Ref: 1de610240786
Ref: library/types types FrameLocalsProxyType10241037
Ref: 28c10241037
Ref: library/types types LazyImportType10241286
Ref: 17d10241286
Ref: library/types types GetSetDescriptorType10241673
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Ref: library/types types MemberDescriptorType10242285
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Ref: library/types types MappingProxyType10243560
Ref: 18910243560
Ref: library/types types MappingProxyType copy10245298
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Ref: library/types types MappingProxyType get10245457
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Ref: library/types types MappingProxyType items10245902
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Ref: library/types types MappingProxyType keys10246124
Ref: 2c0110246124
Ref: library/types types MappingProxyType values10246311
Ref: 2c0210246311
Ref: library/types types CapsuleType10246906
Ref: 2c0310246906
Ref: Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα-Footnote-110247062
Ref: Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα-Footnote-210247104
Ref: Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα-Footnote-310247146
Ref: Τυπικοί Τύποι Διερμηνέα-Footnote-410247188
Node: Πρόσθετες βοηθητικές κλάσεις και συναρτήσεις10247230
Ref: library/types additional-utility-classes-and-functions10247597
Ref: 2c0510247597
Ref: library/types types SimpleNamespace10247746
Ref: 6ea10247746
Ref: library/types types DynamicClassAttribute10250948
Ref: a1b10250948
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Ref: library/types coroutine-utility-functions10252512
Ref: 2c0610252512
Ref: library/types types coroutine10252618
Ref: 123910252618
Node: copy — Shallow and deep copy operations10253934
Ref: library/copy doc10254201
Ref: 2c0710254201
Ref: library/copy copy-shallow-and-deep-copy-operations10254201
Ref: 2c0810254201
Ref: library/copy module-copy10254201
Ref: 2910254201
Ref: library/copy translation-repo10254201
Ref: 2c0910254201
Ref: library/copy copy copy10254756
Ref: 94210254756
Ref: library/copy copy deepcopy10254835
Ref: f2b10254835
Ref: library/copy copy replace10254923
Ref: 45a10254923
Ref: library/copy copy Error10255114
Ref: 2c0a10255114
Ref: library/copy shallow-vs-deep-copy10255188
Ref: 21d210255188
Ref: library/copy object __copy__10257221
Ref: 1a4c10257221
Ref: library/copy object __deepcopy__10257360
Ref: 190910257360
Ref: library/copy object __replace__10258072
Ref: 68b10258072
Ref: copy — Shallow and deep copy operations-Footnote-110258476
Node: pprint — Data pretty printer10258540
Ref: library/pprint doc10258717
Ref: 2c0b10258717
Ref: library/pprint module-pprint10258717
Ref: b310258717
Ref: library/pprint pprint-data-pretty-printer10258717
Ref: 2c0c10258717
Ref: library/pprint translation-repo10258717
Ref: 2c0d10258717
Ref: pprint — Data pretty printer-Footnote-110259902
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Ref: library/pprint functions10260077
Ref: 2c0e10260077
Ref: library/pprint pprint-functions10260077
Ref: 2c0f10260077
Ref: library/pprint pprint pp10260116
Ref: de710260116
Ref: library/pprint pprint pprint10262802
Ref: c0110262802
Ref: library/pprint pprint pformat10263201
Ref: 132a10263201
Ref: library/pprint pprint isreadable10263663
Ref: 2c1010263663
Ref: library/pprint pprint isrecursive10263979
Ref: 2c1110263979
Ref: library/pprint pprint saferepr10264291
Ref: 2c1210264291
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Ref: library/pprint id110265077
Ref: 2c1310265077
Ref: library/pprint prettyprinter-objects10265077
Ref: 2c1410265077
Ref: library/pprint pprint PrettyPrinter10265140
Ref: 132910265140
Ref: library/pprint pprint PrettyPrinter pformat10267602
Ref: 2c1510267602
Ref: library/pprint pprint PrettyPrinter pprint10267810
Ref: 2c1610267810
Ref: library/pprint pprint PrettyPrinter isreadable10268206
Ref: 2c1710268206
Ref: library/pprint pprint PrettyPrinter isrecursive10268615
Ref: 2c1810268615
Ref: library/pprint pprint PrettyPrinter format10268939
Ref: 1edc10268939
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Ref: library/pprint example10270207
Ref: 2c1910270207
Ref: library/pprint pprint-example10270207
Ref: 2c1a10270207
Ref: Example<3>-Footnote-110276871
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Ref: library/reprlib doc10277065
Ref: 2c1b10277065
Ref: library/reprlib module-reprlib10277065
Ref: c310277065
Ref: library/reprlib reprlib-alternate-repr-implementation10277065
Ref: 2c1c10277065
Ref: library/reprlib translation-repo10277065
Ref: 2c1d10277065
Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr10277556
Ref: 2c1e10277556
Ref: library/reprlib reprlib aRepr10278557
Ref: 2c2010278557
Ref: library/reprlib reprlib repr10278845
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Ref: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation-Footnote-110280065
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Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr fillvalue10280496
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Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxlevel10280652
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Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxdict10280783
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Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxlist10280818
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Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxtuple10280853
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Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxset10280889
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Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxfrozenset10280923
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Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxdeque10280963
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Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr repr10283546
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Ref: library/enum doc10285544
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Ref: library/enum module-enum10285544
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Ref: library/enum supported-sunder-names10319603
Ref: 2c6610319603
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Ref: library/enum ipython-s-rich-display10321353
Ref: 2c6710321353
Ref: library/enum utilities-and-decorators10321353
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Ref: 2c3d10323549
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Ref: library/enum enum member10324455
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Ref: library/enum enum nonmember10324591
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Ref: library/enum enum global_enum10324734
Ref: a1c10324734
Ref: library/enum enum show_flag_values10325113
Ref: 19cb10325113
Ref: library/enum enum bin10325280
Ref: 198710325280
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Ref: library/enum notes10325880
Ref: 2c3c10325880
Node: graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures10326816
Ref: library/graphlib doc10326969
Ref: 2c6910326969
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Ref: library/graphlib module-graphlib10326969
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Ref: library/graphlib translation-repo10326969
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Ref: library/graphlib graphlib TopologicalSorter add10330513
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Ref: library/graphlib graphlib TopologicalSorter done10333026
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Ref: library/graphlib graphlib TopologicalSorter get_ready10333713
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Ref: library/graphlib graphlib TopologicalSorter static_order10334276
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Ref: graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures-Footnote-110335821
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Ref: library/numeric numeric10336969
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Ref: library/numeric numeric-and-mathematical-modules10336969
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Ref: library/numeric translation-repo10336969
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Ref: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes-Footnote-110339376
Ref: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes-Footnote-210339443
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Ref: library/numbers numbers Complex conjugate10340326
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Ref: library/numbers numbers Real10340493
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Ref: library/numbers numbers Rational10341002
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Ref: library/numbers numbers Rational numerator10341391
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Ref: library/numbers numbers Rational denominator10341490
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Ref: library/numbers numbers Integral10341593
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Node: math — Mathematical functions10348228
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Ref: library/math translation-repo10348466
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Ref: math — Mathematical functions-Footnote-110362748
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Ref: math — Mathematical functions-Footnote-410362907
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Ref: library/math math floor10363500
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Ref: library/math math fma10363742
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Ref: library/math math issubnormal10371934
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Ref: Summation and product functions-Footnote-110380977
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Ref: library/math math acos10381693
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Ref: Special functions-Footnote-210385087
Ref: Special functions-Footnote-310385158
Ref: Special functions-Footnote-410385211
Ref: Special functions-Footnote-510385270
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Ref: library/fractions fractions-rational-numbers10506262
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Ref: library/fractions module-fractions10506262
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Ref: library/fractions translation-repo10506262
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Ref: fractions — Rational numbers-Footnote-110517219
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Ref: random — Δημιουργία ψευδοτυχαίων αριθμών-Footnote-110523258
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Ref: library/random random getstate10525494
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Ref: Διακριτές κατανομές-Footnote-110539665
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Ref: library/random random betavariate10542030
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Ref: library/random random gauss10543871
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Ref: library/random random lognormvariate10545246
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Ref: library/random random normalvariate10545747
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Ref: library/random random vonmisesvariate10546125
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Ref: library/random random Random10547446
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Ref: library/random random Random seed10548209
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Ref: library/random random Random getstate10548508
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Ref: library/random random Random setstate10548798
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Ref: library/random random Random random10549093
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Ref: library/random random Random getrandbits10549541
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Ref: library/random random Random randbytes10549838
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Ref: library/random random SystemRandom10550131
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Ref: library/random random-examples10552889
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Ref: Παραδείγματα<2>-Footnote-110559125
Ref: Παραδείγματα<2>-Footnote-210559190
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Ref: library/random random-cli-example10566870
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Ref: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-710705827
Node: partial Objects10705892
Ref: library/functools id110706015
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Ref: library/functools partial-objects10706015
Ref: 4a810706015
Ref: library/functools functools partial func10706196
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Ref: library/functools functools partial args10706392
Ref: 2dd110706392
Ref: library/functools functools partial keywords10706571
Ref: 2dd210706571
Node: operator — Standard operators as functions10706997
Ref: library/operator doc10707188
Ref: 2dd310707188
Ref: library/operator module-operator10707188
Ref: a310707188
Ref: library/operator operator-standard-operators-as-functions10707188
Ref: 2dd410707188
Ref: library/operator translation-repo10707188
Ref: 2dd510707188
Ref: library/operator operator lt10708116
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Ref: library/operator operator le10708159
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Ref: library/operator operator eq10708202
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Ref: library/operator operator ne10708245
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Ref: library/operator operator ge10708288
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Ref: library/operator operator gt10708331
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Ref: library/operator operator __lt__10708374
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Ref: library/operator operator __le__10708421
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Ref: library/operator operator __eq__10708468
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Ref: library/operator operator __ne__10708515
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Ref: library/operator operator __ge__10708562
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Ref: library/operator operator __gt__10708609
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Ref: library/operator operator not_10709357
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Ref: library/operator operator __not__10709401
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Ref: library/operator operator truth10709727
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Ref: library/operator operator is_10709927
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Ref: library/operator operator is_not10710023
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Ref: library/operator operator is_none10710126
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Ref: library/operator operator is_not_none10710255
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Ref: library/operator operator abs10710456
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Ref: library/operator operator __abs__10710499
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Ref: library/operator operator add10710589
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Ref: library/operator operator __add__10710633
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Ref: library/operator operator and_10710733
Ref: 2deb10710733
Ref: library/operator operator __and__10710778
Ref: 2dec10710778
Ref: library/operator operator floordiv10710872
Ref: 2ded10710872
Ref: library/operator operator __floordiv__10710921
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Ref: library/operator operator index10711002
Ref: 1ec810711002
Ref: library/operator operator __index__10711045
Ref: 2def10711045
Ref: library/operator operator inv10711357
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Ref: library/operator operator invert10711400
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Ref: library/operator operator __inv__10711446
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Ref: library/operator operator __invert__10711493
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Ref: library/operator operator lshift10711638
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Ref: library/operator operator __lshift__10711685
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Ref: library/operator operator mod10711775
Ref: 2df610711775
Ref: library/operator operator __mod__10711819
Ref: 2df710711819
Ref: library/operator operator mul10711894
Ref: 2dc510711894
Ref: library/operator operator __mul__10711938
Ref: 2df810711938
Ref: library/operator operator matmul10712038
Ref: 11e810712038
Ref: library/operator operator __matmul__10712085
Ref: 2df910712085
Ref: library/operator operator neg10712191
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Ref: library/operator operator __neg__10712234
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Ref: library/operator operator or_10712323
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Ref: library/operator operator __or__10712367
Ref: 2dfd10712367
Ref: library/operator operator pos10712459
Ref: 2dfe10712459
Ref: library/operator operator __pos__10712502
Ref: 2dff10712502
Ref: library/operator operator pow10712592
Ref: 2e0010712592
Ref: library/operator operator __pow__10712636
Ref: 2e0110712636
Ref: library/operator operator rshift10712737
Ref: 2e0210712737
Ref: library/operator operator __rshift__10712784
Ref: 2e0310712784
Ref: library/operator operator sub10712875
Ref: 2e0410712875
Ref: library/operator operator __sub__10712919
Ref: 2e0510712919
Ref: library/operator operator truediv10712994
Ref: 2e0610712994
Ref: library/operator operator __truediv__10713042
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Ref: library/operator operator xor10713199
Ref: 2e0810713199
Ref: library/operator operator __xor__10713243
Ref: 2e0910713243
Ref: library/operator operator concat10713426
Ref: 2e0a10713426
Ref: library/operator operator __concat__10713473
Ref: 2e0b10713473
Ref: library/operator operator contains10713577
Ref: cac10713577
Ref: library/operator operator __contains__10713626
Ref: 2e0c10713626
Ref: library/operator operator countOf10713765
Ref: cae10713765
Ref: library/operator operator delitem10713868
Ref: 2e0d10713868
Ref: library/operator operator __delitem__10713916
Ref: 2e0e10713916
Ref: library/operator operator getitem10714013
Ref: 2e0f10714013
Ref: library/operator operator __getitem__10714061
Ref: 2e1010714061
Ref: library/operator operator indexOf10714158
Ref: cad10714158
Ref: library/operator operator setitem10714272
Ref: 2e1110714272
Ref: library/operator operator __setitem__10714323
Ref: 2e1210714323
Ref: library/operator operator length_hint10714427
Ref: 131710714427
Ref: library/operator operator call10714774
Ref: 1e1910714774
Ref: library/operator operator __call__10714838
Ref: 2e1310714838
Ref: library/operator operator attrgetter10715259
Ref: 11e610715259
Ref: library/operator operator itemgetter10716580
Ref: e2610716580
Ref: library/operator operator methodcaller10718367
Ref: 11e710718367
Ref: operator — Standard operators as functions-Footnote-110719176
Node: Mapping Operators to Functions10719244
Ref: library/operator mapping-operators-to-functions10719382
Ref: 2e1410719382
Ref: library/operator operator-map10719382
Ref: 2e1510719382
Node: In-place Operators10727199
Ref: library/operator in-place-operators10727337
Ref: 2e1610727337
Ref: library/operator operator iadd10728643
Ref: 2e1810728643
Ref: library/operator operator __iadd__10728688
Ref: 2e1910728688
Ref: library/operator operator iand10728796
Ref: 2e1a10728796
Ref: library/operator operator __iand__10728841
Ref: 2e1b10728841
Ref: library/operator operator iconcat10728949
Ref: 2e1c10728949
Ref: library/operator operator __iconcat__10728997
Ref: 2e1d10728997
Ref: library/operator operator ifloordiv10729142
Ref: 2e1e10729142
Ref: library/operator operator __ifloordiv__10729192
Ref: 2e1f10729192
Ref: library/operator operator ilshift10729311
Ref: 2e2010729311
Ref: library/operator operator __ilshift__10729359
Ref: 2e2110729359
Ref: library/operator operator imod10729474
Ref: 2e2210729474
Ref: library/operator operator __imod__10729519
Ref: 2e2310729519
Ref: library/operator operator imul10729627
Ref: 2e2410729627
Ref: library/operator operator __imul__10729672
Ref: 2e2510729672
Ref: library/operator operator imatmul10729780
Ref: 11e910729780
Ref: library/operator operator __imatmul__10729828
Ref: 2e2610729828
Ref: library/operator operator ior10729970
Ref: 2e2710729970
Ref: library/operator operator __ior__10730014
Ref: 2e2810730014
Ref: library/operator operator ipow10730120
Ref: 2e2910730120
Ref: library/operator operator __ipow__10730165
Ref: 2e2a10730165
Ref: library/operator operator irshift10730274
Ref: 2e2b10730274
Ref: library/operator operator __irshift__10730322
Ref: 2e2c10730322
Ref: library/operator operator isub10730437
Ref: 2e2d10730437
Ref: library/operator operator __isub__10730482
Ref: 2e2e10730482
Ref: library/operator operator itruediv10730590
Ref: 2e2f10730590
Ref: library/operator operator __itruediv__10730639
Ref: 2e3010730639
Ref: library/operator operator ixor10730755
Ref: 2e3110730755
Ref: library/operator operator __ixor__10730800
Ref: 2e3210730800
Node: File and Directory Access10730908
Ref: library/filesys doc10731061
Ref: 2e3310731061
Ref: library/filesys file-and-directory-access10731061
Ref: 2e3410731061
Ref: library/filesys filesys10731061
Ref: 2e3510731061
Ref: library/filesys translation-repo10731061
Ref: 2e3610731061
Node: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths10731898
Ref: library/pathlib doc10732054
Ref: 2e3710732054
Ref: library/pathlib module-pathlib10732054
Ref: a810732054
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib-object-oriented-filesystem-paths10732054
Ref: 2e3810732054
Ref: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths-Footnote-110734313
Ref: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths-Footnote-210734378
Node: Basic use10734420
Ref: library/pathlib basic-use10734532
Ref: 2e3c10734532
Node: Exceptions<4>10735478
Ref: library/pathlib exceptions10735609
Ref: 2e3d10735609
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib UnsupportedOperation10735650
Ref: 73610735650
Node: Pure paths10735871
Ref: library/pathlib id110736007
Ref: 2e3e10736007
Ref: library/pathlib pure-paths10736007
Ref: 2e3910736007
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath10736222
Ref: 8b610736222
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePosixPath10738611
Ref: 2e3f10738611
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PureWindowsPath10738920
Ref: 1c7b10738920
Ref: Pure paths-Footnote-110739673
Node: General properties10739732
Ref: library/pathlib general-properties10739815
Ref: 2e4010739815
Node: Operators10740678
Ref: library/pathlib operators10740796
Ref: 2e4110740796
Node: Accessing individual parts10742353
Ref: library/pathlib accessing-individual-parts10742475
Ref: 2e4210742475
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parts10742636
Ref: 2e4310742636
Node: Methods and properties10743046
Ref: library/pathlib methods-and-properties10743150
Ref: 2e4410743150
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parser10743273
Ref: 73910743273
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath drive10743489
Ref: 2e4510743489
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath root10743919
Ref: 2e4610743919
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath anchor10744983
Ref: 2e4710744983
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parents10745357
Ref: bf910745357
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parent10745866
Ref: 1ca110745866
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath name10746705
Ref: 2e4810746705
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath suffix10747105
Ref: 1b6b10747105
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath suffixes10747581
Ref: 1b6c10747581
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath stem10748035
Ref: 2e4910748035
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath as_posix10748450
Ref: 2e4a10748450
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_absolute10748723
Ref: 1ca010748723
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_relative_to10749323
Ref: 57610749323
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath joinpath10750085
Ref: 2e4b10750085
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath full_match10750680
Ref: 73810750680
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath match10751622
Ref: 8bc10751622
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath relative_to10752572
Ref: 57510752572
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_name10754865
Ref: 1c6e10754865
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_stem10755587
Ref: 1be510755587
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_suffix10756613
Ref: 1b6a10756613
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_segments10757490
Ref: 8b710757490
Ref: Methods and properties-Footnote-110758434
Node: Concrete paths10758526
Ref: library/pathlib concrete-paths10758665
Ref: 2e3a10758665
Ref: library/pathlib id210758665
Ref: 2e4d10758665
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path10758937
Ref: 4ee10758937
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PosixPath10759324
Ref: 2e4e10759324
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib WindowsPath10759834
Ref: 2e3b10759834
Node: Parsing and generating URIs10761416
Ref: library/pathlib parsing-and-generating-uris10761532
Ref: 2e4f10761532
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path from_uri10761835
Ref: 73710761835
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path as_uri10763174
Ref: 58710763174
Ref: Parsing and generating URIs-Footnote-110763868
Node: Expanding and resolving paths10763927
Ref: library/pathlib expanding-and-resolving-paths10764081
Ref: 2e5110764081
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path home10764162
Ref: 11f410764162
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path expanduser10764540
Ref: 11f310764540
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path cwd10764953
Ref: 1c9f10764953
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path absolute10765183
Ref: 1c2e10765183
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path resolve10765485
Ref: 1c7310765485
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path readlink10766658
Ref: cec10766658
Node: Querying file type and status10767172
Ref: library/pathlib querying-file-type-and-status10767324
Ref: 2e5210767324
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path stat10768234
Ref: bfc10768234
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path lstat10768846
Ref: 2e5310768846
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path exists10769039
Ref: dda10769039
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_file10769767
Ref: 73c10769767
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_dir10770311
Ref: 73d10770311
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_symlink10770863
Ref: ddc10770863
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_junction10771219
Ref: 8bb10771219
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_mount10771440
Ref: ddb10771440
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_socket10772167
Ref: de010772167
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_fifo10772481
Ref: ddf10772481
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_block_device10772777
Ref: ddd10772777
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_char_device10773099
Ref: dde10773099
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path samefile10773428
Ref: 11f110773428
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path info10773991
Ref: 4f310773991
Node: Reading and writing files10775245
Ref: library/pathlib reading-and-writing-files10775387
Ref: 2e5410775387
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path open10775460
Ref: 2e5510775460
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path read_text10775821
Ref: 11f610775821
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path read_bytes10776360
Ref: 55a10776360
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path write_text10776679
Ref: 11f510776679
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path write_bytes10777269
Ref: 11f710777269
Node: Reading directories10777660
Ref: library/pathlib reading-directories10777803
Ref: 2e5610777803
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path iterdir10777864
Ref: 4f610777864
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path glob10778727
Ref: 73a10778727
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rglob10781109
Ref: 73b10781109
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path walk10782295
Ref: 8b810782295
Node: Creating files and directories10787260
Ref: library/pathlib creating-files-and-directories10787405
Ref: 2e5810787405
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path touch10787488
Ref: 2e5910787488
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path mkdir10788098
Ref: 11f210788098
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path symlink_to10789184
Ref: bfb10789184
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path hardlink_to10790308
Ref: bfa10790308
Node: Copying moving and deleting10790778
Ref: library/pathlib copying-moving-and-deleting10790929
Ref: 2e5a10790929
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path copy10791008
Ref: 4ef10791008
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path copy_into10792191
Ref: 4f010792191
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rename10792576
Ref: 1ab510792576
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path replace10793621
Ref: 2e5b10793621
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path move10794183
Ref: 4f110794183
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path move_into10794870
Ref: 4f210794870
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path unlink10795128
Ref: 1fc410795128
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rmdir10795647
Ref: 2e5710795647
Node: Permissions and ownership10795741
Ref: library/pathlib permissions-and-ownership10795853
Ref: 2e5c10795853
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path owner10795926
Ref: 73e10795926
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path group10796582
Ref: 73f10796582
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path chmod10797240
Ref: bfd10797240
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path lchmod10797859
Ref: 2e5d10797859
Node: Pattern language10798050
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib-pattern-language10798208
Ref: 2e4c10798208
Ref: library/pathlib pattern-language10798208
Ref: 2e5e10798208
Node: Comparison to the glob module10800736
Ref: library/pathlib comparison-to-the-glob-module10800920
Ref: 2e5f10800920
Node: Comparison to the os and os path modules10802364
Ref: library/pathlib comparison-to-the-os-and-os-path-modules10802541
Ref: 2e6010802541
Node: Corresponding tools10804726
Ref: library/pathlib corresponding-tools10804822
Ref: 2e6110804822
Ref: Corresponding tools-Footnote-110810087
Ref: Corresponding tools-Footnote-210810399
Ref: Corresponding tools-Footnote-310810581
Ref: Corresponding tools-Footnote-410810807
Node: Protocols10811039
Ref: library/pathlib module-pathlib types10811178
Ref: a910811178
Ref: library/pathlib protocols10811178
Ref: 2e6410811178
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib types PathInfo10811316
Ref: 4f410811316
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib types PathInfo exists10811513
Ref: 2e6510811513
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib types PathInfo is_dir10811872
Ref: 2e6610811872
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib types PathInfo is_file10812393
Ref: 2e6710812393
Ref: library/pathlib pathlib types PathInfo is_symlink10812914
Ref: 2e6810812914
Node: os path — Common pathname manipulations10813145
Ref: library/os path doc10813344
Ref: 2e6910813344
Ref: library/os path module-os path10813344
Ref: a610813344
Ref: library/os path os-path-common-pathname-manipulations10813344
Ref: 2e6a10813344
Ref: library/os path translation-repo10813344
Ref: 2e6b10813344
Ref: library/os path os path abspath10815407
Ref: 16bf10815407
Ref: library/os path os path basename10815829
Ref: 2e6310815829
Ref: library/os path os path commonpath10816362
Ref: 33410816362
Ref: library/os path os path commonprefix10816969
Ref: 33310816969
Ref: library/os path os path dirname10818312
Ref: 2e6210818312
Ref: library/os path os path exists10818613
Ref: dd210818613
Ref: library/os path os path lexists10819243
Ref: dd310819243
Ref: library/os path os path expanduser10819561
Ref: dd810819561
Ref: library/os path os path expandvars10820680
Ref: 177c10820680
Ref: library/os path os path getatime10821198
Ref: 2e6d10821198
Ref: library/os path os path getmtime10821511
Ref: 2e6e10821511
Ref: library/os path os path getctime10821915
Ref: 2e6f10821915
Ref: library/os path os path getsize10822434
Ref: 2e7010822434
Ref: library/os path os path isabs10822693
Ref: 73410822693
Ref: library/os path os path isfile10823259
Ref: dd510823259
Ref: library/os path os path isdir10823584
Ref: dd410823584
Ref: library/os path os path isjunction10823908
Ref: 8b310823908
Ref: library/os path os path islink10824185
Ref: dd010824185
Ref: library/os path os path ismount10824515
Ref: dd610824515
Ref: library/os path os path isdevdrive10825575
Ref: 1bcc10825575
Ref: library/os path os path isreserved10826437
Ref: 2d910826437
Ref: library/os path os path join10827346
Ref: 1a4210827346
Ref: library/os path os path normcase10828830
Ref: 2e7110828830
Ref: library/os path os path normpath10829198
Ref: 16be10829198
Ref: library/os path os path realpath10830142
Ref: 24110830142
Ref: library/os path os path ALL_BUT_LAST10832635
Ref: 2e7210832635
Ref: library/os path os path ALLOW_MISSING10832790
Ref: 24210832790
Ref: library/os path os path relpath10832946
Ref: 8ba10832946
Ref: library/os path os path samefile10833498
Ref: 131b10833498
Ref: library/os path os path sameopenfile10834073
Ref: 2e7410834073
Ref: library/os path os path samestat10834377
Ref: 131a10834377
Ref: library/os path os path split10834844
Ref: 2e6c10834844
Ref: library/os path os path splitdrive10835682
Ref: fb410835682
Ref: library/os path os path splitroot10836544
Ref: 8b410836544
Ref: library/os path os path splitext10837824
Ref: 1b6d10837824
Ref: library/os path os path supports_unicode_filenames10838815
Ref: 183010838815
Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-110839035
Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-210839106
Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-310839175
Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-410839241
Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-510839296
Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-610839388
Node: stat — Interpreting stat results10839480
Ref: library/stat doc10839677
Ref: 2e7510839677
Ref: library/stat module-stat10839677
Ref: d910839677
Ref: library/stat stat-interpreting-stat-results10839677
Ref: 2e7610839677
Ref: library/stat translation-repo10839677
Ref: 2e7710839677
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISDIR10840362
Ref: 2e7810840362
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISCHR10840462
Ref: 2e7910840462
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISBLK10840587
Ref: 2e7a10840587
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISREG10840703
Ref: 2e7b10840703
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISFIFO10840806
Ref: 2e7c10840806
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISLNK10840915
Ref: 2e7d10840915
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISSOCK10841019
Ref: 2e7e10841019
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISDOOR10841117
Ref: 1f9c10841117
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISPORT10841241
Ref: 1f9d10841241
Ref: library/stat stat S_ISWHT10841372
Ref: 1f9e10841372
Ref: library/stat stat S_IMODE10841589
Ref: 2e7f10841589
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFMT10841866
Ref: 2e8010841866
Ref: library/stat stat filemode10843407
Ref: 14f610843407
Ref: library/stat stat ST_MODE10843850
Ref: 136310843850
Ref: library/stat stat ST_INO10843915
Ref: 2e8110843915
Ref: library/stat stat ST_DEV10843970
Ref: 2e8210843970
Ref: library/stat stat ST_NLINK10844036
Ref: 2e8310844036
Ref: library/stat stat ST_UID10844109
Ref: 2e8410844109
Ref: library/stat stat ST_GID10844172
Ref: 2e8510844172
Ref: library/stat stat ST_SIZE10844236
Ref: 2e8610844236
Ref: library/stat stat ST_ATIME10844360
Ref: 2e8710844360
Ref: library/stat stat ST_MTIME10844424
Ref: 2e8810844424
Ref: library/stat stat ST_CTIME10844494
Ref: 2e8910844494
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFSOCK10845544
Ref: 2e8a10845544
Ref: library/stat stat S_IFLNK10845595
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Ref: library/stat stat SF_RESTRICTED10850408
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED10851685
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA10851747
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE10851803
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY10851853
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT10851904
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE10851960
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM10852014
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY10852063
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Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL10852115
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Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK10852399
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Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT10852449
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Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK10852503
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Ref: library/stat stat STATX_ATTR_COMPRESSED10852877
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Ref: stat — Interpreting stat results-Footnote-110853413
Ref: stat — Interpreting stat results-Footnote-210853477
Ref: stat — Interpreting stat results-Footnote-310853524
Ref: stat — Interpreting stat results-Footnote-410853604
Node: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons10853649
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Ref: 2ed910853858
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp-file-and-directory-comparisons10853858
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Ref: library/filecmp module-filecmp10853858
Ref: 5d10853858
Ref: library/filecmp translation-repo10853858
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp cmp10854317
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp cmpfiles10855121
Ref: 1b5d10855121
Ref: library/filecmp filecmp clear_cache10856076
Ref: 12e910856076
Ref: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons-Footnote-110856403
Node: The dircmp class10856470
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Ref: library/filecmp the-dircmp-class10856565
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report10857307
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report_partial_closure10857432
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report_full_closure10857581
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left10858102
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right10858165
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left_list10858229
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right_list10858354
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common10858480
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left_only10858572
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right_only10858659
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_dirs10858747
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_files10858834
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_funny10858913
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp same_files10859123
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp diff_files10859276
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp funny_files10859448
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp subdirs10859573
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Ref: library/filecmp filecmp DEFAULT_IGNORES10860021
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Node: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories10860715
Ref: library/tempfile doc10860936
Ref: 2eee10860936
Ref: library/tempfile module-tempfile10860936
Ref: e910860936
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-generate-temporary-files-and-directories10860936
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Ref: library/tempfile translation-repo10860936
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryFile10862102
Ref: 1a0d10862102
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Ref: 8d610864321
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile SpooledTemporaryFile10868166
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile SpooledTemporaryFile rollover10868687
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory10869706
Ref: 15da10869706
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory name10870238
Ref: 2ef410870238
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory cleanup10870600
Ref: 2ef510870600
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mkstemp10871901
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mkdtemp10874824
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempdir10876094
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempdirb10877304
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempprefix10877455
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempprefixb10877624
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile tempdir10878213
Ref: 1e8810878213
Ref: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories-Footnote-110879352
Node: Examples<3>10879420
Ref: library/tempfile examples10879564
Ref: 2ef810879564
Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-examples10879564
Ref: 2ef210879564
Node: Deprecated functions and variables10880954
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-mktemp-deprecated10881098
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Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mktemp10881721
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Node: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion10882894
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Ref: library/glob glob-unix-style-pathname-pattern-expansion10883115
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Ref: library/glob translation-repo10883115
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Ref: library/glob glob iglob10886931
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Ref: library/glob glob escape10888151
Ref: 12f010888151
Ref: library/glob glob translate10888584
Ref: 70010888584
Ref: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion-Footnote-110890185
Node: Examples<4>10890249
Ref: library/glob examples10890343
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Node: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching10891490
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Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch-unix-filename-pattern-matching10891699
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Ref: library/fnmatch module-fnmatch10891699
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Ref: library/fnmatch translation-repo10891699
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Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch fnmatch10893570
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Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch fnmatchcase10894257
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Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch filter10894525
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Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch filterfalse10894827
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Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch translate10895175
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Ref: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching-Footnote-110895850
Node: linecache — Random access to text lines10895917
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Ref: library/linecache linecache-random-access-to-text-lines10896117
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Ref: library/linecache module-linecache10896117
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Ref: library/linecache translation-repo10896117
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Ref: library/linecache linecache getline10896937
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Ref: library/linecache linecache clearcache10898020
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Ref: library/linecache linecache checkcache10898199
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Ref: library/linecache linecache lazycache10898487
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Ref: linecache — Random access to text lines-Footnote-110899046
Ref: linecache — Random access to text lines-Footnote-210899115
Node: shutil — High-level file operations10899157
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Ref: library/shutil module-shutil10899306
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Ref: library/shutil shutil-high-level-file-operations10899306
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Ref: library/shutil translation-repo10899306
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Ref: shutil — High-level file operations-Footnote-110900421
Node: Directory and files operations10900487
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Ref: library/shutil file-operations10900620
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Ref: library/shutil shutil copyfileobj10900701
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Ref: library/shutil shutil copyfile10901789
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Ref: library/shutil shutil SpecialFileError10903464
Ref: 16c010903464
Ref: library/shutil shutil SameFileError10903659
Ref: 134710903659
Ref: library/shutil shutil copymode10903838
Ref: 1c2c10903838
Ref: library/shutil shutil copystat10904758
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Ref: library/shutil shutil ignore_patterns10909935
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Ref: library/shutil shutil copytree10910245
Ref: ded10910245
Ref: library/shutil shutil rmtree10913785
Ref: 33510913785
Ref: library/shutil shutil rmtree avoids_symlink_attacks10916671
Ref: 2f0d10916671
Ref: library/shutil shutil move10917014
Ref: e2010917014
Ref: library/shutil shutil disk_usage10919133
Ref: 14d910919133
Ref: library/shutil shutil chown10919884
Ref: 74b10919884
Ref: library/shutil shutil which10920547
Ref: 8c410920547
Ref: library/shutil shutil Error10923188
Ref: 134610923188
Node: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations10923541
Ref: library/shutil platform-dependent-efficient-copy-operations10923677
Ref: 2f0f10923677
Ref: library/shutil shutil-platform-dependent-efficient-copy-operations10923677
Ref: e2210923677
Ref: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations-Footnote-110925343
Ref: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations-Footnote-210925408
Node: copytree example10925456
Ref: library/shutil copytree-example10925615
Ref: 2f1010925615
Ref: library/shutil shutil-copytree-example10925615
Ref: 2f1110925615
Node: rmtree example10926275
Ref: library/shutil rmtree-example10926381
Ref: 2f1210926381
Ref: library/shutil shutil-rmtree-example10926381
Ref: 2f0e10926381
Node: Archiving operations10926922
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Ref: 15bf10927104
Ref: library/shutil id110927104
Ref: 2f1310927104
Ref: library/shutil shutil make_archive10927427
Ref: 8c310927427
Ref: library/shutil shutil get_archive_formats10930272
Ref: 2f1610930272
Ref: library/shutil shutil register_archive_format10931239
Ref: 2f1510931239
Ref: library/shutil shutil unregister_archive_format10932566
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Ref: library/shutil shutil unpack_archive10932711
Ref: 88210932711
Ref: library/shutil shutil register_unpack_format10934812
Ref: 2f1810934812
Ref: library/shutil shutil unregister_unpack_format10935741
Ref: 2f1b10935741
Ref: library/shutil shutil get_unpack_formats10935875
Ref: 2f1a10935875
Ref: Archiving operations-Footnote-110936953
Node: Archiving example10936995
Ref: library/shutil archiving-example10937109
Ref: 2f1c10937109
Ref: library/shutil shutil-archiving-example10937109
Ref: 2f1d10937109
Node: Archiving example with base_dir10938200
Ref: library/shutil archiving-example-with-base-dir10938314
Ref: 2f1e10938314
Ref: library/shutil shutil-archiving-example-with-basedir10938314
Ref: 2f1410938314
Node: Querying the size of the output terminal10939415
Ref: library/shutil querying-the-size-of-the-output-terminal10939558
Ref: 2f1f10939558
Ref: library/shutil shutil get_terminal_size10939659
Ref: 14af10939659
Ref: Querying the size of the output terminal-Footnote-110941366
Node: Data Persistence10941449
Ref: library/persistence doc10941602
Ref: 2f2210941602
Ref: library/persistence data-persistence10941602
Ref: 2f2310941602
Ref: library/persistence persistence10941602
Ref: 2f2410941602
Ref: library/persistence translation-repo10941602
Ref: 2f2510941602
Node: pickle — Python object serialization10942431
Ref: library/pickle doc10942576
Ref: 2f2610942576
Ref: library/pickle module-pickle10942576
Ref: ab10942576
Ref: library/pickle pickle-python-object-serialization10942576
Ref: 2f2710942576
Ref: pickle — Python object serialization-Footnote-110944438
Ref: pickle — Python object serialization-Footnote-210944504
Node: Relationship to other Python modules10944568
Ref: library/pickle relationship-to-other-python-modules10944706
Ref: 2f2910944706
Node: Comparison with marshal10944862
Ref: library/pickle comparison-with-marshal10944987
Ref: 2f2a10944987
Node: Comparison with json10946326
Ref: library/pickle comparison-with-json10946451
Ref: 2f2810946451
Ref: library/pickle id210946451
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Ref: Comparison with json-Footnote-110947635
Node: Data stream format10947660
Ref: library/pickle data-stream-format10947823
Ref: 2f2d10947823
Ref: library/pickle pickle-protocols10947823
Ref: 50310947823
Ref: Data stream format-Footnote-110950826
Ref: Data stream format-Footnote-210950868
Ref: Data stream format-Footnote-310950910
Node: Module Interface10950952
Ref: library/pickle module-interface10951113
Ref: 2f3010951113
Ref: library/pickle pickle HIGHEST_PROTOCOL10951562
Ref: 184710951562
Ref: library/pickle pickle DEFAULT_PROTOCOL10951847
Ref: c0710951847
Ref: library/pickle pickle dump10952623
Ref: 2f3110952623
Ref: library/pickle pickle dumps10953148
Ref: 184610953148
Ref: library/pickle pickle load10953611
Ref: 10ca10953611
Ref: library/pickle pickle loads10954386
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Ref: library/pickle pickle PickleError10955135
Ref: 2f3210955135
Ref: library/pickle pickle PicklingError10955281
Ref: 1b5a10955281
Ref: library/pickle pickle UnpicklingError10955572
Ref: 2f3410955572
Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler10956088
Ref: de210956088
Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler dump10957688
Ref: 201310957688
Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler persistent_id10957838
Ref: 1b2810957838
Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler dispatch_table10958652
Ref: 14ce10958652
Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler reducer_override10959798
Ref: de310959798
Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler fast10960411
Ref: 2f3a10960411
Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler clear_memo10960887
Ref: 2f3c10960887
Ref: library/pickle pickle Unpickler10961228
Ref: 197810961228
Ref: library/pickle pickle Unpickler load10963373
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Ref: library/pickle pickle Unpickler persistent_load10963676
Ref: 1b2f10963676
Ref: library/pickle pickle Unpickler find_class10964276
Ref: 19b510964276
Ref: library/pickle pickle PickleBuffer10964957
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Ref: library/pickle pickle PickleBuffer raw10965567
Ref: 2f3f10965567
Ref: library/pickle pickle PickleBuffer release10965918
Ref: 2f4010965918
Ref: Module Interface-Footnote-110966078
Node: What can be pickled and unpickled?10966120
Ref: library/pickle pickle-picklable10966287
Ref: 2f3310966287
Ref: library/pickle what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled10966287
Ref: 2f4110966287
Ref: What can be pickled and unpickled?-Footnote-110969039
Ref: What can be pickled and unpickled?-Footnote-210969172
Node: Pickling Class Instances10969308
Ref: library/pickle pickle-inst10969513
Ref: 2f2c10969513
Ref: library/pickle pickling-class-instances10969513
Ref: 2f4210969513
Ref: library/pickle object __getnewargs_ex__10970448
Ref: 2f4310970448
Ref: library/pickle object __getnewargs__10971284
Ref: 118d10971284
Ref: library/pickle object __getstate__10971862
Ref: 9d310971862
Ref: library/pickle object __setstate__10973223
Ref: d9810973223
Ref: library/pickle object __reduce__10975109
Ref: d9710975109
Ref: library/pickle object __reduce_ex__10977996
Ref: 1b7e10977996
Ref: Pickling Class Instances-Footnote-110978652
Node: Persistence of External Objects10978747
Ref: library/pickle persistence-of-external-objects10978863
Ref: 2f4510978863
Ref: library/pickle pickle-persistent10978863
Ref: 2f3610978863
Ref: Persistence of External Objects-Footnote-110983520
Node: Dispatch Tables10983784
Ref: library/pickle dispatch-tables10983934
Ref: 2f4610983934
Ref: library/pickle pickle-dispatch10983934
Ref: 2f3810983934
Node: Handling Stateful Objects10985222
Ref: library/pickle handling-stateful-objects10985332
Ref: 2f4710985332
Ref: library/pickle pickle-state10985332
Ref: 2f4410985332
Node: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects10987614
Ref: library/pickle custom-reduction-for-types-functions-and-other-objects10987804
Ref: 2f4810987804
Ref: library/pickle reducer-override10987804
Ref: 2f3910987804
Node: Out-of-band Buffers10989912
Ref: library/pickle out-of-band-buffers10990097
Ref: 2f4910990097
Ref: library/pickle pickle-oob10990097
Ref: 2f3510990097
Node: Provider API10990936
Ref: library/pickle provider-api10991025
Ref: 2f4a10991025
Node: Consumer API10991622
Ref: library/pickle consumer-api10991730
Ref: 2f4b10991730
Node: Example<4>10993035
Ref: library/pickle example10993122
Ref: 2f4c10993122
Ref: Example<4>-Footnote-110995519
Node: Restricting Globals10995561
Ref: library/pickle pickle-restrict10995706
Ref: 2f3e10995706
Ref: library/pickle restricting-globals10995706
Ref: 2f4d10995706
Node: Performance<2>10998473
Ref: library/pickle performance10998610
Ref: 2f4e10998610
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Ref: dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases»-Footnote-111031039
Ref: dbm — Interfaces to Unix «databases»-Footnote-211031111
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Ref: dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm-Footnote-111033859
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Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu error11034871
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Ref: library/dbm module-dbm ndbm11039447
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Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm error11040524
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Ref: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager-Footnote-111042575
Node: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation11042643
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Ref: library/dbm dbm dumb error11043563
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Ref: library/dbm dbm dumb open11043772
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Ref: library/dbm dbm dumb dumbdbm reorganize11046096
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Ref: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation-Footnote-111046814
Node: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases11046882
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Ref: library/sqlite3 module-sqlite311047037
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-db-api-2-0-interface-for-sqlite-databases11047037
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-intro11047198
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Ref: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases-Footnote-111048927
Ref: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases-Footnote-211048992
Ref: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases-Footnote-311049034
Ref: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases-Footnote-411049062
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Ref: library/sqlite3 tutorial11049220
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 connect11056139
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-module-constants11063631
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL11063684
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_KEYWORDS11066856
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 threadsafety11067087
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE11069446
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL11069502
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER11069668
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION11069736
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG11069804
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW11069923
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE11069981
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT11070046
Ref: 2fb711070046
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE11070111
Ref: 2fb811070111
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE11070174
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP11070235
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA11070293
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA11070354
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Ref: Module constants-Footnote-111071052
Ref: Module constants-Footnote-211071095
Ref: Module constants-Footnote-311071150
Node: Connection objects11071201
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection create_window_function11079123
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection create_collation11082355
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection interrupt11083811
Ref: 2fc711083811
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection enable_load_extension11087674
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection backup11092150
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection getlimit11094558
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection row_factory11101886
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection text_factory11102389
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection total_changes11102802
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Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-211103086
Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-311103151
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-row-objects11114121
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Ref: PrepareProtocol objects-Footnote-111118070
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Error sqlite_errorcode11119018
Ref: a6811119018
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Error sqlite_errorname11119154
Ref: a6911119154
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 InterfaceError11119321
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 DatabaseError11119607
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 DataError11119929
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 ProgrammingError11121048
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Ref: Exceptions<6>-Footnote-111121803
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Node: SQLite and Python types11121925
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Ref: 2fe511122067
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-types11122067
Ref: 2f9911122067
Node: Default adapters and converters deprecated11123979
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-default-converters11124133
Ref: 8fd11124133
Ref: Default adapters and converters deprecated-Footnote-111125396
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Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-help11125915
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Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-version11125961
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Node: How-to guides11126059
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Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howtos11126200
Ref: 2f8911126200
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Ref: 2fed11126827
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Ref: 7aa11126827
Ref: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries-Footnote-111129092
Ref: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries-Footnote-211129144
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Ref: 2fee11129407
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-adapters11129407
Ref: 2f9211129407
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Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-write-adaptable-objects11130354
Ref: 2fef11130354
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-conform11130354
Ref: 2fe011130354
Node: How to register adapter callables11131265
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-register-adapter-callables11131423
Ref: 2ff011131423
Node: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types11132067
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-convert-sqlite-values-to-custom-python-types11132264
Ref: 2ff111132264
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-converters11132264
Ref: 2f9311132264
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Ref: library/sqlite3 adapter-and-converter-recipes11135033
Ref: 2ff211135033
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-adapter-converter-recipes11135033
Ref: 8fe11135033
Node: How to use connection shortcut methods11136460
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-use-connection-shortcut-methods11136636
Ref: 2ff311136636
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-shortcuts11136636
Ref: 2fbf11136636
Node: How to use the connection context manager11137907
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-use-the-connection-context-manager11138082
Ref: 2ff411138082
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-context-manager11138082
Ref: 1d6911138082
Node: How to work with SQLite URIs11139844
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-work-with-sqlite-uris11140016
Ref: 2ff511140016
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-uri-tricks11140016
Ref: 2fa011140016
Ref: How to work with SQLite URIs-Footnote-111141319
Node: How to create and use row factories11141359
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-create-and-use-row-factories11141528
Ref: 2ff611141528
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howto-row-factory11141528
Ref: 2f9411141528
Node: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings11144401
Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-handle-non-utf-8-text-encodings11144533
Ref: 2ff711144533
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howto-encoding11144533
Ref: 2fc911144533
Ref: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings-Footnote-111145904
Node: Explanation11145953
Ref: library/sqlite3 explanation11146076
Ref: 2ff811146076
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-explanation11146076
Ref: 2f8a11146076
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-transaction-control11146121
Ref: 2ff911146121
Node: Transaction control11146155
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-controlling-transactions11146222
Ref: 2f8f11146222
Ref: library/sqlite3 transaction-control11146222
Ref: 2ffa11146222
Node: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute11146715
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-transaction-control-autocommit11146881
Ref: 8c711146881
Ref: library/sqlite3 transaction-control-via-the-autocommit-attribute11146881
Ref: 2ffb11146881
Ref: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute-Footnote-111148640
Ref: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute-Footnote-211148682
Ref: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute-Footnote-311148774
Node: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute11148816
Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-transaction-control-isolation-level11148982
Ref: 2f9e11148982
Ref: library/sqlite3 transaction-control-via-the-isolation-level-attribute11148982
Ref: 2ffc11148982
Ref: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute-Footnote-111151100
Ref: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute-Footnote-211151200
Node: Data Compression and Archiving11151292
Ref: library/archiving doc11151432
Ref: 2f2e11151432
Ref: library/archiving archiving11151432
Ref: 2ffd11151432
Ref: library/archiving data-compression-and-archiving11151432
Ref: 2ffe11151432
Ref: library/archiving translation-repo11151432
Ref: 2fff11151432
Node: The compression package11152227
Ref: library/compression doc11152395
Ref: 300011152395
Ref: library/compression module-compression11152395
Ref: 2211152395
Ref: library/compression the-compression-package11152395
Ref: 300111152395
Node: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format11153251
Ref: library/compression zstd doc11153469
Ref: 300211153469
Ref: library/compression zstd compression-zstd-compression-compatible-with-the-zstandard-format11153469
Ref: 300311153469
Ref: library/compression zstd module-compression zstd11153469
Ref: 2311153469
Ref: library/compression zstd translation-repo11153469
Ref: 300411153469
Ref: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format-Footnote-111155513
Ref: compression zstd — Compression compatible with the Zstandard format-Footnote-211155599
Node: Exceptions<7>11155666
Ref: library/compression zstd exceptions11155830
Ref: 301011155830
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdError11155871
Ref: 301111155871
Node: Reading and writing compressed files11156063
Ref: library/compression zstd reading-and-writing-compressed-files11156280
Ref: 301211156280
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd open11156373
Ref: 300511156373
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdFile11158581
Ref: 300611158581
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdFile peek11160762
Ref: 301411160762
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdFile mode11161386
Ref: 301511161386
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdFile name11161481
Ref: 301611161481
Node: Compressing and decompressing data in memory11161657
Ref: library/compression zstd compressing-and-decompressing-data-in-memory11161883
Ref: 301811161883
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd compress11161992
Ref: 300811161992
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd decompress11163212
Ref: 300911163212
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdCompressor11164050
Ref: 300711164050
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdCompressor compress11165366
Ref: 301b11165366
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdCompressor flush11166381
Ref: 301c11166381
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdCompressor set_pledged_input_size11166752
Ref: 302011166752
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdCompressor CONTINUE11168060
Ref: 301d11168060
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdCompressor FLUSH_BLOCK11168320
Ref: 301e11168320
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdCompressor FLUSH_FRAME11168628
Ref: 301f11168628
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdCompressor last_mode11168847
Ref: 302211168847
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdDecompressor11169218
Ref: 190b11169218
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdDecompressor decompress11170421
Ref: 302311170421
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdDecompressor eof11171967
Ref: 302611171967
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdDecompressor unused_data11172067
Ref: 302511172067
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdDecompressor needs_input11172245
Ref: 302411172245
Node: Zstandard dictionaries11172432
Ref: library/compression zstd zstandard-dictionaries11172648
Ref: 302711172648
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd train_dict11172713
Ref: 300a11172713
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd finalize_dict11173815
Ref: 300b11173815
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdDict11174969
Ref: 300c11174969
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdDict dict_content11178273
Ref: 302811178273
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdDict dict_id11178594
Ref: 302911178594
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdDict as_digested_dict11179233
Ref: 302b11179233
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd ZstdDict as_undigested_dict11179330
Ref: 302c11179330
Node: Advanced parameter control11179432
Ref: library/compression zstd advanced-parameter-control11179617
Ref: 302d11179617
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter11179690
Ref: 300d11179690
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter bounds11180520
Ref: 301a11180520
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter compression_level11180996
Ref: 301911180996
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter window_log11181571
Ref: 302e11181571
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter hash_log11182016
Ref: 303011182016
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter chain_log11182418
Ref: 303211182418
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter search_log11182943
Ref: 303411182943
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter min_match11183283
Ref: 303511183283
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter target_length11183859
Ref: 303711183859
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter strategy11184521
Ref: 303a11184521
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter enable_long_distance_matching11184843
Ref: 303b11184843
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter ldm_hash_log11185530
Ref: 303c11185530
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter ldm_min_match11185833
Ref: 303d11185833
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter ldm_bucket_size_log11186086
Ref: 303e11186086
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter ldm_hash_rate_log11186405
Ref: 303f11186405
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter content_size_flag11186783
Ref: 302111186783
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter checksum_flag11187923
Ref: 304011187923
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter dict_id_flag11188345
Ref: 304111188345
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter nb_workers11188626
Ref: 304211188626
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter job_size11189058
Ref: 304311189058
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd CompressionParameter overlap_log11189425
Ref: 304411189425
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd DecompressionParameter11190090
Ref: 300e11190090
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd DecompressionParameter bounds11190829
Ref: 304511190829
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd DecompressionParameter window_log_max11191121
Ref: 304611191121
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd Strategy11191504
Ref: 300f11191504
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd Strategy fast11192001
Ref: 303311192001
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd Strategy dfast11192034
Ref: 303111192034
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd Strategy greedy11192068
Ref: 304711192068
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd Strategy lazy11192103
Ref: 304811192103
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd Strategy lazy211192136
Ref: 304911192136
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd Strategy btlazy211192170
Ref: 304a11192170
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd Strategy btopt11192206
Ref: 303611192206
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd Strategy btultra11192240
Ref: 303811192240
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd Strategy btultra211192276
Ref: 303911192276
Node: Miscellaneous11192313
Ref: library/compression zstd miscellaneous11192487
Ref: 304b11192487
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd get_frame_info11192534
Ref: 302a11192534
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd FrameInfo11192775
Ref: 304c11192775
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd FrameInfo decompressed_size11192864
Ref: 304d11192864
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd FrameInfo dictionary_id11192973
Ref: 304e11192973
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd COMPRESSION_LEVEL_DEFAULT11193341
Ref: 302f11193341
Ref: library/compression zstd compression zstd zstd_version_info11193467
Ref: 304f11193467
Node: Examples<6>11193627
Ref: library/compression zstd examples11193766
Ref: 305011193766
Node: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip11195186
Ref: library/zlib doc11195435
Ref: 305111195435
Ref: library/zlib module-zlib11195435
Ref: 13c11195435
Ref: library/zlib translation-repo11195435
Ref: 305211195435
Ref: library/zlib zlib-compression-compatible-with-gzip11195435
Ref: 305311195435
Ref: library/zlib zlib error11196361
Ref: 305411196361
Ref: library/zlib zlib adler3211196459
Ref: 1db411196459
Ref: library/zlib zlib adler32_combine11197269
Ref: 2bc11197269
Ref: library/zlib zlib compress11197869
Ref: a2e11197869
Ref: library/zlib compress-wbits11198419
Ref: 305911198419
Ref: library/zlib zlib compressobj11199691
Ref: 19fc11199691
Ref: library/zlib zlib crc3211201581
Ref: 1c1811201581
Ref: library/zlib zlib crc32_combine11202308
Ref: 2bd11202308
Ref: library/zlib zlib decompress11202886
Ref: 10c811202886
Ref: library/zlib decompress-wbits11203329
Ref: 306111203329
Ref: library/zlib zlib decompressobj11205078
Ref: 19fd11205078
Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress compress11206106
Ref: 306211206106
Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress flush11206466
Ref: 306311206466
Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress copy11207247
Ref: 306a11207247
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress unused_data11207639
Ref: 306b11207639
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress unconsumed_tail11207992
Ref: 306c11207992
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress eof11208448
Ref: 151611208448
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress decompress11208740
Ref: 306d11208740
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress flush11209988
Ref: 306e11209988
Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress copy11210396
Ref: 306f11210396
Ref: library/zlib zlib DEFLATED11210886
Ref: 305b11210886
Ref: library/zlib zlib MAX_WBITS11210961
Ref: 305a11210961
Ref: library/zlib zlib DEF_MEM_LEVEL11211152
Ref: 307011211152
Ref: library/zlib zlib DEF_BUF_SIZE11211250
Ref: 307111211250
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_NO_COMPRESSION11211351
Ref: 305711211351
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_BEST_SPEED11211473
Ref: 305511211473
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_BEST_COMPRESSION11211591
Ref: 305611211591
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_DEFAULT_COMPRESSION11211714
Ref: 305811211714
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_DEFAULT_STRATEGY11211909
Ref: 305c11211909
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_FILTERED11212009
Ref: 305d11212009
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_HUFFMAN_ONLY11212121
Ref: 305e11212121
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_RLE11212224
Ref: 305f11212224
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_FIXED11212472
Ref: 306011212472
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_NO_FLUSH11212712
Ref: 306411212712
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_PARTIAL_FLUSH11212836
Ref: 306511212836
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_SYNC_FLUSH11212941
Ref: 306611212941
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_FULL_FLUSH11213082
Ref: 306711213082
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_FINISH11213213
Ref: 306911213213
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_BLOCK11213341
Ref: 306811213341
Ref: library/zlib zlib Z_TREES11213570
Ref: 307211213570
Ref: library/zlib zlib ZLIB_VERSION11213967
Ref: 307311213967
Ref: library/zlib zlib ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION11214234
Ref: 151711214234
Ref: library/zlib zlib ZLIBNG_VERSION11214397
Ref: 307411214397
Ref: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip-Footnote-111215303
Ref: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip-Footnote-211215332
Ref: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip-Footnote-311215373
Node: gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip11215426
Ref: library/gzip doc11215643
Ref: 307511215643
Ref: library/gzip gzip-support-for-gzip-files11215643
Ref: 307611215643
Ref: library/gzip module-gzip11215643
Ref: 6a11215643
Ref: library/gzip translation-repo11215643
Ref: 307711215643
Ref: library/gzip gzip open11217392
Ref: 307811217392
Ref: library/gzip gzip BadGzipFile11220306
Ref: dba11220306
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile11220716
Ref: 84911220716
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile peek11226390
Ref: 15b311226390
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile mode11227280
Ref: 307b11227280
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile mtime11227571
Ref: 307911227571
Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile name11228224
Ref: 91c11228224
Ref: library/gzip gzip compress11230516
Ref: a2d11230516
Ref: library/gzip gzip decompress11232998
Ref: 15b411232998
Ref: gzip — Υποστήριξη για αρχεία gzip-Footnote-111234130
Node: Παραδείγματα χρήσης11234194
Ref: library/gzip examples-of-usage11234375
Ref: 307d11234375
Ref: library/gzip gzip-usage-examples11234375
Ref: 307e11234375
Ref: Παραδείγματα χρήσης-Footnote-111235954
Node: Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών11236007
Ref: library/gzip command-line-interface11236188
Ref: 307f11236188
Ref: library/gzip gzip-cli11236188
Ref: 308011236188
Node: Επιλογές γραμμής εντολών11236794
Ref: library/gzip command-line-options11236921
Ref: 308111236921
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-arg-file11237012
Ref: 308211237012
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-fast11237158
Ref: 308311237158
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-best11237296
Ref: 308411237296
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-d11237432
Ref: 308511237432
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-decompress11237432
Ref: 308611237432
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-h11237527
Ref: 308711237527
Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-help11237527
Ref: 308811237527
Node: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression11237612
Ref: library/bz2 doc11237833
Ref: 308911237833
Ref: library/bz2 bz2-support-for-bzip2-compression11237833
Ref: 308a11237833
Ref: library/bz2 module-bz211237833
Ref: 1411237833
Ref: library/bz2 translation-repo11237833
Ref: 308b11237833
Ref: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression-Footnote-111239022
Node: De compression of files11239085
Ref: library/bz2 de-compression-of-files11239217
Ref: 308c11239217
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 open11239286
Ref: 143b11239286
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File11240769
Ref: c3d11240769
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File peek11242230
Ref: 308d11242230
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File fileno11242806
Ref: 308e11242806
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File readable11242938
Ref: 308f11242938
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File seekable11243068
Ref: 309011243068
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File writable11243192
Ref: 309111243192
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File read111243322
Ref: 309211243322
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File readinto11243651
Ref: 309311243651
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File mode11243812
Ref: 309411243812
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File name11243941
Ref: 309511243941
Node: Incremental de compression11245300
Ref: library/bz2 incremental-de-compression11245464
Ref: 309611245464
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Compressor11245539
Ref: 1ccd11245539
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Compressor compress11245884
Ref: 309711245884
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Compressor flush11246240
Ref: 309811246240
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor11246477
Ref: 18f911246477
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor decompress11247041
Ref: 118311247041
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor eof11248414
Ref: 309b11248414
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor unused_data11248547
Ref: 309a11248547
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor needs_input11248776
Ref: 309911248776
Node: One-shot de compression11249008
Ref: library/bz2 one-shot-de-compression11249166
Ref: 309c11249166
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 compress11249235
Ref: 2a9311249235
Ref: library/bz2 bz2 decompress11249544
Ref: 143c11249544
Node: Examples of usage11249928
Ref: library/bz2 bz2-usage-examples11250051
Ref: 309d11250051
Ref: library/bz2 examples-of-usage11250051
Ref: 309e11250051
Node: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm11252979
Ref: library/lzma doc11253180
Ref: 309f11253180
Ref: library/lzma lzma-compression-using-the-lzma-algorithm11253180
Ref: 30a011253180
Ref: library/lzma module-lzma11253180
Ref: 8d11253180
Ref: library/lzma translation-repo11253180
Ref: 30a111253180
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAError11254261
Ref: 30a211254261
Ref: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm-Footnote-111254775
Node: Reading and writing compressed files<2>11254839
Ref: library/lzma reading-and-writing-compressed-files11255016
Ref: 30a311255016
Ref: library/lzma lzma open11255109
Ref: 30a411255109
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile11256921
Ref: 13b511256921
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile peek11258821
Ref: 30a511258821
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile mode11259427
Ref: 30a611259427
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile name11259556
Ref: 30a711259556
Node: Compressing and decompressing data in memory<2>11260065
Ref: library/lzma compressing-and-decompressing-data-in-memory11260267
Ref: 30a811260267
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMACompressor11260376
Ref: 1ccc11260376
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMACompressor compress11263454
Ref: 30ab11263454
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMACompressor flush11263906
Ref: 30ac11263906
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor11264194
Ref: 18f811264194
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor decompress11265734
Ref: 11e111265734
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor check11267107
Ref: 30b011267107
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor eof11267347
Ref: 30b111267347
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor unused_data11267447
Ref: 30af11267447
Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor needs_input11267625
Ref: 30ae11267625
Ref: library/lzma lzma compress11267857
Ref: 30a911267857
Ref: library/lzma lzma decompress11268207
Ref: 30ad11268207
Node: Miscellaneous<2>11268718
Ref: library/lzma miscellaneous11268912
Ref: 30b211268912
Ref: library/lzma lzma is_check_supported11268959
Ref: 30b311268959
Node: Specifying custom filter chains11269331
Ref: library/lzma filter-chain-specs11269489
Ref: 30aa11269489
Ref: library/lzma specifying-custom-filter-chains11269489
Ref: 30b411269489
Node: Examples<7>11272172
Ref: library/lzma examples11272305
Ref: 30b511272305
Node: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives11273673
Ref: library/zipfile doc11273881
Ref: 30b611273881
Ref: library/zipfile module-zipfile11273881
Ref: 13a11273881
Ref: library/zipfile translation-repo11273881
Ref: 30b711273881
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile-work-with-zip-archives11273881
Ref: 30b811273881
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile BadZipFile11275102
Ref: 1d6511275102
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile BadZipfile11275214
Ref: 30b911275214
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile LargeZipFile11275400
Ref: 30ba11275400
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo11276048
Ref: 54711276048
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo _for_archive11277005
Ref: 54611277005
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile is_zipfile11277291
Ref: 16cf11277291
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_STORED11277610
Ref: 30bf11277610
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_DEFLATED11277715
Ref: 30c011277715
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_BZIP211277873
Ref: 30c111277873
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_LZMA11278050
Ref: 30c211278050
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_ZSTANDARD11278226
Ref: 30c311278226
Ref: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-111279704
Ref: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-211279769
Ref: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-311279837
Ref: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-411279905
Node: ZipFile objects11279946
Ref: library/zipfile id111280053
Ref: 30c411280053
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile-objects11280053
Ref: 30bb11280053
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile11280104
Ref: ab111280104
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile close11285534
Ref: 30c511285534
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile getinfo11285706
Ref: 30bc11285706
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile infolist11285966
Ref: 30bd11285966
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile namelist11286232
Ref: 30c611286232
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile open11286321
Ref: 84a11286321
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile extract11289271
Ref: 30c911289271
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile extractall11290699
Ref: 30ca11290699
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile printdir11291799
Ref: 30cb11291799
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile setpassword11291909
Ref: 30cc11291909
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile read11292054
Ref: 30c811292054
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile testzip11293023
Ref: 30cd11293023
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile write11293410
Ref: 110211293410
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile writestr11295275
Ref: 54811295275
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile mkdir11297150
Ref: ab211297150
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile filename11297681
Ref: 30ce11297681
Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile debug11297749
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path stem11301585
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path suffixes11301731
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path read_text11301905
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo CRC11311546
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Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo compress_size11311620
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Ref: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files-Footnote-111331924
Ref: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files-Footnote-211331991
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser read_dict11469796
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser get11470501
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Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser getint11471481
Ref: 319911471481
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser getfloat11471778
Ref: 319a11471778
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser getboolean11472090
Ref: 319811472090
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser items11472829
Ref: 31ad11472829
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser set11473500
Ref: 161111473500
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser write11473793
Ref: 47511473793
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser remove_option11474733
Ref: 31af11474733
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser remove_section11475055
Ref: 31b011475055
Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser optionxform11475275
Ref: 31a611475275
Ref: library/configparser configparser UNNAMED_SECTION11476239
Ref: 199c11476239
Ref: library/configparser configparser MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH11476422
Ref: 31b111476422
Node: RawConfigParser Objects11476667
Ref: library/configparser id1511476820
Ref: 31b211476820
Ref: library/configparser rawconfigparser-objects11476820
Ref: 31b311476820
Ref: library/configparser configparser RawConfigParser11476889
Ref: 130e11476889
Ref: library/configparser configparser RawConfigParser add_section11478363
Ref: 31b411478363
Ref: library/configparser configparser RawConfigParser set11479117
Ref: 31b611479117
Node: Exceptions<8>11479946
Ref: library/configparser exceptions11480070
Ref: 31b711480070
Ref: library/configparser configparser Error11480113
Ref: 31b811480113
Ref: library/configparser configparser NoSectionError11480217
Ref: 31ae11480217
Ref: library/configparser configparser DuplicateSectionError11480330
Ref: 161311480330
Ref: library/configparser configparser DuplicateOptionError11480762
Ref: 161411480762
Ref: library/configparser configparser NoOptionError11481129
Ref: 31b911481129
Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationError11481270
Ref: 31ba11481270
Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationDepthError11481422
Ref: 31bb11481422
Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationMissingOptionError11481689
Ref: 31bc11481689
Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationSyntaxError11481885
Ref: 31bd11481885
Ref: library/configparser configparser MissingSectionHeaderError11482120
Ref: 31be11482120
Ref: library/configparser configparser ParsingError11482272
Ref: 91411482272
Ref: library/configparser configparser MultilineContinuationError11482597
Ref: 31a711482597
Ref: library/configparser configparser UnnamedSectionDisabledError11482794
Ref: 31b511482794
Ref: library/configparser configparser InvalidWriteError11482997
Ref: 47611482997
Node: tomllib — Parse TOML files11483438
Ref: library/tomllib doc11483606
Ref: 31bf11483606
Ref: library/tomllib module-tomllib11483606
Ref: 10511483606
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib-parse-toml-files11483606
Ref: 31c011483606
Ref: library/tomllib translation-repo11483606
Ref: 31c111483606
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib load11484901
Ref: 31c211484901
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib loads11485636
Ref: 1b4711485636
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib TOMLDecodeError11486065
Ref: 1b2911486065
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib TOMLDecodeError msg11486216
Ref: 31c411486216
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib TOMLDecodeError doc11486290
Ref: 31c511486290
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib TOMLDecodeError pos11486365
Ref: 31c611486365
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib TOMLDecodeError lineno11486449
Ref: 31c711486449
Ref: library/tomllib tomllib TOMLDecodeError colno11486528
Ref: 31c811486528
Ref: tomllib — Parse TOML files-Footnote-111487033
Ref: tomllib — Parse TOML files-Footnote-211487097
Ref: tomllib — Parse TOML files-Footnote-311487125
Ref: tomllib — Parse TOML files-Footnote-411487167
Node: Examples<9>11487209
Ref: library/tomllib examples11487310
Ref: 31c911487310
Node: Conversion Table11487650
Ref: library/tomllib conversion-table11487751
Ref: 31ca11487751
Ref: library/tomllib toml-to-py-table11487804
Ref: 31c311487804
Node: netrc — netrc file processing11489162
Ref: library/netrc doc11489337
Ref: 31cb11489337
Ref: library/netrc module-netrc11489337
Ref: 9f11489337
Ref: library/netrc netrc-netrc-file-processing11489337
Ref: 31cc11489337
Ref: library/netrc translation-repo11489337
Ref: 31cd11489337
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc11489656
Ref: 1e7011489656
Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError11491514
Ref: 31ce11491514
Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError msg11491747
Ref: 31cf11491747
Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError filename11491824
Ref: 31d011491824
Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError lineno11491901
Ref: 31d111491901
Ref: netrc — netrc file processing-Footnote-111492057
Node: netrc Objects11492122
Ref: library/netrc id111492203
Ref: 31d211492203
Ref: library/netrc netrc-objects11492203
Ref: 31d311492203
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc authenticators11492308
Ref: 31d411492308
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc __repr__11492662
Ref: 31d511492662
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc hosts11492894
Ref: 31d611492894
Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc macros11493099
Ref: 31d711493099
Node: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files11493189
Ref: library/plistlib doc11493327
Ref: 31d811493327
Ref: library/plistlib module-plistlib11493327
Ref: b011493327
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib-generate-and-parse-apple-plist-files11493327
Ref: 31d911493327
Ref: library/plistlib translation-repo11493327
Ref: 31da11493327
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib load11494853
Ref: d1a11494853
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib loads11496128
Ref: d1b11496128
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib dump11496502
Ref: d1c11496502
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib dumps11497932
Ref: d1d11497932
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib UID11498300
Ref: de511498300
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib UID data11498485
Ref: 31db11498485
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib FMT_XML11498678
Ref: 132311498678
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib FMT_BINARY11498784
Ref: 132411498784
Ref: library/plistlib plistlib InvalidFileException11498941
Ref: 1eef11498941
Ref: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files-Footnote-111499137
Ref: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files-Footnote-211499205
Node: Examples<10>11499304
Ref: library/plistlib examples11499402
Ref: 31dc11499402
Node: Cryptographic Services11500257
Ref: library/crypto doc11500406
Ref: 31dd11500406
Ref: library/crypto crypto11500406
Ref: 31de11500406
Ref: library/crypto cryptographic-services11500406
Ref: 31df11500406
Ref: library/crypto translation-repo11500406
Ref: 31e011500406
Node: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests11500822
Ref: library/hashlib doc11500984
Ref: 31e111500984
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-secure-hashes-and-message-digests11500984
Ref: 31e211500984
Ref: library/hashlib module-hashlib11500984
Ref: 6b11500984
Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-111501908
Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-211501975
Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-311502032
Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-411502082
Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-511502152
Node: Hash algorithms11502211
Ref: library/hashlib hash-algorithms11502322
Ref: 31e311502322
Ref: library/hashlib id111502322
Ref: 31e411502322
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-usedforsecurity11504472
Ref: 31ed11504472
Ref: Hash algorithms-Footnote-111505549
Ref: Hash algorithms-Footnote-211505657
Node: Usage11505704
Ref: library/hashlib usage11505836
Ref: 31ee11505836
Node: Constructors11506488
Ref: library/hashlib constructors11506615
Ref: 31ef11506615
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib new11506660
Ref: 2f111506660
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib md511507231
Ref: 2f211507231
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha111507302
Ref: 31e811507302
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha22411507374
Ref: 31e911507374
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha25611507448
Ref: 2f311507448
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha38411507522
Ref: 31ea11507522
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha51211507596
Ref: 31eb11507596
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_22411507670
Ref: 106311507670
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_25611507746
Ref: 106411507746
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_38411507822
Ref: 106511507822
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_51211507898
Ref: 106611507898
Node: Attributes11508071
Ref: library/hashlib attributes11508205
Ref: 31f011508205
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib algorithms_guaranteed11508306
Ref: 171811508306
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib algorithms_available11508651
Ref: 171911508651
Node: Hash Objects11509093
Ref: library/hashlib hash-objects11509244
Ref: 31f111509244
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash digest_size11509397
Ref: 31f211509397
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash block_size11509484
Ref: 31f311509484
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash name11509630
Ref: 12f211509630
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash update11510073
Ref: 31e511510073
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash digest11510357
Ref: 31e611510357
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash hexdigest11510605
Ref: 31e711510605
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash copy11510884
Ref: 31f411510884
Node: SHAKE variable length digests11511077
Ref: library/hashlib shake-variable-length-digests11511230
Ref: 31f511511230
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake_12811511309
Ref: 106711511309
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake_25611511386
Ref: 106811511386
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake digest11511726
Ref: 200811511726
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake hexdigest11511965
Ref: 200911511965
Node: File hashing11512407
Ref: library/hashlib file-hashing11512562
Ref: 31f611512562
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib file_digest11512707
Ref: a3311512707
Node: Key derivation11514437
Ref: library/hashlib key-derivation11514569
Ref: 31f711514569
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib pbkdf2_hmac11514880
Ref: 91e11514880
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib scrypt11516658
Ref: ffc11516658
Ref: Key derivation-Footnote-111517406
Ref: Key derivation-Footnote-211517468
Ref: Key derivation-Footnote-311517555
Ref: Key derivation-Footnote-411517666
Node: BLAKE211517725
Ref: library/hashlib blake211517836
Ref: 31f811517836
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-blake211517836
Ref: 31f911517836
Ref: BLAKE2-Footnote-111518554
Ref: BLAKE2-Footnote-211518585
Ref: BLAKE2-Footnote-311518644
Node: Creating hash objects11518722
Ref: library/hashlib creating-hash-objects11518807
Ref: 31fa11518807
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b11518936
Ref: a3111518936
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s11519182
Ref: a3211519182
Ref: Creating hash objects-Footnote-111522248
Node: Constants<5>11522299
Ref: library/hashlib constants11522405
Ref: 31fb11522405
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b SALT_SIZE11522446
Ref: 31fc11522446
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s SALT_SIZE11522487
Ref: 31fd11522487
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b PERSON_SIZE11522584
Ref: 31fe11522584
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s PERSON_SIZE11522627
Ref: 31ff11522627
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b MAX_KEY_SIZE11522744
Ref: 320011522744
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s MAX_KEY_SIZE11522788
Ref: 320111522788
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b MAX_DIGEST_SIZE11522851
Ref: 320211522851
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s MAX_DIGEST_SIZE11522898
Ref: 320311522898
Node: Examples<11>11523001
Ref: library/hashlib examples11523093
Ref: 320411523093
Node: Simple hashing11523269
Ref: library/hashlib simple-hashing11523369
Ref: 320511523369
Node: Using different digest sizes11524823
Ref: library/hashlib using-different-digest-sizes11524945
Ref: 320611524945
Node: Keyed hashing11526088
Ref: library/hashlib keyed-hashing11526214
Ref: 320711526214
Ref: Keyed hashing-Footnote-111528225
Node: Randomized hashing11528268
Ref: library/hashlib randomized-hashing11528381
Ref: 320811528381
Ref: Randomized hashing-Footnote-111531004
Ref: Randomized hashing-Footnote-211531056
Node: Personalization11531091
Ref: library/hashlib personalization11531200
Ref: 320911531200
Ref: Personalization-Footnote-111533195
Node: Tree mode11533265
Ref: library/hashlib tree-mode11533347
Ref: 320a11533347
Node: Credits11534598
Ref: library/hashlib credits11534669
Ref: 320b11534669
Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-seealso11536100
Ref: 31ec11536100
Ref: Credits-Footnote-111537105
Ref: Credits-Footnote-211537136
Ref: Credits-Footnote-311537197
Ref: Credits-Footnote-411537275
Ref: Credits-Footnote-511537312
Ref: Credits-Footnote-611537355
Node: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication11537398
Ref: library/hmac doc11537632
Ref: 320c11537632
Ref: library/hmac hmac-keyed-hashing-for-message-authentication11537632
Ref: 320d11537632
Ref: library/hmac module-hmac11537632
Ref: 6d11537632
Ref: library/hmac translation-repo11537632
Ref: 320e11537632
Ref: library/hmac hmac new11538099
Ref: e6511538099
Ref: library/hmac hmac digest11538968
Ref: efc11538968
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC11539578
Ref: efd11539578
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC update11539653
Ref: 12f411539653
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC digest11540025
Ref: 320f11540025
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC hexdigest11540657
Ref: 321011540657
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC copy11541266
Ref: 19a711541266
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC digest_size11541510
Ref: 12f711541510
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC block_size11541604
Ref: 12f511541604
Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC name11541733
Ref: 12f611541733
Ref: library/hmac hmac compare_digest11542077
Ref: 147611542077
Ref: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication-Footnote-111543073
Ref: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication-Footnote-211543137
Node: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets11543196
Ref: library/secrets doc11543376
Ref: 321111543376
Ref: library/secrets module-secrets11543376
Ref: c811543376
Ref: library/secrets secrets-generate-secure-random-numbers-for-managing-secrets11543376
Ref: 321211543376
Ref: library/secrets translation-repo11543376
Ref: 321311543376
Ref: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets-Footnote-111544251
Ref: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets-Footnote-211544318
Node: Random numbers11544360
Ref: library/secrets random-numbers11544500
Ref: 321411544500
Ref: library/secrets secrets SystemRandom11544668
Ref: 321511544668
Ref: library/secrets secrets choice11544890
Ref: 321611544890
Ref: library/secrets secrets randbelow11545002
Ref: 321711545002
Ref: library/secrets secrets randbits11545138
Ref: 321811545138
Node: Generating tokens11545238
Ref: library/secrets generating-tokens11545402
Ref: 321911545402
Ref: library/secrets secrets token_bytes11545616
Ref: 2d7a11545616
Ref: library/secrets secrets token_hex11545935
Ref: 1d2411545935
Ref: library/secrets secrets token_urlsafe11546301
Ref: 321b11546301
Node: How many bytes should tokens use?11546761
Ref: library/secrets how-many-bytes-should-tokens-use11546848
Ref: 321c11546848
Ref: library/secrets secrets DEFAULT_ENTROPY11547734
Ref: 321a11547734
Ref: How many bytes should tokens use?-Footnote-111548003
Node: Other functions11548060
Ref: library/secrets other-functions11548236
Ref: 321d11548236
Ref: library/secrets secrets compare_digest11548287
Ref: 321e11548287
Ref: Other functions-Footnote-111548647
Node: Recipes and best practices11548704
Ref: library/secrets recipes-and-best-practices11548854
Ref: 321f11548854
Ref: Recipes and best practices-Footnote-111550600
Ref: Recipes and best practices-Footnote-211550656
Node: Generic Operating System Services11550686
Ref: library/allos doc11550855
Ref: 322011550855
Ref: library/allos allos11550855
Ref: 322111550855
Ref: library/allos generic-operating-system-services11550855
Ref: 322211550855
Ref: library/allos translation-repo11550855
Ref: 322311550855
Node: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces11551873
Ref: library/os doc11552042
Ref: 322411552042
Ref: library/os module-os11552042
Ref: a511552042
Ref: library/os os-miscellaneous-operating-system-interfaces11552042
Ref: 322511552042
Ref: library/os os error11554333
Ref: 322711554333
Ref: library/os os name11554428
Ref: 322811554428
Ref: library/os os-filenames11554903
Ref: 316a11554903
Ref: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces-Footnote-111555330
Node: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables11555392
Ref: library/os file-names-command-line-arguments-and-environment-variables11555562
Ref: 322911555562
Ref: library/os filesystem-encoding11555562
Ref: 2e5011555562
Node: Python UTF-8 Mode11556913
Ref: library/os python-utf-8-mode11557110
Ref: 322a11557110
Ref: library/os utf8-mode11557110
Ref: a4611557110
Ref: Python UTF-8 Mode-Footnote-111559930
Ref: Python UTF-8 Mode-Footnote-211559972
Node: Process Parameters11560014
Ref: library/os os-procinfo11560172
Ref: 322b11560172
Ref: library/os process-parameters11560172
Ref: 322c11560172
Ref: library/os os ctermid11560326
Ref: 322d11560326
Ref: library/os os environ11560517
Ref: 4e511560517
Ref: library/os os environb11562645
Ref: 4e611562645
Ref: library/os os reload_environ11563246
Ref: 4e411563246
Ref: library/os os fsencode11564329
Ref: 101311564329
Ref: library/os os fsdecode11564746
Ref: 101211564746
Ref: library/os os fspath11565167
Ref: 101111565167
Ref: library/os os PathLike11565574
Ref: 100f11565574
Ref: library/os os PathLike __fspath__11565758
Ref: 101011565758
Ref: library/os os getenv11566021
Ref: 322e11566021
Ref: library/os os getenvb11566705
Ref: 15bd11566705
Ref: library/os os get_exec_path11567285
Ref: 323011567285
Ref: library/os os getegid11567676
Ref: 323111567676
Ref: library/os os geteuid11567939
Ref: 1d6f11567939
Ref: library/os os getgid11568097
Ref: 323211568097
Ref: library/os os getgrouplist11568347
Ref: 14c011568347
Ref: library/os os getgroups11568766
Ref: 323311568766
Ref: library/os os getlogin11570001
Ref: 19f411570001
Ref: library/os os getpgid11570516
Ref: 323511570516
Ref: library/os os getpgrp11570775
Ref: 323611570775
Ref: library/os os getpid11570927
Ref: 322611570927
Ref: library/os os getppid11571106
Ref: 1bd611571106
Ref: library/os os getpriority11571526
Ref: 14ab11571526
Ref: library/os os PRIO_PROCESS11572170
Ref: 323711572170
Ref: library/os os PRIO_PGRP11572208
Ref: 323811572208
Ref: library/os os PRIO_USER11572243
Ref: 323911572243
Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD11572469
Ref: 323a11572469
Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS11572513
Ref: 323b11572513
Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_BG11572558
Ref: 323c11572558
Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI11572598
Ref: 323d11572598
Ref: library/os os getresuid11572823
Ref: 16ba11572823
Ref: library/os os getresgid11573070
Ref: 16b911573070
Ref: library/os os getuid11573318
Ref: 1a1111573318
Ref: library/os os initgroups11573564
Ref: 16bd11573564
Ref: library/os os putenv11573910
Ref: 4e711573910
Ref: library/os os setegid11575106
Ref: 323f11575106
Ref: library/os os seteuid11575282
Ref: 324011575282
Ref: library/os os setgid11575457
Ref: 324111575457
Ref: library/os os setgroups11575620
Ref: 323411575620
Ref: library/os os setns11576314
Ref: 1d3f11576314
Ref: library/os os setpgrp11577879
Ref: 324311577879
Ref: library/os os setpgid11578149
Ref: 324411578149
Ref: library/os os setpriority11578450
Ref: 14ac11578450
Ref: library/os os setregid11579238
Ref: 324511579238
Ref: library/os os setresgid11579431
Ref: 16bb11579431
Ref: library/os os setresuid11579667
Ref: 16bc11579667
Ref: library/os os setreuid11579902
Ref: 324611579902
Ref: library/os os getsid11580094
Ref: 324711580094
Ref: library/os os setsid11580289
Ref: 1faa11580289
Ref: library/os os setuid11580478
Ref: 324811580478
Ref: library/os os strerror11580641
Ref: 324911580641
Ref: library/os os supports_bytes_environ11580897
Ref: 15bc11580897
Ref: library/os os umask11581076
Ref: 324a11581076
Ref: library/os os uname11581291
Ref: 14c211581291
Ref: library/os os unsetenv11582642
Ref: 4e811582642
Ref: library/os os unshare11583469
Ref: 1d4011583469
Ref: library/os os-unshare-clone-flags11584226
Ref: 324211584226
Ref: library/os os CLONE_FILES11584396
Ref: 324c11584396
Ref: library/os os CLONE_FS11584433
Ref: 324d11584433
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWCGROUP11584467
Ref: 324e11584467
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWIPC11584508
Ref: 324f11584508
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWNET11584546
Ref: 325011584546
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWNS11584584
Ref: 325111584584
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWPID11584621
Ref: 325211584621
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWTIME11584659
Ref: 325311584659
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWUSER11584698
Ref: 325411584698
Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWUTS11584737
Ref: 325511584737
Ref: library/os os CLONE_SIGHAND11584775
Ref: 325611584775
Ref: library/os os CLONE_SYSVSEM11584814
Ref: 325711584814
Ref: library/os os CLONE_THREAD11584853
Ref: 325811584853
Ref: library/os os CLONE_VM11584891
Ref: 325911584891
Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-111584962
Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-211585004
Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-311585046
Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-411585091
Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-511585141
Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-611585188
Node: File Object Creation11585235
Ref: library/os file-object-creation11585402
Ref: 325a11585402
Ref: library/os os-newstreams11585402
Ref: 325b11585402
Ref: library/os os fdopen11585579
Ref: 257111585579
Node: File Descriptor Operations11585909
Ref: library/os file-descriptor-operations11586079
Ref: 325c11586079
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Ref: Files and Directories-Footnote-1011722404
Ref: Files and Directories-Footnote-1111722450
Node: Timer File Descriptors11722498
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Ref: library/os os timerfd_settime11725534
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Ref: library/os os timerfd_gettime11728659
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Ref: Timer File Descriptors-Footnote-111731088
Ref: Timer File Descriptors-Footnote-211731142
Ref: Timer File Descriptors-Footnote-311731196
Ref: Timer File Descriptors-Footnote-411731251
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Ref: Timer File Descriptors-Footnote-611731356
Ref: Timer File Descriptors-Footnote-711731400
Node: Linux extended attributes11731455
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Ref: Process Management-Footnote-111785856
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Node: Interface to the scheduler11786361
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Ref: Interface to the scheduler-Footnote-111790648
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Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler12110334
Ref: 1d5f12110334
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler emit12111486
Ref: 347912111486
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler prepare12111990
Ref: 347a12111990
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler enqueue12113949
Ref: 347712113949
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler listener12114203
Ref: 341b12114203
Node: QueueListener12114505
Ref: library/logging handlers queue-listener12114613
Ref: 347b12114613
Ref: library/logging handlers queuelistener12114613
Ref: 347c12114613
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener12115623
Ref: 4cf12115623
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener dequeue12117198
Ref: 347d12117198
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener prepare12117487
Ref: 347e12117487
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener handle12117812
Ref: 347f12117812
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener start12118082
Ref: 4d012118082
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener stop12118394
Ref: 348012118394
Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener enqueue_sentinel12118713
Ref: 348112118713
Node: platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας12119239
Ref: library/platform doc12119534
Ref: 348212119534
Ref: library/platform module-platform12119534
Ref: af12119534
Ref: library/platform platform-access-to-underlying-platform-s-identifying-data12119534
Ref: 348312119534
Ref: library/platform translation-repo12119534
Ref: 348412119534
Ref: platform — Πρόσβαση στα αναγνωριστικά δεδομένα της υποκείμενης πλατφόρμας-Footnote-112120388
Node: Cross Platform12120456
Ref: library/platform cross-platform12120673
Ref: 348512120673
Ref: library/platform platform architecture12120722
Ref: 1c0e12120722
Ref: library/platform platform machine12123312
Ref: 348612123312
Ref: library/platform platform node12123819
Ref: 348712123819
Ref: library/platform platform platform12124173
Ref: 1cc712124173
Ref: library/platform platform processor12125965
Ref: 348912125965
Ref: library/platform platform python_build12126558
Ref: 348a12126558
Ref: library/platform platform python_compiler12126860
Ref: 348b12126860
Ref: library/platform platform python_branch12127135
Ref: 348c12127135
Ref: library/platform platform python_implementation12127403
Ref: 348d12127403
Ref: library/platform platform python_revision12127702
Ref: 348e12127702
Ref: library/platform platform python_version12127926
Ref: 348f12127926
Ref: library/platform platform python_version_tuple12128391
Ref: 349012128391
Ref: library/platform platform release12128878
Ref: 349112128878
Ref: library/platform platform system12129176
Ref: 245812129176
Ref: library/platform platform system_alias12129934
Ref: 348812129934
Ref: library/platform platform version12130424
Ref: 349212130424
Ref: library/platform platform uname12131061
Ref: 200112131061
Ref: library/platform platform invalidate_caches12132218
Ref: 50512132218
Node: Πλατφόρμα Windows12132721
Ref: library/platform windows-platform12132971
Ref: 349312132971
Ref: library/platform platform win32_ver12133035
Ref: 1f3e12133035
Ref: library/platform platform win32_edition12134722
Ref: 349412134722
Ref: library/platform platform win32_is_iot12135222
Ref: 349512135222
Node: Πλατφόρμα macOS12135504
Ref: library/platform macos-platform12135762
Ref: 349612135762
Ref: library/platform platform mac_ver12135822
Ref: 200312135822
Node: Πλατφόρμα iOS12136422
Ref: library/platform ios-platform12136679
Ref: 349712136679
Ref: library/platform platform ios_ver12136735
Ref: 245712136735
Node: Πλατφόρμες Unix12138120
Ref: library/platform unix-platforms12138379
Ref: 349812138379
Ref: library/platform platform libc_ver12138440
Ref: 1a0112138440
Node: Πλατφόρμες Linux12139664
Ref: library/platform linux-platforms12139927
Ref: 349912139927
Ref: library/platform platform freedesktop_os_release12139990
Ref: bff12139990
Ref: Πλατφόρμες Linux-Footnote-112142387
Node: Πλατφόρμα Android12142460
Ref: library/platform android-platform12142743
Ref: 349a12142743
Ref: library/platform platform android_ver12142807
Ref: 1bd012142807
Ref: Πλατφόρμα Android-Footnote-112144613
Ref: Πλατφόρμα Android-Footnote-212144692
Ref: Πλατφόρμα Android-Footnote-312144763
Ref: Πλατφόρμα Android-Footnote-412144835
Node: Χρήση από γραμμή εντολών12144909
Ref: library/platform command-line-usage12145157
Ref: 349b12145157
Ref: library/platform platform-cli12145157
Ref: 349c12145157
Ref: library/platform cmdoption-platform-terse12145488
Ref: 349d12145488
Ref: library/platform cmdoption-platform-nonaliased12145783
Ref: 349e12145783
Node: errno — Standard errno system symbols12146525
Ref: library/errno doc12146831
Ref: 349f12146831
Ref: library/errno errno-standard-errno-system-symbols12146831
Ref: 34a012146831
Ref: library/errno module-errno12146831
Ref: 5a12146831
Ref: library/errno translation-repo12146831
Ref: 34a112146831
Ref: library/errno errno errorcode12147234
Ref: 34a212147234
Ref: library/errno errno EPERM12147767
Ref: 1d5412147767
Ref: library/errno errno ENOENT12147906
Ref: 290512147906
Ref: library/errno errno ESRCH12148049
Ref: 290912148049
Ref: library/errno errno EINTR12148183
Ref: 114012148183
Ref: library/errno errno EIO12148323
Ref: 34a312148323
Ref: library/errno errno ENXIO12148372
Ref: 34a412148372
Ref: library/errno errno E2BIG12148439
Ref: 34a512148439
Ref: library/errno errno ENOEXEC12148498
Ref: 34a612148498
Ref: library/errno errno EBADF12148559
Ref: d2512148559
Ref: library/errno errno ECHILD12148616
Ref: 28fe12148616
Ref: library/errno errno EAGAIN12148753
Ref: 28f912148753
Ref: library/errno errno ENOMEM12148878
Ref: 34a712148878
Ref: library/errno errno EACCES12148934
Ref: 290812148934
Ref: library/errno errno EFAULT12149068
Ref: 34a812149068
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTBLK12149122
Ref: 34a912149122
Ref: library/errno errno EBUSY12149187
Ref: 34aa12149187
Ref: library/errno errno EEXIST12149252
Ref: 290412149252
Ref: library/errno errno EXDEV12149380
Ref: 325f12149380
Ref: library/errno errno ENODEV12149439
Ref: 34ab12149439
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTDIR12149496
Ref: 290712149496
Ref: library/errno errno EISDIR12149632
Ref: 290612149632
Ref: library/errno errno EINVAL12149765
Ref: 1fc112149765
Ref: library/errno errno ENFILE12149824
Ref: 34ac12149824
Ref: library/errno errno EMFILE12149886
Ref: 34ad12149886
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTTY12149948
Ref: 34ae12149948
Ref: library/errno errno ETXTBSY12150007
Ref: 34af12150007
Ref: library/errno errno EFBIG12150065
Ref: 34b012150065
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSPC12150121
Ref: 34b112150121
Ref: library/errno errno ESPIPE12150187
Ref: 34b212150187
Ref: library/errno errno EROFS12150242
Ref: 34b312150242
Ref: library/errno errno EMLINK12150305
Ref: 34b412150305
Ref: library/errno errno EPIPE12150362
Ref: 28ff12150362
Ref: library/errno errno EDOM12150489
Ref: 34b512150489
Ref: library/errno errno ERANGE12150565
Ref: 34b612150565
Ref: library/errno errno EDEADLK12150637
Ref: 34b712150637
Ref: library/errno errno ENAMETOOLONG12150710
Ref: 34b812150710
Ref: library/errno errno ENOLCK12150777
Ref: 34b912150777
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSYS12150845
Ref: 1d5512150845
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTEMPTY12150912
Ref: 34ba12150912
Ref: library/errno errno ELOOP12150977
Ref: 34bb12150977
Ref: library/errno errno EWOULDBLOCK12151054
Ref: 28fb12151054
Ref: library/errno errno ENOMSG12151196
Ref: 34bc12151196
Ref: library/errno errno EIDRM12151265
Ref: 34bd12151265
Ref: library/errno errno ECHRNG12151325
Ref: 34be12151325
Ref: library/errno errno EL2NSYNC12151395
Ref: 34bf12151395
Ref: library/errno errno EL3HLT12151464
Ref: 34c012151464
Ref: library/errno errno EL3RST12151521
Ref: 34c112151521
Ref: library/errno errno ELNRNG12151577
Ref: 34c212151577
Ref: library/errno errno EUNATCH12151644
Ref: 34c312151644
Ref: library/errno errno ENOCSI12151716
Ref: 34c412151716
Ref: library/errno errno EL2HLT12151785
Ref: 34c512151785
Ref: library/errno errno EBADE12151842
Ref: 34c612151842
Ref: library/errno errno EBADR12151900
Ref: 34c712151900
Ref: library/errno errno EXFULL12151968
Ref: 34c812151968
Ref: library/errno errno ENOANO12152024
Ref: 34c912152024
Ref: library/errno errno EBADRQC12152075
Ref: 34ca12152075
Ref: library/errno errno EBADSLT12152139
Ref: 34cb12152139
Ref: library/errno errno EDEADLOCK12152195
Ref: 34cc12152195
Ref: library/errno errno EBFONT12152268
Ref: 34cd12152268
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSTR12152331
Ref: 34ce12152331
Ref: library/errno errno ENODATA12152393
Ref: 34cf12152393
Ref: library/errno errno ETIME12152454
Ref: 34d012152454
Ref: library/errno errno ENOSR12152509
Ref: 34d112152509
Ref: library/errno errno ENONET12152575
Ref: 34d212152575
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPKG12152647
Ref: 34d312152647
Ref: library/errno errno EREMOTE12152711
Ref: 34d412152711
Ref: library/errno errno ENOLINK12152771
Ref: 34d512152771
Ref: library/errno errno EADV12152836
Ref: 34d612152836
Ref: library/errno errno ESRMNT12152892
Ref: 34d712152892
Ref: library/errno errno ECOMM12152948
Ref: 34d812152948
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTO12153017
Ref: 34d912153017
Ref: library/errno errno EMULTIHOP12153074
Ref: 34da12153074
Ref: library/errno errno EDOTDOT12153138
Ref: 34db12153138
Ref: library/errno errno EBADMSG12153200
Ref: 34dc12153200
Ref: library/errno errno EOVERFLOW12153262
Ref: 34dd12153262
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTUNIQ12153345
Ref: 34de12153345
Ref: library/errno errno EBADFD12153416
Ref: 34df12153416
Ref: library/errno errno EREMCHG12153487
Ref: 34e012153487
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBACC12153553
Ref: 34e112153553
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBBAD12153635
Ref: 34e212153635
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBSCN12153715
Ref: 34e312153715
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBMAX12153790
Ref: 34e412153790
Ref: library/errno errno ELIBEXEC12153881
Ref: 34e512153881
Ref: library/errno errno EILSEQ12153963
Ref: 34e612153963
Ref: library/errno errno ERESTART12154027
Ref: 34e712154027
Ref: library/errno errno ESTRPIPE12154115
Ref: 34e812154115
Ref: library/errno errno EUSERS12154178
Ref: 34e912154178
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTSOCK12154235
Ref: 34ea12154235
Ref: library/errno errno EDESTADDRREQ12154310
Ref: 34eb12154310
Ref: library/errno errno EMSGSIZE12154387
Ref: 34ec12154387
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTOTYPE12154448
Ref: 34ed12154448
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPROTOOPT12154525
Ref: 34ee12154525
Ref: library/errno errno EPROTONOSUPPORT12154595
Ref: 34ef12154595
Ref: library/errno errno ESOCKTNOSUPPORT12154669
Ref: 34f012154669
Ref: library/errno errno EOPNOTSUPP12154746
Ref: 34f112154746
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTSUP12154838
Ref: 34f212154838
Ref: library/errno errno EPFNOSUPPORT12154933
Ref: 34f312154933
Ref: library/errno errno EAFNOSUPPORT12155011
Ref: 34f412155011
Ref: library/errno errno EADDRINUSE12155100
Ref: 34f512155100
Ref: library/errno errno EADDRNOTAVAIL12155169
Ref: 34f612155169
Ref: library/errno errno ENETDOWN12155250
Ref: 34f712155250
Ref: library/errno errno ENETUNREACH12155310
Ref: 1fd812155310
Ref: library/errno errno ENETRESET12155380
Ref: 34f812155380
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNABORTED12155469
Ref: 290112155469
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNRESET12155631
Ref: 290312155631
Ref: library/errno errno ENOBUFS12155781
Ref: 1d6e12155781
Ref: library/errno errno EISCONN12155850
Ref: 34f912155850
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTCONN12155933
Ref: 34fa12155933
Ref: library/errno errno ESHUTDOWN12156013
Ref: 290012156013
Ref: library/errno errno ETOOMANYREFS12156178
Ref: 34fb12156178
Ref: library/errno errno ETIMEDOUT12156261
Ref: 290a12156261
Ref: library/errno errno ECONNREFUSED12156397
Ref: 290212156397
Ref: library/errno errno EHOSTDOWN12156545
Ref: 34fc12156545
Ref: library/errno errno EHOSTUNREACH12156603
Ref: 34fd12156603
Ref: library/errno errno EHWPOISON12156668
Ref: 49c12156668
Ref: library/errno errno EALREADY12156774
Ref: 28fa12156774
Ref: library/errno errno EINPROGRESS12156921
Ref: 28fc12156921
Ref: library/errno errno ESTALE12157067
Ref: 34fe12157067
Ref: library/errno errno EUCLEAN12157131
Ref: 34ff12157131
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTNAM12157199
Ref: 350012157199
Ref: library/errno errno ENAVAIL12157270
Ref: 350112157270
Ref: library/errno errno EISNAM12157343
Ref: 350212157343
Ref: library/errno errno EREMOTEIO12157406
Ref: 350312157406
Ref: library/errno errno EDQUOT12157468
Ref: 350412157468
Ref: library/errno errno EQFULL12157525
Ref: 350512157525
Ref: library/errno errno ENOMEDIUM12157627
Ref: 350612157627
Ref: library/errno errno EMEDIUMTYPE12157688
Ref: 350712157688
Ref: library/errno errno ENOKEY12157753
Ref: 350812157753
Ref: library/errno errno EKEYEXPIRED12157822
Ref: 350912157822
Ref: library/errno errno EKEYREVOKED12157885
Ref: 350a12157885
Ref: library/errno errno EKEYREJECTED12157953
Ref: 350b12157953
Ref: library/errno errno ERFKILL12158029
Ref: 350c12158029
Ref: library/errno errno ELOCKUNMAPPED12158110
Ref: 350d12158110
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTACTIVE12158184
Ref: 350e12158184
Ref: library/errno errno EAUTH12158253
Ref: 350f12158253
Ref: library/errno errno EBADARCH12158343
Ref: 351012158343
Ref: library/errno errno EBADEXEC12158442
Ref: 351112158442
Ref: library/errno errno EBADMACHO12158549
Ref: 351212158549
Ref: library/errno errno EDEVERR12158644
Ref: 351312158644
Ref: library/errno errno EFTYPE12158728
Ref: 351412158728
Ref: library/errno errno ENEEDAUTH12158832
Ref: 351512158832
Ref: library/errno errno ENOATTR12158924
Ref: 351612158924
Ref: library/errno errno ENOPOLICY12159015
Ref: 351712159015
Ref: library/errno errno EPROCLIM12159105
Ref: 351812159105
Ref: library/errno errno EPROCUNAVAIL12159196
Ref: 351912159196
Ref: library/errno errno EPROGMISMATCH12159298
Ref: 351a12159298
Ref: library/errno errno EPROGUNAVAIL12159397
Ref: 351b12159397
Ref: library/errno errno EPWROFF12159494
Ref: 351c12159494
Ref: library/errno errno EBADRPC12159585
Ref: 351d12159585
Ref: library/errno errno ERPCMISMATCH12159674
Ref: 351e12159674
Ref: library/errno errno ESHLIBVERS12159768
Ref: 351f12159768
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTCAPABLE12159874
Ref: 1d3d12159874
Ref: library/errno errno ECANCELED12160113
Ref: 1a0212160113
Ref: library/errno errno EOWNERDEAD12160205
Ref: 352012160205
Ref: library/errno errno ENOTRECOVERABLE12160290
Ref: 352112160290
Node: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python12160391
Ref: library/ctypes doc12160557
Ref: 352212160557
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-a-foreign-function-library-for-python12160557
Ref: 352312160557
Ref: library/ctypes module-ctypes12160557
Ref: 2d12160557
Ref: library/ctypes translation-repo12160557
Ref: 352412160557
Ref: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python-Footnote-112161323
Node: ctypes tutorial12161386
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-ctypes-tutorial12161511
Ref: 352512161511
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-tutorial12161511
Ref: 352612161511
Node: Loading dynamic link libraries12162759
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-loading-dynamic-link-libraries12162886
Ref: 352912162886
Ref: library/ctypes loading-dynamic-link-libraries12162886
Ref: 352a12162886
Node: Accessing functions from loaded dlls12165234
Ref: library/ctypes accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls12165387
Ref: 352f12165387
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls12165387
Ref: 353012165387
Node: Calling functions12167609
Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions12167754
Ref: 353112167754
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions12167754
Ref: 353212167754
Node: Fundamental data types12170176
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-fundamental-data-types12170312
Ref: 2a3212170312
Ref: library/ctypes fundamental-data-types12170312
Ref: 353312170312
Node: Calling functions continued12184158
Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions-continued12184303
Ref: 354912184303
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions-continued12184303
Ref: 354a12184303
Node: Calling variadic functions12185376
Ref: library/ctypes calling-variadic-functions12185548
Ref: 354b12185548
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-variadic-functions12185548
Ref: 354c12185548
Node: Calling functions with your own custom data types12186243
Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions-with-your-own-custom-data-types12186446
Ref: 354d12186446
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions-with-own-custom-data-types12186446
Ref: 354e12186446
Node: Specifying the required argument types function prototypes12187347
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-specifying-required-argument-types12187536
Ref: 354f12187536
Ref: library/ctypes specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes12187536
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Ref: library/ctypes return-types12189616
Ref: 355312189616
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Ref: 355612192893
Ref: library/ctypes passing-pointers-or-passing-parameters-by-reference12192893
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Ref: library/ctypes structures-and-unions12194155
Ref: 355a12194155
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Ref: 356512203171
Ref: library/ctypes thread-safety-without-the-gil12203171
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Ref: 356712204311
Ref: library/ctypes type-conversions12204311
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Node: Incomplete Types12206913
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Ref: library/ctypes incomplete-types12207033
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Ref: library/ctypes callback-functions12208782
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-callback-functions12208782
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Ref: 356f12212788
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-accessing-values-exported-from-dlls12212788
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Ref: library/ctypes surprises12215576
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Node: Variable-sized data types12217755
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-variable-sized-data-types12217850
Ref: 357512217850
Ref: library/ctypes variable-sized-data-types12217850
Ref: 357612217850
Node: ctypes reference12219241
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-reference12219366
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Node: Loading shared libraries12219754
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Ref: library/ctypes loading-shared-libraries12219864
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes CDLL12220078
Ref: dad12220078
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes CDLL _handle12225936
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes CDLL _name12226029
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes OleDLL12226125
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WinDLL12226817
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL12227094
Ref: 1ce312227094
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes RTLD_GLOBAL12227511
Ref: 358512227511
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes RTLD_LOCAL12227680
Ref: 358612227680
Ref: library/ctypes ctypes DEFAULT_MODE12227841
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LibraryLoader12228300
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LibraryLoader LoadLibrary12228763
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes cdll12228994
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes windll12229081
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes oledll12229233
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes pydll12229385
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Ref: library/ctypes ctypes pythonapi12229475
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Ref: Loading shared libraries-Footnote-112230463
Ref: Loading shared libraries-Footnote-212230509
Ref: Loading shared libraries-Footnote-312230614
Ref: Loading shared libraries-Footnote-412230719
Ref: Loading shared libraries-Footnote-512230765
Ref: Loading shared libraries-Footnote-612230870
Node: Finding shared libraries12230965
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Ref: 357e12231115
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Ref: 358a12231115
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Ref: optparse — Parser for command line options-Footnote-112429584
Node: Choosing an argument parsing library12429652
Ref: library/optparse choosing-an-argument-parser12429793
Ref: 35ca12429793
Ref: library/optparse choosing-an-argument-parsing-library12429793
Ref: 363a12429793
Ref: Choosing an argument parsing library-Footnote-112435429
Ref: Choosing an argument parsing library-Footnote-212435469
Ref: Choosing an argument parsing library-Footnote-312435509
Node: Introduction<5>12435557
Ref: library/optparse introduction12435717
Ref: 363b12435717
Node: Background12438103
Ref: library/optparse background12438238
Ref: 363c12438238
Ref: library/optparse optparse-background12438238
Ref: 363d12438238
Node: Terminology12438830
Ref: library/optparse optparse-terminology12438918
Ref: 363e12438918
Ref: library/optparse terminology12438918
Ref: 363f12438918
Node: What are options for?12442744
Ref: library/optparse optparse-what-options-for12442875
Ref: 364012442875
Ref: library/optparse what-are-options-for12442875
Ref: 364112442875
Node: What are positional arguments for?12444558
Ref: library/optparse optparse-what-positional-arguments-for12444669
Ref: 364212444669
Ref: library/optparse what-are-positional-arguments-for12444669
Ref: 364312444669
Node: Tutorial<2>12446002
Ref: library/optparse optparse-tutorial12446137
Ref: 364412446137
Ref: library/optparse tutorial12446137
Ref: 364512446137
Node: Understanding option actions12448724
Ref: library/optparse optparse-understanding-option-actions12448825
Ref: 364a12448825
Ref: library/optparse understanding-option-actions12448825
Ref: 364b12448825
Node: The store action12449396
Ref: library/optparse optparse-store-action12449535
Ref: 364d12449535
Ref: library/optparse the-store-action12449535
Ref: 364e12449535
Node: Handling boolean flag options12451691
Ref: library/optparse handling-boolean-flag-options12451815
Ref: 364f12451815
Ref: library/optparse optparse-handling-boolean-options12451815
Ref: 365012451815
Node: Other actions12452690
Ref: library/optparse optparse-other-actions12452812
Ref: 365112452812
Ref: library/optparse other-actions12452812
Ref: 365212452812
Node: Default values12453266
Ref: library/optparse default-values12453374
Ref: 365612453374
Ref: library/optparse optparse-default-values12453374
Ref: 365712453374
Node: Generating help12455257
Ref: library/optparse generating-help12455377
Ref: 365812455377
Ref: library/optparse optparse-generating-help12455377
Ref: 365912455377
Node: Grouping Options12459495
Ref: library/optparse grouping-options12459563
Ref: 365a12459563
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionGroup12459894
Ref: 365b12459894
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_option_group12463397
Ref: 365c12463397
Node: Printing a version string12463669
Ref: library/optparse optparse-printing-version-string12463802
Ref: 365d12463802
Ref: library/optparse printing-a-version-string12463802
Ref: 365e12463802
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser print_version12464677
Ref: 365f12464677
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_version12465059
Ref: 366112465059
Node: How optparse handles errors12465211
Ref: library/optparse how-optparse-handles-errors12465352
Ref: 366212465352
Ref: library/optparse optparse-how-optparse-handles-errors12465352
Ref: 366312465352
Node: Putting it all together12467418
Ref: library/optparse optparse-putting-it-all-together12467525
Ref: 366412467525
Ref: library/optparse putting-it-all-together12467525
Ref: 366512467525
Node: Reference Guide12468438
Ref: library/optparse optparse-reference-guide12468579
Ref: 365412468579
Ref: library/optparse reference-guide12468579
Ref: 366612468579
Node: Creating the parser12468920
Ref: library/optparse creating-the-parser12469021
Ref: 366712469021
Ref: library/optparse optparse-creating-parser12469021
Ref: 366812469021
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser12469161
Ref: 186f12469161
Node: Populating the parser12472147
Ref: library/optparse optparse-populating-parser12472273
Ref: 366a12472273
Ref: library/optparse populating-the-parser12472273
Ref: 366b12472273
Node: Defining options12473554
Ref: library/optparse defining-options12473678
Ref: 366c12473678
Ref: library/optparse optparse-defining-options12473678
Ref: 366d12473678
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser add_option12474094
Ref: 363212474094
Ref: library/optparse optparse Values12476181
Ref: 363412476181
Node: Option attributes12477409
Ref: library/optparse option-attributes12477535
Ref: 367112477535
Ref: library/optparse optparse-option-attributes12477535
Ref: 367212477535
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option12477592
Ref: 366e12477592
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option action12478210
Ref: 364612478210
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option type12478435
Ref: 364712478435
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option dest12478659
Ref: 364812478659
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option default12478994
Ref: 367412478994
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option nargs12479195
Ref: 367612479195
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option const12479430
Ref: 365312479430
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option choices12479547
Ref: 367712479547
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option callback12479678
Ref: 367812479678
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option callback_args12479917
Ref: 367912479917
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option callback_kwargs12479960
Ref: 367a12479960
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option help12480131
Ref: 364912480131
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option metavar12480478
Ref: 367b12480478
Node: Standard option actions12480690
Ref: library/optparse optparse-standard-option-actions12480821
Ref: 366f12480821
Ref: library/optparse standard-option-actions12480821
Ref: 367c12480821
Node: Standard option types12488795
Ref: library/optparse optparse-standard-option-types12488926
Ref: 367312488926
Ref: library/optparse standard-option-types12488926
Ref: 367d12488926
Node: Parsing arguments12490395
Ref: library/optparse optparse-parsing-arguments12490547
Ref: 367012490547
Ref: library/optparse parsing-arguments12490547
Ref: 367e12490547
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser parse_args12490713
Ref: 187012490713
Node: Querying and manipulating your option parser12492096
Ref: library/optparse optparse-querying-manipulating-option-parser12492252
Ref: 367f12492252
Ref: library/optparse querying-and-manipulating-your-option-parser12492252
Ref: 368012492252
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser disable_interspersed_args12492561
Ref: 363312492561
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser enable_interspersed_args12493348
Ref: 368112493348
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_option12493562
Ref: 368212493562
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser has_option12493743
Ref: 368312493743
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser remove_option12493927
Ref: 368412493927
Node: Conflicts between options12494315
Ref: library/optparse conflicts-between-options12494461
Ref: 368512494461
Ref: library/optparse optparse-conflicts-between-options12494461
Ref: 366912494461
Node: Cleanup12496912
Ref: library/optparse cleanup12497027
Ref: 368712497027
Ref: library/optparse optparse-cleanup12497027
Ref: 368812497027
Node: Other methods12497440
Ref: library/optparse optparse-other-methods12497521
Ref: 368912497521
Ref: library/optparse other-methods12497521
Ref: 368a12497521
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser set_usage12497623
Ref: 368b12497623
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser print_usage12497920
Ref: 366012497920
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_usage12498264
Ref: 368c12498264
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser set_defaults12498410
Ref: 367512498410
Node: Option Callbacks12499569
Ref: library/optparse option-callbacks12499717
Ref: 368d12499717
Ref: library/optparse optparse-option-callbacks12499717
Ref: 365512499717
Node: Defining a callback option12500919
Ref: library/optparse defining-a-callback-option12501031
Ref: 368e12501031
Ref: library/optparse optparse-defining-callback-option12501031
Ref: 368f12501031
Node: How callbacks are called12503226
Ref: library/optparse how-callbacks-are-called12503375
Ref: 369012503375
Ref: library/optparse optparse-how-callbacks-called12503375
Ref: 369112503375
Node: Raising errors in a callback12505963
Ref: library/optparse optparse-raising-errors-in-callback12506121
Ref: 369212506121
Ref: library/optparse raising-errors-in-a-callback12506121
Ref: 369312506121
Node: Callback example 1 trivial callback12506594
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-1-trivial-callback12506765
Ref: 369412506765
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-112506765
Ref: 369512506765
Node: Callback example 2 check option order12507213
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-2-check-option-order12507405
Ref: 369612507405
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-212507405
Ref: 369712507405
Node: Callback example 3 check option order generalized12507963
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-3-check-option-order-generalized12508164
Ref: 369812508164
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-312508164
Ref: 369912508164
Node: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition12508937
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-4-check-arbitrary-condition12509135
Ref: 369a12509135
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-412509135
Ref: 369b12509135
Node: Callback example 5 fixed arguments12509930
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-5-fixed-arguments12510116
Ref: 369c12510116
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-512510116
Ref: 369d12510116
Node: Callback example 6 variable arguments12511179
Ref: library/optparse callback-example-6-variable-arguments12511312
Ref: 369e12511312
Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-612511312
Ref: 369f12511312
Node: Extending optparse12513402
Ref: library/optparse extending-optparse12513549
Ref: 36a012513549
Ref: library/optparse optparse-extending-optparse12513549
Ref: 364c12513549
Node: Adding new types12513881
Ref: library/optparse adding-new-types12513979
Ref: 36a112513979
Ref: library/optparse optparse-adding-new-types12513979
Ref: 36a212513979
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPES12514265
Ref: 36a312514265
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPE_CHECKER12514431
Ref: 36a412514431
Node: Adding new actions12517448
Ref: library/optparse adding-new-actions12517546
Ref: 36a512517546
Ref: library/optparse optparse-adding-new-actions12517546
Ref: 36a612517546
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option ACTIONS12518626
Ref: 36a712518626
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option STORE_ACTIONS12518709
Ref: 36a812518709
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPED_ACTIONS12518807
Ref: 36a912518807
Ref: library/optparse optparse Option ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS12518905
Ref: 36aa12518905
Node: Exceptions<11>12522202
Ref: library/optparse exceptions12522324
Ref: 36ab12522324
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionError12522367
Ref: 363512522367
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionConflictError12522515
Ref: 368612522515
Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionValueError12522650
Ref: 363612522650
Ref: library/optparse optparse BadOptionError12522780
Ref: 36ac12522780
Ref: library/optparse optparse AmbiguousOptionError12522892
Ref: 36ad12522892
Node: getpass — Portable password input12523012
Ref: library/getpass doc12523238
Ref: 36ae12523238
Ref: library/getpass getpass-portable-password-input12523238
Ref: 36af12523238
Ref: library/getpass module-getpass12523238
Ref: 6512523238
Ref: library/getpass translation-repo12523238
Ref: 36b012523238
Ref: library/getpass getpass getpass12523660
Ref: 4ab12523660
Ref: library/getpass getpass GetPassWarning12526108
Ref: 36b112526108
Ref: library/getpass getpass getuser12526243
Ref: 84812526243
Ref: getpass — Portable password input-Footnote-112526976
Ref: getpass — Portable password input-Footnote-212527043
Node: fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams12527123
Ref: library/fileinput doc12527361
Ref: 36b212527361
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput-iterate-over-lines-from-multiple-input-streams12527361
Ref: 36b312527361
Ref: library/fileinput module-fileinput12527361
Ref: 5e12527361
Ref: library/fileinput translation-repo12527361
Ref: 36b412527361
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput input12529697
Ref: bd912529697
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput filename12530995
Ref: 36b512530995
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput fileno12531161
Ref: 17d012531161
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput lineno12531368
Ref: 36b612531368
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput filelineno12531651
Ref: 36b712531651
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput isfirstline12531927
Ref: 36b812531927
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput isstdin12532089
Ref: 36b912532089
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput nextfile12532242
Ref: 36ba12532242
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput close12532792
Ref: 36bb12532792
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput FileInput12532973
Ref: b1e12532973
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput hook_compressed12535735
Ref: bda12535735
Ref: library/fileinput fileinput hook_encoded12536562
Ref: 106112536562
Ref: fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams-Footnote-112537208
Node: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays12537277
Ref: library/curses doc12537536
Ref: 36bc12537536
Ref: library/curses curses-terminal-handling-for-character-cell-displays12537536
Ref: 36bd12537536
Ref: library/curses module-curses12537536
Ref: 2e12537536
Ref: library/curses translation-repo12537536
Ref: 36be12537536
Ref: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays-Footnote-112539586
Node: Functions<4>12539649
Ref: library/curses curses-functions12539777
Ref: 36c012539777
Ref: library/curses functions12539777
Ref: 36c112539777
Ref: library/curses curses error12539874
Ref: 1a1612539874
Ref: library/curses curses assume_default_colors12540255
Ref: 48912540255
Ref: library/curses curses baudrate12540888
Ref: 1a1712540888
Ref: library/curses curses beep12541250
Ref: 36c312541250
Ref: library/curses curses can_change_color12541326
Ref: 36c412541326
Ref: library/curses curses cbreak12541508
Ref: 1a1812541508
Ref: library/curses curses color_content12541987
Ref: bcc12541987
Ref: library/curses curses color_pair12542380
Ref: 36c512542380
Ref: library/curses curses curs_set12542777
Ref: 36c912542777
Ref: library/curses curses def_prog_mode12543211
Ref: 36ca12543211
Ref: library/curses curses def_shell_mode12543545
Ref: 36cc12543545
Ref: library/curses curses delay_output12543897
Ref: 36ce12543897
Ref: library/curses curses doupdate12543997
Ref: 36cf12543997
Ref: library/curses curses echo12544825
Ref: 1a1912544825
Ref: library/curses curses endwin12544971
Ref: 36d012544971
Ref: library/curses curses erasechar12545084
Ref: 36d112545084
Ref: library/curses curses filter12545362
Ref: 36d212545362
Ref: library/curses curses flash12545976
Ref: 36d312545976
Ref: library/curses curses flushinp12546249
Ref: 36d412546249
Ref: library/curses curses getmouse12546445
Ref: 36d512546445
Ref: library/curses curses getsyx12547472
Ref: 36df12547472
Ref: library/curses curses getwin12547693
Ref: 36e112547693
Ref: library/curses curses has_colors12547958
Ref: 36e312547958
Ref: library/curses curses has_extended_color_support12548100
Ref: bd012548100
Ref: library/curses curses has_ic12548496
Ref: 36e412548496
Ref: library/curses curses has_il12548762
Ref: 36e512548762
Ref: library/curses curses has_key12549069
Ref: 36e612549069
Ref: library/curses curses halfdelay12549233
Ref: 36e712549233
Ref: library/curses curses init_color12549681
Ref: bcd12549681
Ref: library/curses curses init_pair12550336
Ref: bce12550336
Ref: library/curses curses initscr12551145
Ref: 1a1b12551145
Ref: library/curses curses is_term_resized12551442
Ref: 36e912551442
Ref: library/curses curses isendwin12551623
Ref: 36ea12551623
Ref: library/curses curses keyname12551791
Ref: 36eb12551791
Ref: library/curses curses killchar12552332
Ref: 36ec12552332
Ref: library/curses curses longname12552613
Ref: 1a1a12552613
Ref: library/curses curses meta12552898
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Ref: library/curses curses mouseinterval12553065
Ref: 36ee12553065
Ref: library/curses curses mousemask12553382
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Ref: library/curses curses napms12553812
Ref: 1b2a12553812
Ref: library/curses curses newpad12553890
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Ref: library/curses curses newwin12554988
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Ref: library/curses curses nl12555375
Ref: 1a1c12555375
Ref: library/curses curses nocbreak12555600
Ref: 36e812555600
Ref: library/curses curses noecho12555729
Ref: 36f212555729
Ref: library/curses curses nonl12555838
Ref: 36f312555838
Ref: library/curses curses noqiflush12556341
Ref: 36f412556341
Ref: library/curses curses noraw12556741
Ref: 36f512556741
Ref: library/curses curses pair_content12556864
Ref: bcf12556864
Ref: library/curses curses pair_number12557100
Ref: 36c812557100
Ref: library/curses curses putp12557302
Ref: 36f612557302
Ref: library/curses curses qiflush12557551
Ref: 36f712557551
Ref: library/curses curses raw12557827
Ref: 1a1d12557827
Ref: library/curses curses reset_prog_mode12558079
Ref: 36cb12558079
Ref: library/curses curses reset_shell_mode12558235
Ref: 36cd12558235
Ref: library/curses curses resetty12558391
Ref: 36f812558391
Ref: library/curses curses resize_term12558543
Ref: 1b4b12558543
Ref: library/curses curses resizeterm12559085
Ref: 1b4a12559085
Ref: library/curses curses savetty12559368
Ref: 36f912559368
Ref: library/curses curses get_escdelay12559513
Ref: cc012559513
Ref: library/curses curses set_escdelay12559649
Ref: cc112559649
Ref: library/curses curses get_tabsize12559957
Ref: cc212559957
Ref: library/curses curses set_tabsize12560091
Ref: cc312560091
Ref: library/curses curses setsyx12560314
Ref: 36fa12560314
Ref: library/curses curses setupterm12560494
Ref: 36fb12560494
Ref: library/curses curses start_color12560921
Ref: 36fc12560921
Ref: library/curses curses termattrs12561607
Ref: 1a1e12561607
Ref: library/curses curses termname12561847
Ref: 1a1f12561847
Ref: library/curses curses tigetflag12562006
Ref: 36ff12562006
Ref: library/curses curses tigetnum12562332
Ref: 370012562332
Ref: library/curses curses tigetstr12562658
Ref: 370112562658
Ref: library/curses curses tparm12562976
Ref: 370212562976
Ref: library/curses curses typeahead12563323
Ref: 370312563323
Ref: library/curses curses unctrl12563924
Ref: 1a2012563924
Ref: library/curses curses ungetch12564215
Ref: 370412564215
Ref: library/curses curses update_lines_cols12564424
Ref: 11a312564424
Ref: library/curses curses unget_wch12564630
Ref: 144512564630
Ref: library/curses curses ungetmouse12564873
Ref: 370512564873
Ref: library/curses curses use_env12565049
Ref: 370612565049
Ref: library/curses curses use_default_colors12565569
Ref: 48a12565569
Ref: library/curses curses wrapper12565680
Ref: e4212565680
Node: Window Objects12566516
Ref: library/curses curses-window-objects12566665
Ref: 1a2412566665
Ref: library/curses window-objects12566665
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Ref: library/curses curses window12566714
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Ref: library/curses curses window addch12566886
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Ref: library/curses curses window addnstr12567517
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Ref: library/curses curses window addstr12567792
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Ref: library/curses curses window attroff12568813
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Ref: library/curses curses window attron12568964
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Ref: library/curses curses window attrset12569109
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Ref: library/curses curses window bkgd12569263
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Ref: library/curses curses window bkgdset12569716
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Ref: library/curses curses window border12570290
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Ref: library/curses curses window box12572318
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Ref: library/curses curses window chgat12572554
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Ref: library/curses curses window clear12573210
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Ref: library/curses curses window clearok12573373
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Ref: library/curses curses window clrtobot12573526
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Ref: library/curses curses window clrtoeol12573731
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Ref: library/curses curses window cursyncup12573819
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Ref: library/curses curses window delch12573995
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Ref: library/curses curses window deleteln12574082
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Ref: library/curses curses window derwin12574214
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Ref: library/curses curses window echochar12574626
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Ref: library/curses curses window enclose12574788
Ref: 1e8712574788
Ref: library/curses curses window encoding12575232
Ref: 144312575232
Ref: library/curses curses window erase12575620
Ref: 371512575620
Ref: library/curses curses window getbegyx12575681
Ref: 371f12575681
Ref: library/curses curses window getbkgd12575792
Ref: 1a2b12575792
Ref: library/curses curses window getch12575915
Ref: 1a3012575915
Ref: library/curses curses window get_wch12576243
Ref: 144412576243
Ref: library/curses curses window getkey12576519
Ref: 372012576519
Ref: library/curses curses window getmaxyx12576835
Ref: 372112576835
Ref: library/curses curses window getparyx12576948
Ref: 372212576948
Ref: library/curses curses window getstr12577160
Ref: 1a3412577160
Ref: library/curses curses window getyx12577555
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Ref: library/curses curses window hline12577704
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Ref: library/curses curses window idcok12577906
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Ref: library/curses curses window idlok12578260
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Ref: library/curses curses window immedok12578456
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Ref: library/curses curses window inch12578813
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Ref: library/curses curses window insch12579009
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Ref: library/curses curses window insdelln12579239
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Ref: library/curses curses window insertln12579626
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Ref: library/curses curses window insnstr12579764
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Ref: library/curses curses window insstr12580293
Ref: 1a2d12580293
Ref: library/curses curses window instr12580728
Ref: 1a3312580728
Ref: library/curses curses window is_linetouched12581279
Ref: 372b12581279
Ref: library/curses curses window is_wintouched12581570
Ref: 372c12581570
Ref: library/curses curses window keypad12581758
Ref: 372d12581758
Ref: library/curses curses window leaveok12582031
Ref: 36e012582031
Ref: library/curses curses window move12582386
Ref: 372e12582386
Ref: library/curses curses window mvderwin12582477
Ref: 372f12582477
Ref: library/curses curses window mvwin12582762
Ref: 373012582762
Ref: library/curses curses window nodelay12582886
Ref: 373112582886
Ref: library/curses curses window notimeout12583003
Ref: 373212583003
Ref: library/curses curses window noutrefresh12583275
Ref: 1a2212583275
Ref: library/curses curses window overlay12583557
Ref: 373312583557
Ref: library/curses curses window overwrite12584207
Ref: 373412584207
Ref: library/curses curses window putwin12584860
Ref: 36e212584860
Ref: library/curses curses window redrawln12585074
Ref: 373512585074
Ref: library/curses curses window redrawwin12585288
Ref: 373612585288
Ref: library/curses curses window refresh12585442
Ref: 1a2112585442
Ref: library/curses curses window resize12586471
Ref: 373712586471
Ref: library/curses curses window scroll12586831
Ref: 373812586831
Ref: library/curses curses window scrollok12586947
Ref: 373912586947
Ref: library/curses curses window setscrreg12587491
Ref: 373a12587491
Ref: library/curses curses window standend12587668
Ref: 373b12587668
Ref: library/curses curses window standout12587827
Ref: 373c12587827
Ref: library/curses curses window subpad12587905
Ref: 373d12587905
Ref: library/curses curses window subwin12588160
Ref: 371d12588160
Ref: library/curses curses window syncdown12588534
Ref: 373e12588534
Ref: library/curses curses window syncok12588788
Ref: 373f12588788
Ref: library/curses curses window syncup12588959
Ref: 374012588959
Ref: library/curses curses window timeout12589093
Ref: 374112589093
Ref: library/curses curses window touchline12589597
Ref: 371312589597
Ref: library/curses curses window touchwin12589913
Ref: 374212589913
Ref: library/curses curses window untouchwin12590046
Ref: 374312590046
Ref: library/curses curses window vline12590187
Ref: 1cfd12590187
Ref: Window Objects-Footnote-112590462
Node: Constants<6>12590505
Ref: library/curses constants12590633
Ref: 374412590633
Ref: library/curses curses ERR12590733
Ref: 374512590733
Ref: library/curses curses OK12590890
Ref: 374612590890
Ref: library/curses curses version12591045
Ref: 374712591045
Ref: library/curses curses ncurses_version12591152
Ref: dab12591152
Ref: library/curses curses COLORS12591583
Ref: 36fd12591583
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_PAIRS12591751
Ref: 36fe12591751
Ref: library/curses curses COLS12591929
Ref: 11a512591929
Ref: library/curses curses LINES12592202
Ref: 11a412592202
Ref: library/curses curses A_ALTCHARSET12592780
Ref: 374812592780
Ref: library/curses curses A_BLINK12592877
Ref: 374912592877
Ref: library/curses curses A_BOLD12592956
Ref: 374a12592956
Ref: library/curses curses A_DIM12593047
Ref: 374b12593047
Ref: library/curses curses A_INVIS12593140
Ref: 374c12593140
Ref: library/curses curses A_ITALIC12593232
Ref: 374d12593232
Ref: library/curses curses A_NORMAL12593312
Ref: 36c212593312
Ref: library/curses curses A_PROTECT12593397
Ref: 374e12593397
Ref: library/curses curses A_REVERSE12593480
Ref: 36c712593480
Ref: library/curses curses A_STANDOUT12593647
Ref: 36c612593647
Ref: library/curses curses A_UNDERLINE12593729
Ref: 374f12593729
Ref: library/curses curses A_HORIZONTAL12593812
Ref: 375012593812
Ref: library/curses curses A_LEFT12593901
Ref: 375112593901
Ref: library/curses curses A_LOW12593997
Ref: 375212593997
Ref: library/curses curses A_RIGHT12594095
Ref: 375312594095
Ref: library/curses curses A_TOP12594192
Ref: 375412594192
Ref: library/curses curses A_VERTICAL12594290
Ref: 375512594290
Ref: library/curses curses A_ATTRIBUTES12594688
Ref: 375612594688
Ref: library/curses curses A_CHARTEXT12594789
Ref: 375712594789
Ref: library/curses curses A_COLOR12594891
Ref: 375812594891
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MIN12595347
Ref: 375912595347
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BREAK12595435
Ref: 375a12595435
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DOWN12595528
Ref: 375b12595528
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_UP12595623
Ref: 375c12595623
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_LEFT12595718
Ref: 375d12595718
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RIGHT12595799
Ref: 375e12595799
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_HOME12595881
Ref: 375f12595881
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BACKSPACE12595980
Ref: 376012595980
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_F012596087
Ref: 376112596087
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_Fn12596271
Ref: 376212596271
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DL12596397
Ref: 376312596397
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_IL12596509
Ref: 376412596509
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DC12596621
Ref: 376512596621
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_IC12596738
Ref: 376612596738
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EIC12596857
Ref: 376712596857
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CLEAR12596949
Ref: 376812596949
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EOS12597032
Ref: 376912597032
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EOL12597125
Ref: 376a12597125
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SF12597230
Ref: 376b12597230
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SR12597352
Ref: 376c12597352
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_NPAGE12597471
Ref: 376d12597471
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PPAGE12597551
Ref: 376e12597551
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_STAB12597635
Ref: 376f12597635
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CTAB12597713
Ref: 377012597713
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CATAB12597793
Ref: 377112597793
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_ENTER12597878
Ref: 377212597878
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRESET12597975
Ref: 377312597975
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESET12598079
Ref: 377412598079
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PRINT12598182
Ref: 377512598182
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_LL12598272
Ref: 377612598272
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_A112598405
Ref: 377712598405
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_A312598526
Ref: 377812598526
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_B212598648
Ref: 377912598648
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_C112598765
Ref: 377a12598765
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_C312598886
Ref: 377b12598886
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BTAB12598994
Ref: 377c12598994
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BEG12599073
Ref: 377d12599073
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CANCEL12599159
Ref: 377e12599159
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CLOSE12599236
Ref: 377f12599236
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_COMMAND12599312
Ref: 378012599312
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_COPY12599396
Ref: 378112599396
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CREATE12599471
Ref: 378212599471
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_END12599548
Ref: 378312599548
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EXIT12599622
Ref: 378412599622
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_FIND12599697
Ref: 378512599697
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_HELP12599772
Ref: 378612599772
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MARK12599847
Ref: 378712599847
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MESSAGE12599922
Ref: 378812599922
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MOVE12600000
Ref: 378912600000
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_NEXT12600075
Ref: 378a12600075
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_OPEN12600150
Ref: 378b12600150
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_OPTIONS12600225
Ref: 378c12600225
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PREVIOUS12600303
Ref: 378d12600303
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REDO12600389
Ref: 378e12600389
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REFERENCE12600464
Ref: 378f12600464
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REFRESH12600550
Ref: 379012600550
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REPLACE12600628
Ref: 379112600628
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESTART12600706
Ref: 379212600706
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESUME12600784
Ref: 379312600784
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SAVE12600861
Ref: 379412600861
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SBEG12600936
Ref: 379512600936
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCANCEL12601030
Ref: 379612601030
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCOMMAND12601115
Ref: 379712601115
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCOPY12601201
Ref: 379812601201
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCREATE12601284
Ref: 379912601284
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SDC12601369
Ref: 379a12601369
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SDL12601459
Ref: 379b12601459
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SELECT12601549
Ref: 379c12601549
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEND12601626
Ref: 379d12601626
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEOL12601708
Ref: 379e12601708
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEXIT12601797
Ref: 379f12601797
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SFIND12601880
Ref: 37a012601880
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SHELP12601963
Ref: 37a112601963
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SHOME12602046
Ref: 37a212602046
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SIC12602129
Ref: 37a312602129
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SLEFT12602213
Ref: 37a412602213
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SMESSAGE12602302
Ref: 37a512602302
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SMOVE12602388
Ref: 37a612602388
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SNEXT12602471
Ref: 37a712602471
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SOPTIONS12602554
Ref: 37a812602554
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SPREVIOUS12602640
Ref: 37a912602640
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SPRINT12602723
Ref: 37aa12602723
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SREDO12602807
Ref: 37ab12602807
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SREPLACE12602890
Ref: 37ac12602890
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRIGHT12602976
Ref: 37ad12602976
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRSUME12603066
Ref: 37ae12603066
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SSAVE12603151
Ref: 37af12603151
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SSUSPEND12603234
Ref: 37b012603234
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SUNDO12603320
Ref: 37b112603320
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SUSPEND12603403
Ref: 37b212603403
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_UNDO12603481
Ref: 37b312603481
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MOUSE12603556
Ref: 36d612603556
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESIZE12603651
Ref: 37b412603651
Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MAX12603743
Ref: 37b512603743
Ref: library/curses curses-acs-codes12604938
Ref: 37b612604938
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BBSS12605523
Ref: 37b712605523
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BLOCK12605629
Ref: 37b812605629
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BOARD12605716
Ref: 37b912605716
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSBS12605801
Ref: 37ba12605801
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSSB12605904
Ref: 37bb12605904
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSSS12606009
Ref: 37bc12606009
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BTEE12606104
Ref: 37bd12606104
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BULLET12606183
Ref: 37be12606183
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_CKBOARD12606258
Ref: 37bf12606258
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DARROW12606350
Ref: 37c012606350
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DEGREE12606438
Ref: 37c112606438
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DIAMOND12606520
Ref: 37c212606520
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_GEQUAL12606596
Ref: 37c312606596
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_HLINE12606689
Ref: 370e12606689
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LANTERN12606773
Ref: 37c412606773
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LARROW12606856
Ref: 37c512606856
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LEQUAL12606935
Ref: 37c612606935
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LLCORNER12607025
Ref: 371112607025
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LRCORNER12607116
Ref: 371212607116
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LTEE12607208
Ref: 37c712607208
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_NEQUAL12607285
Ref: 37c812607285
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PI12607368
Ref: 37c912607368
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PLMINUS12607446
Ref: 37ca12607446
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PLUS12607533
Ref: 37cb12607533
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_RARROW12607615
Ref: 37cc12607615
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_RTEE12607695
Ref: 37cd12607695
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S112607773
Ref: 37ce12607773
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S312607853
Ref: 37cf12607853
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S712607933
Ref: 37d012607933
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S912608013
Ref: 37d112608013
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBBS12608093
Ref: 37d212608093
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBSB12608199
Ref: 37d312608199
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBSS12608300
Ref: 37d412608300
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSBB12608397
Ref: 37d512608397
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSBS12608502
Ref: 37d612608502
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSSB12608600
Ref: 37d712608600
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSSS12608696
Ref: 37d812608696
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_STERLING12608805
Ref: 37d912608805
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_TTEE12608888
Ref: 37da12608888
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_UARROW12608964
Ref: 37db12608964
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_ULCORNER12609041
Ref: 370f12609041
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_URCORNER12609127
Ref: 371012609127
Ref: library/curses curses ACS_VLINE12609214
Ref: 370d12609214
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_PRESSED12609619
Ref: 36d712609619
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_RELEASED12609748
Ref: 36d812609748
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_CLICKED12609885
Ref: 36d912609885
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED12610014
Ref: 36da12610014
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED12610134
Ref: 36db12610134
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_SHIFT12610274
Ref: 36dc12610274
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_CTRL12610442
Ref: 36dd12610442
Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_ALT12610612
Ref: 36de12610612
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_BLACK12611081
Ref: 37dc12611081
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_BLUE12611157
Ref: 37dd12611157
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_CYAN12611232
Ref: 37de12611232
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_GREEN12611329
Ref: 37df12611329
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_MAGENTA12611405
Ref: 37e012611405
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_RED12611498
Ref: 37e112611498
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_WHITE12611572
Ref: 37e212611572
Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_YELLOW12611648
Ref: 37e312611648
Node: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs12611704
Ref: library/curses curses-textpad-text-input-widget-for-curses-programs12611950
Ref: 37e412611950
Ref: library/curses module-curses textpad12611950
Ref: 3112611950
Ref: library/curses curses textpad rectangle12612529
Ref: 37e612612529
Node: Textbox objects12613262
Ref: library/curses curses-textpad-objects12613370
Ref: 37e712613370
Ref: library/curses textbox-objects12613370
Ref: 37e812613370
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox12613484
Ref: 37e512613484
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox edit12613961
Ref: 37ea12613961
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox do_command12614540
Ref: 37eb12614540
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox gather12618278
Ref: 37ec12618278
Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox stripspaces12618479
Ref: 37e912618479
Node: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters12618897
Ref: library/curses ascii doc12619138
Ref: 37ed12619138
Ref: library/curses ascii curses-ascii-utilities-for-ascii-characters12619138
Ref: 37ee12619138
Ref: library/curses ascii module-curses ascii12619138
Ref: 2f12619138
Ref: library/curses ascii translation-repo12619138
Ref: 37ef12619138
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NUL12619738
Ref: 37f012619738
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SOH12619788
Ref: 37f112619788
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii STX12619880
Ref: 37f212619880
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ETX12619950
Ref: 37f312619950
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii EOT12620018
Ref: 37f412620018
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ENQ12620094
Ref: 37f512620094
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ACK12620199
Ref: 37f612620199
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii BEL12620271
Ref: 37f712620271
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii BS12620332
Ref: 37f812620332
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii TAB12620397
Ref: 37f912620397
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii HT12620457
Ref: 37fa12620457
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii LF12620559
Ref: 37fb12620559
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NL12620624
Ref: 37fc12620624
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii VT12620719
Ref: 37fd12620719
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii FF12620787
Ref: 37fe12620787
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii CR12620852
Ref: 37ff12620852
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SO12620923
Ref: 380012620923
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SI12621019
Ref: 380112621019
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DLE12621113
Ref: 380212621113
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC112621186
Ref: 380312621186
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC212621264
Ref: 380412621264
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC312621362
Ref: 380512621362
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC412621441
Ref: 380612621441
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NAK12621514
Ref: 380712621514
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SYN12621595
Ref: 380812621595
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ETB12621668
Ref: 380912621668
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii CAN12621747
Ref: 380a12621747
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii EM12621810
Ref: 380b12621810
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SUB12621879
Ref: 380c12621879
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ESC12621946
Ref: 380d12621946
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii FS12622009
Ref: 380e12622009
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii GS12622079
Ref: 380f12622079
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii RS12622150
Ref: 381012622150
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii US12622245
Ref: 381112622245
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SP12622315
Ref: 381212622315
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DEL12622376
Ref: 381312622376
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isalnum12622670
Ref: 381412622670
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isalpha12622827
Ref: 381512622827
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isascii12622982
Ref: 381612622982
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isblank12623101
Ref: 381712623101
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii iscntrl12623224
Ref: 381812623224
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isdigit12623360
Ref: 381912623360
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isgraph12623534
Ref: 381a12623534
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii islower12623645
Ref: 381b12623645
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isprint12623743
Ref: 381c12623743
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ispunct12623857
Ref: 381d12623857
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isspace12624010
Ref: 381e12624010
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isupper12624188
Ref: 381f12624188
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isxdigit12624282
Ref: 382012624282
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isctrl12624435
Ref: 382112624435
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ismeta12624554
Ref: 382212624554
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ascii12625164
Ref: 382312625164
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ctrl12625281
Ref: 382412625281
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii alt12625459
Ref: 382512625459
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii unctrl12625741
Ref: 382612625741
Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii controlnames12626306
Ref: 382712626306
Ref: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters-Footnote-112626600
Node: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses12626672
Ref: library/curses panel doc12626911
Ref: 382812626911
Ref: library/curses panel curses-panel-a-panel-stack-extension-for-curses12626911
Ref: 382912626911
Ref: library/curses panel module-curses panel12626911
Ref: 3012626911
Ref: library/curses panel translation-repo12626911
Ref: 382a12626911
Node: Functions<5>12627387
Ref: library/curses panel cursespanel-functions12627509
Ref: 382b12627509
Ref: library/curses panel functions12627509
Ref: 382c12627509
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel bottom_panel12627612
Ref: 382d12627612
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel new_panel12627717
Ref: 19fb12627717
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel top_panel12628029
Ref: 382e12628029
Ref: library/curses panel curses panel update_panels12628128
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Ref: library/curses panel panel-objects12628471
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Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel above12628825
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Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel below12628910
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Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel bottom12628995
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Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel hidden12629081
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Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel hide12629209
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Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel move12629351
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Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel replace12629451
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Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel set_userptr12629563
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Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel show12629765
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Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel top12629856
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Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel userptr12629932
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Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel window12630055
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Node: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters12630151
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Ref: library/cmd module-cmd12630334
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Ref: library/cmd translation-repo12630334
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd12630810
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Ref: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters-Footnote-112632465
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Ref: library/cmd cmd-objects12632650
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Ref: library/cmd id112632650
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd cmdloop12632749
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd do_help12634836
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd onecmd12635377
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd emptyline12635976
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd default12636182
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd completedefault12636387
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd columnize12636617
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd precmd12636861
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd postcmd12637341
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd preloop12637975
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd prompt12638469
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd identchars12638545
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd lastcmd12638647
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd cmdqueue12638727
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd intro12638985
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd doc_header12639146
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd misc_header12639273
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd undoc_header12639499
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd ruler12639722
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Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd use_rawinput12639903
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Ref: library/cmd cmd-example12640508
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Ref: library/cmd id212640508
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Node: threading — Thread-based parallelism12647125
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Ref: threading — Thread-based parallelism-Footnote-112648064
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Ref: library/threading threading excepthook12653252
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Ref: library/threading threading __excepthook__12654618
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Ref: library/threading threading get_ident12654902
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Ref: library/threading threading get_native_id12655308
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Ref: library/threading threading settrace12656616
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Ref: library/threading threading setprofile12657384
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Ref: library/threading threading stack_size12658173
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Ref: library/threading threading TIMEOUT_MAX12659523
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Node: Thread-local data12660755
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Ref: library/threading thread-objects12664143
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread12666806
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread start12669055
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread run12669730
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Ref: library/threading meth-thread-join12670538
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread join12670538
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread setName12672983
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread ident12673191
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread daemon12674775
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread isDaemon12675369
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Ref: library/threading threading Thread setDaemon12675406
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Ref: library/threading threading Lock12677106
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Ref: library/threading threading Lock release12679134
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Ref: library/threading threading Lock locked12679627
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Ref: library/threading threading RLock acquire12681715
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Ref: library/threading threading RLock release12683859
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Ref: library/threading threading RLock locked12684564
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Ref: library/threading threading Condition acquire12688495
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Ref: library/threading threading Condition release12688715
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Ref: library/threading threading BoundedSemaphore12696239
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Ref: library/threading threading Event clear12699123
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Ref: library/threading threading Event wait12699360
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Ref: library/threading threading Timer cancel12701445
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Ref: library/threading threading Barrier reset12704184
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Ref: library/threading threading Barrier parties12705127
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Ref: library/threading threading Barrier broken12705331
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Node: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism12712197
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Ref: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism-Footnote-112712992
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Ref: Contexts and start methods-Footnote-112722980
Ref: Contexts and start methods-Footnote-212723045
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing AuthenticationError12746506
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Ref: Process and exceptions-Footnote-112746770
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue qsize12752006
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue put_nowait12753698
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue get_nowait12754594
Ref: 38b812754594
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue close12754849
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue join_thread12755316
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue cancel_join_thread12755868
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing SimpleQueue12757022
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing SimpleQueue close12757288
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing SimpleQueue empty12757607
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing SimpleQueue get12757805
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing JoinableQueue12757966
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing JoinableQueue join12758992
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Ref: Pipes and Queues-Footnote-112759504
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing get_all_start_methods12762231
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing set_executable12764006
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Ref: Miscellaneous<3>-Footnote-112766965
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv12767866
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection poll12768435
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection send_bytes12768930
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv_bytes12769390
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv_bytes_into12770056
Ref: 38cf12770056
Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-recv-pickle-security12771919
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing BoundedSemaphore12773441
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing BoundedSemaphore locked12773903
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Condition12774242
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Event12774719
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock12774929
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock acquire12775876
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock release12777410
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock locked12777787
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing RLock locked12781438
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Semaphore get_value12782038
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Semaphore locked12782286
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Ref: Synchronization primitives-Footnote-112783025
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Value12783388
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Array12784835
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes RawArray12787180
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes RawValue12788019
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes Array12788813
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes Value12789811
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes copy12790793
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes synchronized12790965
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Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing managers12795021
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager12795210
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager address12800387
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager12800977
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Barrier12801422
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager BoundedSemaphore12801622
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Condition12801786
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Event12802184
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Lock12802319
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy _callmethod12811636
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Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool imap_unordered12820879
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Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes-Footnote-112877727
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Ref: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process-Footnote-112914923
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Ref: concurrent interpreters — Multiple interpreters in the same process-Footnote-412915088
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Ref: library/concurrent interpreters concurrent interpreters Queue id12926957
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_INPUT_HANDLE12977837
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_FORCEONFEEDBACK12978813
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP12979500
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS12980053
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Ref: library/subprocess subprocess HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS12980270
Ref: 399312980270
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS12980470
Ref: 399412980470
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS12980680
Ref: 399512980680
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS12980895
Ref: 399612980895
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NO_WINDOW12981441
Ref: 399712981441
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess DETACHED_PROCESS12981637
Ref: 399812981637
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE12981905
Ref: 399912981905
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB12982319
Ref: 399a12982319
Node: Older high-level API12982530
Ref: library/subprocess call-function-trio12982714
Ref: 39b112982714
Ref: library/subprocess older-high-level-api12982714
Ref: 39b212982714
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess call12982962
Ref: f4712982962
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess check_call12984403
Ref: 397f12984403
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess check_output12986111
Ref: 136b12986111
Node: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module12988737
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-older-functions-with-the-subprocess-module12988933
Ref: 39b312988933
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-replacements12988933
Ref: 153112988933
Node: Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution12990010
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-bin-sh-shell-command-substitution12990176
Ref: 39b412990176
Node: Replacing shell pipeline12990381
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-shell-pipeline12990575
Ref: 39b512990575
Node: Replacing os system12991226
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-os-system12991405
Ref: 39b612991405
Node: Replacing the os spawn family12992348
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-the-os-spawn-family12992521
Ref: 39b712992521
Node: Replacing os popen12993152
Ref: library/subprocess replacing-os-popen12993297
Ref: 39b812993297
Node: Legacy Shell Invocation Functions12993707
Ref: library/subprocess legacy-shell-invocation-functions12993891
Ref: 39b912993891
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess getstatusoutput12994255
Ref: 136d12994255
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess getoutput12995633
Ref: 136c12995633
Node: Notes<2>12996248
Ref: library/subprocess notes12996371
Ref: 39ba12996371
Node: Timeout Behavior12996554
Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-timeout-behavior12996678
Ref: 39bb12996678
Ref: library/subprocess timeout-behavior12996678
Ref: 39bc12996678
Node: Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows12997465
Ref: library/subprocess converting-an-argument-sequence-to-a-string-on-windows12997624
Ref: 39bd12997624
Ref: library/subprocess converting-argument-sequence12997624
Ref: 398b12997624
Node: Disable use of posix_spawn12998803
Ref: library/subprocess disable-posix-spawn12998937
Ref: 39be12998937
Ref: library/subprocess disable-use-of-posix-spawn12998937
Ref: 39bf12998937
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Ref: library/sched doc12999944
Ref: 39c012999944
Ref: library/sched module-sched12999944
Ref: c712999944
Ref: library/sched sched-event-scheduler12999944
Ref: 39c112999944
Ref: library/sched translation-repo12999944
Ref: 39c212999944
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler13000209
Ref: 14d313000209
Ref: sched — Event scheduler-Footnote-113002299
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Ref: library/sched id113002443
Ref: 39c313002443
Ref: library/sched scheduler-objects13002443
Ref: 39c413002443
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler enterabs13002575
Ref: 14d513002575
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler enter13003499
Ref: 14d413003499
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler cancel13003949
Ref: 1ef013003949
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler empty13004144
Ref: 39c513004144
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler run13004237
Ref: 14d213004237
Ref: library/sched sched scheduler queue13005297
Ref: 39c613005297
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Ref: library/queue doc13005732
Ref: 39c713005732
Ref: library/queue module-queue13005732
Ref: be13005732
Ref: library/queue queue-a-synchronized-queue-class13005732
Ref: 39c813005732
Ref: library/queue translation-repo13005732
Ref: 39c913005732
Ref: library/queue queue Queue13007044
Ref: 173813007044
Ref: library/queue queue LifoQueue13007413
Ref: 28b213007413
Ref: library/queue queue PriorityQueue13007786
Ref: 28b313007786
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue13008788
Ref: f2713008788
Ref: library/queue queue Empty13008969
Ref: 38b613008969
Ref: library/queue queue Full13009162
Ref: 38b713009162
Ref: library/queue queue ShutDown13009353
Ref: 74613009353
Ref: queue — A synchronized queue class-Footnote-113009649
Node: Queue Objects13009714
Ref: library/queue queue-objects13009828
Ref: 39cc13009828
Ref: library/queue queueobjects13009828
Ref: 39cd13009828
Ref: library/queue queue Queue qsize13010008
Ref: 39ce13010008
Ref: library/queue queue Queue empty13010245
Ref: 39cf13010245
Ref: library/queue queue Queue full13010582
Ref: 39d013010582
Ref: library/queue queue Queue put13010915
Ref: 39cb13010915
Ref: library/queue queue Queue put_nowait13011575
Ref: 341c13011575
Ref: library/queue queue Queue get13011670
Ref: 341d13011670
Ref: library/queue queue Queue get_nowait13012708
Ref: 39ca13012708
Ref: library/queue queue Queue task_done13012909
Ref: 38b213012909
Ref: library/queue queue Queue join13013549
Ref: 38b313013549
Node: Waiting for task completion13014052
Ref: library/queue waiting-for-task-completion13014156
Ref: 39d113014156
Node: Terminating queues13014810
Ref: library/queue terminating-queues13014914
Ref: 39d213014914
Ref: library/queue queue Queue shutdown13015100
Ref: 74513015100
Node: SimpleQueue Objects13016513
Ref: library/queue simplequeue-objects13016627
Ref: 39d313016627
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue qsize13016763
Ref: 39d413016763
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue empty13016937
Ref: 39d513016937
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue put13017162
Ref: 39d613017162
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue put_nowait13017956
Ref: 39d713017956
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue get13018126
Ref: 39d813018126
Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue get_nowait13018709
Ref: 39d913018709
Node: contextvars — Context Variables13019184
Ref: library/contextvars doc13019363
Ref: 39da13019363
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars-context-variables13019363
Ref: 39db13019363
Ref: library/contextvars module-contextvars13019363
Ref: 2813019363
Ref: library/contextvars translation-repo13019363
Ref: 39dc13019363
Ref: contextvars — Context Variables-Footnote-113020223
Node: Context Variables13020265
Ref: library/contextvars context-variables13020386
Ref: 39dd13020386
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar13020443
Ref: 1a9d13020443
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar name13021154
Ref: 39df13021154
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar get13021290
Ref: 39de13021290
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar set13021785
Ref: 198d13021785
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar reset13022979
Ref: 39e013022979
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token13023558
Ref: 47913023558
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token var13024136
Ref: 39e113024136
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token old_value13024281
Ref: 39e213024281
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token MISSING13024580
Ref: 1a4d13024580
Node: Manual Context Management13024680
Ref: library/contextvars manual-context-management13024825
Ref: 39e313024825
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars copy_context13024898
Ref: 386813024898
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context13025385
Ref: 42113025385
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context run13027338
Ref: 198c13027338
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context copy13028676
Ref: 39e413028676
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context get13029127
Ref: 39e513029127
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context keys13029577
Ref: 39e613029577
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context values13029676
Ref: 39e713029676
Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context items13029787
Ref: 39e813029787
Node: asyncio support13029934
Ref: library/contextvars asyncio-support13030053
Ref: 39e913030053
Node: _thread — Low-level threading API13031758
Ref: library/_thread doc13031892
Ref: 39ea13031892
Ref: library/_thread module-_thread13031892
Ref: 213031892
Ref: library/_thread thread-low-level-threading-api13031892
Ref: 39eb13031892
Ref: library/_thread translation-repo13031892
Ref: 39ec13031892
Ref: library/_thread thread error13032624
Ref: 39ed13032624
Ref: library/_thread thread LockType13032815
Ref: 39ee13032815
Ref: library/_thread thread start_new_thread13032895
Ref: 6bc13032895
Ref: library/_thread thread interrupt_main13033951
Ref: c1c13033951
Ref: library/_thread thread exit13034908
Ref: 39ef13034908
Ref: library/_thread thread allocate_lock13035068
Ref: 39f013035068
Ref: library/_thread thread get_ident13035226
Ref: 39f113035226
Ref: library/_thread thread get_native_id13035602
Ref: 39f213035602
Ref: library/_thread thread stack_size13036277
Ref: 197a13036277
Ref: library/_thread thread TIMEOUT_MAX13037575
Ref: 39f313037575
Ref: library/_thread thread lock acquire13037872
Ref: 39f413037872
Ref: library/_thread thread lock release13039101
Ref: 39f513039101
Ref: library/_thread thread lock locked13039251
Ref: 39f613039251
Node: Networking and Interprocess Communication13040166
Ref: library/ipc doc13040331
Ref: 39f713040331
Ref: library/ipc ipc13040331
Ref: 39f813040331
Ref: library/ipc networking-and-interprocess-communication13040331
Ref: 39f913040331
Ref: library/ipc translation-repo13040331
Ref: 39fa13040331
Node: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O13041128
Ref: library/asyncio doc13041284
Ref: 39fb13041284
Ref: library/asyncio asyncio-asynchronous-i-o13041284
Ref: 39fc13041284
Ref: library/asyncio module-asyncio13041284
Ref: b13041284
Ref: library/asyncio asyncio-cli13043058
Ref: 3a0713043058
Node: Runners13044330
Ref: library/asyncio-runner doc13044431
Ref: 3a0813044431
Ref: library/asyncio-runner runners13044431
Ref: 3a0913044431
Ref: Runners-Footnote-113044850
Node: Running an asyncio Program13044926
Ref: library/asyncio-runner running-an-asyncio-program13045027
Ref: 3a0a13045027
Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio run13045100
Ref: 30913045100
Node: Runner context manager13047231
Ref: library/asyncio-runner runner-context-manager13047371
Ref: 3a0c13047371
Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner13047436
Ref: 30a13047436
Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner run13048591
Ref: 1b6213048591
Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner close13049325
Ref: 3a0d13049325
Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner get_loop13049555
Ref: 3a0e13049555
Node: Handling Keyboard Interruption13050011
Ref: library/asyncio-runner handling-keyboard-interruption13050116
Ref: 3a0f13050116
Node: Coroutines and tasks13051626
Ref: library/asyncio-task doc13051743
Ref: 3a1013051743
Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutines-and-tasks13051743
Ref: 3a1113051743
Ref: library/asyncio-task translation-repo13051743
Ref: 3a1213051743
Node: Coroutines<3>13052223
Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutine13052312
Ref: 39fe13052312
Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutines13052312
Ref: 3a1313052312
Ref: Coroutines<3>-Footnote-113055607
Node: Awaitables13055686
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-awaitables13055798
Ref: 3a1413055798
Ref: library/asyncio-task awaitables13055798
Ref: 3a1513055798
Node: Creating tasks13058404
Ref: library/asyncio-task creating-tasks13058520
Ref: 3a1613058520
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio create_task13058677
Ref: 46213058677
Ref: Creating tasks-Footnote-113061300
Node: Task cancellation13061373
Ref: library/asyncio-task task-cancellation13061490
Ref: 3a1713061490
Node: Task groups13062548
Ref: library/asyncio-task task-groups13062659
Ref: 3a1813062659
Ref: library/asyncio-task taskgroups13062659
Ref: 3a1913062659
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio TaskGroup13062826
Ref: 6d713062826
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio TaskGroup create_task13063096
Ref: 46413063096
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio TaskGroup cancel13063738
Ref: 1e413063738
Node: Sleeping13068872
Ref: library/asyncio-task sleeping13068992
Ref: 3a1a13068992
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio sleep13069031
Ref: e3313069031
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-sleep13069528
Ref: 3a1b13069528
Node: Running tasks concurrently13070222
Ref: library/asyncio-task running-tasks-concurrently13070349
Ref: 3a1c13070349
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio gather13070424
Ref: 9f413070424
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-gather13072171
Ref: 3a1d13072171
Node: Eager task factory13074349
Ref: library/asyncio-task eager-task-factory13074495
Ref: 3a1e13074495
Ref: library/asyncio-task id113074495
Ref: 3a1f13074495
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio eager_task_factory13074554
Ref: 88d13074554
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio create_eager_task_factory13075722
Ref: 88e13075722
Node: Shielding from cancellation13076412
Ref: library/asyncio-task shielding-from-cancellation13076540
Ref: 3a2013076540
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio shield13076617
Ref: e3413076617
Node: Timeouts13078346
Ref: library/asyncio-task timeouts13078474
Ref: 3a2113078474
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio timeout13078513
Ref: 9f513078513
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout13080272
Ref: 1c4713080272
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout when13080919
Ref: 3a2313080919
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout reschedule13081099
Ref: 3a2213081099
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout expired13081212
Ref: 3a2413081212
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio timeout_at13082060
Ref: 1dad13082060
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio wait_for13082685
Ref: 9f613082685
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-waitfor13083491
Ref: 3a2513083491
Node: Waiting primitives13084379
Ref: library/asyncio-task waiting-primitives13084498
Ref: 3a2613084498
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio wait13084557
Ref: 89113084557
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio FIRST_COMPLETED13085780
Ref: 3a2713085780
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio FIRST_EXCEPTION13086097
Ref: 3a2813086097
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio ALL_COMPLETED13086626
Ref: 3a2913086626
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio as_completed13087231
Ref: 6cc13087231
Node: Running in threads13090163
Ref: library/asyncio-task running-in-threads13090303
Ref: 3a2a13090303
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio to_thread13090362
Ref: cb913090362
Node: Scheduling from other threads13092593
Ref: library/asyncio-task scheduling-from-other-threads13092728
Ref: 3a2b13092728
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio run_coroutine_threadsafe13092809
Ref: c5813092809
Node: Introspection13096105
Ref: library/asyncio-task introspection13096233
Ref: 3a2d13096233
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio current_task13096282
Ref: 88f13096282
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio all_tasks13096571
Ref: d2013096571
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio iscoroutine13096841
Ref: 89013096841
Node: Task object13096976
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-task-obj13097066
Ref: 3a2e13097066
Ref: library/asyncio-task task-object13097066
Ref: 3a2f13097066
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task13097111
Ref: 46013097111
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task done13099985
Ref: 3a3213099985
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task result13100209
Ref: 3a3313100209
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task exception13100706
Ref: 3a3513100706
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task add_done_callback13101201
Ref: 3a3613101201
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task remove_done_callback13101524
Ref: 3a3713101524
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_stack13101830
Ref: 3a3813101830
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task print_stack13102834
Ref: 1ccf13102834
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_coro13103334
Ref: da013103334
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_context13103779
Ref: 3a3913103779
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_name13103951
Ref: da213103951
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task set_name13104233
Ref: da113104233
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task cancel13104577
Ref: 6d913104577
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-task-cancel13106042
Ref: 3a3a13106042
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task cancelled13107297
Ref: 3a3013107297
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task uncancel13107604
Ref: 6dc13107604
Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task cancelling13109926
Ref: 6db13109926
Node: Streams13110744
Ref: library/asyncio-stream doc13110880
Ref: 3a3b13110880
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio-streams13110880
Ref: 19b013110880
Ref: library/asyncio-stream streams13110880
Ref: 3a3c13110880
Ref: library/asyncio-stream translation-repo13110880
Ref: 3a3d13110880
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio-example-stream13111217
Ref: 3a3e13111217
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio open_connection13111963
Ref: edc13111963
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio start_server13113354
Ref: edd13113354
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio open_unix_connection13115047
Ref: 3a4213115047
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio start_unix_server13116105
Ref: 3a4413116105
Ref: Streams-Footnote-113117564
Node: StreamReader13117640
Ref: library/asyncio-stream streamreader13117717
Ref: 3a4513117717
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader13117764
Ref: 194a13117764
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader feed_eof13118156
Ref: 3a4613118156
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader read13118226
Ref: 3a4713118226
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader readline13118863
Ref: 3a4813118863
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader readexactly13119221
Ref: 103a13119221
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader readuntil13119521
Ref: 6d613119521
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader at_eof13120837
Ref: 3a4b13120837
Node: StreamWriter13120975
Ref: library/asyncio-stream streamwriter13121073
Ref: 3a4c13121073
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter13121120
Ref: 1c7613121120
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter write13121407
Ref: 3a4d13121407
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter writelines13121905
Ref: 3a4e13121905
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter close13122306
Ref: 3a4013122306
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter can_write_eof13122594
Ref: 3a4f13122594
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter write_eof13122773
Ref: 3a5013122773
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter transport13122909
Ref: 3a5113122909
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter get_extra_info13122999
Ref: 3a5213122999
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter drain13123181
Ref: 1d2713123181
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter start_tls13123771
Ref: 9fa13123771
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter is_closing13124808
Ref: ed113124808
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter wait_closed13124979
Ref: ed013124979
Node: Examples<13>13125303
Ref: library/asyncio-stream examples13125380
Ref: 3a3f13125380
Node: TCP echo client using streams13125577
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio-tcp-echo-client-streams13125693
Ref: 3a5313125693
Ref: library/asyncio-stream tcp-echo-client-using-streams13125693
Ref: 3a5413125693
Node: TCP echo server using streams13126500
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio-tcp-echo-server-streams13126641
Ref: 3a5613126641
Ref: library/asyncio-stream tcp-echo-server-using-streams13126641
Ref: 3a5713126641
Node: Get HTTP headers13127702
Ref: library/asyncio-stream get-http-headers13127868
Ref: 3a5913127868
Node: Register an open socket to wait for data using streams13129139
Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio-example-create-connection-streams13129267
Ref: 3a5a13129267
Ref: library/asyncio-stream register-an-open-socket-to-wait-for-data-using-streams13129267
Ref: 3a5b13129267
Node: Synchronization Primitives13130711
Ref: library/asyncio-sync doc13130839
Ref: 3a5f13130839
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio-sync13130839
Ref: 3a0113130839
Ref: library/asyncio-sync synchronization-primitives13130839
Ref: 3a6013130839
Ref: library/asyncio-sync translation-repo13130839
Ref: 3a6113130839
Ref: Synchronization Primitives-Footnote-113131916
Node: Lock13131989
Ref: library/asyncio-sync lock13132070
Ref: 3a6213132070
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Lock13132101
Ref: e3513132101
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Lock acquire13132784
Ref: 3a6313132784
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Lock release13133275
Ref: 3a6413133275
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Lock locked13133500
Ref: 3a6513133500
Node: Event13133590
Ref: library/asyncio-sync event13133689
Ref: 3a6613133689
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Event13133722
Ref: 56d13133722
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio-example-sync-event13134272
Ref: 3a6a13134272
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Event wait13134901
Ref: 3a6913134901
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Event set13135115
Ref: 3a6713135115
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Event clear13135263
Ref: 3a6813135263
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Event is_set13135472
Ref: 3a6b13135472
Node: Condition13135558
Ref: library/asyncio-sync condition13135662
Ref: 3a6c13135662
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition13135703
Ref: e3613135703
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition acquire13136956
Ref: 3a6d13136956
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition notify13137163
Ref: 1bff13137163
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition locked13137535
Ref: 3a6e13137535
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition notify_all13137636
Ref: 3a6f13137636
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition release13138022
Ref: 3a7013138022
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition wait13138192
Ref: 1c2813138192
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition wait_for13138933
Ref: 3a7113138933
Node: Semaphore13139289
Ref: library/asyncio-sync semaphore13139404
Ref: 3a7213139404
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Semaphore13139445
Ref: e3713139445
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Semaphore acquire13140565
Ref: 1c2913140565
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Semaphore locked13140857
Ref: 3a7413140857
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Semaphore release13140969
Ref: 3a7313140969
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Ref: library/asyncio-sync boundedsemaphore13141398
Ref: 3a7513141398
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio BoundedSemaphore13141453
Ref: e3813141453
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Ref: 3a7613141928
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier13141965
Ref: 9f713141965
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio-example-barrier13142555
Ref: 3a7813142555
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier wait13143423
Ref: 3a7713143423
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier reset13144506
Ref: 3a7913144506
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier abort13144810
Ref: 3a7a13144810
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier parties13145131
Ref: 3a7b13145131
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier n_waiting13145228
Ref: 3a7c13145228
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier broken13145355
Ref: 3a7d13145355
Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio BrokenBarrierError13145479
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Ref: 3a7e13146103
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Ref: 39ff13146103
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Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio-example-subprocess-shell13146391
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Ref: Subprocesses-Footnote-113147687
Ref: Subprocesses-Footnote-213147766
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Ref: 3a8313147941
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Ref: e3a13148006
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Ref: Creating Subprocesses-Footnote-113150482
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Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process wait13153084
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Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process communicate13153624
Ref: 1ca213153624
Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process send_signal13155007
Ref: 1b6113155007
Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process terminate13155441
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Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process kill13155731
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Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process stdin13155983
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Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process stdout13156152
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Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process stderr13156324
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Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process pid13156855
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Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process returncode13157101
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Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue empty13162401
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Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue full13162555
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Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue qsize13165387
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Ref: 6d213165525
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Ref: Call Graph Introspection-Footnote-113179620
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Ref: Scheduling delayed callbacks-Footnote-213195123
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Node: Opening network connections13198745
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Ref: Opening network connections-Footnote-113211104
Ref: Opening network connections-Footnote-213211163
Node: Creating network servers13211222
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Node: Transferring files13219189
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Node: TLS upgrade13220438
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Node: Watching file descriptors13222574
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Node: Unix signals13232679
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Ref: 3ac813254011
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Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_WILDCARD13407627
Ref: 3bcb13407627
Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_BROADCAST13407673
Ref: 3bcc13407673
Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_CHILDREN13407720
Ref: 3bcd13407720
Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_LOOPBACK13407766
Ref: 3bce13407766
Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_PARENT13407812
Ref: 3bcf13407812
Ref: library/socket socket-ethernet-types13408022
Ref: 1d2213408022
Ref: library/socket socket ETHERTYPE_ARP13408022
Ref: 3bd013408022
Ref: library/socket socket ETHERTYPE_IP13408065
Ref: 3bd113408065
Ref: library/socket socket ETHERTYPE_IPV613408107
Ref: 3bd213408107
Ref: library/socket socket ETHERTYPE_VLAN13408151
Ref: 3bd313408151
Ref: library/socket socket SHUT_RD13408344
Ref: 3bd413408344
Ref: library/socket socket SHUT_WR13408381
Ref: 3bd513408381
Ref: library/socket socket SHUT_RDWR13408418
Ref: 3bd613408418
Ref: Constants<8>-Footnote-113408644
Ref: Constants<8>-Footnote-213408696
Ref: Constants<8>-Footnote-313408742
Node: Functions<6>13408822
Ref: library/socket functions13408910
Ref: 3bd813408910
Node: Creating sockets13409019
Ref: library/socket creating-sockets13409111
Ref: 3bd913409111
Ref: library/socket socket socket13409228
Ref: 115a13409228
Ref: library/socket socket socketpair13411918
Ref: fb513411918
Ref: library/socket socket create_connection13412704
Ref: a6213412704
Ref: library/socket socket create_server13414265
Ref: def13414265
Ref: library/socket socket has_dualstack_ipv613416127
Ref: df013416127
Ref: library/socket socket fromfd13416334
Ref: 3bdb13416334
Ref: library/socket socket fromshare13417245
Ref: fc613417245
Ref: library/socket socket SocketType13417525
Ref: 3bdd13417525
Node: Other functions<2>13417690
Ref: library/socket other-functions13417782
Ref: 3bde13417782
Ref: library/socket socket close13417904
Ref: f3013417904
Ref: library/socket socket getaddrinfo13418179
Ref: 192513418179
Ref: library/socket socket getfqdn13422634
Ref: 1cec13422634
Ref: library/socket socket gethostbyname13423261
Ref: 3bdf13423261
Ref: library/socket socket gethostbyname_ex13423921
Ref: 1e7b13423921
Ref: library/socket socket gethostname13424728
Ref: 324b13424728
Ref: library/socket socket gethostbyaddr13425175
Ref: 1e7a13425175
Ref: library/socket socket getnameinfo13425933
Ref: 1c4213425933
Ref: library/socket socket getprotobyname13426729
Ref: 3be013426729
Ref: library/socket socket getservbyname13427249
Ref: 3be113427249
Ref: library/socket socket getservbyport13427728
Ref: 3be213427728
Ref: library/socket socket ntohl13428193
Ref: 3be313428193
Ref: library/socket socket ntohs13428460
Ref: c5613428460
Ref: library/socket socket htonl13428862
Ref: 3be413428862
Ref: library/socket socket htons13429129
Ref: c5513429129
Ref: library/socket socket inet_aton13429531
Ref: d2b13429531
Ref: library/socket socket inet_ntoa13430455
Ref: 3be513430455
Ref: library/socket socket inet_pton13431297
Ref: d2c13431297
Ref: library/socket socket inet_ntop13432120
Ref: 134e13432120
Ref: library/socket socket CMSG_LEN13433149
Ref: 200613433149
Ref: library/socket socket CMSG_SPACE13433856
Ref: 200513433856
Ref: library/socket socket getdefaulttimeout13434770
Ref: 3bdc13434770
Ref: library/socket socket setdefaulttimeout13435058
Ref: 3b9e13435058
Ref: library/socket socket sethostname13435468
Ref: 14e713435468
Ref: library/socket socket if_nameindex13435839
Ref: df113435839
Ref: library/socket socket if_nametoindex13436693
Ref: df213436693
Ref: library/socket socket if_indextoname13437212
Ref: df313437212
Ref: library/socket socket send_fds13437733
Ref: d0013437733
Ref: library/socket socket recv_fds13438232
Ref: d0113438232
Ref: Other functions<2>-Footnote-113438855
Ref: Other functions<2>-Footnote-213438908
Ref: Other functions<2>-Footnote-313438959
Ref: Other functions<2>-Footnote-413439003
Node: Socket Objects13439062
Ref: library/socket id113439214
Ref: 3be613439214
Ref: library/socket socket-objects13439214
Ref: 3bda13439214
Ref: library/socket socket socket accept13439583
Ref: 115b13439583
Ref: library/socket socket socket bind13440391
Ref: 18dc13440391
Ref: library/socket socket socket close13440777
Ref: 10fa13440777
Ref: library/socket socket socket connect13441782
Ref: 115c13441782
Ref: library/socket socket socket connect_ex13442957
Ref: 18db13442957
Ref: library/socket socket socket detach13443600
Ref: 15c313443600
Ref: library/socket socket socket dup13443851
Ref: 3be713443851
Ref: library/socket socket socket fileno13444115
Ref: 3be813444115
Ref: library/socket socket socket get_inheritable13444485
Ref: 12af13444485
Ref: library/socket socket socket getpeername13444758
Ref: 3b1d13444758
Ref: library/socket socket socket getsockname13445125
Ref: 50c13445125
Ref: library/socket socket socket getsockopt13445407
Ref: 109213445407
Ref: library/socket socket socket getblocking13446181
Ref: f2f13446181
Ref: library/socket socket socket gettimeout13446413
Ref: 3be913446413
Ref: library/socket socket socket ioctl13446668
Ref: 109013446668
Ref: library/socket socket socket listen13447354
Ref: 120f13447354
Ref: library/socket socket socket makefile13447861
Ref: 154813447861
Ref: library/socket socket socket recv13449003
Ref: 115d13449003
Ref: library/socket socket socket recvfrom13449735
Ref: 115e13449735
Ref: library/socket socket socket recvmsg13450743
Ref: 115f13450743
Ref: library/socket socket socket recvmsg_into13454672
Ref: 14e613454672
Ref: library/socket socket socket recvfrom_into13456331
Ref: 16c313456331
Ref: library/socket socket socket recv_into13456897
Ref: 16c213456897
Ref: library/socket socket socket send13457356
Ref: 116013457356
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendall13458189
Ref: 116113458189
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendto13459202
Ref: 116213459202
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendmsg13460082
Ref: 88c13460082
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendmsg_afalg13462297
Ref: 109513462297
Ref: library/socket socket socket sendfile13462654
Ref: 120e13462654
Ref: library/socket socket socket set_inheritable13463564
Ref: 12b013463564
Ref: library/socket socket socket setblocking13463755
Ref: 326113463755
Ref: library/socket socket socket settimeout13464351
Ref: 3b9a13464351
Ref: library/socket socket socket setsockopt13465205
Ref: 109313465205
Ref: library/socket socket socket shutdown13466344
Ref: 3bd713466344
Ref: library/socket socket socket share13466723
Ref: fc713466723
Ref: library/socket socket socket family13467616
Ref: 3bec13467616
Ref: library/socket socket socket type13467678
Ref: fcb13467678
Ref: library/socket socket socket proto13467736
Ref: 3bed13467736
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-113467835
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-213467877
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-313467919
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-413467969
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-513468043
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-613468087
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-713468129
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-813468173
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-913468215
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1013468257
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1113468302
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1213468347
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1313468390
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1413468433
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1513468476
Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1613468519
Node: Notes on socket timeouts13468570
Ref: library/socket notes-on-socket-timeouts13468714
Ref: 3bee13468714
Ref: library/socket socket-timeouts13468714
Ref: 3beb13468714
Node: Timeouts and the connect method13470095
Ref: library/socket timeouts-and-the-connect-method13470226
Ref: 3bef13470226
Node: Timeouts and the accept method13470696
Ref: library/socket timeouts-and-the-accept-method13470827
Ref: 3bf013470827
Node: Example<7>13471571
Ref: library/socket example13471692
Ref: 3bf113471692
Ref: library/socket socket-example13471692
Ref: 3bf213471692
Ref: Example<7>-Footnote-113479434
Node: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects13479493
Ref: library/ssl doc13479709
Ref: 3bf313479709
Ref: library/ssl module-ssl13479709
Ref: d813479709
Ref: library/ssl ssl-tls-ssl-wrapper-for-socket-objects13479709
Ref: 3bf413479709
Ref: library/ssl translation-repo13479709
Ref: 3bf513479709
Ref: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects-Footnote-113482920
Ref: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects-Footnote-213482983
Node: Functions constants and exceptions13483025
Ref: library/ssl functions-constants-and-exceptions13483158
Ref: 3bf613483158
Node: Socket creation13483431
Ref: library/ssl socket-creation13483542
Ref: 3bf713483542
Node: Context creation13485070
Ref: library/ssl context-creation13485210
Ref: 3bf813485210
Ref: library/ssl ssl create_default_context13485352
Ref: 68e13485352
Ref: Context creation-Footnote-113489473
Ref: Context creation-Footnote-213489532
Ref: Context creation-Footnote-313489577
Node: Signature algorithms13489636
Ref: library/ssl signature-algorithms13489775
Ref: 3bfd13489775
Ref: library/ssl ssl get_sigalgs13489836
Ref: 26013489836
Node: Exceptions<17>13490383
Ref: library/ssl exceptions13490523
Ref: 3bfe13490523
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLError13490564
Ref: 161e13490564
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLError library13491148
Ref: 14f213491148
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLError reason13491435
Ref: 14f313491435
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLZeroReturnError13491703
Ref: 3bff13491703
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLWantReadError13492007
Ref: 121a13492007
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLWantWriteError13492324
Ref: 121b13492324
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSyscallError13492638
Ref: 3c0113492638
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLEOFError13492937
Ref: 190313492937
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLCertVerificationError13493215
Ref: f3b13493215
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLCertVerificationError verify_code13493389
Ref: 3c0213493389
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLCertVerificationError verify_message13493500
Ref: 3c0313493500
Ref: library/ssl ssl CertificateError13493605
Ref: 3c0413493605
Node: Random generation13493827
Ref: library/ssl random-generation13493967
Ref: 3c0513493967
Ref: library/ssl ssl RAND_bytes13494022
Ref: 93213494022
Ref: library/ssl ssl RAND_status13494717
Ref: 1e7413494717
Ref: library/ssl ssl RAND_add13495014
Ref: 3c0613495014
Ref: Random generation-Footnote-113495485
Ref: Random generation-Footnote-213495579
Node: Certificate handling13495638
Ref: library/ssl certificate-handling13495776
Ref: 3c0713495776
Ref: library/ssl ssl cert_time_to_seconds13495837
Ref: 121c13495837
Ref: library/ssl ssl get_server_certificate13496771
Ref: c1513496771
Ref: library/ssl ssl DER_cert_to_PEM_cert13498003
Ref: 3c0913498003
Ref: library/ssl ssl PEM_cert_to_DER_cert13498195
Ref: 3c0a13498195
Ref: library/ssl ssl get_default_verify_paths13498385
Ref: 135313498385
Ref: library/ssl ssl enum_certificates13499273
Ref: 135e13499273
Ref: library/ssl ssl enum_crls13500176
Ref: 135f13500176
Ref: Certificate handling-Footnote-113500769
Node: Constants<9>13500828
Ref: library/ssl constants13500940
Ref: 3c0b13500940
Ref: library/ssl ssl CERT_NONE13501108
Ref: 3c0c13501108
Ref: library/ssl ssl CERT_OPTIONAL13501669
Ref: 3c0d13501669
Ref: library/ssl ssl CERT_REQUIRED13502425
Ref: 3bfa13502425
Ref: library/ssl ssl VerifyMode13503401
Ref: 3c0f13503401
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_DEFAULT13503525
Ref: 135813503525
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF13503793
Ref: 135913503793
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN13504254
Ref: 135a13504254
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_X509_STRICT13504475
Ref: 69013504475
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS13504670
Ref: 1e8b13504670
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST13504861
Ref: 3c1013504861
Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN13505165
Ref: 68f13505165
Ref: library/ssl ssl VerifyFlags13505612
Ref: 3c1113505612
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS13505739
Ref: 3bfc13505739
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT13506263
Ref: c4813506263
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER13506588
Ref: c4913506588
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_SSLv2313506815
Ref: 3c1213506815
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_SSLv313506993
Ref: 3c0813506993
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv113507621
Ref: 3c1313507621
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv1_113507843
Ref: 135113507843
Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv1_213508144
Ref: 135213508144
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ALL13508445
Ref: 3c1413508445
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_SSLv213508716
Ref: c1213508716
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_SSLv313509049
Ref: c1313509049
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv113509382
Ref: 3c1513509382
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_113509853
Ref: 3c1613509853
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_213510272
Ref: 3c1713510272
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_313510691
Ref: 1e5213510691
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION13511309
Ref: 3c1813511309
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE13511604
Ref: 14f413511604
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_SINGLE_DH_USE13511849
Ref: 3c1913511849
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE13512116
Ref: 3c1a13512116
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT13512387
Ref: 3c1b13512387
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_COMPRESSION13512678
Ref: 14f113512678
Ref: library/ssl ssl Options13512883
Ref: 3c1c13512883
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TICKET13512974
Ref: 3c1d13512974
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF13513102
Ref: c1013513102
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ENABLE_KTLS13513302
Ref: 1a4313513302
Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT13514024
Ref: 1cf013514024
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_ALPN13514196
Ref: 121713514196
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME13514417
Ref: 3c1e13514417
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_ECDH13514667
Ref: 3c1f13514667
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SNI13514938
Ref: 3c2013514938
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_NPN13515133
Ref: 3c2113515133
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SSLv213515498
Ref: 3c2213515498
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SSLv313515649
Ref: 3c2313515649
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv113515800
Ref: 3c2413515800
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_113515951
Ref: f4213515951
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_213516104
Ref: 3c2513516104
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_313516257
Ref: 3c2613516257
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_PSK13516410
Ref: 3c2713516410
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_PSK_TLS1313516542
Ref: 25913516542
Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_PHA13516730
Ref: 50e13516730
Ref: library/ssl ssl CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES13516862
Ref: 3c2813516862
Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION13517095
Ref: 15c513517095
Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO13517321
Ref: 15c613517321
Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER13517561
Ref: 15c713517561
Ref: library/ssl ssl ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE13517844
Ref: 3c2913517844
Ref: library/ssl ssl ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR13517906
Ref: 3c2a13517906
Ref: library/ssl ssl AlertDescription13518325
Ref: 3c2b13518325
Ref: library/ssl ssl Purpose SERVER_AUTH13518473
Ref: 135c13518473
Ref: library/ssl ssl Purpose CLIENT_AUTH13518801
Ref: 135d13518801
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLErrorNumber13519129
Ref: 3c2c13519129
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion13519262
Ref: 3c2d13519262
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion MINIMUM_SUPPORTED13519485
Ref: 3c2e13519485
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED13519537
Ref: 3c2f13519537
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion SSLv313519767
Ref: 3c3013519767
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv113519807
Ref: 3c3113519807
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_113519847
Ref: 3c3213519847
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_213519889
Ref: 3c3313519889
Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_313519931
Ref: 3c3413519931
Ref: Constants<9>-Footnote-113520220
Ref: Constants<9>-Footnote-213520279
Ref: Constants<9>-Footnote-313520338
Ref: Constants<9>-Footnote-413520416
Ref: Constants<9>-Footnote-513520475
Ref: Constants<9>-Footnote-613520534
Node: SSL sockets13520627
Ref: library/ssl ssl-sockets13520781
Ref: 3c3513520781
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket13520824
Ref: cbb13520824
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket read13523668
Ref: 121f13523668
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket write13524519
Ref: 122013524519
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket do_handshake13525800
Ref: 121e13525800
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket getpeercert13526789
Ref: 136113526789
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket get_verified_chain13530370
Ref: 1b6f13530370
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket get_unverified_chain13530687
Ref: 1b7013530687
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket cipher13530889
Ref: 3b1e13530889
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket shared_ciphers13531181
Ref: 121d13531181
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket group13531662
Ref: 25c13531662
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket client_sigalg13531867
Ref: 26313531867
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket server_sigalg13532169
Ref: 26413532169
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket compression13532452
Ref: 14f013532452
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket get_channel_binding13532808
Ref: 14ef13532808
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket selected_alpn_protocol13533451
Ref: 121613533451
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket selected_npn_protocol13533873
Ref: c4a13533873
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket unwrap13534324
Ref: 3c3613534324
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket verify_client_post_handshake13534755
Ref: df613534755
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket version13535657
Ref: 121913535657
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket pending13536078
Ref: 3c3813536078
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket context13536224
Ref: 3c3713536224
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket server_side13536361
Ref: 3c3913536361
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket server_hostname13536540
Ref: f3e13536540
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket session13537068
Ref: 1b5713537068
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket session_reused13537435
Ref: 3c3a13537435
Ref: SSL sockets-Footnote-113537547
Ref: SSL sockets-Footnote-213537606
Node: SSL contexts13537665
Ref: library/ssl ssl-contexts13537797
Ref: 3c3b13537797
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext13538145
Ref: 33613538145
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext cert_store_stats13543186
Ref: 135513543186
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_cert_chain13543600
Ref: 79713543600
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_default_certs13545248
Ref: 135b13545248
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_verify_locations13546081
Ref: 129c13546081
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext get_ca_certs13547434
Ref: 135613547434
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext get_ciphers13548090
Ref: 109c13548090
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext get_groups13549400
Ref: 25d13549400
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_default_verify_paths13550268
Ref: 135413550268
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_ciphers13550743
Ref: 25f13550743
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_ciphersuites13551445
Ref: 25e13551445
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_groups13552092
Ref: 25a13552092
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_client_sigalgs13552518
Ref: 26113552518
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_server_sigalgs13553034
Ref: 26213553034
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_alpn_protocols13553533
Ref: 121513553533
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_npn_protocols13554187
Ref: 33713554187
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext sni_callback13554956
Ref: 1e8513554956
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_servername_callback13557599
Ref: 136013557599
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_dh_params13558281
Ref: 14ee13558281
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_ecdh_curve13558837
Ref: 25b13558837
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext wrap_socket13559596
Ref: 93313559596
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext sslsocket_class13562546
Ref: 3c3d13562546
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext wrap_bio13562865
Ref: f4113562865
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext sslobject_class13563644
Ref: 3c3e13563644
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext session_stats13563936
Ref: 3c3f13563936
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext check_hostname13564409
Ref: 3c0e13564409
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext keylog_filename13565932
Ref: 3bfb13565932
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext maximum_version13566385
Ref: c4713566385
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext minimum_version13567233
Ref: c4613567233
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext num_tickets13567453
Ref: 3c4013567453
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext options13567693
Ref: c1113567693
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext post_handshake_auth13568459
Ref: df513568459
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext protocol13569283
Ref: 3c4113569283
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext hostname_checks_common_name13569426
Ref: f3c13569426
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext security_level13569884
Ref: 3c4213569884
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext verify_flags13570066
Ref: 135713570066
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext verify_mode13570620
Ref: 3bf913570620
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_psk_client_callback13571106
Ref: 3c4313571106
Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_psk_server_callback13573127
Ref: 3c4413573127
Ref: SSL contexts-Footnote-113575031
Ref: SSL contexts-Footnote-213575185
Ref: SSL contexts-Footnote-313575266
Ref: SSL contexts-Footnote-413575347
Ref: SSL contexts-Footnote-513575501
Ref: SSL contexts-Footnote-613575582
Ref: SSL contexts-Footnote-713575663
Ref: SSL contexts-Footnote-813575740
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Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO pending13599390
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Ref: library/select select kqueue13613974
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Ref: library/select select PIPE_BUF13617100
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Ref: select — Waiting for I/O completion-Footnote-113617813
Ref: select — Waiting for I/O completion-Footnote-213617855
Ref: select — Waiting for I/O completion-Footnote-313617908
Node: /dev/poll Polling Objects13617950
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Ref: library/select select devpoll fileno13618705
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Ref: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects-Footnote-113626524
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Ref: Kqueue Objects-Footnote-113632820
Node: Kevent Objects13632862
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Node: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing13640726
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Ref: library/selectors translation-repo13640947
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Ref: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing-Footnote-113641296
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Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey fileobj13644024
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Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey events13644165
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Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey data13644263
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Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector13644436
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Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector register13645103
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Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectSelector13649342
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Ref: library/selectors selectors KqueueSelector13650037
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Ref: Classes-Footnote-113650314
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Ref: library/selectors examples13650462
Ref: 3c9c13650462
Node: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events13651489
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Ref: library/signal signal Sigmasks13656642
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGCLD13658168
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGFPE13658444
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGHUP13658712
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGILL13658886
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGKILL13659092
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGPIPE13659250
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGPROF13659437
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGSEGV13659678
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGSTOP13659768
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGSTKFLT13659911
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGTERM13660277
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGUSR113660341
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGVTALRM13660581
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGWINCH13660703
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Ref: library/signal signal SIGXCPU13660823
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Ref: library/signal signal CTRL_C_EVENT13661524
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Ref: library/signal signal ITIMER_REAL13662223
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Ref: library/signal signal pthread_kill13667012
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Ref: library/signal signal sigtimedwait13678143
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Ref: Module contents<4>-Footnote-113679079
Ref: Module contents<4>-Footnote-213679130
Ref: Module contents<4>-Footnote-313679185
Ref: Module contents<4>-Footnote-413679230
Ref: Module contents<4>-Footnote-513679275
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Ref: library/signal examples13680260
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Node: mmap — Memory-mapped file support13685620
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Ref: library/mmap translation-repo13685789
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap madvise13696996
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap read13697858
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap read_byte13698334
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap rfind13699698
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap seek13700154
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap seekable13700666
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Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap tell13701735
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Node: MADV_* Constants13702970
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Ref: library/mmap madvise-constants13703082
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NORMAL13703135
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_HWPOISON13703457
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_MERGEABLE13703498
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_UNMERGEABLE13703540
Ref: 3ce213703540
Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE13703584
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE_REUSABLE13704026
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE_REUSE13704072
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Node: MAP_* Constants13704324
Ref: library/mmap id113704459
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Ref: library/mmap map-constants13704459
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_PRIVATE13704548
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_32BIT13704587
Ref: 1c2413704587
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER13704624
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ANON13704669
Ref: 3cf113704669
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ANONYMOUS13704705
Ref: 3cf213704705
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_CONCEAL13704746
Ref: 1cc913704746
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_DENYWRITE13704785
Ref: 3cf313704785
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_EXECUTABLE13704826
Ref: 3cf413704826
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_HASSEMAPHORE13704868
Ref: 1c1f13704868
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_JIT13704912
Ref: 1c2113704912
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_NOCACHE13704947
Ref: 1c2013704947
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_NOEXTEND13704986
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_NORESERVE13705026
Ref: 1c1d13705026
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_POPULATE13705067
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Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN13705107
Ref: 1c2213705107
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA13705157
Ref: 1c2313705157
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_STACK13705204
Ref: 3cf513705204
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_TPRO13705241
Ref: 1c2713705241
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE13705277
Ref: 1c2513705277
Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_UNIX0313705333
Ref: 1c2613705333
Node: MS_* Constants13706181
Ref: library/mmap id213706291
Ref: 3cf613706291
Ref: library/mmap ms-constants13706291
Ref: 3ccf13706291
Ref: library/mmap mmap MS_SYNC13706340
Ref: 3cf713706340
Ref: library/mmap mmap MS_ASYNC13706375
Ref: 3cf813706375
Ref: library/mmap mmap MS_INVALIDATE13706411
Ref: 3cf913706411
Node: Internet Data Handling13706999
Ref: library/netdata doc13707178
Ref: 3cfa13707178
Ref: library/netdata internet-data-handling13707178
Ref: 3cfb13707178
Ref: library/netdata netdata13707178
Ref: 3cfc13707178
Ref: library/netdata translation-repo13707178
Ref: 3cfd13707178
Node: email — An email and MIME handling package13707758
Ref: library/email doc13707903
Ref: 3cfe13707903
Ref: library/email email-an-email-and-mime-handling-package13707903
Ref: 3cff13707903
Ref: library/email module-email13707903
Ref: 3e13707903
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-113714739
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-213714813
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-313714872
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-413714931
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-513714990
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-613715049
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-713715108
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-813715167
Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-913715226
Node: email message Representing an email message13715285
Ref: library/email message doc13715453
Ref: 3d0013715453
Ref: library/email message email-message-representing-an-email-message13715453
Ref: 3d0113715453
Ref: library/email message module-email message13715453
Ref: 4713715453
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage13717911
Ref: 21613717911
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage as_string13718402
Ref: 3d0313718402
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __str__13720271
Ref: 3d0513720271
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage as_bytes13720764
Ref: 3d0613720764
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __bytes__13721930
Ref: 3d0713721930
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage is_multipart13722114
Ref: 3d0813722114
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_unixfrom13722778
Ref: 3d0913722778
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_unixfrom13723008
Ref: 3d0b13723008
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __len__13724141
Ref: 3d0d13724141
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __contains__13724247
Ref: 3d0e13724247
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __getitem__13724645
Ref: 3d0f13724645
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __setitem__13725370
Ref: 3d1213725370
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __delitem__13726416
Ref: 3d1313726416
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage keys13726650
Ref: 3d0c13726650
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage values13726752
Ref: 3d1413726752
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage items13726850
Ref: 3d1513726850
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get13726989
Ref: 3d1613726989
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_all13727345
Ref: 3d1013727345
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_header13727590
Ref: 3d1713727590
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage replace_header13729562
Ref: 3d1813729562
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_type13729876
Ref: 3d1913729876
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_maintype13730762
Ref: 3d1b13730762
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_subtype13730976
Ref: 3d1c13730976
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_default_type13731177
Ref: 3d1a13731177
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_default_type13731505
Ref: 3d1d13731505
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_param13731955
Ref: 3d1e13731955
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage del_param13733594
Ref: 3d2013733594
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_filename13734032
Ref: 3d2113734032
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_boundary13734579
Ref: 3d2313734579
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_boundary13734951
Ref: 3d2413734951
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_charset13735613
Ref: 3d2613735613
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_charsets13735923
Ref: 3d2713735923
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage is_attachment13736624
Ref: 3d2813736624
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_disposition13737015
Ref: 3d2a13737015
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage walk13737500
Ref: 3d2b13737500
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_body13739507
Ref: 3d2c13739507
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage iter_attachments13741632
Ref: 3d2d13741632
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage iter_parts13742612
Ref: 3d2e13742612
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content13742833
Ref: 3d2f13742833
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_content13743251
Ref: 1e5413743251
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_related13743669
Ref: 3d3213743669
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_alternative13744165
Ref: 3d3313744165
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_mixed13744692
Ref: 3d3413744692
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_related13745239
Ref: 3d3513745239
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_alternative13746004
Ref: 3d3713746004
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_attachment13746702
Ref: 3d3813746702
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage clear13747695
Ref: 3d3913747695
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage clear_content13747784
Ref: 3d3a13747784
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage preamble13748042
Ref: 3d3b13748042
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage epilogue13749313
Ref: 3d3c13749313
Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage defects13749666
Ref: 3d3d13749666
Ref: library/email message email message MIMEPart13749915
Ref: 12e513749915
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-113750286
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-213750359
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-313750556
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-413750615
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-513750674
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-613750733
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-713751051
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-813751110
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-913751169
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1013751228
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1113751288
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1213751348
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1313751408
Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1413751468
Node: email parser Parsing email messages13751528
Ref: library/email parser doc13751746
Ref: 3d3e13751746
Ref: library/email parser email-parser-parsing-email-messages13751746
Ref: 3d3f13751746
Ref: library/email parser module-email parser13751746
Ref: 5113751746
Ref: library/email parser translation-repo13751746
Ref: 3d4013751746
Ref: email parser Parsing email messages-Footnote-113754118
Node: FeedParser API13754190
Ref: library/email parser feedparser-api13754295
Ref: 3d4113754295
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser13755579
Ref: 157413755579
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser feed13756813
Ref: 3d4213756813
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser close13757256
Ref: 3d4313757256
Ref: library/email parser email parser FeedParser13757504
Ref: 19a913757504
Node: Parser API13757990
Ref: library/email parser parser-api13758120
Ref: 3d4413758120
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser13758829
Ref: 157513758829
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser parse13759528
Ref: 3d4513759528
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser parsebytes13760588
Ref: 3d4613760588
Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesHeaderParser13761087
Ref: 146813761087
Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser13761313
Ref: 154613761313
Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser parse13761696
Ref: 3d4713761696
Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser parsestr13762142
Ref: 3d4813762142
Ref: library/email parser email parser HeaderParser13762574
Ref: 146913762574
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_bytes13762977
Ref: 157213762977
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_binary_file13763473
Ref: 157313763473
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_string13763977
Ref: 3d4913763977
Ref: library/email parser email message_from_file13764399
Ref: 3d4a13764399
Ref: Parser API-Footnote-113765173
Ref: Parser API-Footnote-213765232
Node: Additional notes13765291
Ref: library/email parser additional-notes13765398
Ref: 3d4b13765398
Node: email generator Generating MIME documents13766952
Ref: library/email generator doc13767154
Ref: 3d4d13767154
Ref: library/email generator email-generator-generating-mime-documents13767154
Ref: 3d4e13767154
Ref: library/email generator module-email generator13767154
Ref: 4313767154
Ref: library/email generator translation-repo13767154
Ref: 3d4f13767154
Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator13769239
Ref: 157813769239
Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator flatten13771180
Ref: 3d5113771180
Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator clone13773004
Ref: 3d5413773004
Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator write13773204
Ref: 3d5213773204
Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator13774236
Ref: 157713774236
Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator flatten13776115
Ref: 3d5513776115
Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator clone13777893
Ref: 3d5713777893
Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator write13778070
Ref: 3d5613778070
Ref: library/email generator email generator DecodedGenerator13778973
Ref: 105813778973
Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-113780395
Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-213780471
Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-313780978
Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-413781030
Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-513781089
Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-613781141
Node: email policy Policy Objects13781200
Ref: library/email policy doc13781445
Ref: 3d5813781445
Ref: library/email policy email-policy-policy-objects13781445
Ref: 3d5913781445
Ref: library/email policy module-email policy13781445
Ref: 5213781445
Ref: library/email policy translation-repo13781445
Ref: 3d5a13781445
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy13787407
Ref: 146013787407
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy max_line_length13788235
Ref: 3d0413788235
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy linesep13788548
Ref: 3d5b13788548
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy cte_type13788824
Ref: 3d5313788824
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy raise_on_defect13789940
Ref: 3d5d13789940
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy mangle_from_13790191
Ref: 11af13790191
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy message_factory13790525
Ref: 105913790525
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy verify_generated_headers13790809
Ref: 6f713790809
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy clone13791657
Ref: 146213791657
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy handle_defect13792127
Ref: 3d5f13792127
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy register_defect13792627
Ref: 3d5e13792627
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_max_count13793341
Ref: 3d6113793341
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_source_parse13794411
Ref: 3d6213794411
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_store_parse13795432
Ref: 3d6313795432
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_fetch_parse13796201
Ref: 3d6413796201
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy fold13797032
Ref: 3d6513797032
Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy fold_binary13797754
Ref: 3d5c13797754
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy13798096
Ref: 146413798096
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy utf813798935
Ref: 21713798935
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy refold_source13800292
Ref: 3d5013800292
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_factory13801094
Ref: 3d6613801094
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy content_manager13801712
Ref: 12e613801712
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_max_count13802431
Ref: 3d6813802431
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_source_parse13802645
Ref: 1b2d13802645
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_store_parse13803038
Ref: 3d6a13803038
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_fetch_parse13803527
Ref: 3d6b13803527
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy fold13803961
Ref: 1bfb13803961
Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy fold_binary13805132
Ref: 3d6c13805132
Ref: library/email policy email policy default13805960
Ref: 19ac13805960
Ref: library/email policy email policy SMTP13806182
Ref: 3d6d13806182
Ref: library/email policy email policy SMTPUTF813806396
Ref: 191113806396
Ref: library/email policy email policy HTTP13806823
Ref: 3d6e13806823
Ref: library/email policy email policy strict13807027
Ref: 3d6f13807027
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat3213808417
Ref: 146113808417
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 mangle_from_13808952
Ref: 3d7013808952
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_source_parse13809148
Ref: 1b2e13809148
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_store_parse13809541
Ref: 3d7113809541
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_fetch_parse13809655
Ref: 3d7213809655
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 fold13809905
Ref: 3d7313809905
Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 fold_binary13810256
Ref: 3d7413810256
Ref: library/email policy email policy compat3213810794
Ref: 105a13810794
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-113811268
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-213811340
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-313811399
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-413811458
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-513811517
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-613811576
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-713811635
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-813811694
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-913811764
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1013811823
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1113811883
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1213811943
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1313812003
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1413812063
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1513812103
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1613812144
Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1713812204
Node: email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων13812264
Ref: library/email errors doc13812510
Ref: 3d7513812510
Ref: library/email errors email-errors-exception-and-defect-classes13812510
Ref: 3d7613812510
Ref: library/email errors module-email errors13812510
Ref: 4213812510
Ref: library/email errors translation-repo13812510
Ref: 3d7713812510
Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageError13812870
Ref: 3d7813812870
Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageParseError13813239
Ref: 3d7913813239
Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderParseError13813730
Ref: 3d2513813730
Ref: library/email errors email errors BoundaryError13814872
Ref: 3d7a13814872
Ref: library/email errors email errors MultipartConversionError13815015
Ref: 3d7b13815015
Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderWriteError13815533
Ref: 191013815533
Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageDefect13815735
Ref: 3d6013815735
Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderDefect13816036
Ref: 3d7e13816036
Ref: library/email errors email errors NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect13817204
Ref: 3d7f13817204
Ref: library/email errors email errors StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect13817418
Ref: 3d8013817418
Ref: library/email errors email errors CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect13817631
Ref: 3d8113817631
Ref: library/email errors email errors FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect13817879
Ref: 3d8213817879
Ref: library/email errors email errors MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect13818079
Ref: 3d8313818079
Ref: library/email errors email errors MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect13818260
Ref: 3d8413818260
Ref: library/email errors email errors MalformedHeaderDefect13818728
Ref: 3d8513818728
Ref: library/email errors email errors MultipartInvariantViolationDefect13819134
Ref: 3d4c13819134
Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidBase64PaddingDefect13819655
Ref: 3d8613819655
Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidBase64CharactersDefect13820154
Ref: 3d8713820154
Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidBase64LengthDefect13820617
Ref: 3d8813820617
Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidDateDefect13821071
Ref: 3d8913821071
Ref: email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων-Footnote-113821361
Ref: email errors Κλάσεις Εξαιρέσεων και Ελαττωμάτων-Footnote-213821433
Node: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects13821492
Ref: library/email headerregistry doc13821753
Ref: 3d8a13821753
Ref: library/email headerregistry email-headerregistry-custom-header-objects13821753
Ref: 3d8b13821753
Ref: library/email headerregistry module-email headerregistry13821753
Ref: 4513821753
Ref: library/email headerregistry translation-repo13821753
Ref: 3d8c13821753
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader13823516
Ref: 3d1113823516
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader name13823834
Ref: 3d8f13823834
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader defects13824092
Ref: 3d9013824092
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader max_count13824458
Ref: 3d6913824458
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader fold13824982
Ref: 3d9113824982
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry UnstructuredHeader13827181
Ref: 3d8e13827181
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry DateHeader13828263
Ref: 3d9213828263
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry DateHeader datetime13828629
Ref: 3d9313828629
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader13830183
Ref: 3d9413830183
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader groups13830472
Ref: 3d9513830472
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader addresses13830794
Ref: 3d9813830794
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry SingleAddressHeader13831961
Ref: 3d9913831961
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry SingleAddressHeader address13832107
Ref: 3d9a13832107
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader13832646
Ref: 3d9b13832646
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader version13833043
Ref: 3d9c13833043
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader major13833177
Ref: 3d9d13833177
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader minor13833261
Ref: 3d9e13833261
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ParameterizedMIMEHeader13833345
Ref: 3d9f13833345
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ParameterizedMIMEHeader params13833733
Ref: 3d1f13833733
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader13833982
Ref: 3da013833982
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader content_type13834138
Ref: 3da113834138
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader maintype13834251
Ref: 3da213834251
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader subtype13834288
Ref: 3da313834288
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentDispositionHeader13834324
Ref: 3da413834324
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentDispositionHeader content_disposition13834494
Ref: 3da513834494
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTransferEncodingHeader13834638
Ref: 3da613834638
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTransferEncodingHeader cte13834764
Ref: 3da713834764
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry13834940
Ref: 3d8d13834940
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry map_to_type13836678
Ref: 3da813836678
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry __getitem__13837021
Ref: 3da913837021
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry __call__13837152
Ref: 3daa13837152
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address13837802
Ref: 191213837802
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address display_name13838646
Ref: 3dab13838646
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address username13838879
Ref: 3dac13838879
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address domain13839006
Ref: 3dad13839006
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address addr_spec13839093
Ref: 3dae13839093
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address __str__13839318
Ref: 3daf13839318
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group13839765
Ref: 3d9613839765
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group display_name13840319
Ref: 3d9713840319
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group addresses13840581
Ref: 3db013840581
Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group __str__13840736
Ref: 3db113840736
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-113841184
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-213841265
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-313841334
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-413841393
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-513841452
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-613841511
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-713841570
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-813841629
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-913841688
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1013841747
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1113841807
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1213841867
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1313841927
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1413841987
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1513842047
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1613842107
Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1713842167
Node: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content13842227
Ref: library/email contentmanager doc13842424
Ref: 3db213842424
Ref: library/email contentmanager email-contentmanager-managing-mime-content13842424
Ref: 3db313842424
Ref: library/email contentmanager module-email contentmanager13842424
Ref: 4013842424
Ref: library/email contentmanager translation-repo13842424
Ref: 3db413842424
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager13842683
Ref: 3db513842683
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager get_content13842977
Ref: 3d3013842977
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager set_content13843819
Ref: 3d3113843819
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager add_get_handler13845460
Ref: 3db613845460
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager add_set_handler13845660
Ref: 3db813845660
Ref: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content-Footnote-113846027
Ref: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content-Footnote-213846108
Node: Content Manager Instances13846177
Ref: library/email contentmanager content-manager-instances13846281
Ref: 3dba13846281
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager raw_data_manager13846616
Ref: 3d6713846616
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager get_content13847352
Ref: 3db713847352
Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager set_content13847959
Ref: 3db913847959
Ref: Content Manager Instances-Footnote-113852779
Node: email Examples13852838
Ref: library/email examples doc13853067
Ref: 3dbb13853067
Ref: library/email examples email-examples13853067
Ref: 12e713853067
Ref: library/email examples id113853067
Ref: 3dbc13853067
Ref: library/email examples translation-repo13853067
Ref: 3dbd13853067
Ref: email Examples-Footnote-113867693
Ref: email Examples-Footnote-213867751
Node: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API13867833
Ref: library/email compat32-message doc13868075
Ref: 3dbe13868075
Ref: library/email compat32-message compat32-message13868075
Ref: 3d0213868075
Ref: library/email compat32-message email-message-message-representing-an-email-message-using-the-compat32-api13868075
Ref: 3dbf13868075
Ref: library/email compat32-message translation-repo13868075
Ref: 3dc013868075
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message13870621
Ref: 78013870621
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message as_string13871170
Ref: 12e113871170
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __str__13873352
Ref: 3dc113873352
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message as_bytes13873526
Ref: 12e213873526
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __bytes__13875086
Ref: 12e313875086
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message is_multipart13875302
Ref: 3d2913875302
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_unixfrom13875958
Ref: 3dc213875958
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_unixfrom13876106
Ref: 3dc313876106
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message attach13876271
Ref: 3d3613876271
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_payload13876881
Ref: 157613876881
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_payload13879535
Ref: 3dc413879535
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_charset13880027
Ref: 3dc513880027
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_charset13881808
Ref: 3dc613881808
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __len__13883269
Ref: 3dc813883269
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __contains__13883375
Ref: 1cf313883375
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __getitem__13883753
Ref: 3dc913883753
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __setitem__13884296
Ref: 1aa313884296
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __delitem__13884861
Ref: 3dcb13884861
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message keys13885095
Ref: 3dc713885095
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message values13885197
Ref: 3dcc13885197
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message items13885295
Ref: 3dcd13885295
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get13885434
Ref: 3dce13885434
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_all13885755
Ref: 3dca13885755
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message add_header13886000
Ref: 1aa413886000
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message replace_header13887974
Ref: 3dcf13887974
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_type13888271
Ref: 3dd013888271
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_maintype13889130
Ref: 3dd213889130
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_subtype13889344
Ref: 3dd313889344
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_default_type13889545
Ref: 3dd113889545
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_default_type13889873
Ref: 3dd413889873
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_params13890168
Ref: 3dd513890168
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_param13891238
Ref: 3dd613891238
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_param13893248
Ref: 12e413893248
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message del_param13894539
Ref: 3dd813894539
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_type13894988
Ref: 3dd913894988
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_filename13895885
Ref: 3dda13895885
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_boundary13896432
Ref: 3ddb13896432
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_boundary13896804
Ref: 3ddc13896804
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_charset13897613
Ref: 3ddd13897613
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_charsets13898110
Ref: 3dde13898110
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_disposition13898820
Ref: 11b013898820
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message walk13899193
Ref: 3ddf13899193
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message preamble13901301
Ref: 3de013901301
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message epilogue13902572
Ref: 3de113902572
Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message defects13902978
Ref: 3de213902978
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-113903263
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-213903322
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-313903381
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-413903440
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-513903499
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-613903558
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-713903617
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-813903676
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-913903735
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-1013903794
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-1113903854
Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-1213903914
Node: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch13903974
Ref: library/email mime doc13904240
Ref: 3de313904240
Ref: library/email mime email-mime-creating-email-and-mime-objects-from-scratch13904240
Ref: 3de413904240
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime13904240
Ref: 4813904240
Ref: library/email mime translation-repo13904240
Ref: 3de513904240
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime base13905470
Ref: 4b13905470
Ref: library/email mime email mime base MIMEBase13905470
Ref: 3de613905470
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime nonmultipart13906620
Ref: 4f13906620
Ref: library/email mime email mime nonmultipart MIMENonMultipart13906620
Ref: 3d7c13906620
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime multipart13907115
Ref: 4e13907115
Ref: library/email mime email mime multipart MIMEMultipart13907115
Ref: 3de713907115
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime application13908455
Ref: 4913908455
Ref: library/email mime email mime application MIMEApplication13908455
Ref: 3de813908455
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime audio13909818
Ref: 4a13909818
Ref: library/email mime email mime audio MIMEAudio13909818
Ref: 3de913909818
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime image13911393
Ref: 4c13911393
Ref: library/email mime email mime image MIMEImage13911393
Ref: 3d7d13911393
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime message13913048
Ref: 4d13913048
Ref: library/email mime email mime message MIMEMessage13913048
Ref: 3dea13913048
Ref: library/email mime module-email mime text13913753
Ref: 5013913753
Ref: library/email mime email mime text MIMEText13913753
Ref: 11b113913753
Ref: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch-Footnote-113915417
Node: email header Internationalized headers13915485
Ref: library/email header doc13915751
Ref: 3deb13915751
Ref: library/email header email-header-internationalized-headers13915751
Ref: 3dec13915751
Ref: library/email header module-email header13915751
Ref: 4413915751
Ref: library/email header translation-repo13915751
Ref: 3ded13915751
Ref: library/email header email header Header13918423
Ref: 1e5513918423
Ref: library/email header email header Header append13920279
Ref: 3dee13920279
Ref: library/email header email header Header encode13921611
Ref: 3def13921611
Ref: library/email header email header Header __str__13923267
Ref: 3df013923267
Ref: library/email header email header Header __eq__13923773
Ref: 3df113923773
Ref: library/email header email header Header __ne__13923910
Ref: 3df213923910
Ref: library/email header email header decode_header13924130
Ref: 146513924130
Ref: library/email header email header make_header13925619
Ref: 146613925619
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-113926459
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-213926531
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-313926590
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-413926648
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-513926707
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-613926766
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-713926825
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-813926884
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-913926943
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1013927002
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1113927062
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1213927122
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1313927182
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1413927242
Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1513927302
Node: email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων13927362
Ref: library/email charset doc13927596
Ref: 3df313927596
Ref: library/email charset email-charset-representing-character-sets13927596
Ref: 3df413927596
Ref: library/email charset module-email charset13927596
Ref: 3f13927596
Ref: library/email charset translation-repo13927596
Ref: 3df513927596
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset13928854
Ref: 11b213928854
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset input_charset13931701
Ref: 3df613931701
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encoding13932125
Ref: 3df713932125
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset body_encoding13932724
Ref: 3df813932724
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset output_charset13933190
Ref: 3df913933190
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset input_codec13933753
Ref: 3dfa13933753
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset output_codec13934101
Ref: 3dfb13934101
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset get_body_encoding13934640
Ref: 3dfc13934640
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset get_output_charset13935950
Ref: 3dfd13935950
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encode13936266
Ref: 3dfe13936266
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encode_lines13936587
Ref: 3dff13936587
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset body_encode13937396
Ref: 3e0013937396
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __str__13937962
Ref: 3e0113937962
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __eq__13938271
Ref: 3e0213938271
Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __ne__13938506
Ref: 3e0313938506
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_charset13938896
Ref: 3e0413938896
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_alias13941262
Ref: 3e0613941262
Ref: library/email charset email charset add_codec13941847
Ref: 3e0513941847
Ref: email charset Αναπαράσταση συνόλων χαρακτήρων-Footnote-113942519
Node: email encoders Encoders13942592
Ref: library/email encoders doc13942823
Ref: 3e0713942823
Ref: library/email encoders email-encoders-encoders13942823
Ref: 3e0813942823
Ref: library/email encoders module-email encoders13942823
Ref: 4113942823
Ref: library/email encoders translation-repo13942823
Ref: 3e0913942823
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_quopri13944511
Ref: 3e0a13944511
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_base6413944849
Ref: 3e0b13944849
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_7or8bit13945255
Ref: 3e0c13945255
Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_noop13945525
Ref: 3e0d13945525
Ref: email encoders Encoders-Footnote-113945715
Ref: email encoders Encoders-Footnote-213945789
Node: email utils Miscellaneous utilities13945906
Ref: library/email utils doc13946088
Ref: 3e0e13946088
Ref: library/email utils email-utils-miscellaneous-utilities13946088
Ref: 3e0f13946088
Ref: library/email utils module-email utils13946088
Ref: 5313946088
Ref: library/email utils translation-repo13946088
Ref: 3e1013946088
Ref: library/email utils email utils localtime13946379
Ref: 56f13946379
Ref: library/email utils email utils make_msgid13946982
Ref: 3e1113946982
Ref: library/email utils email utils quote13947905
Ref: 3e1213947905
Ref: library/email utils email utils unquote13948094
Ref: 3d2213948094
Ref: library/email utils email utils parseaddr13948374
Ref: 6f913948374
Ref: library/email utils email utils formataddr13948967
Ref: 154313948967
Ref: library/email utils email utils getaddresses13949674
Ref: 6f813949674
Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate13950546
Ref: 3e1313950546
Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate_tz13951167
Ref: 1e1a13951167
Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate_to_datetime13951757
Ref: 146b13951757
Ref: library/email utils email utils mktime_tz13952649
Ref: 3e1413952649
Ref: library/email utils email utils formatdate13952896
Ref: 180c13952896
Ref: library/email utils email utils format_datetime13953853
Ref: 146a13953853
Ref: library/email utils email utils decode_rfc223113954551
Ref: 3e1513954551
Ref: library/email utils email utils encode_rfc223113954661
Ref: 3e1613954661
Ref: library/email utils email utils collapse_rfc2231_value13955079
Ref: 3dd713955079
Ref: library/email utils email utils decode_params13955926
Ref: 1a2f13955926
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-113956192
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-213956263
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-313956322
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-413956381
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-513956440
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-613956499
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-713956772
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-813956831
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-913956890
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-1013956949
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-1113957009
Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-1213957069
Node: email iterators Iterators13957129
Ref: library/email iterators doc13957279
Ref: 3e1713957279
Ref: library/email iterators email-iterators-iterators13957279
Ref: 3e1813957279
Ref: library/email iterators module-email iterators13957279
Ref: 4613957279
Ref: library/email iterators translation-repo13957279
Ref: 3e1913957279
Ref: library/email iterators email iterators body_line_iterator13957674
Ref: 3e1a13957674
Ref: library/email iterators email iterators typed_subpart_iterator13958262
Ref: 3e1b13958262
Ref: library/email iterators email iterators _structure13958983
Ref: 3e1c13958983
Ref: email iterators Iterators-Footnote-113960434
Node: json — JSON encoder and decoder13960510
Ref: library/json doc13960715
Ref: 3e1d13960715
Ref: library/json json-json-encoder-and-decoder13960715
Ref: 3e1e13960715
Ref: library/json module-json13960715
Ref: 8513960715
Ref: library/json translation-repo13960715
Ref: 3e1f13960715
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-113965402
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-213965475
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-313965500
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-413965559
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-513965618
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-613965705
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-713965754
Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-813966016
Node: Basic Usage13966042
Ref: library/json basic-usage13966153
Ref: 3e2013966153
Ref: library/json json dump13966196
Ref: 10fb13966196
Ref: library/json json dumps13970630
Ref: 24813970630
Ref: library/json json load13971477
Ref: 22e13971477
Ref: library/json json loads13975686
Ref: 22f13975686
Ref: Basic Usage-Footnote-113976456
Node: Encoders and Decoders13976488
Ref: library/json encoders-and-decoders13976622
Ref: 3e2413976622
Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder13976685
Ref: 10fd13976685
Ref: library/json json-to-py-table13976961
Ref: 3e2313976961
Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder decode13980324
Ref: 3e2513980324
Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder raw_decode13980585
Ref: 3e2613980585
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder13980957
Ref: 10fc13980957
Ref: library/json py-to-json-table13981263
Ref: 3e2113981263
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder default13985812
Ref: 3e2213985812
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder encode13986502
Ref: 3e2713986502
Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder iterencode13986755
Ref: 19b313986755
Ref: Encoders and Decoders-Footnote-113987060
Node: Exceptions<18>13987092
Ref: library/json exceptions13987255
Ref: 3e2813987255
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError13987296
Ref: 11d513987296
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError msg13987444
Ref: 3e2913987444
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError doc13987518
Ref: 3e2a13987518
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError pos13987593
Ref: 3e2b13987593
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError lineno13987683
Ref: 3e2c13987683
Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError colno13987762
Ref: 3e2d13987762
Node: Standard Compliance and Interoperability13987870
Ref: library/json standard-compliance-and-interoperability13988037
Ref: 3e2e13988037
Ref: Standard Compliance and Interoperability-Footnote-113989189
Ref: Standard Compliance and Interoperability-Footnote-213989248
Node: Character Encodings13989335
Ref: library/json character-encodings13989470
Ref: 3e2f13989470
Node: Infinite and NaN Number Values13990811
Ref: library/json infinite-and-nan-number-values13990986
Ref: 3e3013990986
Node: Repeated Names Within an Object13991774
Ref: library/json repeated-names-within-an-object13991967
Ref: 3e3113991967
Node: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values13992490
Ref: library/json top-level-non-object-non-array-values13992679
Ref: 3e3213992679
Ref: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values-Footnote-113993333
Ref: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values-Footnote-213993392
Node: Implementation Limitations13993451
Ref: library/json implementation-limitations13993600
Ref: 3e3313993600
Node: Command-line interface<4>13994548
Ref: library/json command-line-interface13994692
Ref: 3e3413994692
Ref: library/json json-commandline13994692
Ref: 4cb13994692
Ref: library/json module-json tool13994692
Ref: 8613994692
Ref: Command-line interface<4>-Footnote-113995896
Node: Command-line options<3>13995965
Ref: library/json command-line-options13996050
Ref: 3e3613996050
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json-arg-infile13996113
Ref: 3e3713996113
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json-arg-outfile13996584
Ref: 3e3813996584
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json-sort-keys13996719
Ref: 3e3513996719
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json-no-ensure-ascii13996833
Ref: 3e3913996833
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json-json-lines13996996
Ref: 3e3a13996996
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json-indent13997104
Ref: 3e3b13997104
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json-tab13997104
Ref: 3e3c13997104
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json-no-indent13997104
Ref: 3e3d13997104
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json-compact13997104
Ref: 3e3e13997104
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json-h13997242
Ref: 3e3f13997242
Ref: library/json cmdoption-json-help13997242
Ref: 3e4013997242
Node: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats13997295
Ref: library/mailbox doc13997497
Ref: 3e4113997497
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-manipulate-mailboxes-in-various-formats13997497
Ref: 3e4213997497
Ref: library/mailbox module-mailbox13997497
Ref: 8e13997497
Ref: library/mailbox translation-repo13997497
Ref: 3e4313997497
Ref: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats-Footnote-113998398
Node: Mailbox objects13998465
Ref: library/mailbox id113998592
Ref: 3e4413998592
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-objects13998592
Ref: 3e4513998592
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox13998651
Ref: 15f113998651
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox add14001887
Ref: 15f014001887
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox remove14002696
Ref: 3e4614002696
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __delitem__14002734
Ref: 3e4b14002734
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox discard14002777
Ref: 3e4714002777
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __setitem__14003293
Ref: 3e4c14003293
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox iterkeys14004180
Ref: 3e4d14004180
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox keys14004274
Ref: 3e4e14004274
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox itervalues14004444
Ref: 3e4f14004444
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __iter__14004483
Ref: 3e5014004483
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox values14004983
Ref: 3e5114004983
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox iteritems14005157
Ref: 3e5214005157
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox items14005586
Ref: 3e5314005586
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get14005787
Ref: 3e5414005787
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __getitem__14005836
Ref: 3e5514005836
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_message14006412
Ref: 3e5614006412
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_bytes14006709
Ref: 15f314006709
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_string14006952
Ref: 15f414006952
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_file14007299
Ref: 15f214007299
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __contains__14008366
Ref: 3e5714008366
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __len__14008508
Ref: 3e5814008508
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox clear14008599
Ref: 3e5914008599
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox pop14008683
Ref: 3e5a14008683
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox popitem14009129
Ref: 3e5b14009129
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox update14009653
Ref: 3e5c14009653
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox flush14010369
Ref: 1bcb14010369
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox lock14010655
Ref: 3e4814010655
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox unlock14011082
Ref: 3e4914011082
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox close14011170
Ref: 3e4a14011170
Node: Maildir objects14011464
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-maildir14011552
Ref: 3e5e14011552
Ref: library/mailbox maildir-objects14011552
Ref: 3e5f14011552
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir14011611
Ref: 84b14011611
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir colon14013743
Ref: 3e6114013743
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir list_folders14014574
Ref: 3e6214014574
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_folder14014670
Ref: 3e6314014670
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir add_folder14014912
Ref: 3e6514014912
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir remove_folder14015071
Ref: 3e6614015071
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir clean14015321
Ref: 3e6814015321
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_flags14015565
Ref: 1c4c14015565
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir set_flags14016378
Ref: 1c4d14016378
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir add_flag14017137
Ref: 1c4e14017137
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir remove_flag14017657
Ref: 1c4f14017657
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_info14018188
Ref: 1c4a14018188
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir set_info14018926
Ref: 1c4b14018926
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir add14019732
Ref: 3e7014019732
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir __setitem__14019771
Ref: 3e6d14019771
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir update14019823
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir flush14020263
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir close14020580
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_file14020779
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Ref: Maildir objects-Footnote-114021340
Ref: Maildir objects-Footnote-214021389
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Ref: 3e7714021540
Ref: library/mailbox mbox-objects14021540
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox14021593
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox get_bytes14023007
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox unlock14024136
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Ref: mbox objects-Footnote-114024740
Ref: mbox objects-Footnote-214024800
Ref: mbox objects-Footnote-314024852
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Ref: 3e7e14025035
Ref: library/mailbox mh-objects14025035
Ref: 3e7f14025035
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH14025084
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH list_folders14026642
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH pack14027812
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH remove14028247
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH __delitem__14028285
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH discard14028328
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH close14029299
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Ref: MH objects-Footnote-114029786
Ref: MH objects-Footnote-214029822
Node: Babyl objects14029867
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl14030027
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl get_labels14031596
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl lock14032682
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl unlock14032715
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Ref: Babyl objects-Footnote-114033136
Ref: Babyl objects-Footnote-214033180
Node: MMDF objects14033258
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Ref: 3e9814033344
Ref: library/mailbox mmdf-objects14033344
Ref: 3e9914033344
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF14033397
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF get_bytes14034654
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF lock14035446
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF unlock14035479
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Ref: MMDF objects-Footnote-114035943
Ref: MMDF objects-Footnote-214036003
Node: Message objects14036046
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-message-objects14036196
Ref: 3e9f14036196
Ref: library/mailbox message-objects14036196
Ref: 3ea014036196
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Message14036255
Ref: 15f514036255
Ref: Message objects-Footnote-114038305
Node: MaildirMessage objects14038364
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-maildirmessage14038466
Ref: 3ea114038466
Ref: library/mailbox maildirmessage-objects14038466
Ref: 3ea214038466
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage14038539
Ref: 3e6014038539
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_subdir14040382
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage set_subdir14040912
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_flags14041087
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage set_flags14041565
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage add_flag14041677
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage remove_flag14042033
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_date14042393
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_info14042730
Ref: 3e6e14042730
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage set_info14042957
Ref: 3e6f14042957
Node: mboxMessage objects14045730
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mboxmessage14045858
Ref: 3ea714045858
Ref: library/mailbox mboxmessage-objects14045858
Ref: 3ea814045858
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage14045925
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage get_from14047714
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage set_from14047949
Ref: 3eaa14047949
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage get_flags14048492
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage set_flags14048848
Ref: 3eac14048848
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage add_flag14049147
Ref: 3ead14049147
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage remove_flag14049375
Ref: 3eae14049375
Node: MHMessage objects14052333
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mhmessage14052459
Ref: 3eaf14052459
Ref: library/mailbox mhmessage-objects14052459
Ref: 3eb014052459
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage14052524
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage get_sequences14053489
Ref: 3eb114053489
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage set_sequences14053620
Ref: 3eb214053620
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage add_sequence14053736
Ref: 3eb314053736
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage remove_sequence14053874
Ref: 3eb414053874
Node: BabylMessage objects14055727
Ref: library/mailbox babylmessage-objects14055853
Ref: 3eb514055853
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-babylmessage14055853
Ref: 3eb614055853
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage14055924
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage get_labels14057284
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage set_labels14057375
Ref: 3eb814057375
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage add_label14057483
Ref: 3eb914057483
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage remove_label14057588
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage get_visible14057701
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Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage set_visible14057877
Ref: 3ebc14057877
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage update_visible14058236
Ref: 3ebd14058236
Node: MMDFMessage objects14060662
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mmdfmessage14060762
Ref: 3ebe14060762
Ref: library/mailbox mmdfmessage-objects14060762
Ref: 3ebf14060762
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage14060831
Ref: 3e9a14060831
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage get_from14062504
Ref: 3ec014062504
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage set_from14062739
Ref: 3ec114062739
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage get_flags14063282
Ref: 3ec214063282
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage set_flags14063638
Ref: 3ec314063638
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage add_flag14063937
Ref: 3ec414063937
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage remove_flag14064165
Ref: 3ec514064165
Node: Exceptions<19>14067124
Ref: library/mailbox exceptions14067271
Ref: 3ec614067271
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Error14067388
Ref: 3ec714067388
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox NoSuchMailboxError14067488
Ref: 3e6414067488
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox NotEmptyError14067802
Ref: 3e6714067802
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox ExternalClashError14067971
Ref: 3e5d14067971
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox FormatError14068284
Ref: 3ec814068284
Node: Examples<20>14068488
Ref: library/mailbox examples14068611
Ref: 3ec914068611
Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-examples14068611
Ref: 3eca14068611
Node: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types14070889
Ref: library/mimetypes doc14071111
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Ref: 9314071111
Ref: library/mimetypes translation-repo14071111
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_file_type14073698
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_all_extensions14074039
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_extension14074646
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes init14075397
Ref: 3ece14075397
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes read_mime_types14076385
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes add_type14076772
Ref: 3ed114076772
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes inited14077239
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Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes knownfiles14077421
Ref: 3ed014077421
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes suffix_map14077643
Ref: 3ed314077643
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes encodings_map14078005
Ref: 3ed414078005
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes types_map14078116
Ref: 3ed514078116
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes common_types14078219
Ref: 3ed614078219
Ref: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types-Footnote-114078843
Ref: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types-Footnote-214078912
Node: MimeTypes objects14078983
Ref: library/mimetypes id114079108
Ref: 3ed714079108
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes-objects14079108
Ref: 3ed814079108
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes14079352
Ref: 189d14079352
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes suffix_map14080041
Ref: 3edb14080041
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes encodings_map14080530
Ref: 3edc14080530
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes types_map14080750
Ref: 3edd14080750
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes types_map_inv14081093
Ref: 3ede14081093
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_extension14081450
Ref: 3edf14081450
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_type14081636
Ref: 200714081636
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_file_type14081810
Ref: 3ee014081810
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_all_extensions14082032
Ref: 3ee114082032
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes read14082228
Ref: 3ed914082228
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes readfp14082549
Ref: 3eda14082549
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes read_windows_registry14082888
Ref: 3ee214082888
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes add_type14083254
Ref: 30c14083254
Node: Command-line usage<2>14084033
Ref: library/mimetypes command-line-usage14084187
Ref: 3ee314084187
Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes-cli14084187
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Ref: library/mimetypes cmdoption-mimetypes-h14084417
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Ref: library/mimetypes cmdoption-mimetypes-help14084465
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Ref: library/mimetypes cmdoption-mimetypes-l14084701
Ref: 3ee814084701
Ref: library/mimetypes cmdoption-mimetypes-lenient14084749
Ref: 3ee914084749
Node: Command-line example14085235
Ref: library/mimetypes command-line-example14085363
Ref: 3eea14085363
Node: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings14086981
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Ref: library/base64 base64-base16-base32-base64-base85-data-encodings14087197
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Ref: library/base64 module-base6414087197
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Ref: library/base64 translation-repo14087197
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Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-114088925
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-214088991
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-314089050
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-414089109
Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-514089168
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Ref: library/base64 base64-rfc-464814089360
Ref: 3eee14089360
Ref: library/base64 rfc-4648-encodings14089360
Ref: 3ef114089360
Ref: library/base64 base64 b64encode14089590
Ref: 1eb14089590
Ref: library/base64 base64 b64decode14090594
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Ref: library/base64 base64 standard_b64encode14093140
Ref: 3ef214093140
Ref: library/base64 base64 standard_b64decode14093323
Ref: 3ef314093323
Ref: library/base64 base64 urlsafe_b64encode14093522
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Ref: library/base64 base64 urlsafe_b64decode14094000
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b32encode14094602
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b32decode14095239
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b32hexencode14097039
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b16decode14098414
Ref: 1f114098414
Ref: RFC 4648 Encodings-Footnote-114099166
Ref: RFC 4648 Encodings-Footnote-214099225
Ref: RFC 4648 Encodings-Footnote-314099284
Ref: RFC 4648 Encodings-Footnote-414099343
Node: Base85 Encodings14099402
Ref: library/base64 base64-base-8514099560
Ref: 3eef14099560
Ref: library/base64 base85-encodings14099560
Ref: 3ef414099560
Ref: library/base64 base64 a85encode14100336
Ref: 12ce14100336
Ref: library/base64 base64 a85decode14101338
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b85encode14102508
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Ref: library/base64 base64 b85decode14103147
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Ref: library/base64 base64 z85encode14103865
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Ref: library/base64 base64 z85decode14104606
Ref: 1f314104606
Ref: Base85 Encodings-Footnote-114105360
Ref: Base85 Encodings-Footnote-214105400
Node: Legacy Interface14105440
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Ref: 3ef014105606
Ref: library/base64 legacy-interface14105606
Ref: 3ef514105606
Ref: library/base64 base64 decode14105659
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Ref: library/base64 base64 decodebytes14105978
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Ref: library/base64 base64 encode14106218
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Ref: library/base64 base64 encodebytes14106741
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Ref: Legacy Interface-Footnote-114107423
Ref: Legacy Interface-Footnote-214107482
Node: Security Considerations<2>14107541
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Ref: 3ef814107682
Ref: library/base64 security-considerations14107682
Ref: 3ef914107682
Ref: Security Considerations<2>-Footnote-114108361
Ref: Security Considerations<2>-Footnote-214108420
Node: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII14108479
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Ref: library/binascii module-binascii14108709
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Ref: library/binascii translation-repo14108709
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Ref: 190514109725
Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_uu14109985
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Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_base8514116341
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Ref: library/binascii binascii hexlify14122974
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Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_hex14124198
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Ref: library/binascii binascii unhexlify14124268
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Ref: library/binascii binascii Error14125024
Ref: 13ce14125024
Ref: library/binascii binascii Incomplete14125135
Ref: 3eff14125135
Ref: library/binascii binascii BASE64_ALPHABET14125341
Ref: 3f0014125341
Ref: library/binascii binascii URLSAFE_BASE64_ALPHABET14125471
Ref: 3f0114125471
Ref: library/binascii binascii UU_ALPHABET14125641
Ref: 3f0214125641
Ref: library/binascii binascii CRYPT_ALPHABET14125745
Ref: 3f0314125745
Ref: library/binascii binascii BINHEX_ALPHABET14125918
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Ref: library/binascii binascii BASE85_ALPHABET14126077
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Ref: library/binascii binascii ASCII85_ALPHABET14126181
Ref: 3f0614126181
Ref: library/binascii binascii Z85_ALPHABET14126287
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Ref: library/binascii binascii BASE32_ALPHABET14126389
Ref: 3f0814126389
Ref: library/binascii binascii BASE32HEX_ALPHABET14126520
Ref: 3f0914126520
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-114127051
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-214127110
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-314127169
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-414127228
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-514127287
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-614127346
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-714127405
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-814127464
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-914127523
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-1014127582
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-1114127642
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-1214127688
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-1314127729
Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-1414127789
Node: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data14127849
Ref: library/quopri doc14128017
Ref: 3f0a14128017
Ref: library/quopri module-quopri14128017
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Ref: library/quopri quopri-encode-and-decode-mime-quoted-printable-data14128017
Ref: 3f0b14128017
Ref: library/quopri translation-repo14128017
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Ref: library/quopri quopri decode14128750
Ref: 2a9514128750
Ref: library/quopri quopri encode14129296
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Ref: library/quopri quopri decodestring14129963
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Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-114130633
Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-214130699
Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-314130758
Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-414130817
Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-514130876
Node: Structured Markup Processing Tools14130935
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Ref: library/markup structured-markup-processing-tools14131130
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Ref: library/markup translation-repo14131130
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Node: html — HyperText Markup Language support14132827
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Ref: library/html html-hypertext-markup-language-support14132993
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Ref: library/html module-html14132993
Ref: 6e14132993
Ref: library/html html escape14133259
Ref: 13b714133259
Ref: library/html html unescape14133849
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Ref: html — HyperText Markup Language support-Footnote-114134563
Node: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser14134636
Ref: library/html parser doc14134865
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Ref: library/html parser html-parser-simple-html-and-xhtml-parser14134865
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Ref: library/html parser module-html parser14134865
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Ref: library/html parser translation-repo14134865
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Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser14135241
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Ref: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser-Footnote-114136673
Node: Example HTML Parser Application14136744
Ref: library/html parser example-html-parser-application14136883
Ref: 3f1814136883
Node: HTMLParser Methods14138089
Ref: library/html parser htmlparser-methods14138249
Ref: 3f1914138249
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser feed14138376
Ref: 3f1a14138376
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser close14138651
Ref: 1a4414138651
Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser reset14139014
Ref: 3f1b14139014
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom SyntaxErr14260881
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Ref: library/xml dom xml dom WrongDocumentErr14260983
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Ref: library/xml dom dom-conformance14264192
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Node: Type Mapping14264449
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Ref: library/xml dom type-mapping14264534
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Node: Accessor Methods14265359
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Ref: library/xml dom dom-accessor-methods14265444
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml dom minidom Node toxml14274458
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml dom minidom Node toprettyxml14275299
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Ref: DOM Objects-Footnote-114276071
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom dom-example14276621
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom id214276621
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Ref: library/xml dom minidom minidom-and-the-dom-standard14278784
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Node: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees14281388
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom module-xml dom pulldom14281617
Ref: 12c14281617
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml-dom-pulldom-support-for-building-partial-dom-trees14281617
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom PullDOM14284275
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Ref: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees-Footnote-114285616
Node: DOMEventStream Objects14285692
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream getEvent14286063
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream expandNode14286563
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Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream reset14287285
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Node: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers14287320
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax make_parser14288597
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXParseException14292538
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Ref: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers-Footnote-114294305
Ref: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers-Footnote-214294382
Node: SAXException Objects14294417
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXException getMessage14294650
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Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXException getException14294768
Ref: 402e14294768
Node: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX14294880
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Ref: 402f14295118
Ref: library/xml sax handler module-xml sax handler14295118
Ref: 13314295118
Ref: library/xml sax handler translation-repo14295118
Ref: 403014295118
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml-sax-handler-base-classes-for-sax-handlers14295118
Ref: 403114295118
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler14295868
Ref: 401714295868
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler14296246
Ref: 403214296246
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler EntityResolver14296570
Ref: 403314296570
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler14297109
Ref: 402514297109
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler14297641
Ref: c3314297641
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_namespaces14298080
Ref: 403414298080
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_namespace_prefixes14298587
Ref: 403514298587
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_string_interning14299333
Ref: 403614299333
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_validation14300091
Ref: 403714300091
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_external_ges14300581
Ref: 19b714300581
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_external_pes14301594
Ref: 403814301594
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler all_features14302248
Ref: 403914302248
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_lexical_handler14302365
Ref: 403a14302365
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_declaration_handler14302796
Ref: 403b14302796
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_dom_node14303337
Ref: 403c14303337
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_xml_string14303984
Ref: 403d14303984
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler all_properties14304354
Ref: 403e14304354
Ref: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX-Footnote-114304743
Ref: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX-Footnote-214304819
Ref: xml sax handler — Βασικές κλάσεις για χειριστές SAX-Footnote-314304884
Node: ContentHandler Αντικείμενα14304935
Ref: library/xml sax handler content-handler-objects14305130
Ref: 403f14305130
Ref: library/xml sax handler contenthandler-objects14305130
Ref: 404014305130
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler setDocumentLocator14305575
Ref: 404114305575
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startDocument14307683
Ref: 404214307683
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endDocument14308106
Ref: 404314308106
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startPrefixMapping14308784
Ref: 404414308784
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endPrefixMapping14310880
Ref: 404514310880
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startElement14311396
Ref: 18e514311396
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endElement14312582
Ref: 18e614312582
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startElementNS14312961
Ref: 404714312961
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endElementNS14314738
Ref: 404914314738
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler characters14315166
Ref: 18e714315166
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler ignorableWhitespace14317303
Ref: 404a14317303
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler processingInstruction14318634
Ref: 404b14318634
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler skippedEntity14319441
Ref: 404c14319441
Node: DTDHandler Αντικείμενα14320310
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Ref: library/xml sax handler dtdhandler-objects14320551
Ref: 404e14320551
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler notationDecl14320743
Ref: 404f14320743
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler unparsedEntityDecl14320903
Ref: 405014320903
Node: EntityResolver Αντικείμενα14321112
Ref: library/xml sax handler entity-resolver-objects14321351
Ref: 405114321351
Ref: library/xml sax handler entityresolver-objects14321351
Ref: 405214321351
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler EntityResolver resolveEntity14321437
Ref: 405314321437
Node: ErrorHandler Αντικείμενα14321917
Ref: library/xml sax handler errorhandler-objects14322160
Ref: 405414322160
Ref: library/xml sax handler sax-error-handler14322160
Ref: 405514322160
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler error14323475
Ref: 405614323475
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler fatalError14324167
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler warning14324521
Ref: 405814324521
Node: LexicalHandler Αντικείμενα14325163
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Ref: library/xml sax handler lexicalhandler-objects14325360
Ref: 405a14325360
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler comment14326524
Ref: 405b14326524
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler startDTD14326783
Ref: 405c14326783
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler endDTD14326995
Ref: 405d14326995
Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler startCDATA14327107
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Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler endCDATA14327435
Ref: 405f14327435
Node: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities14327583
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Ref: 406014327832
Ref: library/xml sax utils module-xml sax saxutils14327832
Ref: 13414327832
Ref: library/xml sax utils translation-repo14327832
Ref: 406114327832
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml-sax-saxutils-sax-utilities14327832
Ref: 406214327832
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils escape14328213
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Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils unescape14328886
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Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils quoteattr14329364
Ref: 406514329364
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils XMLGenerator14330275
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Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils XMLFilterBase14331152
Ref: 406714331152
Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils prepare_input_source14331579
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Ref: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities-Footnote-114332080
Node: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers14332157
Ref: library/xml sax reader doc14332424
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Ref: library/xml sax reader module-xml sax xmlreader14332424
Ref: 13514332424
Ref: library/xml sax reader translation-repo14332424
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml-sax-xmlreader-interface-for-xml-parsers14332424
Ref: 406c14332424
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader14332924
Ref: 401a14332924
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser14333025
Ref: 406d14333025
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator14334157
Ref: 402714334157
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource14334495
Ref: 124c14334495
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesImpl14335251
Ref: 406e14335251
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNSImpl14335855
Ref: 406f14335855
Ref: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers-Footnote-114336611
Node: XMLReader Objects14336689
Ref: library/xml sax reader id114336824
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Ref: 407114336824
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader parse14336951
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getContentHandler14337575
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setContentHandler14337680
Ref: 407314337680
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getDTDHandler14337864
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setDTDHandler14337961
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getEntityResolver14338129
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setEntityResolver14338234
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getErrorHandler14338527
Ref: 407814338527
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setErrorHandler14338628
Ref: 407914338628
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setLocale14338840
Ref: 407a14338840
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getFeature14339214
Ref: 407b14339214
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setFeature14339504
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getProperty14339801
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setProperty14340100
Ref: 407d14340100
Node: IncrementalParser Objects14340402
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Ref: library/xml sax reader incrementalparser-objects14340561
Ref: 407f14340561
Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser feed14340719
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser close14340803
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser reset14341050
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Node: Locator Objects14341320
Ref: library/xml sax reader id214341481
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Ref: library/xml sax reader locator-objects14341481
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getColumnNumber14341592
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getLineNumber14341703
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getPublicId14341810
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getSystemId14341912
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setSystemId14342468
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setEncoding14342701
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setByteStream14343193
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getByteStream14343634
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getCharacterStream14344172
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Node: The Attributes Interface14344281
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getValue14345085
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Node: The AttributesNS Interface14345177
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getValueByQName14345653
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Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getQNameByName14345886
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Ref: xml parsers expat — Γρήγορη ανάλυση XML χρησιμοποιώντας το Expat-Footnote-114353179
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ExternalEntityParserCreate14356734
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetParamEntityParsing14357676
Ref: 40b314357676
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser UseForeignDTD14358229
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionActivationThreshold14362548
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetBillionLaughsAttackProtectionMaximumAmplification14363869
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser specified_attributes14372947
Ref: 40b214372947
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorByteIndex14374466
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Ref: 40bf14375140
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentLineNumber14376354
Ref: 40c214376354
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser XmlDeclHandler14377188
Ref: 40c314377188
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartDoctypeDeclHandler14378138
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndDoctypeDeclHandler14378698
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ElementDeclHandler14378969
Ref: 192214378969
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser AttlistDeclHandler14379333
Ref: 40c414379333
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartElementHandler14380937
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndElementHandler14381640
Ref: 40c614381640
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ProcessingInstructionHandler14381771
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CharacterDataHandler14381924
Ref: 40ba14381924
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser UnparsedEntityDeclHandler14383149
Ref: 40ae14383149
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EntityDeclHandler14383767
Ref: 40ca14383767
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser NotationDeclHandler14385061
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartNamespaceDeclHandler14385507
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndNamespaceDeclHandler14385950
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CommentHandler14386818
Ref: 40cd14386818
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartCdataSectionHandler14387103
Ref: 40c814387103
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndCdataSectionHandler14387507
Ref: 40c914387507
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser DefaultHandler14387638
Ref: 40ce14387638
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser DefaultHandlerExpand14388180
Ref: 40cf14388180
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser NotStandaloneHandler14388550
Ref: 40d014388550
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ExternalEntityRefHandler14389426
Ref: 40ac14389426
Ref: Αντικείμενα XMLParser-Footnote-114392019
Ref: Αντικείμενα XMLParser-Footnote-214392079
Ref: Αντικείμενα XMLParser-Footnote-314392139
Node: Εξαιρέσεις ExpatError14392190
Ref: library/pyexpat expaterror-exceptions14392425
Ref: 40d114392425
Ref: library/pyexpat expaterror-objects14392425
Ref: 40a214392425
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError code14392643
Ref: 40d214392643
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError lineno14393621
Ref: 40b714393621
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError offset14393823
Ref: 40b814393823
Node: Παράδειγμα14394036
Ref: library/pyexpat example14394301
Ref: 40d514394301
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-example14394301
Ref: 40d614394301
Node: Περιγραφές Μοντέλου Περιεχομένου14395523
Ref: library/pyexpat content-model-descriptions14395798
Ref: 40d714395798
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-content-models14395798
Ref: 40d814395798
Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat model14395798
Ref: 13114395798
Node: Σταθερές σφαλμάτων Expat14398912
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-error-constants14399158
Ref: 40d914399158
Ref: library/pyexpat expat-errors14399158
Ref: 40da14399158
Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat errors14399158
Ref: 13014399158
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors codes14399797
Ref: 40d414399797
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors messages14400049
Ref: 40d314400049
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY14400327
Ref: 40db14400327
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF14400398
Ref: 40dc14400398
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF14400729
Ref: 40dd14400729
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF14401039
Ref: 40de14401039
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE14401333
Ref: 40df14401333
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING14401582
Ref: 40e014401582
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN14401659
Ref: 40e114401659
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT14402011
Ref: 40e214402011
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI14402214
Ref: 40e314402214
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS14402437
Ref: 40e414402437
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY14402733
Ref: 40e514402733
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF14402903
Ref: 40e614402903
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR14403105
Ref: 40e714403105
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF14403263
Ref: 40e814403263
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SYNTAX14403591
Ref: 40e914403591
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH14403751
Ref: 40ea14403751
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN14403976
Ref: 40eb14403976
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY14404258
Ref: 40ec14404258
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING14404426
Ref: 40ed14404426
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION14404605
Ref: 40ee14404605
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING14404763
Ref: 40ef14404763
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE14404856
Ref: 40f014404856
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE14405210
Ref: 40f114405210
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE14405285
Ref: 40f214405285
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD14405365
Ref: 40f314405365
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING14405687
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Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX14406119
Ref: 40f514406119
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX14406364
Ref: 40f614406364
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE14406619
Ref: 40f714406619
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_XML_DECL14406788
Ref: 40f814406788
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL14406955
Ref: 40f914406955
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PUBLICID14407181
Ref: 40fa14407181
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED14407381
Ref: 40fb14407381
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED14407794
Ref: 40fc14407794
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ABORTED14408027
Ref: 40fd14408027
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_FINISHED14408191
Ref: 40fe14408191
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE14408645
Ref: 40ff14408645
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML14408714
Ref: 410014408714
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS14409058
Ref: 410114409058
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI14409341
Ref: 410214409341
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT14409693
Ref: 410314409693
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER14409866
Ref: 410414409866
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH14410032
Ref: 410514410032
Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NOT_STARTED14410286
Ref: 1af414410286
Node: Πρωτόκολλα Internet και Υποστήριξη14410556
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Ref: library/internet internet14410748
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Ref: library/internet internet-protocols-and-support14410748
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Ref: library/internet translation-repo14410748
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Node: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller14413054
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Ref: library/webbrowser module-webbrowser14413260
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Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser-convenient-web-browser-controller14413260
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Ref: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller-Footnote-114415736
Ref: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller-Footnote-214415806
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Ref: library/webbrowser command-line-interface14416084
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Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser-cli14416084
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Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-new-window14416316
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Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-t14416404
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Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-new-tab14416404
Ref: 411114416404
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser Error14416695
Ref: 411214416695
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open14416833
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Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open_new14417742
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Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open_new_tab14418011
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Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser get14418290
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Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser register14418528
Ref: 411614418528
Node: Browser controller objects14425790
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Ref: 411714425935
Ref: library/webbrowser browser-controllers14425935
Ref: 411814425935
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller name14426152
Ref: 79914426152
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open14426236
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Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open_new14426506
Ref: 411a14426506
Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open_new_tab14426733
Ref: 411b14426733
Node: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation14426939
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Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref14427185
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Ref: library/wsgiref translation-repo14427185
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-wsgi-utilities-and-reference-implementation14427185
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Ref: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation-Footnote-114429377
Ref: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation-Footnote-214429441
Ref: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation-Footnote-314429483
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Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref util14429710
Ref: 12614429710
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-util-wsgi-environment-utilities14429710
Ref: 411f14429710
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util guess_scheme14430254
Ref: 412114430254
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util request_uri14430902
Ref: 412214430902
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util application_uri14431236
Ref: 412314431236
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util shift_path_info14431512
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util setup_testing_defaults14433179
Ref: 412514433179
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util is_hop_by_hop14434927
Ref: 1c4314434927
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util FileWrapper14435108
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Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-114436372
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-214436414
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-314436456
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-414436498
Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-514436540
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-headers-wsgi-response-header-tools14436849
Ref: 412814436849
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers14437112
Ref: 124914437112
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers get_all14439355
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers add_header14439800
Ref: 412a14439800
Ref: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools-Footnote-114440961
Node: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server14441003
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref simple_server14441255
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server make_server14441849
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server demo_app14442699
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer14443232
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer set_app14443969
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer get_app14444122
Ref: 413114444122
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler14444473
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler get_environ14445094
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler get_stderr14445604
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler handle14445795
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Ref: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server-Footnote-114446074
Ref: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server-Footnote-214446116
Node: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker14446158
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref validate14446412
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-validate-wsgi-conformance-checker14446412
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref validate validator14447312
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Ref: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker-Footnote-114449529
Ref: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker-Footnote-214449571
Ref: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker-Footnote-314449630
Node: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes14449672
Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref handlers14449928
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-handlers-server-gateway-base-classes14449928
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers CGIHandler14450319
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers IISCGIHandler14450973
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler run14454520
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler _write14454860
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler _flush14455207
Ref: 414114455207
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_stdin14455424
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_stderr14455635
Ref: 413e14455635
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler add_cgi_vars14455848
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_multithread14456396
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_multiprocess14456688
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_run_once14456982
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler os_environ14457226
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler server_software14457733
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_scheme14458346
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler setup_environ14458711
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler log_exception14459379
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler traceback_limit14459887
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_output14460116
Ref: 415014460116
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_status14461304
Ref: 415114461304
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_headers14461516
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_body14461815
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_file_wrapper14462164
Ref: 414d14462164
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler sendfile14462444
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler origin_server14463028
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler http_version14463556
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers read_environ14463785
Ref: 156214463785
Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-114464709
Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-214464751
Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-314464793
Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-414464835
Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-514464877
Node: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking14464919
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Ref: 12514465142
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-types-wsgi-types-for-static-type-checking14465142
Ref: 415614465142
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types StartResponse14465389
Ref: 412d14465389
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types WSGIEnvironment14465532
Ref: 412014465532
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types WSGIApplication14465646
Ref: 415714465646
Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types InputStream14465758
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types ErrorStream14465872
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Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types FileWrapper14465986
Ref: 412714465986
Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-114466231
Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-214466273
Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-314466343
Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-414466385
Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-514466451
Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-614466517
Node: Examples<22>14466601
Ref: library/wsgiref examples14466767
Ref: 415814466767
Node: urllib — URL handling modules14469597
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Ref: library/urllib translation-repo14469849
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Ref: library/urllib urllib-url-handling-modules14469849
Ref: 415b14469849
Ref: urllib — URL handling modules-Footnote-114470430
Node: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs14470494
Ref: library/urllib request doc14470742
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Ref: library/urllib request module-urllib request14470742
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Ref: library/urllib request translation-repo14470742
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-extensible-library-for-opening-urls14470742
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlopen14471887
Ref: 57f14471887
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request install_opener14475466
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request build_opener14475924
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request pathname2url14477046
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request url2pathname14478215
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request getproxies14480170
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request14481333
Ref: 138114481333
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector14485894
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler14486111
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDefaultErrorHandler14486276
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler14486474
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPCookieProcessor14486564
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyHandler14486671
Ref: 1fa514486671
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr14487777
Ref: 416c14487777
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm14487899
Ref: 416d14487899
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth14488145
Ref: 124514488145
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractBasicAuthHandler14488538
Ref: 1e6614488538
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPBasicAuthHandler14489887
Ref: 417014489887
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyBasicAuthHandler14490356
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractDigestAuthHandler14490701
Ref: 1f5f14490701
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDigestAuthHandler14491238
Ref: 417214491238
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyDigestAuthHandler14492121
Ref: 417314492121
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPHandler14492467
Ref: 10b814492467
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPSHandler14492557
Ref: 15ca14492557
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FileHandler14492908
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request DataHandler14492976
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FTPHandler14493070
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler14493134
Ref: 1c9d14493134
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request UnknownHandler14493268
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor14493363
Ref: 416914493363
Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-114494249
Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-214494323
Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-314494374
Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-414494443
Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-514494502
Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-614494561
Node: Request Objects14494620
Ref: library/urllib request id114494757
Ref: 417414494757
Ref: library/urllib request request-objects14494757
Ref: 417514494757
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request full_url14495029
Ref: 138314495029
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request type14495341
Ref: 417614495341
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request host14495399
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request origin_req_host14495533
Ref: 417814495533
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request selector14495635
Ref: 417914495635
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request data14495807
Ref: 138414495807
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request unverifiable14496085
Ref: 417a14496085
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request method14496222
Ref: 138214496222
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_method14496938
Ref: 151214496938
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request add_header14497387
Ref: 416a14497387
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request add_unredirected_header14498075
Ref: 417b14498075
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request has_header14498209
Ref: 417c14498209
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request remove_header14498358
Ref: 138614498358
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_full_url14498541
Ref: 417d14498541
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request set_proxy14498723
Ref: 417e14498723
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_header14498984
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request header_items14499158
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Ref: Request Objects-Footnote-114499541
Node: OpenerDirector Objects14499600
Ref: library/urllib request opener-director-objects14499765
Ref: 418114499765
Ref: library/urllib request openerdirector-objects14499765
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector add_handler14499897
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector open14501463
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector error14502148
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Node: BaseHandler Objects14503940
Ref: library/urllib request base-handler-objects14504117
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler add_parent14504357
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler default_open14505001
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler unknown_open14506064
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler http_error_default14506484
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Ref: library/urllib request http-error-nnn14507378
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Ref: library/urllib request protocol-request14507890
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Ref: library/urllib request protocol-response14508307
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Node: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects14508896
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Ref: library/urllib request httpredirecthandler-objects14509078
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler redirect_request14509596
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30114510695
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30214510974
Ref: 419514510974
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30314511161
Ref: 419614511161
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30714511352
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30814511634
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Ref: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects-Footnote-114511981
Ref: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects-Footnote-214512040
Node: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects14512099
Ref: library/urllib request http-cookie-processor14512282
Ref: 419914512282
Ref: library/urllib request httpcookieprocessor-objects14512282
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPCookieProcessor cookiejar14512421
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Node: ProxyHandler Objects14512556
Ref: library/urllib request proxy-handler14512735
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Ref: library/urllib request proxyhandler-objects14512735
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Node: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects14513221
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Ref: library/urllib request httppasswordmgr-objects14513409
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr add_password14513595
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr find_user_password14513950
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Node: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects14514332
Ref: library/urllib request http-password-mgr-with-prior-auth14514532
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Ref: library/urllib request httppasswordmgrwithpriorauth-objects14514532
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth add_password14514786
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth find_user_password14515208
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth update_authenticated14515375
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth is_authenticated14515579
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Node: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects14515763
Ref: library/urllib request abstract-basic-auth-handler14515968
Ref: 41a514515968
Ref: library/urllib request abstractbasicauthhandler-objects14515968
Ref: 41a614515968
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractBasicAuthHandler http_error_auth_reqed14516053
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Node: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects14516882
Ref: library/urllib request http-basic-auth-handler14517080
Ref: 41a814517080
Ref: library/urllib request httpbasicauthhandler-objects14517080
Ref: 41a914517080
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPBasicAuthHandler http_error_40114517159
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Node: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects14517324
Ref: library/urllib request proxy-basic-auth-handler14517523
Ref: 41ab14517523
Ref: library/urllib request proxybasicauthhandler-objects14517523
Ref: 41ac14517523
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyBasicAuthHandler http_error_40714517604
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Node: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects14517770
Ref: library/urllib request abstract-digest-auth-handler14517970
Ref: 41ae14517970
Ref: library/urllib request abstractdigestauthhandler-objects14517970
Ref: 41af14517970
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractDigestAuthHandler http_error_auth_reqed14518059
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Node: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects14518445
Ref: library/urllib request http-digest-auth-handler14518646
Ref: 41b114518646
Ref: library/urllib request httpdigestauthhandler-objects14518646
Ref: 41b214518646
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDigestAuthHandler http_error_40114518727
Ref: 41b314518727
Node: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects14518893
Ref: library/urllib request proxy-digest-auth-handler14519080
Ref: 41b414519080
Ref: library/urllib request proxydigestauthhandler-objects14519080
Ref: 41b514519080
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyDigestAuthHandler http_error_40714519163
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Node: HTTPHandler Objects14519330
Ref: library/urllib request http-handler-objects14519508
Ref: 41b714519508
Ref: library/urllib request httphandler-objects14519508
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPHandler http_open14519569
Ref: 41b914519569
Node: HTTPSHandler Objects14519713
Ref: library/urllib request https-handler-objects14519880
Ref: 41ba14519880
Ref: library/urllib request httpshandler-objects14519880
Ref: 41bb14519880
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPSHandler https_open14519943
Ref: 41bc14519943
Node: FileHandler Objects14520090
Ref: library/urllib request file-handler-objects14520257
Ref: 41bd14520257
Ref: library/urllib request filehandler-objects14520257
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FileHandler file_open14520318
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Node: DataHandler Objects14520642
Ref: library/urllib request data-handler-objects14520807
Ref: 41c014520807
Ref: library/urllib request datahandler-objects14520807
Ref: 41c114520807
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request DataHandler data_open14520868
Ref: 41c214520868
Ref: DataHandler Objects-Footnote-114521434
Node: FTPHandler Objects14521493
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Ref: 41c314521662
Ref: library/urllib request ftphandler-objects14521662
Ref: 41c414521662
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FTPHandler ftp_open14521721
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Node: CacheFTPHandler Objects14521877
Ref: library/urllib request cacheftp-handler-objects14522049
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Ref: library/urllib request cacheftphandler-objects14522049
Ref: 41c714522049
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler setTimeout14522231
Ref: 41c814522231
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler setMaxConns14522332
Ref: 41c914522332
Node: UnknownHandler Objects14522440
Ref: library/urllib request unknown-handler-objects14522620
Ref: 41ca14522620
Ref: library/urllib request unknownhandler-objects14522620
Ref: 41cb14522620
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request UnknownHandler unknown_open14522687
Ref: 41cc14522687
Node: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects14522785
Ref: library/urllib request http-error-processor-objects14522954
Ref: 41cd14522954
Ref: library/urllib request httperrorprocessor-objects14522954
Ref: 41ce14522954
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor http_response14523029
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor https_response14523508
Ref: 41d014523508
Node: Examples<23>14523679
Ref: library/urllib request examples14523842
Ref: 41d114523842
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-examples14523842
Ref: 41d214523842
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-examples14529725
Ref: 41d414529725
Node: Legacy interface14531272
Ref: library/urllib request legacy-interface14531436
Ref: 41d514531436
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlretrieve14531667
Ref: 58014531667
Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlcleanup14534335
Ref: 1fac14534335
Node: urllib request Restrictions14534504
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-restrictions14534647
Ref: 41d714534647
Node: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib14537133
Ref: library/urllib request module-urllib response14537393
Ref: 11514537393
Ref: library/urllib request urllib-response-response-classes-used-by-urllib14537393
Ref: 41d814537393
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl14537844
Ref: 416014537844
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl url14537888
Ref: 1b0814537888
Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl headers14538027
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl status14538173
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl geturl14538284
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl code14538576
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Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl getcode14538721
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Ref: library/urllib parse module-urllib parse14539135
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Ref: library/urllib parse translation-repo14539135
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Ref: library/urllib parse urllib-parse-parse-urls-into-components14539135
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Ref: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components-Footnote-114541156
Ref: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components-Footnote-214541228
Ref: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components-Footnote-314541287
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Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse parse_qsl14553279
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Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urlunsplit14555369
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Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-114562011
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Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-314562136
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Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-714562396
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Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-914562514
Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-1014562573
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Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-1214562693
Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-1314562753
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Ref: URL parsing security-Footnote-114564507
Ref: URL parsing security-Footnote-214564569
Node: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes14564628
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Ref: 41eb14564797
Ref: library/urllib parse parsing-ascii-encoded-bytes14564797
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Node: Structured Parse Results14566890
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Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urllib parse SplitResult geturl14567466
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Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-114579064
Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-214579123
Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-314579182
Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-414579219
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Ref: library/urllib error translation-repo14579831
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Ref: library/urllib error urllib error URLError reason14580502
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Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError code14581288
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Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError reason14581555
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Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError headers14581704
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Ref: library/urllib error urllib error ContentTooShortError14582011
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Ref: library/urllib error urllib error ContentTooShortError content14582288
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Ref: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request-Footnote-114582419
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Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser site_maps14585228
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Ref: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt-Footnote-114586146
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Ref: library/http client http client HTTP_PORT14620796
Ref: 422114620796
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPS_PORT14620905
Ref: 422214620905
Ref: library/http client http client responses14621017
Ref: 422314621017
Ref: http client — HTTP protocol client-Footnote-114621490
Ref: http client — HTTP protocol client-Footnote-214621561
Ref: http client — HTTP protocol client-Footnote-314621612
Node: HTTPConnection Objects14621671
Ref: library/http client httpconnection-objects14621795
Ref: 422414621795
Ref: library/http client id114621795
Ref: 422514621795
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection request14621928
Ref: 106a14621928
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection getresponse14625799
Ref: 11bd14625799
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection set_debuglevel14626388
Ref: 422714626388
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection set_tunnel14626800
Ref: 15cf14626800
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection get_proxy_response_headers14628490
Ref: 1c7914628490
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection connect14628779
Ref: 422814628779
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection close14629143
Ref: 422614629143
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection blocksize14629230
Ref: 422914629230
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection max_response_headers14629371
Ref: 422a14629371
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection putrequest14629790
Ref: 422b14629790
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection putheader14630347
Ref: 422c14630347
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection endheaders14630690
Ref: 106b14630690
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection send14632097
Ref: 422d14632097
Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-114632476
Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-214632549
Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-314632622
Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-414632695
Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-514632763
Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-614632821
Node: HTTPResponse Objects14632880
Ref: library/http client httpresponse-objects14633025
Ref: 422e14633025
Ref: library/http client id214633025
Ref: 422f14633025
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse read14633456
Ref: 1ad014633456
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse readinto14633577
Ref: 147b14633577
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse getheader14633774
Ref: 423014633774
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse getheaders14634169
Ref: 423114634169
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse fileno14634264
Ref: 423214634264
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse msg14634364
Ref: 421214634364
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse version14634583
Ref: 423314634583
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse url14634711
Ref: 423414634711
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse headers14634848
Ref: 423514634848
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse status14634994
Ref: 423614634994
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse reason14635075
Ref: 416114635075
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse debuglevel14635158
Ref: 423714635158
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse closed14635360
Ref: 423814635360
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse geturl14635448
Ref: 423914635448
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse info14635586
Ref: 423a14635586
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse getcode14635731
Ref: 423b14635731
Node: Examples<24>14635878
Ref: library/http client examples14636020
Ref: 423c14636020
Node: HTTPMessage Objects14638908
Ref: library/http client httpmessage-objects14639021
Ref: 423d14639021
Ref: library/http client id314639021
Ref: 423e14639021
Ref: library/http client http client HTTPMessage14639082
Ref: 421114639082
Node: ftplib — FTP protocol client14639308
Ref: library/ftplib doc14639517
Ref: 423f14639517
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib-ftp-protocol-client14639517
Ref: 424014639517
Ref: library/ftplib module-ftplib14639517
Ref: 6114639517
Ref: library/ftplib translation-repo14639517
Ref: 424114639517
Ref: ftplib — FTP protocol client-Footnote-114641368
Ref: ftplib — FTP protocol client-Footnote-214641434
Ref: ftplib — FTP protocol client-Footnote-314641492
Node: Reference<7>14641551
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib-reference14641630
Ref: 424214641630
Ref: library/ftplib reference14641630
Ref: 424314641630
Node: FTP objects14641738
Ref: library/ftplib ftp-objects14641822
Ref: 424414641822
Ref: library/ftplib id114641822
Ref: 424514641822
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP14641867
Ref: cca14641867
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP set_debuglevel14644792
Ref: 424714644792
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP connect14645357
Ref: 424614645357
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP getwelcome14646776
Ref: 424814646776
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP login14647040
Ref: 424914647040
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP abort14648091
Ref: 424a14648091
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP sendcmd14648248
Ref: 424b14648248
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP voidcmd14648502
Ref: 424c14648502
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP retrbinary14648916
Ref: 424e14648916
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP retrlines14649994
Ref: 425014649994
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP set_pasv14650739
Ref: 425114650739
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP storbinary14650907
Ref: 16ae14650907
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP storlines14652115
Ref: 425214652115
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP transfercmd14652621
Ref: 424f14652621
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP ntransfercmd14653859
Ref: 425314653859
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP mlsd14654237
Ref: 146f14654237
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP nlst14655000
Ref: 147014655000
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP dir14655462
Ref: 147114655462
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP rename14656179
Ref: 425414656179
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP delete14656292
Ref: 425514656292
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP cwd14656584
Ref: 425714656584
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP mkd14656677
Ref: 425814656677
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP pwd14656767
Ref: 425914656767
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP rmd14656871
Ref: 425a14656871
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP size14656974
Ref: 425b14656974
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP quit14657333
Ref: 425c14657333
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP close14657773
Ref: 425d14657773
Ref: FTP objects-Footnote-114658252
Ref: FTP objects-Footnote-214658310
Ref: FTP objects-Footnote-314658369
Ref: FTP objects-Footnote-414658427
Node: FTP_TLS objects14658486
Ref: library/ftplib ftp-tls-objects14658595
Ref: 425e14658595
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS14658648
Ref: ccb14658648
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS auth14662402
Ref: 426014662402
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS ccc14662715
Ref: 146e14662715
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS prot_p14662982
Ref: 425f14662982
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS prot_c14663073
Ref: 426114663073
Ref: FTP_TLS objects-Footnote-114663191
Ref: FTP_TLS objects-Footnote-214663250
Ref: FTP_TLS objects-Footnote-314663308
Node: Module variables14663367
Ref: library/ftplib module-variables14663456
Ref: 426214663456
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_reply14663511
Ref: 424d14663511
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_temp14663635
Ref: 426314663635
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_perm14663805
Ref: 425614663805
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_proto14663975
Ref: 426414663975
Ref: library/ftplib ftplib all_errors14664213
Ref: 426514664213
Node: poplib — POP3 protocol client14664825
Ref: library/poplib doc14665031
Ref: 426614665031
Ref: library/poplib module-poplib14665031
Ref: b114665031
Ref: library/poplib poplib-pop3-protocol-client14665031
Ref: 426714665031
Ref: library/poplib translation-repo14665031
Ref: 426814665031
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP314666303
Ref: cf014666303
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3_SSL14667241
Ref: cf114667241
Ref: library/poplib poplib error_proto14668846
Ref: 154514668846
Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-114669525
Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-214669591
Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-314669650
Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-414669709
Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-514669768
Node: POP3 Objects14669830
Ref: library/poplib id114669931
Ref: 426914669931
Ref: library/poplib pop3-objects14669931
Ref: 426a14669931
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 set_debuglevel14670162
Ref: 426b14670162
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 getwelcome14670635
Ref: 426c14670635
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 capa14670734
Ref: 132614670734
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 user14670933
Ref: 426d14670933
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 pass_14671059
Ref: 426e14671059
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 apop14671262
Ref: 426f14671262
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 rpop14671388
Ref: 427014671388
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 stat14671515
Ref: 427114671515
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 list14671655
Ref: 427214671655
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 retr14671855
Ref: 427314671855
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 dele14672026
Ref: 427414672026
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 rset14672312
Ref: 427514672312
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 noop14672395
Ref: 427614672395
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 quit14672479
Ref: 154414672479
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 top14672577
Ref: 427714672577
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 uidl14673122
Ref: 427814673122
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 utf814673414
Ref: 11fa14673414
Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 stls14673632
Ref: 132714673632
Ref: POP3 Objects-Footnote-114674441
Ref: POP3 Objects-Footnote-214674500
Ref: POP3 Objects-Footnote-314674559
Node: POP3 Example14674618
Ref: library/poplib id214674719
Ref: 427914674719
Ref: library/poplib pop3-example14674719
Ref: 427a14674719
Node: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client14675231
Ref: library/imaplib doc14675439
Ref: 427b14675439
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib-imap4-protocol-client14675439
Ref: 427c14675439
Ref: library/imaplib module-imaplib14675439
Ref: 7714675439
Ref: library/imaplib translation-repo14675439
Ref: 427d14675439
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP414676275
Ref: 31a14676275
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 error14677516
Ref: 1a0c14677516
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 abort14677666
Ref: 427e14677666
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 readonly14677935
Ref: 427f14677935
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4_SSL14678299
Ref: cd314678299
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4_stream14679780
Ref: cd514679780
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Internaldate2tuple14680055
Ref: 428014680055
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Int2AP14680316
Ref: 428114680316
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib ParseFlags14680474
Ref: 428214680474
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Time2Internaldate14680605
Ref: 428314680605
Ref: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client-Footnote-114681978
Ref: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client-Footnote-214682045
Ref: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client-Footnote-314682104
Node: IMAP4 Objects14682163
Ref: library/imaplib id114682268
Ref: 428414682268
Ref: library/imaplib imap4-objects14682268
Ref: 428514682268
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 append14683770
Ref: 428614683770
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 authenticate14683882
Ref: 428714683882
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 check14684742
Ref: 428814684742
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 close14684814
Ref: cd714684814
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 copy14685007
Ref: 428914685007
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 create14685127
Ref: 428a14685127
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 delete14685213
Ref: 428b14685213
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 deleteacl14685299
Ref: 428c14685299
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 enable14685417
Ref: 11c214685417
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 expunge14685738
Ref: 428d14685738
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 fetch14685994
Ref: 428e14685994
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getacl14686282
Ref: 428f14686282
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getannotation14686444
Ref: 429014686444
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getquota14686653
Ref: 429114686653
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getquotaroot14686835
Ref: 429214686835
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 idle14687031
Ref: 4bb14687031
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 Idler burst14688604
Ref: 429414688604
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 list14690804
Ref: 429514690804
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 login14691081
Ref: 429614691081
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 login_cram_md514691222
Ref: 1a0b14691222
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 logout14691613
Ref: e5314691613
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 lsub14691834
Ref: 429714691834
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 myrights14692132
Ref: 429814692132
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 namespace14692259
Ref: 429914692259
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 noop14692356
Ref: 429a14692356
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 open14692424
Ref: cd414692424
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 partial14693394
Ref: 429f14693394
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 proxyauth14693579
Ref: 42a014693579
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 read14693739
Ref: 429b14693739
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 readline14693863
Ref: 429c14693863
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 recent14693983
Ref: 42a114693983
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 rename14694146
Ref: 42a214694146
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 response14694262
Ref: 429314694262
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 search14694428
Ref: 42a314694428
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 select14695112
Ref: 42a414695112
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 send14695415
Ref: 429d14695415
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setacl14695637
Ref: 42a514695637
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setannotation14695808
Ref: 42a614695808
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setquota14696005
Ref: 42a714696005
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 shutdown14696187
Ref: 429e14696187
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 socket14696376
Ref: 42a814696376
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 sort14696470
Ref: 42a914696470
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 starttls14697432
Ref: 15cc14697432
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 status14697985
Ref: 42aa14697985
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 store14698089
Ref: 42ab14698089
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 subscribe14699302
Ref: 42ac14699302
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 thread14699381
Ref: 42ad14699381
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 uid14700518
Ref: 42ae14700518
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 unsubscribe14700844
Ref: 42af14700844
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 unselect14700929
Ref: cd614700929
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 xatom14701336
Ref: 42b014701336
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 PROTOCOL_VERSION14701548
Ref: 42b114701548
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 debug14701690
Ref: 42b214701690
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 utf8_enabled14701900
Ref: 11c314701900
Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 file14702152
Ref: 2f814702152
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-114702601
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-214702660
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-314702719
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-414702778
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-514702837
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-614702896
Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-714702955
Node: IMAP4 Example14703014
Ref: library/imaplib id214703119
Ref: 42b314703119
Ref: library/imaplib imap4-example14703119
Ref: 42b414703119
Node: smtplib — SMTP protocol client14703625
Ref: library/smtplib doc14703845
Ref: 42b514703845
Ref: library/smtplib module-smtplib14703845
Ref: d214703845
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib-smtp-protocol-client14703845
Ref: 42b614703845
Ref: library/smtplib translation-repo14703845
Ref: 42b714703845
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP14704506
Ref: cfa14704506
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP default_port14706743
Ref: 42ba14706743
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP_SSL14707312
Ref: cfb14707312
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP_SSL default_port14708305
Ref: 42bb14708305
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib LMTP14709085
Ref: cfc14709085
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPException14710034
Ref: 134a14710034
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPServerDisconnected14710313
Ref: 42bc14710313
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPResponseException14710548
Ref: 42bd14710548
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPResponseException smtp_code14710773
Ref: 42be14710773
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPResponseException smtp_error14710838
Ref: 42bf14710838
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPSenderRefused14710907
Ref: 42c014710907
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPRecipientsRefused14711155
Ref: 42c114711155
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPRecipientsRefused recipients14711247
Ref: 42c214711247
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPDataError14711441
Ref: 42c314711441
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPConnectError14711544
Ref: 42b814711544
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPHeloError14711672
Ref: 42c414711672
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPNotSupportedError14711766
Ref: 1f9f14711766
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPAuthenticationError14711917
Ref: 42c514711917
Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-114712666
Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-214712733
Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-314712791
Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-414712850
Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-514712909
Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-614712967
Node: SMTP Objects14713026
Ref: library/smtplib id114713128
Ref: 42c614713128
Ref: library/smtplib smtp-objects14713128
Ref: 42c714713128
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP set_debuglevel14713232
Ref: 120914713232
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP docmd14713607
Ref: 42c814713607
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP connect14714265
Ref: 191314714265
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP helo14715084
Ref: 42c914715084
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP ehlo14715560
Ref: 42cb14715560
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP ehlo_or_helo_if_needed14716495
Ref: 42d014716495
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP has_extn14716845
Ref: 42cc14716845
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP verify14717048
Ref: 42d114717048
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP login14717487
Ref: 42d214717487
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP auth14719080
Ref: 120814719080
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP starttls14721333
Ref: 14e414721333
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP sendmail14722919
Ref: 120a14722919
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP send_message14726424
Ref: 120b14726424
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP quit14728508
Ref: 42b914728508
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP helo_resp14729005
Ref: 42ca14729005
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP ehlo_resp14729113
Ref: 42cd14729113
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP does_esmtp14729221
Ref: 42ce14729221
Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP esmtp_features14729357
Ref: 42cf14729357
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-114729549
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-214729607
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-314729666
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-414729725
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-514729783
Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-614729841
Node: SMTP Example14729900
Ref: library/smtplib id214730002
Ref: 42d314730002
Ref: library/smtplib smtp-example14730002
Ref: 42d414730002
Ref: SMTP Example-Footnote-114731444
Node: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 956214731502
Ref: library/uuid doc14731737
Ref: 42d514731737
Ref: library/uuid module-uuid14731737
Ref: 11914731737
Ref: library/uuid translation-repo14731737
Ref: 42d614731737
Ref: library/uuid uuid-uuid-objects-according-to-rfc-956214731737
Ref: 42d714731737
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID14733004
Ref: 42d914733004
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID safe14733063
Ref: 42da14733063
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID unsafe14733187
Ref: 42db14733187
Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID unknown14733291
Ref: 42dc14733291
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID14733439
Ref: e2514733439
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID bytes14735405
Ref: 42de14735405
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID bytes_le14735541
Ref: 42df14735541
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID fields14735700
Ref: 42e014735700
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_low14736085
Ref: 42e114736085
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_mid14736374
Ref: 42e214736374
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_hi_version14736669
Ref: 42e314736669
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq_hi_variant14736962
Ref: 42e414736962
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq_low14737249
Ref: 42e514737249
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID node14737534
Ref: 42e614737534
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time14737822
Ref: 42e714737822
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq14738442
Ref: 42e814738442
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID hex14738645
Ref: 1ab314738645
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID int14738740
Ref: 42dd14738740
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID urn14738809
Ref: 42e914738809
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID variant14738894
Ref: 42ea14738894
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID version14739165
Ref: 42ef14739165
Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID is_safe14739389
Ref: f6514739389
Ref: library/uuid uuid getnode14739647
Ref: f6614739647
Ref: library/uuid uuid-factory-functions14740641
Ref: 42d814740641
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid114740641
Ref: f6714740641
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid314741182
Ref: 56114741182
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid414741466
Ref: 56314741466
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid514741609
Ref: 56214741609
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid614741896
Ref: 53e14741896
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid714742544
Ref: 53f14742544
Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid814742893
Ref: 54014742893
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_DNS14743723
Ref: 42f014743723
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_URL14743862
Ref: 42f114743862
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_OID14743972
Ref: 42f214743972
Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_X50014744087
Ref: 42f314744087
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_NCS14744358
Ref: 42eb14744358
Ref: library/uuid uuid RFC_412214744437
Ref: 42ec14744437
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_MICROSOFT14744651
Ref: 42ed14744651
Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_FUTURE14744742
Ref: 42ee14744742
Ref: library/uuid uuid NIL14744892
Ref: 54114744892
Ref: library/uuid uuid MAX14745072
Ref: 54214745072
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-114745628
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-214745692
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-314745751
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-414745810
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-514745869
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-614745928
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-714745987
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-814746058
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-914746129
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-1014746200
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-1114746272
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-1214746344
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-1314746416
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-1414746488
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-1514746548
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-1614746608
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-1714746668
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-1814746740
Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 9562-Footnote-1914746813
Node: Command-Line Usage14746873
Ref: library/uuid command-line-usage14746991
Ref: 42f414746991
Ref: library/uuid uuid-cli14746991
Ref: 86214746991
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-h14747285
Ref: 42f514747285
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-help14747285
Ref: 42f614747285
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-u14747347
Ref: 42f714747347
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-uuid14747369
Ref: 42f814747369
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-n14747593
Ref: 42f914747593
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-namespace14747620
Ref: 42fa14747620
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-N14747932
Ref: 42fb14747932
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-name14747954
Ref: 42fc14747954
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-C14748110
Ref: 42fd14748110
Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-count14748131
Ref: 54314748131
Node: Example<10>14748221
Ref: library/uuid example14748368
Ref: 42fe14748368
Ref: library/uuid uuid-example14748368
Ref: 42ff14748368
Node: Command-Line Example14750424
Ref: library/uuid command-line-example14750544
Ref: 430014750544
Ref: library/uuid uuid-cli-example14750544
Ref: 430114750544
Node: socketserver — A framework for network servers14750992
Ref: library/socketserver doc14751223
Ref: 430214751223
Ref: library/socketserver module-socketserver14751223
Ref: d514751223
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-a-framework-for-network-servers14751223
Ref: 430314751223
Ref: library/socketserver translation-repo14751223
Ref: 430414751223
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver TCPServer14751754
Ref: 16c414751754
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UDPServer14752376
Ref: 430714752376
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UnixStreamServer14752684
Ref: 430814752684
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UnixDatagramServer14752802
Ref: 430914752802
Ref: socketserver — A framework for network servers-Footnote-114755130
Node: Server Creation Notes14755202
Ref: library/socketserver server-creation-notes14755331
Ref: 430c14755331
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingMixIn14756104
Ref: f3714756104
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn14756146
Ref: f0114756146
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn block_on_close14756799
Ref: f3614756799
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn max_children14757195
Ref: 430e14757195
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn daemon_threads14757451
Ref: 430f14757451
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingTCPServer14757992
Ref: 431014757992
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUDPServer14758038
Ref: 431114758038
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingTCPServer14758084
Ref: 431214758084
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUDPServer14758132
Ref: 430d14758132
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUnixStreamServer14758180
Ref: 431314758180
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUnixDatagramServer14758233
Ref: 431414758233
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUnixStreamServer14758288
Ref: 431514758288
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUnixDatagramServer14758343
Ref: 431614758343
Node: Server Objects14760705
Ref: library/socketserver server-objects14760866
Ref: 431814760866
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer14760917
Ref: 14e914760917
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer fileno14761321
Ref: 431b14761321
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_request14761602
Ref: 16c714761602
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer serve_forever14762206
Ref: 14eb14762206
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer service_actions14762876
Ref: 14ea14762876
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer shutdown14763187
Ref: 200414763187
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_close14763463
Ref: f3514763463
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer address_family14763557
Ref: 431f14763557
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer RequestHandlerClass14763978
Ref: 431a14763978
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_address14764143
Ref: 431914764143
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer socket14764573
Ref: 432014764573
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer allow_reuse_address14764766
Ref: 432114764766
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer request_queue_size14764987
Ref: 432214764987
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer socket_type14765483
Ref: 432314765483
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer timeout14765683
Ref: 16c514765683
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer finish_request14766196
Ref: 432414766196
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer get_request14766421
Ref: 431c14766421
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_error14766659
Ref: 10f814766659
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_timeout14767135
Ref: 16c614767135
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer process_request14767582
Ref: 431e14767582
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_activate14767961
Ref: 430614767961
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_bind14768217
Ref: 430514768217
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer verify_request14768379
Ref: 431d14768379
Node: Request Handler Objects14768982
Ref: library/socketserver request-handler-objects14769134
Ref: 432514769134
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler14769203
Ref: 430a14769203
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler setup14769562
Ref: 432614769562
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler handle14769765
Ref: 430b14769765
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler finish14770474
Ref: 432a14770474
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler request14770761
Ref: 432714770761
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler client_address14770905
Ref: 432814770905
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler server14771034
Ref: 432914771034
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver StreamRequestHandler14771142
Ref: 109814771142
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler14771192
Ref: 431714771192
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler rfile14771445
Ref: 432b14771445
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler wfile14771617
Ref: 109714771617
Node: Examples<25>14771917
Ref: library/socketserver examples14772046
Ref: 432c14772046
Node: socketserver TCPServer Example14772251
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-tcpserver-example14772369
Ref: 432d14772369
Node: socketserver UDPServer Example14776206
Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-udpserver-example14776352
Ref: 432e14776352
Node: Asynchronous Mixins14777941
Ref: library/socketserver asynchronous-mixins14778048
Ref: 432f14778048
Node: http server — HTTP servers14780394
Ref: library/http server doc14780620
Ref: 433014780620
Ref: library/http server http-server-http-servers14780620
Ref: 433114780620
Ref: library/http server module-http server14780620
Ref: 7514780620
Ref: library/http server translation-repo14780620
Ref: 433214780620
Ref: library/http server http server HTTPServer14781620
Ref: 412f14781620
Ref: library/http server http server ThreadingHTTPServer14781980
Ref: f0014781980
Ref: library/http server http server HTTPSServer14782358
Ref: 4b614782358
Ref: library/http server http server ThreadingHTTPSServer14783728
Ref: 433414783728
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler14784424
Ref: 22614784424
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler client_address14785420
Ref: 433514785420
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler server14785569
Ref: 433614785569
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler close_connection14785645
Ref: 433714785645
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler requestline14785887
Ref: 433914785887
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler command14786209
Ref: 433a14786209
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler path14786320
Ref: 433b14786320
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler request_version14786601
Ref: 433c14786601
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler headers14786744
Ref: 421314786744
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler rfile14787178
Ref: 433e14787178
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler wfile14787337
Ref: 433f14787337
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler server_version14787802
Ref: 434014787802
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler sys_version14788096
Ref: 434114788096
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler error_message_format14788358
Ref: 12fb14788358
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler error_content_type14788722
Ref: 434314788722
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler protocol_version14788909
Ref: 434414788909
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler MessageClass14789512
Ref: 433d14789512
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler responses14789757
Ref: 41f814789757
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle14790319
Ref: 434714790319
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle_one_request14790627
Ref: 433814790627
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle_expect_10014790833
Ref: 434814790833
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_error14791369
Ref: 12fa14791369
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_response14792521
Ref: 434914792521
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_header14793356
Ref: 434514793356
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_response_only14794028
Ref: 434614794028
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler end_headers14794544
Ref: 147814794544
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler flush_headers14794868
Ref: 147914794868
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_request14795050
Ref: 434b14795050
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_error14795355
Ref: 434c14795355
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_message14795608
Ref: 434d14795608
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler version_string14796088
Ref: 434214796088
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler date_time_string14796310
Ref: 434a14796310
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_date_time_string14796706
Ref: 434e14796706
Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler address_string14796825
Ref: 434f14796825
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler14797092
Ref: 22a14797092
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler server_version14798040
Ref: 435214798040
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler default_content_type14798208
Ref: 22814798208
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler extensions_map14798519
Ref: 435314798519
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler extra_response_headers14798955
Ref: 435414798955
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler do_HEAD14799492
Ref: 435114799492
Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler do_GET14799788
Ref: 435014799788
Ref: http server — HTTP servers-Footnote-114802581
Ref: http server — HTTP servers-Footnote-214802652
Ref: http server — HTTP servers-Footnote-314802711
Ref: http server — HTTP servers-Footnote-414802770
Node: Command-line interface<6>14802841
Ref: library/http server command-line-interface14802966
Ref: 435514802966
Ref: library/http server http-server-cli14802966
Ref: 22714802966
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-arg-port14803304
Ref: 435614803304
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-b14803497
Ref: 435714803497
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-bind14803497
Ref: 435814803497
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-d14803953
Ref: 1a3514803953
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-directory14803953
Ref: 435914803953
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-p14804256
Ref: 435a14804256
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-protocol14804256
Ref: 435b14804256
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-content-type14804577
Ref: 22914804577
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-tls-cert14804908
Ref: 4b714804908
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-tls-key14805082
Ref: 4b814805082
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-tls-password-file14805253
Ref: 4b914805253
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-H14805608
Ref: 435c14805608
Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-header14805608
Ref: 435d14805608
Node: Security considerations<3>14805987
Ref: library/http server http-server-security14806112
Ref: 433314806112
Ref: library/http server security-considerations14806112
Ref: 435e14806112
Node: http cookies — HTTP state management14807064
Ref: library/http cookies doc14807293
Ref: 435f14807293
Ref: library/http cookies http-cookies-http-state-management14807293
Ref: 436014807293
Ref: library/http cookies module-http cookies14807293
Ref: 7414807293
Ref: library/http cookies translation-repo14807293
Ref: 436114807293
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies CookieError14808710
Ref: 436214808710
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie14808884
Ref: 436314808884
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies SimpleCookie14809272
Ref: 201214809272
Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-114810145
Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-214810217
Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-314810276
Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-414810335
Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-514810394
Node: Cookie Objects14810453
Ref: library/http cookies cookie-objects14810565
Ref: 436714810565
Ref: library/http cookies id114810565
Ref: 436814810565
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie value_decode14810616
Ref: 436514810616
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie value_encode14810896
Ref: 436614810896
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie output14811344
Ref: 2f714811344
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie js_output14811719
Ref: 2f514811719
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie load14812339
Ref: 436414812339
Node: Morsel Objects14812629
Ref: library/http cookies id214812761
Ref: 436914812761
Ref: library/http cookies morsel-objects14812761
Ref: 436a14812761
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel14812812
Ref: fc314812812
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel expires14813048
Ref: 436b14813048
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel path14813088
Ref: 436c14813088
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel comment14813125
Ref: 436d14813125
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel domain14813165
Ref: 436e14813165
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel secure14813245
Ref: 436f14813245
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel version14813284
Ref: 437014813284
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel httponly14813324
Ref: 177314813324
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel samesite14813365
Ref: 437114813365
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel partitioned14813406
Ref: 437214813406
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel value14815310
Ref: fc114815310
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel coded_value14815377
Ref: fc214815377
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel key14815490
Ref: fc014815490
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel set14815554
Ref: fc414815554
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel isReservedKey14815671
Ref: 437314815671
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel output14815790
Ref: 2f614815790
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel js_output14816138
Ref: 2f414816138
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel OutputString14816753
Ref: 437414816753
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel update14816972
Ref: 127714816972
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel copy14817296
Ref: 127614817296
Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel setdefault14817475
Ref: 437514817475
Ref: Morsel Objects-Footnote-114817699
Ref: Morsel Objects-Footnote-214817758
Ref: Morsel Objects-Footnote-314817817
Ref: Morsel Objects-Footnote-414817880
Ref: Morsel Objects-Footnote-514817939
Node: Example<11>14817998
Ref: library/http cookies cookie-example14818107
Ref: 437614818107
Ref: library/http cookies example14818107
Ref: 437714818107
Node: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients14819745
Ref: library/http cookiejar doc14819989
Ref: 437814819989
Ref: library/http cookiejar http-cookiejar-cookie-handling-for-http-clients14819989
Ref: 437914819989
Ref: library/http cookiejar module-http cookiejar14819989
Ref: 7314819989
Ref: library/http cookiejar translation-repo14819989
Ref: 437a14819989
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar LoadError14821558
Ref: 437b14821558
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar14821971
Ref: 419c14821971
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar14822438
Ref: 437c14822438
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy14823297
Ref: 437d14823297
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy14823462
Ref: 1fe314823462
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie14825265
Ref: 438214825265
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-114826958
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-214827032
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-314827091
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-414827150
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-514827209
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-614827268
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-714827327
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-814827386
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-914827445
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-1014827504
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-1114827564
Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-1214827624
Node: CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects14827684
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-jar-objects14827875
Ref: 438314827875
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookiejar-and-filecookiejar-objects14827875
Ref: 438414827875
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar add_cookie_header14828151
Ref: 438514828151
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar extract_cookies14829093
Ref: 438614829093
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_policy14830351
Ref: 438814830351
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar make_cookies14830463
Ref: 438914830463
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_cookie_if_ok14830758
Ref: 438a14830758
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_cookie14830891
Ref: 438b14830891
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar clear14831048
Ref: 438c14831048
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar clear_session_cookies14831561
Ref: 438d14831561
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar save14832212
Ref: 438e14832212
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar load14833073
Ref: 437e14833073
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar revert14833665
Ref: 437f14833665
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar filename14834060
Ref: 438f14834060
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar delayload14834204
Ref: 439014834204
Node: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers14834632
Ref: library/http cookiejar file-cookie-jar-classes14834852
Ref: 438014834852
Ref: library/http cookiejar filecookiejar-subclasses-and-co-operation-with-web-browsers14834852
Ref: 439114834852
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar MozillaCookieJar14835080
Ref: 439214835080
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar LWPCookieJar14835927
Ref: 439314835927
Ref: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers-Footnote-114836431
Node: CookiePolicy Objects14836490
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-policy-objects14836702
Ref: 439414836702
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookiepolicy-objects14836702
Ref: 439514836702
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy set_ok14836855
Ref: 438714836855
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy return_ok14837189
Ref: 439614837189
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy domain_return_ok14837526
Ref: 439714837526
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy path_return_ok14838859
Ref: 439814838859
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy netscape14839319
Ref: 439914839319
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy rfc296514839399
Ref: 439a14839399
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy hide_cookie214839481
Ref: 439b14839481
Ref: CookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-114840032
Ref: CookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-214840091
Node: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects14840150
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy blocked_domains14842639
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy set_blocked_domains14842758
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy is_blocked14842880
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy allowed_domains14843036
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy set_allowed_domains14843180
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy is_not_allowed14843322
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy rfc2109_as_netscape14843670
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_domain14844264
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_rfc2965_unverifiable14844575
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_unverifiable14844960
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_domain14845116
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_set_initial_dollar14845304
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_set_path14845466
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrictNoDots14845804
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrictNonDomain14846056
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainRFC2965Match14846411
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainLiberal14846655
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrict14846810
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Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-114846970
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-214847029
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-314847088
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-414847147
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-514847206
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-614847265
Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-714847324
Node: Cookie Objects<2>14847383
Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-objects14847545
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie version14848309
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie name14848662
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie value14848727
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie port14848814
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain14848960
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie path14849029
Ref: 43b514849029
Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie secure14849131
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie expires14849245
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie discard14849405
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie comment14849489
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie comment_url14849629
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie rfc210914849783
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie port_specified14850190
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain_specified14850376
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain_initial_dot14850492
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie has_nonstandard_attr14850755
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie get_nonstandard_attr14850877
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie set_nonstandard_attr14851047
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Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie is_expired14851227
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Ref: Cookie Objects<2>-Footnote-114851528
Ref: Cookie Objects<2>-Footnote-214851587
Ref: Cookie Objects<2>-Footnote-314851646
Ref: Cookie Objects<2>-Footnote-414851705
Node: Examples<26>14851764
Ref: library/http cookiejar examples14851890
Ref: 43c314851890
Ref: Examples<26>-Footnote-114853338
Node: xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules14853397
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Ref: library/xmlrpc module-xmlrpc14853642
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Ref: library/xmlrpc translation-repo14853642
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Ref: library/xmlrpc xmlrpc-xmlrpc-server-and-client-modules14853642
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Node: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access14854144
Ref: library/xmlrpc client doc14854377
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client module-xmlrpc client14854377
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client translation-repo14854377
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc-client-xml-rpc-client-access14854377
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ServerProxy14855504
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Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access-Footnote-114863504
Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access-Footnote-214863577
Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access-Footnote-314863671
Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access-Footnote-414863727
Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access-Footnote-514863786
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client id114863952
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client serverproxy-objects14863952
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ServerProxy system listMethods14864591
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ServerProxy system methodSignature14864762
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ServerProxy system methodHelp14865790
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client datetime-objects14867032
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client id214867032
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client DateTime14867087
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client DateTime decode14867401
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client DateTime encode14867506
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client binary-objects14868728
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client id314868728
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Binary14868779
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Binary data14868994
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Binary decode14869293
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Binary encode14869440
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Ref: Binary Objects-Footnote-114870692
Node: Fault Objects14870763
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client id414870905
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Fault14870954
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Fault faultCode14871118
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Fault faultString14871201
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ProtocolError errcode14872739
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ProtocolError errmsg14872802
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ProtocolError headers14872888
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Ref: MultiCall Objects-Footnote-114875675
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client dumps14876074
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Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client loads14876796
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Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler rpc_paths14886464
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Node: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library14898550
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Ref: library/ipaddress translation-repo14898736
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Ref: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library-Footnote-114899756
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address version14904502
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address compressed14905124
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address exploded14905163
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address packed14905659
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address __format__14910619
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address14911877
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address compressed14913255
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address exploded14913571
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address packed14913866
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address reverse_pointer14913901
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address version14913945
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address is_multicast14914023
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address is_private14914064
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address is_loopback14914257
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address is_link_local14914297
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address ipv4_mapped14914692
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address scope_id14914995
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address teredo14915599
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address __format__14915920
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Ref: Address objects-Footnote-114916120
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-214916179
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-314916238
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-414916340
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-514916442
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-614916544
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-714916646
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-814916705
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-914916764
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1014916850
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Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1214917013
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Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1414917133
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1514917193
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Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1814917373
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1914917433
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-2014917493
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-2114917553
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-2214917613
Ref: Address objects-Footnote-2314917673
Node: Conversion to Strings and Integers14917733
Ref: library/ipaddress conversion-to-strings-and-integers14917861
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Node: Operators<2>14918485
Ref: library/ipaddress operators14918589
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network14922375
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network compressed14926038
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network exploded14926077
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network hosts14926850
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network compare_networks14931639
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network14932357
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network version14934207
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network max_prefixlen14934243
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_multicast14934285
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_unspecified14934365
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_loopback14934448
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_link_local14934488
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network network_address14934530
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network broadcast_address14934574
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network hostmask14934620
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network netmask14934657
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network with_prefixlen14934693
Ref: 445c14934693
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network compressed14934736
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network exploded14934775
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network with_netmask14934812
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network with_hostmask14934853
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network num_addresses14934895
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network prefixlen14934937
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network hosts14934975
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network compare_networks14935759
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_site_local14935909
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Ref: library/ipaddress id114936187
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Ref: library/ipaddress logical-operators14936564
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Ref: library/ipaddress iteration14936897
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Node: Networks as containers of addresses14937725
Ref: library/ipaddress networks-as-containers-of-addresses14937827
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Ref: library/ipaddress interface-objects14938451
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Interface ip14939013
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Interface network14939266
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Interface with_prefixlen14939530
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Interface with_netmask14939805
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Interface with_hostmask14940085
Ref: 447414940085
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Interface14940364
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Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Interface ip14940778
Ref: 447514940778
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Interface network14940809
Ref: 447614940809
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Interface with_prefixlen14940845
Ref: 447714940845
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Interface with_netmask14940888
Ref: 447814940888
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Interface with_hostmask14940929
Ref: 447914940929
Node: Operators<4>14941110
Ref: library/ipaddress id214941176
Ref: 447a14941176
Node: Logical operators<2>14941438
Ref: library/ipaddress id314941507
Ref: 447b14941507
Node: Other Module Level Functions14942164
Ref: library/ipaddress other-module-level-functions14942325
Ref: 447c14942325
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress v4_int_to_packed14942470
Ref: 447d14942470
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress v6_int_to_packed14942954
Ref: 447e14942954
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress summarize_address_range14943273
Ref: 125314943273
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress collapse_addresses14944150
Ref: 125414944150
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress get_mixed_type_key14944729
Ref: 447f14944729
Node: Custom Exceptions14945333
Ref: library/ipaddress custom-exceptions14945468
Ref: 448014945468
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress AddressValueError14945639
Ref: 441614945639
Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress NetmaskValueError14945749
Ref: 443714945749
Node: Multimedia Services14945860
Ref: library/mm doc14946038
Ref: 448114946038
Ref: library/mm mmedia14946038
Ref: 448214946038
Ref: library/mm multimedia-services14946038
Ref: 448314946038
Ref: library/mm translation-repo14946038
Ref: 448414946038
Node: wave — Read and write WAV files14946442
Ref: library/wave doc14946624
Ref: 448514946624
Ref: library/wave module-wave14946624
Ref: 11c14946624
Ref: library/wave wave-read-and-write-wav-files14946624
Ref: 448614946624
Ref: library/wave wave open14947359
Ref: d1714947359
Ref: library/wave wave Error14948642
Ref: 448914948642
Ref: library/wave wave WAVE_FORMAT_PCM14948812
Ref: 448a14948812
Ref: library/wave wave WAVE_FORMAT_IEEE_FLOAT14948902
Ref: 448b14948902
Ref: library/wave wave WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE14949002
Ref: 448c14949002
Ref: wave — Read and write WAV files-Footnote-114949191
Node: Wave_read Objects14949255
Ref: library/wave id114949369
Ref: 448d14949369
Ref: library/wave wave-read-objects14949369
Ref: 448e14949369
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read14949424
Ref: 2e614949424
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read close14949571
Ref: 448714949571
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getnchannels14949770
Ref: 448f14949770
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getsampwidth14949906
Ref: 449014949906
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getframerate14949990
Ref: 449114949990
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getnframes14950071
Ref: 449214950071
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getformat14950154
Ref: 2ad14950154
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getcomptype14950385
Ref: 449314950385
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getcompname14950515
Ref: 449414950515
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getparams14950686
Ref: 139314950686
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read readframes14950911
Ref: 19af14950911
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read rewind14951051
Ref: 449514951051
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read setpos14951301
Ref: 449614951301
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read tell14951399
Ref: 449714951399
Node: Wave_write Objects14951482
Ref: library/wave id214951596
Ref: 449814951596
Ref: library/wave wave-write-objects14951596
Ref: 139414951596
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write14951653
Ref: 2e714951653
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write close14952700
Ref: 448814952700
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setnchannels14953049
Ref: 449a14953049
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write getnchannels14953131
Ref: 449b14953131
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setsampwidth14953215
Ref: 449c14953215
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write getsampwidth14953435
Ref: 449d14953435
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setframerate14953522
Ref: 193214953522
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write getframerate14953735
Ref: 449e14953735
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setnframes14953811
Ref: 449914953811
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write getnframes14954088
Ref: 449f14954088
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setcomptype14954189
Ref: 44a014954189
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write getcomptype14954390
Ref: 44a114954390
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write getcompname14954486
Ref: 44a214954486
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setformat14954587
Ref: 2af14954587
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write getformat14954890
Ref: 2ae14954890
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setparams14954978
Ref: 2b014954978
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write getparams14955457
Ref: 44a314955457
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write tell14955672
Ref: 44a414955672
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write writeframesraw14955882
Ref: 139514955882
Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write writeframes14956103
Ref: 139614956103
Node: colorsys — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων14956938
Ref: library/colorsys doc14957120
Ref: 44a514957120
Ref: library/colorsys colorsys-conversions-between-color-systems14957120
Ref: 44a614957120
Ref: library/colorsys module-colorsys14957120
Ref: 2014957120
Ref: library/colorsys translation-repo14957120
Ref: 44a714957120
Ref: library/colorsys colorsys rgb_to_yiq14958307
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Ref: library/colorsys colorsys yiq_to_rgb14958480
Ref: 44a914958480
Ref: library/colorsys colorsys rgb_to_hls14958653
Ref: 1c7814958653
Ref: library/colorsys colorsys hls_to_rgb14958826
Ref: 44aa14958826
Ref: library/colorsys colorsys rgb_to_hsv14958999
Ref: 44ab14958999
Ref: library/colorsys colorsys hsv_to_rgb14959172
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Ref: colorsys — Μετατροπές μεταξύ συστημάτων χρωμάτων-Footnote-114959560
Node: Internationalization14959628
Ref: library/i18n doc14959806
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Ref: library/i18n i18n14959806
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Ref: library/i18n internationalization14959806
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Ref: library/i18n translation-repo14959806
Ref: 44b014959806
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Ref: library/gettext doc14960421
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Ref: library/gettext gettext-multilingual-internationalization-services14960421
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Ref: library/gettext module-gettext14960421
Ref: 6614960421
Ref: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services-Footnote-114961393
Node: GNU gettext API14961460
Ref: library/gettext gnu-gettext-api14961590
Ref: 44b314961590
Ref: library/gettext gettext bindtextdomain14962129
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Ref: library/gettext gettext textdomain14962706
Ref: 44b514962706
Ref: library/gettext gettext gettext14962962
Ref: 180b14962962
Ref: library/gettext gettext dgettext14963241
Ref: 44b614963241
Ref: library/gettext gettext ngettext14963391
Ref: 44b714963391
Ref: library/gettext gettext dngettext14964112
Ref: 44b814964112
Ref: library/gettext gettext pgettext14964276
Ref: db814964276
Ref: library/gettext gettext dpgettext14964337
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Ref: library/gettext gettext npgettext14964407
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Ref: library/gettext gettext dnpgettext14964481
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Ref: GNU gettext API-Footnote-114965310
Ref: GNU gettext API-Footnote-214965790
Node: Class-based API14965855
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Ref: library/gettext gettext find14966563
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Ref: library/gettext gettext translation14968004
Ref: e3c14968004
Ref: library/gettext gettext install14969285
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Ref: Class-based API-Footnote-114970346
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Ref: library/gettext the-nulltranslations-class14970524
Ref: 44c114970524
Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations14970969
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations _parse14971372
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations add_fallback14971691
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations gettext14971962
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations ngettext14972168
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations pgettext14972428
Ref: 44c614972428
Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations npgettext14972690
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations info14972966
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations charset14973100
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Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations install14973197
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Ref: library/gettext gettext GNUTranslations gettext14976191
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Ref: library/gettext gettext GNUTranslations ngettext14976608
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Ref: The GNUTranslations class-Footnote-114978671
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Ref: Internationalizing your programs and modules-Footnote-114983647
Ref: Internationalizing your programs and modules-Footnote-214983680
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Ref: library/locale module-locale14989312
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Ref: library/locale translation-repo14989312
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Ref: library/locale locale Error14990025
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Ref: locale — Internationalization services-Footnote-115017410
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Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser translation-repo15076205
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Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter colorchooser Chooser15076699
Ref: 455515076699
Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter colorchooser askcolor15076770
Ref: 455715076770
Ref: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog-Footnote-115077193
Node: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper15077274
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Ref: 455815077484
Ref: library/tkinter font module-tkinter font15077484
Ref: fe15077484
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter-font-tkinter-font-wrapper15077484
Ref: 455915077484
Ref: library/tkinter font translation-repo15077484
Ref: 455a15077484
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font NORMAL15077836
Ref: 455b15077836
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font BOLD15077878
Ref: 455c15077878
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font ITALIC15077918
Ref: 455d15077918
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font ROMAN15077960
Ref: 455e15077960
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font15078002
Ref: 1ec415078002
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font actual15079306
Ref: 455f15079306
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font cget15079415
Ref: 456015079415
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font config15079501
Ref: 456115079501
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font copy15079588
Ref: 456215079588
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font measure15079674
Ref: 456315079674
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font metrics15079941
Ref: 456415079941
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font families15080526
Ref: 456515080526
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font names15080643
Ref: 456615080643
Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font nametofont15080740
Ref: 1ec615080740
Ref: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper-Footnote-115080990
Node: Tkinter Dialogs15081062
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Ref: 456715081272
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-dialogs15081272
Ref: 456815081272
Ref: library/dialog translation-repo15081272
Ref: 456915081272
Node: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs15081643
Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter simpledialog15081804
Ref: 10115081804
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-simpledialog-standard-tkinter-input-dialogs15081804
Ref: 456a15081804
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askfloat15082202
Ref: 456b15082202
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askinteger15082278
Ref: 1ec715082278
Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askstring15082356
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog15082546
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog body15082653
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog buttonbox15082815
Ref: 456f15082815
Ref: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs-Footnote-115082994
Node: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs15083075
Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter filedialog15083293
Ref: fd15083293
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-filedialog-file-selection-dialogs15083293
Ref: 457015083293
Ref: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs-Footnote-115083721
Node: Native Load/Save Dialogs15083800
Ref: library/dialog native-load-save-dialogs15083906
Ref: 457115083906
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfile15084915
Ref: 457215084915
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfiles15084992
Ref: 457315084992
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog asksaveasfile15085197
Ref: 457515085197
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfilename15085376
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfilenames15085447
Ref: 457815085447
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog asksaveasfilename15085668
Ref: 457915085668
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askdirectory15085823
Ref: 457a15085823
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog Open15086059
Ref: 457415086059
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveAs15086124
Ref: 457615086124
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog Directory15086450
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Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog15086699
Ref: 457c15086699
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog cancel_command15086811
Ref: 457d15086811
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog dirs_double_event15086922
Ref: 457e15086922
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog dirs_select_event15087036
Ref: 457f15087036
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog files_double_event15087143
Ref: 458015087143
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog files_select_event15087253
Ref: 458115087253
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog filter_command15087363
Ref: 458215087363
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog get_filter15087459
Ref: 458315087459
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog get_selection15087553
Ref: 458415087553
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog go15087645
Ref: 458515087645
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog ok_event15087795
Ref: 458615087795
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog quit15087890
Ref: 458715087890
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog set_filter15087983
Ref: 458815087983
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog set_selection15088063
Ref: 458915088063
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog LoadFileDialog15088166
Ref: 458a15088166
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog LoadFileDialog ok_command15088335
Ref: 458b15088335
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveFileDialog15088484
Ref: 458c15088484
Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveFileDialog ok_command15088655
Ref: 458d15088655
Node: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates15088875
Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter commondialog15089029
Ref: fb15089029
Ref: library/dialog tkinter-commondialog-dialog-window-templates15089029
Ref: 458e15089029
Ref: library/dialog tkinter commondialog Dialog15089417
Ref: 455615089417
Ref: library/dialog tkinter commondialog Dialog show15089487
Ref: 458f15089487
Ref: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates-Footnote-115089747
Node: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts15089828
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox doc15090046
Ref: 459015090046
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox module-tkinter messagebox15090046
Ref: ff15090046
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter-messagebox-tkinter-message-prompts15090046
Ref: 459115090046
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox translation-repo15090046
Ref: 459215090046
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox Message15090741
Ref: 459715090741
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox Message show15092887
Ref: 459c15092887
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showinfo15093200
Ref: 459d15093200
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showwarning15093423
Ref: 459e15093423
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showerror15093619
Ref: 459f15093619
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askquestion15093838
Ref: 45a015093838
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askokcancel15094098
Ref: 45a115094098
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askretrycancel15094373
Ref: 45a215094373
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askyesno15094657
Ref: 45a415094657
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askyesnocancel15094904
Ref: 45a515094904
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-buttons15095207
Ref: 459815095207
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ABORT15095235
Ref: 45a615095235
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox RETRY15095293
Ref: 45a315095293
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox IGNORE15095351
Ref: 45a715095351
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox OK15095411
Ref: 459315095411
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox CANCEL15095463
Ref: 459415095463
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YES15095523
Ref: 459515095523
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox NO15095577
Ref: 459615095577
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-types15095628
Ref: 459b15095628
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ABORTRETRYIGNORE15095657
Ref: 45a815095657
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox OKCANCEL15095975
Ref: 45a915095975
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox RETRYCANCEL15096136
Ref: 45aa15096136
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YESNO15096306
Ref: 45ab15096306
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YESNOCANCEL15096458
Ref: 45ac15096458
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-icons15096643
Ref: 459915096643
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ERROR15096657
Ref: 45ad15096657
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox INFO15096715
Ref: 459a15096715
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox QUESTION15096771
Ref: 45ae15096771
Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox WARNING15096835
Ref: 45af15096835
Ref: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts-Footnote-115096933
Node: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget15097012
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext doc15097252
Ref: 45b015097252
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext module-tkinter scrolledtext15097252
Ref: 10015097252
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter-scrolledtext-scrolled-text-widget15097252
Ref: 45b115097252
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext translation-repo15097252
Ref: 45b215097252
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText15098158
Ref: 45b315098158
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText frame15098229
Ref: 45b415098229
Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText vbar15098333
Ref: 45b515098333
Ref: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget-Footnote-115098436
Node: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support15098517
Ref: library/tkinter dnd doc15098744
Ref: 45b615098744
Ref: library/tkinter dnd module-tkinter dnd15098744
Ref: fc15098744
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter-dnd-drag-and-drop-support15098744
Ref: 45b715098744
Ref: library/tkinter dnd translation-repo15098744
Ref: 45b815098744
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler15100253
Ref: 45ba15100253
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler cancel15100446
Ref: 45bb15100446
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler finish15100537
Ref: 45bc15100537
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler on_motion15100639
Ref: 45bd15100639
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler on_release15100773
Ref: 45be15100773
Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd dnd_start15100887
Ref: 45b915100887
Ref: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support-Footnote-115101108
Node: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets15101179
Ref: library/tkinter ttk doc15101393
Ref: 45bf15101393
Ref: library/tkinter ttk module-tkinter ttk15101393
Ref: 10215101393
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter-ttk-tk-themed-widgets15101393
Ref: 45c015101393
Ref: library/tkinter ttk translation-repo15101393
Ref: 45c115101393
Ref: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets-Footnote-115102321
Ref: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets-Footnote-215102392
Node: Using Ttk15102445
Ref: library/tkinter ttk using-ttk15102544
Ref: 45c215102544
Ref: Using Ttk-Footnote-115103710
Node: Ttk Widgets15103774
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-widgets15103888
Ref: 45c315103888
Node: Widget15104996
Ref: library/tkinter ttk widget15105109
Ref: 45c915105109
Node: Standard Options15105426
Ref: library/tkinter ttk standard-options15105519
Ref: 45ca15105519
Node: Scrollable Widget Options15107060
Ref: library/tkinter ttk scrollable-widget-options15107175
Ref: 45cb15107175
Node: Label Options15108208
Ref: library/tkinter ttk label-options15108328
Ref: 45cc15108328
Node: Compatibility Options15110662
Ref: library/tkinter ttk compatibility-options15110770
Ref: 45cd15110770
Node: Widget States15111255
Ref: library/tkinter ttk widget-states15111360
Ref: 45cf15111360
Node: ttk Widget15112856
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-widget15112931
Ref: 45d015112931
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget15113118
Ref: 45c715113118
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget identify15113154
Ref: 45d115113154
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget instate15113405
Ref: 45d215113405
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget state15113757
Ref: 45ce15113757
Node: Combobox15114153
Ref: library/tkinter ttk combobox15114262
Ref: 45d315114262
Node: Options15114957
Ref: library/tkinter ttk options15115032
Ref: 45d415115032
Node: Virtual events15117305
Ref: library/tkinter ttk virtual-events15117401
Ref: 45d515117401
Node: ttk Combobox15117581
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-combobox15117661
Ref: 45d615117661
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox15117708
Ref: 45c415117708
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox current15117746
Ref: 45d715117746
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox get15118030
Ref: 45d815118030
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox set15118117
Ref: 45d915118117
Node: Spinbox15118209
Ref: library/tkinter ttk spinbox15118320
Ref: 45da15118320
Node: Options<2>15119080
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id115119160
Ref: 45db15119160
Node: Virtual events<2>15121544
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id215121644
Ref: 45dc15121644
Node: ttk Spinbox15121852
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-spinbox15121933
Ref: 45dd15121933
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Spinbox15121978
Ref: f5315121978
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Spinbox get15122015
Ref: 45de15122015
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Spinbox set15122101
Ref: 45df15122101
Node: Notebook15122192
Ref: library/tkinter ttk notebook15122306
Ref: 45e015122306
Node: Options<3>15122666
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id315122741
Ref: 45e115122741
Node: Tab Options15123816
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tab-options15123915
Ref: 45e215123915
Node: Tab Identifiers15125782
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tab-identifiers15125885
Ref: 45e415125885
Node: Virtual Events15126413
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id415126517
Ref: 45e615126517
Node: ttk Notebook15126661
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-notebook15126741
Ref: 45e715126741
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook15126788
Ref: 45c515126788
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook add15126826
Ref: 45e815126826
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook forget15127119
Ref: 45e915127119
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook hide15127265
Ref: 45ea15127265
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook identify15127583
Ref: 45eb15127583
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook index15127733
Ref: 45e515127733
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook insert15127918
Ref: 45ec15127918
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook select15128309
Ref: 45ed15128309
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook tab15128631
Ref: 45ee15128631
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook tabs15128985
Ref: 45ef15128985
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook enable_traversal15129081
Ref: 45e315129081
Node: Progressbar15129940
Ref: library/tkinter ttk progressbar15130056
Ref: 45f015130056
Node: Options<4>15130497
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id515130579
Ref: 45f115130579
Node: ttk Progressbar15132265
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-progressbar15132347
Ref: 45f215132347
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar15132400
Ref: 45c615132400
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar start15132441
Ref: 45f315132441
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar step15132717
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar stop15132872
Ref: 45f515132872
Node: Separator15133065
Ref: library/tkinter ttk separator15133181
Ref: 45f615133181
Node: Options<5>15133411
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id615133467
Ref: 45f715133467
Node: Sizegrip15133817
Ref: library/tkinter ttk sizegrip15133930
Ref: 45f815133930
Node: Platform-specific notes15134280
Ref: library/tkinter ttk platform-specific-notes15134361
Ref: 45f915134361
Node: Bugs15134617
Ref: library/tkinter ttk bugs15134698
Ref: 45fa15134698
Node: Treeview15134969
Ref: library/tkinter ttk treeview15135084
Ref: 45fb15135084
Node: Options<6>15136442
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id715136518
Ref: 45ff15136518
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Ref: library/tkinter ttk item-options15139012
Ref: 460015139012
Node: Tag Options15140068
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tag-options15140172
Ref: 460115140172
Node: Column Identifiers15140822
Ref: library/tkinter ttk column-identifiers15140931
Ref: 45fc15140931
Node: Virtual Events<2>15141801
Ref: library/tkinter ttk id815141911
Ref: 460215141911
Node: ttk Treeview15142743
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-treeview15142826
Ref: 460415142826
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview15142873
Ref: e5615142873
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview bbox15142911
Ref: 460515142911
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview get_children15143356
Ref: 460615143356
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview set_children15143530
Ref: 460715143530
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview column15143930
Ref: 460815143930
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview delete15145181
Ref: 460915145181
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview detach15145335
Ref: 460a15145335
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview exists15145654
Ref: 460b15145654
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview focus15145772
Ref: 460315145772
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview heading15145973
Ref: 460c15145973
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify15146970
Ref: 460d15146970
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_row15147215
Ref: 460e15147215
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_column15147318
Ref: 460f15147318
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_region15147487
Ref: 461015147487
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_element15148131
Ref: 461115148131
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview index15148267
Ref: 461215148267
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview insert15148403
Ref: 461315148403
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview item15149307
Ref: 461415149307
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview move15149693
Ref: 461515149693
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview next15150139
Ref: 461615150139
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview parent15150302
Ref: 461715150302
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview prev15150461
Ref: 461815150461
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview reattach15150629
Ref: 461915150629
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview see15150739
Ref: 461a15150739
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection15151003
Ref: e5515151003
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_set15151275
Ref: e5715151275
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_add15151504
Ref: 461b15151504
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_remove15151728
Ref: 461c15151728
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_toggle15151960
Ref: 461d15151960
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview set15152209
Ref: 461e15152209
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_bind15152582
Ref: 461f15152582
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_configure15152860
Ref: 462015152860
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_has15153297
Ref: 462115153297
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview xview15153590
Ref: 45fd15153590
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview yview15153694
Ref: 45fe15153694
Node: Ttk Styling15153796
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-styling15153894
Ref: 462215153894
Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttkstyling15153894
Ref: 45c815153894
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style15154505
Ref: 76115154505
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style configure15154599
Ref: 462315154599
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style map15155334
Ref: 1edb15155334
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style lookup15156607
Ref: 462415156607
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style layout15157136
Ref: 462515157136
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_create15158456
Ref: 76015158456
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_names15163819
Ref: 462715163819
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_options15163932
Ref: 462815163932
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_create15164046
Ref: 462915164046
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_settings15164467
Ref: 462a15164467
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_names15165951
Ref: 462b15165951
Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_use15166039
Ref: 462c15166039
Ref: Ttk Styling-Footnote-115166344
Node: Layouts15166406
Ref: library/tkinter ttk layouts15166461
Ref: 462615166461
Ref: library/tkinter ttk layout15167533
Ref: 462d15167533
Node: IDLE — Python editor and shell15167534
Ref: library/idle doc15167737
Ref: 462e15167737
Ref: library/idle idle15167737
Ref: 13be15167737
Ref: library/idle idle-python-editor-and-shell15167737
Ref: 462f15167737
Ref: library/idle translation-repo15167737
Ref: 463015167737
Ref: IDLE — Python editor and shell-Footnote-115169118
Node: Menus15169183
Ref: library/idle menus15169288
Ref: 463115169288
Node: File menu Shell and Editor15170570
Ref: library/idle file-menu-shell-and-editor15170673
Ref: 463215170673
Node: Edit menu Shell and Editor15172523
Ref: library/idle edit-menu-shell-and-editor15172665
Ref: 463315172665
Node: Format menu Editor window only15174406
Ref: library/idle format-menu15174549
Ref: 463615174549
Ref: library/idle format-menu-editor-window-only15174549
Ref: 463715174549
Node: Run menu Editor window only15175872
Ref: library/idle run-menu-editor-window-only15176017
Ref: 463915176017
Ref: library/idle run-module15176096
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Ref: library/idle run-custom15176588
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Ref: library/test test support Matcher match_value15949522
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Ref: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite-Footnote-115949705
Node: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests15949785
Ref: library/test module-test support socket_helper15950055
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Node: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests15953372
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Node: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests15959708
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Node: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests15962900
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Ref: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests-Footnote-115974410
Ref: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests-Footnote-215974452
Node: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests15974494
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Ref: library/bdb bdb set_trace16061334
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Ref: bdb — Debugger framework-Footnote-116061494
Node: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback16061557
Ref: library/faulthandler doc16061730
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler-dump-the-python-traceback16061730
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Ref: library/faulthandler module-faulthandler16061730
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Node: Dumping the traceback16064223
Ref: library/faulthandler dumping-the-traceback16064351
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler dump_traceback16064414
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Node: C Stack Compatibility16065627
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Ref: C Stack Compatibility-Footnote-116066335
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Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler cancel_dump_traceback_later16070052
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Node: Dumping the traceback on a user signal16070186
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Node: Example<12>16072230
Ref: library/faulthandler example16072356
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Node: pdb — The Python Debugger16075617
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Ref: pdb — The Python Debugger-Footnote-116078057
Node: Command-line interface<7>16078120
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Ref: Command-line interface<7>-Footnote-116087724
Ref: Command-line interface<7>-Footnote-216087766
Node: Debugger commands16087895
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Node: profiling — Python profilers16107638
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Ref: profiling — Python profilers-Footnote-116108191
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Node: When to use deterministic tracing16113971
Ref: library/profiling when-to-use-deterministic-tracing16114101
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Node: Quick start16115081
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Node: Statistical profiling16115471
Ref: library/profiling statistical-profiling16115572
Ref: 4a5616115572
Node: Deterministic profiling16116314
Ref: library/profiling deterministic-profiling16116415
Ref: 4a5716116415
Node: Understanding profile output16116808
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Node: Legacy compatibility16118761
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Node: profiling tracing — Deterministic profiler16120096
Ref: library/profiling tracing doc16120249
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Ref: library/profiling tracing module-profiling tracing16120249
Ref: b716120249
Ref: library/profiling tracing profiling-tracing16120249
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Ref: library/profiling tracing profiling-tracing-deterministic-profiler16120249
Ref: 4a5f16120249
Ref: profiling tracing — Deterministic profiler-Footnote-116121544
Node: What is deterministic profiling?16121620
Ref: library/profiling tracing what-is-deterministic-profiling16121767
Ref: 4a6016121767
Node: Command-line interface<8>16123490
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Ref: library/profiling tracing profiling-tracing-cli16123673
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Ref: library/profiling tracing cmdoption-profiling tracing-o16124061
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Ref: library/profiling tracing cmdoption-profiling tracing-s16124251
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Ref: library/profiling tracing cmdoption-profiling tracing-m16124558
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Node: Programmatic usage examples16124831
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Node: Basic profiling16125218
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Node: Using the Profile class16125686
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Node: Module reference16126471
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Ref: library/profiling tracing profiling tracing run16126688
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Ref: library/profiling tracing profiling tracing Profile16127832
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Ref: library/profiling tracing profiling tracing Profile disable16128746
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Ref: library/profiling tracing profiling tracing Profile create_stats16128826
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Ref: library/profiling tracing profiling tracing Profile runctx16129710
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Ref: library/profiling tracing profiling tracing Profile runcall16129868
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Node: Using a custom timer16130290
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Node: Limitations16131479
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Node: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler16133011
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Ref: library/profiling sampling module-profiling sampling16133164
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Ref: library/profiling sampling profiling-sampling-statistical-profiler16133164
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Ref: library/profiling sampling translation-repo16133164
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Ref: profiling sampling — Statistical profiler-Footnote-116134205
Node: What is statistical profiling?16134282
Ref: library/profiling sampling what-is-statistical-profiling16134415
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Node: How time is estimated16135345
Ref: library/profiling sampling how-time-is-estimated16135474
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Node: When to use a different approach16136922
Ref: library/profiling sampling when-to-use-a-different-approach16137051
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Node: Commands16140526
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Ref: library/profiling sampling the-run-command16141168
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Node: The attach command16141806
Ref: library/profiling sampling the-attach-command16141918
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Node: The dump command16142693
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Ref: library/profiling sampling the-dump-command16142808
Ref: 4a8616142808
Node: The replay command16145672
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Ref: library/profiling sampling the-replay-command16145792
Ref: 4a8816145792
Node: Profiling in production16146797
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Node: Platform requirements16148167
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Ref: library/profiling sampling version-compatibility16149548
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Ref: library/profiling sampling sampling-configuration16150251
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Ref: library/profiling sampling sampling-rate-and-duration16152190
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Ref: library/profiling sampling id116154423
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Node: Special frames16156475
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Node: Opcode-aware profiling16157940
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Node: Real-time statistics16159994
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Ref: 4aa116160798
Node: Sampling efficiency16163807
Ref: library/profiling sampling id216163914
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Ref: library/profiling sampling sampling-efficiency16163914
Ref: 4aa016163914
Node: Profiling modes16165376
Ref: library/profiling sampling profiling-modes16165525
Ref: 4aa416165525
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Ref: 4aa716166999
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Node: GIL mode16168857
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Ref: 4aaa16170707
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Node: pstats format16173784
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Node: Collapsed stacks format16177383
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Ref: 4ab116177506
Node: Flame graph format16178532
Ref: library/profiling sampling flame-graph-format16178654
Ref: 4ab316178654
Node: Differential flame graphs16181068
Ref: library/profiling sampling differential-flame-graphs16181148
Ref: 4ab416181148
Node: Gecko format16182940
Ref: library/profiling sampling gecko-format16183053
Ref: 4ab516183053
Ref: Gecko format-Footnote-116185477
Ref: Gecko format-Footnote-216185514
Node: Heatmap format16185559
Ref: library/profiling sampling heatmap-format16185667
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Node: Binary format16188666
Ref: library/profiling sampling binary-format16188753
Ref: 4ab716188753
Node: Record and replay workflow16189575
Ref: library/profiling sampling record-and-replay-workflow16189722
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Node: Live mode16190956
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Ref: 4abc16192849
Node: Async-aware profiling16195539
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Ref: 4abd16195692
Node: Async modes16197029
Ref: library/profiling sampling async-modes16197144
Ref: 4abf16197144
Node: Task markers and stack reconstruction16197948
Ref: library/profiling sampling task-markers-and-stack-reconstruction16198091
Ref: 4ac116198091
Node: Option restrictions16199065
Ref: library/profiling sampling option-restrictions16199188
Ref: 4ac216199188
Node: Command-line interface<9>16199468
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Node: Global options16199876
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-arg-attach16200090
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-arg-dump16200164
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-arg-replay16200265
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-a16200575
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-all-threads16200575
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-native16200689
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-no-gc16200768
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-opcodes16200852
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-async-aware16200924
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-async-mode16201040
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-blocking16201264
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Node: Sampling options16201359
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-r16201534
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-sampling-rate16201534
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-d16201680
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-016201794
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-realtime-stats16201877
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-216201959
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-516202199
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-subprocesses16202487
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-616202651
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Node: Mode options16202930
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-mode16203099
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-716203317
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Node: Output options16203452
Ref: library/profiling sampling output-options16203580
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-pstats16203631
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-collapsed16203821
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-flamegraph16203916
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-diff-flamegraph16203990
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-gecko16204120
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-heatmap16204196
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-binary16204278
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-compression16204403
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-o16204551
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-output16204551
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-browser16204957
Ref: 4adb16204957
Node: pstats display options16205266
Ref: library/profiling sampling pstats-display-options16205401
Ref: 4adc16205401
Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-sort16205519
Ref: 4aaf16205519
Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-l16205712
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-limit16205712
Ref: 4add16205712
Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-no-summary16205811
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Node: Run command options16205923
Ref: library/profiling sampling run-command-options16206035
Ref: 4ade16206035
Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-m16206096
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-module16206096
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Ref: library/profiling sampling cmdoption-profiling sampling-live16206189
Ref: 4a9a16206189
Ref: Run command options-Footnote-116206837
Ref: Run command options-Footnote-216206874
Ref: Run command options-Footnote-316206919
Node: pstats — Statistics for profilers16206970
Ref: library/pstats doc16207221
Ref: 4ae116207221
Ref: library/pstats module-pstats16207221
Ref: b816207221
Ref: library/pstats pstats-module16207221
Ref: 4ae216207221
Ref: library/pstats pstats-statistics-for-profilers16207221
Ref: 4ae316207221
Ref: library/pstats translation-repo16207221
Ref: 4ae416207221
Ref: pstats — Statistics for profilers-Footnote-116207852
Node: Reading and displaying profile data16207918
Ref: library/pstats reading-and-displaying-profile-data16208049
Ref: 4ae516208049
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Ref: library/pstats working-with-statistics16209001
Ref: 4ae616209001
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Ref: library/pstats filtering-output16210011
Ref: 4ae816210011
Node: Analyzing call relationships16210712
Ref: library/pstats analyzing-call-relationships16210873
Ref: 4aea16210873
Node: Combining multiple profiles16211305
Ref: library/pstats combining-multiple-profiles16211441
Ref: 4aeb16211441
Node: The Stats class16211987
Ref: library/pstats the-stats-class16212153
Ref: 4aec16212153
Ref: library/pstats pstats Stats16212212
Ref: 4a6d16212212
Ref: library/pstats pstats Stats strip_dirs16212862
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Ref: library/pstats pstats Stats add16213337
Ref: 4aed16213337
Ref: library/pstats pstats Stats dump_stats16213566
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Ref: library/pstats pstats Stats sort_stats16213832
Ref: 4a6616213832
Ref: library/pstats pstats Stats reverse_order16218266
Ref: 4af016218266
Ref: library/pstats pstats Stats print_stats16218554
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Ref: library/pstats pstats Stats print_callers16219355
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Ref: library/pstats pstats Stats print_callees16219910
Ref: 4a5b16219910
Ref: library/pstats pstats Stats get_stats_profile16220256
Ref: 4af116220256
Ref: library/pstats pstats SortKey16220616
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Ref: library/pstats pstats SortKey CALLS16220729
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Ref: library/pstats pstats SortKey CUMULATIVE16220794
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Ref: library/pstats pstats SortKey FILENAME16220869
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Ref: library/pstats pstats SortKey LINE16220936
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Ref: library/pstats pstats SortKey NAME16221001
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Ref: library/pstats pstats SortKey NFL16221068
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Ref: library/pstats pstats SortKey PCALLS16221174
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Ref: library/pstats pstats SortKey STDNAME16221266
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Ref: library/pstats pstats SortKey TIME16221361
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Node: Command-line interface<10>16221466
Ref: library/pstats command-line-interface16221588
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Ref: library/pstats pstats-cli16221588
Ref: 4afc16221588
Node: timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα16222173
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Ref: library/timeit module-timeit16222495
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Ref: library/timeit timeit-measure-execution-time-of-small-code-snippets16222495
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Ref: library/timeit translation-repo16222495
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Ref: timeit — Μέτρηση χρόνου εκτέλεσης μικρών αποσπασμάτων κώδικα-Footnote-116223657
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Ref: 4b0216223907
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Ref: library/timeit id116225810
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Ref: library/timeit python-interface16225810
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Ref: library/timeit timeit repeat16226720
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Ref: library/timeit timeit default_timer16227650
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Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer repeat16233265
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Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer print_exc16235536
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Node: Command-line interface<11>16236445
Ref: library/timeit command-line-interface16236677
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Ref: library/timeit timeit-command-line-interface16236677
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-n16237051
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-number16237051
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-r16237154
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-s16237295
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-setup16237295
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-p16237439
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-process16237439
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-u16237768
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-unit16237768
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-t16238025
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-target-time16238025
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-v16238203
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-verbose16238203
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-h16238421
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Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-help16238421
Ref: 4b1916238421
Node: Παραδείγματα<5>16240866
Ref: library/timeit examples16241073
Ref: 4b1a16241073
Ref: library/timeit timeit-examples16241073
Ref: 4b0316241073
Node: trace — Ιχνηλάτηση ή παρακολούθηση εκτέλεσης εντολών Python16245723
Ref: library/trace doc16246050
Ref: 4b1b16246050
Ref: library/trace module-trace16246050
Ref: 10616246050
Ref: library/trace trace-trace-or-track-python-statement-execution16246050
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Ref: library/trace translation-repo16246050
Ref: 4b1d16246050
Ref: trace — Ιχνηλάτηση ή παρακολούθηση εκτέλεσης εντολών Python-Footnote-116247064
Ref: trace — Ιχνηλάτηση ή παρακολούθηση εκτέλεσης εντολών Python-Footnote-216247129
Node: Οδηγίες χρήσης γραμμής εντολών16247170
Ref: library/trace command-line-usage16247421
Ref: 4b1e16247421
Ref: library/trace trace-cli16247421
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-help16247944
Ref: 4b2016247944
Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-version16248077
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Node: Κύριες επιλογές16248395
Ref: library/trace main-options16248551
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-c16248927
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-count16248927
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-t16249336
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-trace16249336
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-l16249441
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-T16249984
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-trackcalls16249984
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Node: Τροποποιητές16250163
Ref: library/trace modifiers16250340
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-f16250397
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-file16250397
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-C16250660
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-m16250965
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-missing16250965
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-summary16251172
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-R16251450
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-no-report16251450
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Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-g16251863
Ref: 4b3816251863
Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-timing16251863
Ref: 4b3916251863
Node: Φίλτρα16252135
Ref: library/trace filters16252274
Ref: 4b3a16252274
Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-ignore-module16252423
Ref: 4b3b16252423
Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-ignore-dir16252724
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Node: Προγραμματιστική διεπαφή16253052
Ref: library/trace programmatic-interface16253303
Ref: 4b3d16253303
Ref: library/trace trace-api16253303
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Ref: library/trace trace Trace16253395
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Ref: library/trace trace Trace run16255052
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Ref: library/trace trace Trace runfunc16256010
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Ref: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations-Footnote-116261078
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter filename_pattern16280073
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter all_frames16280194
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot compare_to16281302
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Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Traceback format16289083
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Ref: An example of extending EnvBuilder-Footnote-116331761
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Ref: zipapp — Διαχείριση εκτελέσιμων αρχείων zip Python-Footnote-116333208
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Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-116468708
Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-216468750
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Ref: The STOP_ITERATION event-Footnote-116480157
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Node: Mutable default values16618536
Ref: library/dataclasses mutable-default-values16618689
Ref: 4c8f16618689
Node: Descriptor-typed fields16620730
Ref: library/dataclasses descriptor-typed-fields16620849
Ref: 4c9016620849
Node: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts16622828
Ref: library/contextlib doc16623015
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib-utilities-for-with-statement-contexts16623015
Ref: 4c9216623015
Ref: library/contextlib module-contextlib16623015
Ref: 2716623015
Ref: library/contextlib translation-repo16623015
Ref: 4c9316623015
Ref: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts-Footnote-116623763
Node: Utilities16623833
Ref: library/contextlib utilities16623963
Ref: 4c9416623963
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AbstractContextManager16624035
Ref: 104d16624035
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AbstractAsyncContextManager16624527
Ref: eeb16624527
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib contextmanager16625042
Ref: 20e16625042
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib asynccontextmanager16628067
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib closing16630098
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib aclosing16631361
Ref: bc916631361
Ref: library/contextlib simplifying-support-for-single-optional-context-managers16632492
Ref: 4c9516632492
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib nullcontext16632492
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib suppress16634236
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib redirect_stdout16635834
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib redirect_stderr16637346
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib chdir16637631
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ContextDecorator16638372
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncContextDecorator16641926
Ref: 20d16641926
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack16643907
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack enter_context16645903
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack push16646659
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack callback16647679
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack pop_all16648143
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack close16649195
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack16649491
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack enter_async_context16649863
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack push_async_exit16650366
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Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack push_async_callback16650674
Ref: e4616650674
Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack aclose16650848
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Node: Examples and Recipes<2>16651465
Ref: library/contextlib examples-and-recipes16651654
Ref: 4c9c16651654
Node: Supporting a variable number of context managers16652098
Ref: library/contextlib supporting-a-variable-number-of-context-managers16652257
Ref: 4c9d16652257
Node: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods16653299
Ref: library/contextlib catching-exceptions-from-enter-methods16653509
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Node: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation16654674
Ref: library/contextlib cleaning-up-in-an-enter-implementation16654887
Ref: 4c9f16654887
Node: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables16656790
Ref: library/contextlib replacing-any-use-of-try-finally-and-flag-variables16657008
Ref: 4ca016657008
Node: Using a context manager as a function decorator16659520
Ref: library/contextlib using-a-context-manager-as-a-function-decorator16659687
Ref: 4ca116659687
Ref: Using a context manager as a function decorator-Footnote-116661538
Node: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers16661580
Ref: library/contextlib single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-cms16661751
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Ref: library/contextlib single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-context-managers16661751
Ref: 4ca216661751
Node: Reentrant context managers16663288
Ref: library/contextlib reentrant-cms16663435
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Ref: library/contextlib reentrant-context-managers16663435
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Node: Reusable context managers16664973
Ref: library/contextlib reusable-cms16665120
Ref: 4ca416665120
Ref: library/contextlib reusable-context-managers16665120
Ref: 4ca516665120
Node: abc — Abstract Base Classes16667794
Ref: library/abc doc16667977
Ref: 4ca616667977
Ref: library/abc abc-abstract-base-classes16667977
Ref: 4ca716667977
Ref: library/abc module-abc16667977
Ref: 416667977
Ref: library/abc translation-repo16667977
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Ref: library/abc abc ABC16668969
Ref: 12c816668969
Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta16669793
Ref: 12c916669793
Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta register16670570
Ref: 143616670570
Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta __subclasshook__16671286
Ref: 2bad16671286
Ref: library/abc abc abstractmethod16674210
Ref: 143316674210
Ref: library/abc abc abstractclassmethod16677376
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Ref: library/abc abc abstractstaticmethod16678124
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Ref: library/abc abc abstractproperty16678874
Ref: 143216678874
Ref: library/abc abc get_cache_token16680306
Ref: 12c716680306
Ref: library/abc abc update_abstractmethods16680696
Ref: 4ca916680696
Ref: abc — Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-116681374
Ref: abc — Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-216681437
Ref: abc — Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-316681479
Ref: abc — Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-416681521
Node: atexit — Exit handlers16681628
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Ref: library/atexit atexit-exit-handlers16681808
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Ref: library/atexit module-atexit16681808
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Ref: library/atexit translation-repo16681808
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Ref: library/atexit atexit register16682833
Ref: c5416682833
Ref: library/atexit atexit unregister16684480
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Node: atexit Example16685184
Ref: library/atexit atexit-example16685259
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Ref: library/atexit id116685259
Ref: 4cae16685259
Node: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback16686622
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Ref: library/traceback module-traceback16686816
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Ref: library/traceback traceback-print-or-retrieve-a-stack-traceback16686816
Ref: 4cb016686816
Ref: library/traceback translation-repo16686816
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Ref: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback-Footnote-116688962
Node: Module-Level Functions<2>16689031
Ref: library/traceback module-level-functions16689177
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Ref: library/traceback traceback print_tb16689244
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Ref: library/traceback traceback print_exception16690229
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Ref: library/traceback traceback print_exc16691794
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Ref: library/traceback traceback print_last16691987
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Ref: library/traceback traceback print_stack16692303
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Ref: library/traceback traceback extract_tb16692892
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Ref: library/traceback traceback extract_stack16693550
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Ref: library/traceback traceback print_list16693874
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Ref: library/traceback traceback format_list16694187
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Ref: library/traceback traceback format_exception_only16694707
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Ref: library/traceback traceback format_exception16696148
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Ref: library/traceback traceback format_tb16697095
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Ref: library/traceback traceback format_stack16697221
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Ref: library/traceback traceback clear_frames16697356
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Ref: library/traceback traceback walk_stack16697611
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Ref: library/traceback traceback walk_tb16698186
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Node: TracebackException Objects16698438
Ref: library/traceback tracebackexception-objects16698613
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException16699096
Ref: 76416699096
Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __cause__16700440
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __context__16700555
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException exceptions16700684
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __suppress_context__16700970
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __notes__16701113
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException stack16701430
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException exc_type16701531
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException exc_type_str16701676
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException filename16701817
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException lineno16701925
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException end_lineno16702033
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException text16702228
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException offset16702327
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException end_offset16702454
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException msg16702658
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException from_exception16702749
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException print16703141
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException format16703357
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Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException format_exception_only16703816
Ref: 76616703816
Node: StackSummary Objects16704894
Ref: library/traceback stacksummary-objects16705064
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Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary16705231
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Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary extract16705271
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Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary from_list16706290
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Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary format16706603
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Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary format_frame_summary16707259
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Node: FrameSummary Objects16707672
Ref: library/traceback framesummary-objects16707860
Ref: 4cd116707860
Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary16708048
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary filename16708963
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary lineno16709173
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary name16709270
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary line16709413
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary end_lineno16709629
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary colno16709935
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Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary end_colno16710103
Ref: 4cd416710103
Node: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions16710280
Ref: library/traceback examples-of-using-the-module-level-functions16710484
Ref: 4cd516710484
Ref: library/traceback traceback-example16710484
Ref: 4cd616710484
Node: Examples of Using TracebackException16715929
Ref: library/traceback examples-of-using-tracebackexception16716104
Ref: 4cd716716104
Node: __future__ — Future statement definitions16718760
Ref: library/__future__ doc16718964
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Ref: library/__future__ future-future-statement-definitions16718964
Ref: 4cd916718964
Ref: library/__future__ module-__future__16718964
Ref: 016718964
Ref: library/__future__ translation-repo16718964
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Ref: __future__ — Future statement definitions-Footnote-116720490
Node: Module Contents<2>16720560
Ref: library/__future__ module-contents16720658
Ref: 4cdb16720658
Ref: library/__future__ future__ nested_scopes16721322
Ref: 4cdc16721322
Ref: library/__future__ future__ generators16721731
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ division16722133
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ absolute_import16722548
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ with_statement16723064
Ref: 4ce016723064
Ref: library/__future__ future__ print_function16723473
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ unicode_literals16723880
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ generator_stop16724295
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ annotations16724720
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Ref: library/__future__ future-classes16725369
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ _Feature16725369
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ _Feature getOptionalRelease16726021
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ _Feature getMandatoryRelease16726163
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Ref: library/__future__ future__ _Feature compiler_flag16726759
Ref: 258716726759
Ref: Module Contents<2>-Footnote-116727385
Ref: Module Contents<2>-Footnote-216727427
Ref: Module Contents<2>-Footnote-316727469
Ref: Module Contents<2>-Footnote-416727511
Ref: Module Contents<2>-Footnote-516727553
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Ref: Module Contents<2>-Footnote-816727679
Ref: Module Contents<2>-Footnote-916727721
Ref: Module Contents<2>-Footnote-1016728038
Ref: Module Contents<2>-Footnote-1116728081
Ref: Module Contents<2>-Footnote-1216728124
Node: gc — Garbage Collector interface16728167
Ref: library/gc doc16728354
Ref: 4ce816728354
Ref: library/gc gc-garbage-collector-interface16728354
Ref: 4ce916728354
Ref: library/gc module-gc16728354
Ref: 6316728354
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Ref: library/gc gc enable16729276
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Ref: library/gc gc disable16729357
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Ref: library/gc gc isenabled16729440
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Ref: library/gc gc collect16729541
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Ref: library/gc gc set_debug16730551
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Ref: library/gc gc get_debug16730828
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Ref: library/gc gc get_objects16730917
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Ref: library/gc gc get_stats16731555
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Ref: library/gc gc set_threshold16732597
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Ref: library/gc gc get_count16734074
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Ref: library/gc gc get_threshold16734209
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Ref: library/gc gc get_referrers16734364
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Ref: library/gc gc get_referents16735405
Ref: bdf16735405
Ref: library/gc gc is_tracked16736142
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Ref: library/gc gc is_finalized16736924
Ref: ccd16736924
Ref: library/gc gc freeze16737446
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Ref: library/gc gc unfreeze16738293
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Ref: library/gc gc get_freeze_count16738464
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Ref: library/gc gc garbage16738719
Ref: 156a16738719
Ref: library/gc gc callbacks16739632
Ref: 147416739632
Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_STATS16741327
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Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_COLLECTABLE16741482
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Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE16741580
Ref: 156b16741580
Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_SAVEALL16741989
Ref: 4cf016741989
Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_LEAK16742193
Ref: 4cf316742193
Ref: gc — Garbage Collector interface-Footnote-116742449
Ref: gc — Garbage Collector interface-Footnote-216742605
Ref: gc — Garbage Collector interface-Footnote-316742692
Node: inspect — Inspect live objects16742734
Ref: library/inspect doc16742939
Ref: 4cf416742939
Ref: library/inspect inspect-inspect-live-objects16742939
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Ref: library/inspect translation-repo16742939
Ref: 4cf616742939
Ref: library/inspect module-inspect16743028
Ref: 8116743028
Ref: inspect — Inspect live objects-Footnote-116744217
Node: Types and members16744284
Ref: library/inspect inspect-types16744401
Ref: 1f8316744401
Ref: library/inspect types-and-members16744401
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getmembers16765708
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isgeneratorfunction16768504
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Ref: library/inspect inspect iscoroutinefunction16769125
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Ref: library/inspect inspect markcoroutinefunction16770025
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isawaitable16770826
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isasyncgenfunction16771312
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isasyncgen16772064
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Ref: library/inspect inspect iscode16772512
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isbuiltin16772610
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Ref: library/inspect inspect isgetsetdescriptor16775202
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Ref: library/inspect inspect ismemberdescriptor16775585
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Ref: library/inspect retrieving-source-code16776154
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getdoc16776221
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getsourcelines16778541
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getsource16779283
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Ref: library/inspect inspect cleandoc16779861
Ref: 1c3416779861
Node: Introspecting callables with the Signature object16780282
Ref: library/inspect inspect-signature-object16780464
Ref: 4d0916780464
Ref: library/inspect introspecting-callables-with-the-signature-object16780464
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Ref: library/inspect inspect signature16780795
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature16783918
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature empty16785052
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature parameters16785179
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature return_annotation16785697
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature bind16785919
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature bind_partial16786205
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature replace16786590
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature format16787453
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature from_callable16788362
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter16789105
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter empty16789538
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter kind16790582
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter replace16794044
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments16795184
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments arguments16795393
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments args16796278
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments kwargs16796436
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Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments signature16796688
Ref: 4d1916796688
Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments apply_defaults16796793
Ref: 11c916796793
Ref: Introspecting callables with the Signature object-Footnote-116797799
Node: Classes and functions<2>16797841
Ref: library/inspect classes-and-functions16798022
Ref: 4d1a16798022
Ref: library/inspect inspect-classes-functions16798022
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getclasstree16798087
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getfullargspec16798676
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getargvalues16801639
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Ref: library/inspect inspect formatargvalues16802166
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getmro16802659
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getcallargs16803033
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getclosurevars16804426
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Ref: library/inspect inspect unwrap16805154
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Ref: library/inspect inspect get_annotations16805900
Ref: bec16805900
Node: The interpreter stack16806681
Ref: library/inspect inspect-stack16806843
Ref: 4d1e16806843
Ref: library/inspect the-interpreter-stack16806843
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Ref: library/inspect inspect FrameInfo16807165
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Ref: library/inspect inspect FrameInfo frame16807200
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Ref: library/inspect inspect FrameInfo index16807947
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback code_context16809174
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Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback index16809352
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getframeinfo16811457
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Ref: library/inspect inspect getouterframes16811750
Ref: a3f16811750
Ref: library/inspect inspect getinnerframes16812399
Ref: a4016812399
Ref: library/inspect inspect currentframe16813044
Ref: acf16813044
Ref: library/inspect inspect stack16813477
Ref: a4116813477
Ref: library/inspect inspect trace16814018
Ref: a4216814018
Node: Fetching attributes statically16814648
Ref: library/inspect fetching-attributes-statically16814852
Ref: 4d2d16814852
Ref: library/inspect inspect getattr_static16815434
Ref: 8a516815434
Node: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators16817251
Ref: library/inspect current-state-of-generators-coroutines-and-asynchronous-generators16817456
Ref: 4d2e16817456
Ref: library/inspect inspect getgeneratorstate16817938
Ref: 15dc16817938
Ref: library/inspect inspect getcoroutinestate16818343
Ref: 11cd16818343
Ref: library/inspect inspect getasyncgenstate16818969
Ref: 8a316818969
Ref: library/inspect inspect getgeneratorlocals16819851
Ref: 148216819851
Ref: library/inspect inspect getcoroutinelocals16820760
Ref: 11cc16820760
Ref: library/inspect inspect getasyncgenlocals16821008
Ref: 8a416821008
Node: Code Objects Bit Flags16821306
Ref: library/inspect code-objects-bit-flags16821493
Ref: 4d2f16821493
Ref: library/inspect inspect-module-co-flags16821493
Ref: 258616821493
Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_OPTIMIZED16821663
Ref: 4d3016821663
Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_NEWLOCALS16821762
Ref: 4d3116821762
Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_VARARGS16821925
Ref: 4d3216821925
Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_VARKEYWORDS16822045
Ref: 4d3316822045
Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_NESTED16822169
Ref: 4d3416822169
Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_GENERATOR16822275
Ref: 4d3516822275
Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_COROUTINE16822462
Ref: 4d3616822462
Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE16822711
Ref: 4d3716822711
Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR16823038
Ref: 4d3816823038
Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_HAS_DOCSTRING16823321
Ref: 258816823321
Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_METHOD16823557
Ref: 4d3916823557
Ref: Code Objects Bit Flags-Footnote-116824096
Ref: Code Objects Bit Flags-Footnote-216824138
Ref: Code Objects Bit Flags-Footnote-316824180
Node: Buffer flags16824222
Ref: library/inspect buffer-flags16824369
Ref: 4d3a16824369
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags16824416
Ref: 87a16824416
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags SIMPLE16824732
Ref: 4d3c16824732
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags WRITABLE16824767
Ref: 4d3d16824767
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags FORMAT16824804
Ref: 4d3e16824804
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags ND16824839
Ref: 4d3f16824839
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags STRIDES16824870
Ref: 4d4016824870
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags C_CONTIGUOUS16824906
Ref: 4d4116824906
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags F_CONTIGUOUS16824947
Ref: 4d4216824947
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags ANY_CONTIGUOUS16824988
Ref: 4d4316824988
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags INDIRECT16825031
Ref: 4d4416825031
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags CONTIG16825068
Ref: 4d4516825068
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags CONTIG_RO16825103
Ref: 4d4616825103
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags STRIDED16825141
Ref: 4d4716825141
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags STRIDED_RO16825177
Ref: 4d4816825177
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags RECORDS16825216
Ref: 4d4916825216
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags RECORDS_RO16825252
Ref: 4d4a16825252
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags FULL16825291
Ref: 4d4b16825291
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags FULL_RO16825324
Ref: 4d4c16825324
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags READ16825360
Ref: 1b1416825360
Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags WRITE16825393
Ref: 1b1516825393
Node: Command-line interface<13>16825456
Ref: library/inspect command-line-interface16825572
Ref: 4d4d16825572
Ref: library/inspect inspect-module-cli16825572
Ref: 130516825572
Ref: library/inspect cmdoption-inspect-details16825945
Ref: 4d4e16825945
Node: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations16826338
Ref: library/annotationlib doc16826550
Ref: 4d4f16826550
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib-functionality-for-introspecting-annotations16826550
Ref: 4d5016826550
Ref: library/annotationlib module-annotationlib16826550
Ref: 616826550
Ref: library/annotationlib translation-repo16826550
Ref: 4d5116826550
Ref: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations-Footnote-116829567
Ref: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations-Footnote-216829640
Ref: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations-Footnote-316829682
Ref: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations-Footnote-416829724
Ref: annotationlib — Functionality for introspecting annotations-Footnote-516829766
Node: Annotation semantics16829818
Ref: library/annotationlib annotation-semantics16829955
Ref: 4d5216829955
Ref: Annotation semantics-Footnote-116832604
Ref: Annotation semantics-Footnote-216832646
Ref: Annotation semantics-Footnote-316832688
Ref: Annotation semantics-Footnote-416832730
Ref: Annotation semantics-Footnote-516832772
Ref: Annotation semantics-Footnote-616832814
Ref: Annotation semantics-Footnote-716832856
Ref: Annotation semantics-Footnote-816832898
Ref: Annotation semantics-Footnote-916832940
Node: Classes<2>16832982
Ref: library/annotationlib classes16833141
Ref: 4d5316833141
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib Format16833178
Ref: 4be16833178
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib Format VALUE16833519
Ref: 40b16833519
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib Format VALUE_WITH_FAKE_GLOBALS16833642
Ref: 4d5416833642
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib Format FORWARDREF16834222
Ref: 40c16834222
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib Format STRING16834531
Ref: 40d16834531
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib ForwardRef16834930
Ref: 196716834930
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib ForwardRef __forward_arg__16835323
Ref: 4d5516835323
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib ForwardRef evaluate16835545
Ref: 15016835545
Node: Functions<10>16838596
Ref: library/annotationlib functions16838745
Ref: 4d5616838745
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib annotations_to_string16838786
Ref: 4d5716838786
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib call_annotate_function16839639
Ref: 19cf16839639
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib call_evaluate_function16840899
Ref: 473d16840899
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib get_annotate_from_class_namespace16842824
Ref: 66e16842824
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib get_annotations16843406
Ref: 66c16843406
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib type_repr16848694
Ref: 1a7e16848694
Ref: Functions<10>-Footnote-116849395
Node: Recipes<2>16849486
Ref: library/annotationlib recipes16849657
Ref: 4d5916849657
Node: Using annotations in a metaclass16849790
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib-metaclass16849922
Ref: 4d5816849922
Ref: library/annotationlib using-annotations-in-a-metaclass16849922
Ref: 4d5a16849922
Node: Creating a custom callable annotate function16853056
Ref: library/annotationlib creating-a-custom-callable-annotate-function16853188
Ref: 4d5b16853188
Node: Limitations of the STRING format16856063
Ref: library/annotationlib limitations-of-the-string-format16856257
Ref: 4d5c16856257
Node: Limitations of the FORWARDREF format16860069
Ref: library/annotationlib limitations-of-the-forwardref-format16860303
Ref: 4d8116860303
Node: Security implications of introspecting annotations16861397
Ref: library/annotationlib annotationlib-security16861590
Ref: 476f16861590
Ref: library/annotationlib security-implications-of-introspecting-annotations16861590
Ref: 4d8216861590
Node: site — Site-specific configuration hook16862813
Ref: library/site doc16862984
Ref: 4d8316862984
Ref: library/site module-site16862984
Ref: cf16862984
Ref: library/site site-site-specific-configuration-hook16862984
Ref: 4d8416862984
Ref: library/site translation-repo16862984
Ref: 4d8516862984
Ref: library/site site-virtual-environments-configuration16865364
Ref: 4b9416865364
Ref: site — Site-specific configuration hook-Footnote-116866658
Node: Path extensions pth files16866722
Ref: library/site path-extensions-pth-files16866866
Ref: 4d8616866866
Ref: library/site site-pth-files16866866
Ref: 19316866866
Node: Startup entry points start files16868647
Ref: library/site site-start-files16868821
Ref: 19516868821
Ref: library/site startup-entry-points-start-files16868821
Ref: 4d8716868821
Ref: Startup entry points start files-Footnote-116870968
Node: Startup file examples16871010
Ref: library/site startup-file-examples16871214
Ref: 4d8816871214
Node: Migrating from import lines in pth files to start files16872667
Ref: library/site migrating-from-import-lines-in-pth-files-to-start-files16872852
Ref: 4d8916872852
Ref: library/site site-migration-guide16872852
Ref: 4d8a16872852
Ref: Migrating from import lines in pth files to start files-Footnote-116873957
Node: sitecustomize16873999
Ref: library/site module-sitecustomize16874176
Ref: d016874176
Ref: library/site sitecustomize16874176
Ref: 4d8b16874176
Node: usercustomize16874929
Ref: library/site module-usercustomize16875073
Ref: 11716875073
Ref: library/site usercustomize16875073
Ref: 4d8c16875073
Node: Readline configuration16875869
Ref: library/site readline-configuration16876018
Ref: 4d8e16876018
Ref: library/site rlcompleter-config16876018
Ref: 137216876018
Node: Module contents<7>16876707
Ref: library/site module-contents16876869
Ref: 4d8f16876869
Ref: library/site site PREFIXES16876922
Ref: 4d9016876922
Ref: library/site site ENABLE_USER_SITE16877015
Ref: 4d8d16877015
Ref: library/site site USER_SITE16877465
Ref: 231516877465
Ref: library/site site USER_BASE16878092
Ref: 16c116878092
Ref: library/site site main16878664
Ref: 231616878664
Ref: library/site site addsitedir16879040
Ref: 246316879040
Ref: library/site site getsitepackages16880197
Ref: 15e416880197
Ref: library/site site getuserbase16880343
Ref: 15e516880343
Ref: library/site site getusersitepackages16880600
Ref: 15e616880600
Node: Command-line interface<14>16881012
Ref: library/site command-line-interface16881143
Ref: 4d9116881143
Ref: library/site site-commandline16881143
Ref: 4d9216881143
Ref: library/site cmdoption-site-user-base16881686
Ref: 4d9316881686
Ref: library/site cmdoption-site-user-site16881760
Ref: 4d9416881760
Ref: Command-line interface<14>-Footnote-116882768
Ref: Command-line interface<14>-Footnote-216882810
Node: Custom Python Interpreters16882852
Ref: library/custominterp doc16883000
Ref: 4d9516883000
Ref: library/custominterp custom-python-interpreters16883000
Ref: 4d9616883000
Ref: library/custominterp custominterp16883000
Ref: 4d9716883000
Ref: library/custominterp translation-repo16883000
Ref: 4d9816883000
Node: code — Interpreter base classes16883585
Ref: library/code doc16883720
Ref: 4d9916883720
Ref: library/code code-interpreter-base-classes16883720
Ref: 4d9a16883720
Ref: library/code module-code16883720
Ref: 1b16883720
Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter16884138
Ref: 1b5b16884138
Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole16884921
Ref: 2a1e16884921
Ref: library/code code interact16885504
Ref: 1ab416885504
Ref: library/code code compile_command16886470
Ref: 4d9d16886470
Ref: code — Interpreter base classes-Footnote-116887766
Node: Interactive Interpreter Objects16887830
Ref: library/code interactive-interpreter-objects16887967
Ref: 4d9e16887967
Ref: library/code interpreter-objects16887967
Ref: 4d9f16887967
Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter runsource16888050
Ref: 4da016888050
Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter runcode16889325
Ref: 4da216889325
Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter showsyntaxerror16889794
Ref: 4da116889794
Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter showtraceback16890276
Ref: 118716890276
Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter write16890681
Ref: 4da316890681
Node: Interactive Console Objects16890909
Ref: library/code console-objects16891046
Ref: 4da416891046
Ref: library/code interactive-console-objects16891046
Ref: 4da516891046
Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole interact16891310
Ref: 4d9c16891310
Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole push16892203
Ref: 4da616892203
Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole resetbuffer16892919
Ref: 4da716892919
Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole raw_input16893036
Ref: 4d9b16893036
Node: codeop — Compile Python code16893405
Ref: library/codeop doc16893540
Ref: 4da816893540
Ref: library/codeop codeop-compile-python-code16893540
Ref: 4da916893540
Ref: library/codeop module-codeop16893540
Ref: 1d16893540
Ref: library/codeop translation-repo16893540
Ref: 4daa16893540
Ref: library/codeop codeop compile_command16894486
Ref: 1d5116894486
Ref: library/codeop codeop Compile16895927
Ref: 4dab16895927
Ref: library/codeop codeop CommandCompiler16896332
Ref: 4dac16896332
Ref: codeop — Compile Python code-Footnote-116896758
Node: Importing Modules16896824
Ref: library/modules doc16896973
Ref: 4dad16896973
Ref: library/modules importing-modules16896973
Ref: 4dae16896973
Ref: library/modules modules16896973
Ref: 4daf16896973
Ref: library/modules translation-repo16896973
Ref: 4db016896973
Node: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives16898041
Ref: library/zipimport doc16898187
Ref: 4db116898187
Ref: library/zipimport module-zipimport16898187
Ref: 13b16898187
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport-import-modules-from-zip-archives16898187
Ref: 4db216898187
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport ZipImportError16900533
Ref: 4db316900533
Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-116900822
Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-216900891
Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-316900959
Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-416901001
Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-516901043
Node: zipimporter Objects16901085
Ref: library/zipimport id116901208
Ref: 4db416901208
Ref: library/zipimport zipimporter-objects16901208
Ref: 4db516901208
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter16901331
Ref: 4db616901331
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter create_module16901991
Ref: c3616901991
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter exec_module16902246
Ref: 2e916902246
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter find_spec16902413
Ref: c3516902413
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter get_code16902603
Ref: 4db716902603
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter get_data16902792
Ref: 4db816902792
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter get_filename16903101
Ref: 4db916903101
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter get_source16903374
Ref: 4dba16903374
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter is_package16903672
Ref: 4dbb16903672
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter invalidate_caches16903891
Ref: c3716903891
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter archive16904079
Ref: 4dbc16904079
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter prefix16904219
Ref: 4dbd16904219
Node: Examples<28>16904626
Ref: library/zipimport examples16904749
Ref: 4dbe16904749
Ref: library/zipimport zipimport-examples16904749
Ref: 4dbf16904749
Node: pkgutil — Package extension utility16905409
Ref: library/pkgutil doc16905610
Ref: 4dc016905610
Ref: library/pkgutil module-pkgutil16905610
Ref: ae16905610
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil-package-extension-utility16905610
Ref: 4dc116905610
Ref: library/pkgutil translation-repo16905610
Ref: 4dc216905610
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil ModuleInfo16905895
Ref: 110116905895
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil extend_path16906056
Ref: 1b3f16906056
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_importer16907783
Ref: 4dc316907783
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil iter_importers16908325
Ref: 154216908325
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil iter_modules16909081
Ref: 110016909081
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil walk_packages16909971
Ref: fbe16909971
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_data16911598
Ref: 4dc416911598
Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil resolve_name16913701
Ref: 190416913701
Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-116915962
Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-216916029
Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-316916071
Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-416916113
Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-516916155
Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-616916197
Node: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script16916262
Ref: library/modulefinder doc16916464
Ref: 4dc716916464
Ref: library/modulefinder module-modulefinder16916464
Ref: 9516916464
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder-find-modules-used-by-a-script16916464
Ref: 4dc816916464
Ref: library/modulefinder translation-repo16916464
Ref: 4dc916916464
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder AddPackagePath16916983
Ref: 4dca16916983
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ReplacePackage16917143
Ref: 4dcb16917143
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder16917316
Ref: 1fd416917316
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder report16917980
Ref: 4dcd16917980
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder run_script16918203
Ref: 4dcc16918203
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder modules16918349
Ref: 4dce16918349
Ref: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script-Footnote-116918580
Node: Example usage of ModuleFinder16918652
Ref: library/modulefinder example-usage-of-modulefinder16918764
Ref: 4dd016918764
Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder-example16918764
Ref: 4dcf16918764
Node: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules16920137
Ref: library/runpy doc16920344
Ref: 4dd116920344
Ref: library/runpy module-runpy16920344
Ref: c616920344
Ref: library/runpy runpy-locating-and-executing-python-modules16920344
Ref: 4dd216920344
Ref: library/runpy translation-repo16920344
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Ref: library/runpy runpy run_module16921363
Ref: 190116921363
Ref: library/runpy runpy run_path16924923
Ref: 6ae16924923
Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-116929461
Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-216929526
Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-316929568
Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-416929610
Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-516929652
Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-616929694
Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-716929736
Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-816929778
Node: importlib — The implementation of import16929820
Ref: library/importlib doc16930093
Ref: 4dd416930093
Ref: library/importlib importlib-the-implementation-of-import16930093
Ref: 4dd516930093
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib16930093
Ref: 7a16930093
Ref: library/importlib translation-repo16930093
Ref: 4dd616930093
Ref: importlib — The implementation of import-Footnote-116930796
Node: Introduction<11>16930875
Ref: library/importlib introduction16930992
Ref: 4dd716930992
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-116933295
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-216933347
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-316933389
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-416933431
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-516933473
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-616933515
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-716933557
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-816933599
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-916933641
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-1016933683
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-1116933726
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-1216933769
Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-1316933812
Node: Functions<11>16933855
Ref: library/importlib functions16934038
Ref: 4dd816934038
Ref: library/importlib importlib __import__16934077
Ref: 141516934077
Ref: library/importlib importlib import_module16934396
Ref: 92716934396
Ref: library/importlib importlib invalidate_caches16935900
Ref: fcf16935900
Ref: library/importlib importlib reload16936560
Ref: 92816936560
Node: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import16940116
Ref: library/importlib importlib-abc-abstract-base-classes-related-to-import16940331
Ref: 4dd916940331
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib abc16940331
Ref: 7b16940331
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc MetaPathFinder16941119
Ref: c4416941119
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc MetaPathFinder find_spec16941352
Ref: c3f16941352
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc MetaPathFinder invalidate_caches16942105
Ref: 4dda16942105
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc MetaPathFinder discover16942544
Ref: 194b16942544
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder16943510
Ref: c4516943510
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder find_spec16943969
Ref: c4216943969
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder invalidate_caches16944616
Ref: 4ddb16944616
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder discover16944924
Ref: 194c16944924
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader16945901
Ref: 127516945901
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader create_module16946471
Ref: 106f16946471
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader exec_module16946897
Ref: c4016946897
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceLoader16947393
Ref: fa716947393
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceLoader get_data16947983
Ref: 4dc516947983
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader16948821
Ref: 12fe16948821
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader get_code16949010
Ref: 12ff16949010
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader get_source16949629
Ref: 130216949629
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader is_package16950291
Ref: 4ddd16950291
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader source_to_code16950686
Ref: 1cb16950686
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader exec_module16951620
Ref: 13bb16951620
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ExecutionLoader16951762
Ref: 4dde16951762
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ExecutionLoader get_filename16952015
Ref: 4ddf16952015
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader16952626
Ref: 141b16952626
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader name16953214
Ref: 4de016953214
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader path16953304
Ref: 4de116953304
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader get_filename16953380
Ref: 4de216953380
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader get_data16953482
Ref: 4dc616953482
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader16953611
Ref: 4de316953611
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader path_stats16954800
Ref: 153316954800
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader path_mtime16955604
Ref: 153216955604
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader set_data16956195
Ref: 4de416956195
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader get_code16956735
Ref: 4de516956735
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader exec_module16956867
Ref: 13bc16956867
Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader get_source16957018
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Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader is_package16957154
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Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-116957601
Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-216957674
Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-316957716
Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-416957758
Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-516957800
Node: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks16957842
Ref: library/importlib importlib-machinery-importers-and-path-hooks16958089
Ref: 4de716958089
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib machinery16958089
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SOURCE_SUFFIXES16958420
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES16958598
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES16958891
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery BYTECODE_SUFFIXES16959184
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery EXTENSION_SUFFIXES16959498
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery all_suffixes16959682
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery BuiltinImporter16960129
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FrozenImporter16960716
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery WindowsRegistryFinder16961158
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder16961669
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder find_spec16961989
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder invalidate_caches16963183
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder16963830
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder path16965142
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder find_spec16965222
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder invalidate_caches16965407
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder path_hook16965495
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery NamespacePath16965944
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader16967128
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader name16967514
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader is_package16967684
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader path_stats16967821
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader set_data16967966
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader16968113
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader name16968679
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader path16968770
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader is_package16968845
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader get_code16968979
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader get_source16969123
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader16969270
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader name16969964
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader path16970048
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader create_module16970122
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader exec_module16970309
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader is_package16970477
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_code16970668
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_source16970785
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_filename16970909
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery NamespaceLoader16971029
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec16971687
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec name16972493
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec loader16972710
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec origin16972920
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec submodule_search_locations16973416
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec loader_state16974073
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec cached16974324
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec parent16974593
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec has_location16974891
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery AppleFrameworkLoader16975185
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery AppleFrameworkLoader name16978504
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Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery AppleFrameworkLoader path16978588
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Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-116978724
Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-216978804
Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-316978846
Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-416978888
Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-516978930
Node: importlib util – Utility code for importers16978972
Ref: library/importlib importlib-util-utility-code-for-importers16979174
Ref: 4e0116979174
Ref: library/importlib module-importlib util16979174
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util MAGIC_NUMBER16979500
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util cache_from_source16979752
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util source_from_cache16981377
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util decode_source16982030
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util resolve_name16982313
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util find_spec16983235
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util module_from_spec16984157
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util spec_from_loader16984805
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util spec_from_file_location16985270
Ref: 107216985270
Ref: library/importlib importlib util source_hash16985779
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util _incompatible_extension_module_restrictions16986056
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util LazyLoader16987214
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Ref: library/importlib importlib util LazyLoader factory16988735
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Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-116989306
Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-216989380
Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-316989422
Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-416989464
Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-516989506
Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-616989548
Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-716989590
Node: Examples<29>16989632
Ref: library/importlib examples16989777
Ref: 4e0416989777
Ref: library/importlib importlib-examples16989777
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Ref: library/importlib importing-programmatically16990192
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Ref: library/importlib checking-if-a-module-can-be-imported16990584
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Ref: library/importlib importing-a-source-file-directly16991657
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Ref: library/importlib setting-up-an-importer16993835
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Node: importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων16997030
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib-resources-package-resource-reading-opening-and-access16997319
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Ref: library/importlib resources module-importlib resources16997319
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Ref: library/importlib resources translation-repo16997319
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources files17000983
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources as_file17002553
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Ref: importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων-Footnote-117003914
Ref: importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων-Footnote-217004003
Ref: importlib resources – Ανάγνωση άνοιγμα και πρόσβαση σε πόρους πακέτων-Footnote-317004075
Node: Λειτουργικό API17004152
Ref: library/importlib resources functional-api17004327
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib-resources-functional17004327
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources open_binary17006305
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources open_text17007055
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources read_binary17008614
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources read_text17009230
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources path17010667
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources is_resource17012340
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Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources contents17013047
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Node: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources17014184
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib-resources-abc-abstract-base-classes-for-resources17014480
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc translation-repo17014480
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader17014771
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader open_resource17016590
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader resource_path17016859
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader is_resource17017103
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader contents17017430
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable17018307
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable name17018598
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable iterdir17018723
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable is_dir17018821
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable is_file17018925
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable joinpath17019025
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable __truediv__17020163
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable open17020317
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable read_bytes17020689
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable read_text17020772
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Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc TraversableResources17020866
Ref: 57117020866
Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc TraversableResources files17021395
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Ref: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources-Footnote-117021591
Node: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata17021675
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib-metadata-accessing-package-metadata17021912
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Ref: library/importlib metadata module-importlib metadata17021912
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Ref: library/importlib metadata translation-repo17021912
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Ref: library/importlib metadata using17021912
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Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-117024177
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-217024265
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-317024349
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-417024427
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-517024465
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-617024557
Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-717024626
Node: Overview<3>17024702
Ref: library/importlib metadata overview17024822
Ref: 4e2717024822
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackageNotFoundError17026341
Ref: 19cd17026341
Ref: Overview<3>-Footnote-117026641
Node: Functional API17026725
Ref: library/importlib metadata functional-api17026867
Ref: 4e2c17026867
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Ref: library/importlib metadata id217027256
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata entry_points17027301
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata EntryPoints17027909
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata EntryPoint17028194
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Ref: Entry points-Footnote-117031003
Ref: Entry points-Footnote-217031075
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Ref: library/importlib metadata metadata17031266
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata metadata17031329
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackageMetadata17031676
Ref: 4e3417031676
Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-117032966
Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-217033071
Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-317033155
Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-417033197
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Ref: library/importlib metadata version17033418
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata version17033481
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Ref: Distribution versions-Footnote-117033984
Ref: Distribution versions-Footnote-217034070
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Ref: library/importlib metadata files17034287
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackagePath17034861
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackagePath locate17035126
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata SimplePath17035329
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Ref: Distribution files-Footnote-117036900
Ref: Distribution files-Footnote-217036984
Node: Distribution requirements17037081
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Ref: library/importlib metadata requirements17037232
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata requires17037303
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Ref: library/importlib metadata package-distributions17037809
Ref: be917037809
Ref: Distribution requirements-Footnote-117037846
Node: Mapping import to distribution packages17037930
Ref: library/importlib metadata import-distribution-package-mapping17038054
Ref: 4e3c17038054
Ref: library/importlib metadata mapping-import-to-distribution-packages17038054
Ref: 4e3d17038054
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata packages_distributions17038153
Ref: 4e3e17038153
Ref: Mapping import to distribution packages-Footnote-117039199
Ref: Mapping import to distribution packages-Footnote-217039283
Ref: Mapping import to distribution packages-Footnote-317039361
Node: Distributions17039423
Ref: library/importlib metadata distributions17039576
Ref: bea17039576
Ref: library/importlib metadata id917039576
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata distribution17040203
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution17040746
Ref: 194f17040746
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution at17041037
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution from_name17041080
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution discover17041235
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution metadata17041738
Ref: 4e4717041738
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution name17042300
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution requires17042350
Ref: 4e4917042350
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution version17042422
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution origin17042630
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution entry_points17043058
Ref: 4e3017043058
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution files17043192
Ref: 4e4b17043192
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution locate_file17043585
Ref: 4e4d17043585
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution read_text17043802
Ref: 4e4e17043802
Ref: Distributions-Footnote-117043975
Ref: Distributions-Footnote-217044059
Ref: Distributions-Footnote-317044151
Ref: Distributions-Footnote-417044193
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Ref: 4e4517044451
Ref: library/importlib metadata id1217044451
Ref: 4e4f17044451
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata DistributionFinder17045081
Ref: 4e5017045081
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata DistributionFinder Context17045322
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata DistributionFinder Context name17046456
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Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata DistributionFinder Context path17046676
Ref: 4e5317046676
Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata distributions17047042
Ref: 4e5117047042
Ref: Distribution Discovery-Footnote-117047557
Node: Implementing Custom Providers17047641
Ref: library/importlib metadata id1417047787
Ref: 4e5417047787
Ref: library/importlib metadata implementing-custom-providers17047787
Ref: 4e4c17047787
Ref: Implementing Custom Providers-Footnote-117050009
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Ref: library/importlib metadata example17050170
Ref: 4e5517050170
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Ref: library/sys_path_init doc17053621
Ref: 4e5617053621
Ref: library/sys_path_init sys-path-init17053621
Ref: 195317053621
Ref: library/sys_path_init the-initialization-of-the-sys-path-module-search-path17053621
Ref: 4e5717053621
Ref: library/sys_path_init translation-repo17053621
Ref: 4e5817053621
Node: Virtual Environments17058071
Ref: library/sys_path_init sys-path-init-virtual-environments17058200
Ref: 4b9317058200
Ref: library/sys_path_init virtual-environments17058200
Ref: 4e5917058200
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Ref: library/sys_path_init pth-files17059356
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Node: Embedded Python17060505
Ref: library/sys_path_init embedded-python17060629
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Ref: library/language doc17061272
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Ref: library/language translation-repo17061272
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Ref: library/ast doc17062236
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Ref: library/ast ast-abstract-syntax-trees17062236
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Ref: library/ast module-ast17062236
Ref: 917062236
Ref: ast — Abstract syntax trees-Footnote-117063260
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Ref: library/ast abstract-grammar17063426
Ref: 4e6317063426
Ref: library/ast id117063426
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Ref: library/ast ast-nodes17071125
Ref: 2c817071125
Ref: library/ast node-classes17071125
Ref: 4e6517071125
Ref: library/ast ast AST17071170
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Ref: library/ast ast AST _fields17072009
Ref: 19da17072009
Ref: library/ast ast AST _field_types17072818
Ref: 6ca17072818
Ref: library/ast ast AST lineno17073217
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Ref: library/ast ast AST col_offset17073251
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Ref: library/ast ast AST end_lineno17073289
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Ref: library/ast ast AST end_col_offset17073327
Ref: 4e6917073327
Ref: Node classes-Footnote-117078132
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Ref: library/ast ast-root-nodes17078269
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Ref: library/ast root-nodes17078269
Ref: 4e6b17078269
Ref: library/ast ast Module17078310
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Ref: library/ast ast Expression17078993
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Ref: library/ast ast Interactive17079376
Ref: 1aa017079376
Ref: library/ast ast FunctionType17080134
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Ref: Root nodes-Footnote-117081107
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Ref: library/ast literals17081246
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Ref: library/ast ast Constant17081283
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Ref: library/ast ast FormattedValue17082162
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Ref: library/ast ast JoinedStr17083112
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Ref: library/ast ast TemplateStr17084056
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Ref: library/ast ast Interpolation17085088
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Ref: library/ast ast List17086536
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Ref: library/ast ast Tuple17086573
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Ref: library/ast ast Set17087398
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Ref: library/ast variables17088708
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Ref: library/ast ast Name17088747
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Ref: library/ast ast Load17088894
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Ref: library/ast ast Store17088919
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Ref: library/ast ast Del17088945
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Ref: library/ast ast Starred17089803
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Node: Expressions<2>17090595
Ref: library/ast ast-expressions17090695
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Ref: library/ast expressions17090695
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Ref: library/ast ast Expr17090738
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Ref: library/ast ast UnaryOp17091374
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Ref: library/ast ast UAdd17091513
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Ref: library/ast ast USub17091538
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Ref: library/ast ast Not17091563
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Ref: library/ast ast Invert17091587
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Ref: library/ast ast BinOp17091917
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Ref: library/ast ast Add17092331
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Ref: library/ast ast Sub17092355
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Ref: library/ast ast Mult17092379
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Ref: library/ast ast Div17092404
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Ref: library/ast ast FloorDiv17092428
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Ref: library/ast ast Mod17092457
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Ref: library/ast ast Pow17092481
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Ref: library/ast ast LShift17092505
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Ref: library/ast ast RShift17092532
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Ref: library/ast ast BitOr17092559
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Ref: library/ast ast BitXor17092585
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Ref: library/ast ast BitAnd17092612
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Ref: library/ast ast MatMult17092639
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Ref: library/ast ast BoolOp17092698
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Ref: library/ast ast And17093340
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Ref: library/ast ast Or17093364
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Ref: library/ast ast Compare17093419
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Ref: library/ast ast Eq17094058
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Ref: library/ast ast NotEq17094081
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Ref: library/ast ast Lt17094107
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Ref: library/ast ast LtE17094130
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Ref: library/ast ast Gt17094154
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Ref: library/ast ast GtE17094177
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Ref: library/ast ast Is17094201
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Ref: library/ast ast IsNot17094224
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Ref: library/ast ast In17094250
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Ref: library/ast ast NotIn17094273
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Ref: library/ast ast Call17094334
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Ref: library/ast ast keyword17095368
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Ref: library/ast ast IfExp17095569
Ref: 4d7717095569
Ref: library/ast ast Attribute17096021
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Ref: library/ast ast NamedExpr17096573
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Node: Subscripting17097232
Ref: library/ast subscripting17097318
Ref: 4e8917097318
Ref: library/ast ast Subscript17097363
Ref: 4d7017097363
Ref: library/ast ast Slice17098190
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Node: Comprehensions17098742
Ref: library/ast comprehensions17098828
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Ref: library/ast ast ListComp17098877
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Ref: library/ast ast SetComp17098924
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Ref: library/ast ast GeneratorExp17098970
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Ref: library/ast ast DictComp17099021
Ref: 4d7b17099021
Ref: library/ast ast comprehension17100866
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Node: Statements17103793
Ref: library/ast ast-statements17103896
Ref: 4e6d17103896
Ref: library/ast statements17103896
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Ref: library/ast ast Assign17103937
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Ref: library/ast ast Assign type_comment17104285
Ref: 4e8d17104285
Ref: library/ast ast AnnAssign17105221
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Ref: library/ast ast AugAssign17107411
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Ref: library/ast ast Raise17108141
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Ref: library/ast ast Assert17108659
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Ref: library/ast ast Delete17109046
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Ref: library/ast ast Pass17109569
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Ref: library/ast ast TypeAlias17109751
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Node: Imports17110447
Ref: library/ast imports17110501
Ref: 4e9517110501
Ref: library/ast ast Import17110538
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Ref: library/ast ast ImportFrom17110986
Ref: 4e9717110986
Ref: library/ast ast alias17111737
Ref: 1e6b17111737
Node: Control flow17112294
Ref: library/ast control-flow17112399
Ref: 4e9817112399
Ref: library/ast ast If17112565
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Ref: library/ast ast For17113796
Ref: 4e9a17113796
Ref: library/ast ast For type_comment17114339
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Ref: library/ast ast While17115059
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Ref: library/ast ast Break17115727
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Ref: library/ast ast Continue17115753
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Ref: library/ast ast Try17116741
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Ref: library/ast ast TryStar17118299
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Ref: library/ast ast ExceptHandler17119298
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Ref: library/ast ast With17120413
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Ref: library/ast ast With type_comment17120649
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Ref: library/ast ast withitem17120791
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Node: Pattern matching17122026
Ref: library/ast pattern-matching17122137
Ref: 4ea517122137
Ref: library/ast ast Match17122192
Ref: 4ea617122192
Ref: library/ast ast match_case17122506
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Ref: library/ast ast MatchValue17124438
Ref: 4ea817124438
Ref: library/ast ast MatchSingleton17125401
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Ref: library/ast ast MatchSequence17126250
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Ref: library/ast ast MatchStar17127434
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Ref: library/ast ast MatchMapping17129036
Ref: 4eac17129036
Ref: library/ast ast MatchClass17130995
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Ref: library/ast ast MatchAs17133899
Ref: 4eae17133899
Ref: library/ast ast MatchOr17135508
Ref: 4eaf17135508
Node: Type annotations17136746
Ref: library/ast type-annotations17136860
Ref: 4eb017136860
Ref: library/ast ast TypeIgnore17136915
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Node: Type parameters17138166
Ref: library/ast ast-type-params17138294
Ref: 4e9417138294
Ref: library/ast type-parameters17138294
Ref: 4eb117138294
Ref: library/ast ast TypeVar17138427
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Ref: library/ast ast ParamSpec17139553
Ref: 4eb317139553
Ref: library/ast ast TypeVarTuple17140762
Ref: 4eb417140762
Node: Function and class definitions17141764
Ref: library/ast function-and-class-definitions17141891
Ref: 4eb517141891
Ref: library/ast ast FunctionDef17141974
Ref: 1c7e17141974
Ref: library/ast ast FunctionDef type_comment17142588
Ref: 4eb717142588
Ref: library/ast ast Lambda17142802
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Ref: library/ast ast arguments17143416
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Ref: library/ast ast arg17144168
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Ref: library/ast ast arg type_comment17144389
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Ref: library/ast ast Return17145940
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Ref: library/ast ast Yield17146186
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Ref: library/ast ast YieldFrom17146220
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Ref: library/ast ast Global17146868
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Ref: library/ast ast Nonlocal17146903
Ref: 4ebc17146903
Ref: library/ast ast ClassDef17147557
Ref: 1c7c17147557
Ref: Function and class definitions-Footnote-117149193
Node: Async and await17149235
Ref: library/ast async-and-await17149338
Ref: 4ebd17149338
Ref: library/ast ast AsyncFunctionDef17149391
Ref: 1c7d17149391
Ref: library/ast ast Await17149682
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Ref: library/ast ast AsyncFor17150291
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Ref: library/ast ast AsyncWith17150363
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Node: ast helpers17151027
Ref: library/ast ast-helpers17151151
Ref: 4ec017151151
Ref: library/ast ast parse17151337
Ref: 1c917151337
Ref: library/ast ast unparse17154612
Ref: cb617154612
Ref: library/ast ast literal_eval17155277
Ref: fd717155277
Ref: library/ast ast get_docstring17157153
Ref: 202817157153
Ref: library/ast ast get_source_segment17157640
Ref: d9c17157640
Ref: library/ast ast fix_missing_locations17158132
Ref: 4ec217158132
Ref: library/ast ast increment_lineno17158617
Ref: 1d0c17158617
Ref: library/ast ast copy_location17158857
Ref: 4ec317158857
Ref: library/ast ast iter_fields17159126
Ref: 4ec417159126
Ref: library/ast ast iter_child_nodes17159291
Ref: 4ec517159291
Ref: library/ast ast walk17159479
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Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor17159755
Ref: 56a17159755
Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor visit17160102
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Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor generic_visit17160388
Ref: 4ec817160388
Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor visit_Constant17160710
Ref: e3217160710
Ref: library/ast ast NodeTransformer17161366
Ref: 4ec917161366
Ref: library/ast ast dump17163217
Ref: 1e117163217
Ref: library/ast ast compare17165509
Ref: 45917165509
Ref: ast helpers-Footnote-117166088
Ref: ast helpers-Footnote-217166130
Ref: ast helpers-Footnote-317166172
Node: Compiler flags<2>17166214
Ref: library/ast ast-compiler-flags17166347
Ref: 27c017166347
Ref: library/ast compiler-flags17166347
Ref: 4eca17166347
Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT17166518
Ref: 4ecb17166518
Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_ONLY_AST17166714
Ref: 4e6217166714
Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST17166857
Ref: 4ecc17166857
Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS17167062
Ref: 4ec117167062
Ref: Compiler flags<2>-Footnote-117167303
Ref: Compiler flags<2>-Footnote-217167345
Node: Command-line usage<5>17167387
Ref: library/ast ast-cli17167500
Ref: 1e217167500
Ref: library/ast command-line-usage17167500
Ref: 4ecd17167500
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-h17167914
Ref: 4ece17167914
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-help17167914
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Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-m17167976
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Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-mode17167998
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Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-no-type-comments17168128
Ref: 4ed217168128
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-a17168195
Ref: 4ed317168195
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-include-attributes17168195
Ref: 4ed417168195
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-i17168299
Ref: 4ed517168299
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-indent17168323
Ref: 4ed617168323
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-feature-version17168408
Ref: 45c17168408
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-O17168596
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Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-optimize17168619
Ref: 45d17168619
Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-show-empty17168747
Ref: 45e17168747
Ref: Command-line usage<5>-Footnote-117169939
Ref: Command-line usage<5>-Footnote-217169987
Ref: Command-line usage<5>-Footnote-317170054
Ref: Command-line usage<5>-Footnote-417170128
Ref: Command-line usage<5>-Footnote-517170167
Node: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables17170204
Ref: library/symtable doc17170413
Ref: 4ed817170413
Ref: library/symtable module-symtable17170413
Ref: e117170413
Ref: library/symtable symtable-access-to-the-compiler-s-symbol-tables17170413
Ref: 4ed917170413
Ref: library/symtable translation-repo17170413
Ref: 4eda17170413
Ref: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables-Footnote-117171035
Node: Generating Symbol Tables17171103
Ref: library/symtable generating-symbol-tables17171249
Ref: 4edb17171249
Ref: library/symtable symtable symtable17171318
Ref: 1ca17171318
Node: Examining Symbol Tables17171846
Ref: library/symtable examining-symbol-tables17172022
Ref: 4edd17172022
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType17172089
Ref: 1b6617172089
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType MODULE17172215
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType FUNCTION17172311
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType CLASS17172413
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType ANNOTATION17172599
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType TYPE_ALIAS17172750
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType TYPE_PARAMETERS17172876
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType TYPE_VARIABLE17173051
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable17173427
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_type17173534
Ref: 1b6717173534
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_id17174240
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_name17174320
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_lineno17174974
Ref: 4ee717174974
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable is_optimized17175107
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable is_nested17175224
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Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable has_children17175336
Ref: 4eea17175336
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_identifiers17175518
Ref: 4eec17175518
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable lookup17175703
Ref: 4eed17175703
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_symbols17175833
Ref: 4eee17175833
Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_children17175965
Ref: 4eeb17175965
Ref: library/symtable symtable Function17176061
Ref: 4eef17176061
Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_parameters17176196
Ref: 4ef017176196
Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_locals17176325
Ref: 4ef117176325
Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_globals17176436
Ref: 4ef217176436
Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_nonlocals17176549
Ref: 4ef317176549
Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_frees17176696
Ref: 4ef417176696
Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_cells17176847
Ref: 26b17176847
Ref: library/symtable symtable Class17177019
Ref: 4ef517177019
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol17177137
Ref: 51117177137
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol get_name17177298
Ref: 4ef617177298
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_referenced17177375
Ref: 4ef717177375
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_imported17177483
Ref: 4ef817177483
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_parameter17177614
Ref: 4ef917177614
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_type_parameter17177715
Ref: 1b6817177715
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_global17177860
Ref: 4efa17177860
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_nonlocal17177953
Ref: 1ffc17177953
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_declared_global17178050
Ref: 16ca17178050
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_local17178195
Ref: 4efb17178195
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_annotated17178299
Ref: 4efc17178299
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_free17178431
Ref: 4efd17178431
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_cell17178570
Ref: 26c17178570
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_free_class17178744
Ref: 51417178744
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_assigned17179396
Ref: 4efe17179396
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_comp_iter17179509
Ref: 51317179509
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_comp_cell17179677
Ref: 51217179677
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_namespace17179845
Ref: 4eff17179845
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol get_namespaces17180495
Ref: 4f0017180495
Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol get_namespace17180598
Ref: 4f0117180598
Node: Command-Line Usage<2>17180806
Ref: library/symtable command-line-usage17180949
Ref: 4f0217180949
Ref: library/symtable symtable-cli17180949
Ref: 4f0317180949
Node: token — Constants used with Python parse trees17181298
Ref: library/token doc17181517
Ref: 4f0417181517
Ref: library/token module-token17181517
Ref: 10317181517
Ref: library/token token-constants-used-with-python-parse-trees17181517
Ref: 4f0517181517
Ref: library/token translation-repo17181517
Ref: 4f0617181517
Ref: library/token token tok_name17182473
Ref: 4f0917182473
Ref: library/token token ISTERMINAL17182703
Ref: 4f0a17182703
Ref: library/token token ISNONTERMINAL17182800
Ref: 4f0b17182800
Ref: library/token token ISEOF17182904
Ref: 4f0c17182904
Ref: library/token token NAME17183045
Ref: 24aa17183045
Ref: library/token token NUMBER17183150
Ref: 24ab17183150
Ref: library/token token STRING17183250
Ref: 24ac17183250
Ref: library/token token OP17183607
Ref: 247b17183607
Ref: library/token token COMMENT17183945
Ref: 4f0d17183945
Ref: library/token token NEWLINE17184075
Ref: 248517184075
Ref: library/token token NL17184184
Ref: 4f0e17184184
Ref: library/token token INDENT17184427
Ref: 22ec17184427
Ref: library/token token DEDENT17184595
Ref: 24a317184595
Ref: library/token token FSTRING_START17184761
Ref: 24e217184761
Ref: library/token token FSTRING_MIDDLE17185068
Ref: 24e317185068
Ref: library/token token FSTRING_END17185529
Ref: 24e417185529
Ref: library/token token TSTRING_START17185753
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Ref: library/token token TSTRING_MIDDLE17186084
Ref: 4f1417186084
Ref: library/token token TSTRING_END17186568
Ref: 4f1517186568
Ref: library/token token ENDMARKER17186825
Ref: 24a717186825
Ref: library/token token ENCODING17186966
Ref: 4f1617186966
Ref: library/token token TYPE_IGNORE17187510
Ref: 4f1717187510
Ref: library/token token TYPE_COMMENT17187770
Ref: 4f1817187770
Ref: library/token token SOFT_KEYWORD17188012
Ref: 4f0817188012
Ref: library/token token ERRORTOKEN17188279
Ref: 4f1a17188279
Ref: library/token token-operators-delimiters17188622
Ref: 250f17188622
Ref: library/token token LPAR17189169
Ref: 4f1b17189169
Ref: library/token token RPAR17189354
Ref: 4f1c17189354
Ref: library/token token LSQB17189539
Ref: 4f1d17189539
Ref: library/token token RSQB17189724
Ref: 4f1e17189724
Ref: library/token token COLON17189910
Ref: 4f1217189910
Ref: library/token token COMMA17190095
Ref: 4f1f17190095
Ref: library/token token SEMI17190279
Ref: 4f2017190279
Ref: library/token token PLUS17190464
Ref: 4f0717190464
Ref: library/token token MINUS17190650
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Ref: library/token token STAR17190834
Ref: 4f2217190834
Ref: library/token token SLASH17191020
Ref: 4f2317191020
Ref: library/token token VBAR17191204
Ref: 4f2417191204
Ref: library/token token AMPER17191390
Ref: 4f2517191390
Ref: library/token token LESS17191574
Ref: 4f2617191574
Ref: library/token token GREATER17191762
Ref: 4f2717191762
Ref: library/token token EQUAL17191945
Ref: 4f2817191945
Ref: library/token token DOT17192128
Ref: 4f2917192128
Ref: library/token token PERCENT17192317
Ref: 4f2a17192317
Ref: library/token token LBRACE17192501
Ref: 4f0f17192501
Ref: library/token token RBRACE17192686
Ref: 4f1017192686
Ref: library/token token EQEQUAL17192872
Ref: 4f2b17192872
Ref: library/token token NOTEQUAL17193059
Ref: 4f2c17193059
Ref: library/token token LESSEQUAL17193246
Ref: 4f2d17193246
Ref: library/token token GREATEREQUAL17193435
Ref: 4f2e17193435
Ref: library/token token TILDE17193614
Ref: 4f2f17193614
Ref: library/token token CIRCUMFLEX17193804
Ref: 4f3017193804
Ref: library/token token LEFTSHIFT17193988
Ref: 4f3117193988
Ref: library/token token RIGHTSHIFT17194175
Ref: 4f3217194175
Ref: library/token token DOUBLESTAR17194361
Ref: 4f3317194361
Ref: library/token token PLUSEQUAL17194546
Ref: 4f3417194546
Ref: library/token token MINEQUAL17194731
Ref: 4f3517194731
Ref: library/token token STAREQUAL17194918
Ref: 4f3617194918
Ref: library/token token SLASHEQUAL17195105
Ref: 4f3717195105
Ref: library/token token PERCENTEQUAL17195293
Ref: 4f3817195293
Ref: library/token token AMPEREQUAL17195477
Ref: 4f3917195477
Ref: library/token token VBAREQUAL17195662
Ref: 4f3a17195662
Ref: library/token token CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL17195854
Ref: 4f3b17195854
Ref: library/token token LEFTSHIFTEQUAL17196039
Ref: 4f3c17196039
Ref: library/token token RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL17196227
Ref: 4f3d17196227
Ref: library/token token DOUBLESTAREQUAL17196414
Ref: 4f3e17196414
Ref: library/token token DOUBLESLASH17196597
Ref: 4f3f17196597
Ref: library/token token DOUBLESLASHEQUAL17196788
Ref: 4f4017196788
Ref: library/token token AT17196961
Ref: 4f4117196961
Ref: library/token token ATEQUAL17197151
Ref: 4f4217197151
Ref: library/token token RARROW17197336
Ref: 4f4317197336
Ref: library/token token ELLIPSIS17197524
Ref: 4f4417197524
Ref: library/token token COLONEQUAL17197713
Ref: 4f4517197713
Ref: library/token token EXCLAMATION17197900
Ref: 4f1117197900
Ref: library/token token N_TOKENS17198040
Ref: 4f4617198040
Ref: library/token token EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES17198134
Ref: 1b0717198134
Ref: token — Constants used with Python parse trees-Footnote-117199161
Node: keyword — Testing for Python keywords17199226
Ref: library/keyword doc17199432
Ref: 4f4717199432
Ref: library/keyword keyword-testing-for-python-keywords17199432
Ref: 4f4817199432
Ref: library/keyword module-keyword17199432
Ref: 8717199432
Ref: library/keyword translation-repo17199432
Ref: 4f4917199432
Ref: library/keyword keyword iskeyword17199751
Ref: 284617199751
Ref: library/keyword keyword kwlist17199862
Ref: 4f4a17199862
Ref: library/keyword keyword issoftkeyword17200142
Ref: 4f1917200142
Ref: library/keyword keyword softkwlist17200289
Ref: 4f4b17200289
Ref: keyword — Testing for Python keywords-Footnote-117200646
Node: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source17200713
Ref: library/tokenize doc17200918
Ref: 4f4c17200918
Ref: library/tokenize module-tokenize17200918
Ref: 10417200918
Ref: library/tokenize tokenize-tokenizer-for-python-source17200918
Ref: 4f4d17200918
Ref: library/tokenize translation-repo17200918
Ref: 4f4e17200918
Ref: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source-Footnote-117202211
Node: Tokenizing input17202279
Ref: library/tokenize tokenizing-input17202402
Ref: 4f4f17202402
Ref: library/tokenize tokenize tokenize17202509
Ref: 8e917202509
Ref: library/tokenize tokenize generate_tokens17203963
Ref: 8ea17203963
Ref: library/tokenize tokenize untokenize17204723
Ref: 1ad417204723
Ref: library/tokenize tokenize detect_encoding17205614
Ref: 19ce17205614
Ref: library/tokenize tokenize open17206606
Ref: 2f0517206606
Ref: library/tokenize tokenize TokenError17206787
Ref: 94f17206787
Ref: Tokenizing input-Footnote-117207110
Ref: Tokenizing input-Footnote-217207152
Node: Command-line usage<6>17207194
Ref: library/tokenize command-line-usage17207338
Ref: 4f5017207338
Ref: library/tokenize tokenize-cli17207338
Ref: 28617207338
Ref: library/tokenize cmdoption-tokenize-h17207597
Ref: 4f5117207597
Ref: library/tokenize cmdoption-tokenize-help17207597
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Node: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation17212580
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny-detection-of-ambiguous-indentation17212786
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Ref: library/tabnanny translation-repo17212786
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny check17213329
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny verbose17213780
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny filename_only17213949
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Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny process_tokens17214351
Ref: 4f5d17214351
Ref: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation-Footnote-117214679
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Ref: library/pyclbr module-pyclbr17214955
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr-python-module-browser-support17214955
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Ref: library/pyclbr translation-repo17214955
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr readmodule17215649
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr readmodule_ex17216270
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Ref: pyclbr — Python module browser support-Footnote-117217341
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr-function-objects17217522
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function17217575
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function file17217733
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function module17217828
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function name17217930
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function lineno17218000
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function parent17218103
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Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function children17218264
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Ref: library/py_compile module-py_compile17220481
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Ref: library/py_compile py-compile-compile-python-source-files17220481
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Ref: library/py_compile translation-repo17220481
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile compile17221235
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode17225065
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode TIMESTAMP17225496
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode CHECKED_HASH17225785
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Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode UNCHECKED_HASH17226038
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Ref: py_compile — Compile Python source files-Footnote-117226593
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Ref: library/py_compile cmdoption-python-m-py_compile-arg-file17227364
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Ref: library/py_compile cmdoption-python-m-py_compile-quiet17227547
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Node: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries17227886
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Ref: library/compileall compileall-byte-compile-python-libraries17228091
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Ref: library/compileall module-compileall17228091
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Ref: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries-Footnote-117228926
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Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-invalidation-mode17231892
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Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-hardlink-dupes17232966
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Ref: Command-line use-Footnote-117234313
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Ref: library/compileall public-functions17234477
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Ref: library/compileall compileall compile_dir17234530
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Ref: Public functions-Footnote-117243765
Ref: Public functions-Footnote-217243807
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Ref: library/dis dis-disassembler-for-python-bytecode17244055
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Ref: library/dis module-dis17244055
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Ref: library/dis translation-repo17244055
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Ref: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode-Footnote-117247052
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Ref: Analysis functions-Footnote-117260667
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Ref: 500417311811
Ref: library/dis dis hasjump17311908
Ref: 500517311908
Ref: library/dis dis haslocal17312055
Ref: 500617312055
Ref: library/dis dis hascompare17312149
Ref: 500717312149
Ref: library/dis dis hasexc17312238
Ref: 89c17312238
Ref: library/dis dis hasjrel17312360
Ref: 500817312360
Ref: library/dis dis hasjabs17312571
Ref: 500917312571
Node: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers17312778
Ref: library/pickletools doc17312931
Ref: 500a17312931
Ref: library/pickletools module-pickletools17312931
Ref: ac17312931
Ref: library/pickletools pickletools-tools-for-pickle-developers17312931
Ref: 500b17312931
Ref: library/pickletools translation-repo17312931
Ref: 500c17312931
Ref: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers-Footnote-117313681
Node: Command-line usage<7>17313752
Ref: library/pickletools command-line-usage17313884
Ref: 500d17313884
Ref: library/pickletools pickletools-cli17313884
Ref: 2f5317313884
Node: Command-line options<5>17314839
Ref: library/pickletools command-line-options17314920
Ref: 500e17314920
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-a17314983
Ref: 500f17314983
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-annotate17314983
Ref: 501017314983
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-o17315069
Ref: 501117315069
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-output17315069
Ref: 501217315069
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-l17315159
Ref: 501317315159
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-indentlevel17315159
Ref: 501417315159
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-m17315260
Ref: 501517315260
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-memo17315260
Ref: 501617315260
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-p17315372
Ref: 501717315372
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-preamble17315372
Ref: 501817315372
Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-arg-pickle_file17315513
Ref: 501917315513
Node: Programmatic interface17315740
Ref: library/pickletools programmatic-interface17315872
Ref: 501a17315872
Ref: library/pickletools pickletools dis17315939
Ref: 108017315939
Ref: library/pickletools pickletools genops17316805
Ref: 501b17316805
Ref: library/pickletools pickletools optimize17317251
Ref: 2f3b17317251
Node: MS Windows Specific Services17317541
Ref: library/windows doc17317697
Ref: 501c17317697
Ref: library/windows ms-windows-specific-services17317697
Ref: 501d17317697
Ref: library/windows mswin-specific-services17317697
Ref: 241117317697
Ref: library/windows translation-repo17317697
Ref: 501e17317697
Node: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime17318033
Ref: library/msvcrt doc17318192
Ref: 501f17318192
Ref: library/msvcrt module-msvcrt17318192
Ref: 9717318192
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-useful-routines-from-the-ms-vc-runtime17318192
Ref: 502017318192
Ref: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime-Footnote-117319348
Node: File Operations17319418
Ref: library/msvcrt file-operations17319541
Ref: 502117319541
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-files17319541
Ref: 502217319541
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt locking17319592
Ref: 49b517319592
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_LOCK17320266
Ref: 502317320266
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_RLCK17320303
Ref: 502417320303
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_NBLCK17320556
Ref: 502517320556
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_NBRLCK17320594
Ref: 502617320594
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_UNLCK17320735
Ref: 502717320735
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt setmode17320854
Ref: 502817320854
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt open_osfhandle17321103
Ref: 49b617321103
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt get_osfhandle17321765
Ref: 49b417321765
Node: Console I/O17322035
Ref: library/msvcrt console-i-o17322182
Ref: 502917322182
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-console17322182
Ref: 502a17322182
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt kbhit17322225
Ref: 502b17322225
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getch17322359
Ref: 502c17322359
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getwch17322856
Ref: 179717322856
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getche17322978
Ref: 502d17322978
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getwche17323135
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Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt putch17323259
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Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt putwch17323373
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Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt ungetch17323507
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Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt ungetwch17323730
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Ref: 503117323991
Ref: library/msvcrt other-functions17323991
Ref: 503217323991
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt heapmin17324042
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Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt set_error_mode17324245
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Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt OUT_TO_DEFAULT17324627
Ref: 503617324627
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt OUT_TO_STDERR17324782
Ref: 503717324782
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt OUT_TO_MSGBOX17324922
Ref: 503817324922
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt REPORT_ERRMODE17325059
Ref: 503517325059
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CrtSetReportMode17325205
Ref: 503917325205
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CrtSetReportFile17325603
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Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRT_WARN17326010
Ref: 503c17326010
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRT_ERROR17326137
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Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRT_ASSERT17326265
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Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRTDBG_MODE_DEBUG17326332
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Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRTDBG_MODE_FILE17326440
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Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRTDBG_MODE_WNDW17326669
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Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRTDBG_REPORT_MODE17326839
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Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION17326943
Ref: 170417326943
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN17327065
Ref: 170517327065
Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX17327206
Ref: 170617327206
Node: winreg — Windows registry access17327353
Ref: library/winreg doc17327597
Ref: 504217327597
Ref: library/winreg module-winreg17327597
Ref: 11f17327597
Ref: library/winreg translation-repo17327597
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Ref: library/winreg winreg-windows-registry-access17327597
Ref: 504417327597
Ref: library/winreg exception-changed17328093
Ref: 504617328093
Ref: winreg — Windows registry access-Footnote-117328386
Node: Functions<12>17328450
Ref: library/winreg functions17328556
Ref: 504717328556
Ref: library/winreg id117328556
Ref: 504817328556
Ref: library/winreg winreg CloseKey17328640
Ref: 504917328640
Ref: library/winreg winreg ConnectRegistry17328983
Ref: 49bb17328983
Ref: library/winreg winreg CreateKey17329701
Ref: 49bc17329701
Ref: library/winreg winreg CreateKeyEx17330689
Ref: 170717330689
Ref: library/winreg winreg DeleteKey17332055
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Ref: library/winreg winreg DeleteKeyEx17332830
Ref: 170817332830
Ref: library/winreg winreg DeleteTree17334135
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Ref: library/winreg winreg DeleteValue17334803
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Ref: library/winreg winreg EnumKey17335181
Ref: 49bf17335181
Ref: library/winreg winreg EnumValue17335874
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Ref: library/winreg winreg ExpandEnvironmentStrings17337166
Ref: 179a17337166
Ref: library/winreg winreg FlushKey17337527
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Ref: library/winreg winreg LoadKey17338334
Ref: 49c117338334
Ref: library/winreg winreg OpenKey17339530
Ref: 49c217339530
Ref: library/winreg winreg OpenKeyEx17339623
Ref: 505317339623
Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryInfoKey17340748
Ref: 49c417340748
Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryValue17341654
Ref: 49c517341654
Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryValueEx17342541
Ref: 19a817342541
Ref: library/winreg winreg SaveKey17343427
Ref: 49c617343427
Ref: library/winreg winreg SetValue17344479
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Ref: library/winreg winreg SetValueEx17345668
Ref: 1d0217345668
Ref: library/winreg winreg DisableReflectionKey17346936
Ref: 170917346936
Ref: library/winreg winreg EnableReflectionKey17347578
Ref: 170a17347578
Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryReflectionKey17348097
Ref: 170b17348097
Ref: Functions<12>-Footnote-117348611
Ref: Functions<12>-Footnote-217348688
Node: Constants<10>17348765
Ref: library/winreg constants17348903
Ref: 505817348903
Ref: library/winreg id217348903
Ref: 505917348903
Node: HKEY_* Constants17349084
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Ref: 504b17349172
Ref: library/winreg id317349172
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Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT17349225
Ref: 505b17349225
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CURRENT_USER17349488
Ref: 505c17349488
Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE17349803
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Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_USERS17350039
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Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA17350260
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Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG17350539
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Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_DYN_DATA17350686
Ref: 505f17350686
Node: Access Rights17350790
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Ref: 504d17350898
Ref: library/winreg id417350898
Ref: 506017350898
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_ALL_ACCESS17351009
Ref: 506117351009
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WRITE17351310
Ref: 504c17351310
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_READ17351475
Ref: 505417351475
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_EXECUTE17351666
Ref: 506717351666
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_QUERY_VALUE17351750
Ref: 506217351750
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_SET_VALUE17351850
Ref: 505617351850
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY17351953
Ref: 506317351953
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS17352055
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Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_NOTIFY17352167
Ref: 506517352167
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_CREATE_LINK17352313
Ref: 506617352313
Ref: Access Rights-Footnote-117352456
Node: 64-bit Specific17352533
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Ref: 506817352598
Ref: library/winreg bit-specific17352598
Ref: 506917352598
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WOW64_64KEY17352717
Ref: 504e17352717
Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WOW64_32KEY17352917
Ref: 506a17352917
Ref: 64-bit Specific-Footnote-117353153
Node: Value Types17353225
Ref: library/winreg id517353308
Ref: 506b17353308
Ref: library/winreg value-types17353308
Ref: 505717353308
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_BINARY17353403
Ref: 506c17353403
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD17353475
Ref: 506d17353475
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN17353536
Ref: 506e17353536
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN17353680
Ref: 506f17353680
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_EXPAND_SZ17353775
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Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_LINK17353916
Ref: 507017353916
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_MULTI_SZ17353986
Ref: 1fb317353986
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_NONE17354164
Ref: 507117354164
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_QWORD17354232
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Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN17354323
Ref: 507217354323
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_RESOURCE_LIST17354495
Ref: 507317354495
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR17354580
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Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST17354665
Ref: 507517354665
Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_SZ17354758
Ref: 505517354758
Ref: Value Types-Footnote-117354863
Node: Registry Handle Objects17354940
Ref: library/winreg handle-object17355056
Ref: 504517355056
Ref: library/winreg registry-handle-objects17355056
Ref: 507617355056
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY Close17356308
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Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY Detach17356448
Ref: 49c317356448
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY __enter__17357055
Ref: 507717357055
Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY __exit__17357095
Ref: 507817357095
Node: winsound — Διεπαφή αναπαραγωγής ήχου για Windows17357666
Ref: library/winsound doc17357850
Ref: 507917357850
Ref: library/winsound module-winsound17357850
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Ref: library/winsound translation-repo17357850
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Ref: library/winsound winsound-sound-playing-interface-for-windows17357850
Ref: 507b17357850
Ref: winsound — Διεπαφή αναπαραγωγής ήχου για Windows-Footnote-117358410
Node: Functions<13>17358476
Ref: library/winsound functions17358624
Ref: 507c17358624
Ref: library/winsound winsound Beep17358663
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Ref: library/winsound winsound PlaySound17359368
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Ref: library/winsound winsound MessageBeep17360381
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Node: Constants<11>17361349
Ref: library/winsound constants17361497
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_LOOP17363935
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_MEMORY17364300
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_PURGE17364883
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_ASYNC17365209
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NODEFAULT17365394
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NOSTOP17365634
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NOWAIT17365781
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_APPLICATION17366085
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_SENTRY17366523
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_SYNC17366701
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Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_SYSTEM17366922
Ref: 508a17366922
Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONASTERISK17367134
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Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONEXCLAMATION17367244
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Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONHAND17367361
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Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONQUESTION17367464
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Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_OK17367575
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Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONWARNING17368082
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Node: Unix-specific services17368224
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Ref: library/unix translation-repo17368442
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Ref: 509717368442
Node: shlex — Simple lexical analysis17369191
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Ref: library/shlex module-shlex17369336
Ref: cc17369336
Ref: library/shlex shlex-simple-lexical-analysis17369336
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Ref: library/shlex shlex split17369853
Ref: 94917369853
Ref: library/shlex shlex join17370477
Ref: deb17370477
Ref: library/shlex shlex quote17370945
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Ref: shlex — Simple lexical analysis-Footnote-117375077
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex escape17379996
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Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex escapedquotes17380460
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Node: Improved Compatibility with Shells17385493
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Node: posix — The most common POSIX system calls17388467
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Ref: library/posix translation-repo17388693
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Node: pwd — Η βάση δεδομένων κωδικών πρόσβασης17392525
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Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwnam17396563
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Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwall17396787
Ref: 50bf17396787
Node: grp — The group database17397209
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Ref: library/grp grp-the-group-database17397419
Ref: 50c117397419
Ref: library/grp module-grp17397419
Ref: 6917397419
Ref: library/grp translation-repo17397419
Ref: 50c217397419
Ref: library/grp grp getgrgid17399044
Ref: 10e017399044
Ref: library/grp grp getgrnam17399372
Ref: 398c17399372
Ref: library/grp grp getgrall17399558
Ref: 1b0917399558
Node: termios — POSIX style tty control17399790
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Ref: 50c317399962
Ref: library/termios module-termios17399962
Ref: ea17399962
Ref: library/termios termios-posix-style-tty-control17399962
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Ref: library/termios translation-repo17399962
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Ref: library/termios termios tcgetattr17400991
Ref: 1bfc17400991
Ref: library/termios termios tcsetattr17401574
Ref: 1c6f17401574
Ref: library/termios termios TCSANOW17401863
Ref: 50c617401863
Ref: library/termios termios TCSADRAIN17401949
Ref: 50c717401949
Ref: library/termios termios TCSAFLUSH17402062
Ref: 50c817402062
Ref: library/termios termios tcsendbreak17402217
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Ref: library/termios termios tcdrain17402441
Ref: 50ca17402441
Ref: library/termios termios tcflush17402574
Ref: 50cb17402574
Ref: library/termios termios tcflow17402842
Ref: 50cc17402842
Ref: library/termios termios tcgetwinsize17403132
Ref: 50cd17403132
Ref: library/termios termios tcsetwinsize17403386
Ref: 192e17403386
Ref: termios — POSIX style tty control-Footnote-117404024
Node: Example<14>17404071
Ref: library/termios example17404154
Ref: 50ce17404154
Ref: library/termios termios-example17404154
Ref: 50cf17404154
Node: tty — Terminal control functions17404912
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Ref: 50d017405138
Ref: library/tty module-tty17405138
Ref: 10917405138
Ref: library/tty translation-repo17405138
Ref: 50d117405138
Ref: library/tty tty-terminal-control-functions17405138
Ref: 50d217405138
Ref: library/tty tty cfmakeraw17405596
Ref: 1c4917405596
Ref: library/tty tty cfmakecbreak17405830
Ref: 1bfe17405830
Ref: library/tty tty setraw17406424
Ref: 1c4817406424
Ref: library/tty tty setcbreak17406934
Ref: 1bfd17406934
Ref: tty — Terminal control functions-Footnote-117408000
Node: pty — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού17408063
Ref: library/pty doc17408296
Ref: 50d317408296
Ref: library/pty module-pty17408296
Ref: b917408296
Ref: library/pty pty-pseudo-terminal-utilities17408296
Ref: 50d417408296
Ref: library/pty translation-repo17408296
Ref: 50d517408296
Ref: library/pty pty fork17409262
Ref: 1cca17409262
Ref: library/pty pty openpty17410553
Ref: 57917410553
Ref: library/pty pty spawn17411054
Ref: 132c17411054
Ref: pty — Βοηθητικά προγράμματα ψευδοτερματικού-Footnote-117415273
Node: Παράδειγμα<2>17415336
Ref: library/pty example17415476
Ref: 50d617415476
Ref: Παράδειγμα<2>-Footnote-117416878
Node: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls17416924
Ref: library/fcntl doc17417162
Ref: 50d717417162
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl-the-fcntl-and-ioctl-system-calls17417162
Ref: 50d817417162
Ref: library/fcntl module-fcntl17417162
Ref: 5c17417162
Ref: library/fcntl translation-repo17417162
Ref: 50d917417162
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl fcntl17420911
Ref: 196217420911
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl ioctl17423059
Ref: 181d17423059
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl flock17425896
Ref: 49b317425896
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl lockf17426430
Ref: 178f17426430
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_UN17426783
Ref: 50da17426783
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_SH17426862
Ref: 50db17426862
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_EX17426938
Ref: 50dc17426938
Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_NB17427018
Ref: 50dd17427018
Ref: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls-Footnote-117429351
Ref: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls-Footnote-217429396
Ref: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls-Footnote-317429441
Node: resource — Resource usage information17429486
Ref: library/resource doc17429683
Ref: 50de17429683
Ref: library/resource module-resource17429683
Ref: c417429683
Ref: library/resource resource-resource-usage-information17429683
Ref: 50df17429683
Ref: library/resource translation-repo17429683
Ref: 50e017429683
Ref: library/resource resource error17430224
Ref: 50e117430224
Ref: resource — Resource usage information-Footnote-117430521
Node: Resource Limits17430563
Ref: library/resource resource-limits17430677
Ref: 50e217430677
Ref: library/resource resource RLIM_INFINITY17431556
Ref: 3e617431556
Ref: library/resource resource RLIM_SAVED_CUR17431804
Ref: 25217431804
Ref: library/resource resource RLIM_SAVED_MAX17431851
Ref: 25317431851
Ref: library/resource resource getrlimit17432106
Ref: 1a0517432106
Ref: library/resource resource setrlimit17432410
Ref: 3e717432410
Ref: library/resource resource prlimit17433562
Ref: 3e817433562
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_CORE17435175
Ref: 495417435175
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_CPU17435448
Ref: 50e417435448
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_FSIZE17435827
Ref: 50e517435827
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_DATA17435935
Ref: 50e617435935
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_STACK17436038
Ref: 50e717436038
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_RSS17436247
Ref: 50e817436247
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NPROC17436377
Ref: 50e917436377
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NOFILE17436492
Ref: 50e317436492
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_OFILE17436618
Ref: 50ea17436618
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_MEMLOCK17436713
Ref: 50eb17436713
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_VMEM17436823
Ref: 50ec17436823
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_AS17437058
Ref: 50ed17437058
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE17437191
Ref: 133417437191
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NICE17437404
Ref: 133517437404
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_RTPRIO17437625
Ref: 133617437625
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_RTTIME17437808
Ref: 133717437808
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_SIGPENDING17438089
Ref: 133817438089
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_SBSIZE17438287
Ref: 133917438287
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_SWAP17438617
Ref: 133a17438617
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NPTS17439026
Ref: 133b17439026
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_KQUEUES17439229
Ref: 1e9c17439229
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NTHR17439438
Ref: 24f17439438
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_PIPEBUF17439674
Ref: 1a0317439674
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_THREADS17439941
Ref: 25117439941
Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_UMTXP17440130
Ref: 25017440130
Ref: Resource Limits-Footnote-117440406
Ref: Resource Limits-Footnote-217440455
Ref: Resource Limits-Footnote-317440504
Node: Resource Usage17440571
Ref: library/resource resource-usage17440685
Ref: 50ee17440685
Ref: library/resource resource getrusage17440800
Ref: 17d317440800
Ref: library/resource resource getpagesize17445357
Ref: 50ef17445357
Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_SELF17445672
Ref: 50f017445672
Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_CHILDREN17445885
Ref: 50f117445885
Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_BOTH17446097
Ref: 50f217446097
Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_THREAD17446307
Ref: 50f317446307
Ref: Resource Usage-Footnote-117446552
Node: syslog — Unix syslog library routines17446601
Ref: library/syslog doc17446747
Ref: 50f417446747
Ref: library/syslog module-syslog17446747
Ref: e517446747
Ref: library/syslog syslog-unix-syslog-library-routines17446747
Ref: 50f517446747
Ref: library/syslog translation-repo17446747
Ref: 50f617446747
Ref: library/syslog syslog syslog17447400
Ref: 94d17447400
Ref: library/syslog syslog openlog17448892
Ref: 94b17448892
Ref: library/syslog syslog closelog17450266
Ref: 94c17450266
Ref: library/syslog syslog setlogmask17451143
Ref: 49b917451143
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_EMERG17451758
Ref: 50f917451758
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_ALERT17451797
Ref: 50fa17451797
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_CRIT17451836
Ref: 50fb17451836
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_ERR17451874
Ref: 50fc17451874
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_WARNING17451911
Ref: 50fd17451911
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NOTICE17451952
Ref: 50fe17451952
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_INFO17451992
Ref: 50f717451992
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_DEBUG17452030
Ref: 50ff17452030
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_AUTH17452107
Ref: 510017452107
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_AUTHPRIV17452145
Ref: 510117452145
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_CRON17452187
Ref: 510217452187
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_DAEMON17452225
Ref: 510317452225
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_FTP17452265
Ref: 510417452265
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_INSTALL17452302
Ref: 510517452302
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_KERN17452343
Ref: 510617452343
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LAUNCHD17452381
Ref: 510717452381
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LPR17452422
Ref: 510817452422
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_MAIL17452459
Ref: 510917452459
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NETINFO17452497
Ref: 510a17452497
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NEWS17452538
Ref: 510b17452538
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_RAS17452576
Ref: 510c17452576
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_REMOTEAUTH17452613
Ref: 510d17452613
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_SYSLOG17452657
Ref: 510e17452657
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_USER17452697
Ref: 50f817452697
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_UUCP17452735
Ref: 510f17452735
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL017452773
Ref: 511017452773
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL117452813
Ref: 511117452813
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL217452853
Ref: 511217452853
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL317452893
Ref: 511317452893
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL417452933
Ref: 511417452933
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL517452973
Ref: 511517452973
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL617453013
Ref: 511617453013
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL717453053
Ref: 511717453053
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_PID17453539
Ref: 511817453539
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_CONS17453576
Ref: 511917453576
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NDELAY17453614
Ref: 511a17453614
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_ODELAY17453654
Ref: 511b17453654
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NOWAIT17453694
Ref: 511c17453694
Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_PERROR17453734
Ref: 511d17453734
Node: Examples<31>17453966
Ref: library/syslog examples17454054
Ref: 511e17454054
Node: Simple example17454122
Ref: library/syslog simple-example17454185
Ref: 511f17454185
Node: Command-line interface Διεπαφή Γραμμής Εντολών CLI για modules17454697
Ref: library/cmdline doc17454905
Ref: 512017454905
Ref: library/cmdline library-cmdline17454905
Ref: 512117454905
Ref: library/cmdline modules-command-line-interface-cli17454905
Ref: 512217454905
Ref: library/cmdline translation-repo17454905
Ref: 512317454905
Node: Superseded modules17456587
Ref: library/superseded doc17456788
Ref: 512417456788
Ref: library/superseded superseded17456788
Ref: 512517456788
Ref: library/superseded superseded-modules17456788
Ref: 512617456788
Ref: library/superseded translation-repo17456788
Ref: 512717456788
Ref: Superseded modules-Footnote-117457922
Node: getopt — C-style parser for command line options17457964
Ref: library/getopt doc17458110
Ref: 512817458110
Ref: library/getopt getopt-c-style-parser-for-command-line-options17458110
Ref: 512917458110
Ref: library/getopt module-getopt17458110
Ref: 6417458110
Ref: library/getopt getopt getopt17459546
Ref: 185d17459546
Ref: library/getopt getopt gnu_getopt17462009
Ref: 185c17462009
Ref: library/getopt getopt GetoptError17463126
Ref: 1b0a17463126
Ref: library/getopt getopt error17463713
Ref: 512a17463713
Ref: getopt — C-style parser for command line options-Footnote-117467724
Node: profile — Pure Python profiler17467790
Ref: library/profile doc17467936
Ref: 512b17467936
Ref: library/profile module-profile17467936
Ref: b417467936
Ref: library/profile profile17467936
Ref: 4c0a17467936
Ref: library/profile profile-pure-python-profiler17467936
Ref: 512c17467936
Ref: library/profile translation-repo17467936
Ref: 512d17467936
Ref: profile — Pure Python profiler-Footnote-117469253
Node: Migration17469320
Ref: library/profile migration17469453
Ref: 512e17469453
Node: profile and profiling tracing module reference17470210
Ref: library/profile profile-and-profiling-tracing-module-reference17470386
Ref: 512f17470386
Ref: library/profile profile run17470613
Ref: 513017470613
Ref: library/profile profile runctx17471251
Ref: 513117471251
Ref: library/profile profile Profile17471658
Ref: da717471658
Ref: library/profile profile Profile enable17473410
Ref: 513217473410
Ref: library/profile profile Profile disable17473538
Ref: 513317473538
Ref: library/profile profile Profile create_stats17473666
Ref: 513417473666
Ref: library/profile profile Profile print_stats17473818
Ref: 513517473818
Ref: library/profile profile Profile dump_stats17474316
Ref: 513617474316
Ref: library/profile profile Profile run17474431
Ref: 513717474431
Ref: library/profile profile Profile runctx17474517
Ref: 513817474517
Ref: library/profile profile Profile runcall17474682
Ref: e3f17474682
Node: Differences from profiling tracing17475034
Ref: library/profile differences-from-profiling-tracing17475236
Ref: 513917475236
Node: What is deterministic profiling?<2>17476166
Ref: library/profile deterministic-profiling17476336
Ref: 513a17476336
Ref: library/profile what-is-deterministic-profiling17476336
Ref: 513b17476336
Node: Limitations<2>17478165
Ref: library/profile limitations17478312
Ref: 513c17478312
Ref: library/profile profile-limitations17478312
Ref: 513d17478312
Node: Calibration17480209
Ref: library/profile calibration17480344
Ref: 513e17480344
Ref: library/profile profile-calibration17480344
Ref: 513f17480344
Node: Using a custom timer<2>17482028
Ref: library/profile profile-timers17482140
Ref: 514017482140
Ref: library/profile using-a-custom-timer17482140
Ref: 514117482140
Node: Removed Modules17484917
Ref: library/removed doc17485058
Ref: 514217485058
Ref: library/removed removed17485058
Ref: 514317485058
Ref: library/removed removed-modules17485058
Ref: 514417485058
Ref: library/removed translation-repo17485058
Ref: 514517485058
Node: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files17486435
Ref: library/aifc doc17486650
Ref: 514617486650
Ref: library/aifc aifc-read-and-write-aiff-and-aifc-files17486650
Ref: 514717486650
Ref: library/aifc module-aifc17486650
Ref: 517486650
Ref: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files-Footnote-117487170
Ref: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files-Footnote-217487212
Node: asynchat — Διαχειριστής εντολών/απαντήσεων ασύγχρονων υποδοχών17487267
Ref: library/asynchat doc17487531
Ref: 514817487531
Ref: library/asynchat asynchat-asynchronous-socket-command-response-handler17487531
Ref: 514917487531
Ref: library/asynchat module-asynchat17487531
Ref: a17487531
Ref: library/asynchat translation-repo17487531
Ref: 514a17487531
Ref: asynchat — Διαχειριστής εντολών/απαντήσεων ασύγχρονων υποδοχών-Footnote-117488438
Ref: asynchat — Διαχειριστής εντολών/απαντήσεων ασύγχρονων υποδοχών-Footnote-217488480
Node: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler17488539
Ref: library/asyncore doc17488797
Ref: 514b17488797
Ref: library/asyncore asyncore-asynchronous-socket-handler17488797
Ref: 514c17488797
Ref: library/asyncore module-asyncore17488797
Ref: c17488797
Ref: library/asyncore translation-repo17488797
Ref: 514d17488797
Ref: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler-Footnote-117489375
Ref: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler-Footnote-217489417
Node: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data17489476
Ref: library/audioop doc17489663
Ref: 514e17489663
Ref: library/audioop audioop-manipulate-raw-audio-data17489663
Ref: 514f17489663
Ref: library/audioop module-audioop17489663
Ref: e17489663
Ref: library/audioop translation-repo17489663
Ref: 515017489663
Ref: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data-Footnote-117490174
Ref: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data-Footnote-217490216
Node: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support17490274
Ref: library/cgi doc17490464
Ref: 515117490464
Ref: library/cgi cgi-common-gateway-interface-support17490464
Ref: 515217490464
Ref: library/cgi module-cgi17490464
Ref: 1617490464
Ref: library/cgi translation-repo17490464
Ref: 515317490464
Ref: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support-Footnote-117491137
Ref: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support-Footnote-217491179
Ref: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support-Footnote-317491224
Node: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts17491278
Ref: library/cgitb doc17491462
Ref: 515417491462
Ref: library/cgitb cgitb-traceback-manager-for-cgi-scripts17491462
Ref: 515517491462
Ref: library/cgitb module-cgitb17491462
Ref: 1717491462
Ref: library/cgitb translation-repo17491462
Ref: 515617491462
Ref: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts-Footnote-117492146
Ref: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts-Footnote-217492188
Ref: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts-Footnote-317492233
Node: chunk — Read IFF chunked data17492289
Ref: library/chunk doc17492475
Ref: 515717492475
Ref: library/chunk chunk-read-iff-chunked-data17492475
Ref: 515817492475
Ref: library/chunk module-chunk17492475
Ref: 1817492475
Ref: library/chunk translation-repo17492475
Ref: 515917492475
Ref: chunk — Read IFF chunked data-Footnote-117492972
Ref: chunk — Read IFF chunked data-Footnote-217493014
Node: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords17493070
Ref: library/crypt doc17493265
Ref: 515a17493265
Ref: library/crypt crypt-function-to-check-unix-passwords17493265
Ref: 515b17493265
Ref: library/crypt module-crypt17493265
Ref: 2b17493265
Ref: library/crypt translation-repo17493265
Ref: 515c17493265
Ref: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-117494039
Ref: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-217494081
Ref: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-317494127
Ref: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-417494168
Ref: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-517494214
Node: distutils — Building and installing Python modules17494270
Ref: library/distutils doc17494475
Ref: 515d17494475
Ref: library/distutils distutils-building-and-installing-python-modules17494475
Ref: 515e17494475
Ref: library/distutils module-distutils17494475
Ref: 3c17494475
Ref: library/distutils translation-repo17494475
Ref: 515f17494475
Ref: distutils — Building and installing Python modules-Footnote-117495049
Ref: distutils — Building and installing Python modules-Footnote-217495091
Ref: distutils — Building and installing Python modules-Footnote-317495150
Node: imghdr — Determine the type of an image17495210
Ref: library/imghdr doc17495408
Ref: 516017495408
Ref: library/imghdr imghdr-determine-the-type-of-an-image17495408
Ref: 516117495408
Ref: library/imghdr module-imghdr17495408
Ref: 7817495408
Ref: library/imghdr translation-repo17495408
Ref: 516217495408
Ref: imghdr — Determine the type of an image-Footnote-117496099
Ref: imghdr — Determine the type of an image-Footnote-217496141
Ref: imghdr — Determine the type of an image-Footnote-317496184
Ref: imghdr — Determine the type of an image-Footnote-417496228
Ref: imghdr — Determine the type of an image-Footnote-517496275
Node: imp — Access the import internals17496332
Ref: library/imp doc17496511
Ref: 516317496511
Ref: library/imp imp-access-the-import-internals17496511
Ref: 516417496511
Ref: library/imp module-imp17496511
Ref: 7917496511
Ref: library/imp translation-repo17496511
Ref: 516517496511
Ref: imp — Access the import internals-Footnote-117497082
Node: mailcap — Mailcap file handling17497136
Ref: library/mailcap doc17497325
Ref: 516617497325
Ref: library/mailcap mailcap-mailcap-file-handling17497325
Ref: 516717497325
Ref: library/mailcap module-mailcap17497325
Ref: 8f17497325
Ref: library/mailcap translation-repo17497325
Ref: 516817497325
Ref: mailcap — Mailcap file handling-Footnote-117497830
Ref: mailcap — Mailcap file handling-Footnote-217497872
Node: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files17497930
Ref: library/msilib doc17498129
Ref: 516917498129
Ref: library/msilib module-msilib17498129
Ref: 9617498129
Ref: library/msilib msilib-read-and-write-microsoft-installer-files17498129
Ref: 516a17498129
Ref: library/msilib translation-repo17498129
Ref: 516b17498129
Ref: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files-Footnote-117498669
Ref: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files-Footnote-217498711
Node: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages17498768
Ref: library/nis doc17498966
Ref: 516c17498966
Ref: library/nis module-nis17498966
Ref: a017498966
Ref: library/nis nis-interface-to-suns-nis-yellow-pages17498966
Ref: 516d17498966
Ref: library/nis translation-repo17498966
Ref: 516e17498966
Ref: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages-Footnote-117499493
Ref: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages-Footnote-217499535
Node: nntplib — NNTP protocol client17499589
Ref: library/nntplib doc17499790
Ref: 516f17499790
Ref: library/nntplib module-nntplib17499790
Ref: a117499790
Ref: library/nntplib nntplib-nntp-protocol-client17499790
Ref: 517017499790
Ref: library/nntplib translation-repo17499790
Ref: 517117499790
Ref: nntplib — NNTP protocol client-Footnote-117500293
Ref: nntplib — NNTP protocol client-Footnote-217500335
Node: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices17500393
Ref: library/ossaudiodev doc17500587
Ref: 517217500587
Ref: library/ossaudiodev module-ossaudiodev17500587
Ref: a717500587
Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev-access-to-oss-compatible-audio-devices17500587
Ref: 517317500587
Ref: library/ossaudiodev translation-repo17500587
Ref: 517417500587
Ref: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices-Footnote-117501138
Ref: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices-Footnote-217501180
Node: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines17501242
Ref: library/pipes doc17501425
Ref: 517517501425
Ref: library/pipes module-pipes17501425
Ref: ad17501425
Ref: library/pipes pipes-interface-to-shell-pipelines17501425
Ref: 517617501425
Ref: library/pipes translation-repo17501425
Ref: 517717501425
Ref: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines-Footnote-117502005
Ref: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines-Footnote-217502047
Node: smtpd — SMTP Server17502103
Ref: library/smtpd doc17502271
Ref: 517817502271
Ref: library/smtpd module-smtpd17502271
Ref: d117502271
Ref: library/smtpd smtpd-smtp-server17502271
Ref: 517917502271
Ref: library/smtpd translation-repo17502271
Ref: 517a17502271
Ref: smtpd — SMTP Server-Footnote-117502881
Ref: smtpd — SMTP Server-Footnote-217502923
Ref: smtpd — SMTP Server-Footnote-317502966
Node: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file17503022
Ref: library/sndhdr doc17503189
Ref: 517b17503189
Ref: library/sndhdr module-sndhdr17503189
Ref: d317503189
Ref: library/sndhdr sndhdr-determine-type-of-sound-file17503189
Ref: 517c17503189
Ref: library/sndhdr translation-repo17503189
Ref: 517d17503189
Ref: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file-Footnote-117503874
Ref: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file-Footnote-217503916
Ref: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file-Footnote-317503959
Ref: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file-Footnote-417504003
Ref: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file-Footnote-517504050
Node: spwd — The shadow password database17504107
Ref: library/spwd doc17504290
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Ref: spwd — The shadow password database-Footnote-117504936
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Ref: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files-Footnote-117505760
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Ref: library/telnetlib translation-repo17506031
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Ref: telnetlib — Telnet client-Footnote-117506680
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Ref: telnetlib — Telnet client-Footnote-417506810
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Ref: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files-Footnote-117507555
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Ref: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data-Footnote-117508299
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Ref: Security Considerations<3>-Footnote-117510289
Node: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python17510348
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Ref: extending/first-extension-module extending-simpleexample17512910
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Ref: Επέκταση και Ενσωμάτωση του Διερμηνέα της Python-Footnote-117513604
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Ref: extending/first-extension-module your-first-c-api-extension-module17513835
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Ref: Your first C API extension module-Footnote-117516248
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Ref: Running your build tool-Footnote-217521647
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Ref: extending/windows translation-repo17677416
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Ref: A Cookbook Approach-Footnote-117679488
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Ref: extending/embedding high-level-embedding17688569
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Ref: C API and ABI Stability-Footnote-117760999
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Node: Stable Application Binary Interfaces17761713
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Ref: c-api/veryhigh the-very-high-level-layer17824627
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Ref: Available start symbols-Footnote-117843652
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Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_NotADirectoryError17917153
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Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_NotImplementedError17917400
Ref: 532f17917400
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_OSError17917625
Ref: 51b917917625
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_OverflowError17917766
Ref: 533017917766
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_PermissionError17917970
Ref: 533217917970
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ProcessLookupError17918214
Ref: 533317918214
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_PythonFinalizationError17918461
Ref: 554f17918461
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_RecursionError17918618
Ref: 126317918618
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ReferenceError17918861
Ref: 533417918861
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_RuntimeError17919067
Ref: 533617919067
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_StopAsyncIteration17919270
Ref: 533817919270
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_StopIteration17919517
Ref: 533917919517
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_SyntaxError17919721
Ref: 533a17919721
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_SystemError17919923
Ref: 533c17919923
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_SystemExit17920125
Ref: 533d17920125
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_TabError17920327
Ref: 533e17920327
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_TimeoutError17920526
Ref: 533f17920526
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_TypeError17920766
Ref: 51b817920766
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UnboundLocalError17920966
Ref: 534017920966
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError17921175
Ref: 534117921175
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError17921384
Ref: 534217921384
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UnicodeError17921593
Ref: 534317921593
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError17921796
Ref: 534417921796
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ValueError17922009
Ref: 51ba17922009
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ZeroDivisionError17922210
Ref: 51b517922210
Ref: Exception types-Footnote-117923251
Node: OSError aliases17923293
Ref: c-api/exceptions oserror-aliases17923418
Ref: 555017923418
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_EnvironmentError17924010
Ref: 531a17924010
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_IOError17924213
Ref: 532117924213
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_WindowsError17924407
Ref: 534817924407
Ref: c-api/exceptions win17924712
Ref: 555117924712
Node: Warning types17924868
Ref: c-api/exceptions standardwarningcategories17924969
Ref: 553c17924969
Ref: c-api/exceptions warning-types17924969
Ref: 555217924969
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_Warning17925367
Ref: 534717925367
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_BytesWarning17925509
Ref: 531117925509
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_DeprecationWarning17925712
Ref: 531717925712
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_EncodingWarning17925921
Ref: 531917925921
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_FutureWarning17926166
Ref: 531f17926166
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ImportWarning17926370
Ref: 532317926370
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning17926574
Ref: 533117926574
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ResourceWarning17926790
Ref: 533517926790
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_RuntimeWarning17927033
Ref: 533717927033
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_SyntaxWarning17927238
Ref: 533b17927238
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UnicodeWarning17927442
Ref: 534517927442
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UserWarning17927648
Ref: 534617927648
Node: Tracebacks17927922
Ref: c-api/exceptions tracebacks17928023
Ref: 555317928023
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyTraceBack_Type17928060
Ref: 541217928060
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyTraceBack_Check17928307
Ref: 555417928307
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyTraceBack_Here17928488
Ref: 541017928488
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyTraceBack_Print17928945
Ref: 541117928945
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnstable_DumpTraceback17929237
Ref: 39917929237
Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnstable_DumpTracebackThreads17930839
Ref: 39a17930839
Node: Defining extension modules17933176
Ref: c-api/extension-modules doc17933320
Ref: 555517933320
Ref: c-api/extension-modules defining-extension-modules17933320
Ref: 555617933320
Ref: c-api/extension-modules extension-modules17933320
Ref: 521217933320
Ref: c-api/extension-modules translation-repo17933320
Ref: 555717933320
Node: Extension export hook17934399
Ref: c-api/extension-modules extension-export-hook17934518
Ref: 38d17934518
Ref: c-api/extension-modules id117934518
Ref: 555917934518
Ref: c-api/extension-modules c PyModExport_modulename17934955
Ref: 19c17934955
Ref: c-api/extension-modules c PyMODEXPORT_FUNC17936220
Ref: 199017936220
Ref: Extension export hook-Footnote-117937895
Ref: Extension export hook-Footnote-217937969
Node: Multi-phase initialization17938011
Ref: c-api/extension-modules id217938164
Ref: 555a17938164
Ref: c-api/extension-modules multi-phase-initialization17938164
Ref: 555b17938164
Ref: Multi-phase initialization-Footnote-117939789
Node: Multiple module instances17939831
Ref: c-api/extension-modules multiple-module-instances17939978
Ref: 555d17939978
Node: PyInit function17941452
Ref: c-api/extension-modules extension-pyinit17941564
Ref: 555817941564
Ref: c-api/extension-modules pyinit-function17941564
Ref: 555f17941564
Ref: c-api/extension-modules c PyInit_modulename17941890
Ref: 556017941890
Ref: c-api/extension-modules c PyMODINIT_FUNC17942483
Ref: 187517942483
Ref: c-api/extension-modules c PyModuleDef_Init17943133
Ref: 538c17943133
Node: Legacy single-phase initialization17944300
Ref: c-api/extension-modules legacy-single-phase-initialization17944386
Ref: 556117944386
Ref: c-api/extension-modules single-phase-initialization17944386
Ref: 555c17944386
Ref: Legacy single-phase initialization-Footnote-117947018
Node: Definition slots17947153
Ref: c-api/slots doc17947291
Ref: 556317947291
Ref: c-api/slots capi-slots17947291
Ref: 37517947291
Ref: c-api/slots definition-slots17947291
Ref: 556417947291
Ref: c-api/slots translation-repo17947291
Ref: 556517947291
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot17948834
Ref: 19d17948834
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot sl_id17949457
Ref: 556817949457
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot sl_ptr17949944
Ref: 556c17949944
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot sl_func17949980
Ref: 556d17949980
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot sl_size17950025
Ref: 556e17950025
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot sl_int6417950079
Ref: 556f17950079
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot sl_uint6417950119
Ref: 557017950119
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot sl_flags17950571
Ref: 557117950571
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot_STATIC17950677
Ref: 53ed17950677
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot_INTPTR17951592
Ref: 53eb17951592
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot_OPTIONAL17952022
Ref: 53ec17952022
Node: Convenience macros17952762
Ref: c-api/slots convenience-macros17952857
Ref: 557217952857
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot_DATA17952908
Ref: 38317952908
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot_FUNC17952964
Ref: 38417952964
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot_SIZE17953020
Ref: 38517953020
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot_INT6417953076
Ref: 38617953076
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot_UINT6417953133
Ref: 38717953133
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot_STATIC_DATA17953191
Ref: 38817953191
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot_END17954444
Ref: 38917954444
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot_PTR17954721
Ref: 38a17954721
Ref: c-api/slots c PySlot_PTR_STATIC17954776
Ref: 38b17954776
Node: Common slot IDs17955457
Ref: c-api/slots common-slot-ids17955552
Ref: 557317955552
Ref: c-api/slots pyslot-common-ids17955552
Ref: 556917955552
Ref: c-api/slots c Py_slot_end17955670
Ref: 37717955670
Ref: c-api/slots c Py_slot_subslots17955888
Ref: 37917955888
Ref: c-api/slots c Py_slot_invalid17956485
Ref: 37817956485
Node: Utilities<2>17956923
Ref: c-api/utilities doc17957057
Ref: 557417957057
Ref: c-api/utilities id117957057
Ref: 557517957057
Ref: c-api/utilities translation-repo17957057
Ref: 557617957057
Ref: c-api/utilities utilities17957057
Ref: 557717957057
Node: Operating System Utilities17957708
Ref: c-api/sys doc17957808
Ref: 557817957808
Ref: c-api/sys operating-system-utilities17957808
Ref: 557917957808
Ref: c-api/sys os17957808
Ref: 557a17957808
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_FSPath17957875
Ref: 10d217957875
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_FdIsInteractive17958559
Ref: 557b17958559
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_BeforeFork17959114
Ref: f7d17959114
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_AfterFork_Parent17959788
Ref: f7e17959788
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_AfterFork_Child17960563
Ref: 64317960563
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_AfterFork17961639
Ref: 64217961639
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_CheckStack17962166
Ref: 1d9b17962166
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_sighandler_t17962712
Ref: 53bb17962712
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_getsig17962827
Ref: 18e017962827
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_setsig17963137
Ref: 18e117963137
Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_InterruptOccurred17963513
Ref: 1f3617963513
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_DecodeLocale17964276
Ref: f8517964276
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_EncodeLocale17966712
Ref: f8617966712
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_fopen17968583
Ref: 5c017968583
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_fclose17969246
Ref: 5c117969246
Ref: Operating System Utilities-Footnote-117969682
Node: System Functions17969724
Ref: c-api/sys system-functions17969848
Ref: 557d17969848
Ref: c-api/sys systemfunctions17969848
Ref: 557e17969848
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_GetAttr17970142
Ref: 35217970142
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_GetAttrString17970701
Ref: 35317970701
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_GetOptionalAttr17971225
Ref: 35417971225
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_GetOptionalAttrString17971921
Ref: 35517971921
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_GetObject17972325
Ref: 35617972325
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_SetObject17972758
Ref: 53f917972758
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_WriteStdout17973084
Ref: 53fb17973084
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_WriteStderr17974016
Ref: 53fa17974016
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_FormatStdout17974248
Ref: 53f717974248
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_FormatStderr17974588
Ref: 53f617974588
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_GetXOptions17974855
Ref: 53f817974855
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_Audit17975273
Ref: 80817975273
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_AuditTuple17976661
Ref: 80717976661
Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_AddAuditHook17977046
Ref: 49a817977046
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_AuditHookFunction17978701
Ref: 557f17978701
Ref: System Functions-Footnote-117979212
Node: Process Control17979254
Ref: c-api/sys process-control17979372
Ref: 558117979372
Ref: c-api/sys processcontrol17979372
Ref: 558217979372
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_FatalError17979417
Ref: d4b17979417
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_Exit17980232
Ref: 110417980232
Ref: c-api/sys c Py_AtExit17980664
Ref: 546817980664
Node: Importing Modules<2>17981515
Ref: c-api/import doc17981641
Ref: 558317981641
Ref: c-api/import importing17981641
Ref: 558417981641
Ref: c-api/import importing-modules17981641
Ref: 558517981641
Ref: c-api/import translation-repo17981641
Ref: 558617981641
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModule17981690
Ref: 3a317981690
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleEx17982050
Ref: 154e17982050
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject17982833
Ref: 536317982833
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleLevel17983723
Ref: 154d17983723
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_Import17984258
Ref: 179e17984258
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ReloadModule17984879
Ref: 536417984879
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AddModuleRef17985253
Ref: 7f117985253
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AddModuleObject17986312
Ref: 535a17986312
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AddModule17986743
Ref: 7f217986743
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModule17987058
Ref: 535b17987058
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx17989138
Ref: 535c17989138
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject17989623
Ref: 535d17989623
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames17990402
Ref: 535e17990402
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetMagicNumber17991240
Ref: 154c17991240
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetMagicTag17991673
Ref: 535f17991673
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetModuleDict17992045
Ref: 536017992045
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetModule17992385
Ref: f7117992385
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetImporter17992880
Ref: 1c8a17992880
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject17993650
Ref: 536217993650
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportFrozenModule17994341
Ref: 536117994341
Ref: c-api/import c _frozen17994615
Ref: b5717994615
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_FrozenModules17995263
Ref: 357217995263
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AppendInittab17995698
Ref: 1d1a17995698
Ref: c-api/import c _inittab17996304
Ref: 558717996304
Ref: c-api/import c _inittab name17996634
Ref: 558817996634
Ref: c-api/import c _inittab initfunc17996731
Ref: 558917996731
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExtendInittab17996881
Ref: 1d1b17996881
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_Inittab17997666
Ref: 1d1917997666
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleAttr17997937
Ref: 5c317997937
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleAttrString17998531
Ref: 5c417998531
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetLazyImportsMode17998897
Ref: 558a17998897
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetLazyImportsFilter17999074
Ref: 558c17999074
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_SetLazyImportsMode17999332
Ref: 558d17999332
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_SetLazyImportsFilter17999647
Ref: 558e17999647
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_LazyImportsMode18000289
Ref: 558b18000289
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_LazyImportsMode PyImport_LAZY_NORMAL18000387
Ref: 558f18000387
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_LazyImportsMode PyImport_LAZY_ALL18000538
Ref: 559018000538
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_LazyImportsMode PyImport_LAZY_NONE18000636
Ref: 559118000636
Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_CreateModuleFromInitfunc18000830
Ref: 36918000830
Ref: Importing Modules<2>-Footnote-118001701
Node: Data marshalling support18001743
Ref: c-api/marshal doc18001891
Ref: 559218001891
Ref: c-api/marshal data-marshalling-support18001891
Ref: 559318001891
Ref: c-api/marshal marshalling-utils18001891
Ref: 559418001891
Ref: c-api/marshal translation-repo18001891
Ref: 559518001891
Ref: c-api/marshal c Py_MARSHAL_VERSION18002459
Ref: 559618002459
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile18002577
Ref: b7518002577
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile18003024
Ref: b7618003024
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString18003362
Ref: b7818003362
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile18003734
Ref: 559718003734
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile18004083
Ref: 559818004083
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile18004435
Ref: 559918004435
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile18004829
Ref: 559a18004829
Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString18005655
Ref: b7718005655
Node: Parsing arguments and building values18006109
Ref: c-api/arg doc18006269
Ref: 559b18006269
Ref: c-api/arg arg-parsing18006269
Ref: 60118006269
Ref: c-api/arg parsing-arguments-and-building-values18006269
Ref: 559c18006269
Ref: c-api/arg translation-repo18006269
Ref: 559d18006269
Node: Parsing arguments<2>18006978
Ref: c-api/arg parsing-arguments18007096
Ref: 559e18007096
Node: Strings and buffers18007813
Ref: c-api/arg arg-parsing-string-and-buffers18007905
Ref: 81f18007905
Ref: c-api/arg strings-and-buffers18007905
Ref: 559f18007905
Ref: c-api/arg c-arg-borrowed-buffer18009196
Ref: 60218009196
Node: Numbers18018581
Ref: c-api/arg numbers18018695
Ref: 55a018018695
Node: Other objects18021985
Ref: c-api/arg other-objects18022093
Ref: 55a118022093
Ref: c-api/arg o-ampersand18022911
Ref: 55a218022911
Ref: c-api/arg c Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED18023701
Ref: 55a318023701
Node: API Functions18028034
Ref: c-api/arg api-functions18028126
Ref: 55a418028126
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ParseTuple18028171
Ref: 3b118028171
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_VaParse18028532
Ref: 528918028532
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords18028828
Ref: 81818028828
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords18029998
Ref: 81918029998
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments18030368
Ref: 528a18030368
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_Parse18030734
Ref: 1a6b18030734
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ParseArray18031440
Ref: 34918031440
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ParseArrayAndKeywords18031875
Ref: 34a18031875
Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_UnpackTuple18032429
Ref: 18a818032429
Ref: c-api/arg c PY_CXX_CONST18034435
Ref: 81a18034435
Node: Building values18034871
Ref: c-api/arg building-values18034989
Ref: 55a518034989
Ref: c-api/arg c Py_BuildValue18035038
Ref: 5ee18035038
Ref: c-api/arg capi-py-buildvalue-format-k18039810
Ref: 1a9318039810
Ref: c-api/arg c Py_VaBuildValue18043127
Ref: 548e18043127
Node: String conversion and formatting18043478
Ref: c-api/conversion doc18043653
Ref: 55a618043653
Ref: c-api/conversion string-conversion18043653
Ref: 55a718043653
Ref: c-api/conversion string-conversion-and-formatting18043653
Ref: 55a818043653
Ref: c-api/conversion translation-repo18043653
Ref: 55a918043653
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_snprintf18043794
Ref: 18ab18043794
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_vsnprintf18044120
Ref: 18ac18044120
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_strtoul18045876
Ref: 53bd18045876
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_strtol18046930
Ref: 53bc18046930
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_string_to_double18047481
Ref: 163a18047481
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_double_to_string18049261
Ref: 53ba18049261
Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_DTSF_SIGN18049896
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Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_018050055
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Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_DTSF_ALT18050183
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Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_DTSF_NO_NEG_018050383
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Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_DTST_FINITE18051034
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Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_DTST_INFINITE18051243
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Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_DTST_NAN18051447
Ref: 55b018051447
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_mystricmp18051795
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Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_mystrnicmp18051877
Ref: 1f2e18051877
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_stricmp18052693
Ref: 55b118052693
Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_strnicmp18052773
Ref: 55b218052773
Ref: String conversion and formatting-Footnote-118053190
Ref: String conversion and formatting-Footnote-218053238
Ref: String conversion and formatting-Footnote-318053287
Ref: String conversion and formatting-Footnote-418053334
Node: Character classification and conversion18053380
Ref: c-api/conversion character-classification-and-conversion18053528
Ref: 55b318053528
Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_ISALNUM18053806
Ref: 16f618053806
Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_ISALPHA18053921
Ref: 16f718053921
Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_ISDIGIT18054065
Ref: 16f818054065
Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_ISLOWER18054182
Ref: 16f918054182
Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_ISUPPER18054313
Ref: 16fb18054313
Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_ISSPACE18054445
Ref: 16fa18054445
Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_ISXDIGIT18054629
Ref: 16fc18054629
Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_TOLOWER18054782
Ref: 16fd18054782
Ref: c-api/conversion c Py_TOUPPER18054888
Ref: 16fe18054888
Node: PyHash API18054994
Ref: c-api/hash doc18055120
Ref: 55b418055120
Ref: c-api/hash pyhash-api18055120
Ref: 55b518055120
Ref: c-api/hash translation-repo18055120
Ref: 55b618055120
Ref: c-api/hash c Py_hash_t18055299
Ref: 160818055299
Ref: c-api/hash c Py_uhash_t18055400
Ref: 55b718055400
Ref: c-api/hash c Py_HASH_ALGORITHM18055504
Ref: 3b018055504
Ref: c-api/hash c Py_HASH_FNV18055792
Ref: 55b818055792
Ref: c-api/hash c Py_HASH_SIPHASH2418055834
Ref: 55b918055834
Ref: c-api/hash c Py_HASH_SIPHASH1318055882
Ref: 55ba18055882
Ref: c-api/hash c Py_HASH_CUTOFF18056298
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_MODULUS18057001
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_BITS18057233
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_MULTIPLIER18057374
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_INF18057516
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_IMAG18057713
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef18057927
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef hash18058038
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef name18058177
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef hash_bits18058364
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef seed_bits18058552
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_GetFuncDef18058755
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Ref: c-api/hash c Py_HashPointer18059016
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Ref: c-api/hash c Py_HashBuffer18059335
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Ref: c-api/hash c PyObject_GenericHash18059987
Ref: 80218059987
Ref: PyHash API-Footnote-118060437
Ref: PyHash API-Footnote-218060490
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Ref: c-api/reflection doc18060655
Ref: 55c218060655
Ref: c-api/reflection id118060655
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Ref: c-api/reflection reflection18060655
Ref: 55c418060655
Ref: c-api/reflection translation-repo18060655
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Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetBuiltins18060692
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Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetLocals18061158
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Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetGlobals18062785
Ref: 7ec18062785
Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFrame18063227
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Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins18063595
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Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFrameLocals18064007
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Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFrameGlobals18064693
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Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFuncName18065154
Ref: 530718065154
Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFuncDesc18065401
Ref: 530618065401
Ref: Reflection-Footnote-118065869
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Ref: c-api/codec codec-registry18066036
Ref: 10ec18066036
Ref: c-api/codec codec-registry-and-support-functions18066036
Ref: 55c718066036
Ref: c-api/codec translation-repo18066036
Ref: 55c818066036
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Register18066125
Ref: 52cb18066125
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Unregister18066471
Ref: c6d18066471
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_KnownEncoding18066872
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Encode18067148
Ref: 3a218067148
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Decode18067731
Ref: 3a118067731
Node: Codec lookup API18068426
Ref: c-api/codec codec-lookup-api18068572
Ref: 55c918068572
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Encoder18068892
Ref: 52c518068892
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Decoder18069157
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder18069421
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder18069744
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_StreamReader18070067
Ref: 52ce18070067
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_StreamWriter18070405
Ref: 52cf18070405
Node: Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers18070743
Ref: c-api/codec registry-api-for-unicode-encoding-error-handlers18070921
Ref: 55ca18070921
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_RegisterError18071038
Ref: 52cc18071038
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_LookupError18072191
Ref: 52ca18072191
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_StrictErrors18072605
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_IgnoreErrors18072852
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_ReplaceErrors18073118
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Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors18073395
Ref: 52d118073395
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors18073688
Ref: 52c318073688
Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors18074007
Ref: 126018074007
Node: Codec utility variables18074351
Ref: c-api/codec codec-utility-variables18074504
Ref: 55cb18074504
Ref: c-api/codec c Py_hexdigits18074571
Ref: 55cc18074571
Node: PyTime C API18074751
Ref: c-api/time doc18074887
Ref: 69218074887
Ref: c-api/time c-api-time18074887
Ref: 7cb18074887
Ref: c-api/time pytime-c-api18074887
Ref: 55cd18074887
Ref: c-api/time translation-repo18074887
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Node: Types<3>18075242
Ref: c-api/time types18075323
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Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_t18075354
Ref: 7cc18075354
Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_MIN18075885
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Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_MAX18075988
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Node: Clock Functions18076091
Ref: c-api/time clock-functions18076200
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Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_Monotonic18076925
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Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_PerfCounter18077100
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Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_Time18077284
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Node: Raw Clock Functions18077455
Ref: c-api/time raw-clock-functions18077576
Ref: 55d218077576
Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_MonotonicRaw18078123
Ref: 7d118078123
Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_PerfCounterRaw18078346
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Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_TimeRaw18078573
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Node: Conversion functions18078781
Ref: c-api/time conversion-functions18078878
Ref: 55d318078878
Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_AsSecondsDouble18078939
Ref: 7cf18078939
Node: Support for Perf Maps18079170
Ref: c-api/perfmaps doc18079261
Ref: 55d418079261
Ref: c-api/perfmaps perfmaps18079261
Ref: 55d518079261
Ref: c-api/perfmaps support-for-perf-maps18079261
Ref: 55d618079261
Ref: c-api/perfmaps translation-repo18079261
Ref: 55d718079261
Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init18079933
Ref: 1cad18079933
Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry18080920
Ref: 1cac18080920
Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini18081854
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Ref: Support for Perf Maps-Footnote-118082570
Ref: Support for Perf Maps-Footnote-218082627
Ref: Support for Perf Maps-Footnote-318082670
Node: Abstract Objects Layer18082794
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Ref: c-api/abstract abstract18082934
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Ref: c-api/abstract abstract-objects-layer18082934
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Ref: c-api/abstract translation-repo18082934
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Node: Object Protocol18083639
Ref: c-api/object doc18083735
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Ref: c-api/object object18083735
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Ref: c-api/object object-protocol18083735
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_GetConstant18083780
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_NONE18084504
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_FALSE18084719
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_TRUE18084933
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_ELLIPSIS18085151
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_NOT_IMPLEMENTED18085349
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_ZERO18085530
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_ONE18085734
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR18085945
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_BYTES18086153
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_TUPLE18086360
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_GetConstantBorrowed18086700
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_NotImplemented18087271
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED18087469
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Ref: c-api/object c Py_PRINT_RAW18087721
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Print18088026
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Dump18088418
Ref: 37418088418
Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttrWithError18089558
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError18089976
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttr18090392
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttrString18091077
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetAttr18091858
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetAttrString18092419
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetOptionalAttr18092965
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString18093716
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericGetAttr18094152
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_SetAttr18094896
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_SetAttrString18095795
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericSetAttr18097039
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_DelAttr18097764
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericGetDict18098944
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericSetDict18099751
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Ref: c-api/object c _PyObject_GetDictPtr18100128
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_RichCompare18100566
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_RichCompareBool18101339
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Format18101914
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Repr18102380
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_ASCII18103066
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Str18103708
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Bytes18104444
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_IsSubclass18105068
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_IsInstance18106124
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Hash18107170
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HashNotImplemented18107618
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_IsTrue18108067
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Not18108371
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Type18108668
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Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_TypeCheck18109408
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Ref: c-api/object c PyUnstable_SetImmortal18124860
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Ref: Object Protocol-Footnote-118126136
Ref: Object Protocol-Footnote-218126178
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Ref: c-api/call translation-repo18126410
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Node: The Vectorcall Protocol18127473
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Ref: The Vectorcall Protocol-Footnote-118131702
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Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_VectorcallDict18146003
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Ref: 560118147977
Ref: c-api/call c PyCallable_Check18148028
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Ref: c-api/number doc18148418
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Ref: c-api/number number18148418
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Ref: c-api/number number-protocol18148418
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Ref: c-api/number translation-repo18148418
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Ref: 126518157208
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Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide18158181
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Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_AsSsize_t18164070
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Ref: c-api/mapping mapping18175058
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Ref: c-api/mapping translation-repo18175058
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Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Size18175668
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Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Length18175746
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Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_GetOptionalItem18176429
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Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString18177143
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Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_SetItemString18177568
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Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_DelItem18177902
Ref: 561018177902
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_DelItemString18178038
Ref: 561118178038
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_HasKeyWithError18178307
Ref: 81318178307
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError18178706
Ref: 81518178706
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_HasKey18179110
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Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_HasKeyString18179748
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Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Keys18180472
Ref: f7a18180472
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Values18180861
Ref: f7b18180861
Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Items18181254
Ref: f7c18181254
Node: Iterator Protocol18181706
Ref: c-api/iter doc18181831
Ref: 561218181831
Ref: c-api/iter iterator18181831
Ref: 561318181831
Ref: c-api/iter iterator-protocol18181831
Ref: 561418181831
Ref: c-api/iter translation-repo18181831
Ref: 561518181831
Ref: c-api/iter c PyIter_Check18181946
Ref: 1ea818181946
Ref: c-api/iter c PyAIter_Check18182252
Ref: 528818182252
Ref: c-api/iter c PyIter_NextItem18182573
Ref: 5c518182573
Ref: c-api/iter c PyIter_Next18183064
Ref: 5c618183064
Ref: c-api/iter c PySendResult18183763
Ref: 561618183763
Ref: c-api/iter c PyIter_Send18183920
Ref: c6e18183920
Node: Buffer Protocol18184541
Ref: c-api/buffer doc18184641
Ref: 561718184641
Ref: c-api/buffer buffer-protocol18184641
Ref: 561818184641
Ref: c-api/buffer bufferobjects18184641
Ref: 31118184641
Ref: c-api/buffer translation-repo18184641
Ref: 561918184641
Node: Buffer structure18187435
Ref: c-api/buffer buffer-structure18187532
Ref: 561b18187532
Ref: c-api/buffer id118187532
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Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer18188605
Ref: b3a18188605
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer buf18188800
Ref: 561e18188800
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer obj18189266
Ref: 562018189266
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer len18189907
Ref: 562118189907
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer readonly18190523
Ref: 562218190523
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer itemsize18190697
Ref: 562318190697
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer format18191630
Ref: 562418191630
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer ndim18191956
Ref: 562618191956
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer shape18192384
Ref: 562518192384
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer strides18192953
Ref: 561f18192953
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer suboffsets18193495
Ref: 562718193495
Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer internal18194403
Ref: 562918194403
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_MAX_NDIM18194794
Ref: 529218194794
Node: Buffer request types18195168
Ref: c-api/buffer buffer-request-types18195288
Ref: 4d3b18195288
Ref: c-api/buffer id218195288
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Node: request-independent fields18195896
Ref: c-api/buffer request-independent-fields18196003
Ref: 562b18196003
Node: readonly format18196271
Ref: c-api/buffer readonly-format18196411
Ref: 562c18196411
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_WRITABLE18196462
Ref: 175818196462
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_WRITEABLE18197045
Ref: 562d18197045
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_FORMAT18197215
Ref: 528e18197215
Node: shape strides suboffsets18197955
Ref: c-api/buffer shape-strides-suboffsets18198088
Ref: 562e18198088
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_INDIRECT18198627
Ref: 529118198627
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_STRIDES18198870
Ref: 529918198870
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_ND18199117
Ref: 529318199117
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_SIMPLE18199342
Ref: 529618199342
Node: contiguity requests18199521
Ref: c-api/buffer contiguity-requests18199656
Ref: 562f18199656
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS18200282
Ref: 175918200282
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS18200546
Ref: 175a18200546
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS18200791
Ref: 528b18200791
Node: compound requests18201218
Ref: c-api/buffer compound-requests18201320
Ref: 563018201320
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_FULL18202211
Ref: 528f18202211
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_FULL_RO18202528
Ref: 529018202528
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_RECORDS18202842
Ref: 529418202842
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_RECORDS_RO18203142
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Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_STRIDED18203487
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Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_STRIDED_RO18203788
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Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_CONTIG18204133
Ref: 528c18204133
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_CONTIG_RO18204435
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Node: Complex arrays18204738
Ref: c-api/buffer complex-arrays18204866
Ref: 562818204866
Node: NumPy-style shape and strides18205072
Ref: c-api/buffer numpy-style-shape-and-strides18205199
Ref: 563118205199
Node: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets18207079
Ref: c-api/buffer pil-style-shape-strides-and-suboffsets18207206
Ref: 563218207206
Node: Buffer-related functions18208432
Ref: c-api/buffer buffer-related-functions18208531
Ref: 563318208531
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyObject_CheckBuffer18208600
Ref: 82b18208600
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyObject_GetBuffer18208981
Ref: 82c18208981
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_Release18210022
Ref: 82d18210022
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat18210588
Ref: b3c18210588
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_IsContiguous18210933
Ref: b4018210933
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_GetPointer18211389
Ref: b3b18211389
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_FromContiguous18211739
Ref: b3e18211739
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_ToContiguous18212188
Ref: b3d18212188
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyObject_CopyData18212703
Ref: b3f18212703
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides18213040
Ref: b4118213040
Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_FillInfo18213528
Ref: b4218213528
Node: Concrete Objects Layer18214595
Ref: c-api/concrete doc18214766
Ref: 563418214766
Ref: c-api/concrete concrete18214766
Ref: 563518214766
Ref: c-api/concrete concrete-objects-layer18214766
Ref: 563618214766
Ref: c-api/concrete translation-repo18214766
Ref: 563718214766
Node: Fundamental Objects18215803
Ref: c-api/concrete fundamental18215905
Ref: 563918215905
Ref: c-api/concrete fundamental-objects18215905
Ref: 563a18215905
Node: Type Objects18216088
Ref: c-api/type doc18216180
Ref: 563b18216180
Ref: c-api/type type-objects18216180
Ref: 563c18216180
Ref: c-api/type typeobjects18216180
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Ref: c-api/type c PyTypeObject18216225
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Type18216441
Ref: 95818216441
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Check18216678
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_CheckExact18216934
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_ClearCache18217173
Ref: 541818217173
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetFlags18217363
Ref: 1f3118217363
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetDict18217941
Ref: 1c9118217941
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Modified18218695
Ref: 1d7718218695
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_AddWatcher18219019
Ref: 96a18219019
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_ClearWatcher18219547
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Watch18220028
Ref: 96b18220028
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Unwatch18220948
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_WatchCallback18221470
Ref: 191d18221470
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_HasFeature18222311
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_FastSubclass18222516
Ref: 564018222516
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_IS_GC18223041
Ref: 564218223041
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_IsSubtype18223242
Ref: 541a18223242
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GenericAlloc18223670
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GenericNew18224948
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Ready18225375
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetName18226300
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetQualName18226674
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName18227070
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetModuleName18227538
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetSlot18227868
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetModule18228621
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetModuleState18229874
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetModuleByToken18230503
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetModuleByDef18231326
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetBaseByToken18232412
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Ref: c-api/type c PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag18233272
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_SUPPORTS_WEAKREFS18233905
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Node: Creating Heap-Allocated Types18234341
Ref: c-api/type creating-heap-allocated-types18234447
Ref: 564818234447
Ref: c-api/type creating-heap-types18234447
Ref: 556718234447
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_FromSlots18234592
Ref: 37618234592
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Freeze18237032
Ref: 5dc18237032
Node: Type slot IDs18237621
Ref: c-api/type pyslot-type-slot-ids18237700
Ref: 556b18237700
Ref: c-api/type type-slot-ids18237700
Ref: 564918237700
Ref: c-api/type c Py_tp_name18240669
Ref: 37c18240669
Ref: c-api/type c Py_tp_basicsize18241406
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Ref: c-api/type c Py_tp_extra_basicsize18242073
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Ref: c-api/type c Py_tp_itemsize18243231
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Ref: c-api/type c Py_tp_flags18244636
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Ref: c-api/type c Py_tp_metaclass18245340
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Ref: c-api/type c Py_tp_module18246148
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Ref: c-api/type c Py_tp_token18246942
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Ref: c-api/type c Py_TP_USE_SPEC18248105
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Ref: c-api/type c Py_tp_slots18248516
Ref: 37a18248516
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Ref: c-api/type soft-deprecated-api18248930
Ref: 565518248930
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_FromMetaclass18249204
Ref: 39118249204
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_FromModuleAndSpec18250398
Ref: 39018250398
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_FromSpecWithBases18251604
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Spec name18254089
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Spec basicsize18254179
Ref: 19918254179
Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Spec itemsize18254502
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Spec flags18254592
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Spec slots18254685
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Slot18254956
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Slot slot18256110
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Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Slot pfunc18256215
Ref: 565718256215
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Ref: c-api/none doc18256416
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Ref: c-api/none noneobject18256416
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Ref: c-api/none the-none-object18256416
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Ref: c-api/none translation-repo18256416
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Ref: c-api/none c Py_None18256737
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Ref: c-api/none c Py_RETURN_NONE18257012
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Node: Numeric Objects18257109
Ref: c-api/concrete numeric-objects18257236
Ref: 565c18257236
Ref: c-api/concrete numericobjects18257236
Ref: 565d18257236
Node: Integer Objects18257387
Ref: c-api/long doc18257478
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Ref: c-api/long integer-objects18257478
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Ref: c-api/long longobjects18257478
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLongObject18257770
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_Type18258000
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_Check18258275
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_CheckExact18258470
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromLong18258675
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromUnsignedLong18259221
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromSsize_t18259539
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromSize_t18259847
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromInt3218260437
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromInt6418260518
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong18260859
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromUInt3218261191
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromDouble18261642
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromString18261943
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromUnicodeObject18263307
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromVoidPtr18263590
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromNativeBytes18263940
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes18264715
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromPid18265355
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsLong18265674
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AS_LONG18266388
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsInt18266684
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow18266966
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsLongLong18267923
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow18268656
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask18271703
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask18272498
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsInt3218273328
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsInt6418273405
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsUInt3218274072
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsUInt6418274151
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsDouble18274904
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsVoidPtr18275335
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsNativeBytes18275821
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Ref: c-api/long c Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS18280113
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Ref: c-api/long c Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_BIG_ENDIAN18280302
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_GetSign18283781
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_IsPositive18284209
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_IsNegative18284559
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Ref: c-api/long c PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact18285663
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Ref: c-api/long c PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue18286616
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FreeExport18291238
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLongWriter_Finish18293471
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLongWriter_Discard18294121
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_SHIFT18295102
Ref: 567018295102
Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_BASE18295261
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Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_MASK18295373
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Node: Boolean Objects18295496
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Ref: c-api/bool boolean-objects18295618
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Ref: c-api/bool boolobjects18295618
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Ref: c-api/bool translation-repo18295618
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Ref: c-api/bool c PyBool_Type18295935
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Ref: c-api/bool c PyBool_Check18296208
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Ref: c-api/bool c Py_False18296364
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Ref: c-api/bool c Py_True18296618
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Ref: c-api/bool c Py_RETURN_FALSE18296869
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Ref: c-api/bool c Py_RETURN_TRUE18296968
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Ref: c-api/bool c PyBool_FromLong18297065
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Ref: c-api/float floatobjects18297480
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Ref: c-api/float translation-repo18297480
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Ref: c-api/float c PyFloatObject18297545
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Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_Type18297674
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Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_Check18297959
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Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_CheckExact18298158
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Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_FromString18298367
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Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_FromDouble18298688
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Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_AsDouble18298968
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Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_GetInfo18299818
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Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_GetMax18300193
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Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_GetMin18300377
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Ref: c-api/float c Py_INFINITY18300560
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Ref: c-api/float c Py_NAN18300868
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Ref: c-api/float c Py_HUGE_VAL18301145
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Ref: c-api/float c Py_MATH_E18301278
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Ref: c-api/float c Py_MATH_El18301411
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Ref: c-api/float c Py_RETURN_INF18302364
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Ref: c-api/float c Py_IS_INFINITY18302960
Ref: 568c18302960
Ref: c-api/float c Py_IS_NAN18303220
Ref: 181818303220
Node: Pack and Unpack functions18303512
Ref: c-api/float pack-and-unpack-functions18303596
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Ref: c-api/code c CO_FUTURE_ABSOLUTE_IMPORT18543920
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Ref: c-api/code c CO_FUTURE_WITH_STATEMENT18544149
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Ref: c-api/code c CO_FUTURE_PRINT_FUNCTION18544378
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Ref: c-api/code c CO_FUTURE_UNICODE_LITERALS18544609
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Ref: c-api/code c CO_FUTURE_GENERATOR_STOP18544838
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Ref: c-api/code c CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS18545064
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Node: Extra information18545172
Ref: c-api/code extra-information18545271
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Ref: c-api/code c _PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex18545646
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Ref: c-api/code c PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex18545646
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Ref: c-api/code c _PyCode_GetExtra18546829
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Ref: c-api/code c PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra18546829
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Ref: c-api/code c _PyCode_SetExtra18547751
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Ref: c-api/code c PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra18547751
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Ref: c-api/concrete other-objects18548692
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Node: File objects18549112
Ref: c-api/file doc18549197
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Ref: c-api/file file-objects18549197
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Ref: c-api/file fileobjects18549197
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Ref: c-api/file c PyFile_FromFd18549775
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Ref: c-api/file c PyObject_AsFileDescriptor18550868
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Ref: c-api/file c PyFile_GetLine18551345
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Ref: c-api/file c PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook18552225
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Ref: c-api/file c Py_OpenCodeHookFunction18552490
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Ref: c-api/file c PyFile_OpenCode18554204
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Ref: c-api/file c PyFile_WriteObject18554428
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Ref: c-api/file c PyFile_WriteString18554961
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Ref: c-api/file c PyFile_NewStdPrinter18555622
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Ref: c-api/file c PyStdPrinter_Type18555815
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Ref: c-api/module module-objects18556207
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Ref: c-api/module moduleobjects18556207
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Ref: c-api/module translation-repo18556207
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetDict18558036
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetNameObject18558839
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetName18559306
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetDef18559727
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetFilenameObject18560206
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetFilename18560746
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Ref: c-api/module pymoduledef-slot18561582
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_name18562748
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_doc18563381
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_abi18564003
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_multiple_interpreters18564772
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED18564972
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED18565125
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED18565387
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED18566293
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_create18567010
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_create create_module18567269
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_exec exec_module18569572
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_methods18570270
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Ref: c-api/module ext-module-state18571212
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Ref: c-api/module module-state18571212
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetState18572211
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetStateSize18572671
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Ref: c-api/module slots-for-defining-module-state18573296
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_state_traverse18574085
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_state_clear clear_module_state18575424
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_state_free free_module_state18576676
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Ref: Slots for defining module state-Footnote-118577343
Node: Module token18577385
Ref: c-api/module ext-module-token18577486
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Ref: c-api/module module-token18577486
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Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_token18578715
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetToken18579741
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Ref: c-api/module module-from-slots18580283
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_FromSlotsAndSpec18580520
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_Exec18581744
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Node: Module definition struct18582230
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Ref: c-api/module pymoduledef18582378
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef m_base18583595
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef_Base18583746
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT18584192
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef m_traverse18587539
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Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef m_clear18587599
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Ref: c-api/module c PYTHON_API_VERSION18592291
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Ref: c-api/picklebuffer c PyPickleBuffer_Release18634236
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Ref: c-api/weakref c PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks18639010
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Ref: c-api/capsule capsules18640192
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Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_SetPointer18648535
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Ref: c-api/sentinel sentinel-objects18649084
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Ref: c-api/sentinel sentinelobjects18649084
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Ref: c-api/sentinel translation-repo18649084
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Ref: c-api/sentinel c PySentinel_Type18649139
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Ref: c-api/sentinel c PySentinel_Check18649382
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Ref: c-api/sentinel c PySentinel_New18649613
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Node: Frame objects18650419
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Ref: c-api/frame frame-objects18650533
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Ref: c-api/frame translation-repo18650533
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Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrameLocalsProxy_Check18656905
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Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError18658395
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Ref: c-api/coro coroutine-objects18664900
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Ref: c-api/coro translation-repo18664900
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Ref: c-api/curses curses-c-api18675696
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Ref: c-api/curses c import_curses18676203
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Ref: c-api/curses c PyCurses_CAPSULE_NAME18679893
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Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_IMPORT18680759
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Ref: c-api/interp-lifecycle translation-repo18694022
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Ref: c-api/interp-lifecycle pre-init-safe18694618
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Ref: c-api/interp-lifecycle c Py_VerboseFlag18706839
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Ref: Process-wide parameters-Footnote-118737233
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Ref: Using the C API from foreign threads-Footnote-118747667
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Ref: c-api/threads gilstate18753077
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyGILState_STATE PyGILState_LOCKED18753643
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyGILState_Check18757972
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Ref: c-api/threads fork-and-threads18758780
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyThreadState18760995
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyThreadState interp18761247
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyEval_InitThreads18761356
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyEval_SaveThread18762022
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyEval_RestoreThread18762292
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyThreadState_Get18763097
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyThreadState_GetUnchecked18763548
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyThreadState_Swap18763954
Ref: 540218763954
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Ref: 58ac18764792
Ref: c-api/threads c PyThreadState_New18764837
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyThreadState_Clear18765145
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyThreadState_LeaveTracing18767883
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection18768237
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyUnstable_ThreadState_ResetStackProtection18769873
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyEval_AcquireThread18771168
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Ref: c-api/threads c Py_AddPendingCall18773323
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Ref: c-api/threads c Py_MakePendingCalls18775660
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Ref: c-api/threads c PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc18776307
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Ref: c-api/threads c PYTHREAD_INVALID_THREAD_ID18777831
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Ref: Operating system thread APIs-Footnote-118782582
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Ref: c-api/synchronization c PyMutex_Unlock18783917
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Ref: c-api/synchronization c PyMutex_IsLocked18784153
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Ref: c-api/synchronization c Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION18787414
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Ref: c-api/synchronization c Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION_MUTEX18787973
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Ref: c-api/synchronization c PyCriticalSection2_Begin18791224
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Ref: 58ba18792217
Ref: c-api/synchronization c PyCriticalSection2_BeginMutex18792323
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Ref: c-api/synchronization legacy-locking-apis18792785
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Ref: c-api/synchronization c PyThread_type_lock18793028
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Ref: c-api/synchronization c PyLockStatus18793115
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Ref: c-api/synchronization c PY_LOCK_FAILURE18793205
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Ref: c-api/synchronization c PY_LOCK_ACQUIRED18793295
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Ref: c-api/synchronization c PY_LOCK_INTR18793394
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Ref: c-api/synchronization c PyThread_free_lock18794054
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Ref: c-api/synchronization c PyThread_acquire_lock18795374
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Ref: c-api/synchronization c PyThread_release_lock18796158
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Ref: c-api/tls c Py_tss_t18798283
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Ref: c-api/tls c PyThread_tss_free18799765
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Ref: c-api/tls c PyThread_delete_key_value18803930
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Ref: c-api/tls c PyThread_ReInitTLS18804055
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Ref: High-level APIs<2>-Footnote-118823288
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Node: Buffer Object Structures19184581
Ref: c-api/typeobj buffer-object-structures19184731
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Ref: c-api/typeobj buffer-structs19184731
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs19184802
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs bf_getbuffer19185042
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_bf_getbuffer19185289
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs bf_releasebuffer19187861
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_bf_releasebuffer19188120
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Node: Async Object Structures19189526
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Ref: c-api/typeobj async-structs19189668
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods19189760
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_await19190183
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_aiter19190714
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_am_aiter19190939
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_anext19191251
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_am_anext19191476
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_send19191702
Ref: 59ad19191702
Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_am_send19191925
Ref: 549219191925
Node: Slot Type typedefs19192171
Ref: c-api/typeobj id619192301
Ref: 59da19192301
Ref: c-api/typeobj slot-type-typedefs19192301
Ref: 59fb19192301
Ref: c-api/typeobj c allocfunc19192360
Ref: 54e819192360
Ref: c-api/typeobj c destructor19193451
Ref: 54ec19193451
Ref: c-api/typeobj c freefunc19193577
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c newfunc19193659
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c initproc19193893
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c reprfunc19194097
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c getattrfunc19194274
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c setattrfunc19194507
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c getattrofunc19194819
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c setattrofunc19195104
Ref: 54fe19195104
Ref: c-api/typeobj c descrgetfunc19195468
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c descrsetfunc19195700
Ref: 54eb19195700
Ref: c-api/typeobj c hashfunc19195914
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c richcmpfunc19196092
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c getiterfunc19196312
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c iternextfunc19196492
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c lenfunc19196677
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c getbufferproc19196828
Ref: 54ef19196828
Ref: c-api/typeobj c releasebufferproc19197028
Ref: 54fa19197028
Ref: c-api/typeobj c unaryfunc19197228
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c binaryfunc19197380
Ref: 54e919197380
Ref: c-api/typeobj c sendfunc19197556
Ref: 59ae19197556
Ref: c-api/typeobj c ternaryfunc19197742
Ref: 550219197742
Ref: c-api/typeobj c ssizeargfunc19197942
Ref: 550019197942
Ref: c-api/typeobj c ssizeobjargproc19198121
Ref: 550119198121
Ref: c-api/typeobj c objobjproc19198307
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Ref: c-api/typeobj c objobjargproc19198465
Ref: 54f819198465
Node: Examples<33>19198649
Ref: c-api/typeobj examples19198747
Ref: 59fc19198747
Ref: c-api/typeobj typedef-examples19198747
Ref: 599c19198747
Node: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection19204122
Ref: c-api/gcsupport doc19204255
Ref: 59fd19204255
Ref: c-api/gcsupport supporting-cycle-detection19204255
Ref: 59e319204255
Ref: c-api/gcsupport supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection19204255
Ref: 59fe19204255
Ref: c-api/gcsupport translation-repo19204255
Ref: 59ff19204255
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_New19206630
Ref: e6819206630
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_NewVar19207478
Ref: e6919207478
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData19208341
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Resize19209684
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Track19210084
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_IS_GC19210546
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_IsTracked19210807
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_IsFinalized19211226
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Del19211648
Ref: 18a519211648
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_UnTrack19212485
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c visitproc19213245
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c inquiry19213926
Ref: 54f419213926
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport gc-traversal19214712
Ref: 59f319214712
Ref: c-api/gcsupport traversal19214712
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c traverseproc19214818
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport c Py_VISIT19219720
Ref: 51ee19219720
Ref: Traversal-Footnote-119220456
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport traversal-safe-functions19220600
Ref: 5a0219220600
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport duringgc-functions19221440
Ref: 5a0119221440
Ref: c-api/gcsupport id119221440
Ref: 5a0319221440
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GetTypeData_DuringGC19222147
Ref: 36c19222147
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GetItemData_DuringGC19222252
Ref: 36d19222252
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyType_GetModuleState_DuringGC19222328
Ref: 36e19222328
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyModule_GetState_DuringGC19222422
Ref: 36f19222422
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyModule_GetToken_DuringGC19222500
Ref: 37019222500
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyType_GetBaseByToken_DuringGC19223067
Ref: 37119223067
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyType_GetModule_DuringGC19223651
Ref: 37219223651
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyType_GetModuleByToken_DuringGC19223756
Ref: 37319223756
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport controlling-the-garbage-collector-state19224583
Ref: 5a0419224583
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Collect19224767
Ref: d5619224767
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Enable19225358
Ref: c7a19225358
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Disable19225667
Ref: c7b19225667
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_IsEnabled19225978
Ref: c7c19225978
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Ref: c-api/gcsupport querying-garbage-collector-state19226462
Ref: 5a0519226462
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects19226645
Ref: 5a0619226645
Ref: c-api/gcsupport c gcvisitobjects_t19227599
Ref: 5a0719227599
Node: API and ABI Versioning19228092
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion doc19228243
Ref: 5a0819228243
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion api-and-abi-versioning19228243
Ref: 5a0919228243
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion apiabiversion19228243
Ref: 4c0519228243
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion translation-repo19228243
Ref: 5a0a19228243
Node: Build-time version constants19228387
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion build-time-version-constants19228499
Ref: 5a0b19228499
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MAJOR_VERSION19228862
Ref: 5a0c19228862
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MINOR_VERSION19228946
Ref: 5a0d19228946
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MICRO_VERSION19229030
Ref: 5a0e19229030
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_RELEASE_LEVEL19229114
Ref: 5a0f19229114
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_ALPHA19229313
Ref: 5a1019229313
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_BETA19229313
Ref: 5a1119229313
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_GAMMA19229313
Ref: 5a1219229313
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_RELEASE_LEVEL_FINAL19229313
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_RELEASE_SERIAL19229559
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_VERSION_HEX19229670
Ref: 5af19229670
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Ref: 5a1619230351
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c Py_Version19230400
Ref: 5ae19230400
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion bit-packing-macros19230971
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Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c Py_PACK_FULL_VERSION19231024
Ref: 5ad19231024
Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c Py_PACK_VERSION19234703
Ref: 5ac19234703
Node: Monitoring C API19235070
Ref: c-api/monitoring doc19235219
Ref: 5a1819235219
Ref: c-api/monitoring c-api-monitoring19235219
Ref: 69419235219
Ref: c-api/monitoring monitoring-c-api19235219
Ref: 5a1919235219
Ref: c-api/monitoring translation-repo19235219
Ref: 5a1a19235219
Node: Generating Execution Events19235473
Ref: c-api/monitoring generating-execution-events19235591
Ref: 5a1b19235591
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoringState19236526
Ref: 7b719236526
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent19236894
Ref: 7b819236894
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent19237063
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent19237234
Ref: 7ba19237234
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent19237423
Ref: 7bb19237423
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent19237610
Ref: 7bc19237610
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent19237818
Ref: 7bd19237818
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent19237992
Ref: 7be19237992
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireBranchLeftEvent19238189
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireBranchRightEvent19238399
Ref: 5db19238399
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent19238611
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent19238798
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent19239055
Ref: 7c119239055
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent19239307
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent19239562
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent19239818
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent19240094
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent19240353
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Ref: c-api/monitoring managing-the-monitoring-state19240872
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_EnterScope19241075
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_JUMP19244607
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE19244818
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME19245034
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START19245465
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW19245680
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Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND19245895
Ref: 5a2a19245895
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD19246109
Ref: 5a2b19246109
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE19246321
Ref: 5a2c19246321
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE19246534
Ref: 5a2d19246534
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION19246719
Ref: 5a2e19246719
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_ExitScope19246846
Ref: 7c819246846
Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT19246993
Ref: 5a2f19246993
Node: Installing Python modules19247257
Ref: installing/index doc19247382
Ref: 5a3019247382
Ref: installing/index installing-index19247382
Ref: 12a619247382
Ref: installing/index installing-python-modules19247382
Ref: 5a3119247382
Ref: installing/index translation-repo19247382
Ref: 5a3219247382
Ref: Installing Python modules-Footnote-119248535
Node: Key terms19248613
Ref: installing/index key-terms19248707
Ref: 5a3319248707
Ref: Key terms-Footnote-119250038
Ref: Key terms-Footnote-219250063
Ref: Key terms-Footnote-319250092
Ref: Key terms-Footnote-419250124
Node: Basic usage<2>19250204
Ref: installing/index basic-usage19250320
Ref: 5a3419250320
Ref: Basic usage<2>-Footnote-119251982
Ref: Basic usage<2>-Footnote-219252019
Node: How do I …?19252068
Ref: installing/index how-do-i19252201
Ref: 5a3519252201
Node: … install packages just for the current user?19252468
Ref: installing/index install-packages-just-for-the-current-user19252613
Ref: 5a3619252613
Node: … install scientific Python packages?19252875
Ref: installing/index install-scientific-python-packages19253093
Ref: 5a3719253093
Ref: … install scientific Python packages?-Footnote-119253595
Ref: … install scientific Python packages?-Footnote-219253641
Node: … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?19253687
Ref: installing/index work-with-multiple-versions-of-python-installed-in-parallel19253849
Ref: 5a3819253849
Node: Common installation issues19254569
Ref: installing/index common-installation-issues19254679
Ref: 5a3919254679
Node: Installing into the system Python on Linux19254854
Ref: installing/index installing-into-the-system-python-on-linux19254985
Ref: 5a3a19254985
Node: Pip not installed19255552
Ref: installing/index pip-not-installed19255720
Ref: 5a3b19255720
Ref: Pip not installed-Footnote-119255994
Node: Installing binary extensions19256120
Ref: installing/index installing-binary-extensions19256237
Ref: 5a3c19256237
Ref: Installing binary extensions-Footnote-119257043
Ref: Installing binary extensions-Footnote-219257089
Node: Python HOWTOs19257138
Ref: howto/index doc19257286
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Ref: howto/index how-tos19257286
Ref: 5a3e19257286
Ref: howto/index python-howtos19257286
Ref: 5a3f19257286
Ref: howto/index translation-repo19257286
Ref: 5a4019257286
Node: A conceptual overview of asyncio19258889
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio doc19259017
Ref: 5a4119259017
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio19259017
Ref: 39fd19259017
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio id119259017
Ref: 5a4219259017
Ref: A conceptual overview of asyncio-Footnote-119260414
Ref: A conceptual overview of asyncio-Footnote-219260495
Ref: A conceptual overview of asyncio-Footnote-319260588
Node: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level19260669
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio a-conceptual-overview-part-1-the-high-level19260837
Ref: 5a4319260837
Node: Event loop<2>19261211
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio event-loop19261350
Ref: 5a4419261350
Node: Asynchronous functions and coroutines19263044
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio asynchronous-functions-and-coroutines19263200
Ref: 5a4519263200
Node: Tasks<2>19266135
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio tasks19266283
Ref: 5a4619266283
Node: await19269227
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio await19269329
Ref: 5a4719269329
Node: Awaiting tasks19269633
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio awaiting-tasks19269717
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Node: Awaiting coroutines19271238
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio awaiting-coroutines19271322
Ref: 5a4919271322
Node: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts19273927
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio a-conceptual-overview-part-2-the-nuts-and-bolts19274095
Ref: 5a4a19274095
Node: The inner workings of coroutines19274585
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio the-inner-workings-of-coroutines19274720
Ref: 5a4b19274720
Node: Futures<2>19278392
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio futures19278560
Ref: 5a4c19278560
Node: A homemade asyncio sleep19279831
Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio a-homemade-asyncio-sleep19279958
Ref: 5a4d19279958
Node: Porting Extension Modules to Python 319284584
Ref: howto/cporting doc19284751
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Ref: howto/cporting translation-repo19284751
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Ref: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3-Footnote-119285542
Ref: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3-Footnote-219285593
Node: Curses Programming with Python19285650
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Ref: howto/curses translation-repo19285801
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Node: What is curses?19286210
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Ref: 5a5419286341
Ref: What is curses?-Footnote-119288695
Ref: What is curses?-Footnote-219288735
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Ref: howto/curses the-python-curses-module19288855
Ref: 5a5519288855
Node: Starting and ending a curses application19289682
Ref: howto/curses starting-and-ending-a-curses-application19289838
Ref: 5a5619289838
Node: Windows and Pads19293114
Ref: howto/curses id119293270
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Ref: howto/curses windows-and-pads19293270
Ref: 1a2319293270
Node: Displaying Text19297828
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Ref: 5a5819297954
Node: Attributes and Color19301750
Ref: howto/curses attributes-and-color19301822
Ref: 5a5919301822
Node: User Input19306381
Ref: howto/curses user-input19306511
Ref: 5a5a19306511
Ref: User Input-Footnote-119310331
Node: For More Information19310371
Ref: howto/curses for-more-information19310477
Ref: 5a5b19310477
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-119311977
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-219312014
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-319312078
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-419312122
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-519312184
Ref: For More Information-Footnote-619312236
Node: Descriptor Guide19312307
Ref: howto/descriptor doc19312478
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Ref: howto/descriptor descriptor-guide19312478
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Ref: howto/descriptor translation-repo19312478
Ref: 5a5e19312478
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Ref: howto/descriptor primer19313723
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Ref: howto/descriptor simple-example-a-descriptor-that-returns-a-constant19314185
Ref: 5a6019314185
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Ref: howto/descriptor dynamic-lookups19315799
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Node: Managed attributes19317201
Ref: howto/descriptor managed-attributes19317311
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Node: Customized names19319966
Ref: howto/descriptor customized-names19320077
Ref: 5a6319320077
Node: Closing thoughts19322424
Ref: howto/descriptor closing-thoughts19322508
Ref: 5a6419322508
Node: Complete Practical Example19323898
Ref: howto/descriptor complete-practical-example19324019
Ref: 5a6519324019
Node: Validator class19324282
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Ref: 5a6619324386
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Ref: 5a6719325546
Ref: Custom validators-Footnote-119328176
Node: Practical application19328245
Ref: howto/descriptor practical-application19328355
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Node: Technical Tutorial19329743
Ref: howto/descriptor technical-tutorial19329881
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Ref: 5a6b19330854
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Ref: howto/descriptor descriptor-protocol19332245
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Node: Overview of descriptor invocation19333515
Ref: howto/descriptor overview-of-descriptor-invocation19333667
Ref: 5a6d19333667
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Ref: howto/descriptor invocation-from-an-instance19334470
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Node: Invocation from a class19336983
Ref: howto/descriptor invocation-from-a-class19337127
Ref: 5a6f19337127
Ref: Invocation from a class-Footnote-119337695
Node: Invocation from super19337768
Ref: howto/descriptor invocation-from-super19337912
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Ref: howto/logging configuring-logging19525256
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-from-multiple-threads19556595
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-handlers-and-formatters19558504
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Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-219586557
Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-319586629
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-loggeradapters-to-impart-contextual-information19588209
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-objects-other-than-dicts-to-pass-contextual-information19591615
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook imparting-contextual-information-in-handlers19606035
Ref: 5b1019606035
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-to-a-single-file-from-multiple-processes19607157
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-processes19607157
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Ref: 5b1319617621
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook deploying-web-applications-using-gunicorn-and-uwsgi19618816
Ref: 5b1419618816
Ref: Deploying web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI-Footnote-119619477
Ref: Deploying web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI-Footnote-219619507
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-file-rotation19619734
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook a-more-elaborate-multiprocessing-example19646898
Ref: 5b2419646898
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Ref: howto/logging-cookbook inserting-a-bom-into-messages-sent-to-a-sysloghandler19656719
Ref: 5b2519656719
Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-119658884
Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-219658943
Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-319659012
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Node: How do I get a beta test version of Python?20106081
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Node: Υπάρχουν εργαλεία που βοηθούν στην εύρεση σφαλμάτων ή στην εκτέλεση στατικής ανάλυσης;20124175
Ref: faq/programming are-there-tools-to-help-find-bugs-or-perform-static-analysis20124582
Ref: 5c6e20124582
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Ref: Υπάρχουν εργαλεία που βοηθούν στην εύρεση σφαλμάτων ή στην εκτέλεση στατικής ανάλυσης;-Footnote-220125139
Ref: Υπάρχουν εργαλεία που βοηθούν στην εύρεση σφαλμάτων ή στην εκτέλεση στατικής ανάλυσης;-Footnote-320125178
Ref: Υπάρχουν εργαλεία που βοηθούν στην εύρεση σφαλμάτων ή στην εκτέλεση στατικής ανάλυσης;-Footnote-420125220
Ref: Υπάρχουν εργαλεία που βοηθούν στην εύρεση σφαλμάτων ή στην εκτέλεση στατικής ανάλυσης;-Footnote-520125251
Ref: Υπάρχουν εργαλεία που βοηθούν στην εύρεση σφαλμάτων ή στην εκτέλεση στατικής ανάλυσης;-Footnote-620125286
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Node: Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα stand-alone binary από ένα Python script;20125356
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Ref: 5c6f20125809
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Ref: 5c7020125809
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Ref: Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα stand-alone binary από ένα Python script;-Footnote-220128717
Ref: Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα stand-alone binary από ένα Python script;-Footnote-320128745
Ref: Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα stand-alone binary από ένα Python script;-Footnote-420128778
Ref: Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα stand-alone binary από ένα Python script;-Footnote-520128831
Ref: Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα stand-alone binary από ένα Python script;-Footnote-620128883
Ref: Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα stand-alone binary από ένα Python script;-Footnote-720128932
Node: Υπάρχουν πρότυπα κωδικοποίησης ή οδηγός στυλ για προγράμματα Python;20128964
Ref: faq/programming are-there-coding-standards-or-a-style-guide-for-python-programs20129248
Ref: 5c7120129248
Ref: Υπάρχουν πρότυπα κωδικοποίησης ή οδηγός στυλ για προγράμματα Python;-Footnote-120129671
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Ref: Ποιες είναι οι «βέλτιστες πρακτικές» για τη χρήση import σε ένα module;-Footnote-120148633
Ref: Ποιες είναι οι «βέλτιστες πρακτικές» για τη χρήση import σε ένα module;-Footnote-220148676
Ref: Ποιες είναι οι «βέλτιστες πρακτικές» για τη χρήση import σε ένα module;-Footnote-320148719
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Ref: 27cf20179074
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Ref: Το πρόγραμμα μου είναι πολύ αργό Πως μπορώ να το επιταχύνω;-Footnote-120207146
Ref: Το πρόγραμμα μου είναι πολύ αργό Πως μπορώ να το επιταχύνω;-Footnote-220207173
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Ref: Πως φτιάχνω μια πολυδιάστατη λίστα;-Footnote-120221717
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Ref: faq/programming when-i-edit-an-imported-module-and-reimport-it-the-changes-don-t-show-up-why-does-this-happen20285307
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Ref: 222720297949
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Node: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?20298363
Ref: faq/design why-does-python-use-methods-for-some-functionality-e-g-list-index-but-functions-for-other-e-g-len-list20298655
Ref: 5cc320298655
Node: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?20299993
Ref: faq/design why-is-join-a-string-method-instead-of-a-list-or-tuple-method20300260
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Node: Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?20303124
Ref: faq/design why-isn-t-there-a-switch-or-case-statement-in-python20303386
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Ref: How does Python manage memory?-Footnote-120309609
Ref: How does Python manage memory?-Footnote-220309640
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Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-cpython-use-a-more-traditional-garbage-collection-scheme20309891
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Ref: faq/design why-isn-t-all-memory-freed-when-cpython-exits20311087
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Ref: faq/design why-are-there-separate-tuple-and-list-data-types20311993
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Ref: faq/design why-must-dictionary-keys-be-immutable20315717
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Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-list-sort-return-the-sorted-list20320146
Ref: 5cd120320146
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Ref: faq/design how-do-you-specify-and-enforce-an-interface-spec-in-python20321194
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Ref: faq/design why-is-there-no-goto20323736
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Ref: faq/design why-can-t-raw-strings-r-strings-end-with-a-backslash20325095
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Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-python-have-a-with-statement-for-attribute-assignments20326451
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Ref: faq/design why-don-t-generators-support-the-with-statement20329176
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Ref: faq/design why-are-colons-required-for-the-if-while-def-class-statements20329842
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Node: Γενικές Ερωτήσεις Βιβλιοθήκης20332679
Ref: faq/library general-library-questions20332890
Ref: 5cdc20332890
Node: Πως μπορώ να βρω ένα module ή μια εφαρμογή για να εκτελέσω την εργασία Χ;20333763
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-find-a-module-or-application-to-perform-task-x20334083
Ref: 5cdd20334083
Ref: Πως μπορώ να βρω ένα module ή μια εφαρμογή για να εκτελέσω την εργασία Χ;-Footnote-120335141
Ref: Πως μπορώ να βρω ένα module ή μια εφαρμογή για να εκτελέσω την εργασία Χ;-Footnote-220335166
Node: Που βρίσκεται το πηγαίο αρχείο math py socket py regex py κ λπ ;20335197
Ref: faq/library where-is-the-math-py-socket-py-regex-py-etc-source-file20335606
Ref: 5cde20335606
Node: Πως δημιουργώ ένα εκτελέσιμο Python script στο Unix;20336951
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-make-a-python-script-executable-on-unix20337306
Ref: 5cdf20337306
Node: Υπάρχει ένα curses/termcap πακέτο για την Python;20339951
Ref: faq/library is-there-a-curses-termcap-package-for-python20340300
Ref: 5ce020340300
Ref: Υπάρχει ένα curses/termcap πακέτο για την Python;-Footnote-120341689
Node: Υπάρχει κάτι ισοδύναμο με την onexit της C στην Python;20341749
Ref: faq/library is-there-an-equivalent-to-c-s-onexit-in-python20342105
Ref: 5ce120342105
Node: Γιατί δεν λειτουργούν οι χειριστές σήματος μου;20342435
Ref: faq/library why-don-t-my-signal-handlers-work20342711
Ref: 5ce220342711
Node: Κοινές εργασίες20343229
Ref: faq/library common-tasks20343469
Ref: 5ce320343469
Node: Πως μπορώ να τεστάρω ένα Python πρόγραμμα ή ένα Python component;20343815
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-test-a-python-program-or-component20344054
Ref: 5ce420344054
Node: Πως δημιουργώ τεκμηρίωση από doc strings;20348023
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-create-documentation-from-doc-strings20348367
Ref: 5ce520348367
Ref: Πως δημιουργώ τεκμηρίωση από doc strings;-Footnote-120348961
Ref: Πως δημιουργώ τεκμηρίωση από doc strings;-Footnote-220349001
Node: Πως μπορώ να λάβω μόνο ένα πάτημα κουμπιού κάθε φορά;20349036
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-get-a-single-keypress-at-a-time20349273
Ref: 5ce620349273
Node: Νήματα Threads20349719
Ref: faq/library threads20349940
Ref: 5ce720349940
Node: Πώς μπορώ να προγραμματίσω χρησιμοποιώντας νήματα threads ;20350904
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-program-using-threads20351187
Ref: 5ce820351187
Node: Κανένα από τα νήματα threads μου δεν φαίνεται να εκτελείται γιατί;20351769
Ref: faq/library none-of-my-threads-seem-to-run-why20352202
Ref: 5ce920352202
Node: Πως μπορώ να μοιράσω την εργασία σε ένα σωρό από νήματα για αυτήν την εργασία;20354876
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-parcel-out-work-among-a-bunch-of-worker-threads20355311
Ref: 5cea20355311
Node: Ποια είδη global μετάλλαξης τιμής είναι ασφαλή για νήμα thread ;20358694
Ref: faq/library what-kinds-of-global-value-mutation-are-thread-safe20359098
Ref: 5ceb20359098
Node: Μπορούμε να απαλλαγούμε από ένα Global Interpreter Lock;20361665
Ref: faq/library can-t-we-get-rid-of-the-global-interpreter-lock20361919
Ref: 5cec20361919
Ref: Μπορούμε να απαλλαγούμε από ένα Global Interpreter Lock;-Footnote-120367455
Ref: Μπορούμε να απαλλαγούμε από ένα Global Interpreter Lock;-Footnote-220367497
Ref: Μπορούμε να απαλλαγούμε από ένα Global Interpreter Lock;-Footnote-320367540
Node: Είσοδος και Έξοδος<2>20367600
Ref: faq/library input-and-output20367858
Ref: 5ced20367858
Node: Πώς μπορώ να διαγράψω ένα αρχείο; Και άλλες ερωτήσεις για το αρχείο…20369129
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-delete-a-file-and-other-file-questions20369383
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Node: Πως αντιγράφω ένα αρχείο;20371648
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-copy-a-file20371979
Ref: 5cef20371979
Ref: Πως αντιγράφω ένα αρχείο;-Footnote-120372741
Ref: Πως αντιγράφω ένα αρχείο;-Footnote-220372812
Node: Πώς διαβάζω ή γράφω δυαδικά δεδομένα;20372864
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-read-or-write-binary-data20373218
Ref: 5cf020373218
Node: Δεν μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω το os read σε ένα pipe που δημιουργήθηκε με το os popen ∙ γιατί;20375447
Ref: faq/library i-can-t-seem-to-use-os-read-on-a-pipe-created-with-os-popen-why20375852
Ref: 5cf120375852
Node: Πώς μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση στη σειριακή θύρα RS232 ;20376856
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-access-the-serial-rs232-port20377305
Ref: 5cf220377305
Ref: Πώς μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση στη σειριακή θύρα RS232 ;-Footnote-120377758
Node: Γιατί το κλείσιμο του sys stdout stdin stderr δεν το κλείνει πραγματικά;20377801
Ref: faq/library why-doesn-t-closing-sys-stdout-stdin-stderr-really-close-it20378093
Ref: 5cf320378093
Node: Προγραμματισμός Δικτύου/Διαδικτύου20380352
Ref: faq/library network-internet-programming20380621
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Node: Ποια εργαλεία WWW υπάρχουν για την Python;20381267
Ref: faq/library what-www-tools-are-there-for-python20381566
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Node: Τι module πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσω για να βοηθήσω στην δημιουργία HTML;20382344
Ref: faq/library what-module-should-i-use-to-help-with-generating-html20382741
Ref: 5cf620382741
Ref: Τι module πρέπει να χρησιμοποιήσω για να βοηθήσω στην δημιουργία HTML;-Footnote-120383142
Node: Πώς μπορώ να στείλω αλληλογραφία από ένα Python script;20383194
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-send-mail-from-a-python-script20383633
Ref: 5cf720383633
Node: Πώς μπορώ να αποφύγω τον αποκλεισμό στη μέθοδο connect ενός socket;20385523
Ref: faq/library how-do-i-avoid-blocking-in-the-connect-method-of-a-socket20385834
Ref: 5cf820385834
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Node: Βάσεις Δεδομένων20388279
Ref: faq/library databases20388559
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Node: Υπάρχουν διεπαφές σε πακέτα βάσεων δεδομένων στην Python;20388821
Ref: faq/library are-there-any-interfaces-to-database-packages-in-python20389076
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Ref: Υπάρχουν διεπαφές σε πακέτα βάσεων δεδομένων στην Python;-Footnote-120389962
Node: Πως υλοποιείτε persistent αντικείμενα στην Python;20390019
Ref: faq/library how-do-you-implement-persistent-objects-in-python20390274
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Node: Μαθηματικά και Αριθμητικά20390962
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Node: Πως μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τυχαίους αριθμούς στην Python;20391368
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Node: Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τις δικές μου συναρτήσεις στη C;20396517
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Node: Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω τις δικές μου συναρτήσεις στη C++;20397549
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Node: Το να γράψει C κάποιος είναι δύσκολο· υπάρχουν άλλες εναλλακτικές;20398755
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Node: Πως μπορώ να εκτελέσω αυθαίρετες δηλώσεις Python από το C;20399861
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Node: Πώς μπορώ να αξιολογήσω μια αυθαίρετη έκφραση Python από τη C;20401190
Ref: faq/extending how-can-i-evaluate-an-arbitrary-python-expression-from-c20401614
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Node: Πως μπορώ να εξάγω τιμές C από ένα αντικείμενο Python;20402108
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-extract-c-values-from-a-python-object20402601
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Node: Πώς μπορώ να χρησιμοποιήσω την Py_BuildValue για να δημιουργήσω μια πλειάδα tuple αυθαίρετου μήκους;20404719
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-use-py-buildvalue-to-create-a-tuple-of-arbitrary-length20405188
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Node: Πώς καλώ τη μέθοδο ενός αντικειμένου από τη C;20405568
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-call-an-object-s-method-from-c20406093
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Node: Πώς μπορώ να κάνω catch την έξοδο από την PyErr_Print ή οτιδήποτε εκτυπώνεται σε stdout/stderr ;20408166
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Node: Πως μπορώ να αποκτήσω πρόσβαση σε ένα module γραμμένο σε Python από τη C;20410364
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Node: Πως διασυνδέομαι με αντικείμενα C++ από την Python;20412222
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Node: Πρόσθεσα ένα module χρησιμοποιώντας το αρχείο Setup και το make αποτυγχάνει· γιατί;20413745
Ref: faq/extending i-added-a-module-using-the-setup-file-and-the-make-fails-why20414143
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Node: Πως κάνω debug μια επέκταση;20414803
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Node: Θέλω να κάνω compile ένα Python module στο σύστημα Linux μου αλλά λείπουν ορισμένα αρχεία Γιατί;20416074
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Node: Πώς μπορώ να ξεχωρίσω την «ελλιπή εισαγωγή» από την «έγκυρη εισαγωγή»;20417267
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Node: Πώς μπορώ να βρω απροσδιόριστα σύμβολα g++ __builtin_new ή __pure_virtual;20419578
Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-find-undefined-g-symbols-builtin-new-or-pure-virtual20420188
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Node: Μπορώ να δημιουργήσω μια κλάση αντικειμένου με ορισμένες μεθόδους που υλοποιούνται στη C και άλλες στη Python π χ μέσω κληρονομικότητας ;20420809
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Node: Πως κάνω τα Python scripts εκτελέσιμα;20430179
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Node: Γιατί μερικές φορές η Python αργεί τόσο πολύ να ξεκινήσει;20431363
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Node: Πώς μπορώ να δημιουργήσω ένα εκτελέσιμο από ένα σενάριο Python;20433457
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Node: Είναι ένα αρχείο * pyd ίδιο με ένα αρχείο DLL;20434308
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Node: Πώς μπορώ να ενσωματώσω την Python σε μια εφαρμογή Windows;20436444
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Node: Πως μπορώ να εμποδίσω τους editors να εισάγουν tabs στον πηγαίο της Python μου;20444942
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Node: Πώς μπορώ να ελέγξω για ένα πάτημα πλήκτρων χωρίς αποκλεισμό;20446854
Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-check-for-a-keypress-without-blocking20447290
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Node: Πως μπορώ να διορθώσω το σφάλμα που λείπει το api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll;20447918
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Node: Graphic User Interface FAQ20449248
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Node: Tkinter questions20450951
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Node: How do I freeze Tkinter applications?20451341
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Node: Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?20452077
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Node: I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter why?20452762
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Node: «Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;» FAQ20453489
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Node: Τι είναι η Python;20454089
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Node: Γιατί είναι εγκατεστημένη η Python στον υπολογιστή μου;20455308
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Ref: library/_thread start_new_thread23244760
Ref: 7f823244762

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